team. beeton's book of needlework. consisting of descriptions and instructions, illustrated by six hundred engravings, of tatting patterns. crochet patterns. knitting patterns. netting patterns. embroidery patterns. point lace patterns. guipure d'art. berlin work. monograms. initials and names. pillow lace, and lace stitches. _every pattern and stitch described and engraved with the utmost accuracy, and the exact quantity of material requisite for each pattern stated._ chancellor press _beeton's book of needlework_ was originally published in great britain in by ward, lock and tyler. this facsimile edition published in great britain in by chancellor press grosvenor street london w printed in czechoslovakia samuel butler's preface the art of needlework dates from the earliest record of the world's history, and has, also, from time immemorial been the support, comfort, or employment of women of every rank and age. day by day, it increases its votaries, who enlarge and develop its various branches, so that any addition and assistance in teaching or learning needlework will be welcomed by the daughters of england, "wise of heart," who work diligently with their hands. the recent introduction of point lace has brought a finer, and, apparently, more difficult class of fancy work into general favour. ladies may now, however, confidently commence, with our patterns before them, to reproduce antique laces; for care and patience, with a knowledge of point lace stitches, are alone required to perfect the beautiful work, which, as shown in existing specimens of exquisite old lace, constitute the chief glory of women's refined industry in past centuries. instructions in tatting, in embroidery, in crochet, in knitting and netting, in berlin wool work, in point lace, and guipure d'art are prefixed to the pages devoted to these separate branches of needlework. the whole work is interspersed with coloured and other patterns in point lace, guipure d'art, tatting, embroidery, and designs for monograms and initials for marking handkerchiefs and table-linen. the quantity of materials required for each class of work is also given with every pattern. the idea of combining a series of minute and exact instructions in fancy needlework with useful patterns was conceived some years ago by one whose life was devoted to the inculcation of the practical duties of woman's life, and to assisting her sex in their daily work of household management and refinement. her great wish was that her book of needlework should be as valuable in its way to her countrywomen as her work upon household management was useful in showing the best mode of providing for the diurnal wants of families. other hands have brought to a conclusion her original plans. the best attainable workers have contributed to this volume. only those who knew the extent of the late mrs. beeton's design, will miss, in the pages now before them, "the touch of a vanished hand." s.o.b. _paternoster row,_ . contents. tatting instructions tatting patterns embroidery instructions embroidery patterns crochet instructions crochet patterns knitting instructions netting instructions knitting and netting patterns alphabets for monograms and initials monograms and initials point lace work point lace instructions point lace patterns instructions and patterns in guipure d'art berlin work instructions tatting. tatting instructions [illustration: tatting shuttle.] the needlework called tatting in england, _frivolité_ in french, and _frivolitäten_ in german, is a work which seems, from all accounts, to have been in favour several generations ago. modern ingenuity has discovered some ways of improving on the original plan of tatting, which was, indeed, rather a primitive sort of business as first practised. to mrs. mee, one of our most accomplished _artistes_ in all matters connected with the work-table, belongs, we believe, the introduction of the plan of working from the reel instead of the shuttle. by this alteration the advantage of the shuttle being constantly kept filled with cotton was gained, and the necessity also obviated for frequently joining the thread; and to mdlle. riego, equally distinguished in all details appertaining to the employment of the needle, ladies are indebted for an arrangement by which the same thread used in the making of the pattern is used for fastening the work. the old plan only provided for the working of the different portions which constituted the pattern, and then these portions had to be sewn together with a needle and thread. the ingenious workers on the continent have also given much attention of late to the art of tatting, and our instructions now printed comprise what we consider the best mode of learning and doing this exceedingly interesting and fashionable work. [illustration: tatting pin.] tatting differs entirely from crochet, and is composed of stitches forming _knots_. it is intended as an imitation of point lace, and is especially used for trimming under-linen, on account of its strength. to make the stitches or knots a small instrument is used, called a _shuttle_. this shuttle consists of two oval pieces, flat on one side and convex on the other, and is made of wood or ivory. the two oval pieces are joined together by a strong cross-piece. the illustration shows the construction of the shuttle. these shuttles are made in ivory, pearl, tortoiseshell inlaid with pearl, and silver; they are also manufactured in coloured bone, black, red, and white. the best to work with are the pearl for a white shuttle, and the inlaid tortoiseshell for a black shuttle; the prices vary from sixpence to one shilling and two-and-sixpence each. in selecting a shuttle be careful to see that the ends close, as if dropped it soon becomes unthreaded, which is very inconvenient. the cotton intended for the work is wound round this shuttle, and the thickness of the cotton varies according to the style of work. it is better to use the proper tatting cotton, because it is stronger than the ordinary kinds; this is manufactured by messrs. walter evans and co. for the purpose. their boar's head cotton is also frequently used, and answers very well. _shuttles._ these are made in sizes:--finest, no. ; no. , useful medium size; no. , the largest. _the way to hold the hands._ take the shuttle in the right hand, between the thumb and second finger, and allow the forefinger to remain at liberty, and rest the under part of the shuttle _between_ the second and third and _on_ the middle finger. place the thread round the three middle fingers of the left hand, so as to form a loop, keeping the second and third fingers a little apart, and bring the cotton again between the thumb and forefinger, letting the end fall within the palm of the hand, while the end of cotton which holds on to the shuttle passes over the thumb-nail. _to make a stitch._ keep the hands in the position above described; pass the shuttle at the back, through the loop--that is, between the second and third fingers. take the end of the shuttle which comes out from the loop between the forefinger and thumb of the right hand, and strain the cotton very tightly towards the right. when the cotton is drawn through the loop, this cotton must not be impeded by the fourth finger; it should, on the contrary, slide over it, and be drawn tight. it should divide the loop into two parts. after this withdraw the second left-hand finger, which is _above_ the cotton, and pass it again under that cotton, so as to draw up the loop. a _half-stitch_ is thus formed, and must be tightened by being drawn closely to the forefinger and thumb of the left hand. for the remaining half of the stitch keep the hands in the same position, but, instead of letting the cotton fall over the thumb, pass this cotton over the back of the hand; then let the shuttle fall between the second and third fingers of the left hand, in front, and take it out again at the back, strain the cotton very tightly, withdraw the second finger from the loop, letting the cotton which is behind the hand sweep over the fingers. when this is done, guide with the unoccupied fingers of the left hand this second half-stitch up to the other, thus completing _one stitch_. _the way to make a loop in tatting._ when a certain number of stitches are made, very tightly draw in the loop by straining the cotton until the first stitch touches the last, and thus a loop is formed. during this process the stitches should be held tightly between the forefinger and thumb. _the way to make a purl._ a _purl_ is a small loop of cotton often used as an edging in tatting, as, for instance, round the outer edge of the ovals in tatted insertion no. . the following is the easiest method of making a purl:--the stitches are not made quite closely together at the place where a purl is to be made; about one-sixth of an inch is left between each. this space is left free until the loop is made by uniting the stitches; then the small piece of cotton in the space bulges out between the stitches, and forms the purl. if several are required a small space is left between every two or three stitches, according to the desired number. care must be taken in that case that the small pieces of cotton left be all of the same length, so that the purl may be perfectly even. the purl can also be made thus: at the same time with the end of thread take the tatting-pin or a very large darning needle or knitting needle in the left hand, so that the point may come out farther than the row of stitches; if then you wish to make a purl, throw the cotton on the pin before making the stitch; then fasten this stitch, and push it at once close to the preceding; the pin with the cotton should come above the stitches. do not take out the pin before all the purl and all the stitches are completed and joined together. _joining the work._ place the tatting-pin in the loop that is to be joined, and with the hook draw the thread of the loop--that is, round the hand through it--pass the shuttle through this loop, and draw it up tightly close to the stitches. a "straight" or double thread is used to join various parts of the work, and forms very beautiful patterns. without the straight thread we should be unable to imitate point lace patterns, or, indeed, to execute any designs but those composed of circles, ovals, &c. to use this straight thread shuttles are required; they should be of different colours. sometimes one end of thread is left attached to the reel instead of using the second shuttle. in commencing a loop the straight thread is held between the second and third fingers of the left hand, about or inches from the work; the other shuttle is held as usual in the right hand, and the stitches and purls worked with it upon the foundation of the straight thread of the second shuttle. * * * * * tatting. .--_pine pattern collar in tatting._ [illustration: i.--pine pattern collar in tatting.] materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s boar's head cotton no. , or tatting cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. ; a small shuttle. this collar is worked with very fine tatting cotton as follows:-- st circle: double, purl times, double, draw up the cotton. nd circle: double, join it to the last purl of the st circle, double, purl times, double, draw the cotton up. rd circle: double, join it to the last purl of the nd circle, double, join it to the th purl of the nd circle, double, purl times, double, draw the cotton up. th circle: double, join it to the last purl of rd circle, double, purl, double times, double, draw the cotton up. th circle: double, join it to the last purl of th circle, double, purl, double times, draw up the cotton. th circle: double, join it to the last purl of the th circle, double, join it to the th purl of the preceding circle, double, purl times, double, join it to the first purl of the st circle, double, draw up the cotton. this completes the star pattern in centre of pine. st circle of pine: double, purl, double times, double, draw up the cotton. nd circle: double, join to the last purl of st circle, double, join it to the th purl of st circle, double, purl times, double, draw up the cotton and join it to the rd purl of centre star. rd circle: double, join to the last purl of nd circle, double, purl times, double, draw up the cotton and join it on to the centre purl of nd circle in star. th circle: double, join to the last purl of rd circle, double, purl times, double, purl, double, draw up the cotton and join it to the th purl of nd centre circle in star. th circle: double, join the cotton to the last purl of th circle, double, purl times, double, draw up the cotton, repeat the th circle twice more, then join the cotton to the centre purl of th circle in star. th circle: double, join to the last purl of th circle, purl, double times, double, draw up the cotton and join it to the centre purl of th circle in star. th circle: double, join to the last purl of th circle, double, purl times, double, draw up the cotton. repeat the th circle times. th circle: double, join the cotton to the last purl of the th circle, double, purl times, double, draw up the cotton, turn the work downwards, and work the th circle: double, purl, double, join it to the st purl of the st circle of pine, double, join it to the nd purl of first pine circle, double, purl times, double, draw up the cotton. th circle: double, join to the last purl of the th circle, double, purl times, double, draw up the cotton. th circle: double, join to the last purl of the th circle, double, purl times, double, purl, double, draw up the cotton. th circle: double, join to the last purl of the th circle, double, purl times, double, draw up the cotton. th circle: double, join to the last purl of the th circle, double, purl times, double, draw up the cotton, and repeat from commencement until the collar is the required size. the upper part of the pines is filled in with lace stitches, as clearly shown in our illustration. * * * * * .--_tatted insertion._ materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. , or boar's head crochet cotton no. ; tatting pin no. ; large shuttle. [illustration: .--tatted insertion.] this insertion should be worked with coarse cotton. double *, purl, double, repeat from * times, purl, double, draw up the cotton, turn the pattern downward, and work another circle the same as that above described, leaving one-sixth of an inch of cotton between each circle. * * * * * .--_lace edging in tatting._ materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s crochet cotton no. , or tatting cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. ; any sized shuttle. for a finer edging, no. . st oval: fill the shuttle, but do not cut it off from the reel, as a double thread is used, and commence by working double stitches, purl, double; draw up. double thread: putting the thread attached to the reel round the left hand, work double, purl, double. [illustration: .--lace edging in tatting.] nd oval: double, join to purl in st oval, double; draw up. the pattern is now complete. repeat from beginning, taking care that the next oval be close to the last. crochet a heading with the same cotton, working chain, double into the purl in double thread. repeat. * * * * * .--_lace edging in tatting._ materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s crochet cotton no. , or tatting cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. ; any sized shuttle. for a finer edging, no. . [illustration: .--lace edging in tatting.] st oval: fill the shuttle, but do not cut it off from the reel, as a double thread is required, and commence by working double stitches, purl, double stitches, draw up. nd oval: close to last oval, work double, purl, double; draw up. double thread: putting the thread attached to the reel round the left hand, work double, purl, double; then join the shuttle-thread to the purl in nd oval, by drawing it through with a pin. then do another similar chain of stitches with the double thread, viz., double, purl, double. rd oval: double, join to the purl in nd oval--the same as that to which the shuttle-thread has been fastened-- double; draw up. th oval: close to last oval, work double, join to purl of st oval, double, draw up. the pattern is now complete. repeat from beginning, taking care that the next oval be close to the last. crochet a heading with the same cotton, working chain, double into the purl of double thread, chain, double into the next purl. repeat. * * * * * .--_border in tatting with crochet edging._ materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. , or crochet cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. ; a bone shuttle. [illustration: .--border in tatting with crochet edging.] work * double stitches (that is, times following purled stitch and plain), purl, four times following double stitches, purl, double stitches, draw up the cotton so as to form an oval, and for the smaller oval, work double stitches, but leave, before beginning the first double stitch, the space of one-sixth of an inch between this oval and the preceding; repeat from *, leaving the same space between each oval; join together the larger ovals by the purl. for the crochet edging, work the st row in the following manner:-- double (followed by chain) in each of the smaller ovals. the nd and rd rows are composed of short treble stitches, placed one above the other, and divided by one chain. while working the short treble stitches of the rd row form the small purl thus:-- * short treble in the first short treble of preceding row, let the loop slip off from the crochet needle, insert the needle in the under stitch, from which comes the loop now made into a purl, work double in the first short treble of preceding row, chain, under which miss stitch, and repeat from *. * * * * * .--_border in tatting with crochet._ materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s boar's head cotton no. , or tatting cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. . for a coarser size use boar's head cotton no. , or tatting cotton no. . [illustration: .--border in tatting with crochet.] double stitches, purl, times following, double stitches, purl, double stitches, draw up the oval, but not quite tight, leave a space about one-sixth of an inch, leave a similar space between this oval and the next, work double stitches, fasten them to the nearest purl of preceding oval, then work twice following double stitches, purl, then double stitches, purl, double stitches, and draw up the oval * * * * * .--_tatted insertion._ materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s boar's head crochet cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. . this strip of insertion is worked with crochet cotton, and consists of a row of circles, two of which are always joined together, and edged on either side with chain stitches. work first * double, purl divided by double, double, long purl about one-fifth of an inch long, double divided by purl, long purl, times alternately double, purl, then double; join the stitches into a circle; work close to this a second circle, and knot the end of the cotton together with the cotton with which the first circle has been begun; repeat from *, but henceforward in the first of the two circles fasten the cotton on to the middle purl of the preceding circle, instead of working the middle purl. when the strip of insertion is sufficiently long, edge it on either side with a row of chain stitches, by working double in long purl and chain between. [illustration: .--tatted insertion.] * * * * * .--_rosette in tatting._ materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. . this rosette is worked with two cottons, viz., plain, purl, plain, double, purl, double, purl, plain; turn the work downwards, double, fastened on the last purl turned downwards; this forms one loop turned upwards; turn work downwards, double, purl, double, fastened on first purl turned downwards; turn figure thus formed downwards; double, single, repeat times more from *, joining the figures by means of the purl stitch; the ends of the cotton are knotted together. [illustration: .--rosette in tatting.] * * * * * .--_star in tatting._ materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. . [illustration: .--star in tatting.] fill the shuttle, and commencing a loop, work double, then purl and double times, draw into a round; join the cotton to the st purl loop. st oval.--commence a loop close to the joining, work double, join to st purl of round, work double and draw close; reverse the work. join the thread from reel, and holding it out for a straight thread, commence the scallop:-- double, purl, double, reverse the work. the nd oval same as first. repeat oval and scallop alternately, until the star is completed. * * * * * .--_insertion worked in tatting_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. . [illustration: .--insertion worked in tatting.] this strip of insertion is worked with two cottons. work with the cotton in the left hand over that in the right hand. both ends of cotton are fastened together at the beginning by a knot. first work one half of the insertion the long way in the following manner:-- plain, purl, plain (the purl must be very short); turn the purl downwards, double, purl, * double, purl, plain, which must all be turned upwards; then turn the work so that the upper edge is turned downwards; work double, fastened on to the last purl turned downwards (the fastening of the stitches is made with the thread in the right hand); a loop turned upwards is thus formed; turn the work downwards, draw the cotton in right hand underneath that in left hand, and work double, purl, double, all turned upwards; fasten these stitches on st purl turned downwards. in this pattern st of border pattern is thus completed; turn it downwards, double, purl, double, purl, plain, turn work downwards, double, fastened on last purl of last pattern, turned up. repeat from *. when the insertion is of sufficient length, work the other half in same manner, and fasten it on the st half by means of purl stitches between the double stitches twice repeated. * * * * * .--_tatted insertion for trimming lingeries_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. , or crochet cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. . [illustration: .--tatted insertion.] this insertion consists of rows of three-branched patterns which lie opposite each other, and are joined by slanting rows of knots. a coloured silk ribbon is drawn through these rows which join the patterns. each of the branches of pattern consists of double, purl, double, and must be worked close to another. when the rd branch is completed, fasten another piece of cotton on to the middle branch. work double over this nd piece of cotton, and then work without the nd piece of cotton a nd three-branched pattern like the st.* fasten the nd piece of cotton on to the middle branch of the just-finished pattern, work double over it, then again a three-branched pattern; in this pattern as well as in the following ones, instead of working the purl of the st branch, fasten it on to the purl of the rd branch of the preceding three-branched pattern of the _same_ row, as can be seen in illustration. repeat till the strip of insertion is sufficiently long. * * * * * .--_circle in tatting_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. . [illustration: .--circle in tatting.] work first ovals, each composed of double stitches, purl divided one from the other by double stitches, double stitches; these ovals are joined together by the purl at the sides, then the circle is tightened as much as possible, and the cotton with which you are working is twisted round the ends of cotton that have been cut: the cotton is then fastened off nearly underneath. begin a fresh small oval, composed of double stitches, which should be fastened to the preceding oval after double stitches (to the purl in the centre of the first oval), then fasten it again to the purl which joins together the first and the second oval; leave a space of about one-fourth of an inch, and work an oval composed of double stitches, purl, followed each by double stitches, double stitches. a very little farther off make a very small oval, composed of double stitches, which after the four first double stitches is joined to the centre purl of the second oval, leaving the same space between as before, make another oval of double stitches, purl, each followed by double stitches, double stitches; but the first purl is _missed_, because at this place the oval is joined to the fifth purl of the corresponding oval; once more leave a space of one-fourth of an inch, and repeat. at the end of the round the two ends of cotton are tied tightly together. * * * * * .--_tatted border with beads_. materials: black purse silk, or, for white trimming, messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. ; hanks of beads no. to the yard of border. [illustration: .--tatted border with beads.] this border, edged with beads no. , is worked in middling-size purse silk over fine silk cord of the same colour as the silk. before beginning to work this pattern, thread the beads which take the place of purl stitches, and which are slipped in between two double stitches. when the row of stitches is of the length required, form the trefoil leaves, and sew a few beads over the places where they are joined. these trefoil leaves are made separately, and then sewn together. * * * * * .--_insertion in tatting_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s crochet cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. ; any sized shuttle; for a finer insertion no. or . [illustration: .--insertion in tatting.] st oval: fill the shuttle, but do not cut it off from the reel, as a double thread is used, and commence by working double stitches, purl, double, draw up. double thread: putting the thread attached to the reel round the left hand, work double, purl, double. nd oval: double, join to purl of st oval, double, draw up. repeat till the length required is worked, then cut off. for the fresh length, which will make the other half of the insertion, the shuttle must still be attached to the reel. commence by working-- st oval: double, join to the purl which connects the first and second ovals of the piece already worked, double, draw up. double thread: double, purl, double. nd oval: double, join to the same purl as last--namely, the one connecting the first and second ovals of the piece already worked, double, draw up. repeat, joining the two next ovals to the purl which connects the two next in the piece already worked, and so on. crochet a heading each side, working chain, double into the purl of double thread, repeat. with a heading on one side only, this makes a pretty wide edging. * * * * * .--_border in tatting and crochet_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. , and crochet cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. . [illustration: .--border in tatting and crochet.] this lace is rendered stronger by the crochet rows of scallops and treble stitch round the edge. begin with the tatting as follows: make a circle of double, purl divided by double, double. this circle is repeated at a distance of about three-fourths of an inch, only instead of the st purl each following circle must be fastened on to the last purl of the preceding circle. then take some crochet cotton, which must be finer than the cotton used for tatting, and work a row of double stitches over the thread which joins the circles. the number of stitches depends on the length and size of the cotton; work double stitches round the circles at the place where both ends meet. the outer row consists of treble stitches, which are worked with chain stitch between, missing stitch under each chain. the scallops consist of the two following rows:-- double, with which the last and first purl of circles are joined, chain; in each of the other purl, double, chain, between double stitches. nd row: double in each chain stitch scallop, double, long double, double. * * * * * _and_ .--_lady's veil in net and tatting_. [illustration: .--lady's veil in net and tatting.] this veil is slightly gathered in front and fastened to the brim of the bonnet. it is tied at the back under the chignon. the veil is of black silk net. the flowrets are tatted with black purse silk, and worked in appliqué over the tulle. the veil is edged round with a tatted lace made with the same silk. for the patterns and lace and instructions, see nos. and . no. shows the way in which the veil is worn upon the bonnet, and no. shows its shape when stretched out. * * * * * _and_ .--_patterns in tatting_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. for a white veil; fine black silk for a black veil; tatting-pin no. . [illustration: .--shape of veil.] [illustration: .--tatting pattern for veil ( ).] [illustration: --tatting pattern for veil ( ).] the patterns nos. and are meant for ornamenting the veil no. . they are sewn upon the net at regular distances. for working the pattern no. , make with black silk or white cotton times alternately double, purl, at the end purl, then join the stitch into a circle, *fasten the silk on to the next purl. then spot or josephine knot, consisting of plain stitches, carry the shuttle downwards through the loop, and draw the stitches close together; repeat times more from *. fasten the silk on to the next purl, and work a circle as follows:-- times double, divided by purl; fasten the silk on to the next purl, work again spot, after which the silk is fastened, then work more similar circles divided by spot; they are fastened on to the last purl of the preceding circle instead of the st purl. fasten off the silk after the last circle. for no. work double, divided by purl, join the stitches into a circle, knot the beginning and the end of the cotton together, cut off the ends at a short distance. then work a smaller circle, consisting of double, divided by purl; at the place of the st purl fasten the cotton at a short distance on to the nd purl of the large circle. the ends of this circle are knotted together and cut off in the same way. then work a circle consisting of double, fasten the silk on to the th purl of the large circle, work double, and join the stitches into a circle. then take the ends of the circles, and work close fine stitches with silk round them, so as to form the stem. the completed pattern is sewn upon the net. * * * * * _and_ .--_diamond pattern and circle in tatting, for trimming linen collars, cuffs, &c_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no ; tatting-pin no. . .--diamond pattern.--work, not far one from the other, four leaves, each composed of double stitches, rather long purl divided one from the other by double stitches, double stitches. instead of making the st purl in each of the next leaves, fasten the cotton to the last leaf of preceding leaf. fasten off and cut the cotton; begin a fresh circle by double stitches, purl divided by double stitches, more double stitches; fasten the cotton to the centre purl of one of the four leaves, and work a very small circle thus:-- double stitches, fasten the cotton to the last purl of the first circle, double stitches, purl, double stitches; fasten the cotton * to the th purl of the leaf; work a larger circle thus:-- double stitches fastened to the purl of the small circle, double stitches, purl divided by double stitches, more double stitches; fasten the cotton not far off to the second purl of the second leaf; work another small circle similar to that above-described; fasten the cotton to the third purl of the second leaf, then to the fourth purl of the same leaf, and repeat from * three times more, always fastening the first purl of the first circle you are working (each time you repeat the pattern) to the purl of the last small circle last worked; fasten off and cut the cotton. [illustration: .--diamond in tatting.] [illustration: .--circle in tatting.] * * * * * .--circle.--begin it in the centre by working a circle of purl, rather long, divided one from the other by double stitches. after you have fastened off and cut the cotton, work * one very small circle composed of double stitches, long purl, double stitches; fasten the cotton not far off to the first purl of the circle, and repeat from * times more, at regular distances. fasten off and cut the cotton, and begin * a fresh circle of double stitches, purl divided each by double stitches, more double stitches; fasten the cotton to the purl of the very small circle, and work, not far off, a circle of double stitches, purl divided by double stitches, more double stitches; fasten the cotton to the purl of the next small circle, and repeat from * times more. instead of making the first purl of the next large circle, fasten the cotton to the last purl of the small circle. * * * * * .--_border in tatting and crochet_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. . [illustration: .--border in tatting and crochet.] begin this border with one of the smaller circles consisting of * double, purl, double, purl, double; work a large circle at a short distance, double, times purl divided by double, double; close to this circle another as follows:-- double, fastened on to the last purl of the preceding circle, times double divided by purl, purl, double; a third circle as follows:-- double fastened on to the last purl of the preceding circle, times double divided by purl, purl, double; the cotton is fastened a short distance further on to the second purl of the first worked small circle, which must be turned downwards; then turn the work so that the three circles which are joined together are turned downwards. work another small circle as follows at the distance of two-fifths of an inch:-- double, purl, double, leave again an interval of about two-fifths of an inch, and repeat from * till the lace is long enough; but in working the following figures, consisting of three circles, the st circle must be fastened on to the last purl of the rd circle at the place of the st purl. complete the tatting with the following rows of crochet:--* slip stitch in the purl of one of the small circles turned upwards, chain, slip stitch in the next purl, chain; repeat from *. in the following row work double in every stitch. * * * * * .--_insertion in tatting and lace stitch_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. . [illustration: .--insertion in tatting and lace stitch.] this insertion forms a very pretty standing-up collar when worked with fine cotton and a coloured ribbon drawn through. it consists of rows of branched figures turned opposite one another, which are worked separately and then joined into a row. work times as follows:-- double, purl, double, * draw into a circle and * work at a short distance a nd circle as follows:-- double fastened on to the last purl of the st circle, times double, purl, double, repeat once more from *, knot together the two ends of the cotton, and fasten them on the wrong side. one figure is thus completed; each following figure is fastened on to the preceding one on the middle purl of a circle (see illustration). when a sufficient number of such figures have been worked, work a nd row of them in the same manner, and fasten from illustration each middle circle of one figure on to the corresponding circle of the st row. the circles filled with lace stitch are worked when the rows are completed from illustration in the empty places between patterns; work first double, fasten them on to a purl on the side of a leaf turned inside, * double, fasten them on to a purl of the next leaf, repeat times more from *, work double, join the stitches into a circle, but not too close, so that the purls keep their natural position; cut off the cotton, and fasten the two ends on the wrong side. the lace stitch inside of these circles is worked with fine crochet cotton; the pattern may be changed for a single or double wheel. * * * * * .--_insertion in tatting._ materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. . begin by working separately a sufficient number of small rosettes, each composed of six ovals of double stitches and purl. these ovals are worked first in a straight row, then they are joined into a circle and united in the centre by button-hole stitches. the rosettes are joined together with fine cotton. the crochet border is then worked on either side in chain stitches and treble crochet, as seen in illustration. [illustration: .--insertion in tatting.] * * * * * .--_centre of a tatted couvrette_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. , or crochet cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. . this illustration shows the centre of a tatted couvrette in full size, and measuring inches across. separate rosettes like the pattern may be joined together with smaller ones, and form a very pretty couvrette. the pattern is worked in rounds. begin the rosette with a circle, consisting of double, purl, double, purl, double, purl, double. take up another shuttle, and work over the cotton on it, fasten the end on the last double of the circle and work over it, beginning close to the circle, plain, circle like the st worked with the st shuttle, and which is fastened on the last purl of the st circle at the place of the st purl; plain, and continue to work so alternately till you have circles divided by plain stitches. draw up very tightly the cotton over which you work, so that the circles form a rosette, which is closed by sewing together the two corresponding purl of the first and last circle. both the ends of the cotton over which you have worked are knotted together. for the nd round, fasten the cotton on one shuttle on the middle purl of a circle, work a circle like those of the st round, take up the nd shuttle, and work on exactly as in the st round, only work plain between the circles over the cotton on the nd shuttle. the nd round consists of circles; the cotton with which you work must be fastened at the required places on the middle purl of a circle of the preceding round. the rd and following rounds are worked in the same manner; the number of circles must be such as to keep the couvrette quite flat. in the pattern the rd round has circles. fasten the cotton well after each round. [illustration: .--centre of a tatted couvrette.] * * * * * .--_tatted lace_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. . [illustration: .--tatted lace.] this very simple lace consists of scallops which look as if they were slightly gathered. it must be worked with tatting cotton. each scallop consists of plain, purl, plain, then alternately purled stitches, draw up these stitches till the cotton between the st and last stitch is two-fifths of an inch long, and work a nd similar scallop at a short distance from the st. but in the following scallops fasten each to the last purl of the preceding scallop instead of working the st purl. * * * * * .--_tatted lace_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. or ; tatting-pin no. . [illustration: .--tatted lace.] this pretty lace is worked with fine tatting cotton. work with threads; the knots are worked over the cotton, which is held in the right hand. work first the outer scallops of the lace fasten both ends of cotton together and make double, divided by purl, turn the work so as to turn the wrong side upwards, fasten the cotton over which you work on to the last purl, go back over the same row, miss purl next to the cotton with which you work, double divided by purl, fastening the cotton over which you work on the next purl of the st row after every double stitch. this forms scallop. * turn the work downwards (that is, the purl stitch must be turned downwards), make times double, purl, purled stitch: this is the straight row between outer scallops of the lace. then work a scallop like the preceding one, fastening it from illustration after the first row on the middle one of the outer purl of the preceding scallop, with the cotton over which you work; repeat from * till the lace is long enough, and fasten the cotton. knot both ends together again, fasten the cotton over which you work on the first purl of the first scallop, make double, short purl, double, turn so that the upper edge of the row is turned downwards, and the scallops upwards, double, fasten the middle purl of the of the next straight row together by drawing the cotton, with which you are working through the nd purl, so as to form a loop, draw the cotton over which you work through this loop and draw up the latter; work double, fasten the cotton over which you work on to the short purl worked after double, turn the work so that the outer scallops of the lace are turned downwards, double, fasten the cotton over which you work on the first purl of the next scallop, repeat from *, and fasten the cotton. after having fastened both ends together again, turn the work the right side upwards and the outer scallops upwards also, fasten the cotton over which you work on to the short purl which is under the first loop; * work times double, purl, double, fasten the cotton over which you work on the purl under the next loop, and repeat from * till the lace is completed. * * * * * .--_collar in tatting and darned netting_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. ; messrs. walter evans and co.'s french embroidery cotton no. ; square netting. [illustration: .--collar in tatting and darned netting] the pattern is worked with very fine cotton; the netted grounding over a mesh measuring two-fifths of an inch round. the collar is ornamented round the outer edge with a tatted lace. work a straight strip of netting for the grounding; begin with stitches, work rows backwards and forwards, increasing at the end of each row, so that the last row has holes; work row without increasing; then continue to work with the same number of stitches, increasing at the end of one row and decreasing at the end of the other. when the strip is sufficiently long, work row again without increasing or decreasing, and form the side by making rows, decreasing stitch at the end of each, cast off the last stitches on stitch without forming a new stitch on the needle. trace the outline of the collar on the grounding with thick cotton, and begin to darn it from illustration. when the darning is completed work the tatted lace with the same cotton, as follows:-- double, short purl, alternately, times double, purl, double, draw up the stitch so as to form a scallop leaving one-fifth of an inch between the first and last stitch; work a second scallop at a short distance from the first, and so on; every scallop is fastened on to the preceding one after the first double stitches. work a row of double overcast stitch between the darned netting and the tatted lace; work this row over the cotton tracing, marking the outline of the collar on the grounding and over the cotton between the tatted scallops. work also a row of double overcast round the neck part, gathering in the collar a little if necessary. cut away the netting on the wrong side close to the row of overcast stitches. * * * * * .--_mignardise and tatting_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. ; fine mignardise braid. [illustration: .--mignardise and tatting.] patterns formed of mignardise and tatting are of quite new style, and look very pretty. the insertion is easy to work by the following process:--make first a circle, as follows: plain stitch, double, purl, double, purl, double, plain; fasten the cotton on to one side of the mignardise, at the distance of about five-eighths of an inch, by taking loops of it together; work a second circle at a short distance from the first, and so on. when the strip of insertion is sufficiently long, work in the same manner on the other side of the mignardise. this kind of work is destined to become very popular, and nothing can be more light and graceful than the union of mignardise and tatting. * * * * * .--_linen bag for cotton_. materials: fine linen, inches square; messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. . [illustration: .--linen bag for cotton.] the bag seen in illustration no. is meant to keep the cotton for working a couvrette; it consists of a round piece, measuring inches across, which is hemmed all round, and trimmed with a tatted lace. it is drawn together at top. * * * * * .--_tatting insertion_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s cotton no. . the insertion shown in illustration no. is composed in two similar halves. begin the first in the following way:-- double, purl, double, purl, double, join the stitches into a circle, and work a second similar circle at a distance of one-third of an inch; instead of the st purl, draw the cotton through the nd purl of the first-worked circle; leave an interval of one-eighth of an inch, and repeat the two rounds till the insertion is sufficiently long. then tat round the pieces of cotton which join the two rounds, work round the longest double, and round the shortest double, inserting the shuttle alternately once upwards and once downwards, but for the rest proceeding as in the common button-hole stitch. when the first half is completed, work the second in the same way, and fasten it on to the first with the purl. [illustration: .--tatting insertion.] * * * * * .--_tatting insertion_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s cotton no. . [illustration: .--tatting insertion.] the pretty effect of the insertion shown in illustration no. is obtained by means of longer and shorter purl. work as follows:--join double into a circle, long purl, double, long purl, double *. after an interval of five-eighths of an inch, begin the large figure of the pattern: double, small purl, double, draw the cotton through the last purl of the small circle, double, drawn through the st purl of the same circle, double, small purl, double, long purl, double, small purl, double, repeat times more from *, and draw up. after an interval of five-eighths of an inch comes another small circle: double, draw the cotton through the last purl of the large figure, double, draw the cotton through the next long purl of the same figure, double, long purl, double, long purl, double. repeat the pattern for the length of insertion required. the threads which join the small circles are worked over with double in the manner described above, only the cotton at the principal figure must be left loose the width of a straw, so as to imitate a long purl. complete the insertion from illustration by tatting round the small circles of double on the other side (but in the contrary direction), form no purl, but draw the cotton through the long purl of the large figure; the threads which join the circles are likewise drawn through the middle long purl of the large figure; this thread is then tatted over with double, like the opposite outer edge. * * * * * .--_tatted square or diamond_. materials: if for couvrettes, messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. , or crochet cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. . for d'oyleys, tatting cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. . for headdresses, tatting cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. . the square is composed first of nine -branched patterns, worked in rows of patterns each, and joined on one to the other with purl. each pattern consists of branches close to each other, and each branch consists of double, purl, double; when the branches of one pattern are completed, cut off the cotton, and fasten both ends together so as to form a small circle in the centre. then work a second pattern, which is fastened on to the first and second branches of the first pattern, instead of working the purl stitch; work a third pattern, which is fastened in the same manner on to the second pattern. then work more rows exactly the same as can be seen in illustration. [illustration: .--tatted square.] *for the border of the square, fasten the cotton on the first purl of the first pattern, work double, purl divided by double, double, draw up the stitches close, fasten the cotton again on to the same purl of the first pattern *, and work the following scallop at a short distance:-- double fastened on the last purl of the preceding circle, purl divided by double, double, draw up the stitch, leaving an interval of two-fifths of an inch between the first and the last; fasten the cotton on to the next purl which joins two patterns, repeat twice more from *, and continue to repeat from *. * * * * * .--_tatted rosette_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. , or crochet cotton no. . [illustration: .--tatted rosette.] this rosette is very pretty for trimming _lingeries_; it is worked with very fine crochet or tatting cotton. begin in the centre and work one circle: times alternately double, purl, then purled stitch. fasten the cotton on to the first purl and work the nd round: small circle, consisting of double divided by purl. fasten the cotton on to the next purl of the middle circle, and repeat in rounds. rd round: fasten the cotton on the middle purl of the first circle of the preceding round, * work at a short distance double divided by purl, join the stitches into a circle, fasten the cotton at the same distance on to the middle purl of the next circle of the preceding round, and repeat in rounds from *, after which the cotton is fastened off. * * * * * .--_rosette in tatting_. [illustration: .--rosette in tatting.] materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. . begin this rosette with the circle in the centre, and work times alternately double, purl, double, join the stitches into a circle and fasten the cotton. take a second shuttle and work over the cotton on this shuttle; knot the two ends of cotton together * and work plain, fasten the cotton over which you work on a purl of the circle which is completed, and which must be turned downwards; plain, purl; repeat times more from *, and fasten the cotton. work now with one of the shuttles the small circles on the outside; * fasten the cotton on to a purl of the second round, and work a circle as follows:-- double, purl, double, fasten the cotton on to the same purl of the second round, work a similar circle at a short distance, and a third at the same distance. repeat times more from *, and fasten off the cotton neatly. * * * * * .--_diamond in tatting_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. . [illustration: .--diamond in tatting.] this diamond is suitable for trimming collars, cuffs, &c., when worked with fine cotton. work first the four corner patterns separately, as follows:-- double, purl divided by double, double, join the stitches into a circle, work close to this circle a second one consisting of double fastened on the last purl of the st circle, double, purl divided by double, double; then a rd circle consisting of double fastened on the last purl of the preceding circle, double, purl divided by double, double. take a second shuttle, fasten the cotton on the end of the cotton of the st circle, throw the cotton of the st shuttle over the fingers of the left hand, and work with this cotton over the cotton on the other shuttle in the right hand. work double, and then one circle as follows with the cotton in the left hand only:-- double fastened on the last purl of the rd of the circles worked close to each other, double, purl, double, purl, double, purl, double, then again over the cotton on the other shuttle, double, purl divided by double, double, then with one shuttle only one circle as follows:-- double, purl, double, purl, double, purl, double fastened on st purl of the circle worked at the beginning, double; then again with two shuttles double. fasten the cotton on the piece of cotton before the double worked with two shuttles, so that the stitches worked over two shuttles form a circle, and cut off the cotton. when three of these patterns have been worked, work the centre pattern of the square. it consists of leaves touching each other at the lower points; each leaf is formed of double, purl divided by double, double; each following leaf is fastened on to the preceding one at the place of the st purl. then work first round of the oval circles of the square, with which the corner patterns are joined. fasten the cotton on one purl of one corner pattern, make double, purl, double; fasten on the corresponding purl of another corner pattern, work double, purl, double, join the stitches into a circle, fasten the cotton on to the same purl to which the cotton has already been fastened, carry the latter on to the next purl of the same corner pattern, fasten it, then work three more circles like the first, which are fastened on to each preceding circle, at the place of the first purl; fasten the cotton on the two cross purl of the centre pattern, and work four similar circles on the other side of the same. the circles which go across the square in the opposite direction are worked in the same manner. when the square is completed, draw two threads on each side of each corner pattern on to the other side of the square along the cotton which joins the circles together. * * * * * .--_tatting for cap crown_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. . [illustration: .--tatting for cap crown.] this pattern is very pretty for the crown of a cap like the one described on page , and also for covers, toilet cushions, &c. the size of the cotton depends upon the use you wish to make of the pattern. the pattern is worked with fine tatting cotton. it consists of eight-branched rosettes joined together with small circles. each rosette is worked as follows: work loops or branches close to each other, consisting of double, purl, double; fasten both ends of the cotton together, and cut them off. each of the small circles which joins the rosettes together consists of double, purl divided by double. it is easy to see from the illustration how the patterns are joined together by means of the purl stitches. * * * * * _and_ .--_cap in tatting_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. tatting-pin no. . [illustration: .--cap in tatting.] this very pretty cap consists of an oval crown in tatting, edged all round with a tatted lace, the lappets are made in tatting also. the cap is trimmed with large and small rosettes of narrow blue velvet. a narrow velvet ribbon is drawn through the straight open-work edge of the lace, as can be seen in illustration. [illustration: --border for cap no. .] * * * * * no. .--border for cap.--the upper part of the border consists of rows of circles worked at a distance of three-fifths of an inch from each other. the circles of the st row consist of double, purl divided by double, double. in the following rows each circle is fastened on to the cotton, which joins circles in the st row, instead of working the middle purl, the cotton between circles in the last row must only be two-fifths of an inch long. then work a certain number of six-branched rosettes, each branch consisting of double, purl, double. each rosette is fastened on to every other circle of the st row, as can be seen in illustration. the border is completed as follows:--* double, purl divided by double, purled stitch fastened on to the middle purl of a circle of the st row, plain, purl divided by double, join the stitch into a circle, turn the lace so that the rosettes are turned upwards, fasten the cotton on to the purl of the next branch of the next rosette, work double, purl divided by double, double; fasten the cotton on to the purl of the next branch, * work double, purl divided by double, double; fasten the cotton on to the next branch, repeat once more from *, work double, purl divided by double, double, and repeat from * to the end of the lace. * * * * * .--_lace in tatting and crochet_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. ; crochet cotton no. . [illustration: .--lace in tatting and crochet.] the beauty of this lace depends entirely upon the regularity of the tatting. the purl stitches must be very regularly made, the circles must be drawn up tight. make * circle, consisting of double, purl divided by double, double; close to this circle a second one; double fastened on the last purl of the preceding circle, times double divided by purl, purl double, close to the nd circle a third one similar to the first, but instead of working the st purl fasten it on the last purl of the preceding circle; leave an interval of about - / inch, and repeat from * till the lace is sufficiently long. the rest is worked in crochet. take the fine crochet cotton and work the straight row at the top to join the patterns together. crochet double in the first and last purl of the first and last circle of one pattern, then a sufficient number of double stitches under the piece of cotton which joins circles. at the place where the circles are drawn together, join the two pieces of cotton (the beginning and the end) in such a manner that the top of the lace forms a straight line (see illustration). the nd row consists of treble in every other stitch, chain after every treble. then work on the other side of the lace * a row of treble stitches divided by chain. the treble stitches are worked in the purl stitches of the circles. work long treble in the st purl left free of the st circle ( th purl of the circle), chain, * treble, chain, treble, chain, treble in the next purl, but cast off the st treble only so far as to keep loops on the needle. when the nd treble is completed cast off all the loops on the needle, chain, treble divided by chain, chain, treble in the following purl, which are cast off like those above described, chain, treble divided by chain in the next purl of a pattern, chain, long treble with which you must join the last purl and the first one of the next pattern, chain; repeat from *. the next row consists of small scallops worked round the chain stitch scallops of the preceding row; work in each double, treble, double, double in the first and last chain stitch of every pattern. * * * * * .--_insertion in tatting and crochet_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. ; crochet cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. . [illustration: .--insertion in tatting and crochet.] begin the tatting with fine cotton and shuttles. work with the cotton on one shuttle over the cotton on the other in the following manner:--knot the ends of cotton together * times double divided by a short purl, long purl divided by double; the st and rd purl must be three-fifths of an inch long, the nd one two-fifths of an inch; times double divided by a short purl, purl two-fifths of an inch long; repeat from * till the strip of insertion is sufficiently long. then work a similar row of tatting, and join the two rows before working the long purl, by fastening the cotton on the corresponding long purl of the st row, so that the rows are joined closely together, and the purl stitches of either are turned outwards. at the top and bottom of the tatting work the following rows of crochet:--* double in the middle one of the long purl, chain, double in each of the following long purl, chain; repeat from * to the end of the row. nd row. double in each scallop, miss the double stitches of the preceding row under chain. the rd row consists of treble stitches in every other stitch, chain after every treble. lastly, the leaves are worked with thick cotton by filling up the first and last long purl of a pattern with darning stitch from illustration; the cross stitches between the two rows of tatting are worked with very fine cotton. * * * * * .--_purse in tatting and beads_. materials: grey purse-silk; steel beads; scarlet glacé silk; a steel clasp with chain. this purse is worked in tatting with grey silk and beads. the beads are threaded on a piece of silk, with which you work over another piece of the same. begin each of the second halves of the purse with the circle in the centre, which consists of purled stitch, purl (all the purl of this circle are three-tenths of an inch long, and are covered with six beads, which must be drawn up close together before working the purl), double divided by purl. join the stitches into a circle by knotting together the two ends of the silk. nd round: begin again and work one of the small circles; * double, draw up one bead after each, double, short purl without beads, double, bead after each, double, fasten the silk on the purl of the middle circle, so as to let it come between the rd and th bead of the beads on that purl; double, bead after each, double, short purl, double, bead after each, double, join the stitches into a circle, draw up beads; work a larger circle without fastening the silk belonging to the smaller one; double, bead after each, double, purl with beads, double, bead after each, double; short purl, double, bead after each, double, purl with beads, double, bead after each, double; draw up beads close to this large circle and repeat from *. each following small circle must be fastened on the next purl of the circle which forms the centre; they are also fastened on to each other, instead of working the st purl, by fastening the piece of silk over which you work on the preceding small circle; in the larger circles, instead of working the st purl with beads, the piece of silk must be fastened on the last purl of the preceding circle, so that it comes between the nd and rd beads. at the end of the round, the ends of the silk are knotted together and fastened off. [illustration: .--purse in tatting and beads.] rd round: * double, bead after each, double, short purl, double, bead after each, double fastened on the middle purl of the st circle of the preceding round, double, bead after each, double, purl with beads, double, bead after each, double; join the stitches into a circle, and work at a short distance a nd circle; double, bead after each, double, fastened on the last purl of the just-finished circle of this round, double, bead after each, double fastened on the purl of the preceding round which is between circles; the loop must come between the beads; double, bead after each; double, purl with beads; double, with bead after each; double; leave a small interval, and repeat times more from *, then fasten the ends. when two similar parts have been worked, line them with scarlet glacé silk; fasten them together round the outside, and sew on the clasp. a round of large circles edges the purse round the outside. the st of these circles consists of double, bead after each, double, purl with beads, double, bead after each, double. work a nd circle at a short distance from the st: * double, bead after each, double fastened on the purl of the st circle of this round; double, bead after each, double, purl with beads, double, bead after each, double; leave a short interval, and repeat from * till a sufficient number of circles have been made. the last purl is not worked in the last circle. * * * * * .--_insertion in tatting and crochet._ materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. ; crochet cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. . [illustration: .--insertion in tatting and crochet.] this pattern is composed of leaves and flowers. each of the six leaves forming a circle is composed of double, purl, separated by double, double (the first and last purl of each leaf must be joined in the manner before explained), and the centre of each circle forms a wheel. the flower has four leaves: each leaf consists of double, ii purl, separated each by double, and again double; each leaf is filled up with button-hole stitches in fine cotton. to form the circle in the centre of this flower, turn several times the thread which joins the leaves, and work button-hole stitches round it. join the flowers and the circles by knotting them together, or by making purl longer than the others, and by drawing the next figure through. the crochet border on each side of the tatting consists of six rows, which are plainly seen in the illustration. * * * * * .--_border in tatting and lace stitch._ materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. and . [illustration: .--border in tatting and lace stitch.] this mixture of tatting and lace stitch is a style of work not only entirely new, but very pretty and effective when cotton of very different sizes is used. the tatting is begun with a row of circles two-thirds of an inch distant from each other; each circle consists of stitches of plain tatting. fasten a nd row to the st, and a rd to the nd, by working a circle of stitches of plain tatting at one-third of an inch distance, * then at the same distance; fasten the cotton on the next circle of the preceding row, work a circle at the same distance again, and repeat from *. the cotton is fastened on the circles by drawing it through the circle with a crochet-needle, so as to form a loop, and then drawing it out of the loop. take care to keep the distance between circles always the same. between the circles of the rd row draw another piece of cotton, by fastening the cotton on each circle of the rd row at distances of two-thirds of an inch. then work the lower edge of the border in the following way:-- small spot called a _josephine knot_ (for which work stitches of plain tatting, draw the cotton downwards through the loop which fastens the stitches, and draw up the whole), fasten the cotton between the next two circles of the rd row, * and a little further make a spot consisting of stitches of single tatting, close to this a circle formed of double, purl divided by double, double; then again a spot of stitches of plain tatting, turn the last spots so as to make their round sides come opposite one another; fasten the cotton on again between the next circles of the rd row. then a little further off work small spot ( stitches of plain tatting), circle of double, purl, double fastened on the last purl of the preceding circle, double, purl divided by double, double; then again a small spot ( plain stitches), fasten the cotton on again between the next circles of the rd row, and repeat from *, always fastening each new circle to the corresponding purl of the preceding one. on the other long side, the border is completed by rows of crochet. the st row is formed by working double under the piece of cotton between circles of the st row, with chain stitches between. nd row: treble in every other stitch, chain stitch after every treble. the strip of insertion is then tacked on a piece of cardboard or oil-cloth, and the lace stitches are worked between the circles, as is seen in illustration. * * * * * .--_tatted rosette._ materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. for large rosette, no. for small rosette; tatting-pin no. . this rosette forms a very pretty trimming for lingerie--cravats, caps, handkerchiefs, &c. the raised pattern in the centre consists of rounds, consisting of circles each, which are sewn together and then fastened on the rosette. the circles of each round must be worked close to each other: after working the last circle of each round, knot the beginning and end of the cotton together. each circle of the smallest round has double, the circles of the next round each , the circles of the following one , and the circles of the last and largest round double stitches. when these circles have been sewn on one to another as in illustration, work a large circle consisting of double, purl, times alternately double, purl, then double. the purls of this circle are fastened on to the circles of the next round of the rosette. fasten the cotton on to the next purl of the middle circle, and work a circle as follows:-- double, purl, double, purl, double, purl, double, purl, double, purl, double. repeat times more from *, but now, instead of working the st purl of every circle, fasten it on to the last purl of the preceding circle. then fasten the cotton. for the last round, which consists of scallops and rounds, fasten the cotton on to the middle purl of a circle of the preceding round, and work a circle consisting of times alternately double, [illustration: .--tatted rosette.] purl, then double. then fasten a second thread on to the same purl on which the just completed circle has been fastened, and over which all the scallops are to be worked. work over it double, fastened on to the last purl of the preceding circle, double, purl, double, purl, double. fasten the cotton on to the middle purl of the next circle of the preceding round, and repeat from * till the round is completed; but in working these circles, instead of the first purl, fasten them on to the last purl of the preceding scallop. lastly, the raised pattern is sewn on. * * * * * .--_linen bag for tatting, &c._ materials: fine linen; messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. or ; tatting-pin no. . [illustration: .--linen bag for tatting, &c.] this pretty linen bag is meant to keep tatting and such work from being soiled before it is completed. the bag is drawn together round the top. its size depends upon what you wish to put into it. the original pattern is - / inches deep, and inches wide; it is hemmed round the top, and trimmed with a narrow tatted lace, consisting of large and small circles. * * * * * .--_tatted border._ materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. . [illustration: .--tatted border.] begin this elegant border with rows of tatting, in the following manner:-- st row: double, purl, double, purl, double, purl, double; draw these stitches up into a circle, and repeat the circle at a very short distance, till the border is long enough; but instead of working the first purl of each circle, you must join the circle to the preceding one; the purl on the sides of the circle must therefore be longer than that in the middle. for the nd row take another shuttle, make a loop on the left side with the cotton, and work with this end of cotton over the cotton in the right hand, which is also to be held between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand. then work in the following way:-- double, then circle consisting of double, purl, double; to form this circle, let the cotton in the left-hand shuttle fall downwards, and make a loop round the left hand with the cotton on the shuttle of the right hand. then take up again the left-hand shuttle, and join the circle to the middle purl of the st circle of the st row by drawing the cotton through the purl like a loop, and then drawing the cotton in the right hand through this loop. * double, circle, double, joined to the middle purl of the next circle of the st row; circle, double, circle joined on the middle purl of the following circle; repeat from *. the upper edge of the border is worked in crochet rows, in the following manner:-- st row: * treble, divided by chain in the st circle of the st row of tatting; chain; repeat from *. nd row: * treble in the st chain of the preceding row, purl ( chain, slip stitch in the st), miss stitch of the preceding row under it; repeat from *. * * * * * .--_rosette in embroidery and tatting._ materials for trimmings: messrs. walter evans and co.'s knitting cotton no. ; tatting cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. . for couvrettes, crochet cotton no. . this rosette, joined to other similar ones, forms a very pretty trimming for articles of fine linen, or even for small couvrettes; if used for the former, they must be worked with very fine cotton. the centre of the rosette is formed of an embroidered raised pattern worked in _point de minute_; round this centre there are small circles worked in button-hole stitch; the embroidery is worked with knitting cotton, the circles with crochet cotton. before beginning the circles, make a circle consisting of a foundation chain of stitches, in order to be able to fasten the button-hole stitch; in each of the stitches of the foundation chain work double, then fasten the cotton. in the nd round of these circles fasten the cotton on every th stitch of the crochet circle. work round of open-work treble stitch in the double stitch of the crochet circle, work in tatting the border of the rosette as follows in round:--* double, purl, double, fastened on to chain stitch between treble stitch, double; purl, double,; join these stitches into a circle; turn the work so that the wrong side lies upwards, and work a second larger circle at a short distance consisting of double, purl divided by double, double, turn again and repeat from *. the smaller circles must be fastened after every other treble stitch; the larger and smaller circles must be fastened above one another at the place of the st purl. [illustration: .--rosette in embroidery and tatting.] * * * * * --_linen collar trimmed with tatting._ materials: messrs. walter evans and co's tatting cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. . [illustration: .--linen collar trimmed with tatting.] the diamond pattern placed in the corner of the collar is commenced in the centre. for each of the four centre leaves work double stitches, purl divided one from the other by double stitches, then more double stitches. fasten off the cotton, cut it, and begin a fresh leaf by working double stitches, purl divided one from the other by double stitches, then more double stitches. (this small leaf forms one of the corners of the diamond pattern.) fasten the cotton to the fourth purl of one of the four centre leaves, and work another leaf similar to the preceding. join this leaf by its two centre purl to the two last purl of the corner leaf (see illustration). after two more similar leaves, work one corner leaf, and continue the pattern in the same manner until you come back to the first corner leaf, then fasten off, and cut the cotton. place the diamond pattern upon the point of the collar, and cut away the material under it; fold back the edges, sew them neatly, and cover them with the following crochet edging:--make alternately chain, purl (the latter composed of chain joined together by slip stitch). it will be easy to work the circles in tatting from our illustration; they form an elegant border round the collar. we shall merely say that the centre circle is always worked separately, and that the cotton is fastened on afresh to work the eight outer leaves. the upper edge of this border is worked in crochet. it is composed of two rows--one formed of chain stitches, and a few slip stitches worked in the purl of the circles in tatting, the other worked in open treble crochet. * * * * * .--_cravat in cambric muslin and tatting._ materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. . this cravat consists of a strip of cambric muslin yard long, inches wide, hemmed on both sides. the ends of the cravat are ornamented with patterns in tatting, worked with tatting cotton no. . a rosette in tatting is sewn on in the middle of the end of the cravat. the end of the cravat is pointed, lined on the wrong side with a strip of the same material as the cravat, and edged with a tatted lace. begin the rosette in the centre with a circle worked in the following manner:-- double, purl, * twice double divided by purl, purl, double, purl, twice double divided by purl, purl, * double, purl; repeat from * to * once more, double. at the beginning of the nd round fasten the cotton on the st purl of the st round, and [illustration: .--cravat in muslin and tatting.] work as follows:--* circle consisting of double, purl, double, purl, double; fasten the cotton on to the next purl, circle like the preceding one, fastened on to the next purl, circle consisting of double, purl, double fastened on to the next purl, circles consisting each of double, purl, double; between the fasten the cotton on to the next purl; similar circles fastened also on to the next purl, circle consisting of double, purl, double, fastened on to the next circle; repeat once more from *, and fasten off the cotton. fasten on the cotton afresh for the rd round, worked in the following manner:--* circle consisting of double, purl, double, purl, times double divided by purl; purl, double, purl, double; fasten the cotton at a short distance on to the st purl of the nd round, circle worked as follows:-- double fastened on to the last purl of the preceding circle of this round, double, purl, times double divided by purl, purl, double, purl, double fastened on to the next purl of the nd circle of the nd round; similar circles, between each of which the cotton is to be fastened on to the nearest purl of a circle of the nd round; repeat once more from *, and knot the beginning and the end of the cotton together. when completed, the rosette is sewn on the material of the cravat with button-hole stitches, taking up one purl with each stitch; the muslin is cut away underneath the rosette; then work a round of knotted stitches underneath the button-hole stitch. for the lace, make a row of circles one-fifth of an inch distant from each other, consisting each of double, purl, double, purl, times double divided by purl, purl, double, purl, double, which are fastened together by the purl of each circle, and are sewn on the cravat over the cotton between the circles in overcast stitch. * * * * * --_cravat in cambric muslin and tatting_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. . [illustration: .--cravat in muslin and tatting.] the end of this cravat is formed by a long rosette or _médaillon_ in tatting. this rosette is likewise begun in the centre, and consists of rounds, the first of which are worked like those of the rosette in illustration , with this difference only, that in the nd round each of the circles nearest to the top and to the bottom of the rosette consists of double, purl, double, purl, double. rd round: * circle, consisting of double, purl, double, purl, times double divided by purl, purl, double, purl, double, fastened on to the next purl of the nd circle of the preceding round; circle as follows:-- double, the last of which is fastened on to the last purl of the preceding round, double, purl, twice double divided by purl, purl, double, purl, double fastened on the next purl of the preceding round; more similar circles, between each of which the cotton is fastened on to the next purl of the preceding round; repeat from * once more, fasten the two ends of the cotton together. th round: * fasten on the cotton afresh with a circle consisting of double, purl, double, purl, times double divided by purl, purl, double, purl, double, fastened on to the middle purl of the st circle of the preceding round; a nd circle worked in the same way, only instead of working the last purl, fasten the cotton on to the last purl of the preceding circle, then on to the st circle of the preceding round; more similar circles, between each of which the cotton is fastened on to the middle purl of a circle of the preceding round, and then on to the nd purl of the larger circle at the bottom of the medallion; repeat once more from *. the pattern is sewn on the cravat with button-hole stitches, as can be seen in the illustration. * * * * * .--_border in crochet and tatting_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s boar's head cotton no. . this border is formed of circles in tatting and crochet leaves, which are joined together by rows of crochet work; a narrow [illustration: .--border in crochet and tatting.] border in tatting forms the lower edge. omitting this edge, the border forms a strip of insertion. each of the rosettes or circles is begun in the centre; work first double (a double stitch is formed by passing the thread over the back of the hand, and then passing the shuttle upwards between the forefinger and second finger, and drawing it up, then work a stitch of plain tatting; this completes the double stitch, and whenever so many double stitches are directed it means the stitches), purl, repeat times, join the stitch into a circle, work at a small distance * a smaller ring consisting of double, purl, divided each by double stitches, double, draw the cotton through the purl of the first circle, and repeat times more from *, only each following circle must be fastened on to a purl of the preceding circle after double stitches, and having completed each circle the thread must be drawn through the purl of the first circle, which forms the centre of the rosette. the beginning and the end of the thread are knotted together. for the tatted border, make at short distances loop with double, purl, double; after having worked a sufficient number of such loops, wind another thread round the thread between the loops, turning always loop on the right side and on the left. now begin the crochet part with the leaves. make for each of these a foundation chain of stitches, crochet back over this chain double in the last stitch but one, double in the next stitch, treble in each of the following chain, treble in the next stitch, treble, long treble, and treble in the next following stitch of the foundation chain. work on the other side of the chain the same pattern, only the reverse way; then double in the point of the leaf thus formed, and edge the whole leaf with a round of double stitches, always working double in each stitch of the preceding row, and in the long treble stitch. in working this last round, the circles must be joined to the leaves by taking up the purl stitch of the circle before casting off the corresponding double stitch of the leaf; then work the stem which joins the rows of circles and leaves with a row of chain stitches, on which a row of double is worked. then comes the border which forms the upper edge. make a row of chain stitches, joining leaves and circles together, then work rows of treble, work more rows over the tatted border, the first row entirely in chain stitches, after every fourth stitch take up the purl of the loops on one side. nd row: treble in the middle stitch of the chain, treble, divided by chain. rd row: treble, chain, miss under the last. in the last row the leaves and circles must be fastened on the border, as seen in illustration. * * * * * .--_diamond in tatting_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s crochet cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. ; any sized shuttle. [illustration: .--diamond in tatting.] st oval: fill the shuttle, but do not cut it off from the reel, as a double thread is required, and commence by working double stitches, purl, then ( double, purl times), double, draw up. double thread: putting the thread attached to the reel round the left hand, work single stitches, taking care to do them tightly. nd oval: double, join to the last purl of st oval, then ( double, purl, times) double, draw up. double thread: single stitches tightly worked. rd oval: double, join to last purl of nd oval, double, join to next purl of nd oval, then ( double, purl times) double, draw up. double thread: single stitches. th oval: double, join to last purl of last oval, double, join to next purl, then ( double, purl, times) double, draw up. double thread: single stitches. th oval: double, join to last purl of last oval, double, join to next purl, then ( double, purl, times) double, draw up. double thread: single stitches. th oval: double, join to last purl of last oval, double, join to next purl, then ( double, purl, times) double, draw up. double thread: single stitches. th oval: double, join to last purl of last oval, then ( double, purl, times) double, draw up. double thread: single stitches. th oval: double, join to last purl of last oval, then ( double, purl, times) double, draw up. double thread: single stitches. th oval: double, join to last purl of last oval, double, join to next purl then ( double, purl, times) double, draw up. double thread: single stitches. th oval: double, join to last purl of last oval, double, join to next purl, then ( double, purl, times) double, draw up. double thread: single stitches. th oval: double, join to last purl of last oval, double, join to next purl, then ( double, purl, times) double, draw up. double thread: single stitches. th oval: double, join to last purl of last oval, double, join to next purl, then ( double, purl, times) double, join to st purl of st oval, double, draw up. double thread: single stitches. now cut off both threads, and with a needle fasten off neatly at the back of first oval by sewing thread over the other. the diamond is now finished. the centre must be filled up with lacework, using fine sewing-cotton. arranged in groups of or , diamonds form a very pretty trimming for the skirts of silk dresses, the body being trimmed with single diamonds. * * * * * .--_linen collar trimmed with tatting_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. , tatting-pin no. ; piece of very fine cord. this collar is ornamented with a triangle and a border of a very effective pattern. the triangle is begun in the centre, by working for each of the three leaves double stitches, purl divided one from the other by double stitches, and more double stitches. when the third leaf is completed, fasten off and cut the cotton. now take, instead of the cotton wound upon the shuttle, a piece of extremely fine cord, over which work with the cotton from the reel the following row of stitches:-- double stitch, fasten the cotton to the centre purl of one of the three leaves, * double stitches, purl divided one from the other by double stitches, double stitches, fasten the cotton to the centre purl of the nearest leaf, double stitches, purl divided one from the other by double stitches, double stitches fastened to the same purl as before. repeat from * twice more, then fasten off, and cut the cord and the cotton. begin afresh, and work small circles, each composed of plain stitches placed quite close together (these form one of the corners of the triangle), then at small distances one from the other work similar circles, every second one of which is fastened to one purl of the row of [illustration: .--linen collar trimmed with tatting.] stitches worked over the cord (see illustration). cut away from the collar the piece of linen which is to be replaced by the triangle, fold in the edges and work them round in button-hole stitch, and fill up the space with the triangle. for the border, work first * one circle composed of double stitches, purl divided one from the other by double stitches, more double stitches; take up the cord once more and work over it, double stitches, then, without cord, circle composed of double stitches, purl divided one from the other by double stitches, more double stitches; take up the cord again and work over it double stitches, purl divided each by double stitches, double stitches. fasten the cotton to the third purl (reckoning from the last) of the second circle worked without cord; double stitches fastened to the fourth purl of the row of stitches worked over the cord (see illustration), double stitches, purl divided each by double stitches, double stitches fastened to the purl of next circle, double stitches fastened to the last purl of the row, double stitches, purl divided each by double stitches, double stitches; fasten the cotton to the sixth purl of the circle (reckoning from the beginning), double stitches. repeat from *. work over the top of the border a crochet edging similar to that round the diamond pattern of collar no. . for the point of the border, at the corner of the collar, see illustration no. . * * * * * .--_tatted collar_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. . this collar is worked with very fine tatting cotton. it consists of four branched tatted patterns and of separate tatted circles, fastened on to one another as seen in illustration. the four branched patterns are worked as follow:-- double, purl, times alternately double, purl, then double, and join the knots into a circle. work similar leaves close to this st leaf, but instead of working the st purl, fasten them on to the last purl of the preceding leaf; besides this, instead of [illustration: .--tatted collar.] working the last purl of the th branch, fasten it on to the first purl of the st branch. when such four-branched pattern is completed, knot both ends of the cotton together and cut them off. make a row of similar patterns by joining them on to the middle purl of a branch of the preceding pattern, instead of working the middle purl of the last branch (see illustration). two rows of similar patterns are joined by the above-mentioned circles, consisting of double stitches, by fastening these circles from illustration between four branched patterns. begin each circle with double stitches, fasten it on to the corresponding purl of the four-branched pattern, work again double, fasten on to the next purl, and continue in the same manner till the circle is sufficiently large. each circle is ornamented with lace stitch. the collar is edged round the neck with close button-hole stitches. * * * * * .--_tatted collar_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. . this collar is commenced at the top, and worked with fine cotton in the following manner:-- st oval: double, purl, times, draw the cotton into a circle, double, purl, double, times, purl, double, draw the cotton into a circle, and join it to the first purl of the first circle; work two more circles the same as last. nd oval: double, purl, times, join the third purl to the third purl of the centre circle of preceding pattern, double, purl, times, double, purl, draw the cotton up, and work small circles, as follow:-- double *, purl, double, times, * purl, double, joining each circle to the purl of the nd oval. rd oval: double, purl, times, joining the rd purl to the nd purl of the centre circle of the preceding pattern, double, purl, times, double, purl, draw the cotton up, and work small circles, similar to the small circles described in nd oval. [illustration: .--tatted collar.] * * * * * .--_circle in tatting_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co's tatting cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. . [illustration: .--circle in tatting.] this circle is worked with fine cotton, and will be very pretty for ornamenting cravat-ends and different articles of lingerie. it is commenced in the centre with double, purl, repeated times, draw the cotton into a ring, and work small circles, as follow:-- double, * purl, double, repeat from * times, purl, double, draw up the cotton, and join it to the purl of centre ring and corresponding circle. large circle: double, * purl, double, repeat from * times, double, draw up the cotton, and join it to the th purl of small circle. the centre of ring is filled up with lace stitches. * * * * * .--_tatting medallion for trimming lingeries, &c._ materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. for cravats and collars, for pocket-handkerchiefs, for petticoats; tatting-pin no. or . this pattern is suitable for trimming cravats, collars, pocket-handkerchiefs, petticoats, &c., according to the size of the cotton with which it is worked. work first the round of circles which incloses the leaves, overlapping each other in the centre; begin with the smallest circle, which is at the top of the pattern; it consists of double, purl, double, purl, double, purl, double. then work at a short distance another circle like the preceding one, only work double instead of , and instead of working the first purl, fasten the circle on to the last purl of the preceding circle; all the other circles are fastened on to each other in the same manner. the next circle, worked again at a distance of about one-fifth of an inch, has double; fasten it on to the preceding circle, double, purl, double, purl, double. the following four circles are worked like the preceding one; only work in the first of these circles double instead of , in the second double, in the third double. the piece of cotton which joins the circles together must also be somewhat longer between the larger circles. then work a circle [illustration: .--tatting medallion.] as follows: double, fasten the cotton, double, purl, double, purl, double; then a similar circle, but always working double instead of . the next circle consists of double, fasten the cotton, double, purl, double, purl, double; the two following circles are worked in the same manner, working double instead of . then comes the largest circle of the round, which consists of double, double, purl, double, purl, double. work circles more like the nd to th of those just described (the th circle forms the middle), only the order of sizes must be reversed, so that the round closes with the smallest circle. then fasten both ends of the cotton together, so that the circles are joined into a circle. then work round this row of circles another round, the circles of which must be of graduated sizes like those of the first round. fasten the cotton on to the middle purl of the first small circle of the first round, and work one circle as follows:-- double, purl, times alternately double, purl, then double; fasten the cotton on to the middle purl of the next circle, &c. the remaining circles are worked in the same manner, only they must be increased and decreased in size gradually like the circles of the first round; this is done by increasing or decreasing the number of purl, instead of working the first purl of every following circle, fasten it on to the last purl of the preceding circle. when the round is completed, fasten both ends of the cotton together. in the centre of the oval pattern, fasten five-branched patterns of graduated size, which are worked in one piece. for the smallest of these patterns work first three circles, consisting of double, purl, times alternately double, purl, then again double (these circles must be close to each other; the second and third circles must, moreover, be fastened on to the last purl of the preceding circle). the cotton is then fastened on the first circle between the beginning and the end of the same, then work close to them two small circles, consisting of double, purl, double, fasten the cotton between the beginning and the end of the third circle. the other five-branched patterns are worked in the same manner at intervals of about three-tenths of an inch; but the separate circles of each pattern must become gradually larger. in the largest pattern the three large circles consist of double, purl, times alternately double, purl, double; the two smaller circles consist each of double, purl, double; the size of the other patterns can easily be worked from this; the cotton which joins these last together is covered by over-casting with a needle and thread, so as to imitate double stitches. the five-branched patterns are then fastened in the oval pattern; they must overlap each other to half way, as seen in the illustration. * * * * * .--_tatted diamond_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. , or if required finer; tatting-pin no. . [illustration: --tatted diamond.] this pattern is meant to ornament lingerie; it is worked with fine tatting cotton in the following manner:--work a * circle consisting of double, purl, double, turn the circle downwards and work at a short distance another circle consisting of double, purl divided by double, double; at a similar distance a circle of double fastened on to the last purl of the preceding circle, double, purl divided by double, double; then again a circle consisting of double fastened on to the last purl of the preceding circle, double, purl divided by double, double: fasten the cotton on to the first circle. then turn the work so that the last three circles are turned downwards, leave an interval of at least three-fourths of an inch, and repeat three times more from *, fastening the circles on to each other from illustration. knot together the beginning and end of the cotton, work button-hole stitches round the cotton which joins the circles, as shown in illustration. the purl stitches of the four middle circles of the diamond are knotted together. * * * * * .--_tatted cravat end_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. ; shuttles. this cravat end is given in full size. it is ornamented with a tatted medallion, edged with lace. the tatting is worked with tatting fine cotton and two shuttles. make first the two rosettes which form the centre of the medallion, then the insertion-like part which edges the rosettes. the larger rosette is worked as follows:--knot the cotton of both shuttles together and work with shuttle only circle consisting of double, purl one-fifth of an inch long, double; * close to this circle, which is turned downwards, work over the cotton with the other shuttle, double, purl, double; this forms one of the scallops joining two circles. then turn the work again and work close to the just completed scallop another circle like the first, but which is joined to the first circle instead of working the purl. repeat times more from *. then work another scallop and fasten both ends of cotton on to the cotton over which the first scallop has been worked, at the place where the scallop is joined to the first circle. the first round of the rosette is thus completed. work then the nd round over the cotton on the nd shuttle, beginning to work where the two ends of cotton have been fastened, * double, purl, double, fastened on to the purl of the next scallop of the preceding round, double, purl, double fastened on to the cotton between two scallops of the [illustration: .--tatted cravat end.] preceding round; repeat times more from *. the larger rosette is now completed. the smaller rosette is worked like the first, only without the second round. the insertion-like border is worked in two halves as follows:--the half which touches the edge of the medallion is worked as follows:--knot both ends of cotton together and *, work with shuttle only circle consisting of double, purl one-fifth of an inch long, double; turn the circle downwards and work close to it over the cotton on the nd shuttle double, purl, double; this forms a scallop of the border. then turn the work again and work close to the scallop another circle like the first, but which is fastened on to the first circle instead of working the purl. turn the work again, work a scallop like the preceding one, and repeat times more from *, only the scallops at the lower edge of the medallion must have a few double stitches more, as can be seen in illustration. after working the last scallop fasten the two ends of the cotton on to the st circle; then cut them off. the second inner half is worked like the first; only the circles are worked without any purl stitch, and fastened on to the circles of the first half from illustration; the scallops of this half are somewhat smaller; each consists of double, purl, double. the completed border is sewn on to the rosettes from illustration; the different pieces must be first fastened on cardboard. the cotton must be wound several times round the long threads, as seen in illustration. the medallion is then sewn into the muslin at the top only; the remaining border is edged, before joining it to the muslin, with a straight row of knots to be worked over cotton, and fastened on to each outer scallop of the border at regular intervals. the number of double stitches between two purl is different, as distinctly seen in illustration. for the lace knot both ends of cotton together, * work with one shuttle only circle consisting of double, purl, double; turn the work and make another circle consisting of double, times alternately purl, double; then fasten this circle on to the preceding one, where it has been joined into a circle, so that both circles meet as seen in illustration. after having turned the work again, work double over the cotton on the nd shuttle, which form a scallop between the circles, and repeat from *. the lace is then sewn round the edge of the muslin. * * * * * .--_rosette in tatting and embroidery_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. , or no. if desired in a larger size. [illustration: . rosette in tatting and embroidery.] this rosette is suitable for ornamenting lingeries, cravats, &c. it is worked in white embroidery and lace stitch, and edged all round with a tatted lace. for the latter work with very fine cotton * large circle, consisting of double, purl, times alternately double, purl, then double. at a short distance from this circle work a smaller one, consisting of double fastened on to the last purl of the large circle, double. leave again an interval as small as the last, and repeat from * times more. but in working the large circles, instead of working the st purl, fasten them on the same purl of the large circle on which the small circle has been fastened; besides this, in working the last ( th) large circle, instead of working the last purl, fasten it on the st purl of the st circle; the last small circle is fastened on to the same purl. the lace is thus joined into a circle, and is sewn round the outside of the rosette with button-hole stitches. * * * * * .--_cravat end in tatting_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. . [illustration: .--cravat end in tatting.] the illustration shows the end of a tatted cravat. work first the middle row of the cravat at the same time with the row of circles on the left side of the middle row in illustration; begin with the first circle of the middle row. it consists of times alternately double, small purl, then double. work close to this circle, which must be turned downwards, a josephine knot, consisting of plain stitches, then a circle consisting of double, purl one-fifth of an inch long, times alternately double, small purl; double, long purl, double. *turn this circle (which is the first of the side row) downwards, work close to it a josephine knot, then a circle consisting of double, small purl, double. turn this circle downwards, work a josephine knot, and then again a circle like the first of the side row, but instead of working the first long purl, fasten it on to the last purl of the preceding circle of the same row. then hold the work so that the circles of the side row are turned downwards, work a josephine knot, circle like the first circle of the middle row, turn the work, make josephine knot, and then a circle like the second circle of the side row. repeat from * till the cravat is sufficiently long. the last circle of the middle row must correspond to the first circle of the same row. then begin to work the lower edge at the same time with the last circle of the middle row, * josephine knot, then a circle like the circles of the side row, again josephine knot, fastened on to the next purl of the last circle of the middle row; repeat times more from *. then continue as before, and work on the right side of the middle row a row of circles exactly like those which have been worked at the same time with those of the middle row. the fastening on of the cotton between two josephine knots is seen in illustration. the circles at the other end of the cravat are fastened like those of the first-described end. the cravat is edged all round with a row of circles with josephine knots worked exactly like those of the preceding row, and the manner of fastening which is seen in the illustration. * * * * * .--_rosette in tatting and embroidery_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. , or if required larger; tatting-pin no. . [illustration: .--rosette in tatting and embroidery.] the centre of this rosette is worked in lace stitch on muslin, edged round with button-hole stitch and trimmed with a tatted lace, which is worked at the same time with the centre. work first * a small circle consisting of double, purl, double, fastened on to the button-hole stitch edging of the rosette, then double, purl, double. then turn the just-completed circle downwards, and afterwards work at a short distance a large circle consisting of double, times alternately purl, double, lastly purl, double, then josephine knot consisting of plain. then turn the work again, so that the last large circle is turned downwards, and repeat from * times more; the large and small circles must be fastened on to one another, as seen in illustration. the fastening of the small circles on to the centre is likewise done from the illustration. .--_cravat end in tatting and darned netting_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s tatting cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. ; square of netting; fine mecklenburg thread no. . [illustration: .--cravat end in tatting and darned netting.] the end of this cravat is ornamented with a square of darned netting, edged with a tatted border, and sewn on to the material of the cravat. but the diamond in tatting (page ), or the square (page ) will look very pretty with this border. the square is worked in diamond netting, and has seven holes in length and breadth. they are darned in linen stitch, darning stitch, and _point d'esprit_, with mecklenburg thread. the ground is worked over a mesh measuring three-tenths of an inch round. for each square one more row than is needed must be worked, and the cast-on stitches are cut off, as they are longer than the stitches of the other rows. the tatted border is worked with fine tatting cotton. fasten the cotton at one corner of the square and work * a circle consisting of double, purl, then six times alternately double, purl, double, fasten the cotton on to the same stitch of the ground where it was first fastened; #work a second circle like the first, but fasten it, instead of working the first purl on to the last purl of the preceding circle; fasten the cotton again on to the same stitch, then on to the next stitch, and work a small circle, consisting of double fastened on to the last purl of the preceding circle, double, purl, double. the cotton is fastened on to the same netted stitch as before, and then on to the next stitch; repeat twice more from #, and then repeat from * in all three times more, so that the square is edged all round. it is sewn into the material from the illustration. * * * * * .--_tatted antimacassar. (see pages_ - .) materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s boar's head cotton no. , or tatting cotton no. , or for a larger size tatting cotton no. ; tatting-pin no. ; large shuttle. the illustration shows the fourth of the antimacassar and the whole of the rosette which forms the centre. begin with the latter, with the five-branched pattern in the centre, at the same time with the following round of circles:--*work first one circle of this round, consisting of double, purl, times alternately double, purl, double; then at a short distance a circle like the one just made, in which, however, instead of working the first purl, the cotton must be joined on to the last purl of the preceding circle. then work at a short distance the first leaf of the five-branched pattern, which consists of double, purl, double. when this branch is completed, repeat at a short distance times more from *; but in working the branches of the five-branched pattern, instead of working the purl, join it on to the purl of the first branch of the five-branched pattern (this purl forms the centre of the pattern). all the circles must also be joined one to each other, as can be seen from illustration. then work the scallops round the border of the rosette, * fasten the cotton on to the purl which joins the two next circles of the preceding round, and work one scallop consisting of times alternately double, purl, then double. repeat times more from *. when the rosette is completed, work eight rosettes in the same manner and join them into a circle from illustration by means of small three-branched patterns, and then join them on to the middle rosette. the strip of insertion which comes next is worked in two halves as follows:--work first, for the half turned towards the centre, two rows of circles lying opposite each other; begin with one of the largest circles, consisting of double, purl, times alternately double, purl, then double; * at a short distance work a smaller circle of double, purl, double; after another short distance, a circle like the first joined on to it; then again a smaller circle, which at the place of the first purl is joined on to the purl of the preceding small circle. a short distance from this work again one of the larger circles just described, which is fastened on to the preceding similar circle; then repeat from * till the double row has nine larger and eight smaller circles. the first half of the strip of insertion is completed; the second outer half is worked like the first, only the small circles must here be worked without any purl, and two of them together must always be fastened on to the two joined small circles of the first half, as was done for the five-branched pattern of the rosette; besides this, each of the large circles has double, purl, times alternately double, purl, then double. when eight similar patterns have been worked, join them into a circle from illustration by means of small rosettes; this circle is then joined to the already-finished part of the cover. the small rosettes and remaining patterns of the antimacassar are easily worked from illustration. the completed patterns are joined together in the course of the work. * * * * * tatting cotton is supplied by messrs. walter evans and co., of derby, in all sizes from to . crochet cotton, which is preferred by some tatters, is sold in all sizes from to . the following table will assist ladies in selecting the size of either tatting or crochet cotton. all these cottons are on reels containing yards:-- |--------------------------------|-----------------|---------------| | | tatting. | crochet. | |--------------------------------|-----------------|---------------| | petticoat edgings and | | | | insertions | | and | | night dress trimmings | | | | lingerie trimming | | | | collars and cravats | | | | pocket handkerchiefs | | | | parasol covers | | | | antimacassars | , | and | | pincushions | | | | caps | | | | lace | , , | , , | | insertions | , , | , , | |--------------------------------|-----------------|---------------| ladies at a distance from town or on the continent will be glad to have some guide as to the quantity of cotton required to complete their work. the quantity of tatting or crochet cotton used by an average worker is found to be two yards to the square inch with a single shuttle; three yards to the square inch with two shuttles. * * * * * embroidery instructions. the art of embroidering with cotton on linen, muslin, cambric, piqué, &c., is very easy to learn by strictly attending to the following instructions. the size of the thread and needle must correspond to that of the material on which you embroider; the needle must not be too long, and the cotton must be soft. messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton is the best. skilful embroiderers never work over anything, because when you tack the material on paper or cloth each stitch shows, and if the material is very fine, leaves small holes; but for those that are learning we should advise them to tack the material to be embroidered upon a piece of _toile cirée_. if you work without this, place the material straight over the forefinger of the left hand; the material must never be held slantways. the three other fingers of the left hand hold the work; the thumb remains free to give the right position to each stitch. the work must always, if possible, lie so that the outline of the pattern is turned towards the person who works. for the sake of greater clearness one part of the following illustrations is given in larger size than nature. preparing the patterns is one of the most important things in embroidery, for the shape of the patterns is often spoiled merely because they have not been prepared with sufficient care. [illustration: .--scallop.] illustration shows how to prepare a scallop. take thicker cotton than that with which you work; never commence with a knot, and do not take a thread longer than sixteen or eighteen inches. the outlines of the scallops are first traced with short straight stitches. in the corners particularly the stitches must be short. the space between the outlines is filled with chain stitches, as can be seen from illustration; they must not be too long, otherwise the embroidery will look coarse. it is in this way that every pattern to be worked in button-hole or satin stitch is to be prepared. [illustration: .--double overcast stitch.] illustration shows the double overcast stitch or button-hole stitch in a straight line. after having traced the outline begin to work from left to right; fasten the cotton with a few stitches, hold it with the thumb of the left hand under the outline, insert the needle downwards above the outline, draw it out under the same above the cotton which you hold in the left hand, and draw it up. repeat for all the stitches in the same manner; they must be regular and lie close to one another. great care should be taken that the material on which you embroider is not puckered. [illustration: .--overcast stitch.] illustration (_overcast stitch_).--the double overcast and the button-hole stitches are worked from left to right, whilst back stitches, knotted and satin stitches are worked from right to left. the stitch is worked in the same way as the double overcast, only the needle must never be drawn out _above_, but _below_, the cotton with which you work, and which you keep down with the thumb of the left hand. [illustration: .--slanting overcast stitch.] illustration .--the slanting overcast stitch is worked without tracing the outline, always inserting the needle downwards--that is, from top to bottom. the needle must be inserted in the manner shown in illustration--that is, not straight, but slanting; insert it a little farther than the last stitch, and draw it out close to it. the wrong side of the work must show back stitches. this sort of stitch is used for the fine outlines in patterns or letter. [illustration: .--back stitch.] illustration .--this shows the back stitch, the working of which is well known; it is worked in several rows close to each other. [illustration: .--point croisé.] [illustration: .--point croisé.] illustrations & show another kind of back stitch, called _point croisé_, which is only used on very thin and transparent materials. this stitch forms on the wrong side a sort of darned pattern, which is seen by transparence on the right side, and gives the embroidered pattern a thicker appearance, contrasting with the rest of the work (see the lower leaves of the flower on illustration ). for this stitch insert the needle into the material as for the common back stitch, draw it out underneath the needle on the opposite outline of the pattern, so as to form on the wrong side a slanting line. insert the needle again as for common back stitch; draw it out slanting at the place marked for the next stitch on the opposite outline, as shown in illustration . [illustration: --- knotted stitch.] illustration shows the knotted stitch; the simplest way of working it is to work two back stitches at a short distance from each other over the same thread. the knotted stitch seen in illustration is worked thus:--take about four threads of the material on the needle, draw the needle half out, wind the cotton twice round the point of the needle, hold it tight with the thumb, draw the needle out carefully and insert it at the place where the stitch was begun, and draw it out at the place where the next stitch is to be worked. [illustration: .--knotted stitch.] [illustration: .--knotted stitch] the knotted stitch seen on illustration is worked in nearly the same manner as the preceding one. before drawing the cotton out of the material hold it tight with the left-hand thumb; leave the needle in the same position, wind the cotton twice round it, turn the needle from left to right, so (follow the direction of the arrow) that its point arrives where the cotton was drawn out (marked by a cross in illustration), insert the needle there, and draw it out at the place of the next stitch. illustrations & .--raised satin stitch is principally used for blossoms, flowers, leaves, letters, &c. after having traced the outlines of the pattern, fill the space left between them with chain stitches in a direction different from that in which the pattern is to be embroidered; begin at the point of the leaf, working from right to left, make short straight stitches, always [illustration: .--raised satin stitch.] inserting the needle close above the outline and drawing it out below. the leaves on the flowers, as well as on the branches, must be begun from the point, because they thus acquire a better shape. if you wish to work a leaf divided in the middle, as seen in illustration , you must trace the veining before you fill it with chain stitches, then begin at one point of the leaf and work first one half and then the other. [illustration: .--raised satin stitch.] [illustration: .--point de plume.] illustration shows the so-called _point de plume_ on a scalloped leaf. it is worked like the satin stitch, only the needle is drawn through the material in a slanting direction. [illustration: .--point de minute.] illustration (_point de minute_).--this stitch is often used instead of satin stitch when the patterns must appear raised. wind the cotton several times round the point of the needle, which is inserted into the material half its length (the number of times the cotton is to be wound round the needle depends on the length of the pattern), hold fast the windings with the thumb of the left hand, draw the needle and the cotton through the windings, insert the needle into the material at the same place, and draw it out at the place where the next stitch is to begin. [illustration: .--ladder stitch.] [illustration: .--ladder stitch.] illustrations & show the _ladder stitch_, often used in ornamental embroidery. trace first the outlines as seen in illustrations; mark also the cross stitches between the outlines, so that the first touch the outlines only at both ends. the outlines are embroidered in overcast stitch or double overcast; the material is cut away underneath the ladder stitch between the outlines. we have now shown the different kinds of stitches used in embroidery; the following illustrations show them used for different patterns. [illustration: .--button-hole stitch scallop.] [illustration: .--button-hole stitch scallop.] [illustration: .--button-hole stitch scallop.] [illustration: .--button-hole stitch scallop.] illustrations to (_different button-hole stitch scallops_).--these scallops are prepared as above described. take care to have the stitches even and regular; the scallops must be wide in the centre and very fine at both ends. illustrations & (_button-holes and eyelets_).--this kind of embroidery is used only in round or long patterns. trace first the outline of the hole, cut away a small round piece of material, not too close to the outlines (when the button-hole is very small merely insert the point of the scissors or a stiletto into the material), fold the edge of the material back with the needle, and work the hole in overcast stitch, inserting the needle into the empty place in the centre and drawing it out under the outline. some button-holes are worked separately; sometimes they are in a row; if so, take care to begin to work each button-hole at the place where it touches the next. in the following button-holes the outside must be traced double, so as to reach as far as the next one, but each button-hole is finished at once. illustration shows a button-hole worked round in button-hole stitch, an eyelet-hole worked in overcast. [illustration: .--button and eyelet holes.] [illustration: .--button and eyelet holes.] [illustration: .--shaded button-hole.] [illustration: .--shaded button-hole.] illustrations & .--shaded button-holes are worked like the others, only they are prepared, as can be seen in illustration , so as to mark the thickness. the stitches must gradually get narrower or wider, and be worked very close to each other. [illustration: .--leaf in raised satin stitch.] illustrations & (_two leaves in raised satin stitch_).--in a leaf like the one seen in work first the outline and veining in overcast stitch; work one half of the leaf in satin stitch, and the other half between the overcast outline and veining in back stitch. the stem of a leaf is always worked last. [illustration: .--leaf in raised satin stitch.] [illustration: .--raised leaf.] illustrations & (_two leaves in satin stitch and point de plume_).--for leaves like the one seen in begin with the veinings, then work the inner points, then the outer ones, and lastly the raised spots in the centre. the leaf seen in is worked, one half in _point de plume_, the other half in back stitch or _point d'or_. [illustration: .--raised leaf.] [illustration: .--leaf.] illustration .--- the outline of this leaf is embroidered in overcast stitch; the open-work veining consists of eyelets; one half of the leaf is worked in back stitch, the other half in a kind of satin stitch worked without chain stitches underneath; the stitches are worked across the leaf, leaving between two stitches an interval as wide as the stitch itself. the next row is then worked in these intervals, and each stitch begins half-way up the one before and after it. [illustration: .--leaf raised.] [illustration: .--leaf raised.] [illustration: .--raised leaf.] illustrations to (_leaf in raised embroidery).--this kind of embroidery is particularly beautiful, as it is worked separately and sewn on the material with an outline in very fine cotton, this produces the shade seen in (see also illustrations to ). for such leaves work first one half in overcast and satin stitch (illustration ); the other half is worked on a separate piece of material (see illustration ); cut away the material along the overcast outline, and fasten it on the foundation material along the outline which forms the veining on illustration . [illustration: .--raised embroidered leaf.] [illustration: .--half of leaf ( ).] [illustration: .--centre of leaf ( ).] illustrations to show a similar leaf; both halves are worked separately (see ); the centre is worked in open lace stitch. the latter (see no. ) is traced, then make ladder stitches across, work the outlines in overcast stitch, and cut away the material underneath the ladder stitch. the cross stitches are then worked in darning stitch with very fine cotton wherever two threads meet. [illustration: .--blossom in satin stitch.] illustration (_blossom in satin stitch_).--the eyelet is worked in overcast stitch, then work the upper part of the blossom all in one piece as far as the beginning of the veining, thence the blossom is worked in two halves. [illustration: .--blossom in satin stitch.] [illustration: .--bead partly covered.] illustrations & (_blossom in satin stitch_).--the raised centre of this flower is formed by a bead, over which the embroidery is worked. when the leaves have been worked one after the other, place a bead in the centre, left free in such a manner that one hole lies on the material, and work over the bead by inserting the needle into its upper hole, then underneath the material, drawing it out above the material close to the bead, and so on (see ). [illustration: .--star in satin stitch.] illustration (_star pattern in satin stitch_).--the centre, which forms a wheel, is worked first. draw the threads across the circle marked by an outline; in the centre they are wound round, always taking one thread _on the needle_ and leaving the next thread _under the needle_, as can be seen in on the half-finished pattern. the material underneath the wheel is only cut away when the rest of the pattern has been embroidered. [illustration: .--star in point de reprise.] illustrations & (_patterns in back, satin, and ladder stitches_).--the small star in the centre of no. is worked in _point de reprise_. [illustration: .--star.] [illustration: .--flower in satin stitch.] illustration (_flower in satin stitch_).--the fine veinings are worked with fine black silk in _point russe_, which renders the effect of the flower very beautiful. [illustration: --rose in satin stitch.] [illustration: .--petal for rose.] illustrations & (_rose in satin stitch_).--no. shows one petal larger than full size. the outer circle only is prepared with chain stitches underneath, so as to appear raised; the inner circles are worked flat. the centre of the rose is embroidered in open work. [illustration: .--heartsease.] illustration (_embroidered heartsease_).--for the knotted stitch see no. . for the _point croisé_ see and . [illustration: .--raised flower] illustration (_flower in raised satin stitch_). [illustration: .--ear of corn.] illustration (_an ear of corn in point de minute_). [illustration: .--bluebell.] [illustration: .--inner part of bluebell.] illustrations , , & (_bluebell in raised satin stitch_).--this flower is worked partly in separate pieces, as has been described. illustration shows the raised part stretched out flat. when it is finished it is fastened down along the dotted line on no. , which shows the inner part of the flower. [illustration: .--flower.] illustration (_flower in point de minute_).--this stitch is here worked over a thick foundation of chain stitches. for raised patterns it looks very well. [illustration: .--outer part of bluebell.] [illustration: .--flower appliquéd on net.] illustrations & (_flower worked in appliqué_).--to work in appliqué, two materials, either similar or different, are needed. you can work either in appliqué of muslin on muslin, or of muslin on net, or of net on net. muslin on brussels net is the prettiest way of working in appliqué; we will therefore describe it: the other materials are worked in the same manner. trace the pattern on the muslin, fasten the latter on the net, and trace the outlines of the pattern with very small stitches work them in overcast stitch with very fine cotton, taking care not to pucker the material. the veinings are worked in overcast. when the pattern has been embroidered cut away the muslin round the outlines with sharp scissors, so that the net forms the grounding (see no. ). the greatest care is required in cutting out the muslin to avoid touching the threads of the net. [illustration: .--border.] illustrations & (_narrow borders_).--it will be easy to work these borders from the above instructions. observe only that on border the outer row of scallops is worked first, then the button-hole stitch row, and the rest afterwards. the spots are edged all round in knotted stitch. the wheels in the centre of the eyelets of no. are worked with very fine cotton in loose button-hole stitch; they are wound round with the cotton in a second row. [illustration: .--border.] [illustration: .--insertion.] illustrations to .--three strips of insertion, which are worked nearly like the ladder stitch. for no. , in tracing the outlines, make two small knots at short distances by winding the cotton four times round the needle, as can be seen in illustration; the windings are held down with the thumb of the left hand, draw the needle through, and a knot is formed. the outlines are worked in button-hole stitch only when all the knots have been made, and then the material is cut away underneath. illustration is a variety of the slanting ladder stitch. illustration .--the cross threads are worked in two rows in the common herring-bone stitch, as can be seen by the black lines on the illustration. the straight lines at the top and at the bottom are worked in double overcast; lastly, the wheels are worked in a row as described for the star pattern, no. . [illustration: .--insertion.] [illustration: .--insertion.] [illustration: . u] [illustration: . c] [illustration: . b] [illustration: . o] illustrations to (_embroidered initials_).--to learn to work initials the roman characters are the easiest to begin with. they must be traced and prepared like other embroidery in satin stitch, only the chain stitches underneath must not be too thick: it would take away the shape of the letters. all depends on the fineness and regularity of the stitches; they must be worked in overcast stitch. work from left to right, and the letter when completed must look rather like raised printing than like embroidery. gothic letters are much more difficult to work on account of the many flourishes; it requires great practice in needlework to embroider them well. illustration .--the small black dots are worked in black silk on the thick parts of the letter: the fine strokes are covered with cross threads of black silk. illustration .--the outlines of the letter and the fine strokes are worked in black silk. illustration .--this letter is embroidered in raised satin stitch and _point de plume_. illustration .--this letter is worked in back stitches, over which are worked at regular distances cross stitches of black silk. illustration .--letter in satin and back stitch. illustration to be worked in overcast and double overcast. illustration .--letter g in _point russe_ with black silk. [illustration: .] [illustration: .] [illustration: .] [illustration: .] illustration (_embroidered figures_).--they are worked like the letters in _point de plume_ and overcast; the dots are worked in knotted stitch. * * * * * embroidery. [in working the following embroidery patterns it will be found advisable to trace the design clearly upon tracing-paper with a sharp-pointed lead pencil. the pattern thus traced must be perforated with a fine needle in a succession of tiny holes, at the rate of about twenty to the inch. those ladies who possess a sewing-machine will find no difficulty in accomplishing this. several thicknesses of paper can be perforated at the same time, if required, by any ordinary machine. to transfer the traced and perforated design to the fabric to be embroidered, it is only necessary to rub a small quantity of powder blue through the holes.] .--_insertion in embroidery_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . this insertion is worked in raised satin stitch and button-hole stitch. the outlines must first be traced and the space filled up with chain stitches. to work a leaf, begin at the point, working from right to left, making short stitches, and always inserting the needle close above the outline and drawing it out below. the holes left for the ribbon to pass through are worked in plain button-hole stitch, the dots are worked in raised satin stitch. [illustration: .--insertion in embroidery.] * * * * * .--_insertion in embroidery and stitching_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton nos. and . the veinings of this pretty insertion must be worked in overcast stitch (no. , _embroidery instructions_), the leaves and flowers in raised satin stitch, the scallops in button-hole stitch, and the outer edge of the leaves in back stitch (no. , _embroidery instructions_) with no. cotton. [illustration: .--insertion in embroidery and stitching.] * * * * * .--_cravat end in embroidery_. materials: muslin, cambric, or linen; messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. , or fine black china silk. this graceful design is worked in raised satin stitch (see nos. and , _embroidery instructions_) and back stitching, or point russe. black silk may be introduced at will, and the delicate leaves may be stitched in fine black silk, and the flowers embroidered in white, with the stamens in black silk. [illustration: .--embroidered pattern for cravat ends, &c.] * * * * * .--_basket embroidered in chenille_. materials: a basket of fine wicker-work; skein of black chenille, and of blue chenille. this small round basket measures seven inches across; it has a cover and two handles. the wicker is very delicately plaited, and is ornamented with a pattern in chenille which is very easy to work. upon the cover, work in point russe one large star in blue chenille, with the centre and outer circle in black. all round, work small stars in blue chenille, with a black stitch in the centre. the position of these stars is shown in our illustration. the basket requires no mounting; it is not even lined. [illustration: .--basket embroidered in chenille.] * * * * * .--_pattern for collars and cuffs in embroidery._ materials: muslin, cambric or lawn; messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton perfectionné no. . work the outer circle in long even scallops (see page of _embroidery instructions_) in raised button-hole stitch; the spray of flowers is embroidered in raised satin stitch, the leaves in the same, and the rosebud calyx in tiny eyelet-holes. the centres of the roses are embroidered in open-work. [illustration: .--embroidery pattern for collars, cuffs, &c.] * * * * * .--_cravat end in embroidery_. materials: muslin, brussels net; messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . tack the traced muslin over the net and work the scallop of the inner edge; next the design in the centre must be worked in raised satin stitch (see no. in _embroidery instructions_). the raised dots are also worked in satin stitch (see page of _embroidery instructions_). lastly, work the outer edging of round scallops and the lines of raised dots, and with a pair of embroidery scissors carefully cut away the muslin from the outer edge and from the leaves of the centre pattern. [illustration: .--cravat end in embroidery.] * * * * * .--_embroidery pattern for collars, cuffs, &c_. materials: linen; messrs. walter evans and co.'s cotton perfectionné no. . this pretty star should be worked in fine overcast stitch (see no. in _embroidery instructions_). the centre is worked in raised satin stitch leaves round a circle of button-hole stitch, in the middle of which a wheel is worked thus:--slip the cotton under the thick edge and fasten it, then cross it over and back so as to make bars, then twist the cotton twice round bar; this will bring it to the centre; work over and under each of the bars until a thick dot is formed; fasten the cotton beneath this, and twist it twice round the bar opposite to the first one you worked, and finish off. [illustration: .--embroidery pattern for collars, cuffs, &c.] * * * * * .--_embroidery covering for a quilted counterpane_. materials: cashmere, cambric muslin, or linen; messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . [illustration: .--embroidery covering for a quilted counterpart.] this is an embroidery-pattern for a woollen or silk quilted counterpane. such counterpanes generally have a lining which is turned back on the right side, and buttoned down at the point of each scallop. the pattern is a quilted counterpane of scarlet cashmere; the lining is of fine linen. before embroidering it, make the points for the corners. the embroidery is worked in button-hole stitch, overcast, satin, and ladder stitch. it can also be worked on fine cambric or muslin, and then the embroidered pattern sewn on the piece of linen which forms the cover on the wrong side. make the button-holes as seen on illustration, and sew on mother-of-pearl or china buttons. * * * * * [illustration: .--embroidery pattern for cravat ends, &c.] * * * * * .--_embroidery pattern for ornamenting collars, cuffs, &c_. materials: muslin, cambric, or linen; messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . this pattern is worked in satin stitch, point russe, and point d'or on muslin, cambric, or linen; it is suitable for collars, or cravat ends, or handkerchief corners. * * * * * .--_handkerchief in embroidery_ materials: french cambric; messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . [illustration: .--handkerchief in embroidery.] three rows of hem-stitching ornament this handkerchief; the pattern forms an insertion within the outer rows, the flowers are worked in raised satin stitch, with eyelet-hole centres (see no. of _embroidery instructions_); the tendrils are worked in overcast stitch; three rows of raised dots, in groups of four, are worked on the inner side of the last row of hem-stitching. this pattern looks very handsome on a broad-hemmed handkerchief. * * * * * .--_convolvulus leaf insertion_. materials: muslin; messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . [illustration: .--convolvulus leaf insertion.] the convolvulus leaves are worked in raised satin stitch, the veinings and stems in overcast stitch, the eyelet-holes in slanting overcast stitch. (see no. of _embroidery instructions_.) * * * * * .--_insertion_. materials: muslin; messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . this simple insertion is worked in raised satin stitch, the stems alone excepted; these are embroidered in overcast stitch. [illustration: .--insertion.] * * * * * and .--_two patterns in embroidery for trimming lingerie_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. , and mecklenburg thread no. . [illustration: and .--patterns for trimming lingerie.] these patterns are worked in point russe and stitching; the spots in satin and knotted stitch. illustration is ornamented in the centre with lace stitches. * * * * * _and_ .--_insertion_. materials: muslin; messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . the two insertions, nos. and , are worked partly in satin stitch, partly in open-work embroidery, and are edged on either side with an open-work hem. [illustration: .--insertion.] [illustration: .--insertion.] * * * * * .--_couvrette in appliqué embroidery_. materials: net, fine muslin; messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . the pattern must be traced on the muslin, which should be tacked on the net. the outline of the design must be traced with very small stitches, and worked in overcast stitches, as are also the veinings; the dots are worked in raised satin stitch; the border is embroidered with satin stitch flowers and scallop button-hole stitch. to work appliqué on net, see no. of _embroidery instructions_. [illustration: .--couvrette in appliqué embroidery.] * * * * * .--_wreath for centre of pincushion or toilet mat_. materials for pincushion: jaconet muslin; messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . for toilet mat: white piqué; cotton no. . [illustration: .--wreath for centre of pincushion or toilet mat.] the leaves and flowers are worked in satin stitch; the eyelet-holes and stems in overcast stitch. * * * * * .--_corner for handkerchief in point russe_. materials: french cambric, fine china black sewing-silk, or filoselle. [illustration: .--corner for handkerchief in point russe.] point russe stitch is made by a succession of back stitches. these stitches carefully follow every line of the design, and are worked in black china sewing-silk or filoselle. the pattern should be repeated at each corner of the handkerchief. * * * * * _to_ .--_borders and insertions_.--_white embroidery_. materials: lawn; messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. , and mecklenburg thread no. ; fine black sewing-silk. [illustration: .--embroidered border.] for the border no. , trace first the outlines of the scallop, then draw the threads which are to form the wheel in each scallop (take for this fine mecklenburg thread, for the rest embroidery cotton), fasten them at the places where they cross each other, and work at these places small and large spots in satin stitch. then work the scallops in button-hole stitch; edge each larger spot with button-hole stitch all round, and make a row of button-hole stitches for the upper edge of the border, and above this a row of herring-bone stitches. the material is cut away underneath the wheels. * * * * * [illustration: .--corner in embroidery.] [illustration: .--corner in embroidery.] the corner borders, illustrations and , are worked in point russe, chain and satin stitch, with fine black sewing silk. * * * * * [illustration: --- cravat end in embroidery] .--_muslin cravat_. materials: muslin; messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. ; no. for the edges. this cravat is worked on fine muslin, embroidered upon both ends in raised satin stitch; the scalloped edge is worked in button-hole stitch; the bouquet in the centre is worked in appliqué satin stitch--that is, the leaves of the rose and the foliage are worked separately on muslin; they are then cut out and worked in appliqué (see nos. and , _embroidery instructions_) upon the cravat, as seen in the illustration. * * * * * .--_sandwich case_. materials: strip of grey kid; strip of oil silk; skein black silk; skein red purse silk; hank steel beads; steel button. this case will be found very useful on the occasion of a journey or picnic, as it can be carried in the pocket without any inconvenience. the case is made of a strip of grey kid, scalloped out at the edges. the words "bon appetit," or "good appetite," at will, are worked over it in overcast with black purse silk and steel beads, the scroll pattern in chain stitch with red silk. the back and front of the case are formed of the same strip, which is lined with oilskin, and to which narrow side-pieces are added to form the pocket. these pieces are lined and scalloped out in the same way as the back and front, and then the scallops of both sides are joined together, and worked round in button-hole stitch with purse silk. the case is fastened down with a steel button. if another colour is preferred, the sandwich case can be made of brown kid. the scroll pattern should then be worked in rich blue purse silk, and gold beads used for the letters, which should be embroidered as before in black silk. the edge may be worked in double overcast stitch in blue or black silk. a gold button must replace the steel when this alteration of colour is made. [illustration: .--sandwich case.] * * * * * .--_insertion_. materials: muslin; messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . this insertion is worked in raised satin stitch between two rows of hem-stitching; a small eyelet-hole is worked in the centre of each flower. [illustration: .--insertion.] * * * * * .--_cravat end in raised embroidery_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s. embroidery cotton nos. and . this pattern is a muslin cravat inches long. the greater part of the embroidered ends is worked in satin stitch; the leaves in the bouquet of the centre are worked in raised embroidery. (see nos. and , _embroidery instructions_.) the dotted lines are raised by taking four threads of the muslin on the needle, draw it half out, wind the cotton twice round the point, holding it tightly under the thumb, draw the needle out and insert it at the place where the stitch was begun, and draw it out where the next stitch is to be worked. [illustration: .--cravat end in raised embroidery.] * * * * * .--_lady's purse_. materials: russia leather; blue silk; black purse silk; blue silk soutache; fine gold braid; and gold thread. [illustration: .--lady's purse.] this purse is embroidered upon russia leather; an oval-shaped medallion is cut out in the centre; a piece of blue silk is gummed on under the leather so as to show within the oval; both leather and silk are then lined with calico and stretched upon a small embroidery frame. the front and back of the purse are made all of one piece, the centre of which is the bottom; after the embroidery is completed a piece of leather is added on each side to give the necessary fullness. four flowrets are worked over the blue silk, with black purse silk, in raised satin stitch, with a dot in gold thread for the centre. the stems are black and the leaflets gold. the inner border round the oval medallion is worked in gold braid, and the outer one in blue soutache. the network upon the leather is formed of threads of black purse silk, fastened at every crossing with a stitch of gold thread; the outer border round this network is formed entirely of gold braid. on the opposite side of the purse initials may be worked in black and gold, over the blue silk oval medallion. the purse is lined with brown watered silk, and mounted with a clasp of gilt steel. * * * * * .--_table-napkin ring_. materials: crimson cashmere; _toile cirée_; reel each of white, black, green, blue, and yellow chinese silk. [illustration: .--table-napkin ring] stretch a strip of cashmere of a bright shade of crimson over a piece of _toile cirée_, and work the pattern over it in point russe with fine silk. the outer borders have white and black outlines, and leaflets of green silk. the stars have black and blue outlines, a yellow cross and dots. the figure between the stars is black and yellow. * * * * * _and_ .--_knife basket_. materials: grey american cloth; red cloth; black jet beads and bugles; red worsted braid, three-quarters of an inch wide; some strong wire; a cigar-box. [illustration: .--knife basket.] this basket is meant for holding dessert knives. it consists of a common cigar-box nine inches and two-fifths long, five inches and four-fifths wide, and two inches and one-fifth high, covered inside and out with grey american cloth, which is ornamented with embroidery worked in appliqué. the seams are made in overcast stitch. the feet consist of four pieces of strong wire three inches and two-fifths long. these pieces of wire are first covered with wool, and then with jet beads; they are then bent into loops, and fastened on at the bottom of the box by means of holes bored into it for that purpose. the feet must be fastened before covering the inside of the box. the inside of the basket is ornamented with an embroidered pattern in appliqué, which must also be worked before covering the box. the leaves are made of red cloth, the stems and veinings of black bugles. no. shows the pattern in full size; the flowers and leaves are edged with light grey purse silk, over which small stitches in black silk are fastened at regular intervals. inside the box fasten a deal board covered on both sides with american cloth, so as to divide the basket into two compartments, and fasten on to this board a handle consisting of a piece of wire seven inches long, wound round with beads. the basket is ornamented with ruches of red worsted braid; between two box pleats of the ruche a black bugle is fastened. [illustration: .--knife basket.] * * * * * .--_satin stitch embroidery_. materials: purse silk of two colours, in shades of green and shades of red or magenta for the flowers, gold twist. [illustration: .--fuchsia spray.] this branch is embroidered with purse silk of the natural colours of the flowers and leaves, or in different shades of one colour, on silk canvas. fuchsia blossoms are here designed, and should be worked in raised embroidery; the stamens to be worked in gold twist. * * * * * .--_acacia spray in raised satin stitch embroidery_. materials: four shades of green purse silk for the leaves; skein of brown silk; shades of white or gold silk for the flowers. [illustration: .--acacia spray.] this spray of acacia is worked in raised satin stitch embroidery; the flowers should be carefully shaded, and the veinings should be worked before the leaves are embroidered. the flowers may be worked gold colour, or imitate the white acacia blossom. * * * * * [illustration: .--tobacco pouch.] [illustration: .--tobacco pouch.] _and_ .--_tobacco pouch_. materials: fine crimson cloth; bits of coloured and white cloth for the pattern; purse silk of various colours; white kid; brass rings; gimp cord; and silk tassels. this pouch is cut in four pieces, two of which are given in full size; the two others must be worked after the same patterns. these patterns represent the attributes of a lover of tobacco; they are cut out of cloth and worked in appliqué over crimson cloth. in no. the outer chain stitch border is green. the knot from which the different articles are suspended is black, the cigar-case yellow in cloth appliqué, the cigars brown in satin stitch. the case is crossed by two rows of chain stitch in blue silk, and edged all round with button-hole stitch, also blue. the two pipes are of white cloth, edged round with yellow silk; the shade is imitated by long stitches of grey silk. the upper part of the pouch is of blue cloth, with a white silk edging and yellow dots; the under part of brown cloth with a black edging and a pattern worked in chain stitch with white; the three tassels are embroidered with black and yellow silk. in no. the outer border is yellow, the knots black, the small pattern at the top is of blue cloth edged with yellow; the pipes of white cloth edged with blue and shaded with grey. the bundle of cigars is of brown cloth, shaded with black silk stitches, and fastened on with double rows of chain stitch in yellow silk. the cigar-case is of light green cloth, edged with white; the grecian pattern and dots are embroidered over it with white silk also. to make up the pouch, cut out the four pieces and join them together by seams, which are hidden under yellow soutache; cut out also and join in the same way four pieces of white kid for the lining, and fasten it on to the crimson cloth at the top only. sew small brass rings round the top, and pass a double piece of crimson silk cord through them. add silk tassels of various colours at the bottom of the pouch, and at each of its four corners. * * * * * .--_insertion_ materials: linen; messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . [illustration: .--insertion.] this strong and simple insertion is useful for petticoat trimmings. it is worked in button-hole stitch; the stems in overcast stitch; the circles can be filled up with lace stitches or with wheels, or the pattern may be worked upon brussels net and the linen cut away. * * * * * .--_embroidery pattern for ornamenting needlebooks, workbaskets, &c._ materials: coloured purse silk; silk or cashmere; glacé silk; gold beads. this pattern is worked in french embroidery and point russe, with coloured purse silk on silk or cashmere. the thimble, cotton, and ribbon are worked in appliqué with glacé silk. the colours are chosen according to personal taste. the thimble is ornamented with small gold beads. a bead is placed in the centre of each pair of scissors to imitate the screw. [illustration: .--pattern for needlebook, &c.] * * * * * .--_embroidery pattern for ornamenting needlebooks, &c._ materials: coloured purse silk; silk or cashmere; beads. the shuttlecocks are worked in raised satin stitch; the feathers in point russe; the battledores in very thickly raised double overcast; the interior is filled with a netting worked in chain stitch or dotted stitch; the flowers are worked in satin stitch and beads; the ribbon is embroidered in appliqué, with a contrasting shade of silk ribbon. [illustration: .--pattern for needlebook, &c.] * * * * * _and_ .--_travelling bag_ materials: inches of java canvas; single berlin wool of shades of a pretty green; shades of bronze colour and white; floss silk--white, brown, and shades of yellow; purse silk--black, yellow, cerise, blue, and grey; steel beads; brown silk fancy braid. [illustration: .--travelling bag.] this pattern is of the ordinary shape of travelling-bags, but it is very prettily worked. besides the engraving showing the bag when completed, the bouquet in the centre in full size is given. this bouquet is also worked upon the java canvas. for each petal the white wool is passed several times from one stitch of the canvas to another till the required thickness is obtained, then stitch is worked at the point with white silk. the centres are filled up in point d'or with shades of yellow silk. the buds are made like the petals, but with stitches of white silk at the point instead of . the leaves are worked in shades of green wool with stitch of brown silk in the centre; the stems are embroidered in overcast with light brown wool. the scroll-pattern border round the bouquet is made with brown fancy braid put on with steel beads. [illustration: .--bouquet for travelling bag.] the remaining space outside this border is worked in coloured purse silk. the st outline of the squares is worked in black silk, by inserting the needle in and out of the stitches of the canvas. when you have worked all the square thus, stitches one from the other, work on either side, at one stitch's distance, the outlines of yellow silk, which are worked in back stitch, two strips of the java canvas being covered by each stitch. next to the inner yellow outline comes a border worked over two strips of the canvas, in slanting stitches; this border is alternately blue in one square and grey in the other. a star is embroidered in point russe in the centre of each square; it is grey in the blue squares and blue in the grey; a steel bead is placed in the middle of each star. the small crosses between the squares are worked in cerise. the outer border of the work is composed of a piece of black soutache, edged with a tiny trefoil pattern in cerise silk. the front and back pieces of the bag are worked in the same manner. the side pieces are made of plain java canvas. the embroidered part measures inches in its widest part, and is inches deep. the bag is lined with light brown silk, and made up with a steel clasp. * * * * * .--_embroidery trimming for muslin bodices_. materials: fine muslin; fine black silk; messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . this pattern is very easily worked, and looks very nice for a trimming. it is worked on fine white muslin; the border is worked in button-hole stitch with white cotton; these scallops are covered with loose button-hole stitch in black silk. the feather-like branches are worked likewise in black silk in herring-bone stitch. the white spots are worked in raised embroidery. the large oval openings through which a narrow ribbon velvet is drawn are worked round with button-hole stitches: [illustration: .--trimming for bodices.] * * * * * , , _and_ --_toilet cushion cover in white embroidery_. this handsome embroidery pattern is to be worked on fine muslin; if lined with coloured silk or satin it is very effective. the patterns, which are covered white dots on illustration, are worked in point d'or; the outlines of these patterns are worked in fine double overcast. the flower-leaves and wings of birds, which appear raised on illustration on account of the dark shadows, are worked separately and sewn on at the corresponding places. no. shows the wing of a bird, no. a rose-leaf somewhat increased in size; the former is worked entirely in button-hole stitch, or trimmed with a ruche of coloured ribbon. this pattern may also be worked on glacé silk with purse silk. [illustration: .--toilet cushion cover in white embroidery.] [illustration: .--wing of bird.] [illustration: .--rose leaf.] [illustration: .--pattern for glove box.] * * * * * _and_ .--_glove box_. materials: inches of french blue cashmere; silks of various colours. a shape in bamboo cane, painted brown and varnished. [illustration: .--glove box.] the ornamentation of this box is both novel and tasteful. it is embroidered in coloured silks, upon light blue cashmere. part of the embroidery pattern is given in full size. all the outlines are worked in overcast, the stitches being made rather long and slanting, and the small leaves are each composed of one stitch, as in point russe. the leaves are alternately red and yellow upon a green stem; the scalloped outline which has no leaves is red. the pine patterns are worked in satin stitch--the centre one is green, edged with red; the side ones are pink, edged with red; the small wing-like figures are black, edged with maize; the diamond, maize, edged with black, with an outer rim of maize. in the round pattern the centre is pink; the edge red, with red and yellow leaves; the outer circles are successively white, green, and red; at the top the centre branch is yellow, the leaves red and yellow, the side ones are green, with the leaves pink and green. the strip of embroidered cashmere is lined with blue silk, slipped through the bamboo-canes of the mounting, and joined together at the side by a seam. the cover is lined with plain blue cashmere, upon which initials might be embroidered at discretion. the four corners are ornamented with pretty silk tassels, of colours to match with the embroidery. to fasten the box, sew on a blue ribbon to the cover, and one to the box. * * * * * _and_ .--_hanging letter case_. materials: crimson velvet; white satin beads; gold soutache; and fine gold bouillon. no. shows the letter case when completed in a reduced size, no. the principal part of the embroidered pattern in full size. the letter case is composed of two parts. the larger part is inches long, inches wide; it is ornamented on the upper part with a pattern in gold soutache, and the word letters or lettres embroidered in gold bouillon; underneath there is a pattern embroidered in oval white satin beads, edged round with fine white chenille; the scroll pattern is embroidered in gold bouillon. the second part is placed over the lower part of the first, and forms the pocket which contains the letters. the centre flower is composed of oval beads, edged round with white chenille; another white bead is placed in the centre, and edged with gold bouillon. the other flowers are also composed of white satin beads, edged with gold bouillon. [illustration: .--hanging letter case.] [illustration: .--pattern for embroidered letter case.] * * * * * .--_embroidered edging_. materials: muslin; messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. [illustration: .--embroidered edging.] this edging is worked in broderie anglaise or overcast stitch; the edge in scallop button-hole stitch; the ovals and dots in raised satin stitch. the stems are worked in slanting overcast stitch (no. , _embroidery instructions_). * * * * * .--_border in oriental embroidery_. materials: purse silk of the following shades:--dark red, bright red, shades of green, of blue, of yellow violet. [illustration: .--border in oriental embroidery.] the four ovals placed together are worked of four contrasting colours. these ovals are composed of two rows of chain stitch. the outer row of the first oval is dark red, and the inner one bright red. following the same arrangement, the second oval is of two shades of green; the third of two shades of blue; and the fourth of two shades of yellow. the knotted stitch in the centre is violet. the dots outside the ovals are worked in satin stitch, and are alternately red, yellow, violet, and blue. the stems are long stitches of black silk. the arabesque patterns between those formed of four ovals are worked in chain stitch with silk of two shades of brown. the colours of the ovals may be varied as much as you please, but the brown shades of the arabesque patterns should remain the same for the whole of the border. * * * * * _and_ .--_embroidery stars_. materials: fine linen; messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . these stars are designed for medallions, to be worked on linen collars and cuffs. no. is worked in successive rows of back-stitching, round an open wheel; ladder stitch (see no. , _embroidery instructions_) is worked round this, and a raised scallop in button-hole stitch forms the edge. [illustration: .--embroidery star.] * * * * * [illustration: .--embroidery star.] no. is worked in raised satin stitch; the interior of the star is filled with lace wheels. * * * * * _and_ .--_key bag_. materials: grey kid; grey silk; steel-coloured glacé silk; purse silk of shades of blue-green, shades of brown, and silver-grey, scarlet, and white; grey silk cord; grey glacé silk ribbon. this bag is made of grey kid, and lined with grey silk. the embroidery imitates on one side a key formed of poppies, leaves, and stems, in the upper part of which sits an owl, "the [illustration: .--key bag.] [illustration: .--key bag.] bird of night." the poppies are worked with blue-green purse silk in shades; the plumage of the owl is worked with brown silk of shades in satin stitch, the colours blending one into the other, as can be clearly seen in illustration no. . the eyes of the owl are embroidered in scarlet and white silk. illustration no. shows the other side of the bag, which is ornamented with steel-coloured silk appliqué figures, in the form of a gothic lock. they are edged with fine grey silk cord. the screws of the lock are imitated in satin stitch embroidery with silver-grey silk. after having lined each part, join the two halves of the bag with a border of grey glacé silk ribbon, which must, of course, continue round the revers. the bag is fastened by means of a loop and steel button. * * * * * _and_ --- _embroidery patterns for trimming cravats, bodices, morning caps, &c._ [illustration: --embroidery pattern for cravats, &c.] materials: muslin or cambric; messrs. walter evans and co.'s no. for lingerie, no. for couvrettes. these patterns, worked on muslin or cambric, are suitable for trimming various articles of lingerie; joined on to other squares they make pretty covers. they can also be embroidered with coloured silk, wool, or thread, on cloth, rep, or cashmere, for trimming couvrettes and toilet pincushions. the patterns should be embroidered in satin stitch and edged with chain stitch; they can also be worked in button-hole stitch. when the pattern is worked on woollen material this material must be cut away inside the leaves and spots. [illustration: .--embroidery pattern for cravats, &c.] * * * * * _and_ .--_pen-wiper in cloth appliqué_. materials: circles of black cloth; large white, small white, and red circles of cloth; white and red stars of cloth; small black beads; gold and black purse silk; small ivory handle or figure. this pretty little pen-wiper is covered with small circles of cloth. no. is one of these circles seen in full size. there are white and red ones, and they are pinked out round the edge. in the centre of each red circle place a white, and in the centre of each white circle a red star, and work a cross over it with small round black beads. the border, in herring-bone stitch, is worked with gold-coloured purse silk on the red, and with black on the white cloth. the centre of the pen-wiper is covered with a circle of white cloth larger than the side ones, worked in point russe and point mexico in black silk. when all the circles are prepared, sew them neatly on to a round piece of red cloth, placing alternately white and red, so as to overlap one another, and between each a circle of black cloth, also pinked out round the edge. the work is then fastened upon a round of cardboard lined with black glazed calico, and a [illustration: .--pen-wiper in embroidery.] small handle of carved ivory, or an ivory figure, is fixed in the centre. the circles of black cloth are used to wipe the pens. [illustration: .--full-sized circle for pen-wiper.] * * * * * .--_insertion_. materials: fine muslin; messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . [illustration: .--insertion.] the flowers of this insertion are embroidered in raised satin stitch round an open eyelet hole, worked in overcast stitch the stars are worked in point russe stitch; the four eyelet holes which surround each flower, in overcast stitch; and the edge is finished with a row of hem-stitching on each side. * * * * * .--_insertion_. materials: fine muslin; messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . this insertion is entirely embroidered in raised satin stitch; the dots and stems should be worked first, and the leaves afterwards. it is edged on both sides with a row of hem-stitching. [illustration: .--insertion.] * * * * * .--_cigar case_. materials: russia leather; fine silk cord; black purse silk; gold thread. the material of this cigar case should be finely-embossed light brown russia leather; the centre pattern to be embroidered in well-raised satin stitch with black purse silk. all the lighter outlines shown in the illustration are worked in gold thread. the border to be worked in fine silk cord of the same colour as the leather, with a network of black purse silk, stitched with gold at all the crossings. on the opposite side of the cigar case [illustration: --cigar case.] initials may be worked. the lining of light brown watered silk, or fine leather, and the mountings gilt or steel. * * * * * .--_wicker waste paper basket_. materials: basket and stand; coloured berlin wools; cloth fringe; and glazed calico. [illustration: .--waste paper basket.] the basket may be of any size, but of the shape of the pattern. it rests upon two brass hooks fastened upon a stand. this stand can be made by any joiner, and should match the furniture of the room. the trimming consists of an embroidered border, lined with glazed calico, and put on round the edge; the lower part of the border is trimmed with a woollen fringe. the shades selected should correspond with the prevailing colour of the room. * * * * * [illustration: .--insertion.] .--_insertion_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . the edge of this insertion is worked in raised button-hole stitch, and embroidered in sharply-pointed scallops; the dotted line is worked in raised satin stitch, as are also the flowers which compose the centre wreath; the eyelet holes are worked in overcast stitch. * * * * * [illustration: .--embroidered linen collar.] _and_ .--_embroidered linen collars_. materials: double linen; messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . these patterns are to be worked on linen taken double. no. is worked in button-hole, satin, and knotted stitch (see nos. , , , and of _embroidery instructions_), and point d'or with white cotton, and point russe with black silk. no. is worked entirely with white cotton in button-hole, satin, knotted ladder, and overcast stitch. (see nos. , , , , and of _embroidery instructions_.) [illustration: .--embroidered linen collar.] * * * * * [illustration: --what-not in the shape of a hammock.] _and_ .--_what-not_. materials: fine canvas; shades of violet floss silk; shades of green floss silk; sea-green wool, or floss silk; skein of yellow floss silk; green chenille; cord and tassels. [illustration: .--pattern for what-not (full size).] this small what-not or jewel-stand is very elegant. it is meant to place upon the toilet-table. no. shows the hammock when completed, no. one-half of the embroidery pattern in full size; it is worked upon fine canvas. the violets are in floss silk of three shades of violet, with a raised spot worked in yellow silk in the centre, the leaves are worked in berlin wool of various shades of green, and the stems in overcast of a light green shade. the pattern is grounded in tent stitch with sea-green silk. the hammock is composed of two sides and an under-piece cut out in cardboard, covered with the embroidered canvas outside, lined and quilted with plain green silk inside. it is edged round the top with green chenille. the mounting is composed of bamboo-canes; the hammock is fastened on to it with green silk cord, finished off with tassels. * * * * * .--_embroidered handkerchief_. materials: grass lawn or french cambric; messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . this embroidery pattern is worked between the borders of a handkerchief, which may be either of french cambric or grass lawn. the design is simple, but effective, and very easy to work. if worked on fine french cambric, the handkerchief should be lightly tacked upon _toile cirée_. the rows of raised dots should be worked first, and then the graceful branches of pointed leaves in satin stitch. the plain round dots might be worked in bright red marking cotton in either of the patterns. to produce a good effect, rather fine cotton must be selected, and no. will be found very effective on either lawn or cambric. for mourning wear, this pattern should be embroidered with black filoselle, or the leaves can be worked in white cotton, and the dots in filoselle. [illustration: .--handkerchief border.] * * * * * _and_ .--_two medallions for a purse in embroidery_. materials: light brown russia leather; black, scarlet, and gold silk; steel or gold clasp. these medallions are intended to ornament a small purse, but may be employed on a variety of articles. [illustration: .--medallion for a purse in embroidery.] [illustration: .--medallion for a purse in embroidery.] the raised spots of no. should be worked in black silk, in satin stitch, the branched sprays in point russe in scarlet and gold, the four largest being in scarlet and the intermediate sprays in gold silk. medallion no. is worked entirely in point russe, and may be embroidered in one colour, or in alternate branches of scarlet and gold, or scarlet and black. * * * * * .--_work-bag_. materials: drab cloth; small pieces of cloth of different colours; embroidery silk of different colours; scarlet satin; red silk braid; red cord; cardboard; cotton wool; and a strap of light-coloured leather. [illustration: .--work bag.] this work-bag is made in the shape of a rolled-up plaid. the outside consists of drab cloth, trimmed with appliqué embroidery. the inside of the bag is slightly wadded and lined with red satin, which is quilted in diamonds. the seams are covered with red braid, and a leather strap completes the whole. cut out a good pattern in paper, and then cut the satin and wadding and the drab cloth which forms the outside. after having traced the pattern on the cloth, work it with small pieces of coloured cloth in appliqué embroidery. the different figures are sewn over the centre partly in point russe, partly in button-hole stitches, with embroidery silk. the stems in the middle are worked with silk in chain stitches. the colours may be chosen according to taste. cut a pattern in cardboard, and fasten the drab cloth on it. the edge must be bordered with red satin, and the satin lining must be sewed in. the ends of the bag are likewise cut out of cardboard; the inside is wadded and lined with red satin; the outside worked in appliqué embroidery like the rest of the bag. all the seams are covered with red silk cord. the straps are fastened with a few stitches, as seen in the illustration. * * * * * _to_ .--_pattern for braces_. materials: java canvas; black silk; red wool; calico. [illustration: .--pattern for braces (full size).] these braces are made of java canvas lined with calico ornamented with embroidery in black silk and red wool, and edged on either side with loose button-hole stitch and crochet vandykes in red wool. illustration shows part of the embroidered braces, full size. work first the embroidery of the braces, then line them with calico; work loose button-hole stitch and crochet vandykes on all the edges of the cross bands as well as at the top and bottom of these strips, and sew on the tabs for the braces between the lining and the canvas. the latter are then edged with button-hole stitch and crochet-vandykes. the vandykes are worked as follow--in one row: double in button-hole stitch, * purl ( chain, double in the st), missing the next button-hole stitch under it; double in the following button-hole stitch, repeat from *. the tabs are made of tape worked round with red button-hole stitch, with button-holes worked with red cotton. no. shows another [illustration: .--embroidered braces.] way of working these braces on fine ribbed piqué. work any berlin wool work pattern in the common cross stitch over the ribs of the piqué. for the vandyke border work in every other button-hole stitch, double divided by chain stitches. [illustration: .--pattern for braces (full size).] * * * * * .--_embroidery border for a reading-desk_. materials: white silk rep; black velvet, rep, or cloth; gold and silver brocade; gold and silver braid; silk cord and thread. this pattern is embroidered on white silk rep with silver and gold thread, and sewn on over a black velvet, rep, or cloth centre. the dark patterns are worked in appliqué with black velvet, the two other shades in gold and silver brocade. the embroidery is worked in satin stitch with gold and silver braid, silk and cord of the same material. the border can also be worked upon the material for the centre if it is not intended to contrast with it. the pattern can also be worked entirely in silk with satin stitch. the size of the border may, of course, be increased if desired, but the third pattern in the darkest shade must, in any case, form the centre of it. [illustration: .--embroidery border for a reading desk.] * * * * * [illustration: .--lappet or sash end in venetian embroidery.] .--_lappet or sash end in venetian embroidery._ materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. and no. ; net and muslin. the pattern must first be traced on muslin, which is then tacked over net. the outlines are worked in button-hole stitch, and the veinings are sewn over, using the coarse cotton for tracing; the muslin is then cut away all round the pattern. * * * * * .--_venetian border._ materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. and no. ; net and muslin. [illustration: .--venetian border.] this design is elegant and effective, without there being a great deal of work in it. it is useful for tuckers for evening dresses or handkerchief borders. the muslin is laid over the net, sewn neatly over, and then cut away between the pattern, leaving the net for the ground work. [illustration: .--lace insertion.] * * * * * _ .--lace insertion._ materials: fine black sewing silk; black brussels net. this lace insertion is first outlined in running stitch upon the net; the leaves are then darned across the net holes; the stems are worked in overcast stitch; the dots are embroidered by darning across the circle previously outlined; the lace stitches in the centre are formed by gently enlarging the net holes with a fine stiletto, and then sewn lightly round, the remaining holes being filled with lace stitches consisting of fine button-hole stitches, very evenly worked over the entire space surrounding the open holes. to be effective the very finest black silk should be employed. this pattern may be worked in appliqué by placing muslin over net, sewing all the outlines in fine overcast stitch, and when finished, carefully cutting away the muslin. * * * * * _and_ .--_slipper on java canvas._ materials: light brown java canvas; green silk; green filoselle and purse silk; green silk ribbon three-fifths of an inch wide; some wadding; cork soles. [illustration: .--slipper on java canvas.] this slipper is very pretty, and easy to work. it is made of light brown java canvas, and embroidered in point russe with green filoselle. it is lined with green silk, and slightly quilted. the soles are of cork. the slipper is trimmed all round with a ruche of green silk ribbon three-fifths of an inch wide, pleated in double box pleats. the heel is turned down inside. no. shows the pattern of the point russe stitch nearly full size. [illustration: .--point russe stitch for slipper (no. )] * * * * * _and_ .--_medallions in point russe_. materials: coloured filoselle, cloth, velvet, cashmere, or silk. these medallions can be alternated for ornamenting small covers, cushions, borders, &c. they are worked with coloured filoselle in point russe, herring-bone stitch, coral stitch, and knotted stitch, on cloth, velvet, cashmere, or silk. the middle oval of both medallions contrasts with the colour of the ground, and must therefore be worked in appliqué on the latter with herring-bone stitch, before working the outer border. the wreath on no. is worked in coral stitch; the knots, which imitate small blossoms, in knotted stitch. the choice of colours is left to the personal taste of the worker. [illustration: .--medallion in point russe.] [illustration: .--medallion in point russe.] * * * * * .--_butterfly for handkerchief corner_. materials: french lawn or cambric; fine black silk. this butterfly is worked in the finest black silk procurable, in order more closely to imitate etching. it is worked in point russe and scallop stitch; the dark shaded scallops are worked in button-hole scallop stitch, the stitches being taken very closely together, but not raised by the usual method of placing chain stitches beneath the button-hole stitches. the outlines and flowers are worked in point russe, the dot in knotted stitch (see no. , _embroidery instructions_.) [illustration: .--butterfly for handkerchief corner.] the initials are embroidered in raised slanting overcast stitch, and should be worked with great regularity. * * * * * _to_ .--_pattern for a couvrette in appliqué_. (_see pages - _.) materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton nos. and ; cambric muslin; brussels net; flesh-coloured silk; sewing silk of the same shade; skein of a darker shade; blue silk; brown silk; gold thread. this style of work is most effective for couvrettes or bed covers. it is worked in cambric muslin and silk, over brussels net. the arabesque patterns are worked in cambric muslin, the outlines are embroidered in overcast, and the material is cut away all round. the medallions are made of blue silk; the figures upon them are cut out of flesh-coloured silk, and are gummed first upon tissue-paper, then upon the blue silk; the figures are further fastened upon the medallions in overcast stitch with fine silk of a rather darker shade of flesh-colour. the scarfs are cut out of bright rose-coloured silk; the quiver and arrows and all the other attributes are worked in gold thread; the hair in fine brown silk. the edge of the blue silk medallions is worked round in button-hole stitch, but so as to be easily unripped when the couvrette has to be cleaned. a border in open ladder stitch is worked round them (see no. , _embroidery instructions_). the openings in the centre pattern are also filled in with lace stitches. * * * * * crochet instructions. [illustration: a crochet-needle] cotton or thread, wool or silk, with a crochet-needle, are the materials required for working crochet. the needle, whether it be steel or bone, must be smoothly polished. the long wooden and bone crochet-needles are used for wool; for cotton and silk work short steel needles screwed into a bone handle are best. the beauty of the crochet-work depends upon the regularity of the stitches, as is the case with every other style of needlework. the stitches must be elastic, but if too loose they look as bad as if too tight. the size of the needle and that of the cotton or wool must correspond; work only with the point of the needle, and never move the stitch up and down the needle. the cotton with which you work must be of the very best quality; for borders, insertions, rosettes, imitation of guipure, use evans's crochet cotton; for couvrettes, counterpanes, covers, &c., use knitting-cotton. all crochet-work patterns are begun on a foundation chain; there are three kinds of foundation chains--the plain foundation, the double foundation, and the purl foundation chain. the plain foundation chain consists of chain stitches. [illustration: .--plain foundation chain.] illustration .--form a loop with the cotton or other material with which you work, take it on the needle, and hold the cotton as for knitting on the forefinger and other fingers of the left hand. the crochet-needle is held in the right hand between the thumb and forefinger, as you hold a pen in writing; hold the end of the cotton of the loop between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, wind the cotton once round the needle by drawing the needle underneath the cotton from left to right, catch the cotton with the hook of the needle and draw it as a loop through the loop already on the needle, which is cast off the needle by this means and forms one chain stitch. the drawing the cotton through the loop is repeated until the foundation chain has acquired sufficient length. when enough chain stitches have been made, take the foundation chain between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, so that these fingers are always close to and under the hook of the needle. each stitch must be loose enough to let the hook of the needle pass easily through. all foundation chains are begun with a loop. [illustration: .--double foundation chain.] illustration (_the double foundation chain_).--crochet chain stitches, insert the needle downwards into the left side of the st chain stitch, throw the cotton forward, draw it out as a loop, wind the cotton again round the needle and draw it through the two loops on the needle, * draw the cotton as a loop through the left side of the last stitch (see illustration), wind the cotton round the needle, and draw it through both loops on the needle. repeat from * till the foundation chain is long enough. [illustration: .--purl foundation chain.] illustration (_purl foundation chain_).--* crochet chain stitch, then treble stitch--that is, wind the cotton round the needle, insert the needle downwards into the left side of the st of the chain stitches, wind the cotton round the needle, draw it through the stitch, wind the cotton again round the needle, and at the same time draw the cotton through the last loop and through the stitch formed by winding the cotton round the needle. wind the cotton once more round the needle, and draw it through the remaining loops on the needle. the chain stitches form a kind of scallop or purl. repeat from *. the following crochet stitches require foundation chains like nos. and ; they are all worked in separate rows excepting the two nos. and . make a loop at the beginning of every row, as has been described (no. ), and take it on the needle. [illustration: .--slip stitch.] illustration (_slip stitch_).--draw the needle through the back part of a foundation chain stitch, or in the course of the work through the back part of a stitch of the preceding row, wind the cotton round the needle, and draw it through the stitch and loop on the needle. the illustration shows a number of slip stitches, the last of which is left quite loose; the arrow marks the place where the needle is to be inserted for the next stitch. [illustration: .--double stitch.] illustration (_double stitch_).--these are worked nearly like the preceding ones. draw the cotton as a loop through the back part of a stitch, wind the cotton round the needle, and draw it through the two loops on the needle. [illustration: .--double stitch.] illustration .--these double stitches are worked nearly like the preceding ones; the st row is worked like that of no. ; in the following ones insert the needle into the two upper sides of a stitch of the preceding row. [illustration: .--ribbed stitch.] illustration (_the ribbed stitch_).--this stitch is worked backwards and forwards--that is, the right and wrong sides are worked together, which forms the raised ribs. insert the needle always into the back part of every stitch. work chain stitch at the end of every row, which is not worked, however, in the following row. [illustration: .--slanting stitch.] illustration (_slanting stitch, double stitch_).--this stitch is worked like that described in no. ; the cotton is not wound round the needle the first time in the usual manner, but the needle is placed in the direction of the arrow, above the cotton. draw the cotton through as a loop; the stitch is finished like the common double stitch. [illustration: .--cross stitch.] illustration (_cross stitch_).--this stitch is worked like no. on a foundation like no. , only insert the needle through the two upper sides of a stitch. [illustration :--long double stitch.] illustration (_long double_).--for this stitch wind the cotton round the needle, insert it into the back part of a stitch, draw the cotton out as a loop, wind the cotton again round the needle, and cast off together the two loops and the loop formed by winding the cotton round the needle. [illustration .--treble stitch.] illustration (_treble stitch_).--these stitches are worked as has been described for the purl foundation chain, no. . the treble stitches are worked on a foundation chain or in the stitches of the preceding row. illustration (_long treble_).--these are worked like treble stitches, only the cotton is wound twice round the needle; the double long treble (illustration ) is worked by winding the cotton three times round the needle. the loops formed by winding the cotton round the needle are cast off one by one with one of the loops on the needle. the two loops that remain at the end are cast off together after winding the cotton round the needle. [illustration: .--long treble stitch.] [illustration: .--double long treble stitch.] [illustration: .--cross treble stitch.] [illustration: .--cross treble stitch.] illustration - (_cross treble_).--illustration shows this stitch completed; illustrations and show them in the course of the work. wind the cotton twice round the needle as for a long treble, insert the needle into the stitch in which the first half of the cross treble is to be worked, wind the cotton round the needle, draw the cotton through as a loop, wind the cotton again round the needle and cast off together with the same the loop on the needle and the loop formed by throwing the cotton forward; you have now loops left on the needle, of which has been formed by winding the cotton round the needle; missing these, wind the cotton again round the needle, miss the next stitches of the foundation chain, and draw a loop through the third stitch. you have now loops on the needle. always cast off loops at a time till only loop remains on the needle. work chain stitches (if you wish to have the stitches more or less) slanting, work , , or chain stitches, missing, of course, the same number of foundation chain, work treble stitch, inserting the needle, as shown by the arrow on no. , into the cross chain of the completed treble stitch. [illustration: .--cross treble stitch.] [illustration: .--raised spots.] illustration (_raised spots_).--the grounding on which these spots are worked consists of double crochet. they are worked across rows of the ground, and formed of treble stitches, the spots of one row being placed between those of the preceding. work first rows of double stitch, in the rd row work first double stitches and then spot as follows:-- treble, inserting the needle into both sides of stitch of the first row (the preceding row is missed); the treble stitch is only completed so far that loops remain on the needle; then work treble stitches in the same stitch as the first, which are also only completed as far as the first treble stitch, so that after the nd treble there remain loops and after the rd loops on the needle (see illustration). the loops are cast off together by winding the cotton once more round the needle and drawing it through. miss under the spot the next double stitch of the preceding row; the spots are repeated at intervals of stitches and in every other row. [illustration: .--hollow spots.] illustration (_hollow spots_).--the ground is worked in double crochet (illustration ). these spots, which appear raised, consist of treble stitches; they are worked in every other row at intervals of stitches. for working them leave loop on the needle, insert the needle between the long sides of the last-worked double stitch, and work treble stitches, always inserting the needle into the front part of stitch of the preceding row. the first treble are completed entirely without taking up the loop which was on the needle; with the fifth treble stitch only the loops are cast off together by winding the cotton round the needle. miss stitch of the preceding row under the spot. [illustration: .--open-work spots.] illustration (_open-work spots_).--these spots are treble stitches divided by chain; miss stitches under the latter; for the rest, they are worked like the raised spots (illustration ). [illustration: .--raised treble stitch.] illustration (_raised treble stitch_).--these stitches are long treble worked on a ribbed ground (illustration ), and are thrown across rows of the same. the raised treble are always worked on the same side of the work and in the long side of the corresponding stitch of the last row but two. after every row with treble stitch comes a row in ribbed stitch. at the beginning work rows of ribbed stitch; the treble stitches begin only in the th row. [illustration: .--purl stitch.] illustration (_purl stitch_).--these purl stitches imitate a lace edging perfectly well. work double, draw out the loop to a certain length (this forms the purl), take the needle out of it, insert it in the front part of the last stitch which has been worked (see illustration), wind the cotton round the needle and draw it through as a loop; double, purl, and so on. [illustration: .--purl stitch.] illustration (_purl stitch turned upwards_).--work treble, then chain stitch. insert the needle into the nd of the chain stitch downwards, so that the chain stitches form a scallop upwards (see illustration), wind the cotton round the needle and draw the cotton through; work chain stitch and treble in the next stitch but , missing stitches under it. [illustration: .--purl stitch.] illustration (_purl stitch turned downwards_).--the chain stitches form a scallop turned downwards. after having worked the chain stitches take the needle out of the loop, insert it underneath the upper chain of the nd chain stitch, from right to left, and draw it through the loop in the direction of the arrow. wind the cotton round the needle and cast all the loops off together. it is evident that the purl stitches may be worked at larger or smaller distances. * * * * * crochet patterns. .--_small crochet basket_. materials: balls of closely-covered white and silver, and ball of pink and silver twine; a crochet needle. [illustration: .--small crochet basket.] for the bottom: make a chain of stitches and unite it, work long, chain, and repeat three times more. nd round: work long into the st chain, make chain, work long into the next chain, make chain, work long into the same place, make chain, and repeat. rd round: long, chain, working twice into the chain of last round. th round: long, chain, increasing in every other rd chain by working twice into it. th round: increasing in every rd chain, repeat. for the leaves: make a chain of stitches, then work a row of long stitch and chain stitch with the silver twine. nd round: work long stitch into each chain stitch in st row, make chain stitch, repeat. (at the point, make long, with a chain stitch between each), repeat on the other side of the chain, long stitch and chain stitch alternately. rd round: with pink: work over a wire in double crochet stitch into each loop, work more leaves in the same way, join each leaf half way, then sew it to the centre, work a row of double crochet yard in length, and twist it for the handle. this should also be crocheted over wire. * * * * * to .--_couvrette in crochet_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s boar's head cotton no. , and steel crochet needle. this very pretty pattern is composed of separate circles representing dahlias in raised work upon an open centre. no. shows one of these large circles in full size, no. one of the small circles placed in the spaces between the larger ones, no. part of the border, and no. the couvrette when completed, but in reduced size. for each large circle make a chain of stitches, and join it into a circle. st round: stitches of double crochet over the circle of chain stitches. nd round: stitches of double crochet. rd round: double, chain, miss . th round: [illustration: .--couvrette in crochet.] the same as the preceding--the double always on the rd chain. th round: close double crochet; stitches in in the centre stitch of each loop. th to th round: the same as the th, close double crochet, increasing in the centre of each small scallop, which forms the raised petals of the dahlia. th round: here begins the open-work border round the dahlia. work double between petals, taking together the centre stitches, double in the next, chain. there will be loops of chain in the round. th to th round: double in centre of each loop, chain between. th round: double in centre of st loop, chain, treble in next loop; in the top of this treble stitch work double, with chain between each; make chain. repeat the same all round, and the large circle is completed. six of these are required. [illustration: .--showing one of the small circles full size of no. .] for each small circle make a chain of stitches, and join it into a round. st round: stitches of close double crochet. nd round: treble, chain, miss , times. rd round: treble over each loop of chain, double between. this completes of the small circles placed round the large ones in the centre of the couvrette. the that are placed between the other large circles have more round, which is worked as follows:-- treble in the centre of scallop in the top of this treble stitch, double, with chain between each, chain. repeat the same all round. [illustration: .--showing one of the large circles full size of no. .] when all the circles are completed, join them together, as seen in illustration , and work the border as follows:-- st round: treble in one of the trefoil branches of a small circle, chain, treble in next trefoil, chain, treble in rd trefoil, chain, long treble in th trefoil, chain, long treble in trefoil of a large circle, treble in each of the next trefoils of the large circle, chain between each chain, long treble in the last trefoil of the large circle, chain. repeat all round. nd round: treble, with chain between, in first stitch of last round, * chain, miss , treble with chain between next stitch. repeat from *. rd and th rounds: the same as the nd. the treble always in chain. th round: in each chain, treble, with chain between the nd and rd, chain after the treble. the same all round. th round: the same as the th. th round: treble in chain, trefoil in the top of the treble, chain. repeat the same all round, which completes the couvrette. [illustration: .--border for couvrette.] * * * * * .--_star in crochet_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s crochet cotton no. , or with no. or for couvrettes. a number of these stars joined together will make very pretty strips of insertion. for this purpose they should be worked with fine cotton. they may also be used for trimming collars, cuffs, and cravats, the material being cut away underneath. if worked with crochet cotton no. or , they will make nice couvrettes, bed-quilts, &c. [illustration: .--star in crochet.] the star is begun by the outer circle. make a chain of stitches, and join it into a circle. * make chain, miss , work extra long treble, treble, and double, inserting the needle under the chain, then double worked as usual, long double, extra long double, miss , and work double, inserting the needle _under_ the th. repeat times from * fasten off, and for the centre of the star work as follows:-- st round: * chain, turn, miss and work double in the next chain, double in the st of the chain, thus forming loop. repeat from * times more. nd round: double on the first loop of chain of the first branch, double in the centre of the branch, chain; slip the stitch which is upon the needle in one of the stitches of the foundation chain of the outer circle, work double in the first of the chain last made, then double in the remaining loop of chain of the branch, and double at the bottom of the branch. repeat times more from *. the centre star must be joined on to the outer circle at regular distances. * * * * * .--_crochet silk bag over rings_. materials: skeins each of black, blue, rose, and drab coarse purse twist; skeins of the spangled silk for the top part of the bag and strings; the tassel for the bottom is made of the silks that are left; rings. work over a ring in double crochet, with black, stitches and fasten off; this is for the centre ring. then with the rose colour take a ring and work stitches in double crochet as before, take a second ring, and work double crochet over it without cutting off the silk, work over more rings in the same manner, then work on the other side of the rings to correspond, join the first and last ring together, and sew in the centre ring; this completes the st circle. work more rounds in the same way, rose colour, with drab centre, blue with black, drab with rose centre, black with blue, join circles of the alternate colours to the st circle, to each ring, then sew the second ring to the corresponding one of the next circle, till the are united; join the other circles in the following manner: join one ring to the second from the one that was sewed to the st circle, join the next ring to the corresponding one of the next circle (which will be the one opposite to the one sewed in the st circle), and repeat, joining the other in the same way. [illustration: .--crochet silk bag.] for the small diamond make a chain of stitches and unite it, work long stitches into the circle, make chain, work single stitch to the centre of the ring missed in joining the last circle, make chain, work long into the circle, make chain, and work a stitch of single crochet to the centre of the next ring, make chain, work long into the same place, make chain, work long into the same place, make chain, and work a stitch of single crochet to the next ring, make chain, and join it to the first of the long stitches; this completes the diamonds; work more, joining them in the same way, then work over rings, and join one on each side of every diamond; this completes the lower part of the bag. for the top part of the bag work stitches of double crochet to the centre of each ring, make chain, and repeat. st round: work long stitch, make chain, miss loop, and repeat. work more rounds in the same way, working the long stitch into the chain stitch of last row. run some cord in the top of the bag to match one of the colours used, and make the tassel for the bottom from the silk that is remaining after working the crochet. * * * * * .--_crochet sovereign purse._ materials: skein of black purse silk: skein of coloured ditto; a few steel beads; and a steel clasp. the open portion of this purse is worked in coloured, and the raised rose and outer border in black, silk, the latter being dotted with steel beads. a few rows of plain double crochet are worked, increasing where necessary, to make the work lie flat; then rows of loops of chain in coloured silk, and then rows of thick double crochet, threading the beads first on the silk, and pushing them up to the stitches when required. [illustration: .--crochet sovereign purse.] the black silk must now be joined on to the centre, and the little raised piece worked in treble crochet, inserting the hook on the _upper_ side of the stitches. three rounds of treble are executed, and when both sides of the purse are finished they should be joined together (except where the clasp is put on) by a row of open treble, ornamented with beads. this purse is so easy to make, that it might be worked without the least difficulty from the illustration. * * * * * .--_stars in crochet_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s crochet cotton no. or . this pattern can be used for a couvrette or pincushion cover, according to the size of the cotton with which it is worked. each star is begun in the centre by a chain of stitches. in the st stitch work treble, * chain, treble in this same st stitch, repeat from * times more, chain, slip stitch in the th of the chain. you have thus formed rays, joined to the st stitch. now work (without cutting the cotton) the branches, which are begun from the centre. st branch.-- st round: chain, treble in the th, so as to form a purl with the last , chain, treble with chain between, missing stitches under the chain, chain, slip stitch in the last of the chain. nd round: double over the st chain, double with purl between over the next chain, double over the next chain, purl, double over the next chain; then, on the other side of the branch, purl, double, purl, double, double with purl between, double on the last chain of the branch, slip stitch in the stitch from which the leaf was begun, double over the chain of the circle. here begins the second branch. st round of the nd leaf: chain, double in the last so as to form a circle. [illustration: .--stars in crochet.] nd round: double in each of the first chain, in the next stitch work double, chain, double to form the point, double in each of the remaining stitches, slip stitch in the st stitch of the st round. rd round: double, purl, repeat from * twice more, then work in double crochet as far as the point, work double with chain between, then work the nd half of the branch the same as the st. before beginning the next leaf, work double on the chain stitches of the circle; work branches, repeating alternately the above explained; cut the cotton and fasten it on again to the point of one of the branches, in order to join them together by the two following rounds:-- st round: double in the point of one of the leaves, * chain, purl under the chain; thus make chain, turn the chain with the crochet to the right, insert the needle downwards in the first chain, and make a slip stitch, chain, purl under, chain, purl under, chain, slip stitch in the point of the next leaf, repeat from * five times more. nd round: * double over the nearest chain; purl as usual--that is, above the chain-- double over the next chain. now work trefoil (thus: chain, purl, chain, purl, chain, double in the double coming just before the purl). double on each of the next chain of last round, purl, double, trefoil, repeat five times from *. join the stars by a few stitches, as seen in the illustration. * * * * * .--_crochet purse over rings._ materials: rings; skeins each of cerise and black, and of maize coarse purse silk. work in double crochet with maize over one ring stitches; this is the centre ring for the bottom of the purse. [illustration: .--crochet purse over rings.] then work with cerise colour over a ring stitches, take another ring and work stitches, repeat this till you have rings, then work round the other half of each ring stitches; and when the are finished, join the first to the last to make a circle; sew the maize ring into the centre of it, then work over rings with black in the same manner, and place them outside the cerise circle. then work over rings with maize colour, and join them beyond the black, but not to lie flat down; they are to stand up to form the sides of the purse. work over rings with cerise, and these you can join one to each of the former rounds in working the second half of the crochet, as it will save the sewing. work over rings in black, and join them in the same manner to the cerise. for the edge, with cerise, work into the centre stitch of the ring a stitch of double crochet, make chain, work into the stitch joining the rings an extra long stitch, make chain, repeat. then work rounds of single open crochet. th round: * work a stitch of double crochet and chain alternately, missing loop between each times, then work a long stitch, make chain, work into the next loop long stitch, make chain, work another long stitch into the same place, make chain, work a long stitch into the next loop, repeat from *. th round: work into the chain long stitch, make chain, work another long stitch into the same place, * make chain, work a stitch of double crochet into the chain in last round, repeat from * times more, miss the next chain, * work a stitch of double crochet into the next chain, make chain, repeat from * times more, then repeat from the beginning. th round: join the black, work into the chain long stitch, make chain, work another long stitch into the same place, make chain, work another long stitch into the same place, make chain, work a th long stitch into the same place, * make chain, work a stitch of double crochet into the chain, repeat from * times more, miss the next stitches of double crochet, * work a stitch of double crochet into the chain, make chain, repeat from * times more, then repeat from the beginning. th round: work into the chain long stitch, make chain, work another long stitch into the same place, repeat the stitches of double crochet with chain between, as in last round, then repeat from the beginning. th and th rounds the same as the th. add a tassel at the bottom, and strings run into the last row of open crochet complete the purse. * * * * * [illustration: .--crochet brioche cushion.] .--_crochet brioche cushion_. materials: skeins of -thread fleecy, of six shades of red (these should be most of the darker shades); skeins of white ditto; skein of white filoselle. make a chain of stitches with the darkest shade of red wool, and join it into a circle. work round of raised spots thus:--turn the wool times round the needle, insert the needle in chain, and draw it through all the loops, then work slip stitch, insert the needle in the next stitch, work double, and begin a fresh spot. continue in the same way all round. nd round: divide the round into parts; work spots with the rd shade of red, always working double between each spot, and taking care to place them between those of preceding round: after spots, work double, then more, and so on. rd round: rd shade of red, spots, double. th round: th shade, spots, double. th round: th shade, spots, double. th round: same shade, spots, double. th round: th shade, spots, double. th round: same shade, spots, double. th round: same shade, spots, double. th round: th shade, spots, double. th round: same shade, spots, double. th round: same shade, spots, double. th round: same shade, spot, double. the pattern of raised spots being now completed, continue to work with the lightest shade of red in double stitches, decreasing once above each pattern, so as to close up the circle gradually. the white flowers are worked over the plain part of the cushion with white wool, and silk for the petals, and a black dot in the centre. the cushion is stuffed with horsehair and lined with glazed calico. a round of thick pasteboard is stitched in at the bottom, to make it stand firmer. * * * * * _ .--daisy pattern for a crochet couvrette._ materials: for a large couvrette, messrs. walter evans and co.'s boar's head cotton no. ; for pincushion covers, mats, and such-like small articles, boar's head cotton no. or . a pattern of this description is most useful, as it can be converted to so many purposes. counterpanes, couvrettes of every description, mats, pincushions, and a thousand other things can all be arranged from the design. [illustration: .--daisy pattern for a crochet couvrette.] each circle is made separately, and joined to the others, as the last row is crocheted. begin in the centre; make chain, insert the needle in the first, and make * a long treble stitch, then make chain, repeat times from *, always inserting the needle in the st chain stitch, join the last chain to the th of the st chain to close the round. nd round: work double crochet, * chain, turn, work a slip stitch in each of the chain; work round the stem thus made in close crochet, working stitches in to turn at the point; miss stitch of preceding row, work double crochet, and repeat from * times more, making petals in all. rd round: work at the back of the last row, behind the petals; make petal between each petal in last row, double crochet at the back of each, and cut the cotton at the end of the round. th round: double crochet at the point of each of the petals, chain between each petal. th round: treble, chain, repeat. th and last round: double crochet in the centre of the st chain, * chain, treble in the centre of the next chain, chain, slip stitch in the top of the treble stitch, chain, slip stitch in the same place, chain, a rd slip stitch in the same place, chain, double crochet in the centre of the next chain, repeat from * to the end of the round. there should be trefoil patterns in the round. for the couvrette join the circles together, as shown in illustration, in working the last round. as many circles can be added as may be required for the couvrette. * * * * * .--_crochet lace_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s crochet cotton no. or . this lace produces a very good effect when worked with fine cotton. make a sufficiently long foundation chain, and work the st row entirely in double stitch. nd row: * treble in the next stitch, chain, miss stitch under it; repeat from *. rd row: long treble in the rd stitch of the preceding row, * purl (each consisting of chain, double, in the st of the same), long treble in the same stitch of the preceding row, purl, miss , double in the following stitches, purl, miss stitches, long treble in the th stitch; repeat from *. [illustration: .--crochet lace.] th row: * double in the middle of the next purl of the preceding row, purl, long treble divided by purl in the middle of the next double in the preceding row, purl; repeat from *. th row: * long treble, divided by purl in the middle of the next double of the preceding row, purl, double in the middle of the next purl of the preceding row, purl; repeat from *. repeat the th and th rows alternately till the border is wide enough. * * * * * .--_crochet border_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s crochet cotton no. , , , or . [illustration: .--crochet border.] this border is suitable for a great variety of purposes, according to the size of the cotton employed; in coarse cotton it will make a trimming for couvrettes and berceaunette covers; with fine cotton it can be used for children's clothes, small curtains, &c. make a sufficiently long foundation chain, and work the st row: * treble divided by chain in the st foundation chain stitch, miss ; repeat from *. nd row: * in the st scallop of the preceding row, double, treble, double, then chain, purl ( chain, slip stitch in the st of the four), chain, miss under these the next chain stitch scallop; repeat from *. rd row: treble in the chain stitch on either side of the purl in the preceding row, chain. th row: * double divided by chain in the two first treble of the preceding row (insert the needle underneath the upper parts of the stitch), chain, slip stitch in the th of these stitches so as to form a loop, chain, repeat from *. th row: * slip in the middle stitch of the scallop formed by chain in the preceding row, treble, chain, treble, chain, treble, all these stitches in the loop of the preceding row, so as to form a clover-leaf pattern; repeat from *, but fasten the th treble with a slip stitch on the th treble of the preceding figure. th row: in the first and last stitch of the middle treble of the clover-leaf double, chain between, th row: * double in the nd chain stitch of the scallop which is above the middle treble of the clover-leaf, chain, purl ( chain, slip stitch in the st), chain, double in the next chain stitch of the same scallop, chain, purl, chain, miss one chain of the scallop, double, chain, purl, chain, double in the next chain stitch, chain. double in the middle stitch of the following scallop, chain, repeat from *. * * * * * [illustration: .--crochet border.] --_crochet border_ materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s crochet cotton no. , , or , according to the article for which it is required. on a sufficiently long foundation chain work the st row: double in each chain stitch. nd row: alternately double, chain, miss under the latter stitches of the preceding row. rd row: treble in each double of the preceding row, double in the middle stitch of each scallop, chain between. th row: double on each double of the preceding row, treble on each treble, chain between. th row: double on each treble of the preceding row, chain between. th row: double in each stitch of the preceding row. th row: * treble in the st stitch of the preceding row, chain, miss , treble in the following stitches, miss stitches, treble in the following stitches, chain, miss stitch, treble, chain, miss ; repeat from *. th row: repeat regularly treble in the scallop formed of chain in the preceding row, double in the middle of the following chain. th row: * double in the th treble of the preceding row, treble, long treble in next treble but , long treble in each of the following treble, long treble, treble in the next treble, double in the next treble but , chain, purl ( chain, slip), chain stitch; repeat from *. th row: * double in the th treble of the preceding row, chain, purl, chain, miss under them, double, chain, purl, chain, double in the next chain but of the next scallop, chain, purl, chain, double in the chain stitch after the purl of the preceding row, chain, purl, chain; repeat from *. th row: in each scallop of the preceding row double (they must meet on either side of the purl); they are divided alternately by chain, and by a scallop formed of chain, purl, and chain, only in the chain stitch scallops which join the two treble figures work no double, but chain, purl, chain. * * * * * _ to .--wicker arm chair, covered with crochet._ material: berlin wool in two colours. [illustration: .--wicker arm chair, covered with crochet.] the seat and back of this arm-chair are covered with two round couvrettes, worked in crochet with berlin wool of two colours. they are fastened on the chair with woollen braid, finishing off with tassels of the same colour. begin each couvrette in the centre with a foundation chain of stitches, with the lightest wool; join them into a circle, and work the st round in the following manner:-- double. nd round: * chain, double, in the next stitch of the st round, inserting the needle in the upper part of the stitch; repeat from * times more; at the end of this round work slip stitch in the st chain of this round. we shall not repeat any more the repetitions from * to the end of the round. rd round: * chain, double, in the next scallop of the preceding round; at the end of the round chain. th round: double in each scallop of the preceding round. th round: begin to work with the darker wool and crochet slip stitch, inserting the needle in the front chain of the stitches of the th round. the th round is worked once more with light wool, and consists entirely of double stitch, worked by inserting the needle at the back of the stitches of the th round, so that the slip stitches appear raised on the right side of the work, and form a round of chain stitches. the middle part of the couvrette is then finished. [illustration: .--pattern for arm chair border.] [illustration: .--border for arm chair ( ).] illustration shows it in full size. th round: * chain, missing stitch of the preceding round under them, double. th round: * chain, double, in the next scallop of the preceding round. th round: double in each scallop. th round, like the th; th round, like the th; [illustration: .--couvrette for arm chair ( ).] th, th, th, th, and th rounds, like the th-- th; th-- th rounds like the th-- th. th round: alternately treble with the light wool, treble with the dark; but every treble stitch must be cast off with the wool of the colour of the next stitch; that is, a light treble stitch with the dark wool, and a dark treble stitch with the light wool. now and then crochet treble stitches in one stitch of the preceding round, so that the couvrette remains perfectly flat. st round: double in every stitch. the nd-- st rounds consist of a double repetition of the th-- th rounds. the nd and rd rounds are made in open work like the th and th rounds. the th round is worked in treble stitches like the th round. then work the outer border. it consists of chain stitch scallops which are worked alternately with dark and light wool. illustration no. shows a part of the border with the treble round in full size. work from it with the light wool double on light treble stitch of the preceding round, chain, double, on the next light treble, throw the wool off the needle and let it hang over the right side of the work; crochet with the dark wool double on the treble stitch between the double of this round, leave the wool on the right side of the work; chain, double, on the next dark treble. take the needle again out of the loop, draw the wool on to the right side, and work the next chain stitch scallop again with the light wool. instead of this border, pattern no. may be worked. it consists of rounds to be worked after the th round of the couvrette. st round of the border: with dark wool, * double in stitch, of the th round; double, treble, double, in the next stitch; repeat from *. nd round: with the light wool, * treble, inserting the needle in the next treble stitch of the th round, thus working over the double stitch between the spots of the preceding round; chain. rd round * double in each chain stitch of the preceding round. to work the nd of these double, insert the needle at the same time in the upper part of the middle treble of the st round. th round: dark wool, * double in each double of the preceding round, miss , and work treble in the next stitch but one; the last of these treble is cast off with light wool, miss , and continue to work with the light wool double in the next stitch but one, miss , treble in the next stitch, cast off the last with the dark wool, miss ; repeat from *. * * * * * _ to .--crochet insertions._ material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s crochet cotton no. , , or . [illustration: .--crochet insertion.] these insertions are worked with crochet cotton of sizes which depend upon the use you wish to make of them. the insertion seen in illustration is worked the long way in rows. make a sufficiently long foundation chain, and work the st row as follows:-- slip stitch in the st stitch of the foundation, * chain, miss , double in the next stitch but , repeat from *. nd row: slip stitch in the middle of the st chain, * chain, slip stitch in the middle stitch of the next chain, repeat from *. rd row: treble in the st stitch, * leaf worked as follows: chain, then without noticing the loop left on the needle long treble in the nd and in the st of the chain; these stitches are not cast off separately, but together with the loop left on the needle. then chain, miss , treble in the th stitch, repeat from *. th row: double in the st of the chain, * chain, double in the st of the next chain, repeat from *. th row: * leaf as in the rd row, double in the double stitch of the preceding row, chain, repeat from *. th row: treble in the point of the st leaf, * chain, treble in the point of the next leaf, repeat from *. th and th rows: like the st and nd. [illustration: .--crochet insertion.] the insertion seen in illustration is worked in rows, and is begun in the centre on a foundation chain sufficiently long not to be worked too tight. st row: double in the st stitches, * double divided in the same way on the other side of the foundation chain, inserting the needle in the st row into the chain. illustration shows an insertion which imitates darned netting; it is worked on a grounding imitating netting with raised figures. the grounding consists of rows. work on a sufficiently long foundation chain the st row as follows: cross treble in the st and rd stitch, * chain, missing stitches under them, cross treble in the th and th stitch, repeat from *. nd row: double in the st stitch, * chain, miss under them, double in the th stitch, repeat from *. rd to th rows: double in the middle stitch of every chain stitch scallop, chain between. th row: like the st. work from illustration square patterns on this grounding, consisting each of leaves; for these leaves carry on the cotton taken double in double windings from double stitch to another, so as to have threads lying close to each other; darn these as can be seen in illustration, with single cotton. [illustration: .--crochet insertion.] * * * * * .--_crochet lace_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s crochet cotton no. . [illustration: .--crochet lace.] a particular kind of purl makes this border look very like guipure lace. begin with a foundation chain worked in the following manner:--* chain, the last of them forms purl; this is made by drawing out a long loop on the needle, taking the needle out of the loop, inserting it in the chain stitch before the last one, drawing the cotton through it, and continuing to work so that the loop out of which the needle has been drawn forms purl. all the purl must be equally long; to do this more easily the loop may be kept on the needle till a chain stitch has been worked in that which comes just before the purl, continue the foundation chain, and repeat from *. st row: long double in the st stitch of the foundation, * chain, slip stitch in the nearest purl of the foundation chain; repeat from *. nd row: double in the st stitch, * purl, chain, missing stitch under it; slip stitch in the slip stitch of the preceding row; repeat from *. rd row: like the st. th row: double in the st stitch, * purl, chain, purl, chain, missing stitches under them; double in the th stitch; repeat from *. th row: long double in the st stitch, chain, purl, chain, * double in the middle of the next chain of the preceding row, purl, chain, purl, chain; repeat from *. th to th rows: alternately like the th and th rows. th row: double in the st stitch, * chain, double long treble (throw the cotton times round the needle) in the st of these chain stitches; the stitch is only completed so far as still to leave loops on the needle; double long treble in the same chain stitch. this stitch is cast off so as to leave in all loops, and the cotton over the needle; these loops are cast off together by drawing the cotton once through them. this forms leaf, or one-half of the bell-shaped patterns. purl, chain, leaf like the preceding one, slip stitch in the st of the first chain stitches; the other half of the pattern is then completed; purl, chain, purl, chain, double in the middle stitch of the next scallop of the preceding row, purl, chain, purl, chain, double in the middle stitch of the following scallop th row: slip stitch in the next purl of the preceding row, purl, chain, slip stitch in the next purl of the preceding row, purl, chain, slip stitch in the following purl, purl (the purl which are worked on the purl of the bell-shaped pattern are made in this row and in the following one as follows:--crochet chain after the slip stitch, leave it for purl, and work the next chain stitch in the slip stitch), purl, chain, purl, chain, double in the middle stitch of the following scallop, purl, chain, purl, chain. th row: purl on the next purl of the preceding row, chain between, purl, chain, purl, chain, double in the middle stitch of the next chain stitches, bell-shaped pattern like those of the th row, purl, chain, purl, chain. * * * * * crochet d'oyleys in imitation of point lace. --_d'oyley no_. . material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s boar's head cotton no. . pattern no. .--make a chain of stitches, unite it. round : * double crochet, chain, repeat from * times more, double crochet, unite it to the st stitch. round : single crochet up the st of the chain in last row, *, long into the loop of chain, chain, repeat from *. round : long into the chain in last round, chain, repeat. round : double crochet into the chain in last round, repeat. round : double crochet, chain, miss loop, repeat. round : double crochet into the chain, chain, repeat. round : the same as th. no. .--make a chain of stitches, and unite it. round : * double crochet, chain, repeat from * times more. round : into the chain double crochet, long, and double crochet, repeat. round : double crochet over the double crochet in st round, chain, repeat. round : into the chain in last round double crochet, long, double crochet, repeat. round : double crochet over the one in rd round, chain, repeat. round : into the chain double crochet, long, double crochet, repeat. round : double crochet over the in th round, chain, repeat. round : into the chain double crochet, long, double crochet, repeat. round : double crochet over the in th round, chain, repeat. round : into the chain double crochet, long, double crochet, repeat. round : double crochet over the in th round, chain, repeat. round : into the chain double crochet, long, double crochet, repeat. round : double crochet over the in th round, chain, repeat. work patterns of no. for this d'oyley. no. .--make a chain of stitches, and unite it. into the circle double crochet, *, long, chain, repeat from * twice more, double long, chain, double long, * chain, long, repeat from * twice more, double crochet, chain. repeat from the beginning. in working the nd pattern, join it to the st with the nd chain, work leaves in this manner, then make only chain, and work a th leaf without joining it to the rd, make chain after th leaf, and work a stitch of double crochet into last chain, make chain. work a th leaf, and join it to the th as before, chain, double crochet into the next chain, chain. work a th leaf in the same way, and join it; but make no chain stitch after the th leaf. work patterns of no. for this d'oyley. no. .--the same as no. , only work leaves instead of , on each side. work patterns of no. for this d'oyley. no. .--work the st leaves of no. this is not repeated in this d'oyley. [illustration: .--d'oyley no. .] no. .--make a chain of stitches, and unite it. work into the circle double crochet, long, double, long, chain, double long, long, double crochet, chain, joining the th long stitch to the corresponding stitch in st leaf, chain. work the rd leaf the same as the st without joining it to the nd, chain, double crochet into the chain, chain, work a th leaf, and join it to the rd, chain, and join it to the st stitch of double crochet at the beginning of the st leaf. this pattern is not repeated in this d'oyley. no. .--tie a round of cotton about this size o. round : double crochet into the round. round : double crochet into successive loops, work into rd loop, repeat. round : double crochet into every loop. round : double crochet, chain, miss loops, repeat. round : into the chain in last round long, chain, more long stitches into the same place, chain, repeat. round : into the chain double crochet, long, double crochet, chain, repeat. this pattern is not repeated in this d'oyley. no. .--make a chain of stitches, and unite it. round i: double long into the circle. round : double crochet between each long in last round. round : long, chain, miss loop, repeat. round : long into the chain, chain, repeat. round : double crochet into the chain in last round, chain, repeat. this pattern is not repeated in this d'oyley. no. .-- st row: make a chain of stitches, work long stitch into the th, *, chain stitches, miss loops, long into the next, repeat from * to the end of the row. nd row: chain, *, double crochet on the other side of the chain into the centre one of the between the long stitch, chain, turn, and work into the chain double crochet and long, chain, repeat from * times more, work into the chain stitches at the end loops of chain with the double crochet and long stitch as before, then work the other half of the pattern to correspond. rd row: into the space between the long stitches double crochet, chain, repeat. this pattern is not repeated in this d'oyley. no. .--make a chain of stitches, and unite it. round : into the circle double long, with chain between each. round : double crochet into the chain in last round, repeat. round : long, chain, miss loop, repeat. round : double crochet into the chain in last round, chain, repeat. this pattern is not repeated in this d'oyley. no. .--make a chain of stitches, and unite it. round : long into the circle. round : double crochet into every loop. round : double crochet, chain, miss loops, repeat. round : double crochet into the chain, chain, repeat. round : double crochet into the chain, repeat. round : long, long into the next loop, repeat. round : double crochet, chain, miss loops, repeat. this pattern is not repeated in this d'oyley. no. .--make a chain of stitches, and unite it. round : double crochet into the circle. round : *, chain, join it to the th, work into the circle double crochet, long, chain, long, chain, long, chain, long, chain, long, chain, long and double crochet, single crochet into the st double crochet, chain, double crochet into the chain, chain, double crochet into the chain, chain, double crochet into the chain, chain, double crochet into the same place, chain, double crochet into the chain, chain, double crochet into the chain, chain, single crochet into the stitches of double crochet at the end, single crochet down the for the stem, single crochet into successive loops round the circle, repeat from * twice more. this pattern is not repeated in this d'oyley. no. .--*, make chain stitches, turn, double crochet into each loop, repeat from * twice more, then work round both sides of these points double crochet, chain, miss loop at the top of each point, work twice into the same loop, then chain, double crochet into each end, unite the th to the last of the centre point of . this pattern is not repeated in this d'oyley. no. .--round : * make a chain of stitches, and unite it, repeat from * more times. round : double crochet into successive loops, stitches into the th, into each of the next loops, repeat. round : double crochet, chain, double crochet into the centre of the in last, chain, miss , repeat. round : double crochet, chain, miss loop, repeat. this pattern is not repeated. no. .--*, make a chain of stitches, unite it, long into successive loops, double long, long, double crochet, chain, double crochet into the next loop, chain, double crochet into the same place, chain, work into successive loops double crochet, long, double long, long, unite the last to the first, chain, repeat from * once more, then double crochet into the st of the chain, chain, double crochet into each, and into each of the remaining of the chain. this pattern is not repeated in this d'oyley. no. .--make a chain of stitches, *, work into successive loops double crochet, long, double crochet, more double crochet into the same loop as the last, repeat from * once, make a chain of stitches, unite to the th, work into the circle, *, long, chain, long, repeat from * times, work into the chain long, chain, work another long into the same place, repeat, join the last with single crochet to the last of the chain, double crochet over the of the leaf, long into successive loops, double long into successive loops, long into the next loop, and long into the next. this pattern is not repeated. when all these pieces are done, join them as shown in the engraving, sewing them firmly together with the same cotton, then work an edging round in the following manner:-- st row: double long into the chain at the point of the leaf of no. pattern, chain, double long into the nd chain in the same leaf, chain, double long into the st chain of the nd leaf of the same pattern, chain, long into the chain of no. pattern, chain, long into the chain of the next leaf in the same pattern, chain, long into the rd chain from the join of the th pattern, chain, single crochet into the nd chain from the long stitch, chain, single crochet into the rd chain from the last, chain, long into the nd chain from the last, chain, work into the nd chain from the join of the th pattern long, chain, double crochet into the next chain, chain, long into the next chain, chain, double crochet in the st chain from the join of th pattern, chain, double crochet into the st chain of the nd leaf of the same pattern, chain, double crochet into the last chain of the same leaf, chain, double crochet into the chain of no. pattern, chain, long into the chain between the leaves of the same pattern, chain, long into the next chain, chain, long into the st chain of the rd leaf of the same pattern, chain, single crochet into the rd of double crochet from the join of th pattern, chain, single crochet into the centre of the nd double crochet from the last, chain, single crochet into the nd of double crochet from the last, chain, double crochet into the chain of th pattern, chain, double crochet into the th long stitch of the same leaf, chain, double crochet into the end of the stem of th pattern, chain, double long into the st chain of the th pattern, chain, double long into the last chain of the same leaf, chain, double long into the nd chain of the nd leaf, chain, long into the rd chain of no. pattern, chain, long into the nd chain of the same pattern from the last, chain, long into the rd chain from the join of the th pattern, chain, long into the rd chain from the last, chain, double crochet into the centre of the of double crochet in th pattern, chain, long into the double crochet of same pattern, chain, double crochet into the chain in centre of same leaf, chain, long into the rd chain from the join of the th pattern, chain, single crochet into the rd chain from the last, chain, double long into the rd chain from the stitch of single, chain, and join it to the double long stitch at the beginning of the row. nd row: *, chain, and unite it, chain to cross, and on the other side into the circle double crochet, long, chain, long, chain, double long, chain, then work down the other side to correspond, double crochet into successive loops of the foundation, repeat from *, joining the leaves in the st chain. * * * * * _ .--d'oyley no. ._ material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s boar's head cotton no. . pattern no. .--make a chain of stitches, and unite it. round : double crochet into each loop. round : double crochet into each loop. round : double crochet, double crochet into the next loop, repeat. round : double crochet into each loop. round : double crochet, chain, miss loops, repeat. round : double crochet into the chain, repeat. round : double crochet into successive loops, beginning on the th of the in last round, chain, single crochet into the last double crochet, and repeat. round : double crochet into the centre one of the in last round, chain, repeat. round : double crochet into the chain in last round, repeat. round : double crochet into successive loops, beginning on the th of the in last round, chain, single crochet into the last double crochet, repeat. round : double crochet into the centre one of the in last round, chain, repeat. round : double crochet into the chain in last round. [illustration: .--d'oyley no. .] no. .--make a chain of stitches, and unite it. round : *, chain, double crochet into the circle, repeat from * twice more. round : long into the chain, repeat. round : long into each loop. round : long, chain, miss loops, repeat. round : long into the chain in last round, chain, repeat. round : double crochet into the chain, chain, repeat. no. .--make a chain of stitches, and unite it. round : into the circle double crochet, long, double long, chain, double long, long, double crochet. round : double crochet into every loop. round : chain, miss loop, long and repeat, long at the point, finish with a single stitch, chain, and repeat this once more. no. .--make a chain of stitches, and unite it, chain of and unite it, chain of and unite it, work double crochet into successive loops, beginning on the st of the st loop of , into the next loop, and into each of the next, double crochet into each of the st of the loop of , into the next, into each of the next , double crochet into each of the st of the next loop of , into the next, into each of the next . nd row: double crochet, chain, miss loop, repeat. no. .--make a chain of stitches, and unite it. round : into the circle double crochet, long, double long, treble long, double long, long, double crochet. round : double crochet into each of the st loops, into each of the next, and into the next, into each of the next, and into each of the next. round : long, *, chain, long into the next loop, repeat from * at the end, unite the last to the st stitch, chain, repeat from the beginning; in uniting the last stitch of the nd leaf, take up the centre stitch of the chain with it, make chain, and work a rd leaf in the same manner; in uniting the last stitch of the rd leaf, take up the last of the chain with it, make chain, turn, and work double crochet into each, join the last to the last of the and chain stitch. no. .--make a chain of stitches, and unite it. round : double crochet into loop, chain, repeat times more. round : into the chain double crochet, long, double crochet, repeat. round : double crochet over the st double crochet in last round, chain, repeat. round : into the chain in last round double crochet, long, double crochet, and repeat. round : double crochet into the st double crochet in last round, chain, repeat. round : into the chain in last round double crochet, long, more double crochet, repeat. no. .-- st row: make a chain of stitches. long into the th, *, chain, miss loops, long into the next, repeat from * to the end of the row. nd row: turn, into the chain double crochet, long, double crochet, repeat this to the end, then into the chain double crochet, long, double long, long, double crochet, work the other side to correspond. rd row: double crochet into the st double crochet in last row, chain, and repeat to the point, chain, double crochet into the double long, work the other side to correspond. th row: into the chain double crochet, chain, single into the last double crochet, more double crochet into the same place, repeat. no. .-- st row: chain of stitches, double crochet into each of the st, stitches into the th, work on the other side of the chain to correspond. nd row: double crochet, chain, miss loop, repeat. rd row: double crochet into the chain, repeat. no. .--the same as no. in the st d'oyley, only leaves instead of , on each side, and at the end; of these will be required for this d'oyley. no. .--work the st leaves of no. in the st d'oyley; of these will be required for this d'oyley. no. .--work only leaf of no. in the st d'oyley. this is not to be repeated in this d'oyley. no. .--the same as no. in st d'oyley. no. .--the same as no. . no. .--the same as no. in st d'oyley. no. .--the same as no. . no. .--the same as no. in the st d'oyley. no. .--the same as no. in st d'oyley; of these will be required. no. .--the same as no in st d'oyley; of these will be required. when all these pieces are done, sew them firmly together, and work the edging round in the following manner:-- double crochet into the st chain of th pattern, chain, double crochet into the last chain of same leaf, chain, double crochet into the st chain of nd leaf, chain, double crochet in the chain of same leaf, chain, long into the th of the chain, from the joining of th pattern, chain, double crochet into the nd chain, chain, long into the nd chain from the last, chain, long into the last chain of th pattern, chain, double crochet into the chain of same leaf, chain, double crochet into the chain of nd leaf, chain, long into the st double crochet from the join of no. pattern, chain, long into the next stitch of double crochet after the long stitch, chain, long into the rd chain from the join of th pattern, chain, double crochet into the rd chain from the long stitch, chain, long into the rd chain from the stitch of double crochet, chain, long into the st chain of th pattern, chain, double crochet into the chain of same leaf, chain, double crochet into the chain of th pattern, chain, double crochet into the last chain of same leaf, chain, long into the st chain from the join of th pattern, chain, long into the next chain of same pattern, chain, long into the th chain from the join of th pattern, chain, double crochet into the nd chain from last, chain, long into the nd chain from last, chain, double crochet into the st chain of th pattern, chain, double crochet into the last chain of same leaf, chain, double crochet into the st chain of nd leaf, chain, double crochet into the last chain of nd leaf, chain, double crochet into the last chain of th pattern, chain, double crochet into the chain of same pattern, chain, double crochet into the st chain of nd leaf, chain, double crochet into the chain of th pattern, chain, double crochet into the last chain of same pattern, chain, long into the centre chain of st leaf of th pattern, chain, double crochet into the st chain of nd leaf same pattern, chain, double crochet into the chain of same leaf, chain, long into the th chain from the join of the rd pattern, chain, double crochet into the nd chain, chain, long into the nd chain of same pattern, chain, long into the st chain from join of th pattern, chain, long into the next chain of same pattern, chain, and unite. nd row: the same edging as to st d'oyley. * * * * * .--_d'oyley no. ._ material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s boar's head cotton no. . work patterns from no. in st d'oyley, patterns from no. in same d'oyley, pattern from no. in same d'oyley, and pattern from no. , patterns from no. in same d'oyley, pattern from no. , pattern from no. ; and from no. in same d'oyley, patterns from no. in st d'oyley, pattern from no. in nd d'oyley, pattern from no. in same d'oyley, pattern from no. in same d'oyley, and from no. . then pattern in the following manner:--round : make a chain stitch of stitches, double crochet, long into successive loops, double crochet, double crochet at the point, and work down the other side to correspond. round : long into each loop. round : chain, miss loops, double crochet into the next, repeat. round : double crochet into the st chain of rd round, chain, repeat. work pattern in this way, chain of , double crochet into each, chain, double crochet into the last double crochet, turn, double crochet into the circle, with chain between each, into each chain, long, turn, double crochet between each of the long, with chain between each double crochet, turn, into the st double crochet long, chain, double long, chain, treble long, chain, double long, chain, long all into the same place, double crochet into the chain. repeat this times more, then work down the of , long, and of single crochet. the edging to be the same as in the former d'oyleys. the st round of the edging takes up so much space to write, that we think it better to leave it to the judgment of the worker. it will be seen by the engraving when it is necessary to work a double long or long stitch, or a stitch of single or double crochet, and the number of chain stitches between must be just sufficient to make the circle perfect. the best way is to cut a round of blue paper and place them on it from the engraving, then sew them together, and tack them to the paper, and work the st row of the edging before removing the paper. [illustration: .--d'oyley no. .] * * * * * .--_d'oyley no. ._ material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s boar's head cotton no. . work patterns from no. in st d'oyley, and from no. , pattern from no. , pattern from no. in st d'oyley, patterns from no. , and from no. in same d'oyley, pattern from no. in nd d'oyley, and leaf from no. in nd d'oyley, pattern from no. in nd d'oyley, and the following pattern. no. .--make a chain of stitches, turn, miss loop, double crochet into successive loops, turn, double crochet, long, double long, treble long into loops, double long, long, double crochet, chain, work down the other side to correspond, then double crochet, chain, miss loop, repeat all round. no. .--make a chain of stitches, turn, miss loop, double crochet into successive loops, * chain, miss two loops, long into the next, repeat from * times more, chain, miss loops, double crochet into successive loops, double crochet into every loop on both sides. next round: * chain, turn, miss loop, double crochet, long, miss loops of the foundation, double crochet, repeat from * at the point, miss only loop, work patterns of this number. no. .--make a chain of stitches, turn, miss loops, long, *, chain, long, repeat from * times, double crochet, turn, *, chain, double crochet into the st chain stitch, repeat from * times, at the point make chain instead of , work down the other side to correspond, turn, and into each of the chain double crochet, long, and double crochet, at the point long instead of , double crochet down the stem, chain of , turn, miss loops, single crochet, then into the circle long, turn, double crochet, chain, miss loop, repeat, turn, double crochet into the chain in last row, chain, repeat, turn, into the chain double crochet, chain, repeat, turn, into the chain double crochet, long, double long, long, double crochet, repeat, work down the stem, double crochet, long, double long, long, double crochet, chain of , turn, miss loops, long, double crochet, double crochet, turn, double crochet, chain, miss loop, repeat, turn, into the chain double crochet, long, double crochet, repeat, work down the stem in double crochet. [illustration: .--d'oyley no. .] no. .--make a chain of stitches, and unite it. round : into the circle long. round : double crochet into each loop, chain after each. round : double crochet into the chain, chain, repeat. round : long into the chain, repeat. round : double crochet, make chain, miss loop, repeat. *, for the leaves, chain of , turn, double crochet, long, double long, long, double crochet, chain to cross the stem, on the other side double crochet, long, double long, long, double crochet, double crochet at the point, work down the other side to correspond, double crochet down the stem, chain of , repeat from *, chain of , and unite it to the chain of the round, turn, double crochet down the stem, work another leaf in the same manner, then work a stem of , and make another leaf the same as before, finish with a stem of . no. .--round : make a chain of stitches, and unite it, double crochet, miss loops, chain, repeat twice more. round : into the chain double crochet, long, double crochet, repeat. round : double crochet into successive loops, long into successive loops, double crochet into successive loops, repeat. round : long, chain, miss loops, repeat. round : into the chain double crochet, long, double crochet, repeat. no. .--make a chain of stitches, and unite it. round : double crochet into each loop. round : double crochet into each loop. round : double crochet into loop, into the next, repeat. round : long, chain, miss loops, repeat. round : into the chain double crochet, chain, single crochet into the last double crochet, more of double crochet into the same place, chain, repeat. round : long into the chain, chain, repeat. round : into the chain double crochet, chain, single crochet into the last double crochet, more double crochet into the same place, chain, repeat. when all these pieces are done sew them together, as shown in the engraving, and work the edging to correspond with the other d'oyleys. * * * * * .--_d'oyley no. ._ materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s boar's head cotton no. ; and skein of fine embroidery cotton, by the same makers. pattern no. .--make a chain of stitches, and unite it. round : double crochet, chain, miss loop, repeat times more. round : into the chain stitches of double crochet, repeat. round : double crochet into the st of the , chain, miss loops, double crochet into the next, chain, repeat. round : into the chain double crochet, repeat. round : double crochet into the st of the , chain, miss loops, repeat. round : double crochet into the chain, and repeat. no. .--make a chain of stitches, and unite it. round : double crochet, chain, repeat times more. round : chain, miss the st, then work into successive loops double crochet and long, double crochet into the double crochet in st round, repeat. round : double crochet into the in st round, chain, and repeat. round : chain, miss the st, and work into successive loops double crochet, long, double long, double crochet into the chain, repeat. round : double crochet into the in the rd round, chain, repeat. round : same as th. round : double crochet into the in th round, chain, repeat. round : chain, miss the st, and work into successive loops double crochet, long, double long. round : same as th. round : same as th. two of these patterns will be required for this d'oyley. [illustration: .--d'oyley no. .] no. .--make a chain of , and unite it. round : double crochet into loop, double crochet into the next, repeat. round : double crochet into successive loops, chain, single crochet into the last double crochet, repeat. round : double crochet into the rd of the , chain, repeat. round : double crochet into the chain, repeat. round : long and chain alternately, missing loop between each. round : double crochet into the chain, chain, double crochet into the next chain, chain, work another double crochet into the same place, chain, repeat. no. .--make a chain of stitches, and unite it. round : double crochet, chain, miss loop, repeat times more. round : double crochet into the chain, repeat. round : chain, miss the st, and work into successive loops double crochet, long, and double long, double crochet into the last of the double crochet, repeat. round : double crochet at the top of the point, chain, miss loop, double crochet into the next, chain, miss loops, double crochet into the next, chain, double crochet into the in last round. work the other side of the point to correspond. two of these patterns will be required for this d'oyley. no. .--make a chain of stitches, and unite it. round : double crochet into each loop. round : double crochet into loop, into the next, repeat. round : chain, miss the st, and work into successive loops, double crochet and long, miss of the last round, work double crochet into successive loops, repeat times more, at the end of the round work more double crochet. round : double crochet, chain, miss loop, repeat all, round the points and stitches beyond the th, chain, double crochet into each of the , finish the round with chain and double crochet as before. no. .--make a chain of stitches, and unite it. round : double crochet, chain, repeat times more. round : into the chain double crochet, chain, repeat till double crochet are done, repeat. round : double crochet into the in st round, chain, repeat. round : same as nd. round : double crochet into the in rd round, chain, repeat. round : same as nd. round : same as th. round : same as nd, only chain instead of . round : double crochet into the in th round, chain, repeat. round : the same as th, only making chain instead of . four of these patterns will be required for this d'oyley. no. .--make a chain of stitches, and unite it. round : double crochet, chain, miss loop, repeat twice more. round : into the chain double crochet, long, double crochet, repeat. round : double crochet, chain, miss loop, repeat, chain, work more leaves in the same way, double crochet into the chain, chain, repeat round sides of the leaf, chain, repeat the stitch of double crochet and chain round sides of each leaf, joining them with chain. two of these patterns will be required for this d'oyley. no. .-- st row: make a chain of stitches, miss the st, and work into successive loops double crochet, long, double long, turn. nd row: double long into each of the , long into successive loops, long into the double crochet at the point of the leaf, long into successive loops, double long into the next loops, double long into the end of the st row, unite the last to the first double long in nd row. rd row: double crochet, chain, miss loop, repeat. no loop to be missed at the point, then work with the embroidery cotton a smaller leaf on it in satin stitch, raising it first with the cotton. no. .--make a chain of stitches, and unite it. round : long into the circle. round : double crochet, taking both sides of the loop, chain, miss loop, repeat. round : double crochet into the centre of the chain, chain, repeat. round : into the chain of last row double crochet, long, double long, long, double crochet, repeat, then work patterns from no. in st d'oyley, pattern from no. , patterns with leaves from no. in st d'oyley, patterns with leaves, and pattern with leaf, work patterns from no. in st d'oyley. when all these patterns are done join them as shown in the engraving, and work the edging as directed in the former d'oyleys. * * * * * .--_d'oyley no. _. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s boar's head cotton no. . pattern no. .--make a chain of stitches, and unite it. round : double crochet into each loop. round : double crochet into loop, and into the next, repeat. round : increase to double crochet. round : chain, single crochet into the st chain, double crochet, and repeat times more. round : double crochet into the centre one of the in last round, chain, repeat. round : double crochet into every loop. round : chain, single crochet into the st, double crochet, and repeat. round : double crochet into the th of the , chain, repeat. round : double crochet into every loop. round : chain, miss the st, and work into successive loops double crochet, long, and double long, miss loops of the last round, work double crochet, repeat. round : double crochet over the in last round, miss loop, double crochet into the next, *, chain, miss loop, repeat from * times more, repeat from the beginning of the row. no. .--make a chain of stitches, and unite it. round : double crochet into the circle. round : double crochet, chain, miss loops, repeat. round : double crochet into the chain, repeat. round : long, chain, single crochet into the nd of the chain, miss loop, repeat. four patterns of this number will be required for this d'oyley. [illustration: .--d'oyley no. .] no. .--make a chain of stitches, and unite it. round : double crochet, chain, miss loop, repeat times more. round : into the chain, *, double crochet, chain, single crochet into the st chain, repeat from * twice more, more double crochet, repeat from the beginning of the row. no. .--make a chain of , and unite it. round : long, chain, repeat times more. round : into the chain in last row long, chain, work another long into the same place, chain, repeat. round : into the chain double crochet, into the chain double crochet, chain, work another double crochet into the same place, repeat. round : into the chain double crochet, chain, single crochet into the st of the chain, double crochet, chain, single crochet into the st of the , double crochet, chain, single crochet into the st of the chain, double crochet, chain, double crochet into the centre one of the in last round, chain, repeat; then work patterns from no. in st d'oyley, pattern from no. , patterns from no. , from no. , and each from nos. , , and in st d'oyley, pattern from each of nos. and in nd d'oyley, patterns from no. in th d'oyley, and pattern each from nos. and in the th d'oyley. sew these pieces firmly together as shown in the engraving, and add the edging as before. * * * * * .--_d'oyley no. ._ materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s boar's head cotton no. ; and skein of their fine embroidery cotton. pattern no. .--make a chain of stitches and unite it. st round: double crochet into each loop. nd round: double crochet into each loop. rd round: double crochet, chain, miss loops, repeat. th round: into the chain double crochet. th round: long, chain, miss loops, repeat. th round: into the chain double crochet, chain, single crochet into the one double crochet, work another double crochet into the chain, double crochet into the next chain, repeat. th round: double crochet into the st of the in last round, chain, repeat. th round: into the chain double crochet, repeat. no. .--make a chain of stitches, work double crochet into each, make a chain of stitches, work double crochet into each, make a chain of stitches, double crochet into each. nd row: double crochet into the end of each of these points, then work round _both_ sides of these points in double crochet, working twice into the end of each point. rd row: double crochet over the at the beginning of last row, *, chain, single crochet into the st of the chain, miss loop, work a long stitch into the next, repeat from * all round, at the beginning and end of the rd point miss loops instead of , then work a stitch of double crochet into the st of the , chain, miss the st, work into successive loops long and double crochet, double crochet into the last of the . this completes the pattern. no. .--make a chain of stitches, and unite it. st round: double crochet into each loop. nd round: double crochet into loop, double crochet into the next, repeat. rd round: double crochet into successive loops, double crochet into the next, repeat. th round: double crochet into successive loops, *, chain, miss loops, double crochet into the next, repeat from *. th round: double crochet over the in last round, work into the chain double crochet, chain, single crochet into the st of the chain, more double crochet into the same place, repeat. th round: double crochet over the in last round, *, chain, double crochet over the st of the in last round, repeat from *. th round: double crochet over the in last round, *, work into the chain double crochet, chain, work a stitch of single crochet into the st of the , double crochet into the same place, repeat from *. this completes the pattern. then work a circle in satin stitch on the plain part of the pattern with the fine embroidery cotton. two of these patterns will be required for this d'oyley. [illustration: .--d'oyley no. .] no. .--make a chain of stitches, and unite it. * make a chain of stitches, miss the st, and work into successive loops double crochet, long, and double long, unite the last double long to the th of the chain in the circle, repeat from * times more, *, work in single crochet to the top of the point and down stitches of the other side, then make a chain of stitches, miss the st, work into successive loops stitches of double crochet, long, and double long, unite the last to the rd of the next point, and repeat from * times more. three of these patterns will be required for this d'oyley. work patterns from no. in the st d'oyley, work patterns from no. in the same d'oyley, work pattern from no. , and from no. in st d'oyley, work patterns with leaf from no. in st d'oyley, and pattern with leaves, work patterns from no. in the th d'oyley, and pattern from no. in the same d'oyley, and from no. , work patterns from no. in the th d'oyley, and pattern from no. in the same d'oyley, work pattern from no. in th d'oyley. join these pieces as before, and add the same edging. * * * * * .--_d'oyley no. _ materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s boar's head cotton no. ; and skein of their fine embroidery cotton. pattern no. .--make a chain of stitches, work a stitch of double crochet into each of the st, work into the th, work down the other side of the chain to correspond, and unite it. nd round: *, work long, make chain, single crochet into the st of the chain, miss loop, and repeat from *. no loop to be missed at the point. when this round is finished, make chain, miss the st, and work into successive loops long, and of double crochet, then make chain, unite to the th, and work into the circle double crochet, make chain, repeat times more. nd round: work into the chain double crochet, long, and of double crochet, repeat. rd round: work double crochet, make chain, miss loop, and repeat. three of these patterns are required for this d'oyley. [illustration: .--d'oyley no. .] no. .--make a chain of stitches. st round: work double crochet into each loop. nd round: work double crochet, make chain, miss loop, repeat. rd round: work into the chain long, make chain, work another long into the same place, make chain, work a third long into the same place, make chain, and repeat. th round: work into the centre of long long, make chain, work more long into the same place, make chain, work into the centre of the chain double crochet, make chain, work another of double crochet into the same place, make chain, and repeat. two of these patterns will be required for this d'oyley. work pattern from no. in st d'oyley, work pattern from nos. , , and , work pattern with leaves from no. in st d'oyley, and with only leaf, work pattern from each of nos. and in st d'oyley, work pattern from in th d'oyley, and from no. in the same d'oyley, work patterns from no. in th d'oyley, work patterns from no. in th d'oyley, and from no. in the same d'oyley, work pattern from no. in th d'oyley, work patterns from no. , and pattern from no. in th d'oyley, then sew them together as before. * * * * * .--_d'oyley no. _. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s boar's head cotton no. . pattern no. --make a chain of stitches, and unite ir. st round: work into the circle long, make chain, repeat times more. nd round: work double crochet into every loop. rd round: *, make chain, turn, miss loop, work double crochet down the chain, miss loop, work double crochet and repeat from * times more. th round: work double crochet, beginning on the st of the , make chain, miss loops, work double crochet, make chain, miss loops, work double crochet, make chain, work double crochet into the point, work down the other side to correspond, make chain, miss loops, work double crochet, make chain, miss loops, and repeat. th round: work into each of the chain double crochet, long stitches, and double crochet. no. .--make a chain of stitches, and unite it. st round: work a stitch of double crochet into loop, work double crochet into the next, repeat. nd round: * work double crochet, make chain, work single crochet into the st of the chain, repeat from * times more, work double crochet. rd round: * make chain stitches, work double crochet in the centre one of the , turn, work double crochet into the chain, make chain, work single crochet into the st of the chain, work double crochet into the chain, repeat from * times more. th round: work double crochet into each loop of chain, above the last work double crochet into the last loop of , make chain, turn, work single crochet into the last of the chain, double crochet, make chain. th round: work double crochet, beginning on the st of the in the st loop of chain, * make chain, turn, miss loop, work into successive loops a stitch of double, long, double long, then miss double crochet stitches, work double crochet into successive loops, make chain, single crochet into the st of the chain, miss loop, double crochet into successive loops, repeat from * times more, then work double crochet. two of these patterns will be required for this d'oyley. [illustration: .--d'oyley no. .] no. .--make a chain of stitches, and unite it. st round: work into the circle long, make chain, repeat times more. nd round: work into the chain double crochet, make chain, work another stitch of double crochet into the same place, make chain, work double crochet into the next chain, make chain, and repeat. rd round: work into the chain double crochet, work double crochet into the chain, make chain, work double crochet into the next chain, and repeat. th round: work a stitch of double crochet into the chain in last round, * work double crochet into successive loops, beginning on the st of the , make chain, work single crochet into the st of the , repeat from * twice more, then work double crochet into successive loops, and repeat from the beginning of the round. two of these patterns will be required for this d'oyley. no. .--make chain and unite it, make a chain of and unite it, make a chain of and unite it. st round: work in the chain stitches of double crochet, work into the chain double crochet, work into the chain double crochet. nd round: work stitches of double crochet into successive loops, make chain, work single crochet into the st of the chain, repeat this times more, then work double crochet and repeat from the beginning in the centre loop, repeat this times instead of . two of these are required for this d'oyley. no. .--make a chain of stitches, work double crochet into each, turn, make chain, work double crochet into the th chain on the other side, * make chain, miss loops, work double crochet into the next, repeat from * times more, work single crochet into the end loop, work double crochet into successive loops, work double into the st loop of , work double crochet into each loop of , and into the end one, then * work double crochet, make chain, work single crochet into the st of the , repeat from * all round. work patterns from no. in st d'oyley, from no. , with leaves, and with leaves, from no. in st d'oyley, patterns from no. in same d'oyley, and patterns from no. in th d'oyley, sew them together as shown in the engraving, and add the edging as before. * * * * * .--_d'oyley no. _. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s boar's head cotton no. . pattern no. .--make a chain of stitches, turn, miss loops, work double crochet, make chain, miss loops, work long, make chain stitches, miss loops, work long stitch, make chain stitches, work a stitch of double crochet into the last loop, then work into the st chain on the other side, double crochet, long, work into the next chain long stitches, work long stitches into the next chain stitches, then work into the chain at the point long stitches, then work down the other side to correspond, * make chain, miss loop, work long, make chain, work long stitch into the same place, make chain, work another long stitch into the same place, miss loop, work double crochet, repeat from * times more, then work into the st chain double crochet, make chain, work long stitch, * make , work double long stitch, repeat from * twice more, make chain, work long; all these stitches are worked into the same chain, then work double crochet into the chain stitch between the nd and rd long stitches, repeat this times more; this finishes the leaf; then make chain, and work a second leaf the same as st, then work double crochet down, then make chain, and work a third leaf the same as st, work stitches down the stem, and work a th leaf the same as st, work double crochet down the stem, work a th leaf the same as st, make a chain of stitches, turn, and work back in double crochet. [illustration: .--d'oyley no. .] no. .--make a chain of stitches, and unite it, *, work a stitch of double crochet into the circle, make chain, and repeat from * five times more, then work stitches into each of the chain, then work stitches of double crochet, beginning on the second of the , *, make chain stitches, and work a stitch of single crochet into the st of the chain, then work stitches of double crochet, and repeat from * times more; for the stem make a chain of stitches, turn, * work stitches of double crochet, make chain, turn, and work a stitch of single crochet into the st, repeat from * times more, then work down the other side to correspond; then work pattern from no. in st d'oyley, and from no. , with only two leaves, and from no. in the same d'oyley; work pattern from no. in th d'oyley, and from no. in th d'oyley; work pattern from no. in th d'oyley, and from no. ; work patterns from no. in the same d'oyley, sew the pieces together as before, and work the edging. * * * * * _and_ .--_work-basket in straw and silk crochet-work_. materials: straw; brown floss silk; brown ribbon, - / inch wide; small glass beads; a piece of bamboo cane. this basket has a cover formed of two pieces. it can be employed for many things, and is formed entirely of crochet-work with brown silk over straw. a ruche trimmed with beads and bows of brown silk ribbon form the trimming of the basket. the straws over which you crochet must be damp, so as not to be stiff. they should be of unequal length, and when you join the two ends of two straws together, try to hide the beginning with the other straws. begin the basket in the centre of the bottom part with stitches; then work rounds on either side of this first row, working alternately double stitch, or chain stitches, the double stitch in the chain stitch of the preceding round, the last round over wire. [illustration: .--bottom of work basket ( ).] it is necessary to increase regularly in all the rounds to keep the work flat. when you have finished the bottom begin the border of the basket, which is worked of the same piece with it, and consists of rounds. it is worked in the same way as the bottom, the first rounds without increasing the number of stitches, but in the following rounds increase double stitches at both ends, in order that the edge may be a little wider in the upper part. in the last round add a piece of wire to the straws. [illustration: .--work basket in straw and crochet.] the cover of the basket is formed of two pieces. begin in the middle with stitches; crochet each half in rows forming a half circle, working backwards and forwards; at the beginning of each row turn the straws, and take care that the rows which are finished form a straight line. each half of the cover requires rows; the last one is worked over wire. the two halves are united at the straight sides by a brown silk ribbon - / inch wide, which is sewed on underneath, and which forms a sort of hinge; sew on also a piece of wire covered with brown silk, so as to make the hinge stronger. form the handle with a piece of bamboo cane inches long, and covered with straws; work over it in long stitches of brown silk, and let it go down to the bottom of the basket; then sew the cover on the handle with the brown ribbon, which forms the two parts. trim the basket with a ruche of double box pleats, ornamented with glass beads and with bows of brown silk ribbon. * * * * * _and_ .--_two crochet borders_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s crochet cotton nos. and . no. .--crochet cotton of two sizes is used for this border (no. and no. ); it is begun in the centre by a chain of stitches of the length required. [illustration: .--crochet border.] st row: double in each stitch of the chain. nd row: turn and work on the opposite side of the chain, * double, chain, miss . repeat from *. rd row: * double on the st loop of chain, chain, double in the centre of the stitches which are under the st loop of chain, chain, double on the same loop, chain. repeat from *. th row: * double in the centre of the st loop of chain, chain, treble in the st, but before you complete the treble stitch make chain. repeat from *. this row completes the upper half of the border. the lower half is worked over the st row of plain double crochet. th row: double in each of the first stitches, chain, miss , double, come back over the loop of chain and work double in each stitch, come back again and work small points, each made thus: chain, double in the th, and treble in each of the others, double over the round scallop. when you have worked the small points repeat from *, but always join the st point of one scallop to the last point of the next scallop. the pattern inside the scallops is worked in rows with fine cotton. (see illustration.) * * * * * [illustration: .--crochet border.] no. .--the border is begun above the pointed scallops, filled up with lace stitches, by making alternately chain, purl (_i.e._, chain and slip stitch in the st). when the chain is long enough, turn and work the st row: alternately chain, double in the centre stitch between the purl. nd row: turn, work double in the centre of the st loop of chain, chain, purl, chain, double in the centre of next loop, and so on. the rd row (which is the last) is worked on the opposite side of the chain with purl. * in each of the first stitches work double, make chain, miss the last of the double just worked, and work double in the th, come back over the loop of chain, and work small points over it. for each point make chain, work double in the nd, treble in the st of the chain, double upon the loop of chain. repeat from * times more. in the following scallops always fasten the first point of one scallop to the last point of the preceding scallop. when this row is completed fill up the inner part of each scallop with a network of fine thread, joining the threads at all the places where they cross each other by or stitches with a sewing needle. [illustration: .--crochet border.] * * * * * .--_crochet antimacassar_. materials: reels of messrs. walter evans and co.'s boar's head cotton no. . [illustration: .--crochet antimacassar.] this pattern can be adapted for a round couvrette or a square one, and is also pretty done in silk for a sofa cushion. make a chain of stitches, and unite it. st round: work into loop a long stitch, make chain stitch, work another long stitch into the same place, make chain, repeat. nd round: long stitches into loop, make chain stitches, miss loop, and repeat. rd round: double crochet into the chain in last round, make chain, and repeat. th round: into the chain double crochet, long stitches, and more double crochet, and repeat. th round: long stitch into the st double crochet in last round, make chain, and repeat. th round: into the chain double crochet, * make chain, work double crochet, repeat from * times more, make chain, work a stitch of single crochet into the nd of the , make chain stitch, and repeat from the beginning of the round. th round: long stitch into the loop formed with the chain, make chain, and repeat. th round: into the chain double crochet into successive loops, make chain, work double crochet into each of the next loops, make chain, work into the th loop double crochet, long stitches, and another double crochet, make chain, miss loop, work double crochet into successive loops, make chain, work double crochet into each of the next, make chain, and repeat. this completes the circle. circles sewn together like the engraving will make a good-sized couvrette, in the length, and in the width. if a round couvrette is wished, work circle for the centre larger than the others; this can be done by repeating the th and th rounds, then sew circles round the centre one, and increase the number of circles in each row till you have made it the size you wish. for the square one, tassels are required for the end and sides; these are made by winding the cotton over a cardboard inches deep about times, then twist threads of the cotton into a cord, cut the cotton wound on the cardboard at one end, make inches of the cord into a loop and tie it firmly with the middle of the tassel, then turn it, tie a thread tightly round, about an inch below the cord, and net over the head; of these tassels will be sufficient. * * * * * .--_crochet insertion_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s crochet cotton no. . [illustration: .--crochet insertion.] the patterns of this insertion are worked in a row, and always two opposite circles at a time. make a foundation chain of stitches, join them into a circle, then work a nd circle consisting again of chain stitches. work round this circle double stitches, and double round the st circle; after the last stitch begin again at the nd circle, and work chain scallops as follows:-- double in the next stitches, * chain, double in the next stitches, repeat times more, double in the last stitches; work in the same manner round the other circle. to get to the next pattern, work slip stitches between the circles in the middle of the just-completed pattern, leaving the cotton under the work and drawing it through the stitch upwards through the loop on the needle; chain stitches, and then circles like those just described, and so on. * * * * * _and_ .--_tobacco pouch in crochet work_. materials: black purse silk; crimson ditto; gold thread. the pouch is begun at the bottom, in the centre of the star. with crimson silk make a chain of stitches, and join it into a circle. work rounds of double crochet, stitches in each stitch. th round: crimson stitches, gold stitch, and so on. th round: all gold stitches. th round: crimson stitches, gold, and so on. th round: all crimson stitches. th round: crimson stitches, gold, &c. th round: similar to the preceding. [illustration: .--star for tobacco pouch, no. .] th round: gold stitches, crimson, &c. th round: gold stitches, black stitches over the centre gold stitches of preceding round, &c. th round: gold stitches, black stitches, &c. th round: gold stitch, black stitches, &c. th round: gold stitches, black stitches, &c. th round: gold stitches, black stitches, &c. th round: gold stitches, over the black stitches of preceding round, and on either side, crimson stitches, &c. th round: gold stitches over the centre ones of preceding round, crimson stitches, &c. now work plain crimson rounds, and begin the pattern from no. . the centre is crimson, and the pattern is black and gold. the border round the top is of the same colours. [illustration: .--tobacco pouch.] complete the work by rounds of open treble crochet, and round of gold scallops. in the open rounds pass a double cord of black silk, finished off with small balls of black silk gimp and gold; and on either side of the pouch fasten one of these same balls with two tassels, one crimson and one black. the pouch is lined with white kid. * * * * * _and_ .--_crochet rosettes_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s crochet cotton no. , , or . these rosettes are suitable for trimming cuffs, collars, and bodices, or for making couvrettes, according to the size of the cotton with which they are worked. [illustration: .--crochet rosette.] .--make a foundation chain of chain; join them into a circle and work the st round; double. nd round: * chain, missing stitches of the preceding round under them, double; repeat times more from *. rd round: slip stitch in the first stitches of the next scallop, * chain, miss the last and work back on the other , double, treble, long treble, double long treble (throw the cotton times round the needle), slip stitch in the middle stitch of the next scallop; repeat times more from *. work a wheel in the centre of the rosette, which is ornamented with a circle of chain stitch, as can be seen in illustration; take up one thread of the wheel with every other chain stitch. * * * * * [illustration: .--crochet rosette.] .--begin the rosette with a leaf-like pattern in the centre, and work the st row: * chain, miss the last, work back over the following stitches, double, treble, long treble, double long treble, long treble, treble, double in the upper part of the chain stitch before the last, slip stitch in the lower part of the same stitch. the first leaf of the middle pattern is then completed; repeat times more from *. join the first and last leaves together by working slip stitch in the st of the chain stitch. nd round: (fasten on the cotton afresh), slip stitch in the point of each leaf, chain between. rd round: double in each scallop. the rosette is then completed. * * * * * .--_crochet trimming, with embroidered flowers worked in appliqué, and velvet ribbon_. [illustration: .--crochet trimming, with embroidered flowers worked in appliqué and velvet ribbon.] this trimming consists of strips of crochet insertion, ornamented with embroidery patterns worked in appliqué, and velvet ribbon drawn through. they are worked the long way with fine crochet cotton. begin on a sufficiently long foundation chain of stitches which can be divided by , and work the st row: chain, * double, on the first stitches of the foundation, leaf, as follows:-- chain, without reckoning the loop left on the needle, extra long treble (for which the cotton is wound times round the needle) in the second of the chain, a similar treble in the first, then cast off the treble stitches together, wind the cotton once round the needle, and cast off the last loop with the loop left on the needle. miss under the leaf stitches of the foundation, and repeat from *. nd row: double on the double of the preceding row, inserting the needle in the whole stitches, chain stitches between. rd row: * double in the first double of the preceding row, chain, slip stitch in every other stitch of the next scallop of the preceding row, chain between, chain stitches; repeat from *. th row: * double in the middle of the double of the preceding row, chain, slip stitch in the middle stitch of each of the scallops, consisting of chain in the preceding row, chain between, chain; repeat from *. these last rows (the third and fourth) are repeated on the other side of the foundation chain. when the strips of insertion are completed, sew them together so that opposite scallops meet, and ornament them with the embroidery patterns and velvet ribbon. * * * * * .--_crochet insertion_. this pretty insertion is very suitable for cerceaunette covers or pillow-cases, and should be worked with middle-sized cotton. if the insertion is used for anything but a pillowcase, omit the lower border on which the button-holes are made. begin the insertion in the middle of one of the star-like figures, with a foundation chain of stitches; join them into a circle by making slip stitch, and crochet thus:--* chain, slip stitch in the th of these chain; this forms purl; chain, slip stitch in the circle, repeat from * times more. work slip stitches in the next chain, then crochet * in the next purl; double divided by chain, chain, repeat times from *. fasten the thread after having fastened the last chain-stitches with a slip stitch to the st double stitch of this round. this completes the star-like figure. work on one side of these figures the following rows:-- st row: * treble in the nd scallop of the four placed together, chain, double in the next scallop, chain, treble in the last of the scallops, chain, treble in the st scallop of the following placed together, chain, double in the next nd scallop, chain, treble in the rd scallop, chain. repeat from *. nd row: treble in the st stitch of the preceding row, * miss stitches, treble in the th following stitch. repeat from *. rd row: * treble cast off together as one stitch on the next stitches of the preceding row, chain. repeat from *. th row: double on the next stitch of the preceding row, * chain, slip stitch in the double; this forms purl; double on the next stitches of the preceding row. repeat from *. after having worked these four rows likewise on the other side of the star figures, work over the last the following rows for the button-holes:-- st row: double in the next purl, * chain, double in the next purl. repeat from *. nd row: double in each stitch of the preceding row. rd row: alternately double, chain, under which miss stitches. th row: like the nd row. th row; * double on the next double of the preceding row, purl ( chain, slip stitch in the last double stitch). repeat from *. [illustration: .--crochet insertion.] * * * * * .--_crochet insertion_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s crochet cotton no. . this insertion is worked in our pattern with fine crochet cotton on a double foundation chain. for the outer edge work a row of purl stitches as follows:-- double in the st stitch, * chain, purl, consisting of chain, slip stitch in the st chain, double in the next stitch but ; repeat from *. the open-work centre consists of rows of scallops; the st of these rows is worked on the other side of the foundation chain; double in the middle stitch of every scallop, chain between, then row of slip stitches, and finally a row of purl stitches like the st row of the insertion. for the raised flowers, which are fastened over the grounding at unequal distances, * make a foundation chain of stitches, fasten it on over the grounding from illustration by taking the needle out of the loop, inserting it into the chain of the grounding, and drawing the loop through; miss the last of the chain, and work back over the others; slip stitch, double, long double, treble, long double, double, slip stitch, then slip stitch in the st stitch, * chain, missing stitches under them, double in the th stitch; repeat from *. each following row consists of double in the middle stitch of every scallop of the preceding row, chain between. then work the st row of the border on the other side of the insertion; double in the st stitch of the foundation, inserting the needle into the back part of the stitch; repeat times more from *, and the flower is completed. [illustration: .--crochet insertion.] * * * * * .--_crochet garter_. materials: grey thread of medium size; fine red wool; fine round white elastic cord; a pearl button. this garter is worked in close double crochet, over fine elastic cord; the border and pattern in red wool, the centre in grey thread. [illustration: .--crochet garter.] begin in the middle by a chain of stitches, with red wool; take the elastic cord, which must always be stretched out a little, and work over it. work on both sides of the foundation chain; the pattern is completed in the course of the two first rounds; the button-hole is made at the beginning of the first round; make a loop of stitches, and, when you come to it, work over this loop instead of over the foundation chain. increase the number of stitches at either end of the garter, to round it off. when the second round is completed work two plain grey rounds, then a plain red one. the last round (grey thread) is composed of alternately double, purl formed of chain, slip stitch in the first, missing stitch under the purl. sew on a pearl button to correspond with the button-hole. the garter would be both more elegant and more elastic if worked entirely in silk. * * * * * .--_crochet trimming for a lady's chemise_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s crochet cotton, and a needle to match. this pattern, as can be seen in illustration, is an imitation of old guipure lace; it is worked all in one piece for the bosom and sleeves, and is part of one of the shoulder-pieces in full size. both strips of rosettes join at that place, and one is continued for the part round the bosom and the other for the sleeve. in the pattern there are rosettes round the bosom, and round each sleeve. these rosettes are fastened one to another in the course of the work. they are made in the following manner:--make a chain of stitches, and join it into a ring. st round: chain, slip stitch in the th chain, which forms a purl (the first chain are reckoned as treble), chain, treble in the ring, * chain, slip stitch in the st to form a purl, chain, treble in the ring. repeat times from *. instead of the last treble, work a slip stitch to fasten the end of the round to the chain of the beginning, which thus form treble. nd round: chain (the first to be reckoned as treble), * treble on the st treble of last round, chain. repeat times from *. slip stitch in the treble at the beginning. rd round: on each scallop of preceding round work double, purl, double, purl, double, purl, double. this completes the rosette. each rosette is fastened to the last by joining the middle purl of both. in the illustration, which is full-size, the purl that are to be joined to those of another rosette are marked by a cross. the joining between the part round the bosom and the sleeve is made in the same manner. the space left between rosettes is filled up with a star formed of chain stitches, marked in our illustration with an asterisk. for this star make a chain of stitches, the st of which forms the centre; slip the loop you have on the needle through one of the purl that are free, make chain, double in the centre stitch. repeat times from *; then tie the two ends tightly, or sew them together of these stars are required for each shoulder. [illustration: .--crochet trimming for a lady's chemise.] for the border.--it is worked at the same time both round the bosom and sleeves. st round: * double in the centre purl of the st scallop of the rosette, which we will call the _first rosette_; chain, double in the centre purl of the nd scallop of the same rosette, chain; then work the kind of cross which comes between each rosette (see illustration). to make this cross throw the cotton times round the needle, work double treble in the last purl left free of the st rosette, keep the last loop on the needle, throw the cotton twice round it, and work a double treble in the st purl left free in the nd rosette, throw the thread twice round the needle, work treble with the loop left on the needle, make chain, and work treble in the last double treble, which completes the cross; make chain. repeat from * at each slit on the shoulders; after the last cross make chain, slip stitch in the purl at the end of the slit, chain to come to the next space, where a cross is to be made. nd round: work alternately treble, chain, miss ; at the slit on the shoulders work double over the chain. the two rounds just explained are also worked round the upper edge, and finished round the sleeves by the following round:-- double in one of the spaces in last round, * chain, double in the nd of the chain, which forms a purl, chain, double on the next but one of the last round, chain, double in the nd of the chain, chain, double in the next space. repeat from *. on the upper edge of the bosom, between the st and nd rounds of the border, work round of crosses, but throwing the cotton twice only round the needle, so that the treble stitches are not double; make chain between each cross. * * * * * knitting. .--knitting, though considered to be an old-fashioned art, is by no means so ancient as lacemaking. knitting has never entirely quitted the hands of english and german ladies; indeed, among all good housewives of any civilised country, it is reckoned an indispensable accomplishment. knitting schools have been established of late years both in ireland and scotland, and her majesty the queen has herself set an example of this industry, as well as largely patronised the industrial knitters of scotland. of the rudiments of this useful art many ladies are at present ignorant; it is in the hope of being useful to these that the following instructions are offered. to knit, two, three, four, or five needles, and either thread, cotton, silk, or wool are required. knitting needles are made of steel, of ivory, or of wood; the size to be used depends entirely upon the material employed, whether thread, cotton, silk, single or double wool, for knitting. as the size of the needles depends upon that of the cotton, a knitting gauge is used (see no. ). the gauge (page ) is the exact size of messrs. h. walker and co.'s knitting gauge. our readers will remark that english and foreign gauges differ very essentially; the finest size of german needles, for example, is no. , which is the size of the coarsest english wooden or ivory needle. straight knitting is usually done with two needles only for round knitting for socks, stockings, &c., three, four, and five needles are employed. [illustration: .--knitting gauge.] * * * * * .--_casting on_. this term is used for placing the first row or round of knitting stitches on the needles--"casting them on"--and is done in two ways--by "knitting on" the stitches, or as follows:-- hold the thread between the first and second finger of the left hand, throw it over the thumb and first finger so as to form a loop, and pass the needle in the loop; throw the thread lightly round the needle, pass it through the loop, and draw up the thread; this forms the first stitch (see no. ). [illustration: .--casting on.] .--_to knit on_. [illustration: .--knitting on.] take the needle on which the stitches are cast in the left hand, and another needle in the right hand--observe the position of the hands (no. ). hold the left-hand needle between the thumb and third finger, leaving the first finger free to move the points of the needles. (the wonderful sense of touch in the first or index finger is so delicate, that an experienced knitter can work without ever looking at her fingers, by the help of this touch only--in fact, knitting becomes a purely mechanical labour, and as such is most useful.) insert the point of the right-hand needle in the loop or stitch formed on the left-hand needle, bring the thread once round, turning the point of the needle in front under the stitch, bringing up the thread thrown over, which in its turn becomes a stitch, and is placed on the left-hand needle. .--_simple knitting (plain)_. [illustration: .--plain knitting.] pass the right-hand needle into the st stitch of the left-hand needle, at the back throw the thread forward, and with the first finger pass the point of the needle under the stitch in forming a fresh stitch with the thread already thrown over, as in "knitting on," only, instead of placing the newly-formed stitch on the left-hand needle, leave it on the right-hand needle, and let the stitch drop off the point of the left-hand needle. continue thus until all the stitches are taken from the left to the right-hand needle, and the row is then complete. .--_to purl, pearl, or seam_. seaming or purling a stitch is done by taking up the stitch _in front_ instead of at the back, throwing the thread over and knitting the stitch as in plain knitting; but before beginning to purl, the thread must be brought in front of the needle, and if a plain stitch follows, the thread is passed back after the purl stitch is made (see no. ). [illustration: .--purling.] .--_to increase_. increasing or making a stitch is done by throwing the thread once round the needle and in the next row knitting it as an ordinary stitch. [illustration: .--increasing.] .--_to decrease_. this is done in two ways: _firstly_, taking up two stitches and knitting them together as one; _secondly_, by taking up a stitch without knitting it, called slipping, then by knitting the following stitch in the usual way, and then slipping the st (unknitted) over the nd (knitted) (see no. ). when it is necessary to decrease two stitches at once, proceed thus:--slip one, knit two stitches together, then slip the unknitted stitch over the two knitted together. [illustration: .--decreasing.] .--_round knitting_. to knit a round four or five needles are used; it is thus that stockings, socks, cuffs, mittens, &c., are made. to knit with four needles, cast on, say, stitches upon one needle, insert a second needle in the last stitch of the first, and cast on stitches; proceed in a similar way with a third needle, but casting on only; when this is done, knit the two extra stitches on the first needle on to the last; this makes stitches upon each needle, and completes the round. .--_casting off_. knit two stitches, and with the left-hand needle slip the first stitch over the second; continue this to the end of the row. _note_.--the last knitted row, before casting off, should be knitted loosely. .--_to pick up a stitch_. this is done by taking up the thread between two stitches and forming a stitch with it. * * * * * the following designs of new stitches can be used for a variety of work:-- .--_peacock's tail pattern_. needles, wood or ivory; messrs. walter evans and co.'s knitting cotton. [illustration: .--peacock's tail pattern.] cast on a number of stitches divisible by nine, as it takes nine stitches for each pattern, and two for each border; the border, which is in plain knitting, will not be mentioned after the first row. _st row_.-- plain for border; plain *, make , plain, repeat this four times from *, make , plain; repeat from the beginning--then plain for border. _nd row_.-- purl, plain, purl; repeat. [illustration: .--spiral stitch.] _rd row_.--take together, plain, take together; repeat. _th row_.--purl together, purl , purl together; repeat. _th row_.--take together, plain, take together. begin from the st row. thirteen stitches are large enough for a stripe for a sofa-cover. these stripes should be sewn together after all are finished. * * * * * .--_spiral stitch_. materials: needles, thick steel or bone; double wool. this stitch is far more effective worked in thick wool than in cotton. it is done in stripes alternately wide and narrow. for wide stripes cast on twenty-one stitches, for narrow fifteen; this without counting the first and last stitch, the first being slipped, the last always plainly knitted. _st row_.--purl together to end of row. _nd row_.--make , * plain, make , repeat from * end by making the last stitch before the plain knitted one at end of row. * * * * * [illustration .--knotted stitch.] .--_knotted stitch_. materials: needles, wood or ivory; double wool. cast on stitches. _st row_.--all plain, throwing the wool twice round the needle before each stitch. _nd row_.--each stitch on the needle is now composed of threads of wool: knit the first plain, the second purl, the third plain; cast off the second over the third, and the first over the second; this leaves but one stitch; repeat from first row until a sufficient length is obtained. this pattern makes very pretty borders. * * * * * .--_knitted moss borders_. materials: steel needles; moss wool of several shades of green. cast on enough stitches for double the width required, say twenty, and knit very tightly in plain knitting, row by row, until a sufficient length has been obtained. cut off and place the strip on a sieve over a basin of boiling water, and cover it over. when it has absorbed the steam, and while wet, iron it with a box-iron. then cut the strip down the centre, and unravel the wool on each side. the threads of wool all curling, resemble moss. they are held firmly by the selvedge of the knitting. * * * * * .--_german brioche stitch_ materials: wood or ivory needles; wool. cast on an even number of stitches. all the rows are knitted as follows:--slip , taken as for purling, make , take together. in the following rows the made stitch must always be slipped, the decreased stitch and the slipped stitch of the previous row knitted together. [illustration: .--german brioche stitch.] ordinary brioche stitch is made by casting on an even number of stitches, and working the rows as follows:-- make , slip , take together; repeat. _note_.--the made stitch and the slipped stitch of the previous row must always be knitted together, and the decreased stitch of that row slipped. * * * * * netting. .--netting is one of the prettiest and one of the easiest accomplishments of a lady. the materials are simple, while the effects produced by good netting are most elegant and of great durability. one great advantage of netting is that each stitch is finished and independent of the next, so that if an accident happens to one stitch it does not, as in crochet or knitting, spoil the whole work. netting, so easy to do, is most difficult to describe. the materials required are--a netting-needle and mesh (see illustration no. ). these are made of bone, of wood, of ivory, and most commonly of steel. the wood, bone, and ivory are only used for netting wool, the steel for silk, cotton, &c. the needle is filled by passing the end of the thread through the little hole at the left-hand point, and tying it; then the thread is wound on the needle as on a tatting shuttle. the needles are numbered from to ; these last are extremely fine. the meshes correspond to the sizes of the needles, and are made of the same materials. the larger the size of the stitch required the thicker the mesh must be selected; indeed, large hat meshes are often used for some patterns. a stirrup to slip over the foot to which the foundation is attached is required by those who do not use a netting cushion, placed before them on the table and heavily weighted; to this the foundation is fastened. the stirrup is made of a loop of ribbon, to which the foundation is tied. some ladies work a pretty stirrup of the exact shape of a horseman's stirrup; a loop of ribbon is passed through this, and the foundation fixed as before. [illustration .--needle and mesh.] .--_to net_. place the mesh under the thread, between the thumb and finger of the left hand; it must rest on the middle of the finger and be held only by the thumb (see illustration no. ). take the needle in the right hand, pass the thread over the middle and ring finger and over the mesh, pass the needle upwards and behind the mesh in the large loop which forms the thread round the fingers, and at the same time through the first stitch or loop of the foundation. draw the needle out, retaining the loops on the fingers and dropping them off, the little finger being the last to release the thread. as the thread tightens and the knot is firm, the loop on the little finger should be drawn up quickly and smartly. the next stitches are precisely similar, and row upon row is formed in the same manner. having learnt the stitch, the next task is to make a foundation. tie a large loop of strong thread on the stirrup ribbon, and net fifty stitches into this loop, then net four or five rows, and the foundation is ready. [illustration: .--netting.] simple netting as above explained forms diamonds or lozenges. when a piece of netting is finished it is cut off the foundation, and the little ends of thread that held the stitches are drawn out. .--_square netting_. is done precisely in the same manner as plain netting, only begin from one stitch, then net two stitches into this first, and increase by making two in the last loop of every row. as soon as the right number of stitches is complete diminish exactly in the same way by netting two stitches as one at the end of each row until one stitch alone remains. these squares are used for guipure d'art and for darning on. .--_round netting_ is nearly similar to plain netting. a little difference exists in the way of passing the needle through the stitch; this is shown in no. . after having passed the needle through the stitch it is drawn out and passed from above into the loop just made. this stitch is very effective for purses. [illustration: .--round netting.] .--_diamond netting_ is often called "pointed netting," and is made by netting from one stitch, increasing one stitch at the end of each row, and decreasing in the same way, as described at page . .--_to net rounds_. to form a circle, as for a purse, the needle must pass through the first stitch, keeping the last three or four on the mesh and removing this when required by the work. .--_"english" netting_ is made as follows:--net a row of plain netting, begin the second row by netting the second stitch, then net the first; repeat, always passing by one stitch and taking it up. _ rd row_.--plain. _ th row_.--begin by a plain stitch, then continue as in the nd row. _ th row_.--plain. [illustration: .--"english" netting.] .--_lace edging_. begin by one stitch and net two in one at the end of each row until as many stitches are required for the narrowest part of the edge. * increase one then in the two loops until the point of the edge or scallop is reached; at the next row leave the squares which form the point, and begin from *. .--_open lace_. this kind of edging is made with two meshes of different sizes and extremely fine crochet cotton. tie the thread to the foundation, net rows with the small mesh of the required length. _ th row_.--on the large mesh, one stitch in each stitch. _ th row_.--on the small mesh take stitches together to form loop; repeat to end of row. _ th row_.--on the large mesh make loops in each stitch; repeat to end of row. [illustration: .--open lace.] _ th row_.--on the small mesh, one loop in each of the first stitches, pass over the th, repeat to end. _ th row_.--on the small mesh make a loop in each of the two first stitches, pass over the th; repeat. _ th row_.--on the small mesh make a loop in each of the two first stitches, pass over the rd; repeat. this lace is often used in fine wool of two colours to trim opera-caps, children's hoods, &c. .--_shell border_. this border is intended as an edging for square netting for couvrettes, d'oyleys, &c. the mesh must be three times as long as that employed for the square netting. make stitches in the first stitch of the edge, pass over , make in the ninth, and repeat. then take the mesh used for the square netting, and net one stitch in each stitch, take a still smaller mesh, and complete by adding another row of one stitch in each stitch. this border forms a very appropriate edging for all articles in square netting, as couvrettes, mats, also for trimming guipure d'art work, and should be netted in the row of holes edging the work; two sets of shells must be worked at the corners when a little fulness is required. [illustration: .--shell border.] * * * * * knitting and netting patterns .--_knitted sock for a child._ materials for pair: ounce of single berlin wool; yard of narrow pink or blue ribbon; fine steel pins. this sock fits well, and is easy to make. it is knitted upon two pins, backwards and forwards. cast on stitches and knit rows, but increase once at the end of every other row on the right side of the work, so that there are stitches in the nd row. now cast off stitches and knit rows, increasing stitch at the end of every other row. now more rows, decreasing stitch at the end of every other row; this forms the toe. cast on stitches on the same needle, and knit rows, decreasing stitch at the end of every other row, and cast off. pick up the stitches on the upper part of shoe, and knit rows, alternately plain and purl rows, decreasing stitch on each side of the stitches in every other row, which forms the toe and front of sock. knit rows of plain, purl stitches alternately, then open rows with plain row between. the open rows are worked as follows:--* purl together, purl , make , repeat *, plain rows, open row, plain row, and cast off. the sock is sewn together down the back of leg, centre of sole, and the point joined like a gusset to form the toe. [illustration: .--knitted sock.] * * * * * .--_knitted pattern for counterpanes, berceaunette covers, couvrettes, antimacassars, &c._ materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s knitting cotton; steel knitting-needles of a corresponding size. [illustration: .--knitted pattern for counterpanes, berceaunette covers, &c.] according to the size of the cotton employed, this beautiful square makes different articles, such as counterpanes, couvrettes, &c. &c. if worked with evans's cotton no. , it will be suitable for the first-mentioned purpose. begin the square in the centre, cast on stitches, on each needle; join them into a circle, and knit plain the st round. nd round: * knit , throw the cotton forward, knit ; repeat times more from *. rd round: plain knitting. this knitted round is repeated after every pattern round. we shall not mention this again, nor the repetition from *. th round: * knit , throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit . th round: * knit , throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit . th round: * knit , throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit . the th to th rounds are knitted in the same manner, only in every other round the number of stitches between the stitches formed by throwing the cotton forward increases by , so that in the th round stitches are knitted between. th round: * knit , throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit , slip , knit , draw the slipped over the knitted stitch, knit , knit together, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit . nd round: * knit , throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, slip , knit , draw the slipped over the knitted stitch, throw the cotton forward, knit , slip , knit , draw the slipped over the knitted stitch, knit , knit together, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit . th round: * knit , throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, slip , knit , draw the slipped over the knitted stitch; throw the cotton forward, slip , knit , draw the slipped over the knitted stitch, throw the cotton forward, knit , slip , knit , draw the slipped over the knitted stitch, knit , knit together, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit . th round: * knit , throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward times alternately, slip , knit , draw the first over the last, throw the cotton forward; knit , slip , knit , draw the first over the last, knit , knit together, knit , three times alternately, throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit . th round: * knit , throw the cotton forward, knit , four times alternately, throw the cotton forward, slip , knit , draw the slipped over the knitted stitch; throw the cotton forward, knit , slip , knit , draw the slipped over the knitted stitch; knit , knit together, knit , four times alternately throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit . th round: * knit , throw the cotton forward, knit , six times alternately throw the cotton forward, slip , knit , draw the slipped over the knitted stitch, knit six times alternately, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit . nd round: knit , throw the cotton forward, knit , times alternately throw the cotton forward, slip , knit , draw the slipped over the knitted stitch, throw the cotton forward, knit stitches together, times alternately throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit . th round: * knit , throw the cotton forward, knit , times alternately throw the cotton forward, slip , knit , draw the slipped over the knitted stitch, knit , times alternately knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit . th round: * knit , throw the cotton forward, knit , times alternately throw the cotton forward, slip , knit , draw the slipped over the knitted stitch, throw the cotton forward, knit stitches together, times alternately throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit . th round: * knit , throw the cotton forward, knit , times alternately throw the cotton forward, slip , knit , draw the, slipped over the knitted stitch, times alternately knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit . th round: * knit , throw the cotton forward, knit , times alternately throw the cotton forward, slip , knit , draw the slipped over the knitted stitch, throw the cotton forward, knit stitches together as stitch, times alternately throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton torward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit . you now have stitches on each needle; knit round, and cast off. when completed, the squares are joined together on the wrong side. * * * * * .--_knitted sleeping sock._ materials for one pair: ounces white fleecy, ply; ounces light blue fleecy. [illustration: .--knitted sleeping sock.] these socks are knitted with white and blue wool in a diamond pattern, and in rounds like a stocking. begin at the upper part of the sock; cast on stitches with blue wool on pretty thick steel knitting-needles, and knit rounds of the diamond pattern as follows:-- st round: quite plain. nd round: purled; both these rounds are worked with blue wool. rd to th rounds: knitted plain with white wool. th round: with blue wool; knit , draw the wool through the next stitch of the nd round worked with blue wool, draw it out as a loop, keep it on the needle, knit again stitches, and so on. th round: with blue wool; the loop which has been taken up on the preceding round is purled off together with the preceding stitch. repeat the rd and th rounds twice more; the loop of one round must be placed between those of the preceding one. then knit with white wool rounds, alternately stitches knitted, stitches purled, then work the foot in the diamond pattern in the same way as usual for a stocking. the heel is formed by leaving stitches on each side the seam stitch, and knitted backwards and forwards in the diamond pattern. at the toe decrease so that the decreasings form a seam on both sides of the toe. this is obtained by knitting the rd and th stitches of the st needle together; on the nd needle slip the th stitch before the last, knit the next stitch and draw the slipped stitch over the knitted one; decrease in the same manner on the other needles of this round. repeat these decreasings exactly in the same direction and at the same places, so that there are always stitches between the decreasings at the end and at the beginning of needles; they always take place after or plain rounds, and at last after plain round. the remaining stitches are knitted off and together. to complete the sock, the outline of the sole is marked by working slip stitches with blue wool in crochet all round it; work also slip stitches on the selvedge stitch of the heel. the stocking is finished off at the top with a double round of loops in blue wool, worked over a mesh four-fifths of an inch wide. * * * * * _ and .--netted fichu or cape._ material: fine wool, or white and blue silk; netting needle and meshes. this fichu or cape is made either with fine wool or with silk used three or four times double. it may be worn as an evening wrap, either over a cap or on the hair, or as a necktie. the ground in our pattern is white, the border blue. the illustration of the ground and of the border, in full size, will serve as a guide for the size of the meshes to be used. for the ground cast on the first mesh, with white silk, stitches; work rows on the stitches. from the rd row, always miss the last stitch, so that each row is decreased stitch. continue in this manner till the th row, when there will be but stitches left. from the th row, miss stitches at the end of each row. the ground is completed with the th row. the st row of the work is the _cross-way side_; the last, the _point at the bottom_; fasten on the blue silk to the st stitch of the st row, and on a larger mesh work row round the ground of the fichu, not forgetting that the stitch on the outer edge at the sides must always be taken, and stitches made in the th, th, th, [illustration: .--netted fichu, or cape, for evening dress.] th, st, rd, and th stitches at the sides, as well as in each of the middle stitches of the last row; in each of the other stitches stitch should be made. on the corners of the sides increase _once_, on the cross-way side, seven times in all. this forms the st round of the edging or lace. [illustration: .--showing the netting full size for border of fichu.] nd round of the lace: in each stitch make stitches--still on the larger mesh. rd round: always miss the small flat scallop formed in last row, and work stitches in the stitch which forms a tight loop. keep thus the same number of stitches, with which work more rounds. for the last round, work stitch in each _tight_ loop. * * * * * _ .--lady's knitted purse._ materials: skeins of black purse silk; skeins of scarlet ditto; black jet beads; a steel clasp with chain; a tassel of black beads; steel knitting-needles. [illustration: .--lady's knitted purse.] this purse is knitted with black and scarlet purse silk, and ornamented with black beads and a black bead tassel. begin the purse with the black silk in the centre of the bottom part, and cast on for one part of it stitches. knit rows on these backwards and forwards, in such a manner that the work is knitted on one side and purled on the other. the st stitch of every row is slipped, the st row of this part is purled. * on that side where hangs the thread with which you work take the back chain of the selvedge stitches of the part you have just knitted on a separate needle, and knit another part, which must have rows, and the st row of which is knitted. repeat times more from *. the stitches of several parts can be taken on the same needle, so as not to be hindered in working by too many needles. when the th part is completed, take the selvedge stitches on the left hand on another needle, cast them off together with the cast on stitches of the st part, and fasten the silk thread. then take the right-hand selvedge stitches of one black part on a needle, take the red silk on which the beads have been strung and work rows on these stitches, the st row from the wrong side, and therefore purled; in the st, as well as in all the other purled rows, the last stitch must be purled together with the next stitch of the next black part. in the purled rows, moreover, excepting in the first and last one, a bead must be worked in after casting off the nd, th, and th stitches. the stitch must be worked by inserting the needle into the back part, and in drawing through the silk which has been thrown forward, let the bead slide through the stitch so that it is on the right side of the work. in the following knitted row, the needle must also be inserted into the back part of the bead stitch. when such red parts have been completed, work again black parts on the selvedge stitch of the same, in which the beads are not knitted in, but sewn on afterwards, when the purse is completed. then work times more alternately red and black parts; when the last black parts have been completed cast off the stitches of the last black part together with the selvedge stitches, the st on the wrong side; the stitches of the th part are cast off in the same manner together with the selvedge stitches of the th. the red parts which remain to be worked on the black part are thus lessened by ; the nd, rd, and th, and the th, th, and th of these parts must be by rows longer. then gather all the stitches and selvedge stitches of the parts on needles, in such a manner that the black parts, the stitches and selvedge stitches of which have been cast off together, are placed on the sides of the purse, and knit as follows with black silk, first on the stitches of the one needle, and then on those of the other:-- row knitted, knitting together every rd and th stitch; then work rows backwards and forwards on the same number of stitches, which must be knitted on the right side; then work rows more in the same manner, casting off the first stitches of the rows. then cast off all the remaining stitches, sew the beads on the black parts from illustration; also the clasp and bead tassel. * * * * * to .--_knitted antimacassar or berceaunelle cover._ materials: grey and violot fleecy wool. [illustration: .--square for antimacassar.] this antimacassar, part of which is seen on no. , smaller than full size, is made of rosettes and small squares, which are knitted separately with violet and grey fleecy wool with fine knitting-needles. in the middle of each rosette sew on a tatted circle of grey wool. the edge of the antimacassar is ornamented with a grey woollen fringe. for each rosette cast on stitches with violet wool, and knit rows backwards and forwards in such a manner that the work is knitted on one side and purled on the other: the first of these rows is purled, the first stitch of every row is slipped; * then take the first five selvedge stitches of the knitted part on a separate needle (on the side where the end of wool hangs down, leaving it unnoticed for the present), inserting the needle into the back chain of the stitch (the selvedge stitch which is next to the cast-on stitch remains, therefore, unworked upon), and knit on these a new part, which must have rows; the first row is knitted, and in this row work stitches in the first stitch, one purled and one knitted, so that this new part is equally six stitches wide. repeat times more from *. after having worked several parts, the stitches can, of course, be taken on the same needle, so as not to increase the number of needles. when the th part is com-* *pleted, take the selvedge stitches of the left-hand side of the same on a separate needle, cast them off with the cast-on stitches of the first part, and fasten the wool. then take the selvedge stitches on the right hand of one part on a separate needle; take the grey wool, and work on these stitches rows backwards and forwards; the first row is knitted; it is worked on the right side of the work; in this, and in every following _knitted_ row, knit the last stitch together with the next stitch of the next violet part. when such grey parts are completed (each of the remaining parts consists of rows, and begins with one knitted row), take all the stitches and the selvedge stitches of these parts on four needles and knit with these stitches, also with grey wool row knitted, in which the selvedge stitches must be decreased to by knitting always stitches together as stitch; each of the other stitches is knitted as usual. then purl rows with violet wool, and cast off. [illustration: .--rosette for antimacassar.] [illustration: .--part of antimacassar.] for the tatted circle in the centre of the rosette, work with grey wool a circle consisting of double, and times alternately purl - ths of an inch long, double, then purl and double. the circle is sewn on the rosette, from illustration, with grey wool. no. shows such a rosette full size. the small squares (_see_ no. ) are worked with grey wool; cast on stitches, join the stitches into a circle, and purl rows. to form the corners, knit together times stitches after every stitches in the first of these two rounds, in the second round knit together stitches after every stitches; these decreasings and those of the other rounds must always take place, at the same places as in the preceding round. then take the violet wool, and knit rows; in the first of these knit times stitches together after intervals of stitches; no decreasings take place in the nd, th, and th rows; in the rd row knit together times stitches as stitch, and in the th and th rows times stitches as stitch. after the th round, the remaining stitches are cast off together as stitch. then fasten the wool and cut it off. lastly, sew the rosettes and squares together from no. for a cover, and edge it round the border with a fringe of grey wool. * * * * * [illustration: .--knitted border.] .--_knitted border._ material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s no. or no. knitting cotton. if knitted with thick cotton, this border will be suitable for trimming a quilt or berceaunette cover; if, on the contrary, fine cotton is used, the pattern will form a very pretty collar for a little boy or girl. to make a collar, begin by a chain of stitches, and work rows backwards and forwards alternately, knitting stitches and purling . in the nd, th, and th rows the stitches are purled, and the are knitted. th row: * purl , make , knit , purl . repeat from *. th row: alternately purl , knit . all the rows with _even_ numbers are knitted like this, except that the number of the knitted stitches are increased by in each of them. we will not, therefore, henceforth mention these rows. th row: * knit , make , knit , make , knit , purl . repeat from *. th row: * knit , make , knit , make , knit , purl . repeat from *. th row: * knit , make , knit , make , knit , purl . repeat from *. the pattern is continued in the same manner. the small gores formed between the ribs are increased by stitches in every second row. each of these gores has stitches in the st row, which is the last. cast off all the stitches after this row. take a crochet needle, and with the same cotton as that used for the knitting work stitch of double crochet in every stitch of the selvedge, then the following rows for the edging. st row: alternately treble, chain, under which miss . nd row: alternately double over treble of preceding row, purl (that is, chain and slip stitch in the first), under which miss . over the first row of the knitting work row of close double crochet. the border is now completed. * * * * * .--_knee-cap in knitting._ materials: for pair, oz. pink -thread fleecy wool, and a small quantity of white ditto. begin each knee-cap by casting on with pink wool stitches, equally divided upon needles, and joining them into a circle. upon this number of stitches work rounds, alternately knitting and purling stitches. in the th round begin the gore which covers the knee; it is worked separately backward and forwards, always alternately knitting and purling stitches. [illustration: .--knee-cap in knitting.] after rows change the pattern, so as to form small squares knit the first row of this gore upon stitches slipped off from the last row on to a separate needle. at the end of each following row knit the nearest stitch of the nearest needle, so as to increase stitch in each row of the gore. continue in this way until only stitches remain of the ribbed part. after this work the remainder of the gore separately, decreasing once at the beginning and end of each row till only stitches remain; then take up stitches of the selvedge on each side of these stitches, and work rounds, alternately knitting and purling stitches. the edging at the top and bottom of the knee-cap is worked in crochet. with white wool make a chain of stitches; turn and work row of crochet _à tricoter_; then work a second row thus: the first part, as usual, with white, but coming back, with pink make chain between each stitch, work in the same way on the other side of the foundation chain, thus forming a small ruche, and sew it on to the edge of the knitting. * * * * * .--_knitted neckerchief in black shetland wool._ material: black shetland wool. this three-cornered neckerchief is knitted in the following pattern (commencing at the corner). st row: slip , make , knit together, inserting the needle into the back part of the stitch, slip , make , knit together. nd row: knit , purl in the stitch formed by throwing the wool forward in the preceding row; the other stitches are purled. in the next row the holes are alternated; the neckerchief must of course be increased at the beginning and end of every other row. it measures at the upper edge yard inches across from one corner to the other; the lower corner is rounded off. the neckerchief is edged with a knitted lace. [illustration: .--knitted neckerchief in shetland wool.] the lace is worked in rows backwards and forwards, the cross way. cast on stitches and work the st row as follows:--slip , knit , knit together, throw the wool forward, knit together, knit . nd row: slip , purl , knit and purl with the stitch formed in the preceding row by throwing the wool forward. rd row; slip , knit together, knit , knit together, throw the wool forward, knit together, throw the wool forward, knit together, knit . th row: slip , purl , knit , purl , knit in the stitch formed in the preceding row by throwing the wool forward, purl . th row: slip , knit together, knit , knit together, throw the wool forward, knit together, throw the wool forward, knit together, throw the wool forward, knit together, knit . th row: slip , purl , knit , purl in the stitch formed by throwing the wool forward in preceding row, purl . th row: slip , knit together, knit , knit together, throw the wool forward times alternately, knit together, knit . th row: slip , purl , knit , purl in the stitch formed by throwing the wool forward in the preceding row, purl . th row: slip , knit together, knit , times alternately; knit together, throw the wool forward, knit together, knit . th row: slip , knit , purl in the stitch formed by throwing the wool forward in preceding row, purl . th row: slip , knit together, times alternately knit together, throw the wool forward, knit together, knit . th row: slip , knit in the stitch formed by throwing the wool forward in preceding row, purl . th row: slip , throw the wool forward, knit , knit together, times alternately throw the wool forward, knit together, knit . th row: slip , purl , knit , purl in the stitch formed by throwing the wool forward in preceding row, purl . th row: slip , throw the wool forward, knit , knit together, times alternately throw the wool forward, knit together, knit . th row: slip , purl , knit , purl in the stitch formed by throwing the wool forward in preceding row, purl . th row: slip , throw the wool forward, knit , knit together, times alternately throw the wool forward, knit together, knit . th row: slip , purl , knit , purl in the stitch formed by throwing the wool forward in preceding row, purl . th row: slip , throw the wool forward, knit , knit together, twice alternately throw the wool forward, knit together, knit . th row: slip , purl , knit , purl in the stitch formed by throwing the wool forward in preceding row, purl . st row: slip , throw the wool forward, knit , knit together, throw the wool forward, knit together, knit . nd row: slip , purl , knit , purl in the stitch formed by throwing the wool forward in preceding row. rd row: slip , throw the wool forward, knit , knit together, knit . th row: purled. repeat from the st row till the lace is sufficiently long. then sew on the lace round the edge; the lace can be knitted somewhat narrower for the upper edge. one of the ends of the neckerchief is knotted, as seen in the illustration, and the other end is drawn through the knot. * * * * * _ and .--knitted bodice without sleeves._ materials: ounces black, - / ounces purple fleecy; black silk elastic; a steel buckle; black bone buttons. this bodice is knitted in brioche stitch with black and purple wool, so that the raised ribs appear black on one side and purple on the other. the bodice fits quite close. it is fastened in front with black bone buttons and a steel buckle. two strips of silk elastic are knitted in at the bottom. begin at the bottom of the bodice with black wool, and cast on stitches. the needles must be rather fine, and the knitting not too loose. work backwards and forwards rows as follows:--slip the st stitch, alternately throw the wool forward, slip as if you were going to purl it, and knit . in the next row knit together the stitch which has been slipped and the stitch formed by throwing the wool forward, slip the knitted stitch, after having thrown the wool forward. in the th row take the purple wool and work row as before. [illustration: .--knitted bodice without sleeves (back).] [illustration: .--knitted bodice without sleeves (front).] now work alternately row with black wool and row with purple, but as the wool is not cut off, the brioche stitch must be alternately knitted and purled. work always rows on the same side from right to left. the following th row is worked with black wool in common brioche stitch, only the slipped stitch of the preceding row is purled together with the stitch formed by throwing the wool forward. th row: turn the work, with purple wool purled brioche stitch. th row: on the same side with black wool knitted brioche stitch. after having worked rows all in the same manner, begin the front gore. divide the stitches upon three needles, stitches on one needle for the back, and stitches for each front part on the two other needles. then work the first stitches of the left front part (this row must be worked on that side of the work upon which the ribs appear purple) in knitted brioche stitch; the th stitch must have a slipped stitch, with the wool thrown forward, therefore it is a purple rib. after this stitch begin the gore with the following stitches. the ribs are then worked so that a purple one comes over a black one, and a black one over a purple one. do not work upon the following black stitch; knit the following stitch with the one formed by throwing the wool forward. throw the wool forward, and then only slip the black stitch which had been left, so that it comes behind the stitch which has just been knitted. this crossing of the stitch is repeated once more, then knit the following stitch together with the one formed by throwing the wool forward, throw the wool forward, slip the crossed black stitch and the two following single black stitches. the slipped stitch and the stitch formed by throwing the wool forward before the rd single black stitch are then knitted together, so that the crossed stitches are placed in opposite directions. the three black stitches which are knitted off together as stitch in the next row form the middle line of the front gore, and are continued in a straight line to the point of the gore. the crossing takes place twice in this row, but now the black stitch is slipped first. after the th stitch knit together the following stitch with the stitch formed by throwing the wool forward. then continue to work in common brioche stitch to the other front part, where the gore begins before the th stitch from the end. in the next row, which is worked in purled brioche stitch with black wool, take up the black loop between two purple ribs after the th stitch; purl it so as to form the stitch which is missing at that place. the slipped stitches in the preceding row are purled together as one stitch with the stitch formed by throwing the wool forward between the ribs. the loop is also taken up on the other side of the front gore in the same manner, as well as on the other front part. then work rows without increasing or decreasing. the crossing of the stitch is repeated after every rows, always on the knitted brioche stitch side, with purple wool. in the th row of the gore the middle stitches are not knitted together, but separately, so that the pattern must be decreased in rows. in the back stitches only must be decreased, two in every th row. after the th row another decreasing takes place on the outer edges of the front parts for the neck; they decrease stitches ( st rib) after the th stitch from the front edge in every rd row. the stitches which close to the neck are cast off together with the stitches on the shoulders. then cast off loosely the stitches of the back; take all the selvedge stitches of the front on the needles, and knit rows of brioche stitch with black wool, making button-holes on the right front part. on the wrong side of this part sew on a strip of black silk, with slits worked round in button-hole stitch, stitching at the same time into the knitting. the following scallops are knitted round the top of the jacket and round the armholes with black wool:--take the selvedge stitches on the needles, work rows alternately, stitch knitted, stitch purled, thread the wool into a berlin wool-work needle, * cast off stitches together, draw the wool through the needle, and take the following stitches on the wool in the worsted-needle; repeat from *. sew on the buttons the strips of silk elastic on either side of the black stripe at the bottom, and fasten the ends of the latter with the steel buckle. _ .--baby's boot._ materials for one pair: / ounce red, / ounce white, berlin wool; steel knitting-needles. this pretty boot consists of a shoe knitted in red wool, and a sock in white wool ornamented with red. begin the knitting with the upper scalloped edge of the latter. cast on stitches with red wool, divide them on four needles, and knit in rounds as follows:-- st and nd rounds: with red wool, purled. rd to th round: with white wool. rd round: knitted. th round: * knit , throw the wool forward, knit , throw the wool forward, knit , knit together. repeat times more from *. th round: knitted; the stitches formed by throwing the wool forward are knitted as one stitch. knit stitches together at the place where stitches were knitted together in the th round, so that the decreasing of the preceding round forms the middle stitch of the stitches to be decreased in this round. th and th rounds: like the th. th round: knitted; you must have stitches left. th to th round: with red wool. th round: knitted. th and th rounds: purled. th to th round: with white wool. th round: knitted. th round to th round: alternately purl , knit , inserting the needle in the back part of the stitch. st to rd round: with red wool. st round: knitted. nd round and rd round: purled. th and th rounds: with white wool. th round: knitted. th round: alternately throw the wool forward, knit together. each stitch formed by throwing the wool forward is knitted as one stitch in the next round. th to th round: with red wool. th round: knitted. th and th rounds: purled. th to th round: with white wool. alternately purl , slip , as if you were going to purl it; the wool must lie in front of the slipped stitch; in the following rounds take care to purl the slipped stitches. [illustration .--baby's boot.] take now stitches for the front gored sock part (leave stitches untouched), and work backwards and forwards with red wool. th to th row: with red wool. th row: knitted. th row: purled. th row: knitted. st to th row: with white wool in the pattern described in the th round. but as you work backwards and forwards you must alternately knit and purl the stitches. decrease stitch at the beginning and at the end of the th and th rows; decrease stitch in the middle of the th row, so that the th row has stitches left. after this work with red wool. th row: knitted. th row: knit , purl , knit , purl , knit , purl , knit , purl , knit . repeat these last rows times more and knit plain to the th, decreasing one, however, on each side. now work with the whole number of stitches, taking up the selvedge stitches of the gored part and dividing them with the other stitches on four needles. knit once more in rounds; the next rounds are alternately round knitted, round purled. in the last knitted rounds decrease twice close together in the middle of the back part of the shoe. knit rounds; in every other round decrease twice in the middle of the front of the shoe, leaving stitches between the two decreasings. the number of stitches between the decreasings decreases with every round, so that the decreasings form slanting lines meeting in a point. cast off after these rounds, by knitting together opposite stitches on the wrong side. the sock part is edged with a raised red border, which is worked by taking all the red stitches of the st round of the shoe on the needle and knitting rounds, so as to leave the purled side of the stitch always outside; then cast off very tight. draw a piece of braid through the open-work row in the sock part, and finish it off at either end with tassels to match. * * * * * .--_knitted border for a bedquilt_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s no. white knitting cotton; thick steel pins. cast on a sufficient number of stitches for the length of the border, which must be able to be divided by ; knit plain rows: th row: alternately make , knit together. then more plain rows. [illustration .--knitted border for a bedquilt.] now begin the pattern:-- st row: * make , knit _slantways_ (to knit a stitch slantways, insert the needle from the front to the back and from right to left); # purl ; knit slantways. repeat from # times more than from * to the end of the row. nd row: purled. rd row: knit , * make ; knit slantways; # purl ; knit slantways. repeat from # four times more. repeat from * to the end of the row. th row: the same as the second. the continuation of the work is clearly shown in our illustration. the increasing caused by knitting the _made_ stitches is regularly repeated in each second row, so that the stitches between the striped divisions increase, and form large triangles; the striped divisions, on the other hand, are narrowed so as to form the point of the triangles. to obtain this result, decrease five times in the th, th, th, and th rows, by purling together the two last stitches of one purled division, so that each division has but eleven stitches left in the th row. in the th row knit together one purled stitch with one knitted slantways, so that there will be only stitches left for each division; these stitches are knitted slantways in the th and th rows. in the st row they are knitted together, two and two. there remain in each division three more stitches, which are knitted together in the th row. two rows entirely purled completethe upper edge of the border. * * * * * .--_knitted quilt._ materials: -thread fleecy wool; wooden needles. this pattern may be worked in narrow strips of different colours, and in that case each strip should contain row of patterns; or the quilt may be composed of wide strips with several rows of patterns, those of one row being placed between those of the preceding. in the first case, that is if you work narrow strips, you may use several colours; but if wide strips are preferred, they should be of two colours only. our pattern was worked in wide strips, alternately grey and red. each strip is knitted the short way. [illustration: .--knitted quilt.] for a strip with five raised patterns in the width cast on stitches. nd row: right side of the work. slip , purl , * make , purl . repeat from * times more; make , purl . rd row: slip , knit all the stitches that were purled in the preceding row, and purl all those that were made. th row: slip , purl , * knit , make , purl . repeat from * times more; knit , make , purl . th row: slip , knit all the purled stitches, purl all the rest. th row: slip , purl , * knit , make , purl . repeat from * times more; knit , make , purl . th row: the same as the th. th row: slip , purl , * knit , make , purl , and so on. th row: the same as the th row. th row: slip , purl , * slip , knit , pass the slipped stitch over the knitted one, knit , purl , repeat from *. th row: knit all the purled stitches, purl all the rest. th row: slip , purl , * slip , knit , pass the slipped stitch over, knit , purl , and repeat from *. th row: the same as the th. th row: slip , purl , * slip , knit , pass the slipped stitch over, purl , and repeat. th row: slip , * knit together, knit . repeat from * times more; knit together, knit . the second row of patterns begins with the th row. there are only in this nd row, so that after the st slipped stitch you purl stitches instead of , and in the nd row, after the th made stitch, you purl more stitches. repeat alternately these rows of raised patterns, and when you have a sufficient number of strips sew them together. trim the quilt all round with a knotted fringe. * * * * * .--_stitch in knitting, for couvrettes, comforters, opera caps, carriage shawls, jackets, &c._ materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s knitting cotton no. , or fine wool. cast on an uneven number of stitches. st row: slip , * make , knit , make , knit . repeat from *. nd row: slip , * knit together, and repeat from * to the end of the row. [illustration: .--stitch for couvrettes, comforters, &c.] * * * * * _and_ .--_knitted veil._ material: fine shetland wool. [illustration: .--knitted veil.] illustration represents a knitted veil in reduced size. the original was worked with fine shetland wool in an open pattern; it is edged with a knitted lace. its length is inches, its width inches. work the veil from a paper pattern of a shape corresponding to that of illustration . compare the paper shape often with the knitting in the course of the work, and try to keep them alike. knit the veil in the pattern of the original, or in the pattern of illustration . for the former one begin at the lower edge of the veil, cast on stitches upon thick wooden needles, and work the st row: * knit , throw the wool forward, knit together twice, repeat from *. nd row: purled. rd row: knit , throw the wool forward, knit together, * throw the wool forward, knit together twice, and repeat from *. th row: purled. th row: like the nd row. the pattern must be reversed. the pattern figures increase with the increasings at the beginning and at the end of each row. the pattern of illustration consists of the following rows:-- st row: slip , then alternately throw the wool forward, and knit together. nd row: entirely knitted; make stitch of the wool thrown forward in the last row. when the veil is finished, wet it, and stretch it over paper or pasteboard; let it dry, and then edge it with the following lace:--cast on , knit the st. nd row: knit , throw the wool forward, knit . rd row: knitted. th row: knit , throw the wool forward, knit , throw the wool forward, knit together twice, knit . th row: knitted. th row: knit , throw the wool forward, knit , throw the wool forward, knit together times, knit . th row: cast off stitches, knit . th row: knitted. [illustration: . pattern of veil.] [illustration: .--knitted pattern with embroidery.] * * * * * .--_knitted pattern with raised embroidery_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s knitting cotton no. or . this pattern is worked in rows going backwards and forwards with thick or fine cotton according to the use you wish to make of it. the star-like figures on the knitted squares are worked with soft cotton in _point de poste_. cast on a number of stitches long enough ( stitches are necessary for the two squares), work the st row: * knit stitches, alternately times knit together, throw the cotton forward. repeat from *, the nd row is worked like the st, only purled, in this row, as well as in the following ones, the stitch must be knitted with the cotton thrown forward _after_ the stitch, the last stitch of a plain square with the first cotton thrown forward of the open-work figure. the number of stitches in the last must always be . the pattern consists alternately of these two rows. each pattern contains rows, with the th the squares are reversed. the star figures are embroidered with double cotton by working chain stitch in the middle of each square; draw the needle underneath the knitting to the next centre of a square. * * * * * _and_ .--_knitted table cover, (see page .)_ materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s coarse knitting cotton; thick steel knitting-needles. [illustration: .--table-cover border.] this cover is suitable for either a large or a small table, as the pattern may be increased as much as required. it is suitable for antimacassars. cast on stitches, join them into a circle, and work the st round four times alternately. throw the cotton forward, knit . nd round: entirely knitted. rd round: * throw the cotton forward, knit . repeat times more from *. after every pattern round knit round plain. until after the st round, we shall not mention this any more. th round: * throw the cotton forward, knit *. from the th to the th round the knitted stitches in every other round increase by stitch, so that in the th round there are stitches between those formed by throwing the cotton forward. th round: * throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit , knit together *. th round: * throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit , knit together *. th round: * throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit together *. th round: * throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, *. st round: * knit , throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit *. nd round: * knit , knit together, knit , knit together, knit *. rd round: * knit , throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit *. th round: * knit , knit together, knit *. th round: * knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit . th round: entirely knitted *. th round: * throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit *. th round: entirely knitted. th round: * knit , throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit *. th round: entirely knitted. st round: * knit , throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit *. nd round: entirely knitted. rd round: * knit , throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit *. th round: * knit , knit together, knit , knit together, knit *. th round: * knit , throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit *. th round: * knit , knit together, knit , knit together, knit *. th round: * throw the cotton forward, knit three times, throw the cotton forward, knit *. th round: * knit , knit together, knit , knit together, knit *. th round: * knit , throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit . throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit *. th round: * knit , knit together, knit *. st round: * knit , throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit *. nd round: * knit , knit together, knit , knit together, knit *. rd round: * knit , throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit *. th round: * knit , knit together, knit , knit together, knit *. when the cover is completed, edge it all round, with the following border worked the short way:--cast on stitches and knit the st row, slip , throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit . nd row: slip , knit the rest. repeat this row after every pattern row. rd row: slip , throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit . th row: slip , throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit . th row: slip , throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit . th row: slip , throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit . th row: slip , throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit . th row: slip , throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit . th round: cast off stitches, throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit . th round: entirely knitted. begin again at the st row, knit a sufficient length of the border, and then trim the cover with it on the outer edge. [illustration: .--looped knitting.] * * * * * .--_looped knitting._ materials: -thread fleecy wool; wooden knitting-needles; flat wooden mesh. cast on a sufficient number of stitches, and knit the st row plain. _nd row_.--slip the st stitch; insert the needle into the next stitch, and throw the cotton forward as if you were going to knit the stitch; place the mesh behind the needle in the right hand, and turn the wool which is on this needle upwards, bring it back again on the needle so that it is wound once round the mesh, and twice round the needle. then only the double stitch through the second stitch, knit it, and insert the needle into the next stitch, and repeat what has been explained. knit the last stitch without a loop. _rd row_.--before drawing out the mesh, turn the work and knit one plain row. every double stitch is knitted as one stitch, so as to attain the same number of stitches as in the st row. _th row_.--like the nd row. repeat these rows as often as required. this knitting is chiefly used for borders of mats. * * * * * [illustration: .--pattern for comforters.] .--_knitted pattern for comforters._ materials: -thread fleecy; wooden knitting-needles. cast on a sufficient number of stitches. st row: * stitches in the first stitch, knit , purl , knit , knit stitches together, repeat from *. nd row: plain knitting. rd row: purled. th row: knitted. repeat these four rows, only in the next row the stitches knitted together are worked on the stitches worked in stitch, and the stitches to be worked in stitch are to be placed on the one formed by knitting stitches together. * * * * * .--_knitted d'oyley. (see page .)_ materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s crochet cotton no. ; glazed embroidery cotton no. ; steel knitting-needles. this pattern is knitted with very fine crochet cotton. the middle part as well as the lace border are worked separately; the latter is sewn on to the middle part. the spots in the thick parts are worked in afterwards with coarser cotton. commence the pattern in the centre, cast on stitches, join them into a circle, and knit plain rounds. rd round: alternately knit , throw the cotton forward. th and th rounds: plain. th round: alternately knit , throw the cotton forward. th round: plain. every other round is plain. we shall not mention these plain rounds any more. th round: knit , * throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit ; repeat from * to the end of the round; lastly, throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit . th round: * throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together. th round: * throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together. th round: * throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together. th round: * throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together. the th, th, nd, and th rounds are worked like the th round; only the middle plain part of the pattern figures increases by stitches in every pattern round, so that there are plain stitches in the th round between the stitches formed on either side of the same by throwing the cotton forward. th round: * throw the cotton forward, knit , knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit , knit together. th round: * throw the cotton forward, knit , knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit . th round: * knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit , throw the cotton forward knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward. nd round: * knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit , knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward. th round: * knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit , knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward. th round: * knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit , knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit , knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward. th round: * knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit , knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward. th round: * knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit , knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit , knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward. nd round: * knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit , knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward. th round: * knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit , knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward. th and th rounds: plain, then cast off loosely. for the lace border, which is worked in the short way backwards and forwards, cast on stitches and knit as follows:-- st row: slip , knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit , knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together. nd row: slip , throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit . rd row: slip , knit , knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit . th row: slip , throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit . th row: slip , knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit . th row: knit together (knit together the stitch and the next stitch formed by throwing the cotton forward), throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit , knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit . th row: slip , knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit , knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together (stitch formed by throwing the cotton forward and the next stitch). th row: knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit , knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit . th row: slip , knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together. th row: knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit , knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit . th row: slip , knit , knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together. then begin again on the nd row, and work on till the border is long enough; sew the lace on to the centre, slightly gathering the former. lastly, work in the spots with glazed or coarse embroidery cotton. * * * * * _ .--knitted braces_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s knitting cotton no. or . these braces are knitted with coarse white cotton, taken double; the braces themselves are worked in brioche stitch, the lappets are knitted plain. begin at the bottom of the front lappet, make a foundation chain of stitches, knit rows plain backwards and forwards, then divide the stitches into two halves to form the button-hole; knit rows on each of the halves consisting of stitches; then take the stitches again on one needle and work rows on them. then work a second button-hole like the first one; knit more rows plain, increasing at the end of every row, so that the number of stitches at the end of the lappet is . then begin the pattern in brioche stitch; it is worked as follows:--knit first row, then slip the first stitch of the first following pattern row, * throw the cotton forward, slip the next stitch (slip the stitches always as if you were going to purl them), knit together; repeat times more from *; the last stitch is knitted. nd row of the pattern: slip the st stitch, * knit ; the stitch which has been formed in the preceding row by throwing the cotton forward is slipped after the nd knitted stitch; repeat times more from *; knit the last stitch. rd row: slip the st stitch, * decrease (here, and in all the following rows, knit the next stitch together with the stitch before it, which has been formed in the preceding row by throwing the cotton forward), throw the cotton forward, slip ; repeat from *; knit the last stitch. th row: slip the st stitch, * knit , slip the stitch which has been formed in the preceding row by throwing the cotton forward, knit , knit the last stitch. repeat these rows till the braces are long enough. the pattern is inches long. then knit rows plain, decreasing at the end of every row, then work each lappet separately, dividing the stitches so that each lappet is stitches wide. each lappet has rows; after the first rows make a button-hole as described for the preceding one. work rows between the st and nd button-hole. the lappets are rounded off by decreasing after the nd button-hole. [illustration: .--knitted braces.] * * * * * .--_pattern for knitted curtains, &c._ material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s knitting cotton no. . this pattern is suitable for knitting different articles, according to the thickness of the cotton used. the number of stitches must be divided by ten. the pattern is knitted backwards and forwards. [illustration: .--pattern for knitted curtains.] st row: all plain. nd row: * knit , make , slip , knit , pass the slipped stitch over the knitted one, knit , knit together, make . repeat from *. rd row: purl the long stitch formed by making in preceding row, * make , purl together, purl , purl together, make , purl . repeat from *. (by _make_ is meant twist the cotton twice round the needle, which forms one long stitch, and is knitted or purled as such in next row.) th row: knit , * make , slip , knit , and pass the slipped stitch over, knit , knit together, make , knit . repeat from *. th row: purl , * make , purl together, make , purl . repeat from*. th row: knit , * knit together ( stitch and long stitch), make , knit , make , slip , knit , pass the slipped stitch over (the knitted stitch is a _long stitch_), knit . repeat from *. continue the pattern by repeating always from the nd to the th row; the th row is the repetition of the nd row, but it is begun (compare the two rows) about the middle of the nd row, so as to change the places of the thick diamonds in the following pattern. this will be easily understood in the course of the work. * * * * * _ .--knitted insertion._ material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s knitting cotton no. or . cast on stitches, and knit in rows, backwards and forwards, as follows:-- st row: slip , knit together, throw cotton forward, knit , knit together, throw cotton forward, knit , knit together, throw cotton forward, knit . this row is repeated times more; the stitch formed by throwing the cotton forward is knitted as stitch. th row: slip , knit together, make , knit ; place next stitches upon another needle behind the cotton, and leave them alone; knit , knit together, throw cotton forward, now knit the first of the stitches which have been left; knit the last of the together with the next stitch on the needle, throw cotton forward, knit . repeat these rows till strip is long enough. [illustration: .--knitted insertion.] * * * * * _and_ .--_knitted cover for sofa cushion._ materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s knitting cotton no. ; eight ply fleecy wool. [illustration: .--stitch for sofa cover.] this cushion ( inches wide, inches high) is made of grey calico; it is covered on one side with knitting, worked with grey crochet cotton. the knitted cover has an open-work pattern, worked backwards and forwards on a number of stitches which can be divided by , and which must suit the width of the cushion, in the following manner:-- st row: alternately throw the cotton forward, knit together. nd row: slip , knit the other stitches. the stitch formed by throwing the cotton forward is knitted as stitch. rd row: knit , * throw the cotton forward, knit together. repeat from *; after the last decreasing knit . th row: like the nd row. these four rows are repeated till the cover is sufficiently large. draw a narrow piece of red worsted braid through every other open-work row of the pattern, as can be seen in illustration . when the cushion has been covered with the knitting, it is edged all round with a border knitted the long way, in the above-mentioned open-work pattern; it is rows wide, and also trimmed with worsted braid: a fringe of grey cotton and red wool, / inches wide, is sewn on underneath the border at the bottom of the cushion; to this is added a thick red worsted cord, by which the cushion is hung on over the back of an arm-chair. the cushion, on account of its simplicity, is especially suitable for garden chairs. [illustration: .--sofa cushion.] * * * * * .--netted nightcap. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s crochet cotton no. . this cap is netted with crochet cotton over a mesh measuring three-quarters of an inch round; work first a long square for the centre of the crown, cast on stitches, and work backwards and forwards rows with the same number of stitches. then work rounds round this square, and fasten the cotton. then count stitches for the front border, and stitches for the back border, and leave them for the edge of the cap. on the remaining stitches on each side work the strings in rows backwards and forwards on the same number of stitches; each string is pointed off at the lower end by decreasing stitch in every row. sew in a narrow piece of tape in the back border of the cap; the remaining part of the border, as well as the strings, are trimmed with crochet lace or with netted edging, no. . [illustration: .--netted nightcap.] * * * * * .--_netted nightcap_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s knitting cotton, -thread, no. . [illustration: .--netted nightcap.] this nightcap is very simple and practical. it consists of two similar three-cornered pieces, sewn together so as to form a double triangle; the point of the triangle is turned back, as seen in illustration, and fastened on the lower half of the same. the cap is edged with a lace; a similar lace covers the seam between both parts of the cap. the pattern is worked with crochet cotton over a mesh measuring three-quarters of an inch round. begin each half in the corner; cast on stitches, and work backwards and forwards, increasing stitch at the end of every row, till the number of stitches is . then sew both halves together, and trim the cap and strings (the latter are worked as on the cap no. ) with the following lace: work rows of open-work treble stitches--the treble stitches are divided by chain--then work row of double, always working double round the chain stitches which divide treble in the preceding row, or with netted edging no. . * * * * * .--_knitted pattern_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s knitting cotton no. for couvrettes, or berlin wool for sofa quilts. this pattern can be worked either in wool or cotton, and is suitable for many purposes. cast on a sufficient number of stitches, divided by , for the st row: knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward knit together, knit , purl , repeat from *. nd row: the stitches knitted in the st row are purled as well as the stitches formed by throwing the cotton forward; the purled stitches are knitted. this row is repeated alternately, therefore we shall not mention it again. rd row: * knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit , purl . th row: purl , * knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit , purl . th row: knit , * purl , knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit . th row: knit , * purl , knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit . th row: * knit , purl , knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together. th row: throw the cotton forward, knit together, * knit , purl , knit , throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together. th row: * throw the cotton forward, knit together, throw the cotton forward, knit together, knit , purl , knit . the knitting can now be easily continued from illustration. [illustration: .--knitted pattern.] * * * * * _to_ .--knitted shawl. materials: shetland wool, white and scarlet; steel needles. [illustration: .--pattern for shawl ( ).] [illustration: .--pattern for shawl ( ).] this shawl is knitted in the patterns given on nos. and . both illustrations show the patterns worked in coarse wool, so as to be clearer. begin the shawl, which is square, on one side, cast on a sufficient number of stitches (on our pattern ); the needles must not be too fine, as the work should be loose and elastic. knit first rows plain, then of the open-work row of pattern no. , which is worked in the following manner:-- st row: slip the first stitch, * knit together, inserting the needle into the back part of the stitch, slip , knit together, throw the wool twice forward; repeat from *. nd row: knit and purl in the stitch formed by throwing the wool forward in the preceding row; the other stitches are purled. in the next row the holes are alternated--that is, after the st slipped stitch knit , throw the wool forward, and then knit twice together. when such open-work rows are completed, knit row plain, and then work the pattern seen on no. , which forms the ground, and is worked in the following way:-- st row: slip the st stitch, alternately throw the wool forward, and decrease by slipping stitch, knitting the next, and drawing the slip stitch over the knitted one. nd row, entirely purled. when such rows have been worked in this pattern, work again rows of the open-work pattern, but work on each side of the stripes, each stitches wide, in the pattern of the ground (no. ); each first stripe is at a distance of stitches from the edge, and each second stripe at a distance of stitches. after the th open-work row, work again rows in the pattern of the ground, then again open-work rows, and then begin the ground, only continue to work on both sides of the shawl the narrow stripes of the ground pattern, the narrow outer and the two wide inner stripes of the border in the open-work pattern. when the ground (pattern no. ) is square, finish the shawl at the top with two wide and one narrow open-work row, as at the bottom, divided by stripes in the ground pattern. knot in, all round the shawl, a fringe of scarlet wool; the fringe must be - / inches deep. [illustration: .--knitted shawl.] * * * * * table of sizes of messrs. walter evans & co.'s knitting cotton, threads. |------------------|-----------------------------| | | no. | |------------------|-----------------------------| |borders | , | |couvrettes | | |d'oyleys | , | |edgings | , | |insertions | , | |nightcaps | | |quilts | , , | |socks | | |table covers | | |------------------------------------------------| monograms and initials. alphabets. * * * * * .--_alphabet_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . these letters are embroidered in overcast stitch and in satin stitch, and are the capitals for the alphabet no. . stars ornament this very effective alphabet. [illustration: .--alphabet (capitals).] .--_alphabet (small letters)_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . this alphabet will be found useful for marking linen as well as pocket-handkerchiefs. it is worked in satin stitch, the stars in fine overcast; an eyelet-hole occupies the centre of each star. [illustration: .--alphabets (small letters)] .--_alphabet of small capitals_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. for linen. no. for handkerchiefs. these letters will be found useful for marking table-linen; they may be worked either in green, red, or white cotton. the letters are worked in raised satin stitch with raised dots and open eyelet-holes. [illustration: .--alphabet of small capitals.] .--_alphabet_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . this pretty alphabet is worked in satin stitch, both raised and veined; the design is composed of forget-me-not blossoms and leaves. raised dots worked in satin stitch form all the fine lines. [illustration: .--alphabet in satin stitch.] .--alphabet in coral stitch. material: coloured ingrain marking cotton, or black sewing silk, or filoselle. the letters of this alphabet are particularly suitable for pocket-handkerchiefs. the embroidery is worked either with marking cotton, or coloured or black sewing silk; the long white lines are worked in overcast stitch, the small white spots in satin stitch, the remaining parts of the letters in coral stitch, as can be distinctly seen in illustration. [illustration: .--alphabet in coral stitch.] --- small alphabet. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . this useful alphabet is worked in satin stitch, veined in parts and ornamented with tendrils. as the alphabet of capitals (page , no. ) and that of these small letters correspond, any name may be worked from them. [illustration: .--- alphabet of small letters.] .--alphabet (capitals). materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton nos. and . this alphabet is worked in raised satin stitch, the outlines being partly scalloped; for the fine lines, which should be worked in overcast, embroidery cotton no. should be employed. [illustration: .--alphabet in satin stitch.] . alphabet (capitals). material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . the alphabet here illustrated is in the florid style; the graceful flowing lines are worked in raised satin stitch, as well as the variously-sized dots which ornament the letters. [illustration: .--alphabet (florid capitals).] --alphabet. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton nos. and . the letters are worked in point d'or, or dotted stitch, with an outline in fine overcast, and large raised spots in satin stitch. the ornamental wreaths round the first five letters can of course be worked round any of the others. it is very fashionable to work one letter only upon handkerchief corners. [illustration: .--alphabet in paint d'or.] .--_alphabet in white embroidery_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. this alphabet is worked in appliqué; the ears of corn only are worked in overcast, satin, and knotted stitch. these letters look particularly well on transparent materials. the ears may be omitted by beginners, though they add much to the beauty of the alphabet. to this alphabet are added the ten numerals, which will be found exceedingly useful. by means of the whole alphabet and all these figures, any combination of initials and numbers can be made. [illustration: .--alphabets and numerals in white embroidery.] .--_alphabet (see page_ ). materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. ; very fine black silk. the vine-leaves and grapes of this graceful and fanciful alphabet are worked in veined and slightly raised satin stitch, the tendrils in point russe; for these the fine black silk is employed. * * * * * .--_sampler (frontispiece_). materials: cambric muslin or fine linen; messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton nos. , , and ; red cotton and black silk. this illustration shows a sampler which will be found useful for learning to embroider letters for marking linen. the material used is cambric muslin or fine linen. work the embroidery with white embroidery cotton, red cotton, or black silk. the thick parts of the letters are worked in slanting satin stitch and back stitch; the outlines of the stitched parts are worked in overcast, as well as the fine outlines of the letters and all the fine outlines of the patterns. the monograms and crowns are worked in a similar manner. work button-hole stitch round the outside of the sampler. the letters and crowns may, of course, be employed for other purposes. * * * * * .--_alphabet (capitals)_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. this effective alphabet is very easily worked, the stitches employed being raised and veined satin stitch, and overcast. the raised dots are worked in satin stitch, care being taken to preserve their position in the _centre_ of each open space. [illustration: .--alphabet (capitals).] * * * * * monograms and initials. * * * * * [illustration: .--alice.] .--_alice_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . the letters of this name, except the initial letter, are very simple, being worked in plain satin stitch, while the initial letter is worked in raised satin stitch, point de poste, and overcast. .--_amalie_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton nos. and . [illustration: .--amalie.] the highly-ornate initial of this name is not difficult to work, requiring only great regularity and evenness in embroidering the tendrils and eyelet-holes. the veinings of the letter must be carefully defined. the remainder of the name is executed in plain satin stitch, a few eyelet-holes being introduced. "amalie" can easily be altered into "amelia" by changing the place of the _a_ and _e_. in the centre of each letter a large eyelet-hole is placed; smaller eyelet-holes of graduated sizes occupy parts of the overcast scrolls, which should be worked with no. cotton. the initial letter is worked in raised satin stitch. [illustration: .--amy.] .--_amy_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . this pretty name is worked in delicately raised satin stitch and point de pois; the dots in dotted satin stitch, and the elegant little design beneath is worked in point russe. .--_annie_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . [illustration: .--annie.] the letter _a_ of this name is rather elaborate, and is worked in point de pois or back stitching, the outlines in fine overcast, the letters in satin stitch. the ornaments surrounding the word "annie" are worked in overcast. .--_a.m.k._ material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . this name is worked in satin stitch, with small dots of raised satin stitch. the eyelet-holes in the middle letter to be worked in overcast. [illustration: .--a.m.k.] .--_b.r._ material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . [illustration: .--b.r.] these initials are worked in appliqué in the centre of a medallion in satin stitch, overcast, and lace stitches. .--_carrie_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . [illustration: .--carrie.] this name is very easy to work, being very clearly and simply embroidered in overcast and satin stitch. the thick dots may be worked without the eyelet-holes if preferred. [illustration: .--caroline.] .--_caroline_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . this pretty name requires care in working; the leaves which adorn the letters must be very well defined; they, as well as the letters, are embroidered in satin stitch, the initial letter being veined, and the ornaments worked in overcast and eyelet-holes. .--_charlotte_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . [illustration: .--charlotte.] this name is worked in satin stitch and overcast, the small and elegant dots in point de russe and graduated satin stitch; the large ones are worked in raised satin stitch. .--_cornelie_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . this word is worked in plain satin stitch, the ornamentation in overcast stitch. [illustration: .--cornelie.] .--_c.m._ material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . this design is simple, is worked in graduated satin stitch, and is most elegant. [illustration: --c.m.] [illustration: .--dora.] .--_dora_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . this elaborate design should not be attempted by beginners in the art of embroidery; it is worked in overcast stitch, raised and veined satin stitch; the tendrils are entirely worked in graduated overcast; the name is placed over a graceful spray of wild flowers worked in the above-named stitches. this pattern, although originally designed to be worked on net or fine muslin, is far more effective when worked on cambric or fine lawn. .--_d.c._ [illustration: .--d.c.] material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . these letters are worked in satin stitch and veined satin stitch; the forget-me-nots are worked in raised satin stitch with a small eyelet-hole in the middle worked in overcast stitch. .--_emily_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . this name is worked in satin stitch, the dots in the middle in point de poste, the rest of the letters in satin stitch and in dotted satin stitch. [illustration: .--emily.] .--_ernestine_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . this elegant design is most effective; the first letter very elaborate; the rest of the letters simply worked in satin stitch. the small stars are worked in overcast stitch, and the initial letter itself in veined satin stitch. [illustration: .--ernestine.] .--_etta_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . the letters which compose this name are formed entirely of leaves, flowers, and tendrils, worked entirely in satin stitch and overcast; the tendrils which surround the name are worked in overcast, and have a few eyelet-holes placed among them. [illustration: .--etta.] .--_eva_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton nos. and . this name is worked in satin stitch, the leaf in point de sable; the veinings are worked in raised satin stitch. [illustration: .--eva.] .--_e.a._ material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s white and red embroidery cotton no. . this very pretty monogram is worked quite in a new style of embroidery. the design represents the emblems of faith, hope, and charity. the outlines of the shield and cross are worked in overcast, the initials "e.a.," the torch, and the anchor in satin stitch with white cotton, the leaves partly in satin stitch with white and partly in point d'or with red cotton, with only a fine outline in overcast. the cross and the flames of the torch are embroidered in the same manner. [illustration: --e.a.] .--_e.a.p._ material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . these pretty initials are worked in satin stitch, the middle letter in point russe and point de poste. [illustration: .--e.a.p.] .--_e.p._ material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . these elegant letters are worked in veined and raised satin stitch. [illustration: .--e.p.] [illustration: .--e.r.] .--_e.r._ material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . the ovals are worked in overcast and point de pois, the letters in satin stitch, the ornamentation in satin stitch and overcast. [illustration: .--e.a.] .--_e.a._ materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . these initials are placed in a medallion; they are worked in satin stitch and overcast, and in appliqué on muslin. for that part of the pattern in which the name is to be embroidered the material is taken double. .--_elisabeth_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . this word is embroidered in satin stitch and overcast. a few small eyelet-holes break the monotony of the outlines, and give lightness to this name. [illustration: .--elisabeth.] .--_elise_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton nos. and . the open part of these letters is ornamented by one or more dots; the thick work is raised over chain stitches worked in no. , a rather coarser cotton. [illustration: .--elise.] .--_emma_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . this name is worked in satin stitch; the large dots may be worked with the eyelet-holes in fine overcast, the smaller dots in satin stitch. the remaining letters in raised satin stitch and point de sable. [illustration: .--emma.] .--_f.b._ material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . this elegant monogram is worked in raised satin stitch, the inside embroidered with lace. the leaves and tendrils are worked in satin stitch and point de sable. [illustration: .--f.b.] .--_f.s._ materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton nos. and . the initials "f.s." are placed in the pages of an open book, the outlines of which are worked in overcast, the sides in point de pois. the wreath of flowers which surrounds the book is embroidered in satin stitch, the tendrils and veinings are in overcast. the initials are worked in fine satin stitch. [illustration: .--f.s.] .--_fanny._ material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . this name is simply worked in satin stitch and overcast. [illustration: .--fanny.] .--_francis._ material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . the initial letter of this elegant design is worked in fine over-casting; the centre star in raised satin stitch with lace in the middle; the leaves surrounding it in veined satin stitch; the other letters are worked in plain satin stitch; and the dots of the line in point de poste. [illustration: .--francis.] .--_e.c._ material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . the initials "e.c." are worked within a frame of overcast outlines and satin stitch dots. vine-leaves and grapes worked in point de pois and eyelet-holes are placed as ornaments around the frame. [illustration: .--e.c.] .--_gordon_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . this pretty name being worked in raised satin stitch, is very suitable for gentlemen's handkerchiefs. [illustration: .--gordon.] .--_helene_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . we give the french version of this pretty name, it being easily changed to english "helen" by omitting the final _e_ in working. the name is worked in plain satin stitch, slightly raised at the thickest parts of the letters. [illustration: .--helene.] .--_h.d.g._ material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . this elegant design is worked in fine overcast and satin stitch, and point de russe. [illustration: --h.d.g.] --_jessie._ material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . this design is very simple to work, the letters being so clear and well defined. the thick satin stitch is scalloped in parts. [illustration: .--jessie.] .--_j.c._ material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . the letters "j.c." are worked in raised satin and overcast stitch, the thickest part of each letter being worked in scallops. [illustration: .--j.c.] .--_lina_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . this name is worked in raised veined satin stitch; the small stars are worked in point russe round eyelet-holes. [illustration: . lina.] .--_lizzie_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . this name is worked partly in satin stitch, partly in raised dots and fine overcast; the letters are in the greek style, and have an excellent effect if well worked. [illustration: .--lizzie.] .--_l.g.a._ materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. , and linen thread no. . lace stitches are introduced in the medallion which incloses these letters, the outlines being worked in overcast and point de pois, the pens and initials in raised satin stitch, as also the flowers. the open portion is filled in with mechlin wheels, which are thus worked: a number of single threads cross each other in the space to be filled up; these are placed about a quarter of an inch from each other. all the bars in one direction must now be worked in fine button-hole stitch, then the opposite bars must be worked, and the button-hole stitch must be continued about six inches past the point where the two lines cross. the thread must be slipped loosely round the cross twice, running over and under alternately, so as to form a circle; then work in button-hole to the centre of a quarter of the circle; make a dot by inserting a pin in the next button-hole and working three stitches in the loop thus formed by the pin. these dots may be omitted from these wheels. [illustration: .--l.g.a.] .--_l.c._ material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . the effect of this design when well worked is excellent, for, although simple, the contrast between the letters and stars throws each into relief. veined and raised satin stitch, with very small eyelet-holes, are the stitches used here. [illustration: .--l.c.] .--_marie_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton nos. and . this name is embroidered in satin stitch; the veinings are well defined, and the tendrils should be worked with no. cotton, as they require very fine work. stars of overcast and eyelet-holes are the only ornaments. [illustration: --marie.] .--_maria_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . the initial letter of this name is worked in overcast and point de pois, the remaining letters in satin stitch, the ornamentation in satin stitch and overcast. [illustration: .--maria.] .--_maude_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . this name is worked in veined satin stitch; the small stars in raised satin stitch, and the elegant tendrils are worked in overcast. this work is peculiarly adapted for the marking of a trousseau. [illustration: .--maude.] .--_m._ material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . this elegant design can be worked in coloured silk if preferred, or the coronet omitted at will. the letter "m" is worked in raised and veined satin stitch; the centre stars are worked in fine overcast round an eyelet-hole; the coronet is worked in very fine satin stitch and point de pois, and stars to correspond with those worked in the letter and in the wreath below, the leaves of which are worked in satin stitch and overcast stitch. [illustration: .--m.--handkerchief corner.] .--_m.b.d._ material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . these initials are worked in satin stitch and overcast, the open work in fine overcast round eyelet-holes. [illustration: .--m.b.d.] [illustration: .--m.b.g.] .--_m.b.g._ material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . these elegant letters are simply worked in graduated satin stitch and fine overcast with eyelet-holes. [illustration: .--m.h.e.] .--_m.h.e._ material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . this elegant design is worked in graduated satin stitch, the middle letter is done in point croisé. this stitch is only worked on very thin and transparent materials. insert the needle into the material as for the common back stitch, draw it out underneath the needle on the opposite outline of the pattern so as to form on the wrong side a slanting line. insert the needle again as for common back stitch. .--_natalie._ material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . the initial letter of this word contains all those following, and is surrounded by a wreath of roses and other flowers; these are worked in satin stitch, the leaves in point de pois, the letters in raised satin stitch. the dots which are represented on the groundwork of the initial are worked in back stitching; these may be worked in scarlet ingrain cotton if desired for morning handkerchiefs. [illustration: .--natalie.] .--_o.r._ material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . this monogram is worked in satin stitch, and the oval is worked in eyelet-holes of graduated sizes. [illustration: .--o.r.] .--_phoebe_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . the first letter of this word is very elaborate; it is worked in satin stitch, point de sable, and point de pois, the rest of the letters in satin stitch. [illustration: .--phoebe.] .--_monogram for pocket handkerchiefs_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton perfectionné no. . [illustration: .--monogram for marking handkerchiefs] this monogram is worked partly in appliqué, partly in satin stitch. for the middle part of the medallion sew on the pattern in appliqué of cambric with button-hole stitch; the remaining part of the embroidery is worked in satin stitch and point russe. .--_monogram for pocket handkerchiefs_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. , and linen thread no. . this monogram is also worked in appliqué and satin stitch. the circle all round the medallion is worked in appliqué; in the middle work lace stitches from illustration. the edge of the medallion is worked round with button-hole stitch. [illustration: .--monogram for marking handkerchiefs.] .--_rosa_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . here the name is inclosed in a medallion of overcast and back stitching, the lower part having a graceful wreath of leaves worked in satin stitch. the letters which form the name are worked in raised and scalloped satin stitch and point de pois. [illustration: . rosa.] .--_rosina_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . the stars round this graceful initial letter are worked in raised satin stitch round an eyelet-hole, the leaves in graduated satin stitch, the stems overcast, the wreaths of flowers worked in satin stitch and open eyelet-holes, the stems and veinings in overcast, and the stars on the stems to correspond with those worked in the letter: the rest of the letters in simple satin stitch rather thickly raised. [illustration: .--rosina.] .--_r.s._ materials: black china silk; messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . these letters are worked in raised satin stitch with a design of point russe worked in black silk. [illustration: .--r.s.] .--_s.e.b._ material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . these letters are worked in graduated satin stitch, the centre star is worked in raised satin stitch, and the four surrounding it as eyelet-holes. [illustration: .--s.e.b.] .--_l.e.p._ material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . these initials are worked in plain satin stitch, and the elegant stars are worked in point russe worked round an eyelet-hole. [illustration: .--l.e.p.] .--_victoria_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s embroidery cotton no. . this name is most elaborately worked in satin stitch, over-casting and eyelet-holes. the initial letter is worked in satin stitch, and the stars in fine overcast round an eyelet-hole. [illustration: .--victoria.] * * * * * point lace work. lace is of two kinds--pillow lace, which is made upon a cushion or pillow, and point lace, which is made of stitches or _points_ worked in patterns by hand, which are joined by various stitches forming a groundwork, also the result of the needle above. pillow lace is entirely worked on the pillow or cushion, the pattern and ground being produced at the same time. pillow lace is sometimes correctly called bone or bobbin lace, but it appears that the distinction has never been very nicely observed either by lace-workers or lace-traders, many sorts which are really pillow lace being called point, on account of some peculiarity in the stitch or pattern. the requisites for producing lace in perfection are the dexterity and taste of the workers, and the goodness of the material. to produce many beautiful fabrics a mechanical dexterity alone suffices, but in lace-making the worker must have some artistic talent, even when supplied with designs, for any one can perceive that deviations from the design are easily made, and that the slightest alteration by a worker wanting in taste will spoil the whole piece of workmanship. the following illustrations are specimens of ancient and modern laces from mrs. bury palliser's collection:-- [illustration: .--dalecarlian lace.] [illustration: .--old mechlin.] [illustration: .--mechlin lace (queen charlotte's).] no. shows dalecarlian lace, made by the women of dalecarlia. this is a coarse kind of lace, and is sewn on caps, &c., and, although highly starched, is never washed, for fear of destroying its coffee-coloured tint, which, it appears, is as much prized now by the swedish rustics as it was by english ladies in the last century. [illustration: .--buckingham point trolly, (black lace).] both these specimens of mechlin belonged to queen charlotte, who much admired this elegant lace. no. .--the bedford plaited lace is an improvement on the old maltese. honiton guipure lace is distinguished by the groundwork being of various stitches, in place of being sewn upon a net ground. the application of honiton sprigs upon bobbin net has been of late years almost superseded by this modern guipure. the sprigs, when made, are sewn upon a piece of blue paper and united on the pillow with "cutworks" or "purlings," or else joined with the needle by various stitches--lacet, point, réseau, cutwork, button-hole, and purling. [illustration: .--bedford plaited lace ( ).] those who wish to study lace and lace-making should read mrs. bury palliser's _history of lace_ (sampson low and marston). [illustration: .--honiton guipure lace.] point lace. the materials required for this elegant branch of needlework are neither numerous nor expensive. tracing cloth, leather, or toile cirÉe, various braids and cords, linen thread and two or three sizes of needles, scissors and thimble. tracing cloth is required when ladies copy point lace patterns, and is the most convenient mode of taking them, as the design can be worked upon the tracing cloth, which, though transparent, is very strong; the price is s. d. per yard. fine leather is the material upon which bought patterns are usually traced, and is decidedly more pleasant to work on than is any other material. in selecting patterns ladies should choose those traced upon green leather in preference to scarlet or buff, as green is better for the eyesight than any other colour. [illustration: .--point lace scissors.] toile cirÉe is only a substitute for leather, and is not as pleasant to work upon in warm weather. the needles employed are usually messrs. walker's needles, nos. and . the scissors should be small, sharp, and pointed, as in illustration no. . an ivory thimble may be safely employed in this light work. [illustration: .--linen braid.] [illustration: .--linen braid.] [illustration: .--linen braid.] [illustration: .--linen braid.] [illustration: .--linen braid.] [illustration: .--linen braid.] the braids are of various widths and kinds. none but pure linen braid should be employed; those with machine-made edgings are eschewed by many lace-workers, the plain, loose-woven linen braid of various widths and qualities being alone acceptable to experienced hands. but all ladies do not care to be at the trouble of edging the braid, and will find nos. , , , and very useful. no. is a plain linen braid with a vandyked edge, which works out very prettily. no. is an edged braid with open holes, in imitation of the point lace work of the fifteenth century. point lace cords resemble the satin stitch embroidery in their close, regular smoothness; the price is s. per hank, and they are of various thicknesses, from the size of a coarse crochet thread up to that of a thick piping cord. these cords are used to ornament the braid, and are closely sewn on the braid, following its every outline, and serve as _beading_ to the edging, being always sewn on the outer edge alone. the finer kinds of this cord are used in place of braid where very light work is needed, as in the point lace alphabet which forms the frontispiece of this work. directions for laying on the cord when employed as braid are given on page . when used as a finish only, and to impart the raised appearance of venice and spanish lace, it is fixed on the braid by plain, close sewing. the thread used should be mecklenburg linen thread; that of messrs. walter evans and co. we strongly recommend as being of pure linen, washing and wearing well; it is pleasant to work with, from the regularity and evenness of the make. the numbers run thus:-- , , , , , , , , , , , , , and --and will be found adapted for every kind of lace stitch. no. is the coarsest, no. the finest, size. in working point lace the following directions must be attended to: begin at the left hand, and work from left to right, when not otherwise directed, as in reverse rows. before cutting off the braid run a few stitches across it to prevent it widening. joins should be avoided, but when a join is indispensable, stitch the braid together, open and turn back the ends, and stitch each portion down separately. when passing the thread from one part to another, run along the centre of the braid, allowing the stitches to show as little as possible. in commencing, make a few stitches, leaving the end of the thread on the wrong side and cutting it off afterwards. in fastening off, make a tight button-hole stitch, run on three stitches, bring the needle out at the back, and cut off. having now completed our list of materials, we can proceed to lay on the braid. [illustration: .--mode of placing the braid.] to place the braid.--no. shows the design traced upon paper or tracing cloth, and lightly tacked to a foundation of leather or toile cirée. run on a straight line of braid for the lower edge, with fine stitches, working as shown from left to right. take another piece of braid, or the other end of the same piece, and begin to lay the braid by "running" stitches in its centre, keeping it as smooth and even as possible. the outer edge presents no difficulty, but the inner edge will not lie evenly without being drawn in by a needle and thread, as follows:--thread a no. needle with no. mecklenburg thread about inches long, fasten the thread to one point, and insert the needle in and out of the edge of the braid, as if for fine gathering; this thread when drawn up will keep the braid in its place. two or three fastening off stitches should be worked when each circle, half circle, or rounded curve of a pattern is finished, as the drawing or gathering thread remains in the work, and forms an important, though unseen, part of its structure. as much of the beauty of point lace depends upon the manner of placing the braid, ladies cannot bestow too much pains upon this part of the work, which is a little troublesome to beginners. many fancy shops now undertake this braid-placing for ladies, who can have their own pattern braided and commenced or braided alone at trifling expense. among these may be mentioned the following houses:--goubaud, , henrietta-street, covent-garden. boutillier, oxford-street, w. the stitches used in point lace may be divided into-- stitches proper, or _points_. connecting bars. finishing edgings. wheels, rosettes. the term point lace, or lace stitches (_points_), has of late been applied to every stitch executed with mecklenburg thread, and many stitches are erroneously named by modern writers. as there are more than one hundred stitches employed in this beautiful art, much study and opportunity of seeing specimens of old point lace is required to give a novice any idea of the various kinds of point lace; but by attention to the following stitches the rudiments of the art may be easily acquired and very beautiful lace produced. the first stitch is point de bruxelles, or brussels lace stitch. this stitch, as may be clearly seen in illustration no. , is a simple button-hole stitch worked loosely and with great regularity. the whole beauty of brussels lace depends upon the evenness of the stitches. this stitch is sometimes employed as an edging, but is more often worked in rows backwards and forwards, either as a groundwork or to fill spaces, as in the point lace collar, no. . [illustration: . point de bruxelles (brussels lace).] [illustration: .--point de bruxelles (brussels lace worked in rows).] brussels point is the foundation of nearly all the lace stitches. point de venise (venetian or venice point) is worked from left to right, like brussels point. work one loose button-hole, and in this stitch work four button-hole stitches tightly drawn up, then work another loose button-hole stitch, then four more tight button-hole stitches in the loose one, repeat to the end of the row, and fasten off. [illustration: .--point de venise (venice point).] [illustration: .--petit point de venise (little venice point).] petit point de venise (little venice point) is worked in the same manner as point de venise, but one tight stitch only is worked in each loose button-hole stitch. this is a most useful stitch for filling small spaces. [illustration: .--point d'espagne (spanish point).] no. .--point d'espagne (spanish point) is worked from left to right as follows:--insert the needle in the edge of the braid, keeping the thread turned to the right, bringing it out inside the loop formed by the thread (see illustration no. ); the needle must pass from the back of the loop through it. pass the needle under the stitch and bring it out in front, thus twice twisting the thread, which produces the cord-like appearance of this stitch. at the end of each row fasten to the braid and return by sewing back, inserting the needle once in every open stitch. [illustration: .--close point d'espagne (close spanish point).] no. .--point d'espagne (close) is worked in the same way as open point d'espagne, but so closely as to only allow the needle to pass through in the next row. this stitch is also worked from left to right; fasten to the braid at the end of each row, and sew back to the left again. no. .--treble point d'espagne is worked in exactly the same way as the open and close point d'espagne, as may be seen in illustration no. . three close stitches, one open, three close to the end of each row. sew back, and in the next row begin one open, three close, one open, then close to the end; repeat the rows as far as necessary, taking care that the close and open stitches follow in regular order. diamonds, stars, and various patterns may be formed with this stitch. [illustration: .--treble point d'espagne (treble spanish point).] no. .--point de grecque is begun from left to right, is worked backwards and forwards, and is begun by one stitch in loose point de bruxelles and three of close point d'espagne; then one brussels, three point d'espagne to the end of the row; in returning work back in the same manner. [illustration: .--point de grecque (grecian point).] no. . point de valenciennes (valenciennes stitch).--this stitch appears complicated, but is really easy to work. begin at the left hand and work six point de bruxelles stitches at unequal distance, every alternate stitch being larger. nd row: upon the first large or long stitch work close button-hole stitches, then short point de bruxelles stitch under the one above, then close stitches, and so on to the end of row (right to left). [illustration: .--point de valenciennes (valenciennes stitch).] rd row: close button-hole in the of previous row, short point de bruxelles, close in the bruxelles stitch, short point de bruxelles, close, short point de bruxelles, close, l short, close, short, and repeat. th row: close, short point de bruxelles, close, short, close, short, close, l short, and repeat. continue the rows until sufficient of the pattern is worked. [illustration: .--point d'alençon, with twisted stitch.] no. . point d'alenÇon.--this stitch is used to fill up narrow spaces where great lightness is required. point d'alençon is worked under and over in alternate stitches, like hem stitch. nos. and show point d'alençon. in no. a twisted stitch is worked over the plain point d'alençon, which is clearly shown in no. ; this twist is made by passing the thread three times round each plain bar, and working the knot shown in illustration no. over _both_ strands of the bar. [illustration: .--point d'alençon, with button-hole stitch.] the point d'alenÇon no. is a festoon of close button-hole stitch worked over the plain bars. [illustration: .--point d'angleterre (open english lace).] no. .--point d'angleterre (open english lace).--open english lace is thus worked:--cover the space to be filled in with lines of thread about one-eighth of an inch apart, then form cross lines, intersecting those already made and passing alternately under and over them; work a rosette on every spot where two lines cross, by working over and under the two lines about times round, then twist the thread twice round the groundwork thread, and begin to form another rosette at the crossing threads. no. shows this stitch much enlarged. [illustration: .--point d'angleterre (enlarged).] no. ,--point turque (turkish stitch).--this easy and effective stitch looks well for filling either large or small spaces; the thread employed should be varied in thickness according to the size of the space to be filled. st row: work a loop, bringing the thread from right to left, passing the needle through the twist and through the loop, draw up tight and repeat. nd row: straight thread from right to left. rd row: work the same as first using the straight thread in place of the braid, and passing the needle through the loop of previous row, as shown in illustration no. . [illustration: .--point turque.] no. .--cordova stitch is useful for varying other stitches. it resembles the point de reprise of guipure d'art, and is worked in a similar manner over and under the side of squares formed by straight and parallel lines. (see no. .) [illustration: .--point de cordova (cordova stitch).] no. .--point de reprise.--this stitch is worked by darning over and under two threads, forming a triangle. the space is filled by parallel and cross-way bars, placed at equal distances, and on the triangles thus produced point de reprise is worked. [illustration: .--point de reprise.] no. .--point brabanÇon (brabançon lace) is worked as follows:--left to right. st row: long loose, short loose, point de bruxelles alternately to end of row. nd row: tight point de bruxelles in the long loose stitch, short loose point de bruxelles in the short loose stitch of previous row, repeat. rd row: same as first. [illustration: .--point brabançon (brabançon lace).] [illustration: .--point de fillet (net groundwork stitch).] [illustration: .--point de fillet and point de reprise.] no. is used for groundwork where brussels net is not imitated, and is very effective. it is begun in the corner or crosswise of the space to be filled. a loose point de bruxelles stitch is first taken and fastened to the braid, then passed twice through the braid as shown in illustration, and worked in rows backwards and forwards as follows:-- point de bruxelles stitch; before proceeding to the next stitch pass the needle _under_ the knot, _over_ the thread, and again _under_ it, as shown in illustration no. . this stitch is very quickly worked. no. shows point de fillet applied in filling a space, with a few stitches of point de reprise worked upon this pretty groundwork. no. .--point de tulle.--this stitch is used as a groundwork for very fine work, and is worked in rows backwards and forwards in the same stitch as open point d'espagne, page . when this is completed the work is gone over a second time, by inserting the needle under one twisted bar, bringing it out and inserting it at +, and bringing it out again at the dot. this produces a close double twist which is very effective. [illustration: .--point de tulle.] no. .--mechlin lace (mechlin wheels).--this is one of the prettiest stitches in point lace, but also one of the most difficult to work correctly. it is thus worked:--work a number of diagonal bars in button-hole stitch on a single thread in one direction, then begin in the opposite side the same way, and work or stitches past the spot where the two lines cross, pass the thread round the cross twice under and over the thread to form a circle. work in button-hole stitch half one quarter, make a dot by putting a fine pin in the loop instead of drawing the thread tight, and work button-hole stitches in the loop held open by the pin, then take it out, and continue as before. beginners will do well to omit the dot, leaving the loop only on the wheel. mechlin wheels are also worked in rows upon horizontal and parallel lines of thread. [illustration: .--mechlin lace wheels.] no. .--escalier lace.--this useful lace may be varied in pattern to any extent by placing the open stitches in any desired order; it then takes the name of diamond or antwerp lace, according to the design. true escalier lace is made by working nine button-hole stitches close together; then miss --that is, work none in the space that stitches would occupy--work , miss as before to the end of row, begin the nd row stitches from the end, to cause the open spaces to fall in diagonal lines--a succession of steps or stairs (_escalier_), which gives name to this stitch. [illustration: .--escalier lace worked in diamonds.] no. .--spanish point lace is adorned with highly-raised scrolls, flowers, &c. this is effected by working over an underlay of coarse white thread or over fine white linen cords. the wheels are worked by winding soft coarse linen thread round pencils or smooth knitting-pins of various sizes, and working over the circle thus obtained a succession of close button-hole stitches. these wheels are sewn on to the lace when completed. the groundwork of spanish lace is usually worked in what are called raleigh bars (see page ), but this lace has sometimes for groundwork point de venise. an easy mode of working this handsome lace is to trace the design upon very fine good linen; raise the thick parts as above directed, and embroider the whole in fine thick scalloped button-hole stitch; fill the ground with raleigh bars, or, as shown in illustration no. , in treble point de venise, and cut away the linen from beneath the groundwork. [illustration: .--spanish point lace (worked à l'anglaise).] wheels and rosettes. wheels or rosettes are used to fill up circles, or in combination to form lace. the simplest is-- the sorrento wheel.--nos. and .--this is worked by fastening the thread in the pattern to be filled up by means of the letters. fasten it first at the place _a_, then at the place _b_, carrying it back to the middle of the first formed bar by winding it round, fasten the cotton at the place _c_, carrying it back again to the centre by winding it round the bar, and so on; then work over and under the bars thus formed as in english lace. see page , and illustrations nos. and . [illustration: and .--sorrento wheels.] no. .--english wheel.--this is worked in the same manner as the sorrento wheel, but instead of _winding_ the thread over and under the bars, the needle is inserted under each bar and brought out again between the thread and the last stitch; this gives a kind of button-hole stitch, and gives the square, firm appearance possessed by this wheel. [illustration: .--english wheel.] no. .--rosette in point d'angleterre.--this rosette is worked in a somewhat similar manner to the wheel above described, the difference being that after each stitch passed round and under the bars, the thread is passed loosely round in the reverse direction, as shown in illustration no. , before proceeding to make the next stitch. [illustration: .--rosette in raised point d'angleterre.] no. is a rosette or star which is used to fill circles of braid, and forms the centre of many modern point lace patterns. it is worked upon a pattern traced and pricked in small holes at equal distances. two threads are employed, one coarse tracing thread, the other of finer thread. the coarse thread is laid on thus:--pass the needle containing the fine thread, no. , through one of the pricked holes, over the tracing thread and back through the same hole; repeat, following the traced outline until the whole of the coarse thread is laid over the outline, then work over in tight button-hole stitch with picots or purls, as on the raleigh bars (see page ). this mode of laying on tracing or outlining thread is also applied to fine braid and to point lace cord, as in the alphabet no. (see page ). [illustration: .--rosette for centre of point lace circles.] bars. the word _bar_ is applied to the various stitches used to connect the various parts of point lace work, and the beauty of the work depends greatly upon the class of bar and its suitability to the lace stitches used. the simplest bar is-- no. .--the sorrento bar.--it is worked from right to left, a straight thread being carried across and fastened with a stitch. the return row consists of a simple twist under and over the straight thread; three of these bars are usually placed close together at equal distances between each group. the thread is sewn over the braid in passing from one spot to another. [illustration: .--sorrento bars.] [illustration: .--sorrento bars.] sorrento bars are also applied as shown in illustration no. . no. .--d alencon bars are worked upon point de bruxelles edging, and are only applied to the inner part of a pattern, never being used as groundwork bars. the thread is merely passed three times over and under the point de bruxelles stitches, the length of these bars being regulated by the space to be filled; when the third bar is completed a tight point de bruxelles stitch is used to fasten off the bar, the thread is passed through the next point de bruxelles stitch, and a second bar begun. [illustration: .--d'alençon bars.] [illustration: .--venetian bar.] no. .--the venetian bar is so simple that it hardly needs description. it is worked over two straight threads in reverse button-hole stitch. no. shows the venetian bar applied as the "veining" of leaf, and worked upon sorrento bars. [illustration: .--venetian bar.] no. .--venetian bars are worked so as to form squares, triangles, &c., in button-hole stitch upon a straight thread. the arrow in the illustration points to the direction for working the next. [illustration: .--- plain venetian bars.] no. .--bars of point d'angleterre.--these bars may be worked singly or to fill up a space, as in illustration. work rosettes as in point d'angleterre, page ; when each rosette is finished twist the thread up the foundation thread to the top, fasten with one stitch, then pass it under the parallel line running through the centre and over into the opposite braid; repeat on each side of each rosette, inserting the threads as in illustration. [illustration: .--bars of point d'angleterre.] no. .--point de venise bars (edged).--begin at the right hand and stretch a line of thread to the left side of the braid, fastening it with one tight stitch of point de bruxelles. upon this line work a succession of tight point de bruxelles stitches. in every third stitch work one point de venise stitch. [illustration: .--point de venise bars (edged).] no. .--we now come to the most important feature of bars--the _dot, picot_, or _purl_, for by all these names it is known. this dot is worked in various ways upon different lace bars. dotted point de venise bars are worked as follow:-- [illustration: .--dotted point de venise bars.] stretch the thread from right to left, on this work five tight stitches of point de bruxelles, then insert a pin in this last stitch to hold it open and loose, pass the needle under the loose stitch and over the thread, as clearly shown in illustration no. , and in this loop work three tight point de bruxelles stitches. then work five more stitches, and repeat to end of row. [illustration: .--picot or dot on sorrento bar.] no. shows a dot or picot upon a sorrento bar worked between rows of point de bruxelles, three twisted stitches being worked into the loop left by the twisted thread; this forms a picot resembling satin stitch in appearance. nos. and .--raleigh bars are worked over a foundation or network of coarse thread, twisted in places so as to more easily fall into the desired form. [illustration: .--raleigh bars.] [illustration .--network for working raleigh bars.] by following the numbering from no. to , in no. , a square place may be easily filled, and portions of this arrangement applied to form groundwork of any shape desired. upon this groundwork tight point de bruxelles stitches are worked, and the dot worked upon these in one of the following ways:-- dot or picot.-- st mode: five tight point de bruxelles stitches, one loose point de bruxelles; pass the needle under the loop and over the thread, as shown in point de venise bars no. , draw up, leaving a small open loop as in tatting. work five tight point de bruxelles and repeat. nd mode: proceed as above, but instead of continuing the tight stitches work two or three tight stitches in the loop thus formed, and repeat. rd mode: work four tight point de bruxelles stitches, one loose, through which pass the needle point, wind the thread three or four times round the point, as shown in illustration no. , press the thumb tightly on this, and draw the needle and thread through the twists. this is a quick mode of making the picot, and imitates most closely the real spanish lace. illustration no. also shows how this stitch may be applied as a _regular_ groundwork, but the beauty of old point groundwork bars is the variety of form. [illustration: .--third mode of making picots or dots.] edges and purl finish. the correct edging of lace is a most important part of this art, and care should be taken to work a proper edge for each kind of lace. sorrento edging should be worked upon limoges lace. spanish lace requires a full rich edge, as shown in no. , &c. the simplest edge is point de bruxelles, which is worked somewhat like the stitch no. , and is secured by a knot worked in the braid. many lace-workers omit this knot. [illustration: .--point de bruxelles edging.] no. .--sorrento edging is worked with one short and one long stitch alternately. [illustration: .--sorrento edging.] no. .--point de venise is worked precisely like that stitch (see page ), three and even four stitches being worked in the loop. [illustration: .--point de venise edging.] no. .--point d'angleterre edging is worked in point de bruxelles, the thread being again drawn through the braid before proceeding to the next stitch. this edging is strong and useful. [illustration: .--point d'angleterre edging.] no. .--point d'espagne edging.--this stitch is easily worked. insert the point of the needle through the braid and wind the thread round it times, draw the needle through these windings and draw the picot tight, sew over the braid the space of stitches, and repeat. [illustration: .--point d'espagne edging.] no. .--antwerp edge.--this edge is only a variety of point d'angleterre edging, and differs only in the mode of making the knot; the thread is passed over, under, and through the loop formed by the point de bruxelles lace. [illustration: .--antwerp edge.] note.--it will be observed that the stitches here given are much enlarged for the sake of clearness in showing details. patterns. no. .--_star in point lace_. materials: braid; messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. . trace the outline upon paper or leather, lay the braid on as directed. work the centre in sorrento bars, and on these work a rosette in point d'angleterre, the edge in point d'angleterre edging, and the wheels in open english lace. [illustration: .--star in point lace.] * * * * * no. .--_medallion in point lace_. materials: linen braid; messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. . this medallion is useful for cravat ends and for a number of purposes, as trimming for sachets, dresses, &c. having placed the braid as before directed, work an english rosette in the centre, fill in the ground with point de fillet or with point de bruxelles. an edging of spanish point completes this pretty medallion. [illustration: .--medallion in point lace.] * * * * * no. .--_point lace border_. materials: braid; messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. . this border represents the completed work shown on p. . a point d'angleterre rosette is worked in each circle. the plain braid is edged by sorrento edging. venice bars are worked above the trimming, and treble point de venise edges the border. [illustration: .--point lace border.] * * * * * no. .--_point lace border_. materials: braid; messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. . this border is both easily and quickly worked in sorrento bars. the edge is worked in two rows of point de bruxelles. [illustration: .--point lace border.] * * * * * no. .--_insertion in limoges lace_. materials: plain linen braid; messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. . this insertion will be found very useful, being so quickly worked. edge the braid with sorrento edging, fill up with bars and plain point d'alençon and sorrento wheels, no. . [illustration: .--insertion in limoges lace.] * * * * * no. --_point lace border for handkerchief._ materials: fine lace braid or cord; messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. . this border is suited for a handkerchief or for trimming a square bodice. the braid is not tacked on by stitches running through the centre, as is usual in point lace braids, but sewn on by passing a thread from underneath over the braid and out through the same hole, as is done by lace-workers with a thick thread; this forms the design. the stitches employed in this pattern are raleigh bars, which connect the work; sorrento edging, which finishes the whole outline; english rosettes filling the open spaces. point lace cord may be used for this in place of braid. [illustration: . point lace border for handkerchief.] * * * * * no. .--_star-centre for toilette cushion in point lace_. materials: braid; messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread nos. and . [illustration: .--star-centre for toilette cushion in point lace.] this beautiful star will be found useful for other purposes than as a toilette cushion cover, and is worked as follows:--english rosette in centre; sorrento wheels in the ovals, worked with no. thread; point de bruxelles ground, worked with no. ; braid edged by dotted venetian edges. the eight spaces may be filled with or contrasting stitches, taking care that they contrast well, and are placed alternately, and worked in no. . * * * * * [illustration: .--cravat end in point lace.] .--_cravat end in point lace_. materials: fine braid: messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. . this cravat is worked in sorrento wheels, point d'alençon bars, and sorrento edging. * * * * * [illustration: .--point lace edging.] [illustration: .--point lace edging.] _and_ .--_point lace edgings_. materials: braid; messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread nos. and . these edgings can be used as a finish to insertions and other trimmings or for edging couvrettes. no. is worked with sorrento wheels; the edge in two rows of point de bruxelles, a straight thread being drawn from the end to the beginning of each scallop over which the second row is worked. no. is worked with the same materials in treble point de venise, edged by the same, and finished off with a row of point de bruxelles, the upper edge being worked in the same way. * * * * * .--_design in point lace for collar, lappet, &c._ materials: linen braid; messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread nos. and . this design may be used for a variety of purposes, and is extremely effective. the principal stitches required are given at the sides of the pattern. _a_ is valenciennes lace, _b_ brussels net, _c_ venetian spotted, _d_ sorrento edging, _e_ mechlin wheel, _f_ english rosette, _g_ raleigh bars. [illustration: .--design in point lace for collar, lappet, &c.] * * * * * .--_oval for cravats, &c._ materials: point lace cord; muslin; embroidery cotton; messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread nos. and . this beautiful oval is worked in point lace and embroidery. this is begun from the centre on the muslin by over-casting the space filled by a wheel. the eyelet-holes are then worked, and the satin stitch ornament raised and prepared for working. the edge, of point lace cord, is then laid on, and the under portion edged in tight and open point de bruxelles, the centre of the circles being worked in point de bruxelles. the light groundwork is worked entirely in mechlin wheels, the satin stitch being worked when these are completed. this pattern can be enlarged and applied to many purposes. the muslin is cut away when the whole work is finished. [illustration: .--oval pattern for ornamenting cravats, &c.] * * * * * .--_point lace trimming for square bodice_. materials: braid; messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. or . we give two sizes of thread, as this design is capable of many uses, and the size of the thread differs with these. the pattern is worked in english rosettes and bars (see no. ). no. edging looks well with this pattern. [illustration: .--point lace trimming for square bodice.] * * * * * --_point lace collar._ materials: fine braid or cord; messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. . [illustration: --point lace collar.] set on the braid or cord by passing a thread through a hole pricked in the pattern over the braid and out again through the same hole. edge the braid with point de bruxelles, the design being filled by mechlin wheels, sorrento wheels, point de feston, and the mixed stitch shown in no. , which is composed of d'alençon and sorrento bars, and is easily worked. those who cannot work mechlin wheels easily, can substitute close english, as shown in illustration no. . the bars are sorrento. [illustration: .--d'alençon and sorrento bars.] [illustration: .--close english wheels.] * * * * * [illustration: --point lace collar.] .--_point lace collar._ materials: fine braid or cord; messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. . this collar is worked in the same way as no. , though the stitches vary. the grecian line is worked in point de reprise, the pattern in close english wheels, point de reprise, point de bruxelles, english rosettes, and raleigh bars. * * * * * [illustration: .--point lace lappet.] .--_point lace lappet._ materials: braid; messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. or , according to the fineness required. this lappet is exceedingly pretty. it is composed of the following stitches:--point d'alençon, point de tulle, english rosettes, sorrento bars, d'alençon bars, dotted venise bars, and the fancy stitch point d'anvers, which is not a true point lace stitch, but which is much employed in modern point. [illustration: .--point lace lappet.] [illustration: .--point d'anvers.] [illustration: .--point grecque.] point grecque is another useful variety of fancy stitch, and so easily worked as to be a favourite stitch with beginners. * * * * * [illustration: .--letter a in point lace.] [illustration: .--letter a enlarged.] _ to .--alphabet in point lace. (see endpapers.)_ materials: point lace cord; messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. . this alphabet is useful for marking pocket-handkerchiefs, and for initials for sachets, &c. the cord is laid upon the pattern and pricked out by passing a thread up through a hole over the cord, and back through the same hole; then pass on to the next hole, and repeat. the holes should be about an eighth of an inch apart, or nearer when the pattern is finely convoluted. the letters are worked in point de bruxelles, point d'alençon, and dotted sorrento bars. no. shows the letter a greatly enlarged, to show the mode of working. * * * * * table of threads suited to various articles worked in point lace. |----------------------------------|-------------------| |caps | " " | |collars | " " | |couvrettes | | |cravats | " | |d'oyleys | | |dress trimmimgs | " | |edgings | " | |handkerchiefs | | |insertions, coarse | | | " fine | " | |----------------------------------|-------------------| point lace cord runs about twelve yards to the hank. point lace edged braid runs thirty-six yards on cards. plain linen twelve yards in each hank. * * * * * guipure d'art. instructions and patterns in guipure d'art. * * * * * ancient guipure was a lace made of thin vellum, covered with gold, silver, or silk thread, and the word guipure derives its name from the silk when thus twisted round vellum being called by that name. in process of time the use of vellum was discontinued, and a cotton material replaced it. guipure lace was called _intelle à cartisane_ in england in the sixteenth century. various modern laces are called guipure, but the word is misapplied, since guipure lace is that kind only where one thread is twisted round another thread or another substance, as in the ancient guipure d'art. in every design where lace can be introduced, guipure d'art will be found useful. it looks particularly well when mounted upon quilted silk or satin. the squares, when worked finely, look well as toilet-cushions, or, if worked in coarser thread, make admirable couvrettes, and as covers for eider-down silk quilts are very elegant. guipure squares should be connected by guipure lace, crochet, or tatting, or they may be edged with narrow guipure lace and joined at the corners only when placed over coloured silk or satin; thus arranged, a sofa-cushion appears in alternate squares of plain and lace-covered silk; a ruche of ribbon and fall of lace to correspond completes this pretty mounting. not one of the least important attractions of guipure d'art is the speed with which it is worked, and the ease with which fresh patterns are designed by skilful workers. guipure d'art is an imitation of the celebrated ancient guipure lace, and is worked in raised and intersected patterns upon a square network of linen thread, mecklenburg thread of various sizes being used for this purpose. the needles employed are blunt, and have large eyes, to admit the linen thread. materials required: one frame of wire covered with silk ribbon; one square of mecklenburg thread net (_fillet_), either coarse or fine; mecklenburg thread; netting-needles and meshes of various sizes. the netted foundation, or "_fillet_," upon which this elegant work is embroidered, can be made by ladies very easily, and at much less cost than when bought ready made. the square is worked by netting with coarse no. or fine no. thread over a mesh measuring three-quarters of an inch or more, in rows backwards and forwards. begin with stitches, and increase at the end of every row till you have one more stitch than is required for the number of holes. thus, if a square of holes is required, continue to increase up to stitches, then decrease at the end of every row till stitches only remain. the last stitches are knotted together without forming a fresh stitch. the completed foundation is laced upon the frame, taking the lacing cotton through the double edge formed by the increased and decreased stitches. if the four corners of the netting are tied at each corner of the frame before beginning the lacing, that operation is greatly facilitated. the netting should be laced as tightly as possible, it being far easier to darn on than when loose. [illustration: .--frame for guipure d'art.] ladies who wish to excel in working guipure d'art should practise each of the stitches until they attain perfect regularity and quickness in their execution. two or three hours devoted to this in the first instance will not be time wasted, as the most elaborate pattern will be worked with ease as soon as the stitches are mastered. the mecklenburg thread of messrs. walter evans and co., of derby, will be found a better colour than any other, as it closely resembles the shade of the ancient guipure lace. it is sold only in spools of yards each, and the numbers run as follow; no. , , , , lo, , , ; no. being the coarsest, and no. the finest. the principal stitches used in guipure d'art are point d'esprit, point de toile, point de feston, point de reprise, point de bruxelles, and wheels and stars. point d'esprit is worked with finer cotton than the foundation, say no. on a foundation of no. . it consists of a succession of small loops, as will be seen clearly in the illustration. the learner should begin from the mark * no. , and working a row of loops the length required, turn the frame and work loops on the opposite half of each square intersecting the first worked loops in the centre of each intervening bar of netting. a careful examination of nos. and will explain this more clearly than is possible in words. * * * * * [illustration: .--point d'esprit.] point de toile, or linen stitch, is plain darning under and over each thread; this forms a fine close groundwork, and is much used in guipure d'art. care should be taken to keep the same number of stitches in each square, both along and across; the number of threads shown in illustration no. is only, but and even are used in many netted foundations in fine patterns. [illustration: .--point de toile.] * * * * * point de feston is worked by a series of overcast stitches, as seen by illustration , which clearly shows the manner of working. the frame is turned at each stitch, the stitches are taken across the squares, and increase in length at the top of the square. [illustration: .--point de feston.] * * * * * point de reprise, or darning, is worked by stretching or threads over , or , or more squares. the thread is darned over and under, and the needle used to arrange the last stitch while passing through to form the next. this stitch is very easily acquired. it is always worked with coarser thread than the foundation; no. thread should be employed for a coarse groundwork. no. shows this stitch used to form stars, figures, &c. [illustration: --point de reprise.] [illustration: .--leaf.] * * * * * point de bruxelles, as shown on pages and , is a kind of loose button-hole stitch, and is used for forming various patterns and for filling up squares. it also forms "leaves," when the number of stitches is decreased each row until the leaf finishes off in a point. nos. and clearly show this stitch. [illustration: .--point de bruxelles.] [illustration: .--point de bruxelles.] * * * * * wheels are easy to work, and are begun in the centre. four threads are taken across, as shown in design no. ; the thread is twisted in bringing it back to the centre, and the wheel formed by passing the thread under and over the netting and the crossing threads. it is fastened off on the back of the several wheels. [illustration: .--wheel (commenced).] [illustration: .--wheel.] wheel no. is a square wheel, and is worked in the same manner, with the addition of point d'esprit loops, through which, and under and over the cross-twisted threads, or rows of thread are passed. [illustration: .--square wheel.] [illustration: .--wheel larger than its real size.] * * * * * stars are of various form, as shown in nos. , , , , and . no. is worked in point de feston (see page ) round a single square hole, which is filled in by a small wheel or rosette. no. is worked in point de feston and point de bruxelles, alternately round a centre simply crossed by point d'esprit threads. [illustration: .--star.] no. is more elaborate, and is worked thus:--begin at the place marked _a_; twist the linen thread times round the nearest thread, draw it on to the knot _b_; repeat this times, following the order of the letters; twist the linen thread also between the threads, as can be seen from the illustration, and fasten it underneath the knot _a_; for the wheel fasten on the cotton afresh and work the remaining pattern in darning stitch (point de reprise). [illustration: .--star.] [illustration: .--star.] no. consists of a double cross formed by twisted loops of linen thread. copy these loops exactly from illustration one part of the straight cross lies underneath, then comes the slanting cross, and lastly, the other part of the straight cross. [illustration: .--detail of star.] [illustration: .--star.] in the centre the loops of linen thread are fastened with two rounds of stitches. (see illustration ). overcast stitch is worked like embroidery overcast, and forms the stems of the flowers and leaves of guipure d'art; it is worked over one or two coarse threads. it is employed in no. , and forms the triangles in the centre of the middle squares. * * * * * [illustration: .--insertion in guipure d'art.] .--_insertion in guipure d'art._ materials: guipure frame netting of holes wide; mecklenburg thread no. or ; needle no. . for the netted foundation, which is six holes wide, begin at one corner with stitches, work rows, at the end of each of which increase stitch, continue to work the strip with the same number of stitches, alternately decreasing at the end of one row and increasing at the end of the next. for decreasing net stitches together, for increasing net stitches in the same hole. when the strip is sufficiently long, complete it by decreasing in the same proportion as the increasing at the beginning. as the pattern is so clearly shown in the illustration, it will be very easy to work from it. it is worked in point de feston and star wheels; the border is in point d'esprit. the insertion is finished on either side with a row of button-hole stitches. * * * * * .--_lace border in guipure d'art_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. or . this border may be used for various purposes; it makes a pretty edging for toilet cushions if worked in fine thread, and looks equally well for trimming couvrettes, &c., in no. thread. the netting is nine holes wide, the stitches employed are point d'esprit and point de feston, the edge is in button-hole stitch, the netted ground is cut away outside the scallops. [illustration: .--lace border in guipure d'art.] * * * * * .--_square for d'oyley_ materials: frame; square of netting; mecklenburg reel thread nos. and ; needle no. . [illustration: .--pattern of square for d'oyley.] this square may be used to form part of a couvrette, or a d'oyley, or pincushion. the three other corners of the square are worked exactly like the one seen in illustration; the rosette in the centre is shown in full size. the square is worked in point d'esprit, linen stitch, and point de reprise. each of the leaves of the foliage is worked in one hole of the netting; they are worked by throwing the cotton three times across the hole, and working darning stitch on them. the stem is worked in overcast on the thread of the netting. the daisy in the centre is worked like the leaves, each leaf taking up one or more holes of the netting. * * * * * [illustration: .--corner border in guipure d'art.] _and_ .--_corner borders in guipure d'art_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. for couvrettes, no. for pillow-cases, no. for lace edgings. these corner borders are suitable for pillow-cases or small couvrettes; the stitches worked on these patterns are linen stitch, darning stitch, point de bruxelles, and wheels. the edge is formed by button-hole stitches. the netting is cut away after these are worked. [illustration: .--corner border in guipure d'art.] * * * * * .--_strip of insertion in guipure d'art._ material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. . this strip of insertion is stitches wide, and is worked in zigzag lines of point de feston, with a border of point d'esprit and point de toile; a four-point star occupies the centre of the triangle left by the zigzag line. this pattern is so easy to work that it hardly needs description, the only part requiring care being the squares of point de feston; these are begun in the centre, and the thread should be drawn rather tightly so as to form a good square. [illustration: .--pattern for a strip of insertion in guipure d'art.] * * * * * .--_small square_. materials: frame; messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. , , or for the netting, and no. for the pattern. [illustration: .--small square.] work over a mesh measuring - / inch round the foundation of each square, which has seven stitches in length, and as many in breadth. it is embroidered in darning stitch, and point d'esprit, and wheels. the outer edge is worked round in button-hole stitch. larger squares are worked in the same manner, only a few rows larger in length and breadth. the squares are fastened together with a few stitches, and sewn on the pincushion or any article they are intended to ornament. * * * * * .--_insertion in guipure d'art_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. , or for very fine work. this strip of insertion is very pretty, and can be used for all kinds of lingeries. the size of the material depends, of course, on the use to be made of the insertion. the guipure pattern is worked in linen stitch and point d'esprit, the raised leaves in darning stitch. the edges are worked round with button-hole stitches. [illustration: .--insertion in guipure d'art.] * * * * * .--_rosette in guipure d'art._ [illustration: .--rosette in guipure d'art.] material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. . this rosette is worked in point de toile and small wheels. a larger wheel occupies the centre, and is ornamented with a round of overcast. * * * * * .--_quarter of a square in guipure d'art_. materials: one guipure frame; mecklenburg thread nos. and ; needle no. . [illustration: .--quarter of a square in guipure d'art.] this pattern shows, in full size, one quarter of a square in guipure d'art. the outer border is in point d'esprit, then comes a border in linen stitch. there are large stars in the corners; these stars are worked in raised darning stitch only, and fastened on the netting at the points of each brand; in the centre of the star there is a wheel (see no. ) edged with button-hole stitch. the pattern for the centre, one quarter of which only is seen in the illustration, consists of branches forming small triangles in point de bruxelles, open-worked stars or wheels worked over holes of the netting, and a four-branched centre of point de feston with a wheel in the middle. * * * * * _and_ .--_square patterns in guipure d'art_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s linen thread no. for the netting, and their mecklenburg thread for the guipure stitches no. . [illustration: .--square pattern in guipure d'art.] no. . the outer border of this pretty square is worked in point d'esprit, the inner border in point de toile; then follows a round of small wheels or rosettes. for these, fasten the cotton to one of the knots of the first square stitch of this round, work one loop upon each of the three other knots, so as to form a slanting cross; then work round the centre point of the cross, passing alternately under and over its branches, then twist the cotton over the threads of the foundation until the next square is reached, and begin another wheel. [illustration: .--square pattern in guipure d'art.] the centre of no. is composed of wheels and point de reprise; the pattern round the centre is worked in point de feston, differing a little from that given on pages and , but the illustration clearly shows the difference. no. has similar borders to no. ; the centre is occupied by a star (see page ) in point de feston; four large wheels surround this; the square stitches between are filled with small wheels and with groups of long loops, fastened together in sheaves. point d'esprit and point de toile, worked one way only, complete this square. * * * * * _to_ .--_four patterns in guipure d'art_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. or , according to the size of the work. these four patterns will be found useful for filling up small squares, or for varying the usual groundwork of point d'esprit. [illustration: .--pattern in guipure d'art.] no. is a succession of point de feston stitches, which half fill each square of the netting. this pattern must be worked with great regularity. [illustration: .--pattern in guipure d'art.] no. consists of a kind of double point d'esprit. no. is a thread twisted and taken _across_ each square, and resembles lace stitches. [illustration: .--pattern in guipure d'art.] no. is a succession of small close wheels, intermingled with point d'esprit. this grounding is very effective. [illustration: .--pattern in guipure d'art.] * * * * * .--_lace border for veils, &c_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. ; strip of square netting of the required length; oblong frame. this simple border is easily and quickly worked. the edge is overcast, the ground worked in point d'esprit, the border in point de toile, and the pattern in point de reprise. when completed the netting is cut away from the overcast edge. [illustration: .--lace border for veils, &c.] * * * * * _and_ _a_.--_squares in guipure d'art_. materials: squares of netting of holes; messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. or , according to the fineness required. [illustration: .--square in guipure d'art.] these squares are very pretty for cravat ends, cuffs, or handkerchiefs. they are worked on netting with very fine cotton in the usual manner, beginning on two stitches in one corner the different stitches of the guipure darning can be distinctly seen in illustration, and are point de feston, point de reprise, point de toile, and point d'esprit on no. , and the same stitches surround a wheel in no. _a_. [illustration: _a_.--square in guipure d'art.] * * * * * [illustration: .--guipure d'art insertion.] .--_insertion in guipure d'art_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread nos. to ; strip of netting length, required. this insertion is worked in point de toile, and wheels worked in point de feston. the ground in point d'esprit. * * * * * _and_ .--_square in guipure point de venise (reticella)_ materials: coarse or fine linen; messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. or . [illustration: .--square in point de venise.] [illustration: .--quarter square in reticella work (enlarged).] this square is worked in the so-called point de venise, together with other squares; it is very pretty for covers, toilet cushions, &c. it is worked on coarse or fine linen, according to the use you wish to make of it. prepare a square piece of linen, by drawing out long and cross threads, so as to form perfect squares. in the pattern no. , which is worked on fine linen, threads have been drawn out, both the long and cross way; squares are formed in this way each time that threads have been drawn out; leave or threads of the ground, which form the framework. then fasten the piece of linen on cardboard, and work close button-hole stitch round the inner edge then work with darning stitch over the long and cross threads of the ground. from no. , which shows the fourth part of the square times larger than full size, it is easy to see how the framework is darned. when the latter is entirely darned, work the patterns in the different squares in button-hole stitch. the circular and serpentine patterns consist of rows of button-hole stitch; the patterns which imitate whole rosettes and half rosettes are worked in rows of button-hole stitch. for each row the thread must be first drawn from one place to the other, as can be seen in illustration, and fastened on the framework. the knots in the last button-hole stitched row are made by working in each stitch when completed, another stitch, and drawing the cotton again through the first completed knot. it is easy, however, to work all the patterns from no. . the dotted lines in the right-hand corner show the direction of the patterns which are wanting there. the square is edged all round with an open-work hem, which can also be worked from no. . * * * * * _and_ .--_corner patterns in guipure d'art_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. . these patterns are very pretty for cushions, handkerchiefs, &c. the netted ground is to be worked from the corner. cast on stitches, and work in rows backwards and forwards, increasing stitch at the end of every row. the pattern is worked in point d'esprit, linen, and darning stitch, as can be seen in illustration. [illustration: and --corner borders.] * * * * * .--_flower for ornamenting cravats and caps in guipure d'art_. materials: black or coloured silks, or messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. . [illustration: .--flower in guipure d'art.] this pattern is worked with middle-sized light-coloured purse silk in guipure d'art on netting. this pattern can also be worked with white thread or black silk in point de reprise. * * * * * .--_work basket with covering of darned netting_. materials: bamboo cane basket; blue satin; cardboard; netting; messrs. walter evans and co's mecklenburg thread no. . [illustration: .--work basket covered with guipure d'art.] this elegant basket is made of bamboo cane and blue satin, fastened on cardboard, and covered with guipure d'art. the stand of varnished bamboo is twelve inches long, seven and a half inches wide, and five and a half inches high. the case inside is made of cardboard, covered on both sides with blue satin, and the guipure d'art on the outside only. the stitches used are point de toile, point de reprise, and point d'esprit. * * * * * _and_ .--_squares in guipure d'art_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. or ; and point d'esprit according to the fineness required. [illustration: .--square in guipure d'art.] both these square patterns are suitable for ornamenting lingerie, cravats, collars, &c. repeated at regular intervals on a larger centre, they are likewise suitable for couvrettes, cushions, pillow-cases, &c.; they are worked in darning and linen stitch. [illustration: .--square in guipure d'art.] * * * * * .--_insertion in guipure d'art_. materials: strip of netting holes wide, and of the required length; messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. or . this simple insertion consists of double rows of wheels worked at each side of a strip of point d'esprit, an edge of button-hole stitches being worked between the rows. [illustration: .--guipure d'art insertion.] * * * * * _and_ .--_squares for antimacassar_. materials: square of netting of holes; messrs. walter evans and co's mecklenburg thread no. . [illustration: .--square for antimacassar.] no. is very quickly worked. the border and groundwork in point d'esprit, the centre star in point de reprise, the pattern in point de toile. wheels fill in the four holes in the centre of the squares. no. has a border in point d'esprit, the star is worked in point de feston, the other stitches are point de toile. wheels in part of star pattern no. . [illustration: .--square for antimacassar.] * * * * * _and_ .--_borders in guipure d'art_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. or . these corner borders are very suitable for couvrettes, and, worked with fine thread, for pocket-handkerchiefs. the netted ground of the borders is to be worked in the size seen in illustration; for the border no. darn the ground in button-hole stitch, darning stitch, point d'esprit, and point de feston; the pattern no. is worked in linen stitch and point d'esprit; small wheels are also to be worked. both borders are to be worked round in button-hole stitch; the netted ground is cut away along the outside. [illustration: .--border in guipure d'art.] [illustration: .--border in guipure d'art.] * * * * * _and_ .--_squares in guipure d'art_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. ; netted squares of and holes. [illustration: .--square in guipure d'art.] these two small squares are suitable for ornamenting cravats, lappets for caps and lingeries. they are worked in darning and linen stitch. the centre part of the square, no. , is a small wheel covered with raised stitches. [illustration: .--square in guipure d'art.] * * * * * .--_square in guipure d'art_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. . the centre of this square is worked in point de feston as well as the border; point de toile forms the groundwork of the square in the centre, round which a row of button-hole stitch is worked. [illustration: .--square in guipure d'art.] * * * * * .--_insertion in guipure d'art_. materials: strip of netting of holes in width; messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. . the ground of this simple pattern is worked in point d'esprit, square wheels are worked in the centre of the strip. [illustration: .--insertion in guipure d'art.] * * * * * _to_ .--_different strips of insertion, rosettes and lace, in guipure d'art_. materials: fine white cotton; messrs. waiter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread nos. and . these strips of insertion, rosettes, and borders are very suitable for ornamenting lingeries, cravats, &c. the ground of insertion, nos. and , is worked with fine white cotton over a fine steel knitting-needle, in slanting netting, and darned with thread in the manner seen in illustrations. the ground of each strip is rounds wide, and worked with button-hole stitch along the edges; the darned patterns can be worked from illustration. [illustration: .--insertion in guipure d'art.] [illustration: .--insertion in guipure d'art.] * * * * * [illustration: .--rosette in guipure d'art.] for the rosette, no. , cast on stitches over a fine knitting-needle, and join the stitches into a circle; in the st round work stitches in every stitch. in the nd-- th rounds work stitches in every increased stitch of the preceding round, and in every other stitch stitch. in the th round take a steel knitting-needle double the size of the first, and work over it stitch in every stitch of the preceding round. then work the th round over the fine needle as follows:-- [illustration: .--border in guipure d'art.] draw always the second stitch of stitches through the first, and work stitch in the stitch which has been drawn through the first, and then stitch through the other stitch. in the th round work always stitches in the stitch between the crossed stitches, stitch in all the other stitches. lastly, darn the rosette, from illustration, with fine glazed cotton. for the ground of the rosettes, illustrations nos. and , cast on stitches, join the stitches into a circle, and work then in the st round stitches in every stitch; in the following rounds stitches in every increased stitch, in all the other stitches stitch. the last ( th) round is worked without increasing. then darn the rosettes, from illustrations, with thread in darning stitch, linen stitch, and point d'esprit. the edges of the two rosettes are worked round in button-hole stitch; in every selvedge stitch work button-hole stitches. these two rosettes can be joined together for small couvrettes. [illustration: .--rosette in guipure d'art.] [illustration: .--rosette in guipure d'art.] the ground of the border, no. , is formed by a strip of straight netting squares wide, cut out in vandykes on one side, and worked round in button-hole stitch, as seen in illustration. this ground is darned, from no. , in darning stitch, point d'esprit, linen stitch, and ornamented with bars and wheels (see illustration). * * * * * [illustration: .--corner border in guipure d'art.] _and_ .--_corner borders in guipure d'art_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. for handkerchief, or no. for couvrettes. these corner borders are suitable for handkerchiefs, couvrettes, &c., or as strips of insertion for cushions or pillow-cases. they are worked with more or less fine cotton, according to the use they are meant for. they are edged round with button-hole stitch on the outside, and finished off with a row of crochet purl. work double in every button-hole stitch; after every other stitch draw out the loop on the needle about one-tenth of an inch; take out the needle and leave the loop as a purl; take up loop in last double stitch, and cast it off with the next double stitch. [illustration: .--corner border in guipure d'art.] * * * * * .--_jewel case, forming pincushion_. materials: deal box; satin ruche; satin ribbon; quilted satin and silk cord; guipure netting. this case consists of a square cardboard or deal box, lined with satin, and slightly quilted; it is also covered on the top with satin, and ornamented all round with a satin ruche four-fifths of an inch wide, pleated in the manner seen in illustration. the top of the box is stuffed so as to form a pincushion. it is then covered with guipure d'art no. . ornament all round with silk cords, and at the corners with bows of satin ribbon. [illustration: .--jewel case, with pincushion.] * * * * * .--_guipure pattern for jewel case_. materials: netting holes square; messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. . this cover is worked in point d'esprit, point de toile, point de reprise, and point de feston. thick dots are introduced occasionally. [illustration: .--guipure pattern for jewel case (no. ).] * * * * * .--_parasol cover in guipure d'art. (seepage .)_ materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. , and cotton no. . for working this cover, one part of which is shown in our illustration two-thirds of its full size, work first a straight strip of netting for the foundation, which must count as many holes in width as are required for the width of the covering. the size of the holes depends on the size of the knitting-needle or mesh which you use. the pattern is worked with cotton no. , over a steel knitting-needle which measures two-fifths of an inch round. begin the strip in one corner. cast on stitches, and work in rows backwards and forwards, increasing stitch at the end of every row, till you have stitch more than the stripe is to have holes in width, on our pattern stitches; then work row on the same number of stitches, and then increase alternately stitch at the end of row, and decrease at the end of the next, till the strip is stitches long. the strip is finished off in a straight line at the bottom by working a certain number of rows in which the last stitch remains untouched. at the beginning of the row do not work stitch ever the mesh, but only knot in the stitch of the preceding row, so that the cotton is drawn on tight. when the strip is completed, trace from no. the outlines for the pattern of each of the eight parts of the parasol with double thread, in such a manner that two parts lie next to each other, but reversed, that is, the point of one part must lie next to the wide part of the next part. then work in each part the pattern seen in illustration, and afterwards each part round with button-hole stitch, working over the double outline. cut out the different parts, and sew them together on the wrong side with close overcast stitch. * * * * * [illustration: .--scent sachet in guipure d'art.] .--_scent sachet in guipure d'art_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. ; green satin; poudre d'iris; green satin ribbon; green silk cord. the size of the netting depends on that of the sachet. the netting must be fastened in a frame, and darned with fine thread; the flowers are worked in darning stitch, and the ground in point d'esprit. the cushion is made of green satin, perfumed with poudre d'iris. when the netting has been fastened on, it is edged all round with a green satin ruche, and green silk cord, forming loops at every corner. * * * * * [illustration: .--square in guipure d'art.] .--_square in guipure d'art_. materials: netted square of stitches; messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. . this pattern is worked in point d'esprit, edged with an outline of point de reprise. this outline may be worked in close button-hole stitch. point de toile is used for the groundwork, upon which point de reprise is worked. * * * * * _and_ .--_work case in guipure d'art_. materials: blue satin; messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. ; blue silk cord. [illustration: .--work case in guipure d'art (back).] this little work-case, of darned netting and blue satin, is five inches and four-fifths long, four inches wide, and is fastened with a loop and button. the back, front, side, and the flap are worked all in one piece. the netting is worked with white thread no. , over a mesh measuring at least two-fifths of an inch round. for the flap the netting must be slanted off on both sides; this is done either by decreasings, or by cutting off the corners of the work. the latter is then darned in linen stitch, darning stitch, and point d'esprit, from no. , which shows the front of the case, and from no. , which shows the back. the netting is then lined with blue satin, and sewn together at the sides with button-hole stitches on the right side. the flap is edged with button-hole stitch; sew on a small button, and make a small loop to correspond. the case is edged all round with blue silk cord. [illustration: .--work case in guipure d'art (front).] * * * * * .--_banner screen in guipure d'art_. materials: netting; messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. ; carved oak stand; glacé silk; cords; tassels. banner-screens are used in two ways, either suspended from the mantelpiece or mounted as shown in illustration no. . the banner is inches long, inches wide, lined with coloured glacé silk, and edged with a lace border of guipure d'art. the design for the banner is given in page . work the netting for the groundwork over a larger or smaller mesh, according to the size you wish it to be. the pattern is worked in point d'esprit, point de reprise, and point de toile. when the pattern is completed, line the banner with coloured silk, edge with a gathered border of guipure d'art, finish with coloured silk cords and tassels. the banner may be finished off in close button-hole stitch, instead of adding the lace border. [illustration: .--banner screen in guipure d'art.] * * * * * [illustration: .--border in guipure d'art.] .--_border in guipure d'art_. material: messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. . this border is suited for couvrettes. it is worked in point d'esprit, point de reprise, or plain darning stitch, edged by a row of button-hole, and finished with a crochet edging. * * * * * [illustration: .--square in guipure d'art.] .--_square in guipure d'art_. materials: messrs. walter evans and co.'s mecklenburg thread no. ; netted square of holes. this pretty square is worked in a pattern formed by point de feston, point de toile, and point de reprise, the star in the centre as that shown on page , omitting the alternate points; border of point d'esprit, ground worked in simple crossed bars. table of the right size of mecklenburg thread to use in working:-- |----------------------------------|--------------| | | no. | |----------------------------------|--------------| | antimacassars | | | borders | | | handkerchiefs | | | insertions | | | lace edgings and insertions | | | lamp shades | | | parasol covers | | | sachets | | | sofa cushions | | | toilet cushions | | | toilet mats | | |----------------------------------|--------------| * * * * * frames may be obtained for large, middle-size, and small squares. oblong frames are used for working insertions and lace edgings. * * * * * berlin work instructions. berlin work includes every kind of stitch which is made upon canvas with wool, silk, or beads. the principal stitches used are common cross stitch, gobelin stitch, leviathan stitch, raised or velvet stitch, tent stitch, and others. the materials and needle must always be carefully chosen of a corresponding size. for common cross stitch and raised stitch penelope canvas must be used; for small articles, such as slippers, bags, or borders, single berlin wool is preferable; for larger ones fleecy wool or double berlin wool (the latter, however, is much more expensive). for gobelin stitch and tent stitch undivided canvas (not penelope) is required. purse silk is often used for the latter; it is more brilliant than floss silk or filoselle. floss silk is generally used for other stitches because it covers the thread of the canvas better than purse silk; it is, however, often replaced by filoselle, which is a much cheaper material. moss wool is hardly ever used. before beginning to work upon a piece of canvas the raw edges must be hemmed or sewn over with wool. care must be taken not to crumple the canvas in the course of the work. it is best to roll one end of the canvas upon a round piece of deal while the other end is kept down upon the table with a lead cushion. handsome artistic patterns should always be worked in a frame. when you undertake to work a large pattern begin in the centre, and complete one half before you commence the other. always work the stitches in the same direction, from the top downwards--this is very essential to the beauty and regularity of the pattern. always begin with the colour which is used the oftenest; those colours that lose their dye in working must be put in last. when the pattern is finished begin the grounding. the wool must not be drawn too tightly, otherwise the threads of the canvas appear. if the wool is too coarse for the canvas, one long stitch is to be made from left to right as far as the particular colour is to be worked, and over this long stitch, cross back in the usual way. the plainest stitch in berlin wool work is the common cross stitch; illustrations to show varieties of the same. we now proceed in the following pages to show, by description in writing and by most careful illustration, all the stitches which are used in berlin work. these are numerous, but neither too great in number nor too simple or too elaborate in execution for those who aspire to become berlin workers. * * * * * [illustration: .--common cross stitch.] illustration .--the common cross stitch is worked in rows backwards and forwards over threads in height and in width (square of the canvas) in straight lines; the st row is worked from left to right; the nd row, which completes the stitches, from right to left. illustration shows rows of completed stitches and row in course of working. * * * * * [illustration: .--long cross stitch.] illustration shows the long cross stitch. it is worked like the preceding one, only over threads in height and in width. * * * * * [illustration: .--long cross stitch.] illustration shows a long cross stitch, which is worked like the preceding one, except that threads are missed between stitches, and in the next row the stitches are worked between those in the preceding row. this stitch is not worked in rows backwards and forwards; each stitch is completed before beginning the next. * * * * * [illustration: .--slanting cross stitch.] illustration .--the long slanting cross stitch is worked like no. , in rows backwards and forwards; the st row is slanting, the nd is straight. the places for inserting the needle and for drawing it out are marked on the illustration with a cross and dot. * * * * * [illustration: .--damask stitch.] illustration .--the damask stitch is worked in single rows from left to right, over threads in height and in width. the stitches of one row come between those of the next. the cross and dot shown in illustration are where to insert and draw out the needle. * * * * * [illustration: .--rep stitch.] illustration shows the rep stitch--a variety of the preceding. the first half of it is worked slantways over threads in height and in width, the second half, like the common cross stitch, from right to left over the rd and th of the canvas threads; each stitch is completed at once. the illustration shows the last stitch being worked; the first half of the stitch is completed; the dot shows where the needle must be inserted for the second half; it is drawn out where the cross is placed on illustration. * * * * * [illustration: .--leviathan stitch.] illustration .--the leviathan stitch consists of slanting and straight cross stitch over threads in height and in width. each stitch is completed immediately. no. shows one half of the stitch completed and the wool as it must be placed for working the first half of the straight cross stitch. * * * * * [illustration: .--leviathan stitch.] illustration .--the leviathan stitch is worked exactly like the preceding, only the stitches are not worked on the same threads in the different rows, as may be seen from illustration. * * * * * [illustration: .--double leviathan stitch.] illustration .--the double leviathan stitch is a variety of the preceding; it is worked over threads in height and as many in width. make a common cross stitch over these threads, then a long cross stitch in height and a long cross stitch in width. illustration shows stitches completed and being worked. * * * * * [illustration: .--tent stitch.] illustration .--tent stitch. each stitch is worked over stitch in height and in width, and is worked in rows from left to right. * * * * * [illustration: .--slanting gobelin stitch.] illustration .--the slanting gobelin stitch is worked on undivided canvas; each stitch is worked over threads in height and in width, divided from the next stitch only by an interval of thread. * * * * * [illustration: .--straight gobelin stitch.] illustration .--the straight gobelin stitch is worked over threads in height with thread between, so that the stitches appear more raised; they are worked over thin cord or a thick piece of wool. * * * * * illustration .--the raised or velvet stitch is worked over small round wooden meshes, and forms small raised loops. take similar meshes and as many threaded needles as there are colours in the work; make first a slanting stitch, as for the beginning of the common cross stitch, but instead of drawing out the needle straight under the place where it was inserted, draw it out exactly at the same place, so as to form a slanting stitch on the right and on the wrong side; then begin to work over mesh; insert the needle above it and draw it out in a slanting direction underneath. on the wrong side of the work a regular cross stitch is formed. illustration shows rows of velvet stitch completed and rows being worked; the first of the latter is yet on the mesh, the second being worked so as to show the position of the wool upon the mesh. observe that the rows of the velvet stitch are worked upwards, and that meshes are necessary, because the lower one must not be drawn out before the next row is completed. the loops may be cut open if preferred. [illustration: .--raised or velvet stitch.] * * * * * [illustration: .--plaited stitch.] illustration .--the plaited stitch is worked like the herring-bone stitch. each stitch is worked over threads in height and in width. illustration shows one part of the plaited stitch completed, and the place where the needle is to be inserted for the next stitch is marked by a dot. for the next stitch the needle is carried under the threads below the stitches of the preceding row. * * * * * illustration .--the plush stitch is also worked upwards. begin to work a common cross stitch, then insert the needle through the canvas over threads in height and in width, downwards in a slanting direction. do not draw the wool close up, but leave a loop hanging down about four-fifths of an inch long, and make more common cross stitch to fasten the loop. this stitch can also be worked over flat meshes. work a common cross stitch at the end of every row. when the work is completed the loops are cut open and clipped, as may be seen from illustration. [illustration: .--plush stitch.] * * * * * illustrations to .--three berlin wool work borders for trimming baskets, &c. no. .--the outer rows which edge the border are worked in long straight cross stitch; each stitch is crossed in the centre with a back stitch. [illustration: .--berlin work border.] the grounding consists of rows of vandykes placed opposite each other, which are formed of long straight stitches of different lengths. the squares in the centre are formed in the same way, and are completed in the middle with a knot. no. .--the ground is worked in cross stitch, the raised patterns in satin stitch; in the middle of each pattern there is a cross stitch. the outer rows are worked in half cross stitch over threads in height and in width in different shades. no. .--the petals of the flowers are worked over threads in height and in width, and consisting of slanting stitches. [illustration: --berlin work border.] [illustration: .--berlin work border.] in the centre the flower is completed by a knot; the ground in cross stitch is completed on either side by a narrow border of scallops, formed of slanting stitches divided in the centre by slanting stitch. it is easy to work these stitches from illustration. the choice of colours depends upon what use the border is intended for and upon personal taste. * * * * * plates [illustration: tatted antimacassar (see page ).] [illustration: --couvrette in appliquÉ] [illustration: --knitted table cover (_see page_ ).] [illustration: --knitted d'oyley (_see page_ ).] [illustration: .--parasol cover in guipure d'art (_see page _).] index. acacia spray in embroidery, . antimacassar, crochet, . antimacassar in tatting, . antimacassar, knitted, to . appliqué, pattern for a couvrette in, to . arm-chair, covered with crochet, . arm-chair in crochet, patterns for, , . baby's boot, knitted, . bag, crochet silk, over rings, . banner screen in guipure d'art, , . bars, point lace. d'alençon, . point d'angleterre, . point de venise, edged, . point de venise, dotted, . raleigh, , . sorrento, , . sorrento, dotted, . venetian, plain, , , . basket, small, crochet, . basket, crochet, . basket, crochet, . basket, embroidered in chenille, . bedford plaited lace ( ), . bed-quilt, knitted border for, . berlin wool-work instructions, p. . berlin work, borders in, to . berlin stitches. common cross stitch, . damask stitch, . leviathan stitch, , . leviathan double stitch, . long cross stitch, , . plaited stitch, . plush stitch, . raised or velvet stitch, . rep stitch, . slanting cross stitch, . slanting gobelin stitch, . straight gobelin stitch, . tent stitch, . (black lace) buckingham point trolly ( ), . bodice, knitted, , . boot, baby's, knitted, borders, crochet, , border, embroidered, . border for a reading-desk in embroidery, . border for couvrettes, guipure d'art, . borders for handkerchief, corner, in guipure d'art, , . borders, guipure d'art, , , . border, guipure d'art, . border in crochet and tatting, . border in oriental embroidery, . border in tatting and crochet, . border in tatting and crochet, . border in tatting and crochet, . border in tatting and lace stitch, . border in tatting, with beads, . border in tatting, with crochet edging, . border, knitted, . border, tatting, . borders, two crochet, , . border, with beads, tatted, . bouquet, embroidered, for travelling-bag, . braces, embroidered, . braces, knitted, . brioche cushion in crochet, . butterfly, embroidered, for handkerchief corner, . cap, border for, in tatting, . cap crown in tatting, . cap in tatting, , . chenille, basket embroidered in, . cigar-case, embroidered, . circle for collars, cuffs, &c., in tatting, . circle in tatting, . circle in tatting, . circle in tatting, . collar in tatting, . collar in tatting and darned netting, . collar, linen, trimmed with tatting, . collar, linen, trimmed with tatting, . collar, pine pattern, in tatting, . collar, tatted, . collar, trimming for, in tatting, . collar, trimming for, in tatting, . comforters, &c., knitting stitch for, . convolvulus leaf insertion in embroidery, . corner borders in guipure d'art, , . corner borders in guipure d'art, , . corner borders in guipure d'art, , . corner for handkerchief in point russe embroidery, . corner in embroidery, . corner in embroidery, . cotton, tatting, page . couvrette, centre of a tatted, . couvrette, daisy pattern for a, in crochet, . couvrette for arm-chair in crochet, . couvrette in appliqué, embroidery, . couvrette in crochet, to . couvrette in tatting, . covering for a quilted counterpane in embroidery, . cravats, &c., in embroidery, patterns for, . cravats, &c., in embroidery, patterns for, . cravat in tatting, . cravat end in embroidery, . cravat end in embroidery, . cravat end in raised embroidery, . cravat end in tatting, . cravat end in tatting, . cravat end in tatting and darned netting, . cravat end, oval, in tatting, . cravat in muslin and tatting, . cravat, muslin, embroidered, . crochet, antimacassar in, . crochet, arm-chair covered with, . crochet, arm-chair, patterns for, , . crochet bag, silk, over rings, . crochet basket, small, . crochet basket, . crochet basket, . crochet borders, , . crochet borders, two, , . crochet, brioche cushion, . crochet, couvrette for arm-chair, . crochet, couvrette in, to . crochet, daisy pattern for a couvrette in, . crochet d'oyleys in imitation of point lace. no. , . no. , . no. , . no. , . no. , . no. , . no. , . no. , . no. , . no. , . crochet garter, . crochet, insertion, . crochet, insertion, . crochet, insertion, . crochet, insertion, . crochet, insertion, . crochet, insertion, . crochet instructions. crochet hook, page . foundation chain, double, . foundation chain, plain, . foundation chain, purl, . spots, raised, . spots, hollow, . spots, open work, . crochet, lace, . crochet, lace, . crochet, purse in, over rings, . crochet rosettes, , . crochet sovereign purse, . crochet, star in, . crochet, stars in, . crochet stitches. cross stitch, . cross treble stitch, , , . double long treble stitch, . double stitch, , . long double stitch, . long treble stitch, . purl stitch, . purl stitch, . purl stitch, . raised treble stitch, . raised ribbed stitch, . raised slanting stitch, . slip stitch, . treble stitch, . crochet trimming for a lady's chemise, . crochet trimming, with embroidered flowers worked in appliqué and velvet ribbon, . crochet work, tobacco-pouch in, , . crochet work, work-basket in straw and, , . curtains, knitted pattern for, . daisy pattern for a crochet couvrette, . dalecarlian lace, . diamond in tatting, . diamond in tatting, . diamond in tatting, . diamond in tatting, . diamond netting, . diamond tatting for collars, &c., . d'oyleys, crochet, in imitation of point lace. no. , . no. , . no. , . no. , . no. , . no. , . no. , . no. , . no. , . no. , . d'oyley, knitted, . edgings and purled edgings, point lace. antwerp, . point d'angleterre, . point de bruxelles, , point d'espagne, . point de venise, . sorrento, . edging, embroidered, . embroidered border, . embroidered border, . embroidered bouquet for travelling bag, . embroidered braces, . embroidered braces, full-sized pattern for, . embroidered braces, full-sized pattern for, . embroidered butterfly for handkerchief corner, . embroidered cigar-case, . embroidered edging, . embroidered handkerchief, . embroidered hanging letter-case, . embroidered in chenille, basket, . embroidered key-bag, . embroidered key-bag, . embroidered knife-basket, . embroidered knife-basket, . embroidered lace insertion, . embroidered lady's purse, . embroidered letter-case, pattern for, . embroidered linen collar, . embroidered linen collar, . embroidered needle-book, pattern for, . embroidered needle-book, pattern for, . embroidered penwiper, full-sized circle for, . embroidered slipper, on java canvas, . embroidered slipper, point russe stitch for, . embroidered what-not, in the shape of a hammock, , . embroidery, acacia spray in, . embroidery and stitching, insertion in, . embroidery, appliqué, couvrette in, . embroidery border for a reading-desk, . embroidery, border in oriental, . embroidery, convolvulus leaf insertion in, . embroidery, corner for handkerchief in point russe, . embroidery, corner in, . embroidery, corner in, . embroidery, covering for a quilted counterpane in, . embroidery, cravat end in, . embroidery, cravat end in, . embroidery, cravat end in raised, . embroidery, fuchsia spray in, . embroidery, glove-box in, . embroidery, glove-box in, . embroidery, handkerchief border in, . embroidery, handkerchief in, . embroidery, insertion in, . embroidery, insertion in, . embroidery, insertion in, . embroidery, insertion in, . embroidery, insertion in, . embroidery, insertion in, . embroidery, insertion in, . embroidery, insertion in, . embroidery, insertion in, . embroidery instructions, p. . bead partly covered, . blossom in satin stitch, , . bluebell, . bluebell, inner part, . bluebell, part of, . borders, , . ear of corn, . flower, . flower in satin stitch, . flower appliquéd on net, , heartsease, . initials, to . insertions, to . leaf, . leaf in raised satin stitch, , . leaf, raised, , . leaf, raised, . leaf, half of, . leaf, centre of, . raised embroidered leaf, . raised flower, . raised leaf, . raised leaf, . raised satin stitch leaf, , . rose in satin stitch, . rose, petal for, . star, . star in point de reprise, . star in satin stitch, . stitch, embroidery. stitch, back, . stitch, button and eyelet holes, , . stitch, button-hole scallop, to . stitch, double overcast, . stitch, knotted, , , . stitch, ladder, , . stitch, overcast, . stitch, point croisé, , . stitch, point de minute, . stitch, point de plume, . stitch, embroidery--_continued_. stitch, satin, raised, , . stitch, scallop, . stitch, shaded button-hole, , . stitch, slanting overcast, . embroidery, medallion for a purse in, . embroidery, medallion for a purse in, . embroidery, medallion in point russe, . embroidery, medallion in point russc, . embroidery, monograms and initials in. embroidery, alphabet in coral stitch, . embroidery, alphabet in floral, . embroidery, alphabet in florid style, . embroidery, alphabet in forget-me-nots, . embroidery, alphabet, point d'or, . embroidery, alphabet, raised satin stitch, . embroidery, alphabet in satin stitch, . embroidery, alphabet scalloped, . embroidery, alphabet, small, . embroidery, initials in, to . embroidery, monograms in, to . embroidery, names in, to . embroidery, sampler in, . embroidery, star alphabet, capitals, . embroidery, star alphabet, small, . embroidery, white, alphabet in, . embroidery, pattern for collars, cuffs, &c., in, . embroidery, pattern for collars, cuffs, &c., in, . embroidery, pattern for cravats, &c., in, . embroidery, pattern for cravats, &c., in, . embroidery, pattern for cravat ends, &c., in, . embroidery, pattern for cravat ends, &c., in, . embroidery, pattern for trimming lingeries in, , . embroidery pattern for what-not (full size), . embroidery, penwiper in, , . embroidery, rose-leaf in, . embroidery, sandwich-case in, . embroidery stars, , , . embroidery stars, , . embroidery, table-napkin ring in, . embroidery, tobacco-pouch in, . embroidery, tobacco-pouch in, . embroidery, travelling-bag in, . embroidery, trimming in, for bodices, . embroidery, venetian border in, . embroidery, venetian, lappet or sash end in, . embroidery, waste-paper basket in, . embroidery, white, toilet-cushion cover in, , , . embroidery, wing of bird, . embroidery, work-bag in, . embroidery, wreath in, for centre of pincushion or toilet-mat, . english netting, fichu, netted, , . flower in guipure d'art, . frame for guipure d'art . full-sized circle for embroidered pen-wiper, . fuchsia spray in embroidery, . garter, crochet, . glove-box in embroidery, . glove-box in embroidery, . gauge, knitting, . guipure d'art. guipure d'art, banner-screen in, , . guipure d'art, border for couvrettes in, . guipure d'art t, borders for handkerchief, corner, , . guipure d'art, borders in, , , . guipure d'art, border in, . guipure d'art, corner borders in, , . guipure d'art, corner borders in, , . guipure d'art, corner borders in, , . guipure d'art, flower in, . guipure d'art, frame for, . guipure d'art, insertion in, . guipure d'art, insertion in, . guipure d'art, insertion in, . guipure d'art, insertion in, . guipure d'art, insertion in, . guipure d'art, insertion in, . gaipure d'art, insertion in, . guipure d'art, insertions, &c., in, to . guipure d'art, instructions in, p. . guipure d'art jewel-case cover, . guipure d'art, jewel-case covered in, . guipure d'art, lace borders for veils in, . guipure d'art, lace border in, . guipure d'art, parasol-cover in, . guipure d'art, quarter square in, . guipure d'art, rosettes in, . guipure d'art, rosettes in, , . guipure d'art stitches. grounding, to . point de bruxelles, , . point d'esprit, . point de feston, . point de reprise, , . point de toile, . stars, to . wheels, to . guipure d'art, scent-sachet in, . guipure d'art, small squares, . guipure d'art, squares for antimacassar, , . guipure d'art, square for d'oyley in, . guipure d'art, squares in, for dresses, , . guipure d'art, square in, . guipure d'art, square in, . guipure d'art, square in, . guipure d'art, squares in, , . guipure d'art, squares in, to . guipure d'art, squares in, , a. guipure d'art, squares in, , . (guipure d'art), square in reticella work, . (guipure d'art), square in reticella work, enlarged, . guipure d'art, work-basket covered with, . guipure d'art, work-case in, , . handkerchief border in embroidery, . handkerchief in embroidery, . hanging letter-case embroidered, . honiton guipure lace, . insertion, crochet, . insertion, crochet, . insertion, crochet, . insertion, crochet, . insertion, crochet, . insertion, crochet, . insertion in embroidery, . insertion in embroidery, . insertion in embroidery, . insertion in embroidery, . insertion in embroidery, . insertion in embroidery, . insertion in embroidery, . insertion in embroidery, . insertion in embroidery, . insertion in embroidery and stitching, . insertion in guipure d art, . insertion in guipure d'art, . insertion in guipure d'art, . insertion in guipure d'art, . insertion in guipure d'art, . insertion in guipure d'art, . insertion in guipure d'art, . insertions in guipure d'art, to . insertions in tatting, . insertion in tatting, . insertion in tatting, . insertion in tatting, . insertion in tatting, . insertion in tatting, . insertion in tatting, . insertion in tatting and crochet, . insertion in tatting and crochet, . insertion in tatting and lace stitch, . insertion in tatting for trimming lingeries, . insertion, knitted, . insertion, wide, tatting, . insertion, wide, tatting, . insertion, wide, tatting, . insertion, worked in tatting, . instructions in berlin wool work, p. . berlin work, borders in, to . berlin stitches. common cross stitch, . damask stitch, . leviathan stitch, , . leviathan double stitch, . long cross stitch, , . plaited stitch, . plush stitch, . raised or velvet stitch, . rep stitch, . slanting cross stitch, . slanting gobelin stitch, . straight gobelin stitch, . tent stitch, . instructions in crochet. crochet hook, p. . foundation chain, double, . foundation chain, plain, . foundation chain, purl, . spots, raised, . spots, hollow, . spots, open work, . instructions in embroidery. bead partly covered, . blossom in satin stitch, , . bluebell, . bluebell, inner part, . bluebell, part of, . borders, , . ear of corn, . flower, . flower in satin stitch, . flower appliquéd on net, . heartsease, . initials, to . insertions, to . leaf, . leaf, half of, . leaf, centre of, . leaf in raised satin stitch, , . leaf, raised, , . leaf, raised, . raised embroidered leaf, . raised flower, . raised leaf, . raised leaf, . raised satin stitch leaf, , . rose in satin stitch, . rose, petal for, . star, . star in point de reprise, . star in satin stitch, . stitch, embroidery. stitch, back, . stitch, button and eyelet holes, , . stitch, button-hole scallop, to . stitch, double overcast, . stitch, knotted, , , . stitch, ladder, , . stitch, overcast, . stitch, point croisé, , . stitch, point de minute, . stitch, point de plume, . stitch, satin raised, , . stitch, scallop, . stitch, shaded button-hole, , . stitch, slanting overcast, . instructions in guipure d'art, p. . instructions in tatting. joining the work, p. v. pin, tatting, p. ii. shuttles, tatting, pp. i, iii. the way to hold the hands, p. iii. the way to make a loop in tatting, p. iv. the way to make a purl, p. v. the way to make a stitch in tatting, p. iv. jewel-case cover, guipure d'art, . jewel-case covered in guipure d'art, . key-bag, embroidered, . key-bag, embroidered, . knee-cap, knitted, . knife-basket, embroidered, . knife-basket, embroidered, . knitted antimacassar, to . knitted baby's boot, . knitted bodice, , . knitted border, . knitted border for bed-quilt, . knitted braces, . knitted comforters, pattern for, . knitted counterpanes, pattern for, . knitted cover for sofa-cushion, , . knitted curtains, patterns for, . knitted d'oyley, . knitted insertion, . knitted knee-cap, . knitted neckerchief, . knitted pattern, . knitted pattern, with embroidery, . knitted purse, lady's, . knitted quilt, . knitted shawl, to . knitted sleeping sock, . knitted sock for a child, . knitted table-cover, , . knitted veil, , . knitting cotton, table of sizes of, p. . knitting gauge, . knitting, looped, . knitting, materials required for, . knitting needles, . knitting on, . knitting, rosette for antimacassar in, . knitting stitches. brioche stitch, . casting off, . casting on, . decreasing, . increasing, . knitting on, . knotted stitch, . looped knitting, . moss borders, . peacock's tail pattern, . picking up stitches, . plain knitting, . purling, . round knitting, . spiral stitch, . knitting stitch for comforters, &c., . lace, bedford plaited ( ), . (lace, black), buckingham point troll ( ), . lace border for veils in guipure d'art . lace border in guipure d'art, . lace, crochet, . lace, crochet, . lace, dalecarlian, . lace, deep, in tatting, . lace edging in tatting, . lace edging in tatting, . lace, honiton guipure, . lace insertion, embroidered, . lace in tatting and crochet, . lace, mechlin (queen charlotte's), lace, netted, . lace, netted, open, . lace, old mechlin, . lace point. braid, placing the, . braids, to . cords, p. . edgings, to . general directions for working, pp. , . materials required, p. . modes of working dots and picots, , . scissors for, . threads, sizes of, p. . lace, tatted, . lace, tatted, . lady's embroidered purse, . lady's veil in net and tatting, , . lappet or sash-end in. venetian embroidery, . linen collar embroidered, . linen collar embroidered, . linen tatting-bag, . linen bag for tatting cotton, . looped knitting, . materials required fur knitting, . materials required for netting. . mechlin lace (queen charlotte's), . medallion for a purse in embroidery, . medallion for a purse in embroidery, . medallion for trimming lingeries in tatting, . medallion in point russe embroidery, . medallion in point russe embroidery, . medallion, tatting, . mignardise and tatting, . monograms and initials in embroidery. alphabet, coral stitch embroidery, . alphabet, floral embroidery, . alphabet, florid style of embroidery, . alphabet, forget-me-nots (embroidered), . alphabet, point d'or (embroidered), . alphabet, raised satin stitch embroidery, . alphabet, satin stitch (embroidered), . alphabet, scalloped, in embroidery, . alphabet, small, in embroidery, . alphabet, star, capitals, in embroidery, . alphabet, star, small, in embroidery, . alphabet, white, embroidery, . initials in embroidery, to . monograms in embroidery, to . names in embroidery, to . sampler in embroidery, . muslin cravat, embroidered, . neckerchief, knitted, . needle and mesh for netting, . needles, knitting, . netted fichu, , . netted lace, . netted nightcaps, , . netted open lace, . netted shell border, . netting, . netting, . netting stitches. diamond, . english, . bound, , . square, . netting, materials required for, . netting needle and mesh, . nightcaps, netted, , . old mechlin lace, . on knitting, . parasol-cover in guipure d'art, . patterns for arm-chair crochet borders, , . pattern for a couvrette in appliqué, to . pattern for collars, cuffs, &c., in embroidery, . pattern for collars, cuffs, &c., in embroidery, . pattern for cravats, &c., in embroidery, . pattern for cravats, &c., in embroidery, . patterns, embroidery, for what-not (full size), . pattern for cravat ends, &c., in embroidery, . pattern for cravat ends, &c., in embroidery, . pattern for embroidered braces (full size), . pattern for embroidered braces (full size), . pattern for embroidered letter-case, . pattern for embroidered needle-book, . pattern for embroidered needle-book, . pattern for knitted comforters, . pattern for knitted counterpanes, . pattern for trimming lingeries in embroidery, , . patterns for veil in tatting, , . pattern, knitted, . patterns, point lace. alphabet, . alphabet, description of, to . bars, d'alençon and sorrento, . borders, , . collars, , . cravat end, . design for point lace collar, lappets, &c., . dress trimming, . edgings, , . handkerchief border, . insertion (limoges), . lappet, . lappet, . letter __a in point lace, , . medallion, . oval for cravats, . star, . toilet cushion centre, . wheels, close english, . penwiper in embroidery, , . point lace. braid, placing the, . braids, to . cords, p. . edgings, to . general directions for working, , . materials required, p. . modes of working dots or picots, , . scissors for, . threads, sizes of, p. . point lace bars. d'alençon, . point d'angleterre, . point de venise, edged, . point de venise, dotted, . raleigh, , . sorrento, , . sorrento, dotted, . venetian, plain, , , . point lace edgings and purled edgings. antwerp, . point d'angleterre, . point do bruxelles, . point d'espagne, . point de venise, . sorrento, . point lace patterns. alphabet, . alphabet, description of, , . bars, d'alençon and sorrento, . borders, , . collars, , . cravat end, . design for point lice collar, lappets, &c., . dress trimming, . edgings, , . handkerchief border, . insertion (limoges), . lappet, . lappet, . letter _a_ in point lace, , . medallion, . oval for cravats, . star, . toilet cushion centre, . wheels, close english, . point lace stitches. brussels lace, , . escalier lace, . mechlin lace, . point d'angleterre, . point d'angleterre, enlarged, . point d'anvers, . point d'alençon, . point d'alençon, . point brabançon, . point de bruxelles, , . point de cordova, . point d'espagne, . point d'espagne; close, . point d' espagne, treble, . point de fillet, . point de fillet and point reprise, . point de grecque, , . point de reprise. . point de tulle, . point turque, . point de valenciennes, . point de venise, . point de venise, petit, . spanish point, . point lace wheel and rosettes. english, plain, . english, raised, . mechlin, . rosette for centres, . sorrento, , . wheels and rosettes, , . point russe stitch for embroidered slipper, . purse, crochet sovereign, . purse in crochet over rings, . parse in tatting and beads, . purse, knitted, . quarter-square in guipure d'art, . quilt, knitted, . rose-leaf in embroidery, . rosettes, crochet, , . rosettes, embroidery and tatting, , , . rosette for antimacassar in knitting, . rosettes in guipure d'art, , , . rosette in tatting, . rosette in tatting, . rosette in tatting, . rosette in tatting, . rosette in tatting and embroidery, . rosette in tatting and embroidery, . rosette in tatting and embroidery, . round netting, , . sandwich-case in embroidery, . scent-sachet in guipure d'art, . shawl, knitted, to . shell border, netted, . sleeping sock, knitted, . slipper, embroidered on java canvas, . sock, knitted, for a child, . sofa-cushion, knitted cover for, , . squares for antimacassar in guipure d'art, , . square for d'oyley in guipure d art, . square, guipure d'art, . square, guipure d'art, . square, guipure d'art, . squares, guipure d'art, , . squares in guipure d'art, to . squares in guipure d'art, , a. squares in guipure d'art, , . squares in guipure d'art for dresses, , . square in reticella work (guipure d'art), . square in reticella work (guipure d'art), enlarged, . square in tatting for pincushion or couvrette, . square netting, . squares, small, in guipure d'art, . star, crochet, . stars in crochet, . stars in embroidery, , , . stars in embroidery, , . star in tatting, . stitches, crochet. cross stitch, . cross treble stitch, , , . double long treble stitch, . double stitch, , . long double stitch, . long treble stitch, . purl stitch, . purl stitch, . purl stitch, . raised treble stitch, . raised ribbed stitch, . raised slanting stitch, . slip stitch, . treble stitch, . stitches, guipure d'art. grounding, to . point de bruxelles, , . point d'esprit, . point de feston, . point de reprise, , . point de toile, . stars, to . wheels, to . stitches, knitting. brioche stitch, . casting off, . casting on, . decreasing, . increasing, . knitting on, . knotted stitch, . looped knitting, . moss borders, . peacock-tail pattern, . picking up stitches, . plain, . purling, . round knitting, . spiral stitch, . stitches, netting. diamond, . english, . round, , . square, . stitches, point lace. brussels lace, , . escalier lace, . mechlin lace, . point d'alençon, . point d'alençon, . point d'angleterre, . point d'angleterre, enlarged, point d'anvers, . point brabançon, . point de bruxelles, , . point de cordova, . point d'espagne, . point d'espagne, close, . point d'espagne, treble, . point de fillet, . point de fillet and point reprise, . point de grecque, , . point de reprise, . point de tulle, . point turque, . point de valenciennes, , point de venise, . point de venise, petit, . spanish point, . table-cover, knitted, , . table-napkin ring in embroidery, . table of sizes of knitting cotton, p. . tatting and beads, purse in, . tatting and crochet, border in, . tatting and crochet, border in, . tatting and crochet, insertion in, . tatting and crochet, insertion in, . tatting and crochet, lace in, . tatting and darned netting, collar in, . tatting and darned netting, cravat-end in, . tatting and embroidery, rosette in, . tatting and embroidery, rosette in, . tatting and embroidery, rosette in, . tatting and lace stitch, insertion in, . tatting and mignardise, . tatting and muslin, cravat in, . tatting and net, lady's veil in, , . tatting, antimacassar in, . tatting-bag, linen, . tatting, border, . tatting, border for cap in. . tatting, border in crochet and, . tatting, border in crochet and, . tatting, border in, with crochet edging, , . tatting, border in lace stitch and, . tatting, border, with beads, . tatting, cap-crown in, . tatting, cap in, , . tatting, circle for collars, cuffs, &c., in, . tatting, circle in, . tatting, circle in, . tatting, circle in, . tatting, collar in, . tatting, collar in, . tatting, collar, pine pattern in, . tatting-cotton, p. . tatting-cotton, linen bag for, . tatting, couvrette, centre of a, . tatting, cravat-end in, . tatting, cravat-end in, . tatting, oval cravat-end in, . tatting, cravat in, . tatting, deep border in crochet and, . tatting, deep lace in, . tatting, diamond in, . tatting, diamond in. . tatting, diamond in, . tatting, diamond in, . tatting, diamond, for collars, &c., . tatting, insertion, . tatting, insertion, . tatting, insertion, . tatting, insertion, . tatting, insertion, . tatting, insertion, . tatting, insertion in, for trimming lingeries, . tatting, insertion worked in, . tatting instructions. joining the work, p. v. pin, tatting, p. ii. shuttles, tatting, pp. i, iii. the way to hold the hands, p. iii. the way to make aloop in tatting, p. iv. the way to make a purl, p. v. the way to make a stitch in tatting, p. iv. tatting, lace, . tatting, lace, . tatting, lace edging in, . tatting, lace edging in, . tatting, linen collar trimmed with, . tatting, linen collar trimmed with, . tatting, medallion for trimming lingeries in, . tatting, oval cravat-end in, . tatting, patterns for veils in, , . tatting, rosette in, . tatting, rosette in, . tatting, rosette in, . tatting, rosette in, . tatting, square in, for pincushion or couvrette, . tatting, star in, . tatting, trimming for collar in, . tatting, trimming for collar in, . tatting, wide insertion in, . tatting, wide insertion in, . tatting, wide insertion in, . tatting, with beads, border in, , tobacco-pouch in crochet work, , . tobacco-pouch in embroidery, . tobacco-pouch in embroidery, . toilet-cushion cover in white embroidery, , , . travelling-bag in embroidery, . trimming, crochet, with embroidered flowers worked in appliqué and velvet ribbon, . tramming for a lady's chemise, in crochet, . trimming in embroidery for bodices, . veil, knitted, , . veil, lady's, in net and tatting, , . veils, patterns for, in tatting, . venetian border in embroidery, . waste-paper basket in embroidery, . what-not, embroidered in the shape of a hammock, , . wheels and rosettes, point lace. english plain, . english raised, . mechlin, . rosette for centres, . sorrento, , . wheels and rosettes, , . wing of bird in embroidery, . work-bag in embroidery, . work-basket covered with guipure d'art, . work-basket in straw and silk crochet* work, , . work-case in guipure d'art, , . wreath in embroidery for centre of pin-cushion or toilet-mat, . * * * * * page images generously made available by home economics archive: research, tradition and history, albert r. mann library, cornell university (http://hearth.library.cornell.edu/) note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the original illustrations. see -h.htm or -h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/ / / / / / -h/ -h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/ / / / / / -h.zip) images of the original pages are available through the home economics archive: research, tradition and history, albert r. mann library, cornell university. see http://hearth.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=hearth;idno= woman as decoration by emily burbank illustrated [illustration] new york dodd, mead and company copyright, by dodd, mead and company, inc. dedicated to v. b. g. plate i madame geraldine farrar as thaïs in the opera of that name. it is a sketch made from life for this book. observe the gilded wig and richly embroidered gown. they are after descriptions of a costume worn by the real thaïs. it is a greek type of costume but not the familiar classic greek of sculptured story. thaïs was a reigning beauty and acted in the theatre of alexandria in the early christian era. [illustration: _sketched for "woman as decoration" by thelma cudlipp mme. geraldine farrar in greek costume as thaïs_] foreword woman as decoration is intended as a sequel to _the art of interior decoration_ (grace wood and emily burbank). having assisted in setting the stage for woman, the next logical step is the consideration of woman, herself, as an important factor in the decorative scheme of any setting,--the vital spark to animate all interior decoration, private or public. the book in hand is intended as a brief guide for the woman who would understand her own type,--make the most of it, and know how simple a matter it is to be decorative if she will but master the few rules underlying all successful dressing. as the costuming of woman is an art, the history of that art must be known--to a certain extent--by one who would be an intelligent student of our subject. with the assistance of thirty-three illustrations to throw light upon the text, we have tried to tell the beguiling story of decorative woman, as she appears in frescoes and bas reliefs of ancient egypt, on greek vases, the gothic woman in tapestry and stained glass, woman in painting, stucco and tapestry of the renaissance, seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth century woman in portraits. contemporary woman's costume is considered, not as fashion, but as decorative line and colour, a distinct contribution to the interior decoration of her own home or other setting. in this department, woman is given suggestions as to the costuming of herself, beautifully and appropriately, in the ball-room, at the opera, in her boudoir, sun-room or on her shaded porch; in her garden; when driving her own car; by the sea, or on the ice. woman as decoration has been planned, in part, also to fill a need very generally expressed for a handbook to serve as guide for beginners in getting up costumes for fancy-dress balls, amateur theatricals, or the professional stage. we have tried to shed light upon period costumes and point out ways of making any costume effective. costume books abound, but so far as we know, this is the first attempt to confine the vast and perplexing subject within the dimensions of a small, accessible volume devoted to the principles underlying the planning of all costumes, regardless of period. the author does not advocate the preening of her feathers as woman's sole occupation, in any age, much less at this crisis in the making of world history; but she does lay great emphasis on the fact that a woman owes it to herself, her family and the public in general, to be as decorative in any setting, as her knowledge of the art of dressing admits. this knowledge implies an understanding of line, colour, fitness, background, and above all, one's own type. to know one's type, and to have some knowledge of the principles underlying all good dressing, is of serious economic value; it means a saving of time, vitality and money. the watchword of to-day is efficiency, and the keynote to modern costuming, appropriateness. and so the spirit of the time records itself in the interesting and charming subdivision of woman's attire. one may follow woman decorative in the orient on vase, fan, screen and kakemono; as she struts in the stiff manner of egyptian bas reliefs, across walls of ancient ruins, or sits in angular serenity, gazing into the future through the narrow slits of egyptian eyes, oblivious of time; woman, beautiful in the european sense, and decorative to the superlative degree, on greek vase and sculptured wall. here in rhythmic curves, she dandles lovely cupid on her toe; serves as vestal virgin at a woodland shrine; wears the bronze helmet of minerva; makes laws, or as penelope, the wife, wearily awaits her roving lord. she moves in august majesty, a sore-tried queen, and leaps in merry laughter as a care-free slave; pipes, sings and plies the distaff. sauntering on, down through gothic europe, tudor england, the adolescent renaissance, bourbon france, into the picturesque changes of the eighteenth century, we ask, can one possibly escape our theme--woman as decoration? no, for she is carved in wood and stone; as mother of god and queen of heaven gleams in the jeweled windows of the church, looks down in placid serenity on lighted altar; is woven in tapestry, in fact dominates all art, painting, stucco or marble, throughout the ages. if one would know the story of woman's evolution and retrogression--that rising and falling tide in civilisation--we commend a study of her as she is presented in art. a knowledge of her costume frequently throws light upon her age; a thorough knowledge of her age will throw light upon her costume. a study of the essentials of any costume, of any period, trains the eye and mind to be expert in planning costumes for every-day use. one learns quickly to discriminate between details which are ornaments, because they have meaning, and those which are only illiterate superfluities; and one learns to master many other points. it is not within the province of this book to dwell at length upon national costume, but rather to follow costume as it developed with and reflected caste, after human society ceased to be all alike as to occupation, diversion and interest. in the world of caste, costume has gradually evolved until it aims through appropriateness, at assisting woman to fulfil her rôle. with peasants who know only the traditional costume of their province, the task must often be done in spite of the costume, which is picturesque or grotesque, inconvenient, even impossible; but long may it linger to divert the eye! russia, germany, france, spain, italy, poland, scandinavia,--all have an endless variety of costumes, rich in souvenirs of folk history, rainbows of colour and bizarre in line, but it is costuming the woman of fashion which claims our attention. the succeeding chapters will treat of woman, the vital spark which gives meaning to any setting--indoors, out of doors, at the opera, in the ball-room, on the ice--where you will. each chapter has to do with modern woman and the historical paragraphs are given primarily to shed light upon her costume. it is shown that woman's decorative appearance affects her psychology, and that woman's psychology affects her decorative appearance. some chapters may, at first glance, seem irrelevant, but those who have seriously studied any art, and then undertaken to tell its story briefly in simple, direct language, with the hope of quickly putting audience or reader in touch with the vital links in the chain of evidence, will understand the author's claim that no detour which illustrates the subject can in justice be termed irrelevant. in the detours often lie invaluable data, for one with a mind for research--whether author or reader. this is especially true in connection with our present task, which involves unravelling some of the threads from the tangled skein of religion, dancing, music, sculpture and painting--that mass of bright and sombre colour, of gold and silver threads, strung with pearls and glittering gems strangely broken by age--which tells the epic-lyric tale of civilisation. while we state that it is not our aim to make a point of fashion as such, some of our illustrations show contemporary woman as she appears in our homes, on our streets, at the play, in her garden, etc. we have taken examples of women's costumes which are pre-eminently characteristic of the moment in which we write, and as we believe, illustrate those laws upon which we base our deductions concerning woman as decoration. these laws are: appropriateness of her costume to the occasion; consideration of the type of wearer; background against which costume is to be worn; and all decoration (which includes jewels), as detail with _raison d'être_. the body should be carried with form (in the sporting sense), to assist in giving line to the costume. the _chic_ woman is the one who understands the art of elimination in costumes. wear your costumes with conviction--by which we mean decide what picture you will make of yourself, make it and then enjoy it! it is only by letting your personality animate your costume that you make yourself superior to the lay figure or the sawdust doll. contents chapter page foreword xi i a few hints for the novice who would plan her costumes rules having economic value while aiming at decorativeness.--lines and colouring emphasised or modified by costuming.--temperaments affect carriage of the body.--line of body affects costume.--technique of controlling the physique.--the highly sensitised woman.--costuming an art.--studying types.--starring one's own good points.--beauty not so fleeting as is supposed if costume is adapted to its changing aspects.--masters in art of costuming often discover and star previously unrecognised beauty.--establishing the habit of those lines and colours in gowns, hats, gloves, parasols, sticks, fans and jewels which are your own.--the intelligent purchaser.--the best dressed women.--value of understanding one's background.--learning the art of understanding one's background.--learning the art of costuming from masters of the art.--how to proceed with this study.--successful costuming not dependent upon amount of money spent upon it.--an example ii the laws underlying all costuming of woman appropriateness keynote of costuming to-day.--five salient points to be borne in mind when planning a costume.--where english, french, and american women excel in art of costuming.--feeling for line.--to make our points clear constant reference to the stage is necessary.--bakst and poiret.--turning to the orient for line and colour.--keeping costume in same key as its settings.--how to know your period; its line, colours and characteristic details.--studying costumes in gothic illuminations iii how to dress your type a few points applying to all costumes.--background.--line and colour of costumes to bring out the individuality of wearer.--the chic woman defined.--intelligent expressing of self in _mise-en-scène_.--selecting one's colour scheme iv the psychology of clothes effect of clothes upon manners.--the natural instinct for costuming, "clothes sense."--costuming affecting psychology of wearer.--clothes may liberate or shackle the spirit of women, be a tyrant or magician's wand.--follow colour instinct in clothes as well as housefurnishings v establish habits of carriage which create good line woman's line result of habits of a mind controlled by observations, conventions, experiences and attitudes which make her personality.--training lines of physique from childhood; an example.--a knowledge of how to dress appropriately leads to efficiency vi colour in woman's costume colour hall-mark of to-day.--bakst, rheinhardt and granville barker, teachers of the new colour vocabulary.--portable backgrounds vii footwear importance of carefully considering extremities.--what constitutes a costume.--importance of learning how to buy, put on and wear each detail of costume if one would be a decorative picture.--spats.--stockings.--slippers.--buckles viii jewelry as decoration considered as colour and line not with regard to intrinsic worth.--to complete a costume or furnish keynote upon which to build a costume.--distinguished jewels with historic associations worn artistically; examples.--know what jewels are your affair as to colour, size, and shape.--to know what one can and cannot wear in all departments of costuming prepares one to grasp and make use of expert suggestions. how fashions come into being.--one of the rules as to how jewels should be worn.--gems and paste ix woman decorative in her boudoir negligée or tea-gown belongs to this intimate setting.--fortuny the artist designer of tea-gowns.--sibyl sanderson.--the decorative value of a long string of beads.--beauty which is the result of conscious effort.--_bien soiné_ a hall-mark of our period x woman decorative in her sun-room since a winter sun-room is planned to give the illusion of summer, one's costuming for it should carry out the same idea.--the sun-room provides a means for using up last summer's costumes.--the hat, if worn, should suggest repose, not action.--the age and habits of those occupying a sun-room dictate the exact type of costume to be worn.--colour scheme xi i. woman decorative in her garden in the garden the costume should have a decorative outline but simple colour scheme which harmonises with background of flowers.--white, grey, or one note of colour preferable.--the flowers furnish variety and colour.--lady de bathe (mrs. langtry) in her garden at newmarket, england ii. woman decorative on the lawn one may be a flower or a bunch of flowers for colour against the unbroken sweep of green underfoot and background of shrubs and trees.--chic outline and interesting detail, as well as colour, of distinct value in a costume for lawn.--how to cultivate an unerring instinct for what is a successful costume for any given occasion iii. woman decorative on the beach if one would be a contribution to the picture, figure as white or vivid colour on beach, deck of steamer or yacht xii woman as decoration when skating line of the body all important.--the necessity of mastering _form_ to gain efficiency in any line; examples.--the traditional skating costume has the lead xiii woman decorative in her motor car the colour of one's car inside and out important factor in effect produced by one's carefully chosen costume xiv how to go about planning a period costume period.--background.--outline.--materials.--colour scheme.--detail with meaning.--authorities.--consulting portraits by great masters.--geraldine farrar.--distinguished collection of costume plates.--one result of planning period costumes is the opening up of vistas in history.--every detail of a period costume has its fascinating story worth the knowing.--brief historic outline to serve as key to the rich storehouse of important volumes on costumes and the distinguished textless books of costume plates.--period of fashions in costumes developing without nationality.--nationality declared in artistry of workmanship and the modification or exaggeration of an essential detail according to national or individual temperament.--evolution of woman's costume.--assyria.--egypt.--byzantium.-- greece.--rome.--gothic europe.--europe of the renaissance,--seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth century through mid-victorian period.--cord tied about waist origin of costumes for women and men xv the story of period costumes a rÉsumÉ. woman as seen in egyptian sculpture-relief; on greek vase; in gothic stained glass; carved stone; tapestry; stucco; and painting of the renaissance; eighteenth and nineteenth century portraits.--art throughout the ages reflects woman in every rôle; as companion, ruler, slave, saint, plaything, teacher, and voluntary worker.--evolution of outline of woman's costume, including change in neck; shoulder; evolution of sleeve; girdle; hair; head-dress; waist line; petticoat.--gradual disappearance of long, flowing lines characteristic of greek and gothic periods.--demoralisation of nature's shoulder and hip-line culminates in the velasquez edition of spanish fashion and the marie antoinette extravaganzas xvi development of gothic costume gothic outline first seen as early as fourth century.--costume of roman-christian women.--ninth century.--the gothic cape of twelfth, thirteenth and fourteenth centuries made familiar on the virgin and saints in sacred art.--the tunic.--restraint in line, colour, and detail gradually disappear with increased circulation of wealth until in fifteenth century we see humanity over-weighted with rich brocades, laces, massive jewels, etc. the virgin in art late middle ages.--sovereignty of the virgin as explained in "the cathedrals of mont st. michel and chartres," by henry adams.--woman as the virgin dominates art of twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries.--the girdle.--the round neck.--the necklace, etc. xvii the renaissance sixteenth and seventeenth centuries pointed and other head-dresses with floating veils.--neck low off shoulders.--skirts part as waist-line over petticoat.--wealth of roman empire through new trade channels had led to importation of richly coloured oriental stuffs.--same wealth led to establishing looms in europe.--clothes of man like his over-ornate furniture show debauched and vulgar taste.--the good gothic lines live on in costumes of nuns and priests.--the davanzati palace collection, florence, italy.--long pointed shoes of the middle ages give way to broad square ones.--gorgeous materials.--hats.--hair.--sleeves.-- skirts.--crinolines.--coats.--overskirts draped to develop into panniers of marie antoinette's time.--directoire reaction to simple lines and materials xvii eighteenth century political upheavals.--scientific discoveries.--mechanical inventions.--chemical achievements.--chintz or stamped linens of jouy near versailles.--painted wall-papers after the chinese.--simplicity in costuming of woman and man xix woman in the victorian period first seventy years of nineteenth century.--"historic dress in america" by elizabeth mcclellan.--hoops, wigs, absurdly furbished head-dresses, paper-soled shoes, bonnets enormous, laces of cobweb, shawls from india, rouge and hair-grease, patches and powder, laced waists, and "vapours."--man still decorative xx sex in costuming "european dress."--progenitor of costume worn by modern men.--the time when no distinction was made between materials used for man and woman.--velvets, silks, satins, laces, elaborate cuffs and collars, embroidery, jewels and plumes as much his as hers xxi line and colour of costumes in hungary in a sense colour a sign of virility.--examples.--studying line and colour in magyar land.--in krakau, poland,--a highly decorative polish peasant and her setting xxii studying line and colour in russia kiev our headquarters.--slav temperament an integral part of russian nature expressed in costuming as well as folk songs and dances of the people.--russian woman of the fashionable world.--the russian pilgrims as we saw them tramping over the frozen roads to the shrines of kiev, the holy city and ancient capital of russia at the close of the lenten season.--their costumes and their psychology xxiii mark twain's love of colour in all costuming wrapped in a crimson silk dressing-gown on a balcony of his italian villa in connecticut, mark twain dilated on the value of brilliant colour in man's costuming.--his creative, picturing-making mind in action.--other themes followed xxiv the artist and his costume a god-given sense of the beautiful.--the artist nature has always assumed poetic license in the matter of dress.--many so-called affectations have _raison d'être_.--responding to texture, colour and line as some do to music and scenery.--how japanese actors train themselves to act women's parts by wearing woman's costumes off the stage.--this cultivates the required _feeling_ for the costumes.--the woman devotee to sports when costumed.--richard wagner's responsiveness to colour and texture.--clyde fitch's sensitiveness to the same.--the wearing of jewels by men.--king edward vii.--a remarkable topaz worn by a spaniard.--its undoing as a decorative object through its resetting xxv idiosyncrasies in costume fashions in dress all powerful because they seize upon the public mind.--they become the symbol of manners and affect human psychology.--affectations of the youth of athens.--les merveilleux, les encroyables, the illuminati.--schiller during the storm and stress period.--venetian belles of the sixteenth century.--the _cavalier servente_ of the seventeenth century.--mme. récamier scandalised london in eighteenth century by appearing costumed à la greque.--mme. jerome bonaparte, a baltimore belle, followed suit in philadelphia.--hour-glass waist-line and attendant "vapours" were thought to be in the rôle of a high-born victorian miss.--appropriateness the contribution of our day to the story of woman's costuming xxvi nationality in costume when seen with perspective the costumes of various periods appear as distinct types though to the man or woman of any particular period the variations of the type are bewildering and misleading.--having followed the evolution of the costume of woman of fashion which comes under the general head of european dress, before closing we turn to quite another field, that of national costumes.--progress levels national differences, therefore the student must make the most of opportunities to observe.--experiences in hungary xxvii models historical interest attaches to fashions in woman's costuming.--one of the missions of art is to make subtle the obvious.--examples as seen in xxviii woman costumed for her war job the pageant of life shows that woman has played opposite man with consistency and success throughout the ages.--apropos of this, we quote from philadelphia _public ledger_, for march , , an impression of a woman of to-day costumed appropriately to get efficiency in her war work in conclusion a brief review of the chief points to be kept in mind by those interested in the costuming of woman so that she figures as a decorative contribution to any setting illustrations i mme. geraldine farrar in greek costume as thaÏs (_frontispiece_) vi sketched by thelma cudlipp ii woman in ancient egyptian sculpture-relief iii woman in greek art iv woman on greek vase v woman in gothic art portrait showing pointed head-dress vi woman in art of the renaissance sculpture-relief in terra-cotta: the virgin vii woman in art of the renaissance sculpture-relief in terra-cotta: holy women viii tudor england portrait of queen elizabeth ix spain--velasquez portrait x eighteenth century england portrait by thomas gainsborough xi bourbon france portrait of marie antoinette by madame vigée le brun xii costume of empire period an english portrait xiii eighteenth century costume portrait by gilbert stuart xiv victorian period (about ) mme. adeline genée in costume xv late nineteenth century (about ) a portrait by john s. sargent xvi a modern portrait by john w. alexander xvii a portrait of mrs. philip m. lydig by i. zuloaga xviii mrs. langtry (lady de bathe) in evening wrap xix mrs. condÉ nast in street dress photograph by baron de meyer xx mrs. condÉ nast in evening dress xxi mrs. condÉ nast in garden costume xxii mrs. condÉ nast in fortuny tea gown xxiii mrs. vernon castle in ball costume xxiv mrs. vernon castle in afternoon costume--winter xxv mrs. vernon castle in afternoon costume--summer xxvi mrs. vernon castle costumed À la guerre for a walk xxvii mrs. vernon castle--a fantasy xxviii modern skating costume-- winner of amateur championship of fancy skating xxix a modern silhouette-- tailor-made drawn from life by elisabeth searcy xxx tappÉ's creations sketched for _woman as decoration_ by thelma cudlipp xxxi miss elsie de wolfe in costume of red cross nurse xxxii mme. geraldine farrar in spanish costume as carmen from photograph by courtesy of _vanity fair_ xxxiii mme. geraldine farrar in japanese costume as madame butterfly sketched by thelma cudlipp "the communion of men upon earth abhors identity more than nature does a vacuum. nothing so shocks and repels the living soul as a row of exactly similar things, whether it consists of modern houses or of modern people, and nothing so delights and edifies as distinction." coventry patmore. "whatever piece of dress conceals a woman's figure, is bound, in justice, to do so in a picturesque way." _from an early victorian fashion paper._ "when was that 'simple time of our fathers' when people were too sensible to care for fashions? it certainly was before the pharaohs, and perhaps before the glacial epoch." w. g. sumner, in _folkways_. chapter i a few hints for the novice who would plan her costumes there are a few rules with regard to the costuming of woman which if understood put one a long way on the road toward that desirable goal--decorativeness, and have economic value as well. they are simple rules deduced by those who have made a study of woman's lines and colouring, and how to emphasise or modify them by dress. temperaments are seriously considered by experts in this art, for the carriage of a woman and her manner of wearing her clothes depends in part upon her temperament. some women instinctively _feel_ line and are graceful in consequence, as we have said, but where one is not born with this instinct, it is possible to become so thoroughly schooled in the technique of controlling the physique--poise of the body, carriage of the head, movement of the limbs, use of feet and hands, that a sense of line is acquired. study portraits by great masters, the movements of those on the stage, the carriage and positions natural to graceful women. a graceful woman is invariably a woman highly sensitised, but remember that "alive to the finger tips"--or toe tips, may be true of the woman with few gestures, a quiet voice and measured words, as well as the intensely active type. the highly sensitised woman is the one who will wear her clothes with individuality, whether she be rounded or slender. to dress well is an art, and requires concentration as any other art does. you know the old story of the boy, who when asked why his necktie was always more neatly tied than those of his companions, answered: "i put my whole mind on it." there you have it! the woman who puts her whole mind on the costuming of herself is naturally going to look better than the woman who does not, and having carefully studied her type, she will know her strong points and her weak ones, and by accentuating the former, draw attention from the latter. there is a great difference, however, between concentrating on dress until an effect is achieved, and then turning the mind to other subjects, and that tiresome dawdling, indefinite, fruitless way, to arrive at no convictions. this variety of woman never gets dress off her chest. the catechism of good dressing might be given in some such form as this: are you fat? if so, never try to look thin by compressing your figure or confining your clothes in such a way as to clearly outline the figure. take a chance from your size. aim at long lines, and what dressmakers call an "easy fit," and the use of solid colours. stripes, checks, plaids, spots and figures of any kind draw attention to dimensions; a very fat woman looks larger if her surface is marked off into many spaces. likewise a very thin woman looks thinner if her body on the imagination of the public _subtracting_ is marked off into spaces absurdly few in number. a beautifully proportioned and rounded figure is the one to indulge in striped, checked, spotted or flowered materials or any parti-coloured costumes. * * * * * never try to make a thin woman look anything but thin. often by accentuating her thinness, a woman can make an effect as _type_, which gives her distinction. if she were foolish enough to try to look fatter, her lines would be lost without attaining the contour of the rounded type. there are of course fashions in types; pale ash blonds, red-haired types (auburn or golden red with shell pink complexions), dark haired types with pale white skin, etc., and fashions in figures are as many and as fleeting. artists are sometimes responsible for these vogues. one hears of the rubens type, or the sir joshua reynolds, hauptner, burne-jones, greuse, henner, zuloaga, and others. the artist selects the type and paints it, the attention of the public is attracted to it and thereafter singles it out. we may prefer soft, round blonds with dimpled smiles, but that does not mean that such indisputable loveliness can challenge the attractions of a slender serpentine tragedy-queen, if the latter has established the vogue of her type through the medium of the stage or painter's brush. a woman well known in the world of fashion both sides of the atlantic, slender and very tall, has at times deliberately increased that height with a small high-crowned hat, surmounted by a still higher feather. she attained distinction without becoming a caricature, by reason of her obvious breeding and reserve. here is an important point. a woman of quiet and what we call conservative type, can afford to wear conspicuous clothes if she wishes, whereas a conspicuous type _must_ be reserved in her dress. by following this rule the overblown rose often makes herself beautiful. study all types of woman. beauty is a wonderful and precious thing, and not so fleeting either as one is told. the point is, to take note, not of beauty's departure, but its gradually changing aspect, and adapt costume, line and colour, to the demands of each year's alterations in the individual. make the most of grey hair; as you lose your colour, soften your tones. always star your points. if you happen to have an unusual amount of hair, make it count, even though the fashion be to wear but little. we recall the beautiful and unique madame x. of paris, blessed by the gods with hair like bronze, heavy, long, silken and straight. she wore it wrapped about her head and finally coiled into a french twist on the top, the effect closely resembling an old roman helmet. this was design, not chance, and her well-modeled features were the sort to stand the severe coiffure, madame's husband, always at her side that season on lake lucerne, was curator of the louvre. we often wondered whether the idea was his or hers. she invariably wore white, not a note of colour, save her hair; even her well-bred fox terrier was snowy white. worth has given distinction to more than one woman by recognising her possibilities, if kept to white, black, greys and mauves. a beautiful englishwoman dressed by this establishment, always a marked figure at whatever embassy her husband happens to be posted, has never been seen wearing anything in the evening but black, or white, with very simple lines, cut low and having a narrow train. plate ii woman in ancient egyptian sculpture-relief about b.c. we have here a husband and wife. (metropolitan museum.) [illustration: _metropolitan museum of art_ _woman in ancient egyptian sculpture-relief_] it may take courage on the part of dressmaker, as well as the woman in question, but granted you have a distinct style of your own, and understand it, it is the part of wisdom to establish the habit of those lines and colours which are yours, and then to avoid experiments with _outré_ lines and shades. they are almost sure to prove failures. taking on a colour and its variants is an economic, as well as an artistic measure. some women have so systematised their costuming in order to be decorative, at the least possible expenditure of vitality and time (these are the women who dress to live, not live to dress), that they know at a glance, if dress materials, hats, gloves, jewels, colour of stones and style of setting, are for them. it is really a joy to shop with this kind of woman. she has definitely fixed in her mind the colours and lines of her rooms, all her habitual settings, and the clothes and accessories best _for her_. and with the eye of an artist, she passes swiftly by the most alluring bargains, calculated to undermine firm resolution. in fact one should not say that this woman shops; she buys. what is more, she never wastes money, though she may spend it lavishly. some of the best dressed women (by which we always mean women dressed fittingly for the occasion, and with reference to their own particular types) are those with decidedly limited incomes. there are women who suggest chiffon and others brocade; women who call for satin, and others for silk; women for sheer muslins, and others for heavy linen weaves; women for straight brims, and others for those that droop; women for leghorns, and those they do not suit; women for white furs, and others for tawny shades. a woman with red in her hair is the one to wear red fox. if you cannot see for yourself what line and colour do to you, surely you have some friend who can tell you. in any case, there is always the possibility of paying an expert for advice. allow yourself to be guided in the reaching of some decision about yourself and your limitations, as well as possibilities. you will by this means increase your decorativeness, and what is of more serious importance, your economic value. a marked example of woman decorative was seen on the recent occasion when miss isadora duncan danced at the metropolitan opera house, for the benefit of french artists and their families, victims of the present war. miss duncan was herself so marvelous that afternoon, as she poured her art, aglow and vibrant with genius, into the mould of one classic pose after another, that most of her audience had little interest in any other personality, or effect. some of us, however, when scanning the house between the acts, had our attention caught and held by a charmingly decorative woman occupying one of the boxes, a quaint outline in silver-grey taffeta, exactly matching the shade of the woman's hair, which was cut in florentine fashion forming an aureole about her small head,--a becoming frame for her fine, highly sensitive face. the deep red curtains and upholstery in the box threw her into relief, a lovely miniature, as seen from a distance. there were no doubt other charming costumes in the boxes and stalls that afternoon, but none so successful in registering a distinct decorative effect. the one we refer to was suitable, becoming, individual, and reflected personality in a way to indicate an extraordinary sensitiveness to values, that subtle instinct which makes the artist. with very young women it is easy to be decorative under most conditions. almost all of them are decorative, as seen in our present fashions, but to produce an effect in an opera box is to understand the _carrying power_ of colour and line. the woman in the opera box has the same problem to solve as the woman on the stage: her costume must be effective at a distance. such a costume may be white, black and any colour; gold, silver, steel or jet; lace, chiffon--what you will--provided the fact be kept in mind that your outline be striking and the colour an agreeable contrast against the lining of the box. here, outline is of chief importance, the silhouette must be definite; hair, ornaments, fan, cut of gown, calculated to register against the background. in the stalls, colour and outline of any single costume become a part of the mass of colour and black and white of the audience. it is difficult to be a decorative factor under these conditions, yet we can all recall women of every age, who so costume themselves as to make an artistic, memorable impression, not only when entering opera, theatre or concert hall, but when seated. these are the women who understand the value of elimination, restraint, colour harmony and that chic which results in part from faultless grooming. to-day it is not enough to possess hair which curls ideally: it must, willy nilly, curl conventionally! if it is necessary, prudent or wise that your purchases for each season include not more than six new gowns, take the advice of an actress of international reputation, who is famous for her good dressing in private life, and make a point of adding one new gown to each of the six departments of your wardrobe. then have the cleverness to appear in these costumes whenever on view, making what you have fill in between times. to be clear, we would say, try always to begin a season with one distinguished evening gown, one smart tailor suit, one charming house gown, one tea gown, one negligée and one sport suit. if you are needing many dancing frocks, which have hard wear, get a simple, becoming model, which your little dressmaker, seamstress or maid can copy in inexpensive but becoming colours. you can do this in summer and winter alike, and with dancing frocks, tea gowns, negligées and even sport suits. that is, if you have smart, up-to-date models to copy. one woman we know bought the finest quality jersey cloth by the yard, and had a little dressmaker copy exactly a very expensive skirt and sweater. it seems incredible, but she saved on a ready made suit exactly like it forty dollars, and on one made to measure by an exclusive house, one hundred dollars! remember, however, that there was an artist back of it all and someone had to pay for that perfect model, to start with. in the case we cite, the woman had herself bought the original sport suit from an importer who is always in advance with paris models. if you cannot buy the designs and workmanship of artists, take advantage of all opportunities to see them; hats and gowns shown at openings, or when your richer friends are ordering. in this way you will get ideas to make use of and you will avoid looking home-made, than which, no more damning phrase can be applied to any costume. as a matter of fact it implies a hat or gown lacking an artist's touch and describes many a one turned out by long-established and largely patronised firms. plate iii a greek vase. dionysiac scenes about b.c. interesting costumes. (metropolitan museum.) [illustration: _metropolitan museum of art_ _woman on greek vase_] the only satisfactory copy of a fortuny tea gown we have ever seen accomplished away from the supervision of fortuny himself, was the exquisite hand-work of a young american woman who lives in new york, and makes her own gowns and hats, because her interest and talent happen to be in that direction. she told a group of friends the other day, to whom she was showing a dainty chiffon gown, posed on a form, that to her, the planning and making of a lovely costume had the same thrilling excitement that the painting of a picture had for the artist in the field of paint and canvas. this same young woman has worked constantly since the european war began, both in london and new york, on the shapeless surgical shirts used by the wounded soldiers. in this, does she outrank her less accomplished sisters? yes, for the technique she has achieved by making her own costumes makes her swift and economical, both in the cutting of her material and in the actual sewing and she is invaluable as a buyer of materials. chapter ii the laws underlying all costuming of woman that every costume is either right or wrong is not a matter of general knowledge. "it will do," or "it is near enough" are verdicts responsible for beauty hidden and interest destroyed. who has not witnessed the mad mental confusion of women and men put to it to decide upon costumes for some fancy-dress ball, and the appalling ignorance displayed when, at the costumer's, they vaguely grope among battered-looking garments, accepting those proffered, not really knowing how the costume they ask for should look? absurd mistakes in period costumes are to be taken more or less seriously according to temperament. but where is the fair woman who will say that a failure to emerge from a dressmaker's hands in a successful costume is not a tragedy? yet we know that the average woman, more often than not, stands stupefied before the infinite variety of materials and colours of our twentieth century, and unless guided by an expert, rarely presents the figure, _chez-elle_, or when on view in public places, which she would or could, if in possession of the few rules underlying all successful dressing, whatever the century or circumstances. six salient points are to be borne in mind when planning a costume, whether for a fancy-dress ball or to be worn as one goes about one's daily life: * * * * * first, appropriateness to occasion, station and age; second, character of background you are to appear against (your setting); third, what outline you wish to present to observers (the period of costume); fourth, what materials of those in use during period selected you will choose; fifth, what colours of those characteristic of period you will use; sixth, the distinction between those details which are obvious contributions to the costume, and those which are superfluous, because meaningless or line-destroying. * * * * * let us remind our reader that the woman who dresses in perfect taste often spends far less money than she who has contracted the habit of indefiniteness as to what she wants, what she should want, and how to wear what she gets. where one woman has used her mind and learned beyond all wavering what she can and what she cannot wear, thousands fill the streets by day and places of amusement by night, who blithely carry upon their persons costumes which hide their good points and accentuate their bad ones. the _rara avis_ among women is she who always presents a fashionable outline, but so subtly adapted to her own type that the impression made is one of distinct individuality. one knows very well how little the average costume counts in a theatre, opera house or ball-room. it is a question of background again. also you will observe that the costume which counts most individually, is the one in a key higher or lower than the average, as with a voice in a crowded room. the chief contribution of our day to the art of making woman decorative is the quality of appropriateness. i refer of course to the woman who lives her life in the meshes of civilisation. we have defined the smart woman as she who wears the costume best suited to each occasion when that occasion presents itself. accepting this definition, we must all agree that beyond question the smartest women, as a nation, are english women, who are so fundamentally convinced as to the invincible law of appropriateness that from the cradle to the grave, with them evening means an evening gown; country clothes are suited to country uses and a tea-gown is not a bedroom negligée. not even in rome can they be prevailed upon "to do as the romans do." apropos of this we recall an experience in scotland. a house party had gathered for the shooting,--english men and women. among the guests were two americans; done to a turn by redfern. it really turned out to be a tragedy, as they saw it, for though their cloth skirts were short, they were silk-lined; outing shirts were of crêpe--not flannel; tan boots, but thinly soled; hats most chic, but the sort that drooped in a mist. well, those two american girls had to choose between long days alone, while the rest tramped the moors, or to being togged out in borrowed tweeds, flannel shirts and thick-soled boots. plate iv greek kylix. signed by hieron, about b.c. athenian. the woman wears one of the gowns fortuny (paris) has reproduced as a modern tea gown. it is in two pieces. the characteristic short tunic reaches just below waist line in front and hangs in long, fine pleats (sometimes cascaded folds) under the arms, the ends of which reach below knees. the material is not cut to form sleeves; instead two oblong pieces of material are held together by small fastenings at short intervals, showing upper arm through intervening spaces. the result in appearance is similar to a kimono sleeve. (metropolitan museum.) [illustration: _metropolitan museum of art_ _woman in greek art about b.c._] that was some years back. we are a match for england to-day, in the open, but have a long way to go before we wear with equal conviction, and therefore easy grace, tea-gown and evening dress. both _how_ and _when_ still annoy us as a nation. on the street we are supreme when _tailleur_. in carriage attire the french woman is supreme, by reason of that innate latin coquetry which makes her _feel_ line and its significance. the ideal pose for any hat is a french secret. the average woman is partially aware that if she would be a decorative being, she must grasp conclusively two points: first, the limitations of her natural outline; secondly, a knowledge of how nearly she can approach the outline demanded by fashion without appearing a caricature, which is another way of saying that each woman should learn to recognise her own type. the discussion of silhouette has become a popular theme. in fact it would be difficult to find a maker of women's costumes so remote and unread as not to have seized and imbedded deep in her vocabulary that mystic word. to make our points clear, constant reference to the stage is necessary; for from stage effects we are one and all free to enjoy and learn. nowhere else can the woman see so clearly presented the value of having what she wears harmonise with the room she wears it in, and the occasion for which it is worn. not all plays depicting contemporary life are plays of social life, staged and costumed in a chic manner. what is taught by the modern stage, as shown by bakst, reinhardt, barker, urban, jones, the portmanteau theatre and washington square players, is _values_, as the artist uses the term--not fashions; the relative importance of background, outline, colour, texture of material and how to produce harmonious effects by the judicious combination of furnishings and costumes. to-day, when we want to say that a costume or the interior decoration of a house is the last word in modern line and colour, we are apt to call it à la bakst, meaning of course leon bakst, whose american "poster" was the russian ballet. if you have not done so already, buy or borrow the wonderful bakst book, showing reproductions in their colours of his extraordinary drawings, the originals of which are owned by private individuals or museums, in paris, petrograd, london, and new york. they are _outré_ to a degree, yet each one suggests the whole or parts of costumes for modern woman--adorable lines, unbelievable combinations of colour! no wonder poiret, the paris dressmaker, seized upon bakst as designer (or was it bakst who seized upon poiret?). bakst got his inspiration in the orient. as a bit of proof, for your own satisfaction, there is a book entitled _six monuments of chinese sculpture_, by edward chauvannes, published in , by g. van oest & cie., of brussels and paris. the author, with a highly commendable desire to perpetuate for students a record of the most ancient speciments of chinese sculpture, brought to paris and sold there, from time to time, to art-collectors, from all over the world; selected six fine speciments as theme of text and for illustrations. plate in this collection shows a woman whose costume in _outline_ might have been taken from bakst or even vogue. but put it the other way round: the vogue artist to-day--we use the word as a generic term--finds inspiration through museums and such works as the above. this is particularly true as our little handbook goes into print, for the reason that the great war between the central powers and the entente has to a certain extent checked the invention and material output of europe, and driven designers of and dealers in costumes for women, to china and japan. our great-great-grandmothers here in america wore paris fashions shown on the imported fashion dolls and made up in brocades from china, by the colonial mantua makers. so we are but repeating history. to-day, war, which means horror, ugliness, loss of ideals and illusions, holds most of the world in its grasp, and we find creative artists--apostles of the beautiful, seeking the orient because it is remote from the great world struggle. we hear that edmund dulac (who has shown in a superlative manner, woman decorative, when illustrating the _arabian nights_ and other well-known books), is planning a flight to the orient. he says that he longs to bury himself far from carnage, in the hope of wooing back his muse. if this subject of background, line and colour, in relation to costuming of woman, interests you, there are many ways of getting valuable points. one of them, as we have said, is to walk through galleries looking at pictures only as decorations; that is, colour and line against the painter's background. fashions change, in dress, arrangement of hair, jewels, etc., but this does not affect values. it is _la ligne_, the grand gesture, or line fraught with meaning and balance and harmony of colour. the reader knows the colour scheme of her own rooms and the character of gowns she is planning, and for suggestions as to interesting colour against colour, she can have no higher authority than the experience of recognised painters. some develop rapidly in this study of values. if your rooms are so-called period rooms, you need not of necessity dress in period costumes, but what is extremely important, if you would not spoil your period room, nor fail to be a decorative contribution when in it, is that you make a point of having the colour and texture of your house gowns in the same key as the hangings and upholstery of your room. white is safe in any room, black is at times too strong. it depends in part upon the size of your room. if it is small and in soft tones, delicate harmonising shades will not obtrude themselves as black can and so reduce the effect of space. this is the case not only with black, but with emerald green, decided shades of red, royal blue, and purple or deep yellows. if artistic creations, these colours are all decorative in a room done in light tones, provided the room is large. a louis xvi salon is far more beautiful if the costumes are kept in louis xvi colouring and all details, such as lace, jewelry, fans, etc., kept strictly within the picture; fine in design, delicate in colouring, workmanship and quality of material. beyond these points one may follow the outline demanded by the fashion of the moment, if desired. but remember that a beautiful, interesting room, furnished with works of art, demands a beautiful, interesting costume, if the woman in question would sustain the impression made by her rooms, to the arranging of which she has given thought, time and vitality, to say nothing of financial outlay; she must take her own decorative appearance seriously. plate v example of the pointed head-dress, carefully concealed hair (in certain countries at certain periods of history, a sign of modesty), round necklace and very long close sleeves characteristic of fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. observe angle at which head-dress is worn. [illustration: _metropolitan museum of art_ _woman in gothic art portrait showing pointed head-dress_] the writer has passed wonderful hours examining rare illuminated manuscripts of the middle ages (twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth centuries), missals, "hours" of the virgin, and breviaries, for the sole purpose of studying woman's costumes,--their colour, line and details, as depicted by the old artists. gothic costumes in gothic interiors, and early renaissance costumes in renaissance interiors. the art of moderns in various media, has taken from these creations of mediæval genius, more than is generally realized. we were looking at a rare illuminated gothic manuscript recently, from which william morris drew inspirations and ideas for the books he made. it is a monumental achievement of the twelfth century, a mass book, written and illuminated in flanders; at one time in the possession of a cistercian monastery, but now one of the treasures in the noted private collection made by the late j. pierpont morgan. the pages are of vellum and the illuminations show the figures of saints in jewel-like colours on backgrounds of pure gold leaf. the binding of this book,--sides of wood, held together by heavy white vellum, hand-tooled with clasps of thin silver, is the work of morris himself and very characteristic of his manner. he patterned his hand-made books after these great models, just as he worked years to duplicate some wonderful old piece of furniture, realising so well the magic which lies in consecrated labour, that labour which takes no account of time, nor pay, but is led on by the vision of perfection possessing the artist's soul. we know women who have copied the line, colour and material of costumes depicted in gothic illuminations that they might be in harmony with their own gothic rooms. one woman familiar with this art, has planned a frankly modern room, covering her walls with gold japanese fibre, gilding her woodwork and doors, using the brilliant blues, purples and greens of the old illuminations in her hangings, upholstery and cushions, and as a striking contribution to the decorative scheme, costumes herself in white, some soft, clinging material such as crêpe de chine, liberty satin or chiffon velvet, which take the mediæval lines, in long folds. she wears a silver girdle formed of the hand-made clasps of old religious books, and her rings, neck chains and earrings are all of hand-wrought silver, with precious stones cut in the ancient way and irregularly set. this woman got her idea of the effectiveness of white against gold from an ancient missal in a famous private collection, which shows the saints all clad in marvellous white against gold leaf. whistler's house at cheyne road, london, had a room the dado and doors of which were done in gold, on which he and two of his pupils painted the scattered petals of white and pink chrysanthemums. possibly a persian or japanese effect, as whistler leaned that way, but one sees the same idea in an illumination of the early sixteenth century; "hours" of the virgin and breviary, made for eleanor of portugal, queen of john ii. the decorations here are in the style of the renaissance, not gothic, and some think memling had a hand in the work. the borders of the illumination, characteristic of the bruges school, are gold leaf on which is painted, in the most realistic way, an immense variety of single flowers, small roses, pansies, violets, daisies, etc., and among them butterflies and insects. this border surrounds the pictures which illustrate the text. always the marvellous colour, the astounding skill in laying it on to the vellum pages, an unforgettable lesson in the possibility of colour applied effectively to costumes, when background is kept in mind. this breviary was bound in green velvet and clasped with hand-wrought silver, for cardinal rodrigue de castro ( - ) of spain. it is now in the private collection of mr. morgan. the cover alone gives one great emotion, genuine ancient velvet of the sixteenth century, to imitate which taxes the ingenuity of the most skilful of modern manufacturers. chapter iii how to dress your type _a few points applying to all costumes_ needless to say, when considering woman's costumes, for ordinary use, in their relation to background, unless some chameleon-like material be invented to take on the colour of _any_ background, one must be content with the consideration of one's own rooms, porches, garden, opera-box or automobile, etc. for a gown to be worn when away from home, when lunching, at receptions or dinners, the first consideration must be _becomingness_,--a careful selection of line and colour that bring out the individuality of the wearer. when away from one's own setting, personality is one of the chief assets of every woman. remember, individuality is nature's gift to each human being. some are more markedly different than others, but we have all seen a so-called colourless woman transformed into surprising loveliness when dressed by an artist's instinct. a delicate type of blond, with fair hair, quiet eyes and faint shell-pink complexion, can be snuffed out by too strong colours. remember that your ethereal blond is invariably at her best in white, black (never white and black in combination unless black with soft white collars and frills) and delicate pastel shades. plate vi fifteenth-century costume. "virgin and child" in painted terra-cotta. it is by andrea verrocchio, and now in metropolitan museum. we have here an illustration of the costume, so often shown on the person of the virgin in the art of the middle ages. [illustration: _metropolitan museum of art_ _woman in art of the renaissance sculpture-relief in terra-cotta: the virgin_] the richly-toned brunette comes into her own in reds, yellows and low-tones of strong blue. colourless jewels should adorn your perfect blond, colourful gems your glowing brunette. what of those betwixt and between? in such cases let complexion and colour of eyes act as guide in the choice of colours. one is familiar with various trite rules such as match the eyes, carry out the general scheme of your colouring, by which is meant, if you are a yellow blond, go in for yellows, if your hair is ash-brown, your eyes but a shade deeper, and your skin inclined to be lifeless in tone, wear beaver browns and content yourself with making a record in _harmony_, with no contrasting note. just here let us say that the woman in question must at the very outset decide whether she would look pretty or chic, sacrificing the one for the other, or if she insists upon both, carefully arrange a compromise. as for example, combine a semi-picture hat with a semi-tailored dress. the strictly chic woman of our day goes in for appropriateness; the lines of the latest fashion, but adapted to bring out her own best points, while concealing her bad ones, and an insistance upon a colour and a shade of colour, sufficiently definite to impress the beholder at a glance. this type of woman as a rule keeps to a few colours, possibly one or two and their varieties, and prefers gowns of one material rather than combinations of materials. though she possess both style and beauty, she elects to emphasise style. in the case of the other woman, who would star her face at the expense of her _tout ensemble_, colour is her first consideration, multiplication of detail and intelligent expressing of herself in her _mise-en-scène_. _seduisant_, instead of _chic_ is the word for this woman. your black-haired woman with white skin and dark, brilliant eyes, is the one who can best wear emerald green and other strong colours. the now fashionable mustard, sage green, and bright magentas are also the _affaire_ of this woman with clear skin, brilliant colour and sparkling eyes. these same colours, if subdued, are lovely on the middle-aged woman with black hair, quiet eyes and pale complexion, but if her hair is grey or white, mustard and sage green are not for her, and the magenta must be the deep purplish sort, which combines with her violets and mauves, or delicate pinks and faded blues. she will be at her best in shades of grey which tone with her hair. chapter iv the psychology of clothes has the reader ever observed the effect of clothes upon manners? it is amazing, and only proves how pathetically childlike human nature is. put any woman into a marie antoinette costume and see how, during an evening she will gradually take on the mannerisms of that time. this very point was brought up recently in conversation with an artist, who in referring to one of the most successful costume balls ever given in new york--the crinoline ball at the old astor house--spoke of how our unromantic wall street men fell to the spell of stocks, ruffled shirts and knickerbockers, and as the evening advanced, were quite themselves in the minuette and polka, bowing low in solemn rigidity, leading their lady with high arched arm, grasping her pinched-in waist, and swinging her beruffled, crinolined form in quite the manner. some women, even girls of tender years, have a natural instinct for costuming themselves, so that they contribute in a decorative way to any setting which chance makes theirs. watch children "dressing up" and see how among a large number, perhaps not more than one of them will have this gift for effects. it will be she who knows at a glance which of the available odds and ends she wants for herself, and with a sure, swift hand will wrap a bright shawl about her, tie a flaming bit of silk about her dark head, and with an assumed manner, born of her garb, cast a magic spell over the small band which she leads on, to that which, without her intense conviction and their susceptibility to her mental attitude toward the masquerade, could never be done. this illustrates the point we would make as to the effect of clothes upon psychology. the actor's costume affects the real actor's psychology as much or more than it does that of his audience. he _is_ the man he has made himself appear. the writer had the experience of seeing a well-known opera singer, when a victim to a bad case of the grippe, leave her hotel voiceless, facing a matinee of _juliet_. arrived in her dressing-room at the opera, she proceeded to change into the costume for the first act. under the spell of her rôle, that prima donna seemed literally to shed her malady with her ordinary garments, and to take on health and vitality with her _juliet_ robes. even in the waltz song her voice did not betray her, and apparently no critic detected that she was indisposed. in speaking of periods in furniture, we said that their story was one of waves of types which repeated themselves, reflecting the ages in which they prevailed. with clothes we find it is the same thing: the scarlet, and silver and gold of the early jacobeans, is followed by the drabs and greys of the commonwealth; the marvellous colour of the church, where beauty was enthroned, was stamped out by the iron will of cromwell who, in setting up his standard of revolt, wrapped soul and body of the new faith in penal shades. new england was conceived in this spirit and as mind had affected the colour of the puritans' clothes, so in turn the drab clothes, prescribed by their new creed, helped to remove colour from the new england mind and nature. plate vii fifteenth-century costumes on the holy women at the tomb of our lord. the sculpture relief is enamelled terra-cotta in white, blue, green, yellow and manganese colours. it bears the date . note character of head-dresses, arrangement of hair, capes and gowns which are early renaissance. (metropolitan museum.) [illustration: _metropolitan museum of art_ _woman in art of the renaissance sculpture-relief in terra-cotta: holy women_] but observe how, as prosperity follows privation, the mind expands, reaching out for what the changed psychology demands. it is the old story of rome grown rich and gay in mood and dress. there were of course, villains in puritan drab and grecian white, but the child in every man takes symbol for fact. so it is that to-day, some shudder with the belief that beauty, re-enthroned in all her gorgeous modern hues, means near disaster. the progressives claim that into the world has come a new hope; that beneath our lovely clothes of rainbow tints, and within our homes where beauty surely reigns, a new psychology is born to radiate colour from within. our advice to the woman not born with clothes sense, is: employ experts until you acquire a mental picture of your possibilities and limitations, or buy as you can afford to, good french models, under expert supervision. you may never turn out to be an artist in the treatment of your appearance, instinctively knowing how a prevailing fashion in line and colour may be adapted to you, but you can be taught what your own type is, what your strong points are, your weak ones, and how, while accentuating the former, you may obliterate the latter. there are two types of women familiar to all of us: the one gains in vital charm and abandon of spirit from the consciousness that she is faultlessly gowned; the other succumbs to self-consciousness and is pitifully unable to extricate her mood from her material trappings. for the darling of the gods who walks through life on clouds, head up and spirit-free, who knows she is perfectly turned out and lets it go at that, we have only grateful applause. she it is who carries every occasion she graces--indoors, out-of-doors, at home, abroad. may her kind be multiplied! but to the other type, she who droops under her silks and gold tissue, whose pearls are chains indeed, we would throw out a lifeline. submerged by clothes, the more she struggles to rise above them the more her spirit flags. the case is this: the woman's _mind_ is wrong; her clothes are right--lovely as ever seen; her jewels gems; her house and car and dog the best. it is her _mind_ that is wrong; it is turned _in_, instead of _out_. now this intense and soul-, as well as line-destroying self-consciousness, may be prenatal, and it may result from the puritan attitude toward beauty; that old new england point of view that the beautiful and the vicious are akin. every young child needs to have cultivated a certain degree of self-reliance. to know that one's appearance is pleasing, to put it mildly, is of inestimable value when it comes to meeting the world. every child, if normal, has its good points--hair, eyes, teeth, complexion or figure; and we all know that many a stage beauty has been built up on even two of these attributes. star your good points, clothes will help you. be a winner in your own setting, but avoid the fatal error of damning your clothes by the spirit within you. the writer has in mind a woman of distinguished appearance, beauty, great wealth, few cares, wonderful clothes and jewels, palatial homes; and yet an envious unrest poisons her soul. she would look differently, be different and has not the wisdom to shake off her fetters. her perfect dressing helps this woman; you would not be conscious of her otherwise, but with her natural equipment, granted that she concentrated upon flashing her spirit instead of her wealth, she would be a leader in a fine sense. the beauty doctor can do much, but show us one who can put a gleam in the eye, tighten the grasp, teach one that ineffable grace which enables woman, young or old, to wear her clothes as if an integral part of herself. this quality belongs to the woman who knows, though she may not have thought it out, that clothes can make one a success, but not a success in the enduring sense. dress is a tyrant if you take it as your god, but on the other hand dress becomes a magician's wand when dominated by a clever brain. gown yourself as beautifully as you can afford, but with judgment. what we do, and how we do it, is often seriously and strangely affected by what we have on. the writer has in mind a literary woman who says she can never talk business except in a linen collar! mark twain, in his last days, insisted that he wrote more easily in his night-shirt. richard wagner deliberately put on certain rich materials in colours and hung his room with them when composing the music of the ring. chopin says in a letter to a friend: "after working at the piano all day, i find that nothing rests me so much as to get into the evening dress which i wear on formal occasions." in monarchies based on militarism, royal princes, as soon as they can walk, are put into military uniforms. it cultivates in them the desired military spirit. we all associate certain duties with certain costumes, and the extraordinary response to colour is familiar to all. we talk about feeling colour and say that we can or cannot live in green, blue, violet or red. it is well to follow this colour instinct in clothes as well as in furnishing. you will find you are at your best in the colours and lines most sympathetic to you. we know a woman who is an unusual beauty and has distinction, in fact is noted for her chic when in white, black or the combination. she once ventured a cerise hat and instantly dropped to the ranks of the commonplace. fine eyes, hair, skin, teeth, colour and carriage were still hers, but her effectiveness was lessened as that of a pearl might be if set in a coral circle. chapter v establish habits of carriage which create good line woman's line is the result of her costume, in part only. far more is woman's costume affected by her line. by this we mean the line she habitually falls into, the pose of torso, the line of her legs in action, and when seated, her arms and hands in repose and gesture, the poise of her head. it is woman's line resulting from her habit of mind and the control which her mind has over her body, a thing quite apart from the way god made her, and the expression her body would have had if left to itself, ungoverned by a mind stocked with observations, conventions, experience and attitudes. we call this the physical expression of _woman's personality_; this personality moulds her bodily lines and if properly directed determines the character of the clothes she wears; determines also whether she be a decorative object which says something in line and colour, or an undecorative object which says nothing. plate viii queen elizabeth in the absurdly elaborate costume of the late renaissance. then crinoline, gaudy materials, and ornamentations without meaning reached their high-water mark in the costuming of women. [illustration: _metropolitan museum of art_ _tudor england portrait of queen elizabeth_] woman to be decorative, should train the carriage of her body from childhood, by wearing appropriate clothing for various daily rôles. there is more in this than at first appears. the criticism by foreigners that americans, both men and women, never appear really at home in evening clothes, that they look as if they felt _dressed_, is true of the average man and woman of our country and results from the lax standards of a new and composite social structure. america as a whole, lacks traditions and still embodies the pioneer spirit, equally characteristic of australia and other offshoots from the old world. the little american girl who is brought up from babyhood to change for the evening, even though she have a nursery tea, and be allowed only a brief good-night visit to the grown-ups, is still the exception rather than the rule. a wee english maiden we know, created a good deal of amused comment because, on several occasions, when passing rainy afternoons indoors, with some affluent little new york friends, whose luxurious nurseries and marvellous mechanical toys were a delight, always insisted upon returning home,--a block distant,--to change into white before partaking of milk toast and jam, at the nursery table, the american children keeping on their pink and blue linens of the afternoon. the fact of white or pink is unimportant, but our point is made when we have said that the mother of the american children constantly remarked on the unconscious grace of the english tot, whether in her white muslin and pink ribbons, her riding clothes, or accordion-plaited dancing frock. the english woman-child was acquiring decorative lines by wearing the correct costume for each occasion, as naturally as a bird wears its feathers. this is one way of obviating self-consciousness. the eton boy masters his stick and topper in the same way, when young, and so more easily passes through the formless stage conspicuous in the american youth. call it technique, or call it efficiency, the object of our modern life is to excel, to be the best of our kind, and appropriate dress is a means to that end, for it helps to liberate the spirit. we of to-day make no claim to consistency or logic. some of us wear too high heels, even with strictly tailored suits, which demand in the name of consistency a sensible shoe. also our sensible skirt may be far too narrow for comfort. but on the whole, women have made great strides in the matter of costuming with a view to appropriateness and efficiency. chapter vi colour in woman's costume colour is the hall-mark of our day, and woman decoratively costumed, and as decorator, will be largely responsible for recording this age as one of distinct importance--a transition period in decoration. colour is the most marked expression of the spirit of the times; colour in woman's clothes; colour in house furnishing; colour on the stage and in its setting; colour in prose and verse. speaking of colour in verse, rudyard kipling says (we quote from an editorial in the philadelphia _public ledger_, jan. , ): "several songs written by tommy and the poilu at the front, celebrate the glories of camp life in such vivid colors they could not be reproduced in cold, black, leaden type." it is no mere chance, this use of vivid colour. man's psychology to-day craves it. a revolution is on. did not the strong red, green, and blue of napoleon's time follow the delicate sky-blues, rose and sunset-yellows of the louis? colour pulses on every side, strong, clean, clear rainbow colour, as if our magicians of brush and dye-pot held a prism to the sun-beam; violet, orange and green, magentas and strong blue against backgrounds of black and cold grey. we had come to think of colour as vice and had grown so conservative in its use, that it had all but disappeared from our persons, our homes, our gardens, our music and our literature. more than this, from our point of view! the reaction was bound to come by reason of eternal precedent. half-tones, antique effects, and general monotony,--the material expression of complacent minds, has been cast aside, and the blasé man of ten years ago is as keen as any child with his first linen picture book,--and for the same reason. colour, as we see it to-day, came out of the east via persia. bakst in russia translated it into terms of art, and made the ballet russe an amazing, enthralling vision! then poiret, wizard among french couturières, assisted by bakst, adapted this oriental colour and line to woman's uses in private life. this supplemented the good work of _le gazette du bon ton_ of paris, that effete fashion sheet, devoted to the decoration of woman, whose staff included many of the most gifted french artists, masters of brush and pen. always irregular, no issue of the _bon ton_ has appeared of late. it is held up by the war. the men who made it so fascinating a guide to woman "who would be decorative," are at the front, painting scenery for the battlefield--literally that: making mock trees and rocks, grass and hedges and earth, to mislead the fire of the enemy, and doubtless the kindred munich art has been diverted into similar channels. this oriental colour has made its way across europe like some gorgeous bird of the tropics, and since the war has checked the output of europe's factories, another channel has supplied the same wonderful colours in silks and gauze. they come to us by way of the pacific, from china and from japan. there is no escaping the colour spell. writers from the front tell us that it is as if the gods made sport with fate's anvil, for even the blackened dome of the war zone is lurid by night, with sparks of purple, red, green, yellow and blue; the flare of the world-destroying projectiles. plate ix a velasquez portrait of the renaissance, when the human form counted only as a rack on which was heaped crinoline and stiff brocades and chains and gems and wigs and every manner of elaborate adornment, making mountains of poor tottering human forms, all but lost beneath. [illustration: _vienna hofmuseum_ _spain-velasquez portrait_] the present costuming of woman, when she treats herself as decoration, owes much to the prophets of the "new" theatre and their colour scale. these men have demonstrated, in an unforgettable manner, the value of colour; the dependence of every decorative object upon background; shown how fraught with meaning can be an uncompromising outline, and the suggestiveness of really significant detail. bakst, rheinhardt and granville barker have taught us the new colour vocabulary. gordon craig was perhaps the first to show us the stage made suggestive by insisting on the importance of clever lighting to produce atmosphere and elimination of unessential objects, the argument of his school being that the too detailed reproducing of nature (on the stage) acts as a check to the imagination, whereas by the judicious selection of harmonics, the imagination is stimulated to its utmost creative capacity. one detects this creed to-day in certain styles of home decoration (woman's background), as well as in woman's costumes. _portable backgrounds_ the staging of a recent play showed more plainly than any words, the importance of background. in one of the scenes, beautiful, artistic gowns in delicate shades were set off by a room with wonderful green walls and woodwork (mignonette). now, so long as the characters moved about the room, they were thrown into relief most charmingly, but the moment the women seated themselves on a very light coloured and characterless chintz sofa, they lost their decorative value. it was lacking in harmony and contrast. the two black sofa cushions intended possibly to serve as background, being small, instantly disappeared behind the seated women. a sofa of contrasting colour, or black, would have looked better in the room, and served as immediate background for gowns. it might have been covered in dark chintz, a silk damask in one or several tones, or a solid colour, since the gowns were of delicate indefinite shades. one of the sofas did have a dark chinese coat thrown over the back, with the intent, no doubt, of serving as effective background, but the point seemed to escape the daintily gowned young woman who poured tea, for she failed to take advantage of it, occupying the opposite end of the sofa. a modern addition to a woman's toilet is a large square of chiffon, edged with narrow metal or crystal fringe, or a gold or silver flexible cord. this scarf is always in beguiling contrast to the costume, and when not being worn, is thrown over the chair or end of sofa against which our lady reclines. to a certain degree, this portable background makes a woman decorative when the wrong colour on a chair might convert her lovely gown into an eyesore. one woman we know, who has an empire room, admires the lines of her sofa as furniture, but feels it ineffective unless one reclines á la mme. récamier. to obviate this difficulty, she has had made a square (one and a half yards), of lovely soft mauve silk damask, lined with satin charmeuse of the same shade, and weighted by long, heavy tassels, at the corners; this she throws over the empire roll and a part of the seat, which are done in antique green velvet. now the woman seated for conversation with arm and elbow resting on the head, looks at ease,--a part of the composition. the square of soft, lined silk serves at other times as a couvrepied. chapter vii footwear footwear points the costume; every child should be taught this. give most careful attention to your extremities,--shoes, gloves and hats. the genius of fashion's greatest artist counts for naught if his costume may not include hat, gloves, shoes, and we would add, umbrella, parasol, stick, fan, jewels; in fact every detail. if you have the good sense to go to one who deservedly ranks as an authority on line and colour in woman's costume, have also the wisdom to get from this man or woman not merely your raiment; go farther, and grasp as far as you are able the principles underlying his or her creations. common sense tells one that there must be principles which underlie the planning of every hat and gown,--serious reasons why certain lines, colours and details are employed. principles have evolved and clarified themselves in the long journey which textiles, colours and lines have made, travelling down through the ages. a great cathedral, a beautiful house, a perfect piece of furniture, a portrait by a master, sculpture which is an object of art, a costume proclaimed as a success; all are the results of knowing and following laws. the clever woman of slender means may rival her friends with munition incomes, if only she will go to an expert with open mind, and through the thoughtful purchase of a completed costume,--hat, gown and all accessories,--learn an artist-modiste's point of view. then, and we would put it in italics; _take seriously, with conviction, all his or her instructions as to the way to wear your clothes_. anyone can _buy_ costumes, many can, perhaps own far more than you, but it is quite possible that no one can more surely be a picture--a delightfully decorative object on every occasion, than you, who knows instinctively (or has been taught), beyond all shadow of doubt, how to put on and then how to sit or walk in, your one tailored suit, your one tea gown, your one sport suit or ball gown. plate x an ideal example of the typical costume of fashionable england in the eighteenth century, when picturesqueness, not appropriateness, was the demand of the times. this picture is known as the morning promenade: squire hallet with his lady. painted by thomas gainsborough and now in the private collection of lord rothschild, london. [illustration: _courtesy of braun & co., new york, london & paris_ _eighteenth century england portrait by thomas gainsborough_] if you want to wear light spats, stop and think whether your heavy ankles will not look more trim in boots with light, glove-fitting tops and black vamps. we have seen women with such slender ankles and shapely insteps, that white slippers or low shoes might be worn with black or coloured stockings. but it is playing safe to have your stockings match your slippers or shoes. buckles and bows on slippers and pumps can destroy the line of a shoe and hence a foot, or continue and accentuate line. there are fashions in buckles and bows, but unless you bend the fashion until it allows nature's work to appear at its best, it will destroy artistic intention. some people buy footwear as they buy fruit; they like what they see, so they get it! you know so many women, young and old, who do this, that our advice is, try to recall those who do not. yes, now you see what we aim at; the women you have in mind always continue the line of their gowns with their feet. you can see with your mind's eye how the slender black satin slippers, one of which always protrudes from the black evening gown, carry to its eloquent finish the line from her head through torso, hip to knee, and knee down through instep to toe,--a line so frequently obstructed by senseless trimmings, lineless hats, and footwear wrong in colour and line. if your gown is white and your object to create line, can you see how you defeat your purpose by wearing anything but white slippers or shoes? at a recent dinner one of the young women who had sufficient good taste to wear an exquisite gown of silk and silver gauze, showing a pale magenta ground with silver roses, continued the colour scheme of her designer with silver slippers, tapering as cinderella's, but spoiled the picture she might have made by breaking her line and enlarging her ankles and instep with magenta stockings. this could have been avoided by the use of silver stockings or magenta slippers with magenta stockings. when brocades, in several colours, are chosen for slippers, keep in mind that the ground of the silk must absolutely match your costume. it is not enough that in the figure of brocade is the colour of the dress. because so distorting to line, figured silks and coloured brocades for footwear are seldom a wise choice. to those who cannot own a match in slippers for each gown, we would suggest that the number of colours used in gowns be but few, getting the desired variety by varying shades of a colour, and then using slippers a trifle higher in shade than the general colour selected. chapter viii jewelry as decoration the use of jewelry as colour and line has really nothing to do with its intrinsic worth. just as when furnishing a house, one selects pictures for certain rooms with regard to their decorative quality alone, their colour with relation to the colour scheme of the room (the art of interior decoration), so jewels should be selected either to complete costumes, or to give the keynote upon which a costume is built. a woman whose artist-dressmaker turns out for her a marvellous green gown, would far better carry out the colour scheme with some semi-precious stones than insist upon wearing her priceless rubies. on the other hand, granted one owns rubies and they are becoming, then plan a gown entirely with reference to them, noting not merely the shade of their colour, but the character of their setting, should it be distinctive. one of the most picturesque public events in vienna each year, is a bazaar held for the benefit of a charity under court patronage. to draw the crowds and induce them to give up their money, it has always been the custom to advertise widely that the ladies of the austro-hungarian court would conduct the sale of articles at the various booths and that the said noble ladies would wear their family jewels. also, that there be no danger of confusing the various celebrities, the names of those selling at each booth would be posted in plain lettering over it. programmes are sold, which also inform patrons as to the name and station of each lovely vendor of flowers and sweets. it is an extraordinary occasion, and well worth witnessing once. the jewels worn are as amazing and fascinating as is hungarian music. there is a barbaric sumptuousness about them, an elemental quality conveyed by the oriental combining of stones, which to the western european and american, seem incongruous. enormous pearls, regular and irregular, are set together in company with huge sapphires, emeralds, rubies and diamonds, cut in the antique way. looking about, one feels in an arabian nights' dream. on the particular occasion to which we refer, the most beautiful woman present was the princess metternich, and in her jewels decorative as any woman ever seen. the women of the austrian court, especially the hungarian women, are notably beautiful and fascinating as well. it is the magyar élan, that abandon which prompts a woman to toss her jewelled bangle to a gypsy leader of the orchestra, when his violin moans and flashes out a czardas. but the rule remains the same whether your jewels are inherited and rich in souvenirs of european courts, or the last work of cartier. they must be a harmonious part of a carefully designed costume, or used with discretion against a background of costumes planned with reference to making them count as the sole decoration. we recall a spanish beauty, representative of several noble strains, who was an artist in the combining of her gems as to their class and colour. hers was that rare gift,--infallible good taste, which led her to contribute an individual quality to her temporary possessions. she counted in madrid, not only as a beautiful and brilliant woman, but as a decorative contribution to any room she entered. it was not uncommon to meet her at dinner, wearing some very chic blue gown, often of velvet, the sole decoration of which would be her sapphires, stones rare in themselves, famous for their colour, their matching, the manner in which they were cut, and their setting,--the unique hand-work of some goldsmith of genius. it is impossible to forget her distinguished appearance as she entered the room in a princess gown, made to show the outline of her faultless figure, and cut very low. against the background of her white neck and the simple lines of her blue gown, the sapphires became decoration with artistic restraint, though they gleamed from a coronet in her soft, black hair, encircled her neck many times and fell below her waist line, clasped her arms and were suspended from her ears in long, graceful pendants. they adorned her fingers and they composed a girdle of indescribable beauty. plate xi marie antoinette in a portrait by madame vigÉe le brun, one of the greatest portrait painters of the eighteenth century. here we see the lovely queen of louis xvi in the type of costume she made her own which is still referred to as the marie antoinette style. this portrait is in the musée national, versailles. [illustration: _courtesy of braun & co., new york, london & paris_ _bourbon france marie antoinette portrait by madame vigée le brun_] later, the same night, one would meet this woman at a ball, and discover that she had made a complete change of costume and was as elegant as before, but now all in red, a gown of deep red velvet or some wonderful soft satin, unadorned save by her rubies, as numerous and as unique as her sapphires had been. there were other women in madrid wearing wonderful jewels, one of them when going to court functions always had a carriage follow hers, in which were detectives. how strange this seems to americans! but this particular woman in no way illustrated the point we would make, for she had lost control of her own lines, had no knowledge of line and colour in costume, and when wearing her jewels, looked very much like the show case of a jeweller's shop. jewelry must be worn to make lines, continue or terminate lines, accentuate a good physical point, or hide a bad one. remember that a jewel like any other _object d'art_, is an ornament, and unless it is ornamental, and an added attraction to the wearer, it is valueless in a decorative way. for this reason it is well to discover, by experimenting, what jewelry is your affair, what kind of rings for example, are best suited to your kind of hands. it may be that small rings of delicate workmanship, set with colourless gems, will suit your hands; while your friend will look better in the larger, heavier sort, set with stones of deeper tones. this finding out what one can and cannot wear, from shoe leather to a feather in the hat (and the inventory includes even width of hem on a linen handkerchief), is by no means a frivolous, fruitless waste of time; it is a wise preparedness, which in the end saves time, vitality and money. and if it does not make one independent of expert advice (and why should one expect to be that, since technique in any art should improve with practice?) it certainly prepares one to grasp and make use of, expert suggestions. we have often been told, and by those whose business it is to know such things, that the models created by great paris dressmakers are not always flashes of genius which come in the night, nor the wilful perversion of an existing fashion, to force the world of women into discarding, and buying everything new. it may look suspiciously like it when we see a mere swing of the pendulum carrying the straight sheath out to the ten-yard limit of crinoline skirts. as a matter of fact, decorative woman rules the fashions, and if decorative woman makes up her mind to retain a line or a limit, she does it. the open secret is that every great paris house has its chic clientele, which in returning from the riviera--europe's peacock alley--is full of knowledge as to how the last fashions (line and colour), succeeded in scoring in the rôle designated. those points found to be desirable, becoming, beautiful, comfortable, appropriate, _séduisant_--what you will--are taken as the foundation of the next wardrobe order, and with this inside information from women who _know_ (know the subtle distinction between daring lines and colours, which are _good form_, and those which are not), the men or women who give their lives to creating costumes proceed to build. these are the fashions for the exclusive few this year, for the whole world the next year. in conclusion, to reduce one of the rules as to how jewels should be worn to its simplest form, never use imitation pearl trimming if you are wearing a necklace and other ornaments of real pearls. the pearl trimming may be very charming in itself, but it lessens the distinction of your real pearls. in the same way rhinestones may be decidedly decorative, but only a woman with an artist's instinct can use her diamonds at the same time. it can be done, by keeping the rhinestones off the bodice. an artist can conceive and work out a perfect adjustment of what in the mind and hand of the inexperienced is not to be attempted. your french dressmaker combines real and imitation laces in a fascinating manner. that same artist's instinct could trim a gown with emerald pastes and hang real gems of the same in the ears, using brooch and chain, but you would find the green glass garniture swept from the proximity of the gems and used in some telling manner to score as _trimming_,--not to compete as jewels. we have seen the skirt of french gowns of black tulle or net, caught up with great rhinestone swans, and at the same time a diamond chain and diamond earrings worn. nothing could have been more chic. we recall another case of the discreet combining of gems and paste. it was at the spring races, longchamps, paris. the decorative woman we have never forgotten, had marvellous gold-red hair, wore a costume of golden brown chiffon, a close toque (to show her hair) of brown; long topaz drops hung from her ears, set in hand-wrought etruscan gold, and her shell lorgnettes hung from a topaz chain. now note that on her toque and her girdle were buckles made of topaz glass, obviously not real topaz and because made to look like milliner's garniture and not jeweler's work, they had great style and were as beautiful of their kind as the real stones. plate xii the portrait of an englishwoman painted during the napoleonic period. she wears the typical empire gown, cloak, and bonnet. the original of this portrait is the same referred to elsewhere as having moistened her muslin gowns to make them cling to her, in grecian folds. among her admiring friends was lord byron. a descendant who allows the use of the charming portrait, explains that the fair lady insisted upon being painted in her bonnet because her curling locks were short--a result of typhoid fever. [illustration: _costume of empire period an english portrait_] chapter ix woman decorative in her boudoir by the way, do you know that boudoir originally meant pouting room, a place where the ceremonious grande dame of the louis might relax and express a ruffled mood, if she would? which only serves to prove that even the definition of words alter with fashion, for we imagine that our supinely relaxed modern beauty, of the country club type, has on the whole more self-control than she of the boudoir age. since a boudoir is of all rooms the most personal, we take it for granted that its decoration is eloquent with the individuality and taste of its owner. walls, floors, woodwork, upholstery, hangings, cushions and _objects d'art_ furnish the colour for my lady's background, and will naturally be a scheme calculated to set off her own particular type. here we find woman easily made decorative in negligée or tea gown, and it makes no difference whether fashion is for voluminous, flowing robes, ruffled and covered with ribbons and lace, or the other extreme, those creations of fortuny, which cling to the form in long crinkled lines and shimmer like the skin of a snake. the fortuny in question, son of the great spanish painter, devotes his time to the designing of the most artistic and unique tea gowns offered to modern woman. we first saw his work in at his paris atelier. his gowns, then popular with french women, were made in venice, where m. fortuny was at that time employing some five hundred women to carry out his ideas as to the dyeing of thin silks, the making and colouring of beads used as garniture, and the stenciling of designs in gold, silver or colour. the lines are grecian and a woman in her fortuny tea gown suggests a tanagra figure, whether she goes in for the finely pleated sort, kept tightly twisted and coiled when not in use, to preserve the distinguishing fine pleats, or one with smooth surface and stenciled designs. these fortuny tea gowns slip over the head with no opening but the neck, with its silk shirring cord by means of which it can be made high or low, at will; they come in black, gold and the tones of old venetian dyes. one could use a dozen of them and be a picture each time, in any setting, though for the epicure they are at their best when chosen with relation to a special background. the black fortunys are extraordinarily chic and look well when worn with long oriental earrings and neck chains of links or beads, which reach--at least one strand of them--half-way to the knees. the distinction which this long line of a chain or string of pearls gives to the figure of any woman is a point to dwell upon. real pearls are desirable, even if one must begin with a short necklace; but where it can be afforded, woman cannot be urged too strongly to wear a string extending as near to and as much below the waist-line as possible. a long string of pearls gives great elegance, whether wearer is standing or seated. you can use your short string of pearls, too, but whatever your figure is, if you are not a young girl it will be improved by the long line, and if you would be decorative above everything, we insist that a long chain or string of less intrinsic value is preferable to one of meaningless length and priceless worth. very young girls look best in short necklaces; women whose throats are getting lined should take to jeweled dog-collars, in addition to their strings of pearls or diamond chains. the woman with firm throat and perfect neck was made for pearls. for those less blessed there are lovely things too, jewels to match their eyes, or to tone in with skin or hair; settings to carry out the line of profile, rings to illuminate the swift gesture or nestle into the soft, white, dimpled hand of inertia. every type has its charm and followers, but we still say, avoid emphasising your lack of certain points by wearing unsuitable costumes and accessories, and by so doing lose the chance of being decorative. sibyl sanderson, the american prima donna, whose career was in paris, was the most irresistibly lovely vision ever seen in a tea gown. she was past-mistress at the art of making herself decorative, and the writer recalls her as she last saw her in a doucet model of chiffon, one layer over another of flesh, palest pink and pinkish mauve that melted into the creamy tones of her perfect neck and arms. sibyl sanderson was lovely as nature turned her out, but paris taught her the value of that other beauty, the beauty which comes of art and attained like all art, only through conscious effort. an artistic appearance once meant letting nature have its way. it has come to mean, nature directed and controlled by art, and while we do not resort to the artificiality (in this moment) of hoops, crinoline, pyramids of false hair, monstrous head-dresses, laced waists, low neck and short sleeves for all hours and all seasons, paper-soled shoes in snow-drifts, etc., we do insist that woman be _bien soiné_--hair, complexion, hands, feet, figure, perfection _par tout_. woman's costumes, her jewels and all accessories complete her decorative effect, but even in the age of powder and patches, hair oil and wigs, no more time nor greater care was given to her grooming, and what we say applies to the average woman of affairs and not merely to the parasite type. chapter x woman decorative in her sun-room a sun-room as the name implies, is a room planned to admit as much sun as is possible. an easy way to get the greatest amount of light and sun is to enclose a steam heated porch with glass which may be removed at will. sometimes part of a conservatory is turned into a sun-room, awnings, rugs, chairs, tables, couches, making it a fascinating lounge or breakfast room, useful, too, at the tea hour. often when building a house a room on the sunny side is given one, two, or three glass sides. to trick the senses, ferns and flowering plants, birds and fountains are used as decorations, suggesting out-of-doors. plate xiii portrait by gilbert stuart of doña matilda, stoughton de jaudenes. (metropolitan museum.) we use this portrait to illustrate the period when woman's line was obliterated by the excessive decoration of her costume. the interest attached to this charming example of her time lies in colour and detail. it is as if the bewitching doña matilda were holding up her clothes with her person. her outline is that of a ruffled canary. how difficult for her to forget her material trappings, when they are so many, and yet she looks light of heart. for sharp contrast we suggest that our reader turn at once to the portrait by sargent (plate xv) which is distinguished for its clean-cut outline and also the distinction arrived at through elimination of detail in the way of trimming. the costume hangs on the woman, suspended by jewelled chains from her shoulders. the sargent has the simplicity of the classic greek; the gilbert stuart portrait, the amusing fascination of marie antoinette detail. the gown is white satin, with small gold flowers scattered over its surface. the head-dress surmounting the powdered hair is of white satin with seed-pearl ornaments. the background is a dead-rose velvet curtain, draped to show blue sky, veiled by clouds. the same dead-rose on table and chair covering. the book on table has a softly toned calf cover. gilbert stuart was fond of working in this particular colour note. [illustration: _metropolitan museum of art_ _eighteenth century costume portrait by gilbert stewart_] the woman who would add to the charm of her sun-room in winter by keeping up the illusion of summer, will wear summer clothes when in it, that is, the same gowns, hats and footwear which she would select for a warm climate. to be exquisite, if you are young or youngish, well and active, you would naturally appear in the sun-room after eleven, in some sheer material of a delicate tint, made walking length, with any graceful summer hat which is becoming, and either harmonises with colour of gown or is an agreeable contrast to it. by graceful hat we mean a hat suggesting repose, not the close, tailored hat of action. one woman we know always uses her last summer's muslins and wash silks, shoes, slippers and hats in her sun-room during the winter. in her wardrobe there are invariably a lot of sheer muslins, voiles and wash silks in white, mauve, greys, pinks, or delicate stripes, the outline following the fashion, voluminous, straight or clinging, the bodice tight with trimmings inset or full, beruffled, or kerchiefed. her hats are always entirely black or entirely white, in type the variety we know as _picturesque_, made very light in weight and with no thought of withstanding the elements. the woman who knows how, can get the effect of a picture hat with very little outlay of money. it is a matter of line when on the head, that look of lightness and general airiness which gives one the feeling that the wearer has just blown in from the lawn! the artist's hand can place a few simple loops of ribbon on a hat, and have success, while a stupid arrangement of costly feathers or flowers may result in failure. the effect of movement got by certain line manipulation, suggesting arrested motion, is of inestimable value, especially when your hat is one with any considerable width of brim. the hat with movement is like a free-hand sketch, a hat without movement like a decalcomania. if the owner of the sun-room is resting or invalided then away with out-of-door costume. for her a tea-gown and satin slippers are in order, as they would be under similar conditions on her furnished porch. if the mistress of the sun-room is young and athletic, one who never goes in for frou-frous, but wears linen skirts and blouses when pouring tea for her friends, let her be true to her type in the sun-room, but always emphasising immaculate daintiness, rather than the ready-for-sport note. a sheer blouse and french heels on white pumps will transpose the plain linen skirt into the key of picturesque relaxation, the hall-mark of sun-rooms. more than any other room in the house, the sun-room is for drifting. one cannot imagine writing a cheque there, or going over one's monthly accounts. we assume that the colour scheme in the sun-room was dictated by the owner and is therefore sympathetic to her. if this be true, we can go farther and assume that the delicate tones of her porch gowns and tea gowns will harmonise. if her sun-room is done in yellows and orange and greens, nothing will look better than cream-white as a costume. if the walls, woodwork and furniture have been kept very light in tone, relying on the rugs and cushions and dark foliage of plants to give character, then a costume of sheer material in any one of the decided colours in the chintz cushions, will be a welcome contribution to the decoration of the sun-room. additional effect can be given a costume by the clever choice of colour and line in a work-bag. chapter xi i. woman decorative in her garden in your garden, if you would count as decoration, keep to white or one colour; the flowers furnish a variegated background against which your costume of colour, grey or white stands out. the great point is that your outline be one with pictorial value, from the artist's point of view. if merely strolling through your garden to admire it, keeping to the well-made paths, a fragile gown of sheer material and dainty shoes, with perishable hat or fragile sunshade, is in order. but if yours is the task to gather flowers, then wear stout linen or pretty, bright ginghams, good to the eye and easily laundered, while resisting the briars and branches. smocks, those loose over-all garments of soft-toned linens, reaching from neck half-way to the knees and unbelted, are ideal for garden work, and to the young and slender, add a distinct charm, for one catches the movement of the lithe form beneath. you can be decorative in your garden in a large enveloping apron of gingham, if you are wise in choosing a colour which becomes you. one lover of flowers, who has an instinct for fitness and colour, may be seen on a summer morning, trimming her porch-boxes in snowy white,--shoes and all,--over which she wears a big, encircling apron, extending from neck to skirt hem; deep pockets cross the entire front, convenient for clippers, scissors and twine. this apron is low-necked with shoulder straps and no sleeves. the woman in question is tall and fair, and on her soft curling hair she wears sun hats of peanut straw, the edges sewn over and over with wool to match her gingham apron, which is a solid pink, pale green or lavender. dark women look uncommonly well in khaki colour, and so do some blonds. here is a shade decorative against vegetation and serviceable above all. garden costumes for actual work vary according to individual taste and the amount and character of the gardening indulged in. lady de bathe (mrs. langtry) owns one of the most charming gardens in england, though not as famous as some. it is attached to regal lodge, her place at newmarket. the blue walk is something to remember, with its walls of blue lavender flanking the blue paving stones, between the cracks of which lovely bluebells and larkspur spring up in irrelevant, poetic license. lady de bathe digs and climbs and clips and gathers, therefore she wears easily laundered garments; a white linen or cotton skirt and blouse, a chinese coat to the knees, of pink cotton crêpe and an isle-of-jersey sun-bonnet, a poke with curtain, to protect the neck and strings to tie it on. so while she claims never to have consciously considered being a decorative note in her own garden, her trained instinct for costuming herself appropriately and becomingly brings about the desirable decorative effect. plate xiv madame adeline genée, the greatest living exponent of the art of toe dancing. she wears an early victorian costume ( ) made for a ballet she danced in london several seasons ago. the writer did not see the costume and neglected, until too late, to ask madame genée for a description of its colouring, but judging by what we know of colours and textures as described by miss mcclellan (_historic dress in america_) and other historians of the period as well as from portraits, we feel safe in stating that it may well have been a bonnet of pink uncut velvet, trimmed with silk fringe and a band of braided velvet of the same colour; or perhaps a white shirred satin; or dove-coloured satin with pale pink and green figured ribbon. for the dress, it may have been of dove-grey satin, or pink flowered silk with a black taffeta cape and one of black lace to change off with. [illustration: _victorian period about _ _mme. adeline genée in costume_] ii. woman decorative on the lawn when on your lawn with the unbroken sweep of green under foot and the background of shrubs and trees, be a flower or a bunch of flowers in the colour of your costume. white,--hat, shoes and all, cannot be excelled, but colour has charm of another sort, and turning the pages of memory, one realises that not a shade or artistic combination but has scored, if the outline is chic. since both outline and colour scheme vary with fashion we use the word chic or smart to imply that quality in a costume which is the result of restraint in the handling of line, colour and all details, whatever the period. a chic outline is very telling on the lawn; gown or hat must be appropriate to the occasion, becoming to the wearer, its lines following the fashion, yet adapted to type, and the colour, one sympathetic to the wearer. the trimming must accentuate the distinctive type of the gown or hat instead of blotting out the lines by an overabundance of garniture. the trimming must follow the constructive lines of gown, or have meaning. a buckle must buckle something, buttons must be used where there is at least some semblance of an opening. let us repeat: to be chic, the trimming of a hat or gown must have a _raison d'être_. when in doubt omit trimming. as in interior decoration, too much detail often defeats the original idea of a costume. an observing woman knows that few of her kind understand the value of restraint. when turned out by an artist, most women recognise when they look their best, but how to achieve it alone, is beyond them. this sort of knowledge comes from carefully and constantly comparing the gown which is a success with those which are failures. elimination characterises the smart costume or hat, and the smart designer is he or she who can make one flower, one feather, one bow of ribbon, band of fur, bit of real lace or hand embroidery, say a distinct something. it is the decorative value gained by the judicious placing of one object so that line and colour count to the full. as we have said in _interior decoration_, one pink rose in a slender venetian glass vase against a green silk curtain may have far more decorative value than dozens of costly roses used without knowledge of line and background. so it is with ornaments on wearing apparel. iii. woman decorative on the beach with a background of grey sand, steel-blue water and more or less blue sky, woman is given a tempting opportunity to figure as colour when by the sea. that it is gay colour or white which makes decorative effects on the beach, even the least knowing realise. _plein air_ artists have stamped on our mental visions impressions of smart society disporting itself on the sands of dieppe, trouville, brighton, and where not. whatever the period, hence outline, white and the gay colours impress one. most conspicuous is white on woman (and man); then each colour in the rainbow with its half-tones, figures as sweaters, veils, hats and parasols; the striped marquise and gay wares of the venders of nosegays, balloons and lollypops. the artist picks out the telling notes when painting, learn from him and figure as one of these. on the beach avoid being a dull note; dead greys and browns have no charm there. what is true of costuming for the beach applies equally to costumes to be worn on the deck of a steamer or yacht. chapter xii woman as decoration when skating to be decorative when skating, two things are necessary: first, know how to skate; then see to it that you are costumed with reference to appropriateness, becomingness and the outline demanded by the fashion of the moment. the woman who excels in the technique of her art does not always excel in dressing her rôle. it is therefore with great enthusiasm that we record miss theresa weld of boston, holder of woman's figure skating championship, as the most chicly costumed woman on the ice of the hippodrome (new york) where amateurs contested for the cup offered by mr. charles b. dillingham, on march , , when miss weld again won,--this time over the men as well as the women. miss weld combined good work with perfect form, and her edges, fronts, ins, outs, threes, double-threes, etc., etc., were a delight to the eye as she passed and repassed in her wine-coloured velvet, trimmed with mole-skin, a narrow band on the bottom of the full skirt (full to allow the required amount of leg action), deep cuffs, and a band of the same fur encircling the close velvet toque. this is reproduced as the ideal costume because, while absolutely up-to-date in line, material, colour and character of fur, it follows the traditional idea as to what is appropriate and beautiful for a skating costume, regardless of epoch. we have seen its ancestors in many parts of europe, year after year. some of us recall with keen pleasure, the wonderful skating in vienna and berlin on natural and artificial ice, invariably hung with flags and gaily lighted by night. we can see now, those german girls,--some of them trim and good to look at, in costumes of sapphire blue, deep red, or green velvet, fur trimmed,--gliding swiftly across the ice, to the irresistible swing of waltz music and accompanied by flashing uniforms. in the german-speaking countries everyone skates: the white-bearded grandfather and the third generation going hand in hand on sunday mornings to the nearest ice-pond. with them skating is a communal recreation, as beer garden concerts are. with us in america most sports are fashions, not traditions. the rage for skating during the past few seasons is the outcome of the exhibition skating done by professionals from austria, germany, scandinavian countries and canada, at the new york hippodrome. those who madly danced are now as madly skating. and out of town the young women delight the eye in bright wool sweaters, broad, long wool scarfs and bright wool caps, or small, close felt hats,--fascinating against the white background of ice and snow. the boots are high, reaching to top of calf, a popular model having a seam to the tip of the toe. no sport so perfectly throws into relief _command of the body_ as does skating. watch a group of competitors for honours at any gathering of amateur women skaters and note how few have command of themselves--know absolutely what they want to do, and then are able to do it. one skater, in the language of the ice, can do the actual work, but has no form. it may be she lacks temperament, has no abandon, no rhythm; is stiff, or, while full of life, has bad arms. it is as necessary that the fancy skater should learn the correct position of the arms as that the solo dancer should. certain lines must be preserved, say, from fingers of right arm through to tip of left foot, or from tip of left hand through to tip of right foot. plate xv a portrait by john s. sargent. (metropolitan museum, painted about .) we have here a distinguished example of the dignity and beauty possible to a costume characteristic of the period when extreme severity as to outline and elimination of detail followed the elaboration of victorian ruffles, ribbons and lace over hoops and bustle; curled hair and the obvious cameo brooch, massive bracelets and chains. [illustration: _metropolitan museum of art_ _late nineteenth century costume about a portrait by john s. sargent_] "form" is the manipulation of the lines of the body to produce perfect balance, perfect freedom and, when required, perfect control in arrested motion. this is the mastery which produces in free skating that "melting" of one figure into another which so hypnotises the onlooker. it is because miss weld has mastered the above qualifications that she is amateur champion in fancy skating. she has mastered her medium; has control of every muscle in her body. in consequence she is decorative and delightful to watch. to be decorative when not on skates, whether walking, standing or sitting, a woman must have cultivated the same feeling for line, her form must be good. it is not enough to obey the a. b. c.'s of position; head up, shoulders back, chest out, stomach in. one must study the possibilities of the body in acquiring and perfecting poses which have line, making pictures with one's self. in the _art of interior decoration_ we insist that every room be a beautiful composition. what we would now impress upon the mind of the reader is that she is a part of the picture and must compose with her setting. to do this she should acquire the mastery of her body, and then train that body until it has acquired "good habits" in the assuming of line, whether in action or repose. this can be done to an astonishing degree, even if one lacks the instinct. to be born with a sense of line is a gift, and the development of this sense can give artistic delight to those who witness the results and thrill them quite as sculpture or music, or any other art does. the greek idea of regarding the perfectly trained body as a beautiful temple is one to keep in mind, if woman would fulfil her obligation to be decorative. form means efficiency, if properly understood and carried out according to the spirit, not the letter of the law. form implies the human body under control, ready for immediate action. the man or woman with _form_, will be the first to fall into action when required, because, so to speak, no time is lost in collecting and aiming the body. one of the great points in the teaching of the late theodore leschetizky, the world's greatest master in the art of piano playing, was that the hand should immediately assume the correct position for the succeeding chord, the instant it was lifted from the keys;--preparedness! the crack regiments of europe, noted for their form, have for years been the object of jests in those new worlds where brawn and muscle, with mental acumen, have converted primeval forests into congested commercial centers. but that form, so derided by the pioneer spirit, has proved its worth during the present european war. the united states and the central powers are now at war and military guards have been stationed at vulnerable points. only to-day we saw one of uncle sam's soldiers, one of three, patrolling the front of a big armory,--standing in an absolutely relaxed position, his gun held loosely in his hand, and its bayonet propped against the iron fence. one could not help thinking; _no_ form, no preparedness, no efficiency. it goes without saying that prompt obedience cannot be looked for where there is lack of form, no matter how willing the spirit. the modern woman when on parole,--walking, dancing, driving, riding or engaged in any sport, to be efficient must have trained the body until it has form, and dress it appropriately, if she would be efficient as well as decorative in the modern sense of the term. no better illustration of our point can be found than in the popular sport cited at the beginning of this chapter. chapter xiii woman decorative in her motor car it is not easy to be decorative in your automobile now that the manufacturers are going in for gay colour schemes both in upholstery and outside painting. a putty-coloured touring car lined with red leather is very stunning in itself, but the woman who would look well when sitting in it does not carelessly don any bright motor coat at hand. she knows very well that to show up to advantage against red, and be in harmony with the putty-colour paint, her tweed coat should blend with the car, also her furs. black is smart with everything, but fancy how impossible mustard, cerise and some shades of green would look against that scarlet leather! an orange car with black top, mud-guards and upholstery calls for a costume of white, black, brown, tawny grey, or, if one would be a poster, royal blue. some twenty-five years ago the writer watched the first automobile in her experience driven down the champs elysées. it seemed an uncanny, horseless carriage, built to carry four people and making a good deal of fuss about it. a few days later, while lunching at the café de reservoir, versailles, we were told that some men were starting back to paris by automobile, and if we went to a window giving on to the court, we might see the astonishing vehicle make its start. it was as thrilling as the first near view of an aëroplane, and all-excitement we watched the two frenchmen getting ready for the drive. their elaborate preparation to face the current of air to be encountered en route was not unlike the preparation to-day for flying. it was spring--june, at that--but those frenchmen wearing very english tweeds and smoking english pipes, each drew on extra cloth trousers and coats and over these a complete outfit of leather! we saw them get into the things in the public courtyard, arrange huge goggles, draw down cloth caps, and set out at a speed of about fifteen miles an hour! plate xvi a portrait of mrs. thomas hastings of new york painted by the late john w. alexander. we have chosen this--one of the most successful portraits by one of america's leading portrait painters--as a striking example of colour scheme and interesting line. also we have here a woman who carries herself with form. mrs. hastings is an accomplished horsewoman. her fine physique is poised so as to give that individual movement which makes for type; her colour--wonderful red hair and the complexion which goes with it--are set off by a dull gold background; a gown in another tone of gold, relieved by a note or two of turquoise green; and the same green appearing as a shadow on the victory in the background. we see the sitter, as she impressed an observer, transferred to the canvas by the consummate skill of our deeply lamented artist. [illustration: _a modern portrait by john w. alexander_] the above seems incredible, now that we have passed through the various stages of motor car improvements and motor clothes creations. the rapid development of the automobile, with its windshields, limousine tops, shock absorbers, perfected engines and springs, has brought us to the point where no more preparation is needed for a thousand-mile run across country with an average speed of thirty miles an hour, than if we were boarding a train. one dresses for a motor as one would for driving in a carriage and those dun-colored, lineless monstrosities invented for motor use have vanished from view. more than this, woman to-day considers her decorative value against the electric blue velvet or lovely chintz lining of her limousine, exactly as she does when planning clothes for her salon. and why not? the manufacturers of cars are taking seriously their interior decoration as well as outside painting; and many women interior decorators specialise along this line and devote their time to inventing colour schemes calculated to reflect the personality of the owner of the car. special orders have raised the standard of the entire industry, so that at the recent new york automobile show, many effects in cars were offered to the public. besides the putty-coloured roadster lined with scarlet, black lined with russet yellow, orange lined with black; there were limousines painted a delicate custard colour, with top and rim of wheels, chassis and lamps of the same nattier blue as the velvet lining, cushions and curtains. a beautiful and luxurious background and how easy to be decorative against it to one who knows how! another popular colour scheme was a mauve body with top of canopy and rims of wheels white, the entire lining of mauve, like the body. imagine your woman with a decorative instinct in this car. so obvious an opportunity would never escape her, and one can see the vision on a summer day, as she appears in simple white, softest blue or pale pink, or better still, treating herself as a quaint nosegay of blush roses, for-get-me-nots, lilies and mignonette, with her chiffons and silks or sheerest of lawns. "but how about me?" one hears from the girl of the open car--a racer perhaps, which she drives herself. you are easiest of all, we assure you; to begin with, your car being a racer, is painted and lined with durable dark colours--battleship grey, dust colour, or some shade which does not show dirt and wear. the consequence is, you will be decorative in any of the smart coats, close hats and scarfs in brilliant and lovely hues,--silk or wool. chapter xiv how to go about planning a period costume here is a plan to follow when getting up a period costume: we will assume that you wish to wear a spanish dress of the time of philip iv (early seventeenth century). the first thing to give your attention to is the station in life which you propose to represent. granted that you decide on a court costume, one of those made so familiar by the paintings of the great velasquez, let your first step be to get a definite impression of the _outline_ of such a costume. go to art galleries and look at pictures, go to libraries and ask for books on costumes, with plates. you will observe that under the head of crinoline and hoop-skirt periods, there are a variety of outlines, markedly different. the slope of the hip line and the outline of the skirt is the infallible hall-mark of each of these periods. let it be remembered that the outline of a woman includes hair, combs, head-dress, earrings, treatment of neck, shoulders, arms, bust and hips; line to the ankles and shoes; also fan, handkerchief or any other article, which if a silhouette were made, would appear. the next step is to ascertain what materials were available at the time your costume was worn and what in vogue. were velvets, satins or silks worn, or all three? were materials flowered, striped, or plain? if striped, horizontal or perpendicular? for these points turn again to your art gallery, costume plates, or the best of historical novels. if you are unable to resort to the sources suggested, two courses lie open to you. put the matter into the hands of an expert; there are many to be approached through the columns of first-class periodicals or newspapers (we do not refer to the ordinary dealer in costumes or theatre accessories); or make the effort to consult some authority, in person or by letter: an actor, historian or librarian. it is amazing how near at hand help often is, if we only make our needs known. if the reader is young and busy, dancing and skating and sleeping, and complains, in her winsome way, that "days are too short for such work," we would remind her that as already stated, to carefully study the details of any costume, of any period, means that the mind and the eye are being trained to discriminate between the essentials and non-essentials of woman's costume in every-day life. the same young beauty may be interested to know that at the beginning of geraldine farrar's career the writer, visiting with her, an exhibition of pictures in munich, was amazed at the then, very young girl's familiarity with the manner of artists--ancient and modern,--and exclaimed "i did not know you were so fond of pictures." "it's not that," farrar said, "i get my costumes from them, and a great many of my poses." plate xvii portrait of mrs. philip m. lydig, patron of the arts, exhibited in new york at duveen galleries during winter of - with the zuloaga pictures. the exhibition was arranged by mrs. lydig. this portrait has been chosen to illustrate two points: that a distinguished decorative quality is dependent upon line which has primarily to do with form of one's own physique (and not alone the cut of the costume); and the great value of knowing one's own type. mrs. lydig has been transferred to the canvas by the clever technique of one of the greatest modern painters, ignacio zuloaga, an artistic descendant of velasquez. the delightful movement is that of the subject, in this case kept alive through its subtle translation into terms of art. [illustration: _a portrait of mrs. philip m. lydig. by i. zuloaga_] outline and material being decided, give your attention to the character of the background against which you are to appear. if it is a ball-room, and the occasion a costume-ball, is it done in light or dark colours, and what is the prevailing tone? see to it that you settle on a colour which will be either a harmonious note or an agreeable, hence impressive contrast, against the prevailing background. if you are to wear the costume on a stage or as a living picture against a background arranged with special reference to you, and where you are the central figure, be more subtle and combine colours, if you will; go in for interesting detail, provided always that you make these details have meaning. for example, if it be trimming, pure and simple, be sure that it be applied as during your chosen period. trimming can be used so as to increase effectiveness of a costume by accentuating its distinctive features, and it can be misused so as to pervert your period, whether that be the age of cleopatra, or the winter of . details, such as lace, jewels, head-dresses, fans, snuff-boxes, work baskets and flowers must be absolutely of the period, or not at all. a few details, even one stunning jewel, if correct, will be far more convincing than any number of makeshifts, no matter how attractive in themselves. paintings, plates and history come to our rescue here. if you think it dry work, try it. the chances are all in favour of your emerging from your search spell-bound by the vistas opened up to you; the sudden meaning acquired by many inanimate things, and a new pleasure added to all observations. that spanish comb of great-great-grandmother's is really a treasure now. the antique spanish plaque you own, found to be moorish lustre, and out of the attic it comes! a spanish miracle cross proves the spiritual superstition of the race, so back to the junk-shop you go, hoping to acquire the one that was proffered. yes, carmen should wear a long skirt when she dances, spanish pictures show them; and so on. the collecting of materials and all accessories to a costume, puts one in touch, not only with the dress, but the life of the period, and the customs of the times. once steeped in the tradition of spanish art and artists, how quick the connoisseur is to recognize spanish influence on the art of holland, france and england. lead your expert in costumes of nations into talking of history and we promise you pictures of dynasties and lands that few historical writers can match. this man or woman has extracted from the things people wore the story of where they wore them, and when, and how; for the lover of colour we commend this method of studying history. if any one of our readers is casting about for a hobby and craves one with inexhaustible possibilities, we would advise: try collecting data on periods in dress, as shown in the art treasures of the world, for of this there is verily no end. we warn the novice in advance that each detail of woman's dress has for one in pursuit of such data the allure of the siren. there is the pictured story of head-dresses and hats, and how the hair is worn, from cleopatra's time till ours; the evolution of a woman's sleeve, its ups and downs and ins and outs as shown in art; the separation of the waist from skirt, and ever changing line of both; the neck of woman's gown so variously cut and trimmed and how the necklace changed likewise to accord; the passing of the sandals of the greeks into the poetic glove-fitting slippers of to-day. one sets out gaily to study costumes, full of the courage of ignorance, the joyous optimism of an enthusiast, because it is amusing and looks so simple with all the material,--old and new, lying about one. ah, that is the pitfall--the very abundance of those plates in wondrous books, old coloured prints and portraits of the past. to some students this kaleidoscopic vision of period costumes never falls into definite lines and colour; or if the types are clear, what they come from or merge into remains obscure. for the eager beginner we have tried to evolve out of the whole mass of data a system of origin and development as definite as the anatomy of the human body, a framework on which to build. if our historical outline be clear enough to impress the mental vision as indelibly as those primary maps of the earth did, then we feel persuaded, the textless books of wonderful and beguiling costume plates will serve their end as never before. we humbly offer what we hope may prove a key to the rich storehouse. simplicity, and pure line, were lost sight of when overabundance dulled the senses of the world. we could prove this, for art shows that the costuming of woman developed slowly, preserving, as did furniture, the same classic lines and general characteristics until the fifteenth century, the end of the middle ages. with the opening up of trade channels and the possibilities of easy and quick communication between countries we find, as we did in the case of furniture, periods of fashion developing without nationality. nations declared themselves in the artistry of workmanship, as to-day, and in the modification and exaggeration of an essential detail, resulting from national or individual temperament. if you ask, "where do fashions come from,--why 'periods'?" we would answer that in the last analysis one would probably find in the conception of every fashion some artist's brain. if the period is a good one, then it proves that fate allowed the artist to be true to his muse. if the fashion is a bad one the artist may have had to adapt his lines and colour or detail to hide a royal deformity, or to cater to the whim of some wilful beauty ignorant of our art, but rich and in the public eye. a fashion if started is a demon or a god let loose. as we have said, there is an interesting point to be observed in looking at woman as decoration; whether the medium be fresco, bas relief, sculpture, mosaic, stained glass or painting, the decorative line, shown in costumes, presents the same recurrent types that we found when studying the history of furniture. for our present purposes it is expedient to confine ourselves to the observation of that expression of civilisation which had root, so far as we know, in assyria and egypt, and spread like a branching vine through byzantium, greece, rome, gothic europe and europe of the renaissance, on through the seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, down to the present time. costumes for woman and man are supposed to have had their origin in a cord tied about the waist, from which was suspended crude implements (used for the slaying of beasts for food, and in self-defence); trophies of war, such as teeth, scalps, etc. the trophies suspended, partly concealed the body and were for decoration, as was tattooing of the skin. clothes were not the result of modesty; modesty followed the partial covering of the human body. modesty, or shame, was the emotion which developed when man, accustomed to decoration--trophies or tattooing--was deprived of all or part of such covering. what parts of the body require concealment, is purely a matter of the customs prevailing with a race or tribe, at a certain time, and under certain conditions. this is a theme, the detailed development of which lies outside the purpose of our book. it has delightful possibilities, however, if the plentiful data on the subject, given in scientific books, were to be condensed and simplified. plate xviii mrs. langtry (lady de bathe) who has been one of the greatest beauties of modern times and a marked example of a woman who has always understood her own type, to costume it. she agrees that this photograph of her, in an evening wrap, illustrates a point she has always laid emphasis on: that a garment which has good lines--in which one is a picture--continues wearable even when not the dernier cri of fashion. this wrap was worn by mrs. langtry about two years ago. [illustration: _mrs. langtry (lady de bathe) in evening wrap_] chapter xv i. the story of period costumes _a résumé_ "our present modes of dress (aside from the variations imposed by fashion) are the resultant of all the fashions of the last years." w. g. sumner in _folkways_. the earliest egyptian frescoes, invaluable pre-historic data, show us woman as she was costumed, housed and occupied when the painting was done. on those age-old walls she appears as man's companion, his teacher, plaything, slave, and ruler;--in whatever rôle the fates decreed. the same frescoed walls have pictured records of how egypt tilled the soil, built houses, worked in metals, pottery and sculpture. woman is seen beside her man, who slays the beasts, at times from boats propelled through reeded jungles; and hers is always that rigid outline, those long, quiet eyes depicted in profile, with massive head-dress, and strange upstanding ornaments, abnormally curled wig, and close, straight garments to the feet (or none at all), heavy collar, wristbands and anklets of precious metals with gems inset, or chased in strange designs. about her, the calm mysterious poise and childlike acquiescence of those who know themselves to be the puppets of the gods. in this naïveté lies one of the great charms of egyptian art. as sculptured caryatide, we see woman of egypt clad in transparent sheath-like skirt, nude above the waist, with the usual extinguishing head-dress and heavy collar, bracelets and anklets. we see her as woman, mute, law-abiding, supporting the edifice; woman with steady gaze and silent lips; one wonders what was in the mind of that lotus eater of the nile who carved his dream in stone. those would reproduce egyptian colour schemes for costumes, house or stage settings, would do well to consult the book of egyptian designs, brought out in by the ecole des beaux arts, paris, and available in the large libraries. on the walls of the necropolis of memphis, thi and his wife (fifth dynasty) appear in a delightful hunting scene. the man in the prow of his boat is about to spear an enormous beast, while his wife, seated in the bottom, wraps her arm about his leg! among the earliest portraits of an egyptian woman completely clothed, is that of queen taia, wife of amenophis, eighteenth dynasty, who wears a striped gown with sleeves of the kimono type and a ribbon tied around her waist, the usual ornamental collar and bracelets of gold, and an elaborate head-dress with deep blue curtain, extending to the waist, behind. full of illuminating suggestions is an example of woman in egyptian decoration, to be seen as a fresco in the necropolis of thebes. it shows the governess of a young prince (eighteenth dynasty) holding the child on her lap. the feet of the little prince rest on a stool, supported by nine crouching human beings--men; each has a collar about his neck, to which a leash is attached, and all nine leashes are held in the hands of the child! the illustrations of the egyptian funeral papyrus, the book of the dead, show woman in the rôle of wife and companion. it is the story of a high-born egyptian woman, tutu, wife of ani, royal scribe and scribe of the sacred revenue of all the gods of thebes. tutu, the long-eyed egyptian woman, young and straight, with raven hair and active form, a kemäit of amon, which means she belonged to the religious chapter or congregation of the great god of thebes. she was what might be described as lady-in-waiting or honorary priestess, to the god amon. she, too, wears the typical egyptian head-dress and straight, long white gown, hanging in close folds to her feet. one vignette shows tutu with arm about her husband's leg. this seems to have been a naïve egyptian way of expressing that eternal womanliness, that tender care for those beloved, that quality inseparable from woman if worthy the name, and by reason of which with man, her mate, she has run the gamut of human experience, meeting the demands of her time. there is no dodging the issue, woman's story recorded in art, shows that she has always responded to fate's call; followed, led, ruled, been ruled, amused, instructed, sent her men into battle as spartan mothers did to return with honour or on their shields, and when fate so decreed, led them to battle, like joan of arc. ii. egypt and assyria in egypt and assyria the lines of the torso were kept straight, with no contracting of body at waist line. woman was clad in a straight sheet-like garment, extending from waist to feet with only metal ornaments above; necklace, bracelets and armlets; or a straight dress from neck to meet the heavy anklets. sandals were worn on the feet. the head was encased in an abnormally curled wig, with pendent ringlets, and the whole clasped by a massive head-dress, following the contour of head and having as part of it, a curtain or veil, reaching down behind, across shoulders and approaching waist line. the sphinx wears a characteristic egyptian head-dress. plate xix mrs. condé nast, artist and patron of the arts, noted for her understanding of her own type and the successful costuming of it. mrs. nast was miss clarisse coudert. her french blood accounts, in part, for her innate feeling for line and colour. it is largely due to the keen interest and active services of mrs. nast that _vogue_ and _vanity fair_ have become the popular mirrors and prophetic crystal balls of fashion for the american woman. mrs. nast is here shown in street costume. the photograph is by baron de meyer, who has made a distinguished art of photography. we are here shown the value of a carefully considered outline which is sharply registered on the background by posing figure against the light, a method for suppressing all details not effecting the outline. [illustration: _photograph by baron de meyer_ _mrs. condé nast in street dress_] iii. egypt, byzantium, greece and rome during the periods antedating christ, when the roman empire was all-powerful, the women of egypt, byzantium, greece and rome, wore gilded wigs (see plate i, frontispiece), arranged in psyche knots, and banded; sandals on their feet, and a one-piece garment, confined at the waist by a girdle, which fell in close folds to the feet, a style to develop later into the classic greek. the greek garment consisted of a great square of white linen, draped in the deft manner of the east, to adapt it to the human form, at once concealing and disclosing the body to a degree of perfection never since attained. there were undraped greek garments left to hang in close, clinging folds, even in the classic period. it is this undraped and finely-pleated robe (see plate xxi) hanging close to the figure, and the two-piece garment (see plate iv) with its short tunic of the same material, extending just below the waist line in front, and drooping in a cascade of ripples at the sides, as low as the knees, that fortuny (paris) has reproduced in his tea gowns. an englishwoman told us recently that her great-great-grandmother used to describe how she and others of her time (empire period) wet their clothes to make them cling to their forms, à la grecque! the classic greek costume was often a sleeveless garment, falling in folds, and when confined at waist line with cord the upper part bloused over it; the material was draped so as to leave the arms free, the folds being held in place by ornamental clasps upon the shoulders. the fitting was practically unaided by cutting; squares or straight lengths of linen being adjusted to the human form by clever manipulation. the adjusting of these folds, as we have said, developed into an art. the use of large squares or shawls of brilliantly dyed linen, wool and later silk, is conspicuous in all the examples showing woman as decoration. the long gothic cape succeeds it, that enveloping circular garment, with and without the hood, and clasped at the throat, in which the mother of god is invariably depicted. her cape is the celestial royal blue. the stained silk gauzes, popular with greek dancers, were made into garments following the same classic lines, and so were the gymnasium costumes of the young girls of greece. isadora duncan reproduces the latter in many of her dances. in the chapter entitled "the story of textiles" in _the art of interior decoration_, we have given a résumé of this branch of our subject. the type of costume worn by woman throughout the entire roman empire during its most glorious period, was classic greek, not only in general outline, but in detail. note that the collarless neck was cut round and a trifle low; the lines of gown were long and followed each other; the trimming followed the hem of neck and sleeves and skirt; the hair, while artificially curled and sometimes intertwined with pearls and other gems, after being gilded, was so arranged as to show the contour of the head, then gathered into a psyche knot. gold bands, plain or jewelled, clasped and held the hair in place. in the gold room of the metropolitan museum; in noted collections in europe; in portraits and costume plates, one sees that the earrings worn at that period were great heavy discs, or half discs, of gold; large gold flowers, in the etruscan style; large rings with groups of pendants,--usually three on each ring, and the drop earrings so much in vogue to-day. necklaces were broad, like collars, round and made of hand-wrought links and beads, with pendants. these filled in the neck of the dress and were evidently regarded as a necessary part of the costume. the simple cord which confined the greek woman's draperies at the waist, in egypt and byzantium, became a sash; a broad strip of material which was passed across the front of body at the waist, crossed behind and then brought tight over the hips to tie in front, low down, the ends hanging square to knees or below. in egypt a shoulder cape, with kerchief effect in front, broadened behind to a square, and reached to the waist line. we would call attention to the fact that when the classic type of furniture and costume were revived by napoleon i and the empress josephine, it was the egyptian version, as well as the greek. one sees egyptian and etruscan styles in the straight, narrow garment of the first empire reaching to ankles, with parallel rows of trimming at the bottom of skirt. the empire style of parted hair, with cascade of curls each side, riotous curling locks outlining face, with one or two ringlets brought in front of ears, and the psyche knot (which later in victorian days lent itself to caricature, in a feather-duster effect at crown of head), were inspired by those curled and gilded creations such as thaïs wore. hats, as we use the term to-day, were worn by the ancients. some will remember the greek hat sibyl sanderson wore with her classic robes when she sang massenet's "phédre," in paris. it was chinese in type. one sees this type of hat on tanagra statuettes in our museums. apropos of hats, designers to-day are constantly resurrecting models found in museums, and some of us recognise the lines and details of ancient head-dresses in hats turned out by our most up-to-date milliners. parasols and umbrellas were also used by assyrians and greeks. sandals which only covered the soles of the feet were the usual footwear, but greeks and etruscans are shown in art as wearing also moccasin-like boots and shoes laced up the front. of course, the strapped slippers of the empire were a version of classic sandals. as we have said, the greek gown and toga are found wherever the roman empire reached. the women of what are now france and england clothed themselves at that time in the same manner as the cultured class of rome. naturally the germanic branch which broke from the parent stem, and drifted northward to strike root in unbroken forests, bordering on untried seas, wore skins and crudely woven garments, few and strongly made, but often picturesque. though but slightly reminiscent of the traditional costume, we know that the women of the third and fourth centuries wore a short, one-piece garment, with large earrings, heavy metal armlets above the elbow and at wrists. the chain about the waist, from which hung a knife, for protection and domestic purposes, is descendent from the savage's cord and ancestor to that lovely bauble, the chatelaine of later days, with its attached fan, snuff-box and jewelled watch. plate xx mrs. condé nast in an evening gown. here again is a costume the beauty of which evades the dictum of fashion in the narrow sense of the term. this picture has the distinction of a well-posed and finely executed old master and because possessing beauty of a traditional sort will continue to give pleasure long after the costume has perished. [illustration: _mrs. condé nast in evening dress_] chapter xvi development of gothic costume to the romans, all who were not of rome and her empire, were foreigners,--outsiders, people with a strange viewpoint, so they were given a name to indicate this; they were called "barbarians." conspicuous among those tribes of barbarians, moved by human lust for gain to descend upon the roman empire and eventually bring about its fall, was the tribe of goths, and in the course of centuries "gothic" has become a generic term, implying that which is not roman. we speak of gothic architecture, gothic art, gothic costumes, when we mean, strictly speaking, the characteristic architecture, art and costuming of the late middle ages (twelfth to fifteenth centuries). but we find the so-called gothic outline in costume as early as the fourth century. over the undraped, one-piece robe of classic type, a second garment is now worn, cut with straight lines. it usually fastens behind, and the uncorseted figure is outlined. the neck is still collarless and cut round, the space filled in with a necklace. the sleeves of the tunic appear to be the logical evolution of the folds of the toga, which fall over the arms when bent. they cling to the outline of the shoulder, broadening at the hand into what is called "angel" sleeves; in art, the traditional angel wears them. roman-christian women wore their hair parted, no psyche knot, and interesting, large earrings. the gowns were not draped, but were in one piece and with no fulness. a tunic, following lines of the form, reached below the knees and was _belted_. this garment was trimmed with bands from shoulders to hem of tunic and kept the same width throughout, if narrow; but if wide, the bands broadened to the hem. the neck continued to be cut round, and filled in with a necklace. the cape, fastening on shoulders or chest, remnant of the greek toga, was worn, and veils of various materials were the usual head coverings. between the fifth and tenth centuries there are examples of the overgarment or tunic having a broad stomacher of some contrasting material, held in place with a cord, which is tied behind, brought around to the front, knotted and allowed to hang to bottom of skirt. byzantine art between and a. d. still shows women wearing tunics, but hanging straight from neck to hem of skirt, fastened on shoulders and opened at sides to show gown beneath; close sleeves with trimming at the wrists, often large, roughly cut jewels forming a border on tunic, and the hair worn in long braids on each side of the face; the coil of hair, which was wrapped with pearls or other beads, was parted and used to frame the face. this fashion was carried to excess by the franks. we see some of their women between and a. d. wearing these heavy, rope-like braids to the hem of the skirt in front. in the fourteenth century the gothic costume was perhaps at its most beautiful stage. the long robe, the upper part following the lines of the figure, with long close sleeves half covering hands, or flowing sleeves, that touched the floor. about the waist was worn a silk cord or jewelled girdle, finely wrought and swung low on hips; from the end of which was suspended the money bag, fan and keys. the girdle begins now to play an important part as decoration. this theme, the evolution of the girdle, may be indefinitely enlarged upon but we must not dwell upon it here. in some cases we see that the tunic opened in the front and that the large, square, shawl-like outer garment of greece now became the long circular cape, clasped on the chest (one or two clasps), made so familiar by the art of the gothic and renaissance periods. turn to the illuminated manuscripts of those periods, to paintings, on wood, frescoes, stained glass, stucco, carved wood, and stone, and you will find the mother of god invariably costumed in the simple one-piece robe and circular clasped cape. in most of the sacred art of the tenth, eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the virgin and other saints are depicted in the current costume of woman. the virgin was the most frequent subject of artists in every medium, during the ages when the church dominated the state in europe. the refurnishing of the virgin's wardrobe has long been and still is, a pious task and one clamoured for by adherents to the churches in which the virgin's image is displayed to worshippers. we regret to say, for æsthetic reasons, that there is no effort made on the part of modern devotees to perpetuate the beautiful mediæval type of costume. in some old paintings which come under the head of folk art, the holy family appears in national costume. the writer recalls a bit of eighteenth century painting, showing st. anne holding the virgin as child. st. anne wears the bizarre fête attire of a spanish peasant; a gigantic head-dress and veil, large earrings, wide stiff skirts, showing gay flowers on a background of gold. the skirt is rather short, to display wide trousers below it. her sleeves have filmy frills of deep white lace executed with skill. plate xxi mrs. condé nast in a garden costume. she wears a sun-hat and carries a flower-basket, which are decorative as well as useful. we have chosen this photograph as an example of a costume made exquisitely artistic by being kept simple in line and free from an excess of trimming. this costume is so decorative that it gives distinction and interest to the least pretentious of gardens. [illustration: _mrs. condé nast in garden costume_] to return to the girdle, as we have said, it slipped from its position at the waist line, where it confined the classic folds, and was allowed to hang loosely about the hips, clasped low in front. from this clasp a chain extended, to which were attached the housewife's keys or purse and the dame of fashion's fan. in fact one can tell, to a certain extent, the woman's class and period by carefully inspecting her chatelaine. the absence of waist line, and the long, straight effect produced in the body of gown by wearing the girdle swung about the hips, gives it the so-called moyen age silhouette, revived by the fashion of to-day. in the thirteenth century the round collarless neck, low enough to admit a necklace of links or beads, persists. a new note is the outer sleeve laced across an inner sleeve of white. let us remember that the costume of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries was distinguished by a quality of beautiful, sweeping line, massed colour, detail with _raison d'être_, which produced dignity with graceful movement, found nowhere to-day, unless it be on the wagnerian stage or in the boudoir of a woman who still takes time, in our age of hurry, to wear her negligée beautifully. in the fourteenth century the round neck continued, but one sees low necks too, which left the shoulders exposed (our style). another new note is the tunic grown into a garment reaching to the feet, a one-piece "princess" gown, with belt or girdle. sometimes a juliet cap was worn to merely cover the crown of head, with hair parted and flowing, while on matrons we see head coverings with sides turned up, like ecclesiastical caps, and floating veils falling to the waist. notice that through all the periods that we have named, which means until the fourteenth century, the line of shoulder remains normal and beautiful, sloping and melting into folds of robe or line of sleeve. we see now for the first time an inclination to tamper with the shoulder line. an inoffensive scallop appears,--or some other decoration, as cap to sleeve. no harm done yet! the fifteenth century shows another style, a long sleeveless overgarment, reaching to the floor, fastened on shoulders and swinging loose, to show at sides the undergown. it suggests a priest's robe. here we discover one more of the moyen age styles revived to-day. the fourteenth century gowns, with necks cut out round, to admit a necklace with pendants, are still popular. the gowns are long on the ground, and the most beautiful of the characteristic head-dresses--the long, pointed one, with veil covering it, and floating down from point of cap to hem of flowing skirt behind, continues the movement of costume--the long lines which follow one another. when correctly posed, this pointed head-dress is a delight to the eye. we recently saw a photograph of some fair young women in this type of mediæval or gothic costume worn by them at a costume ball. failing to realise that the _pose_ of any head-dress (this means hats as well) is all-important, they had placed the quaint, long, pointed caps on the very tops of their heads, like fools' caps! the angle at which this head-dress is worn is half the battle. the importance of every woman's cultivating an eye for line cannot be overstated. in the fifteenth century we first see puffs at the elbow, otherwise the outlines of gown are the same. the garment in one piece, the body of it outlining the form, its skirts sweeping the ground; a girdle about the hips, and long, close or flowing sleeves, wide at the hem. despite the fourteenth century innovation of necks cut low and off the shoulders (berated by the church), most necks in the fifteenth century are still cut round at the throat, and the necklace worn instead of collar. some of the gowns cut low off the shoulders are filled in with a puffed tucker of muslin. the pointed cap with a floating veil is still seen. notice that the restraint in line, colour and detail, gradually disappears, with the abnormal circulation of wealth, in those departments of church and state to which the current of material things was diverted. we now see humanity tricked out in rich attire and staggering to its doom through general debaucheries. rich brocades, once from damascus, are now made in venice; and so are wonderful satins, velvets and silks, with jewels many and massive. sometimes a broad jewelled band crossed the breast from shoulder diagonally to under arm, at waist. the development of the petticoat begins now. at first we get only a glimpse of it, when our lady of the pointed cap lifts her long skirts, lined with another shade. it is of a rich contrasting colour and is gradually elaborated. the waist-line, when indicated, is high. a new note is the hair, with throat and neck completely concealed by a white veil, a style we associate with nuns and certain folk costumes. as fashion it had a passing vogue. originally, the habit of covering woman's hair indicated modesty (an idea held among the folk), and the gradual shrinking of the dimensions of her coif, records the progress of the peasant woman's emancipation, in certain countries. this is especially conspicuous in brittany, as m. anatol le braz, the eminent breton scholar, remarked recently to the writer. note the silk bag, quite modern, on the arm; also the jewelled line of chain hanging from girdle down the middle of front, to hem of skirt,--both for use and ornament. to us of a practical era, a mysterious charm attaches to the long-pointed shoes worn at this period. in the fifteenth century, the marked division of costume into waist and skirt begins, the waist line more and more pinched in, the skirt more and more full, the sleeves and neck more elaborately trimmed, the head-dresses multiplied in size, elaborateness and variety. textiles developed with wealth and ostentation. in the sixteenth century the neck was usually cut out and worn low on the shoulders, sometimes filled in, but we see also high necks; necks with small ruffs and necks with large ruffs; ruffs turned down, forming stiff linen-cape collars, trimmed with lace, close to the throat or flaring from neck to show the throat. the hair is parted and worn low in a snood, or by young women, flowing. the ears are covered with the hair. plate xxii mrs. condé nast wearing one of the famous fortuny tea gowns. this one has no tunic but is finely pleated, in the fortuny manner, and falls in long lines, closely following the figure, to the floor. observe the decorative value of the long string of beads. [illustration: _mrs. condé nast in a fortuny tea gown_] _the virgin in art_ when writing of the gothic period in _the art of interior decoration_, we have said "... gothic art proceeds from the christian church and stretches like a canopy over western europe during the late middle ages. it was in the churches and monasteries that christian art, driven from pillar to post by wars, was obliged to take refuge, and there produced that marvellous development known as the gothic style, of the church, for the church and by the church, perfected in countless gothic cathedrals, crystallised glorias, lifting their manifold spires to heaven; ethereal monuments of an intrepid faith which gave material form to its adoration, its fasting and prayer, in an unrivalled art...." "crystallised glorias" (hymns to the virgin) is as concise a defining of the nature and spirit of this highest type of mediæval art--perfected in france--as we can find. here we have deified woman inspiring an art miraculously decorative. chartres cathedral and rheims (before the german invasion in ) with mont saint michel, are distinguished examples. if the readers would put to the test our claim that woman as decoration is a beguiling theme worthy of days passed in the broad highways of art, and many an hour in cross-roads and unbeaten paths, we would recommend to them the fascinations of a marvellous story-teller, one who, knowing all there is to know of his subject, has had the genius to weave the innumerable and perplexing threads into a tapestry of words, where the main ideas take their places in the foreground, standing out clearly defined against the deftly woven, intelligible but unobtruding background. the author is henry adams, the book, _the cathedrals of mont st. michel and chartres_. he tells you in striking language, how woman was translated into pure decoration in the middle ages, woman as the virgin mother of god, the manifestation of deity which took precedence over all others during the twelfth, thirteenth and fourteenth centuries; and if you will follow him to the chartres cathedral (particularly if you have been there already), and will stand facing the great east window, where in stained glass of the ancient jewelled sort, woman, as mother of god, is enthroned above all, he will tell you how, out of the chaos of warring religious orders, the priestly schools of abelard, st. francis of assisi and others, there emerged the form of the virgin. to woman, as mother of god and man, the instrument of reproduction, of tender care, of motherhood, the disputatious, groping mind of man agreed to bow, silenced and awed by the mystery of her calling. in view of the recent enrolling of womanhood in the stupendous business of the war now waging in europe, and the demands upon her to help in arming her men or nursing back to life the shattered remains of fair youth, which so bravely went forth, the thought comes that woman will play a large part in the art to arise from the ashes of to-day. woman as woman ready to supplement man, pouring into life's caldron the best of herself, unstinted, unmeasured; woman capable of serving beyond her strength, rising to her greatest height, bending, but not breaking to the end, if only assured she is _needed_. chapter xvii the renaissance _sixteenth and seventeenth centuries_ the marked departure is necks cut square, if low, and elaborate jewelled chains draped from shoulders, outlining neck of gown and describing a festoon on front of waist, which is soon to become independent of skirt to develop on its own account. as in the fifteenth century, when necks were cut low off the shoulders, they were on occasions filled in with tuckers. the skirt now registers a new characteristic; it parts at the waist line over a petticoat, and the opening is decorated by the ornamental, heavy chain which hangs from girdle to hem of gown. one sees the hair still worn coiled low in the neck, concealing the ears and held in a snood or in italy cut "florentine" fashion with fringe on brow. observe how the wealth of the roman empire, through its new trade channels opening up with the east (the result of the crusades) led to the importation of rich and many-coloured oriental stuffs; the same wealth ultimately established looms in italy for making silks and velvets, to decorate man and his home. there was no longer simplicity in line and colour scheme; gorgeous apparel fills the frames of the renaissance and makes amusing reading for those who consult old documents. the clothes of man, like his over-ornate furniture, show a debauched and vulgar taste. instead of the lines which follow one another, solid colours, and trimmings kept to hem of neck and sleeve and skirt, great designs, in satins and velvet brocades, distort the lines and proportions of man and woman. the good gothic lines lived on in the costumes of priests and nuns. jewelry ceased to be decoration with meaning; lace and fringe, tassels and embroidery, with colour combinations to rival the african parrots, disfigured man and woman alike. during november of , new york was so fortunate as to see, at the american art galleries, the great collection of late gothic and early renaissance furniture and other art treasures, brought together in the restored davanzati palace of florence, italy. the collection was sold at auction, and is now scattered. of course those who saw it in its natural setting in florence, were most fortunate of all. but with some knowledge and imagination, at the sight of those wonderful things,--hand-made all of them,--the most casual among those who crowded the galleries for days, must have gleaned a vivid impression of how woman of the early renaissance lived,--in her kitchen, dining-room, bedroom and reception-rooms. they displayed her cooking utensils, her chairs and tables, her silver, glass and earthenware, her bed, linen, satin damask, lace and drawn work; the cushions she rested against; portraits in their gorgeous florentine frames, showing us how those early italians dressed; the colored terra-cottas, unspeakably beautiful presentments of the virgin and child, moulded and painted by great artists under that same exaltation of faith which brought into being the sister arts of the time, imbuing them with something truly divine. there is no disputing that quality which radiates from the face of both the mother and the child. one all but kneels before it. their expression is not of this world. plate xxiii mrs. vernon castle who set to-day's fashion in outline of costume and short hair for the young woman of america. for this reason and because mrs. castle has form to a superlative degree (correct carriage of the body) and the clothes sense (knowledge of what she can wear and how to wear it) we have selected her to illustrate several types of costumes, characteristic of and . another reason for asking mrs. castle to illustrate our text is, that what mrs. castle's professional dancing has done to develop and perfect her natural instinct for line, the normal exercise of going about one's tasks and diversions can do for any young woman, provided she keep in mind correct carriage of body when in action or repose. here we see mrs. castle in ball costume. [illustration: _mrs. vernon castle in ball costume_] that is woman as the mother of god in art woman as the mother of man, who looked on these inspired works of art, lived for the most part in small houses built of wood with thatched roofs, unpaved streets, dirty interiors, which were cleaned but once a week--on saturdays! the men of the aristocracy hunted and engaged in commerce, and the general rank and file gave themselves over to the gaining of money to increase their power. it sounds not unlike new york to-day. gradually the cities grew large and rich. people changed from simple sober living to elaborate and less temperate ways, and the great families, with their proportionately increased wealth gained through trade, built beautiful palaces and built them well. the gorgeous colouring of the frescoed walls shows byzantine influence. in _the art of interior decoration_ we have described at length the house furnishing of that time. against this background moved woman, man's mate; note her colour scheme and then her rôle. (we quote from jahn rusconi in _les arts_, paris, august, .) "donna francesca dei albizzi's cloak of black cloth ornamented on a yellow background with birds, parrots, butterflies, pink and red roses, and a few other red and green figures; dragons, letters and trees in yellow and black, and again other figures made of white cloth with red and black stripes." extravagance ran high not only in dress, but in everything, laws were made to regulate the amount spent on all forms of entertainment, even on funerals, and the cook who was to prepare a wedding feast had to submit his menu for approval to the city authorities. more than this, only two hundred guests could be asked to a wedding, and the number of presents which the bride was allowed to receive was limited by law. but wealth and fashion ran away with laws; the same old story. as the tide of the renaissance rose and swept over europe (the awakening began in italy), the woman of the gorgeous cloak and her contemporaries, according to the vivid description of the last quoted author, were "subject to their husbands' tyranny, not even knowing how to read in many cases, occupied with their household duties, in which they were assisted by rough and uncouth slaves, with no other mission in life than to give birth to a numerous posterity.... this life ruined them, and their beauty quickly faded away; no wonder, then, that they summoned art to the aid of nature. the custom was so common and the art so perfect that even a painter like taddeo gaddi acknowledged that the florentine women were the best painters in the world!... considering the mental status of the women, it is easy to imagine to what excesses they were given in the matter of dress." the above assertions relate to the average woman, not the great exceptions. the marriage coffers of woman of the renaissance in themselves give an idea of her luxurious tastes. they were about six feet long, three feet high, and two and a half feet deep. some had domed covers opening on hinges--the whole was carved, gilded and painted, the background of reds and blues throwing the gold into relief. scenes taken from mythology were done in what was known as "pastille," composition work raised and painted on a gold background. on one fifteenth century marriage coffer, bacchus and ariadne were shown in their triumphal car drawn by winged griffins, a young bacchante driving them on. another coffer decorated in the same manner had as decoration "the rape of proserpine." women rocked their infants in sumptuous carved and emblazoned walnut cradles, and crimson satin damask covered their beds and cushions. this blaze of gold and silver, crimson and blue we find as the wake of byzantine trade, via constantinople, venice, rome, florence on to france, spain, germany, holland, flanders and england. carved wood, crimson, green and blue velvets, satin damask, tapestries, gold and silver fringe and lace. against all this moved woman, costumed sumptuously. gradually the line of woman's (and man's) neck is lost in a ruff, her sweeping locks, instead of parted on her brow, entwined with pearls or other gems to frame her face and make long lines down the length of her robe, are huddled under grotesque head-dresses, monstrous creations, rising and spreading until they become caricatures, defying art. in some sixteenth century italian portraits we see the ruff flaring from a neck cut out square and low in front, then rising behind to form a head covering. the last half of the sixteenth century is marked by gowns cut high in the neck with a close collar, and the appearance of a small ruff encircling the throat. this ruff almost at once increased to absurd dimensions. the tightly laced long-pointed bodice now appears, with and without padded hips. (the superlative degree of this type is to be seen in portraits by velasquez (see plate ix).) long pointed toes to the shoes give way to broad, square ones. another sixteenth century departure is the absurdly small hat, placed as if by the wind, at a careless angle on the hair, which is curled and piled high. also we see hats of normal size with many plumes, on both men and women. notice the sleeves: some are still flowing, with tight undersleeves, others slashed to show full white sleeve beneath. but most important of all is that the general license, moral and artistic, lays its ruthless hand on woman's beautiful, sweeping shoulder line and distorts it. anne of cleves, or the progressive artist who painted her, shows in a portrait the queen's flowing sleeves with mediæval lines, clasped by a broad band between elbow and shoulder, and then _pushed up_ until the sleeve forms an ugly puff. a monstrous fashion, this, and one soon to appear in a thousand mad forms. its first vicious departure is that small puffy, senselessly insinuated line between arm-hole and top of sleeve in garments for men as well as women. skirts button from point of basque to feet just before we see them, in the seventeenth century, parting down the front and separating to show a petticoat. in queen elizabeth's time the acme of this style was reached by spanish women as we see in velasquez's portraits. gradually the overskirt is looped back, (at first only a few inches), and tied with narrow ribbons. plate xxiv mrs. vernon castle in winter afternoon costume, one which is so suited to her type and at the same time conservative as to outline and detail, that it would have charm whether in style or not. [illustration: _victor georg--chicago_ _mrs. vernon castle in afternoon costume--winter_] the second quarter of the seventeenth century shows the waist line drawn in and bodice with skirts a few inches in depth. these skirts are the hall-mark of a basque. very short, full coats flaring from under arms now appear. after the skirt has been pushed back and held with ribbons, we find gradually all fulness of upper skirt pushed to hips to form paniers, and across the back to form a bustle effect, until we have the marie antoinette type, late eighteenth century. far more graceful and _séduisant_ than the costume of queen elizabeth's time. the figures presented by marie antoinette and her court, powdered wigs and patches, paniers and enormous hats, surmounting the horsehair erections, heavy with powder and grease, lace, ribbon flowers and jewels, are quaint, delightful and diverting, but not to be compared with the greek or mediæval lines in woman's costume. extremely extended skirts gave way to an interlude of full skirts, but flowing lines in the eighteenth century english portraits. the directoire reaction towards simplicity was influenced by english fashion. empire formality under classic influence came next. then victorian hoops which were succeeded by the victorian bustles, pantalets, black velvet at throat and wrists, and lockets. chapter xviii eighteenth century the eighteenth century is unique by reason of scientific discoveries, mechanical inventions and chemical achievements, coupled with the gigantic political upheaval of the french revolution. it is unique, distinguished and enormously fruitful. for example, the modern frenzy for chintz, which has made our homes burst into bloom in endless variety, had its origin in the eighteenth century looms at jouy, near versailles, under the direction of oberkampf. before silks and velvets decorated man and his home. royal patronage co-operating with the influence of such great decorators as percier and fontaine gave the creating of beautiful stuffs to the silk factories of lyons. printed linens and painted wall papers appeared in france simultaneously, and for the same reason. the revolution set mass-taste (which is often stronger than individual inclination), toward unostentatious, inexpensive materials for house furnishing and wearing apparel. the revolution had driven out royalty and the high aristocracy who, with changed names lived in seclusion. society, therefore, to meet the mass-desire, was driven to simple ways of living. men gave up their silks and velvets and frills, lace and jewels for cloth, linen, and sombre neck-cloths. the women did the same; they wore muslin gowns and their own hair, and went to great length in the affectation of simplicity and patriotic fervour. we hear that, apropos of america having at this moment entered the great struggle with the central powers, simplicity is decreed as smart for the coming season, and that those who costume themselves extravagantly, furnish their homes ostentatiously or allow their tables to be lavish, will be frowned upon as bad form and unpatriotic. these reactions are inevitable, and come about with the regularity of _tides_ in this world of perpetual repetition. the belles of the directorate shook their heads and bobbed their pretty locks at the artificiality marie antoinette et cie had practised. i fear they called it sinful art to deftly place a patch upon the face, or make a head-dress in the image of a man-of-war. mme. de staël's familiar head-dress, twisted and wrapped around her head à la turque, is said to have had its origin in the improvisation of the court hairdresser. desperately groping for another version of the top-heavy erection, to humour the lovely queen, he seized upon a piece of fine lace and muslin hanging on a chair at hand, and twisting it, wrapped the thing about the towering wig. as it happened, the chiffon was my lady's chemise! we begin the eighteenth century with a full petticoat, trimmed with rows of ruffles or bands; an overskirt looped back into paniers to form the bustle effect; the natural hair powdered; and head-dress of lace, standing out stiffly in front and drooping in a curtain behind. it was not until the whim of marie antoinette decreed it so, that the enormous powdered wigs appeared. viennese temperament alone accounts for the moods of this lovely tragic queen, who played at making butter, in a cap and apron, over simple muslin frocks, but outdid her artificial age in love of artifice (not art) in dress. this gay and dainty puppet of relentless fate propelled by varying moods must needs lose her lovely head at last, as symbol of her time. plate xxv mrs. vernon castle in a summer afternoon costume appropriate for city or country and so adapted to the wearer's type that she is a picture, whether in action; seated on her own porch; having tea at the country club; or in the winter sun-parlour. [illustration: _mrs. vernon castle in afternoon costume--summer_] chapter xix woman in the victorian period the first seventy years of the nineteenth century seem to us of absolutely incredible in regard to dress. how our great-great-grandmothers ever got about on foot, in a carriage or stage-coach, moved in a crowd or even sat in any measure of serenity at home, is a mystery to us of an age when comfort, convenience, fitness and chic have at last come to terms. for a vivid picture of how our american society looked between and , read miss elizabeth mcclellan's _historic dress in america_, published in by george w. jacobs & co., of philadelphia. the book is fascinating and it not only amuses and informs, but increases one's self-respect, if a woman, for _modern_ woman dressed in accordance with her rôle. we can see extravagant wives point out with glee to tyrant mates how, in the span of years between and our maternal forebears made money fly, even in the quaker city. fancy paying in philadelphia at that time, $ for a lace scarf, $ for a shawl, $ for the average gown of silk, and $ for a french bonnet! miss mcclellan, quoting from _mrs. roger pryor's memoirs_, tells how she, mrs. pryor, as a young girl in washington, was awakened at midnight by a note from the daughter of her french milliner to say that a box of bonnets had arrived from paris. mamma had not yet unpacked them and if she would come at once, she might have her pick of the treasures, and mamma not know until too late to interfere. and this was only back in the 's, we should say. then think of the hoops, and wigs and absurdly furbished head-dresses; paper-soled shoes, some intended only to _sit_ in; bonnets enormous; laces of cobweb; shawls from india by camel and sailing craft; rouge, too, and hair grease, patches and powder; laced waists and cramped feet; low necks and short sleeves for children in school-rooms. man was then still decorative here and in western europe. to-day he is not decorative, unless in sports clothes or military uniform; woman's garments furnish all the colour. whistler circumvented this fact when painting theodore duret (metropolitan museum) in sombre black broadcloth,--modern evening attire, by flinging over the arm of duret, the delicate pink taffeta and chiffon cloak of a woman, and in m. duret's hand he places a closed fan of pomegranate red. chapter xx sex in costuming "european dress" is the term accepted to imply the costume of man and woman which is entirely cosmopolitan, decrying continuity of types (of costume) and thoroughly plastic in the hands of fashion. to-day, we say parrot-like, that certain materials, lines and colours are masculine or feminine. they are so merely by association. the modern costuming of man the world over, if he appear in european dress (we except court regalia), is confined to cloth, linen or cotton, in black, white and inconspicuous colours; a prescribed and simple type of neckwear, footwear, hat, stick, and hair cut. the progenitor of the garments of modern men was the lutheran-puritan-revolutionary garb, the hall-mark of democracy. it is true that when silk was first introduced into europe, from the orient, the greeks and early romans considered it too effeminate for man's use, but this had to do with the doctrine of austere denial for the good of the state. to wear the costume of indolence implied inactivity and induced it. as a matter of fact, some of the master spirits of greece did wear silks. in ancient egypt, assyria, media, persia and the far east, men and women wore the same materials, as in china and japan to-day. egyptian men and their contemporaries throughout byzantium, wore gowns, in outline identical with those of the women. among the turks, trousers were always considered as appropriate for women as for men, and both men and women wore over the trousers, a long garment not unlike those of the women in the gothic period. thaïs wore a gilded wig, but so did the men she knew, and they added gilded false beards. assyrian kings wore earrings, bracelets and wonderful clasps with chains, by which the folds of their draped garment,--cut like the woman's, might be caught up and held securely, leaving feet, arms and hands free for action. when the genius of the byzantine, greek and venetian manufacturers of silks and velvets, rich in texture and ablaze with colour, were offered for sale to the romans, whose passion for display had increased with their fortunes, and consequent lives of dissipation, we find there was no distinction made between the materials used by man and woman. it is no exaggeration to say that the renaissance spells brocade. great designs and small ones sprawled over the figures of man and woman alike. lace was as much his as hers to use for wide, elaborate collars and cuffs. embroidery belonged to both, and the men (like the women) of germany, france, italy and england wore many plumes on their big straw hats and metal helmets. the intercommunication between the orient and all of the countries of the western hemisphere, and the abundance and variety of human trappings bewildered and vitiated taste. unfortunately the change in line of costume has not moved parallel to the line in furniture. the revival of classic interior decoration in italy, spain, france, germany, england, etc., did not at once revive the classic lines in woman's clothes. plate xxvi mrs. vernon castle costumed à la guerre for a walk in the country. the cap is after one worn by her aviator husband. this is one of the costumes--there are many--being worn by women engaged in war work under the head of messengers, chauffeurs, etc. the shoes are most decidedly not for service, but they will be replaced when the time is at hand, for others of stout leather with heavy soles and flat heels. [illustration: _mrs. vernon castle costumed à la guerre for a walk_] chapter xxi line and colour of costumes in hungary the idea that man decorative, by reason of colour or line in costume, is of necessity either masquerading or effeminate, proceeds chiefly from the conventional nineteenth and twentieth century point of view in america and western europe. but even in those parts of the world we are accustomed to colour in the uniforms of army and navy, the crimson "hood" of the university doctor, and red sash of the french legion of honour. we accept colour as a dignified attribute of man's attire in the cases cited, and we do not forget that our early nineteenth century american masculine forebears wore bright blue or vivid green coats, silver and brass buttons and red or yellow waistcoats. the gentleman sportsman of the early nineteenth century hunted in bright blue tailed coats with brass buttons, scarlet waistcoat, tight breeches and top hat! we refer to the same class of man who to-day wears rough, natural coloured tweeds, leather coat and close cap that his prey may not see him. in a sense, colour is a sign of virility when used by man. we have the north american indian with his gay feathers, blankets and war paint, and the european peasant in his gala costume. in many cases colour is as much his as his woman's. some years ago, when collecting data concerning national characteristics as expressed in the art of the slavs, magyars and czechs, the writer studied these peoples in their native settings. we went first to hungary and were disappointed to find buda pest far too cosmopolitan to be of value for the study of national costume, music or drama. the dominating and most artistic element in hungary is the magyar, and we were there to study him. but even the gypsies who played the magyar music in our hotel orchestra, wore the black evening dress of western europe and patent leather shoes, and the music they played was from the most modern operettas. it was not until a world-famous hungarian violinist arrived to give concerts in buda pest that the national spirit of the gypsies was stirred to play the magyar airs in his honour. (gypsies take on the spirit of any adopted land). we then realised what they could make of the recockzy march and other folk music. the experience of that evening spurred us to penetrate into southern hungary, the heart of magyar land, armed with letters of introduction, from one of the ministers of education, to mayors of the peasant villages. it was impossible to get on without an interpreter, as usually even the mayors knew only the magyar language--not a word of german. that was the perfect region for getting at magyar character expressed in the colour and line of costume, manner of living, point of view, folk song and dance. it is all still vividly clear to our mind's eye. we saw the first magyar costumes in a village not far from buda pest. to make the few miles quickly, we had taken an electric trolley, vastly superior to anything in new york at the time of which we speak; and were let off in the centre of a group of small, low thatched cottages, white-washed, and having a broad band of one, two or three colours, extending from the ground to about three feet above it, and completely encircling the house. the favourite combination seemed to be blue and red, in parallel stripes. near one of these houses we saw a very old woman with a long lashed whip in her hand, guarding two or three dark, curly, long-legged hungarian pigs. she wore high boots, many short skirts, a shawl and a head-kerchief. presently two other figures caught our eye: a man in a long cape to the tops of his boots, made of sheepskin, the wool inside, the outside decorated with bright-coloured wools, outlining crude designs. the black fur collar was the skin of a small black lamb, legs and tail showing, as when stripped off the little animal. the man wore a cone-shaped hat of black lamb and his hair reached to his shoulders. he smoked a very long-stemmed pipe with a china bowl, as he strolled along. behind him a woman walked, bowed by the weight of an immense sack. she wore boots to the knees, many full short skirts, and a yellow and red silk head-kerchief. by her head-covering we knew her to be a married woman. they were a farmer and his wife! among the magyars the man is very decidedly the peacock; the woman is the pack-horse. on market days he lounges in the sunshine, wrapped in his long sheepskin cape, and smokes, while she plies the trade. in the farmers' homes of southern hungary where we passed some time, we, as americans, sat at table with the men of the house, while wife and daughter served. there was one large dish of food in the centre, into which every one dipped! the women of the peasant class never sit at table with their men; they serve them and eat afterwards, and they always address them in the second person as, "will your graciousness have a cup of coffee?" also they always walk behind the men. at country dances we have seen young girls in bright, very full skirts, with many ribbons braided into the hair, cluster shyly at a short distance from the dancing platform in the fair grounds, waiting to be beckoned or whistled to by one of the sturdy youths with skin-tight trousers, tucked into high boots, who by right of might, has stationed himself on the platform. when they have danced, generally a czardas, the girl goes back to the group of women, leaving the man on the platform in command of the situation! yet already in women were being admitted to the university of buda pest. there in hungary one could see woman run the whole gamut of her development, from man's slave to man's equal. plate xxvii mrs. vernon castle in one of her dancing costumes. she was snapped by the camera as she sprang into a pose of mere joyous abandon at the conclusion of a long series of more or less exacting poses. mrs. castle assures us that to repeat the effect produced here, in which camera, lucky chance and favourable wind combined, would be well-nigh impossible. [illustration: _mrs. vernon castle_ _a fantasy_] we found the national colour scheme to have the same violent contrasts which characterise the folk music and the folk poetry of the magyars. primitive man has no use for half-tones. it was the same with the russian peasants and with the poles. our first morning in krakau a great clattering of wheels and horses' hoofs on the cobbled court of our hotel, accompanied by the cracking of a whip and voices, drew us to our window. at first we thought a strolling circus had arrived, but no, that man with the red crown to his black fur cap, a peacock's feather fastened to it by a fantastic brooch, was just an ordinary farmer in sunday garb. in the neighbourhood of krakau the young men wear frock coats of white cloth, over bright red, short tight coats, and their light-coloured skin-tight trousers, worn inside knee boots, are embroidered in black down the fronts. one afternoon we were the guests of a polish painter, who had married a pretty peasant, his model. he was a gentleman by birth and breeding, had studied art in paris and spoke french, german and english. his wife, a child of the soil, knew only the dialect of her own province, but with the sensitive response of a pole, eagerly waited to have translated to her what the americans were saying of life among women in their country. she served us with tea and liquor, the red heels of her high boots clicking on the wooden floor as she moved about. as colour and as line, of a kind, that young polish woman was a feast to the eye; full scarlet skirt, standing out over many petticoats and reaching only to the tops of her knee boots, full white bodice, a sleeveless jacket to the waist line, made of brightly coloured cretonne, outlined with coloured beads; a bright yellow head-kerchief bound her soft brown hair; her eyes were brown, and her skin like a yellow peach. on her neck hung strings of coral and amber beads. there was indeed a decorative woman! as for her background, it was simple enough to throw into relief the brilliant vision that she was. not, however, a scheme of interior decoration to copy! the walls were whitewashed; a large stove of masonry was built into one corner, and four beds and a cradle stood on the other side of the room, over which hung in a row five virgins, the central one being the black virgin beloved by the poles. the legend is that the original was painted during the life of the virgin, on a panel of dark wood. here, too, was the marriage chest, decorated with a crude design in bright colours. the children, three or four of them, ran about in the national costume, miniatures of their mother, but barefoot. it was the same in hungary, when we were taken by the mayor of a magyar town to visit the characteristic farmhouse of a highly prosperous farmer, said to be worth two hundred thousand dollars. the table was laid in the end of a room having four beds in it. on inquiring later, we were told that they were not ordinarily used by the family, but were heaped with the reserve bedding. in other words, they were recognised by the natives as indicating a degree of affluence, and were a bit of ostentation, not the overcrowding of necessity. chapter xxii studying line and colour in russia from hungary we continued our quest of line and colour of folk costume into russia. strangely enough, russia throws off the imperial yoke of autocracy, declaring for democratic principles, at the very moment we undertake to put into words the vivid picturesqueness resulting largely from the causes of this astounding revolution. have you been in russia? have you seen with your own eyes any phase of the violent contrasts which at last have caused the worm to turn? our object being to study national characteristics as expressed in folk costume, folk song, folk dance, traditional customs and fêtes, we consulted students of these subjects, whom we chanced to meet in london, paris, vienna and buda pest, with the result that we turned our faces toward southern or "little" russia, as the part least affected by cosmopolitan influences. kiev was our headquarters, and it is well to say at once that we found what we sought,--ample opportunity to observe the genuine russian, the sturdy, dogged, plodding son of toil, who, more than any other european peasant seems a part of the soil, which in sullen persistency he tills. we knew already the russians of petrograd and moscow; one meets them in paris, london, vienna, at german and austrian cures and on the riviera. they are everywhere and always distinctive by reason of their slav temperament; a magnetic race quality which is asiatic in its essence. we recognise it, we are stirred by it, we are drawn to it in their literature, their music, their painting and in the russian people themselves. the quality is an integral part of russian nature; polishing merely increases its attraction as with a gem. one instance of this is the folk melody as treated by tschaikowsky compared with its simple form as sung or danced by the peasant. plate xxviii a skating costume worn by miss weld of boston, holder of the woman's figure skating championship. this photograph was taken in new york on march , , when amateurs contested for the cup and miss weld won--this time over the men. the costume of wine-coloured velvet trimmed with mole-skin, a small close toque to match, was one of the most appropriate and attractive models of - . [illustration: _courtesy of new york herald_ _modern skating costume winner of amateur championship of fancy skating_] some of the russian women of the fashionable world are very decorative. our first impression of this type was in paris, at the russian church on christmas (or was it some other holy day?) when to the amazement of the uninitiated the russian women of the aristocracy appeared at the morning service hatless and in full evening dress, wearing jewels as if for a function at some secular court. their masculine escorts appeared in full regalia, the light of the altar candles adding mystery to the glitter of gold lace and jewels. those occasions are picturesque in the extreme. the congregation stands, as in the jewish synagogues, and those of highest rank are nearest the altar, invariably ablaze with gold, silver and precious stones, while on occasions the priest wears cloth of gold. in paris this background and the whole scene was accepted as a part of the pageant of that city, but in kiev it was different. there we got the other side of the picture; the man and the woman who are really russia, the element that finds an outlet in the folk music, for its age-old rebellious submission. one hears the soul of the russian pulsating in the continued reiteration of the same theme; it is like the endless treadmill of a life without vistas. we were looking at the russia of maxim gorky, the russia that made tolstoy a reformer; that has now forced its czar to abdicate. we reached kiev just before the easter of the greek church, the season when the pilgrims, often as many as fifty thousand of them, tramp over the frozen roads from all parts of the empire to expiate their sins, kneeling at the shrine of one of their mummied, sainted bishops. the men and women alike, clad in grimy sheepskin coats, moved like cattle in straggling droves, over the roads which lead to kiev. from a distance one cannot tell man from woman, but as they come closer, one sees that the woman has a bright kerchief tied round her head, and red or blue peasant embroidery dribbles below her sheepskin coat. she is as stocky as a shetland pony and her face is weather-beaten, with high cheekbones and brown eyes. the man wears a black astrachan conical cap and his hair is long and bushy, from rubbing bear grease into it. he walks with a crooked staff, biblical in style, and carries his worldly goods in a small bundle flung over his shoulder. the woman carries her own small burden. as they shuffle past, a stench arises from the human herd. it comes from the sheepskin, which is worked in, slept in, and, what is more, often inherited from a parent who had also worn it as his winter hide. added to the smell of the sheepskin is that of an unwashed human, and the reek of stale food, for the poorest of the russian peasants have no chimneys to their houses. they cannot afford to let the costly heat escape. kiev, the holy city and capital of ancient russia, climbs from its ancestral beginnings, on the banks of the river dneiper, up the steep sides and over the summit of a commanding hilltop, crowned by an immense gold cross, illumined with electricity by night, to flash its message of hope to foot-sore pilgrims. the driver of our drosky drove us over the rough cobbles so rapidly, despite the hill, that we were almost overturned. it is the manner of russian drosky drivers. the cathedral, our goal, was snowy-white, with frescoes on the outer walls, onion-shaped domes of bronze turned green; or gold, or blue with stars of gold. we entered and found the body of the church well filled by peasants, women and men in sheepskin. one poor doe-eyed creature crouched to press his forehead twenty times at least on the stone floor of the church. eagerly, like a flock of sheep, they all pushed forward to where a richly-robed priest held a cross of gold for each to kiss, taking their proffered kopeks. the setting sun streamed through the ancient stained glass, dyeing their dirty sheepskin crimson, and purple, and green, until they looked like illuminations in old missals. to the eye and the mind of western europe it was all incomprehensible. yet those were the people of russia who are to-day her mass of armed defenders; the element that has been counted on from the first by russia and her allies stood penniless before an altar laid over with gold and silver and precious stones. just before we got to kiev, one of those men in sheepskins with uncut hair and dogged expression, who had a sense of values in human existence, broke into the church and stole jeweled chalices from the altar. they were traced to a pawnshop in a distant city and brought back. it was a common thing to see men halt in the street and stand uncovered, while a pitiful funeral cortege passed. a wooly, half-starved, often lame horse, was harnessed with rope to a simple four-wheeled farm wagon, a long-haired peasant at his head, women and children holding to the sides of the cart as they stumbled along in grief, and inside a rough wooden coffin covered with a black pall, on which was sewn the greek cross, in white. heartless, hopeless, weary and underfed, those peasants were taking their dead to be blessed for a price, by the priest in cloth of gold, without whose blessing there could be no burial. chapter xxiii mark twain's love of colour in all costuming the public thinks of mark twain as being the apostle of _white_ during the last years of his life, but those who knew him well recall his delightfully original way of expressing an intense love for _bright colours_. this brings to mind a week-end at mark twain's beautiful italian villa in reading, connecticut, when, one night during dinner, he held forth on the compelling fascination of colours and the american indian's superior judgment in wearing them. after a lengthy elaboration--not to say exaggeration--of his theme, he ended by declaring in uncompromising terms, that colour, and plenty of it, crimson and yellow and blue, wrapped around man, as well as woman, was an obligation shirked by humanity. it was all put as only mark twain could have put it, with that serious vein showing through broad humour. this quality combined with an unmatched originality, made every moment passed in his company a memory to treasure. it was not alone his theme, but how he dealt with it, that fascinated one. plate xxix one of the silhouettes. naturally, since woman to-day dresses for her occupation--work or play--the characteristic silhouettes are many. this one is reproduced to illustrate our point that outline can be affected by the smallest detail. the sketch is by elisabeth searcy. [illustration: _drawn from life by elisabeth searcy_ _a modern silhouette-- tailor-made_] mark twain was elemental and at the same time a great artist,--the embodiment of extreme contradictions, and his flair for gay colour was one proof of his elemental strain. we laughed that night as he made word pictures of how men and women should dress. next morning, toward noon, on looking out of a window, we saw standing in the middle of the driveway a figure wrapped in crimson silk, his white hair flying in the wind, while smoke from a pipe encircled his head. yes, it was mark twain, who in the midst of his writing, had been suddenly struck with the thought that the road needed mending, and had gone out to have another look at it! it was a blustering day in spring, and cold, so one of the household was sent to persuade him to come in. we can see him now, returning reluctantly, wind-blown and vehement, gesticulating, and stopping every few steps to express his opinion of the men who had made that road! the flaming red silk robe he wore was one his daughter had brought him from liberty's, in london, and he adored it. still wrapped in it, and seemingly unconscious of his unusual appearance, he joined us on the balcony, to resume a conversation of the night before. the red-robed figure seated itself in a wicker chair and berated the idea that mortal man ever _could_ be generous,--act without selfish motives. with the greatest reverence in his tone, sitting there in his whimsical costume of bright red silk, at high noon,--an immaculate french butler waiting at the door to announce lunch, mark twain concluded an analysis of modern religion with "--why the god _i_ believe in is too busy spinning spheres to have time to listen to human prayers." how often his words have been in our mind since war has shaken our planet. chapter xxiv the artist and his costume the world has the habit of deriding that which it does not understand. it is the most primitive way of bolstering one's limitations. how often the woman or man with a god-given sense of the beautiful, the fitting, harmony between costume and setting, is described as poseur or poseuse by those who lack the same instinct. in a sense, of course, everything man does, beyond obeying the rudimentary instincts of the savage, is an affectation, and it is not possible to claim that even our contemporary costuming of man or woman always has _raison d'être_. we accept as the natural, unaffected raiment for woman and man that which custom has taught us to recognise as appropriate, with or without reason for being. for example, the tall, shiny, inflexible silk hat of man, and the tortuous high french heels of woman are in themselves neither beautiful, fitting, nor made to meet the special demands of any setting or circumstance. both hat and heels are fashions, unbeautiful and uncomfortable, but to the eye of man to-day serve as insignia of formal dress, decreed by society. the artist nature has always assumed poetic license in the matter of dress, and as a rule defied custom, to follow an inborn feeling for beauty. that much-maligned short velvet coat and soft loose tie of the painter or writer, happen to have a most decided _raison d'être_; they represent comfort, convenience, and in the case of the velvet coat, satisfy a sensitiveness to texture, incomprehensible to other natures. as for the long hair of some artists, it can be a pose, but it has in many cases been absorption in work, or poverty--the actual lack of money for the conventional haircut. in cities we consider long hair on a man as effeminate, an indication of physical weakness, but the russian peasant, most sturdy of individuals, wears his hair long, and so do many others among extremely primitive masculine types, who live their lives beyond the reach of fashion and barbers. the short hair of the sincere woman artist is to save time at the toilette. there is always a limited number of men and women who, in ordinary acts of life, respond to texture, colour or line, as others do to music or scenery, and to be at their best in life, must dress their parts as they feel them. japanese actors who play the parts of women, dress like women off the stage, and live the lives of women as nearly as possible, in order to acquire the feeling for women's garments; they train their bodies to the proper feminine carriage, counting upon this to perfect their interpretations. the woman who rides, hunts, shoots, fishes, sails her own boat, paddles, golfs and plays tennis, is very apt to look more at home in habit, tweeds and flannels, than she does in strictly feminine attire; the muscles she has acquired in legs and arms, from violent exercise, give an actual, not an assumed, stride and a swing to the upper body. in sports clothes, or severely tailored costume, this woman is at her best. most trying for her will be demi-toilette (house gowns). she is beautiful at night because a certain balance, dignity and grace are lent her by the décolletage and train of a dinner or ball gown. english women who are devotees of sport, demonstrate the above fact over and over again. while on the subject of responsiveness to texture and colour we would remind the reader that richard wagner hung the room in which he worked at his operas with bright silks, for the art stimulus he got from colour, and it is a well-known fact that he derived great pleasure from wearing dressing gowns and other garments made from rich materials. clyde fitch, our american playwright, when in his home, often wore velvet or brocaded silks. they were more sympathetic to his artist nature, more in accord with his fondness for wearing jewelled studs, buttons, scarf-pins. in his town and country houses the main scheme, leading features and every smallest detail were the result of clyde fitch's personal taste and effort, and he, more than most men and women, appreciated what a blot an inartistic human being can be on a room which of itself is a work of art. plate xxx souvenirs of an artist designer's unique establishment, in spirit and accomplishment _vrai parisienne_. notice the long cape in the style of . tappé himself will tell you that all periods have had their beautiful lines and colours; their interesting details; that to find beauty one must first have the feeling for it; that if one is not born with this subtle instinct, there are manifold opportunities for cultivating it. his claim is the same as that made in our _art of interior decoration_; the connoisseur is one who has passed through the schooling to be acquired only by contact with masterpieces,--those treasures sifted by time and preserved for our education, in great art collections. tappé emphasises the necessity of knowing the background for a costume before planning it; the value of line in the physique beneath the materials; the interest to be woven into a woman's costume when her type is recognised, and the modern insistence on appropriateness--that is, the simple gown and close hat for the car, vivid colours for field sports or beach; a large fan for the woman who is mistress of sweeping lines, etc., etc. tappé is absolutely french in his insistence upon the possible eloquence of line; a single flower well poised and the chic which is dependent upon _how a hat or gown is put on_. we have heard him say: "no, i will not claim the hat in that photograph, though i made it, because it is _mal posé_." [illustration: _sketched for "woman as decoration" by thelma cudlipp_ _tappé's creations_] in england, and far more so in america, men are put down as effeminate who wear jewelry to any marked extent. but no less a person than king edward vii always wore a chain bangle on his arm, and one might cite countless men of the continent as thoroughly masculine--spaniards in particular--who wear as many jewelled rings as women. apropos of this, a famous topaz, worn as a ring for years by a distinguished spaniard was recently inherited by a relation in america--a woman. the stone was of such importance as a gem, that a record was kept of its passing from france into america. as a man's ring it was impressive and the setting such as to do it honour, but being a man's ring, it was too heavy for a woman's use. a pendant was made of the stone and a setting given it which turned out to be too trifling in character. the consequence was, the stone lost in value as a rubens' canvas would, if placed in an art nouveau frame. whether it is a precious stone, a valued painting or a woman's costume--the effect produced depends upon the character of its setting. chapter xxv idiosyncrasies in costume fashions in dress as in manners, religion, art, literature and drama, are all powerful because they seize upon the public mind. the chelsea group of revolutionary artists in new york doubtless see,--perhaps but dimly, the same star that led goethe and schiller on, in the storm and stress period of their time. we smile now as we recall how schiller stood on the street corners of leipzig, wearing a dressing-gown by day to defy custom; but the youth of athens did the same in the last days of greece. in fact then the darlings of the gilded world struck attitudes of abandon in order to look like the spartans. they refused to cut their hair and they would not wash their hands, and even boasted of their ragged clothes after fist fights in the streets. yes, the gentlemen did this. in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries there was a cult that wore furs in summer and thin clothes in winter, to prove that love made them strong enough to resist the elements! you will recall the euphuists of england, the precieuses of france and the illuminati of the eighteenth century, as well as les merveilleux and les encroyables. the rich during the renaissance were great and wise collectors but some followed the fashion for collecting manuscripts even when unable to read them. it is interesting to find that in the fourth and fifth centuries it was fashionable to be literary. those with means for existence without labour, wrote for their own edification, copying the style of the ancient poets and philosophers. as early as the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries venetian women were shown the paris fashions each ascension day on life-size dolls, displayed by an enterprising importer. it is true that fashions come and go, not only in dress, but how one should sit, stand, and walk; how use the hands and feet and eyes. to squint was once deemed a modest act. women of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries stood with their abdomens out, and so did some in ! there are also fashions in singing and speaking. the poses in portraits express much. compare the exactly prim copley miss, with a recent portrait by cecilia beaux of a young girl seated, with dainty satin-covered feet outstretched to full extent of the limbs, in casual impertinence,--our age! to return to the sixteenth century, it is worthy of note that some venetian belles wore patines--that is, shoes with blocks of wood, sometimes two feet high, fastened to the soles. they could not move without a maid each side! as it was an age when elemental passions were "good form," jealous husbands are blamed for these! in the seventeenth century the idle dancing youth of to-day had his prototype in the cavalier servente, who hovered at his lady's side, affecting extravagant and effeminate manners. the corrupt morals of the sixteenth century followed in the wake of social intercourse by travel, literature, art and styles for costumes. mme. récamier, the exquisite embodiment of the directoire style as depicted by david in his famous portrait of her, scandalised london by appearing in public, clad in transparent greek draperies and scarfs. later mme. jerome bonaparte, a baltimore belle, quite upset philadelphia by repeating mme. récamier's experiment in that city of brotherly love! we are also told on good authority that one could have held madame's wedding gown in the palm of the hand. victorian hoops for public conveyances, paper-soled slippers in snow-drifts, wigs immense and heavy with powder, hair-oil and furbelows, hour-glass waist lines producing the "vapours" fortunately are no more. taken by and large, we of the year seem to have reached the point where woman's psychology demands of dress fitness for each occasion, that she may give herself to her task without a material handicap. may the good work in this direction continue, as the panorama of costumes for women moves on down the ages that are to come. chapter xxvi nationality in costume when seen in perspective, the costumes of various periods, as well as the architecture, interior decoration and furnishings of the homes of men appear as distinct types, though to the man or woman of any particular period the variations of the type are bewildering and misleading. it is the same in physical types; when visiting for the first time a foreign land one is immediately struck by a national cast of feature, english, french, american, russian, etc. but if we remain in the country for any length of time, the differences between individuals impress us and we lose track of those features and characteristics the nation possesses in common. to-day, if asked what outline, materials and colour schemes characterise our fashions, some would say that almost anything in the way of line, materials and colour were worn. there is, however, always an epoch type, and while more than ever before the law of _appropriateness_ has dictated a certain silhouette for each occasion,--each occupation,--when recorded in costume books of the future we will be recognised as a distinct phase; as distinct as the gothic, elizabethan, empire or victorian period. plate xxxi costume of a red cross nurse, worn while working in a french war hospital, by miss elsie de wolfe, of new york. an example of woman costumed so as to be most efficient for the work in hand. miss de wolfe's name has become synonymous with interior decoration, throughout the length and breadth of our land, but she established a reputation as one of the best-dressed women in america, long before she left the stage to professionally decorate homes. she has done an immeasurable amount toward moulding the good taste of america in several fields. at present her energies are in part devoted to disseminating information concerning a cure for burns, one of the many discoveries resulting from the exigencies of the present devastating war. [illustration: _miss elsie de wolfe in costume of red cross nurse_] as we have said, in studying the history of woman decorative, one finds two widely separated aspects of the subject, which must be considered in turn. there is the classifying of woman's apparel which comes under the head of european dress, woman's costume affected by cosmopolitan influences; costumes worn by that part of humanity which is in close intercommunication and reflecting the ebb and flow of currents--political, geographical and artistic. then we have quite another field for study, that of national costumes, by which we mean costumes peculiar to some one nation and worn by its men and women century after century. it is interesting as well as depressing for the student of national characteristics to see the picturesque distinguishing lines and colours gradually disappear as railroads, steamboats and electric trolleys penetrate remote districts. with any influx of curious strangers there comes in time, often all too quickly, a regrettable self-consciousness, which is followed at first by an awkward imitation of the cosmopolitan garb. we recall our experience in hungary. having been advised to visit the peasant villages and farms lying out on the püstas (plains of southern hungary) if we would see the veritable national costumes, we set out hopefully with letters of introduction from a minister of education in buda pest, directed to mayors of magyar villages. one of these planned a visit to a local celebrity, a magyar farmer, very old, very prosperous, rich in herds of horses, sheep and magnificent hungarian oxen, large, white and with almost straight, spreading horns, like the oxen of the ancient greeks. there we met a man of the old school, nearly eighty, who had never in his life slept under cover, his duty being to guard his flocks and herds by night as well as day, though he had amassed what was for his station in life, a great fortune. he had never been seen in anything but the national costume, the same as worn in his part of the world for several hundred years. and so we went to see him in his home. we were all expectation! you can imagine our disappointment, when, upon arrival, we found our host awaiting us, painfully attired in the ordinary dark cloth coat and trousers of the modern farmer the world over. he had donned the ugly things in our honour, taking an hour to make his toilet, as we were secretly informed by one of the household. we tell this to show how one must persevere in the pursuit of artistic data. this was the same occasion cited in _the art of interior decoration,_ when the highly decorative peasant tableware was banished by the women in the house, to make room, again in our honour, for plain white ironstone china. the feeling for line accredited to the french woman is equally the birthright of the magyar--woman and man. one sees it in the dash of the court beauty who can carry off a mass of jewels, barbaric in splendour, where the average european or american would feel a christmas tree in the same. and no man in europe wears his uniform as the hungarian officer of hussars does; the astrachan-trimmed short coat, slung over one shoulder, cap trimmed with fur, on the side of his head, and skin-tight trousers inside of faultless, spurred boots reaching to the knees. one can go so far as to say there is something decorative in the very temperament of hungarian women, a fiery abandon, which makes _line_ in a subtle way quite apart from the line of costume. this quality is also possessed by the spanish woman, and developed to a remarkable degree in the professional spanish dancer. the gipsy woman has it too,--she brought it with her from asia, as the magyar's forebears did. speaking of the magyar, nothing so perfectly expresses the national temperament as the czardas--that peasant dance which begins with calm, stately repression, and ends in a mad ecstasy of expression, the rapid crescendo, the whirl, ending when the man seizes his partner and flings her high in the air. watch the flash of the eyes and see that this is genuine temperament, not acting, but something inherent in the blood. the crude colour of the national costume and the sharp contrast in the folk music are equally expressions of national character, the various art expressions of which open up countless enticing vistas. the contemplation of some of these vistas leads one to the conclusion that woman decorative is so, either as an artist (that is, in the mastery of the science of line and colour, more or less under the control of passing fashion), or in the abandonment to the impulse of an untutored, unconscious, child of nature. both can be beautiful; the art which is so great as to conceal conscious effort by creating the illusion of spontaneity, and the natural unconscious grace of the human being in youth or in the primitive state. chapter xxvii models an historical interest attaches to fashions in women's costuming, which the practised eye is quick to distinguish, but not always that of the novice. of course the most casual and indifferent of mortals recognises the fact when woman's hat follows the lines of the french officer's cap, or her coat reproduces the cossack's, with even a feint at his cartridge belt; but such echoes of the war are too obvious to call for comment. plate xxxii madame geraldine farrar as _carmen_. in each of the three presentations of madame farrar we have given her in character, as suggestions for stage costumes or costume balls. (by courtesy of _vanity fair_.) [illustration: _courtesy of vanity fair_ _mme. geraldine farrar in spanish costume as carmine_] it is one of the missions of art to make subtle the obvious, and a distinguished example of this, which will illustrate our theme,--history mirrored by dress,--was seen recently. one of the most famous among the great couturières of paris, who has opened a new york branch within two years, having just arrived with her spring and summer models, was showing them to an appreciative woman, a patron of many years. it is not an exaggeration to say that in all that procession of costumes for cool days or hot, ball-room, salon, boudoir or lawn, not one was banal, not one false in line or its colour-scheme. whether the style was classic greek, mediæval or empire (these prevail), one felt the result, first of an artist's instinct, then a deep knowledge of the pictorial records of periods in dress, and to crown all, that conviction of the real artist, which gives both courage and discretion in moulding textiles,--the output of modern genius, to the purest classic lines. for example, one reads in every current fashion sheet that beads are in vogue as garniture for dresses. so they are, but note how your french woman treats them. whether they are of jet, steel, pearl or crystal, she presses them into service as so much _colour_, massing them so that one is conscious only of a shimmering, clinging, wrapped-toga effect, à la grecque, beneath the skirt and bodice of which every line and curve of the woman's form is seen. evidently some, at least, are to be gleaming tanagras. even a dark-blue serge, for the motor, shopping or train, had from hips to the bust parallel lines of very small tube-like jet beads, sewn so close together that the effect was that of a shirt of mail. the use of notes of vivid colour caught the eye. in one case, on a black satin afternoon gown, a tiny nosegay of forget-me-not blue, rose-pink and jessamine-white, was made to decorate the one large patch-pocket on the skirt and a lapel of the sleeveless satin coat. again on a dinner-dress of black chantilly lace, over white chiffon (empire lines), a very small, deep pinkish-red rose had a white rose-bud bound close to it with a bit of blue ribbon. this was placed under the bertha of cobweb lace, and demurely in the middle of the short-waisted bodice. again a robe d'interior of white satin charmeuse, had a sleeveless coat of blue, reaching to knees, and a dashing bias sash of pinkish-red, twice round the waist, with its long ends reaching to skirt hem and heavily weighted. not at once, but only gradually, did it dawn upon us that most of the gowns bore, in some shade or form, the tricolour of france! chapter xxviii woman costumed for her war job every now and then a sex war is predicted, and sometimes started, usually by woman, though some predicted that when the present european war is over and the men come home to their civilian tasks, now being carried on by women, man is going to take the initiative, in the sex conflict. we doubt it. without deliberate design to prove this point,--that a complete collaboration of the sexes has always made the wheels of the universe revolve, many of the illustrations studied showed woman with man as decoration, in ancient egypt, greece, and during later periods. the legend of life tells us that man can not live alone, hence woman; and the pageant of life shows that she has played opposite with consistency and success throughout the ages. the sunday issue of the philadelphia _public ledger_ for march , , has a headline, "trousers vs. skirts," and, continues margaret davies, the author of the article: "this war will change all things for european women. military service, of a sort, has come for them in both france and england, where they are replacing men employed in clerical and other non-combatant departments, including motor driving. the moment this was decided upon in england, it was found that , men would be released for actual fighting, with prospects of the release of more than , more. what the french demand will be is not known as i write, but it will equal that of england. "how will these women dress? will they be given military uniforms short of skirt or even skirtless? of course they won't; but the world on this side of the ocean would not gasp should this be done. war industry already has worked a revolution. "study the pictures which accompany this article. they are a new kind of women's 'fashion pictures'; they are photographs of women dressed as european circumstances now compel them to dress. note the trousers, like a turkish woman's, of the french girl munitions workers. thousands of girls here in france are working in such trousers. note the smart liveries of the girls who have taken the places of male carriage starters, mechanics and elevator operators, at a great london shop. they are very natty, aren't they? almost like costumes from a comic opera. well, they are not operatic costumes. they are every-day working liveries. girls wear them in the most mixed london crowds--wear them because the man-shortage makes it necessary for these girls to do work which skirts do not fit. all french trams and buses have 'conductresses.' "the coming of women cabmen in london is inevitable--indeed, it already has begun. in paris they have been established sparsely for some time and have done well, but they have not been used on taxis, only on the horse cabs. "i have spent most of my time in paris for some months now, and have ridden behind women drivers frequently. they drive carefully and well and are much kinder to their horses than the old, red-faced, brutal french cochérs are. i like them. they have a wonderful command of language, not always entirely or even partially polite, but they are accommodating and less greedy for tips than male drivers. "at selfridge's great store--the largest and most progressive in london, operated on chicago lines--skirtless maidens are not rare enough to attract undue attention. the first to be seen there, indeed, is not in the store at all, but on the sidewalk, outside of it, engaged in the gentle art of directing customers to and from their cars and cabs and incidentally keeping the chauffeurs in order. "an extremely pretty girl she is, too, with her frock-coat coming to her knees, her top-boots coming to the coat, and now and then, when the wind blows, a glimpse of loose knickers. she tells me that she's never had a man stare at her since she appeared in the new livery, although women have been curious about it and even critical of it. women have done all the staring to which she has been subjected. "within the store, many girls engaged in various special employments, are dressed conveniently for their work, in perfectly frank trousers. among these are the girls who operate the elevators. there is no compromise about it. these girls wear absolutely trousers every working hour of every working day in a great public store, in a great crowded city, rubbing elbows (even touching trousered knees, inevitably) with hundreds of men daily. plate xxxiii madame geraldine farrar. the value of line was admirably illustrated in the opera "madame butterfly" as seen this winter at the metropolitan opera house. have you chanced to ask yourself why the outline of the individual members of the chorus was so lacking in charm, and madame farrar's so delightful? the great point is that in putting on her kimono, madame farrar kept in mind the characteristic silhouette of the japanese woman as shown in japanese art; then she made a picture of herself, and one in harmony with her japanese setting. which brings us back to the keynote of our book--_woman as decoration_--beautiful _line_. [illustration: _sketched for "woman as decoration" by thelma cudlipp_ _mme. geraldine farrar in japanese costume as madame butterfly_] "and they like it. they work better in the new uniforms than they used to in skirts and are less weary at each day's end. and nobody worries them at all. there has not been the faintest suspicion of an insult or an advance from any one of the thousands of men and boys of all classes whom they have ridden with upon their 'lifts,' sometimes in dense crowds, sometimes in an involuntary tête-à-tête. "other employments which girls follow and dress for bifurcatedly in this great and progressive store are more astonishing than the operation of elevators. a charming young plumber had made no compromise whatever with tradition. she was in overalls like boy plumbers wear, except that her trousers were not tight, but they were well fitted. a little cap of the same material as the suit, completed her jaunty and attractive costume. and cap and suit were professionally stained, too, with oil and things like that, while her small hands showed the grime of an honest day's competent, hard work. "the coming summer will see an immense amount of england's farming done by women and, i think, well done. organisations already are under way whereby women propose to help decrease the food shortage by intelligent increase of the chicken and egg supply, and this is being so well planned that undoubtedly it will succeed. eggs and chickens will be cheap in england ere the summer ends. "i have met three ex-stenographers who now are at hard work, two of them in munition factories (making military engines of death) and one of them on a farm. i asked them how they liked the change. "'i should hate to have to go back to work in the old long skirts,' one replied. 'i should hate to go back to the old days of relying upon some one else for everything that really matters. but--well, i wish the war would end and i hope the casualty lists of fine young men will not grow longer, day by day, as spring approaches, although everybody says they will.' "mrs. john bull takes girls in pantaloons quite calmly and approvingly, now that she has learned that if there are enough of them, dad and the boys will pay no more attention to them in trousers than they would pay to them in skirts." we have preferred to quote the exact wording of the original article, for the reason that while the facts are familiar to most of us, the manner of putting them could not, to our mind, be more graphic. some day, when the wateaus of the future are painting the court ladies who again dance pavanes in sunlit glades, wearing wigs and crinoline, such data will amuse. that the women of finland make worthy members of their parliament does not prove anything outside of finland. that the exigencies of the present hour in england have made women equal to every task of men so far entrusted to them, proves much for england. women, like men, have untold, untried abilities within them, women and men alike are marvellous under fire--capable of development in every direction. what human nature has done it can do again, and infinitely more under the pressure of necessity which opens up brain cells, steels the heart, hardens the muscles, and like magic fire, licks up the dross of humanity, aimlessly floating on the surface of life, awaiting a leader to melt and mould it at fate's will into clearly defined personalities, ready to serve. this point has been magnificently proved by the war now waging in europe. let us repeat; that from the beginning the story of woman's costuming proves her many-sidedness, the inexhaustible stock of her latent qualities which, like man's, await the call of the hour. in conclusion the foregoing chapters have aimed at showing the decorative value of woman's costume as seen in the art of egypt, greece, gothic europe, europe of the renaissance and during the seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. to prove the point that woman is a telling note in the interior decoration of to-day, the vital spark in any setting, we have not dwelt upon the fashions so much as decorative line, colour-scheme and fitness for the occasion. it is costume associated with caste which interests us more than folk costume. we have shown that it is the modern insistence on efficiency that has led to appropriate dress for work and recreation, and that our idea of the chic and the beautiful in costume is based on _appropriateness_. also we have shown that line in costumes is in part the result of one's "form"--the absolute control of the body, its "carriage," poise of the head, action of legs, arms, hands and feet, and that form means successful effort in any direction, because through it the mind may control the physical medium. it is the woman who knows what she should wear, what she can wear and how to wear it, who is most efficient in whatever she gives her mind to. she it is who will expend the least time, strength and money on her appearance, and be the first to report for duty in connection with the next obligation in the business of life. therefore let us keep in mind a few rules for the perfect costuming of woman: appropriateness for each occasion so as to get efficiency, or be as decorative as possible. outline.--fashion in silhouette adapted to your own type. background.--your setting. colour scheme.--fashionable colours chosen and combined to express your personality as well as to harmonise with the tone of setting, or, if preferred, to be an agreeable contrast to it. detail.--trimming with _raison d'être_,--not meaningless superfluities. it is, of course, understood that the attainment of _beauty_ in the costuming of woman is our aim when stating and applying the foregoing principles. the art of interior decoration and the art of costuming woman are occasionally centred in the same individual, but not often. some of the most perfectly dressed women, models for their less gifted sisters, are not only ignorant as to the art of setting their stage, but oblivious of the fact that it may need setting. remember, that while an inartistic room, confused as to line and colour-scheme can absolutely destroy the effect of a perfect gown, an inartistic, though costly gown can likewise be a blot on a perfect room. the ladies' work-book containing instructions in knitting, crochet, point-lace, &c. [illustration] london: john cassell, la bell sauvage yard, ludgate hill. list of illustrations. casting on with one needle to cast on with two needles plain knitting the german manner purling to make a stitch to take up stitches to knit two pieces together to form a round to cast off infant's shoe in knitting the tulip-wreath flower-vase mat a woven parasol anti-macassar anti-macassar netted anti-macassar bound couverette for an easy chair or sofa floral anti-macassar ottoman cover music-stool couverette chair cushion toilet-cover in crochet star-pattern d'oyley crochet d'oyley rose d'oyley toilet cover tidy in square crochet arabesque toilet cover in square crochet cover for a hadrot lamp lamp mat candle-lamp mat hand-screen crochet counterpane for a bassinet deep border for bassinet quilt crochet stripe for bed-quilt centre stripe for bed-quilt handkerchief case, for hanging to the head of a bed watchpocket toilet sachet a lady's nightcap a shaving tidy oval tidy for easy chair crochet window-curtain window-curtain window-curtain and stove apron netted window-curtain bread-cloth bread-cloth a spangled wool netted cover for a tea-poy, square work-table, or if drawn together at the top, makes a glittering fire-veil netted anti-macassar short purse, in netting bridal purse, in crochet lady's short purse handsome purse mousquetaire crochet collar raised rose crochet collar point collar point collar, in crochet lounging-cap, in crochet crochet edgings and insertions insertions venetian edging venetian bars edging venetian bars sorrento bars stitches open english lace brabant edging lyons point brussels lace little venetian lace deep point-lace edging collar in spanish rose point handkerchief border, in antique point lace apron in broderie en lacet pincushion cover in point lace pincushion * * * * * the ladies' work book. * * * * * knitting. there is not one art practised by ladies which is more deservedly popular than knitting. it is so easy, requires so little eyesight, and is susceptible of so much ornament, that it merits the attention of every lady; and in giving instructions for acquiring it, we add, also, such admirable diagrams of the various processes, we are sure that no difficulty will be felt in executing any pattern. [illustration: casting on with one needle.] the first process in knitting is known by the term casting on. there are two ways of doing this: with one needle, and with two. our first diagram represents the former process. take the thread between the second and third fingers of the left hand, leaving an end of about a yard for every hundred stitches; pass it round the thumb of that hand, giving it a twist, so as to form a loop. take a knitting-needle in the right hand, insert the point in the loop, and pass the thread from the ball round the needle; then bend the point of the needle through the loop, which tighten, and one stitch will be complete. continue to make loops over the thumb, with the end of thread, and knit them with that from the ball until the proper number is cast on. to cast on with two needles (generally called the spanish method), begin by making a loop on the end of the thread, into which slip the point of one needle, holding it in the left hand. take the other needle in the right hand, and slip its point into the same loop, bring the thread round the point of this needle, and bend the needle towards you, so that the thread forms a loop on it. slip that also on the left needle, without withdrawing it from the right. put the thread round the right again, and repeat the process. [illustration: to cast on with two needles.] plain knitting.--after all the stitches are cast on, hold the needle containing them in the left hand. pass the thread round the little finger of the right hand, _under_ the second and third, and above the point of the first. then take the other needle in the right hand, slip the point in the first stitch, and put the thread round it; bring forward the point of the right-hand needle, so that the thread forms a loop on it. slip the end of the left-hand needle out of the stitch, and a new stitch is knitted. german manner.--the thread, instead of being held by the fingers of the right hand, is passed over and under those of the left. the process otherwise is exactly the same. purling.--begin by bringing the thread in front of the right-hand needle, which slip into a stitch pointing towards you; that is in the reverse of the usual mode (see diagram). put the thread round the point of the needle, still bringing it towards you, bend the needle backwards to form a loop, and withdraw the stitch from the point of the left-hand needle. [illustration: plain knitting.] when knitted and purled stitches occur in the same row, the thread must be brought forward before a purled stitch, and taken back before a knitted one. [illustration: the german manner.] to make a stitch. bring the thread in front, as if for a purled stitch, so that when you knit one the thread will pass over the needle, and will make a hole in the following row. this diagram shows the manner of making three stitches, and any other number could be made, by putting the thread round a proportionate number of times. in the engraving it will be seen that the thread is put twice entirely round the needle; and then brought forward, so that the next knitted stitch will take it over a third time. in doing the next row, knit one, purl one, knit one of these stitches; however many are made, they must be alternately knitted and purled in the next row. when the stitch allowing the made stitches is to be purled, the thread must be entirely passed round the needle, once for every stitch to be made, and brought forward also. [illustration: purling.] [illustration: to make a stitch.] slip stitch.--pass a stitch from the left needle to the right, without knitting it. there are two ways of decreasing: first, by knitting two, three, or more stitches as one, marked in knitting, as k t, k t, etc. secondly, in the following way: slip one stitch, knit-one, pass the slip stitch over: this decreases one stitch. to decrease two; slip one, knit two together, pass the slip stitch over. [illustration: to take up stitches.] a reverse stitch is taken off the left-hand needle, in the reverse way to knitting and purling. in both these, the right-hand needle is inserted in the middle of the stitch, and the point brought out towards you or otherwise. but to make a reverse stitch, you insert the point of the needle in the stitch _at the back of the work_, and bring it forward through the opening in which it generally is inserted. the thread is to be placed round it, as for a purled stitch. [illustration: to knit two pieces together.] to reverse two, three, or more stitches together, insert the needle in them all at once, _from the last to the first_. to take up stitches.--insert the needle in the loop, pass the thread round, and knit it in the usual manner. do not draw out any loop more than can be avoided, while knitting it. to knit two pieces together.--to do this there must be an equal number of stitches on both. [illustration: to form a round.] hold the needles together in the right hand, and knit as usual, inserting the left-hand needle in a loop of each at the same time, and treating the two as one. [illustration: to cast off.] to form a round:--this diagram represents the french manner of performing this process by casting the whole number of stitches on one needle, and then distributing them on three, or perhaps four. but the english mode is to divide the number of stitches, and cast so many on each needle, not withdrawing the last stitch of each needle from the point of the next needle. when all are cast on, the round is made by knitting the _two first_ stitches on to the last needle. four needles are employed for stockings, five for doyleys and other round articles. to cast off:--knit two stitches, insert the point of the left hand needle in the first stitch, and draw it on the other. knit another stitch, and treat these two in the same way. * * * * * infant's shoe, in knitting. materials.-- ounce of white berlin wool. skein of white, and of embroidery wool, knitting needles, no. , and , no. . with the fine needles cast stitches on one, and on each of two others. join into a round, and purl one round. [illustration: infant's shoe, in knitting] st pattern round: x slip , taking them off the needle in the same way as if you were going to purl them, but with the wool at the back; knit . x repeat all round. nd, rd, and th rounds: the same. th and th: purl every stitch. th to th inclusive: x knit , slip as before, x repeat all round, th and th purled. th to th inclusive: x knit , slip as before, knit , x repeat all round. th and th purled. repeat these rounds again. then do the same twice more; but, instead of knitting three stitches, always decrease by knitting two together (once) on the needle that has the thirty stitches in every row which is not plainly purled, until only twelve stitches are left on it. when rounds are done, the boot will be sufficiently long. purl two rounds, divide the whole number of stitches on two needles, taking care that the stitches shall be exactly in the centre of one; then join up the toe by casting off, knitting one stitch from each needle together. now take up the twenty centre stitches of the originally cast on--that is, the twenty middle ones of the thirty that were on one needle, and which were decreased to twelve. knit them backwards and forwards rows. with another needle take up on each edge of this plain knitting more stitches, so that there are altogether. these stitches must be knitted backwards and forwards thus:-- st row: x knit , slip as before, x repeat with the last stitch, take up one of the next to the . nd: slip , but as if you were going to knit plain, purl . repeat; join on to the at the other end. rd: like first. th: like nd. th: purled; join at the end. th: knitted; join at the end. th: x knit , slip , knit , x join at the end. th: x purl , slip , knit , x join as before. th: like th. th: like th. th: purled. th: knitted. th: x knit , slip , knit , x join at the end. th: x purl , slip , knit , x join. th: like th. th: like th. th: purled, with join at the end. th: knitted. the same. repeat these rows. take up the remaining stitches of the , and form the whole into a round for the ankle. purl four rounds. th round: x knit , make , knit together, x all round. purl more rounds, and cast off. for the tassels.--plait some wool into a cord, and fasten at each end a tassel of white and pink wool combed out. for the ruche.--cast on five stitches with the coarser needles, and the white embroidery wool. knit and purl the rows alternately, winding the wool six times round two fingers of the left hand at every stitch, and taking up those threads with the stitches. do about ten rows so; then for ten more wind the wool only for the first and last stitches, and the pink for the others of each row. do enough to go twice round the top of each boot. cut the loops, and comb out the wool. sew it round the top of the boot. * * * * * the tulip wreath flower-vase mat. materials.-- shades of amber, shades of lilac, shades of green. skeins of each colour. steel needles, no. . cardboard foundation, covered with white or amber cambric, inches in diameter. for the mat.--knit rounds of each shade of amber, beginning with the lightest. cast on stitches on each of needles; bring the wool forward, knit half the stitches on the first needle; t. f. and k. [footnote: k. means knit; k. + knit two together; p. purl; t. f. thread forward.] the other half; repeat the same on each of the other needles; k. the next round plain; repeat these two rounds until there are stitches on each needle; then cast off, and sew this on the covered cardboard foundation. for the tulips.-- tulips to be knitted in shades of amber, and in shades of lilac; rounds to be knitted of each shade; needles. cast on stitches on each of needles; t.f. at the commencement of each needle; k. plain round; purl a round, increasing at commencement of each needle. repeat these two rounds till there are stitches on each of the three needles; then first k. , k. +, k. , k. +, k. ; turn the work back, and purl the stitches. [illustration: the tulip wreath flower-vase mat.] rd: k. , k. +, k. , k. +, k. . th: turn back and purl. th: k. , k. +, k. , k. +, k . th: turn back and purl. th: k. , k. +, k. . th: purl. th: k. +. tulips will be required. the leaves ( of which will be necessary).-- shades of green, rows of each; needles. cast on stitches; k. plain, till before the centre stitch; t.f. and k. the centre stitch; t.f., k. the remainder plain; p. the next row; repeat these rows, till there are open stitches up the vein of the leaf; then k. , k. +, k. plain, till from the centre stitch; then k. +, t.f., k. , t.f., k. +, k. plain, till from the end; then k. +, k. ; p. the next row; repeat till there are more open stitches, that is, from the beginning; then k. + at the beginning and end of every other row, till the last ends in a point. now sew the leaves round the mat by the part where the stem should be; then sew the tulips on as in engraving, sewing the leaf about rows from the point on the stem of the tulip. * * * * * [illustration: a woven parasol.] * * * * * crochet. * * * * * the stitches used in crochet are, _chain, slip, single, double, treble, and long treble crochet_. to make a chain, form a loop on the thread, insert the hook in it, and draw the thread in another loop through this. continue this to form a succession of stitches. slip-stitch is made by drawing a thread _at once_ through any given stitch and the loop which is on the needle. single crochet (written s.c.)--having a loop on the needle, insert the hook in a stitch, and draw the thread through in a loop. you then have two on the hook; draw the thread through both at once. double crochet (d.c.)--twist the thread round the hook before inserting it in the stitch, through which you draw the thread in a loop. three loops being then on the needle, draw the thread through two, and then through the one just formed and the remaining one. treble crochet (t.c.) and long treble (long t.c.) are worked in the same manner; in the former the thread is put _twice_, in the latter _three times_, round the hook, before inserting it into the stitch. to join leaves.--when one part of a leaf, flower, etc., is to be joined to another, drop the loop from your hook, which insert in the place to be joined; draw the loop through and continue working. to pass from one round to another without breaking the thread.--in working mats and many similar articles this is very desirable. having finished one round, see whether a s.c., d.c., or t.c. stitch begins the next; for s.c. make one chain, for d.c. three, for t.c. four; slip the needle out, and twist the chain, then continue working. this twisted chain will have all the appearance of a d.c. or t.c. stitch. should the round not begin exactly in the same place, slip-stitch to the part where it commences, as it will seldom be more than a few stitches in advance. square crochet is a term often used, and generally understood, as the engraved patterns are mostly in it. lest, however, any of our readers should not be familiar with the name, we will explain it. the squares are either open or close. an open square consists of one d.c., two ch.--missing two on the line beneath, before making the next stitch. a close square has three successive d.c. thus, any given number of close squares, followed by an open, will have so many times three d.c., and _one over_; and any foundation made for a pattern to be worked in square crochet will have a number of chains divisible by three, leaving one over. to contract an edge.--in forming leaves and many other things, this is very useful. it can be done in d.c., t.c., or long t.c. having twisted the thread round the needle as often as the stitch may require, insert it in the work, and half-do a stitch. instead of completing it, again twist the thread round, until the same number of loops are on, and work a stitch completely. thus, for two stitches taken in the work, there is only one head. this being successively repeated materially contracts an edge. to join on a thread.--avoid joins in open work as much as possible. in close work, whether d.c. or s.c., they will not be perceived. finish the stitch by drawing the new thread through, allowing a couple of inches for both ends, which you hold in. to work with several colours.--hold the threads not in use along the edge of the work, and work them in. when the colour is to be changed, begin the stitch with the old colour, and complete it with the new, which continue to work with, holding the other in. if only one stitch of a colour is to be used, you finish one stitch, and begin the next with it; then change. colours are seldom intermixed, except in solid work, such as the ends of purses, mats worked over cord, and the like. to work over cord.--hold it in the left hand, with the work, and work round it, as you would if it were merely an end of thread. the stitches must, however, be sufficiently close to cover it entirely. to work with beads.--beads must be first threaded on the silk, or other material, and then dropped, according to the pattern, on what is usually thought the wrong side of the work. this side presents a more even appearance than the other. it follows that when bead purses are worked from an engraving, they are worked the reverse of the usual way--namely, from right to left. the marks used in crochet receipts.--these are very simple when understood. they are printers' marks--asterisks, crosses, daggers, and sometimes one or two others. they are used to mark repetitions, and save space. the principal thing to observe is, that in every row or round, if _one_ of any kind is used, a second, _similar_ one, is sure to be found; and that the repetition occurs between the two, however far distant apart. suppose a row of a pattern to be written thus:--x d.c., ch., miss , * d.c., ch., miss , * three times, d.c., x, * twice; it would, at full length, be-- d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c. it will be seen that one repetition often occurs _within another_, as in the stitches between the asterisks. another mode of shortening receipts can be used only where a row has a centre both sides of which correspond; the latter being the same as the former, worked _backwards_. then the letters _b, a_, are used, to mark that in the latter part of the row you reverse the instructions. _b_, d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , _a_, d.c. (the centre stitch), would be, d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., miss , ch., d.c., miss , ch., d.c. these letters and the printers' marks are equally used in knitting. it is easy to see how much space is gained by the use of these abbreviations, a knowledge of which is easily acquired. probably many of our friends are already familiar with the substance of this preliminary lesson; but as daily experience convinces us that many are still ignorant of the principles of crochet, we trust the good-nature of the adepts will lead them to excuse this occupation of a page, in consideration of the benefit it will be to their less fortunate friends. one word on the implement termed a crochet-hook. it should not be sharp or pointed, either in the point or barb, but smooth, and quite free from any angularity that can catch the silk. cheap and common crochet-hooks are in the end the dearest, as they break cotton, ravel silk, wear out the patience, and prick the finger. they should be of the best steel, highly polished, and firmly fixed in ivory handles. those we use have been made at our recommendation, and have the _size_ engraved on every handle. this saves the tiresome and uncertain reference to a gauge. these hooks are termed "_tapered, indented_" crochet-hooks. * * * * * anti-macassar. materials.--four reels of brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head crochet cotton, no. , ditto, no. , ounces of turquoise blue beads. the anti-macassar of which we give a representation in the engraving is intended to fit the top of a library chair. one half only is seen. a similar piece of crochet is to be made and sewed to it, the two forming a sort of bag, which is slipped over the back of the chair. it is a great improvement on the old-fashioned anti-macassar, as it is not liable to be displaced. a border is added to the front of it, the pattern of which is made in beads (in the style of the bassinet quilt, page ). this, from its weight, serves to keep the anti-macassar from shifting, and is finished with a handsome fringe. spotted muslin, or any similar material, may be used for the back of the anti-macassar, instead of crochet, for those who would prefer saving themselves the trouble of working the second piece. [illustration: anti-macassar.] the upper part may be worked from the engraving, being done in square crochet, for which we have already given full directions. make a chain of stitches. do one row of double crochet; then work from the engraving, beginning with that row which is in open square crochet, except the first and last squares, which are close. when you come to the diminished part, begin the row thus:--miss , slip on the nd, single crochet on the rd, double crochet on the th. reverse the process at the end of the row. this diminishes the row one square at each end. some few rows narrow the squares at each end. in that case miss at the beginning and end, instead of one. work in the ends as you go on. this part of the anti-macassar uses three reels of cotton. thread the blue beads on the th, no. reel, and work the borders. begin by a row of single crochet on the _wrong_ side, on the foundation chain. all the subsequent rows are done on the same side. begin every row with two plain stitches, beside those in the pattern. st pattern row: x plain, beads, plain, beads, plain x repeat to the end in this and every future row. nd: x plain, bead, plain, beads, plain, beads, plain x. rd: x plain, bead, plain, bead, plain, beads, plain x. th: x plain, beads, plain, bead, plain x. th: x plain, beads, plain, bead, plain x. th: x plain, beads, plain, bead, plain x. th: x plain, beads, plain, bead, plain, beads, plain x. th: x plain, beads, plain, beads, plain, bead, plain, beads, plain x. th: x plain, beads, plain, beads, plain, bead, plain, beads x. th: x plain, beads, plain, beads, plain, beads, plain x. th: x plain, beads, plain, bead, plain, bead, plain x. th: x plain, bead, plain, beads, plain, beads, plain, bead, plain x. th: x plain, bead, plain, beads, plain, bead, plain, beads, plain x. th: x plain, bead, plain, beads, plain, beads, plain, x. th: x plain, bead, plain, bead, plain, beads, plain, beads, plain x. th: x plain, beads, plain, beads, plain, beads, plain x. th: x plain, beads, plain, x. th: x plain, bead, plain, beads, plain x. th: x plain, beads, plain, beads, plain x. th: x plain, beads, plain, beads, plain x. st: x plain, beads, plain, beads, plain x. * * * * * anti-macassar. materials.--brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head crochet cotton, no. . this anti-macassar must be begun on the line of d.c., forming one end. make a chain of the required number of stitches, including the borders, and work the whole anti-macassar, except the border which is at the one end, below the foundation chain, which must be done last of all. or the centre can be done entirely first, and the border worked all round afterwards, increasing at the corners. we, however, recommend the former method. this pattern is extremely well adapted for darning on square netting. in that case the netting may be done in brooks' knitting cord, no. , and the darning in embroidery cotton, no. . the centre only can be done thus--a netted border must trim it. [illustration: anti-macassar.] * * * * * netted anti-macassar. [illustration: netted anti-macassar.] materials.--brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head knitting cord, no. , and embroidering goat's-head cotton, no. ; mesh, one-third of an inch wide. this anti-macassar is done in the fashionable style of netting, with a pattern darned on it after it is worked. make a foundation, on which work sixty-seven stitches. repeat these, backwards and forwards, until a square is done, of as many holes up the sides as along the width. remove the foundation, and add either a crochet-bead border all round, or a netted one. the bead border makes the shape more solid; the netted one is certainly lighter, and the following is very pretty:-- with a mesh three times the size of that used for the square do one entire round, with three stitches in one at the corners. nd round: with the small mesh. miss the first stitch, net the second, then the missed one, repeat all round. rd: x net a stitch of each of seven stitches, miss one stitch of the last round, x repeat all round. observe, before doing this round, count the number of stitches; if they cannot be divided by eight, add at the corners as many as may be required. supposing there are so many eights and five over, then three more will be wanted, and one must be added (by doing two in one) in each of the three corners. th: x over seven, miss the long stitch, x repeat. th: x over six, missing as before, x repeat. th: x over five, as before, x repeat. th: x over four, as before, x repeat. th: x over three, as before, x repeat. before darning netting, wash it perfectly clean, stiffen it by dipping it into a little gum-water, and pin it out on a pillow, in the proper form, to dry. then darn it with embroidery cotton, every square of the pattern being closely filled up. * * * * * round couverette for an easy chair or sofa. st round: ch., unite; ch., this forms l. stitch; under this circle work l., that is, including the ch., which reckon as " l.;" in fastening off this round, simply insert the hook through the rd loop of ch., draw the cotton through, cut it off, draw it down at the back, and tie it in a neat and secure knot. nd: be careful not to begin in any row in the same place where the previous row was terminated. l. into every loop of last row; there should be l. rd: l. into every loop, with ch. between each. th and th: l. upon every l., with ch. between each. th: commence upon a l. stitch, * l. into loop, ch., miss loops, repeat from * times more, then ch., miss loops, l., ch., miss loops, repeat. th: * l. into the rd loop of the ch.; ch., repeat from * twice more, then l. on l., repeat. th: d.c. stitches, the st into the nd loop of the ch., after the l. stitches, ch., repeat from * times more, l. the st into next loop, repeat. th: * d.c. the st into the nd loop of the st ch., ch., repeat from * twice more, miss loop, l. the st in nd loop. th: d.c. into the centre loop of the ch., ch., d.c. into centre loop of next , ch., l. the st on next d.c. stitch, ch., repeat. th: d.c. the st into nd loop of ch., ch., l. on every l., with ch. between each, ch., repeat. th: l. on l., ch., repeat over the l. stitches, then ch., d.c. on the d.c., ch., repeat. th: l. on l., ch., repeat this over the l. stitches, ch., repeat. th: the same. th: l., ch. over the l. stitches, then ch., l. into rd loop of the ch., ch., miss loop, l. into next loop, ch., repeat. th: sq., l., sq., ch., d.c. into centre loop of ch., ch., repeat. th: sq., l., sq., ch., l. on d.c. stitch, ch., repeat. [illustration: round couverette for an easy chair or sofa.] th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., d.c. on d.c., ch., repeat. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., d.c. on d.c., ch., repeat. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., d.c. on d.c., ch., repeat. st: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., d.c. into centre loop of st ch., ch., d.c. into centre loop of next ch., repeat. nd: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., l. into centre loop of centre ch., ch., repeat. rd: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., d.c. into centre loop of st ch., ch., d.c. into centre loop of nd ch., ch., repeat. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., d.c. into centre loop of nd ch., ch., repeat. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., d.c. into centre loop of ch., ch., d.c. into centre loop of , ch., repeat. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., d.c. into centre loop of , ch., l., with ch. between each, under the next ch., ch., d.c. into centre loop of , ch., repeat. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., d.c. into centre ch. of , ch., l. the st into rd loop of ch., ch., d.c. into , ch., repeat. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., d.c. into centre of , ch., l., the st into rd loop of ch., ch., d.c. into centre of , ch., repeat. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., d.c. into centre loop of ch., ch., l., the st into rd loop of ch., ch., d.c. into centre loop of , ch., repeat. th: sq., l., sq., l. sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., d.c. into centre loop of , ch., l., the st into the rd loop of the ch., ch., miss loop, l., ch., d.c. into centre of ch., ch., repeat. st: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., d.c. into centre loop of , ch., l., ch., d.c. into centre loop of ch., ch., l., the st or nd d.c., ch., d.c. into centre loop of , ch., repeat. nd: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., d.c. into centre loop of , ch., l., the st into rd loop of the ch., ch., d.c. on d.c., ch., d.c. into same loop, ch., l., the st on next l., ch., d.c. into centre loop of , ch., repeat. rd: sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., d.c. on d.c., ch., l., the st on st l., ch., l., with ch. between each under the ch., ch., l., the st on nd l., ch., d.c. on d.c., ch., repeat. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., d.c. on d.c., ch., l., the st on nd l., ch., l., the st on next l., ch., l., the st on nd l., ch., d.c. on d.c., ch., repeat. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., d.c. on d.c., ch., l., the st on nd l., ch., l., the st into th loop, ch., l., the st on nd l., ch., d.c. on d.c., ch., repeat. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., d.c. on d.c., ch., l., the st on nd l., ch., l., the st on nd l., ch., d.c. on d.c., ch., repeat. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., l. on d.c. stitch, ch., l., with ch. between each under the ch., ch., l., the st on nd l., ch., l., with ch. between each under the ch., ch., d.c. on d.c., ch., repeat. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., l. on l., ch., l., the st on next l., ch., l. on l., ch., repeat. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l, sq., ch., l. on l., ch., l., the st into the th loop of the ch., ch., l., the st on nd l., ch., l., the st into th loop, ch., l. on l., ch., repeat. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., l. on l., ch., l. into same loop, ch., l., the st on nd l., ch., d.c. on nd l. stitch, ch., l., the st into th loop, ch., l. on l., ch., l. into same loop, ch., repeat. st: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., l., with ch. between each, under the ch., ch., l., the st on nd l., ch., l. on d.c. stitch, ch., l., the st into th loop, ch., l., with ch., between each, under the ch., ch., repeat. nd: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., l., the st on next l., ch., l., the st on nd l., ch., l., the st into th loop of the ch., ch., l., the st on next l., ch., repeat. rd: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., l., into rd loop, this forms another sq., and is reckoned as such in the next rows; ch., l. on the l., ch., l., the st on nd l., ch., l., the st. into th loop, ch., l. on the l., ch., l., into rd loop, ch., repeat. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., l. on the l., ch., l., the st on next l., ch., l., with ch. between each, under the ch., ch., l., the st on rd l., ch., l. on l., ch., repeat. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., l., the st on nd l., ch., l., the st into th loop, ch., l., the st on next l., ch., l., the st on nd l., ch., l., the st on nd l., ch., repeat. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., l., the st on nd l., ch., l., the st into th loop, ch., l., the st on nd l., ch., l., the st on nd l., ch., l., the st on nd l., ch., repeat. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., l., the st on nd l., ch., l., the st into th loop, ch., l., the st on nd l., ch., l., the st on rd l., ch., l., the st on nd l., ch., repeat. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., l., into th loop, ch., l. on nd l., ch., l. into th loop, ch., l., the st on nd l., ch., l. into th loop, ch., l., the st on nd l., ch., l. into th loop, ch., l., the st on nd l., ch., l. into th loop, ch., l. on nd l., ch., l. into th loop, ch., repeat. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., l. into centre loop of the ch. for times, ch., l., the st on nd l., ch., l. into centre loop of twice, ch., l., the st on nd l., ch, l. into centre loop of ch. twice, ch., l., the st on nd l., ch., l. into centre of loop of , times, ch., repeat. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., l. into centre of each , for times, ch., l., the st on nd l., ch., l. into centre of , times, ch., l., the st on nd l., ch., l. into centre of , times, ch., l., the st on nd l., ch., l. into centre of , for times, ch., repeat. st: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., and l. into centre loop of ch., for times, ch., l., the st on nd l., ch., l. into centre loop of the ch., for times, ch., repeat. nd: sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., and l. into centre loop of each ch., for times, ch., l., the st on nd l., ch., and l. into centre loop of ch., times, ch., repeat. rd: sq., l., sq., ch., and l. into centre loop of the ch., ch., repeat. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., l., the st on next l., * ch., l. on l., ch., l., the st on next l., repeat from * twice more, ch., l., the st on next l., ch., l., the st on next l., ** ch., l. on l., ch., l., the st on next l., repeat from ** twice more, ch., repeat from beginning. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch, l., the st on next l., * ch., d.c. on the l. stitch, ch., l. on the l., repeat from * twice more, then ch., l. on l., ch., l. on l., ** ch., d.c. on l., ch., l. on l., repeat from ** twice more, ch., repeat. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., l. on l., * ch., d.c. into th loop of ch., ch., d.c. into th loop of ch., ch., l. on l., repeat from * twice more, ch., l. on l., ch., l. on l., repeat from the st *, then ch., repeat from beginning. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., ch., l. on l., * ch., l. into nd loop of ch., ch., more l. into same loop, ch., l. on l., repeat from * twice more, then ch., l. on l., ch., l. on l., repeat from the st * again, ch. then repeat from beginning. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., now work the same as last row, only making ch. instead of . th: sq., l., sq. l., sq., l., sq., now work the same as last row. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., now the same as last row. st: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., now the same as last row. nd: sq., l., sq., l., sq. , l., sq., now the same as last row. rd: sq., l., sq., now the same as last row. th: sq., ch., d.c. over the l., * d.c. under the ch., d.c. under next , d.c. under next , d.c. over the l., repeat from * twice more, d.c. under the ch., d.c. on the l., d.c. under the ch., d.c. over the l., repeat from the st * times, ch., repeat from beginning. th: sq., making in these squares ch. instead of , then d.c. over the d.c. stitches, ch., repeat. th: a row of long stitches all round. fringe.--d.c. into a loop, make * ch., rather loosely, miss loop of last round, d.c. into next loop, repeat from *. * * * * * floral anti-macassar. in square netting and darned. [illustration: floral anti-macassar.] materials.--brooks' goat's-head netting and knitting cotton, no. . brooks' embroidering goat's-head cotton, no. . rather a fine embroidering needle. steel mesh, no. steel netting needle. work the same number of squares, as in the engraving, by commencing on one stitch, and increasing one at the end of every row till you get sufficient length of one side; and then decrease one at the end of every row by taking two loops into one. then darn according to the engraving. make sufficient number of tassels to go round. wind the cotton over a card three inches wide, cut one end, and draw through the loop of netting, and make four more tassels larger; over a card six inches wide for the corners. six squares measure one inch. * * * * * ottoman cover. in square netting; the pattern diamond. [illustration: ottoman cover.] materials:--brooks' goat's-head netting cotton, nos. and ; embroidering, no. ; steel mesh, no. , and steel netting needle. for the upper side of the cushion use no. cotton, and commence with one stitch, and make one at the end of every row until you have loops on your mesh; then decrease one at the end of every row until you have only one left; then fasten off; then darn it with embroidering cotton, no. , according to the engraving, always taking care that there are the same number of threads in every square, and that the threads all run the same way, making as few breaks in the cotton as possible; in fastening off, or beginning again, always let it be on the under-side, that the ends may not be seen. then for the under-side of the cushion, make another piece exactly similar to the other one in size, but with a thicker cotton, no. . the two pieces must then be joined together, and placed upon a cushion stuffed with wool and covered with a dark purple, crimson, or green velvet; the whole afterwards finished with a thick twisted cord in two colours, with massive tassels at the corners to match. * * * * * the pine couvrette, for a music stool, in crochet. materials.--eight reels of brooks' goat's-head crochet cotton, no. ; crochet hook, no. . this couvrette is begun in the centre, and worked round and round, the thread never being broken off but when it is so mentioned in the receipt. make a chain of ; close it into a round, on which do s.c. stitches. nd round: x d.c. under a stitch (taking up both sides of the chain), ch., miss none, x times. close the round with a slip stitch on the first d.c. rd: s.c. on every chain stitch, and s.c. on every d.c. in the round. th: ch., twist them, and continue as a d.c. stitch; x ch., miss , d.c., all on the second of the s.c. worked on one in last row, x times; ch., miss , d.c. on last stitch of last row; slip on the top of the three-twisted chain, which completes the round. th: begin this and all succeeding rounds with a d.c. stitch, made of ch., x ch., miss ch., d.c. on first d.c., on next, on next, x times; ch., miss , d.c. on d.c., d.c. on next; slip on top of the chain that began the round. th: worked exactly like th, with d.c. on the first and last of every , and on each of the intermediate, so that the round consists of sides, of d.c. each, divided by a chain of three. th: the same, with d.c. over the . th: the same, with d.c. over the . th: ch., twist it into a d.c. stitch, x more chain, d.c. in the first of , d.c. in next , ch., miss , d.c. in , d.c. in last of , x times; ch., d.c. in first, d.c. in , ch., miss , d.c. in , d.c. in the same as the twisted chain; finish with a slip stitch. th: begin, as usual, with ch; then on each section of the octagon, x d.c. on first , ch., miss , d.c. on ch., ch., miss , d.c. on , x ch. between. at the last of the finish with d.c., as the last is made at the beginning of the round; slip on the top of it. th: begin and end as usual [_see note_]. on each section do x d.c. on , ch., miss , d.c. on ch., ch., miss d.c., d.c. on ch., ch., miss , d.c. on last , ch., x. th: begin and end as usual. on each section work x d.c. on , d.c. on , ch., miss , d.c. on ch., ch., miss , d.c. on , d.c. on the last, ch., x. th: begin and end as usual. on each division do x d.c. on , d.c. on , ch., miss , d.c. on , d.c. on , ch., x. th: all d.c., increasing so as to have on each side of the octagon, with the usual ch. between the divisions. th: begin and end as usual. work on each part x d.c. on , x ch., miss , d.c., x twice; ch. miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c. on , ch., x. th: begin and end as usual. work on each part x d.c. on , d.c. on , ch., miss , d.c. on , ch., miss , d.c. on , d.c. on , ch., x. [illustration: music stool couvrette.] th: begin and end as usual. x d.c. on , d.c. on , ch., miss , d.c. on , ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c. on , ch., miss , ch. on , d.c. on , ch. x. th: begin and end as usual, x d.c. on , d.c. on , ch., miss , d.c. on , ch., miss , d.c. on , ch., miss , d.c. on , d.c. on , ch. x. th: begin and end as usual. x d.c. on , ch., miss , d.c. on , ch., miss , d.c. on , ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c. ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., x. th: begin and end as usual. x d.c. on , d.c. on , ch., miss , d.c. on , ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., x. st: begin and end as usual, x d.c. ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., d.c. in , ch., x. nd: begin and end as usual. x d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., d.c. in , ch., x. rd: begin and end as usual. x d.c. in , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch, miss , d.c., d.c. in , ch., *. th: break off the thread in this and the following round, and begin at the beginning of a division of the octagon, instead of at the last stitch as hitherto. x d.c., beginning on the _second_ in the division, ch., miss , d c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., d.c. on the centre of the chain of last round, ch., x. [work in the ends of cotton as you go on, and slip on the first stitch at the end of every round.] th: x miss the first d.c. of the last row, _diminished_ stitch on the two next, d.c., ch., miss , d.c., x ch., miss , d.c., * twice; diminished stitch on the next , ** ch., miss , d.c., ** times, ch., x. th: x diminished d.c. stitch on the two first of , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., diminished d.c., ch, miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., x. th: x diminished d.c. on two first of , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., diminished d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss d.c., ch., miss , x. th: x diminished d.c. (beginning on the same of last round), d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., diminished d.c., ch., d.c. on centre of ch. in last round, ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c. on centre of ch., ch., x. th: x d.c. beginning on the diminished stitch of last round, ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ** ch., miss , d.c., ** twice, ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , x. th: x (begin on the second of d.c.), d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , ** d.c., ch., miss , ** twice, d.c., ch., miss , d.c., *** ch., miss , d.c., *** twice; ch., miss , x. st: x (begin on the second of d.c.), d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , ** d.c., ch., miss , ** three times, d.c., *** ch., miss , d.c., *** times, ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , *. nd: x (begin on the second of ), d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , open squares, close, open, d.c., ch., miss , x. rd: x (begin on second of ), d.c., ** ch., miss , d.c., ** twice; ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , open squares, d.c., ch., miss , x. th: x (begin on the second of ), diminished stitch, d.c., diminished, ch., miss , ** open squares, close, ** times, open squares, d.c., ch., miss , x. th: x (begin on the first of ), diminished, d.c., ch., miss , d.c., diminished, ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , open squares, ** close, open, ** times, d.c., ch., miss , *** d.c., ch., miss , *** twice, x. th: * (begin on the first of ), diminished, d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., diminished, ** ch., miss , d.c., ** twice, ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , *** close square, open, *** times, close, open, **** d.c., ch., miss , **** twice, x. th: x (begin on the d.c.), diminished, d.c., ch., miss , d.c., diminished, ** ch., miss , d.c., ** twice, *** ch., miss , d.c., *** times, ch., miss , **** close, open square, **** times, more open, d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss x. th: x (begin on d.c.), d.c., diminished over the ch, d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , open squares, ** close, open, * twice, close, open, *** d.c., ch., miss , *** twice x. finish this round, like all the preceding, since the direction, with a slip stitch on the first stitch of the round. then a round of open square crochet, the d.c. stitches coming on those of the last round, and allowing ch. over the one diminished stitch at every point. the th round is entirely in d.c. for the band.--make a chain of stitches, and close in a round, on which work a round of d.c. nd round: open square crochet. rd: x open squares, close, open, x times. th:. x open, close, open, close, open, x times. th: x open, close, open, close, open, close, open, x times. th: x open, close, open close, open, x times. th, th, and th: x open, close, open, close, open, x times. th: x open, close, open, * times. th: open square crochet. th: d.c. edging.--one pattern takes up the space of a pattern of the band, consequently there are in the round. each is finished before proceeding to the next. the band and edging may be done entirely without breaking off the thread, therefore continue for the latter, after closing the former. s.c., ch., close it into a round, under which work s.c.; s.c. on the edge of the band; turn the work on the wrong side,-- ch., miss of the on the round, s.c. under the th, * ch, miss , s.c. under th, * times; ch., s.c. under th of the s.c. (leaving a space of to the loop). turn on the right side and work under each loop of , s.c., d.c. t.c., d.c., s.c., and under the other loops, s.c., d.c., s.c.: s.c. more on the band complete one pattern. fasten to the round with a row of s.c., taking a stitch of each. note.--it is to be remembered that each round begins with a d.c. of ch., and ch., after which the pattern between the * * is done times throughout, and the eighth time the last d.c. and ch. are omitted, being worked at the commencement of the round. to write this at the end of every round would make the directions tediously long, and the worker can find no difficulty if observing this note. * * * * * chair cushion. materials.--brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head knitting cord, no. , or , with a suitable hook. this is a new and extremely pretty kind of cushion, for the back of a chair, which renders an ordinary seat almost as commodious as a professedly _easy_ chair. a small cushion is made, just the length of the back of the chair, and narrow in the proportion seen in the engraving, which is covered either with berlin-wool work, or (as we have designed) with crochet. it is suspended from the top of the chair by ribbons or cords; and the lower edge is finished with either fringe or tassels. we have given two sizes of cotton as suitable for this purpose, as the dimensions must depend on those of the chair. the pattern requires a foundation chain of stitches, and if no. cord is used, and an ordinary hook suitable for it, the length will be as nearly as possible, half a yard. should the chair not be so wide, the same number of stitches, _with a finer cord_, will decrease the cushion cover; if required larger, for any purpose whatever, by using a coarser material the same design will be proportionably increased. and here we may be allowed to suggest a purpose to which this pattern is peculiarly applicable, and which will be found an article extremely beneficial to "the neat-handed phillis." [illustration: chair cushion.] in these days of homoeopathy, when the love of cold water is on the increase (as indeed it is high time it was), and while the means for thorough ablution are not perhaps as yet so extensively patronised as they deserve to be, we all know the destruction occasioned to that part of the paper which is immediately above the washhand-stand. now we would propose a splash cloth, in crochet, of this or any similar design, to be worked in very coarse cotton, such as brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head knitting cord, no. , lined with glazed calico to match the hangings, and suspended above the washhand-stand. it will be a pretty decoration, perfectly preventing the injury usually occurring to the walls, readily washed, and always new. as fine cotton decreases the dimensions of a piece of work, so thicker cotton, with a hook proportionately large, _increases_ its size. the number of the cotton chosen should depend on the size of the stand. no. , it will be remembered, will work it about half a yard long. when used to cover a cushion, the cushion itself should be of a colour to match with the hangings, and the crochet work is to be tacked lightly over it at each edge. * * * * * toilet cover in crochet. [illustration: toilet cover in crochet] materials.--brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head crochet cotton, no. . no. penelope hook. st row: make a chain of about stitches, turn back, work l. into th loop, this will form sq. in next row; then l., ch., l. into rd loop, repeat. there must be sq., or squares, only. nd: in beginning this row, make l., in the rd ch. of the ch., then ch., l. on l., repeat; make rows of these squares. after the first rows the work must not be turned. th: sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., repeat from * till within sq. of the end, then sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., * l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * times more, then l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., * l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * times more, then l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., * l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * times more, then l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., * l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * times more, then l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., * l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * times more, then l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., repeat from * times more, then l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., repeat from * times more, then sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., * l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * times more, then l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., repeat from * times more, then sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., repeat from * times more, sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., repeat from * times more, then sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., repeat from * times more, then sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. : sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., repeat from * times more, then sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., repeat from * times more, then sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. st: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. nd: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. rd: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: ^{a} sq., l., sq., l^{a}, sq., ^{b} l., sq., l., sq., l., sq^{b}. these letters will be referred to hereafter. th: ^{c} sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l^{c}, sq., ^{d} l., sq., l., sq., l., sq^{d}. th: ^{e} sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l^{e}., sq., ^{f} l., sq., l., sq^{f}. th: ^{g} sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l^{g}., sq., ^{h} l., sq., l., sq., l., sq^{h}. th: ^{i} sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l^{i}., sq., ^{k} l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq^{k}. th: ^{l} sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l^{l}., sq., ^{m} l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq^{m}. th: ^{n} sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l^{n}., sq., ^{o} l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq^{o}. st: ^{p} sq., l., sq., l., sq., l^{p}., sq., ^{q} l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq^{q}. nd: ^{r} sq., l., sq., l^{r}., sq., ^{s} l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq^{s}. rd: ^{t} sq., l., sq., l., sq., l^{t}., sq., ^{u} l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq^{u}. th: ^{v} sq., l., sq., l., sq., l^{v}., sq., ^{w} l., sq., l., sq^{w}. th: ^{x} sq., l., sq., l., sq., l^{x}., sq., ^{y} l., sq., l., sq^{y}. th: ^{z} sq., l., sq., l., sq., l^{z}., sq., l., sq., ^{&} l., sq., l., sq., l., sq^{&}. th: ^{a} sq., l., sq., l., ^{b}., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ^{c} l., sq., l., sq., l., sq^{d}. th: ^{e} sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., ^{f}., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ^{g} l., sq., l., sq., l., sq^{h}. th: ^{i} sq., l., sq., l., sq., l^{k}., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ^{l} l, sq., l., sq., l., sq^{m}. th: ^{n} sq., l., sq., l., sq., l^{o}., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ^{p} l., sq., l., sq^{q}. st: ^{r} sq., l., sq., l., sq., l^{s}., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ^{t} l., sq., l., sq., l., sq^{u}. nd: ^{v} sq., l., sq., l^{w}., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ^{x} l., sq., l., sq., l., sq^{y}. rd: repeat from ^{a} to ^{a} in th row, then sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{b} to ^{b} in th row. th: repeat from ^{c} to ^{c} in th row, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{d} to ^{d} in th row. th: repeat from ^{e} to ^{e} in th row, then sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. l., sq., repeat from ^{f} to ^{f}. th: repeat from ^{g} to ^{g}, in th row, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{h} to ^{h}. th: repeat from ^{i} to ^{i} in th row, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{k} to ^{k}. th: repeat from ^{l} to ^{l} in th row, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{m} to ^{m}. th: repeat from ^{n} to ^{n}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{o} to ^{o}. th: repeat from ^{p} to ^{p}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{q} to ^{q}. st: repeat from ^{r} to ^{r}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{s} to ^{s}. nd: repeat from ^{t} to ^{t}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. repeat from ^{u} to ^{u}. rd: repeat from ^{v} to ^{v}, sq., l., sq., l, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{w} to ^{w}. th: repeat from ^{x} to ^{x}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{y} to ^{y}. th: repeat from ^{z} to ^{z}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{&} to ^{&}. th: repeat from ^{a} to ^{b}, in th row, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{c} to ^{d}. th: repeat from ^{e} to ^{f}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{g} to ^{h}. th: repeat from ^{i} to ^{k}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{l} to ^{m}. th: repeat from ^{n} to ^{o}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{p} to ^{q}. th: repeat from ^{r} to ^{s}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{t} to ^{u}. st: repeat from ^{v} to ^{w}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{x} to ^{y}. nd: repeat from ^{a} to ^{a}, in th row, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{b} to ^{b}. rd: repeat from ^{c} to ^{c}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{d} to ^{d}. th: repeat from ^{e} to ^{e}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{f} to ^{f}. th: repeat from ^{g} to ^{g}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{h} to ^{h}. th: repeat from ^{i} to ^{i}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., s., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{k} to ^{k}. th: repeat from ^{l} to ^{l}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{m} to ^{m}. th: repeat from ^{n} to ^{n}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{o} to ^{o}. th: repeat from ^{p} to ^{p}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{q} to ^{q}. th: repeat from ^{r} to ^{r}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{s} to ^{s}. st: repeat from ^{t} to ^{t}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{u} to ^{u}. nd: repeat from ^{v} to ^{v}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{w} to ^{w}. rd: repeat from ^{x} to ^{x}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{y} to ^{y}. th: repeat from ^{z} to ^{z}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{&} to ^{&}. th: repeat from ^{a} to ^{b}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{c} to ^{d}. th: repeat from ^{e} to ^{f}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{g} to ^{h}. th: repeat from ^{i} to ^{k}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{l} to ^{m}. th: repeat from ^{n} to ^{o}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{p} to ^{q}. th: repeat from ^{r} to ^{s}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{t} to ^{u}. th: repeat from ^{v} to ^{w}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{x} to ^{y}. st: repeat from ^{a} to ^{a}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{b} to ^{b}. nd: repeat from ^{c} to ^{c}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{d} to ^{d}. rd: repeat from ^{e} to ^{e} sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{f} to ^{f}. th: repeat from ^{g} to ^{g}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{h} to ^{h}. th: repeat from ^{i} to ^{i} sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{k} to ^{k}. th: repeat from ^{l} to ^{l}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{m} to ^{m}. th: repeat from ^{n} to ^{n}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{o} to ^{o}. th: repeat from ^{p} to ^{p}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{q} to ^{q}. th: repeat from ^{r} to ^{r}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from s to ^{s}. th: repeat from ^{t} to ^{t}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{u} to ^{u}. st: repeat from ^{v} to ^{v}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{w} to ^{w}. nd: repeat from ^{x} to ^{x}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{y} to ^{y}. rd: repeat from ^{z} to ^{z}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from & to &. th: repeat from ^{a} to ^{b}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{c} to ^{d}. th: repeat from ^{e} to ^{f}, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from ^{g} to ^{h}. th: repeat from ^{i} to ^{k} sq., repeat from ^{l} to ^{m}. th: repeat from ^{n} to ^{o}, sq., repeat from ^{p} to ^{q}. th: repeat from ^{r} to ^{s}, sq., repeat from ^{t} to ^{u}. th: repeat from ^{v} to ^{w}, sq., repeat from ^{x} to ^{y}. th: repeat from ^{a} to ^{a}, sq., repeat from ^{b} to ^{b}. st: repeat from ^{c} to ^{c}, sq., repeat from ^{d} to ^{d}. nd: repeat from ^{e} to ^{e}, sq., repeat from ^{f} to ^{f}. rd: repeat from ^{g} to ^{g}, sq., repeat from ^{h} to ^{h}. th: repeat from ^{i} to ^{i} sq., repeat from ^{k} to ^{k}. th: repeat from ^{l} to ^{l}, sq., repeat from ^{m} to ^{m}. th: repeat from ^{n} to ^{n}, sq., repeat from ^{o} to ^{o}. th: repeat from ^{p} to ^{p}, sq., repeat from ^{q} to ^{q}. th: repeat from ^{r} to ^{r}, sq., repeat from ^{s} to ^{s}. th: repeat from ^{t} to ^{t}, sq., repeat from ^{u} to ^{u}. th: repeat from ^{v} to ^{v}, sq., repeat from ^{w} to ^{w}. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l, repeat from * till within sq. of the end, then sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., repeat from * till within sq., then sq., l., sq., l, sq., l., sq. th: sq., l, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., repeat from * till sq., then sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., repeat from * till sq., then sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., repeat from * till sq., then sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., repeat from * till within sq., then sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., repeat from * till sq., then sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., repeat from * till sq., then sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., repeat from * till sq., then sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., repeat from * till sq., then sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. st: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., repeat from * till sq., then sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. nd: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., repeat from * till sq., then sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. rd: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l, sq., l., repeat from, * till sq., then sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., repeat from * till sq., then sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., repeat from * till sq., then sq., l., sq. now rows of squares. d.c. stitches under every chains, and long stitches all round, making d.c., at each corner. border.--begin on the long side, l. into corner loop, ch., d.c., the st into th loop, * ch., l., the st into th loop, ch., d.c., the st into th loop, repeat from * till the end, where make ch., work at corner as before, then ch., d.c., the st into th loop, now work down the short side; but as the will be more loops on this side than can be made available for the pattern, at different intervals, widely apart, take loops together in making the l. stitches; that is, insert the hook through loops of the foundation at the same time instead of one. nd: begin at corner, l. into every loop of the l. stitches at corner in last row, ch., * d.c., the st into th loop, ch., l., the st into th loop, ch., repeat from *. rd: work at corner as before, that is, working l. into every loop, ch., * d.c., the st on nd d.c., ch., l., the st into th loop, ch., repeat from *. begin each row with the long stitch at a corner, but not at same the corner every time; this is to prevent the joinings being seen. th: l. on the first l. at corner, ch., l. on the remaining l., ch., * l. into rd loop, ch., l. into rd loop from the last of the d.c. in last row, ch., l. the st into rd loop, ch., repeat from *. th: l., beginning as before, ch., miss loop, l., * ch., d.c. into centre loop of ch., ch., l. the st into nd loop from l. stitch in last row, repeat from *. th: l., ch., miss loop, l., * ch., d.c. into th loop, ch., l., the st into rd loop from d.c. stitch in last row, repeat from *. th: l., ch., miss loop, l., * ch., l. into centre loop of ch., ch., l. into rd loop of the ch., from d.c. stitch in last row, ch., d.c. on the centre l. of the l., repeat from *. th: l., ch., miss loop, l., * d.c. under the ch., l. into the st loops of the ch., ch., more l. into same loop, more l. into the remaining loops, d.c. under the ch., ch., repeat from *. * * * * * [illustration: star-pattern d'oyley.] materials.--brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head crochet cotton, nos. , , , , , , , and penelope crochet hook, nos. , - / , . with cotton no. , and hook no. . for centre star or _a_ work chain, make it round, and in the loop you have formed work d.c.; s.c. in st d.c. ** chain, miss , s.c. in rd, repeat from ** times more; in st chain, * long, chain, long in same chain, chain repeat from * in each chain all round, fasten off. fasten cotton no. , and hook no. - / . ** in chain long, chain turn and on the chain, miss , d.c., long; long in same chain; chain, s.c. in centre of chain; chain repeat ** all round. * long, chain, miss , long, chain, miss , long, chain, long in same as last long, long in next chain, chain, miss , long, chain, miss , long, miss . repeat all round, * fasten off. _b_. with cotton no. , and hook - / , chain join round; work in round loop; d.c. rd row: long, chain, long, chain, repeat all round. th: long in the centre of chain; chain, s.c. in the centre of chains; chain; repeat all round, fasten off. with no. cotton, and the same hook. * long in nd long of long in last row; " chain," long in same as last; chain, miss , long, d.c. in last long; miss , d.c., long, chain, repeat * times more only in the last point in " chain." join to _a_ in the following manner: chain draw through the th stitch of chain of _a_, then repeat the same as before, fasten off. nd _b_. make the same as first _b_ till the last row, where join in precisely the same way; the st point to centre _a_ and two more points to st _b_; finish the row same as st _a_, and fasten off. make more _b_, joining in the same manner. you will see what points are joined in the engraving. _c_. with cotton no. , and hook . chain, s c. in st: then in round loop; * d.c. chain repeat * times more. in st chain ** d.c., long, chain, join to a, turn, and on chain d.c., long: in same chain, long, d.c. ** repeat times more, joining each petal as in the engraving, fasten off. make more _c_s, joining between _a_ and _b_s in the same manner. _d_. with cotton no. , and hook - / . chain, make it round, and in loop work d.c.; * d.c. on st d.c., chain, miss , repeat times more, * then in each chain; ** d.c., long, d.c., ** fasten off. with cotton no. , and hook - / . * s.c. in nd d.c., chain turn, miss , d.c.; chain repeat * times more; miss , ** long, chain long in same as last long; long, miss , repeat ** times more, except in the last two points, where in th chain stitch of chain join to point of _b_, fasten off. make more _d_s, joining as in the engraving. _e_. with cotton no. , and hook - / . chain make round; * d.c. in loop; chain repeat * times more. ** long in chain, chain, long repeat ** times more, joining, as seen in the engraving, to _b_ and _d_, fasten off. make more _e_s, joining each between two _d_s. _f_. with cotton no. , and hook . make chain, make into a loop, and in loop * d.c., chain join to b, turn, miss , d.c., long repeat * times more; join in the same manner, and placed as in the engraving, fasten off. make more, joining them as you make them. _g_. with cotton no. , and hook . * d.c. on st d.c. of _e_ chain, miss , * repeat all round. make the tassels with no. cotton, over a card inches wide; wind it round the card times, tie it round about half an inch down, draw the cotton tight and bring the ends to the top again, fasten to the d'oyley, as in the engraving. make a sufficient number to go round. * * * * * crochet d'oyley. materials.--brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head crochet thread, no. : and penelope crochet hook, no. . make a round loop the size of this o, and then commence. st round: ch. , and work treble for times in the round loop of last round, plain , and fasten off. nd: treble at the top of the one treble of last round, ch. , and repeat round, plain , and fasten off. rd: treble at the top of the three treble of last round, ch. , and repeat round, plain , and fasten off. th: treble at the top of the five treble of last round, ch. , and repeat round, plain , and fasten off. [illustration: crochet d'oyley.] th: treble at the top of the seven treble of last round, ch. , work treble in the centre of the three chain of last round, ch. , and repeat round, plain , and fasten off. th: treble at the top of the five treble of last round, ch. , work treble at the top of the one treble of last round, ch. , work treble in the same loop as before, chain , and repeat round, plain , and fasten off. th: treble at the top of the three treble of last round, ch. , work treble in the two chain of last round, ch. , and repeat round, plain , and fasten off. th: treble at the top of the two treble of last round, ch. , work treble at the top of the seven treble of last round, ch. , and repeat round, plain , and fasten off. th: treble at the top of the one treble of last round, ch. , work treble at the top of the seven treble of last round, ch. , and repeat round, plain , and fasten off. th: treble at the top of the three treble of last round, ch. , work treble at the top of the five treble of last round, ch. , and repeat round, plain , and fasten off. th: treble at the top of the three treble of last round, ch. , and repeat round, plain , and fasten off. th: treble at the top of the two treble of last round, ch. , and repeat round, plain , and fasten off. th: treble at the top of the one treble of last round, ch. , work treble in the same loop as before, ch. , and repeat round, plain , and fasten off. th: treble in the centre of the two chain of last round, ch. , and repeat round, plain , and fasten off. th: treble at the top of the nine treble of last round, ch. , work double in the centre of the twelve chain of last round, ch. , and repeat round, plain , and fasten off. th: treble at the top of the nine treble of last round, ch. , work treble at the top of the one double of last round, ch. , work treble in the same loop as before, ch. , and repeat round; plain , and fasten off. th: treble at the top of seven treble of last round, ch. , work treble in the centre of the two chain of last round, then ch. , and work one treble three times more in the same loop as before, ch. , and repeat round, plain , and fasten off. th: treble at the top of the five treble of last round, ch. , work treble in the first three chain of last round, ch. , work treble in the same loop as before, ch. , and work the same in the next two three chains of last round, ch. , and repeat round, plain , and fasten off. th: treble at the top of the three treble of last round, ch. , then work as follows in each of the three chains of last round, treble, ch. , work treble all in the first three chain of last round, ch. , and work the same in the next two three chains of last round, ch. , and repeat round, plain , and fasten off. th: treble at the top of the two treble of last round, then work as follows in each of the three chains of last round, treble, ch. , work treble in the same loop as before, ch. , and repeat the same in the next two three chains of last round, repeat round, plain , and fasten off, which completes the d'oyley. * * * * * rose d'oyley. materials.--brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head crochet cotton, nos. , , , , . walker's penelope hook, nos. , - / , . _a_. with cotton no. and hook - / , work chains: make it round and in loop d.c., d.c. on d.c., chain, miss , repeat times more; in th chain stitch of chain, s.c., chain, s.c. in th chain from hook; chain, s.c. in same at last s.c.; chain, s.c., in same as last s.c., chain, s.c. in next chain stitch to st of chain; chain, repeat times more, fasten off. _b_. with cotton no. and hook - / , work chain, make it round, and in loop d.c. * in st d.c. work chain, long, chain, d.c., miss , and repeat * times more. those only in the last, long, join to th chain stitch of chain of _a_, long, chain, d.c., fasten off. make more _b_, joining to the chains of _a_. [illustration: rose d'oyley.] _c_. with cotton no. and hook , ** s.c. in the centre of the two chains of _a_, nearest the foundation: chain, s.c. in the centre of chain; chain, s.c. on nd long of st division of _b_; * chain, d.c. on next division, repeat * times more, chain; d.c. in next chain, chain, repeat ** times more, fasten off. d.c. all round the chain and fasten off. _d_. with cotton no. and hook , * chain, s.c. in st chain, and in round loop d.c., long, chain; join to d.c. stitches where the two chains are found together, turn, and on the chain d.c., long; then in round loop, long, d.c.; then join to the d.c. on the opposite side, and fasten off. repeat * times more. _e_. with cotton no. and hook . where you left off in _d_, join on no. cotton; chain, s.c. in th chain; then in round loop ** d.c., chain, join to th d.c. from where you joined no. cotton on; chain, turn, and on chain, d.c., long; d.c. in round loop, chain join to the top d.c., chain. s.c. in the th chain, chain, d.c. in the th chain; * * long, d.c. in same as st d.c., d.c. in round loop, repeat ** from ** without joining the chain twice. the second time only work to * *, work long, join to th d.c. from where you joined no. cotton on; more long on chain, d.c.; then s.c. down the stem. make more joining in the same way: fasten off. _f_. with cotton no. and hook . in th d.c. of _c_ from where you joined no. cotton on, * d.c., chain, join to st chain of _e_ of st section, chain, join to nd chain of _e_ of st section; chain join to st chain of _e_ of nd section, chain, join to nd chain of _e_ of nd section; chain, join to st chain of _e_ of rd section; chain, join to nd chain of _e_ of rd section; chain, repeat all round; d.c. all round. _g_. with cotton no. and hook , chain, make it round and in loop; d.c. join to the same place, where you began the long chain of _f_ d.c., * chain join to th d.c. of _f_ from where you joined the d.c.: chain, turn, d.c., long, d.c., miss , s.c. in next d.c., repeat * times more. join in the same place only to last petal. in the last petal work down the chain as follows: d.c.; long, join to th d.c. from where you joined the st d.c.; long, d.c., fasten off. make more. joining each as you make them. _h_. with cotton no. and hook , chain, s.c. in st stitch: then in loop; d.c., * d.c. on d.c., chain, miss , repeat * times more, then in each chain, d.c., except the last, which work as follows: d.c. join to rd point of _g_, d.c. in same chain. the next _h_, join in the same manner to point of _f_ make sufficient to go round, joining alternately to _g_'s and _f_s. _i_. with cotton no. and hook , ** s.c. on th d.c. of st division of _h_, * chain, s.c. in next division, repeat * times more, chain join to next point of _g_ " chain," s.c. in next point of _g_, chain, repeat ** from all round; d.c. all round, and when you have come to the end of " chain" th d.c. join to the th d.c.; * chain, miss , d.c. in next, * repeat times the and , join to the other side and fasten off. * * * * * toilet cover in square crochet. materials.--brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head crochet cotton, no. , with a fine hook. the pattern for this toilet cover being so elaborate, it must be worked in cotton not coarser than that we have indicated, if intended for an ordinary toilet cover. worked in a coarser material, no. or , of brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head crochet cotton, it would make a beautiful quilt for a small bed; and in some of the coarser sizes of the knitting cord, a large counterpane might be worked, and from the clear appearance this material presents, would look very rich and handsome. like all square crochet, this design must be worked from the engraving. the number of foundation chain for working it is , reckoning the length, or for the width, if that mode of working be preferred as less cumbersome. it will not, however, answer so well for a toilet cover, as the stitches would go the wrong way. for a counterpane, on the contrary, it would be preferable. [illustration: toilet cover.] for the border of a toilet cover, we should recommend one of the patterns in bead work, found in other parts of this volume. for the edge of a counterpane, nothing can be handsomer than the border and fringe of the bassinet quilt. it should be worked with the same cotton as the centre, and the fringe a degree coarser. crochet counterpanes should be laid over one of the american patent quilted coverlets, which have recently been sold in london, and for invalids, especially, are so extremely comfortable. * * * * * tidy in square crochet. materials.--brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head crochet cotton, no. : walker's penelope crochet-hook, no. / . [illustration: tidy in square crochet. ] make a chain of stitches, which will form ninety-nine squares; with this cotton and hook it will measure twenty-five inches; the pattern must be worked from the engraving, and may be increased in size by using a coarser cotton and thicker hook. * * * * * arabesque toilet-cover in square crochet. [illustration: arabesque toilet-cover in square crochet.] this pattern should be worked in brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head crochet cotton, exactly to the size of the top of the table, in rather thick cotton, to make it look massive, and to retain its form; the edging must be worked in blue beads in crochet to the pattern, and a number of beads given exactly to go round the table and to hang down, and finished with a tassel at each corner. * * * * * cover for a hadrot lamp. materials.--half-a-dozen skeins of each of seven shades of green wool, and four of scarlet ditto. a fine netting-needle, four knitting-needles, no. , and the same of no. . with the darkest green wool cast on stitches on each of three of the coarsest knitting-needles (that is, altogether), and close into a round. st round: plain knitting. [illustration: cover for a hadrot lamp.] nd: * knit , make , knit , knit together, knit , make , * times. rd: plain knitting. th: change to the darkest scarlet, and repeat the second round. th: knit , * knit together, knit , * times; knit together, knit . th: * knit , make , knit , knit together, knit , make , * times. th: plain knitting. th: change to the next shade of green, and repeat the th round. th: knit , * knit together, knit , * times; knit together, knit . th: * knit , make , knit , knit together, knit , make , * times. th: plain knitting. th: change to the next shade of scarlet, and repeat the th round. th: knit , * knit together, knit , * times; knit together, knit . th: * knit , make , knit , knit together, knit , make , * times. th: plain knitting. th: change to the next shade of green, and repeat the th round. th: knit , * knit together, knit , * times; knit together, knit . th: * knit , make , knit , knit together, knit , make , * times. th: knit , * knit together, knit , * times; knit together, knit . th and st: plain knitting, using the finer needles, and decreasing until there are only stitches in the round. nd: * knit , make , knit together, make , knit together, knit , make , knit together, knit , slip , knit , pass the slip stitch over, make , knit , * times. rd: * knit , make , knit together, twice, knit , * times. th: like nd. th: * slip , knit , pass the slip stitch over, make , slip , knit , pass the slip stitch over, make , knit , * times. th: * slip , knit , pass the slip stitch over, make , slip , knit , pass the slip stitch over, make , knit , make , slip two together, knit , pass the slip over, make , knit , * times. th: like the th. th: * knit , make , knit together, make , knit together, knit , slip , knit , pass the slip stitch over, make , knit , make , knit together, knit , * times. th: * knit , make , knit together, make , knit together, knit , * times. th: like th. st: * ** slip , knit , pass the slip stitch over, make , ** twice, knit , * times. nd: * ** slip , knit , pass the slip stitch over, make , ** twice, knit , slip , knit , pass the slip stitch over, make , knit , make , knit together, * times. rd: like st. repeat these rows (that is, from the nd to the rd, inclusive of both), six times more, doing two patterns (that is, rounds) of one shade, and then changing to the next lightest. after the th pattern, continue as follows, in order to decrease and form the neck for the lamp. st decreasing round: * knit , make , knit together, make , knit together, make , knit together, knit , slip , knit , pass the slip stitch over, make , knit , * times. nd: * knit , make , knit together, make , knit together, knit , * times. rd: * knit , make , knit together, make , knit together, make , knit together, knit , slip , knit , pass the slip stitch over, make , knit , * times. th: * ** slip , knit , pass the slip stitch over, make , ** twice, knit , * times. th: * * slip , knit , pass the slip stitch over, make , ** times, knit together, knit , * times. th: * slip , knit , pass the slip stitch over, make , slip , knit , pass the slip stitch over, make , knit , knit together, * times. after this, do two inches of ribbed knitting in the same shade. it is done by alternately knitting and purling two stitches. cast off. the edges of the vandykes are trimmed with tatting, of which five graduated ones surround each. fill the netting-needle with the darkest shade of wool, and make for every point at the base of the corner the following seven loops:-- st: double stitches; draw it up to a half-circle. nd: double; the same. rd: double; the same. th: double; draw it up tightly. th: like rd. th: like nd. th: like st. this cover is intended to protect the lamp from the dust, which greatly injures the bronzing of the hadrot lamp. * * * * * lamp mat, in crochet. materials.-- skeins of white netting silk, and skeins each of four shades of cerise ditto, the darkest being almost brown, and the lightest a rich and brilliant cerise. a hank of rather large steel beads, a string of short square steel bugles, and oz. of fluted ditto, / inch long. a skein of rather fine white cotton cord, and rings. tapered, indented crochet-hook, no. . begin with the darkest cerise, and do not change until the directions require it. st round: with this silk work s.c. on the end of the cord, and form into a round, after which s.c. to secure it. nd (cerise and white): x cerise in the same stitch as the last, white, cerise in , x times. rd: x cerise worked in the same stitch as the last two, white, cerise in one, x times. th: like rd, with white instead of . th: x cerise in the same stitch as the last two, white, cerise in , x times. th: x cerise in the same as the last four, white (the last being over cerise), cerise in one, x times. th: x cerise on the next stitch, white, cerise on , on the centre one of , x times. th: like th, with white. change to the next shade of cerise. th: x cerise on next, white, cerise, white, cerise, cerise on centre of , x times. th: x cerise on next, white, cerise (the second over cerise), white, cerise, in , x times. th: x cerise on next, white, cerise, white, cerise, white, cerise, white, cerise, in , x times. th: x cerise in next, white, cerise, white, cerise. in , x times. next shade of cerise. th: x cerise in next, white, cerise, white, cerise, white, cerise, white, cerise, in , x times. th: x cerise in next, white, cerise, * white, cerise, * twice, white, cerise, white, cerise, in , x times. th: x cerise in next, white, cerise, white, cerise, white, cerise, in , x times. th (lightest cerise): x cerise in the same stitch as the last , white, cerise, white, cerise, white, cerise, white, cerise in , x times. th: x cerise in the next, white, cerise (over w., c., w.), white, cerise, in , x times. [illustration: lamp mat.] th: x cerise on next, white, cerise, white, cerise, cerise in , x times. th: x cerise in next, white, cerise, cerise in , x times. th: x cerise in , white, * cerise, white, * times, cerise, white, cerise, cerise in , x times. st: x cerise in next, * white, cerise, * times (the white over white, the cerise over cerise), white, cerise, cerise in , x times. nd: x cerise in next, white, * cerise, white over cerise, cerise, white, * times, more white, cerise, cerise in , x times. rd: x cerise in next, white, * cerise, white, * times, cerise, white, cerise, cerise in , x times. th: entirely cerise, working in at all the points. th: white and cerise alternately, a single stitch of each, with in at the points. th: all cerise, increasing, as before, at the corners. this completes the centre of the mat. now cover six of the rings with the darkest cerise, with the lightest, with the second lightest, and with white. they are to be done in s.c. the darkest are sewed in the centre of each side of hexagon, with a white at each side, and two more (joined together) above it. the lightest cerise are placed at the points the two being joined together, and one to the mat. these form the extreme points, and the other twelve are placed to connect the lightest rings with the white. the short square bugles are threaded, with some of the beads, to form a cross in the centre of each of the white rings; the other rings have a cross of beads only. all the rings are sewed together, and to the mat. the elegant fringe round the edge is formed of the long steel bugles, connected with each other at the outer edge by a chain of steel beads. the needle is slipped down them to connect them with the rings, and a single bead is threaded at the base of each. the side rings have bugles each, placed at equal distances; the corners have ; and is placed where every two rings are joined. this mat would be very beautiful if worked in white and shades of green, with gold beads and bugles. * * * * * candle lamp mat. materials.--half-ounce each of stone-colour and shaded violet, -thread; half-ounce of shaded amber, -thread berlin wool; yards of ordinary sized blind or skirt cord; small curtain rings, the size measuring across five-eighths of an inch; nos. and penelope hook: bunches no. steel beads. with no. hook, and drab wool, work stitches d.c., over the end of the cord; double in as small a circle as possible, unite, and work stitches into every loop for three more rounds. th: stitch into every loop. th: increase stitch in every nd loop. there must be stitches in this round. th: place a pin in every th loop, and in this same th loop work with -thread violet, stitch; then stitches drab in the next loops, that is, increasing stitch in about the th loop; repeat this all round. th: work stitches violet into the violet stitch; then stitches drab, working only stitches in the last compartment, to commence next row. th: in the last drab stitch that was not worked into, work violet stitch; then more violet; then drab, increasing in th stitch; in the last compartment make only drab after the increased stitch, in order to make violet in next round. th: violet, the st to come before the th violet of last row, and the last to come after the th violet, but increasing violet on the th stitch; then drab, increasing in the th drab stitch. th: all violet, increasing in every th stitch. th. all violet, but without increasing, unless required. the diameter of the mat should now measure inches across, but should it be required larger, another row of cord, or even two, will give the increased size. now d.c. under all the rings, about to stitches for each ring is necessary; unite and tie the knot very neatly, and sew six of these rings round a th, sewing them with cotton the colour, and sewing them at the parts where each ring is joined, about stitches in length; be careful that no stitches are seen on the right side; then sew steel beads round the centre ring, taking up to beads at a time on the needle; then place the needle between the joinings of the rings, take upon it about beads, and draw the cotton across to the opposite point; repeat this twice more, the beads will then form as given in engraving; sew the circles of rings on to the mat by two of the rings, and sew the circles together by one ring. any other colour beside amber will do for the rings. if the table cover is scarlet, green wool should be used; if blue, amber; or if green, scarlet or pink. [illustration: candle-lamp mat.] * * * * * hand screen, in crochet. materials.-- skeins of rich dark blue purse silk, skeins of fine and pure gold thread; penelope hook, no. ; yards of dark blue silk fringe, inches deep; yards of fine wire, and / yard of white gros-de-naples. a pair of screen handles. of course silk of any other colour may be used, if blue will not correspond with the furniture. green looks very handsome with gold, and scarlet with silver. the metal thread used must be of the very best description only. begin by making six gold flowers, thus:-- ch., close in th for a round, x ch., s.c. under loop, x twice, ch., slip on the closing of the round--thus there are three loops in the centre one; work under the chain of the first, s.c., d.c., t.c., d.c., s.c. under the centre one s.c., d.c., t.c., d.c., s.c.; and the third loop like the first. slip on the base of the flower, and work down the ch. in s.c. [illustration: hand screen.] six of these flowers are to be made, and afterwards sewed on the silk, radiating from the centre, and each occupying the middle of one side of the hexagon. for the screen (beginning in the centre).--with the blue silk, make a chain of six, and close into a round. st: x d.c., ch., miss none, x times. nd: x t.c. on ch., ch., miss d.c., x times. rd: x t.c. (beginning on the last of ch.), ch., x times. continue in this manner, increasing the t.c. stitches by at each section of the hexagon, in every round, until there are t.c. in each division, always making chain between. then s.c. all round, adding the silk flowers where they occur--that is, over the th, th, and th of the t.c. in each section. the flowers are made in the following mariner:-- ch., close into a loop at the th, ch., s.c. under loop. ch., s.c. under loop, ch., slip at the stem, x ch., s.c. under first loop of , x times, * ch., s.c. under the loop of , * times, ** ch., s.c. under loop of , ** times; s.c. down the chain, and continue the round. the gold flowers are to be worked in the same way, and attached over the centre of each chain which form the corners of the hexagon. work a chain all round, catching up the points of the flowers at regular intervals, and then work two rounds of s.c., with three stitches in one at the points. do all the crochet work of these screens rather tightly. sew on the large gold flowers, passing the ends through the centre loop of the screens, and form a little rosette of x chains, s.c. in the round, x repeated to close the middle. to make up the screens.--cut out a hexagon, the exact size of the crochet, in paper, and bend the wire into the same form. be very particular that the wire frame shall be true and even. cover it on both sides with white silk, over one side of which sew the crochet. it will only require to be fastened round the edges. the fringe must then be laid on, the handles attached, and the screen is completed. if preferred, the back of the screen may be covered with silk of the colour of the crochet, as more durable than white. * * * * * crochet counterpane for a bassinet. materials.--brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head knitting cords, nos. and ; oz. of blue beads, large enough to thread on the finest cotton, they should be turquoise blue; crochet hooks, nos. and . the centre of the counterpane is made in diamonds, with small pieces at the edges, merely to fill in the parts where the diamonds leave spaces, and form the whole into a solid square. it is done in ribbed crochet. ribbed crochet is so called from the work having the appearance of ridges. it is worked backwards and forwards thus: the top of a row of crochet, whether s.c., d.c., or t.c., presents an appearance of chain stitch; in working ribbed crochet, take up always that side of the chain which is furthest from you. the middle of the counterpane is done in knitting cord, no. ; crochet hook, no . for the diamonds.--(a) make ch., miss , s.c. in the next ch. nd: turn the work; ch., s.c. in one, s.c. in next, s.c. in third. rd: turn, ch., s.c. in second, s.c. in next, s.c. in two last. thus you proceed, turning the work at the end of every row, working s.c. in every one but the middle stitch, in which you work , until you have made ribs, and the row has stitches, a chain stitch being made at the beginning of every row. now make ch., on turning, and work d.c. in the first stitch, x miss , d.c. in third, x times, miss , d.c. in second, ch., miss (which should be at the point), d.c. in second, miss , d.c. in second, * miss , d.c. in third, * times. this completes the row, the last d.c. coming on the last stitch. [illustration: crochet counterpane for a bassinet.] turn, x ch., d.c. between the sets of d.c. of the last row, x to the end; s.c. only at the last. turn, x ch, s.c. under loop, x to the end but with ch. at the point; another s.c. in the last loop. turn, ch., d.c. in every stitch of last row. turn, ch., s.c. in every stitch of last row; fasten off. this completes one diamond, which for a bassinet quilt will be large enough. for a large counterpane they may be considerably increased. a glance at the engraving will show how they are joined together. for the half diamonds at the side _(b)_ make ch.; work s.c. in the first of these, turn, ch., s.c. in the first of the two of last row, s.c. in the second; turn, ch., s.c. in the first, and in each of the other s.c. of last row. continue working thus, making two in one at the end of one row and the beginning of the next, until there are stitches and ribs. then, for the open part, ch., turn, work d.c. in the first stitch, x miss , d.c. in next, x times. nd row of open work: turn, x ch., d.c. under the chain between the first and second set of d.c. x repeat to the end of the row; ch., s.c. at the end. rd: turn, x ch., s.c. under loop, x repeat to the end. th: ch., turn d.c. in every stitch to the end. th: ch., turn, s.c. to the end. for the side pieces _(c)_ work in exactly the same manner, only beginning by working thus: ch., turn, s.c. in the first of these, ch., turn, _ s.c. in the first of the two and in the second_. this is just the reverse of the other, the increase continuing to be made at that edge where the first increases. of course the last row will end at the point of one piece, and the short side of the other. _(d)_ ch., work s.c. in the first of these, ch., turn, s.c. in the first, in the next, in the last. turn, ch.; work this and all the following rows until you have stitches in this manner. s.c. in the first and last stitches, in one in the centre, and in one in every other (increasing stitches in every row). the five open work rows to be done as in _a_. _(e)_ work these pieces like _a_, until ribs are done; then turn and s.c. up to the three centre stitches, _slip_ on the first of the three, x turn, miss the slip stitch, slip on the next, and s.c. to the end; turn, ch., s.c. on all the s.c. but the last, which slip; x repeat between the marks until one stitch only remains, through which the thread is drawn. the other side of the point must then be worked to correspond with the first, the centre stitch not being worked at all. _(f)_ these two morsels are begun like _b_ and _c_, and finished in the same way that _e_ is. they will then exactly fit those corners. the other corners _(g)_ are worked by beginning, as usual, with ch., in the first of which work s.c. x ch., turn, s c. in first and last stitches, and one in each intermediate; x repeating backwards and forwards until stitches are in the row, when complete by open work as in _b_ and _c_. the numbers required of each piece are--_a_, ; _b_ and _c_, five of each; _d, e, f_, and _g_, two each. (a glance at the engraving will show the manner in which these are joined into an oblong square.) eyelet-hole border.--when all are sewed together, a line of d.c. must be worked all round, with stitches in one at the corners, and two in one on each side of the three. this will make the corners perfectly square. nd round: x d.c., ch., miss x; repeat all round, but not missing any at the corners. rd: (eyelet-holes). these are to be worked quite separately from the last, at first. x ch., close for a round in the second, and work s.c. under the half, x repeat until a length is done sufficient to surround the square, every little round being half-covered by the s.c. in covering the other half of each circle, you will attach it to the work thus:-- more s.c. make a ch., slip the needle off the loop, insert it at the corner of second round, and draw the loop through, then s.c. under the remainder of the circle, s.c. on ch. between; x s.c. under next eyelet-hole, miss on the second round, insert the hook in the third, draw the loop through, and work more under the ch.; x repeat, allowing between, except at the corners. th: s.c. (putting the hook under both sides of the chain) at the top of an eyelet-hole, x ch., s.c. in the same way under the centre of the next, x all round, with ch. at the corners. th: x d.c., ch., miss , x all round, not missing any at the corners. th: s.c. all round, with two stitches in one at the corners. motto borders.--for these use brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head cotton, no. , on which the beads must be strung before beginning to work. the borders are done entirely in s.c., the beads being dropped on, according to the pattern, _on the wrong side_, this _wrong_ side being the _right_ when beads are used in crochet. the ends have chain each: the sides, . the pattern occupies rows, and the squares at the corners have chain, and the same number of rows. the motto borders and corners are all worked separately, and afterwards sewed together. when completed, the eyelet-hole border is again added all round, and the counterpane then only requires a deep open border. this quilt would be very handsome, if worked in coarser cotton, for a full-sized bed. the small diamonds in the centre would thus be increased in size, and a sufficient number should be done to form a middle just three times the dimensions of that now given. the borders should be worked in open square crochet instead of s.c.; the pattern and letters in close squares on an open ground. it would for this purpose, be requisite to make the chains of three times the number of stitches, and one over: for the ends, , for the sides, and for the corners. in other respects the counterpane might be worked exactly from the instructions. the family coat-of-arms and crest, correctly drawn, would make a very handsome centre for a counterpane in crochet. where a quilt is done in square crochet, it should be laid over one of the new patent wadded counterpanes of a colour appropriate to the furniture of the room, as this displays the work to great advantage. * * * * * deep border for bassinet quilt. materials.--brooks' knitting cord, nos. and ; crochet-hook, no. . this lace is to be worked round the last eyelet-hole border with no. brooks' cotton. st round: s.c. round the edge of the last border, with two stitches in every one for two inches on each side of the corners. nd: x d.c., ch., miss , x all round, but not missing any at the corners. rd: like first, but with in for inches round the corners, at the extreme points of which there will be in three times. th: begin at a corner. x d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , d.c., ch., miss , x times. then continue along the side, missing instead of , until you come to within stitches of the next corner, when you will miss only again, and at the point of the corner miss none. all the sides are to be worked alike. th: (begin over the nd of the first d.c.) x d.c., ch. (which comes over the d.c.), d.c., ch., d.c. on th of ch., ch., x all round. th: x d.c. (the second coming over the ch.), ch., d.c. (the second coming over d.c.), ch., x all round. th: x d.c. (on the second of the d.c. you began with in last round), ch., miss ch., d.c., ch., miss d.c., d.c., ch., x all round. th: (begin on the last chain before the d.c.) x d.c., ch., miss , d.c. over ch., ch., miss , d.c., ch., x all round. repeat from the th to the th round, inclusive of both, thrice; then the th and th again. this will make rounds. th: x s.c. on centre of the three d.c. you began the last round with, ch., d.c., ch. (over the middle of d.c.), d.c., ch., x all round. th: x s.c. over s.c. ch., d.c., ch., d.c. (over ch. of last round), ch., d.c., ch., x all round. st: x slip on s.c., s.c. on first of ch., ch., d.c. (the first over second d.c. of last round), ch. over d.c., d.c., ch., s.c. on last of ch., x all round. nd: x s.c. on s.c., ch., d.c. on fourth of ch., ch., d.c. (the second over ch. of last round), ch., d.c. on fourth of ch., ch., s.c. on s.c., x all around. rd: x s.c. on s.c., ch., d.c. (the first over d.c. of last round), ch., d.c. over centre of d.c., ch., d.c. (the second over d.c.), ch., s.c. on s.c., x all round. th: x s.c. on s.c., ch., d.c. over d.c., ch., miss , t.c. on ch., ch., miss (that is, d.c., and ch. on each side of it), t.c. on ch., ch., miss , d.c. on d.c., ch., s.c. on s.c., and x all round. th: s.c. on ch., * ch., miss none, d.c., * times, ch, miss none, s.c. on chains, x all round. [illustration: deep border for bassinet quilt.] this is the last round. the fringe is then put on thus: wind your cotton (no. ) twelve times round a card about - / inches wide; slip it off, catch up the threads with a crochet-hook, and draw through one of the loops of chain in the last round. when half-way through, pass the other ends through the loop; draw it up tightly, and cut the ends. repeat this for every loop of ch., and the fringe is complete. * * * * * crochet stripe for a bed quilt. [illustration: crochet stripe for a bed quilt] materials.--brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head crochet cotton. penelope hook. make stripes of this pattern. all the stripes are worked the short way, and forwards and back. this stripe is about - / inches in width; it may be worked to any length, but great care must be taken that it is worked as evenly and tightly as the cotton and hook will permit, each l. stitch must measure in length over two-eighths of an inch, and nearly three-eighths. observe that the cotton must never be cut off, but that every row is worked forwards and back. st row: make a chain of about stitches in length, turn back, and work squares. nd: turn on reverse side, and observe this at the commencement of every row, work l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. rd: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., 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sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. st: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. nd: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. rd: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l, sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l.; sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. st: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. nd: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. rd: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. st: l., sq., l., sq., l, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. nd: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. rd: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. now repeat from nd row until of sufficient length. * * * * * centre stripe for a bed quilt, rose garland pattern. materials.--brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head crochet cotton. penelope hook. make a chain of about stitches, turn back and work squares. st row: ** l., sq., l., sq., l.,* sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. now repeat from * to ** beginning at l., and working these figures backwards, but always ending every row with l. instead of l., this is to make the border both sides alike. nd: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. rd: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l.,* sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l, sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l, * sq., l, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. l., sq., l, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from n * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. [illustration: center stripe for bed quilt.] th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. st: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. nd: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. rd: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. st: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. nd: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. rd: ** l., sq., .., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l, * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. st: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. nd: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. rd: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. st: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to ** . nd: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. rd: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to ** . th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. st: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l, sq., ., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. nd: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. rd: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to *** th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. st: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. nd: t l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. rd: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq. l, * sq., l., sq., ., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l, sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. st: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. nd: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. rd: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l, sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. st: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. nd: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. rd: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l, sq., l, sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l, sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l, sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l, sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. st: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. nd: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. rd: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq. l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from* to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. st: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. nd: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. rd: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. st: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. nd: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. rd: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. st: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. nd: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. rd: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. th: ** l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., * sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., repeat from * to **. now repeat from first row. * * * * * handkerchief case for hanging to the head of a bed. materials.--use brook's great exhibition prize goat's-head crochet cotton. no. penelope hook; long strip of whalebone; yard of satin ribbon inch in width. yards ditto, or inches wide. st row: make a chain of stitches, turn back, and work squares. nd: turn back, and work another row of squares. rd: turn back sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. the cotton must now be cut off at every row. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. [illustration: handkerchief case, for hanging to the head of a bed.] th: sq., l., sq., l, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. st: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. nd: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. rd: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq. l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l.; sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. st: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. nd: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. rd: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. st: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. nd: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. rd: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. st: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. nd: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. rd: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l, sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. st: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. nd: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. rd: row of squares. th: turn back, double l., made by first twisting the cotton twice over the hook, then double long to come in the st loops, which will exactly fill up the loops over st sq., then ch., miss squares, more double long in the th loop of next sq., repeat, the row will end with long stitch, turn back. th: d.c. under the ch., ch., repeat. this forms the front of the case. for the back: commence on the wrong side of the foundation chain, and work rows of squares, then work as at nd row, and continue working till the end of nd row. now rows of squares. now a row of double long stitches the same as the row on the other end. turn back. double l. on l., * ch., double l. on the l., repeat from *. now a row of long stitches, not double long. now work d.c. into every space up both sides, then crochet both sides together on the right side, by working d.c. stitch into every loop of both sides, first doubling it at the foundation chain, consequently the back will be a trifle higher than the front. now, up the side and along the top of the back, work thus: l. in st loop, * ch., l. into th loop, repeat from * and at each corner make l. into loop, with ch. between each l. next row, d c. under every ch. cover strips of narrow whalebone the exact length of the back of the case, with coloured ribbon, and run it into the open rows; for the front, cut a length of whalebone two inches longer than the pieces for the back, and run in the front row, then add ribbon and bow as in engraving. * * * * * watch pocket. materials.-- shades of scarlet, the lightest to be a very bright military scarlet, skein of the darkest, of each of the lighter shades; skeins of bright maize colour; skein of shaded violet; skein of shaded scarlet; shades of green; skein of each shade, the darkest to be very dark, and the lightest to be very light; shades of sky-blue, skein of each; skein of white; all thread berlin wool; curtain rings, the size of a fourpenny-piece, or a trifle larger; yards of blind cord; - / yards of scarlet satin ribbon, half an inch in width, or covered curtain rings will answer the same purpose. no. penelope hook. with darkest scarlet work, d.c. stitches over the cord, then turn the cord round in as small a circle as possible, unite and work rows with this shade, increasing in the two rows after the st, stitch in every loop; then th, th, and th rows, of next shade, increasing as may be required; th, th, and th rows of next shade, increasing the same. th row.-- stitches maize, stitches violet. [illustration: watch pocket.] th row.--all violet; there should be stitches in this row. cut off the cord, and fasten it nearly, also the wool. the mat should now measure - / inches across. count stitches from where the cord was cut of, counting towards the right hand, work on the cord, with shaded scarlet, beginning at the nd stitch, d.c. stitches; then turn on reverse side, and turn back every row, working ridged crochet, and, at the end of each row, instead of working an extra stitch, as is usually done in a straight piece of ridged crochet, to prevent its decreasing, omit the stitch, and by so doing, each row will be decreased stitch till it comes to a point; work more of these points, then, with the same wool, sew these up from the bottom to the point, sewing them flat on the finger, not seaming them, and sewing all the points strongly together at the top that they may not give way; this forms the pocket. now take some elastic, such as is worn for sandals for shoes, it would be better to procure it rows of india rubber wide instead of ; with the point of the scissors, push the end through to the wrong side, between the last rows of cord, and close to the broad end of the point, sew this end firmly on to the cord on the wrong side with black cotton, but very neatly; now draw the long end straight across the front to the opposite side, not drawing it too tight, or allowing it to be too loose push the end through on this side the same as the other, and sew it at the back in the same manner. now, with black thread sew the pocket to the elastic, so that neither this nor the stitches are seen. rings with maize wool.--d.c. under the rings all round, stitches will be about sufficient to cover the ring well, unite, and tie the ends in a knot neatly, then, with maize colour cotton, sew the rings round, attaching them by the part where the wool was joined; now sew the rings together, be careful that not a stitch is seen through on the right side. for the flowers.--with white wool make ch. tightly, unite, and under this circle work l. with ch. between each, cut off the white. tie on with a weaver's knot the lightest blue, work l. under each ch., with ch. between each, only let there be l. instead of . next shade blue. work this row rather loosely, d.c. under every ch., then ch., repeat; at the end draw down the end of blue wool, and tie it to the end of white; make flowers this size, which should not be larger than the size of a sixpence. now make of larger size, working them exactly the same, only making l. stitches of the white, and l. stitches of the blue; now, with white wool sew on the two largest flowers on the centre seam of the pocket, then the smaller ones on each side. for the leaves.--with darkest green make ch., turn back, work d.c. down, join on the next green; work d.c. up, l., and l., into the top loop, ch., more l. into same loop, l. down, d.c., join on the lightest shade: work d.c. all round, and d.c. into the ch, but enclosing a wire pulled from white ribbon wire, taking care to bend the end of the wire back after the st and last stitch to prevent its slipping; make of these leaves, arrange them as in engraving, and with dark green wool sew them on. to prevent the pocket from curving, cover a narrow piece of whalebone the length with scarlet ribbon, and sew it across the centre on the wrong side. * * * * * toilet sachet. materials.--three-quarters of a pound of brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head knitting cord no. ; and tapered indented crochet hook, no. . a yard of pink or blue ingrain gingham. this article, made in the form of an envelope, is intended to hold the night-dress and cap, and lies on the pillow during the day, forming an elegant appendage to the drapery. the lining should, of course, be of a tint to suit the rest of the furniture, and may be of silk, if preferred; but, as gingham will wash with the cotton, it is less troublesome. the sachet is worked in crochet, the edging in knitting, for which the receipt will afterwards be given. make a chain of stitches, with three more, which you will twist; miss these three, and work in d.c. along the row. break off at the end. nd row: d.c., working on the third of the three chain at the beginning of the row, as if it were a d.c. stitch. observe, that as there are bits of thread left at the ends of each row, they should be worked in at the next, which may easily be done, as there are two close squares at the beginning and end of every row. rd: close squares; then open squares till you come to within d.c. of the end. finish with close squares. th _(b)_ close, open, close, open, _(a)_ close. th: _(b)_ close, open, close, open, close, open, _(a)_ close. th: _(b)_ close, open, close, open, close, open, _(a)_ close. [illustration: toilet sachet.] th: _(b)_ close, open, close, open, close, open, close, _(a)_ open. th: _(b)_ close, open, close, open, close, open, close, _(a)_ open. th: _(b)_ close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, _(a)_ close. th: _(b)_ close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, _(a)_ close. th: _(b)_ close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, _(a)_ open. th: _(b)_ close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, _(a)_ open. th: (b) close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open. close, open, close, open, close, (a) open. th: (b) close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open. close, open, close, open, close, (a) open. th: (b) close, open, close, x open, close, x twice, open, * close, open, * twice, close, (a) open. th: (b) close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, (a) open. th: (b) close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, (a) open. th: (b) close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, (a) open. th: (b) close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, (a) open. th: (b) close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, (a) open. st: ( ) close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, (a) open, close, open. nd: (b) close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, (a) open, close, open, close, open. rd: (b) close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, (a) open. th: (b) close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, (a) open. th: (b) close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, (a) open. th: (b) close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, (a) open. th: (b) close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, (a) x close, open, x times, close. th: (b) close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, (a) open. th: (b) close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, (a) open. th: (b) close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, (a) close, open, close. st: (b) close, x open, close, x twice, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, (a) close. nd: (b) close, x open, close, x twice, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, (a) close. rd: (b) close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, (a) close. th: (b) close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, (a) open, close, open. th: (b) close, open, close, open, close, open, x close, open, x twice, close, open, close, open, close, (a) open, close, open. th: (b) close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, (a) open, close, open. th: (_b_) close, open, close, open, close, x open, close, x twice, open, close, open, close, open, (_a_) close, open, close. th: (_b_) close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, (_a_) open, close, open. th: (_b_) close, open, close, open, close, open, close, x open, close, x twice, open, close, open, close, open, close, (_a_) open, close, open, close, open, close, open. th: (_b_) close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, (_a_) open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open. st: (_b_) close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open., close, open, close, open, close, (_a_) open, close, open, close, open, close, open. nd: (_b_) close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, (_a_) open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open. rd (_b_) close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, (_a_) close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open. th: (_b_) close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, (_a_) open, close, open, close, open, x close, open, x twice, close, open. th: (_b_) close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, (_a_) open, close, open, close, x open, close, x times, open, close, open. th: (_b_) x close, open, x twice, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, (_a_) open, close, open, close, * open, close, * twice, open, close, open. th: (_b_) close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, (_a_) open, close, open, close, x open, close, x twice, open, close, open. th: (_b_) close, open, close, open, x close, open, x twice, close, open, close, (_a_) open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open. th: (_b_) close, open, x close, open, x twice, close, open, close, (_a_) open, close, open, close, open, close, open. th: close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, (_a_) open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open. st: (_b_) close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, (_a_) open, close, open, close, open, close, open. nd: (_b_) close, open, x close, open, x twice, close, open, close, (_a_) open, close, open, close, open. rd: (_b_) close, open, close, open, close, open, close, (_a_) open. th: (_b_) close, open, close, open, close, (_a_) open. th: (_b_) close, open, close, (_a_) open. th: (_b_) close, open, close (_a_) open. th: close, open, close, open, close, open, close. th to th row inclusive: close squares at each end, and the intermediate all open squares. finish with two rows double crochet. two of these pieces are required. for the pointed piece.--as the narrow edging with which this is trimmed is added at the sides, the piece itself is not so wide as that already given. make a chain of stitches, and work on one row in d.c. the second is also worked in d.c., but diminished two squares at each end, thus: begin on the second d.c. stitch, slip , s.c. , d.c. till you come to within five of the end, then s.c. , slip . decrease the next and all succeeding rows one square at each end, by working on the first four d.c. stitches of the row slip, s.c., d.c., after which three more d.c., the other end being made to correspond. the row succeeding the two of d.c. is entirely in open square crochet, except these stitches at the ends. th row: (_b_) slip, s.c., d.c., open squares, close, open, (_a_) close. (observe that in this and all the following rows, the first open square comes over the second of the preceding line. the first and last stitches are not mentioned, as they occur in every row). th: (_b_) open, close, open, close, open, close, (_a_) open. th: (_b_) open, close, open, close, open, close, (_a_) open. th: (_b_) open, close, open, close, open, (_a_) close. th: open, close, open, close, open. th: here the initial begins. i have chosen an m as being a common letter; any other may be substituted; care being taken to place it in the exact centre of the space indicated between the brackets. open, close, [ open, close, open, close, open, close, open,] close, open. th: open, close, open, close, [ open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open,] close, open, close, open. th: open, close, open, close, open, close, [ open, close, x open, close, x twice, open,] close, open, close, open, close, open. th: open, x close, open, x twice, close, [ open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open,] close, * open, close, * twice, open. th: open, close, open, close, [ open, close, open, close, open, close, open,] close, open, close, open. th: open, close, [ open, x close, open, x twice, close, open,] close, open. th: open, close, [ open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open,] close, open. th: open, close, open, close, [ open, x close, open, x twice, close, open,] close, open, close, open. th: open, x close, open, x twice, close, [ open, close, open, close, open, close, open,] * close, open, * twice, close, open. th: x open, close, x twice, open, close, [ open, close, x open, close, x twice, open, close, open, close, open,] close, open, x close, open, x twice. th: open, close, open, close, [ open, close, open, close, open, close open, close, open,] close, open, close, open. th: open, close, [ open, close, open, close, open, close, open, close, open,] close, open. this is the last row of the letter. st: open, close, open, close, open. nd: (_b_) open, close, open, close, open (_a_) close. rd: (_b_) open, close, open, close, open, close, (_a_) open. th: (_b_) open, close, open, close, open, close, (_a_) open. th: (_b_) open, close, open, (_a_) close. th: open square crochet, except the ends. th: all d.c. it will be remembered that when the letters _b a_ occur, the stitches between are to be repeated backwards, those following the _a_ being the centre of the line, whether few or many. the knitted edgings for trimming this sachet are given separately; the narrow one trims the point, which is then sewed to the top of one of the squares; the two squares are then sewed together at the bottom and sides, and the broad lace goes all round. the whole is lined with silk or gingham. * * * * * a lady's nightcap in crochet. materials.-- reels no. brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head crochet cotton. no. penelope hook. make chain, turn back, work l., ch., l. into rd loop, make squares. nd row: insertion.-- sq., * l., sq., repeat from *, end with sq. [illustration: a lady's nightcap. ] rd: decrease a sq. by d.c. on st l. stitch, ch., l. on nd l., then sq., * l., sq., repeat from *, end with sq., decrease a sq. th: decrease a sq., then sq., * l., sq., repeat from *, end with sq., decrease a sq. th: decrease a sq., then sq., * l., sq., these sq., should come over the l. of last row, repeat from *, end with sq., decrease a sq. th: sq., * l., sq., repeat from *, end with sq. th: * l., sq., repeat from *, end with sq. th and th: rows of squares. th: decrease a sq., then sq., ch., l. under every ch. till within squares of the end, then sq., decrease a sq. th: decrease a sq., then sq., ch., l. under every ch., then sq., decrease a sq. th: sq., ch., l. under every ch., sq. th: decrease a sq., then sq., ch., l. under every , sq., decrease a sq. th: sq., work as before, end with sq. th: decrease a sq., sq., work as before, then sq., decrease a sq. th: sq., l. under every ch., with ch. between each sq. th and th: rows of squares. th: begin with sq., then work the same as at st row of insertion, and end with sq. th: begin with sq., work as nd row of insertion, end with sq. st: begin with sq., work as rd row of insertion, end with sq. nd: begin with sq., work as th row of insertion, end with sq. rd: begin with sq., work as th row of insertion, end with sq. th: begin with sq., work as th row of insertion, end with sq. th, , and th: rows of squares. to slope the back of the cap.--begin on the right side of the work, under the st ch., work l. with ch. between each, then ch., l. on next l., this must be carefully attended to, otherwise stitch will be lost; after this, work sq., then ch., d.c. on next l., turn on reverse side, ch., d.c. on st l., then ch., l. on next l., then sq., ch., l. under the last ch., ch., more l. under same, turn on reverse side, ch., l., under the st ch., ch., l. on next l.; after this, work sq., ch., d.c. on next l., turn on reverse side, ch., d.c. on st l., ch., d.c. on next l., ch., l. on next l.; after this, work sq., ch., l. into the ch. at the end, turn on reverse side, ch., l. under st ch. ch., l. on next l.; after this, work sq., ch., d.c. on next l., turn on reverse side, ch., d.c. on st l., ch., l. on next l.; after this, work sq., ch., l. under the ch., turn on reverse side, ch., l., under ch., ch., l. on st l.; after this, work sq., ch., d.c. on next l., turn on reverse side, ch., d.c. on st l., ch., l. on next l.; after this, work sq., ch., l. under ch., turn on reverse side, ch., l. under ch., ch., l. on next l.; after this, work sq., ch., d.c. on next l., turn on reverse side, ch., d.c. on st l., ch., l. on next l.; after this, work sq., ch., l. under the ch., turn on reverse side, ch., l. under the ch., ch., l. on next l.; after this, work sq., ch., d.c. on next l., turn on reverse side, ch., d.c. on st l., ch., l. on next l.; after this, work sq., ch., l. under ch., turn on reverse side, ch., l. under ch., ch., l. on next l.; after this, work sq., ch., d.c. on next l. this finishes the slope on one side; now slope the other side the same, only beginning on the wrong side of the work instead of the right. now crochet the two sides together, and under every space, and under the chain stitches which form the slope, all round and where the crown is to be sewed in, work d.c. stitches; and round the front and back, where the border will be worked, crotchet d.c. stitches into every space, making d.c. at the corners. for the crown of the cap.--make ch., unite, ch., d.c. into every loop, thus making chains of seven. the cotton must be cut off at every row. nd: d.c. into centre loop of , ch., repeat. rd: d.c. into centre loop of , ch., d.c. on d.c. stitch, ch., repeat. th: same as nd. th: same as rd. th: same as nd. th: same as rd. now repeat again nd, rd and nd rows. th: d.c. into centre loop of , ch., repeat. th: l., ch., l. into rd loop all round, including the d.c. stitches. in this row there are not sufficient stitches for the next row by , therefore for times miss loop instead of , at different intervals. there must be squares in this row, therefore it is not very material whether loop or be missed occasionally, so that squares are made. th: l., sq., * l., sq., repeat from * all round th: l. the st on th l. of the l, * sq., l., repeat from *. th: same as last. th: l. the st on the last of the l., * sq., l., repeat from *. th: l. the st on the last l. of the nd sq., * sq., l., repeat from *. th: the same as last row. this pattern is simply the same as the insertion in the front. th: l., ch., miss loop, repeat. st: ch., d c. on every l. nd: ch., d.c. into centre loop of ch., repeat. rd, th, th, th, and th: the same as nd. th: l. into the centre loop of the ch., ch., repeat. th: begin on a l. stitch, l. in the next loops, including the st stitch, sq., l., in the next loops, sq., l., in the next loops, * sq., l. in the next loops, repeat from *; the reason for commencing the row in this manner is, that there were not squares enough in the last row for the pattern. this row is the same as the th row. now work as at th, th, th, th, and th rows. now l., ch., l. into rd loop. now l. on l., ch., repeat. d.c. under ever ch., worked tightly. now sew the crown into the front, gathering it in as it may be required. border.-- st row: work all round l. into every loop, with ch. between each. nd: ch., l. under every ch., all round. rd and th: l. under the ch., ch., repeat. th: work an extra row the same as the last, along the front, beginning and ending at the ears, just where the chains of , in the centre of the rows of insertion, begin. th: work all round, * l., with ch. between each, under the ch., ch., d.c. under next , ch, d.c. under next , ch., d.c. under next , ch., repeat from * under next . th: ch., d.c. under every ch., all round. narrow ribbon, or wide white cotton-braid, may be drawn in round the crown and along the front, but it is not actually necessary excepting for ornament. * * * * * shaving tidy. materials.--no. brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head crochet cotton. no. penelope hook. st row: make chain, turn back, l. into th loop, in the next row this forms sq., by working the st l. into the th loop of the ch., new ch., l. into rd loop till there are sq. nd: row all squares. rd: sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq. th and th: sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq.; l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l.; sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. [illustration: a shaving tidy.] th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. st: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. nd: sq., l., sq. rd and th: sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. st: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. nd: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l, sq. rd: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., ., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., l., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. th: sq., l., sq., l., sq. st and nd: two rows of squares. now work d.c. into ever space on three sides, but not on the side above the top of the letters, making d.c. at each corner. border.-- st row: begin at the side where the letter s is, l. the first into st loop, ch., l. the st into th loop, repeat this till within loops of the corner, then in the corner loop make l., ch., more l. into same loop, now ch., miss loops, then l. the st into th loop, now repeat till the corner loop of next corner, then ch., then l. into the same loop in which the last of the l. was worked, now ch., l. the st into th loop, and repeat. nd: when at the end, turn back, work l. on l., ch., repeat; at the corner, after the last l. and ch., make l. under the ch. at corner, ch., more l. under same, ch. l. on l., repeat. rd: turn back and work the same. th: turn back, d.c. on the st of the l. stitches, * ch., d.c. under the ch, repeat from *. th: turn back, ch., d.c. on the d.c., repeat. th: turn back, ch, d.c. on d.c., repeat. now, along the top work a row of extra long stitches, made by twisting the cotton twice over the hook instead of once, beginning on the d.c. stitches of the border, and working l. stitches across the width of the border at regular spaces, then l., ch., l. on every l. across the squares, terminating with l. in the width of the border. now d.c. into every space between the l. stitches, then crochet the two pieces together on the right side of the work, or sewing will do as well. if the tidy should require washing, let it now be done, and pressed between a double linen cloth, under a heavy weight; when dry, line it with coloured cambric, omitting the border; double it in half, and run a small tuck at the bottom of the extra l. stitches; in this tuck insert a narrow piece of whalebone, not quite so long as the work, and secure it at both ends; get a yard of satin ribbon, place a pin in the centre, and on one side of this pin sew on to the ribbon some pieces of old linen fringed about inches in width, and inches long, if this is doubled over the ribbon it will make each piece inches long; sew then on the other side of the pin some soft chamois leather the same width and length, now place it in the centre of the tidy, draw the ribbon over, and tie it in a bow at the back. this should be laid on the toilet table, and not hung up; it will have the appearance of a book. * * * * * exhibition oval tidy for easy chair. materials.-- reels no. or brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head crochet cotton. no. penelope hook. make chain stitches; this chain must be worked very evenly and well, as it is the centre of the pattern, and will have to be worked into on the other side after the rd row; turn back l., into th loop from hook, more long into successive loops, now square, formed by working ch., l. into rd loop, l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. the cotton must be cut off every row. nd: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. rd: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l.; the cotton at the end of every row must now be left sufficiently long to run in with a needle, not as before the end woven in with the last stitch. th: l. the st on the th l. of last row, this is to form the oval, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l. the st on th l., sq., l., sq., l., sq. l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l. the st on th l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. [illustration: oval tidy for easy chair.] th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l. the st on th l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l. the st on th l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. sq., l., sq., l. th: l. the st on th l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l. the st on th l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l. the st on th l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. st: l. the st on th l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. nd: l. the st on th l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. rd: l., beginning on th l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., beginning on th l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l. the st on th l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l. the st on th l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l. the st on th l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l. the st on th l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l. the st on th l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l. the st on th l., sq., l. st: l. the st on th l., sq., l. nd: l. the st on th l., sq., l. rd: l., the st on th l. th: now work the other half, keeping on the right side of the work, and working on the other side of the foundation chain, l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. st: l. the st on th l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. nd: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. rd: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l. the st on th l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l. the st on th l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l, sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l. the st on th l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l. the st on th l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. st: l. the st on th l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. nd: l. the st on th l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. rd: l. the st on th l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l. the st on th l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l. the st on th l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l. the st on th l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l. the st on th l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l. the st on th l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l. the st on th l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. th: l. the st on th l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. st: l. the st on th l., sq., l., sq., l., sq., l. nd: l. the st on th l., sq., l. rd: l. the st on th l., sq., l. th: l. the st on th l., sq., l. th: l. the st on th l. now run in all the ends neatly and very secure; this may be done by darning the end backwards and forwards on the thick part. d.c. on the st of the l. stitches at the side, ch., d.c. into th loop, then ch., d.c. into every th loop, ch., d.c. on last l., ch., d.c. into the th loop of the next l. stitches, ch., d.c. into th loop, ch., d.c. on last l., ch., d.c. into th loop of the next l. stitches, ch., d.c. on last l., * ch., d.c. on the last l. of next l. stitches, times more, * now there are even rows of l. stitches, ** ch., d.c. into the loop between the two rows. ch., d.c. on last l. of the next l. stitches, repeat from ** twice more, now there are three even rows; now work the same, now there are even rows, make ch., d.c. between every alternate row for times, then ch., d.c. on next row; now work all round the same. there must be chains of on each of the four sloping sides of the oval, chains of on the long stitches on each side, and chains of on the top and bottom. border.--under each of the chains work l. with ch. between each, ch., repeat. nd: under each ch. work l. with ch. between each, ch., repeat. rd: under the ch. work l. with ch. between each, ch., repeat. th: d.c. under the ch., repeat. * * * * * honiton sprigs in crochet. the beautiful and expensive lace for which honiton is famous may be closely imitated in crochet, with the occasional aid of some point-lace stitches. honiton sprigs and edgings are done in detached pieces, which are afterwards laid on brussels net, and run on in any form that fancy may dictate. sometimes they are connected together into a solid mass by means of twisted bars, in a manner termed _guipuring_. being thus separate, the directions for each sprig or edging are comparatively short. each sprig is usually begun at the end of the stem, which is formed by a chain, any leaves or flowers that come on the right side of it being then made as you come to them; generally a flower forms the point of the spray, and this being made, the stem is finished by working the chain stitches in s.c., adding the leaves or flowers on the left side whenever they occur, and working down to the commencement of the chain. leave about three inches of thread on beginning and ending; thread these with a fine needle and run a few stitches up and down the stem, on the _wrong_ side, to secure them. they may then be cut off closely, and the sprig is complete. as these general observations refer to all imitations of honiton lace in crochet, we shall beg our readers to refer to them, when directions for other specimens are given. * * * * * crochet window curtain. materials.--brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head crochet cotton. penelope hook. may be worked from the engraving in any thickness of cotton, amounting to the size of curtain required; the larger the curtain the thicker the cotton should be. it likewise, in thick cotton, looks remarkably well for bed curtains. [illustration: crochet window curtain] * * * * * window curtain. materials.--brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head knitting cord, no. . penelope hook. the extreme elaboration of this pattern demands that the material in which it is worked should be lighter than it need be when the design is simpler and less rich. the use of finer materials also diminishes the size of the pattern; we, therefore, recommend no. : but, of course, it is optional to use coarser. in no. cotton, about patterns, besides the border, will make a curtain two yards wide; but in no. , not more than five patterns would be required. the border should be worked at each edge, which may very easily be done by working backwards from the centre of the last pattern, to the edge. it is not necessary to work a border at the top of the curtains. each pattern contains squares or stitches; the border squares or stitches; reckoning from the extreme edge to the straight line squares, which occurs in every scroll between the patterns. for patterns and borders, therefore, , stitches would be required for a foundation, with the one over, always needed in square crochet. in working the border along the bottom, care must be taken completely to reverse it at the centre, that is, after patterns, otherwise the corner would not be found to go right. * * * * * knitted lace for curtains, &c. materials.--brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head knitting cord, no, . penelope hook. cast on twelve stitches. st row: slip , knit , make , slip , knit together, pass the slip stitch over, make , knit , make , knit . nd: knit , purl , knit . rd: slip , knit , make , knit together, knit , make , knit , knit together, make , knit . th: knit , purl , knit . th: slip , knit , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, make , knit together, make , knit together. th: knit , purl , knit , purl , knit , purl , knit . th: slip , knit together, make l, knit , knit together, make , knit , make , knit . th: cast off seven, knit , purl , knit . repeat for the length required. [illustration: window curtain.] * * * * * [illustration: window curtain and stove apron.] window curtain and stove apron. materials.--brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head knitting cord, no. , with a suitable crochet hook. the number of stitches in this curtain must depend, of course, on the width of the window for which it is intended. each pattern requires a foundation of chain stitches; and the borders at the sides chain each. as there will be about stitches in a yard, or very nearly five patterns and one border, it will be easy to reckon the number required for any given width. a curtain two yards wide will require , stitches, which will allow ten patterns of the convulvulus, and the two borders; to this, every stitches added will make one wreath more, nearly equalling in width the sixth of a yard. the whole of this curtain is done in square crochet, the design in close squares, and the ground in open. square crochet (the majority of our readers are aware) consists of d.c. chain stitches exclusively. a close, or solid square is formed of three successive d.c. stitches: an open square of d.c., ch., miss of the preceding row. almost all square crochet patterns are intended to be worked from the engraving, which is laid open before the worker and copied. to assist in guiding the eye it is advisable to cover each row of the engraving after it is copied. we will only observe, with regard to this pattern, that the first two rows are done in ch., and that two stitches at each end are also close, which affords an opportunity for working in the ends of the previous rows. this design is also extremely suitable for a curtain for a grate. for this purpose, brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head knitting cord, no. , will be preferable to the coarser numbers. it would be greatly improved by the addition of a bead border, similar to that of the anti-macassar, given in a former part of this work. the effect of the bead border being to add weight to the end of the stove apron, it would keep it in its place better than anything else, besides being very ornamental. a handsome fringe may be knotted on the end, and it may be lined with calico to correspond with the furniture of the room. * * * * * netted window curtain. materials.--brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head netting cotton, no. : embroidering goat's-head cotton, no. ; a middle-sized netting needle; steel mesh, no. ; and a long embroidering needle. if worked with the above cotton and mesh four squares will measure one inch, which will be a guide for the number of foundation stitches to make in the beginning for the curtain. the pattern must afterwards be darned in embroidering cotton, no. , according to the engraving, by passing the needle under and over the threads of the meshes very regularly and even, always keeping the same number of threads in every square, and all must run the same way and be drawn to one degree of tightness, for all the beauty of the work depends upon its evenness and regularity. this pattern may be extended to any size, and would look very well if the flowers were sewn in pale pink ingrain cotton, and the fretwork in white cotton. [illustration: netted window curtain.] * * * * * a flower vase screen, for concealing a flower-pot or basin with flowers. materials.-- shades of green wool, the lightest almost a pale lemon, skein only of this, and each of the darkest; shades of pink, skeins of each, all -thread berlin wool; yards of ordinary sized skirt cord, the size of blind cord. d.c. stitches over the end of the cord with the darkest green, unite; now work d.c. into every loop; the next row the same; from this row increase as may be required, working rows of darkest green, rows of next shade, rows of next shade, in all rows; there must by stitches in the outside row. fasten off the cord neatly, and with darkest shade of green, work d.c. stitches; now turn on reverse side, and work rows of ridged crochet, which is done by working into the lower loop instead of the upper one, and omitting at the end of every row the ch. which in ordinary ridged crochet prevents it decreasing, but by omitting this ch. these d.c. stitches will be decreased to a point; work rows of the darkest shades, and of the lightest of the shades: make of these points, but be careful, in joining on every shade, that the knots are concealed, and run in the last end very neatly. with the lightest green of the shades, commence on the wrong side of the mat, begin on the first dark ridge of the point, make ch., d.c. on every ridge, but d.c. into the point, make ch., d.c. into same loop, then ch., d.c. on every ridge till the last, then crochet into the st ridge of next point, without making any chain between. _palest green_.--d.c. into centre of nd ch. from the bottom of the point, ch., d.c. into centre of every ch. till the point, then d.c. in centre of top, ch., ch., d.c. into same, then work down till within the last ch. of , omit this, and d.c. in nd ch. of from the bottom of next point. st row.--_darkest pink_: make ch., turn back, l. into th loop from hook, * ch., l. into th loop, repeat from * times more, in all spaces. nd: turn on reverse side, l. under the ch., ch., repeat at the point, work l., ch., more l. under same space, then ch., l. under the ch., repeat; at the end cut off the wool. rd: with next shade commence on same side as st row, l. between each long, but after every rd l., make ch. at the point, and between each of the l., make l., ch., then under the ch., make l., ch., more l. under same, then work the same as the half just completed. th.--_next shade_: with same colour, inclose some white wire drawn from ribbon wire, thus--between each l. stitch, and under each ch., work d.c. stitch with the wire between, first bending the end of the wire to prevent it slipping, but over the point work d.c. under each ch., and under the ch., work d.c.; now work the remaining half, and d.c. along the bottom, still enclosing the wire to the side where this row was commenced, twist the ends of the wire together, after pulling it into shape. th: great care must be taken in working this row not to bend the work; next shade, l. on st d.c. stitch at the side, ch., * l. into successive loops for times, ch., repeat from *, be careful that a ch. comes at the point; this row will end as it was begun; then crochet along the bottom. th.--_next shade_: l. under the st ch., ch., more l. under same; repeat this times more, then repeat the same over the point, but for times make ch. instead of . now sew these pink points up at the side, joining them for times by the chain of , slipping the wool on from chain to chain; now pin each green point on to the part of the pink which is sewed together, stretching each green point as high as possible; then sew these green points at about the second shade of green, on to the pink, as in engraving. [illustration: bread cloth.] materials.--three reels of brooks' no. , and two of no. , great exhibition prize goat's-head crochet cotton. a hook suitable for the fine number. the octagon shape is one extremely well adapted for bread baskets, as well as for papier-maché trays of the usual forms; but it requires a little nicety to produce even edges at the sloping sides. the way it is done is this. the whole pattern, it will be perceived, is done in square crochet, and in the increasing sides a close square is added at each end. this is done by making one chain extra at the beginning and end of the first row of d.c. nd row: ch., d.c. on the chain, and on the first d.c. at the commencement, thus increasing three stitches, besides the one chain which is merely a foundation for the next increase; then at the other extremity of the row, d.c. on the last stitch, d.c. on the chain, and make one chain. do this for every row which is increased, working in all the ends. for the decreasing rows begin with slip, s.c., short double crochet, d.c.--this last coming on the first stitch in the second square of last row, keeps the squares evenly over each other. at the other end of the row reverse the process, by doing d.c., short d.c., s.c., slip, which completes it. the short double-crochet stitch, being new to our readers, may be briefly described. it is, as its name implies, a medium stitch between a s.c. and a d.c. stitch. begin as for a d.c. stitch, with the thread round the hook, but after the latter is inserted in the stitch, and the thread drawn through, so that there are three loops on the needle, the thread must be drawn through all three at once. short treble crochet (contracted to s.t.c.), is done in a similar manner. the thread being passed twice round the needle, there are four loops on the latter, after the one is drawn through the stitch of the preceding row. the thread is now drawn through three loops together, and afterwards through two. when the bread cloth is worked, do open square crochet all round it, taking the d.c. stitches sufficiently close at the corners to lie smoothly. knot a fringe - / inches deep in every square. it is to be made of the coarse cotton. to increase the size of this d'oyley, for a tray, or other article, use coarser cotton and hook. * * * * * bread cloth. materials.--brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head crochet cotton, nos. , , , . walker's penelope hook, no. . _a_. with cotton no. make chain, s.c., in st chain; then in round loop d.c., ** chain, miss , s.c. in th; then in round loop. * s.c. chain, * repeat twice more; chain to cross and in st chain,** [· ·] d.c., long, d.c., repeat in the other two chains; s.c. in the chain that crosses the stem: [· ·] chain; d.c. in the centre round loop. repeat from ** to ** d.c., long, join to th long in rd section, long, d.c. in same chain; in the next two chains: d.c., long, d.c., s.c. in the chain that crosses the stem [· ·] repeat from [· ·] to [· ·] chain, d.c. in the centre round loop. repeat again from ** to ** d.c., long, join, long, d.c., in next chain, d.c., long, d.c., in next chain, d.c., s.c. on the chain that crosses, chain, s.c. on st d.c. in centre, fasten off. make more _a_'s like the st, only joining, as in the engraving:--"thus, d.c., long, join, long, d.c." _b_. with cotton no. . chain, s.c., in st stitch and in round loop. * d.c., chain, join where the two _a_'s join, turn, s.c. down the chain; d.c., chain, join where the two long of _a_ are joined together; s.c. down the chain; repeat from * times more; * s.c., chain, miss , * repeat all round; fasten off. make more, placing them as in the engraving. _c_. with cotton no. . chain, s.c. in st, make it round. * d.c., chain, long, chain, * repeat times more in round loop. ** d.c. on d.c., chain, d.c. on long, chain repeat all round. ** d.c. in each chain; fasten off. s.c. in th d.c., chain repeat all round. in st chain d.c., join to th long of _a_ d.c. in same chain: * in next chain d.c., repeat all round; fasten off. make another _c_, joining to _a_ and first _c_. make more; join as in the engraving. [illustration: bread cloth.] _d_. with cotton no. . chain make it round; d.c. in round loop, join to th d.c. of d.c. of _e_, * chain, miss , s.c., repeat * twice more; join to the other _c_ to the th d.c. of d.c., fasten off. s.c. in th chain of st chain. ** chain s.c. in same as last s.c., then in chain, d.c. long, chain, join to _a_, turn, chain, long on chain, long, d.c. in same chain. s.c. in next chain; chain join to next division of _d_ chain; s.c. in th chain stitch of chain, repeat from ** to ** chain, join, chain, repeat from ** to ** again, fasten off. make more _d_'s, joining in the same manner, and as placed in the engraving. _e_. with cotton no. . chain, make it round and work in loop d.c.; d.c. on st d.c., chain, miss , s.c. in next chain join to _c_'s chain, miss , s.c. in rd, chain, miss , s.c. in next, chain join to _a_ chain, miss , s.c. in next, chain, miss , s.c., chain, join to _c_ chain, miss , s.c., chain, miss , s.c., chain s.c. fasten off. make more, placing them as in the engraving. _f_. with cotton no. . long between two _c_'s; _c_ before the corner. commence: chain, · d.c. in th d.c. of d.c. of _c_ chain, repeat · times more; chain, s.c. in th chain of chain of _e_ chain, ·· d.c. in the centre of d.c., chain, repeat ·· times more. repeat all round the d'oyley, making the corners alike. nd: · long, chain, miss , · this is the · pattern all round, except at the corners. you miss and make no chain, this is to be done by _e_, and by the long between the two _c_'s. you work as follows: make no chain, and miss , each side of one long. rd: chain, miss , s.c. repeat all round. * * * * * honiton sprig. materials.--brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head crochet cotton, no. . penelope hook, no. . ch. for the end of the stem. leaf: ch., miss , d.c. on the next , s.c., slip, ch., miss , d.c. in next, d.c. in next, d.c. in the next , s.c. in the next , slip in the next, which leaves for the stem. slip stitch on the s.c., and of the d.c., taking great care not to contract the leaf, ch., miss d.c. in the fifth, x ch., miss , t.c. in rd, x twice, ch., miss , d.c. in rd, ch., miss , s.c. on rd, ch., miss , slip at the base of the flower. do slip stitches up the last row, the open hem of which forms the centre of the flower; then ch., miss , contracted d.c. stitches on the next , d.c. down all but the last , s.c., slip. the flower thus formed consists of an open hem for the centre petal, and a closer petal on each side. work entirely round the flowers in s.c. s.c. on the seven chains of the stem, before you get to the leaf, opposite which make another, exactly like it. s.c. to the end of the stem, and fasten off. * * * * * a spangled wool netted cover for a tea-poy. materials.--if a fire-veil is required, use a flat thin bone or boxwood mesh, nearly half an inch in width; but if for a table-cover, etc., use a flat mesh scarcely three-eighths of an inch wide. reels of brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head crochet cotton, no. , of a good drab, or dark claret colour, the latter is preferable; ounce of maize colour spangled wool; ounce of green ditto, and ounce of violet ditto. no. netting needles. [footnote: this spangled wool is a new article, extremely brilliant, and may be obtained, by inquiry, at any berlin shop, at s. d. or s. per ounce, and weighing much the same as any other berlin wool.] begin on a foundation of diamonds, and net with the cotton until the piece is diamonds long; if for a fire-veil, darn, as in ordinary darned netting, the centre with maize wool, and the border with green, darn the outer row of diamonds with violet, and also the pattern inside the border; but if for any other purpose, use any colour of the spangled wool that may harmonise or contrast well with the draperies of the room; but, as a general rule, the netted ground should be dark. for the fringe, cut some shaded -thread berlin wool of the same colour as the spangled--in the pattern given it is violet--into lengths of inches, tie this in tufts of threads into every other diamond; or, if preferred, lengths in every diamond. draw the wool through the loop, placing the wool exactly in the centre, double the two ends evenly, and tie in a tight knot; then, with a rug needle, draw in two or three lengths of spangled wool, so as to lie on the surface of every tuft; but, if preferred, all spangled wool may be used, but then the work would be rendered very costly, whereas, with the present directions, the work is sufficiently elegant, brilliant, and exceedingly new. darn the centre first and the border last. count clear diamonds from the left-hand side of the work, and th diamond from the bottom. in the th diamond from the left-hand side and th from the bottom, darn the first diamonds for the stem of a flower, then work from engraving. [illustration: a spangled wool netted cover for a tea-poy, square work-table, or, if drawn together at the top, makes a glittering fire-veil.] * * * * * netted anti-macassar [illustration] materials.--brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head knitting cord, no. , and embroidery cotton, no ; mesh, one-third of an inch wide. this anti-macassar is done in the fashionable style of netting, with a pattern darned on it after it is worked. make a foundation, on which work stitches. repeat these, backwards and forwards, until a square is done, of as many holes up the sides as along the width. remove the foundation, and add either a crochet-bead border all round, or a netted one. the bead border makes the shape more solid; the netted one is certainly lighter, and the following is very pretty:-- with a mesh three times the size of that used for the square, do one entire round, with three stitches in one at the corners. nd round: with the small mesh. miss the first stitch, net the second, then the missed one, repeat all round. rd: x net a stitch in each of seven stitches, miss one stitch of last round, x repeat all round. observe, before doing this round, count the number of stitches; if they cannot be divided by eight, add at the corners as many as may be required. supposing there are so many eights and five over, then three more will be wanted, and one must be added (by doing two in one) in each of the three corners. th: x over seven, miss the long stitch, x repeat. th: x over six, missing as before, x repeat. th: x over five, as before, x repeat. th: x over four, as before, x repeat. th: x over three, as before, x repeat. before darning netting, wash it perfectly clean, stiffen it by dipping it into a little gum-water, and pin it out on a pillow, in the proper form, to dry. then darn it with embroidery cotton, every square of the pattern being closely filled up. * * * * * short purse, in netting. as the following specimen is done only in the ordinary netting stitch, we do not think any particular explanation of the art of netting can be needed by our readers, it being so universally known. indeed, it would be extremely difficult to teach the stitch by writing. whenever any stitch, except that used in common netting, may occur in any of the following designs, we will endeavour to explain it as clearly as possible. materials.--very fine crimson netting silk, and gold thread. two steel meshes are required, one about no. , and one no. . eagle card-board gauge. make a piece of foundation of stitches, and join your silk in the first. st round (small mesh). stitch in every stitch of the foundation. nd: the same. rd: stitches in every one of the previous round. th: a stitch in every one of the last round. th: x stitches in the first, and one in the second, x times. th: a stitch in every stitch. th: increase eight stitches in the round, by doing two in one eight times, taking care that the stitch increased is the one which precedes the increased stitch of the last augmented round. th: like th. th: like th. th, th, th, th, th, th, nd: like th. the intermediate rounds like the th. there ought now to be stitches in the round. do more rounds, without any increase. then take the large mesh, and do another round. take the small mesh, x miss one stitch, take a stitch in the second, then one in the stitch that was missed. x repeat this all round. [illustration: short purse, in netting.] do four rounds of plain netting with the small mesh, then begin to make the points. st point: stitches; draw out the mesh, x turn the work, and make a stitch on every one but the last; x repeat till you come to a point. nd and following points, like the first, so that there are in the round. the pattern is then to be darned with the gold thread, according to the design we have given. * * * * * [illustration: bridal purse, in crochet.] bridal purse, in crochet. materials.--six skeins of white crochet silk, two skeins of _ombré_ scarlet ditto, in long shades, three skeins of slate-colour, and one of bright scarlet. two ounces of transparent white beads, rather larger than seed beads, four strings of gold, the same size, and a hank of steel to match. for the garnitures (which must be entirely of bright steel), two rings, a handsome tassel for one end, and a deep fringe for the other. boulton's tapered indented crochet hook, no. . begin by threading all the white beads on the white silk; half the gold on the _ombré_ cerise, and the steel on the slate-coloured. what scarlet silk is used in the square end is without beads; the few rows at the other end, of that colour, are threaded with gold, which may be put on afterwards. the design of the square end consists of a spray of roses and leaves, the former in scarlet _ombré_ with gold beads intermixed, the latter with slate-silk and steel. the ground is composed wholly of white beads, one being dropped on every stitch; where, therefore, the scarlet and slate silks are worked without beads, they appear to be _in intaglio_. a scroll of steel beads below the group is intermixed with the white, and the top and bottom of the square end are finished off with vandykes of plain scarlet without beads. at the bottom is an open pattern in scarlet, to which is attached the fringe. begin with the plain scarlet silk, with which make a chain of stitches, and close it into a round. work one round in scarlet, using in the end of white silk. nd round: in which you begin to drop on the white beads. x white, scarlet, x times. rd: x white, scarlet, white, x times. th: all white; work in the scarlet silk all round, and then fasten it off, as no more is required until the whole square end is worked. th: x white, steel, white, steel, white, x twice. th: x white, steel, white, steel, white, x twice. th: x white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, x twice. th: x white, steel, white, steel, * white, steel, * twice; white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, x twice. th: x white, steel, * white, steel, * times; white, steel, white, steel, ** white, steel, ** twice, white, x twice. th: x white, steel, * white, steel, * times; white, steel, white, steel, ** white steel, ** twice, white, x twice. th: x white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, x twice. th: x steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, x twice. th: x white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, x twice. th: white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, x twice. th: x white, steel, * white, steel, * twice, white, steel, ** white, steel, ** twice, white, x twice. th: x white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, x twice. th: all white. th: x white, slate silk, white, x twice. th: x white, slate, white, steel, white, x twice. th: x white, slate, white, steel, white, steel, white, x twice. st: x white, slate, steel, slate, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, x twice. nd: begin the _ombré_ scarlet, x white, slate, steel, white, gold, white, steel, white, steel, white, x twice. rd: x white, steel, white, gold, scarlet silk, gold, white, steel, white, x twice. th: x white, steel, white, steel, white, gold, scarlet, gold, white, x twice. th: x white, gold, white, steel, white, steel, white, gold, scarlet, gold, scarlet, gold, white, steel, white, x twice. th: x white, gold, scarlet, gold, white, steel, white, steel, slate silk, white, gold, scarlet, gold, scarlet, gold, white, steel, white, x twice. th: x white, gold, scarlet, gold, scarlet, gold, white, steel, slate silk, white, steel, slate, white, gold, scarlet, gold, scarlet, gold, scarlet, gold, white, x twice. th: x white, gold, scarlet, gold, white, steel, slate, white, steel, slate, white, gold, scarlet, gold, scarlet, gold, scarlet, gold, white, x twice. th: x white, gold, scarlet, gold, scarlet, gold, white, steel, slate, white, steel, slate, white, gold, scarlet, gold, scarlet, gold, scarlet, gold, scarlet, gold, white, x twice. th: x white, gold, scarlet, gold, scarlet, gold, white, steel, slate, white, steel, slate, white, gold, scarlet, gold, scarlet, gold, white, x twice. st: x white, gold, scarlet, gold, scarlet, gold, white, steel, slate, white, steel, slate, white, gold, scarlet, gold, white, x twice. nd: x white, gold, scarlet, gold, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, slate, white, gold, scarlet, gold, white, x twice. rd: x white, gold, white, steel, white, slate, steel, white, steel, slate, white, steel, white, gold, scarlet, gold, white, x twice. th: x white, slate, white, steel, white, steel, slate, white, steel, white, gold, white, x twice. th: x white, slate, white, steel, slate, white, steel, white, x twice. th: x white, slate, white, slate, steel, white, steel, slate, steel, white, x twice. th: x white, slate, steel, white, steel, white, slate, steel, white, x twice. th: x white, slate, steel, white, steel, slate, steel, white, slate, steel, white, x twice. th: x white, steel, white, steel, slate, steel, white, steel, white, slate, steel, white, x twice. th: x white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, slate, steel, white, slate, steel, white, steel, x twice. st: x steel, white, steel, white, steel, slate, steel, white, slate, steel, white, steel, slate, x twice. nd: x steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, gold, white, steel, slate, steel, white, slate, white, steel. white, steel, white, x twice. rd: white, steel, white, gold, scarlet, gold, white, steel, slate, steel, white, slate, white, steel, white, steel, x twice. th: x white, gold, scarlet, gold, white, steel, white, slate, steel, white, slate, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, x twice. th: x white, steel, white, gold, scarlet, gold, scarlet, gold, white, steel, white, slate, steel, white, slate, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, x twice. th: x white, steel, white, gold, scarlet, gold, scarlet, gold, white, steel, white, slate, steel, white, slate, white, slate, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, x twice. th: x white, gold, scarlet, gold, white, steel, white, slate, steel, slate, white, slate, * slate, white, * twice, x twice. th: x white, gold, scarlet, gold, scarlet, gold, white, steel, white, slate, steel, slate, white, slate, white, slate, white, x twice. th: x white, gold, scarlet, gold, white, slate, steel, slate, white, slate, white, steel, white, x twice. th: x white, gold, scarlet, gold, scarlet, gold, white, slate, white, steel, slate, white, slate, white, steel, white, x twice. st: x white, gold, scarlet, gold, white, slate, steel, * white, steel, * twice, slate, white, steel, white, x twice. nd: x white, gold, scarlet, gold, white, slate, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, slate, steel, white, x twice. rd: x white, gold, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, x twice. th: x white, steel, white, * steel, white, * twice, steel, white, steel, white, x twice. th: x white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, x twice. th: x white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, x twice. th: x white, steel, white, steel, white, x twice. th: x all white, work round to the centre of one side; also th: (begin again with the plain scarlet), x scarlet, white, x times. th: x scarlet, white, scarlet, x times. st: all scarlet; fasten off scarlet. nd: with the white silk, chain, dropping a bead on every chain, miss , s.c. on both sides of the fourth; repeat all round. now, instead of working round, work backward and forward, dropping a bead on every chain stitch, so that they may all come on the right side of the purse. st row: ch., turn, s.c. in same stitch, x ch., miss , s.c. on s.c., x all along the row. nd: ch., turn, s.c. on centre of ch., x ch., s.c. on centre of next loop of , x to the end. repeat this row backwards and forwards until are done; then work the same pattern all round for rounds. thread the rest of the gold beads on the scarlet silk, and do rounds in the same way with it; then rounds of white; then more scarlet, white, then scarlet. to diminish at the end, do rounds of white, like the previous; then with only chain; then with chain; and finally, a round with chain between the s.c. draw it up with a needle and white silk; sew on the tassel, and slip on the rings. at the other end, do a row to close the round, with the plain scarlet in s.c.; on which work x ch., miss , s.c. under th, x times. turn, and in each loop work s.c., d.c., s.c. fasten off, and sew on the deep fringe garniture. * * * * * lady's short purse. materials.--purse silk, of any two colours that contrast well, gold beads, and glass ones of one of the colours. of the silk that matches the beads, two skeins will be required, and of the other, four. for the garniture, a clasp and handsome fringe. begin by threading a hank of gold beads on two of the four skeins, leaving two without any. with regard to the colours to be selected for this purse, we may be allowed to suggest a few good contrasts, leaving the choice to the taste of the worker. a brilliant scarlet looks well with white; brown with blue; lilac with green, or _vice versa_; and pink with some of the warmer tints of stone or fawn colour. in all these, the first-named colour is to be the predominant one, except in the case of green and lilac, in which either colour may be the principal one. the immense variety of tints in german beads (nearly three hundred), gives such a power of choice, that the most artistic taste may be gratified. for the sake of accuracy in the description, we will select scarlet and white for this purse. the white beads are to be threaded on the white silk, and dropped on every stitch where white is named. with a fine crochet-hook make a chain of stitches with the scarlet silk, close it into a round, and do one round of single crochet. nd row: x gold bead, silk, gold, silk, gold, x times. rd: x silk, gold, silk, gold, silk, gold, silk, x times. th: x silk, gold, silk, gold, silk, gold, silk, gold, silk, gold, silk, x times. th: x silk, gold, silk, gold, silk, gold, silk, gold, silk, gold, silk, gold, x. this, and every future pattern must, like the preceding ones, be repeated three times. now join on the white silk, and whenever white occurs, drop on a white bead. th: x gold, silk, gold, silk, gold, silk, gold, silk, gold, silk, gold, silk, gold, silk, gold, white, x repeat. th: x gold, silk, gold, silk, * gold, silk, * times, gold, silk, gold, silk, gold, white, x repeat. th: x gold, silk, gold, silk, gold, silk, gold, silk, gold, silk, gold, silk, gold, silk, gold, silk, gold, silk, gold, silk, gold, silk, gold, white, x repeat. th: x white, gold, silk, gold, silk, gold, silk, gold, silk, gold, silk, gold, silk, gold, silk, gold, white, x repeat. th: x white, gold, silk, gold, silk, gold, silk, gold, white, x repeat. th: x white, gold, silk, gold, white, x repeat. th: x white, gold, silk, gold, white, x repeat. th: x white, gold, white, gold, silk, gold, white, gold, white, x repeat. th: x white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, silk, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, x repeat. th: x gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, silk, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, x repeat. th: x gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, silk, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, x repeat. th: x gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, silk, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, x repeat. [illustration: lady's short purse.] th: x gold, white, gold, white, gold, silk, gold, white, gold, white, gold, x repeat. th: x gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, silk, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, x repeat. th: x white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, silk, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, x repeat. st: x gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, silk, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, x repeat. nd: x white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, silk, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, x repeat. rd: x white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, silk, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, x repeat. th: x white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, silk, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, x repeat. th: x white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, silk, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, x repeat. th: x gold, white, gold, white, gold, silk, gold, white, gold, white, gold, x repeat. th: x white, gold, white, gold, silk, gold, white, gold, white, x repeat. th: x gold, white, gold, white, gold, silk, gold, white, gold, white, gold, x repeat. th: x gold, white, gold, white, gold, silk; gold, white, gold, white, gold, silk, x repeat. th: x gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, silk, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, silk, x repeat. st: x silk, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, silk, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, silk, gold, x repeat. nd: x silk, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, silk, gold, x repeat. rd: x gold, silk, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, silk, gold, x repeat. th: x gold, silk, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, silk, gold, silk, x repeat. th: x silk, gold, silk, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, white, gold, silk, gold, silk, x repeat. * * * * * handsome purse. materials.-- reel of _ombré_ crimson silk, in short shades; of grey ditto; skeins of rich brown purse twist, skein of white ditto, hanks of steel beads, no. ; rows of transparent white seed beads, handsome steel slides, and a few steel bugles. the silk must all be of the finest size, and the work is to be done very tightly. begin the purse by threading the steel beads on the brown silk, and the white on the _ombré_ crimson. this crimson is used for the rose, and for the three small flowers; the coloured silk seen through the transparent bead has an extremely pretty effect; the leaves are entirely in steel beads, as is also the scroll which ornaments the lower part of the purse. the large flower close to the rose is done in the grey silk. [illustration: handsome purse.] with the white silk, make a chain of stitches, and do one round in s.c. join on the brown silk. st pattern round: x white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, x times. nd: x steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, x times. rd: x steel, brown, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, brown, steel, x times. th: x steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, white, steel, white, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, x times. th: x steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, white, steel, white, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, x times. th: x steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, white, steel, white, steel, brown, steel, brown, x times. th: x steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, white, steel, white, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, x times. th: x steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, x times. th: x steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, white, steel, white, steel, brown, steel, brown, x times. th: steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, x times. th: x brown, steel, brown, steel, x white, steel, x times, white, steel, brown, steel, brown, x times. th: x brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, x white, steel, x times, white, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, x times. th: x brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, x times. th: x steel, brown, steel, brown, x steel, white, x times, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, x times. th: x steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, x times. th: x steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, white, steel, brown, steel, brown, x times. th: x steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, white, steel, white, steel, white, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, x times. th: x steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, white, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, x times. th: x steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, x times. fasten off the white silk, and do three plain rounds with the brown. then join on the crimson silk, at a light part of the shade, if possible. in the future part of the pattern crimson means the shaded silk, white one of the white beads threaded on it. rd: x brown, white, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, x twice. th: x brown, white, crimson, white, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown. x twice. th: x brown, white, crimson, white, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, x twice. th: x brown, white, crimson, steel, crimson, white, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, x twice. th: x brown, white, crimson, steel, crimson, white, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, x twice. join on the gray. th: x brown, white, crimson, white, crimson, white, brown, steel, brown, gray, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, white, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, x twice. th: x brown, white, brown, white, crimson, white, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, gray, brown, gray, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, white, brown, steel, brown, x twice. th: x brown, white, crimson, white, steel, brown, gray, brown, gray, brown, steel, brown, white, brown, white, brown, x twice. st: x brown, white, brown, steel, brown, gray, brown, gray, brown, steel, brown, white, brown, x twice. nd: x brown, white, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, gray, brown, gray, brown, steel, brown, white, crimson, white, brown, steel, brown, x twice. rd: x brown, white, crimson, white, crimson, white, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, gray, brown, gray, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, white, crimson, white, crimson, white, crimson, white, brown, steel, brown, steel, x twice. th: x brown, x white, crimson, x twice; white, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, gray, steel, gray, brown, gray, brown, white, crimson, white, crimson, white, crimson, white, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, x twice. th: x brown, white, steel, crimson, white, brown, steel, brown, gray, steel, gray, brown, white, crimson, white, crimson, white, crimson, white, brown, steel, brown, x twice. th: x white, crimson, steel, crimson, white, crimson, white, brown, steel, brown, gray, steel, gray, steel, gray, brown, white, crimson, white, crimson, white, crimson, white, crimson, white, brown, x twice. th: x crimson, white, crimson, white, crimson, white, brown, white, brown, gray, steel, gray, brown, white, crimson, white, crimson, white, crimson, white, crimson, white, brown, steel, brown, white, x twice. th: x crimson, white, crimson, white, brown, white, crimson, white, brown, gray, steel, gray, brown, white, crimson, white, crimson, white, crimson, white, brown, steel, brown, white, x twice. th: x white, brown, white, crimson, white, brown, white, crimson, white, brown, gray, steel, gray, brown, white, x crimson, white, x times, crimson, white, brown, steel, brown, steel, x twice. th: x brown, white, brown, white, crimson, white, steel, crimson, white, brown, steel, brown, gray, brown, gray, steel, gray, brown, gray, brown, white, crimson, white, crimson, white, crimson, white, crimson, white, brown, steel, brown, x twice. st: x brown, white, crimson, steel, white, brown, steel, brown, gray, steel, gray, brown, white, crimson, white, crimson, white, brown, steel, brown, x twice. nd: x brown, white, x crimson, white, x twice, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, gray, brown, white, brown, white, crimson, white, crimson, white, crimson, white, brown, x twice. rd: x brown, white, brown, white, crimson, white, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, gray, brown, gray, brown, white, crimson, white, brown, x twice. th: x brown, white, crimson, white, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, gray, brown, gray, brown, steel, brown, white, brown, x twice. th: x brown, steel, white, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, gray, brown, steel, brown, white, brown, x twice. th: x brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, gray, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, x twice. th: x brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, gray, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, x twice. th: x brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, x twice. th: x brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, steel, brown, x twice. do two plain rounds with the brown; then make the other end, and with the crimson silk do about rows of open square crochet; join it to the second end, with the opening at the centre of one side, having, previously slipped on the rings. to close up the ends of the purse.--s.c. the two edges together with white silk, on which do x d.c., ch., miss x, end with d.c. nd row: d.c. under every chain, and one s.c. between the second and third d.c. of last row. turn with a fringe made of steel beads and bugles. * * * * * mousquetaire crochet collar. materials.--brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head crochet cotton, no. . penelope hook, no. . make a round loop, work double in the loop. nd round: work double at the top of each of the one double of last round, repeat round. rd: the same as last, and after you have worked round, plain one to form the round. (you should have loops in the round). th: ch. , miss , work treble; ch. , work treble in the same loop as before; ch. miss , work double in the next loop, repeat round, fasten off. th: work treble in the centre of five ch. of last round; ch. , work treble in the same loop as before; ch. , and repeat round, plain and fasten off with it, complete the round. work rounds more, the same for each scollop, or for the collar, then work of the following pattern for the leaf:-- make a chain of loops, turn back and work them in double crochet, turn back. nd round: work plain and double for the stalk part of the leaf; then ch. , miss , and work treble, until you come to the end; then ch. and work one treble at the end; work the other side the same, in order to make both sides to correspond; ch. , turn back. rd: work plain in the ch. of last round, then ch. , miss the ch. of last round, and work treble at the top of the treble of last round; repeat round, and work plain at the end, ch. , turn back. th: work plain in the two ch. of last round, ch. , miss , work treble, then ch. and work treble at the top of the treble of last round, repeat round with the ch. , and work treble at the top of the treble of last round, making both sides to correspond, fasten off. th: ch. for the stalk of the leaf, plain in the first four chains of last round, then ch. and plain in the centre of each of the chains all round the leaf; then work the last chains double for the stalk, which completes the leaf; make the number of leaves required, then join the flowers and leaves together, as shown in the illustration, with a needle and crochet thread. [illustration: mousquetaire crochet collar.] then work the following band along the neck part of the collar--pass the hook through the two ends of the stalk part of the leaf, and plain , chain , and repeat to the end, turn back. nd row: ch. , miss , and plain ; repeat to the end, turn back. rd: ch. , plain , in the centre of the chains of last row, repeat to the end, turn back. th: work treble in the centre of chains of last row; ch. , and repeat to the end, turn back. th: ch. , plain , in the centre of the first chain of last row; repeat to the end, turn back. th: ch. , plain in the centre of the chain, of last row; repeat to the end, fasten off, which completes the collar. * * * * * raised rose crochet collar. materials.--brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head crochet thread, no. , and penelope crochet hook, no. . this collar is made in portions, and joined together with needle and thread, or worked together with one plain at the option of the worker. to form the rose.--make a chain of loops, plain , to form a round, fasten off. [illustration: raised rose crochet collar.] nd: work treble, ch. , repeat round, plain , and fasten off; you should have seven treble in the round. rd: plain at the top of the treble of last round, work treble in the ch. of last round, plain at the top of the next treble of last round, repeat in the same treble all round, fasten off. th: work treble at the top of the plain of last round, chain , repeat round, plain at the top of the treble to form the round, fasten off. th: plain at the top of the treble of last round, work treble in the ch. of last round, plain at the top of the next treble of last round, repeat in the same loop as before, repeat round, fasten off. th: work treble at the top of the plain of last round, ch. , repeat round, plain , fasten off. th: plain at the top of the treble of last round, work treble in the ch. of last round, plain at the top of the next treble of last round, repeat in the same loop as before all round. th: work treble at the top of the plain of last round, ch. , repeat round, plain , fasten off. th: plain at the top of the treble of last round, work treble in the ch. of last round, plain in the treble of last round, repeat round. th: ch. , miss , plain , repeat round each fold of the rose. th: ch. , plain in the centre of the ch. of last round, repeat round; fasten off, which completes the rose; you require of these flowers to form the collar, and of the following:-- large rounds.--make a round loop, the size of this o, and work treble in the round loop. nd round: ch. , miss , plain , repeat round. rd: work double crochet in each loop all round. th: ch. , miss , plain , repeat round. th: ch. , plain in the centre of the ch. of last round, repeat round. th: ch. , plain in the centre of the ch. of last round, repeat round. th: ch. , plain in the centre of the ch. of last round, repeat round, fasten off, which completes the round; you then work of the following:-- small rounds.--make a round loop, the size of this o, and work double in the round loop. nd round: ch., , miss , plain ; repeat round; you should have lots of the chain in the round. rd: d.c. in each loop all round, which completes the round; you now require of the following:-- pattern for leaf.--make a ch. of loops, turn back, and work the loops d.c. nd round: ch. , miss , work two treble in loop, repeat to the end, and in the end loop ch. , work treble, work the other side the same, with the treble opposite, the treble and ch. at the end, plain in the end loop, fasten off. rd: plain in the centre of the first ch. of last round, ch. , work treble at the top of the first treble of last round, ch. , work treble at the top of the next treble of last round; you repeat all round the leaf with ch., opposite the ch. of last round, and treble at the top of the treble of last round, with ch. between them, working both sides to correspond, turn back. th: ch. and plain in each lot of the chain of last round, fasten off, which completes the leaf; you then work a stalk to each leaf as follows: ch. , work treble in the centre of the chain round between the edge and the centre, work treble on the other side, the same turn back, and work the chains plain, fasten off, which completes the stalk; after working the number of each portion required and joining them together, as shown in the illustration, you work a band for the neck-part of the collar as follows:-- work a few plain at the end, then ch. , and work treble where it requires a treble, and a double where it requires a double, and a plain in the centre of the stalks and rounds as you see the stitches in the engraving, so as to make it lie to the shape of the neck. nd row: ch. , miss , work treble, repeat to the end, turn back. rd: ch. , work treble at the top of the treble of last row, repeat to the end, turn back. th: d.c., fasten off, which completes the collar. [illustration: point collar.] * * * * * point collar. materials.--brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head crochet cotton, no. . this collar is begun by making the open hem work thus: ch., miss , s.d.c., ch., miss s.d.c., x ch., miss , d.c., x times, then ch., miss , s.t.c., then use the t.c., and finally the long t.c. for the widest parts, and gradually decreasing to s.c. at the end. on the inner side of this, do as many half-circles as the engraving indicates: thus, s.c. s.d.c. d.c., t.c., d.c., s.d.c., s.c.; the roses near the neck may then be worked and joined to these circles in their places. the oblong flowers are then done, beginning in the centre, with a chain, worked in s.c., a round of d.c. on this, and a succession of loops all round. join these flowers in their places; then make the roses, working from the engraving which is the best guide, joining these to each other, and to the oblong flowers, and finally working the neck with the dotted bars as seen in the engraving. * * * * * point collar in crochet. materials.--brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head crochet cotton, no. . penelope hook. each of the rows in this collar, large and small, are done separately, beginning with the circle in the centre, and making the six leaves round it. each rose is to be joined to the others, where it is indicated in the engraving, and at the point of two of the petals of the largest are three small loops, which serve to connect it with the edge. all the sets of roses required for the length of the collar being done, the barred edge follows, the trefoils being worked on it, where they occur, and the roses being joined to it in their proper places. on this line, another of alternate close and open squares is done, and then a point edging, similar to one already given in this volume. the ground, of chains, worked back in slip-stitch with occasional picots, is to be done when forming the band for the neck. the collars should be worked a little larger than the engraving. * * * * * lounging cap. materials.--six skeins of bright scarlet berlin wool; shades of green ditto, skeins each; skeins of black, and of gray; skeins of white, and of gray floss silk, or filoselle. a handsome shaded tassel, and a ball of crochet cord. the whole of this cap is worked in s.c., over the cord. begin with the band round the head, by working stitches with black wool, on the cord, and closing into a round. nd round: (black and gray wool) x black and gray alternately, x all round. rd: (black wool, white silk) x b., w., x all round. th: black all round. th: scarlet all round. th: (scarlet and darkest green) x s., g., s., x times. [illustration: point collar, in crochet.] th: (scarlet, same green, and white) x s., g., s., w., s., g., s., w., s., x times. th: (scarlet, second darkest green, black, and white) x s., g., b., g., s., w., s., g., s., g., s., g., s., w., s., w., s., w., s., x times. th: (same colours) x s., g., b., g., s., w., s., w., s., g., s., g., s., w., s., w., s., x times. th: (scarlet, black, white, and gray silk; third shade of green) x s., g., b., g., s., w., s., gray, s., w., s., g., s., g., b., g., s., w., s., g., s., w., x times. th: (same colours) x w., s., g., s., w., s., g., s., g., s., w., s., g., s., g., b., g., s., w., s., g., s., w., x times. th: (same colours except green, which change to the next lightest) x w., s., g., s., g., s., g., s., w., s., g., s., g., b., g., s., w., s., g., s., g., w., x times. th: (same colours, with the lightest green) x w. (over the two first of last round), s., g.. w., s., g., s., w., s., g., b., g., b., g., s., w., s., g., s., w., x times. [illustration: lounging cap, in crochet.] th: (same colours, with the lightest green but one) x w., s., g., s., w., s., g., s., w., s., g., b., g., s., g., s., w., s., g., s., g., s., w., x times. th: (same colours, with next darkest green) s., g., b., g., s., w., s., w., s., w., s., w., s., g., s., g., s., w., s., g., s., w., s., x times. th: (scarlet, black, white, and next darkest green) x g., b., g., s., w., s. w., s., g., s., g., b., g., s., w., s., w., s., g., x times. th: (same colours) x s., g., s., g., b., g., s., w., s., g., s., g., b., g., s., w., s., x times. th: (scarlet, white, and darkest green) x g., s., g., s., w., s., w., s., g., s., g., s., w., s., x times. th: (scarlet and darkest green) x s., g. over centre three of g., s., g., s., g., s., x times. four rounds of scarlet complete the band round the head. the top of the cap.--this is a worked from the centre, and gradually increased until of the same dimensions as the band, that is, containing stitches. begin by working stitches with black wool on the cord, and forming it into a round. round: increase to stitches. rd: increase to . th: (black and gray) x g., b., x times. th: (black and white) x w. over g., b. over b., x times. th: (black and scarlet) x s. over w., b. over b., x times. th to th: (all scarlet) increasing sufficiently to keep the work flat, and having stitches in the last round, or times . th: (white, scarlet, and lightest green) x s., g., s., w., s., w., s., g., x times. observe that care must be taken to increase so that the pattern begins always at the same point. th: (white, scarlet, and third green) x g., s., g. over second and third of g. in last round, s., w., s., w., s., g., x times. th: (same colours) x s. over g., more s., g., s., g., s. over , g., s., w., s., w., s., g., x times. th: (darkest green but one, white, and scarlet) x s., w., s., w., s., g., s., g., s., w., s., g., s., x times. th: (same colours) x s., w., s., g., s., w., s., g., s., x times. th: (darkest green, white, and scarlet) x s., w. (over second and third of white in last round), s., g., the last over the first of green, scarlet, x times. there will now be stitches, work on two rounds of scarlet, increasing to , and then join on the band. this is done by holding the top of the band and the edge of the round together, and working one round, taking up the chain of both. work on the cord with black wool and white silk, two stitches of each alternately; draw in the end of twine. take care in placing the two parts of the cap together, to make that part which begins every round at the same place in both, as a small defect in the pattern is inevitable, and must be covered by the tassel. draw the string of the tassel through the centre of the crown, and fasten it in its place. the cap may be lined with scarlet sarsenet. * * * * * crochet edgings and insertions. the whole of these edgings and insertions are intended to be worked either with or without beads. if to be worked with beads, chain stitch must be reckoned in the foundation, for every square, and the ground must be perfectly solid, with the pattern in beads. if to be worked in square crochet, chains must be allowed for every square. in the scallops the ends of the thread must be neatly run in after they are done. reckoning from that part where the actual scallop begins, each must be done distinctly from the others. [illustration: crochet edgings and insertions.] [illustration: crochet edgings and insertions.] insertions. to be worked in square crochet. the materials, any number of brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head crochet cotton that will be suitable for the purpose. all these square crochet patterns may be done in beads, if desirable. [illustration: insertions] * * * * * point lace instructions. the outlines of any design in point lace are made in braid of various sorts, in thread, or sometimes in linen. the braid used is either french linen or cotton braid, or that now known as italian braid. french braid is a simple plait, more or less wide; italian braid is, in fact, a pillow lace insertion, somewhat resembling a tape, but with edges like those seen in all other pillow lace. it enters very much into the composition of venetian and other valuable italian lace, whence the name italian braid has been given to it. point lace used formerly to be worked on parchment, this, however, being very hard and stiff, is not so pleasant a material to work on as coloured paper, which may be lined with calico or alpaca, according to the work intended to be done. french braid, whether made of linen or of cotton, is laid on the pattern with stitches taken across it, from one edge to the other. this mode of putting on braid prevents it from stretching, as, from the nature of the plait, it would otherwise do. in forming angles, each edge should be sewn down to the paper, and then the braid turned over. circles are made by laying the braid on the design, and forming it into the proper shape with the fingers, before tacking it down. we give a diagram showing the manner in which lines of braid cross and intersect each other, to form the pattern; and we would observe, _en passant_, that each line is done with a separate piece of braid, that from a to b being one piece, and from c to d another. italian braid, being so much wider, requires to be tacked down at both edges; and in forming circles and scrolls, one edge has, not unfrequently, to be gathered in slightly. when thread is used as an outline, a second, and much finer thread is used to tack it down. the coarse thread is laid on the outlines, and the needle is brought up on one side of it, and down, in the same hole, on the other. the stitches are taken at the rate of five or six to an inch, one being always placed at the point of each angle, so as to keep the outlines as accurate as possible. to fasten on a thread, run the needle along the braid a little way, taking a button-hole stitch to secure it. fasten off in the same manner. if the outlines are in thread, you can twist the needle round it two or three times, and then take a tight button-hole stitch. the chief stitch in all point lace is that known as the common button-hole or overcast stitch. this stitch, worked as closely as possible, or at regular intervals, drawn tightly, or the reverse, forms almost all the stitches, or more properly _laces_, used. we will begin by describing the simplest of all, which is known as [illustration: brussels edge.] brussels edge (no. ). this is a continuous line of button-hole stitches, not drawn tightly, and taken at equal distances of about the fourteenth part of an inch. when worked on braid, care should be taken that the needle is inserted at a little distance from the edge of the braid, which would otherwise be apt to fray. little venetian edging (no. ). in working this stitch, do one brussels, and in the loop of that work a _tight_ stitch. venetian edging (no. ). do four stitches instead of one in the loop of the brussels stitch. sorrento edging (no. ). do a stitch exactly like little venetian, the eighth of an inch long, and then one-half that length in the same manner. continue to work these alternately. venetian bars (no. ). take the needle across the space to be barred, once, twice, or oftener, according to the thickness of the bar, and then cover these threads quite closely with button-hole stitch. the veinings of leaves are often worked in venetian bars, over a ground of brussels lace. as this is to be done without breaking off a thread, it requires some little management. begin by making the foundation thread of the vein running from the base of the leaf to the point, taking one, two, or three threads, but always beginning _at the point_ to cover it with button-hole stitch. do enough to come to the first veinings branching from it; slip the needle across to the braid, in the proper direction, taking a close button-hole stitch to fasten it: cover it with button-hole up to the centre vein; then do the companion one in the same manner, and continue to work each pair as you come to it on the principal veining. edged venetian bars (no. ). this is a venetian bar, like the last, edged with brussels or venetian edging. this, with various other bars, frequently forms the groundwork of the guipured lace. english bars (no. ). these are frequently worked between two lines of brussels or venetian edging to connect them. they are made by passing the needle backwards and forwards through two opposite stitches, always tacking the under side of each, so that the threads be across the space smoothly and evenly. about four times each way will be sufficient. they are usually done across between two stitches, and then one at each edge is missed before the next bar is made. sometimes these bars are radiated, a single stitch of the edge being missed on one side, and two at the other. sorrento bars (no. ). these are bars which occur most frequently in italian lace. they are simply twisted threads, so closely entwined that they only appear as one. they also are frequently radiated, and crossed; the effect produced will be seen in the accompanying diagram. dotted venetian bars (no. ). a bar of threads is made, as for a common venetian bar. do on it six stitches, and instead of drawing the seventh tight, hold the top by sticking a needle through it and the paper, about the tenth of an inch, and work on the threads of the loop three button-hole stitches. do six more on the bar, and repeat. [illustration: venetian edging.] [illustration: venetian bars.] [illustration: edged venetian bars.] [illustration: sorrento bars.] raleigh bars (no. ). make a bar of threads, as for venetian bars, and work on it about eight stitches. at the ninth, instead of bringing up the needle through the loop to form another button-hole, slip it under the bar, and bring it up on the right-hand side, leaving a loop of thread about two inches long, which you will hold down with your thumb, to keep it in its place. now twist your needle six times under the right hand thread of this loop; draw it up, when it will make a knot, and slip the needle through it, above the bar, to continue the process. it may be observed that when this bar forms a part of the foundation of a piece of point, only two of these dots are generally seen on it, and they are placed near each other, almost in the centre of the bar. point d'alenÃ�on (no. ). this is only common herring-bone stitch, with the needle twisted once or oftener under the thread of each stitch, according as the space to be filled is narrow or wide. spanish point (no. ). this is the raised stitch which gives the peculiarly rich appearance to all the spanish lace. a certain thickness of soft cotton is tacked down on the lace, in the form desired, and this is covered closely with button-hole stitch, edged with raleigh dots, or with small loops. it is to be noticed that this is not attached to the lace by the button-hole stitches, but only by the thread which tacks down the soft cotton, so that it can be picked off without injury. the button-hole stitches must be worked very smoothly, and quite close together. rosette (no. ). this is exactly like a spider's web, worked on three, four, or more threads, according to the shape of the space intended to be filled. begin by making a sorrento bar across the space, from one point to the opposite; then a second one, slipping the needle under the first in going, and over it in twisting back; then do a third, or fourth, if necessary; but when you have twisted back to the centre of the last, make the rosette, leaving the half bar single. the rosette is done by passing the needle under two threads, then continuing to slip it under two, the first of which is always the last of the previous two, until you have made the spot a sufficient size, when you finish the last bar, by twisting down to the braid, and fastening off. the size of the space must be the guide for that of the rosette; but from six to ten times round a centre is an average. [illustration: stitches.] brussels lace (no. ). consecutive rows of brussels edging, worked alternately from left to right, and from right to left. venetian lace (no. ). rows of venetian edging. as this stitch can only be worked from left to right, a line of brussels is usually placed between every two rows, and being worked from right to left, saves the trouble of running the needle along the braid. sorrento lace (no. ). successive rows of the sorrento edging. english lace (no. ). this is to be worked with the finest thread that is made. do a number of sorrento bars (closely twisted threads), at equal distances, in one direction throughout the space: then take one thread under all these, in exactly the opposite direction; take a stitch on the braid to secure it, and twist to the first cross. pass the needle under the single thread and over the twisted one, till it has gone four times round, when the spot will be sufficiently large. twist on the single thread to the next cross, and repeat. do this until the whole space is filled, as seen in the engraving, where the distance between the threads is sufficiently accurately represented. this lace always looks best, however, when the lines are diagonal. english lace is often radiated; that is, the lines are more distant from each other at one edge than at the other, and the spots proportionably larger, presenting the appearance of a fan. [illustration: open english lace.] [illustration: brabant edging.] open english lace (no. ). this is a variety of the previous lace, being worked in the same way, but on four lines of threads, instead of two, namely, one diagonal from left to right, one from right to left, one horizontal, and one perpendicular. the spots are worked on the last line made. the distance of the lines is seen in the engraving. [illustration: lyons point.] [illustration: brussels lace.] the accompanying diagram gives another variety of open english lace. the straight bars are formed of single threads, while the diagonal ones are twisted; and at every cross a tight button-hole stitch is worked, to keep the threads together. observe, that in working bars, a tight stitch should always be taken on the braid, at the beginning and end of every one. mecklin wheels (no. ). work venetian bars on a single thread, in one direction, at equal distances. then take a thread in the opposite direction, and cover it also with button-hole stitch a little beyond the first cross. take another needle and thread and work a few stitches, in the form of a circle, round each cross, so that by slipping the first needle through every stitch, a foundation may be formed for the button-hole work with which the wheel is made, a single raleigh dot being added between every two threads. the stitches taken with the extra needle should form a sort of railroad for holding the thread in its place. this mode of working wheels will be found very superior to the old one of pinning down the circle of thread. when all the wheels are worked, the stitches made with the extra needle should be cut away at the back. henriquez lace (no. ). this stitch, and the one that follows it, are invariably worked with the finest thread manufactured. like english lace, it has a better effect done on diagonal bars, than on those which are taken straight up and down, or across a space. make one twisted bar across the space, then take a single thread nearly close to it. twist it twice round, then darn a spot on the two threads; twist five or six times round, darn another, and repeat to the end. do all the lines in one direction first, making the spots fall one beneath the other. then begin the lines in the opposite direction, taking the thread under in one way, and over in returning, whilst, in order to keep the close bars apart, the thread must be twisted between them. care must be taken that the bars in one direction, fall between the spots in the other. cordovan lace (no. ). worked like the preceding; but with three bars in each line instead of two. valenciennes lace (no. ). this stitch also is done with the finest threads made. it is simple darning, of the closest and finest description, done with so much regularity that it resembles cambric. brabant edging is a name sometimes given to a union of the brussels with the venetian edging. a row of brussels is first worked, and on it a row of venetian. the diagram gives the effect of this arrangement. another variety of edging is produced by two or three rows of brussels being worked on one another. this is frequently seen in old lace; and, with venetian on the outer edge of the braid, is often termed lyons point. when spaces similar to those in the accompanying diagram are to be filled with brussels lace, the best way is to work each side to the centre, and then run the needle up the middle, catching up alternately a stitch on each side. sometimes the centre is not closed up at all. the diagram in page gives a specimen of a modification of the little venetian lace. the first stitch is taken as usual, but is followed by three others, worked as closely as possible. a space equal to that of four stitches is left between every four. in the second row, the four stitches are worked on the loop. the engraving also shows how the stitches are adapted to the different spaces in a pattern. foundation stitch (no. ). this is ordinary button-hole stitch, worked over a thread, and as closely as possible. the thread is taken across the space, from right to left, to form a bar, which is then covered with close brussels, worked from left to right. each stitch of a row is worked between two of the previous rows. escalier stitch (no. ). work nine button hole stitches as close to each other as possible. miss the space of two, and repeat. in the second row, work one after each of the first seven, miss the space of the last two, work two on the loop, and seven more on the next nine, miss the last two of the nine; repeat in every successive row, passing over the last two of nine stitches, and doing two on the vacant space. cadiz lace (no. ). do six close brussels stitches. miss the space of two, do two more, and again miss the space of two, repeat from the six stitches. nd row: do two over the loop of every space, and miss all the stitches, whether six or two. repeat these two rows alternately, to form the lace. barcelona lace (no. ). the first row of this lace is exactly like sorrento edging. nd row: do four close stitches on the long stitch, and miss the short one, taking care not to draw the thread too tightly. rd: a row of sorento edging, the long stitch coming over the four stitches of the last row, and both the button-holes being worked on the loop, so that the short stitches come over the short of the first row. these two rows, worked alternately, make the lace. fan lace (no. ), st row: six close brussels, miss the space of six. repeat. nd: six stitches over every six, miss the same space. rd: six close brussels on every loop, missing the space between. th: six over every six, and six on every loop. th: six close over the six on the long loop, miss the other six. repeat these last three rows as often as may be required to fill up the space. [illustration: little venetian lace.] spotted lace (no. ). this very light and pretty lace is done thus:-- st: x two close button-hole stitches, miss the space of four, x repeat to the end, without drawing the thread too tightly. begin the next row, and all following, at a little distance from the one preceding, and do two close stitches on every loop of thread. venetian spotted lace (no. ). this lace consists of a series diamonds, formed by venetian bars crossing each other diagonally, in each of the sections of which, four spots of english lace are to be worked. the foundation threads of the venetian bars are first laid; then the english lace spots are worked, and the button-hole stitch of the venetian bars is done the last. this lace is well suited to fill up large spaces. open antwerp lace (no. ). for this lace a new stitch is required, called the double brussels. instead of a simple button-hole stitch, the needle is twisted once in the loop, so that when drawn up, it has a _longer_ appearance than the ordinary brussels. the stitches are to be worked quite close to each other. st row: x eight close double stitches, miss the space of six, x repeat, without drawing the thread very tightly across the missing space. nd: x five double over the eight, two double on the loop of thread, x repeat. rd: x two double on the five, five over the two, x when five stitches are worked over two, one goes between the two, and two on each side of it. th: x eight double over five and miss the space over the two, leaving the loop rather loose, x. repeat from the second row throughout the space. open diamond (no. ). st row: five close brussels, miss the space of two, x eight close, miss the space of two, x to the end of the row. nd: two close, x miss two, two on the loop, miss two, work along the line after all the remainder of the eight, do two on the loop, and on six of the next eight (thirteen altogether), repeat to the end. rd: x miss two, two on the loop, miss two, do two on the loop, miss two, do one on every one of the line of stitches but the last two, x repeat. th: two on the loop, miss two, two on the loop, x miss two, two on the loop, one on every stitch, and two on the next loop (thirteen altogether), miss two, two on a loop, x repeat. the next diamond of holes must be so managed as to fall immediately between two of the first row. by repeating the first line, the place will be indicated. in all these stitches, it is assumed that _squares_ are to be filled in. where the shape varies from that, extra stitches must be added, at the beginning, or taken away, as the case may be, the worker referring to the engraving for the appearance intended to be produced. close diamond (no. ). the first row is plain button-hole stitch. nd row: five stitches, x leave the space of two, fourteen stitches, x repeat. rd: two stitches, x miss two, do two on the loop, miss two, work on all the rest of the fourteen, except the last two, x repeat. in the fourth row, the holes fall over those of the first. the fifth row is all in close stitches. in the sixth, begin to make fresh lines of diamonds, coming exactly between the last set. antwerp lace (no. ). st row: x eight close, miss the space of two, x repeat. nd: x five close over eight close, and two close on the loop, x. rd: x two close over five, and five over two, x. th: x five close over two, and two over five, x. th: x eight close over every five, x repeat. the above are the principal stitches found in old point lace. * * * * * deep point lace edging. materials.--brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head mecklenburgh threads, no. , , , and . draw the pattern from the engraving, a section of it being given the full size. the paper must then be lined with alpaca. should a short piece only be required, the pattern should at once be made of the full length; if not, several may be drawn. from the closeness of the work it is impossible to work twice over the same paper. the border of each pattern is formed of seven small scallops. it is worked in braiding-stitch, that is, four threads are laid on, parellel with each other, and formed into a braid by darning them backwards, and forwards, putting the needle always under two together. as it is not desirable to have any break in the outline, it will be advisable to take, for each of the four outline threads a needleful sufficiently long to answer for the whole piece of lace. [illustration: deep point lace edging.] when the whole length of the paper is done, the ends may be twisted round a card, and wrapped in paper to keep them clean while that section of the work is in progress. each pattern contains one spray of flowers and small leaves, the stem of which is braided like the edge only that it is generally wider at the end. all the outlines are made in no. , and the braiding done in no. . the flowers consist of six petals three of which are worked in foundation stitch, that is close button-hole stitch over a thread, and the others in spots formed by making two close button-hole stitches, and then allowing the space of two before working the next. in the succeeding row, the two close stitches come on the bar of thread formed between one spot and the next. the centre of the flower is an open circle, covered with close button-hole stitch, with raleigh dots. the leaves, which are very small, are entirely in foundation stitch. in each section of the large scallop is a wheel formed by working a circular raleigh bar, on a foundation of three threads. the ground is in raleigh bars worked very irregularly. the straight edge of the lace is a line of button-hole stitch on two thread. three rows of sorrento edge, worked one upon another, complete the lace. this edge and the flowers are done in mecklenburgh . the remaining parts in no. . * * * * * collar in spanish rose point. [illustration: collar in spanish rose point.] materials.--brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head valenciennes threads. this is distinguished by close heavy work, and solid spanish stitch edged with loops. the ground of the collar is guipured in the richest style, partly with plain raleigh bars partly with those having semi-circular loops, dotted in the same manner. sometimes two bars have a mecklin wheel at the cross. the section given of the collar is the full size, and has only to be repeated and reversed for the length. * * * * * [illustration: handkerchief border, in antique point lace.] handkerchief border, in antique point lace. materials.--brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head point lace cottons, and no. valenciennes thread. we give the section of the handkerchief of the full size, that workers may draw their own pattern from it. it may be made of any dimensions required. the perfect pattern occupies the entire side, reckoning from the open flower at the corner. were this entirely repeated for the quarter, it would make the handkerchief rather too large for general taste; about one half the pattern, in addition to the piece given (or the open flower, and the two next to it on the inner side) would be found sufficient for the quarter. one-fourth of the handkerchief being drawn on tracing-paper, all the design can be marked from it, on red, blue, or green; but it is preferable to draw a little more than a quarter only, instead of the whole handkerchief, which is cumbersome to hold. when a quarter is done, it may be removed from the paper, which can be used a second time by a careful worker. no braid whatever is used for this handkerchief, which is similar in the mode of working to some of the most valuable specimens of antique point. the scroll and flowers are close and heavy, the inner ground is guipured, in raleigh bars, and the space between the scroll and the outer edge is filled with fine and close english lace. the stem, and the closest part of the flowers (which may be distinguished in the engraving), are done in foundation stitch, with no. , point-lace cotton. the veinings of the petals, where they occur in this stitch, are made by taking the foundation thread at double the distance from the last one, and working over it a row of brussels stitches at the usual distance from each other, instead of close, as in foundation stitch. the calyx of the flower is done in antwerp lace. the very finest point-lace cotton should be used for all this stitch. all the flowers, done as we have just described, have a centre worked in venetian lace; no. cotton must be used. the open flowers, and the button-hole rounds, are done with valenciennes thread, no. . the english lace, with no. cotton. the raleigh bars, with valenciennes, no. . the edge of the handkerchief border is finished with close button-hole stitch, on which raleigh dots are worked at regular intervals. this edge is worked after all the rest of each quarter is finished. if it be thought troublesome to outline the whole pattern with thread, no. white cotton french braid may be used. the effect is, however, greatly inferior to that of the thread. to make up the handkerchief, cut a square of cambric the exact size to fit the lace, allowing for a very narrow hem. when the hem is made, lay the inner line of the lace over it, tack them together, and work a row of close brussels edge over the two, to connect them. * * * * * apron in broderie en lacet. materials.--three-quarters of a yard of wide black silk of satin, two knots of russia silk braid, of any colour that may be approved, and a dozen skeins of sewing silk to match. the term _broderie en lacet_ is applied to a new and very pretty style of embroidery, in which the outlines are made with silk braid, and filled in with point-lace stitches. the pattern must be enlarged, and one-half drawn on a large sheet of paper: the outlines marked with a needle, and the silk pounced from it, one side of the paper marking one-half, and the reverse side the other. for running on the braid, use the threads of the silk of which it is composed, in preference to the ordinary sewing silk. cut off a piece of the braid three-quarters of a yard long before you begin, and draw the threads out of it for the braiding. when joins occur, the ends are to be drawn through the silk with a long needle, and fastened off on the wrong side. the sections of the flowers are filled with english or venetian lace, and for the leaves, brussels lace, english bars, or point d'alençon may be used. the last named is worked between the two lines of braid, to fill in the stems and scallops. [illustration: apron in broderie en lacet.] the bottom of the apron may either have a hem below the embroidery, or be scalloped in button-hole stitch, and the edges cut out. the colours which look best for this style of work are--cerise, crimson, blue, orange, and for mourning, a soft gray. the fancy stitches are to be done exactly like those for point lace, but they need not be so close and fine, the silk filling in without much work. * * * * * pincushion cover in point lace. materials.--brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head valenciennes cottons, and no. , french braid. also some satin of any bright colour, satin ribbon inches wide to match, and materials for a pincushion. [illustration: pincushion] this pincushion is intended to be made up in the french style--that is, merely laid over the top of a satin cushion, with three handsome bows of ribbon to match, placed at equal distances. the outlines are in french braid. the scallops are filled alternately with english lace, worked with valenciennes, no. , and rows of venetian and brussels alternately, done in no. of the same. the sorrento edge is done with no. . one flower has a double mecklin wheel in the centre, and is merely edged with venetian lace (in no. ), the other has two petals filled with foundation stitch (in no. ), and two with english lace. the ground is brussels net, worked with brooks' great exhibition prize goat's-head valenciennes, no. . [illustration: pincushion.] the venetian and english bars are worked with no. . if the centre is left plain and open, a small glass for flowers is inserted. of course, the pincushion has an open centre to correspond. if filled, the cushion has a flat top, and the lace is merely laid on, and fastened with satin bows. the end. note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the original illustrations. see -h.htm or -h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/ / / / / / -h/ -h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/ / / / / / -h.zip) handwork in wood by william noyes, m.a. assistant professor, department of industrial arts. teachers college, columbia university new york city [illustration] the manual arts press peoria, illinois copyright william noyes to my students past present and future a token of gratitude for help and inspiration foreword this book is intended primarily for teachers of woodwork, but the author hopes that there will also be other workers in wood, professional and amateur, who will find in it matter of interest and profit. the successful completion of the book is due chiefly to the untiring assistance of my wife, anna gausmann noyes, who has made almost all of the drawings, corrected the text, read the proof, and attended to numberless details. acknowledgments are hereby thankfully given for corrections and suggestions in the text made by the following persons: mr. chas. w. weick of teachers college, and mr. w. f. vroom of public school no. , of new york city, for revision of chapters iv and v on tools and fastenings. mr. clinton s. vandeusen of bradley polytechnic institute, for revision of chapter x on wood finishing. the forest service, washington, d. c. for the originals of figs. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and . the new york state forest fish and game commission for the originals of figs. , , , and . t. h. mcallister of new york for the originals of figs. and . the detroit publishing company for the original of fig. . the b. f. sturtevant company, hyde park, mass., for the original of fig. . doubleday, page & co. for the original of fig. . mr. louis a. bacon, indianapolis. ind., for the clamping device shown in fig. . sargent & company, new haven, conn., w. c. toles & company, chicago, ill., the berlin machine works, beloit, wis., a. a. loetscher, dubuque, iowa, and the stanley rule and level co., new britain, conn., for electrotypes. allis chalmers company, milwaukee, wis., clark brothers, belmont, n. y., the m. garland company, bay city, mich., the prescott company, menominee, mich., for illustrations of sawmilling machinery. and most of all, i wish to acknowledge my obligation to the numerous writers of whose books and articles i have made free use, to which references are made in the appropriate places. contents. chapter page general bibliography i logging ii sawmilling iii the seasoning and measuring of wood iv wood hand tools v wood fastenings vi equipment and care of the shop vii the common joints viii types of wooden structures ix principles of joinery x wood finishing index general bibliography adams, henry, _joints in wood-work._ london: queen victoria st. . alexander, jerome, _the grading and use of glue._ _wood craft_, : , sep. ' . bailey, charles h., _a study of manual training equipments._ _manual training magazine_, : . jan. ' . barnard, charles, _tools and machines._ n. y.: silver, burdett and co. . barter, s. m., _woodwork._ london: whittaker and co. . benson, w. a. s., _elements of handicraft and design._ london: macmillan and co. . brannt, w. t., _painter, gilder and varnisher._ philadelphia: h. c. baird & co. . bruncken, ernest, _north american forests and forestry._ n. y.: g. p. putnam's sons. . clark, r. i., _varnish and fossil remains._ london: chas. letts & co. no date. compton, a. g., _first lessons in woodworking._ n. y.: ivison, blakeman, taylor and co. . crawshaw, fred d., _problems in furniture making._ peoria. ill.: the manual arts press. . disston, henry, and sons, _handbook for lumbermen._ philadelphia, pa. dunlap, frederick. _kiln-drying hardwood lumber._ _wood craft_, : , feb. ' . ellis, george, _modern practical joinery._ london: b. t. batsford, pp., , ' , ' and ' . encyclopedia britannica, _lac, varnish._ n. y.: scribner's. . foster, edwin w., _elementary woodworking._ boston: ginn and co. goss, w. f. m., _bench work in wood._ boston: ginn and co. and . griffith, ira s., _essentials of woodworking._ peoria ill.: manual arts press. . hammacher, schlemmer & co., _tools._ catalog no. . n. y. . hammacher, schlemmer & co., _cabinet hardware._ catalog no. . n. y. . hodgson, fred t., _the up-to-date hardwood finisher._ chicago: fred j. drake and co. . hodgson, fred t., _the carpenter's steel square and its uses._ n. y.: industrial publishing co. . hovey-king, alvin, _the lumber industry of the pacific coast._ _review of reviews_, : , mr., ' . hulbert, w. h., _the lumber jack and his job. outlook_, : , ap. , ' . international correspondence school, _the building trades pocketbook._ scranton, pa. international textbook co. nd edition. . international encyclopedia, _lac-insect varnish._ n. y.: dodd, mead and co. - . jones, j. e., _lumbering in the northwest._ _cosmopolitan_, : , may . larsson, gustaf, _elementary sloyd and whittling._ n. y.: silver, burdett & co. . maire, f., _the modern wood finisher._ chicago: press of the western painter. munn, m. j., _great industries of the u. s.--lumber._ _cosmopolitan_, : , aug. ' . murray, m. w., _problems in wood-working._ peoria, ill.: manual arts press. . murray, m. w., _the manual training room and its equipment._ _year book of the council of supervisors for-_ , pp. - . park, joseph c. _educational woodworking for school and home._ the macmillan co., . pichot, gifford, _a primer of forestry._ parts i and ii, u. s. dept. of agric. for. serv. bull. no. . and . purfield, h. t., _the length of nails._ _wood craft_, : , sp. ' . rivingston, see south kensington council on education. rouillion, louis, _economies of manual training._ n. y.: the derry collard company. . roth, filibert, _a first book of forestry._ boston: ginn & co. . sargent & co., _standard steel squares._ new haven, conn. seaton, geo. a., _a clamp for use at the grindstone._ _woodcraft_, : . jan., ' . selden, f. h., _elementary woodwork._ n. y.: rand, mcnally & co. . sickels, ivin, _exercises in woodworking._ n. y.: d. appleton & co. . smith, k., _lumbering by machinery._ _world's work_, : . feb. ' . smith, r. h., _cutting tools._ london: cassell & co. . south kensington council on education, _notes on building construction._ vols. london: rivington. - . standage, h. c., _glues and cements for the use of woodworkers._ _wood craft_, : , may, ' . tate, james m., _training in wood work._ minneapolis: north western school supply co. about . trout, w. h., _the modern saw mill._ _cassier's magazine_, : - . - , dec. ' and jan. ' . u. s. department of agriculture _forest service classified list of publications. forest service bulletins:_ no. . filibert, roth. _timber._ . no. . wm. f. fox, _a history of the lumber industry in the state of new york, ._ no. . hermann von schrenk, _seasoning of timber._ . van deusen, clinton s., _methods of wood finishing._ _manual training magazine_, : . jan. ' . van deusen, clinton s., _logging in the south._ _manual training magazine_, : . jan. ' . wheeler, c. g., _woodworking for beginners._ n. y.: g. p. putnam's sons. . white, stewart edward, _the blazed trail._ n. y.: mcclure, phillips & co. . white, stewart edward, _from forest to saw mill._ _junior munsey_, : , je. ' . anonymous. _nails. wood craft._ : , jl. ' . _a dry-kiln of progressive style._ _wood craft_, : . nov. ' . _lumbering in louisiana._ _wood craft_, : , nov. ' . _the lac industry of assam. journal of the society of arts._ : . feb ' . chapter i. logging. the rough and ready methods common in american logging operations are the result partly of a tradition of inexhaustible supply, partly of the fear of fire and the avoidance of taxes, partly of an eagerness to get rich quick. most of the logging has been done on privately owned land or on shamelessly stolen public land, and the lumberman had no further interest in the forest than to lumber it expeditiously. [illustration: fig. . making a valuation survey.] [illustration: fig. . "blazes" on trees.] preliminary to the actual logging are certain necessary steps. first of all is _landlooking_. this includes the survey of the forest land for the purpose of locating good timber. fig. . most of the woodland has previously been roughly surveyed by the government and maps made indicating which parts are private land and which are still held by the government. the boundaries of townships, sections, quarter sections, eighties, forties, etc., are indicated by "blazes" on trees, fig. , so that the "cruiser" or "looker" as he goes thru the woods can identify them with those on his oil paper map. the cruiser also studies the kinds and character of the trees, the contour of the ground, the proximity to streams,--all with the view to marketing the product. acting on the information thus gained by the cruiser, the lumberman purchases his sections at the proper land office, or if he is less scrupulous, buys only enough to serve as a basis for operations. enormous fortunes have been made by timber thieves, now respectable members of the community. as a further preliminary step to lumbering itself, the _tote road_ and _camp_ are built. the tote road is a rough road on which supplies for crew and cattle can be taken to camp from civilization. it is barely passable for a team and a wagon, but it serves its purpose, and over it come more men and horses. lumber for the floors and roofs of the shanties and for the rude pieces of furniture that will be needed, tarred paper to make the roofs tight, a few glazed window sashes, a huge range and a number of box stoves, dishes and kitchen utensils, a little stock of goods for the van, blankets by the dozen and score, and countless boxes and barrels and bags of provisions.[ ] [footnote : hulbert: the lumber jack; outlook, : , april , ' .] the _camp_ itself, fig. , is built of logs, roofed with plank, covered with heavy tar paper, and dimly lighted. there are usually five buildings,--the men's camp, the cook camp, the office, the barn, and the blacksmith's shop. many camps accommodate from eighty to one hundred men. the men's camp is filled with bunks and is heated by a stove and in general roughly furnished. cooking and eating are done in the cook camp, where the cook and his assistant, the "cookee," sleep. the office is occupied by the foreman, log-sealers and clerks. here the books and accounts are kept, and here is the "van," stocked with such goods as will supply the immediate needs of the lumber jacks. [illustration: fig. . winter logging camp. itasco county, minnesota.] before winter sets in the _main road_ is built, fig. , p. , very carefully graded from the camp down to the nearest mill or railway siding, or oftener to the stream down which the logs are to be floated. this road has to be as wide as a city street, feet. the route is carefully chosen, and the grade is made as easy as possible. much labor is spent upon it, clearing away stumps and rocks, leveling up with corduroy, building bridges strong enough to carry enormous loads, and otherwise making it as passable as can be; for when needed later, its good condition is of first importance. this main road is quite distinct from and much superior to the tote road. at intervals alongside the main road, small squares called _skidways_ are cleared of brush and in each of them two tree trunks, "skids," are laid at right angles to the road. on these the logs, when cut later, are to be piled. back from the skidways, into the woods the swampers cut rough, narrow roads called _dray roads_ or travoy roads,--mere trails sufficiently cleared of brush to allow a team of horses to pull a log thru. [illustration: fig. . tools used in logging.] all these are operations preliminary to the felling of trees. the tools commonly used in logging are shown in fig. . when everything is ready for felling, the "fitter" goes ahead _marking_ each tree to be felled and the direction in which it is to fall by cutting a notch on that side. then come the sawyers in pairs, fig. . first they chop a deep gash on the side of the tree toward which it is to fall, and then from the opposite side begin cutting with a long, tuttle-tooth, crosscut-saw. the saw is a long, flexible ribbon of steel, with handles so affixed to each end that they can be removed easily. the cut is made on the pulling stroke, and hence the kerf can be very narrow. as soon as the saw is well within the trunk, the sawyers drive iron wedges into the kerf behind it, partly to keep the weight of the trunk from binding the saw, and partly to direct its fall. then the saw is pulled back and forth, and the wedges driven in farther and farther, until every stroke of the maul that drives them sends a shiver thru the whole tree. just as the tree is ready to go over, the saw handle at one end is unhooked and the saw pulled out at the other side. "timber!," the men cry out as a warning to any working near by, for the tree has begun to lean slightly. then with a hastening rush the top whistles thru the air, and tears thru the branches of other trees, and the trunk with a tremendous crash strikes the ground. even hardened loggers can hardly keep from shouting, so impressive is the sight of a falling giant tree. [illustration: fig. . felling red spruce with a saw. adirondack mountains, new york.] [illustration: fig. . sawing logs into lengths.] all this seems simple enough in outline, but the actual execution requires considerable skill. trees seldom stand quite vertical, there is danger of lodging in some other tree in thick woods, and it is therefore necessary to throw trees quite exactly. some men become so expert at this that they can plant a stake and drive it into the ground by the falling trunk as truly as if they hit it with a maul. on the other hand, serious accidents often happen in falling trees. most of them come from "side winders," i. e., the falling of smaller trees struck by the felled trees. after "falling" a tree, the sawyers mark off and saw the trunk into log lengths, fig. , paying due attention to the necessity of avoiding knots, forks, and rotten places, so that some of the logs are eighteen feet, some sixteen feet, some fourteen feet, and some only twelve feet in length. meanwhile the swampers trim off the branches, fig. , a job requiring no little skill, in order that the trunk may be shaved close but not gashed. [illustration: fig. . trimming off branches of spruce. adirondack mountains, new york.] [illustration: fig. . hauling spruce logs to the skidway. adirondack mountains, new york.] this finishes the second group of operations, the felling. next the logs are _dragged_ out to the dray roads, fig. . a heavy pair of tongs, like ice-tongs, is attached to one end, and the log is snaked out by horses to the skidway. if the log is very heavy, one end is put on a dray. by one way or another the log is dragged out and across the two parallel skids, on which it is rolled by cant-hooks to the end of skids toward the road way. if other logs already occupy the skids, each new log as it arrives is piled on the first tier. as the pile grows higher, each log is "decked," that is, rolled up parallel poles laid slanting up the face of the pile, by means of a chain passed under and over the log and back over the pile, fig. . a horse hitched to the end of the chain hauls up the log, which is guided by the "send-up men" with their cant-hooks. once piled the logs are "_scaled_," that is measured in order to compute the number of board feet in them, fig. . the scaler generally has an assistant, for logs in large piles must be measured at both ends in order to determine which is the top, the body of the log being out of sight. when measured each end of the log is stamped with a hammer with the owner's mark, by which it can afterward be identified. here the logs rest and the felling and skidding continue until deep snow falls and then the sleigh haul begins. [illustration: fig. . "scaling" logs on the skids.] [illustration: fig. . making an ice road by flooding.] [illustration: fig. . decking logs on skidway.] for this the main road is especially prepared. first the road is carefully _plowed_ with an immense v plow, weighted down by logs. to the plow are attached fans. only an inch or two of snow is left on the ground by this plow, which is followed by another special plow to gouge the ruts, and by a gang of "road monkeys" who clear the road thoroly. then follows an immense tank set on runners and holding perhaps seventy-five barrels of water, and so arranged as to flood the road from holes in the bottom of the tank, a sort of rough road sprinkler, fig. . the sprinkler goes over the road again and again until the road is covered by a clear, solid sheet of ice often two feet thick, extending from the skidways to the banking grounds. this ice road is one of the modern improvements in logging. once finished, these roads are beautiful pieces of construction with deep, clear ruts. they have to be constantly watched and repaired, and this is the work of the "road monkeys." if possible the road has been made entirely with down grades but some of these are so steep that a man must be prepared with sand or hay to check too headlong a descent. [illustration: fig. . loading a sled from a skidway.] [illustration: fig. . a load of logs. flathead county, montana.] when all is ready the sleigh haul begins. piling on the sleighs or bobs, fig. , is similar to piling on the skidways, but more difficult, for the load has to be carefully balanced, fig. . chains bind the loads but the piling is only too apt to be defective, and the whole load "squash out" with a rush. it is a time of feverish activity. the sprinklers are at work till after midnight, the loaders are out long before daylight. the blacksmith is busy with repairs, the road monkeys work overtime, and the cook works all the time. "everybody works." the haul itself is full of excitement. the ponderous load of logs, weighing anywhere from eight to thirty-five tons has to be conducted largely by its own momentum down this glassy road. if a horse fall nothing can save its life. if the runners get out of the ruts, the whole load, driver and all, is likely to be upset. it is an extremely hazardous job, fig. . as each load comes down to the _banking grounds_, fig. , or log dump, it is stopped opposite long parallel skids. the wrapping chains are unhooked and the lower log on the skid side is worked out with cant-hooks till the whole load flattens out. the logs are then "decked" on immense piles, sometimes a mile long and filling the whole river from bank to bank. a decking chain feet long is sometimes required to roll the logs to their proper places. here the logs rest till the spring freshets come. this completes the transportation by land. [illustration: fig. . banking grounds.] with the coming of the spring thaw, the river bed is filled with a freshet of water which seizes and carries the logs down stream. many on the banks, however, have to be started on their way, and this is called "breaking out the roll ways." they often start on their water journey with a great crash. [illustration: fig. . the sleigh haul.] [illustration: fig. . sacking the rear.] now comes _the drive_, an arduous and often perilous task. some of the men are stationed along the shores to prevent the logs from lodging or floating into bays or setbacks. some stand at the heads of bars or islands, where with pike poles they shove off the logs that might stop there and form a jam; others follow "sacking the rear" to clean out such logs as may have become stranded. this "sacking the rear" takes most of the time, fig. . while "on the drive" men often work fourteen hours a day, a good part of the time up to their waists in ice water. their boots are shod with "caulks," or spikes, to keep them from slipping on the logs, and they carry either pike poles or peaveys, fig. . the latter are similar to cant-hooks, except that they have sharp pikes at their ends. so armed, they have to "ride any kind of a log in any water, to propel a log by jumping on it, by rolling it squirrel fashion with the feet, by punting it as one would a canoe; to be skilful in pushing, prying, and poling other logs from the quarter deck of the same cranky craft." altho the logs are carried by the river, they have to be "driven" with amazing skill and bravery. [illustration: fig. . log driving on the ausable river.] the climax of hardship and courage is reached when a "_jam_" is formed, fig. . sometimes one or two logs are caught in such a way as to be locked or jammed and then soon other logs begin to accumulate behind them, till the whole river is full of a seemingly inextricable mass. sometimes these jams can be loosened by being pulled apart, one log at a time. a hundred men can pull out an amazing number of logs in a day. the problem always is to set free or cut out certain "key" logs, which lock the whole mass. following is a description by stewart edward white of the breaking of such a jam: the crew were working desperately. down on the heap somewhere, two logs were crossed in such a manner as to lock the whole. they sought those logs. thirty feet above the bed of the river six men clamped their peaveys into the soft pine; jerking, pulling, lifting, sliding the great logs from their places. thirty feet below, under the threatening face, six other men coolly picked out and set adrift one by one, the timbers not inextricably imbedded. from time to time the mass creaked, settled, perhaps even moved a foot or two; but always the practised rivermen, after a glance, bent more eagerly to their work. * * * suddenly the six men below the jam scattered. * * * holding their peaveys across their bodies, they jumped lightly from one floating log to another in the zig-zag to shore. * * * [illustration: fig. . log jam. adirondack mountains, new york.] in the meantime a barely perceptible motion was communicating itself from one particle to another thru the center of the jam. * * * the crew redoubled its exertion, clamping its peaveys here and there, apparently at random, but in reality with the most definite of purposes. a sharp crack exploded immediately underneath. there could no longer exist any doubt as to the motion, altho it was as yet sluggish, glacial. then in silence a log shifted--in silence and slowly--but with irresistible force * * * other logs in all directions up-ended. * * * then all at once down by the face something crashed, the entire stream became alive. it hissed and roared, it shrieked, groaned, and grumbled. at first slowly, then more rapidly, the very fore-front of the center melted inward and forward and downward, until it caught the fierce rush of the freshet and shot out from under the jam. far up-stream, bristling and formidable, the tons of logs, grinding savagely together, swept forward. * * * then in a manner wonderful to behold, thru the smother of foam and spray, thru the crash and yell of timbers, protesting the flood's hurrying, thru the leap of destruction, the drivers zigzagged calmly and surely to the shore. sometimes cables have to be stretched across the chasm, and special rigging devised to let the men down to their dangerous task and more especially to save them from danger when the crash comes. [illustration: fig. . splash-dam.] [illustration: fig. . logs in boom. glens falls, new york.] in case such efforts are unavailing, it is necessary to "shoot" the jam with dynamite. another device resorted to where the supply of water is insufficient is the _splash-dam_, fig. . the object is to make the operator independent of freshets, by accumulating a head of water and then, by lifting the gates, creating an artificial freshet, sufficient to float the timber down stream. [illustration: fig. . a sorting jack.] thus by one means and another, the logs are driven along until caught by a boom, fig. , which consists of a chain of logs stretched across the river, usually at a mill. since the river is a common carrier, the drives of a number of logging companies may float into the mill pond together. but each log is stamped on both ends, so that it can be sorted out, fig. , and sent into the boom of its owner. mechanical methods in lumbering. the operations described above are those common in the lumber regions of the northeast and the lake states. but special conditions produce special methods. a very effective device where streams are small is the flume, fig. . this is a long wooden trough thru which water is led, and the logs floated end on. it is sometimes many miles long; in one case in california twenty-five miles. in the south where there is no snow, logs are largely brought out to the railway or river by being hung under immense two-wheeled trucks, called slip-tongue carts, drawn by mules, fig. . the wheels are nearly eight feet in diameter. [illustration: fig. . six mile flume. adirondack mountains, new york.] some kinds of wood are so heavy that they will not float at all, and some sink so readily that it does not pay to transport them by river. in such cases temporary railways are usually resorted to. [illustration: fig. . hauling logs by mules. oscilla, georgia.] on the pacific coast, where the forests are dense, the trees of enormous size, and no ice road is possible, still other special methods have been devised. on so great a scale are the operations conducted that they may properly be called engineering feats. consider for a moment the size of the trees: red fir ranges from five to fifteen feet in diameter, is commonly two hundred fifty feet high, and sometimes three hundred twenty-five feet high. the logs are commonly cut twenty-five feet long, and such logs often weigh thirty to forty tons each, and the logs of a single tree may weigh together one hundred fifty tons. the logging of such trees requires special appliances. until recently all the improved methods were in forms of transportation, the felling still being done by hand with very long saws, fig. , but now even the felling and sawing of logs in the forest is partly done by machinery. [illustration: fig. . a twenty-five foot saw used for crosscutting big logs.] [illustration: fig. . hauling big logs by donkey engine.] to work the saw, power is supplied by a steam or gasoline engine mounted upon a truck which can be taken readily from place to place. as the maximum power required is not over ten-horse-power, the apparatus is so light that it can be moved about easily. the saw can be adjusted to cut horizontally, vertically, or obliquely, and hence is used for sawing into lengths as well as for felling. _falling beds._ since the weight of a two hundred fifty foot fir is such that if the impact of its fall be not gradually checked the force with which it strikes the ground may split the trunk, a bed for its fall is prepared by the swampers. usually piles of brush are placed as buffers along the "falling line" so that the trunk will strike these. if the tree stands on the hill side, it is thrown up hill, in order to shorten the fall. after the felling comes the trimming of branches and knots and "rossing" of bark, to lessen the friction in sliding along the skidway. _the skidway._ by the skidway in the puget sound region is meant a corduroy road. this is constructed of trunks of trees ranging from a foot to two feet in diameter. these are "rossed," that is, stripped of their bark and laid across the road, where they are held in place by pegs driven into the ground, and by strips spiked upon the tops of the logs. if possible they are laid in swampy places to keep the surface damp and slippery. at turns in the road, pulleys are hung, thru which the hauling cables pass. the skidway runs to the railway siding or water's edge. over these skidways the logs are hauled out by various means. formerly "strings" of oxen or percheron horses were used, but they are now largely superseded by some form of donkey engine, fig. . these are placed at the center of a "yard." yarding is the skidding of logs to the railway or water way by means of these donkey engines. attached to the donkey engine are two drums, one for the direct cable, three-fourths to one inch in diameter and often half a mile long, to haul in the logs, the other for the smaller return cable, twice as long as the direct cable and used to haul back the direct cable. at the upper end of the skidway, when the logs are ready to be taken to the railway or boomed, they are fastened together, end to end, in "turns" of four or more. the direct cable is attached to the front of the "turn", and the return cable to the rear end. by winding the direct cable on its drum, the "turn" is hauled in. the return cable is used to haul back the end of the direct cable, and also, in case of a jam, to pull back and straighten out the turn. instead of a return cable a horse is often used to haul out the direct cable. signaling from the upper end of the skidway to the engineer is done by a wire connected to the donkey's whistle, by an electric bell, or by telephone. sometimes these donkey engines are in relays, one engine hauling a turn of logs to within reach of the next one, which passes it on to the next until the siding is reached. [illustration: fig. . steam skidder at work. grant county, arkansas.] where there are steep canons to be crossed, a wire trolley may be stretched and the great logs carried over suspended from it. in the south a complicated machine called a steam skidder, fig. , equipped with drums, booms, etc., is much used both for skidding in the logs and then for loading them on the cars. it is itself mounted on a flat car. an improvement on this is the locomotive boom derrick which is widely used both on the pacific coast and of late in the lake superior region. it is a combined locomotive, skidder and loader. its most unique feature is that it can be lifted off the track so as to allow flat cars to run underneath it. this feat is accomplished thus: a device, which is something like that used in elevating the bodies of coal wagons, lifts the engine several feet above the rails. then steel legs, which are curved outwardly, are lowered until the shoes which are attached to them rest on the outward end of the railroad ties. the truck of the locomotive is then folded up under it out of the way and cars can run under it, the curved legs giving plenty of clearance. the derrick attached is of the breast type, the two legs being firmly fastened. when anchored the engine can be used either for skidding or loading. for skidding, there are two cables, one being run out while the other is being wound on its drum. [illustration: fig. . log train, humboldt county, california.] in loading, the machine is located so that the empty car will be directly in front of it, and then the logs are lifted up and placed on the car by the derrick. when the car is loaded the machine can either move on to the next car, or pull it under itself into place. with the help of four men it can load from , to , feet of timber in a day. by means of the cable it can make up a train, and then by lowering the truck and raising the legs out of the way, it is converted into a locomotive and hauls the train away to the mill or railway station at the rate of three or four miles at hour. as forests are cut away along the water courses, railways have to be resorted to more and more, fig. . this has had a stimulative effect on the logging business, for now the logger is independent of the snow. on account of the steep grades and sharp curves often necessary in logging railways, a geared locomotive is sometimes used, fig. . it can haul a train of twenty loaded cars up a twelve per cent grade. the geared engine has also been used as a substitute for cable power, in "yarding" operations. the "turns" of logs are drawn over the ground between the rails, being fastened to the rear of the engine by hook and cable. this has proved to be a very economical use of power and plant. [illustration: fig. . donkey engine yarding.] [illustration: fig. . giant raft. in the background is a completed raft; in the foreground a cradle in which a raft is being built.] another method of traction where the woodland is open enough is with a traction engine. the ones employed have sixty to one hundred horse power. the great logs may be placed on wood rollers, as a house is when moved, or the logs may be hauled in on a low truck with broad wheels. the "tractor" hauls the log direct to the railway if the distance is not too great. [illustration: fig. . snow locomotive. takes the place of teamsters and horses. minnesota.] in northern michigan a "snow locomotive," fig. , is coming into use, which has tremendous tractive power, hauling one hundred to one hundred fifty tons of lumber over snow or ice. it moves on runners, but there is between them a large cylinder armed with teeth. this cylinder can be raised or lowered by the operator as it moves over the surface of the ground. the teeth catch in the snow or ice, and since the cylinder is heated by the exhaust steam, it melts and packs the snow for the trucks following it. the drum is six feet in diameter, with walls an inch and a half thick, and it weighs seven tons. it is used in all sorts of places where horses cannot go, as in swamps, and by substituting wheels for runners it has even been used on sand. in the canadian lakes there has been devised a queer creature called an "alligator," a small and heavily equipped vessel for hauling the logs thru the lakes. when its operations in one lake are finished, a wire cable is taken ashore and made fast to some tree or other safe anchorage, the capstan on its forward deck is revolved by steam and the "alligator" hauls itself out of the water across lots to the next lake and begins work there. the greatest improvement in water transportation is the giant raft, fig. . when such a raft is made up, logs of uniform length are placed together, the width of the raft being from sixty to one hundred feet and its length, one thousand feet or more. it may contain a million board feet of timber. the different sections are placed end to end, and long boom sticks, i. e., logs sixty to seventy feet long, are placed around them to bind the different sections together, and finally the whole mass is heavily chained. such a raft has been towed across the pacific. logging. references[*]: river lumbering. pinchot, _primer_, ii, pp. - . white, _blazed trail_, pp. - , , - , - , - , - , - , - , , - , - , , , - , , ff. _for. bull._, no. , pp. - , fox. white, _jun. mun._, : . hulbert, _outl._, ; . _wood craft_, : . smith, k., _world's work_, : . mechanical methods. _world's work_, : . _outl._, : . bruncken, p. . bruncken, pp. - . munn, _cosmop._, : . roth, _first book_, pp. - . hovey-king, _rev. of rev._, : . jones, _cosmop._, : . price, _world's work_, : . _for. bull._, no. . _cassier_, : , april, ' . _cosmop._, : . _rev. of rev._, : . [footnote *: for general bibliography see page .] chapter ii. sawmilling. the principal saws in a mill are of three kinds, the circular, fig. , the gang, fig. , and the band, fig. . the circular-saw, tho very rapid, is the most wasteful because of the wide kerf, and of course the larger the saw the thicker it is and the wider the kerf. the waste in sawdust is about one-fifth of the log. in order to lessen this amount two smaller saws, one hung directly above the other, have been used. one saws the lower half of the log and the other the upper half. in this way, it is possible to cut very large logs with the circular-saw and with less waste. the circular-saw is not a perfectly flat disc, but when at rest is slightly convex on one side and concave on the other. this fullness can be pushed back and forth as can the bottom of an oil-can. when moving at a high rate of speed, however, the saw flattens itself by centrifugal force. this enables it to cut straight with great accuracy. [illustration: fig. . double circular-saw and carriage.] a gang-saw is simply a series of straight saw-blades set in a vertical frame. this has a reciprocating motion, enabling it to cut a log into a number of boards at one time. it has this drawback, that it must cut the size of lumber for which it is set; that is, the sawyer has no choice in cutting the thickness, but it is very economical, wasting only one-eighth of the log in sawdust. a special form is the flooring gang. it consists of a number of saws placed one inch apart. thick planks are run thru it to saw up flooring. [illustration: fig. . gang-saw.] [illustration: fig. . band-saw.] the band-saw is fast displacing the other two, wherever it can be used. it cuts with great rapidity and the kerf is narrow. when first used it could not be depended upon to cut straight, but by utilizing the same principle that is used in the circular-saw, of putting the cutting edge under great tension by making it slightly shorter than the middle of the saw, it now cuts with great accuracy. band-saws are now made up to inches wide, feet long, and run at the rate of , feet a minute. they are even made with the cutting teeth on both edges, so that the log can be sawed both going and coming. this idea was unsuccessful until the invention of the telescopic band-mill, fig. . in this the entire mechanism carrying the wheels on which the band-saw revolves can be moved up and down, so as to bring the point where the saw leaves the upper wheel as close to the top of the different sized logs as possible. [illustration: fig. . double-carrying telescopic band-mill. mill in raised position for large log.] [illustration: fig. . jack-ladder, with endless chain.] the usual modern mill is a two story building, fig. , built at a convenient locality both for receiving the logs and for shipping the lumber. whether the logs arrive by water or by rail, they are, if possible, stored in a mill-pond until used in order to prevent checking, discoloration, decay, and worm attack. from the pond they are hauled up out of the water on to a "jack-ladder," by means of an endless chain, provided with saddles or spurs which engage the logs and draw them up into the second story on to the log slip, fig. . [illustration: fig. . two-story mill at virginia, minnesota, showing jack-ladders and consumer.] [illustration: fig. . log-flipper.] [illustration: fig. . log-stop and loader. by letting steam into the cylinder, the projecting arm revolves, rolling one log over onto the carriage and holding the next one till wanted.] after the logs have entered the mill, they are inspected for stones lodged in the bark, and for spikes left by the river men, and then measured. under the log-slip is the steam "flipper" or "kicker," fig. , by means of which the scaler or his assistant, throwing a lever, causes the log to be kicked over to one side or the other, on to the log-deck, an inclined floor sloping toward the saw-carriage. down this the log rolls until stopped by a log-stop, or log-loader, fig. , a double-aimed projection, which prevents it from rolling on the carriage till wanted. this stop is also worked by steam. by letting the steam into the cylinder which controls it, one log is rolled over on the carriage and the next one held. the log on the carriage is at once "dogged," that is, clamped tight by iron dogs, the carriage is set for the proper cut, and moves forward to the saw which cuts off the first slab. the carriage is then "gigged" or reversed. this operation offsets the carriage one-eighth of an inch so that the log returns entirely clear of the saw. in the same way two or three " boards are taken off, the dogs are then knocked out, and the log canted over half a revolution. this is done by means of the "steam nigger," fig. , a long, perpendicular toothed bar which comes up thru the floor, engages the log, and turns it over till the sawn side comes up against the knees of the carriage. the log is dogged again and a second slab and several boards are taken off. the log or "stock" as it is now called, is ", ", ", or " thick; the "nigger" then gives it a quarter-turn, leaving it lying on a sawn side. it is dogged again, and all sawn up except enough to make a few boards. this last piece is given a half-turn, bringing the sawn side against the knees, and it is sawn up. each board as it is sawn off is thrown by the board-flipper or cant-flipper,[ ] fig. , on to the "live rollers," which take it to the next process. another log comes on the carriage and the process is repeated. [footnote : a "cant" is a squared or partly squared log.] [illustration: fig. . the steam nigger. the toothed bar turns the log over into the desired position.] [illustration: fig. . steam cant-flipper. this machine is used to move cants, timber, or lumber from live rollers to gangs, band resaw mills, or elsewhere. the timber is discharged upon skid rollers, as shown, or upon transfer chains.] [illustration: fig. . log-carriage, holding quartered log in position to saw.] the saw-carriage, fig. , is propelled forward and back by a piston running in a long cylinder, into either end of which steam can be turned by the operator. [illustration: fig. . double gang edger. this machine trims off the rough edges of the "waney" boards by means of the four saws in the main frame of the machine.] [illustration: fig. . automatic steam transfer for timber, lumber and slabs. the boards are carried along by the cylinders, ccc, until they hit the bumper, b. this movement admits steam to the cylinder, cy, which raises the revolving chains or skids, which transfers the stock sidewise to other live rollers as required.] as the sawn boards fall off the log, they land on "live," that is, revolving rollers, which carry them along at the rate of to feet a minute. stops are provided farther along to stop the boards wherever wanted, as at the edger, fig. , or the slasher. from the live rollers the boards are transferred automatically, fig. , by chains running at right angles to the rollers and brought within reach of the edger man. about one-third of the boards of a log have rough edges, and are called "waney." these must go thru the edger to make their edges parallel. the edger man works with great speed. he sees at once what can be made out of a board, places it in position and runs it thru. from the edger the boards are carried to the trimmer, which cuts the length. the lumberman's rule is to "cut so that you can cut again." the so-called ' logs are really ' ". the trimmer, fig. , now trims these boards to ' ", so that if desired they can still be cut again. the trimmer may be set to cut at any desired length according to the specifications. [illustration: fig. . automatic gang lumber-trimmer. it may be set to cut automatically to any desired length.] [illustration: fig. . lumber sorting shed. virginia, minnesota.] [illustration: fig. .] the boards are now graded as to quality into no. , no. , etc., fig. , and run out of the mill, to be stacked up in piles, fig. . big timbers go directly from the saw on the rolls to the back end of the mill, where the first end is trimmed by a butting-saw or cut-off-saw which swings, fig. . the timber is then shoved along on dead rolls and the last end trimmed by the butting-saw to a definite length as specified, and shoved out. one of the most remarkable features of the modern mill is its speed. from the time the log appears till the last piece of it goes racing out of the mill, hardly more than a minute may have elapsed. [illustration: fig. . cut-off-saw. this saw trims the ends of timbers.] a large part of the problem of sawmilling is the disposal of the waste. the first of these is the sawdust. in all first class mills, this together with shavings (if a planing-mill is combined) is burned for fuel. it is sucked up from the machines and carried in large tubes to the boiler-room and there is mechanically supplied to the fires. the slabs, once considered as waste, contain much material that is now utilized. from the live rolls, on which all the material falls from the main band-saw, the slabs are carried off by transfer chains, and by another set of five rollers to the "slasher," fig. , which consists of a line of circular-saws placed ' " apart. this slasher cuts up the slabs into lengths suitable for lath or fence-pickets. fig. . or they can be resawn into " lengths for shingles or fire-wood. [illustration: fig. . ten saw gang lath bolter. this machine cuts up material lengthwise into laths.] [illustration: fig. . slab-slasher. this machine cuts up the slabs into lengths suitable for lath or fence-pickets.] from the "slasher" the ' " lengths are carried on by traveling platforms, chains, etc., to the lath-machines, fig. , where they are sawn up, counted as sawn, bound in bundles of , trimmed to exactly ' in length and sent off to be stored. the shingle bolts are picked off the moving platforms by men or boys, and sent to the shingle-machine, fig. , where they are sawn into shingles and dropped down-stairs to be packed. shingle-bolts are also made from crooked or otherwise imperfect logs. of what is left, a good part goes into the grinder or "hog," fig. , which chews up all sorts of refuse into small chips suitable for fuel to supplement the sawdust if necessary. band-saws make so little dust and such fine dust that this is often necessary. [illustration: fig. . combination lath-binder and trimmer. with this machine the operator can trim the bundles of lath simply by tilting the packing frame over from him causing the bundles to pass between the saws, thereby trimming both ends at one movement.] [illustration: fig. . hand shingle-machine. this machine is used in sawmills in which it is desired to utilize slabs and trimmings by sawing shingles therefrom, or to saw shingles from prepared bolts.] if there is any refuse that cannot be used at all it goes to the scrap-pile, fig. , or to the "consumer," the tall stack shown in fig. , see p. . boards ordinarily sawn from logs are "slash-sawn," i. e., they are tangential or bastard, each cut parallel to the previous one. by this process, only the central boards would be radial or "rift" boards. [illustration: fig. . edging grinder or hog. it cuts any kind of wood into coarse or fine chips suitable to be handled by chain conveyor or blower.] [illustration: fig. . scrap-pile. oscilla. georgia.] but, for a number of reasons, radial boards are better. they warp less because the annual rings cross the board more evenly. yellow pine flooring that is rift-sawn is more valuable than slash-sawn, because the edge of the annual rings makes a more even grain, fig. . where slash-grained flooring is used, the boards should be laid so that the outside of each board will be up in order that the inner rings may not "shell out." [illustration: fig. . slash-grain and comb-grain flooring.] in sawing oak for valuable furniture or trim, the log is first "quartered" and then the quarters sawn up as nearly radially as is desired. there are various methods of cutting quartered logs, as illustrated in fig. . [illustration: fig. . methods of sawing quartered logs.] in making staves for water-tight barrels, it is essential that they be cut radially in the log, in order that the staves be as non-permeable to water as possible. [illustration: fig. . lumber-kiln.] sawmilling. references:[*] trout, cassier : , . woodcraft : , may ' . [footnote *: for general bibliography see p. .] chapter iii. seasoning. the seasoning of wood is important for several reasons. it reduces weight, it increases strength, it prevents changes in volume after it is worked into shape, and it prevents checking and decay. decay can also be prevented by submergence and burying, if by so doing logs are kept from fungal attacks. the piles of the swiss lake dwellings, which are in a state of good preservation, are of prehistoric age. wood under water lasts longer than steel or iron under water. but for almost all purposes wood has to be dried in order to be preserved. the wood is cut up, when green, to as thin pieces as will be convenient for its use later, for the rate of drying depends largely upon the shape and size of the piece, an inch board drying more than four times as fast as a four inch plank, and more than twenty times as fast as a ten inch timber. there are various methods of seasoning: ( ) natural or air-seasoning is the most common, and in some respects the best. in this method, the wood is carefully and regularly piled in the seasoning-yard, so as to be protected as far as possible from sun and rain, but with air circulating freely on all sides of the boards, fig. , see p. . to accomplish this, "sticking" is employed, i. e., strips of wood are placed crosswise close to the ends and at intervals between the boards. in this way the weight of the superposed boards tends to keep those under them from warping. the pile is skidded a foot or two off the ground and is protected above by a roof made of boards so laid that the rain will drain off. fire-wood is best dried rapidly so that it will check, making air spaces which facilitate ignition, but lumber needs to be slowly dried in cool air so that the fibers may accommodate themselves to the change of form and the wood check as little as possible. good air-drying consumes from two to six years, the longer the better. ( ) kiln-drying or hot-air-seasoning is a much more rapid process than air-seasoning and is now in common use, fig. . the drying is also more complete, for while air-dried wood retains from % to % of moisture, kiln-dried wood may have no more than % as it comes from the kiln. it will, however, reabsorb some moisture from the air, when exposed to it. the wood of conifers, with its very regular structure, dries and shrinks more evenly and much more rapidly than the wood of broad-leaved trees, and hence is often put into the kiln without previous air-drying, and dried in a week or even less time. oak is the most difficult wood to dry properly. when it and other hardwoods are rapidly dried without sufficient surrounding moisture, the wood "case-hardens," that is, the outer part dries and shrinks before the interior has had a chance to do the same, and this forms a shell or case of shrunken, and often checked wood around the interior which also checks later. this interior checking is called honeycombing. hardwood lumber is commonly air-dried from two to six months, before being kiln-dried. for the sake of economy in time, the tendency is to eliminate yard-drying, and substitute kiln-drying. kiln-drying of one inch oak, takes one or two weeks, quarter-sawn boards taking one and a half times as long as plain-sawn. the best method of drying is that which gradually raises the temperature of both the wood and of the water which it contains to the point at which the drying is to take place. care is therefore taken not to let the surface become entirely dry before the internal moisture is heated. this is done by retaining the moisture first vaporized about the wood, by means of wet steam. when the surface is made permeable to moisture, drying may take place rapidly. curtains of canvas are hung all around the lumber on the same principle that windows in newly plastered buildings are hung with muslin. the moisture is absorbed on the inner surface of the curtain and evaporates from the outer surface. improvements in kiln-drying are along the line of moist air operation. in common practice, however, the moist air principle is often neglected. there are two methods in operation, the progressive method and the charge method. in the progressive, the process is continuous, the loads going in at one end of the kiln, and out at the other, the temperature and the moisture being so distributed in the kiln, that in passing from the green to the dry end, a load of lumber is first moistened, then heated, and finally dried out. in the charge system, the process is intermittent, one charge being removed before a new one is admitted. this gives the best results with high grade lumber for special uses. a modification of hot-air-seasoning is that which subjects the wood to a moderate heat in a moist atmosphere charged with the products of the combustion of fuel. ( ) small pieces of wood may be effectively seasoned by being boiled in water and then dried. the process seems to consist of dissolving out albuminous substances and thus allowing freer evaporation. its effect is probably weakening. ( ) soaking in water is sometimes used as a good preparation for air-seasoning. previous soaking hastens seasoning. river men insist that timber is improved by rafting. it is a common practice to let cypress logs soak in the swamps where they grow for several months before they are "mined out." they are eagerly sought after by joiners and carpenters, because their tendency to warp is lessened. ebony is water-soaked in the island of mauritius as soon as cut. salt water renders wood harder, heavier, and more durable and is sometimes applied to ship timbers, but cannot be used with timbers intended for ordinary purposes, as the presence of salt tends to absorb atmospheric moisture. ( ) boiling in oil is resorted to for special purposes, both for preservation and to give strength. for example, the best handscrews are so treated. the oil also prevents glue from sticking, the most frequent cause of injury to handscrews. ( ) there are a number of "impregnation" methods of preserving timber, and their practice is spreading rapidly. of the various preservative processes, those using coal tar creosote and zinc chloride have proved most efficient. the purpose is to force the preservative into the pores of the wood, either by painting, soaking, or putting under pressure. such impregnation methods double or treble the life of railway ties. it is now being used with great success to preserve electric wire poles, mine-props, piling, fence-posts, etc. wood preservation has three great advantages, it prolongs the life of timbers in use, reduces their cost, and makes possible the use of species that once were considered worthless. for example, the cheap and abundant loblolly pine can be made, by preservative methods, to take the place of high priced long-leaf pine for many purposes. practical suggestions for storing lumber. under the hasty methods prevalent in the mill, very little wood comes to the shop well seasoned, and it should therefore be carefully stored before using, so as to have the fullest possible air circulation around it. where the boards are large enough, "sticking" is the best method of storage, i. e., narrow strips of wood are placed at short intervals between the pieces which are piled flat. the weight of the boards themselves helps to prevent warping. boards set upright or on edge are likely to be distorted soon. it is often wise to press together with weights or to clamp together with handscrews boards that show a tendency to warp, putting the two concave sides together. then the convex side is exposed and the board may straighten thus: fig. . by wrapping up small boards in paper or cloth in the intervals between work on them, they may be kept straight until they are assembled. [illustration: fig. . clamping up boards to prevent warping.] another precaution to take is to be sure to plane both sides of a board if either is planed, especially if the board has been exposed to air-drying for some time. wood measurements. lumber is a general term for all kinds of sawn wood. logs may be sawn into timber, that is, beams and joists, into planks, which are " to " thick, or into boards which are from / " to - / " thick. these may be resawn into special sizes. lumber is measured by the superficial foot, which is a board " thick, " wide, and " long, so that a board " thick, (or / " dressed) " wide and ' " long, measures ' b. m. (board measure). boards " or more thick are sold by the "board foot" which is equivalent to " square and " thick. boards less than " thick are sold by the square foot, face measure. dressed lumber comes in sizes / " less than sawn lumber. regular sizes are: / " dressed to / " / " dressed to / " " dressed to / " - / " dressed to - / " - / " dressed to - / " " dressed to - / " any of these may be dressed down to thinner boards, or resawn on a special band-saw. in ordering it is common to give the dimensions wanted, in the order of thickness, width, and length, because that is the order in which dimensions are gotten out. e. g.: pcs. quar. oak, / " Ã� " Ã� ' " pcs. quar. oak, / " Ã� - / " Ã� " if a piece wanted is short the way the grain goes, the order would be the same, thus: / " Ã� " (wide) Ã� " (long). that is, "long" means the way the grain runs. it is always safe to specify in such a case. it is common when small pieces are ordered to add one-quarter to the cost for waste. in large lots lumber is ordered thus: ' (b. m.) whitewood, dressed sides to / ", " and up. this means that the width of any piece must not be less than ". prices are usually given per "m," i. e., per ft.: e. g.: basswood may be quoted at $ . per m. when thin boards are desired it is often economical to buy inch stuff and have it resawn. some lumber is also ordered by the "running" or lineal foot, especially moldings, etc., or by the piece, if there is a standard size as in fence-posts, studs, etc. laths and shingles are ordered by the bundle to cover a certain area. " shingles (= bundles) cover sq. ft. with " weather exposure. laths ( bundle) each / " Ã� - / " Ã� ' " cover about sq. ft. there are several methods of measuring lumber. the general rule is to multiply the length in feet by the width and thickness in inches and divide by , thus: " Ã� " Ã� ' ÷ = - / feet. the use of the essex board-measure and the lumberman's board-measure are described in chapter , pp. and . the seasoning and measuring of wood. references:[*] seasoning. _for. bull._, no, , pp. - , von schrenk. dunlap, _wood craft_, : , feb. ' . _for. circ._ no. , pp. - , herty. barter, pp. - . boulger, pp. - , - . _wood craft_, : , nov. ' . _for. circ._ no. . _agric. yr. bk._, , pp. - . measuring sickels, pp. , . goss, p. . _building trades pocketbook_, pp. , , . tate, p. . [footnote *: for general bibliography see p. .] chapter iv. wood hand tools. the hand tools in common use in woodworking shops may, for convenience, be divided into the following classes: , cutting; , boring; , chopping; , scraping; , pounding; , holding; , measuring and marking; , sharpening; , cleaning. . cutting tools. the most primitive as well as the simplest of all tools for the dividing of wood into parts, is the wedge. the wedge does not even cut the wood, but only crushes enough of it with its edge to allow its main body to split the wood apart. as soon as the split has begun, the edge of the wedge serves no further purpose, but the sides bear against the split surfaces of the wood. the split runs ahead of the wedge as it is driven along until the piece is divided. it was by means of the wedge that primitive people obtained slabs of wood, and the great change from primitive to civilized methods in manipulating wood consists in the substitution of cutting for splitting, of edge tools for the wedge. the wedge follows the grain of the wood, but the edge tool can follow a line determined by the worker. the edge is a refinement and improvement upon the wedge and enables the worker to be somewhat independent of the natural grain of the wood. in general, it may be said that the function of all cutting tools is to separate one portion of material from another along a definite path. all such tools act, first, by the keen edge dividing the material into two parts; second, by the wedge or the blade forcing these two portions apart. if a true continuous cut is to be made, both of these actions must occur together. the edge must be sharp enough to enter between the small particles of material, cutting without bruising them, and the blade of the tool must constantly force apart the two portions in order that the cutting action of the edge may continue. the action of an ax in splitting wood is not a true cut, for only the second process is taking place, fig. . the split which opens in front of the cutting edge anticipates its cutting and therefore the surfaces of the opening are rough and torn. [illustration: fig. . wedge action.] [illustration: fig. . edge action.] when a knife or chisel is pressed into a piece of wood at right angles to the grain, and at some distance from the end of the wood, as in fig. , a continuous cutting action is prevented, because soon the blade cannot force apart the sides of the cut made by the advancing edge, and the knife is brought to rest. in this case, it is practically only the first action which has taken place. both the actions, the cutting and the splitting, must take place together to produce a true continuous cut. the edge must always be in contact with the solid material, and the blade must always be pushing aside the portions which have been cut. this can happen only when the material on one side of the blade is thin enough and weak enough to be readily bent out of the way without opening a split in front of the cutting edge. this cutting action may take place either along the grain, fig. , or across it, fig. . the bending aside of the shaving will require less force the smaller the taper of the wedge. on the other hand, the wedge must be strong enough to sustain the bending resistance and also to support the cutting edge. in other words, the more acute the cutting edge, the easier the work, and hence the wedge is made as thin as is consistent with strength. this varies all the way from hollow ground razors to cold-chisels. for soft wood, the cutting angle (or bevel, or bezel) of chisels, gouges and plane-irons, is small, even as low as °; for hard wood, it must be greater. for metals, it varies from ° for wrought iron to ° for gun metal. [illustration: fig. . edge and wedge action with the grain.] [illustration: fig. . edge and wedge action across the grain.] ordinarily a cutting tool should be so applied that the face nearest the material lies as nearly as possible in the direction of the cut desired, sufficient clearance being necessary to insure contact of the actual edge. there are two methods of using edge tools: one, the chisel or straight cut, by direct pressure; the other, the knife or sliding cut. the straight cut, fig. , takes place when the tool is moved into the material at right angles to the cutting edge. examples are: the action of metalworking tools and planing machines, rip-sawing, turning, planing (when the plane is held parallel to the edge of the board being planed), and chiseling, when the chisel is pushed directly in line with its length. [illustration: fig. . straight cut.] [illustration: fig. . sliding cut.] the knife or sliding cut, fig. , takes place when the tool is moved forward obliquely to its cutting edge, either along or across the grain. it is well illustrated in cutting soft materials, such as bread, meat, rubber, cork, etc. it is an advantage in delicate chiseling and gouging. that this sliding action is easier than the straight pressure can easily be proved with a penknife on thin wood, or by planing with the plane held at an angle to, rather than in line with, the direction of the planing motion. the edge of the cutter then slides into the material. the reason why the sliding cut is easier, is partly because the angle of the bevel with the wood is reduced by holding the tool obliquely, and partly because even the sharpest cutting edge is notched with very fine teeth all along its edge so that in the sliding cut it acts like a saw. in an auger-bit, both methods of cutting take place at once. the scoring nib cuts with a sliding cut, while the cutting lip is thrust directly into the wood. the chisel and the knife, one with the edge on the end, and the other with the edge on the side, are the original forms of all modern cutting tools. the _chisel_ was at first only a chipped stone, then it came to be a ground stone, later it was made of bronze, and still later of iron, and now it is made of steel. in its early form it is known by paleontologists as a celt, and at first had no handle, but later developed into the ax and adze for chopping and hewing, and the chisel for cuts made by driving and paring. it is quite likely that the celt itself was simply a development of the wedge. in the modern chisel, all the grinding is done on one side. this constitutes the essential feature of the chisel, namely, that the back of the blade is kept perfectly flat and the face is ground to a bevel. blades vary in width from / inch to inches. next to the blade on the end of which is the cutting edge, is the shank, fig. . next, as in socketed chisels, there is the socket to receive the handle, or, in tanged chisels, a shoulder and four-sided tang which is driven into the handle, which is bound at its lower end by a ferrule. the handle is usually made of apple wood. [illustration: fig. . firmer-chisel.] the most familiar form is the _firmer-chisel_, fig. , which is said to get its name from the fact that it is firmer or stiffer than the paring-chisel. (see below.) the firmer-chisel is a general utility tool, being suited for hand pressure or mallet pounding, for paring or for light mortising. different varieties of chisels are named; ( ) according to their uses; as paring-chisels, framing-chisels, mortise-chisels, carving-chisels, turning-chisels, etc. [illustration: fig. . paring-chisel.] [illustration: fig. . framing-chisel.] [illustration: fig. . mortise-chisel.] the _paring-chisel_, fig. , has a handle specially shaped to give control over its movements, and a long thin blade, which in the best form is beveled on the two edges to facilitate grooving. it is intended only for steady pressure with the hand and not for use with a mallet. the _framing-chisel_, fig. , is thick and heavy and was formerly much used in house framing. it is usually made with the handle fitting into a socket on the shank, in order to withstand the shock of heavy blows from the mallet. the _mortise-chisel_, fig. , is made abnormally thick to give the stiffness necessary for levering the waste out of mortises. ( ) chisels are also named according to their shapes: as, skew-chisels, corner-chisels, round-nosed chisels, etc. [illustration: fig. . paring with a chisel.] the angle of the bevel of a chisel is determined by the kind of wood for which it is most used, hard wood requiring a wider angle than soft wood, in order to support the edge. for ordinary work, the bevel is correctly ground to an angle of about °. the chisel is a necessary tool in making almost every kind of joint. it may almost be said that one mark of a good workman is his preference for the chisel. indeed an excellent motto for the woodworker is: "when in doubt, use a chisel". in general, there are two uses for the chisel ( ), when it is driven by a push with the hand, as in paring, and ( ), when it is driven by blows of a mallet, as in digging mortises. in relation to the grain of the wood, it is used in three directions: ( ) longitudinally, that is with the grain, called paring; ( ) laterally, across the surface, called cutting sidewise; ( ) transversely, that is across the end, called cutting end-wood. . _paring._ to remove shavings rapidly, the chisel is held flat side up, the handle grasped by the right hand, with the thumb pointing toward the shank, and the blade held in the left hand, as in fig. . held in this way great control can be exerted and much force applied. for paring the surface as flat and smooth as possible, the chisel should be reversed, that is, held so that the flat side will act as a guide. held in this way the chisel has no equal for paring except the plane. paring with the chisel is the method used in cutting stop chamfers. (see p. , chapter viii.) by holding the cutting edge obliquely to the direction of the grain and of the cut, the effective "sliding cut" is obtained, fig. . [illustration: fig. . chiseling out a dado. (first step).] [illustration: fig. . chiseling out a dado. (second step).] . in _sidewise chiseling_ the chisel is held in the same manner as in paring. a typical form of sidewise chiseling is the cutting out of a dado, fig. . the work may be placed on the bench-hook or held in the vise with the side up from which the groove is to be cut. the chisel is pushed directly across the grain, the blade being somewhat inclined to the upper surface so as to cut off a corner next the saw kerf. after a few cuts thus made with the chisel inclined alternately both ways, the ridge thus formed is taken off, fig. . in this way the surface is lowered to the required depth. if more force be required, the palm of the hand may be used as a mallet. [illustration: fig. . perpendicular chiseling.] . in _chiseling end-wood_, it is well, if possible, to rest the piece to be trimmed flat on the cutting board or on a piece of waste wood. work done in this way is often called perpendicular chiseling, fig. . the handle is grasped in the right hand, thumb up, while the blade of the chisel passes between the thumb and first finger of the left hand, the back of which rests on the work and holds it in place. as the right hand pushes the chisel downwards the thumb and first finger of the left hand control its motion. when chiseling it is well to stand so as to look along the line being cut. incline the chisel toward you, and use the near part of the cutting edge for a guide and the farther corner for cutting, pushing the handle both down and forward at the same time, fig. . or, by pushing the chisel sidewise with the thumb of the left hand at the same time that the right hand pushes it downward, the effective sliding cut is obtained. [illustration: fig. . chiseling end wood.] [illustration: fig. . paring a corner round.] [illustration: fig. . right and wrong ways of perpendicular chiseling.] end chiseling requires considerable force and therefore only thin shavings should be cut off at a time. or the mallet may be used with caution. in order to leave a smooth surface the chisel must be very sharp. even then the lower arris (corner) is likely to be splintered off. this can be prevented by clamping the work down tight with a handscrew to a perfectly smooth cutting board. it is often advisable however, to set the piece upright in the vise and pare off thin shavings horizontally, fig. . in rounding a corner, both this and perpendicular chiseling are common methods. in both cases care should be taken to cut from the side toward the end and not into the grain, lest the piece split, fig. . in horizontal end paring, fig. , in order to prevent splintering, it is well to trim down the arrises diagonally to the line and then to reduce the rest of the end surface. in all hand chiseling, it is a wise precaution not to try to cut out much material at each stroke but to work back gradually to the line. [illustration: fig. . mallet chiseling. the piece is clamped down on the bench with the bench hook.] a typical form of mallet chiseling is the digging of a mortise, fig. . (see also p. .) the chisel is held perpendicular in the left hand, while the right hand drives blows with the mallet. the hammer should never be used. (see mallet, p. .) by rocking the chisel and at the same time giving it a twisting motion while the edge is kept on the wood, the edge can be stepped to the exact place desired. care should be taken to work back to the lines gradually, to cut only part way thru from each side (in the case of a thru mortise-and-tenon), and to keep the cut faces perpendicular to the surfaces. in sharpening a chisel it is of first importance that the back be kept perfectly flat. the bevel is first ground on the grindstone to an angle of about ° and great care should be taken to keep the edge straight and at right angles to the sides of the blade. [illustration: fig. . whetting a plane-bit.] after grinding it is necessary to whet the chisel and other edged tools. (see also under oilstones, p. .) first see that there is plenty of oil on the stone. if an iron box be used, fig. , the oil is obtained simply by turning the stone over, for it rests on a pad of felt which is kept wet with kerosene. place the beveled edge flat on the stone, feeling to see if it does lie flat, then tip up the chisel and rub it at an angle slightly more obtuse than that which it was ground, fig. . the more nearly the chisel can be whetted at the angle at which it was ground the better. in rubbing, use as much of the stone as possible, so as to wear it down evenly. the motion may be back and forth or spiral, but in either case it should be steady and not rocking. this whetting turns a light wire edge over on the flat side. in order to remove this wire edge, the back of the chisel, that is, the straight, unbeveled side, is held perfectly flat on the whetstone and rubbed, then it is turned over and the bevel rubbed again on the stone. it is necessary to reverse the chisel in this way a number of times, in order to remove the wire edge, but the chisel should never be tipped so as to put any bevel at all on its flat side. finally, the edge is touched up (stropped) by being drawn over a piece of leather a few times, first on one side, then on the other, still continuing to hold the chisel so as to keep the bevel perfect. [illustration: fig. . grinding angle, °. whetting angle, °.] to test the sharpness of a whetted edge, draw the tip of the finger or thumb lightly along it, fig. . if the edge be dull, it will feel smooth: if it be sharp, and if care be taken, it will score the skin a little, not enough to cut thru, but just enough to be felt. [illustration: fig. . testing the sharpness of a chisel.] the _gouge_ is a form of chisel, the blade of which is concave, and hence the edge curved. when the bevel is on the outside, the common form, it is called an outside bevel gouge or simply a "gouge," fig. ; if the bevel is on the inside, it is called an inside bevel, or inside ground, or scribing-gouge, or paring-gouge, fig. .[ ] [footnote : another confusing nomenclature (goss) gives the name "inside gouges" to those with the cutting edge on the inside, and "outside gouges" to those with the cutting edge on the outside.] carving tools are, properly speaking, all chisels, and are of different shapes for facility in carving. for ordinary gouging, fig. , the blade is gripped firmly by the left hand with the knuckles up, so that a strong control can be exerted over it. the gouge is manipulated in much the same way as the chisel, and like the chisel it is used longitudinally, laterally, and transversely. in working with the grain, by twisting the blade on its axis as it moves forward, delicate paring cuts may be made. this is particularly necessary in working cross-grained wood, and is a good illustration of the advantage of the sliding cut. [illustration: fig. . firmer-gouge outside bevel.] [illustration: fig. . inside bevel gouge.] in gouging out broad surfaces like trays or saddle seats it will be found of great advantage to work laterally, that is across the surface, especially in even grained woods as sweet gum. the tool is not so likely to slip off and run in as when working with the grain. the gouge that is commonly used for cutting concave outlines on end grain, is the inside bevel gouge. like the chisel in cutting convex outlines, it is pushed or driven perpendicularly thru the wood laid flat on a cutting board on the bench, as in perpendicular chiseling. fig. , p. . [illustration: fig. . gouging.] in sharpening an outside bevel gouge, the main bevel is obtained on the grindstone, care being taken to keep the gouge rocking on its axis, so as to get an even curve. it is then whetted on the flat side of a slipstone, fig. , the bevel already obtained on the grindstone being made slightly more obtuse at the edge. a good method is to rock the gouge on its axis with the left hand, while the slipstone held in the right hand is rubbed back and forth on the edge. then the concave side is rubbed on the round edge of the slipstone, care being taken to avoid putting a bevel on it. inside bevel gouges need to be ground on a carborundum or other revolving stone having a round edge. the outfit of the agacite grinder, (fig. , p. ), contains one of these stones. the whetting, of course, is the reverse of that on the outside bevel gouge. [illustration: fig. . whetting a gouge.] the _knife_ differs from the chisel in two respects, ( ) the edge is along the side instead of the end, and ( ) it has a two-beveled edge. knives are sometimes made with one side flat for certain kinds of paring work, but these are uncommon. the two-beveled edge is an advantage to the worker in enabling him to cut into the wood at any angle, but it is a disadvantage in that it is incapable of making flat surfaces. the knife is particularly valuable in woodwork for scoring and for certain emergencies. the sloyd knife, fig. , is a tool likely to be misused in the hands of small children, but when sharp and in strong hands, has many valuable uses. a convenient size has a - / inch blade. when grinding and whetting a knife, the fact that both sides are beveled alike should be kept in mind. [illustration: fig. . sloyd knife.] [illustration: fig. . draw-knife.] the _draw-knife_, fig. , is ground like a chisel, with the bevel only on one side, but the edge is along the side like a knife. instead of being pushed into the wood, like a chisel, it is drawn into it by the handles which project in advance of the cutting edge. the handles are sometimes made to fold over the edge, and thus protect it when not in use. the size is indicated by the length of the cutting edge. it is particularly useful in reducing narrow surfaces and in slicing off large pieces, but it is liable to split rather than cut the wood. saws. [illustration: fig. . hand saw.] the object of the saw is to cut thru a piece of material along a determined line. its efficiency depends upon ( ) the narrowness of the saw cut or "kerf," and ( ) upon the force required to drive it thru the material. the thinner the blade, the less material will be cut out and wasted, and the less force will have to be applied. in order to have the saw as thin as possible, almost all the people of the world, except the anglo saxons, have saws that cut when they are pulled toward the worker. the blade is in tension while cutting and in compression only when being returned for a new cut. german carpenters use a saw like our turning-saw. english and americans have developed the saw on the opposite principle, namely, that it should cut on the pushing stroke. as a matter of fact, the crosscut-saw cuts somewhat on the back stroke. the pushing stroke necessitates a thickening of the blade sufficient to prevent buckling,--a not uncommon occurrence in the bands of a novice, in spite of this thickening. but tho this requires more force, and involves more waste, there are the compensations that the arm can exert more pressure in pushing than in pulling, especially when the worker stands upright or stoops over his work, and the stiffer wide blade acts as a guide to the sawyer. each method has its advantages. whatever may be true of hand-saws, in machine-saws the tension method, as illustrated by the gang-saw and the band-saw, is steadily displacing the compression method utilized in the circular-saw. many kinds of work, however, can be done only on the circular-saw. in order to diminish the disadvantages of the thrusting stroke, the modern hand-saw, fig. , has been gradually improved as the result of much experience and thought. the outline of the blade is tapered in width from handle to point; it is thicker also at the heel (the handle end) than at the point; its thickness also tapers from the teeth to the back. all these tapers gives stiffness where it is most needed. it is made wide for the sake of giving steadiness in sawing. the fact that it is thinner at the back than along the teeth gives it clearance in passing back and forth in the kerf, but the friction is still great, especially in sawing soft or damp wood. to avoid this binding still further, the teeth are "set" alternately one to one side and the next to the other, and so on. [illustration: fig. . rip saw teeth: a-edge view, b-side view, c cross-section. crosscut-saw teeth: a'-edge view, b'-side view, c'-cross-section.] the size of saws is indicated by the length of the blade in inches. the coarseness of the tooth is indicated by the number of "points" to the inch. "points" should not be confused with teeth as there is always one more point per inch than there are teeth. for example, a five point rip-saw has five points to the inch but only four full teeth, fig. . rip-saws run from to points per inch; crosscut-saws from to points per inch. in general, saws are of two kinds, rip-saws and crosscut-saws. the _rip-saw_, fig. , may be thought of as a series of chisels set in two parallel rows which overlap each other, for each tooth is filed to a sharp edge which, at each stroke, chisels off a small particle from the end of the wood fibers. the shape of the teeth is the result of experience in uniting a number of factors: as, strength of the individual tooth, the acuteness of the cutting angle, and the ease of sharpening. the steel of a saw is softer than that of a chisel, in order that it may be filed and set. hence it is weaker and the edge cannot be so acute. a typical form of tooth is shown in fig. , in which a is an edge view, b the side view, and c a cross section. the angle of each tooth covers °, one side, the "face", being at right angles to the line of the teeth. the cutting edge runs at right angles to the sides of the blade. this arrangement works with entire success along the grain, but if a rip-saw is used to cut across the grain, since there is no provision for cutting thru the fibers, each tooth catches in them and tears them out, thus leaving a rough and jagged surface. in the _crosscut-saw_, therefore, the teeth are filed to points, and the cutting edge is on the forward side of each alternate tooth. in fig. . a' is the edge view, b' is the side view and c' is a cross-section. in a properly filed crosscut-saw a needle will slide between these two rows of teeth from one end of the saw to the other. [illustration: fig. . rip-sawing on a horse.] in action the points, especially their forward edges, cut or score the fibres of wood, and then the triangular elevation of wood left between the two rows of points is crumbled off by friction as the saw passes through. thus it drops farther and farther into the cut. a crosscut-saw may be thought of as a series of knife points, arranged in two parallel rows. ordinarily the angle of the "face" of each tooth with the line of the teeth is about °, and slightly steeper than the back of the tooth. the angle of the cutting edge of each tooth may be filed more acute when the saw is to be used for soft wood only. a crosscut-saw when used to rip a board, works slowly, for there is no chisel action to cut out the fibres between the points, but the cut, tho slow, is smooth. in cutting diagonally across a piece of wood, especially soft wood, a rip-saw cuts faster, but a crosscut, smoother. in ripping a board, allowance should always be made for planing to the line afterward. in starting a cut with the rip-saw, the weight of the saw should be borne by the right hand so that the teeth may pass over the edge of the wood as lightly as possible. the left thumb acts as a guide. if the saw be handled thus, and the angle with the board be quite acute, it is not necessary to start with a back stroke. when the kerf is well started, the whole weight of the saw may be applied. an easy light stroke is better than a furious one. the line should be followed carefully, but if the saw runs from the line it may be brought back by taking short strokes near the point of the saw and twisting the blade slightly in the desired direction. if the saw binds and buckles because of the springing together of the wood, the kerf may be wedged open with a screwdriver or a bit of waste wood. a drop of oil rubbed across each side of the saw will make it work more easily. care should be taken in finishing a cut to hold up firmly the part of the wood which is being sawn off so that it will not split off or splinter. [illustration: fig. . rip-sawing with wood held in bench-vise.] sawing may be done either on a saw-horse, fig. , or at a bench. for big, rough work, the former is the common way, the worker holding the material in place with one knee, because this method enables him to exert his greatest strength. a convenient way for rip-sawing a small piece of wood is to insert it in the vise, fig. , with the broad side of the board parallel to the vise screw, and the board inclined away from the worker who stands upright. the start is easy, the sawdust does not cover the line, and the board is not in danger of splitting. the board, however, has to be reversed after it is sawn part way thru, in order to finish the saw cut. the _back-saw_ or _tenon-saw_, fig. , is a fine crosscut-saw, with a rib of steel along the back, which gives to it its name. since it is intended for small accurate work, the teeth have little or no set. in sawing, the wood may be held either in the vise or on the bench-hook. to help start the saw and at the same time to keep the edges of the cut sharp, it is well to make a little groove with the knife, on the waste side of the line to be followed, cutting the side of the groove next to the line at right angles to the surface. the saw drops directly into this groove, fig. . in starting the saw cut, the saw should be guided by holding the thumb of the left hand against the side of the saw just above the teeth. until the kerf is well started, the saw should be held so that the teeth just touch the wood. it is better not to attempt to start the saw level, i.e., with the teeth resting clear across the wood, but the handle should be raised so that the start is made only at the farther edge of the wood. then as the saw is gradually lowered, the kerf will extend quite across the wood. fig. . when the back-saw is used for ripping, the wood is held in the vise, end up. begin sawing as in crosscutting, that is, at the farther corner with the handle end of the saw up, and gradually drop the handle. watch the lines on both the front and back sides, and if necessary, reverse the piece to follow them. [illustration: fig. . using the back-saw with bench-hook.] [illustration: fig. . starting a saw cut in a trough cut with knife.] [illustration: fig. . direction of the back-saw.] [illustration: fig. . dovetail-saw.] [illustration: fig. . compass-saw.] the _dovetail-saw_, fig. , is a small back-saw for delicate work. the _compass-saw_, fig. , is narrow, pointed, thick, to prevent buckling, and with a wide set to the teeth, to help in following the curves. the teeth are a cross between the rip and crosscut teeth. it is used in sawing curves. the _turning-saw_, fig. , is a narrow saw, set in a frame, which stretches the saw tight, so that it works as a tension saw (cf. p. ). the best frames are made so that the handles which hold the blade can revolve in the frame. the turning-saw is used chiefly for cutting curves. a inch blade, / of an inch wide is a good size for ordinary use. the teeth are like those of a rip-saw, so that they are quite likely to tear the wood in cutting across the grain. allowance should be made for this and the surplus removed with a spokeshave. the turning-saw may be used to cut on either the pulling or the pushing stroke, with the teeth pointed either toward or away from the worker. the pulling cut is generally better, as it puts less strain on the frame than the pushing cut. both hands should grasp the frame as near the end of the blade as possible, fig. . turns are made by revolving the frame on the blade as an axis, which should always be kept at right angles to the surface of the board. care should be taken not to twist the blade. [illustration: fig. . using a turning saw.] [illustration: fig. . saw-vise.] _to file and set a saw_, the saw is first fastened in the saw-vise, fig. , with the teeth up. it is then top-jointed by running a flat file or a saw-jointer, fig. , back and forth lengthwise along the tops of the teeth to bring them to a level. after jointing the saw should be set. for this purpose a saw-set, fig. , is necessary. every alternate tooth is bent in the direction of its set by the plunger in the instrument pushing against the anvil, which is an adjustable eccentric disc. after the saw is set, it is filed. this is done with a triangular file, fig. , p. , which is held in the right hand and its point in the thumb and fingers of the left. pressure is applied only on the forward stroke, which should be long and even, the file being raised above the tooth on the return stroke. the file should cut in the direction of the set, that is, the teeth having the set away from the worker are filed first. every alternate tooth, st. d, th, etc., is filed, and then the saw is reversed and the other set, the nd, th, th, etc., is filed. [illustration: fig. . a saw-jointer.] [illustration: fig. . saw-set.] in filing a rip-saw the file should move exactly perpendicularly to the plane of the saw blade, that is, directly across the teeth. the filing is done on the back of the teeth, the file just touching the face of the next one. the filing is continued, with one, two, or three strokes, for each tooth, as the case may require, or just until each tooth is sharp. in filing a crosscut-saw, the file is held pointing upward and toward the point of the saw. the file should cut in the direction of the set. the angle of the cutting edge is determined by the horizontal inclination of the file to the blade; the angle of the point is determined by the perpendicular inclination of the file to the blade. finally the sides of the teeth are rubbed lightly with a slipstone to remove the wire edge. it should always be remembered that a saw is an edge tool, and its edges are as liable to injury as any edges. planes. the _plane_ is a modified chisel. the chief difference in action between a chisel and a plane in paring is this: the back of the chisel lies close down on the surface of the wood that is cut, and acts as a guide; whereas, in the plane, the cutter is elevated at an angle away from the surface of the wood, and only its cutting edge touches the wood, and it is held and guided mechanically by the plane mechanism. in other words, a plane is a chisel firmly held in a device which raises the cutter at an angle from the work, regulates the depth of the cut, and favors the cutting rather than the splitting action. an illustration of a chisel converted into a plane is the adjustable _chisel-gage_, fig. . [illustration: fig. . adjustable chisel-gage.] [illustration: fig. . wooden bench-plane.] [illustration: fig. . section of jack plane.] the plane has developed as follows: it was first a chisel held in a block of wood. this is all that oriental planes are now, simply a sharpened wedge driven into a block of wood. when the hole works too loose, the japanese carpenter inserts a piece of paper to tighten it, or he makes a new block. the first improvement was the addition of a wooden wedge to hold in place the "plane-iron", as the cutter was formerly called. in this form, the cutter or plane-iron, tho still wedge-shaped, was reversed, being made heavier at the cutting edge in order to facilitate fastening it in the wooden plane-stock by means of the wooden wedge. then a handle was added for convenience. then came the cap, the object of which is to break back the shaving and thus weaken it as soon as possible after it is cut. until a few years ago, this was all that there was in a plane, and such planes are still common, fig. . finally there appeared the iron plane, fig. , with it various mechanical adjustments. the following are the parts of the bailey iron plane:[ ] . cutter, or bit, or blade, or _plane-iron_. . cap, or _plane-iron cap_, or curling iron. . cutter screw, or _plane-iron screw_. . clamp, or _lever cap_, or wedge. . clamp screw, or _cap screw_. . _frog_. . _y adjustment_. . brass set screw, or _brass adjusting nut_. . lever (for _lateral adjustment_). . _frog screw_. . _handle_. . _knob_. . _handle bolt and nut_. . knob screw, or _knob bolt and nut_. . _handle screw_. . _bottom_, or sole. . toe. . heel. . throat. . thumb piece, or clamp lever, or cam. [footnote : the numbers and names in italics are those given in stanley's catalog, no. . some of these names, as "plane-iron," are survivals from the days of the wooden plane and are obviously unsuitable now.] there are various principles involved in the action of the plane. the effect of the flat sole is to regulate the cut of the cutter. if the surface be uneven, the cutter will not cut at all, or but little, in passing over low places, since the toe and heel of the sole will then be resting on higher places; but when the cutter reaches a high place a shaving will be taken off. hence it follows that the longer the plane, the straighter will be the surface produced. the length of the plane used is determined by the length of the wood to be planed, and the degree of straightness desired. the part of the sole directly in front of the cutter presses firmly down on the wood and so prevents the shaving from splitting far in advance of the edge. it follows that the narrowness of the mouth in a plane is an important factor in the production of smooth surfaces. this can be regulated by adjusting the toe in the block-plane, and by moving the frog in the jack- and smooth-planes. a recent improvement in jack-, smooth-, and fore-planes consists of an adjustable frog, by means of which the throat can be narrowed or widened at will by means of a set-screw in the rear of the frog without removing the clamp and cutter. it is made by sargent and company. the stanley "bed rock" plane has a similar but less convenient device. [illustration: fig. . sighting along the sole of jack-plane.] the splitting of the wood in advance of the edge is also prevented by the breaking of the shaving as it hits against the cutter or its cap. hence the advantage of bending up and breaking or partly breaking the shaving as soon as possible after it is cut. this shows why the cap is set close to the edge of the cutter. another reason is that it thereby stiffens the cutter and prevents "chattering." if a thick shaving be desired the cap has to be set farther back. in a smooth-plane / inch is enough, in a jack-plane / inch is often desirable. the following are the planes in common use: the _jack-plane_, fig. , " to " long, is the one used where a considerable amount of material is to be taken off to bring a piece of wood to size, and therefore the outline of the cutting edge instead of being straight is slightly curved or "crowned" so that in planing the surface of a board it makes a series of shallow grooves, the ridges of which must afterward be smoothed off by another plane. also for beginners whose hands are not strong it is sometimes wise to grind the cutter with some "crown", in order to take off narrow shavings, which require less strength. for school use, where the jack-plane is used for all purposes, the cutter is usually ground almost straight and only the corners rounded as in the smooth-plane and the fore-plane.[ ] [footnote : in whetting a plane-bit, a slight crown may be given it by rubbing a bit harder at the ends of the edge than in the middle. strop in the same way as a chisel (p. ).] the _fore-plane_, " to " long, and the _jointer_, " to " long, are large planes, similar to the jack-plane, except that the cutting edge is straight. they are used for straightening and smoothing long pieces. the _smooth-plane_, - / " to " long, is a short plane, similar to the jack-plane, except that the cutting edge is straight. it is used for smoothing. these four planes, the jack-plane, the fore-plane, the jointer, and the smooth-plane, are essentially alike, and directions for the use of one apply to all. there are two chief adjustments in the bailey iron plane: the brass set-screw, see in fig. , which regulates the depth of the cut, and the lever, , which moves the cutter sidewise so that it may be made to cut evenly. the skilful worker keeps constant watch of these adjustments. it is well to form the habit of always sighting along the sole before beginning to plane, in order to see that the cutter projects properly, fig. . it is a common mistake among beginners to let the cutter project too far. it is important to know what is the best order of procedure in planing up a board. there are often reasons for omitting the planing up of one or more surfaces, but it is wise to form the habit of following a regular order, and the following is suggested as a good one: . working face. plane one broad side flat and smooth. finish with the plane set to cut line shavings. test with try-square. mark this face with a distinct pencil mark, a, fig. . . working edge. plane one narrow side straight and square with the working face. test with try-square, pressing the block of the try-square against the working face. mark the working edge with two distinct pencil marks, b, fig. . . end. first mark the width on the working face with the marking-gage, c, - , fig. . chisel off the corner, _a_, of the piece outside this gaged line. true and smooth this end with the plane, making it square with both working face and working edge, d, , , , fig. . . length. measure the length from the finished end, d, - - , score across the working face, d, - , and working edge, d, - , using a sharp knife point and the try-square. saw just outside this line, d, - - , with the back-saw, cut off the narrow corner, d, _b_, beyond the gaged line and plane true, e, fig. . . width. plane to the center of the gaged line, e, - . test this edge from the working face, f, fig. . . thickness. mark the thickness with the marking-gage all around the piece, f, - - . plane to the center of the gaged line, g, fig. . test this face for flatness. [illustration: fig. . the order of planing a board.] in a word, the order to be followed is graphically represented in h, fig. . the surfaces are numbered consecutively in the order in which they are to be planed. the advantages of this order are these: by planing the working face first, a broad surface is secured to which the others may be made true. by planing the ends before the width is planed, the danger of splitting off fragments can be avoided by chiseling the corner of the unfinished edges, c, _a_, and d, _b_, fig. , into a buttress. by planing the ends and the width before the thickness is planed, a dressed face is secured all around for gaging the thickness. in following this order all measurements and markings are made on a dressed face. [illustration: fig. . sighting for wind.] if there be any "wind" or twist in the board, this should be discovered first of all. this may be done roughly by sighting across the broad side of the board, fig. , and more accurately by the use of "winding sticks," see fig. , p. . or the surface may be tested with the plane itself by tilting the plane on its long corner edge, and resting it on the board, while the worker looks between the board and the plane toward the light. it is evident that the plane must be turned in various directions to test for wind, and that a board only as long or as wide as the plane is long can be tested in this way. the try-square or any straight edge may be used for the same purpose, fig. . if there be any wind in the board, this should at once be taken out of one face by planing down the high corners. [illustration: fig. . testing from edge to edge.] in starting to plane, the worker should bear down on the knob at the front end of the plane. when the plane is well on the board, he should bear down equally on both knob and handle, and as the plane begins to pass off the board he should put all the pressure on the handle end, fig. . by taking pains thus, a convex surface will be avoided, the making of which is a common error of beginners. on the return stroke, the plane should be lifted or tilted so that the cutting edge will not be dulled by rubbing on the wood. this is especially important on rough and dirty boards, as it saves the cutting edge, and in fine work, as it saves the work. if the plane tear the wood instead of cutting it smooth, as it should, it is because the planing is "against the grain". this can often be avoided by noticing the direction of the grain before beginning to plane. but even if it be not noted beforehand, a stroke or two will show the roughness. in such a case, it is necessary simply to turn the wood around. [illustration: fig. . planing an edge.] the accuracy of the work as it progresses should frequently be tested, and the eye should constantly be trained so that it can more and more be depended upon to detect inaccuracy, fig. . as each surface is trued, it should be carefully smoothed with the cutter set to cut fine shavings. [illustration: fig. . sighting an edge.] in planing a very cross-grained piece of wood, there are several methods to use for securing a smooth surface. the frog of the plane should be moved forward so that the throat in the front of the cutter is a mere slit. in the ordinary plane it is necessary to remove the cutter in order to reset the frog, but in the sargent plane and the stanley "bed rock" plane, it can be set by a set-screw at the rear of the frog. next, the cap should be set so that the cutter projects but very little beyond it, or, in technical language, the cutter should be set "fine." a sliding cut, see p. , should be taken with the plane, and sometimes it may be necessary to move the plane nearly at right angles to the general direction of the grain. by these means even refractory pieces of wood can be well smoothed. see also scrapers, p. . the choking of a plane is the stoppage of the throat by shavings. it may be due simply to the fact that the cutter is dull or that it projects too far below the sole of the plane. in a wooden plane choking is sometimes due to the crowding of shavings under some part of the wedge. when the adjustable frog in a modern plane is improperly placed choking may result. the frog should be far enough forward so that the cutter rests squarely upon it. choking may, and most commonly does, take place because the cap does not fit down tight on the cutter. this happens if the cap be nicked or uneven. in consequence, minute shavings are driven between these two irons and choking soon results. the remedy is to sharpen the cap, so that its edge makes a close fit with the cutter. the fit may be made still tighter by rubbing with a screwdriver the edge of the cap down on the cutter after it is screwed in place. in no tool is it more important to keep the cutter sharp than in the plane. to remove the cutter, in order to sharpen it, first loosen the clamp lever and remove the clamp. carefully remove the cap and cutter taking pains not to let the edge hit any part of the plane, then using the clamp as a screwdriver, loosen the cap-screw and slide the cap back along the slot in the cutter, where it can be held fast by a turn of the cap-screw. the edge is now free and can readily be whetted. when the cap needs to be entirely removed, for instance, for grinding, after it has been slid along the cutter slot, as before, it is turned at right angles to the cutter, and then slid down the slot until the cap-screw unbuttons from the cutter. the object in sliding the cap up the slot before turning it, is to prevent the danger of injuring the edge. some caps are now made with the buttonhole at the upper end of the slot. after sharpening, (see under sharpening, p. .) the order is reversed for replacing the cutter. the cap is set at right angles to the cutter, the cap-screw dropped into the slot, the cap is slid up the slot, and turned into line with the cutter, and then slid down the slot till the edge of the cap comes quite near the edge of the cutter. then the two are held firmly together with the left hand until the cap screw is turned tight. in replacing the cutter and cap in the plane, care should be taken not to injure the edge and to see that the y adjustment lever fits into the little slot in the cap; then finally the lever is thrown down tight. then, by turning the plane sole upward and glancing down it, the proper adjustments with the brass set-screw and lateral adjustment lever are made. when the plane is not being used, it should rest either on a pillow (a little strip of wood in the bench trough), or on its side. in no case should it be dropped sole down flat on the bench. the _block-plane_, fig. , gets its name from the fact that it was first made for planing off the ends of clap-boards, a process called "blocking in". [illustration: fig. . section of block-plane.] the names of the parts of the bailey block-plane are[ ]: . cutter or bit or _plane-iron_. . clamp or _lever cup_. . _cap-screw_. . _adjusting lever_. . _adjusting nut_. . _lateral adjustment_. . _bottom_. . _mouth piece_. . _eccentric plate_. . _knob_. [footnote : see footnote p. ] the block-plane was devised for use with one hand, as when it is used by carpenters in planing pieces not readily taken to a vise or in planing with a bench-hook. hence it is made small, - / " to " long, the clamp is rounded so as to act as a handle, and the cutter is lowered to an angle of about ° to make the plane easy to grasp. the lower angle of the cutter makes it necessary that the bevel be on the upper side. otherwise, to give clearance, the bevel would have to be made so long and so thin as to be weak. by putting the bevel up, the angle between the wood and the cutter is maintained practically as in the smooth-plane. since the block-plane is intended chiefly for use on end grain, no cap is needed to break the shavings. the adjustable throat makes it possible to cut a very fine shaving. to facilitate the cutting action, several forms of block-planes with a very low angle are now made. where both hands are free to hold the plane, the block-plane has no advantage over a smooth-plane, even on end grain. moreover, the cutter cannot be held so firmly in place as that of a smooth-plane, so that it requires constant adjustment. hence it is not an easy tool for amateurs to handle. there is considerable lost motion in the adjusting nut, and the set-screw, which acts as a knob, is likely to work loose and be lost. it is hardly to be recommended as a part of the equipment of the individual bench in school shops. the piece to be planed with the block-plane may be held either in the vise, end up, or on a bench-hook, fig. . in end planing in the vise, in order to avoid splintering the precaution should be taken to trim off a corner on the undressed edge, as directed on page , or else the planing must be done from both edges toward the center. the sliding cut is much easier than the straight cut, and hence there is a constant temptation to turn the plane at an angle perhaps at an expense of the flat surface desired. [illustration: fig. . using the block-plane and bench-hook.] in using the bench-hook the piece to be block-planed is placed with the working edge against the block, with the end to be planed to the right and flush with the edge of the bench-hook, in which position it is held with the left hand. the block-plane, held in the right hand, is placed on its side on the bench facing toward the work. in planing, the left hand holds the work firmly against the block of the bench-hook, pressing it somewhat to the right against the plane. the right hand holds the side of the plane flat on the bench and presses it to the left against the bench-hook and work. held in this position the plane is pushed forward and back until the end is smoothed. considerable practice is necessary to handle the block-plane well. the _scrub-plane_ is a short plane in which the crown of the cutter, fig. , is quite curved. it is used to reduce surfaces rapidly. the _scratch-plane_, fig. , has a toothed cutter which scratches fine lines along its course. it is used to roughen surfaces of hard wood which are to be glued together, for otherwise the glue would not adhere well. some tropical woods are so hard that their surfaces can be reduced only by a scratch-plane. it is also useful in preparing the surface of a very cross-grained piece of wood which cannot be planed without chipping. by first scratching it carefully in all directions, it can then be scraped smooth. it is also called a _scraper-plane_, because accompanying the plane is a scraper which can be inserted in the same stock and inclined at any required angle. this plane-stock prevents the scraper from unduly lowering some portions of the surface. see also veneer-scraper, p. . [illustration: fig. . cutter of scrub-plane.] [illustration: fig. . scratch-plane and scraper-plane.] [illustration: fig. . rabbet-plane.] [illustration: fig. . molding-plane.] the _rabbeting-_ or _rebating-plane_, fig. , is designed for use in cutting out a rectangular recess, such as the rabbet on the back of the picture-frames. in line with the right hand corner of the cutter is a removable spur to score the wood so that the shaving which follows may be cut out clean and not torn out. with the addition of a guiding fence it is called a _filletster_. this may be used on either the right or left side. in the form shown in fig. , there is also a depth gage. in using this plane see that the corner of the cutter is in line with the sole, and that both it and the spur are sharp. set the fence and the stop at the desired width and depth of the rabbet. at the first stroke the spur will score the width. this and every stroke should be taken as evenly and carefully as if it were the only one. in the effort to keep the fence pressed close to the side of the wood, the tendency is to tilt the plane over. this causes the very opposite effect from that desired, for the spur runs off diagonally, as in fig. . [illustration: fig. . result of careless use of rabbet-plane.] if this happens stop planing at once, clean out the recess properly with a chisel and then proceed. the _dado-plane_ is much like the rabbeting-plane, except that it is provided with two spurs, one at each side of the cutting edge, to score the wood before cutting. the _molding-plane_, fig. , as it name indicates, is for making moldings of various forms; as, quarter-round, half-round, ogee, etc. [illustration: fig. . tonguing-and-grooving plane.] the _tonguing-and-grooving-plane_, fig. , is for matching boards, i.e. making a tongue in one to fit into a groove in another. see fig. , no. , p. . the _circular-plane_, fig. , has a flexible steel face which can be adjusted to any required arc, convex or concave, so that curved surfaces may be planed. [illustration: fig. . circular-plane.] the _universal plane_, fig. , is a combination of various molding-, rabbeting-, matching- and other planes. it is capable of many adjustments and applications. the principal parts of this plane are: a _main stock_, _a_, with two sets of transverse sliding arms, a _depth-gage_, _f_, adjusted by a screw, and a _slitting cutter_ with stop, a _sliding section_, _b_, with a vertically adjustable bottom, the _auxiliary center bottom_, _c_, to be placed when needed in front of the cutter as an extra support or stop. this bottom is adjustable both vertically and laterally. _fences_, _d and e_. for fine work, fence _d_ has a lateral adjustment by means of a thumb-screw. the fences can be used on either side of the plane, and the rosewood guides can be tilted to any desired angle up to °, by loosening the screws on the face. fence _e_ can be reversed for center-beading wide boards. for work thinner than the depth of the fence, the work may overhang the edge of the bench and fence _e_ be removed. an _adjustable stop_, to be used in beading the edges of matched boards, is inserted on the left side of the sliding section _b_. a great variety of cutters are supplied, such as: molding, matching, sash, beading, reeding, fluting, hollow, round, plow, rabbet, and filletster. special shapes can be obtained by order. [illustration: fig. . universal plane.] _the use of the universal plane._ insert the proper cutter, adjusting it so that the portion of it in line with the main stock, _a_, will project below the sole the proper distance for cutting. adjust the bottom of the sliding section, _b_, so that the lowest portion of the cutter will project the proper distance below it for cutting. tighten the check nuts on the transverse arms and _then_ tighten the thumb-screws which secure the sliding section to the arms. the sliding section is not always necessary, as in a narrow rabbet or bead. when an additional support is needed for the cutter, the auxiliary center bottom, _c_, may be adjusted in front of it. this may also be used as a stop. [illustration: fig. . iron spokeshave.] [illustration: fig. . pattern-maker's spokeshave.] adjust one or both of the fences, _d_ and _e_, and fasten with the thumb-screws. adjust the depth-gage, _f_, at the proper depth. for a _dado_ remove the fences and set the spurs parallel with the edges of the cutter. insert the long adjustable stop on the left hand of the sliding section. for slitting, insert the cutter and stop on the right side of the main stock and use either fence for a guide. for a _chamfer_, insert the desired cutter, and tilt the rosewood guides on the fences to the required angle. for _chamfer beading_ use in the same manner, and gradually feed the cutter down by means of the adjusting thumb-nut. there are also a number of planelike tools such as the following: the _spoke-shave_, fig. , works on the same principle as a plane, except that the guiding surface is very short. this adapts it to work with curved outlines. it is a sort of regulated draw-shave. it is sometimes made of iron with an adjustable mouth, which is a convenient form for beginners to use, and is easy to sharpen. the _pattern-makers spokeshave_, fig. , which has a wooden frame, is better suited to more careful work. the method of using the spokeshave is shown in fig. . (see p. .) [illustration: fig. . using a spokeshave.] the _router-plane_, figs. and , is used to lower a certain part of a surface and yet keep it parallel with the surrounding part, and it is particularly useful in cutting panels, dadoes, and grooves. the cutter has to be adjusted for each successive cut. where there are a number of dadoes to be cut of the same depth, it is wise not to finish them one at a time, but to carry on the cutting of all together, lowering the cutter after each round. in this way all the dadoes will be finished at exactly the same depth. [illustration: fig. . router-plane.] the _dowel-pointer_, fig. , is a convenient tool for removing the sharp edges from the ends of dowel pins. it is held in a brace. the cutter is adjustable and is removable for sharpening. the _cornering tool_, fig. , is a simple device for rounding sharp corners. a cutter at each end cuts both ways so that it can be used with the grain without changing the position of the work. the depth of the cut is fixed. [illustration: fig. . using a router-plane.] . boring tools. some boring tools, like awls, force the material apart, and some, like augers, remove material. the _brad-awl_, fig. , is wedge-shaped, and hence care needs to be taken in using it to keep the edge across the grain so as to avoid splitting the wood, especially thin wood. the size is indicated by the length of the blade when new,--a stupid method. the awl is useful for making small holes in soft wood, and it can readily be sharpened by grinding. [illustration: fig. . dowel-pointer.] [illustration: fig. . cornering tool.] [illustration: fig. . brad-awl.] [illustration: fig. . twist-drill.] [illustration: fig. . twist-bit.] [illustration: fig. . german gimlet-bit.] [illustration: fig. . bit-point drill.] [illustration: fig. . auger-bit.] [illustration: fig. . plug-cutter.] [illustration: fig. . center-bit.] [illustration: fig. . foerstner auger-bit.] [illustration: fig. . expansive-bit.] [illustration: fig. . reamer.] [illustration: fig. . rose countersink.] _gimlets_ and _drills_ are alike in that they cut away material, but unlike in that the cutting edge of the gimlet is on the side, while the cutting edge of the drill is on the end. _twist-drills_, fig. , are very hard and may be used in drilling metal. they are therefore useful where there is danger of meeting nails, as in repair work. their sizes are indicated by a special drill gage, fig. , p. . _twist-bits_, fig. , are like twist-drills except that they are not hard enough to use for metal. their sizes are indicated on the tang in nds of an inch. both twist-bits and drill-bits have the advantage over gimlet-bits in that they are less likely to split the wood. twist-bits and twist-drills are sharpened on a grindstone, care being taken to preserve the original angle of the cutting edge so that the edge will meet the wood and there will be clearance. _german gimlet-bits_, fig. , have the advantage of centering well. the size is indicated on the tang in nds of an inch. they are useful in boring holes for short blunt screws as well as deep holes. they cannot be sharpened readily but are cheap and easily replaced. _bit-point drills_, fig. , are useful for accurate work, but are expensive. _auger-bits_, fig. , have several important features. the spur centers the bit in its motion, and since it is in the form of a pointed screw draws the auger into the wood. two sharp nibs on either side score the circle, out of which the lips cut the shavings, which are then carried out of the hole by the main screw of the tool. the size of auger-bits is indicated by a figure on the tang in ths of an inch. thus means a diameter of / ". there are three chief precautions to be taken in using auger-bits. ( ) one is to bore perpendicularly to the surface. a good way to do this is to lay the work flat, either on the bench or in the vise, and sight first from the front and then from the side of the work, to see that the bit is perpendicular both ways. the test may also be made with the try-square, fig. , or with a plumb-line, either by the worker, or in difficult pieces, by a fellow worker. the sense of perpendicularity, however, should constantly be cultivated. ( ) another precaution is that, in thru boring, the holes should not be bored quite thru from one side, lest the wood be splintered off on the back. when the spur pricks thru, the bit should be removed, the piece turned over, and the boring finished, putting the spur in the hole which is pricked thru in boring from the first side. it is seldom necessary to press against the knob of the brace in boring, as the thread on the spur will pull the bit thru, especially in soft wood. indeed, as the bit reaches nearly thru the board, if the knob is gently pulled back, then when the spur pricks thru the bit will be pulled out of its hole. this avoids the necessity of constantly watching the back of the board to see if the spur is thru. ( ) in stop boring, as in boring for dowels or in making a blind mortise, care should be taken not to bore thru the piece. for this purpose an auger-bit-gage, fig. , p. , may be used, or a block of wood of the proper length thru which a hole has been bored, may be slipped over the bit, or the length of bit may be noted before boring, and then the length of the projecting portion deducted, or the number of turns needed to reach the required depth may be counted on a trial piece. tying a string around a bit, or making a chalk mark on it is folly. [illustration: fig. . using a try-square as a guide in boring.] auger-bits are sharpened with an auger-bit file, fig. , p. , a small flat file with two narrow safe edges at one end and two wide safe edges at the other. the "nibs" should be filed on the inside so that the diameter of the cut may remain as large as that of the body of the bit. the cutting lip should be sharpened from the side toward the spur, care being taken to preserve the original angle so as to give clearance. if sharpened from the upper side, that is, the side toward the shank, the nibs will tend to become shorter. the _plug-cutter_, fig. , is useful for cutting plugs with which to cover the heads of screws that are deeply countersunk. _center-bits_, fig. , work on the same principle as auger-bits, except that the spurs have no screw, and hence have to be pushed forcibly into the wood. sizes are given in ths of an inch. they are useful for soft wood, and in boring large holes in thin material which is likely to split. they are sharpened in the same way as auger-bits. _foerstner bits_, fig. , are peculiar in having no spur, but are centered by a sharp edge around the circumference. the size is indicated on the tang, in ths of an inch. they are useful in boring into end grain, and in boring part way into wood so thin that a spur would pierce thru. they can be sharpened only with special appliances. _expansive-bits_, fig. , are so made as to bore holes of different sizes by adjusting the movable nib and cutter. there are two sizes, the small one with two cutters, boring from / " to - / " and the large one with three cutters boring from / " to ". they are very useful on particular occasions, but have to be used with care. _reamers_, fig. , are used for enlarging holes already made. they are made square, half-round and six cornered in shape. _countersinks_, fig. , are reamers in the shape of a flat cone, and are used to make holes for the heads of screws. the rose countersink is the most satisfactory form. [illustration: fig. . washer-cutter.] the _washer-cutter_, fig. , is useful not only for cutting out washers but also for cutting holes in thin wood. the size is adjustable. . chopping tools. the primitive celt, which was hardly more than a wedge, has been differentiated into three modern hand tools, the _chisel_, see above, p. , the _ax_, fig. , and the _adze_, fig. . the _ax_ has also been differentiated into the _hatchet_, with a short handle, for use with one hand, while the ax-handle is long, for use with two hands. its shape is an adaption to its manner of use. it is oval in order to be strongest in the direction of the blow and also in order that the axman may feel and guide the direction of the blade. the curve at the end is to avoid the awkward raising of the left hand at the moment of striking the blow, and the knob keeps it from slipping thru the hand. in both ax and hatchet there is a two-beveled edge. this is for the sake of facility in cutting into the wood at any angle. there are two principal forms, the common ax and the two bitted ax, the latter used chiefly in lumbering. there is also a wedge-shaped ax for splitting wood. as among all tools, there is among axes a great variety for special uses. [illustration: fig. . ax.] [illustration: fig. . shingling hatchet.] [illustration: fig. . carpenter's adze.] the _hatchet_ has, beside the cutting edge, a head for driving nails, and a notch for drawing them, thus combining three tools in one. the shingling hatchet, fig. , is a type of this. the _adze_, the carpenter's house adze, fig. , is flat on the lower side, since its use is for straightening surfaces. wood hand tools. references:[*] ( ) cutting. goss, p. . smith, r. h., pp. - . chisel. barnard, pp. - . selden, pp. - , - . barter, pp. - . griffith, pp. - . goss, pp. - . sickels, pp. - . wheeler, , , . knife. barnard, pp. - . selden, pp. - , . saw. griffith, pp. - . barnard, pp. - . selden, pp. - , - . wheeler, pp. - . hammacher, pp. - . goss, pp. - . sickels, pp. - , . smith, r. h., - . diston, pp. - . plane. barnard, pp. - . selden, pp. - , - . sickels pp. - , . wheeler, pp. - . hammacher, pp. - . smith, r. h., - . larsson, p. . goss, pp. - . barter, pp. - . griffith, pp. - . ( ) boring tools. barnard, pp. - . goss, pp. - . griffith, pp. - . seldon, pp. - , - . wheeler, pp. - . ( ) chopping tools. barnard, pp. - . [footnote *: for general bibliography see p. .] chapter iv, continued. wood hand tools. . scraping tools. scraping tools are of such nature that they can only abrade or smooth surfaces. [illustration: fig. . auger-bit-file.] [illustration: fig. . single-cut blunt, flat, bastard file.] [illustration: fig. . three-square single-cut file.] [illustration: fig. . open cut, taper, half-round file.] [illustration: fig. . double-cut file.] [illustration: fig. . cabinet wood-rasp.] [illustration: fig. . file-card.] _files._ figs. - , are formed with a series of cutting edges or teeth. these teeth are cut when the metal is soft and cold and then the tool is hardened. there are in use at least three thousand varieties of files, each of which is adapted to its particular purpose. lengths are measured from point to heel exclusive of the tang. they are classified: ( ) according to their outlines into blunt, (i. e., having a uniform cross section thruout), and taper; ( ) according to the shape of their cross-section, into flat, square, three-square or triangular, knife, round or rat-tail, half-round, etc.; ( ) according to the manner of their serrations, into single cut or "float" (having single, unbroken, parallel, chisel cuts across the surface), double-cut, (having two sets of chisel cuts crossing each other obliquely,) open cut, (having series of parallel cuts, slightly staggered,) and safe edge, (or side,) having one or more uncut surfaces; and ( ) according to the fineness of the cut, as rough, bastard, second cut, smooth, and dead smooth. the "mill file," a very common form, is a flat, tapered, single-cut file. [illustration: fig. . a. diagram of a rasp tooth. b. cross-section of a single-cut file.] _rasps_, fig. , differ from files in that instead of having cutting teeth made by lines, coarse projections are made by making indentations with a triangular point when the iron is soft. the difference between files and rasps is clearly shown in fig. . it is a good rule that files and rasps are to be used on wood only as a last resort, when no cutting tool will serve. great care must be taken to file flat, not letting the tool rock. it is better to file only on the forward stroke, for that is the way the teeth are made to cut, and a flatter surface is more likely to be obtained. both files and rasps can be cleaned with a _file-card_, fig. . they are sometimes sharpened with a sandblast, but ordinarily when dull are discarded. [illustration: fig. . molding-scrapers.] _scrapers_ are thin, flat pieces of steel. they may be rectangular, or some of the edges may be curved. for scraping hollow surfaces curved scrapers of various shapes are necessary. convenient shapes are shown in fig. . the cutting power of scrapers depends upon the delicate burr or feather along their edges. when properly sharpened they take off not dust but fine shavings. scrapers are particularly useful in smoothing cross-grained pieces of wood, and in cleaning off glue, old varnish, etc. there are various devices for holding scrapers in frames or handles, such as the scraper-plane, fig. , p. , the veneer-scraper, and box-scrapers. the _veneer-scraper_, fig. , has the advantage that the blade may be sprung to a slight curve by a thumb-screw in the middle of the back, just as an ordinary scraper is when held in the hands. in use, fig. , the scraper may be either pushed or pulled. when pushed, the scraper is held firmly in both hands, the fingers on the forward and the thumbs on the back side. it is tilted forward, away from the operator, far enough so that it will not chatter and is bowed back slightly, by pressure of the thumbs, so that there is no risk of the corners digging in. when pulled the position is reversed. [illustration: fig. . using a veneer-scraper.] one method of sharpening the scraper is as follows: the scraper is first brought to the desired shape, straight or curved. this may be done either by grinding on the grindstone or by filing with a smooth, flat file, the scraper, while held in a vise. the edge is then carefully draw-filed, i. e., the file, a smooth one, is held (one hand at each end) directly at right angles to the edge of the scraper, fig. , and moved sidewise from end to end of the scraper, until the edge is quite square with the sides. then the scraper is laid flat on the oilstone and rubbed, first on one side and then on the other till the sides are bright and smooth along the edge, fig. . then it is set on edge on the stone and rubbed till there are two sharp square corners all along the edge, fig. . then it is put in the vise again and by means of a burnisher, or scraper steel, both of these corners are carefully turned or bent over so as to form a fine burr. this is done by tipping the scraper steel at a slight angle with the edge and rubbing it firmly along the sharp corner, fig. . [illustration: fig. . using a cabinet-scraper.] to resharpen the scraper it is not necessary to file it afresh every time, but only to flatten out the edges and turn them again with slightly more bevel. instead of using the oilstone an easier, tho less perfect, way to flatten out the burr on the edges is to lay the scraper flat on the bench near the edge. the scraper steel is then passed rapidly to and fro on the flat side of the scraper, fig. . after that the edge should be turned as before. [illustration: fig. . sharpening a cabinet-scraper: st step, drawfiling.] _sandpaper._ the "sand" is crushed quartz and is very hard and sharp. other materials on paper or cloth are also used, as carborundum, emery, and so on. sandpaper comes in various grades of coarseness from no. (the finest) to no. , indicated on the back of each sheet. for ordinary purposes no. and no. are sufficient. sandpaper sheets may readily be torn by placing the sanded side down, one-half of the sheet projecting over the square edge of the bench. with a quick downward motion the projecting portion easily parts. or it may be torn straight by laying the sandpaper on a bench, sand side down, holding the teeth of a back-saw along the line to be torn. in this case, the smooth surface of the sandpaper would be against the saw. [illustration: fig. . sharpening a cabinet-scraper: nd step, whetting.] [illustration: fig. . sharpening a cabinet-scraper: rd step, removing the wire-edge.] sandpaper should never be used to scrape and scrub work into shape, but only to obtain an extra smoothness. nor ordinarily should it be used on a piece of wood until all the work with cutting tools is done, for the fine particles of sand remaining in the wood dull the edge of the tool. sometimes in a piece of cross-grained wood rough places will be discovered by sandpapering. the surface should then be wiped free of sand and scraped before using a cutting tool again. in order to avoid cross scratches, work should be "sanded" with the grain, even if this takes much trouble. for flat surfaces, and to touch off edges, it is best to wrap the sandpaper over a rectangular block of wood, of which the corners are slightly rounded, or it may be fitted over special shapes of wood for specially shaped surfaces. the objection to using the thumb or fingers instead of a block, is that the soft portions of the wood are cut down faster than the hard portions, whereas the use of a block tends to keep the surface even. [illustration: fig. . sharpening a cabinet-scraper: th step, turning the edge.] _steel wool_ is made by turning off fine shavings from the edges of a number of thin discs of steel, held together in a lathe. there are various grades of coarseness, from no. to no. . its uses are manifold: as a substitute for sandpaper, especially on curved surfaces, to clean up paint, and to rub down shellac to an "egg-shell" finish. like sandpaper it should not be used till all the work with cutting tools is done. it can be manipulated until utterly worn out. . pounding tools. the _hammer_ consists of two distinct parts, the head and the handle. the head is made of steel, so hard that it will not be indented by hitting against nails or the butt of nailsets, punches, etc., which are comparatively soft. it can easily be injured tho, by being driven against steel harder than itself. the handle is of hickory and of an oval shape to prevent its twisting in the hand. [illustration: fig. . resharpening a cabinet-scraper: flattening the edge.] hammers may be classified as follows: ( ) hammers for striking blows only; as, the blacksmith's hammer and the stone-mason's hammer, and ( ) compound hammers, which consist of two tools combined, the face for striking, and the "peen" which may be a claw, pick, wedge, shovel, chisel, awl or round head for other uses. there are altogether about fifty styles of hammers varying in size from a jeweler's hammer to a blacksmith's great straight-handled sledge-hammer, weighing twenty pounds or more. they are named mostly according to their uses; as, the riveting-hammer, fig. , the upholsterer's hammer, fig. , the veneering-hammer, fig. , etc. magnetized hammers, fig. , are used in many trades for driving brads and tacks, where it is hard to hold them in place with the fingers. [illustration: fig. . claw-hammer.] [illustration: fig. . riveting-hammer.] [illustration: fig. . upholster's hammer.] [illustration: fig. . magnetized hammer.] [illustration: fig. . veneering-hammer.] in the "bell-faced" hammer, the face is slightly convex, in order that the last blow in driving nails may set the nail-head below the surface. it is more difficult to strike a square blow with it than with a plain-faced hammer. for ordinary woodwork the plain-faced, that is, flat-faced claw-hammer, fig. , is best. it is commonly used in carpenter work. it is essential that the face of the hammer be kept free from glue in order to avoid its sticking on the nail-head and so bending the nail. hammers should be used to hit iron only; for hitting wood, mallets are used. in striking with the hammer, the wrist, the elbow and the shoulder are one or all brought into play, according to the hardness of the blow. the essential precautions are that the handle be grasped at the end, that the blow be square and quick, and that the wood be not injured. at the last blow the hammer should not follow the nail, but should be brought back with a quick rebound. to send the nail below the surface, a nailset is used. (see below.) [illustration: fig. . drawing a nail with claw-hammer.] the claw is used for extracting nails. to protect the wood in withdrawing a nail a block may be put under the hammer-head. when a nail is partly drawn, the leverage can be greatly increased by continuing to block up in this way, fig. . [illustration: fig. . mallets.] the _mallet_, fig. , differs from the hammer in having a wooden instead of a steel head. a maul or beetle is a heavy wooden mallet. the effect of the blow of a mallet is quite different from that of a hammer, in that the force is exerted more gradually; whereas the effect of the hammer blow is direct, immediate, and local, and is taken up at once. but a mallet continues to act after the first impulse, pushing, as it were. this is because of the elasticity of the head. a chisel, therefore, should always be driven with a mallet, for the chisel handle would soon go to pieces under the blows of a hammer, because of their suddenness; whereas the mallet blow which is slower will not only drive the blade deeper with the same force, but will not injure the handle so rapidly. mallet-heads are made square, cylindrical, and barrel-shaped. carver's mallets are often turned from one piece, hammer and head on one axis. _nailsets_, fig. , are made with hardened points, but softer butts, so that the hammer will not be injured. they were formerly made square when nail heads were square, but now round ones are common. to obviate slipping, some have "cup points," that is, with a concave tip, and some spur points. [illustration: fig. . using a nailset.] to keep the nailset in its place on the nail-head it may be held closely against the third finger of the left hand, which rests on the wood close to the nail. when a nailset is lacking, the head of a brad, held nearly flat, may be used. but care is necessary to avoid bruising the wood. . holding tools. a. _tools for holding work._ the advance in ease of handworking may largely be measured by the facilities for holding materials or other tools. the primitive man used no devices for holding except his hands and feet. the japanese, who perhaps are the most skilful of joiners, still largely use their fingers and toes. on the other hand, anglo-saxons have developed an enormous variety of methods for holding work and tools. [illustration: fig. . bench made with pinned mortise-and-tenon joints, low back.] [illustration: fig. . woodworking bench used at pratt institute, showing self-adjusting upright vise.] _benches._ the essential features of a work-bench are a firm, steady table with a vise and places for tools. the joints are either pinned or wedged mortise-and-tenon, or draw-bolt joints. the best benches are made of maple, the tops being strips joined or tongued-and-grooved together. it is common also to have a trough at the back of the top of the bench, i. e., a space " or " wide, set lower than the upper surface, in which tools may be placed so as not to roll off. a low pillow, fastened at the left hand end of the trough, on which to set planes in order that the edge of the cutter may not be injured, is an advantage. the tool-rack is of capital importance. it has been common in school benches to affix it to a board, which rises considerably above the top of the bench, fig. , but a better plan is to have the top of it no higher than the bench-top, fig. . then the light on the bench is not obscured, and when a flat top is needed for large work it can readily be had by removing the tools. elaborate benches with lock drawers are also much used in the shops of large city schools. [illustration: fig. . a rapid-acting vise.] _vises_ for holding wood are of three general styles, ( ) those with an upright wooden jaw, fig. , which holds wide pieces of work well. they are now made with an automatic adjusting device by which the jaw and the face of the bench are kept parallel; ( ) wooden vises with a horizontal jaw, guided by parallel runners, fig. , and, ( ) metal rapid-acting vises, fig. . the latter are the most durable and in most respects more convenient. special vises are also made for wood-carvers, for saw-filing, etc. [illustration: fig. . holding a large board in vise for planing.] the best woodworking benches are equipped with both side- and tail-vises. the tail-vise is supplemented by movable bench-stops for holding pieces of different lengths. in planing the side of a board it is held in place between the tail-vise and one of the bench-stops. a board should not be squeezed sidewise between the jaws of a vise when it is to be planed, lest it be bent out of shape. in planing the edge of a board it is ordinarily held in the side-vise. a long board, one end of which is in the vise, may also need to be supported at the other end. this may be done by clamping to it a handscrew, the jaw of which rests on the top of the bench, fig. . when the vise is likely to be twisted out of square by the insertion of a piece of wood at one end of it, it is well to insert another piece of equal thickness at the other end of the vise to keep it square, as in fig. , p. . in this case, (fig. ,) the extra piece also supports the piece being worked upon. [illustration: fig. . saw-horse.] the vise is also of great use in carrying on many other processes, but a good workman does not use it to the exclusion of the saw-horse and bench-hook. horses are of great use both for the rough sawing of material and in supporting large pieces during the process of construction. the common form is shown in fig. , but a more convenient form for sawing has an open top, as in fig. . [illustration: fig. . saw-horse.] the _picture-frame-vise_, fig. , is a very convenient tool for making mitered joints, as in picture-frames. the vise holds two sides firmly so that after gluing they may be either nailed together or a spline inserted in a saw cut previously made. see fig. , no. , p. . if the last joint in a picture-frame does not quite match, a kerf may be sawn at the junction of the two pieces, which can then be drawn close together. [illustration: fig. . picture-frame-vise.] _handscrews_, fig. , consist of four parts, the shoulder jaw and the screw jaw, made of maple, and the end spindle and the middle spindle, made of hickory. the parts when broken can be bought separately. handscrews vary in size from those with jaws four inches long to those with jaws twenty-two inches long. the best kind are oiled so that glue will not adhere to them. in adjusting the jaws, if the handle of the middle spindle is held in one hand, and the handle of the end spindle in the other hand, and both are revolved together, the jaws may be closed or opened evenly, fig. . in use care must be taken to keep the jaws parallel, in order to obtain the greatest pressure and to prevent the spindles from being broken. it is always important to have the jaws press on the work evenly. to secure this, the middle spindle should be tightened first, and then the end spindle. handscrews are convenient for a great variety of uses, as clamping up glued pieces, holding pieces together temporarily for boring, fig. , p. , holding work at any desired angle in the vise, as for chamfering or beveling, fig. , etc. [illustration: fig. . handscrew.] _clamps_ are made of both wood and iron, the most satisfactory for speed, strength, and durability are steel-bar carpenter clamps, fig. . they vary in length from - / ft. to ft. the separate parts are the steel bar a, the cast-iron frame b, the tip c into which fits the screw d, on the other end of which is the crank e, and the slide f with its dog g, which engages in the notches on the bar. any part, if broken, can be replaced separately. [illustration: fig. . adjusting handscrew.] _iron handscrews_, also called c clamps and carriage-makers' clamps. fig. , are useful in certain kinds of work, as in gluing in special places and in wood-carving. all iron clamps need blocks of soft wood to be placed between them and the finished work. _pinch-dogs_, fig. , are a convenient device for drawing together two pieces of wood, when injury to the surfaces in which they are driven does not matter. they vary in size from / " to - / ". for ordinary purposes the smallest size is sufficient. for especially fine work, double-pointed tacks, properly filed, are convenient. the _bench-hook_, fig. , is a simple device for holding firmly small pieces of work when they are being sawn, chisled, etc. it also saves the bench from being marred. the angles should be kept exactly square. [illustration: fig. . using a handscrew to hold a board at an angle.] the _miter-box_, fig. , is a similar device with the addition of a guide for the saw. the _iron miter-box_, fig. , with the saw adjustable to various angles, insures accurate work. such tools as _pliers_, fig. , _pincers_, fig. , and _nippers_, fig. , made for gripping iron, are often useful in the woodworking shop. so are various sorts of _wrenches_; as fixed, socketed, adjustable, monkey- and pipe-wrenches. [illustration: fig. . steel-bar carpenter's clamp. a. steel bar. b. frame. c. tip. d. screw. e. crank. f. slide. g. dog.] [illustration: fig. . iron handscrew, (carriage-maker's clamp).] [illustration: fig. . pinch-dog.] b. _tools for holding other tools._ the _brace_ or _bit-stock_, fig. , holds all sorts of boring tools as well as screwdrivers, dowel-pointers, etc. the simple brace or bit-stock consists of a chuck, a handle, and a knob, and is sufficient for ordinary use; but the ratchet-brace enables the user to bore near to surfaces or corners where a complete sweep cannot be made. it is also useful where sufficient power can be applied only at one part of the sweep. by means of pawls which engage in the ratchet-wheel, the bit can be turned in either direction at the will of the user. the size of the brace is indicated by the "sweep," that is, the diameter of the circle thru which the swinging handle turns. to insert a bit or other tool, fig. , grasp firmly with one hand the sleeve of the chuck pointing it upward, and revolve the handle with the other hand, unscrewing the sleeve until the jaws open enough to admit the whole tang of the bit. then reverse the motion and the bit will be held tightly in place. various hand-, breast-, bench-, bow-drills and automatic drills are of use in doing quick work and for boring small holes, fig. . [illustration: fig. . bench-hook.] [illustration: fig. . miter-box.] [illustration: fig. . iron miter-box.] the _screwdriver_, fig. , is a sort of holding tool for turning, and so driving screws. various devices have been tried to prevent the twisting in the handle. this is now practically assured in various makes. the other important matter in a screwdriver is that the point be of the right temper, so as neither to bend nor to break. if the corners break they can be reground, but care should be taken not to make the angle too obtuse or the driver will slip out of the slot in the screw-head. the bevel should have a long taper. a shop should be equipped with different sizes of screwdrivers to fit the different sizes of screws. screwdrivers vary in size, the shank ranging in length from - / " to ". a long screwdriver is more powerful than a short one, for the screwdriver is rarely exactly in line with the axis of the screw, but the handle revolves in a circle. this means an increased leverage, so that the longer the screwdriver, the greater the leverage. [illustration: fig. . pliers.] [illustration: fig. . pincers.] [illustration: fig. . nippers.] [illustration: fig. . ratchet-brace.] for heavy work, screwdriver-bits, fig. , in a bit-stock are useful, and for quick work, the spiral screwdriver, fig. , and for small work, the ratchet-screwdriver. . measuring and marking tools. it is a long step from the time when one inch meant the width of the thumb, and one foot meant the length of the foot, to the measuring of distances and of angles which vary almost infinitesimally. no such accuracy is necessary in measuring wood as in measuring metal, but still there is a considerable variety of tools for this purpose. [illustration: fig. . inserting a bit in stock.] [illustration: fig. . hand-drill.] [illustration: fig. . screwdriver.] [illustration: fig. . screwdriver-bit.] [illustration: fig. . spiral screwdriver.] for measuring distances, the _rule_, fig. , is the one in most common use. it is usually made of boxwood. for convenience it is hinged so as to fold. a rule is called "two-fold" when it is made of two pieces, "four-fold" when made of four pieces, etc. when measuring or marking from it, it can be used more accurately by turning it on edge, so that the lines of the graduations may come directly against the work. the one in most common use in school shops, is a two-foot, two-fold rule. some instructors prefer to have pupils use a four-fold rule, because that is the form commonly used in the woodworking trades. steel bench-rules, fig. , are satisfactory in school work because unbreakable and because they do not disappear so rapidly as pocket rules. they need to be burnished occasionally. [illustration: fig. . two-foot rule. two fold.] [illustration: fig. . steel bench-rule.] [illustration: fig. . back of steel square, brace measure.] the _steel square_, figs. , , , , is useful, not only as a straight-edge and try-square, but also for a number of graduations and tables which are stamped on it. there are various forms, but the one in most common use consists of a blade or "body" "Ã� " and a "tongue," "Ã� - / ", at right angles to each other. sargent's trade number for this form is . it includes graduations in hundredths, thirty-seconds, sixteenths, twelfths, tenths, and eighths of an inch, also a brace-measure, an eight-square measure, and the essex board-measure. another style, instead of an essex board-measure, and the hundredths graduation has a rafter-table. the side upon which the name of the maker is stamped, is called the "face," and the reverse side the "back." the brace-measure is to be found along the center of the back of the tongue, fig. . it is used thus: the two equal numbers set one above the other represent the sides of a square, and the single number to their right, represents in inches and decimals, the diagonal of that square. e. g., / . means that a square the sides of which are " would have a diagonal of . ". for determining the length of the long side (hypothenuse) of a right angle triangle, when the other two given sides are not equal, the foot rule, or another steel square may be laid diagonally across the blade and arm, and applied directly to the proper graduations thereon, and the distance between them measured on the rule. if the distance to be measured is in feet, use the / " graduations on the back of the square. [illustration: fig. . face of steel square, octagon, "eight-square," scale.] to use the octagonal (or -square) scale, fig. , which is along the center of the face of the tongue, with the dividers, take the number of spaces in the scale to correspond with the number of inches the piece of wood is square, and lay this distance off from the center point, on each edge of the board. connect the points thus obtained, diagonally across the corners, and a nearly exact octagon will be had. e.g., on a board " square, fig. , find a.b.c.d., the centers of each edge. now with the dividers take spaces from the -square scale. lay off this distance on each side as a' a" from a, b' b" from b, etc. now connect a" with b', b" with c', c" with d', d" with a', and the octagon is obtained. [illustration: fig. . method of using the eight-square scale on the steel-square.] in making a square piece of timber octagonal, the same method is used on the butt, sawed true. when the distance from one center is laid off, the marking-gage may be set to the distance from the point thus obtained to the corner of the timber, and the piece gaged from all four corners both ways. cutting off the outside arrises to the gaged lines leaves an octagonal stick. [illustration: fig. . back of steel square, essex board measure.] the board-measure is stamped on the back of the blade of the square, fig. . the figure on the outer edge of the blade is the starting point for all calculations. it represents a " board, " wide, and the smaller figures under it indicate the length of boards in feet. thus a board " wide, and ' long measures square feet and so on down the column. to use it, for boards other than " wide:--find the length of the board in feet, under the " marked on the outer edge of the blade, then run right or left along that line to the width of the board in inches. the number under the width in inches on the line showing the length in feet, gives the board feet for lumber " thick. for example, to measure a board ' long, and " wide,--under the figure , find (length of the board); to the left of this, under is the number . ; ' " is the board-measure of the board in question. since a board ' long would have as many board feet in it as it is inches wide, the b. m. is omitted for ' boards. likewise a board ' long would have / the number of board feet that it is inches wide. if the board is shorter than the lowest figure given ( ) it can be found by dividing its double by .; e. g., to measure a board ' long and " wide, take under the , run to the left of the number under , which is ' ": / of this would be ' ", the number of board feet in the board. if the board to be measured is longer than any figure given, divide the length into two parts and add the result of the two parts obtained separately. for example, for a board ' long and " wide,--take 'Ã� " = '; add to it, 'Ã� " = ' "; total, ' ". [illustration: fig. . steel square with rafter table.] a good general rule is to think first whether or not the problem can be done in one's head without the assistance of the square. the table is made, as its name, board-measure (b. m.) implies, for measuring boards, which are commonly " thick. for materials more than " thick, multiply the b. m. of one surface by the number of inches thick the piece measures. the rafter-table is found on the back of the body of the square, fig. . auxiliary to it are the twelfth inch graduations, on the outside edges, which may represent either feet or inches. [illustration: fig. . the "run" and "rise" of a rafter.] by the "run" of the rafter is meant the horizontal distance when it is set in place from the end of its foot to a plumb line from the ridge end, i. e., one half the length of the building, fig. . by the "rise" of the rafter is meant the perpendicular distance from the ridge end to the level of the foot of the rafter. by the pitch is meant the ratio of the rise to twice the run, i. e., to the total width of the building. in a / pitch, the rise equals the run, or / the width of the building; in a / pitch the rise is / the width of the building; in a / pitch the rise is / the width of the building. [illustration: fig. . lumberman's board rule.] to find the length of a rafter by the use of the table, first find the required pitch, at the left end of the table. opposite this and under the graduation on the edge representing the run in feet, will be found the length of the rafter; e.g., a rafter having a run of ' with a / pitch, is ' " long, one with a run of ' and a / pitch, is ' - / ", one with a run of ' and a / pitch, is ' - / " long, etc. when the run is in inches, the readings are for / of the run in feet: e.g., a rafter with a run of " and a / pitch is - / ", one with a run of " and a / pitch, is - / ". where the run is in both feet and inches, find the feet and the inches separately; and add together; e.g., a rafter with a run of ' ", and a / pitch, is ' - / " + - / " = ' - / ". [illustration: fig. . try-square. fig. . miter-square. fig. . sliding-t bevel.] the _lumberman's board-rule_, fig. . to measure wood by it, note the length of the board in feet at the end of the measure. the dot nearest the width (measured in inches) gives the b. m. for lumber " thick. the _try-square_, fig. , which is most commonly used for measuring the accuracy of right angles, is also convenient for testing the width of a board at various places along its length, for making short measurements, and as a guide in laying out lines with a pencil or knife at right angles to a surface or edge. the sizes are various and are indicated by the length of the blade. a convenient size for the individual bench and for ordinary use has a blade " long. it is also well to have in the shop one large one with a " blade. [illustration: fig. . using the try-square.] [illustration: fig. . scribing with knife by try-square.] in testing the squareness of work with the try-square, care must be taken to see that the head rests firmly against the surface from which the test is made, and then slipped down till the blade touches the edge being tested, fig. . the edge should be tested at a number of places in the same way: that is, it should not be slid along the piece. the try-square is also of great use in scribing lines across boards, fig. . a good method is to put the point of the knife at the beginning of the desired line, slide the square, along until it touches the knife-edge; then, resting the head of the square firmly against the edge, draw the knife along, pressing it lightly against the blade, holding it perpendicularly. to prevent the knife from running away from the blade of the try-square, turn its edge slightly towards the blade. the _miter-square_, fig. , is a try-square fixed at an angle of °. the _sliding t bevel_, fig. , has a blade adjustable to any angle. it may be set either from a sample line, drawn on the wood, from a given line on a protractor, from drawing triangles, from the graduations on a framing square, or in other ways. it is used similarly to the t-square. [illustration: fig. . winding-sticks, inches long.] _winding-sticks_, fig. , consist of a pair of straight strips of exactly the same width thruout. they are used to find out whether there is any twist or "wind" in a board. this is done by placing them parallel to each other, one at one end of the board, and the other at the other end. by sighting across them, one can readily see whether the board be twisted or not, fig. . the blades of two framing-squares may be used in the same manner. [illustration: fig. . method of using the winding-sticks.] _compasses_ or _dividers_, fig. , consist of two legs turning on a joint, and having sharpened points. a convenient form is the wing divider which can be accurately adjusted by set-screws. a pencil can be substituted for the removable point. they are used for describing circles and arcs, for spacing, for measuring, for subdividing distances, and for scribing. in scribing a line parallel with a given outline, one leg follows the given edge, or outline, and the point of the other, marks the desired line. used in this way they are very convenient for marking out chamfers, especially on curved edges, a sharp pencil being substituted for the steel point. the _beam-compass_, fig. , consists of two _trammel-points_ running on a beam which may be made of any convenient length. it is used for describing large circles. a pencil may be attached to one point. _calipers_, outside and inside, figs. , , are necessary for the accurate gaging of diameters, as in wood-turning. [illustration: fig. . winged dividers.] [illustration: fig. . beam-compass or trammel points.] [illustration: fig. . outside calipers.] [illustration: fig. . inside calipers.] the _marking-gage_, fig. , consists of a head or block sliding on a beam or bar, to which it is fixed by means of a set-screw. on the face of the head is a brass shoe to keep the face from wearing. projecting thru the beam is a steel spur or point, which should be filed to a flat, sharp edge, a little rounded and sharpened on the edge toward which the gage is to be moved, fig. . it should project about / " from the beam. if the spur be at all out of place, as it is likely to be, the graduations on a beam will be unreliable. hence it is best to neglect them entirely when setting the gage and always to measure with the rule from the head to the spur, fig. . [illustration: fig. . marking-gage.] [illustration: fig. . spur of marking-gage.] in use the beam should be tilted forward, so as to slide on its corner, fig. . in this way the depth of the gage line can be regulated. ordinarily, the finer the line the better. the head must always be kept firmly pressed against the edge of the wood so that the spur will not run or jump away from its desired course. care should also be taken, except in rough pieces, to run gage lines no farther than is necessary for the sake of the appearance of the finished work. to secure accuracy, all gaging on the surface of wood, should be done from the "working face" or "working edge." [illustration: fig. . setting a marking-gage.] [illustration: fig. . using the marking-gage.] it is sometimes advisable, as in laying out chamfers, not to mark their edges with a marking-gage, because the marks will show after the chamfer is planed off. a pencil mark should be made instead. for this purpose a pencil-gage may be made by removing the spur of a marking-gage, and boring in its place a hole to receive a pencil stub with a blunt point, or a small notch may be cut in the back end of the beam, in which a pencil point is held while the gage is worked as usual except that its position is reversed. for work requiring less care, the pencil may be held in the manner usual in writing, the middle finger serving as a guide, or a pair of pencil compasses may be used, one leg serving as a guide. a special gage is made for gaging curved lines, fig. . [illustration: fig. . marking-gage for curves.] the _cutting-gage_, fig. , is similar to a marking-gage, except that it has a knife-point inserted instead of a spur. it is very useful in cutting up soft, thin wood even as thick as / ". [illustration: fig. . cutting-gage.] the _slitting-gage_ is used in a similar way, but is larger and has a handle. the _mortise-gage_, fig. , is a marking-gage with two spurs, with which two parallel lines can be drawn at once, as in laying out mortises. one form is made entirely of steel having, instead of spurs, discs with sharpened edges. the _scratch-awl_, fig. , has a long, slender point which is useful not only for marking lines, but for centering. [illustration: fig. . roller mortise-gage.] the _auger-bit-gage_, fig. , is a convenient tool for measuring the depth of holes bored, but for ordinary purposes a block of wood sawn to the proper length thru which a hole is bored, is a satisfactory substitute. _screw- and wire-gages_, fig. , are useful in measuring the lengths and sizes of screws and wire when fitting or ordering. the _spirit-level_, and the _plumb-line_ which it has largely replaced, are in constant use in carpentering, but are rarely needed in shopwork. [illustration: fig. . scratch-awl.] [illustration: fig. . auger-bit-gage.] _blackboard compasses_, _triangles_, etc., are convenient accessories in a woodworking classroom. [illustration: fig. . screw- and wire-gages. a. screw-gage. b. wire-gage. c. twist-drill-gage.] . sharpening tools. the _grindstone_ for woodworking tools is best when rather fine and soft. the grinding surface should be straight and never concave. the stone should run as true as possible. it can be made true by using a piece of " gas pipe as a truing tool held against the stone when run dry. power grindstones usually have truing devices attached to them, fig. . a common form is a hardened steel screw, the thread of which, in working across the face of the grindstone, as they both revolve, shears off the face of the stone. the surface should always be wet when in use both to carry off the particles of stone and steel, and thus preserve the cutting quality of the stone, and to keep the tool cool, as otherwise, its temper would be drawn, which would show by its turning blue. but a grindstone should never stand in water or it would rot. it is well to have the waste from the grindstone empty into a cisternlike box under it, fig. . in this box the sediment will settle while the water overflows from it into the drain. without such a box, the sediment will be carried into and may clog the drain. the box is to be emptied occasionally, before the sediment overflows. [illustration: fig. . power grindstone.] in order that the tool may be ground accurately, there are various devices for holding it firmly and steadily against the stone. a good one is shown in figs. and . this device is constructed as follows: a board a is made " thick, " wide, and long enough when in position to reach from the floor to a point above the level of the top of the stone. it is beveled at the lower end so as to rest snugly against a cleat nailed down at the proper place on the floor. the board is held in place by a loop of iron, b, which hooks into the holes in the trough of the grindstone. in the board a series of holes (say " in diameter) are bored. these run parallel to the floor when the board is in place, and receive the end of the tool-holder. the tool-holder consists of four parts: ( ) a strip c, - / " thick, and as wide as the widest plane-bit to be ground. the forward end is beveled on one side; the back end is rounded to fit the holes in the main board a. its length is determined by the distance from the edge of the tool being ground to the most convenient hole in a, into which the rear end is to be inserted. it is better to use as high a hole as convenient, so that as the grindstone wears down, the stick will still be serviceable; ( ) a strip, d, of the same width as a and / " thick, and " to " long; ( ) a cleat, e, / "Ã� / ", nailed across d; ( ) a rectangular loop of wrought iron or brass, f, which passes around the farther end of the two strips, c and d, and is fastened loosely to d by staples or screws. [illustration: fig. . grinding device.] [illustration: fig. . holder for grinding chisels or plane-bits.] the tool to be ground slips between this loop and the strip c, and is held firmly in place by the pressure applied to the back end of d, which thus acts as a lever on the fulcrum e. any desired bevel may be obtained on the tool to be sharpened, by choosing the proper hole in a for the back end of c or by adjusting the tool forward or backward in the clamp. as much pressure may be put on the tool as the driving belt will stand without slipping off. a still simpler holder for the plane-bit only, is a strip of wood - / " thick and " wide, cut in the shape g shown in fig. . the plane-bit fits into the saw-kerf k, and in grinding is easily held firmly in place by the hand. by inserting the rear end of the stick g into a higher or lower hole in the board a, any desired angle may be obtained. g is shown in position in fig. . [illustration: fig. . agacite grinder.] all such devices necessitate a perfectly true stone. the essential features are, to have a rigid support against which the tool may be pushed by the revolving stone, to hold the tool at a fixed angle which may be adjusted, and to press the tool against the stone with considerable pressure. the wheel should revolve toward the edge which is being ground, for two reasons. it is easier to hold the tool steadily thus, and the danger of producing a wire edge is lessened. the edge as it becomes thin, tends to spring away from the stone and this tendency is aggravated if the stone revolves away from the edge. if the stone does not run true and there is a consequent danger of digging into the stone with the tool which is being sharpened, the stone would better revolve away from the edge. the grinding should continue until the ground surface reaches the cutting edge and there is no bright line left along the edge. if the grinding is continued beyond this point, nothing is gained, and a heavy wire edge will be formed. a very convenient and inexpensive grinding tool, fig. , sold as the "_agacite grinder_,"[ ] has a number of different shaped grinding stones made chiefly of carborundum. the _oilstone_. after grinding, edge tools need whetting. this is done on the whetstone, or oilstone. the best natural stones are found near hot springs, arkansas. the fine white ones are called arkansas stones, and the coarser ones washita stones. the latter are better for ordinary woodworking tools. the _india oilstone_, an artificial stone, fig. , p. , cuts even more quickly than the natural stones. it is made in several grades of coarseness. the medium grade is recommended for ordinary shop use. oil is used on oilstones for the same purpose as water on a grindstone. when an oilstone becomes hollow or uneven by use, it may be trued by rubbing it on a flat board covered with sharp sand, or on sandpaper tacked over a block of wood. [illustration: fig. . slipstone.] _slipstones_, fig. , are small oilstones, made into various shapes in order to fit different tools, as gouges, the bits of molding-planes, etc. _files_ are used for sharpening saws, augers, scrapers, etc. see above, p. . . cleaning tools. the _bench duster_. one may be noted hanging on the bench shown in fig. , p. . bristle brushes for cleaning the benches are essential if the shop is to be kept tidy. _buffer._ wherever a lathe or other convenient revolving shaft is available, a buffer made of many thicknesses of cotton cloth is very valuable for polishing tools. the addition of a little tripoli greatly facilitates the cleaning. [footnote : made by the empire implement co., albany, n. y.] wood hand tools.--_continued._ references:[*] ( ) scraping tools. barnard, pp. - . wheeler, pp. , . griffith, pp. - . selden, pp. , , . hodgson, i, pp. - . ( ) pounding tools. barnard, pp. - . sickels, p. . wheeler, pp. , - . selden, pp. , , . goss, p. . barter, p. . ( ) punching tools. barnard, p. . wheeler, p. . selden, p. . ( ) gripping tools. for holding work: goss, p. . wheeler, pp. - , . selden, pp. , , , . hammacher, pp. - . for holding other tools: goss, pp. - . selden, p. . ( ) measuring and marking tools. goss, pp. - . griffith, pp. - . hodgson, _the steel square_. wheeler, p. . tate, pp. - . _building trades pocketbook_, pp. - . selden, pp. , - , . sargent's _steel squares_. ( ) sharpening tools. barnard, pp. - . sickels, pp. - . wheeler, pp. - . selden, pp. , , , . goss, pp. , - . [footnote *: for general bibliography see p. .] chapter v. wood fastenings. the following are the chief means by which pieces of wood are fastened together: nails, screws, bolts, plates, dowels, glue, hinges, and locks. nails _nails_, fig. , may be classified according to the material of which they are made; as, steel, iron, copper, and brass. iron nails may be galvanized to protect them from rust. copper and brass nails are used where they are subject to much danger of corrosion, as in boats. nails may also be classified according to the process of manufacture; as, cut nails, wrought nails, and wire nails. cut nails are cut from a plate of metal in such a way that the width of the nail is equal to the thickness of the plate, and the length of the nail to the width of the plate. in the third dimension, the nail is wedge-shaped, thin at the point and thick at the head. unless properly driven, such nails are likely to split the wood, but if properly driven they are very firm. in driving, the wedge should spread with and not across the grain. [illustration: fig. . a. cut nail, common. b. flat-head wire nail, no. , common. c. finishing nail, or brad.] wrought nails are worked into shape from hot steel, and have little or no temper, so that they can be bent over without breaking, as when clinched. horseshoe- and trunk-nails are of this sort. they are of the same shape as cut nails. wire nails are made from drawn steel wire, and are pointed, headed, and roughened by machinery. they are comparatively cheap, hold nearly if not quite as well as cut nails, which they have largely displaced, can be bent without breaking, and can be clinched. nails are also classified according to the shape of their heads; as, common or flat-heads, and brads or finishing nails. flat-heads are used in ordinary work, where the heads are not to be sunk in the wood or "set." some nails get their names from their special uses; as, shingle-nails, trunk-nails, boat-nails, lath-nails, picture-nails, barrel-nails, etc. the size of nails is indicated by the length in inches, and by the size of the wire for wire nails. the old nomenclature for cut nails also survives, in which certain numbers are prefixed to "penny." for example, a threepenny nail is - / " long, a fourpenny nail is - / " long, a fivepenny nail is - / " long, a sixpenny nail is " long. in other words, from threepenny to tenpenny / " is added for each penny, but a twelvepenny nail is - / " long, a sixteenpenny nail is - / " long, a twentypenny nail is " long. this is explained as meaning that "tenpenny" nails, for example, cost tenpence a hundred. another explanation is that originally of such nails weighed a pound. the size of cut nails is usually still so indicated. nails are sold by the pound. the advantages of nails are that they are quickly and easily applied, they are strong and cheap, and the work can be separated, tho with difficulty. the disadvantages are the appearance and, in some cases, the insecurity. the holding power of nails may be increased by driving them into the wood at other than a right angle, especially where several nails unite two pieces of wood. by driving some at one inclination and some at another, they bind the pieces of wood together with much greater force than when driven in straight. the term brads was once confined to small finishing nails, but is now used for all finishing nails, in distinction from common or flat-headed nails. the heads are made round instead of flat so that they may be set easily with a nailset and the hole filled with a plug, or, where the wood is to be painted, with putty. they are used for interior finishing and other nice work. [illustration: fig. . tack.] _tacks_, fig. , vary in size and shape according to their use; as, flat-headed, gimp, round-headed, and double-pointed or matting tacks, a sort of small staple. their size is indicated by the word "ounce." for example, a two-ounce tack is / " long, a three-ounce tack is / " long, a four-ounce tack is / " long, a six-ounce tack is / " long, etc. this term once meant the number of ounces of iron required to make tacks. tacks are useful only in fastening to wood thin material, such as veneers, textiles, leather, matting, tin, etc. tinner's tacks, which are used for clinching, are commonly called clinch-nails. wire tacks, altho made, are not so successful as cut tacks because they lack a sharp point, which is essential. [illustration: fig. . corrugated fastener.] _corrugated fasteners_, fig. , or fluted nails, are used to fasten together two pieces of wood by driving the fastener so that one-half of it will be on each side of the joint. their size is indicated by the length and the number of corrugations, as / ", four. they are often useful where nails are impracticable. _glaziers' points_ are small, triangular pieces of zinc, used to fasten glass into sashes. screws (a) _wood-screws_, fig. , may be classified by the material of which they are made; as, steel or brass. steel screws may be either bright,--the common finish,--blued by heat or acid to hinder rusting, tinned, or bronzed. brass screws are essential wherever rust would be detrimental, as in boats. (b) screws are also classified by shape; as, flat-headed, round-headed, fillister-headed, oval-countersunk-headed, and square-headed screws. flat-heads are most commonly used. there are also special shapes for particular purposes. round-heads may be used either for decoration or where great drawing power is desirable. in the latter case, washers are commonly inserted under the heads to prevent them from sinking into the wood. oval-heads are used decoratively, the head filling the countersunk hole, as with flat-heads, and projecting a trifle besides. they are much used in the interior finish of railway cars. they are suitable for the strap hinges of a chest. the thread of the screw begins in a fine point so that it may penetrate the wood easily where no hole has been bored as is often the case in soft wood. the thread extends about two-thirds the length of the screw. any longer thread would only weaken the screw where it most needs strength, near the head, and it does not need friction with the piece thru which it passes. the size of screws is indicated by their length in inches, and by the diameter of the wire from which they are made, using the standard screw-gage, fig. , p. . they vary in size from no. (less than / ") to no. (more than / ") in diameter, and in length from / " to ". [illustration: fig. . a. flat-head wood-screw. b. round-head wood-screw. c. fillister-head wood-screw. d. oval-countersunk-head wood-screw. e. drive-screw. f. square-head (lag- or coach-) screw.] the following is a good general rule for the use of screws: make the hole in the piece thru which the screw passes, large enough for the screw to slip thru easily. countersink this hole enough to allow the head to sink flush with the surface. make the hole in the piece into which the screw goes small enough for the thread of the screw to catch tight. then all the strength exerted in driving, goes toward drawing the pieces together, not in overcoming friction. the hole must be deep enough, especially in hard wood and for brass screws, to prevent the possibility of twisting off and breaking the screw. soap is often useful as a lubricant to facilitate the driving of screws. where it is desirable that the heads do not show, a hole may first be bored with an auger-bit large enough to receive the head and deep enough to insert a plug of wood, which is cut out with a plug-cutter, fig. , p. , and glued in place. if pains are taken to match the grain, the scar thus formed is inconspicuous. in rough work, the screw may be driven into place with a hammer thru most of its length, and then a few final turns be given with a screwdriver, but this breaks the fibers of the wood and weakens their hold. in "drive-screws," fig. , e, the slot is not cut all the way across the head, in order that the blows of the hammer may not close the slot. the advantages of screws are, that they are very strong and that the work can easily be taken apart. if they loosen they can be retightened. the disadvantages are, that they are expensive, that they take time to insert, that they show very plainly, and that they do not hold well in end grain. bolts bolts with nuts are useful where great strength is desired. there are three chief varieties, fig. . [illustration: fig. . a. stove-bolt. b. carriage-bolt. c. machine-bolt.] _stove-bolts_ are cheaply made (cast) bolts having either flat or round heads with a slot for the screwdriver, like ordinary screws. _carriage-bolts_ are distinguished by having the part of the shank which is near the head, square. _machine-bolts_ have square, hexagonal, or button heads. _machine-screws_, fig. , are similar to stove-bolts, but are accurately cut and are measured with a screw-gage. the varieties are, _a_, flat-head, _b_, round-head, _c_, fillister-head, _d_, oval-countersunk-head, all with slots for screwdriver. _plates_, fig. , include corner-irons, straight plates and panel-irons. these are made of either iron or brass and are used in fastening legs to the floor, in stiffening joints, affixing tops, etc. _dowel-rods._ dowel-rods are cylindrical rods, from / " to " in diameter, and ", ", and " long. they are commonly made of birch or maple, but maple is more satisfactory as it shrinks less and is stronger than birch. dowels are used as pins for joining boards edge to edge, and as a substitute for mortise-and-tenon joints. [illustration: fig. . machine-screws. a. flat-head. b. round-head. c. fillister-head. d. oval-countersunk-head.] there is, to be sure, a prejudice against dowels on the part of cabinet-makers due, possibly, to the willingness to have it appear that doweling is a device of inferior mechanics. but doweling is cheaper and quicker than tenoning, and there are many places in wood construction where it is just as satisfactory and, if properly done, just as strong. certain parts of even the best furniture are so put together. shoe pegs serve well as small dowels. they are dipped in glue and driven into brad-awl holes. [illustration: fig. . a. corner-iron. b. straight plate. c. panel-iron.] _wedges_ are commonly used in door construction between the edges of tenons and the insides of mortises which are slightly beveled, no. , fig. , p. . or the end of a tenon may be split to receive the wedges, no. , fig. . the blind wedge is used in the fox-tail joint, no. , fig. . glue glue is an inferior kind of gelatin, and is of two kinds,--animal glue and fish glue. animal glue is made of bones and trimmings, cuttings and fleshings from hides and skins of animals. sinews, feet, tails, snouts, ears, and horn pith are also largely used. cattle, calves, goats, pigs, horses, and rabbits, all yield characteristic glues. the best glue is made from hides of oxen, which are soaked in lime water until fatty or partly decayed matter is eaten out and only the glue is left. the product is cleaned, boiled down and dried. the best and clearest bone glues are obtained by leaching the bones with dilute acid which dissolves out the lime salts and leaves the gelatinous matters. such leached bone is sold as a glue stock, under the name of "osseine." this material together with hides, sinews, etc., has the gelatin or glue extracted by boiling again and again, just as soup stock might be boiled several times. each extraction is called a "run." sometimes as many as ten or fifteen runs are taken from the same kettle of stock, and each may be finished alone or mixed with other runs from other stock, resulting in a great variety of commercial glues. manufacturers use many tests for glue, such as the viscosity or running test, the odor, the presence of grease or of foam, rate of set, the melting-point, keeping properties, jelly strength (tested between the finger tips), water absorption (some glues absorb only once their weight, others ten or twelve times), and binding or adhesive tests. this latter varies so much with different materials that what may be good glue for one material is poor for another. putting all these things together, glues are classified from grade to , being the poorest. the higher standards from and upwards are neutral hide glues, clear, clean, free from odor, foam, and grease. the lower standards are chiefly bone glues, used for sizing straw hats, etc. they are rigid as compared with the flexibility of hide glues. for wood joints the grade should be or over. for leather, nothing less than should be used, and special cements are better still. the best glue is transparent, hard in the cake, free from spots, of an amber color, and has little or no smell. a good practical test for glue is to soak it in water till it swells and becomes jelly-like. the more it swells without dissolving the better the quality. poor glue dissolves. glue is sometimes bleached, becoming brownish white in color, but it is somewhat weakened thereby. fish glue is made from the scales and muscular tissue of fish. isinglass is a sort of glue made from the viscera and air bladder of certain fish, as cod and sturgeon. liquid glue may be made either from animal or fish glue. the lepage liquid glue is made in gloucester, mass., one of the greatest fish markets in the country. liquid glue is very convenient because always ready, but is not so strong as hot glue, and has an offensive odor. liquid glues are also made by rendering ordinary glue non-gelatinizing, which can be done by several means; as, for instance, by the addition of oxalic, nitric, or hydrochloric acid to the glue solution. to prepare hot glue, break it into small pieces, soak it in enough cold water to cover it well, until it is soft, say twelve hours, and heat in a glue-pot or double boiler, fig. , p. . the fresher the glue is, the better, as too many heatings weaken it. when used it should be thin enough to drip from the brush in a thin stream, so that it will fill the pores of the wood and so get a grip. two surfaces to be glued together should be as close as possible, not separated by a mass of glue. it is essential that the glue be hot and the wood warm, so that the glue may remain as liquid as possible until the surfaces are forced together. glue holds best on side grain. end grain can be made to stick only by sizing with thin glue to stop the pores. pieces thus sized and dried can be glued in the ordinary way, but such joints are seldom good. surfaces of hard wood that are to be glued should first be scratched with a scratch-plane, fig. , p. . to make waterproof glue, add one part of potassium bichromate to fifty parts of glue. it will harden when exposed to the air and light and be an insoluble liquid.[ ] [footnote : for recipes for this and other glues, see woodcraft, may ' , p. .] _general directions for gluing._[ ] before applying glue to the parts to be fastened together, it is a good plan to assemble them temporarily without glue, to see that all the parts fit. when it is desirable that a certain part, as the panel, in panel construction, should not be glued in place, it is a wise precaution to apply wax, soap, or oil to its edges before insertion. since hot glue sets quickly, it is necessary after the glue is applied to get the parts together as soon as possible. one must learn to work fast but to keep cool. to expedite matters, everything should be quite ready before the process is begun, clamps, protecting blocks of wood, paper to protect the blocks from sticking to the wood, braces to straighten angles, mallet, try-square, and all other appliances likely to be required. [footnote : for special directions, for particular joints, see under the various joints, (chap. vii.)] whenever it is possible to break up the process into steps, each step can be taken with more deliberation. for example, in assembling framed pieces that are doweled, it is well to glue the dowels into one set of holes beforehand, making tenons of them, as it were. time is thus saved for the final assembling when haste is imperative. the superfluous glue around the dowels should be carefully wiped off. likewise in gluing up framed pieces, sections may be put together separately: as, the ends of a table, and when they are dry then the whole may be assembled. when the pieces are together the joints should be tested to see that they are true, and that there are no twists. a good way to insure squareness, is to insert a diagonal brace on the inside, corner to corner, as in fig. , p. . such a brace should be provided when the trial assembly is made. another good way to insure squareness is to pass a rope around two diagonally opposite posts, and then by twisting the rope, to draw these corners toward each other until the frame is square. the superfluous glue may be wiped off at once with a warm damp cloth, but not with enough water to wet the wood. or by waiting a few minutes until the glue thickens, much of it can readily be peeled off with an edge tool. either of these ways makes the cleaning easier than to let the superfluous glue harden. the work when glued should remain at least six hours in the clamps to harden. hinges hinges, fig. , are made in several forms. the most common are the butt-hinge or butt, the two leaves of which are rectangular, as in a door-hinge; the strap-hinge, the leaves of which are long and strap-shaped; the tee-hinge, one leaf of which is a butt, and the other strap-shaped; the chest-hinge, one leaf of which is bent at a right angle, used for chest covers; the table-hinge used for folding table tops with a rule joint; the piano-hinge, as long as the joint; the blank hinge or screen-hinge which opens both ways; the stop-hinge, which opens only °; and the "hook-and-eye" or "gate" hinge. [illustration: fig. . a. butt-hinge. b. tee-hinge. c. chest-hinge. d. table-hinge. e. blank or screen-hinge.] the knuckle of the hinge is the cylindrical part that connects the two leaves, fig. . the "acorn" is the head of the "pintle" or pin that passes thru the knuckle. sizes of butts are indicated in inches for length, and as "narrow," "middle," "broad" and "desk" for width. the pin may be either riveted into the knuckle as in box-hinges or removable as in door-butts. sometimes, as in blind-hinges, the pintle is fastened into one knuckle, but turns freely in the other. a butt-hinge may be set in one of three positions, fig. : ( ) where it is desired to have the hinge open as wide as possible, as in a door. here the knuckle is set well out from the wood. ( ) where it is desired to have the hinged portion open flat and no more. here the center of the pin is in line with the outside surface of the wood. this is less likely to rack the hinge than the other two positions. ( ) where it is desired to have the knuckle project as little as possible. [illustration: fig. . parts of a butt-hinge. . . leaves. . . . knuckle. . pintle. . acorn.] hinging in setting the hinges of a box cover, first see that the cover fits the box exactly all the way around. in the case of a door, see that it fits its frame, evenly all the way around, but with a little play. to insure a tighter fit at the swinging edge this edge should be slightly beveled inwards. in attaching a butt-hinge, the essential thing is to sink the hinge into the wood, exactly the thickness of the knuckle. the gains may be cut in one or both of the pieces to be hinged together. with these matters determined proceed as follows: in the case of a box cover, the hinges should be set about as far from the ends of the box as the hinge is long. in the case of an upright door, locate the hinges respectively above and below the lower and upper rails of the door. mark with the knife on the edge of the door the length of the hinge, and square across approximately the width of the gain to receive it. do this for both hinges. between these lines gage the proper width of the gains. set another gage to one half the thickness of the knuckle and gage on the door face the depth of the gains. chisel out the gains, set the hinges in place, bore the holes, and drive the screws. place the door in position again to test the fit. if all is well, mark the position of the hinges on the frame, gage and cut the gains, and fasten in the hinges. where the hinge is gained its full thickness into the door, no gain, of course, is cut in the frame. if the hinges are set too shallow, it is an easy matter to unscrew one leaf of each and cut a little deeper. if they are set too deep the screws may be loosened and a piece of paper or a shaving inserted underneath along the outer arris of the gain. locks the chief parts of a lock are: the _bolt_, its essential feature, the _selvage_, the plate which appears at the edge of the door or drawer, the _box_, which contains the mechanism including the _tumbler_, _ward_, _spring_, etc., the key-pin, into or around which the key is inserted, the _strike_, the plate attached opposite the selvage, (often left out as in drawer-locks, but essential in hook-bolt locks, and self-locking locks,) and the _escutcheon_, the plate around the keyhole. [illustration: fig. . three positions of hinges.] locks may be classified: ( ) according to their _uses_, of which there are two types. (a), fig. , for drawers, cupboards, tills, wardrobes, and doors. in these the bolt simply projects at right angles to the selvage into the strike, and resists pressure sidewise of the lock. (b), fig. , for desks, roll-top desks, chests, boxes and sliding doors. in these, the bolt includes a hook device of some kind to resist pressure perpendicular to the selvage. in some locks, the hook or hooks project sidewise from the bolt, in others the bolt engages in hooks or eyes attached to the strike. [illustration: fig. . rim-lock, for drawer. . bolt. . selvage. . box. . key-pin.] ( ) according to the _method of application_, as rim locks, which are fastened on the surface, and mortise locks which are mortised into the edge of a door or drawer or box. inserting locks to insert a _rim-lock_, measure the distance from the selvage to the key-pin, locate this as the center of the keyhole, and bore the hole. if the lock has a selvage, gain out the edge of the door or drawer to receive it. if the lock box has to be gained in, do that next, taking care that the bolt has room to slide. cut the keyhole to the proper shape with a keyhole-saw or small chisel. fasten the lock in place, and if there is a strike or face-plate, mark its place and mortise it in. [illustration: fig. . mortise-lock, for box.] to insert a _mortise-lock_, locate and bore the keyhole, mortise in the box and the selvage, finish the keyhole, fasten in the lock, add the escutcheon, locate and mortise in the strike, and screw it in place. wood fastenings references:[*] hammacher & schlemmer. catalog no. . nails. goss, p. . purfield, _wood craft_, : . park, pp. - . griffith, pp. - . _wood craft_, : . wheeler, pp. - . tacks. wheeler, pp. - . sickels, p. . goss, p. . barter, pp. - . screws. goss, p. . wheeler, p. . barter, p. . griffith, pp. - . park, pp. - . dowels. goss, p. . wheeler, p. . sickels, p. . griffith, p. . wedges. goss, p. . glue. goss, p. . rivington, iii, p. . barter, p. . standage, _wood craft_, : . park, pp. - . sickels, p. . wheeler, pp. - . alexander, _wood craft_, : . griffith, pp. - . hinges. sickels, p. . wheeler, p. . [footnote *: for general bibliography see p. .] chapter vi. equipment and care of the shop. _tool equipment._ the choice of tools in any particular shop best comes out of long experience. some teachers prefer to emphasize certain processes or methods, others lay stress on different ones. the following tentative list is suggested for a full equipment for twenty-four students. one bench and its tools may be added for the teacher. the prices given are quoted from discount sheet no. for catalogue of tools, no. issued by hammacher, schlemmer & co., fourth avenue and th street, new york city, dated , and are correct at the present date ( ). aggregate orders, however, are always subject to special concessions, and it is suggested that before ordering the purchaser submit a list of specifications for which special figures will be quoted. there are good benches, vises, and tools of other makes on the market, but those specified below are typical good ones. following are two equipments for classes of twenty-four pupils, one severely economical to cost approximately $ , and the other more elaborate to cost approximately $ . $ tool equipment. individual tools. manual training school benches, h. & s. "l," @ $ . . $ . stanley jack-planes, no. , ", @ $ . each. . disston's back-saws, no. , ", @ c each. . buck brothers' firmer-chisels, no. , / ", handled and sharpened. . buck brothers' firmer-chisels, no. , / ", handled and sharpened. . buck brothers' firmer-chisels, no. , ", handled and sharpened. . sloyd knives, no. , - / ". . hammond's adze-eye claw-hammer, no. , oz. . try-squares, no. - / , ". . beech marking-gages, no. - / . . boxwood rules, no. , " long. . faber's measuring compass, no. . . bench-hooks. . bench-dusters, no. . . ------- total for individual tools. $ . general tools disston's crosscut-saws, no. , ", points. $ . disston's rip-saws, no. , ", points. . turning-saws in frames, ", m. f. & co. . dozen turning-saw blades, ", h. s. & co. . hack-saw frame, no. . . disston's dovetail-saw, ", iron back. . stanley miter-box, no. . . stanley block-planes, no. - / . . stanley fore-plane, no. . . stanley rabbet-plane and filletster, no. . . stanley "bed rock" plane, no. . . iron spokeshaves, no. . . veneer-scraper, no. . . each molding-scrapers, no. and no. . . scraper steel, richardson's. . flat bastard files, k. & f., ", handled. . half-round files, k. & f., ", handled. . rat-tail files, k. & f., ", handled. . files, k. & f., ", slim taper. . auger-bit-file. . file-card, no. . . empire tool-grinder. . grindstone, no. , with stone. . india oilstone, no. , in box. . soft arkansas oil slipstone, no. . . copperized steel oiler, no. a, / pint. . disston's sliding t bevel, no. , ". . stanley miter-square, no. , ". . sargent steel square, no. . . pair starrett's winged dividers, no. , ". . chisel, no. , / ", handled. . buck brothers' firmer-gouges, no. , ". . buck brothers' gouge, no. , inside bevel, regular sweep, / ". . barber's braces, no. , " sweep. . barber's ratchet-brace, no. , " sweep. . gimlet-bits, each of / ", / ", / ", / ", / ". . set auger-bits, r. jennings'. . clark's expansive-bit, small. . screwdriver-bits, / ", round blade, no. , ". . rose countersinks, no. , / ". . brad-awls, assorted "- - / ". . hand-drill, no. - / . . extra drills, each of no. , size, , , , , , , , , , , . . new century screwdrivers, ". . new century screwdriver, ". . o. k. nailsets, assorted. . carpenter's steel bar clamps, ft. . aldrich's oiled handscrews, no. , ". . aldrich's oiled handscrews, no. - / , ". . carriage-maker's clamps, ". . automatic miter-clamp. . pair pliers, no. , ". . coe's monkey-wrench, ". . glue-pot, no. . . parker's wood-working vise, no. . . gas stove, a. . pair end-cutting nippers, no. , ". . glass-cutter, no. . . flat varnish brushes, no. , - / ", hard-rubber-bound (for shellac). . cheap brushes, ", tin-bound (for stains), "ee". . extra jack-plane cutters (no. ). . enamel cups, / pint. . maple yard-stick, no. . . ------- total for general tools. $ . total for individual tools. . ------- $ . discount for schools, per cent. . ------- $ . lockers for individual work. $ . $ tool equipment including bench and set of tools for instructor and individual tools manual training school benches, hammacher, schlemmer & co.'s "j" with toles' quick-acting vise on side, @ $ . $ . stanley jack-planes, no. , ", @ $ . each. . disston's back-saws, no. , ", @ c each. . buck brothers' firmer-chisels, / ", handled and sharpened, @ $ . doz. . buck brothers' firmer-chisels, / ", handled and sharpened, @ $ . doz. . buck brothers' firmer-chisels, ", handled and sharpened, @ $ . . sloyd knives, no. , - / " blade ( extra) @ $ . doz. . hammond's adze-eye hammers, no. , oz., @ $ . doz. . round hickory mallets, no. , @ $ . doz. . hardened blade try-squares, no. - / , ", @ $ . doz. . beech marking-gages, no. - / , ", @ $ . doz. . steel bench-rules, no. d, @ $ . doz. . faber's measuring compass, no. ( extra). . maple bench-hooks, @ $ . doz. . bench-dusters, no. , @ $ . doz. . ------- total for individual tools. $ . general tools disston's crosscut-saws, no. , ", points. $ . disston's rip-saws, no. , ", points. . turning-saws in frames, ". . doz. turning-saw blades, ". . compass-saw, disston's no. , ". . stanley miter-box, no. . . disston's dovetail-saw, ", iron back. . coping-saws, no. . . gross coping-saw blades, ". . stanley block-planes, no. - / . . stanley fore-plane, no. . . stanley rabbet-plane and filletster, no. . . stanley's "bed rock" smooth-planes, no. or . sargent's adjustable-frog smooth-plane. extra jack-plane cutters (no. ), ". . stanley beading rabbet, and matching plane, no. . . stanley router-plane, no. . . iron spokeshaves, no. . . pattern-makers' spokeshaves, applewood, small, - / ". . drawing-knives, white's no. , ". . stanley adjustable scraper-plane, no. , with toothing cutter. . veneer-scraper, no. . . each molding-scrapers, no. , no. . . dowel-pointers, no. . . dowel-plate. . scraper steel, richardson's. . iron screw-box, french, / ". . flat bastard files, k. & f., ", handled. . half-round files, k. & f., ", handled. . rat-tail files, k. & f., ", handled. . files, ", slim taper. . auger-bit-files. . file-card, no. . . empire tool-grinder. . grindstone, no. , (iron frame and stone). . india oilstones, no. (medium), in iron box. . soft arkansas oil slipstone, no. . . copperized steel oilers, a, / pint. . disston's sliding t bevels, no. , ". . stanley miter-square, no. , ". . sargent steel square, no. . . pairs dividers, starrett's winged, no. , ". . scratch-awls, collier's, ". . pair trammel-points, no. . . try-square, no. - / , ", hardened blade. . mortise-gage, no. . . cutting-gage, no. . . each firmer-chisels, buck bros.' no. , handled and sharpened; / ", / ", / ", / ", / ", - / ". . each outside-bevel gouges, buck bros.' firmer, no. handled and sharpened: / ", / ", / ", ". . addis' carving-tools, round maple handles, no. , / ". . addis' veining-tools, round maple handles, no. , / ". . inside-bevel gouges, regular sweep, no. , / ". . barber's nickel-plated braces, no. , " sweep. . barber's ratchet-brace, no. , " sweep. . each german gimlet-bits, / ", / ", / ", / ", / ". . each russell jennings' auger-bits, / ", / ", / ", / ", / ", / ". . each russell jennings' auger-bits, genuine, / ", / ", / ", / ", / ", / ", / ". . each foerstner's auger-bits, / ", / ", / ". . clark's expansive-bit, / " to - / ". . buck bros.' rose countersinks, no. , / ". . washer-cutter, no. . . plug-cutter, / ". . screwdriver-bits, / ", round blade, " long. . each brad-awls, handled, ", - / ", - / ". . new century screwdrivers, ". . new century screwdriver, ". . new century screwdriver, ". . new century screwdriver, - / ", slim. . dowel-plate, cast steel. . o.k. nailsets, assorted / ", / ", / ". . carpenter steel bar clamps, ft. . carpenter steel bar clamps, ft. . aldrich's oiled handscrews, no. , ". . aldrich's oiled handscrews, no. - / , ". . carriage-makers' clamps, ". . automatic miter-clamp. . doz. acme pinch-dogs, / ". . glue-pot, no. . . gas stove, no. a. . coe's monkey-wrench, ". . glass-cutter, no. . . flat varnish brushes no. . - / ", hard-rubber-bound (for shellac). . cheap brushes, tin-bound, (for stains), ee, ". . enameled cups, / pint. . maple yard-stick, no. . . pair blackboard compasses or dividers. . blackboard triangle, °. . blackboard triangle, °Ã� °. . ------- total for general tools. $ . metal working tools bench, no. , without vises. $ . parker's wood-working vise, no. . . hand-vise, no. - / , ". . hay-budden anvil, lb. . riveting-hammer, atha, oz. . rivet-set, no. . . cold-chisel, / " cutting edge. . cold-chisel, / " cutting edge. . cape-chisel, / " cutting edge. . round-nosed chisel, / ". . pair end-cutting nippers, no. , ". . pair compton's metal snips, no. , ". . pair flat-nose pliers, no. - / , ". . die-holder, no. . . die, / "Ã� / ", / ". . hand-drill, no. - / . . extra drills, morse's no. , each, nos. , , , , , , , , , , . . metal countersink, no. , / ". . hack-saw frame, no. . . hack-saw blades, ", h. s. & co. . melting ladle, ". . soldering copper, lb. . mill bastard file, ", safe edge, handled.} mill smooth file, ", handled. } square bastard file, ", handled. } half-round bastard file, ", handled. } slim taper saw-file, ", handled. } round bastard file, ", handled. } . atha machinist's hammer, ball-peen, oz. . ------ total for metal working tools. $ . glue and stain bench. $ . lockers for individual work for pupils. . nail and screw cabinet. . ------- $ . individual tools. $ . general tools. . ------- $ . discount for schools, per cent. . ------- $ . cabinets, lockers, etc. . --------- $ , . the care of the woodworking shop _the general arrangement of the room._ the important factors are the source or sources of light, and the lines of travel. the common arrangement of benches where two sides of the room are lighted, is shown in _a_, fig. . by this arrangement, as each worker faces his bench, he also faces one set of windows and has another set of windows at his left. the advantage of this arrangement is that it is easy to test one's work with the try-square by lifting it up to the light. another arrangement, shown in _b_, fig. , has this advantage, that there are no shadows on the work when it is lying on the bench and the worker is holding his rule or try-square on it with his left hand. when all the windows are on one side of the room the latter is the more advantageous arrangement. in determining the position of the benches, especially with reference to their distance from each other, thought should be given to the general lines of travel, from the individual benches to the general tool-rack, to the finishing-table, to the lockers, etc. even if all the aisles cannot be wide enough both for passage and for work, one wider one thru the center of the room may solve the difficulty. where rooms are crowded, space may be economized by placing the benches in pairs, back to back, _c_ and _d_, fig. . in any case, room should always be reserved for a tier of demonstration seats, facing the teacher's bench, for the sake of making it easy for the pupils to listen and to think. [illustration: fig. . four different arrangements of benches in a shop.] _the tools._ every shop soon has its own traditions as to the arrangement of tools, but there are two principles always worth observing. ( ) it is an old saying that there should be "a place for everything and everything in its place." this is eminently true of a well-ordered woodworking shop, and there is another principle just as important. ( ) things of the same sort should be arranged together, and arranged by sizes, whether they be general tools or individual tools. in arranging the rack for general tools, a few suggestions are offered. in the first place, arrange them so that there will be no danger of cutting one's fingers on one tool when attempting to take down another. where the rack must needs be high, all the tools can be brought within reach, by placing long tools, like files, screwdrivers, etc., at the top. such an arrangement is shown in fig. . as to the individual benches, those without high backs are to be preferred, not only because of their convenience when it is desired to work on large pieces, like table tops, and because the backs do not interfere with the light, but because it is easier for the teacher to look over the room to see that everything is in order. if the equipment is kept complete, it is an easy matter to glance over all the benches and the general rack to see that everything is in place. [illustration: fig. . general tool rack in a school shop.] in general, there are two methods of keeping guard over tools, the open and the closed. in the open method, everything is kept in sight so that empty places can be discovered readily. this method is a convenient one, and, besides, the tools are always easily accessible. in the closed method, the tools are kept in drawers and cases where they can be locked up. this method is suitable where pupils are equipped with individual sets of cutting tools. in such a case, the common tools for each bench are kept in a common drawer and individual pupils' tools in separate drawers. this method has the disadvantage that things are out of sight, and if they disappear their loss may not be discovered immediately. on the other hand, where the drawers and cases are kept carefully locked, the danger of loss is reduced almost to a minimum. sometimes a combination of both methods is tried, the tools being kept in unlocked drawers. this method furnishes the greatest difficulty in keeping tools from disappearing. [illustration: fig. . nail and screw cabinet.] even when tools are well arranged, one of the most serious difficulties in the way of shop order, is to keep tools in their places. pupils who are in a hurry, slip in the tools wherever they will fit, not where they belong. labels at the places of the different sets may help somewhat; a more efficient method is to paste or paint the form of each tool on the wall or board against which it hangs. pupils will see that, when they will not stop to read a label. in spite of all precautions, some tools will disappear. a plan to cover the cost of these, which works well in some schools, is to require a deposit at the beginning of the year to cover these losses. then at the end of the year, after deducting the cost of losses, the balance is returned pro rata. [illustration: fig. . an inexpensive locker for unfinished work.] there is diversity of practice in the distribution of tools on the general case and on the individual benches. some tools, like the plane and chisel, and try-square, are so frequently in use that each worker must have one at hand. as to others, the demand must determine the supply. one other consideration may be expressed by the principle that those tools, the use of which is to be encouraged, should be kept as accessible as possible, and those whose use is to be discouraged, should be kept remote. some tools, like files, it may be well to keep in a separate locker to be had only when asked for. [illustration: fig. . a more expensive locker for unfinished work.] a cabinet of drawers, such as that shown in fig. , for holding nails, screws, and other fastenings, is both a convenience and a material aid in preserving the order of the shop. as for the care of tools during vacation, they should be smeared with vaseline, which is cheap, and put away out of the dampness. the planes should be taken apart and each part smeared. to clean them again for use, then becomes an easy matter. the best method of removing rust and tarnish is to polish the tools on a power buffing wheel on which has been rubbed some tripoli. they may then be polished on a clean buffer without tripoli. _the lockers._ in order to maintain good order in the shop, an almost indispensable part of the equipment is a set of lockers for holding the unfinished work of pupils. an inexpensive outfit may consist simply of sets of shelves, say " apart, " deep, and " long, fig. . ordinary spring-roller curtains may be hung in front of each set of shelves to conceal and protect the contents. such a case should cost at the rate of about c. for each compartment. a more substantial and more convenient case, shown in fig. , consists of compartments each - / " high, " wide, and " deep. these proportions may be changed to suit varying conditions. in front of each tier of compartments is a flap door opening downward. such a case built of yellow pine (paneled) may cost at the rate of $ . per compartment. [illustration: fig. . gluing and staining bench covered with zinc.] there should, of course, be a separate compartment for each pupil using the shop. where possible, there should be a special table for staining and gluing. where strict economy must be practiced, a good sized kitchen table covered with oilcloth answers every purpose. a better equipment would include a well-built bench, such as that shown in fig. , the top and back of which are covered with zinc. where no staining-table is possible, temporary coverings of oilcloth may be provided to lay over any bench which is convenient for the purpose. [illustration: fig. . shellac utensils.] _care of brushes and materials used in finishing wood._ shellac should be kept in glass or pottery or aluminum receptacles but not in any metal like tin, which darkens it. a good plan is to have a bottle for fresh, untouched shellac, a wide-mouthed jar for that which has been diluted and used, and an enameled cup for use. there should also be a special brush, fig. . at the time of using, first see that the brush is soft and pliable. if it is stiff, it can be soaked quickly and softened in a little alcohol in the cup. this alcohol may then be poured into the jar and mixed in by shaking. then pour out a little from the jar into the cup, and if it is too thin, thicken with some fresh shellac. after using, pour back the residue into the jar, carefully wiping the brush on the edge of the jar; and if it is not to be used again for some time, rinse it in a little alcohol, which may also be poured into the jar, which should then be covered. what little shellac remains in the brush and cup will do no harm and the brush may be left standing in the cup until required. the important things are to keep the shellac cup and brush for _shellac only_, (indeed, it is a good plan to label them "shellac only,") and to keep the shellac covered so that the alcohol in it will not evaporate. in a pattern-making shop, where the shellac cup is to be frequently used, it is well to have cups with covers thru which the brushes hang, like the brush in a mucilage jar. varnish brushes need to be cleaned thoroly after each using. if they get dry they become too hard to be cleaned without great difficulty. brushes for water stains are easily taken care of by washing with water and then laying them flat in a box. cups in which the water stains have been used can also be easily rinsed with water. brushes for oil stains are most easily kept in good condition, by being hung in a brush-keeper, fig. , (sold by devoe & reynolds, fulton st., n. y. c.) partly filled with turpentine. the same brushes may also be used for fillers. oil stains should be poured back into their respective bottles, and the cups wiped out with cotton waste. when they get in bad condition, they can be cleaned readily after a preliminary soaking in a strong solution of potash. the same treatment may be given to brushes, but if they are left soaking too long in the solution, the bristles will be eaten off. [illustration: fig. . brush-keeper.] equipment and care of the shop references:[*] murray, _year book_ , p. . bailey, _m. t. mag._, : . dec. ' . robillion, pp. - . hammacher and schlemmer, passim. [footnote *: for general bibliography, see p. .] chapter vii. the common joints. wherever two or more pieces of wood are fastened together we have what is properly called joinery. in common usage the term indicates the framing of the interior wood finish of buildings and ships, but it is also used to include cabinet-making, which is the art of constructing furniture, and even the trades of the wheelwright, carriage-maker, and cooper. since joinery involves the constant use of joints, a reference list of them, with illustrations, definitions, uses, and directions for making typical ones may be of convenience to workers in wood. heading joints _no. . a lapped and strapped joint_, fig. , p. , is made by laying the end of one timber over another and fastening them both together with bent straps on the ends of which are screws by which they may be tightened. it is a very strong joint and is used where the beams need lengthening as in false work or in long ladders and flag poles. _no. . a fished joint_, fig. , is made by butting the squared ends of two timbers together and placing short pieces of wood or iron, called fish-plates, over the faces of the timbers and bolting or spiking the whole firmly together. it is used for joining timbers in the direction of their length, as in boat construction. _no. ._ in a _fished joint_, fig. , keys are often inserted between the fish-plate and beam at right angles to the bolts in order to lessen the strain that comes upon the bolts when the joint is subjected to tension. in wide pieces and for extra strength, as in bridge work, the bolts may be staggered. _nos. , , and ._ _a scarf or spliced joint_, fig. , is made by joining together with flush surfaces the ends of two timbers in such a way as to enable them to resist compression, as in no. ; tension, as in no. ; both, as in no. , where the scarf is tabled; or cross strain as in no. . no. is used in house sills and in splicing out short posts, nos. and in open frame work. _no. _ with or without the fish-plate, is used in boats and canoes, and is sometimes called a boat-builder's joint, to distinguish it from no. , a carpenter's joint. a joint to resist cross strain is stronger when scarfed in the direction of the strain than across it. no. is the plan, not elevation, of a joint to receive vertical cross strain. butt joints _no. . a doweled butt-joint_, fig. , is made by inserting, with glue, dowel-pins into holes bored into the two members. the end of one member is butted against the face or edge of the other. it is used in cabinet-making where the presence of nails would be unseemly. [illustration: fig. . lay-out by thru dowling.] in a doweled butt-joint the dowels may go clear thru the outside member, and be finished as buttons on the outside, where they show. to lay out this joint mark near the ends of the edges of the abutting member, x, fig. , center-lines a b. draw on the other member y, a sharp pencil-line to which when the lines ab on x are fitted, x will be in its proper place. carry the line around to the other side of y and locate on it the proper centers for the dowel-holes e and f. then fasten on the end of x a handscrew in such a way that the jaws will be flush with the end. with another handscrew, clamp this handscrew to y in such a way that the marks on the two pieces match, a to c and b to d, fig. . bore at the proper places, e and f, holes directly thru y into x. [illustration: fig. . thru boring for a butt joint.] fig. illustrates the gluing together of a four-legged stand in which the joints are made in this way. the cross-lap joints of the stretchers are first glued together, then the other joints are assembled without glue, to see that all the parts fit and finally two opposite sides are glued at a time. pieces of paper are laid inside the gluing blocks to prevent them from sticking to the legs. [illustration: fig. . gluing-up a four-legged stand.] in case the dowels are to be hidden the chief difficulty is to locate the holes properly. one method of procedure is as follows: to dowel the end of one member against the face of the other as a stringer into a rail or a rail into a table leg, first lay out the position of the dowels in the end of the first member, x, fig. . gage a center-line, a b, across this end lengthwise, locate the centers of the dowel-holes, and square across with a knife point, as cd and ef. gage a line on the other member to correspond with the line ab. on the face so gaged, lay the first member on its side so that one arris lies along this gaged line and prick off the points d and f, to get the centers of the dowel-holes. [illustration: fig. . laying out a dowel joint.] if, as is usual, there are a number of similar joints to be made, a device like that shown in fig. will expedite matters. and are points of brads driven thru a piece of soft wood, which has been notched out, and are as far apart as the dowels. a- is the distance from the working edge of the rail to the first dowel. the same measure can be used from the end of the leg. when the centers are all marked, bore the holes. insert the dowels into the holes and make a trial assembly. if any rail is twisted from its proper plane, note carefully where the error is, take apart, glue a dowel into the hole, that is wrong, pare it off flush with the surface, and re-bore in such a place that the parts, when assembled will come up true. when everything fits, glue and clamp together. _no. . a toe-nailed joint_, fig. , is made by driving nails diagonally thru the corners of one member into the other. it is used in fastening the studding to the sill in balloon framing. _no. . a draw-bolt joint_, fig. , is made by inserting an iron bolt thru a hole in one member and into the other to meet a nut inserted from the side of the second member. it is very strong and is used in bench construction, wooden machinery, etc. _no. . a plain butt-joint_, fig. , is one in which the members join endwise or edgewise without overlapping. it is used on returns as in ordinary boxes and cases. _no. . a glued and blocked joint_, fig. , is made by gluing and rubbing a block in the inside corner of two pieces which are butted and glued together. it is used in stair-work and cabinet-work, as in the corners of bureaus. _no. . a hopper-joint_, fig. , is a butt-joint, but is peculiar in that the edges of the boards are not square with their faces on account of the pitch of the sides. it is used in hoppers, bins, chutes, etc. the difficulty in laying out this joint is to obtain the proper angle for the edges of the pieces. this may be done as follows: after the pieces are planed to the correct thickness, plane the upper and lower edges of the end pieces to the correct bevel as shown by the pitch of the sides. lay out the pitch of the sides of the hopper on the outside of the end pieces. from the ends of these lines, on the upper and lower beveled edges score lines at right angles with the knife and try-square. connect these lines on what will be the inside of the hopper. saw off the surplus wood and plane to the lines thus scored. the side pieces may be finished in the same way, and the parts are then ready to be assembled. halving-joints a halved joint is one in which half the thickness of each member is notched out and the remaining portion of one just fits into the notch in the other, so that the upper and under surfaces of the members are flush. _no. . a cross-lap joint_, fig. , is a halved joint in which both members project both ways from the joint. this is a very common joint used in both carpentry and joinery, as where stringers cross each other in the same plane. the two pieces are first dressed exactly to the required size, either separately or by the method of making duplicate parts, see chap. ix, p. . lay one member, called x, across the other in the position which they are to occupy when finished and mark plainly their upper faces, which will be flush when the piece is finished. locate the middle of the length of the lower piece, called y, on one arris, and from this point lay off on this arris half the width of the upper piece, x. from this point square across y with the knife and try-square. lay x again in its place, exactly along the line just scored. then mark with the knife on y the width of x, which may then be removed and the second line squared across y. from these two lines square across both edges of y to approximately one-half the thickness. now turn x face down, lay y on it, and mark it in the same way as y. set the gage at one-half the thickness of the pieces, and gage between the lines on the edges, taking care to hold the head of the gage against the marked faces. then even if one piece is gaged so as to be cut a little too deep, the other will be gaged so as to be cut proportionately less, and the joint will fit. cut a slight triangular groove on the waste side of the knife-marks, fig. , p. , saw accurately to the gaged lines, and chisel out the waste as in a dado, see figs. and , p. . the bottom of the dado thus cut should be flat so as to afford surface for gluing. when well made, a cross-lap joint does not need to be pounded together but will fit tight under pressure of the hands. _no. . a middle-lap joint or halved tee_, fig. , is made in the same way as a cross-lap joint, but one member projects from the joint in only one direction, it is used to join stretchers to rails as in floor timbers. _no. . an end-lap joint_, fig. , is made in the same way as a cross-lap joint except that the joint is at the end of both members. it is used at the corners of sills and plates, also sometimes in chair-seats. to make an end-lap joint, place the members in their relative positions, faces up, and mark plainly. mark carefully on each member the inside corner, allowing the end of each member slightly ( / ") to overlap the other. square across at these points with a sharp knife point, on the under side of the upper member, and on the upper side of the lower member. now proceed as in the cross-lap joint, except that the gaged line runs around the end and the cutting must be done exactly to this line. _no. ._ in an _end-lap joint on rabbeted pieces_, fig. , the joint must be adapted to the rabbet. the rabbet should therefore be plowed before the joint is made. the rabbet at the end of the piece x is cut not the entire width of the piece y, but only the width of the lap,--c-f=a-e. this joint is used occasionally in picture-frames. _no. . a dovetail halving or lap-dovetail_, fig. , is a middle-lap joint with the pin made dovetail in shape, and is thus better able to resist tension. it is used for strong tee joints. _no. . a beveled halving_, fig. , is made like a middle-lap joint except that the inner end of the upper member is thinner so that the adjoining cheeks are beveled. it is very strong when loaded above. it was formerly used in house framing. modified halving joints _no. . a notched joint_, fig. , is made by cutting out a portion of one timber. it is used where it is desired to reduce the height occupied by the upper timber. joists are notched on to wall plates. _no. . a checked joint or double notch_, fig. , is made by cutting out notches from both the timbers so as to engage each other. it is used where a single notch would weaken one member too much. _no. . a cogged or corked or caulked joint_, fig. , is made by cutting out only parts of the notch on the lower piece, leaving a "cog" uncut. from the upper piece a notch is cut only wide enough to receive the cog. a cogged joint is stronger than a notched because the upper beam is not weakened at its point of support. it is used in heavy framing. _no. . a forked tenon joint_, fig. , is made by cutting a fork in the end of one member, and notching the other member to fit into the fork, so that neither piece can slip. it is used in knock-down furniture and in connecting a muntin to a rail, where it is desired that the muntin should run thru and also that the rail be continuous. _no. . a rabbet or rebate or ledge joint_, fig. , is made by cutting out a portion of the side or end of a board or timber x to receive the end or side of another, y. it may then be nailed from either the side or end or from both. the neatest way in small boxes is from the end, or better still it may be only glued. _no. . a dado or grooved joint_, fig. , is made by cutting in one member a groove into which the end or edge of the other member fits. properly speaking a groove runs with the grain, a dado across it, so that the bottom of a drawer is inserted in a groove while the back of the drawer is inserted in a dado. where the whole of the end of one member is let into the other, such a dado is also called a housed dado. treads of stairs are housed into string boards. to lay out a dado joint: after carefully dressing up both pieces to be joined, locate accurately with a knife point, on the member to be dadoed, called x, one side of the dado, and square across the piece with a try-square and knife. then locate the other side of the dado by placing, if possible, the proper part of the other member, called y, close to the line drawn. if this method of superposition is not possible, locate by measurement. mark, with a knife point, on x, the thickness thus obtained. square both these lines as far across the edges of x as y is to be inserted. gage to the required depth on both edges with the marking-gage. to cut the joint: first make with the knife a triangular groove on the waste side of each line, as indicated in fig. , p. , and starting in the grooves thus made, saw with the back-saw to the gaged lines on both edges. the waste may now be taken out either with a chisel or with a router, fig. , p. . the second member, y, should just fit into a dado thus made, but if the joint is too tight, the cheeks of the dado may be pared with a chisel. in delicate work it is often wise not to saw at all, but to use only the knife and chisel. _no. . a dado and rabbet_, fig. , is made by cutting a dado in one member, x, and a rabbet on the other, y, in such a way that the projecting parts of both members will fit tight in the returns of the other member. it is used in boxes and gives plenty of surface for gluing. _no. . a dado, tongue and rabbet_, fig. , is a compound joint, made by cutting a rabbet on one member, y, and then a dado in this rabbet, into which fits a tongue of the other member, x. it is used in machine-made drawers. _no. . a dovetail dado or gain_, fig. , is made by cutting one or both of the sides of the infitting member, y, on an angle so that it has to be slid into place and cannot be pulled out sidewise. it is used in book-cases and similar work, in which the shelves are fixed. to make this joint, first lay out the dovetail on the member to be inserted, called y, thus: across one end square a line (a b, no. ), at the depth to which this member is to be dadoed in. set the bevel-square at the proper angle for a dovetail, fig. . score this angle on the edges of the member, as at c d. cut a groove with a knife on the waste side of a b. saw to the depth a c, and chisel out the interior angle a c d. then lay out the other member, x, thus: mark with the knife the proper place for the flat side of y, square this line across the face and on the edges as for a simple dado. lay out the thickness of y on the face of x by superposition or otherwise and square the face and edges, not with a knife but with a sharp pencil point. gage the required depth on the edges. now with the bevel-square as already set, lay out the angle a c d on the edges of x, and across the face at c score a line with knife and try-square. cut out grooves in the waste for the saw as in a simple dado, and saw to the proper depth and at the proper angle. chisel or rout out the waste and when complete, fit the pieces together. [illustration: fig. . laying out a dovetail joint.] _no. . a gain joint_, fig. , is a dado which runs only partly across one member, x. in order to make the edges of both members flush and to conceal the blind end of the gain, the corner of the other member, y, is correspondingly notched out. in book shelves a gain gives a better appearance than a dado. a gain joint is laid out in the same way as the dado, except that the lines are not carried clear across the face of x, and only one edge is squared and gaged to the required depth. knife grooves are made in the waste for starting the saw as in the dado. before sawing, the blind end of the gain is to be chiseled out for a little space so as to give play for the back-saw in cutting down to the required depth. to avoid sawing too deep at the blind end, the sawing and chiseling out of waste may be carried on alternately, a little at a time, till the required depth is reached. it is easy to measure the depth of the cut by means of a small nail projecting the proper amount from a trial stick, fig. . the use of the router, fig. , p. , facilitates the cutting, and insures an even depth. [illustration: fig. . depth-gage for dado.] mortise-and-tenon joints the tenon in its simplest form is made by dividing the end of a piece of wood into three parts and cutting out rectangular pieces on both sides of the part left in the middle. the mortise is the rectangular hole cut to receive the tenon and is made slightly deeper than the tenon is long. the sides of the tenon and of the mortise are called "cheeks" and the "shoulders" of the tenon are the parts abutting against the mortised piece. _no. . a stub mortise-and-tenon_, fig. , is made by cutting only two sides of the tenon beam. it was formerly used for lower ends of studding or other upright pieces to prevent lateral motion. _no. . a thru mortise-and-tenon_, fig. , is made by cutting the mortise clear thru one member and by cutting the depth of the tenon equal to or more than the thickness of the mortised member. the cheeks of the tenon may be cut on two or four sides. it is used in window sashes. a thru mortise-and-tenon joint is made in the same way as a blind mortise-and-tenon (see below), except that the mortise is laid out on the two opposite surfaces, and the boring and cutting are done from both, cutting first from one side and then from the other. _no. . a blind mortise-and-tenon_, fig. , is similar to the simple mortise-and-tenon described in . the tenon does not extend thru the mortised member and the cheeks of the tenon may be cut on two or four sides. to make a blind mortise-and-tenon, first make the tenon thus: locate accurately with a knife point the shoulders of the tenon and square entirely around the piece. on the working edge near the end mark the thickness of the tenon. set the marking-gage at the proper distance from the working face to one cheek of the tenon and gage the end and the two edges between the end and the knife-lines. reset the gage to mark the thickness of the tenon and gage that in the same way from the working face. then mark and gage the width of the tenon in the same way. whenever there are several tenons of the same size to be cut, they should all be laid out together, that is the marking-gage set once to mark all face cheeks and once to mark all back cheeks. if a mortise-gage is available, use that. always mark from the working face or working edge. cut out a triangular groove on the waste side of the knife lines (at the shoulders) as in cutting a dado, fig. , p. . in cutting the tenon, first rip-saw just outside the gaged lines, then crosscut at the shoulder lines. do all the rip-sawing before the crosscutting. if the pieces are small the back-saw may be used for all cuts. it is well to chamfer the arrises at the end of the tenon to insure its starting easily into the mortise. locate the ends of the mortise and square lines across with a sharp pencil in order to avoid leaving knife marks on the finished piece. then locate the sides of the mortise from the thickness of the tenon, already determined, and gage between the cross lines. as in the case of like tenons, if there are a number of mortises all alike, set the gage only twice for them all. in _cutting the mortice_, first fasten the piece so that it will rest solid on the bench. this may be done either in a tail vise or by a handscrew, or by clamping the bench-hook firmly in the vise in such a way that the cleat of the bench-hook overhangs the piece. then tap the bench-hook with a mallet and the piece will be found to be held tightly down on the bench. see fig. , p. . it is common to loosen up the wood by first boring a series of adjoining holes whose centers follow the center-line of the mortise and whose diameter is slightly less than the width of the mortise. take care to bore perpendicularly to the surface, see fig. , p. , and no deeper than necessary. dig out the portions of wood between the auger holes and chisel off thin slices, back to the gage-lines and to the knife-lines, taking care all the time to keep the sides of the mortise perpendicular to the face. this may be tested by placing the chisel against the side of the mortise and standing alongside it a try-square with its head resting on the surface. finally test the tenon in the mortise noting carefully where it pinches, if anywhere, and trim carefully. the tighter it fits without danger of splitting the mortised member, the stronger will be the joint. many prefer to dig mortises without first boring holes. for this purpose a mortise-chisel, fig. , p. , is desirable. the method is to begin at the middle of the mortise, placing the chisel--which should be as wide as the mortise--at right angles to the grain of the wood. chisel out a v shaped opening about as deep as the mortise, and then from this hole work back to each end, occasionally prying out the chips. work with the flat side of the chisel toward the middle except the last cut or two at the ends of the mortise. _no. ._ in a _mortise-and-tenon joint on rabbeted pieces_, fig. , the tenon is as much shorter on one side than the other as the rabbet is wide. in fig. , ab=cd. _no. . a wedged mortise-and-tenon joint_, fig. , is a thru joint in which after the tenon is driven home, wedges are driven in between the tenon and the sides of the mortise. the wedges are dipped in glue or white lead before being inserted. the sides of the mortise may be slightly dovetailed. it is used to keep a tenon tightly fixed as in wheel spokes. _no. . a wedged mortise-and-tenon joint_, fig. , may also be made by driving the wedges into saw kerfs in the tenon instead of along its sides as in no. . it is used in ornamental joints as well as in carpentry. _no. . a fox-tail tenon_, fig. , is a blind mortise-and-tenon in which the mortise is made slightly wider at the bottom than the width of the tenon. wedges are driven into saw kerfs in the tenon before inserting into the mortise; then when it is driven home the wedges spread out the tenon and make it fill out the mortise. it is used in strong doors and also where the mortised member is already in place so that a wedged mortise-and-tenon is impossible. _no. . a dovetail mortise-and-tenon_, fig. , is a thru mortise-and-tenon beveled on one side so as to form half a dovetail. the corresponding side of the mortise is also beveled and made wide enough so that when the tenon is pressed well up against its beveled side a wedge may be driven into the space left on the straight side. it is used to tenon a beam into a post especially where the post is fixed against a wall. it is also used in machinery frames which are made of wood. _no. . a pinned mortise-and-tenon_, fig. , is one in which a pin is driven thru holes bored thru the mortised beam and thru the tenon to keep them from drawing apart. it is used in heavy framing as in bridges, in wagon-making, in window-sash, etc. _no. . a keyed mortise-and-tenon_, fig. , is one in which the tenon protrudes thru the mortise far enough to receive a removable key and thus be drawn up tight to the mortised member. it is used in work-benches and in ornamental joints like knock-down bookcases and in other mission furniture. the keyed mortise-and-tenon is made as in a thru mortise-and-tenon, except that before cutting the tenons the holes for wedges should be laid out thus: measuring from the shoulder of the tenon, locate by superposition or measurement the outside of the mortised member. deduct from this / " and square a fine pencil-line across the face and opposite side. this line will be the inside of the hole for the wedge, and the / " is deducted to make sure that the key wedges against the mortised member. on the upper surface of the tenon, lay off toward the end the width of the wedge at this point, a b, fig. , and square across. on the under surface, lay off the width of the wedge at this point, c d, and square across. [illustration: fig. . keyed mortise-and-tenon joint.] gage the sides of the wedge hole on both upper and lower surfaces of the tenon. after cutting the mortise and tenon, bore and chisel out the hole for the wedge, taking care to cut the side toward the end on a bevel to fit the wedge. _no. . a tusk tenon or shoulder tenon_, fig. , is one in which the tenon proper is quite thin but is reinforced by a thicker shoulder called a "tusk." the upper shoulder is beveled. the object of this form is to weaken the mortised member as little as possible but at the same time to increase the strength of the tenon. it is used in joining tail beams to headers in floor framing. _no. . a double mortise-and-tenon_, fig. , consists of two tenons side by side in one piece fitting into two corresponding mortises. it is used in joinery, as in door-frames, but not in carpentry. _no. . a haunched mortise-and-tenon_, fig. , is made by cutting away part of the tenon so that that part of it will be much shorter than the rest. the haunch gives the tenon great lateral strength and saves cutting so large a mortise hole. it is used in panel construction, as where the rails are joined to the stiles of doors. first plow the groove in all the members. this should be of the same width as the thickness of the tenons, which is ordinarily one-third of the thickness of the frame. the groove is approximately as deep as it is wide. lay out and cut the tenon the width of the entire piece, minus, of course, the depth of the groove. the mortise should not come too near the end, or the portion of wood outside it will shear out. hence the tenon is narrowed on the outside enough to insure strength in the mortised piece. the rule is that the tenon should be one-half the width of the rail, minus the groove. but enough of the tenon is left full width to fill up the groove at the outer end of the mortised piece. this is called the _haunch_. the width of the mortise is equal to the width of the groove, its length to the width of the tenon. before assembling the panel frame, put soap or tallow on the corners of the panel to prevent its being glued to the frame. _no. . table or taper haunching_, fig. . sometimes, as in table construction, for the sake of stiffening the rail, or in places where it is desirable that the haunch does not show, the haunch is beveled from the tenon to the edge of the rail. _no. . a bare-faced tenon_, fig. , is one in which a cheek is cut from only one side. it is used where the rail is thinner than the stile and it is desirable to keep the mortise near the middle of the stile. _no. . a housed mortise-and-tenon_, fig. , is one in which the whole of the end of one member is let in for a short distance or "housed" into the other. it is common in grill work and in railings. _no. . a slip-joint or end or open mortise-and-tenon_, fig. , is what would remain if a mortised member were sawn off along one side of the tenoned member. window screens and other light frames such as those for slates and for printing photographs have this joint. this joint multiplied is used for small machine-made boxes, and is then called _corner locking_. dovetail joints "dovetail" refers to the shape of the projections of one member, when looked at broadside. these projections are called dovetails, or merely tails. the projections on the other member are called tenons or pins, and the spaces between both tails and tenons are called mortises or sockets. _no. . a thru single dovetail_, fig. , is similar to a slip-joint except that instead of a tenon there is a dovetail. it is used in window-sashes. _no. . a thru-multiple dovetail_, fig. , consists of a series of alternate tails and tenons which fit one another closely. it is used in tool-chests and in other strong as well as fine boxes. to make a thru multiple dovetail joint, first square lines with a sharp pencil around the ends of both members to locate the inner ends of the dovetails and the pins, d e on x, fig. , and l m on y. the distance of this line from the ends of each member may, if desired, be slightly ( / ") greater than the thickness of the other member. divide this line, d e, on the member to be dovetailed, x, into as many equal spaces as there are to be tails (dovetails). from the division points of these spaces, a b c, to the right and left lay off one-half of the greatest width of the mortises to be cut out, and also the same distance from d and from e, as at f f f f and g g g g. the strongest arrangement of dovetails is to make them equal in width to the spaces between them, as in no. , p. . for the sake of appearance they may be as much as four times as wide as the spaces, but ordinarily should not be wider than - / ". set the bevel-square so that it will fit the angle a b c, fig. , p. , in a right angle triangle, the long side of which is " and the short side / ". this is approximately an angle of ° or a little more than one to five. from the points f f f f and g g g g lay off this angle to the end of the piece. carry these lines across the end at right angles to the surface, h i, fig. , and repeat the dovetail angles on the other surface. mark plainly the parts to be cut out (the mortises), as on x in fig. . score with a knife point the inner ends of the mortises, d to f, g to f, etc., and across the edge at d and at e. with a dovetail-saw, fig. , p. , cut on the mortise side of each line down to the cross line, d-e, and also along the cross line from d to f and e to g. chisel out the mortises taking care to keep the line d-e straight and square. the ends (not the sides) of the mortises may be slightly undercut to insure a tight fit. fasten the other member, y, upright in the vise so that the end to be tenoned will be flush with the top of the bench, and with the working face toward the bench. place on it the working face of x, (the member already dovetailed,) taking care that the inner ends of the mortises are in line with the working face of y, and that the edges of the two members are in the same plane, as x on y in fig. . scribe with a knife point along the sides of the tails on the end of y (f'-j' and g'-h'). remove y from the vise and square down these lines to the cross line l-m (j'-n and h'-o). score with the knife point the inner ends of the mortises of y (n-o). saw with a dovetail-saw on the mortise sides of these lines, chisel out the mortises and fit the parts together. when glued together, the joints should be dressed off. where there are several parts to be made alike, it is necessary to lay out the dovetails on only one x member. this may be used as a templet for laying out the others and they can then be sawn separately. or all the x members may be clamped carefully together, with one x already laid out, rights and lefts in pairs, and edges and ends flush, the depth mark gaged all around, and then all sawn at once. the dovetail joint is also made by first laying out and cutting the members having the pins, and then superposing this on the piece to be dovetailed, and scribing around the pins. _no. . a lap or half blind dovetail_, fig. , is a dovetail joint in which the tails on one member do not extend entirely thru the thickness of the other member. it is used in joining the sides to the fronts of drawers and other fittings where only one side is seen. if the joint is to be used for a drawer front, the groove for the drawer bottom should be cut or at least laid out before laying out the joint. see also drawers, p. , and fig. , p. . on the end of the drawer front, gage the depth of the joint. gage the same distance on both broad surfaces of the drawer sides, marking from the front ends. lay out and cut the dovetails as in a thru dovetail joint, taking especial care to have the groove for the bottom completely within the lower tail. take care also to make the sides, one right and one left, not both alike, so that the groove will come inside. lay out the drawer front by superposing the dovetailed side, x, on the end of the front, y, as in a thru dovetail. saw and chisel out the mortises and fit together. _no. . a stopped lap dovetail_, fig. , is one in which neither the tails nor the pins extend thru the other members. hence the joint is concealed. the lap may be rounded. it is used in fine boxes, trays, etc. _no. . the blind miter or secret dovetail_, fig. , is a joint in which only part, say one-half, of both boards is dovetailed, the outer portion being mitered. the edges of the boards are also mitered right thru for a short distance so that when finished the dovetails are invisible. it is used in highly finished boxes. beveled joints a beveled joint is made by beveling the members so that the plane of the joint bisects the angle at which the members meet. this is called the "miter" and may be degrees or any other angle. it is a neat but weak joint unless reinforced by a spline, nails, or in some other way. [illustration: fig. . gluing together a picture-frame (see also fig. .)] _no. . a plain miter_, fig. , is a joint where the beveled edges or ends abut and are simply glued or nailed together. it is commonly used in picture-frames, inside trim, columns, boxes, and taborets, four or more sided. [illustration: fig. . picture-frame-clamp.] for gluing mitered frames, the most convenient way is with the aid of the picture-frame-vise, fig. , p. . nails are driven or splines inserted as soon as each joint is glued. where this vise is not available, an ordinary metalworking vise may be used, as follows: fasten one member, x, face side up, firmly in the vise. bore holes in the other member, y, at the proper places for the nails. insert nails in the holes, apply the glue to both mitered surfaces, place the glued surfaces together, letting y project about / " beyond x. a convenient way to hold y in place is in the left hand, palm up, while the left forearm rests upon x. drive one of the nails home, and continue driving until the parts exactly fit. then drive home the other nail. now fasten together in the same way the other two members of the picture-frame, and then, one at a time, the third and fourth joint. this is the method used in picture-frame factories, and when once learned is very simple. [illustration: fig. . picture-frame-clamp. (see also fig. .)] for gluing together at once all the members of a mitered frame, the device shown in fig. is convenient and is easily made. out of two pieces of wood somewhat longer than the two end pieces of the frame, gains are cut of the exact length of the ends, as shown in the illustration. by applying two clamps lengthwise on the frame, all four joints may be glued together at once. if the frame does not come up square, it may be squared by means of a temporary brace, a, in fig. . the device shown in figs. and , is also an easily made and efficient tool. at least the small pieces, which receive the corners of the frame, should be made of hard wood such as maple. it is self-adjusting but care must be taken not to buckle the parts of a narrow frame by over pressure. it is well to soap or oil the corner pieces to prevent their being glued to the frame. [illustration: fig. . gluing up a column joint. (pinch-dogs at top of joints.)] in gluing together long mitered joints, in six or eight sided taborets or columns, in which the members meet edgewise, one method is to wrap a few turns of bale wire around the parts and drive in wedges under the wire to obtain pressure, fig. . another method is to wrap a stout rope, such as is used for window weights, around all the pieces, properly set up, then to tighten it by twisting it with a stick thru a loop, fig. . a still more effective way is by means of the noxall column clamp, a powerful device, used chiefly for gluing up such pieces as the pillar of a centrally supported table, fig. . care must be taken with all these devices to protect the corners, unless they are to be rounded off afterward. a good way to protect them is with pieces fastened together in the shape shown in fig. , b, and fig. , the interior angle being equal to the exterior angle of the piece to be glued. in the case of a taboret with slender legs, care must be taken to insert blocks between the separate legs as well, to brace them apart and to keep them from bending under the pressure. these methods have the advantage that they are speedy, since all the pieces go together at once; but unless the pieces fit exactly the joints will not close. another method is to glue and clamp the pieces of the taboret together two by two, using blocks as shown in fig. , _a_. care should be taken to put the pressure of the handscrews as far out as possible so as to be sure that the outside of the joint closes. this method has the advantage that, as only one joint is glued at a time, the work can be done more deliberately. moreover, if when three pairs of a six-sided taboret are together, the other three joints do not fit exactly, they can then be refitted. another method is to glue pieces of soft wood on the exterior of each pieces as shown in fig. , _c_. these blocks should be of such shape that the opposite sides of each pair are parallel. when the glue is dry, they are used as corners on which to clamp the handscrews. this method has the disadvantage that the blocks may break loose at a critical moment. [illustration: fig. . one method of gluing up a six-sided taboret.] in addition to any of these methods of tightening the joints, to make sure that the ends of the joints close tight, pinch-dogs, fig. , p. , may be driven into the end grain, and corrugated fasteners, fig. , p. , also driven into the ends, make the joint quite secure. _no. . a doweled miter_, fig. , is one in which one or more dowels are inserted and glued into holes bored into the beveled edges. it may be used instead of nails, as in large picture frames. _no. . a spline or tongue miter_, fig. , is one which has a spline or tongue inserted at right angles to the joint. since it furnishes more gluing surface, it is stronger than a plain miter. _no. . a slip-feather or slip-key miter_, fig. , is one which is strengthened by a slip of hardwood glued into a saw kerf cut across the mitered angle. it is used in picture-frames and in boxes. _no. . a slip-dovetail miter_, fig. , is one in which a trapezoidal shaped key is inserted in a dovetail socket cut straight across the miter. when dressed off, it gives the appearance of a dovetail on each face. it is used for the same purpose as a spline miter. _no. . a double dovetail keyed miter_, fig. , is one in which a double dovetail key made of hard wood is inlaid across the joint. this is a favorite joint with oriental joiners. [illustration: fig. . devices for gluing beveled edges.] _no. . a ledge and miter or lipped miter joint_, fig. , is made by rabbeting and mitering the boards to be joined so that the outer portion of the two boards meet in a miter. it is strong and good looking and may be glued or nailed. it is used for fine boxes. _no. . a stopped miter_, fig. , is useful for joining pieces of different widths, when both sides can be seen. [illustration: fig. . column-clamp.] _no. . a double-tongue miter_, fig. , is made by cutting on the adjoining edges tongues which engage in each other. it is used in high class joinery, on members that join lengthwise of the grain. _no. . a stretcher joint_, fig. , is a slip joint in which one or both sides is mitered. it is used in frames for stretching canvass for paintings by driving wedges from the inside. two forms are shown in a and b. _no. . a strut joint_, fig. , is a form of miter joint used in making trusses. _no. and . a thrust joint or tie joint or toe joint_, fig. , is one in which two beams meet at an oblique angle, one receiving the thrust of the other. the toe may be either square as in , or oblique as in . the pieces are bolted or strapped together with iron. it is used for the batter braces of bridges. _no. . a plain brace joint_, fig. , is one in which the brace is simply mitered and nailed into place. it is used for bracket supports. no. _ . a housed brace joint_, fig. , is a joint in which the brace is housed into the rectangular members except that the outer end of the mortise is cut at right angles and the inner end diagonally to receive the brace which is cut to correspond. it is much stronger than . _no. . an oblique mortise-and-tenon or bevel-shoulder joint_, fig. , is one in which the shoulders of the tenoned beam are cut obliquely and its end is cut off at right angles. the cheeks of the mortise are correspondingly sunk. by these means the tenon prevents lateral motion while the whole width of the beam presses against the abutment. thus a much larger bearing surface is obtained. the whole is bolted or strapped together. it is used in heavy truss work. _no. . a bridle joint_, fig. , is an oblique joint in which a bridle or "tongue" is left in an oblique notch cut out of one beam. over this tongue is fitted a grooved socket cut obliquely in the other beam. it is used in truss construction. _no. . a bird's mouth joint_, fig. , is an angular notch cut in a timber to allow it to fit snugly over the member on which it rests. it is used in rafters where they fit over the plate. _no. . a plain or rubbed or squeezed or glue joint_, fig. , is one in which the edges of two boards are glued and rubbed together tight. it is used in table-tops, drawing-boards, etc. to make this joint, first the boards are all laid down flat, side by side, and arranged in the proper order. three considerations determine what this order is to be: ( ), if the grain is of prime importance, as in quartered oak, then the boards are arranged so as to give the best appearance of the grain. ( ), if possible, the boards should be so arranged that the warping of each board shall counteract that of the adjacent ones. for this purpose the boards are so laid that the annual rings of one shall alternate in direction with the annual rings of the next, fig. , a, p. . ( ), if possible, the boards should be so arranged that after being glued together they can all be planed smooth in the same direction. when the above requirements have been met so far as possible, this order should be marked on adjoining edges for later identification. the edges of the boards to be joined should be finished with a jointer. there are two principal methods of gluing edge-to-edge joints, rubbing and squeezing. in a rubbed joint, the surfaces to be joined should be planed so as to meet thruout exactly. after properly planing one edge of each board, keep one board in the vise, jointed edge up, and place its to-be neighbor in position upon it. then use these four tests for an exact fit. ( ) sight down the end to see that the faces lie in the same plane. ( ) examine the crack from both sides. be sure that both ends touch. test this by pulling down hard on one end of the upper board and noticing if the other end is still in contact. if the other end opens, swing the upper board horizontally on the lower board to see where the high place is and then correct it. ( ) see if the upper board stands firmly on the lower board by feeling gently to see if it rocks, or by rapping lightly the lower board. ( ) slide the top board slowly on the lower one to see if it adheres or "sucks." [illustration: fig. . applying glue for an edge-to-edge joint.] after the pieces have been warmed, which should be done if possible, the glue is spread on them, fig. , and they are then rubbed slowly back and forth in the direction of the grain, pressure being applied by the hand and care being taken not to open the joint in the least. as the glue sets, the rubbing becomes more difficult. it should be stopped when the boards are in their proper relative positions. in rubbing together the edges of two boards, handscrews may be fastened to one in such a way that their jaws serve as guides for the other board to slide between, fig. . care must be taken to make the jaws of the handscrew diverge enough not to pinch the upper board. [illustration: fig. . rubbing a glued joint.] another method is to clamp a spare board alongside and projecting above the lower board. this spare board acts as a guide against which the upper board can be pushed as it is rubbed back and forth. the rubbed joint is especially suitable for short boards. in joining long boards, a squeezed joint is common. in this case, the edges are planed so as to be very slightly concave from end to end. the object of this is to counteract the subsequent shrinkage which is likely to take place at the ends of the boards before it does at the middle. the pressure of the clamps may be depended upon to close up the middle, and, especially if dowels are inserted, as in no. , the joint will be strong enough to resist the elasticity of the boards. when the fit is good, warm the wood if possible, prepare the clamps, put a thin film of glue over both edges which are to be together, apply the clamps rapidly, keeping the faces flush, and set away to dry for at least six hours. then another piece may be added in the same manner. if the boards are thin and wide, and therefore likely to buckle, they may first be handscrewed to cross-strips to prevent their buckling. the cross-strips are, of course, slightly shorter than the combined width of the boards so that the full pressure of the clamps may come on the glued joint. _no. . a rebated, rabbeted or fillistered joint_, fig. . rebating is the cutting of a rectangular slip out of the side of a piece of wood. the re-entering angle left upon the wood is called the rebate or rabbet. a rebated joint, then, is one in which corresponding rebates are taken off edges so that the joined boards may overlap. it is used in flooring and siding. a board is rebated and filleted when two adjoining rebates are filled with a fillet. [illustration: fig. . edge-to-edge joint, doweled.] _no. . a matched or tongue-and-groove joint_, fig. , is made by making a projection or "tongue" in the center of the edge of one board, and a corresponding groove in the center of the other so that they will match together. when used for flooring, the lower side of the grooved board is slightly rebated so that the upper edges will surely touch. this sort of flooring can be blind-nailed. _no. . a beaded joint_, fig. , is similar to a matched joint except that a bead is worked on one edge to disguise the joint for decorative purposes. _no. . a spline-joint_, fig. , is made by plowing corresponding grooves in the edges to be joined and inserting a spline or slip-feather. it is used in plank flooring. _no. . a doweled joint_, fig. , is made by jointing the two edges carefully, boring holes opposite each other and inserting dowel pins when the two edges are glued together. it is used in table tops, etc. where the boards are thick enough to allow it, a squeezed joint is greatly strengthened by the insertion of dowels. the essential point in inserting dowels is to have the holes for them directly opposite one another and at right angles to the surface. the following is a convenient method where boards are to be joined edge to edge, fig. . place the two boards back to back in the vise with the edges and ends flush. determine approximately where the dowels are to be inserted. with the gage, mark short lines at the points of insertion in the center of each edge, gaging from the outside faces. across these lines score accurately with a try-square and knife. then bore the holes with a dowel-bit at the intersection of the lines, fig. . if this is carefully done, the holes will be directly opposite one another, and equidistant from the faces of both boards. all the holes should be of equal depth, say ", in order that the dowel-pins, which should also be cut of equal lengths, may be interchangeable. after boring, the holes may be slightly countersunk in order to insure a tight joint and the easy slipping of the pins into place. the latter result may also be obtained by slightly pointing the pins with a dowel-pointer, fig. , p. . it is also a wise precaution to cut a small groove along the length of the pin to allow superfluous glue to escape from the hole. the dowel should be dipped in glue and inserted when the glue is applied to the joint. [illustration: fig. . boring for dowels in an edge-to-edge joint.] the common joints references:[*] rivington, vol. i, pp. - , - , - ; vol. ii, pp. - . adams, pp. - . sickels, pp. - . goss, pp. - . ellis, pp. - . barter, pp. - . selden, pp. - . _building trades pocketbook_, pp. - , . griffith, pp. - , - . [footnote *: for general bibliography, see p. ] [illustration: fig. . lapped and strapped fished fished and keyed spliced for compression spliced for tension spliced and tabled spliced for cross strain dowelled butt toe-nailed draw-bolt plain butt glued and blocked hopper cross lap] [illustration: fig. . middle lap end lap end lap with rabbet dovetail halving beveled halving notched checked cogged forked] [illustration: fig. . rabbet dado dado and rabbet dado tongue and rabbet dovetail dado gain stub mortise and tenon thru mortise and tenon blind mortise and tenon mortise and tenon with rabbet wedged mortise and tenon wedged mortise and tenon fox tail tenon dovetail mortise and tenon] [illustration: fig. . pinned mortise and tenon keyed mortise and tenon tusk tenon double mortise and tenon haunched mortise and tenon table haunching bare faced tenon housed mortise and tenon slip thru single dovetail thru multiple dovetail lap dovetail stopped lap dovetail blind dovetail] [illustration: fig. . miter doweled miter spline miter slip feather miter slip dovetail miter double dovetail keyed ledge and miter stopped miter double tongue miter stretcher strut square thrust oblique thrust] [illustration: fig. . brace housed brace oblique mortise and tenon bridle bird's mouth glue rabbeted matched beaded spline doweled] chapter viii. types of wooden structures. the articles suitable to be made in wood with hand tools may for convenience be divided into four general classes: ( ) unjoined pieces; ( ) board structures; ( ) panel structures; ( ) framed structures. a few illustrations of each class are given below. ( ) simple or unjoined pieces of these there are a number that are advantageous for the learning of tool processes; at the same time they give opportunity for expression in design, and when finished are of use. examples are: key-boards, chiseling-boards, bread-boards, sleeve-boards, ironing-boards, coat- and skirt-hangers, and gouged trays. some of these are so simple as to include hardly any process but planing, directions for which are given above, p. . [illustration: fig. . pen-tray.] where there is more than one process involved, the order of procedure is of importance. in general, a safe rule to follow in each case is to plane up the piece true and square, or, in technical language, to "true" it up. at least as many of its surfaces should be trued as are necessary for the "lay out." where the piece is to be rectangular all the surfaces should be true; where some of the surfaces are to be curved it is unnecessary and a waste of time to square them first. for example, in making a gouged tray with curved outline, fig. , the working face, the working edge, and the thickness should all be true before the plan is laid out. then, after the outline is drawn, the trough may be gouged, the outline cut with turning-saw, chisel, and spokeshave, and the edges molded with the gouge or chisel. if there is incised decoration it should be cut before the molding is cut, so that while being incised, the piece will lie flat without tipping. these simple pieces, as well as others, are often embellished by _chamfering_. a chamfer is a surface produced by cutting away an arris. it differs from a bevel in that a bevel inclines all the way to the next arris, while a chamfer makes a new arris, fig. . a thru chamfer extends the whole length or width of a piece, while a stop chamfer extends only part way. for the laying out of a chamfer see p. . [illustration: fig. . difference between chamfer and bevel.] thru chamfering is best done with a plane, fig. . for this purpose the piece may be held in the bench-vise and the plane tipped to the proper angle, or the piece may be held in a handscrew which in turn is held in the vise as in fig. , p. . the chamfers with the grain should be planed before those across the grain. [illustration: fig. . thru chamfering.] in chamfering a four-square stick into an eight-square, the piece may be gripped in the vise diagonally, fig. , or it may be held in a trough made of two strips of wood from each of which an arris has been chamfered and then the two nailed together, fig. . a dowel or nail may be inserted in the trough for a stop. stop chamfers are pared best with a chisel, fig. , held according to convenience either flat side or bevel side up. see under chisel, p. . [illustration: fig. . piece held in vise to chamfer.] [illustration: fig. . trough for planing chamfers.] [illustration: fig. . stop chamfering.] ( ) board structures. these include such pieces as wall brackets, sets of shelves, book-racks, plate-racks, drawing-boards, foot-stools, taborets, and boxes. the advantage of this form of construction is that it is comparatively easy to make; the disadvantage is that if the boards are wide, they are sure to shrink and swell. it is wise in all such work to true and smooth up all the pieces at once, and if the wood is not thoroly seasoned, to keep the boards under pressure till they are assembled. in the case of several boards to be jointed into one piece, they should be glued together before the surfaces are smoothed. suggestions regarding a few typical pieces follow: _wall brackets._ ( ) there are three essential parts, the shelf, the support or supports, and the back: the shelf to hold the articles, the support to hold up the shelf, and the back to hold all together, fig. , _a_. the grain of the wood in the shelf should run left and right, not forward and back, because thus it rests on the support in such a way as not to break easily, and it also acts as a stiffener for the back. in case the back extends above the shelf, as in fig. , _a_, the shelf can be secured firmly to the back, since there is side grain in which to drive nails or screws. as to the direction of the grain of the support and the back, this should run in the direction of the largest dimension of each. where the back is long horizontally, for security in hanging, it is better to have two supports.[ ] [footnote : see the school arts book for nov., , "design in the woodworking class," by anna and william noyes.] [illustration: fig. . wall brackets, double-hung: _a_. single support. _b_. double support.] _wall book-shelves_, fig. , _plate-racks_, etc., are simply compound brackets. the shelf is the essential piece, the sides take the place of the supports, and the back is often reduced to strips merely wide enough to give rigidity. the shelves may be either gained into the supports, fig. , no. or no. , p. , or a keyed mortise-and-tenon may be used, fig. . in the latter case the back strip may have a short barefaced blind tenon which is mortised into the upright, fig. . it also fits into a rabbet on the upper back side of the shelf. made in this way the shelves can be knocked down easily. [illustration: fig. . wall book-case.] [illustration: fig. . construction of a knock-down book-shelf seen from the back.] _foot stool or cricket_, fig. . the grain of the supports should run up and down, because pieces with the grain horizontal would be likely to break under pressure. braces or a rail give additional support. the top should not be larger than the base of the legs; otherwise a person standing carelessly on the stool is in danger of being upset. [illustration: fig. . cricket.] _a drawing-board_ is made up of narrow boards, with glued joints, with the boards so laid that the annual rings will alternate in direction, fig. , _a_. it must be made so that it can shrink and swell and yet remain flat. for the purpose of giving lateral stiffness cleats are added. they may simply be screwed on the underside, the screw holes being large enough to allow for shrinkage, or they may be dadoed in with a dovetail dado, fig. , _b_, or they may be grooved to admit a tongue on the end of a board, fig. , _c_. in this case screws passing thru large holes in the cleats hold them in place. [illustration: fig. . drawing-board construction: _a._ with cleats screwed on beneath; _b._ with cleats dovetail-dadoed in; _c._ with cleats matched on ends.] _taborets._ the term taboret originally meant a little tabor or drum, and was therefore used to designate a small stool, the seat of which consisted of a piece of stretched leather. the term now includes small, tablelike structures for holding flowerpots, vases, etc. it might more properly be called a "table-ette." when made up with boards having their long edges mitered, it has from four to eight sides. a six-sided one is shown in fig. . in making, it is best to fit the joints exactly first, while the board is stiff, and then to cut out the pattern of the legs. directions for gluing are given on p. . [illustration: fig. . taboret.] _scrap-boxes_, fig. , _and flower-pot boxes_ may be made with the same construction. [illustration: fig. . scrap-box.] _rectangular boxes._ there are various methods of joining their sides. the butt joint, fig. , no. , p. , is plain, simple, and good for coarse work. this joint may be reinforced as in packing boxes, fig. . [illustration: fig. . reinforced butt joint in box.] mitered joints, fig. , no. , p. , are neat but weak, unless reinforced by a spline, fig. , no. . the rabbet or ledge joint, fig. , no. , p. , is both strong and neat. it can be glued and also nailed if desired. the rabbet and dado joint, fig. , no. , can be glued without nails and is good for small boxes. the housed dado, fig. , no. , is good for water-tight boxes. the mitered ledge, fig. , no. , makes a very neat, strong joint which can be nailed or glued, but is more difficult to fit than a simpler joint. the dovetail joint, fig. , no. , is very strong and honest, but the joint is prominent from the outside and it takes much time and labor to make. it is glued. the blind dovetail, fig. , no. , is very neat and strong, and the joint is entirely concealed when done, but is very difficult to make. _the bottoms of boxes._ the plain or full bottom, fig. , a, is likely to shrink (see dotted line), and it is held in place only by the friction of the nails. the extended bottom, fig. , b, overcomes the objection to shrinkage and adds a decorative feature. the bottom may be set in, fig. , c. this is stronger than the plain bottom, but the nail holes show. the bottom may be rabbeted in, fig. , d. this is better than the set-in bottom so far as the showing of the nail holes goes, for the nails may be driven in from below, and a little shrinkage is not conspicuous. it is practicable, if a rabbet or mitered joint is used in the sides, but if the side pieces are butted or dadoed, the rabbet for the bottom shows. this may be cleverly concealed by an insert, but that is patchwork, and not first-rate construction. reinforced bottom, fig. , e. a plain or full bottom is sometimes covered by a base or cover strip to hide the joint and secure the bottom, as in tool chests. this strip may be mitered at the corners. [illustration: fig. . methods of attaching box bottoms.] _the lids of boxes._ the simplest form is a full flat cover, fig. , a, which may be nailed or screwed to the box, as in packing cases. the cover may slide into a groove, fig. , b, along the sides and into one end, the other end being lowered to admit it. the cover may have cleats on its underside, fig. , c, which fit just inside the box and keep the top in place. the cleats also prevent the top from warping. this is a common japanese construction, even in fine boxes. the japanese tie the top on with a tape or ribbon. the lid may be boxed, fig. , d, that is, portions of the sides may be affixed to the top. these extra pieces are a help to stiffen the top and to keep it from warping. a boxed top may have the top board flush with the sides, fig. , e. the disadvantage of this is that the top may shrink and part from the sides and give a bad appearance. the overlapping top, fig. , f, obviates this trouble of shrinkage and adds a decorative element. in this case the top may be glued on or screwed from below thru the side strips. the top may be mitered into the sides, fig. , g. the shrinkage trouble still obtains here. otherwise the appearance is excellent. the top may be paneled into the sides, fig. , h. this has a good appearance if the sides are mitered and ledged but not if the sides are butted or dadoed, because then the groove for the top shows. [illustration: fig. . forms of box construction.] any of these lids may be made removable or hinged, except the sliding top. for methods of hinging see p. . in gluing boxes together, it is a good plan to glue the ends and sides together first and to let these joints dry before gluing on the bottom and, in the case of a boxed top, fig. , d, the top. care must be taken to see that the sides do not bow under the pressure. to prevent this, one or more false, temporary partitions as a, b, in fig. , of exactly the length to keep the sides straight, may be inserted. in gluing together boxes with rabbeted joints, fig. , h, pressure should be applied in both directions. in gluing on the bottom of a box that is also to be nailed, the nails should be driven into the bottom first, so that the points just come thru. these points sticking into the sides will prevent the bottom from slipping when pressure is applied. it is often undesirable to have nail heads show, as in a top. in such a case, and also to prevent the top from slipping under pressure, a couple of small brads may be driven part way into the upper edges of the sides, the heads bitten off with the nippers, and points filed on the projecting portion. [illustration: fig. . glueing together a box.] _drawers._ in the best form, the sides are dovetailed to the front for strength, fig. , for whenever the drawer is opened the front tends to pull away from the sides. this dovetail is half blind, so that the joint will not appear when the drawer is shut. in order that the drawer may always run freely and yet the front fit the opening as close as possible, it is common practice to cut a shallow rabbet on the ends of the front, so that the body of the drawer is a little narrower than the front is long, fig. . or the front may be attached to the sides with a dado tongue and rabbet joint, fig. , no. , p. . [illustration: fig. . dovetailed drawer construction.] the bottom is grooved into the sides with its grain parallel to the front and fastened only to the front so that it has plenty of play for shrinkage. the back is dadoed into the sides, with either a straight dado, fig. , no. , p. , or dovetail dado, fig. , no. , and rests on the bottom. the extension of the bottom beyond the back allows ample room for shrinkage. the best machine-made drawers are now made with the bottom paneled or dadoed in all around so that papers cannot slip out. the back, as well as the front, is dovetailed. _directions for making a table drawer._ dress the front and sides to size. fit the front of the drawer to its place in the table or cabinet, leaving a little play all around it. plow the groove in the front and sides for the drawer bottom. for ordinary drawers, a groove / " wide is proper. if the ends of the front are to be rabbeted (see above), do this next. the sides are best joined to the front with the half-blind dovetail joint. (for directions see p. ). after fitting these, lay out and cut the dadoes for the back of the drawer. prepare the bottom of the drawer thus: the grain should run right and left, never front and back. if the drawer is so long as to require it, glue-joint the bottom, and fit it snugly to place. there need be no play right and left, and the bottom should extend as far back as the sides. if necessary, bevel the under side to fit the grooves. assemble all the parts to see that they fit, take them apart, glue the sides to the front and back, slip the bottom into place, apply the clamps, and see to it that all joints are square, using a diagonal brace if necessary, fig. . fasten the bottom to the front by means of a thin block glued into the interior angle between the under side of the bottom and the back side of the front. when dry, clean up the drawer and fit it to its place. ( ) panel structures these include doors and cabinets of all sorts. the principle of panel or cabinet construction is that there shall be a frame composed of narrow members whose grain follows the principal dimensions. in the best construction this frame is mortised and tenoned together and within this frame there is set a thin board or panel which is free to shrink or swell but is prevented from warping by the stiffer frame. the object is to cover an extended surface in such a way that the general dimensions and good appearance will not be affected by whatever shrinkage there is. since the frame itself is made up of narrow pieces, there is but little shrinkage in them. that shrinkage is all that affects the size of the whole structure, because wood does not shrink longitudinally to any appreciable extent. the shrinking or swelling of the panel does not affect the general size. the cross construction of the frame also prevents warping, since, in the best construction every joint is mortised and tenoned. the panel may simply be fastened on the back of the frame, but a better construction is to insert it in a groove made in the inside of the frame in which the panel is to lie and have free play. the panel may be made of one board or of matched boards, may be plain or have raised or carved surfaces, or be of glass; and the joints between frame and panel may be embellished with moldings mitered in, but the principle is the same in all cases. the frame of a door, fig. , illustrates the panel construction. the upright, outside pieces are called the "stiles," the horizontal pieces the "rails." there are also the "top-rail," the "bottom-rail," the "lock-rail" (where the door-knob and lock are inserted), and sometimes the "frieze-rail" between the lock rail and the top rail. the "muntin" is the upright between the two stiles. [illustration: fig. . door, illustrating panel construction: s. stile; t. r. top rail; l. r. lock rail; b. r. bottom rail; m. muntin; p. panel; a. double mortise-and-tenon; f. fillet; a. b. c. forms of panels.] the joint commonly used is the haunched or relished mortise-and-tenon, fig. , no. , p. ; (see p. for directions for making). the tenon is sometimes doubled, fig. , and a fillet (f) may be inserted to cover the ends of the tenons, or the joint may be a blind mortise-and-tenon, fig. , no. , or in cheap construction, dowels may be used. the best doors are now made with cores of pine covered on the visible sides with heavy veneer. large surfaces are covered by increasing the number of parts rather than their size, as in wainscoting. picture-frames also belong in this class of structures, the glass taking the place of the panel. they are made with mortise-and-tenon joints, fig. , no. , slip joints, fig. , no. , dowelled butt joints, fig. , no. , end lap joints, fig. , no. , and, far more commonly, mitered joints, fig. , no. . mitered joints are the easiest to make, for the joints can be cut in a miter-box, fig. , p. , and glued in a picture-frame-vise, fig. , p. . this joint needs reinforcement by nails, fig. , no. , by dowels, no. , or by splines, no. . if the sides are of different widths, the fitting of the joint is more difficult. mitered joints are the only kind suitable for molded frames. the rabbets are cut out with a rabbeting-plane before mitering and assembling. the principle disadvantage of a mitered joint is that, if the wood shrinks at all, it opens at the inside corners, as in fig. , because wood shrinks sidewise but not lengthwise. [illustration: fig. . the way a mitered joint opens on account of shrinkage.] in window sashes, the dovetail joint, fig. , no. , is the common one at the upper end of the lower sash and the lower end of the upper sash, and the mortise-and-tenon joint modified is used at the lower end of the lower and upper end of the upper sash. the glass takes the place of the panel. in blind sashes, the pinned mortise-and-tenon joint, fig. , no. , is commonly used. when panels are joined together to enclose a space, then we have what is properly called cabinet construction. illustrations are cabinets, bureaus, desks, lockers, chests, etc. in all these cases, the constructed panels may be treated as separate boards and joined together with dowel pins or splines or dadoed together without any other framework, tho the corners are often reinforced by cleats or blocks glued into them. sometimes, however, as in chests, fig. , posts are used instead of stiles, and rails are mortised or doweled into them and the panels set into grooves in both posts and rails. in this case the bottom is raised from the floor, and may be dadoed into the bottom rails, or dowelled into them or even supported by strips attached along their lower inside edges. the chest really is a union of both paneled and framed structures. [illustration: fig. . chest construction.] ( ) framed structures the principle of the framed structure is similar to that of the panel construction in that the object is to allow for shrinkage without harm to construction and also to economize materials. common examples are tables, chairs, work-benches, and frame houses. _the making of a table._ the standard height of a table is ". there should be " clearance under the rails. this leaves approximately " for the width of the rails. assuming that the table is to be of a simple straight line type with one drawer, the following method of procedure is suggested: cut the boards for the top to the approximate length and stick, (see p. ) and clamp them, so as to season them as well as possible before jointing. dress to size the legs and rails. stand the legs in their proper positions relative to each other, and mark them f r (front right), f l (front left), b r (back right), and b l (back left). plow out the grooves on the inside of the rails for the fastenings of the top, fig. , d, if they are to be used. lay out and cut the tenons and mortises for the end rails and back rail. the proper form of the tenon is one with a wide shoulder above it so that the top of the leg above the mortise will not shear out. the rails should be set near the outside of the leg so that the tenon may be as long as possible and the portion of the leg inside it as strong as possible. a haunched mortise-and-tenon joint, fig. , no. is sometimes used, giving additional lateral stiffness to the rail. the proper proportions are shown in fig. . when cut, these parts should be temporarily assembled to see if they fit. [illustration: fig. . a. cross-section thru back left leg and adjoining rails of table. (plan). b. elevation, showing wide shoulder on tenon of rail.] inasmuch as a drawer takes the place of a front rail, the front legs must be tied together in some other way. for this purpose two stringers or drawer rails may be used, their front edges being as far from the face of the legs as are the rails from the side and back. the upper drawer rail may be dovetailed at both ends into the tops of the legs, as shown in fig. . if this takes more room than can well be spared from the depth of the drawer, it may be omitted, but it adds greatly to the stiffness of the table and is an excellent means of fastening on the top by the use of screws passing thru it. [illustration: fig. . table construction: upper drawer rail of table dovetailed into left front leg.] the drawer rail, also called the fore edge, is long enough to partly overlap the side rails, into the lower edges of which it is gained so as to be flush with them, and may be fastened to them with screws, fig. . the construction may be further strengthened by also doweling the end of this stretcher into the legs. if there are two drawers, the partition between them may be doweled or gained into these upper and lower stretchers. [illustration: fig. . the fixing of a drawer rail, seen from below.] if the legs are to be tapered or otherwise shaped, that should be done next. then glue and assemble the end rails with their proper legs, taking care to see not only that the joints come up square, but that the legs are in the same plane. finally assemble the whole, inserting, if necessary, a temporary diagonal brace to insure squareness, fig. . when dry, clean up the joints. for the making of a table drawer, see above, p. . [illustration: fig. . brace to insure right angles in assembling a framed structure.] to fit the drawer to its place, runners and guides, fig. , must first be fastened in. the runners are in line with the drawer rail, and are glued and nailed or screwed to the side rails between the back of the lower stringer and the back posts. on top of them and in line with the inner face of the legs are the guides running between the front and back posts. or the runner and guide may be made of one piece properly rabbeted out. [illustration: fig. . drawer mechanism.] if there are two drawers, a double runner lies between, and is gained into the middles of the back rail and the stringer, and on it is a guide for both drawers, equal in width to the partition between the drawers. the drawers should run easily in their proper places. in order to insure this, the drawer should be slightly narrower than the opening which receives it. a little french chalk, rubbed on the sides and runners, makes the running smoother. sometimes the opening for a drawer is cut out of the front rail, as in fig. . in this case the drawer runners are supported between the front and back rails, into which they may be gained. [illustration: fig. . opening for drawer cut out of front rail of table.] for the making of the table top see edge-to-edge joint, p. . dress up the top to size, taking special pains with the upper surface. if the grain is crossed, use the veneer-scraper, fig. , p. , then sand, first with no. , then with no. sandpaper, finish the edges carefully, and attach to the frame. for fastening the top to the table rails, several methods are used. the top may be screwed to the rails by the screws passing thru the rails themselves either straight up, fig. , a, or diagonally from the inside, b, or thru blocks or angle irons, c, which are screwed to the inside of the rails, or thru buttons, or panel irons, d, which are free to move in a groove cut near the top of the rail. the last method is the best because it allows for the inevitable shrinkage and swelling of the top. [illustration: fig. . methods of attaching table top to rails.] _chairs_ may be so simplified in form as to be possible for the amateur to construct. the two front legs and the rail and stretcher between them offer little difficulty because the angles are square. the two back legs, may, for the purpose of simplification, be kept parallel to each other and at right angles to the seat rails between them, as in fig. , a, and not at an angle as in b. the joining of the back will then offer little difficulty. the principal difficulties lie in the facts that for comfort and appearance the back of the chair should incline backward both above and below the seat, and that the back of the seat should be narrower than the front. by keeping at right angles to the floor the part of the back legs which receives the seat rail, the side seat rails will meet the back legs at a right angle in a side view, fig. . the back legs should be slightly shorter than the front legs, as shown in d. [illustration: fig. . chair construction.] the second difficulty involves the making of inclined mortise-and-tenon joints, a, where the side rails fit into the legs. the making of these can be facilitated by laying out a plan of the full size and taking the desired angles directly from that. it is common to reinforce these joints with corner blocks glued and screwed in place as shown in a. if there are additional rails below the seat rails, the easiest way to fit them in place is first to fit and clamp together the chair with the seat rails only, taking pains to have all angles perfectly true, and then to take the exact measurements for the lower rails directly from the chair. the same method may be used for laying out a stringer between the lower rails. if it is desired to bow the rails of the back, which are above the seat rail, this can be done by boiling them in water for minutes and then clamping them over a form of the proper shape, with a piece of stiff sheet iron on the outside, as in fig. . they should be thoroly dried in a warm place. then the tenons may be laid out on the ends parallel to a straight-edge laid along the concave side. the chair bottom may be made of solid wood, either flat or modeled into a "saddle seat;" it may be covered with cane or rush, or it may be upholstered. [illustration: fig. . bending boards into shape after boiling them.] to upholster a chair seat, a frame should first be made of the shape shown in fig. , c. the strips are about " wide and / " thick with their ends half-lapped. the seat rails are rabbeted / " deep and / " wide to receive this frame, which should be / " smaller all around than the place to receive it. the returns at the corners fit around the legs at / " distance from them. this / " provides space for the coverings. after the frame is fitted, it is covered with " webbing tacked firmly to the upper side. the webbing which goes back and forth is interwoven with that which goes from right to left. over this is stretched and tacked (also to the upper side) a piece of unbleached muslin. a second piece of muslin is tacked to the back edge and part way along the side edges, leaving for the time the corners unfinished. in the pocket thus formed horsehair or other stuffing is pushed, care being taken to distribute it evenly and not too thick. when the pocket is filled, the muslin is tacked farther along the sides and more hair put in, until the front is reached, when the muslin is tacked to the front edge. the corners are now drawn in tight, a careful snip with the scissors parting them diagonally so as to lie in well. the partings may be turned down and tacked on the under side of the frame. finally the leather or other covering is stretched over the whole as evenly as possible. the corners should be left to the last, then clipped diagonally to the exact inside corner and the partings drawn down and tacked, as was the muslin. the superfluous leather may then be trimmed off, and the seat should fit in its place. or the seat frame may be omitted, and the coverings tacked directly to the chair rails. the balloon-frame house is a typical form of framed construction, fig. . the essential parts of a balloon-frame are: . sill, "Ã� ", which rests on the foundation. . beams, "Ã� ", which rest on the cellar posts, "Ã� ". (not shown in illustration.) . floor joists, "Ã� ", which rest on the sill and beams. . corner posts, "Ã� ", with "Ã� " studs nailed to them. . studding, "Ã� ", which stand " between centers. . wall ribbon, or girt, "Ã� ", which supports the upper story joists. . plates, two "Ã� " nailed together, resting on studs. . rafters, "Ã� ", which support the roof. . tie-beams, "Ã� ", which prevent the roof from spreading the walls. (not shown in illustration.) . ridge-pole, "Ã� ", against which the rafters butt. . bridging, "Ã� ", which stiffens the floor joists. . sheathing, ( " thick), put on diagonally to brace the building. the rest is covering. . flooring, (see also fig. .) [illustration: fig. . house construction.] in flooring, fig. , the boards are made narrow so as to reduce the size of openings at the joints when they shrink, and also to reduce the tendency to warp. they may be laid side by side as in the cheapest floors, or matched to close the joint. for difference between slash- and comb-grain flooring, see fig. , p. . [illustration: fig. . siding, ceiling, flooring.] . building paper. . siding or clapboards, (see fig. .) may either overlap without a joint or be rabbeted to fit. the best siding is rabbeted. . water-table. . corner-board. . furring. . shingles. . lathing. . ceiling, fig. , consists of matched boards having a "bead" to disguise the joint and give a decorative effect. types of wooden structures references:[*] simple joined structures. benson, pp. - . goss, pp. - . noyes, _school arts book_, : , . wheeler, pp. , - , . sickels, p. . griffith, pp. - . panel and cabinet construction. goss, pp. - , - . compton, pp. - . sickels, p. . wheeler, pp. - . framed structures. crawshaw. wheeler, pp. - , - . sickels, p. . _building trades pocketbook_, pp. , . coverings. sickels, pp. - . goss, pp. - . [footnote *: for general bibliography see p. .] chapter ix. principles of joinery.[ ] [footnote : professor rankine's five principles: . to cut the joints and arrange the fastenings so as to weaken the pieces of timber they connect as little as possible. . to place each abutting surface in a joint as nearly as possible perpendicular to the pressure which it has to transmit. . to proportion the area of each surface to the pressure which it has to bear so that the timber may be safe against injury under the heaviest load which occurs in practice, and to form and fit every pair of such surfaces accurately in order to distribute the stress uniformly. . to proportion the fastenings so that they may be of equal strength with the pieces which they connect. . to place the fastenings in each piece of timber so that there shall be sufficient resistance to the giving way of the joint by the fastenings shearing or crushing their way thru the timber.] . _avoid multiplication of errors by making all measurements (as far as possible) from a common starting point, and laying off all angles from the same line or surface._ illustrations of this principle are as follows: before proceeding with other processes, a working face and working edge and as many other surfaces as will finally appear in the finished piece, should be trued up. at least the working face and working edge are essential to the proper "lay-out" of the piece, whenever measurements are made from an edge. in laying out a series of measurements, it is important, when possible, that the rule be laid down once for all, and the additions be made on that, rather than that the rule should be moved along for each new member of the series. in scoring around a board with knife and try-square, the head of the try-square should be held against the working face in scoring both edges, and against the working edge in scoring both faces, and not passed from one surface to another in succession. in the laying out of a halved joint, fig. , nos. - , p. , the gaging is all done from what will be one of the flush surfaces of the joined pieces. then, if the gaged line should be slightly more or less than half the thickness of the pieces the closeness of the joint would not be affected. . _when possible, in laying out a joint, use the method of superposition._ fig. . by this is meant the method by which the lay-out of one member is obtained directly from the other by laying (superposing) the latter on the former and marking or scribing the needed dimensions directly, instead of by measurement. it has the advantages of simplicity, speed, and greater probability of fit. [illustration: fig. . marking by superposition.] familiar illustrations are in the making of halved joints, fig. , nos. - , p. , dovetail joints, fig. , nos. - , p. , and scarfed or spliced joints, fig. , nos. - , p. . . _work systematically._ in case the same process is to be repeated on a number of parts, complete this process in all before taking up another process. this is the principle of the division of labor applied to the individual workman. in laying out duplicate or multiple parts, the proper cross measurements should be carefully laid out on one piece and then transferred with a try-square to the other parts laid accurately beside it. so when a number of like pieces are to be gaged, all the parts requiring the same setting should be gaged before the gage is reset for another gaging. this is a great saving of time and insures accuracy. in making a number of like parts, if they are not too large much of the work can often be done in one piece before it is cut up. for example, to make a number of slats from a given piece of wood, the piece may first be brought to such dimensions that the length will be correct for the finished pieces and the thickness of the piece be equal to the width of the slats, fig. . the face may then be gaged with a series of lines so that every other space will be equal to the required thickness of each slat, and the alternate spaces be just sufficient for the saw kerf and dressing. the slats may then be ripped apart and dressed to size. [illustration: fig. . making a number of like pieces from a given piece.] or a long strip may be planed to thickness and width and then be sawn up and finished to the proper lengths. for example, in a mitered picture-frame it may be convenient to plane up two pieces, each one long enough to make one long side and one short side. in fitting up framed structures each part when fitted should be distinctly marked, so that there may be no confusion in assembling. . _where practicable secure the same conditions of grain in different elements of joined structures._ illustrations of this are as follows: the grain of the sides of a box should run continuously around the box, or, in the case of a tall, slim box, the grain of all the sides should run up and down. in either case, the grain in the different sides is parallel. in a rubbed joint, fig. , no. , p. , to be planed down afterward, in case the grain is not straight, much trouble in planing may be saved if the different pieces are laid so that they can all be planed smooth in the same direction. this may not be possible where the boards are joined so as to match the grain, as in quartered oak, or where the annual rings of slash boards are made to alternate in direction so as to lessen warping, fig. , p. . . _where possible, allow for shrinkage without prejudice to construction._ the most obvious illustration of this principle is panel construction. in a panel, the frame, which is comparatively narrow, follows the principal dimensions, and hence does not seriously shrink or swell itself. but the panel, which is grooved into the frame can shrink or swell without harm to the general structure. in a gained joint, as in a case of shelves, fig. , no. , p. , the gain in the uprights does not extend quite to the front of the shelves, and there is a corresponding slight shoulder at the front end of the shelf, so that if the shelf and support shrink unevenly, no gap will be apparent. a drawing-board, fig. , p. , is so made that it can shrink or swell without losing its flatness. shingles when properly laid, can shrink or swell without the roof leaking. . _where feasible, undercut joined surfaces so as to give clearance on the inside and insure a tight appearance. but glued surfaces should be made to meet flat._ illustrations of this principle are as follows: the inner end of the socket in a dovetail joint, fig. , no. , p. , may be undercut slightly so as to insure the pin's falling close into place. the shoulder of any tenon may be undercut so as to allow the edges of the tenoned piece to close up tight against the mortised piece. in an end-lap halved joint, fig. , no. , p. , the edges should meet all around; if they are to be glued together, they should _not_ be undercut or they will not glue well. in matched flooring, the underside of the boards is slightly narrower than the upper side so that the joint may close on the upper side without fail, fig. , p. . the ends of flooring boards are also slightly beveled so as to make a tight fit on the upper side. . _select the simplest form of joint and use the smallest number of abutments (bearing surfaces) possible, because the more complicated the joint or the greater the number of bearing surfaces, the less likelihood there is of a sound and inexpensive construction._ illustrations of this principle are as follows: usually a single mortise-and-tenon joint is better than a double one because of simplicity, strength and ease of making. where much surface is required for gluing, a double one may be better. in a dovetail dado, fig. , no. , p. , it is usually sufficient to make the dovetail on one side only. many very elaborately spliced joints have been devised, which have no practical advantage over the simple ones, fig. , nos. - , p. . a butt joint, fig. , no. , is stronger than a mitered joint, fig. , no. , in a box, for the latter is almost sure to shrink apart. where appearance is important, a ledge and miter joint has the advantage of both, fig. , no. . . _keep a due proportion of strength between the fastenings (joints) and the pieces fastened: i. e., the construction should neither be frail on the one hand, because the pieces of wood are weakened by too much cutting, nor clumsy, on the other hand, because then the fastenings would be inordinately strong. in other words, the different parts should be equally strong._ illustrations of this principle are as follows: in a fished joint, fig. , no. , the plate should be attached so as to reinforce the splice at the weakest point. in a scarf joint, fig. , nos. and , the angle should be oblique enough to give the greatest leverage. in a tusk tenon, fig. , no. , the tenon is made but one-sixth the thickness of the timber, whereas the tusk is made much larger. where a mortise is to be cut in a timber bearing weight, it should be cut in the neutral axis, where the cutting of fibres will weaken it least. in the mortise-and-tenon of a table-rail, fig. , no. , there should be a wide shoulder above the tenon of the rail so that the top of the leg above the mortise will not shear out. the mortise should be as near the outside of the leg as possible so that the inner corner of the leg may remain strong. the tenon should be strong enough to share the strain with the shoulders. a dado joint, fig. , no. , should not be so deep as to weaken the supporting board. a tenon should not be so large as to weaken the mortised piece. pins or other fastenings, fig. , nos. and , may weaken rather than strengthen a joint if they are so placed or are so large as to shear or crush their way thru the timber. . _place each abutting surface in a joint as nearly as possible perpendicular to the pressure which it has to transmit._ illustrations of this principle are as follows: the angle in a strut joint, fig. , no. , should be equally divided between the two beams. the thrust joint, fig. , no. , in a bridge truss, is exactly at right angles to the pressure. it is on account of this principle that a spliced joint for compression, fig. , no. , is different from a spliced joint for tension, no. ; and that a housed braced joint, fig. , no. , is better than a plain braced joint, no. . a joint to resist vertical cross strain is stronger when scarfed vertically than horizontally. the principles of joinery references:[*] goss, p. . adams, p. . rivington, vol. i, p. . [footnote *: for general bibliography see p. .] chapter x. wood finishing. stains. the function of stains is to change the color, and to enchance the grain and texture of the wood. stains may be divided into four general classes, which are not, however, entirely distinct. ( ) oil stains, ( ) water stains, (a) made from anilines, (b) made from dyes other than anilines, ( ) spirit stains, ( ) stains due to chemical changes. ( ) _oil stains._ advantages: they are easily prepared, are easy to apply evenly, and they do not raise the grain. disadvantages: they cover the grain somewhat, are apt to give a muddy effect, they do not penetrate very deeply into the wood, and it is impossible to stain hard wood dark with them and at the same time keep the grain and texture of the wood clear. a convenient form in which to handle these pigments is devoe's "coach colors," ground in japan. to prevent evaporation from cans once opened, it is well to keep them partly filled with water and the water covered with a little oil. for use, the pigments are thinned with turpentine or benzine, in the proportion of one pound of color to one-half gallon of turpentine or benzine. benzine is much cheaper than turpentine, but evaporates more quickly. the addition of a little boiled oil gives a body to the stain, so that when the wood is well rubbed down a soft lustre can be had without any further finish. the stain should be applied with a brush to the wood, which may then be rubbed clean with cotton waste. oil stains penetrate hard woods better when the wood has first been fumed in ammonia. (see below, p. ). or, the addition of a little ammonia to the stain just before applying aids it in penetrating the wood. the pigments most used for oil stains are: burnt and raw umber, burnt and raw sienna, vandyke brown, drop black, and medium chrome yellow. these colors may be varied by mixing. for example, for a green stain, take two parts of drop black and one part of medium chrome yellow, and dissolve in turpentine or benzine. the addition of a little vermilion gives a grayer green. the green may be made bluer by the addition of prussian blue, but the blue already contained in the black gives a soft, pleasant green. for antique oak, add a trifle of burnt umber and black to raw sienna thinned to the right consistency. for a reddish brown, thin burnt umber to the right consistency. this may be grayed by the addition of a little green. a walnut stain may be had by adding a little venetian red to asphaltum, thinned with turpentine or benzine. _aniline oil stains._ advantages: the colors are clear and easily obtainable. disadvantages: the colors are likely to be crude and too bright, and unless great care is taken the tones are metallic and not soft enough to suit wood. it is necessary to purchase colors soluble in oil. these can be had of william zinnser and company, william street, new york. four colors are necessary to get the desired shades, bismarck brown, dark yellow, dark blue, and black. bismarck brown comes in powdered form at $ . per lb., dark yellow comes in powdered form at $ . per lb., dark blue comes in lumps at $ . per lb., black comes in lumps at $ . per lb. these may be dissolved in three ounces of turpentine to one ounce of boiled oil, to one teaspoonful of color, a process that will take place much faster if the mixture is heated. great care must be taken, however, not to set fire to the turpentine. when cool, thin with turpentine to the proper consistency, apply to the wood with a brush and rub clean with cotton waste. ( ) _water stains._ advantages: they are cheap and clear and do not obscure the grain as oil stains are likely to do, and they penetrate deeply into the wood, especially when applied hot. they may be made of any coloring matter that is soluble in water, and are particularly good for hard woods and for use in large quantities. it is possible to stain wood much darker with them than with oil stains. moreover, the brushes used with them are easily taken care of. disadvantages: they are difficult to prepare and they raise the grain of the wood. the former disadvantage may be overcome by buying them all prepared. the difficulty of the raising of the grain is to be obviated either by washing the wood in water and, when dry, rubbing down with sandpaper before applying the stain, or rubbing down after staining and re-staining when necessary. a. water stains made from anilines. aniline stains are likely to fade, but the addition of a little vinegar is said to hinder fading. for mahogany, dissolve oz. bismarck brown in quarts of boiling water. use when cool. b. water stains made from dyes other than anilines. the number of these is legion; some of the simpler are given. reddish brown. dissolve extract of logwood of the size of a walnut in / cup ( oz.) of hot water. apply hot to wood repeatedly until desired color is obtained. black. dissolve extract of logwood of the size of a walnut in / cup ( oz.) of boiling water. add a teaspoonful of alum. apply repeatedly until the wood is dark brown. prepare acetate of iron according to directions for making dark brown, on next page. apply this to wood already browned with logwood. if the grain is raised, sandpaper lightly, or rub with steel wool and then with boiled oil. ( ) _spirit stains._ these are expensive and hence little used. a few illustrations are given.[ ] [footnote : for detailed directions for treatment of different woods, see hodgson, pp. - .] black. aniline black, cut in alcohol, gives a bluish effect but if the wood thus stained is rubbed with raw linseed oil, it becomes black. another black. dissolve extract of logwood in wood alcohol. develop the color by going over the work with tincture of muriate of iron. golden oak. dissolve asphaltum in naphtha until it is as thin as water and makes a yellowish stain; or to equal parts of asphaltum, varnish, and gold size japan, add enough turpentine to thin to proper consistency. mahogany. dissolve bismarck brown in alcohol. aniline stains may be cut in alcohol and mixed with equal parts of white shellac and banana oil (amyl acetate) and all applied in one coat. ( ) _stains due to chemical changes_. certain substances like ammonia, potassium bichromate, and acetate of iron, give chemical reactions on certain woods and make very effective and inexpensive stains. moreover the artistic effect of some of them is unexcelled. when applied in solution they are likely to raise the grain. the effect of ammonia, either the liquid or fumes, is much the same as the effect produced by aging or weathering. ammonia also cuts the pith rays of oak and makes it possible for other stains to take hold. for this reason it is much used as a preliminary treatment for oak finishes. the color effect is to lessen the yellow and increase the gray. the method of application is simply to expose the wood for a day or more to the fumes of strong ammonia ( %) in a tightly closed box. if the surface of the wood is moistened with water just before exposure, it turns darker than if exposed dry. the stain penetrates so deeply that it may be sandpapered after the exposure without harm. after fuming and sandpapering the surface should be oiled to prevent finger marks. dark brown for chestnut, or oak, or mahogany. this is obtained with a solution of acetate of iron, made as follows: digest one part by measure of iron dust in parts of glacial acetic acid. after the chemical action is well started, add several times as much water to keep the mixture liquid. when the chemical action has ceased, the stain is ready for use. if a lighter shade is desired it may be still further diluted. to darken mahogany. make a saturate solution of bichromate of potash. dilute a portion of it with water / , or / , or / , or in any proportion according to the darkness required. one part of the solution to two or three parts of water gives a good color. apply the solution to mahogany with a brush. this solution alone is likely to be too brown. the reddish tinge of the wood may be saved by mixing as follows: % solution of bichromate of potash part breinig's mahogany water stain part water parts apply with a brush and wipe off the surplus. bichromate of potash on oak gives a rich brown. bichromate of potash on ash gives a rich red. bichromate of potash on black walnut gives a dark brown. a decoction of logwood treated with tannin gives yellow red, with sugar of lead gives gray brown, with ferric nitrate gives black. a decoction of fustic extract treated with dilute nitric acid gives brown, etc.[ ] [footnote : for other effects obtained by chemical changes, see table on pp. - in _brannt's painter, gilder and varnisher_, and also _woodcraft_ : , june, ' .] _commercial stains._ some of the more noteworthy commercial stains, suitable for school use, are those of: the bridgeport wood finishing company, fulton st., new york. among their water stains some of the best are: flemish oak, weathered oak, walnut, silver gray, forest green, and mahogany, especially if the latter is modified with bichromate of potash. other effects may be obtained by mixing these, as forest green, which is too bright alone, mixed with walnut or some other reddish color gives a grayish green. of the penetrating oil stains the golden oak and mahogany are very good. the sherwin williams company, of cleveland, newark, chicago, etc., produce a fine line of spirit stains. the adams and elting company, chicago, have a stain called adelite, in which banana oil appears to be the solvent. it is very easy of application, only one coat being needed. it is applied with the brush. berry brothers, of detroit, mich., the famous varnish makers, furnish a great variety of colors in their water stains and also a combined stain and finish under the trade name of lacklustre. devoe and reynolds, fulton street, new york, make a variety of oil stains which can be applied either in one coat with a brush or rubbed in with cotton waste. the chicago varnish company, make a specialty of artistic, chemical stains, but unfortunately they are not yet ( ) available in small quantities. s. c. johnson and son, racine, wis., furnish a variety of spirit stains called "wood dyes." the craftsman workshops, eastwood, n. y., furnish oil stains to be applied with a brush or waste. these are deservedly famous for they give especially soft, agreeable effects on fumed oak. in general, it should be remembered that oil stains are better for soft woods, water stains for hard woods, and the spirit stains are good for both. but without a sense of color, no number of recipes will avail. filling the object of filling is to give a perfectly level and non-absorbent basis for varnish covering or other finish. this can be done with shellac carefully rubbed down with fine oiled sandpaper, but this method requires much toil and patience, and has therefore been given up by furniture finishers. the best fillers, (such as "wheeler's wood filler"),[ ] are made of silex in needle-shaped particles mixed with raw linseed oil, japan and turpentine. when applied to wood it should be thinned with turpentine or benzine, and applied with a brush along the grain. as it dries, the color becomes grayish and it should then be rubbed off across the grain with fine shavings or cotton waste. it is best to have fillers of several colors on hand, such as light, black, mahogany, and "golden oak" to be used according to the stain applied. the filler should be applied after staining the wood and should be allowed to dry thoroly, say forty-eight hours, before it is covered with shellac or varnish. its use is more necessary on open grained woods, like oak, chestnut, and mahogany, than on close grained woods, like whitewood, maple, and pine, but it is best to use it on all woods that are to be highly polished. [footnote : made by the bridgeport wood finishing co., fulton st., n. y.] cans should be kept tightly covered when not in use. since oil darkens wood, if wood is to be kept light, a filler without oil, as whiting and turpentine, should be used. polishes there are three principal forms of wood polishes, each of which has its virtues and defects. they are: (a) oil, (b) wax, (c) the varnishes. (a) _oil._ the great advantage of oil polishing is its permanence. it will stand both wetting and warmth and gives a dull, glossy finish. in some woods, as sweet gum and mahogany, it brings up the figure. process. apply either raw or boiled linseed oil diluted with five parts of benzine or turpentine. the advantages of dilution are that the mixture penetrates the wood better, leaves a thinner film on the surface and is more economical. then rub, rub, rub, day after day. little and often with unlimited friction, is the best rule. this makes a nice finish for well-fumed chestnut, turning the color to a rich brown. (b) _wax._ wax is an old english polish, commonly used before french polish and varnish were introduced, especially for hard woods like oak. its advantages are that it is cheap, easily prepared, easily applied, and easily repaired. its disadvantages are that it will not stand wetting, is easily marred, requires constant care, is not so hard and dry as varnish, turns slightly sticky with warmth, and is likely to turn white in crevices. to prepare it. to one part of melted beeswax add one part of turpentine. mix and cool. it can be bought prepared, as, bridgeport wood finishing company's "old dutch finish," butcher's wax, johnson's wax, and others. process. rub the wax evenly over the surface with a stiff brush or the fingers. let it dry for some hours, and then rub with a cloth: flannel or a piece of felt is best. put on several coats, leaving the work over night between coats. rub often with a warm cloth. (c) _varnishes._ the function of varnishes is to cover wood with a hard, transparent coating that is non-porous and impervious to moisture. there is a great range among them, from thin, easily worn, dull finishes to durable, strong, and highly polished coatings called "rubbing varnishes." the polished surface can be secured only by much labor thru the application of successive thin coats of good varnish, carefully rubbed down. varnish may be applied to wood, stained, painted, or in its natural condition as well as to metal, leather, paper, and various other substances. a good varnish should be adhesive, that is, it should cling firmly to the surface to which it is applied; it should be elastic, so as not to crack on account of the expansion and contraction of the material to which it is applied; it should dry in a reasonable time; it should be limpid so as to flow easily in application; it should be transparent and brilliant when polished; and it should be durable. the necessary conditions for all good varnishing are a perfectly smooth, even, filled surface of dry wood, a temperature of about ° and no dust in the air. in general, there are two classes of varnish, based on the character of the solvent, ( ) spirit varnishes and ( ) oil varnishes. ( ) spirit varnishes are sometimes made with copal resins dissolved in some spirit, as one of the alcohols, benzine, acetone, etc. they dry with great rapidity owing to the volatilization of the solvent spirit, leaving a coat of pure resin of great hardness and brilliance, but one which is likely to crack and scale when exposed. they are not much used. shellac is the most common and the most useful of the spirit varnishes. its basis is resin lac, a compound resinous substance exuded from an east india scale insect (_carteria lacca_) found mostly in the province of assam. the term "lac" is the same as "lakh" which means , and is indicative of the countless hosts of insects which are the source from which this gum is obtained. the larval insects insert their proboscides into the bark of young shoots of certain lac-bearing trees, varieties of ficus, draw out the sap for nutriment, and at once exude a resinous secretion which entirely covers their bodies and the twigs, often to the thickness of one-half inch. the females never escape and after impregnation their ovaries become filled with a red fluid which forms a valuable dye known as lac dye. the encrusted twigs are gathered by the natives in the spring and again in the autumn, before the young are hatched, and in this condition the product is known as "stick lac." after being crushed and separated from the twigs and washed free from the coloring matter the product is known as "seed lac." it is then melted and strained and spread out in thin layers in a form called "shell lac." this is what is known as orange shellac in the market. it may be bleached by boiling in caustic potash, and passing chlorine thru it until the resin is precipitated. it is further whitened by being pulled. this is what is known in the market as "white shellac." it comes in lumps. orange shellac is the stronger and is less likely to deteriorate, but white is easier to apply because it sets less rapidly. another advantage of the white is its colorlessness. shellac is soluble in both grain alcohol (ethyl alcohol) and wood alcohol (methyl alcohol), but grain alcohol is preferable. great care must be taken not to mix even a drop of water in it or it will curdle. to make perfect the process of ordinary filling, shellac may be used as a filler either by itself or preparatory to other processes. since it dries quickly it can be rubbed down in six or eight hours either with no. sandpaper oiled, or better, with no. steel wool. this process when repeated several times gives a good "egg-shell" finish. it may be applied alone over stained wood or the shellac itself may be colored with aniline dyes cut in alcohol. this, for example, is an easy way to get a black finish. a good waterproof wood polish is made thus: pint alcohol, oz. gum benzoin, / oz. gum sandarac, / oz. gum anime. put in a bottle, and put the bottle in a hot water bath until all solids are dissolved. strain and add / gill clear poppy oil. shake well and apply with cotton cloth. a soft, dull, glossy finish may be obtained by applying two coats of a mixture of one part each of white shellac and banana oil (amyl acetate). when dry, sandpaper lightly and wax. _french polishing._ the finest of shellac finishes is french polish. it is a thin, clear, permanent finish, but the process takes time and patience. it is not much used in practical work, because of the time expense, but is often employed in school shops, because only a few materials are necessary, it dries quickly, and gives a beautiful finish. the polished surface is obtained by adding successive thin coats according to the following process: ( ) preparation. the surface of the wood must be perfectly smooth and even, sandpapered in the direction of the grain, stained, if desired, filled, rubbed smooth and quite dry. ( ) apply two or three thin coats of shellac. after each coat when dry, rub with no. oiled sandpaper or no. steel wool. wipe thoroly. ( ) make three pads, about the size of a walnut, of clean, white, cotton waste, enclosed in some fine old or washed cloth with no sizing or lint,--one pad for shellac, one for oil, and one for alcohol. fill one pad with shellac of the consistency of milk, enough in the pad so that when squeezed hard it will ooze out. the common mistake is to put too much shellac into the pad. rub with circular motion, as indicated in fig. , never letting the pad stop on the surface. ( ) sprinkle a very little finely powdered pumicestone and put a little oil on the surface of the wood here and there with the tip of a finger. rub with second pad until surface is dull. wipe clean. repeat ( ) and ( ) several times. some use raw linseed oil to prevent sticking. others use three or four cloth coverings on the shellac pad, removing the outer one as it dries. a simpler way is to keep the shellac in pad, , thin by moistening with a little alcohol. ( ) spiriting off (follows process .) dampen pad, , with very little alcohol and wipe quickly in the direction of the grain. this should remove the circular marks. too much alcohol in this third pad will "burn" a dull spot. the rubbers are said to improve with use, and may be preserved in closely stoppered jars to prevent evaporation. the different kinds of pads should be kept separate. or the cotton waste may be thrown away, and the cloths washed in strong borax water. in the process just described, shellac alone, dissolved in alcohol, is used. the shellac may be used with other ingredients: for example, pint grain alcohol, / oz. gum copal, / oz. gum arabic, oz. shellac. strain through muslin. [illustration: fig. . direction of the pad in french polishing.] another recipe for finishing. use drams grain alcohol, drams orange shellac, drams tincture of benzoin, teaspoonful of olive oil. dissolve and strain. apply with pad in direction of grain. _oil or copal varnishes._ the old cremona varnish once used for violins is supposed to have had amber (greek, electron) as its base. it was a fossilized coniferous resin found on the shore of the baltic sea. the art of making it is said to be lost, probably because of the difficulty and danger of melting it, for this can be done only in oil on account of the danger of ignition. hence its use has been abandoned. perhaps the most beautiful of all varnishes is lacquer, much used in china and japan. it is made from the juice of the lacquer tree, (_rhus vernicifera_) which is tapped during the summer months. the juice is strained and evaporated and then mixed with various substances, such as oil, fine clay, body pigment, and metallic dust, according to the ware for which it is intended. the manufacturing secrets are carefully guarded. the application of it is very difficult, the sap of young trees being used for first coats, and of old trees for the finishing coats. it must be dried in a damp, close atmosphere. for the best work ten or twelve coats are elaborately rubbed down and polished. even the presence of it is very poisonous to some people and all workers in it are more or less affected. the solvent or vehicle of the modern copal varnishes consists principally of linseed oil with some turpentine. their base is copal, a fossil, resinous substance of vegetable origin. the gums of which they are made have been chemically altered by long exposure in the earth. other gums, as mastic, dammar, sandarac, and even resin are sometimes mixed with copal to cheapen the product or to cause more rapid drying. copal is a generic name given originally to all fossil resins. copals, as they are called, come from new zealand, mozambique, zanzibar, west africa, brazil, and the philippines. the best of the copals is said to be the kauri gum, originally exuded from the kauri pine tree of new zealand. the tree is still existent and produces a soft, spongy sap, but the resin used in varnish is dug up from a few feet under ground in regions where there are now no trees. a commercially important copal and one noted for its hardness is the zanzibar or east african copal. it is found imbedded in the earth at a depth not greater than four feet over a wide belt of the mainland coast of zanzibar, on tracts where not a single tree now grows. it occurs in lumps from the size of small pebbles to pieces weighing four or five pounds. the supply is said to be practically inexhaustible. as to the manufacture of the copal varnishes: first of all, a high grade oil is boiled at a high temperature, with different materials to oxidize it; for instance, red lead or oxide of manganese. the heat throws off the oxygen from the red lead or manganese. the oxygen is absorbed by the linseed oil, which is then put away to settle and age. when a batch of varnish is made, the gums are melted in a large kettle and then the requisite amount of oil is added and these carefully boiled together. this is removed from the fire and cooled down to a point, where turpentine can be added without volatilizing. these are thoroly mixed and then filtered under pressure and tanked and aged. the different grades of varnish depend upon the treatment of the oil, the proportion of oil and turpentine, the qualities of the gums, the aging, etc. some by rubbing give a very high polish, some give a dull waxy finish, some are for out-of-door use, as spar varnish and carriage varnish, some are for floors, some for furniture, some are high priced, some are cheap. process of varnishing. the preliminary processes are the same as those for applying shellac, i. e., the surface of the wood must be perfectly even and smooth, and the staining, filling, and drying complete. quick drying varnishes, like shellac, are applied, with but little on the brush. the heavy, high lustre varnishes, on the other hand, are applied with the brush full so that the varnish may even drip off the work. then proceed as follows: wipe off from the work the extra varnish with the brush and clean the brush on the edge of the cup. repeat till the varnish is flowed over the work evenly. be particularly careful, in that respect, of edges and corners. set to dry in a dustless place. when dry and hard repeat the process from three to six times. each coat must dry thoroly before the next coat is applied. varnish polishing consists in rubbing off the varnish, not in rubbing it on, as in french polishing. to polish varnish, rub with a felt pad, powdered pumice-stone and water. rub till the surface is smooth, unpitted and even, being careful not to rub thru the edges. wipe clean with a wet sponge and chamois skin. this gives a dull or "egg-shell" finish. for polishing varnish, a simple method is to rub with a rotary motion, using a mixture of / sweet oil or cottonseed oil, and / alcohol. a more laborious process is as follows: after rubbing to a dull finish, rub ground rotten stone and water with chamois skin in a circular motion. let the rotten stone dry on the surface. then wipe off with the naked hand, rubbing in a circular direction and wiping the hand every time after passing over the work. this looks simple, but is really a fine art. these processes have practically replaced french polishing in the trade. painting paints are used for the same purpose as other finishes, with the additional one of giving an opaque colored covering. the materials used are: . a body whose function is to give covering power. this is usually white lead, but it is often adulterated with zinc oxide; . pigments; . linseed oils, raw and boiled, which are used to give consistency, adhesiveness and also elasticity to the coat when dry. for outdoor work boiled oil is used and for indoor work, raw oil; . turpentine, which is used to thin out the paint and to make it dry more quickly. the common method of painting is: . set any nails with nailset; . sandpaper; . shellac the knots; . prime with a thin coat of paint, mostly white lead, (that is, little color,) boiled oil, and turpentine (the proportion of drying oil is greater than in ordinary paint); . putty up cracks, nail holes, etc.; . sandpaper if a small nice job; . then paint two or three coats with paint thick enough so it will not run, with long, even strokes with the grain. the order of painting a door is, panels, muntins, rails, and last, stiles. for inside work use half as much turpentine as oil. this gives a dull finish. for outside work, where lustre is wanted, little or no turpentine is used. this is the old way, and is still used for all common work. but for fine painting, as carriage work, a filler is now used first, because a priming to be durable should unite with the wood, grasping the fibers and filling the pores, so that after coats cannot sink in. the object is to cement the surface. priming is often called "rough stuff." the old way did not do this, with the result that the oil separated from the lead and kept soaking into the wood. the principal makers of paints now recommend a filler before any white lead is added. tools and materials for wood finishing brushes. it is well to have several varieties to help keep them distinct. for varnish and shellac, the best are those with the bristles set in hard rubber. for ordinary purposes, brushes one inch wide are satisfactory. for stains, cheap, tin-bound brushes are good enough, and are easily replaced. cups. half-pint enameled steel cups are cheap, satisfactory, and easily kept clean. for the care of cups and brushes, see chapter vi, the equipment and care of the shop. steel wool. this consists of shavings, turned from thin steel discs set together in a lathe. it comes in various grades, no. to no. . the finest, no. , is coarse enough for ordinary purposes. sandpaper. use no. smeared with boiled oil. pulverized pumice stone and pulverized rotten stone, both very fine, are used to rub down inequalities and to give a dull finish to shellac or varnish. use with oil on shellac and with oil or water on copal varnish. horsehair and soft wood shavings are often used to rub down varnish. french felt, medium hard, is used for rubbing down copal varnish with pumice stone. cotton waste is the cheapest available material for wiping. cheese cloth is better for some purposes, but more expensive. soft cloth without lint is necessary for french polishing. "berkeley muslin," "old glory," and "lilly white" are trade names. a fine quality is necessary. the starch should be washed out and the cloth dried before using, and then torn into little pieces, say " square. fillers consist of silex or of ground earths mixed with oil, japan, and turpentine. their object is to give a perfectly level and non-absorbent basis for varnish covering. oils. raw linseed oil is very fat and dries slowly. it is used for interior work. boiled oil is linseed oil boiled with litharge (pbo) and white vitriol, which removes much of the fatty ingredient and gives it drying quality. turpentine is a volatile oil from the sap of long-leaf pine. it is mixed with oil in painting to give further drying qualities. benzine is a cheap substitute for turpentine. it is a highly inflammable product of coal tar and evaporates quickly. drier is an oil in which resin has been dissolved. it is mixed with varnishes and paint to make them dry quickly. it is also sometimes used as a varnish itself. japan is a varnish-like liquid made of shellac or other resin, linseed oil, metallic oxides, and turpentine. it is used as a medium in which to grind colors and as a drier. wood finishing references:[*] ( ) stains. hodgson, ii, pp. - , - . van deusen, _man. tr. mag._, : . maire, pp. - . ( ) fillers. hodgson, ii, pp. - . maire, - . ( ) oil finish. hodgson, ii, pp. - . maire, p. . ( ) wax. hodgson, ii, pp. - . maire, pp. - . ( ) varnish. shellac. maire, pp. - , - . _journal, soc. arts_, : . _ency. brit._, vol. xiv, "lac." hodgson, ii, pp. - . _inter. encyc._, vol. x, "lac." oil varnish. hodgson, ii, pp. - . clark, pp. - . maire, pp. - . _encyc. brit._, vol. xxiv, "varnish." ( ) paints. brannt, p. - . _building trades pocketbook_, pp. - . for detailed directions for the treatment of different woods, see hodgson, ii, pp. - , maire, pp. - . [footnote *: for general bibliography see p. .] index. acorn of hinge, . adjustment of plane, , . adze, . agacite grinder, , , , . alcohol: grain (ethyl), . wood (methyl), . alligator, . ammonia, , . angle of bevel, , . aniline stains: alcohol, . oil, . water, . antique oak, . anvil, . arrangement of shop, - . arris, , . asphaltum, . auger-bit, , , , , . auger-bit-gage, . ax, , , . back-saw, , , . balloon frame, . banana oil, , . band-saw, . banking grounds, . beam-compass, . beams, . bench, - , , , , . glue and stain, , . bench-hook, , , , , . bending wood, . benzine, , , , . bevel of cutting tools, , , . bevel, sliding t, , , . bezel, see bevel. bill-hook, . binding of saw, , . bit, plane, , . bits, - , , . bit, twist, , . bit-point drill, , . bit-stock, see brace. black, , . blank-hinge, . blazes on trees, , . blinds, . block, corner, no. , , . block-plane, see plane, block. blue, prussian, . board, . board construction, - . board-dipper, , . board foot, , . board measure, , , . board structures, - . bolt of lock, . bolts, . book shelves, . boom, log, , . boring, directions for, . boring tools, - . box, - . bottoms, . lids, , . of lock, . brace, , , , . brace, ratchet, , , . brace-measure, . bracket, . brad-awl, , , , . brads, . breaking out the roll-ways, . bridging, . brown, bismarck, , . dark, . reddish, , . vandyke, . brush, , , , , , . brush, see also duster. brush-keeper, . buckling of saw, , , . buffer, , . burn of shellac, . butt-hinge, . cabinet construction, - . cabinet for nails and screws, , , . calipers, . camp, logging, , . cant, , foot-note. cant-flipper, , . cant-hook, , . cape-chisel, . care of the shop, - . carriage-bolts, . _carteria lacca_, . carving tools, , . case-hardening, . c-clamps. see carriage-makers' clamps. ceiling, . center-bit, , . chain, , , , . chair, - . chalk, french, . chamfer, , , , . chatter, , . cheek of joint, . cheese-cloth, . chest, , . chest-hinge, . chisel, - , , , , , . see also chiseling end-wood, paring, sidewise chiseling. chisel, cape, . carving, . cold, . corner, . firmer, , , . framing, . mortise, , , . paring, . round-nosed , . skew, . turning, . chisel-gage, . chiseling, end-wood, , , . sidewise, . perpendicular, . choking of plane, . chopping tools, , . clamp, , , , . carriage-makers, , , . column, . plane, , . clapboards, . claw hammer, . cleaning tools, . cleats, , . comb-grain, , . compass, , , , . blackboard, , . compass-saw, , . consumer, , . copal, . coping-saw, . copper, soldering, . corner-blocks, , no. , , . corner-board, . cornering tool, . corner-iron, , . corner locking, . corrugated fasteners, , . cost of equipment, - . countersink, , , , , , . cricket, . crosscut-saw, , - , , . cross-grained wood, planing, . crowbar, . crown of plane-cutter, . cruising, . cup, , , . curling-iron, . cutter, plane, , , , . cutting-gage, , . cutting tools, - . dado, , . see also joint, dado. dado-plane, . dam, splash, , . decay, , . decking logs, . demonstration seats, . derrick, locomotive boom, . destructive lumbering, causes of, . die, . die-holder, . dividers, , , , . dogs, log, . donkey engine, . door, , . dovetail-saw, , , . doweling, , , , , . dowel-plate, , . dowel-pointer, , , . dowel-rods, , . draw-bolt, . draw-knife, , . drawer, , - . guide, . rail, . runner, . drawing-board, , , . dray-road, , . drier, . drill. see hand drill. twist, , , , . drive, the log, - . duplicate parts, , . duster, bench, , , . dynamite, . edge action, . edged tools, ff. edger, , , . eight-square scale, . egg-shell finish, , . equipment, chap. vi, - . escutcheon of lock, . expansive-bit, , , , . falling beds, . fastenings, chap. v, - . felling trees, , , . ferrule, . file, , , , , , . file-card, , , . filing a saw, . filletster, , , . filler, , . finishing, wood, chap. x, - . firmer-chisel, see under chisel. firmer-gouge, see under gouge. fish glue, . fitter, . flooring, , , , , . flume, , . foerstner auger-bit, , . foot-stool, . fore-edge, . fore-plane, see under plane. framed structures, - . framing-chisel, see under chisel. frog, plane, , . fuming with ammonia, , . furring, . gages, - . chisel, . cutting, , . marking, - , , , . mortise, , , . pencil, . screw, , , . slitting, . twist-drill, . wire, , . gelatin, . gimlet-bit, , , , . glass-cutter, , . glaziers points, . glue, - . fish, . liquid, . preparation of, . tests of, . glue-pot, , , , . gluing, directions for, , , - , , , . golden oak, . gouge, , , , , . grading of lumber, . grain of wood, , , , , , , , , . green, . grinder or hog, . grinder, empire tool, , , , , . grinding of tools. see sharpening. grindstone, - , , . groove for drawer, . groove for panel, . groove, triangular, , , , , . hack-saw, , . hammer, , , , , , . ball-peen, . bell-faced, . riveting, . hand-drill, , , , . handscrew, , , , , , . handscrew, iron, . see also clamp, carriage-makers. hatchet, . hauling logs, , , , . hinges, - . hinges, sizes of, . hinging, directions for, . hog, . holding tools, - . honeycombing, . horse, , , . horsehair, . house construction, , . ice-road, , . impregnation of timber, . iron acetate, , . iron, soldering. see copper. jack-ladder, . jack-plane. see plane. jam, log, , , . japan, , . japanese, , , . joinery, . joint, beaded, , no. , . bevel-shoulder, , no. , . bird's mouth, , no. , . boat-builders, , no. , . brace, , no. , . brace, housed, , no. , , . bridle, , no. , . butt, , no. , , , . butt, doweled, , no. , , , . caulked, , no. , . checked, , no. , . cogged, , no. , . corked, , no. , . column, , no. , . cross-lap, , no. , . dado, , no. , , . dado and rabbet, , no. , , . dado, dovetail, , no. , , , . dado, housed, , no. , , , . dado, tongue, and rabbet, , no. , , . dovetail, blind miter, , no. , , . half-blind, , no. , . lap, , no. , . secret, , no. , , . stopped lap, , no. , . thru multiple, , no. , , , . thru single, , no. , , . doweled, , no. , . draw-bolt, , no. , . edge-to-edge, - . end-lap, , no. , , , . fillistered, , no. , . fished, , no. , , . forked tenon, , no. , . gain, , no. , , . dovetail, , no. , . glue, , no. , . glued-and-blocked, , no. , . grooved, , no. , . halved tee, , no. , . halving, dovetail, , no. , . halving, beveled, , no. , . halving, - . see also joint, cross-lap, end-lap, middle lap. haunching, table, , no. , . taper, , no. , . hopper, , no. , . lap-dovetail, , no. , . lapped and strapped, , no. , . ledge, , no. , , . ledge and miter, , no. , , , . matched, , no. , . middle-lap, , no. , . miter, , no. , , , , . double dovetail keyed, , no. , . double tongue, , no. , . doweled, , no. , . lipped, , no. , . slip dovetail, , no. , . slip-feather, , no. , . slip-key, , no. , . spline, , no. , , . stopped, , no. , . tongue, , no. , . mortise-and-tenon, , , - , , . bare-faced, , no. , , . blind, , no. , , . double, , no. , . dovetail, , no. , . end, , no. , . foxtail, , no. , . haunched, , no. , , , , . housed, , no. , . keyed, , no. , , . oblique, , no. , . open, , no. , . pinned, , no. , , , . shoulder, , no. , . stub, , no. , . thru, , no. , . tusk, , no. , , . wedged, , , nos. and , . notched, , no. , . notch, double, , no. , . rabbet, , no. , , ; no. , , . rebated, see joint, rabbet. rubbed, , no. , , , . scarf, , nos. , , and , , , . slip, , no. , , . spliced, , nos. , , , , , , , . spline, , no. , . squeezed, , no. , , . stretcher, , no. , . strut, , no. , , . thrust, , nos. and , , . tie, , nos. and , . toe, , nos. and , . toe-nailed, , no. , . tongue-and-groove, , no. , . jointer-plane, . jointing a saw, . joints, chap. vii, - . beveled, - . butt, - . dovetail, - , . halving, - , , . heading, - . mortise-and-tenon, , , - , . joists, . kerf, , , , . key-pin of lock, . kiln, lumber, , . knife, , , . knife, sloyd, . knob, plane, . knock-down furniture, . knuckle of hinge, . lac, insect, . seed, . shell, . stick, . lacquer, . ladle, . landlooking, . lath-machines, , . laths, , , . lay-out, , , , , , , , , , , , , , . leather, , . leaves of hinge, . level, spirit, . lever-cap, , . lid of box, . lighting of shop, . live rollers, . loading logs, . lock, mortise, . rim, , . lockers, , , , . locks, , . locomotive, geared, . snow, . boom-derrick, . log-boom, , . log-carriage, , , . log-flipper, . logging, chap. i, - . log-kicker, . log-slip, . log-stop, . logwood, , . loss of tools, - . lumber, . lumber yard, , . lumberman's board rule, . lumber mill, , . m ( feet), , . machine-screws, . mahogany, . mallet, , , . marking-gage, - , , , . marking tools, - . matching-plane, , . maul, . measurements, . measuring-tools, - . measuring wood, , , , - . mill-pond, , . miter-box, , , , . miter-clamp, , . miter-square, , , . molding-plane, . monkey-wrench, , , . mortise, , . mortise-and-tenon. see joint, mortise-and-tenon. mortise-chisel, , , . mortise-gage, , , . multiple parts, . muntin, , . muslin, , . nails, , . flat-head, . size of, . wire, . wrought, . nailset, , , . nigger, steam, , . nippers, , , , . octagonal scale, . oil, , , . banana, , . boiled, , , . oiler, , . oilstone, , , , . ordering of lumber, . paint, - . panel construction, , - , . panel-iron, , . paper, building, . paring, , . paring-chisel, . peavey, . peen of hammer, . picture-frame, - , , . clamp, , . vise, , , , . pigments, . pillow, . pincers, , . pinch-dog, , , , . pintle of hinge, . plane, parts of, . bed rock, , , , . block, , , . circular, . fore, , , . jack, , , . jointer, . matching, , . molding, . oriental, . rabbet, , , , . router, , , . scraper, , . scratch, , . scrub, . smooth, , , , . tongue-and-groove, . universal, , . plane-iron, , . planes, - . planing, directions for, - , . order of, . plate-rack, . plates, metal, . plate, wall, . pliers, , , , . plow, snow, . plug-cutter, , , , . points in saw-teeth, . polish, french, - . oil, . varnish, . wax, . polishes, - . position of benches, . posts, corner, . potash, . potassium bichromate, , , . pounding tools, - . preservation of lumber, . see also seasoning. principles of joinery, chap. ix, - . pumice stone, . quarter-sawing, , . rabbet-plane, , , , . raft, giant, , . rafter-table, . rafters, . rail, , . rail, drawer, . railways, logging, , . rasp, . ratchet-brace, , , . reamer, , . rebate. see rabbet. red, venetian, . ribbon, wall, . ridge-pole, . rift-sawing, . rip-saw, , , . rivet-set, . road, ice, , . logging, , , . monkeys, , . tote, . rollers, dead, . rollers, live, . roll-ways, . rossing of bark, . router-plane, , , . rule, , , , , . running foot, . rust, . on tools, . sacking the rear, . saddle seat, , . sandpaper, , . saw, - . selvage of lock, . saw, back, , , . band, , , . butting, . circular, . compass, , . compression, . coping, . crosscut, , , , . cut-off, , . dovetail, , , . gang, . hack, , . logging, , . pulling, , , . pushing, . rip, , , . tension, , . turning, , , . saw-carriage, , , . sawdust, . saw-filing and setting, . saw-horse, , , . sawing, directions for, , . saw-jointer, . sawmill, , . sawmilling, chap. ii, - . saw-set, . saw-vise, , . sawing into lengths, , , . scaling logs, . scrap-box, . scraper, , , , . scraper, veneer, , , , . scraper-plane, , . scraper steel, , , . scraping tools, - . scrap pile, , . scratch-awl, , . scratch-plane, , . screen-hinge, . screw-box, . screwdriver, , , , . bit, , , , . screw-gage, , , . screws, - . rule for using, . sizes of, . scribing, . scrub-plane, . seasoning, chap. iii, - . air, . hot-air, . kiln, . oil, . water, . set of saw, , . shank, . sharpening of tools, the, , , , , , , , , - , - . sharpening-tools, - . sheathing, . shellac, , - . orange, . white, . shelves, , . shingles, , , . shingle-machine, , . shoe-pegs, . shoulder of joint, . shrinkage, , , , , , , . siding, . sienna, . sighting, , . silex, . sill, . sizing, . skidder, steam, . skidway, , , . slab, , , . slab-slasher, , . slash-grain, , . slash-sawing, . sleigh haul, , . sliding cut, , , , . sliding t bevel, . slipstone, , , , . slip-tongue carts, . smooth-plane, , , . snips, . snow-locomotive, . soap, as a lubricant, . to prevent gluing, . sole of plane, . sorting-jack, . sorting-shed, . spiriting off, . splash-dam, , . splitting tools, . spokeshave, , , , . stains, - . chemical, - . oil, , , . spirit, . water, , . steel square, - , , . steel wool, , , , . sticking, , . stile, . storing of lumber, . stove, gas, , , . stove-bolts, . straight cut, . strength of joints, . strike of lock, . stringer, . stropping, . studding, . superposition, method of, , , , , , . survey of forest land, . swamper, . sweep of brace, . table-hinge, . table construction, , , . see also table top. table top, , , . taboret, , , . tacks, . tacks, double-pointed, , . tang, . tank, . taper of cutting tools, . tee-hinge, . teeth of saw, . tenon, , . see also mortise and tenon. joint, mortise and tenon. tenon-saw, . toe of plane, , . throat of plane, . tie-beams, . timber, . tonguing-and-grooving-plane, . tool-grinder, , , , , . tool-holder for grinding, - . tool-rack, , . tools, chap. iv, pp. - . tools, logging, . traction engine, . tools, loss of, - . tractor, . trammel-points, , . transfer, lumber, , . transportation of logs, , , ff, . travoy, . tray, , . triangle, blackboard, . trimmer, , . trimming logs, . tripoli, , . trolley for logs, . try-square, , , , , . tumbler of lock, . turning-saw, , , , . turpentine, , , , . tusk. see joint, mortise-and-tenon, tusk. twist-bit, , . twist-drill, , , . twist-drill-gage, . umber, . undercut, . universal plane, . unjoined pieces, , . upholstering, - . valuation survey, . van, logging camp, . varnish, , - . copal, - . cremona, . spirit, - . varnishing, process of, . vaseline, . veining tools, . veneer-scraper, , , , . vermilion, . vise, , . iron, , . walnut, . waney boards, . warping, . washer-cutter, , . waste, cotton, , . waste, sawmill, . waterproof glue, . water-stains, . water-table, . wax, . webbing, . wedge, plane, , . wedge, , , , , . action , . whetting tools, . wind in board, . winding sticks, , . window-sash, . wire edge, . wire-gage, , . wooden structures, types of, chap. viii, - . working edge, , . working face, , . wrench, . see also monkey-wrench. yarding logs, , , . yard-stick, , . yellow, chrome, . * * * * * transcriber's note: there is no fig. ; and fig. has no caption. some of the illustrations were on numbered pages which contained no text. illustrations have been moved to more relevant places, and extraneous page numbers removed. (sundry commas added to bibliograpy, as needed for consistency.) errata, and [sic] page : 'thoroly' [sic] period spelling for 'thououghly'. page : 'if a horse fall ...' [sic] 'if a horse (should) fall ...' page : 'eargerly' corrected to 'eagerly'. (they are eagerly sought after...). page : 'chlorid' corrected to 'chloride'. (zinc chloride). page : 'splinttering' corrected to 'splintering'. page : 'especally' corrected to 'especially'. page : 'varities' corrected to 'varieties'. page : 'shouders' corrected to 'shoulders'. (locate accurately with a knife point the shoulders...). page : replaced two gaps in text with 'wedges' and 'no. '. (_no. . a wedged_ ... by driving the wedges into saw kerfs in the tenon instead of along its sides as in no. .) page : 'fig. , e' corrected to 'fig. , c' (the cover may have cleats on its underside, fig. , c, which fit just inside the box and keep the top in place.) page : 'funiture' corrected to 'furniture'. (...some are for floors, some for furniture,...) note: the reader is strongly advised to use project gutenberg's html version of this book because it includes almost illustrations which cannot be incorporated in this text version. see -h.htm or -h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/ / / / / / -h/ -h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/ / / / / / -h.zip) _"flowers, plants and fishes, birds, beasts, flyes, and bees, hils, dales, plaines, pastures, skies, seas, rivers, trees, there's nothing neere at hand, or farthest sought, but with the needle may be shap'd and wrought."_ --john taylor ("the praise of the needle"). the artistic crafts series of technical handbooks edited by w. r. lethaby embroidery and tapestry weaving a practical text-book of design and workmanship by mrs. archibald h. christie with drawings by the author and other illustrations second edition revised (a reprint of the first edition, with various slight alterations in text) third edition revised (a reprint of the second edition) published by john hogg paternoster row london [illustration: _frontispiece see page ._] printed by ballantyne, hanson & co. at the ballantyne press, edinburgh editor's preface needlework, which is still practised traditionally in every house, was once a splendid art, an art in which english workers were especially famous, so that, early in the xiiith century, vestments embroidered in england were eagerly accepted in rome, and the kind of work wrought here was known over europe as "english work." embroideries _façon d'angleterre_ often occupy the first place in foreign inventories. at durham are preserved some beautiful fragments of embroidery worked in the xth century, and many examples, belonging to the great period of the xiiith and xivth centuries, are preserved at the south kensington museum, which is particularly rich in specimens of this art. in order to judge of what were then its possibilities it is worth while to go and see there three notable copes, the blue cope, the sion cope, and the rose-colour jesse-tree cope, the last two of which are certainly english, and the former probably so. the sion cope bears a remnant of an inscription which has unfortunately been cut down and otherwise injured, so that all that i have been able to read is as follows: davn pers : de : v ...; probably the name of the donor. in the xiiith century the craft of embroidery was practised both by men and women. that great art patron, henry the third, chiefly employed for his embroideries, says mr. hudson turner, "a certain mabel of bury st. edmund's, whose skill as an embroideress seems to have been remarkable, and many interesting records of her curious performances might be collected." and i have found a record of an embroidered chasuble made for the king by "mabilia" of st. edmund's in . the most splendid piece of embroidery produced for this king must have been the altar frontal of westminster abbey, completed about . it was silk, garnished with pearls, jewels, and translucent enamels. four embroideresses worked on it for three years and three-quarters, and it seems to have cost a sum equal to about £ of our money. "the london broderers" did not receive a formal charter of incorporation until , but they must have been a properly organised craft centuries before. in henry iv. it was reported to parliament that divers persons of the "craft of brauderie" made unfit work of inferior materials, evading the search of "the wardens of brauderie" in the said city of london. in paris, in the year , there were ninety-three embroiderers and embroideresses registered as belonging to the trade. the term of apprenticeship to the craft was for eight years, and no employer might take more than one apprentice at a time. in the xvith century the guild was at the height of its power, and embroideries were so much in demand that the jardin des plantes in paris was established to furnish flower-subjects for embroidery design. it was founded by the gardener, jean robin, and by pierre vallet, "brodeur" to henry iv. in the xviiith century the company numbered past-masters. to this craft the present volume forms, i believe, an admirable introduction and text-book, not only on the side of workmanship, but also on that difficult subject, "design"--difficult, that is, from its having been so much discussed in books, yet entirely simple when approached, as here, as a necessary part of workmanship. it is fortunate that we have not as yet learned to bother our cooks as to which part of their work is designing and which is merely mechanical. of course the highest things of design, as well as of workmanship, come only after long practice and to the specially gifted, but none the less every human creature must in some sort be a designer, and it has caused immense harm to raise a cloud of what morris called "sham technical twaddle" between the worker and what should be the spontaneous inspiration of his work. what such combination has produced in past times, may perhaps best be understood by some reading in old church inventories of the simply infinite store of magnificent embroidered vestments which once adorned our churches. in an inventory of westminster abbey i find mentioned such patterns as roses and birds, fleur-de-luces and lybardes, angels on branches of gold, roses and ships, eagles and angels of gold, castles and lions, white harts, swans, dogs, and antelopes. w. r. lethaby. _september ._ author's preface in the following pages the practical sides of embroidery and tapestry weaving are discussed, their historical development being only incidentally touched upon. the drawings illustrating design and the practical application of stitches have been taken almost without exception from actual embroidery or tapestry; the exceptions, where it has been impossible to consult originals, from photographic representations obtained from various sources, among which the collection of m. louis de farcy should be mentioned. i have to thank miss may morris and mrs. w. r. lethaby for permission to reproduce pieces of their work, and miss killick, colonel j. e. butler-bowdon, the viscount falkland, and the reverend f. j. brown of steeple aston for permission to reproduce work in their possession. also i must thank the authorities of the victoria and albert museum for help in various ways, and mr. j. h. taylor, m.a. oxf. and cam., for his kindness in reading the proofs. grace christie. _ewell, september ._ contents page editor's preface xi author's preface xvii part i embroidery chapter i introduction chapter ii tools, appliances, and materials needles--scissors--thimbles--frames--stand and frame combined--tambour frame--cord-making appliance--requisites for transferring patterns--pricker--knife--spindle--piercer--materials suitable for embroidering upon--threads of all kinds--stones, beads, &c. chapter iii pattern designing the difficulties of pattern making--a stock-in-trade--some principles upon which patterns are built up--spacing-out--nature and convention--shading--figure work--limitations--colour chapter iv stitches introduction--chain stitch--zigzag chain--chequered chain--twisted chain--open chain--braid stitch--cable chain--knotted chain--split stitch chapter v stitches--(_continued_) satin stitch--long and short stitch--stem stitch--overcast stitch--back stitch--buttonhole stitch--tailor's buttonhole--fancy buttonhole edgings--flower in open buttonhole stitch--leaf in close buttonhole stitches--petal in solid buttonholing chapter vi stitches--(_continued_) knots and knot stitches--herring-bone stitch--feather stitch--basket stitch--fishbone stitch--cretan stitch--roumanian stitch--various insertion stitches--picots chapter vii canvas work and stitches introduction--samplers--petit point pictures--cross stitch--tent stitch--gobelin stitch--irish stitch--plait stitch--two-sided italian stitch--holbein stitch--rococo stitch chapter viii methods of work couching--braid work--laid work--applied work--inlaid work--patch work chapter ix methods of work--(_continued_) quilting--raised work--darning--open fillings--darned netting chapter x methods of work--(_continued_) drawn thread work--hem stitching--simple border patterns--darned thread patterns--corners--cut or open work--various methods of refilling the open spaces chapter xi embroidery with gold and silver threads introduction--materials--precautions for the prevention of tarnish--ancient method of couching--its various good points--description of working diagram--working a raised bar--examples of patterns employed in old work--illustrations upon draped figures--usual method of couching--couching patterns--outline work--raised work--the use of purls, bullions, &c. chapter xii lettering, heraldry, and emblems the uses of lettering--marking--monograms--heraldry--emblems chapter xiii the garniture of work finishing off--making up--edges--use of cord-making appliance--cord twisted by hand--knotted cord--fringes--tassels--knots chapter xiv practical directions transferring patterns--paste for embroidery purposes--protection and preservation of work--washing embroidery--prevention and cure of puckered work--points about the thread--dressing the frame part ii tapestry weaving chapter xv introduction chapter xvi necessary appliances and materials the loom--mirror--bobbins and needles--the comb--embroidery frame treated as a loom--warp--wools--silk--gold and silver thread chapter xvii preparations for work warping the loom--dressing the coat-stave--tracing the pattern upon the threads chapter xviii the technique of weaving weaving--commencing and fastening off--the interlocking stitch--fine drawing--shading--added after-stitches notes on the collotype plates the collotype plates index part i--embroidery chapter i introduction in the practice of embroidery the needlewoman has an advantage not now shared by workers in any other craft, in that the technical processes are almost a matter of inherited skill. every woman can sew, and it is with little more than the needle and thread, which she habitually employs, that the greatest masterpieces of the art have been stitched. the art of embroidery, however, is not merely an affair of stitches; they are but the means by which ideas can be expressed in intelligible form, and memories of all kinds of things be pictured on stuffs. to laboriously train the hand is scarcely worth while unless it is capable of expressing something that is at least pretty. nowadays much embroidery is done with the evident intent of putting into it the minimum expenditure of both thought and labour, and such work furnishes but a poor ideal to fire the enthusiasm of the novice; happily, there still exist many fine examples showing what splendid results may be achieved; without some knowledge of this work we cannot obtain a just idea of the possibilities of the art. it is obvious that much advantage can be gained from studying the accumulated experience of the past in addition to that current in our own day. to do this intelligently, the history of embroidery must be followed in order that the periods richest in the various kinds of work may be ascertained. museums afford useful hunting-grounds for the study of past work; other sources are private collections, churches, costume in pictures or on engraved brasses, and manuscript inventories such as those of cathedral treasuries, which sometimes contain interesting detailed descriptions of their embroidered vestments and hangings. blind copying of old work is not of much value; it is not possible or desirable to imitate xiiith century work now, but much can be learned by examining fine examples in an appreciative and analytical spirit. in what way the design has been built up can be discovered; the most complicated result may often be resolved into quite elementary lines. the student must find out wherein lie the attraction and interest, note good schemes of colour, and learn about stitches and methods of work by close examination of the embroidery, both front and back. every one knows what embroidery is, and a formal definition seems unnecessary. as a matter of fact, it would be a difficult task to give one, since weaving, lace-making, and embroidery are but subtle variations of the same art. this art may be of the highest or the most homely character, and the latter is by no means to be despised. simple unaffected work decorating the things of every-day use can give a great deal of pleasure in its way. this should surely be the accomplishment of every woman, for though she may not have the skill to attain to the highest branches, it would at least enable her to decorate her home with such things as the counterpanes, curtains, and other objects that set such a personal stamp upon the english domestic work of several centuries, and which nowadays can hardly be found except stored up in museums. it is advisable as a general rule that the design be both made and carried out by the same person. from the worker's own point of view the interest must be much greater when working out her own ideas than when merely acting as amanuensis to another. the idea is more likely to be expressed with spirit; further there is the possibility of adding to or altering, and thereby improving, the work as it progresses. the designer must in any case be well acquainted with stitches and materials, for they play an important part in achieving good results. the individuality of the worker should be evident in her work; indeed it generally is, for even plain hems by two people bear quite different characters; the degree of individuality present, varies with each one, but in any case it will be much more marked if the design and stitching bear the stamp of the same personality. the difference between good and unsatisfactory results should be carefully thought out, for it is often but a small matter. the best kind of work is that which appeals to the intelligence as well as to the eye, which is another way of saying there should be evidence of mind upon the material. work must be interesting in some way if it is to be attractive; it had better almost be faulty and interesting than dull, dry, and correct. it can interest by reminding us of pleasant things, such as familiar flowers, shady woods, or green lawns; birds, beasts, and so forth can be depicted in their characteristic attitudes, or a story can be told; in fact, work can be made attractive in a hundred different ways. it must not show signs of having wearied the worker in the doing; variety and evidence of thought lavishly expended upon it will prevent this, and enthusiasm will quicken it with life. the selection of the object to work comes at an early stage, and is a matter to be well considered, for it is a pity to spend time and labour upon unsuitable objects when there are many excellent ones to choose from. in thinking over what to work it should be realised that it takes no longer to execute one rather important piece than several of a less ambitious character, and that the former is generally more worth the doing. whether the subject is a suitable one for embroidery or not sometimes depends upon the method chosen for carrying it out; for instance, anything that has to endure hard wear must be treated in such a way as to stand it well. dress is a fine subject for embroidery; but, for the decoration to be satisfactory, the art of designing dress must be understood, and the dress must also be well cut, or the embroidery will be quite wasted upon it. what is termed "art dress," proverbially bad, well deserves its reputation. there is a great difference in the quantity of work that may be put into dress decoration; this may be simply an embroidered vest, collar, and cuffs, or it may be actually an integral part of the costume, which as a much bigger and more difficult undertaking is correspondingly finer in effect when successfully carried out. amongst larger objects that well repay the labour of embroidery, hangings of various kinds, quilts, screens, furniture coverings, altar frontals, church vestments, may be mentioned; amongst smaller, are bags, boxes, book-covers, gloves or mittens, bell-pulls, cushions, mirror frames, all kinds of household linen, infants' robes, and so on, and for church use such things as alms-bags, book-markers, stoles, pulpit and lectern frontals. then a panel may be worked with the deliberate intention of framing it to hang on a wall. there is no reason why the painter should have the monopoly of all the available wall space, for decorative work is undoubtedly in place there; a piece of embroidered work might well fill a panel over a mantel-piece. there is no need to discuss what not to do, but, if the attraction to embroider a tea-cosy is too strong to resist, it should surely be of washable materials. embroidery has distinct practical advantages over some other crafts practised nowadays--no special studio need be devoted to its use, for most work can be done in any well-lighted room, which indeed will be rendered more attractive by the presence of an embroidery frame, for this is in itself a characteristic and dainty piece of furniture. it need but seldom interfere with one of our pleasant traditions, genial converse with, and about, our neighbours, for it is a distinctly sociable occupation. work of this kind can be put down and taken up at leisure; the necessary outlay in materials need not be extravagant, and so on. many other points might be thought of, but the claims of the art do not demand any special pleading, for it is pleasant in the actual working, and can produce an infinite variety of most interesting results. chapter ii tools, appliances, and materials needles--scissors--thimbles--frames--stand and frame combined--tambour frame--cord-making appliance--requisites for transferring patterns--pricker--knife--spindle--piercer--suitable materials for embroidering upon--threads of all kinds--stones, beads, &c. good workmanship takes a prominent, though not the first, place. technical excellence in needlework, as in all other artistic crafts, is a question of the worker's perseverance and her ability in the use of tools. in embroidery these are few and simple, and are as follows:-- _needles._--for most purposes needles known as long-eyed sharps are used. tapestry needles, similar to these, but with blunt points, are useful for canvas work and darned netting. for gold work a special needle can be procured with sharp point and long wide eye. a bent needle makes a crooked stitch; but needles if made of good steel should not bend; they break if used unfairly. the eye should be cleanly cut, or it roughens the thread. the needle must be just stout enough to prepare for the thread an easy passage through the material. _scissors._--three pairs may be necessary; for ordinary work a small pair with fine sharp points, for gold work small ones with strong points similar to nail scissors, and for cutting-out purposes a large pair with one rounded and one sharp point. _thimbles._--steel ones are said to be most serviceable, silver are most usual; but whatever the material they must be neatly made in order not to wear the thread. _frames._--a common type of frame is shown at fig. . it is made in various sizes; the one here represented measures inches across. it consists of four pieces of wood, two rollers for the top and base and two side pieces. each of the rollers has a piece of webbing securely nailed along it, and its extremities are pierced with holes to receive the side pieces. these are formed of two long wooden screws, fitted with movable nuts, which adjust the width of the frame and the tautness of the stretched work. the piece of material that is stretched between is the link that keeps the frame together, for the screw ends fit just loosely in the holes of the rollers. the side pieces are sometimes made of flat laths of wood pierced with holes at regular intervals; in these are inserted metal pins, by means of which the work is kept stretched. fig. represents a frame of this type. if the frame is a very large one it can have a strengthening bar fixed across the centre from roller to roller. [illustration: fig. .] the frame is most convenient for work when fixed in a stand, although it can be used leaning against a table or the back of a chair. a very large frame would be supported upon trestles, but for ordinary purposes, a stand, such as the one shown in fig. , is practical. it consists of two upright wooden posts, a little over feet in height, which are connected near the base by a strengthening cross piece. both this and the uprights are adjustable; the centre part of the posts is arranged to slide up and down, and can be fixed at any convenient height by the insertion of a long metal pin; the width of the cross piece is regulated in similar fashion, being made firm, by a screw, at the required width, thus allowing various sized frames to be used in the same stand. the frame is fixed in place by metal clamps, and a wooden pivot is arranged so as to permit the stretched work to be inclined at any angle convenient. both stand and frame should be well made and of good wood, for they must be able to stand strain and be perfectly firm and true when fixed for work. [illustration: fig. .] a small circular frame, such as is shown in fig. , is useful for marking linen or for any small work. this, formed of two hoops fitting closely one within the other, can be procured in wood, ivory, or bone, of various sizes, the one illustrated being about inches in diameter. the material to be worked upon is stretched between these hoops like the parchment on a drum. these tambour frames, as they are called, are sometimes fixed into a small stand or fitted with a wooden clamp for fastening to a table; this frees both hands for work. these tambours cannot well be recommended; the material is apt to stretch unevenly, and a worked part, if flattened between the hoops, is liable to be damaged. [illustration: fig. .] the illustration at fig. shows a simple little instrument for making a twisted cord. it is interesting to note that etienne binet, who wrote on embroidery about , when discussing some necessary equipment for an embroideress mentions "_un rouet pour faire les cordons_." there is sometimes a difficulty in procuring the cord just right to suit the finished work; the texture may be too coarse to put beside fine embroidery, it may not be a good match, and, even if so at first, it may fade quite differently from the worked silks. for these and other reasons it is a safe method to make the cord one's self, possibly with some materials of the kind already used in the embroidery. [illustration: fig. .] this appliance enables the worker to make any kind of twisted cord; it is as simple as a toy to handle, and gives excellent results. it is a metal instrument about inches in height. the three small discs are wheels, supported on the arms of an upright cross which has a heavy circular base. these three wheels are connected by a cord with a larger wheel below that has a handle attached to it. the cord runs in a groove round the circumference of each wheel, and must be held taut in position. by turning the handle of the large wheel the three small ones are set in motion. three hooks, attached to the axles of the small wheels, are therefore rotated with them. one end of each ply of the cord in making is looped on to one of these hooks, the other ends are attached to three similar hooks fixed into a block of wood which, when in use, is firmly clamped to the table. further instruction in the making of cords is given in chapter xiii. [illustration: fig. .] to trace the pattern on to the material the following articles may be required: indian ink, a small finely-pointed sable brush, a tube of oil paint, flake white or light red, according to the colour of the ground material, turpentine, powdered charcoal or white chalk for pounce, tracing paper, drawing-pins, and a pricker. this last-mentioned tool is shown in fig. . it is about inches long, and is like a needle with the blunt end fitted into a handle. for rubbing on the pounce some soft clinging material rolled into a ball is necessary. a piece of old silk hose tightly rolled up makes an excellent pad for the purpose. the knife shown in fig. is useful for cutting out at times when the use of scissors is not practical. it is used in an upright position, with the point outwards. [illustration: fig. .] a spindle for winding gold thread upon whilst working is shown in fig. . it is about inches long. a soft padding of cotton thread is first placed round (between a and b, fig. ), and the gold thread wound upon that. the end of the thread passes through the forked piece at the top on its way to being worked into the material. the use of this or some similar appliance enables the worker to avoid much touching of the metal threads. a small tool called a piercer is represented by fig. ; it is used in gold work; the flat end assists in placing the gold in position, and also in making the floss silk lie quite flat; the pointed end is used for piercing holes in the material for passing coarse thread to the back, and for other purposes. this little tool, made of steel, is about inches in length. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] materials the surface is a matter of special interest in embroidery work. this makes the choice of materials of great importance. besides the question of appearance, these must be suitable to the purpose, durable, and, if possible, pleasant to work with and upon. the materials chosen should be the best of their kind, for time and labour are too valuable to be spent upon poor stuffs; occasionally a piece of old work is seen with the ground material in shreds and the embroidery upon it in a good state of preservation, which is a pity, for a newly applied ground of any kind is never as satisfactory as the original one. still another plea for the use of good materials is the moral effect they may have upon the worker, inciting her to put forth her best efforts in using them. [illustration: fig. .] the purpose to which the work is to be put usually decides the ground material, besides governing pattern, stitches, and everything else. a background is chosen, as a rule, to show to advantage and preserve what is to be placed upon it, though sometimes it is the other way about, and the pattern is planned to suit an already existing ground. a background must take its right place, and not be too much in evidence, although if of the right kind it may be full of interest. there are, roughly speaking, three ways of treating the ground, leaving the material just as it is, covering part of it with stitching, or working entirely over it. if there is no work upon the ground the choice of material becomes more important. texture, colour, tone, and possibly pattern, have all to be considered, though the problem is often best solved by the selection of a plain white linen. the question of texture is sometimes one of its suitability for stitching upon; colour and tone may be of all kinds and degrees from white to black; these two, as a rule, being particularly happy ones. if the ground stuff is patterned, as in the case of a damasked silk, it must be specially chosen to suit the work to be placed upon it; small diaper patterns are frequently very good, since they break up the surface pleasantly without being too evident. linen, which well answers all the usual requirements, is, for this reason, very frequently chosen for a ground material. it can be procured in great variety, the handmade linens being the best of all. of kinds besides the ordinary are twilled linens, of which one named kirriemuir twill is similar to the material used in the fine old embroidered curtains. some damask linens look very well as backgrounds for embroidery; the pattern is sometimes a slightly raised diaper, which forms a pleasantly broken surface. loosely woven linens can be obtained specially suitable for drawn thread work. in any case, if there is dressing in the new material, it must be well boiled before the embroidery is commenced: this makes it much softer for stitching through. coloured linens are rarely satisfactory, a certain kind of blue being almost the only exception. the safest plan is to keep to pure white, or to the unbleached varieties that have a slightly grey or warm tone about them. wools, silks, and flax threads all look well upon a linen ground; it is not usually in good taste to embroider with poor thread upon a rich ground material, and, upon the other hand, gold thread and floss demand silk or velvet rather than linen, though any rule of this kind may on occasion be broken. velvet and satin make excellent backgrounds for rich work; they should not be used unless of good quality. the pile of the best velvet is shorter than that of poorer kinds, and so is easier to manipulate, which is a further reason for using the best. it is in any case a difficult material, so much so that work is often carried out on linen and afterwards applied to a velvet ground. the modern velvets, even the best of them, are for quality or colour not comparable with the old ones. silk of different kinds is largely employed, since it makes a suitable ground for many kinds of embroidery. twilled and damasked silks are much used; in the last-named kind, patterns must be carefully chosen to suit the particular purpose. a thick ribbed silk is rarely satisfactory for embroidery purposes. for working with silk thread, an untwisted floss takes the first place, but it needs some skill in manipulation. filofloss is somewhat similar, but it has a slight twist in it, making it easier to work, though producing a less satisfactory result. filosel is useful for some kinds of work, but it is a poorer quality of silk. the purse silks, and what is called embroidery silk, are all excellent; they are tightly twisted varieties of fine quality. there are various others in use; a visit to a good embroidery depôt will probably be the best means of finding out about these and about materials in general. wools can be obtained in various thicknesses and twistings, each good in their way. some workers prefer a but slightly twisted wool; however, examples of old wool work are to be found in which a finely twisted variety is used with most satisfactory effect. flax threads can be obtained in very good colours, and are to be highly recommended. there are various cottons procurable, either coloured or white, that are good for marking and other embroidery purposes where an evenly twisted thread is desirable. pearls and precious stones take their place in rich embroideries, also various less expensive but pretty stones may often be made use of effectively. beads are a fascinating material to work with; all kinds of pretty things can be done with them, either sewing them upon a ground, knitting or crocheting, or making use of a small bead loom. a good deal of the ready-made bought bead work, that only requires a monotonous ground to be filled in around an already worked pattern of sorts, is not at all suggestive of its possibilities. beads of both paste and glass can be obtained in much greater variety than is usually known, from the most minute in size to large varieties of all kinds of shapes and patterns, the colours of most of them being particularly good. the larger ornamental beads are useful in many ways, sometimes taking the place of tassels or fringes. many kinds of most curious materials are at times brought into the service of embroidery, but the above-mentioned ones are the most usual. chapter iii pattern designing the difficulties of pattern making--a stock-in-trade--some principles upon which patterns are built up--spacing-out--nature and convention--shading--figure work--limitations--colour. a beginner sometimes experiences difficulty in preparing her own patterns. a designer needs a wide knowledge of many subjects, which necessitates much time being given to study; also drawing ability is necessary to enable the worker to set down her ideas upon paper. for much simple and pretty work, however, a slight acquaintance with drawing and design is sufficient, and any one who can master the requisite stitches can also acquire some knowledge of these two subjects. the word design frightens some who do not know quite what it means or entails. perhaps they do not realise that the design has already been begun when the object to be worked has been settled, and the material, thread, and stitches have been decided upon--the rest comes in much the same way, partly by a system of choice; as it is necessary to know what materials there are which can be used, so must the chief varieties of pattern be known from which choice can be made. all patterns are built up on some fundamental plan, of which the number is comparatively small. the ability to choose, plan, and arrange is in a greater or less degree inherent in every one, so there should be, after all, no great difficulty in the design. the necessary underlying qualities are--a nice taste, freedom from affectation, an eye for colour and form, and, it might be added, a fair share of common sense. a pattern maker requires some stock-in-trade, and it is wise to collect together a store of some well-classified design material of ascertained value, ready to be drawn upon when required. a good knowledge of plants and flowers is very necessary. this is best acquired by making careful drawings from nature. in choosing flowers for embroidery purposes, the best-known ones, such as the daisy, rose, or carnation, give more pleasure to the observer than rare unrecognisable varieties. figures, birds, beasts, and such things as inscriptions, monograms, shields of arms and emblems, all demand study and drawing, both from miscellaneous examples and from embroideries. the treatment of all these should be studied in old work, in order that the curious conventions and all kinds of amusing and interesting ideas that have gradually grown up in the past may still be made use of and added to, instead of being cast aside in a wild endeavour after something original. the student who collects a supply of the foregoing materials will find she has considerably widened her knowledge during the process, and is better prepared to make designs. in making a pattern the first thing to be decided upon is some main idea, the detail that is to carry it out must then be considered. this latter may be of various types, such as flowers, foliage, figures, animals, geometrical forms, interlacing strapwork, quatrefoils, &c., &c.; perhaps several of these _motifs_ may be combined together in the same design. [illustration: fig. .] one of the simplest plans upon which a pattern can be arranged is that of some form recurring at regular intervals over the surface. the principle involved is repetition; an example of it is shown at fig. . the form that is used here is a sprig of flower, but the repeating element admits of infinite variation, it may be anything from a dot to an angel. [illustration: fig. .] copes and chasubles, bedspreads and curtains, are often to be seen decorated with some repeating form. fig. shows in outline a conventional sprig that is repeated in this fashion over the surface of a famous cope in ely cathedral. fig. is an example of a sprig of flower taken from a xviith century embroidered curtain; similar bunches, but composed of different flowers, recur at intervals over this hanging. it may interest the practical worker to know what are the different stitches used upon this figure. the petals of the top flower are in chain stitch in gradated colouring, the centre is an open crossing of chain surrounded by stamens in stem stitch in varied colour, the outermost leaves are outlined in stem stitch with an open filling of little crossed stitches. the petals of the lower flower are worked similarly, and the centre is carried out in chain stitch and french knots. the leaves are filled in with ingenious variations of these stitches. [illustration: fig. .] the repeating element is perhaps a symbolical figure, a heraldic shield, or it may be some geometrical form that supplies the motive. fig. is a conventional sprig of hawthorn that ornaments in this way an altar frontal at zanthen. it is by no means necessary that the element which repeats should be always identical; so long as it is similar in size, form, and general character it will probably be the more interesting if variety is introduced. the principle of repetition is again found in fig. , but with an additional feature; a sprig of flower is used, with the further introduction of diagonal lines, expressed by leaf sprays, which are arranged so as to surround each flower and divide it from the adjoining ones. [illustration: fig. .] it is advisable to space out the required surface in some way before commencing to draw out a pattern; for carrying out fig. it would be well to pencil out the surface as in fig. ; a connection between these two will be perceived at a glance. this spacing-out of the required surface in one way or another is of great assistance, and may even prove suggestive in the planning of the design. it helps the regularity of the work, and order is essential in design as in most other things in life. [illustration: fig. .] another very usual expedient is that of introducing a main central form, with others branching out on either side and symmetrically balancing each other. an example of this is given in fig. . the symmetry may be much more free than this; a tree is symmetrical taken as a whole, but the two sides do not exactly repeat each other. [illustration: fig. .] a plan very commonly employed is that of radiating main lines all diverging from one central point. fig. shows a design following this principle; there is infinite variety in the ways in which this may be carried out. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] another method would be to plan a continuous flowing line with forms branching out on one side or on both. figs. and are border designs, for which purpose this arrangement is often used, though it can also well form an all-over pattern; sometimes these lines used over a surface are made to cross each other, tartan wise, by running in two directions, producing an apparently complicated design by very simple means. [illustration: figs. and .] [illustration: fig. .] designs may be planned on the counterchange principle. this is a system of mass designing that involves the problem of making a pattern out of one shape, continually repeated, and fitting into itself in such a way as to leave no interstices. the simplest example of this is to be found in the chess board, and it will easily be seen that a great number of shapes might be used instead of the square. fig. is an example of a counterchange design carried out in inlay; for this method of work counterchange is very suitable. on reference to the chapter upon this work another example will be found (page ). fig. illustrates the same principle, further complicated by the repetition of the form in three directions instead of in two only. [illustration: fig. .] a method of further enriching a straightforward pattern, covering a plain surface, is to work a subsidiary pattern upon the background. this is usually of a monotonous and formal character in order not to clash with the primary decoration, though this relationship may sometimes be found reversed. it has the appearance of being some decoration belonging to the ground rather than to the primary pattern; in its simplest form it appears as a mere repeating dot or a lattice (see fig. ), but it may be so elaborated as to cover with an intricate design every portion of the exposed ground not decorated with the main pattern. many other distinct kinds of work might be mentioned, such as needlework pictures, the story-telling embroideries that can be made so particularly attractive. embroidered landscapes, formal gardens, mysterious woods, views of towns and palaces, are, if rightly treated, very fine. in order to learn the way to work such subjects we must go to the xvith and xviith century _petit point_ pictures, and to the detail in fine tapestries. the wrong method of going to work is to imitate the effect sought after by the painter. [illustration: fig. .] it is a mistake in embroidery design to be too naturalistic. in painting it may be the especial aim to exactly imitate nature, but here are wanted embroidery flowers, animals and figures, possessing the character and likeness of the things represented, but in no way trying to make us believe that they are real. the semblance of a bumble bee crawling upon the tea cloth gives a hardly pleasant sensation and much savours of the practical joke, which is seldom in good taste; the needle, however, adds convention to almost anything, and will usually manage the bee all right unless the worker goes out of the way to add a shadow and a high light. such things as perspective, light and shade or modelling of form, should all be very much simplified if not avoided, for embroidery conforms to the requirements of decoration and must not falsify the surface that it ornaments. shading is made use of in order to give more variety to, and exhibit the beauty of, colour by means of gradation, to explain more clearly the design, and so on; it is not employed for the purpose of fixing the lighting of the composition from one point by means of systematically adjusted light and shade, or of making a form stand out so realistically as to almost project from the background. in avoiding too much resemblance to natural forms it is not necessary to make things ugly; a conventional flower implies no unmeaning straightness or impossible curve, it may keep all its interesting characteristics, but it has to obey other requirements specially necessary in the particular design. another point to be noted is that, since there is freedom of choice of flowers and other objects, only those perfect and well-formed should be chosen; all accidents of growth and disease may, happily, be omitted; if anything of this kind is put in it helps to give the naturalistic look which is to be avoided. both sides of a leaf should match, though it may happen in nature, through misfortune, that one is deformed and small. in figure work, which, though ambitious, is one of the most interesting kinds of embroidery, the figures, like all other things, must be treated with a certain amount of simplicity; very little attempt must be made to obtain flesh tones, roundness of form, perspective, or foreshortening. the work should be just sufficiently near to nature to be a good embroidery rendering of it. however, without overstepping the limits there is a great deal that may be expressed, such things as character, gesture, grace, colour, and so on, matters which are after all of first importance. detail, if of the right kind, may be filled in, but it is wrong to attempt what is to the craft very laborious to obtain, for this would be misdirected energy, which is great waste. a right use of the figure can be seen in the xiiith century embroidery pictures, which, covering mediæval church vestments, often display episodes from the lives of the saints. these are some of the masterpieces of the art of embroidery; observation of nature is carried to a marvellous pitch, but the execution never sinks into commonplace realism. certain restrictions are always present, in making a design, that must be conformed to, such as, the limit of space, the materials with which the work is to be carried out, the use to which it will be put, and so on. these, instead of being difficulties, can afford help in the way of suggestion and limitation. a bad design may look as if it obeyed them unwillingly--a form is perhaps cramped, perhaps stretched out in order to fit its place, instead of looking as if it naturally fitted it whether the confining lines were there or not. in the early herbals, illustrated with woodcuts, examples can be found over and over again of a flower filling a required space simply and well; fig. is taken from the herbal of carolus clusius, printed at antwerp in by the great house of plantin. the draughtsman in this case had to draw a plant to fit a standard-sized engraver's block, and he had a certain number of facts to tell about it; he drew the plant as simply and straightforwardly as possible, making good use of all the available space, the result being a well-planned and balanced piece of work, with no affectation or unnecessary lines about it. [illustration: fig. .] fine colour is a quality appreciated at first sight, though often unconsciously. it is a difficult subject to speak of very definitely; an eye for colour is natural to some, but in any case the faculty can be cultivated and developed. by way of studying the subject, we can go to nature and learn as much as we are capable of appreciating; even such things as butterflies, shells, and birds' eggs are suggestive. again, embroideries, illuminated manuscripts, pictures, painted decoration, may be studied, and so on; in fact, colour is so universal that it is not possible to get away from it. unfortunately we are sometimes forced to learn what to avoid as well as what to emulate. colour is entirely relative, that is to say it depends upon its immediate surroundings for what it appears to be. also it has effects varying with the material which it dyes; wool is of an absorbent nature, whereas silk has powers of reflection. it is a safe plan to use true colours, real blue, red or green, not slate, terra cotta, and olive. gold, silver, white and black, are valuable additions to the colour palette; it should be remembered about the former that precious things must be used with economy or they become cheap and perhaps vulgar. [illustration: fig. .] for getting satisfactory colour there is a useful method which can at times be made use of; this is to stitch it down in alternate lines of two different tints, which, seen together at a little distance, give the desired effect. backgrounds can be covered over with some small geometrical pattern carried out in this way, such as is shown in fig. , perhaps using in alternation bright blue and black instead of a single medium tint of blue all over. at a slight distance the tone may be the same in either case, but this method gives a pleasantly varied and refined effect, which avoids muddiness, and shows up the pattern better. this same method is used for expressing form more clearly as well as for colour; waves of hair, for instance, are much more clearly expressed when worked in this way. chapter iv stitches introduction--chain stitch--zigzag chain--chequered chain--twisted chain--open chain--braid stitch--cable chain--knotted chain--split stitch. it is necessary for every worker to have a certain amount of knowledge of stitches, for they are, so to speak, the language of the art, and though not of first importance, still there is a great deal in stitchery. the needlewoman should be absolute master of her needle, for there is a great charm in beautifully carried out stitching; also a good design can be made mechanical and uninteresting by a wrong method of execution. the simplest and most common stitches are the best, and are all that are necessary for the doing of good work. work carried out entirely in one stitch has a certain unity and character that is very pleasing. there are a great number of stitches in existence, that is, if each slight variation has a different name assigned to it. the names are sometimes misleading, for often the same stitch is known by several different ones; descriptive names have where possible been chosen for those discussed in the following pages. a worker may find it useful to keep by her a sampler with the most characteristic stitches placed upon it; a glance at this will be suggestive when she is in doubt as to which to use, for it is often difficult to recollect just the right and most suitable one at a moment's notice. it is necessary to learn only the main varieties, for each individual worker can adapt, combine, and invent variations to suit a special purpose. the direction of the stitch is important; tone, if not colour, can be very much altered by change in direction; also growth and form can be suggested by it; for instance, lines going across a stem are not usually so satisfactory as those running the length of it; these suggesting growth better. folds of drapery are often explained by direction of the lines of stitching quite as much as by gradation of colour. with reference to the stitches described in the following chapters, the worker is advised to try to work them by simply examining the diagrams, and, if in any difficulty, then to refer to the printed description, for such directions are apt to be tedious. the simplest way to master these is to let some one read them out step by step, and to work from dictation. it should be remembered that the use of a particular thread often makes or mars a stitch, some requiring soft silks to show them to advantage, whilst others may need a stoutly twisted thread. chain stitch is universal, and one of the most ancient of stitches. it is the most commonly used of a group that might be described as linked stitches. much beautiful work has been carried out entirely in it, and when a monotonous even line is required, this is a most suitable stitch to employ. it is equally in request for outline and filling in, and its chain-like adaptability makes it specially good for following out curved forms or spiral lines. tambour stitch is practically the same in result, though worked in quite a different manner, for it is carried out in a frame with a fine crochet hook, instead of with a needle. this makes it quicker in execution, but more mechanical in appearance, so it is not to be as much recommended. [illustration: fig. .] to work chain stitch (fig. ) bring the needle through at the top of the traced line, hold the working thread down towards the left with the thumb, insert the needle at the point where the thread has just come through and bring it up on the traced line about one-sixteenth of an inch further along, draw the thread through over the held down thread. it should show a neat line of back-stitching on the reverse side. the chain can be made broader by inserting the needle a little to the right, instead of at the exact point where the last thread came through. care must be taken in the working not to draw the thread too tightly, as this stitch is inclined to pucker the material, especially when it is worked in curved lines. a flower and leaf worked with a solid filling of chain stitch are shown in fig. . the dark outline of the flower is in back stitch, the centre a mass of french knots, and the stem in stem stitch. by working the petals in curved lines in this way the shape is well suggested, and the play of light on the curves is particularly happy, especially if the thread used is silk or gold. another slight variation from this would be to work the lines of chain stitch in different shades of colour, and so get each petal gradually either lighter or darker towards its base; this gives a very pretty effect. fig. shows an oak leaf carried out in this way, the lines upon it indicate the way in which the stitches would be worked. the rule in solid fillings is to work from the outside inwards where possible, and thus make sure of a good outline. [illustration: fig. .] in the victoria and albert museum there is a white linen dress[ ] daintily embroidered in chain stitch. it is an excellent example of a kind of design suitable to this stitch; the leaves and flowers are carried out in lines of chain stitch following the outline, and in these lines use is made of strongly contrasting colour to both show up the form better, and also decorate it. the leaf in fig. is in style somewhat similar to this, and is intended to be carried out in two distinct colours. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] chain stitches can be worked singly; they are used in this way as a powdering over a background. sometimes they may be seen conventionally suggesting the small feathers on the shoulder of a bird's wing by being dotted over it at regular intervals. fig. shows how they might be used to carry out a tiny flower, five separate stitches represent the petals, and two more the leaves at the base; this is a simpler and more satisfactory method than to attempt very minute forms with satin stitches. [illustration: fig. .] the common chain makes a particularly neat border stitch taken in zigzag fashion. to work this (fig. )--trace two parallel lines on the material and work the chain across from side to side at an angle of ° to the traced lines. for further security it is well to catch down the end of the stitch just completed with the needle as it commences the following one. the line can be further decorated by placing a french knot, perhaps in a contrasting colour, in each little triangular space left by working the stitch. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] there is an ingenious method of working ordinary chain stitch in a chequering of two colours (fig. ). it is quite simple to work. thread a needle with two different coloured threads, commence the chain stitch in the usual way until the thread has to be placed under the point of the needle for forming the loop. place only one of the two threads underneath, leaving the other on one side out of the way, then draw the needle and thread through over the one held down. a chain stitch will have been formed with the thread that was looped under the needle. for the next stitch, the alternate thread is placed under, and so on, taking each thread in turn. the thread not in use each time usually requires a little adjustment to make it entirely disappear from the surface. twisted chain is worked very similarly to the ordinary chain stitch. it has not such a decidedly looped appearance, which is sometimes an advantage. to work it (fig. )--bring the thread through at the top of the line, hold it down under the thumb to the left, and insert the needle to the left of the traced line, slightly below the point where the thread has come through. bring it out again on the traced line, about one-eighth of an inch lower down, and draw it through over the held down thread. an entirely different effect can be obtained by working this stitch much closer together, but in exactly the same way. it will then resemble a satin stitch slightly raised on one side. this is known as rope stitch and is at times very useful. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] open chain stitch makes a good broad line; it looks best when worked with a stout thread. to carry out the stitch (fig. )--trace two parallel lines upon the material, about one-eighth of an inch apart, and bring the thread through at the top of the left-hand one. hold the thread down with the thumb and insert the needle exactly opposite on the other line, bring it up one-eighth of an inch lower down and draw the thread through over the held down part, leaving a rather slack loop upon the material. then insert the needle on the first line again, inside the slack loop, and bring it out one-eighth of an inch below. repeat this on each side alternately. fig. is a drawing from a piece of white linen work in which the open chain stitch is used in combination with other stitches. this figure, with its open-work centre, is repeated diagonally over a white linen cloth exhibited in the victoria and albert museum. [illustration: fig. .] braid stitch rather resembles a fancy braid laid upon the material. it looks best when carried out with a stoutly twisted thread. to work it (fig. )--trace two parallel lines upon the material about one-eighth of an inch apart, and bring the thread through at the right-hand end of the lower line. throw the thread across to the left and hold it slackly under the thumb. place the needle pointing towards the worker under this held thread, then twist it round towards the left and over the held thread until it points in the opposite direction. it will now have the thread twisted loosely over it. next, insert the needle on the upper line one-eighth of an inch from the starting-point, and bring it through on the lower line exactly underneath. place the thumb over the stitch in process of making and draw the thread through as the diagram shows. it can be worked openly or more closely as preferred. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] cable chain is descriptively named, for, when worked with a stoutly twisted thread, it has very much the appearance of a chain laid upon the material, rather too much so perhaps to be a pretty embroidery stitch. to work it (fig. )--bring the needle through at the top of the traced line, throw the thread round to the left and hold it down with the thumb near where it has come through the material. pass the needle under the held down thread from left to right and draw it through until there is only a small loop left. insert the needle in the centre of this loop, on the traced line about one-sixteenth of an inch below the starting-point. bring it out a quarter of an inch below and outside the loop. take the thread in the right hand and tighten the loop that has now been formed, and then pass the thread under the point of the needle towards the left (see diagram). place the left thumb over the stitch in process of making and draw the thread through; this will complete the first two links of the chain; to continue, repeat from the beginning. knotted chain is a pretty stitch; to look well it must be worked with a stout thread. to carry it out (fig. )--trace two parallel lines upon the material, about one-eighth of an inch apart. bring the thread through at the right hand end in the centre between the two lines, then insert the needle on the upper line one-sixteenth of an inch further along, and bring it through on the lower line immediately below. draw the thread through and there will be a short slanting line left upon the material. throw the thread round to the left and hold it under the thumb, then pass the needle and thread through the slanting line from above downwards, leaving the thread a little slack. place the thread again under the thumb, then in the same way as before, from above downwards, pass the needle and thread through this slack loop. this makes the first two links of the chain; the last one will not be properly fixed in place until the next stitch is taken. the dotted vertical line on the diagram shows the piece of material taken up by the needle upon commencing the next stitch. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] split stitch is a most useful one for many purposes. it is difficult to distinguish from a fine chain when done, but in the working it much more resembles stem stitch. it can be carried out in the hand or in a frame. this stitch, frequently seen upon ancient work, was much used for both draperies and features; the lines of the stitching usually, by their direction, expressing moulding of form or folds of drapery. to work it (fig. )--bring the thread through at the lower end of the traced line, then insert the needle about one-eighth of an inch further along, and bring it through on the line two or three threads nearer the starting-point; whilst bringing it through take it also through the centre of the working thread, which thus splits each stitch. footnote: [ ] no. , . chapter v stitches--(_continued_) satin stitch--long and short stitch--stem stitch--overcast stitch--back stitch--buttonhole stitch--tailor's buttonhole--fancy buttonhole edgings--flower in open buttonhole stitch--leaf in close buttonhole stitches--petal in solid buttonholing. satin and similar stitches satin stitch is perhaps the most commonly used of all stitches. it is more quickly worked by hand, but for complicated work the help of a frame is required. floss silk thread is seen to greatest advantage in a stitch of this kind, for it shows off the glossiness of silk particularly well. it is straightforward in the working and needs no further description than is given by the diagram (fig. ). the stitches may vary in length, they must neither be impracticably long nor, on the other hand, too much cut up, lest the silky effect be partly lost. these stitches lie close together and in parallel lines; the chief difference between satin and several other closely allied stitches being that these others may radiate or vary in direction according to the space to be filled. the stitch is usually worked in oblique lines; stems, leaves, and petals would be treated in this way; sometimes it is worked regularly having regard to the warp and woof of the material; it would be treated thus when used in conjunction with cross or stroke stitch. [illustration: fig. .] it will be seen that there is as much silk at the back as on the front of the work. there is a method of carrying out the stitch by which this waste of material at the back is avoided; the thread is returned to the front close to where it went through instead of crossing over and coming up on the other side. the effect on the right side, however, is not so good, so this method cannot be recommended. one of the technical difficulties with satin stitch is to get a neat firm line at the edges of the filled space; this is excellently attained by the chinese and japanese, who use this satin stitch a great deal. they frequently work each petal of a complicated flower separately, leaving as a division, between each one and the next, a fine line of material firmly and clearly drawn. [illustration: fig. .] the stitch is much used for raised work, and also lends itself well to gradation of colour. fig. is an example of shading in satin stitch. in this case each new row of stitches fits in just between those of the last row; this is a bold but very effective method of expressing gradation. a variation upon this is shown in fig. ; the bands of different colour are here necessarily worked in a chevron pattern which makes the shading rather more gradual. an example of the same thing can be seen in fig. in the leaf upon which the squirrel sits. apart from gradation of colour, the surface to be covered by satin stitch has often to be partitioned up in some way in order to make the satin stitches of a practical length. [illustration: fig. .] long and short stitch is a very slight variation, if any, from satin stitch. the name describes the method of working, for it is carried out by working alternately a long and a short stitch, the stitches being picked up just as in satin stitch. it is useful for close fillings and shaded work, and also as a solid outline for any kind of open filling. the working of the stitch can be seen in fig. , where the band of lightest colour on the upper part of the leaf is worked in long and short stitch. the advantage of this way of working can be seen at once, it makes a firm outline on the one edge and a nicely broken-up one on the other, just ready for another shade to be worked in. in order to carry out the rest of the shading on the leaf in the same way the stitches can be all of the same length; this will always ensure a broken line at the edge, which is a necessity for this method of gradation. long and short stitch used as an outline for a leaf with an open filling can be seen on page . the _opus plumarium_ or feather stitch that we read of in the descriptions of the old embroideries was a similar stitch to this, and so called, some say, because it resembled the plumage of a bird. [illustration: fig. .] stem stitch, well known and frequently in use for various purposes, such as for lines, outlines, gradated and flat fillings, and so on, is usually done in the hand, and is quite simple; fig. explains the working. if a broad line is required the needle is put in more obliquely, and a raised effect can be obtained by working over a laid thread. the thread must be kept to the same side of the needle, either to the left or to the right as better suits the purpose in hand; the effect is more line-like when it is kept to the right. occasionally, when just a double line is to be worked, it is deliberately done in the two ways, and then the line resembles a narrow plait. a solid filling in stem stitch should be worked in lines as illustrated in the squirrel in fig. . this little beast is taken from the curtain shown in plate vii., and is a good example of the life and interest that the introduction of such things adds to embroideries. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] the stitches just described were largely used in crewel work. this is a rather vague name that denotes a decorative kind of needlework carried out with coloured wools upon a plain white linen ground. the design is usually composed of conventionally treated leaves and flowers, often growing from boldly curved stems. these were partly shaded in solid stitches, partly worked with geometrical open fillings; ornamental birds and beasts of all kinds were introduced, and the effect of the whole was very beautiful. the work is characteristically english, and a great deal of it was executed in the xviith century. plates vii. and viii. are illustrative of the type of work, and fig. represents a detail. the various stitches which occur in this drawing are stem, herring-bone, long and short, knot, basket, buttonhole, single chain and satin stitches. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] overcast stitch in embroidery is practically a very short raised satin stitch. it requires neat workmanship, and then makes a bold clear line or outline. to work it (fig. )--run or couch down a thread on the traced line, then with fine thread cover this over with close upright stitches, picking up as little material as possible each time in order to make the line clear and round. the stitch is worked most perfectly in a frame. back stitch sometimes makes a good line or outline. to work it (fig. )--bring the needle through one-sixteenth of an inch from the end of the traced line, insert it at the commencement and bring it through again one-sixteenth of an inch beyond where it first came out. each stitch, it will be seen, commences at the point where the last one finished. buttonhole stitch and its application buttonhole stitch, which is well known in plain needlework, is very useful also in embroidery, besides being an important stitch in needlepoint lace. owing to its construction it is well suited for the covering of raw edges, but it is also adaptable to a variety of other purposes, such as are open or close fillings of leaves and flowers, cut work, and the outlining of applied work. [illustration: fig. .] there are two ways of forming the stitch, the common buttonhole and what is called tailor's buttonhole. to work the ordinary buttonhole stitch (fig. )--bring the needle through at the left-hand end of the traced line, hold the thread down to the left with the thumb and insert the needle as shown in the diagram, draw it through over the held thread to complete the stitch. it is worked openly in the diagram, but it may, as required, be either more or less open or quite closed. [illustration: fig. .] the tailor's buttonhole is for some purposes more satisfactory; the stitch is firmer than the other kind owing to the heading having an extra knot in it; this makes it also more ornamental. to work it (fig. )--commence in the same way as the last stitch until the needle and thread are in the position shown in fig. then, with the right hand take hold of the thread near the eye of the needle, bring it down and loop it under the point from right to left, draw the needle and thread through over these two loops, and the first stitch is made. [illustration: fig. .] buttonhole stitch can be varied in many ways, dependent mainly upon the spacing of the stitch and the direction that the needle takes when picking up the material. fig. shows four simple varieties; the first is the open buttonhole spaced slightly irregularly and with a thread slipped underneath it; any variety of spacing can be arranged, and the thread shown running underneath, which sometimes forms a pretty addition, is usually of a contrasting colour or material. the second shows the stitches taken slanting-wise, so that they cross each other. in the third the stitches are at different angles and of unequal length. the fourth example shows two lines of spaced buttonhole stitch fitting neatly the one into the other and forming a solid line. one row is worked first, leaving just sufficient space between each stitch for the second row to fill up, which can be carried out by reversing the position of the material and exactly repeating the first line in the same or in a different colour. [illustration: fig. .] a flower filled in with open buttonhole stitch is shown at fig. . the centre consists of a mass of french knots, and the outside line is in satin stitch. the innermost circle of buttonholing is worked first, the next row is worked over the heading of the first row as well as into the material; the succeeding rows are worked in the same way until the outside limit is reached, and there the satin stitch just covers the heading of the last row of buttonhole stitching. gradation of colour can easily be introduced by using a different shade for each circle of stitches, and this produces a very pretty effect. an open method of filling a space, whether flower, leaf, drapery, or background, is sometimes preferable to a solid filling, and the two methods can very well be used together as each shows off the other. these light fillings give opportunity for further variety and ingenuity in the stitching, and prevent the work from looking heavy. a butterfly, carried out partly in open stitches, is illustrated in fig. . [illustration: fig. .] fig. is, in the original, a gay little flower carried out in orange and yellow. the stitch employed here is a close buttonhole. [illustration: fig. .] another example of the use of close buttonhole is shown in the ivy leaf in fig. . the stitch is worked in two rows, back to back, in each lobe of the leaf, and the resulting ridge down the centre rather happily suggests the veining. this method of filling in might be just reversed for a rose leaf; the heading of the stitch would then suggest the serrated edge, and the meeting of the two rows down the centre the line of the vein. [illustration: fig. .] a cluster of berries can be very prettily worked in buttonhole stitch in the way shown in fig. . the stitches are so arranged that the heading outlines each berry, and the needle enters the material at the same point, always in the centre. a bullion stitch in a darker colour marks the eye of the berry. [illustration: fig. .] a good method of filling a space with solid buttonhole stitching is shown in fig. . each row is worked into the heading of the preceding row, and the stitches do not pierce the material except in the first row and at the extremities of succeeding rows. they are placed rather close together in order to completely cover the ground. the stitch is worked, first, from left to right, then for the next row from right to left; this is quite easy and enables the work to be continuously carried out. sometimes, when the first row is done, the thread is thrown across to the side where the row began, and there made fast; then the second row is worked with stitches which take up the thrown thread as well as the heading of the first row. by using a more open buttonhole and thus partly exposing the laid thread, a filling, both quick and effective, is obtained. this is a useful method to employ when the work is done over a padding of threads, for there is no necessity to pierce the material except at the edges. [illustration: fig. .] chapter vi stitches--(_continued_) knots and knot stitches--herring-bone stitch--feather stitch--basket stitch--fishbone stitch--cretan stitch--roumanian stitch--various insertion stitches--picots. knots and knot stitches it would be difficult to go far in embroidery without requiring knots for one purpose or another. they are useful in all sorts of ways, and make a pleasant contrast to the other stitches. for the enrichment of border lines and various parts of the work, both pattern and background, they are most serviceable, and also for solid fillings; for such places as centres of flowers or parts of leaves, they are again valuable. they have been used to form a continuous outline, but owing to their tendency to make a weak line, not frequently; indeed they usually show to better advantage when slightly separated. examples are to be seen of english knotted line work in which the knotting was executed in the thread previously to embroidering with it. the knotting of thread was a pastime with ladies in the xviith century. the thread, usually a linen one and as a rule home spun, was wound upon a netting-needle, and by the aid of this a close series of knots was made upon it; when finished it somewhat resembled a string of beads. balls of this prepared knotted thread may still be found, treasured up in old work receptacles. when prepared it was couched on to the material with fine thread, like a cord or braid, and made to follow out some prearranged pattern. in white linen work it was used for carrying out ornamental borderings on infants' robes and other dainty articles. [illustration: fig. .] french knots can be worked in the hand or in a frame. they are easier to manage in the latter, and to look well they must be neatly and firmly made. completed they should resemble beads lying end upwards on the material. to work the french knot (fig. )--bring the thread through the material at the required point, take hold of it with the left finger and thumb near the starting-point (a on plan), then let the point of the needle encircle the held thread twice, twist the needle round and insert it at point b on plan, draw the thread through to the back, not letting go the held thread until necessary. fig. shows some french knots decorating a leaf spray, and various other examples of their use can be found in the book. [illustration: fig. .] bullion knots resemble tight curls of thread laid on the material. they can be used as a variation from french knots, and even for the representation of petals and small leaves. to be satisfactory they must be firm, stout, and tightly coiled; some knack is required to make them properly. to work the bullion knot (fig. )--bring the thread through at the required place, insert the needle one-eighth of an inch from this point and bring it through again exactly at it. take hold of the thread about two inches from where it came through and twist it several times round the point of the needle, the number of times being dependent on the required length of the knot. place the left thumb upon the tight coil on the needle, in order to keep it in place, and draw the needle and thread through it, then pass the thread through to the back at the point where the needle was last inserted (point a on plan). the thumb must not be removed until it is in the way. fig. represents a flower, of which the centre is formed of bullion together with french knots. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] fig. shows a knotted stitch that is similar in result to the knotted threads discussed earlier in the chapter. in this case the knotting of the thread and the fixing to the material is done at the same time. it is a useful stitch when a jagged line is wanted, and can be seen used, for instance, for the branching veins in open work leaves, as in fig. . the diagram explains the working of the stitch; at point a on the plan the left thumb holds the thread down whilst the stitch is in progress. [illustration: fig. .] miscellaneous stitches [illustration: fig. .] the stitch illustrated at fig. is very similar to the common herring-bone. the only practical difference is that in the plain needlework stitch there is usually a smaller piece of material picked up by the needle each time. to work it as in the diagram--trace two parallel lines on the material and bring the thread through at the commencement of the lower line, insert it on the opposite line rather farther along and there pick up a stitch, as the needle is doing in the figure. then on the opposite line pick up a similar stitch a little in advance of the one just finished. after this work the stitches on either line alternately, commencing each one at the point where the last one ended; this forms on the underside a double row of back stitches. it is quite easy to work this stitch with the back stitches on the working side, and when they are required to be on the surface it is advisable to do it in that way. when embroidering upon a semi-transparent material this stitch is a satisfactory one to use, the back stitching follows out the outline on either side of the form, and the crossing of the threads on the under side shows through prettily. this stitch sometimes goes by the name of double back stitch. it is useful in many ways, making a light stitch for stems, leaves, or flowers; it can be sometimes found in eastern work used for an entire embroidery. when used for flowers or leaves the width and the closeness of the stitch are varied to suit the shape to be filled. an example of its use as a flower filling is shown in the carnation at fig. , which is carried out in four shades of colour. considerable use is made of this stitch in embroidered curtain shown in plate vii.; it is there employed for all the stems and various flowers upon the hanging. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] the feather stitch, often used to decorate plain needlework, is now to be discussed; although similar in name it must not be confused with the feather or plumage stitch that has already been mentioned. the stitch is so simple and so much in use as hardly to need description; fig. explains the working. there can be many slight variations of the stitch, the worker perhaps devising them needle in hand. two are shown in fig. . the one to the left is worked very like the ordinary stitch; the needle picks up the material in a straight line instead of slightly obliquely, and each stitch touches the one immediately above; it is here made use of as a couching stitch, a bunch of threads of a contrasting colour is laid on the material, and the stitch worked over it from side to side. the right-hand example shows the ordinary feather stitch worked more closely and in a broader line; carried out in this way, it can be used for a leaf filling. [illustration: fig. .] basket stitch, useful for a solid line, shows up very clearly when worked with a stout twisted thread. this stitch would be appropriately used when applied to some representation of basket work. to carry out the diagram (fig. )--trace two parallel lines on the material, and to commence, bring the thread through on the left-hand line, then insert the needle on the right-hand line about one-eighth of an inch lower down and bring it through on the left-hand line exactly opposite (see needle in fig.); the next stitch is worked by inserting the needle on the right-hand line but above the last stitch, that is at point a on diagram, and bringing it through at b. to continue, repeat from the beginning. [illustration: fig. .] a particularly good line for a border is made by fishbone stitch. it can be worked in one colour, or as easily in a chequering of two or three, as shown in the diagram (fig. ); to carry it out in this way the worker must have two threads in use, bringing through each as required. for such purposes as the fillings of small leaves, this stitch is very useful (see fig. ). the meeting of the stitches in the centre suggest the veining line, also the change in direction of the thread gives, to the two sides of the leaf, pleasant variation in tone. to work it--trace three parallel lines upon the material and bring the thread through on the upper line at the left-hand end. insert the needle and bring it through as in process in the diagram, then repeat the same stitch on the other side the reverse way, that is, insert the needle just over the central line and bring it through on the upper one close to the last stitch. care must be taken that the stitches cross well over each other at the centre, or the material will show through. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] the stitch shown in fig. , known as plait or cretan, is commonly seen on cretan and other eastern embroideries. it can be used as a solid border stitch or as a filling, varying in width as required. to work it--bring the thread through on the lower central line, then insert the needle on the uppermost line and bring it through on the next below as in process in the diagram; then, still keeping the thread to the right, insert the needle immediately underneath on the lowest line and bring it through on the line next above, in fashion similar to the last stitch, but in reverse direction. to continue, work the stitch alternately on one side and the other, always keeping the thread to the right of the needle. in order to make the central plait broader take up rather less material with the needle; this will decrease the outer and increase the inner lines. fig. is taken from a cretan embroidery, in which this stitch is mainly used. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] another similar but more simple stitch, often seen in eastern work, is shown in fig. . it can also frequently be found employed on xviith century english wool work hangings. it is sometimes called roumanian stitch, and is composed of one long stitch crossed by a short one in the centre. to work it--trace two parallel lines on the material and bring the thread through on the left-hand line at the top. insert the needle on the opposite line and bring it through near the centre, as shown in process in the diagram. for the next half of the stitch the needle enters the material at point a on plan, and is brought through again on the left-hand line close to the last stitch, and so in position to commence again. an illustration of this stitch in use as a filling can be seen at fig. . it is worked in four shades of green wool, and each line of stitches is so arranged as to encroach slightly on the line before by means of setting each stitch just between two of the last row. this method of working has two advantages; the shading is thus made more gradual, and a pleasant undulating effect is given to the surface of the leaf. this can be most easily understood by a practical trial of the stitch and method. [illustration: fig. .] insertion stitches there is occasion sometimes in embroidery to join edges together visibly. this gives an opportunity for some additional pretty stitching--the addition of something like this, that is perhaps not absolutely necessary, has extra value from the evidence it gives of the worker's interest and delight in her work, a quality always appreciated; on the other hand, work done from the motive of getting a result with as little labour as possible is valued at just its worth. these insertion stitches are useful for joining together edges of cushion covers, bags, detached bands, also for the ornamentation of dress, and for embroideries upon which drawn thread work is not possible. a stout thread is usually suitable for the purpose. the raw edges must first be turned in and flattened, and the parts to be joined can if necessary be tacked in place on a temporary ground such as _toile cirée_. fig. illustrates a twisted insertion stitch that is quickly executed and very frequently used. the diagram sufficiently explains the working without further description. [illustration: fig. .] buttonhole stitch can be turned to account for this purpose. fig. shows the tailor's buttonhole used as an insertion stitch; for this purpose it is the better of the two kinds of buttonhole. the stitches could be arranged in various ways; in the present example three are worked closely together on either side in turn. the only difficulty with this buttonhole insertion is that on one side the stitch has to be worked in direction contrary to that usual, that is from right to left instead of from left to right. in the diagram the needle is shown working in this reverse way. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] fig. is a knotted insertion stitch; the knot at each side makes the stitch a very rigid one. to work it--bring the thread through at the lower left-hand side, insert the needle on the upper side a little towards the right, draw the thread through, and then tie the knot on it as in process in the diagram. [illustration: fig. .] a rather more complicated joining stitch is shown in fig. . it could be carried out with different coloured threads. the two sides must be first worked with the edging, which is practically the braid stitch described on page . commence the stitch in exactly the same way as when carrying out braid stitch, but work on the edge of the material as in buttonholing, the working edge in this case being away from the worker. let the worker, having reached the point of pulling the thread through to complete the stitch, draw it out in the direction away from her. this will draw the stitch towards the edge, where it will form a knot. in the diagram one of the stitches has been partly undone in order to show the working more clearly. when the two sides are bound with the stitch, they can be laced together with another thread as in the illustration. picots picots are commonly in use in lace work and they are sometimes required for embroidery purposes, especially in the kinds of work nearly allied to lace, such as cut work, or for an added ornament to an edging stitch. [illustration: fig. .] fig. shows too small picots added to a buttonhole bar, and on the lower bar is shown the method of working the left-hand picot. the pin that passes into the material behind the bar can be fixed in the bar itself if there happens to be no material underneath. after reaching the point illustrated in the diagram, the needle draws the thread through, thus making a firm knot round the loop. this completes the picot, the bar is then buttonholed to the end. the second picot is made in much the same way; instead, however, of putting the needle as the diagram shows, bring the thread up through the centre of the loop, then round under the pin from left to right, and it will be in position to make three buttonhole stitches along the loop, which completes the second example. [illustration: fig. .] the upper bar on fig. shows a buttonholed picot. the bar must be worked to the left-hand end of the required picot; the thread is then from there taken back about one-eighth of an inch and threaded through the edge of the buttonhole. this is repeated to and fro until there is a loop composed of three threads ready to be buttonholed over. upon this being done, the thread will have arrived at the right point to continue the bar. bullion stitch makes another simple picot--work the bar to the point where the picot is required, then, instead of taking the next stitch, insert the point of the needle in the heading of the last stitch. leave the needle in this position, and twist the thread six or eight times round the point of it, just as for the bullion knot (fig. ). place the left thumb over the tight coil thus formed, and pull the needle and thread through tightly in order to make the stitch double up into a tight semi-circle, then continue the buttonholing to the end of the bar. chapter vii canvas work and stitches introduction--samplers--petit point pictures--cross stitch--tent stitch--gobelin stitch--irish stitch--plait stitch--two-sided italian stitch--holbein stitch--rococo stitch. canvas work, known in the xiiith century as _opus pulvinarium_ or cushion work, is of great antiquity, and seems to have had an independent origin in several countries. it is sometimes given the misleading name of tapestry, perhaps owing to hangings of all kinds being called tapestries, whether loom-woven, worked with the needle, or painted. large wall hangings with designs similar to those of woven tapestries have been most successfully carried out on canvas in cross or tent stitch; as a rule, however, smaller objects are worked, such as furniture coverings, screens or cushions, whence it is obvious canvas work received its ancient and descriptive latin name. many eastern carpets are worked upon a strong canvas in a kind of tent stitch, and so come under the heading of canvas work. it is a particularly durable method of embroidering, and this makes it suitable for use upon anything subjected to hard wear. the work has usually a very decided and attractive character of its own. a familiar example of this can be seen in the xviiith century samplers. its peculiar character is perhaps due to the fact that it cannot break away from a certain conventionality due to constant use of the same stitch, and its dependence upon the web of the fabric. this regularity prevents the work from showing certain faults of design that other methods may exaggerate. it is hardly possible to copy a natural spray of flowers in cross stitch and keep it very naturalistic. the stitch being square and alike all over gives a formality of treatment to every part of the design, also, some detail is perforce omitted owing to the impossibility of putting it in; all of this tends to a right method of treatment, which renders the sampler an admirable lesson not only in workmanship but also in design. the xvith and xviith century pictorial subjects worked upon fine canvas in cross or tent stitch afford instances of most interesting work in canvas stitches. some of these, though, as a rule, very much smaller in size, equal, in their way, the finest tapestries. most of them, if judged from a painter's standpoint, would be pronounced failures, but this effect is not what is sought after; the method of treatment belongs rather to the great traditions of the tapestry weaver, and is not governed by the canons of the painter. plate vi. shows a detail of foliage from a particularly fine example of this work lately added to the victoria and albert museum collection.[ ] in what went by the name of berlin wool work, popular in the early xixth century, we have before us a degenerate offshoot of this fine and poetic kind of work in which all its possibilities are missed, with a result that is prosaic in the extreme. some of the canvas-work seat covers decorated with geometrical designs, seen on chippendale chairs, were a pleasant and satisfactory variation in their way, but in most of the work after that period, the attempt at impossible naturalistic effect gave such unsatisfactory results as to almost deal a death blow to all canvas embroidery. it is, however, a method too good and useful to die out; it must always be more or less in vogue. patterns carried out in canvas stitches are sometimes to be seen worked apparently upon velvet or similar ground materials. this is done by first laying the canvas upon the velvet and stitching through both materials; this would have to be carried out in a frame. the threads of the canvas are afterwards either withdrawn or closely cut off. in the former case, the stitches must be drawn tight, or the finished work will not look well. this method has the advantage of saving the labour of working the background, and sometimes it suits the pattern to have a contrast in the ground material. in old embroideries, heraldic devices may be seen successfully treated in this way. the usual canvas stitches can be worked upon other fabrics that have an even and square mesh, such as various kinds of linen; also other embroidery stitches, such as stem, satin, or chain, can be used upon canvas; they are then always worked with a certain regularity, following the web of the material. canvas work can be done in the hand or in a frame, but the technique is often better in work done in a frame. in all-over work it is important that not even a suggestion of the ground fabric should be allowed to show through; for this reason work in light colours should be done on white canvas, and _vice versâ_, as far as possible, also the thread used must suit in thickness the mesh of the canvas. to work a plain ground well is less easy than to work the pattern, though it may sound more simple. the back of the work, though not necessarily similar to the front, must be alike in stitch all over, for the direction the stitch takes at the back affects the regularity of appearance of the front. the stitch must not be commenced in exactly the same place in each row, lest a ridge should appear upon the surface; this can be avoided by using threads of different lengths. a ground is usually commenced at the lower left-hand corner, and a pattern, if a complicated one, from the centre outwards. these technical points are of importance, but they are of little value unless the stitches are at the same time expressing an interesting and suitable design. the stitches used are exceedingly numerous; those described in the following pages are the varieties most commonly seen. cross stitch, the best known in this group, can be worked in slightly different ways, according to the purpose for which it is required. on the surface it is always the same, but it can vary at the back. for instance, when used for marking purposes it should form on the reverse side either a cross or a square, to do either of which demands some ingenuity on the part of the worker. for ordinary work the really correct method is to complete each stitch before going on to the next, though grounding is frequently done by working the first half of the stitch along an entire line, and completing the cross upon a return journey. in any case, the crossing must always be worked in the same direction. cross stitch is a double stitch worked diagonally over two threads of the canvas each way. it can, however, be taken over more or fewer threads if required larger or smaller. to work it (fig. )--bring the needle through on the upper left side of the threads to be covered, and take it back again on the lower right, then bring it through on the upper right side and return it to the back on the lower left, which completes the first stitch. [illustration: fig. .] tent stitch (fig. ) is the finest canvas stitch, and is therefore suitable for work involving much detail. pictorial and heraldic subjects are frequently carried out in it. it is worked diagonally over a perpendicular and horizontal thread of the canvas. the diagram shows the method of working both back and front. it will be noticed that though the line goes alternately from left to right and from right to left, the stitch is always the same at the back as well as the same upon the front; if this were not so, alternate rows would have a different appearance upon the right side. the diagram does not show the connection between the first and the second row, but it is evident that it must be a short upright line. [illustration: fig. .] gobelin stitch is a useful variety; it lends itself to shading better than cross stitch. it is most often worked upon a fine single canvas, and it can be used as a raised stitch. fig. represents the stitch; it is worked similarly to tent stitch but over two threads in height and one in width, no matter whether the single or double thread canvas is used. in order to work it as a raised stitch, a line of some kind of padding is thrown across the canvas, and the stitch taken over it. this line can be arranged to show in part, in which case the material must be one presentable, such as a gold cord or narrow braid. the padding would be covered with stitching to form the background, and left exposed for the pattern, which would probably be a simple repeating form of some kind. gobelin stitch is sometimes worked quite perpendicularly just over two threads in height. [illustration: fig. .] irish stitch is pretty and quickly worked. it is usually taken perpendicularly over four threads of the canvas (fig. ), though the number over which it is taken may vary. it is worked in such a way as to make the stitches of each succeeding row fit between those of the last row, and can be carried out either diagonally or in horizontal lines. what is known as florentine work is carried out in a stitch of this kind. the pattern in this kind of work is taken horizontally across the ground in a succession of shaded zigzag lines. [illustration: fig. .] plait stitch is often used for grounding. it resembles a simple plait laid in close rows to and fro on the ground. it can frequently be seen used upon the italian xvith century linen work, that in which the pattern is left in plain linen, and the ground worked in some colour. the diagram in fig. shows the method of working the stitch. if carried out correctly, the back of the material should show a row of short perpendicular lines, each composed of two threads. [illustration: fig. .] two-sided italian stitch is descriptively named, for it is alike on both sides. this is frequently seen on xvith and xviith century italian linen work, similar to that mentioned above. a loosely woven linen makes a suitable ground material, for in the working the stitches must be pulled firmly, so as to draw the threads of the fabric together; this gives over the ground a squared open-work effect, which is very pretty. fig. explains the working of the stitch; it is shown in four stages, and is quite simple; the final result is a cross surrounded by a square. the lowest figure in the diagram shows the last stage, for the upper side of the square is filled in when the row above is worked. the drawing together of the web is not shown, but at a trial it should be done, for in that lies the special character of the stitch. the silk used must be just thick enough to well cover the linen, but not too thick, for then the work would be clumsy. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] holbein stitch (fig. ), also known as stroke or line stitch, is alike on both sides, and is often used in conjunction with cross and satin stitch, as well as alone. very intricate and interesting patterns can be devised to be carried out with these three stitches, worked always with regard to the web of the linen. squared paper could be used for planning the design, as the stitches would all be practically of the same length, and the pattern must be one that can be easily carried out alike on both sides. the stitch is worked as follows: an even running stitch, picking up as much material as it leaves, is taken all round the pattern. this does half the work on either side; the gaps are then filled up by the running stitch being taken in a contrary direction, which completes the pattern. occasionally stitches go off at an angle from the running pattern; these are completed on the first journey by a satin stitch being made at the necessary point. the present diagram is a zigzag line, with one of these stitches going off at each angle. fig. is an example of a border design carried out in holbein stitch. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] the stitch illustrated in fig. is known as rococo stitch. it is a useful one for carrying out a conventional design, such as, to give a simple illustration, a flower sprig repeating in the spaces formed by a trellis pattern. the effect of the stitch when worked cannot be judged from this diagram; to see this properly a piece of canvas must be worked entirely over with it. the pattern chosen is usually one that lends itself to being worked in diagonal lines, as this stitch is best worked in that way. it entirely hides the canvas background, and is carried out very similarly to the oriental stitch in fig. . by the help of that diagram and description and the present one, which gives various steps, the worker will easily master the stitch, which is quite simple. the ordinary carrying out of the stitch is shown where the needle is at work, and in another part the diagram, by some loosened stitches, illustrates how to pass from one cluster to the next. some fine examples of canvas work design, introducing a variety of stitches, may be seen in the victoria and albert museum. these are large panels filled with foliage and flowers growing about architectural columns.[ ] footnotes: [ ] no. , . [ ] no. - , . chapter viii methods of work couching--braid work--laid work--applied work--inlaid work--patch work. couching couching is the name given to a method of embroidery in which one thread is attached to the material by another one. sometimes not only one thread but a number of threads are couched down together; or it may be cord, braid, or metal thread that is attached to the material in this way. fig. shows some couching in progress. the method probably arose through the difficulty experienced in passing either coarse or very delicate threads through a material. couching is constantly in use with gold thread embroidery, and it is further discussed in the chapter upon that subject, where also is described an entirely different method, which is to be recommended for couching other as well as for gold threads. [illustration: fig. .] couching is useful in a variety of ways, _e.g._ for carrying out work in line or for outlining other embroidery, applied work for instance, which is frequently finished off by means of a couched thread; in the case of a difficult ground material, it is one of the most manageable methods of working. the geometrical open fillings of leaves and backgrounds are often composed of lines of thread thrown across and couched down at regular intervals. fig. is an example of a favourite filling of this kind. embroidery stitches can be made use of for couching down other threads; a bunch of threads may be laid upon the material, and an open chain, buttonhole, or feather stitch worked over in order to fix it in place. [illustration: fig. .] braid work is quickly and easily executed; it needs only a suitable pattern and a pretty braid for couching down to be most successful. there are a few points to be observed about the technique--the cut edge of a braid is awkward to manage, for it must, with a special needle, be taken through to the back of the material and there made secure and flat; for this reason the design should be so planned as to have as few breaks as possible. interlacing strap work designs, of which a simple example is given in fig. , are very suitable for braid work. the thread that couches down the braid may be quite invisible, or, on the other hand, it may be made use of to further decorate the braid by being placed visibly across it, perhaps forming a chequering or other simple pattern, as shown in fig. . ravellings of the braid may be used as invisible couching threads for stitching it down. curves and sharp corners need special attention by way of extra stitches. the completed work is much improved by several hours' pressure under a weight. [illustration: fig. .] laid work [illustration: fig. .] laid work might be described as couching on a more extended scale--a given space is covered with threads taken from side to side in parallel lines close together, fixed at either extremity by entering the material. further security is usually given by small couching stitches dotted down at intervals over the laid threads, or by throwing single lines of thread across in a contrary direction and tying these down at intervals with couching stitches. yet another way is, to work a split or stem stitch over the laid threads, and thus fix them down. fig. shows a flower carried out in laid work. the tying-down threads can often be made use of in one way or another to further decorate, or to explain form, by means of contrasting colour, change in direction, and so on. the laid stitches in this flower are taken from the centre outwards and fixed in place by couched circular lines of thread. the centre of the flower has a geometrical filling, composed of a couched lattice pattern with french knots between. conventional centres of this and like kinds are very pretty for embroidery flowers; such patterns as those shown in fig. can often be seen in use, and they need only a trial to be frequently adopted. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] laid work shows off the gloss and texture of silk to great advantage, which is due to the thread being laid upon the material without being cut up into small stitches. floss silk is much used for the work; it must not be at all twisted in the laying down, since this mars the effect. the work is carried out in a frame; it is quickly executed and economical, the thread being practically all upon the surface. owing to the length of the stitches, this is not a very durable method, so it should not be subjected to hard wear. the work has sometimes a flimsy, unsatisfactory appearance, probably because of these long stitches. it will be seen that the silk passing through to the back, and then immediately to the front again, takes up very little of the material. a method in use for giving greater strength in this way is to lay the silk first in alternate lines and to fill up the gaps thus left upon a second journey across the form. for added strength, use might be made of a linen thread at the back, as in the _point couché rentré ou retiré_ method that is discussed later. [illustration: fig. .] a gold thread outline gives a nice finish to laid work. if there is nothing in the way of an outline, and the pattern and ground are both covered with laid threads, the edges of the pattern are likely to look weak. fig. shows a leaf filled in with rather loosely laid threads and outlined and veined with gold passing, the veining answering the double purpose of fixing down the laid threads and veining the leaf at the same time. in this work, the colouring is frequently in flat tones, but if necessary it is quite easy to introduce gradation. further variety can be obtained by a contrast in colour in the tying-down threads. applied work the ancient latin term _opus consutum_, and the modern french one _appliqué_, which is perhaps the name most commonly in use, both refer to the same kind of work; what is now called cut work is quite different from this, and is described elsewhere. under the heading of applied work comes anything that, cut out of one material, is applied to another; it may have been previously embroidered, or it may be just the plain stuff. both kinds can, as has been proved, be carried out with excellent effect, but much unsuitable and badly designed work has been done by this method, with the result that the very name has fallen into disrepute. the simplest kind of applied work is that in which the design, traced upon one material, then cut out along the outline of the pattern, is applied to another material, the junction of the two materials being hidden by a cord or suitable stitch. the applied work is most often flat, but it can be in slight or in strong relief. the texture of the materials employed may be an important factor in the result, for a contrast in material as well as in colour is often wanted; sometimes the former alone is sufficient. the choice of material depends very much upon the use to which the finished work will be put, but this simple form of applied work often relies for part of its effect upon an intrinsic interest in the material, so it is usually carried out with such materials as velvet, satin, or silk, either plain or figured. the design for this kind of work should be of a bold conventional type, such as large foliage with the character of the heraldic mantling; any naturalistic flowers, figures, or animals easily become grotesque. a simple outline to the forms is necessary, both because of the technical difficulties and for the effect of the finished work. this kind of work is hardly suitable for expressing fine detail; oftentimes it is seen from a distance, and many indentations on an outline sometimes tend to weaken it. heraldry can be well expressed by this method. fig. is an example from a piece of xiiith century work, a fragment of the surcoat of william de fortibus, third earl of albemarle, who lived in the reign of henry iii.; the example can be seen in the british museum. this method of work is also particularly suitable for such purposes as the decoration of wall surfaces, for hangings of various kinds, or banners; it can, however, be used for many other purposes, provided the design and the materials are well chosen. [illustration: fig. .] owing to the difficulty of working upon some ground stuffs, the method has arisen of carrying out the embroidery upon an easily worked ground, such as linen; cutting it out, when finished, along the outline and applying it to the proper ground, the junction of the two materials being hidden by a cord or some equivalent. it is usually further completed by light sprays or some other kind of finishing touches being placed around the applied part, these worked directly on to the proper ground. this prevents the embroidery from looking too bald and detached from its surroundings, of which there is always a danger when it is carried out separately and then attached; if at all possible it is always more satisfactory to work directly on to the right ground. as a matter of fact it is almost always possible to do this; the workers of the xiiith century, the period at which the art of embroidery was at its height, carried out the most exquisitely fine stitching and design on such grounds as velvet that had almost as long a pile as some varieties of plush. the famous cope of english work known as the bowden cope, of which a detail is given in plate i., is an excellent illustration of this point. upon careful examination of the work it is apparent that between the stitching and the velvet there is a layer of material, composed either of fine linen or silk. this would be of great help in the carrying out of the stitching. it is exceedingly probable that this layer of fine material was at the commencement of the work laid completely over the velvet background of the cope; for one thing, the design, with its finely drawn detail, could easily be perfectly traced upon a surface of this kind and only imperfectly upon velvet; another advantage of this method would be, that the background would be kept quite free from dust and from getting soiled by the hands during the lengthy process of the work. the stitching would be carried through all the surfaces, and when finished, the fine surface layer would be cut away close round the edges of the design, which would be quite easily done. this method of working upon a difficult ground is well worth trying in place of the applied method. to return to the discussion of applied embroidery--let us suppose the embroidered piece to be just completed on its linen ground, still stretched in the frame in which it was worked. in another frame, stretch the background material and trace upon it the exact outline of the piece to be applied. cut out the embroidered piece carefully round the edge, allowing about one-sixteenth of an inch margin outside the worked part, leaving, if necessary, little connecting ties of material here and there for temporary support. with fine steel pins or needles fix the cut-out work exactly over the tracing already made on the ground material, then make it secure round the edge with rather close stitches of silk placed at right-angles to the outline; with fine materials the raw edge of the applied part can be neatly tucked under and fixed in place by this overcast stitch. a cord is next sewn on to hide the fixing and give a finish to the edge. the colour of this cord is important, since its colour may increase the expanse of either the applied part or the ground. sometimes a double cord is put round, and in this case the inner one is attached to the embroidery before it is cut out of the frame, and the second attached afterwards. the inner one is often of a colour predominating in the embroidery, and the outer one of the colour of the ground. gold cord is very usual; if a coloured silk one is used it must be a perfect match. the ordinary twisted cord looks best attached invisibly; to do this, slightly untwist it whilst stitching, and insert the needle in the opening thus formed. some kinds of flat braids look well with the fixing stitches taken deliberately over them and forming part of the ornamentation (see fig. ). bunches of silk are sometimes couched round with a buttonhole or other stitch, but whatever the outline may consist of, it should be a firm bold line. the work must be perfectly flat when completed. puckering may occur through want of care in the preliminary straining or in the fixing on of the applied parts. some materials are more easy to manage than others. the difficult ones can if necessary have a preliminary backing applied, which is useful also if the material is inclined to fray. the backing may consist of a thin coating of embroidery paste, or of tissue paper or fine holland pasted over the part to be applied. the more all this kind of thing can be avoided, the better the work, for pasting of any kind is apt to give a stiff mechanical look; also, if the work is intended to hang in folds any stiffness would be most impracticable. even more than simpler work applied embroidery needs the finish of some light work upon the ground. gold threads and spangles, arranged in fashion similar to the sprays in fig. , are very often used. sometimes, instead of this, some small pattern in outline is run all over the ground in order to enrich it. inlaid work inlaid work is in effect similar to the applied, and it is used for the same purposes. the difference with this is that both background and pattern are cut out and fitted into each other, instead of only one of them being cut out and laid on an entire ground. the method of work is economical, for there need be very little waste of material. what is left from cutting out the pattern and background for one piece can be used as ground and pattern for another and possibly companion piece. there is in perugia a church which possesses a complete set of draperies of this description, that were made at a good period for this work, early xvith century, and evidently were designed for the position they occupy. on festivals, the piers, pulpit, and parts of the wall are hung with these rose and gold-coloured hangings of inlaid work. the design is a conventional scroll-work pattern, and the various hangings have alternately the rose ground with gold pattern, and gold ground with rose pattern, the whole forming a rich and harmonious interchange of colour. [illustration: fig. .] fig. is an example of inlaid work. it is a xvth century tabard said to have belonged to charles the bold, and now in the musée historique at berne. the pattern, it will be noticed, is planned on the counterchange principle, which is particularly well suited for this method of work. a very ancient piece of the same kind of inlaid work is the funeral tent of queen isi-em-keb, dated about b.c., which is in the boulak museum, cairo. it is composed of thousands of pieces of gazelle hide dyed in various colours and stitched together so as to form a wonderful design.[ ] to carry out the work--stitch in a frame some holland to use as a background; this may be only temporary, being removed when the work is completed, or it may be left for additional strength. the materials for both background and pattern must first be carefully cut out. it is a good plan, where possible, to cut the two together so as to ensure exact similarity, for they have to fit together afterwards like the parts of a puzzle. the cut edges cannot be allowed to fray, so if there is any danger of this, precautions must be taken to prevent it, though the better way is to choose in the first place more suitable material. leather is a particularly good example of one. any pasting or backing which might be used for prevention of fraying would prevent also that possibility of exposing both sides of the work, which in inlay is sometimes a valuable quality; also, the stiffening which unavoidably results from pasting is rarely an improvement. when materials of different thicknesses are used together, the thinner one can be lined with fine holland so as to make it nearer equal in strength. after the materials are cut out the next process is to lay them in position on the prepared holland and tack them to it. then, with an overcast stitch that must not be allowed to pierce the under surface, join all the edges together, and cover the stitches with a finishing cord or braid. the backing can now be removed if need be. patchwork patchwork can hardly attain to a high position amongst the various branches of embroidery. the main object of doing patchwork frequently is to make good use of valuable scraps of waste material. unless, however, the product shows evidence of well thought out colour and arrangement, it cannot come under the heading of embroidery. interesting results, however, of many kinds can be produced from this paint-box of brightly coloured scraps of material by ingenious mixing and shaping of them. patchwork infers a rather more mosaic-like design than inlaid work, to which it is in some respects similar. the geometrically planned mosaic and inlay pavements that are to be seen so commonly in italy and the east suggest great variety of patterns that could be applied to patchwork. the illustration at fig. is a simple example taken from this source. too often the results are only "alarming," as the countess of wilton expressively puts it, thinking, probably, of the patterns frequently seen upon cushions, patterns more resembling bright-coloured bricks set in cornerwise than anything else. they are the most unrestful looking things imaginable. the important elements of the work lie in the colour, shape, and texture of the pieces used, for upon the right selection the result wholly depends. the shapes chosen must be simple owing to the necessity of fitting and stitching them together, but there is plenty of variety obtainable with simplicity. the design may consist of one shape repeated or several. if only one, it is limited to a few geometrical figures, such as the square, hexagon, or shell shape; if more than one, there can be greater variety of pattern. fig. is an example in which four shapes are made use of, a large and small circle, an octagon, and an s-like twist. four of these twists together make the figure that interlaces over the surface. embroidery stitching can be added to patchwork; for instance, this example might have a neat border pattern worked on all the s-shapes, as suggested in the diagram, which would probably considerably increase its interest. fig. shows flowers springing from the base of the shell-form in use upon it. the embroidery could be simply carried out in one colour, or if a more gorgeous result were required, variety could be introduced in this way as well as in the ground, and a marvellous combination of intricate colour could be thus produced. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] for the work to be made up satisfactorily it is necessary that the shapes be accurately cut out. to ensure this, a metal plate is cut and all the shapes are taken from it; sometimes, in lieu of this, a pattern is cut out in stiff cardboard. lay this pattern-shape on the wrong side of the material and pencil it round, then carefully cut out the stuff, leaving about a quarter of an inch for turning in. next lay the pattern-shape upon a piece of stiff paper or thin card-board and again trace off the shape, this time cutting it out exactly to the pattern, tack the material to the paper, and stitch down the raw edges at the back. lay the prepared patches on a table and put them in place by referring to the design, and then commence sewing the edges together with an overcast stitch on the wrong side. when all are sewn, remove the papers and flatten the seams with an iron. any braid or stitch that may be required to mask the join is next put on; this may be made ornamental by interlacing knots at the corners, or by any other device that happens to suit the work. the last thing to be done is to put a neat lining upon the back to cover and protect the numerous raw edges. [illustration: fig. .] footnote: [ ] for further information see "the funeral tent of an egyptian queen," by villiers stuart. chapter ix methods of work--(_continued_) quilting--raised work--darning--open fillings--darned netting. quilting is a method of working by which three materials are fixed together by more or less all-over stitching. it probably developed through the necessity of keeping the three layers in place. for practical purposes only, the sewing machine does the work excellently, but by making the stitching follow out some prearranged design, it is raised to the level of art. plate iii. is an interesting example showing what can be done in the way of design with the stitching over the surface. embroidery may be added to the quilting, and this is often an improvement. the eastern nations carry out marvellously intricate designs in quilting, and english xviiith century work of this kind shows eastern influence strongly. a good example of this is a very interesting piece in the victoria and albert museum.[ ] the first aim in quilting was evidently warmth, and the name denotes one of the chief uses to which it is put. it is made use of also for curtains, infants' caps or gloves (see fig. ), all these things requiring the three layers for warmth. the materials usually consist of a surface one, which can be silk, fine linen or anything else; an interlining of some softer material having a certain amount of spring in it, such as flannel, cotton wadding, or wool; and for the third, an underneath lining of some kind. a cord is sometimes inserted instead of the inner layer of stuff, the lines of stitching running along either side to keep it in place. occasionally there are only the top and the under layer, with no intervening material. the stitch usually employed is a running, back, or chain stitch, and it can be of the colour of the surface, or a contrast to it. gold silk is often seen upon a white linen ground. the chief interest in the work lies in the choice of pattern, such things as colour, variety of stitching, interest in material, are not made much of. in planning the pattern, use is made of the knowledge that the closely stitched parts will lie more flatly, so it frequently happens that the ground has a small diaper running over it, and the pattern part, being less worked upon, perhaps only outlined, stands out more and forms an effective contrast. [illustration: fig. .] raised work in the xivth century raised work was commonly done, but few examples are known of date earlier than this. the raised effect is obtained by an interposed layer of padding, which is a good method of getting a certain kind of effect. it is perhaps wise to err on the side of too little rather than too much relief. an example of too much and also of a wrong kind is the english stump work that was popular in the xviith century, when figures were stuffed like dolls, the clothes made separately and attached, even to the shoes and stockings. germain de st. aubin, writing in , describes with much admiration a kind of _broderie en ronde bosse_, apparently much the same thing and in equally doubtful taste, though the skill required to carry it out must have been considerable. the work, usually done in a frame, must be well carried out technically; the padding should be quite perfect in the form required before the final surface layer is worked over it, for this one will not make any deficiency right, but will only serve to show it up the more. another point to be careful about is to make the padding stop well within the traced line of the pattern, otherwise the finished design will turn out much larger than was originally intended. the outline is sometimes worked round at the commencement, whereby its correctness is ensured. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] many different materials are brought into use for padding purposes. one of the simplest and most durable is a running of thread as illustrated in fig. . the thread can be arranged so as to be thicker in the centre than at the edges by laying some extra stitches over that part. if a quite flat padding is required, the shape, cut out in cloth, felt, or parchment, is attached by stitches to the material as shown in fig. ; the surface stitching would be taken across it. cardboard, sometimes pasted on to the ground, is used for this purpose, but it is unsatisfactory in several ways; for instance, cardboard letters are procurable for embroidering initials upon linen, but they are not at all practical for anything that goes through the wash; moreover, the letters are sometimes of bad design. cotton wool is used as a stuffing, its surface being usually covered over with muslin, but this again would not stand much wear of any kind, and so could only be used under certain conditions. [illustration: fig. .] another good method is to couch down a hank of threads of fine cotton or perhaps wool as illustrated in fig. . for raised lines there is a special kind of string procurable that can be couched to the ground material at the required places. the padding, whatever it may be composed of, should be as nearly as possible of the same colour as the surface layer, in view of any after wear and tear misplacing the threads. [illustration: fig. .] the top layer of underlay must lie in direction contrary to the surface embroidery stitching, which is very often some form of satin stitch taken from side to side over the padding. instead of going through the material it can be fixed on each side with a couching stitch, as in fig. . a stronger way than these would be that shown in fig. . buttonhole is a good stitch for working over a padding; it would be worked solidly in the manner described and illustrated on page , but taken, as there shown, over a padding instead of over a flat surface. darning there is a most practical sound about darning; it can, however, be made good use of in embroidery as well as in plain needlework. there are two rather different kinds in use; in both the stitch is a running one and done in much the same way that a thin place would be darned in mending. one kind of darning is rather popular at the present moment, and examples of it may be familiar; it is a large, bold kind of work, often carried out with a coarse twisted silk. upon the background, the lines of stitching usually run straight across or up and down, in the pattern, they radiate according to the shape of the form to be filled. the entire material is covered one way or another by the running stitches, and just one thread of the ground fabric is picked up where necessary at irregular intervals; a loosely woven linen is often chosen for working upon, one in which it is easy to pick up the single thread. gradation of colour can easily be introduced; the design chosen is most frequently some kind of conventional flower and leafy scroll. this method of embroidery is seen to best advantage when used upon large surfaces. the second kind is called pattern darning; in it the stitches are picked up in some regular order, so that they form various geometrical patterns over the surface. it is worked by counting the threads of the fine linen ground and picking up a single thread or more in some regular sequence. the threads are run in parallel lines close together, either horizontally or vertically, so as to take advantage of the web of the fabric. the work is particularly pretty and not difficult, requiring only patience and good eyesight. fig. gives some simple examples of the work--the first is a chevron pattern, formed by picking up one thread and leaving about five each time; each succeeding row moves a step forward or backward as required to carry out the pattern. in the second example the darning is taken two ways of the material; in the centre, where it meets and crosses, it entirely covers the ground. a different colour might be used for each direction, which would look very well at the crossing in the centre. the four corners are filled up with a chequer darn; this each time picks up as much material as it leaves. the third example shows the darning stitch forming a diamond pattern. samplers, dated early xixth century, may be seen entirely filled with these pattern darns; they are covered with most intricate and beautiful sample squares showing various patterns in darning, and were possibly done in order to learn how to repair damask table linen. in a collection of early egyptian work in the victoria and albert museum, there is some pattern darning, dated vith to ixth century, a.d., which proves it to be a very early method of embroidering. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] this pattern darning, however, is so pretty that it is often possible to make use of it in embroidery work for all kinds of purposes. it makes a very good background if there is sufficient space to show the pattern, if there is not, the irregular darning might be used instead, for it would in that case be just as good and much quicker to work. to pattern-darn the ground with the ornament upon it left in the plain material, perhaps not worked upon at all, is a very effective method of carrying out a design, see fig. for example. again it might very well be used for the conventional carrying out of draperies in the same way as in _point couché rentré ou retiré_.[ ] the draperies on the figure in the frontispiece could easily be carried out with silk thread in the darning stitch, in fact this method of decoration more closely resembles the early couching than any other; it is not quite as satisfactory because the single threads of the background that are picked up prevent the ground showing nothing but silk. bands of this work may be seen ornamenting needle books or work cases; it shows to best advantage when worked finely with floss or filosel silk, the coarse twisted silks are too thick for the purpose. open work fillings [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] patterns can be carried out in line, they can be worked quite solidly, and there is a method that lies between these two known as open filling. the open and solid fillings are often used together in the same piece of work; examples of this can be seen on the xviith century wool-work curtains, the large scrolling leaves are sometimes partly worked openly and a portion, possibly reflexed, filled in with solid stitches in gradating colour; see for an example plate viii. this has a very good effect, it prevents the work looking too heavy, shows up the form more clearly, and allows of more variety in the stitching. with open fillings the outline surrounding them must always be some firm decided line, such as is made by a band of satin or long and short stitch, or, in the case of larger forms, by several rows of different line stitches worked closely together, one inside the other, most likely in different shades of colour. a filling of open work can be carried out in a variety of ways; it may be a decorated trellis, a regular dotting of some kind, or some geometrical pattern in outline, or some light stitch such as an open buttonhole (see fig. ), which would be treated each as a diapering over the form to be filled. it does not much matter what the filling is as long as it is dispersed pretty regularly over the space, giving the effect at a little distance of a light pervading tone, and when examined closely exhibiting an interesting small pattern. the open filling method can be used entirely throughout a design with very pretty effect; an example of this may be seen on an embroidered coverlet and pillow case in the victoria and albert museum.[ ] the pattern, composed of vine leaves and grapes, is carried out in dark brown silk on a linen ground, the leaves being all outlined with satin stitch. there is wonderful variety in the patterns, no two alike, which form the open fillings of the leaves; this makes them most interesting to examine, and is evidence of enthusiasm in their designing. fig. , a leaf taken from this specimen, shows one method of filling a form with open work.[ ] fig. shows a collection of patterns taken from the same piece of embroidery. it will be observed that small stitches of the same length compose the pattern, which can be designed upon squared paper and easily copied on to the linen ground by always picking up the same number of threads. to look well these little forms must be accurately worked, and they or similar kinds can be used upon flowers, leaves, beasts, draperies, or anything else quite indiscriminately. fig. , from a cap in the victoria and albert museum, is a drawing showing the same kind of open filling in use upon a bird.[ ] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] a quicker way of carrying out these geometrical fillings is by using such forms as a lattice and throwing the lines from side to side across the shape to be filled, fixing them down, where they cross each other, with couching stitches; the interstices left between the threads can be filled in with little stars, crosses, or dots (see fig. ). buttonhole stitch, if made use of as an open filling, would be taken in lines straight across a form, the stitches being worked possibly two or three closely together and then a space, and so on. [illustration: fig. .] fig. suggests another method of lightly filling a leaf with a conventional veining and dotting. there is no limit to the variety which can be obtained in this method of working. [illustration: fig. .] open fillings are effective for use upon any work that is intended to be seen with a light at the back; they make very decorative the various forms they fill, in such things as muslin window blinds, curtains, fire screens, whether hand screens or the larger type. for articles of this kind the patterns should be rather more solid and less lined in character; fig. , taken from a window blind exhibited in the victoria and albert museum, exemplifies what is meant; most of the patterns illustrated in fig. could be treated in a more solid manner if necessary, and would look equally well that way. when working upon transparent grounds special care must be taken with the reverse side as well as with the surface, for the work to be practically alike upon both sides; there must be no threads running from one form to another nor any visible fastening off of ends. [illustration: fig. .] darned netting [illustration: fig. .] darned netting, or _lacis_, as it is sometimes called, might almost come under the heading of either lace or embroidery. it is used effectively with other kinds of white linen work, bands or squares of it being let into the linen; the contrast of the solid with the more open work gives a pretty effect. fig. is an example of this work. the darning is done on a plain netted ground which can be prepared by the worker if acquainted with netting, if not, the squares can be obtained ready for working upon. the pattern must be designed upon squared paper as for cross stitch work, then it is simply a question of following out the pattern upon the square net ground. every square of the patterned part must be crossed in each direction by two lines of darning, which should about fill it up. the various lines are run in and out as continuously as possible, so as to avoid unnecessary fastening off or passing from one part to another. when a fresh thread is required, join it with a knot to the end of the last one (see figs. and ), and darn the ends in neatly with the other threads. these knots are often used in embroidery, for they are both strong and small. detached stitches and parts must be worked by themselves; the thread should not be carried from one to the other. the work must be done in a frame and carried out with a blunt-pointed needle. the same thread is used for the netted ground and for the darned pattern. a method of work that the french call _dessein réservé_ is, in result, rather similar to this, but it is worked in just the reverse way. the pattern, whatever it may be, is left in the plain linen, and the background has certain threads in each direction withdrawn at regular intervals, whereby the effect of the squared net ground is obtained. footnotes: [ ] no. , . [ ] for description of this method, see page . [ ] a piece belonging to lord falkland. [ ] fig. is a drawing from the border of the same example. [ ] no. , . chapter x methods of work--(_continued_) drawn thread work--hem stitching--simple border patterns--darned thread patterns--corners--cut or open work--various methods of refilling the open spaces. this method of work is the acknowledged link between embroidery and lace, and was possibly the origin of the latter. drawn work is that in which the threads of either the warp or the weft of the material are withdrawn and those remaining worked into a pattern, by either clustering together or working over them in some fashion. the cut or open work, as it is sometimes called, is that in which both warp and weft are in places cut away, and the open spaces thus formed are partly refilled with a device of one kind or another. the work is most often carried out in white thread on white linen, but coloured threads may occasionally be introduced with advantage. it is a durable method of work, and particularly suitable for the decoration of various house-linens, things that must undergo daily wear and wash; its rather unobtrusive character too makes it the more suitable for this purpose. the work is used in conjunction with other kinds of embroidery, perhaps making a neat finish to an edge, or lightening what would otherwise be too heavy in appearance. drawn thread and cut work can be carried out with such detail and fineness as to really become most delicate lace. in this chapter, however, it is intended to be treated rather as an adjunct to other embroidery, therefore only elementary work will be discussed. more attention might with advantage be paid to the design of this kind of work, for more might be done with it than sometimes is. for one thing, there is very little variety in the patterns, and the result often seems a spidery mass of incomprehensible threads with no very perceivable plan; perhaps if more attention were paid to the proportion and massing of the solid and open parts, a better result might be attained. neatness and simplicity are good qualities in the pattern, the method of work not being suited to the expression of the various larger and bolder types of design. drawn thread work in drawn work the question is how to treat the remaining warp threads after the weft has been withdrawn. they can be clustered in bunches in different ways with ornamental stitches added, or be entirely covered over with darning or overcast stitches in such a way as to form a pattern. the beginning of most drawn thread work is hem stitching, the two edges marking the limit of the withdrawn threads have usually to be hem stitched before any pattern can be carried out. one method of doing this is in progress in fig. . in order to work it, draw out three or four threads of the warp and tack the hem down to the top edge of the line thus made. the diagram explains the remainder of the working. [illustration: fig. .] fig. shows in the first example clusters of four threads drawn together at each edge by hem stitching in such a way as to form a ladder-like pattern. this and the one below are the ornamentations of a plain hem that are most commonly seen. the variation in pattern in the lower one is obtained by drawing together on the lower edge two threads from two consecutive bunches in the upper row instead of just repeating over again the same divisioning as before. these two examples are drawn to show the reverse, not the working side. [illustration: fig. .] another way of disposing of the undrawn threads is to cover them with a kind of darning stitch, as illustrated in fig. . this kind of work is more solid than the other, and is for that reason very durable. this example is commenced at the right-hand corner, where the threads are drawn loosely in order to explain the working. the needle, which should have a blunt point, takes the thread to and fro alternately over and under two clusters of warp thread, drawing them together a little during the process; half-way down, the needle leaves the first set of threads and continues working with the second and a new set (see needle in diagram). when this is worked down to the base the needle takes the thread invisibly up the centre of the worked part to the point where it is required for the continuation of the pattern. the working of this simple pattern explains the principle upon which all kinds of pretty and more complicated designs can be carried out. the darning thread may be coloured; in a more intricate design two or three different colours might be introduced. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] fig. shows another pattern in the same kind of work. the darning stitch begins by working to and fro over and under four clusters of warp threads, part way down it continues over the two central ones only, leaving the outside clusters alone for the present. it finishes up, as at the beginning, to and fro over the four. the threads that were left are next covered with an overcast stitch, the adjoining ones in each case are caught together in the centre in order to form the x shape that recurs along the pattern. this darning kind of work is very closely allied to weaving, and especially the kind often seen in coptic work, in which bands of the woof threads are purposely omitted in places, whilst the fabric is being made, in order that a pattern may be hand-woven in afterwards to take their place. many beautiful examples of this work are on view in the victoria and albert museum. [illustration: fig. .] in working a drawn thread border round a square shape, at each corner there comes an open space that requires a filling. fig. shows two wheels that are commonly used to ornament such places. the square in the first one has a preliminary groundwork of threads thrown across from corner to corner and from side to side, all meeting and crossing in the centre. the working thread is brought through at this point and the wheel commenced by taking a kind of back stitch over a bar and bringing the needle up beyond the next bar. it then takes the thread a step back and over the same bar and brings it up beyond the next; this goes on until the circle is of sufficient size, the stitches growing a little longer in each succeeding row. in the diagram the thread is loosened at the end to explain the working. the lower example is a commonly used wheel, which is made by the thread running round alternately over and under a bar until the wheel is completed. it should be as solid as the upper one, but is purposely left loose in the diagram. either of the wheels could have a line of buttonhole stitching worked round the edge as a finish. this figure shows also the two usual ways of making firm the raw edges in cut work--the square shape is bound by an overcast stitch, and the round one by buttonholing. cut or open work cut work can be most interesting both to look at and to carry out. in the xviith century italy was famous for its _punto tagliato_ or cut work. john taylor mentions "rare italian cutworke" in "the praise of the needle." this poem may perhaps be of interest to some; it was prefixed to a book of embroidery patterns of cut work named "the needle's excellency." it ran through twelve editions, the first of which was printed in , and sold at "the signe of the marigold in paules churchyard." copies may be seen in the british museum library; in the bodleian, oxford, in the ryland's library, manchester, and occasionally elsewhere. fig. shows a pattern taken from this book. there are several distinct varieties of cut work, for instance, that known as renaissance embroidery, which is usually composed of an arabesque design from which the background is cut away, leaving the pattern in the linen; the cut edges are outlined and protected by an overcast stitch. the pattern has to be specially planned with the idea of holding strongly together, but, if necessary, buttonholed bars can be added to form strengthening ties in any weak part. another kind of cut work is that known as _broderie anglaise_, and sometimes as madeira work, over which our grandmothers spent much time, perhaps without adequate result. the pattern is followed out by round holes pierced in the linen with a stiletto and then overcast round the edges. at the present day the work is done mostly by machinery, though hand work also is procurable. [illustration: fig. .] perhaps the prettiest kind of cut work is that in which various-shaped spaces are cut out of the linen, and these filled in, in part, with some design built up with stitches. there are various methods of refilling the spaces cut out, one of the simplest is a diapering formed by some lace stitch, such as an open buttonhole. as a rule, the decoration of the open spaces is based upon bars of thread that are either composed of warp or woof threads left, instead of being cut away, or else upon fresh threads thrown across in various directions. the pattern is planned on and about these strengthening ties, and where necessary receiving support from them. an ingenious worker will soon devise ways of refilling the spaces by all kinds of interesting patterns, which can be geometrical or floral, or any kinds of objects that can be attractively represented in conventional fashion, such as figures, birds, insects, ships in full sail, or anything else. it must, however, be remembered that the various forms filling the spaces are for use in the way of strength as well as for ornament, and that the work is often put upon objects that have to endure daily wear. open work is frequently mixed with other, and especially with white embroidery, and such things as counterpanes may be seen arranged with a chequering of alternate squares of embroidered linen and open work. fig. shows in progress a simple method of filling a space, mainly making use of the strengthening threads that have been left at regular intervals over the cut part. the threads are covered with an overcast stitch, and alternate squares of those that recur over the space are decorated with a cross. this is made by the working thread, after reaching the right point at the centre of an overcast line, being thrown across the space and then twisted back over itself to the starting-point, where it is in the right position for continuing the overcast line. the crosses being put in at the same time as the overcasting of the bars renders some forethought necessary to get each in at just the right time and place. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] another kind of filling can be seen in progress in fig. . the stitches used in it are overcast and buttonhole. with the help of this last-mentioned stitch patterns of all kinds can be carried out, for each succeeding row of the stitch can be worked into the heading of the last row, and in this way it is possible to build up any required shape. this figure is a working diagram of a piece of cut work of which the completed square with its surrounding decoration can be seen in fig. . after overcasting the raw edges a diagonal thread is thrown across (e d on plan), upon which the pattern shall be built up; the thread is taken once to and fro and then twisted back again for a third crossing. commence by overcasting the threads from point d, and upon reaching the part where the pattern is widened out, change the stitch to an open buttonholing (as shown on line b). it is worked openly in this way in order to leave space for another row of the same kind of stitching to be fitted in from the opposite side, which is the next thing to be done. then an outer row of buttonhole stitch is worked on each side of the central bar and into the heading of the first row of stitching; this is shown in progress where the needle is at work. the entire pattern is carried out in this way, first laying down foundation threads in the necessary places and then covering them up with either overcasting or buttonhole stitch as required. it is easily possible to carry out flowers and all kinds of other things sufficiently well to make them pleasantly recognisable. chapter xi embroidery with gold and silver threads introduction--materials--precautions for the prevention of tarnish--ancient method of couching--its various good points--description of working diagram--working a raised bar--examples of patterns employed in old work--illustrations upon draped figures--usual method of couching--couching patterns--outline work--raised work--the use of purls, bullions, &c. gold and silver threads have always played an important part in embroidered work, and are a most valuable addition to the worker's stock of materials, for they give a splendour and richness that is not obtainable in any other way. they have been utilised from the earliest times in both embroidery and weaving; in scripture and other ancient historical writings there is abundant proof of this fact. the earliest form of gold thread in use was the pure metal beaten into thin plates and then cut into long narrow strips; that it was sometimes rounded into wire form is very probable. the first wire-drawing machine is said to have been invented by a workman at nuremberg, but it was not until two centuries later that the drawing-mills were introduced into england. gold thread, similar to that we now use, entwined about a silk one, is mentioned in a xivth century latin poem; also, it is known that in the xiiith century our english ladies prepared their own gold thread before working it in, and it was of the same type as ours, the gold being spirally twisted round a thread of silk or flax.[ ] to be a skilled worker with gold thread needs considerable application and practice. there is much variety in the work, some branches of it being more simple to manipulate than others. it is desirable for all workers to understand something of gold work, for it is frequently employed in conjunction with other embroidery, as well as alone. fig. shows a couched line of gold thread outlining some silk embroidery, which gives a pretty jewel-like effect of something precious in a setting of gold. [illustration: fig. .] gold embroidery may be divided roughly into three main classes, outline work, solid flat work, and raised work. outline work is, as far as technique is concerned, one of the simplest forms of gold embroidery. the pattern is followed round with a gold cord or double thread of passing, fixed either visibly or invisibly with a couching stitch; the work needs but an interesting design and suitable background to be most successful. fig. illustrates a portion of a design, carried out with gold cord upon a velvet ground, which has been further enriched by the addition of little applied white flowers. the raised work, and that which introduces the use of purls and bullions, is at once more complicated, and perhaps hardly as pleasing as the simpler flat work. [illustration: fig. .] the method of applying the gold to the material is usually by couching of one form or another, for most of the threads are too inflexible to be stitched through. the ground, if it shows at all, is usually a rich stuff, such as velvet, satin, or silk, in order to be in keeping with the valuable thread. if the ground chosen is difficult to work upon, the embroidery is carried out upon linen, and the finished work afterwards applied to the ground. if both background and pattern are solidly embroidered, linen can be used as the permanent ground. it is usual to have two layers of material for working upon, for gold threads are heavy and require the support of the double ground. there are several advantages in this double material, as the old workers knew, for we find they commonly used two. the under-layer can be a strong linen, and the surface one silk, satin, or a fine linen, as required. materials a variety of metal threads are manufactured for embroidery purposes, and they are all obtainable in gold, silver, or imitations of these; aluminium thread has been made lately, and has the advantage of being untarnishable, but its colour and quality do not seem quite satisfactory, and it is not popular. the imitation threads are never worth the using; they tarnish to a worse colour, and are more difficult in manipulation; what goes by the name of real gold, is silver or copper, plated with the more valuable metal. the pure gold thread is said not to be so practical as this, being too brittle; but somehow or other it was more successfully manufactured in the past than nowadays, for some gold work six centuries old exhibits beautifully bright threads. the following list comprises the chief threads used in this work:-- _passing._--this is a bright smooth thread, resembling in appearance a gold wire; it consists of a narrow flat strip of gold spirally twisted round a silken thread. it can be obtained in different sizes, the finest qualities going by the name of tambour. most passing has to be couched on to the material, but it is possible to stitch in the tambour like ordinary thread. _purl._--this resembles a smooth round hollow tube of metal, very pliable and elastic; when pulled lengthways it is found to be constructed like a closely coiled spiral spring. it is manufactured in lengths of about one yard, and for use it is cut into small sections of any required size with scissors or a knife. there are several varieties of purl, namely, the smooth, rough, check, and wire check. the smooth has a bright polished appearance, which is obtained by a flat gold wire being spun spirally round; the rough has a duller and more yellow appearance, which is owing to the wire having been rounded; the check is bright and sparkling, and consists of the flattened wire spun in a different way, so that parts of it catch the light and sparkle; the wire check is the same thing, but duller and of a deeper yellow, owing again to its being made of the round wire. _bullion._--this is the name given to the larger sizes of purl. _pearl purl._--this is manufactured in the same spiral tube-like fashion as the other purl, but the gold wire is previously hollowed out in this [inverted u] shape, the convex side being the one exposed. this, when spun round, has the appearance of a string of tiny gold beads. it is frequently used as an outlining thread. various gold twists and cords can be obtained; they are composed of several threads twisted up in the usual cord fashion, each ply consisting of gold spun round a silk thread. _plate_ is a flat strip of metal commonly about one-sixteenth of an inch wide; it can be obtained in different widths. _spangles._--these are small variously shaped pieces of thin metal, usually pierced with a hole in the centre for fixing on to the material. they are frequently circular in shape, and either flat or slightly concave; the latter are the prettier. many fancy shapes also are obtainable, but they are inclined to look tawdry, and suggestive of the pantomime. _cloth of gold and silver._--this is a fabric manufactured of silk, with gold or silver thread inwoven in the making. it is not now so much used as formerly, when it was in great request for robes of kings and other high dignitaries of church or state. a special make of silk for couching down gold thread is obtainable in various colours. it is called horsetail or sewings, and is both fine and strong. padding for use in raised gold work is usually yellow, and for silver, white or grey. yellow soft cotton, linen thread, or silk, are all used for the purpose. various precautions can and must be taken to keep the gold thread bright, for under unfavourable circumstances it rapidly assumes a bad colour; the silver thread is even more liable to tarnish than the gold, and it turns a worse colour, going black. there is a special paper manufactured to wrap threads in, and the stock supply should be kept in a tin or air-tight bottle; this is in order to protect the metal from damp, which is most injurious; to do this is a difficult matter in the english climate. linen used for working upon, or as backing, is best unbleached, for sometimes the chemicals used in the bleaching process have a deleterious effect upon the gold; a piece of gold embroidery wrapped up in cotton wool for preservation has been found completely spoiled by some chemical in this wool, which proved more disastrous than exposure to air would have been. gas, strong scents, handling (especially with hot hands), all have an evil effect, and so should be avoided as much as possible. work even whilst in progress should be kept covered as much as is practicable, and should not be allowed to hang about; the quicker it is done the better. a piece of finished work can be polished up with a leather pad or a brush, similar to a housemaid's brush for silver-cleaning purposes; this of course, must be used with care. ancient method of couching gold thread can be couched on to the material in two distinct ways, one of them in use at the present day, the other one that was commonly practised in the xiiith and xivth centuries. about the second half of the last-named century the earlier method was supplanted by the present one. almost every example of early gold thread work exhibits this obsolete and ingenious method of couching. the syon cope and the jesse cope in the victoria and albert museum may be mentioned as famous examples. m. louis de farcy[ ] draws especial attention to this beautiful method of working, to which he gives the name _point couché rentré ou retiré_, and strongly urges its revival; he points out many distinct advantages it has over the method now in use. the durability is very great, owing to the couching thread being upon the reverse side, where it is protected from wear and tear, and being out of sight can be made strong and durable. if a thread is accidentally broken it does not necessarily give way along an entire line, as may easily happen in the present method. a proof of this point can be seen upon the beautiful ascoli cope lately in the victoria and albert museum, about which there has been so much discussion of late as to in what country it originated, and who was the rightful owner. the early couching worked entirely over the background of the cope is in a state of perfect preservation; portions of the gold thread drapery have here and there been couched by the other method, the tying down threads have, in those parts, mostly disappeared, and the gold hangs loose and ragged upon the surface. by the way in which it is worked, there results a particularly pleasing and even surface, agreeably varied by play of light and shade. another advantage of the ancient method is that the completed work is very flexible; this point will appeal to those who have experienced the extreme stiffness of a large surface of ordinarily couched metal threads. flexibility is an invaluable quality for any work destined, like copes and curtains, to hang in folds. representations of draperies upon figures are well expressed, for by the way in which they are worked there comes an indentation along the lines marking the folds; this emphasises them rather happily, and also breaks up the surface in a satisfactory manner. fig. is a diagram that will aid in explaining the working, it gives both the front and the reverse side. this has been found to be the simplest and the most practical method of obtaining a result similar to the early examples; there is, however, no means other than examination of result whereby to get at this obsolete method. to all appearance there is upon the surface a kind of satin stitch worked in gold passing, the stitches carrying out some geometrical pattern, such as a chevron or lattice; but at the back a linen thread is seen running to and fro in close parallel lines in the same direction as the surface thread, and at regular intervals encircled by the gold passing, just as if this was intended to couch down the linen thread. [illustration: fig. . front. back.] the ingenuity and satisfactoriness of the method must be admitted by all who give it a trial, and it is interesting to conjecture how it may have arisen. possibly weaving suggested it to the embroiderers, for, take away the intervening material, and it is not unlike woven work, and these two arts would very likely be the accomplishment of the same person. perhaps the commonly used method of taking a coarse thread through to the back (see fig. ) suggested it, for this is briefly the whole process. in order to try the couching, a two-fold ground material must be firmly stretched in an embroidery frame, a strong linen underneath and a thinner closely woven one upon the upper side. some fine gold passing and some strong linen thread, well waxed, are required to work with, also an embroidery needle with long eye and sharp point, the size, which is important, depending upon the threads in use; the needle has to pierce the two-fold ground material, making a hole only just large enough for the passage of a double gold thread. if the linen has a regular even thread the drawn pattern shown in the diagram can be worked by counting the threads of the ground fabric, but if this is difficult or impossible, as in the case say of a twilled surface, a careful tracing must be made upon the linen; a beginner may find this the easier way in any case. the end of the gold thread, which by now, in readiness for working, will be wound upon the bobbin or spindle, must be passed through to the back at the starting-point, the top left-hand corner in the diagram. the linen thread secures it at the back and then comes through to the front upon the traced line exactly beneath (see arrow on plan). it now encircles the gold thread which the left hand draws out rather tautly, and then returns by the same hole to the back, pulling the metal thread through with it. there is knack in taking the gold thread only just through and leaving the completed stitch straight and flat upon the surface. the process is now repeated, the linen thread coming through to the front again upon the next traced line, and so on. when the base of the pattern is reached the gold thread is taken through once upon that line, and then commences a like journey upwards. this practically explains the couching; variety is obtained by change of pattern, but the method of carrying it out is always the same. figs. , , and show three patterns taken from old examples of this couching. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] the difficulties in technique are easily overcome; an important aid in this matter is the use of materials exactly right; this means needles and threads of the correct size, the ground composed of suitable fabrics, and properly strained in a frame. the aim in the working is to get each stitch perfectly flat and straight in its correct place in spite of the obstinacy of the metal thread; to avoid making the perforation larger than necessary, for this makes the work clumsy; to make each succeeding line lie closely beside the last one, for the surface must be of solid gold, and if the ground showed through in places it would impoverish the effect. [illustration: fig. .] the direction of the couched thread is usually either vertical or horizontal, and it may be both of these in the same piece of work. the reason of this may be because it is worked by counting the threads of the fabric, or because the pattern is always treated as a diaper and placed upon the surface without regard to contour. the exception to this rule of direction is when the couching is taken along a stem or the narrow hem of a robe to form the border, or along a girdle, it then follows the direction of the band, this being evidently the most straightforward and satisfactory method to use for the purpose. [illustration: fig. . front. back.] the _point couché rentré ou retiré_ is an excellent method to use for working a raised bar. fig. shows the front and reverse sides of a bar worked by it. the gold thread comes cleanly through from the back of the material instead of being clumsily doubled upon the surface, and the durability is evidently great. the linen thread, it will be seen, runs to and fro at the back, at each turn securing the gold thread. [illustration: fig. .] in fig. this couching is to be seen in use upon drapery. it is taken entirely over the exterior surface of the cloak, and upon the crown, sceptre, and model of the church. the lines expressing the folds of drapery are in this case shown by the couching at these places being taken in a different direction. fine gold passing is used for the couched thread, much finer than can possibly be shown in the drawing, and the pattern chosen for the couching down is a chevron. the other parts of the work are done with silk thread in a fine chain or split stitch. the play of light upon the varied surface of the golden cloak is very beautiful; the drawing of the figure is perhaps primitive, and, regarded from the draughtsman's point of view, somewhat ludicrous; it is however sufficiently good to express all that its author intended, and there is something very human in this dignified little king who would not have you forget that he founded a church. the king who is personified here is edward the confessor, so the church is westminster abbey, of which he was the founder. [illustration: fig. .] the madonna and child forming the frontispiece of the work is another example of this couching. the method of expressing the folds of drapery is slightly different from that employed upon the king's robes. all drapery carried out in this stitch is worked in somewhat the same fashion, that is, the couching running to and fro between the lines marks each fold as roughly shown at fig. . this method leaves an indented line to express the drapery, which is a more satisfactory way than a simple line of dark colour worked over the gold, as in more modern work. the indented line is often further emphasised by a line of dark silk stitched along it, which is done in this case. the figures are taken from the jesse cope in the victoria and albert museum;[ ] this vestment, with its red silk background and its finely coloured and drawn ancestors of christ posed amongst encircling vine branches, is a most beautiful, though sadly mutilated, example of xiiith century design and workmanship. modern method of couching in the usual form of couching the gold thread is attached to the material by fine strong silk. the thread is fastened down as a rule two-fold, sometimes even three-fold; this method is both quicker and more effective than couching each thread separately. as the couching thread is necessarily in evidence, decorative use is often made of it as well as practical; the stitches, for instance, may be planned so as to carry out some pattern (see fig. ) instead of being put down at random. there is no limit to the variety of the patterns that can be devised in this way. decorative use can be made of the colour of the couching thread; a hot colour warms the tone of the gold and a cool one does the reverse; and the more contrasting the colour the more it is in evidence. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] the gold thread may be couched solidly in straight lines, as the above figure shows, or it may be arranged in wavy lines either close or open, as in fig. . the thread is waved by bending it round the pointed end of a piercer just before fixing down. this waving line is particularly suitable for the gold thread, since the slight change in direction allows the light to play upon the metal very prettily. for this reason gold is often couched solidly in circular or shell form over a ground. in gold embroidery, therefore, the direction of the thread is a specially important matter. [illustration: fig. .] at the end of a line a technical difficulty sometimes arises in the turning of the thread, which is apt to be clumsy. this difficulty is overcome in various ways; the most usual is to return the doubled thread as neatly as possible and continue the next line; another is to cut the thread sharp off, secure it close to the end with a double stitch, and recommence in like fashion; the thread can sometimes be passed through to the back and brought up in position for working the next line. the fine point of a leaf may present difficulties in the same way; sometimes one of the two threads is temporarily let slip and the point completed with the single one, the left thread being picked up upon the return (see fig. ). for such occasions as this it is more practical to wind the two threads of passing upon separate bobbins, and bring them together at the working. another way of overcoming the point difficulty is shown at fig. . raised work the couched gold threads may be raised in parts by means of some kind of padding interposed between it and the ground. they are very effective so treated, since the raised metal catches and reflects the light in a pleasing manner. this raising of the thread, however, has been carried to such extremes as to resemble goldsmith's work rather than embroidery, and it is then hardly in good taste. [illustration: fig. .] a simple method of raising the gold is to lay down lines of string at stated intervals over the ground. the well-known form called basket stitch is done in this way; fig. illustrates this stitch, a part of the square is left unworked in order to expose the under-layer of string. to carry out the diagram--first couch down the lines of string at regular intervals over the surface, then commence laying on the gold by carrying a doubled thread of passing over two bars of string, and there fixing it down to the material, then over two more and fixing it down again, and so on to the end of the line. this is exactly repeated for a second line of passing, then, for the next two lines, commence by carrying the passing for the first stitch over one bar only, and for the remainder of the line over the two as before. this process repeated makes the wicker-like pattern so frequently seen in gold work. it can be used as a filling or as a border. it is evident that with the same arrangement of strings many other patterns could be carried out by varying the points of couching down. [illustration: fig. .] another way in which string is used for padding the gold is illustrated in fig. . the pattern, which in the first part is two diamond shapes and a border line, is laid down in string. the doubled gold thread is then taken horizontally to and fro in close parallel lines over the part to be worked, and fixed by couching stitches at necessary intervals; wherever else these stitches may be put, one must always be placed upon each side of a raised line to make it sharp and clear. other kinds of padding are used in this method of work; for instance, a lozenge shape may be stuffed with layers of soft cotton, as shown in the second part of this same diagram. sometimes most complicated patterns are laid down in string and covered with gold thread in this way, _e.g._:--fig. shows an interlacing pattern taken from the border of an orphrey upon a xvth century chasuble. [illustration: fig. .] the use of fancy gold threads a cursory glance must be given to the use of purls and other fancy threads, but these are mostly used nowadays for badges on uniforms, or for masonic purposes, and are carried out by the trade. these threads, when tarnished, are very difficult to clean, they easily turn a bad colour and catch the dust, and for real embroidery purposes are not as satisfactory as the plainer threads. [illustration: fig. .] purl and bullion must be cut very accurately into pieces of the required size, and attached to the material as a bead would be. the metal must be as little as possible touched with the fingers; the cut pieces can be placed upon a tray lined with some soft springy substance, such as felt, in order to be easily picked up with the point of the needle, and they can be adjusted to their right position upon the work by the aid of the flat end of the piercer; unnecessary handling may be avoided in this way. these threads, laid over padding either straight across or at an angle, may be used for the stems or petals of conventional flowers. the various kinds, dull, bright, and check, may perhaps be used in succession. plate is frequently taken to and fro over the same kind of forms over a prepared padding, being caught down by a stitch on each side by a method the french call _le guipé_. it needs skill and practice to do this well. crinkled plate used to be couched on to work, but now is not much used in this way. pearl purl is most often seen outlining a form filled in with the other threads; an enlarged example of this thread lies vertically down the centre of fig. , the end of it is pulled out, in order to show the formation of the thread. [illustration: fig. .] spangles are usually sewn down separately; they may be attached by stitches from the centre outwards or by the thread being passed through a piece of purl and then returning to the back through the hole in the centre of the spangle. fig. illustrates another way of using these spangles to form a long tail shape. here again they are attached with the help of pieces of purl. in the same figure are given some illustrations of the use of the fancy threads; to learn more about them the student should examine xvith to xviiith century gold work during which period they were in popular use. footnotes: [ ] see dr. rock's "textile fabrics." [ ] in _la broderie du onzième siècle jusqu'à nos jours_. [ ] no. , . chapter xii lettering, heraldry, and emblems the uses of lettering--marking--monograms--heraldry--emblems. lettering of one kind or another is frequently in request. it is useful for inscriptions, verses, names attached to figures, the signing and dating of work, and for the more ordinary purposes of marking linen and so forth. signed and dated work has peculiar attractiveness: it can be placed amidst definite historical associations: an authenticated piece of embroidery, say of the reign of king richard coeur de lion, queen anne, or george iii., would be an historical document and a standard to gauge the period of any uninscribed examples. although few of us are likely to possess treasures of the xiiith century, signed and dated pieces of our great-grandmothers' embroideries are interesting personal landmarks in family history, so for this reason, amongst others, unostentatious marks of identification are by no means out of place. descriptive names or verses are also a means of amplifying the story and so enlivening our curiosity. [illustration: fig. .] lettering can answer a further purpose still; it can enrich the design, for, if rightly chosen and employed, letters are very decorative. they may be seen forming a border to a piece of work. the three letters in fig. were taken from an xith century embroidered cope, which has a fine inscription running round the entire lower margin.[ ] the names of the saints and martyrs standing in rows in the columned arcades, affected at certain periods, are sometimes inscribed in the mouldings of the arches above them or along the base; kneeling donors can be seen naïvely presenting a little scroll inscribed with prayers, and many other interesting uses of lettering might be recalled. the names st. luke and st. john, shown in fig. , are taken from a beautiful embroidered example of gothic lettering. [illustration: fig. .] illuminated manuscripts supply fine examples of initial letters and writing. a visit to the show-cases in the king's library at the british museum will be of great interest to the student; the illustrations also to be seen there, the beautifully composed and coloured figure-subjects, would be equally suitable for carrying out in embroidery; indeed it is very probable that many of the figure compositions on the old copes and chasubles were derived from such a source. fig. gives as an example of an alphabet one taken from a benedictionale of late xvth century date. [illustration: fig. .] a practical purpose to which lettering is often put is the marking of linen. to learn how to do this used to be a recognised part of a girl's education, and was one of the objects of the sampler. marking can be anything from a simple cross-stitch initial to an elaborately worked monogram. for simple work the corner to be marked can be tacked upon _toile cirée_, a material not unlike american cloth. tambour frames also are useful for this purpose. fig. shows the stitches most used for working simple letters such as those seen upon the old samplers. the first is cross stitch, which for marking purposes should be worked so as to be alike on both sides. to do this requires some forethought whilst the work progresses, and necessitates an occasional doubling of one of the crossed stitches, in order to reach the point for commencing the next one and at the same time preserving a cross on each side. [illustration: fig. .] the second stitch in the diagram shows a square on one side and is a cross upon the reverse. this makes a good stitch for the purpose, is quite simple to manipulate, and is easier to manage than the cross on both sides. the third example is made use of when a larger letter is required. it is known as blanket stitch, and is used for the marking of such things. it may be further completed by a neat back stitch just fitting along the outside edges of the other stitches. [illustration: fig. .] many embroidery stitches are suitable for marking purposes, such as satin, chain, stem, back, rope, basket, and others. the oriental stitch which carries out the letter in fig. is a good one when both sides can be seen, for though these are quite different, it is presentable upon either. the diagram shows the appearance of the stitch on the front and on the back. a simple initial letter may be made interesting by enriching the ground behind it with some form of diaper patterning. an example of this is shown in fig. . the letter could be worked in a plain satin stitch over a padding of threads, and the pattern on the ground in a darning stitch and french knots, or in any other suitable way. [illustration: fig. .] a monogram carried out in embroidery can be a very pretty thing; there is scope in it for ingenuity both of design and of stitching. the letters may be decorated and tied up with a floral spray, strap work or a combination of several _motifs_. fig. shows a monogram composed of the letters i. g. ornamented and bound together by a ribbon-like interlacing band. the letters are worked in a raised satin stitch, and a running stitch in another colour threads in and out down the centre of each letter. the outline is stem stitch in a darker colour. the band is outlined on both sides with an overcast stitch, which always makes a particularly neat edging for anything of this sort. the centre is filled with a row of french knots, the tassels are worked in close lines of stem stitch, and the petals of the small flowers in satin stitch, finished off with a french knot at the centre. [illustration: fig. .] another mark of proprietorship and origin was the shield of arms of the owner, which introduces the subject of heraldry. a shield executed with the needle is often seen, and looks particularly rich. heraldry is an intricate science, full of pitfalls for the unwary, and demands an earnest study of its complex rules and regulations. every one should know at least some fine examples of great national shields such as the lions of england, the fleur de lys of france, and the imperial eagle. examples of shields surmounted by helmets and crests with quaint and flowing mantling are to be seen in all kinds of art work. various stitches and methods specially lend themselves to the expression of heraldry. those which, like cross stitch, impose a certain simplicity, are very good. another suitable medium is applied work, of which an illustration can be seen on page . gold and silver thread are very useful here, and look exceptionally rich when couched in the xiiith century method. fig. is an embroidered coat of arms dated the first half of the xivth century. it is executed almost entirely in the _point couché rentré ou retiré_. the arms are those of the clinton and leyburne families--_argent, cross crosslets fitchée , and on a chief azure, two mullets or_. [illustration: fig. .] in designing heraldic work care must be taken to introduce no debased forms such as were current after the xvth century. the xiiith and xivth centuries are the periods considered best for the study of this subject. heraldry sometimes adds historic interest to embroideries; owners or donors may be traced by their coat of arms appearing upon some part of the work. [illustration: fig. .] allied to heraldry and marking are a number of decorative objects that have acquired peculiar traditional significance of an emblematic or symbolical nature, hard to define. the cross of christianity may be instanced, the olive branch of peace, the mirror of truth, and the snake of eternity. the name of a saint is frequently declared by an emblem accompanying the figure. in appropriate surroundings emblems may often be used effectively. for knowledge about these things the student must go to various books that deal with the special subject. fig. is an illustration of the well-known emblem, the pelican in her piety. footnote: [ ] this cope is full of interest in every detail. see m. louis de farcy, _la broderie du onzième siècle jusqu'à nos jours_. plate ii. chapter xiii the garniture of work finishing off--making up--edges--use of cord-making appliance--cord twisted by hand--knotted cord--fringes--tassels--knots. when the embroidery is completed, the making up, the addition of tasteful finishing touches, and such things as fringes, tassels, and linings, must all be considered. these will, if judiciously made use of, give a distinction and character to the work that might be missed if due care and thought were not expended upon such details. this part of the work might be compared to the garnishing of a boiled fowl with lemon and parsley, a minor detail, but a very effective one. it is possible, by the help of such expedients, to emphasise certain colours and bring out points of the design, as well as to give completeness and finish. such things as fringes, cords, and tassels are often more satisfactory when made by the worker and with materials like those used in the embroidery, for such will be more likely to be in keeping with the character of the rest, and to be more interesting in detail. in the finishing off the same taste and neatness of execution is required as in the embroidery. good work can be very much marred in the making up; on the other hand, a little extra interest added on a part not often seen renders it doubly valuable. the mounting of certain things should not be attempted at home; boxes should be handed over to the cabinetmaker, books to the bookbinder, and so on, for it is not possible for any one not an expert to do these things properly, and even good work can look poor if badly set. the question how to appropriately finish off an edge often arises; let it be hem stitched rather than plain hemmed; or a narrow line of drawn thread work may be inserted, for an open-work border is frequently a set-off to the rest of the embroidery. if a binding is placed over the edge this can be fixed with a pretty stitch, or the stitch alone can bind the edge, one such as buttonhole, overcast, or that shown in fig. . with some stitches the edge of the material can be rolled over a piping cord and the stitch worked over the thus emphasised margin. the difficulty of procuring cord suitable for use with embroidered work makes the appliance illustrated at fig. a useful possession.[ ] the cords made upon this wheel can be of any thickness, according to the number of plies and the substance in each. different colours and materials can be twisted up together, such as a gold and silk thread. [illustration: fig. .] to make a three-plied cord, cut three equal lengths of thread rather longer than the required cord is to be, as it shortens in the twisting. make a loop at each end of the thread, or, better still, attach tiny metal rings at the ends. hook the threads in position as shown in the diagram, and place the instrument far enough from the clamped block of wood to make the threads that are stretched between quite taut. now commence the twisting by turning the large wheel quickly with an even motion in the direction that continues to twist up the threads, keeping the left hand on the instrument to steady it, for it gradually slides towards the block as the twisting continues. when corkscrew-like knots begin to come in the threads, stop revolving the wheel, unhook the two outer threads and place them both on the central hooks together with the third thread, keeping them taut during the process. revolve the large wheel again, in the direction opposite to that in which it has been working, and continue turning until the cord is tightly twisted up. it is now made, and can be removed from the machine. the second twisting had better be over-done rather than not sufficiently, since if over-twisted the cord rights itself upon being removed from the machine. a two-ply cord is made in like manner, by using first the two outer hooks only, and then placing both threads together on the central hooks. there is a simple way of making this cord without the help of any instrument, but it is not possible to get the perfect result that the machine gives. it is most easily carried out by two persons, though one can do it. in order to make a two-plied cord, by hand, take a thread rather more than twice the length of the required cord. let each worker take an end of the thread in the right hand and commence to twist it between the thumb and finger, each working in direction opposite to the other and keeping the thread at tension. when twisted as much as possible without getting corkscrew-like knots in the thread, the cord must be doubled in half by holding it at the centre and bringing together the two ends, which are then knotted. during the entire process the thread must be kept under tension. if one end of the cord is now let go it should immediately twist itself up tight, and remain in that position. if any small knots form during the process run the cord sharply through the fingers once or twice to straighten it out. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] another pretty kind of cord is a knotted one. it is made in the hand in most primitive fashion by using the two first fingers as crochet hooks. the thread used for making it should be stout and firm. to commence making the cord, knot two pieces of thread together and place the threads in position as shown in fig. . the next step is shown in fig. , which is the index finger of the left hand bringing the darker thread through the loop. fig. shows this thread looped on the finger, the cord held in the left hand instead of the right, and the right hand in process of drawing the lighter thread, which was the last loop, tight. the next move, fig. , shows the right-hand first finger making the new loop with the lighter thread, and fig. shows the loop on the finger, the cord passed over to be held in the right hand again, and the left hand this time pulling the last loop tight. continue making the cord by following out the last four positions consecutively. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] a very usual finish to an edge is a fringe. this can be made either by fraying out the material or by adding a detached fringe, either knotting it in or attaching it in some other way. if the fringe is to be a frayed-out one, the best way to do it is to first draw out a few warp threads where the head of the fringe is to come, then hem stitch the upper edge of this, see the right-hand end of fig. ; this makes the heading of the fringe secure, after which the remainder of the warp threads can be withdrawn. when fringing a square in this fashion, it is well to save some of the frayings out to knot in at the four corners where otherwise there would be gaps. [illustration: fig. .] to knot an added fringe into the border is a very simple matter. begin by cutting the threads that are to compose it all to one length, about double that of the required fringe. take a few together to form a bunch and double it in half. with a stiletto make a hole near the edge of the material; then bring from the back a crochet hook through this hole, and draw the loop formed by the doubling of the bunch a little way through, then take the ends of the bunch through the loop and draw them tight in order to make the knotting firm. [illustration: fig. .] there are many ways of patterning a plain fringe, sometimes a change of colour in the knotted-in threads is sufficient, as shown in fig. . another very usual way is to divide the bunches and refasten them together in some way to form a pattern. fig. is an example of this; they may be either knotted together, as in the first half of the diagram, or bound with thread as in the second half, the needle reaching the required places by running in zigzag fashion up the thread and down again. [illustration: fig. .] a simple fringe can be made of strands twisted together, as in the first half of fig. . this is made upon the same principle as the twisted cord already described. about three threads of the fringe are twisted up tight, and an adjoining three treated in the same fashion. these threes are then twisted together in the direction opposite to that which has just been used, and thus are securely locked together. the ends of the completed fringe may require a little trimming off to make all of an equal length. the second half of the diagram shows a durable and simple fringe made by a close series of knots down the thread. [illustration: fig. .] fig. suggests two methods by which a stitching of coloured thread near the margin can help to decorate a plain fringed edge. [illustration: fig. .] a row of tassels makes a pretty finish to various things. complicated tassel-making requires a professional hand; even a simple tassel requires making properly. the first proceeding is to wind some thread round a piece of cardboard, which should be a little wider than the tassel is to be long; then double a piece of the same thread and thread the two ends into a needle, thus leaving a loop at the usual knot end. slip the needle through the centre of the wound thread close to the cardboard, then through the loop and draw the thread tight; this will bind the threads securely at that point. they can then be cut exactly opposite this on the other side, which will release the cardboard. give the binding thread another tightening pull, and then take the needle and thread straight through the centre, as shown in fig. , and fasten it off with a good knot. this knot will be in the ball part of the tassel and will help to make it round. next, double the tassel into shape ready for the collar. thread the needle as before and make the thread encircle the tassel, as shown in the second figure in the diagram, drawing the thread quite tight, and, if necessary, winding it several times round the neck of the tassel until the collar is of sufficient width, then take the needle and thread straight through the centre, bringing it out at the top, where it can be made use of to fix the tassel in its place upon the work. with sharp scissors trim the edge of the tassel which now is complete. the ball part can be further decorated by covering it with an open network of stitches in some contrasting colour; buttonhole and various lace stitches can be used for the purpose. [illustration: fig. .] knots knots, which can be very pretty, are at times required in embroidery; anything that requires a fastening may give an opportunity for some pretty interlacing strap work or knotting. also knots may be practically useful in both weaving and embroidery, for sometimes a finishing thread must be knotted on to a new one, since there may be no opportunity of making a firm commencement with the aid of the material. the knot shown in fig. is called the girdle knot; it might be made use of in many other ways. to carry it out, make a loop with one end of the cord and hold it between the left finger and thumb, the looped part being towards the right, and the end that points downwards to the left passing over the other end. take up the other piece of cord, pass it diagonally across the surface of the loop, commencing from the right-hand lower side, then round under one end and over the other, then up into the loop from underneath, over its own end that crosses the loop there, and then out under the loop at the top right-hand corner. [illustration: fig. .] the chinese knot, which is used for a sailor's collar, is shown in fig. . the looped end can be left as large as necessary. to work it the first part of the knot is laid in position on the table, commencing at point a; for the latter part (from point c) the thread is interlaced through to the finish. it can then be pulled tight, taking care in the drawing-together process that the various loops are adjusted in right position. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] another ornamental knot is shown at fig. . to make it--form a loop and hold it between the left thumb and finger, the loop pointing to the right, the longer end pointing upwards and passing over the end that points downwards. take hold of the end pointing upwards, pass it perpendicularly downwards across the surface of the loop, then round under the other end, up over its own end, under the side of the loop, over its own end that lies across the loop, and out under the loop at the right-hand end. pull as tight as required. all these knots may be made of double cord by running a second through, following the lead of the first, just before tightening up the knot. the one last described may be made of doubled cord from the commencement, the looped end being used as the working end: the knot will then finish off with a loop at one end, which can be used as a loop or cut if required. [illustration: fig. .] fig. is an example of a pretty piece of interlacing strap work attached to a fastening. the weavers' knot (fig. ) is useful for practical purposes in both weaving and embroidery; this knot is universally employed by the cotton weavers when the warp breaks. it is made as follows--place the two ends that are to be knotted together between the thumb and first finger of the left hand in such a way that they cross each other at right angles, the end that points towards the left passing under the one pointing towards the right. pass the long end of thread that hangs down towards the right, and which is the newly attaching piece, over the thumb, round the back of the end pointing to the left in front of the other end, and let it hang down again towards the right, holding the loop thus made between the thumb and finger; then pass the end pointing towards the right down through this loop and out on the opposite side. to draw the knot tight, pull the end which hangs down towards the right, which will tighten the loop and so complete the knot. [illustration: fig. .] the reef knot (fig. ) is another useful one, and it has this advantage over the weaver's knot, that both short ends return parallel to the long ones instead of going off at an angle; this makes it neater for some purposes. [illustration: fig. .] footnote: [ ] this will be found described in detail in chapter ii. there is an interesting drawing of a neat little machine, similar to this, but worked by cogwheels, in _l'art du brodeur_, by germain de st. aubin ( ). chapter xiv practical directions transferring patterns--paste for embroidery purposes--protection and preservation of work--washing embroidery--prevention and cure of puckered work--points about the thread--dressing the frame. the best method of getting the pattern on to the material is to draw it on directly with a brush; since this, however, is not always possible, other ways of doing it can be employed. the pattern can be transferred to the background by a process called pouncing. to do this fix some tracing-paper over the design and carefully take the outline; a good margin of plain paper should be left round the outside in order to prevent any of the pounce getting accidentally rubbed on to the embroidery. the next process is the perforation of the pattern. lay the tracing upon some substance of the nature of thick felt, then with a pricker or a needle, held in an upright position, pierce tiny holes all round the outline of the pattern, very close together. this completed, attach the perforated tracing securely to the material, the smooth side of the perforations towards the stuff. both material and tracing paper may be fixed to a board with drawing pins. next, rub the pounce, which consists of finely powdered charcoal or of white chalk, lightly over the perforated parts with a soft pad, keeping the rubbing always in the same direction; once or twice at the most over the surface is quite sufficient, often too much is rubbed through, which afterwards is only in the way. the pad, first dipped into the pounce, is rubbed preparatorily upon some paper to remove the superfluous powder, and then upon the actual work. carefully remove the tracing-paper; there should now be visible upon the surface of the material, in charcoal dust, a perfectly clear reproduction of the pattern. should, however, the impression be blurred, it is quite easy to flick everything away with a duster and repeat the process. the causes of failure would most probably be that the perforations were too large or too far apart, or that there was some movement of either paper or material during the process. it is necessary for the pattern to be permanently fixed upon the ground material; blow lightly to remove any superfluous powder, then, with a brush dipped in light red oil-paint moistened with turpentine, trace a fine clear line over the powdered pattern. when this is dry, what is left of the charcoal can be lightly dusted away. red is in most cases a good colour to use for tracing purposes, for if by chance any tracing should show or come off on the thread it will be a clean-looking colour, and one comparatively easily removed in any after cleaning. red or blue carbonised paper is used for tracing patterns; it is not a good medium though it may be an expeditious one. if it is used, an after painting over the outline will make the marking permanent. when pouncing or painting is difficult, a method of indicating the pattern upon the stuff is to trace the design on tissue paper, and tack it to the ground material with cotton, the stitching of which should follow the outline of the design, and be kept as much as possible upon the front. the thin paper is then torn away, and there will be some suggestion of pattern left upon the material. transparent ground stuffs need only be laid upon the pattern; then the tracing can be taken directly on the stuff. paste is sometimes in request for embroidery purposes; the following is a good recipe--pour rather less than half a pint of cold water into a saucepan, add to this a piece of carpenter's glue about the size of a small filbert and place it on the fire to heat. put three teaspoonfuls of flour into a basin, and with cold water mix to a smooth paste; when the water in the saucepan boils add it to the paste, stirring well all the time; then place the mixture in the saucepan and boil for about two minutes. when cold it is ready for use. it may be required as a preservative; for instance, canvas work when finished can have a thin coating of paste rubbed over the back in order to preserve the stitches from giving or running; when the work is to be used for such things as furniture coverings this may be a good thing to do. applied work is sometimes pasted on to its new ground, and a backing may be fixed to the surface material by paste. the more all this can be avoided the better, for its tendency is to give a stiff mechanical look to work; professional people, however, are rather fond of the paste pot. paste, if used, must be of the right kind, or it will do more harm than good. it should be very fresh, and have no acid in its ingredients, of which gum arabic must not be one if any after stitching has to take place through the stuff, for gum makes it hard and less penetrable. the paste must be applied and allowed to dry thoroughly before the work is removed from the frame. a finger makes a good brush for the purpose. the paste should be put on as thinly and evenly as possible, care being taken not to rub on the cross of the material, since this might stretch it unevenly. shoemakers' paste is easily procured, and can be used for embroidery purposes. this is made from rye flour, and is very strong. it is harmless if perfectly fresh. a good many things go to the keeping of work fresh and orderly, which is a very important matter. the work must be kept carefully covered up when not in use; finished parts can sometimes be covered whilst the work is going on, for the covering is easily raised when comparison with the part in progress is necessary. the work should have some protection if the hand rests on it; the worker should wear a white apron with sleeves. the worker's hand should be cool, dry, and smooth; hot hands should frequently be washed. the use of pumice stone cures slight roughness, but fine work cannot be attempted if the fingers are for any reason constantly rough. wools and silks need a case to keep them orderly and clean. the best way to preserve valuable embroidery is to frame it, which, of course, is not always practicable, but it is a sure safeguard against moth and dust. for washing embroidery special soap should be procured. it is not well to use any ordinary soap, for this may contain alkali, which would injure the colours in the work. dissolve the soap in boiling water, and add cold to make it just warm and of the required strength. immerse the embroidery in the lather thus made, and work it about gently, avoiding any friction. when clean, rinse first in warm water, afterwards in cold, to which a little salt may be added. the water must be squeezed out carefully and the material quickly dried. if ironing is necessary it must be done on the wrong side, but if the work can be pinned out on a board to dry, and in this way stretched and smoothed without any ironing, so much the better, for the embroidery will not be flattened at all. another way of ironing embroidery that is not harmful is to do it from underneath while some one holds out the material. it is easy to prevent the puckering of work when it is carried out in the frame; there is, however, no necessity for it to occur in hand work. certain stitches are more inclined to draw up the material than others, and extra care has to be taken in working upon the cross of the fabric. the work should be held in convex fashion over the fingers of the left hand. weights are occasionally attached to the corners of the work to prevent any unconscious drawing of it up. there are remedies for the cure of slightly puckered work. place on a drawing-board some clean blotting-paper, damp it evenly over with a wet handkerchief, and then lay the work, right side up, upon it. fix the work down to the board with drawing-pins, inserted at regular short intervals round the edge, endeavouring during the process to stretch the material to its original shape. this needs doing carefully, for it is quite possible to stretch it to a wrong shape, and it will remain as now pinned out. next, lay some white paper or a handkerchief upon the surface of the work, and then place upon it a flat weight that presses equally on every part of the embroidery. leave it undisturbed for a night, and the puckering will probably be cured. work, if not puckered, may be improved by going through this process, which practically amounts to a mild ironing, but without any injurious effects. [illustration: fig. .] there are various points about the thread that should be known. to commence a new thread run a few stitches in the material upon the right side upon a part that will afterwards be covered by the working. this is a better way than a fastening on the wrong side, for it is both neater and more secure. a knot made at the beginning is fairly safe, but it is undesirable for several reasons. the needleful should not be lengthy lest it gets worn before it is all worked in. with some threads it is important to thread only the proper end into the eye of the needle, since one way they will work in roughly and the other way smoothly. an end of a coarse thread can be taken through to the back of the material by the help of a fine one; the fine thread is brought through from the back by the needle, it then encircles the coarse one, and returns to the back by the same hole, pulling the coarse thread with it, as in process in fig. . taking it through by the aid of a thick needle would make too large a hole. thread can be knotted into the eye of the needle if for any reason it is required to be quite safe from accidental unthreading. the neatest way of doing this is to pass the needle through the centre of the thread and draw it tight; this is a useful trick for any unskilled worker with needles and thread, for re-threading also may be a difficulty. when work has to be unpicked it is better to cut the threads rather than do any drawing out, for they are in any case unfit for further use, and this method wears the material less; a beginner must not shirk unpicking if first-rate results are to be obtained. frame work certain stitches and methods of work cannot be carried out except with the help of a frame, others are hand stitches, and some few can be worked either way. work done in a frame takes longer than that done by hand, and is rather more fatiguing. each method has its advantages; in the frame it is perhaps easier to get good technique, for difficulties such as puckering the material, irregular stitching, and so on, are more easily avoided, also it is more possible to see the effect of the whole whilst the part progresses. in frame work a thimble is required for each hand, for one pushes the needle through from above and one from below. it is a rest to be able to reverse the hands, so both should be equally dexterous in either position. to dress the frame correctly is an important preliminary, for unless done well the effect of much after labour may be spoiled. in the chapter upon tools and appliances in fig. is shown a piece of linen stretched in the frame ready for commencing work. the square of material that is seen to be inserted in the centre of the stretched linen is to show how a very small piece or a portion of a large surface could be stretched in the same sized frame. a corner may require marking or a small detail of embroidery carrying out upon it. a portion is cut out of the centre of the stretched linen, and the piece or part of the material to be worked stitched securely to it, as illustrated in the diagram. the remainder of the material, if there is any, can be folded up and pinned out of the way over the rollers. to return to the dressing of the frame--the linen to be stretched, before being fixed in place, must be hemmed or herring-boned down at the top and base and then sewn with overcast stitches to the webbings, inclining during the process to pucker the webbing rather than the material. the side pieces can now be put through the holes at the ends of the rollers and the metal pins inserted, or nuts adjusted, as the case may be, in order to stretch the material to the right tension. the raw edges at the sides must now be turned in or bound with tape, and a string securely attached at intervals along the edge; this is for lacing the string through that now braces the material to the sides of the frame (see fig. ). the screw-sided frame has an advantage over the side pieces shown in fig. , in that in the former an extra turn can, at this point, be given to the nuts to still further stretch the material; on the other hand, some workers prefer the flat side pieces, thinking that they make the frame more rigid. if the material, when fixed to the two webbings, is too long for the frame, it must be wound round one of the rollers until of the correct size. this must be done carefully, for a delicate fabric might get damaged in the process; the roller can be padded with soft paper, and an interlining of tissue paper can be inserted and wound up with the material. it may not always be desirable to do this winding round the rollers; in that case fine glazed holland can be stretched in the frame, and the part to be first embroidered fixed to it. when the first part of the work is completed, the holland is cut out of the frame and fresh pieces substituted as the work goes on. if it is not wished that the stitches should be taken through both surfaces, as would here be the case, it would be possible to cut the linen partly away underneath, and use it only as a kind of inner frame for stretching the material on, in a way somewhat like that already described (see fig. ). a backing to the material, however, is often a necessity--perhaps heavy work may be put on it or the stuff itself is fragile; in such cases there must be a backing of some kind. this usually consists of fine holland or linen, which is first stretched in the frame and then has the surface material securely stitched to it with overcast stitches, care being taken that both materials are equally strained. to frame velvet, sew it to the webbing by the selvedges or that way of the material, since the pile with that arrangement is more manageable when the embroidery is in progress. [illustration: fig. .] part ii tapestry weaving chapter xv introduction weaving, a most ancient art, naturally precedes embroidery, for this necessitates an already existing ground stuff, which is generally some kind of woven material. all varieties of weaving are done by one little-varied method, that of the weft passing to and fro in and out of the warp, and thus binding the whole into a fabric or web. the kind of weaving which demands from the worker the greatest artistic skill is that which produced the great masterpieces of flanders, once known as arras, from the town of that name, and now commonly called gobelins tapestry, so named from the _manufacture des gobelins_ in paris, at which establishment, founded over three hundred years ago, it is still produced. it is this kind of weaving that is now to be discussed, but without the least suggestion that the pupil should work upon a scale so large as is usually followed, though there is no reason against doing so if it is practicable. tapestry weaving is so constantly associated with objects of large size, such as wall hangings, that it is scarcely realised as an art in this smaller way and as an alternative to embroidery. yet it can be work of a most interesting kind even when produced in pieces only six inches square, as is well shown by existing specimens of the work of the weavers in egypt who flourished in the early centuries of the christian era. examples of this work can be seen in many museums; they consist frequently of decorative panels of tapestry work inlaid in linen tunics and stuffs that have been used as grave clothes. these early coptic examples are, like all tapestry, built up by interweaving various threads upon warp-strings stretched in close parallel lines. by varying the colour of the threads that are thus manipulated upon the warp, patterns of any degree of complexity can be built up directly by hand, and without the assistance of any further mechanical contrivance. the peculiarity of this ancient weaving is that the patterns are frequently woven upon the warp-threads of some fabric, from which the weft either has been removed, or, what is perhaps more probable, been purposely left out when the material was made, to leave space for this decorative pattern weaving to be added to it. the latin name for the workman who in this way wove in the ornamental patterns was _plumarius_, which is a name known to be applied to an embroiderer also. this weaving of small subjects is certainly very little removed from embroidery; it may fairly be called needlework, for it is as often carried out with needles as with bobbins, the former being frequently better suited to the size of the work. in execution weaving is not more difficult than embroidered work; it can be done in an ordinary room and upon a simple loom that is not more cumbersome than an embroidery frame; in fact an embroidery frame can sometimes be used in the place of a loom. weaving takes about as long in doing as finely stitched solid needlework, for in weaving the entire fabric is made, both pattern and ground. the speed with which the work can be done of course varies considerably, being mainly dependent upon the design that is being carried out. also the quality of the materials used affects the rate of working; for instance, the thickness of the warp-strings and the placing of them nearer together or further apart. moreover the weft may be composed of one strand or of several strands together. in weaving, unless the materials used are very fine, it is impossible to get minute detail in drawing; fortunately it is seldom necessary to attempt much of this. the simpler and more direct work is as good as, and sometimes better than, that with finely gradated colour, shading, and form. on the other hand, work, small in scale, even though simply treated, does not look well when carried out with very coarse materials, for they seem out of proportion to the size of it. the main difficulty in the technique of the work lies in the attainment of good draughtsmanship, which of course includes light and shade as well as outline. it is naturally more difficult to draw by means of bobbin and thread, in horizontal lines, than to work unrestrictedly with a pencil, or even with an embroidery needle. there is a great deal in the preparation of the design; as in all other crafts this must be suited to the method of work; otherwise the difficulties of execution will be greatly increased and the result will be less satisfactory. this is even more important in weaving than in embroidery, for in the latter the stitch and method may possibly be chosen to suit the design, but in weaving no variation of stitch is possible; all must be carried out in the same way. tapestry weaving, whether for wall hangings or for small objects, has the same technical difficulties, and certain restrictions govern all work of the kind. one point to be observed is, the main lines of the design should go as little as possible in the same direction as the warp threads. this is because with each change of colour in the weft that occurs in the direction of the warp, there comes an inevitable separation in the woven material, which, oft repeated, would materially impair the strength of the fabric. the less frequently this occurs, of course, the better, since it entails additional labour, either a joining-together stitch at the time of working or an after-sewing up from the back. long lines made by change of colour going straight or at a slight angle across the warp-threads, are perfectly simple to manage, and the hatching lines of shading, as well as the outline, should be taken as much as possible in this direction. it will be noticed that most tapestries have the ribbed lines of warp going horizontally across; in the loom these lines are perpendicular, so this means that the design has been placed and carried out sideways upon it. this is for the reason just under discussion, for the long lines of a design are most frequently perpendicular, take, for instance, lines of figures, draperies, or architecture, and so by placing the design sideways in the loom, most of the important lines will come in the direction most easy for the working of them. with small pieces it frequently does not matter which way it is carried out, but it is useful to know when making the design that there is the alternative of placing it either way upon the warp-threads. if this matter were not considered and arranged, there might come a good deal of twisting round one or two warp-threads which would be most unsatisfactory in working and in appearance. a band of plain colour framing a square piece of work will be found to be completely detached from the centre part upon each side of the square, although working in very straightforwardly at the top and base; if, instead of being a straight band, the inner edge was vandyked, the work would be well knitted together upon all sides (see fig. ). in such ways as this the technical pitfalls can be somewhat avoided by a designer who understands the method of the work. [illustration: fig. .] to lay down definite rules for designing is practically impossible; right and wrong depend upon so many circumstances. the study of fine tapestries of the best periods is one of the most satisfactory ways of learning what one may or may not attempt; the beautifully flowered grounds in many of these show what excellent motives flowers make, and how they should be treated. it is not usually a good plan to introduce in any part of the work much plain ground, for it is inclined to look poor; this is very likely the reason why the grass in tapestry-land is often covered with such profusion of flowers. tapestry calls for beautiful colour, richness, and plenty of interesting detail; it is essentially decorative work, and must be treated as such. the arrangement of colours and tones need to be sharply defined; if by chance a dark leaf comes against another dark one, a line of light colour is sometimes deliberately run between, perhaps shading or outlining one of the forms; a flower may even change its colour as it passes over different backgrounds; what is more remarkable is that this change, unless sought for, is imperceptible. the work may be applied to all kinds of uses, such as coverings for furniture, mats, curtains, bell-pulls, book-covers, bags, boxes, and so forth. anything that hangs upon a wall is particularly suitable for working in tapestry, for at a little distance this kind of work shows up more effectively than embroidered work does. a great many articles, such as alms-bags, frontals of all kinds, stoles and book-markers, for use in churches could most excellently be carried out in tapestry. chapter xvi necessary appliances and materials the loom--mirror--bobbins and needles--the comb--embroidery frame treated as a loom--warp--wools--silk--gold and silver thread. tools and appliances the chief requisite for weaving is the loom; this can be made by a carpenter from a working drawing. in the victoria and albert museum there is a model of a small tapestry loom, presented by william morris, which a novice will do well to examine. it is quite possible to carry out a small piece of weaving upon an embroidery frame, but to work in a loom which has all the proper appliances is always quicker, better, and absolutely necessary with work of any size. there are two main varieties of tapestry loom, one in which the warp-threads are horizontal, and another in which they are vertical. the latter kind is considered to give the best results, mainly owing to the possibility of the worker's seeing the right side of the work whilst it is in progress. this is a great advantage, for tapestry is woven with the reverse side towards the worker, and progresses by such gradual steps that the weaver is prone to lose sight of the whole whilst paying attention to the part in progress, and it will be easily understood that to be able to go round and view the entire piece is of immense help. a detail may perhaps be corrected during the progress of the work, but afterwards this would be an awkward matter. it is one of the difficulties of weaving to have to finish completely each step as it comes up. working from the wrong side is not so hard as it might seem, for both sides are practically alike; the side towards the worker, however, shows ends of thread and thread passing from one place to another, which make it somewhat unpresentable. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] fig. shows a drawing of a small loom with some warp stretched upon it in readiness for commencing work. it stands upon the ground, and is about feet high by ½ feet wide. it is made of beechwood; a hard wood like this is best, for there must be no possibility of the rollers bending with the strain of the warp. the loom consists of two uprights standing upon heavy feet; these uprights are joined together at the top and base by strengthening cross bars. two wooden rollers are fixed into the uprights (see a and b in fig. ) and in the surface of each of these a narrow groove is hollowed out lengthwise (see fig. ); this is for the purpose of holding a long metal pin, by means of which the warp-threads are kept in place. the rollers are fitted at one extremity with a handle for turning them round, and at the other with a ratchet and toothed wheel to prevent unwinding. the purpose of the upper roller is to hold the supply of warp-thread and unwind it as required; the lower one is for winding up the web as the work progresses, so that upon a loom of this size a piece of work of considerable length can easily be carried out. [illustration: fig. .] the warp soon after it passes from the top roller is divided into two leaves by a cylindrical wooden bar about one inch in diameter, called the cross stave (see fig. ). the cross stave may be oval or round in section; if it is oval the warp-threads may be moved more widely apart when required by turning the stave round, but this is not often necessary. the upper part of the cross stave can be seen in position in the loom diagram, which shows also how the stave divides the threads, which pass alternately one in front and one behind the bar. after this the threads are passed through a comb-like instrument, having about fourteen divisions to the inch (see fig. ). this extends from side to side of the loom, and lies in a groove made in the bar that fixes the coat-stave (c in fig. ) in position at either extremity. it can be taken out and exchanged for another with a different divisioning, if necessary; without doing this, however, it is quite possible to put at intervals two threads through one division, or to pass over one occasionally if need be. the threads are next fixed in the lower roller. [illustration: fig. .] the coat-stave can be seen projecting from near the top of the loom. a number of looped threads called coats are fixed to it, and each one of these encircles a thread of the warp. they are attached only to those threads that were passed behind the cross stave and form the back leaf of the warp, and they are for the purpose of pulling these forward when required. underneath the lower roller is fixed a wooden tray, which is useful for holding bobbins, comb, or scissors. on the loom is hung a small mirror facing the right side of the work (see fig. ). this enables the weaver to glance now and then through the warp-strings at any detail that is in progress. smaller looms can be made, suitable for placing upon a table; these, standing about two feet in height, must in some way be firmly fixed to the table, in order to be properly rigid for work. [illustration: fig. .] the thread composing the woof is wound upon a wooden bobbin or shuttle, such as that shown in fig. . the chief point about this is, that it may not have sharp angles that might catch in the warp whilst passing to and fro. the pointed end is sometimes made use of to poke between the warp-threads and press down the weft. a fresh bobbin is employed for each colour, and the wool is wound upon it two or three strands together, just as may happen to be required for the work. large blunt-pointed needles about three inches long (fig. ) are often used in place of bobbins, for with small pieces of work sometimes so little of a colour is required as to make it unnecessary to wind a quantity on a bobbin, which is, after all, only a needle with an extra long thread. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] a comb is necessary for pressing down the weft whilst the work is in progress. combs vary in size and shape; fig. shows one suitable for this type of work; it is ½ inches square, slightly wedge-shaped, and about one-eighth of an inch thick. boxwood is the most suitable wood to make them from, since it is particularly hard and fine in the grain. they are sometimes made of metal, ivory, or bone; for large work, metal combs of a heavier type are used. [illustration: fig. .] an embroidery frame, which has been already mentioned as a possible substitute for the loom, is oftentimes an article more easily procured. fig. illustrates how a frame of this kind may be prepared with warp-threads for weaving. one with the screw side pieces is the best, for these enable the tension of the warp to be slightly adjusted if the working shows any tendency to slacken the thread. to prepare the frame for weaving--place the parts together at the required distance from each other; secure the end of some warp-thread to some part of the frame, and then commence to wind it round and round over the two rollers, placing the threads at approximately the right distance apart, taking into account when doing this that the two leaves thus formed will eventually be brought into the same plane. when the required width of warp-thread is wound upon the rollers, secure the end of the string and proceed to bring the front and back leaves together by darning a knitting-needle or some similar article in and out of the threads at the centre. then slide it up close to the top roller and secure it by tying it with string at each end (see diagram). the same process is gone through with a second pin, which is tied to the lower roller. the warp-threads can now be adjusted to their proper distance apart, as they will probably be a little irregularly spaced. the next process is to weave two or three courses of warp-thread close to the knitting-pins at either end; this brings the warp still nearer to being in the one plane, and enables the threads to be arranged in perfect order by the aid of the point of the bobbin or a needle, and they will remain as now placed. the frame is now ready for work. a piece of plain web, about half an inch in width, is usually woven before the actual design is begun; this serves as a selvedge for turning in when the completed work is mounted, and also gets the warp into condition much better for working upon. a thick knitting-needle can be passed between the alternate threads of the warp and placed towards the top of the frame, as shown in the diagram. this takes the place of the cross-stave in the loom, and, by thus dividing the warp into two leaves, is of assistance when the shuttle goes in one direction. coats cannot easily be applied to an embroidery frame. it is quite possible upon a frame of this kind to weave a long narrow band of any kind. the warp must be wound on and arranged in position at the necessary length by separating the rollers and temporarily fixing them apart at the distance required for the band. the surplus warp is then wound up on the upper roller until the side pieces will fit into the ends. as it gets worked upon, the completed part is wound upon the lower roller. a piece both long and wide would be impracticable, especially if any winding on and off the rollers were necessary. materials there are very few materials required for tapestry weaving; they consist of, string for warp, wools, silks, and maybe gold and silver thread for the weft. the warp is usually composed of a smooth, strong, evenly twisted thread, specially made for the purpose. it can be procured of various thicknesses. it happens sometimes that in parts the warp shows, as a fringe or in some other way; in this case it could be made of a strong silk thread, such as purse silk, though for edges of mats, the ordinary string warp fringed out is quite suitable. occasionally weaving is carried out in such a way as to expose the warp in various parts of the work, the pattern being woven, but the ground left altogether unworked. in a case of this kind the colour and composition of the warp is naturally important, and must be considered. in a show-case in the british museum there can be seen a small book with an interesting woven binding carried out after this manner. the warp is composed of gold passing, and the effect of this with a pattern carried out in brightly coloured silks is very pretty indeed, the gold adding a rich glow to the whole. wool and silk are the chief materials used for the woof. it is well to choose those of fine texture, for several strands can then be wound together upon one bobbin, which, with coarse materials, would be too clumsy a method. when working in this way there is more opportunity of varying colour and texture, for three shades may be wound upon the bobbin together to get a required colour, and this has often a prettier effect than the use of an unblended colour; also, silk and wool are very satisfactory wound and worked in together, each texture showing the other to advantage. fine gold or silver threads are frequently used in tapestry weaving. they can be woven in alone, which gives a metallic look, or they may be mixed with strands of silk. both ways are very good, and the use of the metal thread adds great richness to the work. these threads make fine backgrounds, and they can be used in many ways upon the design; it is a common practice to carry out the lighting of draperies and of other parts in real gold, just as they are treated in illuminated manuscripts. chapter xvii preparations for work warping the loom--dressing the coat-stave--tracing the pattern upon the threads. upon commencing the warping of the loom the first matter to be decided is the length of the threads. some extra length must be measured off besides that actually used for weaving, to allow for what is taken up in fixing the threads and winding them round the rollers, and as it is not convenient to work more than about half-way up the loom, this also has to be allowed for in the length. the threads must all be cut to one size, and since they have to be doubled in halves when placed on the loom, this should be twice the required length. another question for early decision is the number of warp-threads that may be allowed per inch. this varies with the coarseness of the strings and the thickness of the weft that will have to pass to and fro between them; what governs both of these points is the design, whether there is much detail or not, for if the drawing is complicated the warp-strings must be fine in order to be able to carry it out; this point will be better understood after some experience of working. fourteen to sixteen threads to the inch is a very usual number. the fixing of the threads in the upper roller is a very simple matter. it is done by doubling each in halves and placing the loop thus formed over the metal pin, which for this purpose may be temporarily suspended by string to the frame of the top of the loom just above the roller. it can be dropped into its place in the groove when all the threads are looped upon it, and made secure there for the moment by tying some string round the extremities of the roller. each thread is now taken separately through the comb-like instrument. the cross-stave is laid upon this, so it is well to put it in place now, and carry the threads alternately in front and behind it, whilst passing them through the comb. the threading of the strings through the comb decides the number there will be to the inch, so they must be put through at the required distance apart. the upper roller is next given a complete turn, which will make the metal pin and the threads that are round it secure in the groove. the winding up must be continued until only about three inches of the warp-string hang below the lower roller. some kind of tension must be applied to the threads whilst this winding is going on, or it will be done irregularly; a hand, or several hands, holding it, answers the purpose well enough. the next process is to fix the threads securely in the lower roller. the difficulty here lies in getting the placing and tension of the threads between the two rollers exactly regular and even. if some were slack and others tight it would be very awkward to correct afterwards, and impossible to weave upon properly if incorrect. [illustration: fig. .] fig. shows a practical method by which the warp may be fixed in the lower roller, but any contrivance will do that gains the required result. to carry out the fixing as in the diagram, the roller must be turned so that the groove comes just at the centre in the front. four lines of warp-thread are then fixed from end to end of the roller, two above and two below the groove. each warp-string in turn is now threaded in and out of these cross lines, as shown in the diagram. this places them in regular order, at the correct distance apart, and keeps them at very nearly the same tension throughout. the metal pin is now placed in the groove and pushes the threads before it. it must be temporarily made firm there by string tied round the roller at intervals. the next process is to tie the warp-threads in knots, either two or four together, just where they emerge below the pin. this prevents any giving way, and if the threads are pulled just equally tight immediately before the knotting, the tension of the entire warp will be the same. the lower roller is next turned round until the metal pin is made quite firm in its place by the warp-threads passing across the face of the groove. the warp will now be fixed in the loom as shown in the drawing in fig. . the placing of the coats upon the coat-stave is the next part of the preparatory work. commence by fixing a line of warp-thread along the exterior side of the coat-stave, making it secure to the bar at both ends. the coats, encircling the stave and a thread of warp, are fixed to this string by a kind of buttonhole stitch (see fig. ). it is important that each loop should be of exactly the same size; this can be ensured by temporarily fixing a rod across the loom at the point where the loops will encircle the warp-thread, and then taking the loop round this bar as well as round the thread. [illustration: fig. .] to commence making the coats, take a long needleful of warp-thread and secure the end of it to the string at the right-hand end, and then make about three small looped stitches upon it (see needle in progress in the diagram); next, instead of making another of the same stitches, take the thread down below the stave, let it encircle the first thread of the back leaf and then be brought up over the coat-stave and string and be looped under the thread to complete the stitch (see b). usually a long and a short stitch are taken alternately, but the number of short ones may be varied. this process is continued until all the threads of the back leaf are encircled each by a loop. a new length of thread must be knotted on to the last one as it gets used up. the weavers' knot, which is shown on p. , might be used for the purpose. it would be made use of also if by chance the warp-thread were broken, for it is a knot specially good for the purpose. when the coats are completed there are still one or two preparations to be made before actually commencing to weave. either a metal rod or a long narrow piece of wood must now be threaded in and out of the warp-strings and placed in position at the base. this rod can be seen properly placed in position in fig. in front of the lower cylinder. this is put there to keep the lines of the woof horizontal when they are being beaten down by the comb. next wind on a bobbin some warp-thread similar to that already on the loom, or, if that happens to be very coarse, let this be a little finer. now weave two courses with this warp-thread and beat it down with the comb, leaving the woof during the process rather loose. the technique of weaving with all its difficulties is discussed in chapter xviii. when two of the warp-thread courses are complete, insert either the pointed end of the bobbin or a blunt needle between the warp-threads below the woven portion, and if necessary move the warp-strings a little to or fro until they are equally separated each from the other all along the line. next weave about four more courses of the woof; these will serve to keep the arranged warp-threads still more firmly in place. then with a red pencil rule a horizontal line straight across the warp-strings about one-third of an inch above the woven portion. wind on another bobbin some wool and weave it to and fro until the space between the woven portion and the red line is filled in. between each course the comb must beat the woof-threads firmly down. it is often necessary to weave over some portions of the surface more than over others as the threads pack down tighter in some parts. the loom should be now in perfect order for commencing work. the preparatory weaving that has been done is often useful afterwards as a selvedge. it is necessary to have a coloured drawing of the design for frequent reference whilst the work is in progress; also a tracing of the outline must be marked upon the warp-threads for the worker's further guidance. the tracing upon the threads must be a reflection of the pattern owing to the fact that the work is done from the back. it does not affect the matter if the design is a symmetrical one, but to find the lions of england facing the wrong way in some completed piece of heraldic work would be most annoying. in order to get a tracing of the design upon the threads, a sheet of paper, with a distinct outline of the pattern upon it, must be attached, possibly by pinning, to the further side of the warp-threads, exactly where the weaving is to take place. the outline will be clearly perceivable through the threads, and the next process is to take pen and indian ink and make a dot upon each warp-thread in sequence round the outline of the pattern. when this is completed, the tracing-paper can be removed, and the dots upon the warp must be taken all round each thread instead of marking one side only. the marking round is done by holding a warp-thread between the finger and thumb, placing the side of the nib against one of the dots, and then twisting the thread to and fro against it. all the marks upon the first thread are treated in succession in this way, then the next thread is taken up and treated in similar fashion, and so on until all are done. fig. shows a leaf marked upon the warp-threads in readiness for working. this marking should be clear, sharp, and decided, all the lines being taken horizontally round, as in fig. ; if the pattern seems to run up a thread, a mark just half-way up is sufficient guide. in a piece of work of any size the tracing must be done, a part at a time, for the threads moving slightly when the warp is unwound and the web wound up may displace the marks and make the guiding lines incorrect. [illustration: fig. .] chapter xviii the technique of weaving weaving--commencing and fastening off--the interlocking stitch--fine drawing--shading--added after-stitches. the way in which the woof threading in and out of the warp makes the web is shown at c, fig. . here the woof has been taken once to and fro; a movement called a weft or a course, one way only, goes by the name of a half pass or a shoot. by the use of the cross stave for one direction, and of the coats for the other, the tediousness of the process of darning in and out and so picking up the right threads is avoided. it is not always practical to make use of these appliances; for instance, in working over only two or three threads it may not be worth while, but when they can be made use of the work is done twice as rapidly by their help. the bobbin enters the loom rather high up, for there the division of threads is greatest. one hand starts the bobbin upon its journey, the other hand, entering between the divided warp-threads, takes it on and out as required. sometimes the bobbin has to go the entire way between the leaves, and at others it may be only over two or three threads, this depending upon the pattern. to enable the bobbin to make the return passage, the warp must be redivided, the threads that are at the back must be brought to the front; this is managed by the help of the coats--a bunch of them is taken in the hand in order to pull forward the threads to which they are attached. this can be done by sections all along the line, or just in one part of it if it be so required. the weft is almost always taken in horizontal lines to and fro. the exceptions to this rule occur when it is very evident that to run up and down a narrow slanting line from end to end is far simpler than to work up in a horizontal zigzag fashion along it. about an inch of thread is left at the end and at the commencement of each length of weft; these are secured by the tight packing down of the threads above them, so there is as a rule no need for any knot or fastening off, which would be necessary only in the case of commencing or ending off round a single thread, but it is important for the future durability of the work to see that the ends are secured. sometimes a commencement or a finish is made just where a natural division of the fabric occurs; in this case, the end of thread would not be secure, for it might work loose or appear upon the right side. this can usually be avoided by commencing a little further along the line. the few times that fastening off or on is necessary, the thread can be run into the part already woven with a smaller needle, or else be knotted on to a loose end of wool. the bobbins not actually in use hang down fixed as in lace work by a half-hitch. fig. shows this in process of making; the loop is passed from the finger on to the bobbin; it will unwind as wanted and yet hold firm whilst hanging down. the thread is always carried, if practicable, from one place to where it is next required, in order to avoid unnecessary breaking off. tapestry is sometimes woven with both sides alike, which means only that all the ends must be cut close off. it is said that work so treated is quite durable. [illustration: fig. .] special care must be taken that the weft is turned neatly round at the margins, because if it is at all loose there the work has a ragged, untidy appearance. this applies also to any turnings that may occur in other parts due to the carrying out of the pattern; if in these places the thread is too loose upon the warp, the fabric will be uneven and pushed out of place; if on the other hand the thread there is too tight, the slits will gape, and if these are afterwards closed by stitching, the entire material will be drawn in. a new thread is never commenced actually at the margin, for it would then be seen upon the right side; it is quite easy to avoid this happening by commencing an inch further in. this may entail beginning in a direction which is apparently wrong for picking up the proper threads, that is, those not picked up in the row below; but this must happen at times, and the work packs down and quite prevents the warp showing, as it might be inclined to do in such a case. it is sometimes at the margin a good plan to pick up two warp-threads together, for this emphasises the edge rather pleasantly; this might be advisable in carrying out a long ribbon-like border of any kind. after each shoot, the point of the bobbin, the comb, or maybe the fingers, should press down the woof to make it lie close upon the row before, and so entirely cover up the warp. fig. shows the comb in action, and also the bobbins hanging. the weft must be left a little slack along the line for this purpose, and some experience is required in order to leave just the right slackness. the turn at the edge is arranged first, and then the thread eased evenly along its length in readiness for being pressed down; it must have the appearance not of running straight across the warp-strings, but of lying loosely round them. for packing down a long line, much more play of weft is required than for a short one. [illustration: fig. .] the usual fault with beginners is to draw the web too tight here and there. this is a fault to be specially avoided, for it causes the fabric to be drawn in, and to vary in width, spoiling its appearance and making the threads difficult to work upon; also the packing down of the weft could not be properly done, which would cause the warp-threads to be exposed in parts. the thoroughness of this packing down of the weft is for several reasons very important. the durability of the work is much affected by it, both for the securing of the ends of wool already mentioned, and for the making of a strong, well-knit piece of fabric. another reason is, that the drawing of the various forms in the design may be made incorrect, in this way: suppose an apple were woven in, apparently correctly, but the wefts were not pressed down thoroughly, the weaving and packing down of the wefts above it would be sure to press the part underneath closer together, and the effect of this would be to make the round apple assume a flattened oval shape, and cause similar changes throughout the work. it has already been mentioned that wherever a change of colour occurs vertically, that is, in the direction of the warp-threads, there results of necessity a division or slit in the web; the slit, which may be of any length, if noticeable, must be closed. this can be done whilst the weaving is in progress by a method of interlocking the two wefts as they meet, or else by stitching up at the back when the work is finished. the latter way is called fine drawing, and must be very carefully done, especially with large tapestries. both methods are used; the first takes longer, but is the most durable. old and worn tapestries will usually be seen to have given way where this stitching up at the back has taken place. in small pieces of work, however, there is not much likelihood of strain, so the oversewing at the back answers fairly well. the two ways can be used in conjunction. supposing a border, owing to its being of a different colour, had to be joined the entire length of the work, the interlocking stitches might be made at intervals of about half an inch, and when the work was finished the oversewing at the back might be taken the entire length. [illustration: fig. .] fig. is a diagram illustrating the way in which the wefts may be interlocked whilst the weaving goes on. examination of the drawing will probably be sufficient explanation; however, interlocking is effected thus: commencing at the base, run a weft of the darker wool to and fro, leaving it slack at the turning point. a half pass of the lighter-coloured woof is then run through, it is threaded in an upward direction through the slack loop of the darker wool, waits there whilst another weft of the darker colour is worked, and then is threaded down through the second loop that has been formed, and returns to the starting-point. it then comes back again and is threaded upwards through this same loop, and waits, as before, for another to be formed, and returns back through it--and so on. if this is done properly, no change is visible on the right side. the joined weft will last as long as any other part of the weaving. the process of stitching up at the back is simply an oversewing with silk or other strong thread. the stitches must be rather close, drawing the edges just sufficiently together, and they must not show through to the right side. the stitching together should be done while the work is on the loom, since the web would then be in less danger of pulling out of shape. [illustration: fig. .] shading in tapestry weaving is carried out by a hatching process which is most simply explained by a diagram (fig. ). the difficulty is not in the working, but in getting the form of the shadow or light correctly expressed. there is no need for fine gradation of colour and tone, for the shading looks best when carried out simply and boldly, but the drawing of it should be decided and good. the above figure gives but one intermediary tone in shading from one colour to another, which is the ancient method of working; at the present day the weavers in the _manufacture des gobelins_ employ several other intermediary tones, thus allowing of finer gradation; possibly however these fine gradations are not of such great importance, and so need not have an unnecessary amount of attention and time devoted to their accomplishment. the student will do well to examine fine examples and make careful drawings from them, since this will teach the right way of going to work better than anything else can. fig. is simply a shaded leaf taken at random from a piece of weaving; the same leaf was shown in outline in fig. , so the two show the commencement and completion of the same piece. it will be noticed upon studying tapestry that usually all the light parts of a work are hatched with the same colour, often a buff shade, those of rich tapestries with gold thread. this sameness of colour throughout gives unity to the work. [illustration: fig. .] sometimes after the weaving is completed a few finishing touches can be satisfactorily put in by means of single stitches taken through the fabric with a sharp-pointed embroidery needle. the dots representing the seeds upon a strawberry could be stitched in afterwards in this way, for to insert them while the work is going on would be very tedious. this kind of thing must not be overdone, however, for the stitches are apt, unless very deftly treated, to have a laid-on look, and care must be taken not to mar the evenly ribbed effect, which is one of the characteristics of tapestry. [illustration: fig. .] this weaving is a most fascinating kind of work, as will be found upon a trial. the simplest patterns look very interesting when woven, and, on the other hand, the work can be carried to any degree of complexity that the worker desires. for a first trial a piece might be done with no attempt at shading; even one such as that illustrated at fig. would be suitable. this example happens to be a form particularly easy for carrying out in weaving. the worker should begin at the lower right-hand corner and work the successive flights of steps diagonally, as shown by the unfinished portion of the diagram. in the way of actual technique there is in the art of tapestry weaving not nearly as much to be learnt as there is in embroidery, for there are no varieties of methods and of stitch to be acquired; still for a person to become a skilled weaver, capable of carrying out large wall hangings, is a thing very difficult of attainment--indeed it is said that it takes as long as fifteen years of constant application to acquire the necessary knowledge and skill. to carry out designs of less magnitude and intricacy is a very different matter; success in this smaller way is far more easily attained, and is well within the reach of unprofessional people. notes on the collotype plates plate i.--_a detail from a xivth century english cope._--the figure of christ which is shown in this plate is taken from a central group, representing the coronation of the virgin, in a famous cope in the possession of colonel j. e. butler-bowdon. the ground is of rich red silk velvet; the face, hands, and linings of the draperies are worked in silk in split stitch; the drapery, crown, and surrounding architectural decoration are in gold thread couched by the early method. the twisted column with oak leaves and the five lobed arch are both characteristic of english work of this period. note the use of pearls in the lion's head and in the acorns, also the charmingly drawn bird. an interesting technical point displayed in this example is that the work is done directly on to the velvet ground, instead of being first worked upon linen and afterwards as a completed piece of embroidery applied to the velvet. the method in use here, if at all possible, is always the most satisfactory. size of detail, about eleven inches by six. plate ii.--_two heads from a xivth century english cope preserved at steeple aston, oxfordshire._--the cope is not now in its original state, for it has been divided into two parts and used for the decoration of the altar. the background is composed of a thin greyish white silk backed with a stronger material. the white may have been originally some other colour; it is, however, in its present state, very beautiful and harmonious. the drawing of the features in this cope is remarkably refined and true to nature (the reproduction does not do full justice to the original). the ancient method, of working the faces in split stitch commencing with the middle of the cheek and continuing spirally round, then afterwards pressing the centre down by some mechanical means, is plainly to be observed here. the effective drawing of the tresses of hair in alternate lines of two colours is well seen in the left-hand example. the gold thread which is freely made use of all over the cope, upon the draperies, nimbi, and surrounding foliage, is marvellously bright and sparkling, although nearly six hundred years old. the manufacture of untarnishable gold for embroidery purposes seems beyond present day enterprise. width of nimbus, two and a half inches. plate iii.--_a small portion of a quilted coverlet, probably of sicilian work. date about ._--in this interesting example of quilting, which is exhibited in the victoria and albert museum, the ground is composed of a buff-coloured linen. the raised effect is obtained by an interpadding of wool. the background is run over irregularly with white thread, in order to keep it more or less flat, and the design, which is in fairly high relief, is outlined with brown thread. the entire coverlet is embroidered with scenes from the life of tristan. tristan frequently engaged in battle against king languis, the oppressor of his country. this detail represents "how king languis (of ireland) sent to cornwall for the tribute." size of detail, two feet by three. plate iv.--_a portion of an altar cloth band, embroidered in coloured silk threads upon a white linen ground._--this is a piece of german xvth century work exhibited in the victoria and albert museum. it is embroidered almost entirely in one stitch, which might be described as a variety of herring-bone. the design is made up of two motives which repeat alternately along the band--a square shaped tree and a circle, the latter decorated with floral sprays and, in the centre of it, a group of emblems. down the middle of the design runs a series of names in fine gothic lettering--"ursula" and "augustinus" being the two that occur in this plate. width of embroidered band, four and a half inches. plate v.--_a portion of a late xvth century orphrey, embroidered with the arms of henry stafford, duke of buckingham._--the ground is of red velvet, and is embroidered with gold thread and coloured silks. the two shields here represented bear the arms of the families of de bohun and fitzwalter. each shield has for supporters two swans, and is surrounded by floral sprays. the stafford knot unites the sprays between the shields. the chasuble upon which this orphrey is placed is made of a lovely brocaded silk decorated with falcons, peahens, and roses. width of embroidered orphrey, about eight inches. plate vi.--_a detail of foliage taken from a late xvith century embroidered picture representing the story of daphne._--the picture is worked in coloured wools and silks in cross stitch upon canvas, and is an admirable example of this kind of work, and this particular detail is a good illustration of a very satisfactory treatment of foliage. the whole panel measures about seven feet by two, and is exhibited in the victoria and albert museum. height of detail, ten and a half inches. plate vii.--_an embroidered xviith or xviiith century wool-work curtain._--this curtain, the property of miss killick, is a pretty example of a small crewel-work hanging. the design is of a type that was often used upon hangings of that period. it is embroidered with brightly coloured wools upon a white linen ground, and is in a good state of preservation. much ingenuity as well as variety of stitching are shown in the execution of the work. size of curtain, about five feet by three. plate viii.--_a portion of a large xviith century linen hanging embroidered with coloured wools._--in both design and execution this curtain is remarkably fine. the entire hanging is about eighteen feet in width by seven in height. it is embroidered with a conventional representation of a forest; in the branches of the trees lodge all kinds of birds and beasts. the type of design shown in this plate and in the last is derived from eastern work; its introduction into england was due to the increase of trade with oriental nations, which developed about this time. size of detail, about six feet by four. plate ix.--_cutwork lettering taken from a xviith century english sampler._--the letters and surrounding decoration shown in this example of cut or open work are built up on a square network of warp and weft threads that were left at regular intervals throughout the space, when the unnecessary threads were withdrawn, and then covered with a kind of darning stitch. the letters are worked in buttonhole stitch, each fresh line being taken into the heading of the last one. the other parts of the work are carried out in either buttonhole or overcast stitch. the complete sampler is a long narrow strip of linen, across which run specimen bands of various kinds of work. it is exhibited in the victoria and albert museum. width of cutwork detail, six inches. plate x.--_an embroidered sampler._--the work is carried out in coloured silks in minute cross-stitch and occasional rows of satin stitch, upon a ground of fine single-thread canvas. it is dated , and was worked by alice knight, the author's great-grandmother. the birds, trees, and flowers, the charming little border patterns, and the comical cats standing on either hillocks or housetops, are all characteristic of sampler work. working the sampler was once the regular introduction to mending, marking, and embroidery, and one was done by almost every xviiith century child as a part of education, indeed the practice of working samplers was continued some decades into the xixth century. actual size of original, eighteen inches by twelve. plate xi.--_an example of persian embroidery._--formerly in the collection of lord leighton, and now in that of the london county council's central school of arts and crafts. the embroidery is carried out almost entirely in chain stitch with brilliantly coloured silks, upon a fine semi-transparent ground. the flowers that appear dark in the reproduction are worked in a bright rosy red, others are yellow and orange, and the leaves are in pale grey green outlined with a dark myrtle shade of the same. size of panel, about five feet by four. plate xii.--_a detail from an embroidered tablecloth._--the entire surface of this fine white linen cloth is strewn with a profusion of beautiful flowers, worked in floss silk in bright colours. the flowers were all drawn directly from nature by the worker, mrs. w. r. lethaby. plate xiii.--_an embroidered altar frontal, executed by miss may morris, designed by mr. philip webb._--the work is carried out with floss silk in bright colours and gold thread, both background and pattern being embroidered. the five crosses, that are placed at regular intervals between the vine leaves, are couched in gold passing upon a silvery silk ground. plate xiv.--_two pieces of ancient weaving taken from tombs in egypt._--these are exhibited in the victoria and albert museum. the upper example is about five inches square, dated iiird to viith century, egypto-roman work, and is said to have decorated a child's tunic. it is woven in coloured silks upon a green ground; the colours are still wonderfully fresh and bright. weavers may see various interesting technical as well as other points in this early work. for instance, how the difficulty of the narrow detached vertical lines, necessitated by change of colour in the weft, has been overcome by using surface stitching instead, the easier horizontal lines being woven in the usual way. a good deal of this surface stitching can be seen in the ancient weaving; sometimes an entire pattern is picked out by this method, the ground having been first woven all over in some plain colour. the lower border pattern is a band of weaving about two inches in width, saracenic work. it is woven in coloured silks and linen thread upon the actual warp threads of the garment that it decorates. the weft threads were probably omitted for the space of one and a half inches when the fabric was being made in order that some ornamentation might be put in, in this way. some of the weft threads have perished, leaving the warp exposed to sight; this enables the student to understand better the manner in which it was carried out. plate xv.--_an example of a tapestry field strewn with flowers._--this kind of decoration is characteristic of many tapestry grounds, for the style is particularly suited to the method of work, and very happy in result. the detail shown in this plate is taken from a piece of late xvith century flemish work; it carries on, however, a much earlier tradition. the ground is of a dark blue colour, and the flowers varied as in nature. plate xvi.--_a tapestry bag, woven in coloured silk and gold thread by the author._--the ground is woven with black silk, decorated with gold at the top and base. the centre panel is carried out in brightly coloured silks and gold thread. the various compartments are filled with representations of flowers, birds, and fishes, upon an alternating purple and blue background. the dividing lines are of gold thread. size of bag, ten inches by six. the collotype plates [illustration: plate i.--a detail from a xivth century english cope.] [illustration: plate ii.--two heads from a xivth century english cope preserved at steeple aston, oxfordshire.] [illustration: plate iii.--a small portion of a quilted coverlet, probably of sicilian work. date about .] [illustration: plate iv.--a portion of an altar cloth band, embroidered in coloured silk threads upon a white linen ground.] [illustration: plate v.--a portion of a late xvth century orphrey, embroidered with the arms of henry stafford, duke of buckingham.] [illustration: plate vi.--a detail of foliage taken from a late xvith century embroidered picture, representing the story of daphne.] [illustration: plate vii.--an embroidered xviith or xviiith century wool-work curtain.] [illustration: plate viii.--a portion of a large xviith century linen hanging, embroidered with coloured wools.] [illustration: plate ix.--cutwork lettering taken from a xviith century english sampler.] [illustration: plate x.--an embroidered sampler.] [illustration: plate xi.--an example of persian embroidery.] [illustration: plate xii.--a detail from an embroidered tablecloth. designed and executed by mrs. w. r. lethaby.] [illustration: plate xiii.--an embroidered altar frontal, executed by miss may morris, designed by mr. philip webb.] [illustration: plate xiv.--two pieces of ancient weaving taken from tombs in egypt.] [illustration: plate xv.--an example of a tapestry field strewn with flowers.] [illustration: plate xvi.--a tapestry bag, woven in coloured silk and gold thread by the author.] index altar-cloth band (plate iv.) altar frontal (plate xiii.) appliances, appliances and materials for tapestry weaving, applied embroidery, applied work, background, the, bag, tapestry (plate xvi.) beads, bobbins, braid work, _broderie anglaise_, bullions, , canvas work, coat-stave, collotypes, descriptive notes on, colour, comb, , cope at steeple aston (plate ii.), cope, detail from xivth century english (plate i.), cord, , cord-making appliance, , cotton, couching, couching gold, ancient method of, couching gold, usual method, coverlet, quilted sicilian (plate iii.), crewel work, curtain, xviith century (plate viii.), curtain, xviith century wool-work (plate vii.), cutwork, , darned netting, darning, darning, pattern, design, , design for tapestry, designing, pattern, directions, practical, drawn thread work, dressing the coat-stave, egyptian weaving (plate xiv.), emblems, embroidery frame used as a loom, embroidery, washing, embroidery with gold and silver threads, figure work, fine drawing, flax threads, foliage, detail of (plate vi.), frames, embroidery, frame work, fringes, garniture of work, the, gold and silver threads, embroidery with, gold thread embroidery, heraldry, inlaid work, interlocking stitch, knife, knots, , knotted cord, knotted thread, laid work, lettering, lettering, cutwork, xviith century (plate ix.), linen, loom, madeira work, marking, materials, materials and appliances for tapestry weaving, materials for gold work, methods of work, monograms, needles, , objects to work, , open-work fillings, _opus plumarium_, orphrey, xvth century (plate v.), past work, study of, , paste, embroidery, patch work, pattern darning, pattern designing, pattern tracing, patterns, transference of, , persian embroidery (plate xi.), _petit point_ pictures, picots, piercer, practical directions, precious stones, pricker, puckered work, cure of, purls, quilting, raised gold work, raised work, sampler, embroidered (plate x.), samplers, satin, scissors, shading, , silk, , silk threads, silver and gold threads, embroidery with, spindle, stands, embroidery frame, stitches, stitch, back, stitch, basket, stitch, braid, stitch, bullion, stitch, buttonhole, stitch, cable chain, stitch, chain, stitch, chequered chain, stitch, cretan, stitch, cross, stitch, double back stitch, stitch, feather stitch, stitch, fishbone, stitch, french knot, stitch, gobelin, stitch, herring-bone, stitch, holbein, stitch, insertion, various, stitch, interlocking, stitch, irish, stitch, knot, stitch, knotted chain, stitch, long and short, stitch, open chain, stitch, overcast, stitch, plait, stitch, rococo, stitch, rope, stitch, roumanian, stitch, satin, stitch, split, stitch, stem, stitch, stroke, stitch, tailor's buttonhole, stitch, tambour, stitch, tent, stitch, twisted chain, stitch, two-sided italian, stitch, zigzag chain, tablecloth, embroidered (plate xii.), tambour frame, tapestry bag (plate xvi.), tapestry, example (plate xv.), tapestry weaving, introduction to, tassels, tarnish of gold and silver threads, thimbles, threads, , , threads, gold and silver, tools, tools for tapestry weaving, tracing patterns, , tracing patterns on warp, transferring patterns, methods of, transferring patterns, requisites for, velvet, warp, warping the loom, washing embroidery, weaving, weaving, egyptian (plate xiv.), weaving, tapestry, work, garniture of, work, methods of, work, preparations for, work, protection and preservation of, wools, , printed by ballantyne, hanson & co. edinburgh & london * * * * * embroidery materials george kenning & son, goldsmiths, gold lacemen, and embroiderers, are the actual manufacturers of all materials that are best for embroidery of any and every description. [illustration] [illustration] the following are a few articles from the great variety they manufacture: threads, tambours, braids, laces, and cords in gold, silver, tinsel, and aluminium; also spangles, sequins, ornaments, and beads of every possible variety. please insist on your draper or fancy warehouseman supplying only materials manufactured by george kenning & son. manufactory: / little britain, e.c. _and at liverpool, glasgow, and manchester._ ribbon weaving factory, coventry * * * * * j. maygrove & co. ltd. _mills_-- _warehouse_-- st. albans. aldersgate street, london, e.c. _manufacturers of silks for weaving and embroidery._ _for really reliable boiling and unfading dyes._ maygrove's duchesse floss. maygrove's twisted embroidery. maygrove's filoselle, &c. unequalled for lustre, permanence, and artistic graduations of colour. ready for use. for weaving. china tram shades. tussah tram and organzine shades. oriental floche shades. worsted yarns--cotton yarns. _stocked ready for dyeing._ organzines, sewings, flosses, twists, and spun silks. worsted cords, genappes, mohairs, &c. &c. * * * * * plaster casts lettering for letter cutters by a. e. r. gill plaster casts of the stones shown on the collotype plates, numbers , , and , in the portfolio, "manuscript and inscription letters," by edward johnston, price s. d. net, are obtainable from the publisher, or direct from messrs. c. smith & sons, moulders, kentish town road, london, n.w., at the following prices:-- _roman capital letters (incised)._ } _"lower-case" italics, &c. (incised)._ } s. _net per set of three._ _"raised" letters, capitals, &c._ } packed--delivered free in london--carriage forward for country these casts being facsimiles of the actual stones make the best kind of models for letter cutters and sculptors, and all who have to do with inscriptions. being small, they are easily handled. the portfolio, "manuscript and inscription letters," by edward johnston, is intended as a working supplement to his handbook, "writing and illuminating, and lettering," price s. d. net. it contains plates in all, measuring - / × - / inches, with full descriptions and notes. john hogg, _publisher_, paternoster row, london, e.c. * * * * * robert s. ronald decorator and upholsterer [illustration] loom maker to the royal school of art, south kensington table or pedestal looms to order prices on application office and works-- st. ann's hill, wandsworth, london, s.w. * * * * * the artistic crafts series bookbinding and the care of books. by douglas cockerell. third edition. drawings by noel rooke. pages collotype reproductions. pp. s. net. extract from _the times_. "... a capital proof of the reasoned thoroughness in workmanship, which is the first article in the creed of those who ... are attempting to carry into practice the industrial teaching of ruskin and william morris." silverwork and jewellery. by h. wilson. second edition. diagrams by the author. pages of collotype reproductions. pp. s. d. net. containing special chapters, fully illustrated, based on demonstrations and with notes by professor unno bisei and professor t. kobayashi, of the imperial fine art college at tokyo, giving the traditional method of casting, damascening, incrustation, inlaying, engraving, and metal colouring still practised in japan, also on niello, the making of boxes and card cases, with chapters on egyptian and oriental methods of work. woodcarving: design and workmanship. by george jack. drawings by the author. pages of collotype reproductions. pp. s. net. extract from _the builders' journal_. "undoubtedly the best guide to woodcarving extant.... a practical work, written with clearness and literary power by a practical man ... of great artistic talent.... the illustrations are excellent." stained glass work. by c. w. whall. diagrams by two of his apprentices. pages of collotype reproductions. pp. s. net. extract from _the scotsman_. "it provides an exposition at once instructive and interesting of the workshop practice of the craft ... of stained glass, animated throughout by an encouraging and cheerful sense of the dignity and the elevating influence of such an occupation." embroidery and tapestry weaving. by mrs. a. h. christie. diagrams and illustrations by the author. pages of collotype reproductions. pp. s. net. (_third edition._) extract from _the pall mall gazette_. "mrs. christie has performed her task to admiration, ... and her lucid explanations of various kinds of stitches ... should be of value to all workers at embroidery or tapestry weaving and to novices anxious to learn." writing and illuminating, and lettering. by edward johnston. illustrations and diagrams by the author and noel rooke. pages of examples in red and black. pages of collotype reproductions. pp. (_fifth edition._) extract from _the athenæum_. "... this book belongs to that extremely rare class in which every line bears the impress of complete mastery of the subject. we congratulate mr. johnston on having produced a work at once original and complete." hand-loom weaving. by luther hooper. drawings by the author and noel rooke. coloured and collotype reproductions. pp. s. net. extract from _the morning post_. "... every phase and process in weaving is described with so clear and careful an exactitude, that, helped as the text is by the author's sketches and diagrams, the reader should have no difficulty in conquering with its aid the rudiments of the craft." portfolios (in the series) already issued. school copies and examples. selected by w. r. lethaby and a. h. christie. drawing copies ( in colours), with descriptive letterpress. s. d. net. manuscript and inscription letters. for schools and classes and the use of craftsmen. by edward johnston. with plates by a. e. r. gill, plates in all. full notes and descriptions by the author. s. d. net. (_second edition._) new volume in the press heraldry for craftsmen and designers by w. h. st. john hope, m.a. _further volumes and portfolios in preparation._ on workmanship a lecture by h. wilson author of "silverwork and jewellery" s. d. net john hogg, paternoster row, london exercises in knitting. by cornelia mee, authoress of a manual of knitting, netting, and crochet work; the companion to the work table; crochet explained and illustrated; crochet doilies and edgings; etc. third thousand. london: david bogue, fleet street. mdcccxlvi. bath: printed by wood brothers, parsonage lane. index. receipts for twelve chair covers, in different patterns. page. no. . german pattern of open double knitting . nun's pattern . viennoise pattern . beautiful coral pattern . beautiful diamond pattern . pretty feather pattern . double rose-leaf pattern . spider-net pattern . shield pattern, surrounded with open work . canvass pattern . leaf pattern . another leaf pattern receipts in knitting.[ ] border, pretty vandyke bodice, a knitted bag, shell knitting for a basket serviette, pretty pattern for a border, pretty open diamond brioche, for a cap, shell pattern for a baby's carpet hookah, or oriental mat cap half, for wearing under a bonnet cuffs, honeycomb comforter, for a comforter, for another counterpane, bell pattern for a cuffs, gentlemen's collar, beautiful knitted edging, new pattern for lace edging, narrow vandyke fish serviette fringe for chair covers, &c. fan pattern gaiters, children's hood, baby's very pretty muff, for a mitten, swiss pattern for the top of a muffatees, corkscrew pattern mitten, fan pattern pattern, a pretty open penwiper, for a knitted pelisse, very elegant knitted purse, pretty pattern for a knitted shawl, leaf pattern for half-square shoe, for a baby's shoe and stocking, a baby's shawl, a shetland scarf, beautiful pattern for a shawl, netted shawl, pretty feather pattern for the border of a shawl, open diamond pattern for the centre of a spencer, for an under sugar plum stitch stocking, receipt for a twisted knitting [ ] transcriber's note: some commas were added to this table of contents for clarity. exercises in knitting. receipts for twelve chair covers, in different patterns. as the number of stitches required to work each pattern will be mentioned, these patterns can easily be applied for any other purpose, and are most of them well adapted for doilies. some of the most open patterns are suitable for shetland shawls; and as the majority of the chair covers are now done in coloured wool, the colours and number of shades will be described; though, if wished in white, the linen thread, no. , is the proper material to be used. i. german pattern of open double knitting, both sides alike. large wooden pins are required for this pattern, which is done in double or eight-threaded wool, in colours that contrast well--claret, gold colour, blue, white, scarlet; and rows of each, worked in the order they are here placed. cast on stitches. first row:--seam , make , slip : this row is only to begin with, and is not repeated, the whole of the knitting being done as the second row:--seam together, make , by passing the wool round the pin, slip , and repeat. at the end of the row, if correctly knitted, there will be stitch, which seam. when the colours have been repeated times, the cover will be the proper size. to finish it round, work fringe no. , work claret for the head, and put in two lengths of each colour in the fringe. ii. nun's pattern. pins no. , stitches to a pattern: shades of orange -threaded german wool, beginning with the darkest, and working rows of each: plain rows to begin and end the cover; and plain stitches at the beginning and end of every row, for an edge. these edge stitches are not mentioned with the pattern, but will be included in the number cast on. cast on stitches. first row:--make , knit , make , knit , slip , knit together, pass the slipped stitch over, knit , and repeat. second row:--seamed. third row:--make , knit , make , knit , slip , knit together, pass the slipped stitch over, knit , and repeat. fourth row:--seamed. fifth row:--make , knit , make , slip , knit together, pass the slipped stitch over, and repeat. sixth row:--seamed. repeat from st row. when rows of each shade have been done, reverse them by continuing with the d lightest shade. iii. viennoise pattern. pins no. , stitches to a pattern. eight shades of scarlet four-threaded german wool, rows of each, the shades to be arranged and reversed as no. . cast on stitches (this includes the edge stitches). first row:--make , knit , knit together, pass the wool twice over the pin, knit together, repeat. second row:--seamed. the stitches that were passed twice over the pin to be knitted only as stitch. third row:--knit , make , knit , knit together, pass the wool twice over the pin, knit together, repeat. fourth row:--seamed as before. fifth row:--knit , make , knit , knit together, pass the wool twice over the pin, knit together, repeat. sixth row:--seamed as before. seventh row:--knit , make , knit , knit together, pass the wool twice over the pin, knit together, and repeat. eighth row:--seamed. ninth row:--knit , make , knit , knit together, pass the wool twice over the pin, knit together, and repeat. tenth row:--seamed. eleventh row:--knit , make , knit together, pass the wool twice over the pin, knit together, and repeat. twelfth row:--seamed, then repeat from the st row. iv. beautiful coral pattern. pins no. . sixteen shades of scarlet, four-threaded german wool, and rows of each shade, to be worked in the same order as no. , for the cover. cast on stitches; if wished for any other purpose, cast on any number of stitches that will divide by , and stitches over, to make the pattern correspond at the edges. first row:--knit , knit together,* thread forward, knit together, thread forward, knit together, thread forward, knit , thread forward, knit , slip , knit , pass the slipped stitch over, knit , knit together, knit , and repeat from * till within of the end, then thread forward, knit together, thread forward, knit together, thread forward, knit . second row:--seamed. third row:--knit , knit together,* thread forward, knit together, thread forward, knit together, thread forward, knit , thread forward, knit , slip , knit , pass the slipped one over, knit , knit together, knit , and repeat from *. for the end: thread forward, knit together, thread forward, knit together, thread forward, knit . fourth row:--seamed. fifth row:--knit , knit together,* thread forward, knit together, thread forward, knit together, thread forward, knit , thread forward, knit , slip , knit , pass the slipped stitch over, knit together, knit , and repeat from *. for the end: thread forward, knit together, thread forward, knit together, thread forward, knit . sixth row:--seamed. seventh row:--knit ,* thread forward, slip , knit , pass the slipped stitch over, thread forward, slip , knit , pass the slipped stitch over, thread forward, knit , slip , knit , pass the slipped stitch over, knit , knit together, knit , thread forward, knit , and repeat from *. for the end: thread forward, slip , knit , pass the slipped stitch over, thread forward, slip , knit , pass the slipped stitch over, thread forward, slip , knit , pass the slipped stitch over, knit . eighth row:--seamed. ninth row:--knit ,* thread forward, knit together, thread forward, knit together, thread forward, knit , slip , knit , pass the slipped stitch over, knit , knit together, knit , thread forward, knit , and repeat from *. for the end: thread forward, knit together, thread forward, knit together, thread forward, knit together, knit . tenth row:--seamed. eleventh row:--knit ,* thread forward, slip , knit , pass the slipped stitch over, thread forward, slip , knit , pass the slipped stitch over, thread forward, knit , slip , knit , pass the slipped stitch over, knit together, knit , thread forward, knit , and repeat from *. for the end: thread forward, slip , knit , pass the slipped stitch over, thread forward, slip , knit , pass the slipped stitch over, thread forward, slip , knit , pass the slipped stitch over, knit . twelfth row:--seamed. repeat from st row. v. beautiful diamond pattern. pins no. ; stitches to a pattern; shades of scarlet four-threaded german wool, rows of each shade, and for the centre, rows of white. cast on stitches. first row:--knit , make , knit together, knit (make and knit together times), knit together and draw the preceding stitch on the right-hand needle over the stitch formed by knitting the last together, make and knit together twice, make , knit , make , knit together; repeat. second row:--seamed. third row:--knit , knit together, make , knit (knit together and make three times), knit (make and knit together twice), make , knit , knit together, make , knit . fourth row:--seamed. fifth row:--knit , make , knit together, knit (knit together and make three times), knit (make and knit together three times), knit , make , knit together; repeat. sixth row:--seamed. seventh row:--knit , knit together, make , knit (knit together and make three times), knit (make and knit together three times), knit together, make , knit , and repeat. eighth row:--seamed. ninth row:--knit , make , knit together, knit (make and knit together three times), knit , make , knit together, knit (make and knit together four times). tenth row:--seamed. eleventh row:--knit , knit together, make , knit (make and knit together three times), knit (knit together and make three times), knit , knit together, make , knit . twelfth row:--seamed. vi. pretty feather pattern. pins no. ; stitches to a pattern. six shades each of scarlet, drab, and blue. cast on stitches. commence with the darkest blue and knit plain rows. first row:--knit together four times, bring the wool forward and knit eight times, knit together four times, knit , and repeat. second row:--seamed. third row:--knit. fourth row:--seamed. the shade is changed after the completion of these rows. the shades of blue are knit from dark to light; then the shades of scarlet; and then the shades of drab: each set of shades is knit twice, and you will finish with the lightest drab. knit plain rows of that colour besides the pattern rows. vii. rose-leaf pattern. pins no. ; stitches to a pattern. fifteen shades of blue four-thread german wool, and rows of each colour. cast on stitches. first row:--knit , seam , knit , make , knit , slip , knit , pass the slipped stitch over, seam , knit together, knit , seam , knit , slip , knit , pass the slipped stitch over, seam , knit together, knit , make , and repeat. second row:--seam , knit , seam , knit , seam , knit , seam , knit , seam ; repeat. third row:--knit , seam , knit , make , knit , make , slip , knit , pass the slipped stitch over, seam , knit together, seam , slip , knit , pass the slipped stitch over, seam , knit together, make , knit , make , and repeat. fourth row:--seam , knit , seam , knit , seam , knit , seam , knit , seam , and repeat. fifth row:--knit , seam , knit , make , knit , make , slip , knit together, pass the slipped stitch over, seam , slip , knit together, pass the slipped stitch over, make , knit , make . sixth row:--seam , knit , seam , knit , seam , and repeat. seventh row:--knit , seam , knit , make , knit , make , slip , knit together, pass the slipped stitch over, make , knit , make , and repeat. eighth row:--seam , knit , seam , and repeat. begin again from the st row. viii. pretty spider-net pattern, with open work between. pins no. ; stitches to a pattern. fourteen shades of four-threaded scarlet german wool, rows of each shade. cast on stitches. first row:--knit , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, make , knit together, knit (make , and knit together times), knit ; repeat. second row:--seam (seam together and make six times), seam (seam together and make twice), seam , make , seam together, seam , and repeat. third row:--knit together, make , knit together, knit , knit together (make and knit together twice), knit (make and knit together six times), knit , and repeat. fourth row:--seam (seam together and make six times), seam (seam together and make twice), seam , make , seam , make , seam , and repeat. fifth row:--knit , make , slip , knit together, pass the slipped stitch over, make , knit (make and knit together twice), knit (make and knit together six times), knit , repeat. sixth row:--seam (make and seam together six times), seam , seam together, make , seam , make , seam together, make , seam together, seam , repeat. seventh row:--knit , knit together, make , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, knit (knit together and make six times), knit , repeat. eighth row:--seam (make and seam together six times), seam , seam together, make , seam together, seam , seam together, make , seam together, make , seam together, seam , repeat. ninth row:--knit , knit together, make , knit together, make , knit , make , knit , make , knit (knit together and make six times), knit , repeat. tenth row:--seam (make and seam together six times), seam , make , slip , seam together, pass the slipped stitch over, make , seam , make , seam together, make , seam together, seam , repeat. ix. shield pattern, surrounded with open work. pins no. ; stitches to a pattern. ten shades of four-threaded german wool, rows of each shade, the shades to be reversed from the centre the same as no. . cast on stitches. first row:--knit together, knit , make , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, make , knit , knit together. second row:--seamed. third row:--knit together, knit , make , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, make , knit , knit together. fourth row:--seamed. fifth row:--knit together, knit , make , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, make , knit , knit together. sixth row:--seamed. seventh row:--knit together, knit , make , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, make , knit , knit together. eighth row:--seamed. ninth row:--knit together, make , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, make , knit together. tenth row:--seamed. eleventh row:--knit , make , knit together, make , knit , knit together, knit , make , knit together, make , knit . twelfth row:--seamed. thirteenth row:--knit , make , knit together, make , knit , knit together, knit together at the back, knit , make , knit together, make , knit . fourteenth row:--seamed. fifteenth row:--same as the th row. sixteenth row:--seamed. seventeenth row:--same as the th. eighteenth row:--seamed. nineteenth row:--knit , make , knit together, make , knit , knit together, knit together at the back, knit , make , knit together, make , knit . twentieth row:--seamed. twenty-first row:--knit , make , knit together, make , knit , knit together, knit together at the back, knit , make , knit together, make , knit . twenty-second row:--seamed. twenty-third row:--knit , make , knit together, make , knit together, knit together at the back, make , knit together, make , knit . twenty-fourth row:--seamed. twenty-fifth row:--knit together, knit , make , knit together, make , knit together, make , knit together, make , knit , knit together. twenty-sixth row:--seamed. twenty-seventh row:--knit together at the back, knit , make , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, make , knit , knit together. twenty-eighth row:--seamed. repeat from st row. x. canvass pattern. two stitches to a pattern, half-ounce skeins of shaded scarlet -threaded wool, and skeins of -threaded white wool, rows of scarlet, and of white. cast on stitches. first row:--seam , seam the remainder of the stitches, passing the wool twice round the pin. this row is not repeated, but the knitting continued with the d and d rows till large enough. second row:--knit half the st stitch, knit the other half with half the d stitch, passing the wool twice round the pin, knit the other half of the d stitch with the st half of the d stitch, passing the wool twice round the pin, and so on. third row:--seam half the st stitch, seam the other half with the st half of the d stitch, passing the wool twice round the pin, seam the other half of the d stitch with the st half of the d stitch, passing the wool twice round; repeat. finish this round with fringe no. ; use scarlet for the head, and scarlet and white for the fringe. xi. leaf pattern. pins no. . cast on ; stitches to a pattern. first row:--knit , make , knit , knit together, knit , knit together, knit , make , and repeat. second row:--seamed. third row:--knit , make , knit , knit together, knit , knit together, knit , make , knit , and repeat. fourth row:--seamed. fifth row:--knit , make , knit , knit together, knit , knit together, knit , make , knit , and repeat. sixth row:--seamed. seventh row:--knit , make , knit together, knit , knit together, make , knit , and repeat. eighth row:--seamed. ninth row:--knit , make , slip , knit together and bring the slipped stitch over, make , knit , and repeat. tenth row:--seamed. eleventh row:--knit , knit together, knit , make , knit , make , knit , knit together, and repeat. twelfth row:--seamed. thirteenth row:--knit , knit together, knit , make , knit , make , knit , knit together, and repeat. fourteenth row:--seamed. fifteenth row:--knit , knit together, knit , make , knit , make , knit , knit together, and repeat. sixteenth row:--seamed. seventeenth row:--knit , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, and repeat. eighteenth row:--seamed. nineteenth row:--knit together, make , knit ,* make , slip , knit together and bring the slipped stitch over, make , knit , repeat from * to end, and then begin first row. twentieth row:--seamed. xii. another leaf pattern. pins no. ; stitches to each pattern. cast on stitches. first row:--seam , knit , knit together, seam , knit , seam , bring the thread forward and knit , pass the thread round the needle, and repeat. second row:--seam , knit , seam , knit , knit together, seam , knit , and repeat. third row:--seam , knit , knit together, seam , knit , seam , knit , thread forward and knit , thread forward and knit , and repeat. fourth row:--seam , knit , seam , knit , knit together, seam , knit , and repeat. fifth row:--seam , knit , knit together, knit , seam , knit , thread forward, knit , thread forward, knit , and repeat. sixth row:--seam , knit , seam , knit together, seam , knit , and repeat. seventh row:--seam , knit , knit together, seam , knit , thread forward and knit , thread forward, knit , and repeat. eighth row:--seam , knit , knit together, knit , and repeat. ninth row:--seam , thread forward and knit , thread round the needle and seam , knit , knit together, seam , knit , and repeat. tenth row:--seam , knit , knit together, seam , knit , seam , knit , and repeat. eleventh row:--seam , knit , thread forward and knit , thread forward, knit , seam , knit , knit together, seam , knit , and repeat. twelfth row:--seam , knit , knit together, seam , knit , seam , knit , and repeat. thirteenth row:--seam , knit , thread forward and knit , thread forward and knit , seam , knit , knit together, knit , and repeat. fourteenth row:--seam , knit together, seam , knit , seam , knit , and repeat. fifteenth row:--seam , knit , thread forward and knit , thread forward, knit , seam , knit , knit together, and repeat. sixteenth row:--knit together, knit , seam , knit , and repeat. narrow vandyke edging. pins no. , and linen thread no. . cast on stitches. first row:--knit , make , knit together, make , knit together. second row:--slip , knit , make , knit together, pass the thread twice round the pin, knit together. third row:--make , knit , knit the first half of next stitch, seam the other half, knit , make , knit together, make , knit together. fourth row:--slip , knit , make , knit together, knit . fifth row:--make , knit , make , knit together, make , knit together. sixth row:--slip , knit , make , knit together, pass the thread twice round the pin, knit together, pass the thread twice round, slip , knit , pass the slipped one over, knit . seventh row:--knit , knit the first half of next stitch, seam the other half, knit , knit first half of next stitch, seam the other half, knit , make , knit together, make , knit together. eighth row:--slip , knit , make , knit together, knit . cast off stitches, and repeat from first row. for a baby's hood--very pretty. done on needles, no. , in german wool. cast on stitches, for the crown. first row:--knit stitch, and bring the wool forward before each of the other stitches. knit a plain row. third row:--knit stitches, make , knit , make . a plain row is knit between every increased one. next row:--make between every stitches, then between every , and so on, only increasing in the same plan, that is, times in every other row, till you have stitches between every increased stitch. then knit a plain row. next row:--make , and knit stitches together alternately throughout the row, cast off stitches on each side of your pins, knit plain rows. next row:--make , and knit stitches together alternately. knit plain rows. next row:--make , and knit stitches together alternately. knit plain rows. next row:--knit , make , knit , make , and repeat. knit a plain row, and continue commencing with stitches every other row, making between every stitches, so that in every other row there is an additional stitch between every increasing. continue the plain and increased row alternately, in the whole making rows. when the hood is made up, satin ribbon is first run between the holes, and then turned back, and stuffed with wool. it is turned over to the second of the plain rows. satin ribbon is run between the rows of holes and the increased parts down the crown, which is sewed up. the curtain, or frill, is sewed to the back part, and is knit as follows:--cast on stitches, knit plain rows, then take up the stitches at each side, and knit a plain row; bring the wool forward, and knit together for the row, plain row, cast off, then draw the ribbon through the holes, and sew on the frill. the crown is neatly lined with white persian, and strings of sarcenet added. a rosette of ribbon is an improvement. pink, white, or blue wool, is the best colour to knit this hood in. very pretty pattern for a fish serviette. no. linen thread, and pins no. . cast on stitches; are for the edge on each side: knit plain row, seam . the stitches for the edge are not mentioned in the pattern. first row:--knit together, knit , knit together (knit and make twice), knit , knit together, knit , knit together (knit and make twice), knit . second row:--seamed. third row:--(knit together and knit twice,) make , knit , make (knit and knit together twice), knit , make , knit , make , knit , and repeat. fourth row:--seamed. fifth row:--slip , knit together, pass the slipped stitch over, knit , make , knit , make , knit , slip , knit together, pass the slipped stitch over, knit , make , knit , make , knit . sixth row:--seamed. seventh row:--knit (make and knit twice), knit together, knit , knit together (knit and make twice), knit , knit together, knit , knit together, and repeat. eighth row:--seamed. ninth row:--knit , make , knit , make (knit and knit together twice), knit , make , knit , make , knit , knit together, knit , knit together. tenth row:--seamed. eleventh row:--knit , make , knit , make , knit , slip , knit together, pass the slipped stitch over the knit one, make , knit , make , knit , slip , knit together, pass the slipped stitch over, repeat. twelfth row:--seamed. repeat these rows till you have about or nails in length, then knit plain row, seam row, and cast off. two pretty fringes for chair covers, &c. no. . cast on an even number of stitches for covers, will be a good number, and use double wool. make by passing the wool round, seam together, repeat; both rows are done in this manner: when sufficient fringe is done, cast off stitches, take out the other pin, and unravel the remaining stitches. no. . cast on stitches, make a stitch, seam together, make a stitch, seam together, make a stitch, seam together (the wool is cut in lengths of about inches and put in at a time), put in piece of the fringe, knit plain stitches, pass the piece of fringe between the needles, knit the last stitch. second row:--knit the first stitches, knit the third and the piece of fringe together, knit the rest plain, knit the next row the same as the first. continue with these rows alternately till sufficient fringe is made. it may be done either in one plain colour, or the knitting in one colour and the fringe in another. new pattern for lace edging. linen thread no. . pins no. . cast on stitches. first row:--slip , knit , pass the cotton twice round the pin, knit together, pass the cotton twice round the pin, knit together, pass the cotton twice round the pin, knit together, pass the cotton twice round the pin, knit together, pass the cotton twice round the pin, knit together. second row:--knit , seam , knit , seam , knit , seam , knit , seam , knit , seam , knit . third row:--slip , knit . fourth row:--cast off , knit . you will now have stitches on the needle. fifth row:--slip , knit , pass the cotton twice round the needle, knit together, knit , pass the cotton times round the pin, knit together, knit , pass the cotton twice round the pin, knit together, knit . sixth row:--knit , seam , knit , seam , knit , seam , knit , seam , knit . seventh row:--slip , knit . eighth row:--cast off , knit . you have now stitches on the pin, and must begin with the first row again. sugar-plum stitch. very pretty for babies' quilts, done in shaded wool and large pins. cast on an uneven number of stitches. first row:--knit stitch, bring wool forward, slip the reverse way, pass the wool back, and repeat. second row:--seam the stitch that was slipped in the last row, pass the wool back, slip the reverse way, bring the wool forward, and repeat. continue these rows till the knitting is large enough. leaf pattern for half-square shawl. twelve stitches to a pattern, pins no. . this may either be done in shetland or german wool, and is very pretty in black shetland wool. cast on stitches; increase at the beginning of each row till you have . first pattern row:--make , knit together, knit , make , knit , make , knit , knit together, knit , make . second row:--seamed, making a stitch at the beginning. third row:--make , knit , knit together, knit , make , knit , make , knit , knit together, knit . fourth row:--seamed, making at the beginning. fifth row:--make , knit , knit together, knit , make , knit , make , knit , knit together, knit . sixth row:--seamed, making at the beginning. seventh row:--make , knit , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, knit . eighth row:--seamed, making at the beginning. ninth row:--make , knit , make , knit , knit together, knit , make , and knit the remainder. tenth row:--seamed, making at the beginning. eleventh row:--make , knit together, knit , make , knit , make , knit (knit together twice), knit , make , knit , make , knit , knit together, knit remainder. twelfth row:--seamed, make at the beginning. thirteenth row:--make , knit , knit together, knit , make , knit , make , knit (knit together twice), knit , make , knit , make , knit , knit together, knit the remainder. fourteenth row:--seamed, make at the beginning. fifteenth row:--make , knit , knit together, knit , make , knit , make , knit , knit together, * knit together, knit , make , knit , make , knit , knit together, and repeat from *, knit those left at the end. sixteenth row:--seamed, make at the beginning. seventeenth row:--make , knit , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, * knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, and repeat from *, knit those left at the end. eighteenth row:--seamed, make at the beginning. nineteenth row:--make , knit , make , knit , knit together, knit , make , knit together, make , knit , knit together, knit , make , knit the rest. twentieth row:--seamed: make at the beginning. twenty-first row same as th. the shawl can be made any size by repeating these rows till you have it as large as you wish. baby's shoe and stocking. set on stitches, and knit the top as the swiss mittens. when deep enough, diminish your stitches to . knit seamed rows in colour, then plain white, and rows of bars, formed by knitting plain and seamed stitches alternately for rows, and then plain rounds, then reverse the ribbing, and so on, with plain rounds between. divide the back and front--on the back pins stitches, on the front; on the back pins knit more plain rows, on the front continue the bars more rows, and at the end knit plain rows. this finishes the stocking part. for the shoe, set on stitches of coloured wool on a separate pin: plain row, and row of holes for ribbon to go through, plain row, and then join it to the back part of the stocking, knit seamed rows, plain, rows of bars, and seamed rows. divide for the heel stitches on the middle pin, and on each side, which you bind down. continue plain rows on the middle part where there are stitches, and rows of bars; no plain rows at the end; take up each side of the heel stitches, and seam rows. for the foot part, knit plain rows, and rows of bars, before knitting the plain rows to these rows of bars. set on stitches of coloured wool on a separate pin, and after knitting seamed rows, join it to the front part of the stocking, then knit plain rounds all round to join the whole, but in the back part reduce stitches to make it equal with the in front. commence the pattern or bars on the back pin, and make the st stitch a plain one, at the end of that pin, and on the front one seam stitches to form the side of the shoe, with plain rows as before, narrowing at the end and beginning of the pins. at the beginning of the pins, narrow the st stitch, and at the end before the seamed stitches, and only narrow in the plain rows. when you have narrowed to have on the front and back pins, in all, knit plain rows, and finish by turning it and binding down. the front part of the shoe should have rows of bars; join the sides of the shoe and stocking, and knit seamed rows; draw a ribbon through the back part where you made the holes. shell pattern for a baby's cap. pins no. , and the finest linen thread. the front part is knit with needles only. cast on stitches, knit rows plain for the beginning. after these , you must diminish stitch in every shell, so as to have only . then rows of the pattern, or shells, rows of holes (for putting narrow ribbon in) before doing the pattern again, which is done in this manner: bring your thread forward, knit stitches together, and so on to the end of your needle. knit rows of plain between these rows of holes; when this is concluded, knit rows of the shells, and then rows of the holes the same as before, with the plain rows between, then again rows of the pattern or shells. you now take your two other needles, and increase stitches for the back of the head; rows plain, row for putting ribbon in, and rows plain, then knit rows of the shells; the th row you must have holes in each shell, and the th but . after this, seam the first and second stitches, knit the third plain, without taking it off, and twist it so as to make stitches of this last one; then seam the fifth, slip the sixth without knitting, knit the seventh plain, and pass the sixth over, knit the eighth plain, slip the ninth, and the tenth knit plain, and pass the ninth over it. the next row: seam the first stitch, slip the second, knit the third, and pass the second over without taking it off, and knit it twisted; twist the fourth, seam the fifth, and knit the remaining plain. after this row, knit rows plain all round; after these, make a row of holes (for putting ribbon in) by taking stitches together, and making one as before. first rows plain all round, another row of holes, and then rows plain. then do the pattern shells round the cap, and so continue until you have but stitches instead of (not including the twisted, and the seamed). after this row, seam the st, twist the d and d, seam the th, raise a stitch by picking up a loop, slip the th, knit the th, and pass the th over, knit the th plain, and take the th and th together, raise one stitch before beginning to seam. the next row:--seam the st, slip the d, knit the d plain, and pass the d half through, and knit it plain, seam the th, knit the th plain, slip the th without knitting, knit the th, and pass over the th to the left, and the th to the right, knit the th plain. then do rows of plain knitting all round, rows of the holes (for ribbon), knitting rows plain to divide them, and plain rows to finish with. take off your stitches on a needle with coarse thread, and tie it up. the pattern stitch:--first row:--seam the st stitch, twist the d and d, seam the th, knit the th plain, bring your thread forward, and so continue for stitches plain, counting the th for ; by putting your thread forward, you will have stitches. second row:--seam the st stitch, twist the d and d, seam the th, and knit the plain when with needles, and seam them when with . third row:--seam the st, twist the d and d, seam the th, slip the th, knit the th plain, and pass over the th; knit stitches plain, including the th, and take together at the th. fourth row:--the same as the d, with the exception of the number, which is this time, diminishing at the first and thirteenth as before. fifth row:--the same as the fourth row, only stitches instead of . sixth row:--the same as the fifth, only stitches instead of . after the rows, you begin at the first again, the rows comprising all the pattern. for a knitted bodice. five ounces of four-thread fleecy, and no. pins. cast on stitches, and knit plain rows. fourth row:--make a stitch, knit together, make a stitch, knit together, and so on to the end of the row; knit plain rows, knit rows in double knitting, knit the first and last stitches of every row plain, then let off all the stitches on to a piece of thread, except on the right-hand side. *knit these stitches backwards and forwards (remembering that the plain stitches are still to be knit on the right-hand side, but not on the other) for rows; then cast on additional stitches; the plain stitches are now to be knit on both sides for rows. knit plain rows. next row:--make a stitch, knit together, make a stitch, knit together, and so on, knit plain rows, and cast off. this completes the back and one front. you then let off stitches on the other side, and repeat from the point marked above with an asterisk. then take up the stitches all round the neck, and knit plain rows. next row:--make a stitch and knit together alternately, knit plain rows, and cast off. then sew the two fronts to the back, about one third of the length up, and run a ribbon through the row of holes formed at the top and bottom. this is worn outside the dress; and under a shawl or cloak is very comfortable. all should be done in double knitting but the edge stitches. pretty open pattern. nine stitches to a pattern. for the centre of a shawl i have done it in white, with a deep shaded border in feather stitch, in german wool, and the effect is extremely good. first row:--seam , make , knit together, knit , knit together, make , and repeat. second row:--seam , and knit alternately. third row:--seam , knit , make , knit together, knit , knit together, make , knit , and repeat. fourth row:--seam , and knit alternately. fifth row:--seam , knit , make , slip , knit together, pass the slipped stitch over, make , knit , and repeat. sixth row:--knit , and seam alternately. shell knitting for a bag, in german wool. pins no. . take shades of wool, begin with the darkest, and rows of each shade; that is, pattern done of each. cast on stitches, on of the needles, and on the third. first round:--knit stitches plain. bring the wool forward, knit , bring the wool forward, knit . repeat this times. knit plain, seam . repeat this all round. second round:--knit plain, together, plain, slip , knit , draw the slipped one over the knitted one, knit plain, seam . repeat this all round. third round:--knit plain, together, plain, slip , and pull over as before, knit plain, seam . fourth round:--knit plain, together, plain, slip and pull over as before, knit , seam . fifth round:--knit together, plain, slip and pull over, seam . the stitches will now be reduced to their original number. tie on the next shade, and repeat the rows as before. repeat this times. then take very small needles, and knit a binder, in simple ribs, in any of the shades, rows deep. the handle is made by knitting on needles of the same size as those used for the bag, with double wool, in the following manner:--cast on stitches, slip , bring the wool forward, slip , knit , pull the slipped one over the knitted one to the last , which are both knitted; without bringing the wool forward, fold the two edges into the middle, and sew together with the double wool. silk tassels to match. pretty pattern for basket serviettes. six stitches to a pattern. cast on stitches, knit plain at each edge. first row:--make , knit , make , knit together, knit , knit together. second row:--seamed. third row:--make , knit , make , knit together. fourth row:--seamed. fifth row:--knit together, knit , knit together, make , knit , make . sixth row:--seamed. seventh row:--knit together, make , knit , make . eighth row:--seamed. repeat from first row. the plain rows between may be knit, instead of seamed, if wished. oriental mat, or hookah carpet. this may also be used as a carriage rug, or is very pretty as a mat for the front of the piano. it is composed of an open stripe of dark knitting, and a stripe of white knitting, with a pattern worked in cross stitch on it, and is quite new. large wooden pins are required, and -threaded fleecy, dark claret for the open stripe, and white, with shades of gold, green, lilac, and scarlet, form a good combination of colours for the close stripe, and are extremely rich in their effect. for the open stripe cast on stitches. first row:--knit stitches, bring the wool forward, pass the first of the knit stitches over, knit , bring the wool forward, pass the first of the knit stitches over, repeat. second row:--seamed: repeat these rows alternately till you have done the length you wish your mat to be. for the close stripe cast on stitches, and knit the same length as the open stripe. when finished, pin it on to a weighted cushion to work the pattern on it, as that stretches the knitting, and shews more plainly where you should put your needle in. then work the annexed pattern on it. first pattern in shades of gold; second, shades of green; third, shades of scarlet; fourth, shades of lilac. repeat with the gold. four stripes of the white, and of the dark, will make a nice-sized mat for a drawing-room. if for a carriage rug, an additional stripe of each. [image: pattern for oriental mat.] very elegant knitted pelisse. this may be made either smaller or larger by using finer or coarser wool and pins. it is usually done in -thread fleecy, with coloured centre, and border to imitate ermine. cast on stitches with white, bring the wool forward, slip a stitch the reversed way, knit together, and repeat: every row is alike. knit rows with the white, then slip off stitches at the beginning of the next row, and join the coloured wool, leave stitches at the other end. these stitches are not required again till the centre is done, and are then knitted in white to form the border up the sides: this will leave , knit with these, with the coloured wool for rows. next row:--knit , bring the wool forward, slip , and instead of knitting only together, knit together: this decreases rib. knit to within stitches of the end, decrease rib as before, knit rows, and decrease rib at the beginning and end of the next row as before: each decreasing is done at the beginning of the row after knitting stitches, and when within of the end; knit rows, and decrease rib at each end of the next row; knit rows, and decrease rib at each end; knit rows. next row:--knit stitches, decrease rib; knit stitches, decrease rib; knit stitches, decrease again; knit and repeat, decreasing after every stitches, till ribs are decreased; knit the last stitches without decreasing; knit rows without decreasing. next row:--knit stitches on to another needle, and knit them backwards and forwards for rows: then cast off stitches at the end nearest the centre, knit rows, cast off more stitches, knit rows, and cast off more stitches, till only stitches are left, then cast off the stitches; this completes front, except the white, which will be mentioned below. the last stitches are knitted in the same manner for the other front; then the stitches that remain for the back are knitted for rows; then cast off stitches at each end, knit rows, and cast off at each end, till you have cast off at each end, knit plain rows, and cast off the remainder of the stitches; then sew the shoulders very loosely, or it will contract them. the stitches of white that were let off to another pin must be knit on each side the length of the front, and neatly sewed to it. for the sleeves:--cast on stitches, and knit rows: this is for the coloured part, and in sewing it together at the elbow, it must be rather tightened; and for the cuff, which is done in white, cast on stitches and knit rows, and sew it very nicely to the coloured part. for the collar:--cast on stitches with white, knit rows. next row:--knit to within stitches of the end, turn back, and knit to within of the other end. next row:--leave more stitches at each end. next row:--leave stitches at each end, then , , , and stitches, turning back between each as before, knit to the end of the row with white, join the coloured wool, knit rows. next row:--leave stitches at the end, turn back, and leave the same number at the other end. next row:--leave , then , , , and , at each end, then rows of coloured, knitting the whole number of stitches, then cast off, and sew it to the neck. a cord of tassels for the neck and waist, made of the white and coloured wool, to be added, and little tufts of black wool sewed into the white border at equal distances, completes this elegant pelisse. half cap for wearing under a bonnet. pins no. . cast on stitches, knit plain rows with the coloured wool, join the white, and knit plain rows. next row:--make a stitch, seam stitches together, make a stitch, seam together, and so on; knit another plain row of white, knit plain rows of coloured, then join the white. this finishes the border round the top of the cap. first row:--knit plain stitches, make a stitch, knit stitches together, make a stitch, knit plain stitches, make a stitch, knit stitches together, make a stitch, knit plain stitches, and so on to the end of the row. second row:--seamed. third row:--knit the same as the first, and continue with these rows alternately for rows, then slip off stitches on to another needle, then knit the remaining stitches backwards and forwards for rows, increasing stitch at the beginning of each of the last rows, join the coloured wool and knit plain rows, then rows of white. next row:--make a stitch, seam together, make a stitch, seam together, and so on; knit plain row of white, then take up the stitches at the back, and the stitches on each side, knit plain rows of coloured all round, and cast off the stitches. then run a ribbon, of the same colour as the wool, through the holes of the border round the back and front of the cap. for a muff. cast on stitches with the lightest shade, and knit plain rows: in the fourth row pass the wool round the pin, seam stitches together, pass the wool round the pin, seam together, and so on to the end of the row; join the next lightest shade, and knit plain rows. in the fourth row, seam stitches together, pass the wool round the pin, seam together, and so on to the end of the row. continue in this manner, knitting plain rows, and an open row of each shade, till the darkest; then again to the lightest: this forms stripe, of which are required. the last stripe should finish with the lightest shade, to correspond with the beginning. the shading of each stripe must be reversed; thus, first begin with the lightest shade and knit to the darkest, then knit from the darkest to the lightest, and then again to the darkest, and so on. this should be done in double german wool, in five shades of sable or chinchilla colours, and satin put underneath the knitting of the same colour. a swiss pattern for the top of a mitten or muffatee. cast on stitches on needles. begin by seaming the first stitch, knit the second, and slip it on the left-hand needle, bring the from behind over, which decreases a stitch; knit the next stitches plain, pass the thread in front of each of the next stitches and knit them, which increases and makes the holes; then knit more plain, and decrease again as above; then seam a stitch; and so on all round: after each round done in this way, knit a plain round. beautiful pattern for a shetland shawl. the centre is done with fine white shetland wool and large ivory or wood pins. cast on for the centre or stitches; the pattern does for any number that will divide by . first row:--knit , make , slip , knit , pass the slipped stitch over, make , slip , knit , pass the slipped stitch over, make , slip , knit , pass the slipped stitch over the knitted one, knit , and repeat. second row:--seamed. third row:--knit (make , slip , knit , and pass the slipped stitch over times), knit . fourth row:--seamed. fifth row:--knit (make , slip , knit , and pass the slipped stitch over times), knit . sixth row:--seamed. seventh row:--knit (make , slip , knit , pass the slipped stitch over times). eighth row:--seamed. ninth row:--knit (knit together, and make three times), knit . tenth row:--seamed. eleventh row:--knit (knit together, and make three times), knit . for a comforter. no. pins. four-thread fleecy, geranium and grey. cast on stitches: knit rows in double knitting of geranium, then rows of the grey, of the geranium, of the grey, and so on, till the end; then knit rows, as at the first, with the geranium, and finish with the following fringe:--cast on stitches; make a stitch by keeping the wool at the back, seam stitches together, pass the wool round the pin, seam together, pass the wool round, seam together; continue in this manner, remembering to make a stitch at the beginning of each row, till sufficient fringe is done; then cast off stitches, pull the other needle out, and ravel the depth of the stitches out, and sew on the fringe at each end. for another comforter. pins no. . this is done in bright scarlet and claret; rows of each. eight-threaded german wool: cast on stitches. first row:--seam , make , slip : this row is not repeated, but the remainder of the comforter is done as the second row: seam together, make , slip . repeat when two yards in length are done, cast off, and add fringe no. , at each end, or a tassel of the colours of the wool, if preferred. raised knitting, a kind of bell pattern, for a counterpane. cast on any number that will divide by , and stitches for each edge. the stitches at each edge are not mentioned in the pattern. first row:--seam stitches, cast on stitches, seam , cast on stitches, and repeat. second row:--seam , knit , and repeat. third row:--seam , knit together, taking the back of the stitches, knit , knit together, and repeat. fourth row:--seam , and knit , alternately. fifth row:--seam , knit together, taking the back of the stitches, knit , knit together. sixth row:--seam , and knit , alternately. seventh row:--seam , knit together, taking the back of the stitches, knit . eighth row:--seam , and knit , alternately. ninth row:--seam , and knit together, alternately. tenth row:--plain knitting. repeat from the first row. this pattern is very pretty done in stripes; and if wished in that way, stitches must be cast on for each stripe; and for a narrow stripe to join it with cast on stitches. knit and seam alternate rows for rows. ninth row:--knit , take a third pin, and knit more, knit the remainder of the stitches with the first pin. tenth row:--seam , seam the stitches on the third pin, seam the remaining , repeat from first row. these stripes form a beautiful pattern for a counterpane. for a knitted penwiper. to be knit in colours of german wool. no. pins. cast on stitches, bring the wool forward, slip the reverse way, knit together, bring the wool forward, slip the reverse way, knit together. continue this to within of the end, which knit plain. second row:--knit , bring the wool forward, slip , knit together. continue this to within of the end, which leave on the other pin, and return, doing the same pattern to the at the end of the row, when the wool is to be twisted twice round the pin, and the stitches knit together. fourth row:--make a stitch, knit , seam , knit . commence the pattern again, and continue it to within of the end, which, as before, are to be left on the other needle. return with the same pattern to within of the other end, which are to be knit plain. sixth row:--knit , knit the pattern to within of the end. return, as before, to within of the edge, bring the wool twice round the needle, knit together. repeat this. eighth row:--knit , seam , knit , seam , knit , knit the pattern to within of the end. return, as before, and knit the edge plain. tenth row:--knit plain, knit the pattern to within of the end. return to the edge, and bring the wool twice round the pin, and knit together. repeat this twice more. twelfth row:--knit , seam , knit , seam , knit , seam , knit , bring the wool forward, slip , knit together. return and repeat this. knit the edge plain. cast off stitches, leaving for the edge as at the commencement. knit the pattern to the end of the row. one quarter is now finished. commence the next, the same as before, with another colour. four quarters of each colour make the round. when finished, sew the two sides together, and make it up with a button in the centre. beautiful pattern for a scarf. five ounces of shetland wool, or of silk, are required. this may either be worked with a deep shaded border or all plain; worked in the fine black shetland wool or ardoise silk, it has the effect of black lace. the patterns both for the border and the centre may be applied for a variety of purposes, and where beauty and elegance of pattern are appreciated, they cannot fail to be admired. for the border, cast on stitches; are kept for each edge, which are not mentioned in the pattern; they are knit and seamed every alternate row. no. pins for shetland wool, and no. for ardoise, are good sizes. nine stitches form the pattern; so, if wished wider or narrower, either add or take off stitches. knit plain row, seam and now commence the border, which may be knit about half-a-yard deep. first row:--seam , make , knit together, knit , knit together, make ; repeat. second row:--seam , knit , alternately. third row:--seam , knit , make , knit together, knit , knit together, make , knit . fourth row:--seam and knit alternately. fifth row:--seam , knit , make , slip , knit together, pass the slipped stitch over, make , knit . sixth row:--seam and knit alternately. repeat these rows. for the centre:--knit row, seam , then commence the pattern. only stitch is for the edge at each side, the pattern is of stitches. first row:--knit , make , slip , knit together, pass the slipped stitch over, make , knit , make , slip , knit together, pass the slipped stitch over, make , knit ; repeat. second row:--seamed. third row:--knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, knit , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, taking the back of the stitches, knit ; repeat. fourth row:--seamed. fifth row:--knit , make , slip , knit together, pass the slipped stitch over, make , knit , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, taking the back of the stitches, knit ; repeat. sixth row:--seamed. seventh row:--knit together, make , knit , make , knit together twice, make , knit , make , knit together; repeat. eighth row:--seamed. ninth row:--knit , make , slip , knit together, pass the slipped stitch over, make , knit , make , knit together, knit , knit together, make , knit ; repeat. tenth row:--seamed. eleventh row:--knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, knit , make , knit together, knit , knit together, make , knit ; repeat. twelfth row:--seamed. repeat these rows till the scarf is from - / ; to yards long in the centre, as may be desired. knit row, seam row. then knit the border, as on the other side. a pretty fringe for this scarf is rows netted with double silk, on a mesh of this width ----,[ ] and row on a mesh inches wide, netting stitches into each loop. [ ] transcriber's note: in the source text, this dash is eight millimeters long. twisted knitting. cast on stitches, knit and seam alternate rows for rows; the first and last stitches of each row are always knit. ninth row:--knit stitches, take a third pin and knit more, knit the remainder of the stitches with the first pin. tenth row:--knit stitches, seam the stitches on the third pin, seam the other , knit the edge stitches. this completes twist, and is repeated after every rows. a pretty pattern for a baby's shoe. cast on stitches, knit rows, increasing at the beginning of each, knit rows, increasing at the beginning of every other row for the toe, knit rows without increasing. you will now have stitches on the needle; let off on to a third needle, and knit the remaining stitches backwards and forwards for rows, cast on stitches, knit rows, knit rows, decreasing at the beginning of every other at the same end that you before increased, knit rows, decreasing at the beginning of every row; cast off. this completes the foot part, except the little bit that is let in to shape it better, for which take up stitches along the increased part of the toe, and knit rows, decreasing at the beginning of every other one at the end nearest the casting on. for the instep:--take up the stitches on each side, and across the toe, knit plain rows all round, and cast off; then take up the same number all round, but from the bottom of these rows, and knit rows all round; then place the stitches on each side on to separate needles. with the stitches across the toe, knit plain rows, taking up one of the stitches at the end of each row, and knitting it together with the last stitch. next row:--knit , slip , knit , pass the slipped stitch over the knitted one, bring the thread forward, knit , bring the thread forward, seam , pass the thread back, slip , knit , pass the slipped stitch over the knitted one, bring the thread forward, knit , bring the thread forward, seam , pass the thread back, slip , knit , pass the slipped stitch over the knitted one, bring the thread forward, knit , bring the thread forward, seam . next row:--knit plain stitches at each edge, and seam the remaining stitches. continue the pattern and plain rows alternately till rows are done, remembering to knit of the side stitches with the last of each row; then take the stitches on each side on to the same needle with the centre ones, and knit plain rows. next row:--make a stitch, seam together, make a stitch, seam together; this is to form a row of holes for the ribbon to pass through; knit plain rows. continue the plain and pattern rows as in the instep till rows are done; knit plain rows, and cast off. pretty open diamond border. eight stitches to a pattern. pins no. . first row:--knit , bring the wool forward, knit , wool forward, and repeat. seam second row. third row:--knit together, knit , knit together, wool forward, knit , wool forward, and repeat. seam fourth row. fifth row:--knit together, wool forward, knit , wool forward, and repeat. seam sixth row. seventh row:--wool forward, knit ,* wool forward, knit together, knit , knit together, wool forward, knit , and repeat from *. seam eighth row. ninth row:--wool forward, knit ,* wool forward, knit together, wool forward, knit , and repeat from *.--begin again from third row. honeycomb cuffs. no. pins. cast on stitches, slip a stitch with the wool forward, knit together, bring the wool forward, slip , knit together, bring the wool forward, slip , knit together, bring the wool forward, slip , knit together. continue in this manner with white wool till rows are done. join the coloured wool and knit rows. third row:--slip the second stitch over the first and knit it, knit the first, slip the fourth stitch over the third and knit it, knit the third; continue in this manner till the row is completed. knit a plain row. repeat the open row, with a plain row between each, till open rows are done; then repeat the rows of the close knitting, as at first, and cast off. fan-pattern knitting for a mitten. needles no. , and fine black netting silk. set stitches on each of needles; and, after knitting a top either in ribs or any other pattern, begin the fan, by seaming the first stitch; the second stitch plain, except that you take the outside part of the stitch; seam the third; knit the fourth quite plain; bring the thread in front of the next stitches, and knit them, which makes stitches. with the fourth you knit plain, then seam again, as at first, and so on for round. second round:--seam the first stitches, as at the beginning, and wherever you did in the first round; knit the other stitches quite plain. third round:--seam the first stitches, as in the first round, slip the fourth stitch, knit the next, and bring the slipped stitch over them; knit the others plain, till you come to the last before the seamed stitch; then with your left-hand needle take off the last knit stitch, and bring the one from behind over that, which decreases with the one you did after seaming, and so on for round, and every other, till you have reduced the stitches to ; then begin again the first round. it is well to count the stitches frequently, that you may have them even, allowing for the ribs and plain, whenever you begin the fan, so that there will be fans on each needle. when you have or rounds of fans, begin the thumb by bringing the silk forward, and knitting a stitch, which increases ; then knit a plain stitch, and increase the same as before. this do every other row, till you have as many as you think enough--say stitches; leave the stitches, and go on with the hand part, and finish that off at the top; after, knit the thumb. observe, in increasing, to bring your silk directly over the stitch you increased to the right hand; and to the left, knit over, and bring the silk in front of the stitch after the increased. corkscrew muffatees. five skeins of german wool are required for each: the first and last should be alike, the middle one white. cast on stitches on each of needles. first round:--seam stitches and knit , seam and knit . continue this for rounds; then knit rounds, knitting the first and last on each needle plain; the intermediate ones, plain and seamed as before. the next rounds:--knit the st and last stitches plain, with seamed and knit between them. three rounds of stitches plain and seamed. then rounds, the first and last stitches seamed, and the middle plain, and seamed. then seam the first and last stitches of the next rounds, and begin the whole pattern again, only knitting rounds instead of , as at first, of seamed and plain. gentlemen's cuffs: an excellent pattern. shetland wool. needles no. . cast on stitches on needles and on the third. seam rows all round, knit rows plain, seam rows, knit rows plain, seam rows, knit row plain, rib in 's rows, knit row plain, seam rows, knit rows plain, seam rows, knit rows plain, seam rows. cast off. receipt for a stocking. no. mee's persian thread, and needles no. , are the proper sizes. cast on stitches on the first needle, and on each of the other . knit row plain. second row: knit stitches plain, seam a stitch, knit all round plain. knit rows in the same way, all plain but the seam-stitch. now the pattern begins: seam a stitch, knit plain, seam a stitch, knit plain. this will bring you to the centre seam-stitch. seam this stitch, and knit plain. this brings you to the end of the first needle. seam a stitch, knit plain, seam a stitch, knit plain. this will end the second needle. seam a stitch, knit plain, seam a stitch, knit plain. this ends the third needle. seam a stitch, knit plain stitches, bring the cotton forward, knit , bring the cotton forward and knit . continue to bring the cotton forward and knit till you have made additional stitches. knit plain, seam a stitch, knit , seam a stitch, knit . (this is the back of the stocking, and must always be knit the same-- plain, seamed, and plain.) seam a stitch, knit plain, bring the cotton forward, and knit . continue this till you have made additional stitches, as before. knit , seam a stitch, knit , bring the cotton forward, and make stitches as before. knit , seam a stitch, knit , make stitches as before. knit , seam a stitch, knit , make as before, and knit . this finishes the row; and you have additional stitches for the pattern. seam a stitch and knit plain, seam a stitch and knit the back of the stocking, seam a stitch and knit , seam and knit , seam and knit , seam and knit . this ends the row. knit rows more same as the last. you have now made stitches enough for the pattern, and begin it. first row: seam a stitch, knit together times, bring the cotton forward, and knit . continue this till you have holes made. bring the cotton forward and slip a stitch, knit a stitch, pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one, slip a stitch, knit a stitch, pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one. continue to slip a stitch, knit a stitch, and pull the slipped one over it times more, which should bring you to the seam-stitch. knit the back of the stocking, and continue this pattern round the other two needles, which will conclude the row. the next rows are knit plain, except the seam-stitches, which must be attended to. this finishes the pattern; and you begin again at the first row, and repeat the pattern times. you then begin the heel: knit the seam-stitch on the st needle plain, then knit the pattern-row of the stripe; knit the back of the stocking and knit the st stripe off of the next needle, (using the needle you have knit the stripe and the back of the stocking with,) remembering that this is the pattern-row; knit the seam-stitch at the end of the stripe plain. you have now stripes and the plain back of the stocking on the heel needles, and stripes on the front of the stocking; with the front you have at present nothing to do. the first or pattern row of the heel is knit; the remainder of the heel is to be knit with double thread. second row: slip a stitch, seam stitches, knit a plain stitch, seam , knit plain, seam , knit plain, seam . third row: slip a stitch, knit , seam a stitch, knit , seam a stitch, knit , seam a stitch, knit . fourth row: slip , seam , knit plain, seam , knit plain, seam , knit plain, seam . begin again with the pattern-row, remembering that there is plain stitch at the beginning and end of each needle, which stitch must be slipped at the beginning of every row. repeat this pattern times: at the th time slip a stitch, knit double stitches, make holes, narrowing from the last hole, times, in the same manner as usual; this will reduce the pattern stitches. for the th time: slip , knit double stitches, make holes, narrowing from the d hole in the usual manner; this will have reduced the heel stitches in each stripe, and finishes the pattern. knit plain rows, knitting all the seam-stitches except the middle one plain. the heel must now be closed; the narrowing must begin in the row of plain knitting, not the seamed one. knit stitches, knit together, knit stitches, which brings you to the seam; knit stitches beyond the seam, slip a stitch, knit a stitch, pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one, turn back, slip stitch, and seam stitches, knit the seam-stitch plain, seam stitches, seam together, turn back, slip a stitch, knit to the seam-stitch and stitches beyond, slip a stitch, knit a stitch, and pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one. continue this narrowing till you have knit up all the stitches at each side. take up the loops all along the side of the heel (they should be ), knit them with the single thread, knitting the last on the needle together. this begins the gore. knit the stripes on the front needle, in the pattern, as usual, only remembering that you have no seam-stitch between the gore and the pattern; take up the loops all along the d side of the heel, and take half the heel stitches on the same needle, then slip the st stitch, knit the d, pull the slipped stitch over it, knit the remaining stitches on the needle. there should now be stitches on each of the side needles. the middle of the heel ends the row, therefore the st needle is the one which begins from that place. knit stitches plain, make a stitch by taking up a loop of the last row, knit stitches, make another as before, continue to knit and make till you have increased stitches, which will bring you within stitches of the end of the needle; knit them plain. knit the front needle in the d row of pattern, knitting and seaming , knitting , seaming , knitting , which ends the needle. knit stitches, make , knit as before, till you have made , knit plain, which ends the row. there should now be stitches on each of the side needles. you must knit to within stitches of the end of the st needle; knit them together. knit the front needle in d row of pattern. third needle: slip a stitch, knit a stitch, pull the slipped stitch over it, knit to the end of the needle plain. the next row is not to be narrowed at either place. continue to narrow the side needles, as directed, every second row, carrying on the pattern on the front needle, till you have reduced the stitches on each side needle, the first to , and the second to stitches. there will now be stitches all round. continue to knit the side needles plain, and the front in pattern, till you have repeated the pattern from the beginning of the gore times, join on the second thread, and narrow the pattern stitches in each stripe in the manner directed for the heel. there will now be stitches on the needles. knit plain rows. divide the stitches exactly, leaving on the front needle, and on each of the side needles. the first needle of the row is the same as before. knit to within stitches of the end, slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one, knit plain. second needle: knit plain stitch, knit together, knit to within stitches of the end, slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one, knit plain. third needle: knit plain, knit together, knit to the end, knit plain row all round. continue these alternate rows till you have reduced the stitches to , then narrow every row, as directed, till there remain only stitches on the front needle, and on each of the others. cast off, and fasten the thread. for a brioche. either -thread german or -thread fleecy should be used. pins no. . cast on stitches; keep the wool in front, slip a stitch the reversed way, knit together, pass the wool in front, slip a stitch the reversed way, knit together, pass the wool in front, slip a stitch the reversed way, knit together, and so on. the whole of the knitting is done in this manner; then knit rows of dark for the edge, rows of the colour for the centre, more dark: these rows form an edge, which is done on each side of each piece. then commence the centre part of the stripe, and knit rows to the end; in the third row, leave stitches at the end, and turn back, as if beginning a fresh row, and knit to the end; in the next row, leave stitches; then , , , , and stitches; after leaving stitches, you must only leave more each time instead of ; and next leave , , , and so on, until you have only stitches left; then knit rows of dark (the whole number of stitches), of the centre colour, of dark; and take it off like common knitting. this completes piece, of which are required, and look pretty placed--scarlet, white, blue, gold, scarlet, white, lilac, green: this forms half the brioche, and the colours are repeated. very pretty vandyke border. pins no. , and no. boar's-head thread. first row:--cast on stitches, slip , knit , bring the thread forward, knit together, knit , bring the thread forward, knit together, pass the thread twice over the pin, knit together, knit plain. second row:--slip , knit , knit half the stitch turned twice over the needle, seam the other half, knit , bring the thread forward, knit together, knit , bring the thread forward, knit together. third row:--slip , knit , bring the thread forward, knit together, knit , bring the thread forward, knit together, knit plain stitches. fourth row:--make a stitch, knit , knit , bring the thread forward, knit together, knit , bring the thread forward, knit together. fifth row:--slip , knit , bring the thread forward, knit together, knit , bring the thread forward, knit together, pass the thread twice round the pin, knit together, pass the thread twice round the pin, knit together, knit plain. sixth row:--slip , knit , knit the first half of the double stitch, seam the other half, knit , knit the first half of the double stitch, seam the other half, knit plain, bring the thread forward, knit together, knit , bring the thread forward, knit together. seventh row:--slip , knit , bring the thread forward, knit together, knit , bring the thread forward, knit together, knit the remainder of the stitches plain. eighth row:--knit plain stitches, bring the thread forward, knit together, knit , bring the thread forward, knit together. ninth row:--slip , knit , bring the thread forward, knit together, knit , bring the thread forward, knit together, pass the thread twice over the needle, knit together. repeat this times. knit plain stitch. tenth row:--knit , knit first half of double stitch, seam the other half, knit double stitch as before, knit , knit double stitch as before, knit , bring the thread forward, knit together, knit , bring the thread forward, knit together. eleventh row:--slip , knit , bring the thread forward, knit together, knit , bring the thread forward, knit together, knit plain stitches. twelfth row:--knit plain stitches, knit together, knit , knit , bring the thread forward, knit together, knit plain, bring the thread forward, knit together. thirteenth row:--slip , knit , bring the thread forward, knit together, knit , bring the thread forward, knit together, pass the thread twice over the needle, and knit together. repeat this times. knit plain. fourteenth row:--knit , double stitch as before, knit , double stitch as before, knit , double stitch as before, knit , double stitch as before, knit , bring the thread forward, knit together, knit , bring the thread forward, knit together. fifteenth row:--slip , knit , bring the thread forward, knit together, knit , bring the thread forward, knit together, knit the remaining stitches plain. sixteenth row:--knit , knit together, knit , knit together, knit , bring the thread forward, knit together, knit , bring the thread forward, knit together. seventeenth row:--slip , knit , bring the thread forward, knit together, knit , bring the thread forward, knit together, pass the thread twice over the needle, and knit together. repeat this times. knit . eighteenth row:--knit , double stitch as before, knit plain, double stitch as before, knit , double stitch as before, knit , double stitch as before, knit , double stitch as before, knit , bring the thread forward, knit together, knit , bring the thread forward, knit together. nineteenth row:--slip , knit , bring the thread forward, knit together, knit , bring the thread forward, knit together, knit the remainder of the stitches plain. twentieth row:--cast off all the stitches but (there should be in all), knit plain, bring the thread forward, knit together, knit , bring the thread forward, knit together. this completes vandyke. you then begin again from the first row, and repeat these rows till sufficient length is done. for children's gaiters. for this, two-thread white fleecy is required, and no. pins. cast on stitches, and knit plain rows, increasing at the toe every time; there will then be stitches on the pin, of which must be let off at the heel on to a third pin; then knit plain rows without increasing. cast on as many extra stitches as you before let off, and knit rows, decreasing stitch every row, until only stitches are left. this completes the foot part. for the leg, take up stitches on each side, and in the centre; knit plain rows without increasing, and afterwards increase every third row at each end until rows are done; knit rows with increasing, knit plain rows, decreasing every other row; then knit rows, knitting stitches and seaming , without increasing or decreasing; knit plain rows, and cast off. for an under spencer. for the sleeve, cast on stitches, knit rows plain knitting, seam and knit in twos rows (the stripes at the beginning and ends will have stitches), knit rows plain knitting. seventh row:--knit stitches, bring the wool forward, knit together, knit stitches. continue making a stitch, knitting between, to the end of the row. knit a stitch, increase a stitch, knit to within stitches of the end, increase a stitch by knitting in one loop. continue increasing a stitch in every th row till there are stitches; cast off stitches, knit to the end of the row; cast off more. knit together at the beginning of every row till only stitches remain. cast off, and sew up the sleeve. for the back, begin at the waist by casting on stitches, knit plain rows, knit stitches, bring the wool forward, knit together, knit . continue making a stitch, and knitting between, to the end of the row; knit rows, knit stitches, increase by knitting in one loop, knit to within stitches of the end, increase as before, knit , the next row knit plain. continue to increase a stitch till within stitches of the beginning and end of the needle, every second row, till there are stitches. the next row, knit stitches, knit together, knit till within of the end of the row, knit together, knit , knit rows without increasing or decreasing (this is for the arm-hole); knit , knit together, knit to within of the end, knit together, knit . continue to decrease every row in this manner till only stitches remain; cast off. for the fronts, begin at the waist, cast on stitches; knit rows, knit stitches, bring the wool forward, knit together, knit . continue to make a stitch, and knit between, to the end of the row; knit rows, knit (from the front) stitches, increase a stitch by knitting in , knit to the end of the row, knit rows, knit stitches, increase , knit to the end, knit rows, knit stitches, increase , knit to the end, knit rows, knit stitches, increase , knit to the end, knit rows, knit stitches, increase , knit to the end, knit rows, knit stitches, increase , knit to the end, knit rows, knit stitches, increase , knit to the end. knit rows, knit stitches, increase , knit to the end. there should now be stitches on the needle. knit rows, without either increasing or decreasing: knit from the front stitches; cast off ; take another needle, knit the which remain, knitting together the first at the end of the needle, where you cast off every row till only is left; cast off. this is the beginning of the arm-hole. knit together at the beginning of each row at the arm-hole, until it is reduced to stitches; knit rows without increasing or diminishing; cast off stitches from the front, knit a stitch, knit together. continue to decrease a stitch in front every row (inside the first stitch) till only stitches remain. leave off decreasing in front; knit to within stitches of the end next the arm-hole; increase a stitch as before. continue to do this every row till there are stitches; knit a plain row, cast off, take up the stitches down one side of the spencer, knit rows at one side, knit stitches from the bottom, bring the wool forward, knit together, knit to the end of the row, knit rows, cast off; at the other side knit rows, knit stitches from the bottom as before, bring the wool forward, knit together, knit , make stitch, knit , make more, knit , make , knit , make another stitch, knit to the end. for the button-holes, knit rows, cast off, sew the back and fronts together, take up the stitches all round the neck, knit rows, knit stitches, bring the wool forward, knit together, knit , make a stitch. continue to make a stitch, and knit between, to the end of the row. this is for a string to pass through, as are also the holes at the waist. knit rows, cast off, and sew in the sleeves. this should be knit in no. white lamb's-wool yarn and no. steel pins. netted shawl. make a foundation of stitches, and net on the narrow mesh rows with white, with the colour for the centre alternately, till you have stripes of white and of coloured; this completes the centre. for the border, on the second-sized mesh:--net entirely with double wool throughout, and stitches made in every corner stitch in the wide rows, in addition to the pattern. first row:--with white, on a mesh this width ------------,[ ] plain. [ ] transcriber's note: in the source text, this dash is millimeters long. second row:--take stitches together and net them as one on the same mesh as the row before, also with white, and the next rows. third row:--net stitches in every loop. fourth row:--plain, on the narrow mesh. repeat these rows till you have net all the shades, beginning with the lightest and ending with the darkest; rows of each. for the fringe, on the wide mesh, with double wool, taking the shades marked for the fringe. another pretty pattern for a knit purse. pins no. . cast on stitches, knit plain stitch at each edge, knit together, make , knit , seam . four skeins of silk are required, and passing beads at a time makes it very handsome: bunches of no. beads, the beads are passed in every alternate row at the made stitch; every row is the same. for a knitted collar. in fine lace thread and with fine needles. for the edging: cast on stitches. first row:--slip , knit , pass the cotton twice round the needle, knit together, pass the cotton twice round the needle, knit together, pass the cotton twice round the needle, knit together, pass the cotton twice round the needle, knit plain. second row:--knit , seam , knit , seam , knit , seam , knit , seam , knit . third row:--slip , knit . fourth row:--cast off , knit . this leaves stitches on the needle. fifth row:--slip , knit , pass the cotton times round the needle, knit together, knit , pass the cotton twice round the needle, knit together, pass the cotton twice round the needle, knit together, knit . sixth row:--knit , seam , knit , seam , knit , seam , knit , seam , knit . seventh row:--slip , knit . eighth row:--cast off , knit . this leaves stitches on the needle. begin with the first row again, and repeat the pattern times; th time, knit the first rows of the edging. cast on stitches on the same needle, knit the stitches, and the th row of the edging (remembering that the first stitch of every row of the edging must be knit now, and not slipped), knit the th row of edging, seam the stitches. first row of pattern:--slip , knit *, bring the cotton forward and knit together, cotton forward and knit together, cotton forward and knit together, cotton forward and knit together, cotton forward and knit , cotton forward and knit , slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one, knit , knit together, knit , repeat from *, cotton forward and knit together, cotton forward and knit together, cotton forward and knit together, cotton forward and knit together, cotton forward and knit together, knit the first row of the edging. second row:--knit second row of edging, seam stitches, knit stitch. third row:--slip , knit *, cotton forward, knit together, cotton forward, knit together, cotton forward, knit together, cotton forward, knit together, cotton forward, knit , cotton forward, knit , slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one, knit , knit together, knit , repeat from *, cotton forward, knit together, cotton forward, knit together, cotton forward, knit together, cotton forward, knit together, cotton forward, knit together, knit the third row of the edging. fourth row:--knit the th row of the edging, seam , knit . fifth row:--slip , knit *, bring the cotton forward and knit together, cotton forward and knit together, cotton forward and knit together, cotton forward and knit together, cotton forward, knit , cotton forward, knit , slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one, knit together, knit , repeat from *, cotton forward and knit together, cotton forward and knit together, cotton forward and knit together, cotton forward and knit together, cotton forward and knit together, knit the fifth row of the edging. sixth row:--knit sixth row of edging, seam , knit . seventh row:--slip , knit , slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one*, bring the cotton forward, slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one, cotton forward, slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one, cotton forward, slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one, cotton forward, slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one, cotton forward, knit , slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one, knit , knit together, knit , cotton forward and knit , repeat from *, cotton forward, slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one, cotton forward, slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one, cotton forward, slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one, cotton forward, slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one, cotton forward and knit , knit the seventh row of the edging. eighth row:--knit eighth row of edging, seam stitches, knit . ninth row:--slip , knit , slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one*, cotton forward, slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one, cotton forward, slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one, cotton forward, slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one, cotton forward, slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one, cotton forward, knit , slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one, knit , knit together, knit , cotton forward and knit , repeat from *, cotton forward, slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one, cotton forward, slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one, cotton forward, slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one, cotton forward, slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one, cotton forward and knit , knit the first row of the edging. tenth row:--knit second row of edging, seam , knit . eleventh row:--slip , knit , slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one*, cotton forward, slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one, cotton forward, slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one, cotton forward, slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one, cotton forward, slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one, cotton forward and knit , slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one, knit together, knit , cotton forward, knit , repeat from *, cotton forward, slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one, cotton forward, slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one, cotton forward, slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one, cotton forward, slip , knit , pull the slipped stitch over the knitted one, cotton forward, knit , knit the third row of edging. twelfth row:--knit fourth row of edging, seam stitches, knit . begin with the first row again. care must be taken to knit the proper rows of the edging; knit the collar the length you please, cast off from the straight side stitches, repeat the edging pattern times, cast off, and sew the edging neatly on to the sides of the collar; sew a narrow band of muslin to the neck part to make it firm. it will be observed that, in beginning the second time with the first row of the collar pattern, it is the fifth row of edging which must be knit, and so on every second time the pattern is begun. pretty feather-pattern for the border of a shawl. twelve stitches to a pattern. first row:--knit together, knit together, make and knit for four times, knit together, knit together. second row:--seamed. third row:--knit plain. fourth row:--seamed. this is also a pretty pattern for toilet covers. open diamond pattern for the centre of a shawl. twelve stitches to a pattern. this pattern looks extremely well in stripes of scarlet and white, rows of each. for a large shawl, cast on stitches. first row:--make , knit together, knit , knit together, make , knit , repeat. second row:--seamed. third row:--knit , make , knit together, knit , knit together, make , knit , repeat. fourth row:--seamed. fifth row:--make , knit together, make , knit together, knit , knit together, make , knit together, make , knit , and repeat. sixth row:--seamed. seventh row:--knit , make , knit together, make , knit together, knit , knit together, make , knit together, make , knit , and repeat. eighth row:--seamed. ninth row:--make , knit together, make , knit together, make , slip , knit together, pass the slipped stitch over, make , knit together, make , knit together, make , knit , and repeat. tenth row:--seamed. eleventh row:--knit together, make , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, make , knit together, knit , and repeat. twelfth row:--seamed. thirteenth row:--knit ,* make , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, make , slip , knit together, and repeat from * at the end of the row, knit together. fourteenth row:--seamed. fifteenth row:--knit *, knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, knit , and repeat from *. sixteenth row:--seamed. seventeenth row:--knit together*, make , knit , make , slip , knit together, pass the slipped stitch over, and repeat from *. eighteenth row:--seamed. begin again from st row. fan pattern. nine stitches to a pattern. first row:--knit , (make and knit for five times,) make , knit , and repeat. second row:--seam , knit , seam . third row:--knit together, knit , knit together, and repeat. fourth row:--seam together, seam , seam together, and repeat. fifth row:--knit together, knit , knit together. sixth row:--seamed. seventh row:--same as st. finis. printed by wood brothers parsonage lane, bath. file is gratefully uploaded to the pg collection in honor of distributed proofreaders having posted over , ebooks. encyclopedia of needlework by thÉrÈse de dillmont [illustration] _english edition_ * * * * * all rights reserved _to be had:_ _of th. de dillmont, dornach, alsace, and at all booksellers, and embroidery shops._ * * * * * price, english bound with gilt edges: english edition sh. .-- french edition fr. . german edition mk. .-- preface. the absolute want of any comprehensive book on needlework--such an one as contains both verbal and pictorial descriptions of everything included under the name of needlework--has led me to put into the serviceable form of an encyclopedia, all the knowledge and experience, which years of unceasing study and practice have enabled me to accumulate on the subject, with the hope that diligent female workers of all ages, may be able, by its means to instruct themselves in every branch of plain and fancy needlework. all the patterns given, even the most insignificant, were worked afresh for the purpose, and thus, not merely faithful representations, but also lucid and intelligible explanations of the same, are secured. in order that my readers may have something besides the dull theory, the work is enlivened by a number of useful patterns, some new, some derived from the artistic productions of such countries and epochs as have become famous by special excellence in the domain of needlework. though, at first sight, the reproduction of many of these patterns may seem to present insuperable difficulties, they will, after a careful study of the text, and exact attention to the directions given, prove easy to carry out. many of these interesting designs are drawn from private collections, whose owners, with great kindness, placed their treasures at my disposal, to copy and borrow from at discretion, for which i desire to take the present opportunity, of tendering them my warmest thanks. the choice of colours and material--a difficult matter to many--my readers will find rendered comparatively easy to them by the notes affixed to the illustrations; and i may point out, that most of the patterns were worked with d.m.c cottons, which enjoy the well-earned reputation of being, the very best of their kind, in the market of the world. experience has convinced me that, in many instances, these cottons may with advantage take the place of wool, linen thread, and even silk. if this work meet with indulgent judges, and prove really useful, i shall find ample reward in that fact for the trouble and difficulties that have unavoidably attended its completion. [illustration: stripe showing running, stitching, button-holing, and herring-boning.] plain sewing. many, on opening the encyclopedia of needlework will be disposed to exclaim as they read the heading of this first section: what is the use of describing all the old well-known stitches, when machines have so nearly superseded the slower process of hand-sewing? to this our reply is that, of all kinds of needlework, plain sewing needs to be most thoroughly learned, as being the foundation of all. those who are able to employ others to work for them, should at least know how to distinguish good work from bad, and those who are in less fortunate circumstances, have to be taught how to work for themselves. position of the body and hands.--before describing different kinds of stitches, a word should be said as to the position of the body and hands when at work. long experience has convinced me that no kind of needlework necessitates a stooping or cramped attitude. to obviate which, see that your chair and table suit each other in height, and that you so hold your work as hardly to need to bend your head at all. the practice of fastening the work to the knee, besides being ungraceful, is injurious to the health. needles.--these should be of the best quality. to test a needle, try to break it; if it resist, and then break clean in two, the steel is good; if it bend without breaking, or break without any resistance, it is bad. never use a bent needle, it makes ugly and irregular stitches, and see that the eye, whether round or egg-shaped, be well-drilled, that it may not fray or cut the thread. long or half-long needles are the best for white work, long ones for dress-making, and longer ones still, with long eyes, for darning. a stock of each, from no to , is advised. the needle should always be a little thicker than the thread, to make an easy passage for it through the stuff. to keep needles from rusting, strew a little stone alum in the packets, and workers whose hands are apt to get damp, should have a small box of it handy, to powder their fingers with. blackened needles can be made quite bright again by drawing them through an emery cushion. scissors.--scissors are a very important accessory of the work-table, and two varieties are indispensable; a pair of large ones for cutting-out, with one point blunt and the other sharp, the latter to be always held downwards; and a pair of smaller ones with two sharp points. the handles should be large and round; if at all tight, they tire and disfigure the hand. thimble.--steel thimbles are the best; bone are very liable to break, and silver ones are not deeply enough pitted, to hold the needle. a thimble should be light, with a rounded top and flat rim. the thread.--except for tacking, your thread should never be more than from to c/m. long.[ ] if the thread is in skeins, it does not matter which end you begin with, but if you use reeled cotton, thread your needle with the end that points to the reel, when you cut it; as the other end will split, and unravel, when twisted from left to right, which is generally done, to facilitate the process of threading. the cotton should always be cut, as it is weakened by breaking. knotting the thread into the needle (fig. ).--when the thread becomes inconveniently short, and you do not want take a fresh one, it may be knotted into the needle, thus: bring it round the forefinger close to the needle, cross it on the inside next to the finger, hold the crossed threads fast, with the thumb draw the needle out through the loop thus formed, and tighten the loop round both ends. [illustration: fig. . knotting the thread into the needle.] materials.--for tacking, use coton à coudre d.m.c qualité supérieure (black and gold stamp) nos. to .[a] for hand-sewing, fil d'alsace d.m.c nos. to ,[a] and fil à dentelle d.m.c, balls or reels, nos. to [a] will be found most useful. for machine-work: câblé fils pour machines d.m.c, nos. to ,[a] black and white, or white and blue stamp. these can also be used for hand-work. both these and the lace-thread (fil à dentelle) on reels, are superfine in quality. the medium sizes are the most useful; but the only suitable ones for very fine and delicate fabrics are the fil à dentelle d.m.c, and fil d'alsace, and the latter only is manufactured in the higher numbers. all these threads are to be had, wound in balls, or on reels, the buyer may make his own choice; balls are apt to get tangled, but the cotton preserves its roundness better than when it is wound on reels. linen is generally sewn with linen-thread, but fil à dentelle and the fil d'alsace are very good substitutes. position of the hands (fig. ).--the stuff, fastened to a cushion, must be held with the left hand, which should neither rest on the table, nor on the cushion, the needle must be held between the thumb and forefinger, of the right hand, and the middle finger, armed with the thimble, pushes the needle far enough through the stuff, for the other fingers to take hold of it and draw it out; the thread then comes to lie between the fourth and fifth fingers in the form of a loop, which must be tightened gradually to avoid its knotting. [illustration: fig. . position of the hands.] position of the hands without cushion (fig. ).--when the work cannot be fastened to a cushion it should be held between the forefinger and the thumb, and left hanging down, over the other fingers. if it need to be more firmly held, draw it between the fourth and fifth fingers, which will prevent it from getting puckered or dragged. [illustration: fig. . position of the hands without cushion.] stitches.--plain-sewing comprises varieties of stitches, ( ) running, ( ) back-stitching, ( ) hemming and ( ) top or over-sewing. ( ) running-stitch (fig. ).--this is the simplest and easiest of all. pass the needle in and out of the material, at regular intervals, in a horizontal direction, taking up three or four threads at a time. if the stuff allow, several stitches may be taken on the needle at once, before the thread is drawn out. running-stitch is used for plain seams, for joining light materials, for making gathers and for hems. [illustration: fig. . running-stitch.] ( ) back-stitch (fig. ).--insert the needle, and draw it out six threads further on, carry your thread back, from left to right, and insert the needle three threads back from the point at which it was last drawn out, and bring it out six threads beyond. stitching and back-stitching are better and more quickly done by machine than by hand. [illustration: fig. . back-stitch.] stitching (fig. ).--the production of a row of back-stitches, that exactly meet one another, constitutes what is called stitching. only one stitch can be made at a time, and the needle must be put in, exactly at the point where it was drawn out to form the preceding back-stitch, and brought out as many threads further on as were covered by the last back-stitch. the beauty of stitching depends on the uniform length of the stitches, and the straightness of the line formed, to ensure which it is necessary to count the threads for each stitch, and to draw a thread to mark the line. if you have to stitch in a slanting line across the stuff, or the stuff be such as to render the drawing of a thread impossible, a coloured tacking thread should be run in first, to as a guide. [illustration: fig. . stitching.] stitched hem (fig. ).--make a double turning, as for a hem, draw a thread two or three threads above the edge of the first turning, and do your stitching through all three layers of stuff; the right side will be that on which you form your stitches. [illustration: fig. . stitched hem.] ( ) hemming-stitch (fig. ).--to make a good hem, your stuff must be cut in the line of the thread. highly dressed stuffs, such as linen and calico; should be rubbed in the hand, to soften them, before the hem is laid. your first turning should not be more than m/m. wide; turn down the whole length of your hem, and then make the second turning of the same width, so that the raw edge is enclosed between two layers of stuff. [illustration: fig. . hemming-stitch.] narrow hems do not need to be tacked, but wide ones, where the first turning should only be just wide enough to prevent the edge from fraying, ought always to be. in hemming you insert the needle and thread directed in a slanting position towards you, just below the edge of the hem, and push it out two threads above, and so on to the end, setting the stitches, two or three threads apart, in a continuous straight line. to ensure the hem being straight, a thread may be drawn to mark the line for the second turning, but it is not a good plan, especially in shirt-making, as the edge of the stuff, too apt in any case, to cut and fray, is, thereby, still further weakened. hems in woollen materials, which will not take a bend, can only be laid and tacked, bit by bit. in making, what are called rolled hems, the needle must be slipped in, so as only to pierce the first turning, in order that the stitches may not be visible on the outside. flat seam (fig. ).--lay your two edges, whether straight or slanting, exactly even, tack them together with stitches c/m. long, distant to c/m. from the edge, and then back-stitch them by machine or by hand, following the tacking-thread. cut off half the inner edge, turn the outer one in, as for a hem and sew it down with hemming-stitches. [illustration: fig. . flat seam.] smooth the seam underneath with the forefinger as you go, to make it lie quite flat. beginners should flatten down the seam with their thimbles, or with the handle of the scissors, before they begin to hem, as the outer and wider edge is very apt to get pushed up and bulge over, in the sewing, which hides the stitches. rounded seam.--back-stitch your two edges together, as above directed, then cut off the inner edge to a width of four threads, and roll the outer one in, with the left thumb, till the raw edge is quite hidden, hemming as you roll. this kind of seam, on the wrong side, looks like a fine cord, laid on, and is used in making the finer qualities of underclothing. fastening threads off, and on (fig. ).--knots should be avoided in white work. to fasten on, in hemming, turn the needle backwards with the point up, take one stitch, and stroke and work the end of the thread in, underneath the turning. to fasten on, in back-stitching or running, make one stitch with the new thread, then take both ends and lay them down together to the left, and work over them, so that they wind in, and out of the next few stitches. [illustration: fig. . fastening threads off and on.] ( ) top or over-sewing stitch (fig. ).--this stitch is used for joining selvedges together. to keep the two pieces even, it is better, either to tack or pin them together first. insert the needle, from right to left, under the first thread of the selvedge, and through both edges, and sew from right to left, setting your stitches not more than three threads apart. the thread must not be drawn too tightly, so that when the seam is finished and flattened with the thimble, the selvedges may lie, side by side. [illustration: fig. . top or over-sewing stitch.] another kind of sewing-stitch (fig. )--for dress-seams and patching; sew left to right, tacking or pinning the edges together first, and holding them tightly with the thumb and finger, to keep perfectly even. [illustration: fig . another kind of sewing-stitch.] antique or old-german seam (figs. and ).--tack or pin the selvedges together as above, then, pointing your needle upwards from below, insert it, two threads from the selvedge, first on the wrong side, then on the right, first through one selvedge, then through the other, setting the stitches two threads apart. in this manner, the thread crosses itself, between the two selvedges, and a perfectly flat seam is produced. seams of this kind occur in old embroidered linen articles, where the stuff was too narrow to allow for any other. a similar stitch, fig. , only slanting, instead of quite straight, as in fig. , is used in making sheets. [illustration: fig. . antique or old-german seam.] [illustration: fig. . antique or old german seam.] french double seam (fig. ).--for joining such stuffs as fray, use the so-called french-seam. [illustration: fig . french double-seam.] run your two pieces of stuff together, the wrong sides touching, and the edges perfectly even, then turn them round just at the seam, so that the right sides come together inside, and the two raw edges are enclosed between, and run them together again. see that no threads are visible on the outside. this seam is used chiefly in dress-making, for joining slight materials together which cannot be kept from fraying by any other means. hemmed double seam (figs. and ).--turn in the two raw edges, and lay them one upon the other, so that the one next the forefinger, lies slightly higher than the one next the thumb. insert the needle, not upwards from below but first into the upper edge, and then, slightly slanting, into the lower one. this seam is used in dress-making, for fastening down linings. fig. shows another kind of double seam, where the two edges are laid together, turned in twice, and hemmed in the ordinary manner, with the sole difference, that the needle has to pass through a sixfold layer of stuff. [illustration: fig. . hemmed double-seam.] [illustration: fig. . open hemmed double-seam.] gathering (fig. ).--gathers are made with running-stitches of perfectly equal length; take up and leave three or four threads, alternately, and instead of holding the stuff fast with your thumb, push it on to the needle as you go, and draw up your thread after every four or five stitches. [illustration: fig. . gathering.] stroking gathers (fig. ).--when you have run in your gathering thread, draw it up tight, and make it fast round the finger of your left hand, and then stroke down the gathers with a strong needle, so that they lie evenly side by side, pushing each gather, in stroking it, under your left thumb, whilst you support the stuff at the back with your other fingers. [illustration: fig. . stroking gathers.] running in a second gathering thread (fig. ).--this is to fix the gathers after they have been stroked, and should be run in or c/m. below the first thread, according to the kind of stuff, and the purpose it is intended for: take up five or six gathers at a time, and draw your two threads perfectly even, that the gathers may be straight to the line of the thread. [illustration: fig. . running in a second gathering-thread.] sewing on gathers (fig. ).--to distribute the fulness equally, divide the gathered portion of material, and the band, or plain piece, on to which it is to be sewn, into equal parts, and pin the two together at corresponding distances, the gathered portion under the plain, and hem each gather to the band or plain piece, sloping the needle to make the thread slant, and slipping it through the upper threads only of the gathers. [illustration: fig. . sewing on gathers.] whipping (fig. ).--whipping is another form of gathering, used for fine materials. with the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, roll the edge over towards you, into a very tight thin roll, insert the needle on the inside of the roll next the thumb, and bring it out on the outside next the forefinger, at very regular distances, and draw up the thread slightly, from time to time, to form the gathers. [illustration: fig . whipping.] ornamental hem (fig. ). for an ornamental hem, make a turning, or c/m. deep, and run in a thread, with small running-stitches up and down, as shown in fig. . by slightly drawing the thread, the straight edge will be made to look as if it were scalloped. [illustration: fig. . ornamental hem.] sewing on cord (fig. ).--for sewing on cord, use strong thread, either fil d'alsace d.m.c, fil à dentelle d.m.c or câblé fils d.m.c no. , , or .[a] be careful not to stretch the cord, but to hold it in, as you sew it, as it invariably shrinks more than the stuff in the first washing. fasten it with hemming stitches to the edge of the turning, taking care that it does not get twisted. [illustration: fig. . sewing on cord.] sewing on flaps (fig. ).--these should be back-stitched on to the right side of the article they are to be affixed to, quite close to the edge, then folded over in half, and hemmed down on the wrong side. like the cord, the flap must, in the process, be held in very firmly with the left hand. though the back-stitching could be more quickly done by machine, hand-work is here preferable, as the holding in cannot be done by machine. [illustration: fig. . sewing on flaps.] sewing on tape-loops (figs. and ).--these, in the case of the coarser articles of household linen, are generally fastened to the corners. lay the ends of your piece of tape, which should be from to c/m. long, side by side, turn in and hem them down, on three sides: the loop should be so folded as to form a three-cornered point, shewn in the illustration. join the two edges of the tape together in the middle with a few cross-stitches, and stitch the edge of the hem of the article to the loop, on the right side. [illustration: fig. . sewing on tape-loops to the corner.] [illustration: fig. . sewing on tape-loops in the middle of the article.] fig. shows how to sew on a loop in the middle of an article, the two ends separately, one on one side, the other on the other. strings and loops for fine under-linen (fig. ).--sew these on, likewise, on the wrong side of the article, hemming down the ends, and fastening them on the right side, with two rows of stitching crossing each other, and a third row along the edge. [illustration: fig. . strings and loops on fine under-linen.] button-holes in linen (fig. ).--cut your hole perfectly straight, and of exactly, the diameter of the button, having previously marked out the place for it, with two rows of running-stitches, two or three threads apart. put in your needle at the back of the slit, and take up about three threads, bring the working thread round, from right to left under the point of the needle, and draw the needle out through the loop, so that the little knot comes at the edge of the slit, and so on to the end, working from the lower left-hand corner to the right. then make a bar of button-hole stitching across each end, the knotted edge towards the slit. [illustration: fig. . button-holes in linen.] button holes in dress materials (fig. ).--mark out and cut them as above described; if however, the material be liable to fray, wet the slit as soon as you have cut it, with liquid gum, and lay a strand of strong thread along the edge to make your stitches over; one end of dress button-holes must be round, the stitches diverging like rays from the centre, and when you have worked the second side, thread the needle with the loose strand, and pull it slightly, to straighten the edges; then fasten off, and close the button-hole with a straight bar of stitches across the other end, as in fig. . [illustration: fig. . button-holes in dress-materials.] sewing on buttons (figs. and ).--to sew linen, or webbed buttons on to underclothing, fasten in your thread with a stitch or two, at the place where the button is to be; bring the needle out through the middle of the button, and make eight stitches, diverging from the centre like a star, and if you like, encircle them by a row of stitching, as in fig. . this done, bring the needle out between the stuff and the button, and twist the cotton six or seven times round it, then push the needle through to the wrong side, and fasten off. [illustration: fig. . sewing on linen buttons.] [illustration: fig. . sewing on webbed buttons.] binding slits (figs. , , , ).--nothing is more apt to tear than a slit whether it be hemmed or merely bound. to prevent this, make a semicircle of button-hole stitches at the bottom of the slit, and above that, to connect the two sides, a bridge of several threads, covered with button-hole stitches. [illustration: fig. . binding slits with hem.] [illustration: fig. . binding slits with piece on cross.] [illustration: fig. . binding slits with broad band.] [illustration: fig. . strengthening slits with gusset.] in fig. , we show a hemmed slit, and in figs. and , are two slits backed the one with a narrow, the other, with a broad piece of the material, cut on the cross. in under-linen, it often so happens that two selvedges meet at the slit, which renders binding unnecessary; in that case take a small square of stuff, turn in the raw edges, top-sew it into the slit on two sides, turn in the other two, fold over on the bias, and hem them down over the top-sewing, as shewn in fig. . such little squares of material, inserted into a slit or seam, to prevent its tearing, are called gussets. sewing on piping (fig. ). piping is a border, consisting of a cord or bobbin, folded into a stripe of material, cut on the cross, and affixed to the edge of an article to give it more strength and finish. it is a good substitute for a hem or binding on a bias edge, which by means of the cord, can be held in, and prevented from stretching. cut your stripes diagonally, across the web of the stuff, and very even; run them together, lay the cord or bobbin along the stripe, on the wrong side, m/m. from the edge, fold the edge over, and tack the cord lightly in. then lay it on the raw edge of the article, with the cord towards you, and with all the raw edges turned away from you. back-stitch the piping to the edge, keeping close to the cord. then turn the article round, fold in the raw outside edge over the others, and hem it down like an ordinary hem. [illustration: fig. . sewing on piping.] fixing whale-bones (fig. ).--before slipping the whale-bone into its case or fold of stuff, pierce holes in it, top and bottom, with a red hot stiletto. through these holes, make your stitches, diverging like rays or crossing each other as shown in fig. . [illustration: fig . fixing whale-bones.] herring-boning (fig. ).--this stitch is chiefly used for seams in flannel, and for overcasting dress-seams, and takes the place of hemming, for fastening down the raw edges of a seam that has been run or stitched, without turning them in. herring-boning is done from left to right, and forms two rows of stitches. insert the needle from right to left, and make a stitch first above, and then below the edge, the threads crossing each other diagonally, as shewn in fig. . [illustration: fig. . herring-boning] footnotes: [ ] our readers should be provided with a french metre, with the english yard marked on the back for purposes of comparison. [a] see at the end of the concluding chapter, the table of numbers and sizes and the list of colours of the d.m.c threads and cottons. [illustration: specimens of pattern darns.] mending. the mending of wearing-apparel and house-linen, though often an ungrateful task, is yet a very necessary one, to which every female hand ought to be carefully trained. how best to disguise and repair the wear and tear of use or accident is quite as valuable an art, as that of making new things. under the head of mending, we include the strengthening and replacing of the worn and broken threads of a fabric, and fitting in of new stuff in the place of that which is torn or damaged. the former is called darning, the latter, patching. darning.--when only a few of the warp or woof threads are torn or missing, a darn will repair the mischief, provided the surrounding parts be sound. when the damage is more extensive, the piece must be cut out. in some cases the warp of the stuff itself can be used for darning, otherwise thread as much like the stuff as possible should be chosen. materials suitable for mending.--coton à repriser d.m.c is used for most kinds of darning. it can be had in different sizes, from nos. to , white and unbleached, and in all the colours of the d.m.c colour-card in nos. , and . it is but very slightly twisted and can be split or used double, if necessary, according to the material. for all the coarser articles of house-linen, unbleached cotton is the best, and for the finer white fabrics, coton surfin d.m.c nos. , and [a]. this cotton, which is not the least twisted, and is to be had both white and unbleached, can be used, by subdividing it, for darning the finest cambric. varieties of darning.--these are four, ( ) linen darning, ( ) damask darning, ( ) satin or twill darning, and ( ) invisible darning, called also, fine-drawing. ( ) linen darning (figs. and ).--all darns should be made on the wrong side of the stuff, excepting fig. , which it is sometimes better to make on the right side. the longitudinal running, to form the warp, must be made first. the thread must not be drawn tightly in running your stitches backwards and forwards, and be careful to leave loops at each turning, to allow for the shrinking of the thread in the washing, without its pulling the darn together. [illustration: fig. . linen darning. drawing in the warp threads.] [illustration: fig. . linen darning. drawing in the woof threads.] run your needle in, about one c/m. above the damaged part, take up one or two threads of the stuff and miss the same number, working straight to a thread; on reaching the hole, carry your cotton straight across it, take up alternate threads beyond, and proceed as before. continue the rows backwards and forwards, taking up in each row, the threads left in the preceding one. turn the work round and do the same for the woof; alternately taking up and leaving the warp threads, where the cotton crosses the hole. the threads must lie so alone both ways, that the darn, when completed, replaces the original web. the threads are only drawn so far apart in the illustrations, for the sake of clearness. when the material to be darned does not admit of a fleecy thread, such as coton à repriser d.m.c, one that as nearly as possible matches the material, should be chosen from the d.m.c cottons.[a] diagonal linen darning (fig. ).--darns are sometimes begun from the corner, so as to form a diagonal web, but they are then much more visible than when they are worked straight to a thread, and therefore not advisable. [illustration: fig. . diagonal linen darning.] ( ) satin or twill darning (fig. ).--by twill darning, the damaged web of any twilled or diagonal material can be restored. it would be impossible to enumerate all the varieties of twilled stuffs, but the illustrations and accompanying directions will enable the worker to imitate them all. [illustration: fig. . satin or twill darning.] begin, as in ordinary darning by running in the warp threads, then take up one thread, and miss three. in every succeeding row, advance one thread in the same direction. or, miss one thread of the stuff and take up two, and as before, advance, one thread in the same direction, every succeeding row. the order in which threads should be missed and taken up, must depend on the web which the darn is intended to imitate. when the original is a coloured stuff, it is advisable to make a specimen darn first, on a larger scale, so that you may be more sure of obtaining a correct copy of the original web. ( ) damask darning (figs. , , , , , ).--a damask darn is begun in the same way as all other darns are; the pattern is formed by the cross-runnings and will vary with the number of warp threads taken up and missed, in each successive running. the woven design which you are to copy with your needle must therefore be carefully examined first. figs. and show the wrong and right sides of a damask darn, in process of being made. [illustration: fig. . damask darning. wrong side.] [illustration: fig. . damask darning. right side.] fig. represents a completed one. in the case of coloured webs, a light shade of cotton is generally used for the warp, one that matches the stuff, for the shot or woof. [illustration: fig. . damask darning. covered ground.] figs. and , illustrate two specimens of darning, formerly done in the convents, from which it will be seen, that the warp and the woof were first drawn in with rather fine thread and the pattern then worked into this foundation with coarser, or else, coloured thread. when this kind of darn is in two colours, take, for the darker shade, coton à broder d.m.c, or coton à repriser d.m.c, which are both of them to be had in all the bright and faded shades, to match alike both old and new linen. [illustration: fig. . damask darning on needle-made ground.] [illustration: fig. . damask darning on needle-made ground.] fig. , which is executed in two colours, and is likewise copied from an old work on darning, shows you the manner in which a dice-pattern is to be reproduced. [illustration: fig. . damask darning with coloured thread.] ( ) darning, lost in the ground (fig. ).--a kind of darn used for repairing rents, the edges of which fit exactly into one another. neither the torn threads of the material nor the rough edges must be cut off; the torn part is to be tacked upon a piece of oil-cloth, wrong side uppermost, and the edges, drawn together by a thread, run in backwards, and forwards, across them. the stitches must be set as closely together as possible, and regularly inverted, as in every other darn. a much finer thread relatively than that of which the material is composed should, in all cases be used for darning. in this instance also, for the sake of greater distinctness, the size of the thread has been magnified in the illustration. coton surfin d.m.c, will be found the best for darning both calico and linen. [illustration: fig. . darning lost in the ground.] fine drawing (fig. ).--the art of making invisible darns in cloth, though such a useful one, is all but unknown. it is a tedious process and one which, though easy enough to understand, requires great care in the execution. [illustration: fig. . fine drawing.] use as fine a needle as possible and thread it with hair, instead of silk, or any other kind of fibre. red and white hair is the strongest, and stronger than the ravellings of the stuff. of course the hair has first to be carefully cleansed from grease. pare the edges of the rent, on the right sides, quite clean and even, with a razor, so that both rent and stitches may be lost in the hairy surface of the cloth. scissors do not cut so closely, and are liable moreover, to disturb the nap, and render the darn more visible. when this is done, fit the edges exactly together, and overcast them. then thread a needle with a hair by the root, and slip it in, or m/m. from the one edge and back again pointed towards you, through the other, so that, neither needle nor hair, are visible on either side. the stitches should be set slightly slanting and must be quite lost in the thickness of the cloth. the needle must always be put in, exactly at the place where it came out, and the hair not be too tightly drawn. when the darn is finished, lay the article on a bare table, or ironing-board, cover it with a damp cloth, and iron it. the sharpest eye will fail to detect a rent, when carefully darned in this manner. patching.--as we have already said, when the defective part is past darning, it must be cut out, and a new piece of stuff inserted in its place. if the garment be no longer new, it should be patched with a slighter material than that of which it was originally made. the patch should be of the same shape, and cut the same way of the stuff, as the piece it is to replace, it should also be, just so much larger, as to allow for the turnings in, and can either be top-sewn, or else, run and felled in. back-stitching and felling in a patch (fig. ).--tack in the new piece, so that its edges over-lap the edges of the hole. the back-stitching must be done on the article itself, as this renders it easier to do the corners neatly. the hem is turned down on to the patch. make a little snip at the corners with your scissors to prevent puckering. the back-stitching should form a right angle at each corner. [illustration: fig. . back-stitching and felling in a patch.] top-sewing in a patch (fig. ).--to do this, the edges of the hole and of the patch, must first be turned in, and either overcast or hemmed, to prevent their fraying, after which, sew the two edges together. the raw edges may also be turned in with herring-boning as in fig. , putting the needle, only through one layer of stuff. [illustration: fig. . top-sewing in a patch.] drawing in a patch (fig. ).--take a square piece of the original stuff, or c/m. larger each way, than the hole it is to fill, draw out threads on all the four sides, till the piece exactly matches the hole, and tack it into its place. thread a very fine needle with the two ends of a thread of silk or fil d'alsace d.m.c no. , run it in at the corner of the stuff, and draw it out, leaving a loop behind. into this loop, slip the first of the threads, which as it were, form a fringe to the patch, and tighten the loop round it, and so on with each thread, alternately taking up and leaving threads in the stuff, as in ordinary darning. [illustration: fig. . drawing in a patch.] to put a patch into a thin material, in this manner, you must darn in the threads, a good long way, into the material, in order that the double layer of threads may be less visible. footnotes: [a] see at the end of the concluding chapter, the table of numbers and sizes and the list of colours of the d.m.c threads and cottons. [illustration: stripe of cut open-work on white linen.] single and cut open-work. the above heading comprises every sort of needle-work, to which the drawing out of threads is a preliminary. by sewing over the single threads that remain, and drawing them together in different ways, an infinite variety of patterns can be produced. many pretty combinations also, can be made of open-work, cross-stitch, and other kinds of embroidery. materials suitable for open-work.--for all the coarser stuffs, such as holbein-linen, java and linen-canvas and the like, now in such favour for the imitation of old needlework, it will be best to use: fil à pointer d.m.c, no. [a] and cordonnet fils d.m.c, nos. to ,[a] and for the finer stuffs, such as antique-linen and linen-gauze; cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to ,[a] fil d'alsace d.m.c, nos. to , and fil à dentelle d.m.c, nos. to . coloured patterns can also be executed in open-work, with coton à broder d.m.c nos. to , and coton à repriser d.m.c, nos. to [a]. the two different kinds of open-work.--the one is called, single open-work, the italian punto tirato, in which the first step is to draw out one layer of threads; the other, cut open-work, the italian punto tagliato, for which, both the warp, and the woof threads, have to be drawn out. single open-work (punto tirato).--this, in its simplest form, is the ornamental latticed hem, in common use where something rather more decorative than an ordinary hem (fig. ) is required, and consists in drawing out one layer of threads, either the warp or the woof. single hem-stitch (fig. ).--draw out, according to the coarseness of the stuff, two or four threads, below the edge of the turning, and tack your hem down to the line thus drawn. fasten your thread in to the left, and work your hem from right to left, taking up three or four cross-threads at a time, and inserting your needle, immediately above, into the folded hem, three or four threads from the edge, and then drawing it out. [illustration: fig. . single hem-stitch.] the same stitch is used for preventing the fringes, that serve as a finish to so many articles of house-linen, from ravelling. second hem-stitch (fig. ).--prepare your hem as for fig. , and work from left to right; with this difference, that after drawing two or three cross-threads together, from right to left, you skip the same number of perpendicular threads you took up below, and insert your needle downwards from above, bringing it out at the bottom edge of the hem. [illustration: fig. . second hem-stitch.] these stitches, which can be used for the right side also, form a kind of little tress, along the edge of the hem. ladder stitch hem (fig. ). complete the hem, as already directed in fig. , then draw out three or five threads more, turn the work round, and repeat the process, taking up the same clusters of threads which you took up in the first row of stitches, thus forming little perpendicular bars. [illustration: fig. . ladder stitch hem.] double hem-stitch (fig. ). begin as in fig. , forming your clusters of an even number of threads; and then, in making your second row of stitches, draw half the threads of one cluster, and half of the next together, thereby making them slant, first one way and then the other. [illustration: fig. . double hem-stitch.] antique hem-stitch (figs , , and ). in the old, elaborate, linen needlework, we often meet two kinds of hem-stitching seldom found in modern books on needle-work. figs. to are magnified representations of the same. at the necessary depth for forming a narrow hem, a thread is drawn, in the case of very fine textures where the edge is rolled, not laid; then fasten in the working thread at the left, and work the stitches from left to right. passing your needle, from right to left, under three or four threads, draw the thread round the cluster and carry your needle on, through as many threads of the upper layer of stuff, as you took up below, so that the stitch may always emerge from the middle of the cluster. [illustration: fig. . antique hem-stitch. wrong side.] [illustration: fig. . antique hem-stitch. right side.] antique hem-stitch (figs. and ).--these show, the right and wrong sides of the hem; here the rolled hem is prepared as above, but the stitches are worked from right to left, and the thread is carried round the little roll, so that, as shown in fig. , it is visible on both sides of the hem. the needle does not enter the stuff, but is carried back at once, from the outside, and put in again between two clusters of threads. [illustration: fig. .--antique hem-stitch. wrong side.] [illustration: fig. .--antique hem-stitch. right side.] slanting hem-stitch (figs. and ).--bring out your needle and thread, two or three threads above the edge of the turning, between the first and second of the three cross-threads that compose the cluster, and then slip it under the cluster, from right to left. the loop must lie in front of the needle. when you have drawn up the stitch, put the needle in, one thread further on, and take up two threads. fig. shows the stitch on the right side. [illustration: fig. . slanting hem-stitch. wrong side.] [illustration: fig. . slanting hem-stitch. right side.] double-rowed ornamental seam (figs. , , ).--begin with any one of the hems already described, then counting as many threads downwards, as are clustered together in the first row, draw out a second thread, and cluster the perpendicular threads in this second line together, as shown in figs. and . on the right side the stitch is straight (fig. ). coloured cottons should be used for all the above patterns of hem-stitch, when they are to be introduced into coloured embroideries. [illustration: fig. . double-rowed ornamental seam. wrong side.] [illustration: fig. . double-rowed ornamental seam. wrong side.] [illustration: fig. . double-rowed ornamental seam. right side.] single three-rowed open-work (fig. ).--this, and the following patterns, are suitable for the headings of hems, and for connecting stripes of embroidery, and are also often used instead of lace, and lace insertion. fig. will be found specially useful, in cases where the object is, to produce a good deal of effect, at the cost of as little labour as possible. make six rows of hem-stitching, as in fig. ; the first and sixth rows to serve as a finish, above and below. [illustration: fig. . single three-rowed open-work.] the second and third, after drawing out six threads, the third and fourth after drawing out eight. the clusters must all consist of an even number of threads. the upper and the lower band of open-work is to be copied from fig. , the centre one, from fig. . divide the threads of the perpendicular clusters in two; insert the needle, from left to right, underneath half the second cluster, turn the needle's eye, by a second movement, from left to right, and take up the second part of the first cluster, drawing it under, and at the same time, in front of the first half of the second cluster. be careful not to draw your thread too tightly. open-work with two threads drawn through (fig. ).--one such wide lane of open-work, between two finishing rows of stitches, may have two threads drawn through it. [illustration: fig. . open-work with two threads drawn through.] open-work with three threads drawn through (fig. ). overcast both edges with single stitches; draw the clusters together in the middle, as in fig. ; then above and below the middle thread, draw in first one thread and then a second, straight above it, securing the latter with back-stitches to enclose the clusters between two threads. [illustration: fig. . open-work with three threads drawn through.] clustered open-work (fig. ).--draw out from sixteen to eighteen threads, between two hem-stitched edges. fasten your thread in, m/m. above the seam-edge, and wind it three times round every two clusters, passing the needle, the third time, under the two first rounds, to fasten the thread. the thread, thus drawn through, must be left rather slack. a second row of stitches, similar to the first, and at the same distance from the bottom edge, completes this pattern. to give it greater strength, you may if you like, work back over the first thread, with a second, taking care to pass it under the knot, which was formed by the first. [illustration: fig. . clustered open-work.] double-rowed cluster-open-work (fig. ).--a very good effect can be obtained by making the above stitch in such a manner, as to form groups of three clusters each, between hem-stitched bands of the stuff. [illustration: fig. . double-rowed cluster-open-work.] turkish cluster open-work (fig. ).--after portioning off, and sewing up the clusters on one side, draw out twelve or fourteen threads, and make your connecting-stitch and hem, all in one, as follows: bring out the thread before the cluster, and pass it round it, then from right to left, over three horizontal and under four perpendicular threads, again from left to right, over the four threads just passed over, and out at the second cluster; laying it over this, you bring it out behind the first cluster, wind it round the middle of them both, and pass it through, between the over-casting stitches back to the hem; encircle the second cluster with a loop-stitch, and carry your thread again over three horizontal and four perpendicular threads, and upwards, slanting underneath the stuff, out in front of the next cluster. [illustration: fig. . turkish cluster open-work.] open-work with darning stitch (fig. ).--draw out from eight to twelve threads, according to the quality of the stuff. insert your needle and thread between two clusters, and pass it, as if you were darning, backwards and forwards over them, until they are encased half way down with stitches. in so doing, work with the eye of the needle forward, and the point towards your thimble. to pass to the next cluster, take one stitch back, under the one just darned, and bring your thread underneath the threads of the stuff, to the second cluster. [illustration: fig. . open-work with darning stitch.] open-work in three colours (fig. ).--this pattern which is to be done in the same way as fig. , requires the drawing out of, at least, eighteen threads. every cross-line of three clusters is to be worked in one colour. the colours may all be different, or you may if you prefer, take shades of the same colour. [illustration: fig. . open-work in three colours. colours: bleu-indigo , , , brun-caroubier , , , or rouge-géranium , , .[a]] open-work insertion (figs. and ).--for both these, the edges are to be overcast, and the darning stitches packed sufficiently closely together, for the threads of the stuff to be entirely covered. fig. requires the drawing out of eighteen threads, fig. , of thirty. both admit of several colours being used. [illustration: fig. . open-work insertion.] [illustration: fig. . open-work insertion.] open-work insertion (fig. ).--after drawing out sixteen or eighteen threads, bind both sides with stitches made over four horizontal and four perpendicular threads, as follows; make one back-stitch over four disengaged threads, then bring up your thread from right to left, over four horizontal and under four perpendicular threads, back over the four last threads, and draw it out beside the next cluster. the clusters, as they now stand, are bound together in the middle, three by three, with darning-stitches. the thread must be fastened in and cut off, after each group is finished. [illustration: fig. . open-work insertion.] open-work insertion (fig. ).--first bind the two edges with stitches, in the ordinary way. at the last stitch introduce the thread slanting, according to the dotted line, pass it under four horizontal and three perpendicular threads of the stuff and draw it out; then over three threads from right to left, and back under the same, from left to right, and out again; over four horizontal threads, and, under and again over, three perpendicular ones; for the next stitch, you again follow the dotted slanting line. [illustration: fig. . open-work insertion.] then make the darning stitch over nine threads, or three clusters. at half their length, you leave out three threads, first on the right, then on the left, whilst in the other half, you, in a similar manner, take in three; so that you have two darned and two undarned clusters, standing opposite each other. finally, you overcast the single clusters, and connect every two with a lock-stitch, as shown in the accompanying illustration. open-work insertion (fig. ).--draw out twenty threads, overcast both edges with stitches, made over three threads. then, make slanting stitches, proceeding out from these, over three, six and nine threads respectively, all three terminating in a perpendicular line, one below the other. [illustration: fig. . open-work insertion.] for the open-work, twist the thread five times, quite tightly round and round one cluster, bring it to the edge, between the second and third clusters, and connect these by means of six darning-stitches to and fro: join the first and second clusters in the same way by twelve stitches, and finish, by twisting the thread five times round the remaining length of the first cluster. the second half of the open-work figure is carried out in a similar manner over the third and fourth clusters. open-work insertion in four colours (fig. ).--draw out, from twenty-five to thirty threads. the outside figures are executed over six clusters, of three threads each, in a dark and light shade alternately of the same colour. each of the middle figures combines three clusters of the two figures above it, and may be executed, either in a different colour altogether, or in a lighter shade of the one employed in the top row. the little star in the centre should be worked in dark red, or black. [illustration: fig. . open-work insertion in four colours. materials: coton à broder d.m.c no. , or cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to .[a] colours: rouge-turc , bleu-indigo , , noir grand teint .[a]] open-work insertions (figs. , , ).--for each of these draw out forty threads. fig. worked in white, and rouge-grenat clair , comprises fourteen clusters, of four threads each. begin at the top of the big pyramid, so that the threads which you run in, can be more closely crowded together. [illustration: fig. . open-work insertion.] in fig. , the two rows of short clusters are worked in gris-tilleul moyen, and, gris-tilleul clair, and ;[a] the pyramid of steps, in brun-chamois moyen, ;[a] the three inner clusters in brim-chamois très clair, . one figure consists of fourteen clusters, of three threads each. [illustration: fig. . open-work insertion.] fig. also is to be worked in three colours; the light squares in unbleached cotton, the middle figure in bleu-indigo très clair, , the large squares on either side in brun-cuir clair . each figure contains eighteen clusters, of three threads each. [illustration: fig. . open-work insertion.] open-work insertion with spiders (fig. ).--the edges are to be herring-boned, as described in fig. . in the middle, the so-called spiders are made, over every group of four clusters. the thread that runs out from the spider, passes over two clusters and under one, and then three or four times, over and under the clusters, as in darning, and so back, under the spider, at the place at which it was drawn in, and then on, to the next four strands of thread. [illustration: fig . open-work insertion with spiders.] three-rowed open-work (fig. ).--draw out five threads for the narrow stripe, and from fourteen to sixteen for the wide one. each cluster should consist of four threads. the narrow bands between, are to be herring-boned on either side. the dotted line shows the course of the thread, on the wrong side. then unite each separate cluster in the middle, with a back-stitch, as shown in the illustration, and finally, join every group of four clusters together, with three stitches, and make a spider in the middle of the open-work, at the point where the threads intersect each other. [illustration: fig . three-rowed open-work.] open-work insertion with rings (fig. ).--bind the edges on both sides, with straight, two-sided, stitches. take, for this, coton à broder d.m.c, no. , (embroidery cotton), using it double. draw out, from twenty-four to thirty threads. wind your thread six or seven times round the middle of each cluster of nine threads, and then make darning-stitches, above and below, to a length of m/m. when you have completed two clusters, join them together, by four interlocked stitches; wind your thread three times round the single thread, and sew it over with close stitches. [illustration: fig . open-work insertion with rings.] open-work insertion with spiders (fig. ).--draw out twenty-four threads. ornament the two edges with half-spiders. you begin these over two threads, and go on taking in others, to the number of eight. the whole spider in the middle, is made as above described. [illustration: fig. . open-work insertion with spiders.] open-work insertion (figs. and ).--the beauty of this otherwise simple pattern, lies in the peculiar knot, with which the edges of the stuff are ornamented. [illustration: fig. . open-work insertion.] carry the working thread, as shown in fig. , from right to left, (see the description of the right side) over and under four threads; then bring the needle back, under the thread which lies slanting, form a loop with the forefinger of the left hand, slip it on to the needle, and draw it up close to the first stitch; pull the needle through the knot, and proceed to the next stitch. the illustration explains how the open-work in the middle should be carried out. [illustration: fig. . explanation of the stitch for fig. .] open-work with winding stitch (fig. ).--for this pattern, which is a very laborious one to work, draw out twenty-eight threads. bind the edges with two-sided stitches, over two, three, four and five threads, respectively. for the middle figures, you must reckon four threads for the clusters, round which the working thread is tightly twisted, eight for the darned clusters, ornamented with picots (see fig. ), and sixteen for the rectangular rosettes, in two colours. make a loose spider over the threads, as a background for the rosette. work the picots in a different colour from the cluster, and the rosettes, likewise, in two colours. the connecting loops between the figures should be made as you go along, the thread being always carried back into the loop just made. [illustration: fig. . open-work with winding stitch.] cutting out threads at the corners (figs. , , , ). if you want to carry a latticed-hem or a simple open-work pattern, round a corner, you must cut and loosen the threads, on both sides, about one c/m. from the edge of the hem, as seen in fig. . the loose threads can be pushed into the turning, and the edge button-holed, as in fig. . if however, on the other hand, the stitching be continued without interruption, as indicated in the upper part of fig. , the loose threads must be brought to the wrong side, and as represented in the lower part of fig. , fastened down with a few stitches. [illustration: fig. . the cutting and loosening of the threads at the corners.] [illustration: fig. . the over casting of the disengaged edge at the corner, the threads being turned in within the hem.] [illustration: fig. . bordering the disengaged edge with hem-stitching, the threads being turned over] [illustration: fig. . filling in the corner with a spider, and continuation of the lattice-work thence.] cut open-work (punto tagliato).--for cut open-work, threads have to be drawn out both ways, the number of course to depend on the pattern. threads, left between others that have been cut out, serve as a foundation on which a great variety of stitches can be worked. stuffs, equally coarse in the warp and woof, should be chosen for all cut open-work, for then the empty spaces that remain, where threads have been drawn out both ways, will be perfectly square. drawing out threads both ways (fig. ).--the same number of threads must be drawn out each way; most patterns require the same number of threads to be left as are drawn out. in fig. , three threads have been drawn out and three left. [illustration: fig. . drawing out threads both ways, without regard to the edges.] cutting out threads (fig. ).--we often meet with cut open-work patterns, set in another kind of embroidery. in such cases, the threads that are to be cut out, must be cut a few millimetres within the edge, and then drawn out, so that there may be a frame of the stuff left intact outside. [illustration: fig. . cutting out threads, in the middle of the stuff.] button-holing the raw edges (fig. ).--in very fine linen textures, the threads can simply be cut out, but in the case of coarser stuffs, and when a pattern ends in steps as in figs. , , , the raw edges must be button-holed as in fig. , or . [illustration: fig. . button-holing the raw edges of cut open-work.] overcasting the raw edges (fig. ).--cording the raw edges, is even better than button-holing them. count the number of threads carefully that have to be cut out, run in a thread to mark the pattern, and then only, cut the threads through, at least two threads within the line. [illustration: fig. . overcasting the raw edges of cut open-work.] overcasting the trellised ground (fig. ).--if you only have a small surface to embroider, you can draw out all the threads at once. but in the case of a large piece of work it is better to begin by removing the threads in one direction only, and completing all the little bars, one way first; after which you draw out the threads the other way and embroider those you leave. in this way you will secure greater equality and finish in your work. [illustration: fig. .--overcasting the trellised ground.] ground for square, fig. (figs. and ).--finish the first row of bars along the edge completely, to begin with. in the second row, overcast the bar, down to half its length, then carry your thread over two empty spaces, see the letter _a_, come back to the bar, overcasting the thread which you threw across first, and passing the needle under the bars of the stuff. in the second rows that intersect the first, marked by letter _b_, the threads meet in the middle of the empty space. in fig. , finish the bars, overcast both ways first, and then fill in the ground with interlaced threads, worked row by row, throwing the thread from one square to the other as you go, and doubling it, as you return. for the bars, see the chapters on net embroidery, and irish lace. [illustration: fig. . lattice-ground for square in fig. , showing the course of the stitches.] [illustration: fig. . lattice-ground for square in fig. .] lattice-ground and damask stitch for square, fig. (fig. ).--our illustration shows a third kind of openwork ground with one corner in damask stitch, of the square represented in fig. . the little bars which intersect each square crossways, are made in two divisions, by carrying the thread to the opposite bar and back. in the same way, the second thread is carried over the first. the damask stitches are described in the next chapter, in figs. and . [illustration: fig. . lattice-ground with a portion of square, fig. .] lattice-ground and damask stitches for square, fig. (fig. ).--damask, or gobelin stitches, are given in figs. , , . the ground of this part of the square (fig. ) is adorned with narrow bars, worked in darning stitch. from the centre of one bar, proceed three bars made on three foundation-threads, and a fourth made on two, on account of the passage to the next bar. [illustration: fig. . lattice-ground and damask stitch for square, fig. .] quarter of the square in single and cut open-work, and damask-stitch (fig. ).--original size c/m. square. this handsome square is worked in unbleached cotton on a white ground; it may also be worked in colours. a very good effect is produced by using chiné d'or d.m.c[a] red, blue, or green for the gobelin stitch, and a uniform pale tint for the cut open-work. figs. , , , illustrate in detail, one quarter of the square, which is represented here one third of the original size. the centre piece (fig. ) is bordered by four stripes, two long and two short; the former containing two lozenge-shaped open-work figures separated and finished off by damask stitches; the latter, only one such figure. for the insertion in single open-work, that recurs three times, you will find a variety of designs in figs. , , , , , . [illustration: fig. .--quarter of the square in single and cut open-work, and damask stitch. original size c/m. square. materials suitable for holbein linen: fil à pointer d.m.c no. or , and coton à repriser d.m.c no. .[a] for antique linen: fil à dentelle d.m.c no. or , or cordonnet fils d.m.c no. , , or , and coton à repriser d.m.c no. or, in place of the latter, coton à broder surfin d.m.c no. .[a]] drawing in the pattern (fig. ).--darning in the threads, as you do into a net foundation is a slower process and one that requires greater skill than drawing them in. the illustration shows the proper order and direction of stitches for fig. . in this case likewise, the little bars must be finished, before the actual pattern is filled in. [illustration: fig. . drawing in the pattern. (explanation of fig. )] darning in the threads (fig. )--in old needle-work we often find the pattern reserved, that is, left blank and outlined by the grounding. as it is difficult, especially in executing minute, and delicate figures, to withdraw the threads partially, without injuring the linen foundation, they are withdrawn throughout, and new ones drawn in, to form the pattern. to explain this more clearly, the original threads of the material are represented in a lighter shade than the new ones that are drawn in; the course of the stitches is indicated in a darker shade. [illustration: fig . darning in the threads. (explanation of fig. ).] broad insertion in cut open-work, with the pattern drawn in (fig. ).--this insertion, suitable according to the foundation it is worked on, for the decoration either of curtains, table-covers, bed-linen or underclothing, is made as shown in fig. . if intended for the decoration of any article made of white linen, we recommend unbleached materials for the lattice-work, and bleached for the pattern, to bring it out in strong relief. [illustration: fig. . broad insertion in cut open-work, with pattern drawn in.] insertion in cut open-work, with pattern darned in (fig. ).--this insertion can be introduced into any kind of linen material, and used for ornamenting towels, aprons, bed-linen and table-linen. when it is used to connect bands of cross-stitch embroidery, the open-work should be of the same colour as the embroidery, and the pattern worked in white or unbleached cotton, to correspond with the foundation. in fig. , the pattern is half as large again as in the original. [illustration: fig. . insertion in cut open-work, with pattern darned in. materials--for holbein linen: fil à pointer d.m.c no. or , cordonnet fils d.m.c no. , or for the bars.--coton à tricoter d.m.c no. or coton à repriser d.m.c no. or for darning or drawing in the pattern. for finer linens: fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to , or cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to for the bars and coton à repriser d.m.c no. for darning or drawing in the pattern.] cut open-work pattern (figs. and ).--this pattern, more of the nature of lace than any of the former, is well adapted for trimming, not only household articles but also church furniture, altar-cloths and the like, which are required to wash, as it can be worked in any width. fig. , a magnified representation of the work in process of execution, shows alternately, ten threads withdrawn each way and six left, with open spaces between. the arcs are worked over three carefully laid threads, carried across from the middle of one bar to the middle of the bar at right angles to it, the wheels on the other hand are begun and finished at the same corner. overcast the cut edges, and hem-stitch the outside layer of stuff (figs. and ). [illustration: fig. . cut open-work pattern. fig. in process of execution.] [illustration: fig. . cut open-work pattern. materials: fil à pointer d.m.c no. or , cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to .] greek cut open-work pattern (fig. ).--after the foregoing explanations, no difficulty will be found in copying the beautiful greek cut open-work pattern, illustrated in fig. . here, we have in the original, threads drawn out in the middle, both ways, from one straight bar to another, (these bars being darned) with open spaces between; and in the lower and narrower division, threads drawn out each way. the cut edges, from bar to bar, are hem-stitched on both sides, leaving four threads of the stuff between. the long bars, in the second figure, are button holed on both sides, those with the picots, on one side only. [illustration: fig. . greek cut open-work pattern. materials: cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , fil d'alsace d.m.c nos. to or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to .] footnotes: [a] see, at the end of the concluding chapter, the table of numbers and sizes and the list of colours of the d.m.c threads and cottons. [illustration: net stripe, in imitation of brussels lace.] net and damask stitches. many net embroidery patterns and damask stitches consist of a combination of ordinary running and darning, others of chain, stem and cross stitch. net embroidery.--all these kinds of stitches can be worked on the coarse greek net, as it is called, as well as on the finest quality of real brussels net. stripes of net, finished off with button-hole edging, and ornamented with one or other of the following patterns, make very pretty washing laces and the like; net laid upon irish point and converted by needlework into a lace ground, makes an excellent substitute for a hand-made ground, which demands much labour and time. materials suitable for net embroidery.--the choice of material must be determined by the quality of the net and the effect to be produced. for a coarse make of net and a very marked pattern, the lowest numbers of d.m.c cottons, or the narrowest braids, such as soutache d.m.c nos. , , should be used; if the net be fine and the pattern a delicate one, then the higher numbers of the following are preferable: coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to , coton à repriser d.m.c nos. to , coton à broder d.m.c nos. to , fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to , coton à broder surfin d.m.c nos. , , . the latter must be adjusted to the required size before being used, that is to say as many strands of it removed, as is necessary in order to reduce it to the proper thickness. tracing with running stitches (fig. ).--have your pattern traced on linen or paper; tack the net upon it, and copy it carefully on the net with running stitches. as in darning, the stitches must run first above and then beneath, alternating in each succeeding row. at the turn of the lines, the stitches cross each other, as shown in the illustration. [illustration: fig. . tracing with running stitches.] net pattern (fig. ).--here too the pattern is traced with running stitches, which are run in on both sides of each row of meshes. the thread is carried first to the right, and then to the left, under every alternate bar of the net and out again. between the first and second rows, one thread of the foundation must be left uncovered. in the next row, the thread is carried back again, so that it encircles each mesh. in the third row, the thread passes under the same bar of net as in the second, the threads touching each other. the fourth row is a repetition of the first. [illustration: fig. . net pattern.] net pattern (fig. ).--this consists of two rows of stitches. in the first, the single stitches run diagonally from left to right, over and under a mesh; in the second row the triple stitches, also carried diagonally across a mesh, lie from right to left. [illustration: fig. . net pattern.] net pattern (fig. ).--begin with a double row, as in fig. ; this is followed by a row of cross-stitch, touching the others, for which the thread has to be carried, first under one of the straight bars of the mesh and then diagonally, across it. a second, similar row of stitches backwards, completes the crosses. this can be further varied by the introduction of a row of triple stitches, after the double row, as in fig. , and the repetition of the two first only. [illustration: fig. . net pattern.] these rows can also be worked in two colours, or in white thread and washing gold. net pattern (fig. ).--begin at the top, carrying the thread, first under and then over two bars and a mesh, and then underneath as before. in the second as in the first row, the threads must be drawn in, so that threads always meet in one mesh, and two run parallel to each other through the same mesh. [illustration: fig. . net pattern.] net pattern (fig. ).--this pattern, which resembles fig. in the execution, is thickened by triple stitches. above, where in the preceding row three threads were laid, the thread should be single. [illustration: fig. . net pattern.] very pretty varieties are to be obtained by the introduction of several colours. take white, for instance, for the first row, and different shades of the same colour for the second, third, fourth and fifth rows; such as, bleu-lapis , , , , , ([a]) or rouge-cardinal , , , , , ([a]) or rouge-géranium, brun-caroubier or any other colour that is absolutely fast. net pattern (fig. ).--after one row of cross-stitch, such as was described in fig. , add a second, carrying the thread under the bar that lies between the first stitches, so that the two rows only cover three threads of the net. the close bands of cross-stitch must be divided from each other by one row of net bars. [illustration: fig. . net pattern.] net pattern (fig. ).--draw the thread twice backwards and forwards, as in darning, through one row of meshes. in the next, make four stitches over one mesh and two bars. after the fourth stitch, the thread is carried forward under two bars to the next group. the meshes filled in thus are divided from each other by two double rows of darning stitches. here you may introduce a variety in the colour, using either white and unbleached, or unbleached and pale blue, or some other combination of the kind. [illustration: fig. . net pattern.] net pattern (fig. ).--make three diagonal stitches over three bars and two meshes, then returning to the mesh out of which the first stitches come, make three more in the opposite direction. in the second row, the stitches meet in the same mesh as those of the first. [illustration: fig. . net pattern.] net pattern (fig. ).--carry the thread upwards from below, over a bar of the net, then pass it horizontally under another bar and carrying it downwards, pass it under a diagonal bar and cover the other three. in the second row, your loops must be turned the opposite way. when the whole foundation is finished, run a thread over the whole surface and overcast it. a good effect is produced by using white and unbleached cottons, in alternate rows. [illustration: fig. . net pattern.] net pattern (fig. ).--this pattern consists of one row of overcasting, one of stitches like those described in fig. , and one of cross-stitch, as in fig. , running diagonally across the stuff. besides the cottons already mentioned, washing gold thread (or fin d.m.c pour la broderie), may be used for the overcasting. dead gold introduced into simple needlework of this kind enlivens it extremely. [illustration: fig. . net pattern.] net pattern (fig. ).--three kinds of stitches are required for this pattern. in the first row the stitch lies crossed underneath the net; in the second, stitches are made over one mesh, the first and the last of which are carried across three meshes. in the third row, button-hole stitches are carried from right to left over two diagonal bars, in such a manner that the thread is drawn through the mesh facing the loops, and the next stitch comes out under the loop of the preceding one. [illustration: fig. . net pattern.] net pattern (fig. ).--fill in every other diagonal row of meshes with chain stitch, inserting the needle into the same mesh it came out of, so that the thread lies in front of the needle, in a loop. the rows of chain stitch may be made with two or three rows of meshes between them. even the diagonal lines by themselves, make a very pretty foundation for other stitches. [illustration: fig. . net pattern.] net pattern (fig. ).--the first row worked from left to right, consists of three loop stitches upwards and three downwards, each over one bar. in the second row, divided from the first by one row of stitches, the inner loops must be turned towards each other; in the third, the outer ones. any of the stitches, already described, can be introduced into this pattern to enliven it. [illustration: fig. . net pattern.] net insertions (figs. and ).--these two, as well as the subsequent patterns, are most of them worked in darning stitch and simple overcasting. the scallops in fig. are formed of darning stitches, over , , and mesh, respectively. in the intervening space, which is five meshes wide, the stitch shown in fig. , may be introduced. [illustration: fig. . net insertion.] in repeating the pattern, the stitches forming the scallops, must be made to run in the opposite direction. instead of the thread, simply drawn through the middle, little stars like those described in fig. , have a very pretty effect. in fig. , the thread is first carried round one mesh and then on to the next scallop. in the second scallop, which turns the opposite way, the thread is carried once more round the last mesh after the pyramid is completed, and then on, to the next figure. [illustration: fig. . net insertion.] net pattern (fig. ).--this checked pattern is also worked in darning stitch. carry the thread, as in fig. , through every second row of meshes. when the bottom rows are all finished, the upper ones are worked across them in the same way. here the stitches may, if preferred, be distributed more sparingly. but if they are set wider apart, the spaces between should be filled up in some way. little dots, made of coton à repriser d.m.c, will answer the purpose best. [illustration: fig. . net pattern.] net insertions (figs. , , ).--these three patterns are specially suitable, for insertions, neck-tie lappets and the like, in the place of crochet, pillow, and other kinds of lace. both design and stitch are clearly enough represented in the subjoined figure for further explanation to be unnecessary. all three should be worked with rather coarse cotton, and soutache d.m.c[a] (braid) drawn in, produces an excellent effect. [illustration: fig. . net insertion.] [illustration: fig. . net insertion.] [illustration: fig. . net insertion.] net pattern (fig. ).--these delicate little figures can be worked into a close pattern, or can be strewn singly over the surface. the closer you set the stitches, the more clear and distinct the stars will be. the thread must be drawn in to the centre mesh from without, so as to be invisible if possible, and then back again to the outside when the stitches are finished. [illustration: fig. . net pattern.] net pattern (fig. ).--these flowerets have a very pretty effect, set either singly, or in double or triple rows, and are very useful for filling up gaps or supplementing rows. [illustration: fig. . net pattern.] net pattern (fig. ).--these star-shaped figures, their longest stitch covering three straight bars and two meshes, the shortest, three diagonal bars and two meshes, may like the above flowerets, be ranged closely together in rows, so that four stitches, two horizontal and two vertical ones, meet in one mesh. cotton of two colours should be used, in order that the figures may be distinct from each other: white and unbleached are the best, in cases where bright colours would be unsuitable. [illustration: fig. . net pattern.] net insertion (fig. ).--these diamonds make a very pretty grounding either set separately, or in a continuous pattern. the design is slight, nevertheless, when it is worked in coarse cotton, the effect is exceedingly handsome, especially if the inside, in addition to the star here given, be enriched with ordinary darning-stitches, worked in fine gold thread, as we have already mentioned. [illustration: fig. . net insertion.] net tracery with border (fig. ).--in order to bring out the pattern and the colours, use instead of cotton, soutache d.m.c, or lacets surfins d.m.c. both are to be had in all the colours, given in the list of colours of the d.m.c threads and cottons. the little border can be used in conjunction with any of the preceding patterns, but care must be taken not to let it get twisted in the working. to prevent this, slip a coarse needle under the last stitch, and draw the braid flat over it. [illustration: fig. . net tracery with braids. materials: soutache d.m.c no. in bleu-indigo and rouge-turc .] broad net lace tracery (fig. ).--the pattern of this pretty lace must first be transferred to stout paper, or oil-cloth. all the leaves and stalks, and the buttonholing round the open centres of the flowers, are worked in a pale green, the two bottom flowers in turkey red, the star-shaped one in blue, the calyx in which the stalks unite, in dark red, and the little bells, in the lightest green. [illustration: fig. . broad net lace tracery. materials: coton à broder d.m.c no. , or .--colours: rouge-turc , rouge-cardinal , bleu-indigo , gris-tilleul and vert-pistache .] net darning.--we conclude with some directions for darning net, a valuable art, by means of which many a curious piece of old needlework is preserved. coarse and fine net are all darned in the same way. laying the first thread (fig. ).--tack the net which is to be darned, closely to the defective part, upon either oil-cloth or coloured paper and cut the edges straight to the thread; your thread must be of exactly the same size, as that of which the net is made. it takes three rows of stitches to imitate the net ground; in the first place, as shown in fig. , cross-threads must be laid from side to side, carried as in darning, a little beyond the edges of the hole and so as to surround each mesh with a slanting stitch. [illustration: fig. . net darning. laying the first thread.] laying the second thread (fig. ).--secondly, beginning from one corner, threads are laid diagonally across the first layer. the cross-threads of the foundation are encircled by a stitch, made from right to left, the needle is then carried under the next horizontal bar, and the first layer of threads is overcast with similar stitches. [illustration: fig. . net darning. laying the second thread.] laying the third thread (fig. ).--thirdly, threads are carried across the second and first layers. they must start, far enough from the edge, for the second layer of threads to be overcast at the same time, so that there may be no loose threads left on the wrong side. in this third journey, every diagonal thread of the foundation is to be encircled with a stitch, taken upwards from below, the cut edges being strengthened in the same way. then, to form the little cross in the fabric, the thread must be conducted by means of a second stitch, under the single horizontal thread, outwards, to the next-diagonal thread. [illustration: fig. . net darning. laying the third thread.] in places where the net is worn, it can be strengthened in the same manner, the stitches being made the way of the stuff. damask stitches.--as a rule the pattern is simply outlined with stem and cord stitch, and the inside spaces are left plain. in spite of the time this simple tracing takes to do, the effect is rather poor and scanty. if however, the inside of the leaves and flowers, be filled in with damask stitch, the result is very handsome. not only can the following stitches, which are suitable for any linen coarse or fine, be used for this kind of embroidery, but most of the net and lace patterns too, and these combined with buttonholing and flat stitch produce charming effects. materials suitable for damask stitches.--all the threads and cottons used for net work can also be used for damask stitches, according to the material and the kind of work. we will enumerate them once more: coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to , coton à repriser d.m.c nos. to , coton à broder d.m.c nos. to , fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to , coton à broder surfin d.m.c nos. , , .[a] this kind of embroidery is generally done with a very coarse needle, to press the threads of the stuff closely together and make the light spaces between, which appear in many of the following illustrations. first pattern (fig. ).--carry the needle in a slanting direction over three threads and bring it out, from right to left, under three perpendicular ones, then again slanting, over three threads, from left to right, and out again underneath three horizontal ones, downwards from above. thus the first stitch lies across, from right to left, the second, lengthways. on the wrong side, the stitch forms a regular succession of steps. [illustration: fig . first pattern] second pattern (fig. ).--this is worked exactly in the same manner as fig. , only that the second row of stitches touches the first, so that two threads enter and issue from the same hole. [illustration: fig . second pattern] third pattern (fig. ).--though at first sight, this stitch is very like the holbein or stroke stitch, it is very different in the execution. it is worked in two rows, to and fro; in the first, you make all the vertical stitches side by side in the width of the stuff, drawing your thread very tightly, in the second, coming back, you make the horizontal stitches in a straight line, at right angles to the first stitches. on the wrong side the stitches are crossed; they in thin stuffs, show through, and quite alter the appearance of the right side. [illustration: fig. . third pattern.] fourth, pattern (fig. ).--in the first row, the thread is carried slanting upwards from right to left, over two threads, then downwards under two. coming back, the stitches must be set the opposite way, so that four threads meet in one hole. [illustration: fig. . fourth pattern.] fifth pattern (fig. ).--this is worked like fig. , only that the stitches must cover three threads each way. in the second row, you take up one thread on the right and two on the left, to form your stitches. [illustration: fig. . fifth pattern.] sixth pattern (fig. ).--here, the stitches form a chess-board pattern. you begin with a diagonal stitch over two threads and bring your needle up again into the same line it started from. the second stitch covers three threads, the third six, the fourth eight; the next three decrease, successively in length, in the same proportion. [illustration: fig. . sixth pattern.] seventh pattern (fig. ).--two kinds of cotton have to be used for this pattern, one of them soft and flat, like colon à repriser d.m.c[a] (darning cotton) or coton à tricoter d.m.c (knitting cotton)[a] for the flat stitches, and the other strongly twisted, like cordonnet fils d.m.c no. , , or ,[a] for the cross stitches. [illustration: fig. . seventh pattern.] the five flat stitches cover three threads in width and six in height, and lie from right to left and from left to right. in the second row, which must be two threads distant from the first, the stitches must lie in the contrary direction. in the lozenge-shaped space between, make four cross stitches, over four threads in height and two in width. eighth pattern (figs. and ).--make five stitches over horizontal threads, miss threads and make another stitches. the groups of long stitches above and beneath the first row, encroach over two threads of the first group, so that a space of only four threads remains between two groups. the stitch between these groups is generally known as the rococo stitch. [illustration: fig. . eighth pattern.] bring out your needle between the third and fourth of these threads, and insert it again above, drawing it out afterwards between the second and third horizontal thread, and securing the first stitch with a back stitch. make the three remaining stitches, as explained in fig. . [illustration: fig. . explanation of the rococo stitch in fig. .] ninth pattern (fig. ).--this consists of straight bands of flat stitches, covering three threads each way, with spaces threads wide between, ornamented with a small pattern in stroke stitch, (see chapter on tapestry and linen embroidery). [illustration: fig . ninth pattern.] damask stitch for figs. and (fig. ).--the stitches, here represented on a large scale, form the border to the square in cut open-work in fig. . the long diagonal stitches, on either side, can be made to look fuller and more distinct, by using a soft, coarse cotton. [illustration: fig. . damask stitch for figs. and .] tenth and eleventh patterns (figs. and ).--the former of these is used for filling in the short stripe in fig. , the second for the long inside one. fig. is clear enough to need no explanation; with reference to fig. , it is however as well to point out that the shortest stitch should cover threads and the longest , the rest is easily learnt from the illustration. this is a very suitable design for the decoration of large surfaces and combines well with any running diagonal pattern, when it can be made to form a large star which can be worked as a separate figure. [illustration: fig. . tenth pattern. damask stitch for figs. and .] [illustration: fig. . eleventh pattern. damask stitch for fig. .] twelfth pattern (fig. ).--in cases where this and the following stitches are to be executed on a light, transparent stuff, it is best to use a very strongly twisted thread, such as fil d'alsace d.m.c ([a]) or, fil à dentelle d.m.c ([a]) instead of a softer and looser material. a stiff thread compresses the threads of the stuff better and the open spaces, thus made in it, are rendered more visible. [illustration: fig. . twelfth pattern.] count threads vertically, put in the needle and draw it through from right to left, underneath diagonal threads. for the next stitch, carry it upwards over threads, and back under . the second row is worked back over the first in the same way. leave threads between each row. thirteenth pattern (fig. ).--carry the thread, from right to left over four vertical threads, and under the same number of horizontal ones. the second row of stitches touches the first, so that the thread it is worked with seems to be drawn through under the same threads of the stuff, as the one the first row was worked with. [illustration: fig. . thirteenth pattern.] fourteenth pattern (fig. ).--here, the stitches, contrary to those in fig. , are set vertically. the first stitch covers threads, the second , the third , the fourth , the fifth . the longest stitches of two checks always meet in the same hole. [illustration: fig. . fourteenth pattern.] fifteenth pattern (fig. ).--cover the whole expanse with rows of stitches, such as are described in fig. , with intervals of threads between them. [illustration: fig. . fifteenth pattern.] these rows are intersected by others, to which the thread is passed, from between the sixth and seventh of the threads between the first rows. where the stitches of the two rows meet, the working thread of the second row must be drawn through, under that of the first. sixteenth pattern (fig. ).--between every two rows of cross-stitch, leave an interval of threads, counting those on each side of the rows. over these threads work rows, as shown in fig. , but so, that in the second, the lower stitch of the first row and the upper one of the second, cover the same threads. [illustration: fig. . sixteenth pattern.] seventeenth pattern (fig. ).--this consists of stripes, stitches wide, like those of fig. , with threads between, which are overcast in the ordinary manner. [illustration: fig. . seventeenth pattern.] eighteenth pattern (fig. ).--small squares of stitches, inclined alternately, to the right and left, and so formed, that the longest stitch of one square is crossed by the first short stitch of the next, so that a space only threads wide and long, remains uncovered. the intervening stripes are filled with rows of overcasting stitches, covering threads each way. [illustration: fig. . eighteenth pattern.] nineteenth pattern (fig. ).--the steps formed by this pattern are stitches high, and wide, and each stitch covers threads. [illustration: fig. . nineteenth pattern.] eight threads intervene between each row of steps, which are covered at the bend, by a square of stitches, from the last of which, the thread is carried on at once, to the four single stitches. twentieth pattern (fig. ).--the squares set opposite to each other, with threads between, are edged all round by rows of overcasting. [illustration: fig. . twentieth pattern.] twenty-first pattern (fig. ).--begin by rows of stitches, like those described in fig. , over and threads, with threads between, not counting those covered with cross-stitch. between the two rows of cross-stitch, join threads together by a back-stitch, and carry your thread over the two last of the , to the first of the next cluster. the narrow diagonal stripes are separated by threads, exclusive of those covered by the cross-stitches. these spaces are filled in with squares, threads wide and long, formed by back-stitches crossed on the wrong side. [illustration: fig. . twenty-first pattern.] twenty-second pattern (fig. ).--in the closer stuffs, of a coarse texture, the threads of which do not admit of being drawn together, as you can those, of a loose thin stuff, where, by simply pulling your thread a little tighter you get open spaces, you must begin by cutting out every fourth or fifth thread. after which, you overcast all the rows, first one way, and then the other, with stitches covering threads, each way. on this foundation with strong, loosely-twisted cotton, coton à broder d.m.c or coton à tricoter d.m.c no. , , , or , make long stitches, as indicated in the illustration. [illustration: fig. . twenty-second pattern.] twenty-third pattern (fig. .)--from the point where the thread comes out of the stuff, make stitches, four times over, all coming out of the same hole, over , , and threads, thus forming a star. leave an interval of four threads between the stars, and unite the intervening threads by cross-stitches one way, and whip-stitches, the other. [illustration: fig. . twenty-third pattern.] twenty-fourth pattern (fig. ).--make a succession of diagonal stitches, increasing in length, and advancing one thread at a time, until the seventh stitch covers seven threads, and completes the triangle. then begin a second triangle on the nearest, adjacent thread. [illustration: fig. . twenty-fourth pattern.] twenty-fifth pattern (fig. ).--cover your whole surface with squares of stitches, as in fig. , and fill in the intervening squares with stitches, all radiating from one centre. [illustration: fig. . twenty-fifth pattern.] twenty-sixth pattern (fig. ).--diagonal trellised stripes, made as indicated in fig. , and overcast, form the ground. twelve threads are to be left between the stripes, upon which, work six-cornered, lozenge-shaped groups of stitches, set at right angles to each other, in diagonal rows. [illustration: fig . twenty-sixth pattern.] twenty-seventh pattern (fig. ).--we conclude our chapter with a circular design, which combines a variety of stitches, and introduces our workers to two new patterns, as well as to an advantageous way of hiding the junction of several kinds of stitches by semicircles of button-hole stitching. [illustration: fig. . twenty-seventh pattern.] footnotes: [a] see at the end of the concluding chapter, the table of numbers and sizes and the list of colours of the d.m.c threads and cottons. [illustration: stripe in flat and raised satin stitch, and madeira embroidery.] white embroidery. we have retained the familiar term, white embroidery, for this kind of needlework, for convenience sake, in spite of its inaccuracy, now that coloured materials are quite as much used for it as white. it is executed, either on a backing of oil-cloth, or in an embroidery frame, called «tambour-frame». only skilful workers can dispense with these, for an untrained hand can hardly avoid puckering. if you work without a foundation, the material must be held, quite smoothly over the forefinger, so that the threads lie perfectly straight, otherwise, the pattern is very apt to get pulled out of shape in the working. with your three other fingers you hold the material fast, the thumb resting on the work itself, beyond the outline of the pattern, which must be turned towards the worker. it is always the outside line of a pattern that is drawn in double lines, that should be turned towards the palm of the hand. tracing patterns.--patterns are generally to be had ready traced, but as it is often necessary to repeat, enlarge, or reduce them, descriptions of several modes of doing so, will be found at the end of the concluding chapter. materials.--a loose, soft make of cotton, the looser the better, and very little twisted, is the best material for embroidery. we recommend for white embroidery in general, coton à broder d.m.c nos. to ; for monograms on cambric, coton à broder surfin d.m.c nos. , , ;[a] and for english or madeira embroidery, coton madeira d.m.c nos. , , ;[a] for padding, or raising the embroidery, all the different kinds of coton à repriser d.m.c[a] can be used. outlining and padding.--the outlining of a pattern is a very important preliminary. a want of precision in the ultimate effect is often due, merely to careless outlining. this part of the work should be done with rather a coarser cotton than the embroidery itself. fasten in the thread by a few running stitches, never with a knot, a rule to be observed also in embroidering, except in very rare cases. finish off your thread by drawing it through the tracing stitches, or through some part of the pattern that is already finished. fill in the spaces between the lines with a padding of run threads, run loosely, and so that they lie thickly and solidly in the centre, and shade off on both sides. the fullness, and roundness of embroidery, depends on the firmness of this sub-stratum of threads. the outlining and the padding of the different rounded and pointed scallops, as well as of other figures that occur in white embroidery, are illustrated in figs. , , , , , , , and . blanket, or button-hole stitch (fig. ).--work from left to right; run in a foundation line, hold down the working thread below the run line with the right thumb; insert the needle above and bring it out below the run line but above the working thread; tighten the loop thus formed, without drawing up the stuff, and continue in this manner, setting your stitches closely and regularly, side by side. [illustration: fig. . blanket, or button-hole stitch.] straight stem stitch (fig. ).--work from left to right. the needle must always be inserted above the run thread, and brought out underneath it. in the case of a very delicate pattern, take up only just as much stuff as the run thread covers. [illustration: fig. . straight stem stitch.] sloping stem stitch (fig. ).--work without a run thread; insert the needle from right to left in a slanting direction, under or horizontal threads, and or perpendicular ones; so that each stitch reaches halfway back to the last. [illustration: fig. . sloping stem stitch.] this kind of stem stitch is chiefly used for the fine upstrokes of letters and numbers, and for linen embroidery. back-stitching (fig. ).--back-stitching, that is small, even stitches set closely together, is done from right to left, along a straight line, and is chiefly used for filling in the centres of letters, leaves and flowers. [illustration: fig. . back-stitching.] crossed back-stitch (figs. and ).--used, generally speaking, only for very transparent materials; it forms a close seam of cross-stitch, on the wrong side, and two straight rows of back-stitching on the right. to work, insert the needle as if for an ordinary back-stitch, pass it under the stuff, sloping it a little towards the second outline of the pattern, and draw it out almost in front of the first stitch. after making a back-stitch, pass the needle up again under the stuff and bring it out at the spot where the next stitch is to be. [illustration: fig. . crossed back-stitch. right side.] [illustration: fig. . crossed back-stitch. wrong side.] fig. shows the interlacing of the stitches on the wrong side, and the way in which this stitch, when it is used for filling in centres, can be worked on the right side. simple knot stitch (fig. ). this consists of two back-stitches, side by side, covering the same threads; it is chiefly used for filling in leaves, embroidered on very thin materials, or in conjunction with flat stitch. [illustration: fig. . simple knot stitch.] twisted knot stitch (fig. ). to work hold the working thread down with the thumb close to the spot where you first brought it out, twist it twice round the needle, turn the needle round from left to right, following the direction indicated by the arrow, pass it through the fabric at the place which is marked by a dot, and draw it out at the place where the next stitch is to be. [illustration: fig. . twisted knot stitch.] post stitch (fig. ).--something like knot stitch and much used for patterns, composed of small flowers and leaves, where it often takes the place of raised satin stitch. the illustration represents five leaves finished, and the sixth in process of being worked. [illustration: fig. . post stitch.] to work, bring the needle up from the back and twist the thread round it as many times as the length of the stitch requires, hold the left thumb on the species of curl thus formed, and passing the needle and thread through it, insert it at the end of the leaf where it first came out, and draw it out at the right place for the next stitch. button-hole bars (fig. ).--when a pattern is ornamented with open-work bars, begin by tracing the outside parallel lines. then button-hole the whole lower line and the upper one, till you come to the place where the first bar is to be; then you carry your thread across and bring up the needle from below through one of the loops, as, shown in the figure; lay three threads in this manner, inserting your needle the third time one loop further on. then cover the three threads thickly with button-holing. [illustration: fig. . button-hole bars.] different kinds of scallops (figs. , , ).--the outlining, padding and button-holing of these scallops is executed in the manner already described. be careful to adapt the length of the stitches to the shape and size of the scallops. if they are pointed (figs. , ), the stitches will have to be set very closely together on the inner line, and a little play allowed them on the outer, to come exactly to the point, which should be very sharply defined. [illustration: fig. . round, button-holed scallops.] [illustration: fig. . large, pointed, button-holed scallops.] [illustration: fig. . small, pointed, button-holed scallops.] rose scallops (figs. and ).--these are, large button-holed scallops with indented edges, in the one case, rounded at the top and sharply pointed at the join; in the other, pointed at the top, and joined at the bottom by a straight bar of button-holing. [illustration: fig. . rounded rose scallops.] [illustration: fig. . pointed rose scallops.] eyelet holes (figs. , , ).--outline the eyelet holes very carefully first by running a thread round them, then cut out the enclosed stuff with a sharp pair of finely pointed scissors, and edge the hole with plain overcasting stitches, worked from left to right. [illustration: fig. . overcast eyelet holes.] when you have a long row of eyelet holes to make, outline the upper and lower halves alternately, first on one side and then on the other, using two threads, and then overcast them in the same way. the double crossing of the working threads between the eyelet holes makes them much stronger, than if each hole were finished off separately, and the thread passed underneath from one to the other. [illustration: fig. . button-holed shaded eyelet holes.] [illustration: fig. . shaded eyelet holes half overcast, half button-holed.] the lower halves of shaded eyelet holes, (see figs. and ), are worked with very short stitches, and the upper halves with long ones; they may be edged entirely, either with button-holing or overcasting, or half with one and half with the other. six leaves in raised satin stitch (fig. ).--raised satin stitch is chiefly used for working flowers, leaves, petals, dots, initials and monograms. after tracing the outline of the design, fill in the centres with a padding of long, close stitches for which you can again take coton à repriser d.m.c[a] and then, beginning always at the point of the leaf, see letter a, cover it with flat, perfectly even stitches, worked from right-to-left. b illustrates a leaf, divided through the middle by a line of overcasting; c, one with a corded vein; d, a divided leaf worked in sloping satin stitch; e, a leaf, with a corded vein and framed in sloping satin stitch; f, a leaf worked half in satin stitch, half in back-stitch and straight stem stitch. [illustration: fig. . six leaves in raised satin stitch.] leaves and flowers of all descriptions, can be executed in any of these stitches, and in different combinations of the same. six ways of making dots (fig. ).--dots, when they are well made, are exceedingly effective in white embroidery, particularly if they are worked in a variety of stitches. dot a is worked in raised satin stitch; b, in raised satin stitch, framed in back stitch; c, in raised satin stitch, framed in twisted knot stitch; d is composed of several post stitches of different lengths, set in a frame of stem stitches; e is worked in back-stitch, and f consists of a small eyelet hole, with a corded setting, which forms the centre. [illustration: fig. . six ways of making dots.] venetian embroidery (fig. ).--scallops, worked in very high relief, called venetian embroidery, are an imitation on stuff of venetian lace. real venetian point is entirely needle-made; in the embroidered imitations of it, the stuff takes the place of the needle-made lace foundation. to make it more like the original however, the ground is seldom left plain, but is covered with fancy stitches, such as are represented in the illustration, or with one or other of the damask stitches in figs. to . the button-hole bars may be made with or without picots. a full description of the latter will be found in the chapters on net embroidery, and irish lace. the space to be buttonholed, must be well padded, for thereon depends the roundness of the embroidery. for this purpose take or threads of coton à repriser d.m.c no. ,[a] and fasten them down on to the pattern with loose stitches, laying on extra threads, and cutting them gradually away, according to the width the line is to be. the stuff underneath the bars should only be cut away when the embroidery is quite finished. [illustration: fig. . venetian embroidery.] renaissance embroidery (figs. and ).--this is the term applied, more especially in france, to embroidery patterns, which are worked entirely in button-holing, and connected by button-hole bars without picots, as shewn in the two accompanying figures. the outside edge in fig. , is embellished with picots, described in the chapters just referred to. [illustration: fig. . renaissance embroidery.] [illustration: fig. . renaissance embroidery.] richelieu embroidery (fig. ).--the name given to embroidery of a similar kind to the former, but in which the connecting bars, instead of being left plain as they are in the renaissance embroidery, are ornamented with picots. [illustration: fig. . richelieu embroidery.] madeira work (figs. , , ).--this kind of embroidery, which consists chiefly of eyelet holes, and is distinguished for the excellence of its workmanship used to be known as english, but is now generally called madeira work, from the island where it originated. the scallops in figs. and , are bordered with shaded eyelet holes, worked half in button-hole stitch, half in overcasting; the finely scalloped edge, in fig. , is entirely button-holed. in working eyelet holes, the material must always be turned in, up to the inside line, and completely worked in, underneath the in order that no loose threads may be visible on the wrong side. [illustration: fig. . madeira work.] [illustration: fig. . madeira work. materials: coton madeira d.m.c no. , or . (special cotton for madeira work)[a]] [illustration: fig. . madeira-work. materials: coton madeira d.m.c no. , or . (special cotton for madeira-work).] swiss embroidery frame (fig. ).--letters, monograms, coronets and the like, require extreme care in the working, and can only be really well done in a frame. the round swiss frame, or tambour frame, is the one most commonly used. it consists of two wooden hoops, fitting loosely into each other; the inner one, fastened to a support with a wooden screw let into the lower part of it, with which to fasten the frame to the table. the outside hoop is loose. place the fabric to be embroidered over the smaller hoop, the pattern in the middle, and press the other down over it so that it is tightly stretched and fixed between the two hoops. a leathern strap with holes and a buckle, sometimes takes the place of the second hoop. [illustration: fig. . swiss embroidery frame.] ordinary embroidery frame (fig. ).--tambour frames can only be used for embroidering pocket-handkerchiefs and other small articles; all larger work has to be done in an ordinary frame. sew a piece of strong stuff into the frame, stretch it as tightly and evenly as possible, and cut out a square in the middle to the size of the pattern. then tack your work in underneath, straight to the thread, dividing it out carefully with pins first, to ensure its being set in perfectly evenly. roll or fold up the rest of the stuff over the edges of the frame, and secure it with a few stitches or pins, to keep it out of the way of your hand as you work. [illustration: fig. . ordinary embroidery frame.] alphabets for monograms (figs. to ).--on account of the difficulty of devising a good monogram for marking under-linen, we subjoin two alphabets, by the aid of which our workers will be able to compose their own. the letters are of a good medium size, which can be magnified or reduced according to the worker's own taste. for any such modifications, we would again draw our reader's attention to the directions given in the concluding chapter. the three first plates represent large wide letters, intended to contain or encompass the more elongated ones, represented in the fourth and fifth plates, figs. and . the interlacing of the letters requires to be carefully done, and our workers should study the following specimens, so as to learn the stitches also, which are most suitable for this branch of embroidery. [illustration: fig. . alphabets for monograms. outside letters a to h.] [illustration: fig. . alphabets for monograms. outside letters j to q.] [illustration: fig. . alphabets for monograms. outside letters r to y.] [illustration: fig. . alphabets for monograms. inside letters a to l.] [illustration: fig. . alphabets for monograms. inside letters m to x.] [illustration: fig. . alphabets for monograms. last inside and outside letters.] monogram composed of letters a and d (fig. ).--here, letter a is worked in flat satin stitch, in bleu-indigo , and set in stem stitch, worked in rouge-turc . d as a contrast to a, is embroidered in transverse bars, the left part in pale blue and white, the right in pale blue and dark blue. the little ornaments may be worked according to fancy, either in white, or in one of the given colours. [illustration: fig. . monogram composed of letters a and d drawn from the alphabets of monograms. materials: coton à broder d.m.c nos. to . colours: bleu-indigo , rouge-turc and white.[a]] monogram composed of letters v and s (fig. ).--the flat satin stitch in both letters is worked in white; the setting, is in red, in short stem stitch, or if preferred, in knotted back stitch. [illustration: fig. . monogram composed of letters v and s drawn from the alphabets of monograms. materials: coton à broder d.m.c no. . colours: white and rouge-cardinal .[a]] monogram composed of letters r and c (fig. ).--these are worked in black and grey, for mourning; the way c is divided, admits of a variety in the stitch; for instance, the back-stitches, in the illustration, may be replaced by very small eyelet holes. [illustration: fig. . monogram composed of letters r and c drawn from the alphabets of monograms. materials: fil à dentelle d.m.c no. . colours: gris-cendre and noir grand teint .] monogram composed of letters g and e (fig. ).--the flat satin stitching and back-stitching in e, and the stem-stitched edges of g are worked in white coton à broder d.m.c; the inside of g in ivory white coton surfin d.m.c. [illustration: fig. . monogram composed of letters g and e drawn from the alphabets of monograms. materials: coton à broder d.m.c no. white and coton surfin d.m.c no. , unbleached.] border in gobelin stitch (fig. ).--gobelin embroidery is merely raised satin stitch, worked directly upon the pattern, without any foundation, or padding. the effectiveness of this kind of embroidery, which appears so complicated and is really so easy, and the many ways in which it can be utilised, soon brought it into favour. it can be worked on the article itself, or on stripes, laid on afterwards, with a hem-stitch bordering. the original of fig. was in blue and red; bleu indigo for the grounding, rouge-turc , for the setting in stem-stitch. the herring-boning along the edges of the pattern, top and bottom, is also in red. [illustration: fig. . border in gobelin stitch. materials: coton à broder d.m.c no. in two different colours such as: bleu-indigo and rouge-cardinal , rouge-grenat and or, gris-tilleul and rouge-cardinal .[a]] should a different selection of colours be made, it is important to remember that in all cases a sharp contrast is desirable. alphabet and numerals, left blank, and outlined by the grounding, worked in gobelin stitch (figs. to ). [illustration: fig. . alphabet left blank and outlined by the grounding. letters a to n.] [illustration: fig. . alphabet left blank and outlined by the grounding. letters o to z.] [illustration: fig. . letter o, from the alphabet given in figs. and .] [illustration: fig. . numerals left blank and outlined by the grounding.] the border worked in gobelin stitch, illustrated in fig. , suggested to us the idea of an alphabet and numerals, to be executed in a similar style, left blank, that is to say, and outlined by a grounding in gobelin stitch, which are better suited to embroideries of the kind than those generally used. our limited space prevents us from giving all the letters in the diagonal position they are intended to occupy on the article itself. o and w only, are represented in the right position. no difficulty will be found in copying the other letters, in giving them the proper direction. [illustration: fig. . letter w, from the alphabet given in fig. and .] in order to economize room, j and h are represented in one square, but they are easily distinguishable from each other. fig. represents the numerals, executed in the same way. we should like to draw our readers attention to a few other ways in which letters and numerals may be outlined by the back-ground; for example, the solid parts can be worked either in plain or twisted knot stitch (figs. and ); in very fine chain stitch; in old german knot or bead stitch (fig. ), or even in piqué embroidery (fig. ). border outlined by grounding, worked in gobelin and stem stitch (fig. ). the grounding of this pattern is worked on stiff white linen, and entirely in rouge-turc , and the outlining in noir grand teint . the same pattern can equally well be worked on gauzes and other transparent stuffs, but with coton à repriser, instead of coton à broder d.m.c, for the solid parts. two shades of rouge-grenat, one dark and one very light, may be taken instead, or two of jaune-rouille, or of violet-mauve, employing always the lighter shade for the grounding and the darker for the setting. [illustration: fig. . border, outlined by the grounding worked in gobelin and stem stitch. first part.] [illustration: fig. . second part. materials: coton à broder d.m.c no. .--colours: rouge-turc and noir grand teint .[a]] be careful, in the grounding, not to make the red stitches near the edge, longer than they are represented in the illustration and to set the black stem stitches as close as possible to the grounding. the pattern, which could only be reproduced in the original size, had to be divided in two, to fit the page. in copying it, join the a and b of the first part to the a and b of the second; the same in fig. , each time the pattern is repeated, the flowers are to droop from the + as seen from the position of the buds in the first part, at the beginning of the drawing. flower garland in different kinds of stitches (figs. and ).--most of the stitches, described at the beginning of this chapter, will be found in this graceful garland, in the execution of which a considerable variety of colours can be introduced. the rose-buds may be worked in two shades of vert-pistache and of rouge-grenat, in the stitches described in figs. , , a; the forget-me-nots, in two or even three shades of bleu-indigo, in raised satin stitch and knotted stitch; the slender green leaves in vert-de-gris, or gris-tilleul, the stamens in jaune-citron, and the stalks of the roses in brun-acajou. [illustration: fig. . flower-garland in different kinds of stitches. first part.] [illustration: fig. . second part. materials: coton à broder d.m.c no. . colours: rouge-grenat and , bleu-indigo and , vert-pistache and , vert-de-gris and , brun-acajou , jaune-citron .] [illustration: fig. . showing the working of the outside stitches in fig. .] the border that completes this charming pattern, consists of four rows of button holing, worked in four colours. the first row in our illustration is worked in pale pink, followed by three shades of green, the palest of which is used for the second row of stitches. when these rows are worked upon a satine or cambric foundation, it is advisable to begin by making a small drawing, in which the height of the stitches and the distance between them is accurately marked out, then prick the pattern through and pounce it upon the material beneath. when they are worked on a material, the threads of which can be counted no such precaution is necessary. insertion in gobelin and stem stitch (fig. ).--owing to the shortness of the stitches, this pattern is easier to work than the foregoing ones. the little flowers are embroidered alternately in dark and light red; the setting varies to correspond, the light red flower being set in dark red, and vice versa. the interior of the leaves is in light green and the setting, as well as the connecting bars, in dark green. [illustration: fig. . insertion in gobelin and stem stitch. materials: coton à broder d.m.c no. --colours: rouge-cardinal and rouge-géranium with gris-tilleul and , or bleu-indigo and with vert-mousse and , or violet-mauve and with jaune-rouille .[a]] stripes of embroidery with lace insertion between (fig. ).--we conclude this chapter, by showing how stripes of embroidery can be used alone, or in conjunction, either with bands of open-work, or lace, crochet, or net insertion. such combinations are useful for ornamenting aprons, table-cloths, curtains etc., every description in short of household linen and of children's garments. one great advantage, moreover, which stripes of this kind, have over larger pieces of embroidery is that they require neither frame nor pillow, nor wearisome counting of stitches, but can be worked in the hand, at all times and places. [illustration: fig. . stripes of embroidery with insertion between.] footnotes: [a] see at the end of the concluding chapter, the table of numbers and sizes and the list of colours of the d.m.c threads and cottons. [illustration: stripe of gold embroidery in gold thread, purl, and flattened gold wire.] flat stitch and gold embroidery. the terms, flat stitch and gold embroidery, suggest as a rule, needle-work upon rich materials, such as velvet, brocade, plush and the like. nevertheless, a great deal of beautiful embroidery is to be met with, in silk and gold thread upon quite common stuffs; persian and moorish embroidery for instance, both remarkable for their delicacy and minuteness, and executed upon ordinary linen, or cotton fabrics. as a fact, the material is quite a secondary matter; almost any will do equally well as a foundation, for the stitches described in these pages. flat stitch, and some of the other stitches used in gold embroidery, can be worked with any kind of thread, but best of all with the d.m.c cottons. flat stitch embroidery.--decorative designs, and conventional flowers, are the most suitable for flat stitch embroidery; a faithful representation of natural flowers should not be attempted, unless it be so well executed, as to produce the effect of a painting and thus possess real artistic merit. encroaching flat stitch (fig. ).--small delicate flowers, leaves, and arabesques, should in preference, be worked either in straight flat stitch (figs. and ) or in encroaching flat stitch. the stitches should all be of equal length, the length to be determined by the quality of the thread; a fine thread necessitating short, and a coarse one, long stitches. the stitches should run, one into the other, as shown in the illustration. they are worked in rows, those of the second row encroaching on those of the first, and fitting into one another. [illustration: fig. . encroaching satin stitch.] work your flowers and leaves from the point, never from the calyx or stalk. if they are to be shaded, begin by choosing the right shade for the outside edge, varying the depth according to the light in which the object is supposed to be placed. the stitches should always follow the direction of the drawing. oriental stitch (figs. , , ).--the three following stitches, which we have grouped under one heading, are known also, under the name of renaissance or arabic stitches. we have used the term oriental, because they are to be met with in almost all oriental needlework and probably derive their origin from asia, whose inhabitants have, at all times, been renowned for the beauty of their embroideries. [illustration: fig. . oriental stitch.] [illustration: fig. . oriental stitch.] these kind of stitches are only suitable for large, bold designs. draw in the vertical threads first; in working with a soft, silky material, to economise thread, and prevent the embroidery from becoming too heavy, you can begin your second stitch close to where the first ended. [illustration: fig. . oriental stitch.] but if the thread be one that is liable to twist, take it back underneath the stuff and begin your next stitch in a line with the first, so that all the stitches of the first layer, which form the grounding, are carried from the top to the bottom. the same directions apply to figs. , and . when you have laid your vertical threads, stretch threads horizontally across, and fasten them down with isolated stitches, set six vertical threads apart. the position of these fastening stitches on the transverse threads must alternate in each row, as indicated in fig. . for fig. , make a similar grounding to the one above described, laying the horizontal threads a little closer together, and making the fastening stitches over two threads. in fig. , the second threads are carried diagonally across the foundation-threads, and the fastening stitches are given a similar direction. for these stitches, use either one material only, a fleecy thread like coton à repriser d.m.c for instance, or else two, such as coton à repriser d.m.c for the grounding, and a material with a strong twist like cordonnet fils d.m.c or fil à pointer d.m.c for the stem stitch. plaited stitch (fig. ).--when the vertical stitches are laid, a kind of plait is formed in the following way. pass the thread three times, alternately under and over three foundation threads. to do this very accurately, you must take the thread back, underneath, to its starting-point; and consequently, always make your stitch from right to left. [illustration: fig. . plaited stitch.] if you have chosen a washing material, and d.m.c cottons to work with, use one colour of cotton for the foundation, and chiné d'or d.m.c no. , for the plaited stitch. mosaic stitch (fig. ).--in old embroideries we often find this stitch, employed as a substitute for plush or other costly stuffs, appliquéd on to the foundation. it is executed in the same manner as the four preceding stitches, but can only be done in thick twist, such as cordonnet fils d.m.c or ganse turque d.m.c. [illustration: fig. . mosaic stitch.] each stitch should be made separately, and must pass underneath the foundation, so that the threads which form the pattern are not flat, as they are in the preceding examples, but slightly rounded. border in persian stitch (fig. ).--this stitch, of persian origin, resembles the one represented in fig. . instead of bringing the needle out, however, as indicated in fig. , take it back as you see in the illustration, to the space between the outlines of the drawing, and behind the thread that forms the next stitch. before filling in the pattern, outline it with short stem stitches, or a fine cord, laid on, and secured with invisible stitches. [illustration: fig. . border in persian stitch. materials: cordonnet fils d.m.c no. , , or . colours: noir grand teint , vert-mousse and , rouge-cardinal , jaune-vieil-or , violet-mauve and .] this graceful design which can be utilised in various ways is formed of leaves of lobes, worked alternately in dark and light green; of flowers of petals, worked in red and the centres in yellow, and of small leaves in violet. the setting, throughout, is worked either in black or in dark brown. stripe worked in flat stitch (fig. ).--this pattern, simple as it is, will be found both useful and effective for the trimming of all kinds of articles of dress. the bottom edge should be finished off with rounded scallops or toothed vandykes worked in button-hole stitch. the flowers in flat stitch, are worked alternately, in rouge-géranium and , and the leaves alternately, in vert-de-gris and ; the centres of the flowers are worked in knot stitch, in jaune-rouille . [illustration: fig. . stripe worked in flat stitch. materials--according to the stuff: fil à dentelle d.m.c, cordonnet fils d.m.c or coton à repriser d.m.c[a] colours--for the flowers: rouge-géranium and .--for the knot stitch: jaune-rouille .--for the foliage: vert-de-gris and .[a]] bouquet in straight and encroaching flat stitch (fig. ). as we have already observed, it is by no means easy to arrange the colours in an embroidery of this kind, so as to obtain a really artistic effect. whether the design be a conventional one or not, the great point is to put in the lights and shadows at the right place. if you want to make a faithful copy of a natural flower, take the flower itself, or a coloured botanical drawing of it, and if possible, a good black and white drawing of the same, match the colours in or shades, by the flower itself, keeping them all rather paler in tone, and take the black and white drawing as a guide for the lights and shadows. the colours for the leaves and petals, which should always be worked from the outside, should be chosen with a view to their blending well together. the stamens and the centres of the flowers should be left to the last, but the veins and ribs of the leaves, should always be put in before the grounding. [illustration: fig. . bouquet in straight and encroaching flat stitch. materials: coton à repriser d.m.c no. . colours--for the forget-me-nots: bleu-indigo , and .--for the other flowers: jaune-rouille and , violet-mauve , and , vert-pistache .--for the foliage: vert-de-gris , vert-mousse , , and .--for the stalks: brun-havane and .[a]] for embroideries of this kind, suitable materials must be selected; the more delicate and minute the design, and the more varied the colouring, the softer and finer should be the quality of the material employed. specially to be recommended, as adapted to every form of stitch and as being each of them capable of being subdivided, are filoselle, marseille, open chinese silk and coton à repriser d.m.c.[a]. flowers embroidered in the chinese manner (fig. ).--all chinese embroidery displays undoubted originality and wonderful skill and judgment in the choice of material and colour. it excels particularly, in the representation of figures, flowers, and animals, but differs from european work in this, that instead of using flat stitch and making the colours blend together as we do, the chinese put them, side by side, without intermediate tones, or they sometimes work the whole pattern in knot stitch. the little knots, formed by this stitch are generally set in gold thread. [illustration: fig. . flowers embroidered in the chinese manner.] often too, instead of combining a number of colours, as we do, the chinese fill in the whole leaf with long stitches and upon this foundation, draw the veins in a different stitch and colour. even the flowers, they embroider in the same way, in very fine thread, filling in the whole ground first, with stitches set very closely together and marking in the seed vessels afterwards, by very diminutive knots, wide apart. chinese encroaching flat stitch (fig. ).--another easy kind of embroidery, common in china, is done in encroaching flat stitch. the branch represented in our drawing, taken from a large design, is executed in three shades of yellow, resembling those of the jaune-rouille series on the d.m.c colour card.[a] [illustration: fig. . chinese encroaching flat stitch. materials: cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to or chiné d'or d.m.c. colours--for the cotton: jaune-rouille , , .--for chiné d'or: red and gold, blue and gold, green and gold.[a]] the stitches of the different rows encroach upon one another, as the working detail shows, and the three shades alternate in regular succession. flowers, butterflies and birds are represented in chinese embroidery, executed in this manner. it is a style, that is adapted to stuffs of all kinds, washing materials as well as others, and can be worked in the hand and with any of the d.m.c threads and cottons.[a] raised embroidery (figs. and ).--raised embroidery worked in colours, must be stuffed or padded first, like the white embroidery in fig. . if you outline your design with a cord, secure it on the right side with invisible stitches, untwisting the cord slightly as you insert your needle and thread, that the stitch may be hidden between the strands. use coton à repriser d.m.c no. , for the padding. these cottons are to be had in all the colours, indicated in the d.m.c colour card, and are the most suitable for the kind of work. [illustration: fig. . raised embroidery. preparatory work.] [illustration: fig. . raised embroidery. work completed.] use coton à broder d.m.c for the transverse stitches and over the smooth surface which is thus formed, work close lines of satin stitch in silk or cotton; the effect produced, will bear more resemblance to appliqué work than to embroidery. the centres of the flowers are filled in with knot stitches, which are either set directly on the stuff or on an embroidered ground. embroidery in the turkish style (figs. and ).--this again is a style of embroidery different from any we are accustomed to. the solid raised parts are first padded with common coarse cotton and then worked over with gold, silver, or silk thread. contrary to what is noticeable in the real turkish embroidery, the preparatory work here is very carefully done, with several threads of coton à repriser d.m.c used as one. a rope of five threads is laid down, and carried from right to left and from left to right, across the width of the pattern. after laying it across to the right, as explained in fig. , bring the needle out a little beyond the space occupied by the threads, insert it behind them and passing it under the stuff, draw it out at the spot indicated by the arrow. the stitch that secures the threads, should be sufficiently long to give them a little play, so that they may lie perfectly parallel, side by side, over the whole width of the pattern. this kind of work can be done on wollen or cotton materials, and generally speaking, with d.m.c cottons, and gold thread shot with colour (chiné d'or d.m.c.) very pretty effects can be obtained, by a combination of three shades of rouge-cardinal , and , with chiné d'or gold and dark blue or with chiné d'or, gold and light blue.[a] this kind of embroidery may be regarded as the transition from satin stitch to gold embroidery. [illustration: fig. . embroidery in the turkish style. preparatory work.] [illustration: fig. . embroidery in the turkish style. work completed.] gold embroidery.--up to the present time, dating from the end of the eighteenth century, gold embroidery has been almost exclusively confined to those who made it a profession; amateurs have seldom attempted what, it was commonly supposed, required an apprenticeship of nine years to attain any proficiency in. but now, when it is the fashion to decorate every kind of fancy article, whether of leather, plush, or velvet, with monograms and ingenious devices of all descriptions, the art of gold embroidery has revived and is being taken up and practised with success, even by those to whom needlework is nothing more than an agreeable recreation. we trust that the following directions and illustrations will enable our readers to dispense with the five years training, which even now, experts in the art consider necessary. implements and materials.--the first and needful requisites for gold embroidery, are a strong frame, a spindle, two pressers, one flat and the other convex, a curved knife, a pricker or stiletto, and a tray, to contain the materials. embroidery frame (fig. ).--the frame, represented here, is only suitable for small pieces of embroidery, for larger ones, which have to be done piece by piece, round bars on which to roll up the stuff, are desirable, as sharp wooden edges are so apt to mark the stuff. [illustration: fig. . embroidery frame for gold embroidery.] every gold embroidery, on whatever material it may be executed, requires a stout foundation, which has to be sewn into the frame, in doing which, hold the webbing loosely, almost in folds, and stretch the stuff very tightly. sew on a stout cord to the edges of the foundation, which are nearest the stretchers, setting the stitches, or c/m. apart. then put the frame together and stretch the material laterally to its fullest extent, by passing a piece of twine, in and out through the cord at the edge and over the stretchers. draw up the bracing until the foundation is strained evenly and tightly. upon this firm foundation lay the stuff which you are going to embroider, and hem or herring-bone it down, taking care to keep it perfectly even with the thread of the foundation and, if possible, more tightly stretched to prevent it from being wrinkled or puckered when you come to take it off the backing. for directions how to transfer the pattern to your stuff, and prepare the paste with which the embroidery has to be stiffened before it is taken out of the frame, see the concluding chapter in the book. the spindle (fig. ).--the spindle to wind the gold thread upon, should be c/m. long and made of hard wood. cover the round stalk and part of the prongs with a double thread of coton à broder d.m.c no. , or pale yellow cordonnet d.m.c no. , and terminate this covering with a loop, to which you fasten the gold thread that you wind round the stalk. [illustration: fig. . the spindle.] the pressers (figs. and ).--these, so called 'pressers', are small rectangular boards with a handle in the middle. the convex one, fig. , should be c/m. long by broad; the other, fig. , which is quite flat, should be c/m. by . [illustration: fig. . convex presser, for pressing the stuff on the wrong side.] [illustration: fig. . flat presser for laying on the pattern.] having cut out your pattern in cartridge paper, lay it down, on the wrong side, upon a board thinly spread with embroidery paste. let it get thoroughly impregnated with the paste and then transfer it carefully to its proper place on the stuff; press it closely down with the large presser, and with the little convex one rub the stuff firmly, from beneath, to make it adhere closely to the pasted pattern; small, pointed leaves and flowers will be found to need sewing down besides, as you will observe in fig. , where each point is secured by stitches. the embroidery should not be begun until the paste is perfectly dry, and the pattern adheres firmly to the stuff. the knife (fig. ).--most gold embroideries require a foundation of stout cartridge paper, and, in the case of very delicate designs, the paper should further be covered with kid, pasted upon it. [illustration: fig. . the knife. reduced scale.] transfer the design on to the paper or kid, in the manner described in the concluding chapter, and cut it out with the knife. you can only make very short incisions with this tool, which should be kept extremely sharp and held, in cutting, with the point outwards, and the rounded part towards you, as shown in the drawing. tray to contain the materials (fig. ).--cut out as many divisions in a thin board, or sheet of stout cardboard, as you will require materials for your embroidery; these include not only gold thread of all kinds, but likewise beads and spangles of all sorts and sizes as well as bright and dead gold and silver purl, or bullion, as it is also called. for the pieces of purl alone, which should be cut ready to hand, you should have several divisions, in order that the different lengths may be kept separate. [illustration: fig. . tray to contain the materials.] use of the spindle (fig. ).--gold embroidery thread should be wound double upon the spindle. it is laid backwards and forwards and secured with two stitches at each turn, as described in fig. . small holes where the stitches are to come, have first to be pierced in the material with the pricker, from the right side, for the needle to pass through. in soft stuffs, this is unnecessary, but in brocaded materials, and in plush and leather, where every prick shows and would often spoil the whole effect, it is indispensable. [illustration: fig. . use of the spindle] gold thread which is stiff and difficult to work with, can be rendered soft and pliable by putting it into the oven, or any other warm place, for a short time. embroidery with gold purl (fig. ).--embroidery is the easiest kind of gold embroidery; you have only to thread the little pieces of purl, cut into the required lengths beforehand, like beads on your needle, and fasten them down upon the foundation like the beads in bead-work. smooth and crimped gold purl, or silver and gold purl used together, look exceedingly well, particularly where the pattern requires effects of light and shade to be reproduced. [illustration: fig. . embroidery with gold purl.] embroidery in diamond stitch (fig. ).--the diamond stitch is a charming novelty in gold embroidery. short lengths of purl, not more than ½ m/m. long, are threaded on the needle, and the needle is put in and drawn out at the same hole. these stitches which resemble knot stitches, form so many little glittering knots, turned alternately to the right and left, and look like seed-diamonds in appearance, more especially, when they are made in silver purl. the shorter the pieces are, and the more closely you set the knots together, the handsomer and richer the effect will be. [illustration: fig. . diamond stitch.] chinese gold embroidery (figs. and ).--we recommend the imitation of chinese gold embroidery to our readers as an easy and grateful recreation. it consists simply in laying down a gold thread, on a delicately outlined pattern and securing it by stitches. it can be done on any material, washing or other, the costliest as well as the most ordinary. [illustration: fig. . chinese gold embroidery. first part.] [illustration: fig. . second part] [illustration: fig. . chinese gold embroidery. first part.] [illustration: fig. . second part.] for a washing material use, or fin d.m.c pour la broderie, no. , or ,[a] which, as it washes perfectly, is well adapted for the embroidery of wearing apparel, and household linen. plain gold thread and gold thread with a thread of coloured silk twisted round it, are very effective used together. thus in fig. , the trees, foliage and flowers, are worked in plain gold, the grasses, in gold shot with green, the butterflies in gold with red, the two birds in gold with dark blue, and gold with light blue. two threads of gold should be laid down side by side and secured by small catching stitches, set at regular intervals from one another, and worked in fil d'alsace d.m.c no. ,[a] of the same colour. where the design requires it, you may separate the gold threads, and work with one alone. the second specimen of chinese embroidery, fig. , resembles the first, as far as materials and execution are concerned, but the design is different. the grotesque animals, flowers and shells it represents, can be worked separately, or connected together so as to form a running pattern. stripe worked in various stitches (fig. ).--all the designs described thus far, are worked in the same way, but the stripe now presented to our readers introduces them to several kinds of gold thread, and a variety of stitches. the small, turned-back petals of the flowers are worked in plain gold thread, and outlined with crimped; the rest of the petals are worked in darning stitch, with plain gold thread. the latticed leaves are edged with picots, worked with bright purl. the other parts of the design are all worked with a double gold thread, the stalks in dead gold, the leaves in crimped. the gold thread is secured by overcasting stitches in gold-coloured thread, jaune d'or , but it looks very well if you use black or red thread for fastening the crimped gold and dark or light green for the leaves and tendrils. [illustration: fig. . stripe worked in various stitches.] gold embroidery on a foundation of cords (fig. ).--in the old ecclesiastical embroideries, especially those representing the figures of saints, we often find thick whip cords used as a foundation, instead of cardboard, for the good reason that the stiff cardboard does not give such soft and rounded contours as a cord foundation, which will readily take every bend and turn that you give to it. in the following illustrations, we have adhered strictly to the originals, as far as the manner of working the surface is concerned, but have substituted for the cord, which in their case has been used for the foundation, cordonnet fils d.m.c no. , which is better for padding than the grey whip cord, as it can be had in white or yellow, according to whether it is intended to serve as a foundation to silver or gold work. [illustration: fig. . embroidery in flattened gold wire and purl.] lay down as many cords as are necessary to give the design the requisite thickness, in many cases up to or m/m. in height, taking care to lay them closely and solidly in the centre, and graduate them down at the sides and ends. when you have finished the foundation, edge it with a thick gold cord, such as cordonnet d'or d.m.c no. and then only begin the actual embroidery, all the directions just given, applying merely to the preparatory work. only four of the many stitches that are already in use and might be devised are described here. for the pattern, represented in fig. , flattened gold or silver wire is necessary, which should be cut into pieces, long enough to be turned in at the ends so as to form a little loop through which the thread that fastens them down is passed. over each length of gold or silver wire small lengths of purl are laid at regular intervals, close enough just to leave room for the next stitch, the pieces of one row, alternating in position with those of the preceding one. plaited stitch in gold purl on a cord foundation (fig. ). --distribute the stitches as in the previous figure, substituting purl, for the flattened gold wire, and covering the purl with short lengths of gold thread of the same kind. all these stitches may be worked in gold and silver thread, mixed or in the one, or the other alone. [illustration: fig. . plaited stitch in gold purl on a cord foundation.] scale stitch worked in gold thread and purl on a cord foundation (fig. ).--begin by covering the whole padded surface with gold or silver thread, then sew on short lengths of purl, long enough to cover six or eight threads, or m/m. apart, as shown in the engraving. these stitches in dead gold purl are then surrounded by shining or crimped purl. [illustration: fig. . scale stitch in gold thread and purl on a cord foundation.] you bring out the working thread to the left of the purl stitch, which you take on your needle, put the needle in on the other side, draw it out above the little stroke, and secure the crimped purl with an invisible stitch. conventional flower worked on a cord foundation (fig. ).--the half finished flower, represented here, was copied from a handsome piece of ecclesiastical embroidery enriched with ornament of this kind. the three foregoing stitches and a fourth, are employed in its composition. the finished portions on the left hand side, are executed in silver and gold purl, whilst the egg-shaped heart of the flower is formed of transverse threads, carried over the first padding, and secured by a stitch between the two cords. in the subsequent row, the catching stitch is set between the cords, over which the first gold threads were carried. [illustration: fig. . conventional flower worked on a cord foundation. materials.--for padding: cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to or fil à pointer d.m.c no. .--for sewing on the gold thread and purl: soie de coton d.m.c no. or , fil à dentelle d.m.c on reels nos. to .[a]] the heavier the design is, the thicker your padding should be, and cords a good deal thicker than those which are represented in the drawing should be used, as the more light and shade you can introduce into embroidery of this kind, the greater will be its beauty and value. footnotes: [a] see at the end of the concluding chapter, the table of numbers and sizes and the list of colours of the d.m.c threads and cottons. [illustration: insertion in cross stitch, alike on both sides, the pattern left blank.] tapestry and linen embroidery. tapestry is one of the oldest kinds of needlework and one which has always been popular every where. there are two distinct sorts of canvas in use for tapestry, called respectively, 'plain (single thread) canvas', and 'penelope (double thread) canvas'. the latter is generally preferred, because it is easier to count the stitches upon it, but both make an equally good foundation for the embroidery, as the following examples will show. besides canvas, other fabrics bearing a close resemblance to it, are often used, especially java linen, the close texture of which renders grounding unnecessary. cloth, velvet or plush can also be overlaid with canvas, the threads of which are pulled away after the pattern is finished. for work of this kind, we however prefer a material with less dressing, such as a twisted tammy, or colbert linen, because the pulling out of the harsh rough threads of the canvas is very apt to injure the material beneath. stitches, worked upon two stuffs, must be drawn very tight, or they will look loose and untidy when the auxiliary fabric is taken away. tapestry can be done either in a frame, or in the hand; in the latter case, the ends of the piece of canvas should be weighted with stones or lead, to prevent its puckering. the stitches, which ought completely to hide the canvas, should all lean one way and the underneath ones always from left to right, as the letters in writing. marking out the embroidery ground (fig. ).--before beginning a piece of canvas work and tacking on the auxiliary fabric, count how many stitches it will contain, and mark them out in tens, with a coloured thread, as shown in fig. , along two sides at least, in the length and breadth. having ascertained the number of stitches both ways, divide them in two, and starting each time from the middle stitch, trace two lines, one horizontal, the other vertical, right across the canvas. the point of intersection will be the centre. this sort of ground-plan will be found most useful, and should not be pulled out until, at least, half the work be finished. if moreover, you have corners to work, or a pattern to reverse, in the angle of a piece of embroidery, trace a diagonal line besides, from the corner to the centre. [illustration: fig. . marking out the embroidery ground.] materials suitable for tapestry.--hitherto, wool and silk, were the materials chiefly used for canvas work; a very thick wool for carpets, as being warmer and more durable. silk is too delicate a fibre to resist much wear and tear, and cannot therefore be recommended for articles that are intended for constant use, and wool, though stronger, is subject to the destructive agency of moths; whereas cotton, which is cheaper than both, and quite as brilliant, is free from all these disadvantages and is extremely easy to clean. for most kinds of tapestry we can therefore with perfect confidence, recommend the use of coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to , cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , and even coton à repriser d.m.c no. .[a] cross stitch (fig. ).--cross stitch is the foundation of every other stitch, and the one in most common use. it is also called marking-stitch, being used for marking linen. it is worked in two lines. in the first, the thread is carried diagonally from left to right across a square of threads, and then, downwards, underneath the two horizontal threads; in the second, the stitches are carried from the right-hand lower corner of the square to the upper left-hand corner, so that the four points of the two stitches form a perfect square. [illustration: fig. . cross stitch.] half cross stitch (fig. ).--if the cotton is too coarse, or the canvas too fine, to make the double stitch, carry the thread back along the whole line and make the half-stitches across it, from left to right; the same in the case of a piece of work, which you buy with a part of the pattern ready-worked. [illustration: fig. . half cross stitch.] gobelin stitch on plain canvas (fig. ).--this is worked over two horizontal threads and one perpendicular. in a frame, you can work the second row, from right to left, otherwise, you must turn the work round, and bring out your needle behind the last-made stitch. [illustration: fig. . gobelin stitch.] gobelin stitch on penelope canvas (fig. ).--for the same stitch on penelope canvas, you need rather a coarse needle, which will make its way easily between the threads of the canvas. [illustration: fig. . gobelin stitch on penelope canvas.] reps stitch (fig. ).--contrary to gobelin stitch, this stitch which is an imitation of reps, is worked in vertical lines, over two vertical threads and one horizontal one. [illustration: fig. . reps stitch.] tent stitch (fig. ).--this stitch is simply the first half of a cross or marking stitch, worked over a single thread each way. the illustration shows the working of a row, from right to left, the thread being carried forward, underneath the vertical threads. tent stitch is used for the most part, in conjunction with cross stitch, for the more delicate lines and the shaded parts of flowers and figures. [illustration: fig. . tent stitch.] wide gobelin stitch (fig. ).--this stitch covers two vertical and two horizontal threads, and advances one thread at a time. [illustration: fig. . wide gobelin stitch.] broad cross stitch (fig. ).--worked over two vertical and four horizontal threads, and very useful for filling in large surfaces as it can be done twice as quickly as the ordinary cross stitch. it may be varied by turning the crosses first one way and then the other. [illustration: fig. . broad cross stitch.] double stitch (fig. ).--begin with a simple cross stitch over every alternate intersection of the threads then make a second row of stitches between those of the first, but in this case, over two and six threads, so that they extend beyond the first each way. in the subsequent rows, a square stitch should be opposed to a long one and a long stitch to a square one. [illustration: fig. . double stitch.] rice stitch (fig. ).--fill in the whole ground first, with large cross stitches, over four threads each way, then upon these, make the so-called rice stitches. these cross the four points of the large cross stitches, and meet in the space between, where they form another cross. the large cross stitches should be worked in rather coarse cotton, the rice stitches in one of a finer quality. [illustration: fig. . rice stitch.] double stitch, set two ways (fig. ).--this consists of diagonal and upright cross stitches, alternately. work from left to right, and carry the thread over four vertical threads and downwards, under two horizontal ones, then diagonally upwards, over four threads and downwards under two, then again over four vertical threads, and so on. coming back, you cross the first threads, and pass the working thread each time in a straight line, underneath the two threads of the canvas. the stitches of the third and fourth rows are set, as the illustration shows, the opposite way to those of the two first, the thread being laid the contrary way. gold thread is generally used for this second set of stitches; or fin d.m.c pour la broderie, or chiné d'or d.m.c will be found to be the most suitable for the purpose.[a] [illustration: fig. . double stitch set two ways.] plait stitch (fig. ).--it requires great attention to work this stitch, to and fro; the easier way is to carry the thread back each time, to the starting point. [illustration: fig. . plait stitch.] carry the thread from left to right, over two horizontal threads, and downwards under four perpendicular ones, then under two threads, from right to left, as the figure indicates. stem stitch (fig. ).--here, the stitches are worked in separate rows, over four threads each way. the working thread passes first under the two middle threads, from right to left, and then under the two upper ones. [illustration: fig. . stem stitch.] leaf stitch (fig. ).--carry the thread diagonally over two double threads each way, and back under one double thread, to the row whence the stitch started. make rows of back-stitches in a different colour between the rows of long ones. [illustration: fig. . leaf stitch.] fish-bone stitch (fig. ).--the difference between this and the preceding stitch is, that the working thread after passing over three perpendicular and three horizontal threads, is secured by a back-stitch over the last intersection of the canvas threads. these back-stitches lean to the right or left, according to the direction of the long stitches. [illustration: fig. . fish-bone stitch.] diagonal web stitch (fig. ).--stretch diagonal threads across the whole surface you are going to embroider, and secure them with rows of overcasting stitches, set, if you are working on penelope canvas, between the double threads of the canvas. in the next rows the stitches must be set the opposite way, which produces the effect of diagonal or twilled cloth. [illustration: fig. . diagonal web stitch.] cashmere stitch (fig. ).--to imitate this texture in needlework first make one stitch over one crossing of the canvas threads, and then two stitches over two crossings. [illustration: fig. . cashmere stitch.] florentine stitch (fig. ).--florentine stitch is worked in slanting lines, the thread being carried, diagonally first over one and then over two double threads of the canvas. [illustration: fig. . florentine stitch.] mosaic stitch (fig. ).--the first row consists of one short and one long stitch, alternately; the second, of short stitches only, set between the long stitches of the first row; the third row is a repetition of the first, and so on. [illustration: fig. . mosaic stitch.] knotted stitch (fig. ).--carry the working thread over two threads in width and six in height, bring the needle back, four threads lower down, in front of the double threads, and insert it behind the preceding stitch, and over the middle threads, and then carry it down to the line of the stitches. in the subsequent rows, the stitches extend over four threads and encroach on two of the previous row, so that the stitches of the second row lie between those of the first. [illustration: fig. . knotted stitch.] star, or smyrna stitch (fig. ).--- make a plain cross stitch over four threads, each way, and then over that, another cross stitch, standing upright. the same stitch can be made over six or seven threads; if you work over more than four threads, it follows that you increase the number of stitches accordingly. [illustration: fig. . star, or smyrna stitch.] rococo stitch (figs. , , ).--after fastening in your thread, lay it over four single or two double threads, as the case may be, and carry the needle through to the left, under one double thread; then, as fig. shows, bring it back over the first stitch, put it in by the side of it, and bring it out below, under half the horizontal threads covered by the first stitch. then make a stitch to the right, similar to the one just made to the left. [illustration: fig. . rococo stitch. first stitches on the wrong side.] when you have finished one stitch, carry the needle under one thread, in an oblique line, to the next stitch, see fig. . the whole pattern is worked in diagonal lines. [illustration: fig. . rococo stitch. stitches on the right side.] [illustration: fig. . rococo stitch. completed.] parisian stitch (fig. ).--this stitch, though it is generally worked on silk canvas, can also be worked on the different cotton and linen materials already referred to more than once in this encyclopedia. it makes a very good grounding in cases where the material is not intended to be completely hidden. it consists of a long stitch over three threads, and a short stitch over one thread, alternately. [illustration: fig. . parisian stitch.] greek stitch (fig. ).--this differs from the ordinary cross stitch, in the oblique inclination given to the threads, and the manner in which it is begun. instead of taking up the two threads that follow the first stitch, you bring your needle back from right to left, under the vertical threads of the first stitch, carry it downwards, and then from right to left, to a distance of four threads beyond the first stitch. the next stitch is made like the first. the rows may be joined together, either by the short or the long stitches, but you must follow one rule throughout. this stitch is much used in slavonic countries, for the adornment of linen garments, and there we have observed that the short stitches are generally made to encounter the long ones. a coarse material that covers the ground well, such as, coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to , is the best one to use for this stitch. [illustration: fig. . greek stitch.] scotch stitch (fig. ).--squares, composed of slanting stitches, made over one, three, five, three threads respectively, and then again over one thread, and separated from each other by rows of gobelin stitches, constitute what is ordinarily known by the name of scotch stitch. [illustration: fig. . scotch stitch.] moorish stitch (fig. ).--for this stitch, instead of surrounding squares of stitches, made in the way we have just described, with gobelin stitch, the squares are made to touch, rising like steps one above the other, and bordered only at the sides by gobelin stitch. [illustration: fig. . moorish stitch.] oriental stitch (fig. ).--here, you make four diagonal stitches over one, two, three and four double threads respectively; which four stitches form so many triangles, one above the other. the empty spaces between are filled up with gobelin stitches covering two threads. [illustration: fig. . oriental stitch.] shell stitch (fig. ).--carry your thread upwards over six horizontal threads, then from right to left, under one vertical thread and downwards over six horizontal ones. when you have made four vertical stitches in this way, bring the needle out behind the third double thread, counted lengthways, and between the third and fourth, counted across, and fasten the four long stitches together with a back-stitch, to the middle thread of the canvas. draw a thread of a different colour twice through these back-stitches, so as to form small knots like shells, and then fill in the ground between the rows of long stitches, with back-stitches. [illustration: fig. . shell stitch.] jacquard stitch (fig. ).--if you have a large plain surface to cover, you should choose a stitch that forms a pattern in itself. jacquard stitch and others which we shall describe later on, will be found to produce the effect of brocaded stuff. to work jacquard stitch, make six stitches underneath one another, over two double threads, and six by the side of one another, from left to right, over two double threads. the second row consists of the same number of stitches, similarly worked downwards and to the side, but over one double thread only. [illustration: fig. . jacquard stitch.] byzantine stitch (fig. ).--here, you make the same number of stitches as in the preceding figure but with this difference, that the two rows of stitches are made either over two, or four threads. [illustration: fig. . byzantine stitch.] milanese stitch (fig. ).--in the first row, the back-stitch is made alternately, first over four diagonal crosses and then over one; in the second row, over three and two; in the third, over two and three, in the fourth, over one and four. the last long stitches should come under the last short ones and the short ones, in the middle of the last long ones. [illustration: fig. . milanese stitch.] plush stitch (fig. ).--this stitch, also called astrachan stitch, by means of which a very good imitation of an oriental rug can be produced, consists of loops, each secured by a cross stitch; the best way to ensure these loops being even and regular is to make them over a narrow wooden ruler, or a piece of whalebone. the effect can be varied by cutting the loops, which gives the surface the appearance of velvet. [illustration: fig. . plush stitch.] the illustration represents the middle loops only, as cut, for the cut and the uncut stitch can both be introduced into the same piece of embroidery. for example, the borders in figs. , and , are worked in open or cut plush stitch, whilst in the centres, the stitch is left uncut. two stitches of a similar kind, called smyrna and malta stitch, suitable for making rugs or carpets, are described in the last chapter but one in the book. chain stitch (fig. ).--generally speaking, this stitch is only used for the adornment of under-linen or small articles of fancy-work but it can also be employed in copying cross stitch patterns. in old collections we often meet with very interesting pieces of needlework, which were used for hangings or screens, where the figure-subjects, are executed in chain stitch. patterns in many colours, gain immensely by being worked in this stitch, the colours blend together better than in any other, and even the shape of the stitch contributes to soften the contrasts of colour. chain stitch cannot, like other stitches, be worked to and fro, nor can all the stitches of one row be finished first, as is generally possible in cross stitch work, each row must be begun separately, and always from the same side, and a different needle should be used for each colour, as the material has often to be changed. [illustration: fig. . chain stitch.] the stitch is worked as follows; after fastening in your thread, insert the needle at the same hole it came out of, and bring it out two threads lower down. keep the loop, formed by the working thread, under the point of the needle. the thread should not be drawn up tightly but left to form a rather loose, round loop. for the next stitches, insert the needle close to the thread that issues from the last loop. pattern for borders or grounding (fig. ).--this simple but most effective design, copied from one of the most beautiful of oriental carpets, can be executed in, either cross stitch, plush stitch, or chain stitch. to make a wider border still, the diagonal lines that divide the figures shaped like an s, have only to be prolonged, and the figures repeated. the colours have been chosen with the view of reproducing as nearly as possible the subdued and faded tones, which time has imparted to the original. [illustration: fig. . pattern for borders or groundings. materials: coton à broder d.m.c nos. to , cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , fil à pointer d.m.c nos. to , or coton à repriser d.m.c no. . explanation of the signs prefixed to the colours: ([symbol]) rouge-cardinal , ([symbol]) rouge-cornouille , ([symbol]) bleu-indigo , and ([symbol]) bleu-indigo , ([symbol]) gris-cendre , ([symbol]) bronze doré and ([symbol]) vert-mousse .[a]] pattern for grounding (fig. ).--diagonal lines, intersected by balls, serve here as a setting for quaintly shaped flowers and leaves. the outlines are all worked in cross stitch, and the solid parts, in either tent stitch or gobelin stitch. [illustration: fig. . pattern for grounding. materials: coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to , cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to or coton à broder d.m.c no. .[a] explanation of the signs prefixed to the colours: ([symbol]) noir grand teint , ([symbol]) jaune d'ocre , ([symbol]) violet-mauve , ([symbol]) rouge-géranium , ([symbol]) rouge-aurore , ([symbol]) bleu-indigo , ([symbol]) bleu pâle , ([symbol]) rouge-cornouille , ([symbol]) vert-de-gris , ([symbol]) vert-de-gris , ([symbol]) grounding.[a]] part of a design, suitable for carpets (figs. and ). our space will not admit of our reproducing more than a quarter of this design. colours of the softest shades should be selected for it. a black line divides the pattern into four quarters. the upper quarter on the right, and the lower one, on the left, should be worked in blue, and the upper one on the left, copied from fig. . [illustration: fig. . part of a design suitable for carpets. materials: fil à pointer d.m.c nos. to , coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to , cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , or coton à repriser d.m.c no. . explanation of the signs prefixed to the colours: ([symbol]) noir grand teint , rouge-grenat , ([symbol]) rouge-cornouille , ([symbol]) bleu-indigo and ([symbol]) bleu-indigo , ([symbol]) vert métallique , ([symbol]) gris-noisette .] the narrow border, in red, blue and green, is to be repeated after the broad band, which is represented in fig. , has been added to the grounding. a very good effect is obtained, if in the broad border, fig. , you vary the background of the different subjects. [illustration: fig. . outer border of the design for carpets fig. . materials: fil à pointer d.m.c nos. to , coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to , cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , or coton à repriser d.m.c no. .[a] explanation of the signs prefixed to the colours: ([symbol]) noir grand teint , ([symbol]) rouge-grenat , ([symbol]) bleu-indigo , ([symbol]) vert métallique , ([symbol]) jaune-vieil-or , ([symbol]) gris-noisette , ([symbol]) rouge-cornouille .[a]] linen embroidery.--the stitches used in linen embroidery are very similar to those used in canvas work. the ordinary cross stitch, as represented in fig. , is the one most commonly used, but it is not so effective as the two-sided stitches, which in the beautiful old needlework of the th, th and th centuries, have always excited our wonder and admiration. stuffs suitable for linen embroidery.--most embroidery of this kind, and more especially the italian, is done on very fine linen. such fine work however, requires more time and patience than people, in these days, are as a rule disposed to bestow on work intended merely for pleasure and recreation. to meet the requirements of the day, therefore, in addition to the finer kinds of linen, a great variety of textures, are now manufactured, the threads of which, being thick and round, can be easily counted. the cross stitches that are worked on cuba, ceylon or batavia linen, are large and coarse, those on linen-canvas, russian linen, twisted tammy, and rhodes linen, small and fine. linen fabrics are either white, unbleached or cream-coloured. all three are used for embroidery, but the coloured cottons show up best on the cream ground; on the white, they look hard and crude, and on the unbleached, dull and faded. materials suitable for linen embroidery--as most linen embroidery is executed on articles that are subjected to frequent washing, the d.m.c cottons, which are to be had in every shade and colour, are the best for the purpose. for coarse stuffs, coarse cotton should be used, such as knitting cotton, coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. , , , and ,[a] which will be found a very good substitute for wool; or six-cord crochet cotton (cordonnet fils d.m.c) nos. , , , and ,[a] which gives quite as full and brilliant a stitch, as silk-twist. finer cottons should be used for the finer stuffs, such as embroidery cotton (coton à broder d.m.c) nos. to ,[a] and lace thread (fil à dentelle d.m.c) nos. to .[a] in many cases, even darning cotton (coton à repriser d.m.c) can be used, as like algerian silk, it can be split or taken double, to suit the stuff. plain cross stitch on auxiliary canvas (fig. ).--plain cross stitch, commonly called marking stitch, has already been described in fig. . but it may be well to observe, that when an auxiliary material is used, it should be most carefully tacked upon the stuff following the thread of the same, and a sufficient margin left to allow of the drawing out of the canvas threads, when the work is finished. [illustration: fig. . plain cross stitch on auxiliary canvas.] two-sided cross stitch, worked in four rows of stitches (figs. , , ).--straight lines of cross stitch, alike on both sides, can be worked in two journeys to and fro. working from left to right, begin by fastening in your thread, never with a knot, but by two or three little running stitches, which are hidden afterwards by your first cross stitch. directing your needle to the right, pass it diagonally over a double cross of the warp and woof of the canvas, and so on to the end of the line. having reached the last stitch, draw out your thread in the middle of it, make an auxiliary diagonal stitch downwards to the right, bring the needle up in the middle of the last stitch, take it thence, upwards to the left, across two threads, and begin the return journey, from right to left, crossing and thus completing the first row of stitches. in the auxiliary stitch with which you begin the backward journey, the thread lies double on both sides. fig. shows how to pass down to the next row. [illustration: fig. . first half of the first journey and auxiliary stitch for returning.] [illustration: fig. . one journey and first half of the second finished, and auxiliary stitch leading to the second return.] [illustration: fig. . the two journeys to and fro, completing one row of cross stitch, both sides alike.] two-sided marking stitch (figs. and ). the above mode of working two-sided cross stitch cannot be applied to letters, or patterns in broken lines, which both consist chiefly of isolated stitches. figs. and explain the course of the stitches in embroidery of this kind. the working detail a, fig. , indicates the spot for the thread to enter the stuff, and the position of the needle for the first and second stitches; b, the first two stitches completed, with an auxiliary stitch to the right, the thread drawn out on the right, and the position of the needle for the fifth stitch that completes the cross; g shows the completion of the stitch begun at b and the position of the needle for a second stitch to the right; d, one cross stitch completed and another begun, immediately beneath a. in fig. , e shows how to work stitches to the left; f, an auxiliary stitch to reach an isolated cross stitch on the right, g, auxiliary stitches between two isolated cross stitches, and h, a second and last auxiliary stitch to complete the cross. it requires both practice and care to do this two-sided marking stitch, so as not to disfigure the stuff by superfluous stitches. [illustration: a b c d fig. . two-sided marking stitch. different positions of the needle.] [illustration: e f g h fig. . two-sided marking stitch. different positions of the needle.] cross stitch forming a square at the back (figs. and ).--many of the alphabets we so admire in old samplers are worked in cross stitch, that forms a square at the back. each stitch has to be finished off before another is begun; if you carefully examine figs. and , which show severally the right and the wrong sides of the stitch, you will find no difficulty in mastering it. letter a, fig. , shows the entrance of the thread, the position of the needle for half the cross stitch on the right side, and the second side of the square at the back, as shown in fig. , a. letter b, fig. , shows the cross stitch finished, and the position of the needle for the third side of the square on the wrong side, indicated by the same letter in fig. . c, in both figures, indicates a stitch which is double on the right side, and on the wrong side forms the fourth side of the square, whilst letter d, explains how to continue the stitches. [illustration: a b c d fig. . right side of the cross stitch, forming a square at the back.] [illustration: e f g h fig. . square stitch forming the back of the cross stitch.] two-sided italian stitch (figs. , , , ).--two-sided italian stitch consists of cross stitches, alike on both sides, divided from each other by horizontal and vertical stitches. the upper and lower stitches should all slope one way, as in plain cross stitch. italian stitch is worked in one journey, to and fro. fig. shows how to fasten in the thread, and place the needle for the first stitch, from right to left; fig. , the position of the needle from left to right, to form the cross at the back, and the vertical stitch to the left, on the right side; fig. , the position of the needle, for a two-sided horizontal stitch at the bottom of the cross, where upon you proceed as in fig. . fig. explains the return of the thread, which completes the double crosses and the lines between. the horizontal lines, not made on the first journey, are added on the way back. in conclusion, pass the needle back, horizontally, from left to right, to make the final stitch over the cross, and then make the stitch between, as shown in fig. . on a thin stuff, this stitch produces an extremely pretty effect, resembling lattice-work, provided the thread be tightly drawn in the working. [illustration: fig. . two-sided italian stitch. introduction of the thread and position of the needle for the first stitch.] [illustration: fig. . two-sided italian stitch. position of the needle for the nd and rd stitches.] [illustration: fig. . two-sided italian stitch. position of the needle for the th and th stitches.] [illustration: fig. . two-sided italian stitch. return journey, which completes the cross stitch.] montenegrin cross stitch (figs. , , ).--the slavonic tribes of the southern districts of e. europe, especially the montenegrins, have a great partiality for this stitch, which has been rarely noticed, hitherto, in books on needlework. the right side shows cross stitches with a double thread underneath, and divided by vertical stitches; the wrong side, regular cross stitches, also divided by vertical stitches. coarse cotton should be used for this stitch; it produces a richer effect and not only covers the stuff better, but also the underneath stitch which in the slavonic work, is entirely hidden by the cross stitches. begin, as letter a indicates, with a long, slanting stitch, across and threads, then, bringing your needle back from right to left, under four threads, draw it out, carry it over the first long stitch, and insert it again from left to right, under the first four threads of the canvas. these four stitches finished, proceed to the fifth and sixth, which as b shows, cross the first four, then repeat the first stitch. the threads that form the stitches on the wrong side, should always be opposed to each other, that is, one cross should lean to the right, the other to the left, as shown in fig. . this variation in the inclination of the stitches, which is regarded as a fault in plain cross stitch, is indispensable here, and produces a charming effect on the wrong side. [illustration: a b fig. . montenegrin cross stitch. st, nd, rd, th and th stitch and transversal stitch] [illustration: a b fig. . montenegrin cross stitch. position of the stitches on the wrong side.] [illustration: fig. . montenegrin cross stitch. a row of stitches finished.] plaited algerian stitch (fig. ).--the distinguishing feature of this stitch is, that it only advances one thread at a time. it should be begun on an uneven number of threads, and like the montenegrin stitch, should be worked with coarse cotton. the rows may touch, either at the top or at the bottom of the stitch, so long as you keep to one plan throughout. [illustration: fig. . plaited algerian stitch.] two-sided spanish plaited stitch (figs. and ).--this stitch has the advantage of being, not only very effective, but also very quickly executed. it is worked in two rows, forwards and backwards. all cross stitch patterns can be worked in spanish stitch. the gaps, which are occasioned by the long stitches, have to be filled in with short ones. in itself, the stitch consists of slanting stitches, three threads a part, alike on both sides, and advances three threads at a time, as shown in figs. and . [illustration: fig. . two-sided plaited spanish stitch.] [illustration: fig. . two-sided plaited spanish stitch.] two-sided line stitch (figs. and ).--square stitch, holbein stitch, line, or stroke stitch, as it is sometimes called, and setting stitch, are all worked on one principle. though all these two-sided stitches are related to each other, and by no means difficult of execution, those new to the work will find a little practice necessary, to make the stitches follow in their proper order. fig. explains how the needle has to pass, alternately, step by step, over and under the threads of the stuff, and fig. , how the threads, left blank the first time, are covered on the way back. the great difficulty is how to place your first row of stitches so as to ensure an unbroken course back. it is as well before setting out, to ascertain clearly the most direct course back, so that you may not come to a stand-still, or be obliged to make unnecessary stitches on the wrong side. if you have to pass obliquely across the stuff, as in patterns figs. , , , , and , proceed in the same way as though you were covering the straight threads of a fabric. [illustration: fig. . two-sided line stitch. forward row.] [illustration: fig. . two-sided line stitch. backward row.] two-sided insertion (figs. , , , , , , ).--we conclude this series of stitches with a description of a pretty, two-sided insertion, suitable for joining stripes of work of different widths together. in pieces of old needlework, we often find handsome, coloured patterns, joined together by a piece of lace or some quite different kind of work. the insertion represented in fig. , is a very good substitute for either. fig. explains the first stitch and the course of the second, from left to right, under vertical and horizontal threads; the rd stitch to the left, over vertical threads, and the beginning of the th stitch. fig. shows the th stitch completed, and the direction the th and th stitches have to take; fig. , the th completed, and the position of the needle for the th and th; fig. , the th lower, horizontal stitch, over vertical threads, the th backward stitch, and the position of the needle for the th and last stitch. fig. represents a whole series of stitches, and fig. , the back of the work, which though quite a different pattern, will combine very well with any two-sided embroidery. [illustration: fig. . two-sided insertion. first detail.] [illustration: fig. . two-sided insertion. second detail.] [illustration: fig. . two-sided insertion. third detail.] [illustration: fig. . two-sided insertion. fourth detail.] [illustration: fig. . two-sided insertion. fifth detail.] these insertions can be worked on any stuff, but the stitches, must be done, both ways, on a number of threads, divisible by . thus, the first stitch may cover , , or threads, but never , , or . [transcriber's note: , here, appears to be an error in the original.] [illustration: fig. . two-sided insertion. row of stitches finished.] [illustration: fig. . two-sided insertion, showing the back of fig. .] gothic borders in gobelin and cross stitch (figs. and ).--we are indebted for both these pretty patterns, which are quite gothic in their character, to a visit we paid to the national museum at munich, where we discovered them amongst a heap of other old valuables, lying un-heeded in a remote corner. their simple graceful outlines render them peculiarly suitable for the decoration of table-cloths, counterpanes, curtains, etc. all embroideries of this kind should be finished off with a deep fringe, made in the stuff itself, or knotted on to it or may be trimmed with a heavy thread lace, of a wide width, corresponding with the work in character. the design may be worked either in one shade, as in fig. , or in two, as in fig. , where all the outside stitches are worked in the darker shade of the given colours. [illustration: fig. . gothic border in cross stitch. materials: coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to , coton à broder d.m.c nos. to , or cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to .[a] colours: rouge-turc , or two shades of bleu-indigo, and , or two shades of rouge-grenat, and or two shades of brun-acajou, and .[a]] [illustration: fig. . gothic border in cross stitch. materials: coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to . colours: bleu-indigo and , or rouge-cardinal and rouge-géranium , or gris-tilleul and .[a]] powdering and border. albanian subjects (figs. and ).--the arrangement of colours for these charming patterns, of albanian origin, should be as follows; the dark-coloured crosses, red, the lighter ones, alternately blue and green, the lightest, yellow. [illustration: fig. . powdering. albanian subject. materials: coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to , cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to or coton à repriser d.m.c no. , or .[a] colours: rouge-cardinal , bleu-indigo , vert métallique , jaune-orange , gris-brun .[a]] in fig. , most of the stitches in every other diagonal row, are worked in red, the others in green or blue; in the intermediate rows the flowers are worked alternately, in green and red, or blue and red, and throughout, the centre of each figure should consist of stitches in yellow. [illustration: fig. . albanian subject. materials: coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to , coton à broder d.m.c nos. to or cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to .[a] colours: rouge-cardinal , bleu-indigo , jaune-orange , vert métallique , gris-brun .[a]] in fig. , which serves as a border to the above, only the stalks of the conventional pinks, which, with the cross in their middle, form a square, are in brown. these squares are separated from the bottom border by an insertion, in gobelin stitch, worked over threads, in red, blue, green and yellow, from to stitches of each. this band is edged on both sides with a row of stem stitches, worked in yellow over threads. the holbein stitches that border the band, can be made in whichever colour the worker prefers, or else in red and gold thread. borders in stroke stitch (figs. , , ).--these three patterns will give our readers an opportunity of perfecting themselves in two-sided, square stitch (see figs. and ), also called stroke, or line stitch, according as it is worked, in oblique, or straight rows. [illustration: fig. . border in stroke stitch. materials: coton à marquer d.m.c nos. to .[a] colours: rouge-turc or bleu-indigo .[a]] [illustration: fig. . border in stroke stitch. materials: coton à repriser d.m.c no. .[a] colours: vert-pistache , or vert-mousse .[a]] [illustration: fig. . insertion in stroke stitch. materials: coton à broder d.m.c nos. to .[a] colours: rouge-turc , or rouge-grenat , or bleu-indigo .[a]] we again recommend our readers, to begin by ascertaining the course the stitches should take, in order to avoid all unnecessary stitches and be sure of finding their way back according to the prescribed rule. corners in stroke stitch (figs. and ).--these pretty little patterns are suitable for the decoration of ladies' and children's collars, fine pocket-handkerchiefs and finger napkins, and can be worked in one or two colours, as preferred. if two colours be used, the darker should be taken for the interior, the lighter for the narrow outside edge. [illustration: fig. . & fig. . corners in line stitch. materials: coton à broder d.m.c nos to or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to .[a] colours: bleu-indigo, or rouge-cardinal, or brun-caroubier, or violet-lie-de-vin.[a]] stripe in stroke stitch (fig. ).--this is copied from a piece of italian work, though from a resemblance in the different subjects to the rose, thistle and shamrock, if might have been supposed to be of english origin. the original work was executed in a most brilliant purple red which time has toned down to the colour of jaune-rouille , or brun-cuir , one or other of which we recommend, as being the only colours with which any thing approaching the refined distinguished look of the old embroidery, can be given to the new. [illustration: fig. . stripe in stroke stitch. materials: cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , coton à broder d.m.c nos. to , or coton à repriser d.m.c no. , or .[a] colours: jaune-rouille , or jaune-vieil-or .[a]] grounding in diagonal lines (fig. ).--this pattern can be worked, in any of the previous stitches, or in back-stitch. it is only suitable for large surfaces, on account of the diagonal lines, and should be worked, all in one colour. it can be varied by adding sprays to the upper sides of the slanting stalks, like those on the lower sides, turned either the same way, or upwards. skilled workers will readily contrive the middles for themselves, by combining the different subjects and putting them together in various positions, either diagonally or at right angles to each other, with the help of the penelope mirror.[ ] [illustration: fig. . grounding in diagonal lines. materials: coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to , or coton à broder d.m.c nos. to . colours: bleu-indigo , or rouge-cardinal .] powdering in cross, stroke and star stitch (fig. ).--this charming combination of cross, stroke and star stitches, can be made use of wherever embroidery is available as a means of decoration. the cross stitches, in which the solid parts of the pattern are worked, should be in one colour only, the stroke and star stitches, in chiné d'or d.m.c.[a] [illustration: fig. . powdering in cross, stroke and star stitch. materials: coton à repriser d.m.c no. and chiné d'or d.m.c.[a] colours--for the cotton: rouge-grenat .--for the chiné: bleu-indigo and gold.[a]] border in greek stitch (fig. ).--all the darker lines here, should be worked in black, colour , the leaves in the form of steps, alternately in light and dark red up to the stalks, the line of demarcation being indicated by the different direction of the stitches, so that two light leaves, and two dark leaves, should always face each other. [illustration: fig. . border in greek stitch. materials: coton à broder d.m.c nos. to , or coton à repriser d.m.c nos. to . colours: rouge-géranium and , jaune-rouille , bleu de france , bleu pâle , noir-vert , or fin d.m.c pour la broderie no. and chiné d'or d.m.c no. .] in the original, the cross bars that unite the leaves, are in yellow, whilst the detached figures that separate them, are worked, those that come between the light red leaves, in pale blue, and those between the dark red ones, in gold thread. the exterior part of the figure is filled in with the different colours, indicated above; with the exception of the small squares in gobelin stitch, which should all be worked in plain gold, or chiné d'or d.m.c, green and gold. the ss in the narrow outside border, should be worked in two shades of blue; the outside stitches in colour and the solid parts in colour . the little figures with the transverse bars that unite the ss, should be set in black, and filled in, alternately, in light and dark red, and in yellow. grounding (fig. ).--this grounding was copied from a beautiful old cushion-cover and will be found particularly useful in the confection of small embroidered articles, because the pattern will always form a centre point in itself. a light, brilliant red, such as either of the two colours indicated beneath the figure, will best reproduce the tone of the original. [illustration: fig. . grounding. materials: coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to , or coton à broder d.m.c nos. to .[a] colours: rouge-cardinal , or rouge-cornouille .[a]] in making the little stars that connect the different squares, the mode we recommended for working stroke stitch should be adopted, that is, beginning, by bringing the needle out in the middle, making stitches, and at the eighth, carrying the needle back under the first, to the spot whence you started. the stitches will then be alike on both sides. wallachian border (fig. ).--a piece of wallachian needlework, executed on rough linen, and uncommon, both in colour and design, suggested the charming embroidery, here represented. in place of the somewhat violent colours, which indicate an undeveloped taste, we have substituted softer and more refined ones. all the stroke stitches of the middle stripe and of the two border stripes, top and bottom, as well as the darker portions of the small dice, subdivided into eight, in the bottom border, and of the small diagonal squares in the top border, worked in gobelin stitch, are in red, colour . the setting of upright stroke stitches round the large centre figures, as well as the straight lines that divide these same figures into four, are worked in yellow, colour . [illustration: fig. . wallachian border. gobelin stitch, stroke stitch and spanish half-stitch. materials.--for rhodes linen no. : cordonnet fils d.m.c no. , and or fin d.m.c pour la broderie no. .--for other stuffs: coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to , or coton à repriser d.m.c no. , or and or fin d.m.c.[a] colours: rouge-cardinal , rouge-géranium , vert-pistache and jaune-vieil-or .[a]] the squares and the half-squares are worked in colour , green , and gold thread; colour is indicated in the illustration by the darkest shade, green , by the medium shade, and the gold thread by the lightest shade. the stitches in the right bottom quarter and top left one, incline upwards from left to right, in the two other quarters they incline the contrary way. the spanish half-stitch as shown in fig. , can only be done over and threads and worked one way, not to and fro. the general effect is very much heightened by the introduction of one or two rows of stitches, worked in gold thread, into the straight lines on either side of the stripes; all the light parts of the design moreover, should be worked in gold thread. borders in several shades of one colour (figs. and ). in some beautifully embroidered chinese hangings, that latterly came under our notice, the principal subject was the figure of a mandarin, in a very richly decorated dress. the pretty pattern, given in fig. , was copied from the collar and cuffs of this dress. we should advise working it in several shades of pink or red, or in a single one of the colours indicated above. [illustration: fig. . border in several shades of one colour. materials: coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to , coton à broder d.m.c nos.. to or coton à repriser no. , or . colours: three shades of either bleu-indigo, rouge-grenat, or violet-mauve etc. etc.] [illustration: fig. . border in several shades of one colour.] the border of these hangings furnished us with pattern , which will be found to look best, worked in three very distinct shades of blue. the grotesque heads of animals, and the flowers and branches which break the running pattern, and are a chinese speciality, distinguish this design from the more conventional patterns of the present day. we recommend these two pretty patterns, to our readers notice, as likewise adaptable by transposition, to centres, or by repetition, to broad stripes. with very little trouble they can be converted, into a variety of subjects, such as it is often difficult to find ready made, and exactly suited to the purpose in hand. border in greek stitch with a footing, composed of branches (fig. ).--this design can be worked in greek, slavonic, montenegrin, or plaited algerian stitch. our illustration worked in greek stitch, shows how one stitch encroaches upon another, and how the thread is carried from one isolated stitch, to another. [illustration: fig. . border in greek stitch with a footing, composed of branches.] it will be found to be an improvement if the stitches are so made as to follow the direction of the lines. the central subject may be repeated two or three times, according to the width of border required. the edging is the same throughout. the use of the 'penelope mirror' for repeating patterns is described in the concluding chapter of the book. table-cover in gobelin and stroke stitch (figs. , , , ).--this tasteful little table-cover provides excellent practice in working two sided, square stitch. the square represented in fig. , forms the middle of the cloth. the gobelin stitches, set very closely, unite and form a star in the centre of the principal subject. they begin in the corners, in red and continue in green, violet and blue, successively; the little branches in stroke stitch, on each side of the gobelin stitches, correspond with them in colour, and the small figures, that form the border of the square, may be worked, indiscriminately, in any of the colours used for the gobelin stitches of the centre. four branches run inwards from the corners of the square, and four more advance to meet, and pass them, from the inner angles of the wide border. four figures, copied from the outside border, fig. , and worked in yellow, and the little star, fig. , besides the little subjects, borrowed from the outside border, fig. , are strewn lightly over the foundation, interspersed between the branches. in fig. , nevertheless, which represents the whole table-cover, the edge is formed of the small subjects contained in the wide border and not of the little stars. the gobelin stitches in the centre of fig. , are in dark green, the star stitches and the stroke stitches on the outside in red. the wide border consists of stars, every other row of which, is worked in red; the intermediate rows, successively, in blue, green, and yellow. the corners are composed of four detached stars, framed by a row of stroke stitches, one red and one blue, alternately. this line skirts both sides of the border, and forms the base to the quaint figures, that terminate the design and which can be worked in all the colours used for the inside. [illustration: fig. . small detached subject of fig. .] [illustration: fig. . outer border of fig. .] [illustration: fig. . middle of fig. .] the original of our illustration, which is on fine rhodes linen, in coton à broder d.m.c no. , is only a small table-cover; for a larger one, if you wish strictly to adhere to the pattern, java or ceylon linen will be the best material to select, with coton à tricoter d.m.c no. , for the stroke stitches and coton à repriser no. for the gobelin stitches. [illustration: fig. . table-cover in gobelin and stroke stitch. materials.--according to the stuff: coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to , coton à broder d.m.c nos. to , coton à repriser d.m.c nos. , , , fil à pointer d.m.c nos. to , or cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to .[a] colours: rouge-cornouille , vert-pistache , violet-lie-de-vin , jaune-rouille , bleu-indigo .[a]] footnotes: [a] see at the end of the concluding chapter, the table of numbers and sizes and the list of colours of the d.m.c threads and cottons. [illustration: insertion--plain stitches and overs] knitting. knitting is one of the earliest forms of needlework, and one, which has been carried to the highest perfection. it would be difficult to invent new stitches or patterns and, we shall therefore confine ourselves to describing the stitches in general use, and reproducing those of the old patterns we consider the most useful, that our readers may make their own selection. in former days, knitting served mainly for the manufacture of stockings, and even now, in spite of machines, handknit stockings, and numberless other useful and ornamental articles, such as shawls, counterpanes, cradle-coverings, gloves, laces etc. are in great request. besides its practical use, knitting is an easy and pleasant pastime that can be taken up at odd minutes and even carried on, whilst talking, or reading. knitting consists of loops, or stitches, as they are generally called, formed by means of a thread and two needles. in round knitting, four, or five needles are necessary for the better handling of the work. through the loops formed in knitting, being connected together in unbroken continuity, a very elastic fabric is produced, which is specially suitable for making warm, and closely-fitting wearing-apparel. materials.--threads with a slight twist, such as coton à tricoter d.m.c, are the best. with regard to the thickness of the needles, whether they be of steel, wood, or bone, your choice must be determined by the quality of the thread used. the accompanying table is intended to help inexperienced knitters to match their needles and thread, we advisedly say, help, as it is impossible exactly to determine the numbers that will correspond, because every hand knits differently, and a loose knitter has to use finer needles than a tight knitter. other materials are enumerated here, besides, what is properly speaking, called knitting-cotton, as for caps, lace edgings, insertions and so forth, finer kinds of thread and threads with a stronger twist which show up the pattern better, should be used. [illustration: table of the approximate relation of the d.m.c threads and cottons to the numbers of the knitting needles[a].] position of the hands in knitting (fig. .)--lay the thread over the fifth finger of the right hand, and twist it round it, then carry it over the forefinger, which should be kept close to the work, the work being held between the third finger and the thumb. the left hand remains more or less inactive, having merely, by a slight movement of the forefinger to pass the loops, in succession, on to the needle in the right hand, which forms the stitches. this position of the hands, which is the one usually adopted in england and france, is the one represented in our illustration. the germans on the contrary, lay the thread over the left hand, and can move the hands much more quickly, in consequence. there are some ways of casting on, which can only be done in the german fashion. to prevent the irregularity in stitches, the needles should never be allowed to protrude more than or ½ c/m, from the work. all exaggerated movement of the arms, which renders knitting a very tiring occupation, should be avoided. [illustration: fig. . position of the hands in knitting.] casting on.--casting, or, setting on, as it is sometimes called, is the formation of the first row of stitches which are to constitute the foundation of the work. there are four methods of casting on: ( ) crossed casting on, done in four different ways; ( ) knitting on; ( ) slipping on, also done in two ways; ( ) casting on with picots. ( ) crossed casting on with a single thread (fig. ). lay the thread over your fingers as though you were beginning a chain of plain stitches, fig. , leaving a long end, sufficient to make the number of stitches required, lying within the palm of the hand. put the needle in from below, into the loop on the thumb, and pass it from right to left under that part of the thread which lies between the forefinger and the thumb. then bring the thread through the loop on the thumb, draw the thumb out, and lay the loop on the needle. in making the next stitches, lay the thread over the thumb, so that the end lies outside. put in the needle under the front thread and complete the stitch as before. this method of casting on is generally done over two needles, one of them being drawn out before the knitting-off is begun, to ensure a loose edge. [illustration: fig. . crossed casting on with a single thread.] crossed casting on with a threefold thread.--this method is similar to the last, only that the thread is taken threefold and is drawn by the needle through the loop, which is formed at the bend of the thread. then you pass the single thread over the left hand, and the triple one over the thumb, as shown in fig. , and make the same stitches, as above. the threefold thread makes a broad chain at the bottom of the loops. double crossed casting on (fig. ).--this can be done either with a single or a threefold thread. in our drawing it is done with the latter. the first stitch is made as we have already described, only that you have to keep the loop on your thumb, put the needle into it a second time, lay hold of the thread behind, cast on a second stitch, and then only, withdraw your thumb. in this manner two loops are made at once, close together. [illustration: fig. . double crossed casting on.] crossed casting on, forming a chain (fig. .)--begin by making one such stitch, as we have described in fig. ; for the second and following stitches, bring the end of the thread to the inside of the palm of the hand, so that it lies between the thumb and the forefinger. [illustration: fig. . crossed casting on, forming a chain.] ( ) knitting on stitches (fig. ).--begin with a plain crossed stitch; then take the thread and the needle in the left hand, a second needle in the right, and catch it into the stitch on the left needle, lay the thread under the right needle and draw it through in a loop, through the loop on the left needle. then transfer it as a fresh stitch to the left needle; catch the needle into this second stitch, and draw the thread through it, to form the third, and so on. this method of casting on is used for articles, that are to have a double edge, (see figs, , ), because stitches, made in this way, are easier to pick up than the tighter ones; but it should not be used, where it will form the actual edge, as the loops are always too open. [illustration: fig. . knitting on stitches.] ( ) casting on with slip loops (fig. ).--begin by casting on one loop in the ordinary way, next, lay the thread, as in german knitting, over the left hand, twisting it once only round the forefinger, then put the needle in, upwards from below, under the thread that lies on the outside of the forefinger; draw out the finger from the loop, put the loop on the needle to the right, take the thread on the forefinger again, and so on. [illustration: fig. . casting on with slip loops.] casting on with double slip loops (fig. ).--begin by casting on a stitch in the ordinary way, then lay the thread over the forefinger, the reverse way, so that it crosses between, not outside the hand and the body of the knitter. pass the needle upwards from below, under the inside thread, and slip this thread as a loop on to the needle. continue to cast on, inserting the needle under the front and back threads alternately. this method is specially suitable for open patterns, where you have to increase several times, in succession. [illustration: fig. . casting on with double slip loops.] ( ) casting on with picots (fig. ).--cast on two stitches in the ordinary way and turn the work. lay the thread over the needle, put the needle into the first stitch, from right to left, and slip it on to the right needle, knit off the second stitch plain, and draw the slipped one over it. [illustration: fig. . casting on with picots.] cast on as many stitches as you want in this manner and then pick up the picots thus formed, with an auxiliary needle, and knit them off like ordinary stitches. this method of casting on may be varied thus in the following manner: having cast on the stitches as in fig. , throw the thread over the needle and knit two stitches together. plain stitch (fig. ).--this is the easiest stitch and the first which a knitter has to learn. it is executed as follows: put the right-hand needle in, upwards from below, under the front part of the first stitch on the left-hand needle, lay the thread from right to left under the needle, draw it through the loop, and drop the loop off the left needle. [illustration: fig. . plain stitch.] plain knitting is employed wherever a perfectly smooth, even surface is required. it looks quite differently on the wrong side from what it does on the right where it presents the appearance of vertical rows of plaiting. back, or seam-stitch (fig. ).--you may intentionally knit the wrong side of plain knitting. this is called purling and is done, in the following way: lay the thread over the left needle, and put the right one, downwards from above, behind the thread, into the loop on the left needle, lay the thread upwards from below, over the right needle, draw it through the loop, and drop the loop off the left needle. this stitch is used in knitting patterns, and for marking horizontal lines in smooth surfaces, such as the seam of a stocking, for instance. [illustration: fig. . back or seam-stitch.] plain stitch taken from behind (fig. ).--put the needle in from right to left, under the back part of the stitch; leave the thread behind the needle, then pass it from right to left over the needle and draw it through the stitch. [illustration: fig. . plain stitch taken from behind.] back, or seam-stitch taken from behind (fig. ).--put the needle into the second part of the stitch, upwards from below, and knit it as a back or seam-stitch. [illustration: fig. . back or seam-stitch taken from behind.] in plain stitch, taken from behind, the two threads of the loop are crossed, instead of lying side by side, as they do in plain knitting. back-stitch taken from behind, is only used for certain open-work patterns. overs (fig. ).--these form holes in plain knitting, and are used for open-work patterns and for increasing. [illustration: fig. . overs.] to make an over, lay the thread over the needle, and in the next row, knit this loop like any other stitch. each over adds one to the existing number of stitches. in cases, therefore, where the number is to remain the same, you have to make as many intakes as overs. overs can only be used in conjunction with other stitches. knot stitch (fig. ).--this forms a raised spot in plain knitting and is executed as follows: knit , and leave it on the left-hand needle; put the stitch you have made with the right needle back on the left, and knit it off. make or similar stitches, all issuing from the same stitch on the left needle, so that you have or loops on the right needle; then drop the stitch off the left needle, and pull the first loops over the last one. [illustration: fig. . knot stitch.] cable or chain stitch.--chain stitches are used for strengthening and equalizing the edges of articles that are made in stripes. they can be made in two ways; either, you knit off all the stitches on one needle, turn the work, put the needle into the first stitch, as if you were going to knit it from the back, and take it off the left needle without knitting it, the thread to lie behind the needle; or, you knit off all the stitches on one needle, turn the work, and knit off the first stitch. the names of the stitches.--out of the stitches that have been already described, other stitches are formed, which, as they are frequently alluded to in knitting directions, we shall here enumerate, explaining all the terms, usually employed in such directions. over, or increase.--explained in fig. . throwing the thread once over the right needle. double over, or two increases.--throwing the thread twice over the needle. plain intake.--knitting two stitches together plain. this is done when the intake is to lie from left to right. purled intake.--purling two stitches together. this is done to make the stitches, that are knitted together, visible; or in the case of a piece of work composed of stripes, on the wrong side, when the intake is to lean to the right, on the right side. plain decrease, taken from behind.--knitting off two stitches together, plain from behind. this is done when the intake is to lie to the left. purled decrease, taken from behind.--purling two stitches together, from behind. this is done when, in articles composed of stripes, the decrease has to be made on the wrong side, and is to lie to the left on the right side. pulling over.--slipping a stitch from the left needle to the right without knitting it, knitting the next plain, and pulling the slipped stitch over the knitted one. in this manner two or three stitches can be pulled over the knitted one. casting off.--to prevent the stitches from unravelling they are finished off in the following manner. knit off two plain, pull the first over the second and drop it, so that only one remains on the needle. knit the next stitch, and pull the one behind over it, and so on. this chain of stitches, must neither be too tight, nor too loose, but just as elastic as the rest of the work. materials for stockings.--stockings can be made of silk, wool or cotton, entirely according to fancy, but for coloured stockings, we cannot too highly recommend the d.m.c knitting cottons, as more durable, in all respects, than either silk or wool. they are manufactured in different shades, whereas, wool and silk are only to be had in a very limited assortment of colours. for hand-knit stockings, nos. , , [a] are the best, for machine-knit, nos. and . stocking knitting.--a stocking consists of five parts: ( ) the top, ( ) the knee, ( ) the leg, ( ) the heel, ( ) the foot. ( ). the top may be either ribbed, or knitted in an openwork stitch of same kind or with a double-toothed edge, fig. . ( ) and ( ). the knee, and the leg down to the heel, are generally plain knitted; it is only children's stockings that are fancy knitted. ( ). the heel, is worked as straight knitting backwards and forwards; by knitting first one row plain and then turning back and knitting it purl. it is shaped to the foot by the intakes at the top. ( ). the foot is knitted plain, with intakes from the heel onwards, to get rid of the superfluous stitches. then knit a plain piece, without a seam-stitch, till you begin to decrease for the toe, which can be worked in several different ways. to ensure the right proportions between the several parts of a stocking, the following directions should be attended to. an ornamental top must never be taken into account, in measuring the length of the leg. when the top part is finished, you make the seam, at the beginning of the first needle of the round, of one, or two purled stitches, or sometimes, a narrow pattern of purled stitches. this marks the middle of the stocking. for ordinary-sized stockings, knit plain from the top-band, till the knitted piece, forms a square. for stockings that are to cover the knee, knit half as much again, that is one and a half times the width of the stocking. this brings you to the calf of the leg. pull the third stitch after the seam, over the second, and knit together the two last but one before the seam. there should be rounds between each of the first or intakes, and after that , until this part is one and a half times the width of the knee in length, and a quarter narrower. for the ankle, knit a plain piece, half the width of the knee in length, without intakes. for the heel, count the stitches on the four needles, exclusive of the seam, and put two stitches more than the quarter of the whole number on to the needles, to the right and left of the seam. for a heel to fit well, it should be as long as it is wide. in order that they should wear better, the heel and the toe are often knitted with double thread. coton à feutrer d.m.c[a] is made expressly for that purpose, and should be wound round the thread of which the whole stocking is made. for the instep, the part between the heel and toe, you must go on decreasing from the heel, until you have stitches less on each needle, than you had at the ankle. then knit the plain part of the foot, which should be as wide as the ankle, after which proceed to decrease for the toe, which should be a quarter the length of the whole foot. in spite of this careful subdivision, it is always well to count the stitches, to ensure perfect regularity. the number of stitches cast on, at the outset, for the same-sized stockings, must depend upon the size of the wool or cotton; we can only give the numbers approximately. our calculation is based on the use of needles; the given number has therefore to be cast on four times. ______________________________________________________________________________ coton à tricoter d.m.c number of stitches to number of stitches to be cast on one needle for be cast on one needle numbers to be used stocking ordinary-sized for stockings that are to reach above the knee ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ scalloped edge (figs. and ).--this is the simplest and strongest edge you can have for a stocking, and is called the cat's-teeth edge. [illustration: fig. . scalloped stocking edge. edge open.] [illustration: fig. . scalloped stocking edge. edge folded together.] having cast on the stitches, knit to rounds plain, according to the size of the cotton, then one round of alternate intakes and overs. knit as many plain rounds as before, and with a sixth needle take up as many of the cast on stitches, as you have stitches on one of the upper needles. turn this needle inwards, and place it against the outside needle and knit off both needles together. see that you knit the corresponding stitches off together, otherwise the scallops that form the edge will be crooked. common heel (fig. ).--this is the simplest form of heel, and can be knitted either with or without an outside seam. divide the stitches into four, and put two more on each of the heel needles than on the others, then make, according to the size of the cotton, from to seams; knit off all the stitches on the right needle and a third of those on the left. supposing that you have stitches, knit off , then slip , knit , and pull the slipped stitch over, knit plain, turn the work, slip the first, and purl the next stitches of the second needle; purl the th and th together, purl , turn the work to the right side, and slip the first stitch on to the right needle. by means of these successive intakes after the stitches, the knitting forms a plait on both sides of the heel. [illustration: fig. . common heel.] in all heels that are made after this pattern, the intakes must begin on the right side and the last one must be made on the wrong, so that once the heel is finished and the work turned, you can go on knitting plain. when you have finished the stitches of the two heel needles up to the outside seams, take up the stitches on the sides of the heel with a spare needle and knit them on to the left heel needle, then knit the stitches reserved for the instep, take up the stitches on the right side of the heel again and knit them on to the fourth needle. in the next round, knit all the stitches of the first needle plain, excepting the last; knit the first and second of these together and the two last plain. knit the two first stitches of the fourth needle plain, slip the third, knit the fourth and pull the slipped stitch over. heel in steps (fig. ).--after dividing the stitches, make from to seams. then knit as many stitches of the first needle as you have seams at the side; turn the work, and begin the needle with the seam you made first. knit off as many stitches from the second needle as from the first. make the same number of seams, as for the first part of the heel. when the seams are finished, take up the chain stitches, on both sides, make a decrease by knitting the last stitch of the small part and the first of the large, together; knit two; turn the work; slip the first stitch, knit to the second side, and decrease as in the first part. [illustration: fig. . heel in steps.] when you have decreased all the stitches up to the last, take up the slipped stitches of the first part, and begin the intakes for the instep in the ordinary way. there is not more work in this pattern of heel than in any other; it fits closely and consequently wears well. plain heel (figs. and ).--those who are not fond of purling will appreciate this and the following pattern for a plain heel. [illustration: fig. . plain heel.] [illustration: fig. . heel knitted on the right side.] knit off the stitches of the first needle after the seam; then on to two spare needles, cast on, more stitches than you had on one needle after dividing the stitches; put the stitches of the third and fourth needles together and knit the first round plain. nd round--knit together the st and nd, and the th and th of the first auxiliary needle; and the th and th and nd and st of the second. rd round--plain. th round--knit together the st and nd and the th and th of the first needle. th round--plain. th round--knit together the st and nd and the th and th of the first auxiliary needle; and the th and th and the last but one and the last, of the second. th, th, th, th, th, th, th, th, th rounds all plain. th round--knit together the st and nd, and the rd and th of the first auxiliary needle, and the th and rd, and the last stitch but one and the last, of the second. th round--after the two last intakes, purl together the th and rd stitches before the end of the st and rd needle, and the rd and th at the beginning of the nd and th needles. th, th, and th rounds--decrease, the same as in the th round. st round--knit plain, at the beginning of the st and rd needles; knit the next together; knit together the th and rd, before the end of the nd and th needles; knit the last stitches plain; go on decreasing in this way until the purled stitches meet. after the plain round over the intakes, add four plain rounds, divide the stitches that remain for the sole, on two needles and cast off on the wrong side. now take up the auxiliary stitches, and in the first plain rounds, knit together the last and the first of the st and nd needles, and the last and the first of the rd and th. with the rest of the extra stitches make purled intakes, knitting two plain rounds after each round with an intake. for the other kind of plain heel also (fig. ), auxiliary stitches are required. supposing that you have stitches on each needle, you must cast on stitches on to each auxiliary needle; knit together the th and rd stitches at the end of the st and rd needles, and the rd and th of the nd and rd needles, so that you may have plain stitches between both intakes. go on decreasing, knitting plain rounds after each round with an intake, until you have stitches left on each needle. then knit together the first and last stitches of each needle, one plain round over it, and finish with a chain on the wrong side of the heel. then take up the auxiliary stitches and knit the instep. italian stocking (fig. ).--the heel, sole and toe of a stocking always wear out before the instep. the italians and greeks economise time and material and facilitate the renewal of those parts that wear out, by knitting the upper part of the foot in two pieces. after knitting the heel in on or other of the above ways, work the foot as straight knitting with the two upper needles only, until you have the necessary length. then knit the underneath part separately, in the same way. you must keep a chain along all edges and a narrow seam of one or two stitches. in the sole, which you make after finishing the upper part, you intakes must come directly after and before the seam. when you have got the same number of rounds in each piece, join them together and begin the toe. [illustration: fig. . italian stocking.] sew up the slits left open on either side, with a needle and thread taking care to fit the corresponding stitches together. in this manner, when one part wears out, you have only to unpick these side-seams and re-sole or re-heel the stocking as the case may be. toe (fig. ).--to begin as before, with the simplest and most ordinary way of making this part of the stocking, divide the stitches equally on to the needles; knit together the th and rd stitches before the end of the st and rd needles, knit the last and first stitches of the nd and th needles plain, and make an intake by slipping the rd stitch, knitting the th, and pulling the slipped stitch over. begin by knitting plain rounds after each of the first rounds with an intake, and afterwards only one. when you have only stitches left on each needle, collect them on two, and knit them together, two and two, on the wrong side of the stocking. [illustration: fig. . toe.] toe (fig. ).--here, before beginning to decrease, divide the stitches by , , or . supposing that they have been divided by , knit plain; knit the th and th together, plain, knit two together, and so on, the whole way round. then knit as many plain rounds as there are plain stitches between intakes. in the next rounds with intakes, you will have one stitch less between each intake, in the second therefore, there should be plain stitches between each intake, and you knit plain rounds; and so on to the th round, when stitches will remain, followed by plain rounds; when there are only stitches left on the needles, turn them in to the wrong side of the stocking, and finish off with a chain. [illustration: fig. . toe.] toe (fig. ).--begin the intakes with the two first stitches of each needle, by the slip and pull over process, knit one plain round after each round with an intake. in the following rounds, make the intake in the nd round with the rd and th stitches, in the rd, with the th and th stitches, in the th, with the th and th stitches, so that when finished the intakes form a kind of spiral. finish off in the ordinary way. [illustration: fig. . toe.] toe (fig. ).--we will describe one other kind of toe, quite as shapely and easy to make as the others. [illustration: fig. . toe.] st round--purl the first stitches on each needle together. nd and rd, th and th, th and th, th and th, th and th, th and th rounds--plain. th round-- plain, intake with the nd and rd stitches, and with the last on each needle. th round--knit the first plain, make intake with the rd and th stitches, and with the last. in each of the next rounds with intakes, knit plain stitch more. when the two seams meet, pull the last stitch on each needle over the first of the next; knit the stitches between the intakes plain. continue to decrease in this manner until the last stitches are reached. mending knitting.--knitted articles are repaired by reconstructing the web with a needle and thread. when the stitches are not actually broken, they can be strengthened by new ones made over them, by means of a needle and thread. materials for darning stockings.--the thread used for darning a stocking should be a little finer than that of which it is made. coton à repriser d.m.c[a] is the best, for as it consists of several strands it can be subdivided as occasion requires. strengthening the stitches (figs. and ).--this can be done in two ways. in fig. , the thread is brought out between two horizontal bars, passed upwards over a perpendicular bar, put in by the side of the same and brought out between the next horizontal bars. work the second row of stitches backwards; take up two threads on the left, pass downwards to the right, over one thread, take up the thread you passed over, and so on. [illustration: fig. . strengthening the loops. first way.] [illustration: fig. . strengthening the loops. second way.] the other way, fig. , is, when you have brought out your needle, to carry it over one thread to the right and upwards over two, take up the next two threads on the left, pass downwards over two horizontal threads, and over one thread to the right, and put in the needle where it first came out; then working from right to left, take up two threads, pass over one to the right, and downwards over two horizontal ones, and so on. in the next row, hold your work, the finished part uppermost, carry the needle downwards over one horizontal thread, bring it out between two threads that lie separately and take it downwards again over two horizontal threads, pick up two threads, working from right to left, pass upwards over two threads and over one to the right, take up two to the left, and so on. repairing plain knitting (fig. ).--when a broken piece of stocking web requires to be replaced by new, draw the new and the old pieces together with a needle and thread, using the same thread the stocking is made of. [illustration: fig. . repairing plain knitting.] for this purpose, you must clear the loops, by ravelling them out top and bottom, and slip them on to knitting needles. the loops that are to be connected must lie exactly opposite to each other. enter your threaded needle upwards from below through the first disengaged upper loop, and slip it off the knitting needle, then enter the needle, downwards from above through the first lower loop, and upwards from below through the next, and draw out just enough thread to make the new loop the same size as the old ones. then enter the needle, downwards from above, through the same upper loop you took up before, taking up also the one next to it, and passing your needle through it from underneath; draw out the thread to form the new loop and descend again to the next, and so on. repairing purled knitting (fig. ).--to repair ribbed surfaces consisting of alternate rows of plain and purl, proceed as follows: hold the article so that the row of purled stitches is exactly opposite the upper part. enter your needle upwards from below, through the first loop of the upper part; join the two lower loops together as in fig. ; carry the needle upwards again, and enter it upwards from below through the first loop of the upper part and downwards from above, through the loop next it. join the lower loops again, as in plain knitting. [illustration: fig. . repairing purled knitting.] disengaging the loops for darning (fig. ).--where the threads are broken, new loops have to be made, and the broken ones ravelled out and cut, so that the horizontal loops may stand out clear and distinct. cut the threads on the vertical sides so that the loops form an edge and the hole is square, clear two or four loops in the corners of the hole, fold them in and fasten them off at the back by a stitch or two. the darns we are next going to describe should be made upon a ball to prevent drawing the threads too tightly. [illustration: fig. . disengaging the loops for darning.] darning on threads stretched horizontally (figs. and ).--carry a horizontal thread across on the wrong side, in the place of each broken thread, securing it in the sound part of the stocking, about two threads from the edge of the hole. when you have made this foundation, put the needle in on the right side near the stitch that is nearest to the sound part on the left, fig. . [illustration: fig. . darning on threads stretched horizontally. position of the horizontal threads.] [illustration: fig. . darning on threads stretched horizontally. how to cover the horizontal threads.] then descending, pick up the nearest horizontal thread from below, so that the working thread lies to the right of the needle, and cover all the horizontal threads you have laid in this manner. when you have taken up the last thread, pass the needle downwards from above, through the nearest loop, and bring it back through the one at which you entered it. to make, in reascending, the second half of the loop, you must lay your thread to the right of the needle, fig. . when you have reached the last thread, enter the needle at the loop, opposite the one it came out of. darning on threads stretched obliquely across (figs. and ).--as the illustration shows, you have to pick up all the cleared loops, besides two or three on either side of the empty space. the number and length of the threads which you carry across, must correspond with those of the threads you have to replace. [illustration: fig. . darning on threads stretched obliquely across. position of the threads.] [illustration: fig. . darning on threads stretched obliquely across. how to cover the oblique threads.] fasten in, from the right side, a rather finer thread than the one the original web is made of, and make a few stitches over the existing ones, in the row you are about to complete. enter the needle upwards from below, through the first disengaged loop, pass it under two threads issuing from one loop, and then bring it back again into the same loop between the two slanting threads, drawing it out again upwards from below, through the next loop, and so on. the new loop must be just equal to the old ones in size. make in the same manner as at the beginning, two or three stitches at the end of the row, within the edge of the hole. work back in a similar way, with this difference only, that you turn your work round. piquÉ pattern (fig. ).--the following patterns are suitable for making counterpanes, petticoats, vests and other articles of clothing. select a suitable number of coton à tricoter d.m.c. cast on a number of stitches divisible by , and begin by rows of plain stitches and purled, taken from behind. [illustration: fig. . piquÉ pattern. materials: coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to .] th row--purl from behind the rd of the plain, and knit plain more and so on. piquÉ pattern (fig. ).--cast on a number of stitches divisible by . [illustration: fig. . piquÉ pattern. materials: coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to , or coton pour crochet fils d.m.c nos. to .[a]] st and nd row--* purl , knit , purl , knit , purl , knit , purl , knit ; repeat from *. rd and th row--* knit , purl , knit , purl , knit , purl , knit , purl ; repeat from *. repeat the whole from the st row. piquÉ pattern (fig. ).--cast on a number of stitches divisible by . [illustration: fig. . piquÉ pattern. materials: the same as for fig. .] the first rows--knit , purl . th and th row--knit over the purled, purl over the knitted of the th row. th and th rows--the same as the first rows. th and th row--the same as the th and th row. th to the rd--the same as the first rows. stripes for counterpanes (fig. ).--this pattern is to be worked in stripes, of two colours; we may here take occasion to mention that in choosing two colours, one dark and one light, for a piece of work, the dark cotton should always be one or two numbers finer than the light, because the dark dyes thicken the cotton more than the light ones do. the blue, red and dark brown dyes sink into the cotton more and cause it to swell, whereas the lighter dyes do not affect its thickness. [illustration: fig. . stripes for counterpanes. materials: coton à tricoter d.m.c no. , , or . colours: rouge-turc and gris-tilleul .[a]] hence it comes, that for the stripes, here described, we were obliged to take no. of the red cotton and no. of the green, in order that the same number of stitches should make the same length of stripe. cast on stitches: st needle--slip , knit , over, knit , knit from behind, purl from behind, knit from behind, purl , knit , purl , knit from behind, purl from behind, knit from behind, purl from behind, knit from behind, purl from behind, knit from behind, purl from behind, knit , over, knit , chain stitch. nd needle--wrong side: slip , purl , purl together, purl from behind, knit from behind, purl from behind, knit from behind, purl from behind, knit from behind, purl from behind, knit , purl , knit , purl from behind, knit from behind, knit together, purl , chain stitch. rd needle--right side: slip , knit , over, knit , knit from behind, purl from behind, knit from behind, purl from behind, knit from behind, purl , knit , purl , knit from behind, purl from behind, knit from behind, purl from behind, knit from behind, purl from behind, knit , over, knit , chain stitch. th needle--wrong side: slip , purl , purl together, purl from behind, knit from behind, purl from behind, knit from behind, purl from behind, knit , purl , knit , purl from behind, knit from behind, purl from behind, knit from behind, purl from behind, knit from behind, purl together, purl , chain stitch. th needle--on the right side: slip , knit , over, knit , knit from behind, purl from behind, knit from behind, purl from behind, knit from behind, purl from behind, knit from behind, purl , knit , purl , knit from behind, purl from behind, knit from behind, purl from behind, knit , over, knit , chain stitch. th needle--on the wrong side: slip , purl , purl together, purl from behind, knit from behind, purl from behind, knit , purl , knit , purl from behind, knit from behind, purl from behind, knit from behind, purl from behind, knit from behind, purl from behind, knit from behind, purl together, purl , chain stitch. th needle like the th, th needle like the th, th needle like the rd, th needle like the nd, th needle like the st. five plain stitches form a zig-zag in the middle of the stripe. join the stripes with crochet stitches; of which several kinds are described in the next chapter. knitted square (fig. ).--cast on stitches on to each of the needles. repeat always times after the asterisk. [illustration: fig. . knitted square. materials: coton à tricoter d.m.c no. or fil à pointer d.m.c no. .] st row--over, knit , over, knit *. nd row--knit , over, knit , over, knit *. rd row--knit , purl , over, knit , over, purl , knit *. th row--knit , purl , over, knit , over, purl , knit *. th row--knit , purl , over, knit , over, purl , knit *. th row--knit , purl , over, knit , over, purl , knit *. th row--knit , purl , over, knit , over, purl , knit *. th row--knit , purl , knit , over, knit , over, knit , purl , knit *. th row--knit , purl , knit , over, knit , over, knit , purl , knit *. th row--knit , purl , knit , over, knit , over, knit , purl , knit *. th row--knit , purl , knit , over, knit , over, knit , purl , knit *. th row--knit , purl , knit , cross stitches (that is, first knit off the second stitch plain and then the first), knit , over, knit , over, knit , cross , knit , purl , knit *. th row--knit , purl , knit , purl , over, knit , over, purl , knit , purl , knit *. th row--knit , purl , knit , cross , knit , purl , over, knit , over, purl , knit , cross , knit , purl , knit *. th row--knit , purl , knit , purl , over, knit , over, purl , knit , purl , knit *. th row--knit , purl , knit , cross , knit , purl , over, knit , over, purl , knit , cross , knit , purl , knit *. th row--knit , purl , knit , purl , over, knit , over, purl , knit , purl , knit *. th row--knit , purl , knit , cross , knit , purl , knit , over, knit , over, knit , purl , knit , cross , knit , purl , knit *. th row--knit , purl , knit , purl , knit , over, knit , over, knit , purl , knit , purl , knit *. th row--knit , purl , knit , cross , knit , purl , knit , over, knit , over, knit , purl , knit , cross , knit , purl , knit *. st row--knit , purl , knit , purl , knit , over, knit , over, knit , purl , knit , purl , knit *. nd row--knit , purl , knit , cross , knit , purl , knit , cross , knit , purl , knit , cross , knit , over, knit , cross , knit , purl , knit , cross , knit , purl , knit *. rd row--knit , purl , knit , purl , knit , purl , over, knit , over, purl , knit , purl , knit , purl , knit *. th row--knit , purl , knit , cross , knit , purl , knit , cross , knit , purl , over, knit , over, purl , knit , cross , knit , purl , knit , cross , knit , purl , knit *. th row--knit , purl , knit , purl , knit , purl , over, knit , over, purl , knit , purl , knit , purl , knit *. th row--knit , purl , knit , cross , knit , purl , knit , cross , knit , purl , over, knit , over, purl , knit , cross , knit , purl , knit , cross , knit , purl , knit *. th round--knit , purl , knit , purl , knit , purl , over, knit , over, purl , knit , purl , knit , purl , knit *. finish the square with several rows of purl and a chain. plain patent knitting, or brioche pattern (fig. ).--this easy and extremely elastic stitch is used for all sorts of articles of clothing, and is worked in two rows. [illustration: fig. . plain patent knitting, or brioche pattern.] cast on a number of stitches that divides by , with extra for the edge. st row--slip , knit , * over, put the needle into the next stitch, as if to purl it, slip the stitch from the left needle to the right, knit , repeat from *, and finish with plain. nd row--begin with chain, knit , knit the slipped stitch and the over together, over, slip the single stitch that remains, from the left needle to the right. when the knitting is round, you purl and knit the intake alternately. double patent knitting (fig. ).--begin on the wrong side. [illustration: fig. . double patent knitting.] st row--like the st row of fig. . nd row--knit all the stitches, pass the over by putting the needle into it from right to left. rd row--like the second row of fig. . now, it is only the second and third row that should alternate. patent knitting has a charming effect, done in two colours, by working them alternately backwards and forwards. plaited stitch (fig. ).--this kind of stitch is worked in stripes, which, for scarves, counterpanes, etc., are generally joined together with stripes of plain knitting. for counterpanes, the lower numbers of d.m.c cottons are most suitable, for smaller articles the higher numbers. plaited stitch is formed by crossing the stitches, that is, by knitting the second stitch on the left needle to begin with, and then the first stitch. [illustration: fig. . plaited stitch. materials: coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to , or cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to .] if you cross two or more stitches in a few successive rows without slipping them, the stitches will be seen by degrees, to form a plait, as shown in fig. . st row--purl , cast on stitches on to an auxiliary needle, and leave it hanging on the inside of the work; knit and then knit the stitches on the extra needle, purl . then follow rows, in which you purl all the purled stitches and knit all the plain ones. after which rows you repeat from the beginning. turkish stitch (fig. ).-- st row--slip , knit , over, knit together, over, knit together, and so on to the last stitches, which you knit plain. [illustration: fig. . turkish stitch.] nd row--slip the st, knit the nd and the rd plain, the latter having been formed by the last over on the st needle; over, intake with the stitch and the over, over, intake and so on. turkish stitch with beads (fig. ).--string the beads on the thread before you begin to knit. when you only use one kind of bead, thread a needle with your knitting cotton and run it through the thread on which the beads are strung. when you use several kinds, you must count and thread them on in the required order. beaded knitting is little in request now, excepting for tobacco pouches and purses; for which you should use cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. , in any colour, and small beads. [illustration: fig. . turkish stitch with beads.] for close beaded knitting, plain stitch is the best. run the beads down singly at each stitch. the beads will fall on the reverse side of the work so that in knitting with beads, remember that the reverse side will be the right side. to work fig. , which represents the same stitch as fig. , you run down or sometimes beads before knitting each stitch. knitting pattern with two kinds of cotton (fig. ).--a variety of pretty things, such as open-work stockings, shawls, curtains etc. can be made in this pattern, worked with two sizes of thread. to give it its full effect it ought to be knitted with coarse needles, nos. , , or . [illustration: fig. . knitting pattern with two kinds of cotton. materials: fil à pointer d.m.c no. or , and cordonnet fils d.m.c no. or , écru.[a]] cast on a number of stitches that divides by . take the coarse thread to begin with. st and nd row--purl. rd row--purl , overs, purl . th row--with the fine thread: over, knit together, slip the next stitch of the previous row, drop the double over, slip the next stitch, over, knit together. th row--over, knit together, over, knit together, and so on. th row--like the last. see that the slipped stitches, in the coarse thread, always come on the right side of the work. th row--with the coarse thread: purl , purl the slipped stitches of the rd row together, then repeat from the st row. see that in the rd row the overs come between the stitches formed by the stitches that were formed by the st over, and the stitches of the th row, that were knitted together. knitting pattern with two kinds of thread (fig. ).--cast on a number of stitches that divides by . [illustration: fig. . knitting pattern with two kinds of thread. materials: fil à pointer d.m.c nos. to and cordonnet fils d.m.c no. or .] st row--with coarse thread: purl. nd row--plain. rd row--with fine thread: over, intake, knit . th row--plain. th row--knit , over, intake, knit . th row--plain. th row--knit , over, intake. th row--plain. th and th row--with the coarse thread: purl. th row--plain. th row--with the fine thread: over, knit together. th row--plain. th row--purl. then repeat from the st row. knitting pattern with dropped stitches (fig. ).--cast on a number of stitches that divides by . [illustration: fig. . knitting pattern with dropped stitches. materials: coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to , coton pour crochet d.m.c nos. to , or fil à pointer d.m.c nos. to .] st row--over, slip , knit , overs, knit , overs, knit . nd row--knit , slip the next, drop the overs, knit , turn the work, purl , turn the work, knit , drop the overs, slip the next stitch. rd row--over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitches over, drop the first of the stitches, knit first the stitch that follows the second double over, then the others plain, and lastly, take up the dropped stitch and knit it plain on the right side of the work. th row--knit plain. th row--over, slip , over, knit . th row--knit plain, and repeat from the st row. knitting pattern (fig. ).--this pattern may be worked with any one of the d.m.c cottons recommended for fig. , but in the case of anything that is not wearing apparel, fil à pointer d.m.c will be found more suitable. cast on a number of stitches that divides by . [illustration: fig. . knitting pattern.] st row--over, knit together, over, knit together, over, knit together, over, knit , knit together, over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitches over, over, knit . each row marked by an even number is to be knitted plain throughout. rd row--knit , over, knit together, over, knit together, over, knit together, over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit , knit together, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit . th row--knit , over, knit together, over, knit together, over, knit together, over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit together, over, knit , over, knit together. th row--knit , over, knit together, over, knit together, over, knit together, over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit , knit together, over, knit . th row--knit , over, knit together, over, knit together, over, knit together, over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitches over, over, knit . th row--knit , over, knit together, over, knit together, over, knit together, over, knit together, over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit . th row--knit , over, knit together, over, purl together, over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit . repeat from the beginning. knitting pattern (fig. ).--cast on a number of stitches that divides by . st row-- overs, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit , knit together. nd row-- overs, slip the first over on to the right needle, knit the second over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit , knit together. rd row-- overs, slip the overs of the two first rows on to the right needle, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit , knit together. th row--drop the overs of the first rows and knit double stitches, that is, knit stitch on the over, slip it on to the left needle and knit it again. these stitches finished, make overs, and slip , knit , pull slipped stitches over. repeat from the beginning. each time you repeat the th row, make double stitches on overs, that is, on threads. [illustration: fig. . knitting pattern. materials: cordonnet fils d.m.c, or fil à pointer d.m.c] knitting pattern (fig. ).--this pattern is suitable for children's braces. for coton à repriser d.m.c nos. to , which is the best for the purpose, you will require fine bone needles. cast on a number of stitches that divides by . st row--over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit . nd row--knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit . rd row--knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over. th row--slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit , over. th row--knit together, over, knit . th row--knit , knit together, over, knit . th row--knit together, over, knit . th row--knit , knit together, over. repeat from the beginning. [illustration: fig. . knitting pattern. materials: coton à repriser d.m.c nos. to .] knitting pattern (fig. ).--the patterns shown in figs. and , are more particularly useful for comforters, shawls, hoods and the like. the needles, which may be either of bone or steel must match the cotton in size; steel needles are the best for any thing finer than no. , of d.m.c coton à tricoter. [illustration: fig. . knitting pattern.] cast on a number of stitches that divides by . st row--over, slip stitch on to the right needle, knit the next stitches, and draw the first stitch over them. nd row and th row--knit plain. rd row--like the first, but note, that the stitch that was the third in the first row, will be the first here. repeat from the beginning. knitting pattern (fig. ).--cast on a number of stitches that divides by . [illustration: fig. . knitting pattern.] st row--over, knit the first together, draw the rd stitch through the stitch formed by the intake and knit it off plain, then knit the stitch that was pulled over it. nd and th row--knit plain. rd row--like the first; the third stitch here is the same that was drawn through the third stitch in the first row. knitting pattern (fig. ).--cast on a number of stitches that divides by . [illustration: fig. . knitting pattern.] st row--over, knit , over, knit , purl , knit together, purl , knit . nd row--knit , purl , knit . rd row--over, knit , over, knit , purl , knit together, purl , knit . th row--knit , purl , knit . th row--over, knit , over, knit , purl , knit together, purl , knit . th row--knit , purl , knit . th row--over, knit , over, knit , knit together, knit . th row--knit , purl , knit . repeat from the beginning but in the reverse order, that is, purling the knitted stitches and knitting the purled. knitted lace (fig. ).--knitted lace looks best, made of a smooth, silky thread which shows up the pattern better than any other material. as a knitted edging makes a very pretty finish to almost any kind of knitted article, we give a selection of some of the easiest and most effective patterns that we consider suitable for the purpose. [illustration: fig. . knitted lace. materials: cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to .[a]] cast on stitches. st needle-- chain, knit , over, knit together, knit , overs, knit . nd needle--knit , purl , knit , over, knit together, chain. rd needle-- chain, knit , over, knit together, knit . th needle-- chain, knit , over, knit together, chain. repeat from the first needle. knitted lace (fig. ).--cast on stitches. st needle--knit together, overs, knit together, overs, knit , over, knit together, chain. nd needle-- chain, knit , knit together, knit , purl , knit , purl , knit . rd needle--knit together, overs, knit together, overs, knit , over, knit together, chain. th needle-- chain, knit , knit together, knit , purl , knit , purl , knit . th needle--knit together, overs, knit together, overs, knit , over, knit together, chain. th needle-- chain, knit , knit together, knit , purl , knit , purl , knit . th needle--knit , over, knit together, chain. th needle-- chain, knit , knit together, knit . th needle-- chain, overs, knit together, overs, knit , over, knit together, chain. repeat from the second needle. knitted lace (fig. ).--cast on stitches. [illustration: fig. . knitted lace. materials: coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to , fil à pointer d.m.c nos. to , cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to .[a]] st needle-- chain, purl , purl together, over, knit , chain. nd needle-- chain, knit , over, knit , knit from behind, chain. rd needle-- chain, purl , over, purl together, over, knit , chain. th needle-- chain, knit , over, knit together, over, knit , knit from behind, chain. th needle-- chain, purl , over, purl together, over, purl together, over, knit , chain. th needle-- chain, knit , over, knit together, over, knit together, over, knit , knit from behind, chain. th needle-- chain, purl , over, purl together, over, purl together, over, purl together, over, knit , chain. th needle-- chain, knit , over, knit together, over, knit together, over, knit together, over, knit , knit from behind, chain. th needle-- chain, purl , over, purl together, over, purl together, over, purl together, over, purl together, over, knit , chain. th needle-- chain, knit , knit from behind, chain. repeat from the first needle. [illustration: fig. . knitted lace. materials: fil d'alsace d.m.c nos. to , cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to .[a]] knitted lace (fig. ).--cast on stitches. [illustration: fig. . knitted lace. materials: fil d'alsace d.m.c nos. to , cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to .[a]] st needle-- chain, knit from behind, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit , chain. the nd, th, th, th, th, th, th, and th needle, purled. rd needle-- chain, knit from behind, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, chain. th needle-- chain, knit from behind, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit , chain. th needle-- chain, knit from behind, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, chain. th needle-- chain, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit , knit together, over, knit together, over, knit , chain. th needle-- chain, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit , knit together, over, knit together, over, knit together, over, knit , chain. th needle-- chain, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, over, knit together, over, knit together, over, knit together, over, knit , chain. th needle-- chain, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit , knit together, over, knit together, over, knit , chain. repeat from the first needle. rose for knitting (fig. ).--repeat all the directions, ending with the sign *, times. cast on stitches, on to needles, two on each; close the ring. nd round-- times: over, knit . the rd, th, th, th, th, th, th, th, th, st, rd, and th round, knit plain. th round--over, knit , over, knit from behind *. th round--over, knit , over, knit from behind *. th round--over, knit , over, knit from behind *. th round--over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit together, over, knit *. th round--over, knit together, over, knit *. th round--over, knit from behind, over, knit *. th round--over, knit from behind, over, knit *. th round--over, knit from behind, over, knit *. th round--over, knit from behind, over, knit *. nd round--over, knit from behind, over, knit *. th round--over, knit from behind, over, knit *. th round--over, knit , over, knit , knit together, purl , slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit *. [illustration: fig. . rose for knitting. materials: fil d'alsace d.m.c in balls, no. or , fil à dentelle d.m.c no. , or .[a]] th round--knit , purl , knit *. th round--over, knit , over, knit , knit together, purl , slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit *. th round--knit , purl , knit *. th round--over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit , knit together, over, knit , over, knit , knit together, purl , slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit *. st round--knit , purl , knit *. nd round--over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitches over, over, knit , over, knit , knit together, purl , slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit *. rd round--knit , purl , knit . th round--over, knit , over, knit , knit together, purl , slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit *. th round--knit , purl , knit . th round--over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit , knit together, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit , knit together, over, knit , over, knit together, purl , slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over *. th round--knit , purl , knit . th round--over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitches over, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitches over, over, knit , over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitches over *. th, st and rd round--knit plain. th round--over, knit , knit together, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit , over, knit . nd round--knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit , knit together, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit , knit together, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit , knit together, over, knit *. th round--knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitches over, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitches over, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitches over, over, knit *. finish with three purled rounds. knitted edging (fig. ).--cast on stitches. st needle, make a chain of stitches, over, knit from behind, over, knit from behind, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit , knit together, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit , knit together, over, knit , knit from behind, purl , knit from behind, over, knit , knit together, purl , slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit , purl , knit , knit together, knit from behind, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit , over, knit from behind, purl , knit from behind, over, knit together, knit , chain. [illustration: fig. . knitted edging. materials: fil d'alsace d.m.c nos. to or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to , or cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to .[a]] nd needle-- chain, knit , purl , purl from behind, knit , purl from behind, purl , knit , purl , knit , purl , knit , purl , purl from behind, knit , purl from behind, purl , purl from behind, purl . rd needle--slip stitches over for a chain, over, knit from behind, over, knit from behind, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitches over, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitches over, over, knit together, over, knit from behind, purl , knit from behind, over, knit , over knit together, purl , slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, purl , knit together, purl , slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, over, knit , over, knit from behind, purl , knit from behind, over, knit together, knit , chain. th needle--slip , knit , purl , purl from behind, knit , purl from behind, purl , knit , purl , knit , purl , knit , purl , purl from behind, knit , purl from behind, purl , purl from behind, purl . th needle--slip stitches over for a chain, over, knit from behind, over, knit from behind, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit together, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit together, over, knit together, over, knit , knit from behind, purl , knit from behind, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitches over, purl , slip , knit , pull slipped stitches over, over, knit , over, knit from behind, purl , knit from behind, over, knit together, knit , chain. th needle--slip , knit , purl , purl from behind, knit , purl from behind, purl , knit , purl , purl from behind, knit , purl from behind, purl , purl from behind, purl . th needle--slip stitches over for a chain, over, knit from behind, over, knit from behind, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit , knit together, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit , knit together, over, knit together, over, knit together, over, knit from behind, purl , knit from behind, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitches over, over, knit , over, knit from behind, purl , knit from behind, over, knit together, knit , chain. th needle--slip , knit , purl , purl from behind, knit , purl from behind, purl , purl from behind, knit , purl from behind, purl , purl from behind, purl . th needle--slip stitches over for a chain, over, knit from behind, over, knit from behind, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitches over, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitches over, over, knit together, over, knit together, over, knit , knit from behind, purl , knit from behind, over, knit , knit together, purl , slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit , purl , knit , knit together, purl , slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit , over, knit from behind, purl , knit from behind, over, knit together, knit , chain. th needle--slip , knit , purl , purl from behind, knit , purl from behind, purl , knit , purl , knit , purl , knit , purl , purl from behind, knit , purl from behind, purl , purl from behind, purl . th needle--slip stitches over for a chain, over, knit from behind, over, knit from behind, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit together, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit together, over, knit together, over, knit together, over, knit together, over, knit from behind, purl , knit from behind, over, knit , over, knit together, purl , slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, purl , knit together, purl , slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, over, knit , over, knit from behind, purl , knit from behind, over, knit together, knit , chain. th needle--slip , knit , purl , purl from behind, knit , purl from behind, purl , knit , purl , knit , purl , knit , purl , purl from behind, knit , purl from behind, purl , purl from behind, purl . th needle--slip stitches over for a chain, over, knit from behind, over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit , knit together, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit , knit together, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit from behind, purl , knit , from behind, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitches over, purl , slip , knit , pull slipped stitches over, over, knit , over, knit from behind, purl , knit from behind, over, knit together, knit , chain. th needle--slip , knit , purl , purl from behind, knit , purl from behind, purl , knit , purl , purl from behind, knit , purl from behind, purl , purl from behind, purl . th needle--slip stitches over for a chain, over, knit from behind, over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitches over, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitches over, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, over, knit together, purl , knit from behind, over knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitches over, over, knit from behind, over, knit together, knit , chain. th needle--like the th. th needle--slip stitches over for a chain, over, knit from behind, over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit together, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit together, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit from behind, purl , knit from behind, over, knit , knit together, purl , slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit , purl , knit , knit together, purl , slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit , over, knit from behind, purl , knit from behind, over, knit together, knit , chain. th needle--slip , knit , purl , purl from behind, knit , purl from behind, purl , knit , purl , knit , purl , knit , purl , purl from behind, knit , purl from behind, purl , purl from behind, purl . th needle--slip stitches over for a chain, over, knit from behind, over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit , knit together, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit , knit together, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, over, knit together, purl , knit from behind, over, knit , over, purl , slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, purl , knit together, purl , slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, over, knit , over, knit from behind, purl , knit from behind, over, knit together, knit , chain. th needle--like the th. st needle--slip stitches over for a chain, over, knit from behind, over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitches over, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitches over, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit from behind, purl , knit from behind, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitches over, purl , slip , knit , pull slipped stitches over, over, knit , over, knit from behind, purl , knit from behind, over, knit together, knit , chain. nd needle--slip ; knit , purl , purl from behind, knit , purl from behind, purl , knit , purl , purl from behind, knit , purl from behind, purl , purl from behind, purl . rd needle--slip stitches over for a chain, over, knit from behind, over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit together, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitch over, knit together, over, knit , over, knit together, purl , knit from behind, over, knit , over, slip , knit , pull slipped stitches over, over, knit , over, knit from behind, purl , knit from behind, over, knit together, knit , chain. th needle--slip , knit , purl , purl from behind, knit , purl from behind, purl , purl from behind, knit , purl from behind, purl , purl from behind, purl . repeat from the first needle. footnotes: [a] see at the end of the concluding chapter, the table of numbers and sizes and the list of colours of the d.m.c threads and cottons. [illustration: crochet lace.--close leaves and bars with picots] crochet work. crochet work, so called from the hook, french _croche_ or _croc_, with which it is done, is not only one of the easiest but in comparison with the cost and labour, one of the most effective kinds of fancy-work. it is also one of the most useful, as it can be applied to the domestic requirements of every-day life, to wearing apparel, house-linen and upholstery; and we are sure that the patterns contained in this chapter, which have in addition to their other merits that of novelty, will meet with a favorable reception. hooks, or needles, as they are generally called, made of wood, bone or tortoise-shell are used for all the heavier kinds of crochet work in thick wool or cotton, and steel ones for the finer kinds. the tunisian crochet is done with a long straight hook, which is made all in one piece. the points should be well polished inside and not too sharp, the backs slightly curved, and the handles, whether of bone, steel or wood, so light as not to tire the hand. those represented here, we consider the best, as regards shape. as it is most essential that the needle should be suited to the cotton in size, we subjoin a comparative table of the numbers of the d.m.c threads and cottons and of the different needles. [illustration: fig. . crochet needle with wooden handle.] [illustration: fig. . crochet needle with steel handle.] [illustration: fig. . english crochet needle with wooden handle.] table of the approximate relation of the d.m.c threads and cottons to the numbers of the crochet needles. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------+ numbers of the | | | | | | | | | crochet needles | | | | | | | | | -------------------+--------+--------+-----+------+------+-----+-----+-------| numbers of the | | | | | | | | | cottons | no. | no. | no. | no. | no. | no. | no. | no. | -------------------+--------+--------+-----+------+------+-----+-----+-------+ coton pour crochet | --- | | - | - | - | - | --- | --- | coton à tricoter | | | - | - | - | - | | --- | fil à pointer | | | - | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | cordonnet fils | - ½ | - ½ | - | - | - | - | - | - | fil d'alsace | --- | --- | --- | --- | | - | - | - | fil à dentelle | --- | --- | --- | --- | | - | - | - | -----------------------------------------------------------------------------+ explanation of the signs *.--in crochet, as in knitting, you frequently have to repeat the same series of stitches. such repetitions will be indicated, by the signs *, **, ***, etc., as the case may be. crochet stitches.--in point of fact, there is only one, because all crochet work consists of loops made by means of the hook or needle, and connected together by being drawn the one through the other. crochet work may however, be divided into two kinds, german crochet, and victoria or tunisian crochet; the latter is known also under the name of _tricot-crochet._ in german crochet there are eight different kinds of stitches: ( ) chain stitch, ( ) single stitch, ( ) plain stitch, ( ) treble stitch, ( ) knot stitch, ( ) bullion stitch, ( ) cluster or scale stitch, ( ) double stitch. the rows are worked, according to the kind of stitch, either to and fro, or all from one end. in the former case, the work has to be turned at the end of each row, and the subsequent row begun with , or chain stitches to prevent the contraction of the outside edge. when the rows are all worked one way, the thread must be fastened on afresh each time, which is done by putting the needle into the first chain stitch of the preceding row, drawing the thread through it so as to form a loop, and making one or more chain stitches according to the height required. at the end of each row, cut the thread and draw the end through the last loop; in this manner all crochet work is finished off. some crochet workers make a few extra chain stitches with the ends of the thread at the beginning and end of each row, or fasten them off with a few stitches on the wrong side. they can also, when the occasion requires, be formed into a fringe or tassels as a finish to the work. position of the hands and explanation of ( ) chain stitch (fig. ).--take the thread in the left hand between the finger and thumb, hold the needle between the thumb and first finger of the right hand, letting it rest on the second finger, in the same manner in which you hold your pen, and put it into the loop, which you hold between the finger and thumb of the left hand. take up the thread, lying on your finger, with the needle and make your first stitch as you do in knitting, tightening the loop just enough to leave an easy passage through it for the needle. the end of the thread must be held by the thumb and forefinger. the next stitches are made by taking up the thread with the needle and drawing it through the loop. the throwing of the thread round the needle by a jerk of the wrist is called an 'over'. [illustration: fig. . position of the hands and explanation of chain stitch.] ( ) single stitch (fig. ).--put the needle in from the right side of the work, into the uppermost loop of the preceding row, take up the thread on the needle and draw it through both loops. [illustration: fig. . single stitch.] ( ) plain stitch (fig. ).--put the needle through, as in fig. , from the right side to the wrong, under the upper side, either of a chain, or of a stitch of the preceding row, draw the thread through it in a loop, turn the thread round the needle and draw it through both loops on the needle. by making the rows of plain stitches follow each other in different ways, a great variety of stitches can be produced, as the illustrations and written instructions here given will show. [illustration: fig. . plain stitch.] rose stitch (fig. ).--this consists of rows of plain stitches, worked backwards and forwards. insert the needle from the right side, under both the horizontal loops of the preceding row. [illustration: fig. . rose stitch.] russian stitch (fig. ).--this is worked like the foregoing, only that all the rows have to be begun from the same end, and the thread has to be cut off at the end of each row. [illustration: fig . russian stitch.] ribbed stitch (fig. ).--worked backwards and forwards, the hook being passed through the back part only of the stitches of the preceding row. [illustration: fig . ribbed stitch.] chain stitch.--worked like fig. , but on one side only. piquÉ stitch.--this stitch also is only worked on one side. put the needle in under one of the vertical threads of a stitch and complete the plain stitch. this is a stitch that looks very well on the wrong side; the bars of the loop lie quite close together, which makes it particularly suitable for unlined articles of clothing. it requires a large-sized needle to do this stitch well, especially if the material be a heavy one. slanting stitch (fig. ).--worked entirely on the right side. take up the back thread of a stitch in the preceding row, take hold of the crochet thread without turning it round the needle and draw it through in a loop, and then finish the stitch like a plain stitch. [illustration: fig. . slanting stitch.] crossed stitch.--the name which is given to the preceding stitch when both the threads of the stitches in the row before, are taken up together, instead of the back one only. russian crossed stitch (fig. ).--to work this stitch which runs in slanting lines, put the needle in between the vertical threads of the stitches and underneath the two horizontal ones. [illustration: fig . russian crossed stitch.] counterpane stitch (fig. ).--counterpanes can be made in a less close stitch than those just described. [illustration: fig. . counterpane stitch.] to produce a soft and elastic fabric turn the thread round the needle and insert it under both the horizontal threads of a loop, take up the thread without turning it round the needle, draw it through in a loop, make an over, and draw the thread through all the three loops, that you have on the needle. knotted stitch (fig. ).--this stitch likewise is composed of plain stitches, which, however differ in a slight degree from those we have described hitherto. [illustration: fig. . knotted stitch.] make an over, put the needle through the two horizontal threads of the stitch below, make another over and draw it back through the two loops and the first over, make another over, and draw the thread through the last two loops. loop stitch (fig. ).--worked as follows: when you have put the needle into the loop of a stitch below, carry the thread, downwards from above, round a stripe of cardboard or a flat wooden ruler, then finish the stitch in the usual way. these long loops, each about c/m. in length, can also be made over the forefinger and held fast by the thumb as you work, but it is more difficult to make them regular in this way. each row of long stitches is followed by a row of plain stitches. the side, where the long loops lie, becomes the right side. if you wish this stitch to be very thick and handsome, wind the thread three times round the ruler, or finger, and secure it with a plain stitch; in this case, you should make one plain stitch between every two clusters. a loose, fleecy thread is generally used for this stitch, and for washing articles more especially, we recommend coton à repriser d.m.c. [illustration: fig. . loop stitch.] plain stitches for a chain (fig. ).--begin with two chain stitches, put the needle in between the two threads of the first chain stitch, turn the thread round the needle and draw it through in a loop, turn it round again and draw it through the two loops; then, put the needle into the left part of the stitch that was just made, turn the thread round the needle, draw it through the two loops and so on, to the end. [illustration: fig. . plain stitches for a chain.] a chain of this kind makes a very good substitute for _mignardise_ when that can not be got of the right size and colour for the required purpose. ( ) trebles.--trebles are little columns, or bars made of loops or stitches. they can be worked, like all other crochet, either to and fro, or all one way. there are different kinds of trebles; half or short trebles, trebles, double trebles, called also 'long stitch', and quadruple and quintuple trebles, called 'extra long stitch', connected trebles and crossed trebles. half trebles (fig. ).--turn the cotton round the needle from behind, put the needle in between the trebles of the preceding row, or into one edge of a chain stitch; make an over, bring the needle forward again with the thread, make another over and draw the needle through all three loops. [illustration: fig. . half trebles] trebles (figs. and ).--begin, as for the half treble, by turning the thread round the needle, and putting it in under one edge of the stitch beneath, then take up the thread on the needle and bring it through two of the loops, take it up again, and draw it through the two remaining loops. [illustration: fig. . trebles made directly above one another.] [illustration: fig. . trebles set between those of the preceding row.] in fig. , we have trebles made in the same manner as fig. , only that instead of putting the needle under one edge of the stitch beneath, you put it under both, and between the trebles of the last row. [illustration: fig. . double trebles or 'long stitch'.] double trebles or 'long stitch' (fig. ).--turn the thread twice round the needle, put it into a stitch of the work and bring the thread through in a loop, then take up the thread on the needle and bring it through two of the loops, three times in succession. [illustration: fig. . triple and quadruple trebles or 'extra long stitch'.] triple and quadruple trebles or 'extra long stitch' (fig. ).--for a triple treble, twist the cotton three times round the needle, for a quadruple one, four times, then form the treble in the usual way by bringing the needle through two of the loops at a time. to make a series of trebles, of gradually increasing length, bring the needle, at every other treble, through the last three loops, so that before making a triple treble you will have to make columns, respectively, treble, ½ treble, trebles and ½ trebles long. columns like these, of different lengths, are often required in crochet work, for leaves and scalloped edgings. connected trebles (fig. ).--trebles, connected together, can be worked to and fro, and take the place of plain stitches. begin with a chain, then make a treble of the required height, form as many loops as you made overs for the treble, take up the upper thread of the stitch nearest the treble, turn the thread round the needle, bring it back to the right side and draw the needle through the trebles, two at a time. [illustration: fig. . connected trebles.] crossed trebles (figs. and ).--trebles of this sort produce an open stitch, which is often used for the footing of lace, or for an insertion. make a foundation of chain, or other stitches, and proceed as follows: chain, miss stitches of the row beneath, make treble in the third stitch, chain, over, put the needle in between the loops of the connected trebles and finish with a treble. then make a double over, put the needle into the next loop of the preceding row, make another over, draw the needle through the loops, make another over and join the two next loops. this leaves loops on the needle. make an over, put the needle into the third stitch of the row beneath, make an over, and bring the needle back to the right side. [illustration: fig . crossed trebles.] [illustration: fig. . crossed trebles, set between those of the preceding row.] join the loops on the needle together, and , make chain, over, put the needle into the upper parts of the connected trebles and finish with a treble, and so on. these trebles also can be lengthened if necessary, but in that case, the width of the crossed treble must correspond with the height. generally speaking you make the trebles over the same number of stitches as you made overs on the needle, which should always be an even number. trebles for a chain.--a quicker way of making a wide footing for a crochet lace is to make the trebles in the following manner. make chain stitches, overs, put the needle into the first of the chain, over, draw the thread through the stitch *, over, draw the thread through the next loops and repeat twice from * = ** overs, put the needle into the left bottom part of the treble, close the treble as before and repeat from **. ( ) knot stitch (fig. ).--this stitch which is composed of several loops forming a tuft, can only be worked from one side, consequently all one way. it looks best in a coarse material to show the interlacing of the threads. enter the needle through the two loops of the stitches of the bottom row, turn the thread round the needle, but away from you towards the back; bring it forward to the right side, put the needle again through one of the bottom stitches, make another over like the first and draw the needle through all the bars at once. [illustration: fig. . knot stitch.] ( ) bullion stitch (figs. and ).--for bullion stitch, select a needle, a little thicker towards the handle, and finer than you would use for any other crochet stitch. [illustration: fig. . bullion stitch.] [illustration: fig. . bullion stitch.] begin by making a chain of very loose stitches, then wind the thread several times, very evenly, round the needle. insert the needle into a loop of the chain, make a single over, and draw it with the last over upon it, through all the other overs. trebles in bullion stitch, fig. , are worked in just the same manner, only that you have to turn the thread, at least or times round the needle and draw it through all the overs at once. to facilitate the passage of the needle, keep the overs in their place with the thumb and forefinger of the left hand. bullion stitch can only be worked with wool or a very fleecy thread, such as coton à repriser d.m.c,[a] but trebles in bullion stitch can be worked in any of the d.m.c threads and cottons. ( ) cluster stitch (fig. ).--generally used as an insertion between rows of plain crochet. [illustration: fig. . cluster stitch.] put the needle under one stitch of the preceding row, make an over, draw the thread through in a loop, make another over, put the needle in again under the same stitch, bring it back, make a third over, and pass a third time under the same stitch; bring the needle back, make a fourth over and pass the needle through all the loops that are upon it. then, after making a chain stitch, begin the same stitch over again, placing it in the second stitch of the lower row. cluster stitch may also be finished off by retaining the two last loops on the needle, making an over, and ending with a plain stitch. ( ) double stitch (fig. ).--a rather coarse thread, such as coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to , cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , or fil à pointer d.m.c nos. to [a] is better for this stitch than a loose fleecy thread which is apt to render it indistinct. take up a loop right and left of a stitch of the preceding row, so that counting the loop of the last stitch, you have loops on the needle, make an over and draw it through the loops. then take up a loop again by the side of the one you made on the left, and which now lies on the right. take loops in the next stitch, make an over and draw it through all the loops. [illustration: fig. . double stitch.] raised stitch (fig. ).--all the stitches that come under this heading require a foundation of a few plain rows for the raised trebles. in fig. , you will observe that the fourth stitch in the fourth row is a double treble, connected with a loop of the fourth stitch of the first row. [illustration: fig. . raised stitch.] miss the stitch of the preceding row, which is hidden under the treble, make plain stitches, double treble, and so on. having finished this row, turn the work and make a plain row. in the next row begin with plain stitches, then make double treble between the stitches that are between the first trebles, plain stitches, double trebles and so on. in the th row of plain stitches, the trebles must be placed in the same order as in the th. raised stitch with crossed trebles (fig. ).--begin, as in fig. , by rows of plain stitches. the th row begins with plain stitches followed by: * double treble joined to the upper part of the st stitch of the st row; keep the last loops of this treble on the needle; make a double over for the next treble, pass the needle through the fourth stitch of the first row, make an over, turn the thread round the needle, bring it back, finish the treble all but the last loops, which you crochet together. miss the stitch behind the treble, make plain stitches and repeat from *. [illustration: fig. . raised stitch, with crossed trebles.] then turn the work, make one plain row, and turn the work back to the right side. the second row of trebles begins with a plain stitch. the way in which the trebles are to be crossed is shewn in the illustration. raised stitch with dots (fig. ).--after making plain rows, begin the th with plain stitches, and proceed as follows: * trebles into the th plain stitch of the preceding row, leaving the last loop of each treble on the needle, so that altogether you have loops upon it; then you turn the thread once round the needle and draw it through the loops; miss the stitch that is underneath the dot, make plain stitches and repeat from *. [illustration: fig. . raised stitch with dots.] then make rows of plain stitches; in the th row, the st dot is made in the th stitch, so that the dots stand out in relief. raised dots with trebles (fig. ).--turn the work after making rows of plain stitches, make stitches more in the th stitch of the st row, * trebles, drop the last stitch of the th treble, put the needle into the stitch between the last plain stitch and the st treble, take the dropped loop of the last treble and draw it through the one on the needle; miss the stitch under the dot, make plain stitches and repeat from *. [illustration: fig. . raised dots with trebles.] raised dots in slanting lines (fig. ).--on the rows of stitches that have been previously prepared, make, for the th stitch of the th row, a cluster stitch, as in fig. , with quadruple over and then plain stitches, cluster stitch and so on. the next row is plain; in the second you have to make plain stitch more, and fasten the cluster stitches into the loops to the left of the second of the covered rows. in this way you have to make each raised stitch, one stitch, in advance and to the left of the last, so that they run in slanting lines over the surface. [illustration: fig. . raised dots in slanting lines.] close shell stitch (fig. ).--this pretty stitch which can only be worked in rows, all one way, is more especially suitable for children's jackets and petticoats; it is easy, and has the merit of being quickly done. on a foundation of chain, or other stitches, make: chain, trebles on the th stitch, * chain, trebles on the th stitch of the last row and repeat from *. [illustration: fig. . close shell stitch.] nd row--** trebles on the chain stitch of the last row which connects bars, plain stitch on the th of the trebles of the first row and repeat from **. picots.--the edges of most crochet work are ornamented with picots, or small points of different shapes, called severally close picots, chain picots and lace picots. close picots may be subdivided into, large and small, pointed, and rounded, picots with rounded leaves and picots with pointed leaves. small rounded picots.--these may either be made separately and then sewn on, or made at once, on to a crochet border. in the first case, begin with chain, then coming back, make plain stitch on the second and on the first chain stitch. in the second case make: chain, take the needle out of the stitch and put it in from the right side, under both edges of the last stitch, take up the dropped stitch, bring it to the right side, * chain; then returning: plain stitch on each chain, draw the needle out, put it in from the right side into the second stitch of the row beneath, take up the loop, bring it back to the right side, and repeat from *. large rounded picots.-- chain, miss , treble on the nd and treble on the st chain stitch. when you want to attach these picots at once to an existing piece of work, drop the last loop and bring it back again with the needle from the wrong side to the right and miss stitches, instead of one, as in the case of the small picots. pointed picots.--cast on chain, then returning, and missing the th stitch: single stitch, plain stitch, half treble, treble, double treble. picots with rounded leaves.--* chain, and trebles on the first stitch, and single on the same stitch on which the trebles were, **, or chain and repeat from * to **. when these picots serve as a finish to a straight edge, make single stitches in the preceding row instead of chain. picots with pointed leaves.-- chain, on the first chain stitch: double trebles, of which you retain the two last loops on the hook, over, draw the thread through the loops, chain, single on the stitch on which the trebles are. chain picots.--for the small chain picots, make: chain and plain stitch on the first of these stitches. for the large ones: chain and treble on the first stitch. picots in bullion stitch (figs. and ).-- chain, treble in bullion stitch drawn up into a ring, and joined to the th chain stitch. [illustration: fig. . drooping picots.] drooping picots (fig. ).-- chain, drop the loop, put the needle into the first of the chain, take up the dropped loop, and draw it through the stitch. [illustration: fig. . empty lace picots, worked in crochet.] [illustration: fig. . lace picots attached to a row of stitches made before hand.] lace picots (figs. and ).--fig. represents picots formed of chain stitches, as follows: chain, put the needle into the first, over, bring the thread back to the front, chain: * put the needle into the two loops, and at the same time, into the second loop and the first chain, draw the thread through in a loop, make chain and repeat from *. in order to make the picots more even and regular, it is advisable to form them over a coarse knitting needle or mesh. fig. represents picots attached by plain stitches to the edge of a finished piece of work; this is done as follows: plain stitch, draw out the loop to the proper length for a picot, and slip it on a mesh: put the needle into the horizontal parts of the last stitches, turn the thread round the needle, draw it through in a loop, and make plain stitch on the next stitch and so on. [illustration: fig. . open-work crochet made after a tapestry pattern.] [illustration: fig. . plain crochet made after a tapestry pattern.] method for copying tapestry patterns in crochet work (figs. and ).--printed cross stitch and embroidery patterns can very well be copied in crochet work especially when they are in two colours only, or rather, are drawn in one colour, on a plain ground. the way in which such patterns are copied in crochet is by means of chain stitches and trebles, which, rising one above the other in rows, form little squares. for each square marked on the pattern, you must count, in the grounding, treble and chain stitches; in the solid parts, trebles. the squares formed by the chain stitches should always begin and end with a treble. when, therefore, a solid square comes between empty or foundation squares, count trebles for the solid square, because the last treble of the last empty square touches the third treble of the solid one. thus for solid squares, side by side, count trebles, and for squares, . embroidery patterns worked in several colours can be reproduced in crochet either by trebles and rows worked one way only, cutting off the thread at the end of each row, or by plain stitches, worked in rows to and fro. when only three colours are used, pass two threads under the stitches; when more than two, leave those which are not in use, at the back of the work and only bring them to the front as they are wanted. the thread, you lay aside, takes at the back the place of the one in use. of course, the threads not in use can only can be disposed of in this way when the work has a wrong side, otherwise they must be passed underneath the stitches. the colours should alternate in the order the pattern prescribes; moreover, the last stitch before you take another colour cannot be finished with the same thread, you must pass the new thread through the last loop and draw it up with that. [illustration: fig. . crochet with soutache or lacet (braid).] [illustration: fig. . crochet with soutache or lacet (braid). materials: coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to or cordonnet fil d.m.c nos. to . soutache d.m.c no. or or lacets superfins d.m.c nos. to . colours: the cotton, white or écru. the soutache or lacet: rouge-cardinal , or rouge-grenat , or bleu-indigo .[a]] crochet with soutache or lacet (braid) (figs. and ).--these are two patterns of crochet, worked with the ordinary crochet cottons and with soutache or lacet d.m.c, a material which has not been used for crochet work before. both patterns are worked entirely with trebles; in fig. , the red braid passes over and under trebles; in fig. , it is brought, it will be observed, from the wrong side to the right after every trebles, and passed between them, in such a manner as to form a slanting stitch between the rows of stitches. crochet square (fig. ).--begin with chain stitches, and work single on the st chain, to make a round. work, chain and plain on the next chain, plain on each of the next chain, plain on the stitch on which the two first plain are worked. slip the next stitch, that is, put the needle in between the horizontal bars of the st plain stitch of the previous row, and draw the thread out without making a stitch. then make chain and plain on the slipped stitch. after which, you make plain on the second of the plain that form the corner, and plain on all the other stitches of the last row. the beginning and end of each row, are worked as described above. fig. represents a square, worked in consecutive rows. in making a crochet square, the rows may end in the middle of a side. [illustration: fig. . crochet square.] when you use a stitch that has to be worked to and fro, you turn your work at the end of every row and work back along the stitches you have just made. [illustration: fig. . crochet hexagon.] crochet hexagon (fig. ).--make a foundation chain of stitches, join the round; plain on the chain; finish the row as indicated for the previous figure == turn the work == * plain, plain on the second plain of the last row; repeat times from *. finish the row with single == turn the work == plain, plain on the second of the first plain; plain and so on. these hexagons can be made of any size. coloured star worked into a light ground (fig. ).--begin with chain, join the ring = plain on each of the chain; then for the foundation, plain with the dark thread, and with the light on each of the plain. in each subsequent row, make one dark stitch more, increasing regularly, that is, making stitches on the last light stitch that comes before the dark ones. proceed in this manner until you have or dark stitches, in all and then begin to decrease in every row by one, until there is at last only one dark stitch remaining. these stars are used in the making of purses, cap-crowns and mats for lamps, etc. [illustration: fig. . coloured star worked into a light ground.] tunisian crochet.--tunisian crochet is also called crochet-knitting because, you have to cast on all the first row of stitches, as in knitting. materials--every kind of cotton, as well as wool and silk, can be used for tunisian crochet: the stitches look equally well in all these materials, but for things that require frequent washing or cleaning, a good washing material should be selected, such as coton à tricoter d.m.c and cordonnet fils d.m.c[a], both strong and suitable in all ways. as we have already said, tunisian crochet requires to be done with a long straight needle, with a knob at one end and it can only be worked on the right side. [illustration: fig. . plain tunisian crochet.] plain tunisian crochet (fig. ).--after making a foundation chain of the required length, begin the first, or loop row as it is called. put the needle into the nd chain stitch, draw a loop through and so on, until you have taken up all the chain stitches on the needle. after having made the last stitch of the loop row, make chain stitch and then pass to the second row that completes the stitch. turn the thread round the needle, draw it through two loops, turn the thread round again, and again draw it through two loops, and so on to the end. [illustration: fig. . straight plaited tunisian stitch.] straight plaited tunisian stitch (fig. ).--worked thus: miss the first loop in the st row, take up the second, and come back to the first, so that the loops are crossed. work the second row in the same manner as the second row of the preceding figure. [illustration: fig. . slanting plaited tunisian stitch.] diagonal plaited tunisian stitch (fig. ).--worked like the preceding, taking up first the second loop and then the first: the second row also, in the same way as before. in the third row, take up the first stitch, and draw the third through the second, so as to produce diagonal lines across the surface of the work. open tunisian stitch.--this is an easy kind of tunisian crochet. the first row is worked as in fig. . in the row of plain stitches, you alternately join and , or and loops of the preceding row together, and replace them by as many chain stitches. decreasing and increasing in tunisian crochet (fig. ). our illustration shows how to decrease on both sides and by that means form scallops. [illustration: fig. . decreasing in tunisian crochet.] you miss a stitch alternately on the right and left. on the right you crochet the first two stitches together, and at the end of the row, the last two, and so on, to the end. you increase in the same order, first on the right and then on the left. hairpin crochet (figs. , , ).--so called because it is worked on a kind of large steel hairpin or fork with two or more prongs. wooden and nickel varieties of this implement, which are patented by mme besson, of paris, are also used. very pretty laces, fringes, gimp headings and the like can be made in this kind of crochet work. it is often used in combination with ordinary crochet and plain and scalloped braids and gimps, or as a heading for fringes made of tufts and pendant balls. there are a great many stitches which can be worked in hairpin-crochet. we shall only describe those here that will best teach our readers how the work is done. materials.--for washing laces, cordonnet fils d.m.c is the best; for furniture fringes, the lower numbers of coton à tricoter d.m.c, and for producing the appearance of filoselle, the lower numbers of coton à repriser d.m.c are to be taken. [illustration: fig. . steel hairpin for crochet.] [illustration: fig. . wooden fork for crochet.] [illustration: fig. . fork with several prongs for crochet.] stitches.--begin by a chain stitch, made with an ordinary crochet needle, take the needle out of the loop, and insert the left prong of the fork upwards from below, holding the fork between the thumb and finger of the left hand. the thread should always be in front. then put the thread over the right prong and the needle into the loop on the left prong, take up the thread, draw it through the loop, put the thread over the needle and draw it through the loop that is on the needle, twist the loop round the left prong, turn the needle round to the right (the thread will now be wound round the right prong); put the needle into the loop on the left prong, throw the thread over the needle, draw it through, tighten the loops and so on. these stitches may be doubled, or you may make several trebles on each loop, or arrange the plain stitches in different ways. [illustration: fig. . hairpin insertion. materials: fil à pointer d.m.c no. or , or cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , white or écru.[a]] hairpin insertion (fig. ).--begin by making stripes with the fork, covering each thread with two plain stitches. then join the stripes together by the loops, drawing the left loop over the right one and the right one over the left. when you come to the end of the stripes fasten off the last loops by a few stitches. to strengthen the edges, join two loops together by plain, chain, plain and so on. [illustration: fig. . hairpin lace materials--for the hairpin work: fil à pointer d.m.c nos. to , or cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , white or écru. for the edge. coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to . colours: rouge-cardinal , or jaune-rouille , or brun-marron .[a]] hairpin lace (fig. ).--when, by making two half trebles in each loop, you have got the necessary length of hairpin crochet, join the loops two and two, by means of a coloured thread which makes a good contrast with the thread of which the hairpin crochet is made. work plain stitch joining loops on the right, chain, plain joining the loops on the left; then chain and come back to the right, and so on, until you have taken up all the loops. this forms the zig-zag in the middle. st row--join loops by: plain, chain. nd row--on the chain stitches: plain, half-treble, trebles, picot, made with chain (for the chain picots, see p. ), half-treble, plain. the footing of this lace is made like the one in fig. . [illustration: fig. . hairpin fringe with tassels.] hairpin fringes (figs. , , , ).--fig. is made with a fork composed of one branch and or rulers, round which the thread is wound in succession, so as to form loops of different lengths. you may use for this, either a single very coarse thread, or else several fine ones, used together as one. the heading of the fringe is plain, and heavy tassels are fastened into the loops. the tassels are made as follows: take a thick skein of the same thread the fringe is made of, pass it through the loop, leaving just the length required for the tassel, at one end, thread a needle with the same thread and twist it round the skein, the right distance from the top to form the head of the tassel and then cut the ends even, at the bottom. as the loops are of different lengths, the tassels will hang in steps and the fuller and heavier they are, the handsomer the fringe will be. [illustration: fig. . hairpin fringe with tassels. materials: coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to .[a] colours: Écru and jaune-rouille , , or gris-tilleul and rouge-cornouille and , or three other shades.[a]] fig. represents another pattern of fringe, the first part of which is made with the same fork as the preceding one. instead however of winding the thread round the several prongs in succession, you pass it alternately round the two first and the fourth, thus making loops of two lengths only. tassels of a length, suited to the purpose the fringe is intended for, depend from these loops and may be varied in the second row by balls made to issue from the middle, or by long meshes, which are made over the whole width of the fork and affixed to the loops. figs. and represent two pretty patterns of fringes made of écru cotton with a strong twist. these are very suitable for washing articles, as the cotton balls wash perfectly. [illustration: fig. . hairpin fringe with one line of balls.] [illustration: fig. . hairpin fringe with two lines of balls, one above the other. materials--for the crochet-work: cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , or fil à pointer d.m.c nos. to . for the balls: coton à repriser d.m.c nos. to .] the loops in fig. are all of one length and a ball hangs from every third. in the last chapter but one, a minute description is given of the way in which these balls are made. the heading of the loops is formed by a row of chain stitches, varying in number from four to six, according to the size of the cotton. the edge is ornamented with little picots. the fringe, in fig. , consists of three long and three short loops alternately, which causes, the balls that are made to depend from them, to form two parallel lines. if you join the loops of the heading together, three and three, you will have to make enough chain stitches to cover the space that is to be filled. the picots are made with chain stitches, you put the needle back into the fifth stitch after closing the picot, make chain, plain, in the preceding row, picot and so on. fringe made with lacet or braid (fig. ).--this is an easy fringe to make and a very effective trimming for table-cloths, curtains etc., which are embroidered on coarse stuffs. begin with a foundation chain, in coarse écru twist, the light stitch in the middle of the heading of the fringe being also made of the same material. in the next row, you use the twist and the braid together, as follows--with the twist = chain stitch, put the needle into the first stitch of the foundation chain, take up the braid, draw it through, turn the twist round the needle, draw it through the braid and the chain stitch. to make the braid loops longer, they may be made over a wooden ruler. to the two rows of braid stitches, represented in the pattern, you may add as many other rows as you please. on the fringed side make: plain, chain, draw out one very long loop and fasten into it a cluster of lengths of braid from to c/m. long, and draw the loop tightly round it to secure the tassel; plain on the chain stitches. repeat from *. [illustration: fig. . fringe made with lacet or soutache (braid). materials: lacet d.m.c no. or soutache d.m.c no. ½ in red. cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to . fil à pointer d.m.c nos. to , écru.[a]] [illustration: fig. . lace made on point lace braid. materials: fil d'alsace d.m.c nos. to , or cordonnet fils d.m.c no. , white[a] and point lace braid.] lace made on point lace braid (fig. ).--for the rounds: plain on the braid, chain, then coming back, single on the th chain. in this first round you make: chain, half-treble, trebles *, half-treble, chain, single on the th chain; chain, single on the braid, far enough from the st chain for the rounds not to overlap each other. then chain, single on the th chain, single, half-treble, trebles, join to the first round between the th and th trebles, trebles and repeat from *. for the footing: treble, chain, miss a few threads of the edge of the braid, treble. [illustration: fig. . crochet guipure lace. materials: fil d'alsace d.m.c nos. to . cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to .] crochet guipure lace (fig. ).--this charming little lace makes a very good substitute for real guipure. it can be made on a row of trebles, just as well as on point lace braid, or on a mignardise, after you have raised the picots of it by single and chain stitches. plain *, chain, leave an interval equalling in length bars of the point lace braid used in our pattern; in the braid: plain stitches, very close together, chain, single on the th of the chain, chain, single on the d of the chain, chain, plain close to the first of the first plain. st scallop-- plain, chain, join to the th chain; on the th chain: plain; on the th chain: plain. nd scallop--on the chain: plain, chain, join to the th chain = on the chain: plain = on the chain, plain, chain, join to the th chain, plain, chain, join to the th chain, chain, plain on the th chain. rd scallop--like the first, then repeat from *. [illustration: fig. . lace made on point lace braid. materials: the same as for .] lace made on point lace braid (fig. ).--on the braid, work a row of trebles, or chain stitches apart, according to the size of the braid and on this row of trebles, make two other rows as follows: st row-- chain, treble on the treble of the preceding row, chain, treble, on the same stitch to which the first treble is joined, chain, miss trebles, treble on the th treble of the row beneath. nd row-- plain on the rd of the first chain, plain, treble on the rd of the chain stitches between the two trebles of the first row that come close together; chain, treble on the same stitch, chain, treble on the same stitch, chain, treble on the rd of the next chain. [illustration: fig. . crochet lace. materials: lacet superfin d.m.c no. and fil d'alsace d.m.c nos. to .[a]] crochet lace (fig. ).-- st row-- plain close together, in the braid; * chain, join to the st plain. on each of the first chain; plain; = on the th chain: plain, then on the other chain stitches: plain. in the braid: plain and repeat from *. nd row--* miss plain of the first row, plain to reach the nd stitch added in the first row, plain on the nd added stitch, plain on the next stitches. repeat from *. for an insertion, drop the thread after the nd of the stitches that are to be made at the point, then put the needle into the stitch of the finished stripe, take up the thread again, draw it through the stitch and proceed to the second side of the scallop. [illustration: fig. . crochet lace with mignardise. materials--according to the mignardise used. fil d'alsace d.m.c nos. to , or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to .[a]] crochet lace with mignardise (fig. ).--this and all the patterns that follow, up to fig. , make very useful trimmings for all kinds of underclothing. begin by raising the picots on both sides of the mignardise by: plain stitch and chain. the rows of crochet work between, consist of: treble on chain, chain, miss picots of the mignardise, treble between the rd and th picot. work the edge in two rows. st row-- treble between picots, chain, miss picots, treble. nd row-- treble on chain, chain, treble, chain, trebles, chain, turn back and join to the st of the trebles, chain, join them to the nd treble, trebles on the chain; keep the last loops of the last treble on the needle and join them to those of the next treble. [illustration: fig. . lace with two rows of leaves. materials: fil d'alsace d.m.c nos. to , cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to .] lace with two rows of leaves (fig. ).--this is one of the pleasantest crochet patterns to work that we know. the leaves are made separately and fastened into a foundation with thread, at least two numbers finer than that of which the leaves are made. leaf with petals: chain, make a ring = plain on the ring = st petal * chain, miss chain, half-treble on the th chain, chain, miss the th chain, treble on the th chain, chain, treble on the th chain, chain, treble on the rd chain, chain, plain on the ring. nd petal: chain, miss chain, half-treble *, chain, miss chain, treble *. repeat times from * to *; add: chain, trebles on the ring. rd petal: chain, miss chain, half-treble *, chain, miss , treble *. repeat times from * to *; add: chain, miss , trebles in the ring. the th petal to be worked like the rd; the th like the st. when the petals are finished, make plain stitches on the ring; then on the chain stitches of the st petal: plain, trebles, trebles on the th stitch; then descending again: trebles, plain and single on the plain stitches of the ring. on the nd petal work: plain, trebles, trebles on the th chain, trebles, plain, single, on the trebles on the ring. rd petal: single, plain, trebles, trebles on the th chain, trebles, plain, a single. the th petal is worked like the nd; the th like the st, to be followed by single on the st of the chain stitches of the ring. for the stalk: chain; miss , plain on the chain; chain, miss , plain on the chain, plain on the chain stitches that are still disengaged, single on the ring and then fasten the thread off with a few stitches. when you have enough leaves, join them together by a row of picots, working from left to right as follows: * take the second petal on the right side of a leaf, put the thread into the th stitch; make plain, picot, plain on the stitch on which the picot was made = in all the leaves, the rd plain before the picot and the first after, meet in the same stitch beneath = plain, picot, plain, chain = on the th stitch of the rd petal: plain, plain more on the next stitches **, picot, plain. repeat times from ** and finish with chain. on the th stitch of the th petal: plain, plain on the next stitches ***, picot, plain. repeat times from ***. on the th stitch of the th petal: plain, and on the next, plain ****. repeat from * to ** round each leaf, then instead of a picot, make chain, join between the st and nd picot, chain, close the picot. from this point the preceding series of stitches takes the place of the picot that immediately follows the sign **; proceed to ****. foundation for the footing of the lace, with a single row of leaves.--when all the leaves are joined together, take the finer number of cotton and fasten your thread to the last stitch of the small stalk; then make: * chain, plain on the th stitch of the th petal; chain, miss , plain on the rd stitch; chain, plain on the rd stitch, chain, plain on the th stitch of the th petal; chain, plain on the rd chain; chain, plain on the th stitch (counting from the bottom) of the th petal of the next leaf; chain, single on the last stitch of the long stalk; chain, join to the rd chain stitch, chain, draw the thread again in coming back through the rd of the second set of chain stitches in the st petal; single; turning back and from left to right: single on the plain stitch between the chain stitches, chain, plain on the nd of the last chain, chain, plain on the stalk, chain, plain on the rd stitch of the stalk; chain, plain on the th stitch of the stalk; chain, plain at the top of the little stalk, then repeat from *. the network in the next rows, which may be of any width, is composed of: chain stitches and, plain on the loop of the last row. for the last row but one of the network, make: chain, plain over each loop, and complete the lace by a row of plain stitches. to make the leaves stand out from the foundation, use two shades of thread, white and écru, white and jaune-rouille , or white and gris-cendre . the following is the way to join two rows of leaves together, that have previously been edged with picots. fasten the thread on to the little stalk, * chain, plain on the th stitch of the leaf, chain, join to the middle picot of the rd petal of the top leaf; chain, plain on the th petal of the bottom row, picot, plain. for the nd petal of the bottom leaf: plain, picot, plain. for the th petal of the next leaf below: plain, chain, single on the long stalk, chain, plain on the nd picot of the st petal of the preceding leaf, chain, single on the nd picot of the th petal of the top leaf, chain, plain on the th single of the stalk, chain, single on the th picot of the rd petal of the top leaf, chain, miss stitch of the stalk, plain on the stalk, chain, plain on the th picot of the top leaf, chain, plain on the little stalk. repeat from *. three and even four rows of leaves may be joined together in this manner and make a very handsome lace, particularly suitable for church linen. insertion with waved braid (fig. ).-- plain stitch at the point of the braid, chain, single on the nd chain. on the next chain stitches: half-treble, treble, double treble, triple treble, plain on the next point of the braid. repeat the same stitches on the second side, only that after the th chain stitch, you draw the thread through the th of the st finished row. little wheels, set between the crochet pyramids, and described in the chapters on filet-guipure and irish lace, complete the insertion. [illustration: fig. . insertion with waved braid. materials.--according to the size of the braid: fil d'alsace d.m.c nos. to , or cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to .[a]] crochet lace, made with leaf braid (fig. ).--introduce the thread into one of the leaves of the braid and working from right to left, make for the outer border: * plain, chain, picot in bullion stitch, with twists of the thread, chain, treble near the end of the leaf. leave the last loops of the treble on the needle **. take leaves of the braid, fold them one upon the other: treble near the stalk of these folded leaves, tighten the loops of the trebles; chain ***, picot, chain, plain, chain. repeat times from ***. proceed with picot, chain,--there will be picots round the folded leaves-- treble on the folded leaves and repeat from ** to *, therefore the inverse way, and begin again from *. for the footing of the lace, rows are required. st row--* double treble close to the stalk of the leaf, chain, treble, at the third of the leaf, double treble at the nd third of the leaf, chain, double trebles, one on the right leaf, one on the left, draw the last loops of the trebles up together and repeat from *. nd row--on each of the little loops formed by the chain of the last row: plain, chain, picot in bullion stitch, chain, picot, chain; plain on the next loop and so on. rd row-- plain on the th of the chain, chain, plain and so on. th row-- plain on each loop of the last row. [illustration: fig. . crochet lace made with leaf braid. materials: fil d'alsace d.m.c nos. to or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to .[a]] crochet lace made with leaf braid (fig. ).--begin with the outside edge: st row:--at the end of a leaf: treble, chain, picot in bullion stitch, chain, treble = at the beginning of a nd leaf: chain, picot, chain, treble at the end of the leaf = chain, picot, chain, treble on the rd leaf = chain, picot, chain, treble at the end of the rd leaf = chain, treble, chain, treble on the th leaf = double treble joined to the th and st leaf of the next scallop = treble at the end of the st leaf, join and draw the last loops of these trebles together. nd row--over each treble and picot: * plain, chain, picot, chain, picot, chain, plain = repeat times from *. at the indent and before the last picot: chain, picot, chain = plain before the st picot of the next scallop. rd row-- treble, chain, repeat times. in the indent join the th of the chain stitches right and left together by treble. th row-- single on each loop of chain. inside junction.--begin at the edge of the first leaf, fasten on the thread and make chain and, double treble at the end of the leaf, triple treble, and draw up both together, chain, triple trebles on the leaves to the right and left = chain, triple trebles, one at the end and the other at the beginning of the rd and th leaf = chain, picot in bullion stitch, chain, plain on the last stitch of the first trebles, chain, plain on the last stitch of the last trebles; chain, triple treble at the end of the th leaf. [illustration: fig. . crochet lace made with leaf braid. materials: cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to or fil à dentelle nos. to .[a]] going back to the beginning: chain, single on the chain above the picot = chain, single on the th of the first chain = chain, plain on the loop of the last triple treble, chain, picot in bullion stitch, chain = plain on the stalk between the leaves; chain, picot, chain, triple treble on the leaf, chain, repeat from *. nd row-- chain, treble on the lower loops. distribute the chain stitches equally. rd row-- plain in the braid that forms the footing of the lace, chain, plain on the last chain stitches, chain, plain in the braid, continuing in this manner to join the crochet work and the braid together. irish lace (fig. ).--begin with the semicircles in the middle of the pattern, which arch over two scallops, and cast on chain. then lay a double or threefold thread of cordonnet fils d.m.c no. , over the chain stitches, and make one plain stitch on each; then cut the padding thread short off. [illustration: fig. . irish lace. materials: cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , fil à pointer d.m.c no. or fil d'alsace d.m.c nos. to .[a]] on the other side of the chain make plain, * chain, picot, chain, picot, chain, miss ; plain on each of the next stitches **. repeat times from * to **; the th time making only chain. nd and rd row--on the upper side, over a double thread of twist: plain on each stitch of the last row; cut off the padding thread = chain, picot, chain, picot, chain, plain on the th of the chain stitches after the first picot of the preceding row = chain, picot, chain, plain on the th of the next chain stitches **. repeat times from * to ** and then make: chain, picot, chain, picot, chain, plain. on the upper side and without a padding thread: plain, picot, * plain, picot, **. repeat times from * to **. continue with: plain, chain, picot, chain, plain on the th of the first chain of the nd row on the inside of the semicircle = chain, picot, chain, picot, chain, plain on the plain stitch of the previous row = plain on the st of the chain = chain, picot, chain, picot, chain, plain as before, = chain, picot, chain, picot, plain = chain, picot, chain, plain, return and make on the chain: plain, chain, picot, chain, plain = make more scallops like the previous one = chain, picot, chain, plain = return and make on the chain: plain, chain, picot, chain, plain = make more scallops, and then a rd joined to the scallop that terminates the semicircle on the right by the plain stitches = chain, picot, chain, picot, chain, plain on the point of the crescent = scallops consisting of: chain, picot, chain, picot, chain, plain. plain on the scallop that terminates the semicircle on the left, chain, plain on the next scallop, chain, picot, chain, plain on the next scallop = make bars more of the same kind = chain, plain = bars like the previous ones = chain, plain = bars as before = plain, chain, plain on the next scallop = bar consisting of chain, picot, chain, plain over all the scallops of the preceding row ( scallops in all). th row-- chain *, trebles on the chain that follow the plain = turn the work = single on the last treble, chain, treble on the th and on the th of the trebles, chain, treble on the th and on the th of the trebles, chain, treble on the rd and on the nd of the trebles, chain, single on the st of the trebles = turn the work = ** on the chain: plain, half-treble, treble, half-treble, plain = plain between the trebles below = on the chain, plain, half-treble, treble, half-treble, plain *** = plain between the trebles beneath, repeat from *** to **, therefore the reverse way. go on with scallops consisting of chain, picot, chain, picot, chain, plain = after the nd scallop: chain, picot, chain = trebles on the chain over the plain and finish the little flowers consisting of scallops each, like the first from * to *** and from *** to ** = plain to get back to the scallop = chain, picot, chain, plain, chain, picot, chain, picot, chain, plain, chain, picot, chain, and make a rd flower of scallops like the others = single to come back to the scallop, chain, picot, chain, plain = more scallops like the previous ones, then make the th flower of scallops, which must come before the plain stitches of the previous row = scallops consisting of: chain, picot, chain, picot, chain, plain = the last scallop is to be joined to the st scallop of the st flower, under the left point of the semicircle = single along the small scallop, trebles, chain, picot, chain, plain on the point of the scallop = bars like the previous ones to be joined to the next scallops = similar bars between the small scallops = single on the scallop between the flowers and single on the nd set of chain stitches in the scallop that precedes the rd flower = single on the point of the st scallop of the rd flower = continue the little bars along the nd side until past the th flower = after the th flower make bars consisting of chain, picot, chain, plain = chain, picot, chain, plain on the next scallop **** chain, plain on the next scallop, chain, picot, chain, plain on the next scallop, chain, picot, chain, plain on the next scallop, chain, picot, chain, plain on the next scallop ***** repeat five times from **** to *****. at the nd repetition make bar with picot more, so that you have bars instead of . at the th repetition you decrease by bar, so that you have instead of . plain on the point of the scallop of the flower, chain, picot, chain, picot, chain, plain, one of which is made on the nd plain of the previous row, and the nd on the bar of chain stitches = plain, picot, chain, picot, chain, plain = more similar scallops = then chain, picot, chain, plain on the nd plain of the previous row = join and on the chain make plain = chain, picot, chain, plain. over the st little flower inside the semicircles, make scallop like the previous ones = then chain, picot, chain, plain on the rd point of the first flower = chain, plain on the nd point of the second flower = plain on the scallop and joined to the rd point of the first flower = chain, picot, chain = plain = scallop like the previous ones, plain on the th point of the small flower, chain, picot, chain, plain = plain over the chain = chain, picot, chain, plain. make scallops of: chain, picot, chain, picot, chain, plain, after the th scallop make chain only, which must come just before the th chain to the left without a picot and above the point of the semicircle. over the chain make a flower like the first with scallops = then scallops, chain, picot, chain, picot, chain, plain. make one more flower with scallops, scallops like the previous ones = a third flower with scallops, chain, plain, one of them above the point of the row beneath, chain, plain over the next scallop = turn the work and coming back over the row just made, make: plain on the first of the chain, plain on the point of the scallop, chain, picot, chain, plain on the next scallop, carry on the bars over the flowers and scallops, making plain on the scallops of the flower and plain on the other scallops, up to the plain stitches between the flowers underneath the semicircle. after the plain stitch that joins the last bar, turn the work and make scallops consisting of: chain, picot, chain, picot, chain, plain. cut off the thread and fasten it on above the semicircle and at the plain stitch which precedes the chain without picot and make the second side like the first = having reached the middle, close to the plain, turn the work = make the half round of bars and fasten off at the th scallop of the flower above the semicircle. fasten on at the point under the flowers where the work was turned and on the wrong side, and from right to left, work: scallops consisting of chain, picot, chain, picot, chain, plain = then add: chain, picot, chain, plain above the point of the scallop of the small flower = turn the work: plain over the chain. bars of chain, picot, chain, plain = after the nd bar, chain = come back and join to the picot of the st bar = chain, trebles over the chain and complete the flower as before. after the th scallop of the flower: chain, single, quite close to the trebles, chain, plain on the next bar, chain, picot, join to the nd stitch of the th scallop of the flower, chain, carry on the bars the same distance as on the first side. footing of the lace--on the chain stitches that follow the rd plain stitch and above the last little figure: triple treble, chain, join to the middle plain stitch = miss scallop, treble, chain = miss scallop, double treble, chain, = miss scallop, triple treble, chain, = miss scallop of the figure on the left, double treble, chain = miss scallop, treble, chain = miss scallop, double treble, chain = miss scallop, treble, chain = miss scallop, treble, chain = miss scallop, double treble, chain, triple treble, chain, quadruple treble on the next plain stitch. repeat the whole, reversed, and finish off the footing with a row of plain stitches. edge of the lace.--fasten on, where the semicircles join: double treble on the first chain stitches of the empty scallop, chain, double treble on the next disengaged chain stitches of the half scallop; continue the same on all the chain scallops and distribute the trebles so that there may be in all, times chain stitches. add triple trebles, the last loops of them, connected by a plain stitch; the st triple treble on the last chain stitches of the last scallop, the nd on the plain stitch, that follows the st scallop of the middle figure = chain, treble on the plain stitch of the nd point. repeat the same, reversed. nd row--on the first chain of the last row: plain = on the next chain: plain = on the chain, leave a space: plain, chain, come back and join to the th chain stitch by a single stitch = on the scallop: plain, picot, plain, picot, plain = and so on, until you have points altogether. the plain stitches must be distributed as follows: for the nd point: in the th space plain, in the th space plain = for the rd point: in the th space, plain, in the th space, plain = for the th point: in the th space plain, in the th space plain = for the th point: in the th space plain, in the th space plain = for the th point: in the th space plain, in the th space plain = for the th point: in the th space plain = for the th point: in the th space plain = plain in each of the remaining spaces. crochet lace (fig. ).--this is always an effective pattern, in any number of thread. it is not new, however, and is probably already known to many of our readers as a pillow lace. those who are not fond of making pillow lace, will be glad to learn how to reproduce it in crochet, as it makes a pretty trimming, both for wearing apparel and furniture. for furniture, it should be made in unbleached cotton, for articles of dress, in any of the of the finer numbers, referred to above. for the separate squares, cast on chain stitches, and close the ring. st row--* chain, plain on the ring. repeat times from *. nd row-- chain, plain on the first chain: * chain, plain = on the first chain of the st row: chain, plain on the second chain of the st row. repeat times from *. rd row-- plain on the first of the nd row: * chain, plain, chain, plain, chain, plain. repeat times from *. in the th and following rows, go on increasing, as in the rd row, until, on all sides, you have plain stitches between every chain. th row-- plain, chain, plain, * picot made of chain, plain between the st and the nd plain of the last row, chain, plain between the next plain. repeat times from *, and fasten off. crochet the squares together, as you finish them. after the th and last plain stitch, make: chain, drop the loop, put the hook into the rd of the chain stitches that form one corner of the square, draw the dropped loop through, chain, close the picot, finish the square. [illustration: fig. . crochet lace. materials.--for trimming curtains and coarse linen table covers: fil à pointer d.m.c no. or , or cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to écru. for articles of dress: fil d'alsace d.m.c nos. to , cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to écru.[a]] for the star that connects the squares-- chain, close the ring; * chain, picot, chain, over, join the picots right and left of the squares that are to be joined together, by treble; chain, picot, chain, drop the loop, put the needle into the first of the first chain stitches, draw the thread through, plain on the ring, chain, treble on the rd picot and treble on the th picot of the square = coming back: plain on each of the chain; plain on the ring, and repeat times from *. for the half-star, that fills the space under the footing of the lace: chain, close the ring = chain, treble on the st picot of the square; chain, picot, chain; draw the thread through the st of the chain = plain, chain, join the rd and th picots of the square by treble bar on each picot = single stitches on the chain, plain on the ring; chain, picot, chain = on the st and last picot of the opposite squares: treble, chain, picot, chain, drop the loop, draw it through the st of the chain stitches = plain, chain, join picots by trebles = single, plain on the ring, chain, picot, chain, treble on the last picot = chain, draw the thread through the st of the chain. the footing is made as follows--* plain on the upper chain stitches of the square; chain up to the ring, plain, chain and repeat from *. a row of plain stitches completes the footing. outer edge--* treble on the st picot, chain, and repeat times from *. on the chain stitches, in the corner, make: treble = chain, treble on the chain and finish the second side of the square like the first. omit the chain stitches, between the st and last trebles of the squares. the next and last row consists of: plain, picot, plain every chain. on the last chain, at the point where scallops join, make plain stitches, without picots. lace with stars (fig. ).--begin with the stars, make a chain of stitches, close the ring, mount it on a mould, wind a soft thread, such as coton à repriser d.m.c no , seven or eight times round it, and make plain stitches upon it, joining the last to the first by a single stitch. then: * chain, and returning, miss the st chain = on the chain: single, plain, half-trebles, trebles, double trebles, double treble and a half, triple trebles; keep the two last loops of the last treble but one, on the needle, and join them, to those of the last treble. repeat times from *. nd row-- plain, on the upper stitch that was missed in the st row; * chain, plain on the next point. repeat times from *. rd row--* plain, chain, miss stitches of the lower row. repeat from *. [illustration: fig. . lace with stars. materials: fil d'alsace d.m.c nos. to , fil à pointer d.m.c no. or , coton pour crochet d.m.c nos. to .[a]] th row--all round the last row, on each of the bottom stitches plain; after every stitches, picot. this will give you picots in all, separated from each other by stitches. inner connection--fasten on the thread at the th treble, counting from the ring: single, chain. draw out the thread, from the back, through the th of the chain round the star = chain * join with chain to the th treble, passing the thread through to the back = work on the wrong side: chain, bring the thread back between the th treble to the right side, and repeat times from *. in joining the stars, place them so that picots are turned to the edge, and to the footing. the th and the th picots serve to join the stars. st row-- trebles between the th and the th of the * picots, chain, treble; repeat times from *. after the th treble, make no more chain stitches, but treble immediately between the th and the st picot of the next row. nd row--on the first chain stitches of the last row: plain, half-trebles, trebles, picot, trebles, picot, and so on, until in the semicircle over the picots, you have times chain stitches and picots = on the ninth set of chain: trebles, half trebles, plain. the scallops are joined by smaller ones, formed of: plain, half trebles, trebles, picot, trebles, chain, drop the loop, put the needle into the same treble of the last scallop; draw the loop through and make on the chain: plain, half-treble, trebles, picot, trebles, half-treble, plain; continue the large scallop, as described above. the footing is composed of rings and trebles.--begin with a ring, like those in the middle of the stars, worked as follows: chain, with plain upon them = miss plain stitch of the ring, plain, chain = miss plain, plain, chain = miss plain, plain, chain, single on the th picot of the st star, chain = miss plain, plain, chain, single on the th picot, chain = miss plain, plain, chain, single on the nd picot, chain, finish off. straight edge--worked from right to left = chain * turn the thread times round the needle, join to the plain stitch between the th and th picot, complete the long treble, chain, join treble, consisting of six overs to the st treble; quintuple treble between the th and the th picot; chain, quadruple treble joined to the previous treble = in all, trebles, the st made with overs, the nd with , the rd with , the th with , the th and th with , the th with , the th with , the th with , the th with ; and between every trebles, chain. the long trebles of the ring are taken up with plain and chain between. guipure lace (fig. ).--we advise our readers to work this charming pattern, in unbleached fil à dentelle d.m.c no , because it imitates the appearance of old lace better than any other material. lozenge-shaped figures in the centre-- chain, close the ring. [illustration: fig. . guipure lace. materials: fil d'alsace d.m.c nos. to , cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to .[a]] st row-- chain, picot, chain, treble on the ring = chain, treble on the ring = chain, picot, chain, treble on the ring = chain on the rd of the first chain. nd row-- chain, * treble on the st treble of the st row = chain, treble on the rd of the next chain = chain, treble on the same stitch as the last treble = chain, ** treble on the nd treble of the st row, chain. repeat from * to **; join the last chain, to the rd of the first chain, by a single stitch. rd row-- chain, plain, plain on the th of the chain of the last row = plain, plain on the rd of the chain, between the trebles, plain, plain on the th of the lower chain = plain, plain on the rd of the chain, plain; finish the row with a single stitch. th row-- chain, treble on each of the next plain; trebles on the th plain; treble on each of the next plain, trebles on the th stitch; trebles on the nd side; and again trebles on the th stitch; trebles on the rd side; trebles on the th stitch, trebles and join to the rd of the chain. th row-- chain, plain, plain on the th stitch beneath, * plain, plain on the th stitch. repeat twice from *. th row-- chain, picot, plain, picot, plain, picot = towards the point: plain, picot = on the nd side of the square: plain, picot, and times plain, picot = towards the point: plain, picot. on the rd side as on the nd, only reversed, first plain, and at the point plain; on the th side as on the nd; on the st side must still be added plain, picot, plain, picot, plain, picot, plain; draw the thread through the loop and fasten off. the oblong squares, that connect the lozenges, take rows of plain stitches. make a chain of = turn the work = plain; add rows of the same number of stitches. on the short side, and at the edge of the square: picot, plain, * chain, miss chain = returning: plain on the th chain = on the next chain: half treble, trebles, half treble, plain on the last chain stitches = on the nd half of the short side: plain, picot = on the long side: plain **, picot, plain ***. repeat the whole twice from * to ***, and then once from * to ** only. the row of bars, that encircles the small leaves, begins with single stitches on the first picot, then add: **** chain, picot, chain, treble on the th chain of the small leaf; on the short side: chain, picot, chain, triple treble on the th chain of the leaf; drop the thread, bring it out from the back, by the side of the picot that forms the corner on the long side of the lozenge = chain, picot, chain, treble on the small leaf = chain, picot, chain, treble on the picot, forming the corner of the oblong square = chain, picot, chain, treble on the leaf on the long side of the square = chain, treble on the same stitch as the st treble is on = chain, treble on the same stitch as the first trebles are on; chain, picot, chain, treble on the picot at the corner. repeat once from ****. upper and lower edge-- chain, sextuple treble on the nd picot of the lozenge = chain, triple treble on the th picot of the lozenge. coming back over the trebles of chain, work in journeys to and fro, plain stitches. after the nd row of plain stitches, quintuple treble on the th treble of the lozenge, and then rows of plain stitches. after the th row, pass at once to the leaves above the lozenge: ***** chain, plain on the picot that forms the point of the lozenge = turn the work to the wrong side = on the chain stitches work: ****** plain, half treble, trebles, half treble, plain = turn the work to the right side = returning and starting from the point of the leaf: chain and plain on each of the lower stitches. for the nd leaf: chain = turn the work and repeat, as for the former leaf, from ***** to ******. this leaf, being finished like the first, with this difference that it ends at the upper point, you pass to the nd little square: chain, sextuple treble on the picot next to the leaves; chain, triple treble on the rd picot, counted from the leaves = chain, sextuple treble on the th picot of the lozenge; keep the last loops of the treble on the needle, sextuple treble on the picot between every chain of the small square with leaves; draw up the last loops together with those already on the needle = chain, triple treble on the picot on the long side of the small square = rows of plain each. with the last stitch of each of these rows, take of the chain stitches between the long trebles. after the rd row: sextuple treble on the first treble on the small leaf of the small middle square = rows of plain stitches to finish the square, and repeat from *****. the upper row is similar to this but should be worked from right to left. scalloped edge.--in the right corner of the st oblong figure of the outside corner: double treble, chain, double treble on the th plain stitch = chain, double treble on the stitch that forms the corner stitch of the square = chain, plain at the extremity of the first long leaf, chain = quadruple treble on the stitch between the leaves = chain, quadruple treble on the same stitch and on the st treble = chain, quadruple treble on the same stitch = chain, plain on the last stitch of the nd long leaf = turn the work: chain, plain on each of the chain stitches, and on each treble, plain stitches in all = turn the work: chain, plain, chain, plain on the nd plain; repeat the last times. take in stitch on each side in every row, turn the work after each row, and at the end of the last fasten off. fasten on at the foot of the scallop, not at the point, and work plain stitches all round it; plain to the upper point, in all. the open-work edge of the scallops consists entirely of double trebles.--after the plain stitches of the edge: chain, treble on the st plain stitch of the small square = turn the work: * chain, treble on the nd of the plain stitches, forming the edge of the scallop **; repeat times from * to ** = *** chain, treble on the next plain stitch = chain, treble on the next plain = repeat times from ***; and then times from * to ** = chain, plain on the th treble of the square; chain, plain on the rd treble. work on, on the right side = **** chain and treble on the preceding treble as far as the th treble; after the th: ***** chain, back to the th, and returning, join to the th treble = on the chain: plain, after the th draw the loop through the upper loop of the th treble = ****** chain, treble, chain, treble, chain, return, and fasten the chain stitches to the last treble but one = plain, picot, plain, picot, plain and join as before ******* = repeat once from ***** to *******, then twice, from ***** to ******, then from **** to *****, as on the first side, only treble less = then treble on the th plain stitch of the small square, chain, treble on the th plain stitch of the square, chain, treble on the th plain stitch, treble on the outside stitch, at the corner of the square, chain, plain on the last stitch of the leaf; chain and so on, as above described. having reached the second scallop, on the nd row of trebles, at the sign ***, work: chain, treble to the left on the scallop just finished, keeping the last loops of the treble on the needle, double treble to the right of the scallop and join it to the nd treble; draw the loops together = chain, treble to the left, quadruple treble to the right = chain, drop the loop, bring it to the right side through the th treble of the right scallop = on these chain stitches: single, plain, half treble, trebles, half treble, plain, single = double treble on the open-work edge, then chain, treble, chain, treble, chain; join to the th treble of the right scallop = working back: plain, picot, plain, picot, plain, picot, plain, join to the treble, thrice chain, treble. go back to ***** and repeat twice to *******. the footing of the lace is worked in rows from right to left. st row-- single, * double treble on the th plain stitch of the square = chain, double treble on the nd plain stitch of the square = chain, picot downwards, chain, plain on the stitch at the extremity of the long leaf = chain, picot downwards, chain, quadruple trebles between the two leaves = chain, picot downwards, chain, plain on the last stitch of the nd leaf, chain; repeat from *. nd row-- plain on each stitch of the previous row. rd row--count stitches before and above the trebles on the squares and make: * treble, miss stitch, treble, miss stitch, treble, miss stitch, treble = turn the work: plain on each of the trebles = turn the work, come back and make plain on the first = chain, miss stitches of the nd row, treble on the rd plain, and continue from *. th row-- treble on each of the plain, chain between each treble, chain and so on. th row-- plain stitch on each of the stitches of the th row. crochet reticella lace (fig. ).--this pattern, copied in crochet from an old piece of reticella lace, only looks well, worked in very fine cotton, as indicated in our illustration, namely, in unbleached fil à dentelle d.m.c no . to make it resemble the original more closely, the method adopted in venetian point, of making all the stitches over a padding thread, has, in the case of the outside edge, been followed here. at the end of each row of plain stitches, draw out a sufficiently long loop to lay it back over the stitches just made, and to work the next row of stitches over this double foundation. these loops must be long enough, not to pucker or tighten the scallops. for the inner squares = chain, close the ring. st row-- chain, treble, chain, double treble, chain, treble, chain, double treble, chain, treble, chain, double treble, chain, treble, chain, single stitch on the th of the chain. nd row--* chain, plain on the first chain, plain on the next chain. on these plain stitches, working to and fro, rows of plain stitches, decreasing by in each row; after the last stitch, come back along the side of the little triangle, and make single stitch in every row, plain on the treble of the st row **; repeat times from * to **. [illustration: fig. . crochet reticella lace. materials: fil d'alsace d.m.c nos. to , or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to .] these small triangles must be worked over single treble and between double trebles. when the th triangle is finished, make directly, starting from the last stitch at the point, and along the side: plain, picot, plain, picot, plain; single stitch on the treble; all the triangles must be edged, in this same manner on both sides; on the stitch that forms the point: plain stitches. rd row--* chain, drop the loop = bring it to the front, through the plain stitch that lies between triangles; returning, make single stitches backwards on the chain. you make stitches like this, backwards, in all the trebles that follow, that is, the loop is dropped after each stitch, and brought forward from the wrong side to the right = chain, join to the th single, counting upwards from below = single on the chain stitches; chain, join to the other trebles; chain, single on the stitch at the point of the triangle **; repeat times from * to **. = the chain stitches for the trebles, must be drawn up very tight. th row-- plain on each of the stitches of the preceding row, plain on the corner stitch. on each side there must be plain stitches, not counting the corner ones. th row = chain, miss stitches of the row beneath, * double treble, chain; repeat times from * = chain, double treble, chain, double treble on the same stitch as the st treble = chain, double treble on the same stitch as the st treble = chain, double treble on the same stitch as the two first trebles = times to the next corner: chain, double treble, double trebles, each of them with chain stitches at the corner; repeat the same on each of the sides. th row-- plain on each of the stitches of the last row, plain on the corner stitch = cut off the thread. join the next squares together at once by the last corner stitch. lower edge--you begin by making the large scallop at the point of the square, and pass the double thread over the rd treble that comes before the trebles at the point of the square and make: plain stitch on each stitch of the square, up to the rd treble on the opposite side; then draw out a long loop which you carry back to the beginning. in the nd row increase by stitches, right and left of the middle stitches, for the rounding of the scallop, and decrease by on each side. make rows in all, and in each row, decrease by stitches and increase by . fasten off after the th row. the two little scallops, right and left of the big one, are worked in rows, over trebles and intervals of chain stitches, taking off stitches in every row. for the small triangle between, worked in rows, you must increase on both sides by stitches. when all the scallops are finished, edge them with plain stitches, picot and plain and work in all the ends of thread from the preceding rows at the same time. for the footing and the small triangles, that fill up the spaces between the squares: chain, miss , rows of plain stitches, worked to and fro, decreasing by in every row. when the triangle is finished, make on one side, single in every row; then, on the remaining chain stitches, a second triangle, like the first, which you then join to the plain stitches, above the th treble; then returning along the side of the triangle, add plain, picot, plain, picot, plain; single on each of the chain stitches. edge the next side of the nd triangle like the first, join the corner stitch to the th treble; edge the two inner sides times with plain stitches and picots. then from right to left on the plain stitches: plain, chain, join them to the middle of the triangles = single on each chain, plain on the square; chain, single on the th of the first chain; single stitch on each of the chain stitches; plain on each stitch of the square, to the point where the squares join, chain, single on the th of the chain, single on each of the chain. on the nd side: plain, chain, single on the th of the chain, single on each of the chain, plain, chain, single on the th of the chain, single on each of the chain, plain on the square; fasten off. fasten on, at the nd of the corner stitches = chain, plain on the corner stitch of the triangle; chain, plain on the next corner stitch, chain, and so on. a row of plain stitches, or trebles, completes the lace. lace with corner, formed by increasing on the outside (fig. ).-- st row--on a row of chain stitches or trebles, work alternately: chain, treble = on the corner: chain, treble, chain, so that the last trebles come on one stitch. nd row-- plain on each stitch of the st row, plain on the nd of the corner trebles. rd row--counting from the nd of the corner stitches, and towards the left, make plain on the rd, nd, st and th plain stitches; chain, miss chain, plain on each of the chain stitches = on the other side of the chain, also plain on each stitch, plain on the th chain, plain on each of the first plain. [illustration: fig. . lace with corner, formed by increasing on the outside. materials: fil d'alsace d.m.c no. , fil à pointer d.m.c nos. to , cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to .[a]] on the next stitches of the nd row: plain = chain, miss , triple treble on the th of the nd row, chain, triple treble on the same stitch, chain, triple treble on the same stitch, chain, miss , single on the th = turn the work = on each treble of chain: plain; in all; single on the th of the plain = turn the work = miss the th plain, and on the others make: plain, picot, plain = chain, miss the th, plain on the others = on the nd side of the chain: plain, chain, join them to the th of the first plain of this row = on the chain: plain, chain, join them to the th plain of the st leaf, made in this row = on the chain: plain = on those of the remaining chain stitches: plain = along the leaf: plain, picot, plain = on the stitch at the point of the leaf: plain = then down the nd side: plain, picot, plain = over the next of the plain: plain, picot, plain = * chain, miss the th, plain = on the second side of the chain: plain, chain, join them to the th of the last plain of the nd leaf = on the chain: plain. continue on the rd leaf of this row: plain, picot, plain and plain on the stitch at the point of the leaf = on each of the next stitches: plain, then picot, plain = on the stitches: plain, picot, plain **. repeat from * to **, and here follow: plain, picot, plain. on the nd row: *** plain, chain, join them to the th of the last plain of the rd leaf; plain over the chain = on the nd row: plain, chain, miss chain, plain on each chain = on the second side: plain, chain, join them to the th of the last plain = plain on the leaf, plain on the stitch at the point, plain, and repeat from *. on the nd row and for the corner: plain, **** chain, triple treble on the nd of the corner stitches and repeat times from **** = chain, miss of the preceding row, plain on the th = turn the work, on each bar of chain, plain, in all, join the last to the th of the plain = going back over the plain: plain, picot, plain, chain, miss the th, plain on each of the chain = on the nd side of the chain: plain, chain, join them to the th of the plain = over the chain: plain, chain, join them to the th plain of the last leaf, plain = on the remainder of the chain: plain. proceeding along the leaf: plain, picot, plain, plain on the stitch at the point, plain, picot, plain *****. again on the plain, make: plain, picot, plain, chain, miss the th, plain = on the nd side of the chain: plain, chain, join them to the th of the last plain of the last leaf, plain over the chain stitches = on the leaf: plain, picot, plain, plain on the stitch at the point, plain, picot, plain ******. repeat times from ***** to ****** and add plain, picot, plain. continue along the nd row: plain, chain and on these plain = plain, chain, returning, miss the th, plain on the others = on the nd side of the chain: plain, chain, join them to the th of the last plain = on the chain: plain = on the leaf: plain, plain on the stitch at the point of the leaf, plain. th row-- plain on the st leaf of the rd row: * chain, plain on the nd leaf = chain, triple treble on the th of the plain between leaves = chain, plain on the rd leaf = chain, triple treble, chain, plain on the th leaf = chain, plain on the th leaf; chain, plain on the st leaf of the corner scallop. repeat from *, with this difference, that, in the corner scallop you must have triple trebles. th row--on the first chain of the th row: plain, * on the next chain stitches: plain = turn the work, and crochet to and fro, decreasing by stitch in each row, until you have only stitches left = along the leaf: plain and repeat times from * = plain on the next chain, plain on the chain, plain on the chain. the corner scallop has points = the first stitches must be divided as follows: * st point: plain in the first interval = nd point: plain in the nd interval and plain in the rd interval = rd point: plain in the rd interval and plain in the th **. repeat once from ** to *. th row--* plain in the st leaf, chain, crossed quadruple treble, the branches of which are joined by chain; repeat twice from * = plain, chain, plain in the st leaf of the next scallop = chain, crossed quadruple treble, the branches of which are joined by chain and joined to the th stitch of the next points = chain and so on. th row-- plain on the first chain of the th row, plain on the next chain = chain; carry the chain back to the right, and join it on, between the th and th plain = plain on the chain, then chain, take it back, and join to the st plain = plain on the chain = continue on the small scallop: plain, picot, plain = on the other chain: plain = chain, join them again to the th of the plain on the scallop = on the last chain: plain, picot, plain = on the next bars of chain: plain = chain, join them to the th of the last plain = on the chain: plain = chain, join them to the st of the last plain = on the chain: plain, chain, join them to the th plain of the rd finished scallop = over the chain: plain, picot, plain = on the next scallop: plain, picot, plain = in the half finished scallop: plain = chain, take it back and join it to the st of the last plain = on the chain: plain, picot, plain, picot, plain to finish the scallop below: plain = on the th row: plain, chain, join them to the first of the last plain of the last scallop = on the chain: plain, picot, plain. the little scallops must be carried on round the corner point, as they were on the rd, th and th trebles of the other points. lace with corner, formed by decreasing on the inside (fig. ).--for the stars-- chain, close the ring; chain, trebles in the ring; close = chain, miss treble of the last row, treble, chain, treble on the upper part of the last treble = alternate times: chain, crossed treble divided by chain, lastly chain, close the ring, fasten off. make stars, and join them together as follows, counting the third from the left, in the engraving, as the first.--when you have joined the st star to the nd by the th and th cross trebles, join the next stars so that when the rd is fastened on, there should be crossed trebles on the inside and outside of the nd star. the rd star will have: crossed treble on the outside, on the inside = the th: crossed trebles inside, outside = the th, the th, and the th: inside, outside = the th: on the inside and outside = the th: inside, outside = the th: outside, inside = the th: outside, inside. for the next scallops, repeat from the nd to the th star. nd row--* over the chain stitches of the rd crossed treble of the th star: treble, chain = over the st chain stitch between the rd and th crossed trebles: treble, chain = over the next chain stitches: double treble, chain = overs, in the next space: double treble and double treble in the st space of the th star; connect the two trebles together, chain, double treble, chain, treble, chain, treble, chain, connected treble as before, chain ** plain over the chain stitches of the last crossed treble of the th star. repeat from ** to *, therefore backwards. [illustration: fig. . lace with corners formed by decreasing on the inside. materials: fil d'alsace d.m.c nos. to , fil à pointer d.m.c no. or , coton pour crochet d.m.c nos. to , or cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to .[a] colours: white, Écru naturel or any other colour of the shades of the d.m.c colour card.] each of the next trebles comes, either over chain stitches of the crossed treble, or over the chain stitch between the crossed trebles *** chain, treble, chain, double treble, chain, triple connected treble, chain, double treble, chain, treble, chain **** single; repeat, in the reverse order, therefore, from **** to ***. when the outside row is finished, make a similar row on the inside of the stars; at the corner trebles are to be made times over each of the middle stars. rd row-- treble above and below, on each stitch of the second row. th row--consists entirely of crossed trebles = * miss on the upper edge: times treble, and times trebles = on the next trebles of the preceding row: double treble, miss stitches, double treble, miss stitches, double treble = draw up the last loops of the trebles together = repeat the same thing backwards = here follow: crossed trebles separated each by treble of the preceding row **; the th and the th crossed trebles are together in the corner treble of the preceding row. repeat from ** to * = here follows row with treble on every stitch below. the row on the side of the footing is worked as above described = at the corner, and after having made the rd connected treble, * miss times stitches, times stitch, times stitches, times stitches, ** triple trebles connected together above, miss stitches underneath; repeat from ** to *, followed on both sides by a row of trebles. in the corner of the inside row of trebles connect the loops of pairs of trebles, in the centre connect the loops of trebles, and again the loops of pairs of trebles. for the st star of the footing: chain, close the ring; chain in the ring, trebles, close = chain, miss treble, treble, * chain, treble on the stitch of the st treble, miss , treble in the nd stitch, draw the loops of the trebles together **. repeat times from * to **; add chain and close = chain, join them to the th treble of the last row; chain, plain on the first chain stitches between trebles; chain, join them to the th treble; chain, plain on the next chain stitches, chain, join to the treble over the connected triple trebles, chain, plain on the next chain stitches, chain, join them to the th treble, chain, plain on the th treble, cut off the thread. the corner star is made like the one just described, and is joined on, as follows: chain, join them to the th treble on the left of the last row (counting from the triple treble) = chain, plain on the first chain stitches between trebles = chain, miss trebles, join them to the th = chain, plain on the nd set of chain stitches between = chain, miss trebles, join them to the th = chain, plain on the rd of the last chain = chain, join them to the corner stitch, chain, plain on the last chain = towards the right: chain, join to the th treble = chain, plain on the preceding, chain, plain on the rd set of stitches between, chain, miss trebles, join to the th treble = chain, plain on the th set of stitches between, chain, miss stitches and join = chain, plain on the th double treble, fasten off. on the first trebles of the preceding row of the inside edge, counting from the outermost stitches which are to be seen to the right in the illustration, plain, chain, miss trebles, treble = chain, miss trebles, double treble, chain, overs, pass the needle over the double treble, crochet off one over = miss stitches, double treble, crochet off the remaining loops = chain, overs, crochet off loops, double treble over the chain treble of the star, crochet off the remaining loops = chain, overs over the treble made on the chain, crochet off loops = treble on the th set of stitches between, crochet off the remaining loops = chain, treble on the th set of stitches between = chain, treble on the th set of stitches between = chain, overs, treble on the th set of stitches between; crochet off over, double treble on the first chain stitches of the star, crochet off the remaining loops = chain, overs, treble over the nd double treble, double treble, miss trebles of the preceding row, complete the treble = chain, overs, crochet off over, joining it to the last double treble; crochet off the overs = treble on the th treble of the preceding row, crochet off the loops = chain, treble on the th treble = chain, miss stitches = on each of the following trebles: plain = chain, miss trebles, treble, chain, miss trebles, double treble; chain, overs, over the double treble crochet off loop, double treble on the th treble after the plain stitches, crochet off the last overs = chain, overs, over the last double treble crochet off loop, double treble on the th intervening space of the corner star, crochet off the loops = chain, plain on the th double treble of the star = chain, double treble on the th intervening space = chain, overs, over the last double treble crochet off loops, double treble on the rd treble of the preceding row, complete the treble = chain, overs, over the double treble crochet off loops, treble on the th treble, complete the treble = chain, treble on the th treble, chain, miss , plain. one row of trebles to finish with; draw the corner trebles together and add: row of crossed trebles and row of plain trebles, each time drawing the corner loops together into one. st row of the outside border-- plain on every one of the next trebles of the row beneath, chain; turn back, join them to the th plain and so on. nd row-- plain on the th of the plain, trebles on the chain. rd row-- plain on each of the first trebles of the nd row, picot, plain, picot, miss stitch, plain, picot, plain and so on. [illustration: fig. . square with coloured tufts. materials: coton pour crochet d.m.c nos. to , or coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to .[a] colours. white and rouge-turc , or écru and bleu-indigo , rouge-géranium and brun-caroubier , bleu d'azur and brun-rouille , vert-bouteille and bleu-prunelle .[a]] square with coloured tufts (fig. ).--the following are different counterpane patterns which should be worked in coarse cotton; our engraving represents a single square, worked in two colours, in raised crochet. by joining a number of such squares together, or colours can be introduced into one covering with very good effect. cast on chain and close the ring. st row-- plain on the st of the chain, chain, plain on the th chain, chain, plain on the th chain, chain, plain on the th chain, chain, plain on the th chain. nd row-- plain on the st plain of the st row * plain on the st of the chain; chain, plain on the th chain. repeat times from *. rd row-- plain on the chain, chain, plain and so on. th and th rows--continue to increase, as in the rd row. th row--after the rd plain, tuft in the contrasting colour (see fig. ). the contrasting colour is to be introduced into the work at the first tuft, and cut off when the last is finished. the ends of the coloured threads must be worked in under the stitches of the next row. the square may be of any size; it is bordered by small picot scallops by means of which the different squares are joined together. [illustration: fig. . stripes for counterpanes. materials: coton pour crochet d.m.c nos. to , or coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to and lacets surfins d.m.c no. , or soutache d.m.c no. ½.[a] colours: gris-lin and rouge-bordeaux , gris-tilleul and bleu-faience or brun-caroubier and jaune-rouille etc.[a]] stripes for counterpanes (fig. ).--we recommend the use of soutache d.m.c or lacets superfins d.m.c (braids) for the coloured stitches, in the place of cotton. the dark stitches standing, so to speak, on another ground of stitches the pattern will look brighter, if it be worked in a flat material that will spread out more than cotton does. the stripe, worked in its entire length and always on the right side, must be begun by a chain of stitches of the length the stripe is to be. st row-- plain stitch on each chain stitch. nd row-- plain stitch with white or unbleached cotton, on each second stitch of the preceding row; long plain stitch with the coloured cotton or the braid, in each second loop of the chain stitch. when red and white cotton are used, only one thread must be drawn through the st loop, and the other through the two last loops. rd, th, th, th, th rows--plain stitches of the colour of the grounding = th row--between every coloured stitches white = th row--between every red, white = th row--between every red, white = th row--between every red, white = th row--between the single red stitches, white plain. in the second half of the pattern the red stitches must increase in the same proportion as that in which they decreased before. pattern of a counterpane in tunisian crochet (fig. ). this pattern, on a reduced scale, of a counterpane in tunisian crochet, though it is worked here in several colours, can be done all in one. the numbers of the stitches, as they are here given, refer of course to the pattern represented in our figure; if worked on a larger scale, the number of stitches would have to be increased every way in the proper proportion. for the inner square, which is worked in a light material, make chain stitches, on which you make rows of plaited tunisian crochet, fig. , then fasten off. [illustration: fig. . pattern of a counterpane in tunisian crochet. materials: coton pour crochet d.m.c nos. to , or coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to .[a] colours: gris-amadou and rouge-cardinal , vert-bouteille and violet-mauve , or bleu-gentiane and gris-Écru .] for the first coloured border, which immediately surrounds the centre square, take a coloured thread and make chain stitches and upon these the common tunisian stitch, fig. . increase to the right in every row by one stitch, to the number of = then put the needle into the first stitch on one side of the square, turn the thread round and draw it through. here you must be careful to observe, in the first instance, that the second part which is now to be joined to the square, should always remain on the left side of the square and secondly, that the thread with which you join the two parts together, should lie to the left and be drawn through, from the wrong side to the right. having now got tunisian stitches on the needle, make double rows, and join the last stitch of each row to a stitch of the square. when these rows are finished, you proceed to decrease on the right till you have only stitches left; and then again to increase as at the beginning of the stripe. at each increase, after each double row you must pass the thread through the corresponding stitch opposite of the same row. when you have again got stitches on the needle, join them as before to the square. work round the sides of the square in this manner and when you come to the last decrease, join the stitches to those of the first increase, and fasten off. the next stripes are to be worked in the same way; they may be made either wider or narrower, plain, or ornamented with a cross stitch pattern which you work upon them. [illustration: fig. . pattern of counterpane worked in stripes. materials: coton pour crochet d.m.c nos. to , coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to , or cordonnet fils d.m.c no. .[a]] pattern of counterpane worked in stripes (fig. ).--this is intended for a child's coverlet and is worked in pale blue, bleu-indigo , and white; the stripes and the lace border, in white, the setting, partly in white, partly in blue. for the first stripe, make a foundation chain of stitches; then counting back, draw the needle through the th and th chain stitches, drawing up all the three loops together = chain, then put the needle again through chain stitches, draw up the loops together = chain and so on. coming back, make the loop of the first stitch and that of the second on the chain stitches of the preceding row = begin every row with chain, which form picots along the edge of the stripe; when the stripes are finished, take a blue thread and make plain stitch on each picot and chain. this blue row is followed by a white one, worked in cluster stitch, fig. , with chain stitches between every clusters. then follows another blue row of one plain stitch on each chain stitch of the previous row. the second blue row consists entirely of plain stitches worked along the long sides of the stripes, which are joined together afterwards, but not along the short sides until the counterpane is finished; then the stitches should border all the sides. the second stripe, which should be of the same width as the first, is worked in tunisian crochet; for the edge make one row of plain stitches in blue, one of cluster stitches in white, and then again a row of plain in blue. join the stripes together on the wrong side with plain stitches, taking up one loop on the right and one on the left, alternately. when you have joined the stripes, make the outer border, which consists of straight rows and a scalloped lace edging. st row--in blue: chain and plain on each picot, plain, and so on, down the long sides of the stripes = along the short sides, the side of the chain stitches or that of the previous row: plain, chain, miss , plain. nd row--in white or unbleached: cluster stitch, fig. , on each picot formed by the chain stitches of the st row; on the corner picots, you must make cluster stitches. rd, th, th rows--in blue: similar to the first. increase at the corners by making: plain, chain, plain on the same stitch. th row--in white or unbleached: similar to the nd row. th row--in blue: treble on each of the stitches of the previous row. lace edging.--the scallops extend over stitches of the previous row and on that account it is better to make the corners first, to count the stitches both ways so as to distribute the stitches that are left over, between the scallops. corner scallop.--fasten on the thread to the left of the second of the stitches that were added to make the turn, make chain, single on the th treble to the right = single on the next treble = turn the work = * chain, treble on the th chain, repeat times from *, in all therefore trebles = after the th treble: chain, miss treble, single on the next trebles = turn the work = chain, cluster stitch between each treble, in all cluster stitches, then chain, miss trebles, single stitch on the next trebles = turn the work = chain, cluster stitch over the st, nd, rd and th pairs of chain stitches in the preceding row, and cluster stitches and chain over the th, th and th chain stitches; over the other chain stitches again: cluster stitch; then chain, miss trebles, join to the rd treble = fasten off. for the scallops on the right side, divide the stitches between the corner scallops into equal portions. supposing that they are divisible by , count stitches to the right, fasten on the thread at the th; * chain, miss trebles of the row beneath, plain on the rd, single stitch on the next = turn the work = chain, treble on the chain, repeat times from * and finish with chain, single on the nd lower treble, single on the next treble = turn the work = chain and cluster stitch between each treble of the preceding row, cluster stitches between the rd and nd trebles = after the th stitch: chain, miss treble, single on each of the next stitches = repeat times over chain stitches of the previous row: chain, cluster stitch = on the th, th and th chain stitches: cluster and chain; on the last chain the same stitches as on the first = then single over each of the next and repeat from *. the final row consists of open picots, formed of chain stitches and plain, between each cluster stitch; after the last of these stitches and in the indent of the scallops on the straight line, only chain stitches and plain on the rd stitch. [illustration: fig. . pattern in squares for counterpanes. materials: coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to , cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , or coton pour crochet d.m.c nos. to . colours: gris-coutil and brun-caroubier or bleu-cendré and rouge-cornouille , vert-mousse and bleu d'azur .[a]] pattern in squares for counterpanes (fig. ).--this pattern may be worked in the same stitch as the previous one, either in tunisian crochet or in any other of the stitches already described. make a foundation chain of stitches on which you work rows to and fro in the dark colour. the th and following rows up to the st are worked in the light colour, then take up the dark colour again. each stripe should be squares long. the nd stripe is begun in the light colour, and the stitches, made at the beginning of each row, are joined to those of the first stripe, as the stitches of the rd are to those of the nd and so on. when you have made sufficient big squares, each consisting of small ones, border them with seven rows of plain stitches, worked to and fro. the squares that form the corners are only to be bordered in this manner on two sides; the squares along the straight edges, on sides, and only those that are intended for the centre of the counterpane, on all sides. the separate parts are then either sewn or crocheted together on the wrong side. the dark squares are ornamented with small stars worked in the light colour, the light ones with scallops in the dark colour. for the small stars-- chain, close the ring; plain on each stitch of the chain; plain in all = after the th stitch: chain, plain on the st plain of the plain stitches. repeat the chain times and fasten off, then sew the star on in the centre of the dark square, taking care to spread out the little points formed of chain stitches at regular distances from each other. the scallops are worked from left to right; fasten the thread on at the point where squares touch, then make a chain of stitches and secure it at the opposite point. on the chain stitches: plain, picot, plain, picot, plain, picot, plain = fasten off. repeat the same scallop over the second half of the square; when you come to the nd picot of the first scallop join the two picots. when both scallops are completed, fasten them on to the foundation by a few stitches on the wrong side. the outside border of the counterpane is made separately, and is worked inwards from without and from left to right. st row--begin with the dark colour and make * chain stitches, drop the loop, put the needle into the st of the chain, take up the loop and draw it through the stitch; chain and on the stitches: trebles quite close together. repeat from * and go on repeating the sequence until the lace is long enough to trim the counterpane handsomely. nd row--in the light colour and similar to the st = only that in joining the chain stitches together, you make the single stitch on the chain stitches of the st row. rd row--in the dark colour and similar to the nd. th, th and th rows--in the light colour and from right to left: chain, plain on each loop of chain stitches of the previous row. th row--in the light colour and from left to right: * plain on the treble of the lace, chain, plain on the next loop of chain stitches = these stitches are made on the wrong side of the work = drop the loop, turn the work to the right, plain on the last chain, chain **, and repeat always from * to **. one row of plain made on each chain stitch and a nd row of trebles on the plain stitches completes the lace edging, which is afterwards sewn on to the counterpane. counterpane with fringed border (fig. ).--this pattern requires three colours; we suggest the following as making a very effective combination: rouge-turc , bleu-indigo and white. the stripes, one red, the other blue, may be worked in any stitch. they are edged with plain stitches of different lengths worked in red. * the first stitch passes only under the loops of the stitches; the nd over stitches; the rd over , the th inwards, over . repeat from *. these stitches must be worked parallel to each other along the two edges that are to be joined together. the stripes are fastened together on the wrong side by single or plain stitches. the outside edge consists of rows: st row--in red: row of plain stitches on the right side of the work. nd row--in red, and on the wrong side of the work: plain stitches. rd and th rows--in red, and on the right side of the work: plain stitches. th row--in dark blue and on the right side: treble, chain, miss plain of the row beneath, treble and so on. th row--in white, and similar to the th. th row--in blue, and similar to the th. th row--in red: plain on each stitch of the preceding row. [illustration: fig. . counterpane with fringed border. materials: coton pour crochet d.m.c nos. to , or coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to . colours: white, gris-tilleul and rouge-cornouille .[a]] th row--in red and on the wrong side: plain on each stitch of the preceding row. th and th rows--in red: and both on the right side, rows of plain stitches. th row--in white: chain, miss , plain on the th stitch. th row--in dark blue and similar to the th. th row--in white: * plain on the th stitch of the blue row; chain, drop the loop, lay the chain stitches from left to right, put the needle into the rd chain stitch, counting from the beginning, take up the loop and draw it through the rd chain stitch, chain and repeat from *. th row--in white: plain on the picot formed by the chain stitches; chain, plain. into this last row you draw clusters of lengths of red cotton to form the fringe, and knot them together with blue, or if you prefer it, you may finish off the coverlet with a hairpin fringe. counterpane composed of squares and olive shaped figures (fig. ).--there are many who shrink from undertaking a large piece of work because it becomes inconvenient to handle and carry about. the counterpane here represented has the advantage of being made up of a number of quite little pieces, which are worked separately and joined together afterwards. two colours, which can be clearly distinguished from each other in the engraving, should be chosen from among the various combinations suggested; one of them should be very light, say, cream or white for the olive shaped figures and squares, and the other of some soft shade only darker, for the connecting rows and the knotted fringe, described in the chapter on macramé. the olive shaped figures begin with chain stitches, on which you make plain stitches and on the th: plain for the corner. on the second side of the chain: plain and besides on the corner stitch, and so on for rows; in the last row there should be stitches. these rows are to be considered as one only. nd row-- chain, treble on the plain stitch that follows * chain, treble and repeat times from *; chain, trebles with chain between them on the corner stitch, ** chain, treble, repeat times from **. on the last stitch at the corner, again trebles with chain; close the round with single stitch. rd row-- chain, single on the chain stitch that follows the st treble of the last row; chain, double treble between the lower trebles, chain and so on, until you have trebles, counting the two sets of trebles at the corner. th row--here you can change the colour: plain on each of the stitches of the last row; plain at the corners. th row--similar to the th. [illustration: fig. . counterpane composed of squares and olive shaped figures. materials: coton pour crochet d.m.c nos. to , or coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to . colours: white and rouge-turc , or Écru and rouge-cerise , gris-coutil and bleu-gentiane .[a]] th row-- plain, cluster of double trebles on the same stitch of the th row as the th stitch of the last row is on; miss plain. continue in this manner along the whole row, taking care that the th and nd cluster come just at the corner. th and th rows--these two last rows should be worked in the same colour as the inside of the figure. be careful always to make the increase at the point; a th row in the dark colour may further be added, to connect the figures, by passing the thread from the wrong side to the right, between the last stitches of two of the points of the figures. the space between these olive shaped figures is filled by a pointed square of chain stitches. in the st and following rows you miss stitches at the point where the figures meet, and continue to decrease in this manner until the space is filled up. the fringe is made in the dark colour, either directly on to the plain crochet, or after a few rows of open-work. squares for chair-backs (fig. ).--this is a design for cut-work, out of an old collection by sibmacher, which we have adapted to crochet. it will be found most effective, worked in any of the given materials; we have worked it with admirable result, both in cordonnet fils d.m.c no. and fil à dentelle d.m.c no. . st row-- chain, close the ring. nd row-- chain, plain on each chain, in all; draw the loop of the last stitch through the st chain. rd row-- chain, treble *, chain, treble, repeat times from *. in all, with the chain, trebles. th row-- plain, over each treble of chain. th row-- chain, plain on the nd of the plain stitches beneath, * chain, treble, over the treble beneath, chain, plain on the nd stitch of the row beneath. repeat times from *, then add chain, plain on the rd of the chain. th row-- chain, plain over the treble of the last row; repeat the same series times. th row-- chain, treble over the treble beneath; treble on each chain stitch, trebles on each plain stitch of the row beneath; in all, trebles, including the chain. th row--* chain, plain between the trebles that were added, therefore between the th and the th = turn the work = make plain on the wrong side = turn the work back to the right side = take up loop of each of the stitches for the tunisian stitch that is made on rows, and decreasing by one stitch in each row, alternately on the right and left = draw up the last loops together and make, descending on the right side: single stitch on each row of the pyramid you have just made, finish with plain on the stitch that follows the chain. repeat times from *. [illustration: fig. . squares for chair-backs. materials: fil d'alsace d.m.c nos. to , cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to in white or écru.[a]] th row--all along the pyramid: plain, picot, plain, picot, plain, picot, plain, plain at the point. repeat the same number of stitches on the nd side, and down the sides of all the pyramids = after the th row, fasten off. th row--fasten on the thread at a stitch at the point of a pyramid, * chain, overs, join the loop to the nd picot on the side of the pyramid where you are working, draw the needle back through overs, make overs more, and put the needle into the middle picot opposite and draw the needle twice through loops, thirdly through and each time after that, through loops = chain, double treble, join to the rd over, chain, plain = on the next pyramid chain, septuple treble, join it to the next middle picot = draw the needle thrice through loops, triple treble to join to the middle picot opposite, draw the needle back through the loops, and at the th over, through loops, and each time after that, through loops, chain, quadruple treble, join it to the th over, chain, triple treble, chain, plain on the next pyramid. repeat times from *. th row-- chain, plain on each of the stitches of the previous row and plain on those forming the corner; fasten off. th row-- single on the first plain, chain, treble on the rd plain, chain, treble on the rd plain and so on to the corner and until you have trebles = on the corner stitch: chain and treble more; then proceed as you did on the first side. there should be trebles and times chain between the corner trebles; all four sides should be alike. th row-- plain on each stitch of the last row, not counting the which are to be made at the corner. th row-- single over the preceding stitches *, chain, plain; miss plain of the last row, not counting the increased stitches which must be left empty = after the th stitch turn the work, miss , plain, passing the needle under the loops of the row beneath = turn the work = chain, plain = turn the work = plain = continue to decrease in the same proportion, until you have stitches left and fasten off. in all the intakes miss the last stitch but one, coming back, and the st going, and always begin on the right side with chain. for the second half of these triangular figures which are worked from right to left, fasten on the thread to the th stitch after the increase and make plain = plain should remain between the two triangular figures formed of plain stitches = turn the work = plain, miss the last stitches, plain on the stitch the thread is fastened to = turn the work = miss stitch, plain, overs, put the needle through the th of the stitches between, bring it back twice, each time through loops, make overs more, put the needle through the last stitch of the rd row opposite, bring it back twice through loops, then once through loops and twice through loops = turn the work = plain and so on, until you have made transverse trebles = fasten off, then repeat the same series of rows on the other sides. th row--do not cut off the thread on the th side but work backwards: single over the chain, chain * treble on the stitch whence the chain proceeded, chain, treble on the last plain of the first half of the close parts of the pattern; chain, treble in the middle of the first part of the th transverse treble; chain, treble on the second half of the preceding treble, chain, treble on the st plain of the second half of the close parts; chain, treble on the rd and last upper stitch of the close part; chain, treble on the same stitch as the last treble. then along the edge, trebles, joined by chain, one of which trebles should always be on a row of plain stitches = after the th treble: chain, plain on the th plain of the th row, chain, again trebles connected by chain = after the trebles: chain ** and repeat times from * to **. th row--on every chain stitches: plain. th row-- chain, plain on the th plain of the last row; repeat times = for the th and th scallops only: * chain. the plain stitch that follows the th scallop should come exactly over the corner stitch of the th row = after the th scallop: plain; then scallops with chain, plain on the th stitch of the row beneath. repeat twice from * = after the th scallop smaller scallops, and up to the end of the row, scallops more of chain each. th row--make plain over chain, chain, drop the treble, bring the needle back with the loop through the rd plain = on the chain: plain, picot, plain = on the remaining stitches: plain--on the th scallop of chain, only: plain = on the th scallop of chain, only: plain = then chain, bring them back and join them to the rd plain of the th scallop and finish the picot. when these squares are made use of in any number and have to be joined together, you must join picots and leave the th free. the four empty picots in the centre are connected by a small star. crochet star (fig. ).--this is one of the most graceful and delicate crochet patterns we know. for the purpose of reproduction here, we have had it worked in all the different sizes of d.m.c cotton but it looks best in a fine material; in fil à dentelle no. , it can bear comparison with the finest needle-made lace. st row-- chain, close the ring. nd row-- chain, double treble, * chain, double treble; repeat times from * = after the th treble: chain, single on the th of the chain. rd row-- chain, plain, * picot, plain; repeat times from * = carry the thread to the last stitch through the st plain. th row-- chain, treble on the stitch over the treble beneath, * chain, treble; repeat times from * = after the th treble and the chain: single on the rd of the chain. th row-- chain, treble on each stitch of the row beneath; including the chain, trebles in the whole circumference = after the last treble: single on the chain. th row-- chain, quadruple treble on the nd treble of the last row; chain, quadruple treble on the rd treble and so on, in all trebles including the chain. th row-- chain, plain on chain. th row-- plain on the first chain, * chain, miss , ** single, plain, half treble, trebles, treble ½ long, double trebles, triple treble, treble ½ trebles long, quadruple-treble ***, chain, miss plain of the th row, plain, chain, join them, counting upwards from below, to the th treble of the first pyramid = on chain: plain, picot, plain, picot, plain, picot, plain; join the last loop of the last plain and the loop of the th chain; chain. repeat from ** to *** = on the middle of the last quadruple treble: double treble towards the bottom, finish the treble, chain, miss , plain ****. repeat times from * to ****. [illustration: fig. . crochet star. materials: fil d'alsace d.m.c no. , cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to .[a]] coming back to the st point make along it: single stitches, then chain, join them to the th treble of the th point = over the chain: plain, picot, plain, picot, plain, picot, plain and finish with single to carry the thread to the top of the point. th row-- chain, plain, * chain, plain at the top of the point and repeat times from *. th row-- chain; treble on each stitch of the th row; trebles in all, including the chain. th row--the star is bordered by small and large scallops, surmounted by points similar to those inside. you begin by the small scallop and make on the th row: single, * chain, bring them back and join them to the st of the single; plain, chain, miss trebles, join them to the th; plain on the chain, plain on the first chain = turn the work = chain, treble on the plain stitch between two scallops; chain, plain on the th plain of the st scallop; plain in the th chain, chain, picot, chain, miss , and make on the following ones: single, plain, half treble, trebles, treble ½ treble long, picot, chain, plain on the chain; plain on the chain. to pass to the large scallop make: single, chain, bring them back, plain on the th single, chain, bring them back again to the th = turn the work = on the second set of chain: plain, picot, plain = on the first : plain, then chain, bring them back and join them to the th plain behind the picot of the finished scallop = on the chain: plain, picot, plain, picot, plain = on the remaining chain below: plain, picot, plain; add single on the trebles and pass to the outer scallop = chain, plain on the rd of the plain of the small upper scallop; chain, plain on the th of the single = turn the work = plain on the last chain stitches, and on the first; single on the rd single = turn the work = plain on each of the preceding plain stitches; join the last to the under row with a single stitch = turn the work = plain, picot, plain, picot, plain, picot, plain, chain, picot, chain, miss , single, plain, half treble, trebles, treble ½ treble long, double treble, treble ½ trebles long, triple treble, picot, chain and join them to the th plain stitch, counting from the middle. then plain, picot, plain, picot, plain, picot, plain, single on the trebles. repeat times from *. star with little squares (fig. ).--begin with chain stitches, close the ring. st row-- chain, * treble, chain. repeat times from *, to number altogether trebles including the chain; single on the rd chain. nd row-- chain, * triple treble on the st chain stitch, chain. repeat times from * and join to the th chain. [illustration: fig. . star with little squares. materials: the same as for fig. .] rd row-- chain, * double treble on the treble beneath, chain. repeat from * through the row; join to the th chain. th row-- plain on the treble = on the chain: plain, plain on the treble; work times to and fro over these stitches, put the needle through the threads of the last stitch = after the th row: chain, then plain on the next chain. in turning the work and going from the nd to the rd, from the th to the th row, carry the thread behind the chain stitches, so that they may blend with the plain stitches; make in all little squares with spaces between; after the th, square: chain, single on the th row of the first square. th row--on each of the plain of the st square: single = on the th: plain = plain on the chain = plain on the st stitch of the nd square = rows of plain, chain, plain on the th stitch of the next square = then make rows of plain and wind the thread round the chain stitches. th row-- single on every stitch of the last square, plain on the last stitch above the chain = on the chain: plain, plain on the st stitch of the next square below = rows to and fro. th row--after the th square: chain, single on the st plain, * chain, plain on the last plain = on the chain: ** chain, plain, treble ½ treble long, double trebles ½ trebles long ***, triple trebles ****. repeat from *** to **, then proceed from * to ****. th row-- plain over the chain, single on each treble; stop them at the th square and at the rd triple treble. th row-- chain, plain on the th of the plain; chain, plain on the triple treble, and proceed in the same way throughout the whole length of the row. th row--on the first chain stitches: * plain, picot, plain = on the second chain: plain, chain, bring them back to the th of the plain of the first scallop = on the chain: plain, picot, plain, picot, plain, picot, plain, = on the chain: plain, picot, plain. repeat times from *. crochet collar (fig. ).--we have avoided as far as possible describing articles in this book that are subject to the changes of fashion, the present collar composed of squares, stars, lozenge-shaped figures and a lace edge, is of a shape that will never be out of date. fine and delicate work like this can only be executed in a very fine material, and we recommend unbleached thread as being more effective than white. the soft tone and the gloss of unbleached thread give the work an antique look, unobtainable in a white material. fil à dentelle d.m.c no. is the best for the purpose. [illustration: fig. . crochet collar. materials: fil d'alsace d.m.c no. , cordonnet fils d.m.c no. or fil à dentelle d.m.c no. , écru.] begin with the straight-edged figures, and then make the connecting pieces between. the four squares with half stars at both ends of the collar and on the right and left of the centre square, have their four sides all alike, whereas the figures within the scalloped edge are rather narrower on the outer than on the inner side where they join to the foundation. inner squares: st row-- chain, close the ring; chain, * treble on the ring, chain; repeat times from * and fasten the thread to the rd chain stitch. nd row-- chain, plain over chain; plain over each treble. rd row-- chain, * treble on each treble of the st row, chain. repeat times from * = trebles in all, including the first chain stitches. th row--* chain; returning over the chain stitches: plain, half treble, trebles, half treble, plain, join to the st chain stitch = on the chain of the rd row: ** plain, half treble, treble, double trebles, treble, half treble, plain ***. repeat once more from ** to ***, then times from * to *** = along the first leaf to the th stitch: single. th row--starting from the point: * chain, triple treble on the th stitch of the small scallop of the th row: chain, triple treble on the next scallop, chain, plain on the th stitch of the nd leaf. repeat times from *. th row-- chain, * plain on the stitch that forms the point of the leaf; plain on each chain stitch and each treble of the last row = stitches in all, up to the nd treble = turn the work = coming back: chain, double treble on the th plain, chain, double treble, chain, double treble, chain, double treble, chain, double treble, chain, miss plain, join to the th plain = turn the work = make on each chain stitch, plain and on each treble plain and picot over the st, nd, th and th treble; plain **. repeat times from * to **. th row-- chain, plain on the nd of the stitches at the point, * chain, double treble between the two first picots of the semicircle formed in the last row; chain, triple treble on the rd treble of the semicircle, chain, double treble between the rd and th picots of the semicircle, chain, plain on the stitch at the corner. th row-- single on the chain stitches of the th row, chain, plain on the corner stitch, plain on the chain stitches and trebles = turn the work = coming back: chain, double treble on the th plain; on the same stitch add: double trebles with chain; finish with: chain, join them to the th plain = turn the work = on the chain stitches: plain, picot, plain, plain on the treble. repeat this series times = add: plain on the chain stitches of the th row = turn the work = chain, double treble on the st treble of the small semicircle; then again times, chain, and twice double treble on each of the trebles beneath = after the last chain: join to the th plain. the points in this row are made with: * plain on the chain stitches, chain, miss stitch = coming back: single, plain, half treble, treble ½ treble long, double trebles, plain on the chain stitches. the nd point must be placed one half of it, before, and the other half behind the picot; make altogether points = after the th: plain on the chain stitches of the th row = then work backwards, without however turning the work: chain, chain on the stitch at the top of the point and repeat times from * = after the th set of chain stitches: chain; plain on the th plain, bringing the thread forwards from the right side to the wrong = chain; take the thread back to the rd plain from the wrong side to the right = treble on each chain stitch, picot above each point, add trebles and chain, join them to the th treble that comes after the st picot. on the chain: plain, picot, plain, picot, plain, picot, plain, trebles to the next picot, picot, trebles; plain, join them to the treble nearest the st scallop and so on = make scallops in all; after the th add trebles on the chain stitches = after the nd treble make plain, followed by the stitches at the corner = in the next scallop, you fasten by single, the st picot of the st scallop to the rd picot of the last scallop. when you have finished the four sides of the figure above-described, fasten off your thread. the edging of these squares should be begun on the narrower of the inner sides and at the rd little scallop: * plain on the middle picot of the rd little scallop, chain, double treble on the st picot of the th scallop; chain, triple treble on the nd picot of the same scallop, chain, double treble on the rd picot of the same scallop, chain, plain on the middle picot of the th scallop; chain, treble on the middle picot of the th scallop, chain **, quadruple treble on the middle picot of the th and quadruple treble on the middle picot of the st scallop following and draw the last loops of the trebles up together. repeat once from * to **. carry the trebles all round the figure on the picots just referred to. for the second half of the edging which becomes a little wider: *** chain, treble on the th scallop, chain, quadruple trebles, the last loops of which you join to the middle picots of the th and st scallop; chain, treble in the next scallop; chain, treble in the rd scallop; chain, treble ½ long, chain, treble ½ long, chain; double treble, chain, plain, chain, treble, chain, **** quadruple trebles, the last loops of which are joined together. repeat from **** to ***, that is the reverse way = finally add more whole row of plain and plain stitches at the corners = on the wider side you should have stitches, not counting the increases at the corner. to make the same figure, forming a part of the large outside scallops, repeat the same rows you have in the inner square up to the th row, the first half of which you make exactly the same as before. in the second half of the row of chain there should be chain stitch less in each intervening space than there were in the first half. th row--make the first half of this row like the th row of the inner square = over the nd half, one quarter of which is chain stitches narrower, the little wheels are made like the others with picots. the number of chain stitches and the trebles of the setting are also the same, but instead of points you have to make and over these, small scallops instead of . the setting, towards the top is made exactly in the same manner as the wide part of the upper square, that is, as from the rd scallop of the first semicircle to the th scallop of the nd. from this point, the series of stitches changes, so as to form a rounded edge: * chain, plain on the th scallop; chain, triple trebles joined by the last loops to the th and st scallop; chain, plain on the nd of the scallops; chain, plain on the rd scallop; chain, plain on the th scallop, chain **, triple trebles joined by the last loops in the th and st scallop. repeat once again from ** to * = add row of plain on each stitch of the preceding row; plain on the two top corner stitches. you will thus have figures with a rounded edge on one side. the second kind of square consists of leaves inside and is begun in the same way by chain formed into a ring. st row-- chain, treble, chain, * treble, chain. repeat times from * and join to the rd of the chain. nd row-- chain, plain over chain, plain on each treble. rd row-- chain, * miss stitch = coming back: single, plain, half treble, treble, double treble, triple treble, treble over the treble of the nd row; chain. repeat times from * = after the th point: single along the st. th row--* plain on the stitch you missed at the point, chain, triple treble on the treble of the rd row, chain. repeat times from *. th row-- chain, treble on each stitch of the th row; join to the rd of the chain. th row-- chain, plain on the treble over the triple treble of the th row: chain, plain on the treble above the little point. th row-- plain on the chain = on the rd scallop only: * plain, chain, come back to the second scallop, bring the thread back from the wrong side to the right between the th and th plain stitches, plain on the rd scallop, plain on the next scallop, plain and repeat times from *. when the th scallop is finished, pass to the point of the st scallop by means of single, then add the chain to pass to the th scallop above; when that is finished, fasten off, and fasten on again to one of the scallops. th row--* chain, miss stitch, plain, half treble, treble, treble ½ treble long, double treble, treble ½ trebles long, triple treble, treble ½ trebles long, quadruple treble, treble ½ trebles long, quintuple treble. after passing through the rd loop, make quadruple treble, between the plain scallops; then finish the quintuple treble, chain, plain on the nd scallop and repeat times from *. th row--* plain on the chain; plain on each stitch of the pyramid, plain on the stitch at the point; plain on the chain on the opposite side = turn the work = ** chain, miss plain, treble on the nd stitch = after the th treble, leave out no more stitches between the trebles ***; place the th, th and th trebles on the nd of the increased stitches. repeat on the opposite side from *** to ** and join to the th of the plain stitches = make trebles in all, then one plain over each chain, plain on each treble and picot after every rd plain = after the th and up to the th picot, leave only plain between: picots in all = in conclusion: plain more on the chain and repeat the whole times from *. the little wheel at the top of the square is begun with chain for the ring = plain on the ring, chain, * treble, chain = repeat times from *; trebles in all, including the chain stitches = then on each treble and each chain stitch: plain; after plain: picot; connect the wheel first on the right. the nd picot is to be fastened to the th picot of the large scallop = proceed with: times plain with picot = after the rd plain, fasten the picot to the rd picot of the next large scallop and complete the small wheel. the left wheel is made and inserted in the same manner as the right one. the wheels at the bottom of the square require for the foundation ring: chain, on which you make plain = on these: chain, * treble, chain = repeat times from *; trebles in all, including the chain stitches = plain, picot, plain, picot, plain, picot, plain, chain, join to the th picot of the nd scallop; chain, finish the picot, plain, picot, plain, chain, join to the th picot of the scallop, chain, complete the picot; plain, picot, plain, chain, join to the nd picot of the rd scallop, chain, close the picot, chain, picot, plain, chain, join to the th picot of the rd scallop; chain, complete the picot, plain, picot and so on, until you have picots round the wheel. repeat the same wheel to the left between the th and th scallop. the edging of this second kind of square is also slightly different; fasten the thread to the th picot of the st scallop before the small wheel, then working from right to left, count: * chain, treble on the nd empty picot of the small wheel; chain, triple treble on the th picot of the wheel = upwards: chain, double treble on the th picot of the wheel; chain, plain on the th picot of the th scallop, chain, plain on the th picot of the scallop, chain **, quadruple treble on the th picot of the th scallop and on the rd picot of the th; draw the last loops of the two trebles up together. repeat once more from ** to *, then: plain on the th picot of the th scallop; *** chain, sextuple treble on the th picot of the th scallop, retain loops of the treble on the needle, make more overs, join the treble to the rd picot of the th scallop; finish the bars, chain, plain in the th picot of the next scallop = chain, double treble on the nd picot of the empty picots of the bottom wheel; chain, quadruple treble on the th picot; chain, double treble on the th picot, chain, plain on the th picot of the th scallop, chain ***, septuple treble, in the th and rd picots of the th and rd scallops ****. for the preceding treble, you pass first through loops only, then make more overs for the other half of the treble, and finish the last loops one by one. repeat from **** to ***. one row of plain stitches completes the square. after having made the square similar to that of the upper one, you have merely to add the large wheels at the top. the setting of chain stitches and trebles is begun at the first scallop between wheels = plain on the th picot of the st scallop; chain, quintuple trebles, of which the last loops only are joined together, on the th and rd picot of the st and nd scallop, = chain, plain on the th picot of the next scallop; * chain, treble on the nd empty picot of the wheel; chain, quadruple treble on the th picot, chain, treble on the th picot; chain, plain on the th picot of the rd scallop; chain, sextuple trebles on the th and nd picot of the rd and th scallop; chain, plain on the th picot of the th scallop; chain, sextuple trebles on the th and nd picot of the th and th scallop; chain, plain on the th picot of the th scallop; chain ** septuple trebles on the th and nd picot of the th and th scallop. repeat from ** to *; and make figures with rounded edges. when all the figures are finished, join them together by trebles of a suitable length. introduce the thread at the corner stitch on the widest side of the nd pointed star and make: plain, chain, miss stitches, plain on the next stitches, chain, miss , plain on the next plain stitches. make loops in this manner, each consisting of chain and plain, then loops of chain and plain = then miss as many stitches of the square at the edge of the collar as were left empty in the second square; plain and draw the loop each time through the last stitches of the opposite square = chain, single on the nd chain stitch of the opposite side; chain, plain on the edge of the first square, chain, single, chain, miss stitches, plain, chain, bring the loop from the wrong side to the right = on the chain stitches: plain, chain, miss , plain. from this point onwards, fasten all the bars of chain stitches to the loops produced by the same stitches in the nd square. thus, the st bar consisting of chain, the nd will consist of chain on which make plain, and then add more chain. nowhere must the two first chain stitches be uncovered. the rd bar must consist of chain, plain and chain = the th of chain, plain, picot, plain, chain = the th of chain, plain, picot, plain, picot, plain, chain = the th of chain, plain, picot, plain, picot, plain, chain = the th of chain, plain, picot, plain, picot, plain, picot, plain, chain = the th of chain, plain, picot, plain, picot, plain, picot, plain, chain = the th of chain, plain, picot, plain, picot, plain, picot, plain, picot, plain, chain = the th of chain, plain, picot, plain, picot, plain, picot, plain, picot, plain, chain = the th and last of chain, plain, chain, fasten off. as the square with the semicircles in it, has more plain stitches in the edge than the one with the eight-pointed star in it, the stitches must be divided so that you miss from time to time, instead of two. when the top figures are finished, join the bottom ones to them, each separately, by a row of plain stitches, made on the wrong side of the work. below the first square with the semicircles, comes the eight-pointed star, below the next eight-pointed star, the square with the semicircles, and so on. a narrow edging forms the outside border, the foundation of which is a row of plain stitches running all along the squares. at the middle of the square you decrease by stitches, and at the point where two squares meet, by . when you reach the left side and the end of the row, make plain on the corner stitch, then: * plain, picot, plain, chain, join them to the first of the first plain (drop the thread at each scallop and bring it forward from the wrong side to the right) = on the chain: plain, picot, plain, picot, plain = along the square: plain, picot, plain, then chain, join them to the first plain = over the chain: plain, picot, plain, chain, join them in turning back between the th and th of the plain of the st scallop; plain, picot, plain, picot, plain, picot, plain; on the half-finished scallop: plain, picot, plain ** = on the plain stitches of the edge: plain, picot, plain, chain, come back, join to the st of the plain = on the chain: plain, picot, plain, picot, plain, picot, plain *** = repeat on the same figure once from * to *** and once from * to **. this makes stitches, the number there ought to be on the wide side of the straight-edged figures. the scallops vary a little on the rounded sides. there, you should have stitches, counting from the corner to the treble that marks the middle at the bottom. the single scallops, between the triple scallops of the border, are also all made over stitches; the first triple scallop is made over stitches, the nd, rd and th triple scallop over stitches. make no single scallop after the th triple one; which is immediately succeeded by the th triple scallop, over stitches. altogether, round each star, there are triple and single scallops. after the th single one, make plain stitches on the chain stitches of the connecting bar. on the plain stitches of the last bar: plain, picot, plain, chain, bring them back and join to the th of the plain = on the chain: plain, chain, draw the loop through the picot in the middle of the last single scallop, chain, close the picot, plain, picot, plain = in the bar: plain, picot, plain, chain, bring them back and fasten them to the st plain = plain, picot, plain, chain, join them to the th plain of the st scallop; plain, picot, plain, picot, plain = in the half-finished scallop: plain, picot, plain = in the bar: plain, picot, plain = chain, bring them back and fasten them to the st plain. plain, picot, plain, chain, join them close to the scallop above = plain, picot, plain, chain, bring them back and join them to the th plain of the nd scallop; plain, picot, plain, picot, plain, picot, plain = in each of the half-finished scallops: plain, picot, plain = finish with plain, plain on the chain and repeat from * round all the rounded parts. the lozenges that fill the empty spaces between the large figures are made in rows, on a ring formed of chain. st row-- chain, treble on the ring, chain, trebles in all, including the bar of chain stitches. nd row-- plain over chain, plain over each treble. rd row-- chain, treble over the treble beneath, chain, treble; trebles in all. th row--* plain, half treble, treble, double treble, treble ½ trebles long; ** repeat the reverse way to * = plain on the treble, chain, miss stitch, plain, treble, double treble, treble, plain. repeat twice from * to **, followed by: chain, miss , single, plain, half treble, trebles, half treble, plain, single ***. repeat once from * to ***, then again from * to **, and add single all along the scallop. th row-- chain * plain on the top stitch of the small leaf, chain, treble on the middle stitch of the scallop, chain, treble on the next scallop = chain, plain on the leaf, chain, treble on the scallop, chain, treble on the next scallop, chain and repeat once from *. th row-- plain on each stitch of the row before, plain on the points. th row--on each side of the lozenge little scallops on chain, with picots and picot below the scallops and between every plain; the scallops at the points extend over stitches only, so that the picot below is left out. these lozenges are fastened on two sides to the middle picot of the triple scallop; then, starting from the rd scallop of the lozenge you make, chain, join them to the middle picot of the st triple scallop; coming back over the chain: plain, picot, plain and finish the scallop. the next scallop, at the point of the lozenge, is fastened by a picot of chain, to the middle picot of the th scallop underneath the connecting bar. repeat the same on the nd side and make lozenges in all. the lace that finishes off the collar at the neck must be made to stand up, and is begun by a row of trebles on the plain stitches. from the corner as far as the nd treble of the th scallop, make triple trebles, from the th scallop to the th chain stitch after the th scallop, make double trebles, from this point to the nd scallop of the next semicircle, only single trebles, then again double trebles and finish with triple trebles as at the beginning. decrease by or stitches in each square. when this row of trebles is finished, fasten off, and fasten on again on the right and on the base of the st treble which you border with chain, then follow: * plain on the row of trebles, put the needle in under the loops of the trebles = turn the work = chain, double treble, miss plain, double treble on the th stitch, chain, double treble, chain, double treble, chain, miss plain = turn the work = bring the loop to the front; ** plain, picot, plain, plain on the treble; repeat times again from ** and add plain on the trebles = turn the work = chain, double treble over the treble beneath; again times chain stitches and double treble; join the th set of chain to the th plain = bring the thread back to the front: plain on the chain = chain, miss , and make on the others: plain, half treble, trebles, treble ½ treble long, double trebles, plain stitch on the chain. the next point comes above a treble; you make points in all. after the th: plain, then chain, plain on each point between the points and join. join the th set of chain on to the th plain of the first treble = then add: chain, draw the loop from the wrong side to the right through the st plain stitch; trebles, picot, trebles, chain, bring them back over the picot, join it between the th and th trebles; plain, picot, plain, picot, plain, picot, plain. over each point: picot and over the picot scallop, like the one made in the square. on the th point only picot = after the last treble on the last chain: chain; then go on with the plain stitches until you have and repeat from *. in the semicircles that follow you leave out the first and last little scallops, the first and the last scallop must be joined together by the first and the last picot; in the last semicircle, make little scallops, the same as you did in the first. crochet chair-back (fig. ).--the close leaves in plain stitch of the large centre star, the corner figures forming a cross and the diagonal figures, all have to be made separately and sewn on afterwards in their proper place. to join the separate parts neatly together, draw a square the size of the work on a piece of thick paper or waxcloth, divide it into parts by means of straight and diagonal lines, sew the separate pieces of crochet upon it, face downwards, in their proper places and make the trebles on the wrong side of the work. begin by the centre star and make: chain, close the ring. st row-- plain on the chain. nd row-- chain, double treble on the nd plain, chain, treble and so on until you have trebles, including the chain. rd row-- plain on each chain stitch and each treble; plain in all. th row-- plain, picot, altogether picots in the row, then fasten off. [illustration: fig. . crochet chair-back. materials: fil à dentelle d.m.c no. for the close figures and no. for the connecting bars.[a]] the leaves round the ring have petals, large and small; you begin by the large one, and make the small ones afterwards. the petals should be begun from the point and not from the bottom as is generally done-- chain; coming back: single, plain, half trebles, trebles, half trebles, plain stitches, plain on the st chain = on the second side of the chain make the same number of stitches but in the reverse order. small petal on the left-- chain, miss , plain, half trebles, trebles, half trebles, plain, plain on the top. repeat the same series of stitches in the reverse order on the second side = at the th stitch of the large petal and counting upwards from below, draw the thread through the th stitch of the small petal, and do the same through the next stitches = for this purpose drop the loop each time and draw it back through the opposite stitch, from the wrong side to the right. after making the same petal on the right, fasten off; fasten on again at the outer edge and edge the petals with plain on each stitch and plain on the stitch at the point; make leaves with petals each. between the pointed leaves, which are afterwards placed on the diagonal line of the square, come some very long leaves which are rounded towards the top-- chain, miss , plain, chain, treble on the rd of the chain stitches; carry on the trebles until you have, on coming to the last chain, trebles = turn the work and make plain on each stitch of the row = turn the work = plain on every stitch all round = turn the work = * plain, half trebles, trebles, double trebles, join the last loops of the last trebles together; set the th and st double treble on the same stitch = the th treble ½ trebles long; the st a triple treble = on the next plain stitch; treble ½ trebles long and quadruple treble = again on the next stitch: trebles, the first of them ½ trebles long, the nd a quintuple one = on the rd plain: quintuple trebles, chain, plain on the plain stitch of the nd row and next to the last quintuple treble, half treble, treble, double trebles on one stitch, triple trebles on one stitch **, quadruple treble on the next stitches. repeat from ** to *, therefore in the reverse order. to make the large star which is the first of the figures placed on the diagonal line, make: chain, close the ring. st row-- chain,* double treble on the chain, chain. repeat times from *, trebles in all. nd row--over chain: half treble, treble, treble ½ treble long, double treble, treble ½ trebles long **, triple treble. repeat once from ** to * and times from * to **. rd row-- plain on each stitch of the nd row. th row-- plain, picot, plain, * chain, picot, chain, miss = coming back: plain, picot, plain = on the plain stitches of the rd row: plain, picot, plain. repeat from *, with this difference that the trebles that are placed over the half trebles of the nd row must begin with chain. make, altogether, long bars, of them beginning with chain and with ; these bars remain empty; after the th you fasten off. th row--fasten on the thread to the top stitch of a treble, chain, plain. repeat this series times. th and th row-- plain on each stitch of the th row, then plain on each stitch of the th row. th row--over bars and spaces: plain, picot, plain and so on. add nothing further to the rows of plain stitches of the th, th and th picots. for the second star of the corner figure chain, close. st row-- chain, treble, * chain, treble. repeat times from *; trebles in all, including the chain stitches. nd row--* chain, half treble, treble, treble ½ treble long, double treble, triple treble **. repeat from ** to *, and the whole series times. rd row--* chain, plain, picot, plain, chain, picot, chain = coming back, plain on the chain, picot, chain = on the stitches of the nd row: plain, picot, plain, chain, picot, chain, miss , plain = coming back: picot, plain. repeat times from *, fasten off. th row--fasten on at the point of one of the bars and make from one bar to the other: chain, plain on each bar. th row-- plain on each stitch of the last row. th row-- plain on each stitch of the last row and join the last stitches to the that are under the th treble of the st star, taking care to put the trebles one above the other. the rd star also begins with chain formed into a ring. st row-- chain, treble, chain, treble, chain, treble, chain, join them to the th of the chain. nd row-- chain, * half treble, treble, treble, ½ treble long, double treble **. repeat from ** to * and then, times from * to **. rd row-- plain on each stitch of the nd row. th row-- chain, plain, * picot, chain, picot, chain. repeat times from *; after the th picot: chain. th row-- chain, triple treble on the th and on the nd plain stitch between picots, chain, triple treble and so on. altogether, including the chain stitches, trebles and times chain; join to the th chain. th and th row-- plain on each stitch of the previous row; join the last stitches again to the th stitch of the nd star and fasten off. the open work border is made from the st large star, beginning near the th treble at the point where the picots leave off. after fastening on the thread: chain, miss plain, plain on the rd = at the point where the circles meet, miss or stitches on each side and carry the treble over the indent of the scallop. after finishing the picots of chain stitches on the two sides and as far as the rd treble of the large star, fasten off; fasten on again on the right of the large star: chain, plain on the rd chain; put the needle only through the upper loops of the chain stitch; in the indent, connect picots by chain stitch; chain and plain between the next plain stitches. fasten off. the next rows both begin on the right and consist of plain stitches only; in the indent of the rings join stitches of the preceding row together by plain. the leaves over the circles--begin with the middle and largest one-- chain, miss , plain, chain, miss , treble, chain and so on, trebles in all = turn the work = plain on each stitch, passing under only loop of the stitches = on the stitch you missed: plain; on the second side: plain on each stitch = turn the work = do as in the last row = turn the work = do as in the last rows, excepting as regards the last stitches which you leave untouched = turn the work = plain, * chain = turn the work = plain = turn the work = plain on the plain and on all those you missed **. fasten off the thread. on the nd side of the leaf: draw the thread through the th stitch, counting upwards from below and on the side that is not indented, plain and repeat from * to ** = then make: row of plain, putting the needle through both the loops of the lower stitches = at the points of the leaves: plain, in the indents of the leaves miss stitch. first leaf on the right of the large leaf-- chain, miss , plain, chain, treble on the rd chain; trebles in all = turn the work = plain on each stitch, stitches altogether, to the corner stitch; plain on the corner stitch. the nd side is worked like the st. add more rows of plain stitches and increase plain on the stitch at the point = in the rd row leave the last stitches empty = turn the work = plain, chain = turn the work = plain and plain on the stitches that were passed over; fasten off. on the opposite side fasten on the thread on the wrong side at the th stitch counting from the point: plain, chain = turn the work = plain = turn the work = make plain stitches up to the end of the leaf and border it, like the large leaf, with plain stitches = join the first stitches to the corresponding ones in the large leaf = make leaves all alike. nd leaf on the left-- chain, miss , plain, chain, treble on the nd chain; trebles in all = turn the work = plain on each of the preceding stitches, plain on the stitch at the point = turn the work = row of plain stitches = turn the work = row of plain = turn the work = row of plain, excepting on the last stitches = turn the work = plain, chain = more rows to and fro with plain; fasten off, and fasten on again on the nd side at the th stitch counting from below: rows of plain and row to the end of the leaf = then encircle this leaf, like the others with plain stitches, join the last stitches to the last of the large leaf = make leaves all alike. rd leaf on the right-- chain, miss , plain, chain, treble on the rd chain, trebles in all = turn the work = rows of plain worked to and fro; on the stitch at the point: plain = after the th row: trebles, plain, chain, plain, chain, plain, chain, then plain stitches to the end = fasten off. on the second side, fasten on to the th stitch counting downwards from the top: plain = coming back: plain, chain, plain = coming back: plain, chain = then to the end of the leaf, plain on each stitch. rd leaf on the left-- chain, miss , plain, chain, treble, chain, treble, chain, treble, chain, treble; rows of plain all round, plain on the stitch at the point, and plain on the added stitch. after the th row: plain = turn the work = plain = turn the work = single, plain = coming back: plain = coming back again: plain; after the last plain, single on each plain up to the top = fasten off. on the second side of the leaf: plain = turn the work = plain = turn the work = plain, single on each of the remaining stitches = turn the work = surround the whole leaf with plain stitches; plain on each stitch at the point; join the last stitches to the last of the nd leaf. branch on the right and st leaf-- chain, miss , plain, chain, treble on the rd chain, chain, treble on the rd chain, chain, treble ½ treble long on the rd chain, chain, treble ½ treble long on the rd chain, chain, treble on the rd chain, chain, half treble on the rd chain, chain, miss stitches, plain = on the second side of the chain: * plain on each stitch, plain on the nd of the missed stitches. repeat times from *. after the th row of plain: chain = turn the work = row of plain on both sides and plain stitches on the chain; fasten off the thread. counting back the last stitches, fasten on the thread at the th stitch, make one more row of plain, fasten off. nd leaf of the branch-- chain, miss , plain, chain, half treble on the rd chain, chain, treble on the rd chain, chain, treble on the rd chain, chain, half treble on the rd chain, chain, plain on the rd chain, plain on each of the remaining stitches; rows of plain, to and fro, in each of the stitches of the last row. the rows touch, and therefore encircle the leaf. rd leaf-- chain, miss , plain, chain, treble on the rd chain, chain, treble on the rd chain, chain, treble on the rd chain, plain on each of the remaining stitches, rows of plain, to and fro round the leaf; plain on the stitch at the top of the leaf and on the one at the bottom. when these leaves are finished, join them together on the wrong side so that the end of the nd leaf is parallel with the last treble of the st leaf, and the end of the rd leaf parallel with the st of the last plain stitches of the nd leaf. having sewn these leaves together, carry on the plain stitches with the thread of the rd little leaf over the two others. fasten off the thread, join it on again at the th plain stitch of the rd little leaf, counting the stitches downwards from the top = chain, single on the th chain = on the ring: plain, plain each chain and plain on each stitch of the leaves = then, make more rows of plain and plain on every second stitch of the stitches in the ring. having reached the chain stitches, fasten on the thread, turn the work and continue the other rows. when the rows of plain stitches are finished, draw a thread through the chain stitches and pull them gently together. branch on the left and st leaf-- chain, miss , plain, chain, treble on the nd chain, chain, treble ½ treble long, chain, miss , treble, ½ treble long, chain, miss , treble, chain, miss , treble, chain, miss , plain on each of the remaining stitches. the remainder the same as for the right leaf. nd leaf-- chain, miss , plain, chain, treble, chain, miss , treble, chain, miss , treble, chain, miss , treble, chain, miss , plain on each of the remaining stitches. the rest the same as for the right leaf. rd leaf-- chain, miss , plain, chain, miss , treble, chain, miss , treble, chain, miss , treble, chain, miss , plain on each of the remaining stitches. the remainder, as well as the little ring, the same as for the right leaf. make altogether leaves for the right side and for the left. calyx of the small flowers.-- chain = turn the work = plain on the first chain, plain on the th chain, plain on the other chain = turn the work = * chain, treble on the st plain, chain, treble, chain, treble, chain, ** trebles on the second of the plain, on the th chain, repeat once from ** to * = turn the work = plain on each of the preceding stitches, single on the added stitch = turn the work = single on the first plain; plain stitches as far as the middle stitch; chain, miss , plain on each chain stitch, plain, single. fasten off. make calices in all. small flowers of three different sizes--make altogether, large, of medium size, and small. for the large flowers-- chain, close the ring, plain on the chain; plain on every stitch of the preceding row and picot after every second plain stitch. join the first and the last picots of large flowers to the calyx, the nd and the rd picots of one large flower to the th and th picots of the other. join the st and th picots of the rd flower to the th picot of the first and to the th of the second flower. for the medium-sized flowers-- chain, close the ring = plain on the ring, then a second row of plain with picot after every second plain stitch. these flowers connect the centre figure with the corner one. for the small flowers-- chain, close the ring = plain on the ring, then a second row of plain stitches with a picot after every second stitch. sew the medium-sized flowers and the small ones to the big ones with overcasting stitches. as regards the bars of chain stitches that complete the pattern they can easily be copied from the illustration. footnotes: [a] see at the end of the concluding chapter, the table of numbers and sizes and the list of colours of the d.m.c threads and cottons. [illustration: tatted insertion.--double knots, single picots and josephine picots.] tatting. on account of a similarity in their construction, a chapter on tatting seems to form a natural sequence to the one on crochet and is in some ways a preparation for that on macramé which succeeds it. the english name of tatting is said to be derived from «tatters» and to denote the frail disconnected character of the fabric. by the italians it was formerly called «occhi», whilst in the east it still bears the name of «makouk», from the shuttle used in making it. in the eighteenth century, when tatting was in great vogue, much larger shuttles than our present ones were used, because of the voluminous materials they had to carry, silk cord being one. shuttles.--the tatting shuttle consists of two oval blades of either bone, ivory, mother of pearl or tortoise-shell, pointed at both ends, and joined together in the middle. a good shuttle contributes materially to the rapid and perfect execution of the work and attention should be paid in its selection to the following particulars: that it be not more than c/m. long and or c/m. wide: that the two ends be close enough to prevent the thread from protruding; this is more especially important in tatting with two shuttles and lastly, that the centre piece that joins the two oval blades together should have a hole bored in it, large enough for the thread to pass through. in filling the shuttle, be careful not to wind on too much thread at once, or the blades will gape open at the ends and the thread get soiled by constant contact with the worker's hands. materials.--a strongly twisted thread such as fil d'alsace d.m.c, fil à dentelle d.m.c, or cordonnet fils d.m.c, is best for tatting. we particularly recommend fil d'alsace, as forming the best shaped knots and picots. a soft material such as coton à tricoter d.m.c, can also be used where it suits the purpose better. [illustration: fig. . first position of the hands.] first position of the hands (fig. ).--the construction of the knots or stitches, appears at first sight to present great difficulties but will be easily mastered by attention to the indications here given. one thing, to be constantly borne in mind is, that when the right hand has passed the shuttle through the loop, it must stop with a sudden jerk and hold the thread tightly extended until the left hand has drawn up the knot. after filling the shuttle, take the end of the thread between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, and the shuttle in the right, pass the thread over the third and fourth fingers of the left hand, bring it back towards the thumb and cross the two threads under the fingers, as indicated in fig. . pass the thread that comes from the shuttle round the little finger of the right hand, and give the shuttle the direction shown in the engraving. second and third position of the hands (figs. and ).--make the shuttle pass between the first and third fingers, in the direction indicated by the arrow in fig. , and bring it out behind the loop. [illustration: fig. . second position of the hands.] [illustration: fig. . third position of the hands.] here the first difficulties for beginners arise and until they have sufficiently mastered the movements of both hands not to confuse them, we advise them to pay careful attention to the following instructions. as soon as you have put the shuttle through the loop, place the right hand on the table with the thread tightly extended, leaving the left hand perfectly passive. then, raising the third and fourth fingers of the left hand with the loop upon them, pull up the loop, stretching the thread tightly in so doing by extending the fingers. by this movement a knot is formed, the first part of the «double knot», which is the most common one in tatting. remember that the right hand must be kept perfectly still as long as the left is in motion and that the knot must be formed of the loop thread that is in the left hand. the right hand, or shuttle thread, must always be free to run through the knots; if it were itself formed into knots it would not have the free play, needed for loosening and tightening the loop on the left hand, as required. [illustration: fig. . fourth position of the hands.] fourth position of the hands (fig. ).--the second part of a knot is formed by the following movements: pass the shuttle, as indicated in fig. , from left to right, between the first and third fingers through the extended loop; the right hand seizes the shuttle in front of the empty loop and extends the thread; the left hand pulls up this second part of the knot as it did the first. [illustration: fig. . single or half knots. small josephine picot.] [illustration: fig. . single or half knots. large josephine picot.] single or half knots. josephine picots (figs. and ).--the josephine picot or purl, as it is also called in tatting, consists of a series of single or half knots formed of the first knot only. these picots may be made of or knots, as in fig. , or of or knots, as in fig. . fifth position of the hands (fig. ).--when the second knot forming the double knot has been made, the two hands resume the position shown in fig. . fig. reproduces the same and shows us a few finished knots as well. [illustration: fig. . fifth position of the hands.] [illustration: fig. . position of the hands for making a picot.] position of the hands for making a picot (fig. ).--picots are introduced into tatting patterns as they are into knitting and crochet. they also serve to connect the different parts of a pattern together and render a great many pretty combinations feasible. open and close picot (figs. and ).--these are formed of single knots, leaving a loop on the extended thread, as shown in fig. , and a short length of thread between the knots; finish the second half knot and when you have pulled it up, join it to the preceding knot. in this manner the picot represented in fig. is formed quite naturally. [illustration: fig. . open picot.] [illustration: fig. . close picot.] in every kind of tatting the knot that comes after the picot is independent of the loop. thus if the directions say: knots, picot, knots, picot, knots, etc., you must count the knot that served to form the loop and not make: knots, picot, knots, etc. to join the different rings, ovals, etc., together by means of picots, take up the thread that runs over the left hand with a crochet needle, inserting it into the picot downwards from above, draw the thread through and pull it up like any other knot. [illustration: fig. . tatting with two shuttles.] tatting with two shuttles (fig. ).--two shuttles are used in tatting when the little rings are not to be connected together at the bottom by a thread, when you want to hide the passage of the thread to another group of knots and when threads of several colours are used. when you work with two shuttles, tie the two threads together. pass one thread over the third finger of the left hand, wind it twice round the fourth finger and leave the shuttle hanging down. pass the second shuttle into the right hand and make the same movements with it as you do in working with one shuttle only. detached scallops (fig. ).--make double knots with one shuttle, then tighten the thread so as to draw them together into a half ring; the next knot must touch the last knot of the scallop before it. [illustration: fig. . detached scallops. materials: fil d'alsace d.m.c in balls nos to or cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to .[a]] scallops joined together at the top (fig. ). with one shuttle make double, picot, * double, picot, double, close the half ring, double, draw the thread through the picot and repeat from *. [illustration: fig. . scallops joined together at the top. materials: fil d'alsace d.m.c nos. to , cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to [a]] scallops with picots (fig. ).--make with one shuttle: double, picot, * double, picot, double, picot, double, picot, double, picot, double, close the ring. [illustration: fig. . scallops with picots. materials: fil d'alsace d.m.c in balls nos. to , écru or white.[a]] leave sufficient length of thread before beginning the next ring, for the rings not to overlap each other = make double, draw the left hand thread through the th picot of the preceding ring and repeat from *. tatted insertion (fig. ).--make with one shuttle a ring like the ones in fig. , then leaving a length of, from to m/m. of thread, make a second ring = turn the work = leave the same length of thread again, begin a third ring which you join after the th double, to the th picot of the st ring = turn the work after each ring is made, so that all the upper rings represent the right side of the work and all the lower ones the wrong. [illustration: fig. . tatted insertion. materials: fil d'alsace d.m.c in balls nos. to , écru or white.] [illustration: fig. . tatted insertion. materials: fil d'alsace d.m.c nos. to , or cordonnet fils d.m.c no. .] [illustration: fig. . edging of tatting and crochet. materials--for the tatting: fil d'alsace d.m.c in balls no. . for the crochet: cordonnet fils d.m.c no. .] tatted insertion (fig. ).--to be worked with two shuttles. begin with one thread and one shuttle and make a ring, as in figs. and ; and a second close to it; then pass the thread over the left hand, take the second shuttle in the right hand and make double on the nd thread, after which you again make a ring above and one below with one shuttle only. edging of tatting and crochet (fig. ).--make with one shuttle: double, picot, double, picot, double, picot, double, picot twice as long as the others, double, picot, double, picot, double, picot, double, long picot, double = close the ring = fasten off the two threads on the wrong side with two or three stitches. after the first knot join the next ring to the preceding one by the long picot, and work the remainder as has been already described. when you have a sufficient number of rings, pick up the picots by crochet trebles with chain stitches between them. on this first row, crochet a second, consisting of: chain, picot, chain, single in the treble of the st row. to finish the bottom part of the work, make plain in the st picot, chain; plain in the nd picot, chain, plain in the rd picot, chain, plain in the st picot of the next ring. one row of single crochet serves as a footing to the edging. [illustration: fig. . tatted edging in three rows. materials: fil d'alsace d.m.c in balls nos. to , or cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to .] tatted edging in three rows (fig. ).--worked with two shuttles. the first row is worked like fig. , with one shuttle. the second and third are worked with two. fasten the thread of the right hand shuttle into the first picot; then work on this thread the same number of double knots and picots as in the st row and join each half ring to the picot of the row before. in the rd row, insert picots between the double knots of the row above. here the josephine picot may be substituted for the plain picot. [illustration: fig. . tatted edging. materials: fil d'alsace d.m.c in balls nos. to , or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to . colours: Écru and bleu-indigo , or jaune d'ocre and rouge-cornouille , gris-tilleul and brun-caroubier .] tatted edging (fig. ).--worked with two shuttles and two colours. after making a string of rings like those in fig. , with fil d'alsace d.m.c no. écru, fasten the blue and unbleached threads of the respective shuttles to the middle picot. holding the light thread in the right hand, and the dark one laid over the left hand, work: double, picot, double = then put the right hand thread separately through the picots of the rings and continue to make: double, picot, double. the next row also is made with two shuttles. hold the light thread in the right hand; with the dark thread, laid across the left hand, make: * double, picot, double, picot, double = turn the work = with the right hand shuttle make: double, put the thread through the little picot formed above the middle picot of the rings, double, close the ring = turn the work = make with two shuttles: double, picot, double, picot, double, put the light thread through the blue picots and repeat from *. the first row of crochet for the footing consists of chain and plain stitches only, the second, of chain stitches and trebles. medallion (fig. ).--take two colours of thread and fill two shuttles with the light colour and two with the dark. make with one shuttle: double and picots, of them short and long; close the ring, break off the thread and fasten off the ends by a stitch or two on the wrong side.--for the next rows take two shuttles. [illustration: fig. . medallion. materials: fil d'alsace d.m.c in balls nos. to .[a] colours: white and rouge-géranium , or écru and vert-mousse , bleu pâle and jaune d'or .] st row--with the shuttles containing the light colour = fasten the ends on to a short picot and make: * double, short picot, double, long picot, double, long picot, double, long picot, double, short picot, double; pass the right hand thread through one of the short picots of the first ring, repeat the series times from *. when you reach the th half ring, instead of making the second picot, put the left hand thread through the short picot of the first half ring, then complete the last double knots, cut the threads off, pass them through the picot of the ring and fasten them off on the wrong side. nd row--with the shuttles filled with the light colour = fasten the ends on to a long picot, then make: * double, picot, double, pass the right hand thread through the picot of the first row and repeat the series times from *. rd row--with the shuttles filled with the dark colour = fasten the ends on to one of the picots of the last row and make: * double, pass the right hand thread through the picot of the nd row, make a long picot, double and repeat this series all round the medallion, until you have scallops. th row--with the shuttles filled with the dark colour = * double, picot, double, picot, double, picot, double, pass the right hand thread, from the wrong side, through the picot of the nd row and begin again from *. [illustration: fig. . insertion of tatting and crochet. materials: fil d'alsace d.m.c in balls nos. to , or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to . colours: bleu de france and jaune-rouille .] insertion of tatting and crochet (fig. ).--fill two shuttles, one with a light colour, say, bleu de france , the other with a darker, such as jaune-rouille , and two numbers coarser than the thread you intend to use for the crochet. begin with the dark colour and make: * double, picot, double, picot, double, close the ring. with both shuttles, the light colour in the left hand: double, picot, double, picot, double, picot, double, put the right hand thread through the picot of the first circle; then add: double, picot, double, picot, double, picot, double. with the shuttle, filled with the dark colour: double, pass the thread through the picot of the first ring, make double, picot, double, close the ring. then, leaving a short length of thread between, make: double, put the thread through the picot of the preceding ring, double, picot, double, close the ring **; then repeat from * to **. when you have thus made two equal lengths, join them together with crochet, using a thread two numbers finer than the tatting thread; if the latter for instance was fil d'alsace no. , you would take no. of the same material for the crochet-- plain in the st picot, chain, plain in the middle picot, chain, plain in the rd and st picot = then, over chain: sextuple cluster stitch (fig. ), chain. in the row on the opposite side of the tatting, take out the crochet needle at the rd chain stitch and put it in from beneath into the corresponding stitch of the opposite row; in this manner join the two insertions together so as to complete the pattern. [illustration: fig. . insertion of tatting and crochet. materials--for the tatting: fil d'alsace d.m.c in balls nos. to , or cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , écru or white.[a] for the crochet: the same materials, but two numbers finer.] [illustration: fig. . working detail of fig. .] insertion of tatting and crochet (figs. and ).--worked with one shuttle. the tatting thread should be two numbers coarser than the crochet thread. begin with strings of half rings consisting of: short picots and long. leave a length of thread between, equal to the diameter of the ring. when the two strings of half rings are finished, crochet with the fine thread: plain over each length of thread between, and at the base of the scallops. nd row-- chain, plain in the th plain of the st row. in the row that connects the two rows of tatting, put the rd chain stitch into the corresponding stitch of the opposite row. for the outside edge make: plain in the st short picot, chain *, treble in the nd short picot, chain, treble in the rd short picot, chain, plain in the th short picot, plain in the short picot opposite, chain, pass the thread through the th of the chain stitches, chain and repeat from *. for the last row make: plain in each of the last of chain, * picot of chain above the treble, plain in the next chain, picot, single in the same stitch as the plain before the picot, plain, picot, plain, miss the st and the last stitch, then make plain on the next scallop and repeat from *. [illustration: fig. . edging of tatting and crochet. materials--for the tatting: fil d'alsace d.m.c in balls no. in two shades of one colour. for the crochet: fil d'alsace d.m.c in balls no. in one colour only.] edging of tatting and crochet (fig. ).--worked with two shuttles and in two shades. with the light shade: double, short picot, double, long picot, * double, picot of the ordinary size, double, picot, double, picot, double, long picot, double, short picot, double, close the ring = with shuttles: double, pass the thread through the st picot, make double, long picot, double = with the light shade: double, pass the thread through the th picot of the st ring, make double, picot, double, close the ring = with shuttles: double, picot, double, short picot, double = with one shuttle: double, pass the thread through the empty picot of the small ring, make double, pass the thread through the long picot of the big ring, then repeat from *. to complete the edge, crochet first one row, consisting of: * plain in the st of the picots of the big ring, chain, plain in the nd picot, chain, plain in the rd picot, chain, plain in the th picot, chain, plain in the th picot and repeat from *. nd row-- plain on the rd and th of the first chain stitches = over the nd and rd chain: plain, half treble, trebles, half treble, plain; on the last chain: plain. for the footing make: plain in the long picot, chain, plain in the next picot, chain, double treble in the short picot, leave the last loops of the treble on the needle = trebles in the first lower loop of the double treble, keep the last loops of these trebles on the needle, after the th treble, draw the needle through the trebles. the last row consists of: chain, treble over chain. tatted medallion (fig. ).--worked with two shuttles and two colours. st row--with one shuttle: double and picots, close the ring. nd row--with two shuttles and the dark coloured thread laid across the left hand = knot the threads into one of the picots of the st ring: double, long picot, double, pass the right hand thread through one of the picots of the ring, picot, double and so on. after the th picot fasten off the threads on the wrong side by two or three stitches. [illustration: fig. . tatted medallion. materials: fil d'alsace d.m.c nos. to .[a] colours: gris-tilleul and rouge-cardinal .[a]] rd row--with one shuttle: * double, pass the thread through one of the picots of the nd row, make double, close the ring = leave m/m. of thread = turn the work = double, picot, double, close the ring = leave m/m. of thread again and repeat times from *. th row--with two shuttles; fasten the ends to one of the picots of one of the rings of the rd row: * double, picot, double = with one shuttle: double, pass the thread through the picot, double, picot, double, picot, double, close the ring = close to this: double, pass the thread through the nd picot of the st ring, double, picot, double, close the ring = again, close to the last ring: double, pass the thread through the picot of the nd ring, double, picot, double, close the ring = with shuttles: double, pass the thread through the nd picot of the rd ring, double, fasten the thread to the picot of the ring of the rd row and repeat times from *. th row--with two shuttles and the dark colour across the left hand: double and picots over the lower rings and double and picots over the upper rings. [illustration: fig. . tatted edging. materials: fil d'alsace d.m.c in balls nos. to , cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to . colours: gris-tilleul and rouge-grenat .] tatted edging (fig. ).--with two shuttles and with the two colours indicated, or in any other combination of colours. begin with two shuttles, the red thread across the left hand = double, picot, double = with one shuttle: double, picot, double, close the ring = turn the work = make a second ring like the first and close to it = turn the work = with two shuttles: double, picot, double = with one shuttle: double, pass the thread through the picot of the ring opposite, double, close the ring = double, picot, double, close the ring = turn the work to make the next half ring. make rows of half rings connected by rings. in the nd row, you pass the thread from the ring through the picot to which the nd ring was fastened in the st row. for the outside scallops, make with one shuttle: * double, pass the thread through the picot that connects rings, double, close the ring = with two shuttles: double = with one shuttle: double, picot, double, picot, double, pass the thread through the picot of the half ring of the rd row, double; then picots more with double between each, close the ring = with two shuttles: double, long picot, double, short picot, double, short picot, double = with one shuttle: double, pass the thread through the rd picot of the big ring, double, close the ring = with two shuttles: double, picots with double after each picot = with one shuttle: double, pass the thread through the rd picot of the big ring, double, close the ring = with two shuttles: double, picot, double, picot, double, picot, double, pass the right hand thread through the th picot of the big ring = with two shuttles: double, then repeat from *. the footing is worked in crochet and consists of one row of chain stitches and one of trebles. square of tatting (fig. ).--worked with two shuttles and two colours. with the light colour: double, picot, double, picot, double, picot, double, picot, double, close the ring. st row--with two shuttles, the dark coloured thread across the left hand = fasten the thread to a picot and make: * double, picot, double, picot, double, picot, double, pass the right hand thread through the picot of the ring; picot over the connecting thread, then repeat times from *. the last picot over the picot of the small ring is made at the end. nd row--with two shuttles, the light thread over the left hand = fasten the thread to the picot over the light picot: * double, pass the right hand thread through the picot of the st row, long picot over the lower picot, double, pass the thread through the next picot of the st row = in the corner, rather longer picot than the one before, double, pass the right hand thread through a picot, long picot, double, pass the thread through a picot; repeat times from *. to form the last picot, fasten off the thread on the wrong side by two or three stitches. [illustration: fig. . square of tatting. materials: fil d'alsace d.m.c in balls nos. to , cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to .[a] colours: jaune-rouille and brun-caroubier .[a]] rd row--with one shuttle and the dark colour: * double, pass the thread through the picot above the picot of the small ring, double, close the ring = leave m/m. of thread, make a second ring like the st = leave m/m. of thread, make double, pass the thread through the long picot, double, close the ring = leave m/m. of thread, make another ring of knots, fasten it to the same picot, the preceding knot is fastened to; then make a ring of double knots and repeat times from *. th row--with one shuttle and the light colour and worked like the rd row, leaving a rather longer length of thread between; then make: instead of double for the corner rings. th row--with one shuttle and the light colour = double, fasten the thread to one of the corner loops and between rings of the th ring: double, close the ring = turn the work = leave a length of thread, double, picot, then times double knots and picot, double, close the ring. make the second ring as close as possible to the first, beginning and finishing the second with double knots = make a rd ring like the st, join it to the nd ring by the th picot = turn the work = make another ring of knots and join it to the same loop of the th row, to which the two other rings are already joined = turn the work = ring above, with picots, like the first one we described, then a ring of double knots below. at the top, detached half rings, placed between connected rings, which form the corners. the top rings are to be joined after the rd double knot, to the th picot of the preceding ring. th row--with two shuttles and the dark colour only = fasten the threads to a picot that serves as a connecting link, take the dark thread over the left hand and make: double, picot, double, picot, double, picot, double = fasten the thread to the connecting picot and carry the half rings all round the square. footnotes: [a] see at the end of the concluding chapter, the table of numbers and sizes and the list of colours of the d.m.c threads and cottons. [illustration: macramÉ stripe--arabic subject.] macramé. macramé is an arabic word, signifying an ornamental fringe or trimming, which has been adopted as the term for a certain kind of hand-work, known also as «knotted fringe» or «mexican lace» and produced by the knotting, interweaving and tying together of threads. we have given the preference to the arabic name because of its less definite meaning, seeing that not only fringe and lace, but trimmings of all kinds, in the shape of bands and stripes and headings, can be worked in macramé. until its revival about ten years ago, when it was regarded by many as a new invention, the art of macramé making had for centuries become almost extinct and save here and there in the convents, was quite unknown. the multitude of uses to which it can be turned as a trimming, the infinite variety it admits of and its great durability and strength, make macramé well worth a study; the difficulties that repel many at first sight are only on the surface and any one who carefully follows the instructions given in the following pages, will soon overcome them and be able without pains to copy the charming designs that accompany them, which remind us of the wooden lattices in the windows of eastern houses, doubtless familiar to many of our readers, under the name of _moucharabieh_. materials.--these may be of almost any kind; silk, gold thread, cord, wool or cotton, can all be employed with good effect. almost any of the d.m.c cottons can be used for macramé; but the ones especially to be recommended are: fil à dentelle d.m.c[a], cordonnet fils d.m.c[a] and coton à broder d.m.c[a] for the finer kinds of work, and for the coarser, fil à pointer d.m.c[a], coton à tricoter d.m.c[a] and ganse turque d.m.c[a]. the twist in all these is so regular as to admit of a high degree of perfection being attained with them: they are moreover very agreeable to the touch, a great recommendation considering how much they have to be handled by the worker. [illustration: fig. . macramÉ cushion.] macramÉ cushion and other accessories (figs. and ).--the only really important requisite for macramé work is the cushion, which should be well stuffed, and weighted with lead (fig. ). it is convenient to have it made to screw on to a table like the swiss tambour frames. there are other kinds of macramé cushions but none, in our opinion, as practical as these because any pattern can be worked upon them and patterns that have a heading or a border of picots can not be worked on any others. the pegs at the ends of the cushion are for fixing and winding the long threads upon, which carry the knots, and which we shall in future call «cords». for making long lengths of macramé fringe, metal clamps, with round-headed pegs attached to them top and bottom, to fasten the cords to, as represented in fig. , will be found far better than a cushion, as any number of threads can be knotted on to them at a time by pushing them more or less closely together on the cord. [illustration: fig. . clamps for macramÉ fringe.] besides the cushion and clamps, you will require, some big glass-headed pins, made expressly for the purpose, a crochet needle for pulling the threads through the stuff when they have to be knotted on to an edge, and a french mètre or yard measure to measure the threads with; to these implements may further be added, scissors and a metal comb and ruler for cutting and straightening the ends of the threads. the length of the threads must depend on their substance and size; that is to say, that a knot will take up more of a coarse stiff thread than of a fine pliable one, on which account, to avoid the necessity of preliminary trials, the right length of thread, for the quality and size of material, is given with each pattern. if, for any reason, our workers should not follow the directions given, they must bear in mind that the thicker and stiffer the material, the more they will have to allow for the knots and vice versa. formation of the knots.--beginners must be careful, in macramé as in tatting, not to move or slacken the cord, or horizontal thread that carries the knots. the knots made by the «knotting-thread», as it will be called in future, consist of loops formed over the cord and then tightened. the knotting-thread and the cord are constantly changing places, as you work, loops having to be made now with the one and now with the other. [illustration: fig. . knotting on the threads.] knotting on the threads (fig. ).--excepting when you work with the threads of a material obtained by unravelling and drawing out the cross threads, you must knot on lengths of thread on to a cord; cut them double the length the fringe is to be and fold them in half, so as to form a loop by means of which you attach them to the cord, in the following manner. put the loop over the cord from the front and bring it back underneath, put the ends down through the loop, detail _a_, and tighten it, detail _b_, as shown in the engraving. [illustration: fig. . knotting on the threads on to a stuff edge and formation of a flat double knot.] knotting on the threads on to a stuff edge and formation of a flat double knot (fig. ).--push your crochet needle through the edge of the stuff from the right to the wrong side and catch hold of the loop, formed by the folding in half of the thread that is to be knotted on; pull it out to the right side, put the ends through, and tighten the loop, detail _a_. detail _b_ shows two double threads, knotted on near to each other in this way, and the first tying together of the two outer threads for the flat knot which is formed as follows: you take the two outer of the four threads hanging down and cross the right hand one under, and the left hand one over the two centre threads. whilst doing this, hold the inner ones tightly stretched out on the rd and th fingers of the left hand, detail _b_. the manner in which the two threads are brought back and tied together again is shown in detail _c_; the drawing up of the threads completes the so-called flat double knot, detail _d_. detail _e_, of the same figure, shows two flat double knots, side by side, and the first step towards the formation of a third, connecting together the two right threads of the one with the two left threads of the other. [illustration: fig. . knotting on threads onto a knotted heading.] knotting on threads on to a knotted heading (fig. ).--make flat double knots as in fig. , detail _d_, on a double cord and then knot on your threads on to the loops of the double knots, putting the loop through from the right side, so that it may lie at the back. use double threads so that the work beneath the heading may not be too open. [illustration: fig. . knotting on threads on to a picot heading.] knotting on threads on to a picot heading (fig. ).--first, crochet a row of chain stitches, then make flat double knots on the chain, far enough apart for the thread between to form picots on the chain, then a second chain of crochet drawn through the picots on one side, on to which tie triple or quadruple lengths of thread, as shown in the engraving. knotting on threads with round picots (fig. ).--fasten the lengths of thread to the cushion with pins, about half a c/m. apart, fix the cord to one of the pegs at the left end of the cushion, hold it tightly extended in a horizontal line with the right hand. with the left hand knot the threads that are pinned down on to the cord, looping each end twice round it, upwards from below and then drawing it through between the two loops or knots thus formed, pulling each knot to the left as you tighten it round the cord. make the second row of knots in the same way, taking care to lay the second cord as close to the first as possible that the vertical threads may not be visible between. one series of knots forms a bar; there are both horizontal and slanting bars as will be seen later on. [illustration: fig. . knotting on threads with round picots.] [illustration: fig. . knotting on with a fringe heading.] knotting on threads with a fringe heading (fig. ).--knot the threads on with a picot heading, as explained in the preceding figure, then cut the picots through and unravel and comb out the threads. for this way of knotting on threads, a very strongly twisted material is better than a loose one, as when it is cut and untwisted, it makes a much richer and fuller fringe. knotting on with picots and flat double knots (fig. ).--take two threads, pin them on close together, make a flat double knot, fig. , tying the outer threads over the inner ones, and loop the ends over a cord to make a horizontal bar of knots. knotting on threads with picots and two flat double knots (figs. and ).--pin the two threads on as before and make two flat double knots, one below the other; detail _a_ shows the first knot begun, detail _b_ the two knots completed. fig. shows the picots secured by a horizontal bar of knots beneath them. [illustration: fig. . knotting on threads with picots and two flat double knots.] [illustration: fig. . & fig. . knotting on threads with picot and two flat double knots.] [illustration: fig. . knotting on threads with scallops.] knotting on threads with scallops (fig. ).--the threads for the scallops must be cut much longer than those that are to be knotted on below them. the buttonhole loops must be so made that they turn upwards; and there must be of them, all made with the left hand thread over the right hand thread, detail _a_. then, knot on two double threads underneath the scallop and besides, make knots with the threads that come from the scallops, detail _b_. [illustration: fig. . knotting on threads with loops.] knotting on threads with loops (fig. ).--pin on two threads folded in half, a little distance apart, detail _a_, and bind them together with a flat double knot. pin on more lengths close to them, the inner threads of which are held by a "collecting knot", as the flat double knot is called when it is made over more than two threads (see also fig. ). the ends of the threads can then be looped over one or two cords, so as to form a single or double bar of knots, as required. [illustration: fig. . knotting on threads with triple scallops.] knotting on threads with triple scallops (fig. ).--knot on three single threads in succession; first, the middle one, then the second, with the knot right and left and the loop long enough to form the scallop, then the third in the same manner. knotting on threads for ribbed picots (fig. ).--take a double thread and make two slanting bars of knots, see details _a_ and _b_, then secure them, like the preceding scallops by a horizontal bar of knots, see detail _c_. knotting on threads for a gimp heading (fig. ).--this mode of knotting on forms a broad gimp, consisting of vertical bars of knots, made over a single cord. on the one side, that which is afterwards turned downwards, the cord, the ribs are made on, forms loops, held with pins, into which meshes of threads can be knotted when the gimp is finished, for making either a fringe or a grounding. patterns in several colours may likewise be knotted into gimp headings of this kind. [illustration: fig. . knotting on threads with ribbed picots.] [illustration: fig. . knotting on threads for a gimp heading.] flat double knots with half knots (fig. ).--these are double knots followed by a third knot, or more correctly speaking, a half one of the first flat knots. collecting knots (fig. ).--as explained in fig. , these are flat double knots, made over more than two threads. the engraving shows, in the first place on the left, a flat double knot made over two threads, completed, and the first crossing of the thread for the collecting knot; secondly, the second crossing of the threads; thirdly how the collecting knot can, if necessary, be continued over threads, and fourthly, how the collecting knot should be made to finish with a flat double knot. plaited and waved knots (fig. ).--plaited knots are formed by a continuous repetition of the first crossing of the threads for making a flat knot, detail _a_; waved knots by a slight twist given to the plaited knots from left to right, detail _b_. these plaits of waved knots are secured by joining together the threads of opposite meshes, two and two, by a flat double knot. [illustration: fig. . flat double knots with half knots.] [illustration: fig. . collecting knots.] single crossed knots and double crossed knots (figs. and ).--two plain crossings of the threads, detail _a_, to begin with; after which you rapidly reverse the threads, turning the knot to the wrong side, drawing it up tightly at the same time; this forms the first knot, detail _b_. the second knot, fig. , is formed by crossings, detail _a_; reverse the threads rapidly, to form the double crossed knot, detail _b_. for the following knots tie the threads together, as for the flat double knot, detail _c_. looped picot and knotted picots (figs. and ).--looped picots are made along a row of knots by setting the knots, far enough apart for the loop between, to form a picot when the knots are drawn up close together. in fig. , the detail _a_ represents the picot, in its first open stage, detail _b_ the same picot when it is finished. knotted picots, fig. , are formed after one or more flat double knots, by a knot made in the outer thread; to get this knot into the right place, make it on a big pin and draw it up close to the flat knot before you take out the pin. [illustration: fig. . plaited and waved knots.] [illustration: fig. . single crossed knot.] [illustration: fig. . double crossed knot.] these picots are always made on both sides and can be repeated several times along a row of knots. detail _a_ shows the crossing of the threads for the picots, detail _b_ the picots completed and followed by a flat knot. [illustration: fig. . looped picot.] [illustration: fig. . knotted picot.] [illustration: fig. . bead knots.] bead knots (fig. ).--a bead knot is made by turning back the threads after a row of flat double knots. detail _a_ shows three flat double knots finished, detail _b_ the inner threads turned back over the flat double knots, detail _c_ the two knotting threads, brought between the two threads coming from the left to the right, and detail _d_ the bead knot finished and followed by a flat double knot. bars of knots to the right and left (figs. , , , , , , , ).--after knotting on the requisite number of threads on to a double cord, make two buttonhole loops with the right thread round the left one, fig. , then knot each thread twice over the second cord, fig. . these knots must be as close together as possible. this done, begin to make the slanting bars, inclining from left to right, with threads. the first thread on the left, marked in fig. , serves as cord to the threads , , , which are looped in succession over thread . fig. represents threads , and , knotted thread and in the second bar, thread becoming in its turn the cord, and having threads , and knotted over it, whilst it is being held, tightly stretched in the right hand. the knotting should be done with the left hand. in fig. , which represents a bar inclining from right to left, threads , and are knotted over thread ; and in fig. , in the second row, threads , , over thread . here, it has to be the left hand that holds the thread extended from right to left, whilst the right hand does the knotting. [illustration: fig. . buttonhole loop to the right.] [illustration: fig. . fastening the threads to the cord.] [illustration: fig. . bar slanting to the right. the knot open.] [illustration: fig. . bar slanting to the right. thread knotted over thread .] [illustration: fig. . bar slanting to the right. threads , , to be knotted over thread .] fig. explains how the double bars are bound together by an ordinary double knot. [illustration: fig. . bar slanting to the left.] [illustration: fig. . bar slanting to the left.] [illustration: fig. . bars joined together.] single chain (fig. ).--this is made with two single threads, by knotting them alternately over each other, that is, each in turns serving as cord to the other. double chain (fig. ).--the double chain is made in the same manner as the single, only with a double thread. both the double and single chain are generally used in macramé gimps and borders as a means of conducting threads of different colours, from one part of a pattern to another, which could be done in no other way; also, as a continuation to the chinese knot, fig. , as described at the end of this chapter. [illustration: fig. . single chain.] [illustration: fig. . double chain.] ribbed border (fig. ).--here, the same cord runs to and fro; the threads that hang down, form little ribbed bars running right and left. to distinguish from the knotting threads, the thread that runs to and fro it, is represented in a darker colour. macramÉ fringe (figs. , , ).--entire length of the threads for no. of coton à tricoter d.m.c: c/m. [illustration: fig. . ribbed border.] st row--knot on the threads, as in fig. , and in the following order: double white thread, double red, double blue and so on. nd row--make a horizontal bar of knots, see figs. , and , over a second cord. rd row-- buttonhole knots, fig. , each with threads. th row--like the nd. th row--make slanting bars of double knots right and left, counting threads for each bar, consequently for . the st and th thread serving as the cords for the knots. in the nd series of knots which forms the double slanting bar, make another double knot over the cord with the thread that served as cord in the preceding row. when the slanting bars are finished, bring them as close together as possible, tighten the last thread on the right and make another double knot with the left thread; the position of all the threads is clearly described in fig. . then continue the bars in the opposite direction, so that the nd thread on the left is stretched over the right hand group of threads, and the th thread on the right over the left hand group. [illustration: fig. . macramÉ fringe. materials: coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to , cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to . colours: bleu-indigo , rouge-turc and white, or bleu tendre , rouge-maroquin and vert-fauve .] make rows of double bars and then take always threads of a left hand group and of a right hand one, tie them loosely together in a plain knot, put in, above the knot, a bunch of threads, c/m. long, fig. detail _a_, draw up the knot close to the bars and wind thread of a different colour several times round it, detail _b_, to form the tassel. the other bunches of threads which are hung on between two bars of knots must be tied on the same level with the first, but do not, nevertheless, come into close contact with the bars. [illustration: fig. . working detail of fig. .] [illustration: fig. . working detail of fig. .] insertion or fringe (figs. and ).--entire length of the threads for no. of coton à tricoter d.m.c: c/m., including the fringe. st row--knot on the threads as in fig. . nd row-- double horizontal bar of knots, as in figs. or , over double cords. rd row--take threads for a group of bars; light and dark ones on each side; the two sets of threads are numbered in fig. , a working detail of fig. , from to . begin by making all the knots over threads and of the left set, so that threads and on the left will be outside and threads and inside the group. make the same knots over the rd and th thread on the right, then repeat the left group again and so on. [illustration: fig. . insertion or fringe. materials: coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to , cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , fil à pointer d.m.c nos. to , or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to . colours: bleu-indigo and brun-chamois , or brun-rouille and bleu-gris .] repeat from the beginning, and make double knots over thread on the right, fig. , with threads and on the left, then again knots over thread on the right. when this series of knots is finished, make: double knots over thread (dark-coloured in the engraving) with the left thread and the right threads and ; make on the left: knots over thread with the right thread and the left threads and , and so on. when this pattern is worked for a gimp and not a fringe, the threads are made to end in knots, as explained in fig. . [illustration: fig. . working detail of fig. ] gimp made with macramÉ shuttles (figs. , , ).--cut double threads of the length the gimp is to be. in order not to have to add on threads in the middle of the work, or have long ends hanging down, which are very much in the way, we recommend the employment of a new macramé shuttle, a kind of spool, such as are used in the making of pillow lace. these shuttles simplify the work enormously and are made hollow so that they can be mounted and filled on the spindle of any sewing machine. knot on the threads, as in fig. , and make a single bar of knots. then leaving threads on the right and on the left disengaged, make flat double knots with every set of threads between. make a slanting bar of double knots over the th right thread, with the th, th, th, th, th, th and th thread; then make knots with the same threads and with the th over the th thread. make a similar bar on the left, over the st thread, with the nd, rd, th, th, th, th and th thread. [illustration: fig. . gimp made with macramÉ shuttles. materials: coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to , cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , fil à pointer d.m.c nos. to , or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to .[a] colours: bleu-indigo and brun-marron .[a]] [illustration: fig. . macramÉ shuttle.] on both sides, and with the outer threads: flat double knots, fig. , detail _d_; more bars on the right and left, but in the opposite direction, and knotting all the threads even to the last one, fig. . take the middle threads and make flat double knots and then turn the bars of knots inwards; the return of the cord is indicated as before in fig. . macramÉ borders (figs. , , , ).--length of the single threads for no. of coton à tricoter d.m.c: c/m. knot the threads on for both these borders in the ordinary way, followed by a single horizontal bar of knots. for fig. , make a triple slanting bar of knots, with threads, slanting one from right to left and one from left to right; then make a single horizontal bar and add another series of triple bars slanting the opposite way; complete the pattern by a vertical bar, lay another cord and make a horizontal bar upon it on the wrong side of the work and finish by tying the threads together, two and two, as shown in fig. , detail _a_, cut them, detail _b_, and push the knot upwards, detail _c_. [illustration: fig. . slanting bar and the return of the cord. working detail of fig. .] [illustration: fig. . macramÉ border.] [illustration: fig. . macramÉ border. materials: coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to , fil à pointer d.m.c nos. to , or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to .[a] colours--for fig. : bleu-lapis or bleu-gentiane --for fig. : rouge-turc or rouge-cerise .[a]] for fig. take threads for a group of knots. make all the bars slanting from right to left first, fig. , then take the th thread, counting from left to right, for the cord, fig. again, and begin the second series of bars of knots, slanting from left to right. fasten off the threads as already explained in fig. . the same pattern can also be used as an insertion: bags for instance, look very well made of alternate stripes of this insertion and stripes made of flat knots. the openwork stripes must be wider than the close ones. [illustration: fig. . working detail of figs. and .] [illustration: fig. . working detail of fig. .] macramÉ fringe (figs. and ).--entire length of the threads, including the fringe, for no. of cordonnet fils d.m.c: c/m. [illustration: fig. . macramÉ fringe. materials: cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to . colours: brun-cuir and , bleu-indigo ] st row--knot on the threads, as in fig. , in the following order: double blue threads, single dark brown, double light brown, single dark brown; then again double blue, and so on. nd row--divide the threads into groups, so that the brown threads come in the middle with blue ones on either side. begin on the left = cover the th blue thread, which comes nearest to the first brown one, with flat double knots, made over the st, nd and rd brown thread and the light brown one = cover the rd blue thread with the brown threads and the th blue, which served as the cord in the st row of knots = cover the nd blue thread with the brown and the th and rd blue = cover the st blue with the brown and the th, rd and nd blue. [illustration: fig. . working detail of fig. ] in the working detail, fig. , the dark lines represent the blue threads, the light ones, the brown. when the quadruple bar, slanting from left to right, is finished, make a similar one, from right to left, then connect the st and th thread by a double knot and pass the first blue thread on the left over to the right group. nd row--make similar groups, reversed, so that the brown knots come next to the last blue ones and the blue knots again terminate the groups of bars; the brown threads will be stretched flat between the preceding group and the next. rd and th row--like the first. th row--like the nd. [illustration: fig. . macramÉ fringe. materials: cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to .[a] colours: Écru, or any light shade mentioned in the d.m.c colour card.[a]] after the th row of groups, take brown threads on either side of the blue knots, and make them into a double chain, fig. , consisting of knots, and make flat double knots with the last threads. lastly, unite all the threads of one group of bars, and make them into a handsome tassel by the addition of other threads. macramÉ fringe (fig. ).--entire length of the threads for no. of cordonnet fils d.m.c: c/m. st row--knot on the threads as in fig. , succeeded by a double horizontal bar of knots. nd row--twisted or waved knots with knots, fig. . rd row--double horizontal bar of knots. th row--with threads: double bar, slanting from left to right, and bar, from right to left, joined together by the last threads. th row--with the threads coming from the groups of bars: single chain, fig. , with crossings of the threads, quite close to the point where the groups meet, and single chain with crossings, made with the outside threads. th row--similar groups of bars to those of the th row, but set the reverse way and terminating in a horizontal bar. for the tassels, add a thick bunch of threads to each group of threads that issues from the work. [illustration: fig. . fringe with mosaic border. materials: cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to . colours: Écru, brun-acajou and rouge-cardinal .] [illustration: fig. . knot open. working detail of fig. .] [illustration: fig. . knot shut. working detail of fig. .] fringe with mosaic border (figs. , , ).--entire length of the threads for no. of cordonnet fils d.m.c: c/m. st row--knot the threads on, as in fig. , one écru and one brown alternately, succeeded by a single horizontal bar of double knots. nd, rd, th and th row-- rows of knots, such as are seen in fig. , in process of being made, and in fig. , finished, and succeeded by a flat knot. the colours alternate in the knots; in the nd and th row the knot is set in the light colour, in the rd and th, in the dark. th row-- horizontal bar of double knots over a fresh cord. th row--lay down another cord, make another horizontal bar of knots and between every second of the light double knots, loop on red thread; the loop, that fastens it to the cord, taking the place of the knot. th row--lay down a third cord, and make double knots with the red threads between the knots of écru thread. th row--lay down a fourth cord, make a half knot with every red thread. th row--lay down a fifth cord, then make a horizontal bar of double knots, as in the th row; the red threads are taken to the wrong side and passed over. knot the ends of the threads together in clusters of , about m/m. below the last cord of knots. [illustration: fig. . macramÉ ground. materials: cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to .[a] colours: Écru and bleu-indigo , or vert-perroquet and rouge-Écarlate .[a]] [illustration: fig. . shell bar. working detail of fig. .] [illustration: fig. . openwork part of fig. .] macramÉ ground (figs. , , ).--fill the shuttles with the length of thread that you think will be required for the work. st row--knot the threads on, as in fig. , blue and écru alternately, and make a double horizontal bar. nd row--beginning in the middle, make flat double knots with blue threads; with the blue threads on the left, make a quadruple group of bars over the blue threads on the right. these quadruple groups of bars, called «shell bars» are illustrated in detail in fig. . unite the blue threads at the sides by flat double knots. the beginning and continuation of the openwork parts of the pattern are explained in fig. . the threads that issue from the last group of knots are used for making the second shell bar, the two inner bars of which are made in écru cotton, and the two outer in blue. when this striped shell bar is finished, the blue threads are again united for the openwork figure. [illustration: fig. . fringe with foundation worked on the wrong side. materials: coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to , cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , fil à pointer d.m.c nos. to , or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to .[a] colours: white, bleu-indigo and or gris-amadou , brun-caroubier , .[a]] fringe with foundation worked on the wrong side (figs. , , , ).--entire length of the threads for no. of coton à tricoter d.m.c: c/m. knot the threads on, as in fig. and after finishing the horizontal bar, make from left to right, over the st thread, double knot made with the nd and with the rd thread. then, over the nd thread, which has now become the st, make double knots with the rd, st, th and th thread; then, over the rd thread, counting now from right to left, which in the knotting on figured as the th: double knot with the th and nd thread. make the same group from right to left, only at the rd change of thread make double knots instead of , and let the last knots count for the new group of bars, turned the opposite way. [illustration: fig. . opposing bars. working detail of fig. .] [illustration: fig. . formation of the knots on the wrong side. working detail of fig. .] [illustration: fig. . appearance of the knots on the right side. working detail of fig. .] in the middle of two opposing groups of bars, make a flat double knot with of the right threads and of the left. when the second horizontal bar is finished, turn the work round, and go on working on the wrong side, making plain double knots, as in fig. , turned in one row, all from right to left, and in the next, from left to right. when you have worked such rows of knots, begin to make one knot less on either side of a group, so as to form pointed scallops of knots which you finish off with a plain bar. tassels are then made with the threads that issue from each scallop, and when these are sewn up, turn the work round to the right side, where the knots, made on the wrong side, will present the appearance indicated in fig. . [illustration: fig. . macramÉ fringe. materials: coton à tricoter d.m.c no. , cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , or fil à pointer d.m.c nos. to .[a] colours: Écru, rouge-turc and rouge-grenat or violet-mauve and , and vert-bouteille .[a]] macramÉ fringe (fig. ).--entire length of the threads for no. of coton à tricoter d.m.c: c/m. knot on double threads, as in figs. and , to count as single in the working directions = * thread of red, colour , of écru, of red, colour , of red, colour , of écru, of red, colour , and repeat from *. st row-- chain knots made with every threads. nd row--a single horizontal bar of knots. rd row--collecting knots, fig. , made with the écru threads over the dark and the light red ones, and flat double knots over the écru threads. th row--collecting knots over écru threads with red and écru threads. th row--collecting knots in the centre of the groups, with the écru threads. th row--similar to the th. th row--similar to the th. then take the red threads on the right and left and twist them, each cluster separately, from left to right between the thumb and forefinger, as you do in making a cord, then unite them together, twisting them from left to right. fasten off the cord by a knot, beneath which the ends of thread form a little tassel. collect all the écru threads together and make them into a heavy tassel with the aid of supplementary threads. [illustration: fig. . border with shell knots. materials: cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to .[a] colours: vert-mousse and rouge-cornouille , or rouge-framboise and gris-coutil .[a]] border with shell knots (figs. , , , ).--fill the macramé shuttles with the requisite length of thread. knot the threads on, as in fig. , in the following order; double thread of colour , double threads of colour , of colour , of colour , of colour . from left to right and over the st thread: double knot with the nd thread; over the th thread of colour , and from right to left, double knots with the rd, nd and st thread of the same colour = from left to right: double knot with the th thread of colour over the th, and with the rd thread over the nd = from right to left: double knots over the th thread of colour = from left to right: double knot over the th thread, double knot over the th thread, double knot over the st thread = from right to left: double knots over the th thread = from left to right: detached double knots. then, from left to right, and subsequently from right to left = with green threads: double bars slanting over the red threads (see the top of fig. ); unite the red threads in the middle and make a shell knot with them, fig. , consisting of flat knots, fig. ; take threads on the right and on the left, turn them down to the left and right, and then from the wrong side to the right, over the threads that come from the bars and close with a flat knot. on the sides, make double bars and between each bar, single chain knots. [illustration: fig. . large shell knot, open. working detail of fig. .] [illustration: fig. . large shell knot, shut. working detail of fig. .] [illustration: fig. . openwork part of fig. .] fill the empty spaces under the outside shell knots, with flat double knots; under the middle knot make bars of inter-crossed knots, of which a clear explanation will be found in fig. . to join two borders of the kind together, pass the thread of the second border over the thread on which the bar in the middle of the outer scallop is knotted. fringe with shell knots (fig. ).--entire length of the single threads for no. of coton à tricoter d.m.c: c/m. [illustration: fig. . fringe with shell knots. materials: coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to . colours: Écru and rouge-turc .] the threads must be taken double, counting as one. knot them on, as in fig. . this exceedingly effective pattern is a very simple one to work and can easily be copied from the engraving by following, for the bars, figs. to ; for the collecting knots fig. , for the large shell knots figs. and , and for the chain of flat double knots, fig. detail _a_. the tassels that complete the fringe must depend from the last collecting knot and hang between the triple bars of knots and beneath the collecting knot. [illustration: fig. . macramÉ border or fringe. materials: cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to , or fil à pointer d.m.c no. .[a] colours: Écru, rouge-turc and bleu-indigo .[a]] macramÉ border or fringe (fig. ).--entire length of the threads for no. of cordonnet fils d.m.c: c/m. st row--knot on the threads with double round picots, and one horizontal double bar. the colours should succeed each other as follows: * blue scallops, écru, red, écru, repeat from *. nd row--begin working from right to left: single chain with single threads, fig. , and changes of the threads; after the rd change of the threads, connect the nd chain with the rd, the th with the th. finish off every chains with a flat double knot. make, over the first blue threads; waved plait, fig. detail _b_, = over the th écru thread: bar of double knots, going and returning = over the last red threads: waved knots, and repeat from * = then lay down fresh cords, to make a double horizontal bar of knots. rd row--with the blue threads: large shell knots, fig. , triple bar of double knots to the left and right = between the bars large shell knots = triple bar of double knots to the right and left and finish with large shell knots, as above. with the écru threads: flat double knots, double horizontal bar of knots = over the last écru thread: waved knots with changes of the threads = more double bar of knots = join the cord to the outside thread of the blue triple bar. with the red threads: shell knot, figs. and , over threads; double bar on both sides of the shell knot with the outside threads, single chain, consisting of changes of the threads, made with the outside red threads; join the red thread and the light one that comes from the double bar together, on the left. the light thread is afterwards looped into the blue thread on the right = collecting knots over red threads on the right and left, collecting knot over all the red threads and one, on both sides, over red threads. after joining the threads on both sides, carry on the single chain with changes of the threads = over the first red thread of the left chain, make double horizontal bar with all the disengaged threads = below the bar, flat double knots = single horizontal bar = double knots, each over a single thread = double bar of knots. from this point, continue with the écru threads: row of double knots, double horizontal bar and waved plait; then join: blue threads and écru, and écru and red, together, to make flat double knots; the double knots between remain of one colour. the bottom border is like the top one with the exception of the picots. when this pattern is to be used for an insertion or a gimp, the threads should be fastened off, as indicated in fig. . [illustration: fig. . macramÉ border. materials: coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to , cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to and chiné d'or d.m.c[a] colours: noir grand teint , gris-tilleul and , brun-cuir and , bleu-indigo or chiné d'or d.m.c, bleu et or.[a]] [illustration: fig. . crossed bar slanting to the left. working detail of fig. .] [illustration: fig. . crossed bar slanting to the right. working detail of fig. .] macramÉ border (figs. , , ).--wind the threads on shuttles and knot them on, as in fig. , in the following order: threads of, either colour or chiné d'or (blue and gold), of colour , of colour , of colour , of colour , of colour , of colour , of colour , of colour , of colour , of colour , or of chiné d'or blue and gold. begin with the open work on either side of the crossed bars, figs. and , with blue threads and by changes of the threads outwards and inwards = the same with light green threads with changes outwards and inwards = then with the dark green threads, with changes outwards and inwards = over the th dark green thread, double knot with the st dark green thread with the th light green one and with the blue. over the next, dark green threads, knot the light green threads and the blue, from right to left, and from left to right, thus forming altogether bars across the first bar = then knot the first threads over the last dark green one = add a crossed bar with changes of the threads outwards and inwards. middle group, left side: double knot with the first light brown thread over the second thread; double knots with the black threads (the only ones that are to be taken double) and light brown threads over the st and nd dark brown ones. in the nd bar, knot the st dark brown thread, and in the rd, the dark brown ones, over the black thread. on the right, a similar group, slanting towards the one on the left. on the left--over the st light brown thread coming from the right, double knot, made with light and dark brown threads, and the black one, all coming from the left. on the right--over the st light brown thread coming from the left, double knot with light and dark brown threads and the black one (used double). on the left--over the light brown thread coming from the right, double knot with one light and dark brown threads and the black one. on the right--over the light brown thread, double knot with dark brown threads and the black one. on the left--the same knots as on the right. on the right--over the dark brown thread knot with brown thread and the black one. on the left--the same knots as on the right. on the right--over the st dark brown thread, knot with a brown thread and the black one. on the left--the same knots over the last thread. on the right--over the last brown thread one knot with the black one. on the left--over the light green threads and the blue ones, double knots with the brown threads and the black one = double knot with the st light brown thread over the nd, double knots over the nd dark brown thread, with light threads and dark brown = double knots with the light and the dark brown threads over the black one; after which you make other bars, taking the last thread turned inwards for the cord. make similar groups, slanting from right to left, then, beginning again on the left, make the knots with the light green threads over the st thread of the same colour running from right to left. [illustration: fig. . macramÉ fringe. materials: cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , fil à pointer d.m.c nos. to , or fil à dentelle nos. to . colours: Écru and brun-havane , or gris-tilleul and .] on the right--knot light green threads over the st thread coming from the left and repeat the same group twice, on both sides. the third bar forms, at the same time, the first scallop of a triple crossed bar, which has also to be made on the right. the two crossed bars finish with a triple group of bars; the last bar of which, on the right, consists of only one double knot. there remain to be made, on both sides, crossed bars with three whole scallops inside, one outside, and one half one, top and bottom. [illustration: fig. . working detail of fig. .] knot all the other threads over the blue and the light green ones = in the middle, knot the right and the left threads, alternately, till the black threads meet at the point. turn the group of bars, edged with blue and light green, inwards, and finish it off by a crossed bar, with scallops inside. macramÉ fringe (figs. and ).--entire length of the threads for no. of cordonnet fils d.m.c: c/m. st row--knot the threads on with picots, fig. , écru and brown. nd row--double and slanting bars made with single threads, succeeded by a double horizontal bar. rd row--begin with the light threads and make bars with double knots between, as in fig. , and finish at the sides with bars made with the brown threads; for the dark brown bars, see also figs. , , , for the crossed bars, fig. . this pattern should always end in such a manner that the light openwork figure form the scallop and be framed with the brown knot. [illustration: fig. . macramÉ fringe. materials: coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to , cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to .[a] colours: brun-cuir and brun-marron , , .[a]] macramÉ fringe (fig. ).--entire length of the threads for no. of coton à tricoter d.m.c: c/m. this pattern is so easy that we refer our readers to figs. and for the working of it, merely remarking, that the bars are made alternately from right to left, and from left to right, and that threads are knotted over the cord that runs from the left and , over the one from the right. this fringe will always be found most effective in appearance if it be made in four shades of one colour, knotted on in succession. [illustration: fig. . macramÉ fringe. materials: the same as for fig. . colours: gris-tilleul and violet-mauve or, bleu cendré and rouge-cornouille , bleu-canard and rouge-maroquin , etc.] [illustration: fig. . working detail of fig. .] macramÉ fringe or ground (figs. and ).--entire length of the threads for no. of cordonnet fils d.m.c: c/m. this effective pattern is not difficult, save in appearance, so that it is unnecessary to describe it in detail; for the knotting on, see fig. ; for the plain bars, figs. to ; for the collecting knots, fig. . the only difficult point is where the threads cross each other inside the bars and form a check and by carefully following the course of the knots in fig. , that will be easily overcome. fringe or ground with picots (fig. ).--wind the threads on shuttles and do the knotting on, as in fig. , followed by a double horizontal bar. leave a small space between the double bar and the rd bar, which is a single one, in which you cross the threads without knotting them. beginning on the left--over the nd and rd thread: buttonhole knots, picot, button hole knots = over the st, nd and rd thread: double knot with each of the next threads = over the th and th with the th thread: buttonhole knots with picot after the nd knot. with each of the next threads, that is the th, th, th and th: flat double knot followed by: bar of double knots over the th thread as the cord, made with the th, th and th thread = add bar with the th thread as the cord, and the next ones as the knotting threads = add bar with the th thread as the cord, and the next ones as the knotting threads. leave threads free on the right = with the threads on the left: bar over the thread before these threads = leave free again on the right = quintuple bar with the remaining threads. * flat double knot with the th, th and th thread = with the th thread, over the th, th and th thread: buttonhole knots with picot after knots = knot threads over the th thread and from left to right = from left to right, bars with all the threads **. [illustration: fig. . fringe or ground with picots. materials: cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to .[a] colours: white, écru, or any light shade mentioned in the d.m.c colour card.[a]] over the threads on the left and with the rd thread: buttonhole knots and picot = with the threads from the left: bars consisting of buttonhole knots and picots = a rd bar with double knots = join it to the last bar. leave threads of the bar of buttonhole knots free = with the outer thread make: buttonhole knots and picot over the nd thread and the cord of the bar. repeat from * to ** along the bar, also from right to left. left group--knot the last threads over the th thread and from left to right. right group--make, from right to left, bar consisting of double knots, over the th thread counting from right to left. after these last changes of the threads no difficulty will be found in copying the rest of the pattern. [illustration: fig. . double fringe. materials: cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to and coton à broder d.m.c nos. to . colours: white for the cordonnet, rouge-grenat for the coton à broder.] [illustration: fig. . knotted berry for fig. .] [illustration: fig. . large shell knot, open.] [illustration: fig. . large shell knot, shut.] double fringe (figs. , , , ).--entire length of the threads for no. of cordonnet fils d.m.c: c/m., and entire length for no. of coton à broder d.m.c: c/m. knot on, as in fig. , thread of cordonnet, of coton à broder (these are to be taken double) of cordonnet, of coton à broder, and so on. in the second horizontal bar, you only use the red threads of coton à broder for knotting, not the white cordonnet ones. to supply their place, knot on two threads of red coton à broder under the white threads. with the red threads ( count as one) make rows of collecting knots, followed by a single horizontal bar. divide the white threads into twos and make single chains with them, the whole length of the fringe; the thread must be changed times for each chain; then pass the right chain under the left one and join them by a flat double knot. you then, with the threads turned outwards, right and left, make the single chain with changes of the threads and join them together again by a flat knot. the other single chains are made with and changes of the threads and crossed under the double knots. the tassels, which the red threads serve as a foundation to, are begun by: waved plait with two knots, then single chains, again a waved plait and berry composed of knots. this berry is made over the threads that come from the chains, with a long auxiliary thread, knotted as shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. . macramÉ border. materials: cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to and or fin d.m.c no. . colour--for the cotton: vert métallique [a]] [illustration: fig. . beaded ground. materials: cordonnet fils d.m.c no. or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to and gold beads.[a]] large shell knots, as described in figs. and may be substituted in the place of the berry, fig. . macramÉ border (fig. ).--fill shuttles, knotted together, that is, and , and knot on green threads, gold and green. the changing of the threads and the course of the knots can be so easily copied from the pattern that a description in detail is not necessary, it is sufficient to observe that all the dark parts in the engraving should be worked in green and the light ones in gold. [illustration: fig. . square of mosaic macramÉ. materials: fil à pointer d.m.c no. , coton à broder d.m.c no. and or fin d.m.c pour la broderie no. [a]. colours: rouge-cardinal , rouge-grenat and , bleu-indigo and , gris-tilleul and [a].] beaded ground (fig. ).--knot on threads for every group of knots, and secure them by a knot and a picot, as shown in the engraving. work the groups of knots, as indicated in fig. , and after each group is finished, thread a gold bead on to every threads. our model is worked in écru thread and gold beads; the latter go very well with any colour and especially with the more subdued shades of green, such as the vert-mousse, vert bouteille and gris-tilleul of the d.m.c colour card. square of mosaic macramÉ (figs. and ).--this little pattern illustrates the way in which tapestry and cross-stitch patterns can be utilised for macramé. all patterns that are drawn on checked paper can be copied in macramé and even in several colours. for every square, you count either one single or one double thread, according to the scale on which the work is to be. in the case of a single thread, you count one double knot per square, in that of a double one, double knots, two in the first and two in the second row. after knotting the threads together, two and two, and pinning them to the cushion, see letter _a_, make single chains with changes of the thread, letters _b_ and _c_, then take a very long cord, letter _d_, and knot on the threads. the cord forms picots along two sides of the square; into which you fasten threads, letters _e_ and _f_, for the single chain formed, on the two other sides by the knotting threads. [illustration: fig. . working detail of fig. .] the coloured threads for the flowers are knotted on as the pattern requires it, taking the place for the time being, of those with which the foundation is made, which are left hanging on the wrong side until they are wanted again. the top leaves of the iris shaped flower, are worked in two shades of blue; the bottom ones, in three shades of red, the stalk and the leaves in green, and the little stars, with which the ground is powdered, in real gold thread. when the ground is finished, you make the same openwork border at the sides and along the bottom, as at the top and finish off with very full tassels, hung on over double threads and made of all the colours used in the square, tied up with gold thread, fig. letter _g_. fringe with three rows of tassels (fig. ).--as this kind of fringe is chiefly used for trimming carpets, curtains and furniture, it is best to make it in the coarsest numbers of the materials indicated at the foot of the engraving. [illustration: fig. . fringe with three rows of tassels. materials: cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , or fil à pointer d.m.c nos. to [a]. colours: bleu-indigo and écru.] the pattern is so simple in its construction that it is sufficient to refer our readers to fig. , for the knotting on of the threads and to fig. , for the waved plait. the little tassels between the knots, are made separately from the rest of the work and fastened on by the thread with which you sew them together at the top. [illustration: fig. . macramÉ ground. materials: ganse turque d.m.c no. and coton à broder d.m.c no. . colours: rouge-cardinal , or rouge-cerise .] macramÉ ground (fig. ).--the work represented in the engraving was made for a purse and copied from a beautiful piece of arabian stuff. ganse turque d.m.c was used for the light background and coton à broder d.m.c for the design. it is very easy to copy this pattern from the illustration by paying scrupulous attention to the number of knots; we do not therefore enter into any detailed description of the same, merely referring the worker to figs. and and the accompanying directions, for the adding on and the taking off of threads. macramÉ square (figs. and ).--length of the single threads of both kinds: c/m. knot upon a ring consisting of one thread: * thread of white cordonnet, of coton à broder colour , of colour , of colour and repeat three times from *. (the embroidery cotton is to be taken double.) begin with the light red thread and make: single chain with changes of the threads, single chain with the dark red thread with changes of the threads. add, or rather thread, supplementary threads in succession on to the white thread, which in fig. , comes in the middle of the group of knots, and over each of these supplementary threads, make double knots with the light red thread and with the dark. [illustration: fig. . macramÉ square. materials: cordonnet fils d.m.c no. and coton à broder d.m.c no. or fil à dentelle d.m.c no. and coton à broder d.m.c no. .[a] colours: white, rouge-grenat and , or gris-lin and rouge-maroquin and .[a]] when all the red threads are knotted over the white ones, make crossed bars with the red threads by themselves, thus producing a point at the bottom of the leaf. then, over the first white thread coming from the right, knot all the white threads on the left of it and in the last place, the cord itself, over the red threads. make the same series of threads on the left. this is succeeded by a second bar of white knots, the last thread of which is left unknotted. make double knots with the white threads and close the square by a double bar. add a supplementary thread to the first bar, so that you may have threads coming from each side of the second bar and over these you knot the red threads, which form a dark setting to the leaves. [illustration: fig. . gradual increase of the threads. working detail of fig. .] when this is done on both sides, make flat double knots with a supplementary knot, taking single threads for each knot, and decreasing the number of knots successively to . at the point of the inside square, knot the white threads over the red ones and turn back the second white thread to serve as a cord to the first of the outside bars. join the first thread on the left and the first on the right, to form a flat knot with them in the middle, the threads of which are then passed over the red threads; the last white threads become the cords for the second outer bar. make a group of bars with the red threads and cross them times, then finish with a handsome tassel and join the white threads together all round the square with tassels. in the case of your wishing to use these squares for making a larger piece of work, through joining several of them together, you can knot the ends of the threads into short double chains, finishing off these again with ring knots, fig. , and loops; through these loops, when you come to join on the next square, the knotting thread is drawn, forming them thus into connecting picots, like those which you make in tatting. fringe with corner (figs. , , ).--macramé fringes are not capable of being drawn up, as knitted, crochet, and netted fringes are, on the inside, so as to turn the corners. consequently, according to the pattern, a greater or less number of supplementary threads have to be knotted in so as to form the corners. [illustration: fig. . fringe with corner. materials: cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to .[a] colours: white and rouge-cardinal .[a]] the working detail, fig. , shows us how the first supplementary threads, are looped on to the th row of knots. a group of crossed bars requires threads, which answer to groups of little squares, placed between the lozenges. the th supplementary thread is put into the double connecting knot at the corner, fig. , and on this, the bar of knots which runs right and left is subsequently made. (in order to make it clearer, the supplementary threads are represented in the engraving in a darker shade). on the two middle threads, which are a continuation of the connecting knot, supplementary threads have next to be knotted, thread singly, threads and together, threads , , and , all singly. in this manner the supplementary threads , , , and connect the two cords, whilst threads and only, are mounted separately on both sides. [illustration: fig. . addition of the first supplementary threads. working detail of fig. .] the bars, formed by the knots which are made with the supplementary threads, must be drawn tight, like any other double bar. the space left between the cords in the engraving is intentional, to distinguish the supplementary threads from the others. a long, coloured thread is looped on to the topmost thread, between the two bars, and with this, knots are made over all the threads that come from the bars and run inwards. in the middle of the square there must be flat double knots; when these are made, you continue knotting the red thread from the right and left, down to the bottom point of the square, and complete the figure by a single bar of knots, made of the white thread. [illustration: fig. . addition of the second supplementary threads. working detail of fig. .] knotted tassels, hanging from the points of the scallops, and others ornamented with flat double knots made of threads, suspended between the scallops, form the outside finish to this fringe. fringe with pointed scallops and large tassels (figs. , , , , , , ).--entire length of the threads for no. of cordonnet fils d.m.c: c/m. [illustration: fig. . fringe with pointed scallops and large tassels. materials: fil à pointer d.m.c nos. to , cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to .[a]] the present pattern, which concludes our chapter on macramé work, is one of the most difficult of all, requiring great accuracy in every particular, but more especially, extremely careful attention to the direction of the cords, that the groups of double knots and the bars may be drawn up very tightly together, so as to make the pattern very distinct and give each figure its proper value. [illustration: fig. . addition of the first supplementary threads. working detail of fig. .] for each repetition of the subject threads are wanted. you begin the half stars, on each side of the lozenges, with the th and th double thread of the first figure and make double knots with threads over a th thread, fig. . over cords on the left and on the right, consequently over threads: buttonhole knots, with the threads and the disengaged threads, flat double knot over each of the threads. this forms a shell knot, on either side of which, make buttonhole knots over threads. [illustration: fig. . addition of the other supplementary threads. working detail of fig. .] for the groups of bars on either side of the shell, take the th, th, th and th double thread on the left, and the rd, th, th and th on the right. these groups are joined by buttonhole knots. knot the threads of the left group over the cord on the right; and over them again the next threads on the right; knot the threads on the left over the th thread on the right; make buttonhole knots with the th thread over the threads at the bottom and on the side. over the threads, that come from the left and right, make quadruple bars; cross the upper threads after the second row of bars, make buttonhole bars with the next thread over the th thread, then finish the rd and th bar of knots. [illustration: fig. . chinese knot and double chain for a ring knot.] to make the olive-shaped group of knots on both sides, take the threads, that come out from the shells, as cords. fig. shows the adding on of the first supplementary thread, fig. , that of more which, knotted on to the first, form with it, the group of bars on the diagonal corner line. the knots, of which the next large shell is composed, are made with more supplementary threads and one thread from the preceding figure. add on more supplementary threads to the disengaged threads, which then serve as cords for the groups of bars, left and right. the th group of bars which forms the corner of the fringe, is made on the threads that come from the large shell, on to which the fourth set of supplementary threads is knotted. [illustration: fig. . ring knot formed of a single chain.] the pattern ends at the bottom with a half star, and a double bar; beneath these, large scallops are added, consisting of half stars, ovals, whole star and ovals. all the threads that come from the groups are then collected at the top of the scallops and overcast with strong thread, so as to form a thick round cord along the edges of the scallops, widening towards the point, as more and more threads are taken in. at the point, these threads are knotted into a big tassel with another bunch of supplementary threads added to them. the other small tassels, represented in fig. , are made separately and then fastened on. the fringe is further ornamented by large knotted tassels, introduced between the scallops, for which, a large knotted berry, fig. , over cords, has first to be made. collect the threads all together, to begin with; then make: rows of knots over threads, over , over , over and over ; then cut the ends of the threads to the same length, and turn them inwards, to fill up the hollow space inside the berry, stuffing it besides, if necessary, with wadding to make it perfectly firm and hard and sewing it together at the ends. to this you attach large and small pendants; the smaller ones are begun with a chinese knot, figs. and , which terminates in a double chain, formed into a ring knot. [illustration: fig. . small pendant of the tassels in fig. .] [illustration: fig. . large pendant of the tassels in fig. .] these ring knots take the place, in macramé, of bead drops, in gimp trimmings; when they are made of a double chain, you cut away threads, when of a single, thread, conceal the ends carefully inside the knot, make a loop with the th or nd thread, fig. , and lastly, fasten off all the ends with two or three invisible stitches. into the loop formed by the th thread, you hang small ring knots, made of a single chain, with a loop, top and bottom, formed of the ends of the thread. fig. represents the small pendant, of which six are required for a tassel; fig. , the large one, of which there should be five. the berry, or head of the tassel, is attached to a crochet, or knotted cord, of which a description will be found in the last chapter but one of this work. footnotes: [a] see at the end of the concluding chapter, the table of numbers and sizes and the list of colours of the d.m.c threads and cottons. [illustration: insertion in embroidered netting.--ornament with various stitches.] netting. netting is a handicraft, so ancient that it would be difficult to trace it to its origin, or determine the date of its invention. there is evidence to show that the making of nets for fishing and game catching was as familiar to the earlier races of mankind as it is to us. practised in the first instance for the wants of life, it by degrees developed into an art, in conjunction with embroidery, to which it was made to serve as a foundation. the netting of every country, almost, has a distinctive character of its own: that of persia is known by its fine silken meshes and rich gold and silver embroidery; that of italy, by the varied size and shape of its meshes and a resemblance in the style of its embroidery to the punto tagliato; whilst the netting of france, known by the name of cluny guipure, consists of a groundwork of fine meshes with stiff close designs embroidered upon it, outlined in coarse glazed thread. netting, which divides itself under two headings, netting proper, or plain netting and net embroidery, has never yet gone out of fashion and places are still to be found where the entire population is engaged in this industry. plain netting and the implements used in netting (figs. , , ).--plain netting consists of loops, secured and rendered independent of one another by knots. for forming and tightening these loops and knots the following implements are necessary; in the first place, a netting needle; these are generally made of steel, split and flattened at both ends, with a hole bored through them below the fork at the one end, in which the thread, fig. , is secured, before it is wound on lengthwise between the forks. they are numbered as to size like knitting needles. there are netting needles likewise of bone, ivory, wood and tortoise-shell for twine and thick materials; these are without hole, fig. . [illustration: fig. . netting needle of steel.] [illustration: fig. . netting needle of ivory.] the thread must be wound on very tightly, and not too much of it at a time, that the needle may slip easily through the loops. the mesh, or spool, fig. , whether of ivory, bone, steel or wood, should be smooth and round and of the same thickness throughout, so that the loops, made upon it, may be all of one size and easily slipped off. [illustration: fig. . mesh or spool of ivory.] for long loops a flat mesh is best, and in all cases, the needle and mesh should be selected with a view, both to the material employed, and the size of loop required. in addition to these two implements, a cushion, weighted with lead will be required, to pin the foundation loop to, on which the first row of netting is worked. materials suitable for netting.--these, of course depend on the purpose of the netting: silk, twine, wool and cotton, can all be used and each possesses its advantages and disadvantages. silk has the finest gloss but when it is strongly twisted it is very apt to knot, and when loosely twisted, does not make firm knots. it is difficult to get linen thread with a smooth uniform twist and moreover it soon frays in the working; wool is too elastic a fibre and is unsuitable for washing purposes, cotton remains therefore, in every respect the most desirable material, being both smooth and uniformly twisted; as qualities, more especially adapted for netting we may mention the following: fil à pointer d.m.c, cordonnet fils d.m.c (crochet cotton), fil à dentelle d.m.c (lace thread), and even coton à tricoter d.m.c[a] (knitting cotton). netting stitches.--the loops are always the same--four-cornered whether they be square or oblong--and connected together, though secured and rendered independent of one another by knots. by different ways of passing the thread over the mesh and connecting the loops together, the following stitches are produced: ° plain loop, ° double loop, ° oblong loop, ° honeycomb loop, ° twisted loop. [illustration: fig. . first position of the hands.] ° plain loop. first position of the hands (fig. ).--every kind of netting requires a foundation loop, from to c/m. long, made either of cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , or fil à pointer d.m.c no. [a], which is pinned to the cushion. fasten the working thread to the foundation loop; then take the mesh in the left hand, holding it between the thumb and forefinger, with the other fingers extended beneath. take the needle filled with thread in the right hand and pass the thread downwards over the mesh and over the second, third and fourth fingers, inside, carry it up behind the third finger and lay it to the left under the thumb by which it has to be held fast. [illustration: fig. . second position of the hands.] second and third position of the hands (figs. and ).--carry the thread down behind the second, third, fourth and fifth fingers, and put the needle through the loop on the fingers and behind the mesh, through the foundation loop, thus forming a second loop, which you hold back with the little finger of the left hand. then gradually drawing up the thread that runs from the mesh, let go the loop held down by the thumb; then by degrees let go also, the loop which lies over the second, third and fourth fingers, still holding the last loop fast with the little finger; finally you release this too and pull up the knot thus formed close to the mesh with the right hand. this completes the stitch. the next stitches are made in the same way; whether they are to serve for casting on or for a netted foundation. the mesh is drawn out at the end of each row, the work turned and the mesh held beneath the last row, in readiness for the next, in making which you pass your needle through each loop. these diamond-shaped loops form a diagonal net. [illustration: fig. . third position of the hands.] ° double loop.--to make a double loop put the thread two or three times round the mesh. ° oblong loop.--for oblong loops, the knots must be made a little distance from the mesh. ° honeycomb loop.--make an oblong loop, pass the thread round the fingers, but not over the mesh as in plain netting, put the needle, not into the loop of the previous row, but between the loop, just made. the knot which is made in the same way as in plain netting, must be drawn close up to the mesh; the two threads of the loop should lie side by side on the mesh. the loops in honeycomb netting are six-sided. ° twisted loops.--pass the thread, as in plain netting, over the mesh and fingers, but before letting the thread which is under the thumb go, pass the needle from right to left under the loop you are making and the thread, and only then draw up the knot. although in netting the loops cannot be formed in as many different ways as in knitting or crochet, they admit of a certain variety, as the following explanations will show. patterns produced in netting by using meshes of different widths.--plain netting can be varied by making one row of loops over a large mesh and one over a small one, or several rows over the large and several over the small, alternately, changing the meshes at regular intervals. [illustration: fig. . patterns produced in netting by increasing and decreasing.] patterns produced in netting by increasing and decreasing (fig. ).--patterns of this kind are made by netting the meshes together in regular sequence and taking up as many meshes as you have netted together, or vice versa. you may increase and decrease in the same rows, or at an interval of so many rows. [illustration: fig. . loose loops in clusters.] two sizes of thread should be used for this patterns. to show the relation they should bear to one another, we instance: fil à pointer d.m.c no. with fil à dentelle d.m.c no. [a], or coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. and [a], with coton à tricoter d.m.c no. [a], or coton à repriser d.m.c no. with no. .[a] begin by rows of plain netting with the finer thread over the small mesh, followed by one row with the coarser thread over the large mesh; then, with the coarse thread over the large mesh, one row, in which you net every two loops together and one row, with two loops in every one, so that the number of loops remains the same. these are followed by rows of plain netting with the fine thread on the small mesh. [illustration: fig. . loose loops in clusters. working detail of fig. .] loose loops in clusters (figs. and ).--these clusters of loose loops are made in the following manner: st row--one loop, the knot of which must be a little distance from the mesh; put the thread over the mesh and the needle through the loop where the knot is; repeat this three or four times, making the loops all of the same length. then unite all the loops with one knot, carrying the needle from right to left, round the loops, instead of putting it through the loop of the previous row. nd row--make one loop over each loop of the first row, leaving out the loops that form the cluster. as may be gathered from the drawing, many different patterns can be worked upon the netting in this manner. [illustration: fig. . netting composed of plain, double and oblong loops.] netting composed of plain, double and oblong loops (fig. ).--netting composed of large and small loops is the kind generally used as a groundwork for embroidery. the loops of it are straight; diamond netting will serve the same purpose, but as it is less commonly used we have given the preference to the straight. the whole first row consists of a double and a plain loop alternately; the second, entirely of oblong loops, which are made by passing the thread only once over the mesh, and so, that in netting on the double loop, the knot is brought close to the needle, where as, in netting the plain loop, it hangs free; so that, as shown in fig. , all the loops of the nd row are of the same length. in the rd row, which is like the first, the plain loops should come between the small holes and the double ones between the large holes. [illustration: fig. . circular netting composed of long and short loops.] circular netting composed of long and short loops (fig. ).--make thirty or thirty one loops over a large mesh with a very stout material, such as fil à pointer d.m.c no. , or a double thread of cordonnet fils d.m.c no. , then draw up the thread on which the loops are strung, as tightly as possible, so as to form quite a small ring for the centre, and fasten off. for the next row, also made in coarse thread, fasten the thread on to a long loop and make one loop into each loop of the first row, over a small mesh. use the same mesh for all the subsequent rows, which should be worked in a finer thread, such as cordonnet fils d.m.c no. or . if you want to avoid fastening on the thread afresh for each row, make a loop over the thumb. making loops over the thumb.--put the thread, as for a plain loop over the mesh and fingers, and put the needle through the loop, likewise as for a plain loop, but before tightening the knot, draw the mesh out of the loop just made and make it exactly as long as the loop above. [illustration: fig. . circular netting formed by increases.] circular netting formed by increases (fig. ).--make loops on the foundation loop, close the ring, then go on, making a row with one knot in the first loop and two knots in the second, until the net attains the right circumference; in the subsequent rows, increase by one loop, that is to say, make two knots in each of the previous increases. [illustration: fig. . square of netting. begun.] square of netting (figs. and ).--to make squares of netting with straight loops, begin by making two loops or three knots. make two knots in each of the following rows so that each row is increased by one loop. continue to increase until you have one loop more than the square should number. [illustration: fig. . square of netting. completed.] following this row with the extra stitch, make a row without either increase or intake and begin the intakes in the next row, joining the two last loops of each row together by a knot. finish the two last loops over the thumb. [illustration: fig. . square of netting begun from the middle. begun.] [illustration: fig. . square of netting begun from the middle. completed.] square of netting begun from the middle (figs. and ).--instead of beginning a square from the corner, in the manner just described, it may be begun from the middle. [illustration: fig. . stripe of straight netting edged with empty loops.] cast on the required number of loops, make an intake in each row, by omitting to take up the last loop of a row. in coming back, your first knot will thus be made over the last loop but one of the previous row, fig. . to complete the square, fasten the thread on again, to the end of the thread of the last row, then make a similar to it, and repeat the same rows you made at the beginning (see fig. ). [illustration: fig. . stripe of straight netting.] stripes of straight netting (figs. and ).--these can be begun and finished in two ways. the simplest way, more especially when they are to be embroidered afterwards, is to cast on the necessary number of loops, to decrease on one side by dropping a loop, fig. , or by joining two loops together with a knot, fig. , and to increase on the other side, by making two knots over one loop. great care must be taken not to change the order of the intakes and increases, as any mistake of the kind would break the lines of squares, and interfere with the subsequent embroidery, unless there happened to be more loops in the stripe than stitches in the pattern, in which case the superfluous loops might be cut away when the embroidery is finished. straight netting with a scalloped edge (fig. ).--the second way of making stripes of straight netting is to begin by a square. after making two loops on the foundation loop, make rows with increases, until you have the required number of loops. then make an increase in every row to the left and leave the last loop empty in every row to the right. continuing the increases on the left, you net rows, without increasing or decreasing on the right, whilst in the next , you again leave the outside loop empty. [illustration: fig. . straight netting with a scalloped edge.] square frame of netting (fig. ).--handkerchief, counterpane and chair-back borders can be netted in one piece, leaving an empty square in the centre. after casting on the loops as for an ordinary square of netting, letter _a_, increase them to double the number required for the border. thus, for example, if the border is to consist of squares, you make loops, then leave loops empty on the left and continue to work to the right and decrease to the left, up to the dotted line from _c_ to _c_. after this you begin to decrease on the right and increase on the left, up to the dotted line from _e_ to _e_. [illustration: fig. . square frame of netting.] leaving the right side of the net, you now fasten on the thread at _c_, where the empty loops are, and here you make your increases on the right side and your intakes on the left, till you come to the corner, from whence you decrease on the right and increase on the left, up to letter _g_. stop on the left side and then work from left to right, passing over the row that is marked _e_. the fourth corner, letter _b_, is worked like any other piece of straight netting, with an intake in each row, until there are only two loops left. [illustration: fig. . diagonal netting with crossed loops. original size. materials--for the netting: cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to .[a] for the darning stitches: coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to , or coton à repriser d.m.c nos. to .[a]] diagonal netting with crossed loops (figs. and ). to work this simple and effective pattern, begin by making a stripe of plain netting, loops in width, for the middle. when it is long enough for your purpose, take up all the loops on one side on a strong thread; fasten the work to the cushion again and work rows, along the other edge in the following manner. st row--long loops, to be made by the thread being passed thrice over the mesh. nd row--here, loops are so made as to cross each other, that is, you begin by putting your netting-needle at first into the rd loop, counting from left to right, then into the st, and lastly into the middle one of the three, so that the right loop leans to the left and the left one to the right. rd row--one plain loop in each of the loops of the previous row. you now, draw out the thread, run in on the other side, and run it in through the loops last made, in order to make rows again, as above described, on the bottom side. [illustration: fig. . working detail of fig. .] when this is done, you begin the scallops, composed of knots or loops, or loops and knots = net rows, leaving the outside loops empty, fig. , stop on the left and proceed with: knots or plain loops, or long loops with overs, plain loops = turn the work = plain loops, knots = turn the work = loops with overs, knots = turn the work = plain loops, knots = turn the work = cross or loops, according to the number you crossed in the middle, then carry the working thread to the middle of the long loops, and connect them by knots = pass the needle under the knot of the last long loop, then, on the right side net: plain loops = turn the work = plain loops, knots = turn the work = plain loops, knots = turn the work and continue the rows of plain netting until you have only loops left. to reach the next scallop, pass the netting-needle through each hole of the net and round each thread. finish off the scallops with a row of plain netting, made with a coarser thread than the foundation. [illustration: fig. . netted fringe. materials--for the netting: cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to or fil à pointer d.m.c no. .[a] for the fringes: soutache d.m.c no. or lacets superfins d.m.c no. .[a]] these netted edgings are generally made in unbleached cotton, because the patterns afterwards embroidered upon them in coarse, white knitting or darning cotton, show best upon it. the thread for this purpose should be used double, and the pattern worked in darning stitches, made over squares of the netting; the th knot is then encircled by a loop and the thread carried down over squares and a loop again made round the th knot. after making rows of stitches on the netting, cut bars between the rows of white stitches. the row of openwork produced in this way has a very good effect and greatly improves the look of the lace. netted fringe (fig. ).--plain netting, pretty as it is, looks rather poor, unless ornamented with embroidery of some kind. the double netting, illustrated in fig. , will prove a welcome novelty. the footing is worked in crochet, with braid, secured on both sides by chain stitches. into every fourth of these chain stitches, net one loop, missing the between. at the end of the row, turn the work and make the knot in the middle of the chain stitches, so that the loops of netting cross each other. in the second, or rather the third row, the knots are again made first into the front loops, into those of the first row that is; in the fourth row, into those of the second row. when the stripe is sufficiently wide, finish it off with tassels, made of soutache d.m.c no. . instead of tying up the lengths of braid with a thread, twisted round them and fastened off with a stitch, make looped knots round them with an end of the braid, where the neck of the tassel should come. [illustration: fig. . wire frame for embroidered netting.] embroidered netting.--embroidered netting, also known as filet guipure, cluny guipure, and richelieu guipure, is a netted ground, with patterns of one kind or another, worked upon it in a variety of stitches. implements required for embroidered netting.--besides scissors, needles and thread, a light steel frame is the only thing required, and this renders embroidered netting very popular. the needles should be long, and blunt; those called saddlers needles are the best. wire frame for embroidered netting (fig. ).--the frame on which the net is stretched should be made of strong iron wire, that will not bend in the using. in shape, it may be square or oblong, according to whether squares or edgings are to be made upon it, but the sides must be straight, so that the net can be evenly stretched. [illustration: fig. . mounting the netting on the frame.] this wire frame must be covered, first with wadding or tow, as shown in fig. , and then with silk ribbon, which must be wound tightly round it, and more particularly at the corners, very closely, so that it may be quite firm and not twist about when the netting is sewn in. the ends of the ribbon should be secured by two or three stitches. [illustration: fig. . mounting the netting on the frame with an auxiliary tape.] mounting the netting on the frame (fig. ).--when the netting is exactly the size of the inside of the frame, it need only be secured to it with overcasting stitches, set very closely at the corners. mounting the netting on the frame with an auxiliary tape (fig. ).--when the netting, is smaller, the space between it and the frame, must be filled up with strong very evenly woven, linen tape, sewn on all round the netting. the tape must be very tightly held in the sewing, so that it even forms little gathers all round; this will help you to stretch the netting in mounting it without injuring it, and is especially necessary when the netting is not quite evenly made. fig. shows how the tape is sewn on, the fold that has to be made at the corners, and the way to fix the netting into the frame. long stripes or large pieces of work, can be mounted on waxcloth, but we cannot recommend shortening the preparatory work in this manner, as the squares of netting are never so regular as when they are made in a frame. materials for embroidered netting.--thick threads with a strong twist are the best for darned, or embroidered netting, such as cordonnet fils d.m.c[a] (crochet cotton), or fil à dentelle d.m.c[a] (lace thread). there are however certain old kinds of embroidered netting made in soft loose silk, for imitating which it is best to use, coton à repriser d.m.c[a] that being quite the best substitute for the original material. the stitches used for embroidered netting.--these are so multifarious and admit of so many different combinations, that not a few of them seeing that be quite new to our readers, willsome we have never yet come across in any book on the subject that has come under our notice. ordinary darning stitch (fig. ).--the simplest stitch of all for covering a netted ground is the ordinary darning stitch; drawing the thread, that is to say, in and out of the number of squares, prescribed by the pattern, and backwards and forwards as many times as is necessary to fill them up. [illustration: fig. . ordinary darning stitch.] [illustration: fig. . linen stitch. first stitches.] the number of stitches depends, to a certain extent, on the material employed; with coton à broder d.m.c for example, you will have to make more stitches than with one of the coarser numbers of coton à repriser d.m.c. this is the stitch generally used for reproducing a cross stitch pattern on a netted ground and is especially to be recommended for covering large surfaces, curtains, counterpanes and so forth, as it is quickly done and shows up the pattern well. [illustration: fig. . linen stitch. second stitches.] [illustration: fig. . linen stitch. formation of the corners.] linen stitch (figs. and ).--this is the stitch most often met with in the old embroideries, it being the one the solid parts of the leaves and flowers, and the borders are generally worked in. fasten on the thread to a knot of the netting and carry it twice to and fro, over and under the threads of the netting, so that at the end of the row, every second thread passes under and over the thread of the netting, as it is carried upwards again. this constitutes the first layer of threads, the second completes the linen stitch and is made in the same way, only across the first, alternately taking up and missing a thread as is done, in darning. the thread may also be carried both ways over the threads of the squares. in this case you must draw an uneven number of threads through the squares, otherwise the crossing of the threads will be irregular in the last square. linen stitch. formation of the corners (fig. ).--when linen stitch is used for the border of a pattern, and a corner has to be formed, you begin by carrying the threads over a given number of squares. this first layer, especially in the case of long stripes, must be kept very slack, and to ensure the threads being all of the same length, lay a fine mesh or a thick knitting needle at one end and stretch the threads over it. after carrying the second layer across a few squares, take away the mesh or needle. the threads of the first layer become gradually shorter, from the passage of the cross threads in and out between them, and end by being just long enough to prevent the last embroidered squares from being too tightly stretched. on reaching the corner, you cross the threads of the next row, as shown in fig. . the first threads of the second side form the foundation of the corner square; from the second corner square you pass to the third; from the third to the fourth, carrying your thread alternately over and under the threads that were stretched for the first corner. loop stitch (point d'esprit) (figs. and ).--this is a light open stitch, chiefly used for making a less transparent foundation than plain netting. fasten the thread to the middle of one bar of the netting, then make a loose loop to the middle of the top bar of the same square, fig. , by carrying the thread, from left to right, over one vertical and one horizontal bar of the net and inserting the needle downwards from above under the bar and in front of the working thread. for the second row back, also represented in fig. , you draw the needle through, underneath the bar above the loop stitch and make the loop upwards from below; in doing this the working thread must lie to the left, in front of the needle. fig. shows how to join the rows and pass the needle through the stitches of the preceding row. [illustration: fig. . loop stitch. st and nd course of the thread.] [illustration: fig. . loop stitch. several rows completed.] [illustration: fig. . star formed of loose threads laying the underneath threads.] [illustration: fig. . star formed of loose threads. laying the upper threads.] star composed of loose threads (figs. , , ).--this star covers squares of netting. fasten the thread to the middle knot of the squares, then carry it diagonally over squares, three times from left to right under a knot of the foundation and three times from right to left. in this way, the bottom rays of the star are formed. for the stitches that complete the figure, you start from the middle and following the direction of the little arrow in the illustration, you cover the netting with horizontal and vertical threads, carried over squares. when you have laid the vertical threads, slip the needle or times round in a circle, under the diagonal and over the straight threads, but always over the bars of the netting. this completes the star, as it is represented in fig. . care must be taken to make the stitches lie quite flat side by side, and not one on the top of the other. [illustration: fig. . star formed of loose threads. finished.] darning stitch (point de reprise) (figs. and ).--little flowers and leaves are generally executed in this stitch; the first course of the thread is shown in fig. . leaves can be made with one, two or three veins. carry the needle, invariably from the middle, first to the right and then to the left, under the threads of the foundation and push the stitches close together, as they are made, with the point of your needle. this you will be able to do most easily by holding the work so as to make the stitches towards you. [illustration: fig. . leaves worked in darning stitch. begun.] [illustration: fig. . leaves worked in darning stitch. completed.] for a leaf with only one division or vein, like the left leaf in fig. , merely run the needle through the middle of the threads, whereas for a leaf with two or three veins, you must run it, over and under, either one, or two threads (see the right leaf in fig. ). in working leaves of this kind in darning stitch, you must draw your stitches at the top and bottom of the leaf rather tighter than in the middle, so as to give them the proper shape. if you wish to make them very slender at the bottom, you can finish them off with a few overcasting stitches. fig. represents two leaves completed, one with one vein and the other, with two. pointed scallops in darning stitch (fig. ).--the simplest way to work these scallops is to carry a thread, as shown in the illustration, to and fro over the square, from the knot in one corner to the middle of the bar above and downwards to the opposite knot, round which the thread is carried and passed upwards again to the middle. as the scallop must always be begun from the top, you will have, two foundation threads on one side and three on the other. here likewise, you must push the threads as closely together as possible with the needle. [illustration: fig. . pointed scallops in darning stitch.] [illustration: fig. . pointed scallops in buttonhole stitch.] pointed scallops in buttonhole stitch (fig. ).--another quite as pretty and easy way of working pointed scallops on a netted foundation is by making two buttonhole stitches before crossing to the opposite side. as shown in the foregoing illustration, you begin by stretching single or double foundation threads across; then beginning at the point, you make, alternately right and left, buttonhole stitches over the foundation threads, so that the working thread is only carried across to the opposite side after every second stitch. veined pointed scallops (fig. ).--a third way of making pointed scallops is by first stretching a thread to and fro across the middle of the square, after which you slip the needle from left to right under the middle thread, and underneath the left bar from above. then you carry the needle, from right to left, over the foundation thread and under the right bar and so on. the one thread must be drawn tightly round the other, in order that the stitches may form close and evenly shaped veins, like small cords, on the wrong side of the scallop. there must be enough stitches to completely cover the foundation thread that crosses the middle of the square. [illustration: fig. . veined pointed scallops.] [illustration: fig. . pointed scallops in venetian stitch.] pointed scallops in venetian stitch (fig. ).--the prettiest scallops of all are those worked in venetian stitch. you begin, by making from to buttonhole stitches over one bar of the netting, then you work on with the same stitch backwards and forwards, making one stitch less in each row, until you come to the one which forms the point of the scallop and is fastened to the bar above; you carry the working thread back on the wrong side to the lower bar, and then under the buttonhole stitches to the next square of the netting. scallops worked in this manner, can be overcast round the edges in the way described further on, in fig. . wheels embroidered on netting (figs. and ).--to make wheels or spiders, as they are also called, you have first to fasten the thread to the middle knot of four squares, thence you carry it diagonally right and left, fig. , right detail, across the empty squares of netting and the knot, and return to the middle, overcasting your first thread by the way, so as to form a closely twisted cord. this is called cording a thread. having reached the centre, carry the working thread round and round, under and over the corded threads and under the bars of the netting till the wheel covers half the bars. [illustration: fig. . laying the threads for a wheel and beginning of the wheel.] [illustration: fig. . wheels worked in two ways.] fig. shows, on the right, a finished wheel, and on the left, another way in which it can be made, and indicates the course of the thread over and under the lines, as in a darn. these details show also how, when the foundation thread of the wheel starts from a corner, it is left single in the first square until the wheel is finished; then the needle is slipped back along the little spoke, opposite to the single thread, and through the wheel, and the single thread is corded like the others. [illustration: fig. . ribbed wheels.] [illustration: fig. . ribbed squares or lozenges.] ribbed wheels (fig. ).--make the foundation of the wheels as before, over threads. to form the ribs at the back of the wheels, see fig. ; make a back stitch, on the right side, over a bar of the netting, and carry on the needle under one bar, so that the thread that lies outside always crosses bars of the netting. in this case you must make circles of thread enough, to cover the bars completely, not half, as before. the same stitches, as fig. shows, can be made on either side of the embroidery, and so as to form, either a square or a lozenge (see fig. ). [illustration: fig. . wheels set with buttonholing.] wheels set with buttonholing (fig. ).--a very pretty lace-like effect is produced by encircling the wheels in large squares of netting with a double setting of stitches. the left detail of fig. shows how the thread, having been passed under the wheel and twisted once round the single thread, is carried all round the square and forms loops. the arrow shows the way in which the loops are taken up, and the first ring of stitches round the wheel is finished. the second detail of the same figure explains the course the thread, that forms the second ring, has to take through the loops and between the bars; whilst the white line shows the passage of the thread over the second ring. the third detail represents a wheel, completed. [illustration: fig. . star with one-sided buttonhole stitches.] star with one-sided buttonhole stitches (fig. ).--the pattern represented in fig. , is the quickest to work that we know of. two buttonhole stitches made upon the outside bar of a square and a simple crossing of the thread at the bottom, produce elongated triangles which should always be begun from the knot. two triangles stand exactly opposite to each other in one square, and the square that comes in the middle of the four thus filled, is ornamented with a small wheel. [illustration: fig. . rounded corners on netting.] [illustration: fig. . linen stitch set with darning stitch.] [illustration: fig. . linen stitch set with cord stitch.] rounded corners of netting (fig. ).--darning stitches, made over a thread carried diagonally across one square and the adjacent corners of that and two other squares, produce the figure illustrated in fig. . the accompanying detail shows the mode of working. the number of stitches depends on the material you use; there should be no more than can lie quite flat, side by side, on the diagonal thread. linen stitch, set with darning stitch (fig. ).--there are some patterns it would hardly be possible to work on netting unless you could soften the outlines by darning stitches, as shown in the foregoing figure. when employed as a setting to linen stitch, there should be fewer than in fig. ; you may also, instead of interrupting them at every corner, carry them all round a square, (see the right detail of the figure). linen stitch set with cord stitch (fig. ).--many figures are also either corded or edged with twisted thread; both ways are represented in the illustration. in the latter case you can use the same thread as for the linen stitch, or if you wish the setting to be very pronounced, a thicker one. for instance, if the netting be made of cordonnet fils d.m.c no. [a] we recommend fil à pointer d.m.c no. or [a] for the setting. this difference of material is especially noticeable in the old cluny guipure, where the figures worked in linen stitch are edged with a thread like a cord. but if the linen stitch be bound with cord stitch, the same thread must be used for it, as for the foundation. a soft material, like coton à repriser, makes the best padding for the overcasting stitches. [illustration: fig. . flower in dot stitch on a foundation of linen stitch.] flower in dot stitch on a foundation of linen stitch (fig. ).--with the help of this stitch, which is described in the chapter on white embroidery and represented in fig. , a great variety of little supplementary ornaments can be made, on every description of netted ground. [illustration: fig. . bordering in buttonhole stitch.] bordering in buttonhole stitch (fig. ).--scalloped edges in netting should be buttonholed; or padding threads should be run in first, following the bars of the netting, over which the buttonholing is done; the bars of the netting must not be cut away until the edge be finished. cut work in embroidered netting (fig. ).--cut work here means half covering the bars of the netting with button-hole stitches and half cutting them away with scissors. the inner bars are frequently ornamented with a double buttonhole edging and knotted picots, see figs. and in the next chapter. you slightly separate the stitches of the first row of buttonholing so as to be able to introduce the thread of the second row between them. [illustration: fig. . cut work in embroidered netting.] [illustration: fig. . straight loop stitch.] straight loop stitch (fig. ).--in the first row you carry the thread over one bar and slip it through behind a knot; in the second you do the same thing, only that above, your needle will pass under threads, two of them the threads of the loop of the first row and the third a bar of the net. in every square threads cross each other. [illustration: fig. . waved stitch.] waved stitch (fig. ).--this stitch, which forms a close waved ground, is produced by passing the thread in each row of the netting over a square and behind a knot. when the pattern admits of it, as it mostly does, a considerably thicker thread is used for this stitch and for the stitches represented in figs. , , and , than that in which the netting is made. when the netted ground is of fil à dentelle d.m.c no. ,[a] the embroidery upon it may very well be done in cordonnet fils. d.m.c no. [a], or fil à pointer d.m.c no. .[a] intersected loop stitch (fig. ).--begin by covering the whole surface to be embroidered with plain loop stitches, then stretch threads diagonally across the squares of the netting and the loop stitches; one set of threads running over the stitches and under the knots of the netting, the other under the first and second threads of the loop stitches and over the first crossed threads and the knots. the laying and stretching of these threads must, it is hardly necessary to say, be systematically and regularly done. [illustration: fig. . intersected loop stitch.] ground worked in horizontal lines (fig. ).--make half cross stitches over squares of netting, by passing the thread alternately over and under knots, and under squares of the netting. in the second row, cross the threads over those of the first row, as is shown in our engraving. ground worked in stitches placed one above the other (fig. ).--cover a whole row of squares with cross stitches and leave rows of squares empty. when you have a sufficient number of rows of cross stitches, take a long needle and pass it upwards from below, and from right to left, under the two bars of the third upper square; then pass downwards to the first square of the bottom rows and under the bars from right to left, so as again to leave squares between the fresh stitches. the next row of stitches is made in the same manner, so that the stitches are not only set contrary ways but reciprocally cover each other. latticed ground (fig. ).--begin by running the thread, to and fro, under two vertical bars and over three horizontal ones. when the ground is entirely covered, carry your thread from right to left, under the bars over which the first rows of threads are crossed; then take it over the long crosses, that correspond to squares of netting, and pass it in the same line under the bars of the netting. in coming back, the long stitches cross each other over the stitches of the first rows. [illustration: fig. . ground worked in horizontal lines.] [illustration: fig. . ground worked in stitches placed one above the other.] [illustration: fig. . latticed ground.] [illustration: fig. . ground worked in russian stitch.] ground worked in russian stitch (fig. ).--pass the thread from left to right, under a bar of the netting, carry it downwards over squares and pass it again, from left to right, under the bar, then upwards, again over squares of netting and so on. the stitches of the next rows are made in the same manner; you have only to see that the loops formed by the stitches all come on the same line of knots. ground worked in two sizes of thread (fig. ).--herewith begins the series of stitches, referred to at the beginning of the chapter, copied in part from one of the oldest and most curious pieces of embroidered netting we have ever met with. the copies were worked with cordonnet fils d.m.c no. and écru fil à dentelle d.m.c no. [a]; the former being used for the darning and the almond-shaped stitches between; the latter for the buttonhole stitches. wherever two sizes of thread are used for one pattern, all the stitches in the coarse thread should be put in first and those in the fine, last. [illustration: fig. . ground worked in two sizes of thread.] ground with wheels and loop stitch (fig. ).--you begin with the coarse thread and finish all the wheels first, making them each over threads of the netting; then with the fine thread, you make loop stitches between them, in rows, as shown in figs. and . ground worked in darning and loop stitch (fig. ).--the darning stitches are made in the coarse thread, over squares of the netting, in a horizontal direction, with loop stitches, in the fine thread, made between them, over the same number of squares. [illustration: fig. . ground with wheels and loop stitch.] ground worked in two sizes of thread (fig. ).--carry the coarse thread, from right to left, under the first knot of the netting, and then under the next, from left to right. this has to be done twice, to and fro, so that the squares of the netting are edged on both sides with a double layer of threads. when the whole foundation has been thus covered, take the fine thread and make loop stitches in the squares between the other rows of stitches, passing the needle for that purpose over the double stitch. lastly, intersect the loop stitches with straight threads and pass the needle each time through the knot of the netting. [illustration: fig. . ground worked in darning and loop stitch.] [illustration: fig. . ground worked in two sizes of thread.] [illustration: fig. . ground worked with cross stitches in one size of thread.] ground worked with cross stitches in one size of thread (fig. ).--this pattern, very like the foregoing one, consists of diagonal rows of stitches, worked to and fro, with cross stitches made over them. you may also begin with the cross stitches, in the fine thread, and work the triple stitches over them, in the coarse. ground worked with darning and cord stitches (fig. ).--patterns, executed chiefly in darning stitches, in a comparatively coarse thread, present a closer and heavier appearance than those we have been describing. here, every other square of the netting is filled, as closely as possible, with stitches; the empty squares between are intersected diagonally with corded threads. [illustration: fig. . ground worked with darning and cord stitches.] [illustration: fig. . ground worked with squares and wheels.] [illustration: fig. . ground worked with squares and wheels.] ground worked with squares and wheels (figs. , , ).--a ground very often met with in old embroidered netting, consists of diagonal lines of squares, closely filled with darning stitches, alternating with diagonal lines of squares, each with a small wheel in the middle. in fig. , the darning stitches, and the wheels, which are both worked with the same material, cover squares of the netting. larger expanses of netting may also be entirely filled with wheels, fig. . to make a really satisfactory grounding of this kind, you should be careful always to carry your thread over the bars of the netting and under the threads that are stretched diagonally across. ground worked in cross and darning stitch (fig. ).--you begin, as before, by making the close darning stitches, and then proceed to the cross stitches. to give them the right shape, finish all the rows of stitches one way first; in the subsequent rows, that cross the first ones, you introduce the thread between the stitches that were first crossed. [illustration: fig. . ground with large wheels.] ground of geometrical figures (fig. ).--this pattern, quite different from all the others, consists of simple geometrical lines. fasten the thread to a knot of the netting, then carry it, always diagonally, under other knots and repeat this times, after which, carry it once round the bar of the netting, to fasten it, and back again to the knot which it already encircles, and from thence begin a new square. owing to your having always to bring the thread back to the knot whence the next square is to begin, you will have threads on two of the sides and on the two others. [illustration: fig. . ground worked in cross and darning stitch.] in the second and subsequent rows, the needle has to pass twice under the angles that were first formed, in order that, over the whole surface, all the corners may be equally covered and connected. netted insertion worked in plain darning stitch (fig. ).--the taste for ornamenting not only curtains but bed and table linen also, with lace and insertion of all kinds, to break the monotony of the large white surfaces, is becoming more and more general and the insertion here described will be welcome to such of our readers as have neither time nor patience for work of a more elaborate nature. the way to make straight netting has already been fully described in figs. , , , , and , and darning stitch in fig. . to those who wish to be saved the trouble of making the netting themselves, we can strongly recommend various fabrics, intended to take its place, more especially filet canevas, which is an exact imitation of the finest hand-made netting. the centre part of the pattern in fig. , is worked in rows of horizontal darning stitches, the narrow border in vertical ones. [illustration: fig. . ground of geometrical figures.] [illustration: fig. . netted insertion worked in plain darning stitch. materials--for the netting: cordonnet fils d.m.c no. .--for the darning stitch: coton à broder d.m.c no. , or coton à repriser d.m.c nos. to , white or écru.[a]] [illustration: fig. . embroidered ground of netting. materials--for the netting: fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to . for the darning stitch: cordonnet fils d.m.c no. , or fil à pointer d.m.c no. .--for the loop stitch: fil à dentelle d.m.c or cordonnet fils d.m.c according to the size of the netting thread.] ground of netting embroidered (fig. ).--we have already had occasion, in the foregoing explanations, to point out the advantage of embroidering with two sizes of thread, but it is only in a piece of work of a certain size that it is possible really to judge of the excellent effect produced by the use of two threads of different sizes. the principal lines of the pattern, which are in darning stitch, are worked in a very coarse thread with a strong twist, fil à pointer d.m.c, whilst the loop stitches are in cordonnet fils d.m.c. our model was worked in écru thread but there is nothing to prevent several colours being introduced, for instance écru, black or gris-ficelle for the netted foundation; rouge-cardinal , for the darning stitches, and chiné d'or d.m.c green and gold or blue and gold, for the loop stitches and the threads that are carried across inside. [illustration: fig. . embroidered square of netting. materials: cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to , white or écru.[a]] embroidered square of netting with two kinds of lace suitable for the border (figs. , , ).--large pieces of embroidered netting are generally made up of squares and stripes, joined together with ribbon and fine linen insertions. it is easier and less cumbrous to make the netting in separate pieces. squares of different patterns can also be combined with crochet and pillow lace, in this case of course the squares have to be arranged with some system. fig. represents a lace edging intended for the square fig. , which shows how even in such a simple pattern as this, several colours may be successfully introduced. fig. is a handsomer and more elaborate pattern for the same kind of purpose. the loop stitches and the linen stitches should be worked in a very light shade; instead of the colour indicated at the foot of the engraving, rouge-géranium , violet-mauve or jaune-rouille may be used; for the netting and the loop stitches you may combine, with the first shade, two shades of brun-caroubier and , with the second, two shades of jaune-vieil or and and with the third, two shades of rouge-cardinal and . [illustration: fig. . lace edging for the square, fig. . materials: the same as for fig. , and or fin d.m.c pour la broderie no. . colours--for the netting and the loop stitch: white or écru.--for the darning stitch: brun-caroubier and rouge-grenat .[a]] [illustration: fig. . lace edging. materials: the same as for . colours--for the netting: écru.--for the ground in loop and linen stitch: bleu pâle .--for the bars in darning stitch: gris-tilleul and .[a]] pattern for ground (fig. ).--the peculiar charm of this most unpretending pattern is chiefly due to the variety of material and colour introduced into it. the netted ground is made of dark brown cordonnet fils d.m.c no. , worked over, in the first instance, with loop stitches in a pale grey, which are afterwards connected by darning stitches in coton à repriser gris-tilleul . [illustration: fig. . pattern for ground. materials--for the netting: cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to . for the embroidery: coton à repriser d.m.c no. . colours: brun-havane , gris-noisette , jaune-vieil-or , gris-tilleul and rouge-géranium .[a]] the same material in rouge-géranium, is used for the little centre squares and the pink crosses, and isolated darned squares are framed with loose cord stitches in coton à repriser colour jaune-vieil-or . we can also recommend, for the same pattern, the following combination of colours, all to be found on the d.m.c colour card; namely, bleu pâle for the netting; chiné d'or, gold with dark blue for the loop stitches; ganse turque d.m.c no. (turkish gold cord) for the darning stitches, between the loop stitches; coton à broder or cordonnet fils in rouge-cornouille , for the detached darned squares and coton à repriser, in jaune-d'or for the setting of all the different parts of the pattern. [illustration: fig. . embroidery on netting with different-sized loops. materials--for the netting: fil à dentelle d.m.c no. . for the embroidery: coton à broder d.m.c no. , white or écru.[a]] embroidery on netting with different-sized loops (fig. ).--the netting, described and represented in fig. , with plain, oblong and double loops, here forms the ground for the embroidery. [illustration: fig. . square in cut netting.] [illustration: fig. . lace edging in cut netting. materials: fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to , in three shades of one colour.] in order to make the isolated loop stitches, the thread which forms the cross in the middle must be carried to the middle of the bar, the loops that form the stitches must be finished and the thread carried back to the knot whence it started. it must then be taken three times backwards and forwards over the foundation thread and the two bars of the netting, when the stitches, into and over squares of the netting, should be made. the last row in the engraving shows the pattern in the successive stages of its development. [illustration: fig. . netting insertion materials--for the netting: cordonnet fils d.m.c no. white or écru.--for the embroidery: ganse turque d.m.c nos. and .] square and edging in cut netting (figs. and ).--few patterns admit of such a successful application of all the stitches hitherto described, as the square and edging presented to our readers in the two subjoined figures. on a netted ground of rather fine thread, we have in the first place, linen stitch, in the border, worked in rather a coarser thread than the ground; then raised wheels, buttonholed bars with picots in the centre, plain wheels very close together, and long ribbed bars worked in darning stitch. the edging, to match the square, is worked in the original in pale shades, in contrast to the square which is executed entirely in écru thread. the squares in the netted footing of the lace are loosely overcast with pale violet-mauve , the same colour is also used for the wheels in the outside edge, each of which fills a square, and for the loop stitches round them; whilst the middle one of the three upper ribbed wheels and the star are worked in dark violet-mauve . the crosses in linen stitch, the three lower ribbed wheels and the long ribbed bars in darning stitch, are in gris-tilleul . netted insertion (fig. ).--this is a copy of a beautiful piece of embroidered netting, to all appearance, several centuries old, and in a state that rendered, even the most delicate handling almost impossible. after several experiments, the best result has been arrived at, and the turkish cord in which the original is made, has now been manufactured for netting purposes, as well as for other kinds of decorative work, already alluded to, and referred to again later on. the first foundation, that is, the actual netting, for a thing of this kind, should be made in white or écru thread, with very small meshes; the pattern itself is embroidered on the netting with ganse turque d.m.c no. ; this material, écru and gold mixed, gives the work a glittering and peculiarly elegant appearance, unobtainable in any other. the execution is extremely easy, it being worked entirely in darning stitch; but the drawing should be copied with great accuracy and the wide braid very carefully sewn on with close stitches round the squares, which are filled in with darning stitches made in ganse turque no. . any netting pattern can be copied in this braid, and the simplest piece of work of the kind is worth mounting on a rich foundation of silk, brocade, velvet or plush. to give a single example, the insertion here described and illustrated, was mounted on slate-blue plush and has been universally admired. footnotes: [a] see at the end of the concluding chapter, the table of numbers and sizes and the list of colours of the d.m.c threads and cottons. [illustration: insertion.--irish lace with raised ornaments.] irish lace. irish lace, also known under the name of renaissance lace, from its having been first made in the sixteenth century, is an imitation of the earliest pillow laces; it ought, properly speaking, to be called french lace, having been invented in france and thence introduced into england and ireland. it is composed of braid or tape, formed into figures, joined together by needlemade, corded or buttonhole bars and fillings of different kinds, or by bars alone. the lace stitches and bars are almost the same as those used in fine venetian point, but they are executed in a coarser material so that this section of our work may be considered as a preparation for the different kinds of lace, to be described in the next chapter. materials (fig. ).--the braids used for making irish lace are an english speciality and manufactured exclusively in england; they are very various in shade, width and thickness, and are to be had white, unbleached, grey and pale yellow, narrow and wide, coarse and fine in texture, with and without holes, open edge and picots, with large medallions and small. fig. represents the kinds most commonly used, in their original size, together with a specimen picot, or purl, as they are called in england, for the outside edge, also to be had ready made, for those who do not care for the trouble of making them themselves. for the stitches and bars by which the braids are joined together, the best material is fil à dentelle d.m.c,[a] (lace thread) a smooth even thread, now made in every colour to match the braids. [illustration: fig. . patterns of the different tapes and braids used for irish lace.] transferring designs for irish lace.--the best way is to trace them on oiled tracing linen with a watery ink, free from greasy matter. this tracing linen, which is of english make, is white, glazed on one side only; the unglazed surface should be turned uppermost, as it takes the ink better. as this tracing linen is quite transparent, the pattern can be transferred to it at once without recourse to any other process. it will be found less trying for the eyes to lay a piece of transparent coloured paper, or stuff, under the pattern whilst you are copying it. the irish lace designs are almost all drawn with double lines, between which the braid is tacked on with small back stitches. we may mention at once that it is advisable to make the stitches longer on the right side than on the other, or at any rate to make them of the same length. tacking down and gathering in the braids (fig. ).--where the lines of the pattern describe a curve or a circle, the outside edge of the braid, as shown in fig. , must be sewn down firmly, so as to form little folds or gathers on the inside edge, which are first tacked down and then gathered in with small overcasting stitches in fine thread, so as to fit exactly to the pattern. [illustration: fig. . tacking down and drawing in the braids.] the stitches, made for the bars and the fillings, must never be drawn so tightly as to drag out the edges of the braids and thus spoil the outlines of the pattern. nor should the stitches be caught into the tracing cloth, but only rest upon it. when the embroidery is finished, turn the work the wrong side up, cut every second or third tacking stitch and pull the threads carefully out, from the wrong side, when the lace will separate itself from the backing without difficulty; it has then to be damped and ironed also on the wrong side. (see the concluding chapter on the different processes for finishing off needlework). it is of no consequence which are made first, the bars or the fillings; we however incline to the former, more especially in the case of buttonhole bars, as they are easier to do than the fillings and once done, there is less risk of puckering or drawing the edges together, in making the fillings. the stitches.--we shall now proceed to describe a series of bars and stitches, which, if carefully studied, will serve as a preparation for making all the finer kinds of laces described in the ensuing chapter. without pretending to have exhausted the infinite variety of lace stitches that exists, we hope to have brought before our readers' notice a sufficiently numerous selection to satisfy all tastes and capacities. with regard to the names, the same stitches are known by so many different ones, that excepting in the case of those universally accepted, we have disregarded them altogether and merely numbered the stitches in their order. [illustration: fig. . plain twisted bar.] plain twisted bar (fig. ).--secure the thread to the braid and throw it across from one braid edge to the other, put the needle in downwards from above, and overcast the first thread, so as to form the two into a cord. if you do not make enough overcasting stitches to tighten the two threads, the bars will be loose and untidy and spoil the general appearance of the work. [illustration: fig. . double twisted bar.] double twisted bar (fig. ).--throw three foundation threads across the space to be filled and overcast them loosely, so that they remain visible between the stitches. plain buttonhole bar (fig. ).--throw three threads across and cover them with buttonhole stitches, made from right to left. in making this and the subsequent bars, we recommend turning the needle round and holding it as it were the reverse way, so that the eye not the point passes first under the threads; strange as it may seem, it is easier in this manner to avoid splitting the threads. the working thread should always issue from the edge of the braid, one or two threads before the foundation threads of the bar, to prevent the bars being of unequal width, or getting twisted at the beginning. buttonhole bars with pinned picots (figs. and ). after covering half, or a third of the bar with buttonhole stitches, pass the thread without making a loop, under the foundation threads, and fasten the loop with a pin, fig. , then slip the needle, horizontally from right to left, under the threads and tighten the knot close to the last buttonhole stitch. [illustration: fig, . plain buttonhole bar.] [illustration: fig. . buttonhole bar with pinned picots.] [illustration: fig. . buttonhole bar with pinned picots.] [illustration: fig. . bar with lace picot.] fig. shows a picot made in the same manner, but with several buttonhole stitches inserted between the loop and the buttonholed bar. bar with lace picot (fig. ).--here the picot is made by bringing the thread out through the loop and beginning the buttonhole stitches, or in number, according to the size of the thread, quite close to the pin, so that they entirely cover the loop. the pin must be stuck in the width of stitches, distant from the bar, and the foundation threads should be completely hidden under the bar. bar with picot made in bullion stitch (fig. ).--put the needle halfway into the last buttonhole stitch, twist the thread ten or twelve times round it from left to right, draw it through and tighten the thread, so that the spiral on the thread form a semicircle, then continue the bar (see also for the bullion stitch figs. and ). bar with buttonhole picot (fig. ).--cover rather more than half the bar with buttonhole stitches, carry the thread three times to the th stitch and back, then buttonhole these threads that are attached to the bar in the same way as the bar itself and finish the bar in the usual way. these buttonhole picots are generally used for edging lace; they may in their turn be adorned with small pinned picots to produce a richer effect. [illustration: fig. . bar with picot made in bullion stitch.] [illustration: fig. . bar with buttonhole picot.] [illustration: fig. . bar with two rows of knots.] bar with two rows of knots (fig. ).--over two foundation threads, make double knots, far enough apart to leave room for the knots of the next row between. these double knots consist, in the first place, of one plain buttonhole stitch and then one reversed, that is, made by bringing the needle out in front of the thread and passing it under the loop; the result being that the thread will lie behind the thread and not before it, as in an ordinary buttonhole stitch. [illustration: fig. . branched bars.] branched bars (fig. ).--where you have a larger surface to cover with bars, you are generally obliged to make them with branches. for this purpose you prepare the threads as for an ordinary bar and cover them halfway with buttonhole stitches; then you carry on the foundation thread to the next bar, buttonhole it also halfway, lay the next foundation thread, and finally buttonhole all the half-covered bars till you reach the dotted line, from whence you lay the last foundation threads. the last bar is worked over or threads, so that the working thread can be taken back to the edge of the braid by means of the last buttonhole stitches. [illustration: fig. . plain russian stitch.] plain russian stitch (fig. ).--stitches of all kinds can be used, as well as bars, for joining braids together that run parallel to each other, and for filling up the spaces between. these stitches, which serve as an insertion, are some of them very elementary, whilst others require great skill and patience to execute. the simplest of all is the russian stitch, which bears a great resemblance to the crossed stitch, shown in fig. , and the crossed back-stitch, fig. . you pass the needle from left to right, under the edge of the braid, then again from right to left under the opposite edge, taking care always to leave the thread in front of the needle. [illustration: fig. . twisted russian stitch.] twisted russian stitch (fig. ).--instead of passing the needle behind the thread, pass it before it and round it, so that the needle always comes out again beneath the thread, which will then be twice twisted. [illustration: fig. . column stitch.] column stitch (fig. ).--at the bottom, the stitch is made like the plain russian stitch, and at the top, like the one in fig. , with the difference that the second thread is passed three times round the first. [illustration: fig. . insertion of single buttonhole stitches.] [illustration: fig. . insertion of plain buttonhole stitches.] insertion of single buttonhole stitches (figs. and ).--make very loose buttonhole stitches along both edges of the braid, all the same size and the same distance apart, and vertically, opposite to each other. when these two rows are finished, pick up each loop with russian stitch, either single, fig. , or twisted, fig. . fig. shows the double russian stitch made in each loop; it may be trebled or quadrupled, according to whether you wish your insertion to be very transparent or not. [illustration: fig. . insertion with bead stitches.] insertion with bead stitches (fig. ).--join the opposite rows of loops together by four stitches. the threads of these stitches must lie quite flat, side by side, and not one on the top of the other. after the fourth stitch, you wind the thread round the bottom loop and then carry it on to the next, whence you repeat the four stitches as above. cluster insertion (fig. ).--over the middle of two finished plain bars and one half-finished one, a short distance apart, you make five buttonhole stitches and overcast the remainder of the third bar. the first bar of the next cluster must be set quite close to the last. insertion with branches (figs. and ).--throw the thread across the middle of the space between two edges of braid, and lengthways, from one end to the other, pass the needle horizontally under four or five threads of the braid, across the insertion; then carry it in a similar manner, first to the left and then to the right, take up the same number of threads of the braid and connect the three loops together by a knot, as is clearly shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. . cluster insertion.] [illustration: fig. . insertion with plain branches.] [illustration: fig. . insertion with branches and wheels.] fig. represents a similar beginning, and a similar interlacing of the threads, but ornamented this time with a wheel, added after the knot has been made over the loops. [illustration: fig. . insertion with leaves worked in darning stitch.] insertion with leaves in darning stitch (fig. ).--fasten on the thread where, according to the illustration, the first leaf in the insertion ought to come, carry it across to the opposite side, draw it through the edge of the braid and bring it back to the point whence it started, lay threads across to both sides, like in figs. and , unite them by a knot, such as described in fig. , lay the thread once more round the middle leaf, and finish the leaf in darning stitch, working downwards from the top, as described in the preceding chapter in figs. and . as may be seen from the second middle leaf, your darning stitches have to be made over five threads, subdivided into two and three. [illustration: fig. . insertion with small wheels.] insertion with small wheels (fig. ).--here, you have to make two rows of russian stitches opposite each other and carry the thread to the point of intersection, then, you make a wheel over five threads and pass the needle under the completed wheel to reach the next point of intersection. half wheels may also be added at the edge of the braid, as in figs. and . [illustration: fig. . insertion with big wheels.] insertion with big wheels (fig. ).--carry the thread horizontally across the middle of the space intended for the insertion, to the opposite side, and then conduct it by means of overcasting stitches into the corner; thence make a loose loop over to the opposite corner, pass the needle under six or eight threads of the braid edge, slip it under the horizontal thread first laid and behind the loop, and finish the stitch on the other side in the edge of the braid. throw the thread again across the empty space and over the first thread, bring your needle back to the middle, make a big wheel over four threads, passing each time under the same threads, then overcast the single thread, come back to the edge of the braid and make the second loop, bringing out the thread at the same place where the other stitches came out. insertion with cones (figs. and ).--over plain but very distended russian stitch, make darning stitches backwards and forwards, beginning at the point and reaching to the middle, so as to form small cone-shaped figures. to reach the point of the next cone you overcast the thread of the russian stitch several times. you may also, as in fig. , double the russian stitch and make the darning stitches in such a manner that the points of the cones touch each other and their bases meet the edge of the braid. the same thing, worked the reverse way, that is, with the points turned outwards to the edge, produces a not less pretty effect. [illustration: fig. . insertion with cones.] [illustration: fig. . insertion with cones.] [illustration: fig. . insertion with embroidered squares.] insertion with embroidered squares (fig. ).--after making rows of loose buttonhole stitches along the braid edges, as in figs. , , , run a thread through the buttonhole stitches; this thread serves as the foundation to the russian stitches by which the two edges are joined together. the empty square space left between the russian stitches is then filled up with buttonhole stitches, like those in fig. , in the foregoing chapter. [illustration: fig. . insertion with half bars.] insertion with half bars (fig. ).--fasten on the thread in one of the corners of the braid and conduct it by means of overcasting stitches to the middle of the insertion, draw it through the edge of the braid on the right and make buttonhole stitches over it, to the middle of the space to be filled, then carry the thread to the left, draw it through the left edge, a little higher up than on the other side, and make the same number of stitches over it as over the first. you can vary this insertion with very good result by making more stitches on one side than on the other, but it should never be more than or stitches wide. [illustration: fig. . plain net stitch. first lace stitch.] plain net stitch. first lace stitch (fig. ).--make rows of buttonhole stitches to and fro, loose enough to form loops into which the stitches of each subsequent row are set. you must be careful to make the same number of stitches in all the spaces that are of the same size, and also, when you begin a row with a whole stitch, to begin the return row with a half, and so on, in regular rotation. the number of stitches should vary with the width of the pattern and the decreasing and increasing should always be done at the edge. the loops must be as many threads of the braid edge long, as they are wide. [illustration: fig. . double net stitch. second lace stitch.] double net stitch. second lace stitch (fig. ).--you leave the same distance between the stitches here as in the preceding figure, but in each of the loops of the first row, you must make two buttonhole stitches close together. it is as well to round the loop a little less than is usually done in net stitch. [illustration: fig. . third lace stitch.] third lace stitch (fig. ).--here, you make three buttonhole stitches close together, joined to the next three by a loop of thread, just long enough to hold the three buttonhole stitches of the subsequent row. [illustration: fig. . fourth lace stitch.] fourth lace stitch (fig. ).--working from left to right, make two buttonhole stitches rather near together, and leave twice as long a loop between them and the next two stitches as between the two first. in the next row, which is worked from right to left, make one stitch in the loop between the two stitches that are close together and three or four in the long loop. [illustration: fig. . fifth lace stitch.] fifth lace stitch (fig. ).--as in fig. , you begin this stitch from left to right, but making three stitches very close together with an intermediate loop as long as the three stitches in one. in the second row, you make one buttonhole stitch in each of the loops between the three stitches and six or eight in the long intermediate loop. [illustration: fig. . sixth lace stitch.] sixth lace stitch (fig. ).--over wide loops, made from left to right in the first row, make in the second, enough buttonhole stitches entirely to cover the thread. in the third row of stitches, put the needle into the small loop between two sets of buttonhole stitches, so that the close stitches shall form vertical lines across the surface they cover. this stitch admits of every sort of modification, such as, for instance, making the third row of stitches on the buttonhole stitches, in the middle of the ones on the small loop; or making one row of close stitches first, and then three open rows; in the former case you should always make an uneven number of buttonhole stitches, so that you have the same number on both sides of the needle, which you must put in between the two threads that form the middle buttonhole stitch. [illustration: fig. . seventh lace stitch.] seventh lace stitch (fig. ).--begin, working from right to left, by making one row of pairs of buttonhole stitches, a very short distance apart; in the second row you make one buttonhole stitch between each of these pairs, and in the third row, two buttonhole stitches in every long loop. here, the stitches must not be crowded together but have a small gap left between them. [illustration: fig. . eighth lace stitch.] eighth lace stitch (fig. ).--this stitch is generally known as the "pea-stitch" on account of the holes occasioned by the different distribution of the stitches. the first row consists of stitches, set rather closely together, and all the same distance apart. in the second row, you make one buttonhole stitch in the last stitch of the first row, then, missing two loops and three buttonhole stitches, you make two stitches in the next loops and so on. in the third row, you make three stitches in the big loop, and one in the loop between the stitches of the second row. [illustration: fig. . ninth lace stitch.] [illustration: fig. . tenth lace stitch.] ninth, and tenth lace stitch (figs. and ).--both, the small and the big pointed groups of stitches, begin with a row of close buttonhole stitches. fig. requires three rows; in the second you miss two stitches and make two in the next loops; in the third, only one stitch is introduced between the two loops of the lower row. fig. requires five rows. the stitches of the first must be set as closely together as possible; in the second row you make four stitches and miss two of the first row, in the third row you make three stitches, in the fourth, two and in the fifth, one only. the long loops of the last row must not be too slack so that the first stitches of the next scallop may quite cover them. [illustration: fig. . eleventh lace stitch.] eleventh lace stitch (fig. ).--this stitch is not really more difficult to work than those we have been describing, but requires rather more attention to learn. the first row consists of plain net stitches; in the second, you have three buttonhole stitches in the middle net stitch; in the third, three buttonhole stitches in the whole loops on either side of the three buttonhole stitches of the second row, and one stitch in the half loops that precede and immediately follow them; the fourth row is similar to the second. in the fifth row the close stitches are changed. the three buttonhole stitches are made in the third whole loop, before and after those of the fourth row, so that between two groups of three stitches you have six single buttonhole stitches and seven loops. [illustration: fig. . twelfth lace stitch.] twelfth lace stitch (fig. ).--fasten on your thread, take it by overcasting stitches over the braid edge, half a c/m. from the corner, and make three buttonhole stitches downwards, quite close together. the next loops, over four or six threads of the braid, must be left long enough to be on a level with the first stitch reaching downwards from the edge. in the second row, you cover the long loops with three buttonhole stitches and draw the intervening thread quite tight. the third row is like the first, with the difference, that you put the needle in between the two threads of the buttonhole stitch, instead of through the loops. [illustration: fig. . thirteenth lace stitch.] thirteenth lace stitch (fig. ).--the stitch here represented, as well as the two next ones are looped from left to right and then again from right to left. as it is more unusual to make the loops from left to right than the reverse way, the proper position of the needle and the course of the thread are shown in the illustrations. fig. requires, in the first place, two buttonhole stitches very close together in the edge of the braid, then a third stitch covering the two first stitches and set quite close to them; the connecting thread between these stitches must be tightly stretched so as to lie almost vertically, that the stitches may form straight lines. [illustration: fig. . fourteenth lace stitch.] fourteenth lace stitch (fig. ).--this begins, likewise, with two buttonhole stitches, above which you make two buttonhole stitches instead of one, as in fig. , producing an open ground with vertical bars. [illustration: fig. . fifteenth lace stitch.] fifteenth lace stitch (fig. ).--this resembles the two foregoing stitches and consists of three buttonhole stitches, made over the edge of the braid or the intermediate bars, and joined together afterwards under one transverse stitch. [illustration: fig. . sixteenth lace stitch.] sixteenth lace stitch (fig. ).--you begin this by a row of net stitches worked from right to left, or as the engraving shows, by a row of stitches called «seed stitches». [illustration: fig. . seventeenth lace stitch.] the second row, worked from left to right, consists of short bars, set slanting and shaped like a seed, and made the same way as the picot in fig. . the first stitch is carried through the loop of the row below, the second over both threads and far enough from the loop to leave room for three other stitches. the first of the four buttonhole stitches of the next group must be set quite close to the last. seventeenth lace stitch (fig. ).--here we have the same pattern as the preceding one without the row of net stitches; the engraving shows us at the same time, the proper direction of the needle and thread for the row that is worked from right to left. [illustration: fig. . eighteenth lace stitch.] eighteenth lace stitch (fig. ).--this is the first of a series of lace stitches, often met with in old venetian lace, and which can therefore with perfect right be called, venetian stitches. owing to the manner and order in which the rows of stitches are connected and placed above one another, they form less transparent grounds than those we have hitherto described. in these grounds you begin by making the row of loops, then you throw a thread across on the same level and in coming back, pass the needle through the row of loops under the thread stretched across, and under the stitch of the previous row. [illustration: fig. . nineteenth lace stitch.] nineteenth lace stitch (fig. ).--the close stitch here represented is more common in venetian lace than the loose stitch given in fig. . [illustration: fig. . twentieth lace stitch.] twentieth lace stitch (fig. ).--by missing some loops of the close ground in one row and replacing them by the same number in the next, small gaps are formed, and by a regular and systematic missing and taking up of stitches, in this way, extremely pretty grounds can be produced. [illustration: fig. . twenty-first lace stitch.] twenty-first lace stitch (fig. ).--these close lace stitches, can be varied in all sorts of other ways by embroidering the needle-made grounds. in fig. , you have little tufts in darning stitch, and in a less twisted material than the close stitches of the ground, worked upon the ground. if you use fil à dentelle d.m.c (lace thread) for the ground, you should take either coton à repriser d.m.c (darning cotton), or better still, coton surfin d.m.c[a] for the tufts. the ground can also be ornamented with little rings of buttonholing, stars or flowerets in bullion or some other fancy stitch. [illustration: fig. . twenty-second lace stitch.] twenty-second lace stitch (fig. ).--for the above three stitches and the three that follow, the work has to be held, so that the finished rows are turned to the worker and the needle points to the outside of the hand. in the first row, from left to right, take hold of the thread near the end that is in the braid, lay it from left to right under the point of the needle, and bring it back again to the right, over the same. whilst twisting the thread in this way round the needle with the right hand, you must hold the eye of the needle under the left thumb. when you have laid the thread round draw the needle through the loops; the bars must stand straight and be of uniform length. were they to slant or be at all uneven, we should consider the work badly done. in the row that is worked from left to right, the thread must be twisted round the needle, likewise from left to right. [illustration: fig. . twenty-third lace stitch.] twenty-third lace stitch (fig. ).--this is begun with the same stitches as fig. , worked from right to left. you then take up every loop that comes between the vertical bars with an overcasting stitch, drawing the thread quite out, and tightening it as much as is necessary after each stitch. you cannot take several stitches on the needle at the same time and draw out the thread for them all at once, as this pulls the bars out of their place. [illustration: fig. . twenty-fourth lace stitch] twenty-fourth lace stitch (fig. ).--this is often called the sorrento stitch. every group of three bars of stitches is separated from the next by a long loop, round which the thread is twisted in its backward course. in each of the succeeding rows you place the first bar between the first and second of the preceding row, and the third one in the long loop, so that the pattern advances, as it were in steps. [illustration: fig. . twenty-fifth lace stitch.] [illustration: fig. . twenty-sixth lace stitch.] twenty-fifth and twenty-sixth lace stitches (figs. and ).--these two figures show how the relative position of the groups of bars may be varied. both consist of the same stitches as those described in fig. . the thread that connects the groups should be tightly stretched, so that the rows may form straight horizontal lines. [illustration: fig. . twenty-seventh lace stitch.] twenty-seventh lace stitch (fig. ).--begin by making two rows of net stitches, fig. , then two of close ones, fig. , and one row like those of fig. . if you want to lengthen the bars, twist the thread once or twice more round the needle. you can also make one row of bars surmounted by wheels, as shown in fig. , then one more row of bars and continue with close stitches. twenty-eighth lace stitch (fig. ).--between every group of three bars, set close together, leave a space of a corresponding width; then bring the thread back over the bars, as in figs. , and , without going through the loops. in the second row, you make three bars in the empty space, two over the three bars of the first row and again three in the next empty space. the third row is like the first. [illustration: fig. . twenty-eighth lace stitch.] [illustration: fig. . twenty-ninth lace stitch.] twenty-ninth lace stitch (fig. ).--this stitch, known as greek net stitch, can be used instead of buttonhole bars for filling in large surfaces. make bars from left to right, a little distance apart as in fig. , leaving the loops between rather slack, so that when they have been twice overcast by the returning thread, they may still be slightly rounded. in the next row, you make the bar in the middle of the loop and lift it up sufficiently with the needle, for the threads to form a hexagon like a net mesh. [illustration: fig. . thirtieth lace stitch.] thirtieth lace stitch (fig. ). after a row of pairs of buttonhole stitches set closely together, with long loops between, as long as the space between the pairs, throw the thread across in a line with the extremities of the loops, fasten it to the edge of the braid and make pairs of buttonhole stitches, as in the first row above it. the loops must be perfectly regular, to facilitate which, guide lines may be traced across the pattern, and pins stuck in as shown in the figure, round which to carry the thread. [illustration: fig. . thirty-first lace stitch.] thirty-first lace stitch (fig. ).--at first sight this stitch looks very much like the preceding one, but it differs entirely from it in the way in which the threads are knotted. you pass the needle under the loop and the laid thread, then stick in the pin at the right distance for making the long loop, bring the thread round behind the pin, make a loop round the point of the needle, as shows in the engraving, and pull up the knot. [illustration: fig. . thirty-second lace stitch.] thirty-second lace stitch (fig. ).--to introduce a greater variety into lace stitches, netting can also be imitated with the needle. you begin with a loop in the corner of a square and work in diagonal lines. the loops are secured by means of the same stitch shown in fig. , and the regularity of the loops ensured, as it is there, by making them round a pin, stuck in at the proper distance. the squares or meshes must be made with the greatest accuracy; that being the case, most of the stitches described in the preceding chapter can be worked upon them, and the smallest spaces can be filled with delicate embroidery. thirty-third lace stitch (fig. ).--this stitch is frequently met with in the oldest irish lace, especially in the kind where the braids are joined together by fillings not bars. at first sight, it looks merely like a close net stitch, the ground and filling all alike, so uniform is it in appearance, but on a closer observation it will be found to be quite a different stitch from any of those we have been describing. the first stitch is made like a plain net stitch, the second consists of a knot that ties up the loop of the first stitch. fillings of this kind must be worked as compactly as possible, so that hardly any spaces are visible between the individual rows. [illustration: fig. . thirty-third lace stitch.] [illustration: fig. . thirty-fourth lace stitch.] thirty-fourth lace stitch (fig. ).--to fill in a surface with this stitch, known as the wheel or spider stitch, begin by laying double diagonal threads to and fro, at regular distances apart, so that they lie side by side and are not twisted. when the whole surface is covered with these double threads, throw a second similar series across them, the opposite way. the return thread, in making this second layer, must be conducted under the double threads of the first layer and over the single thread just laid, and wound two or three times round them, thereby forming little wheels or spiders, like those already described in the preceding chapter in figs. and . thirty-fifth lace stitch (fig. ).--begin by making a very regular netted foundation, but without knots, where the two layers of threads intersect each other. then, make a third layer of diagonal threads across the two first layers, so that all meet at the same points of intersection, thus forming six rays divergent from one centre. with the fourth and last thread, which forms the seventh and eighth ray, you make the wheel over seven threads, then slip the needle under it and carry it on to the point for the next wheel. [illustration: fig. . thirty-fifth lace stitch.] [illustration: fig. . thirty-sixth lace stitch.] thirty-sixth lace stitch (fig. ).--after covering all the surface to be embroidered, with threads stretched in horizontal lines, you cover them with loops going from one to the other and joining themselves in the subsequent row to the preceding loops. the needle will thus have to pass underneath two threads. then cover this needle-made canvas with cones worked in close darning stitches, as in figs. , and . [illustration: fig. . thirty-seventh lace stitch.] thirty-seventh lace stitch (fig. ).--here, by means of the first threads that you lay, you make an imitation of the penelope canvas used for tapestry work, covering the surface with double threads, a very little distance apart, stretched both ways. the second layer of threads must pass alternately under and over the first, where they cross each other, and the small squares thus left between, must be encircled several times with thread and then buttonholed; the thicker the foundation and the more raised and compact the buttonholing upon it is, the better the effect will be. each of these little buttonholed rings should be begun and finished off independently of the others. thirty-eighth lace stitch (fig. ).--plain net stitch being quicker to do than any other, one is tempted to use it more frequently; but as it is a little monotonous some openwork ornament upon it is a great improvement; such for instance as small buttonholed rings, worked all over the ground at regular intervals. here again, as in the preceding figure the rings must be made independently of each other. [illustration: fig. . thirty-eighth lace stitch.] [illustration: fig. . thirty-ninth lace stitch.] thirty-ninth lace stitch (fig. ).--corded bars, branching out into other bars, worked in overcasting stitches, may also serve as a lace ground. you lay five or six threads, according to the course the bars are to take; you overcast the branches up to the point of their junction with the principal line, thence you throw across the foundation threads for another branch, so that having reached a given point and coming back to finish the threads left uncovered in going, you will often have from six to eight short lengths of thread to overcast. overcasting stitches are always worked from right to left. fortieth lace stitch (fig. ).--of all the different kinds of stitches here given, this, which terminates the series, is perhaps the one requiring the most patience. it was copied from a piece of very old and valuable brabant lace, of which it formed the entire ground. our figure of course represents it on a very magnified scale, the original being worked in the finest imaginable material, over a single foundation thread. in the first row, after the three usual foundation threads are laid, you make the buttonhole stitches to the number of eight or ten, up to the point from which the next branch issues, from the edge of the braid, that is, upwards. then you bring the needle down again and buttonhole the second part of the bar, working from right to left. [illustration: fig. . fortieth lace stitch.] a picot, like the one described in fig. , marks the point where the bars join. more picots of the same kind may be added at discretion. [illustration: fig. . wheel composed of buttonhole bars. making and taking up the loops.] [illustration: fig. . wheel composed of buttonhole bars. the buttonholing begun.] wheel composed of buttonhole bars (figs. , , , ).--as we have already more than once given directions for making wheels, not only in the present chapter, but also in the one on netting, there is no need to enlarge on the kind of stitches to be used here, but we will explain the course of the thread in making wheels, composed of buttonhole bars in a square opening. fig. shows how the first eight loops which form the foundation of the bars are made. [illustration: fig. . wheel composed of buttonhole bars. passing from one bar to the other.] [illustration: fig. . wheel composed of buttonhole bars. bars and ring finished.] in fig. you will see that a thread has been passed through the loops, for the purpose of drawing them in and making a ring in addition to which, two threads added to the loop serve as padding for the buttonhole stitches; the latter should always be begun on the braid side. fig. represents the bar begun in fig. completed, and the passage of the thread to the next bar, and fig. the ring buttonholed after the completion of all the bars. [illustration: fig. . filling in a round space with net stitch.] filling in round spaces (figs. , , ).--the stitches best adapted for filling in round spaces are those that can be drawn in and tightened to the required circumference, or those that admit of the number being reduced, regularly, in each round. in tacking braids on to circular patterns, the inside edges, as we pointed out at the beginning of this chapter, have to be drawn in with overcasting stitches in very fine thread. fig. shows how to fill in a round space with net stitches. it will be observed that the loop which begins the row, has the thread of the loop with which it terminates, wound round it, which thread then passes on to the second series of stitches. in the same manner you pass to the third row after which you pick up all the loops and fasten off the thread by working back to the braid edge over all the rows of loops, following the course indicated by the dotted line. [illustration: fig. . filling in round spaces. first circle of wheels begun.] [illustration: fig. . filling in round spaces. the two circles of wheels finished.] fig. shows how to finish a row of loops with wheels worked upon three threads only. in the first row, you make a wheel over each bar; in the second, you make a bar between every two wheels; in the third, the wheels are only made over every second bar; a fourth row of bars which you pick up with a thread completes the interior of the circle, then you work along the bars with overcasting stitches, fig. , to carry the thread back to the edge of the braid where you fasten it off. needle-made picots (figs. , , ).--the edges and outlines of irish lace are generally bordered with picots, which as we have already said can be bought ready-made (see fig. ). they are not however very strong and we cannot recommend them for lace that any one has taken the pains to make by hand. [illustration: fig. . connected needle-made picots.] [illustration: fig. . isolated needle-made picots.] [illustration: fig. . buttonhole picots with picots in bullion stitch.] in fig. , the way to make picots all joined together is described. you begin, as in fig. , by a knot, over which the thread is twisted as indicated in the engraving. it is needless to repeat that the loops should all be knotted in a line, all be of the same length and all the same distance apart. fig. represents the kind of needle-made picots which most resemble the machine-made ones, and fig. show us the use of little scallops surmounted by picots, made in bullion stitch. one or two rows of lace stitch fig. , or the first rows of figs. , , can also be used in the place of picots. irish lace (fig. ).--english braids or those braids which are indicated at the foot of the engraving must be tacked down on to the pattern and gathered on the inside edge, wherever the lines are curved, as explained in fig. ; in cases however where only lacet superfin d.m.c[a] is used, the needle should be slipped in underneath the outside threads, so that the thread with which you draw in the braid be hidden. the braids are joined together where they meet with a few overcasting stitches, as shown in the illustration. here, we find one of the lace stitches used instead of picots; the first row of fig. always makes a nice border for irish lace. irish lace (fig. ).--this pattern, which is more complicated and takes more time and stitches than the preceding one, can also be executed with one or other of the braids mentioned at the beginning of the chapter; but it looks best made with a close braid. [illustration: fig. . irish lace.] [illustration: fig. . irish lace. materials: lacet surfin d.m.c no. , white or écru and fil d'alsace d.m.c nos. to , or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to .] the bars, which in the illustration are simply buttonholed may also be ornamented with picots of one kind or another; the interior spaces of the figure on the left can be filled, instead of with corded bars, with one of the lace stitches we have described, either fig. , , or , any one of which is suitable for filling in small spaces like these. in the figure on the right, the ring of braid may be replaced by close buttonhole stitches, made over several foundation threads or over one thick thread, such as fil à pointer d.m.c no. or [a] to make them full and round. you begin the ring on the inside and increase the number of stitches as the circumference increases. [illustration: fig. . irish lace. materials: english braid with open edge.--for the lattice work: fil d'alsace d.m.c in balls nos. to or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to , white. for the cord: cordonnet fils d.m.c no. , écru.[a]] any of the stitches, from fig. to fig. , can be introduced here. irish lace (fig. ).--here we find one of the fillings above alluded to, fig. , used as a ground for the flowers and leaves. for the design itself some of the closer stitches described in this chapter, should be selected. when the actual lace, is finished you sew upon the braid a thin cord, made of écru cordonnet fils d.m.c, as described in the chapter on different kinds of fancy work. cords of this kind can be had ready made, but the hand-made ones are much to be preferred, being far softer and more supple than the machine-made. [illustration: fig. . irish lace. materials--for the cord: cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to . for the bars and lace stitches: fil à dentelle d.m.c no. .[a]] irish lace (fig. ).--this lace, more troublesome than the preceding ones to make, is also much more valuable and effective. the ground is composed entirely of bars, like the ones described in fig. , the branches, true to the character of the work are worked in the close stitch represented in fig. , and the flowers in double net stitch, fig. . in working the above fillings, the thread must not, as in lace made with braid, be carried on from one point to the other by overcasting stitches along the braid edges, but should be drawn out horizontally through the cord and back again the same way, giving the needle in so doing a slightly slanting direction. footnotes: [a] see at the end of the concluding chapter, the table of numbers and sizes and the list of colours of the d.m.c threads and cottons. [illustration: venetian lace of the xvi century.] laces of different kinds. in general, to the uninitiated, the word «lace» signifies exclusively the delicate and elaborate fabrics that owe their origin to venice and the netherlands and were thence imported into other countries. but besides venetian, french, english, chantilly, brussels, sedan point, names familiar to every one, there are all kinds of other laces, likewise of great antiquity, and named as the above are, after the country they belong to. as it would be impossible in these pages to give a comprehensive account of them all, we have restricted ourselves to such as seem more especially suited to the amateur, to whom needlework is a mere recreation and pastime. worked like the above-named entirely with the needle, but much less elaborate and minute in character and workmanship, they are quicker and easier to make and we are sure that by the help of the directions that accompany the illustrations, any careful worker will be able to imitate them without difficulty. materials.--it will be observed that we do not bind ourselves in the following directions to one size of cotton, that as in point of fact, one and the same piece of work can be executed in either fine or coarse cotton, we have only indicated the most suitable kind of material to use: as for instance for armenian lace, fil à pointer d.m.c[a] or cordonnet fils d.m.c[a], for smyrna or knotted lace, fil à pointer d.m.c, cordonnet fils d.m.c and fil à dentelle d.m.c[a], for reticella and venetian lace, fil d'alsace d.m.c[a], for brussels lace, the finest numbers of fil à dentelle and for pillow lace, any one of those enumerated, excepting coton à broder surfin. pillow lace and the necessary articles for its manufacture.--pillow lace derives its name from the cushion or pillow on which all bobbin lace is made, which distinguishes it from point lace, so-called because it consists of «points» or stitches made with a needle and thread. various articles are required for the making of pillow lace; in the first place a cushion or pillow, then bobbins and a winder, parchment patterns, pins and a pricker. the lace pillow (figs. , , ).--the pillows used for pillow lace are of different kinds and vary in shape with where the country, and the manner in which the lace is made. [illustration: fig. . the lace pillow.] fig. represents the shape in use in the mountains of bohemia and saxony, where pillow lace has always been one of the chief industries of the inhabitants. any one can make a cushion of this kind themselves with a piece of stuff, c/m. long and wide. the long sides are firmly sewn together and the short ones turned in with a narrow hem through which you run a cord to draw them up. a disc of stout cardboard is put inside the case after you have gathered up the one end; you then stuff the case as full as possible with bran, sawdust or horsehair, lay a second disc of cardboard in at the top and draw up the other end. these pillows are then put into cardboard boxes with rather high sides, or into a kind of basket, weighted at the bottom, to keep it firm and steady. pillows of this most primitive kind have the great advantage of being perfectly easy to make. [illustration: fig. . pillow with movable cylinder for making lace.] [illustration: fig. . position of the bobbins and the work on the cushion fig. .] fig. represents a pillow of a more complicated kind, which can be stood upon the table or mounted on a stand. the cylinder is movable so that you can go on working without interruption. the whole apparatus consists of a board or stand, c/m. long and wide, resting upon two transverse pieces of wood, ½ c/m. high behind and c/m. in front. the board should be covered, first with a very thick flannel or bath coating and then with a fine dark green flannel or cloth. two small supports are fixed on to the outside edge of the stand to hold the cylinder, which consists of two discs that revolve on a rod about c/m. long. this rod should be covered, in the first place with a thick layer of tow and then with flannel or cloth. on the left side of the cylinder is a cog-wheel and a metal spring is attached to the board, by means of which the wheel is prevented from turning the wrong way. fig. shows how the bobbins are placed upon the pillow. in normandy a kind of stuffed box is used instead of a pillow. the board is c/m. higher behind than in front and is deeply grooved to hold the cylinder, which is stuffed and shaped like the one represented in fig. . this cylinder scarcely projects above the stand, a second groove in the back edge receives the lace as it is worked off the cylinder. the pillows used for valenciennes lace are of again a different construction, but as it is not our intention in the present work to describe the finer kinds of lace it appeared superfluous to give any illustration of the pillows on which they are made. [illustration: fig. . the bobbin (jamnig's patent).] the bobbins (fig. ).--a bobbin is a sort of little wooden spool with a handle to it; there are several varieties of them but we have confined ourselves to a representation of the kind considered best for beginners. as a considerable number are wanted for every pattern and they are apt to slip about and get entangled in inexperienced hands, they are now to be had with the handles weighted with lead to steady them and counteract any independent motion of their own. we cannot help again laying great stress on the importance of seeing that the size of the bobbins and the number of the cotton be well assorted to the kind of lace. the winder (fig. ).--every one who means to take the work seriously should provide themselves with a winder, as here represented, which is affixed to a polished wooden stand. this stand has to be firmly screwed to the table and the bobbin is squeezed in between the two little rods fitted into the supports at the left end of the stand; one of these rods serves as the axle to the little wheel, the other can be drawn in and out and fitted to the length of the bobbin. [illustration: fig. . the winder (jamnig's patent).] when the bobbin is fixed in its place, you take the thread in the left hand and wind it round it, turning the wheel with the right hand from right to left in the direction indicated by the arrow. the thread is wound round the handles of the bobbins that are used for making very fine lace, and a wooden shield that is so contrived that you can slip it over the handle prevents the thread from getting soiled. [illustration: fig. . stoppage of the thread at the end of the bobbin.] stoppage of the thread at the end of the bobbin (fig. ).--after cutting off the thread, you make a loop close to the top of the bobbin to prevent it from unwinding too easily. this loop is formed by taking the bobbin in the right hand, the thread between the fourth and fifth fingers of the left hand and laying it away from you round the left thumb; then lifting up the bottom thread with the second finger of the left hand you pass the bobbin upwards from below through the loop on the left hand. machine for crossing the threads (fig. ).--this ingenious little machine is of great assistance in making straight running patterns and irish lace braids, and is particularly useful for russian lace and braid lace of all kinds. it renders the even crossing of the threads in those parts of a pattern that imitate linen in texture comparatively easy. two implements like combs, fitting into one another, and movable, are mounted at two thirds of their length on a steel axle. the long teeth have holes bored through the ends, from the sides to the middle of the points and through these holes the threads from the bobbins are passed. [illustration: fig. . machine for crossing the threads (jamnig's patent).] the short teeth also are pierced with transverse holes, through which a needle with the threads threaded in the long teeth resting upon it, is passed. the points of the short teeth are covered with a hollow metal cylinder, split through from end to end, which can be removed when new threads have to be added. when the threads are all on, a small spring is fixed to the two ends of the axle, which is independent of the machine, and the two ends of the spring are introduced into the hollow of the cylinder. by the pressure you exercise on the teeth in the cylinder, the long teeth change their position, the lower ones rise and the upper ones fall and the threads cross each other, as in a loom. after each movement of the machine, the bobbin that makes the woof must be passed between the crossed threads; the edges are made like those of any other kind of lace. fig. explains how the bobbins are passed between the threads that are held between the teeth of the machine. [illustration: fig. . passage of the bobbins through the machine.] the pattern.--the pattern is one of the most important things in making pillow lace. the outlines must be clear and exact, as upon that in great measure the perfection of the lace depends. the drawing transferred to parchment, paper or cardboard, usually of a yellowish tint, should be lined with a very thin stuff such as muslin to prevent its tearing. [illustration: fig. . pricker and holder.] a stripe of quadrille, or point paper as it is called, should be laid upon the pattern and then holes pricked with a medium-sized needle at every intersection of the lines. all the curved long lines of the pattern must first be traced upon the point paper with ink and then pricked. the pattern should be adapted to the thickness of the thread the lace is to be made of; for a coarse lace large point paper should be used and small, for the finer kinds of lace. the pricking of the pattern beforehand is particularly important in the case of the common torchon lace, where the real beauty of the design consists in its regularity; in the case of fine close patterns the pricking can only be done as you proceed. prickers and holders of the kind represented in fig. or very much resembling it, are to be had at every stationer's shop. [illustration: fig. . position and movements of the hands.] the holes made by the prickers are to receive the pins, stuck in as you go along, round which you form and by which these are kept in their place. the pins must be long, with round heads and of a size suited to the thread. when your pattern is ready fasten it to the pillow or cylinder as the case may be, stretching it as smoothly as possible and being careful in so doing to fit the lines of the pattern together. if it be too long it must be cut to the required length or you may make the cylinder bigger by wrapping several folds of flannel round it. the value of lace depends not only on the work but on the thread it is made of; all the d.m.c cottons[a] can be recommended for lace-making and coloured laces of all kinds are greatly improved by the addition of a little chiné d'or d.m.c or or fin d.m.c pour la broderie.[a] position and movements of the hands (fig. ).--pillow lace is always made with two pairs of bobbins at once and the «stitches» are formed by the different ways of passing, plaiting, crossing and twisting the threads. to begin with the simplest operation, making a plait, hang pairs of bobbins to a pin, take bobbins in each hand and lay the right bobbin of each pair over its left fellow and draw up the threads slightly. then take the bobbins in the nd, rd and th fingers of the right hand and with the same fingers of the left, lay the nd bobbin over the rd with the nd and rd fingers of the left, so that the two middle bobbins are crossed, then take the th bobbin in the nd and rd fingers of the right hand and the bobbin that is now the nd, in the rd and th fingers of the left hand and lay the former over the rd, the latter over the st. this constitutes a «half passing». the plait, fig. , is formed by the repetition of the half passing. two half passings make a whole or «double passing». on the kind of lace you are making, depends how many pairs of bobbins you will have to use. but as one part of the lace is often made before the other, or you have to put on supernumerary bobbins, you fasten up those not in use on one side with pins, as shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. . passing with two pairs of bobbins.] net pattern or ground (figs. and ).--this consists of half passings, worked in rows to and fro; the pins are stuck in at the end of each row. the pattern, fig. , is fastened upon the pillow and pins are stuck in at the top, at regular intervals from each other; hang one pair of bobbins on every pin and lay the second bobbin of each pair over its fellow, so that the threads cross each other. [illustration: fig, . pattern for net passings.] half passing with the st and nd pair = lay the st pair aside = half passing with the nd and rd pair = lay the nd pair aside = half passing with the rd and th pair = lay the rd pair aside = half passing with the th and th pair = lay the th pair aside = half passing with the th and th pair = stick in a pin at point , then work back from right to left = surround the pin with a half passing made with the th and th pair = lay the th pair aside = half passing with the th and th pair = lay the th pair aside = half passing with the th and rd pairs = lay the th pair aside = half passing with the rd and nd pair = lay the rd pair aside = half passing with the nd and st pair = stick in a pin at point and repeat from the beginning. fig. shows the net ground completed; the thread that runs to and fro, to make it more clear, is represented in a darker shade than the others. before proceeding further, it is as well to prepare our readers for the many trials they will have to make, even with the help of the most minute explanations, before they succeed in carrying out the directions; for the whole art of making pillow lace lies in a manual dexterity, only attainable by practice. [illustration: fig. . net ground. completed.] even copying the patterns from description is only possible at first in a qualified sense; the surest way of attaining a satisfactory result is by constantly comparing the drawing and the work in progress and wherever the latter does not correspond with the former, trying at once to rectify the difference. linen or cloth ground.--the pattern used for net passing can also be used for linen passing or ground but pins, instead of , have to be stuck in at the top first. as in net passing, you work first from left to right, running threads to and fro in perfectly horizontal lines, so as to produce a ground resembling linen in its texture. the threads that run to and fro are held at the edge with pins and changed by a half passing, so that the one that was first in going, is first also in returning. [illustration: fig. . pattern for plain hole ground.] [illustration: fig. . plain hole ground.] the use of the machine for crossing the threads is especially to be recommended in working linen ground; by pressing the short branches of the machine, the position of the threads is changed and the bobbin is pushed through; by a second pressure the second bobbin is driven through, the pin is stuck in for the picot or the cord, when the bobbins are taken back again, four movements being thus all that is required. [illustration: fig. . wheel begun in hole ground.] [illustration: fig. . wheel in hole ground completed.] plain hole ground (figs. and ).--hole ground can be worked in various ways; we will begin by describing the plain hole ground, which as a rule forms the ground of all torchon laces. after fixing the pattern, as represented in fig. , upon the pillow, stick in pins, hang pairs of bobbins on to each and throw the nd bobbin of each pair over its fellow = half passing with the nd and rd pairs = put up a pin at point = half passing with the same pair = this encloses the pin = lay the rd pair aside = half passing with the nd and st pair = put up a pin at point = enclose it with the same pairs = half passing with the th and th pair = put up a pin at point = enclose it with the same pairs = lay the th pair aside = half passing the th and rd pair = put up the pin at point = enclose the same = lay the th pair aside = work on in the same way over points and = half passing with the th and th pair = put up the pin at point = enclose the same = work on in the same way over points , , , and = half passing with the th and th pair = put up the pin at point = enclose the same = work on over points , , , , , and = half passing with the th and th pair = put up the pin at point = enclose the same and proceed as in the preceding rows, from point to . [illustration: fig. . pattern for rose ground.] [illustration: fig. . rose ground.] hole ground with twisted thread is made in the same way we have just been describing, only that after every half passing enclosing the pin, each pair of bobbins is twisted once. a ground which is worked in this way is stronger than the other. twisted hole ground is seen again in figs. and . wheels in hole ground (figs. and ).--for the wheels, which are often worked on pillow-made grounds, , , pairs of bobbins, sometimes even more are used (see likewise fig. ). in fig. , the wheel is worked with the middle pairs of bobbins. each pair has first to be twisted once = linen passing with the rd and nd pair = lay aside the rd pair = linen passing with the nd and th pair = lay both pairs aside = linen passing with the th and rd pair = lay aside the th pair = linen passing with the rd and nd pair = put up the pin at the next point and between the nd and rd pair = linen passing with the rd and nd pair = lay aside the rd pair = linen passing with the nd and st pair = lay both pairs aside = linen passing with the th and rd pair = lay the th pair aside = linen passing with the rd and nd pair = the last passing completes the wheel, such as it is represented in fig. . twist the pairs of bobbins again as you did before beginning the wheel and then proceed with the plain ground. rose ground (figs. and ).--after preparing the pattern, as in fig. , put up pins at _a_, _b_, _c_, _d_, _e_, _f_, _g_, _h_ and _i_ and hang on pairs of bobbins to the first pin, and one pair to each of the other = half passing with the st and nd pair = twist each pair once = take out the pin at point _a_ and put it up again at the same point between the pairs = enclose the pin with half passing = twist the pair once = lay the st pair aside = half passing with the nd and rd pair = twist the pair again = take out the pin at _b_, put it in again at the same point between the pair = enclose the pin = twist the pairs again = lay the nd pair aside = half passing with the rd and th pair = twist the pair again = take out the needle at _c_ and put it in again at the same point between the pairs = enclose the pin = twist the pair again = half passing with the rd and nd pair = twist the pair again = put up a pin at point = enclose the pin = twist the pair again = half passing with the nd and st pair = twist the pair again = put up a pin at point = enclose the pin = work point and with the rd and nd pair = half passing with the th and th pair = twist the pairs again = take out the pin at _d_ and put it in again at the same point between the pair = work point _e_ exactly like point _d_ with the th and th pair = work point like point with the th and th pair = work points , and in a slanting direction from right to left = carry out point with the th and th pair = lay both pairs aside = work point with the rd and nd pair = work point _f_ like point _e_ with the th and th pair = work point _g_ like point _f_ with the th and th pair = then work points to with the th and th pair = point with the th and th pair = point with the th and th pair = point with the rd and nd pair = point _h_ like point _g_ with the th and th pair = point _i_ with the th and th pair = points to with the th and th pair = point with the th and th pair = point with the th and th pair = point with the th and th pair = point with the rd and nd pair. proceed in this manner until the whole ground be finished. [illustration: fig. . pattern for fig. ] [illustration: fig. . double or ornamental ground.] double or ornamental ground (figs. and ).--this ground should be worked in a comparatively fine material; we should recommend fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to . put up pins at points _a_ and _g_ in the pattern and hang on a pair of bobbins = put up pins likewise at _b_, _c_, _d_, _e_ and _f_ and hang on a pair of bobbins to each = half passing with the nd and rd pair = take out the pin at point _b_ and put it in again between the pair at the same place = enclose the pin with a half passing = half passing with the nd and st pair = put up a pin at point = enclose the pin = half passing with the th and th pair = take out the pin at point _l_ and put it in again between the pairs at the same place = enclose the needle = half passing with the th and rd pair = put up a pin at point = enclose the needle = half passing with the rd and nd pair = put up a pin at point = enclose the needle = half passing with the rd and th pair = half passing with the nd and st pair = put up a needle at point = enclose the needle = work point _d_ like point _c_ with the th and th pair = half passing with the th and th pair = put up a pin at point = enclose the pin = work over point _e_ like point _d_ with the th and th pair = half passing with the th and th pair = put up a pin at point = enclose the pin = half passing with the th and th pair = put up a pin at point = enclose the pin = half passing with the th and th pair = lay the pairs aside = half passing with the th and th pair, by which the threads are made to cross each other in the square = work over point _f_ as over point _e_ with the th and th pair = work over points to as over points to = when the square is finished half passing with the th and th pair = half passings between all the squares. [illustration: fig. . tulle ground.] tulle ground (fig. ).--prepare your pattern for the ground represented here on a magnified scale, by pricking holes at regular distances so as to form diagonal lines intersecting each other, as shown in the engraving, and set more or less closely together, according to the thickness of the thread you use. half passing = put up the pin at the next point, twist both pairs twice, but without enclosing the pin, and pass the inner left thread over the inner left one = twist the two pairs again = cross as before and so on. valenciennes ground (fig. ).--the valenciennes ground is formed of little plaits for which pairs of bobbins are used. these plaits are often used in other kinds of lace as well, as may be seen for instance in figs. , and which are not valenciennes patterns. [illustration: fig. . valenciennes ground.] [illustration: fig. . brussels ground.] according to the size of the squares the plaits are made with either , or half passings, pairs of bobbins being invariably used. the plaits are joined by a half passing, made with the last pair of the left plait and the first of the right = stick the pin into the hole = enclose the pin by a half passing and work the next plait on the left with the two left pairs and the next plait on the right with the two right pairs. brussels ground (fig. ).--for the sake of greater clearness, this ground too has been worked and reproduced here on a magnified scale. it is worked in diagonal lines, as follows: double passing with pairs of bobbins = put up a pin at the next point = enclose the pin with a double passing, twist both pairs each time once and so on. this ground, when it is worked by the hand in very fine thread, takes a long time to do and is therefore often made by machinery. [illustration: fig. . eternelle with two rows of holes.] eternelle with two rows of holes (fig. ).--the so-called «eternelle» laces have no definite pattern; they can be made of any width, in the form of insertions or edgings. for a single row of holes, you want pairs of bobbins; for two rows, ; for three, , adding two pairs of bobbins for every additional row of holes. the upper part of fig. shows how the points are distributed; here pairs of bobbins are used. put up a pin at the topmost point = hang on pairs of bobbins = double passing = take out the pin and put it in again between the two pairs = tighten the pair = hang on pair of bobbins again on the left = double passing with the st pair of the bobbins you hung on first and with the new pair = push the double passing close to the pin = twist the first pair once and then lay it aside = double passing with the nd and rd pair that enclose the pin = hang on pairs of bobbins in the middle = double passing with both pairs = lay the th pair aside = double passing with the th and rd pair = lay the th pair aside = double passing with the nd and st pair = twist the st pair once and lay it aside = double passing with the nd and rd pair that enclose the pin = put up pin at the rd lower point, hang on pairs of bobbins = double passing with these bobbins = lay the th pair aside = * double passing with the th and th pair = lay the th pair aside = double passing with the th and th pair = lay the th pair aside = double passing with the th and rd pair = lay the th pair aside = double passing with the rd and nd pair = put up a pin at the next point = double passing with the nd and st pair = twist the st pair once = double passing with the nd and rd pair, to enclose the pin = lay the first pairs aside = double stitch with the th and th pair = lay the last two pairs aside = double passing with the th and th pair = put up a pin at the next point = enclose the pin with the last pairs = repeat from *. [illustration: fig. . lace with torchon ground and edge in net ground. materials: fil à pointer d.m.c no. . cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to , white or écru.[a]] lace with torchon ground and edge in net ground (fig. ).--worked with pairs of bobbins. put up a pin at * = make net passings, fig. , to point = put up a pin at point = enclose the pin with the two last pairs on the right = net passings to point = put up a pin at point = lay one pair of bobbins aside = net passings to point = put up a pin at point = enclose the pin = net passings to point = put up a pin at point = lay one pair of bobbins aside = net passings to point = put up a pin at point = net passings, back to point = put up a pin at point = take up the bobbins on the left again = half passing with the st pair on the left = put up a pin at point = work the torchon ground, at the top of the lace, as in fig. , with the nd and rd pair = half passing with the rd and th pair = put up a pin at point = twist the st and nd pair = double passing with the st and nd pair = put up a pin at point = double passing with the nd and rd pair = lay the nd pair aside = make hole or torchon stitch, fig. , with the rd and th pair = put up a pin at point = work on to point in hole ground = put up a pin at point = cross the st and nd pair on the left = put up a pin at point = enclose the pin = lay pairs of bobbins aside on the left = take up pairs on the right = put up a pin at point = net passings with the pairs on the right = take up, in addition, the th pair on the left = hole ground with the th and th pair = put up a pin at point = net passings to point with pairs of bobbins = put up a pin at point = net passings with pairs of bobbins = take up a th pair of bobbins in addition = hole ground with the th and th pair = put up a pin at point = net passings with pairs of bobbins = put up a pin at point = net passings with pairs of bobbins = put up a pin at point and then repeat from the first point * on the left. pillow lace (figs. , , ).--we here give as an example the same pattern of lace worked in two thicknesses of thread; fig. in cordonnet fils d.m.c no. [a], fig. in fil à pointer d.m.c no. [a], which is of course much thicker. as this pattern is especially suitable for trimming household articles, made of unbleached linen, such for instance as table-covers, curtains and hangings of all kinds, we prefer it made in the thicker thread; even then it looks very well as a trimming for articles of dress. it is worked with pairs of bobbins = hang them on one after the other in a row = put up a pin at point = twisted linen passing = work all the pairs to point with linen passing = put up the pin at the last pair = go back through pairs with linen passing = twist pairs once = go back with linen passing through all the pairs to point = twist each pair separately = at point twist the pairs and put up the pin = twist the last pair twice and so on and coming back to point = put up the pin = come back again to point = return to point = put up the pins at the two points. [illustration: fig. . pattern for the pillow lace figs. and .] divide the other pairs into twos = put up a pin between every set of two pairs = linen passing. the ground is all worked alike: twist the pairs twice = linen passing = put up the pins = linen passing to points and = twist the threads in taking them through = make a plait, fig. , for the scallop point = put up a pin at the point marked for the picot = pass the thread of the outside bobbin from right to left, round the pin, to form the picot = continue the plait to the next picot = put up a pin = form the picot = continue the plait to point = connect the plait with the bobbins of points and = make linen passings with pairs = continue the plait = carry the last pair to point = twist the threads = make linen passing = put up a pin and enclose it = go on in this manner to point = make the wheel, as in figs. and , with pairs of bobbins, hanging on new pairs at point = work with twisted linen passing = twist the pairs once and cross with linen passing = take the last pair out from the middle to point , join it to the first pair of the scallop = make all the wheels before continuing the ground = then go back from point to = cross the pairs again = at point twist pairs = twisted linen passings right and left with the bobbins of points and = twisted linen passing = put up the pins and work all the spiders alike. [illustration: fig. . pillow lace. material: cordonnet fils d.m.c no. .[a]] pillow lace insertion (figs. and ).--hang on pairs of bobbins. divide the bobbins and put pairs at point = put up a pin = twist once = linen passings = from point to point = twisted linen passings = add one pair of bobbins = put up a pin = add one pair of bobbins = put up a pin = lay one pair of bobbins aside = twist = linen passings = twisted linen passings to point = linen passings = twist the last pairs = go back with linen passing through pairs = join together with the two pairs and the first pair by means of a twisted stitch = put up the pin = lozenge stitch (for lozenge stitch in which the lozenges or close leaves are made, you take or threads; in the execution it resembles the darning stitch represented in figs. and ) to point = twist at point = take pairs from point = plait to point = twist with the bobbins of point = double passing = plait on the right, twist on the left = put up the pin = tie up as described. [illustration: fig. . pillow lace. material: fil à pointer d.m.c no. .[a]] take the second pair at points and = put up the pin = twisted double passings on the right = linen passings = twist the latter = put up the pin = at point lay one pair of bobbins aside = with simple passing go back through linen passings = join the latter and the former with linen passing = put up the pin at point = lozenge stitch with the bobbins of points and to point = connect the same at point = carry on the lozenge stitch to points , and = put up a pin at each number and enclose with a linen passing = with the first pair of bobbins of point , linen passings to the left and twisted linen passings, that is to say, crossing the threads = put up the pin at point . [illustration: fig. . pattern for pillow lace insertion fig. .] [illustration: fig. . pillow lace insertion. materials: cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to .[a]] twist the threads from point to point = make a plait from point to point = then join the two parts together by half passings = put up a pin = twist the threads and make plaits to point = join the threads as at point . on the left and with the first pair of point , linen passings = with the latter twisted passing = put up the pin at point = returning, linen passings to point = linen passings to the left = with the latter pairs double passings and put up the pin. pillow lace (figs. and ).--hang on pairs of bobbins. [illustration: fig. . pattern for pillow lace fig. .] [illustration: fig. . pillow lace. material: cordonnet fils d.m.c no. .[a]] these are divided into groups = pairs at point = put up a pin = twisted linen passing = twist both pairs once = put up the pin at point = add on pairs at point = put up the pin = go back through pairs = twist the last pairs = linen passing = put up the pin at point = twist both pairs = linen passings, as seen in the illustration, to the right and left as far as point = at point intervert pairs by a twisted linen passing = make a plait at point = put up a pin in the middle of the same = pass through pairs of bobbins with twisted linen passing = put pair of bobbins aside at point = put up a pin at the first pairs at point = work the leaf in lozenge stitch = put up a pin at point near the first pair = twist both pairs once = linen passing = put up the pin at point = go back in the same manner = work on in the same way to point = put up the pin at point = twisted linen passing to point = tie up the first pair of the scallop with the bobbins of point = bring the last pair back and work as at point = then repeat and proceed in the same way to point = twist the pairs up to point = put up the pin = make one lozenge stitch and join the plait, stitch to point = continue the lozenge stitch to point = join the bobbins of point to those of point by a plait = put up the pin = linen passing = twist the two last pairs once = put up the pin = linen passing = put up the pin at point = twist both pairs once = linen passings = put up the pin at point = linen passings = tie up the bobbins of point with those of point = plait stitch = put up the pin = join to point with lozenge stitch = with the bobbins at point make lozenge stitch to point = put up a pin = twist pairs once = make linen passings = join with linen passing = continue the scallop according to the preceding description, from point to point . at point make a leaf in lozenge stitch = put up the pin = continue from point to point with twisted linen passings = carry the first pair of bobbins of the lozenge to point by means of twisted linen passings = put up a pin in the middle of the pairs = make a plait to point = cross the pairs again as at point , in the beginning. pillow lace (figs. and ).--worked with pairs of bobbins.--these are divided: pairs at point = put up a pin on the left and right = with the last pairs make plaits to point = add pairs = make a double passing as for a plait = put up a pin in the middle of the pairs = plait with pairs of bobbins to point = add pairs of bobbins = make a double passing as for the plait = put up a pin in the middle of the pairs = then go on in the same manner to point = add pairs of bobbins = put up the pin = at point , add pairs of bobbins = make a plait = put up a pin and join to point by a double passing. [illustration: fig. . pattern for pillow lace fig. .] [illustration: fig. . pillow lace. material: fil à dentelle d.m.c no. .[a]] at point , lay the two last pairs to the right = put up a pin = make a plait to point = add pairs of bobbins = double passing = put up a pin = make a plait to point with a pairs of bobbins = add pairs of bobbins = double passing = put up the pin = make a plait to point = add pairs of bobbins = linen passings = put up a pin at the last passing = at point add pairs of bobbins = make a plait = put up a pin = join to point with linen passing = make plaits from point to point = put up a pin = leave the pairs hanging = linen passings with the bobbins of point = put up the pin at point = go back to point with passings = put up the pin = make a plait and tie up the bobbins at point = leave these bobbins hanging down. with the two first pairs at point , make a plait to point = linen passing at point and join to point by a plait = plait stitch = put up a pin = then plait stitch to point and make the same connection as at points and = continue to plait to point = put up the pin at the first pair = linen passings = leave these bobbins hanging down = tie up the plait of point with the st pair of point = make a plait on the left = put up a pin at point = make linen passings on the right and put up the pin at point = make a plait to point = make the same connection as at point and = the same connection also at point = make a plait to point = put up the pin = make a plaited lozenge with one pair = leave pairs hanging at point , left and right = continue to point = leave pairs hanging, left and right = make a plait to point = begin again at point and make a leaf in lozenge stitch to point = make a second leaf from point to point = join the leaves at point = make a plait with the first pair of point to point = put up a pin = enclose it with a double passing and make a plait = tie up the bobbins at point = continue the edge to point = make a leaf in lozenge stitch from point to point = tie up the bobbins at point and make linen passings with the united bobbins to point = with the bobbins of point and point , therefore with pairs, make a square in lozenge stitch = join the leaves at point = from point to point make a plait with the two first pairs of bobbins = put up a pin at point = make a plait with picots to point = lozenge stitch from point to point and point = join to point by a plait = plait to point = work from point to in the same way as from point to point = at point and point the pairs cross each other. pillow lace (figs. and ).--hang on pairs of bobbins. begin at point with a plait, fig. = put up a pin = * hang on pairs at point and put up a pin at the last pair = with the last pair make a plait to point * = hang on a pair of bobbins = linen passing = hang on a pair of bobbins = linen passing = hang on pairs of bobbins = linen passing = linen passings = put up a pin = leaf in lozenge stitch to point = hang on pairs of bobbins = plait stitches = put up a pin = make a leaf to point = hang on pairs of bobbins = plait stitch = put up a pin = repeat in the reverse order to point . [illustration: fig. . pattern for the lace fig. .] [illustration: fig. . pillow lace. material: fil à dentelle d.m.c no. . ([a])] put up a pin at point = hang on a pair of bobbins = linen passing = hang on a pair of bobbins = linen passing = hang on a pair of bobbins = make a plait to point = put up a pin = hang on pairs of bobbins at point = make a plait and tie the threads together with those of point = on the left with pairs, on the right with pairs to point for the edge = put up pins and continue the edge with linen passings to point . return to point and make a plait = put up a pin = divide the bobbins and put one pair on the right, the other on the left = take the bobbins at point and and make plaits to points and = make linen passings with the two pairs to point = put up a pin and make a plait to point . make leaves in lozenge stitch from points and to points and = one leaf from point to point = make another leaf to point and one to point = make the same leaves on the left to points , and = cross the bobbins at point = make leaves from point to points , and . make lozenge stitch with picots, with pairs of bobbins from points and to point = join the bobbins to leaf = carry on the braid to point = join pairs of bobbins to the leaf = leave the pairs at point hanging down = carry on the braid to point . make a leaf at point to point = tie the threads together as at point = carry on the edge to point = put up a pin = make a plait with picots to point = tie up the threads with those of leaf = make a leaf to point = introduce the threads into the edge = put up a pin = tie the threads together. make a plait on the left = leave pairs of bobbins hanging down on the right, pairs for the plait and for the leaf = carry on the edge to point = leave pairs hanging for another leaf = continue the edge to point . make a plait from point to point . begin again on the left at points and and work, as on the right, to point = cross the threads at point = linen passing = distribute the pairs to point = pairs at point = at point = pairs at point = plait to point = join to point = continue the plait and join to points , , = at points , , lozenge stitch with every pairs of bobbins to point = then join the next pairs together = and work on with lozenge stitch to point = work exactly in the same manner at points , , , , , as at points , , , to = at point , all the threads are interwoven, and then divided into sets = continue the leaves to points , and . then repeat in the reverse order from points , , , and . [illustration: fig. . armenian lace. materials: fil à pointer d.m.c nos. to , cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to . colours: Écru and brun-caroubier .[a]] [illustration: fig. . working detail of fig. .] armenian lace (figs. and ).--the dresses of the turkish women are often ornamented with flowers and leaves, executed in needlework which take the place of fringe and braid trimmings and are often even employed as adornments for the neck and arms instead of necklets and bracelets in metal work; though, as such, they do not always accord with our western notions of good taste, the armenian work is in itself, both sufficiently interesting and easy of execution, to deserve description here amongst other kinds of needlework that are adaptable to use. it may be imitated with capital effect in strong stiff washing materials, such as those indicated in our illustration, either upon a linen or cotton foundation or upon plush or silk. the thread is first drawn into the edge of the stuff; you then carry it from right to left, determine the length of the squares, and working from left to right make on this first thread as many knots as you have room for. fig. shows the formation of the knot, the manner in which the thread, passing from left to right, forms a loop, and how to pass your needle under the straightly extended thread and through the loop. you leave a space of one or two m/m. between the knots, according to the thickness of the thread you are using. having covered the first thread with knots, you return to the edge for the next row of knots, but passing your needle this time under three threads. the number of knots should be the same in each row, and the four sides of the square should be all equal. when the squares are finished they are edged with picots on the two lower sides, as shown in fig. . thread of two colours was used for fig. , the squares being worked alternately in Écru and brun-caroubier and the picots, all in the latter colour. lace and insertion in knotted stitch (fig. ).--excepting in the case of the returning thread, the same stitches are used for the pretty border and insertion given in fig. , as for the armenian lace. the stitches that form the insertion are attached, on both sides, to an english braid, something of the nature of rhodes linen, which is open-worked before the knotted work upon it is begun. as in the preceding figure, two colours are used alternately, the change from one to the other is distinctly marked in the engraving. the outside edge consists of light scallops, formed by the regular increase and decrease of the stitches. the original piece of work from which our drawing was taken, forms the border of a dark blue plush carpet; the red and écru hues of the lace harmonize exceedingly well with the soft colour of the plush. [illustration: fig. . lace and insertion in knotted stitch. materials: fil à pointer d.m.c nos. to , cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to . colours: Écru and rouge-cardinal .[a]] insertion in knotted stitch (figs. and ).--this kind of work, similarly composed of knotted stitches, can be used instead of crochet insertion or single and cut openwork in linen. it looks exceedingly well as a trimming for bed and table linen and is executed on foundation threads or cords, which connect the different figures together, with closely connected rows of knots between. [illustration: fig. . insertion in knotted stitch. materials: fil à pointer d.m.c no. , cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to .[a]] [illustration: fig. . working detail of fig. .] insertion in knotted stitch (figs. and ).--the mode of making the insertion in knotted stitch, which is represented in the two accompanying engravings, is supposed to be of italian origin, but we have met with quite as perfect specimens of work done in the same way, which were the products of persia and asia minor. we have called it by the same name as the preceding patterns, for even the way in which the stitch is worked is almost the same. through some slight difference however in the interlacing of the threads, shown by the open loops in fig. , the stitches lie closer together and are alike on both sides of the work. [illustration: fig. . insertion in knotted stitch. materials: the same as for fig. .[a]] [illustration: fig. . working detail of fig. .] no difficulty will be found in making out the course of the rows; it is best to begin by the two rows of stitches that form the perpendicular bars and make the stitches, that compose the staves between the bars next. for the little picots see fig. . [illustration: fig. . lace in knotted stitch. materials: cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to .[a]] [illustration: fig. . working detail of fig. .] [illustration: fig. . reticella lace. materials--for the open-work: cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to , or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to , white or écru. for the bars: lacets superfins d.m.c nos. to .[a]] lace in knotted stitch (figs. and ).--this charming little lace, which is of italian origin, was taken from a cushion cover, used for church purposes. the stitches, made in the order indicated in the working detail, fig. , are overcast at the last with a fleecy thread, such as coton à repriser d.m.c, of a rather sober colour, such for instance as bleu-indigo , rouge-géranium , or jaune-rouille . you overcast the slanting bars and pass over the stitches that connect the two picots. [illustration: fig. . working detail of fig. .] reticella lace (figs. and ).--the reticella laces are generally made on a design traced upon parchment, similar to those required for the laces described later on. but as the manner of working has been modified in the lace represented here, we thought it as well to adopt the same simplification, often used in beautiful pieces of old needlework, which consists in substituting a braid made upon a pillow, for the bars made with the needle. [illustration: fig. . venetian lace.] [illustration: fig. . venetian lace.] you begin by laying and fastening down the braid by means of very small stitches upon the lines of the pattern, which should be traced upon black paper; you next proceed to make the centre bars, covered with plain buttonhole stitches, on which you mount a row of stitches, like those of fig. ; these are followed by another bar, to make which, you pick up the loop of the stitches of the preceding row and by another row like the second, finished off with picots, like those illustrated in fig. . the bases of the pyramids likewise consist of bars, buttonholed on both sides and edged on the inside with picots. the stitches of the first row should not be too close together, that there may be room for those of the second row between, as we have already explained in fig. , in the chapter on irish lace. the inside of the pyramids is worked in the stitch represented in fig. , the picots round them are like the ones in fig. . [illustration: fig. . venetian lace.] [illustration: fig. . venetian lace.] the lace, represented in fig. in its original size, was worked in fil à dentelle d.m.c no. , whilst the second engraving, representing the same subject, shows us how perfectly well it can also be made in heavier and coarser materials, these being in this instance, lacets superfins d.m.c no. and cordonnet fils d.m.c no. . venetian laces (figs. , , , , , , ).--under the name of «venetian point» are comprised, not only certain kinds of pillow lace, but even more generally, the beautiful needle-made lace, the outlines of which are bordered with handsome scallops in high relief. we shall confine our attention in the present instance to the needle-made venetian lace as the other can be learnt without any great difficulty by following the instructions already given for the making of pillow lace. [illustration: fig. . venetian lace.] [illustration: fig. . venetian lace.] the preparation of the pattern, in most kinds of needlework, is a most important matter and one requiring the greatest care, but in the case of needlemade lace and pillow lace the processes are different. the paper on which the design is traced must first be backed or lined with unglazed black paper (made specially for this purpose). prick holes all along the lines of the pattern, at exactly the same distance from each other, remove the tracing and tack the black paper upon rather coarse linen. this done, you take from three to five lengths of the thread of which the lace is to be made, lay them down together upon the lines marked by the prickings and secure them at each hole by a stitch made over the threads. fig. , with the others of the same series in their natural size, show the proper distance that should be left between the prickings, and the laying down of the threads begun; whilst in fig. , we have the threads laid down throughout, even for the little eyelet holes, which are to be openworked afterwards. [illustration: fig. . venetian lace. materials--for the open stitches: fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to . for the outlining and for the padding: coton surfin d.m.c nos. to .[a]] when all this preliminary work is finished, the pattern is ready for the lace stitches that are to form the filling in, between the raised outlines. in order to keep your work perfectly clean and preserve it from unnecessary contact with your fingers, cover all those parts of the pattern you are not immediately engaged on, with a piece of blue paper with a hole, about the size of a pea, cut in it. this you move along as you go, working only at the part of the pattern which is visible through the hole, keeping all the rest carefully covered up and sewing paper over each part as soon as it is finished; this should not be removed until you are ready to join all the separate parts together with bars or latticed ground and work the buttonhole edges. all the different lace stitches that are used as fillings must be begun and fastened off at the outline threads, which you must be careful not to drag out of their place. we again remark, for the benefit of those of our readers who may not have read the preceding chapter attentively, that in working all the finer lace stitches, the needle should be held with the eye towards the worker and the point turned outwards. all the inside portions of the pattern have to be worked in separately; (for a choice of stitches to serve as fillings see figs. to ) until all the spaces are filled, as represented in figs. and . the stitches should be selected as far as possible, to suit the style of the design. flowers look best worked in an open or lattice stitch, leaves on the other hand in a thick close stitch. when all the insides are done, the edges and outlines have to be closely buttonholed. the old venetian laces are bordered with scallops in high relief, worked over a thick pad of laid threads, as described on p. , fig. , relating to venetian embroidery. [illustration: fig. . venetian lace with net ground. materials--for the open stitches: fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to .--for the outlining: coton surfin d.m.c nos. to .] venetian lace with net ground (fig. ).--the outlining of the figures with several strands of coton surfin d.m.c, should, in the case of detached pieces of lace, be done at once, but where the figures are connected by bars or by a net ground as in fig. , the buttonholed outlines should be done last. thus in making the lace, fig. , you should begin by working all the insides of the flowers and foliage, then the net ground which may be replaced by bars with picots and then only proceed to the outside buttonholing and the scallops. as all this kind of lace-work is very laborious and takes a long time to do, we advise our readers to use thread that is slightly tinted; in the first place it does not turn yellow as white thread is liable to do and secondly, being softer and less twisted it takes every bend and turn more readily than the stiffer white material does. of all the different kinds of thread, so frequently alluded to in these pages, the higher numbers of fil d'alsace d.m.c and fil à dentelle d.m.c are the best for the finer kinds of lace, and they all have the soft ivory tint, we so admire in the old needlework. [illustration: fig. . spray in needle-point. materials--for the open stitches: fil à dentelle d.m.c no. .--for the outlining: coton surfin d.m.c nos. to .[a]] spray in needle-point (fig. ).--needle-point lace, also called brussels lace, requires the same preparatory work as venetian lace; but it seldom contains such a variety of stitches and openwork as the latter. the flowers are generally worked in one of the stitches, represented in figs. and ; the outlines are less thickly buttonholed and the stitches, set everywhere less closely. here also, the finished parts should be carefully covered with paper to keep them from getting soiled. the needle-point lace designs are ordinarily speaking more realistic and as regards the composition, less artistic and severe than the venetian point ones. the spray, represented in our engraving, is a specimen of an ordinary brussels lace pattern and of the stitches it is worked in. footnotes: [a] see at the end of the concluding chapter, the table of numbers and sizes and the list of colours of the d.m.c threads and cottons. [illustration: appliquÉ work on satin set with fine cord.] miscellaneous fancy work. as the plan on which this book was constructed rendered a systematic classification of the different subjects it treats of necessary, a certain amount of miscellaneous fancy work, which does not come under any of the previous headings remains to be dealt with in the present chapter. in most cases the illustrations and the accompanying directions are but an application to a practical use of the different kinds of stitches already described in previous chapters and those who are familiar with all these various branches of needlework will have no difficulty in understanding what follows. knotted cord (figs. , , , , ).--the knotted cord referred to in the letter press belonging to figs. and in the chapter on irish lace, comes under the present heading: in making it, the fingers take the place of a crochet needle. you tie two ends of thread or braid together, take one thread in the left hand fig. , and with the forefinger of the right, pull out a loop long enough for the left forefinger to pass through and hold the end of the thread tight with the little finger of the right hand. then draw the left forefinger backwards through the loop and behind the thread that is round the loop and lies in the left hand, fig. . as you lay the thread round the left forefinger, you must pass the knot and the ends of thread as well, over into the left hand, and with the right hand pull the thread that lies on the right and draw up the loop, fig. . [illustration: fig. . knotted cord. first position of the hands.] [illustration: fig. . knotted cord. second position of the hands.] [illustration: fig. . knotted cord. third position of the hands.] in fig. , representing the fourth position of the hands, you are shown how the forefinger of the right hand lifts up the thread and passes through the loop on the left hand; the end will consequently also pass immediately into the right hand and the left hand will tighten the knot. it is by thus drawing up first a loop on the right and then one on the left that this pretty cord is produced. skilful hands will soon learn to make a cord of the same kind with four threads, as follows: knot the four ends of thread together, make a few knots, using two threads as one, then dropping the loop on your forefinger, put the next one upon it and draw up the knot, passing however the threads over those that you dropped. then drop the loop you have on your finger again and take up the first loops. [illustration: fig. . knotted cord. fourth position of the hands.] for the cord made with double threads, represented in fig. on a magnified scale, use cordonnet fils d.m.c or one of the other materials mentioned at the foot of the illustration. soutache d.m.c will always be found to be very suitable for this purpose. balls for trimmings (figs. , , , , , ).--amongst the crochet patterns are two that are finished off with balls; to make these, begin by cutting a number of rounds of cardboard, two for every ball, with holes in the middle, fig. . [illustration: fig. . knotted cord. materials: fil à pointer d.m.c nos. to , coton à tricoter d.m.c nos. to , cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. to or soutache d.m.c nos. to .[a]] if you have a great many balls to make it is well worth your while providing yourself with a metal die of the proper size, to cut the rounds with. [illustration: fig. . balls for trimmings. circle of cardboard.] [illustration: fig. . balls for trimmings. overcasting the circle of cardboard.] [illustration: fig. . balls for trimmings. cutting the stitches round the edge.] [illustration: fig. . balls for trimmings. putting in the loop.] [illustration: fig. . balls for trimmings. cutting out the cardboard.] [illustration: fig. . ball completed with loop attached.] lay two of these rounds together and cover them closely with stitches, fig. , using for this purpose coton à tricoter d.m.c (knitting cotton) or coton à repriser d.m.c (darning cotton).[a] when the round is entirely covered, put the scissors in between the two circles of cardboard and cut open the stitches all round the outer edge, fig. ; then draw a piece of thread between the two circles and knot it firmly round the stitches that meet in the centre hole, fig. ; leave sufficiently long ends of thread hanging to form a loop by which the ball can afterwards be fastened to the heading of the fringe; when the stitches are knotted together you cut and pull out the cardboard, fig. , and snip the thread with your scissors until it becomes quite fluffy and the ball is perfectly round, as shown in fig. . tambour work (figs. , , , ).--since the introduction of the sewing machine, by means of which this charming kind of embroidery can be so quickly and easily executed, it has somewhat gone out of favour. as however, the fine patterns with a good deal of shading in them, can be far more accurately worked by hand than by machine, tambouring, which is in point of fact merely a form of crochet, has lately been revived. the piece of stuff on which the tambour work is to be done must be mounted on a frame. [illustration: fig. . thimble for tambouring.] [illustration: fig. . tambour needle.] the loops which are made with a small hook, called a tambour needle, form a fine chain stitch and must be regular and even; to facilitate this a sort of thimble, fig. , is worn on the forefinger of the right hand, formed of a small plate of sheet brass, rolled up but not joined, so as to fit any finger; it is open at the top like a tailor's thimble and has a little notch on the side which is placed above the nail, and in which you lay the tambour needle whilst you work. from the thimble being cut slightly slanting at the top, it follows that the inside where the two ends meet is a little shorter than the outside. the thread is drawn through in a loop to the front of the work by means of the hook, whilst it is held at the back in the left hand, and when the needle is put downwards through the stuff, laid round it. the needle in its downward and upward passage, should be kept in the notch in the thimble and the stuff pressed down with the thimble, as the needle is drawn up to the surface of the work, fig. . [illustration: fig. . position of the hands in tambouring.] a little practice is necessary to acquire the right action of the hands, there being always a tendency, the same as in tatting and macramé, to confuse the movements of the two. as soon as you realize that the upward drawing of the needle and the downward pressure of the stuff with the thimble must be simultaneous, you will find that you can work with great rapidity and with admirable results. thread with a very strong twist, which the hook will not split, is the only suitable kind for tambouring. of the d.m.c materials, fil d'alsace[a] and fil à dentelle[a] are the most to be recommended. numbers of patterns, originally intended for other kinds of embroidery can be executed in tambour work; amongst those contained in this encyclopedia, figs. , , , , and are the ones that are best adapted to the purpose. [illustration: fig. . drawing out the thread with the needle.] smyrna stitch worked with a crochet-needle (figs. , , , ).--in the chapter on tapestry, p. we remarked that oriental carpets and mats could be worked in different other ways, to be subsequently alluded to at greater length. [illustration: fig. . smyrna stitch worked with a crochet needle. first detail.] [illustration: fig. . smyrna stitch worked with a crochet needle. second detail.] [illustration: fig. . smyrna stitch worked with a crochet needle. appearance of the knots underneath.] [illustration: fig. . smyrna stitch worked with a crochet needle. appearance of the work when finished.] smyrna stitch requires only a crochet needle and is worked on very coarse canvas or java linen. you take a coarse mesh of cotton, such as nos. , or of colon à tricoter d.m.c (knitting cotton), cut it into lengths of c/m., fold two lengths together in half, stick in the crochet needle from above, under two threads of the canvas, take hold of the loop with the hook, fig. , and draw it in; then push out the hook to seize the ends of the cotton and draw them through the loop which is on the needle, as indicated by the little arrow in fig. . the stitches or tassels should be two or three double threads of the canvas apart. as you finish each row, comb the ends of the tassels out carefully with a fine metal comb. when the whole piece of work is finished shear the entire surface, quite even, with a pair of sharp scissors. fig. shows a square of the work completed, presenting that warm velvety appearance which distinguishes the smyrna carpets. [illustration: fig. . malta stitch. first detail.] [illustration: fig. . malta stitch. second detail.] [illustration: fig. . malta stitch. third detail.] [illustration: fig. . malta stitch. fourth detail.] malta stitch (figs. , , , , ).--this stitch is much used by the maltese; it is the same as the «point tricot» excepting that in the latter, the loops formed by the return of the thread are open and the stitches packed very closely together, whereas in the maltese work there is always one close loop and two open tassels. [illustration: fig. . malta embroidery. materials: coton à repriser d.m.c no. .[a] colours: jaune-vieil-or , vert-mousse , bleu-indigo and rouge-cornouille .[a]] it is worked as follows: take a thick bunch of lengths of coton à repriser d.m.c, pass it under two vertical threads of the stuff, from right to left, fig. , leaving an end, or c/m. long, lying on the surface of the work; put the needle in again under the two threads that are in front of the first stitch and leave the tassel, formed by the first stitch, above the one by which you bring the needle back between the two stitches. the needle must now follow the same course it took for the first stitch and the thread must be drawn out far enough to form a loop as long as the tassel; you then repeat the second stitch, carrying back the working thread however this time above the loop, after which you cut the two open ends the same length as the loop. in the maltese work, three times as many threads have to be left between the tassels as are covered by the stitch. thus if your stitch cover threads of the foundation, you should leave threads between the tassels, and if it cover , you should leave an interval of threads, that the stuff may always be visible between the little tassels or balls. fig. represents a portion of a curtain, embroidered on flemish linen in the colours indicated at the foot of the engraving; these may be arranged according to the taste of the worker. malta embroidery is mostly done on coarse coloured linen fabrics or on single thread canvas. triangular turkish stitch (figs. , , , , ). amongst the many pretty stitches for which turkish embroideries are distinguished, there is one in particular, which though apparently very difficult, is in reality quite the reverse; it resembles line stitch upon straight threads, only that in the east it is generally worked in diagonal lines, each row requiring two journeys to and fro. in the first, fig. , the needle must always be carried, first over, then under two threads in a diagonal line and so on to the end of the row. coming back, you pass the needle under the stuff and the stitch on the right side, and bring it out at the bottom of the stitch; then you make a back stitch over two horizontal and two vertical threads, pass the needle over two straight threads, put it in behind the same, bring it out again near the upper stitch and then insert it near the bottom vertical stitch; after this you carry it to the second stitch lower down and pass it over the same. four threads should meet in every hole which the needle makes. the third and fourth row should be worked in a colour that forms a sharp contrast with the one in which the two first rows are worked and constitute with these one complete row of stitches, fig. . figs. , and show how the same stitch can be worked in straight, instead of in diagonal rows. [illustration: fig. . triangular turkish stitch worked diagonally. first journey completed and second back, begun.] [illustration: fig. . triangular turkish stitch worked diagonally. two journeys to and fro forming the complete row.] the dark shade in fig. shows the first row of stitches, the light, the second, or rather the third and fourth, as four rows of stitches are required to make one complete row of triangular turkish stitch. [illustration: fig. . triangular turkish stitch worked horizontally. first journey.] [illustration: fig. . triangular turkish stitch worked horizontally. first journey back.] pattern worked in triangular turkish stitch and gobelin stitch (fig. ).--the diagonal lines are all worked with chiné gold and blue, and gold and red. the stitch we have just described is most effective in conjunction with other kinds of embroidery, as illustrated in fig. , where it is combined with gobelin stitch. [illustration: fig. . triangular turkish stitch worked horizontally. second journey back.] the running foundation is divided into slanting squares; the diagonal lines are all worked in gold and red. the squares number stitches inside, these are followed by a tenth which is covered by the first stitch of the next square. where two kinds of coloured gold thread are used, one square will be framed on all sides by one kind, say, gold and blue for instance, the next by the other, gold and red. [illustration: fig. . pattern worked in triangular turkish stitch. materials: chiné d'or d.m.c. colours: gold and red, gold and dark blue, gold and light blue, gold and green.] the stalk that divides the two little leaves and has a small lozenge at the top, is begun above the fifth of the stitches; you make stitches, but in such a manner as to end at the top of these with the stitch that runs in a diagonal direction over the threads, turned to the inside of the stalk, so that the last stitch of the first row may form with the first stitch of the second row, a triangle at the top of the stalk, which is surmounted by the aforesaid lozenge. the lozenges in chiné gold and light blue, of which there are three in each of the half squares, besides those that terminate the stalk, consist of stitches, the first, extending over threads, the second over , the third over , the fourth over and the fifth over ; the four next decreasing in a similar manner. the leaves in chiné gold and green, on either side of the stalk, also begin with a stitch over threads of the stuff, followed by , each increasing in length by one thread on the side of the stalk, but all equal on the other, the last extending over threads of the stuff. after these , the subsequent must decrease in the same manner by one thread on the opposite side; then you make more extending over only threads and set the contrary way to the others. the zig-zag border and the small squares of stitches within it are worked entirely in chiné gold and red. [illustration: fig. . turkish embroidery. materials: chiné d'or d.m.c no. and coton à broder d.m.c no. .[a] colours--for the chiné: gold and red, gold and dark blue and gold and green. for the coton à broder: noir grand-teint .[a]] turkish embroidery (fig. ).--the powdering of flowers and also the border are worked like the preceding pattern in two-sided gobelin stitch. embroidery of this kind looks best on algerian linen, which is exactly like the turkish stuff. it is not absolutely necessary to count the threads for the little flowers and stalks, but it is as well to do so for the border, that you may be sure to get the zig-zags perfectly regular. the petals of the flowers are worked alternately in chiné gold and red, and gold and blue, the centre in or fin d.m.c pour la broderie and the leaves and stalks in chiné gold and green. the petals are set with stem stitch in fine black coton à broder and if the embroidery is to be the same on both sides this setting must be repeated at the back. the distribution of colours in the border is left to the taste of the worker, but we should recommend for the zig-zags chiné gold and red, as being the most effective. appliquÉ work (fig. ).--appliqué work means the laying on of pieces of one kind of stuff on to a foundation of a different kind, so as to form a pattern--these pieces of stuff of various shapes and sizes, taking the place of solid needlemade embroidery. appliqué work may be done on linen, silk, velvet, plush and leather. the stuff out of which the pattern is cut has, in most cases, to be backed first with very fine tissue paper. this is done in the following manner with starch paste, which dries quicker than any other. spread the paste on the paper with a brush, carefully removing all the little lumps; it should only be just liquid enough to make the stuff and the paper adhere perfectly together and above all must never penetrate to the right side of the stuff. when the paper has been evenly spread with the paste, lay your stuff upon it and smooth and press it down with a clean cloth, stroking it out carefully in the line of the thread to prevent its becoming in the least dragged or puckered, or any air remaining between it and the paper. you next lay several sheets of paper without a mark or a fold in them, on a perfectly smooth flat board, and upon these, your paper-lined stuff, covered in its turn with several loose sheets of paper, all being kept in their place by another board with several stones or heavy weights laid upon it to act as a press. leave the stuff in the press until it be quite dry. you will find that any kind of fabric, even the slightest, can be rendered available in this manner for appliqué work, not even plush or velvet being in the least injured by the process. you then transfer the whole pattern on to the foundation, whatever it happen to be, but only the detached figures on to the paper-lined stuff, carefully cutting out the latter with a very sharp pair of scissors so as to avoid unravelling the threads along the edges. the foundation, stretched in a frame, as described on page , fig. , is to be placed on a board or table in such a manner that only the stuff rests upon it, whilst the frame projects on all four sides. then cover the cut-out figures with paste on the wrong side and fit them into their proper places upon the foundation. in larger pieces of work especially, this should be done as quickly as possible so that a board with weights upon it, to serve as a press, may be laid over them all at once. the board must not be removed until the paste be dry; then you can begin the needlework, fastening down the appliqué figures and finishing them off round the edges by laying down a fine round, cord, or by flat stitches. [illustration: fig. . appliquÉ work.] you either sew on the cord with invisible stitches, opening it a little at each stitch so as to slip the needle and thread in between the twist, or else with ordinary overcasting stitches. [illustration: fig. . morocco embroidery. materials--according to the stuff: fil à pointer d.m.c, cordonnet fils d.m.c, coton à broder d.m.c or coton à repriser d.m.c[a]. colour: rouge-cardinal [a].] in either case it must be so laid on as completely to hide the cut edges and keep them from fraying. should you wish to frame the appliqué figures with flat embroidery, you must bring your needle out close to the cut edge and enter it, or m/m. within the edge from above. both, cord and flat stitch setting, should be of a subdued shade and if possible, of a colour to match the foundation. morocco embroidery (figs. , , , ).--this work named after the country where it was originated, belongs both to the class of darned and damask embroidery. [illustration: fig. . morocco embroidery. quarter of the subjects of fig. .] in fig. , the stitches are formed by passing over threads and taking up the sixth. coming back you take up the third of the threads first missed and proceed in the same manner over the whole surface of the work, unless the lines of the pattern require you to depart from this rule; as, for instance, in certain parts of fig. , where you will notice stitches, carried over or threads; also in the borders, fig. and , where the stitches are arranged in a rather arbitrary manner, in order to bring out the pattern more clearly. fig. represents the fourth part of one of the subjects that make up the design fig. ; that is, four such, joined together, form one of the squares of fig. . [illustration: fig. . morocco embroidery. small outer border of fig. .] figs. and are patterns of two little borders and an insertion, suitable as a finish to fig. , which can be enlarged to any size by the addition of other squares to those that are represented here. [illustration: fig. . morocco embroidery. border and insertion suitable for fig. .] most of the stuffs, already so frequently alluded to in this work, can be used as a foundation for this kind of embroidery, provided the right working materials to go with it are chosen; coton à tricoter or fil à pointer should only be used for the coarser stuffs, such as rhodes linen no. , or russian linen and the different kinds of tammy cloth, whereas the other kinds of d.m.c threads and cottons and especially the finer numbers, are best adapted for embroidery on fine stuffs, such as rhodes linen no. , and spanish or algerian linen. spanish embroidery (figs. and ).--spanish embroidery consists almost exclusively of buttonhole stitch, fig. , and flat stitch, fig. . [illustration: fig. . square of spanish embroidery. materials: or fin d.m.c pour la broderie no. , coton à broder d.m.c nos. and , or fil à dentelle d.m.c no. .[a] colours: bleu-indigo , , and bleu pâle .[a]] the buttonhole stitches, for which the more subdued shade of the colours indicated should always be taken, or else yellow, dark or pale, to match the gold thread, are made over two threads of gold and follow the outlines of the pattern, which should be more or less appropriate to this style of embroidery. one of the gold threads always keeps the inside of the line and follows it throughout in an unbroken course, whilst with the second, the outside one, you form picots, folding the gold thread over from right to left and catching down the loop by a buttonhole stitch, which is introduced into the loop itself and carried over the combined gold threads, as shown in the left corner of fig. , representing one quarter of the whole design, where the position of the needle and the way in which the picot is secured are plainly indicated. for the scallops, a round material with rather a strong twist should be used, such as soie de coton d.m.c no. [a] or fil à dentelle d.m.c nos. to [a], wound on reels. [illustration: fig. . quarter of the pattern for fig. , in the natural size.] where the picots have to fill up empty spaces of a larger size, you can join several together by connecting them each in turn with the first. when you have bordered all the outlines with buttonhole stitches and picots, fill up the spaces enclosed within the lines, which properly speaking form the pattern, with flat stitch embroidery, worked in coton à broder or coton à repriser; after which the whole surface is sewn over with fine little spangles which give the sparkling look that constitutes the peculiar charm of this kind of embroidery. the flowers are covered with a fancy stitch that forms regular little lozenges, and every second row of stitches is hidden under a spangle. with regard to the colours indicated at the foot of fig. , this is how they were distributed in the original, from which our engraving was taken; all the outlines in buttonhole stitch, in bleu pâle ; the tops of the flowers in bleu-indigo ; the bottom parts in bleu-indigo , and all three shades of blue so blended together in the solid parts of the design as to be undistinguishable from each other. it is not absolutely necessary to keep to the colours here indicated; there is no reason whatever why a greater variety should not be introduced, but in every case the more subdued shades should be selected; a pale red, for instance, for the flowers, a green and a brown for the arabesques, will always be found to produce a very pretty and harmonious effect. when all the needlework is finished, you cut away the stuff underneath the network formed by the picots, with a pair of sharp scissors. a word remains to be said with regard to the copying of fig. . our readers will notice that in fig. the flowers and arabesques succeed and grow out of each other; that whilst the four quarters are symmetrical, yet at the same time, the curves in each quarter take a different inclination. you cannot therefore simply repeat the subject four times; when you have copied the one quarter, given in fig. , you must lay this first quarter on again at the cross + on the left side; when the second quarter is finished, you again turn the copy to the left and tack it on at the +; when you come to the fourth quarter the lines of the first quarter must exactly meet those of the last. we beg here to draw attention to the directions, relative to the copying of patterns, given in the subsequent chapter. basket stitch on linen (fig. ).--this stitch has some resemblance with the greek stitch, fig. , and the montenegrin, fig. , only that it is not crossed like the latter. [illustration: fig. . basket stitch on linen.] basket stitch can be worked on all kinds of stuffs, on counted threads or on a wide or narrow tracing, with fine or coarse thread, and more or less closely, according to the taste of the worker. you insert the needle from right, and pass it under, from to threads of the foundation, according to the stuff and the material you are using, then downwards from left to right, and over, from to threads, into the stuff again from right to left; then you push it under the stuff in an upward direction and bring it out on the left in the middle of the space left between the last stitch and the top of the second. the dotted line in the engraving indicates the course of the stitches. [illustration: fig. . old german knotted stitch.] old german knotted stitch (fig. ).--this is a stitch often met with in old church and house linen embroidery. a beautiful design worked in this way is given further on. contrary to most stitches, this is worked upwards; the needle is put in horizontally under the stuff, the thread tightly drawn, then laid from left to right and drawn through underneath the first stitch and a tight knot made. we find the same stitch, worked in a variety of ways, according to the taste and skill of the worker; for instance the knots may be set slanting, as in fig. , or else straight and very close together, as in fig. , where they present the appearance of a close string of beads, or again wide apart, as they are in fig. . all these ways are admissible but care should be taken in each case, to make the stitches perfectly regular; it is the direction which is given to the stitch and the number of threads taken up with the needle that changes the appearance of the stitch. [illustration: fig. . raised stem stitch.] [illustration: fig. . another kind of raised stem stitch.] raised stem stitch (figs. , ).--take a very thick thread, such as fil à pointer d.m.c no. or , or one of the coarser numbers of cordonnet fils d.m.c, lay it as a foundation thread along the line of your pattern and work over it wide stem stitches, as represented in figs. and , either in the same number of thread used for the foundation thread, or a finer, according to the stuff you are embroidering upon. you may overcast the same stitch in the manner indicated in fig. , using a different colour for the second layer of stitches to produce an agreeable variety. border in different kinds of stitches (fig. ).--the straight lines of this border are all worked in old german knotted stitch in écru thread, forming a thick round cord which stands out from the surface in high relief; the flatter outlining of the outside figures is done in basket stitch in soft blue knitting cotton. the little oblong figures within the two inner lines of the border are worked in gobelin stitch, in red embroidery cotton, and the filling of the figures, outlined in basket stitch, in one or other of the irish lace stitches, worked in white lace thread, either so that all the stitches enter the stuff, or form a network over it. the work may be simplified by sewing soutache d.m.c or lacet superfin d.m.c along the straight lines instead of embroidering them in basket stitch. [illustration: fig. . border in different kinds of stitches. materials--for the old german knotted stitch: cordonnet fils d.m.c no. , écru--for the basket stitch: coton à tricoter d.m.c no. , bleu-indigo --for the gobelin stitches: coton à broder d.m.c no. , rouge-turc --for the lace stitches: fil à dentelle d.m.c no. , white.] roumanian stitch (figs. , ).--this consists of stitches that are worked in the width of the stuff, intersected by back-stitches set slightly slanting. though the engraving is so clear as to render it hardly necessary, we subjoin an exact description of the way the stitches run. bring out the needle on the left, or threads beyond the line your embroidery is to follow; with regard to the number of threads you take up, you must be guided by the quality of the stuff and the material you have selected: put the needle in on the right, the same distance in advance of the line as before and bring it out in the middle of the stitch; then passing the needle over the first stitch, put it in again one or two threads in advance of the point where it came out, and draw it out close to where the first stitch began. the border, represented in fig. , is worked in great part in roumanian stitch. [illustration: fig. . roumanian stitch.] the original, still very well preserved, notwithstanding its age, is worked in silk of a brilliant red on a stiff stuff which has been coloured by time and use. willems satin, rhodes linen no. and algerian linen, make very suitable foundations for this kind of embroidery and have that soft tint which is almost indispensable to a satisfactory imitation of old needlework. any one of the shades of red named at the foot of the illustration, will be found to be a good match for the original colours. roumanian stitch is used wherever the lines of the pattern are widest; there where they narrow, in the indentures of the leaves and the twists of the stalks, flat stitch is used instead. by the repetition of the detached subject, this pattern may be made to serve either for a stripe or for a grounding; if you use it for a stripe, the centre flower of the principal subject with the stalks lengthened, will look very well worked as a separate subject between the large bouquets. worked in a double row, base to base, on any stuff and in any material, these large figures form a very handsome border which makes an effective trimming for furniture and curtains. pattern for piquÉ embroidery (fig. ).--the stuff, called piqué, such as it is now manufactured, is simply an imitation of an old kind of needlework, almost unknown in these days, but very popular in the fifteenth and sixteenth century in italy, for making coverlets and more especially curtains and blinds; the latter being highly esteemed, because without intercepting the light altogether, they tempered it agreeably. a similar kind of work was common in bohemia until a recent date for the making of caps. it is done on two layers of stuff, of different kinds, the upper one fine and transparent, the lower, more substantial. the pattern is drawn upon the fine stuff, because on that side the different kinds of stitches are made. [illustration: fig. . border in roumanian stitch. materials: coton à broder d.m.c no. , coton à repriser d.m.c no. , or cordonnet fils d.m.c no. .[a] colours: rouge-cardinal , rouge-grenat , brun-caroubier , rouge maroquin et , or rouge-cerise et .[a]] you then tack the two stuffs together and work all the outlines of the pattern in old german knotted stitch with écru fil à pointer d.m.c no. ; that done, thread a tapestry needle with white cordonnet fils d.m.c no. or , slip it in between the two layers of stuff and secure the end by two or three stitches; then push the twist quite close to the knotted stitch and fasten it in between the two layers of stuff, with small and very regular running stitches, in a fine pliable material, such as fil d'alsace d.m.c on reels. [illustration: fig. . pattern for piquÉ embroidery. materials: cordonnet fils d.m.c nos. and , fil d'alsace d.m.c no. , fil à pointer d.m.c no. and fil à dentelle d.m.c no. .[a]] fill up in this manner all the ground of the pattern, leaving the arabesques and the ornaments plain, or embellishing them with some kind of lace or embroidery stitch. when these stripes are intended for blinds, you can produce pretty transparent effects in them by cutting away the underneath stuff, in places. alphabet in soutache (braid) (figs. , , , , , ).--this alphabet, which is one of the best of its kind, was taken from a work published in venice in , by giovan' antonio tagliente, secretary and calligraphist to the republic. the letters lend themselves, better than any we know, to being executed in soutache d.m.c. [illustration: fig. . letter t of the soutache alphabet. mode of interlacing the soutache.] the sewing on of the braid is done with very small running stitches and the interlacing with a tapestry needle, into which the braid is threaded; both operations are shown in figs. and . the embroidery of the connecting bars, and the small leaves and tendrils that complete the letter are explained in fig. , whilst fig. represents the letter a in its finished state. for sewing on the braid, a fine soft material is the best, such as soie de coton d.m.c[a] and for embroidering the small accessories, coton à broder d.m.c no. [a]. [illustration: fig. . alphabet in soutache. letters a to n.] [illustration: fig. . alphabet in soutache. letters o to z.] for the ears of corn in fig. , use either soutache écru, or jaune-d'ocre no. ; for the marguerites, white soutache no. ½ and for the corn flowers, soutache bleu-indigo no. . nothing could be simpler than the mode of working these flowers. [illustration: fig. . letter m of the alphabet in soutache. mode of sewing on the soutache.] [illustration: fig. . letter w of the alphabet in soutache. mode of placing the bars and embroidering the leaves.] [illustration: fig. . letter a of the alphabet in soutache in its finished state.] flowers executed in soutache and embroidery (fig. ). flowers and sprays, such as here represented, make a charming trimming for summer dresses, sunshades, aprons etc. and can be executed with admirable effect in the d.m.c soutache, now to be had in all the colours of the d.m.c colour card. a very pretty running pattern can be formed out of the spray, fig. , by turning the flowers first to the right and then to the left and making the stalks come out underneath the ears of corn. in order to reverse the position of the flowers thus, you will have to make two tracings of the spray, one negative and one positive. thread a tapestry needle with the soutache and draw it into the stuff, and then pass it through from the right side to the wrong at the bottom of one of the petals of the flowers, secure it on the wrong side by two or three stitches and then bring the working thread, which should be of the same colour as the soutache, out again at the point of the petal, then carry the soutache back to the bottom of the petal and fasten it down, like the gold threads in fig. , by a stitch rather wider than the soutache, fold the soutache over again to the starting point, and secure it by a stitch, and so on. in order to give a different character to the flowers, use soutache of different widths, fold it over more or less closely and lay it down in shorter or longer lengths, as required. the natural irregularity of the petals of a flower can be very faithfully imitated in this manner. fig. shows the way in which, for the ears of corn, the braid is folded back upon itself and fastened down, whilst in the white flowers the two layers of the braid that form each petal are separated at the bottom. the stamens of the marguerites are worked in knot stitch with yellow cotton and those of the cornflowers with dark blue. the other little details are executed in flat and stem stitch in the colours indicated at the foot of the engraving. with the pattern to go by, the distribution of the colours for the different parts can present no possible difficulty. [illustration: fig. . flowers executed in soutache and embroidery. materials: soutache d.m.c nos. to and coton à broder d.m.c no. .[a] colours--for the soutache: white, écru or jaune d'ocre , and bleu-indigo .--for the coton à broder: Écru, jaune-orange , bleu-indigo , gris-tilleul and , vert-pistache , and , rouge-cardinal .[a]] we need only point out that rouge-cardinal is intended for the little knot that connects the stalks of the flowers. chinese subject (fig. ).--this quaint and graceful composition, copied from an interesting piece of chinese embroidery, gives our readers the opportunity of turning the different damask stitches, already described in these pages, to quite a new use. the kind of gauze which forms the foundation of the original work can be replaced either by spanish or rhodes linen no. , by any stuff, in fact, the threads of which can be counted. the drawing has to be transferred to the stuff, and the different parts are filled in with the stitches, clearly indicated in the illustration. [illustration: fig. . chinese subject. materials: coton à repriser d.m.c no. , or fin d.m.c pour la broderie no. and chiné d'or d.m.c[a].] by the introduction of several colours, this pattern is capable of being infinitely varied. thus, in the model before us, the neck and bulb of the flask, the leaves it stands upon and those attached to the flowers in it, are worked in vert-pistache , the handles, the ornament on the bottle, and the triangular figure in the centre are in white; the little flower on the left, the second on the right, the straight staff, the upper wings of the butterfly, as well as the three leaves underneath the triangle are in bleu-indigo ; the first flower on the right of the flask, the knot above the triangle, the lower wings of the butterfly and the middle part of the bottom subject on the right of the engraving are in gris-amadou ; and violet-lie-de-vin and brun-caroubier alternate in the pointed leaves that support the flask; the former colour recurs in the ornaments of the staff, and rouge-cardinal , black and gris-tilleul alternate in the other details of the drawing. for the setting it will be best to take or fin d.m.c pour la broderie or else chiné d'or d.m.c, used either double or single, according to whichever the drawing seems to require. footnotes: [a] see at the end of the concluding chapter, the table of numbers and sizes and the list of colours of the d.m.c threads and cottons. [illustration: ornament after holbein.] practical directions. hitherto we have been chiefly occupied with descriptions and explanations of the different kinds of needlework; to render these complete, it remains for us to give a few practical directions with regard to the copying, adjustment and transposition of the patterns, as well as to the different processes, often so essential to the ultimate success of a piece of needlework. for this success will soon be found not to depend on the stitches only but very largely on the proper adaptation of the design to the space it is intended to fill. then, in the case of new lace, it is necessary to know the amount of dressing it will require to give it the right stiffness and when this dressing has worn off how to renew it; whilst in the case of appliqué work more especially, it is indispensable to know exactly what the ingredients are, of which the paste should be composed and how to make and lay it on in the proper manner. tracing patterns against a window pane.--in order to copy a pattern in this way, the first step is to tack or pin the piece of stuff or paper on which the copy is to be made upon the pattern. in the case of a small pattern, the tacking or pinning may be dispensed with and the two sheets held firmly pressed against the window pane with the left hand, whilst the right hand does the tracing, but even then it is safer to pin or gum the four corners of the two sheets together, in case of interruption, as it is difficult to fit them together again exactly. the tracing may be done with a pencil, or better still, with a brush dipped in indian ink or water-colour paint. the process of tracing is easy enough, so long as the hand does not get tired but as this generally comes to pass very soon it is best, if the pattern be a large and complicated one, to stick the sheets to the pane with strong gum or suspend them on a string, fastened across the pane by pins stuck into the window frame on either side. to take off a pattern by rubbing.--if you want to take a pattern of a piece of embroidery direct from the work itself, lay it, the right side up, flat upon a board or table and cover it with letter or tissue paper. the paper should be of a good medium thickness, if it be too thick it will not take a clear impression of the pattern, and if very thin it is apt to tear. fasten the paper down upon the embroidery with drawing-pins and rub off the pattern with drawing-wax. in default of the right kind of wax, the bowl or handle of a spoon, or a large silver coin will serve the purpose equally well, as will also some powdered graphite or charcoal. the outlines will not of course, in any case, be very clearly defined upon the paper and will have to be gone over and carefully supplemented afterwards with a pencil. taking off the pattern with charcoal or graphite is less injurious to the embroidery than rubbing it off with wax or metal, as the pressure required in the latter case flattens the needle-work very considerably. as soon as you have fixed the lines of the pattern by drawing them over with ink, it is ready for use. to transfer a pattern direct on to the stuff.--patterns cannot be copied by either of the above methods direct on to the stuff and can only be used when the stuff on which the embroidery is to be executed is transparent; in the case of thick close fabrics the drawing must be made on the stuff itself. the following is the simplest way of transferring a pattern on to a transparent stuff; begin by going over all the lines of the drawing with indian ink so as to make them quite thick and distinct, and tacking the paper with large stitches on to the back of the stuff. then, mix some very dark powdered indigo diluted with water, in a glass with a small pinch of sugar and powdered gum arabic, and using this as ink and a fine pen very slightly split, trace the pattern that shines through on the stuff. the tracing must be very slight, for if the embroidery be not done till some time afterwards the lines get so firmly fixed in the stuff that one washing will not obliterate them; the tracing ink moreover makes the work unpleasantly sticky. to copy with oiled paper.--another rather expeditious mode of transferring patterns on to thin and more especially smooth glossy stuffs, is by means of a special kind of tinted paper, called autographic paper, which is impregnated with a coloured oily substance and is to be had at any stationer's shop. this you place between the pattern and the stuff, having previously fastened the stuff, perfectly straight by the line of the thread, to a board, with drawing-pins. when you have fitted the two papers likewise exactly together, you go over all the lines of the pattern with a blunt pencil, or with, what is better still, the point of a bone crochet needle or the edge of a folder. you must be careful not to press so heavily upon the pattern paper as to tear it; by the pressure exercised on the two sheets of paper, the oily substance of the blue paper discharges itself on to the stuff, so that when it is removed all the lines you have traced are imprinted upon the stuff. this blue tracing paper is however only available for the reproduction of patterns on washing stuffs, as satin and all other silky textures are discoloured by it. to pounce patterns upon stuffs.--the modes of copying, hitherto described, cannot be indiscriminately used for all kinds of stuff; for cloth, velvet and plush, for instance, they are not available and pouncing is the only way that answers. the patterns, after having been transferred to straw or parchment paper, have to be pricked through. to do this you lay the paper upon cloth or felt and prick out all the lines of the drawing, making the holes, which should be clear and round, all exactly the same distance apart. the closer and more complicated the pattern is, the finer and closer the holes should be. every line of the outline must be carefully pricked out. if the paper be sufficiently thin, several pouncings can be pricked at the same time, and a symmetrical design can be folded together into four and all pricked at once. the pricked pattern has next to be tacked upon the material, the side from which the pricking was done next to the stuff and the little funnel-shaped holes uppermost. paper and stuff must be firmly fastened down and kept in position by drawing pins, so that neither of them may move during the process, otherwise you will have double lines on the stuff which you will find very confusing afterwards. for the pouncing, use either powdered chalk or charcoal, according to whether the stuff be dark or light in colour. dip the pouncing implement, a thing like a small drum-stick, stuffed and covered with cloth, into the powder and rub it lightly over the whole surface of the pricked pattern, so that the powder penetrates through the pin-holes to the stuff. in default of a proper pouncing implement take a small stripe of cloth, roll it up round a stick and wind a string round, and dip this into the powder. when the powder has penetrated to the stuff, remove the paper and if the pattern is to be repeated, lay it on again further on, taking care to make the lines meet exactly so that the join may not be seen. when you have finished the pouncing and taken off the paper, you proceed to draw or rather paint in the pattern with water-colour paints: ackermann's are the best for the purpose; no others, as far as our experience has proved, adhere so well to even the roughest fabrics or so little affect the brilliancy of the embroidery thread. four paints, blue, black, yellow and white are sufficient for all purposes, whatever the colour of the stuff may be. on a smooth surface the tracing may be done with a pen but a small sable-hair brush is preferable under all circumstances. the rougher and more hairy the surface, the finer the brush ought to be, in order that the colour may sink well in between the fibres. before beginning to paint in the pattern, gently blow away all the superfluous powder from the surface. this process may be objected to as being an old one which has been superseded by new inventions; a resinous powder for instance, by the use of which patterns can be fixed, as soon as they have been pounced, by passing a hot iron over the stuff, a sheet of paper having first been laid upon it to protect it; or else a mixture of gum and powder which can be dissolved on the stuff itself by the steam of spirits-of-wine, and various other processes needless to mention here, as some are only useful in tracing patterns on a large scale, whilst others require a variety of appliances, not as a rule, within the reach of those to whom needle-work is a simple recreation. the preparation of the stuffs and the subdivision of the patterns.--long years of experience and practice have brought us in contact with a good many designers, many of them artists in their way, so long as it was only a question of putting their own compositions on paper but who yet found themselves confronted by real difficulties the moment they were called upon to transfer them to stuff. we shall, as far as possible, point out to our readers the precautions to be taken in tracing patterns and must for that purpose go back to one of the first operations, namely that of pricking. to begin with, the paper on which the pattern is should always be large enough for there to be a clear margin of from to c/m. all round the pattern, so that the pouncing instrument may never come in contact with the stuff beneath. in transferring patterns to stuff, no lines of division should ever be made directly upon it either with lead, chalk or charcoal, as it is hardly ever possible entirely to obliterate them and they often become very confusing afterwards. before beginning the tracing, divide your stuff into four, then decide what the width of the border outside the pattern is to be; it is quite an exceptional thing to carry a pattern right up to the edge. stuffs that will take a bend, such as all linen and cotton textures, can be folded in four, like the paper, the folds ought then to be pinched and pressed down so that the lines may remain clear and distinct until the tracing be finished. after dividing it into four, mark out the diagonal lines; these are absolutely necessary in order to get the corner figures rightly placed. though most of our readers know how to make these lines on paper with a pencil and ruler, few, easy as it is, know how to make them upon stuff. you have only to fold over the corner of your piece of stuff so that the outside thread of the warp or cut edge run parallel with the woof edge which marks the angle of the fold-over. this double folding over divides the ground into parts. to arrange for the outside border or margin, is easy enough if the stuff and the kind of work you are going to do upon it admit of the drawing out of threads, as then a thread drawn out each way serves as a guide for tracing the pattern, straight to the line of the stuff. it is often better however, not to draw out the threads for an open-work border till the pattern be traced. if you do not wish or are not able to draw out threads to mark the pattern and you are working on a stuff of which the threads can be counted, follow the directions given on page , and explained in fig. . you cannot mark cloth, silk stuffs or plush by folding them in the above way, cloth and some kinds of silken textures will not take a bend and others that will would be spoiled by it. all such stuffs should be mounted in a frame, before the pattern be traced and the ground be then divided out in the following way: take a strong thread, make a knot at one end, stick a pin into it and tighten the knot round it; with a pair of compasses, divide one of the sides into two equal parts, stick the pin with the knot round it in at the middle and the same on the opposite side, putting in a second pin by means of which you stretch the thread; carry other threads across in a similar way, in the width of the stuff and from corner to corner and you will have your ground correctly marked out, in such a manner as to leave no marks when, after pouncing in the pattern, you remove the threads. before finishing the pouncing of a pattern, see that it is the right size for the purpose it is intended for. supposing that you are tracing a border with a corner, you should measure the length it will occupy and then by a very light pouncing, you can mark the points from which the pattern will have to be repeated. it may be that a gap will be left in the middle, which, if not too large, can be got rid of without altering the pattern by pushing the whole thing a little further in and so shortening the distance between the two corners. should the gap however be too large for this, you will have to make a supplementary design to fill up the place. the same thing would be necessary in the case of your having to shorten a pattern. to transpose and repeat patterns by means of looking-glasses (fig. ).--we have referred to the necessity that often occurs of adapting patterns to certain given proportions; this can in most cases be done easily enough without the help of a draughtsman, especially in the case of cross stitch embroideries, by means of two unframed looking-glasses (penelope mirrors, as they are called) used in the following manner. if you want to utilize a piece only of a straight border, or after repeating it several times, to form a corner with it, you place the mirror in the first instance across it at right angles, at the place from which the pattern is to be repeated, and then exactly diagonally inwards. to make a square out of a straight pattern, you take two mirrors and so place them that they touch at the point where the diagonal lines meet, as represented in fig. , and you have your square at once. this is all easy enough, but before beginning any large piece of work it is necessary to consider carefully which parts of the drawing will best fill the centre and which are best suited to form the corners, as it is not every part of a straight pattern that is adapted for repetition. a few preliminary trials with the help of the mirrors will better show the importance of these explanations than anything further we can say on the subject. [illustration: fig. . to transpose and repeat a straight pattern by means of looking glasses.] to alter the proportions of a pattern by dividing the ground into squares (figs. and ).--cases will occur where it will be found necessary to subject the pattern to greater modifications still than those we have hitherto been dealing with. you want, for example, to embroider a rather large running ground pattern on a piece of stuff, that is relatively too small for the subject; or a small and rather minute pattern on a large surface on which it is likely to look, either too insignificant, or too crowded and confused and the chances are, if you do not know how to draw, you will either think it necessary to get a draughtsman to help you or you will give up the piece of work altogether, deterred by the difficulties that confront you. you need not do either if you will follow the directions here given. take a sheet of large-sized quadrille paper which if necessary you can prepare for yourself; trace your pattern upon it, or rule the squares direct upon the drawing, as shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. . dividing the ground into squares before copying.] on a second sheet of vegetable paper, rule squares, a fourth, a third or half as small again as those on the first sheet. thus, if the sides of the first squares be m/m. long and you want to reduce your pattern by one fifth, the sides of your new squares should measure only m/m. if, on the contrary, you want to enlarge the pattern by one fifth, make the sides of your squares m/m. long. then you follow, square by square, the lines of the drawing, extending or contracting them, according to whether the pattern is to be enlarged or diminished. to copy a pattern directly from a piece of embroidery and enlarge or diminish it at the same time, proceed as follows: fix the embroidery on a board, stretching it equally in every direction; then measure the length of the drawing, divide the centimetres by the number of units corresponding to whatever the proportions of your copy are to be, and if there be any fractions of centimetres over, subdivide them into millimetres, if necessary, into half millimetres and make your division by whatever measure you have adopted; take a pair of compasses with dry points, open them sufficiently for the opening to correspond to the number and the distance obtained by the division; plant a pin with a thread fastened to it, at the point indicated by the point of the compasses and repeat the last operation all along one side of the embroidery and, if possible a little beyond it, so that it may not be defaced by the marks of the pins. all you now have to do is to pull the threads in perfectly straight lines to the opposite side and carry other threads across them in a similar manner so that the whole surface be divided into squares. [illustration: fig. . pattern reduced by marking out the ground in small squares.] it is needless to say that if you have to trace a pattern from a mounted piece of work you cannot stretch it on a board; with a little invention however some way can always be found of planting the pins so as not to injure the work. [illustration: fig. . pattern in soutache. original size.] [illustration: fig. . pattern in fig. drawn out in the width.] [illustration: fig. . pattern in fig. compressed in the width.] to alter the width of a pattern retaining the original height (figs. , , ).--sometimes it is necessary to lengthen out a pattern without however altering its height. in this case you modify the shape of the square and make long or narrow squares, according to the general shape of the design you wish to reproduce. fig. represents a pattern in soutache d.m.c, marked out in squares; in fig. the squares are lengthened out a third beyond their original size and the pattern is expanded; in fig. , the squares are compressed to a third less than their original size. this method of subdividing patterns greatly facilitates the alterations they have so often to undergo and we are sure that there are few amongst those who have any real aptitude for needlework, who cannot draw enough to be able to copy the contents of a square. to prepare the paste for appliquÉ work.--it may seem strange to devote a separate paragraph to such an apparently simple operation; but in appliqué work it is a most important one, as not only the stuff on which the work is done but all the expensive accessories are liable to be spoilt by paste that has been badly prepared. put some wheaten (not rice) starch into a vessel with a rounded bottom, pour on just enough water to dissolve the starch and stir it with a wooden spoon till it becomes perfectly smooth. in the meantime put about / of a pint of clean water on the fire to boil and when it boils add to it a little powdered pitch or carpenter's glue, in quantity about the size of a pea and pour in the starch, stirring it the whole time. when the mixture has boiled up several times take it off the fire and go on stirring it till it gets cold, otherwise lumps will form in it, which as we specially pointed out in the preceding chapter, must never be allowed to get in between the stuff and the paper. this kind of paste makes no spots and does not injure even the most delicate colours as it contains no acid. in winter it will keep for several days, but in hot weather it very soon begins to ferment and should then on no account be used. gum arabic ought never to be used for appliqué work, as it becomes so hard that it is impossible to get the needle through, whilst the saccharine it contains almost always causes ugly spots to appear in the stuff when it dries. when the work is finished it is a good plan to spread a very thin layer of paste over the entire back of it with a fine brush made of hog's bristles, and not to take it out of the frame until it is perfectly dry. to stiffen new needlework.--in the chapter on irish lace, page , we said that new needlework of that kind had to be ironed; this should be done in the following manner: when the lace has been taken off its foundation, lay it, face downwards, on a piece of fine white flannel; then dip a piece of very stiff new organdie muslin into water, take it out again almost immediately and wring it slightly, so that no drops may fall from it, and then dab the wrong side of the lace all over with this pad of damp muslin and iron it with a hot iron which should be moved slowly forwards so that the moisture which the organdie has imparted to the lace may evaporate slowly. not until you are quite sure that the lace is dry should it be taken off the board. there is no better way than this of giving new lace that almost imperceptible degree of stiffness by which alone it is often to be distinguished from old. water only does not stiffen the thread sufficiently and it is difficult with starch to hit upon exactly the right consistency, whereas the organdie muslin supplies just the needful quantity. embroidered network can be stiffened in the same manner and should be damped in the frame on the wrong side and not taken off until it is quite dry. we even recommend embroidery on linen being treated in the same way but when the linen is very creased, cover it with a damp cloth and iron upon that first, then take the cloth away and iron the embroidery itself so as to dry it completely. to wash ordinary lace.--wind it round a bottle the same width top and bottom and cover it entirely with muslin, fastened to the lace by a few stitches. fill the bottle half full of sand, so that it may not get knocked about too violently when the water boils. immerse the bottle in a saucepan of cold water with a piece of soap the size of a nut in it, and if the lace be very dirty, a small pinch of salt, and let it boil for about an hour pouring off the water as it gets dirty and adding clean. when all the dirt has been boiled out of the lace, which you will know to be the case when the water remains perfectly clear, rinse out the soap before you take the lace off the bottle, by plunging it into cold water. to wash real lace.--the process is the same as the above, but as real lace is so seldom washed and is generally very yellow and fragile, particularly if it has been roughly used, it is rather difficult to clean. if stained or greasy, it should be left to soak for some hours or even days, in good olive oil. this restores to the thread that softness and smoothness which use and bad washing had impaired. after the oil bath it should be washed on a bottle in the manner already described. to stiffen lace.--dip the lace when perfectly dry in thin starch prepared as follows. take as much fine wheaten starch, as you think you will require, divide it into two portions and dissolve both in cold water. boil the one portion and when it has so far cooled as to have ceased to steam, stir the cold starch into it and dilute the whole with cold water to the consistency of thick cream. if the lace is to be slightly coloured, add a few drops of black coffee, or dilute the starch with weak tea or guimauve water; the coffee will give it a dark cream colour, either of the latter a pale greenish hue. dip the lace in the mixture and squeeze it out gently without wringing it to get rid of all the superfluous liquid, then lay it flat on the left hand and beat it for a few minutes with the right to work the starch well in; repeat the whole process twice, then roll the lace in fine linen and leave it there till you are ready to iron or pin it out, as the case may be. to iron lace.--after the lace has lain for an hour or two in the cloth, iron it if it be machine-made and if it be irish guipure or real point lace of any sort, pin it out. before you begin to iron, hold the lace tight in your left hand by the footing and with the right hand pull out all the picots, along the edge of the lace, to an equal length, then lay it out flat upon a board covered with white flannel and iron it with a moderately hot iron, passing the iron backwards and forwards over it until it be quite dry. if creases should come in the ironing where they ought not to be, dab them over lightly with a sponge moistened with water and a few drops of starch and pass the iron over them again. after ironing the whole length of lace, pull it out crossways from left to right, and from right to left and iron it all over once more. this does away with the artificial stiffness and gives it the agreeable softness and pliancy of new lace. to pin out lace.--in order to pin out lace in a thoroughly satisfactory manner, you should provide yourself with a wooden drum, about c/m. high and from to c/m. in diameter, large enough to rest upon the knees. the outside circumference of the wood should be padded and covered with grey or white ticking. the pins must be exactly the size of the picots they are to pin down; you will require extremely fine ones for valenciennes and coarser for other kinds of lace: steel pins are of no use whatever, because of their liability to rust. cover the cylinder with blue paper (less trying for the eyes than any other) and take only just as much lace out of the damp cloth as you are likely to be able to pin out before it gets dry, keeping the remainder covered up. lay the lace upon the drum and pin the footing down first in a straight line, sticking the pins in pretty closely and at regular distances apart; then pin down each picot separately, taking care not to open them if they have kept their original shape and to shut them up by twisting them if they have got untwisted. if you find the pinning out troublesome and cannot get it all done before the lace dries, damp the picots with a sponge as you proceed. lace should never be pinned out when it is dry as the threads of the picots are then very apt to break and torn picots destroy the value of even the choicest lace. raised lace has to be stamped out from the wrong side with a lace awl or kind of pricker of bone made for the purpose. some professional lace-cleaners use this implement even for valenciennes lace but we cannot recommend it, seeing that it is a lace that is by nature perfectly flat. let the length of lace you have pinned out remain on the drum till it be quite dry; if you have several yards to pin out, wind it round and round the cylinder. cover up the lace as you proceed and put each length away as soon as it is ready in a blue paper bag, so as to keep the whole perfectly clean. in conclusion we may remark that the cleaning of lace should only be undertaken when you are fairly sure of not being interrupted, as more especially the pinning requires to be finished off as quickly as possible. to wash coloured cottons and work done with the same.--in order to test the fastness of the dyes, untie the skeins and pour boiling water upon them, leave them to soak for about a quarter of an hour, soap and rub them lightly with the hand from end to end and rinse them out thoroughly in as many changes of cold water as may be found necessary, until the water remain perfectly colourless. squeeze out all the water you can and let them dry quickly without exposing them to the sun. coloured cottons are often washed in vinegar, because it is supposed to affect the colour less than water does. we have come to the conclusion after several trials that this is a delusion, for the good dyes keep their colour without the aid of vinegar and the bad ones wash out in spite of it. the fast colours lose none of their beauty in the process nor does it affect the quality of the cotton; any excess of colouring matter which the fibres of the cotton may have absorbed in the process of dyeing is got rid of by this means. if a piece of work has been done with unwashed cottons and the colours run in the first washing, you have only to rinse it out in several changes of tepid water to restore it to its original freshness and if you want to give it a yellowish tinge, it should be dipped it in weak tea or coffee. materials.--it was stated in the preface that our readers would find the choice of colours and material rendered comparatively easy to them by the notes affixed to the illustrations, but these notes, in spite of all the care bestowed upon them must still have remained very incomplete had it not been for the following tables which we were fortunately enabled to append to our work and which will help every one to choose their own materials without having them actually before them. the strokes that are affixed to each number indicate the exact size of the thread, so that to find out the number you want to buy you have but to lay your pattern thread, stretching it slightly, on the strokes, in succession, till you come to the one that matches it in size. with regard to the colours, the names and shades of which have been classed in the second table with the greatest care, and of which our workers have no less than to choose from ([ ]), all those referred to in connection with our illustrations are quite fast dyes ([ ]), save in a few instances in which we were forced to make an exception in favour of a doubtful colour to secure a harmonious effect. a complete table of colours must of necessity include certain more or less staring shades, which though they may not be to every one's taste cannot on that account be left out. we conclude our work with the well-meant and by no means useless recommendation to our readers, never to begin a piece of work of any considerable size without first making sure that the colours they intend to use are fast and providing themselves with a larger supply of materials than even on a close calculation they think they are likely to require, lest they should find themselves under the disagreeable necessity of having either to leave their work unfinished or finish it with materials that do not match. there is generally a slight difference in tone between cottons that have been bought at different times, and there is also a reasonable likelihood, considering their great variety, of some mistake being made in the number by either buyer or seller in ordering a fresh supply. [illustration: all of the above articles, excepting those marked with an asterisk, are contained in the d.m.c colour card.] [illustration: made in all numbers in écru, white, black and the shades names of the colours, see next page.] |-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | alphabetical list of the names and the numbers of the shades | | d.m.c alsace thread, sewing and embroidery cottons, | | contained in the d.m.c colour-card, in any of which shades the | | knitting cotton, soutaches and braids etc. are to be had. | |--------------------+------------+-------+--------+-------+------------+ | couleurs | très-foncé | foncé | moyen | clair | très-clair | | colours | very dark | dark | medium | light | very light | |--------------------+------------+-------+--------+-------+------------+ | bleu d'azur | | | | | | | bleu-canard | | | | | | | bleu cendré | | | | | | | bleu de ciel | | | | | | | bleu-fayence | | | | | | | bleu de france | | | | | | | bleu-gentiane | | | | | | | bleu-gris | | | | | | | bleu-indigo | | | | | | | bleu-lapis | | | | | | | bleu-marin | | | | | | | bleu-outremer | | | | | | | bleu pâle | | | | | | | bleu-prunelle | | | | | | | bleu tendre | | | | | | | bleu vert | | | | | | | bleu violacé | | | | | | | ----- | | | | | | | bronze doré | | | | | | | ----- | | | | | | | brun-acajou | | | | | | | brun-cachou | | | | | | | brun-cannelle | | | | | | | brun-caroubier | | | | | | | brun-chamois | | | | | | | brun-cuir | | | | | | | brun-feuille-morte | | | | | | | brun-havane | | | | | | | brun-loutre | | | | | | | brun-marron | | | | | | | brun-myrthe | | | | | | | brun-puce | | | | | | | brun-rouille | | | | | | | ----- | | | | | | | gris-acier | | | | | | | gris-amadou | | | | | | | gris d'argent | | | | | | | gris-bleu | | | | | | | gris-bois | | | | | | | gris-brun | | | | | | | gris-castor | | | | | | | gris-cendre | | | | | | | gris-coutil | | | | | | | gris-deuil | | | | | | | gris-Écru | | | | | | | gris-etoupe | | | | | | | gris de fer | | | | | | | gris-feutre | | | | | | | gris-ficelle | | | | | | | gris-foin | | | | | | | gris-fumée | | | | | | | gris-lin | | | | | | | gris-mastic | | | | | | | gris neutre | | | | | | | gris-noisette | | | | | | | gris-perle | | | | | | | gris de plomb | | | | | | | gris-poussière | | | | | | | gris-souris | | | | | | | gris-tilleul | | | | | | | gris verdâtre | | | | | | |--------------------+------------+-------+--------+-------+------------+ | couleurs | très-foncé | foncé | moyen | clair | très-clair | | colours | very dark | dark | medium | light | very light | |--------------------+------------+-------+--------+-------+------------+ | jaune-citron | | | | | | | jaune-crême | | | | | | | jaune-maïs | | | | | | | jaune d'ocre | | | | | | | jaune-orange | | | | | | | jaune-rouille | | | | | | | jaune d'or | | | | | | | jaune-vieil-or | | | | | | | ----- | | | | | | | lilas gris | | | | | | | ----- | | | | | | | noir grand-teint | | | | | | | noir-jais | | | | | | | noir vert | | | | | | | ----- | | | | | | | rose-eglantine | | | | | | | rose tendre | | | | | | | rose vif | | | | | | | ----- | | | | | | | rouge-aurore | | | | | | | rouge-bordeaux | | | | | | | rouge-cardinal | | | | | | | rouge-cerise | | | | | | | rouge-corinthe | | | | | | | rouge-cornouille | | | | | | | rouge-ecarlate | | | | | | | rouge-framboise | | | | | | | rouge-géranium | | | | | | | rouge-grenat | | | | | | | rouge-groseille | | | | | | | rouge-maroquin | | | | | | | rouge-turc | | | | | | | rouge-vermillon | | | | | | | ----- | | | | | | | vert-bouteille | | | | | | | vert-bronze | | | | | | | vert-canard | | | | | | | vert-corbeau | | | | | | | vert doré | | | | | | | vert d'eau | | | | | | | vert-de-gris | | | | | | | vert-emeraude | | | | | | | vert-fauve | | | | | | | vert-lierre | | | | | | | vert-madeira | | | | | | | vert-malachite | | | | | | | vert métallique | | | | | | | vert-mousse | | | | | | | vert-myrthe | | | | | | | vert-olive | | | | | | | vert-perroquet | | | | | | | vert-pistache | | | | | | | vert-pré | | | | | | | vert russe | | | | | | | ----- | | | | | | | violet-améthyste | | | | | | | violet-evêque | | | | | | | violet-lie-de-vin | | | | | | | violet-mauve | | | | | | | violet-de-parme | | | | | | | violet-pensée | | | | | | | violet-prune | | | | | | | violet-scabieuse | | | | | | |--------------------+------------+-------+--------+-------+------------+ | couleurs | très-foncé | foncé | moyen | clair | très-clair | | colours | very dark | dark | medium | light | very light | |--------------------+------------+-------+--------+-------+------------+ to avoid mistakes the public is urgently requested to designate the colours by the number, never by name. the colours whose numbers begin with or are the fastest. * * * * * further information respecting mode of execution, materials and so forth may be had by applying to the firm of th. de dillmont, dornach (alsace). footnotes: [ ] the d.m.c colour-card consists of shades about half of which are fast dyes. see the list of names on pp. and . [ ] by fast (bon-teint) colours are meant those which will bear ordinary and repeated washing. there are only very few which are really fast, or grand-teint, that is to say, which will resist the action of chemical agents, amongst of these, the black, noir , is quite indestructible. table of contents. preface. page plain sewing stitches seams gathering sewing on cord and flaps button-holes sewing on buttons binding slits sewing on piping fixing whale-bones--herring-boning mending linen darning satin or twill darning damask darning fine-drawing patching single and cut open-work hem-stitching open-work patterns cutting out threads at the corners cut open-work patterns for cut open-work net and damask stitches net embroidery net patterns net darning damask stitches white embroidery stitches different kinds of scallops eyelet holes six ways of making dots venetian embroidery patterns and alphabets flat stitch and gold embroidery encroaching satin stitch oriental stitch plaited stitch and mosaic stitch persian stitch straight and encroaching flat stitch patterns chinese embroidery raised embroidery turkish embroidery implements and materials for gold embroidery stitches used in gold embroidery patterns for gold embroidery tapestry and linen embroidery marking out the embroidery ground tapestry stitches tapestry patterns stitches for linen embroidery patterns for linen embroidery knitting position of the hands casting on stitches stocking knitting scalloped edge heels toes mending knitting piqué patterns patent knitting turkish stitch knitting patterns crochet work position of the hands stitches method for copying tapestry patterns in crochet crochet with soutache or lacet crochet square, hexagon and star tunisian crochet hairpin crochet patterns for hairpin crochet crochet lace patterns crochet counterpanes crochet stars crochet collar crochet chair-back tatting position of the hands knots patterns of scallops and medallions macramÉ materials and implements formation of the knots macramé shuttles macramé patterns netting implements and materials stitches patterns produced in netting mounting the netting on the frame stars and wheels grounds and lace embroidery on netting netted insertion irish lace materials tacking down the braids bars of different kinds insertion stitches lace stitches needle-made picots irish lace patterns laces of different kinds pillow lace and the implements for its manufacture «stitches» or passings patterns or grounds armenian lace laces in knotted stitch reticella-lace venetian-lace brussels-lace miscellaneous fancy work knotted cord balls for trimmings tambour work smyrna stitch malta stitch triangular turkish stitch turkish embroidery appliqué-work morocco embroidery spanish embroidery different kinds of linen stitches pattern for linen stitches pattern for roumanian stitch pattern for piqué embroidery embroideries with soutache chinese subject practical directions tracing and drawing the designs the preparation of the stuffs and the subdivision of the patterns to transpose and repeat patterns by means of looking glasses to alter the proportions of a pattern by dividing the ground into squares to prepare the paste for appliqué work to stiffen new needlework to wash ordinary lace to wash real lace to stiffen lace to iron lace to pin out lace to wash coloured cottons and work done with the same materials by the same author album de broderies au point de croix. (album of cross-stitch embroidery) by th. de dillmont plates with designs, and a complete treatise on the embroidery itself. quarto; artistic boards, price _s._ _d._ [illustration: fig. .] _to be had by applying to the author and editor th. de dillmont, dornach, alsace, and at all the leading booksellers and embroidery shops._ [illustration] printed by brustlein & co., mulhouse (alsace) note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the original illustrations. see -h.htm or -h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/ / / / / / -h/ -h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/ / / / / / -h.zip) transcriber's note obvious printer's errors have been corrected. a list of corrections is found at the end of the text. make your own hats by gene allen martin director of domestic arts department of the minneapolis y.w.c.a.; designer, demonstrator and instructor in millinery illustrated by e. e. martin [illustration] boston and new york houghton mifflin company the riverside press cambridge copyright, , by gene allen martin all rights reserved the riverside press cambridge · massachusetts printed in the u.s.a. foreword hat-making is an art which may be acquired by any one possessing patience and ordinary ability. to make a hat for the trade is not as difficult as to make one for an individual; neither is it so high a phase of art. many rules are given for crown-height, brim-width, and color, as being suited to different types of faces, but they are so often misleading that it seems best to consider only a few, since the becomingness of a hat almost invariably depends upon minor characteristics of the individual for which there are no rules. a girl or woman with auburn hair may wear grays--gray-green, cream color, salmon pink; a touch of henna with gold or orange; mulberry if the eyes are dark. the woman with dark hair and blue or dark eyes may wear any color if the skin is clear. one having dark hair and eyes and a sallow skin may find golden brown, a pale yellow or cream color becoming--possibly a mulberry if just the right depth. a hat with slightly drooping brim faced with some shade of rose will add color to the cheeks. no reds should be worn unless the skin is clear. no shade of purple or heliotrope should be worn by any one having blue eyes--it seems to make the blue paler. any one having auburn hair, blue eyes, and a clear skin may wear browns, grays, greens, tan, blue, and black. black should not be worn next the face unless the skin is brilliant. it is, however, very becoming to blondes, and to women whose hair has become quite white. a black hat is almost a necessity in every woman's wardrobe, and it may always be made becoming by using a facing of some color which is especially becoming to the wearer--black and white is always a smart combination, but very difficult to handle. in regard to lines--it is known that a hat with a drooping brim takes from the height of the wearer and should never be worn by any one having round shoulders or a short neck. a hat turned up at the back would be much better. a narrow brim and high crown add height to the wearer. a woman with a short, turned-up nose should avoid a hat turned up too sharply from the face. short people should avoid very wide brims. for the possessor of a very full, round face the high crown and narrow brim, or a brim which turns up sharply against the crown on one side, or all around, should prove becoming. a tall, slender woman would do well to wear a drooping brim, wide enough to be in keeping with her height. there is one style of hat which seems to be, with various modifications, universally becoming, and that is the bicorne, a form of the napoleon style of hat. after all, experience is the best teacher. whenever a hat is found to be especially becoming, one would do well to find out just why it is so and make a note of the color, size, and general outline. these notes are of value if kept for future reference, whether hats are to be made for the shop or for home millinery. a hat is seldom becoming all the way around, but the aim should be to make it so. over-ornamentation should be guarded against, also too close harmony in color until much experience has been gained. a rule by which to judge of the becomingness of a hat and to which there is no exception is this--the hat must enhance your looks. if you do not look more pleasing with it on than with it off, it is not as good a model for you as it might be. in planning or choosing a hat we unconsciously decide upon those colors and outlines which are an outward expression of ourselves. a hat, as well as any article of clothing, may express many things--dejection, happiness, decision, indecision, gayety, dignity, graciousness, a trained or an untrained mind, forethought, refinement, generosity, cruelty, or recklessness. how often we hear some one say, "that hat looks just like mrs. blank!" clothing of any kind is an index to the personality of the wearer. a friend once said in my presence to a saleswoman who was trying to sell her a hat, "but i do not _feel_ like that hat!" the saleswoman replied, "that's just it--you refuse to buy it because you do not _feel_ like it, while i tell you that it is most becoming." all of which showed that this saleswoman had not the most remote idea of what was meant, and had a total lack of understanding. clothes _should_ be a matter of "feeling," and this same feeling is something vital and should be catered to if our garments are to help set our spirits free. why should we wear anything which is misleading in regard to ourselves? let us look in the mirror each day and ask ourselves whether we look to be what we wish others to think we are. it is important in planning a hat to see it in broad daylight as well as under artificial light. it should also be tried on in a good light while _standing_ before a mirror, as a hat which may seem becoming while sitting may not be so while standing, with the whole figure taken into consideration. to make one's own hats, using up old materials, stimulates originality and gives opportunity for expression. it is amazing to see how many new ideas are born when we start out to do something which we have thought quite impossible. it all helps to give added zest to life. making one's own hats appeals to the constructive instinct of every woman aside from the matter of thrift, which should always be taken into consideration. some one will say, "i would not wear any hat i might make." how often have we worn unbecoming hats, poor in workmanship, besides paying some one handsomely for the privilege. let us try to form some standard by which to judge of the worth of a hat instead of the maker's name. before making a hat, the entire wardrobe should be carefully looked over to see with what the hat must be worn, and the kind of service we are going to expect from it. every article of a costume should be related and harmonious as to color, outline, and suitability. the result should be a perfect whole without a single discord. how often we see a green skirt, mustard-colored coat, and a bright blue hat--each article pleasing by itself, but atrocious when worn collectively. bright, gay little hats are pleasing when seen seldom, but we soon tire of one if it must be worn daily. time and our best thought are well spent in planning our apparel. the proper clothing gives us confidence and self-respect, and the respect of others. to be well dressed is to be free from the thought of clothes. we judge and are judged by the clothes we wear--they are an outward expression of ourselves, and speak for us, while we must remain silent. "simplicity is the keynote of beauty"--no one article of clothing should stand out too conspicuously, unless it _is_ the hat. nature uses bright colors sparingly. if you look at a plant, you find it dark near the ground, growing lighter near the top with its green leaves, and then the blossom; the glory is at the _top_. everything in nature teaches us to _look up_. so the hat should be the crowning glory of a costume, the center of interest, and should receive the most careful attention as to becomingness, suitability, and workmanship. contents i. equipment and materials ii. covering frame with velvet iii. frames of neteen and crinoline iv. wire frames v. round crown of wire vi. hat coverings vii. trimmings viii. hand-made flowers ix. remodeling and renovating illustrations showing shaped brim of neteen with ribbon-wire braces basted in place showing method of fitting fabric to shaped brim showing under facing of brim pinned over wire ready to sew in place various processes fancy crown-tip of braid rolling wire brim round crown of wire one method of starting the braid on crown and sewing in place showing method of covering crown with two-inch wide bias satin ribbon trimmings hand-made flowers make your own hat chapter i equipment and materials equipment thimble thread needles tape-measure pins tailor's chalk or pencil milliner's pliers or wire cutters scissors, large and small paper for patterns _thimble_--good quality _thread_--geneva lustre, black and white, number . colored thread as needed. _needles_--assorted paper of milliner's needles, to . _tape-measure_--of good quality sateen. _tailor's chalk_--white and dark blue. _milliner's pliers_--pliers which fit the hand, not too heavy, with blunt points, and sharp enough to cut a thread. materials used to make hat frames _fabrics_-- buckram crinoline cape net neteen or fly net willow plate _wires_-- cable frame or brace wire lace tie ribbon sprung _paper for patterns_-- heavy manila buckram-- comes in black and white, about twenty-seven inches wide--a heavy stiff material, smooth on one side and rather rough on the other. it is more commonly used for hat foundations than any other fabric. there is also a summer buckram, lighter in weight and smooth on both sides. crinoline-- comes in black and white, twenty-seven inches wide--a stiff, thin, open-meshed material, used to make soft hat frames, to cover wire frames, and in bias strips to cover edge wire after it is sewed on the fabric frame. neteen or fly net-- a stiff open-meshed material--comes in black, white, and ecru, one yard wide--a very popular material on account of its great pliability and lightness. it is used for blocking frames and copying, the lines being much softer than when made with buckram. very durable. cape net-- a light-weight, open-meshed material used for blocking and for soft frames. not as pliable as neteen. willow plate-- a coarse straw-like material, light in weight, brittle, and very expensive, used in blocking; frames are also made from it without blocking. must be dampened before using. not recommended for amateurs. wire comes in black, white, silver, and gilt, and is covered with cotton, mercerized cotton, and silk. it may be procured in single and double bolts. cable-- largest wire used in millinery. in making wire frames, it is used as edge wire and sometimes for the entire frame. being larger than frame wire, it makes a pleasing effect when used as part of the wire frame design, if it is to be covered with sheer material. frame or brace wire-- used in making frames and is sewed on the edge of all buckram and fabric hat frames. lace-- smaller than frame wire, used for wiring lace ribbon and flowers, and sometimes for making an entire frame when a very dainty design is desired. [illustration: showing shaped brim of neteen with ribbon-wire braces basted in place] tie-- smallest wire used in millinery; comes wound on spools. is used to tie other wires, and in making hand-made flowers. comes in black, white, and green. ribbon-- a cotton ribbon about three eighths of an inch wide, with a fine wire woven through the center, also a wire on each edge. used to wire ribbons. sprung-- an uncovered steel wire used to make halo brims; is sometimes sewed on edge of buckram or other fabric brims, if the hat is unusually wide, or if a brim is to be especially stiff. it is occasionally used as an edge wire on wire frames. hat frames of fabric much care, thought, and patience must be exercised in making the frame of any hat. it is the foundation upon which we build, and if poorly made no amount of work can cover it up later. a hat must be right every step of the way. the frame is the first step, and so the most important. the simplest hat to make is the straight brim sailor with a square crown, covered with velvet. such a model we will take up at first. sailor hat frame-- for convenience we will use the following dimensions: width of brim, three inches; height of crown, three and one-half inches; length of crown tip, eight and one-half inches; width of crown tip, six and one-half inches, and headsize, twenty-four inches. pattern for brim-- cut from a piece of manila paper fourteen and one-half by fourteen and one-half inches the largest possible circle; the paper may be folded into halves, then quarters, then into eighths and creased. a round brim will not be of equal width all around from headsize wire, because the headsize wire must be oval to fit the head. the front and back will both be about an inch narrower than the sides. headsize wire-- to measure--this is especially important, for upon the accuracy of this measurement depends the comfort of the wearer; this is the foundation wire. pass a tape measure around the head over the hair where the hat is to rest and add two inches to this measure. one is for lapping the ends and the other inch is to allow for lining and covering of hat which goes up into the headsize.[ - ] as our headsize measure is twenty-four inches long, cut a piece of frame wire twenty-six inches long; this allows for the two inches just mentioned. lap the ends one inch and fasten each end with tie wire.[ - ] wire always laps one inch--no more, no less. to shape--with the hands inside, pull the circle until it is elongated to fit the head. this headsize wire must not press unduly upon any part of the head. to locate headsize on pattern--lay pattern flat, pin headsize wire on pattern with joining at back crease in paper, having the back and front of brim of equal width, and the two sides of brim of equal width. mark all around headsize wire with a pencil. remove wire and cut paper one-half inch inside this mark. to cut buckram brim--lay pattern on smooth side of buckram, pin, and cut the edges very smoothly. cut headsize same as pattern. mark location of center back and center front. remove pattern and with a hot iron press the buckram perfectly flat, being careful not to break or make a sharp bend in the buckram, for if once broken it cannot be satisfactorily repaired. to sew headsize wire to brim--first note the relation of headsize wire to brim. if buckram is carefully cut, the wire may be pinned on one-half inch from edge. the brim has been cut round and will have the appearance of a round hat when worn and yet, on account of the oval headsize wire, the brim when finished will measure about three and one-half inches on each side and about two and one-half inches back and front. pin wire on smooth side of buckram with lap at center back, also pin front and each side, being careful not to lose the shape of the headsize wire. bring needle up from under side of brim close to wire, beginning at lap. take stitch over wire to under side coming back through first stitch to right side. take next stitch over wire one-fourth inch from first, coming back to right side. repeat all the way around until lap is reached. fasten thread by taking several stitches close together over ends of wire in order to join neatly and prevent their working loose. slash buckram inside headsize wire every half inch and turn pieces up. this makes small flaps to which crown may be fastened later. the brim may now be tried on and changes made if necessary. edge wire-- this is cut from frame wire and must be long enough to reach around edge of brim and lap one inch. edge wire is always sewed on same side of brim as the headsize wire, which is usually the smooth side. shape this wire to conform to shape of brim. never depend on the hat or the stitches to hold a wire in place. begin at center-back of hat holding wire toward you, and sewing from right to left. hold wire as near the edge as possible, without letting it slip over the edge. sew on with overcasting stitch, taking two stitches in same hole. take the stitches just the depth of the wire. if too shallow, the wire will slip off over the edge, or, if too deep, the wire will slip back away from the edge leaving it unprotected and liable to become broken and uneven-looking. a frame must be well made in every detail to produce satisfactory results when finished. to cover edge wire--all edge wire must be covered with crinoline or a cheap muslin. cut a strip of such goods on a true bias, three-eighths of an inch wide. remove the selvage and stretch the strip. bind the edge wire with it, holding it very tight. sew close to wire using a stab stitch. right side--wrong side-- this stitch is made by taking a long stitch on right side and then a short back stitch on wrong side. lap ends of crinoline one-fourth inch at finish, but do not turn ends under. square crown-- a square crown is one having a flat top, or one only slightly rounded, with the sides slightly sloping in towards the top. a crown of this type three or three and one-half inches in height would be at least one and one-half inches smaller at the top than at the bottom. any crown made separately from the brim must be large enough to cover the headsize wire on the brim at the base. to eliminate any slashes or seams in the side crown, a paper pattern should be made. following paragraphs explain how this is done. pattern for slanting side crown-- cut a piece of manila paper one-fourth inch wider than crown height and one-half inch longer than headsize wire measure. slash across this paper in four equally distant places, within one-fourth inch of edge of bottom, then lap slashes at top a little more than one-fourth inch, or about enough to take out about one and one-half inches. pin slashes. lap ends of paper one-fourth inch and pin together. place this pattern on brim with joining at back and pin to upturned slashes on brim. try on to see if any alterations are necessary. it can be decided at this point and changes made should the crown be too sloping or too straight. an amateur should try on a frame often in order to be assured of lines and curves that are becoming. remove pattern from brim and cut off from top and bottom any irregularities on the edge. to cut side crown from buckram-- remove the pins from the seam, allowing pins in slashes to remain. lay pattern flat on smooth side of buckram, lengthwise of the material to take advantage of the natural roll. cut close to pattern; lap the ends one-fourth inch. sew, using a fine back stitch close to each edge; this makes two rows of stitching. sew a piece of frame wire to top and bottom of side crown, keeping all joining at back. use same method as in sewing edge wire on brim. cover both wires with crinoline. crown tips-- the top of the crown may be kept soft-looking or it may be made of buckram, producing a stiff effect. both methods will be given. soft crown tip--first shape side crown to fit headsize wire on brim, which will be an ellipse. cut piece of crinoline, the exact shape of the crown, plus one inch all around. pin this over top, puffing it a very little, and sew with stab stitch close under wire. cut surplus material off to one-fourth inch. stiff crown tip, made of buckram--lay top of side crown on smooth side of buckram and mark the shape with a pencil. cut buckram one-half inch outside of this mark. next, in order to fold down this stiff crown tip, it will be necessary to cut, from this half-inch of buckram outside the pencil line, small wedge-like pieces, about one inch apart. cut them close to the line drawn. pin this piece on top of crown, press flaps down and sew on with stab stitch. crowns-- if a round crown is to be used it is advisable to buy a ten-cent separate crown or a frame with a round crown. if an entire frame is purchased, remove the crown and wire its bottom edge. after some skill has been acquired by the student of millinery, a round crown of fabric may be blocked by hand over a wire crown. to cover round crown-- pin material on top of crown with bias at front. pull with the straight of the material and pin just below edge of curve. sew one-half inch below this with stab stitch, trim material off close under this stitching. remove pins. fit a bias piece of material, using same method and measurements as for side crown of velvet sailor in chapter ii. sew the crown to brim before adjusting the side crown covering. pull this bias piece over crown and pin smoothly in place. finish top and bottom of this band by turning the edges over a wire. use same stitch as in finishing edge of facing on brim.[ - ] this makes a neat finish for a hat which will demand little trimming. if the amateur finds it too difficult to finish the bottom of a side crown in this way, the edge may be covered with a fold of material or a narrow ribbon; the top may also be finished by a narrow ribbon, but finishing neatly with a wire should be mastered if possible, as this style of finish is used in many places. footnotes: [footnote - : to cut wire see chapter iv.] [footnote - : to tie wire see chapter iv.] [footnote - : see chapter ii.] chapter ii covering frame with velvet material required one and one-half yards milliner's velvet or any velvet eighteen to twenty-four inches wide. if velvet used is thirty-six inches wide, one yard will be sufficient. to cover brim-- place corner of velvet at front of brim on top side (smooth side). edgewire and headsize wire should always be on top of brim. turn velvet over edge of brim and pin. stick pins through at right angles to brim to avoid marring the velvet. pin closely all around edge of brim, pulling material with the thread to remove any fullness. do not pull tight enough to bend the brim. trim velvet off one-fourth inch to turn under brim. baste close to headsize wire on top with stab stitch. cut velvet out inside of headsize wire, leaving a half inch to slash and turn up with the buckram. to sew velvet edge to brim-- this should be done with a close overcasting stitch on the under side, being careful not to prick through to the right side of the velvet. it is sometimes advisable in preparing the frame to stitch the buckram in from the edge about one-fourth inch with the sewing machine, using a long stitch. this stitching may then be used to put the needle through when sewing the velvet down. if the velvet seems thick and heavy-looking on under side after sewing, it may be pressed down with a hot iron. if done quickly and lightly, it will not show on the right side. [illustration: showing method of fitting fabric to shaped brim] to face under side of brim-- pin velvet on under side, using same method in pinning as that on top of brim. this must be pinned very carefully. cut off velvet all around edge, leaving a little _less_ than one-fourth inch to turn under. facings are usually finished at the edge with a wire. cut a piece of frame wire the exact circumference of the brim, plus one inch for lap. bend to shape of brim and pin under edge of velvet, beginning at the center back. roll velvet over wire and bring out to edge. pin in place all the way around before beginning to sew. place pins in at right angles to brim. a piece of velvet held in the left hand will prevent finger marks from showing on the velvet. begin to sew at left of wire joining, while holding underside of brim towards you. bring needle through from back close under wire. with the head of the needle press velvet along under wire to make a crease or sort of bed for the thread of the next stitch. take nearly a half-inch stitch by placing needle close under the wire and coming through between the wire and the upper facing. come back under the wire with a very small back stitch, being careful to adjust the wire as you sew, and to catch a little of the upper covering with each back stitch. when wire joining is reached, treat the lapped ends as one wire. fasten ends securely by taking several small back stitches. lace wire, being smaller than frame wire, is sometimes used to finish the edge of facing. it does not look as heavy, but is somewhat more difficult for a beginner to handle. [illustration: showing under facing of brim pinned over wire ready to sew in place] to cover crown top-- to cover the top, cut a piece of velvet with the bias at the front, same shape as top of crown plus one inch all around. gather one-fourth inch from edge, place over top, equalize the gathers, pin in place, and sew with stab stitch over line of gathering. make the edge lie as flat as possible and do not draw velvet too tight across the top. to cover side crown-- cut a piece of velvet on a true bias two and one-half inches wider than height of crown. pin this strip wrong side out around side crown to find length and to locate seam. draw it snugly and pin seam on straight of material with warp thread. (warp thread is parallel with selvage.) remove velvet and stitch seam. open it and press by drawing it over the edge of a hot iron. to sew crown on brim-- the simplest way to proceed is to sew the crown on the brim before adjusting the side crown covering. pin back, front, and each side of crown to brim, placing seams at back. sew through upturned flaps of brim and crown one-fourth inch from bottom wire. stretch the velvet strip for side crown on the crown, placing seam at back, unless trimming has been planned which will cover the seam better if it is placed at some other point. turn top and bottom edges under to fit the side crown, and press bottom fold down close to brim. if this band has been fitted tight enough, it will not be found necessary to sew it. edge of brim facing, when finished without wire-- a brim covered with velvet or any fabric may also be finished underneath without a wire, the edges being slipstitched together. in this case, the underfacing would be turned under one-fourth inch and pinned in place all the way around before beginning to sew. bring the needle through from underside of facing to the very edge of fold. place point of needle directly opposite this stitch and take a small stitch in upper facing, then take a small stitch in underfacing. each stitch always begins just opposite the ending of preceding stitch, so that the thread between the two facings crosses the seam at right angles to edge of brim. this method makes the work look smooth, and also it will not pull out of place; however, this style of finishing an edge is not popular and requires much practice. to cover narrow brim sailor without an edge seam-- this method can be used satisfactorily only when the brim is narrow, and the fabric pliable. for convenience we will give measurements as for a two and one-half inch brim, flat sailor, outside edge measuring forty inches. cut a bias piece of velvet forty inches long and seven inches wide. fold this velvet through center lengthwise and stick pins every three inches through edge of fold at right angles to edge and close to edge. this is to mark the line that must be placed on the edge of the brim. if the velvet is not placed evenly, there will be found a greater amount of fullness on one side than on the other. place velvet over the brim and pin on edge at points marked by pins. stretch as tight as possible. on a brim of this width all of the fullness should be worked out. if this is found to be very difficult, lay the brim aside, with the velvet pinned on, for an hour or for overnight, and the velvet will be found to give a little more. remove as much of the length as possible. locate seam, remove from frame, sew seam, and replace as before. sew on top close to headsize wire, working out all the fullness possible; pull under part up into headsize. sew one-fourth inch above headsize wire onto the flaps, being careful not to pull the thread too tight or the headsize wire will be reduced in size. facings-- a pleasing variety is sometimes obtained by using a colored underfacing on a black hat. the entire facing may be of a contrasting color or extend only from headsize wire to within an inch of the edge of the brim. in this case there could be a strip of material the same as upper facing an inch and a half wide finished at the edge of the brim with a wire. then the colored facing would be finished over the edge of this with another wire. brims covered with two kinds of fabric-- a flat brim or mushroom shape is often covered by using two fabrics, which may be of the same color or of contrasting colors. small pieces of old material may often be conserved in this manner and the hat at the same time have much charm. for instance, the edge of the hat could have a bias band of satin, two or more inches wide, stretched around the edge of the brim, with the rest of the brim covered with velvet overlapping the satin and finished with a wire both on top and bottom, or only on one side. underside of brim may be finished the same way, or the facing may be brought out even with the edge and finished with a wire. shaped brim foundation-- the simplest _shaped_ brim is the mushroom style. to make pattern for brim-- make a paper pattern the same as for the straight brim sailor. measure the same for the headsize wire, join ends of wire, shape to fit the head, and pin on paper pattern of any desired width. to make the brim droop, slash the pattern from the edge to the headsize wire in four different places equally distant. lap these slashes one-fourth inch at the edge, and pin. the pattern may also be slashed in eight or more different places if desired, the slashes being adjusted by lapping more or less according to the amount of droop which may be becoming. after the pattern is adjusted satisfactorily, mark with a pencil all around just inside the headsize wire. remove the wire and cut the paper on this line. cut pattern in two at back and lay out flat on smooth side of buckram, leaving pins in slashes. cut close to outside edge and allow one-fourth inch for the lap at ends. mark on buckram with pencil close to headsize line and cut one-half inch inside this mark. lap ends one-fourth inch and backstitch closely at each edge of flap. sew a strip of crinoline flat over seam to smooth it up. sew headsize wire on place marked, which will be one-half inch from inside edge. keep all joinings at back. slash buckram from inside edge to headsize wire every half inch. wire edge of brim and cover wire with crinoline--same method as used on sailor brim. to cover a mushroom-shaped brim-- if not very drooping, it may be covered without making a seam in the material. to do this, begin by placing the corner of the fabric on top at the front of the brim. pin the front, back, and each side, always pulling with the thread of the material, and pin closely at edge, with pins at right angles to the brim. if covered with georgette, satin or silk, which is pliable, the fullness may all be worked out without a seam. baste close to headsize wire and finish edge by following same method as used in finishing sailor brim. also follow same method with facing. if the material used is not pliable, or if the brim is too drooping to admit of stretching the material smoothly, a seam must be made at the back. the method would be the same as used in covering the rolled brim. sheer materials-- in covering with anything as sheer as georgette, it is advisable to line with some other material first. the color could be made deeper by using a lining of the same color, or made paler by lining with white. the lining should be fitted and sewed on with the outside material. pattern for hat with rolled or close-fitting brim-- the pattern for any hat is first cut from a flat piece of paper. the headsize is marked as for flat sailor and the headsize wire pinned on. the pattern is then slashed in to headsize wire from the outside edge, the slashes lapped over and pinned. if the hat is to be rolled more closely on one side than on the other, the greater number of slashes must be placed there. in this way the pattern can be adjusted to any desired shape. it is an advantage sometimes to cut the paper pattern through in the back, leaving pins in the slashes, and lay out flat on another piece of paper for a new pattern. this eliminates some of the slashes and makes further experiments easier. pattern-making is very important, and it is of extreme value to make as many patterns as possible before cutting the foundation fabric. changing a pattern the slightest sometimes makes a great deal of difference in its becomingness. of course a brim may be changed by adding a slash or two in the buckram, or by inserting a v shape to give more flare, but the fewer seams the better for the hat frame. a rolled or close-fitting brim is more difficult to cover than a sailor or mushroom shape. to cover a close-fitting or rolled brim-- place corner of material on top of brim at front and pin on the edge. always use the same method of pinning on the edge as given in the first lesson. draw the material down to the headsize wire and pin. work the material out smoothly toward the left and pin at the edge; also at the headsize wire. then proceed in the same way toward the right, always pinning closely. be _sure_ to keep the material tight and smooth both at edge and at the headsize wire. allow the fullness to go where it will. the seam should be located at the center back. cut away all superfluous material, allowing three-eighths of an inch seam at the center back. turn the raw edges under away from each other at the seam and slipstitch together neatly. to slipstitch seam-- bring needle through edge of fold on one side and enter the needle through edge of fold on other side exactly opposite. slip needle along in this fold one-eighth of an inch, then bring the needle through to the edge of the fold and take a stitch one-eighth of an inch long in the fold of the other side, always being careful to begin the stitch exactly opposite the end of the one preceding. try to cut the material out from inside the headsize wire in one piece so that it may be used for something else. examine the material carefully to make sure that it fits perfectly. baste with a stab stitch close to the headsize wire on the outside; remove all pins as soon as possible. after basting this, you will sometimes find that the material needs a little more adjusting at the edge. turn the velvet over the edge one-fourth inch and sew down with an overcasting stitch. to glue velvet to the brim-- when there is a decided roll to a brim, it is sometimes most difficult to keep the velvet smooth and to make it lie close to the brim, so we resort to milliner's glue. do not use glue on satin, or on any fabric thinner than velvet, or on any frame other than buckram. care should always be taken to have the smooth side of the buckram on top when the velvet is to be glued on. after fitting the velvet carefully and sewing the seam in the back, remove the pins from the outer edge and gather the velvet up inside the headsize where it is to be held while the glue is being spread on the buckram. the glue must be spread very evenly. it will make a neater job to glue the seam of the velvet open before going further. be very careful to keep the glue away from the right side of the velvet. next, rub the glue on the frame with a stiff brush until it is smooth, then spread the velvet back into place, pressing and smoothing it with the hands from the headsize wire out. watch it carefully for any places which have not sufficient glue, as the material may be raised before it is dry and more glue added. do not sew the edge until the glue has dried. usually it is only the material on the upper side of the brim which needs gluing down. the facing may be put on as desired. sometimes the top of a crown has indentations, and then the velvet may be glued to stay in place. the under or outer facing may be fitted to a rolled or close-fitting brim more easily than the upper. beginning at the front with the corner of the material, pin at the edge and at the headsize wire. keep the material smooth; work from right to left, and then from left to right. work the material around to where the seam is to be made. cut away all superfluous material, allowing three-eighths of an inch for a seam. slipstitch together as on the top and finish the edge over wire. whenever possible a seam should be made on the straight of the material. a shirred crown of fabric-- there are two methods of making a shirred crown of fabric in which taffeta, satin, georgette, or velvet may be used. velvet is especially beautiful made up in this way. the first method is the preferred. cut a circular piece of material, having a diameter the length of the crown from front to back, measuring over the top from the headsize wire, plus four inches. on the wrong side of the material mark circles (concentric) one-half inch apart, after first having marked a circle in the center about three inches in diameter. gather on the line of each circle with a fine running stitch and bring the thread through to the right side as each circle is completed. locate the exact center of the crown top and cut a small hole at this point. pull thread of the smallest circle up tight. this will form a bag which should be pulled down through the hole made at the center of the crown top and sewed securely in place. the material should be pinned down at four equal points at the edge of the crown, the threads of the other circles pulled up until the material fits the crown snugly. adjust the fullness evenly and sew in place. this is an excellent way to use up old material which would otherwise show marks or any other defects. the second method does not make as pleasing an effect, but may be used when the material happens to be in such shape that a circle cannot be cut from it. a bias strip about eight inches wide and long enough to reach around the crown, plus three or four inches, should be joined on the lengthwise thread of the material. the first shirring or gathering should be one-half inch from the edge, the additional threads should be run in evenly every half inch. the first thread near the edge should then be drawn up as tightly as possible and this edge pushed through the hole in the top of the crown. this method will require a somewhat larger opening than the first. the material is then drawn down on the outside and pinned to the bottom of the crown; the threads are then pulled tight and firm and are fastened off. next adjust the gathers evenly and sew in place. chapter iii frames of neteen and crinoline lay the pattern on the neteen in such a way as to bring the bias where the greatest amount of roll is to be, then cut making the same allowances as if cut from buckram. this material should be used double to secure the best results. cut one thickness first and pin this on another piece in such a way that the warp thread of one piece will lie parallel to the woof thread of the other. cut the two pieces the same size and before removing the pins baste closely all over the brim with fine thread, making one inch stitches. fine thread should be used for this as a coarse thread might show through the covering. to join the seam in the back-- insert one thickness between the other two ends, and backstitch closely. this method ought to make a fairly smooth seam. cover the seam with a strip of crinoline to smooth it up. to sew edge wire on neteen-- it is difficult to sew edge wire on neteen. a good result is obtained, however, by sewing the wire directly on the edge or by covering the edge first with crinoline and sewing the wire on it. great care must be taken in handling neteen to preserve the shape, as it is very easily stretched and pulled out of shape while sewing on the edge wire. the same method is used in covering a neteen frame as with the buckram frame. the velvet, if velvet is used, can be glued on, but the material is so porous that it is not very satisfactory. neteen and crinoline make excellent foundations for braid hats, as these materials are light in weight, soft, and pliable. they are also very satisfactory for children's hats. to make a turban frame of neteen or crinoline-- make the side crown from a bias fold of neteen or crinoline, the height desired, plus one inch. the length should be the headsize measurement plus one-half inch. this allows for a tiny flare next to the face which is usually more becoming. join the ends of bias strips on the warp thread. to wire turban flare-- sew the headsize wire one inch from the bottom, being careful not to stretch or full the material. cut another piece of brace wire one or two inches larger than headsize wire and sew on the raw edge at the bottom, stretching the fabric to fit if a flare is desired. a roll may be made by slightly fulling the fabric on to the wire, which must be smaller than for a flare. if the side of the crown is to be curved in slightly, this is easily done by taping the side about halfway between the top and the bottom, drawing the tape as tight as is necessary. next pin the tape and sew in place. sew another wire high enough above the tape to make the crown the required height. if the crown is to be flared a little at top, sew the wire inside and stretch the material as much as desired. if the top of the crown is to be drawn in, sew the wire on the outside, making the crown slightly smaller at the top. if sufficient material is allowed at the top the extra amount may be drawn up over a small circle of wire to make the crown top, but an extra piece cut for this purpose is more satisfactory. a smooth crown may be made from an extra piece sewed over the top after the side is finished. covering turbans-- turbans are becoming to many types and are particularly suitable for the matron. gay coverings are used on them often when they would be out of place on a larger hat. however, any material may be used; braids, alone or in combination with fabric. velvets, georgette, satin, and taffeta are used. a turban covered entirely with flowers sewed down flat makes a charming hat: the lower edge invariably looks better if first bound with a bias piece of velvet no matter what the covering may be--it seems to give a softer look around the face. a round crown of buckram makes a good turban frame if a bias strip of crinoline an inch wide is sewed to the lower edge to give a little flare. a frame of this kind may be draped with velvet, satin, georgette, or any pliable material, and when skillfully done the effect is beautiful indeed. chapter iv wire frames equipment brace wire or frame wire tie wire sprung wire pliers to open coil of wire-- hold the coil in the left hand; unfasten and allow it to loosen gradually in the hand; pass it over the arm and knock it until the coils separate. to cut wire-- place wire firmly and squarely between the jaws of the pliers at the point where they cut and press straight down. be sure to cut with the first attempt; otherwise, if the wire is haggled off, the pliers are injured and the covering loosened at the ends of the wire which will make it impossible to tie them together. to straighten wire-- pass the wire between the thumb and finger with a sweeping motion. a piece of cloth or paper may be held in the hand if the fingers become tender. do not make small dents in the wire in attempting to straighten it, as it will be impossible to remove them. to tie wire-- ends of brace wire parallel. right angles tied diagonally. brace wire tied without use of tie wire. before beginning to make a frame of wire, time will be saved and necessary experience gained by tying a few short pieces of wire, until a strong joint can be made. cut fifty pieces or more of tie wire three-quarters of an inch long. cut two pieces of brace or frame wire two or three inches long. lap the ends of the heavy wire one inch, then lap one of these pieces of tie wire around once as close to the end of the brace wire as is possible. hold in the left hand and with the end of the pliers grasp the ends of the tie wire as close to the brace wire as possible and twist tightly until the joint feels firm. place pliers back a little and twist several times until a little cable is formed. cut this off, leaving an eighth-inch end. press this end down flat with the jaws of the pliers. tie the other end in the same manner. practice this until a satisfactory joint can be made with ease, before attempting to make a frame of wire. [illustration: to tie two wires with tie wire] [illustration: to tie two wires diagonally with use of tie wire] [illustration: method of making paper pattern for drooping brim] [illustration: method of pinning fabric on drooping brim] [illustration: braid-covered brim showing method of filling in short lengths when the difference in width of the two sides is very great] [illustration: pattern pinned in pleats for shaped brims of fabric. illustration shows pattern pinned on buckram ready to cut] to fasten two pieces of brace wire diagonally-- to fasten two pieces of brace wire without the use of tie wire-- hold the strand of wire against the wire to which it is to be fastened, at right angles to it, with about two and one-half or three inches extending beyond the point at which the twist is to be made. press the end straight backward, close to and parallel with the other end of the wire. the end should pass once and a half around. use the jaws of the pliers to press parallel wires in the twist together, and to tighten the twist. cut the end off close and use the pliers to press the end down flat. to make wire frame for hat having flat brim and square crown-- always remember that it will greatly simplify the work first to make a paper pattern for every hat. a hat is seldom made with all sections of the brim of equal width, and this is one important reason why it is more satisfactory first to make a paper pattern. pattern for brim-- make a pattern the same as for a straight-brim sailor, being careful to fold the pattern in halves from front to back, and to crease sharply. fold the halves into fourths and the fourths into eighths and crease. this is to determine the position of the wire spokes in the brim. the eight creases will correspond to the eight spokes in the brim; this is the correct number of spokes. headsize wire for wire frame-- a wire frame needs two headsize wires, so cut two just alike, remembering always that the headsize wire is the most important wire in any hat, as the comfort of the wearer depends upon the measurements taken for this wire. measure as for the headsize in a fabric hat, lapping the ends one inch, and tying them. try on these wires and shape to fit the head. they should usually be elongated two inches. pin the headsize wire on the paper pattern, placing the joining on the back crease and the exact center front of wire on the front crease; next pin the sides securely, being careful to keep the wire shaped to fit the head. allow one-half inch inside of wire and slash every half inch out to headsize wire. the pattern may now be tried on the head for any necessary alterations. the brim pattern may be added to or cut away. working measurements needed-- make a pencil mark on the pattern around the headsize wire. before removing the wire, mark the eight different points where it crosses the creases in the paper pattern. remove the wire from the pattern. sticks for brim-- straighten and cut four pieces of frame wire the length of the diameter of the brim plus three inches for finishing. place one of these sticks across the headsize wire from front to back on the marks made by the pencil, allowing the ends to extend an equal length. fasten to the headsize wire with tie wire. place the next stick from side to side, joining on the pencil marks. the two remaining sticks when placed on the remaining marks divide the circle into eighths. this is called the skeleton of the brim; the wires are named _front_, _back_, _right side_, _left side_, _right side front_, _right side back_, _left side front_, _left side back_. the position of these ends or spokes should correspond to the creases in the paper pattern, and the length of each one should be determined by measuring the corresponding crease on the pattern. edge wire-- cut a circle of brace wire the exact length of the circumference of the brim plus one inch for lap and tie. lay this close to the edge of the pattern and mark on it with pencil where each crease touches it, always keeping the tied ends on the back crease. if these measurements are carefully made, the brim will be exactly like the pattern. to join edge wire-- begin at the back and place the mark on the edge wire on the back spoke at the pencil mark. twist the end of the spoke once and a half around the edge wire, using the jaws of the pliers to tighten the twist. cut the end off close and press the cut end flat with the pliers. next finish the center front spoke, then the sides and those in between. a great deal depends upon accuracy in making an acceptable wire frame. add as many circles of wire between the edge wire and the headsize wire as desired, fastening to the spokes with tie wire. keep all wire laps at the back on the center spoke. collar of brim-- cut the wire inside of the headsize wire in the center. twist these wires once and a half around the headsize wire, bringing the ends up at right angles to the headsize wire. join the second headsize wire to the top of these wires, using the same method as for joining the edge wire. this collar may be made very low or as high as the wires will permit. a separate crown of wire is not always used in a hat covered with very sheer material or sheer braid. in such a case the collar would be made as high as possible to make a support for the crown trimming. square crown for wire frame-- straighten the brace wire and cut four sticks or pieces long enough to reach from the base of the crown at the front up over the proposed crown to the base of the crown at the back, allowing eight inches for finishing. cut and join a small circle of brace wire--about three inches in diameter--for the crown top. lay the four sticks across this circle dividing it into eight equal sections as at the beginning of the brim, and join to the sticks with tie wire. cut a piece of brace wire one inch smaller than the headsize wire. lap the ends and tie this wire. elongate slightly. join to the sticks outside of the small circle. keep all lapped ends of circles on the center back spoke. bend spokes down _over_ this circle, then measure down from this circle for the height of crown and mark on spokes with pencil. be very accurate. base wire for crown-- measure and cut a length of brace wire one-half inch longer than for the headsize wire. lap the ends one inch and join with tie wire. the base wire of any separate crown must be large enough to fit over the headsize wire on the brim. place this circle, after having shaped it like the headsize wire, on the inside of the spokes at the point marked, beginning at the center back, and finish as any edge wire by twisting the ends of the spokes once and a half around the wire. press the wires down tight with the pliers. cut the ends off close and press flat with the jaws of the pliers. many more circles may be added and tied on with tie wire if desired; also more spokes may be added. this would be desirable if the frame is to be covered with braid, or if used for blocking fabric for frames. transparent hats-- if a wire frame is to be covered with thin material, great care and thought should be given to the frame, for it then forms part of the design of the hat. a finer wire is sometimes used in this case, or a beautiful frame may be made for thin materials by using a satin-covered cable wire, and using as few wires as possible. it may seem advisable after a wire frame is made to cut away some of the wires. chapter v round crown of wire a round crown is one which rounds from tip to base. first straighten, measure, and cut four sticks of brace wire, as for square crown, of the ordinary length, allowing for finishing. cut and join the ends of a short piece of brace wire five or six inches long. this makes a small circle for the top of the crown. begin by tying the sticks across this circle under it, dividing it into halves, quarters, and eighths, being careful that the divisions are made accurately and that the sticks extend an equal length from the circle. keep these wires _flat_ across this circle. the sticks may now be curved down. it is sometimes found easier to attach the base wire at this point before adding other circles. [illustration: fancy crown-tip of braid] [illustration: rolling wire brim. eight spokes more may be used and as many circles as wished, according to the covering used] [illustration: round crown of wire] base wire-- cut a piece of brace wire one-half inch longer than the wire used for the headsize wire. lap the ends one inch. make this the same shape as the headsize wire and test the size by trying it on over the headsize wire on the brim for which the crown is made. an ordinary height for a round crown would be seven inches from tip to base wire, but to be safe, it is always better to measure the head. sometimes, on account of an abundance of hair or a high coiffure, a greater height is needed. if the base wire is elongated to fit the head, the side measurement from the tip to the base of the crown will be found shorter than from the tip to the front and the back. it will be most helpful to take an old crown which has an elongated headsize and either measure it and work from the measures or else work over it. the crown must be even at the bottom when finished, and when placed upon the table must rest evenly. the base wire may be tied with tie wire on the front and back spokes and on each side spoke until the circles between it and the crown tip are added. it will then be found easy to adjust it before finishing off the wires; i.e., the crown may be made higher or lower. circles or hoops-- add three circles of wire between the base wire and the small circle at the top. the first circle just above the base wire should be of the same size. keep all wire laps at the back. the other two circles will conform to the shape of the crown and will be found to be a little further apart at the front and back than at the sides. to finish the base of the crown-- the spokes of the crown may now be turned out sharply where the base wire is to be fastened and finished off the same as the edge wire on the brim. a shaped wire frame made in one piece-- the simplest wire frame which is shaped at all is the mushroom shape or one that droops a little. before beginning this hat it will be found easier to have a pattern for the brim, but it will not be necessary to make a pattern for the crown, which may be either round or square, and for which directions have already been given. pattern for brim-- make a pattern of manila paper for the brim the same as for a fabric shape, following the same directions. it may droop only a very little or fit quite close. in either case the method is the same. pin the headsize wire on this pattern and try on to shape. mark on the wire at the point where the creases touch the wire. it is important not to hurry at this point. make many patterns and then choose the most becoming one. after the pattern is perfected, crease it sharply the same as in the sailor brim. take all the measurements from this pattern and use them in marking the wires. this brim pattern is not needed until the crown has been made. in making a wire frame in one piece, we begin at the top of the crown and work down. crown-- measure four sticks as for the crown in the preceding lesson, plus the width of the brim, plus six inches for finishing. this is ample to finish both ends of wire, but on account of the ends easily becoming frayed it is better to have a generous allowance. begin at the crown tip and work down until ready for the headsize wire. the last wire is or should be of the same size as the regular headsize wire. place the lap of the headsize wire on the back spoke of the crown and join by twisting the spokes once and a half around. join the front and remaining spokes in the same way, being careful to join where the wire was marked at the creases on the pattern. brim-- we are now ready to make use of the measurements taken from the pattern. mark the length of each spoke with a pencil; the distance they are to be apart should be marked on the edge wire. these measurements are taken from the pattern. finish the edge the same as the sailor brim. add as many circles between the edge wire and the headsize wire as desired. we have now made in wire the first variation from a perfectly flat brim. always make a pattern before making a wire frame except when copying and then measurements may be taken from the hat to be copied. here are some of the reasons why the pattern is important: first, it may be tried on and this helps to decide if the style is becoming, before working it out in wire; second, the position of the wires may be determined and marked on the paper pattern; third, the more work done from a paper pattern the easier it will be to copy; fourth, it trains the eye, thus making free-hand work much easier. a rolling brim-- whether the hat is made in one piece or with a separate brim, the same method is used. first, as always, the paper pattern. if the brim is to roll closely on one side and much higher than on the other, extra wires will be needed to fill the space. the place for these may be determined on the paper pattern. they may go all the way around, being brought more closely together on the low side or only part way around as in the illustration. wire frame making requires much patience and practice. it is an art just as all millinery is an art. lines are all important. because of this i urge much pattern making. even though one may not have the fundamental principles of art, something really good often develops and we find we have built better than we knew. it stimulates originality, but we must work without _fear_. to color wire frames-- wires come in both black and white. a white frame may be colored to match any sheer fabric used for its covering. it will be found to be more simple to color the frame after it is made. any of the cold or soap dyes may be used. if these are not available, a piece of velveteen soaked in alcohol and rubbed on the frame will give of its color sufficiently to tint the wire. crêpe paper may also be used, or water-color paints. rouge may be used effectively if moistened. there are also gold and silver wires which may be used for frames when desired, and which will add to the beauty of the design. if they cannot be purchased, a frame of white wire may be gilded by using liquid gilt, applying it to the frame with a small brush. halo hat brims-- halo brims may be made from any fabric, but to be effective the material should be sheer. malines, nets, georgette crêpe, or chiffon are all used to good effect in making this style of hat. good-looking halo brims have been made from old georgette waists, using the back for the brim and the front and sleeves for the crown. only two wires are used in making this brim, the edge wire and the headsize wire. the size of the brim is to be determined and then a hoop of sprung wire cut just the length of the circumference of the brim. this wire is uncovered; the ends just meet and are joined by the use of a little clamp, the ends being inserted and pressed down with the jaws of the pliers. place the material from which the brim is to be made upon a flat surface. if of maline, several thicknesses may be used. fasten this material down to the table slightly with pins or thumb tacks. lay a circle of sprung wire on the material and pin in place. begin by pinning the back, front, and then each side, being careful not to pull the wire out of shape. take the work up and pin the material closely all around the edge. cut off, allowing one-quarter of an inch to turn over the wire. sew to the wire closely with an overcasting stitch or with a running stitch just inside of the wire. the edge may be bound with a fold of the same material, a fold of satin or one row of braid. headsize wire for halo brim-- this headsize wire is made of frame wire. first measure, then cut, join ends, and shape as for any hat. lay the headsize wire on the material, having the joining at the back. the front and the back of the brim, if of equal width, will be somewhat narrower than the side because of the elongated headsize wire; however, the headsize wire may be placed on the brim in any position desired. pin in place and sew with an overcasting stitch. trim the material inside the headsize wire, leaving an extension of one-quarter of an inch to turn over; it will be found necessary to sew this down over the wire, making the edge more secure. another method of making a halo brim is accomplished by cutting a piece of material on the bias, twice as wide as the brim and as long as the circumference. stretch this piece of material, then pin the center of the strip over the edge wire, gather the raw edges to fit the headsize wire and sew in place. this method does not make a smooth brim, but is more quickly made. when two thicknesses of sheer material are used for halo brims a very pretty effect is obtained by placing flat flowers, petals of flowers, or feathers between the two materials. crown for halo brim-- this may be very sheer, although a halo brim may be used on a braid or satin crown if desired. a wire crown for a halo brim usually consists of a mere collar of frame wire several inches high. this is sewed to the headsize wire. the covering for the crown is usually made in the shape of a circle about fourteen inches in diameter, with the same number of thicknesses as the brim. gather one-quarter of an inch from the edge, adjust fullness and sew to the headsize wire. the height of the crown depends upon the style of hair dressing. place a band of the same material as the crown, or a narrow ribbon, around the base of the crown for trimming and to conceal the wires. a wired bow of the sheer material may be used very effectively. (see chapter on "bows.") chapter vi hat coverings to cover with braid-- great care and patience must be exercised in covering a hat with straw braid. the lines which are to be emphasized should be carefully studied, as there are several methods used in laying the braid on the frames. (see illustration.) the stitch used for sewing braid is always the same--a very short stitch on the right side, and a stitch one-quarter of an inch long on the wrong side. the thread must not be pulled too tight, or the position of the stitches may be seen; also always match the thread to the straw. straw braid may be sewed to a willow, buckram, neteen, or crinoline frame except when a _very_ soft hat is desired; it may then be sewed and shaped over a wire or buckram frame, but not on to it, as it is to be removed from the frame after sewing; or, if the braid is coarse, it may be sewed to a wire frame which has been previously covered with crinoline or mull. (see illustration.) [illustration: one method of starting the braid on crown and sewing in place] many hats have a brim faced with straw, while a fabric is used on top. in this case the braid must be put on first in order that the stitches may be taken through the brim, which the fabric on top will cover. to pin in place on the frame-- place the outer edge of the straw even with the outer edge of the brim, beginning at the center back, allowing three inches to extend to the right. pin in place and baste all the way around until the center back is reached. curve the second row gradually up from the center back; do not make an abrupt curve, until the correct lap is reached, usually one-eighth of an inch. there will be found a thread at the edge of most braids which may be pulled up to take out the extra fullness when sewed on a curve. the outside edge of the first row must be left free for the edge of the fabric, which covers the other side, to be slipped under. do not begin sewing until the second row is basted in place. to sew-- bring the needle through the edge of the braid at the lap from the under side and take a tiny stitch, stabbing the needle through the braid and the buckram; the small stitch on the right side will be hidden if the thread is not pulled too tight. take a stitch on the wrong side from one-quarter to one-half an inch in length, depending upon the width and quality of the braid. continue basting and sewing the braid until the headsize is reached and the braid extends up above the headsize wire one inch. if the brim is wider at some points than at others, the wider side must be filled in with short strips following the same curve, being careful that the ends are left long enough to extend up beyond the headsize wire one inch. when the brim is very much wider at some points, short pieces of braid may be worked in at intervals as the braid is sewed; this would not make such an abrupt curve, and the general lines of the braid would be more pleasing. when one side of the brim is to be covered with fabric, fit this to the brim, baste at the headsize wire and cut the edge, allowing one-quarter of an inch to lap over the edge. remove the basting from the first row of braid and tuck the edge of the fabric under. pin and slipstitch to place through the straw. both sides of brim covered with braid-- allow the first rows to project slightly beyond the edge of the brim both on the top and the bottom. these edges may be brought together with a small slanting stitch, or if preferred the edge may be first bound with a bias piece of satin, or with a row of braid or gay-colored material. if the edge of the brim is bound, the edges of the first rows of braid at the top and bottom would not meet. the bound edge thus showing gives the effect of a cord. to cover a crown with braid-- begin at the bottom of the crown, slanting the second row off from the first row the same as on the brim. pull the braid up with the thread (which will be found on the edge of nearly every braid) and sew until the center of the crown tip is reached, when a hole in the top of the crown may be made and the end pushed through and fastened on the underside. keep the braid full enough so that it will lie flat all the way. sometimes it is easier to begin sewing the braid on at the very center of the top of the crown, or a few rows may be sewed to a small circle of crinoline before attaching to the top of the crown. if a braid is used which is composed of four or five smaller braids sewed together, the method is the same until the crown tip is reached or a place where it is impossible to make the braid lie flat. the braid must then be separated into the smaller strands and one cut off at a time, and each end lapped under the preceding strand; proceed with the remaining strands, cutting one off at a time until only one remains to finish the center with. when the crown tip is completed, push the remaining end through a hole in the center of the crown tip and sew to the inside of the crown. when using this kind of braid the operation may be reversed, beginning at the center of the top and covering a small circle of buckram with braid; press it with a warm iron to flatten it, then sew in place on the crown and complete the covering. this seems the easier method, because the top of the crown will look much better if pressed and this will be found hard to do unless begun on a small separate piece of buckram. to piece braid-- sometimes a braid must be pieced at a conspicuous point on the hat, when careful handling will be found necessary. if the braid is composed of several smaller braids sewed together, the ends should be ripped apart for several inches and the strands cut in unequal lengths; also the strands of the other end which is to be joined to it should be cut of such length as to meet the corresponding ends and allow a lap of one inch. the ends cut in this way may be tucked under one at a time without the joining being noticeable. if the braid is very wide it may seem best when covering a frame to cut and join the ends of the row of braid. it would then be better to make a straight joining in the back. if a fancy braid is to be pieced, the ends are lapped diagonally and sewed flat. if a fancy joining is part of the design, a simple one is to lap the ends to look as though woven. this may be employed on a crown or brim or both, and it then becomes a part of the design. also the top of the crown or any part of the hat may have a woven covering of braid, but any such fancy method requires an additional amount of braid. the top of the crown may be covered by laying the braid on straight from front to back, allowing the ends to extend down on the side crown an inch or more. the braid of the side crown should cover these ends. the brim of a narrow hat is often covered with short lengths of braid radiating from the headsize wire, the ends extending up on the crown one inch. a fabric is often combined with braid for the sake of design, or if there is an insufficient quantity of braid. crown top of braid, side crown of fabric-- side crown of braid and top of fabric-- band of material, plain or corded, set in side crown-- brim and crown made from small pieces of silk and braid-- a very soft-looking braid hat may be made by sewing braid over a wire foundation which has been made for the purpose. the braid may be pinned on the brim of wire and sewed, being careful not to attach the braid to the frame; slip the needle over the wire and finish sewing the braid while it is still pinned to the brim, then remove, press slightly, and sew a facing of braid to the under side of the brim if desired. some kinds of braid may be dampened before pressing, but it is safer to experiment first with a small piece, for some braid is ruined by pressing. a soft crown of braid should be fitted over a wire crown and sewed in the same way. after removing it from the wire frame, it can be slightly pressed by holding it over a thick cloth held in the hand and pressing a warm iron to the outside. a soft hat of braid can more easily be made by first making a frame of crinoline and sewing the braid to it. horsehair braid crowns are beautiful when shaped over a wire foundation. they may be pressed slightly (after being removed from the wire crown over which they have been shaped) when they will be found to keep their shape. the brim would need a wire foundation to hold it out in shape and the braid should be caught down to the wire as it is being sewed. a small lace wire should be used for this foundation, four spokes together with the headsize wire and edge wire being sufficient. the wire should be wound with maline or have a facing of maline. horsehair braid is transparent. there are many fanciful ways of using braid on a hat, but these can be readily copied if the foregoing methods have been mastered. be very careful about pressing braids or adding moisture as it ruins some braids, while others must be moistened before they can be handled in sewing to a hat frame. covering wire frames with maline, net or georgette-- wire frames which are to be covered with sheer material, such as maline, net, or georgette, must be carefully made, as the wire frame becomes a part of the design, and the wire should be silk covered. if maline is used, it should be pleated or gathered on, unless the brim is of the halo style, for which directions are given elsewhere. four or five thicknesses of maline are necessary. the material is often gathered in small quarter-inch tucks at the points where the tuck may be sewed to the circle wire on the brim or the crown. a small tuck at the edge wire would make a softer looking edge than if put on plain. the fullness is then gathered in and sewed to the headsize wire. if the edge is left plain, a few rows of lacey-looking braid may be sewed on the edge. a wide tuck hanging down from the edge is sometimes used and it is very becoming to certain types of faces. the wires of a frame are often first wound with narrow bias pieces of net or maline. the edges are turned in and the material wrapped on smoothly and evenly. sometimes the wires are wound with a contrasting color. an effective covering for any frame may be made from ribbon or bias strips of satin or silk, velvet or georgette, or any soft fabric. if a wire frame is used, it must first be covered with a thin plain material to serve as a foundation to which the ribbon or strips of material may be sewed, or a frame of neteen or crinoline may be used if a very soft hat is desired. ribbon covering-- if a ribbon is used, it must be gathered on one edge so that it may be drawn down to fit the frame and may be laid on the same as braid. an inch-wide ribbon is easily handled. bias fabric-- if bias strips of silk or satin are used, the material should be cut in strips two and one-half inches wide, on a true bias, and joined in one long strip. fold lengthwise through the middle and gather the raw edges together a little less than one-quarter of an inch from the edge. this is sewed to the frame the same as braid, the folded edge overlapping the raw edge and the thread drawn up to adjust it as it is pinned and sewed in place. this is an excellent way to use up old material. hat linings a hat lining should receive the same careful consideration and workmanship as the outside of the hat. from the milliner's point of view it is an advertisement, the place where we find the designer's name. a well-fitted lining, whether of somber or gay colored silk, enhances the value of a hat. sometimes we find a tiny sachet rosebud sewed to the lining, or a little lace-trimmed pocket for the veil. there are three popular kinds of linings-- plain lining french lining tailored lining plain lining-- this should be made of a bias strip of material cut the length of the headsize wire, plus one inch for seam. the width should be the same as the crown height plus two and one-half inches. [illustration: showing method of covering crown with two-inch wide bias satin. cord sewed in one edge; the other edge is gathered and pulled up to fit crown] fold one end over one-half inch and pin to the back of the hat; fold the edge of the material down one-quarter of an inch around the inside of the crown as close as possible to the edge without showing when the hat is on the head. pin in place all the way round and slipstitch the two ends together; then begin at the seam and slipstitch the lining in place. the method is to bring the needle from the underside of the lining through the edge of the fold, catch a few threads of material on the hat opposite this thread, and put the needle back through the fold at the same point; bring the needle through the fold one-half inch from the first stitch and proceed in this manner until the seam is reached. turn the other raw edge down one-half inch to the wrong side and make a running stitch one-quarter inch from the folded edge in which a narrow ribbon should be run, and drawn down as much as necessary to make the lining fit the crown. a crown tip is used with this lining, which is made of a piece of silk four inches square, sewed or glued to the inside of the crown top. on this piece the designer's name is usually found. french lining-- this lining is made from an oval piece of silk which corresponds to the crown measurements. measure the crown from front to back and from side to side, adding one inch to these measurements. fit a small wire to the inside of the hat at the headsize and tie. lap the edge of the silk over the wire one-quarter of an inch. gather the silk close to the wire using a small running stitch. after completed, pin in place and slipstitch to the crown. this lining will reduce the headsize of any hat somewhat, so it should never be used if there is any danger of making the hat too small for the head. tailored lining-- this lining is rather the most popular lining used. large firms send their material away to be made up for their trade and the linings may be bought ready-made, but almost every one has pieces of silk which may be easily made into one of these linings. cut an oval of crinoline two-thirds as large as the top of crown, baste a piece of silk lining over this. pin this on top of the crown, as this can best be fitted on the outside and should be done before the hat is made. now cut a piece of bias material long enough to reach around the bottom of the crown wide enough to meet this crown tip at all points. after pinning it to the crown tip, turn up one-quarter of an inch at the bottom and pin to the bottom of the crown. stretch snugly because the inside of the crown is smaller; pin the fullness to the crown top all around, gather between pins, and baste in place. stitch on the machine. this seam may be corded or a small cord sewed on to cover the seam. linings may be made of taffeta, china silk, satin, sateen or of almost any material which is not too heavy. when a wire frame is covered with thin material and the frame shows through, the hat should have a thin lining. if the hat is covered with maline, use a maline lining; if with georgette, a georgette lining should be used. chapter vii trimmings milliner's fold-- cut from a piece of velvet, satin, or any fabric which is to be used, a bias strip one and one-half inches wide and of the desired length. this must be on a true bias, which is found by placing the warp and woof threads parallel. any other bias is called a garment bias. hold the wrong side toward you and turn the bottom edge up on the wrong side toward you and up to the center and baste close to the edge. the basting thread must be loose enough to permit the fold to be stretched. leave the basting in. next fold the other raw edge down until the two edges meet, but do not baste. fold again, keeping this last fold one-quarter of an inch or a little less from the other folded edge. hold in place and slipstitch down. slip the needle through the edge of the fold and take a long stitch, then, going down through to the other side, take a short stitch. come back through a little under the fold to hide the stitch. slip the needle along the edge of the fold as before, and continue in this manner. the thread should be kept loose all the way to permit the fold to be stretched slightly when used. the fold when finished should not twist or look as if it had a stitch in it. another separate single fold may be added to this; it is then called a french fold. the milliner's fold has many uses, such as finishing the edge of hats, and the bottom of crowns, to cover the joining of the hat to the brim. it is used sometimes around the top of a square crown and is much used in mourning millinery, when it is made of crêpe. bows for the inexperienced in bow-making there is no better plan than to copy many different styles of bows, using either tissue paper or cheap cambric, as ribbons are ruined by being made over too many times. bow-making is sometimes quite difficult for an amateur, while for some students of millinery it is very easy, but any one with patience may become quite expert in time. cut the tissue paper or cambric the exact width of the ribbon which is to be used. in this way the exact amount of ribbon may be determined, as well as the length of each loop. if a stiff, smart-looking bow is to be made, fold the ribbon in loops before pleating. if a soft-looking or puffy, "fat"-looking bow is desired, pleat the ribbon singly before making the loops. the soft bow is often used for children's hats. after the desired number of loops is made, wind a strong thread around the center and over this wrap the remaining end of ribbon around the center several times until the center is filled up sufficiently to look well. bows of maline-- maline is one of the most beautiful materials used in millinery and it lends itself to many uses. hat frames are covered with maline; it is used to cover wings to keep feathers in place; to cover faded or worn-out flowers; for shirred brims and crowns; for pleatings; for folds on edges of brims to give a soft look; and for bows. a bow of maline requires wiring with a very small tie wire or lace wire. the wire may be caught in a fold at the edge of the loops, or the loops may be made double with the wire caught inside. wired ribbon bows-- ribbon is sometimes wired if a stiff effect is desired. silk, satin, velvet, or any kind of ribbon can be used. the flat ribbon wire is sometimes pasted between two ribbons with milliner's glue. often two colors are rather effectively used in this way. the wire may also be stitched to one edge of the ribbon. this is done by turning the ribbon over the wire at the edge and stitching on the sewing machine. the ends of the wire should extend two inches beyond the ends of the loop of the bow. after the bow is arranged, these ends should be bent out and back, making loops which are sewed down to the hat. this holds the bow very firmly, especially if a small piece of buckram is placed inside the hat at the point at which the bow is to be sewed. this re-enforces the frame and makes it still more firm. if a bow is to be placed on top of a crown, a hole may be made and the ribbon which completes the middle of the bow may be brought up from the inside of the crown through this opening, over the bow, and down through this opening and fastened inside of the crown. a narrow ribbon of velvet is very pretty twisted over a wire and two perky loops and ends made. these are very pretty perched on the edge of a brim or among flowers on the hat. true lovers' knot-- this is not, strictly speaking, a bow, but comes under this head. the ribbon used is made into the knot and sewed flat as it is made. it may be sewed on the brim or side crown and is very effective made of gold ribbon. tailored bow-- this bow is usually made from a piece of ribbon which has both sides alike, although it may be made from any ribbon. a knox tailored bow is made from gros-grained ribbon. cut a small piece of buckram for a foundation to sew the ribbon on. this should be sufficiently small so that the ribbon will conceal it. make two loops of equal length, letting the ribbon lie perfectly flat. measurements should be very exact. sew these loops firmly to the buckram; fold the ribbon back and forth to make these loops without cutting. next fold two more loops, one on each side, one-quarter of an inch shorter and exactly on top. sew firmly and cut the ribbon off at the center. fasten two short ends to the back of the bow, allowing them to extend one-quarter of an inch and cut diagonally. take a short length of ribbon and pleat it once through the center. wrap this once around the bow and fasten at the back. this bow is much used on sailors or any tailored hat. there are many kinds of fancy bows brought out from season to season, but if the making of a few styles of standard bows is mastered, others may be easily copied. [illustration: section of maline pompon showing method of fastening on the wire] [illustration: radiating pleating made on low pyramid of buckram] [illustration: true lovers' knot] [illustration: radiating pleating made on buckram foundation] [illustration: second method of making an orchid center (see page )] pleatings a pleating is difficult and requires patience. unless accurately made, it should never be used on a hat, for upon its accuracy depends its attractiveness. the simplest pleating is a side pleating. this may be made from paper or stiff muslin for practice work. there should not be a thread's difference in the width of each pleat. any simple pleating requires three times the length of the space it is to cover. if a half-inch pleating is to be made, the folds will come every one and one-half inches. as each fold is laid, baste it down with silk thread. press slightly on the wrong side before using. box pleating-- this is made by turning the first pleat to the left and the next to the right. the same amount of material is required as for side pleating. if the pleats are to be one-half inch deep, the box pleat will be _one_ inch across. baste with silk thread at the top and bottom, and press on the wrong side. a simple box pleating may be basted through the center and the edges caught together. double or triple box-pleating-- this is made by adding one or more pleats, one on top of the other. begin by making two or more pleats turning to the left, then the same number turning to the right. be very accurate, being careful to keep the box pleat the exact width desired. baste at the top and bottom. this pleating is nearly always used by basting through the center, after having slightly pressed. the top and bottom bastings are then removed. the pleating may be caught together at top and bottom of box pleat, and it is then known as _rose pleating_. radiating-- this is the most difficult pleating to fashion, but very handsome ornaments are made in this way. a foundation of buckram is usually required to sew the pleats on as they are laid. the two illustrations given will suffice. after these two examples are correctly copied, other models and original designs can be easily made. foundations of buckram-- the foundation for the second is in the shape of a low pyramid made from buckram. cut a small circle of buckram, slash in three equally distant places from the outer edge to within one-eighth of an inch of the center. lap a small amount and sew. three rows or more of pleating may be used on this ornament. an ordinary ornament will require about five yards of inch-wide ribbon. the first row would be placed near the outside edge of the buckram and each pleat sewed as it is laid. the pleating should radiate from the center. to do this, the inside of the pleating will lap more than the outside. the next row will overlap this first row and the same method will be used. the pleating may be tested by holding a ruler on a line between the top and the lower edge of the pleating. the pleats should all be on a straight line between these points. the last or finishing row is the most difficult of all. the pleats at the apex should meet, and pleats at the lower overlapping edge be on a line with the rest of the pleating. a tiny bow or button is sometimes used to finish the top, but it is much handsomer if finished without either bow or button. pompons maline pompons make a very pretty ornament for any hat. they may be made perfectly round or elongated like the illustration. several thicknesses of the material may be cut at one time. the shape of the pieces for the elongated pompon would be cut like pattern "a." each piece is folded lengthwise of the material, and this fold is fastened to a wire which has been previously wound with maline. the edges of these pieces are left raw, and enough are used to make the pompon appear quite compact. ribbon rosettes there are many different kinds of rosettes made from ribbon. sometimes several loops of ribbon are made very close together and wound with thread as they are gathered. a very pretty rosette is made of narrow ribbon one-quarter of an inch wide. many loops three inches long or more of this width ribbon may be fastened to a small piece of buckram. a knot placed at the end of each loop adds to its attractiveness. rosettes from old plumes-- an old plume may be used to make trimming for a hat by cutting it from the quill with a very sharp knife or razor blade, retaining a small portion of the quill which will be sufficient to hold the feathers together. this should be sewed onto a fine wire, and it may then be wound into a rosette. a small flower placed in the center is a pleasing addition. chapter viii hand-made flowers flowers material required: tie wire, green gum tissue, brown and green cotton batting milliner's glue yellow stamens dark green tissue paper flowers may be made from almost any fabric--satin, velvet, georgette, maline, ribbon, soft leather, oilcloth, yarn, and chenille. a scrapbag for odds and ends should always be kept for small pieces of materials. any piece two inches square may be used for flowers or fruits. such a bag of pieces will prove a veritable gold mine to use in making flowers and fruit trimmings. each year brings out novelties in trimmings, but hand-made flowers are always worn more or less on hats, gowns, suits, and muffs. they are especially beautiful on evening gowns. a generous number of the best examples are given here with illustrations. to prepare the petals of any flower is not difficult, but to arrange them is another matter. study the face of any blossom which you are making and try to make it look as natural as possible. pinning the petals in place before sewing them is of great value, otherwise they are apt to slip back on the stem as they are being sewed. [illustration: a. american beauty rose with detail. b. ribbon rose. c. cherries with detail. d. orchids with lilies of the valley. e. raisins. f. wired rose with detail. g. poinsettia.] american beauty rose-- this rose may be made of silk or satin; it may have as many petals as desired. each petal is cut from a piece of folded material like the diagram ( ). it is highly important that the folded edge be on a _true_ bias. begin the rose by cutting three petals like the illustration, with the bias edge one and one-half inches long. run a gathering thread one-eighth of an inch from the curved edge, leaving a thread one inch long so that the petal may be adjusted as it is pinned in place. make a loop one inch long on the end of a piece of wire six inches long. cover this loop with a small circle of the material like the rose. it is sometimes found to be advantageous to fill this circle with cotton to make a soft center for the rose. for an ordinary-sized rose there should be eighteen petals. the first three are already described as having a one and one-half-inch bias. the next larger in size should have a two-inch bias and be correspondingly wider; the next five should have a two and one-half-inch bias, and the next five a three-inch bias. the three small petals should be arranged around the covered loop of wire and pinned in place before sewing. sew securely. each row, as it is arranged according to size, should be pinned in place and scrutinized carefully to see that it is placed effectively. each row should be placed a little higher than the preceding one. see that the face of the flower looks as nearly like a real rose as possible, allowing the back to look as it will. with a little experience one soon becomes efficient and learns how to adjust the different materials. some materials being more pliable than others, the shape of the petals may be changed slightly to meet the need. the back of the rose may be finished by adding a sufficient number of green leaves taken from some discarded flower or bought for the purpose. a small green cup is also added to finish the base; these may be bought at ribbon counters. the bud used with this rose may be made by using the three smallest petals. some green foliage must also be used with this rose and the stem bound with a narrow gray-green ribbon, or with gum tissue which should be warmed before using. the inside petals may be of a darker shade than the outside petals. ribbon rose-- to make a medium-sized ribbon rose requires two yards of satin ribbon two inches wide. there are several different methods of making the center for this rose. a simple center for this rose may be made from a piece of the ribbon, four inches long. fold this in half. sew the selvages together along one side. turn and fill with cotton around which has been wound the end of a six-inch piece of frame wire. a little rose-scented sachet powder may be sprinkled on this cotton to add perfume to the blossom. gather the satin down close to the wire after rounding the corners at the lower edges. two yards should make this center and eighteen petals. more may be added or fewer may be used. for the first row cut three lengths three inches long; the second row, five lengths three and one-half inches long; third row, five lengths four inches long; fourth row five lengths four and one-half inches long. each petal is finished the same before it is sewed in place fold the two ends together, turn each corner of the folded end down diagonally and pin in place. now raise the end on the back of the petal and catch the corners down with a few small stitches. replace the end and gather the raw edges together, but do not draw up close. prepare all of the petals in the same way before beginning to sew them to the center. sometimes a tiny bit of cotton is placed inside each petal to make the rose look larger. when all the petals are finished, begin the rose by adding the three smallest petals first. pin in place around the center, wrapping them closely around it and letting them extend about one-eighth of an inch above the point. add the next row, pinning each petal in place before sewing. place each succeeding row one-eighth of an inch above the preceding one. watch the face of the blossom carefully and see that it looks as natural as possible. the back of the blossom will be covered when finished, either with a few old rose leaves and a rose cup, or points of green ribbon sewed to resemble leaves. a rubber stem may be bought to slip over the wire on which the rose is sewed, or the wire may be wound with green floss, baby ribbon, green tissue paper, or gum tissue. if the rose is to be full blown, it would be much better to make the center of yellow stamens. wild rose of silk-- the petals for the wild rose may be cut from the same pattern as for the first rose given. this same pattern is used for many different flowers--the wild rose, apple blossom, sweet pea, and for foliage. for the wild rose use the size having the two-inch bias. gather one-eighth of an inch from the curved edge, draw down tight and fasten the thread off. this rose requires five petals, and will look more natural if two of the petals are of a darker shade than the other three. for the center wrap a piece of tie wire around several yellow rose stamens which may be bought at a millinery store, leaving the ends of wire five or six inches long. arrange the petals flat around this center and sew in place. the petals should lie out flat, or nearly so. a bud for this rose is made by folding a petal together after having gathered it. the bud may be effectively finished by using two leaves of foliage, placing one on either side, partially covering the bud and then finishing with the wire or a small green rose cup. to finish with wire, make a loop in the center of a ten-inch piece of tie wire. to this loop sew the bud. twist the wire several times for an inch below the bud, then turn one end of the wire back and twist it around the stem until the bud is reached. wind it several times over the base of the bud, draw it tight and see that the wire is close together. this will make a finish for the bud. foliage-- the rose foliage may be made if desired. cut the leaves from green satin or velvet, or color them green with water-color if a light-colored material must be used. after cutting the pieces in the shape of rose leaves (it will require two pieces for each leaf), lay one wrong side up, cover with milliner's glue. lay on the center of this a piece of tie wire long enough for the stem. place another leaf on this and press together. when all the leaves are made after this method, arrange on a long stem or wire, and if wound with brown gum tissue it will look very natural. small wound rose of fabric-- cut from a true bias a strip of material one inch wide and four inches long. fold lengthwise through the middle. turn the raw edges in on one end, and gather one-eighth inch from the edge along the raw edges. draw the thread up to one inch and roll, beginning with the folded end, and sew. a piece of tie wire may be glued inside the fold before gathering, if desired. these little roses may be sewed on a stem or sewed to a shaped piece of buckram which has been covered with silk. it may be in the shape of a buckle or a circle and covered with these little roses in several colors, pink, blue, and mauve. sewed flat against a crown or on a brim, they would trim a hat effectively. wired rose-- this rose, when carefully made, is most beautiful and sells for an exorbitant price. to make the rose as illustrated requires one-quarter of a yard of satin cut on the bias and one-eighth of a yard of velvet cut on the bias. if the velvet is one or more shades darker, the result will be more pleasing. the rose is fashioned from petals cut like the illustration. the first three petals are cut from dimensions given in the illustration, two inches long and one and three-quarters inches wide. the next five petals should be one-quarter of an inch larger, and each succeeding row of five petals should be one-quarter of an inch larger than the preceding one. the last row of petals is to be made from the velvet. cut a piece of the tie wire long enough to reach around the outside edge of each petal, plus one and one-half inches. lay the petals down wrong side up, bend the wire to the shape of the petal, lay the wire close to the edge and turn the raw edge over the wire one-eighth of an inch and glue in place with milliner's glue. place a light weight on the petals until thoroughly dry. begin assembling the flower by first making a center from some of the scraps left from the velvet, or yellow rose stamens may be used; fold several small pieces into bud-like shapes of about one inch in length, sew strongly and fasten on a loop of the wire six inches long. keep the point where all the petals are joined in as small a circumference as possible. begin with the three small petals, pleat them at the bottom into as small a space as possible, and sew to the center with the wrong side to the center. after they have been arranged, the edges may be crinkled down somewhat. add the remaining petals according to their size. the last row of velvet petals is rather pretty if one or more is placed with the right side toward the center. flat pasted blossom-- a conventional flower which makes a beautiful trimming may be made from the pattern for the wired rose first given. cut five petals (of any size required) from velvet, and five the same size from silk or satin. lay the velvet petals wrong side up and cover with milliner's glue. lay on this a piece of tie wire one-quarter of an inch from the edge, allowing an extension of ends of the wire at the bottom of the petal. lay the silk petal on top and press firmly. when dry arrange these five petals around a cluster of yellow stamens, which have been fastened to a loop of tie wire. this blossom should lie out flat when finished. of course the shape of the petals may be changed in any way desired. poinsettias-- the petals of this blossom are also pasted to a lining, the poinsettia making a beautiful ornament. while a bright red is extremely lovely, a black poinsettia is equally effective. the petals should be made of velvet and lined with the same color in satin. these petals being narrow, only need a wire through the center. after the petals have been prepared, they should be assembled around a bunch of yellow stamens or knotted baby ribbon. the foliage is made from green velvet lined with green silk. the accompanying illustration shows the proportion of both the petals of the blossom and the foliage. the stems may be wound with green or brown gum tissue. poppies-- poppies may be made from ribbon seventeen inches long and two and one-quarter inches wide. cut two pieces five and one-half inches long. this leaves one piece six inches long. this will make five petals. cut the ends round on the five and one-half inch pieces, and cut one end of the six-inch piece round. beginning at the center, close to edge, gather with a small running stitch. turn in the raw edges and draw the thread sufficiently to make the rounded ends curl over one inch, and fasten off the thread. these two long pieces make four petals. pleat them very close at the center, sew together, finish the single petal the same and add it to the four petals. knotted black baby ribbon or yellow stamens or both will make a beautiful center. morning glories-- cut a circle of paper four inches in diameter. one quarter section of this will be the pattern for a morning glory. the circle may be larger if desired, but the size should depend somewhat upon the material used. these dimensions are for a small blossom made of taffeta silk or organdie. if made of velvet or heavy silk, the pattern should be much larger. lap the straight edges one-eighth of an inch in and paste in place. this makes a cone. cut a piece of tie wire six inches in length, lap one end over several knots of yellow baby ribbon and twist securely. push the other end of wire through the cone from the inside and draw the knots down into the point. make a short bend in the wire at the lower point of the blossom on the outside to prevent its slipping down on the wire. the upper edge of the cone may be rolled over a piece of tie wire and pasted if necessary; usually it stays in place without either sewing or pasting. the edge should be stretched slightly. organdie or taffeta silk will stay rolled into place without the tie wire. water color is used most effectively on these flowers to make the shading as true to nature as possible. if made of velvet they may be sewed down flat on a hat at the side joining, when a large stamen of twisted ribbon or chenille may be made to cover the joining in the cone. orchid-- this blossom is especially adapted to the gown of the matron, or wherever a touch of lavender is desired. it is effectively combined with violets, or lilies-of-the-valley and maidenhair fern. the petals are made of satin ribbon one and one-quarter inches wide and of the peculiar pinkish lavender orchid shade. there are five petals in all--each calls for seven inches of ribbon. if possible, three of the petals should be one or two shades darker than the other two. fold a seven-inch piece of ribbon (one and one-quarter inches wide) in half with the right side out. cut into shape like the illustration. stitch a seam along the curved edge one-eighth of an inch from the edge. twist a very small loop in one end of a piece of seven-inch tie wire and fasten up at folded end of the ribbon. overhand this wire along the raw edges, turn to the wrong side and sew the wire in with a one-eighth-inch seam on the wrong side. this makes a french seam. now spread the petal open flat, and push it up on the wire until the petal measures six inches in length. gather the raw ends and wind them tight to the wire. finish the other four petals the same way. no. pattern for the center-- this calls for a piece of velvet ribbon one and one-half inches wide and four inches in length. if possible this ribbon should be darker than the darkest petal, but of course should harmonize. roll the ends and hem them down. gather along one edge and draw down close around the looped end of a piece of tie wire in which a bunch of yellow stamens have been fastened. the blossom should be arranged with the three darker petals pointing up at the back of the center and the other two at the front drooping. no. pattern for the center-- this center is made from a piece of velvet ribbon three and one-half inches long and one and one-quarter inches wide. fold lengthwise, with the satin side out. at one end sew straight across, making a seam one-eighth of an inch deep and turn. cut the other end like the diagram and sew this with the velvet side out, leaving a tiny space at the bottom to insert the wire. this now looks something like a "jack in the pulpit." twist a few yellow stamens in the end of a piece of seven-inch tie wire and push the other end down through the little opening left at the lower point and draw the stamens down in as low as desired. make a small, short loop in the tie wire close to the blossom to prevent its slipping back down on the wire. each year there are new developments in flower making, but the principles are the same. if a few are mastered, there is usually very little difficulty experienced in copying others which may appear from year to year. lovely flowers may be made from a few inches of hat braids which are left over or from wool and raffia, maline or colored nets. blossoms of maline or net-- these may be made by using the same pattern as for the american beauty rose, selecting the size required. (see illustration.) lay a strip of tie wire inside along the bias fold. gather along the curved edge and draw down tight. this brings the two ends of the tie wire together, and they should be twisted lightly. arrange four or five leaves around a few yellow stamens. if green tie wire is used, it is not necessary to wind the stems; otherwise brown gum tissue may be wound around the stem. from this pattern many different blossoms may be made, varying it slightly, such as rosebuds, sweet peas, and apple blossoms. sweet peas-- cut four petals after the same pattern, making one about one and one-half inches and two one inch, then a small one for the center, or a few knots of baby ribbon may be used for the center. arrange the petals in a natural-looking blossom. violets-- no flower is more popular than the violet, and a cluster of handsome violets make a most acceptable gift at any time. violet-colored satin ribbon about one-quarter of an inch in width is used. begin by tying a knot one inch from the end, tie another one inch from this knot; continue until there are five or six knots one inch apart. in tying, try to keep the satin side of the ribbon out and make as round a knot as possible by pushing the ribbon edges together on the knot. do not tie too tightly. a little practice is needed, but the blossom is easily made. hold the first knot between the thumb and finger, bring the third knot up and place with it, then the fifth, and so on, until the knots are all placed--usually three on one side, and two or three on the other. cut green tie wire six or seven inches long for stems. wind an inch of the end over the ribbon between these folded knots and twist. cut the ribbon off pointed, leaving one-half inch end. two shades of ribbon may be used if desired. sometimes a few yellow stamens are fastened in with the wire or a few french knots in yellow added at the center after the blossom is made, but neither is needed and add but little to the beauty of this little blossom. shape the petals up around the center. the foliage for this flower can be bought, or made according to directions given elsewhere. a spray of almost any foliage will do. a small rosebud, a morning-glory or an orchid added to a bouquet of violets will make it doubly charming. daisies-- daisies may be made from one-quarter inch ribbon, using as many petals as desired. cut the ribbon into two and one-half-inch lengths. tie a knot in the center. sew the ends to a small, round piece of buckram. if two rows of petals are used, the second row may be made one-quarter of an inch shorter. the center may be covered with ready-made daisy centers or a few french knots. the stem of wire is tacked to the buckram on the back and may be wound with green floss. geraniums-- these flowers are made of geranium-colored satin ribbon. use the same method as in making violets, except that yellow stamens should always be added. fruit apples-- the material required for making apples is cut into a circle of any size desired and from any material. the edge should be turned in one-sixteenth of an inch and gathered all around. place this over a piece of cotton batting, over which a piece of wire has been twisted, leaving ends long enough for a stem. add a sufficient amount of cotton to fill the material out well. draw the thread tight and sew. a stitch may be caught through the center and pulled down, or a little tuft of brown embroidery thread sewed to the center to give a more realistic look. the apple may be tinted with water-color if desired. in that case the entire apple should be moistened first and then the color applied and allowed to dry. cherries-- these are made from a smaller circle of material than the apple--satin or velvet would make a charming cluster. the method used is the same as for the apple, except that there would be no stitch in the center. they should also be filled until they are hard. use tie wire for the stems. plums-- these may be made from a piece of plum-colored material on a true bias, two and one-quarter inches long and one and one-quarter inches wide. sew the ends together on the wrong side. turn, gather one end one-eighth of an inch from the edge. pull the thread up tight and sew. this makes the "blow" end. turn the lower edge in one-eighth of an inch and gather. fill with cotton to which a piece of tie wire has been attached and pull close to wire and sew. add as much cotton as necessary to procure the right shape before finishing. raisins-- these may be made from gathering a folded circle of plum-colored material one-eighth of an inch from the edge, but used without filling with cotton. sew to the end of looped tie wire and wind the wire with brown gum tissue. arrange in a cluster. always warm the tissue before using so that it will adhere. grapes-- these are made the same as cherries, except a cluster would have several sizes. they are beautiful made from black velvet. a cluster of grapes to sew flat to hat may be made by covering different sizes of button molds and arranging them on a hat to look like a cluster. mourning millinery hats worn when one is in mourning are nearly always small and made of black crêpe with a few folds of white crêpe near the face. the covering of crêpe is always lined, preferably with sheet wadding to give the soft appearance desired. the trimming is of milliner's folds or flat flowers made of the crêpe.[ - ] the mourning veils used may have a simple wide hem sewed down by hand or an applied hem. the applied hem is much the handsomer finish. applied hem on a veil-- for a hem three inches wide, cut a strip six inches in width and long enough to reach around the edge of the veil plus three inches for each corner. it takes that much extra length to mitre a corner of a rectangular veil. fold this strip lengthwise in the middle and baste with fine running stitches one inch from the fold to hold the fold flat. measure this strip at the edge of the veil to locate the place where the fold must be mitred at the corners. cut a v-shaped piece from this fold to within one-quarter of an inch of the fold. cut through both thicknesses. sew these raw edges together in a seam one-quarter of an inch deep and the result will be a mitred corner. each corner should be carefully planned and mitred before sewing to the veil. next turn both raw edges down toward the inside one-quarter of an inch and baste separately. slip the edge of the veil between, pin carefully in place, baste and slipstitch the edges to the veil. both edges may be stitched at the same time. if this work is carefully done, the result more than repays the time spent upon it. the veil is a very important part of the hat and may be adjusted in any becoming way. it may form part of the covering of the hat, and is then arranged in becoming folds toward the back and allowed to fall to any desired length. it makes a becoming background for the face. mourning millinery is not used as much as formerly, but those who desire to adhere to the custom will find the style little changed. footnotes: [footnote - : see chapter on "flowers."] chapter ix remodeling and renovating straw shapes-- brim--brush well to remove all the dust. if the brim is too wide, a few rows of braid may be removed from the edge, and the edge refinished with one or more rows of ornamental braid of the same color. if it seems necessary to use an edge wire, this last row of braid may be made to cover it, or a bias fold of satin, silk, velvet, or ribbon may be sewed over the wire. crown--when the crown of a straw hat is found to be too low for the present style, the crown may be ripped from the brim, a narrow piece of buckram sewed to the bottom of the crown and then sewed back to the brim. of course trimming must be planned to cover up this buckram. if the crown is too high, a few rows of braid may be removed at the bottom of the crown, enough to give the desired height. to put a straw hat into shape-- if the general outlines of a straw shape are found to be good, or if it only needs slight reshaping, it can be done at home with satisfactory results. it is really home-blocking by the use of heavy cardboard. a rounded crown can be made flat on top, and a slightly rolling brim can be made into a straight brim by using this method. it is a joy to take an old, discarded, battered straw hat and make it into a fresh-looking and up-to-date hat, a piece of work which any one may well be proud of. cut from a piece of heavy cardboard the exact shape and size of which the crown top is to be made. cut another the exact height of the crown and long enough to fit around the head, allowing the ends to just meet. sew these pieces of cardboard together which will make a crown the exact shape you wish. dampen the straw crown sufficiently to make it very pliable and pull it into shape over this cardboard crown. turn the crown upside down on a flat surface and place a weight in the crown. a flatiron or a small stone jar will make a good weight. bind the outside firmly and smoothly with a cloth, pin in place, and leave to dry. after it is thoroughly dry, remove the cloth, and before removing it from the block, cover with a coating or two of some good coloring which may be bought for the purpose. this can be procured in several colors, but must be put on with a stiff brush and rubbed in well in order to produce an even shade. if the brim is rolling and is to be made flat, dampen it thoroughly, press it down flat on a smooth surface, and cover with weights; leave until dry, when a few coats of coloring may be applied. if the brim is separate from the crown, the hat may be completely changed by slipping the brim down over the crown, leaving it an inch or so from the bottom on one side or in the back, making a bandeau which lends itself to trimming of flowers, ribbons, or malines. in this case the bottom of the crown would require a wire sewed on at the edge to keep it in shape. if a high luster is desired, a coating of shellac may be applied the last thing before trimming. light straw hats-- light straw hats may be cleaned by the use of soap and water or gasoline. if the hat is in need of bleaching, sulphur and water may be used, or a commercial bleaching fluid may be bought all ready to use according to printed directions. two or three coatings of coloring will change the color. pleasing results are sometimes obtained by using two different colors, one over the other. this, of course, requires experience and should be tried out before using on a hat. when straw is to be re-sewed-- rip carefully from the foundation; brush and press carefully. some straw will not stand dampening, so try out a small piece first. place it on a heavily-padded board and press on the wrong side. panama hats-- it is much more satisfactory to send a panama to a good professional cleaner. a panama hat may be made less severe-looking by the addition of an underfacing on the brim of some sheer material, such as georgette or crêpe de chine, finished off at the edge over a wire. the facing may be put on top of the brim if desired. the entire crown is sometimes changed by covering it with a figured chiffon drawn down tightly and finished at the bottom with a band and bow of ribbon. another change might be made by covering the entire crown with flower petals sewed down flat and intermingled with green leaves. they should then be covered with a layer or more of maline. this is a good way to use up old flowers. the flowers will stand a lot of retouching with color when they are veiled. old buckram frames-- when a covered buckram shape has become broken and out of shape, remove all the covering. dampen the frame and press with a hot iron. a roll of cloth or paper must be held in the hand while pressing the crown. a break in buckram is difficult to remove; however, if new material is not available, much may be done with the old. do not remove the headsize wire unless a pencil mark is made where it is to be sewed. if the headsize wire is too large or too small, now is the time to change it. if the general shape of the brim is to be changed, remove the edge wire and trim to the required width. if it is to droop or roll, slash the brim from the outer edge to the headsize wire and lap one-quarter of an inch at the edge. slash in several places if necessary. sew close to both lapped edges of the buckram and cover with a strip of muslin or crinoline sewed on flat. if a brim is to be made more flat or flaring, slash and add v-shaped pieces of buckram. if the headsize is entirely too large, this may be remedied by dividing the brim into halves. remove the headsize wire and the edge wire, cutting through from front to back. lap and sew; make the headsize wire the required size and sew back on the brim. trim the outer edge of the brim and add the edge wire. the same thing may be done to the crown. if too large, divide into halves and lap the edges until it is the required size, or a piece of material may be added to make the crown larger. the crown may be lowered by cutting a piece from the base, or raised by adding a piece of heavy material at the base. when a fabric-covered brim is changed it will be found difficult to use the old covering, but it can sometimes be done. blocking over wire frames-- if a buckram frame needs changing radically, it may be done by blocking over a wire frame made for the purpose. the wire frame should have six sticks instead of four, and circles not more than one inch apart, shaped as desired. old or new buckram, neteen, or any coarse material which has been heavily starched, may be used. wet the fabric thoroughly with warm water. block the crown first. place the material over the crown and pull it down until all the wrinkles are removed, pin closely to the headsize wire all around. when dry, mark with a pencil all around close to the headsize wire, remove from the frame, cut on the pencil mark and sew a headsize wire on the edge. if there are marks of the wire to be removed, hold a cloth on the inside of the crown and press lightly with a hot iron. the brim is managed in the same way. mark at the headsize, cut off at this point one-half inch inside the mark, and sew a headsize wire on the pencil mark. mark at the edge wire, cut off at the pencil mark, and finish with edge wire. new brims for old crowns-- if the brim of a hat is past renewing, a new one may be made, or the wire brim from an old hat may be used with a crown of velvet, or any fabric or straw. the wire brim may be re-covered with georgette--an old, half-worn waist will do nicely, using the back or sleeves, or any portions that are not too badly worn. when a heavier crown is used, the edge of a sheer brim should have a fold of material like the crown sewed at the edge, or a row of straw when the crown is of straw braid. felt and beaver hats-- when soiled, clean with gasoline and cornmeal. to restore the gloss, rub the hat with a very fine piece of sandpaper which has been tacked over a small block of wood. rub with the nap. to complete the process, remove the sandpaper and substitute a piece of velvet. rub this on a hot iron, then on beeswax. continue the operation of rubbing the hat with the nap until it is restored to its original freshness. the crown must be packed with cloth before rubbing to keep it solid enough to do satisfactory work. if the brim of a felt or beaver hat needs cutting down at the edge, mark with a piece of chalk where the brim is to be cut. sew on this line with an unthreaded sewing machine several times, and the felt will be cut through and the edge broken off at this point. this looks much better than when cut with shears or with a knife. renovation of hat coverings and linings-- to freshen velvet and raise the pile, brush well to remove the dust. with the wrong side down, hold it over the spout of a tea-kettle of rapidly boiling water. an assistant is needed to brush it lightly as it is passed back and forth over the steam. the great force of the steam will raise the pile much more quickly than the method of using a damp cloth over a hot iron. if the velvet after steaming is found to be still too imperfect or faded to be used on the hat plain, it may be gathered a half inch apart or more and used either on the crown or the brim, or it may be mirrored by ironing on the right side with a hot iron, always ironing lightly one way, using a sweeping motion. do not let the iron rest for a second on the material or it will leave a mark. to freshen crÊpe for mourning millinery-- brush the crêpe with a fine brush to remove the dust. clean in gasoline if necessary. crêpe may be made to look like new if pinned down smoothly and evenly on a padded surface, a damp cloth placed over it, then a hot iron passed over it without touching it, but near enough so that a slight amount of steam will dampen the crêpe. remove the cloth and allow the crêpe to dry in place. crêpe becomes shabby-looking quickly if not given the best of care. cleaning, curling, and tinting feathers-- to clean, immerse the feather in gasoline to which has been added a few spoonfuls of cornmeal. draw the feather through the hands several times until it is clean; rinse in clear gasoline and shake in the fresh air till dry. a very light-colored or white feather may be tinted by dissolving some oil paint in the gasoline used for rinsing. to curl, draw the flues, a very few at a time, over a blunt knife. a plume is rather difficult to sew on a hat and produce the desired effect. the end of the quill may be sewed very firmly to the hat, while the tip of the plume should not be sewed close to the hat, otherwise it will look stiff. ribbons-- if soiled, they may be cleaned in gasoline or soap and water, using a brush. do not rub or wring. hang up to drip dry, or wind tightly around a bottle and leave to dry. do not press until after twenty-four hours, if cleaned in gasoline. to produce extra stiffness, rinse in a weak solution of sugar and water. it is also very easy to change the color of ribbons by using any of the commercial cold dyes. flowers-- if flowers are faded, they may be touched up with water-color. if they are pink, rouge may be used effectively. if the edges are much frayed, trim them slightly with the shears. green leaves may be dipped in hot paraffine to restore their gloss, or pressed with a warm iron without paraffine. even very imperfect flowers may be made to look well if veiled with maline or georgette. quills-- quills are sometimes improved by passing them between the thumb and finger on which a small amount of vaseline or oil has been placed. a quill may be curved by holding it over the spout of a tea-kettle of rapidly boiling water. place a dull knife on the underside and press the quill hard enough to make a sharp dent. do this every half inch. if the quill is sufficiently steamed this may be accomplished easily, and the result is permanent. wings-- loose feathers should be glued in place and the wing covered with maline or a hair net of the same color. wings may be covered with a coat of shellac which stiffens them and gives them a very glossy look. lace-- most laces may be washed in warm, soapy water. press gently in the hands--do not rub. press the water out after having rinsed the lace well in warm water. shake gently and pin down smoothly on a sheet, being careful to stretch and pin each scallop in place. allow it to dry. if necessary press slightly with a warm iron on the wrong side. some laces are greatly improved by pressing. malines-- malines may be used to good advantage, even if parts are badly worn and faded. place a thin, damp cloth over them and press with a warm iron. allow to dry thoroughly before removing from the ironing-board. * * * * * * transcriber's note the following typographical errors were corrected. page change to cover side crown changed to to cover side crown-- crepe changed to crÊpe wings changed to wings-- the "how-to-do-it" books practical mechanics for boys the "how-to-do-it" books practical mechanics for boys in language which every boy can understand and so arranged that he may readily carry out any work from the instructions given. with many original illustrations by j. s. zerbe, m.e. _author of_ carpentry for boys electricity for boys m. a. donohue & company chicago :: new york copyright, , by the new york book company made in u. s. a. contents introductory page i. on tools generally page varied requirements. list of tools. swivel vises. parts of lathe. chisels. grinding apparatus. large machines. chucks. bench tools. selecting a lathe. combination square. micrometers. protractors. utilizing bevel protractors. truing grindstones. sets of tools. the work bench. the proper dimensions. how arranged. ii. how to grind and sharpen tools page importance of the cutting tool. the grinder. correct use of grinder. lathe bitts. roughing tools. the clearance. the cutting angle. drills. wrong grinding. chisels. cold chisels. system in work. wrong use of tools. iii. setting and holding tools page lathe speed. the hack-saw. hack-saw frame. the blade. files. grindstones. emery and grinding wheels. carelessness in holding tools. calipers. care in use of calipers. machine bitts. the proper angle for lathe tools. setting the bitt. the setting angle. bad practice. proper lathe speeds. boring tools on lathe. the rake of the drill. laps. using the lap. surface gages. uses of the surface gage. iv. on the first use of the file page the first test. filing an irregular block. filing a bar straight. filing bar with parallel sides. surfacing off disks. true surfacing. precision tools. test of the mechanic. test suggestions. use of the dividers. cutting a key-way. key-way difficulties. filing metal round. kinds of files. cotter-file. square. pinion. half-round. round. triangular. equalizing. cross. slitting. character of file tooth. double cut. float-cut. rasp cut. holding the file. injuring files. drawing back the file. v. how to commence work page familiarity with tools. file practice. using the dividers. finding centers. hack-saw practice. cutting metal true. lathe work. first steps. setting the tool. metals used. the four important things. turning up a cylinder. turning grooves. disks. lathe speeds. vi. illustrating some of the fundamental devices page belt lacing. gears. crown wheel. grooved friction gearing. a valve which closes by the water pressure. cone pulleys. universal joint. trammel for making ellipses. escapements. simple device to prevent a wheel or shaft from turning back. racks and pinions. mutilated gears. simple shaft coupling. clutches. ball and socket joints. tripping devices. anchor bolt. lazy tongs. disk shears. wabble saw. crank motion by a slotted yoke. continuous feed by motion of a lever. crank motion. ratchet head. bench clamp. helico-volute spring. double helico-volute. helical spring. single volute helix spring. flat spiral, or convolute. eccentric rod and strap. anti-dead center for lathe. vii. properties of materials page elasticity. traction. torsion. flexure. tenacity. the most tenacious metal. ductility. malleability. hardness. alloys. resistance. persistence. conductivity. equalization. reciprocity. molecular forces. attraction. cohesion. adhesion. affinity. porosity. compressibility. elasticity. inertia. momentum. weight. centripetal force. centrifugal force. capillary attraction. the sap of trees. sound. acoustics. sound mediums. vibration. velocity of sound. sound reflections. resonance. echos. speaking trumpet. the stethoscope. the vitascope. the phonautograph. the phonograph. light. the corpuscular theory. undulatory theory. luminous bodies. velocity of light. reflection. refraction. colors. the spectroscope. the rainbow. heat. expansion. viii. how draughting becomes a valuable aid page lines in drawing. shading. direction of shade. perspectives. the most pronounced lines. direction of light. scale drawings. degree, and what it means. memorizing angles. section lining. making ellipses and irregular curves. focal points. isometric and perspective. the protractor. suggestions in drawing. holding the pen. inks. tracing cloth. detail paper. how to proceed. indicating material by section lines. ix. treatment and use of metals page annealing. toughness and elasticity. the process. tempering. tempering contrasted with annealing. materials used. gradual tempering. fluxing. uniting metals. alloying method. welding. sweating. welding compounds. oxidation. soldering. soft solder. hard solder. spelter. soldering acid. the soldering iron. x. on gearing, and how ordered page spur and pinion. measuring a gear. pitch. diametral pitch. circular pitch. how to order a gear. bevel and miter gears. drawing gears. sprocket wheels. xi. mechanical power page the lever. wrong inferences from use of lever. the lever principle. powers vs. distance traveled. power vs. loss of time. wrongly-directed energy. the lever and the pulley. sources of power. water power. calculating fuel energy. the pressure or head. fuels. power from winds. speed of wind and pressure. varying degrees of pressure. power from waves and tides. a profitable field. xii. on measures page horse power. foot pounds. energy. how to find out the power developed. the test. calculations. the foot measure. weight. the gallon. the metric system. basis of measurement. metrical table, showing measurements in feet and inches. xiii. useful information for the workshop page finding the circumference of a circle. diameter of a circle. area of a circle. area of a triangle. surface of a ball. solidity of a sphere. contents of a cone. capacity of a pipe. capacity of tanks. to toughen aluminum. amalgams. prevent boiler scaling. diamond test. making glue insoluble in water. taking glaze out of grindstone. to find speeds of pulleys. to find the diameters required. to prevent belts from slipping. removing boiler scale. gold bronze. cleaning rusted utensils. to prevent plaster of paris from setting quickly. the measurement of liquids with spoons. xiv. simplicity of great inventions and of nature's manifestation page invention precedes science. simplicity in inventions. the telegraph. telephone. transmitter. phonograph. wireless telegraphy. printing telegraph. electric motor. explosions. vibrations in nature. qualities of sound. the photographer's plate. quadruplex telegraphy. electric harmony. odors. odophone. a bouquet of vibrations. taste. color. xv. workshop recipes and formulas page adhesives for various uses. belt glue. cements. transparent cement. u. s. government gum. to make different alloys. bell-metal. brass. bronzes. boiler compounds. celluloid. clay mixture for forges. modeling clay. fluids for cleaning clothes, furniture, etc. disinfectants. deodorants. emery for lapping purposes. explosives. fulminates. files, and how to keep clean. renewing files. fire-proof materials or substances. floor dressings. stains. foot powders. frost bites. glass. to frost. how to distinguish. iron and steel. to soften castings. lacquers. for aluminum and brass. copper. lubricants. paper. photography. plasters. plating, coloring metals. polishes. putty. rust preventives. solders. soldering fluxes. steel tempering. varnishes. sealing wax. xvi. handy tables page table of weights for round and square steel. table of weight of flat steel bars. avoirdupois weight. troy weight. apothecaries' weight. linear measure. long measure. square measure. solid or cubic measure. dry measure. liquid measure. paper measure. table of temperatures. strength of various metals. freezing mixtures. ignition temperatures. power and heat equivalents. xvii. inventions and patents, and information about the rights and duties of inventors and workmen, page the machinist's opportunities. what is an inventor? idea not invention. what an invention must have. obligation of the model builder. paying for developing devices. time for filing an application. selling an unpatented invention. joint inventors. joint owners not partners. partnerships in patents. form of protection issued by the government. life of a patent. interference proceedings. concurrent applications. granting interference. steps in interference. first sketches. first model. first operative machine. preliminary statements. proving invention. what patents are issued for. owner's rights. divided and undivided patents. assignments. how made. what an invention must have. basis for granting patent in the united states. reasons for granting abroad. original grants of patents. international agreement. application for patents. course of procedure. costs. filing a matter of secrecy. list of illustrations fig. page . bench vise . pipe grip for vise . swivel vise . speed lathe . calipers . engine lathe . center gage . pocket screw and wire gage . handy bench vise . combination square . uses of the combination square . a quick adjusting micrometer . universal bevel protractor . uses of universal bevel protractor . grindstone truing device . set of tools and case . the work bench . hook tool . parting tool . knife tool . right-hand side tool . internal tool . left-hand side tool . tool for wrought iron . tool for cast iron . end view of drill . side view of drill . hack-saw frame . hack-saw blade . plain hook tool . plain straight tool . proper angles for tools . angles for tools . angles for tools . set of the bitt . correct angle . wrong angle . too low . improper set . internal set . set for brass . surface gage . uses of surface gage . rounded surface . winding surface . hexagon nut . laying off hexagon nut . cutting key-way . key-seat rule . filing metal round . filing metal round . making a round bearing . making a round bearing . cross section of file . files . correct file movement . incorrect file movement . belt lacing . belt lacing . belt lacing . belt lacing . bevel gears . miter gears . crown wheel . grooved friction gears . valve . cone pulleys . universal joint . trammel . escapement . device for holding wheel . rack and pinion . mutilated gears . shaft coupling . clutches . ball and socket joints . fastening ball . tripping devices . anchor bolt . lazy tongs . disc shears . wabble saw . continuous crank motion . continues feed . crank motion . ratchet head . bench clamp . helico-volute spring . double helico-volute . helical spring . single volute-helix . flat spiral or convolute . eccentric rod or strap . anti dead-centers for lathes . plain circle . ring . raised surface . sphere . depressed surface . concave . forms of cubical outlines . forms of cubical outlines . forms of cubical outlines . forms of cubical outlines . shading edges . shading edges . illustrating heavy lines . illustrating heavy lines . lines on plain surfaces . lines on plain surfaces . illustrating degrees . section lining . drawing an ellipse . perspective at angles . perspective of cube . perspective of cube . perspective of cube . protractor . using the protractor . section-lining metals . spur gears . miter gear pitch . bevel gears . laying of miter gears . sprocket wheel . simple lever . lever action . the pulley . change of direction . change of direction . steam pressure . water pressure . prony brake . speed indicator practical mechanics for boys introductory the american method of teaching the mechanical arts has some disadvantages, as compared with the apprentice system followed in england, and very largely on the continent. it is too often the case that here a boy or a young man begins work in a machine shop, not for the avowed purpose of learning the trade, but simply as a helper, with no other object in view than to get his weekly wages. abroad, the plan is one which, for various reasons, could not be tolerated here. there he is bound for a certain term of years, and with the prime object of teaching him to become an artisan. more often than otherwise he pays for this privilege, and he knows it is incumbent on him "to make good" right from the start. he labors under the disadvantage, however, that he has a certain tenure, and in that course he is not pushed forward from one step to the next on account of any merit of his own. his advancement is fixed by the time he has put in at each part of the work, and thus no note is taken of his individuality. here the boy rises step after step by virtue of his own qualifications, and we recognize that one boy has the capacity to learn faster than another. if he can learn in one year what it requires three in another to acquire, in order to do it as perfectly, it is an injury to the apt workman to be held back and deterred from making his way upwardly. it may be urged that the apprentice system instills thoroughness. this may be true; but it also does another thing: it makes the man a mere machine. the true workman is a thinker. he is ever on the alert to find easier, quicker and more efficient means for doing certain work. what is called "efficiency" in labor methods, can never obtain in an apprenticeship system for this reason. in a certain operation, where twelve motions are required to do a certain thing, and a minute to perform the twelve operations, a simplified way, necessitating only eight motions, means a difference in saving one-third of the time. the nineteen hundred fewer particular movements in a day's work, being a less strain on the operator, both physically and mentally, to say nothing whatever of the advantages which the proprietor of the shop would gain. i make this a leading text in the presentation of this book; namely, that individual merit and stimulus is something of such extreme importance that it should be made the keynote for every boy who tries to become a mechanic. the machinist easily occupies a leading place in the multitude of trades and occupations. there is hardly an article of use but comes to the market through his hands. his labor is most diverse, and in his employment doing machine work he is called upon to do things which vary widely in their character. these require special knowledge, particular tools, and more frequently than otherwise, a high order of inventive ability to enable him to accomplish the task. the boy should be taught, at the outset, that certain things must be learned thoroughly, and that habits in a machine shop can be bad as well as good. when he once becomes accustomed to putting a tool back in its rightful place the moment he is through with it, he has taken a long step toward efficiency. when he grasps a tool and presents it to the work without turning it over several times, or has acquired the knack of picking up the right tool at the proper place, he is making strides in the direction of becoming a rapid and skilled workman. these, and many other things of like import, will require our attention throughout the various chapters. it is not the intention of the book to make every boy who reads and studies it, a machinist; nor have we any desire to present a lot of useful articles as samples of what to make. the object is to show the boy what are the requirements necessary to make him a machinist; how to hold, handle, sharpen and grind the various tools; the proper ones to use for each particular character of work; how the various machines are handled and cared for; the best materials to use; and suggest the numerous things which can be done in a shop which will pave the way for making his work pleasant as well as profitable. it also analyzes the manner in which the job is laid out; how to set the tools to get the most effective work; and explains what is meant by making a finished piece of workmanship. these things, properly acquired, each must determine in his own mind whether he is adapted to follow up the work. over and above all, we shall try to give the boy some stimulus for his work. unless he takes an interest in what he is doing, he will never become an artisan in the true sense of the word. go through the book, and see whether, here and there, you do not get some glimpses of what it means to take a pleasure in doing each particular thing, and you will find in every instance that it is a satisfaction because you have learned to perform it with ease. i do not know of anything which has done as much to advance the arts and manufactures, during the last century, as the universal desire to improve the form, shape and structure of tools; and the effort to invent new ones. this finds its reflection everywhere in the production of new and improved products. in this particular i have been led to formulate a homely sentence which expresses the idea: invention consists in doing an old thing a new way; or a new thing any way. the author. chapter i on tools generally judging from the favorable comments of educators, on the general arrangement of the subject matter in the work on "carpentry for boys," i am disposed to follow that plan in this book in so far as it pertains to tools. in this field, as in "carpentry," i do not find any guide which is adapted to teach the boy the fundamentals of mechanics. writers usually overlook the fact, that as the boy knows nothing whatever about the subject, he could not be expected to know anything about tools. to describe them gives a start in the education, but it is far short of what is necessary for one in his condition. if he is told that the chisel or bit for a lathe has a diamond point, or is round-nosed, and must be ground at a certain angle, he naturally wants to know, as all boys do, _why_ it should be at that angle. so in the setting of the tools with relation to the work, the holding and manipulation of the file, of the drill for accurate boring, together with numerous little things, are all taken for granted, and the boy blunders along with the ultimate object in sight, without having the pathway cleared so he may readily reach the goal. varied requirements.--the machinist's trade is one which requires the most varied tools of all occupations, and they are by all odds the most expensive to be found in the entire list of vocations. [illustration: _fig. . bench vise._] this arises from the fact that he must work with the most stubborn of all materials. he finds resistance at every step in bringing forth a product. list of tools.--with a view of familiarizing the boy with this great variety the following list is compiled, from which we shall select the ones essential in the initial equipment of a small shop. vises.--one small, good vise is infinitely preferable to two bad ones. for ordinary work a -inch jaw is preferable, and it should be firmly mounted on the bench. so many kinds are now made that it would be a costly thing to purchase one for each special use, therefore the boy will find it profitable to make some attachments for the ordinary vise. [illustration: _fig. . pipe grip for vise._] swivel vises.--a swivel vise is always a good tool, the cost being not excessive over the ordinary kind. then a pair of grips for holding pipe, or round material which is to be threaded, can readily be made. the drawing (fig. ) shows a serviceable pair of grips, made to fit the jaws of a vise, and will be acceptable in much of the work. then, the vise should be provided with copper caps for the jaws to be used when making up articles which would otherwise be injured by the jaws. [illustration: _fig. . swivel vise._] let us get a comprehensive view of the different kinds of tools necessary in a fully equipped shop. parts of lathe.--the first thing of importance is the lathe, and of these there is quite a variety, and among the accompaniments are the slide rest, mandrel, back gear, division plate, angle plate, cone plate and various chucks. there must also be change wheels, studs and quadrant plates, self-acting feed for surfacing and cross slide, and clamping nuts. drilling machines, both hand and power, hand and ratchet braces and breast-drill stocks. [illustration: _fig. --speed lathe._] chisels.--chisels of various kinds, for chipping and cross-cutting; round-nosed, centering, set punches, tommies and drifts. back, tee and centering square; bevels, spirit level, inside and outside calipers, straight edges, rules and surface plates. gages for boring, scribing blocks, steel and brass scribes, stocks and dies, screw-plates, taps for bolts, reamers. [illustration: _fig. . calipers_] files for various descriptions, countersinks, frame and hack saws. grinding apparatus.--emery wheel, cloth and paper, paper, flour emery, polishing powders, laps and buffs, and polishing sticks. [illustration: _fig. . engine lathe._ _a. lathe bed_ _b. rack gear_ _c. live center_ _d. dead center_ _e. dead spindle_ _f. face plate_ _g. feed screw_ _h. train of gears_ _i. head stock_ _j. mandrel_ _k. cone pulley_ _l. angle plate for tool holder_ _m. tool post_ _n. tail stock_ _o. wheel for slide rest mechanism_ _p. locking lever for tail stock._] forge, anvils, tongs, swages, punches, bolt tools, hot and cold chisels, blow-pipe, soldering iron, hard and soft solders, borax, spirits of salts, oil, resin and spelter. to this may be added an endless variety of small bench tools, micrometers, protractors, arbors, collets, box tools and scrapers. [illustration: _fig. . center gage._] large machines.--the list would not be complete without the planer, shaper and milling machine, with their variety of chucks, clamps and other attachments, too numerous to mention. the foregoing show what a wonderful variety of articles are found in a well-equipped shop, all of which can be conveniently used; but to the boy who has only a small amount of money, a workable set is indicated as follows: a small lathe, with an -inch swing, can be obtained at a low cost, provided with a countershaft complete. chucks.--with this should go a small chuck, and a face-plate for large work, unless a large chuck can also be acquired. this, with a dozen tools of various sizes, and also small bits for drilling purposes. the lathe will answer all purposes for drilling, but small drilling machines are now furnished at very low figures, and such a machine will take off a great deal of duty from the lathe. [illustration: _fig. . pocket screw and wire gage._] as the lathe is of prime importance, never use it for drilling, if you have a driller, as it always has enough work to do for tuning up work. bench tools.--of bench tools, a -inch vise, various files, center punch, two hammers, round and a-shaped peons, hack saw, compasses, inside and outside calipers, screw driver, cold chisels, metal square, level, straight edge, bevel square, reamers, small emery wheel and an oil stone, make a fairly good outfit to start with, and these can be added to from time to time. everything in the machine shop centers about the lathe. it is the king of all tools. the shaper and planer may be most efficient for surfacing, and the milling machine for making grooves and gears, or for general cutting purposes, but the lathe possesses a range of work not possible with either of the other tools, and for that reason should be selected with great care. [illustration: _fig. . handy bench vise._] selecting a lathe.--the important things about a lathe are the spindle bearings and the ways for the tool-holder. the least play in either will ruin any work. every other part may be defective, but with solidly built bearing-posts and bearings, your lathe will be effective. for this reason it will not pay to get a cheap tool. better get a small, -inch approved tool of this kind, than a larger cheap article. it may pay with other tools, but with a lathe never. never do grinding on a lathe. the fine emery, or grinding material, is sure to reach the bearings; it matters not what care is exercised. there is only one remedy for this--overhauling. [illustration: _fig. .--combination square._] combination square.--a tool of this kind is most essential, however small. it can be used as a try-square, and has this advantage, that the head can be made to slide along the rule and be clamped at any point. it has a beveling and a leveling device, as well. [illustration: _fig. .--uses of the combination square._] the combination square provides a means for doing a great variety of work, as it combines the qualities of a rule, square, miter, depth gage, height gage, level and center head. [illustration: _fig. .--a quick adjusting micrometer._] the full page illustration (fig. ) shows some of the uses and the particular manner of holding the tool. micrometers.--tools of this description are made which will accurately measure work in dimensions of ten-thousandths of an inch up to an inch. the illustration (fig. ) shows an approved tool, and this is so constructed that it can instantly be changed and set by merely pressing the end of the plunger as shown. [illustration: _fig. .--a universal bevel protractor._] protractors.--as all angles are not obtainable by the square or bevel, a protractor is a most desirable addition to the stock of tools. as one side of the tool is flat it is convenient for laying on the paper when drafting, as well as for use on the work. the protractor has a graduated disk, and is adjustable so it can be disposed at any angle. [illustration: _fig. .--universal bevel protractor, showing its uses._] all special tools of this kind are serviceable, and the boy should understand their uses, even though he is not able for the time being to acquire them. to learn how they are applied in daily use is an education in itself. utilizing bevel protractor.--examine the full-page illustration (fig. ), and see how the bevel protractor is utilized to measure the angles of work, whether it is tapering heads or different kinds of nuts, or end and side surfacing, and it will teach an important lesson. [illustration: _fig. .--grindstone truing device._] truing grindstones.--devices for truing up grindstones are now made, and the illustration (fig. ) shows a very efficient machine for this purpose. it can be applied instantly to the face of the stone, and it works automatically, without interfering with the use of the stone. it is frequently the case that an emery wheel will become glazed, due to its extreme hardness. this is also caused, sometimes, by running it at too high a speed. if the glazing continues after the speed is reduced, it should be ground down an eighth of an inch or so. this will, usually, remedy the defect. [illustration: _fig. .--set of tools and case._] sets of tools.--a cheap and convenient set of precision tools is shown in fig. , which is kept in a neat folding leather case. the set consists of a -inch combination square, complete center punch, -inch flexible steel rule center gage, -inch calipers, -inch outside caliper with solid nut, -inch inside caliper with solid nut, and a -inch divider with a solid nut. [illustration: _fig. . the work bench._] the work bench.--this is the mechanic's fort. his capacity for work will depend on its arrangement. to the boy this is particularly interesting, and for his uses it should be made full three inches lower than the standard height. a good plan to judge of the proper height is to measure from the jaws of the vise. the top of the jaw should be on a level with the elbows. grasp a file with both hands, and hold it as though in the act of filing across the work; then measure up from the floor to the elbows, when they are held in that position. the proper dimensions.--this plan will give you a sure means of selecting a height that is best adapted for your work. the regulation bench is about inches high, and assuming that the vise projects up about inches more, would bring the top of the jaws about to inches from the floor. it is safe to fix the height of the bench at not less than inches. this should have a drawer, preferably near the right-hand end of the bench. the vise should be at the left side, and the bench in your front should be free of any fixed tools. how arranged.--have a rack above the bench at the rear, for the various tools when not in use, and the rear board of the bench should be elevated above the front planks several inches, on which the various tools can be put, other than those which are suspended on the rack above. the advantage of this is, that a bench will accumulate a quantity of material that the tools can hide in, and there is nothing more annoying than to hunt over a lot of trash to get what is needed. it is necessary to emphasize the necessity of always putting a tool back in its proper place, immediately after using. chapter ii how to grind and sharpen tools it is singular, that with the immense variety of tools set forth in the preceding chapter, how few, really, require the art of the workman to grind and sharpen. if we take the lathe, the drilling machine, as well as the shaper, planer, milling machine, and all power-driven tools, they are merely mechanism contrived to handle some small, and, apparently, inconsequential tool, which does the work on the material. importance of the cutting tool.--but it is this very fact that makes the preparation of that part of the mechanism so important. here we have a lathe, weighing a thousand pounds, worth hundreds of dollars, concentrating its entire energies on a little bit, weighing eight ounces, and worth less than a dollar. it may thus readily be seen that it is the little bar of metal from which the small tool is made that needs our care and attention. this is particularly true of the expensive milling machines, where the little saw, if not in perfect order, and not properly set, will not only do improper work, but injure the machine itself. more lathes are ruined from using badly ground tools than from any other cause. in the whole line of tools which the machinist must take care of daily, there is nothing as important as the lathe cutting-tool, and the knowledge which goes with it to use the proper one. let us simplify the inquiry by considering them under the following headings: . the grinder. . the grinding angle. the grinder.--the first mistake the novice will make, is to use the tool on the grinder as though it were necessary to grind it down with a few turns of the wheel. haste is not conducive to proper sharpening. as the wheel is of emery, corundum or other quickly cutting material, and is always run at a high rate of speed, a great heat is evolved, which is materially increased by pressure. pressure is injurious not so much to the wheel as to the tool itself. the moment a tool becomes heated there is danger of destroying the temper, and the edge, being the thinnest, is the most violently affected. hence it is desirable always to have a receptacle with water handy, into which the tool can be plunged, during the process of grinding down. correct use of grinder.--treat the wheel as though it is a friend, and not an enemy. take advantage of its entire surface. whenever you go into a machine shop, look at the emery wheel. if you find it worn in creases, and distorted in its circular outline, you can make up your mind that there is some one there who has poor tools, because it is simply out of the question to grind a tool correctly with such a wheel. [illustration: _fig. . hook tool._] [illustration: _fig. . parting tool._] [illustration: _fig. . knife tool._] [illustration: _fig. . right-hand side tool._] [illustration: _fig. . internal tool._] [illustration: _fig. . left-hand side tool._] coarse wheels are an abomination for tool work. use the finest kinds devised for the purpose. they will keep in condition longer, are not so liable to wear unevenly, and will always finish off the edge better than the coarse variety. lathe bits.--all bits made for lathes are modifications of the foregoing types (figs. , , , , , ). as this chapter deals with the sharpening methods only, the reader is referred to the next chapter, which deals with the manner of setting and holding them to do the most effective work. when it is understood that a cutting tool in a lathe is simply a form of wedge which peels off a definite thickness of metal, the importance of proper grinding and correct position in the lathe can be appreciated. roughing tools.--the most useful is the roughing tool to take off the first cut. as this type of tool is also important, with some modifications, in finishing work, it is given the place of first consideration here. [illustration: _fig. . tool for wrought iron._ _fig. . tool for cast iron._] fig. shows side and top views of a tool designed to rough off wrought iron, or a tough quality of steel. you will notice, that what is called the top rake (a) is very pronounced, and, as the point projects considerably above the body of the tool itself, it should, in practice, be set with its cutting point above the center. the clearance.--now, in grinding, the important point is the clearance line (b). as shown in this figure, it has an angle of degrees, so that in placing the tool in the holder it is obvious it cannot be placed very high above the center, particularly when used on small work. the top rake is ground at an angle of degrees from the vertical. the arc of the curved end depends on the kind of lathe and the size of the work. the tool (fig. ), with a straight cutting edge, is the proper one to rough off cast iron. note that the top rake (c) is degrees, and the clearance degrees. the cutting angle.--wrought iron, or mild steel, will form a ribbon when the tool wedges its way into the material. cast iron, on the other hand, owing to its brittleness, will break off into small particles, hence the wedge surface can be put at a more obtuse angle to the work. in grinding side-cutters the clearance should be at a less angle than degrees, rather than more, and the top rake should also be less; otherwise the tendency will be to draw the tool into the work and swing the tool post around. drills.--holders for grinding twist drills are now furnished at very low prices, and instructions are usually sent with the machines, but a few words may not be amiss for the benefit of those who have not the means to purchase such a machine. hand grinding is a difficult thing, for the reason that through carelessness, or inability, both sides of the drill are not ground at the same angle and pitch. as a result the cutting edge of one side will do more work than the other. if the heel angles differ, one side will draw into the work, and the other resist. [illustration: _fig. . end view._ _fig. . side view._] wrong grinding.--when such is the case the hole becomes untrue. the sides of the bit will grind into the walls, or the bit will have a tendency to run to one side, and particularly if boring through metal which is uneven in its texture or grain. figs. and show end and side views of a bit properly ground. if a bit has been broken off, first grind it off square at the end, and then grind down the angles, so that a is about degrees, and be sure that the heel has sufficient clearance--that is, ground down deeper than the cutting point. chisels.--a machine shop should always have a plentiful supply of cold chisels, and a particular kind for each work, to be used for that purpose only. this may seem trivial to the boy, but it is really a most important matter. notice the careless and incompetent workman. if chipping or cutting is required, he will grasp the first chisel at hand. it may have a curved end, or be a key-way chisel, or entirely unsuited as to size for the cutting required. the result is an injured tool, and unsatisfactory results. the rule holds good in this respect as with every other tool in the kit. _use a tool for the purpose it was made for_, and for no other. acquire that habit. cold chisels.--a cold chisel should never be ground to a long, tapering point, like a wood chisel. the proper taper for a wood chisel is degrees, whereas a cold chisel should be degrees. a drifting chisel may have a longer taper than one used for chipping. it is a good habit, particularly as there are so few tools which require grinding, to commence the day's work by grinding the chisels, and arranging them for business. system in work.--then see to it that the drills are in good shape; and while you are about it, look over the lathe tools. you will find that it is better to do this work at one time, than to go to the emery wheel a dozen times a day while you are engaged on the job. adopt a system in your work. don't take things just as they come along, but form your plans in an orderly way, and you will always know how to take up and finish the work in the most profitable and satisfactory way. wrong use of tools.--never use the vise as an anvil. ordinary and proper use of this tool will insure it for a lifetime, aside from its natural wear. it may be said with safety that a vise will never break if used for the purpose for which it was intended. one blow of a hammer may ruin it. furthermore, never use an auxiliary lever to screw up the jaws. if the lever which comes with it is not large enough to set the jaws, you may be sure that the vise is not large enough for your work. chapter iii setting and holding tools some simple directions in the holding and setting of tools may be of service to the novice. practice has shown the most effective way of treating different materials, so that the tools will do the most efficient work. a tool ground in a certain way and set at a particular angle might do the work admirably on a piece of steel, but would not possibly work on aluminum or brass. lathe speed.--if the lathe should run at the same speed on a piece of cast iron as with a brass casting, the result would not be very satisfactory, either with the tool or on the work itself. some compositions of metal require a high speed, and some a hooked tool. these are things which each must determine as the articles come to the shop; but there are certain well-defined rules with respect to the ordinary metals that should be observed. the hack saw.--our first observation should be directed to the hand tools. the hack saw is one of the most difficult tools for the machinist to handle, for the following reasons: first, of the desire to force the blade through the work. the blade is a frail instrument, and when too great a pressure is exerted it bends, and as a result a breakage follows. to enable it to do the work properly, it must be made of the hardest steel. it is, in consequence, easily fractured. [illustration: _fig. .--hack saw frame._] [illustration: _fig. .--hack saw blade._] second. the novice will make short hacking cuts. this causes the teeth to stick, the saw bends, and a new blade is required. take a long sweeping cut, using the entire length of the blade. do not oscillate the blade as you push it through the work, but keep the tooth line horizontal from one end of the stroke to the other. the moment it begins to waver, the teeth will catch on the metal on the side nearest to you, and it will snap. third. the handle is held too loosely. the handle must be firmly held with the right hand, and the other held by the fingers lightly, but in such a position that a steady downward pressure can be maintained. if loosely held, the saw is bound to sag from side to side during the stroke, and a short stroke accentuates the lateral movement. a long stroke avoids this. the hack saw is one of the tools which should be used with the utmost deliberation, combined with a rigid grasp of the handle. files.--for remarks on this tool see chapter iv, which treats of the subject specially. grindstones, emery and grinding wheels.--a good workman is always reflected by his grinding apparatus. this is true whether it has reference to a grindstone, emery, corundum wheel, or a plain oil stone. nothing is more destructive of good tools than a grooved, uneven, or wabbly stone. it is only little less than a crime for a workman to hold a tool on a revolving stone at one spot. carelessness in holding tools.--the boy must learn that such a habit actually prevents the proper grinding, not only of the tool he has on the stone, but also of the one which follows. while it is true that all artificially made grinders will wear unevenly, even when used with the utmost care, due to uneven texture of the materials in the stone, still, the careless use of the tool, while in the act of grinding, only aggravates the trouble. another fault of the careless workman is, to press the bit against the stone too hard. this cuts the stone more than it wears off the tool, and it is entirely unnecessary. furthermore, it heats up the tool, which should be avoided. calipers.--a true workman, who endeavors to turn out accurate work, and preserve his tools, will never test the work with his calipers while the piece is turning in the lathe. a revolving cast iron disk will cut ruby, the hardest substance next to the diamond, so it is not the hardness of the material which resists wear, but the conditions under which it is used. care in use of calipers.--the calipers may be of the most hardened steel, and the work turned up of the softest brass, the latter, when revolving, will grind off the point of the tool, for the reason that the revolving piece constantly presents a new surface to the point of the calipers, and when tests are frequently made, it does not take long to change the caliper span so that it must be reset. as stated elsewhere, the whole energy of the lathe is concentrated on the bit or cutting tool, hence, in order to get the most effective work out of it requires care; first, in grinding; and, second, in setting. machine bits.--it does not always matter so much whether you use a square, pointed, or a round-nosed bit, provided it is properly ground and set in the tool holder. as a rule, the more brittle the metal the less the top rake or angle should be. in the chapter relating to the grinding of tools, references were made as to the most serviceable bits for the various metals. we are concerned here with the setting or holding of these articles. [illustration: _fig. . plain hook tool_ _fig. . plain straight tool._] the two illustrations here given show a pair of plain bits, in which fig. represents a hook-shaped formation, and fig. a straight grind, without any top rake. the hooked bit would do for aluminum, or steel, but for cast iron the form shown in fig. would be most serviceable. then the side bits, such as the round-nosed, fig. and the square end, fig. , may be ground hooked, or with a top rake, or left flat. the too common mistake is to grind the lower or clearance side at too great an angle. fig. shows the correct angle, and the dotted line a illustrates the common tendency to grind the clearance. the proper angle for lathe tools.--now there is a reason why the angle of from to should be maintained in the clearance. the point of the tool must have suitable support for the work it is required to do, so it will not chatter or yield in the slightest degree. a bit ground along the dotted line has a cutting edge which will spring down, and consequently break or produce a rough surface. [illustration: _fig. . fig. . fig. . proper angles for tools_] then, again, the angle of the clearance acts as a guide, or rather, a guard, to prevent the tool from going in too far, as will now be explained. setting the bit.--in order to understand the correct setting, examine the work a, in fig. . a is a cylinder being turned up in the lathe, and b the cutting tool, which approaches it on a horizontal line, c, extending out from the center of the cylinder a. this setting is theoretically correct, and in practice has been found most advantageous. in this case let us assume that the clearance angle d is degrees, as well as in the following figures. [illustration: _fig. . set of the bit_] suppose we have a piece of tough steel, and the tool holder is raised so that the point of the tool is at the degree line e, as shown in fig. , in which case the clearance line d is at right angles to the line e. the line e is degrees above the center line c. the setting angle.--now, it is obvious that if the tool should be raised higher than the line e it would run out of work, because the clearance surface of the tool would ride up over the surface cut by the edge of the tool. if, on the other hand, the tool should be placed lower, toward the line c, the tendency would be to draw in the tool toward the center of the work a. in fig. the tool has its point elevated, in which case it must be lowered so the point will touch the work nearer the center line c. the foregoing arrangement of the tools will be found to be effective where the material is soft and not too tough as with aluminum. bad practice.--figs. and show illustrations of bad practice which should never be resorted to. fig. shows the tool, held in a horizontal position, but with its point below the center line c. with any rough metal the tool could not possibly work, except to act as a scraper, and if it should be used in that position on cast iron, the tool itself would soon be useless. [illustration: _fig. . correct angle_ _fig. . wrong angle_] fig. is still worse, and is of no value for any purpose except in polishing brass, where it would be serviceable. it would make a sorry looking job with aluminum. brass requires a tool with very little top rake, and the point should be set near the center line c. lathe speed.--it is often a question at what speeds to run the lathe for different work. if you know the speeds of your lathe at low and high gear, you must also consider the diameter of the work at the cutting point. the rule is to have the bit cut from to feet per minute for wrought iron; from to feet for steel; from to for brass; and from to for aluminum. [illustration: _fig. . too low_ _fig. . improper set_] as a result, therefore, if, at low speed, a piece inches in diameter, runs at the proper speed to cut at that distance from the center, it is obvious that a piece inches in diameter should ran twice as fast. this is a matter which time and practice will enable you to judge with a fair degree of accuracy. observe this as a maxim: "slow speed, and quick feed." boring tools on lathe.--the lathe is a most useful tool for boring purposes, better for some work than the drilling machine itself. the work which can be done better on a lathe than on a drilling machine, may be classified as follows: . when straight and true holes are required. . in long work, where the lathe is used to turn up the article, and where the drilling can be done at the same time. . anything that can be chucked in a lathe. . where the work is long and cannot be fixed in a drilling machine. the long bed of the lathe gives room for holding such work. [illustration: _fig. . internal set_ _fig. . set for brass_] the rake of the drill.--a boring tool requires some knowledge in setting. it should have a greater top rake than for the outside work, and the cutting edge should also be keener, as a rule. [illustration: _fig. .--surface gage._] in this class of work the material bored must be understood, as well as in doing outside work. the hooked tool, fig. , is shown to be considerably above the center line, and at that point it will do the most effective cutting on steel. if, on the other hand, brass is operated on there should be no top rake, as illustrated in fig. , thus assuring a smooth job. laps.--this is a tool which is very useful, particularly for grinding and truing up the cylinders of internal combustion engines, as well as for all kinds of bores of refractory material which cannot be handled with the cutting tool of the lathe. it is made up of a mandrel or rod of copper, with lead cast about it, and then turned up true, so that it is but the merest trifle larger than the hole it is to true up. using the lap.--the roller thus made is turned rapidly in a lathe, and the cylinder to be trued is brought up to it and the roller supplied freely with emery powder and oil. as rapidly as possible the cylinder is worked over on the roller, without forcing it, and also turned, so as to prevent even the weight from grinding it unduly on one side. more or less of the emery will embed itself in the lead, and thus act as an abrasive. the process is called "lapping." surface gages.--frequently, in laying out, it is necessary to scribe lines at a given distance from some part of the work; or, the conditions are such that a rule, a caliper, or dividers will not permit accurate measurement to be made. for such purposes, what is called a surface gage was devised. this is merely a heavy base, provided with a pivoted upright on which is mounted a scribe that is held by a clamp so it may be turned to any angle. [illustration: _fig. .--showing uses of the surface gage._] surface gage.--the clamp holding the scriber is vertically movable on the pivoted upright. by resting the base of the surface gage on the line to be measured from, and swinging one point of the scriber to the place where the work is to be done, accuracy is assured. one end of the scriber is bent, so it can be adapted to enter recesses, or such places as could not be reached by the straight end. chapter iv on the use of the file the most necessary tool in a machine shop is a file. it is one of the neglected tools, because the ordinary boy, or workman, sees nothing in it but a strip or a bar with a lot of cross grooves and edges, and he concludes that the only thing necessary is to rub it across a piece of metal until he has worn it down sufficiently for the purpose. the first test.--the fact is, the file is so familiar a tool, that it breeds contempt, like many other things closely associated in life. give the boy an irregular block of metal, and tell him to file it up square, and he will begin to realize that there is something in the handling of a file that never before occurred to him. he will find three things to astonish him: first: that of dimensions. second: the difficulty of getting it square. third: the character of the surface when he has finished it. filing an irregular block.--to file a block of an irregular character so that the dimensions are accurate, is a good test for an accomplished workman. the job is made doubly difficult if he is required to file it square at the same time. it will be found, invariably, that the sides will not be parallel, and by the time it is fully trued up the piece will be too small. see figs. and . then, unless the utmost care is taken, the flat sides _will not_ be flat, but rounded. filing a bar straight.--the next test is to get the boy to file a bar straight. he has no shaper or planer for the purpose, so that it must be done by hand. he will find himself lacking in two things: the edge of the bar will not be straight; nor will it be square with the side of the bar. [illustration: _fig. . rounded surface_ _fig. . a winding face_] filing bar with parallel sides.--follow up this test by requiring him to file up a bar, first, with two exactly parallel sides, and absolutely straight, so it will pass smoothly between the legs of a pair of calipers, and then file the two other sides in like manner. surfacing off disks.--when the foregoing are completed there is still another requirement which, though it appears simple, is the supreme test. set him to work at surfacing off a pair of disks or plates, say one and a half inches in diameter, so that when they are finished they will fit against each other perfectly flat. a pair of such disks, if absolutely true, will hold together by the force of cohesion, even in a dry state, or they will, as it were, float against each other. true surfacing.--prior to about the necessity of true surfacing was not so important or as well known as at the present time. about that period sir j. whitworth, an eminent english engineer and mechanic, called the attention of machinists to the great advantage arising from true surfaces and edges for all types of machinery, and he laid the foundation of the knowledge in accurating surfacing. precision tools.--due to his energy many precision tools were made, all tending to this end, and as a result machines became better and more efficient in every way. it had this great advantage: it taught the workman of his day how to use the file and scraper, because both must be used conjunctively to make an absolutely flat plate. contrary to general beliefs, shapers and planers do not make absolutely accurate surfaces. the test of this is to put together two plates so planed off. there is just enough unevenness to permit air to get between the plates. if they were perfectly true they would exclude all air, and it would be a difficult matter to draw them apart. test of the mechanic.--to make them perfectly flat, one plate has chalk rubbed over it, and the two plates are then rubbed together. this will quickly show where the high spots are, and the file and scraper are then used to cut away the metal. [illustration: _fig. . fig. . hexagon nut_] in england the test of the mechanic used to be determined by his ability to file a piece of metal flat. it was regarded as the highest art. this is not the most desirable test at the present time, and it is recognized that a much severer test is to file a narrow piece exactly flat, and so that it will not have a trace of roundness, and be square from end to end. test suggestions.--in a shop which does not have the advantage of a planer or shaper, there are so many articles which must be filed up, that it is interesting to know something of how the various articles are made with a file. to file a hexagon, or six-sided nut will be a good test with a file. to do this a little study in geometrical lines will save a vast amount of time. in beginning the work, measure the radius with a divider, and then step off and make six marks equidistant from each other on the round surface. [illustration: _fig. . cutting key-way_] use of the dividers.--the distance between each of these points is equal to the radius, or half the diameter, of the round bar. see fig. , which shows this. the marks should be scribed across the surface, as shown in fig. , where the lines show the ends of the facets of the outside of the nut. do not let the file obliterate the lines at the rough cutting, but leave enough material so you can make a good finish at the line. cutting a key-way.--another job you may have frequent occasion to perform, is to cut a way for a key in a shaft and in a wheel hub. naturally, this will be first roughed out with a cold chisel narrower than the key is to be, and also slightly shallower than the dimensions of the key. a flat file should be used for the purpose, first a heavy rough one, for the first cutting. the better way is to have the key so it can be frequently tried while the filing process is going on, so that to fit the key in this way is a comparatively easy task. key-way difficulties.--but the trouble commences when the groove is filed for the depth. invariably, the mistake will be made of filing the width first, so the key will fit in. as a result, in deepening the groove the file will contact with the walls, and you have a key-way too wide for the key. to avoid this, file the depth, or nearly so, and then with a fine file cut in the corners in the direction indicated by the dart, fig. . a proper key is square in cross section. in such a case the depth of the key-way, at each side wall, is just half the width of the key-way. an excellent key-seat rule can be made by filing out two right-angled pieces, as shown in fig. , which can be attached to the ordinary six-inch metal rule, and this will enable you to scribe the line accurately for the key-way on the shaft. [illustration: _fig. . key-seat rule_] [illustration: _fig. . fig. . filing metal round_] filing metal round.--it is sometimes necessary to file a piece of metal round. this is a hard job, particularly where it is impossible to scribe the end of the piece. suppose it is necessary to file up a bearing surface, or surfaces, intermediate the ends of a square bar. you have in that case four sides to start from, the opposite sides being parallel with each other, so that you will have two dimensions, and four equal sides, as shown in fig. . the first step will be to file off accurately the four corners , , , , so as to form eight equal sides or faces, as shown in fig. . if you will now proceed to file down carefully the eight corners, so as to make sixteen sides, as in fig. , the fourth set of corners filed down will make the filed part look like the illustration fig. with thirty-two faces. [illustration: _fig. . fig. . making a bar round_] this may be further filed down into sixty-four faces, and a few cuts of the finishing file will take off the little ridges which still remain. by using emery cloth, and wrapping it around the bearing portion, and changing it continually, while drawing it back and forth, will enable you to make a bearing which, by care, will caliper up in good shape. kinds of files.--each file has five distinct properties; namely: the length, the contour, the form in cross section, the kind of teeth, and the fineness of the teeth. there are nine well-defined shapes for files. these may be enumerated as follows: [illustration: _fig. . cross sections of files._] no. . the cotter file. the small kind is called a verge or pivot file. no. . square file, which may be tapering from end to end, or have parallel sides throughout. no. . watch pinion file. this may have its sides parallel or tapering, to make a knife-shaped file. no. . clock-pinion; which may be used for either nicking, piecing, or squaring-off purposes. no. . round, with parallel sides for gulleting purposes, or rat-tail when it tapers. no. . triangular, or three equally-sided body for saw filing. no. . equalizing file. this is parallel when used for making clock-pinions or endless screws; or for slitting, entering, warding, or making barrel holes, when the body of the file tapers. no. . cross, or double-round, half-file. no. . slitting file; which has parallel sides only. a cant file. character of the file tooth.--files are distinguished principally by the character of the oblique, or cross grooves and ridges which do the cutting and abrading when the file is drawn across the surface. this is really more important than the shape, because the files, by their cuttings, are adapted for the various materials which they are to be used upon. the files are classified as _double cut_, of which there are the _rough_, _middle_, _bastard_, _second cut_, _smooth_, and _dead smooth_. the _float cut_, which is either _rough_, _bastard_ or _smooth_; and the _rasp cut_, either _rough_, _bastard_ or _smooth_. several types are illustrated in fig. , which show the characteristics of the various cuts. the rasps are used principally for soft material, such as wood or for hoofs, in horse shoeing, hence they need not be considered in connection with machine-shop work. [illustration: _fig. . files._] holding the file.--the common mistake on the part of the beginner is to drag the file across the work at an angle. the body of the file should move across straight and not obliquely. note this movement in fig. where the dash shows the correct movement of the file with relation to the work. also observe that the file cutting ridges are not straight across the file, but at an angle to the direction of the dart. [illustration: _fig. . correct file movement_] injuring files.--now the frequent practice is to use the file as shown in fig. , in which case it is moved across obliquely. the result is that the angle of the file cut is so disposed that the teeth of the file do not properly aid in the cutting, but in a measure retard the operation. file teeth are disposed at an angle for the purpose of giving them a shearing cut, which is the case when the file moves across the work on a line with its body. to use a file as shown in fig. injures the file without giving it an opportunity to cut as fast as it would when properly used. [illustration: _fig. . incorrect file movement_] drawing back the file.--in drawing back a file it is always better to allow it to drag over the work than to raise it up. it is frequently the case that some of the material will lodge in the teeth, and the back lash will serve to clear out the grooves. this is particularly true in filing copper, aluminum, lead, and like metals, but it is well to observe this in all cases. chapter v how to commence work the question is often asked: where and how shall the novice commence work? when the shop is equipped, or partially so, sufficient, at least, to turn out simple jobs, the boy will find certain tools which are strangers to him. he must become acquainted with them and not only learn their uses, but how to use them to the best advantage. familiarity with tools.--familiarity with the appearance of tools, and seeing them in the hands of others will not be of any value. nothing but the immediate contact with the tool will teach how to use it. file practice.--the file is a good tool to pick up first. select a piece of metal, six or eight inches long, and follow the instructions laid down in the chapter relating to the use of the file. practice with several kinds and with different varieties of material will soon give an inkling of the best kind to use with the metal you have. use the straight edge and the square while the filing process is going on, and apply them frequently, to show you what speed you are making and how nearly true you are surfacing up the piece. using the dividers.--then try your hand using the dividers, in connection with a centering punch. as an example, take two pieces of metal, each about a foot long, and set the dividers to make a short span, say an inch or so, and step off the length of one piece of metal, and punch the last mark. then do likewise with the other piece of metal, and see how nearly alike the two measurements are by comparing them. you will find a variation in the lengths of the two measurements at the first trials, and very likely will not be able to make the two pieces register accurately after many trials, even when using the utmost care. sooner or later you will learn that you have not stepped paths along the two bars which were exactly straight, and this will account for the variations. in order to be accurate a line should be drawn along each piece of metal, and the dividers should step off the marks on that line. finding centers.--by way of further experiment, it might be well to find the exact center of the ends of a square bar, putting in the punch marks and then mounting it in the lathe centers to see how accurately this has been done. if either end is out of true the punch marks can be corrected by inclining the punch, so that when it is struck it will move over the point in the direction of its true center. this may be followed up by centering the end of a round bar so as to make it true. this will be found to be a more difficult job, unless you have a center head, a tool made for that purpose. it is good practice, however, to make trials of all this work, as it will enable you to judge of measurements. it can be done with the dividers by using care in scribing the centers. hack-saw practice.--practice with the hack-saw should be indulged in frequently. learn to make a straight cut through a bar. try to do this without using a square to guide you. one of the tests of a good mechanic is ability to judge a straight cut. the following plan is suggested as a test for the eye. use a bar of iron or steel one inch square, and make a cut an eighth of an inch deep across it; then turn it around a quarter, so as to expose the nest face, and continue the cut along the side, the same depth, and follow this up with the remaining two sides, and see how near the end of the first cut and the finish cut come together. the test will surprise you. cutting metals true.--when you saw off the end of such a bar for trial purposes, use a square, after the cut is made, and note how much it is out of true in both directions. it is a curious fact that most mechanics are disposed to saw or cut crooked in one direction, either to the right or to the left. in tests made it is found that this defect is persisted in. it is practice only which will remedy this, and it would be well for the boy to learn this for himself as early in his career as possible, and correct the tendency to veer in either direction. the test of sawing around a round bar is also commended. after a few trials you will be surprised to see how your judgment will improve in practice. lathe work.--learn the uses of the chuck. as you have, probably, economized as much as possible, a universal chuck is not available, hence the first experience will be with an independent chuck, where the three dogs move independently of each other. this will give you some work to learn how you can get the job true. now, before attempting to cut the material, thoroughly learn all the parts of the feed mechanism, and how to reverse, as well as to cross feed. learn the operation of the operative parts so that your hand will instinctively find them, while the eye is on the work. first steps.--see to it that your tools are sharp, and at the first trials make light cuts. practice the feeds by manually moving the tool holder, for surface cutting as well as for cross cutting. setting the tool.--set the cutting tool at various angles, and try the different tools, noting the peculiarities of each, at the different speeds. do not, by any means, use refractory metals for your first attempt. mild steel is a good test, and a light gray iron is admirable for practice lessons. metals used.--brass is good for testing purposes, but the difficulty is that the tendency of the boy, at first, is to try to do the work too rapidly, and brass encourages this tendency. feed slowly and regularly until you can make an even finish. then chuck and re-chuck to familiarize yourself with every operative part of the lathe, and never try to force the cutting tool. if it has a tendency to run into the work, set it higher. if, on the other hand, you find, in feeding, that it is hard to move the tool post along, the tool is too high, and should be lowered. the four important things.--constant practice of this kind will soon enable you to feel instinctively when the tool is doing good work. while you are thus experimenting do not forget the speed. this will need your attention. remember, you have several things to think about in commencing to run the lathe, all of which will take care of themselves when it becomes familiar to you. these may be enumerated as follows: first: the kind of tool best to use. second: its proper set, to do the best work. third: the speed of the work in the lathe. fourth: the feed, or the thickness of the cut into the material. turning up a cylinder.--the first and most important work is to turn up a small cylinder to a calipered dimension. when it is roughed down ready for the finish cut, set the tool so it will take off a sufficient amount to prevent the caliper from spanning it, and this will enable you to finish it off with emery paper, or allow another small cut to be taken. turning grooves.--then follow this up by turning in a variety of annular grooves of different depths and widths; and also v-shaped grooves, the latter to be performed by using both the longitudinal and transverse feeds. this will give you excellent practice in using both hands simultaneously. the next step would be to turn out a bore and fit a mandrel into it. this will give you the opportunity to use the caliper to good advantage, and will test your capacity to use them for inside as well as for outside work. discs.--a job that will also afford good exercise is to turn up a disc with a groove in its face, and then chuck and turn another disk with an annular rib on its face to fit into the groove. this requires delicacy of measurement with the inside as well as the outside calipers. the groove should be cut first, and the measurement taken from that, as it is less difficult to handle and set the tool for the rib than for the groove. lathe speeds.--do not make the too common mistake of running the mandrel at high speeds in your initial tests. it is far better to use a slow speed, and take a heavy cut. this is good advice at all times, but it is particularly important with beginners. chapter vi illustrating some of the fundamental devices there are numerous little devices and shop expedients which are desirable, and for which the boy will find uses as he progresses. we devote this chapter to hints of this kind, all of which are capable of being turned out or utilized at various stages. lacing belts.--to properly lace a belt is quite an art, as many who have tried it know. if a belt runs off the pulley it is attributable to one of three causes: either the pulleys are out of line or the shafts are not parallel or the belt is laced so it makes the belt longer at one margin than the other. in fig. the lacing should commence at the center hole (a) of one belt end and lace outwardly, terminating at the hole (b) in the center of the other belt end, as shown in fig. . in fig. the lacing commences at a, and terminates at the hole (b) at the edge. this will be ample for all but the widest belts. fig. is adapted for a narrow belt. the lacing commences at one margin hole (a), and terminates at the other margin hole (z). fig. shows the outside of the belt. fig. . gears.--this is something every boy ought to know about. fig. shows a pair of intermeshing bevel gears. this is the correct term for a pair when both are of the same diameter. [illustration: _inside fig. . belt lacing_ _outside fig. . belt lacing_ _fig. . belt lacing_ _fig. . belt lacing_ _fig. . belt lacing_] miter gears.--in fig. we have a pair of miter gears, one being larger than the other. remember this distinction. fig. . crown wheel.--this is a simple manner of transmitting motion from one shaft to another, when the shafts are at right angles, or nearly so, without using bevel or miter gears. fig. . grooved friction gearing.--two grooved pulleys, which fit each other accurately, will transmit power without losing too much by friction. the deeper the grooves the greater is the loss by friction. fig. . a valve which closes by the water pressure.--the bibb has therein a movable valve on a horizontal stem, the valve being on the inside of the seat. the stem of the handle has at its lower end a crank bend, which engages with the outer end of the valve stem. when the handle is turned in either direction the valve is unseated. on releasing the handle the pressure of the water against the valve seats it. fig. . cone pulleys.--two cone pulleys of equal size and taper provide a means whereby a change in speed can be transmitted from one shaft to another by merely moving the belt to and fro. the slightest change is available by this means. fig. . universal joint.--a wheel, with four projecting pins, is placed between the u-shaped yokes on the ends of the approaching shafts. the pins serve as the pivots for the angles formed by the two shafts. fig. . trammel for making an ellipse.--this is a tool easily made, which will be of great service in the shop. in a disc (a), preferably made of brass, are two channels (b) at right angles to each other. the grooves are undercut, so that the blocks (c) will fit and slide in the grooves and be held therein by the dove-tailed formation. each block is longer than the width of the groove, and has an outwardly projecting pin which passes through a bar (d). one pin (e) is movable along in a slot, but is adjustable at any point so that the shape of the ellipse may be varied. the end of the bar has a series of holes (g) for a pencil, so that the size of the ellipse may also be changed. [illustration: _fig. . bevel gears_ _fig. . miter gears_ _fig. . crown wheel_ _fig. . grooved friction gears_ _fig. . valve_ _fig. . cone pulleys_ _fig. . universal joint_] fig. . escapements.--various forms of escapements may be made, but the object of all is the same. the device is designed to permit a wheel to move intermittingly or in a step by step movement, by the swinging motion of a pendulum. another thing is accomplished by it. the teeth of the escapement are cut at such an angle that, as one of the teeth of the escapement is released from one tooth of the escapement wheel, the spring, or the weight of the clock, will cause one of the teeth of the escapement wheel to engage the other tooth of the escapement, and give the pendulum an impulse in the other direction. in the figure, a is the escapement, b the escapement wheels and _a_, _b_, the pallets, which are cut at suitable angles to actuate the pendulum. fig. . simple device to prevent a wheel or shaft from turning back.--this is a substitute for a pawl and ratchet wheel. a is a drum or a hollow wheel and b a pulley on a shaft, and this pulley turns loosely with the drum (a). four tangential slots (c) are cut into the perimeter of the pulley (b), and in each is a hardened steel roller (d). it matters not in what position the wheel (b) may be, at least two of the rollers will always be in contact with the inside of the drum (a), and thus cause the pulley and drum to turn together. on reversing the direction of the pulley the rollers are immediately freed from binding contact. fig. . racks and pinions.--the object of this form of mechanism is to provide a reciprocating, or back-and-forth motion, from a shaft which turns continually in one direction. a is the rack and b a mutilated gear. when the gear turns it moves the rack in one direction, because the teeth of the gear engage the lower rack teeth, and when the rack has moved to the end its teeth engage the teeth of the upper rack, thus reversing the movement of the rack. fig. . mutilated gears.--these are made in so many forms, and adapted for such a variety of purposes, that we merely give a few samples to show what is meant by the term. [illustration: _fig. . trammel_ _fig. . escapement_ _fig. . device for holding wheel_ _fig. . rack and pinion_ _fig. . mutilated gears_ _fig. . shaft coupling_] fig. . simple shaft coupling.--prepare two similarly formed discs (a, b), which are provided with hubs so they may be keyed to the ends of the respective shafts. one disc has four or more projecting pins (c), and the other disc suitable holes (d) to receive the pins. fig. . clutches.--this is a piece of mechanism which is required in so many kinds of machinery, that we show several of the most approved types. fig. . ball and socket joints.--the most practical form of ball and socket joints is simply a head in which is a bowl-shaped cavity the depth of one-half of the ball. a plate with a central opening small enough to hold in the ball, and still large enough at the neck to permit the arm carrying the ball to swing a limited distance, is secured by threads, or by bolts, to the head. the first figure shows this. fig. illustrates a simple manner of tightening the ball so as to hold the standard in any desired position. fig. . tripping devices.--these are usually in the form of hooks, so arranged that a slight pull on the tripping lever will cause the suspended articles to drop. fig. . anchor bolt.--these are used in brick or cement walls. the bolt itself screws into a sleeve which is split, and draws a wedge nut up to the split end of the sleeve. as a result the split sleeve opens or spreads out and binds against the wall sufficiently to prevent the bolt from being withdrawn. fig. . lazy tongs.--one of the simplest and most effective instruments for carrying ice, boxes or heavy objects, which are bulky or inconvenient to carry. it grasps the article firmly, and the heavier the weight the tighter is its grasp. fig. . disc shears.--this is a useful tool either for cutting tin or paper, pasteboard and the like. it will cut by the act of drawing the material through it, but if power is applied to one or to both of the shafts the work is much facilitated, particularly in thick or hard material. [illustration: _fig. . clutches_ _fig. . ball and socket joints_ _fig. . fastening ball_ _fig. . tripping devices_ _fig. . anchor bolt_ _fig. . lazy tongs._ _fig. . disc shears._] fig. . wabble saw.--this is a most simple and useful tool, as it will readily and quickly saw out a groove so that it is undercut. the saw is put on the mandrel at an angle, as will be seen, and should be run at a high rate of speed. fig. . crank motion by a slotted yoke.--this produces a straight back-and-forth movement from the circular motion of a wheel or crank. it entirely dispenses with a pitman rod, and it enables the machine, or the part of the machine operated, to be placed close to the crank. fig. . continuous feed by the motion of a lever.--the simple lever with a pawl on each side of the fulcrum is the most effective means to make a continuous feed by the simple movement of a lever. the form shown is capable of many modifications, and it can be easily adapted for any particular work desired. [illustration: _fig. . wabble saw_ _fig. . continuous crank motion_ _fig. . continuous feed_ _fig. . crank motion_ _fig. . ratchet head_ _fig. . bench clamp_] fig. . crank motion.--by the structure shown, namely, a slotted lever (a), a quick return can be made with the lever. b indicates the fulcrum. fig. . ratchet head.--this shows a well-known form for common ratchet. it has the advantage that the radially movable plugs (a) are tangentially disposed, and rest against walls (b) eccentrically disposed, and are, therefore, in such a position that they easily slide over the inclines. fig. . bench clamp.--a pair of dogs (a, b), with the ends bent toward each other, and pivoted midway between the ends to the bench in such a position that the board (c), to be held between them, on striking the rear ends of the dogs, will force the forward ends together, and thus clamp it firmly for planing or other purposes. [illustration: _fig. . helico-volute spring_ _fig. . double helico-volute_ _fig. . helical spring_ _fig. . single volute helix-spring_ _fig. . flat spiral or convolute_ _fig. . eccentric rod and strap_ _fig. . anti-dead center for foot-lathes_] fig. . helico-volute spring.--this is a form of spring for tension purposes. the enlarged cross-section of the coil in its middle portion, with the ends tapering down to the eyes, provides a means whereby the pull is transferred from the smaller to the larger portions, without producing a great breaking strain near the ends. fig. . double helico-volute.--this form, so far as the outlines are considered, is the opposite of fig. . a compression spring of this kind has a very wide range of movement. fig. . helical spring.--this form of coil, uniform from end to end, is usually made of metal which is square in cross-section, and used where it is required for heavy purposes. fig. . single volute helix-spring.--this is also used for compression, intended where tremendous weights or resistances are to be overcome, and when the range of movement is small. fig. . flat spiral, or convolute.--this is for small machines. it is the familiar form used in watches owing to its delicate structure, and it is admirably adapted to yield to the rocking motion of an arbor. fig. . eccentric rod and strap.--a simple and convenient form of structure, intended to furnish a reciprocating motion where a crank is not available. an illustration of its use is shown on certain types of steam engine to operate the valves. fig. . anti-dead center for foot-lathes.--a flat, spiral spring (a), with its coiled end attached to firm support (b), has its other end pivotally attached to the crank-pin (c), the tension of the spring being such that when the lathe stops the crack-pin will always be at one side of the dead-center, thus enabling the operator to start the machine by merely pressing the foot downwardly on the treadle (d). chapter vii properties of materials a workman is able to select the right metals because he knows that each has some peculiar property which is best adapted for his particular use. these with their meaning will now be explained. elasticity.--this exists in metals in three distinct ways: first, in the form of _traction_. hang a weight on a wire and it will stretch a certain amount. when the weight is removed the wire shrinks back to its original length. second: if the weight on the wire is rotated, so as to twist it, and the hand is taken from the weight, it will untwist itself, and go back to its original position. this is called _torsion_. third: a piece of metal may be coiled up like a watch spring, or bent like a carriage spring, and it will yield when pressure is applied. this is called _flexure_. certain kinds of steel have these qualities in a high degree. tenacity.--this is a term used to express the resistance which the body opposes to the separation of its parts. it is determined by forming the metal into a wire, and hanging on weights, to find how much will be required to break it. if we have two wires, the first with a transverse area only one-quarter that of the second, and the first breaks at pounds, while the second breaks at pounds, the tenacity of the first is twice as great as that of the second. to the boy who understands simple ratio in mathematics, the problem would be like this: Ã� : Ã� , or as : . the most tenacious metal.--steel has the greatest tenacity of all metals, and lead the least. in proportion to weight, however, there are many substances which have this property in a higher degree. cotton fibers will support millions of times their own weight. there is one peculiar thing, that tenacity varies with the form of the body. a solid cylindrical body has a greater strength than a square one of the same size; and a hollow cylinder more tenacity than a solid one. this principle is well known in the bones of animals, in the feathers of birds, and in the stems of many plants. in almost every metal tenacity diminishes as the temperature increases. ductility.--this is a property whereby a metal may be drawn out to form a wire. some metals, like cast iron, have absolutely no ductility. the metal which possesses this property to the highest degree, is platinum. wires of this metal have been drawn out so fine that over , of them laid side by side would measure only one inch across, and a mile of such wire would weigh only a grain, or one seven-thousandth of a pound. malleability.--this is considered a modification of ductility. any metal which can be beaten out, as with a hammer, or flattened into sheets with rollers, is considered malleable. gold possesses this property to the highest degree. it has been beaten into leaves one three-hundred-thousandth of an inch thick. hardness.--this is the resistance which bodies offer to being scratched by others. as an example, the diamond has the capacity to scratch all, but cannot be scratched by any other. alloys.--alloys, that is a combination of two or more metals, are harder than the pure metals, and for this reason jewelry, and coins, are usually alloyed. the resistance of a body to compression does not depend upon its hardness. strike a diamond with a hammer and it flies to pieces, but wood does not. one is brittle and the other is tough. the machinist can utilize this property by understanding that velocity enables a soft material to cut a harder one. thus, a wrought iron disc rotating rapidly, will cut such hard substances as agate or quartz. resistance.--all metals offer more or less resistance to the flow of an electric current. silver offers the least resistance, and german silver the greatest. temperature also affects the flow. it passes more easily over a cold than a warm conductor. persistence.--all metals on receiving heat, will retain it for a certain length of time, and will finally cool down to the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere. some, like aluminum, retain it for a long time; others, as iron, will give it off quickly. conductivity.--all metals will conduct heat and cold, as well as electricity. if one end of a metal bar is heated, the heat creeps along to the other end until it has the same temperature throughout. this is called _equalization_. if a heated bar is placed in contact with another, the effect is to increase the temperature of the cold bar and lower that of the warm bar. this is called _reciprocity_. molecular forces.--_molecular_ attraction is a force which acts in such a way as to bring all the particles of a body together. it acts in three ways, dependent on the particular conditions which exist. first: _cohesion_. this exists between molecules which are of the same kind, as for instance, iron. cohesion of the particles is very strong in solids, much weaker in liquids, and scarcely exists at all between the particles in gases. second: _adhesion_ is that property which exists between the surfaces of bodies in contact. if two flat surfaces are pressed together, as for instance, two perfectly smooth and flat pieces of lead, they will adhere. if, for instance, oil should be put on the surfaces, before putting them together, they would adhere so firmly that it would be difficult to pull them apart. third: _affinity_. this is another peculiarity about materials. thus, while cohesion binds together the molecules of water, it is chemical affinity which unites two elements, like hydrogen and oxygen, of which water is composed. porosity.--all matter has little hollows or spaces between the molecules. you know what this is in the case of a sponge, or pumice stone. certain metals have the pores so small that it is difficult to see them except with a very powerful glass. under great pressure water can be forced through the pores of metals, as has been done in the case of gold. water also is porous, but the spaces between the molecules are very small. compressibility.--it follows from the foregoing statement, that if there are little interstices between the molecules, the various bodies can be compressed together. this can be done in varying degrees with all solids, but liquids, generally, have little compressibility. gases are readily reduced in volume by compression. elasticity.--this is a property by virtue of which a body resumes its original form when compressed. india rubber, ivory and glass are examples of elasticity; whereas, lead and clay do not possess this property. air is the most elastic of all substances. inertia.--this is a property of matter by virtue of which it cannot of itself change its state of motion or of rest. newton's first law of motion is, in substance, that matter at rest will eternally remain at rest, and matter in motion will forever continue in motion, unless acted on by some external force. a rider is carried over the head of a horse when the latter suddenly stops. this illustrates the inertia of movement. a stone at rest will always remain in that condition unless moved by some force. that shows the inertia of rest. momentum.--this is the term to designate the quantity of motion in a body. this quantity varies and is dependent on the mass, together with the velocity. a fly wheel is a good example. it continues to move after the impelling force ceases; and a metal wheel has greater momentum than a wooden wheel at the same speed, owing to its greater mass. if, however, the wooden wheel is speeded up sufficiently it may have the same momentum as the metal one. weight.--all substances have what is called _weight_. this means that everything is attracted toward the earth by the force of gravity. gravity, however, is different from weight. all substances attract each other; not only in the direction of the center of the earth, but laterally, as well. weight, therefore, has reference to the pull of an object toward the earth; and gravity to that influence which all matter has for each other independently of the direction. centripetal force.--this attraction of the earth, which gives articles the property of weight, is termed centripetal force--that is, the drawing in of a body. centrifugal force.--the direct opposite of centripetal, is centrifugal force, which tends to throw outwardly. dirt flying from a rapidly moving wheel illustrates this. capillary attraction.--there is a peculiar property in liquids, which deserves attention, and should be understood, and that is the name given to the tendency of liquids to rise in fine tubes. it is stated that water will always find its level. while this is true, we have an instance where, owing to the presence of a solid, made in a peculiar form, causes the liquid, within, to rise up far beyond the level of the water. this may be illustrated by three tubes of different internal diameters. the liquid rises up higher in the second than in the first, and still higher in the third than in the second. the smaller the tube the greater the height of the liquid. this is called _capillary attraction_, the word capillary meaning a hair. the phenomena is best observed when seen in tubes which are as fine as hairs. the liquid has an affinity for the metal, and creeps up the inside, and the distance it will thus move depends on the size of the tube. the sap of trees.--the sap of trees goes upwardly, not because the tree is alive, but due to this property in the contact of liquids with a solid. it is exactly on the same principle that if the end of a piece of blotting paper is immersed in water, the latter will creep up and spread over the entire surface of the sheet. in like manner, oil moves upwardly in a wick, and will keep on doing so, until the lighted wick is extinguished, when the flow ceases. when it is again lighted the oil again flows, as before. if it were not for this principle of capillary attraction, it would be difficult to form a bubble of air in a spirit level. you can readily see how the liquid at each end of the air bubble rounds it off, as though it tried to surround it. sound.--sound is caused by vibration, and it would be impossible to convey it without an elastic medium of some kind. _acoustics_ is a branch of physics which treats of sounds. it is distinguished from music which has reference to the particular kinds. _sounds_ are distinguished from _noises_. the latter are discordant and abrupt vibrations, whereas the former are regular and continuous. sound mediums.--gases, vapors, liquids and solids transmit vibrations, but liquids and solids propagate with greater velocity than gases. vibration.--a vibration is the moving to and fro of the molecules in a body, and the greater their movement the more intense is the sound. the intensity of the sound is affected by the density of the atmosphere, and the movement of the winds also changes its power of transmission. sound is also made more intense if a sonorous body is near its source. this is taken advantage of in musical instruments, where a sounding-board is used, as in the case of the piano, and in the violin, which has a thin shell as a body for holding the strings. another curious thing is shown in the speaking tube, where the sound waves are confined, so that they are carried along in one line, and as they are not interfered with will transmit the vibrations to great distances. velocity of sound.--the temperature of the air has also an effect on the rate of transmission, but for general purposes a temperature of degrees has been taken as the standard. the movement is shown to be about miles in minutes, or at the rate of , feet per second. in water, however, the speed is four times greater; and in iron nearly fifteen times greater. soft earth is a poor conductor, while rock and solid earth convey very readily. placing the ear on a railway track will give the vibrations of a moving train miles before it can be heard through the air. sound reflections.--sound waves move outwardly from the object in the form of wave-like rings, but those concentric rings, as they are called, may be interrupted at various points by obstacles. when that is the case the sound is buffeted back, producing what is called echoes. resonance.--materials have a quality that produces a very useful result, called _resonance_, and it is one of the things that gives added effect to a speaker's voice in a hall, where there is a constant succession of echoes. a wall distant from the speaker about feet, produces an almost instantaneous reflection of the sound, and at double that measurement the effect is still stronger. when the distance is too short for the reflecting sound to be heard, we have _resonance_. it enriches the sound of the voice, and gives a finer quality to musical instruments. echoes.--when sounds are heard after the originals are emitted they tend to confusion, and the quality of resonance is lost. there are places where echoes are repeated many times. in the chateau of simonetta, italy, a sound will be repeated thirty times. speaking trumpet.--this instrument is an example of the use of reflection. it is merely a bell-shaped, or flaring body, the large end of which is directed to the audience. the voice talking into the small end is directed forwardly, and is reflected from the sides, and its resonance also enables the vibrations to carry farther than without the use of the solid part of the instrument. the ear trumpet is an illustration of a sound-collecting device, the waves being brought together by reflection. the stethoscope.--this is an instrument used by physicians, and it is so delicate that the movements of the organs of the body can be heard with great distinctness. it merely collects the vibrations, and transmits them to the ears by the small tubes which are connected with the collecting bell. the vitascope.--numerous instruments have been devised to determine the rate of vibration of different materials and structures, the most important being the _vitascope_, which has a revolvable cylinder, blackened with soot, and this being rotated at a certain speed, the stylus, which is attached to the vibrating body, in contact with the cylinder, will show the number per second, as well as the particular character of each oscillation. the phonautograph.--this instrument is used to register the vibration of wind instruments, as well as the human voice, and the particular forms of the vibrations are traced on a cylinder, the tracing stylus being attached to a thin vibrating membrane which is affected by the voice or instrument. the phonograph.--this instrument is the outgrowth of the stylus forms of the apparatus described, but in this case the stylus, or needle, is fixed to a metallic diaphragm, and its point makes an impression on suitable material placed on the outside of a revolvable cylinder or disc. light.-light is the agent which excites the sensation of vision in the eye. various theories have been advanced by scientists to account for the phenomenon, and the two most noted views are the _corpuscular_, promulgated by sir isaac newton, and the _undulatory_, enunciated by huygens and euler. the _corpuscular_ theory conceives that light is a substance of exceedingly light particles which are shot forth with immense velocity. the _undulatory_ theory, now generally accepted, maintains that light is carried by vibrations in ether. ether is a subtle elastic medium which fills all space. _luminous_ bodies are those like the sun, which emit light. rays may _diverge_, that is, spread out; _converge_, or point toward each other; or they may be _parallel_ with each other. velocity of light.--light moves at the rate of about , miles a second. as the sun is about , , miles from the earth, it takes - / minutes for the light of the sun to reach us. reflection.--one of the most important things connected with light is that of reflection. it is that quality which is utilized in telescopes, microscopes, mirrors, heliograph signaling and other like apparatus and uses. the underlying principle is, that a ray is reflected, or thrown back from a mirror at the same angle as that which produces the light. when the rays of the sun, which are, of course, parallel, strike a concave mirror, the reflecting rays are converged; and when the rays strike a convex mirror they diverge. in this way the principle is employed in reflecting telescopes. refraction.--this is the peculiar action of light in passing through substances. if a ray passes through water at an angle to the surface the ray will bend downwardly in passing through, and then again pass on in a straight line. this will be noticed if a pencil is stood in a glass of water at an angle, when it will appear bent. refraction is that which enables light to be divided up, or analyzed. in this way white light from the sun is shown to be composed of seven principal colors. colors.--if the light is passed through a prism, which is a triangularly shaped piece of glass, the rays on emerging will diverge from each other, and when they fall on a wall or screen the colors red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet are shown. the reason for this is that the ray in passing through the prism has the different colors in it refract at different angles, the violet bending more than the red. the spectroscope.--the ability to make what is thus called a _spectrum_, brought forth one of the most wonderful instruments ever devised by man. if any metal, or material, is fused, or put in such a condition that a ray of light can be obtained from it, and this light is passed through a prism, it will be found that each substance has its own peculiar divisions and arrangements of colors. in this way substances are determined by what is called _spectrum analysis_, and it is by means of this instrument that the composition of the sun, and the planets and fixed stars are determined. the rainbow.--the rainbow is one of the effects of refraction, as the light, striking the little globular particles of water suspended in the air, produces a breaking up of the white light into its component colors, and the sky serves as a background for viewing the analysis thus made. heat.--it is now conclusively proven, that heat, like light, magnetism and electricity, is merely a mode of motion. the _mechanical_ theory of heat may be shown by rubbing together several bodies. heat expands all substances, except ice, and in expanding develops an enormous force. expansion.--in like manner liquids expand with heat. the power of mercury in expanding may be understood when it is stated that a pressure of , pounds would be required to prevent the expansion of mercury, when heated simply degrees. gases also expand. while water, and the different solids, all have their particular units of expansion, it is not so with gases, as all have the same coefficient. chapter viii how draughting becomes a valuable aid the ability to read drawings is a necessary part of the boy's education. to know how to use the tools, is still more important. in conveying an idea about a piece of mechanism, a sketch is given. now, the sketch may be readable in itself, requiring no explanation, or it may be of such a nature that it will necessitate some written description. [illustration: _fig. . plain circle_] lines in drawing.--in drawing, lines have a definite meaning. a plain circular line, like fig. , when drawn in that way, conveys three meanings: it may represent a rim, or a bent piece of wire; it may illustrate a disk; or, it may convey the idea of a ball. suppose we develop them to express the three forms accurately. fig. , by merely adding an interior line, shows that it is a rim. there can be no further doubt about that expression. fig. shows a single line, but it will now be noticed that the line is thickened at the lower right-hand side, and from this you can readily infer that it is a disk. shading.--fig. , by having a few shaded lines on the right and lower side, makes it have the appearance of a globe or a convex surface. [illustration: _fig. . ring_ _fig. . raised surface_ _fig. . sphere_] shading or thickening the lines also gives another expression to the same circular line. in fig. , if the upper and left-hand side of the circle is heavily shaded, it shows that the area within the circle is depressed, instead of being raised. direction of shade.--on the other hand, if the shading lines, as in fig. , are at the upper left-hand side, then the mind at once grasps the idea of a concave surface. the first thing, therefore, to keep in mind, is this fact: that in all mechanical drawing, the light is supposed to shine down from the upper left-hand corner and that, as a result, the lower vertical line, as well as the extreme right-hand vertical line, casts the shadows, and should, therefore, be made heavier than the upper horizontal, and the left-hand vertical lines. [illustration: _fig. . depressed surface_ _fig. . concave_] there are exceptions to this rule, which will be readily understood by following out the illustrations in the order given below. perspectives.--the utility of the heavy lines will be more apparent when drawing square, rectangular, or triangular objects. let us take fig. , which appears to be the perspective of a cube. notice that all lines are of the same thickness. when the sketch was first brought to me i thought it was a cube; but the explanation which followed, showed that the man who made the sketch had an entirely different meaning. he had intended to convey to my mind the idea of three pieces, a, b, c, of metal, of equal size, joined together so as to form a triangularly shaped pocket as shown in fig. . the addition of the inner lines, like d, quickly dispelled the suggestion of the cube. [illustration: _fig. . fig. . fig. . fig. . forms of cubical outlines_] "but," he remarked, "i want to use the thinnest metal, like sheets of tin; and you show them thick by adding the inner lines." such being the case, if we did not want to show thickness as its structural form, we had to do it by making the lines themselves and the shading give that structural idea. this was done by using the single lines, as in fig. , and by a slight shading of the pieces a, b, c. [illustration: _fig. . fig. . shading edges_] the most pronounced lines.--if it had been a cube, or a solid block, the corners nearest the eye would have been most pronounced, as in fig. , and the side next to the observer would have been darkest. this question of light and shadow is what expresses the surface formation of every drawing. simple strokes form outlines of the object, but their thickness, and the shading, show the character enclosed by the lines. direction of light.--now, as stated, the casting of the shadow downward from the upper left-hand corner makes the last line over which it passes the thickest, and in figs. and they are not the extreme lines at the bottom and at the right side, because of the close parallel lines. in figs. and the blades superposed on the other are very thin, and the result is the lines at the right side and bottom are made much heavier. [illustration: _fig. . fig. . illustrating heavy lines_] this is more fully shown in figs. and . notice the marked difference between the two figures, both of which show the same set of pulleys, and the last figure, by merely having the lower and the right-hand lines of each pulley heavy, changes the character of the representation, and tells much more clearly what the draughtsman sought to convey. scale drawings.--all drawings are made to a scale where the article is large and cannot be indicated the exact size, using parts of an inch to represent inches; and parts of a foot to represent feet. in order to reduce a drawing where a foot is the unit, it is always best to use one-and-a-half inches, or twelve-eighths of an inch, as the basis. in this way each eighth of an inch represents an inch. if the drawing should be made larger, then use three inches, and in that way each inch would be one-quarter of an inch. [illustration: _fig. . fig. . lines on plain surfaces_] the drawing should then have marked, in some conspicuous place, the scale, like the following: "scale, - / " = '"; or, "scale " = '." degree, and what it means.--a degree is not a measurement. the word is used to designate an interval, a position, or an angle. every circle has degrees, and when a certain degree is mentioned, it means a certain angle from what is called a _base line_. [illustration: _fig. . illustrating degrees_] look at fig. . this has a vertical line a, and a horizontal line b. the circle is thus divided into four parts, and where these lines a, b, cross the circle are the cardinal points. each of the four parts is called a quadrant, and each quadrant has degrees. any line, like c, which is halfway between a and b, is degrees. halfway between a and c, or between b and c, like the line d, is - / degrees. memorizing angles.--it is well to try and remember these lines by fixing the angles in the memory. a good plan is to divide any of the quadrants into thirds, as shown by the points e, f, and then remember that e is degrees from the horizontal line b, and that f is degrees. or, you might say that f is degrees from the vertical line a, and e degrees from a. either would be correct. [illustration: _fig. . section lining_] section lining.--in representing many parts of a machine, or article, it is necessary to show the parts cut off, which must be illustrated by what is called "section lining." adjacent parts should have the section lines running at right angles to each other, and always at degrees. look at the outside and then the inside views of fig. , and you will see how the contiguous parts have the angles at right angles, and clearly illustrate how every part of the wrench is made. skill in depicting an article, for the purpose of constructing it from the drawing, will make the actual work on the bench and lathe an easy one. [illustration: _fig. . drawing an ellipse_] making ellipses and irregular curves.--this is the hardest thing to do with drawing tools. a properly constructed elliptical figure is difficult, principally, because two different sized curves are required, and the pen runs from one curve into the other. if the two curves meet at the wrong place, you may be sure you will have a distorted ellipse. follow the directions given in connection with fig. , and it will give you a good idea of merging the two lines. first. draw a horizontal line, a, which is in the direction of the major axis of the ellipse--that is, the longest distance across. the narrow part of the ellipse is called the minor axis. second. draw a perpendicular line, b, which we will call the center of the ellipse, where it crosses the line a. this point must not be confounded with the _focus_. in a circle the focus is the exact center of the ring, but there is no such thing in an ellipse. instead, there are two focal points, called the _foci_, as you will see presently. third. step off two points or marking places, as we shall term them, equidistant from the line b, and marked c, c. these marks will then represent the diameter of the ellipse across its major axis. fourth. we must now get the diameter of the minor axis, along the line b. this distance will depend on the perspective you have of the figure. if you look at a disk at an angle of about degrees it will be half of the distance across the major axis. so you may understand this examine fig. . the first sketch shows the eye looking directly at the disk . in the second sketch the disk is at degrees, and now the lines , from the eye, indicate that it is just half the width that it was when the lines were projected. the marks d d, therefore, indicate the distance across the minor axis in fig. . [illustration: _fig. . perspection in angles_] fifth. we must now find the focal points of the ellipse. if the line a on each side of the cross line b is divided into four parts, the outer marks e may be used for the foci, and will be the places where the point of the compass, or bow pen, is to be placed. sixth. describe a circle f, so it passes through the mark c, and move the point of the compass to the center of the ellipse, at the star, and describe a circle line g, from the mark c to the line b. this will give a centering point h. then draw a line i from h to e, and extend it through the circle f. seventh. if the point of the compass is now put at h, and the pencil or pen on the circle line f, the curve j can be drawn, so the latter curve and the curve f will thus merge perfectly at the line i. the focal points.--the focal points can be selected at any arbitrary point, between c and the line b, and the point h may be moved closer to or farther away from the line a, and you will succeed in making the ellipse correct, if you observe one thing, namely: the line i, which must always run from h to e, and intersects the circle f, is the starting or the ending point for the small curve f or the large circle j. [illustration: _fig. . fig. . fig. . perspectives of cubes_] isometric and perspective.--a figure may be drawn so as to show an isometric or a perspective view. thus, a cube can be drawn so as to make an isometric figure, as in fig. , where the three sides are equal to each other. isometric means a method of drawing any object in such a manner that the height, length and breadth may be shown in the proportion they really bear to each other. fig. has the sides not only equal to each other, in appearance to the eye, but they have the same outlines and angles. contrast this figure with figs. and . in fig. two of the sides are equal in angles and outline; and in fig. each side has a different outline, and different angles. nevertheless, all the cubes are, in reality, of the same dimension. the protractor.--this is a most useful tool for the draughtsman. it enables the user to readily find any angle. fig. shows an approved form of the tool for this purpose. [illustration: _fig. . protractor. section lining metals_] suggestions in drawing.--as in the use of all other tools, so with the drawing instrument, it must be kept in proper order. if the points are too fine they will cut the paper; if too blunt the lines will be ragged. in whetting the points hold the pen at an angle of degrees. don't make too long an angle or slope, and every time you sharpen hold it at the same angle, so that it is ground back, and not at the point only. [illustration: _fig. . using the protractor._] holding the pen.--the drawing pen should be held as nearly vertical as possible. use the cleaning rag frequently. if the ink does not flow freely, after you have made a few strokes, as is frequently the case, gently press together the points. the least grit between the tines will cause an irregular flow. inks.--as prepared liquid inks are now universally used, a few suggestions might be well concerning them. after half the bottle has been used, add a half teaspoonful of water, shake it well, and then strain it through a fine cotton cloth. this will remove all grit and lint that is sure to get into the bottle however carefully it may be corked. [illustration: _fig. . section lining metals_] tracing cloth.--it is preferable to use the dull side of the tracing cloth for the reasons that, as the cloth is rolled with the glossy side inside, the figure when drawn on the other side will be uppermost, and will thus lie flat; and on the other hand, the ink will take better on the dull side. if the ink does not flow freely, use chalk, fine pumice stone, or talc, and rub it in well with a clean cloth, and then wipe off well before beginning to trace. detail paper.--the detail paper, on which the drawing is first made in pencil, should show the figure accurately, particularly the points where the bow pen are to be used, as well as the measurement points for the straight lines. how to proceed.--make the circles, curves, and irregular lines first, and then follow with the straight lines. where the point of the circle pen must be used for a large number of lines, as, for instance, in shading, the smallest circles should be made first, and the largest circles last, because at every turn the centering hole becomes larger, and there is liability to make the circles more or less irregular. such irregularity will not be so noticeable in the large curves as in the smaller ones. indicating material by the section lines.--in section lining different materials can be indicated by the character of the lines, shown in fig. . chapter ix treatment and use of metals annealing.--a very important part of the novice's education is a knowledge pertaining to the annealing of metals. unlike the artisan in wood, who works the materials as he finds them, the machinist can, and, in fact, with many of the substances, must prepare them so they can be handled or cut by the tools. annealing is one of the steps necessary with all cutting tools, and it is an absolute requirement with many metals for ordinary use, as well as for many other articles like glass. this is particularly true in the use of copper. toughness and elasticity.--it means the putting of metals in such a condition that they will not only be less brittle, but also tougher and more elastic. many substances, like glass, must be annealed before they can be put in condition for use, as this material when first turned out is so brittle that the slightest touch will shatter it, so that it must be toughened. malleable or wrought iron, if subjected to pressure, becomes brittle, and it is necessary to anneal it. otherwise, if used, for instance, for boiler plates, from the rolled sheets, it would stand but little pressure. the most immediate use the boy will have is the treatment of steel. he must learn the necessity of this process, and that of tempering, in all his cutting tools, and in the making of machinery where some parts are required to be constructed of very hard metal. the process.--to anneal steel it must be heated to a bright cherry red and then gradually cooled down. for this purpose a bed of fine charcoal, or iron filings and lime, is prepared, in which the article is embedded, and permitted to remain until it is cold. there are many ways of doing the work, particularly in the use of substances which will the most readily give up their carbon to the tool. yellow prussiate of potash is an excellent medium, and this is sprinkled over the cherry-heated article to be annealed. the process may be repeated several times. tempering.--this is the reverse of annealing as understood in the art. the word itself does not mean to "harden," but to put into some intermediate state. for instance, "tempered clay" means a clay which has been softened so it can be readily worked. on the other hand, a tempered steel tool is put into a condition where it is hardened, but this hardness is also accompanied by another quality, namely, _toughness_. for this reason, the word _temper_, and not _hardness_, is referred to. a lathe tool, if merely hardened, would be useless for that purpose. tempering contrasted with annealing.--it will be observed that in annealing three things are necessary: first, heating to a certain temperature; second, cooling slowly; third, the particular manner of cooling it. in tempering, on the other hand, three things are also necessary: first: the heating temperature should be a dull red, which is less than the annealing heat. second: instead of cooling slowly the article tempered is dipped into a liquid which suddenly chills it. third: the materials used vary, but if the article is plunged into an unguent made of mercury and bacon fat, it will impart a high degree of toughness and elasticity. materials used.--various oils, fats and rosins are also used, and some acids in water are also valuable for this purpose. care should be taken to have sufficient amount of liquid in the bath so as not to evaporate it or heat it up too much when it receives the heated body. different parts of certain articles require varying degrees of hardness, like the tangs of files. the cutting body of the file must be extremely hard, and rather brittle than tough. if the tang should be of the same hardness it would readily break. _gradual tempering._--to prevent this, some substance like soap suds may be used to cool down the tang, so that toughness without hardness is imparted. the tempering, or hardening, like the annealing process, may be repeated several times in succession, and at each successive heating the article is put at a higher temperature. if any part of a body, as, for instance, a hammerhead, should require hardening, it may be plunged into the liquid for a short distance only, and this will harden the pole or peon while leaving the other part of the head soft, or annealed. glycerine is a good tempering substance, and to this may be added a small amount of sulphate of potash. fluxing.--the word _flux_ means to fuse or to melt, or to put into a liquid state. the office of a flux is to facilitate the fusion of metals. but fluxes do two things. they not only aid the conversion of the metal into a fluid state, but also serve as a means for facilitating the unity of several metals which make up the alloy, and aid in uniting the parts of metals to be joined in the welding of parts. uniting metals.--metals are united in three ways, where heat is used: first: by heating two or more of them to such a high temperature that they melt and form a compound, or an alloy, as it is called. second: by heating up the points to be joined, and then lapping the pieces and hammering the parts. this is called forge work or welding. third: by not heating the adjacent parts and using an easily fusible metal, which is heated up and run between the two, by means of a soldering iron. the foreign material used in the first is called a flux; in the second it is termed a welding compound; and in the third it is known as a soldering acid, or soldering fluid. the boy is not so much interested in the first process, from the standpoint of actual work, but it is necessary that he should have some understanding of it. it may be said, as to fluxes, generally, that they are intended to promote the fusion of the liquefying metals, and the elements used are the alkalis, such as borax, tartar, limestone, or fluor spar. these substances act as reducing or oxidizing agents. the most important are carbonate of soda, potash, and cyanide of potassium. limestone is used as the flux in iron-smelting. welding compounds.--elsewhere formulas are given of the compounds most desirable to use. it is obvious that the application of these substances on the heated surfaces, is not only to facilitate the heating, but to prepare the articles in such a manner that they will more readily adhere to each other. oxidation.--oxidation is the thing to guard against in welding. the moment a piece of metal, heated to whiteness, is exposed, the air coats it with a film which is called an _oxide_. to remove this the welding compound is applied. the next office of the substance thus applied, is to serve as a medium for keeping the welding parts in a liquid condition as long as possible, and thus facilitate the unity of the joined elements. when the hammer beats the heated metals an additional increment of heat is imparted to the weld, due to the forcing together of the molecules of the iron, so that these two agencies, namely, the compound and the mechanical friction, act together to unite the particles of the metal. soldering.--here another principle is involved, namely, the use of an intermediate material between two parts which are to be united. the surfaces to be brought together must be thoroughly cleaned, using such agents as will prevent the formation of oxides. the parts to be united may be of the same, or of different materials, and it is in this particular that the workman must be able to make a choice of the solder most available, and whether hard or soft. soft solder.--a soft solder is usually employed where lead, tin, or alloys of lead, tin and bismuth are to be soldered. these solders are all fusible at a low temperature, and they do not, as a result, have great strength. bismuth is a metal which lowers the fusing point of any alloy of which it forms a part, while lead makes the solder less fusible. hard solder.--these are so distinguished because they require a temperature above the low red to fuse them. the metals which are alloyed for this purpose are copper, silver, brass, zinc and tin. various alloys are thus made which require a high temperature to flux properly, and these are the ones to use in joining steel to steel, the parts to be united requiring an intense furnace heat. spelter.--the alloy used for this purpose is termed "spelter," and brass, zinc and tin are its usual components. the hard solders are used for uniting brass, bronze, copper, and iron. whether soft or hard solder is used, it is obvious that it must melt at a lower temperature than the parts which are to be joined together. there is one peculiarity with respect to alloys: they melt at a lower temperature than either of the metals forming the alloys. soldering acid.--before beginning the work of soldering, the parts must be cleaned by filing or sandpapering, and coated with an acid which neutralizes the oxygen of the air. this is usually muriatic acid, of which use, say, one quart and into this drop small pieces of zinc. this will effervesce during the time the acid is dissolving the zinc. when the boiling motion ceases, the liquid may be strained, or the dark pieces removed. the next step is to dissolve two ounces of sal ammoniac in a third of a pint of water, and in another vessel dissolve an ounce of chloride of tin. then mix the three solutions, and this can be placed in a bottle, or earthen jar or vessel, and it will keep indefinitely. the soldering iron.--a large iron is always better than a small one, particularly for the reason that it will retain its heat better. this should always be kept tinned, which can be done by heating and plunging it into the soldering solution, and the solder will then adhere to the iron and cover the point, so that when the actual soldering takes place the solder will not creep away from the tool. by a little care and attention to these details, the work of uniting metals will be a pleasure. it is so often the case, however, that the apparatus for doing this work is neglected in a shop; the acid is allowed to become dirty and full or foreign matter, and the different parts separated. chapter x on gearing and how ordered the technical name for gears, the manner of measuring them, their pitch and like terms, are most confusing to the novice. as an aid to the understanding on this subject, the wheels are illustrated, showing the application of these terms. spur and pinion.--when a gear is ordered a specification is necessary. the manufacturer will know what you mean if you use the proper terms, and you should learn the distinctions between spur and pinion, and why a bevel differs from a miter gear. if the gears on two parallel shafts mesh with each other, they both may be of the same diameter, or one may be larger than the other. in the latter case, the small one is the pinion, and the larger one the spur wheel. some manufacturers use the word "gear" for "pinion," so that, in ordering, they call them _gear_ and _pinion_, in speaking of the large and small wheels. measuring a gear.--the first thing to specify would be the diameter. now a spur gear, as well as a pinion, has three diameters; one measure across the outer extremities of the teeth; one measure across the wheel from the base of the teeth; and the distance across the wheel at a point midway between the base and end of the teeth. these three measurements are called, respectively, "outside diameter," "inside diameter," and "pitch diameter." when the word _diameter_ is used, as applied to a gear wheel, it is always understood to mean the "pitch diameter." [illustration: _fig. . spur gears_] pitch.--this term is the most difficult to understand. when two gears of equal size mesh together, the pitch line, or the _pitch circle_, as it is also called, is exactly midway between the centers of the two wheels. now the number of teeth in a gear is calculated on the pitch line, and this is called: [illustration: _fig. . miter gear pitch_] diametral pitch.--to illustrate: if a gear has teeth, and the pitch diameter of the wheel is inches, there are teeth to each inch of the pitch diameter, and the gear is then _diametral pitch_. circular pitch.--now the term "circular pitch" grows out of the necessity of getting the measurement of the distance from the center of one tooth to the center of the next, and it is measured along the pitch line. supposing you wanted to know the number of teeth in a gear where the pitch diameter and the diametral pitch are given. you would proceed as follows: let the diameter of the pitch circle be inches, and the diameter of the diametral pitch be inches. multiplying these together the product is , thus giving the number of teeth. [illustration: _fig. . bevel gears._] it will thus be seen that if you have an idea of the diametral pitch and circular pitch, you can pretty fairly judge of the size that the teeth will be, and thus enable you to determine about what kind of teeth you should order. how to order a gear.--in proceeding to order, therefore, you may give the pitch, or the diameter of the pitch circle, in which latter case the manufacturer of the gear will understand how to determine the number of the teeth. in case the intermeshing gears are of different diameters, state the number of teeth in the gear and also in the pinion, or indicate what the relative speed shall be. [illustration: _fig. . miter gears._] this should be followed by the diameter of the hole in the gear and also in the pinion; the backing of both gear and pinion; the width of the face; the diameter of the gear hub; diameter of the pinion hub; and, finally, whether the gears are to be fastened to the shafts by key-ways or set-screws. fig. shows a sample pair of miter gears, with the measurements to indicate how to make the drawings. fig. shows the bevel gears. bevel and miter gears.--when two intermeshing gears are on shafts which are at right angles to each other, they may be equal diametrically, or of different sizes. if both are of the same diameter, they are called bevel gears; if of different diameters, miter gears. [illustration: _fig. . sprocket wheel._] it is, in ordering gears of this character, that the novice finds it most difficult to know just what to do. in this case it is necessary to get the proper relation of speed between the two gears, and, for convenience, we shall, in the drawing, make the gears in the relation of to . drawing gears.--draw two lines at right angles, fig. , as and , marking off the sizes of the two wheels at the points , . then draw a vertical line (a) midway between the marks of the line , and this will be the center of the main pinion. also draw a horizontal line (b) midway between the marks on the vertical line ( ), and this will represent the center of the small gear. these two cross lines (a, b) constitute the intersecting axes of the two wheels, and a line ( ), drawn from the mark ( to ), and another line ( ), from the axes to the intersecting points of the lines ( , ), will give the pitch line angles of the two wheels. sprocket wheels.--for sprocket wheels the pitch line passes centrally through the rollers (a) of the chain, as shown in fig. , and the pitch of the chain is that distance between the centers of two adjacent rollers. in this case the cut of the teeth is determined by the chain. chapter xi mechanical powers the lever.--the lever is the most wonderful mechanical element in the world. the expression, _lever_, is not employed in the sense of a stick or a bar which is used against a fulcrum to lift or push something with, but as the type of numerous devices which employ the same principle. some of these devices are, the wedge, the screw, the pulley and the inclined plane. in some form or other, one or more of these are used in every piece of mechanism in the world. because the lever enables the user to raise or move an object hundreds of times heavier than is possible without it, has led thousands of people to misunderstand its meaning, because it has the appearance, to the ignorant, of being able to manufacture power. wrong inferences from use of lever.--this lack of knowledge of first principles, has bred and is now breeding, so-called perpetual motion inventors (?) all over the civilized world. it is surprising how many men, to say nothing of boys, actually believe that power can be made without the expenditure of something which equalizes it. the boy should not be led astray in this particular, and i shall try to make the matter plain by using the simple lever to illustrate the fact that whenever power is exerted some form of energy is expended. in fig. is a lever (a), resting on a fulcrum (b), the fulcrum being so placed that the lever is four times longer on one side than on the other. a weight (c) of pounds is placed on the short end, and a -pound weight (d), called the _power_, on the short end. it will thus be seen that the lever is balanced by the two weights, or that the _weight_ and the _power_ are equal. [illustration: _fig. . simple lever_] the lever principle.--now, without stopping to inquire, the boy will say: "certainly, i can understand that. as the lever is four times longer on one side of the fulcrum than on the other side, it requires only one-fourth of the weight to balance the four pounds. but suppose i push down the lever, at the point where the weight (d) is, then, for every pound i push down i can raise four pounds at c. in that case do i not produce four times the power?" i answer, yes. but while i produce that power i am losing something which is equal to the power gained. what is that? [illustration: _fig. . lever action_] first: look at fig. ; the distance traveled. the long end of the lever is at its highest point, which is a; and the short end of the lever is at its lowest point c. when the long end of the lever is pushed down, so it is at b, it moves four times farther than the short end moves upwardly, as the distance from c to d is just one-fourth that from a to b. the energy expended in moving four times the distance balances the power gained. power vs. distance traveled.--from this the following law is deduced: that whatever is gained in power is lost in the distance traveled. second: using the same figure, supposing it was necessary to raise the short end of the lever, from c to d, in one second of time. in that case the hand pressing down the long end of the lever, would go from a to b in one second of time; or it would go four times as far as the short end, in the same time. power vs. loss in time.--this means another law: that what is gained in power is lost in time. distinguish clearly between these two motions. in the first case the long end of the lever is moved down from a to b in four seconds, and it had to travel four times the distance that the short end moves in going from c to d. in the second case the long end is moved down, from a to b, in one second of time, and it had to go that distance in one-fourth of the time, so that four times as much energy was expended in the same time to raise the short end from c to d. wrongly directed energy.--more men have gone astray on the simple question of the power of the lever than on any other subject in mechanics. the writer has known instances where men knew the principles involved in the lever, who would still insist on trying to work out mechanical devices in which pulleys and gearing were involved, without seeming to understand that those mechanical devices are absolutely the same in principle. this will be made plain by a few illustrations. in fig. , a is a pulley four times larger, diametrically, than b, and c is the pivot on which they turn. the pulleys are, of course, secured to each other. in this case we have the two weights, one of four pounds on the belt, which is on the small pulley (b), and a one-pound weight on the belt from the large pulley (a). [illustration: _fig. . the pulley_] the lever and the pulley.--if we should substitute a lever (d) for the pulleys, the similarity to the lever (fig. ) would be apparent at once. the pivot (c) in this case would act the same as the pivot (c) in the lever illustration. in the same manner, and for like reasons, the wedge, the screw and the incline plane, are different structural applications of the principles set forth in the lever. whenever two gears are connected together, the lever principle is used, whether they are the same in size, diametrically, or not. if they are the same size then no change in power results; but instead, thereof, a change takes place in the direction of the motion. [illustration: _fig. . fig. . change of direction_] when one end of the lever (a) goes down, the other end goes up, as shown in fig. ; and in fig. , when the shaft (c) of one wheel turns in one direction, the shaft of the other wheel turns in the opposite direction. it is plain that a gear, like a lever, may change direction as well as increase or decrease power. it is the thorough knowledge of these facts, and their application, which enables man to make the wonderful machinery we see on every hand. sources of power.--power is derived from a variety of sources, but what are called the _prime movers_ are derived from heat, through the various fuels, from water, from the winds and from the tides and waves of the ocean. in the case of water the power depends on the head, or height, of the surface of the water above the discharging orifice. water power.--a column of water an inch square and inches high gives a pressure at the base of one pound; and the pressure at the lower end is equal in all directions. if a tank of water inches high has a single orifice in its bottom " x " in size, the pressure of water through that opening will be only one pound, and it will be one pound through every other orifice in the bottom of the same size. calculating fuel energy.--power from fuels depends upon the expansion of the materials consumed, or upon the fact that heat expands some element, like water, which in turn produces the power. one cubic inch of water, when converted into steam, has a volume equal to one cubic foot, or about , times increase in bulk. advantage is taken of this in steam engine construction. if a cylinder has a piston in it with an area of square inches, and a pipe one inch square supplies steam at pounds pressure, the piston will have pounds pressure on every square inch of its surface, equal to , pounds. the pressure or head.--in addition to that there will also be pounds pressure on each square inch of the head, as well as on the sides of the cylinder. fig. shows a cylinder (a), a piston (b) and a steam inlet port (c), in which is indicated how the steam pressure acts equally in all directions. as, however, the piston is the only movable part, the force of the steam is directed to that part, and the motion is then transmitted to the crank, and to the shaft of the engine. [illustration: _fig. . steam pressure_] [illustration: _fig. . water pressure_] this same thing applies to water which, as stated, is dependent on its head. fig. represents a cylinder (d) with a vertically movable piston (e) and a standpipe (f). assuming that the pipe (f) is of sufficient height to give a pressure of pounds to the square inch, then the piston (e) and the sides and head of the cylinder (d) would have pounds pressure on every square inch of surface. fuels.--in the use of fuels, such as the volatile hydrocarbons, the direct expansive power of the fuel gases developed, is used to move the piston back and forth. engines so driven are called _internal combustion motors_. power from winds.--another source of power is from the wind acting against wheels which have blades or vanes disposed at such angles that there is a direct conversion of a rectilinear force into circular motion. in this case power is derived from the force of the moving air and the calculation of energy developed is made by considering the pressure on each square foot of surface. the following table shows the force exerted at different speeds against a flat surface one foot square, held so that the wind strikes it squarely: -------------------------------------------------------------------- -----------------+--------------++-------------------+-------------- speed of wind | pressure || speed of wind | pressure -----------------+--------------++-------------------+-------------- miles per hour | oz. || miles per hour | lb. oz. " " | " || " " | " " " | lb. " || " " | " " " " | " || " " | " " " " | " " || " " | " " " " | " " || " " | " -----------------+--------------++-------------------+-------------- varying degrees of pressure.--it is curious to notice how the increase in speed changes the pressure against the blade. thus, a wind blowing miles an hour shows pounds pressure; whereas a wind twice that velocity, or miles an hour, shows a pressure of pounds, which is four times greater than at miles. it differs, therefore, from the law with respect to water pressure, which is constant in relation to the height or the head--that is, for every inches height of water a pound pressure is added. power from waves and tides.--many attempts have been made to harness the waves and the tide and some of them have been successful. this effort has been directed to the work of converting the oscillations of the waves into a rotary motion, and also to take advantage of the to-and-fro movement of the tidal flow. there is a great field in this direction for the ingenious boy. a profitable field.--in no direction of human enterprise is there such a wide and profitable field for work, as in the generation of power. it is constantly growing in prominence, and calls for the exercise of the skill of the engineer and the ingenuity of the mechanic. efficiency and economy are the two great watchwords, and this is what the world is striving for. success will come to him who can contribute to it in the smallest degree. capital is not looking for men who can cheapen the production of an article per cent., but per cent. the commercial world does not expect an article to be per cent, better. five per cent. would be an inducement for business. chapter xii on measures horse-power.--when work is performed it is designated as horse-power, usually indicated by the letters h. p.; but the unit of work is called a _foot pound_. if one pound should be lifted feet in one second, or pounds one foot in the same time, it would be designated as one horse-power. for that reason it is called a foot pound. instead of using the figure to indicate the power exerted during one minute of time, the time is taken for a minute, in all calculations, so that multiplied by the number of seconds, , in a minute, equals , foot pounds. foot pounds.--the calculation of horse-power is in a large measure arbitrary. it was determined in this way: experiments show that the heat expended in vaporizing pounds of water per hour, develops a force equal to , foot pounds; and since it takes about pounds of coal per hour to vaporize that amount of water, the heat developed by that quantity of coal develops the same force as that exercised by an average horse exerting his strength at ordinary work. all power is expressed in foot pounds. suppose a cannon ball of sufficient weight and speed strikes an object. if the impact should indicate , pounds it would not mean that the force employed was one horse-power, but that many foot pounds. if there should be impacts of pounds each within a minute, it might be said that it would be equal to horse-power, but the correct way to express it would be foot pounds. so in every calculation, where power is to be calculated, first find out how many foot pounds are developed, and then use the unit of measure, , , as the divisor to get the horse-power, if you wish to express it in that way. it must be understood, therefore, that horse-power is a simple unit of work, whereas a foot pound is a compound unit formed of a foot paired with the weight of a pound. energy.--now _work_ and _energy_ are two different things. work is the overcoming of resistance of any kind, either by causing or changing motion, or maintaining it against the action of some other force. energy, on the other hand, is the power of doing work. falling water possesses energy; so does a stone poised on the edge of a cliff. in the case of water, it is called _kinetic_ energy; in the stone _potential_ energy. a pound of pressure against the stone will cause the latter, in falling, to develop an enormous energy; so it will be seen that this property resides, or is within the thing itself. it will be well to remember these definitions. how to find out the power developed.--the measure of power produced by an engine, or other source, is so interesting to boys that a sketch is given of a prony brake, which is the simplest form of the dynamometer, as these measuring machines are called. [illustration: _fig. . prony brake_] in the drawing (a) is the shaft, with a pulley (a´), which turns in the direction of the arrow (b). c is a lever which may be of any length. this has a block (c´), which fits on the pulley, and below the shaft, and surrounding it, are blocks (d) held against the pulley by a chain (e), the ends of the chain being attached to bolts (f) which pass through the block (c´) and lever (c). nuts (g) serve to draw the bolts upwardly and thus tighten the blocks against the shaft. the free end of the lever has stops (h) above and below, so as to limit its movement. weights (i) are suspended from the end of the lever. [illustration: _fig. . speed indicator_] the test.--the test is made as follows: the shaft is set in motion, and the nuts are tightened until its full power at the required speed is balanced by the weight put on the platform. the following calculation can then be made: for our present purpose we shall assume that the diameter of the pulley (a´) is inches; the length of the lever (c), feet; the speed of the shaft (a) and the pulley, revolutions per minute; and the weight pounds. now proceed as follows: ( ) multiply the diameter of the pulley (a´) ( inches) by . , and this will give the circumference . inches; or, . feet. ( ) multiply this product ( . ) by the revolutions per minute. . Ã� = . . this equals the _speed_ of the periphery of the pulley. ( ) the next step is to get the length of the lever (c) from the center of the shaft (a) to the point from which the weights are suspended, and divide this by one-half of the diameter of the pulley (a´). " ÷ " = ", or - / feet. this is the _leverage_. ( ) then multiply the _weight_ in pounds by the _leverage_. Ã� - / = . ( ) next multiply this product ( ) by the _speed_, Ã� . = , . , which means _foot pounds_. ( ) as each horse-power has , foot pounds, the last product should be divided by this figure, and we have , . ÷ , = . h. p. the foot measure.--how long is a foot, and what is it determined by? it is an arbitrary measure. the human foot is the basis of the measurement. but what is the length of a man's foot? it varied in different countries from to inches. in england, in early days, it was defined as a measure of length consisting of inches, or barleycorns laid end to end. but barleycorns differ in length as well as the human foot, so the standard adopted is without any real foundation or reason. weight.--to determine weight, however, a scientific standard was adopted. a gallon contains . pounds avoirdupois weight of distilled water. this gallon is divided up in two ways; one by weight, and the other by measurement. each gallon contains cubic inches of distilled water. as it has four quarts, each quart has - / cubic inches, and as each quart is comprised of two pints, each pint has nearly cubic inches. the gallon.--the legal gallon in the united states is equal to a cylindrical measure inches in diameter and inches deep. notwithstanding the weights and dimensions of solids and liquids are thus fixed by following a scientific standard, the divisions into scruples, grains, pennyweights and tons, as well as cutting them up into pints, quarts and other units, is done without any system, and for this reason the need of a uniform method has been long considered by every country. the metric system.--as early as , fernal, a french physician, suggested the metric system. our own government recognized the value of this plan when it established the system of coinage. the principle lies in fixing a unit, such as a dollar, or a pound, or a foot, and then making all divisions, or addition, in multiples of ten. thus, we have one mill; ten mills to make a dime; ten dimes to make a dollar, and so on. basis of measurement.--the question arose, what to use as the basis of measurement, and it was proposed to use the earth itself, as the measure. for this purpose the meridian line running around the earth at the latitude of paris was selected. one-quarter of this measurement around the globe was found to be , , inches, and this was divided into , , parts. each part, therefore, was a little over . inches in length, and this was called a meter, which means _measure_. a decimeter is one-tenth of that, namely, . inches; and a decameter . , or ten times the meter, and so on. for convenience the metrical table is given, showing lengths in feet and inches, in which only three decimal points are used. metrical table, showing measurements in feet and inches: metrical table, showing measurements in feet and inches ------------------------------------------ ------------+--------------+-------------- length | inches | feet ------------+--------------+-------------- millimeter | . | . centimeter | . | . decimeter | . | . meter | . | . decameter | . | . hectometer | . | . kilometer | . | . myriameter | . | . ------------+--------------+-------------- metric system, showing the equivalents in our measures myriameter = . nautical miles, or . statute miles. kilometer = . statute mile, or nearly / mile. hectometer = . yards. decameter = . chain, . rods. meter = . inches, or nearly ft. - / inches. decimeter = . inches. centimeter = . inch. millimeter = . inch. micron = / inch. hectare = . acres. arc = . square yards. centaire, or square meter = . square feet. decastere = cubic yards, or about - / cords. stere, or cubic meter = . cubic yards, or . cubic feet. decistere = - / cubic feet. kiloliter = ton, gal., pints, gills old wine measure. hectoliter = . imperial gals., or . u. s. gals. decaliter = gallons, pint, - / gills, imperial measure, or gals., qts., pt., / gill, u. s. liter = pint, gills, imperial, or qt., / gill u. s. measure. decileter = . gill, imperial, or . gill u. s. measure. millier = , . pounds avoirdupois. metric quintal = hundredweight, less - / pounds, or pounds, ounces. kilogram = pounds, ounces, - / drams avoirdupois. hectogram = ounces, - / drams avoirdupois. decagram = . grains troy. gram = . grains. decigram = . grain. centigram = . grain. milligram = . grain. chapter xiii useful information for the workshop to find the circumference of a circle: multiply the diameter by . . to find the diameter of a circle: multiply the circle by . . to find the area of a circle: multiply the square of the diameter by . . to find the area of a triangle: multiply the base by one-half the perpendicular height. to find the surface of a ball: multiply the square of the diameter by . . to find the solidity of a sphere: multiply the cube of the diameter by . . to find the cubic contents of a cone: multiply the area of the base by one-third the altitude. doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity four times. to find the pressure in pounds per square inch of a column of water: multiply the height of the column in feet by . . standard horse-power: the evaporation of pounds of water per hour from a feed water temperature of , degrees fahrenheit into steam at pounds gauge pressure. to find the capacity of any tank in gallons: square the diameter in inches, multiply by the length, and then by . . in making patterns for aluminum castings provision must be made for shrinkage to a greater extent than with any other metal or alloy. the toughness of aluminum can be increased by adding a small per cent. of phosphorus. all alloys of metals having mercury are called _amalgams_. a sheet of zinc suspended in the water of a boiler will produce an electrolytic action and prevent scaling to a considerable extent. hydrofluoric acid will not affect a pure diamond, but will dissolve all imitations. a strong solution of alum put into glue will make it insoluble in water. a grindstone with one side harder than the other can have its flinty side softened by immersing that part in boiled linseed oil. one barrel contains - / cubic feet. one cubic yard contains - / barrels. to find the speed of a driven pulley of a given diameter: multiply the diameter of the driving pulley by its speed or number of revolutions. divide this by the diameter of the driven pulley. the result will be the number of revolutions of the driven pulley. to find the diameter of a driven pulley that shall make any given number of revolutions in the same time: multiply the diameter of the driving pulley by its number of revolutions, and divide the product by the number of revolutions of the driven pulley. a piece of the well-known tar soap held against the inside of a belt while running will prevent it from slipping, and will not injure the belt. boiler scale is composed of the carbonate or the sulphate of lime. to prevent the formation it is necessary to use some substance which will precipitate these elements in the water. the cheapest and most universally used for this purpose are soda ash and caustic soda. gold bronze is merely a mixture of equal parts of oxide of tin and sulphur. to unite them they are heated for some time in an earthen retort. rusted utensils may be cleaned of rust by applying either turpentine or kerosene oil, and allowing them to stand over night, when the excess may be wiped off. clean afterwards with fine emery cloth. plaster of paris is valuable for many purposes in a machine shop, but the disadvantage in handling it is, that it sets so quickly, and its use is, therefore, very much limited. to prevent quick setting mix a small amount of arrow root powder with the plaster before it is mixed, and this will keep it soft for some time, and also increase its hardness when it sets. for measuring purposes a tablespoon holds / ounce; a dessertspoon / ounce; a teaspoon / ounce; a teacupful of sugar weighs / pound; two teacupsful of butter weigh pound; - / pints of powdered sugar weigh pound; one pint of distilled water weighs pound. ordinarily, drops of liquid are equal to ounce; this varies with different liquids, some being thicker in consistency than others, but for those of the consistency of water the measure given is fairly accurate. chapter xiv the simplicity of great inventions, and of nature's manifestations if there is anything in the realm of mechanics which excites the wonder and admiration of man, it is the knowledge that the greatest inventions are the simplest, and that the inventor must take advantage of one law in nature which is universal in its application, and that is vibration. there is a key to every secret in nature's great storehouse. it is not a complicated one, containing a multiplicity of wards and peculiar angles and recesses. it is the very simplicity in most of the problems which long served as a bar to discovery in many of the arts. so extremely simple have been some of the keys that many inventions resulted from accidents. invention precedes science.--occasionally inventions were brought about by persistency and energy, and ofttimes by theorizing; but science rarely ever aids invention. the latter usually precedes science. thus, reasoning could not show how it might be possible for steam to force water into a boiler against its own pressure. but the injector does this. if, prior to , it had been suggested that a sonorous vibration could be converted into an electrical pulsation, and transformed back again to a sonorous vibration, science would have proclaimed it impossible; but the telephone does it. invention shows how things are done, and science afterwards explains the phenomena and formulates theories and laws which become serviceable to others in the arts. simplicity in inventions.--but let us see how exceedingly simple are some of the great discoveries of man. the telegraph.--the telegraph is nothing but a magnet at each end of a wire, with a lever for an armature, which opens and closes the circuit that passes through the magnets and armature, so that an impulse on the lever, or armature, at one end, by making and breaking the circuit, also makes and breaks the circuit at the other end. telephone.--the telephone has merely a disk close to but not touching the end of a magnet. the sonorous vibration of the voice oscillates the diaphragm, and as the diaphragm is in the magnetic field of the magnet, it varies the pressure, so called, causing the diaphragm at the other end of the wire to vibrate in unison and give out the same sound originally imparted to the other diaphragm. transmitter.--the transmitter is merely a sensitized instrument. it depends solely on the principle of light contact points in an electric circuit, whereby the vibrations of the voice are augmented. phonograph.--the phonograph is not an electrical instrument. it has a diaphragm provided centrally with a blunt pin, or stylus. to make the record, some soft or plastic material, like wax, or tinfoil, is caused to move along so that the point of the stylus makes impressions in it, and the vibrations of the diaphragm cause the point to traverse a groove of greater or smaller indentations. when this groove is again presented to the stylus the diaphragm is vibrated and gives forth the sounds originally imparted to it when the indentations were made. wireless telegraphy.--wireless telegraphy depends for its action on what is called induction. through this property a current is made of a high electro-motive force, which means of a high voltage, and this disturbs the ether with such intensity that the waves are sent out in all directions to immense distances. the great discovery has been to find a mechanism sensitive enough to detect the induction waves. the instrument for this purpose is called a coherer, in which small particles cohere through the action of the electric waves, and are caused to fall apart mechanically, during the electrical impulses. printing telegraph.--the printing telegraph requires the synchronous turning of two wheels. this means that two wheels at opposite ends of a wire must be made to turn at exactly the same rate of speed. originally, this was tried by clock work, but without success commercially, for the reason that a pendulum does not beat with the same speed at the equator, as at different latitudes, nor at altitudes; and temperature also affects the rate. the solution was found by making the two wheels move by means of a timing fork, which vibrates with the same speed everywhere, and under all conditions. electric motor.--the direct current electric motor depends for its action on the principle that likes repel, and unlikes attract. the commutator so arranges the poles that at the proper points, in the revolution of the armature, the poles are always presented to each other in such a way that as they approach each other, they are opposites, and thus attract, and as they recede from each other they repel. a dynamo is exactly the same, except that the commutator reverses the operation and makes the poles alike as they approach each other, and unlike as they recede. steel is simply iron, to which has been added a small per cent of carbon. quinine is efficient in its natural state, but it has been made infinitely more effectual by the breaking up or changing of the molecules with acids. sulphate of quinine is made by the use of sulphuric acid as a solvent. explosions.--explosions depend on oxygen. while this element does not burn, a certain amount of it must be present to support combustion. thus, the most inflammable gas or liquid will not burn or explode unless oxygenized. explosives are made by using a sufficient amount, in a concentrated form, which is added to the fuel, so that when it is ignited there is a sufficient amount of oxygen present to support combustion, hence the rapid explosion which follows. vibration in nature.--the physical meaning of vibration is best illustrated by the movement of a pendulum. all agitation is vibration. all force manifests itself in this way. the painful brilliancy of the sun is produced by the rapid vibrations of the rays; the twinkle of the distant star, the waves of the ocean when ruffled by the winds; the shimmer of the moon on its crested surface; the brain in thinking; the mouth in talking; the beating of the heart; all, alike, obey the one grand and universal law of vibratory motion. qualities of sound.--sound is nothing but a succession of vibrations of greater or less magnitude. pitch is produced by the number of vibrations; intensity by their force; and quality by the character of the article vibrated. since the great telephone controversy which took place some years ago there has been a wonderful development in the knowledge of acoustics, or sounds. it was shown that the slightest sound would immediately set into vibration every article of furniture in a room, and very sensitive instruments have been devised to register the force and quality. the photographer's plate.--it is known that the chemical action of an object on a photographer's plate is due to vibration; each represents a force of different intensity, hence the varying shades produced. owing to the different rates of vibrations caused by the different colors, the difficulty has been to photograph them, but this has now been accomplished. harmony, or "being in tune," as is the common expression, is as necessary in light, as in music. some chemicals will bring out or "develop," the pictures; others will not. colors are now photographed because invention and science have found the harmonizing chemicals. quadruplex telegraphy.--one of the most remarkable of all the wonders of our age is what is known as duplex and quadruplex telegraphy. every atom and impulse in electricity is oscillation. the current which transmits a telegram is designated in the science as "vibratory." but how is it possible to transmit two or more messages over one wire at the same time? it is by bringing into play the harmony of sounds. one message is sent in one direction in the key of a; another message in the other direction in b; and so any number may be sent, because the electrical vibrations may be tuned, just like the strings of a violin. electric harmony.--every sound produces a corresponding vibration in surrounding objects. while each vibrates, or is capable of transmitting a sound given to it by its vibratory powers, it may not vibrate in harmony. when a certain key of a piano is struck every key has a certain vibration, and if we could separate it from the other sounds, it would reflect the same sound as the string struck, just the same as the walls of a room or the air itself would convey that sound. but as no two strings in the instrument vibrate the same number of times each second, the rapid movement of successive sounds of the keys do not interfere with each other. if, however, there are several pianos in a room, and all are tuned the same pitch, the striking of a key on one instrument will instantly set in vibration the corresponding strings in all the other instruments. this is one reason why a piano tested in a music wareroom has always a more beautiful and richer sound than when in a drawing-room or hall, since each string is vibrated by the other instrument. if a small piece of paper is balanced upon the strings of a violin, every key of the piano may be struck, except the one in tune, without affecting the paper; but the moment the same key is struck the vibration of the harmonizing pitch will unbalance the paper. the musical sound of c produces vibrations per second; d , and so on. the octave above has double the number of vibrations of the lower note. it will thus be understood why discord in music is not pleasant to the ear, as the vibrations are not in the proper multiples. odors.--so with odors. the sense of smell is merely the force set in motion by the vibration of the elements. an instrument called the _odophone_ demonstrates that a scale or gamut exists in flowers; that sharp smells indicate high tones and heavy smells low tones. over fifty odors have thus been analyzed. the treble clef, note e, th space, is orange; note d, st space below, violet; note f, th space above clef, ambergris. to make a proper bouquet, therefore the different odors must be harmonized, just the same as the notes of a musical chord are selected. a bouquet of vibrations.--the odophone shows that santal, geranium, orange flower and camphor, make a bouquet in the key of c. it is easy to conceive that a beautiful bouquet means nothing more than an agreeable vibratory sensation of the olfactory nerves. taste.--so with the sense of taste. the tongue is covered with minute cells surrounded by nervous filaments which are set in motion whenever any substance is brought into contact with the surface. tasting is merely the movement of these filaments, of greater or less rapidity. if an article is tasteless, it means that these filaments do not vibrate. these vibrations are of two kinds. they may move faster or slower, or they may move in a peculiar way. a sharp acute taste means that the vibrations are very rapid; a mild taste, slow vibrations. when a pleasant taste is detected, it is only because the filaments are set into an agreeable motion. the vibrations in the tongue may become so rapid that it will be painful, just as a shriek becomes piercing to the ear, or an intense light dazzling to the eye; all proceed from the same physical force acting on the brain. color.--color, that seemingly unexplainable force, becomes a simple thing when the principles of vibration are applied, and this has been fully explained by the spectroscope and its operation. when the boy once appreciates that this force, or this motion in nature is just as simple as the great inventions which have grown out of this manifestation, he will understand that a knowledge of these things will enable him to utilize the energy in a proper way. chapter xv workshop recipes and formulas in a work of this kind, dealing with the various elements, the boy should have at hand recipes or formulas for everything which comes within the province of his experiments. the following are most carefully selected, the objects being to present those which are the more easily compounded. adhesives for various uses.--waterproof glue. use a good quality of glue, and dissolve it in warm water, then add one pound of linseed oil to eight pounds of the glue. add three ounces of nitric acid. leather or card-board glue. after dissolving good glue in water, to which a little turpentine has been added, mix it with a thick paste of starch, the proportion of starch to glue being about two to every part of glue used. the mixture is used cold. a fine belt glue. dissolve ounces of gelatine in water, and heat after pouring off the excess water. then stir in five ounces of glycerine, ten ounces of turpentine, and five ounces of linseed oil varnish. if too thick add water to suit. for cementing iron to marble. use parts of plaster of paris, parts of iron filings, and one half part of sal ammoniac. these are mixed up with vinegar to make a fluid paste. to cement glass to iron. use ounces of boiled linseed oil and part of copal varnish, and into this put ounces of litharge and ounce of white lead and thoroughly mingle so as to make a smooth paste. water-proof cement. boiled linseed oil, ounces; copal, ounces; litharge, ounces; and white lead, ounces. to be thoroughly incorporated. to unite rubber or leather to hard substances. one ounce of pulverized gum shellac dissolved in - / ounces of strong ammonia, will make an elastic cement. must be kept tightly corked. for uniting iron to iron. use equal parts of boiled oil, white lead, pipe clay and black oxide of manganese, and form it into a paste. transparent cement. unite ounce of india rubber, ounces of chloroform, and ounces of mastic. this is to be kept together for a week, and stirred at times, when it will be ready for use. to attach cloth to metal. water parts, sugar parts, starch parts, and zinc chloride part. this must be first stirred and made free of lumps, and then heated until it thickens. united states government gum. dissolve part of gum arabic in water and add parts of sugar and part of starch. this is then boiled for a few minutes, and thinned down as required. to make different alloys.--silver-aluminum. silver one-fourth part, and aluminum three-fourth parts. bell-metal. copper, parts; tin, parts. or, copper, parts; tin, parts; zinc, parts. or, copper ; of tin. brass. copper, parts; zinc, parts; tin, part; lead, part. bronzes. copper, parts; zinc, parts; tin, parts. or, copper, parts; zinc, parts; tin, parts; lead, parts. german silver. parts of copper; parts zinc; parts nickel. for coating mirrors. tin, parts; mercury, parts. boiler compounds.--to prevent scaling. use common washing soda, or glauber salts. to dissolve celluloid.--use parts of alcohol and parts of camphor for every parts of celluloid. when the celluloid is put into the solution it will dissolve it. to soften celluloid. this may be done by simply heating, so it will bend, and by putting it in steam, it can be worked like dough. clay mixture for forges.--mix dry parts of fire clay, parts cast-iron turnings, one part of common salt, and / part sal ammoniac, and then add water while stirring, so as to form a mortar of the proper consistency. the mixture will become very hard when heat is applied. a modeling clay. this is made by mixing the clay with glycerine and afterwards adding vaseline. if too much vaseline is added it becomes too soft. fluids for cleaning clothes, furniture, etc.--for delicate fabrics. make strong decoction of soap bark, and put into alcohol. non-inflammable cleaner. equal parts of acetone, ammonia and diluted alcohol. taking dried paint from clothing. shake up parts of ammonia water with part of spirits of turpentine. cleaning furniture, etc. unite . parts of wax; . parts of oil of turpentine; parts acetic acid; parts citric acid; parts white soap. this must be well mingled before using. removing rust from iron or steel. rub the surface with oil of tartar. or, apply turpentine or kerosene, and after allowing to stand over night, clean with emery cloth. for removing ink stains from silver. use a paste made of chloride of lime and water. to clean silver-plated ware. make a mixture of cream of tartar, parts; levigated chalk, parts; and alum, part. grind up the alum and mix thoroughly. cleaning a gas stove. make a solution of parts of caustic soda and parts of water, and put the separate parts of the stove in the solution for an hour or two. the parts will come out looking like new. cleaning aluminum. a few drops of sulphuric acid in water will restore the luster to aluminum ware. oil eradicator. soap spirits, parts; ammonia solution, ; acetic ether, parts. disinfectants.--camphor, ounce; carbolic acid ( per cent.), ounces; aqua ammonia, drachms; soft salt water, drachms. water-closet deodorant. ferric chloride, parts; zinc chloride, parts; aluminum chloride, parts; calcium chloride, parts; magnesium chloride, parts; and water sufficient to make parts. when all is dissolved add to each gallon grains of thymol and a quarter-ounce of rosemary that had been previously dissolved in six quarts of alcohol. odorless disinfectants. mercuric chloride, part; cupric sulphate, parts; zinc sulphate, parts; sodium chloride, parts; water to make , parts. emery for lapping purposes. fill a pint bottle with machine oil and emery flour, in the proportion of parts oil and part emery. allow it to stand for twenty minutes, after shaking up well, then pour off half the contents, without disturbing the settlings, and the part so poured off contains only the finest of the emery particles, and is the only part which should be used on the lapping roller. explosives.--common gunpowder. potassium nitrate, parts; charcoal, parts; sulphur, parts. dynamite. per cent. nitro-glycerine; per cent. infusorial earth. giant powder. per cent. nitro-glycerine; per cent. nitrate of potash; per cent. of sulphur; per cent. charcoal. fulminate. chlorate of potassia, parts; pure lampblack, parts; sulphur, part. a blow will cause it to explode. files.--how to keep clean. olive oil is the proper substance to rub over files, as this will prevent the creases from filling up while in use, and preserve the file for a longer time, and also enable it to do better cutting. to renew old files. use a potash bath for boiling them in, and afterwards brush them well so as to get the creases clean. then stretch a cotton cloth between two supports, and after plunging the file into nitric acid, use the stretched cloth to wipe off the acid. the object is to remove the acid from the ridges of the file, so the acid will only eat out or etch the deep portions between the ridges, and not affect the edges or teeth. fire proof materials or substances.--for wood. for the kind where it is desired to apply with a brush, use parts sodium silicate; parts of spanish white, and parts of glue. it must be applied hot. another good preparation is made as follows: sodium silicate, parts; asbestos, powdered, parts; and boiling water , parts. for coating steel, etc. silica, parts; plastic fire clay, parts; ball clay, parts. to be thoroughly mixed. for paper. ammonium sulphate, parts; boracic acid, parts; borax, parts; water, parts. this is applied in a liquid state to the paper surface. floor dressings.--oil stain. neats' foot oil, part; cottonseed oil, part; petroleum oil, part. this may be colored with anything desired, like burnt sienna, annatto, or other coloring material. ballroom powder. hard paraffine, pound; powdered boric acid, pounds; oil of lavender, drachm; oil of neroli, minims. foot powders.--for perspiring feet. balsam peru, minims; formic acid, drachm; chloral hydrate, drachm; alcohol to make ounces. for easing feet. tannaform, drachm; talcum, drachms; lycopodium, grains. frost bites. carbolized water, drachms; nitric acid, drop; oil of geranium, drop. glass.--to cut glass, hold it under water, and use a pair of shears. to make a hole through glass, place a circle of moist earth on the glass, and form a hole in this the diameter wanted for the hole, and in this hole pour molten lead, and the part touched by the lead will fall out. to frost glass. cover it with a mixture of ounces of magnesium sulphate, ounces of dextrine, and ounces of water. this produces a fine effect. to imitate ground glass, use a composition of sandarac, - / ounces; mastic, / ounce; ether, ounces; and benzine, ounces. iron and steel.--how to distinguish them. wash the metal and put it into a solution of bichromate of potash to which has been added a small amount of sulphuric acid. in a minute or so take out the metal, wash and wipe it. soft steel and cast iron will have the appearance of an ash-gray tint; tempered steels will be black; and puddled or refined irons will be nearly white and have a metallic reflection. to harden iron or steel. if wrought iron, put in the charge parts, by weight, of common salt, parts of potassium cyanide, . part of potassium bichromate, . part of broken glass. to harden cast iron, there should be added to the charge the following: to parts of water, add - / parts of vinegar, parts of common salt, and . part of hydrochloric acid. to soften castings: heat them to a high temperature and cover them with fine coal dust and allow to cool gradually. lacquers.--for aluminum. dissolve parts of gum lac in parts of ammonia and heat for an hour moderately in a water bath. the aluminum must be well cleaned before applying. heat the aluminum plate afterwards. for brass. make a compound as follows; annatto, / ounce; saffro, / ounce; turmeric, ounce; seed lac, ounces; and alcohol, pint. allow the mixture to stand for three days, then strain in the vessel which contains the seed lac, and allow to stand until all is dissolved. for copper. heat fine, thickly liquid amber varnish so it can be readily applied to the copper, and this is allowed to dry. then heat the coated object until it commences to smoke and turn brown. lubricants.--heavy machinery oils. use paraffine, pounds; palm oil, pounds; and oleonaptha, pounds. dissolve the paraffine in the oleonaptha at a temperature of degrees and then stir in the palm oil a little at a time. for cutting tools. heat six gallons of water and put in three and a half pounds of soft soap and a half gallon of clean refuse oil. it should be well mixed. for high-speed bearings. use flaky graphite and kerosene oil. apply this as soon as there is any indication of heating in the bearings. for lathe centers, one part of graphite and four parts of tallow thoroughly mixed and applied will be very serviceable. for wooden gears. use tallow, parts; palm oil; parts; fish oil, parts; and graphite, parts. paper.--fire proof paper.--make the following solution: ammonium sulphate, parts; boracic acid, parts; water, parts. mix at a temperature of degrees. paper coated with this will resist heat. filter paper. dip the paper into nitric acid of . specific gravity, and subsequently wash and dry it. this makes a fine filtering body. carbon paper. a variety of substances may be used, such as fine soot or ivory black, ultramarine or paris blue. mix either with fine grain soap, so it is of a uniform consistency and then apply to the paper with a stiff brush, rubbing it in until it is evenly spread over the surface. tracing paper. take unsized paper and apply a coat of varnish made of equal parts of canada balsam and oil of turpentine. to increase the transparency give another coat. the sheets must be well dried before using. photography.--developers. . pure water, ounces; sulphite soda, ounces; carbonate soda, - / ounces. . pure water, ounces; oxalic acid, grains; pyrogallic acid, ounce. to develop use of solution , ounce; solution , / ounce; and water, ounces. stock solutions for developing: make solution no. as follows: water, ounces; tolidol, i ounce; sodium sulphate, - / ounces. solution no. : water, ounces; sodium sulphate. solution no. : water, ounces; sodium carbonate, from to ounces. fixing bath. add two ounces of s. p. c. clarifier (acid bisulphate of sodium) solution to one quart of hypo solution in . clearing solution. saturated solution of alum, ounces; and hydrochloric acid, ounce. varnish. brush over the negative a solution of equal parts of benzol and japanese gold size. plasters.--court plaster. use good quality silk, and on this spread a solution of isinglass warmed. dry and repeat several times, then apply several coats of balsam of peru. or, on muslin or silk properly stretched, apply a thin coating of smooth strained flour paste, and when dry several coats of colorless gelatine are added. the gelatine is applied warm, and cooled before the fabric is taken off. plating.--bronze coating. for antiques, use vinegar, , parts; by weight, powdered bloodstone, parts; plumbago, parts. apply with brush. for brass where a copper surface is desired, make a rouge with a little chloride of platinum and water, and apply with a brush. for gas fixtures. use a bronze paint and mix with it five times its volume of spirit of turpentine, and to this mixture add dried slaked lime, about grains to the pint. agitate well and decant the clear liquid. coloring metals.--brilliant black for iron. selenious acid, parts; cupric sulphate, parts; water , parts; nitric acid, parts. blue-black. selenious acid, parts; nitric acid, parts; cupric sulphate; water, , parts. the colors will be varied dependent on the time the objects are immersed in the solution. brass may be colored brown by using an acid solution of nitrate of silver and bismuth; or a light bronze by an acid solution of nitrate of silver and copper; or black by a solution of nitrate of copper. to copper plate aluminum, take parts of sulphate of copper; parts of cream of tartar; parts of soda; and , parts of water. the article to be coated is merely dipped into the solution. polishers.--floor polish. permanganate of potash in boiling water, applied to the floor hot, will produce a stain, the color being dependent on the number of coats. the floor may them be polished with beeswax and turpentine. for furniture. make a paste of equal parts of plaster of paris, whiting, pumice stone and litharge, mixed with japan dryer, boiled linseed oil and turpentine. this may be colored to suit. this will fill the cracks of the wood. afterwards rub over the entire surface of the wood with a mixture of part japan, of linseed oil, and three parts of turpentine, also colored, and after this has been allowed to slightly harden, rub it off, and within a day or two it will have hardened sufficiently so that the surface can be polished. stove polish. ceresine, parts; japan wax, parts; turpentine oil, parts; lampblack, parts; graphite, parts. melt the ceresine and wax together, and cool off partly, and then add and stir in the graphite and lampblack which were previously mixed up with the turpentine. putty.--black putty. whiting and antimony sulphide, and soluble glass. this can be polished finely after hardening. common putty. whiting and linseed oil mixed up to form a dough. rust preventive.--for machinery. dissolve an ounce of camphor in one pound of melted lard. mix with this enough fine black lead to give it an iron color. after it has been on for a day, rub off with a cloth. for tools, yellow vaseline is the best substance. for zinc, clean the plate by immersing in water that has a small amount of sulphuric acid in it. then wash clean and coat with asphalt varnish. solders.--for aluminum. use parts of tin and part of aluminum as the alloy, and solder with the iron or a blow pipe. yellow hard solder. brass, - / parts; and zinc, part. for easily fusing, make an alloy of equal parts of brass and zinc. for a white hard solder use brass, parts; zinc, part; and tin, parts. soldering fluxes.--for soft soldering, use a solution of chloride of zinc and sal ammoniac. powdered rosin is also used. for hard soldering, borax is used most frequently. a mixture of equal parts of cryolite and barium chloride is very good in soldering bronze or aluminum alloys. other hard solders are alloyed as follows: brass, parts; and zinc, parts. also brass, parts; and zinc, parts. steel tempering-.-heat the steel red hot and then plunge it into sealing wax. for tempering small steel springs, they may be plunged into a fish oil which has a small amount of rosin and tallow. varnishes.--black varnish. shellac, parts; borax, parts; glycerine, parts; aniline black, parts; water, parts. dissolve the shellac in hot water and add the other ingredients at a temperature of degrees. a good can varnish is made by dissolving parts of shellac, and adding thereto parts of venice turpentine, parts of sandarac, and parts of spirits. a varnish for tin and other small metal boxes is made of parts alcohol, which dissolves parts of shellac, and parts of turpentine. sealing wax.--for modeling purposes. white wax, parts; turpentine, parts; sesame oil, parts; vermilion, parts. ordinary sealing. pounds of shellac, pound venice turpentine, add pounds of vermilion. unite by heat. chapter xvi handy tables table of weights for round and square steel. the estimate is on the basis of lineal feet. cu. ft. of steel-- lbs. ==========+===================+==========+=================== | | | | weight in pounds | | weight in pounds sizes in | | sizes in | inches +---------+---------+ inches +---------+--------- | round | square | | round | square ----------+---------+---------+----------+---------+--------- / | . | . | - / | . | . / | . | . | - / | . | . / | . | . | - / | . | . / | . | . | - / | . | . / | . | . | - / | . | . / | . | . | - / | . | . / | . | . | - / | . | . / | . | . | - / | . | . / | . | . | - / | . | . / | . | . | - / | . | . / | . | . | - / | . | . / | . | . | - / | . | . / | . | . | - / | . | . / | . | . | - / | . | . / | . | . | - / | . | . | . | . | | . | . ----------+---------+---------+----------+---------+--------- weight of flat steel bars. =========+============================================================= thickness| in | width inches | ---------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-----+------+------ / | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . / | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . / | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . / | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . / | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . / | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . / | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . / | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . / | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . / | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . / | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . / | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . / | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . / | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . / | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . ---------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-----+------+------ avoirdupois weight. for merchandise of all kinds. drams (dr.) make ounce (oz.) ounces make pound (pd.) pounds make quarter (qr.) quarters, or lbs., make hundredweight (cwt.) hundredweights make ton (t.) , pounds make long ton (l. t.) troy weight. for gold, silver, and precious metals. grains (gr.) make pennyweight (pwt.) pennyweights make ounce (oz.) ounces make pound (pd.) apothecaries weight. for drugs, medicals and chemicals. grains (gr.) make scruple (sc.) scruples make dram (dr.) drams make ounce (oz.) ounces make pound (pd.) linear measure. for surveyors' use. inches make foot feet make yard - / yards make rod rods make furlong furlongs mile long measure. inches make foot feet make yard feet make fathom - / yards make rod or pole poles make furlong furlongs make mile miles make league - / miles make degree square measure. square inches make square foot square feet make square yard - / square yards make square pole square poles make square rod square rods make acre square acres make acre mile solid or cubic measure. , cubic inches make cubic foot cubic feet make cubic yard cubic feet make cord of wood - / cubic feet make perch of stone dry measure. pints make quart (qt.) quarts make peck (pk.) pecks make bushel (bu.) bushels make chaldron (ch.) liquid measure. gills (g.) make pint (pt.) pints make quart (qt.) quarts make gallon (gal.) - / gallons make barrel (bbl.) bbls., or gals., make. hogshead (hhd.) paper measure. sheets (sh.) make quire (qu.) quires make ream (r.) reams make bale (ba.) or bundle. table of temperatures. greatest artificial cold degrees below fahr. " natural " . " " " mercury freezes " " " mixture of snow and salt " " " greatest density of water at . " above " blood heat . " " " alcohol boils . " " " water boils " " " mercury boils " " " sulphur boils " " " silver melts , " " " cast iron melts , " " " strength of various metals. the tests are made by using a cubic inch of the metal and compressing it, and by trying to draw apart a square inch of metal. indicated in pounds. ========================+=========+============= | tension | compression ------------------------+---------+------------- aluminum | , | , brass, cast | , | , bronze, gun metal | , | , " manganese | , | , " phosphor | , | ...... copper, cast | , | , " wire annealed. | , | ...... " " unannealed | , | ...... iron, cast | , | ...... " " annealed | , | , " " unannealed | , | ...... " wrought | , | , lead, cast | , | ...... steel castings | , | , " plow | , | ...... " structural | , | , " wire annealed | , | ...... " crucible | , | ...... tin | , | , ------------------------+---------+------------- freezing mixtures ===============================================+======================= |temperature changes |in degrees fahrenheit +---------+------------ mixtures | from | to -----------------------------------------------+---------+------------ common salt, part; snow, parts | | zero . common salt, part; snow part | | -. calcium chloride, parts; snow part | | - calcium chloride, parts; snow part | | - sal ammoniac, parts; salt-peter parts; | | water parts. | | - sal ammoniac, part; salt-peter part; | | water part | | - ammonium nitrate, part; water part | | - potassium hydrate, parts; snow parts | | - -----------------------------------------------+---------+------------ ignition temperatures. phosphorus degrees fahrenheit bi-sulphide of carbon " " gun-cotton " " nitro-glycerine " " phosphorus, amorphous " " rifle powder " " charcoal " " dry pine wood " " oak " " power and heat equivalents. in studying matters pertaining to power and heat, certain terms are used, such as horsepower, horsepower-hours, watts, watt-hours, kilowatt, kilowatt-hours, foot-pounds, joule, and b. t. u. (british thermal unit). the following tables give a comprehensive idea of the values of the different terms: horsepower-hour = . kilowatt-hour = , , foot-pounds of water evaporated at degrees fahrenheit, raised from degrees to degrees. kilowatt-hour = , watt-hours = . horse-power-hours = , , foot-pounds = , , joules = , b. t. u. = . pounds of water evaporated at degrees = . pounds of water raised from to degrees. horsepower = watts = . kilowatts.= , foot-pounds per second = , b. t. u. per min. = . b. t. u. per second = . pounds of water evaporated per hour at degrees. kilowatt = , watts = . horsepower = , , foot-pounds per hour = , foot-pounds per min. = foot-pounds per second = , b. t. u. per hour = b. t. u. per min. = . b. t. u. per second = . pounds of water evaporated per hour at . watt = joule per second = . horse-power = . kilowatt = b. t. u. per hour = . foot-pounds per min. = . foot-pounds per second = . pounds of water evaporated per hour at degrees. b. t. u. (british thermal unit) = , watt-seconds = foot-pounds = . calorie = . kilowatt-hours = . horsepower-hour = . pounds of water evaporated at degrees. foot-pound = . joule = . kilowatt-hour = . b. t. u. = . horsepower-hour. joule = watt-second = . kilowatt-hour = . b. t. u. = . foot-pounds. chapter xvii inventions and patents, and information about the rights and duties of inventors and workmen there is no trade or occupation which calls forth the inventive faculty to a greater degree than the machinist's. whether it be in the direction of making some new tool, needed in some special work, or in devising a particular movement, or mechanical expedient, the machinist must be prepared to meet the issues and decide on the best structural arrangement. opportunities also come daily to the workers in machine shops to a greater extent than other artisans, because inventors in every line bring inventions to them to be built and experimentally tested. a knowledge of the rights and duties of inventors, and of the men who build the models, is very desirable; and for your convenience we append the following information: the inventor of a device is he who has conceived an idea and has put it into some concrete form. a mere idea is not an invention. the article so conceived and constructed, must be both _new_ and _useful_. there must be some utility. it may be simply a toy, or something to amuse. if a has an idea, and he employs and pays b to work out the device, and put it into practical shape, a is the inventor, although b may have materially modified, or even wholly changed it. b is simply the agent or tool to bring it to perfection, and his pay for doing the work is his compensation. an inventor has two years' time within which he may apply for a patent, after he has completed his device and begun the sale of it. if he sells the article for more than two years before applying for a patent, this will bar a grant. two or more inventors may apply for a patent, provided each has contributed something toward bringing it to its perfected state. each cannot apply separately. the patent issued will be owned by them jointly. joint owners of a patent are not partners, unless they have signed partnership papers respecting the patent. because they are partners in some other enterprise, disconnected from the patent, that does not constitute them partners in the patent. they are merely joint owners. if they have no special agreement with respect to the patent each can grant licenses to manufacture, independently of the others, without being compelled to account to the others, and each has a right to sell his interest without asking permission of the others. an _inventor_ is one who has devised an invention. a _patentee_ is one who owns a patent, or an interest in one, be he the inventor or not. the united states government does not grant caveats. the only protection offered is by way of patent. a patent runs for a period of seventeen years, and may be renewed by act of congress only, for a further term of seven years. an interference is a proceeding in the patent office to determine who is the first inventor of a device. the following is a brief statement of the course followed: when two or more applicants have applications pending, which, in the opinion of the examiner, appear to be similar, the office may declare an interference. if an applicant has an application pending, and the examiner rejects it on reference to a patent already issued, the applicant may demand an interference, and the office will then grant a hearing to determine which of the two is entitled to the patent. the first step, after the declaration of interference, is to request that each applicant file a preliminary statement, under oath, in which he must set forth the following: first: the date of conception of the invention. second: date of the first reduction to writing, or the preparation of drawings. third: date of making of the first model or device. fourth: when a complete machine was first produced. these statements are filed in the patent office, and opened on the same day, and times are then set for the respective parties to take testimony. if one of the parties was the first to conceive and reduce to practice, as well as the first to file his application, he will be adjudged to be the first inventor, without necessitating the taking of testimony. if, on the other hand, one was the first to conceive, and the other the first to file, then testimony will be required to determine the question of invention. the granting of a patent is not conclusive that the patentee was, in reality, the first inventor. the law is that the patent must issue to the _first_ inventor, and if it can be proven that another party was the first, a new patent will issue to the one who thus establishes his right. the commissioner of patents has no right to take away the patent first issued. only the courts are competent to do this. a patent is granted for the right to _make_, to _use_ and to _vend_. an owner of a patent cannot sell the right only to make, or to sell, or to use. such a document would be a simple license, only, for that particular purpose. a patent may be sold giving a divided, or an undivided right. a divided right is where a state, or any other particular territorial right is granted. an undivided right is a quarter, or a half, or some other portion in the patent itself. if an inventor assigns his invention, and states in the granting clause that he conveys "all his right and title in and to the invention," or words to that effect, he conveys all his rights throughout the world. if the conveyance says, "all rights and title in and throughout the united states," he thereby reserves all other countries. if a patent is issued, and the number and date of the patent are given, the assignment conveys the patent for the united states only, unless foreign countries are specifically mentioned. to convey an invention or patent, some definite number or filing date must be given in the document, with sufficient clearness and certainty to show the intent of the assignor. an invention does not depend on quantity, but on quality. it is that which produces a new and a useful _result_. in the united states patents are granted for the purpose of promoting the useful arts and sciences. in england, and in many other foreign countries, patents are granted, not on account of any merit on the part of the inventor, but as a favor of the crown, or sovereign. originally patents were granted by the crown for the exclusive privilege in dealing in any commodity, and for this right a royal fee was exacted. >from this fact the term _royalty_ originated. an international agreement is now in force among nearly all countries, which respects the filing of an application in any country, for a period of one year in the other countries. in making an application for a patent, a petition is required, a specification showing its object, use, and particular construction, followed by a claim, or claims, and accompanied by a drawing, if the invention will permit of it, (which must be made in black, with india ink), and an oath. the oath requires the following assertions: that the applicant is the first and original inventor of the device, and that he does not know and does not believe the same was ever known or used before his invention or more than two years before his application. he must also further allege that the invention was not patented or described in any printed publication here or abroad, and not manufactured more than two years prior to the application, and that he has not made an application, nor authorized any one to do so more than two years prior to his application. the first government fee is $ , payable at the time of filing, and the second and final fee is $ , payable at the time the patent is ordered to issue. the filing of an application for patent is a secret act, and the patent office will not give any information to others concerning it, prior to the issue of the patent. glossary of words used in text of this volume abrupt. suddenly; coming without warning. abrasive. a material which wears away. actuate. influenced, as by sudden motive; incited to action. accumulate. to bring together; to amass; to collect. acoustics. the branch of physics which treats of sound. adhesion. to hold together; a molecular force by means of which particles stick together. affinity. any natural drawing together; the property or force in chemicals to move toward each other. aggravate. to incite; to make worse or more burdensome. alloy. a combination of two or more metals. altitude. height; a vertical distance above any point. alkali. any substance which will neutralize an acid, as lime, magnesia, and the like. amalgam. any compound of metal which has mercury as one of the elements. amiss. wrong, fault, misdeed. annealing. a process of gradually heating and cooling metals, whereby hardness and toughness are brought about. angle plate. a metal structure which has two bodies, or limbs, at right angles to each other. analysis. the separating of substances into their elementary forms. anchor bolt. a structure intended to be placed in a hole in a wall, and held there by a brew which expands a part of the structure. apprentice. one who is learning a trade or occupation. artificial. that which resembles the original; made in imitation of. arbor. a shaft, spindle, mandrel, or axle. armature. a metallic body within the magnetic field of a magnet. arbitrary. stubborn determination. doing a thing without regard to consequences. artisan. one skilled in any mechanical art. attributable. that which belongs to or is associated with. automatically. operating by its own structure, or without outside aid. augmented. added to; to increase. auxiliary. to aid; giving or furnishing aid. avoirdupois. the system of weights, of which the unit is sixteen ounces. back-saw. a saw which has a rib at its upper margin. barleycorn. a grain of barley. bastard. a coarse-grained file. b. t. u. british thermal unit. back-gear. that gear on a lathe for changing the feed. bevel. not in a right line; slanting; oblique. bibb. a form of water faucet. bit, or bitt. a form of tool for cutting purposes on a lathe, planer, shaper, or drilling machine. borax. a white crystalline compound, of a sweetish taste. chemically it is sodium biborate. buffs. usually a wheel covered with leather or cloth, and having emery dust on it, for fine polishing purposes. buffeted. thrown back. bronze. an alloy of copper and tin. calcium. lime. cant. a form of lever. carbonate. a salt of carbonic acid. caustic. capable of corroding or eating away. capillary. that quality of a liquid which causes it to move upwardly or along a solid with which it is in contact. caliper. an instrument for spanning inside and outside dimensions. centripetal. the force which tends to draw inwardly, or to the center. centrifugal. the outwardly-moving force from a body. centering. to form a point equidistant from a circular line. chloride. a compound of chlorine with one or more positive elements, such as, for instance, salt. circular pitch. the measurement around a gear taken at a point midway between the base and end of the teeth. circumference. the outside of a circular body. clef. a character placed on a staff of music to determine the pitch. clutch. a mechanical element for attaching one part to another. chuck, independent. a disk of metal to be attached to the live spindle of a lathe, and which has on its face a set of dogs which move radially independently of each other. chuck, universal. a disk to be attached as above, provided with dogs which are connected so they move radially in unison with each other. classified. arranged in order, in such a manner that each of a kind is placed under a suitable heading. clearance. to provide a space behind the cutting edge of a tool which will not touch the work being cut. consistency. harmonious; not contradictory. coherer. that instrument in a wireless telegraphy apparatus which detects the electrical impulses. commutator. the cylindrical structure on the end of an armature, which is designed to change the polarity of the current. concentrated. brought together at one point. coinage. the system of making money from metals. compound. the unity of two or more elements. constant. being insistent and consistent; also a term to be used in a problem which never varies. conversion. the change from one state to another. cone. a body larger at one end than at another; usually applied to a form which is cylindrical in shape but tapering, from end to end. compression. the bringing together of particles, or molecules. convolute. a spiral form of winding, like a watch spring. coiled. a form of winding, like a string wound around a bobbin. conductivity. applied generally to the quality of material which will carry a current of electricity; also a quality of a material to convey heat. cohesion. the force by which the molecules of the same kind are held together. concentric. a line which is equidistant at all points from a center. confined. held within certain bounds. corpuscular. molecular or atomic form. converge. to come together from all points. concave. a surface which is depressed or sunken. convex. a surface which is raised, or projects beyond the surface of the edges. component. one of the elements in a problem or in a compound. coefficient. a number indicating the degree or quality possessed by a substance. an invariable unit. cube. a body having six equal sides. cross-section. a term used to designate that line which is at right angles to the line running from the view point. cross slide. the metal plate on a lathe which holds the tool post, and which is controlled, usually, by a screw. contiguous. close to; near at hand. countersink. the depression around a bore. collet. a collar, clutch or clamping piece, which has jaws to hold a bar or rod. countershaft. a shaft which has thereon pulleys or gears to connect operatively with the gears or pulleys on a machine, and change the speed. conducive. tending to; promotive of a result. corundum. an extremely hard aluminum oxide used for polishing. cold chisel. a term applied to an extremely hard chisel used for cutting and chipping metal. combustion. the action or operation of burning. conjunctively. acting together. comparatively. similitude or resemblance, one with another. cotter. a key to prevent a wheel turning on its shaft. dead center. a term used to designate the inoperative point of the crank. depicting. showing; setting forth. deodorant. a substance which will decompose odors. developer. a chemical which will bring out the picture in making the film or plate in photography. decimeter. the length of one-tenth of a meter in the metric system. decameter. the length of ten meters in the metric system. defective. not perfect; wrong in some particular. diaphragm. a plate, such as used in a telephone system, to receive and transmit vibrations. dissolving. to change from a solid to a liquid condition. division plate. a perforated plate in a gear-cutting machine, to aid in dividing the teeth of a wheel. dispelled. to drive away or scatter. disinfectant. a material which will destroy harmful germs. diametral pitch. the number of teeth in a gear as calculated on the pitch line. dimension. measurement; size. ductility. that property of metal which permits it to be drawn out, or worked. dividers. an instrument, like a compass, for stepping off measurements, or making circles. diverge. spreading out from a common point. drift. a cutting tool for smoothing a hole in a piece of metal. duplex. two; double. dynamite. an explosive composed of an absorbent, like earth, combined with nitro-glycerine. dynamometer. an instrument for measuring power developed. eccentric. out of center. echoes. the reflection of sound. effervesce. the action due to the unity of two opposite chemicals. efficiency. the term applied to the quality of effectiveness. ellipse. a form which is oblong, or having a shape, more or less, like the longitudinal section of an egg. electrolytic. the action of a current of water passing through a liquid, and decomposing it, and carrying elements from one electrode to the other. elasticity. the quality in certain substances to be drawn out of their normal shape, and by virtue of which they will resume their original form when released. embedded. to be placed within a body or substance. emerge. to come out of. emphasize. to lay particular stress upon. emery. a hard substance, usually some of the finely divided precious stones, and used for polishing and grinding purposes. enormous. a large amount; great in size. enunciated. proclaimed; given out. equalization. to put on an even basis; to make the same comparatively. eradicator. to take out; to cause to disappear. escapement. a piece of mechanism devised for the purpose of giving a uniform rate of speed to the movement of wheels. essential. the important feature; the principal thing. expansion. to enlarge; growing greater. equidistant. the same distance from a certain point. evolved. brought out of; the result of certain considerations. facet. a face. facilitated. made easy. flux. any substance which will aid in uniting material under heat. the act of uniting. fluid. any substance in which the particles freely interchange positions. flour emery. emery which is finely ground. flexible. the quality of any material which will permit bending. float cut. the term when applied to a tool where the cut is an easy one. flexure. the springing yield in a substance. foot pound. a unit, usually determined by the number of pounds raised one foot in one second of time. pounds raised one foot in one second of time, means so many foot pounds. formulate. to arrange; to put in order from a certain consideration of things. focus. the center of a circle. foci. one of the points of an ellipse. formation. the structure of a machine or of a compound. fractured. broken. fundamental. basis; the first form; the original structure. fulcrum. the resting place for a lever. fusion. melting. the change of a metal from a solid to a liquid state by heat. fusible. that which is capable of being melted. fulminate. a substance that will ignite or explode by heat or friction. gamut. the scale of sound or light, or vibrations of any kind. gear. a toothed wheel of any kind. gelatine. a tasteless transparent substance obtained from animal tissues. globular. having the form of a globe or ball. glazed. having a glossary appearance. graphite. a metallic, iron-black variety of carbon. graduated. to arrange in steps; a regular order or series. grinder. any mechanism which abrades or wears down a substance. gullet. the curved notches or grooves between projecting parts of mechanism. harmonizing. to make the various parts act together in unison. h. p. the symbol for horse power. helico. a form resembling that of the threads of a screw. hexagon. six-sided. heliograph. the system of signaling by using flashlights. horizontal. things level with the surface of the earth; like the surface of water. hydrogen. the lightest of all the elements. a tasteless, colorless substance. import. to bear, or convey as a meaning. impulse. the application of an impelling force. impact. a collision; striking against. invariably. constant; without failing. inertia. the quality of all materials to remain at rest, or to continue in motion, unless acted on by some external force. intersect. to divide at a certain point. the crossing point of one line over another. interval. a space; a distance between. intensity. strained or exerted to a high degree. interstices. the spaces between the molecules or atoms in a substance. intermediate. between. intermeshing. the locking together of gear wheels. internal. that which is within. inability. unable to perform or do. initial. the first; at the start. increment. one of the parts which go to make up the whole. inference. drawing a conclusion from a certain state of things. insoluble. a substance which cannot be liquefied by a liquid. indentations. recesses, or cut-out parts or places. induction. the movement of electricity through the air from one conductor to another. inflammable. that which will burn. inclining. at an angle; sloping. inconsequential. not of much importance. isometric. that view of a figure which will give the relation of all the parts in their proper proportions. jaw. the grasping part of a vise, or other tool. joule. the practical unit of electrical energy. key-way. a groove in a shaft and in the hub of a wheel, to receive therein a locking key. kilowatt. a unit of electrical power; one thousand watts. kinetic. consisting of motion. lacing. the attaching of the ends of a belt to each other. lap. a tool, usually of copper or lead, on which flour emery is spread, with oil, and used to grind out the interior of cylinders. lapping. the act of using a lap to grind out cylinders. lacquer. a varnish for either wood or metal. lazy-tongs. a form of tool, by means of which a long range of movement is attainable, and great grasp of power. levigated. reduced to a fine powder. litharge. a form of lead used in paints for drying purposes. longitudinal. lengthwise. luminous. that which has the capacity to light up. magnet. a bar of iron or steel that has electricity in it capable of attracting certain metals. manipulation. capable of being handled. mandrel. the revolving part of a lathe; a rod or bar which turns and carries mechanical elements thereon. manually. operated by hand. margin. an edge. malleability. softness. the state of being formed by hammering. magnetism. a quality of certain metals to receive and hold a charge of electricity. major axis. the measurement across the longest part of an ellipse. minor axis. the distance across the narrowest part of an ellipse. meridian. the time when the sun crosses the middle of the heavens; midday. metric. measure; a system which takes the unit of its measurement from the circumference of the earth. micrometer. a tool for measuring small spaces or intervals. milling machine. a large tool for the purpose of cutting gears and grooves or surfaces. miter. a meeting surface between two right-angled pieces. momentum. that quality of matter which is the combined energy of mass and speed. molecular. any substance that is made up of any particles; the component elements in any substance. modifications. changes; improved arrangements. multiplicity. many; numerous; a large quantity. mutilated. as applied to a gear, one in which certain teeth are removed. nautical. marine; applied to shipping, and the like. neutralizes. any substance, like a chemical, which, when added to another chemical, will change them both. nitro-glycerine. an explosive made from glycerine and nitrogen. oblique. at an angle; inclined. obliterate. to wipe out. obvious. that which can be seen; easily observed. obtuse. a blunt angle; not noticeable. odophone. an instrument for determining and testing odors. olfactory. the nerves of the sense of smell. orifice. an opening; a hole. oscillation. a movement to and fro, like a pendulum. oxygen. the most universal gas, colorless and tasteless; is called the acid-maker of the universe and unites with all known substances, producing an acid, an alkali, or a neutral compound. oxidizing. to impart to any substance the elements of oxygen. oxide. any substance which has oxygen added to it. pallet. a part of a tooth or finger which acts on the teeth of a wheel. parallel. lines or sides at equal distance from each other from end to end. paraffine. a light-colored substance, produced from refined petroleum. perimeter. the outer margin of a wheel; the bounding line of any figure of two dimensions. periphery. the outer side of a wheel. peen. the nailing end of a hammer. persistence. that quality of all matter to continue on in its present condition. perpendicular. a line drawn at right angles to another. perpetual. without end. perspective. a view of an object which takes in all parts at one side. physically. pertaining to the body. phonautograph. an apparatus for recording sound. phonograph. an apparatus for taking and sending forth sound vibration. phenomena. any occurrence in nature out of the ordinary. pitman. the rod or bar which connects the piston and crank. pivot. a point or bar on which anything turns. pinion. a small toothed wheel. pitch. the number of vibrations. the term used to give the number of teeth in a wheel. pitch diameter. the point from which the measurements are made in determining the pitch. pivoted. a bar, lever, or other mechanical element, arranged to turn on or about a point. plastic. a substance in such a state that it may be kneaded or worked. planer. a large tool designed to cut or face off wood or metal. porosity. the quality in all substances to have interstices, or points of separation, between the molecules. potential. the power. properties. the qualities possessed by all elements. projecting. the throwing forward. the sending out. promulgated. put forth; enunciated. protractor. a mechanic's and draughtsman's tool by means of which angles may be formed. promote. to carry forward in a systematic way. precision. work done with care; observing correct measurements. prony brake. a machine for determining horse power. punch. a small tool to be struck by a hammer in order to make an impression or indentation. quadrant. one-fourth of a circle. quadrant plate. a plate on which are placed lines and numbers indicating degrees. quadruplex. a term to designate that system of telegraphy in which four messages are sent over a single wire at the same time. ratchet. a wheel having teeth at certain intervals to catch the end of a pawl or finger. ratchet brace. a tool to hold a drill, having a reversible ratchet wheel. rasp cut. a cut of a file which is rough, not smooth. rake. the angle or inclination of the upper surface of the cutting tool of a lathe. reverse. to turn about; in the opposite direction. reciprocating. to go back and forth. revolve. to move in an orbit or circle, as a merry-go-round. reciprocity. to give back in like measure. reflection. the throwing back from a surface. resonance. the quality of vibration which adds to the original movement, and aids in perpetuating the sound. refraction. the quality of light which causes it to bend in passing through different substances. reducing. bringing it down to a smaller compass. rectilinear. a straight line. retort. a furnace of refractory material to take high heat. reamer. a tool designed to enlarge or to smooth out holes. regulation. to do things in an orderly way; a system which sets forth certain requirements. refractory. difficult to work, and not easily fused. recess. a hole, or a depression. rocking. a lever which rotates only part way and then moves in the opposite direction. rotate. a spindle which turns round. compare revolve. rosin. certain gums; particularly the sap of pine trees. roughing. the taking off of the first coating with a tool. saturated. a soluble substance which cannot be further dissolved by a liquid. scribe. to mark with a tool. screw plate. a tool which has within it means for adjusting different cutting tools. section lining. the marks made diagonally across drawings to indicate that the part is cut away. shaper. a large tool for surfacing off material, cutting grooves, and the like. shrinkage. the term applied to metals when cast, as all will be smaller when cold than when cast in the mold. slide rest. the part of the lathe which holds the tool post. sonorous. having the quality of vibration. slotted. grooved, or channeled. solvent. that which can be changed from a solid by liquids. spelter. a combination of zinc and copper. a hard solder. soldering. uniting of two substances by a third, with heat. spindle. a small shaft. spur. the larger of two intermeshing gears. socket. a depression or hole. sprocket. teeth in a wheel to receive a chain. spiral. a form wound like the threads of a screw. surface plate. a true surface made of metal, used as a means of determining evenness of the article made. sulphate. any substance which is modified by sulphuric acid. substitute. an element or substance used for another. superposed. one placed above the other. swage. tool for the purpose of changing the form in a material. swivel. a point on which another turns. surfacing. taking off the outer coating or covering. tap. a small drill. tapering. an object with the sides out of parallel. tangential. a line from the periphery of a circle which projects out at an angle. tension. the exertion of a force. tenacity. the property of a material to hang together. tempering. putting metal in such condition that it will be not only hard but tough as well. technical. pertaining to the strict forms and terms of an art. texture. that of which the element or substance is composed. threads. the ridges, spiral in form, which run around a bolt. theoretically. the speculative form or belief in a subject. tinned. the term applied to the coating on a soldering iron with a fluxed metal. tines. small blades. torsion. the force exerted around an object, like the action of a crank on a shaft. tommy. a lever to be inserted in a hole in a screw head for turning a screw. transmitting. sending forth; to forward. trammel. a tool for the purpose of drawing ellipses. traction. drawing; pulling power. tripping. a motion applied to a finger, which holds a pivoted arm, whereby the latter may be swung from its locked position. triangular. having three sides and three angles. transverse. across; at right angles to the long direction. undercut. a wall of a groove or recess which is sloping. undulatory. a wave-like motion, applied generally to light and electricity. unit. a base for calculating from. unison. acting together; as one. unsized. generally applied to the natural condition of paper or fabric which has no glue or other fixing substance on it. vaporising. to change from a liquid or solid to a gas. variation. changing into different conditions; unlike forms. verge. the edge; usually applied to the shoulder of a watch spindle, particularly to the escapement. vertical. up and down. the direction of a plumb line. velocity. the speed of an article through space. vitascope. an instrument for determining the rate of vibration of different substances. vibration. the movement to and fro of all elements, and by means of which we are made sensitive of the different forces. vocation. the business or the calling of a person. warding. the act of cutting a projection or guard, such as is usually found on the insides of locks, and the correspondent detent in the key. watt. in electricity the unit of the rate of working in a circuit. it is the electro-motive force of one volt and the current intensity of one ampere. index (figures indicate the pages) a acetone, . acid, , , , . acid, acetic, . acid, carbolic, . acid, hydrofluoric, . acid, muriatic, . acid, nitric, , , , . acid, oxalic, . acid, pyrogallic, . acid, sulphuric, . acoustics, , . adhesives, . affinity, , . agate, . air, . alcohol, , , , , , . alloy, , , , , , , . alum, , , . aluminum, , , , , , , , , , , , , , . amalgams, . amber, . ambergris, . ammonia, , . ammonium nitrate, . ammonium sulphate, , . analysis, . analyzed, . angle cutting, . angle plate, . angles, , , , , , , , , . aniline, . annatto, , . annealing, , , , . annular, . anvils, , , . apothecaries, . application for patent, . arbor, . arc, . area, . armature, . arrow root, . artisan, . asbestos, . asphalt, , . assign, , . assignment, . atom, . attraction, . avoirdupois, . axis, , . axis, major, . axis, minor, , . b ball, . ball and socket, . balsam peru, , , . barium chloride, . bark, soap, . barleycorn, . barrel, . base line, . b. t. u., , . beeswax, . bell metal, . belt, . belt, lacing, , . bench, , . benzine, . benzol, . bevel, , , , . bibb, . bismuth, . bisulphate of carbon, . bisulphate of sodium, . bitt, , . bitts, machine, . bitts, plain, . bitts, round-nosed, . bitts, setting, . bitts, square, . black, ivory, . blade, hack-saw, , . bloodstone, . blue black, . boiler, , . boiler, compound, . bolt, . bolt, anchor, . boracic acid, . borax, , . brass, , , , , , , , , . bronze, , , , , . bulk, . c calcium, . calcium chloride, . calipers, , , , . calls, . camphor, , , . canada balsam, . capillary attraction, , . carbolic acid, . carbon, . carbonate, . carbonate of soda, , . carbon paper, . cardinal, . carbolized, . cast iron, , , , , . caustic soda, , . caveat, . celluloid, . cement, , . centaire, . center, dead, . center line, . centering, . centers, . centimeter, . centrifugal, . centripetal, . ceresine, . chalk, . channel, . charcoal, , , . chemical, , , . chisels, drifting, . chisels, key-way, . chisels, square, . chlorate of potash, , , . chloride of lime, . chloride of platinum, . chloride of tin, . chloride of zinc, , . chloral hydrate, . chloroform, . chromate of potash, , . chuck, . chuck, independent, . chuck, universal, . circle, , , , , , . circuit, , . circular pitch, , , . circumference, . citric, . clamp, . clay, , . clearance, , , . clef, . clutches, . coal, . coherer, . cohesion, , . color, , , . combination, , . commutator, . compass, . compound, welding, . compression, , . compressibility, . concave, , . concentric, . conception, . conductivity, . conductor, , . cone, . conveyor, . convex, , . convolute, . copal varnish, . copper, , , , , , , , , . corpuscular, . corundum, . crank, , , , . cream of tartar, , . crown wheel, . cryolite, . cube, , , , . current, , . curve, . cutter, side, . cutting tool, . cyanide of potassium, . cylinder, , , , , , , , . d decameter, , , , , . decimeter, . declaration of interference, . degree, , , , , . deodorant, . dessertspoon, . detail, paper, . develop, . developer, . dextrine, . diameter, , , , , , , , . diameter, inside, . diameter, outside, . diameter, pitch, . diametral pitch, , . diamond, , . diaphragm, , , . disinfectant, . disks, , , , , , , , , , , . disk shears, , , . distilled, , . diverge, . divided, . dividers, , , , . dogs, . dollar, . drams, . drawing, , , , , , , . drill, , . drilling machine, . driver, . dry measure, . ductility, , . dynamite, . dynamo, . e eccentric, . echo, . effervesce, . elastic, . elasticity, , . electrical, , , , . electric current, . electric curves, . electricity, , , . electrolytic, . electro-motive force, . ellipse, , , , , . emery, , , , , , . emery cloth, . emery wheel, . energy, . engine, , , . equalization, . escapement, . ether, , . expansion, . explosions, , . f facet, . fahrenheit, , . feed, longitudinal, . feed, transverse, . ferric chloride, . filament, . file, cross, . file, cutter, . file, do-able end, , . file, equalizing, . file, float cut, . file, half round, . file, holding, . file, middle, . file, movement, , . file, pinion, . file, rasp cut, . file, rat-tail, . file, rough, . file, round, . file, saw, . file, second cut, . file, shearing cut, . file, slitting, . file, smooth, . file, square, . file, triangular, . files, , , , , , , , , , , . files, hexagon, , . filing, , , , , , . filter paper, . fire clay, , . fish oil, , . fire proof, , . flexure, . floor dressing, . fluid, . fluor spar, . fluxes, , , , . focal, , . focus, foci, . foot, . foot lathe, . foot pounds, , , , . force, , . forge work, . forges, . formic acid, . formula, . freezing mixtures, . friction, , . fuel, , . fulcrum, , , . fulminate, . furlong, . furniture, . fusible, . fusion, . g gage, , , , . gage surface, , , . gallon, . gas stove, . gear, , , , , , , , , , , . gear, bevel, . gear, friction, . gearing, . gear, miter, , , , , . gear, mutilated, . gear, spur, . gelatine, , . geranium, . german silver, . giant powder, . glass, , , , , . glauber salts, . glazing, . glue, , , . glycerine, , , , . gold, size, . grain, . grains, . graphite, , . gravity, . grinder, . grinder wheels, . grindstones, , , . groove, , . gum, . gum arabic, . gum lac, . guncotton, . gunpowder, . h hack-saw, , , . hack-saw blade, , . hammer, , , . handy tables, . hardness, , , . harmony, , , , . head, . heat, , . hectare, . hectometer, . helical, . helical, double, . helix-volute, . hexagon, , . horizontal, , , . horse power, , , , , , . hours, h. p., , . hours, kilowatt, , . hub, . hub, key-way, . hydrochloric acid, . hydrofluoric acid, . hydrogen, . i inches, . inclined plane, , . indentation, . indicator, speed, . induction, . inertia, . injector, . inks, . inside diameter, . instrument, , . internal, , . international, . invention, , , , , , , , , . inventor, , , . iron, , , , , , , , . iron, wrought, , , . isinglass, interference, . isometric, . ivory, . ivory, black, . j japan wax, . joint, ball and socket, . joint, universal, . joule, . k kerosene, , , . key, . key-way, . kilometer, . kilowatt, , . kilowatt hour, , . kinetic, . l lacquer, . lampblack, , . lapping, , . lathe, , , , , , , , , . lathe speed, . lathe tool, , . lavender, . lead, , , , , . leather, , . level, . lever, , , , , , , , , , , . leverage, . licenses, . light, . lime, . linear measure, . lines, , , . lines, section, . linseed, . linseed oil, , , . liquid measure, . liquids, . litharge, . long measure, . lubricant, . luminous, . lycopodium, . m machine, . magnesium, . magnesium sulphate, . magnet, . magnetism, . major axis, . malleability, . malleable, . mandrel, , . manganese, . marble, . mass, . mastic, . measure, , , , . measure, liquid, . measure, long, . measurement, . measure, paper, . measure, solid, . measure, square, . membrane, . mercuric chloride, . mercury, , , . meridian, . metric, , , . metrical, . micron, . microscope, . millimeter, . milling machine, . minor, . minor axis, , . miter, . miter gear, , , , . molecular, , . molecular forces, . molecules, , , . momentum, , . motion, , . motor, , . n neat's foot oil, . neroli, . nickel, . nitrate of copper, . nitrate of potash, . nitrate of silver, . nitric acid, , , , , . nitro-glycerine, , . o oath, . octave, . odophone, . odor, . oil, , , , . oil eradicator, . oleonaptha, . oscillations, , . ounce, . outlines, . oxalic acid, . oxidation, . oxide, , . oxidizing, . oxygen, , . p palm oil, . paper, , . paraffine, , . parallel, , , . paris blue, . paste, , . patents, , , , , . pawl, , . pendulum, . parting tools, . perimeter, . periphery, . permanganate of potash, . perpendicular, . perpetual motion, . perspective, , , . petroleum, . phenomenon, , . phonautograph, . phonograph,- , . phosphorus, . photographer, , . piano, , . pinion, , . pitch, , , . pitch, circle, , , . pitch, diameter, , . pitch, line, , , . pitman, . pivots, , . planer, , , , . plaster, . plaster of paris, , . plate, . plates, . plating, . platinum, . plumbago, . poles, . polishes, . position, . potash, , . potash, prussiate, . potassium cyanide, . potassium nitrate, . pound, , , . power, , , , , , , , , , . power, horse, , . precision tools, . preliminary statement, . pressure, , , , , . prime mover, . printing telegraph, . prism, , . protractor, , . prussiate of potash, . pulley, , , , , , , , . pulsation, . pumice, . pumice stone, , . punch, , . punch, centering, . punch cutter, . putty, . q quadrant, , . quality, . quarter, . quartz, . r racks, , . radius, . rake, , , , , , . rainbow, . ratchet, . ratchet brace, . reciprocity, . reflected, . reflecting, . reflection, , . refraction, . resin, . resistance, , , . resonance, . rim, . ring, . rods, . rosemary, . royalty, . rubber, , . rule, . rule, key-seat, , . rust preventive, . s saffro, . sal ammoniac, , , , , . salt, , , , . sandarac, , . saw, , , . saw, wabble, . scale, , . science, . scraper, , . scribe, , . scruples, . sealing wax, . section lining, , , . sense, . sesame oil, . shade, . shading, , . shaft, , , , , , . shaft coupling, . shaper, , , , . shellac, . side cutters, . sienna, . signals, . silicate, . silver, , , , , , . snow, . soap, , . soap spirits, . soda, sulphate, . sodium carbonate, . sodium silicate, . sodium sulphate, . solder, , . solder, hard, . solder, soft, . soldering, , , , . solids, . sonorous, . sound, . sounding-boards, . spanish white, . spectroscope, , , . spectrum, . speed, . spelter, . sphere, . spiral, . sponge, . spring, , , . square, , , . square combination, , , . starch, , , . steel, , , , , , , , , , , , . stethoscope, . stove polish, , . straight edge, . stylus, . sugar, . sulphate of copper, . sulphate of potash, . sulphate of soda, . sulphur, , . sulphuric acid, , , . surfacing, , , . t table of weights, . talcum, . tallow, . tannaform, . taps, . taste, . teeth, . telegram, . telescope, , . temperature, , , , , , . temperature table, . tempering, , , , . tenacity, , . thread, . thymol, . tin, , , , , . ton, . tongs, . tongs, lazy, . tool, , , , , , , , , , . tool boring, . tool cutting, , , , . tool holder, . tool hook, . tool, hooked, . tool knife, . tool, parting, . tool, roughing, . tools, precision, . torsion, . toughness, , . tracing cloth, . tracing paper, . traction, . transmitting, . transparent, . transverse, . treadle, . triangular, , . tripping driver, . turmeric, . turpentine, , , , , , . turpentine, venice, , . u ultramarine, . undivided, . undulatory, . unguent, . v valve, . vapor, . varnish, , , , , . vaseline, , . velocity, , , . vermilion, . vertical, . vibrate, , . vibration, , , , . vibratory, . vinegar, , , . violin, . vise, . vitascope, . w water, , , , , , , . waterproof, , . weight, . weight of steel, . weight, troy, . welding, , , . welding compound, . wheel, , , , , . whiting, . workshop, . wrench, . y yokes, , . z zinc, , , , , . zinc chloride, . the boys' elite series _ mo, cloth. price c each._ contains an attractive assortment of books for boys by standard and favorite authors. printed from large, clear type on a superior quality of paper, bound in a superior quality of binders' cloth, ornamented with illustrated original designs on covers stamped in colors from unique and appropriate dies. each book wrapped in attractive jacket. . cudjo's cave trowbridge . green mountain boys . life of kit carson edward l. ellis . tom westlake's golden luck perry newberry . tony keating's surprises mrs. g. r. alden (pansy) . tour of the world in days jules verne the girls' elite series _ mo, cloth. price c each._ contains an assortment of attractive and desirable books for girls by standard and favorite authors. the books are printed on a good quality of paper in large clear type. each title is complete and unabridged. bound in clothene, ornamented on the sides and back with attractive illustrative designs and the title stamped on front and back. . bee and the butterfly lucy foster madison . dixie school girl gabrielle e. jackson . girls of mount morris amanda douglas . hope's messenger gabrielle e. jackson . the little aunt marion ames taggart . a modern cinderella amanda douglas _for sale by all booksellers, or sent postpaid on receipt of c_ the "how-to-do-it" books by j. s. zerbe carpentry for boys a book which treats, in a most practical and fascinating manner all subjects pertaining to the "king of trades"; showing the care and use of tools; drawing; designing, and the laying out of work; the principles involved in the building of various kinds of structures, and the rudiments of architecture. it contains over two hundred and fifty illustrations made especially for this work, and includes also a complete glossary of the technical terms used in the art. the most comprehensive volume on this subject ever published for boys. electricity for boys the author has adopted the unique plan of setting forth the fundamental principles in each phase of the science, and practically applying the work in the successive stages. it shows how the knowledge has been developed, and the reasons for the various phenomena, without using technical words so as to bring it within the compass of every boy. it has a complete glossary of terms, and is illustrated with two hundred original drawings. practical mechanics for boys this book takes the beginner through a comprehensive series of practical shop work, in which the uses of tools, and the structure and handling of shop machinery are set forth; how they are utilized to perform the work, and the manner in which all dimensional work is carried out. every subject is illustrated, and model building explained. it contains a glossary which comprises a new system of cross references, a feature that will prove a welcome departure in explaining subjects. fully illustrated. _ mo, cloth. price $ . each._ _for sale by all booksellers, or sent postpaid on receipt of $ . ._ the american boy's sports series by mark overton mo cloth. illustrated. price c each. * * * * * these stories touch upon nearly every sport in which the active boy is interested. baseball, rowing, football, hockey, skating, ice-boating, sailing, camping and fishing all serve to lend interest to an unusual series of books. there are the following four titles: . jack winters' baseball team; or, the mystery of the diamond. . jack winters' campmates; or, vacation days in the woods. . jack winters' gridiron chums; or, when the half-back saved the day. . jack winters' iceboat wonder; or, leading the hockey team to victory. * * * * * phil bradley mountain boy's series by silas r. boone mo. cloth. illustrated. price c each * * * * * these books describe with interesting detail the experience of a party of boys among the mountain pines. they teach the young reader how to protect themselves against the elements, what to do and what to avoid, and above all to become self-reliant and manly. there are five titles: . phil bradley's mountain boys; or, the birch bark lodge. . phil bradley at the wheel; or, the mountain boys' mad auto dash. . phil bradley's shooting box; or, the mountain boys on currituck sound. . phil bradley's snow-shoe trail; or, the mountain boys in the canadian wilds. . phil bradley's winning way. * * * * * for sale by all booksellers, or sent postpaid on receipt of c. girls' liberty series contains an assortment of attractive and desirable books for girls by standard and favorite authors. the books are printed on a good quality of paper in large clear type. each title is complete and unabridged. bound in clothene, ornamented on the sides and back with attractive illustrative designs and the title stamped on front and back. _ mo, clothene. price c each._ . camp fire girls on a long hike, or, lost in the great northern woods stella m. francis . daddy's girl mrs. l. t. meade . ethel hollister's first summer as a camp fire girl irene elliott benson . ethel hollister's second summer irene elliott benson . flat iron for a farthing mrs. ewing . four little mischiefs rose mulholland . girls and i mrs. molesworth . girl from america mrs. l. t. meade . grandmother dear mrs. molesworth . irvington stories mary mapes dodge . little lame prince mrs. muloch . little susie stories mrs. h. prentiss . mrs. over the way julianna horatio ewing . naughty miss bunny rose mulholland . sweet girl graduate mrs. l. t. meade . school queens mrs. l. t. meade . sue, a little heroine mrs. l. t. meade . wild kitty mrs. l. t. meade * * * * * _for sale by all booksellers, or sent postpaid on receipt of c_ the wonder island boys by roger t. finlay _ mo, cloth. price c each, postpaid._ thrilling adventures on land and sea of two boys and a man cast upon an island in the south seas without food or weapons; their experience in fashioning clothing, tools and weapons, and in overcoming nature and subduing and civilizing savage tribes; covers a wide range of subjects. . the castaways . exploring the island . the mysteries of the caverns . the tribesmen . the capture and pursuit . the conquest of the savages . adventures on strange islands . treasures of the islands the boy globe trotters by elbert fisher _ mo, cloth. price c each, postpaid._ this is a series of form books relating the adventures of two boys who made a trip around the world, working their way as they go. they meet with various peoples having strange habits and customs, and their adventures from a medium for the introduction of much instructive matter relative to the character and industries of the cities and countries through which they pass. a description is given of the native sports of boys in each of the foreign countries through which they travel. the books are illustrated by decorative head and end pieces for each chapter, there being original drawings in each book, all by the author, and four striking halftones. . from new york to the golden crate . from san francisco to japan . from tokio to bombay . from india to the war zone * * * * * _for sale by all booksellers, or sent postpaid on receipt of c_ boys' copyrighted books printed from large, clear type on a superior quality of paper, embellished with original illustrations by eminent artists, and bound in a superior quality of book binders' cloth, ornamented with illustrated covers, stamped in colors from unique and appropriate dies, each book wrapped in a glazed paper wrapper printed in colors. motor boat boys series by louis arundel . the motor club's cruise down the mississippi; or, the dash for dixie. . the motor club on the st. lawrence river; or, adventures among the thousand islands. . the motor club on the great lakes; or, exploring the mystic isle of mackinac. . motor boat boys among the florida keys; or, the struggle for the leadership. . motor boat boys down the coast; or, through storm and stress. . motor boat boys' river chase. the bird boys series by john luther langworthy . the bird boys; or, the young sky pilots' first air voyage. . the bird boys on the wing; or, aeroplane chums in the tropics. . the bird boys among the clouds; or, young aviators in a wreck. . bird boys' flight; or, a hydroplane round-up. . bird boys' aeroplane wonder; or, young aviators on a cattle ranch. canoe and campfire series by st. george rathborne . canoe mates in canada; or, three boys afloat on the saskatchewan. . young fur takers; or, traps and trails in the wilderness. . the house boat boys; or, drifting down to the sunny south. . chums in dixie; or, the strange cruise in the motor boat. . camp mates in michigan; or, with pack and paddle in the pine woods. . rocky mountain boys; or, camping in the big game country. * * * * * for sale by all booksellers, or sent postpaid on receipt of c boys' copyrighted books printed from large, clear type on a superior quality of paper, embellished with original illustrations by eminent artists, and bound in a superior quality of book binders' cloth, ornamented with illustrated covers, stamped in colors from unique and appropriate dies, each book wrapped in a glazed paper wrapper printed in colors. motor boat boys series by louis arundel . the motor club's cruise down the mississippi; or, the dash for dixie. . the motor club on the st. lawrence river; or, adventures among the thousand islands. . the motor club on the great lakes; or, exploring the mystic isle of mackinac. . motor boat boys among the florida keys; or, the struggle for the leadership. . motor boat boys down the coast; or, through storm and stress. . motor boat boys' river chase. the bird boys series by john luther langworthy . the bird boys; or, the young sky pilots' first air voyage. . the bird boys on the wing; or, aeroplane chums in the tropics. . the bird boys among the clouds; or, young aviators in a wreck. . bird boys' flight; or, a hydroplane round-up. . bird boys' aeroplane wonder; or, young aviators on a cattle ranch. canoe and campfire series by st. george rathborne . canoe mates in canada; or, three boys afloat on the saskatchewan. . young fur takers; or, traps and trails in the wilderness. . the house boat boys; or, drifting down to the sunny south. . chums in dixie; or, the strange cruise in the motor boat. . camp mates in michigan; or, with pack and paddle in the pine woods. . rocky mountain boys; or, camping in the big game country. * * * * * for sale by all booksellers, or sent postpaid on receipt of c always _ask for the_ donohue complete editions and you will get the best for the least money henty series _for boys_ g. a. henty was the most prolific writer of boy's stories of the nineteenth century. from two to five books a year came from his facile pen. no christmas holidays were complete without a new "henty book." this new series comprises titles. they are printed on an extra quality of paper, from new plates and bound in the best quality of cloth, stamped on back and side in inks from unique and attractive dies. mo. cloth. each book in a printed wrapper. among malay pirates bonnie prince charlie boy knight, the bravest of the brave by england's aid by pike and dyke by right of conquest by sheer pluck captain bayley's heir cat of bubastes col. thorndyke's secret cornet of horse, the dragon and the raven facing death final reckoning, a for name and fame for the temple friends, though divided golden canon in freedom's cause in the reign of terror in times of peril jack archer lion of st. mark lion of the north lost heir, the maori and settler one of the th orange and green out on the pampas queen's cup, the rujub, the juggler st. george for england sturdy and strong through the fray true to the old flag under drake's flag with clive in india with lee in virginia with wolfe in canada young buglers, the young carthaginians young colonists, the young franc-tireurs young midshipman all of above titles can be procured at the store where this book was bought, or sent to any address for c, postage paid, by the publishers always _ask for the_ donohue complete editions--the best for least money woodcraft _for_ boy scouts and others _by_ owen jones _and_ marcus woodman _with a message to boy scouts by_ sir baden-powell, _founder of the boy scouts' movement_. one of the essential requirements of the boy scout training is a knowledge of woodcraft. this necessitates a book embracing all the subjects and treating on all the topics that a thorough knowledge of woodcraft implies. this book thoroughly exhausts the subject. it imparts a comprehensive knowledge of woods from fungus growth to the most stately monarch of the forest; it treats of the habits and lairs of all the feathered and furry inhabitants of the woods. shows how to trail wild animals; how to identify birds and beasts by their tracks, calls, etc. tells how to forecast the weather, and in fact; treats on every phase of nature with which a boy scout or any woodman or lover of nature should be familiar. the authorship guarantees it's authenticity and reliability. indispensable to "boy scouts" and others. printed from large clear type on superior paper. embellished with over thumb nail illustrations taken from life bound in cloth. stamped with unique and appropriate designs in ink! price, c postpaid m. a. donohue & co. - s. dearborn st. chicago +------------------------------------------------------------------+ | | | transcriber's note: | | | | every effort has been made to replicate this text as | | faithfully as possible, including obsolete and variant | | spellings and other inconsistencies. obvious | | spelling/typographical and punctuation errors have been | | corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences | | within the text and consultation of external sources. minor | | punctuation errors have been amended without note. | | | | page : incorrect pressure of oz. for wind speed of | | mph changed to oz. | | | | page : micron incorrectly printed as . , changed to | | / . | | | | page : corrected table entry for - / , printed as / - . | | | | alphabetic order errors in the glossary retained. | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------+ [transcriber's note: most of this book is set with a hanging indent that has not been retained in the text version. punctuation, hyphenation and spelling have not been modernized. however, the oe ligature has been represented by [oe] in the word "[oe]illet."] Étoile dorÉe in tatting by m^lle. riego. golden stars in tatting and crochet. by mlle. riego de la branchardiÈre. price one shilling. london: simpkin, marshall, and co., and all berlin warehouses. entered at stationers' hall.] . [the right of translation is reserved. notice. these designs are registered under the th & th vic. c. , and the public are hereby cautioned against making any of them for the purpose of sale, without permission from the authoress. any person infringing upon the copyright will be proceeded against, and, by sect. , they are liable to a penalty of from £ to £ for each offence. , princes street, cavendish square. Étoile dorÉe. rules and explanation of terms. the following designs are formed by a very simple combination of tatting and crochet, the more elaborate style of both works being avoided, so that any lady with a knowledge of the first rules of each art will be able to accomplish the patterns without the least difficulty, the stars and diamonds being made in tatting and afterwards worked round with loops of chain crochet. the numerous purposes to which the work can be applied far exceed the limits of this book, as it admits of being made in every material. the stars have a good effect for spotting and trimming dresses, and, when worked in black or white silk, are suitable for cloak and bonnet trimmings. for antimacassars and doyleys, white and colored cotton can be substituted for the gold and wool; most of the designs are adapted for church needlework. the gold tatting twine can be obtained in two qualities; the least expensive should be used for doyleys and antimacassars, but for church needlework, or collars and sleeves, the better make is most suited. the new tatting silk is a substitute for the gold, and is made in two sizes, no. being the coarser. in these designs the knots should be made on the right side of the work, the reverse side having the best effect. "to commence," in crochet--put the needle into a stitch or pearl loop, and, leaving an end, bring the wool through in a loop. "to join," in crochet--take the needle out of the loop, put it into the stitch to be joined, and bring the loop through this stitch, always joining to the centre of a loop of chain. tatting. the stars and diamonds. for which a shuttle and ring and pin will be required. the shuttle is to be filled with the materials as directed. "a pearl loop," in tatting--turn the thread which forms the foundation loop over the pin and continue the stitches. "a double stitch," in tatting--is formed by a single and a reverse stitch worked alternately. octagon star--commence a loop, work double stitch, then ( pearl and double stitches alternately times), pearl, double, draw the loop quite close, place the two ends together, knot them firmly and cut off the ends; it is better to knot the gold twice to make it very secure. sexagon star--commence a loop, work double, then ( pearl and double times), pearl, double; draw close &c. as for the previous star. the diamond st oval--commence a loop, work double stitches, then pearl, double, pearl, double, pearl, double; draw quite close, and work ovals more the same, commencing them close to the last; and to fasten off firmly, pass the first end through the last oval, and then through the other three; knot the two ends together. the zephyr sleeve. design no. . _materials-- skeins of extra coarse gold-colored netting silk, or gold twine; skeins of cerise ordinary coarse silk; walker's penelope crochet needle no - / ; a shuttle; ring and pin no. . andalusian wool and tatting silk can be used if preferred._ the foundation of the sleeve in the engraving is of tulle or brussels net, made up into puffs, but the style can be varied according to the dress, and the work without the net is suited for cuffs to tight sleeves. the stars. with the gold silk or twine make octagon stars as page . the wristband, st star--take one of the gold stars and with the cerise silk and crochet needle commence in one of the pearl loops of it, work chain and plain in each of the pearl loops, fasten off, knotting the ends together. nd star--commence in a pearl loop of another gold star, work ( chain and plain in a pearl loop as before, times), then chain, join to the centre of the th loop of chain of the st star, chain, plain in the next pearl, chain, join to the next loop of the st star, chain, plain in the next pearl, and fasten off. work stars more the same as the last, which finishes the band. the large star--work as the st star, but at the end of the round instead of fastening off work single on the first loop of chain, then ( chain, miss and plain in the chain of the st round, times), chain, join to the centre of the nd loop of chain of the last star of the band, chain, miss , plain as before, chain, join to the next loop of the st star, chain, miss , plain, and fasten off. work stars more the same, joining them to every other star of the wristband. work the remaining stars the same as the st, and sew them separately to the net. the zephyr collar. design no. . _materials--the same as previous sleeve._ work stars the same as the st star in the preceding direction; and for the band--with the gold make a crochet chain of about inches, turn, and along the chain work a row of chain, miss , and treble. fasten off. the collar is formed by doubling the net and drawing it into a narrow band to shape it. the stars and band are then to be tacked on. zouave sleeve. design no. . _materials-- skeins of coarse gold-colored netting silk, or gold twine; skeins of black or colored ordinary size silk; walker's penelope crochet needle, no. - / ; a shuttle; ring and pin no. . andalusian wool and tatting silk no. can be used._ the foundation of the sleeve is of tulle or brussels net. the wristband. in tatting. st [oe]illet--fill the shuttle with the gold silk or twine and commence a loop, work double stitches, then ( pearl and double times), draw the loop quite close; and for the nd [oe]illet--commence a loop half an inch from the last and work double, then join to the last pearl loop, work double, pearl, double, pearl, double, draw close. join to the silk left between the [oe]illets, which will keep it firm; and there will now be about a quarter of an inch between the [oe]illets, which is just sufficient to keep the work straight, repeat the nd [oe]illet until there are , then leave a quarter of an inch of silk and join to the last pearl, leave another quarter and join to the next pearl, which is the centre one of the [oe]illet. turn the work and join to the centre pearl loop of each [oe]illet, leaving a quarter of an inch between to make a straight line to correspond with the first side. fasten off. with the black or colored silk and crochet needle commence in one of the spaces of gold left between the [oe]illets, work chain and plain in the centre pearl loop of the next [oe]illet, chain, plain in the next space; repeat round both sides of the band and fasten off. in the first side the plain stitch must be worked in the joining stitch at the end of the [oe]illet. the stars and diamonds. with the gold make octagon stars and diamonds as page . st diamond--take one of the gold diamonds and with the black silk and crochet needle commence in the centre pearl loop of one of the ovals, + work chain, plain in the next pearl, chain, plain in the same pearl as the last plain. repeat from + times more. then chain, plain in the st pearl, chain, take the wristband and join to the centre of the st loop of chain of it, chain, plain. fasten off. nd diamond--the same as the last, joining it to the th loop of chain of the band. work diamonds more the same, always leaving loops of the band between them. st star--take a gold star and with the black silk commence in a pearl loop of it, work chain and plain in each of the pearl loops, then single on the first chain, chain, miss , plain in the chain, chain, join to the th or centre loop of the band, between the diamonds, chain, miss , plain in the next chain, then chain, miss , plain as before, chain, join to the centre of the third chain of the next diamond, chain, miss , plain as before, ( chain, miss and plain, times), chain; join to the opposite chain of the next diamond, chain, plain. fasten off. work three stars more the same, joining them between the diamonds. th star--work as the st star to the end of the st round, then ( chain, miss and plain in the chain, times), chain, join to the centre chain of one of the diamonds opposite to the one joined to the band, then chain, plain; fasten off. th diamond--work as the st diamond, joining it to the centre of the th chain of the last star. repeat the last star and diamond on each of the other three diamonds which are attached to the band. a collar to correspond can be made the same as no. . antimacassar, cushion, square doyley, etc. design no. . _materials--two shades of green, one of light mauve, and the gold, &c., according to the following directions:--_ for a doyley inches square, use _single berlin wool and gold twine or gold-colored crochet silk; penelope needle no. ; tatting pin no. , and a small shuttle_. for cushions, antimacassars, and couvre-pieds, use _double berlin wool; gold-colored wool or filoselle; steel penelope needle no. , or ivory no. bell guage; tatting pin or mesh which measures no. , bell guage_. for dress and mantle trimmings, headdresses, &c., use _andalusian wool or netting silk; and gold twine or tatting silk no. ; penelope needle no. ; tatting pin, no. _. first stripe of diamonds. st diamond--with the gold twine or silk work a diamond as page ; and for the st round--with the light green wool and crochet needle commence in one of the pearl loops of the diamond, work chain and plain in the next pearl; repeat times more, and fasten off, always knotting the ends together. nd round--with the dark green commence in a loop of the light green, which is between the nd and rd pearls of one of the ovals, work chain, miss and plain in the next chain; repeat all round; fasten off. nd diamond--work as the st, but in the nd round make only loops of chain, and for the th, work chain, take the st diamond and join to the centre of the th loop of chain, plain; fasten off. work as the last diamond until the length required is made. the stars.--with the gold work an octagon star as page , then with the mauve wool and crochet needle commence in one of the pearl loops of the star, work ( chain and plain in each pearl, times), and for the th loop, chain; take the last diamond and join to the centre of the nd loop of it, chain, plain in the next pearl; work loops more as the last, joining first to the st loop of the diamond, and then to the next two loops of the next diamond; fasten off. repeat this star between the diamonds. second stripe of diamonds. st diamond.--work a diamond as in the st stripe, but in the nd round make only loops of chain, and for the th loop, chain, join to the rd loop of the last diamond, chain, plain in the next loop of the st round; then work loops more the same, joining to the next two loops of the star; and for the th loop, chain, plain, fasten off. nd diamond.--as the st, but in the nd round, make only loops of chain, and for the th loop, chain, join to the th loop of the last diamond, chain, plain as before; work loops more as the last, joining them to the next loops of the star, then to the next loop of the diamond of the st stripe, and then to the next loops of the nd star; chain, plain; fasten off. repeat the last diamond to the end of the stripe. then work the stars and the nd stripe of diamonds until the width is made. the edge, (tatting).--fill the shuttle with gold, keep the work on the wrong side and commence in a loop of one of the diamonds to the left of the one already joined, and for a + small [oe]illet, commence a loop, work double stitches, draw it close; then join to the next loop of the next diamond, and for the large [oe]illet commence a loop, work double, then ( pearl and double times), draw it nearly close, and join to the next loop of the diamond. work large [oe]illets more the same, joining after each; then repeat from + all round. at the corners it will require large [oe]illets. antimacassar, cushion, square doyley, etc. design no. . _colours--azoff blue, black or white, and shades of magenta wool; the gold and other materials the same as no. ._ the diamonds. st diamond--with the gold twine or silk work a diamond as page , and for the st round--with the light magenta wool and crochet needle commence in one of the pearl loops of the diamond, work chain and plain in the next pearl; repeat times more, and fasten off, always knotting the ends together. nd round--with the dark magenta commence in one of the loops of the st round, work chain, miss , plain in the next loop; repeat all round and fasten off. work as many more diamonds as required for the size. the stars. with the gold make an octagon star, as page , and for the st round--with white or black wool commence in a pearl loop of the star, work chain and plain in each of the pearl loops; fasten off. nd round--with blue wool commence in a loop of the last round, work chain, miss and plain in the chain; repeat all round and fasten off. work as many stars as will be required. the joining. st stripe--with the gold take a diamond and commence in a loop of chain over the centre of one of the ovals of it, + work chain, plain in the next loop of chain, then chain; take a star and join to the centre of one of the blue loops of it, chain, plain in the same loop of the diamond as before, chain, plain in the next loop, chain, join to the next loop of the star, chain, plain in the same loop as before, chain, plain in the next loop; take another diamond and work plain in one of the loops over an oval of it; chain, plain in the next loop of the nd diamond, chain, join to the next loop of the star, chain, plain in the same loop of the diamond as before, chain, plain in the next loop, chain, join to the next loop of the star, chain, plain in the same loop as before, chain, plain in the next loop, _chain_, plain in the same loop as before. repeat from + until the length required is made, at the end omit the last chain and plain; and to form the nd stripe--take another diamond and work plain in a loop over an oval of it, then repeat from + in the st stripe, making the first four joinings to the last blue star, and after the " _chain_" in italics, join to the chain between the plain of the opposite diamond of the st stripe; at the end of the stripe fasten off. rd stripe--is worked as the st stripe, commencing in the th loop of the last diamond counting from the last gold stitch, and continuing to the end of the nd stripe. the edging. st round--with the gold commence in a loop of chain of one of the diamonds, work chain, miss and plain in the next loop; repeat all round, but where the diamonds join omit the chain and work another plain stitch in the next loop. nd round, white or black--commence in the stitch between the diamonds, work chain, miss , plain in each loop of the st round, but between the diamonds omit the chain, and work another plain in the next loop as before. rd round, blue--commence between the diamonds, chain, miss and plain in the next loop, chain, plain in the same loop as the last; repeat all round, omitting the chain between the diamonds as before. fasten off. vandyke sleeve. design no. . _materials-- skeins each of blue and gold-color netting silk; walker's penelope crochet needle no. - / . for the tatting, a shuttle, and ring and pin no. ._ the foundation of the sleeve is composed of brussels net. the stars. with the gold make stars as page . the wristband--with the blue silk work the same as the wristband in sleeve no. . the large stars--with the blue silk make chain. take a gold star and work plain in a pearl loop of it, then chain and plain in each of the pearl loops, chain, single in the st stitch of the chain, then ( chain, miss and plain in the chain, times), chain; take the band and join to the st loop of the th star of it, chain, plain as before, chain, join to the next loop of the th star, chain, plain; fasten off. nd large star--work as the last, joining it to the nd and st loops of the th star. rd large star--as the last, joining it to the st loop of the rd star of the band, and then to the next loop of the nd star. th large star--as the last, but making only loops of chain; then chain, join to the nd loop of the st large star, chain. plain as before, chain, plain, chain, join to the th loop of the nd large star, chain, plain; fasten off. th large star--as the th, joining first to the nd loop of the nd large star, and then to the th loop of the rd large star. th large star--as the th joining it to the th and th large stars. work small stars as the st star in the wristband, and tack them on the net as in the engraving. round doyley. design no. . _materials-- shades of green single berlin wool, penelope needle, no. . for the stars, gold tatting twine, or a skein of crochet silk, tatting pin no. , and a small shuttle._ the stars. with the gold work octagon stars as page . st star, st round--with the light green wool and crochet needle commence in a pearl loop of one of the stars, work chain and plain in each of the pearl loops; fasten off. nd round--with the dark green commence in one of the light green loops, work ( chain, miss and plain in the next loop times); fasten off. work the other gold stars the same. centre diamond--with the gold commence in the centre of the st loop of chain of one of the stars, work chain, miss , plain in the next loop; take another star, work plain in the first loop of it, then chain, plain in the next loop; take a third star and work plain in the st loop of it, chain, plain in the next loop; take a th star and work plain in the st loop of it, chain, plain in the next loop, then join to the st stitch to make it round; fasten off. joining circle--with the gold commence in one of the loops of a th star, work ( chain, miss and plain in the next loop times), then chain, miss , plain in the next loop; take one of the four stars already joined and work plain in the th loop of it, chain, miss , plain in the next loop of the th star, then plain in the next loop of the next star of the four centre stars, chain, miss , plain in the next loop of the same star. take a th star and work plain in a loop of it, chain, plain in the next loop of the th star, then missing the last gold stitches join to the plain stitch after the th loop of the th star; then on the th star work ( chain, miss and plain in the next loop, times), chain, miss , plain in the next loop; then plain in the next loop of the centre stars, chain, miss , plain in the next loop; take another star and work plain in a loop of it, chain, miss , plain in the next loop, then miss the last gold stitches and join to the plain stitch after the th loop of the th star. repeat from the commencement of the circle, and fasten off. light green circle--commence in the st chain of the gold circle, work chain, miss , plain in the next chain, chain, plain in the same chain as the last; repeat twice more; then chain, miss , plain, and between the stars miss , plain in the next chain; repeat from the commencement of the circle, and fasten off. dark green circle--commence in the st loop of the last circle, work ( chain, miss and plain in the chain times), then between the stars miss , plain in the next chain; repeat all round, and fasten off. round doyley. design no. . _materials--white, mauve, and green single berlin wool; penelope needle no. . for the stars, gold tatting twine or a skein of crochet silk, tatting pin no. , and a small shuttle._ the stars. with the gold make octagon stars as page . _the mauve centre star_--with the mauve wool and crochet needle commence in one of the pearl loops of a gold star, and to form a point, work chain, turn, and on these chain miss , plain, treble; then work plain in the next pearl loop. repeat times more, and fasten off on the right side of the crochet. st green star--commence in a pearl loop of another gold star, work chain and plain in the next pearl loops times; then chain, join to the top of one of the points of the centre star, chain, plain in the st pearl loop; fasten off. st white star--commence as before, work chain and plain in the next pearl loops, times; chain, join to the centre of the nd loop of the green star, chain, plain in the next pearl, chain. join to the st loop of the green star, chain. plain in the next pearl, chain, join to the next point of the centre star, chain; plain in the next pearl; fasten off. nd green star--work as the white star, joining to it. repeat the white and green stars alternately until there are eight of them. in working the last, the chain and plain is only to be made three times, and the two last loops joined to the st star to make it round. nd mauve star--work as the centre star until there are points; and for the th point-- chain, join to the rd loop of a white star; and on the chain, miss , plain, treble, then plain in the next pearl. work the th point the same as the th, joining it to the next loop of the green star; fasten off. rd mauve star--work as the last, joining it first to the rd loop of the green star and then to the white star. work the same for stars more. st gold circle--commence on the top of the nd point of a mauve star, work chain and plain in the next points of the star times, then chain, plain in the centre loop of the small star, chain, plain in the st point of the next mauve star, then chain, join to the centre of the last chain of gold, work plain in the chain, then chain, plain on the second point of the mauve star. repeat all round, and fasten off. white circle--commence on the centre of the plain between the stars, work chain, miss , plain in the gold stitch over the nd point of the star, + chain, miss , treble, both in the centre stitch of the gold chain, chain, miss , plain on the gold stitch over the next point of the star. repeat from + twice more, then chain, plain in the centre of the gold plain. repeat from the commencement of the circle all round, and fasten off. nd gold circle--commence at the plain between the stars, chain, miss , plain in the chain of the last circle ( chain, miss and plain in the chain of last circle times), chain, miss , plain in the centre stitch over the plain gold. repeat from the commencement all round. mauve circle--commence in the st chain of the last circle between the stars, work ( chain, miss and plain in the gold chain times), chain, miss , plain in the chain. repeat all round, and fasten off. round doyley. design no. . _materials--white and magenta single berlin wool, penelope needle no. . for the stars, gold twine or a skein of crochet silk, tatting pin no. , and a small shuttle._ centre diamond. with the gold work a diamond as page . st round--with the magenta wool and crochet needle commence in one of the pearl loops of the diamond, work chain and plain in each of the twelve pearl loops; fasten off. nd round--with white wool commence in one of the three chains between the ovals of the diamond, work chain, plain in the same chain; chain, miss , plain in the next chain; chain, miss , plain in the next chain; chain, miss , plain in the next chain; repeat times more, and fasten off. with the gold work sexagon stars as page . st white star--commence in a pearl loop of one of the gold stars, work ( chain and plain in the next pearl loops times), chain, take the diamond and join to the centre of the chain over one of the ovals of it, chain, plain in the st pearl; fasten off. work stars more the same, always joining over the ovals of the diamond. st magenta star--commence in a pearl loop of a gold star, work ( chain and plain in the next pearls times), chain, join to the st loop of chain of a white star, chain, plain in the next pearl, chain, join to the next chain of the diamond, chain, plain in the pearl, chain, join to the next loop of the nd white star, chain, plain in the pearl; fasten off. nd magenta star--commence in a pearl of a star, work ( chain and plain as before times), chain, join to the nd loop of chain of the st white star, which is to the left of the magenta star, chain, plain as before, chain, join to the next loop of the magenta star, chain, plain; fasten off. rd magenta star--work as the last star, making the first joining to the st loop of the st magenta star, and the second joining to the next white star. repeat these magenta stars times more, that is, between each of the white stars. then with the gold, work octagon stars, as page . st large magenta star--commence in a pearl loop of one of the stars, work ( chain and plain in a pearl loop times), chain; take the rd magenta star, which is to the left of a white one, and join to the st loop of it, chain, plain as before, chain, join to the loop of the white star, chain, plain, chain, join to the th loop of the next magenta star, chain, plain; fasten off. work stars more the same. st gold circle--commence in the centre loop of the st sexagon star, work chain, plain in the next loop of the next sexagon star, then ( chain and plain in the next loops of the stars times); chain, plain in the centre loop of the st star; repeat from commencement and fasten off. large white star--commence in a gold star, work ( chain and plain times), chain, join to the centre of the nd chain of the last circle, chain, plain in the next pearl, chain, join to the next chain, chain, plain, chain, join to the next chain, missing the two loops between the stars; chain, plain, chain, join to the next chain, chain, plain; fasten off. work stars more the same, leaving loops of the gold between them. nd gold circle--take the last loop of a white star and commence in the gold loop to which it was joined, work ( chain, miss and plain in a white loop times), chain, plain in the gold loop to which the next white loop was joined, ( chain, miss and plain in a gold loop times); repeat from the commencement of the circle. white circle--commence in the st loop of gold, ( chain, miss and plain in the next gold loops times), ( chain, miss , plain in the next gold loops twice); repeat all round. magenta circle--commence in the st chain of last round, chain, plain in the next chain, then ( chain, miss and plain in the next white loops times); repeat and fasten off. round doyley. design no. . _materials--blue and white single berlin wool; penelope needle no. . for the stars, gold twine or a skein of crochet silk, tatting pin no. , and a small shuttle._ with the gold work octagon stars as page . white circle--with the wool and crochet needle commence in one of the pearl loops of a gold star, work chain and plain in each of the pearl loops; fasten off. repeat the same round the other stars. centre star. blue circle--commence in a white loop of one of the stars, work chain, miss and plain in the next white loop; repeat all round, and fasten off. st gold circle--commence in one of the blue loops, and to form a point, work chain, turn, and on these chain, miss , plain, treble, long; then miss , plain in the next blue loop; repeat all round and fasten off. circle of stars. st blue circle--take one of the white and gold stars and commence in a loop of it, work ( chain, miss and plain in the next loop times), chain; take the centre star and join to one of the gold points of it, chain, plain in the next loop; fasten off. nd blue circle--take another star and commence in a loop of it ( chain, miss and plain times), chain, take the centre star and join to the next gold point to the left of the last star, chain, plain in the next loop, chain, join to the next blue loop of the star, chain, plain as before, chain, join to the next blue loop, chain, plain; fasten off. repeat as the nd circle times more, but in working the th circle, the chain and plain must be made only times, and the two loops joined to the st star to make it round. nd gold circle--commence in the st unattached blue loop of one of the stars, work ( chain and treble times, all in the centre loop of the blue star), then chain, miss , plain in the next blue loop; and to form a point, work chain, turn, miss , plain, treble, long; then plain in the next blue loop; repeat all round and fasten off. white circle--commence in one of the gold points, work chain, plain in the gold chain, chain, miss , plain in the next chain; chain, miss , treble in the next chain then chain, treble in the same chain as before, ( chain, miss and plain in the chain twice), chain, plain in the next point. repeat and fasten off. blue circle--commence in the st chain, work ( chain, miss and plain in the chain times), then chain, miss , plain in the next chain. repeat and fasten off. antimacassar, square doyley, etc. design no. . _colours--magenta and green, azoff blue and white, or any two colours that contrast; the gold and other materials the same as no. ._ with the gold work as many octagon stars (page ) as will be required for the size. st magenta star--with the wool and crochet needle commence in a pearl loop of one of the stars, work chain and plain in each of the pearl loops; fasten off. work several stars the same. st green star--take one of the gold stars and commence in a pearl loop of it, + chain, take a magenta star and join to the centre of one of the loops of it, chain, plain in the next pearl, chain, join to the next loop of the magenta star, chain, plain in the next pearl; repeat from + times more, joining on another magenta star each time: fasten off. four magenta stars will now be joined, the green being in the centre. nd green star--the same as the last, but joining on only two more magenta stars, and making the other joinings to the last two stars of the four already joined. repeat the green star. london: printed by taylor and greening, graystoke place, fetter lane, holborn, e.c. [illustration] [illustration: a. goater, taylor & goater, nottingham.] transcriber's note obvious typographical errors have been corrected. a list of corrections is found at the end of the text. inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation have been maintained. a list of inconsistently spelled and hyphenated words is found at the end of the text. the ladies' work-table book; containing clear and practical instructions in plain and fancy needlework, embroidery, knitting, netting, and crochet. with numerous engravings, illustrative of the various stitches in those useful and fashionable employments. new-york: j. winchester, ann-street . introduction. if it be true that "home scenes are rendered happy or miserable in proportion to the good or evil influence exercised over them by woman--as sister, wife, or mother"--it will be admitted as a fact of the utmost importance, that every thing should be done to improve the taste, cultivate the understanding, and elevate the character of those "high priestesses" of our domestic sanctuaries. the page of history informs us, that the progress of any nation in morals, civilization, and refinement, is in proportion to the elevated or degraded position in which woman is placed in society; and the same instructive volume will enable us to perceive, that the fanciful creations of the needle, have exerted a marked influence over the pursuits and destinies of man. to blend the useful, with the ornamental and to exhibit the gushing forth of mind, vitalised by the warm and glowing affections of the heart, is the peculiar honor and sacred destiny of woman. without her influence, life would be arrayed in sables, and the proud lords of creation would be infinitely more miserable and helpless than the beasts that perish. to render then those "terrestrial angels" all that our fondest wishes could desire, or our most vivid imaginations picture, must be, under any circumstances, a pleasing and delightful employment; while for a father or a brother to behold her returning all the care bestowed upon her, by the thousand offices of love, to the performance to which she alone is equal, is doubtless one of the most exalted sources of human felicity. providence has, in a remarkable manner, adapted woman's tastes and propensities to the station she was designed to occupy in the scale of being. tender and affectionate, it is her highest bliss to minister to the wants, the convenience, or the pleasure of those she loves; and hence, her inventive powers have been, in all ages, called into early and active exercise, in the fabrication of those articles calculated to accomplish those desirable ends. amongst these, useful and ornamental needlework, knitting, and netting, occupy a distinguished place, and are capable of being made, not only sources of personal gratification, but of high moral benefit, and the means of developing in surpassing loveliness and grace, some of the highest and noblest feelings of the soul. to become an expert needle-woman should be an object of ambition to every fair one. never is beauty and feminine grace so attractive, as when engaged in the honorable discharge of household duties, and domestic cares. the subjects treated of in this little manual are of vast importance, and to them we are indebted for a large amount of the comforts we enjoy; as, without their aid, we should be reduced to a state of misery and destitution of which it is hardly possible to form an adequate conception. to learn, then, how to fabricate articles of dress and utility for family use, or, in the case of ladies blessed with the means of affluence, for the aid and comfort of the deserving poor, should form one of the most prominent branches of female education. and yet experience must have convinced those who are at all conversant with the general state of society, that this is a branch of study to which nothing like due attention is paid in the usual routine of school instruction. the effects of this neglect are often painfully apparent in after life, when, from a variety of circumstances, such knowledge would be of the highest advantage, and subservient to the noblest ends, either of domestic comfort, or of active and generous benevolence. the records of history inform us of the high antiquity of the art of needlework; and its beautiful mysteries were amongst the earliest developments of female taste and ingenuity. as civilization increased, new wants called forth new exertions; the loom poured forth its multifarious materials, and the needle, with its accompanying implements, gave form and utility to the fabrics submitted to its operations. no one can look upon the needle, without emotion; it is a constant companion throughout the pilgrimage of life. we find it the first instrument of use placed in the hand of budding childhood, and it is found to retain its usefulness and charm, even when trembling in the grasp of fast declining age. the little girl first employs it in the dressing of her doll: then she is taught its still higher use, in making up some necessary articles for a beloved brother, or a revered parent. approaching to womanhood, additional preparations of articles of use, as ornaments of herself and others, call for its daily employment; and with what tender emotions does the glittering steel inspire the bosom, as beneath its magic touch, that which is to deck a lover or adorn a bride, becomes visible in the charming productions of female skill and fond regard. to the adornments of the bridal bed, the numerous preparations for an anxiously-expected little stranger, and the various comforts and conveniences of life, the service of this little instrument is indispensible. often too is it found aiding in the preparation of gifts of friendship, the effects of benevolence, and the works of charity. many of those articles, which minister so essentially to the solace of the afflicted, would be unknown without it; and its friendly aid does not desert us, even in the dark hour of sorrow and affliction. by its aid, we form the last covering which is to enwrap the body of a departed loved one, and prepare those sable habiliments, which custom has adopted as the external signs of mourning. the needle is also capable of becoming an important monitor to the female heart; and we would impress this truth seriously upon their recollection, that as there is "sermons in stones, and good in every thing." so the needle they so often use, is, or may be, a silent but salutary moral teacher. they all know that however good the eye of a needle may be, if it were rusted and pointless, it would be of little use. let them also recollect, that though it may posses the finest point and polish in the world, if destitute of the eye, it would be of no use at all. the lesson we wish them to derive from hence, is this; that as it is the eye which holds the thread, and that it is by the thread alone that the needle becomes useful, so it is the eye of intelligence directed to the attainment of useful ends, that gives all the real value to the point and polish, which is so much admired in the educated female; and that unless the intellectual powers of the mind be engaged in the pursuits of goodness, all other endowments will be useless to their possessor. let them learn also, not to despise such of their companions as, though intelligent and useful, are neither possessed of wit or elegance equal to their own. circumstances may have rendered them, like the needle, rusty and pointless; but the eye of intelligence is there, and they may still be useful. the want of a work containing clear instructions, without unnecessary diffuseness, by which the uninitiated may become their own instructors, has long been sensibly felt; and this want, the following pages are intended to supply. our aim is, not to make young ladies servile copyists, but to lead them to the formation of habits of thought and reflection, which may issue in higher attainments than the knitting of a shawl, or the netting of a purse. indeed, it is only when accomplishments are rendered subservient to the development of moral goodness, that they may become pursuits at all worthy of an accountable being. we were not sent into this world to flutter through life, like the gaudy butterfly, only to be seen and admired. we were designed to be useful to our fellow beings; and to make all our powers and capabilities, in some way or other conducive to the happiness and welfare of our co-journeyers on the path of time. to this end, we wish our fair countrywomen to devote their best attention; and, in its attainment, to exert every energy which they possess. we wish them to make all the knowledge which they may acquire subserve some noble purpose, which will outlive the present hour. but to do this, the well-spring of the purest affections must be opened in the soul; and the elegant productions of taste and genius become vitalized, and animated, by the spirit of love. thus, and thus only, can the occupations of a leisure hour be converted into efficient ministers of good; and such they will assuredly be found, if practised from right motives, and placed in due subordination to the right exercise of more important duties, which we owe to heaven, to our fellow beings, and to ourselves. we are anxious to render elegant amusements conducive to the attainment of moral ends; and to lay that foundation of intellectual superiority, and affectionate regard, for the comfort and happiness of others, which can alone give light and animation, sweetness and blooming freshness, to the interesting scenes of future life. all engagements, which are calculated to elevate, soften, and harmonize the human character, have this tendency; and it is in the assured conviction that the employments here treated of, are, when cultivated in due subordination to higher duties, well adapted to secure these objects, and to promote these domestic ends, that the ladies' work-table book has been prepared, and is now presented to the lovely daughters of our land. the public will be the best judge how far we have succeeded in our effort. small as the work is, it has not been produced without much labor, and considerable exercise of thought; and it is dedicated to our fair countrywomen, in the fervent hope, that it will not be found altogether unworthy of their favorable notice and regard. in concluding these introductory remarks, we wish to say a word or two to the parents and guardians of those, whose excellence of character is so essential to the welfare of our beloved country. we trust by you, our little manual will be cordially approved, and placed, as a memento of affection, in the hands of those you most desire to see models of sincerity, elegance, and accomplishments. this will be well; but we trust the matter will not be allowed to rest there. it is not when good instructors and proper books are provided for the young, that the duties of the parental relationship are performed. no; care must be taken to give efficiency to the means thus called into requisition, by the most assiduous care, devoted attention, and judiciously expressed approval on the part of those who claim the highest regard from the rising generation. the path of education is not always strewed with flowers, nor can it ever be pursued with either pleasure or advantage unless a foundation of practical piety and moral worth be laid, on which the superstructure may securely rest. it has been well remarked "that intellect may be cultivated at school, but that the affections of the heart can only be properly developed amid the scenes of home." our aim in this work has been, while seeking to promote the purposes of genuine education, to raise high the moral sentiments, and cultivate to an eminent degree the best sensibilities of the soul. in this we ask for your cordial and careful co-operation. we know the influence of a judicious mother, and we confidently commend our labor to your favorable regard. contents. chapter i. materials and implements for working chapter ii. plain needlework--explanation of stitches chapter iii. plain needlework--instructions in the preparation of body linen chapter iv. plain needlework--instructions in the preparation of house linen chapter v. plain needlework--miscellaneous instructions chapter vi. fancy needlework--explanation of stitches chapter vii. fancy needlework--explanation of patterns chapter viii. fancy needlework--instructions in embroidery chapter ix. fancy needlework--preparation of frames chapter x. fancy needlework--application of fancy needlework to useful purposes chapter xi. fancy needlework--special instructions chapter xii. knitting--explanation of stitches chapter xiii. knitting--examples in knitting chapter xiv. netting--explanation of stitches chapter xv. netting--examples in netting chapter xvi. crochet--explanation of the principal stitches in crochet work chapter xvii. crochet--examples in crochet chapter xviii. tatting--explanation of stitches chapter xix. concluding remarks the ladies' work-table book. chapter i. materials and implements for working. materials for plain needlework. the subject of this chapter is one to which it is hardly possible to pay too much attention; since, on the judicious selection of materials, depends, to a vast extent, the success of that prudent and well-regulated economy, which is so essential to the welfare and prosperity of every family. on this account, we have thought it right to place before our readers the following observations, which should be carefully attended to, as of the utmost importance. in purchasing goods, be careful to examine the quality; and, if not experienced in such matters, take with you an experienced friend. cheap goods generally prove the dearest in the end. the following rules may assist you in this respect, if under the necessity of relying upon your own judgment. be careful, in purchasing articles, such as linen, calico, &c., for a specific purpose, to have it the proper width. a great deal of waste may be incurred, by inattention to this important direction. calico is often so dressed up, as to make it extremely difficult to ascertain its real quality: hence, it is best to buy it undressed. it should be soft, and free from specks. it is of various widths, and of almost all prices. a good article, at a medium price, will be found cheapest in the end. linen is of various qualities. that which is called suffolk hemp is considered the best. irish linen is also in great repute. but you must be careful to escape imposition; as there are plenty of imitations, which are good for nothing. muslin checks are much used for caps, &c., and are of various qualities. you may form a good judgment of these, by observing the thin places between the checks and the threads; if the former be good, and the latter even, they may generally be relied on. blue checks.--these may be procured either of cotton or linen; but the linen ones, though highest in price, are cheapest in the end: they will wear double the length of time that the cotton ones will. prints.--give a good price, if you wish to secure a good article. some colors, as red, pink, lilac, bright brown, buff, and blue, wear well; green, violet, and some other colors are very liable to fade. the best way is to procure a patch, and wash half of it. this will test the color, and may prevent much disappointment. flannels.--the welsh flannels are generally preferred, as those that are the most durable. lancashire flannels are cheapest, but are far inferior in quality. you may know the one from the other by the color: the flannels of lancashire are of a yellowish hue; those of wales are a kind of bluish gray tint. woollen cloths.--these vary exceedingly, as to quality. the low-priced ones are not worth half the purchase money. good woollen cloth is smooth, and has a good nap. if the sample shown you, be destitute of these qualities, have nothing to do with it, unless you want to be cheated. stuffs.--the quality of these is sometimes very difficult to detect. holding them up to the light is a good plan. you should also be particular as to the dyeing, as that is sometimes very indifferently managed, and the stuff is dashed. black dye is liable to injure the material. low-priced stuffs are rarely good for anything. crape.--this is often damaged in the dying. you should spread it over a white surface before you purchase it, as by that means, the blemishes in the material, if any, will be more likely to appear. silks.--these are, if good, costly; and great care should be exercised in selecting them. they should not be too stiff, as in that case they are liable to crack; and on the other hand, they should not be too thin, as that kind is liable to tear almost as soon as paper. a medium thickness and stiffness is the best. if plain, you must be careful that there are no stains or specks in them; and if figured, it is advisable to have the pattern equally good on both sides. this will enhance the price at first, but you will find it to be good economy afterward. in silks that are to be sold cheap, a kind of camel's hair is frequently introduced. this may be detected by pulling a piece of the suspected silk cross ways, and if camel's hair be mixed with it, it will spring with a kind of whirring sound. this should be attended to. satin.--it is of various qualities and prices. the best is soft and thick. when used for trimmings, it should be cut the cross way, as it then looks better, and has a much richer appearance than when put on straight. these general observations will be of great use, and should be well impressed upon the memory, so as readily to be called into exercise when needed. in making up linen, thread is much preferable to cotton. sewing-silk should be folded up neatly in wash leather, and colored threads and cotton in paper, as the air and light are likely to injure them. buttons, hooks and eyes, and all metal implements, when not in use, should be kept folded up; as exposure to the air not only tarnishes them, but is likely to injure them in a variety of ways. materials for fancy needlework. canvas (coarse) eighteen threads to the inch. work in cross stitch with double wool. this is proper for a foot-stool, sofa-pillow, &c. canvas (very coarse) ten threads to the inch. work in cross stitch, over one thread, with single wool. if used for grounding, work in two threads. this will accelerate the work, and look equally well. silk leaves.--if no grounding is required, work in tent stitch. the pattern should be large in proportion to the fineness of the material. the finer the canvas, the larger the pattern. color.--an attention to shade is of the utmost consequence; as on this, in an eminent degree, depends the perfection of the work. the shades must be so chosen, as to blend into each other, or all harmony of coloring will be destroyed. the canvas must be more distinct in tent stitch than in cross stitch, or rather more strongly contrasted, especially in the dark shades of flowers: without attention to this point, a good resemblance of nature cannot be obtained. wool, (english and german) white, black, and various colors.--two, three, four, five, or six shades of each color, as the nature of the work may require. the same observation applies to silk and cotton, in cases where those materials are used. split wool, for mosaic work. silk. split silk. floss. half twist. deckers. china silk. fine purse silk. cotton, of various kinds. gold twist. silver thread. chenille. beads. thick and transparent gold. bright and burnt steel. silver plated, &c. perforated cards. canvas, called bolting, for bead work. scale of canvases. english canvas. ------------------------------------------- canvas no. cross stitch. tent stitch. ------------------------------------------- - / - / - / - / - / - / - / - / silk canvas. ------------------------------------------- canvas no. cross stitch. tent stitch. ------------------------------------------- french canvas. ------------------------------------------- canvas no. cross stitch. tent stitch. ------------------------------------------- - / - / - / - / materials for embroidery. silk, satin, velvet, and cloth. materials for knitting, netting, and crochet. silk.--this material is extensively used in the various productions of which we are about to treat. the kinds usually employed in knitting, netting, and crochet, are purse silk, or twist; coarse and fine netting silk; second sized purse twist; plain silk; china silk; extra fine, and finest netting silk; second sized netting silk; coarse and fine chenille, and crochet silk. these are so well known that it would be a waste of time to describe them in detail. they are of a great variety of colors, and of different qualities; some sorts being much more durable, both in fabric and color, than others. no young lady should trust, at first, to her own judgment in making the selection: but a little attention will soon render her a proficient in the art of choosing the most profitable materials. the china silks of the french surpass all others, of that kind, with which we are acquainted, both as to the nature of tints, and the brilliancy of the various dyes and shades. wool.--this is of various colors and shades; german wool, single, and double; hamburgh wool, fleecy, of three, four, five, six, seven, and eight threads; embroidery fleecy shetland wool; english wool, coarse yarn, for mitts. brief description of wools. german wool is the produce of the merino breed, in its highest state of cultivation, and is the best sheep's wool we possess. the merino fleece is brought to the greatest perfection in saxony, and the adjacent states. it is chiefly manufactured for the purposes of needle-work, &c., at gotha; the dyeing of it is performed at berlin, and in other parts of germany. the wools of germany are, in fineness and softness, much, superior to those of spain. the wool is prepared in various sizes, and for some kinds of work, may be split with great advantage. a large quantity is imported into this country in a raw state, and is dyed and manufactured here. some of this is equal to the wools prepared in germany, as to quality; but the brilliancy of the color will not bear comparison. this remark does not extend to the black german wool, prepared in this country, and which is far superior to that prepared on the continent. much wool, of a very superior quality is annually prepared for the market; and so great is its resemblance to a superior article, that it requires much attention, and an experienced eye, to detect the fraud. english wool, or what is often called embroidery wool, is much harsher than that of germany; yet it is of a very superior kind, and much to be preferred for some kinds of work. the dye of several colors of english lamb's wool is equal to that of the best dyes of germany; especially scarlet and some of the shades of blue, green, and gold color, which for brilliancy and permanency, may justly claim equality with the most finished productions of the continental states. worsted is another description of our native produce, and is extensively used for a great variety of useful purposes, which are familiar to every one. a great portion of the needle-work of the last century was done in a fine kind of worsted, called crewels: and some specimens still remain, which do great credit to the venerable grandames of the present generation. yarn is a coarse kind of worsted, much employed in making garden nets, and for various other purposes. fleecy (english) is manufactured from the leicestershire breed, and is much used in knitting and netting: it is of two qualities; both varying in size, from an eighth to a quarter of an inch in diameter. they are made up of threads, varying from two to twelve, and are both equally good. they are applied to crochet as well as to the other descriptions of work named. german fleecy, thought but little used, is much superior to that of this country. hamburgh wool is an excellent article, but has not hitherto been much in request. great care is necessary, in selecting wool of good quality: but let the young novice give to the subject her best attention; and should she find herself sometimes deceived, still persevere, remembering that "practice makes perfect." cotton, of various sizes, as numbered from one to six, or higher if required. in the choice of this material, much care is needed, not only in the selection of colors and shades, but also to ascertain if the color has been stained with a permanent dye. down.--this is sometimes used for stuffing knitted cushions, muffs, &c., and is too well known to need any description here. gold and silver thread and cord.--the precious metals are now very generally employed in the ornamental parts of all kinds of fancy work. gold and silver threads consists of a thread of silk, round which is spun an exceedingly fine wire of the metal required. for gold, silver or copper gilt wire is employed, as pure gold could not be so easily wrought. these threads can be employed in almost any way which the taste of the fair artist may induce her to devise. besides the thread, gold and silver cord is also in much demand, and looks extremely beautiful, when employed with taste and judgment. this material is a twist, and is composed of different quantities of threads, according to the thickness required. much care is required in working with it, or the beauty of the material will be spoilt. it is much used in crochet, and without due attention, the point of the needle is liable to catch the cord, and to break the wire, which would entirely destroy the beauty of the performance. beads.--these beautiful fabrications of art, are composed of gold, silver, polished steel, and glass. there is also a beautiful sort called garnet beads, with gold points. all these can be procured at any of the establishments for the sale of fancy articles, and are to be employed as the judgment or fancy may direct. the gold beads are used in making all kinds of knitting, netting, and crochet, and look well either by themselves, or when in connection with those of the other materials named. glass beads, may be procured of any variety of color, and when in combination with gold, silver, or steel, form a beautiful relief. necessary implements for fancy needlework. frames. cross stitch needles. sewing needles. meshes, of various sizes--at least three. chenille needles. pair of long sharp-pointed scissors. cartridge paper. tissue paper. a fine piercer. seam piercer. camel's hair brushes. mixture of white lead and gum water, to draw patterns for dark materials. mixture of stone blue and gum water, for light colors. black lead pencils. necessary implements for knitting. needles of various sizes. the nos. referred to are those of the knitting needle gauge. needles pointed at either end, for turkish knitting. ivory, or wooden pins, for knitting a biroche. a knitting sheath, &c., to be fastened on the waist of the knitter, toward the right hand, for the purpose of keeping the needle in a steady and proper position. necessary implements for netting. a pin or mesh, on which to form the loops. a needle called a netting needle, formed into a kind of fork, with two prongs at each end. the ends of the prongs meet and form a blunt point, not fastened like the eye of a common needle, but left open, that the thread or twine may pass between them, and be wound upon the needle. the prongs are brought to a point, in order that the needle may pass through a small loop without interruption. twine to form foundations. a fine long darning needle for bead work. meshes of various, sizes from no. to . flat meshes, and ivory meshes; also of various sizes. the gauge is the same as that for knitting-needles. necessary implements for crochet. [illustration] ivory crochet needles of various sizes. steel crochet needles. rug needles and a pair of long sharp pointed scissors. these implements should be disposed in a regular and orderly manner, as should also the materials for working. order and regularity are matters but too frequently neglected in the gay and buoyant season of youth; and this fault, which is the parent of so much annoyance in after life, is but too generally overlooked by those whose duty it is to correct these incipient seeds of future mischief. no pursuit should be entered into by the young, without having some moral end in view, and this is especially needful to be observed in cases, where at first sight, it might appear a matter of indifference, whether the pursuit was one of utility, or of mere relaxation. we earnestly entreat our young friends, never to forget, that even our amusements may be rendered an acceptable sacrifice to their heavenly father, if they assiduously endeavor to make the habits they form in their seasons of relaxation from graver studies, conduce to the development of the higher faculties of their nature, and subordinate preparations for a more exalted state of being, than any which this transitory scene can of itself present to their contemplation and pursuits. dyer, speaking of tapestry, has beautifully said-- "this bright art did zealous europe learn of pagan lands, while she assayed with rage of holy war to desolate their fields; but old the skill: long were the phrygian's pict'ring looms renown'd; tyre also, wealthy seat of art, excell'd, and elder sidon, in th' historic web." but we would have our fair friends to place before them a high and a definite object. let them seek, like the excellent miss linwood-- "to raise at once our reverence and delight, to elevate the mind and charm the sight, to pour religion through the attentive eye, and waft the soul on wings of extacy; bid mimic art with nature's self to vie, and raise the spirit to its native sky." chapter ii. plain needlework. explanation of stitches. before commencing those directions, which we deem it necessary to place before our readers, in reference to this important portion of the work-table manual, we wish to say a word or two to our fair countrywomen, on the importance of a general and somewhat extensive acquaintance with those arts, on which so much of the comfort of individual and domestic life depends. economy of time, labor, and expenses, is an essential requisite in every family; and will ever claim a due share of attention, from her who is desirous of fulfilling with credit to herself and advantage to others, the allotted duties of her appointed station. to those, who are at the head of the majority of families, an extensive knowledge of the various departments of plain needlework is indispensable. the means placed at their disposal are limited; in many instances, extremely so: and to make the most of these means, generally provided by the continual care and unremitting attention of the father and the husband, is a sacred duty, which cannot be violated without the entailment of consequences which every well regulated mind must be anxious to avoid. the following are the principal stitches used in plain needlework. sewing and felling.--if you have selvages, join them together and sew them firmly. if you have raw edges, turn down one of the edges once, and the other double the breadth, and then turn half of it back again. this is for the fell. the two pieces are pinned face to face, and seamed together; the stitches being in a slanting direction, and just deep enough to hold the separate pieces firmly together. then flatten the seam with the thumb, turn the work over and fell it the same as hemming. the thread is fastened by being worked between the pieces and sewn over. hemmings.--turn down the raw edge as evenly as possible. flatten, and be careful, especially in turning down the corners. hem from right to left; bring the point of the needle from the chest toward the right hand. fasten the thread without a knot, and when you finish, sew several stitches close together, and cut off the thread. german hemming.--turn down both the raw edges once, taking care so to do it, as that both turns may be toward your person; you then lay one below the other, so as that the smooth edge of the nearest does not touch the other, but lies just beneath it. the lower one is then to be hemmed or felled to the piece against which you have laid it, still holding it before you. you are next to open your sleeve, or whatever else you have been employed upon; and laying the upper fold over the lower, fell it down, and the work is done. mantuamaker's hem.--you lay the raw edge of one of your pieces a little below the other; the upper edge is then turned over the other twice, and felled down as strong as possible. running.--take three threads, leave three, and in order that the work may be kept as firm as possible, back-stitch occasionally. if you sew selvages, they must be joined evenly together; but if raw edges, one must be turned down once, and the other laid upon it, but a few threads from the top. it is, in this case, to be felled afterwards. stitching.--the work must be even as possible. turn down a piece to stitch to, draw a thread to stitch upon, twelve or fourteen threads from the edge. being thus prepared, you take two threads back, and so bring, the needle out, from under two before. proceed in this manner, to the end of the row; and in joining a fresh piece of thread, take care to pass the needle between the edges and bring it out where the last stitch was finished. gathering.--you begin by taking the article to be gathered, and dividing it into halves, and then into quarters, putting on pins, to make the divisions. the piece, to which you are intending to gather it, must be gathered about twelve threads from the top, taking three threads on the needle, and leaving four; and so preceding, alternately, until one quarter is gathered. fasten the thread, by twisting it round a pin; stroke the gathers, so that they lie evenly and neatly, with a strong needle or pin. you then proceed as before, until all the gathers are gathered. then take out the pins, and regulate the gathers of each quarter, so as to correspond with those of the piece to which it is to be sewed. the gathers are then to be fastened on, one at a time; and the stitches must be in a slanting direction. the part to be gathered must be cut quite even before commencing, or else it will be impossible to make the gathering look well. double gathering, or puffing.--this is sometimes employed in setting on frills; and when executed properly has a pretty effect. you first gather the top, in the usual way; then, having stroked down the gathers, you gather again under the first gathering, and of such a depth as you wish the puffing to be. you then sew on the first gathering to the gown, frock, &c. you design to trim, at a distance, corresponding with the width of the puffing: and the second gathering sewed to the edge, so as to form a full hem. you may make a double hem, if you please, by gathering three times instead of only twice; and one of the hems may be straight, while the other is drawn to one side a little. this requires much exactness, in the execution; but if properly done, it gives a pleasing variety to the work. whipping.--you cut the edge smooth, and divide into halves and quarters, as for gathering. you then roll the muslin or other material very lightly upon the finger, making use of the left thumb for that purpose. the needle must go in on the outside, and be brought through, on the inside. the whipping-cotton should be as strong and even as possible. in order that the stitches may draw with ease, they must be taken with great care. the roll of the whip should be about ten threads. [illustration] button-hole stitch.--these should be cut by a thread, and their length should be that of the diameter of the button. in working, the button-hole must lie lengthways upon the forefinger; and you begin at the side which is opposite to the thumb, and the furthest from the point of the finger on which it is laid. the needle must go in on the wrong side, and be brought out on the right, five threads down. to make the stitch, the needle is passed through the loop before it is drawn close. in turning the corners, be careful not to do it too near; and in order that a proper thickness may be obtained, it is necessary that the needle should go in between every two threads. making button-holes, requires great care and attention. [illustration] fancy button-hole stitch.--this resembles a very wide button-hole stitch, and is very neat for the fronts of bodies, where it has a very pretty appearance; likewise for the bands and the shoulder bits, and above the broad hems and tucks of frocks. [illustration] chain stitch.--in making this stitch, you are to employ union cord, bobbin, or braid, whichever you think most suitable. make a knot at the end, and draw it through to the right side. while you put in the needle, let the end hang loose, and bring it out below, so as to incline a little towards the left hand. pass your needle over the cord, as you draw it out, and this will form a loop. in drawing out the mesh, you must be careful not to draw the stitch too tight, as that would destroy the effect. you proceed in the same manner to form the next, and each succeeding loop; taking care to put the needle in a little higher, and rather more to the right than in the preceding stitch, so that each loop begins within the lower part of the one going before it, and you thus produce the resemblance of a chain. [illustration] fancy chain stitch.--the only difference between this and the common chain stitch, is that very little of the cord is taken up on the needle at a time, and the stitches are far from each other. its appearance will be varied, according as you put in the needle, to slant little or much. if you should work it perfectly horizontal, it is the same as button-hole stitch. [illustration] herring-boning.--this is generally employed in articles composed of flannel, or other thick material. the edge is to be cut even, and turned down once. you work from left to right, thus: put your needle into the material, and take a stitch of two or three threads, as close as possible, under the raw edge, and bring the needle half way up that part which is turned down, and four or five threads toward the right hand; make another stitch, and bring down the needle; thus proceed until the work is finished. this stitch is something like the back-bone of a fish, and is sometimes used as an ornament for children's robes, and at the top of hems. it looks both neat and elegant, when carefully executed. [illustration] fancy herring-boning.--this is the same as common herring-bone, only it is done in a perpendicular manner, instead of being worked horizontally from left to right; and the thread is brought round behind the needle, so as to finish the work in a more elegant manner. it has an exceeding neat and pleasing look, when it is well executed, and is considered as highly ornamental, in appropriate situations. [illustration] angular stitch.--this stitch resembles button-hole stitch, only it is carried from right to left to form the pattern. it is a neat ornament for cuffs, skirts and capes, and children's pelisses. as much of its beauty depends on its regularity, care should be taken to make the patterns very even and straight, and of an equal width; without due attention to this, the work will be spoiled. [illustration] double herring-boning.--this pattern is a kind of double herring-bone, on each side; it is too intricate to describe minutely. the engraving will give a better idea of this stitch than any description we could give. great care being required to keep the pattern even, it is advisable to run a tacking thread down the middle of it, to serve as a guide. [illustration] horse-shoe stitch.--this is done with thick, loosely-twisted cotton, or bobbin, and is worked from left to right, as shown in the accompanying engraving. it has a very neat and pretty appearance, when worked near the edge of hems, robings, &c. [illustration] fancy bobbin edging.--this is formed by a succession of loops made in the following manner: make a knot at the end, and put the needle through to the right side, just below the hem. bring the bobbin over the hem, and, putting the needle in at the wrong side, bring it through to the right. draw the loop to the size you desire, pass the bobbin through it, and commence the next stitch, proceeding as before. chain stitch, on gathers.--this looks well, if worked in colored worsted, or in cord. two gathers are taken up for each stitch, taking care always to take one of the previous stitches and one new gather on the needle at the same time. [illustration] coral pattern.--this requires great accuracy in the working, and it is advisable for the inexperienced to run lines, in long stitches, to fix the middle and outsides of the pattern. it may be best understood by the engraving, merely observing that the stitch is begun on the left hand, and continued alternately from left to right, always pointing the needle toward the centre. it is very suitable for the waist-bands of children's frocks, the tops of broad hems, &c. [illustration] serpentine stitch.--this is exceedingly pretty, and is much employed for children's dresses. it is worked with the hand, being sewn on to the material when made. take the cord, knot it so as to form a loop at the end; then pass the other end through the loop, toward the front, to form another loop to the right hand; continue passing the bobbin through the loop on one side, then through the loop on the other, directing the cord so as to pass from the side of the work invariably towards the inner, or that part next the work. [illustration] biassing.--in this operation, the first part of the stitch is the same as gathering. you then stitch down; and upon the right side of the gather, you lay a thread a good deal thicker than the one you used for gathering thread. over this thread you sew, taking care to take hold also of the gathering thread. the needle is always to be pointed toward your chest. you may work two or three rows in this way, on the sleeves and shoulders of dresses, &c., which has a handsome effect. you must take great care to bring the needle out between each one of the gathers. [illustration] honey combing.--the material may be velvet, silk, &c.; and the mode of working is as follows: the piece you intend honey-combing, must be creased in regular folds, taking care that they are as even as possible. then make the folds lie closely together, by tacking them with a strong thread, and in long stitches. you then take silk of the right color; stitch together at equal and proper distances the two first folds, and proceed, with each succeeding two, in the same manner, only taking the stitches in the intermediate spaces. thus the stitches of each alternate row will correspond together. draw out the thread, when the work is finished, and on pulling it open, it will form diamonds on the right side. this work is proper for the inside of work-boxes, and is sometimes employed to ornament the tops of beds. it looks well, if carefully executed. a perfect acquaintance with these various stitches, will enable the practical needlewoman to pursue her occupation with ease and pleasure. chapter iii. plain needlework. instructions in the preparation of body linen. in order to secure economy of time, labor, and expense, and also to do everything neatly and in order, the lady who is intending to engage in the domestic employment of preparing linen necessary for personal and family use, should be careful to have all her materials ready, and disposed in the most systematic manner possible, before commencing work. the materials employed in the construction of articles, which come under the denomination of plain needlework, are so various, that a mere list of them would occupy more than half our space; and they are so well known, that no necessity exists for naming them in detail. we shall therefore proceed, at once, to give plain directions, by which any lady may soon become expert in this necessary department of household uses, merely observing, that a neat work-box, well supplied with all the implements required--including knife, scissors (of at least three sizes,) needles and pins in sufficient variety, bodkins, thimbles, thread and cotton, bobbins, marking silks, black lead pencils, india rubber, &c., should be provided, and be furnished with a lock and key, to prevent the contents being thrown into confusion by children, servants, or unauthorized intruders. the lady being thus provided, and having her materials, implements, &c., placed in order upon her work-table, (to the edge of which it is an advantage to have a pincushion affixed, by means of a screw,) may commence her work, and proceed with pleasure to herself, and without annoyance to any visitor, who may favor her with a call. we would recommend, wherever practicable, that the work-table should be made of cedar, and that the windows of the working parlor should open into a garden, well supplied with odoriferous flowers and plants, the perfume of which will materially cheer the spirits of those especially whose circumstances compel them to devote the greatest portion of their time to sedentary occupations. if these advantages cannot be obtained, at least the room should be well ventilated, and furnished with a few cheerful plants, and a well filled scent-jar. the beneficent creator intended all his children, in whatever station of life they might be placed, to share in the common bounties of his providence; and when she, who not for pleasure, but to obtain the means of subsistence, is compelled to seclude herself, for days or weeks together, from the cheering influence of exercise in the open air, it becomes both her duty, and that of those for whom she labors, to secure as much of these advantages, or of the best substitutes for them, as the circumstances of the case will admit. we now proceed to lay down what we hope will be found clear though concise rules, for the preparation of various articles of dress and attire. aprons.--these are made of a variety of materials, and are applied to various uses. the aprons used for common purposes, are made of white, blue, brown, checked, and sometimes of black linen; nankeen, stuff, and print, are also employed. the width is generally one breadth of the material, and the length is regulated by the height of the wearer. dress aprons are, of course, made of finer materials--cambric, muslin, silk, satin, lace, clear and other kinds of muslin, &c., and are generally two breadths in width, one of which is cut in two, so as to throw a seam on each side, and leave an entire breadth for the middle. aprons of all kinds are straight, and either plaited or gathered on to the band or stock at the top. those with only one breadth, are hemmed at the bottom with a broad hem; those with two breadths, must be hemmed at the sides likewise. the band should be from half a nail to a nail broad; its length is to be determined by the waist of the wearer. it should be fastened at the back, with hooks and eyelet holes. to some aprons, pockets are attached, which are either sewed on in front, or at the back, and a slit made in the apron to correspond with them. the slit, or opening of the pocket is to be hemmed neatly, or braided, as may be most desirable. in some kinds of aprons, bibs are introduced, which are useful to cover the upper part of the dress. their size must be determined by the taste of the person who is to wear them. dress aprons.--take two breadths of any material you choose, dividing one of them in the middle. hem all round, with a broad hem, three-fourths of a nail deep. the band is to be one and a-half nails deep in the middle, into which a piece of whalebone is to be inserted, on each side of which work a row or two in chain stitch. the band is scolloped out from the centre on its lower side, five and a-half nails, leaving the extremities of the band one nail broad. to the scolloped portion, the apron is to be fulled on, so as to sit as neat as possible; leaving the space beneath the whalebone plain. confine the folds, by working two rows of chain stitch, just below the curved lines of the band, leaving half an inch between each row. the lower edge of the band is ornamented with a small piping, but is left plain at the top. vandyke apron.--this may be made either of silk or muslin. the edge of the apron is to be turned down, once all round, on the right side, to the depth of three-quarters of a nail; and the vandykes are formed by running from the edge of the apron to near the rough edge of the material, which is afterward to be turned in. when the vandykes are completed, they are to be turned inside out, and made as smooth as possible. a braid, or a row of tent stitch, on the right side, over the stitches, is a pretty finish. in setting on the band, the plaits must be placed opposite each other, so as to meet in the middle. you may line the band with buckram, or stiff muslin, and ornament it with piping if you please. apron for a young person.--clear muslin is the best material. hem round with a hem, three-fourths of a nail deep; lay all round, within the hem, a shawl bordering, not quite so broad as the hem. of course, the latter must be taken off before washing. a morning apron.--this may be made like the last, but instead of the shawl bordering, surround the outer edge of the hem by a deep crimped frill, a nail in breadth. the material most in use, is jacconet or cambric muslin: the frill, of lawn or cambric, which you please. girl's apron.--use any material that is deemed advisable. the bib is to be made to fit the wearer, in front, between the shoulders, and sloping to the waist. the apron is to be gathered, or plaited to the band; and the shoulder straps may be of the same material, or of ribbon. the bib, either plain or ornamented, with tucks or folds, as may be deemed most suitable. bathing gown.--the materials employed are various, flannels, stuff, or calamanca, are the most preferable, giving free ingress to the water. the length must be determined by the height of the wearer, and the width at the bottom should be about fifteen nails. it should be folded as you would a pinafore, and to be sloped three and three-quarters nails for the shoulder. the slits for the arm-holes must be three nails and three-quarters long, and the sleeves are to be set in plain: the length of the latter is not material. it is useful to have a slit of three inches, in front of each. the gown is to have a broad hem at the bottom, and to be gathered into a band at the top, which is to be drawn tight with strings; the sleeves are to be hemmed and sewn round the arm or wrist, in a similar manner. bustles.--these are worn, to make the waist of the gown sit neat upon the person. they are made the width of the material, and eight nails deep. the piece is to be so doubled as to make two flounces; one four nails and a half and the other three and a-half deep. a case, to admit of tapes, is to be made one nail from the top, and the bottom of each flounce is to have a thick cord hemmed into it. when worn, the article is turned inside out. the materials are strong jean, or calico. caps.--these are made of a great variety of patterns, and the materials are as various as the purposes to which the article is applied. muslins of various kinds, lawn, net, lace, and calico, are all in request; and the borders are extremely various. muslin, net, or lace, being those most in common use. the shapes are so multifarious, as to preclude us from giving any specific directions. every lady must choose her own pattern, as best suits the purpose she has in view. the patterns should be cut in paper, and considerable care is requisite, in cutting out, not to waste the material. a little careful practice will soon make this department familiar to the expert votaress of the needle. child's collar.--this is made of double irish linen, and is stitched round and made to fall over the dress. frills are generally attached to them, and give them a pretty finish. they are proper for children, of eight or nine years of age. cravats.--these are of fine muslin, and are made in the shape of a half handkerchief. they are hemmed with a narrow hem, and should be cut from muslin, eighteen nails square. cloaks.--these useful and necessary articles of dress are generally made up by a dress-maker; it is unnecessary therefore to give particular directions concerning them. the materials are silks and stuffs, of almost every variety, including satin, merino cloth, real and imitation shawling plaids, and orleans. the latter is now very generally used. travelling cloaks are made of a stronger material, and are trimmed in a much plainer style than those used in walking dresses. satin cloaks look well with velvet collars, and are also frequently trimmed with the same material. merino, and also silk cloaks, are often trimmed with fur, or velvet, and lined with the same. sometimes they are made perfectly plain. the lining of a silk or satin cloak, should be of the same color, or else a well-chosen contrast; and care should be taken, that the color should be one that is not liable to fade, or to receive damage. an attention to these general remarks, will be found of much advantage to the lady who, in making her purchase is desirous of combining elegance of appearance with durability of wear, and economy of price. frills.--these are used as ornaments, or a finish to various articles of dress. the materials are cambric muslin, lace, net, &c., and the manner in which they are made is various. sometimes they are set on quite plain, that is, hemmed round and plaited up into neat folds, to the width required. at other times, frills are fitted to a band, and the edge that is to be hemmed, is stiffened by rolling it over a bobbin; it is put on as an ornament to a gown, and is tied with strings at the end. crimped frills are worn by young children, and look extremely neat. they are made of lawn or cambric, and sewed on to a band. the other edge is hemmed, and the frill is double the size round the neck. the band should be half a nail in depth, and the frill is to be crimped as evenly as possible. gentlemen's belts.--these are worn by persons who have much and violent exercise, and are extremely useful. they are made of strong jean or other material, and sometimes of leather, and may either be made straight, or a little slant, or peaked. runners of cotton are inserted, to make them more strong, and they must be furnished with long straps of webbing at the ends, sewed on with leather over them. the straps are about three inches in depth. gentlemen's collars.--these are very generally worn, and are shaped in a variety of ways. they are made double, and ornamented with a single or double row of back stitch. they are made to button round the neck, or are set on to a band for that purpose. it is best to cut the pattern in paper, and when a good fit is obtained, cut the cloth by the paper model. gentlemen's fronts.--the material is fine lawn or cambric. sometimes the sides are composed of the former, and the middle of the latter. a false hem is made down the middle, furnished with buttons, as if to open; the neck is hollowed to the depth of a nail, and is plaited or gathered into a stock or band. in order that it may sit neat upon the bosom, two neck gussets are introduced. ladies' drawers.--choose any proper material, and form the article by making two legs, set on to a band to fasten round the waist. set on a plain or worked frill at the bottom. when setting the legs on to the band, place them so as to overlap each other. the band is eleven nails long, and three deep. ladies' flannel waistcoat.--this is, in many cases, an indispensable article of female attire. for an ordinary size, you must take a piece of flannel twelve nails wide, and seven deep, folding it exactly in the middle. at two nails from the front, which is doubled, the arm holes must be cut, leaving two nails for half of the back. the front is to be slightly hollowed. at the bottom, cut a slit of three nails, immediately under the arm holes; insert a gore three nails broad, and the same in length, and terminating in a point. bosom-gores are also to be introduced of a similar shape, and just half the size. they are to be put in just one nail from the shoulder-strap. in making the waistcoat, it is to be herring-boned all round, as are also all the gores and slits. a broad tape, one nail in width, is laid down each side of the front, in which the button holes are made, and buttons set on; the shoulder-straps are of tape, and the waistcoat fastens in front. ladies' night jackets.--the materials are various, including lawn, linen, and calico. the jackets are made of two breadths, and as it is desirable not to have a seam in the shoulder, the two breadths should be cut in one length, and carefully doubled in the middle. the neck is to be slit open, leaving three nails on each side for the shoulders; and a slit is also to be made in front, so as to allow the garment to pass freely over the head of the wearer; the sides are then to be seamed up, leaving proper slits for the arm holes; and the neck and bosom are to be hemmed as neatly as possible. the sleeves are to be made the required length, and gathered into a band at the wrist, after being felled into the arm holes mentioned above. a neat frill round the neck, bosom, and wrists, finishes the whole. night gowns.--these must be made of a size suitable for the wearer. the following are directions for three different sizes. the length of the gown on the skirts is one yard and a half for the first size, one yard and six nails for the second, and one yard and three nails for the third; the width of the material is eighteen, sixteen, and fourteen nails, respectively; and the garment is to have one yard and a half breadth in width. they are to be crossed so as to be at the bottom twenty-one, eighteen, and sixteen, nails: and at the top, fifteen, fourteen, and twelve nails, as the sizes may require. the length of the sleeves is nine, eight, and seven nails, and the width half a breadth; they are to be furnished with gussets, three, two, and two nails square, and with wristbands of the proper width, and of any depth that is deemed desirable. a binder of one nail and a half is put down the selvage of each sleeve, which strengthens it much. the gown is furnished with a collar about three nails deep, and of the length required by the wearer; and, in order that it may fit properly, neck gussets of two, one, and one nail square, are to be introduced. a slit of about six nails is made in front, which is hemmed round, and the space left for the shoulders is three, two and a-half and two nails, respectively. the whole is finished with a neat frill round the collar and wristbands. if economy is an object, cut three gowns together. this will prevent much waste of material; an object, by every head of a family, to be constantly kept in view. neck and pocket handkerchiefs.--these are made of a great variety of materials, as silk, muslin, cambric, lawn, and net. the neck handkerchiefs are generally a half square, and are hemmed all round. it is a good plan to turn up the extreme corners, as it makes it more strong and durable. a tape is set on, which comes 'round the waist, and ties in front. sometimes a broad muslin hem is put on the two straight sides, which looks extremely well. some ladies work a border to their neck handkerchief, which gives to those made of net the appearance of lace. pocket handkerchiefs are neatly hemmed, and sometimes have a worked border. those used by gentlemen are of a larger size than those of ladies. petticoats (flannel).--these are not only useful, but indispensable articles of dress. fine flannel is the best, as it is most durable, and keeps its color best in washing. the length of the petticoat is regulated by the height of the person for whom it is intended; and the width ranges from three breadths to one and a-half. the bottom is hemmed with a broad hem; and the top is gathered, and set on to a strong band of calico, or jean, leaving the front nearly plain. sometimes a button hole is made, about two nails from the ends of the band, to which strings of tape are attached; these are passed through the opposite holes, and the parts thus brought over each other form a kind of bustle, which makes the garment sit more neatly to the figure. a slit of about four nails is left on the back which is hemmed round, or bound with a strong binding. petticoats are worn under the dress for the sake of warmth, and also to make the gown hang more gracefully upon the person. they should have three or three and a-half breadths of the material in the width, and the bottom is made with a broad hem three nails deep, or with tucks or worked muslin. the latter is extremely neat. they are to be set on to a strong band, or stock, and are to have a slit left at the back about four nails in length. the skirt may be gathered full all round, or only at the back and front, leaving the sides plain; sometimes all the fulness is thrown to the back. having shoulder-straps to keep up the petticoat, is a great advantage; but they are unnecessary if a waist, or body with or without sleeves, be set on the band. in this case the body should be made to fit as tight to the person as possible. the band is generally about one nail in breadth. the materials proper for petticoats are dimity, calico, cambric, jacconet muslin, calamanca, stuff, &c. what are called middle, or under petticoats, are made in the same manner. those ladies who pursue the laudable practice of nursing their own infants, and who wear petticoats with bodies to them, have them open in front. pinafore.--this is a useful article of dress, especially in large families. holland is the best material. for an open one, one breadth is sufficient. double the pinafore into four, and cut the arm holes to the required depth in the two side folds, so that half will form the front. the neck is to be hollowed out about a quarter of a nail in the middle, and the pinafore is to be set on to the neck band, which fastens by a button behind. sleeve lappets are attached to the arm holes, being gathered near the edge, and set on before the arm hole is hemmed, so that when the edge is turned down no stitches will appear. the lappet is a second time to be gathered at the edge, and sewed down as fast as possible. then hem the other edge, and conceal the stitches with silk braid that will wash. a small gusset put into the bottom of the slits is an advantage, as it makes it stronger. they are to be fastened round the waist with a band, or with a strap and buckle. the latter is most to be preferred. for a close pinafore, two breadths of holland, or other material, will be required. it is seamed up at the sides, leaving slits for the arm holes, and has a collar and sleeves; as also a band to go round the middle of the wearer. neck gussets may be introduced, but the much neater way is, to double the pinafore into four, and let in a piece at each shoulder, about a nail wide, and two nails in length, gathering each quarter from the arm holes, into the pieces so let in, and felling similar pieces on the inside of the shoulder. the two middle quarters are to be gathered into half the collar, and the back in the same manner. the sleeves are made with gussets like a shirt, and are gathered into the arm holes. a slit is made at the hands, and the bottom is gathered into a wristband about an inch in breadth. pockets.--these are made of any kind of material you please. you take a piece of double, and cut it to the shape required. stitch the two pieces neatly round, a little distance from the edge. then turn it, and let the seam be well flattened, and back stitch with white silk a quarter of an inch from the edge; cut a slit down about four nails, which is to be either hemmed, or have a tape laid round it on the inside. set on the strings, and the pocket is complete. some ladies have pockets attached to the petticoat. in that case, it is only a square of calico, about ten nails long, and eight broad, set on to the inside of the petticoat, as plain as possible. a ribbon scarf.--this is made of broad satin ribbon, and must not be less than two nails and a half wide: its length is two yards and three quarters. the ribbon is to be doubled on the wrong side, and run in a slanting direction so as to cause it to fall gracefully on the neck. the ends are to be embroidered and ornamented with braid, or left plain, as may suit the fancy. the scarf is to be surrounded by an edging of swan's down. this is an elegant article of female attire. plain scarf.--this is generally made of net, the whole breadth, and two yards and a half long. it is hemmed all round with a broad hem so as to admit a ribbon to be run in, which gives it a neat and finished appearance. an indian scarf.--this is an elegant article of dress and can be easily made. the material is a rich cashmere, and three colors are required: that is, black, scarlet, and a mazarine blue. you must have the scarf four nails and a half in width, and one yard and six nails in length: this must be black. then you must have of the other two colors, pieces seven nails long, and the same width as the black, and you are, after finding the exact middle of the black stripe, to slope off one nail and a half toward each side, and then slope one end of the blue and of the scarlet piece, so as to make them accord precisely with the ends of the black previously prepared. you are to cut one nail and a half from the middle to the ends. you are then to split the blue and the scarlet stripes down the middle, and join half of the one to the half of the other, as accurately, as possible. the pieces thus joined together are to be sewed to the black stripe, and the utmost care must be taken to make the points unite properly. you are to sew the pieces fast together, and herring-bone them all round on the right side. you finish by laying a neat silk gimp all round and over all the joinings. it should be of a clear, bright color. the ends are to be fringed with scarlet and blue, to correspond with the two half stripes. this is suitable for a walking dress, or an evening party. a dress shawl.--take a half square of one yard and twelve nails of satin velvet or plush, which you please, and line it with sarcenet either white, or colored; trim the two straight edges with a hem of either silk or satin, from one to one nail and a half in breadth, and cut crossway. or you may trim it with fur, lace, or fringe. cashmere shawl.--you will require for the centre a piece of colored cashmere, one yard six nails square, which is to be hemmed round with a narrow hem. you must then take four stripes all of cashmere, or of a shawl bordering to harmonize or contrast well with the centre, which must be hemmed on both sides, and then sewed on, so as that the stitches may appear as little as possible. the border should be three nails broad, and of course joined point to point at the corners; and it must be so set on as that the two corners shall fall properly over each other. the shawl is finished by a fringe set on all round, and sometimes by a colored gimp laid on over the joinings. a lady's walking shawl.--this may be made of cloth, merino, or silk; and either a whole, or half square, at pleasure. the dimensions are one yard and twelve nails, and the lining is of silk. in order that when the shawl is doubled the hems of both folds may appear at the same time, care must be taken, after laying on the border on two successive sides, to turn the shawl, and then lay on the remainder of the border. the trimmings for these kind of shawls are of great variety. a travelling shawl.--this is easily made, and is very warm and convenient. take a square of wadding, and double it cornerways; cover it with muslin, or silk, and trim it as you please. mourning shawls.--these may be made either of half a square of black silk, entirely covered with crape, which is proper for deep mourning, or you may take half a square of rich and rather dull black silk, and border it with a hem of crape, two nails deep, laid on upon the two straight sides of the shawl. shifts.--these are generally made of fine irish, or calico. they are made either with gores, or crossed. the latter is the neatest method. two breadths are sufficient for a full sized shift, and gores are cut off a given width at the bottom, and extending to a point, in order to widen the garment. in crossing a shift, you first sew the long seams; then you double it in a slanting direction, so as to mark off at the top and bottom ten nails at opposite corners; this done, you join the narrow ends together, and sew the cross seams, leaving a sufficient slit for the arm holes. there are various methods of cutting the back and bosom. some cut out a scollop both before and behind; but in this case, the back is hollowed out one third less than the front. some ladies hollow out the back, but form the bosom with a flap, which may be cut either straight, or in a slanting direction from the shoulders. another method of forming the bosom is by cutting the shoulder-straps separate from the shift, and making the top quite straight; bosom gores are then let in, in front; the top is hemmed both before and behind, and a frill gives a neat finish to the whole. the sleeves may be either set in plain or full, as suits the taste of the wearer. sometimes the sleeve and gusset are all in one piece; at other times they are separate. in all cases, great care should be taken in cutting out, not to waste the material. for this purpose it is always advisable to cut out several at one time. shifts for young children of from five to ten years of age, are generally made with flaps both before and behind. this is decidedly the neatest shape for them. the bottom, in all cases, should be hemmed with a broad hem. shirts.--these are generally made of linen; but calico is also made use of. the degree of fineness must be determined by the occupation and station of the wearer. a long piece of linen will, if cut with care, make several shirts of an ordinary man's size. in cutting, you must take a shirt of the required dimensions, as a pattern; and, by it, measure the length of several bodies, not cutting any but the last. then cut off the other bodies; and from the remainder, cut off the sleeves, binders, gussets, &c., measuring by the pattern. bosom-pieces, falls, collars, &c., must be fitted, and cut by a paper or other pattern, which suits the person for whom the articles are intended. in making up, the bodies should be doubled, so as to leave the front flap one nail shorter than that behind. then, marking off the spaces for the length of the flaps and arm holes, sew up the seams. the bosom-slit is five nails, and three nails is the space left for the shoulders. the space for the neck will be nine nails. one breadth of the cloth makes the sleeves, and the length is from nine to ten nails. the collar, and the wristbands, are made to fit the neck and wrists, and the breadths are so various, that no general rule can be given. you make the binders, or linings, about twelve nails in length, and three in breadth; and the sleeve gussets are three; the neck gusset, two; the flap gussets, one; and the bosom gusset, half a nail square. the work, or stitches, introduced into the collar, wristbands, &c., are to be regulated according to the taste of the maker, or the wearer. gentlemen's night shirts are made in a similar manner, only they are larger. the cloth recommended to be used, is that kind of linen which is called shirting-width. where a smaller size is required, a long strip will cut off from the width, which will be found useful for binders, wristbands, &c. veils.--these are made of net, gauze, or lace, and are plain or worked, as suits the taste of the wearer. white veils are generally of lace: mourning ones are made of black crape. the jet-black is to be preferred, as it wears much better than the kind termed blue-black. colored veils look well with a satin ribbon of the same color, about a nail deep, put on as a hem all round. for white ones, a ribbon of a light color is preferable, as it makes a slight contrast. a crape, or gauze veil, is hemmed round; that at the bottom being something broader than the rest. all veils have strings run in at the top, and riding ones are frequently furnished with a ribbon at the bottom, which enables the wearer to obtain the advantage of a double one, by tying the second string round her bonnet, where she is desirous to screen her eyes from the sun and dust, and at the same time to enjoy the advantage of a cool and refreshing breeze. demi-veils are short veils, fulled all round the bonnet, but most at the ears, which makes them fall more gracefully. it is advisable to take them up a little at the ears, so as not to leave them the full depth: without this precaution, they are liable to appear unsightly and slovenly. chapter iv. plain needlework. instructions in the preparation of house linen. bed-room linen.--this includes quilts, blankets, sheets, pillow covers, towels, table covers, and pincushion covers. quilts.--these are of various sizes and qualities, in accordance with the purposes to which they are to be applied. they are generally made of the outside material and the lining, (wadding or flannel being laid between,) and stitched in diamonds or other devices. the stitches must pass through the whole, and the edges of the quilt are to be secured by a binding proper for the purpose. they are best done in a frame. blankets.--these are bought ready prepared for use. it is sometimes advisable to work over the edges at the end, which should be done with scarlet worsted in a very wide kind of button-hole stitch. sheets.--these are made of fine linen, coarse linen, and calico. linen sheets are in general to be preferred. the seam up the middle must be sewed as neat as possible, and the ends may either be hemmed or seamed: the latter is the preferable method. sheets, and all bed-room linen, should be marked and numbered. to add the date of the year is also an advantage. pillow covers.--these are made of fine or coarse linen, and sometimes of calico. the material should be of such a width as to correspond with the length of the pillow. one yard and three nails, doubled and seamed up, is the proper size. one end is seamed up, and the other hemmed with a broad hem, and furnished with strings or buttons, as is deemed most convenient. we think the preferable way of making pillow covers is to procure a material of a sufficient width when doubled, to admit the pillow. the selvages are then sewn together, and the ends seamed and hemmed, as before directed. bolster covers are made in nearly the same manner, only a round patch is let into one end, and a tape slot is run into the other. towels.--towels are made of a diaper or huckaback, of a quality adapted to the uses to which they are applicable. they should be one yard long, and about ten or twelve nails wide. the best are bought single, and are fringed at the ends. others are neatly hemmed, and sometimes have a tape loop attached to them, by which they can be suspended against a wall. dressing table covers.--these may be made of any material that is proper for the purpose. fine diaper generally, but sometimes dimity and muslin are employed, or the table is covered with a kind of marseilles quilting which is prepared expressly for the purpose. sometimes the covers are merely hemmed round, but they look much neater if fringed, or bordered with a moderately full frill. sometimes a worked border is set on. all depends upon taste and fancy. a neat and genteel appearance in accordance with the furniture of the apartment, should be especially regarded. pincushion covers.--a large pincushion, having two covers belonging to it, should belong to each toilet table. the covers are merely a bag into which the cushion is slipped. they may be either worked or plain, and should have small tassels at each corner, and a frill or fringe all round. table linen.--this department of plain needlework comprises table cloths, dinner napkins, and large and small tray napkins. table cloths.--these may be purchased either singly or cut from the piece. in the latter case, the ends should be hemmed as neatly as possible. dinner napkins.--these are of various materials; if cut from the piece, they must be hemmed at the ends the same as table cloths. large and small tray napkins, and knife-box cloths, are made in the same manner. the hemming of all these should be extremely neat. it is a pretty and light employment for very young ladies; and in this way habits of neatness and usefulness may be formed, which will be found very beneficial in after life. pantry linen.--in this department you will have to prepare pantry cloths, dresser cloths, plate basket cloths, china, glass, and lamp cloths, and aprons. pantry knife-cloths should be of a strong and durable material. the dresser cloths, or covers, look neat and are useful. they are generally made of huckaback of moderate fineness; but some ladies prefer making them of a coarser kind of damask. the plate basket cloth is a kind of bag, which is put into the plate basket to prevent the side from becoming greased or discolored. they are made of linen, which is well fitted to the sides, and a piece the size and shape of the bottom of the basket, is neatly seamed in. the sides are made to hang over the basket, and are drawn round the rim by a tape, run into a slit for that purpose. china cloths, and also glass cloths, are to be made of fine soft linen, or diaper; and the cloths used in cleaning lamps, &c., must be of flannel, linen, or silk. all these articles are to be made in the same manner, that is, hemmed neatly at the ends; or if there be no selvages, or but indifferent ones, all round. nothing looks more slovenly than ragged or unhemmed cloths, which are for domestic use. little girls of the humbler classes might be employed by the more affluent, in making up those articles and a suitable remuneration be given them. they would thus become more sensible of the value of time, and would contract habits of industry, which would be of essential service to them in the more advanced stages of their progress through life. a fair price paid for work done, either by a child or an adult, is far preferable to what is called charity. it at once promotes industry, and encourages a spirit of honest independence, which is far removed from unbecoming pride, as it is from mean and sneaking servility. benevolence is the peculiar glory of woman; and we hope that all our fair readers will ever bear in mind, that real benevolence will seek to enable the objects of its regard to secure their due share of the comforts of life, by the honest employment of those gifts and talents, with which providence may have endowed them. housemaid and kitchen linen.--the next subject to which the attention of the votress of plain needlework ought to be directed, is the preparation of housemaid and kitchen linen. on these subjects, a very few general observations will be all that is necessary. in the housemaid's department, paint cloths, old and soft, and chamber-bottle cloths, fine and soft, are to be provided. to these must be added, dusters, flannels for scouring, and chamber bucket cloths, which last should be of a kind and color different from any thing else. all these must be neatly hemmed and run, or seamed, if necessary. nothing in a well directed family should bear the impress of neglect, or be suffered to assume an untidy appearance. clothes bags of different sizes, should also be provided, of two yards in length, and either one breadth doubled, in which case only one seam will be required; or of two breadths, which makes the bag more suitable for large articles of clothing. these bags are to seamed up neatly at the bottom, and to have strings which will draw, run in at the top. the best material is canvas, or good, strong unbleached linen. in the kitchen department, you will require both table and dresser cloths; which should be made as neat as possible. long towels, of good linen, and of a sufficient length, should be made, to hang on rollers; they are generally a full breadth, so that hemming the sides is unnecessary. they should be two yards long, when doubled, and the ends should be secured strongly and neatly together. if the selvage is bad, the best way is to hem it at once. kitchen dusters, tea cloths, and knife cloths, may be made of any suitable material; but in all cases let the edges be turned down, and neatly sewed or overcast. pudding cloth.--this should be made of coarse linen, neatly hemmed round, furnished with strings of strong tape, and marked. jelly bag.--this is made of a half square, doubled so as to still form a half square. the top must be hemmed, and be furnished with three loops, by which it is to be suspended from the frame when in use. some miscellaneous instructions, which could not otherwise be introduced, are to be found in the concluding chapter. chapter v. plain needlework. miscellaneous instructions. binding.--various kinds of work have binding set on to them in preference to hemming them, or working them in herring-bone stitch. flannel is generally bound; sometimes with a thin tape, made for that purpose, and called "flannel binding." it is also common to bind flannel with sarcenet ribbon. the binding is so put on, as to show but little over the edge on the right side, where it is hemmed down neatly; on the other side, it is run on with small stitches. braiding.--silk braid looks pretty, and is used for a variety of purposes. in putting it on, it is best to sew it with silk drawn out of the braid, as it is a better match, and the stitches will be less perceived. marking.--it is of essential importance that cloths should be marked and numbered. this is often done with ink, but as some persons like to mark with silk, we shall describe the stitch. two threads are to be taken each way of the cloth, and the needle must be passed three ways, in order that the stitch may be complete. the first is aslant from the person, toward the right hand; the second is downward, toward you: and the third is the reverse of the first, that is, aslant from you toward the left hand. the needle is to be brought out at the corner of the stitch, nearest to that you are about to make. the shapes of the letters or figures can be learnt from an inspection of any common sampler. piping.--this is much used in ornamenting children's and other dresses. it is made by inclosing a cord, of the proper thickness, in a stripe of silk, cut the cross-way, and must be put on as evenly as possible. plaiting.--the plaits must be as even as it is possible to place them, one against another. in double plaiting they lie both ways, and meet in the middle. tucks.--these require to be made even. you should have the breadth of the tuck, and also the space between each, notched on a card. they look the best run on with small and regular stitches. you must be careful to take a back-stitch constantly, as you proceed. making buttons.--cover the wire with a piece of calico, or other material of the proper size; turn in the corners neatly, and work round the wire in button-hole stitch; work the centre like a star. some may think that we have been too minute; but we were desirous to omit nothing that could be generally useful; and we have had regard also to those ladies who, having been under no necessity of practising plain needlework in their earlier years, are desirous of preparing articles for their humbler fellow creatures, or by the sale of which, they procure more ample supplies for the funds of charity. we have good reason to believe, that many well-disposed persons would be glad, in this way, to aid the cause of humanity--and to devote a portion of their leisure hours to the augmenting of the resources of benevolence--but they are destitute of the practical experience necessary to enable them to do so. to all such, we hope our little manual will be an acceptable offering, and enable them, by a judicious employment of the means and talents committed to their trust, to realize the truth of the saying of the wise man, "there is that scattereth and yet increaseth." diagram. ___________________________________________________ | | | | | | | | | | | |----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----| | | | | | | | | | | | |----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----| | | | | | | | | | | | |----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----| | | | | | | | | | | | |----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----| | | | | | | | | | | | |----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----| | | | | | | | | | | | |----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----| | | | | | | | | | | | |----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----| | | | | | | | | | | | |----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----| | | | | | | | | | | | |----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----| | | | | | | | | | | | |----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----| | | | | | | | | | | | |----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----| | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------- in order to render the elementary stitches of fancy needle-work as easy of acquirement as possible, we subjoin the following diagram; any lady will thus be able to form the various stitches, by simply taking a piece of canvas, and counting the corresponding number of threads, necessary to form a square like the diagram; she will perceive the lines represent the threads of the canvas, the squares numbered being the holes formed by the intersection of the threads; and following the directions given in the accompanying chapter, she will soon be able to work any patterns here exhibited, and such new ones as her inventive genius may lead her to design. chapter vi. fancy needlework. explanation of stitches. the art of fancy needlework is closely allied to the sister ones of painting and design; and appears to have been well understood amongst the most polished nations of antiquity. we know that the art was practised with considerable success, by the babylonians, egyptians, persians, and arabians, as well as by the greeks and romans. the jews brought the art of needlework with them, out of egypt, as we learn from the directions for building the tabernacle, and preparing the holy garments; and sidon is celebrated for the rich wares of broidered cloths, in which part of her extensive traffic consisted. in more modern times, we find the fair hands of the ladies of europe employed in depicting the events of history, in tapestry, of which the much celebrated bayeux tapestry--supposed to have been wrought by matilda, the beloved wife of william the norman--detailing the various occurrences in the life of harold, from his arrival in normandy, to the fatal battle of hastings, is a standing proof. ladies of high rank employed themselves thus, for various purposes, previous to the reformation; and it is a fact, worthy of especial notice, that in those ages, when it has been required for the adornment of the temples, and the encouragement of honorable valor and has thus become associated with the sanctifying influences of religion and manly virtue, it has flourished most.[ -*] queen adelicia, wife of henry i.; ann, queen of france; catherine, of aragon; lady jane grey; mary queen of scots; and queen elizabeth, all excelled in this delightful art. at the reformation, or soon after that event, needlework began sensibly to decline, and continued to do so, until the commencement of the present century. at that time, a new and elevated development of mind began to appear, which was accompanied by a very visible advancement in every department of arts and sciences. this revival of the fine arts, like the mental and sacred gushing forth of mind, which gave it birth, was often in extremely bad taste; but as the latter becomes more purified and exalted, the former advances in improvement--mind asserts its superiority over matter, and infuses into the useful and ornamental, a living spirit of moral affection and enlightened sentiment. the year gave to the world, the celebrated berlin patterns; but it was not until a lapse of thirty years, that their merits became generally appreciated; but now, such is the perfection attained in the cultivation of the art of needlework, that some of its productions, for delicacy and expression, may almost bear comparison with painting in oil. [illustration] tent stitch.--work the cross way of the canvas, bringing your needle up through the diagram, no. down , one stitch; up down , up down , and so continue to the end. this stitch is proper for grounding, and for groups of flowers; but in the latter case, it will produce the best effect if the flowers are done in tent stitch, and the grounding in tent cross stitch (which is the same as tent stitch, only crossed.) [illustration] cross stitch.--is the same as marking stitch; bring your needle up down , up down , one stitch, up down , up down , and so continue till your work is finished. all the stitches must incline to the right, or the work will appear imperfect and unsightly. [illustration] double cross stitch.--this is a stitch very easy of execution. bring your needle up no. , over four threads, down , up down , up down , up down , up down , up down , one stitch. four, six, or eight threads may be taken in depth, and two in width, according as taste may suggest. this is an admirable stitch for large pieces of work. gold thread introduced between each row is a desirable addition to its attractive beauty. [illustration] straight cross stitch.--this is a new invention, and has a pretty appearance. bring your needle up no. down , up down , one stitch; up down , up down , and so on in like manner, till the work is finished. [illustration] double straight cross stitch.--bring your needle up no. down , up down , up down , up down , one stitch. owing to the number of times the wool is crossed, each stitch has a very bead-like appearance. a piece wholly worked in this, has an admirable effect. [illustration] gobelin stitch.--this truly beautiful stitch is especially calculated for working on canvas traced with flowers, leaves, &c.; and also for working designs, copied from oil paintings. bring your needle up no. down , one stitch, up down , up down , and so on to the end of the row. the stitches may be taken either in height or width, as may best accord with the taste, or with the subject represented. [illustration] basket stitch.--this is the same as irish stitch, but the arrangement is different. work three stitches over two threads; these are called short stitches; and then the long ones are formed by working three over six threads, the centre of which are the two on which the short stitches were worked. thus you must continue the short and long stitches alternately, until you have finished the row. in the next, the long stitches must come under the short ones; and this diversity must be kept up until all the rows are completed. to finish the pattern, you have only to run a loose film of wool under the long stitches on each of the short ones, and the task is done. [illustration] irish stitch.--this is the production of an irish lady of high rank. bring your needle up no. over four threads down , one stitch back two threads, up down , up (observe this is in a line with ) down , up (in a line with ) down , up down , up down , continuing thus over the square. the spaces left between every other stitch must be filled up with half stitches; for instance, up down , up down . it is also sometimes worked covering six and eight threads of the canvas at a time, coming back three or four threads, in the same proportion as the directions given. this stitch is proper for grounding, when the design is worked in tent or cross stitch; and the effect would be heightened by two strongly contrasted shades of the same color. it can be applied to a great variety of devices, diamonds and vandykes for example, and many others which will suggest themselves to the fair votaries of this delightful art. it looks pretty, and is easy of execution. [illustration] feather stitch.--this, as its name implies, has a light and feathery appearance, and will be found proper for any work in which lightness should predominate. you must proceed as in tent stitch, and work over twelve threads or less, but not more; then bring your needle out one thread below, and cross on each side of your straight stitch: you must so continue, taking care to drop a thread in height and keeping the bottom even with the long stitch with which you began. thus proceed until you have ten threads on the cross, which will make a square: of course you must, in the same manner, form all the squares necessary to complete the row. you can vary the pattern considerably by making the edges irregular, which is done by lowering your slant stitches, the first one two, and the next one thread, and so proceeding. this will, in our opinion, improve the appearance of the work. you can introduce as many shades as you please, only taking care that a proper contrast is duly preserved. you finish by stitching up the centre of each row on a single thread. for this purpose, silk or gold thread may be introduced with advantage. it should be remarked, that each row must be worked the contrary way to the one that preceded it, so that the wide and narrow portions may meet and blend with each other. [illustration] point stitch.--to work this stitch, take four threads straight way of the canvas, and bring the needle three steps up, and so proceed until your point is of a sufficient depth. this stitch looks pretty, worked in different and well contrasted shades, and may be applied to many useful and ornamental purposes. [illustration] queen stitch.--work over four threads in height and two in width, crossing from right to left, and back again. finish each row by a stitch across, between them, taking a thread of each, and, of course, working upon two threads. this is a very neat stitch. [illustration] queen's vandyke.--this is supposed to be the invention of princess clementina, one of the daughters, we believe of a king of france. take twelve threads, and reduce two each stitch, until the length and breadth are in conformity. it can be introduced into a variety of work, and looks well. [illustration] single plait stitch.--pass the needle across the canvas through two threads, from right to left; you then cross four threads downward, and pass the needle as before; then cross upward over two threads aslant, and again pass over four threads, always working downward, and passing the needle from right to left, across two threads, until the row is completed as far as you desire. [illustration] double plait stitch.--this stitch is from left to right across four threads aslant downward, and crossed from right to left, the needle passing out at the left, in the middle of the four threads just crossed, and so continue working downward, until you have finished the pattern. velvet stitch.--this is a combination of cross stitch and queen stitch, and is very ornamental when properly done. you work in plain cross stitch three rows, then leave three threads, and again work three rows as before; thus proceed until your canvas is covered, leaving three threads between every triple row of cross stitch. then across the rows work in queen stitch with double wool; but instead of taking two distinct threads for each stitch, you may take one thread of the preceding stitch; this will give an added thickness to your work. it will be advisable to work the wool over slips of card or parchment, as doing so will make it better to cut. if you work it in squares, they should not be larger than seventeen stitches; and to look well, they must each be placed the contrary way to the other. algerine work.--this work much resembles a venetian carpet, but is finer; it looks best done in very small patterns. it is worked over cotton piping cord, the straight way of the corners; the stitches are over three threads. your work as in raised work, putting the colors in as you come to them, and counting three stitches in width, as one stitch when you are working berlin pattern. the paper canvas is no. and the cord no. . it is proper for table mats and other thick kinds of work. to fill up corners.--work in any stitch you prefer and shade in accordance with the subject. in these, and ornamental borders, &c., there is much room for the development of taste and judgment. in all that, you undertake, it will be well for you to recollect, that nothing is lost by taking time to think. however trivial and unimportant our actions may be, they should always be preceded by mature deliberation. a habit of thought once established will remain through life, and protect its possessor from the countless miseries of rash actions, and the agonies of remorse and unavailable repentance. footnotes: [ -*] the presentation of an embroidered scarf was a common mark of approval in the ages of chivalry. chapter vii. fancy needlework. explanation of patterns. [illustration] the beaufort star.--this is a beautiful pattern, and will look well, as a centre, for any moderately-sized piece of work. begin on the width of the canvas, and take twelve threads, reducing at every stitch, one thread for six rows, and thus continue decreasing and increasing alternately, to form squares like diamonds, to the end of the row. the next row is performed in the same manner, only you work on the long way of the canvas. introduce gold or silver thread between where the stitches join, and so finish. [illustration] chess pattern.--work a square in cross stitch, with three stitches, making three of a dark shade and six of white, working as many squares as you require, and leaving spaces equal to those occupied by cross stitch, which you must fill up with irish stitch, working across the canvas. you can employ any color that will harmonize well with the cross stitch; and to complete the pattern, you must work a single stitch across each square, in irish stitch. dice pattern.--this is formed by working rows of eight stitches, in any color you please. you must here have four shades, and work two stitches in each shade. commence a stitch, over ten threads, and drop one each time, until you have taken eight stitches; the intermediate spaces are for the ground, which must contrast with the pattern; and the introduction of a little gold or silver thread, would be an improvement. [illustration] double diamond, in long stitch.--this pattern, when it is worked in two colors strongly contrasted, and the diamonds composed of beads, is exceedingly beautiful. the shades of scarlet and blue, on a white or black ground, produce the most agreeable effect. [illustration] german pattern.--there is a gothic grandeur and sobriety about this pattern which gives to it a noble and grave aspect. it is worked in irish stitch, six threads straight down the second row, falling about four stitches below the first; the third, the same below the second; the fourth and fifth the same number below the third; the next three the same; and then six in the same proportion. you then increase, and so render the arch uniform. the pattern then looks like the head of a gothic column reversed; and the centre should be so disposed as to produce the best effect: those for the first and last row must be of the same tint; and the same rule applies to all the rest. a lady can, of course, choose her own colors; but care must be had to blend the alternate light and dark shades so as to produce a natural harmony. [illustration] irish diamond.--this is beautiful, and is very easy of execution. commence with two threads, and increase to fourteen, working across the canvas, and increasing one thread each way; then decrease to two in the same manner; and so proceed, until the row is completed. begin the next row two threads down the canvas, and place a gold or steel bead in the centre of each diamond. finish with a bordering of gold twist, or mother of pearl. [illustration] lace.--this is a new invention, and is somewhat difficult of execution. the recognized material is a black chantilly silk. it is mostly worked from berlin patterns, and may be done either in cross stitch, or in straight stitch pattern: the edge is finished in cross stitch with wool. you may imitate a pearl border, by taking two threads directly behind the border. it is used for sofa pillows, &c., to which it forms a very pretty termination indeed. heart pattern.--this pattern looks well. pass the wool over ten threads in the centre, then make four additional stitches of ten threads, dropping one each time from the top, and taking one up at the bottom; then take the sixth stitch, dropping a thread at the top as before, but keeping the bottom even with the fifth stitch; your seventh stitch must be in six threads, decreasing two both at the top and bottom; and your last will be on two threads, worked in the same manner: then proceed to form the other half of the pattern. the hearts may be worked in various shades of the same color, and the space between them is to filled up with a diamond, or with an ornament in gold twist, or pearl. [illustration] princess royal.--work this in rows of stitches over four and two threads alternately, leaving one thread between each stitch: begin the next row two threads down, with a stitch over two threads, and proceed as before. work in two strongly contrasted shades, and fill in the vacancies with gold or pearl beads. roman pattern.--the material to be used, in working the pattern, is purse twist; and the grounding may be done in gobelin or tent stitch. the pattern is to be worked in three shades, of the same color; the centre forming a diamond in the lightest shade, then the next, and lastly the darkest to form a broad outline. this kind of work is done quickly, and presents a rich appearance. [illustration] russian pattern.--this is worked in rows across the canvas, in stitches of irregular lengths, and has a pleasing effect. pass the first stitch over sixteen threads, the second over twelve, the third over sixteen, and so proceed to the seventh row, which is the centre. pass the stitch over eighteen threads, and proceed as before for six rows; leave a space of four threads, and commence as at first. form the second row in the same manner, leaving four threads between the longest stitches in each row: the rows may be worked in any number of shades, taking care to preserve uniformity, and the spaces must be filled in with a diamond, worked in the same manner, but reduced in size, and in one color; or it may be worked in gold thread, which would greatly relieve the monotonous appearance of the pattern. it will be best to begin and finish each row with a half diamond. [illustration] victoria pattern.--pass the wool or silk for the centre stitch over six threads, the next over five, and so proceed to the corner, which will be on one thread; the other side must be done in a different shade, but the same color, and the shades of each must be turned alternately the opposite way. the corner stitch should be of some brilliant colored silk, if not of gold thread: the top of one square will be the bottom of another, and you work the three stitches between the corners in black or dark wool. the squares must be filled in with long stitch, working from corner to corner, across the canvas. wave pattern.--these are extremely beautiful, when worked in four or five shades. they are done in irish stitch, and the rows must be worked close together, the wool is passed over six threads, and the rows dropped a few threads below each other, so as to form a wave. the pattern may be varied almost infinitely; the following forms a beautiful specimen: work six rows of any length you choose, dropping one stitch at the top and adding one to the bottom of each row; then proceed upwards, for six rows, and you will obtain a beautiful pointed wave, the seventh row forming the centre; then work nine rows, of which the first, third, fifth seventh, and ninth, must be level with the second row of the pointed wave; and the second, fourth, sixth, and eight, must be on a level with the first and last rows, while the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth, must drop two stitches, so as to produce an irregular edge; then work a pointed wave, as before, and the pattern is complete. [illustration] windsor pattern.--in working this pattern, you must count eight threads down the canvas, and then increase one each way, until you have twelve, so as to form a diamond of six sides. the second row must be begun with twelve threads, so as to join the longest stitch in the former row. when each row is finished, the intersectional diamonds must be filled in; which may be done either in silk or gold thread, and has an extremely neat appearance. suggestions as to patterns. for bottle-stand, or any small piece of work, star patterns are very beautiful. the materials proper for working them, are silk and wool, with gold or any other kind of beads, and gold thread or twist. for foundations, you may use either velvet or silk canvas. small sprigs are pretty, for work that is not too large; chenille is proper for the flowers, and the stalks and leaves look best in silk; a few gold beads add to the effect. for large pieces of work, medallion patterns are much used, and produce a good impression on the eye; the outline is to be traced in brilliant silk, and for the centre employ two shades of the same color, working half in each shade; the medallion should be placed upon a white field, and the whole grounded in a dark color, which harmonizes well with the design of the pattern. bags may be worked in a variety of ways, to suit taste and convenience. the border is often made to resemble black lace, and when properly executed, looks extremely well. the parts filled up, should be worked in black floss or black wool. leaves may be worked with gold twist, or beads may be employed. the grounding should be in fine twisted silk: any color may be used. in other cases, white wool, white silk, silver and glass beads, and several other materials are in requisition; so that here is ample scope for classification and arrangement. a mourning bag looks well done to imitate lace, worked in black floss silk, and ornamented with black glass and silver beads, disposed in a tasteful and ornamental style. sometimes a bag is worked as a shield of four squares; in such a case, two squares should be worked in feather stitch, and the others in any stitch that will form a pleasing contrast: the border should be a simple, but elegant lace pattern. for braces and bracelets, any small border pattern may be adopted. they should be worked in two colors, highly contrasted, for bracelets: gold twist round the edge is a great addition. these suggestions in reference to patterns, might have been greatly extended; but we wish every young lady to draw upon the resources of her own mind, and to think for herself. to one, who is desirous to excel, we have said enough; a little thought will enable her to apply the general principles, here laid down, to any particular case; and, without the employment of the thinking faculty, the most minute instructions, in this or any other art, would fail in producing their intended effects. chapter viii. fancy needlework. instructions in embroidery. embroidery with silk.--the materials used as foundations, are various, embracing silk, satin, cloth, and velvet; and the silk employed in working is purse silk, deckers, half twist, and floss; but floss is most in request. embroidery should always be worked in a frame, as it cannot be done well on the hand, except in very small pieces. the same careful attention to shades, before recommended, is necessary here; for small flowers two or three shades are sufficient; but in roses and others, that are large, five shades are in general required; the darker shades should be worked into the centre of the flower, (and it is often advisable to work them in french knots,)[ -*] and thence proceed with the lighter, until you come to the lightest, which forms the outline. the pattern must be correctly drawn upon the material, and in working leaves you must begin with the points, working in the lighter shades first, and veining with a shade more dark: you may soften the blending, by working each shade up, between the stitches of the preceding shade. three, or at most four shades, are sufficient for the leaves: the introduction of more would injure the effect. chenille embroidery.--is very beautiful for screens, &c., but must not be used for any work that is liable to pressure. choose a needle as large as can be conveniently used, and be careful not to have the lengths of chenille too long, as it is apt to get rough in the working. for flowers, it is necessary that the shades should not be too near. the chenille must pass through the material freely, so as not to draw it. it looks well done in velvet, with occasional introductions of gold and silver thread. raised embroidery.--draw the pattern on the material as before. work the flowers, &c., to the height required, in soft cotton, taking care that the centre is much higher than the edges. a careful study of nature is indispensable to the attainment of excellence in this kind of work. pursue the same method with your colors, as in flat embroidery, only working them much closer. the most striking effect is produced when the flowers or animals are raised, and leaves in flat embroidery. much in this, as in every department of this charming art, must depend upon the taste and judgment--correct or otherwise--of the fair artist. a servile copyist will never attain to excellence. embroidery in wool.--this is proper for any large piece of work. the rules for shading embroidery with silk apply here; only the work must not be quite so thick on the material; care must also be taken to bring the wool through on the right side, as near as possible to where it passes through, in order that none may appear on the wrong side, which would occasion much trouble in drawing it, even when removed from the frame. when finished, and while in the frame, it will be proper to damp the back with a little isinglass water, and press with a warm iron on the wrong side. this kind of work is appropriate for the ornamenting of various articles of dress, on which, when judiciously placed, it has a pleasing effect. patterns.--this is a part of fancy needlework to which too much attention cannot be paid, but it is one much neglected. we want to see native genius developed, and we are convinced that many a fair one could increase our stock of patterns, with new and surprising conceptions, if she could but be induced to make the trial. to draw patterns for embroidery or braid work, get a piece of cartridge paper, and having drawn out the design, trace it off upon tissue paper, or which is better, a tracing paper, properly prepared; after which you will find it easy to pierce it through with a piercer, taking care not to run one hole into another. lay the paper so prepared upon the material which you intend to work, and dust it with a pounce bag, so that the powder may go through the holes; the paper must then be carefully removed, and if the material be dark, take a camel's hair pencil, and paint the marks with a mixture of white lead and gum water; or if you prefer it, you can trace the marks left by the pounce, with a black-lead pencil, but the other methods are preferable. a little practice and perseverance will enable you to became tolerably proficient in this department, and confer upon you the further advantage of aiding you in acquiring those habits of untiring diligence, which are so essential to the attainment of any object. ever recollect, that anything worth doing at all, is worth doing well. footnotes: [ -*] this applies especially to the working of dahlias: begin with the centre knot and work round it as many as are required. chapter ix. fancy needlework. preparation of frames. this is a subject which must be carefully attended to, or much unnecessary trouble will be incurred in consequence. to dress a frame for cross stitch.--the canvas must be hemmed neatly round: then count your threads, and place the centre one exactly in the middle of the frame. the canvas must be drawn as tight as the screws or pegs will permit; and if too long, should be wrapped round the poles with tissue paper, to keep it from dust and the friction of the arms, as that is essential to the beauty of the work. it must in all cases be rolled _under_, or it will occasion much trouble in the working. when placed quite even in the frame, secure by fine twine passed over the stretchers, and through the canvas very closely; both sides must be tightened gradually, or it will draw to one side, and the work will be spoiled. to dress a frame for cloth work.--stretch your cloth in the frame as tight as possible, the right side uppermost. the canvas on which you intend to work, must be of a size to correspond with the pattern, and must be placed exactly in the centre of the cloth, to which it is to be secured as smooth as possible. when the work is finished the canvas must be cut, and the threads drawn out, first one and then the other. it is necessary to be especially careful in working, not to split the threads, as that would prevent them drawing, and would spoil the appearance of the work. in all cases, it is advisable to place the cloth so as that the nap may go downward. in working bouquets of flowers, this rule is indispensable. the patterns for cloth work should be light and open. it looks well for sofas, arm chairs, &c., but is by no means so durable as work done with wool, entirely on canvas. to dress a frame for tent stitch.--prepare the frame, and brace the canvas as for cross stitch, only not quite even, but inclining the contrary way to that in which you slant your stitch. this is necessary, as tent stitch always twists a little. this method will cause the work, when taken out of the frame, to appear tolerably straight. should it after all be crooked, it should be nailed at the edges to a square board, and the work may then be pulled even by the threads so as to become perfectly straight. the back of the work should then be slightly brushed over with isinglass water, taking care not to let the liquid come through to the right side. a sheet of paper must be placed between the work and the board, and when nearly dry, another must be laid upon it, and the whole ironed with a warm iron, not too hot, or the brilliancy of the colors will be destroyed. some persons use flour instead of isinglass, but it is highly improper, and should never be resorted to. instructions for working. armorial bearings.--work the arms and crest in silk, as brilliancy is the thing here principally required. it will be proper that the scroll should be worked in wool. the contrast will have a pleasing effect. applique.--this is a very beautiful kind of work. the material may be either silk, or cloth, or any other fabric which may be preferred. upon this foundation, pieces of satin, velvet, &c., are to be carefully tacked down; the pattern, leaves, flowers, &c., must then be drawn, both on the foundation, and the materials of which they are to be formed; after which, they must be cut out and sewed on in the neatest manner possible. they are then to be braided with their own colors round the edges; you must also braid the tendrils and the veins of leaves; work the centre of leaves in a long stitch, and the kind of silk called purse silk, and after braiding the centre of flowers--if single--work over them with french knots, made by twining the silk twice round the needle, and passing it through the material. this kind of work, as covers for tables chairs, &c., is very elegant, and has a good effect. bead work.--use the canvas called bolting; and work two threads each way on the slant, with china silk, taking especial care that the beads are all turned the same way, that the whole may appear uniform. work the pattern with thick beads and ground with transparent ones. you must, in this kind of work, have as few shades as possible. braid work.--trace the pattern in the material, and proceed with the various shades, from the outline or lightest, to the darkest, till the whole is completed. in this work only two shades are for leaves, and three for flowers; make the points as sharp as possible, and in turning the points, work one stitch up close to the point where you turn the braid, and another immediately afterwards to keep it in its place. vein the leaves in a bouquet with purse silk use gold braid in finishing as taste may direct; and in fastening draw the braid through the material. the best instrument for this purpose is a chenille needle. in braid work and applique, only one stitch must be taken at a time, or else the work will appear puckered. braces.--work in silk canvas three inches broad, in silk or wool, in any pattern you prefer. gem, or set patterns.--for this kind of work, ground in black or dark wool, and work the patterns in silks, as distinct and bright as possible, and with the utmost variety of colors. the beauty of these productions of the needle, depends chiefly upon their brilliant and gem-like appearance. gobelin.--if you work in coarse canvas, adopt the same contrast of shades as you employ in cross stitch; if the material be fine, you must shade as in tent stitch. gentlemen's waistcoats.--to ornament the dress of a father, brother, or husband, must at all times be a pleasing employment for domestic affection. for dress waistcoats, embroider satin, either in the form of a wreath, round the edge of the waistcoat, or in small sprigs; for morning, you may work in any pattern you prefer. patterns of the caledonian clans are now much admired. landscapes.--these may be rendered extremely beautiful, if properly managed. the trees in front should be much lighter than those seen in the back ground, and great care should be taken to prevent the latter having too blue a cast, as this renders them unharmonious, when contrasted with the sky. represent water by shades of a blue grey: the sky should be a serene blue, with much closeness, and mingled with clouds composed of varying tints of a white and a yellow drab. if mountains are seen in the distance, they should be of a grey lavender tint, and some living animal should, in nearly all cases, be introduced. the presence of a cow, sheep, &c., gives life and animation to the view. mosaic work.--if you work with wool, cut it into short lengths, and untwist it. no wool can be procured sufficiently fine for this kind of work. if you work with silk, the finest floss is preferable to any other: split silk would be found extremely inconvenient, and the work would not look so well. care must be taken that the shades are very distinct, or they will appear jumbled and unsightly. it will also be necessary to fasten off at every shade, and not to pass from one flower to another, as in that case the fastenings would become visible on the right side, and thus impair the beauty of the performance. in working a landscape, some recommend placing behind the canvas a painted sky, to avoid the trouble of working one. as a compliance with such advice would tend to foster habits of idleness, and thus weaken the sense of moral propriety which should in all we do be ever present with us, as well as destroy that nice sense of honor and sincerity which flies from every species of deception, we hope the fair votaries of this delightful art will reject the suggestion with the contempt it merits. patterns on canvas.--employ for canvas four or five shades, beginning with the darkest, and softening gradually into a lighter tint, till you come to the lightest, following the distinction of contrast exhibited by the berlin patterns. if you wish to introduce silk into any part, it will be best to work it in last. be careful to avoid taking odd threads, if you work the pattern in cross stitch. perforated card.--the needle must not be too large, or the holes will be liable to get broken. the smaller ones must be worked in silk: the larger patterns may be done in either silk or wool. sometimes the flowers are worked in chenille, and the leaves in silk; this gives to card cases, &c., a beautiful and highly ornamental appearance. rug bordering.--use a wooden mesh, grooved, an inch and a quarter in width; pass the material over the mesh, and work in cross stitch: the material to be used, is what is called slacks, (a kind of worsted,) which must be six or eight times doubled. you must leave three threads between each row, and not more than eight rows are required to complete the border. wire work.--for this work choose shades of a light in preference to a dark color, and work with silk. if you employ both silk and wool, silk must be used for the lighter shades, or the beauty of the work will be impaired. sponge the whole before commencing work. chapter x. fancy needlework. application of fancy needlework to useful purposes. lace.--this imitation is used as an elegant finish for carriage bags, sofa pillows, &c.; and also for ladies' work bags, to which it is both ornamental and becoming. princess royal.--this pattern is especially proper for bags or small stands. point stitch, is well adapted for working covers for hassocks, as well as for bags of a considerable size. basket stitch.--this kind of work is very elegant for flower, fruit, or work baskets; or any other of an ornamental character. german pattern, is well adapted for slippers, as, when worked, it is found to be very durable, and its appearance peculiarly fits it for this application. embroidery, is of almost universal application: that with chenille is much used in the ornamental parts of dress, and is productive of a most pleasing effect. embroidery in wool is also much in use for the same purpose. rug borderings.--these may be considered as articles of domestic economy; and besides the pleasure which arises from seeing the parlor, or the side-board, adorned with the elegant productions of a daughter, or a sister, this kind of work is at all times, when properly executed, superior, considered merely as work, far superior to any similar productions emanating from the loom. gentlemen's waistcoats and braces.--by being able to perform this kind of work, it is at all times in the power of the fair sex to offer an elegant present to a father, husband, or brother, and thus to increase the hallowed pleasures of the domestic circle. this reason is amply sufficient to induce our lovely countrywomen to cultivate this department of fancy needlework. wire work.--this is a lovely material for baskets, and various kinds of ornamental fabrications. working figures.--this delightful application of the needle may be rendered subservient to numerous useful and interesting purposes. by it the sister arts of painting and design may be materially promoted: the scenes of former days may be delineated on the historic canvas, or the portrait of a departed friend may be placed before us, as when blooming in all the living lustre of angelic loveliness. let this portion of the art be especially and assiduously cultivated. armorial bearings.--these are proper for screens, and may be made of a high moral utility, by exciting in the minds of the young, an ardent desire to become acquainted with the events of history, and with the actions and principles of former times. mosaic work, and perforated card.--these are used for note books, ornamental card cases, hand screens, book marks and a variety of other useful purposes. braid work.--the application of this kind of work is well known, and is so general, that no particular cases need be pointed out. applique.--this is very elegant, as employed for table covers, sofas, chairs, &c.; indeed it always looks pretty, and to whatever it is applied it has a pleasing effect. star patterns, are proper for sofa cushions, bottle stands, or any piece of work that is small. medallion pattern.--where the work is coarse, or large, these may be introduced with good effect; but especial attention must be paid to a proper combination of colors and shades. chapter xi. fancy needlework. special instructions. instructions in grounding.--care must be taken in grounding to make the effect of contrast very conspicuous. thus, if you ground in dark colors, your pattern should be worked in shades of a light and lively tint; for those in which dark shades predominate, a light ground is indispensible. the canvas for white grounding should be white; and if for dark grounding, a striped fabric is employed. the stripes will sometimes appear through the wool. to prevent this it will be necessary to rub over the surface with a little indian ink water previous to commencing working, but care must be taken not to let the mixture run into the edges of the work, and it must be quite dry before you commence grounding. a camel's hair brush is best for this purpose. in working in cross stitch, it is best to do so on the slant, working from right to left across the canvas, and then back again. this is preferable to crossing each stitch as you proceed, and gives an improved appearance to the work. if you work in tent stitch, work straight, or your performance will be uneven when taken out of the frame. in all cases begin to go round from the centre, and work outwards, taking care to fasten off as you finish with each needleful, which should not be too long, as the wool is liable to get rough and soiled. it is also necessary to have them irregular as to length, to prevent the fastenings coming together which they will be apt to do if this suggestion is not attended to. for working in tent stitch with single wool, the canvas must not have more than fourteen threads to an inch; for cross stitch you must have a canvas not coarser than twenty-two threads to an inch; for the former, you will for every two and a half square inches require a skein of wool; in the latter case a skein will cover two inches. following this calculation, you can easily ascertain the quantity of wool required for any piece of work; and it is advisable to purchase all your wool at the same time, otherwise you will have much trouble in matching the shades. an attention to these instructions will soon make you a proficient in the grounding department of the art. working figures.--this is at once one of the most difficult, and at the same time one of the most pleasing tasks which the votary of fancy needlework will have to perform; they generally produce the best effect when worked in wool and silk, with a judicious mixture of gold and silver beads. the hair and drapery should be worked in cross stitch; and the face, neck, and hands, in tent stitch; working four of the latter for one of the former. to obtain the proper tints for the face, &c., is no easy task; but it _must_ be carefully attended to, as almost the whole beauty of the work depends upon it. the shades in these parts of the figure must be extremely close; indeed upon shading of the features the perfection of the performance mainly depends. the drapery also demands considerable care: the shades must be very distinct, particularly the lighter ones in the folds of the dress; and the back ground should be subdued as much as possible, that a proper prominence may be given to the figure: this object will be aided considerably by working in the lighter shades in silk: any representation of water or of painted glass, should be worked in the same material. the intention of the fair worker should be to give to her performance as near an approximation to oil painting as possible. raised work.--this should be done with german wool, as it more nearly resembles velvet. for working flowers, you must have two meshes, one-seventh of an inch in width, and the pattern must be worked in gobelin stitch. be careful not to take one mesh out, until you have completed the next row. you work across the flowers; and in order to save an unnecessary waste of time, as well as to facilitate your work, it will be best to thread as many needles as you require shades, taking care not to get the various shades mixed together. this is more needful, as you cannot, as in cross stitch, finish one shade before commencing another. when the pattern is worked, cut straight across each row, with a pair of scissors suitable to the purpose, and shear the flower into its proper form. for working animals or birds, you must have three meshes; the first, one quarter; and the third, one seventh of an inch: the second must be a medium between these two. you will require the largest for the breast, and the upper parts of the wings. cross stitch may be employed in working the beak, or feet, and is indeed preferable. you may work leaves, either in cross stitch or in gobelin stitch, as taste or fancy may direct. you may work either from a drawing on canvas, or from berlin pattern; but the latter is decidedly to be preferred. working berlin patterns.--for these patterns, it will be necessary to work in canvas, of eighteen or ten threads to the inch, according as you may desire the work to be a larger, or of the same size as the pattern: and, it must be borne in mind, that all the patterns are drawn for tent stitch, so that if you work in cross stitch, and wish to have it the same size as the pattern, you must count twenty stitches on the canvas, for ten on the paper. the choice of colors, for these patterns, is a matter of essential importance as the transition from shade to shade, if sudden and abrupt, will entirely destroy the beauty of the design. a natural succession of tints, softly blending into each other, can, alone produce the desired effect. in working flowers, five or six shades will be required: in a rose, or other large flower, six shades are almost indispensible; of these, the darkest should form the perfect centre, then the next (not prominently, though perceptibly) differing from it, and the next four to the lightest tint; the whole, to be so managed, as to give to the flower that fulness, and distinctness, which its position in the design demands. for small flowers, so many shades are rarely necessary. the two darkest shades should be strong, the others soft; this secures sufficiency of contrast, without impairing that harmony of tints, which is so indispensible. you must recollect, that for work done in tent stitch, a greater contrast of shade is required, than for that done in cross stitch. this remark should never be lost sight of. a proper attention to the shading of leaves, is indispensible; the kinds of green required, for this purpose, are bright grass green, for a rose; saxon green, for lilies, convolvolus, peonies, &c.; french green, for iris, marigold, narcissus, &c.; and for poppies, tulips, &c.; a willow green, which has a rather bluer tint than french green is generally; and for leaves which stand up above the flowers, or near them, it is proper to work the tips in a very light green, as reflecting the rays of light: the next shade should be four times darker, or three at the least; the next two; then the fourth shade, two darker than the third; and the fifth, two darker than the fourth: take care that the veins of leaves be distinctly marked, and those which are in the shade should be darker than those upon which the light falls; and if of a color having a bluish tint, a few worked in olive green will have a fine effect. the stalks of roses, &c., should be worked in olive brown or a very dark green. white flowers are often spoilt, by being worked of too dark a shade; if you do not work with silk, you may obtain two distinct shades of white, by using moravian cotton and white wool; these combined with three shades of light stone color--the second two shades darker than the first, and the third darker than the second, in the same proportions--will produce a beautiful white flower, which if properly shaded, by leaves of the proper tints, will have a most beautiful appearance. the lighter parts of all flowers, in berlin patterns, may be worked in silk; and in many cases that is a decided improvement; but it should never be introduced in the leaves; here it would be out of place. we again repeat, beware of servile copying: try to engage your own judgment in this work, and, remember, that to become used to think and to discriminate, is one of the most valuable acquisitions that a young lady can attain. we have now, we trust, placed before the young student of fancy needlework, such plain directions, in all things essential to the art, as cannot fail, if a proper degree of thought and attention is bestowed upon them, to make her a proficient in this delightful employment. with one or two additional remarks, we will conclude this portion of our labors. the young votary of the needle must recollect that, if she allows her fondness for this accomplishment to draw off her attention from the more serious or useful business of life, she will act decidedly wrong and had far better never learn it at all. another thing to be especially guarded against, is, not to devote too much time to this, or any other engagement, at once; the mind and body are both injured, to a serious extent, by dwelling too long on a single object. let it never for a moment be forgotten, relaxation and exercise are indispensible, if you wish to enjoy good health, or an even and pleasant temper. again, take care that you never become so absorbed in the object of your pursuit, as to allow it to interfere with the calls of friendship, benevolence, or duty. the young lady who can forget her moral and domestic duties, in the fascinations of the embroidery frame, gives but little promise of excellence, in the more advanced stages of life. let neatness, and order, characterize all your arrangements. cut your silks and wools into proper lengths, and fold them in paper, writing the color on each, and numbering them according to their shades, , , , &c., beginning with the darkest. dispose all your materials so as to come at them without trouble or inconvenience, and use every possible care to prevent your work from being spoiled in the performance. we advise every young lady to pay particular attention to painting and design; and to render every accomplishment subservient to some high and moral development of the heart, and of the character. chapter xii. knitting. explanation of stitches. before entering upon the immediate subject of this chapter, we wish to make a few remarks; which, we trust, will be acceptable to our fair readers. the art of knitting is supposed to have been invented by the spanish; and would doubtless form, in connection with needlework, an agreeable relaxation, amid the stiff formality and unvarying mechanical movements which made up, for the most part, the lives of the ancient female nobility of that peninsula. the scotch also lay claim to the invention, but we think upon no sufficient authority. knitted silk-hose were first worn in england by henry viii., and we are told that a present of a pair of long knitted silk stockings, of spanish manufacture, was presented to the young prince (edward vi.), by sir thomas gresham, and was graciously received, as a gift of some importance. clumsy and unsightly cloth-hose had been previously worn: and, though we are told by howel, that queen elizabeth was presented with a pair of black _knitted_ silk stockings, by mistress montague, her silk-woman, yet her maids of honor were not allowed to wear an article of dress, which her royal pride deemed only suited to regal magnificence. we believe the first pair of knitted stockings, ever made in england, were the production of one william rider, an apprentice, residing on london bridge; who, having accidentally seen a pair of knitted worsted stockings, while detained on some business, at the house of one of the italian merchants, made a pair of a similar kind, which he presented to the earl of pembroke, . the stocking-frame was the invention of mr. w. lee, m. a., who had been expelled from cambridge, for marrying, in contravention to the statutes of the university. himself and his wife, it seems, were reduced to the necessity of depending upon the skill of the latter, in the art of knitting, for their subsistence; and as necessity is the parent of invention, mr. lee, by carefully watching the motion of the needles, was enabled, in , to invent the stocking-frame; which has been the source of much advantage to others, though there is reason to believe the contrivance was of little service to the original proprietor. since its first introduction, knitting has been applied to a vast variety of purposes, and has been improved to an extent almost beyond belief. it has furnished to the blind, the indigent, and almost destitute irish cottage girl, the means, pleasure and profit at the same time. many ladies, including some in the rank of royalty, have employed their hours of leisure in the fabrication of articles, the produce of which have gone to the funds of charity, and have tendered to the alleviation of at least some of "the numerous ills that flesh is heir to;" and amongst those, the labors of the hon. mrs. wingfield, upon the estates of lord de vesci, in ireland, ought not to be forgotten. to cast on the loops or stitches.--take the material in the right hand, and twist it round the little finger, bring it under the next two, and pass it over the fore finger. then take the end in the left hand, (holding the needle in the right,) wrap it round the little finger, and thence bring it over the thumb, and round the two fore fingers. by this process the young learner will find that she has formed a loop: she must then bring the needle under the lower thread of the material, and above that which is over the fore finger of the right hand under the needle, which must be brought down through the loop, and the thread which is in the left hand, being drawn tight, completes the operation. this process must be repeated as many times as there are stitches cast on. knitting stitch.--the needle must be put through the cast-on stitch, and the material turned over it, which is to be taken up, and the under loop, or stitch, is to be let off. this is called plain stitch, and is to be continued until one round is completed. pearl stitch.--called also seam, ribbed, and turn stitch, is formed by knitting with the material before the needle; and instead of bringing the needle over the upper thread, it is brought under it. to rib, is to knit plain and pearled stitches alternately. three plain, and three pearled, is generally the rule. to cast over.--this means bringing the material round the needle, forward. narrowing.--this is to decrease the number of stitches by knitting two together, so as to form only one loop. raising.--this is to increase the number of stitches, and is effected by knitting one stitch as usual, and then omitting to slip out the left hand needle, and to pass the material forward and form a second stitch, putting the needle under the stitch. care must be taken to put the thread back when the additional stitch is finished. to seam.--knit a pearl stitch every alternate row. a row, means the stitches from one end of the needle to the other; and a round, the whole of the stitches on two, three, or more needles. note, in casting on a stocking, there must always be an odd stitch cast on for the seam. to bring the thread forward, means to pass it between the needles toward the person of the operator. a loop stitch, is made by passing the thread before the needle. in knitting the succeeding loop, it will take its proper place. a slip stitch, is made by passing it from one needle to another without knitting it. to fasten on.--this term refers to fastening the end of the material, when it is necessary to do so during the progress of the work. the best way is to place the two ends contrarywise to each other, and knit a few stitches with both. to cast off.--this is done by knitting two stitches, passing the first over the second, and so proceeding to the last stitch, which is to be made secure by passing thread through it. welts, are rounds of alternate plain and ribbed stitches, done at the top of stockings, and are designed to prevent their twisting or curling up. sometimes knitting is done in rows of plain and pearl stitches, or in a variety of neat and fanciful patterns. scarcely any kind of work is susceptible of so much variety, or can be applied to so many ornamental fabrics or uses in domestic economy. the fair votary of this art must be careful neither to knit too tight or too loose. a medium, which will soon be acquired by care and practice, is the best, and shows the various kinds of work to the best advantage. the young lady should take care to preserve her needles entirely free from rust, and to handle the materials of her work with as delicate a touch as possible. having thus given instructions in the common rudiments of this useful art, we proceed to give plain directions for some of the most beautiful. fancy stitches in knitting. bee's stitch.--in knitting a purse in this stitch, you must cast the loops on three needles, having twenty on each. the two first rows in plain knitting. the third is thus worked. having brought the silk in front, a stitch is to be slipped, and you knit the next, pulling the one you slipped over it; you knit the next, and the succeeding one is pearled; proceed in this manner for one round. the next round you knit plain; the next is to be executed like the third. proceed thus in alternate rounds, and you can introduce two colors, highly contrasted, knitting six or eight rounds of each. berlin wire stitch.--the stitches cast on must be an even number. knit three, four, or five plain rows. then begin the work by taking off the first stitch, knit one stitch, knit off two stitches together, and make a stitch; repeat this process to the end of the row; the next row is to be knitted plain, and so on alternately. this work may be done either with large pins and lamb's wool, if it be intended for shawls, &c., or with fine needles and thread, in which case it forms a beautiful kind of insertion work for frocks, capes, collars, and other articles of dress. if it is intended for insertion work, the number of stitches cast on are eight, and one pattern is formed by each four stitches. common plait.--this is employed for muffatees, coverlets, and various other articles. you cast on the stitches in threes: the number is unlimited. knit one row plain, then proceed as follows. row first, three plain stitches and three pearled. second row the same, taking care to begin where the last is finished, that is, if you ended with plain stitches, you begin with the pearled. proceed in the same way with the third row, and you will have a succession of squares, of inside and outside knitting, alternately. the fourth row is to be begun with the same kind of stitches as completed the first row; continue as before, and the work will be in squares, like those of a chess board. this stitch is extremely pretty. chain stitch.--the number of loops to be cast on is thirteen. knit the first two rows plain, and in beginning the third, knit three plain stitches, and bring the material in front, then pearl seven stitches; the material is then to be turned back, and you knit the other three stitches plain. the next row is plain knitting, and then you proceed as in the third row, and so on alternately, until you have completed sixteen rows. you then knit three stitches plain, and take off the four succeeding ones upon a spare pin. the next three stitches from behind the pin, are to be knitted so as to miss it completely, and the material is to be drawn so tight, as that the pins may be connected together as closely as possible. this done you knit the four stitches of the third pin, which completes the twist. the remaining three stitches are then to be knitted, and a fresh link begun, by knitting three stitches, pearling seven, knitting three, and so proceeding for sixteen rows, when another twist is to be made. crow's-foot stitch.--this stitch may be worked in two ways. if it be for a shawl, begin at the corner, and raise at the beginning and end of each row. in the other method, you cast on any number of stitches that can be divided by three, and you must cast on one additional for the commencement. you knit the first row plain and then proceed according to the following directions: first, knit a stitch. second, make a stitch. third, slip the next. fourth, knit two stitches together. fifth, put the stitch you slipped over the two last knitted; this is to be repeated, with the exception of the first knitted stitch, to the end of the row. the next row is composed entirely of pearled stitches. this stitch is neat and elegant. double knitting.--of this stitch there are three kinds, now in general use. in executing them proceed as follows. having cast on any even number of stitches, knit a few rows in plain knitting; then, for the double stitch, begin the row by knitting a stitch, and pass the material in front, between the knitting pins. then a stitch is to be taken off, being careful to put the needle inside the loop, and to pass the material back again. you then knit another stitch, and so proceed to the end of the row. for the second kind of double knitting, you cast on an even number of stitches, as before, and the first stitch is knitted plain; the material being put twice over the pin. then, as in the first kind, pass the material between the needles; a stitch is to be slipped, and the material passed again behind. this process is repeated in every stitch to the end of the row. in the next row, you reverse the work, knitting the stitches that were before slipped, and slipping the knitted ones. the third kind is very simple, and can be done quicker than the others. it is worked on the wrong side, and when completed must be turned inside out; hence it is necessary to knit plain at the sides or ends. the number of stitches must be even, as in the previous methods. no plain row is needed; but you commence by putting the material in front of the pins, and being careful to keep it constantly in that position. turn the first stitch, take off the second, and so on alternately, till the row is finished. dutch common knitting.--this is the common knitting stitch, performed in a more expeditious manner than that in general practised. the needle filled with stitches, is held in the left hand, and the material also, which is to be wrapped round the little finger once or twice. it passes to the needles over the fore finger. to form the loop on the needle held in the right hand, it is only necessary to put it into the stitch from behind, and knit off by putting the material round the needle. embossed diamond.--you cast on any number of stitches which can be divided by seven. the first row is plain: for the second, pearl one stitch, knit five, and pearl two; thus proceed, alternately, to complete the row: for the third, knit two, pearl three, and knit four, and so proceed. the fourth row you pearl three, knit one, and pearl six, alternately. the fifth row is plain knitting. the next row you pearl two, knit two, pearl five, and so on to the end. next knit two, pearl four and knit three, alternately. next knit six, and pearl one, successively. reverse the next, pearling six, and knitting one. then in the succeeding row, knit five and pearl three, and knit four in succession. next knit three, pearl two, and knit five, alternately. the succeeding row is plain. embossed hexagon stitch.--you can work with any number of stitches you choose, which can be divided by six. the first row is plain, the next pearled throughout; the third row is plain. for the first knit four stitches, and slip two at the end; then pearl a row, taking care to slip the stitches that were slipped before. next knit a row slipping the two stitches as before. the next row is pearled still slipping the two stitches. the succeeding two rows are knitted and pearled like the others, and the two stitches are still to be slipped. the next row is pearled, and you take up all the stitches; then a row is to be knitted plain, and a row pearled, which completes the pattern. in beginning the next pattern, you pearl a row, slipping the fifth and sixth stitches, so that they shall be exactly in the centre of the previously worked pattern; you then proceed as before. elastic rib.--this as its name implies, is the proper stitch for garters, or any kind of an article which is wanted to fit easily yet firmly. you are to set on any number of loops you please, and knit one row plain; the next is pearled, the two next are plain; then one pearled, and so on alternately to the end. fantail stitch.--the application of this stitch is in the preparation of mitts, gloves, &c., and sometimes it is used for purses, in which it looks extremely pretty. the material generally employed is cotton, and you begin by setting on any even number of stitches you require. a loop is made, by throwing the cotton over the pin; you then knit a loop, and make and knit alternately; each of the two last are knitted plain, and you narrow the commencement and conclusion of each row, at the second and third loops, until you have reduced it to the number originally cast on. the usual number of stitches cast on is fourteen. french stitch.--you set on the loops in fours, and must have two over. the first stitch is pearled, then turn the thread back, and knit two stitches together. form a new stitch by bringing the thread in front, and knit a stitch; the thread is again to be brought in front, and the last stitch pearled, which completes the pattern. the next row is begun in a similar manner, the thread is turned back, two stitches are knitted together at the end, the thread is turned, and you knit the last stitch. german knitting.--you cast on twenty-one stitches, and proceed as follows. first row, the material is to be passed forward, one stitch slipped, then knit one, and pass the slipped one over; three stitches are then to be knitted, and two taken as one; again pass the material forward, and knit one stitch. second row, the same, except that when in the first you knitted three stitches, knit one; and when one, you knit three. for the third row, you pass the material as before, and slip one stitch, then two are taken as one, and the slipped one is passed over again; repeat this, except that in taking two stitches together, you knit one, and pass the slipped one over; finish by knitting two stitches. honeycomb stitch.--this is also often used for shawls. it is knitted as follows. you knit the first stitch, and pass the other to make a loop over the needle. two stitches are then knitted together, and you thus continue making the loops, and knitting two stitches together, until you have completed the row. you knit every second row thus; the alternate ones plain. herring-bone bag stitch.--you cast on the stitches by fours, and the material used is silk. knit two plain stitches, and then make a large one, by turning the silk twice over the needle; after which, knit two stitches together, and repeat this, until you have completed the work. imitation net-work stitch.--you set on any number of stitches you please, but you must have no odd ones. the first row is plain knitting. the next row you commence by bringing the wool upon the first pin, and twisting it round it by bringing it over from behind, and putting it behind again. you are then to knit two loops together, and the pin must be put first into the one nearest to you, and the wool is to be twisted round the pin as before. then again, knit two together, and so on to the end. each row is done in the same manner. knit herring-bone stitch.--any number of stitches you please may be cast on, observing to have three for each pattern, and one over at each end. the first row must be plain: then, in beginning the second, take off the first stitch, and knit two together in pearl stitch. next make one, by passing the material before, and knitting one, pearl two stitches together, and make and knit a stitch as before. every row is the same. lace wave stitch.--the number of stitches must be even. the first stitch is to be slipped; then knit one, and make one, by casting the material over the pin. narrow, by knitting two stitches together, and again knit a stitch; then make one, and again narrow; and so on till you complete the row. the next row is done plain. the third row is as follows: two stitches knitted plain; make one stitch, and narrow two in one; then knit one stitch; make and narrow, as before to the end; then knit a row plain. for the fifth row, knit three stitches plain, and thus proceed as in the third row. the sixth row is done plain; and the seventh one commences by knitting four stitches plain, and then proceeding as before. the eighth row is plain; and the ninth is begun by knitting five plain stitches, and proceed as above; then knit two rows plain, and the pattern is complete. this can be continued to any length required. moss stitch.--this is easily done. cast on any even number of loops, and for the first row, the first loop is slipped, the material brought in front; the stitch is pearled, and repeat so to the end. the next row is so worked, that the stitches knit in the proceeding row, must be pearled in this. open hem.--the number of stitches is unlimited, but they must be capable of being divided by four. at the beginning of each row you slip the first stitch, and knit the second. then make a stitch by putting the cotton over the pin; knit two loops together; knit one stitch, make a stitch, and so proceed. you must have very fine pins and sewing cotton. open cross stitch.--this is done in the following manner. two colors are to be employed, and the first row of each is done in pearl stitch. in working the second row of each, the following is the order of procedure: first, knit a stitch: second, make a stitch; third, slip one; fourth, two are to be knitted together, and the one slipped is to be drawn over the knitted ones; thus you proceed to the end of the row. the two next are to be commenced with the other color; and thus you work two rows with each color, successively. the fresh color is always to cross from beneath the last one, or otherwise a hole would be left in the work. in the making of shawls, this stitch is often adopted, and it looks well, but, of course, requires to be bordered with some other pattern. ornamental ladder stitch.--the stitches are to be set on in elevens. commence by knitting two stitches plain, then knit two together, and repeat the same, drawing the first loop over the second; proceed thus to the end. commence the second row by pearling two stitches; pass the material over the pin twice; again pearl two stitches, and so proceed to the end. in the next row, knit two; pass the material round the pin twice, knit two, and so continue. thus you proceed with alternate rows of knitted and pearled stitches, being careful to slip the stitches made by throwing the material round the pin, without knitting them. pine apple stitch.--for a bag you must cast on thirty-six loops on three needles, and proceed thus: first row, knit one plain, raise one by throwing the silk over the pin, knit one plain, then raise, knit two plain, you knit the next two together, drawing the last loop over the first; you will then have six loops. in the second row, knit the first raised loop, then raise, knit the next one plain, then raise, knit plain till you come to the next raising, and omit knitting the two together as in the first row. third row, you knit plain to the raising, and then proceed as in the first row. you knit the fourth as the second; and so proceed alternately, until you have twelve rows. then in the stitches you had previously narrowed, you must raise, and introduce a bead upon each plain loop, with a thread, and again raise. where you had previously raised, you must narrow with the bead you have upon the silk. in this manner proceed raising and narrowing alternately, until you have twelve rows as before. you then reverse, and again work as in the first part of the pattern. plain open stitch.--the stitches set on must be an even number. the two first rows are plain. then commence the third row, by knitting one stitch; pass the material in front, and form a new stitch, by knitting two together. this is to be repeated, until you come to the last stitch, which must be knit. then knit two plain rows and proceed as before. porcupine stitch.--this is proper for a purse, and when properly executed, is extremely pretty. you cast on, upon each of three needles, thirty-six loops, and knit one plain round. for the next, you knit four stitches: and, having brought the silk forward, knit one loop: this will form the middle stitch of the pattern. then, again bringing the silk forward, knit fourteen stitches; after which, slip one, and leaving the under part, knit two together, and draw the stitches, last slipped, over it. then knit four stitches, as at the commencement, and so proceed for six rounds, increasing before and after each middle stitch. you knit till within one of where you decreased. the stitch thus left is to be slipped, and you then knit two together, and draw the slipped loop over it. you are then to knit one plain round, and the next row is also plain, except the loops which are over the middle stitches, where you are to insert a bead, by bringing it through the stitches. you next knit a round plain, and must be careful to keep the beads on the outside of the purse, or rather in the inside while knitting, as this purse is done the wrong side out. you are to knit, until you come within one loop of the bead, which must be slipped, and you knit the next two together. you are then to increase six rounds on each side of the stitch decreased as in the proceeding pattern, which will make that the middle or bead stitch. the material should be done in middle sized purse silk, on needles, no. . rough-cast stitch.--any odd number of stitches may be cast on. each row is begun with a plain stitch, and the others are plain and pearled alternately. this is very suitable for borders, as it is firm and looks neat. wave knitting.--this is proper for a pin-cushion, and looks extremely neat. commence by casting on seventy-nine loops. then proceed as follows. first row, knit four loops plain, pearl one, knit nine plain, and repeat to the end of the row, finishing with four plain loops. commence the second row with three pearled stitches, knit three plain, pearl seven, repeat as before. third row, knit two plain, pearl five, knit five plain, repeat. fourth row, pearl one, knit seven plain, pearl three, repeat. fifth row, pearl nine, knit one plain, pearl nine, and repeat to the end. this finishes the pattern. chapter xiii. knitting. examples in knitting. a biroche.--the stitch is very simple. you bring the wool forward, slip one, and knit two together. this elegant cushion is made up of sixteen narrow rows, and sixteen broad stripes, which decrease gradually toward the centre. it may be made in double german wool, or other material, with no. ivory or wooden pins. cast on ninety stitches, and knit two turns; then in gold color three turns, and again two in black: this forms the narrow stripe. then form the broad stripe thus: knit two stitches, and turn; then knit two of the black, and turn; this must be continued, taking every time two additional stitches of the black, until you are within two stitches of the top, and then turn. you will now find the wool has descended to the wide part of the stripe. you then again commence a narrow stripe, and so go on, until the whole is completed. when the last wide stripe is finished, knit it to the first narrow stripe, and make up the biroche in any manner you please. a baby's cap.--cast on stitches, on three pins; knit twelve rounds, and be sure you pearl every alternate stitch: in the succeeding round you must pearl the stitches which were left plain in the preceding ones. then take in eighty stitches, namely; one at every fourth, which will form a full border; then proceed to knit the cap thus: one row plain, the next open, then three plain, and twenty-four double knitting; again knit three rows plain, one open, repeat the three plain rows, again repeat the double knitting, and the plain and open rows as before; you next proceed to form the hinder part of the cap, by casting on twenty-four stitches at each end of the pins; knit forty-eight rows of double knitting, take in to the size of the crown, and knit three rows plain, one open, and repeat the three plain rows; then fasten off at top, unite the open space at the back, and repeat the plain and open rows as before. you form the crown, by casting on sixteen loops; then increase a loop at each end, for sixteen rows; then knit sixteen, and decrease as you increased, and thus the circle becomes regularly formed. baby's hood.--use no. needles, and double german wool; cast on fifty stitches, and knit eighty rows plain; roll up sixty, to form the front. three inches of the cast off part are to be sewed together, and the rest is to be drawn up for the crown. then cast on fifty stitches to form the foundation of the hood, and knit forty rows plain. line with white silk, and trim with satin ribbon. baby's shoe.--work with two colors, in stripes. you cast on twenty-eight stitches, _in blue_, and knit one row plain; then knit a plain row in white, adding one stitch at the end to form the heel, and turn; then a similar row in blue, to increase and turn, repeat this without increasing, and changing the colors each time, until you have ten stripes. then knit one row in blue, and turn, casting off seventeen stitches. you begin from the heel. the remaining thirteen stitches are knitted with white; turn; knit a row with blue; turn: and so continue, until you have five rows of one color, and four of the other. the thirteen stitches are then to be done in blue, and seventeen to correspond, are to be added; turn: this side is finished like the other, decreasing from the heel. you then sew up the heel and toe, so as to form a shoe. you are then, with four needles, to pick up the stitches round the ankle and fore foot, putting an equal number upon each of the three needles, and knit five rows plain; make a stitch by bringing the wool forward, then slip one; knit the next two, and pass the slip-stitch over them; again bring the wool forward, and repeat the process for one round: knit eighteen rows, five plain, four pearled; repeat and finish, bringing the wool forward, knitting two together; then knit two rows plain, and cast off. you must use no. needles, and double german wool. a beautiful fringe and border.--this can be applied to a variety of useful purposes. it is executed as follows. the number of stitches must be even, and of any depth you deem desirable. begin, by making a stitch, laying the material over the needle; put it through two loops, and knit them as one; repeat to the end of the row; thus continue to knit as many rows as you please, and when the stripe is of sufficient length, fasten off, letting from four to ten stitches fall off the needle to unravel for the fringe. a comforter.--on a moderate sized pin, cast on forty stitches; and in knitting, carry the wool twice round the pin for each stitch. the comforter is to be done in double knitting, and may be finished with a fringe and border at the end. without the fringe, you will require a quarter of a pound of six-thread untwisted lamb's wool; for the fringe a little more will be required. another comforter.--you are to cast on thirty stitches, and knit plain sixty-four ribs, knitting them backwards and forwards; then take twenty-two stitches from the middle of the side, and you will have twenty-one left one each end. form a chest-piece, by knitting as before, twenty-two ribs, and fasten off: you have only to sew up the end, and it is done. zephyr.--this is a light shawl for a baby, and may be made either of a half-handkerchief form, or a square. cast on about loops, and knit in french or honey-comb stitch, which you like; or any other pretty pattern you prefer, as embossed hexagon, &c. you may add a fringe and border, which gives to the zephyr a rich and finished appearance. an over-shoe.--these are useful to wear in the house, or to slip over a satin shoe, when occasion requires. the number of stitches to be cast on is thirty-four. knit a square, plain, which is to be doubled, and sewn up on one side, to the heel; then sew up three inches for the instep, and form the toe by puckering in the end. a knitted muff, in imitation of sable.--you cast on seventy or eighty stitches. knit the first three rows plain; then, for the fourth row, bring the wool forward, and taking two stitches at the back, knit them; repeat to the end: these four must be repeated, until the piece is about half a yard long, taking care that the shading is as correct as possible. you must here use no. needles, and double german wool. the shades required are four, and you begin with the lightest, proceeding to the darkest, and then reversing them. the muff must be stuffed, and lined with silk. a strong knitted purse.--any number of stitches, that can be divided by three, will do. first and third row: the wool is to be brought forward, then slip one, knit two, and pass over them the slip stitch; repeat second and fourth row plain. third and fifth row: knit two, before commencing the pattern; the holes will then fall in a diagonal direction: it will require to be well stretched. barege knitting, for shawls.--in this kind of work, you commence with any number of stitches you require: and, after knitting one row plain, you begin the second, by knitting three stitches; then, bring the wool forward, and knit three together, taking them off at the back; again you bring the wool forward, and knit three, as before. the third row is pearled; and the fourth is the second repeated, only beginning by knitting three stitches together. fifth row, the same as the third; and thus proceed with any number of rows you choose. you may introduce any patterns in flowers, &c., you may desire, by breaking off the ground color, and fastening on that which is designed for the pattern, by means of a slip knot, made at the end of the wool. all flowers, &c., must be done in plain knitting. checked patterns.--any number of stitches may be cast on, that can be divided by six. then knit the first three rows three pearl stitches, and three plain; second three rows, knit three stitches plain, and three pearl. this pattern may be worked for children's socks, bags, mats, (if done in coarse materials,) &c. close stitch, for a waistcoat.--this is to be done in two colors, and cast on any odd number of stitches. first and fifth row, with one color; knit one, and slip one, in succession. second and sixth row, with the same color; knit one, bring the wool forward, and slip one; pass the wool back, knit one, repeat. the third is the first reversed, and the fourth is worked exactly as the second, omitting the first stitch. pine apple purse.--the material is purse twist, and you will require two colors; one skein of green, and one and a half of orange. cast on stitches, and proceed as follows. knit the first row, and turn it, then knit two rows, and again turn. to have ten points you must narrow and widen alternately every seven stitches. proceed in this way with the green twist for fifteen rounds; then with the orange knit one plain row and turn, knit seven rows as before, knit one plain row and turn, then reverse the narrowings, so as to take up the loops at the beginning of every row of points, and make a loop on each side: you are to have eight rows of points. you make no loops in the second row, but having counted when you have finished the points, you seam in the first row of green and reverse the narrowings without taking up the loops, proceed to knit twelve rows; after which, you must narrow until you have but four loops on each pin, then knit the stalks, and narrow off. star, with eight points.--this is proper for the bottom of a bag or purse. in working it, proceed according to the following directions. you work with five needles, on each of four of which you cast on two stitches, eight in whole, knit one plain round. then, first row, raise, knit one, raise, knit one, and put on one bead at every knitted loop. second row, you knit a plain round. third row, raise, knit two plain, raise, two plain; the raising is at the beginning and middle of each needle; and you thus proceed, until you have fifty beads on a needle, for a bag, and eighteen for a purse. to take off the points, proceed as follows: first row, raise one, knit one, raise one, slip one off needle as in knitting, knit one, and draw the one not knitted over it; knit plain, and put on beads until you come to the middle of the needle; thus proceed with each pin, and the star will be completed. knee caps.--you commence with casting on eleven loops, and knitting eight rounds; then begin to raise every alternate round until you have forty-seven loops on the pins, knit eleven rounds plain, and then narrow until you have reduced the loops to eleven. take off. knitting footing.--the material is fine cotton, and you cast eleven stitches. knit one row plain. second row, knit one, make one, knit two together, knit three plain, make one, knit two together knit three plain. third row, is the second row reversed; the fourth is the same as the second; and you thus proceed with each row, alternately, for any length you please. a bag knitted the same way, and put over blue or crimson silk, looks extremely handsome. the material for a bag is fine worsted, and you may cast on any number of stitches that can be divided by eleven, taking care to have one additional stitch for each twenty-two; that is, for four elevens, cast on forty-six. double nightcap.--you will find five needles are required. you must cast on two stitches on each of four needles, and in the first row increase two, and in the second one plain stitch in each. in the third row, the centre stitch on each needle must be seamed, and you must increase on each side of it every other row, until you have attained the width required. you then knit the fourth and every succeeding row plain, until the cap is of a sufficient length, say twenty-four to twenty-eight inches, then decrease the first row, and make the other end to correspond with the one first knitted. dotted knitting, for baby's shoes, &c.--cast on and knit as many rows as you desire, knitting one stitch plain, and the next pearled. begin every other row with a pearled stitch. an odd number of stitches are required, and no. needles. knitted fringe.--this may be made of any material deemed most suitable for the purposes to which it is to be applied. cast on eight stitches. first knit two, then make one by bringing the cotton round the needle, and knitting it when it occurs in the next row; then knit two stitches together, knit one, make one as before, knit two together, knit eight, and so proceed to the end of the row. when you have knitted as many rows as you require, cast off five stitches and leave three, to be unravelled, for the fringe. they may be knitted in two or more colors, taking care to knit them in equal spaces; that is, with an equal number of stitches in each color. gentleman's travelling cap.--you first cast on an even number of stitches, and thus proceed; the first row is plain; then slip off the first stitch in each row, and make one, by bringing the material in front; then slip a stitch the contrary way, knit the next, and so proceed to the end of the row: you commence the next by slipping a stitch as before; then knit two stitches together to the last, which is to be knitted plain: repeat these rows alternately. herring-bone purse.--the number of stitches must be so as to be divided by four. the silk is to be brought forward, then slip one, knit one, and bring the slip stitch over it. knit one, again bring the silk forward, pearl one, and so repeat. this purse should be knitted with second sized netting silk, no. . half handkerchief.--this is extremely pretty, when properly executed. begin with one stitch to form the point, and knit as many rows, increasing one each row as is required to give you seven loops upon the pin. you must increase always at the same end: then commence the pattern. make one stitch, slip one, and knit two stitches together, putting the slipped stitch over the two knitted as one. repeat this until you have got to four stitches from the end; then again make a stitch, and knit the remainder plain. the next row is to be done in pearl stitch, and the succeeding one as the first pattern. every row of pearl stitch must be increased one, and the three last stitches are to be knitted plain. this handkerchief must be one yard and a quarter long on the straight side. when completed, fasten off. habit shirt.--these are worn under a shawl, and are extremely comfortable: they protect the chest from cold. the material most proper for them is floss wool, and they should be knitted with steel pins. you knit the front first, and begin by casting on as many loops as will form the length required. as it is necessary that one end should be a good deal more sloped than the other, you must be careful to increase at the end most sloped, at each end of the row; but at the other, you are only to increase at the end, and not at the beginning: having knitted one of the fronts, knit the other to match it, and then begin the back. commence at the bottom, or narrow part of the waist, and increase at each end of every row, until it is wide enough to reach from one shoulder to the other, and then decrease at both ends of each row for the neck. you then finish the centre stitches, and knit up first on one side and then the other, decreasing each row, until a proper hollow is obtained. you then knit the collar straight, and of any depth you please. make up, by sewing the various parts together, and set on a ribbon to the back, to tie round the waist, and another to secure it at the throat. harlequin quilt, with tucks.--this is done in double knitting stitch, with six threads fleecy. the pieces are six inches square. each square consists of about stitches, and they are to be sewn together with a tuft of wool, black or white, at each corner. the square should be knitted in at least three colors, including white; in a quilt one yard and a half square, there will be pieces, of which should be white. make the tufts as follows: wind four-thread fleecy about times round a grooved wooden mesh, one inch in width: then slip a coarse thread in the groove, and tie the wool quite tight, but taking care that an end is left to it, which can be drawn through and fastened to the quilt. the loops of wool are to be cut through on the other side of the mesh; after which it is to be combed and dressed as neatly as possible. pattern for a light scarf.--cast on the number of stitches required upon no. needles, and any kind of material you choose; three-threads fleecy is generally preferred. knit one plain stitch, then two together, and so on alternately, to the end of the row: each succeeding one is but a repetition of the first: it may be done in stripes, with various colors. plain knitted muffatees.--for these you will require four needles. on three of these cast on an equal number of stitches, according to the size required, and knit each round three pearl and three plain: finish with one plain and two pearl rows. stockings.--cast on first size , second , third , fourth , fifth , sixth . then knit rounds to the commencement of the narrowings, , , , , , and , respectively, according to the sizes given above. the narrowings in the leg are according to the size, , , , , , and . after which you knit , , , , , or rounds to the heel, which is to be formed in the following manner. the stitches are to be divided in half, taking care to have the seam stitch for the middle, and the heel is to be knitted in alternate turns of plain and pearled stitches. the length, of course, varies in proportion to the size, being turns for the first and second, for the third, for the fourth, for the fifth, and for the sixth. the heel is finished by knitting the nine middle stitches in rows, the same as the heel, and taking up one of the others with the last loop of each row, till all is taken off. there will thus be nine stitches when the heel is finished. having got thus far, you proceed to form the foot as follows. you take up sixteen on each side of the heel, in the second row, and taking them up, you make a seam on each side of the instep, knitting another stitch in the loop under the first and last, which prevents holes in the corners, that would otherwise occur. then narrow every second round on the heel sides of the seam until the number of stitches are the same as those in the instep, or what is commonly called the fore foot needle. you will have for the instep , , , , or , as the case may be; and the rounds between the heel and toe narrowings, will be , , , , , and , respectively; and the narrowings for the feet will be , , , , , and , on each side, according to the measurement given. you begin the toe by narrowing double at the seams, leaving only the seam stitch between, and narrowing twice with three, and twice with two rounds left between each narrowing: then narrow twice, leaving but one round between, and then every round until sixteen stitches only are left. finish by putting the two needles having stitches on them together. and when two stitches are done in this manner, cast them off, the first over the last, until the whole is taken off the needles. it should be noted, that the stitches in the heel vary with the size of the stocking, and are as follows: first size , second , third , fourth , fifth , and sixth . some workers take off the heel, in the same manner as the toe is here directed to be finished. open-work stockings.--on each needle cast on stitches with fine cotton, knit the welts and raise one stitch for the seam. when you arrive at the narrowings, narrow every eighth row, and when you have stitches on each needle, cease, and knit until the article is completed; then take half the stitches to form the heel, knit loops, and narrow on each side of the seam for three rows. in forming the heel, narrow every row once the fourth loop from the seam, and then the loops must be taken up, the end one as close as possible. take three stitches from each side of the fore foot needle to the other, and knit a round plain; after which, widen every fifth stitch on both sides of the heel. alternate rows of the heel needles are then to be narrowed until only loops remain on each. the stitches to be narrowed are the fifth and sixth from the ends. knit the feet of a proper length, and then narrow at the ends of the needles every other row, until only ten remain on each; narrow every row until you have only three, which you cast off in the usual manner. the open pattern is produced by knitting every fifth round thus: take two stitches in one, and bring the cotton in front of the needle, that it may form a stitch before taking the succeeding two into one. the more open you desire the work to be, the fewer stitches and the finer needles you will require. a night stocking.--this is easily done: cast on stitches on large needles, and pearl every other stitch, narrowing gradually toward the end. socks.--these are very useful articles, and are easy of execution. in the first size there are stitches, in the second , and in the third ; they have , , or turns to the heel, in which there are , , or stitches, as the size may require. the instep has , , or stitches; and the length of the heel is , , or turns. the length of the foot between the narrowings, is , , and rounds. corner for a shawl.--this, if properly executed, according to the directions, looks extremely handsome. begin by casting on two loops, to form the point; knit them, and proceed as follows. first row, make a loop, knit the two original ones together, make a loop; you will then have three loops upon the pin; knit four additional rows in plain and pearled alternately, increasing a stitch at the beginning and end of each row, and then on the fifth row you will have eleven stitches. in the next row commence the pattern thus. sixth row begin with six plain stitches, pearl one, knit six plain. seventh row plain knitting. eighth row, knit six plain, pearl one, knit two together, pearl one, knit two together, pearl one, knit six plain. ninth row plain. tenth, knit six plain, pass the material in front to make a stitch, knit two together, again make a stitch, pearl three, make a stitch, knit two together, make a stitch, knit six plain. eleventh row plain. twelfth, knit six plain, knit two together, make a stitch, pearl three, make a stitch, knit two together, make a stitch, pearl three, make a stitch, knit two together, knit six plain. thirteenth row plain. fourteenth, knit six plain, pearl three, knit two together, make a stitch, pearl three, knit two together, pearl three, make a stitch, knit two together, pearl three, knit six plain. fifteenth row plain. sixteenth, knit six plain, knit two together, make a stitch, pearl three, make a stitch, knit two together, make a stitch, pearl five, make a stitch, knit two together, make a stitch, pearl three, make a stitch, knit two together, knit six plain. seventeenth row plain. eighteenth, six plain, pearl three, knit two together, make a stitch, knit two together, make a stitch, pearl three, knit five plain, pearl three, make a stitch, knit two together, make a stitch, knit two together, pearl three, knit six plain. nineteenth row plain. twentieth, knit six plain, knit two together, pearl three, knit two together, make a stitch, pearl four, make a stitch, knit two together, make a stitch, pearl three, make a stitch, knit two together, make a stitch, pearl four, make a stitch, knit two together, pearl three, knit two together, knit six plain. the twenty-first row is plain, and you then decrease as you increased, knitting the twenty-second row as the twentieth, and so proceed until you have two loops on the pin. the square is then complete. border for the shawl.--having finished the corner, pick up the twenty-one stitches on one side, and knit one row plain; the second row, knit two plain, three pearled, three plain, again pearl three, then three plain, pearl three, knit four plain. the third row knit plain; the fourth row, pearl one stitch, knit one, pearl one, knit two together, make a stitch, pearl three together, knit one, pearl one, knit two together, make a stitch, pearl four, knit four plain. fifth row plain. sixth row knit one, pearl one, knit one, pearl one, knit two together, make a stitch, pearl three, knit one, pearl one, knit one, pearl one, knit two together, make a stitch, knit six plain. seventh row plain. eighth row, same as the sixth. ninth plain. tenth as the fourth. eleventh plain. twelfth as the second, repeat the first three rows, and re-commence the pattern. the shawl must be knitted on the same sized pins as the border and corner, and must have as many loops as there are stitches in the length of the border. the border and corner may be done in two colors, which must harmonize well with each other, and form a good contrast to the shawl itself. chapter xiv. netting. explanation of stitches. netting is another employment, to which the attention of the fair has been directed from the remotest times. specimens of egyptian network, performed three thousand years since, are still in existence; and, from that time, the art, in connection with that of spinning flax, was there carried to its highest state of perfection. with these specimens, are preserved some of the needles anciently used in netting. they are to be found in one of the museums at berlin. the egyptian nets were made of flax, and were so fine and delicate, that according to pliny, "they could pass through a small ring, and a single person could carry a sufficient number of them to surround a whole wood. julius lupus, while governor of egypt, had some of these nets, each string of which consisted of one hundred and fifty threads." but even this fineness was far exceeded by the thread of a linen corslet, presented by amasis, king of egypt, to the rhodians, the threads of which, as we learn from the same authority, were each composed of three hundred and sixty-five fibres. herodotus also mentions a corslet of a similar texture. in connection with other elegant female accomplishments, netting has continued to claim the attention of the ladies of europe, in every advanced state of civilization, and, in the present day, is cultivated with considerable success. netting was a favorite employment of the late queen charlotte, during the latter years of her life. [illustration] plain netting.--take the mesh in the left hand, (having previously made a long loop with twine, and fixed it to any convenient support,) between the two first fingers and the thumb. the netting needle must be threaded with the material, and fastened by a knot to the long loop before spoken of, and the mesh must be held up as close as possible to this knot _under_ the twine. the silk is to be held in the right hand between the fore finger and the thumb and must be passed under and around the left hand, so that the material may be formed into a slack loop, passing over all the fingers, except the little one. in this position, the silk must be held between the upper side of the mesh and the left-hand thumb, and the needle must be passed back, round the pin or mesh, allowing the material to form a larger loop, so as to include the little finger. the needle will thus be brought round, in front of the mesh, and must pass under the first loop, between the mesh and the fingers, and thus through the loop called the foundation loop, and thence over that portion of the material which goes backward for the purpose of forming the second loop. the needle must be kept in its position, till the right hand is so brought round as to be able to pull it through, and then the needle being drawn out and held in the right hand, the worker must disengage all the fingers of the left except the last, which is to retain its hold of the second loop, which was formed by passing the material round it. by means of this hold, retained by the little finger, the material is to be drawn to the mesh, and the knot thus formed be drawn tight to the foundation. this process is to be repeated, until a sufficient number of stitches are formed as are necessary, according to the width of the net desired. as the mesh is filled, some of the loops must be suffered to drop off; and when the row is completed, it must be drawn out, and a row of loops will be found suspended from the foundation by their respective knots, and moving freely onwards. the work is then to be turned over, which will cause the ends of the rows to be reversed; and in netting a second row, it will be done as before from left to right. in commencing the second, and all the succeeding rows, the mesh must be so placed as to come up close to the bottom of the preceding row or loops, and the former process with the needle must be repeated. it will be needful, to have a sufficient quantity of material always wound on the needle, or otherwise it will not move freely round, as it is indispensible it should do. bead stitch.--to execute this stitch properly, requires care, but it is very ornamental. beads of all kinds, may be introduced. in order to net with beads, you must procure a long taper darning needle: the stitch is as follows; string a bead upon the thread or silk you net with: this bead is to be brought to the front of the mesh, and held there until the knot is made; at the back of the mesh, bring the needle and thread, passing the point through the bead which is upon the front of the mesh. the needle and thread are then to be drawn through it, by which means the bead will be brought quite up to the knot just made. by working the beads in this manner, they will be kept stationary upon the thread, and so remain in their places, and impart much beauty to the work. [illustration] diamond netting.--this kind of netting is easy of execution, and looks extremely pretty. it is done by making every other stitch a loop stitch, in order to effect which, the silk must be put twice round the mesh, instead of once, as in plain netting. treble diamond netting is similar, only the process is rather more difficult in execution. after netting three rows plain, at the beginning, the first row is to be composed of one loop stitch, and three plain stitches, repeated until the row is finished: then in working the second row, commence with a plain stitch, then follow with a loop, then two plain stitches, and repeat as before. for the third row begin with one or two plain stitches, make a loop, then net a stitch plain, and repeat the two loops and the plain stitch to the end of the row. for the fourth row you net three stitches in plain netting, then make a loop stitch, and repeat as in previous rows. an attention to this arrangement, will soon enable the young student in net-work, to net in as many stitches as may seem desirable. [illustration] diamond netting, of five stitches.--commence with a long loop, then net five loops plain, repeat to the end of the row, finishing with a long loop. second row, begin with a plain loop, make a loose stitch to meet the short loop in the previous row, and withdraw the mesh before commencing the next loop, work four loops plain, and so proceed. third row is commenced as the second: withdraw the mesh as before, and work three plain loops. begin the fourth row with a plain stitch, work a long loop, then a loose stitch; withdraw the mesh, and work two plain stitches; again withdraw the mesh, work a plain stitch, and so proceed to the end. the fifth is begun with two plain stitches; then form a loose stitch, withdraw the mesh, work one plain loop, again withdraw the mesh, and finish with two plain stitches. the sixth row commences with three stitches plain, then make one loose stitch, and finish with two plain ones. for the seventh row, commence as in the last case; make a long loop, and finish with two plain stitches. the eighth row begins with three stitches in plain netting; withdraw the mesh, net one stitch plain, make a loose stitch, again withdraw the mesh, and finish the row with a plain stitch. in doing the ninth row net two stitches plain, withdraw the mesh, net two more plain stitches, make a loose stitch, again withdraw the mesh, and finish with a plain stitch. the tenth row is begun as the last, but instead of the loose stitch, net a plain one, then make the loose stitch, and withdraw the mesh. the mesh proper for this kind of netting is no. , and the silk called second-sized purse twist, is the best adapted for this kind of work. [illustration] dotted netting.--this is easily done. cast on the number of loops you require, and proceed as follows. begin with long loop, in which you next increase two stitches; repeat to the end of the row. none of the rows are at all varied; and you must carefully preserve its uniform appearance, as in that consists its principal beauty. shaded silk netting.--this is beautiful, when the shades blend well together. of course, each row must be worked in one shade, and the next needful must be matched with the utmost care. it is not possible to give minute rules on such a subject: but, in this, as in other things, practice will insure success. [illustration] grecian netting.--this is beautiful, and should be worked with fine silk, and with two meshes, no. and ; one plain row is to be netted with the large mesh, and then in the next row employ the small one. the silk is twisted round the fingers as in plain netting, and the needle must pass through the finger loop into the first stitch, and thence into the second. then let the second be drawn through the first, and the first through the second, finishing the stitch by releasing your fingers and pulling the material tight. the succeeding stitch is a small loop, that appears to cross the stitches twisted together. these three kinds of stitches form the pattern, and are to be repeated until the work is completed. grecian netting may be employed for a variety of purposes, and you can, of course, vary both the material and the meshes as best accords with the design you are intending to accomplish. [illustration] french ground net.--you must have an even number of loops on the foundation, then proceed. first row, plain stitches and long loops, alternately; second row plain; make a loose stitch, and repeat. begin the fourth with a loose stitch, net one plain, repeat to the end; commence the fifth row by netting one plain loop, make a long loop, and the little loop as in the third row; in coming after the last long loop, the little loop must be exchanged for a plain stitch. another kind of honeycomb netting.--use a mesh no. , and set on an even number of stitches. net the first row plain, having the silk round the mesh twice. for the second row you put the silk once round the mesh and net the second loop, having previously half twisted it. then net the first loop plain, net the fourth as the second, again net a stitch plain, and thus proceed with plain and half-twisted stitches, alternately. the third row is the same as the first, and the fourth as the second. these kinds of netting are very pretty for purses, bags, &c., and may be done in different colors if the purse is worked in four or five rows of plain, and the same number of honeycomb netting. [illustration] honeycomb netting.--you are to make an even number of loops, putting the silk twice round a no. mesh, for the second row net with the silk once round the mesh, and put the first stitch through the second at the back, and net it; then the second stitch is pulled through the middle of the first and netted: you do the same with each two of the other stitches, and must be careful not to burst them. for the third row, the silk is put twice round the mesh, and the netting is plain. you proceed thus in alternate rows until the work is done. [illustration] honeycomb netting, with two meshes.--the meshes proper are no. and . cast on an even number of stitches, and net the first row plain, with the no. mesh. with mesh no. net the second row, working the second stitch first and the first second, and so proceed netting the fourth stitch, and then the third, and so on to the end. work the third row with no. as before, and the fourth row as the second, only netting the first loop plain, and then taking, first the third, and then the second, and so on to the end, finishing with a loop in plain netting. the next row is done plain with no. , the next with no. , exactly as the first twisted row. the odd stitch netted plain, only occurs at the commencement of each alternate row of netting done with no. . this kind of netting is proper for a veil. [illustration] leaf netting.--this is pretty when executed properly. you should work with cotton, and no. mesh. five loops are required for each pattern. commence the first row by netting two plain loops for the edge, then net three plain, in the next loop increase four, and repeat this operation to the end of the row; finish with two plain loops. begin the second row as before, and collect all the loops increased in each of the twice four loops formed in the last row, into one; then net four loops plain; repeat this to the end of the row, and net two plain as before. the third row is plain netting. the fourth row has two loops netted plain, then two more plain; you then increase four on each of the next two loops, net one plain, and repeat the operation to the end of the row; finish by netting two stitches plain. fifth row, commence as before, net one plain loop, collect the increased loops as the second row, net three plain, and so repeat; net two plain to finish the row. the next row is netted plain. repeat these rows as often as your work requires it to be done. net with points.--this is done by making a foundation of, say, ninety stitches. net on this foundation with any color you please. net fifty stitches and return back again, proceed as before, only decreasing ten stitches, and so go on, until the required point is gained. two colors are required. [illustration] maltese netting, in spots.--this is neat and elegant: it is done as follows. the first two rows are netted plain: you commence the third row by netting seven stitches; the silk is then to be passed round the mesh, and the needle brought under the knot in the second row, but without netting it; that is between the stitch you last netted and the one you are about to net. a loop is then made, which is not to be netted separately, as that would increase a stitch in the next row; but it is to be taken up with the last of the seven stitches previously netted. if you desire the spots to appear very distinct and prominent, let the silk pass twice round the mesh, and afterwards through the loop, and repeat the operation to the end. you may do this spotting, either as it appears in the pattern, or in almost any form you please. [illustration] plain open netting.--this is pretty, and easy of execution. the operation is performed by netting three rows plain, then a row of loop stitches, then three rows plain, and a row of loops as before. you may net to any length you please. the direction here given is all that is necessary, and if duly attended to will enable any young lady to attain proficiency. [illustration] round netting.--you commence making the loops, as in common netting, by twisting the silk round the fingers, then pass the needle and the silk through the finger-loop, and bring it up on the back side of the mesh, between it and the fore finger; the fingers and loop are still to be kept on them as before; the middle is then to be reversed, and brought down through the first loop, (on the foundation,) and taking a slanting direction over the mesh. having drawn it entirely through, you withdraw your finger from the loop, as in ordinary netting. you every succeeding loop in the same way. chapter xv. netting. examples in netting. a purse, with china silk.--make as many stitches on the foundation as you please. net three rows with plain colors, then five with china silk. repeat. a seam purse, with beads.--you will need four skeins of fine silk, and a mesh, no. . on a foundation of one hundred stitches, net one plain row. then in the next row, net a plain and a bead stitch successively. net the third row plain, and begin the next with a bead stitch. proceed thus till the purse is completed. a netted bag, with ring.--on a foundation of sixty stitches, net the bag to half the length required; then net in a gilt ring, and finish the bag. draw it up with ribbon, and place a gilded or silk tassel at the bottom. you will require coarse netting silk, and a no. mesh. you may use union cord, or gilt twist, if you prefer it. dice pattern purse.--this is done in two colors, highly contrasted. you must have two skeins of second sized silk, and a no. mesh. on a foundation of ninety-eight stitches, net seven with the darkest color. you net seven rows. then introduce the lighter silk, by joining it to the seventh stitch of the first row of the dark color, and net seven rows upon the succeeding seven stitches of the foundation. you must be careful to loop in the last dark stitch on each row: repeat this process until the purse is of the length you require; of course reversing the squares. in cutting off the silk, you must leave sufficient to make a weaver's knot, with which is to be fastened to the succeeding color. honeycomb mittens.--you commence by casting on fifty stitches; the first four rows are to netted plain: after which, you net one row with the silk, twice round the mesh; again net two rows with the silk round the mesh once: you then commence netting rounds, and net rows as before. the first row is to be netted with the silk twice round the mesh, the second is in honey-comb pattern; the third round is executed as the first, and the fourth as the second; for the fifth round you net eleven stitches with the silk, round the mesh, as in the first row, and make two increased stitches in the twelfth loop; in the next row, you are to net five stitches and increase two, netting the whole, as in the first row; net the seventh like the second, and let this be repeated for the four succeeding rounds, a plain and a pattern round alternately; in the next round, which is plain, pass the silk twice round the mesh, and net seven stitches; increase two stitches in the eighth round and net seventeen in plain and pattern, alternate rounds; in the eighteenth increase two, and net five rounds; again increase two, and net five; and on each side again increase two; net three rounds after the last increase, continuing to net till you arrive at the stitch over the last stitch you increased, and net it to the one corresponding to it on the other side of the thumb; if it does not fit as it ought to do, you must decrease, until that object is secured; you are to finish the thumb, by netting a round with the silk, put twice round the mesh, and two rounds in plain netting; the silk is to be fastened to the side of the thumb, in order to finish the hand: and you are to net plain and pattern rounds successively. when the mitten is nearly the length you wish, finish in the same manner you did the thumb, using double silk. netted cuffs.--the materials are german wool and french floss silk, and the work is executed with a mesh, no. , and a small steel one, no. . you commence on a foundation of fifty-four loops; and in order to form the right side, you net one row of wool with the large mesh, and three rows of silk with the small one, alternately, till you have netted twenty four rows. then you form the wrong side, by netting one row of wool with the larger mesh, and two rows of the same material with the small one. you will require nine rows netted with the wide mesh, with two narrow rows between each. then net one wide row with wool, having in each loop three stitches; above this, knit one narrow row of silk, and do the same at the other end. you have only to double the cuffs, turning the plain side inmost, and the rows of wool and silk will form a kind of border and finish to the whole. netted cuff with silk and wool.--on a foundation of ninety-six stitches, and with a no. mesh, net one row plain in floss silk. second row the same. then with an ivory mesh of half an inch in width, net one row in german wool. the fourth row is to be done two stitches in one, with wool, using a small mesh. then for the inside half of the cuff, net fourteen rows with the large and small meshes, successively. these to be done in silk and wool alternately. the next three rows to be netted in dark wool. then with the small mesh net two rows in silk, the same color as at the commencement, alternately, with seven rows of wool, in proper shades, and finish with an edge to correspond with the beginning. netted fringe.--use a mesh no. , and net the required length, dropping off the stitches on the left. net the next row the same. then with a flat mesh, the width of the fringe, placing the grooved edge downward, net one row. these latter loops are to be cut, and either left as they are, or knitted two and two together, as the taste of the worker may dictate. netted opera cap.--work with one mesh, half an inch wide; and another, smaller, of steel; and begin on a foundation of seventy-four stitches. you must procure in double german wool, two colors that contrast well: commence with the darkest shade, and net with the wide mesh one row; the second is to be netted with the narrow one, and so on alternately: the sixth and seventh are both worked with the narrow mesh: then net five more rows with the wide and narrow meshes alternately: this done, you commence with the other color, and net one row, having three stitches on each loop of the row preceding: you now introduce silk of the same color as that of the wool first used, and net one row with the narrow mesh; in that row all the stitches of the last row, netted in wool, must be taken up separately; the foundation is now to be removed, and rows of the lighter colored wool and silk, are to be netted to correspond. net another piece of work in exactly the same manner as the former, and taking one of the pieces, fold it in the middle, and net one row with the narrow mesh in the centre row of knots; in the piece thus doubled, proceed to net a row with the wide mesh, then two with the narrow one, and again one with the wide mesh. the other piece is then to be folded in the same manner, and united to the former one by netting a row, taking up as before the centre row of knots. this makes the front of the cap appear in four pieces. at the back, in the centre row of knots, net a row with the narrow mesh, to keep it on an even fold. you draw up the cap at the end, and put the strings on. this completes it. [illustration] netted scollop edging.--you work this with a flat mesh, and set on as many stitches as you intend to have scollops. the flat mesh should be no. ; and you will also require two round ones, one no. and the other no. . begin the work as follows. net the first row with the flat mesh, and increase eighteen stitches into each of the loops on the foundation. for the second row, use the mesh no. , and net a plain stitch into each loop. then, with the mesh no. , net the third row in long loops, by passing the material twice round the mesh; you are to increase two stitches in the same loop, and so continue to the end of the row. in the fourth row you use the mesh no. and leaving all the increased stitches without netting them, net the long loops plain. the fifth and sixth rows are netted plain with the mesh no. , which finishes the scollop. plain netted gentleman's purse.--of coarse netting silk, you will require five skeins, and a mesh, no. . you must have a foundation of eighty stitches on which to commence, and you net to the length of ten inches. net up the sides and damp it slightly, after which it is put upon a purse stretcher, where it is to be left for a few hours, then take it off and trim it as you please. a lady's purse.--net in the same manner seventy stitches on the foundation, and nine inches in length is sufficient. employ a mesh no. , and fine netting silk. two colors may be used, netting five rows with one, and four with the other. plain netted mittens.--begin on forty-eight stitches as a foundation, and net four rows plain; then form the loops, for the ribbon, with a mesh double the size of that you work with. then five rows more are to be netted plain; and in the next you must join both ends, and net one plain round, taking care in the twelfth stitch to increase. again net round, and increase as before. net the remaining stitches. you must then net sixteen rounds, increasing two stitches, to form the thumb, in the same place as the other increased stitches, every other round. join the thumb stitches, and net seven rounds, which is the length of the thumb, decreasing a stitch or two in every round. with the larger mesh you are to net two stitches in every loop, and then net one round, taking the two together. net two or three rounds with a finer mesh: this finishes the thumb. net as many rounds as are wanted for the hand, and finish as before. run in the ribbon, and edge with lace. you must have a no. mesh, and five skeins of silk. [illustration] a plain scollop.--you must cast on one stitch for each scollop: this is the first row. for the second, use a flat mesh no. , and increase twenty stitches in each loop. net the third with a round mesh no. , netting all the increased loops plain. the two next rows are netted plain, with the same mesh, which finishes the pattern. [illustration] cap border scollop.--you commence with one stitch for each scollop, as in last pattern. for the second row, use the flat mesh no. , and increase in each loop twelve stitches. net the third round with the round mesh no. , and be careful to net the increased stitches plain. the last row is netted plain, with the same mesh as the preceding one. the cotton used in the netting of these scollops, should be about the size of what is called third-sized purse twist. net cravat.--this is netted with german wool, and with a mesh no. . having cast on stitches, in the color you intend first to use, net twenty-three rows in plain netting. then introduce the other color, or white; and again, in the same manner, net twenty-three rows. proceed thus, till you have three stripes of each color: then net the two sides together, and draw up the ends. you may add tassels, if you choose. a net scarf.--this is to be worked with two flat needles, no. and no. , and in that kind of silk called _dockers_. you are to commence, by casting on stitches, and netting four rows with the smaller mesh, and thirty or thirty-two with the larger one. these repeated, six times, completes the scarf. you must add the four narrow rows, which will complete the edge. the scarf is to be drawn up at each end, and have tassels attached. a long purse, in points.--upon your foundation loops, put sixty stitches in one of the colors you intend to use, and return on them. then, in the next row, put on forty stitches, the next forty, and so on to ten, always returning on the number last put on, and leaving the ten unnetted. you then, with another needle, introduce your other color, and put on ten stitches upon the foundation loops, commencing ten loops from the sixty of the first color. when you have reached the last of the sixty, which you will do when you have put on the ten, you must draw the mesh out, and pass the needle with the second color, through the concluding stitch of the first, working back upon the second color the ten stitches last introduced. the rest of the row is increased ten; and you must then decrease, as you did with the first color. one pattern is then complete; and you re-commence and proceed as before. chapter xvi. crochet. stitches in crochet. crochet has been long known, but it has only become a favorite with the fair votaries of the needle, during the last few years. it is very difficult to describe, though easy of execution, and can be applied to a variety of useful and ornamental purposes. it is most frequently adopted in working shawls, table covers, pillows, mats, slippers, carriage mats, and a great variety of other things of elegance and utility. silk, cotton, and wool, are employed, and the work is so easy, that a moderate share of attention to details, will make an expert workman. stitches.--these are called plain single crochet, plain double crochet, plain stitch open crochet, and open crochet, with a variety of stitches. it is not easy to describe the manner of working crochet stitch, though it is easy of execution: perhaps the following will be found tolerably correct. take a skein of wool, and having wound it, make a loop at one end, like the first link in a chain; through this draw another, and so on, until the chain is of the length required. each must be made rather tight as it is drawn through its preceding loop. this forms the foundation, and the young worker may then proceed with the article she intends to make. she must pass the needle through the last loop of the foundation, and catching the silk or other material from behind, draw it through and so proceed with every succeeding loop of the foundation, until the row is completed. having thus formed the first row, she must proceed as before to form a second, and so on from right to left, and from left to right, until she has all the rows required. this is the most effectual way we know of for the learner to pursue and she will find that her work is the same on both sides, producing raised and depressed rows in alternate succession. in working she must not generally work backward and forward, but must finish each row separately. plain crochet.--make only one loop in each stitch. in making common purses in crochet, this is the stitch generally employed. plain double crochet.--keep two loops on the needle before finishing the stitch. this stitch is more generally in use than any of the others described. plain stitch open crochet.--this stitch is done in the following manner. to the last link of the foundation chain, crochet five stitches, which must be again crocheted in the fifth stitch of the chain. this is to be repeated to the foundation. the rest of the rows are to be done in the same way, attaching every fifth stitch to the centre one of each loop in the row preceding. this looks extremely well for purses, and it can be varied by employing two or more colors as taste or fancy may direct. [illustration] open crochet.--this stitch is difficult to describe; an attention to the following rules will, we hope, enable the reader to understand it. first make a chain of the length required for the foundation; then work one stitch plain, and bring the material round the needle, which must be passed through the first loop of the chain, through which bring the material, and you will thus have three stitches on the needle. through the two first of these the material must be drawn, which will leave two; through these the material must be again drawn, and that will leave one, through which you are to make one stitch plain, as at the commencement. you then put the material over the needle, and through the fourth link of the chain, and proceed as before. you will thus have one plain stitch between each two double ones, which will leave an open space. [illustration] double open crochet.--this is a similar stitch, only the single stitch is omitted, and the two long stitches are made together, by passing the needle through the next loop without making a stitch. thus you will have two long stitches and one open stitch in succession. [illustration] treble open crochet.--this is exactly like the last, only making three long stitches, instead of two, before every plain stitch. it looks neat and elegant, and may have beads introduced, which produce a charming effect. the following directions will enable the novice to work with beads with freedom and accuracy. thread the beads on a strong silk, and pass one on to the middle stitch of each of the three long ones. this will, of course, place a bead in the centre of each square. beads of various colors may be introduced, so as to form a diamond. a gold or polished steel one should form the centre of each diamond. double stitch crochet.--to work this you have only to take both meshes of the chain, instead of one, as in common crochet. plain stitch elastic crochet.--work backward and forwards, first taking one mesh of the chain, and then the other. the upper mesh must be taken first. bead stitch.--if you wish to work with beads, you must thread all you intend to use, before you begin to work. then when you wish to insert a bead, no matter what the pattern is you are executing, you have only to pass a bead down to the last stitch you have worked, and to fasten it on by working the stitch as usual; but this will leave it on the wrong side; to prevent which, you must bring the crocheting thread to the front, having it on the fore finger of the left hand: by thus keeping the bead in front, and inserting the needle from the back of the stitch you are about to work, you can draw the thread through the back, and make the finishing loop in the common way: you will then find that the bead is on the right side. edge stitch.--to work this stitch you are to draw a loop through the first stitch on the row, or on the round, if you work in rounds, then draw a second loop through the one last made. thus the edge stitch is formed. it is of importance to attend to the regular working of this stitch, because if it is not done, you will lose in each row a stitch. on a round, it is not necessary to work the edge stitch; but when the work has to be turned to work round the contrary way, the edge stitch is indispensible. a raised stitch.--make this by passing the needle through, both meshes of the chain, and working two stitches instead of one, in the same space or hole. to increase or decrease a stitch.--in the former case, make two stitches in the mesh; and in the latter, take two stitches together as one, or miss one. true stitch.--this means to keep the stitches exactly over each other, when working in different colors, so as to conceal the half stitch. this must be done with care: and the more attention is paid to it, the more beautiful will the work appear. to fasten on or off.--the former is done by laying the two ends of the material contrary wise, and working a few stitches with both. the latter process is performed by drawing the material through the last stitch, which must be fastened at the back. a dividing line.--the most general form is that of working two stitches up and down alternately, between the stripes in the groundings; but it can be varied according to taste. what is called making a stitch, at the beginning and end of a row, means making one stitch of a chain before the first and after the last, which new stitches are to be crocheted in the succeeding row. to carry on a thread in double crochet.--it is a very common thing to work a pattern in crochet, in more than one color; when this is the case, it is necessary that the colors, not required, should be so managed, as not to make loops, or stitches, at the back. to accomplish this, they must be worked in the following manner. let the threads, that are not required, be laid along the fore finger of the left hand; and the crochet needle must be inserted in the usual manner, into the stitch; you are to let it go below the threads you are carrying on, and the thread with which you are working is to be drawn at the back, through the stitch, into which you inserted the needle or hook. make the finishing loop as usual, which you carry over the threads, and pull through the two loops you have upon the needle. thus you will make one stitch, and the process is to be repeated as often as your work requires it. joining the threads.--in order that threads may be united neatly and properly, observe the following directions. do not work up the thread quite to the end, but leave a small portion; then, on the fore finger of the left hand, by the end of the thread you are about to commence working with, the end to be toward the tip of the finger, the ball will of course be toward the arm; work over it for about six stitches, proceeding as you do in carrying over the threads; then by the thread you worked with, but on the same finger, and continue with the thread you have last fastened on, and work over it, in the same manner, for about six stitches. the ends are then to be cut, and you work on as usual, with the thread just joined. this is the best method we know, of making the work appear neat, and, at the same time, of securing the required degree of fineness. to increase a stitch in crochet.--the process by which this is done, is as follows. first, make the stitch as usual, then work it again from the hinder or back part of the stitch. this prevents a hole, which would otherwise occur. to take in a stitch.--to do this, two stitches are taken on the needle at the same time, and you work them off as one. we have given the fullest explanation of the various stitches in crochet, that our limited space will allow; and we hope that the directions are so plain that no one will be at a loss to comprehend their meaning. but we cannot promise any votary of this delightful employment, even tolerable success, unless she will assiduously apply her own mind to the various directions. "no one can become an expert needlewoman, who does not think, and think deeply, too." chapter xvii. crochet. examples in crochet. [illustration] crochet edging, for collars, &c.--ascertain the length you will require, and cast on the necessary number of chain stitches; you must use a steel hook no. . you will find your labor facilitated by sewing a piece of tape at the beginning and the end of the foundation-row of chain stitch. if the tops be an inch wide, it will form a good beginning and termination. the foundation of chain stitch forms the first row; the second is worked thus; the hook is inserted through the first loop of the foundation; (this will be on the tape,) through which, a loop is to be brought in the usual manner; directly above this, a second loop is worked, which forms the beginning. you now leave the tape, and work two chain stitches; after which, you throw a stitch on the needle, by casting the material over it. then, taking the third loop on the foundation, counting from the one last worked, you insert the hook, passing two loops without working them, and catching the thread from behind, pull it through. thus, you will have on the needle three loops; and you must now throw a stitch on the hook, which is, in like manner, to be pulled through the first loop, near the point. by this, you will still have three loops on the hook. again, throw on a stitch as before, which draw through the two first loops on the end of the hook; then throw on another stitch, which must be pulled through the two loops remaining on the hook. you will then have only one loop upon the needle; and thus one stitch is completed. make two chain stitches, as before, and then perform another stitch; and so proceed, as in the former row, but instead of inserting the hook in the third loop, as before, pass it into the first open portion of the work, and work the stitch over the two chain stitches of the second row, as follows. the needle being inserted into the open space, you are to catch the material in from behind, and draw it through, by which you will have three loops on the hook: then throw a loop on as before, and let it be drawn through the first loop, on the point of the hook. another loop is next to be thrown in, and drawn through the two loops nearest the hook, on which you will now have two loops. you thus complete the stitch, as in the previous row, and so proceed to the end. the next row is the same in all respects; and the fifth is to form a vandyke edge: it is worked in the following manner: the needle is inserted into the open space, and work a double tambour stitch round the chain stitches of the fourth row; then seven chain stitches are to be made and fastened to the two chain stitches of the last row, in the same manner as before. thus one scollop or vandyke is completed, and you work all the others in the same way. [illustration] petticoat crochet edging.--work this in the following manner. first row like the last pattern. the second like the second of the last; and finish with the fifth row of the same pattern. persian cotton, no. , is the best material; and you work with a long steel crochet needle, having an ivory screw handle. crochet edging, handkerchiefs.--this is done in three rows, worked as the first, second, third, and fifth rows of crochet edging, for collars. the material is persian thread, no. ; and you work with a fine steel crochet needle, with a screw handle. insertion, or crochet beading.--you work this, if narrow, as first and second rows of the first pattern; if you have it wider, work it as the third row. it may be either worked with no. or no. cotton, and looks neat and handsome. the following remarks on crochet should be carefully attended to. it is necessary to work this kind of work, rather loose than otherwise, as it is liable to cut, if done over tight. the size of the stitch depends, of course, upon that of the needle; and, therefore, care should be taken, to have them gauged. if a needle will go into the slit, opposite no. , but not into no. , then it is a no. needle. sofa pillow.--work in six threads fleecy, and with a good sized crochet needle; work as follows. for the first stripe, commence with two rows of the same color; the three next rows, in different shades, of a color that will contrast well with that of the two first; the sixth row must be of a different color, or it may be white. the next five rows are to correspond, reversing the colors and shades. the second stripe is composed of seven rows: the first, three distinct shades of the same color; the middle one, a contrast; and the other three, the same shades as the first, but reversed as before. the third stripe is the same, but, of course, the colors are different. a white row in the middle of each stripe, is, in our opinion, the best. the fourth stripe is a repetition of the first, omitting the color in the first two rows, the fifth of the second, and the sixth of the third. the last stripe is to correspond _exactly_ with the first. turkish pattern, for a table cover.--use a steel needle, and six threads fleecy. form the dividing line of two shades of the same color, say claret, and have four stripes, namely, white, gold color, blue, and scarlet. then, on the white stripe, work the pattern in two greens, two scarlets, two blues, a brown, and a yellow. on the gold color, in two blues and one claret, white, lilac, and green. on the blue, in two scarlets, two greens, one drab, white, brown, and orange. and on the scarlet, one green, one white, two blues, a claret, and a bright yellow. we have merely given the colors in the above, as a specimen, and to assist the youthful artist in the formation of habits of arrangement. she can, of course, adopt any colors and shades she pleases; and the more she employs her own thought and judgment, the more original will her work appear. a plain crochet bag, in silk.--begin at the top with a chain, of one hundred and fifty stitches. the material to work with, may be any kind of silk that is proper for the purpose, and of any color that may be deemed desirable. on this foundation, a plain row is to be worked, and then a row in two colors, in two stitches of each alternately. the second color is employed to form the ground of the pattern. work one plain row, and then work large stars, in a color to contrast with the plain ground. between the large stars, work small ones, in a different color. one row of plain ground is to be crocheted on each side of the pattern; and before commencing the second stripe, repeat the row of two colors in two stitches of each. the ground of the next stripe is to contrast highly with that of the former one. the larger stars should also be well contrasted; but, all in the same stripe, must be of the same color; all the small stars should be alike. the stripes are to be repeated successively, until the bag is completed. a greek cap, in coarse chenille.--with a chain of six or eight stitches, begin at the top, and having united the ends, work round and round, in rows, until it is eight inches across. you must increase your stitches, in each row, so as to preserve the work flat. work the stitches in open crochet, and between every two rows, it will be best to introduce a few plain lines, in black and gold. this cap is extremely elegant. a crochet neck chain.--commence with fine plain stitches; then put the needle through the back of the second, and make one stitch plain. by twisting the chain, after every stitch, you will find that one stitch appears to cross; that stitch is the one to be next taken, and crocheted. a plain crochet purse.--this purse is made with middle-sized netting silk, and is strong and durable. a chain is to be made of one hundred and forty stitches, of any color you prefer, on which, you are to crochet three rows plain in the same color. then, five rows, in a color making a good contrast. repeat these stripes as many times as are requisite, and crochet up the sides. draw up the ends, and trim the purse. we deem it unnecessary to add more examples in crochet, as without engravings, they would not be understood. this kind of work is capable of being applied to an almost indefinite number of purposes; but in almost all cases, though easy of execution, the patterns are not easy to be described in writing. we have, however, done all that is required, to afford an insight into this kind of needlework; and have shewn that for purses, bags, caps, neck chains, &c., it can be readily brought into requisition. much care and judgment are required in the arrangement of colors, as on this, almost the whole beauty of the work depends. chapter xviii. tatting. explanation of stitches. [illustration] tatting open stitch.--take your tatting needle, and, having threaded it with the appropriate material make a knot at the end. in order to make the loops, put the knot just made on the fore finger of the left hand, and form also a loop round the second, third and fourth fingers, extending them for that purpose. these loops are made by carrying the thread round the back of them, bringing it to the fore finger again, so as to pass over the knot. in this position they must be held tightly down by the pressure of the thumb. you will observe that the thumb and fore finger are never to be moved while you form the scollop, but you are to bring the needle and thread toward you in a straight direction from the fore finger and thumb, between the second and third fingers: the needle is then to be inserted from behind the finger loop, up through the middle, between the thread which is on the needle, and the thread round the fingers. you must be careful to have the thread (on the needle) between you and the needle, after you have drawn it through. from the right hand to the left the needle must be extended as tight as possible, leaving loose the loop which is round the finger as you make the stitch with the loop, and not with that portion of the thread which is next the needle. you are to withdraw the second finger, and allow the loop round the fingers to form round the thread. the fingers are then to be again inserted, and form the stitch with the second finger by drawing it up to its proper place, close to the thumb. this will finish the stitch. for the next, cast the thread over the back part of the hand, instead of bringing it to you as in the former stitch, and let the needle be inserted down through the finger loop, between the first and second fingers; then draw it up through between the two threads over the back part of the fingers, and form the stitch with the second one, as in the previous stitch. you work the third stitch the same as the first, only longer, that it may form a long loop. repeat the second stitch, then the long loop; and thus proceed until you have seven loops: after this, the thread is to be drawn up, so as to form the scollop. [illustration] star tatting.--the material for this kind of work is bobbin, such as is generally used for children's caps. you have only to work six scollops and draw them up close, so as to form a star. when made with precision and regularity, they present a neat appearance. star tatting is well adapted for trimmings to a great many articles of apparel and ornament. [illustration] common tatting edging.--make the loops, and work the first stitch as in the first pattern; then work twenty stitches the same way to form the scollop. when it is finished, you must draw up the thread tight, and then commence another. if it has been properly done, the scollop will draw freely. chapter xix. concluding remarks. in bringing the ladies' work-table book to a close, we cannot persuade ourselves to dismiss the subject, without a word or two to our fair friends, as to the use, necessary to be made, of all the useful or ornamental accomplishments their circumstances and situations may enable them to acquire. we should never, for one moment, suffer the utile to be absent from our thoughts: she who has no definite aim in what she does, can never have any good ground of hope, that, in her progress through life, she can attain to excellence. these remarks apply principally to that large class, who are dependent upon exertion of some kind, for the means of comfort and respectability, in their respective stations. but, as those ladies, whose circumstances render a practical acquaintance with the arts here treated of, a matter of indifference, a knowledge of them is, by no means, unnecessary. in many ways indeed, a lady, blessed with affluence, may render an acquaintance with the details of needlework extensively useful. it is often the case that young persons are engaged in families, whose education has been, from some cause or other, lamentably neglected. in those cases, the lady who feels her obligations, and is actuated by a true christian spirit, will consider herself as standing in the place of a mother to her humble dependents; and, under a deep sense of her high responsibilities, will endeavor to improve, and fit them, by suitable and kindly-imparted instructions, for the proper discharge of the duties of that station, which it may be presumed they will in after days be called upon to fill. in this case, how useful will the kind and careful mistress find a knowledge of that art, which teaches the proper method of making those articles of dress which are so essential to every family who, however humble, are desirous of securing the respect of the wise and the good, by judicious economy, and a neat and respectable appearance. those ladies who are in the habit of devoting a portion of their time to the superintendence of our female charity schools, will also find such knowledge extremely beneficial. to those who are disposed to follow the example of the holy dorcas, in providing garments for the deserving and destitute poor, an acquaintance with _plain needlework_ is indispensible; and indeed, it will, in every walk of life, be found useful to her who is, by the animating love of the lord jesus, disposed "to seek the wretched out, and court the offices of soft humanity." another advantage may also be gained, by a manifestation of the kindly solicitude for the improvement of domestics, here pointed out. in cases where the secular tuition of young persons has been neglected, it will be generally found that their religious and moral training has been equally uncared for. let the christian lady evince a real desire to improve the temporal condition of those beneath her influence, and she will soon find that the best affections of the heart are opened to the reception of instructions of a higher and still more important character. hard indeed must be that heart which can resist the influence of genuine kindness exercised in a friendly christian spirit. we once had the pleasure of seeing a young servant baptized in the faith of christ, while those in whose service she was, and two others, highly respectable persons, answered for her at the font. this beautiful meeting together of the rich and the poor, took place in one of the most splendid parish churches in england, and left on our minds an impression which will never be effaced. in the foregoing pages we have endeavored to lay before the young votary of the needle, such instructions as we hope will be found sufficiently clear to enable her to produce many a delightful specimen of her assiduity, taste, and judgment. we have sought to be concise, without being obscure; and to give plain directions, without making our readers mere imitators, or copyists. one fault which is to be found in all the books on these subjects, which we have seen, we have carefully avoided; that is, the giving a list of the various colours to be employed in the fabrication of each example given. nothing can be more absurd, and mischievous than this. the young work-woman can only exercise her judgment, to any extent, in this department of her labors. the various stitches she must form according to the prescribed rule; because, in most instances, they can be performed in no other manner; but in the choice of materials, and colors, she should have free scope: here judgment, taste, and fancy, should range untrammelled by rules and forms; and yet this is rarely done, because the lady is taught to rely upon her patterns, and scarcely ever to consult her own sense of beauty or propriety. we see the effect of this, in the sameness, and monotonous appearance of almost all kinds of fancy-work: and we have endeavored to do our best, to introduce a more correct taste and principle into this department of the elegant arts, in which females are engaged. we know that much native genius exists among our fair countrywomen; and we wish to see it expand, as freely as the refreshing breeze, that sweeps over our native hills. we have before alluded to the various and interesting uses to which the needle can be applied, and the high moral ends it is so well calculated to promote: and if such be its importance, then it will be readily admitted by all, that he who has made the most improvements, and produced the most finished specimens of this all-important instrument, has conferred a real benefit upon his race. we have a higher end in view, than promoting the acquisition of accomplishments, however elegant or pleasing. we wish to direct the minds of those whom we are thus endeavoring to interest and instruct, to the immortal beauties of moral excellence. these works may be made conducive, in a high degree, to the development of family affection, and the promotion, to a vast extent, of the purposes of genuine charity, benevolence, and friendship. but there is yet a higher kind of use, to which we would apply them. we would have the young lady, who is becoming expert and clever at her needle to reflect, as the beautiful fabric grows beneath her forming hand, that her work, and the power and skill to plan and execute it, is an emanation of the immortal mind; of that mind, whose creative powers are a faint, but legible transcript of the omnipotent wisdom of the deity. this thought gives a permanency to what would, in any other light be only transitory as the summer cloud. it is omnipotent wisdom and power, which has contrived and executed all the beautiful wonders of creation; and that wisdom and power were called into activity by omnipotent love. we wish to impress this sublime truth upon the mind of our young readers, because we wish them to place their heavenly father before them--as their pattern and example--in all that they take in hand; and to remember that, as he formed the universe by wisdom, from love--so all their actions and elegant contrivances should be the result of judgment, guided by affection--that they may thus become like their father, who is in heaven. indeed, it is only when accomplishments are rendered subservient to the development of moral goodness, that they may become pursuits at all worthy of an accountable being. we were not sent into this world to flutter through life, like the gaudy butterfly, only to be seen and admired. we were designed to be useful to our fellow beings; and to make all our powers and capabilities, in some way or other conducive to the happiness and welfare of our co-journeyers on the path of time. to this end, we wish our fair countrywomen to devote their best attention; and, in its attainment, to exert every energy which they possess. we wish them to make all the knowledge which they may acquire subserve some noble purpose; which will outlive the present hour. but to do this, the well-spring of the purest affections must be opened in the soul; and the elegant productions of taste and genius become vitalized, and animated, by the spirit of love. thus, and thus only, can the occupations of a leisure hour be converted into efficient ministers of good; and such they will assuredly be found, if practised from right motives, and placed in due subordination to the right exercise of more important duties. the young votaress of the needle, of drawing, or of music, should ever bear in mind, that the time employed in those pursuits, will be accounted lost or improved, by the impartial judge of all--just in proportion as they have been made to serve the purposes of selfish gratification, or to minister to the development of an elevated moral character--generous and warm affections--and the cultivation of those virtues, which, as essentials of the christian character, shall outlive the ravages of time, and qualify the soul for all the beatitudes of a coming eternity. in all then that the young lady aims to learn, or to accomplish, let her place a high and moral standard before her, and resolve to render every transaction of her life conducive to her preparation for a higher state of being. our various faculties and powers were not given us to be wasted, but to be used to the honor of our creator--the comfort and welfare of those around us--and, as a consequence of our faithful discharge of our several obligations, conducive, in an eminent degree, to our happiness. no mistake can be more fatal, than an idea that, for what we call trifles, we shall have no account to render. what we call trifles, may be, in their consequence, both to ourselves and others, the most important acts of our lives. it is not by great events that our characters are formed; but by the neglect or performance of our duties in that state of life, into which the wisdom of our heavenly father has seen fit to call us. to elevate the sufferings, soothe the sorrows, increase the comforts, and enhance the joys of all around us, should be the highest aim of a laudable ambition--and every endeavor should be most assiduously devoted to the accomplishment of these important ends. it is, in fact, only when we thus employ our various talents and capabilities, that they are really useful, in any other case, they are only ministers to our personal pride, and selfish gratification, instead of becoming links in that golden chain, by which the faithful performance of appointed duties is elevated to the possession of "a crown of righteousness, that fadeth not away." let, then, the youthful female, as she plies her needle, or exercises her judgment or ingenuity, in the choice of colors or materials, or in the invention of new developments of creative genius, ever remember to exercise those powers as a christian--let her cultivate, in her inmost soul, the conviction, that all her skill and power is imparted from on high--and let her be careful to make all she does, a sacrifice, acceptable to her god, by doing all in the spirit, and under the influence of that sacred charity--that boundless benevolence--which ever rejoices, in making its various capabilities subservient to the good of others, and thus gives to the otherwise perishable occurrences of time, an endurance and a continuity, that shall endure for ever. index. algerine work, angular stitch, applique, , apron, girl's, ----, morning, ----, vandyke, ---- for a young person, aprons, ----, dress, armorial bearings, , baby's cap, ---- hood, ---- shoe, barege knitting for shawls, basket stitch, , bathing gown, bead stitch, , bead work, beaufort star, beautiful fringe and border, bed-room linen, bee's stitch, berlin wire stitch, biassing, binding, biroche, a, blankets, border for a shawl, braces, braiding, braid work, , brief description of wools, bustles, button-hole stitch, cap border scollop, caps, cashmere shawl, cast off, to, cast on, to, cast over, to, chain stitch, , ---- ---- on gathers, checked patterns, chenille embroidery, chess pattern, child's collar, cloaks, close stitch for waistcoats, comforter, a, comforter, another, common plait, common tatting edging, coral pattern, corner for a shawl, corners, to fill up, cravats, crochet edging, for collars, ---- ---- for hdkfs., ---- neck chain, cross stitch, crow's-foot stitch, diagram, diamond netting, ---- ---- stitches, dice pattern, ---- ---- purse, dinner napkins, dividing line, a, dotted knitting, baby's shoe, ---- netting, double cross stitch, ---- diamond, long stitch, ---- herring-boning, ---- knitting, ---- nightcap, ---- open crochet, ---- plait stitch, ---- stitch crochet, ---- straight cross stitch, dressing table covers, dress shawl, dutch common knitting, edge stitch, elastic rib, embroidery, ---- in wool, ---- with silk, embossed diamond, ---- hexagon stitch, fancy bobbin edging, ---- button-hole stitch, ---- chain stitch, ---- herring-boning, fantail stitch, fasten on, to, ---- off, to, feather stitch, french ground net, ---- stitch, frills, frame, to dress for cloth work, ----, to dress for cross stitch, ----, to dress for tent stitch, gathering, double, or puffing, ----, gem, or set patterns, gentlemen's belts, ---- braces, ---- collars, ---- fronts, ---- travelling cap, ---- waistcoats, , german knitting, ---- pattern, , gobelin, ---- stitch, grecian netting, greek cap, coarse chenille, habit shirt, half handkerchief, harlequin quilt, with tufts, heart pattern, hemming, ----, german, herring-bone bag stitch, ---- purse, herring-boning, honeycombing, honeycomb mittens, ---- netting, ---- ----, with two meshes, ----, another kind, ---- stitch, horse-shoe stitch, housemaid and kitchen linen, imitation net-work stitch, indian scarf, insertion, crochet beading, instructions in grounding, irish diamond, ---- stitch, jelly bag, joining the threads, knee caps, knit herring-bone stitch, knitted footing, ---- fringe, ---- muff, knitting stitch, lace, , ---- wave stitch, ladies' drawers, ---- flannel waistcoats, ---- night jackets, ---- purses, ---- walking shawls, landscapes, leaf netting, long purse, in points, loop stitch, making buttons, maltese netting in spots, mantuamaker's hem, materials for plain needlework, ---- for embroidery, ---- for fancy needlework, ---- for knitting, netting and crochet, marking, medallion pattern, mosaic work, , moss stitch, mourning shawls, narrowing, necessary implements in crochet, necessary implements in fancy needlework, necessary implements in knitting, necessary implements in netting, neck and pocket handkerchiefs, net cravat, ---- scarf, ---- with points, netted bag, with ring, ---- cuffs, with silk and wool, ---- cuffs, ---- fringe, ---- opera cap, ---- scollop edging, night gowns, ---- stockings, open cross stitch, ---- crochet, ---- hem, ---- work stockings, ornamental ladder stitch, over shoe, pantry linen, pattern for a light scarf, patterns on canvas, pearl stitch, perforated card, , petticoat crochet edging, petticoats, ----, flannel, pillow covers, pinafore, pincushion covers, pine apple purse, ---- ---- stitch, piping, plain crochet, ---- crochet bag, in silk, ---- ---- purse, ---- double crochet, ---- knitted muffatees, ---- ---- gentleman's purse, ---- netted mittens, ---- netting, ---- open netting, ---- ---- stitch, ---- ---- elastic crochet, ---- stitch open crochet, ---- scarf, ---- scollop, plaiting, pockets, point stitch, , porcupine stitch, princess royal, , pudding cloth, purse, with china silk, queen stitch, queen's vandyke, quilts, raised embroidery, ---- stitch, a, ---- work, raising, rib, to, ribbon scarf, roman pattern, round netting, rough cast stitch, row, a, rug bordering, , running, russian pattern, scale of canvases, seam, to, seam purse, with beads, serpentine stitch, sewing and felling, shaded silk netting, sheets, shifts, shirts, single plait stitch, slip stitch, socks, sofa pillow, star pattern, ---- tatting, ---- with eight points, stitches in crochet, stitching, stitch, to take in a, ----, to increase or decrease a, ----, to incr. in crochet, stitches, to cast on the loops or, stockings, straight cross stitch, strong knitted purse, suggestions as to patterns, table cloths, ---- linen, tatting, open stitch, tent stitch, thread, to bring forward a, ----, to carry on a, in double crochet, towels, travelling shawl, treble open crochet, true stitch, tucks, turkish pattern for a table cover, veils, velvet stitch, victoria pattern, wave pattern, ---- knitting, welts, whipping, windsor pattern, wire work, , working berlin pattern, ---- figures, , zephyr, a, the end. transcriber's note the following typographical errors were corrected. iv human felicity changed to human felicity. v fair one changed to fair one. v then, how, to fabricate changed to then, how to fabricate vi form and utilty changed to form and utility ix netting of a purse, changed to netting of a purse. very difficult t changed to very difficult to both sides, this changed to both sides. this materials foe changed to materials for knitting netting, changed to knitting, netting, than others changed to than others. wool.--this changed to wool.--this yarn, for mitts, changed to yarn, for mitts. her to devise changed to her to devise. tissue paper changed to tissue paper. extacy;" changed to extacy; native sky. changed to native sky." principal stiches changed to principal stitches thread with out changed to thread without gathering changed to gathering. are gathered, then changed to are gathered. then appropriate situations changed to appropriate situations. intricate to describle changed to intricate to describe must take grest changed to must take great visiter changed to visitor colico, ore changed to calico, are adies' night jackets. changed to ladies' night jackets. wrong, side changed to wrong side plain scarf changed to plain scarf. another meth d changed to another method into the other, changed to into the other. in the middle changed to in the middle. like a star changed to like a star. painting in oil, changed to painting in oil. cross stitch changed to cross stitch. this is a stich changed to this is a stitch arrangment changed to arrangement same color changed to same color. unavailable repentance changed to unavailable repentance. increas-increasing changed to increasing inprovement changed to improvement is complete changed to is complete. ane xtremly changed to an extremely fn -* the footnote marker was missing on the footnote chenille embroidery changed to chenille embroidery. perseverence changed to perseverance restored to changed to resorted to braided with ther changed to braided with their lavendar changed to lavender chapter x changed to chapter x. considerable size changed to considerable size. assidously changed to assiduously the, first changed to the first forgotton changed to forgotten incovenience changed to inconvenience lee., m. a, changed to lee, m. a., first intoduction changed to first introduction the means changed to the means, pearl stitch changed to pearl stitch. note, in cas tingon changed to note, in casting on other three stiches changed to other three stitches that tbe pins changed to that the pins previous methods changed to previous methods. stitches, you choose changed to stitches you choose taking careto changed to taking care to loops, and kniting changed to loops, and knitting knit three siitches changed to knit three stitches preceeding changed to preceding five rows o changed to five rows of ancle changed to ankle each stitch; the changed to each stitch. the fringe and borber changed to fringe and border knitting three stiches changed to knitting three stitches when it ouccurs changed to when it occurs pattern for a light scarf changed to pattern for a light scarf. generaly changed to generally every other stich changed to every other stitch eleventh row plain changed to eleventh row plain. make a siitch changed to make a stitch knit two togteher changed to knit two together twenty-seeond changed to twenty-second bottom of the preceeding changed to bottom of the preceding for the fouth changed to for the fourth principal beauty changed to principal beauty. the end work changed to the end. work you every is missing a word, probably "work." this change was not made in the text succeding changed to succeeding ninety-eight stiiches changed to ninety-eight stitches net seven stiches changed to net seven stitches double silk changed to double silk. to the whole, changed to to the whole. loop net changed to loop. net can be be varied changed to can be varied each square, changed to each square. back or the changed to back of the loose in each changed to lose in each to increase or decrease a stitch. changed to to increase or decrease a stitch. conceal the the half changed to conceal the half means meaking changed to means making this is done it changed to this is done in same color changed to same color. take you tatting changed to take your tatting of a highe changed to of a higher puposes of selfish changed to purposes of selfish sooth changed to soothe bedroom changed to bed-room ---- on gathers changed to ---- ---- on gathers tatting edging changed to tatting edging, fan-tail changed to fantail travelling cap changed to travelling cap, imitation network changed to imitation net-work the index has been standardized to have a , between the index entry and the page number. the following words had inconsistent spelling and hyphenation. cross-way / crossway honey-comb / honeycomb indispensible / indispensable needle-woman / needlewoman needle-work / needlework net-work / network pin-cushion / pincushion vitalized / vitalised 	transcriber's note: the printed errata have been corrected in the text. a few additional printer's errors have been corrected, details of the corrections can be found at the end of this e-text. * * * * * art in needlework text-books of ornamental design art in needlework a book about embroidery by lewis f. day author of 'windows,' 'alphabets,' 'nature in ornament' and other text-books of ornamental design & mary buckle london: b. t. batsford high holborn bradbury, agnew, & co. ld., printers, london and tonbridge. preface. embroidery may be looked at from more points of view than it would be possible in a book like this to take up seriously. merely to hover round the subject and glance casually at it would serve no useful purpose. it may be as well, therefore, to define our standpoint: we look at the art from its practical side, not, of course, neglecting the artistic, for the practical use of embroidery is to be beautiful. the custom has been, since woman learnt to kill time with the needle, to think of embroidery too much as an idle accomplishment. it is more than that. at the very least it is a handicraft: at the best it is an art. this contention may be to take it rather seriously; but if one esteemed it less it would hardly be worth writing about, and the book, when written, would not be worth the attention of students of embroidery, needleworkers, and designers of needlework to whom it is addressed. it sets forth to show what decorative stitching is, how it is done, and what it can do. it is illustrated by samplers of stitches; by diagrams, to explain the way stitches are done; and by examples of old and modern work, to show the artistic application of the stitches. a feature in the book is the series of samplers designed to show not only what are the available stitches, but the groups into which they naturally gather themselves, as well as the use to which they may be put: and the back of the sampler is given too: the reader has only to turn the page to see the other side of the stitching--which to a needlewoman is often the more helpful. lest that should not be enough, the stitches are described in the text, and a marginal note shows at a glance where the description is given. this should be read needle and thread in hand--or skipped. samplers and other examples of needlework are uniformly on a scale large enough to show the stitch quite plainly. the examples of old work illustrate always, in the first place, some point of workmanship; still they are chosen with some view to their artistic interest. in other respects art is not overlooked; but it is art in harness. design is discussed with reference to stitch and stuff, and stitch and stuff with reference to their use in ornament. it has been endeavoured also to show the effect needlework has had upon pattern, and the ways in which design is affected by the circumstance that it is to be embroidered. the joint authorship of the work needs, perhaps, a word of explanation. this is not just a man's book on a woman's subject. the scheme of it is mine, and i have written it, but with the co-operation throughout of miss mary buckle. our classification of the stitches is the result of many a conference between us. the description of the way the stitches are worked, and so forth, is my rendering of her description, supplemented by practical demonstration with the needle. she has primed me with technical information, and been always at hand to keep me from technical error. with reference to design and art i speak for myself. my thanks are due to the authorities at south kensington for allowing us to handle the treasures of the national collection, and to photograph them for illustration; to mrs. walter crane, miss mabel keighley, and miss c. p. shrewsbury, for permission to reproduce their handiwork; to miss argles, mrs. buxton morrish, colonel green, r.e., and messrs. morris and co., for the loan of work belonging to them; and to miss chart for working the cross-stitch sampler. i must also acknowledge the part my daughter has had in the production of this book: without her constant help it could never have been written. lewis f. day. _january st, ._ contents. chap. page . embroidery and embroidery stitches . canvas stitches . crewel-stitch . chain-stitch . herring-bone-stitch . buttonhole-stitch . feather and oriental stitches . rope and knot stitches . interlacings, surface stitches, and diapers . satin-stitch and its offshoots . darning . laid-work . couching . couched gold . appliquÉ . inlay, mosaic, and cut-work . embroidery in relief . raised gold . quilting . stitch groups . one stitch or many? . outline . shading . figure embroidery . the direction of the stitch . church work . a plea for simplicity . embroidery design . embroidery materials . a word to the worker descriptive list of illustrations. . tapestry--to illustrate work on a warp not on a web. from akhmin in upper egypt. ancient coptic. (in the victoria and albert museum.) . drawn-work on fine linen, embroidered with gold and colour. oriental. (from the collection of mrs. lewis f. day.) . darning and satin-stitch on square mesh--the darning leaf, green, follows the lines of the stuff; outlined with yellow, veined with pink and white; stem, yellow, its foliation pink, outlined with white, and ribbed with blue and white. italian. th century. (v. & a. m.) . cross-stitch upon linen. hungarian. compare illustration . . cross-stitch sampler--a and b, solid; c, line work; d, stroke-stitch--called also holbein-stitch; e, stroke and cross stitches combined. . canvas-stitch in coloured silk upon linen. the band italian, the foliated diaper oriental. (mrs. l. f. d.) . canvas-stitch--design comparatively free, but showing in its outline the influence of the rectangular lines of the weaving. cretan. (mrs. l. f. d.) . canvas-stitch sampler--a, tent-stitch; b, half-cross-stitch; c, cushion-stitch; d, moorish-stitch, so called; e, plait-stitch; f, couching on canvas. . cushion and satin-stitches upon canvas--the satin-stitches follow the lines of the stuff, and form a diaper built upon them. compare illustration . . two varieties of canvas-stitch, the pattern in the bare linen, the background worked--a, plait-stitch, the ornament outlined; b, stitches drawn tightly together so as to pull the threads of the linen apart, giving very much the effect of drawn-work. compare illustration . (mrs. l. f. d.) . crewel-stitch sampler--a and c, crewel-stitch; b and d, outline-stitch; e, back-stitch; f, spots; g and h, stem-stitch; j, crewel and outline-stitches in combination. . back of crewel-stitch sampler. . crewel-work--the stem only worked in crewel-stitch. embroidered in green, blue, and brown wools upon white cotton. old english. (coll. of miss argles.) . crewel-work, in which crewel-stitch hardly occurs. embroidered in coloured wools upon white cotton. old english. (coll. of j. m. knapp, esq.) . crewel-stitch in twisted silk. the scroll in green upon a brownish-purple ground; the smaller leafage upon the scroll in brighter green; the flowers and butterflies in blue and pink. modern. (mrs. l. f. day.) . chain-stitch and knots--part of the same piece of work as illustration . indian. (v. & a. m.) . chain-stitch sampler--a, chain-stitch solid and in line; b, magic stitch; c, church chain; d, cable chain; e, vandyke chain; f, mountmellic chain; g, mountmellic cable--all so called. . back of chain-stitch sampler. . chain and surface stitches--the latter a kind of buttonholing, only occasionally worked _in_to the stuff. part of a lectern cover in white thread upon a thin, greyish white linen stuff. german, th century. (v. & a. m.) . herringbone sampler--a, b, c, varieties of herring-bone; d, a combination of a and c; e, fishbone; f, a close variety of a; g, tapestry stitch, so called. . back of herringbone sampler. . buttonhole sampler--a, b, c, ordinary buttonhole and variations upon it; d, two rows of buttonhole worked slanting one into the other; e, crossed buttonhole; f, tailor's buttonhole; g, ladder (called also cretan) stitch; h, herringbone buttonhole; j, buttonhole diaper. . back of buttonhole sampler. . buttonhole, chain, and knot stitches--chiefly in white floss silk on dark purple satin, with touches of crimson at the points from which the stitches radiate. the rings on the outer ground are not worked, but done in the dyeing of the satin. part of the same piece of work as . modern indian from surat. (v. & a. m.) . feather-stitch sampler--a to g, ordinary feather-stitch and its variations; g g, feather chain. . back of feather-stitch sampler. . oriental-stitch sampler--a to e, oriental-stitch and its varieties; f, oriental-stitch worked into buttonhole; g, not properly a form of oriental-stitch, though bearing some resemblance to it. . back of oriental-stitch sampler. . rope and knot-stitch sampler--a, rope-stitch; b, open rope-stitch; c, what is called german knot-stitch; d, open german knot-stitch; e, old english knot-stitch, so called; f, bullion-stitch; g, french knots. . back of rope and knot-stitch sampler. . a tour-de-force in knots--worked entirely in the one stitch; the drawing lines expressed by voiding. in white and coloured silks upon a very dark blue ground. chinese. (mrs. l. f. d.) . interlacing-stitch sampler--a, interlaced crewel-stitch; b, interlaced back-stitch; c, back-stitch twice interlaced; d, interlaced chain-stitch; e, interlaced darning; f, interlaced herringbone; g, herringbone twice interlaced; h, an interlaced version of c in illustration ; j, interlaced oriental-stitch; k, interlaced feather-stitch. . back of interlacing sampler. . surface-stitch sampler--a, d, g, various surface stitches; b, surface buttonhole; h and c, surface darning; e, japanese darning, as it is called; f, net passing; j, surface buttonhole over bars; k, surface buttonhole over slanting stitches. . lace or surface-stitch and satin-stitch, much of it worn away. in straw-coloured floss upon pale blue silk. part of a dress. french. late th century. (mrs. l. f. d.) . satin-stitch sampler--worked in floss, the stitch in various directions, to give different effects. incidentally it shows various ways of breaking up a surface in satin-stitch. compare with illustration , which shows the effect of the stitch in twisted silk. . back of satin-stitch sampler. . satin-stitch in coarse twisted silk. . satin-stitch in twisted silk--outlines voided. worked in white and occasional red and yellow upon black satin. indian. modern. (v. & a. m.) . satin-stitch and, on the birds' bodies, plumage-stitch--the ends of the stalks worked in french knots; the veins of the leaves in fine white cords laid on to the satin stitch. the outlines voided, and the voiding occasionally worked across with stitches wide enough apart to show the ground between. in white and bright-coloured silk floss upon a black satin ground. chinese. (mrs. l. f. d.) . sampler--showing offshoots from satin and crewel stitches, and incidentally illustrating various ways of shading. a, crewel-stitch; b, plumage-stitch, worked in the hand; c, split-stitch; d, plumage-stitch, worked in the frame. . back of sampler . . darning sampler--except in the background the stitches follow the lines of the drawing, regardless of the weaving of the stuff. the customary outlining of the pattern is here omitted, to show how far it may, or may not, be needful. . darning--designed by william morris. in delicate colours upon a sea-green ground, outlined with black and white. part of the border of a table-cloth, the property of messrs. morris & co. . flat darning--solid and open, following the lines of a square mesh, and stepping in tune with it; the outline voided; all in white thread. old german. (gewerbs museum, munich.) . laid-work sampler, showing various ways (split-stitch and couching) in which the sewing down may be done, and the various directions it may take--vertical, horizontal, following the ornamental forms, or crossing them. . laid-work--the couching crosses the flower forms in straight lines; and in the eye of the flower where the threads cross, the two are sewn down at a single stitch. the spiral stems a sort of laid cord. flower in blue, sewn with blue and outlined with gold; leaves, a bright fresh green stitched with olive. japanese. (v. & a. m.) . laid-work. the sewing down of the leaves crosses them in curved lines which suggest roundness. the stem in gold basket pattern. part of a coverlet. worked upon a cedar-coloured ground chiefly in dark blue and white, the blue couched with white, the white and other colours couched with red. indo-portuguese. th century. (v. & a. m.) . laid-work and some surface-stitch. the stitching which sews down the floss takes the direction of the scroll, &c., and gives drawing. the surface work in the stems is done upon a ladder of stitches across. part of a chalice veil. italian. early th century. (v. & a. m.) . laid-work sampler--the straight lines of laid floss varied in colour to suggest shading. the stalk padded, and the pattern made by the stitching upon it thereby emphasised. . bullion and couched cord--a, the somewhat loose design of the border in bullion shows rather plainly the way it is done. b, the solid discs of spiral cord are unusual, but most characteristic of the method of couching. the stitches sewing down the cord are not apparent. oriental. (mrs. l. f. d.) . sampler of couched silk--the broad central band and the narrow beaded lines are in floss, and show the effect of sewing it more or less tightly down. the two intermediate bands are in cord couched with threads in the direction of its twist, not very easily distinguishable unless by contrast of colour. . couching in looped threads--the effect is not unlike that of chain-stitch or fine knotting. rather over actual size. worked in bright colours upon a pale green crêpe ground. chinese. (mrs. l. f. d.) . reverse couching--showing on the face of it no sign of couching. (after the manner of the syon cope.) . back of reverse couching--showing the parallel lines of couched linen thread which sew down the silk upon the surface (illustration ). the zigzag pattern of the stitching might equally well have taken other lines. . couched gold sampler--a, b, c, d, flat work; e, part flat, part raised; f, g, h, j, basket and other patterns raised over cords. . couching in various diaper patterns, outlined in part with "plate." silver on pale pink silk. (coll. of mrs. t. buxton morrish.) . gold couching in open threads--a, the lines of gold which form a scale pattern on the dragon's body, are wide enough apart to let the red ground grin through. elsewhere the couching, contrary to mediæval practice, follows the shapes, line within line until they are occupied. the floss embroidery, in white and colours, is in surface-satin-stitch. chinese. b, the open lines of gold look somehow richer than if the metal had been worked solid upon the crimson ground. old venetian. (mrs. l. f. d.) . couched outline work; only an occasional detail worked solid; suggests damascening. the border is in gold, the filling in silver, thread on a greyish-green velvet. part of an italian housing or saddlecloth. th century. (v. & a. m.) . appliquÉ--satin upon velvet, outlined with two threads of gold couching. . appliquÉ panel--designed and executed by miss mabel keighley, illustrating a poem by william morris. (the property of the artist.) . a. counter-change pattern, inlay or appliquÉ.--yellow satin and crimson velvet. the outline, which is in gold, falls chiefly upon the yellow, so as not to disturb the exact balance of light and dark, which it is essential to preserve in counter-change. part of a stole. spanish. th century (v. & a. m.) b. appliquÉ, of deep crimson velvet upon white satin, outlined with paler red cord. the outlines, meeting together, form a stem of double cord. italian. th century. (v. & a. m.) . appliquÉ, with couched outline, and stitching upon the appliqué band or ribbon. the dots in the centre of the grapes are french knots. the pattern is in satin of various colours, upon a figured green silk damask, outlined with yellow silk sewn down with yellow. italian. (v. & a. m.) . inlay in coloured cloths, outlined with chain stitch. magic stitch also occurs. a characteristic example of the kind of work done at retsht, in persia. (mrs. l. f. d.) . cut-work in linen--a fret of this kind was often outlined with coloured silk, and the detail within the fretted outline further embroidered in coloured silk. (coll. of mrs. drake.) . sampler of raised work, showing underlays: a, of cloth; b, of twisted cords; c, of parchment; d, of cotton wool; e, first of cotton cord and then of cotton thread; f, of cord; g, of string; h, of sewing. . raised work, showing underlay of linen, and the way it is sewn down--the work is in flax thread, red, yellow, and white, upon a blue linen ground. the stem is dotted with white beads, the ground with gold spangles. part of an altar frontal. german. th century. (v. & a. m.) . raised gold basket patterns, &c., upon white satin. the stalk in flat wire. spanish. th century. (mrs. l. f. d.) . quilt, worked in chain-stitch from the back--which has precisely the effect of back-stitch. yellow silk upon white linen. old english. (v. & a. m.) . raised quilting, in black silk upon pale sea-green satin. part of the border of a prayer cushion. old persian. (mrs. l. f. d.) . diaper of satin-stitch in the making--something between canvas-stitch and satin-stitch. the leafage is in tent-stitch. compare with illustration . (v. & a. m.) . stitches in combination--among them oriental, ladder, buttonhole, chain, crewel, satin, and herringbone stitches, worked in dark blue silk upon unbleached linen. old cretan, so called. (mrs. l. f. d.) . fine needlework upon cambric--the substance of which is apparent upon the upper edge of the work. in the ground-work of the pattern generally the threads are drawn together to form an open net. the stitches occurring in the collar of which this is part are, buttonhole, satin, chain, herringbone, cross, and back stitches. the outline is mostly in fine cross-stitch. nothing could exceed the delicacy of the workmanship, which is in its kind perfect. old english. (coll. of col. green, r.e.) . part of a design by walter crane, cunningly adapted to execution in needlework. shows the direction of the stitch, and the part it can be made to play in expressing form. worked in coloured silks upon linen by mrs. walter crane, whose property the work is. . shading in chain-stitch in silk and chenille upon a satin ground. the shading very deliberately schemed by the designer. in natural colours upon white. french. louis seize. (v. & a. m.) . shading in short stitches; picturesque to the point of a touch of white in the glistening yellow of the dove's eye. chenille, in chain-stitch, is used for the wreath and in the leaves of the flower sprigs. these are in colours, the birds are in silvery greys, all on a white satin ground. french. louis seize. (v. & a. m.) . shading in long-and-short and split stitches, with more regard to expression of form than to neatness of execution. german. th century. (v. & a. m.) . chain-stitch, showing in the figures of the little men what a draughtsman can express in a few stitches. full size. chinese. (mrs. l. f. d.) . figure work--the flesh in straight upright stitches, the drapery laid and couched. english. th century. (v. & a. m.) . consummate figure embroidery--canvas ground entirely covered. flesh in coloured silks, short-stitch; drapery coloured silks over gold, which only gleams through in the lighter parts. architecture closely couched gold. part of an orphrey. florentine. th century. (v. & a. m.) . chinese figures--the flesh in short satin-stitches, the rest in chain-stitch; chiefly in blue and white upon a figured white silk ground. about actual size. (mrs. l. f. d.) . satin-stitch, showing the influence of its direction upon the tone of colour. the pattern is all in one shade of yellow-brown floss upon white linen. the outline steps with the weaving, and so shows connection between satin and canvas stitches. italian, th century. (v. & a. m.) . meaningless direction of stitch--satin and herring-bone stitches. from an altar-cloth. german. th century. (v. & a. m.) . more expressive lines of stitching--to compare with illustration . . satin and plumage stitches chiefly, the bird's crest in french knots, the clouds about him in knotted braid. the direction of the stitch is most artfully chosen, and the precision of the work is faultless. the satin ground is of brilliant orange-red; the crane, white, with black tail feathers, scarlet crest, and yellow beak and legs; the clouds, black and white and blue. japanese. (mrs. l. f. d.) . renaissance church work in gold and silver, partly flat, partly in relief, upon pale blue satin, with touches of pink and crimson silk to give emphasis. spanish. th century. compare the stem with illustration , b. (v. & a. m.) . gothic church work--the flesh, &c., in split-stitch; the vine-leaves green, getting yellower as it nears the crimson silk ground. part of a cope embroidered with a representation of the tree of jesse. english. ca. . (v. & a. m.) . modern church work on linen, in long-and-short stitch. veins padded with embroidery cotton and worked over with two threads of filo-floss, a green and a blue; the rest of the leaves worked in one shade of stout floss. all this applied to velvet with a couching of brown filoselle, and the tendrils added. designed and executed by miss c. p. shrewsbury. (the property of the artist.) . simple stitching on linen, the broader bands in a canvas stitch in yellow, the finer lines in back-stitch in pale grey silk. italian. (mrs. l. f. d.) . simple couched outline work, in purplish silk cord upon linen. part of an altar-cloth. italian. th century. (v. & a. m.) . renaissance ornament--most gracefully designed arabesque. the raised outline (couched) has somewhat the effect of cloisons, the satin-stitch (in colours) of brilliant enamel. it is upon a white satin ground. the foreshortened face in the picture is _painted_ upon satin. italian. ca. . (v. & a. m.) . appliquÉ design, in yellow satin upon crimson velvet--double outline; next the red, white, sewn with pale blue; next the yellow, gold. midrib of the leaf couched silver. spanish, th century. (v. & a. m.) . satin-stitch--except that the heart-shaped features at the base and the lily-shaped flowers, of which only the tips are shown, are outlined with fine white cord. part of a fan, worked by miss buckle, from a design by l. f. d. (the property of the worker.) . leather appliquÉ upon velvet--the stitching well within the edge of the leather. errata. page . diagram belongs to g (stem-stitch) described on page , not c (thick crewel-stitch). page , nd line. for "lower" read "upper." art in needlework. embroidery and stitching. embroidery begins with the needle, and the needle (thorn, fish-bone, or whatever it may have been) came into use so soon as ever savages had the wit to sew skins and things together to keep themselves warm--modesty, we may take it, was an afterthought--and if the stitches made any sort of pattern, as coarse stitching naturally would, that was _embroidery_. the term is often vaguely used to denote all kinds of ornamental needlework, and some with which the needle has nothing to do. that is misleading; though it is true that embroidery does touch, on the one side, _tapestry_, which may be described as a kind of embroidery with the shuttle, and, on the other, _lace_, which is needlework pure and simple, construction "in the air" as the italian name has it. the term is used in common parlance to express any kind of superficial or superfluous ornamentation. a poet is said to embroider the truth. but such metaphorical use of the word hints at the real nature of the work--embellishment, enrichment, _added_. if added, there must first of all be something it is added _to_--the material, that is to say, on which the needlework is done. in weaving (even tapestry weaving) the pattern is got by the inter-threading of warp and weft. in lace, too, it is got out of the threads which make the stuff. in embroidery it is got by threads worked _on_ a fabric first of all woven on the loom, or, it might be, netted. there is inevitably a certain amount of overlapping of the crafts. for instance, take a form of embroidery common in all countries, eastern, hungarian, or nearer home, in which certain of the weft threads of the linen are _drawn out_, and the needlework is executed upon the warp threads thus revealed. this is, strictly speaking, a sort of tapestry with the needle, just as, it was explained, tapestry itself may be described as a sort of embroidery with the shuttle. that will be clearly seen by reference to illustration , which shows a fragment of ancient tapestry found in a coptic tomb in upper egypt. in the lower portion of it the pattern appears light on dark. as a matter of fact, it was wrought in white and red upon a linen warp; but, as it happened, only the white threads were of linen, like the warp, the red were woollen, and in the course of fifteen hundred years or so much of this red wool has perished, leaving the white pattern intact on the warp, the threads of which are laid bare in the upper part of the illustration. [illustration: . tapestry, showing warp.] it is on just such upright lines of warp that all tapestry, properly so called, is worked--whether with the shuttle or with the needle makes no matter--and there is good reason, therefore, for the name of "tapestry stitch" to describe needlework upon the warp threads only of a material (usually linen) from which some of the weft threads have been _withdrawn_. the only difference between true tapestry and drawn work, an example of which is here given, is, that the one is done on a warp that has not before been woven upon, and the other on a warp from which the weft threads have been _drawn_. the distinction, therefore, between tapestry and embroidery is, that, worked on a warp, as in illustration , it is tapestry; worked on a mesh, as in illustration , it is embroidery. [illustration: . drawn work.] with regard, again, to lace. that is itself a web, independent of any groundwork or foundation to support it. but it is possible to work it _over_ a silken or other surface; and there is a kind of embroidery which only floats on the surface of the material without penetrating it. a fragment of last century silk given in illustration shows plainly what is meant. [illustration: . stitching on a square mesh.] embroidery is enrichment by means of the needle. to embroider is to work _on_ something: a groundwork is presupposed. and we usually understand by embroidery, needlework in thread (it may be wool, cotton, linen, silk, gold, no matter what) upon a textile material, no matter what. in short, it is the decoration of a material woven in thread by means still of thread. it is thus _the_ consistent way of ornamenting stuff--most consistent of all when one kind of thread is employed throughout, as in the case of linen upon linen, silk upon silk. the enrichment may, however, rightly be, and oftenest is, perhaps, in a material nobler than the stuff enriched, in silk upon linen, in wool upon cotton, in gold upon velvet. the advisability of working upon a precious stuff in thread _less_ precious is open to question. it does not seem to have been satisfactorily done; but if it were only the background that was worked, and the pattern were so schemed as almost to cover it, so that, in fact, very little of the more beautiful texture was sacrificed, and you had still a sumptuous pattern on a less attractive background--why not? but then it would be because you wanted that less precious texture there. the excuse of economy would scarcely hold good. in the case of a material in itself unsightly, the one course is to cover it entirely with stitching, as did the persian and other untireable people of the east. but not they only. the famous syon cope is so covered. much of the work so done, all-over work that is to say, competes in effect with tapestry or other weaving; and its purpose was similar: it is a sort of amateur way of working your own stuff. but in character it is no more nearly related to the work of the loom than other needlework--it is still work _on_ stuff. for all-over embroidery one chooses, naturally, a coarse canvas ground to work on; but it more often happens that one chooses canvas because one means to cover it, than that one works all over a ground because it is unpresentable. embroidery is merely an affair of stitching; and the first thing needful alike to the worker in it and the designer for it is, a thorough acquaintance with the stitches; not, of course, with every modification of a modification of a stitch which individual ingenuity may have devised--it would need the space of an encyclopædia to chronicle them all--but with the broadly marked varieties of stitch which have been employed to best purpose in ornament. they are derived, naturally, from the stitches first used for quite practical and prosaic purposes--buttonhole stitch, for example, to keep the edges of the stuff from fraying; herring-bone, to strengthen and disguise a seam; darning, to make good a worn surface; and so on. the difficulty of discussing them is greatly increased by the haphazard way in which they are commonly named. a stitch is called greek, spanish, mexican, or what not, according to the country whence came the work in which some one first found it. each names it after his or her individual discovery, or calls it, perhaps, vaguely oriental; and so we have any number of names for the same stitch, names which to different people stand often for quite different stitches. when this confusion is complicated by the invention of a new name for every conceivable combination of thread-strokes, or for each slightest variation upon an old stitch, and even for a stitch worked from left to right instead of from right to left, or for a stitch worked rather longer than usual, the task of reducing them to order seems almost hopeless. nor do the quasi-learned descriptions of old stitches help us much. one reads about _opus_ this and _opus_ that, until one begins to wonder where, amidst all this parade of science, art comes in. but you have not far to go in the study of the authorities to discover that, though they may concur in using certain high-sounding latin terms, they are not of the same mind as to their meaning. in one thing they all agree, foreign writers as well as english, and that is, as to the difficulty of identifying the stitch referred to by ancient writers, themselves probably not acquainted with the _technique_ of stitching, and as likely as not to call it by a wrong name. it is easier, for example, to talk of _opus anglicanum_ than to say precisely what it was, further than that it described work done in england; and for that we have the simple word--english. there is nothing to show that mediæval english work contained stitches not used elsewhere. the stitches probably all come from the east. nomenclature, then, is a snare. why not drop titles, and call stitches by the plainest and least mistakable names? it will be seen, if we reduce them to their native simplicity, that they fall into fairly-marked groups, or families, which can be discussed each under its own head. stitches may be grouped in all manner of arbitrary ways--according to their provenance, according to their effect, according to their use, and so on. the most natural way of grouping them is according to their structure; not with regard to whence they came, or what they do, but according to what they are, the way they are worked. this, at all events, is no arbitrary classification, and this is the plan it is proposed here to adopt. the use of such classification hardly needs pointing out. a survey of the stitches is the necessary preliminary, either to the design or to the execution of needlework. how else suit the design to the stitch, the stitch to the design? in order to do the one the artist must be quite at home among the stitches; in order to do the other the embroidress must have sympathy enough with a design to choose the stitch or stitches which will best render it. an artist who thinks the working out of his sketch none of his business is no practical designer; the worker who thinks design a thing apart from her is only a worker. this is not the moment to urge upon the needlewoman the study of design, but to urge upon the designer the study of stitches. nothing is more impractical than to make a design without realising the labour involved in its execution. any one not in sympathy with stitching may possibly design a beautiful piece of needlework, but no one will get all that is to be got out of the needle without knowing all about it. one must understand the ways in which work can be done in order to determine the way it shall in any particular case be done. certain stitches answer certain purposes, and strictly only those. the designer must know which stitch answers which purpose, or he will in the first place waste the labour of the embroidress, and in the second miss his effect, which is to waste his own pains too. the effective worker (designer or embroiderer) is the one who works with judgment--and you cannot judge unless you know. when it is remembered that the character of needlework, and by rights also the character of its design, depends upon the stitch, there will be no occasion to insist further upon the necessity of a comprehensive survey of the stitches. a stitch may be defined as the thread left on the surface of the cloth or what not, after each ply of the needle. and the simple straightforward stitches of this kind are not so many as one might suppose. they may be reduced indeed to a comparatively few types, as will be seen in the following chapters. canvas stitches. the simplest, as it is most likely the earliest used, stitch-group is what might best be called canvas stitch--of which cross-stitch is perhaps the most familiar type, the class of stitches which come of following, as it is only natural to do, the mesh of a coarse canvas, net, or open web upon which the work is done. a stitch bears always, or should bear, some relation to the material on which it is worked; but canvas or very coarse linen almost compels a stitch based upon the cross lines of its woof, and indeed suggests designs of equally rigid construction. that is so in embroidery no matter where. in ancient byzantine or coptic work, in modern cretan work, and in peasant embroidery all the world over, pattern work on coarse linen has run persistently into angular lines--in which, because of that very angularity, the plain outcome of a way of working, we find artistic character. artistic design is always expressive of its mode of workmanship. work of this kind is not too lightly to be dismissed. there is art in the rendering of form by means of angular outlines, art in the choice of forms which can be expressed by such lines. it is not uncharitable to surmise that one reason why such work (once so universal and now quite out of fashion) is not popular with needlewomen may be, the demand it makes upon the designer's draughtmanship: it is much easier, for example, to draw a stag than to render the creature satisfactorily within jagged lines determined by a linen mesh. [illustration: . cross-stitch.] the piquancy about natural or other forms thus reduced to angularity argues, of course, no affectation of quaintness on the part of the worker, but was the unavoidable outcome of her way of work. there is a pronounced and early limit to art of this rather naïve kind, but that there is art in some of the very simplest and most modest peasant work built up on those lines no artist will deny. the art in it is usually in proportion to its modesty. nothing is more futile than to put it to anything like pictorial purpose. the wonderfully wrought pictures in tent-stitch, for example, bequeathed to us by the th century, are painful object lessons in what not to do. the origin of the term cross-stitch is not far to seek: the stitches worked upon the square mesh do cross. but, falling naturally into the lines of the mesh which governs them, they present not so much the appearance of crosses as of squares, reminding one of the tesseræ employed in mosaic. [sidenote: to work cross stitch.] to explain the process of working cross-stitch would be teaching one's grandmother indeed. it is simply, as its name implies, crossing one stitch by another, following always the lines of the canvas. but the important thing about it is that the stitches must cross always in the same way; and, more than that, they must be worked in the same direction, or the mere fact that the stitches at the _back_ of the work do not run in the same way will disturb the evenness of the surface. what looks like a seam on the sampler opposite is the result of filling up a gap in the ground with stitches necessarily worked in vertical, whereas the ground generally is in horizontal, lines. on the face of the work the stitches cross all in the same way. the common use of cross-stitch and the somewhat geometric kind of pattern to which it lends itself are shown in the sampler, illustration . the broad and simple leafage, worked solid (a) or left in the plain canvas upon a groundwork of solid stitching (b), and the fretted diaper on vertical and horizontal lines (c), show the most straightforward ways of using it. [illustration: . cross-stitch sampler.] the criss-cross of alternating cross-stitches and open canvas framed by the key pattern (c) shows a means of getting something like a tint halfway between solid work and plain ground. the mere work line--or "stroke-stitch," not crossed (d), is a perfectly fair way of getting a delicate effect; but the design has a way of working out rather less happily than it promised. the addition of such stroke-stitches to solid cross-stitch (e) is not at best a very happy device. it strikes one always as a confession of dissatisfaction on the part of the worker with the simple means of her choice. as a device for, as it were, correcting the stepped outline it is at its worst. timid workers are always afraid of the stepped outline which a coarse mesh gives. in that they are wrong. one should employ canvas stitch only where there is no objection to a line which keeps step with the canvas; then there is a positive charm (for frank people at least) in the frank confession of the way the work is done. there are many degrees in the frankness with which this convention has been accepted, according perhaps to the coarseness of the canvas ground, perhaps to the personality of the worker. the animal forms at the top of illustration are uncompromisingly square; the floral devices on the same page, though they fall, as it were inevitably, into square lines, are less rigidly formal. the inevitableness of the square line is apparent in the sprig below ( ). it was evidently meant to be freely drawn, but the influence of the mesh betrays itself; and the design, if it loses something in grace, gains also thereby in character. [illustration: . canvas-stitch.] [illustration: . canvas-stitch.] there is literally no end to the variety of stitches, as they are called, belonging to this group, and their names are a babel of confusion. florentine, parisian, hungarian, spanish, moorish, cashmere, milanese, gobelin, are only a few of them; but they stand, as a rule, rather for stitch arrangements than for stitches. a small selection of them is given in illustration . [sidenote: tent-stitch a.] what is known as tent-stitch (a in the sampler opposite) is a sort of half cross-stitch; its peculiarity is that it covers only one thread of the canvas at a stroke, and is therefore on a more minute scale than stitches which are two or three threads wide, as cross-stitch may, and cushion-stitch must, be. it derives its name from the old word tenture, or tenter (_tendere_, to stretch), the frame on which the embroidress distended her canvas. the word has gone out of use, but we still speak of tenter-hooks. the stitch is serviceable enough in its way, but is discredited by the monstrous abuse of it referred to already. a picture in tent-stitch is even more foolish than a picture in mosaic. it cannot come anywhere near to pictorial effect; the tesseræ will pronounce themselves, and spoil it. [illustration: . canvas-stitch sampler.] [illustration: . cushion and satin stitches.] [sidenote: cross-stitch b.] this kind of half cross-stitch worked on the larger scale of ordinary cross-stitch would look meagre. it is filled out, therefore (b), by horizontal lines of the thread laid across the canvas, and over these the stitch is worked. [sidenote: cushion-stitch c.] cushion-stitch consists of diagonal lines of upright stitches, measuring in the sampler (c) six threads of the canvas, so that after each stitch the needle may be brought out just three threads lower than where it was put in. by working in zigzag instead of diagonal lines, a familiar pattern is produced, more often described as "florentine;" but the stitch is in any case the same. [sidenote: canvas-stitch d.] the stitch at d (sometimes called moorish stitch) is begun by working a row of short vertical stitches, slightly apart, and completed by diagonal stitches joining them. unless the silk employed is full and soft, this may not completely cover the canvas, in which case the diagonal stitches must further be crossed as shown on illustration . if the linen is loosely woven and the thread is tightly drawn in the working, the mesh is pulled apart, giving the effect of an open lattice of the kind shown at b, on illustration , in which the threads of the linen are not drawn out but drawn together. [sidenote: canvas-stitch e.] the way of working the stitch at e is described on page , under the name of "fish-bone." worked on canvas it has somewhat the effect of plaiting, and goes by the name of "plait-stitch." it is worked in horizontal rows alternately from left to right and from right to left. [sidenote: canvas-stitch f.] the stitch at f is a sort of couching (see page ). diagonal lines of thread are first laid from edge to edge of the ground space, and these are sewn down by short overcasting stitches in the cross direction. admirable canvas stitch work has been done upon linen in silk of one colour--red, green, or blue--and it was a common practice to work the background leaving the pattern in the bare stuff. it prevailed in countries lying far apart, though probably not without inter-communication. in fact, the influence of oriental work upon european has been so great that even experts hesitate sometimes to say whether a particular piece of work is turkish or italian. in italian work, at least, it was usual to get over the angularity of silhouette inherent in canvas stitches by working an outline separately. when that is thin, the effect is proportionately feeble. the broader outline (shown at a, illustration ) justifies itself, and in the case of a stitch which falls into horizontal lines, it appears to be necessary. this is plait stitch, known also by the name of spanish stitch--not that it is in any way peculiar to spain. it is allied to herring-bone-stitch, to which a special chapter is devoted. [illustration: . plait and open canvas stitches.] darning is also employed as a canvas stitch. there is beautiful th century italian work (in coloured silks on dark net of the very open square mesh of the period), which is most effective, and in which there is no pretence of disguising the stepped outline; and in the very early days of christian art in egypt and byzantium, linen was darned in little square tufts of wool upstanding on its surface, which look so much like the tesseræ of mosaic that it seems as if they must have been worked in deliberate imitation of it. again, in the th century satin-stitch was worked on fine linen with strict regard to the lines of its web; and the persians, ancient and modern, embroider white silk upon linen, also in satin-stitch, preserving piously the rectangular and diagonal lines given by the material. they have their reward in producing most characteristic needlework. the diapered ground in illustration (page ) is satin-stitch upon coarse linen. the filling-in patterns used to such delicate and dainty purpose in the marvellous work on fine cambric (illustration ) which competes in effect with lace, though it is strictly embroidery, all follow in their design the lines of the fabric, and are worked thread by thread according to its woof: they afford again instances of perfect adaptation of stitch to material and of design to stitch. satin and other stitches were worked by the old italians (illustration ) on square-meshed canvas, frankly on the square lines given by it, for the filling in of ornamental details, though the outline might be much less formal. that is to say, the surface of freely-drawn leaves, &c., instead of being worked solid, was diapered over with more or less open pattern work constructed on the lines of the weaving. a cunning use of the square mesh of canvas has sometimes been made to guide the worker upon other fabrics, such as velvet. this was first faced with net: the design was then worked, over that, on to and into the velvet, and the threads of the canvas were then drawn out. that is a device which may serve on occasion. the design may even be traced upon the net. crewel-stitch. for work in the hand, crewel-stitch is perhaps, on the whole, the easiest and most useful of stitches; whence it comes that people sometimes vaguely call all embroidery crewel work; though, as a matter of fact, the stitch properly so called was never very commonly employed, even when the work was done in "crewel," the double thread of twisted wool from which it takes its name. [illustration: the working of a on crewel-stitch sampler.] [illustration: . crewel-stitch sampler.] [illustration: . crewel-stitch sampler (back).] [sidenote: to work a.] crewel-stitch proper is shown at a on the sampler opposite, where it is used for line work. it is worked as follows:--having made a start in the usual way, keep your thread downwards under your left thumb and below your needle--that is, to the right; then take up with the needle, say / th of an inch of the stuff, and bring it out through the hole made in starting the stitch, taking care not to pierce the thread. this gives the first half stitch. if you proceed in the same way your next stitch will be full length. the test of good workmanship is that at the back it should look like back-stitch (illustration ), described on page . [illustration: the working of b on crewel-stitch sampler.] [sidenote: to work b.] outline-stitch (b on sampler) differs from crewel-stitch only in that the thread is always kept upwards above the needle, that is to the left. in so doing the thread is apt to untwist itself, and wants constantly re-twisting. the stitch is useful for single lines and for outlining solid work. the muddled effect of much crewel work is due to the confusion of this stitch with crewel-stitch proper. [sidenote: to work c.] thick crewel-stitch (c on sampler) is only a little wider than ordinary crewel-stitch, but gives a heavier line, in higher relief. in effect it resembles rope-stitch, but it is more simply worked. you begin as in ordinary crewel-stitch, but after the first half-stitch you take up / th of an inch of the material in advance of the last stitch, and bring out your needle at the point where the first half-stitch began. you proceed, always putting your needle in / th of an inch in front of, and bringing it out / th of an inch behind, the last stitch, so as to have always / th of an inch of the stuff on your needle. [illustration: the working of g on crewel-stitch sampler.] [sidenote: to work d.] thick outline-stitch (d on sampler) is like thick crewel-stitch with the exception that, as in ordinary outline-stitch (b), you keep your thread always above the needle to the left. [sidenote: to work e.] in back-stitch (e), instead of first bringing the needle out at the point where the embroidery is to begin, you bring it out / th of an inch in advance of it. then, putting your needle back, you take up this / th together with another / th in advance. for the next stitch you put your needle into the hole made by the last stitch, and so on, taking care not to split the last thread in so doing. [sidenote: to work f.] to work the spots (f) on sampler--having made a back-stitch, bring your needle out through the same hole as before, and make another back-stitch above it, so that you have, in what appears to be one stitch, two thicknesses of thread; then bring your needle out some distance in advance of the last stitch, and proceed as before. the distance between the stitches is determined by the effect you desire to produce. the thread should not be drawn too tight. [illustration: . crewel work and crewel-stitch.] [sidenote: to work g.] you begin stem-stitch (g) with the usual half-stitch. then, holding the thread downwards, instead of proceeding as in crewel-stitch (a) you slant your needle so as to bring it out a thread or two higher up than the half-stitch, but precisely above it. you next put the needle in / th of an inch in advance of the last stitch, and, as before, bring it out again in a slanting direction a thread or two higher. at the back of the work (illustration ) the stitches lie in a slanting direction. [sidenote: to work h.] to work wider stem-stitch (h). after the first two stitches, bring your needle out precisely above and in a line with them, and put it in again / th of an inch in advance of the last stitch, producing a longer stroke, which gives the measure of those following. the slanting stitches at the back (illustration ) are only two-thirds of the length of those on the face. crewel and outline stitches worked (j) side by side give somewhat the effect of a braid. the importance of not confusing them, already referred to, is here apparent. crewel-stitch is worked solid in the heart-shape in the centre of the sampler. on the left side the rows of stitching follow the outline of the heart; on the right they are more upright, merely conforming a little to the shape to be filled. this is the better method. [illustration: . crewel work in various stitches.] [sidenote: to work solid crewel-stitch.] the way to work solid crewel-stitch will be best explained by an instance. suppose a leaf to be worked. you begin by outlining it; if it is a wide leaf, you further work a centre line where the main rib would be, and then work row within row of stitches until the space is filled. if on arriving at the point of your leaf, instead of going round the edge, you work back by the side of the first row of stitching, there results a streakiness of texture, apparent in the stem on illustration . what you get is, in effect, a combination of crewel and outline stitches, as at j, which in the other case only occurs in the centre of the shape where the files of stitches meet. to represent shading in crewel-stitch, to which it is admirably suited (a, illustration ), it is well to work from the darkest shadows to the highest lights. and it is expedient to map out on the stuff the outline of the space to be covered by each shade of thread. there is no difficulty then in working round that shape, as above explained. in solid crewel the stitches should quite cover the ground without pressing too closely one against the other. [illustration: . crewel-stitch in twisted silk.] it does not seem that englishwomen of the th century were ever very faithful to the stitch we know by the name of crewel. old examples of work done entirely in crewel-stitch, as distinguished from what is called crewel work, are seldom if ever to be met with. the stitch occurs in most of the old english embroidery in wool; but it is astonishing, when one comes to examine the quilts and curtains of a couple of hundred years or so ago, how very little of the woolwork on them is in crewel-stitch. the detail on illustration was chosen because it contained more of it than any other equal portion of a handsome and typical english hanging; but it is only in the main stem, and in some of the outlines, that the stitch is used. and that appears to have been the prevailing practice--to use crewel-stitch for stems and outlines, and for little else but the very simplest forms. the filling in of the leafage, the diapering within the leaf shapes, and the smaller and more elaborate details generally were done in long-and-short-stitch, or whatever came handiest. in fact, the thing to be represented, fruit, berry, flower, or what not, seems to have suggested the stitch, which it must be confessed was sometimes only a sort of scramble to get an effect. of course the artist always chooses her stitch, and she is free to alter it as occasion may demand; but a good workwoman (and the embroidress is a needlewoman first and an artist afterwards, perhaps) adopts in every case a method, and departs from it only for very good reason. it looks as if our ancestors had set to work without system or guiding principle at all. no doubt they got a bold and striking effect in their bed-hangings and the like; but there is in their work a lack of that conscious aim which goes to make art. theirs is art of the rather artless sort which is just now so popular. happily it was kept in the way it should go by a strict adherence to traditional pattern, which for the time being seems to have gone completely out of fashion. quite in the traditional manner is illustration . one would fancy at first sight that the work was almost entirely in crewel-stitch. as a matter of fact, there is little which answers to the name, as an examination of the back of the work shows plainly enough. what the stitches are it is not easy to say. the mystery of many a stitch is to be unravelled only by literally picking out the threads, which one is not always at liberty to do, although, in the ardour of research, a keen embroidress will do it--not without remorse in the case of beautiful work, but relentlessly all the same. the only piece of embroidery entirely in crewel-stitch which i could find for illustration ( ) is worked, as it happens, in silk; nor was the worker aware that in so working she was doing anything out of the common. another instance of crewel-stitch is given in the divided skirt, let us call it, of the personage in illustration . beautiful back-stitching occurs in the italian work on illustration , and the stitch is used for sewing down the _appliqué_ in illustration . chain-stitch. [illustration: . chain-stitch and knots.] chain and tambour stitch are in effect practically the same, and present the same rather granular surface. the difference between them is that chain-stitch is done in the hand with an ordinary needle, and tambour-stitch in a frame with a hook sharper at the turning point than an ordinary crochet hook. one takes it rather for granted that work which was presumably done in the hand (a large quilt, for example) is chain-stitch, and that what seems to have been done in a frame is tambour work, though it is possible, but not advisable of course, to work chain-stitch in a frame. chain-stitch is not to be confounded with split-stitch (see page ), which somewhat resembles it. [illustration: . chain-stitch sampler.] [illustration: . chain-stitch sampler (back).] [sidenote: to work a.] to work chain-stitch (a on the sampler, illustration ) bring the needle out, hold the thread down with the left thumb, put the needle in again at the hole through which you brought it out, take up / of an inch of stuff, and draw the thread through: that gives you the first link of the chain. the back of the work ( ) looks like back-stitch. in fact, in the quilted coverlet, illustration (as in much similar work of the period), the outline pattern, which you might take for back-stitching, proves to have been worked from the back in chain-stitch. the same thing occurs in the case of the persian quilt in illustration . [sidenote: to work b.] a playful variation upon chain-stitch (b on the sampler, illustration ) is effected by the use of two threads of different colour. take in your needle a dark and a light thread, say the dark one to the left, and bring them out at the point at which your work begins. hold the dark thread under your thumb, and, keeping the light one to the right, well out of the way, draw both threads through; this makes a dark link; the light thread disappears, and comes out again to the left of the dark one, ready to be held under the thumb while you make a light link. this "magic stitch," as it has been called, is no new invention. it is to be found in persian, indian, and italian renaissance work. an instance of it occurs in illustration . [sidenote: to work c.] a variety of chain-stitch (c on the sampler, illustration ) used often in church work, more solid in appearance, the links not being so open, is rather differently done. begin a little in advance of the starting point of your work, hold the thread under your thumb, put the needle in again at the starting point slightly to the left, bring your needle out about / th of an inch below where it first went in but precisely on the same line, and you have the first link of your chain. [sidenote: to work d.] to work what is known as cable-chain (d on the sampler, illustration ) keep your thread to the right, put in your needle, pointing downwards, a little below the starting point, and bring it out about / th of an inch below where you put it in; then put it through the little stitch just formed, from right to left, hold your thread towards the left under your thumb, put your needle through the stitch now in process of making from right to left, draw up the thread, and the first two links of your chain are made. [sidenote: to work e.] a zigzag chain, of a rather fancy description, goes by the name of vandyke chain (e on the sampler, illustration ). to make it, bring your needle out at a point which is to be the left edge of your work, and make a slanting chain-stitch from left to right; then, putting your needle into that, make another slanting stitch, this time from right to left--and so to and fro to the end. [sidenote: to work f.] the braid-stitch shown at f on the sampler (illustration ) is worked as follows, horizontally from right to left. bring your needle out at a point which is to be the lower edge of your work, throw your thread round to the left, and, keeping it all the time loosely under your thumb, put your needle under the thread and twist it once round to the right. then, at the upper edge of your work, put in the needle and slide the thread towards the right, bring the needle out exactly below where you put it in, carry your thread under the needle towards the left, draw the thread tight, and your first stitch is done. [illustration: the working of f on chain-stitch sampler.] [sidenote: to work g.] a yet more fanciful variety of braid-stitch (g on the sampler, illustration ) is worked vertically, downwards. having, as before, put your needle under the thread and twisted it once round, put it in at a point which is to be the left edge of your work, and, instead of bringing it out immediately below that point, slant it to the right, bringing it out on that edge of the work, and finish your stitch as in the case of f. these braid-stitches look best worked in stout thread of close texture. in covering a surface with chain-stitch (needlework or tambour) the usual plan is to follow the contour of the design, working chain within chain until the leaf or whatever it may be is filled in. this stitch is rarely worked in lines across the forms, but it has been effectively used in that way, following always the lines of the warp and weft of the stuff. even in that case the successive lines of stitching should be all in one direction--not running backwards and forwards--or it will result in a sort of pattern of braided lines. the reason for the more usual practice of following the outline of the design is obvious. the stitch lends itself to sweeping, even to perfectly spiral, lines--such as occur in greek wave patterns: it was, in fact, made use of in that way by the greeks some four or five centuries b.c. [illustration: the working of g on chain-stitch sampler.] [illustration: . chain and surface stitches.] we owe the tambour frame, they say, to china; but it has been largely used, and abused indeed, in england. tambour work, when once you have the trick of it, is very quickly done--in about one-sixth of the time it would take to do it with the needle. it has the further advantage that it serves equally well for embroidery on a light or on a heavy stuff, and that it is most lasting. the misfortune is that the sewing machine has learnt to do something at once so like it and so mechanically even, as to discredit genuine hand-work, whether tambour work or chain-stitch. for all that, neither is to be despised. if they have often a mechanical appearance that is not all the fault of the stitch: the worker is to blame. indian embroiderers depart sometimes so far from mechanical precision as to shock the admirers of monotonously even work. artistic use of chain stitch is made in many of our illustrations: for outlines in illustrations and ; for surface covering in mr. crane's lion, illustration ; to represent landscape in illustration , where everything except the faces of the little men is in chain-stitch; and again for figure work in illustration . in illustration it occurs in association with a curious surface stitch; in illustration it is used to outline and otherwise supplement inlay. the old italians did not disdain to use it. in fact, wherever artists have employed it, they show that there is nothing inherently inartistic about the stitch. herring-bone stitch. herring-bone is the name by which it is customary to distinguish a variety of stitches somewhat resembling the spine of a fish such as the herring. it would be simpler to describe them as "fish-bone;" but that term has been appropriated to describe a particular variety of it. one would have thought it more convenient to use fish for the generic term, and a particular fish for the specific. however, it saves confusion to use names as far as possible in their accepted sense. it will be seen from the sampler, illustration , that this stitch may be worked open or tolerably close; but in the latter case it loses something of its distinctive character. fine lines may be worked in it, but it appears most suited to the working of broadish bands and other more or less even-sided or, it may be, tapering forms, more feathery in effect than fish-bone-like, such as are shown at e on sampler. ordinary herring-bone is such a familiar stitch that the necessity of describing it is rather a matter of literary consistency than of practical importance. the two simpler forms of herring-bone (it is always worked from left to right, and begun with a half-stitch) marked a and c on the sampler are strikingly different in appearance, and are worked in different ways--as will be seen at once by reference to the back of the sampler (illustration ), where the stitches take in the one case a horizontal and in the other a vertical direction. [sidenote: to work a.] to work a, bring your needle out about the centre of the line to be worked; put it into the lower edge of the line about / th of an inch further on; take up this much of the stuff, and, keeping the thread to the right, above the needle, draw it through. then, with the thread below it, to the right, put your needle into the upper edge of the line / th of an inch further on, and, turning it backwards, take up again / th of an inch of stuff, bringing it out immediately above where it went in on the lower edge. [sidenote: to work b.] what is called "indian herring-bone" (b) is merely stitch a worked in longer and more slanting stitches, so that there is room between them for a second row in another colour, the two colours being, of course, properly interlaced. [sidenote: to work c.] to work c, bring your needle out as for a, and, putting it in at the upper edge of the line to be worked and pointing it downwards, whilst your thread lies to the right, take up ever so small a piece of the stuff. then, slightly in advance of the last stitch, the thread still to the right, your needle now pointing upwards, take another similar stitch from the lower edge. [illustration: . herring-bone sampler.] [illustration: . herring-bone sampler (back).] [sidenote: to work d.] the variety at d is merely a combination of a and c, as may be seen by reference to the back of the sampler (opposite); though the short horizontal stitches there seen meet, instead of being wide apart as in the case of a. [illustration: the working of e on herring-bone sampler.] [sidenote: to work e.] what is known as "fish-bone" is illustrated in the three feathery shapes on the sampler (e), two of which are worked rather open. it is characteristic of this stitch that it has a sort of spine up the centre where the threads cross. suppose the stitch to be worked horizontally. bring your needle out on the under edge of the spine about / th of an inch from the starting point of the work, and put it in on the upper edge of the work at the starting point, bringing it out immediately below that on the lower edge of the work. put it in again on the upper edge of the spine, rather in advance of where it came out on the lower edge of it before, and bring it out on the lower edge of this spine immediately below where it entered. [illustration: the working of f on herring-bone sampler.] [sidenote: to work f.] in close herring-bone (f on the sampler, illustration ) you have always a long stitch from left to right, crossed by a shorter stitch which goes from right to left. having made a half stitch, bring the needle out at the beginning of the line to be worked, at the lower edge, and put it in / th of an inch from the beginning of the upper edge. bring it out again at the beginning of this edge and put it in at the lower edge / th of an inch from the beginning, bringing it out on the same edge / th of an inch from the beginning. put the needle in again on the upper edge / th of an inch in front of the last stitch on that edge, and bring it out again, without splitting the thread, on the same edge as the hole where the last stitch went in. if you wish to cover a surface with herring-bone-stitch, you work it, of course, close, so that each successive stitch touches its foregoer at the point where the needle enters the stuff (f on the sampler, illustration ). it will be seen that at the back ( ) this looks like a double row of back-stitching. worked straight across a wide leaf, as in the lower half of sampler, it is naturally very loose. a better method of working is shown in the side leaves, which are worked in two halves, beginning at the base of a leaf on one side and working down to it on the other. there is here just the suggestion of a mid-rib between the two rows. [illustration: the working of g on herring-bone sampler.] [sidenote: to work g.] the stitch at g on sampler, having the effect of higher relief than ordinary close herring-bone (f), is sometimes misleadingly described as tapestry stitch. it is worked, as the back of the sampler ( ) clearly shows, in quite a different way. you get there parallel rows of double stitches. having made a half-stitch entering the material at the upper edge of the work, bring the needle out on the lower edge of it immediately opposite. then, going back, put it in at the beginning of the upper edge, and bring it out at the beginning of the lower one. thence take a long slanting stitch upwards from left to right, bring the needle out on the lower edge immediately opposite, cross it by a rather shorter stitch from right to left, entering the stuff at the point where the first half-stitch ended, bring this out on the lower edge, opposite, and the stitch is done. the artistic use of herring-bone-stitch is shown in the leaves of the tulip ( ), and a closer variety of it in the pink, or whatever the flower may be, in the hand of the little figure on illustration . buttonhole-stitch. buttonhole is more useful in ornament than one might expect a stitch with such a very utilitarian name to be. it is, as its common use would lead one to suppose, pre-eminently a one-edged stitch, a stitch with which to mark emphatically the outside edge of a form. there is, however, a two-edged variety known as ladder-stitch, shown in the two horn shapes on the sampler, illustration . by the use of two rows back to back, leaf forms may be fairly expressed. in the leaves on the sampler, the edge of the stitch is used to emphasise the mid rib, leaving a serrated edge to the leaves. the character of the stitch would have been better preserved by working the other way about, and marking the edge of the leaves by a clear-cut line, as in the case of the solid leaves in illustration . the stitch may be used for covering a ground or other broad surface, as in the pot shape (j) on the sampler, where the diaper pattern produced by its means explains itself the better for being worked in two shades of colour. the simpler forms of the stitch are the more useful. worked in the form of a wheel, as in the rosettes at the side of the vase shape (a), the ornamental use of the stitch is obvious. [sidenote: to work a.] one need hardly describe buttonhole stitch. the simple form of it (a) is worked by (when you have brought your needle out) keeping the thread under your thumb to the right, whilst you put the needle in again at a higher point slightly to the right, and bring it out immediately below, close to where it came out before. this and other one-edged stitches of the kind are sometimes called "blanket-stitch." the only difference between versions such as b and c on the sampler, and simple buttonhole, is that the stitches vary in length according to the worker's fancy. [sidenote: to work e.] the crossed buttonhole stitch at e is worked by first making a stitch sloping to the right, and then a smaller buttonhole-stitch across this from the left. the border marked d in sampler consists merely of two rows of slanting buttonhole-stitch worked one into the other. needlewomen have wilful ways of making what should be upright stitches slant awkwardly in all manner of ways, with the result that they look as if they had been pulled out of the straight. [illustration: . buttonhole sampler.] [illustration: . buttonhole sampler (back).] [sidenote: to work f.] the border at f, known as "tailor's buttonhole," is worked with the firm edge from you, instead of towards you, as you work ordinary buttonhole. bringing the thread out at the upper edge of the work to the left, and letting it lie on that side, you put your needle in again still on the same edge, and bring it out, immediately below, on the lower one. you then, before drawing the thread quite through, put your needle into the loop from behind, and tighten it upwards. [illustration: the working of h on buttonhole sampler.] [sidenote: to work g.] in order to make your ladder-stitch (g) square at the end, you begin by making a bar of the width the stitch is to be. then, holding the thread under your thumb to the right, you put the needle in at the top of the bar and, slanting it towards the right, bring it out on a level with the other end of the bar somewhat to the right. this makes a triangle. with the point of your needle, pull the slanting thread out at the top, to form a square; insert the needle; slant it again to the right; draw it out as before, and you have your second triangle. [sidenote: to work h.] the difference between the working of the lattice-like band at h, and ladder-stitch g, is that, having completed your first triangle, you make, by buttonholing a stitch, a second triangle pointing the other way, which completes a rectangular shape. [illustration: . buttonhole, chain, and knot stitches.] in the solid work shown at j, you make five buttonhole-stitches, gathering them to a point at the base, then another five, and so on. repeat the process, this time point upwards, and you have the first band of the pot shape. characteristic and most beautiful use is made of buttonhole stitch in the piece of indian work in illustration , where it is outlined with chain stitch, which goes most perfectly with it. cut work, such as that on illustration , is strengthened by outlining it in buttonhole-stitch. ladder-stitch occurs in the cusped shapes framing certain flowers in illustration , embroidered all in blue silk on linen. it is not infrequent in oriental work, and, in fact, goes sometimes by the name of cretan-stitch on that account. feather and oriental stitches. feather-stitch is simply buttonholing in a slanting direction, first to the right side and then to the left, keeping the needle strokes in the centre closer together or farther apart according to the effect to be produced. it owes its name, of course, to the more or less feathery effect resulting from its rather open character. like buttonhole, it may be worked solid, as in the leaf and petal forms on the sampler, illustration , but it is better suited to cover narrow than broad surfaces. the jagged outline which it gives makes it useful in embroidering plumage, but it is not to be confounded with what is called "plumage-stitch," which is not feather-stitch at all, but a version of satin-stitch. the feathery stem (a) on the sampler is simply a buttonholing worked alternately from right to left and left to right. [sidenote: to work b.] the border line at b requires rather more explanation. presume it to be worked vertically. bring your needle out at the left edge of the band; put it in at the right edge immediately opposite, keeping your thread under the needle to the right; bring it out again still on the right edge a little lower down, and then, keeping your thread to the left, put the needle in on the left edge, opposite to where you last brought it out, and bring it out again on the same edge a little lower down. [illustration: . feather-stitch sampler.] [illustration: . feather-stitch sampler (back).] the border at c is merely an elaboration of the above, with three slanting stitches on each edge instead of a single one in the direction of the band. [illustration: the working of g g on feather-stitch sampler.] bands d, e, f, g, are variations of ordinary feather-stitch, requiring no further explanation than the back view of the work ( ) affords. on the face of the sampler it will be noticed that lines have been drawn for the guidance of the worker. these are always four in number, indicating at once, that the stitch is made with four strokes of the needle, and the points at which it is put in and out of the stuff. [sidenote: to work g g.] in working g g, suppose four guiding lines to have been drawn as above--numbered, , , , , from left to right. bring your needle out at the top of line . make a chain-stitch slanting downwards from line to line . put your needle into line about / th of an inch lower down, and, slanting it upwards, bring it out on line level with the point where you last brought it out. make a chain-stitch slanting downwards this time from right to left, and bring your needle out on line . lastly, put your needle into line , / th of an inch below the last stitch, and, slanting it upwards, bring it out on line . feather-stitch is not adapted to covering broad surfaces solidly, but may be used for narrow ones. oriental-stitch is the name given to a close kind of feather-stitch much used in eastern work. the difference at once apparent to the eye between the two is that, whereas for the mid-rib of a band or leaf of feather-stitching ( ) you have cross lines, in oriental-stitch ( ) you have a straight line--longer or shorter as the case may be. oriental-stitch, sometimes called "antique-stitch," is a stitch in three strokes, just as feather-stitch is a stitch in four. it is usually worked horizontally, though shown upright on the sampler, illustration . like feather-stitch (see diagram), it is worked on four guiding lines, faintly visible on the sampler. [sidenote: to work a, b, c.] stitches a, b, and c are worked in precisely the same way. bring your needle out at the top of line . keep the thread under your thumb to the right and put your needle in at the top of line , bringing it out into line on the same level. then put it in again at line , just on the other side of the thread, and bring it out on line ready to begin the next stitch. [illustration: . oriental-stitch sampler.] [illustration: . oriental-stitch sampler (back).] it will be seen that the length of the central part (or mid-rib, as it was called above) makes the whole difference between the three varieties of stitch. in a the three parts are equal: in b the mid-rib is narrow: in c it is broad, as is most plainly seen on the back of the sampler ( ). the difference is only a difference of proportion. [illustration: the working of a, b, c on oriental-stitch sampler.] [sidenote: to work d.] the sloping stitch at d is worked in the same way as a, b, c, except that instead of straight strokes with the needle you make slanting ones. [sidenote: to work e.] stitch e differs from d in that the side strokes slant both in the same direction. it is worked from right to left instead of from left to right. [sidenote: to work f.] stitch f is a combination of buttonhole and oriental stitches. between two rows of buttonholing (dark on sampler) a single row of oriental-stitch is worked. the stitch employed for the central stalk, g, has really no business on this sampler, except that it has something of the appearance of a continuous oriental-stitch. oriental-stitch is one of the stitches used in illustration . rope and knot stitches. a single sampler is devoted to rope and knotted stitches, more nearly akin than they look, for rope-stitch is all but knotted as it is worked. rope-stitch is so called because of its appearance. it takes a large amount of silk or wool to work it, but the effect is correspondingly rich. it is worked from right to left, and is easier to work in curved lines than in straight. [sidenote: to work a, b.] lines a on the sampler, illustration , represent the ordinary appearance of the stitch; its construction is more apparent in the central stalk b, which is a less usual form of the same stitch, worked wider apart. [illustration: the working of a, b, on rope-stitch sampler.] having brought out your needle at the right end of the work, hold part of the thread towards the left, under the thumb, the rest of it falling to the right; put your needle in above where it came out, slant it towards you, and bring it out again a little in advance of where it came out before, and just below the thread held under your thumb. draw the thread through, and there results a stitch which looks rather like a distorted chain stitch (b). the next step is to make another similar stitch so close to the foregoing one that it overlaps it partly. it is this overlapping which gives the stitch the raised and rope-like appearance seen at a. [illustration: the working of c on rope-stitch sampler.] [sidenote: to work c.] a knotted line (c in the sampler, illustration ) is produced by what is known as "german knot-stitch," effective only in thick soft silk or wool. begin as in rope stitch, keeping your thread in the same position. then put your needle into the stuff just above the thread stretched under your thumb, and bring it out just below and in a line with where it went in; lastly, keep the needle above the loose end of the thread, draw it through, tightening the thread upwards, and you have the first of your knots: the rest follow at intervals determined by your wants. [sidenote: to work d.] the more open stitch at d is practically the same thing, except that in crossing the running thread you take up more of the stuff on each side of it. [illustration: . rope-stitch and knot-stitch sampler.] [illustration: . rope-stitch and knot-stitch sampler (back).] [sidenote: to work e.] what is known by the name of "old english knot-stitch" (e) is a much more complicated stitch. keeping your thread well out of the way to the right, put your needle in to the left, and take up vertically a piece of the stuff the width of the line to be worked at its widest, and draw the thread through. then, keeping it under the thumb to the left, put your needle, eye first, downwards, through the slanting stitch just made; draw the thread not too tight, and, keeping it as before under the thumb, put your needle, eye first, this time through the upper half only of the slanting stitch, making a kind of buttonhole-stitch round the last, and draw out your thread. these knotted rope stitches, call them what you will, are rather ragged and fussy--not much more than fancy stitches--of no great importance. knots used separately are of much more artistic account. [sidenote: to work f.] bullion or roll-stitch is shown in its simplest form in the petals of the flowers f on the sampler, illustration . to work one such petal, begin by attaching the thread very firmly; bring your needle out at the base of the petal, put it in at the tip, and bring it out once more at the base, only drawing it partly through. with your right hand wind the thread, say seven times, round the projecting point of the needle from left to right. then, holding the coils under your left thumb, your thread to the right, draw your needle and thread through; and, dropping the needle, and catching the thread round your little finger, take hold of the thread with your thumb and first finger and draw the coiled stitch to the right, tightening it gently until quite firm. lastly, put the needle through at the tip of the petal, and the stitch is complete and ready to be fastened off. [illustration: the working of f on knot-stitch sampler.] the leaves of these flowers consist simply of two bullion stitches. the bullion knots at the side of the central stalk are curled by taking up in the first instance only the smallest piece of the stuff. [sidenote: to work g.] to work french knots (g), having brought out your needle at the point where the knot is to be, hold the thread under your thumb, and, letting it lie to the right, put your needle under the stretched part of it. turn the needle so as to twist the thread once round it. that done, put the needle in again about where it came out, draw it through from the back, and bring it out where the next knot is to be. for large knots use two or more threads of silk, and do not twist them more than once. with a single thread you may twist twice, but the result of twisting three or four times is never happy. [illustration: the working of g on knot-stitch sampler.] the use of knots is shown to perfection in illustration . worked there in white silk floss upon a dark purple ground, they are quite pearly in appearance, whether in rows between the border lines, or scattered over the ground. they are most useful in holding the design together, giving it mass, and go admirably with chain-stitching, to which, when close together, they have at first sight some likeness. a single line of knots may almost be mistaken for chain-stitch; but of themselves they do not make a good outline, lacking firmness. a happier use of them is to fringe an outline, as for example in the peacock's tail on page ; but this kind of thing must be used with reticence, or it results in a rather rococo effect. good use is sometimes made of knots to pearl the inner edge of a pattern worked in outline, or to pattern the ornament (instead of the ground) all over. differencing of this kind may be an afterthought--and a happy one--affording as it does a ready means of qualifying the colour or texture of ground, or pattern, or part of either, which may not have worked out quite to the embroiderer's liking. the obvious fitness of knots to represent the stamens of flowers is exemplified in illustration . worked close together, they represent admirably the eyes of composite flowers, as on the sampler; they give, again, valuable variety of texture to the crest of the stork in illustration . the effect of knotting in the mass is shown in illustration , embroidered entirely in knots, contradicting, it might seem, what was said above about its unfitness for outline work. the lines, even the voided ones, are here as sharp as could be; but then, it is not many of us who work, knot by knot, with the marvellous precision of a chinaman. his knotted texture is not, however, always what it seems. he has a way of producing a knotted line by first knotting his thread (it may be done with a netting needle), and then stitching it down on to the surface of the material, which gives a pearled or beaded line not readily distinguishable from knot stitch. [illustration: . a tour de force in knots.] the japanese embroiderer, instead of knotting his own thread, employed very often a crinkled braid. this is shown in the cloud work in illustration . the only true knotting there is in the top-knot of the bird. [illustration: . interlacing-stitch sampler.] [illustration: . interlacing-stitch sampler (back).] interlacings, surface stitches, and diapers. the samplers so far discussed bring us, with the exception of darning, satin-stitch, and some stitches presently to be mentioned, practically to the end of the stitches, deserving to be so called, generally in use. by combining two or more stitches endless complications may be made; and there may be occasions when, for one purpose or another, it may be necessary, as well as amusing, to invent them. in this way stitches are also sometimes worked upon stitches, as shown on the sampler, illustration . you will see, on referring to the back of it ( ), that only the white silk is worked into the stuff: the dark is surface work only. there is no end to such possible interlacings. those on the sampler do not need much explanation; but it may be as well to say that a starts with crewel-stitching; b and c with back-stitching; d with chain-stitching; e with darning or running; f, g, and h with varieties of herring-bone-stitch; j with oriental-stitch; and k with feather-stitch. the interlacing on the surface of these is shown in darker silk. c and g undergo a second course of interlacing. the danger of splitting the first stitches in working the interlacing ones, is avoided by passing the needle eye-first through them. other surface work, sometimes called lace-stitch, is illustrated in the sampler, illustration . there is really no limit to patterns of this kind. some are better worked in a frame, but that is very much a matter of personal practice. [illustration: the working of f on interlacing-stitch sampler.] [sidenote: to work h, .] in the surface darning at h ( ) long threads are first carried from edge to edge of the square, there only piercing the stuff, and then darned across by other stitches, again only piercing it at the edges. an oblique version of this is given at c ( ). [sidenote: to work b, .] the lace buttonholing at b ( ) is worked as follows:--buttonhole three stitches into the stuff from left to right, not quite close together, and further on three more; then, working from right to left, make three buttonhole stitches into the thread connecting the stitch groups; but do not stitch into the stuff except at the ends of the rows. the last row must, of course, be worked into the stuff again. [illustration: . surface-stitch sampler.] [sidenote: to work f, .] net passing, as at f ( ), is not very differently worked from a or b. it is much more open, and the first row of horizontal stitches is crossed by two opposite rows of oblique stitches, which are made to interlace. [sidenote: to work g, .] the square at g is worked by first making rows of short upright stitches worked into the stuff, and then threading loose stitches through them. [sidenote: to work d, .] the square at d is worked on the open lattice shown; the solid parts are produced by interlacing stitches from side to side, starting at the angle. in the square at e (japanese darning) horizontal lines are first darned, and then zigzag lines are worked between them, much as in g; but, as they penetrate the material, this is scarcely a surface stitch. [sidenote: to work a, .] the horizontal lines at top and bottom of the square at a are back-stitching, the intermediate ones simply long threads carried from one side to the other; they are laced together by lines looped round them. [sidenote: to work l, .] the band at l is begun by making horizontal bar stitches. a row of crewel-stitch and one of outline-stitch, worked on to the bars, and not into the stuff, makes the central chain. [sidenote: to work k, .] the band at k is merely surface buttonholing over a series of slanting stitches. [sidenote: to work j, .] the band at j is buttonhole stitching wide apart, the bars filled in with surface crewel-stitch. [illustration: . lace or surface stitch.] most delicate surface stitching occurs in illustration , the fine net being worked only from edge to edge of the spaces it fills, and not elsewhere entering the stuff; which accounts for most of it being worn away. the flower or scroll-work is _bonâ fide_ embroidery, worked through the stuff. the delicate network of fine stitching, which once covered the whole of the background, is for the most part neither more nor less than a floating gossamer of lacework. one cannot deny that that is embroidery, though it has to be said that _lace-stitches_ are employed in it. stern embroiderers would like to deny it. of course it is frivolous, and in a sense flimsy, but it is also delicate and dainty to a degree. it is suited only to dress, and that of the most exquisite kind. a french marquise of the regency might have worn it, and possibly did wear it, with entire propriety--if the word is not out of keeping with the period. the frailty of this kind of thing is too obvious to need mention, and that, of course, is a strong argument against it. all attempt to give separate names to diapers of this kind, whether worked upon the surface or into the stuff, is futile. they ought not even to be called stitches, being, in fact, neither more nor less than stitch patterns, to which there is no possible limit, unless it be the limit of human invention. every ingenious workwoman will find out patterns of her own more or less. they are very useful for filling in surfaces (pattern or background) which it may be inexpedient to work more solidly. the greater part of such patterns are geometric (illustrations and ), following, that is to say, the mesh of the material, and making no secret of it. on illustration you see very plainly how the rectangular diaperings are built up geometrically on the square lines of the mesh, as was practically inevitable working on such a ground. the relation of stitch to stuff is here obvious. the choice of stitch patterns of this kind is invariably left to the needlewoman. the utmost a designer need do is to indicate on his drawing that a "full," "open," or "intermediate" diaper is to be used. and the alternation of lighter and heavier diapers should be planned, and not left altogether to impulse, though the pattern may be. moreover, there is room for the exercise of considerable taste in the choice of simpler or more elaborate patterns, freer or more geometric. many a time the shape of the space to be filled, as well as its extent, will suggest the appropriate ornament. the diaper design is not, of course, drawn on the stuff, but points of guidance may be indicated through a kind of fine stencil plate. the patterns used for background diapering need not, as a rule, be intrinsically so interesting as those which diaper the design itself, nor are they usually so full. they take more often the form of spot or sprig patterns, not continuous, in which the geometric construction is not so obvious, nor even necessary. in either case the prime object of the stitching is not so much to make ornamental patterns as to give a tint to the stuff without entirely hiding it with work; and the worker chooses a lighter or heavier diaper according to the tint required. if the work is all in white it is texture, instead of tint, that is aimed at. for a background, simple darning more or less open, in stitches not too regular, is often the best solution of the difficulty. the effect of the ground grinning through is delightful. satin-stitch and its offshoots. satin-stitch is _par excellence_ the stitch for fine silkwork. i do not know if the name of "satin-stitch" comes from its being so largely employed upon satin, or from the effect of the work itself, which would certainly justify the title, so smooth and satin-like is its surface. given a material of which the texture is quite smooth and even, showing no mesh, satin-stitch seems the most natural and obvious way of working upon it. in it the embroidress works with short, straight strokes of the needle, just as a pen draughtsman lays side by side the strokes of his pen; but, as she cannot, of course, leave off her stroke as the penman does, she has perforce to bring back the thread on the under side of the stuff, so that, if very carefully done, the work is the same on both sides. satin-stitch, however, need not be, and never was, confined to work upon silk or satin. in fact, it was not only worked upon fine linen, but often followed the lines of its mesh, stepping, as in illustration , to the tune of the stuff. this may be described as satin-stitch in the making--at any rate, it is the elementary form of it, its relation to canvas-stitch being apparent on the face of it. still, beautiful and most accomplished work has been done in it alike by mediæval, renaissance, and oriental needleworkers. [sidenote: to work a, .] to cover a space with regular vertical satin stitches (a on the sampler, illustration ), the best way of proceeding is to begin in the centre of the space and work from left to right. that half done, begin again in the centre and work from right to left. in order to make sure of a crisp and even edge to your forms, always let the needle enter the stuff there, as it is not easy to find the point you want from the back. in working a second row of stitches, proceed as before, only planting your needle between the stitches already done. fasten off with a few tiny surface stitches and cut off the silk on the right side of the stuff: it will be worked over. [sidenote: to work b, .] to cover a space with horizontal satin stitches (b on sampler), begin at the top, and work from left to right. the longer stretches there are not, of course, crossed at one stitch; they take several stitches, dovetailed, as it were, so as not to give lines. the easiest, most satisfactory, and generally most effective way of working flat satin stitch is in oblique or radiating lines (c, d, e), working in those instances, as in the case of a, from the centre, first from left to right and then from right to left. [illustration: . satin-stitch sampler.] [illustration: . satin-stitch sampler (back).] stems, narrow leaflets, and the like, are best worked always in stitches which run diagonally and not straight across the form. in the case of stems or other lines curved and worked obliquely, the stitches must be very much closer on the inner side of the curve than on the outside: occasionally a half-stitch may be necessary to keep the direction of the lines right, in which case the inside end of the half-stitch must be quite covered by the stitch next following. [illustration: . satin-stitch in coarse twisted silk.] satin-stitch is seen at its best when worked in floss. coarse or twisted silk looks coarse in this stitch, as may be seen by comparing the petal d in the sampler, illustration , with the petal in twisted silk here given ( ). marvellously skilful as are the needle-workers of india (illustration ), they get rather broken lines when they work in thick twisted silk. the precision of line a skilled worker can get in floss is wonderful. an oriental will get sweeping lines as clean and firm as if they had been drawn with a pen, and this not merely in the case of an outline, but in voided lines of which each side has to be drawn with the needle. the voided outline, by the way, as on illustrations , , is not only the frankest way of defining form, but seems peculiarly proper to satin-stitch; and it is a test of skill in workmanship: it is so easy to disguise uneven stitching by an outline in some other stitch. the voiding in the wings of the birds in illustration is perfect; and the softening of the voided line, at the start of the wing in one case and the tail in the other, by cross stitching in threads comparatively wide apart, is quite the right thing to do. it would have been more in keeping to void the veins of the lotus leaves than to plant them on in cord. satin-stitch must not be too long, and it is often a serious consideration with the designer how to break up the surfaces to be covered so that only shortish stitches need be used. you might follow the veining of a leaf, for example, and work from vein to vein. but all leaves are not naturally veined in the most accommodating manner. treatment is accordingly necessary, and so we arrive at a convention appropriate to embroidery of this kind. it takes a draughtsman properly to express form by stitch distribution. the chinese convention in the lotus flowers (illustration ) is admirable. [illustration: . satin-stitch in fine twisted silk.] it is the rule of the game to lay satin-stitch very evenly. worked in floss, the mere surface of satin-stitch is beautiful. a further charm lies in the way it lends itself to gradation of colour. beautiful results may be obtained by the use of perfectly flat tints of colour, as in illustration ; but the subtlest as well as the most deliberate gradation of tint may be most perfectly rendered in satin-stitch. [sidenote: to work surface satin-stitch.] surface satin-stitch (not the same on both sides), though it looks very much like ordinary satin-stitch, is worked in another way. the needle, that is to say, after each stitch is brought _immediately_ up again, and the silk is carried back on the upper instead of the under side of the stuff. considerable economy of silk is effected by thus keeping the thread as much as possible on the surface, but the effect is apt to be proportionately poorer. moreover, the work is not so lasting as when it is solid. the satin-stitch on illustration is all surface work. it looks loose, which it is always apt to do, unless it is kept stretched on the frame, on which, of course, satin-stitch is for the most part worked. very effective indian work is done of this kind--loose and flimsy, but serving a distinct artistic purpose. it is to embroidery of more serious kind what scene painting is to mural decoration. [illustration: . chinese satin-stitch.] embroidery is often described as being in "long-and-short-stitch," a term properly descriptive not of a stitch, but of its dimensions. whether you use stitches of equal or of unequal length is a question merely of the adaptation of the stitch to its use in any given instance; there is nothing gained by calling an arrangement of alternating stitches, "long and short," or by calling them "plumage-stitch," or, which is more misleading, "feather-stitch," when they radiate so as to follow the form, say, of a bird's breast. the bodies of the birds in illustrations and are in plumage-stitch so called. this adaptation of stitch to bird or other forms gives the effect of fine feathering perfectly. but why apply the term "satin-stitch" exclusively to parallel lines of stitches all of a length? "long-and-short-stitch," then, is a sort of satin-stitch; only, instead of the stitches being all of equal length, they are worked one _into_ the others or _between_ them, as in the faces in illustrations and . a little further removed from satin-stitch is what is known as "split-stitch," in which the needle is brought up _through_ the foregoing stitch, and splits it. the way of working this stitch is more fully given on page . the worker adapts, as a matter of course, the length of the stitch to the work to be done, directing it also according to the form to be expressed, and so arrives, almost before he is aware of it, by way of satin-stitch, at what is called plumage-stitch. [illustration: . offshoots from satin and crewel stitches.] [illustration: . offshoots from satin and crewel stitches (back).] the distinction between the stitches so far described is plain enough, and an all-round embroidress learns to work them; but workers end in working their own way, modifying the stitch according to the work it is put to do, and produce results which it would be difficult to describe and pedantic to find fault with. even short, however, of such individual treatment, the mere adaptation of the stitch to the lines of the design removes it from the normal. it makes a difference, too, whether it is worked in a frame or in the hand: in the one case you see more likeness to one stitch, in the other to another. the flower at b, for example, and the leaf at d, on the sampler, illustration , are both worked in what is commonly called "plumage," or "embroidery" stitch, though the term "dovetail," sometimes used, seems to describe it better. instance b, however, is worked in the hand, and d in a frame--from which very fact it follows that the worker is naturally disposed to regard b as akin to crewel-stitch and d to satin-stitch, between which two stitches "dovetail" may be regarded as the connecting link. [illustration: the working of b on sampler .] [sidenote: to work b, .] the petals at b are worked in the method illustrated in the diagram overleaf. the first step is to edge the shape with satin-stitches in threes, successively long, shorter, and quite short. this done, starting at the base again, you put your needle in on the upper or right side of the first short stitch, and bring it out through the long stitch (as shown in the diagram). you then make a short stitch by putting your needle downwards through the material, and taking up a small piece of it. you have finally only to draw the needle through, and it is in position to make another long stitch. as the concentric rings of stitching become smaller, you make, of course, shorter stitches, and you need no longer pierce the thread of the long stitch. [sidenote: to work d, .] the working of the scroll at d on the sampler, illustration , needs no detailed explanation. anyone who is acquainted with the way satin-stitch is worked (it has already been sufficiently explained), and has read the above account of the working of b, will understand at once how that is worked in the frame. it will be seen that there is a slight difference in effect between the two, arising from the fact that work done in the hand is necessarily more loosely and not quite so evenly done as that on a frame. [sidenote: to work split-stitch c, .] split-stitch (c on the sampler), again, resembles either crewel-stitch or satin-stitch, according as it is worked in the hand or on a frame. in working in the hand, you take a rather shorter stitch back than in crewel-stitch, piercing with the needle the thread which is to form the next stitch. in working on a frame, you bring your needle always up through the last-made satin-stitch in order to start the next. whichever way it is done, split-stitch is often difficult to distinguish without minute examination from chain-stitch. further reference to its use is made in the chapter on shading. it may be interesting to compare it with crewel-stitch (a on the sampler), which is also a favourite stitch for shading. darning. it is the peculiarity of darning and running that you make several stitches at one passing of the needle. darning and running amount practically to the same thing. darning might be described as consecutive lines of running. the difference is, in the main, a matter of multiplication; but the distinction is sometimes made that in running the stitches may be the same length on the face as on the reverse of the stuff, whereas in darning the thread is mainly on the surface, only dipping for the space of a single thread or so below it. it results from the way of working that you get in darning an interrupted line characteristic of the stitch. what is called "double darning," by which the breaks in the single darning are made good, has in effect no character of darning whatever. darning has a homely sound, but it is useful for more than mending. in embroidery you no longer use it to replace threads worn away, but build up upon the scaffolding of a merely serviceable material what may be a gorgeous design in silk. [illustration: . darning sampler.] darning is worked, of course, in rows backwards and forwards; but if the stitches are long and in the direction of the weft, it is as well not to run the returning row next to the one just done, but to leave space for a second course of darning afterwards between the open rows. the darning of the sampler, illustration , is very simple. the flower is darned in stitches of fairly equal length, taking up one thread of the material, and covering a space of almost a quarter of an inch before taking up the next thread. the outline of a petal is first worked, and successive rows of darning follow the lines of the flower, expressing to some extent its form. much depends upon the direction of the stitch. the texture of the work depends upon the length of the stitches, and on the amount of the stuff showing through. darning is usually supplemented by outlining. the sampler is designed to show how far one can dispense with it. the flower stalk is defined by darning the first row in a darker colour; for the rest, voiding is employed, but it is not easy to void in darning. the background is darned diaper fashion. it gives, that is to say, deliberately diagonal lines. a background irregularly darned should be irregular enough never to run into lines not contemplated by the worker. [illustration: . darning designed by william morris.] in the case of large leaves, veined, the veining should be worked first, the stitches between them radiating outwards to the edge of the leaf. more accomplished work in darning is shown in the border by william morris in illustration , where it appears, however, much flatter than in the coloured silk. it is worked solid, the radiating stitches accommodating themselves to the forms of the leaves and petals, which, in fact, are designed with a view to their execution in this way. they are defined by outline-stitching--light or dark as occasion seemed to require. mention has already been made of darning _à propos_ of canvas-stitch; and there is a sort of natural correspondence between the _mécanique_ of darning in its simplest form and the network of open threads which gives to rectangular darning, like the german work in illustration , character which more than compensates for its angularity in outline. the darning is there quite even in workmanship, but it is, as will be seen, of different degrees of strength--lighter for the surface of the pattern, heavier for the outline. you may qualify the colour of a stuff by lightly darning it with silk of another shade, and very subtle tints may be got by thus, as it were, veiling a coloured ground with silks of various hues. [illustration: . flat darning upon a square mesh.] laid-work. the necessity for something like what is called "laid-work" is best shown by reference to satin-stitch. it was said in reference to it that satin-stitches should not be too long. there is a great deal of eastern work in which surface satin-stitch, or its equivalent, floats so loosely upon the face of the stuff that it can only be described as flimsy. nothing could be more beautiful in its way than certain soudanese embroidery, in which coloured floss in stitches an inch or more long lies glistening on the stuff without any interruption of threads to fasten it down. embroidery of this kind, however, hardly comes within the scope of practical work. long, loose stitches want sewing down. some compromise has to be made between art and beauty. the problem is to make the work strong enough without seriously disturbing its lustrous surface, and the solution of it is "laid-work," at which we arrive thus almost by necessity. [illustration: . laid-work sampler.] it involves no new stitch, but is only another way of using stitches already described. in laid-work, long tresses of silk, as william morris called them, floss by preference, are thrown backwards and forwards across the face of the stuff, only just piercing it at the edges of the forms, and back again. these silken tresses are then caught down and kept, i will not say close to the ground, but in their place upon it, by lines of stitching in the cross direction. laid-work is not, at the best, a very strong or lasting kind of embroidery (it needs to be carefully covered up even as it is worked), but by no other means is the silky beauty of coloured floss so perfectly set forth. it is hardly worth doing in anything but floss. laid-work lends itself also to gradation of colour within certain limits--the limits, that is to say, of the straight parallel lines in which the silk is laid: the direction of these is determined often by the lines of sewing which are to cross them. in any case the direction of the threads is here more than ever important. the sewing down must take lines and may form patterns. the sampler, illustration , wants little or no explanation. it illustrates the various ways of laying. in the leaf the floss is sewn down with split-stitch, which forms the veining. elsewhere it is kept in place by "couching," a process presently to be described. for the outlines, split-stitch and couching are employed. the last row of laid work in the grounding is purposely pulled out of the straight by the couching in order to give a waved edge. the diaper which represents the seeding of the flower is not, properly speaking, laid-work: single threads of white purse silk are there couched down with dark. [illustration: . japanese laid-work.] for the transverse stitching, for which also it is best to use floss, either split-stitch may be used, as in the leaf in the sampler, illustration , or a thread may be laid across and sewn down--couched, as it is called--as in the flower. the closer the cross lines the stronger the work, but the less lustrous the effect. laid floss may be employed to glorify the entire surface of a linen material, as in the sampler or for the pattern only upon a ground worth showing, as in illustrations , , . laid-work will not give anything like modelling, and it is not best suited to figure design except where it is quite flatly treated. an instance of its use in figure work occurs on illustration . it is effective when quite naively and simply used in cross lines which do not appear to take any account of the forms crossed--as, for example, in illustration , where the stitching does not pretend to express more than a flat surface. the floss, however, is there carefully laid at a different angle of inclination in each petal, so as to give variety of colour. the lines of sewing vary according to the lines of the laid floss, but do not cross them at right angles. the important thing is, of course, that they should catch the laid "tresses" at intervals not too far apart. if the lines which sew down the floss have also to express drawing, as in the case of the bird's wings in illustration , the underlying floss must be laid in lines which they will cross. in the case of the leaves in the same piece of work, the floss is laid in the direction in which the leaf grows, and the stitching across, which sews it down, is slightly curved so as to suggest roundness in them. [illustration: . indo-portuguese laid-work.] a more finished piece of work is shown in illustration , where the laid floss crosses the forms, and the sewing down takes very much the place of veining in the flower, and of ribs in the scroll, expressing about as much modelling as can be expressed this way, and more, perhaps, than it is advisable often to attempt. the sewing down asserts itself most, of course, when it is in a colour contrasting with the laid floss, as it does in the leaves in the smaller sampler overleaf. the stitching down makes usually a pattern more or less conspicuous. on this same sampler it does so very deliberately in the case of the broad stalk. the rather sudden variation of the colour shown there in the leaves is harmless enough in bold work, to which the process is best suited. one may be too careful in gradating the tints: timidity in this respect prevails too much among modern needlewomen: an artist in floss should not want her work to look like a gradated wash of colour. the italians of the th and th centuries (see illustration ) were not afraid of rather abrupt transition in the shades of colour they used for laid-work. [illustration: . italian laid-work.] [illustration: . laid sampler.] when laid floss is kept in place by threads themselves sewn down across it, such threads are called "couched," and the work itself may be described as laid and couched. hence arises some confusion between the two methods of work--laying and couching. it saves confusion to make a sharp distinction between the two--using the term "laid" only for stitches (floss) first loosely laid upon the surface of the stuff and then sewn down by cross lines of stitching of whatever kind, and "couched" for the sewing down of cords, &c. (silk or gold), thread by thread or in pairs. laid floss is sewn down _en masse_, couched silk in single or double threads; and accordingly laid answers best for surface covering, couched for outlining, except in the case of gold, which even for surface covering is always couched. couching couching is the sewing down of one thread by another--as in the outline of the flower on the laid sampler, illustration . the stitches with which it is sewn down, thread by thread, or, in the case of gold, two threads at a time, are best worked from right to left; or, in outlining, from outside the forms inwards, and a waxed thread is often used for the purpose. naturally the cord to be sewn down should be held fairly tightly in place to keep the line even. it is usual in couching to sew down the silk or cord with stitches crossing it at right angles, except in the case of a twisted cord, which should be sewn down with stitches in the direction of the twist. couching is best done in a frame; but it may be done in the hand by means of buttonhole-stitch. [illustration: . a. bullion. b. couched cord.] when a surface is covered with couching, as in the seeding of the flower in the sampler, illustration , the sewing down stitches make a pattern--all the plainer there, because the stitching is in a contrasting shade of colour. it is quite permissible to call attention to the stitching if it suits your artistic purpose. to disguise it by sewing _through_ the cord is not a workmanlike practice. a worker should frankly accept a method of work and get character out of it. embroidresses have a clever way of untwisting a cord before each stitch and twisting it again after stitching through it--between the strands, that is to say, in which the stitching is lost. the device is rather too clever. it shows a cord with no visible means of attachment to the ground, which is not desirable, however much desired. there is no advantage in attaching cords to the surface of silk so that they look as if they had been glued on to it. conjuring tricks are highly amusing, but one does not think very highly of conjurers. personally, i would much rather have seen more plainly the way the cord is sewn down in the graceful cross in illustration , a design perfectly adapted to couching, and yet unlike the usual thing. where it is softish silk which is stitched down, it makes a great difference whether it is loosely held and tightly sewn, or the contrary. contrast the short puffy lines nearest the corners in the sampler, illustration , with the longer ones between the broad and narrow bands. the broad band is worked in rows of double filoselle, of various shades, sewn down with single filoselle. in the narrower bands twisted silk is sewn down with stitches in the direction of its twist. this is more plainly seen in the upper of the two bands, where the sloping stitches are lighter in colour than the cord sewn down. [illustration: . couching sampler.] characteristic use is made of rather puffy couching in the ornament of the lady's dress in miss keighley's panel, illustration , where it has very much the richness of embroidery in seed pearls. it was a common practice in germany in the th century to work in solid couching upon cloth, employing a twisted thread and sewing it with stitches in the direction of the twist, so that at first sight one does not recognise it as couching. it looks like rather coarse stitching in the direction of the forms, and expresses shading very well. the cloth ground accounts, perhaps, for the choice of method: the material is not otherwise a pleasant one to embroider upon. a rather earlier german method was to couch in parallel lines of white upon white linen, and so get relief and texture but no modelling, though the drawing was helped by varying the direction of the parallel lines. the entire surface of a linen ground was sometimes covered with couched threads of silk or fine wool--some of it in vertical and horizontal lines, some of it in the direction of the pattern. this, again, was a german practice, as may be seen in the hildesheim cope at south kensington. all-over couching may be used with advantage to renew the ground of embroidery so worn as to be unsightly; and is more lasting than laid-work for the purpose. it is laborious to do, but more satisfactory when done than remounting; and one or the other is a necessity sometimes. the effect of age is, up to a certain point, pleasing: rags are not. [illustration: . couching in looped threads.] couching, however (except with gold), was more commonly used for outlining, and is quite peculiarly suited to give a firm line. a beautiful example of outline work in coloured silk upon white linen is pictured in illustration , in which the lines of delicate renaissance arabesque are perfectly preserved. the rare practice of such work as this, notwithstanding its distinction, is perhaps sufficiently accounted for by its modesty. it is true, it wants well-considered and definitely drawn design, and there is no possible fudging with it. [illustration: . reverse couching.] the value of a couched cord as an outline to stitching (satin-stitch in this instance) is shown in illustration , in which the singularly well-schemed and well-drawn lines of the ornament are given with faultless precision. this is a portion of an altogether admirable frame to an altogether foolish picture in needlework, of which a fragment only is shown. the appropriateness of couched cord to the outlining of inlay or of appliqué is seen in the two examples which form illustration . in the one (a) it defines the clear-cut counterchange pattern; in the other (b), being of a tint intermediate between the ground and the ornament, it softens the contrast between them. an interesting technical point in the design of this last is the way the cord outlining the leaves makes a sufficiently thick stalk, coming together, as it naturally does, double at the ends of the leaves. [illustration: . reverse couching (back).] this occurs again in illustration , where the double threads which form the stalks, though separately stitched down, are couched again at intervals by bands crossing the two--at the springing of the stalks and tendrils, for example, where joins inevitably occur. the cords forming the central stalk are in one case looped. fantastic use has often been made of the looping of couched cord. the spanish embroiderers made most ornamental use of a wee loop at the points of the leaves where the cord must turn; but the device of looping may easily be used to frivolous purpose. a regularly looped line at once suggests lace. a perplexing chinese practice is to couch fine cord in little loops so close together that they touch. a surface filled in after this manner, as in the butterflies on illustration , might pass at first sight for french knots or chain-stitch: it is really another method of all-over couching. a double course of couching forms the outline in illustration , one of filoselle and one of cord, separately sewn; but the tendrils, which are of silver thread, are sewn down both threads at a time with double stitches, very obvious in the illustration. over the couched silver threads which form the main rib of the leaf a pattern is stitched in silk. _a propos_ of couching, mention must be made of a way of working used in the famous syon cope by way of background, and figured overleaf (illustration ). the ground stuff is linen, twofold, and it is worked in silk, which lies nearly all upon the surface. the stitch runs from point to point of the zigzag pattern; there it penetrates the stuff, is carried round a thread of flax laid at the back of the material, and is brought to the surface again through the hole made by the needle in passing down. that is to say, the silken thread only _dips_ through the linen at the points in the pattern, and is there caught down by a thread of flax on the under-surface of the linen. the reverse of the work (illustration ) shows a surface of flax threads couched with silk, for which reason the method may be described as reverse couching. on the face it gives an admirable surface diaper, flat without being mechanical. it is easily worked with a blunt needle; with a sharp one there would be a danger of splitting the stitch. it is a kind of work on which two persons might be employed, one on either side of the stuff. couched gold. in olden days silk does not appear to have been couched in the east. on the other hand, it was the custom to couch gold thread in europe at least as early as the twelfth century; so that the method was probably first used for gold, which, except in the form of thin wire or extraordinarily fine thread, is not quite the thing to stitch with. besides, it was natural to wish to keep the precious metal on the surface, and not waste it at the back of the stuff. a distinguishing feature about gold is that by common consent it is used double and sewn down two threads at a time. this is not merely an economy of work; but, except in the case of thick cords or strips of gold, it has a more satisfactory effect--why it is not easy to say. panels a, b, c, in the sampler, illustration , are couched in double threads, d in single cords. gold couching is there used, as it mostly is, to cover a surface. in doing that, it is usual to sew the threads firmly down at the edges of the forms and cut them very sharply off; but they may equally well be carried backwards and forwards across the face of the stuff. the slight swelling of the gold thread where it turns gives emphasis to the outline; but the turning wants carefully doing, and the gold thread must not be too thick. if you use a large needle (to clear the way for the thread), the turning of the gold may take place on the back instead of on the face of the material, but only in the case of very fine thread. gold threads often want stroking into position. this may be done with what is called a "pierce"; but a good stiletto, or even a very large needle, will answer the purpose. sharply pointed scissors are indispensable. in solid couching the stitches run almost inevitably into pattern; and it is customary, therefore, to start with the assumption that they will, and deliberately to make them into pattern--to work them, that is to say, in vertical, diagonal, or cross lines as at a, in zigzags as at b, or in some more complicated diaper pattern as at c, where the stitching is purposely in pronounced colour, that the pattern may be quite clearly seen; at d it has more its proper value, that the effect of it may be better appreciated. the pattern may, of course, be helped by the colour of the stitching, and there is some art in making the necessary stitches into appropriate pattern. [illustration: . couched gold sampler.] in fact the ornamentist, being an ornamentist, naturally takes advantage of the necessity of stitching, to pattern his metallic surfaces with diaper, using often, as in the scroll in illustration , a diversity of patterns, which gives at once varied texture and fanciful interest to the surface. there is quite an epitome of little diapers in that fragment of needlework; and one can hardly doubt that the embroiderer found it great fun to contrive them. the flat strips of metal emphasising the backs of the curves are sometimes twisted as they are sewn. the other diapers on the sampler, f, g, h, j, , are emphasised by the relief given to them by underlying cords, purposely left bare in parts to show the structure. these underlying cords must be firmly sewn on to the linen ground, and if the stitching follows the direction of the twist in them, the round surface is not so likely to be roughened by it. by rights, the cords should be laid farther apart than in the sampler, where the attempt to force the effect (for purposes of explanation) has not proved very successful. an infinity of basket patterns, as these may be called (basket _stitches_ they are not), may be devised by varying the intervals at which the gold threads are sewn down, and the number of cords they cross at a time. [illustration: . couched silver.] the central panel of the sampler (e) shows a combination of flat and raised gold. the outline of the heart is corded; the centre of it is raised by stitching, first with crewel wool and then with gold-coloured floss across that (it is difficult to prevent _white_ stuffing from showing through gold). this gives only a hint of what may be done in the way of raised ornament upon a flat gold ground, and was done in mediæval work. a single cord may be sewn down to make a pattern in relief, leafage, scrollwork, or what not, which, when the surface is all worked over with gold, has very much the effect of gilt gesso. if, for any reason, heavy work of this kind is to be done on silk or satin, that must first be backed with strong linen. in mediæval and church work generally the double threads are usually laid close together, forming, as in the diapers on sampler, a solid surface of gold; and that was largely done in oriental embroidery too--in chinese, for example, where, however, the threads, instead of being couched in straight lines, follow the outlines of the design, and are worked ring within ring until the space is filled, as in the dragon's face, a, illustration . there is here, as in the working of his body, a certain economy of gold; a small amount of the ground is allowed to show between the lines of double gold thread--not enough to tell as ground, but enough to give a tint of the ground colour to the metal. further, in this more open couching the direction of the lines of couching goes for more than in solid work. the pattern made by the gold thread is here not only ornamental but suggestive of the scaly body of the creature. it will be seen, too, how, in the working of the legs, the relatively compact gold threads are kept well within the outline, by which means anything like harshness of silhouette is avoided. [illustration: . couched gold not quite solid.] that this less solid manner was not confined to the far east is shown by the venetian valance, b, on the lower part of the page, which has very much the appearance of gold lace. a good example of outline (single thread) in gold is given in illustration , part of an italian housing, which reminds one both in effect and in design of damascening, to which it is in some respects equivalent; only, instead of gold and silver wire beaten into black iron or steel, we have gold and silver thread sewn on to dark velvet. the design recalls also the french bookbindings of the period of henri ii., in which the tooled ornament was precisely of this character. the resemblance is none the less that an occasional detail is worked more solidly; but, in the main, this is outline work, and a beautiful example of it. the art in work of that kind is, of course, largely in the design. gold thread work in spiral forms has very much the effect of filagree in gold wire. the next step is where the cords of gold enclose little touches of embroidery in coloured floss, as in illustration . these have the value of so many jewels or bits of bright enamel. in fact, just as outline work in simple gold thread resembles damascening or filagree, so this outlining of little spaces of coloured silk suggests enamel. the cord of the embroiderer answers to the cloisons of the enameller, the surfaces of shining floss to the films of vitreous enamel. [illustration: . couched outline work.] appliqué embroidery is constantly edged with gold or silver thread. an effective, if rather rude, example of this, the thread here again double, is given in illustration . in couching more than one thread at a time there is a difficulty in turning the angles. the threads give, of necessity, only gently rounded forms. to get anything like a sharp point, you must stop short with the inner thread before reaching the extreme turning point, and take it up again on your way back. what applies to two threads, applies of course still more forcibly to three. the colour with which gold thread is sewn is a question of considerable importance. if the stitches are close enough together to make solid work, they give a flush of colour to the gold. advantage is commonly taken of this both in mediæval and oriental work to warm the tint by sewing it down with red. the chinese will even work with a deeper and a paler red to get two coppery shades. white stitching pales the gold, yellow modifies it least, green cools it, and blue makes it greener. the closer the stitches, the deeper the tint, of course. [illustration: . appliquÉ--satin on velvet.] you can get thus various shades of gold out of the same thread, and even gradation from one to another, as may be seen in a great deal of spanish work of the th century, in which the gold ornament is often quite delicately shaded from yellowish gold to ruddy copper on the one hand, and to bronzy green on the other. similar use may be made of vari-coloured silks in couching white or other cord; but gold reflects the colour much better than silk, and gives much more subtle effects. the flemings and italians of the early renaissance went further. they had a way of laying threads of gold and sewing them so closely over with coloured silk that in many parts it quite hid the gold. only in proportion as they wanted to lighten the colour of the draperies in their pictorial embroideries did they space the stitches farther and farther apart, and let the gold gleam through. except in the high lights it did not pronounce itself positively. the effect is not unlike what is seen in paintings of the primitive school, where the high lights of the red and blue draperies are hatched with gold. the practice of the embroiderer may be reminiscent of that, or that may be the origin of the primitive painters' convention. it is more as if the embroiderer wanted to represent a precious tissue, a stuff shot with gold. illustration gives part of a figure worked in this way, relieved against a more golden architectural background rendered by the very same double threads of gold which run through the figures. in the architecture, however, they are couched in stitches which are never so near as to take away from the effect of the gold. the two degrees of obscuring or clouding gold by oversewing are here shown in most instructive contrast. the cords, as usual, are laid in horizontal courses. that was the convenient way of working; but it resulted in a corded look, which has very much the appearance of tapestry; and there is no doubt that resemblance to tapestry was in the end consciously sought. that the method here employed was laborious needs no saying; but it gave most beautiful, if pictorial, results. appliquÉ. embroidery, it has been shown, is much of it on the surface of the stuff, not just needle stitches, but the stitching-on of something--cord, gold thread, or whatever it may be. and instances have been given where the design of such work was not merely in outline, but where certain details were filled in with stitching. yet another practice, and one more strictly in keeping with the onlaying of cord, was to onlay the solid also, applying, that is to say, the surface colour also in the form of pieces of silk cut to shape. patterns of this kind may be conceived as line work developing into leafy terminations, the appliquÉ only an adjunct to couching (illustration ); or they may be thought of as massive work eked out with line: the appliqué, that is to say, the main thing, the couching only supplementary (illustration ). an intermediate kind is where outline and mass--couching and appliqué--play parts of equal importance in the scheme of design (illustration ). couched cord or filoselle is useful in covering the raw edge of the onlay, not so much masking the joints as making them sightly. appliqué must be carefully and exactly done, and is best worked in a frame. it is almost as much a man's work as a woman's. embroidery proper is properly woman's work; but here, as in the case of tailoring, the man comes in. the getting ready for appliqué is not the kind of thing a woman can do best. the finishing may sometimes be done in the hand, and very bold, coarse work may possibly be worked throughout in the hand, and outlined with buttonhole-stitch (chain-stitch is not so appropriate); but when a couched outline is employed it must be done in a frame, and, indeed, work with any pretensions to finish is invariably begun and finished in the frame. [sidenote: to work appliquÉ] to work appliqué you want, in fact, two frames--one on which to mount the material to be embroidered, and another on which to mount the material to be applied. the backing in each case should be of smooth holland. this is stretched on to the frame, and then pasted with stiff starch or what not; the silk or velvet is laid on to it and stroked with a soft rag until it adheres, and is left to dry gently. when dry, the outlines of the complete design are traced upon the one, and those of the details to be applied upon the other. (you may paste, of course, silks of two or three colours upon one backing for this.) the stuff to be applied is then loosened from its frame, the details are cleanly cut out with scissors, or, better still, a knife (in either case sharp), and transferred to their place in the design on the other frame. there they are kept in position by short steel pins planted upright into the stuff until you are sure they fit, and then tacked firmly down, with care that the stitches are such as will be quite covered by the final couching, chain stitch, or whatever is to be your outline. in the case of silk or other delicate material, peculiar care must be taken that the paste is not moist enough to penetrate the stuff; but an experienced worker has no fear of that. a firm outline is a condition of appliqué, and couched cord fulfils it most perfectly. much depends upon a tasteful and tactful choice of colour for it. you fatten your pattern by outlining it with a colour which goes with it (illustration , b). you thin it by one which goes into the ground. very subtle use may be made of a double outline or of a corded line upon couched floss. there is a double outline to the ornament in illustration : the inner one next to the yellow satin appliqué is of gold, the outer one next the crimson velvet ground is of white sewn with pale blue. this gives emphasis to the bold forms of the leafage. the mid-rib there is of silver couching; the minor veinings are stitched in silk, and are rather insignificant. [illustration: . appliquÉ panel by miss keighley.] the less there is of extra stitching on appliqué the better as a rule. it disturbs the breadth, which is so valuable a characteristic of onlay. in no case is much mixing of methods to be desired; but if appliqué is to be supplemented, it had best be with couching, which is not so much stitching as stitched down, itself another form of applied work. appliqué of itself is not, of course, adapted to pictorial work, but that in association with judicious stitching and couching it may be used to admirable decorative purpose in figure design is shown by miss mabel keighley's panel, illustration . what an artist may do depends upon the artist. miss keighley's panel indicates the use that may be made of texture in the stuff onlaid. appliqué is especially appropriate to bold church work, fulfilling perfectly that condition of legibility so desirable in work necessarily seen oftenest from afar. broadly designed, it may be as fine in its way as a piece of mediæval stained glass, and it gives to silk and velvet their true worth. the pattern may be readable as far off as you can distinguish colour. [illustration: . a. counterchange. b. appliquÉ.] appliqué work is thought by some to be an inferior kind of embroidery, which it is not. it is not a lower but another kind of needlework, in which more is made of the stuff than of the stitching. in it the craft of the needleworker is not carried to its limit; but, on the other hand, it makes great demands upon design. you cannot begin by just throwing about sprays of natural flowers. it calls peremptorily for treatment--by which test the decorative artist stands or falls. effective it must be; coarse it may be; vulgar it should not be; trivial it can hardly be; mere prettiness is beyond its scope; but it lends itself to dignity of design and nobility of treatment. of course, it is not popular. a usual form of appliqué is in satin upon velvet. velvet on satin (b, illustration ) is comparatively rare; but it may be very beautiful, though there is a danger that it may look like weaving. silk upon silk (figured damask) is shown in illustration , designed to be seen from a nearer point of view, and less pronounced in pattern accordingly. the strap work, applied in ribbon, is broken by cross stitches in couples, which take away from the severity of the lines. the grape bunches are onlaid, each in one piece of silk, the forms of the separate grapes expressed by couching. the french knots in the centre of the grapes add greatly to the richness of the surface. the leaves are in one piece. it would have been possible to use two or three, joining them at the veins. [illustration: . appliquÉ--silk on silk damask.] the application of leather to velvet, as in illustration , allows modification in the way of execution, and of design adapted to it. leather does not fray, and needs, therefore, no sewing over at the edge, but only sewing down, which may be done, as in this case, well within the edge of the material, giving the effect of a double outline. the chinese do small work in linen, making similar use of the stitching within the outline, but turning the cut edge of the stuff under; it would not do to leave it raw. on a bolder scale, but in precisely the same manner, is embroidered the wonderful tent of françois ier., taken at the battle of pavia, and now in the armoury at madrid--obviously arab work. something of the kind was done also in morocco, which points to leather work as the possible origin of this method. another ingenious chinese notion is to sew down little five-petalled flowers (turned under at the edges) with long stamen stitches radiating from a central eye of knots. inlay, mosaic, cut-work. a step beyond the process of onlaying is inlay, where one material is not laid on to the other, but into it, both being perhaps backed by a common material. the process is, in fact, precisely analogous to that inlay of brass and tortoiseshell which goes by the name of its inventor, boule. the work is difficult, but thorough. it does not recommend itself to those who want to get effect cheaply. the process is suited only to close-textured stuffs, such as cloth, which do not fray. [sidenote: to work inlay.] the materials are not pasted on to linen, as in the case of appliqué. the cloth to be inlaid is placed upon the other, and both are cut through with one action of the knife, so that the parts cannot but fit. the coherent piece of material (the ground, say, of the pattern) is then laid upon a piece of strong linen already in a frame; the vacant spaces in it are filled up by pieces of the other stuff, and all is tacked down in place. that done, the work is taken out of the frame, and the edges sewn together. the backing can then, if necessary, be removed; and in oriental work it generally was. inlay lends itself most invitingly to counterchange in design, as seen in the stole at a, illustration . light and dark, ground and pattern, are there identical. you cannot say either is ground; each forms the ground to the other. and from the mere fact of the counterchanging you gather that it is inlaid, and not onlaid. [sidenote: to work counterchange.] prior to inlaying in materials which are at all likely to fray, you first back them with paper, thin but tough, firmly pasted; then, having tacked the two together, and pinned them with drawing-pins on to a board, you slip between it and the stuff a sheet of glass, and with a very sharp knife (kept sharp by an oilstone at hand) cut out the pattern. what was cut out of one material has only to be fitted into the other, and sewn together as before, and you have two pieces of inlaid work--what is the ground in one forming the pattern in the other, and _vice versâ_. by this ingenious means there is absolutely no waste of stuff. you get, moreover, almost invariably a broad and dignified effect: the process does not lend itself to triviality. it was used by the italians, and more especially by the spaniards of the renaissance, who borrowed the idea, of course, from the arabs. [illustration: . inlay in coloured cloths.] in india they still inlay in cloth most marvellously, not only counterchanging the pattern, but inlaying the inlays with smaller patternwork, thus combining great simplicity of effect with wonderful minuteness of detail. they mask the joins with chain-stitch, the colour of it artfully chosen with regard to the two colours of the cloth it divides or joins. further, they often patch together pieces of this kind of inlay. inlay itself is a sort of patchwork. you cut pieces out of your cloth, and patch it with pieces of another colour, covering the joins perhaps, as on illustration , with chain stitch, which gives it some resemblance to cloisonné enamel, the cloisons being of chain-stitch. where there is no one ground stuff to be patched, but a number of vari-coloured pieces of stuff are sewn together, they form a veritable mosaic, reminding one, in coloured stuffs, of what the mediæval glaziers did in coloured glass. admirable heraldic work was done in germany by this method; and it is still employed for flag making. the stuffs used should be as nearly as possible of one substance. in patchwork of loosely-textured material each separate piece of stuff may be cut large, turned in at the edge, and oversewn on the wrong side. [illustration: . cut-work in linen.] the relation of cut-work to inlay is clear--in fact, the one is the first step towards the other. you have only to stop short of the actual inlaying, and you have cut-work. fill up the parts cut out in illustration with coloured stuff, and it would be inlay. the needlewoman has preferred to sew over the raw edges of the stuff, and give us a perfect piece of fretwork in linen. it is part of the game in cut-work to make the fret coherent, whole in itself. the design should tell its own tale. "ties" of buttonhole-stitch, or what not, are not necessary, provided the designer knows how to plan a fret pattern. their introduction brings the work nearer to lace than embroidery. the sewing-over may be in chain-stitch, satin-stitch (as in illustration ), or in buttonhole-stitch--which last is strongest. as, in the case of appliqué, inlay, and mosaic, an embroidered outline is usually necessary to cover the join, so in the case of cut-work sewing-over is necessary to keep the edges from fraying. it may sometimes be advisable to supplement this outlining by further stitching to express veining, or give other minute details--just as the glassworker, when he could not get detail small enough by means of glazing, had recourse to painting to help him out. but there is danger in calling in auxiliaries. it is best to design with a view to the method of work to be employed, and to keep within its limits. to worry the surface of applied, inlaid, or cut stuff with finnikin stitchery, is practically to confess either the inadequacy of the design or the fidgetiness of the worker. it should need, as a rule, no such enrichment. embroidery in relief. embroidery being work _upon_ a stuff, it is inevitably raised, however imperceptibly, above the surface of it. but there is a charm in the unevenness of surface and texture thus produced; and the aim has consequently often been to make the difference of level between ground-stuff and embroidery more appreciable by underlay or padding of some kind. the abuse of this kind of thing need not blind us to the advantages it offers. there are various ways of raising embroidery, the principal of which are illustrated on the sampler overleaf. [sidenote: to work a ( ).] in sprig a the underlay is of closely-woven cloth, darker in colour than would be advisable except for the purpose of showing what it is: it is as well in the ordinary way to choose a cloth more or less of the colour the embroidery is to be. the cloth is cut with sharp scissors carefully to shape, but a little within the outline, and pasted on to the linen. when perfectly dry, it is worked over with thick corded silk couched in the ordinary way. [sidenote: to work b.] the raised line at b reveals the way the stem in illustration was worked. two cords of smooth string (macramé, for example) are twisted and tacked in place. over this floss is worked in close satin-stitch. [sidenote: to work c.] in sprig c the underlay is of parchment, lightly stitched in place. the use of a double underlay in parts gives additional relief. the embroidery upon this (in slightly twisted silk) is in satin-stitch. [sidenote: to work d.] the leaf shapes at d are padded with cotton wool, cut out as nearly as possible to the shape required, and tacked down with fine cotton. they are then worked over with floss in satin-stitch. the stalks are not padded with cotton wool, but first worked with crewel wool, which, being soft and elastic, forms an excellent ground for working over in floss silk. [sidenote: to work e.] in working a stalk like that at e, you first lay down a double layer of soft, thick cotton, and then work over it with flatter cotton (made expressly for padding) in slanting satin-stitch. three threads of smooth round silk are then attached to one side of the padding and carried diagonally across to the other side, where they are sewn down with strong thread of the same colour close to the underlay, so that the stitches may not show. they are then brought back to the side from which they started, sewn down, and returned again, and so backwards and forwards to the end. the crossing threads make a sort of pattern, and it is a point of good workmanship that they should cross regularly. such pattern is more obvious when threads of three different shades of colour are employed. threads of twisted silk may, of course, be equally well used this way without padding underneath. [illustration: . raised work sampler.] [sidenote: to work f.] in sprig f the underlay is of cardboard, pasted on to the linen. it is worked over with purse silk, to and fro across the forms, and sewn down at the margin with finer silk. this is a method of work often employed when gold thread is used. [sidenote: to work g.] in sprig g the underlay or stuffing is of string, sewn down with stitches always in the direction of the twist. it is worked over with floss in satin-stitch. [sidenote: to work h.] in sprig h the underwork consists of stitching in soft cotton, over which thick silk is embroidered in bullion-stitch. the rule is to work the first stitching in such a direction that the surface work crosses it at right angles. the small leaf is worked over with fine purse silk in satin-stitch, which is used also for the stalk. in the smaller sampler of laid-work, illustration , the broad stem is twice underlaid with crewel, excellent for this soft sort of padding, on account of its elasticity. the leaves have there only one layer of understitching. raised work in white upon white is often used for purposes which make it inevitable that sooner or later the work will be washed. that is a consideration which the embroidress must not leave out of account. in any case, work over stitchery is more durable than over loose padding such as cotton wool. [illustration: . raised work showing underlay.] the th century work reproduced in illustration is in flax thread on linen, and the underlay (laid bare in the topmost flower) is of stiff linen, sewn down, not at the margins as in the case of the parchment on the sampler (illustration ), but by a row of stitching up the centre of each petal. the veins of the leaves in illustration are padded with embroidery cotton and worked over with filo-floss. the leaves themselves are not padded, though the sewing down of the veins upon them, as well as the fact that they are applied on to the velvet ground, gives some appearance of relief. raised gold. our sampler of raised work is done in silk. underlaying is more often used to raise work in gold, to which in most respects it is best suited. the methods shown in the sampler would answer almost equally well for gold, except that working in gold one would not at h ( ) use bullion-stitch, but bullion, first covering the underlay of stitching with smoothly-laid yellow floss. bullion consists of closely coiled wire. it is made by winding fine wire tightly and closely round a core of stouter wire. when this central core of wire is withdrawn, you have a long hollow tube of spirally twisted wire. this the embroidress cuts into short lengths as required, and sews on to the silk--as she would a long bead or bugle. its use is illustrated at a in illustration , where the stems of triple gold cord are tied down at intervals by clasps of bullion, and the leaves, again, are filled in with the same. it was the mediæval fashion to encrust the robes of kings and pontiffs with pearls and precious stones mounted in gold: the early byzantine form of crown was practically a velvet cap, on to which were sewn plaques of gorgeous enamel and mounted stones. when to such work embroidery was added, it was not unnatural that it should vie with the gold setting. as a matter of fact, its design was often only a translation into needlework of the forms proper to the goldsmith. yet more openly in rivalry with goldsmiths' work was some of the embroidery of the renaissance, in which the idea--a most mistaken one, of course--seems to have been to imitate beaten metal. this led inevitably to excessively high relief in gold embroidery. you may see in th century church work the height to which relief can be carried, and the depth to which ecclesiastical taste can sink. the spaniards were, perhaps, the greatest sinners in this respect, seeking, as they did, richness at all cost; but it must be confessed that, in the th century at least, they produced most gorgeous results: there is in the treasury of the cathedral at toledo an altar frontal in gold, silver, and coral, and a yet more beautiful mantle of the virgin in silver and pearls upon a gold ground, which make one loth to dogmatise. [illustration: . raised gold.] the preciousness of gold and silver, points, in the nature of things, to their use for church vestments and the like; and high relief gives, no doubt, value to the metal; but the consideration of its intrinsic value leads quickly to display. the artistic value of gold is not so much that it looks gorgeous as that it glorifies the colour caught, so to speak, in its meshes. admitting that there is reason for relief in gold embroidery--it catches the light as flat gold does not--one feels that the very slightest modelling is usually enough. reference was made (page ) to the effect of gilt gesso obtained in raised gold thread: that really is about the degree of relief it is safe to adopt in gold embroidery, the relief that is readily got by laying on gesso with a brush, not carving or modelling it; and the characteristically blunt forms got by that means repeat themselves when you work with the needle. there is ample relief in the gold embroidery on illustrations and . the first of these shows both flat and raised work: the latter illustrates not only various degrees of relief, but several ways of underlaying. it scarcely needs pointing out that the flatter serrated leaves are worked over parchment or paper, and the puffy parts of the flowers over softer padding. allusion has already been made (page ) to the way the stalk is worked over twisted cords, as on the sampler, illustration . the patterns in which the gold is worked do not tell quite so plainly here as on illustration , where the basket pattern is more pronounced. in the stalk there flat gold wire is used, and again in the broken surface towards the top of the plate. spangles of gold may be used with admirable effect, at the risk, perhaps, of a rather tinselly look; but that has been often most skilfully avoided both in mediæval work and in oriental. in india great and very cunning use is made of spangles, by the parsees in particular, who, by the way, embroider with gold wire. gold foil may be cut to any shape and sewn on to embroidery, but spangles take mainly one of two shapes, best distinguished as disc-like and ring-like. the discs are flat, pierced in the centre, and sewn down usually with two or three radiating stitches (a, illustration , and illustration ). the rings may be attached by a single thread. they can easily be made to overlap like fish scales, and most elaborately embossed pictures have been worked in this way. there is a vestment in the cathedral at granada which is a marvel to see; but not the thing to do, surely. relief is easily overdone, in figure work so easily that one may say safety is to be found only in the most delicate relief. to make figures look round is to make them look stuffed. that stuffy images are to be found in mediæval church work is only too true. in gothic art one finds this quaint, perhaps, but it is perilously near the laughable. the point of the ridiculous is plainly overpassed in english work of the th century, which degenerates at last into mere doll work--the dolls duly stuffed and dressed in most childish fashion, their drapery, in actual folds, projecting. some really admirable needlework was wasted upon this kind of thing, which has absolutely no value, except as an object-lesson in the frivolity of the stuarts and their on-hangers. quilting. a most legitimate use of padding is in the form of quilting, where it serves a useful as well as an ornamental purpose. to quilt is to stitch one cloth upon another with something soft between (or without anything between). our word "counterpane" is derived from "contre-poinct," a corruption of the french word for back-stitch, or "quilting" stitch, as it was called. if you merely stitch two thicknesses of stuff together in a pattern, such as that on illustration , the stuff between the stitches has a tendency to rise: the two layers of stuff do not lie close except where they are held together by the stitching, and a very pleasantly uneven surface results. this effect is enhanced if between the two stuffs there is a layer of something soft. if, now, you keep down the groundwork of your design by comparatively frequent stitches diapering it, you get a pattern in relief, more or less, according to the substance of your padding. another way is to pad the pattern only, as in illustration , where the padding is of soft cord. [illustration: . quilting, done in chain-stitch from the back.] a cunning way of padding is first to stitch the outline of the design, and then from the back to insert the stuffing. you first pierce the stuff with a stiletto, and, having pushed in the cord, cotton, or what not, efface as far as possible the piercing: the stuffing has then not much temptation to escape from its confinement. the persians do most elaborate quilting on fine white linen, which they sew with yellow silk; but the pattern is stuffed with cords of blue cotton, the colour of which just grins through the white sufficiently to cool it, and to distinguish it from the creamy white ground made warmer by the yellow stitching. quilting is most often done in white upon colour, or in one colour upon white. yellow silk on white linen (as in the case of illustration ) was a favourite combination, and is always a delicate one. but there is no reason why a variety of colours should not be used in a counterpane. when you stitch down the ground with coloured silk you give it, of course, colour as well as flatness. [illustration: . raised quilting.] stitch groups. there are all sorts of ways in which stitches might be grouped:--according to the order of time in which historically they came into use; according as they are worked through and through the stuff or lie mostly on its surface; according as they are conveniently worked in the hand or necessitate the use of a frame; and in other ways too many to mention. it is not difficult, for example, to imagine a classification according to which the satin-stitch in illustration would figure as a canvas stitch. in the samplers they are grouped according to their construction, that seeming to us the most practical for purposes of description. they might for other purposes more conveniently be classed some other way. at all events, it is helpful to group them. designer and worker alike will go straighter to the point if once they get clearly into their minds the stitches and their use, and the range of each--what it can do, what it can best do, what it can ill do, what it cannot do at all. anyone, having mastered the stitches and grasped their scope, can group them for herself, say, into stitches suited ( ) to line work, ( ) to all-over work, ( ) to shading, and so on. these she might again subdivide. of line stitches, for example, some are best suited for straight lines, others for curved; some for broad lines, others for narrow; some for even lines, others for unequal; some for outlining, others for veining. and, further, of all-over stitches some give a plain surface, others a patterned one; some do best for flat surfaces, others for modelled; some look best in big patches, some answer only for small spaces. with regard to shading stitches, there are various ways (see the chapter on shading) of giving gradation of colour and of indicating relief or modelling. some stitches, of course, are adapted to various uses, as crewel, chain, and satin stitches--naturally the most in use. workers generally end in adopting certain stitches as their own. that is all right, so long as they do not forget that there are other stitches which might on occasion serve their purpose. anyway, they should begin by knowing what stitches there are. until they know, and know too what each can do, they are hardly in a position to determine which of them will best do what they want. our samplers show the use to which the stitches on them may be put. [illustration: . satin-stitch in the making.] by way of _résumé_, it may be added that for line work, more or less fine, crewel, chain, back and rope stitches, and couched cord are most suitable; crewel for long lines especially, and rope stitch for both curved and straight lines; for a boundary line, buttonhole is most emphatic; for broader lines, herring-bone, feather, and oriental stitches answer better; ladder-stitch has the advantage of a firm edge on both sides of it. satin and chain stitches, couching and laying, and basket work make good bands, but are not peculiarly adapted to that purpose. for covering broad surfaces, crewel, chain, and satin stitches (including, of course, what are called long-and-short and plumage stitches) serve admirably, as does also darning and laid-work; and for gold thread, couching. french knots do best for small surfaces only. the stitches most useful for purposes of shading are mentioned later on. no sort of classification is possible until the number of stitches has been reduced to the necessary few, and all fancy stitches struck out of the list. enquiry should also be made into the title of each stitch to the name by which it is known; and the names themselves should be brought down to a minimum. reduce them to the fewest any needlewoman will allow, and they are still, if not too many, more than are logically required. some of them, too, describe not stitches, but ways of using a stitch. the term long-and-short, it has already been explained (page ), has less to do with a particular stitch than its proportion, and the term plumage-stitch refers more to the direction of the stitch than to the stitch itself. and so with other stitches. it is its oblique direction only which distinguishes stem-stitch from other short stitches of the kind. running, again, amounts to no more than proportioning stitches to the mesh of the stuff, and taking several of them at one passing of the needle; and darning is but rows of running side by side. the term split-stitch describes no new stitch, but a particular treatment to which a crewel or a satin stitch is submitted. the foregoing summaries of stitches are only by way of suggestion, something to set the embroidress thinking for herself. she must choose her own method; but it would help her, i think, to schedule the stitches for herself according to her own ways and wants. the most suitable stitch may not suit every one. individual preference and individual aptitude count for something. it is not a question of what is demonstrably best, but of what best suits you. one stitch, or many? the first thing to be settled with regard to the choice of stitch is whether to employ one stitch throughout, or a variety of stitches. much will depend upon the effect desired. good work has been done in either way; but one may safely say, in the first place, that it is as well not to introduce variety of stitch without good cause--there is safety in simplicity--and in the second, that stitches should be chosen to go together, in order that the work may look all of a piece. when the various stitches are well chosen, it is difficult at a glance to distinguish one from another. a great variety of stitches in one piece of work is worrying, if not bewildering. it is as well not to use too many, to keep in the main to one or two, but not to be afraid of using a third, or a fourth, to do what the stitch or stitches mainly relied upon cannot do. [illustration: . stitches in combination.] it tends also towards simplicity of effect if you use your stitches with some system, not haphazard, and in subordination one to the other; there must be no quarrelling among them for superiority. you should determine, that is to say, at the outset, which stitch shall be employed for filling, which for outline; or which for stalks, which for leaves, and which for flowers. or, supposing you adopt one general stitch throughout, and introduce others, you should know why, and make up your mind to employ your second for emphasis of form, your third for contrast of texture, or for some other quite definite purpose. it is not possible here to point out in detail the system on which the various examples illustrated have been worked; the reader must worry that out for herself. but one may just point out in passing how well the various stitches go together in some few instances. nothing could be more harmonious, for example, than the combination of knot, chain, and buttonhole stitches in illustration ; or of ladder, oriental, herring-bone, and other stitches in illustration . again, in illustration the contrast between satin-stitch in the bird and couched cord for the clouding is most judicious, as is the knotting of the bird's crest. laid floss contrasts, again, admirably with couched gold in illustrations , , , and satin-stitch with couching in illustration , where the gold is reserved mainly for outline, but on occasion serves to emphasise a detail. [illustration: . fine needlework upon linen.] couched gold and surface satin-stitch are used together again in illustration , each for its specific purpose. the harmony between appliqué work and couching or chain-stitch outline has been alluded to already. a danger to be kept in view when working in one stitch only is, lest it should look like a woven textile, as it might if very evenly worked. some kinds of embroidery seem hardly worth doing nowadays, because they suggest the loom. that may be a reason for some complexity of stitch, in which lurks that other danger of losing simplicity and breadth. the lace-like appearance of the needlework upon fine linen in illustration , results chiefly from the extraordinary delicacy with which it is done, but it owes something also to the variety of stitch and of stitch-pattern employed in it. outline. the use of outline in embroidery hardly needs pointing out. it is often the obvious way of defining a pattern, as, for example, where there is only a faint difference in depth of tint between the pattern and its background; in appliqué work it is necessary to mask the joins; and it is by itself a delightful means of diapering a surface with not too obtrusive pattern. allusion to the stitches suitable to outline has been made already (see stitch-groups), as well as to the colour of outlining, _à propos_ of appliqué. it is difficult to overrate the importance of this question of colour in the case of outline; but there are no rules to be laid down, except that a coloured outline is nearly always preferable to a black one. the germans of the th century were given to indulging in black outlines, and you may see in their work how it hardened the effect, whereas a coloured outline may define without harshness. the spaniards, on the other hand, realised the value of colour, and would, for example, outline gold and silver upon a dark green ground in red, with admirable effect. a double outline, for which there is often opportunity in bold work, may be turned to good account. among the successful combinations which come to mind is an appliqué pattern in yellow and white upon dark green, outlined first with gold cord, and then, next the green, with a paler and brighter green. another is a pattern chiefly in yellow upon purple, outlined first with yellow couched with gold, and next the ground with silver. in the case of couched cord or gold, the colour of the stitching counts also. stitches from the edge of a leaf or what not, inwards, alternately long and short, though they form an edge to the leaf, are not properly outlining. this is rather a stopping short of solid work than outlining, though it often goes by that name. the first condition of a good outline stitch is that it should be, as it were, supple, so as to follow the flow of the form. at the same time it should be firm. fancy stitches look fussy; and a spikey outline is worse than none at all. there is absolutely no substantial ground for the theory that outlines should be worked in a stitch not used elsewhere in the work. on the contrary, it is a good rule not to introduce extra stitches into the work unless they give something which the stitches already employed will not give. the simplest way is always safest. an outline affords a ready means of clearing up edges; but it should not be looked upon merely as a device for the disguise of slovenliness. unless the colour scheme should necessitate an outline, an embroidress, sure of her skill, will often prefer not to outline her work, and to get even the drawing lines within the pattern, by voiding. she will leave, that is to say, a line of ground-stuff clear between the petals of her flowers, or what not; which line, by the way, should be narrower than it is meant to appear, as it looks always broader than it is. it is more difficult, it must be owned, thus to work along two sides of a line of ground-stuff than to work a single line of stitching, but it is within the compass of any skilled worker; and skilled workers have delighted in voiding even when their work was on a small scale necessitating fine lines of voiding (illustrations and ). in work on a bold scale there is no difficulty about it; and it would be remarkable that it is so seldom used, were it not that the uncertain worker likes to have a chance of clearing up ragged edges, and that voiding implies a broader and more dignified treatment of design than it is the fashion to affect. shading. one arrives inevitably at gradation of colour in embroidery; the question is how best to get it. but, before mentioning the ways in which it may be got, it seems necessary to protest that shading is not a matter of course. perfectly beautiful work may be done, and ought more often to be done, in merely flat needlework; the gloss of the silk and its varying colour as it catches the light according to the direction of the stitching, are quite enough to prevent a monotonously flat effect. still, embroidery affords such scope for gradation of colour, not, practically, to be got by any process of weaving, that a colourist may well revel in the delights of colour which silks of various dyes allow. and so long as colour is the end in view there is not much danger that a colourist will go wrong. [illustration: . part of a design by walter crane.] the use of shading in embroidery is rather to get gradation of colour than relief of form. as to the stitch to be employed, that is partly a personal matter, partly a question of what is to be done. the stitch must be adapted to the kind of shading, or the shading must be designed to suit the stitch. it makes all the difference in the world, whether your shading is deliberately done, or whether one shade is meant to merge into another. in the best work it is always done with decision. there is nothing vague or casual, for example, about the shading of mr. crane's animals on illustration . everywhere the shading is _drawn_, either in lines or as a sharply defined mass. given a drawing in which the shadows are properly planned and crisply drawn like that, and you may use what stitch you please. [illustration: . shading in chain-stitch.] the more natural way of shading is to let the stitches follow the lines of the drawing, and so make use of them to express form, as with the strokes of the pen or pencil upon paper. thus, in mediæval figurework prior to the th century, the faces were usually done in split stitch, worked concentrically from the middle of the cheek outward, and so suggesting the roundness of the face (illustration ). but just as there is a system of shading according to which the draughtsman makes all his strokes in one direction (slanting usually), so the embroidress may, if she prefer, take her stitches all one way; and in the th and th centuries the fashion was to work flesh in short-satin stitches always in the vertical direction (illustration ). the term "long-and-short-stitch" is frequently used by way of describing the stitch. it does not, as i have said, help us much. the stitches are in the first place only satin-stitches worked not in even rows, as in illustration , but so that there is no line of demarcation between one row and another. and this, in the case of gradated colour, makes the shading softer. the words long-and-short apply strictly only to the outer row of stitches. you begin, that is to say, with alternately long and short stitches. if you work after that with stitches of equal length, they necessarily alternate or dovetail. if the form to be worked necessitates radiation in the stitching, there results a texture something like the feathering of a bird's breast (illustration ), whence the name plumage-stitch, another term describing not so much a stitch as the use of a stitch. no matter what the stitch, one must be able to draw in order to express form: it is rather more difficult to draw with a needle than with a pen, that is all. true, the designer may do that for you, and make such a workmanlike drawing that there is no mistaking it; but it takes a skilled draughtsman to do it. [illustration: . shading in short stitches.] in flattish decorative work, where the drawing is in firm lines, as in illustration , the task of the embroidress is relatively easy--there is not much shading, for example, in the drapery of king abias, and the vine leaves are merely worked with yellower green towards the edges. even where there is strong shading, a draughtsman who knows his business may make shading easy by drawing his shadows with firm outlines. the taste of the artist who designed the roses in illustration is too pictorial to win the heart of any one with a leaning towards severity of design; too much relief is sought; but the way he has got it shows the master workman; he has deliberately laid in _flat_ washes of colour, each with its precise outline, which the worker had only to follow faithfully with flat tambour work. a design like that, given the working drawing, asks little of the worker beyond patient care: of the designer it asks considerable knowledge. a yet more pictorial effect is produced in much the same way, this time in satin stitch, in illustration . the artist has for the most part drawn his shadows with crisp brush strokes, which the worker had no difficulty in following; but there is some rounding of the birds' bodies which a merely mechanical worker could not have got. in fact, there are indications that this is the work more of a painter than of an embroidress, who would have acknowledged by her stitches the feathering of the birds' necks as well as their roundness. [illustration: . shading in long-and-short and split stitches.] you can embroider, of course, without knowing much about drawing; but you cannot go far in the direction of shading (not drawn for you, or only vaguely drawn) without the appreciation of form which comes only of knowing and understanding. there is evidence of such knowledge and understanding in the working of the lion in illustration . that is not a triumph of even stitching; but it is a triumph of drawing with the needle. the short satin and split stitches are not placed with the regularity so dear to the human machine, but they express the design perfectly. the embroiderer of that lion was an artist, perhaps the artist who designed it. "it might be a _man's_ work," was the verdict of an embroidress. at all events it is the work of some one who could draw, and only a draughtsman or draughtswoman could have worked it. this is not said wholly in praise of shading. embroidery ought, for the most part, to do very well without it. the point to insist upon is that, if shading is employed at all, it should mean something, and not be mere fumbling after form. the charm of shading in embroidery is not the roundness of form which you get, but the gradation of colour which it gives. this may be very delicately and subtly got by split-stitch, which renders that stitch so valuable in the rendering of flesh tints. but the blending of colour into colour which is universally admired is not quite so admirable as people think. one may easily employ too many shades of colour, easily merge them too imperceptibly one into the other, getting only unmeaning softness. an artist prefers to see few shades employed, and those chosen with judgment and placed with deliberate intention. if they mean something, there is no harm in letting it be seen where they meet: broad masses give breadth: vagueness generally means ignorance. that is, perhaps, why one dislikes it, and why it is so common. figure embroidery. to an accomplished needlewoman embroidery offers every scope for art, short of the pictorial; and the artist is not only justified in lavishing work upon it, but often bound to do so, more especially when it comes to working with materials in themselves rich and costly. a beautiful material, if you are to better it (and if not why work upon it at all?), must be beautifully worked. costly material is worth precious work; and there should be by rights a preciousness about the needlework employed upon it, preciousness of design and of execution. to put the value into the material is mere vulgarity. it seems to an artist almost to go without saying, that the labour on work claiming to be art should be in excess of the value of the stuff which goes to make it. what we really prize is the hand work and the brain work of the artist; and the more precious the stuff he employs, the more strictly he is bound to make artistic use of it. i do not mean by that _pictorial_ use. you can get, no doubt, with the needle effects more or less pictorial--most often less; but, when got, they are usually at the best rather inferior to the picture of which they are a copy. work done should be better always than the design for it, which was a project only, a promise. the fulfilment should be something more. a design of which the promise is not likely to be fulfilled in the working-out is, for its purpose, ill-designed. to say that you would rather have the drawing from which it was done (and that is what you feel about "needle pictures") is most severely to condemn either the designer or the worker, or perhaps both. only a competent figure painter, for example, can be trusted to render flesh with the needle; her success is in proportion to her skill with the implement, but in any case less than what might be achieved in painting: then why choose the needle? admitting that a painter who by choice or chance takes to the needle may paint with it satisfactorily enough, that does not go to prove the needle a likely tool to paint with. it is anything but that. there was never a greater mistake than to suppose, as some do who should know better, that, to raise embroidery to the rank of art, figure work is necessary. the truth is that only by rare exception does embroidered figure work rise to the rank of art: the rule is that it is degraded, the more surely as it aims at picture. and that is why, for all that has been done in the way of wonderful picture work, say by the italians and the flemings of the early renaissance, the pictorial is not the form of design best suited to embroidery. needlework, like any other decorative craft, demands treatment in the design, and the human figure submits less humbly to the necessary modification than other forms of life. animals, for instance, lend themselves more readily to it, and so do birds; fur and feathers are obviously translatable into stitches. leaves and flowers accommodate themselves perhaps better still; but each is best when it is only the motive, not the model, of design. if only, then, on account of the greater difficulty in treating it, the figure is not the form of design most likely to do credit to the needle, and it is absurd to argue that, figure work being the noblest form of design, therefore the noblest form of embroidery must include it. the embroidress entirely in sympathy with her materials will not want telling that the needle lends itself better to forms less fixed in their proportions than the human figure; the decorator will feel that there is about fine ornament a nobility of its own which stands in need of no pictorial support; the unbiassed critic will admit that figure design of any but the most severely decorative kind is really outside the scope of needle and thread; and that the desire to introduce it arises, not out of craftsmanlikeness, but out of an ambition which does not pay much regard to the conditions proper to needlework. those conditions should be a law to the needlewoman. what though she be a painter too? she is painting now with a needle. it is futile to attempt what could be better done with a brush. she should be content to work the way of the needle. common sense asks that much at least of loyalty to the art she has chosen to adopt. wonderful and almost incredibly pictorial effects have been obtained with the needle; but that does not mean to say it was a wise thing to attempt them. the result may be astonishing and yet not worth the pains. the pains of flesh-painting with the needle (if not the impossibility of it for all practical purposes) is confessed by the habit which arose of actually painting the flesh in water colour upon satin. paint on satin, if you like. there may be occasions when there is no time to stitch, and it is necessary for some ceremonial and more or less theatric purpose to paint what had better have been worked. the more frankly such work acknowledges its temporary and makeshift character the better. scene painting is art, until you are asked to take it for landscape painting. anyway, the mixture of painting and embroidery is not to be endured; and it is a poor-spirited embroidress who will thus confess her weakness and call on painting to help her out. it does not even do that, it fails absolutely to produce the desired effect. the painting quarrels with the stitching, and there is after all no semblance of that unity which is the very essence of picture. [illustration: . chinese chain-stitching.] an instance of painted flesh occurs upon illustration . can any one, in view of the bordering to the picture, doubt that the worker had much better have kept to what she could do, and do perfectly, ornament? an example, on the other hand, of what may be done in the way of expressing action in the fewest and simplest chain stitches (if only you know the form you want to represent and can manage your needle) is given in the wee figures in the landscape above ( ). [illustration: . fifteenth century figure work.] in speaking of the necessary treatment of the human figure (as of other natural form) in needlework, it is not meant to contend that there is one only way of treating it consistently, or that there are no more than two or three ways. there are various ways, some no doubt yet to be devised, but they must be the ways of the needle. the flesh, of course, is the main difficulty. a gothic practice, and not the least happy one, was to show the flesh in the naked linen of the ground, only just working the outlines of the features in black or brown. another way was to work the face in split stitch, as already explained, and over that the markings of the features, the fine lines in short satin-stitches, the broader in split-stitch, as shown in the figure of king abias in illustration . the general treatment of the figure there is of course in the manner of the th century, better suited, from its severe simplicity, for rendering in needlework than later and more pictorial forms of composition. that needlework can, however, in capable hands, go farther than that is shown in illustration , a rather threadbare specimen of th century work, in which the character of the man's face is admirably expressed. it is first worked in short, straight stitches, all of white, and over that the drawing lines are worked in brown. the artist gets her effect in the simplest possible way, and apparently with the greatest ease. [illustration: . sixteenth century italian figure work.] more like painting is the head in illustration , worked in short stitches of various shades, which give something of the colour as well as the modelling of flesh. this is a triumph in its way. it goes about as far as the needle can go, and further than, except under rare conditions, it ought to go. but it may do that and yet be needlework. equally wonderful in their miniature way are the faces of the little people on illustration , about the size of your finger nail. they are worked in solid satin-stitch, and the two layers of silk (back and front) give a substance fairly thick but at the same time yielding, so that when the stitches for the mouth and eyes are sewn tightly over it they sink in, and, as it were, push up the floss between and give relief. the nose is worked in extra satin-stitch over the other, and the slight depression at the end of the stitch gives lines of drawing. this trenches upon modelling, but, on such a minute scale, does not amount to very pronounced departure from the flat. the method employed does not lend itself to larger work. the last word on the question as to what one may do with the needle is, that you may do what you _can_; but it is best to seek by means of it what it can best do, and always to make much of the texture of silk, and of the quality of pure and lustrous colour which it gives--in short, to work _with_ your materials. [illustration: . chinese figures.] the direction of the stitch. the effect of any stitch is vastly varied, according to the use made of it. satin-stitch, it was shown ( ), worked in twisted silk, ceases to have any appearance of satin; and it makes all the difference whether the stitches are long or short, close together or wide apart. more important than all is the direction of the stitch. by that alone you can recognise the artist in needlework. the direction of the stitch deserves consideration from two points of view--that of colour and that of form. first as to colour. it is not sufficiently realised that every alteration in the direction of the stitch means variety of tone, if not of tint. take a feather in your hand, and turn it about, so that now one side of the quill now the other catches the light; or notice the alternate stripes of brighter and greyer green on a fresh-trimmed lawn, where the roller has bent the blades of grass first this way and then that. so it is with the colour of silken stitches. the pattern opposite ( ) looks as if it had been embroidered in two shades of silk; in the work itself it has still more that appearance; but it is all in one shade of brownish gold: the difference which you see is merely the effect of light upon it. the horizontal stitches, as it happens, catch the light; the vertical ones do not. had the light come from a different point, the effect might have been reversed. if there had been diagonal stitches from right to left, they would have given a third tint; and, if there had been others from left to right, they would have given a fourth. [illustration: . influence of stitch-direction upon colour.] suppose a pattern in which the leaves were worked horizontally, the flowers vertically, and the stalks in the direction of their growth, all in one stitch and in one colour, there would be a very appreciable difference in tone between leaves, flowers, and stalks. in gold, the difference would be yet more striking. and that is one reason why gold backgrounds are worked in diapers; not so much for the sake of pattern as to get variety of broken tint. in the famous syon cope the direction of the stitching is frankly independent of the design. that is to say, that, while the pattern radiates naturally from the neck, the stitches do not follow suit, but go all one way--the way of the stuff. this, though rather a brutal solution of the difficulty, saves all afterthought as to what direction the stitches shall take; but it has very much the effect of weaving. the embroiderer of the th century was not afraid of that (aimed at it, perhaps?), and was, apparently, afraid of letting go the leading strings of warp and weft. when stitches follow the direction of the form embroidered, accommodating themselves to it, all manner of subtle change of tone results. you get, not only variety of colour, but more than a suggestion of form. that is the second point to be considered. [illustration: . meaningless direction of stitch.] the direction taken by the stitch always helps to explain the drawing; or, if the needlewoman cannot draw, to show that she cannot--as, for example, in the tulip herewith ( ). a less intelligent management of the stitch it would be hard to find. the needlestrokes, far from helping in the very slightest degree to explain the folding over of the petals, directly contradict the drawing. the flower might almost have been designed to show how not to do it; but it is a piece of old work, quite seriously done, only without knowing. the embroidress is free, of course, to work her stitches in a direction which does not express form at all, so as to give a flat tint, in which is no hint of modelling; but the intention is here quite obviously naturalistic. the rendering below ( ) shows the direction the stitches should have taken. the turn-over of the petals is even there not very clearly expressed, but that is the fault of the drawing (very much on a par with the workmanship), from which it would not have been fair to depart. [illustration: . more expressive lines of stitching.] a more clever fulfilment of the naturalistic intention is to be seen in illustration . the drawing of the doves is in the rather loose manner of the period of marie antoinette; but the treatment of the stitch is clever in its way--the way, as i have said, rather of painting than of embroidery, giving as it does the roundness of the birds' bodies but no hint of actual feathering, such as you find in the bird in illustration . there, every stitch helps to explain the feathering. by a discreet use of what i must persist in calling the same stitch (that is, satin-stitch and the variety of it called plumage-stitch) the embroiderer has rendered with equal perfection the sweep of the broad wing feathers and the fluffy feathering of the breast. it is by means of the direction of the stitch, too, that the drawing of the neck is so perfectly rendered. [illustration: . satin and plumage stitches.] the direction of the stitch is varied to some purpose in the head in illustration , where the flesh is all in straight upright stitches, whilst the hair is stitched in the direction of its growth. the five petals on the satin-stitch sampler (illustration )--to descend from the masterly to the elementary--show something of the difference it makes in what direction the stitch is worked. it matters more, of course, in some stitches than in others; but in most cases the direction of the stitch suggests form, and needs accordingly to be considered. it scarcely needs further pointing out how the direction of the stitch may help to explain the construction of the form, as in the case of leaves, for example, where the veining may be suggested; or of stalks, where the fibre may be indicated. there is no law as to the direction of stitch, except that it should be considered. you may follow the direction of the forms, you may cross them, you may deliberately lay your stitches in the most arbitrary manner; but, whatever you do, you must do it with intelligent purpose. an artist or a workwoman can tell at once whether your stitch was laid just so because you meant it or because you knew no better. having laid your stitches deliberately, it is best to leave them, and not to work over them with other stitching. stitching over stitching was resorted to whenever elaboration was the fashion; but the simpler and more direct method is the best. the way the veins are laid in cord over the satin-stitch in the lotus leaves in illustration is the one fault to be found with an all but perfect piece of work. the stitching over the laid silver mid-rib in illustration is better judged. it may be said, generally speaking, that except where, as in the case of laid-work, the first stitching was done in anticipation of a second, and the work would be incomplete without it, stitching over stitches should be indulged in only with moderation. stitching is sometimes done not merely over stitches, but upon the surface of them, not penetrating the ground-stuff. unless, in such a case, the first stitching is of such compact character as to want no strengthening, it amounts almost to a sin against practicality not to take advantage of the second stitching to make it firmer. church work. it is customary to draw a distinction between church, or ecclesiastical as it is called, and other embroidery; but it is a distinction without much difference. certain kinds of work are doubtless best suited to the dignity of church ceremonial, and to the breadth of architectural decoration; accordingly, certain processes of work have been adopted for church purposes, and are taken as a matter of course--too much as a matter of course. the fact is, work precisely like that employed on vestments and the like (illustration ) was used also for the caparison of horses and other equally profane purposes. [illustration: . renaissance church work.] practical considerations, alike of ceremonial and decoration, make it imperative that church work should be effective: religious sentiment insists that it should be of the best and richest, unsparingly, and even lavishly given; common sense dictates that the loving labour spent upon it should not be lost. and these and other such considerations involve methods of work which, by constant use for church purposes, have come to be classed as ecclesiastical embroidery. but there is no consecrated stitch, no stitch exclusively belonging to the church, none probably invented by it. for embroidery is a primitive art--clothes were stitched before ever churches were furnished; and european methods of embroidery are all derived from oriental work, which found its way westwards at a very early date. phrygia (sometimes credited with the invention of embroidery) passed it on to greece, and greece to italy, the gate of european art. christianity produced new forms of design, but not new ways of work. the methods adopted in the nunneries of the west were those which had already been perfected in the harems of the east. embroidery for the church must naturally take count of the church, both as a building and as a place of worship; but, as apart from all other needlework, there is no such thing as church embroidery; and the branding of one very dull kind of thing with that name is in the interest neither of art nor of the church, but only of business. "ecclesiastical art" is just a trade-term, covering a vast amount of soulless work. there is in the nature of things no reason why art should be reserved for secular purposes, and only manufacture be encouraged by the clergy. the test of fitness for religious service is religious feeling; but that is hardly more likely to be found in the output of the church furnisher (trade patterns overladen with stock symbols), than in the stitching of the devout needlewoman, working for the glory of god, in whose service of old the best work was done. many of the examples of old work given on these pages are from church vestments, altar furniture, and the like; information on that point will be found in the descriptive index of illustrations at the beginning of the book; but they are here discussed from the point of view of workmanship, with as little reference as possible to religious or other use: that is a question apart from art. the distinguishing features of church work should be, in the first place, its devotional spirit, and, in the second, its consummate workmanship. in it, indeed, we might expect to find work beyond the rivalry of trade controlled by conditions of time and money. even then it would be but the more perfect expression of the same art which in its degree ennobled things of civic and domestic use. church embroidery, as usually practised in these days, is not only the most frigid and rigid in design, but the hardest and most mechanical in execution--which last arises in great part from the way it is done. it is not embroidered straight upon the silk or velvet which forms the groundwork of the design, but separately on linen. the pattern thus worked is cut out, and either pasted straight on to the ground-stuff, or, if the linen is at all loose, first mounted on thin paper and then cut out and pasted on to the velvet, where it is kept under pressure until it is dry. in either case the edges have eventually to be worked over. this habit of working on linen or canvas and applying the embroidery ready worked on to the richer stuff, though early used on occasion, does not seem to have been common until a period when manufacture generally usurped the place of art. the work in illustration was done directly on to the silk. in the latter half of the th century there was a regular trade in embroidery ready to sew on, by which means purveyors could turn out in a day or two what would have taken months to embroider. even if it had been the invariable mediæval practice to work sprays or what not upon canvas and apply them bodily to the velvet, that would not make it the more workmanlike or straightforward way of working. if needle stitches are the ostensible means of getting an effect upon a stuff, it seems only right they should be stitched upon that stuff. to work the details apart and then clap them on to it, stands to embroidery very much in the relation of hedge-carpentering to joinery. nor is it usually happy in result. occasionally, as in the case of miss c. p. shrewsbury's vine-leaf pattern (illustration ), it disarms criticism. more often it looks stuck-on. a way of avoiding that look is to add judicious after-stitching on the stuff itself; and this must not be confined to the sewing on or outlining merely, but allowed to wander playfully over the field, so as to draw your eye away from the margin of the applied patch, and lead you to infer that, some of the needlework being obviously done on the velvet, all of it is. but to disguise in this way the line of demarcation, even if you succeed in doing it, is at best the art of prevarication. [illustration: . gothic church work.] no doubt it is difficult to work upon velvet. the stuff is not very sympathetic, and the stitching has a way of sinking into the pile, and being, as it were, drowned in it. but the trailing spirals of split-stitch which play about the applied spots in many a mediæval altar cloth hold their own quite well enough to show that silk can be worked straight on to the velvet. that gold may be equally well worked straight on to velvet may be seen in any indian saddle cloth. heavy work of this kind may be rather man's work than woman's; but that is not the point. the question is, how to get the best results; and the answer is, by working on the stuff. it may be argued that in this way you cannot get very high relief; but the occasions for high relief are, at the best, rare. if you want actual modelling, as in the spanish work referred to in a previous chapter, that must, of course, be worked separately, built up, as it were, upon the canvas and worked over. and there is no reason why it should not, for in no case does it appear to be stitching. in fact, it aims deliberately at the effect of chased and beaten metal. [illustration: . modern church work by miss shrewsbury.] heavy appliqué of any kind affects, of course, not only the thickness but the flexibility of the material thus enriched--an important consideration if it is meant to hang in folds. a plea for simplicity. the simplest patterns are by no means the least beautiful. it is too much the fashion to underrate the artistic value of the less pretentious forms of needlework, and especially of flat ornament, which has, nevertheless, its own very important place in decoration. as for geometric pattern, that is quite beneath consideration--it is so mechanical! mechanical is a word as easily spoken as another; but if needlework is mechanical, that is more often the fault of the needlewoman than of the mechanism she employs. the orientals, who indulged so freely in geometric device, were the least mechanical of workers. it is our rigid way of working it which robs geometric ornament of its charm. the needleworker has less than ever occasion to be afraid of geometric pattern; for it is peculiarly difficult to get in it that appearance of rule-and-compass-work which makes ornament so dull. the one real objection to geometric pattern is that it is nowadays so cheaply and so mechanically got by _weaving_ that, however freely it may be rendered, there is a danger of its suggesting mechanical production, which embroidery emphatically ought not to do. there is a similar objection nowadays to some stitches, such, for example, as chain-stitch and back-stitch, which suggest the sewing-machine. embroidery does not to-day take quite the place it once did. it was used, for example, by the early coptic christians to supplement tapestry. that is to say, what they could not weave they stitched; it was only to get more delicate detail than their tapestry loom would allow, that they had recourse to the needle. needlework was, in fact, an adjunct to weaving. later, in mediæval times, the germans of cologne, for their church vestments and the like, wove what they could, and enriched their woven figures with embroidery. again, a great deal of oriental embroidery, and of peasant work everywhere, is merely the result of circumstances. where money is scarce and time is of no account, it answers a woman's purpose to do for herself with her needle what might in some respects be even better done on the loom. her preference for handwork is not that it has artistic possibilities, but that it costs her less. she would in many cases prefer the more mechanically produced fabric, if she could get it at the same price. we do not find that orientals reject the productions of the power-loom--which they would do if they had the artistic instincts with which we credit them. [illustration: . simple stitching on linen.] it results from our conditions of to-day that there are some kinds of needlework we admire, which yet are not worth our doing, such, for example, as the all-over work, which does not amount to more than simple diaper, and which really is not so much embroidering on a textile as converting it into one of another kind. glorified instances of this kind of work occur in the shawl work of cashmere, and in those beautiful bits of persian stitching which remind one of carpet-work in miniature, if they are not in fact related to carpet-weaving. embroidery was at one time the readiest, and practically the only, means of getting enrichment of certain kinds. to-day we get machine embroidery. as machinery is perfected, and learns to do what formerly could be done only by the needle, hand-workers get pushed aside and fall out of work. their chance is, in keeping always in advance of the machine. there is this hope for them, that the monotony of machine-made things produces in the end a reaction in favour of handwork--provided always it gives us something which manufacture cannot. possibly also there is scope for amateurs and home-artists in that combination of embroidery and hand-weaving with which the power-loom, though it has superseded it, does not enter into competition. [illustration: . simple couching on linen.] it is not so much for geometric ornament as for simple pattern that i here make my plea, for that reticent work of which so much was at one time done in this country--mere back-stitching, for example, or what looks like it, in yellow silk upon white linen; or the modest diaper, archaic, if you like, but inevitably characteristic, in which the naïveté of the sampler seems always to linger; or again, the admirably simple work in illustration . this last does not show so delicately in the photographic reproduction as it should, because, being in grey and yellow on white linen, the relative value of the two shades of colour is lost in the process. in the original the broader yellow bands are much more in tone with the ground, and do not assert themselves so much. such as it is, only an artist could have designed that border-work, and any neat-handed woman could have embroidered it. think again of the delicate work in white on white, too familiar to need illustration, which makes no loud claim to be art, but is content to be beautiful! is that to be a thing altogether of the past now that we have art needlework? art needlework! it has helped put an end to the patience of the modern worker, and to inspire her too often with ambitions quite beyond her powers of fulfilment. what one misses in the work of the present day is that reticent and unpretending stitchery, which, thinking to be no more than a labour of loving patience, is really a work of art, better deserving the title than a flaunting floral quilt which goes by the name of "art needlework"--designed apparently to worry the eye by day and to give bad dreams by night to whoever may have the misfortune to sleep under it. is anyone nowadays modest enough to do work such as the couching in outline in illustration ? yet what distinction there is about it! embroidery design. perfect art results only when designer and worker are entirely in sympathy, when the designer knows quite what the worker can do with her materials, and when the worker not only understands what the designer meant, but feels with him. and it is the test of a practical designer that he not only knows the conditions under which his design is to be carried out, but is ready to submit to them. the distinction here made between designer and embroiderer is not casual, but afore-thought, notwithstanding the division of labour it implies. enthusiasm has a habit of outrunning reason. because in some branches of industry subdivision of labour has been carried to absurd excess, it is the fashion to demand in all branches of it the autograph work of one person, which is no less absurd. to try and link together faculties which nature has for the most part put asunder, is futile. that designer and worker should be one and the same person is an ideal, but one only very occasionally fulfilled. when that happens (illustrations and ) it is well. but the attempt to realise it commonly works out in one of two ways: either a good design is spoilt in the working for want of executive skill on the part of the designer, or good workmanship is spent on poor design, as good, perhaps, as one has any right to expect of a skilled needleworker. the fact is, you can only make out all the world to be designers by reducing design to what all the world can do. and that is not much. there is a point of view from which it does not amount to design at all. the study of design forms part of the education of an embroidress, not so much that she may design what she works, but that she may know in the first place what good design is, and, in the second, be equal to the ever-recurring occasion when a design has to be modified or adapted. if, in thus manipulating design not hers, she should discover a faculty of invention, she will want no telling to exercise it. a designer wants no encouragement to design--she designs. there would be no occasion to insist upon this, were it not for the prevalence at the present moment of the idea that a worker, in whatever art or handicraft, is in artistic duty bound to design whatever she puts hand to do. that is a theory as false as it is unkind; let no embroidress be discouraged by it. let her, unless she is inwardly impelled to invent, remain content to do good needlework. that is her art. her business as an artist is to make beautiful things. co-operation in the making of them is no crime. and what, then, about originality? originality is a gift beyond price. but it is not a thing which even the designer should struggle after. it comes, if it is there. there is a revengeful consolation for the pain we suffer from design about us writhing to be up-to-date, in the thought that its contortions tell what pain it cost to do. the birth of beauty is a less agonising travail; and the thing to seek is beauty, not novelty. whoever planned the lines of the border in illustration , or treated the leafage in illustration , was not trying to be original, but determined to do his best. artists and workers of individuality and character are themselves, without being so much as aware that originality has gone out of them. [illustration: . renaissance ornament.] to assume, then, that every needlewoman is, or can ever be, competent to design what she embroiders, is to make very small account of design. how is it possible to take design seriously and yet think it is to be mastered without years of patient study, which few workwomen can or will devote to it? any cultivated woman may for herself invent (if it is to be called invention) something better worth working than is to be bought ready to work. and that may do for many purposes, so long as it does not claim to be more than it is; but in the case of really important work, to be executed at considerable cost not only of material, but of patient labour, surely it is worth giving serious thought to its design. the scant consideration commonly given to it shows how little the worker is in earnest. or has she thought? and is she persuaded that her artless spray of flowers, or the ironed-off pattern she has bought, is all that art could be? it would be rude to tell her she was wasting silk! how should she know? the only way of knowing is to study, to look at good work, old work by preference; it is worth no one's while to praise that unduly. and if in all that is now so readily accessible she finds nothing to admire, nothing which appeals to her, nothing which inspires her, then her case is hopeless. if, on the other hand, she finds only so much as one style of work sympathetic to her, studies that, lets its spirit sink into her, tries to do something worthy of it, then she is on the right road. measure yourself with the best, not with the common run of work; and if that should put you out of conceit with your own work, no great harm is done; sooner or later you have got to come to a modest opinion of yourself, if ever you are to do even moderate things. [illustration: . leaf treatment in appliquÉ.] but the "best" above referred to does not necessarily mean the most masterly. the best of a simple kind is not calculated to discourage anyone--rather, it looks as if it must be easy to do that; and in trying to do it you learn how much goes to the doing it. good design need not be of any great importance or pretensions. it may be quite simple, if only it is right; if the lines are true, the colour harmonious; if it is adapted to its place, to its use and purpose, to execution not only with the needle but in the particular kind of needlework to be employed. there has of late years been something of a revival of needlework design in schools of art, and some very promising and even most accomplished work has been done; but in many instances, as it seems to me, it is rather design which has been translated into needlework, than design clearly made for execution with the needle. a really appropriate and practical design for embroidery should be schemed not merely with a view to its execution with the needle, but with a view to its execution in a particular stitch or stitches--and possibly by a particular embroidress. to be safe in designing work so minute as that on illustration , one must be sure of the needlewoman who is to execute it. [illustration: . delicate satin-stitch--worked by miss buckle.] my reference to old work must not be taken to imply that design should be in imitation of what has been done, or that it should follow on those lines. design was once upon a time traditional; but the chain of tradition has snapped, and now conscious design must be eclectic--that is to say, one must study old work to see what has been done, and how it has been done, and then do one's own in one's own way. it is at least as foolish to break quite away from what has been done as to tether yourself to it. and in what has been done you will see, not only what is worth doing, but what is not. that, each must judge for herself. for my part, it seems to me the thing best worth doing is ornament. any way, this much is certain (and you have only to go to a museum to prove it), that there is no need for needleworkers, unless their instinct draws them that way, to take to needle painting, to pictures in silk, or even to flower stitching. the limitations of embroidery are not so rigidly marked as the boundaries of many another craft. there is little technical difficulty in representing flowers, for example, very naturally--too naturally for any dignified decorative purpose. embroiderer or embroidery designer will, as a matter of fact, be constantly inspired by flower forms, and silk gives the pure colour of their petals as nearly as may be. but, though the pattern be a veritable flower garden, the embroidress will not forget, to use the happy phrase of william morris, that she is gardening with silks and gold threads. let the needleworker study the work of the needle in preference to that of the brush; let her aim at what stuff and threads will give her, and give more readily than would something else. let her work according to the needle: take that for her guide, not be misled by what some other tool can do better; do what the needle can do best, and be content with that. that is the way to art in needlework, and the surest way. embroidery materials. embroidery is not among the things which have to be done, and must be done, therefore, as best one can do them. it is in the nature of a superfluity: the excuse for it is that it is beautiful. it is not worth doing unless it is done well, and in material worth the work done on it. if you are going to spend the time you must spend to do good work, it is worth while using good stuff, foolish to use anything else. the stuff need not be costly, but it should be the best of its kind; and it should be chosen with reference to the work to be done on it, and _vice versâ_. a mean ground-stuff suggests, if it does not necessitate, its being embroidered all over, ground-work as well as pattern; a worthier one, that it should not be hidden altogether from view; a really beautiful one, that enough of it should be left bare of ornament that its quality may be appreciated. [sidenote: stuffs.] it goes without saying, that for big, bold stitching a proportionately coarse ground-stuff should be used, and for delicate work, one of finer texture; whether it be linen, woollen cloth, or silk, your purpose will determine. linen is a worthy ground-stuff, which may be worked on with flax thread, crewel, or silk, but they should not be mixed. cotton is hardly worth embroidering. of woollen stuffs, good plain cloth is an excellent ground for work in wool or silk, but it is not pleasant to the touch in working. serge, if not too loose, may serve for curtains and the like, but it is not so well worth working upon. felt is beneath contempt. the nobler the material, the more essential it is that it should be of the best. poor satin is not "good enough to work on;" it looks poorer than ever when it is embroidered. satin should be stretched upon the frame the way of the stuff, and it should not be forgotten that it has a right and a wrong way up. if it is backed, the linen should be fine and smooth: on a coarse backing, the satin gets quickly worn away, as you may see in many a piece of old work that has gone ragged. "roman satin" and what is called "_satin de luxe_" (perhaps because it is not so luxurious as it pretends to be) are effective ground-stuffs easy to work upon; but there is an odour of pretence about satin-faced cotton. a corded silk is not good to embroider; the work on it looks hard; but a close twill answers very well. silk damask makes an admirable ground beautifully broken in colour, if only it is simple and broad enough in pattern. generally speaking, you can hardly choose a design too big and flat; but something depends upon the work to be done on it. in any case, the pattern of the damask ought not to assert itself, and if you can't make out its details, so much the better. brocade asserts itself too much to form a good background. there is a practice of embroidering the outlines, or certain details only, of damask and brocade patterns. that is a fair way of further enriching a rich stuff; but it is embroidery merely in the sense that it is literally embroidered: the needlework is only supplementary to weaving. tussah silk of the finer sort is easy to work in the hand. the thinner and looser quality needs to be worked in a frame, and with smooth silk not tightly twisted. [sidenote: thread.] with regard to the thread to work with: the coarser kinds of flax are best waxed before using. the crewel to be preferred is that not too tightly twisted. filoselle is well adapted to couching, and may be laid double ( threads). french floss is smooth, and does well for laid work; for fine work bobbin floss, or what is called "church floss," is better; the slight twist in filo-floss is against it; very thick floss may be used for french knots. for couching gold, a very fine twisted silk does well. purse silk, thick and twisted, lends itself perfectly to basket work. working in coloured silks, one should take advantage of the quality of pure transparent colour which silk takes in the dyeing. the palette of the embroiderer in silk is superlatively rich. [sidenote: gold.] the purest gold is generally made on a foundation of _red_ silk. japanese gold does not tarnish so readily as "passing," which is in some respects superior to it. for stitching through, there is a finer thread, called "tambour." flat gold wire is known by the name of "plate," and various twisted threads by the name of "purl." [sidenote: chenille.] a not very promising substance to embroider with is chenille. it came into use in the latter half of the th century, and was still in fashion in the time of marie antoinette. the use of it is shown in illustration , where the darker touches of the roses are worked in it. chenille seems to have been used instead of smooth silk, much as in certain old-fashioned water-colour paintings gum was used with the paint, or over it, to deepen the shadows. the material is used again in the wreath on illustration . it is worked there in chain-stitch with the tambour needle: it may also be worked in satin-stitch; but the more obvious way of using it is to couch it, cord by cord, with fine silk thread. there is this against chenille, that its texture is not sympathetic to the touch, and that there is a stuffy look about it always. nor does it seem ever quite to belong to the smooth satin ground on which it is worked. [sidenote: ribbon.] [sidenote: shaded silk.] there is less objection to embroidery in ribbon, which also had its day in the th century. it was very much the fashion for court dresses under louis seize--"_broderie de faveur_," as it was called, whence our "lady's favour"--_faveur_ being a narrow ribbon. some beautiful work of its kind was done in ribbon, sometimes _shaded_. shaded silk, by the way, may be used to artistic purpose. there is, for example, in the treasury of seville cathedral a piece of work on velvet, th century, it is said, rather persian in character, in which the forms of certain nondescript animals are at first sight puzzlingly prismatic in colour. they turn out to be roughly worked in short stitches of parti-coloured silk thread. the result is not altogether beautiful, but it is extremely suggestive. [sidenote: ribbon.] the effect of ribbon work is happiest when it is not sewn through the stuff after the manner of satin stitch, but lies on the surface of the satin ground, and is only just caught down at the ends of the loops which go to make leaves and petals. the twist of the ribbon where it turns gives interest to the surface of the embroidery, which is always more or less in relief upon the stuff, easy to crush, and of limited use therefore. [illustration: . leather appliquÉ upon velvet.] an effect of ribbon work, but of a harder kind, was produced by onlaying narrow strips of card or parchment upon a silken ground, twisted about after the fashion of ribbon. these, having been stitched in place, were worked over in satin-stitch. the work has the merit of looking just like what it is. but neither it nor ribbon embroidery is of any very serious account. passing reference has been made to other materials to embroider with than thread. gold wire, for example, and spangles, coral and pearls, which have been used with admirable discretion, as well as to vulgar purpose. jewels also were lavished upon the embroidery of bishops' mitres, gloves and other significant apparel, and in default of real stones, imitations in glass, and eventually beads (or pearls) of glass, in which we have possibly the origin of knots. bead embroidery is at least as old as ancient egypt. even atoms of looking-glass, sewn round with silk, have been used to really beautiful effect (barbaric though it may be) in indian work. the question almost occurs: with what can one not embroider? in madras they produce most brilliant embroidery upon muslin with the cases of beetles' wings. in the mauritius they use fish-scales; in north america, porcupine quills; and everywhere savage tribes use seeds, shells, feathers, and the teeth and claws of animals. to return to more civilised work, there is embroidery in gold and silver wire, allied to the art of the goldsmith, and on leather (illustration ), allied to the art of the saddler. it would be difficult to set any limit to the directions in which embroidery may branch out, impossible to describe them all. happily, it is not necessary. a skilled worker adapts herself to new conditions, and the conditions themselves dictate the necessary modification of the familiar way. a word to the worker. a good workwoman will not encumber herself with too many tools; but she will not shirk the expense of necessary implements, the simplest by preference, and the best that are made. [sidenote: needles.] embroidery needles should have large eyes; the silk is not rubbed in threading them, and they make way for the thread to pass smoothly through the stuff. for working in twisted silk, the eye should be roundish; for flat silk, long; for surface stitching or interlacing, a blunt "tapestry needle" is best; for carrying cord or gold thread through the stuff, a "rug needle." [sidenote: thimble.] for a thimble, choose an old one that has been worn quite smooth. [sidenote: scissors.] for scissors, be sure and have a strong, short, sharp and pointed pair--the surgical instrument, not the fancy article. nail scissors would not be amiss but for the roughness of the file on the blades. [sidenote: pins.] for pins, use always steel ones; and for tacks, those which have been tinned; or they will leave their mark behind them. [sidenote: frames.] for a frame, get the best you can afford; a cheap one is no economy; but a stand for it is not always necessary. it should be rather wider than might seem necessary, as the work should never extend to the full width of the webbing. a tambour frame is also useful, though you have no intention of doing tambour work. [sidenote: to stretch silk.] in stretching silk (not backed with linen) upon a frame, some preliminary care is necessary. the stuff should first be bordered with strips of linen or strong tape, and into the two sides of this border which are to be laced up a stout string should be tacked, to prevent it from giving when the work is drawn tight. [sidenote: framing.] the way to put embroidery material (thus bordered or not) into a frame is: first to sew it to the webbing (top and bottom), then to put the laths or screws into the bars, tightening them evenly, and lastly to lace it to the sides with fine string and a packing needle. [sidenote: transferring.] the ordinary ways of transferring a design to embroidery material are well known: the outline may be traced down with a point over transfer paper; it may be pricked upon paper and pounced upon the stuff in chalk or charcoal, and then traced in with a brush or pen; or it (still the outline only) may be stencilled. in any case, the outline marked upon the stuff should be well within what is to be the actual outline of the embroidery when worked. another way, more peculiarly adapted to needlework, is to trace the outline in ink upon fine tarlatan (leno muslin will do for very coarse work), and, having laid this down upon the stuff, to go over the lines again with a ruling pen and indian ink or colour. on a light stuff it is possible to use, instead of a pen, a hard pencil. on a dark material one must use chinese white, to which it is well to add, not only a little gum (arabic), but a trace of ox-gall, to make it work easily. one gets by this method naturally rather a rotten line upon the ground-stuff, but it is enough for all practical purposes. [sidenote: keeping clean.] delicate work is easily rubbed and soiled in the working. it is only reasonable precaution to protect it by a veil or covering of thin, soft, white glazed lining, tacked round the edges on to the stuff. on this you mark the four lines inclosing the actual embroidery, and, cutting through three of them, you have a flap of lining, which you raise and turn back when you are at work. if the work is very delicate, you may make instead of one flap a succession of little ones; but you see then only a portion of your work at a time, and cannot so well judge its effect. [sidenote: starting and finishing.] in starting work, do not begin by making a knot in your thread; run a few stitches (presently to be worked over) on the right side of the stuff. in finishing, you run them at the back of the stuff; for greater security still, one may end with a buttonhole-stitch. [sidenote: puckering.] there is less danger of puckering the stuff if you hold it over two fingers (at least), keeping it taut and the thread loose. working without a frame, it often comes handiest to hold the stuff askew, and there is a natural inclination to pull it in that direction. this temptation must be resisted, or puckering is sure to result. [sidenote: double thread.] in working with double silk or wool, it is better not to double back a single thread, but to pass two separate threads through the eye of the needle. the four threads (where these are turned back near the eye) make way through the stuff for the double thread, which passes easily; moreover, the thread by this means is not pulled too tight, and the effect is richer. the stitch wants always adaptation to the work it has to do. in working a curved line, for example, say in herring-bone-stitch, one is bound always to take up a larger piece of stuff on its outside than on its inner edge. when a thread runs short, it is better not to go on working with it, but to take another; and in finishing off, remember to run the thread in the direction opposite to that from which you are going to run the new one. in starting the new stitch, you naturally bring your needle out as if it were a continuation of that last made. [sidenote: undoing.] if your work is faulty, cut it out and do it again. unpicking is not so satisfactory: it loosens the stuff to drag the thread back through it, and the thread saved is of no further use. beginners find it hard to undo work once done; but a really good needlewoman never hesitates about it--her one thought is to get the thing right. don't break your thread ever: that pulls it out of condition: cut it always. in working, it is well to keep strictly to the stitch you have chosen, but not to the point of bigotry. one may finish off darning, for example, at the edges with a satin stitch. the thing to avoid is fudging. moreover, stitches should be laid right at once; there should be no boggling and botching, no working-over with stitches to make good--that is not playing fair. [sidenote: smoothing.] when the needlework is done, do not finish it with a flat iron. that finishes it in more senses than one. but suppose it is puckered? in that case, stretch it and damp it. to do this, first tack on to it (as explained on page ) a frame of strong tape. then, on a drawing-board or other even wooden surface, lay a piece of clean calico, and on that, face downwards, the embroidery, and, slightly stretching it, nail it down by the tape with tin-tacks rather close together. if now you lay upon it a damp cloth, the embroidery will absorb the moisture from it, and when that is removed, should dry as flat as it is possible to get it. a rather more daring plan is to damp the back of the stuff with a wet sponge. the work, instead of being nailed on to a board, may just as well be laced to a frame by the tape. in the case of raised embroidery there must be between it and the wood, not a cloth merely, but a layer of wadding. the damping above described may take the form of a thin paste or stiffening, but upon silk or other such material this wants tenderly doing. one last word as to thoroughness in needlework. those who have really not time to do much, should be satisfied with simple work. the desire to make a great show with little work is a snare. ladies make protest always, "there is too much work in that." well, if they are not prepared to work, they may as well give themselves up to their play. there was no labour shirked in the old work illustrated in these pages; and nothing much worth doing was ever done without work, hard work, and plenty of it. should that thought frighten folk away, they may as well be scared off at once. art can do very well without them. index. adaptation of stitch, , , antique stitch, (_see also oriental-stitch_) appliquÉ, , _et seq._, , , arab work, artless art, , attachment of cord, backstitch, , , , , , , , , basket patterns, beads, beginning & finishing, blanket-stitch, braid-stitch, , broad surfaces (covering), brocade, bullion, bullion-stitch, , , , buttonhole-stitch, , _et seq._, , , , , , buttonholing (lace), , byzantine embroidery, , cable-chain, canvas, , canvas stitches, _et seq._ canvas-stitch embroidery, card underlay, , cashmere embroidery, cashmere-stitch, chain-stitch, _et seq._, , , , , , , , , , , chenille, chinese embroidery, , , , , , church work, , , , , _et seq._ classification of stitches, , _et seq._ cloth, , , , colour, , colour gradation, , , colour and outline, , combination of stitches, coptic embroidery, , " tapestry, coral, , cord, " (couched), , , , " (attachment of), cotton, couched cord, , , , " gold, _et seq._, " outline, couching, , , , , _et seq._, " (reverse), counterchange, cretan embroidery, cretan-stitch, (_see also ladder-stitch_) crewel, crewel-stitch, _et seq._, , , , , " (surface), crewel work, , , cross-stitch, , , crossed buttonhole-stitch, cushion-stitch, , cut-work, damask, , damping, , darning, , , , , _et seq._, , " (japanese), " (surface), design, , , _et seq._ " traditional, , design and stitch, , designer and embroiderer, , diapers, , , , , , direction of stitch, , , , , , , _et seq._ double darning, " thread, dovetail-stitch, , (_see also embroidery and plumage stitches_) drawing with the needle, , , , , drawn work, , eastern embroidery. (_see oriental_) effect and stitch, , eighteenth century embroidery, , embroidery and painting, , embroidery-stitch, (_see also plumage-stitch_) english embroidery, , , feather-stitch, _et seq._, , , felt, fifteenth century embroidery, , figure work, , , , _et seq._ filling-in patterns, filo-floss, , filoselle, , , fishbone, , , flax thread, , flemish embroidery, , flesh, , florentine-stitch, , (_see also cushion stitch_) floss, , , , , , form and stitch, , , , , , , framing work, french embroidery, , " floss, " knots, , , , , geometric pattern, german embroidery, , , , , , german knot-stitch, gobelin-stitch, gold, , , " (couched), _et seq._, " (raised), , , gold thread, , " tinted by couching stitches, " wire, , half-cross-stitch, heraldic embroidery, herringbone-stitch, , , _et seq._, , , hildesheim cope (the), hungarian embroidery, " stitch, indian embroidery, , , , , , , , , indian herring-bone, inlay, interlacing stitches, italian embroidery, , , , , italian embroidery (renaissance), , , , , , japanese darning, , " embroidery, " gold, jewels, , knot stitches, _et seq._, lace, , lace stitches, _et seq._ ladder-stitch, , , laid-work, _et seq._, , leather, leather on velvet, length of stitch, , limitations of embroidery, line work, , linen, , " (embroidery on), long-and-short-stitch, , , , , , magic-stitch, material (influence of on stitch), , , , , , , materials, _et seq._ mechanical embroidery, mediÆval work, , , , milanese-stitch, modelling, modest work, , moorish-stitch, , morocco embroidery, needle (tambour), , needle pictures, needles, net passing, old english knot-stitch, opus anglicanum, oriental embroidery, , , , , , , , , " stitch, _et seq._, , , originality, outline, , , , , , , , _et seq._ " (couched), , , " (double), , , " (stepped), , " (voided), , outline embroidery, " stitch, , , , padding, , painting, , parchment, , , parisian-stitch, patchwork, pearls, , , peasant work, , , persian embroidery, , , , , pictorial effect, , , pictures (tent-stitch), , pierce, pins, , plait-stitch, plate, plumage-stitch, , , , , , , preciousness, purl, purse silk, , quilting, _et seq._ raised gold, , , _et seq._ " work, , , _et seq._ relief, _et seq._, , , , , renaissance embroidery, , , , , renewing ground, reverse-couching, ribbon, , ribbon work, roll-stitch, (_see also bullion-stitch_) roman satin, rope-stitch, _et seq._, running, , , satin, " "de luxe", " on velvet, satin-stitch, , _et seq._, , , , , , , , , , , , , satin-stitch (surface), , satin-stitch in the making, scissors, serge, seventeenth century embroidery, , shaded silk, shading, , , _et seq._ silk, , " (tussah), " (twisted), , , " on silk, silks, silver, , , simplicity, , , " (a plea for), _et seq._ sixteenth century embroidery, , , , , , solid chain-stitch, , " crewel-stitch, , soudanese embroidery, spangles, , spanish embroidery, , , , , spanish-stitch, , (_see also plait-stitch_) split-stitch, , , , , , , , spot-stitch, stem-stitch, stems, stepped outline, , stiletto, stitch (definition of), " adaptation, , , " and effect, , " and form, , , , , , , " and stuff, , , , , , , " groups, , _et seq._ " names, , " patterns, , " and design, , stitches, stitching over stitching, stretching work, , string, , , stroke-stitch, stuffs, surface crewel-stitch, " darning, " satin-stitch, , " stitches, syon cope (the), , , tailors' buttonhole, tambour, " frame, " needle, , " stitch, " work, , tapestry, , , , , tapestry-stitch, tendrils, tent-stitch, , thimble, thread, traditional design, , transferring design, turkish embroidery, tussah silk, twisted silk, , , underlay, , , unpicking, vandyke chain, variety of method, , " of stitch, _et seq._ velvet, , venetian embroidery, voiding, , weaving, white on white, , wool. (_see crewel_) woollen stuffs, the end. bradbury, agnew, & co. ld., printers, london and tonbridge. _a list of standard books_ on ornament & decoration, including furniture, wood-carving, metal work, &c., published by _b. t. batsford, , high holborn, london, w.c._ windows.--a book about stained and painted glass. by lewis f. day. containing pages, including full-page plates, and upwards of illustrations in the text, all of old examples. large vo, cloth gilt. price _s._ net. "contains a more complete popular account--technical and historical--of stained and painted glass than has previously appeared in this country."--_the times._ "the book is a masterpiece in its way ... amply illustrated and carefully printed; it will long remain an authority on its subject."--_the art journal._ "all for whom the subject of stained glass possesses an interest and a charm, will peruse these pages with pleasure and profit."--_the morning post._ "mr. day has done a worthy piece of work in more than his usual admirable manner ... the illustrations are all good and some the best black-and-white drawings of stained glass yet produced."--_the studio._ _now published, the most handy, useful, and comprehensive work on the subject._ alphabets, old and new. containing complete alphabets, series of numerals, numerous facsimiles of ancient dates. selected and arranged by lewis f. day. preceded by a short account of the development of the alphabet. with modern examples specially designed by _walter crane_, _patten wilson_, _a. beresford pite_, the author, and others. crown vo, art linen. price _s._ _d._ net. "mr. day's explanation of the growth of form in letters is particularly valuable.... many excellent alphabets are given in illustration of his remarks."--_the studio._ "everyone who employs practical lettering will be grateful for 'alphabets, old and new.' mr. day has written a scholarly and pithy introduction, and contributes some beautiful alphabets of his own design."--_the art journal._ "a practical resumé of all that is to be known on the subject, concisely and clearly stated."--_st. james' gazette._ "it goes without saying that whatever mr. batsford publishes and mr. day has to do with is presented in a good artistic form, complete, and wherever that is possible, graceful."--_the athenæum._ architecture among the poets. by h. heathcote statham. with illustrations. square vo, artistically bound. price _s._ _d._ net. "this little work does for architecture in relation to english poetry what mr. phil robinson has done for the birds and beasts. the poet's appreciation of architecture is a delightful subject with which mr. statham has become infected, not only illustrating his points with quotations and his judgments with his reasons, but the whole with a series of fanciful or suggestive sketches which add considerably to the attractiveness of the book."--_the magazine of art._ the decoration of houses. by edith wharton and ogden codman, architect. pages of text, with full-page photographic plates of views of rooms, doors, ceilings, fireplaces, various pieces of furniture, &c., from the renaissance period. large square vo, cloth gilt, price _s._ _d._ net. this volume, written by an american lady artist, and an architect, describes and illustrates in a very interesting way the decorative treatment of rooms during the renaissance period, and deduces principles for the decoration, furnishing, and arrangements of modern houses. "... has illustrations which are beautiful ... because they illustrate the sound and simple principle of decoration which the authors put forward.... the book is one which should be in the library of every man and woman of means, for its advice is characterised by so much common sense as well as by the best of taste."--_the queen._ the historic styles of ornament. containing , examples from all countries and all periods, exhibited on plates, mostly printed in gold and colours. with historical and descriptive text translated from the german of h. dolmetsch. folio, handsomely bound in cloth, gilt, price £ _s._ net. this work has been designed to serve as a practical guide for the purpose of showing the development of ornament, and the application of colour to it in various countries through the epochs of history. the work illustrates not only flat ornament, but also many decorative objects, such as metal-work, pottery and porcelain, lace, enamel, mosaic, illumination, stained glass, jewellery, bookbinding, &c., showing the application of ornament to industrial art. _just published._ a manual of historic ornament, being an account of the development of architecture and the historic arts, for the use of students and craftsmen. by richard glazier, a.r.i.b.a., headmaster of the manchester school of art. containing plates and illustrations in the text. demy vo, cloth. price _s._ the object of this book is to furnish students with a concise account of historic ornament, in which the rise of each style is noted, and its characteristic features illustrated. it contains upwards of subjects drawn by the author, and includes examples of architectural detail and plastic ornament, pottery, textile fabrics, glass, metal-work, mosaic, painted faïence, &c., &c. of various countries. a manual of practical instruction in the art of brass repoussÉ for amateurs. by gawthorp (art metal worker to h.r.h. the prince of wales). second and enlarged edition. with illustrations, many from photographs of executed designs. crown vo, in wrapper. price _s._ net. old clocks and watches and their makers. by f. j. britten, secretary of the horological institute. being an account of the history of clocks and watches, their mechanism and ornamentation, to which is appended a list of , old makers, with descriptive notes. containing over illustrations, many reproduced from photographs, of choice and curious examples, of clocks and watches of the past in england and abroad, including the finely-ornamented bracket clocks of the xviith century, with their ingenious mechanism, and the tall and elegant cases of the xviiith century, also a selection of portraits of the most renowned masters of the clockmaker's art. pages. demy vo, cloth, gilt. price _s._ net. king renÉ's honeymoon cabinet. a monograph. by _john p. seddon_, architect. illustrated by photographic reproductions of the cabinet, and the panels, painted by the late sir e. burne jones, _dante gabriel rossetti_, and _ford madox brown_. with a chapter on the hereditary earls of anjou, by g. h. birch, f.s.a. large vo, cloth, price _s._ net. this interesting little work has been issued by the author to make known and commemorate some early designs by the celebrated artists. very few copies are printed for sale. _a small remainder, just reduced in price._ animals in ornament. by professor g. sturm. containing large collotype plates, printed in tint, of designs suitable for friezes, panels, borders, wall-papers, carving, and all kinds of surface decoration, &c. large folio in portfolio, price _s._ net (published £ _s._). a new and useful series of clever designs, showing how animal forms may be adapted to decorative purposes with good effect. a history of design in painted glass.--from the earliest times to the end of the seventeenth century. by n. h. j. westlake, f.s.a. containing illustrations with historical text. four volumes, small folio, cloth, price £ _s._, net £ _s._ _very few copies remain for sale of this valuable work._ mr. lewis f. day's text books of ornamental design. some principles of every-day art.--introductory chapters on the arts not fine. forming a prefatory volume to the series of text books. second edition, revised, containing illustrations (third thousand). crown vo, art linen, price _s._ _d._, net _s._ "authoritative as coming from a writer whose mastery of the subjects is not to be disputed, and who is generous in imparting the knowledge he acquired with difficulty. mr. day has taken much trouble with the new edition."--_architect._ "a good artist, and a sound thinker, mr. day has produced a book of sterling value."--_magazine of art._ the anatomy of pattern.--containing: i. introductory. ii. pattern dissections. iii. practical pattern planning. iv. the "drop" pattern. v. skeleton plans. vi. appropriate pattern. fourth edition (ninth thousand), revised, with full-page illustrations. crown vo, art linen, price _s._ _d._, net _s._ "... there are few men who know the science of their profession better or can teach it as well as mr. lewis day; few also who are more gifted as practical decorators; and in anatomising pattern in the way he has done in this manual--a way beautiful as well as useful--he has performed a service not only to the students of his profession, but also to the public."--_academy._ the planning of ornament.--containing: i. introductory. ii. the use of the border. iii. within the border. iv. some alternatives in design. v. on the filling of the circle and other shapes. vi. order and accident. third edition (fifth thousand), further revised, with full-page illustrations, many of which have been re-drawn. crown vo, art linen, price _s._ _d._, net _s._ "contains many apt and well-drawn illustrations; it is a highly comprehensive, compact, and intelligent treatise on a subject which is more difficult to treat than outsiders are likely to think. it is a capital little book, from which no tyro (it is addressed to improvable minds) can avoid gaining a good deal."--_athenæum._ the application of ornament.--containing: i. the rationale of the conventional. ii. what is implied by repetition. iii. where to stop in ornament. iv. style and handicraft. v. the teaching of the tool. vi. some superstitions. third edition (sixth thousand), further revised, with full-page illustrations and woodcuts in the text. crown vo, art linen, price _s._ _d._, net _s._ "a most worthy supplement to the former work, and a distinct gain to the art student who has already applied his art knowledge in a practical manner, or who hopes yet to do so."--_science and art._ ornamental design.--comprising the above three books, "anatomy of pattern," "planning of ornament," and "application of ornament," handsomely bound in one volume, cloth gilt, price _s._ _d._, net _s._ _d._ nature in ornament.--with full-page plates and illustrations in the text. third edition (fifth thousand). thick crown vo, in handsome cloth binding, richly gilt, price _s._ _d._, net _s._ contents: i. introductory. ii. ornament in nature. iii. nature in ornament. iv. the simplification of natural forms. v. the elaboration of natural forms. vi. consistency in the modification of nature. vii. parallel renderings. viii. more parallels. ix. tradition in design. x. treatment. xi. animals in ornament. xii. the element of the grotesque. xiii. still life in ornament. xiv. symbolic ornament. "amongst the best of our few good ornamental designers is mr. lewis f. day, who is the author of several books on ornamental art. 'nature in ornament' is the latest of these, and is probably the best. the treatise should be in the hands of every student of ornamental design. it is profusely and admirably illustrated, and well printed."--_magazine of art._ "a book more beautiful for its illustrations, or one more helpful to students of art, can hardly be imagined."--_queen._ a handbook of ornament.--with plates, containing about , illustrations of the elements and application of decoration to objects. by f. s. meyer, professor at the school of applied art, karlsruhe. third english edition, revised by hugh stannus, lecturer on applied art at the royal college of art, south kensington. thick vo, cloth gilt, gilt top, price _s._ _d._, net _s._ "a library, a museum, an encyclopædia and an art school in one. to rival it as a book of reference, one must fill a bookcase. the quality of the drawings is unusually high, the choice of examples is singularly good.... the work is practically an epitome of a hundred works on design."--_studio._ "the author's acquaintance with ornament amazes, and his three thousand subjects are gleaned from the finest which the world affords. as a treasury of ornament drawn to scale in all styles, and derived from genuine concrete objects, we have nothing in england which will not appear as poverty-stricken as compared with professor meyer's book."--_architect._ "the book is a mine of wealth even to an ordinary reader, while to the student of art and archæology it is simply indispensable as a reference book. we know of no one work of its kind that approaches it for comprehensiveness and historical accuracy."--_science and art._ a handbook of art smithing.--for the use of practical smiths, designers and others, and in art and technical schools. by f. s. meyer, author of "a handbook of ornament." translated from the second german edition. with an introduction by j. starkie gardner. containing illustrations. demy vo, cloth, price _s._, net _s._ both the artistic and practical branches of the subject are dealt with, and the illustrations give selected examples of ancient and modern ironwork. the volume thus fills the long-existing want of a manual on ornamental ironwork, and it is hoped will prove of value to all interested in the subject. "charmingly produced.... it is really a most excellent manual, crowded with examples of ancient work, for the most part extremely well selected."--_the studio._ "professor meyer's work is a useful historical manual on art smithing, based on a scientific classification of the subject, that will be of service to all smiths, designers, and students of technical and art schools. the illustrations are well drawn and numerous."--_building news._ _published with the sanction of the science and art department._ french wood carvings from the national museums.--a series of examples printed in collotype from photographs specially taken from the carvings direct. edited by eleanor rowe. part i.: late th and early th century examples; part ii.: th century work; part iii.: th and th centuries. the three series complete, each containing large folio plates, with descriptive letterpress. folio, in portfolios, price _s._ each net; or handsomely bound in one volume, £ _s._ net. "students of the art of wood carving will find a mine of inexhaustible treasures in this series of illustrations of french wood carvings.... each plate is a work of art in itself; the distribution of light and shade is admirably managed, and the differences in relief are faithfully indicated, while every detail is reproduced with a clearness that will prove invaluable to the student. sections are given with several of the plates."--_the queen._ "needs only to be seen to be purchased by all interested in the craft, whether archæologically or practically."--_the studio._ hints on wood carving for beginners.--by eleanor rowe. fourth edition, revised and enlarged, illustrated. vo, sewed, price _s._ in paper covers, or bound in cloth, price _s._ _d._ "the most useful and practical small book on wood-carving we know of."--_builder._ "... is a useful little book, full of sound directions and good suggestions."--_magazine of art._ hints on chip carving.--(class teaching and other northern styles.) by eleanor rowe. illustrations. vo, sewed, price _s._ in paper covers, or in cloth, price _s._ _d._ "a capital manual of instruction in a craft that ought to be most popular."--_saturday review._ details of gothic wood carving.--being a series of drawings from original work of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. by franklyn a. crallan. containing large photo-lithographic plates, with introductory and descriptive text. large to, in handsome cloth portfolio, or bound in cloth gilt, price _s._, net _s._ "the examples are carefully drawn to a large size ... well selected and very well executed."--_the builder._ progressive studies and designs for wood-carvers. by miss e. r. plowden. with a preface by miss rowe. consisting of five large folding sheets of illustrations (drawn full size), of a variety of objects suitable for wood carving. with descriptive text. second edition, enlarged. to, in portfolio. price _s._ net. ancient wood and ironwork in cambridge.--by w. b. redfarn, the letterpress by john willis clark. folio lithographed plates drawn to a good scale. cloth gilt, a handsome volume, price _s._ _d._, net _s._ _d._ this work, giving an interesting and useful series of examples, is but little known. very few copies remain. hepplewhite's cabinet-maker and upholsterer's guide; or repository of designs for every article of household furniture in the newest and most approved taste. a complete facsimile reproduction of this rare work, containing nearly charming designs on plates. small folio, bound in speckled cloth, gilt, old style, price £ _s._ net. ( .) _original copies when met with fetch from £ to £ ._ "a beautiful replica, which every admirer of the author and period should possess."--_building news._ chippendale's the gentleman and cabinet-maker's director.--a complete facsimile of the rd and rarest edition, containing plates of designs of chairs, sofas, beds and couches, tables, library book cases, clock cases, stove grates, &c., &c. folio, strongly bound in half-cloth, price £ _s._ net. ( .) sheraton's cabinet-maker and upholsterer's drawing-book.--a complete facsimile reproduction of the scarce third edition. with the rare appendix and accompaniment complete. containing in all pages and plates. to, cloth, price £ _s._ net. examples of old furniture, english and foreign. drawn and described by alfred ernest chancellor. containing photo-lithographic plates exhibiting some examples of elizabethan, stuart, queen anne, georgian and chippendale furniture; and an interesting variety of continental work. with historical and descriptive notes. large to, gilt, price £ _s._, net £ _s._ "in publishing his admirable collection of drawings of old furniture, mr. chancellor secures the gratitude of all admirers of the consummate craftsmanship of the past. his examples are selected from a variety of sources with fine discrimination, all having an expression and individuality of their own--qualities that are so conspicuously lacking in the furniture of our own day. it forms a very acceptable work."--_the morning post._ furniture and decoration in england during the xviiith century.--by j. aldam heaton. two volumes, each of two parts, bound in four, large folio, cloth, price £ net. containing upwards of plates of photographic reproductions from the published designs of r. & j. adam, chippendale, hepplewhite, sheraton, shearer, pergolesi, cipriani, darly, johnson, richardson, and all great english designers and cabinet-makers of the period. this work forms an encyclopædic and almost inexhaustible treasury of reference for all furniture designers, painters, interior decorators, cabinet-makers, &c., since no artist of importance is unrepresented, and a fair selection is in every case given of his work. remains of ecclesiastical wood-work.--a series of examples of stalls, screens, book-boards, roofs, pulpits, &c., containing plates beautifully engraved on copper, from drawings by t. talbot bury, archt. to, half-bound, price _s._ _d._, net _s._ _d._ flat ornament: a pattern book for designers of textiles, embroideries, wall papers, inlays, &c., &c.-- plates, some printed in colours, exhibiting upwards of historical examples of textiles, embroideries, paper hangings, tile pavements, intarsia work, &c. with some designs by dr. fischbach. imperial to boards, cloth back, price £ _s._, net _s._ examples of english mediÆval foliage and coloured decoration.--by jas. k. colling, architect, f.r.i.b.a. taken from buildings of the xiith to the xvth century. containing lithographic plates, and woodcut illustrations, with text. royal to, cloth, gilt top, price _s._, net _s._ (published at £ _s._) plastering--plain and decorative. a practical treatise on the art and craft of plastering and modelling. including full descriptions of the various tools, materials, processes and appliances employed. with over full-page plates, and about smaller illustrations in the text. by william millar. with an introduction, treating of the history of the art, by g. t. robinson, f.s.a. thick to, cloth, containing pages of text, price _s._ net. "this new and in many senses remarkable treatise ... unquestionably contains an immense amount of valuable first-hand information.... 'millar on plastering' may be expected to be the standard authority on the subject for many years to come.... a truly monumental work."--_the builder._ a grammar of japanese ornament and design.--illustrated by plates, many in gold and colours, representing all classes of natural and conventional forms, drawn from the originals, with introductory, descriptive, and analytical text. by t. w. cutler, f.r.i.b.a. imperial to, in elegant cloth binding, price £ _s._, £ _s._ net. decorative wrought ironwork of the th and th centuries.--by d. j. ebbetts. containing large lithographic plates, illustrating english examples of screens, grilles, panels, balustrades, &c. folio, boards, cloth back, price _s._ _d._, net _s._ _a facsimile reproduction of one of the rarest and most remarkable books of designs ever published in england._ a new booke of drawings of ironworke.--invented and desined by john tijou. containing severall sortes of iron worke, as gates, frontispieces, balconies, staircases, pannells, &c., of which the most part hath been wrought at the royall building of hampton court, &c. all for the use of them that worke iron in perfection and with art. (sold by the author in london, .) containing folio plates. with introductory note and descriptions of the plates by j. starkie gardner. folio, bound in boards, old style, price _s._ net. only copies were printed for england, and very few now remain. an original copy is priced at £ by mr. quaritch, the renowned bookseller. japanese encyclopÆdia of design. book i.--containing over , engraved curios, and most ingenious geometric patterns of circles, medallions, &c., comprising conventional details of plants, flowers, leaves, petals, also birds, fans, animals, key patterns, &c., &c. oblong mo, fancy covers, price _s._ net. book ii.--containing over most original and effective designs for diaper ornament, giving the base lines to the design, also artistic miniature picturesque sketches. oblong mo, price _s._ net. these books exhibit the varied charm and originality of conception of japanese ornament, and form an inexhaustible field of design. a delightful series of studies of birds, in most characteristic and life-like attitudes, surrounded with appropriate foliage and flowers.--by the celebrated japanese artist, bairei kono. in three books, vo, each containing pages of highly artistic and decorative illustrations, printed in tints. bound in fancy paper covers, price _s._ net. "in attitude and gesture and expression, these birds, whether perching or soaring, swooping or brooding, are admirable."--_magazine of art._ a new series of bird and flower studies. by watanabe sietei, the acknowledged leading living artist in japan. in books, containing numerous exceedingly artistic sketches in various tints, vo, fancy covers. price _s._ net. artists' sketch books.--a series of five volumes.--vol. i.: birds, flowers, and plants, drawn in a decorative spirit. vol. ii.: sketches of insects, plants, &c., drawn for designers. vol. iii.: drawings of fishes and marine animals. vol. iv.: natural scenery, landscapes, &c. vol. v.: scenes from japanese life, &c. vo, fancy covers. _s._ _d._ net. the architecture of the renaissance in italy.--a general view for the use of students and others. by w. j. anderson, a.r.i.b.a., director of architecture, glasgow school of art. second edition, revised and enlarged. containing full-page plates, mostly reproduced from photographs, and illustrations in text. large vo, cloth gilt, price _s._ _d._ net. "a delightful and scholarly work ... very fully illustrated."--_journal r.i.b.a._ "it is the work of a scholar taking a large view of his subject.... the book affords easy and intelligible reading, and the arrangement of the subject is excellent, though this was a matter of no small difficulty."--_the times._ "should rank amongst the best architectural writings of the day."--_the edinburgh review._ "we know of no book which furnishes such information and such illustrations in so compact and attractive a form. for greater excellence with the object in hand there is not one more perspicuous."--_the building news._ a history of architecture for the student, craftsman and amateur.--being a comparative view of the historical styles from the earliest period. by banister fletcher, f.r.i.b.a., professor of architecture in king's college, london, and b. f. fletcher, a.r.i.b.a. containing pages, with collotype plates, mostly from large photographs, and other illustrations in the text. third edition, revised. cr. vo, cloth gilt, price _s._ _d._, net _s._ "we shall be amazed if it is not immediately recognised and adopted as _par excellence_ the student's manual of the history of architecture."--_the architect._ "the general reader will read the book with not less profit than the student, and will find in it quite as much as he is likely to retain in his memory, and the architectural student in search of any particular fact will readily find it in this most methodical work.... as complete as it well can be."--_the times._ "as a synopsis of architectural dates and styles, professor banister fletcher's work will fill a void in our literature, and become a most useful manual."--_the building news._ the orders of architecture: greek, roman and italian.--edited with notes by r. phenÉ spiers, f.s.a., f.r.i.b.a. third edition, revised and enlarged, containing plates. to, cloth, price _s._ _d._, net _s._ _d._ "a most useful work for architectural students.... mr. spiers has done excellent service in editing this work, and his notes on the plates are very appropriate and useful."--_british architect._ renaissance architecture and ornament in spain.--a series of examples selected from the purest executed between the years - . by andrew n. prentice, a.r.i.b.a. containing beautiful plates, reproduced by photo-lithography and photo process from the author's drawings, of perspective views and geometrical drawings, and details, in stone, wood, and metal. with short descriptive text. folio, handsomely bound in cloth gilt, price £ _s._, net £ _s._ "for the drawing and production of this book one can have no words but praise.... it is a pleasure to have so good a record of such admirable architectural drawing, free, firm and delicate."--_british architect._ b. t. batsford, , high holborn, london. * * * * * transcriber's note: the following printer's errors have been corrected in the text: page xxi: part of a fan "f" of "fan" not printed in original page : the feathery stem (a) on the sampler "the" missing in original page : except that it has something of the appearance "of" missing in original page : in no case does it appear to be stitching "t" of "it" not printed in original page : forms of needlework "froms" printed for "forms" in original handbook of wool knitting and crochet [illustration] published by needlecraft publishing company augusta, maine * * * * * [illustration: handbook of crochet] _you can crochet the most fascinating things imaginable if you have this_ handbook of crochet by emma chalmers monroe this book is equally appreciated by beginner or expert. it contains most valuable information and instructions for everyone who crochets or wishes to learn to do this beautiful work. it embodies a very careful selection of designs; and, from the simplest to the most ornate, every successive step is explained and illustrated so fully that perfect results are a certainty. it describes the making of the newest designs for the ever popular use of crochet and gives instructions and patterns for edgings, borders, scarf-ends, insertions, yokes, lunch-sets, doilies, etc. the book has twenty-eight pages (size × inches) and illustrations. it is printed on a fine quality of paper with the cover in colors. your copy of emma chalmers monroe's handbook of crochet will be sent you, prepaid, upon receipt of cents, stamps or coin. it can be obtained only from us. needlecraft augusta--maine handbook of wool knitting and crochet a lesson in knitting [illustration: figure . casting on with two needles] the first thing to be done in knitting is to cast on or, as it is sometimes called, to "set up the foundation." (figure ). there are several methods for this, the following being that preferred and generally used by the writer: leave a spare end of thread, sufficient for the number of stitches you wish to cast on, lying toward the left, the spool or ball from which the working-thread is drawn being at the right. lay the thread between the little finger and the third of the left hand; bring the working-thread across the palm of the hand, around the thumb and back between the forefinger and second finger; bend the forefinger over this thread (which passes between it and the second finger), pass it under the thread which crosses the palm of the hand, and then draw the forefinger back, or straighten it, which will give you a loop with crossed threads. put the needle under the lower part of this loop, which draws from the ball, bring the working-thread (or ball-thread) around the point of needle from right to left, as in plain knitting, draw it back through the loop, slip off the latter, and draw up the left thread. then proceed to make the crossed loop and knit it off in the same way for the next and following stitches. the whole operation is very simple, although the instructions seem long because explicit. take your needle and yarn or thread and follow them through carefully, and you will very soon master the "crossed casting on." another method, preferred by many and practically the same in effect, except that the edge is not quite so firm, is as follows: loop the thread around the left forefinger, holding the spare end between thumb and second finger, pass the needle upward through the loop, pass the thread around the point, draw back through the loop, slip off the latter and pull up the spare thread. by passing the needle under the loop, or lower thread, instead of through it, bringing it back through, and then knitting off, you will really get the crossed loop, and many find this method easier than the first. the thread used in casting on may be doubled, particularly for beginning a stocking, mitten, or any article where much wear comes. casting on may also be done with two needles, and many like this method when there are many stitches. twist a loop around the needle held in the left hand, bring the end of thread, or spare thread, to the front, crossing the working-thread to hold it in place--or, if preferred, simply tie a slip-knot and put the loop on the left needle; insert the right needle through this loop from left to right, put thread around point of right needle and draw through the loop, bringing the right needle again in front of left. thus far, the process is quite like that of plain knitting. keeping the right needle still in the new stitch or loop, transfer the stitch to the left needle by bringing the latter in front and putting the point through the loop from front to back, leaving the right needle in place for the next stitch; the loops are not slipped off, as in knitting plain, but transferred, so that all are kept on the needle. a little practise will enable one to cast on thus very rapidly and evenly. [illustration: figure . knitting plain] the plain knitting (figure ), is done as follows: having cast on the requisite number of stitches, insert the right needle through the front of left needle from left to right, the right needle passing behind the left; carry the thread around point of right needle and bring it down between the two needles, then draw the point of right needle back and through the stitch, forming the new stitch on right needle and letting the other slip off the left, pushing down the point of left needle to facilitate this process; repeat until all the stitches are knitted off and the row is complete. where there are edges to be joined, as in knitting back and fronts of a sweater, it is a good plan to slip the first stitch of each row. right here a suggestion about the method of holding the thread may be of value: by the first method the thread is carried over the little finger of right hand, under second and third fingers and over the tip of the forefinger, which should be held close to the work; it is this finger which passes the thread over point of right needle for the new stitch. by another method the thread is carried over the left forefinger, under second and third and over the little finger, exactly as it is held for crocheting: insert the right needle through st stitch on left needle in usual way, push it over the thread on left forefinger, and draw this back through the stitch with the point of right needle. only the needle is held in the right hand, and many workers claim that the work is much more rapidly done. [illustration: figure . purling] the purl- or seam-stitch (figure ) is the exact reverse of plain knitting, both as to method of work and appearance, being in reality the wrong side of plain knitting. in the latter the thread is kept at the back of the work; for purling, bring it to the front between the two needles. put the point of right needle through the front of st stitch on left needle from right to left, the right needle being thus brought in front of the left; pass the thread around the front of right needle from right to left and back between needles, then push down the point and draw the loop backward through the stitch, instead of forward, as in plain knitting, the right needle being thus brought behind the left. slip off the old stitch as usual, and take care to return the thread to its place at the back before beginning to knit plain again. [illustration: figure . garter-stitch, or ridge-stitch] garter-stitch, so called (figure ) is simply plain knitting back and forth, which gives the effect of ridges, one row knit, the next purled. this is a stitch much used for sweaters, and other knitted garments. if one wishes to have the right side appear as in plain knitting, the st row must be knitted plain, the next purled. since one is the reverse of the other, the right side will be plain knitting, the wrong side purled. [illustration: figure . the double rib] the rib-stitch is alternately plain and purled. to knit the single rib, * knit , purl ; repeat. for double rib, (figure ,) * knit , purl ; repeat; and for triple-rib, * knit , purl ; repeat. any width of rib may be made that is liked, always taking care--unless knitting in rounds, as a wristlet, mitten or stocking--to knit the stitches purled on the preceding row, and purl the knitted ones. there are a large variety of fancy patterns made by combining plain knitting and purling, such as the basket-stitch and others, of even or broken "check." there are many variations of the simplest stitches; for example, the common garter-stitch gives a particularly good effect if knitted from the back. put the needle in from right to left, through the back part of the stitch to be knitted; leave the thread behind the needle, then pass it from right to left over the needle and draw it through the stitch, allowing the latter to slip off as in plain knitting. in this stitch the two threads of the loop are crossed, instead of lying side by side as in plain knitting. [illustration: figure . making "overs"] "overs" (figure ) are used in all lace patterns, and many times in fancy designs for wool knitting. to make an "over" bring the thread before the needle as if to purl, then knit the next stitch plain as usual. this brings a loop over the needle, which in the next row is to be knitted as any stitch, thus increasing the number of stitches in the row. in case it is not desired to increase the stitches, one must narrow, by knitting two stitches together, once for every "over." if a larger hole is wanted, the thread is put twice over the needle, and in the following one of these loops is knitted, the other purled. to "purl-narrow," or purl two together, bring the thread to the front as for purling, then to form the extra stitch, carry the thread back over the needle and to the front again; then insert the right needle through two stitches instead of one, and knit them as one stitch. "fagot" is an abbreviation frequently used for this. [illustration: figure . binding off] to slip and bind, slip st stitch from left needle to the right needle, without knitting it; knit next stitch, then draw the stitch on right needle over the knitted one, letting it fall between needles. to slip, narrow and bind, slip first stitch, knit next two together, and draw the slipped stitch over. to cast off or bind off, (figure ,) slip st stitch, knit next, draw slipped stitch over, knit next stitch, draw the previous knitted stitch over, and continue, taking care that the chain of stitches thus cast off be neither too tight nor too loose, but just as elastic as the remainder of the work. a sleeveless sweater [illustration: a sleeveless sweater] a sleeveless sweater, as pretty as it is comfortable, requires six skeins of shetland floss and a pair of no. amber needles. pink floss was chosen for the model, but any preferred color may be substituted. cast on stitches; knit in basket-stitch, as follows: . * knit , purl ; repeat across, ending with knit . . purl , knit ; repeat across, ending with purl . repeat these two rows twice, making rows in all; then to change the check knit th row like d, th like st, repeat twice, and again change the check by repeating from st row. continue until the border is five checks deep, or rows. knit across plain and purl back for rows; narrow stitch each side every other row, three times, for the armhole, leaving stitches on your needle, and giving rows from the border. knit across plain and purl back for rows; putting these stitches on a large safety-pin for convenience, knit , bind off stitches for neck, and on the remaining stitches, knit rows back and forth, or ribs, to give the effect of a seam on the shoulder. continue the front, knitting across and purling back, adding a stitch toward the front each time to make the neck v-shaped, for rows; then add stitch at the armhole, and next row cast on stitches for underarm. do not widen further toward the front, but continue knitting forward and purling back for rows; then make the border of rows, five checks wide, to correspond with the back, and bind off. knit the other front to correspond. pick up the stitches around armhole, in all, and knit , purl for rows, making an edge of checks; bind off. pick up the stitches on front, to the center of back of neck, about in all, make a row of checks to correspond with the arm, and bind; work a border in the same way on other side of front, and sew neatly at back of neck, also join the underarm seams, taking care to match the checks of the border perfectly. for the belt: cast on stitches, and proceed as directed for the border until you have the desired length; the belt illustrated is checks long. across one end crochet chain loops, filling these with doubles, and sew to the other end three pearl buttons to match. the belt is caught along the top in the back, giving the short-waisted effect. costume for the winter-girl [illustration: costume for the winter-girl] materials: thirteen skeins of shetland floss (dark rose was used for the model, but any preferred color may be substituted), three balls of gray angora, one pair each of bone knitting-needles, no. and no. , and a steel crochet-hook, no. . for the sweater: using no. needles, cast on for the back stitches (these will measure inches). knit plain, back and forth (which will give you ridges or ribs) for inches; then decrease a stitch at each end of needle every th row, to shape the back, until there are stitches on the needle, measuring inches (this is the waistline); knit on these stitches for ½ inches from the waistline, then decrease stitch at each end of needle every other row for times, or until stitches remain, and knit on these stitches until the back measures ½ inches from the waistline. knit stitches off on a spare needle, bind off stitches for back of neck, and on the other stitches knit one front after the following directions, and the other to correspond. front: knit in ridges as usual, increasing stitch toward the front every other row until you have added stitches; cast on stitches more toward the front, giving stitches on the needle; knit in ridges, increasing stitch toward armhole every other row until stitches have been added, then cast on stitches toward the underarm, making stitches on the needle (about inches). knit on the stitches for ½ inches, then increase stitch every th row toward the underarm- or side-seam, until the latter is of the same length as that of the back, including the inches. do not bind off. knit other front to correspond and sew up side-seams. with a needle pick up stitch from each ridge on front (have an uneven number of stitches on needle), and on another spare needle pick up the stitches across the back; on another pick up the stitches of front, having the same number of stitches on needle; tie a thread in st stitch on needle at bottom of each front, toward the front, which will be the corner stitch. . with bone needles no. start at top of left front, knit , * over, narrow, repeat from * to the corner stitch, over, knit the corner stitch, again repeat from * to next corner, over, knit corner stitch, repeat from * until but stitch remains, over, knit last stitch. . knit plain, each "over" forming a stitch to take the place of narrowed one. . knit to corner stitch, over, knit corner stitch, over, knit to next corner stitch, over, knit corner stitch, over, and knit plain to end of row. repeat d and d rows until there are ridges or rows from the beginning. in next row make the buttonholes thus: knit stitches from the neck, bind off stitches for the buttonhole, then knit , bind off , and repeat, making buttonholes stitches apart. in next row cast on stitches over where they were bound off, then repeat d and d rows for more ridges, and bind off. sleeves.--cast on stitches (about ½ inches); knit in ridges, casting on stitches at each end of needle every other row until there are stitches on needle (about inches), knit inch, then decrease stitch at each end of needle every th row until there are stitches remaining on needle, knit on these until the sleeves measure inches, or desired length, (knit row, purl row) twice, knit ridges for cuff, then with gray angora and no. needles knit ridges, bind off, and sew up sleeves and cuffs. collar.--using the dark rose pick up stitches around neck of sweater (not the border), knit ridges; do not bind off. with a spare needle pick up stitch from each ridge on each end of collar; with gray angora and no. needles repeat d and d rows alternately for border until there are ridges, and bind off. pockets.--cast on stitches; knit in ridges for inches, change to angora and no. needles, knit ridges, making a buttonhole in th ridge at center of pocket, bind off and sew the pocket neatly in place on the sweater. sew the sleeves in. belt.--with dark rose cast on stitches (about ½ inches), knit in ridges until the belt is the width of the back at waistline, bind off and sew in place with two buttons at each side. buttons.--with dark rose, chain , turn; miss stitch, doubles in next; doubles in each of doubles; * doubles in st double, in next; repeat from * until the circle is of a size to cover the mold, work row without widening, slip the mold in, * work around with double in a stitch, miss , repeating from last * until closed. if preferred, a small square may be knitted like the body of the sweater and used to cover mold. the skating-cap is inches head-size, and requires three skeins of the dark-rose floss, two balls of gray angora wool and steel needles no. . using the angora wool, cast on stitches; knit on each of needles and stitches on the d, and knit in single rib (knit , purl ) in rounds for ½ inches, change to the rose floss and knit in single rib for inch; change to angora, again knit in single rib for ½ inches; change to rose floss and knit in single rib until the top measures ½ inches, then bind off and draw together, leaving sufficient opening for the tassel to be sewed in. tassel.--using the rose floss, cut about strands inches long, tie in the center, fold where tied and tie again below. sew the tassel at top of cap. scarf.--materials required are four skeins of dark rose shetland floss, two balls of gray angora wool, and one pair each of no. and no. bone knitting-needles. with gray angora wool and no. needles cast on stitches, and knit ridges; change to rose floss and no. needles and knit ridges, change to angora wool and no. needles, and again knit ridges, change to rose floss and no. needles and knit for inches, or length of scarf desired; then, as at beginning, knit ridges of angora, ridges of rose and again ridges of angora; bind off. knitted gloves.--materials required are three skeins of shetland floss, and four steel knitting-needles, no. . use two threads of the floss at once. cast stitches on each of needles. knit in single rib (knit , purl ) for rounds, or until the wrist is as long as desired, then knit rounds plain. . knit to within stitches of end of round, widen , knit , widen . , , , . knit plain. repeat the last rounds, increasing stitches every th round until you have stitches between the two widening points, and stitches on the needles. to form the thumb, knit stitches on each of needles and cast on stitches between the widening points, thus making stitches on needles. knit rounds plain. * narrow, knit ; repeat around; knit round plain; repeat from *. narrow until the thumb is closed, draw the wool through, and leave an end to fasten down on the wrong side. pick up the stitches cast on at base of thumb, making stitches on the hand. knit rounds, then divide the stitches as follows: slip stitches on one knitting-needle for top of hand starting from the d cast-on stitch at beginning of thumb, and the remaining stitches for palm of hand on another needle. first finger: knit stitches from top of hand, slip remaining stitches on a safety-pin, also stitches from palm of hand on another safety-pin, cast on stitches for between fingers, knit remaining from palm of hand, making stitches in all, on these knit rounds, and finish off as directed for the thumb. second finger: knit stitches from back of hand, cast on stitches, knit stitches from palm of hand, and pick up stitches cast on at base of first finger, making stitches on needle; * knit round plain; knit to last stitches of round, which will be of the stitches picked up, narrow; repeat from * twice, and on the stitches remaining knit rounds more, rounds in all; narrow off like the thumb. third finger: knit stitches from safety-pin at top of hand, cast on stitches, knit from palm of hand, and pick up stitches at base of second finger, making stitches in all; knit st rounds as directed for d finger, knit more rounds on remaining stitches, and narrow off as thumb. fourth finger: knit stitches from back of hand on needle, stitches from palm on another, pick up stitches at base of d finger on d needle, knit rounds on the stitches, then narrow off as the thumb. these directions are for the left glove. knit the right glove in same way to where you divide the stitches for the fingers; then remember that the palm of the glove must be toward you, the thumb on the right-hand side. so you would first knit stitches from palm, cast on , and knit from back of hand, reversing directions as given for left glove. children's knitted sets set no. [illustration: set no. ] hood.--cast on stitches, and knit back and forth for rows, or ribs; then join the color and knit ribs, and bind off evenly. sew up the edge where you cast on for the back of the hood. fold the border back its width, and pick up the stitches across end of this and the ribs back of it on the body of hood, then the stitches around neck and the other side of border, knit ribs, then in next row, knit , over, narrow, and repeat, ending with knit . this row forms the holes for the cord. knit back plain, knit more ribs and bind off. the hood may be of any desired size by casting on any number of stitches, and knitting just half that number of ribs. scarf.--cast on stitches (or for a little wider scarf); knit ribs of blue, of gray, of blue, of gray and of blue; then knit inches of gray, ribs of blue and continue with the other end as at first, reversing the order. knot fringe of the two colors in at each end. sweater.--cast on stitches, and knit , purl (or double rib) for two inches. knit plain for rows (or ribs, if you knit back and forth; the model was knitted forward and purled back, to give the work the appearance of plain knitting on the right side). cast on stitches for sleeve, knit back and cast on stitches for the other sleeve; knit rows on this length, then take stitches off on an extra needle, bind off stitches for neck, and on the remaining stitches work rows; then cast on stitches toward the front and on this length knit rows, bind off stitches for the sleeve, work rows on the remaining stitches, slip these on an extra needle, work the other front to correspond, slip all the stitches on one needle, knit until the front is as long as the back, and finish with the double rib for two inches; bind off evenly. using the color, pick up the stitches at the end of sleeve and knit back and forth for rows; bind off. sew up the sleeves and underarm seams and turn back the cuffs. for the collar pick up the stitches around the neck, knit rows of gray, then rows of color, and bind off. work around edge of collar and down the front opening with double crochet, chain between; lace up the front with cord, ends finished with balls or tassels. set no. [illustration: set no. ] jacket.--cast on stitches and knit rows or ribs; cast on stitches for sleeve, knit back and cast on stitches for the other sleeve. knit rows, then knit stitches, bind off stitches for the neck, knit remaining stitches, and on these continue with the front. knit rows, then continue knitting back and forth, adding a stitch at the end of each row toward the front for rows, which will give extra stitches; knit rows without widening, then bind off stitches, and knit remainder of front to correspond with the back. knit the other front in same way, sew up sleeves and underarm seams, work around the neck with double crochet, in color, chain between, and around the body of the jacket with shells of three trebles in a stitch, miss space of two ribs; repeat. with the gray make trebles, picot of chain caught in last treble and treble around neck, and between st and d trebles of shells around body of jacket. finish edge of sleeves in the same way, and run in cord and balls. for the hood.--cast on stitches, knit ribs, then ribs of color and of gray; bind off, sew up the back of hood where cast on, finish around the neck with double crochet, space of chain between, using color, work the shells around front of hood, and finish with the shells of gray, as for jacket. run in the cord, with balls of the two colors of yarn. the cords may be done in plain crochet, the ordinary chain or, as preferred because stronger, knotted by what is called the "fool's delight" method, although why named thus it is impossible to say. surely it seems a very sensible way: take a length of yarn six times as long as the cord is wanted; make a slip or half knot at one end and pass the other end down through it to form a loop, then tie the ends of yarn together. hold this knot between thumb and forefinger of one hand, say the right, with the yarn which pulls through the knot under the same hand, and the loop which was formed held on the forefinger; hold the yarn which does not pull in the left hand, pass the forefinger of the left hand through the loop on right forefinger from front to back, catch up and pull through the non-pulling or left-hand thread--exactly as you would make a chain-stitch in crochet--transfer the knot (which ties the two ends together) to the thumb and forefinger of left hand, keeping the loop over forefinger, and draw up the pulling yarn. now the position of the loop, pulling yarn and knot is exactly the same in the left hand as formerly in the right. continue by passing the forefinger of right hand through the loop, catching up the non-pulling thread and drawing it through to form the new loop (on right hand again), transfer the knot and pull up. this is really a sort of double chain, and when one has learned to make it evenly and well, it will be found superior for bags, lingerie, and many other articles requiring a drawstring or cord. a serviceable sweater [illustration: a serviceable sweater] use fourfold germantown zephyr and a pair of no. needles, with one pair two sizes smaller. as the sizes or numbers of needles vary, and also do methods of knitting, it is a good plan to work a little block before beginning the pattern. cast on, say, stitches, knit across and purl back, repeating these two rows until you have a square. there should be stitches to the inch in width, and seven rows should make an inch in length. if you get less, use larger needles, say no. . it is also a good plan to practise on the pattern a little, so that you will become familiar with it and can narrow or widen and still keep the ridge. cast on any number of stitches divisible by four, with one stitch over, knit , purl , until but one stitch remains, and knit that. all rows are the same, the odd stitch breaking the rib and making a ridge. when you come to the decreasing later you can tell whether you are keeping the pattern correct, by watching the knitted stitch, which forms a sort of chain right on top of the ridge, and must be kept throughout. left front: cast on stitches on the larger needles and knit rows plain for the band at lower edge. . knit (these stitches are for the plain border up the front), * purl , knit , repeat from *, knitting last stitch. . slip , purl , * knit , purl , repeat from *, knitting last . repeat these two rows until you have rows in all. . knit , narrow, knit ; finish row in pattern. . in pattern until stitches remain, knit these. . knit , narrow, knit ; continue in pattern. . in pattern, knitting last stitches. . knit , narrow, knit ; continue in pattern. . like th, knitting at end. . knit , narrow, knit ; continue in pattern. . like th, knitting last . . knit , narrow, knit ; continue in pattern. . bind off , knit in pattern to within stitches of end, knit these. . knit , narrow, knit ; continue in pattern. . like th row, knitting at end. . knit , narrow; continue in pattern. . like th row, knitting at end. , , . like d row. , . bind off , knit in pattern until stitches remain, knit these. . knit in pattern until stitches remain, knit these. continue to work until you have completed the st row, doing the odd rows like the d and even rows like th, when you should have stitches on the needle. from this point work until you have completed the d row, increasing at beginning of d, th and th rows by knitting in the back, then in the front of the d stitch. you should then have stitches on the needle. knit one plain row (the th) and bind off. right front: begin like left front, doing plain rows. . knit , * knit , purl , repeat from * to end, knitting last stitch. . knit , purl , repeat until stitches remain, purl , knit . repeat last two rows until you have rows in all. . knit as usual until you have the border stitches remaining, knit , bind off , knit . . knit , cast on , knit , and continue as usual. this forms the buttonhole. make five buttonholes at equal distances apart, and begin the narrowing for collar in the th row, continuing like left front. back: cast on stitches and knit rows plain; then work in the pattern until you have rows in all, which brings the work to the armhole. . bind off stitches and knit remainder as usual, taking care to keep the pattern. repeat this row seven times, when you will have taken stitches from each side. knit rows in pattern on the remaining stitches. , . knit in pattern until within stitches of the end; turn, leaving these stitches on left-hand needle without knitting. , . knit in pattern to within stitches of the end (including the stitches previously left), turn. , . knit in pattern to within stitches of end, turn. . knit , narrow, (knit , narrow) twice, knit rest plain, to end of needle. . knit plain entirely across, and bind off. sleeves. cast on stitches. . knit , * purl , knit , repeat from * times, purl , turn. . slip , knit , * purl , knit , repeat from * times, knit , turn. . slip , knit , * purl , knit , repeat from * times, purl , knit , turn. . slip , purl , * knit , purl , repeat from * times, knit , turn. . slip , purl , * knit , purl , repeat from * times, knit , turn. . slip , knit , * purl , knit , repeat from * times, knit , turn. . slip , knit , * purl , knit , repeat from * times, purl , knit , turn. . slip , purl , * knit , purl , repeat from * times, knit , turn. . slip , purl , * knit , purl , repeat from * times, knit , turn. . slip , knit , * purl , knit , repeat from * times, knit , turn. . slip knit , * purl , knit , repeat from * times, purl , knit , turn. . slip , purl , * knit , purl , repeat from * until but stitches remain, turn. . like th row, leaving stitches at end. . slip , knit , * purl , knit , repeat to end, knitting last stitch. . slip , purl , * knit , purl , repeat to end, knitting last stitch. continue to knit in pattern, decreasing at beginning and end of every th row until stitches remain, then knit without decreasing until you have rows, counting from the th row. take the smaller needles and commence the cuff on the sleeve-stitches as follows: slip , (narrow, knit ) times, (narrow, knit ) times, narrow, knit , to end of row. repeat last rows until you end with stitches and bind off. pockets.--with the larger needles cast on stitches. . knit , * knit , purl , repeat from * across, ending with knit . . slip , * purl , knit , repeat, ending with purl , knit . . slip , * knit , purl , repeat, ending with knit . repeat last two rows until you have rows in pattern, then knit rows plain for top of pocket and bind off. to make up the coat, first press the border of fronts; stretch into shape, pin to an ironing-board, cover with a damp cloth and press with a fairly hot iron until the cloth is dry. this will prevent the coat from drawing up, as the ribs are inclined to do. for sewing, use a blunt-pointed needle to avoid splitting the wool. sew up the side and shoulder-seams, taking a stitch from each edge and keeping the edges perfectly even, being careful not to draw the sewing-yarn so tightly as to pucker the seam in the least. sew up the sleeves, and place the sleeve-seam an inch to the front of the side-seam, easing in any fulness there is around the top. place the center of collar at center of back before sewing on; this must be done on right side of coat, and the collar turned over. sew on the pockets, matching the ridges, and sew on five pearl or bone buttons, about three-fourths of an inch in diameter, to correspond with the buttonholes, placing a small pearl button at the back of the larger one on wrong side of coat and sewing through both together. this coat measures twenty-six inches from shoulder to hem. it may easily be made longer, if desired, but the model is an excellent one for ordinary wear, and very "natty," and it has the merit of being quickly knitted. as has been suggested, a good way to do, when knitting a sweater in any stitch, is to have a pattern and work to fit that. first, have a coat cut from any old cloth, and of any style desired. seam it up and try it on, having it fitted nicely, then cut along the seam and take apart. fasten the different parts on a smooth surface by means of thumbtacks and knit to measure, without stretching your work. ladies' sweater [illustration: ladies' sweater] this sweater requires five skeins of knitting-worsted, and four balls of angora; electric blue for the body of the garment, and gray angora were combined in the model, but other colors may be chosen at pleasure. the work is done in plain knitting, back and forth, with ribbed belt. with the knitting-worsted and no. needles, cast on stitches for the back, which will measure about twenty-four inches, and knit ribs, or rows. next row, * narrow, knit ; repeat from *. then change to no. steel needles and do rows in triple rib (knit , purl ) for the belt. change to no. needles and knit ribs; then decrease stitch at end of needle every other row five times. knit ribs plain, or without decreasing. next row, knit stitches, slip them on to a spare needle, bind off stitches for neck, and on the remaining stitches, knit ribs; then cast on stitches at the neck, knit ribs, increase stitch at armhole every other row five times, and knit ribs plain. change to the steel needles, and work the belt as directed for the back, (purl , knit ,) starting from front edge. having completed the belt-- rows of triple rib--change to no. needles; * knit , increase stitch, repeat from *. then knit ribs and bind off on the wrong side. knit the other front to correspond, omitting buttonholes if these are used. for the sleeve: working on right side of sweater, pick up stitch on each rib around the armhole, stitches in all; knit ribs, then decrease stitch at each end of needle every th rib, eight times. change to steel needles and knit ribs for the wrist; change to the larger (no. ) needles, * knit , narrow; repeat across, then knit ribs, join the angora, knit ribs, and bind off. collar: using no. needles and the knitting-worsted, cast on stitches; knit ribs. join the angora wool, knit rows, increasing stitch at each end of needle every other row, and bind off. working on right side of collar pick up stitch on each rib at the side, knit rows, increasing stitch every other row toward the corner and keeping the neck edge even, and bind off. make the other side of collar to correspond and sew up the mitered corners. the border of angora wool may be as much wider as one chooses to make it by adding more rows or ribs. two large buttons covered with the knitting-worsted--either knitted or crocheted--and furnished with a loop sewed on each side, are used to fasten the belt. for the buttons: using a bone hook which will carry the yarn, make a chain of stitches, turn, and in d stitch of chain make doubles; in next round make doubles in each stitch, working in both veins so there will be no rib; then make double in st stitch, in next, and repeat. continue to work around and around until you have a circle which will cover the button-mold-- rounds in all were required for top of buttons used on model, work around without widening, slip in the mold, then * miss , a double in next, and repeat until the cover is closed. if preferred, knit a tiny square as you did the body of the garment; and use this to cover the mold, drawing it snugly over, and fastening underneath. for the loop, make a chain of stitches, turn and make a double in each stitch; fasten securely beneath the button. ladies' knitted gloves with fancy backs [illustration: ladies' knitted gloves with fancy backs] use no. steel needles, with spanish knitting-yarn or worsted. cast on stitches. . purl , slip and bind, (over, knit ) times, over, narrow, purl , knit ; repeat twice. . purl , knit , purl , knit ; repeat. . purl , slip and bind, knit , narrow, purl , knit ; repeat. . purl , slip and bind, knit , narrow, purl , knit ; repeat. . same as th row. . purl , slip and bind, (over, knit ) times, over, narrow, purl , take of the stitches off on a separate needle, hold this at back of work, knit next stitches, then knit the on separate needle; repeat. continue in pattern, twisting the "cable" as directed every th row, until the wrist is seven patterns in length. then carry one cable up back of hand, with an openwork stripe each side, and knit plain across palm. commence thumb at top of wrist. as the gloves are right and left, care must be taken in starting the thumb so that both will not be for the same hand. on the left-hand glove the thumb is started at right of the stripe, on the right-hand glove at the left of stripe. begin thumb with widen, knit , widen; knit rows as usual, then widen, knit , widen; continue in this way until you have widened the thumb to stitches. put these on needles, on a d needle cast on stitches, join and knit once around, in each of next rounds narrow of the stitches, arrange the stitches evenly on needles, knit two inches, then narrow at end of each needle until you have remaining, put these on needles and bind off. continuing with the hand, pick up the stitches cast on at base of thumb, knit to the base of the little finger, and divide the stitches on needles, or, if more convenient, take them off on a twine. for the little finger: take stitches from back needle and from front, and cast on stitches, knit once around plain, narrow off of the stitches in each of next rounds, knit inches, narrow stitch at end of each needle until stitches remain, put these on needles and bind off. first finger: pick up the stitches cast on for little finger, knit to the middle, take stitches from each side next the thumb, cast on stitches for inside of finger, knit once around plain, in next rounds narrow off of the stitches, knit two and one-half inches, and finish off as before. third finger: pick up the stitches cast on for first finger, knit them, knit plain, leaving stitches toward little finger, putting these on separate needle, stitches from other side, cast on stitches, knit until you get to those left for little finger, narrow of these and of the each time around for rounds, knit two and one-half inches, and finish off as directed. middle finger: pick up the from last finger, knit around plain, proceed as directed for third finger, knit two and three-fourths inches plain and finish off. knitted slippers with ermine trimming [illustration: knitted bedroom-slippers with ermine trimming] materials required are three skeins fourfold germantown yarn, two colors, and one yard of ribbon. pink and white yarn, with a little black, and pink ribbon are used for the slippers illustrated. cast on stitches with white yarn, using medium-size steel needles. knit back and forth until you have a perfect square of white, then join the color. the square is for the toe of slipper. knit back and forth on the stitches until you have a strip long enough to extend around the sole of slipper and join to the square on other side, leaving two sides and one corner for the toe. darn the white with black; beginning at lower right-hand corner, bring the needle through the first two ribs and down between next two, miss three ribs, keeping the long thread on the wrong side, and repeat, having every other row alternate. this may be done before the strip is joined to opposite side of square, if more convenient. sew to the sole, using strong thread and over-and-over stitches. the strip should be stretched somewhat during the sewing, in order to make the slipper cling well to the foot. for the border: cast on stitches with white and knit plain, back and forth, until the strip is long enough to go around the top. darn with the black yarn, making three rows, over one rib and under three, alternating the stitches. sew to top of slipper, turn back, and put on the bows. these slippers are very easily knitted, extremely pretty and may be made to fit any size of sole. for a larger slipper cast on an additional number of stitches for the square, which will make the strip proportionally wider; knit it long enough for the larger sole, and make the border wider, if desired. a smaller slipper is begun with less stitches, following the same general directions. babies' long bootees [illustration: babies' long bootees] two colors of saxony, blue and white or pink and white, and two steel knitting-needles, no. , are required for these bootees. with color, cast on stitches. . knit plain. . with white, knit , over, knit , * slip, narrow and bind, knit , over, knit , over, knit ; repeat from * to end of row. . purl. repeat last rows three times; with color knit rows; with white repeat d and d rows twice, and again knit rows plain with color and rows plain with white. with white knit rows of single rib (knit , purl ). with color knit rows plain; then with white knit rows in single rib; repeat the last rows, and again knit rows plain, with color. with white knit row, purl row, alternately, for rows; this gives the appearance of plain knitting on the right side. make a row of spaces in which to run ribbon, thus: knit , * over times, narrow, knit ; repeat from * to end of row. purl back, dropping of the "overs." again knit forward and purl back for rows; then knit rows in single rib, completing the leg. for the instep: slip st stitches on to the needle, join in the color, knit stitches, turn and knit back. with white knit row and purl row, alternately, for rows. repeat last rows three times, which will give four white stripes and the same of narrow ones, in color; again knit forward and back with color. for the slipper or foot, using color, knit off stitches on right-hand needle, pick up and knit stitches along the side of instep, knit across instep, pick up on other side and knit the stitches on left needle. knit back and forth plain for rows and bind off. sew up the foot and back of leg, and draw ribbon through the spaces. these bootees come up well to the knee, and are warm as well as pretty. the ribbed portions cause them to fit snugly, so they are not likely to slip down and off the little feet. child's knitted mittens [illustration: child's knitted mittens] use saxony yarn with needles of suitable size, as you knit tight or loose. no. is a good average size. cast stitches on each of three needles. knit , purl ; repeat, until the wrist is of length desired, say two inches. for the pattern, knit as follows: . purl. , , . knit , purl . these rows are repeated throughout. begin to widen for the thumb in the d row above the wrist; to widen pick up a stitch between needles and knit it, knit , widen, and continue in pattern. knit rows, in pattern, and again widen, knit , widen, across base of thumb. continue in this way, adding stitches between the widenings every d row, and keeping as closely as possible to the pattern, until you have stitches across the thumb. knit around twice in pattern and take the thumb-stitches off on a strong thread. knit around in pattern, and when you come to the thumb cast on stitches, or one third the number widened for the thumb. continue knitting the hand to the tip of the little finger, then commence narrowing. the manner in which this is done depends on the shape of the hand to be fitted. for an ordinary mitten, narrow every th stitch, and knit times around; then narrow every th stitch and knit times around; every d stitch and knit times around; every d stitch and knit twice around; then narrow, knit , repeat around, knit once around, narrow every stitch, draw yarn through, and darn the end neatly and securely. it is an excellent plan to "run" the tip of a mitten on the wrong side, as you do the heel of a stocking, since it makes it wear longer, especially if intended for rough usage. the narrowing of a child's mitten may begin with every th stitch. also, if the hand is long and slender, an additional row may be knitted between the widenings for the thumb. take the stitches off the thread on needles, and with the d pick up and knit the stitches across the hand, which were cast on. when knitting around the first time, narrow once each end of the picked-up stitches. even the stitches on the needles, and knit around in pattern until you reach the base of the nail, then narrow off, beginning with once in stitches. draw through the last stitches at tip and darn down. knee-cap [illustration: knee-cap] elderly people, or those at all inclined to rheumatic twinges, appreciate the knee-cap, and a pair of them will make a most acceptable gift to grandpa or grandma. no. steel needles and germantown yarn were used for the model, which may be made more or less heavy, as desired, by choosing coarser or finer yarn. cast stitches upon each of three needles and knit around times in single rib--that is, knit , purl , alternately. you are now ready to begin the gore, which may be done in single rib, like the rest, or in basket-stitch (or other fancy pattern) as in the model. take stitches on one needle, leaving all other stitches idle; take a stitch from each side every time across until but stitches are left on both idle needles. narrow at the end of the busy needle each time until but stitches are left on the busy needle. take up stitches on the selvage at each side, divide the stitches evenly on the three needles, and you should have the original number of stitches on each of the needles. again knit rows in single rib, bind off loosely, and finish with a simple crocheted border of chain-loops or shells caught down in every other stitch. to knit the gore in basket-stitch, * purl , knit ; repeat for rows, then knit row plain; repeat st rows, placing the plain stitches exactly in the center of the purled stitches of previous rows. this change, made after each plain row, gives the woven- or basket-effect, and the pattern is a very pretty one for sweaters. wristers or pulse-warmers [illustration: wristers or pulse-warmers] wristers or pulse-warmers, are very comfortable on a cold day, and those described particularly so, as they fill the sleeve and completely exclude the wind. using knitting-worsted, or yarn of any desired size or quality with needles to correspond, such as would be employed for a man's knitted sock, cast to stitches on each of needles, and knit , purl , alternately, for rows or more, according to length required. bind off loosely. with bone crochet-hook work in straight rows from top to bottom, putting a treble in every other stitch and chain-stitches between trebles; after the last treble at the edge chain , miss a row and return on the next. having completed the rows of spaces, make trebles in st space, in next, and repeat, working back and forth until all the spaces are filled. a very attractive finish is to work a row of doubles in color, making a double in each treble. with fine wool, crochet-silk may be prettily used for this finish. a fringed wrister may be made on the foundation described by holding a pencil on lengthwise with the left hand, and with the right sewing over and over it; make the rows quite close together, cut the wound yarn open with a pair of sharp scissors, and brush lightly across it, back and forth, until the cut ends become "mossy" or fluffed up. motor-scarf [illustration: motor-scarf] this motor-scarf may be of pink and white, or any preferred colors of shetland floss. use wooden needles and cast on stitches with pink. , . purl. . knit plain. . knit , over twice, narrow; repeat across, ending with knit . . purl, dropping d of the over-twice loops. . knit plain. , . with white, purl. , . knit plain. repeat until the scarf is of the length required. the sides are finished with shells, in white, making trebles, well drawn out, in the center of the pink stripe, and fastening in center of white stripe with double. finish the ends with fringe knotted in, six inches long and composed of threads each of pink and white. sport scarf [illustration: sport scarf] a very attractive scarf uses brown shetland as a body color, with deep cream-color, green and rose in combination with the brown for stripes. using no. ½ or no. bone needles, cast on stitches and knit back and forth for rows or ribs; then join in the cream-color and knit ( rows of cream, rows of brown) times, rows of cream, ( of brown, of cream) times; rows of brown; join in green, ( rows of green, of brown) times; rows of green; ( of brown, of green) times; rows of brown; ( of rose, of brown) times; of rose; ( of brown, of rose) times; * rows of brown. reverse from *, making the other end of scarf as directed for first half. for the fringe, cut strands of brown six inches long, and knot a strand in each stitch. for a lighter scarf use no. bone needles and cast on or stitches. the larger needles with loose knitting will give work much more open. if desired one may introduce rows of fancy knitting instead of the colored stripes. in fact, having made one scarf, the worker will find it possible to vary it in many ways, and will find such variation a pleasing study. many like to use a thread of silk or mercerized crochet-cotton with the shetland floss or other wool which may be chosen. scarf in lattice-stitch [illustration: scarf in lattice-stitch] using shetland floss and no. bone needles, cast on as many stitches as required for width of scarf, using a multiple of with over. knit back and forth times. . knit , over times; repeat, knitting last stitch. . knit , draw up the loop about one inch in length, (drop the "overs," and slip the knitted stitch) times, slip the long stitches to left-hand needle, draw the last over st , knitting each, then knit the st , and repeat, knitting at end of row. take care the long stitches are not twisted. . , . knit plain. repeat from th row. gather up the ends of the scarf and finish with cord and tassel, or a bow of ribbon, as preferred. knitting for the red cross (official red cross photographs) sleeveless sweater [illustration: sleeveless sweater] three hanks of gray or khaki knitting-yarn (¾ pound), fivefold, and a pair of amber needles no. , or no. red cross needles will be needed; stitches should measure two inches. cast on stitches. knit , purl stitches for inches. knit plain until sweater measures inches. knit stitches, bind off stitches for neck, loose. knit stitches. knit ridges on each shoulder, cast on stitches. knit plain for inches. purl , knit stitches for inches. sew up sides, leaving inches for armholes. two rows single crochet around neck and row single crochet around armholes. [illustration: sleeveless sweater before sides are sewed together] washcloth [illustration: washcloth] white knitting-cotton (medium weight); pair red cross needles no. . cast on stitches, knit back and forth plain until cloth is about inches square, and bind off. sew a loop of tape to one corner. service sock [illustration: service sock] a service-sock requires three skeins of knitting-yarn for two pairs, with no. steel needles. cast on stitches on each of needles, and on the d. knit and purl for ½ inches. knit , or halfway across the d needle, pick up an extra stitch and purl it, keeping this always for the seam-stitch at back of leg, knit plain to end of round. continue knitting plain and purling the seam stitch for four inches. knit to within stitches of the seam-stitch, narrow, knit , purl the seam-stitch, knit , slip , knit , draw the slipped stitch over, and knit plain to end of round. repeat, narrowing as directed every th round, times. now knit without decreasing for one inch. for the heel: place stitches each side of the middle or seam-stitch, and knit back and forth, row plain and purl, alternately, for rows, always slipping the st stitch. to turn the heel, slip the st stitch, knit , narrow, knit , turn work; slip , purl , purl together, purl , turn, slip , knit , narrow, knit , turn; slip , purl , purl together, purl , turn; slip , knit , narrow, knit , turn; slip , purl , purl together, purl , turn; slip , knit , narrow, knit , turn; slip , purl , purl together, purl , turn; slip , knit , narrow, knit , turn; slip , purl , purl together, purl , turn; slip , knit , narrow, knit , turn; slip , purl , purl together, purl , turn; slip , knit , narrow, knit , turn; slip , purl , purl together, purl , turn; slip , knit , narrow. proceed to pick up stitches down side of heel next to needle just finished, knitting each as you pick it up; knit the left on the needle for front of foot, and pick up down other side of heel; then knit on with these half the stitches left at top of heel. knit round plain; narrow the d round as follows: on st side needle knit to within of end, narrow, knit ; knit across front needle; on side needle knit , slip , knit , pass slipped stitch over, and knit to end. decrease in this manner every d round until there are stitches on each side needle, reducing them to correspond with the front needle, and making narrowings for the instep. knit five inches without narrowing, then decrease for the toe in the following manner: knit to within of end of st side needle, narrow, knit ; on front needle, knit , slip and bind as before, knit to within of the end, narrow, knit ; on other side needle, knit , slip and bind, knit plain to the end. knit rounds plain, and repeat last rounds three times more; then decrease with row plain between three times, and after that decrease every row until there are but stitches on the front needle. finish off neatly, drawing the toe together and darning in with a worsted-needle. one-piece helmet [illustration: one-piece helmet] one hank of yarn (¼ pound); red cross needles no. . cast on stitches loosely. knit plain for inches for front piece, and leave on extra needle. knit another piece to correspond for back. these pieces must be at least inches wide. slip the stitches of both pieces on to needles, arranging for last stitches of back piece to be on beginning of st needle, with stitches of front piece added (making on st needle). divide rest of stitches on other needles; -- . beginning with st needle, knit , purl for inches. then on st needle knit , purl for stitches. bind off stitches for face opening. (try to keep same arrangement of stitches on needles for further directions.) knit , purl forward and back on remaining stitches for ½ inches, always slipping first stitch. cast on stitches loosely to complete face opening, and knit , purl for ½ inches (adjust stitches by slipping from end of d needle to st needle, making on st needle). knit round plain. knit stitches together, knit , knit stitches together, knit . repeat to end of round. knit rows plain. then knit stitches together, knit , knit together, knit . repeat to end of round. knit rows plain. continue in this way, narrowing on every fifth round and reducing number of stitches between narrowed stitches by (as , , , etc.) until you have stitches left on needles. divide on needles, having on st needle and on the other. break off yarn, leaving -inch end. thread into worsted-needle and proceed to weave the front and back together as follows: * pass worsted-needle through st stitch of front knitting-needle as if knitting, and slip stitch off--pass through d stitch as if purling--leave stitch on, pass thread through st stitch of back needle as if purling, slip stitch off, pass thread through d stitch of back needle as if knitting, leave stitch on. repeat from * until all the stitches are off the needle. muffler [illustration: muffler] two and one-half skeins of knitting-yarn and one pair amber needles no. , or red cross needles no. will be required. cast on stitches, measuring inches, and knit back and forth until the muffler is sixty-eight inches in length. hot-water-bottle cover [illustration: hot-water-bottle cover] white knitting-cotton (medium weight); pair red cross needles no. . cast on stitches, knit , purl and repeat until the work is inches deep. then knit back and forth plain for ½ inches more, or until entire work measures ½ inches. next decrease stitches at beginning and stitches at end of each needle until there are sixteen stitches left, and bind off. make another piece in same manner and sew together. attach a -inch piece of tape to seam at one side of ribbing to tie around neck of bottle. helmet made in two parts [illustration: helmet made in two parts] one hank of yarn (¼ pound); pair red cross needles no. . the helmet is made in two parts, which afterward are sewed together. front of helmet.--cast on stitches ( inches), knit plain for ribs ( inches) and knit , purl for rows. on the next row the opening for the face is made as follows: knit , purl , knit , purl , knit , knit and bind off loosely the next stitches and purl , knit , purl , knit , purl . run the stitches before the opening on a spare needle and on the stitches at the other side of opening knit , purl for rows. the last row will end at the opening, and at that point cast on stitches to offset those bound off. begin at the face opening of stitches on spare needle and knit , purl for rows. at the end of the th row continue all across to the end of other needle, when there should be stitches on needle as at first. knit , purl for rows. top of helmet.--knit , narrow (knitting stitches together), knit , narrow, knit , narrow, knit . purl the entire next row. on the d row knit , narrow, knit , narrow, knit , narrow, knit . purl th row. on the th row knit , narrow, knit , narrow, knit , narrow, knit . purl th row. continue to narrow in the places every plain knitted row with stitch less between narrowings until stitches are left. back of helmet.--work in same manner as for front but omit the face opening. sew the stitches of upper edges together with joining-stitch. sew up the side seams, leaving the plain knitting at shoulders open. thumbless mitt or wristlet [illustration: thumbless mitt or wristlet] the thumbless mitt or wristlet requires one half hank of knitting-yarn, gray, with no. red cross needles or no. or no. steel needles. nine stitches measure one inch. cast on stitches and knit , purl , for inches; bind off and sew up, leaving an opening for the thumb two inches in length, three inches from one end. the ordinary wristlets or pulse-warmers are knitted in the same way, ½ inches long, and sewed up with no thumb-opening. wristlets made in one piece require one half hank of yarn, and bone needles no. , or steel needles no. . cast on stitches on needles; - - . knit , purl , for inches. to make opening for thumb, knit , purl to end of "third" needle, turn; knit and purl back to end of "first" needle, always slipping first stitch, turn. continue knitting back and forth for inches. from this point continue as at first for inches for the hand. bind off loosely; buttonhole thumb-opening. bed-sock [illustration: bed-sock] one hank of yarn (¼ pound) is required, with red cross needles no. or steel needles no. or . cast stitches on three needles, on each. knit plain and loosely for inches. decrease every other stitch by knitting two stitches together until you have stitches on each of two needles opposite each other. break off yarn and weave stitches together as per directions for finishing one-piece helmet. child's drawers-leggings knitted [illustration: child's drawers-leggings, knitted] materials required are six hanks of germantown wool, a pair of bone needles no. , and a pair of steel needles, no. . cast on stitches. to . knit , purl ; repeat. this is the double rib. . knit plain, turn; knit back on these stitches, turn. . knit , turn; knit back on these stitches. continue working in this way, knitting more stitches forward each row and knitting back on the same, until you have stitches on the needle. knit back on these stitches, turn. this brings ridges at one side of the work. now knit plain across the entire stitches. continue knitting back and forth until you have ridges (not counting the ridges at one side of work); in next row narrow once at each end of row, and continue in this way, narrowing a stitch each end, until you have stitches remaining on the needle. do rows of double rib (knit , purl ), then begin the cable-twist of ankle, thus: . knit , purl , slip stitches on a spare needle, knit , then knit the stitches from the spare needle, forming the twist, purl , knit , purl , slip stitches on spare needle, knit , knit the stitches from spare needle, purl , knit , turn. . knit , purl , knit , purl , knit , purl , knit , purl , knit , purl , knit , purl , knit , turn. . knit , purl , knit , purl , knit , purl , knit , purl , knit . repeat last rows, alternately, for rows, making the twist, as directed in st row, every th row. for the instep: count off or leave stitches; knit back stitches on these , and on the stitches work back and forth until you have ridges. pick up the stitches around edge of instep, and work back and forth along the entire row for ridges; bind off. make the other leg in the same way, sew up the seams and join the two by the middle seam. around the top work a row of spaces, in which to run the drawstrings, thus: . fasten in, chain , * miss , a treble in next, chain ; repeat around, and join to d of chain. . miss space, trebles in next, miss space, fasten in next; repeat. crochet a cord of the wool and finish the ends with tassels. a knitted hood for miss dolly [illustration: a knitted hood for miss dolly] using blue saxony and medium steel needles, cast on stitches; knit plain back and forth until you have single ribs, then bind off , knit across to within stitches of the end and bind off these. this is for the front or turnover of the hood. next row, knit , * over, narrow, knit ; repeat, forming holes in which to run ribbon. now change to white yarn and knit across, adding extra stitches distributed along the front near the top in order to make the back a trifle full, * knit row, purl row and knit row for a triple rib; repeat from * times, always slipping the st stitch of each row to give a good selvage. bind off stitches on each end of the work; be sure that this is done on the wrong side, and just before knitting the last row of last rib, as the binding off finishes the rib and is essential in keeping all the ribs the same. knit the crown on the middle stitches, in the triple ribs described. widen twice each end of crown needle during st ribs. knit same number of ribs as the front, narrowing once or twice each end of needle near extreme end of crown. pick up the stitches for the neck around lower part of crown and fronts, about stitches on each of the latter and alternate loops on the crown; knit across with blue, making a row of holes as on the front; knit or single ribs, and sew neatly to the stitches bound off at lower edge of front. sew the crown neatly to front, run ribbon in the spaces made for it and tighten slightly, and finish with ties and bows of ribbon. by adding extra stitches to the front, and making the crown proportionately larger, these directions will be found to serve admirably for baby's first hood, or as large a hood as wanted. a lesson in crochet the stitches and terms given herewith are such as are in general use, and were taught the writer by an english teacher of crocheting, herself a professional in the art. in some periodicals and books, the real slip-stitch is omitted, and the single is called slip-stitch; the double is called single, the treble is called double, the double treble is called treble, and so on. there are different ways of holding the crochet-needle and carrying the thread, and many consider one way as good as another unless, as is usually the case, one's own method is thought a little the best. the following instructions were given by the english teacher in question, and are those commonly accepted: hold the needle in the right hand very much as you hold a pen when writing, letting the handle extend between the forefinger and thumb, which rest on and hold the needle. hold nothing but the latter in the right hand, not allowing the fingers of that hand to so much as rest on the work. hold work with thumb and second finger of left hand, letting the thread pass over the forefinger, slightly raised, or held up from the work, under the second, over the third and under the little finger. these instructions are especially good for using yarns, when it is desirable to keep the work as soft and fluffy as possible. [illustration: figure . the chain-stitch] the chain. (figure .) make a loop of thread around the needle, take up the thread and draw through this loop (that is, push the hook under the thread that passes over the forefinger, draw it back, catching the thread, and pull this through the loop on the needle), forming a new stitch or loop, take up the thread and draw through this, and so continue until the chain is of the length required, tightening each loop as drawn through, so that all will be of uniform size and smoothness. after a little practise one does this without thought. when abbreviations are used, that for chain is ch. the slip-stitch is properly a close joining stitch: drop the stitch on the needle, insert hook through the stitch of work to which you wish to join, take up the dropped stitch and pull through, thus making a close fastening. this stitch is sometimes used to "slip" along certain portions of the work, from one to another point, but single crochet is more often employed for this. the abbreviation is sl-st. [illustration: figure . single crochet] single crochet (figure , frequently called slip-stitch, and sometimes mitten-stitch) is made thus: having a stitch on needle, insert hook in work, take up the thread and draw it through the work and the stitch on the needle at the same time. the abbreviation is s c. [illustration: figure . double crochet] double crochet. (figure ). having a stitch on needle, insert hook in work, take up thread and draw through, giving you two stitches on the needle; take up thread and draw through the two stitches. the abbreviation is d c. there are many variations of the double-crochet stitch; the slipper-stitch, or ribbed stitch, is formed by taking up the back horizontal loop or vein of each stitch in preceding row. a quite different effect is given when the hook is inserted under both loops. [illustration: figure . treble crochet] treble crochet. (figure .) having a stitch on the needle, take up the thread as if to make a stitch, insert hook in work, take up thread and draw through, making three stitches or loops on the needle; * take up thread and draw through two, again and draw through two. the abbreviation of treble crochet, is t c. it will be noted that the single crochet has one "draw," the double two, and the treble three, from which these stitches take their names. [illustration: figure . half-treble crochet] half-treble or short-treble crochet. like treble to *; then take up thread and draw through all three stitches at once. [illustration: figure . double-treble crochet] double-treble crochet. (figure .) having a stitch on the needle, take up the thread twice, or put it twice over the needle, insert hook in work, take up thread and draw through, making four stitches to be worked off; (take up thread and draw through two) three times. the abbreviation of double-treble crochet is d t c. [illustration: figure . triple-treble crochet] triple-treble crochet. (figure .) take up thread three times, insert hook in work, take up thread and draw through, making five stitches on needle; work these off two at a time, as in double treble. the abbreviation is t t c. one sometimes has occasion to use other extra-long stitches, such as quadruple crochet (over four times before insertion of hook in work), quintuple crochet (over five times), and so on, which are worked off two at a time, exactly as in treble or double treble. in turning, one chain-stitch corresponds to a double, two chain-stitches to a half or short treble, three chain to a treble, four to a double treble, five to a triple treble, and so on, adding one chain for each extra "draw." parentheses () and asterisks or stars * * are used to prevent the necessity of repetition and save space. they indicate repeats of like directions. thus: (chain , miss , treble in next) three times is equivalent to chain , miss , treble in next, chain , miss , treble in next, chain , miss , treble in next; or to * chain , miss , treble in next, repeat from * twice. the worker should be careful in the selection of a hook. it should be well made and smooth, and of a size to carry the wool smoothly, without catching in and roughening it. if too large, on the other hand, the work is apt to be sleazy. needles that have been used for some time work more easily than new ones. if all makes of crochet-needles were numbered in the same way the size might be easily designated; but it happens that no two manufacturers use like numbers for the same sizes, hence the rule given is the best that can be. crocheted jacket [illustration: crochet jacket] one color or two may be used for making this pretty jacket, which is extremely modish, and very comfortable for the cool days and evenings sure to be experienced during summer outings. six skeins of fourfold germantown will be sufficient; or four skeins of one color for the body and two of white for the border, if made in two colors. make a chain of stitches, turn. . miss , a double in next, * chain , miss , double in next; repeat from * across, making doubles; turn. . chain , a double under chain, * chain , a double under next chain; repeat across, turn. repeat d row until you have completed a strip inches long, for the back, bringing the work to the shoulder. now work back and forth for one shoulder and front, repeating d row until you have made doubles; turn, chain , and repeat until you have made rows. in the next row widen by making doubles, chain between, in center of row, finishing row as usual; widen in the center of every th row until you have doubles in the row, then continue without widening until the front is of the same length as the back. leave doubles for back of neck and on the remaining doubles work the other front to correspond. for the border: commence (with the border-color, if two colors are used) at corner of left front, make a treble under chain (chain for st treble), * chain , a treble under next chain; repeat from * all around, putting trebles with chain between in same stitch at corners, and on the shoulders at the neck to shape the collar. make another row in the same way, then work in seed-stitch as you did the body of the jacket (a double under chain, chain ) for rows, widening the same stitches at corners each time. fold the garment at the shoulders, bringing fronts and back together. commencing in th chain from bottom of front and back, work in the usual way for stitches, a double under each chain. work from underarm around the armscye until the sleeve is inches in length, or as long as desired, then make the rows of spaces, in treble crochet, as before and finish with rows of seed-stitch, same as body of jacket. for the picot edge: two doubles in stitches, chain for a picot; repeat. the stitch given is very simple and pretty, but any other fancy stitch may be used that is liked. among others may be named lancaster-stitch, made as follows: having a chain of an even number of stitches, turn. . miss st stitch, a double in each remaining stitch, turn. . chain , wool over, draw a loop through st stitch, over, draw a loop through next stitch, over, draw a loop through same stitch, over, draw a loop through next stitch, over, draw through all the loops on needle, * chain , a double in st stitch of the chain just made, which closes or joins the cluster of loops, over, draw a loop through same stitch with last loop of preceding cluster, over, draw a loop through next stitch, over, draw a loop through same stitch, over, draw a loop through next stitch, over, draw through all the loops on needle, and repeat from *; turn. . a double in st space, double around the thread between chain and cluster; repeat, ending with a double in top of chain with which last row started. repeat d and d rows for the pattern. the bird's-eye-stitch is simple and pleasing: having a chain of desired length, turn. . miss , a double in each stitch of chain, turn. . a double in double, taking front loop of stitch in last row, a double in next double, taking back loop; repeat to end, and repeat d row. still another pretty stitch, easily adjusted to any garment, is as follows: chain a number of stitches divisible by , turn. . miss , a double in each remaining stitch of chain, turn. . chain , a double in each double of last row, turn. . chain , a double in each of doubles, * wool over, insert hook in d stitch of st row, take up wool and draw through, (over, draw through stitches) twice, miss , a double in each of next doubles; repeat from * to end of row, turn. . same as d row. . chain , a double in each of st doubles, * wool over and make a treble as before, inserting the hook under the treble of d row, miss , a double in each of stitches; repeat from * to end, turn. repeat th and th rows. and another still: make a chain of length required, turn. . miss , a treble in next stitch, * miss , trebles in next stitch, repeat to end of row, turn. . chain , trebles between each group of trebles in last row; repeat. repeat d row. tam-o'-shanter in double crochet [illustration: tam-o'-shanter in double crochet] for the model were used one skein of electric-blue knitting-worsted and a ball of gray angora wool, with a hook large enough to carry the yarn easily. make a chain of stitches, join. . seven doubles in ring. . two doubles in each double, taking both veins of stitch. . a double in double, in next; repeat. . a double in each of doubles, in next; repeat. . a double in each of doubles, in next; repeat. continue in this way, adding double between widenings each row, until you have doubles in each section--between widenings--or more, if a larger crown is desired. . a double in each of doubles, miss ; repeat. . a double in each of doubles, miss ; repeat. . a double in each of doubles, miss ; repeat. to . a double in each stitch. , . with gray angora wool, make a double in each stitch and fasten off the last row neatly. cover a large, flat button-mold with the blue wool: make a chain of stitches, turn, and in d stitch of chain make doubles; make doubles in each of doubles, working in both veins of stitch; then make double in st stitch, in next, and repeat. continue to work around and around, widening to keep the work flat, until you have a circle which will cover the button-mold, say rounds; then work once around without widening, slip in the mold, * miss , a double in next, and repeat until the cover is closed. for the edge of the button and the cord around top of band either the double chain may be made, an ordinary chain filled with double crochet, or--better still--the cord may be knotted by what is called the "fool's delight" method--which seems a very sensible method, indeed: take a length of the angora wool six times as long as the cord is wanted to be; indeed, it will be better to start with a longer piece, for fear it may "take up" more rapidly than anticipated. make a slip or half knot at one end of the yarn, pass the other end down through this to form a loop, then tie the ends of the yarn together. hold this knot between thumb and forefinger of one hand (say the right), with the yarn which pulls through the half knot under the same hand, and the loop which was formed held on the forefinger, holding the yarn which does not pull in the left hand; pass the forefinger of left hand through the loop on right forefinger from front to back, catch up and draw through the non-pulling or left-hand thread--exactly as you would make a chain-stitch in crochet--transfer the knot which ties the two ends together to thumb and forefinger of left hand, keeping the loop over forefinger, and draw up the pulling yarn, or that passed originally through the half knot. now the position of the loop, pulling yarn and knot is exactly the same in the left hand as formerly in the right. continue by passing forefinger of right hand through the loop on left forefinger, catching up the non-pulling thread and drawing it through to form the new loop (on right forefinger again), transfer the knot from left hand to right, and pull up, repeating the process from beginning. this is really a sort of double chain, and when one has learned to make it evenly and well--as may be done with a little practise--it will be found superior for bags, lingerie, and many other articles requiring a drawstring or a cord. sew this cord evenly around button and top of band, and the cap is completed. ladies' sleeveless jacket or hug-me-tight [illustration: ladies' sleeveless jacket or hug-me-tight] use germantown worsted, white or any desired color, with a hook large enough to carry the yarn smoothly. commence with a chain of stitches, turn. . miss , treble in each of stitches following, shell of trebles, chain and trebles in next stitch, to widen for center of back, a treble in each remaining stitch, turn. . chain for st treble, a treble in each treble, including the trebles of shell, up to the chain, make a shell as before under chain, then a treble in each following to the end, turn. work always in back vein of stitch to produce the ribbed or striped effect. to . same as d row. the jacket is now ready for joining. commencing at the point in center of back, count stitches, then fold over and, starting from the other end of the same row, crochet the two sides together for stitches, taking a stitch from each side. this will leave about stitches for armscye. for the border: . shell of trebles in a stitch, miss , a treble in next, miss ; repeat. commence with chain for st treble of st shell, and join to that. . shell of trebles between d and th trebles of shell in previous row, and treble in treble; repeat. . chain , fasten back in st stitch for a picot, a double between trebles, repeat, making picots around the shell, a double in single treble; repeat. work around the armscye in same way. child's coat sweater [illustration: child's coat sweater] use germantown wool, cream-white or any color desired, and bone hook size , or a hook large enough to carry the wool easily. the sweater is crocheted in the length in two parts, and is joined in center of back. make a chain of stitches, turn. . a double in each stitch of chain, chain , turn. . a double in each double, working in back vein of stitch to form a rib. . make star-stitches along the rib, thus: chain , draw a loop through d and d stitches of chain, counting from hook, and a loop through each of doubles; take up wool and draw through the stitches on needle, chain to close the star, draw a loop through eye of star just made (under the chain), another through the back part of last perpendicular loop of the same star, and a loop through each of doubles, close the star by working off all the loops, chain , and repeat to end of row, turn. make another rib of doubles by working across twice, then a row of star-stitches, and continue until you have rows of stars and ribs; on next row work stars, then a rib, and continue until you have rows of star-stitches each. work a row of doubles, break and fasten the wool securely. bear in mind that the star-stitches must be all worked on the right side; the st row will come so, but the d will not unless the wool is broken off at the end of d rib and fastened in at other end again; then chain , and proceed with the row. beginning at the neck-end of the front strip, leave the st stitches (equal to stars) and work to end of row in star-stitch; make a rib as directed. work more rows of stars, with the ribs alternating, leaving star less at the top or neck-end each time. work the other half to correspond, then join in center of the back with single crochet, putting hook through a loop of each part. if carefully done the joining will not be discernible. join under arms, also, leaving the opening for armholes. for the border: work rows of double crochet, a double in each stitch, around the entire garment, fronts, bottom and neck, widening at each of the lower corners in each row to form the miter. or, if preferred, work around neck and down fronts first, completing the border; then work around the bottom and across the front border. the widening for miter is neater. the buttonholes are made in the th row of front; chain , miss , and repeat, making as many openings as desired, at equal distances. in working back, next row, make also a double in each stitch of chain. for the sleeve: chain stitches, with to turn, work a rib of doubles on the chain, then star-stitches. repeat until there are rows of star-stitch and ribs, taking care, as before, that the stars are worked on the right side always. join the sleeve-seam on the wrong side with single crochet, as you did the back. for the cuff: work rounds of double crochet, double in each stitch and turn back. sew the sleeves into the armholes, and sew on buttons of a size appropriate to the garment and corresponding with the buttonholes. this sweater may be very easily enlarged to any desired size by starting with a longer chain and making more rows of star-stitch and ribs to keep the proportion. the combination of stitches is a most attractive one. child's jacket [illustration: child's jacket] materials required are three skeins of cream-white saxony and one skein of blue or pink, with a bone hook of suitable size to carry the yarn smoothly. make a chain of stitches. . on the chain make stars, widen, ( star, widen, stars, widen) twice, star, widen, stars. break and fasten wool, and fasten in again at beginning of row so as to have all stars made on the right side. or, one can work back with a row of doubles to beginning of st row. , , , , , , . same as st row, except that you widen only every other row, and always exactly in the center. keep stars on each front, thus constantly increasing the upper portion of the sleeve, or gore between st and d and th and th widenings. . make stars, chain for armhole, fasten in st star on the back, continue the stars across the back, chain , and make stars across front again. . same as preceding row, making stars on chain under each arm. , , , , , , , , , . same as th row, widening only in center of back every other row, as at first. this completes the body of the jacket. . commencing the border, fasten in the colored wool at left front corner of neck, and make stars down the front. at the corner make stars as if to widen, in order to turn the corner neatly, and continue all the way around to top of right front, not widening at all in the back of border, but making stars to turn the corner as at first. . stars all around, of color. . fasten in the white wool at top of left front, chain , then make trebles in the eye of each star all around, with trebles in eye of star at corners, so as to make the work lie smoothly. . with color, fasten in at top of left front, chain , and make trebles between each trebles of last row, with at corners. . same as th row, with white wool. . across top of neck make spaces of trebles, separated by chain, in which to run cord or ribbon. . also with white, make trebles in every space. . with color, make trebles between each group of last row. . like th row, with white. this completes the collar. . fasten color at top of left front, * chain , fasten in space between trebles, repeat from * around the jacket, collar and all; fasten off neatly. for the sleeve: . fasten wool where you started the underarm chain, make the required number of stars (not widening) across shoulder, and stars on the chain under the arm. , , , , , , , , , . same as st row, making star over star of previous row, and joining underneath the arm. . with color, work the cuff in star-stitch, only omit taking the stitch under the back loop of star in last row, and take a loop through each of eyes of stars instead, thus drawing in the sleeve, and making only stars in the round. . with the color, make star in star. . using white wool, make trebles in eye of each star. , , . same as th, th and th rows of border. this makes a dainty, soft little garment. if one likes, treble stitch may be alternated with star-stitch, on the return rows; that is, after making a row of stars, instead of breaking the wool, turn, chain , and make trebles across, or the trebles may be crossed to give a more fancy effect, making a treble in d stitch, then a treble back in preceding stitch. run ribbon matching the colored wool, or cord and tassels made of both white and color, in the spaces around the neck. girl's jacket [illustration: girl's jacket] materials required are skeins of gray germantown yarn and skein of blue. make a chain of stitches. . a double in th stitch of chain, * chain , miss , double in next; repeat from * times, making loops in all, turn. . chain , trebles in st loop, * chain , trebles in next loop; repeat from * across the row, ending with trebles, turn. . chain , a double under chain, * chain , a double under next; repeat to end of row. repeat d and d rows times, making rows of blocks in all, alternating with rows of loops. divide the width into three parts, blocks for back of neck and for each front. work same as d row until you have made blocks, the last block of trebles, turn and work back same as d row. repeat these rows twice more; in next row, to widen, make trebles under th loop, chain , turn, miss of trebles, a double between next , chain , fasten under chain, and continue across. the next row will consist of blocks, and there are rows of blocks each, in all, making the same length of back. make the other front in exactly the same way. for the border: . fasten in at corner of neck (at end of st row of blocks), work in blocks down the front, across the bottom, putting extra trebles at each corner to turn smoothly, up over shoulder and down back, and so on around to opposite corner, omitting the stitch between blocks. . fasten blue yarn at right front and work a row of loops as described, fastening the chains between groups of trebles. make more rows of blocks, same color as body of jacket, with always the extra trebles ( in all) at corners to turn, and following the d and d rows with the row of loops in blue. for the sleeve: fold the jacket evenly and fasten yarn at the back of jacket, at the desired width for sleeve-- blocks from top of shoulder, in the model; chain , fasten to front, work around armhole with a row of loops (gray), making loops in all, under arm, chain , trebles under st loop, chain , trebles under next loop; repeat around, join, and repeat the rows of loops and blocks to required length; the model has rows of blocks, ending with the row of loops. for the cuff: leave blocks on top of sleeve, fasten in th loop (the d from center loop at top of sleeve), work around as usual to d loop from center on other side, turn, make a row of loops, then a row of blocks. fasten the blue yarn to sleeve, and work around cuff with loops; make a row of blocks with trebles at corners to turn, and continue to match border of jacket, making rows of blocks and of blue chain-loops. for the collar: fasten yarn at corner of neck, in st block made in border, and make trebles in the same place, make a block in the side of each following blocks, along the neck toward the back, putting chain between, blocks in side of next, to widen, blocks, widen, blocks. follow with a row of loops, and continue same as for cuffs, widening as directed and twice putting trebles under each of consecutive loops in outer row. join at beginning and end of each row to upper edge of jacket-border. finish with a border of loops, as follows: a double between blocks, (chain , a double in same place) twice. crochet a chain of the blue yarn and use this to lace under the arms, finishing the ends with loops as for the edge, and tying in a bow. make a shorter chain for each cuff, lace together and tie in a little bow to the sleeve. a similar chain is used to draw in the neck. any preferred colors may, of course, be used. the jacket can be easily made large enough for an adult, and is beautiful in blue-and-white saxony for a baby. babies' jacket [illustration: babies' jacket] materials required are three skeins of saxony yarn, one spool silk-finished crochet-cotton or crochet-silk, and two and one-half yards of no. ribbon. use a hook which will carry the yarn easily. make a chain of stitches, turn. . miss st stitches, make a treble in each of stitches, drawing up to about five-eighths of an inch. break and fasten wool (this so the work will be done on the right side; one may turn, if preferred, but the effect is not so good). . fasten in where you began, pull up, make trebles in top of d treble and treble back to where you fastened in, which makes a cross; repeat, making crosses in all; break thread and again join in at the end where you began. . make trebles over crosses, ( trebles over next , trebles over crosses) twice, over , and again over , which brings you to end of row. the trebles over are to widen; the others are made on each cross and between. . same as d row, crosses. . make trebles plain (that is, over each cross). over crosses, plain, over crosses, plain, over next , plain. . forty-eight crosses. . make plain, over next crosses, plain, ( over next , plain) twice, over next , plain, over next , plain. . fifty-eight crosses. . make plain, miss crosses, plain, over next , plain, miss crosses, plain. . thirty-six crosses. . plain, with extra trebles under each arm, and extra over the crosses at center of back. . forty crosses. . plain, with extra in back. . forty-two crosses. . like th row. . forty-four crosses. . like th row. . forty-six crosses. . plain, without widening in the back. around the neck make spaces for the ribbon by fastening in at end of foundation-chain, chain , miss , a treble in next, * chain , miss , treble, and repeat. now make a row of crosses entirely around the jacket, putting extra crosses at corners to keep the work flat, follow this with a row of trebles, widening by making extra trebles at corners to turn them nicely, finish with a row of shells of trebles in a stitch, miss , fasten, miss ; repeat, and edge with the crochet-silk, making a double between st trebles of shell, (chain , a double between next ) times, chain , double in double between shells, chain , and repeat. for the sleeves: . make trebles on trebles under the arm, and over the crosses. . fourteen crosses. . plain, with extra trebles under arm, in all. . fifteen crosses. . same as d row, making trebles. . sixteen crosses. . same as d row, making trebles. . seventeen crosses. . same as d row, making trebles. finish with shells and chain-loops, as described for the body of jacket. run one and one-fourth yards of ribbon in the neck, and divide the remainder, running it in the th row of sleeve and making a pretty bow on top. baby's shoes in crochet [illustration: baby's shoes in crochet] these little shoes may be made of crochet-cotton, or silk, white or delicate color, or of wool. they are very firm and neat, and shaped to the foot. the sample pair was made of no. crochet-cotton; finer or coarser material will result in a smaller or larger shoe, by the same directions. commence at bottom of the sole with a chain of stitches. . miss st stitch, a double in each of stitches, in end stitch, in each of stitches down other side and in last, join. . a double in st stitch, in next, in each double down the side to within stitches of middle of toe, in next, in next, in middle stitch, in next, in next, in each down side, ending with in d stitch from middle of heel, in next, and in next, join. . chain , a double in each of stitches, in next, in each down the side to within of the end, in next, in each of , in middle stitch, in each of , in next, in each down side, in th stitch from the end, in each of , in middle stitch of heel, join. . same as d row, making an extra stitch between widenings. . chain , miss , a treble in next, chain ; repeat, making trebles with chain between in each of the widenings of the toe, and trebles, with chain between, at back of heel. . chain , a double in each stitch all around, making doubles in the widening spaces at side of toe and in the middle of heel. . chain , a double in each stitch around, widening as usual on each side of toe and in the middle, also in middle of heel; join. . same as th row. . chain , * miss , a treble in next, chain ; repeat around, join to d of chain. . chain , a double in each treble and in space; narrow stitches from middle of toe by putting hook through stitches at once, or by missing a stitch, also at middle of toe, join. , . same as th row, making double in double, and narrowing as directed. . like th row until you have reached the d narrowing on the vamp, then turn and work back across vamp, narrowing at the end, turn. . chain , a double in each double across vamp, narrowing in the middle and at end. , . like th row. , . like th row. . chain , a double in each double, narrowing at middle of vamp and on the sides. . turn and work across top of vamp with a double in each stitch. . for the upper part of shoe, slip to st double at side of vamp, d row back, chain , turn, miss , doubles in stitches, catch in st double of side of shoe, a single in next double on side of shoe, turn; a double in each of doubles, in last, turn; chain , doubles in st double, in each following double, join to next double of side, a single in next, turn; a double in each double of last row, with at end, turn; chain , a double in each of doubles, chain , miss , a double in each following double, join to next double of side, a single in next, turn; double in each double, with in stitches of chain, turn; chain , a double in each double; join, slip in next double of side, turn; work more rows, widening stitch at end of every other row; then chain , turn; miss , a double in each of stitches and double in each double, join, slip in next double, turn; work back with double in each double, chain , turn, doubles in doubles, chain , miss , double in double, join, slip in next double, turn, work back with double in double, chain , turn, and work double in double around to within stitches of top of vamp on other side, turn; chain , double in double to edge of flap, turn; chain and make a double in double around to the other side. continue thus until you have worked rows around top of shoe, then make a buttonhole as before, and finish with rows. the shoe may be made higher, if desired, and more buttonholes added. for the buttons. chain , join; doubles in ring; doubles in each double; a double in each double; a double in every other double; slip in a pearl or porcelain button of requisite size, draw together, and sew to the shoe, matching the position of the buttonholes. ribbed house-slippers [illustration: ribbed house-slipper] use -fold shetland zephyr, or any similar yarn of moderate twist. commencing at the toe, make a chain of stitches, turn. . a double in d stitch of chain and in each of stitches, doubles in end chain, double in each of stitches down other side of chain, in same stitches where the st doubles were worked, chain , turn. . ten doubles in doubles, taking up back vein of stitch to form the rib, doubles in next, or center stitch, doubles in doubles, chain , turn. , , . same as d row, making extra double each side of center, each row. . a double in each double, without widening, chain , turn. . a double in each double, with in center stitch. repeat th and th rows until you have ribs, or the vamp is as deep as desired. if preferred, the widening may be made every row, putting doubles in one and then the other, alternately, of the widening doubles. for the side of foot make doubles in doubles, chain , turn, a double in double, chain , turn, and continue until you have ribs, or the strip is of sufficient length to extend easily around the sole; join neatly to doubles on opposite side of vamp. around top of slipper work a beading in which to run the elastic, thus: fasten in, between ribs, chain , * miss ribs, a triple treble (over times) between next , chain , a triple treble between next , chain , repeat from * around, ending with triple treble, chain , join to th of chain. for ruching: have strands of yarn, insert hook in work, over times, pull through, and repeat in each stitch, pulling the loops out about three-fourths inch, and always taking yarn next to you to next stitch; make this for bottom of beading, as well, and the latter will be entirely covered. run an elastic band or tape in the beading, between the triple trebles, and make a bow of ribbon for instep of the same shade as the yarn. baby's bootees [illustration: no. . baby's bootees] a pair of dainty bootees makes a nice gift for baby, and is appreciated scarcely less by baby's mamma. two very pretty styles are given, one in pink and white, the accepted colors for a girlie, the other in blue and white--blue being the color usually chosen for a little son's belongings.[transcriber's note: the original had blue and pink reversed in the above paragraph.] commencing with white saxony, make a chain of stitches, turn. no. . .--miss stitch, a double in each of stitches, turn. . chain , a double in each of doubles, taking up the back loop of stitch to form a rib, turn. repeat d row until you have ribs; at the end of the last row chain , turn, miss , a double in each of stitches of chain and in doubles, chain , turn, and continue, making of the long ribs, then, working only on the doubles, make more short ribs, and join at the back of the leg to the foundation chain, taking into each stitch. for the upper part of leg: . chain , and make trebles all around, in all, joining to top of chain. . draw out the stitch on needle, pull up a loop through st and d stitches of preceding row, take up the yarn, and draw through the loops on the needle at once, chain to close the cluster, * draw up a loop in same place with last and another in d stitch, work off as before and repeat around. . draw out the stitch on needle, take a loop in the space before pineapple-stitch of last row and another in the space after, work off as before, take a loop in same space as before, another in next space, work off, and repeat. . like d row, with blue. , . like d row, with white. . with blue, a double in each stitch. . with white, chain , a treble in each double, join. . with blue, make double in st stitch, chain , double in same stitch, miss ; repeat. fasten off neatly. for the foot: . with blue make a double in each stitch all around bottom of leg and instep. . a double in each double, taking up both veins of stitch to avoid a rib. , . same as d row, with white. , . same as d row, with blue. , , , . same as d row, with white, joining the last row with single crochet on the wrong side. finish with cord and tassels or with ribbon, run in and out the st row of trebles on upper part of leg. * * * * * [illustration: no. . baby's bootees] no. . using the white yarn make a chain of stitches, join. . chain , a treble in each stitch, join. , . with pink, make a double in each stitch, join. repeat st, d and d rows times, which will give you ribs each of pink and white. . chain , with white, miss st stitch of last row, make a treble in next, then a treble back in st stitch, forming a crossed treble; repeat around, join. . with pink, a double in a stitch, chain ; repeat. fasten off securely. for the foot: . with white, fasten in the th treble from back of leg, draw up a loop through each of stitches, keeping all on needle; take up yarn and draw through st stitch, * again draw through , and repeat until all are worked off; now insert hook under the little upright bar formed by working off the last row, draw up a loop and repeat until you have again the number of loops on needle; continue until you have rows of afghan-stitch. again using white, fasten at back of leg and make a double in each stitch of leg and around the instep; make more rows of doubles, in each stitch of preceding row, taking up both loops to avoid a rib, then rows of pink in the same way, joining the last row as before directed. finish with cord and tassels or ribbon, run in the th row of trebles around top of bootee. a sweater and cap for dolly [illustration: sweater and cap for dolly] one skein of white and blue saxony will be sufficient for two sets; use a crochet-hook that will carry the wool easily. commence the sweater with a chain of stitches. . a double in each stitch of chain, turn. . a treble and a double in back of double of last row (chain for st treble of the row), miss double; repeat to end of row, turn. . a treble and a double taken between treble and double of last row; repeat. . a double in back of each stitch of last row (chain for st double). . same as th row. this completes the portion over the shoulder. on one half the length repeat the d, d, th, th and again the d row which completes one front. work in the same way on the other half of length, which brings you to the center of the back and makes half of the sweater. make the other half to correspond, and join neatly down center of back. fold and join under the arms, making the armscye of desired size. for the sleeve: make a chain of stitches, and repeat from st to th row; then repeat from d to th row twice, and join last row to st; also crochet sleeve in the armscye. entirely around the sweater make rows of double crochet with blue yarn, working in both veins of stitch to avoid a rib, and putting stitches in at corners to turn smoothly. after working rows of left front make the buttonholes, separated by doubles, by chain , miss ; then in next row make a double also in each stitch of chain. finish bottom of sleeves in same way, missing every d stitch in st row to draw in the cuff a little. sew on pearl buttons to match the buttonholes. cap: chain , join to form a ring. . chain , (yarn over hook, insert hook in ring, take up yarn and draw through) twice, yarn over and draw through all the loops on needle, chain to close the "bean," make more bean-stitches in ring, and join to top of st. . chain , and make a bean in top of each of last row, and between each ; join. . chain , a bean-stitch between each of last row, widening every d or th by making a bean in top of bean. , . same as d row, widening every th bean, or as necessary in order to keep the shape. make more rows without widening, which completes the body of cap. for the border, turn cap wrong side out and tie in the blue yarn, working on the wrong side to form the band so that it will turn up on the right side. . chain , draw a loop through d and d stitches from hook, also through next stitches of last row of cap, * take up wool and draw through all the stitches on needle, chain to close the star, draw up a loop through eye of star last made, under the chain, another through back part of last loop of preceding star, and loops in next stitches; repeat from *, and continue until you have made rows of star-stitch. fasten off neatly. make a tassel of the colored (blue) yarn, and attach to top of cap by a crocheted cord. this set will make a charming gift for a little girl. by using fourfold germantown the sweater will be large enough for the small mother herself to wear, or it may be easily enlarged by using the heavier wool and working in the same pattern on a longer foundation-chain. the cap may also be made large enough for a child by adding to the number of bean-stitches in each row. child's cap in bean-stitch [illustration: child's cap in bean-stitch] materials required are one skein of cream-white shetland floss and a little light-blue saxony yarn, with medium-sized bone hook. chain , join. . draw up loop one-fourth inch long, yarn over, hook in ring, draw loop through, over and draw through loops now on needle, * chain , draw up a loop in ring, over, draw up another loop in ring, over, draw through all loops; repeat to make more bean-stitches, in all, with chain between, and join last chain to top of st stitch. . draw loop up long over st bean-stitch, over, hook through same stitch, draw through, over and draw through all the loops; this is st stitch of each row. chain , a bean-stitch in following space, chain , bean-stitch in bean-stitch; repeat around, join. . bean-stitch in st stitch, in each space and every d bean-stitch, with chain between, join. . same as d row, with bean-stitch over every th bean-stitch. , , , , , . same as th row, with an additional space between widenings; in th row make a bean-stitch in every th, and so on, with bean-stitch in every th, in th row. , , . bean-stitch in each space. . change to double crochet for head-band, making a double in each stitch. , , , , . a double in each double, working in both veins of stitch; narrow twice in each row. , . double in each double. . a bean-stitch in each d double, chain between. , , , , . bean-stitch in each space; fasten off white yarn. . fasten blue yarn in space, chain , draw up a loop in d chain from hook, in d and in th, all rather long loops, over, draw through all loops, chain , fasten in next space with a single, and repeat. this makes a small, pointed scallop and finishes edge of cap. for the button: using the blue yarn, chain , doubles in d stitch of chain. continue around and around without joining, st row with doubles in each stitch, then widen sufficiently to keep the work flat until nearly as large as the button you wish to cover; after one or two more rounds, decrease by working off loops instead of , slip the button in and continue, keeping the work tight over the button until you have about half of space covered; then break the yarn, draw up with needle and sew to center of crown. this cap is large enough for a little boy or girl of three years, and may be easily enlarged. the border may be turned down over the ears for extra warmth. child's crocheted hood [illustration: child's crocheted hood] use eiderdown or very heavy germantown worsted, with a hook large enough to carry the wool without fraying. chain stitches, join. . chain , draw a loop through d and d stitches of chain, and through the ring; take up wool and work off all together, chain to close the star, draw a loop through eye of star (under chain just made), another through back part of last loop, and in ring; work off as before, and repeat until you have made stars; join. . make stars in the row, taking the th loop of each star in same stitch with last stitch of preceding star, and th in stitch ahead, so that you get stars over each star of preceding row. . make stars, widening times. , , . leave stars for back of neck and work back and forth for rows. break wool at end of each row and fasten in at beginning, so the stars will come on the right side; chain , draw loops through d and d stitches of chain, then proceed as usual. make rows of doubles around the lower edge, then a row of stars entirely around the hood, widening by putting an extra star at each corner of front to prevent drawing. for the rosette: chain , join; chain , * a double treble in ring, chain , repeat from * times, and join to th of chain. run ribbon in and out the spaces, sew the rosette in place, and finish with ties of ribbon. this hood is easily enlarged, by following general directions, and any stitch, plain or fancy, may be used for it. child's crocheted hood in wedge-stitch [illustration: child's crocheted hood in wedge-stitch] materials required are one and one-half hanks of -fold germantown wool, white, or any preferred color, and a bone crochet-hook of medium size. while intended for a small child, this hood may be very easily enlarged to fit any head. chain stitches with white wool, join. . chain for a treble, trebles in ring, join. . draw up a loop, insert hook in st stitch, * wool over, draw up a loop, wool over, hook in next stitch, over, draw up a loop, wool over, draw through all the loops on hook, chain , insert hook in same stitch, and repeat from * until there are wedge-stitches in the round. . draw up loop, insert hook in st space, draw up a loop, over, insert hook in next space, draw up a loop, over, draw through all loops on the needle, chain , * insert hook in same space, draw up a loop, over, insert hook in next space, draw up a loop, over, draw through all stitches on needle, chain , and repeat, widening by putting stitches in every d of previous round. . widen in every th stitch. . plain, that is, without widening. . widen every d stitch. , , . plain. . plain to within stitches of the end; break wool and fasten in at other end again. , , , , . same as th row, leaving the stitches for back of neck. . fasten in, chain , and work a treble in every stitch. it is very pretty to use a thread of ice-wool with the germantown when making the border. , . a double in each stitch around bottom or neck of hood. , , , , . a double in each stitch across front, working in both veins of stitch. turn back the border, finish with a bow of ribbon at back, a rosette on top, and ribbon ties. to make the hood larger you have but to continue widening the crown until of proper size, which will make the front proportionally longer and leave the neck wider. any fancy stitch may be used in the same way, following the general directions given. child's toque in wedge-stitch [illustration: child's toque in wedge-stitch] this pretty cap, which will fit a girl of ten to fourteen years, and is easily enlarged to any desired size, requires five hanks of eiderdown-wool. if desired, two colors may be used, say white for cap and blue for the turnover or border. it is worked in wedge-stitch, and germantown wool may be used by making more stitches. use a bone hook of suitable size, that is, one which will carry the wool easily without catching in it. make a chain of stitches and join. . draw out the loop, insert hook in ring, draw up a loop, wool over, insert hook in ring, draw up another loop, wool over, draw through all the loops on needle, chain , and repeat until you have wedge-stitches in the ring; join. . draw up loop, insert hook in st space, draw up a loop, wool over, hook in next space, draw up a loop, wool over, draw through all loops on needle, chain , * hook in same space, draw up a loop, wool over, hook in next space, draw up a loop, wool over, draw through all on hook, chain , and repeat from *, widening by making an extra stitch in every other stitch of last round. . widen in every d stitch. . widen in every th stitch. work six times around plain, that is, without widening; then if color is used for the turnover join it in and work once around, turn the work so that the border will be right side out when turned up, and work around five times more. make a chain of or stitches, according to length you wish the tassel, wind the wool over four fingers, or a card five inches wide, times, slip off, tie tightly near one end to form the head of tassel, and cut open the other end. * * * * * needlecraft pictures each month new and beautiful pieces of needlework--knitting, crochet, including the exclusive mary card designs, cross-stitch, embroidery, etc. such complete and accurate directions and descriptions are given that any woman can make the articles for herself without further instructions. it explains the stitch to use and shows how to make it. needlecraft will supply you at moderate cost with transfer-patterns, perforated patterns, or stamped goods for every piece of embroidery shown. also many working charts for crochet and cross-stitch designs. needlecraft will show you the latest productions in fashions and will furnish you with the best perfect-fitting, seam-allowing patterns. from these patterns it is easy to make garments for yourself that will look like the pictures. needlecraft gives up-to-date ideas for decorating your home and tells you how to do it at the lowest cost. an interesting and instructive cooking-article appears each month. in short, needlecraft is a magazine that every woman wants and needs, and is one of the most practical home-dressmaking and fancy-work magazines published. needlecraft is printed on large presses made expressly for it and uses the best of new type for each issue. the paper stock has a high finish in order to bring out clearly all the details of the fashion and fancy-work illustrations. the beautifully colored covers are of exclusive design--a very artistic border with the center panel showing a new piece of needlework each month. like needlecraft itself, the covers are different and practical. a sample copy will be sent you free and postpaid. just write your name and address on a postcard and you will receive a copy by return mail; or, better still, send us cents and receive the next twelve issues. you are sure to find those very patterns and designs that you have been looking for. if you are not more than pleased with needlecraft after reading the first number, tell us so and we will cancel your subscription and return your money. needlecraft augusta--maine how to secure your yarn without cost the women of america are knitting as never before. in the social set, no gathering can be fashionable that does not tolerate knitting; the business woman must needs knit on the car to and from her work; while to the busy housewife no duty is so imperative as to exclude knitting from the daily routine. it almost seems as if the women of america--all women, rich and poor alike--were devoting their united efforts to one vast universal consecration--the comfort of our boys over there. there is just one drawback to the fulfilment of this noble ambition that every woman in america shall devote every spare moment to the knitting of warm sweaters, stockings, and other comforts for the boys in khaki, and that is--the tremendously high price of worsted yarns. we can all squeeze out a little more time but we can none of us spend more money than we have, and in these times the calls for cash donations are urgent and not infrequent. but now you can have all the yarn that you will use without spending any money. a little more time is now the only essential to your doing your bit for the comfort of those who are offering their all for our safety. you who have been unable to knit as much as you have wanted to, because you have lacked the means to do with, need feel that drawback no longer. needlecraft has provided ~an assured supply of knitting-worsted in the regulation blue, gray and khaki which you can secure without cost by getting subscriptions to needlecraft on the following liberal terms:~ send us only ~ ~ yearly subscriptions to needlecraft at our regular subscription-price of ~ cents~ each, and we will send each subscriber this paper one year, and we will send you, prepaid, one one-quarter-pound skein of knitting-worsted (premium no. ). (we reserve the right to provide an equal weight in balls instead of skeins if necessary.) note--to those who prefer knitting-worsted of some other color for a lady's sweater or any purpose whatever, we will provide it on the same liberal terms; or if you prefer finer yarns we will provide germantown zephyr at four subscriptions a skein (premium no. ), and shetland floss at three subscriptions a skein (premium no. ). needlecraft augusta--maine [illustration] note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the original illustrations. see -h.htm or -h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/ / / / / / -h/ -h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/ / / / / / -h.zip) the bath tatting book. by p. p. price one shilling. london: emily faithfull, _printer and publisher in ordinary to her majesty_, a farringdon street, and princes street, hanover square. . [illustration] terms and directions. _a loop_, written l; _loops_, written l, and so on. _single stitches_--are formed in two ways: first, by letting the thread of the shuttle with which you are working fall over the back of the hand and pushing the shuttle from you. secondly, by letting the thread of the shuttle with which you are working fall over the palm of the hand, and putting the shuttle through _towards_ you. these two stitches worked together alternately make a _double stitch_. but if the second be worked first and the first second, alternately, it makes a _reversed double_. this is used for the purpose of making all the work have a right and wrong side. _ threads_--when threads are used, twist the one with which the stitches are to be made round the little finger, and proceed as above. _double stitch_, written d; _double stitches_, written d, &c. _reversed double stitch_, written r d; _reversed double stitches_, written r d, &c. _loops_--are made by putting the thread with which double stitches are made over a pin, and there must be _one_ or more _double stitches_ between each loop. by holding the pin point towards the right hand, between the forefinger and thumb of the left, the thread can be lifted over by the nd finger of the right hand, and many loops made without removing it. with reversed double stitches, the thread is lifted over by the shuttle as the nd stitch is being made. loops can also be made by putting the shuttle thread over the pin. _ovals_--form the cotton of the shuttle you are directed to work with into a loop round the hand, and begin working the stitches. if composed of double stitches only (with perhaps one loop in the centre), it is called a _plain oval_. if of several loops, a _looped oval_. _a join_--is always made by drawing the thread with which the stitches are worked through the specified loop or space, and passing the shuttle through the loop formed by the thread thus drawn through, making it equal in length to an ordinary loop. to make a join, threads or an oval are necessary. _to tie_--this is done by drawing the thread on the shuttle with which you are working through the specified loop or space (or round some thread), and putting the same shuttle through the loop so formed, always drawing it _quite_ tight. it may sometimes be necessary to do this with the other thread; but it is done in the same way, with _one_ thread _only_, and always drawn quite tight. _to attach_--proceed as in tying--only pass the shuttle round the _second thread_ before putting it through the loop, and drawing tight. this ties in the _second thread_, which cannot be so securely done by ordinary joining. first doyley. _raised cornflower for the first doyley. ardern's crochet cotton no. and pin no. ._ _ st row._ begin an oval, work d (l, d times) draw up, but not quite close. begin another oval, at a short distance from the last, d join to the last l of st oval, d (l, d times) draw up, and work more similar ovals. _ nd row._ turn the work down. tie to the foundation of the last oval. begin an oval r d (l, r d times) draw up, not quite close. tie to the foundation of the next oval. begin another oval, r d join to the last l of the last oval, r d (l, r d times) draw up. tie to the foundation of the next oval, and work more similar ovals. _ rd row._ turn the work up. tie to the foundation of the last oval of the nd row. begin an oval, d (l, d times) draw up. tie to the foundation of the next oval, and work more similar ovals. _ th row._ _plain ovals._ turn the work down. tie to the foundation of the last oval of the rd row. begin an oval, d, l, d draw close; tie to the foundation of the same, oval as before. repeat, tying to the remaining ovals of rd row. then tie to the thread between the last oval of the nd row and the st of the rd. tie the threads together and fasten off. _ th row._ _fill the figured shuttle with evan's boar's-head, no. ._ pass this cotton through the l of the st oval of th row, until about / a yard is through; twist this thread round the little finger and work d (l, d times), tie to the l of the nd oval of th row. (l, d times) tie to the l of the rd oval--fasten off. six corn-flowers are required for this doyley. _centre-piece of the st doyley._ _fill both shuttles. the plain with no. . the figured with no. . pin no. ._ tie these cottons together, and with the plain shuttle thread round the little finger work d. begin an oval with the figured shuttle, r d. (l, r d times) draw up tight. * with the plain shuttle thread round the little finger, d. begin an oval, with the figured shuttle, r d (l, r d times) join to the th l of last oval, r d (l, r d times) draw tight, and repeat times from *. work d, as before, and begin the th oval, r d (l, r d times) join to the th l of last oval; r d, l, r d join to the th l of the st oval; r d (l, r d times) draw tight; and fasten off by drawing the fine cotton through the space near the st stitch, and tying. _to work in the centre._ take a piece of no. cotton; draw it, in loops, through each of the centre loops of the ovals, and pass the other end of this cotton times through each loop--fasten off. _for the foundation of the vandykes._ _fill the plain shuttle with no. _, and measure off lengths of / yards each; tie the ends together. with the st length twisted round the little finger work d, l, d, then put the second round the little finger, leave a little space, and work r d, l, r d; repeat until there are ls on each side. fasten it neatly into a circle, by untying the first knot and sewing the threads to each other. _to unite this strip to the centre-piece._ _ st. row._ _fill both shuttles and join._ with the figured shuttle thread round the little finger make a l with the plain shuttle thread; d join to _any_ l of the strip, d; l, with the plain shuttle thread; d join to the st space to the right of the last join. d (l with the plain shuttle thread; d join to the next l to the right; d times). begin an oval, with the figured shuttle, d join to the next ls of the strip; d draw tight; d join to the next l of the strip; d tie to the last l of plain shuttle thread; d join to the next l of the strip; d tie to the last l, but one, of plain shuttle thread ( d join to the next l of the strip; d, l, with the plain shuttle thread; twice); d join to the space, next the last l to which you joined, d. repeat this row times, or until all the ls of the strip have been joined in. _in the repetitions, read "the next" instead of "any" in the first join._ _ nd row._ hold the work in the hand, and between each oval continue working with the figured shuttle thread round the little finger. d, l, d tie to the last l of plain shuttle thread, d. begin a plain oval with the figured shuttle, d, l, d draw tight. d tie to the next l of plain shuttle thread, d. take the figured shuttle and tie to the l of the plain oval, leaving about / inch of cotton. begin an oval (close to this tie), d, take the centre circle and join to the space over any of its ovals; d draw tight. tie as before to the l of the plain oval; d tie to the next l of plain shuttle thread, d. begin a plain oval, with the figured shuttle; d join to the l of the st plain oval (this will be the rd tie in the same l); d draw tight. d tie to the next plain shuttle l; d, l, d tie to the next plain shuttle l, d. begin an oval with the figured shuttle; d join to the next space (to the right) of the centre piece; d draw tight. d tie to the next l of plain shuttle thread; and repeat this row times, or until you have joined to the spaces of the centre circle--fasten off. [illustration] _to unite this star and the cornflowers._ _ st row._ _fill both shuttles as before, and join the threads._ with the figured shuttle thread round the little finger. make a l with the plain shuttle thread, d; and holding the work so as to fall over the back of the hand, join to that l of the strip which is the st of the two at the bottom of the vandykes; then join to the nd of these two ls d (l, with the plain shuttle thread; d join to the next l of the strip, d times); l with the plain shuttle thread; d join to the space of the strip, next the last l to which you joined, d; l with the plain shuttle thread; d join to the next l of the strip d; l with the plain shuttle thread; d join to the next space of the strip, d (l with the plain shuttle thread, d join to the next l of the strip, d times), and repeat the row times. _ nd row._ hold the work in the hand, with the figured shuttle thread round the little finger. tie to the st plain shuttle l; d, l, d tie to the last plain shuttle l, d. begin a figured shuttle oval; d, take a cornflower and join to the st l of its th row; d draw tight. with the figured shuttle thread round the little finger; d tie to the next plain shuttle l, d, l, d tie to the next plain shuttle l; d join to the th l of the last oval of the st row of the cornflower; d tie to the next plain shuttle l ( d, l times;) d tie to the next plain shuttle l; d (l, d times) tie to the next plain shuttle l; d (l, d times) tie to the next plain shuttle l; d join to the rd l of the st oval of st row of the next cornflower; d tie to the next plain shuttle l, d. l, d, tie to the next plain shuttle l; d. begin an oval with the figured shuttle; d join to the last l of the th row of this cornflower; d draw tight. with the figured shuttle thread round the little finger; d tie to the next plain shuttle l; d, l, d tie to the next plain shuttle l, d. begin a figured shuttle oval; d join to the centre l of the th row of this cornflower; d draw tight. with the figured shuttle thread round the little finger, d. and repeat times, or until all the cornflowers are joined in--when the doyley will be complete. second doyley. _fill the plain shuttle with ardern's crochet cotton no. , and the figured with evan's boar's-head no. , tie these threads together; pin no. ._ _for the chrysanthemums._ _ st circle._ with the plain shuttle thread round the little finger ( d, l times). _ nd circle._ tie to the st l (l, d, l, d tie to the next l times). _ rd circle._ (l, d, tie to the next l times.) _ th circle._ (l, d. begin a plain shuttle oval; d draw tight; tie to the next l times.) _ th circle._ (l, d, l, d, and tie in the same ls as the th circle; times.) _ th & th circles._ (l, d tie to the next l [or ls made in the th and th circles] times.) _ th circle._ ( d, l times); d attach to the th l of the th circle. attach to the th l of the th circle ( r d, l times); r d (attach to the next l but , of the th circle, twice). repeat times from the beginning of the th circle, attaching successively to the th and th, th and th, th and th, th and nd, th and nd, loops of the th circle. tie together and fasten off. work similar chrysanthemums. _for the intermediate designs._ _fill the plain shuttle with no. cotton, and without cutting off from the skein._--begin a plain oval; d, l, d draw tight. work more similar ovals close to each other. with the skein thread round the little finger work r d (l, r d times). begin a looped oval ( d, l times); d draw tight and tie round the foundation thread of this oval. with the skein thread round the little finger (l, r d times). begin a nd looped oval ( d, l times); d join to the th l of last oval; d (l, d times) draw tight, and tie as before. with the skein thread round the little finger (l, r d times); single stitches; tie to the nd l, after the join, of last oval; single stitches tie to the thread above the plain ovals ( d, l times), d. begin a looped oval ( r d, l times); r d draw tight, and tie as before. with the skein thread round the little finger (l, d times). begin a looped oval, r d (l, r d times) join to the th l of last oval; r d, l, r d join to the space between the and single stitches; r d (l, r d times) draw tight, and tie as before. with the skein thread round the little finger (l, d times) draw thread through the l before the beginning of the single stitches, and fasten off. work similar designs. _to join the chrysanthemums and the designs._ _fill the figured shuttle with evan's boar's-head, no. ; and do not sever from the reel._--taking care to hold the design with the right side up; tie to the rd l of the st . with the reel cotton round the little finger, d (l, d times). begin an oval, d join to the l before the beginning of the single stitches; d draw tight, and tie round the foundation thread. with the reel cotton round the little finger (l, d times) tie to the rd l of the nd of the design; d (l, d times), take a chrysanthemum and join to any l of its th circle, not yet joined to; d (l, d times) tie to the th l of the nd of the design; d (l, d times) join to the next unjoined l of the chrysanthemum, to the right; d (l, d times) tie to the st l of the nd of the design; d (l, d times). begin an oval, d join to the th l of the nd of the design, d draw tight and tie as before. with the reel thread round the little finger (l, d times) attach to the l of the st plain oval of the design. begin an oval, d, l, d draw tight. attach to the l of the rd oval of the nd and in succession to the rd, th, th, th and st designs. with the reel thread round the little finger, work d tie with the reel thread, successively, to each of the last ls, working d after each tie. begin an oval, d join to the th l of the st of the last design joined to; d draw tight and tie as before. tie with the reel thread to the next ls, and work d between each tie; (l, d times) tie to the st l of the st of the same design; d (l, d times) join to the nd unjoined l of chrysanthemum to the right of the last join; d (l, d times) tie to the th l of the st of this design; d (l, d times) join to the next unjoined l of chrysanthemum to the right of the last join; d (l, d times). repeat from the beginning times, or until all the chrysanthemums and designs are joined in, then draw one thread through the st made l and fasten off. _for the centre-piece of the second doyley._ _fill both the shuttles, and join the threads together._ begin an oval with the plain shuttle, close up to the join; work the nd single stitch (l, d times); l work the st single stitch, draw up very tight. with the plain shuttle thread round the little finger, tie to the st l of oval (l, d tie to the next l of the oval times). (begin an oval with the plain shuttle; d join to a l of any of the plain ovals of the doyley; d draw close. with the plain shuttle thread round the little finger, d tie to the next l of the last round times), fasten off, and the doyley will be complete. [illustration] third doyley. _roses for the third doyley. fill the plain shuttle with ardern's crochet cotton no. . pin no. ._ _ st circle._ begin an oval d, l, d, l, d, l, d draw close. (begin another oval, d join to the last l of the last oval, d, l, d, l, d draw close. repeat times.) begin another oval d, join to the last l of the last oval, d, l, d join to the first l of the first oval, d draw close. _ nd circle._ tie to the foundation thread of the first oval of the first circle. begin an oval d, l, d, l, d draw close. (tie to the foundation thread of the next oval of the first circle. begin an oval, d join to the last l of the last oval, d, l, d draw close, and repeat times.) tie to the foundation thread of the next oval of the first circle. begin an oval, d join to the last l of the last oval, d join to the st l of the st oval of the nd circle, d draw close. _ rd circle._ tie to the foundation thread of the first oval of the nd circle. begin an oval, d, l, d, l, d draw close. (tie to the foundation thread of the next oval of the nd circle. begin an oval, d join to the last l of the last oval, d, l, d draw close and repeat times.) tie to the foundation thread of the next oval of the nd circle. begin an oval, d join to the last l of the last oval, d join to the st l of the st oval of the rd circle, d draw close. _ th circle._ begin an oval at a little distance, d join to the foundation thread of the st, and in succession to the nd, rd, th, th, and th ovals of the rd circle, and work d after each join, draw close and fasten off. work similar roses for this doyley. _for the centre. fill the figured shuttle with evan's boar's-head no. , and pin no. ._ _ st row._ begin an oval, d, l, d draw close, and work similar ovals, leaving / an inch of cotton between each. tie the threads together and fasten off. _ nd row._ measure off / a yard of cotton from the shuttle, twist it round the little finger, and work d. (put this / yard round the space of cotton between two of the ovals of the st row, d repeat times), fasten off. _ rd row._ _refil the plain shuttle, and tie to the figured._ (begin a plain shuttle l, d join to the l of any of the ovals of the st row, d draw close. with the figured shuttle thread on the little finger (l, d times) repeat times) tie to the foundation thread of the st oval. _ th row._ with the plain shuttle thread on the little finger ( d, l times). [begin a figured shuttle oval, r d (l, r d times) join to the l over the next plain shuttle oval (to the right) of the rd row ( r d, l times), r d draw close. with the plain shuttle thread on the little finger (l, d times) tie to the l over the next plain shuttle oval to the right. _for the leaves, take pin no. ._ ( d, l times) d, st l, d join to the th l of the last , d join to the th l of the last , d, l, d tie to the foundation thread under the st l of the leaf. begin a figured shuttle oval, d, l, d draw close. with the plain shuttle thread on the little finger, d, nd l, d join to the last l before the figured shuttle oval, d, l, d, l, d tie to the foundation thread under the nd l, d join to the last l, d, l, d, l, d, l, d tie to the space of foundation cotton after the last tie, d join to the last l; d, l, d, l, d tie to the space after last tie, d. begin a figured shuttle oval, d join to the l of the last figured shuttle oval, d draw close. with the plain shuttle thread on the little finger, d join to the last l, d, * l, d, l, d tie to the foundation thread by the last figured shuttle oval, d join to the rd of the st ls of the leaf; d join to the nd of the st ls, d join to the st of the st ls, d tie to the l over the plain shuttle oval as before. _pin no. _, d (l, d times) join to the last l made; d, (l, d twice) join to the last made l but one; d (l, d times) and repeat times.] in working it for the th time, it will be necessary to work from the asterisk thus. join to the th l of the st , d join to the th l of the st , d tie to the foundation thread by the figured shuttle oval, d join to the rd of the st ls of the leaf d join to the nd of the st ls, d join to the st of the st ls, d tie together and fasten off. _to join in the roses. fill the figured shuttle and do not cut off from the reel._ _ st row._ with the reel thread round the little finger, l, with the shuttle thread, d (l, d times) l, with the shuttle thread, d (l, d twice) join to the st l of the four at the top of the leaves of the centre-piece, holding it over the back of the hand, the right side up: d, l, d; l with the shuttle thread; d, l, d join to the nd l of the at the top of this leaf; then join to the rd l of the same ; leave the foundation thread rather loose; d, l, d, l with the shuttle thread; d, l, d; join to the last l of the same ; d (l, d twice). (l with the shuttle thread; d (l, d times) twice.) begin an oval; d (l, d times) join to the l over the large figured shuttle oval of th row; d (l, d times) draw close. with the reel thread round the little finger; d (l, d times) repeat this row times, joining successively to all the leaves of the centre-piece. _ nd row._ turn the work so as to hold it in the hand; (l, d times) take a rose and [join to the l at the point of one of its st circle of ovals; d (l, d times) tie to the last shuttle l; d (l, d times) tie to the next shuttle l; d (l, d times). begin an oval; d, l, d join to the l of the next oval to the right of the same rose; d (l, d times). take another rose and join to the l of one of its ovals of the st circle; d, l, d draw close. with the reel thread round the little finger; d (l, d times) join to the same shuttle l as last time; d (l, d times) tie to the next shuttle l; d, l, d join to the l of the next oval of the same rose; d tie to the foundation thread _before_ the two joins of the last row, to the point of the leaf; d (l, d twice) tie to the foundation thread _after_ the same two joins; d join to the l of the next oval of the same rose; d, l, d (tie to the next shuttle l; d (l, d times) twice.) begin an oval; d (l, d twice) join to the l of the next oval of the same rose; d (l, d times) join to the l of another rose; d (l, d twice) draw close. d (l, d times) tie to the same shuttle l as before; d (l, d times) tie to the next shuttle l; * d (l, d times) repeat times.] the last time this is repeated, finish at the asterisk, by tying to the st l of the row, and fastening off. all the roses being joined in, the doyley will be complete. edging no. . [illustration] _this edging may be worked either in ardern's crochet cotton no. , and evan's boar's-head no. . which will make it about an inch deep,--and with pin no. ._ _or in evan's boar's-head no. and no. --pin no. . in either case the plain shuttle must be filled with the coarser, and the figured with the finer cotton._ _ st row._ unite the two threads, begin an oval with the figured shuttle; r d (l, r d times) draw tight. with the plain shuttle thread round the little finger; d. begin the st plain shuttle oval; d (l, d times) draw tight. with the plain shuttle thread work; d. begin the nd plain shuttle oval; d join to the rd l of the st oval; d (l, d twice) draw tight. with plain shuttle thread, d. [begin a figured shuttle oval; r d (l, r d times) draw tight. with the plain shuttle thread on the little finger d. begin a plain shuttle oval; d join to the last l of last plain shuttle oval; d (l, d twice) draw tight. with the plain shuttle thread, d. begin a plain shuttle oval; d join to the rd l of last oval; d (l, d twice) draw tight. with the plain shuttle thread, d--repeat twice.] work another figured shuttle oval. with the figured shuttle thread, on the little finger, r d (l, r d times). begin a plain shuttle oval; d join to the rd l of the last plain shuttle oval; d, l, d draw tight. with the figured shuttle thread (l, r d times). to continue the pattern repeat what is between the brackets times instead of twice, and finish each pattern as in the st. _ nd row, or foundation._ begin an oval with the figured shuttle d; join to the centre l of the st figured shuttle oval; d join to the centre l of the nd figured shuttle oval; d join to the centre l of the rd figured shuttle oval; d join to the centre l of the th oval; draw up, but not quite tight. tie to the th figured cotton l, leaving rather more than / an inch of cotton, and begin the next oval at a similar distance from the tie--repeat until the length worked is finished. edging no. . [illustration] _fill the plain shuttle with ardern's crochet cotton no. . pin no. ._ _ st row._ work a sufficient length of ovals; d (l, d twice) not drawn up quite close, and leaving / an inch of cotton, or more, between each. _fill the figured shuttle with evan's boar's-head no. , and refil the plain shuttle; tie the cottons together._ _ nd row._ with the plain shuttle thread round the little finger; l, d, l, d tie to the st l of st oval; d (l, d twice); l, d tie to the nd l of the st oval; d, l, d tie to the thread between the ovals. repeat till all the ovals are finished. _ rd row._ begin again by tying in the st l of last row. with the plain shuttle thread round the little finger; l, d tie to the next l of the nd row; ( d, l, d tie to the next l of the nd row twice;) d, l, d, tie to the same l; [ d, l, d tie to the next l of the nd row twice] d, tie to the next l of nd row, and repeat to the end of the strip. or this row may be worked without loops--if they are objected to. _to make a strong foundation for this edging. take the plain shuttle, and tie to the foundation cotton of the ovals, twice, between each oval; or on either side of the ties in the nd row._ edging no. . [illustration] _fill the shuttles with the same cottons as in the st edging, and use the same pins. the coarser sizes will make this edging an inch and a half deep. tie the cottons together._ begin an oval with the plain shuttle; d, l, d draw tight. with the plain shuttle thread work d. begin a looped oval with the plain shuttle; d (l, d times) draw very tight. _the leaf._ begin a figured shuttle oval; r d (l, r d times) join to the rd l of the last row of the rosette; r d (l, r d times) draw tight. at a little distance begin a plain oval with the figured shuttle; d join to the thread of the leaf under the join; d draw close. begin a plain oval with the figured shuttle quite close to the last; d join to the thread under the th l of the of the leaf; d draw tight. tie round the foundation thread of the two plain ovals, and leaving a short space of cotton, tie between the th and th ls of the of the leaf; tie again below the plain ovals and round the foundation thread of the leaf. [with the plain shuttle thread round the little finger, d. begin a plain shuttle oval, d; l, d draw close. work a similar figured shuttle oval, and tie round its foundation thread. repeat twice.] with the plain shuttle thread, d. _the rosette._ leave a space of each cotton. begin a figured shuttle oval, d (l, d times) draw close. with the plain shuttle thread (l, d times). [begin a figured shuttle oval, d (l, d times) join to the centre l of last oval; d (l, d times) draw tight. with the plain shuttle thread (l, d times). repeat times.] tie to the foundation thread of the st of these ovals. tie to the st l of the st . with the plain shuttle thread round the little finger (l, d tie to the next l but one times). tie with the plain shuttle thread to the th l of the leaf; d tie to the next l but one. tie with the plain shuttle thread to the l of the st figured shuttle oval; d tie to the next l but one. tie with the plain shuttle thread to the l of the nd figured shuttle oval; d tie to the next l but one, [ d. begin a plain shuttle oval, d, l, d draw tight. begin a figured shuttle oval, d join to the st l of the last round of the rosette; d draw tight and tie to its foundation thread. repeat once, joining the figured shuttle oval to the nd l of the rosette,] d. repeat to the required length, beginning with the looped oval. _for the foundation._ tie the threads together in the l of the st plain shuttle oval, holding the work in the hand and the right side up. with the plain shuttle thread round the little finger (l, d, times) tie in the rd l of the next oval, (l, d, times) tie in the l of the next oval, [(l, d, times) tie in the l of the next oval. repeat times.] repeat from the beginning till all the ovals are finished. edging no. . [illustration] _fill the plain shuttle with evan's boar's-head no. , and the figured with no. . tie these threads together, pin no. ._ _ st leaf, st row._ with the plain shuttle thread round the little finger (l, d times) tie to the th l (l, r d tie to the next l times), r d attach to the foundation thread under the st l, d (l, d times). _ nd leaf, st row._ (l, d times) tie with the plain shuttle thread to the th l (counting from the point) of the last leaf. turn the work, r d tie to the th l (l, r d tie to the next l times) r d attach to the foundation thread under the st l; d (l, d times). repeat the nd leaf till a sufficient length is worked. _ nd row._ tie to the foundation thread of the st leaf of the st row, and tie the threads together. [with the plain shuttle thread round the little finger d. begin a figured shuttle oval, r d join to the centre ls of the four ls; r d draw close. with the plain shuttle thread d tie to the foundation thread of the nd leaf under the st l, and repeat.] _ rd row._ refil the shuttles and tie the threads together in the space under the last made oval; [ d (l, d times) join to the space under the next oval. repeat to the end of the work.] insertion no. . [illustration: _for the strip._] _fill two plain shuttles and a figured one. with ardern's crochet cotton no. . pin no. ._ tie these threads together. with the thread of the st plain shuttle round the little finger, and always working with the figured shuttle. d, l, d turn these stitches under the thumb, with the thread of the nd plain shuttle round the little finger; r d, l, r d, repeat until you have twice the length you will require of insertion. _refil a plain shuttle and the figured; tie the threads together. pin no. ._ holding the right side of this strip upwards, tie to the st l: [with the plain shuttle thread round the little finger (l, r d times) turn the work. begin a figured shuttle oval; ( d join to the next l on the same side of the strip twice;) d join to the next l; d join to the next l; d (join to the next l; d twice) draw close. tie to the foundation thread of this oval. turn the work; with the plain shuttle thread on the little finger; (l, r d times) tie to the next l on the same side of the strip--repeat to the end of the strip.] work the same way on the opposite side, beginning by tying to the l above the centre of the last made oval. insertion no. . [illustration] _fill two plain shuttles, and one figured with evan's boar's-head no. . pin no. ._ work a similar strip to that in the st insertion. refil one shuttle. hold the strip on the right side. _ st oval._ begin an oval; d (l, d times) join to the st l of the strip; d (l, d times) draw tight. _ nd oval._ begin a second oval at a little distance; r d (l, r d times) join to the last l on the same side of the strip, having turned it; r d (l, r d times) draw tight. repeat these two ovals, joining to the successive ls on either side till all are joined. an imitation gymp. _work the strip of the st insertion in brook's no. crochet cotton. pin no. . it may also be worked, in black, in coarse purse silk._ * * * * * transcriber's note: this text uses both corn-flowers and cornflowers. title page, full-stop changed to a comma (farringdon street, and) page , fullstop changed to comma after d (finger, d, nd l) page , "l's" changed to "ls" to conform to majority of text ( ls of the leaf) page , "l's" changed to "ls" to conform to majority of text (the st ls, d) page , "l's" changed to "ls" to conform to majority of text (the th and th ls of) the university of georgia libraries (http://www.libs.uga.edu/) note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the original illustrations. see -h.htm or -h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h/ -h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h.zip) images of the original pages are available through the collection of facsimile books & other digitally enhanced works, the university of georgia libraries. see http://fax.libs.uga.edu/t xt / hand-loom weaving a manual [illustration: weaving on a hand loom _showing the necessary positions. the rug the little girl is weaving is made of heavy carpet wool. the body of the rug is golden brown, with stripes of deep blue and green, separated by narrow stripes of white_] hand-loom weaving a manual for school and home by mattie phipps todd of the motley school, minneapolis, minn. with an introduction by alice w. cooley formerly supervisor of primary schools, minneapolis, minn. with fifty-seven illustrations [illustration] rand, mcnally & company educational publishers chicago new york london copyright, , by mattie phipps todd the table of contents page an introduction. by _alice w. cooley_ _chapter one._ the primitive loom _chapter two._ a chat on weaving _chapter three._ first steps in weaving _chapter four._ methods of stringing warp _chapter five._ materials _chapter six._ directions for dyeing _chapter seven._ methods of splicing materials for weaving _chapter eight._ wool and silkoline rugs or mats _chapter nine._ hammocks _chapter ten._ face and dish cloths and bath rugs _chapter eleven._ raffia mats _chapter twelve._ oriental rugs _chapter thirteen._ navajo blankets _chapter fourteen._ songs, games, and stories _chapter fifteen._ a list of helpful books and magazine articles the index the highest aim of art is to make some useful thing beautiful. kenyon cox. an introduction for many years we, the teachers of the united states assembled in village, city, state, and national conventions, have recited our creed and chanted it in all keys. [sidenote: _our creed_] we believe that man is a trinity, three in one--head, heart, and hand, one soul made manifest; we believe that this union is vital and indissoluble, since "what god hath joined together" may not be rent asunder; we believe that this three-fold man, being "put to school" on earth to grow, may devise and bring to successful issue no scheme of education that is out of harmony with the plan of the creator. congratulating ourselves upon our ready and distinct utterance of this lofty thought, we have calmly returned to our man-devised book-schools for the acquisition of knowledge, in order to forward some plan for the accumulation of more knowledge. [sidenote: _deeds, not words, are now necessary_] but "wisdom lingered"! here and there voices were raised that would not be silenced: "you sang your beautiful song; what are you going to _do_ about it?" in the words of john stuart mill, "it is now time to assert in deeds, since the power of words is well-nigh exhausted." investigators, studying this union of head and hand from the physiological side, hurled truths at us that startled us from our lethargy. [sidenote: _physiological truths_] every stimulus poured into nerve cells through the avenues of the senses tends to pass out in motor action, which causes muscular movement. in every idea are vitally united the impression and the tendency to expression in action. the nervous system consists of the fibres which carry currents inward, the organs of central redirection, and the fibres which carry them outward--sensation, direction, action. since control means mental direction of this involuntary discharge of energy (directed muscular movement), control of the muscles means development of will as well as of skill. to prevent or cut off the natural outflow of nervous energy results in fatigue and diseased nerves. unrestrained and uncontrolled expenditure of nervous energy results in lawlessness and weakened will. men of science said: "these are facts about man. what account have you made of them in your elaborate system for educating him?" students of sociological and economic problems called out to us as the teachers of men: [sidenote: _labor must be respected_] these great problems concerning the relation of labor and capital (the brotherhood of man) will never be solved until there is greater respect for labor; greater appreciation of the value of the products of labor; until there is more joy to the worker in his labor, which should be the expression through his hand, of the thought of his head, and the feeling of his heart; until labor is seen in its true light, as service; until the man with money as well as the man without learns through experience to respect and appreciate labor and its products. "we _absorb_ only so much as we can interpret in terms of our own active experience." what contributions are our schools making to the bettering of social and industrial conditions? philosopher and poet--thinker and seer--send their message: "that life is wisest spent where the strong, working hand makes strong the working brain." to create, to make something, is the instinct of divinity in humanity, the power that crowns man as divine. "it is his impulse to create should gladden thee." [sidenote: _the will to do_] the practical business man thunders his protest at us against the inefficiency of the man with only the knowledge-stored brain. he says: we must have men that can _will to do_, and then _do_ something, not merely men that can think of things "'twere good to do." our public schools must train men and women to go out and take their place with the workers of the world, to do something well and effectively. [sidenote: _systematic hand-training the work of to-day_] at last we are awake, and throughout the country we are trying to heed these calls, and to revive our own weakened thought by action, singing our creed in deeds. upon the foundations laid by friedrich froebel and his students in the kindergarten, we are trying to build up a course in systematic hand-training, through the primary, to intermediate and grammar grades, and thence to manual training in the high schools. _what_ to do and _how_ to do it has now become the practical problem of the day. everywhere the wide-awake primary teacher is sharing her thought and experience with her co-workers. for little children, the _what_ must utilize material suitable for little fingers, and tools must be large. the finished product should belong to the maker, or be made by him as a service rendered to others; the result should also be worthy of keeping or giving, from the view-points of both beauty and utility. another important factor is the adaptation to present public-schoolroom conditions, and to present public-school treasury conditions. [sidenote: _weaving the best hand work for primary schools_] more thoughtful study has led to the abandonment of the old-time sewing and fine handwork in kindergarten and primary school. in its place we find the weaving of useful and beautiful articles, out of various available materials, and with simple, primitive tools--allowing always for much and varied use of the great tools, the fingers. it is interesting to note that teachers in all parts of the country, working independently of each other, have come to practically the same conclusions, viz., that under present conditions, _weaving_ seems the best basis for a systematic course in industrial work that shall train head and heart as well as hand. it is also of great interest to remember that the signboards along the pathway of race development, by means of work, exchange of labor and its products, all point to this idea as the entering gateway. weaving is the first industry of all primitive peoples. [sidenote: _this manual the result of study and experience_] being practically agreed as to _what_ shall be the first industrial work in the primary school, the next great question is the _how_. with large numbers of little children in her own schoolroom, the author of this manual has long sought a satisfactory answer. believing that the results of her study and experience will be helpful to others in suggesting possibilities, and in stimulating thought, as well as in practical teaching and time-saving, she sends forth this little book with the earnest hope that it may in these ways be of real service. alice w. cooley, _critic teacher and instructor, university of north dakota._ _august st, ._ hand-loom weaving chapter one the primitive loom [sidenote: _history of weaving_] weaving, the oldest of the industrial arts, dates back so far that no one can say when or where it had its beginning. we read in genesis iii, , that when adam was driven from the garden of eden he wore a coat of skin; but, not long after, according to professor hurwitz, the descendants of adam wore an upper garment called the simla, which consisted of a piece of cloth about six yards long and two or three wide, greatly resembling a blanket (_ashenhurst_). this might have been woven from vegetable fibres, perhaps from wool, but in what manner we do not know. the warp and woof of linen and woolen garments is mentioned in leviticus xiii, , . [sidenote: _dyeing_] spinning and weaving have been practised by the chinese, hindoos, and egyptians for thousands of years and carried by them to great proficiency. the israelites were probably familiar with the art of weaving before their sojourn in egypt, but it was there that they attained the skill which enabled them to execute the hangings in the tabernacle. joseph's "coat of many colors" is a proof that dyeing existed at a very early period, and the eloquent writings of ezekiel tell us of the beautiful colored cloths of tyre and damascus. [sidenote: _migration of weaving_] from the ancient world the art of weaving passed through europe and became known in england after the roman conquest. no doubt primitive weaving with vegetable fibres, and perhaps with wool, was known in a very crude way before that time. how the art developed, and how improvement followed improvement, makes very interesting reading for the student of textile fabrics. [sidenote: _weaving as the first industrial art_] we know that weaving is the first industrial art practised by primitive peoples, from the fact that it is found among the savages of central africa (_park_) and the islands of the sea. "clavigero, in his history of mexico, shows that on the conquest of that country, weaving was found to be practised by the natives." (_ashenhurst_.) [sidenote: _egyptian loom_] [sidenote: _method of pushing the woof_] [sidenote: _hindoo loom_] the egyptians are supposed to have been inventors of the loom. there were two kinds in use, one horizontal and the other perpendicular. instead of a shuttle they used a stick with a hook at one end, which was used also as a batten. herodotus says that it was the practice of the egyptians to push the woof downwards, and this method is pictured in many paintings; but one representation found at thebes shows a man pushing it upwards. the former method is, i believe, the one generally used by all nations, and it certainly seems the easier way. martin's description of a hindoo loom in his "circle of the mechanical arts" is interesting: "the loom consists merely of two bamboo rollers, one for the warp and the other for the web, and a pair of gears. the shuttle performs the double office of shuttle and batten, and for this purpose is made like a huge netting needle, and of a length somewhat exceeding the breadth of the cloth. this apparatus the weaver carries to a tree, under which he digs a hole large enough to contain his legs and the lower part of the gear. he then stretches his warp by fastening his bamboo rollers, at a due distance from each other on the turf, by wooden pins. the balance of the gear he fastens to some convenient branch of the tree over his head. two loops underneath the gear, in which he inserts his great toes, serve instead of treadles, and his long shuttle, which also performs the office of batten, draws the weft through the warp, and afterwards strikes it up close to the web." [sidenote: _crude implements used by primitive peoples_] [sidenote: _patience and dexterity necessary_] ashenhurst says: "it is very evident that the implements used, not only by the early egyptians, but by other contemporaneous nations, and even by the hindoos at the present time, were of the rudest possible character, and nothing but the most exemplary patience, dexterity, and great delicacy of hand, acquired by long traditionary habit, can account for the extraordinary beauty and fineness of their textile productions." this exemplary patience, dexterity, and great delicacy of hand is exactly what we claim that weaving develops in our children to-day. [sidenote: _primitive loom in the public schools_] [sidenote: _its disadvantages_] the primitive loom, as it is made for use in the public schools, is familiar to almost every teacher. it consists of a wooden frame, in the two ends of which are fastened brads at intervals of half an inch. the warp is strung around these brads. there is no variation either in the size of the rug or in the width of the warp to afford opportunity for different materials. this is a decided objection, as a new frame has to be made every time a change is desired. the first difficulty encountered is the drawing in of the sides of the rug, which is almost impossible to avoid, even with the utmost care. photographs of work in the leading educational magazines, as well as samples of teachers' work, all show the same defect. the indians obviate this difficulty by twisting two stout cords in the edge of the woof during the process of weaving. (see illustration on page .) in one school, where the work in this respect was fairly well done, the teacher was asked how she accomplished the result. her reply was, "oh, i make them pull it out every time it draws." poor, patient little fingers! one can imagine the thoughts which were woven into that imperfect rug by the discouraged little worker. another disadvantage of the primitive loom is that the child must bend over it while weaving, and if, by chance, he turns it over to examine the other side of the work, the brads are apt to leave an unsightly impression on the desk. [sidenote: _success in doing_] one of froebel's fundamental principles is that a child should never be _allowed_ to fail--that his work should be so adapted that he will succeed _every time_, and that he should be led step by step as his power grows, to something more difficult. "one thing is forever good, that one thing is success." we have all experienced the joy of success in one way and another. let us help the children to have the same experience. [sidenote: _idea of the "new education"_] [sidenote: _small classes_] [sidenote: _public school conditions_] the idea of the "new education" is that the child should work out his own salvation--that having wrestled with the difficulties involved in weaving on the primitive loom, he should proceed not only to invent, but to construct a newer and more improved loom. in model schools, where the classes are limited to ten, or sometimes fewer children, with one teacher and several assistants, this idea, if carried out, is ideal, and perhaps practical. but what shall be said of the public-school teacher who has fifty children and no assistants; or, which is even more objectionable, and which is the case in many of our crowded schools, what of the teacher with two sessions of fifty children each? it was the effort to solve a problem of this kind that led to the invention of the todd adjustable hand loom. [sidenote: _description of the todd loom_] [illustration: _the todd adjustable hand loom, style b_] [sidenote: _the needle_] [sidenote: _finishing the work_] [sidenote: _removing the work_] the full size of the loom is Ã� inches, upon which a rug Ã� inches can be woven. it is made adjustable to innumerable smaller square and oblong sizes, by two devices. to regulate the length, the head piece, which is movable, can be let down on brass buttons, which are disposed along the sides at intervals of an inch. perforations are placed half an inch apart in the head and foot pieces so that the side rods can be moved inward to regulate the width. they also insure straight edges, since the woof threads are passed around them as the work progresses. the rods also serve another important function as fulcrums upon which the needle may be pressed up and down, so that it passes more easily over and under the successive warp strings. the notches are one-sixteenth inch and the teeth one-eighth inch apart, giving opportunity for warp one-half, three-eighths, and three-sixteenths inches wide. the loom has an easel support, so that the pupil need not bend over it--an important consideration in school classes, and in home work as well. this support makes it possible to use the loom for an easel in the painting lessons, by resting a piece of pasteboard against it. the needle, which is longer than the warp is wide, serves also as a heddle in pressing the woof threads together evenly. it is furnished with an eye for worsted, chenille, carpet ravelings, or rope silk, and three slits for rags. to thread the needle with rags, pass the strip up and down through the slits and _back_ again _under_ the strip through the first slit. this binds the strip securely. in finishing the work weave the last few woof threads with a large tape needle, putting it up and down, over one thread at a time, as you would sew on canvas. it has been found desirable with children to push about an inch of woof threads close to the head piece and then fill in the space. care should be taken not to pull the woof too tight. if these directions are followed and the warp is strung correctly the strings will not slip out of the notches. in adjusting the loom it will be found that the width from rod to rod is a little more than is required. for instance, for a rug nine inches wide, the width from rod to rod will be about nine and one-half inches. this is to allow for the springing together when the work is finished. to remove it from the loom, pull the rods gently upward and out. then lift the warp strings out of the notches. [illustration: _the todd adjustable hand loom, style a_] [sidenote: _use of the primitive loom_] the primitive loom can be used by following these same directions, but the work will, of course, be limited. [sidenote: _for school and home work_] while a great deal of the work is intended for the schoolroom, many suggestions are given for home weaving, in making various articles for birthday and holiday gifts. chapter two a chat on weaving [sidenote: _weaving defined_] [sidenote: _weaving trains both hands_] [sidenote: _the three-fold development_] weaving is the art of interlacing threads, yarns, filaments, or strips of different material, so as to form a cloth or fabric. it is an ideal occupation, not only for little children, but for older ones as well, affording admirable opportunities for the development of head, hand, and heart. it trains both hands in deftness and proves a delight to the left-handed child, who for the joy of using his left hand again, will plod patiently across with the right. the fat little hands soon learn to grasp the large needle, and the nerves and muscles of both hand and arm are strengthened by daily use. both hand and eye are trained in accuracy, and the training in patience, perseverance, industry, economy in the use of materials, perception, concentration, dexterity, and self-reliance cannot be overestimated. the heart, too, has its part in the joy of giving to others, for the children are encouraged to make little gifts for the home. a consciousness of power comes, also, with experience; and a sense of self-respect arises when the child realizes that he is of some use in the world. [sidenote: _knowledge of principles necessary_] lois bates, in her "kindergarten guide," says that "in the manufacturing districts of england great numbers of the children who pass through the elementary schools are employed in mills where weaving is carried on, or enter textile schools to learn designing in cloth. if this occupation of mat-weaving could be continued until the children had a thorough knowledge of its principles, how much intelligence might be brought to bear on the actual weaving and how much more pleasure might the worker draw from labor that is often looked upon as so much mechanical drudgery!" the keynote for this is the _thorough knowledge_ which is necessary, whether or not our children are to enter textile schools. whatever they do, let them do it thoroughly. it should always be a question of quality, not quantity. [sidenote: _simple weaving the first essential_] [sidenote: _mats as a preparation for loom weaving_] [sidenote: _slat interlacing and splint work lead to basketry_] for this reason i have taken up, quite at length, the subject of first steps in weaving, believing that children should be kept at simple weaving until they understand the principles thoroughly. the felt and paper mats prepare the way for loom-weaving; the free paper weaving, and the slats and splints for basketry. a few suggestions on the use of the slats and splints have been given for two reasons: first, for the training which they afford in dexterity and great delicacy of touch, to say nothing of _exemplary patience_; and second, because the preliminary training for basketry should be given in the lower primary grades. the time necessary to train clumsy fingers can hardly be taken from the regular work in grades where basketry is a prescribed course. "skill in the fundamental methods of weaving is essential even as the fingers must be trained in music before the soul of the musician can find its expression. make good baskets first, simple in shape, strong in texture, suited to the purpose for which they are intended; unconsciously they will grow beautiful. the most intricate basket will fail in its purpose if the joinings are careless or flaws in workmanship permitted. if originality is within the weaver, it will find its expression, once the principles of weaving are second nature." (_c. s. coles._) this is also true of rug and mat weaving, for the aim of all training should be to bring out the best there is in a child. [sidenote: _"devotedness to duty"_] "the longer on this earth we live and weigh the various qualities of men, the more we feel the high, stern-featured beauty of plain devotedness to duty; steadfast and still, nor paid with mortal praise, but finding amplest recompense for life's ungarlanded expense in work done squarely and unwasted days." --_james russell lowell._ [sidenote: _weaving the foundation for designing_] [sidenote: _honest work begets sympathy with labor_] [sidenote: _interdependence in life_] the "kraus-boelte guide" has some good suggestions with regard to the value of paper mat weaving, in number training, and for following certain formulæ which will lead ultimately to invention. mme. kraus-boelte says: "weaving leads to independent effort and offers the greatest scope for future technical work, for it lays the foundation for designing. even though it may not fan into flame a latent spark of genius, this means of occupation at least tends to show the value of honest labor." the child not only recognizes the value in honest labor, but his sympathy with all labor is aroused through his own efforts and through the stories told of weavers in all lands. he realizes, also, although in a limited way, the interdependence of the whole world. if the sun did not shine, and the rain fall, there would be no grass. if there were no grass, what would the sheep do? if the sheep did not give any wool, what would the weaver do? if the weaver could not weave, what would we do for clothes? little children are always delighted to go back to the beginning of things. oh, the joy of looking back on one's school days! as friedrich richter has truly said, "recollection is the only paradise from which no man can be driven." [sidenote: _some difficulties_] [sidenote: _a bit of experience_] [sidenote: _one solution_] [sidenote: _community feeling continued_] one important thought in this whole subject is that the work should be so arranged as not to add any additional burden to the already crowded life of the teacher. it is a lamentable fact that we have overcrowded rooms, and only one pair of hands to do all that has to be done. perhaps a bit of the author's own experience will be of some assistance. after looking the subject squarely in the face and considering it on all sides, the writer came to the conclusion that it would be an impossibility to do all the work alone. so some helpers were called from the pupils of the higher grades, and the request met such a hearty response that it was wondered why it had not been tried before. as it is now arranged the older girls come in before school and at recess. they wind worsted, correct any knitting that may be wrong, start new spools, string looms, cut material for rugs, water plants, keep the closets where the materials are stored in order, and do many other things which relieve in a great measure the burden of detail. when it is possible, the teacher should choose girls who have a sister or brother in the room, because their interest is stronger and more lasting. of course, some training is necessary, but the result compensates for the trouble. sometimes the work in other grades can be so planned that the children can make paper mats, etc., for use in the first grade. the beautiful community feeling begun in the kindergarten can thus be continued in the public school. the time will come when boys and girls in the higher grades will design patterns for the younger children to weave. [sidenote: _nature knows no hurry_] take plenty of time in the first part of the year to teach the children to work well. "time is nothing when _power_ is growing." there are some children who learn faster than others and they are always delighted to go about the room and help the slower ones. it will sometimes be found that they know just how to explain a difficult point--perhaps because they have just conquered it themselves. [sidenote: _a child's work should be suited to his capacity, without regard to grade_] [sidenote: _train the individual_] no work has been specified as suited to any particular grade. it should depend entirely upon the children. while, for convenience, courses in industrial training are planned, advising certain lines of work which experience has proved the best for first, second, or third grade, there are in every school, certain children who have more manual than mental ability. these are left behind as the more favored ones are promoted, and because a certain course has been recommended for that particular grade, they must, perforce, do it all over again. instead of bringing out the best in these less fortunate ones, and developing and strengthening their minds through the hand by offering something not only new and interesting, but which presents new difficulties to conquer, we stunt their growth by giving them the same baby work term after term. it is time that earnest teachers considered this important question. let us give up training the _mass_ and begin to train the _individual_. through our interest in them they may find their life work. if a child in the first grade is prepared to do any industrial work of a higher grade, no matter how dull he may otherwise be, by all means let him do it. it is his way of expressing what lies within him. not only will his hand and mind be trained thereby, but his heart will be filled with the joy that always comes through achievement. [sidenote: _value of hand training_] [sidenote: _if you would develop morality in a child, train him to work_] [sidenote: _making citizens_] hand training has been found to be of great value in all other work. the children are brighter, and seem better able to grasp an idea. the slow children are also stimulated, and in doing the simple work well are preparing for that which is more difficult. impression and expression should go hand in hand. we know nothing of "the bad boy," now that we have found something for his restless fingers to do. "the habit of methodical work is the basis of all ethics." in teaching children to do their best, we are training citizens. some one has facetiously remarked that, "in the making of a good citizen it is necessary to catch your citizen early." we cannot get hold of the anarchists, but we can get hold of their children, and in the training of them to work lies their salvation. formation is better than reformation. [sidenote: _formation, not reformation_] [sidenote: _new applications for old teachings_] verily, there is nothing new under the sun. we hie ourselves to the summer schools, and return laden with new ideas--when lo! it dawns upon us that all we have done during the hot days has been to make a new application of what froebel taught the world before we were born. so in this introduction, an old story has been retold, but i hope that it will come with a new meaning to my fellow teachers. chapter three first steps in weaving [sidenote: _felt mats and slats_] [sidenote: _demonstration cards and diagrams_] the principles of weaving are very easily learned with felt mats and slats. one-half a yard of felt two yards wide will make thirty-six mats six inches square. these are very durable, and can be used year after year, if protected from moth during the summer. some prefer leather or oil-cloth mats, backed with heavy unbleached muslin, but they are more expensive, and not so pleasant to work with as the soft wool. the slats, which should be at least one-half an inch wide, can be obtained at any kindergarten supply store. buy the uncolored slats and dye them yourself. dark green mats, woven with deep red slats, are pretty. the slats are easier to handle if they are soaked and cut the required length before dyeing. when the six-inch mats are cut, allow a three-quarter-inch margin on all sides. measure the mat for one-half-inch strips, of which there will be nine, and mark by snapping a chalked string upon the mat. double it with chalked lines outside and commence to cut from the center; then open and finish cutting to the margin. it would be better for very little children if the strips and slats could be one inch wide. in this case the mats would, of course, be larger, and it might be necessary to have the slats made to order. the slats should be kept in little bundles containing the required number, and secured by rubber bands. if one could have plenty of time and material it would be a good plan to have several sets of mats of different sizes, so that the children would not always be confined to one number and its combinations in a certain set of patterns--in this case, nine--but have the pleasure which comes from variety. demonstration cards and diagrams for weaving can be obtained at the kindergarten and school-supply stores. an illustration of an excellent demonstration frame can be seen in the "kindergarten guide," by lois bates. sample mats can be woven by the older children from the designs in any of the "guides," and given to the smaller children to copy. [sidenote: _purpose of practice mats_] [sidenote: _do not deceive the child_] when the purpose of these practice mats is understood there can be no objection to them on the ground that the work is destroyed by pulling out the slats each time. it is not an unusual thing to see in schools, and even in kindergartens, faithful and conscientious teachers remaining after hours to pull out the slats, on the principle, perhaps, that what the children do not see will not affect their development, and the innocent little bundles are given out again on the morrow, only to undergo the same experience at night. one wonders sometimes if this is possibly within the definition of deception. "we mount to the summit, round by round," and when the children understand that in doing the work with the slats well, they are only learning _how_, and that each successful attempt brings the delightful day nearer when they may have a loom to work upon, they are perfectly satisfied. [sidenote: _long slat weaving_] when the children have learned to weave the small mats, further practice can be had by weaving long slats into a warp of cord on the loom. it is better to conquer the mystery of "over and under" in this way than to undo the work and wear out the material after making a mistake. [sidenote: _paper mats_] many teachers prefer to make the practice mats of paper because they are cheaper. heavy paper, in desirable colors, can be obtained at the wholesale paper houses, and for a small sum can be cut in squares of any required size. mats can be made more durable by pasting them on heavy muslin before cutting. in many schools children in grades above the entering room prepare their own mats by measuring with tablets or rulers and then drawing and cutting on the lines. when they have learned to do them well, let each child make one for the entering room. nothing strengthens the community feeling so much in a school as to encourage the older pupils to help the younger. [sidenote: _mat weaving in the kindergarten_] the mat-weaving, as it is done in the kindergarten, is very beautiful and fascinating work. the mats can be obtained in any size and any width of strips at the supply stores. the weaving is done with a long steel needle which has a spring at one end to hold the strip. after preliminary work with the felt mats and slats the children find themselves able to weave quite independently, particularly if demonstration cards or sample mats are placed before the class. an infinite variety of patterns, which later will be useful in wool-weaving, can be found in the "kindergarten guides." in weaving patterns having a center, it is better to weave two strips at once, pushing one to the top and one to the bottom of the mat. the old numbers of the godey and peterson magazines have patterns for berlin wool and bead work which can be used for the paper mats with good effect. mrs. kate douglas wiggin (mrs. riggs) has some good suggestions for invention in weaving, in her "republic of childhood" (occupations). the value of weaving in number work is also admirably set forth in this book. [sidenote: _gifts_] at christmas time many charming little gifts can be made of these mats. sachet cases made of a six or eight inch square, with four corners folded to the center, are attractive. inclose a square of wadding, in which a pinch of heliotrope or white rose perfume powder has been hidden, and fasten the corners together with a scrap picture of old santa claus. slat work is useful in learning the fundamental principles of weaving, although this work is more closely related to basket than to rug weaving. it is an excellent preparation for the free-paper weaving, and is also a step toward basket work. [sidenote: _interlacing slats_] in interlacing slats the mystery of "over and under" is solved and the dependence of one slat upon another in making a perfect whole is shown in a forcible way, particularly when the form falls to pieces in the attempt to lift it from the table. edward wiebe says in his "paradise of childhood": "it was the _one_ slat which, owing to its dereliction in performing its duty, destroyed the figure and prevented all the other slats from performing theirs." one experience of this kind will teach more than a thousand precepts. the geometrical forms learned in the sense-training lessons can be reproduced with the slats and will thus be impressed upon the mind during the period of busy work at the desk. a series of beautiful designs is published by e. steiger, new york. many designs may be grouped for decoration, and single symmetrical figures can be mounted upon heavy paper. [sidenote: _free-paper weaving_] [sidenote: _sequence_] free-paper weaving requires quite a little skill of hand and a great deal of patience before the child can achieve a successful result. perhaps a few words regarding it, and information about a simple sequence of paper patterns, will not be out of place, since so many are to-day taking it up. strips of manilla paper forty inches long and one inch wide are used. these are cut into strips eight inches, sixteen inches, twenty inches, and twenty-four inches in length. for the first pattern of the sequence take four strips eight inches long and double each one. hold two of them side by side in the left hand, so that the open ends of the outer strip are at the top while those of the other are at the bottom. with the right hand inclose the first strip in the left hand with one of the remaining double strips and pass the ends of the latter between the two ends of the second strip. then hold the work in the right hand and proceed in the same way with the left hand. when both strips are in, draw them tight and they will be firmly woven. the ends can be cut in any way desired. these little forms can be used for bookmarks. they are very attractive when made in two tones of one color. [illustration: _sequence in paper weaving_] [sidenote: _sequence weaving_] the second pattern of the sequence is made with sixteen-inch strips. the first part is woven like the bookmark. four double strips now project from the square. begin at the bottom and fold back the _upper_ one of each of these double strips. as you do this you will find that you are weaving another square on top of the first one. to secure the last strip pass it under the square next to it and pull it through. you will now have eight single strips, two on each side. to form these into points for a star proceed as follows: begin with the right-hand strip at the top and number all the strips from one to eight. fold number one back toward the right, making at the fold a right-angled triangle. fold the strip down again towards you, making another triangle which is folded back to the left on the first one. slip the end of the strip under the square next to it and cut it off. proceed in the same way with three, five, and seven. then turn the form over and fold the strips two, four, six, and eight in the same way, cutting off the strips when finished. many of these stars can be joined to make mats, baskets, picture frames, etc. they are pretty when made of gilt or colored paper for christmas decorations. [sidenote: _sequence weaving_] pattern number three, a bookmark, is made like the first, except that eight strips of sixteen-inch length are used and the strips woven at right and left are finished as directed for the mat. number four is another form like this, with the long ends back and front slipped through squares to form a napkin ring. number five is a six-inch mat made of twelve twenty-inch strips. weave six double strips left and right into two strips and then add four to make the square. to finish the edge cut off the _under_ one of each double strip, fold the upper one over it and then slip it under the square which comes next, cutting it off even. strips of felt can be woven in this way for table mats or holders. the sixth pattern is a pencil holder or a basket, as you may wish. it may be round or square on the bottom--in the latter case the sides are creased to form a square prism. double twelve twenty-four-inch strips, weave eight right and left into four; finish one long edge for the top of the basket as you did the edge for the mat. bend in the form of a ring and slip the ends as you did for the napkin ring, cutting them off. to make the bottom, crease all the projecting ends in and weave together as you did the second part of number two only double, and fasten the strips on the _outside_ of the basket. this makes a good waste basket for the doll house. with a cover it would make a fine hamper for miss dolly's clothes. [illustration: _examples of splint work_] [sidenote: _weaving with splints_] this free weaving leads directly to weaving with splints. these are much thinner than slats and can be obtained at the kindergarten supply stores. many beautiful things can be made with splints. they are easily dyed at home and many pleasing combinations of color can be obtained in this way. celluloid strips make beautiful boxes and baskets. [sidenote: "_jacob's ladder_"] a delightful exercise with the small children is the making of a "jacob's ladder," or "pussy-cat stairs," as they are often called. fold a forty-inch strip of paper, one inch wide, so as to form a right-angle in the middle. or, if a longer ladder be desired, place one end of a forty-inch strip over the end of another one, at right angles, and fasten with a drop of paste. fold from left to right, one strip upon the other, until you come to the end; then pull out, and behold the stairs! the fat and clumsy little fingers will work patiently a long time to achieve this charming result, and much skill of hand will be gained in the doing. use colored paper for this whenever possible. [illustration: _a skirt for winter_] [illustration: _a mitten and a cap_] the illustrations on this and on the following page show some fascinating work for little hands. the looms are made of heavy pasteboard cut in notches, in which the warp of the same material as the woof is strung. care should be taken to keep the warp straight, and to finish all the edges well. the articles in the illustrations were made by first-grade children in the ericcson school, st. paul, minn. [illustration: _a sweater for the doll_] chapter four methods of stringing warp [sidenote: _warp of three widths_] the adjustable loom can be strung with warp of three widths, one-half inch, three-eighths inch, and three-sixteenths inch, thus giving opportunity for a variety of materials. for heavy rags, candle wicking, etc., wind the warp strings around three teeth in the head and foot pieces. this will give a warp of one-half inch--that is, one-half inch from one string to the other. for silk, silkoline, finer rags, carpet ravelings, double wool, etc., wind the warp strings around two teeth, thus making a warp of three-eighths inches. [sidenote: _kindergarten patterns_] for double wool, worsted, rope silk, chenille, or raffia, where one wishes to reproduce kindergarten designs, as in paper-weaving, place the warp strings around one tooth only. this makes a close warp of three-sixteenths inch, which helps to form the design with the woof threads. in this case the warp should be of the same material as the woof. in kindergarten patterns the woof threads determine the color effect. it is better to have the children weave the pattern first with practice mats and slats, particularly if they have never had experience in the kindergarten. suggestions for weaving kindergarten designs are given under the head of _raffia_. [sidenote: _plaids_] for a plaid effect, string the warp at regular intervals, with different colors. then weave the same colors at equal intervals to form the plaid. (see illustrations, pages , , and .) shawls, carriage blankets, etc., woven in this way are very attractive. [sidenote: _stripes_] a striped warp is strung in the same way. (see illustrations, pages and .) the stripes could be continued through the mat, if desired, by weaving only _one_ color in the woof. by weaving _two_ colors squares are obtained such as those seen in the corners. [sidenote: _materials for warp_] for weaving with carpet ravelings or rags, and sometimes double wool, where a plain effect is desired, the warp should be of common twine, as near the color of the work as possible. carpet thread is good, especially for the double warp in turkish rugs. balls of warp string can be obtained at department stores. oriental cord comes in several colors, and can be had at a few cents a ball at the notion and stationery counters in department stores. [sidenote: _how to string a warp_] the warp should always be one continuous string, and several inches should be left at each end in order to fasten securely when the work is finished. if preferred, the warp ends can be fastened before the weaving is commenced. care should be taken to place the first and last strings of the warp directly _over_ the rods, and, in weaving, to pass the woof threads entirely around the _rods and strings_ to insure straight edges. the ends of wool warp threads should be wound in and out of the notches to the right and left of rods, to fasten them until the weaving is finished. it sometimes happens that little children, and more especially those who are blind, pull up the warp strings when near the end of the work. in such cases it is a good plan to pass a rubber band _over_ the warp strings at the top of the loom and _behind_ the bars, back of the head piece, making it set up close by putting it around one tooth at each end. in this way the warp strings cannot possibly slip out of the notches. [sidenote: _splicing with a weaver's knot_] [sidenote: _a raffia warp_] some teachers splice the warp with a weaver's knot, an illustration of which can be seen in any large dictionary. the continuous string is to be preferred, however, as experience has proved that even a weaver's knot will sometimes fail to stand the stress of weaving. it is very difficult to splice a warp of raffia. it is better to knot the warp threads in pairs (see directions, page ), leaving two or three inches beyond the head and foot. these ends may be used for a fringe by tearing very fine, or they may be run down in the woven part with a darning needle, as rattan is run down in basket work. [sidenote: _to fasten wool or silk warp strings_] [sidenote: _when the warp is correct_] when the weaving is done and the mat lifted from the loom, the ends of the wool warp strings can be run in along the sides with a tape needle. if the warp be of twine, it is better to tie the end to the next warp string and allow the fringe to cover the knot; or, as in the case of silkoline, the woof strips can be caught over the warp strings with silk of the same color in order to hide them. only experience can teach the tightness with which a warp should be strung. worsted, carpet thread and twine will stretch as the work progresses, and raffia will not. if the warp be too loose the work will be uneven and the strings will slip out of the notches. if it be too tight it will be difficult to finish the last two or three inches and the woof threads will look crowded. the best test is to place the hand upon the warp before commencing to weave. if it feels firm and does not push down too easily, but springs slightly beneath the hand, it is probably correct. [sidenote: _to string a warp for fringe_] [sidenote: _to string the warp threads in pairs_] where the warp is of the same material as the woof and it is desired to extend it to form a fringe, it can be done in the following manner: after the loom is adjusted for the size required, cut the warp strings so as to allow two or three inches beyond the head and foot pieces. if you intend to knot the fringe in some fanciful way after the weaving is finished, allow four or five inches. take two threads, knot so as to leave the required length for fringe below the foot piece, then pass around one or two teeth, as the case may be, draw tightly to the head piece and knot firmly on the upper side, leaving a fringe of the same length there. knot the strings in pairs in this way until the whole warp is strung. it will be noticed that the rods are placed beneath the notches of odd numbers. in knotting warp strings in pairs it will be found necessary, when the last tooth is reached, to do one of two things--either allow one string to lie beyond the rod, or, having strung the warp within one tooth of the rod, to start the next string in the _same_ notch, bringing the two strings together. this will bring one string on top of the rod and none beyond. in the first case, the string beyond the rod must be taken up in weaving with the one on top of the rod. experience has proved the second method to be the better one. [sidenote: _double warp for turkish rugs, etc., with fringe_] kiz-kilim rugs have perforated or open-work patterns. to produce this effect string a _double_ warp through every notch in the foot and head pieces; that is, use two strings in each notch, tying in pairs for fringe as before. use a brownish white carpet thread. with strong black thread string through every other notch to outline perpendicular sides of squares in the pattern. your warp will be strung three-sixteenths inch, but the black threads will be three-eighths inch. this will enable you to keep the patterns straight as the work progresses. [illustration: _a kiz-kilim rug pattern_] [sidenote: _patterns for turkish rugs_] in drawing designs for turkish rugs, where the pattern is to be placed under the warp, it is better to make a squared paper first. lay the head piece of the loom upon unlined paper. place a dot at every other notch. draw perpendicular lines first, then dot for horizontal lines. the result will be a foundation to fit your loom. if the squared paper of the kindergarten be used the squares will be either too large or too small to correspond with the notches in the loom. it will be found very easy to transfer a pattern from a rug to the paper. fasten the pattern under the warp by overhanding to the rods, taking care to have the black strings directly over the perpendicular lines in the pattern. [sidenote: _patterns for navajo blankets_] patterns for navajo blankets are usually triangular. draw on unlined paper and fasten under the warp as before. [sidenote: _to string a continuous warp for long strips_] rugs and similar articles may be made of any length by stringing a continuous warp. after the length has been decided upon, cut the warp strings _twice_ as long. place the middle of one string around the first tooth of the foot piece (or two or three, according to the width of warp desired) and bring up the two ends firmly to the first tooth in the head piece. knot securely and let the long ends extend beyond the head piece. if desired they can be wound on spools, or around the tops of the rods, to prevent tangling. continue until all the warp is strung. observe the instructions given before for stringing warp strings in pairs. it is not necessary to weave the loom full each time, as the last inch is very slow work, but when the weaving is near the head piece draw out the rods, lift it from the notches, pass it down to the foot piece so that the part which was at the head is now at the foot, untie the knots so that the work will lie close to the foot piece and knot the warp strings as before at the head piece. this can be done as many times as desired. [sidenote: _methods of fastening long strips together_] for afghans, slumber robes, couch covers, etc., crochet with plain stitch or baste on oil-cloth and weave together with tape needle, making it as nearly like the original weaving as possible. by studying turkish rugs and curtains one can learn how to put strips together with a fancy stitch somewhat like our feather stitch. strips for floor rugs should be basted on oil-cloth and the warp strings in the two edges caught together at intervals, running the connecting thread _through_ the loops so as to be invisible. finish the outside edges by stitching on a tape of the same color, by machine. [sidenote: _table covers, afghans, slumber robes, or large rugs_] by making several of these long strips and fastening them together one can have a table cover, afghan, slumber robe, or a large rug. [sidenote: _floor rugs_] the floor rug shown in the illustration on page ( - / yards by / yard) is woven in strips with a continuous warp. the center strip is one yard long and nine inches wide. it is made of deep cardinal carpet wool. the strips of black, nine inches wide at the sides and ends, terminate diagonally, as seen in the illustration. the black diagonal lines show where the weaving ends. the warp is then tied and cut close to the weaving. the strips are to be sewn or crocheted together. [sidenote: _fine weaving_] [sidenote: _to produce a design with the woof_] for very fine weaving, where it is necessary for the warp threads to _touch_ each other in order to produce a design with the woof, string a _double_ warp in every notch with the same material. then, with a tape needle, separate the warp threads, twist one over the other so that all will lie side by side, and secure them by weaving a few times across the loom. by using this method, one can have a close warp on the wooden looms. [sidenote: _warp for doll towels_] in stringing warp in pairs for doll towels, have two strings on each bar and one extending one notch beyond at each side. this makes a good fringe for the edges of the towel. chapter five materials [sidenote: _silkoline_] plain and figured silkoline should be cut in bias strips one-half inch wide. stretch and pull through the hands until both edges are raveled. when these strips are woven, the rug or mat will be reversible. figured silkolines give a pretty mottled effect, especially those in which turkish colors predominate. rugs having plain centers and mottled borders are beautiful. a full-sized rug requires nearly two yards of material. [sidenote: _cheese cloth_] strips of cheese cloth can be prepared in the same way. cut them three-fourths inch wide on account of the tendency to ravel. serviceable face and dish cloths can be made of white cheese cloth. some of the colored cheese cloths make pretty rugs. when a desirable color cannot be found, the white cloth can be dyed at home. [sidenote: _dress linings_] soft dress linings come in many beautiful colors. old pieces may be utilized by cleaning and dyeing. the pieces are cut in bias strips, one-half inch in width. [sidenote: _silk_] pieces of old silk can also be prepared in this way. one can often obtain new pieces at dressmaking establishments. [sidenote: _candle-wicking_] table mats, wash cloths, and similar articles can be made from candle-wicking. for lamp mats, cushion covers, and other articles the material may be dyed and woven in two colors, or in two tones of one color. a number of squares can be joined to make a hammock pillow. by stringing a close warp with white or colored wicking and weaving over and under one string with the same material, a coarse canvas can be made, upon which the children can cross-stitch a pretty border and center piece, or an all-over pattern by copying the kindergarten designs, or even initials and monograms. most of the canvas sold at the stores, even the old java canvas of our childhood days, is too fine for little children to work upon. in canvas made of candle-wicking by the child himself, the squares are large, and to this there is the added pleasure of the child being able to say when the work is finished, "i did it all myself." [sidenote: _rope silk, or ropetine_] beautiful silk canvas can be made of rope silk and cross-stitched with another color or tone, or with chenille, making a velvet figure. this material is, of course, more expensive. two colors or two tones may be woven with chenille and silk in a kindergarten design. beautiful holiday and birthday gifts can be made from these materials, such as mats, cushion covers, and sachet cases. glove, mouchoir, necktie, fan, and trinket boxes can be made by weaving the top, bottom, and sides in panels. foundation boxes, which may be purchased for a few cents, are excellent for this purpose, or they can be made very well at home from three-ply cardboard. make the hinges of ribbon and line the boxes with silk of a corresponding or contrasting color. [sidenote: _carpet ravelings_] carpet ravelings may be obtained from the carpet stores, or pieces of carpet can be raveled by the children. let them have the pleasure and benefit which come from sorting the ravelings. it is an excellent lesson in color, besides developing the patience, concentration, discrimination, and judgment so much to be desired in other work. after the wool is sorted--not before, because it is not all fast color--dip in water, wring, and let the children straighten it gently, one piece at a time. this will make it as smooth and soft as new wool. procure some small boxes--shoe boxes are a good size--place one color in a box with a sample fastened outside at one end, and pile them upon a low shelf or window sill. train the children to go to the "play store" to match their own wool. if they go quietly, one at a time, no one is disturbed and each child gains in knowledge of color as well as in independence. a little management of this kind helps the teacher as well as the child. [sidenote: _carpet wools_] new wools of various kinds and beautiful colors can be bought in large quantities from dealers in materials for industrial work. in some carpet departments you will find oriental wools which are used to mend rugs, and a small quantity can be bought. some of the kindergarten supply stores and decoration companies have already advertised a stock of these materials. [sidenote: _double germantown wool_] [sidenote: _germantown knitting yarn_] an ideal material for little folks is double germantown wool. the soft wool, used for both warp and woof, is excellent for weaving kindergarten designs. this should be done with a close warp, which may be extended each side of the head and foot piece as a fringe. by extending the warp any length desired beyond the head piece, long strips for slumber robes, afghans, and such articles can be woven. the warp may be strung with twine as near the color of the wool as possible, and a plain rug be made, with colored stripes at each end. a very pretty and easy gift for a little child to make is a holder for the teapot, as described on page . the germantown knitting yarn, which is more tightly twisted, makes very pretty rugs and mats. it is sometimes used for navajo blankets. [sidenote: _darning cotton_] white dolls'-towels, with red or blue stripes, are made of darning cotton. baste a small piece of canvas at one end and cross-stitch miss dolly's initial. [sidenote: _knitting cotton_] plain white bedspreads, or white combined with a color in a kindergarten design, can be made of knitting cotton which is a little coarser than darning cotton. knot a fringe on all sides. lunch cloths and table covers for miss dolly can be made in the same way. [sidenote: _macremé cord_] macremé cord is the best material for hammocks. it comes in many beautiful colors, at a few cents a ball. [sidenote: _leather strips_] to weave a kindergarten design in two colors of leather strips, have the leather cut the desired width, and fasten them to a piece of strong muslin at the top and bottom of the mat or panel. fit the muslin over the teeth in head and foot pieces by cutting a small opening. [sidenote: _celluloid strips_] [sidenote: _leather strips_] celluloid strips may be treated in the same way. leather and celluloid strips can be woven free-hand like the paper strips. [sidenote: _raffia_] many beautiful articles can be made of raffia, which is a palm fibre brought from the island of madagascar. it can be obtained in the natural color at most of the department stores, the kindergarten supply houses, and the florists. the cost is usually cents or cents per pound, although the florists will sell a few cents' worth. it can be dyed easily, and with little expense, with diamond or aniline dyes. it should first be washed. care should be taken, in the selection, to obtain long, smooth pieces which will be at least one-half inch wide when wet, and of an even color. some of the raffia is musty and badly spotted. it is well to wet all of it first, then straighten and allow it to dry. while weaving, keep the raffia moist by dipping the fingers now and then in a cup of water. experience has proved this method to be more satisfactory than to allow the raffia to remain in water and become thoroughly soaked, particularly the colored raffia. if one cares to expend money instead of time and trouble, the raffia can be dyed in very beautiful colors at the dye houses. [sidenote: _shetland wool_] blankets for miss dolly can be made of the soft shetland wool and germantown zephyr. for bed blankets, cream color, with stripes of two or more colors, are very attractive. carriage blankets made with white centers and colored borders, or with a tone for the center and a shade for the border, are a great addition to the carriage, as well as a source of comfort to the little occupant. bind the edges with ribbon and run a narrow one through the beading formed by taking out the extra rods. this ribbon can be run all around the center part by leaving out a few woof threads at the top and bottom. [sidenote: _knitting silk_] by stringing a close warp of knitting silk and extending it the required length, shawl-straps, suspenders, belts, and garters can be woven. the rods should be adjusted for the desired width. finish at each end with pieces of silk elastic of the same color, and with buckles. [sidenote: _angora wool_] angora wool makes pretty tam o'shanters. initials can be woven in any article. [sidenote: _books of patterns_] small books containing cross-stitch designs can be found at the german and french embroidery stores in large cities--sometimes, but rarely, at the art counter in department stores. the "kindergarten guides" can be obtained at most public libraries, or a kindergartner friend will be glad to loan one. chapter six directions for dyeing [sidenote: _diamond dyes_] a few hints with regard to dyeing raffia, cheese cloth, white cord for hammocks, and other materials, may be found useful. for raffia use the diamond dyes which are intended for wool or silk. wash the raffia first. the color will be improved by soaking the raffia a day in alum water, one-half pound to the gallon. dye once used can be kept in an air-tight dish and reheated whenever needed. [sidenote: _vegetable dyes_] should one be interested in vegetable dyes much information can be obtained at the public libraries. dr. washington matthews speaks of indian dyes in his article on the navajo weavers mentioned in this book. "how to make and how to mend" also contains some good suggestions about dyes. [sidenote: _mrs. candace wheeler's pamphlet_] in her little pamphlet, _home industries and domestic weavings_, published by the associated artists, east d street, new york city, mrs. candace wheeler has an interesting chapter on "rag-carpet weaving." her suggestions for dyeing rags apply equally to yarns and to other materials which may be used on hand looms for children. through her kind permission i am allowed to quote the following suggestions: [sidenote: _uses of the indigo tub_] "in the early days of this present century a dye tub was as much a necessity in every house as a spinning-wheel, and the reëstablishment of it in houses where weaving is practiced is almost a necessity; in fact, it would be of far greater use at present than in the days when it was only used to dye the wool needed for family knitting and weaving. all shades of blue, from sky-blue to blue-black, can be dyed in the indigo tub; and it has the merit of being a cheap as well as an almost perfectly fast dye. it could be used for dyeing warps as well as fillings, and i have before spoken of the difficulty, indeed almost impossibility, of procuring indigo-dyed carpet yarn. [sidenote: _blue universally used_] [sidenote: _green_] "blue is, perhaps, more universally useful than any other color in rag-rug making, since it is safe for both cotton and wool, and covers a range from the white rug with blue warp, the blue rug with white warp, through all varieties of shade to the dark blue, or clouded blue and green rug, also, upon white warp. it can also be used in connection with yellow or orange, or with copperas or walnut dye, in different shades of green; and, in short, unless one has exceptional advantages in buying rags from woolen mills, i can hardly imagine a profitable industry of rag-weaving established in any farmhouse without the existence of an indigo dyeing tub. [sidenote: _red_] [sidenote: _copperas_] [sidenote: _dull green_] "the next important color is red. fortunately, red warps can be bought which are reasonably fast, but the only way to procure red rags in quantity is to dye them, and, although the dye is somewhat expensive, there are two colors, turkey red and cardinal red, which are extremely good for the purpose. probably these could be bought at wholesale from dealers in chemicals and dyestuffs at much cheaper rates than by the small paper from the druggist or the country store. copperas gives a fast nankeen-colored dye, and this is very useful in making a dull green by an after dip in the indigo tub. [sidenote: _domestic dyes_] [sidenote: _nut stains_] [sidenote: _leaf stains_] [sidenote: _iron rust_] [sidenote: _ink stains_] "there are some valuable domestic dyes which are within the reach of every country dweller, the cheapest and best of which is walnut or butternut stain. this is made by steeping the bark of the tree or the shell of the nut until the water is dark with color, and setting it with alum. it will give various shades of yellow, brown, dark brown, and green brown, according to the strength of the decoction or the state of the bark or nut when used. if the bark of the nut is used when green, the result will be a yellow brown; and this stain is also valuable in making a green tint when an after dip of blue is added. leaves and tree-bark will give a brown with a very green tint, and these different shades used in different rags woven together give a very agreeably clouded effect. walnut stain will itself set or fasten some others; for instance, pokeberry stain, which is a lovely crimson, can be made reasonably fast by setting it with walnut juice. iron rust is the most indelible of all stains, besides being a most agreeable yellow, and it is not hard to obtain, as bits of old iron left standing in water will soon manufacture it. it would be a good use for old tin saucepans, and various other house utensils which have come to a state of mischievousness instead of usefulness. ink gives various shades of gray according to its strength, but it would be cheaper to purchase it in the form of logwood than as ink. [sidenote: _vegetable dyes_] "there is a strong and well-founded preference among art producers in favor of vegetable dyes, and yet it is possible to use certain of the aniline colors, especially in combination, in safe and satisfactory ways. [sidenote: _the variety of shades_] "everyone who undertakes domestic weaving must know how to dye one or two good colors. black, of course, and the half-black, or gray, which a good colorist of my acquaintance calls _a light black_. indigo blue equally, of course, in three shades of very dark and light. here are seven shades from the three dyes, and when we add white we see that the weaver is already very well equipped with a variety of color. the eight shades can be still further enlarged by clouding and mixing. the mixing can be done in two ways, either by carding two tints together before spinning, or by twisting them together when spun. [sidenote: _carding and twisting_] "carding together gives a very much better effect in wool, while twisting together is preferable in cotton. [sidenote: _blue_] [sidenote: _pink_] [sidenote: _gray_] [sidenote: _clouding_] "dark blue and white and medium blue and white wool carded together will give two blue grays which cannot be obtained by dyeing, and are most valuable. white and red carded together give a lovely pink, and any shade of gray can be made by carding different proportions of black and white or half-black and white. a valuable gray is made by carding black and white wool together, and by black wool i mean the natural black or brownish wool of black sheep. mixing of deeply dyed and white wool together in carding is, artistically considered, a very valuable process, as it gives a softness of color which it is impossible to get in any other way. clouding, which is almost an indispensable process for rug centers, can be done by winding certain portions of the skeins or hanks of yarn very tightly and closely with twine before they are thrown into the dye pot. the winding must be close enough to prevent the dye penetrating to the yarn. this means, of course, when the clouding is to be of white and another color. if it is to be two shades of one color, as a light and medium blue, the skein is first dyed a light blue, and after drying, is wound as i have described, and thrown again into the dye pot, until the unwound portions become the darker blue which we call medium." [sidenote: _mrs. albee's manual_] through the courtesy of mrs. helen r. albee, who has done much to revive an interest in rug-weaving, i am allowed to quote the following detailed suggestions on the subject of dyeing from her helpful manual, _abnákee rugs_. this little manual treats fully of the "abnákee rug industry," the "materials," "methods of work," and "dye formulas." it was issued through the riverside press in . speaking of combinations of color, mrs. albee says: [sidenote: _combinations of color_] [sidenote: _safe tones_] [sidenote: _colors in rugs_] [sidenote: _use of white_] "a careful study of the effects of colors upon each other will show that colors which are in themselves beautiful are often inharmonious when combined. also, a little of a color may be good, when a larger proportion seems to destroy the balance or harmony. success in this matter is largely a matter of close observation and experience, although some persons have a natural feeling or instinct regarding color which is seldom in error. strong colors should never be used, especially greens. though they may be modest in the piece, when worked in with other colors, they have an unfortunate way of becoming intensified tenfold. the safest tones for an amateur to deal with are dull gray green, yellow green, and a soft, full, but dark olive. in striking a certain key in color it should be maintained throughout. thus, if a full rich color predominates, rich dark colors should be used through the whole scheme. if a light tone is the body color, soft light tones of other colors will be found most harmonious. thus, for example, a rug for a library, or a hall, in which a good deal of rich terra cotta appears, should have a border or design worked in dark blues, full shades of olive green, and dull yellow. there is an apparent exception to this in the use of dull reds, old ivory, and black as seen in bokhara rugs. but if studied, the cream color is very dull, and is used in such small quantities as to be quite subdued by the black that is used freely in the pattern. old rose, warm golden browns, and olive may be used effectively. a light gobelin blue may be worked with ivory, old pink, light dull olive, and the outlines can be either a dark yellow brown or very dark bronze green. an ivory center is lovely with an old pink border worked in green. a tan center may be combined with old rose, sage green, bronze green, light yellow, cream color, and dark brown outlines. indigo blue, forest green, and dull yellow are excellent colors when combined. a great variety of beautiful rugs may be made by using only blue and white, and unless one wishes to go extensively into dyeing, it might be well to choose a certain simple color scheme such as blue and white, red, black, and ivory, and abide by it. let it be remembered that white in rugs is not white, neither is it a delicate cream. unless it is decidedly yellowish or even grayish in tone, when in combination with other colors, it becomes a staring white that is anything but artistic. i dye my cream colors, just as much as i do dark reds or greens. [sidenote: _planning a color scheme for a rug_] "i have been asked many times what is the best way to plan a color scheme for a rug. this is a point i cannot determine for another. some may find help in making water color sketches of what they wish to do. in my own work i never use them, as it requires making a reduced drawing of great accuracy, and much time to color it. often i plan a combination mentally, and match it up from the dyed flannels i always have on hand. other times i vary the scheme of some rug i have already made, experimenting with different combinations, using other rugs as if they were books of reference. i have discovered one rather curious thing, which is, that when all my experimenting is done i find some particular color scheme fits a certain rug as no other does. it seems to clothe or to fulfill the pattern as if it belonged personally to it. when i once discover this elective affinity of a pattern for its special coloring, i never make it again save in that one guise. [sidenote: _shading_] [sidenote: _directions for shading_] "much skill can be shown by an artistic worker in the use of slight shades of difference in the same color. for example, in the plain center of a rug, several tones representing shades of the same color will give the effect of a play of light on a silky surface, which is very beautiful. by using material that has been dyed a trifle darker at one end of the rug, and working in gradually lighter tones, the result is surprisingly effective. to do this, each three or four yards should be dyed with these slight differences of tone; then when within thirty strips of the end of one color (more or less, according to the width of the rug), work in a broken line of the next tone all across the rug. then use a few rows (not worked in single rows, however) of the first color across the entire rug, then a wider broken line of the second color. broken lines blend better than continuous lines do. the portions of the second line should fall above the broken spaces left in the first line (in the same way that masons lay bricks), then a little more of the first color, using less and less of it, and increasing the width of the second in masses, until the first color has become only broken lines upon the ground of the second color. all the way through, any changes of color should be merged in this way. be sure to work this method from side to side across the rug, as the frameful is filled. [sidenote: _coloring_] "this is the most difficult feature of the whole handicraft, the actual coloring, and yet for fine effects i should recommend only the use of hand-dyed materials. goods dyed by professional dyers are perfectly uniform in color throughout, and rugs made of such material will have nothing of that difference of tone, that play of color, that is absolutely necessary for beauty. [sidenote: _dye kettles_] "in dyeing use only brass, copper, granite, or porcelain kettles, unless one goes into it on a large scale and uses regular machinery. brass and copper vessels are to be preferred, while iron, or tin showing iron, are to be carefully avoided, as the mordants have a great affinity for iron and ruin the color. i use a large brass kettle holding about five gallons. [sidenote: _mordants_] "for mordants i use glauber salts and sulphuric acid, and with the weight of cloth i use, it takes oz. of glauber salts and / oz. of sulphuric acid (full strength) to each six yards of flannel. i use a one-ounce phenix graduate (american standard) measuring glass, and as full strength sulphuric acid has about twice the specific gravity of water, one should measure by the scale engraved on the right-hand side of the glass. the left-hand scale is based upon the standard unit of weight, which is water. [sidenote: _uses of acids_] "in using sulphuric acid i dilute it in a little cold water in a cup by pouring the acid on to the water, as sulphuric acid in uniting with water causes a chemical reaction. where a large quantity of acid is used this reaction is accompanied by a sudden burst of steam, if the water falls upon the acid. but in a small quantity as this, there is no possible danger of accident if the acid is poured on the water. sulphuric acid should be closely stoppered and used with care, as it is corrosive, eating holes in cotton or linen fabrics. with ordinary precautions it can be used without the least difficulty. [sidenote: _salts set the dyes_] "glauber salts are too well known in commerce to need description, and are used to neutralize the acid. the two in combination do not injure woolen fabrics, but merely set the dyes. [sidenote: _preparation of a dye bath_] "in preparing the dye bath allow three gallons of water, and / oz. of sulphuric acid; stir thoroughly and add oz. glauber salts to six yards of cloth. then add the dyestuff in required proportions. stir thoroughly as each ingredient is added, for the evenness of the dye depends upon the thorough distribution of the mordants and color in the dye bath. generally it is advised to strain the dye before it is added, but, as an even tone is not the desired result for this special handicraft, i never follow this suggestion. [sidenote: _coloring depends on temperature_] "the proper temperature for introducing the color in the bath is not over ° f., but if one has not a bath thermometer, the temperature must be very hot, yet far below boiling point. temperature plays a great part in dyeing, for if the dye bath is too hot when the cloth is introduced, the dye, having a great avidity for wool, will be absorbed unequally by the cloth, the ends and outside folds of the cloth absorbing more color than is desired, and the inner folds will have less. i am not discussing the process of dyeing as it should be done on a large scale with vats and suitable reels, etc., but as it is likely to be done by an amateur, in a small way. when the bath is too hot, the cloth takes the dye unequally and is quite spotted. a little irregularity is necessary for a play of color, but it should be secured in a definite way and only to a certain degree, and not as the result of accident. if the cloth has come out spotty, it may be redipped, having added more dye and mordants to the bath, but it will come out a darker shade. if the bath is anywhere near the boiling point before the cloth is dipped, reduce it by adding a quart or two of cold water." [sidenote: _process of dyeing yarn or raffia_] [sidenote: _clear days are best for dyeing_] before dyeing yarn or raffia, bind the skeins loosely in several places to prevent tangling. "having prepared the bath, gather the cloth in the right hand at half a dozen places along one selvedge, and drop it in, spreading it at once, using two stout sticks, lifting it up and down continually so as to expose all parts to the dye. the temperature should be increased to the boiling point and continued for three-quarters of an hour. then lift the cloth up and drain it, then rinse in cold water, wring dry, but do not press with an iron, as the soft wooly texture is very desirable. when a quantity of the same color is desired, the same water can be used again by adding acid and glauber salts, together with more dyestuff with each fresh dip of cloth. it must be stated, however, that the color will not be so clear with succeeding dips, but that does not matter, as a difference is desired. the process of dyeing is very delicate, and the utmost precision must be observed in following proportions and directions regarding temperature, etc. dyeing is more successful in clear weather than on rainy days, and soft water is required to get good results. if water contains much lime or earthy salts it is unfit for dyeing, and must be neutralized by acetic acid. in such cases it would be still better to use rain water. [sidenote: _vegetable dyes and chemical dyes compared_] "there is a curious conviction prevailing in some quarters that beautiful durable colors are obtainable only from vegetable dyes. my first experiments were with barks, mosses, etc., but the difficulty of getting them, the enormous amount necessary to dye any quantity of goods, the tedious process in their use, and the fact that after all only a narrow range of colors is obtainable from them, compelled me to abandon them altogether. i began to investigate chemical dyes, and to gain information i applied to one of the largest woolen mills in new england, one which maintains a high reputation for the class of goods it manufactures; also to two wholesale houses dealing in all kinds of dyestuffs; and finally to one of the best experts in color in the country. their verdict was unanimous, and is summed up in the opinion of the expert which he expressed in a letter to me on this question: "'in regard to the use of vegetable dyes, i would say that they have almost disappeared from commerce, certainly for the purpose of dyeing fabrics. [sidenote: _aniline colors_] "'we know, of course, that there are strong prejudices still existing in the layman's mind in regard to the use of aniline colors, who supposes that they are not only fugitive, but that the resulting tones are harsh and unattractive. this, unfortunately, was so twenty-five years ago, and the impression made then upon the layman's mind has not been changed during all these years; but i can assure you that all the beautiful silk goods, tapestries, cloths, and all the colors which we see in fabrics to-day, are made, without exception, from aniline colors, which are immeasurably more permanent than are the vegetable dyes used up to, say, .' [sidenote: _formulas to be followed_] "in using my range of eight colors i provide myself with large, strong glass bottles in which i keep my diluted colors. i use a pint measure for diluting the dyes. in preparing the fluid i put one half or one quarter of an ounce of dry color, whichever amount the formula calls for, into the pint measure and mix it thoroughly with a little cold water. the reason for using cold water is that the dyes are a tar product, and if mixed with hot water first, they are apt to grow waxy under the heat and not dissolve readily. having dissolved them, i fill up the measure with hot water, stirring all the time. this makes a pint of liquid which is of uniform strength under all circumstances, and every formula is based upon this invariable pint measure of water. these formulas i have tried over and over again. they are made with special reference to the grade of flannel i have adopted, and doubtless will vary in results if used on other weights or weaves of wool goods." dye formulas no. . dark terra cotta [sidenote: _dark terra cotta_] dissolve / oz. of dull red in pint of water. dissolve / oz. of green in pint of water. take full pint measure of dull red dye and tablespoonfuls of green dye to yds. of cloth. mordants: / oz. sulphuric acid and oz. glauber salts. boil / of an hour. no. . full terra cotta [sidenote: _full terra cotta_] dissolve / oz. of dull red in pint of water. use full pint measure of dull red dye to yds. of cloth. mordants: / oz. sulphuric acid and oz. glauber salts. no. . lighter terra cotta [sidenote: _lighter terra cotta_] dissolve / oz. of dull red in pint of water. use tablespoonfuls of dull red dye to yds. of cloth. mordants: / oz. sulphuric acid and oz. glauber salts. no. . rich old red [sidenote: _rich old red_] dissolve / oz. of dull red in pint of water. dissolve / oz. of green in pint of water. use tablespoonfuls of dull red dye and tablespoonfuls of green dye to yds. of cloth. mordants: same as no. . no. . dull old rose [sidenote: _dull old rose_] dissolve / oz. of dull red in pint of water. dissolve / oz. of bright blue in pint of water. dissolve / oz. of dull yellow in pint of water. use tablespoonfuls of dull red dye, and tablespoonful of bright blue dye, and tablespoonfuls of dull yellow dye to yds. of cloth. mordants: same as in no. . no. . old pink [sidenote: _old pink_] dissolve / oz. of dull red in pint of water. dissolve / oz. of dull yellow in pint of water. dissolve oz. of dark blue in pint of water. use tablespoonfuls of dull red dye, and tablespoonfuls of dull yellow dye, and - / teaspoonfuls of dark blue dye to yds. of cloth. mordants: same as in no. . no. . full yellow [sidenote: _full yellow_] dissolve / oz. of bright yellow in pint of water. dissolve / oz. of dull yellow in pint of water. dissolve / oz. of green in pint of water. use tablespoonfuls of bright yellow dye, and tablespoonfuls of dull yellow dye, and tablespoonfuls of green dye to yds. of cloth. mordants: same as in no. . no. . rich dull yellow [sidenote: _rich dull yellow_] dissolve / oz. of bright yellow in pint of water. dissolve / oz. of dull red in pint of water. use tablespoonfuls of yellow dye and tablespoonfuls of dull red dye to yds. of cloth. mordants: same as in no. . no. . dark tan yellow [sidenote: _dark tan yellow_] dissolve / oz. of dull yellow in pint of water. use tablespoonfuls of dull yellow dye to yds. of cloth. mordants: same as in no. . no. . light olive tan [sidenote: _light olive tan_] dissolve / oz. of bright yellow in pint of water. dissolve / oz. of dull yellow in pint of water. dissolve oz. of dark blue in pint of water. use tablespoonfuls of bright yellow dye, tablespoonfuls of dull yellow dye, - / tablespoonfuls of dark blue dye to yds. of cloth. mordants: same as in no. . no. . old ivory [sidenote: _old ivory_] dissolve / oz. of bright yellow in pint of water. dissolve / oz. of drab in pint of water. dissolve / oz. of dull red in pint of water. use teaspoonful of yellow dye, and teaspoonful of drab dye, and / teaspoonful of dull red dye to yds. of cloth. mordants: same as in no. . no. rich navy blue [sidenote: _rich navy blue_] dissolve oz. of dark blue in pint of water. use full pint measure of dark blue dye to yds. of goods. mordants: oz. sulphuric acid, oz. glauber salts. boil hour. no. . dark persian blue [sidenote: _dark persian blue_] dissolve oz. of dark blue in pint of water. dissolve / oz. of green in pint of water. use tablespoonfuls of dark blue dye, tablespoonfuls of green dye to yds. of cloth. mordants: same as in no. . no. . gobelin blue [sidenote: _gobelin blue_] dissolve oz. of dark blue in pint of water. dissolve / oz. of green in pint of water. use tablespoonfuls of dark blue dye, tablespoonfuls of green dye to yds. of cloth. mordants: same as in no. . no. . light gray blue [sidenote: _light gray blue_] dissolve oz. of dark blue in pint of water. dissolve / oz. of green in pint of water. use tablespoonfuls of dark blue dye, tablespoonfuls of green dye to yds. of cloth. mordants: same as in no. . no. . light sage green [sidenote: _light sage green_] dissolve / oz. of green in pint of water. dissolve / oz. of bright yellow in pint of water. dissolve / oz. of dull red in pint of water. use tablespoonfuls of green dye, tablespoonfuls of bright yellow dye, and - / tablespoonfuls of dull red dye to yds. of cloth. mordants: same as in no. . no. . light olive [sidenote: _light olive_] dissolve / oz. of green in pint of water. dissolve / oz. of bright yellow in pint of water. dissolve / oz. of dull red in pint of water. use tablespoonfuls of green dye, tablespoonfuls of bright yellow dye, and tablespoonfuls of dull red to yds. of cloth. mordants: same as in no. . no. . dark moss green [sidenote: _dark moss green_] dissolve level teaspoonfuls of green in pint measure of water. dissolve / oz. of bright yellow in pint of water. use full pint measure of green dye and tablespoonfuls of bright yellow dye to yds. of cloth. mordants: oz. of glauber salts and oz. of sulphuric acid. boil / of an hour. no. . golden brown [sidenote: _golden brown_] dissolve / oz. of dull yellow in pint of water. dissolve / oz. of dull red in pint of water. dissolve / oz. of green in pint of water. use tablespoonfuls of dull yellow dye, tablespoonfuls of dull red dye, tablespoonfuls of green dye to yds. of cloth. mordants: same as in no. . no. . dark bronze [sidenote: _dark bronze_] dissolve / oz. of green in pint of water. dissolve / oz. of dull red in pint of water. dissolve oz. of dark blue in pint of water. dissolve / oz. of bright yellow in pint of water. use tablespoonfuls of green dye, tablespoonfuls of dull red dye, tablespoonfuls of dark blue dye to yds. of cloth. mordants: same as in no. . redip in tablespoonfuls of green dye and tablespoonfuls of bright yellow dye. mordants: repeat the one above. [sidenote: _these formulas are the basis for numerous tones_] "these formulas can be taken as the basis of many other tones and shades which can be secured by a slight alteration of proportions. by adding a trifle more dull red, green, indigo, or drab liquid dyes, a color can be darkened. by using less of these than the formulas call for, the colors will be lighter. by using more of dull or bright yellow a color can often be made richer without darkening it. beginners are cautioned against making changes until they become familiar with the dyes. in making new experiments, try them on yard lengths, carefully subdividing any given formula for both dyes and mordants, and increasing the proportion of any particular color desired. if the cloth should fail to take up the dye properly after boiling the full time, increase the quantity of acid, lifting the cloth out when adding the acid to the dye bath." excellent suggestions by miss albee for color schemes in stripes may be found on pages and . [mrs. albee is prepared to furnish any of the foregoing dyes at cents an ounce. her address is mrs. helen r. albee, pequaket, silver lake p. o., n. h.] [illustration: _a deep blue wool rug made of carpet yarn_] chapter seven methods of splicing materials for weaving [sidenote: _woolens, fine worsteds, ravelings, and cottons_] such materials as carpet and oriental wools, fine worsteds, carpet ravelings, darning and knitting cotton should, in splicing, be run past each other. in weaving, run the wool through the warp to the very end. start the new piece a few warp threads back, being careful to go over and under exactly the _same_ warp threads as you did when finishing the end. as you pass these threads you will find that you are taking up the right warp threads, and that no mistake has been made. it is best to run the threads past each other in the _middle_ of the mat rather than on the _sides_. the children learn this method of splicing very quickly and the result is much more satisfactory than knotting, because the back of the rug or mat will be smooth. as mrs. wiggin says: "there should never be a wrong side to work any more than there should be to folks." [sidenote: _silkoline, cheese cloth, rags_] [sidenote: _candle-wicking, chenille, and macremé cord_] in splicing such materials as silkoline, rags, candle-wicking, chenille, and macremé cord, lay the end of one piece over another, each lapping about one-quarter inch, and sew securely with silk or thread of like color. cut off the selvedge ends of rags. these strips can be run past each other, but the work will not be so smooth. [sidenote: _germantown wool, heavy worsteds, and rope silk_] in splicing germantown wool, heavy worsteds, or rope silk, thread a worsted needle with one strand obtained by unwinding the wool or silk, lay one end over the other, and sew over and over. twist the part just sewn between the thumb and finger and the splicing will be hardly visible. when weaving stripes, splice the wool so that the piecing will come on top of the rod. in this way the new color will start at the edge of the rug, as it should, and the number of loops on the rod will be the same on each side. consider the _under_ side of the weaving as the _right_ side. it is always smoother and cleaner, and the splicing can be done more neatly on top of the rod. [sidenote: _raffia_] splicing raffia is the most difficult of all, and the method used in braiding and basket weaving is the best. as you near the end of a strip in weaving it usually becomes narrower. find another strip having a narrow end, and place one over the other, securing, if necessary, by winding a very narrow piece--just a thread torn from a long piece--and fastening this by sewing a few times over and over. or, the two narrow ends may be run past each other, as in carpet ravelings. care should be taken to have the splicing the same width as the other parts of the weaving, so that the spliced parts will not be noticeable. [sidenote: _leather, leatherette, and celluloid strips_] leather, leatherette, and celluloid strips should be long enough to extend the entire width and length of the frame without splicing. the ends can be cut, as is done in paper weaving, or turned in some pretty way like that in the splint work. chapter eight wool and silkoline rugs or mats [illustration: _silkoline rug with three white stripes_] [sidenote: _plain rug with end stripes_] [sidenote: _finishing the ends_] silkoline rugs or mats are by far the prettiest for doll-house use. the method of preparing the strips is explained under materials (page ). make the warp with twine of the same color as the silkoline. it should be a three-eighths-inch warp. choose a plain color for the body of the rug, and a short distance from each end weave several stripes of a contrasting color. the rug in the illustration is of deep cardinal. the stripes can be of olive green, black, or any preferred color. mottled stripes are also attractive and effective. when the stripes at the foot are woven, ascertain the distance from the foot piece to the last one. to know where to commence the first stripe at the head, measure the distance just found from the head piece down, and mark on both rods by tying or sewing a colored string to the warp. this helps the child to understand where the stripe should begin, which he soon learns to measure for himself; and this training in accuracy and independence is most excellent. there is nothing better than learning self-reliance, and the child who has been taught it, is not apt to ask others to do his examples for him. to learn the manner of making the stripes and spaces each of the same width, count the loops on the rods (one has to weave twice across the loom to have one loop on a rod), and have the same number on each side. care should be taken not to _twist_ the strips in weaving. the method of splicing the strips and fastening the warp strings is explained in chapter v. the rug may be finished with a wool or silk fringe of the predominating color, or a fringe of the combined colors. if desired, it may be left plain, catching the woof strips together at each end to conceal the warp strings. when a mistake has been made, run the needle back under the same strings instead of pulling out what is wrong. it prevents stretching and a destruction of the material. [sidenote: _mottled rugs made of figured silkoline_] mottled rugs are made of figured silkoline. choose oriental colors, no matter how gaudy the silkoline may look in the piece. it will have a beautiful effect when woven. portières are pretty made in this way. these rugs should always be plain--that is, without stripes. [illustration: _a mottled rug of figured silkoline, in which the colors brown, blue, and old gold predominate_] [sidenote: _plain rugs with mottled borders, or mottled rugs with plain borders_] plain rugs with mottled borders, or mottled rugs with plain borders, are the delight of the children. adjust the frame for the size required, and decide how wide the border is to be. it is necessary to have an extra pair of rods, if one desires a smooth and well-finished rug. the border of the rug represented in the illustration is two inches. this should be woven with a tape needle. weave the border at the foot of the loom. this extends the entire width. place the extra rods two inches toward the center from the side rods on the outside of the rug, keeping them _back_ of the border already woven at the foot. this will outline the sides of the plain oblong in the center. weave the left and right hand borders up to a point two inches from the head piece, taking care to go around the rods just placed. then begin the plain center. as you come to the border on each side, run your tape needle _through_ the loops of mottled silkoline which are around the rod, but do not go around the rod itself with the plain silkoline, since doing so would make a ridge in the rug. draw the woof strips tightly and firmly, so that the work will lie flat and smooth when removed from the loom. be sure to weave the center far enough, remembering that the upper woof strips in the border will crowd it down. when the center is finished, remove the extra rods and finish weaving the border to the head piece. in selecting a color for the center, match one of the colors in the figured silkoline. the color for the center in the rug of the illustration on page is green, and the same color appears also in the mottled border, with yellow and brown. the ends should be left plain, the warp strings being concealed as directed. these rugs are very beautiful, and can be made in an infinite variety through the use of different colors, and by reversing the center and border. they can be made of carpet or germantown wool, in two colors or in two tones of one color. in weaving rugs with centers and borders, weave a little farther than the exact measure, because the next woof threads will push down the woof already made, and you may find that you have not woven the correct measure. these rugs are useful as "heel rugs"; they are placed under the piano near the pedal to protect the carpet from the pressure of the heel. (see also page .) [illustration: _a plain silkoline rug, with a mottled border_] [sidenote: _holder or mat_] [sidenote: _many squares joined together_] [sidenote: _small rug with fringe_] [sidenote: _stair and hall carpets_] adjust the loom for the size required. the plaid effect in the holder illustrated on page is obtained by stringing a close warp with green and white carpet wool, alternating two of white with four of green. in weaving, use two woof threads of white and _four_ of green to make the square correct. the kindergarten designs make pretty holders. if you have woven a holder, it will be finished when it is removed from the loom and the warp strings have been fastened. if you wish your holder to be very thick, weave two of these pieces, lay a square of felt or flannel between and sew or crochet the edges together. if the work is to be a mat, knot a pretty fringe all around it. many of these squares can be joined to make sofa pillows, afghans, slumber robes, and other dainty articles. with a continuous warp, one can weave long strips for the same articles. if a small rug for miss dolly's bedroom is desired, string the warp so that the two ends will have a fringe. stair and hall carpets for the doll house can be woven in these pretty designs by adjusting the loom for a narrow strip, and, if necessary, a continuous warp. [illustration: _holder of green and white carpet wool_] chapter nine hammocks [illustration: _back of loom, showing method of stringing warp through rings for a hammock_] [sidenote: _method of adjustment_] [sidenote: _use of stripes for various colors_] [sidenote: _lengthwise stripes_] to weave a hammock, one must first adjust the loom to its full size. tie two rings together and fasten them at the back of the loom, to head, foot, and sides, as in the illustration. one must then decide how close the warp is to be strung. measure the string, which should be continuous, allowing enough to go to the rings at the back and make a buttonhole stitch each time. then wind on a long thin stick or dress steel, in such a way that it will pass easily through the rings. in stringing the hammock in the illustration, a penholder was used. the rings are tied, with white cord, to the four sides of the loom. by doing this, all tangling of the warp string is avoided, and it is far preferable to splicing. tie the first warp string to the top ring. draw it tightly through the first groove, over the face of the loom to the opposite groove, then to the back of the loom through the bottom ring. make a buttonhole stitch and return in the same manner over the face of the loom, around to the top ring, where you make a buttonhole stitch and return, until the whole warp is strung. care should be taken to make it firm and tight. hold the string and ring firmly in the left hand while making the buttonhole stitch with the right. cut the woof cords long enough to allow a fringe on each side of the hammock. weave each cord separately, tying in pairs around the rods. stripes of one or more colors can be woven at each end or at intervals through the hammock. by weaving two colors alternately, the stripes will be lengthwise instead of crosswise. knot the fringe at each side. to fasten the top and bottom woof cords so that they will not pull out of place, thread a tape needle with cord and tie each warp string close to the woof. another way to secure the top and bottom woof cords is to weave two cords at one time, twisting one over the other between the warp strings. the bottom one should be woven before the hammock is commenced. the top one can be woven before the hammock is finished, and pushed up close to the head piece. then fill up the space. [illustration: _a hammock made from strings of different colors in lengthwise stripes_] [sidenote: _making the fringe_] [sidenote: _the stretcher_] [sidenote: _the head-rest_] [sidenote: _hammock with lengthwise colored stripes_] [sidenote: _knotted hammocks_] instead of knotting the fringe as suggested, two cords can be twisted at each side of the hammock in the same way that the woof cords are secured at the top and bottom. this forms a heading for the fringe. take up _two_ cords of the fringe at a time. if desired, the strings which extend from the rings to the hammock may be woven for the space of an inch or so close to the rings instead of making a buttonhole stitch. make a stretcher for the head by covering a piece of rattan with buttonhole stitch. fasten this to the hammock. a head-rest can also be woven and adjusted. to remove the hammock from the loom, cut the two rings apart, and then lift the warp strings from the grooves. a very pretty hammock can be made by stringing the warp of different colors, in order to make _lengthwise_ stripes. weave a neutral color through them. in this case, have a close warp. pretty hammocks can be made by knotting instead of weaving. [sidenote: _to string warp for hammock in order to have the sides shorter than the center_] cut two semi-circular pieces from light wood or pasteboard. these should suit the width of the hammock to be made. if this is the width of the loom, then - / inches long and two inches at the widest part. cut the curved edge in notches to correspond with the number taken in the head piece. these pieces will be firmer and more satisfactory if made of wood and finished at the lower edges like the metal head piece. this can be easily done by glueing them to a narrow piece of wood so that they will stand. if furnished with perforations, they can be laced to the head and foot pieces or the rods can be run through them. by stringing the warp in this way, the sides of the hammock will be shorter than the center, and there will be no danger of miss dolly falling out. the warp can be strung more quickly and easily if hammock hooks similar to those in the two illustrations below are used. measure the right length-- warp strings inches long for the metal loom, or the same length for the wooden loom--and wind as before. [illustration: _hook no. _] [illustration: _hook no. _] [sidenote: _hammock hooks_] [sidenote: _weaving_] in using hammock hook no. , knot half the number of warp strings in the left-hand ring and half in the right-hand ring. if hook no. be used, unpin the part at the right, knot the warp strings along the straight edge at the bottom, and then pin the right-hand part again. weaving each cord separately across the loom makes a heavy fringe at the sides. if a lighter fringe be desired, cut the woof cords twice the width of the loom plus twice the length of the fringe. weave across the loom, leaving enough for the fringe at the side, then _around_ the rod and back again, drawing the cord through to the same length as the part left at first. weave in the same way with the second color, having the loop on the _same_ rod and the fringe at the _same_ side as the other. weave the next two cords with loops on the _opposite_ rod and fringe on the _opposite_ side. continue in this way until the hammock is finished. make a heading at the sides as described, only carry the two cords _through_ the loops, crossing them between on top of the rods. the warp strings can be passed through the rings without buttonholing. a firm pretty finish can be made at the sides by cutting two cords--one of each color two yards long and buttonholing around the rods on _top_ of the woof cords which extend at each side. fasten these long cords at the bottom of the loom. after two pairs of woof cords have been tied, buttonhole the edge over them and around the rods and continue this until the hammock is finished. [illustration: _a square of silk canvas_] chapter ten face and dish cloths and bath rugs [illustration: _a face cloth made from cheese cloth_] [sidenote: _materials_] the materials for making face and dish cloths are: cheese cloth cut bias, darning or knitting cotton, or candle-wicking. those made from cheese cloth resemble the turkish rags. cut and splice the cheese cloth according to directions on page . the face cloth in the illustration is made from white cheese cloth, cut bias. string the warp / inch with white twine. it being desirable to have face and dish cloths as soft as possible, do not push the woof threads too closely together. when the cloth is removed from the loom, conceal the ends of the warp strings as previously directed. fine white thread should be used. if preferred, the edges can be bound with tape. cloths of candle-wicking are very quickly woven, but they are not so soft. face cloths of cheese cloth with borders of knitting cotton would be durable and satisfactory. make them according to directions given for rugs with centers and borders. cross-barred face cloths made of knitting cotton no. , in two colors, are very pretty. [sidenote: _bath rug made with continuous warp_] serviceable bath rugs can be made by making three strips as long as desired, and then fastening together. they are made of cheese cloth cut bias, but the woof threads are packed much tighter than in the face cloths. finish the edges by stitching a white tape all around. floor rugs of any kind can be made firmer by finishing in this way with tape of the same color. [illustration: _a pattern for a floor rug_] chapter eleven raffia mats [illustration: _method of weaving a raffia mat on the loom, showing colored stripes_] [sidenote: _method of making raffia mats_] [sidenote: _the rods and the warp strings in kindergarten patterns_] mats of raffia are made like all the other mats. the warp may be of twine or carpet thread. in this case, the mat should be woven of raffia in the natural color, with stripes of bright color at each end; or, it may be of some dark tone with stripes of a contrasting color. by using a warp of raffia, many of the beautiful kindergarten designs can be produced. use one color for the warp and another for the woof. the method of stringing a warp of raffia is described in "methods of stringing warp," on page . the illustration shows a raffia mat in process of making. the natural color of raffia is used, with stripes of cardinal, and the method of stringing color in the warp to obtain this effect is clearly seen. the children will have no difficulty in carrying out the pattern, if they remember that the _rods_ correspond to the _border_ of the paper mat. before stringing the warp for a kindergarten pattern, count the strips in the paper mat and begin to count on the loom _from_ the rods. in this kind of work the string on top of the rod does not count. it forms the _border_ of the mat. [illustration: _a woven mat of raffia, from a kindergarten pattern in green and the natural color of the raffia_] [sidenote: _stringing the warp_] in making mats, or matting, of raffia, the material can be carried over the rods as in wool-weaving, or it can be finished on the edges in the same way as the real matting is done. this will be easily understood by examining a piece of matting. in stringing the warp, have three strings over each bar instead of one. cut the woof strips several inches longer than the width of the loom. weave the first strip, leaving a piece at each side. thread a tape needle with one end and weave it in and out the three warp threads on the rod. then cut it off close to the edge. finish off all the ends in this way. when the work is removed from the loom, press the edges flat with a warm iron. it is a little easier to keep the pattern right by weaving in this way, and the work resembles the real matting more nearly. use a tape needle for weaving raffia. [sidenote: _porch curtains_] if the doll house which we are fitting is a large one with porches, one could complete the furnishings with a porch curtain, for sunny afternoons. [sidenote: _glove, trinket, and mouchoir boxes_] boxes of all kinds can be made of raffia woven in panels. it will make the box stronger and firmer to overhand a piece of rattan around the edges of the panels before joining them in the form of a box. thread a worsted needle with a narrow strip of raffia and buttonhole the edges of the panels together; or, sew them over and over and cover with a braid of raffia. spiral-weaving is pretty for this finishing. it is described in an article entitled "straw-weaving," in "american homes" for september, , a magazine published in knoxville, tenn. glove, trinket, and mouchoir boxes are pretty for holiday gifts. by using different patterns and colors a great variety of them can be made. [sidenote: _rugs of carpet wool_] for rugs made of carpet wool, string a three-eighths-inch warp of twine, or oriental cord, the color of the body of the rug. use a deep tone of red, olive green, or any preferred color, with a stripe at each end. a study of rugs will soon enable one to get the right proportion of rug and stripe. beautiful rugs are made with a succession of roman stripes separated by a narrow one of deep red, green, or blue, the ends of the rug being woven of the same color. center and corner patterns can be woven by placing the pattern under the warp. by stringing a close warp of the same material all the designs for paper-weaving can be easily reproduced. lengthwise stripes are also pretty. string the warp with different colors and weave a neutral color through them. the rug in the frontispiece is woven of heavy carpet wool, some of which is seen on the table. [sidenote: _patterns for rugs_] [sidenote: _fundamental form no. _] beautiful patterns for rugs can be made by cutting squares and triangles of paper according to directions given in the "kindergarten guides." the "paradise of childhood" has some very pretty ones. there are two fundamental forms for this paper-cutting. the first is made from a nine-inch square. fold one diagonal, place the right acute angle upon the left so as to produce four triangles resting upon each other. the form now lies before you with the right angle at the right and two acute angles (one on top of the other) at the left. lift one of these acute angles and place on top of the angle at the back, creasing the fold; then fold the remaining acute angle _under_ to the same angle at the back, creasing as before. now place the form with the right angle at the back and hold all the open edges to the left while cutting. illustrations in the "kindergarten guides" show a network drawn on the triangle at the top as an aid to transferring the pattern. [illustration: _a rug pattern from an equilateral triangle_] [sidenote: _fundamental form no. _] the second fundamental form is made from a six-fold equilateral triangle. directions for folding and cutting this from the square are given in the "paradise of childhood." it can be cut, also, from a circle whose diameter is equal to the width of the rug desired. in drawing and cutting the pattern, hold the form with the entirely _open sides_ toward you. the whole pattern is cut at once and the unfolding often reveals a charming design for a rug, which can be woven in tones or contrasting colors. if cut from colored paper, it can be mounted on white and placed under the warp. beautiful original designs in conventional leaf and flower patterns can also be made. [sidenote: _conventional leaf forms_] to make a conventional leaf form, use fundamental form no. . cut the leaf on the mid-rib and lay this part on the base of the triangle with the point of the leaf on the open edges at the left, and the stem on the closed part at the right. draw around the edges of the leaf and cut, taking care not to separate the leaf forms at the center, which is at the closed part at your right hand. some excellent suggestions for this leaf-cutting in centerpieces and borders can be found in the "pratt institute monthly" for april, . [sidenote: _dusters_] dusters for hardwood floors are best made of strips of old flannel. they can be made of stocking strips, or cheese cloth. make two mats the full size of the loom, sew on three sides and run a gathering-string around the top. it will fit better if it has a piece of cheese cloth sewn at the top through which the gathering-string can be run. this makes a fine duster to slip over a broom. if one prefers, a continuous warp can be strung--the length to be twice the length of the broom part--and a long piece woven which will require sewing on two sides only. [illustration: _a doll towel with fringed ends_] [sidenote: _doll towels_] [sidenote: _patterns for towel borders_] [sidenote: _lunch cloths_] [sidenote: _bedspreads_] [sidenote: _quilts_] doll towels are very fascinating things to make. adjust the loom for the required size. the exact proportion can be ascertained from a large towel. string the close warp with fine darning cotton and have the strings in pairs with fringe at each end. allow several inches for fringe so that it can be knotted easily. the woof threads, which are also of fine darning cotton, should be pushed very closely and smoothly together. plain stripes of red or blue, or fancy stripes made with a kindergarten design, can be woven. observe the same directions for spacing the stripes which are given with the silkoline rug. the towel in the illustration is made of white darning cotton, with the stripes and initial of red. the children will be delighted to lay towel borders with their tablets, and after cutting and pasting with colored paper, weave them in towels for miss dolly's housekeeping. cross-stitch the initial as previously directed. lunch cloths and bedspreads can be made in the same way. these should be fringed all around. a cross-barred cloth or spread can be made by putting the color in the warp at regular intervals and weaving across with color and white to form squares. pretty quilts of coarse cotton can be made with kindergarten designs. by weaving many squares, a large quilt can be made. see directions on page . [sidenote: _bed and carriage blankets_] bed and carriage blankets are best made of single zephyr, although germantown wool will do. the heavy carpet wools are also pretty. some suggestions for this work have already been given under the head of materials. these blankets are really mats, but made only for another use, and are to be woven in a similar way. those with centers and borders are pretty, and the plaid ones are always attractive. (see illustration of the holder on page .) [sidenote: _doll shawls_] for doll shawls choose a pretty scotch plaid and match the colors in fine wool. string a close warp with wool, copying the scotch plaid exactly. weave the colors across so that a "truly" plaid shawl may grace miss dolly's shoulders on the cold winter mornings. a striped shawl is pretty, or one having one color for the center and another for the border. [sidenote: _doll skirt_] miss dolly may have a lovely petticoat, too. string a continuous warp long enough for the width of the skirt. adjust the rods for the length. by using a little color in the warp near the right edge of the weaving, the skirt will have some stripes. twist a cord of the wool and run in the top for a draw-string. [sidenote: _reins_] to make reins, adjust for a narrow strip and string a close, continuous warp the length desired. make a piece, also, to go across the front. use germantown knitting yarn. a black warp with a bright red woof is pretty. [sidenote: _a square tam o'shanter_] in order to obtain a tam o'shanter for dolly, first weave a square the required size. string a close warp with wool and weave a kindergarten pattern with two colors. when completed, remove from the loom, fold four corners to the center, turn them in to form an opening for the head, and fasten the edges by sewing, or by lacing with a cord made of the two colors. fasten a tassel on the top and it is finished. angora wool is pretty for these caps. [illustration: _fringe for a rug in red and black_] [sidenote: _fringe_] [sidenote: _threading the needle_] [sidenote: _making the fringe into tassels_] [sidenote: _removing the fringe from the loom_] the head piece of the loom should be adjusted for the width of the rug for which the fringe is required. a rug nine inches wide would require fringe nine inches long. adjust the rods one inch apart--that is, with one perforation between the rods. string the warp in every groove, one string over each rod and three between, making five in all. weave over and under one until the heading is finished. if you have an extra side rod, place it in the sixth perforation from the right-hand rod. this will make tassels a little over two inches long. if a shorter fringe is preferred, adjust accordingly. if you have not an extra side rod remove the _left_ one and place as directed, leaving the _right_ one in the heading until the whole fringe is finished. thread a large tape needle with two pieces of worsted, as long as the two can be conveniently managed. if the fringe is made of two colors, take one of each for the tassels, weaving the heading with the one which predominates in the rug. run the ends in the grooves to fasten them. wind under the right rod, which was left in the heading, through the first stitch, which includes the warp string over the rod, then over the extra rod to the right. wind under again through the next stitch in the heading (always around the rod) and so on until the end is reached. to make this fringe into tassels, separate six strands of each color and tie with the two colors, running the tape needle and worsted along from one tassel to another, or tie each one securely and cut. the fringe will need no finishing at the ends. run the short ends, which were wound through the grooves in the beginning in order to fasten them, through a few stitches in the heading. the fringe can be made of one color, and of any width. to take the fringe from the loom, first remove the rod at the end of the tassels and cut the fringe before removing the rods from the heading. this will insure straight cutting at the ends of the tassels. if one prefers a knotted fringe, cut and knot before removing the heading. by examining rug fringes in the furniture stores one can get a very good idea of the manner of knotting. (see also directions for splicing germantown wool on page .) [sidenote: _knotting_] a simple fringe can be knotted quickly and easily in the ends of the warp strings, after the rug is taken from the loom. first decide upon the length of the fringe when finished. add at least two inches to allow for knotting. cut each piece of wool twice this length, double, and thread a tape needle. pass the needle from the right side of the rug to the wrong, through the warp strings at the end of the rug. draw the loop of wool through and unthread the needle. pass the two ends of the wool down through the loop and draw it tight. when this has been done in every pair of warp strings, knot every other piece of the fringe together, in the same way that towel fringe is made. this question of whether a rug should have fringe or not is much discussed at present. it is largely a personal one. the best way, perhaps, is to study different kinds of rugs and know which ones are usually made with fringe and which are not. [illustration: _bed shoes made of white wool_] [sidenote: _bed shoes, or socks_] [sidenote: _bed shoes_] [sidenote: _baby shoes_] bed shoes of all sizes are easily woven, and make a useful holiday gift. they are made without soles and are intended to be drawn up around the ankle like a high moccasin. use the soft double germantown wool. white, fastened together with pink or blue, or white striped with a color, may be used, and are attractive. the socks in the illustration are of white wool with a pink seam up the instep and pink scallops around the top. one sock is shown on a last, and the other as it appears off the foot. the stripes in the knitting can be shown in the weaving by using a color. the full size of the loom makes a shoe of medium size. string a close warp with white wool. if the shoe is to be all white, weave with the same, leaving the color for the finishing. if it is to be striped, weave perhaps eight or ten times across with color and then with white; when the weaving is finished you will have a mat Ã� inches. double one of the short edges and sew over and over on the wrong side with white wool. this is the toe. the two long edges now lie together. they may be crocheted, or knitted, with colored wool by holding them close and fulling in, or by _puckering_ a little. if this is done in color, it makes a pretty seam on the top of the foot and front of the ankle. the top may be finished by crocheting a beading and scallops of the colored wool. run a ribbon or worsted cord through the beading. if desired, the long edges may be laced together with ribbon one-half inch wide. baby shoes are made in the same way. to ascertain what length to adjust the loom, measure the sole, then up, back of the heel, to a point above the ankle. for the width, measure around the foot. finish the cord with tassels or balls. [sidenote: _worsted balls for bed shoes, and other articles_] to make worsted balls, first cut two small circles from cardboard. from the center of each cut a smaller circle. hold one circle over the other, and with a worsted or tape needle threaded with wool, wind over and over very closely until the hole in the center is completely filled. always piece the wool on the _outside_ edge. cut the wool all around on the outside. make a cord of the wool and slip _between_ the two circles. then tie so as to fasten all the pieces of wool in the middle, leaving the cord long enough to tie in a bow if desired. tear the pasteboards, remove them, and trim the wool evenly. a second ball should be fastened on the other end of the cord, _after_ it has been laced through the beading. [sidenote: _photograph frames_] to weave photograph and picture frames of silk, chenille, raffia, celluloid, or leather, proceed in the same way as for a bordered rug, having the oblong or square center the required size for the picture. foundation frames for mounting the work can be purchased, usually, at the stores where tissue paper and flowers are sold. [sidenote: _table mats_] square and oblong table mats for hot dishes can be made of candle-wicking, knitting cotton, or cheese cloth. [sidenote: _tippet or scarf_] to-day, tippets and scarfs are very little used, but they are very comfortable things to wear to school on a cold day. in order to make them, string a continuous warp of the required length with germantown dark colored wool. weave the same color for the woof, and brighten it at intervals with roman stripes. a plaid scarf can be woven, if preferred; while with a close warp one can have a kindergarten pattern in another, or contrasting color. [sidenote: _wristlets_] in making wristlets, one must decide how long they are to be, and adjust the length on the loom. measure around the wrist for the width, remembering that the wristlets will stretch when pulled over the hand. weave in stripes or plaid, or, if desired, plain, stringing the warp with the same wool as is used in weaving. remove the mat and sew the edges together. [sidenote: _sleeve protectors_] sleeve protectors can be woven of raffia in the same way as wristlets. make them so they can be fastened on the outside of the sleeve, like a cuff. [illustration: _a table mat made from carpet wool_] [sidenote: _purses, or chatelaine bags_] purses, or chatelaine bags, are made of knitting-silk. beads can be added, if desired. adjust the loom for the required size, and string a continuous warp, if necessary. one can obtain the silver or nickel tops, which open and close, at the department stores. [illustration: _borders for rugs or squares_] [sidenote: _shopping and school bags_] [sidenote: _opera glass bags_] it will be better to use heavier material for shopping and school bags. raffia makes a strong bag; silk strips are serviceable, and leather strips are good for school bags. for opera-glass bags, make two mats and lace or weave them together, or string a continuous warp. use rope silk, chenille, or knitting silk with beads. [illustration: _borders for rugs or squares_] when one has mastered the mysteries of weaving thoroughly enough to make a _good_ mat, it is very easy to "turn them into" various articles. there is no sleight of hand about it. [sidenote: _panels of silk canvas for boxes_] silk canvas panels are made by adjusting the loom for the required size of the sides of the box, and weaving a plain mat for the top. a number of suggestions have been given on page , under the head of materials. pretty neckties of fine knitting silk can be made on the loom by using a continuous warp of the same material. [illustration: _a square of silk canvas with cross-stitched pattern of chenille_] [sidenote: _sofa pillows, cushions, sachet cases and veil cases_] the accompanying illustration, and another on page , and also the vignette on the title page, show squares of silk canvas, and will give one many ideas of how they may be used. one has a cross-stitched pattern of chenille, and in another the chenille was alternated with silk in the warp, and both chenille and silk were used in the woof. the squares can be made up in cushion and box covers, sachet cases, sofa pillows, or the larger squares can be used as veil cases. a number of them can be joined for large sofa pillows. in the latter case they can be made of wool, and many of them could be crocheted together for an afghan or slumber robe. [illustration: _pattern for rugs or squares_] the design in the illustration is a pattern which may be used for either a wilton or axminster rug, or for mats, sachet cases, cushion or box covers, or cross-stitch embroidery on burlap, or silk, or wool canvas. the patterns given on pages , , , and will be found adaptable for rugs or squares. [sidenote: _slumber robes or afghans_] [sidenote: _portières_] slumber robes or afghans have been previously mentioned on page , under the head of materials. it will be found very easy, after a little experience with a continuous warp, to make strips of any length. it is better to wind the extra lengths of warp upon spools, as has been suggested, or around the tops of the rods. large portières can be made of long strips of silk or silkoline cut bias. fasten the long strips together horizontally in imitation of bagdad curtains. [illustration: _borders for rugs or squares_] [sidenote: _hair receivers_] hair receivers are easily made from raffia. make a square mat and fold it in cornucopia form. chapter twelve oriental rugs [sidenote: _rugs and draperies_] to be quite up to date, miss dolly should have oriental rugs and draperies in her house beautiful. these are easily made on the loom, and the little girl or boy, who has first copied a pattern and then seen it grow under patient fingers, has a thing of beauty and a joy forever. what could give more pleasure than to be able to say fifty years from now: "i wove that, my dear, when i went to school"? truly the grandchildren would reply: "how i wish i could have gone to grandma's school!"--only they may have something equally beautiful which will take its place in that far-off time--who knows? [illustration: _border for rugs or squares_] [illustration: _borders for rugs or squares_] [sidenote: _patterns_] [sidenote: _oriental colors_] the patterns for oriental rugs familiar in the east have descended through hundreds of years, and the exquisite colors, produced by vegetable dyes, and increasing in richness and beauty with age, are only to be seen in old rugs. we have nothing in our modern dyes to compare with the old color. one is soon interested in the study of these eastern treasures, and it becomes second nature in a short time not only to chat familiarly of kermans, serebends, khivas, bokharas, and kiz-kilims, _ad infinitum_, but to jot down now and then in one's notebook, or still better in one's design book (made of the kindergarten squared paper, one-eighth inch), a pretty border or centerpiece for the rug which is to grace some doll house. the patterns of turkish rugs (see page ) are of geometrical or arabesque designs--an edict from the koran having prohibited the reproduction of living things. the persians, however, weave animals, birds, etc., as their ancestors did in days gone by. [sidenote: _inscriptions on persian rugs_] there is some very interesting reading in "oriental rug weaving," by v. kurdji, on the subject of inscriptions often found on persian rugs. he says: "if the possessors of some of the rare pieces that are sold in this country knew the meaning of the inscriptions woven in their rugs, the knowledge would add a charm and interest which would make them more valuable than the harmonious colors so beautifully blended." [illustration: _pattern for border of persian rug_] [sidenote: _bokkara rugs_] [sidenote: _khiva rugs_] oriental rugs take their names from the countries or provinces in which they are made. bokhara rugs are made in mountainous districts of turkestan, and have never been successfully imitated, because the dyes used are made from a plant grown only in that district. the designs are geometrical, and the colors deep maroon or blue. the pile is woven as close as velvet. they are noted for the superior quality of their dyes. khiva rugs, sometimes called afghan, are made in turkestan. they resemble the bokhara rugs, but are coarser in texture and heavier in pile, and they differ from them in having a wide selvage at each end. some khivas have a small pattern in red mosaic over the surface with a circle in the center. one often sees a rug made of a rich golden yellow with a background of dark red. [illustration: _a kiz-kilim rug pattern_] [illustration: _pattern for a kiz-kilim stripe_] [sidenote: _kiz-kilim rugs_] the kiz-kilim rugs have no nap, and are woven with a needle. they are thin and almost alike on both sides. the larger sizes are woven in two strips fastened together so that they can be taken apart and used for curtains. "these kiz-kilims are woven by armenians and turks in anatolia (the land of sunrise, and the greek name for asia minor). the literal translation of the word kiz-kilim is bride's rug, it being a custom in that country for a bride to present to her husband one of these rugs, which she has woven during her engagement to him. the quality of the rug is supposed to measure the quality of the husband's affection for his bride, consequently we have many beautiful specimens of this class, the brilliant hues and intricate designs of which could only have been inspired by the whisperings of cupid. they are in open-work patterns--called perforated--and often have long tufts of colored silk tied to the rugs with blue beads, in order to keep them from the effects of the evil eye." the kiz-kilim rug in the illustration was copied from a genuine rug. the filling is a deep blue and the borders are in oriental colors. the center figure is white, with red, brown, and yellow inside. there are four kinds of kilims. much interesting and valuable information can be found in john kimberley mumford's "oriental rugs"; new york: charles scribner's sons, , where directions for weaving kiz-kilims, khivas, and bokharas are given, with a few patterns. [illustration: _a kiz-kilim rug_] [sidenote: _materials used_] [sidenote: _perforations_] [illustration: _pattern for a turkish rug_] oriental wools or carpet ravelings are used for these rugs. copy your figures and colors from genuine rugs. the accompanying patterns were obtained in this way. see directions on page for stringing a double warp with fringe at each end. first fasten the pattern under the warp; then weave about one-quarter inch at each end with carpet thread like the warp. this will make it look like a "truly" kiz-kilim. next to this, weave a very narrow strip of several colors each twice across, regarding the double strings as one. then weave each part of the narrow border. to make the perforations, take up one thread of the double warp for one side of the pattern, and the other thread for weaving the pattern next to it. for instance, the "steps," as the children call them, of triangle no. , when finished, will stand close to the steps of triangle no. , with a little slit between. these perforations occur only where one pattern joins another of a different color, or the dark filling. for instance, in the white figure in the center, where three or five squares come together, the slits occur at each end, the part between being woven over the double strings as if they were only one. in this way the perforations of other parts are closed top and bottom. use a tape needle and weave each section of the pattern separately. weave the filling last. as this peculiar tone of blue could not be obtained in carpet ravelings, an eighth of a yard of terry was raveled for the purpose. take care not to draw any part of the pattern too tight, or the perforations will be too large. the right and left edges of the rug are woven over the rods to keep them straight. both narrow borders were woven before the center was commenced. the pattern in the illustration is for a wilton or axminster rug, but can be used for mats, or box, sachet, and cushion covers. it is made with cross-stitch embroidery on burlap, silk, or wool canvas. (see also page .) [illustration: _a pattern for a rug or square_] [sidenote: _turkish patterns laid with tablets_] the children can lay these turkish patterns with square tablets upon their desks, the pattern being drawn upon the board, or on paper with a rubber pen. it will be a delight to the children to transfer them to paper by drawing and then coloring, or by cutting and pasting colored papers. [sidenote: _stitches for khiva and bokhara rugs_] the genuine khiva and bokhara rugs are made by weaving and knotting alternately. it will be easier at first to weave a web, or foundation. choose a tight twisted yarn about the color of the rug to be woven. string a close warp of the wool and weave plain up and down, one string at a time, until you have a rug of the desired size. put in the pattern first, and then the filling. this work will be almost too difficult for _little_ children. carpet wools and germantown wool can be used. it will not be found difficult to follow the pattern, especially if one is used to cross-stitch embroidery. each stitch counts for one of cross-stitch. keep the stitches very close together so that the nap will stand up well when finished. silk rugs can be copied in the same way, using floss or rope silk for the pile. if one prefers, a piece of burlap may be stretched across the loom and secured to the rods, instead of weaving a foundation, as suggested. [illustration: _stitches for pile weaving_] [sidenote: _stitches for pile weaving_] [sidenote: _the first stitch_] stitches for pile weaving are very easily made. this illustration showing examples of stitches for pile weaving illustrates the methods used in the stitches, and may be used for axminster or wilton rugs, for boxes, sachet cases, and other articles. the tape needle is the kind used for weaving when the large needle cannot be used. it is preferable to use one of this kind on account of the eye and blunt point, and it may be obtained at the notion counter in department stores for a few cents. there are two stitches, each occupying half of the illustration and numbered from left to right, beginning at the top. make no. by passing a tape needle threaded with wool down through the web, leaving a short end, then up one stitch to the left. this is the first step. in no. continue over on the right side, _past_ the stitch where you started, to the stitch on the right; then down and up through the first hole, and cut off the wool the same length as the end you left at first. no. shows a stitch completed. no. , one row of stitches, and no. , three rows, showing how one row overlaps another. when the rug is finished, the ends should be cut evenly, so that the nap is like velvet. the children would say that this stitch looks like a two-legged stool, and so it does. [sidenote: _the second stitch_] the second stitch is made so that the nap lies sideways from left to right. no. _a_ is just like the preceding stitch. no. _b_ shows the needle passing down the stitch where you started and up one stitch to the right. cut off the wool and pull the end left at first over the last one. this pile should stand very straight and even. no. _c_ shows a completed stitch; no. _d_ one row, and no. _e_ three rows. these stitches are useful in mending khiva and bokhara rugs. [sidenote: _wilton and axminster rugs_] wilton, axminster, or any rugs having a pile, can be woven with the same stitches. the pattern in the illustration may be used for either a wilton or axminster rug, for a box cover, cushion, sachet case, or mat; and can be cross-stitched embroidery, on burlap, silk or woolen canvas. [illustration: _pattern for a rug, mat or cover_] chapter thirteen navajo blankets [illustration: _a miniature indian loom_] [sidenote: _a sketch_] [sidenote: _indian weaving_] [sidenote: _the colors used_] [sidenote: _old indian blankets are rare_] [sidenote: _description of the illustration_] navajo blankets were first made by the pueblo indians, from whom the navajo indians learned the art, and not long after the latter excelled in the making of them. among the pueblo indians the men do the work; but women are the weavers among the navajos. in the illustration on this page is seen a miniature navajo loom with the blanket commenced. the two cords woven at the sides with the woof can be easily seen. simple looms are suspended between two posts or trees, and the weaver sits upon the ground. a twig is used for a shuttle, and a reed, fork-shaped like a hand, is used to push down the woof threads. the blanket is made waterproof by pounding down the threads with a batten, a good picture of which is seen in dr. washington matthews' article on navajo weavers in the third annual report of the bureau of ethnology. separate balls of color are used to carry out the pattern, which is sometimes traced in the sand before the work is commenced. as many as twenty-nine different balls have been seen hanging from a single blanket. some of the designs have been handed down from one generation to another, and are carried entirely in the memory. they are often symbolical "and unfold a whole legend to the knowing eye of the native." the weaving is done from the bottom up, some working in one direction, while others weave first at the bottom, then turn the loom upside down, and, after weaving about the same distance there, finish in the middle. the last part of the weaving is like darning, and is often done with a needle. the colors most used are white, gray, black, a bright yellow, red (a scarlet, generally obtained by raveling bayeta cloth), and sometimes blue. in former times, when the indians used vegetable dyes, the colors were beautiful and lasting. these old blankets are becoming more and more rare, and to-day in their places we have the bright and not always satisfactory results of aniline dyes. the blanket in the illustration facing this page has narrow stripes in the following colors: on each end (seven stripes) red, black, white, orange, green, white, black. the two groups of six stripes in the middle are: black, white, red, green, white, black. before the advent of the present squaw dress, the black, red, and dark blue blankets were used as clothing, but the best blankets were, and still are, worn at sacred dances. dr. matthews, in his report, gives an interesting description of the method of making these blankets, with several pictures of the better examples. navajo blankets are finished with four border cords, which are secured as the weaving progresses, and the ends are fastened at the four corners by small tassels. [illustration: _a navajo indian woman weaving a blanket_] [sidenote: _method of making_] [sidenote: _indian blankets_] small navajo blankets can be woven on the loom. draw the pattern and place under the warp, fastening it to the side rods. use warp or carpet thread for the warp, and weave with a tape or upholstery needle. one may weave all the pattern first, and then put in the filling; while another will weave as the indians do, filling in from one part of the pattern to the other by threading the needle with a different color. this can be done, without running the thread underneath, by hooking it in the loop of the pattern just finished. these little blankets are very fascinating things to make, and the children become much interested in them, and in indian life as well. [illustration: _a navajo blanket_] [sidenote: _the colors in the blanket on page _] this very beautiful navajo blanket, shown in the illustration, has three broad red stripes, two narrow red stripes about one-half the width of the former, and four gray stripes about one-half the width of narrow red stripes. the centers of all the figures are red, like the filling--a brilliant scarlet. the colors of the large figures, beginning at the center of each, and counting from left to right, are as follows: nos. , , and , red, green, and light yellow. nos. and , red, white, and black. the small figures, counting the same way, are: nos. , , and , red, white, and black. nos. and , red, yellow, and green. the four corners are finished with twisted red cord-like tassels. this cord also extends across the warp ends. dr. matthews tells in his article on "navajo weavers" how two cords are twisted and woven at the sides with the woof. [illustration: _a very beautiful navajo indian blanket, showing the manner of decoration_] the two navajo indian blankets illustrated in this chapter, and the pattern on the following page, may be easily adapted for the loom. germantown knitting wool or carpet ravelings can be used, although to obtain softer wool is better. some of the handsomest navajo blankets have a long nap. [sidenote: _navajo patterns laid with tablets_] the children will take pleasure in laying navajo patterns with triangular tablets, and then transferring the pattern to paper by drawing and coloring, or by cutting and pasting in colors. [illustration: _a pattern for a navajo blanket_] chapter fourteen songs, games, and stories there are many beautiful songs which can be sung during the weaving. thomas carlyle has said: [sidenote: _songs and games lighten work_] "give us, o give us the man who sings at his work! he will do more in the same time; he will do it better; he will persevere longer. one is scarcely sensible of fatigue whilst he marches to music, and the very stars are said to make harmony as they revolve in their spheres." [sidenote: _songs for the children_] there are songs about the birds' nests, always pleasing to the little folks, and doubly so when they have held in their own hands the wonderful bit of weaving, so strong and yet so soft, woven by the mother-bird for the baby-birds. mrs. spider is also very interesting with her lace-like webs which are to be found even in well-regulated schoolrooms, and the songs of the bleating sheep who give us their wool fill every little heart with delight. miss poulsson's finger play, "the lambs," gives the restless fingers something to do and the "eight white sheep all fast asleep" afford a chance for a good laugh over the "two old dogs close by" (the thumbs). one has the opportunity, too, of noticing whether the eight white sheep on the tiny hands are really _white_ enough to do the weaving. a smiling allusion to some small _black_ sheep will bring them back clean for the next session. [sidenote: _a weaving game_] the following weaving game can be played in several ways. this extract is from the "kindergarten guide," by lois bates: "six children stand in a row; a tall one at each end for the border of the mat and the other four representing the strips. the child who is to be the weaver holds one end of a long tape, while the other is fastened to the left shoulder of the first child. the weaver weaves the tape in and out among the children, placing the second row lower down. it will be easily seen that the children who had it passed in _front_ of them in the first row, had it _behind_ them in the second, and vice versa." the following weaving song in the walker and jenks book can be sung during the weaving. to be sure it is not really "over and under" when you think of them as _children_. remember that they represent a mat, and they are for the time the strips and border. (_sung to the tune of "nellie bly._") over one, under one, over one again. under one, over one, then we do the same. hi, weavers! ho, weavers! come and weave with me! you'll rarely find, go where you will, a happier band than we! kate douglas wiggin (mrs. riggs) in her "republic of childhood" describes the game in this way: [sidenote: _explanation of the game_] "first choose a row of children for threads of the warp, standing at such a distance from each other that a child may pass easily between them. second, choose a child, or children, for thread of woof. after passing through the warp, each child takes his place at the end and other children are chosen." in this way more children can take part than if a tape were used. some teachers play it in a different way, using the desks with the seats turned up for the warp and the whole number of children for the woof, winding in and out all over the room. this is very delightful, indeed, if there is enough space for the children to pass easily without tripping on the iron supports of the desks. this is a good game for a rainy day, when there is no outdoor recess. [sidenote: _bird games_] the bird games are beautiful and leave a wholesome impression of home life and home love on the children, which will have a lasting influence. few children, brought up in this tender and beautiful way, will ever feel an inclination to harm the birds, or indeed any animal. [sidenote: _interesting stories_] the fund of stories of birds and birds' nests is almost inexhaustible. miss poulsson's "in the child's world" contains many stories of the weaver (pages - ), and several about birds and birds' nests (pages - ). her talks to teachers with regard to the presentation of each subject are very helpful, as well as her suggestions for the teachers' reading. stories of the weaving birds, particularly the african weaver, are interesting. it is said that two birds work together, one on the inside of the nest and the other on the outside, passing the grass and twigs in and out, until the home is completed. the children will enjoy, too, stories of weaving in other lands, material for which can be easily obtained. in fact, no one need to be without stories in these days of books and magazines. [sidenote: _conversation_] [sidenote: _never repress the children_] last, but not least, is the conversation during the weaving. anyone who has attended a teachers' meeting, where the industrial work was being given, has not failed to remark the sociability all over the room. "how are you getting on?" "let me see yours." "oh, i cannot get it at all," etc., etc., are heard everywhere, and yet those same teachers go into their class rooms the next day and expect the children to work without whispering. if they will read what mrs. wiggin says in the "republic of childhood," in her talk on "sewing," they will never be guilty of it again. a good plan is to have the room perfectly quiet while a dictation is being given, and then allow a period of relaxation when the little folks can compare and admire the work to their hearts' content. beware of too much repression. a child when asked why a tree grew crooked, replied: "somebody stepped on it, i suppose, when it was a little fellow." the answer is painfully suggestive. mrs. wiggin truly says: "if the children are never to speak except when they answer questions, how are we to know aught of their inner life?" the following list of songs, games, and stories suggests interesting material to correlate with the work in hand-loom weaving. songs and games atkinson, frank h., jr. singing songs for children. see coonley. beebe, katherine. schoolroom plays. _chicago: thomas charles co._ cents. a weaving game. brown, kate l. stories in song. see emerson. coolidge, elizabeth. after supper songs. _chicago: herbert s. stone & co._ $ . . coonley, lydia a.; smith, eleanor; gaynor, jessie l.; root, frederick w.; and atkinson, frank h., jr. singing verses for children. _new york: the macmillan co._ $ . . davis, katherine wallace. singing rhymes and games. _chicago: clayton t. summy co._ cents. emerson, elizabeth u., and brown, kate l. stories in song. _boston: oliver ditson co._ $ . . the oriole's nest. forsythe, clarence. old songs for young america. _new york: doubleday, page & co._ . $ . . needle's eye. gaynor, jessie l. songs of the child world. _new york: the john church co._ $ . . the bird's nest. the happy lambkins. song of the shearers. spinning the yarn. grandma's knitting song. weaving song. gaynor, jessie l. see also coonley. hill, patty s. song stories for the kindergarten. _chicago: clayton t. summy co._ $ . . the children and the sheep. hofer, mari ruef. children's singing games _chicago: published by mari ruef hofer, kindergarten magazine co._ cents. hubbard, clara beeson. merry songs and games. _st. louis: balmer & weber music co._ $ . . jenks, harriet s. songs and games for little ones. see walker. neidlinger, w. h. small songs for small singers. _new york: g. schirmer._ $ . . the spider. the bee. the rainy day. nursery stories and rhymes for the kindergarten and home. _springfield, mass.: milton bradley co._ $ . . the song of a baby's blanket. the song of a baby's shirt. pratt, waldo s. st. nicholas songs. _new york: the century co._ $ . . root, frederick w. singing songs for children. see coonley. smith, eleanor. first book in vocal music. _chicago and new york: silver, burdette & co._ cents. oriole's nest song. spinning song. smith, eleanor. a primer of vocal music. _chicago and new york: silver, burdette & co._ cents. the lazy sheep. the spider. the silkworm. ---- see also coonley. songs in season. plan book. _chicago: a. flanagan._ cents. the lambkin. walker, gertrude, and jenks, harriet s. songs and games for little ones. _boston: oliver ditson co._ $ . . birdies in the green wood. fly, little birds. in the branches of a tree. eight white sheep. weaving song. stories andrews, jane. each and all. _boston: ginn & co._ cents. _boston: lee & shepard._ $ . . new work for pense. chase, a., and clow, e. stories of industry. _boston: educational publishing co._ vols. cents each. stories of cotton, wool, silk, and carpets. clow, e. stories of industry. see chase. farmer, lydia hoyt. boy's book of famous rulers. _new york: thomas y. crowell & co._ $ . . robert bruce and the spider. miller, olive thorne. little folks in feathers and fur, and others in neither. _new york: e. p. dutton & co._ $ . . the spider speaks for herself. stories of caterpillars and butterflies. a funny little log house. pierson, clara dillingham. among the farmyard people. _new york: e. p. dutton & co._ $ . . the lamb with the longest tail. the twin lambs. why the sheep ran away. poulsson, emilie. nursery finger plays. _boston: lothrop publishing co._ $ . . the lambs. ---- child stories and rhymes. _boston: lothrop publishing co._ $ . . the story of baby's blanket. ---- in the child's world. _springfield, mass.: milton bradley co._ $ . . stories of caterpillars and butterflies. a visit to the weaver. john's trousers. how a little boy got a new shirt. molly's lamb. sequel to an old story. cotton field stories. the flax. the flax flower. the silk worm. the sparrow's nest. the life of a silk worm. the goddess of the silk worm. the nest of many colors. the little worm that was glad to be alive. smith, nora a. the story hour. see wiggin. stories in season. plan book. _chicago: a. flanagan._ cents. the bramble bush and the lambs. wiggin, kate douglas (mrs. george c. riggs), and smith, nora a. the story hour. _boston: houghton, mifflin & co._ $ . . the child and the world. wiltse, sara a. kindergarten stories and morning talks. _boston: ginn & co._ cents. stories of wool, etc. chapter fifteen a list of helpful books and magazine articles books albee, mrs. helen r. abnákee rugs. _boston: the riverside press. issued by the author, pequaket, silver lake p. o., n. h._ ---- mountain playmates. _boston: houghton, mifflin & co._ (chapter on rug-making.) ashenhurst, thomas r. designs in textile fabrics. _london: cassell & co._ ---- weaving and designing of textile fabrics. _london: simpkin, marshall & co._ (chapters on history of weaving, color, and combination and arrangement of designs.) bates, lois. kindergarten guide. _new york: longmans, green & co._ benjamin, s. g. w. persia and the persians. _boston: houghton, mifflin & co._ birdwood, sir george. industrial arts of india. _london: chapman & hall._ bishop, mrs. i. b. journeys in persia and kurdistan. _new york: g. p. putnam's sons._ caine, william s. picturesque india. _new york: george routledge & sons._ collins, treachor e. in the kingdom of the shah. _london: t. fisher unwin._ davie, oliver. nests and eggs of north american birds. _columbus, ohio: the landon press._ dellenbaugh, frederick s. north americans of yesterday. _new york: g. p. putnam's sons._ dixon, charles. curiosities in bird life. _london: george redway & son._ ---- curious nests. _london: george redway & son._ dugmore, a. radclyffe. bird homes. _new york: doubleday, page & co._ earle, alice morse. home life in colonial days. _new york: the macmillan co._ firth, annie. cane basket work. _london: l. upcott gill. . new york: charles scribner's sons._ grinnell, george bird. indians of to-day. _new york: d. appleton & co._ ---- story of the indian. _new york: d. appleton & co._ gurdji, v. oriental rug weaving. _new york: f. tennyson neely co._ herrick, francis hobart. the home life of the wild birds. _new york: g. p. putnam's sons._ holt, rosa belle. rugs: oriental and occidental. _chicago: a. c. mcclurg & co._ how to make and how to mend. (directions for dyeing.) _new york: the macmillan co._ hummel, prof. the dyeing of textile fabrics. _new york: cassell & co._ james, george wharton. indian basketry. _new york: henry malkan. ._ knapp, elizabeth s. raphia and reed weaving. _springfield, mass.: milton bradley co._ kraus-boelte, mme. kindergarten guide. (occupations.) _new york: steiger & co._ mason, o. t. woman's share in primitive culture. _new york: d. appleton & co._ morris, william. some hints on pattern designing. _new york: longmans, green & co._ mumford, j. k. oriental rugs. _new york: charles scribner's sons._ sheldon, william e., and others. illustrated lessons with paper folding. _springfield, mass.: milton bradley co._ walker, louisa. varied occupations in string work; comprising knotting, netting, looping, plating, and macremé. _new york: the macmillan co._ ---- varied occupations in weaving. _new york: the macmillan co._ wheeler, mrs. candace. home industries and domestic weavings. _new york: associated artists, east d street._ white, mary. how to make baskets. _new york: doubleday, page & co. ._ wiebe, edward. paradise of childhood. _springfield, mass.: milton bradley co._ wiggin, kate douglas (mrs. george c. riggs). republic of childhood (occupations). _boston: houghton, mifflin & co._ worst, edward f. construction work. _chicago: a. w. mumford. ._ fine art books the following books can be found in the fine art collections in some public libraries. they are very valuable and contain many very beautiful illustrations of oriental rugs and carpets, which are helpful in the study of design and of harmony in color: burty, p. masterpieces of industrial art. coxon, herbert. oriental carpets. lessing, julius. ancient oriental carpet patterns. robinson, vincent j. eastern carpets. vienna imperial and royal austrian museum. oriental carpets. magazine articles a profitable philanthropy, by mrs. helen r. albee. _review of reviews, july, ._ art of the american indian. _chautauquan, march, ._ a study of the textile art, by wm. h. holmes. _sixth annual report, bureau of ethnology, washington, d. c._ (pp. , .) domestic art number. _pratt institute monthly, february, ._ home industries and domestic manufactures, by mrs. candace wheeler. _the outlook, oct. , ._ industrial classes in settlement work, by george w. r. twose. _pratt institute monthly, november, ._ [sidenote: _magazine articles_] industrial education as a social force, by h. w. stebbins. _educational review, may, ._ juvenile portiere makers. _new york tribune, new york city, march , ._ reprinted in _minneapolis journal junior, april , , minneapolis, minn._ leaf cutting (for rug designs). _pratt institute monthly, april, ._ mrs. volk and her work. _good housekeeping, september, ._ navajo weavers, by dr. washington matthews. _third annual report of bureau of ethnology, washington, d. c._ (this volume also contains a number of fine illustrations of blankets, etc.) new england rugs. _minneapolis journal, minneapolis, minn., march , ._ on the designing and making of carpets, by f. j. mayer. _the artist, july and august, ._ prehistoric textile art of eastern united states, by wm. h. holmes. _thirteenth annual report of bureau of ethnology, washington, d. c._ (pp. , .) some social aspects of education, by g. stanley hall. _educational review, may, ._ straw weaving. _american homes, knoxville, tenn., september, ._ _teachers' college record._ teachers' college, columbia university, new york. (containing a number of articles on weaving.) textile industries of the united states. _chautauquan, march, ._ textile industry since . _forum, may, ._ textiles, old and new. _the craftsman, the united crafts, eastwood, n. y., january, ._ (contains "notes from the history of textiles," "a revival of english handicrafts," and "brain and hand.") _the elementary school record_, by dr. john dewey. numbers to . _the university of chicago press, ._ (containing a number of articles on weaving and a record of industrial work done in the university elementary school of the university of chicago.) the labor museum at hull house, by jessie luther. _the commons, hull house, chicago, vol. vii., no. , may, ._ (containing valuable illustrations of old looms, and the methods of spinning and weaving.) weavers of the philippines, by g. e. walsh. _the catholic world, march, ._ what is being done in textile education. _chautauquan, august, ._ many topics interesting to teachers of industrial work are dealt with in the instruction papers of the international correspondence schools, textile department. communications should be addressed to christopher p. brooks, new bedford, mass. the index "abnákee rug industry," ff. accuracy, weaving develops, . acids, used in dyeing, , ff. action, relation to ideas, . afghans, weaving of, , , , . albee, mrs. helen r., , ff. angora wool, . aniline dyes, . ashenhurst, quotations from, , , . axminster rugs, - , , , . baby shoes, . balls, worsted, . basketry, preparation for, , . bates, lois, , , . bath rugs, . batten, the, hindoo and egyptian, . bed shoes, , . bed spreads, . blankets, - ; carriage, . blue dye, - ; wool carded, . bokhara rugs, , - , , , . bookmark, - , . borders, , , , , , , . candle-wicking, , - , . cap, . carding, ff. carpet ravelings, see _ravelings_. carpet wool, rugs of, . carriage blankets, . celluloid strips, - , . chatelaine bags, - . cheese cloth, , ff., , . chenille, , ; splicing of, - . chinese, weaving practiced by, . clavigero, on weaving in mexico, . clouding, . coles, c. s., . colors, , - , - ; color scheme, ; shading, - ; see also _dyes_, _formulas_, and names of colors. concentration, weaving develops, . conversation in class room, . copperas, . cotton, darning, ; knitting, . couch covers, weaving of, . creed, the, ; disregarded, - . cushions, . demonstration cards, . designing, weaving prepares for, , . designs, , , , , - , , ff., , . dexterity, weaving develops, , . discouragement, froebel's theory, . dish cloths, - . doll's shawl and skirt, - . doll's towel, , - . dusters, - . dyeing, , - ; formulas, ff. dyes, kinds of, , , , , ; see also names of colors. easel support for loom, . egyptians, inventors of the loom, . face cloths, - . felt mats, , - . finger play, . floor rugs, weaving of, - . formulas for colors, ff. frames, photograph and picture, . free-paper weaving, . fringe, - . froebel, friedrich, , . games, - ; list of, ff. germantown wool, , , , , . gifts, made by children, , , , , . glauber salts, , , , ff. glove boxes, . gray, wool carded, - . green dye, ; dull shade, . hair receivers, . hammocks, - . hand-training in kindergarten, , . hindoo loom, - . holders, , . hurwitz, professor, . indian dyes, . indian loom, , . individual, the, training of, . industrial training, , - . ink stains, . iron rust, . "jacob's ladder," . kerman rugs, . khiva rugs, , , , , . kindergarten, hand-training in, . "kindergarten guides," , , , . kiz-kilim rugs, , , , - . knotting fringe, . kraus-boelte, mme., . "kraus-boelte guide," . kurdji, v., . leaf forms, . leaf stains, . leather strips, , . linings, . loom, the, - . loom, the todd adjustable hand, see _todd_. lunch cloths, . macremé cord, ; splicing of, - . making, instinct for, . manual training, . materials, , - . mats, see _felt_, _paper_, and _table_. matthews, dr. w., , , , . measuring glass, - . mill, john stuart, . mitten, . mordants, . mottled rugs and borders, ff. mumford, john kimberley, . navajo blankets, , - . needle, used with loom, , . nut stains, - . opera-glass bags, . oriental cord, for warp, . oriental rugs, weaving of, - . "oriental rugs," . "oriental rug weaving," . panels, of silk canvas, . paper mats, , , ff. "paradise of childhood," , , . patterns, see _designs_. pencil holder, . persian rugs, designs for, . photograph and picture frames, . pile weaving, - . pink, wool carded, . porch curtains, . portières, . poulsson, miss, , . practical training, need of, . principles, value of learning, . public schools, practical training in, , , - . purses, - . "pussy-cat stairs," - . quilts, . raffia, , , , ff., , - . raffia mats, method of weaving, - . ravelings, , , . red dye, . reins, . "republic of childhood," the, , . rope silk, , - ; splicing of, . sachet cases, . scarf, . school bags, . scientific facts as applied in schools, . sequence weaving, ff. serebend rugs, . shawls, - . shetland wool, . shoes, bed, - ; baby, . shopping bags, . shuttle, egyptian, ; hindoo, . silk, ; knitting, . silk canvas, - . silkoline, , ; for rugs or mats, - . skirt, doll's, . slats, weaving with, - , - . sleeve protectors, . slumber robes, , , , . socks, - . sofa pillows, . songs, games, and stories, - , ff. splicing, methods of, - . splints, weaving with, - , . star, . steiger, e., publisher, . stories, , ; list of, ff. "straw weaving," . success, froebel's theory, . sweater, doll's, . table cover, . table mats, , , . tam o'shanter, . tassels, . tippet, . todd adjustable hand-loom, - . towels, doll's, , - . turkish rugs, designs for, - , - . vegetable dyes, , , . vegetable fibres, for weaving, , . veil cases, . walker and jenks, song by, , . warp, , - . weaving, its advantages, , ; oldest of the industrial arts, , , ; defined, ; first steps in, , - ; free paper, . wheeler, mrs. candace, . wiebe, edward, , . wiggin, mrs. kate douglas, , . wilton rugs, - , , , . woof, stringing of, . wool, for weaving, , , , ff. worsted, splicing of, . wristlets, - . http://www.archive.org/details/spoolknitting mccorich spool knitting by mary a. mccormack [illustration] new york a. s. barnes & company copyright, by a. s. barnes & company. contents page spool knitting toy knitters round web flat web circular mat ball for baby doll's muff collarette tom o' shanter cap baby's rattle toboggan cap child's bath or bedroom slippers small mittens doll's hood doll's coat or jacket bootees little boy blue little red riding hood doll's skirt little boy's hat child's muffler child's hood little girl's hat doll's sweater wristlets shoulder shawl doll's carriage robe child's leggings muffler made of knitting cotton jumping rope toy horse reins wash cloth school bag chimney cleaner doll's hammock [illustration] spool knitting few elementary exercises have aroused more interest in the child than the toy knitting; due, perhaps, to its simplicity and his power to do it easily and well. to some keen observer the little orb-weaving spider may have suggested this form of occupation. be this as it may, the child who is a lover of nature will be quick to perceive the strong resemblance he bears to this little insect while at work with his toy knitter, going from post to post just as the insect worked its net in spiral form on his framework of radiating lines. the possibilities of an empty spool and a few pins are almost without limitations. the illustrations here given are merely suggestive of many more that can be worked out along these lines. they are not simply to momentarily attract the child, but to permit of individual growth, and to have him participate in the joy of its ultimate use. [illustration] toy knitters toy knitters are made of a cylindrical piece of wood two and one-half or three inches long and at least one inch in diameter. this size enables the child to grasp it easily and work without cramping the fingers. a hole one-fourth or one-half inch in diameter is bored lengthwise through the center to admit the work. spools are used to advantage where knitters cannot be obtained. pins, staples, or wire nails are used as posts. these are driven into the wood and then curved outward a little at the top with pliers, to prevent the work from slipping off. one, two, three or four posts may be used. a number of forms of web can be made, but the simplest and quickest are those made on the knitters having but two posts. the four-post knitters are also simple and are used where a thick cord is needed. except otherwise specified two-post knitters are used for these models. [illustration] round web drop worsted through the hole in the center of the knitter and draw it out at the other end, three inches. this end is used to draw the work through the knitter. carry the worsted leading from the ball, around the post to the right, across the center of the hole in the knitter and around the post to the left; then back across the center to the post at the right, thus making two stitches on this post. lift the lower or first stitch with a large pin or knitting needle, carry it over the second stitch and drop it over the post; then across the center to the post at the left and repeat. so continue until the desired length is obtained. it will require seven yards of yarn to make one yard of web on the two-post knitter. [illustration] flat web begin in the same way as for round web, but after carrying the first or lower stitch over the second stitch on each post, bring the worsted back around the same post, and over to the post on the opposite side and repeat. this will leave two stitches on each post. in knitting flat webs, two stitches must always be left on the end posts, and these two are carried over the third stitch and dropped over the post in working back and forth. it requires eleven yards of yarn to make one yard of flat web on the two-post knitter. [illustration] circular mat a mat five inches in diameter requires two and one-half yards of round web. start sewing with the piece of worsted hanging from the end of the web. coil and sew in place by taking up the underhalf of a stitch on the right, then the underhalf of a stitch on the left side usually called "ball stitch." continue alternating from right to left, taking up one stitch at a time except when it is necessary to widen; then sew two stitches of the web into one in the mat. run the end of sewing thread back in the sewing to fasten it. when starting with a new sewing thread, put the needle in one inch back from where sewing ended and run it through the work to where the last stitch was taken. [illustration] ball for baby use round web. start with end of web and sew and coil as for round mat. widen only when necessary to keep it from drawing in too quickly. when desired width or center of ball is reached, fill with tissue paper or a ball of soft cotton. the sewing is then continued and each row narrowed off by taking two stitches in part already sewed and one in the web. when the same number of rows is narrowed the filling should be entirely covered. the end left over will serve as a cord for the ball. flat web may be used by taking twelve pieces three inches long and sewing them together--alternating color and white, if desired. run a draw-thread around the bottom and fill with paper or cotton; then run a draw-thread around the top. finish with a cord made of a piece of round web. [illustration] doll's muff this will require three yards of round web. sew the web into a rectangular piece three inches wide and five inches long. join the three-inch ends together and draw up the ends a little to form the muff. finish with cord to go around the neck. [illustration] collarette round web five yards. measure the doll's neck for collar. gradually widen each row in the back. bring the third row of web down in front to form the tabs; then up to the back of collarette and finish the back, bringing the last row down in front into the tabs. paper patterns may be used as a guide, but children should be encouraged to draw and cut their own patterns. [illustration] tam o' shanter cap measure the doll's head and make the top of the crown twice the diameter of the head. it is sewed in the same way as the circular mat. when the desired width of crown is obtained, begin the under side of the crown by narrowing off--that is, taking two stitches in the crown and sewing them into one stitch in the web. continue until the desired opening for the head is obtained. two rows of web will complete the headband. finish with a pompon on top. use round web. [illustration] baby's rattle the foundation ring is made of a piece of splint or flat pith fifteen inches long. form this into a ring, having the ends lap two inches. wrap this with knitting cotton or yarn, being careful to keep winding even. when the winding is completed, draw the end of cotton underneath the winding with a needle to fasten it. use three pieces of round web for spokes. fasten all three together in the center. bells may be sewed on the outside or inside of the ring. [illustration] toboggan cap to make a cap five inches long and four inches wide, knit eighty-four inches of flat web. begin five inches from the end of the web, turn and sew into a rectangular form five inches wide and eight inches long. join the five-inch ends, and draw in the top with the needle and a piece of the material from which the cap was made. after securing the top, twist and fold the piece of yarn remaining for a cord and fasten a number of strands of yarn through the loop for a tassel. [illustration] child's bath or bedroom slippers length of sole, five and one-half inches. it is well to have the soles before beginning to sew. they can be secured at any store. each slipper requires two and one-half yards of round web. start at the back of the heel (a, of illustration), and make the first two rows three inches high, then gradually shorten the next three rows, and keep each row this height until the instep is finished. the first row on the vamp (b, of illustration) is made one inch higher than the side. each row is then gradually shortened, the last row being three-fourths of an inch high (c, of illustration). this will complete one-half of the slipper. the other half is made in just the reverse way by continuing the sewing from the toe (c, of illustration) back to the heel, taking care that each row is exactly the same height as the corresponding row on the opposite side. join the back of the heel and sew to the soles before closing the vamp in front. sew vamp up the center by catching corresponding loops together. make cord and tassel to go around the top, as in illustration of finished slippers. [illustration] small mittens sixty inches of flat web will be required for each mitten. cut off eight pieces six inches long. in cutting, clip just one stitch and run the ends across, and sew them into a cylindrical form. draw in the top with a needle and a piece of the material and fasten securely. leave an opening on one side for the thumb. the thumb is made of three pieces sewed together. the longest piece is three inches and the others each two and three-fourths inches long. in sewing it into the mitten, have the longest piece come down toward the wrist. gradually form and sew it in place. draw in the top and fasten securely. cord this is made of round web, knitted the desired length. the length will vary a little according to size of the child, but four and one-half feet is a good length. the mittens are fastened to the ends of the cord. [illustration] doll's hood this requires two yards of round web. start with the end of the web and sew into a circular form for the crown. (see illustration a.) the sixth row is brought down to within one inch of the center of the back. turn and sew around to within one inch from the center of the back on the opposite side. this will leave two inches free in the back of the hood. turn and continue sewing in this way for five rows, which will form the side of hood. the remaining part of the web is then brought around the face of the hood and across the back, as one would sew a cord. finish with cord and tassel for tie-strings. a rosette of yarn may be made for the top or side. [illustration] doll's coat or jacket this may be made of round or flat web. the coat is begun at the under-arm seam _a_. for a coat five inches long begin three inches from the end of the web to make the first turn. sew from this turn to the starting end of the web _b_, fasten the sewing thread and cut it off. the second row is made eleven inches long, or long enough to go over the shoulder and down the back, _b_ to _c_. sew four rows in this way to form the front and part of the back; then four rows five inches long for the back; then four more rows eleven inches long for the other shoulder and front _d_ to _e_. sew the fifth or last row up three inches for the other under-arm seam. join the under-arm seams, leaving an opening of two inches for sleeves if they are desired. if not, the armhole and neck can be finished off with some contrasting color. [illustration] for the sleeves, measure the length of the doll's arm and make the first row this length. make each row a little longer than the preceding row until the top or shoulder part is reached, then gradually shorten each row until the desired width is obtained. the last row should be the same length as the first row. when sewing them in the coat, have the longest part come at the top of the shoulder. buttons are made by braiding yarn and sewing it in the form of buttons. a cord for fastening is made by braiding, or twisting and folding the yarn. it is then sewed into loops or used as cord and tassel for tying. [illustration] bootees knit two yards of round web for each bootee. start two inches from the end of the web for the first turn. sew into an elliptical form three and one-half inches long for the sole. sew two more rows without widening for the sides of the foot; then sew two rows across the front for the toe; the third row bring all around the top to complete the foot. the leg of the bootee is made by bringing the web directly upward three inches before making the first turn. make each row three inches high and catch each row into the top of the foot while sewing. put cord and tassel around where the leg and foot meet. [illustration] little boy blue make coat according to directions given for doll's coat. measure the length of the doll's leg for the length of the trousers. use flat web and sew it into two rectangular pieces wide enough to make each leg a little full. join the inside seams part way and then join the open edge of the right front with the open edge of the left front. do the same with the back edges. put a draw-string around the top, or a piece of the web may be used for a waistband. put in a draw-string around the bottom of each leg. [illustration] little red riding-hood the doll shown in illustration is ten and one-half inches tall. to make cape and hood in one piece sew two rows of flat web, six and one-half inches long, for the center of the back. these two rows will also give the desired fulness. the next five rows are made nineteen inches long, or long enough to reach over the head and down to form the two sides of the cape and hood. after these five rows are completed, sew five rows six inches long on each side of the front of the cape, to make it wide enough to meet across the chest. close the cape and the hood in the back. the part above the six and a half inch rows will form the hood. draw in the top of these two short rows and sew to the base of the hood. put in a draw-string around the top of the right side of the cape in front, carry it around the base of the hood, around the top of the cape on the left side and tie in front. [illustration] doll's skirt this skirt is five inches long and made of flat web. the first and last rows are made one and a quarter inch shorter than the other rows forming the skirt. these two rows are sewed together when the skirt is finished, thus forming the placket and also the desired fulness in the back. there are sixteen rows in all. each two, when sewed together, form a scollop at the top and bottom where the web is turned. in sewing care must be taken to have each row the exact length of the preceding row except in the first and last row. the top of the skirt may be finished with a draw-string or a band made from cloth. the bottom of the skirt may be left as it is, or be finished with a blanket stitch of some contrasting color. the skirt requires five yards of flat web. [illustration] little boy's hat measure the child's head for the size of the hat. make the crown of the hat one-half of this measurement. if the child's head measures twenty-two inches around, make the crown eleven inches in diameter. the crown is circular and is made in the same way as the circular mat, taking two stitches of web and sewing them into one stitch of the crown already sewed to keep it flat. when it is of the desired size, begin the side by sewing one stitch of the web into one of the crown, at the same time holding the web to be sewed directly under the last row in the crown. make the side twice as long as the desired height of the hat. for instance, if the desired height is to be three and a half inches, make the side seven inches long, as one-half of this measurement is turned up. two colors may be used, one color for the crown and one for the side. red and black or red and white are pretty combinations. a doll's hat of the same style, the crown three and a half inches in diameter, requires five yards of round web. [illustration] child's muffler this is a combination of flat and round web. knit ten inches of flat web, change to round web by bringing the yarn across the center of the hole in the knitter to the opposite post, and knit ten inches, or the number of inches necessary to go around the neck. change again to flat web, knit ten inches and clip off. make seven such pieces and sew them together to form the muffler. the round web will form the neck part. do not remove from the knitter while changing from flat to round web. [illustration] child's hood this is made much in the same way as the doll's hood. make the back of the hood five inches in diameter, then turn the web and form the side. sew around to within four inches of the place of turning on the opposite side and turn again. so continue until the side is sufficiently wide to cover the child's head. extend this side three inches beyond the desired width, widening on each row of the extended part to give fulness. this widening may be omitted, and the extended part turned back, leaving it perfectly plain, if desired. trim with rosettes or pompons made of the same material as the hood. turn back the extended part and tack to the hood. sew a pompon or a rosette of yarn over the top of the sewing stitch. for tie-strings, use cord and tassel, or ribbon. the hood requires from twenty-five to thirty yards. [illustration] little girl's hat this requires twenty-five yards of round web. measure the child's head for the size of the hat. start the crown in the same way as the circular mat. when it is five inches in diameter, gradually turn the crown, while sewing the next five or six rows. when the desired width is reached, begin forming the side by sewing one stitch of web into one stitch of the crown, keeping each row exactly under the preceding row until the desired height is obtained; then gradually widen to form the rim, which is three and a half or four inches broad. do not widen any on the last two rows, but draw the web a little tighter while sewing to make the edge of the rim roll or turn inward. finish with cord and tassels around the crown, or pompons on the right or left side of the front of the hat. [illustration] doll's sweater this is made of five and one-half yards of flat web cut into pieces of a desired length. cut three pieces seven inches long for the front. one inch and a half of this will also form the neck. when cutting, clip only one stitch and pull out the ends. the next two pieces are cut five and one-half inches long and sewed one on each side of the front one inch and a half below the top end. each succeeding row is made a little shorter to form the shoulder, the shortest pieces forming the outside edges. make the back of the sweater in the same way and sew front and back together, leaving one and a quarter inch opening on each side for the sleeves. the sleeve is made of five pieces, the longest piece being three inches, and the shortest two and one-half inches long. sew these pieces together to form the sleeve. when sewing it into the sweater, place the longest part at the shoulder seam and stretch the armhole while sewing it in. [illustration] wristlets these are made of round or flat web. each wristlet requires one and one-half yards. measure five inches, the length of the wristlet, and turn. start sewing from this point and sew to the end of the five inches and turn again. continue until enough rows are sewed to make the wristlet the desired width, which in this model is two and one-half inches. [illustration] shoulder shawl this may be made of round or flat web, and of any desired size. if the shawl is to be thirty-six inches long, clip the web into pieces of this length and sew them together until the shawl is of the desired width, or the web may simply be turned at the end of each row, then proceed with the sewing. the fringe for the ends is made by cutting the yarn into lengths twice as long as the desired length of the fringe--that is, if the fringe is to be five inches long, cut the yarn into pieces ten inches long. fold each ten-inch piece in two, slip the folded end through a stitch in the end of the shawl and draw the two ends of the piece through the loop thus formed and pull tight. [illustration] doll's carriage robe this robe is ten inches wide and eighteen inches long, and is made of four pieces of flat web, each piece three yards long. any number of pieces of either round or flat web may be used, and the robe made wider and longer if desired. measure fifteen inches of web and turn it. begin sewing from this, turn down to the end of the fifteen inches and again turn, bringing the web around over the end. care must be taken while turning to keep the ends perfectly flat. when the three yards are used begin the other parts in the same way. make four or any desired number of parts, and sew them together, alternating the colors. put a tassel made of the same material on the rounded end of each part. if round web is used it will require more for each part, for the round is not as wide as the flat web. [illustration] child's leggings leggings may be made of round or flat web. measure five inches above the knee down to the vamp of the shoe for the length of the front part of the legging. this gives the length of the first row. turn the web and begin to sew from this point up to the top, then turn again and sew down to the toe. continue in this way until the front part is two and one-half inches wide. bring the remaining rows down to within two inches of the end of the toe, until the legging is wide enough to go around the child's leg, then sew to the opposite side of the front. sew a piece of tape to the instep. [illustration] muffler this may be made of round or flat web. make the part to go around the neck first. in this model the neck band is ten inches long and three inches wide. sew four rows of flat or six rows of round web for the neck. begin three inches from the ends to make the front. gradually shorten each row until it is of the desired length. make loops of twisted yarn and sew to one end of the neck band to slip over the buttons. sew the buttons on the opposite end and on the inside where they will be hidden while the muffler is being worn. made of knitting cotton knitting cotton can be secured at any department store. it comes in colors white, black, red, navy blue, and mixed colors. this is not as elastic as worsted and is used where strength is required, such as bags, hammocks, wash-cloths, etc. it is very inexpensive and can be used to great advantage. [illustration] jumping rope select a piece of jute, or stout cord the length of the desired rope. drop one end of this and one end of the knitting cotton through the hole in the knitter (use knitter having four posts), and draw it out at the other end three inches. bring the cotton leading from the ball around each post once, then proceed with the knitting, covering the cord or jute which is used as a core or foundation for the rope. cords for pillow tops may also be made in this way. [illustration] toy horse reins these are made of coarse knitting cotton on four-post knitters. knit a piece three yards long for the reins. the children measure each other for the breast-piece, which will be from ten to twelve inches long. this is fastened to the reins nine inches below the center of the neck on each side, to allow the head to pass through easily. two colors may be used in knitting the reins, working around first with one color, then with the other. fourteen yards of knitting cotton will make one yard of web on the four-post knitter. [illustration] wash cloth this is made of white knitting cotton. it requires nine yards of web for a cloth ten by twelve inches. measure twelve inches of web, turn and sew toward the end. when the twelve-inch piece is sewed turn again and sew. continue in this way until the desired size is obtained. with a piece of the cotton make a loop at one corner by which to hang it. [illustration] school bag this may be made of round or flat web. a bag twelve inches deep and fourteen inches wide requires thirty yards. measure twenty-four inches of web and turn. begin sewing from this turn to the end of the twenty-four inches then turn again. so continue until this oblong piece measures fourteen by twenty-four inches. fold this in two and sew up the sides. this will avoid any seam in the bottom of the bag. make handles in the same way as for jumping-rope, or a double thickness of the web may be used for each handle and sewed to the top sides of the bag. finish by sewing a piece of the web around the top. laundry bags, sewing bags, and little bags for holding paints and water-dish may be made in similar way. [illustration] chimney cleaner this is made of white knitting cotton. it requires two yards of flat or three yards of round web. secure a piece of stick or better still a piece of half-inch dowel ten or twelve inches long, for a handle. cut a groove with a knife around one end to keep the web from slipping off. sew the web into loops three and a half or four inches long. draw them in around the end of the handle with the sewing string just in the groove; then wind the sewing string around two or three times, tie, and clip off the ends. [illustration] doll's hammock this is made of flat web. a hammock eight by twelve inches requires five and one-half yards. sew this into an oblong piece twelve inches long and eight inches wide. secure a piece of cardboard three inches longer than the oblong piece and one inch wider. round off the corners with a pair of scissors (see illustration), and cut notches or slits in ends one-half inch apart. sew two brass rings in the center of one side, and on the other baste the oblong piece which is to be used for the hammock. then with a needle and a long piece of the knitting cotton begin making the ends of the hammock by securing one end of the sewing string to the hammock and bring it over the end of the cardboard in the first slit from the end and through the ring on the opposite side of cardboard; back over cardboard, through second slit and through hammock. so continue until one end is finished. do the same with the other end. these strings may be held in place by putting three or four rows of weaving just underneath the rings. clip the basting stitches and remove from the cardboard. make fringe as for shawl. transcriber's notes: the table of contents has been changed to match the actual chapter headings. a few hyphenations have been changed to make them consistent. minor typographic errors have been corrected. woodwork joints (_the woodworker series_) _revised edition_ woodwork joints how they are set out, how made and where used; with four hundred illustrations and index _revised edition_ london evans brothers, limited montague house, russell square, w.c. _the woodworker series_ woodwork joints. cabinet construction. staining and polishing. woodwork tools. practical upholstery. wood turning. woodcarving. timbers for woodwork. furniture repairing and re-upholstery. household repairs and renovations. carpentry for beginners. kitchen furniture designs. bureau and bookcase designs. light carpentry designs. doormaking. evans brothers, limited, montague house, russell square, london, w.c. . editorial foreword to be successful in woodwork construction the possession of two secrets is essential--to know the right joint to use, and to know how to make that joint in the right way. the woodwork structure or the piece of cabinet-work that endures is the one on which skilful hands have combined to carry out what the constructive mind planned. and it is just here that the present volume will help, not alone the beginner who wishes preliminary instruction, but also the expert who desires guidance over ground hitherto unexplored by him. in the preparation of this new edition the publishers have secured the services of mr. william fairham, by whom the chapters have been carefully revised and re-illustrated. although intended for the practical man, and not professing to be a graded course of "educational woodwork," the volume is one which handicraft instructors will find of the greatest value in conducting woodwork classes. no book hitherto published contains such a variety of illustrations of joints, almost all of which will form suitable exercises of practical educational importance in a woodworking course. j. c. s. b. [illustration: old oak chests, showing the method of structure which forms the origin of most of our english furniture. (from _the woodworker_, january, .)] contents page the glued joint the halved joint the bridle joint the tongued and grooved joint the mortise and tenon joint the dowelling joint the scarf joint the hinged joint shutting joints the dovetail joint dovetail grooving the mitred joint joints for curved work miscellaneous joints puzzle joints index [illustration: staircase of the second half of seventeenth century. (from _the woodworker_, september, .)] the glued joint the glued joint in its various forms is in use in every country in the world, and is frequently met with in mummy cases and other examples of ancient woodwork. alternative names under which it is known are the butt joint, the rubbed joint, the slipped joint, whilst in certain localities it is known as the slaped (pronounced _slayped_) joint. [illustration: fig. .--simplest form of glued or rubbed joint.] the glued joint is made by planing two pieces of timber so that when placed together they are in contact with each other at every point; they are then usually united with glue. fig. shows a sketch of a butt joint in its simplest form. in fig. is indicated the method of holding the joint whilst being glued; the upright portion is held rigid in the bench vice, thus leaving the left hand to hold the piece which is to be jointed, whilst the right hand operates the glue brush. the pieces of wood which form a butt joint may be glued together with or without the aid of cramps or artificial pressure. if the joint is to be made without cramping, the two surfaces of the timber are warmed so as not to chill the glue. the surfaces are then glued and put together and rubbed backwards and forwards so as to get rid of the superfluous glue. they are then put aside to dry. glueing.--the better the glue penetrates into the pores of the wood, the stronger the joint will be; for this reason timber of the loose-fibred variety, such as pine, etc., will hold up at the joint better than hardwoods like teak and rosewood. the glue used for jointing should be neither too thick nor too thin; the consistency of cream will be found suitable for most purposes. it should be nice and hot, and be rapidly spread over the surface of the wood. [illustration: fig. .--how the wood is held whilst glueing.] if light-coloured woods, such as pine, satinwood, sycamore, etc., have to be jointed, a little flake white should be procured and mixed into the liquid glue. this will prevent the glue showing a thin black line on the joint. broad surfaces of close-grained hardwood having a shiny surface are usually carefully roughened with a fine toothing plane blade previous to glueing. supporting the joint.--the jointed boards should not be reared up against a "bench leg" or wall without having any support in the centre, as dotted line at fig. , because in all probability they will fracture before the glue has time to set; and, when we go to take them up to renew working operations, we shall be annoyed to find that they have assumed a position similar to that at fig. (shown exaggerated), and this will, of course, necessitate re-jointing. [illustration: fig. .--correct jointing.] [illustration: fig. .--faulty jointing.] [illustration: fig. .--boards unsupported.] [illustration: fig. .--boards supported.] [illustration: fig. .--(a) glued slip, (b) glued moulding.] [illustration: fig. .--grain alternating.] a correct method to adopt is seen at fig. . here we have supported the joint by rearing up against the wall a couple of pieces of batten, one at each end of the board, thus supporting it throughout its entire width until the glue is thoroughly set. the two or more pieces of timber in a butt joint adhere by crystallisation of the glue and atmospheric pressure. a well-fitted joint made with good quality glue is so strong that, when boards of feet and upwards are jointed together by this method, the timber in most cases will break with the grain sooner than part at the joint. butt joints may be cramped up, if desired, and it is customary to warm them as previously stated. in the absence of the usual iron cramp, the amateur may make an excellent wooden arrangement out of any odd pieces of timber that happen to be handy. two blocks of hardwood are screwed on the base board at a suitable distance for the work in hand; the boards to be jointed are glued and placed in position between the blocks; and the two hardwood wedges are inserted and hammered in opposite directions to each other, thus exerting the desired pressure. an example of this method of cramping is shown in fig. , which also indicates the use of iron "dogs." when jointing, care should be taken to first plane up the boards true on one side--_i.e._, take them out of winding. the method of testing for this is shown at fig. , and it may with advantage be used when jointing the edges of the boards. two laths or strips of wood are planed up to exactly the same width, having their edges straight and parallel. one edge of each lath may, if desired, be bevelled a little. the method of using these "twist sticks" or "winding laths" is to put them on the board as indicated, and sight along their top edges. the winding laths, being much longer than the width of the board, show up the irregularity greatly pronounced. the tools generally used for making the butt joints are:-- the jack plane, for roughing the edges, etc. the wooden trying plane (or iron jointing plane) for trueing up the work. the try square for testing purposes. the winding laths and straight edge. the method of work is as follows: each board is in turn put in the vice and planed straight lengthwise; it is then tested with winding laths and a try square (the latter method is shown at fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--testing surface with winding laths.] the boards are then put on the top of one another as at fig. and tested with a straight edge; they should appear true as shown at fig. ; if they show faulty as at fig. the joints must be again fitted until the required degree of accuracy is obtained. difficulties may be avoided by care in selecting timber suitable for jointing, and it must be remembered that timber shrinks circumferentially (the heart side becoming curved) as dotted lines in fig. . if the timber be jointed with all the heart side one way as at fig. , the tendency will be for it to cast as shown by the dotted line. if the timber be alternated as at fig. , the tendency will be to cast wavy, whereas if quartered timber can be obtained it will stand practically straight as the tendency to shrink is in thickness only. the grain of quartered timber is shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. .--showing heart side of timber one way.] [illustration: fig. .--heart side of timber shown alternated.] [illustration: fig. .--grain of quartered timber.] [illustration: fig. .--boards showing uniformity of grain.] judgment should also be exercised to avoid jointing in which one piece of timber is wild and large in the grain, and the adjoining piece of a mild-grained nature. jointed boards should always be glued up with the grain running in the same direction if possible; this we show at fig. , and nothing looks worse than a dressing chest end or similar piece of work in which the grain runs haphazard. when jointing thin timber (say, / -in., / -in., / -in. and / -in. boards) the best method is to use a shooting board (fig. ). it must be noted, however, that a shooting board and plane practically never give a true right angle, owing to wear and the grinding of the blade. therefore, the boards _should not_ all be laid with the "face mark" on the shooting board whilst the edges are shot, because any inequality would be multiplied by the number of pieces jointed. a better method is to alternate the boards, face side up, then face side down, whilst shooting the edges; this will prevent convexity or concavity on the face of the jointed board, because any slight error in the angle is neutralised (see fig. ). applications of the joint.--the following show various applications of the butt or glued joint:-- [illustration: fig. .--carcase wing-pieces glued on.] fig. a shows a mahogany or other hardwood slip glued on the edge of a cheaper wood, such as pine or whitewood, as is the case on bookcase shelves when only the front edge is seen and polished. fig. b shows a moulding glued on a shelf, both mould and shelf in this instance being of polished hardwood. a shelf of this type might be used in a recess, the object of the overhanging moulding being to hide a small / -in. iron rod which would carry the curtain rings and heading of the curtain which covers the recess. the shelf would be fixed about ft. ins. to ft. ins. from the floor. fig. shows the wing pieces glued on the top bearer of carcase work. the application of this bearer in its position will be shown in the chapter on dovetailing. fig. shows a butt joint planed at an angle of degrees (commonly called a mitre), used for box feet, etc. fig. shows jointing up of an ogee-shaped panel. the dotted lines indicate the thickness of the timber previous to its being worked up to the finished shape. bow-fronted and semicircular panels are jointed in a similar manner. [illustration: fig. .--butting mitred angle joint.] [illustration: fig. .--jointing ogee-shaped panel.] fig. shows timber jointed at right angles to the upright piece, and at an angle of degrees. fig. indicates quarter-circle jointing, as used in round-cornered chests of drawers, wardrobes, cupboards, etc. fig. is similar to fig. , but with hollow (or concave) corners. [illustration: fig. .--jointed timber at ° and ° angles.] [illustration: fig. (above).--convex corner.] [illustration: fig. (below).--concave corner.] [illustration: fig. .--jointing a shaped spandrel.] [illustration: fig. .--building up case of piano front.] [illustration: fig. .--use of the try-square for testing edge.] [illustration: fig. .--example of circular laminated work.] [illustration: fig. .--glueing ploughslips to drawer.] [illustration: fig. .--method of holding glued joints with iron dogs.] [illustration: fig. .--method of using shooting board.] fig. gives us the jointing up of a shaped spandrel to the required width. in a case of this description suitably grained and coloured wood should be selected, otherwise the bad match will at once draw attention to the joint. fig. shows the application of butt or glued jointing to the building up of the core of a piano fall previous to shaping up and veneering. fig. .--laminated work--the building up of circular rims for cabinet and joinery work. plan and elevation show rim pattern of a pulley as used in the pattern-making trade. [illustration: fig. .--cramping glued joints: handscrews and batten shown at left; temporary batten at right to keep the wood flat.] fig. .--the glueing of a ploughslip to a drawer side is seen here, the ploughslip being used to carry the drawer bottom. fig. shows the method of jointing with shooting board and trying plane; the right hand operates the plane whilst the left hand holds the wood firm upon the shooting board. owing to the importation of narrow and faulty timber the necessity of jointing is greater to-day than ever it was, wide timber of course meaning higher cost for raw material. the method of using iron dogs is illustrated in fig. , and it will be observed that owing to the wedge-like formation of each fang (see enlarged sketch) the dog exerts the necessary pressure to close the joint. at the centre of this illustration is suggested the home-made hardwood blocks, baseboard and wedges referred to on page . fig. shows how the iron sash cramps are used to apply pressure to the joint. as this method is in some cases apt to bend and distort thin boards it is wise practice to fix (as a temporary measure) a stout piece of straight wood on to the board to be joined by using two handscrews as shown at the left hand of the illustration. at the right hand of the sketch a wooden cramping arrangement of the box type is given, and by wedging up the boards are closed together. it is obvious that if this type of box cramp be used it will prevent the boards buckling and the handscrew method at the left may be dispensed with. the halved joint the halved joint is frequently known as half-lapping, and sometimes as checking and half-checking. in the majority of cases it is made by halving the two pieces, _i.e._, by cutting half the depth of the wood away. there are, however, exceptions to this rule, as in the case of "three-piece halving" (or, as it is sometimes called, "third lapping") and in the halving of timber with rebated or moulded edges. halving is one of the simplest methods of connecting two pieces of timber, especially where it is desired to make frames and bracket supports for either inside or outside use. [illustration: fig. .--frame, with various halved joints. these joints, numbered , , , etc., are shown in detail in figs. to .] fig. shows the elevation of an imaginary frame which is indicated as made up of a number of halving joints; it shows also the application of the various joints to this class of work. each joint used in the construction of this frame may be dealt with separately. the numbers marked on fig. refer to the individual joints, shown separately in figs. to . [illustration: fig. .--halved corner joint.] [illustration: fig. .--halved t joint.] fig. shows the "halved joint" at the corner of the frame where the two pieces form a right angle (see fig. , ). each piece is halved and shouldered at opposite sides, thus forming a perfect fit one with the other and giving a strong joint with a minimum amount of labour. for inside work the joint would be glued and screwed together, the screw heads being countersunk so as not to come in contact with the cutting iron of the plane when levelling off the work. for outside work, in exposed positions where the work will have to withstand the weather, the alternative method of smearing the joint with paint or with a mixture of varnish and white lead would be advisable, the joint being nailed or screwed. fig. shows the two pieces separated. fig. shows a similar joint to the above, but in this case the top rail runs through and it is generally spoken of as a "halved t joint" (fig. , ). it may be used in nearly all cases where a top or bottom rail runs through an upright. the method of securing the joint is as before. fig. shows a sketch of the joint separated. [illustration: fig. .--oblique halving with shoulder.] [illustration: fig. .--oblique halving.] at fig. is shown an "oblique halving joint," where the oblique piece, or strut, does not run through (fig. , ). this type of joint is used for strengthening framings and shelf brackets; an example of the latter is shown at fig. . a strut or rail of this type prevents movement or distortion to a frame diagonally (generally spoken of in the trade as "racking"). fig. shows the joint apart. fig. is an example of oblique halving with the upper piece running through (fig. , ). this joint is used in similar positions to fig. , and has in some cases the disadvantage of showing end grain at the top of the frame. the sketch shows the two pieces separated. fig. is "dovetail halving," the dovetail running through the top piece (fig. , ). this is a strong joint, used where outside strain is likely to occur in the top piece, the dovetail preventing the rail from being drawn away from the shoulder. the two pieces are shown separate. [illustration: fig. .--dovetail halving.] [illustration: fig. .--mitre halving.] at fig. is seen "mitred halving," a somewhat weak joint, but necessary in mirror frames, etc., where good appearance is required on the face side (fig. , ). its use is obvious if the face of the frame be moulded with beads or other sections which require to intersect one with the other. this also applies if the frame be moulded on its face edges. fig. is a halved joint with one side of the piece dovetailed (fig. , ). this joint is used in similar positions to fig. , and rather less labour is required in the making. the two pieces are shown separate for clearness. fig. indicates the "halved joint," the pieces at one end showing a double dovetail (fig. , ). this particular joint is seldom used except for manual training purposes. the illustration shows a sketch of the joint apart. fig. is "oblique dovetail halving," one side of the piece being dovetailed. the joint is used to prevent "racking," and as a cross brace to framing. it is occasionally made with both its sides dovetailed as shown at fig. . (for reference, see fig. , .) [illustration: fig. .--halved joint with one side dovetailed.] [illustration: fig. .--halved joint with double dovetail.] [illustration: fig. .--oblique dovetail halving.] [illustration: fig. .--stopped dovetail halving.] fig. shows "stopped dovetail halving." in this case the dovetail is similar to fig. , with the exception that it does not run through the bottom rail. this is an advantage if the bottom edge of the rail is in evidence, or if it is required to glue a moulding or hardwood facing slip on the lower edge. the glue adheres better _with_ the grain than it would _end way_ of the grain, and if slight shrinkage occurs across the width of the bottom rail the moulding would not be forced away by the upright (see example at fig. , ). [illustration: fig. .--cross halving joint.] [illustration: fig. .--cross halving joint edgeways.] [illustration: fig. .--tee halving joint.] the joint lettered b in fig. is a "cross halving joint" where each piece runs through the other. fig. shows this joint separated, and fig. shows a similar joint separated where the joint is made edgeways. fig. shows a "tee halving joint" with a dovetail cut on the edge. this is seldom used except as a woodwork exercise. fig. is a "dovetailed halving joint" used for lengthening timber, and is also a favourite manual training model. it might also come under the heading of scarf joint, although rarely used in actual practice as such. as a practical woodwork exercise it calls for accurate marking out and careful fitting. [illustration: fig. .--dovetailed halving joint used for lengthening timber.] [illustration: fig. .--dovetailed and halved joint.] [illustration: fig. .--dovetailed halved joint with shoulders.] fig. shows a combination of a halved joint dovetailed edgeways, whilst fig. shows a dovetailed halved joint with the shoulders housed. this latter is seldom used in actual work. at fig. we have the application of halving joints when constructing a barrow wheel. the centre portion is an example of three pieces half-lapped or, as it is sometimes called, one-third lapped. a sketch of the three pieces separated is shown at l, b, c, fig. . this joint is extensively used in the pattern making trade for lap-jointing the arms of pulley patterns, etc. it is probably the most difficult of the halving joints to mark out and construct with the desired degree of accuracy. [illustration: fig. .--halved joints on barrow wheels.] [illustration: fig. .--detail of halved joints in fig. .] fig. shows a combination of a bevelled dovetail half-lapped joint. this is only used as a puzzle joint. when neatly constructed and glued together it is apparently impossible to make it, showing as it does a half lap on one side and a dovetailed half lap on the reverse side. fig. is the end view of a kitchen table with drop leaf, showing the skirting board scribed to the solid side. a table of this type is fastened to the wall with two iron holdfasts which engage the ends of the table. the hinged bracket frame shows the application of the halving joint to bracket supports for this and similar purposes, such as brackets to support shelving, etc. in this example the hinged brackets turn underneath the table top, and allow the leaf to drop out of the way when not required. the dotted lines show the position of a shelf for boots and shoes. [illustration: fig. .--bevelled dovetailed half lap.] [illustration: fig. .--bracket of drop table.] [illustration: figs. and .--separate pieces of halved moulded joint.] [illustration: fig. .--oblique cross halving joint.] [illustration: fig. .--manual training halved exercise joint.] [illustration: fig. .--exercise dovetail joint.] [illustration: fig. .--carpentry tie joint.] figs. and indicate the halving of cross pieces which have their edges moulded; the pieces are shown separately, the moulding being omitted to give a clearer representation of the method of construction. [illustration: fig. .--cross halving joint with housed corners.] [illustration: fig. .--the parts of fig. shown separate.] fig. is an "oblique cross halving joint" where the two pieces are not at right angles. a plan and elevation of the joint are shown at the left, whilst a sketch of one piece of the joint is given in the right-hand illustration. figs. and are principally used as manual training models, and call for patience and manual dexterity. fig. is used in carpentry and joinery where a tie or cross piece ties joists or beams at an angle. fig. shows the elevation and end view of a "cross halving joint" with housed or notched shoulders. this joint is seldom used in actual practice. the separate parts are given in fig. . at fig. are shown two cross rails and an upright halved together. this type of joint is used where three pieces meet, as is the case in building the framing of a poultry house. the joint is nailed together. [illustration: fig. .--cross rail and upright halved joint.] [illustration: fig. .--workshop trestle joint.] [illustration: fig. .--cellarette partition joints.] fig. is the end view of an ordinary workshop trestle, showing the application of dovetailed halving where the legs have a tendency to strain outwards. the inset sketch of joint shows the housing of the top rail to receive the legs. fig. shows a deep drawer, generally known as a cellarette, and used in a sideboard to accommodate wine bottles. here we have a good example of halving the cross pieces so as to form compartments. the part shown separately illustrates the method of construction. the ends of these pieces engage the housings or grooves of the drawer sides. pigeon holes or compartments in stationery cases, bookcases and writing bureaux are constructed in a similar manner, although the method of housing, or combined halving and housing, is to be preferred in some cases. [illustration: fig. .--joint used for table with circular top or rim.] at fig. is the plan of a circular table having a small circular shelf with the top removed. the rims or framing are built by the method known as laminating (see fig. in chapter on the the glued joint), after which they are veneered on the face sides. the application of the halving joint to the shaped bottom rails, which in this case carry and support the small shelf, is shown in the part elevation. [illustration: fig. (a).--oxford frame with halved joints. (four alternative corner treatments are given.)] [illustration: fig. (b).--halved joint of oxford frame with front edges champered.] [illustration: fig. (c).--back view of oxford frame.] fig. (a) shows the well-known "oxford frame," illustrating halved joints when the edge is rebated. figs. (b) and (c) make clear the construction of this type of joint. alternative suggestions are shown for the treatment of the corners, the simple inlay being black and white (ebony and holly or boxwood). frames of this type are made in various widths and sizes and are used for pictures, mirrors, etc. [illustration: fig. .--the two pieces of a halved joint.] the tools used for making joints of the above class are: planes, the gauge, tenon or other saw, chisels, try square, and in some cases a joiner's bevel to obtain and mark the necessary angles, pencil and marking knife. plane up the face side and face edge of the timber, gauge and plane to both thickness and width; mark shoulders with pencil or marking knife; gauge to the thickness of the required halving; saw waste portions away; pare up with chisel to a good fit; glue or glue and screw, or use paint as previously mentioned, and then level off the surfaces. setting out the halved joint.--although at first sight the halved joint may appear to be a very easy item of construction, it requires much care and attention in marking out and sawing. fig. shows the two pieces which form the joint separated, and it will be noticed that each piece of wood has half its thickness cut away, so as to accommodate the other piece. this type of joint is used where two pieces of wood cross each other at right angles, or at an angle as shown in fig. . the halving joint is used also for joining two pieces of wood at their ends, as, for instance, the corner of a frame, one half of this joint being shown at fig. (b). [illustration: fig. .--how the timber is marked.] [illustration: fig. .--marking the joint with try square.] to make the joint, the timber should be carefully planed to its exact width and thickness. the two pieces may then be placed upon the bench (as shown at fig. ) or fixed in the vice. find the centre of the timber, c, fig. , and set out half the width of the wood on each side of the dotted centre line. thus, suppose the wood (w) to be ins. wide, then set in. on each side of the centre line. take a square as at fig. , and with a sharp penknife blade score or cut a line all round each piece of timber. [illustration: fig. .--using the marking gauge.] next take up a marking gauge, and set the marking point to half the thickness of the wood. the distance may be measured, and its exactness tested, by pricking a small hole from each side of the wood with the marking gauge and carefully noting that the pricked holes coincide. the gauge mark is clearly shown in the various illustrations. now, take a pencil and scribble or mark "waste" on the parts you intend to cut away. this will save trouble later on, especially if you are making several joints at once. take your sharp penknife or marking knife blade, and cut fairly deeply into the marked line on the portion you are going to pare away. [illustration: fig. .--chiselling away wood up to gauge line.] [illustration: fig. .--how work is held when sawing shoulder.] fix the wood firmly in your vice, or against your cutting board or bench stop, as may be more convenient to you, and with a sharp chisel cut away the wood up to the marked line, as at fig. . the channel in the sketch is exaggerated, so as to show the method clearly. the object of using a penknife or marking knife to mark your work, instead of using a pencil, will be obvious. owing to the knife having scored about / in. deep across the fibres of the wood, the timber will come away cleanly when the chisel is used, as at fig. . the small channel thus made will form a guide in which to start your tenon or dovetail saw; it prevents the saw cutting on the wrong side of the marked line and thus making the halving too wide. [illustration: fig. .--paring away waste with chisel.] [illustration: fig. .--showing an oblique halved joint.] sawing.--lay the work on the cutting board as at fig. ; or, if you prefer, put the work in the vice. carefully saw down the work until you _just touch_ the gauge line. do not press heavily with the saw; use it lightly; the weight of the back iron which is fixed on the saw will ensure the saw feeding into the work quite fast enough. if the saw is newly sharpened it will, in fact, be an advantage to slightly ease the weight of the saw from off the wood, owing to the keenness of its edge. if the halving is a very wide one, additional cuts may be sawn between the outside marks, and these will greatly facilitate the removal of the waste wood when paring it away. for sawing the joint reference may be made to the chapter on dovetailing. [illustration: fig. .--sawing the cheek of a halving joint.] paring away the waste material with a chisel is the next step, and this is shown at fig. . the work may be chiselled either in a vertical or a horizontal position. the horizontal position is the easiest for the amateur who has a vice or handscrew, because he may hold the work securely with a mechanical device and so avoid the unnecessary risk to his fingers. take the chisel and cut away a, fig. ; now turn the chisel and cut away b; after which keep the chisel horizontal and cut off "the top of the hill," as it were, c. repeat the three operations until you gradually pare the wood away exactly to the gauge line. when chiselling, if you find a tendency for the work to chip or crumble at the back edge owing to the forward pressure of the chisel, turn your wood round and begin to cut from the other edge, allowing the chisel to finish paring at the centre. joints other than a right angle.--if the halving joint is at an angle similar to the sketch shown at fig. , great care will have to be exercised in the use of the chisel, owing to the change in the direction of the grain of the wood. the arrow marks in this sketch distinctly indicate the direction in which the chiselling must be done so as to give a smooth result. this change of direction for cutting also applies to the bottom of the halving joint. cutting joint at end of timber (fig. ).--should the halving joint be used at the end of a piece of wood, as at fig. , the waste material may be roughly sawn away and the flat surface trimmed up with a chisel. to saw out this type of halving joint, proceed to work the shoulder line as already described; then place the piece of wood obliquely in the vice as shown (fig. ) and proceed to saw down the vertical line, carefully watching the gauge line to see that you saw on the _waste_ side of the lines. then turn the piece of timber with its opposite edge towards you, and again use the saw as illustrated. you will this time only have to watch the gauge mark on the edge of the wood, because the saw will readily follow in the saw kerf already made. now place the wood vertically in the vice, and keeping the saw in a horizontal position, saw down to the shoulder line. halving joints properly made and fitted should knock together with the weight of the clenched fist; the use of a heavy mallet or hammer will deface the work. [illustration: fig. .--joints used in the erection of a queen post roof truss.] the bridle joint a bridle joint is often defined as the reverse of a mortise and tenon, and is chiefly used in the carpentry and joinery trades. the name probably originated from the fact that it bears some resemblance to the manner in which a bit slips into the horse's mouth and is fastened to the bridle. there are fewer varieties of the bridle joint than of the halved or the mortise and tenon; and this being the case we may take the opportunity of giving a few detailed directions, with explanatory illustrations, on the setting out and the making. [illustration: fig. .--simple bridle joint.] fig. shows a bridle joint in what is perhaps its simplest form, the separate pieces being given at the left and the completed joint at the right. a joint of this type may be applied in nearly all cases where a halved or a mortise and tenon joint could be used. bridle joints have an advantage as regards appearance over the mortise and tenoned variety in cases such as fig. , which shows an occasional table leg fitted to the circular top framing. the bridle joint here allows the grain of the leg to run through to the top, and gives a better and more workmanlike appearance to the completed article. [illustration: fig. .--table leg bridle-jointed to rail.] fig. is a "mitred bridle joint," the part _a_ showing the upright portion separated. this is a most useful joint for positions similar to that shown in the small glass frame, fig. . the wood framing in this case is only - / in. in width, and if a mortise were used it would have to be exceptionally small. the shaped rail at the bottom of this frame again shows the application of the bridle joint. fig. shows an "oblique bridle joint," used in many instances as a brace, or strut, to prevent framing from racking. (see also figs. and .) fig. is a "stopped bridle joint," used in positions where the top or bottom edge of the work meets the eye, and where, if the rail were allowed to run through, the end grain would appear unsightly. [illustration: fig. .--mitre bridle joint.] [illustration: fig. .--mirror frame with bridle joints.] fig. is a so-called bridle-joint at the corner of a frame. this is also called an "open slot mortise and tenon joint," a good strong, serviceable joint which can be used instead of the closed mortise and tenon type, its advantage being that less labour is required in the making. (see also fig. .) fig. is an "oblique angle bridle joint," used in similar positions to the above, but when the two pieces meet at an acute angle at the end of a frame. fig. shows the application of the bridle joint to a roof truss. two sketches are shown at the joining of the tie beam and the principal rafter. the joint _a_ is the type generally used. (see also fig. for the joints in a queen post roof.) [illustration: fig. .--oblique bridle joint.] [illustration: fig. .--stopped bridle joint.] [illustration: fig. .--bridle joint at corner of frame.] [illustration: fig. .--oblique angle bridle joint.] [illustration: fig. .--application of bridle joint to roof truss.] setting out and marking.--it is a safe rule, when setting out a bridle joint, to divide the thickness of the timber into three equal parts. this will leave the timber on each side of the tongue equal to the thickness of the tongue, thus giving uniform strength to the joint. the bridle joint is chiefly used for connecting the internal parts of wooden frames. it is stronger than the halving joint, and, owing to its peculiar construction, requires little in the way of pegs, screws or nails to secure it in position. fig. illustrates the joint, both open and closed. to understand the method of setting out and marking, glance at the sketch, fig. . it is not necessary that the bridle piece a be the same width as the cross piece b; but it must be remembered when setting out the joint with the marking knife or pencil that the width marked w on piece b must be equal to the width w on the piece a. the timber should be fairly accurately sawn or planed to the same thickness, and all edges should be square and true. the wood is placed upon the bench, and the joint marked out by using a marking knife or penknife blade and the try square. a knife blade is much better than a pencil, as the sharp edge severs the fibres of the wood and gives a finer line than the pencil. it is not always necessary to exactly square and trim the end of piece a; it may with advantage in many cases be left at least / in. longer than necessary and levelled off with the saw, plane and chisel after the joint is put together. (see method of cutting in fig. , page .) when the piece a has to have a bridle joint fitted at each end, it is customary to cut the timber about / in. longer than necessary, and mark the shoulder lines c to the exact length, after which the joints are cut. this leaves the ends standing over the horizontal rails, and, after fixing the complete frame together, the small projecting ends are levelled off flush with the cross rails. gauging.--after squaring all the shoulder lines round the timber with the knife and try square, the mortise gauge should be set so as to strike the two gauge lines marked g, figs. and , at one operation. if the worker does not possess a mortise gauge the lines may be marked at two distinct operations with the aid of the marking gauge (fig. ). the gauge should be adjusted so as to mark the wood into thirds, and the stock of the gauge (the portion of the gauge containing the thumb screw in fig. ) must be used from the face side of the timber when gauging up the whole of the pieces forming a frame. the face mark on the work is indicated by a glorified comma, and the edge mark is shown by x, as in the various illustrations. fig. shows the method of holding the gauge in the right hand whilst gauging the lines on the work. [illustration: fig. .--bridle joint, open and closed.] [illustration: fig. .--gauging the timber.] the joint, when marked out, will appear as at figs. and , and the portions which are to be cut away may be shaded with a pencil as indicated; this will prevent mistakes arising whilst cutting the work, especially by one who is not thoroughly familiar with the joint. the distance a b, in fig. , must not be less than the distance a b in fig. . [illustration: fig. ., fig. . the two parts of the joint marked.] boring away waste.--examine fig. ; the shaded portion in the centre has to be cut away, and it will greatly facilitate the removal of this waste piece by boring a hole with a twist bit at the position shown. the twist bit should be about / in. less in diameter than the width between the gauge lines g. the easiest method of boring out this hole is shown at fig. , which gives the correct position of the worker. [illustration: fig. .--vertical boring previous to chiselling.] sawing.--the wood should be put in the vice as fig. . taking up a saw, with the index finger on the side of the handle, commence sawing, and proceed until you come to the position indicated by the dotted hand and saw a; this will leave a saw kerf or cut running diagonally from the shoulder line to corner of the wood. release the vice and refix the wood so that it leans in exactly the opposite direction to fig. ; then reverse your own position and repeat the sawing, so as to cut another diagonal saw cut from the shoulder line to the corner. fix the wood upright, as shown at fig. , and saw as shown, when you will find that the saw has no tendency to run out of the guide cuts already formed by the method used at fig. . remember, when commencing to saw at fig. , that it is necessary to saw inside the gauge line; otherwise the joint will be too slack, owing to the amount of sawdust removed by the thickness of the saw blade. the index finger on the side of the saw, pointing in the direction of the saw cut, will greatly help the worker to saw in a straight line, as it is natural to point with this finger to any object that is to be aimed at. [illustration: fig. .--how the saw is held for the first cut.] cut down the other line in a similar manner, and then with a chisel of suitable width carefully chop away the waste material. the wood may be placed edge way upon the bench, or in the vice, and the chisel should be held vertically. the hole which has been bored with the twist bit will allow the chips which are cut away to offer little or no resistance to the chisel blade. the chiselling should not all be done from one side, or a chipped under-edge will be the result; it is better to chisel the work until half-way through and then turn the other edge of the wood uppermost and again begin to chisel from the top. this method will finish the cutting in the centre of the work and prevent burred and ragged or chipped edges at the shoulder. [illustration: fig. .--third, or horizontal cut.] [illustration: fig. .--chiselling operation.] cutting the shoulders.--with regard to working the piece b, fig. , place the wood against the bench stop or in the vice, and taking up a / -in. chisel carefully cut away a small channel, as shown at fig. ; treat the other shoulder lines in a similar manner. if the marking knife or penknife blade has been used with a fair amount of pressure so as to score the fibres of the wood, this small channel, which is to form a guide for the saw, will quickly and easily be cut. next place the wood in the vice or on the cutting board as shown at fig. , and begin by sawing lightly at the back edge as shown. when the saw has entered the wood / in. gradually bring the handle down from position a to position b (dotted lines) whilst the saw is in motion. continue sawing until just on the gauge line; then treat the other shoulder lines in a similar manner. [illustration: fig. .--sawing the shoulders.] chiselling away waste.--fix your wood firmly in any suitable manner, vice or otherwise, and, holding your chisel tilted as at fig. , pare away the blacked portion ; then pare away the blacked portion ; after which hold the chisel flat and by gradual operations pare away the dotted lines , until you come down to the gauge line; then repeat the method of cutting on the opposite side of the wood. if any difficulty be experienced by chipped or ragged edges whilst chiselling, it can easily be overcome by chiselling alternately from the outside of the wood, so that the finish of the chisel cut takes place in the centre of the work. some prefer to chisel away the waste by placing the wood on its edge and using the chisel vertically instead of horizontally. the same methods ( , and ) hold good in this case. [illustration: fig. .--chiselling away waste.] joints other than at °.--the two pieces forming a bridle joint are not always at right angles, as at fig. ; in many instances it is necessary that the joint be at other than degrees. the work, however, is treated in a similar manner, with the exception that an adjustable joiner's bevel is used instead of a try square to mark out the shoulder lines, and that a change of direction in the grain of the wood will occur when chiselling out the work. fig. indicates the change in the grain of the wood, and the adjustable joiner's bevel is also shown. [illustration: fig. .--bridle joint at angle other than right angle.] [illustration: fig. .--sawing off waste from bridle joint. (see reference on page .)] the tongued and grooved joint the tongued and grooved joint is used in one form or another throughout the whole of the woodworking trades, covering, as it does, a great variety of work from the laying of flooring boards to the construction of dressers, bookcases and other cabinet work. flooring and match boarding generally have the tongues worked on the solid board, and examples of a few of the various types are shown as follows:-- [illustration: fig. .--tongued and grooved flooring board.] [illustration: fig. ., fig. . method of nailing hardwood floors.] fig. shows the end view of the ordinary / -in. "tongued and grooved flooring board," as used in the construction of floors for mills, workshops and cottage property. this type of flooring is nailed to the joists in the ordinary manner, no attempt being made to conceal the nails used. fig. is a section of flooring which is generally made of hardwood, such as maple, oak, or jarrah. it is used in positions such as ballroom and skating rink floors, etc., the tongue and groove being worked in such a manner that the joint covers the nails as shown. each nail is driven into its position at one edge of the board, the groove holding the next board and hiding the nail (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--tongued and grooved matchboarding, with bead on one side.] [illustration: fig. .--tongued and grooved matchboarding, with bead at each side.] [illustration: fig. .--matchboarding, tongued, grooved and vee'd.] fig. shows an example of matchboarding known as "tongued, grooved and beaded" on one side only, and fig. shows a similar type tongued, grooved and beaded on both sides. this variety of matchboarding is known in the trade as "t. g. and b." it is used for nailing on framing to form partitions for rooms, offices, etc., for panelling corridors, etc., and for making framed and ledged doors, building tool houses, cycle sheds and other outhouses. fig. is an example of matchboarding that is tongued, grooved and vee'd on one side, and fig. shows tongued, grooved and vee'd both sides. these are used for similar purposes to figs. and , and many prefer the v matchboarding variety because it is more easily painted than the beaded variety. the object of working a bead or beads on matchboarding is to break the jointing of the various pieces and to aim at ornamental effect; also to prevent unsightliness should the timber shrink slightly. when a moderate amount of shrinkage takes place, as is nearly always the case, the joint at the side of the bead appears to the casual observer to be the fillet or channel worked at the side of the bead. if the tongues are not painted before the work is put together, the shrinkage will cause the raw wood to show and thus make the joint too much in evidence. [illustration: fig. .--matchboarding vee'd both sides.] [illustration: fig. .--double-tongued matchboarding.] [illustration: fig. .--double-dovetailed, tongued and grooved.] fig. shows a "double tongued and grooved" joint used in the wholesale cabinet factories. it is preferred for the jointing of cabinet stock, and the amateur can make a similar joint by working two grooves and inserting loose tongues. fig. is the end view of a "double-dovetailed, tongued and grooved" joint, and fig. is a sketch of a similar joint having only one dovetailed tongue. from a constructional point of view fig. is far and away the best joint that has yet been produced. unfortunately, however, there is not at the present time any hand tool that will economically produce it, owing probably to the fact that the joint is the subject of a patent. the dovetail tongue tapers slightly throughout its entire length, gripping the joint on the principle of the wedge and squeezing the glue into the pores of the wood. [illustration: fig. .--joint with single dovetail tongue and groove.] [illustration: fig. .--(a) cross tongue. (b) feather tongue.] [illustration: fig. .--method of secret-nailing hardwood flooring boards.] cabinet-work joints.--with regard to tongued and grooved joints which apply more particularly to the jointing of cabinet work, fig. is produced by planes which are specially made for the purpose. one plane makes the tongue and another the groove. the handiest sizes to buy are those which joint / in., / in., and / in. timber, it being usual to dowel or loose-tongue thicker boards. the / in. partitions (or, as they are sometimes called, dustboards) between the drawers of a sideboard or dressing chest are in good work jointed in this manner. the / in. and / in. ends and tops of pine or american whitewood dressing tables, wardrobes, etc., call for the larger sized plane. loose tongues.--there are two methods of jointing with loose tongues, viz., the use of the cross tongue, fig. a, and the use of the feather tongue, fig. b. cross tongues are the stronger when glued in their position and can be used very much thinner than feather tongues. feather tongues are cut diagonally across the grain as illustrated. [illustration: fig. .--cradle for planing.] fig. is a cradle for planing up loose tongues to the required width (generally / in.). two grooves are made in a piece of - / in. hardwood; one groove is used for planing the width way of the tongue and the other for planing the edge way. these tongues can be cut to accurate size on a circular saw bench if power and machinery are at hand. applications of the joint.--fig. is a sketch of a portion of a sideboard top, showing the plough groove ready worked out to receive the tongue; the other half of the top is treated in a similar manner. it will be noticed that the groove is not worked through the full length of the board, but stopped about - / in. from each end; this leaves a square joint at each end of the top on which the moulding is worked. if the groove be run through the board it looks very unsightly when the mould is finished. fig. is a shaped spandrel, such as is fixed in the recess of a sideboard or cupboard or shop window fitment. it is of such a width that, were it cut from a wide board, the shaped portion would be apt to break off owing to the short grain at c. the shaping is therefore built up out of three separate pieces, the grain running as indicated. the loose tongue is represented by the dotted line and a section is shown of the joint at the line a b. at the opposite corner the tongue is left blind, _i.e._, not run through the edge. this is the method that should be used when the shaping is above the level of the eye. [illustration: fig. .--part of sideboard top; grooved with ends left blind. (the boards are shown upright.)] [illustration: fig. .--shaped spandrel for recess.] fig. shows part of a carcase of a dressing table. the drawer runner a is shown grooved across the end to receive a cross tongue; this cross tongue engages a similar groove in the front bearer. this method of fastening the runner to the bearer is in everyday use. [illustration: fig. .--part carcase of dressing table.] [illustration: fig. .--framed writing table top.] fig. is a writing table top. the centre boards are first jointed and glued up, after which the ends and sides are grooved ready to receive the cross tongues. the hardwood margins are shown at one end and at the front, and the grooves are arranged so that, on completion, the marginal frame stands above the top just the amount of the thickness of the leather which will cover the table. in some cases the margin at the end runs the same way of the grain as the top, thus allowing for slight shrinkage. cross tongues would of course be used in this case. fig. is a sketch showing one-quarter of a barred or tracery cabinet door. an enlarged section of the astragal mould which is grooved to fit on the bar which forms the rebate is also shown. fig. is a "combing or corner locking" joint, a method of making boxes by means of a continuous use of tongues and grooves instead of dovetails. this type of joint is generally machine made. the amateur, however, who is not proficient to undertake a dovetailed box frequently uses this method. [illustration: fig. .--corner of barred door.] [illustration: fig. .--combing or locking joint.] [illustration: fig. .--single loose tongue and double-tongue joint.] corner joints.--fig. shows both a single loose tongue and a double solid tongue. both are methods used to connect circular cornered work, such as a counter end, to the front framing. fig. indicates a tongued and grooved joint suitable for edge or end jointing, such as fitting matchboarding round a chimney breast, making small jewel drawers, etc. fig. is a tongued and grooved joint with a bead worked on same to hide the joint, sometimes called a staff-bead. it would be used in positions such as boarding around an upright iron pillar, etc., the bead giving a neat finish at each corner. fig. is a similar joint, but at an obtuse angle. an example of its use is in fixing boarding around an octagonal column of brickwork. [illustration: fig. ., fig. ., fig. . examples of tongued and grooved corner joints.] fig. shows a tongued and grooved mitre as used for strengthening the corners of cabinet work, such as tea caddies, small boxes, plinths, etc. two pieces of wood are glued in position and allowed to set prior to glueing and cramping the joint proper. these pieces are afterwards planed away, thus leaving a clear surface to the box sides. fig. shows the method of working the groove in the above joints. the pieces are turned back to back, the mitres thus making a right angle. the guide on the grooving plane thus works against each face of the joint, and this ensures correct jointing. fig. is somewhat similar to fig. , but with a quarter circle mould to hide the joint. fig. indicates the building up of a double skirting mould. c represents the brickwork, a the oak-framed panelling, and b the packing and fixing block. a wide skirting of this type is made in two portions for convenience in working the moulding and to prevent undue shrinkage. [illustration: fig. .--cramping a tongued and grooved mitre.] [illustration: fig. .--working a groove.] [illustration: fig. .--corner joint with corner mould.] fig. illustrates the use of a tongued and grooved joint for fixing together the sides of a corner bracket, and the same method holds good when jointing a corner cupboard. a capping mould or top shelf will conceal the joint; it then has the appearance of a glued butt joint, but is of course considerably stronger. no screws or nails are required if this joint be used. ploughing.--when grooves have to be worked in the edge or face of a board to receive tongues, the process is generally called ploughing, and it is usually accomplished by a special tool called a plough (or, as it is occasionally spelt, "plow"). when a plough plane is bought it is usual to procure eight plough bits or blades of various sizes to fit the plane. in fig. is given the sketch of a plough plane with the names of the various parts lettered thereon. [illustration: fig. .--double skirting mould.] [illustration: fig. .--joint for corner bracket or cupboard.] the board or boards which it is desired to groove are first planed straight and true, exactly as though it were desired to make a glued or butt joint. one of the boards is now placed edge way up in the vice and with the face side to the worker. take the plough plane and select a suitably-sized blade; fix it in the plane in the usual way, allowing the cutting edge to project beyond the steel skate about / in., and securely drive up the wedge. next loosen the small boxwood wedges at the side of each stem, and adjust the plane by tapping the stems with a hammer until the cutting iron is in the desired position; then knock up the small wedges nice and tight. when setting the fence to or from the blade it is a wise precaution to measure the distance from the fence to the skate at each end of the plane; this will ensure the skate being parallel to the fence. the neglect of this is a source of annoyance to many amateurs. now adjust the depth stop by turning the screw at the top of the plane, measuring the depth of the required groove from the edge of the blade to the stop, and carefully lock the screw which adjusts this stop. [illustration: fig. .--the plough plane and its parts.] the plane is now ready for use. hold the fence close up to the side of the timber, the hands in position as shown at fig. , the position of the body being that generally assumed in planing. move the plane backwards and forwards in the usual manner, beginning the cut at the end of the board nearest to the vice jaws (the front), and proceed with the planing until the depth stop is in contact with the wood. then take a step backwards and repeat the process until the whole length of the groove is ploughed. care must be taken to force the fence up to the board with the left hand, whilst the right hand thrusts the plane backwards and forwards, and the plane must be kept vertical. [illustration: fig. .--method of using the plough plane.] tongueing.--the grooves having been completed, the tongues have to be made. fig. shows a sketch of a board and the method of marking out cross tongues (a) and feather tongues (b). the usual procedure for making cross tongues is to plane the end of the board and use a cutting gauge to give a line the required distance from the end (see sketch). the board is sawn with a tenon or panel saw, and the piece of timber for the tongue is thus procured. if a feather tongue is to be used it is cut diagonally from the board (b) and the ends cut square as shown by the dotted line. [illustration: fig. .--method of marking out for cross tongues and feather tongues.] feather tongues can be obtained in fairly long lengths out of narrow boards, whilst on the other hand cross tongues are limited by the width of the board. after cutting off the tongues, they require planing with nicety to fit the grooves, and the advantage of a grooved board (fig. ) will be appreciated. a glue spoon similar to a plumber's ladle is generally used to pour the glue into the grooves, and it is customary to glue the tongue into one board first; after allowing this to set, the joint is completed in the usual manner. tongueing planes.--fig. shows the end view of a tongueing plane for working matched joints out of the solid. the method of holding and using the plane is similar to the directions given for using the plough. the part lettered f (in front) represents the fence, which in this case is not adjustable. [illustration: fig. ., fig. . end views of tongueing and grooving planes.] in description fig. is similar to fig. . the steel skate runs in the groove and supports the cutting blade similar to that in the plough plane, and provided a grooving plane of this type is of suitable width it may be used for making grooves for loose tongues. there is on the market a metal plane which is specially designed with handles at both ends. this plane carries a grooving iron on one side and a tongueing iron on the other side; thus with one plane both the tongue and the groove can be worked. [illustration: fig. .--tongueing shoulders of tenons.] fig. shows the method of tongueing the shoulders of tenons as used in thick timber which is to be veneered on the face. a temporary piece of wood (a) is put between the tenon cheek and the saw, thus forming a guide for the latter. after cutting one saw kerf a thicker piece is made and a second saw kerf cut; the waste between the saw kerfs is now removed with an / in. chisel and this completes the groove. a tongue of this type acts as an extra tenon and prevents the joint from "lipping" (becoming uneven) on the face side. the mortise and tenon joint a mortise and tenon joint is the method of joining timber by working a solid rectangular projection in the one piece and cutting a corresponding cavity to receive it in the adjoining piece. the projection is called the tenon, and the cavity the mortise. joints of this type are secured in various ways. small wedges, wooden dowels, metal dowel pins, glue and paint are frequently used, and prior to the introduction of glue we have examples of egyptian furniture in which the mortise and tenon joints were united by a composition of cheese. [illustration: fig. .--barefaced tenon joint.] [illustration: fig. .--stub tenon.] barefaced tenons.--fig. illustrates the joint in its simplest form and shows a tenon having only one shoulder. this is called a barefaced tenon, and it will be noticed that the portion which carries the mortise is thicker than the rail on which the tenon is cut. the joint is therefore level (or flush as it is called) on one side only, and it should never be used at the corner of a frame. it is a useful interior joint for framing that has to be covered on the back side with matchboarding, and allows the work to finish level at the back when the boarding has been applied (see plan, fig. ). stub or stump tenon (fig. ; also occasionally called a joggle tenon).--the illustration shows a tenon as used in the interior of a frame. the tenon is not allowed to run through the stile, and unsightliness on the edge is thus avoided. this type of tenon is often used at the corner of a frame, and it then requires to be haunched. a good workshop method of gauging the depth of the mortise for a stub tenon is shown in fig. ; a piece of gummed stamp paper is stuck on the side of the mortise chisel, indicating the desired depth of the mortise. this greatly facilitates the work, as it is not necessary to be constantly measuring. a haunched tenon as used at the end of a door frame is shown at fig. .--in this case it will be seen that the width of the tenon is reduced, so that sufficient timber will be left at the end of the stile to resist the pressure of the tenon when the joint is driven together. the short portion (a) which is left on the tenon is called the haunch, and the cavity it engages is termed the haunching. the haunch and haunching prevent the two pieces of timber lipping, or becoming uneven on the face side, as would be the result if it were cut away entirely up to the shoulder. fig. shows the type of tenon and haunch used when the stile or upright rail is grooved to receive a panel. in this and similar cases the haunch is made the same width and the same depth as the groove; the groove therefore acts as the haunching. an application of this joint is shown in the top rail of the door frame, fig. . [illustration: fig. .--method of gauging for depth of tenon.] [illustration: fig. .--haunched tenon used at end of door frame.] [illustration: fig. .--haunched tenon used when stile is grooved for panel.] [illustration: fig. .--application of haunched tenon joint to door frame.] [illustration: fig. .--occasional stump tenon.] this type of joint is also used to connect the rail to the leg of an ordinary kitchen table (see fig. ). fig. is a variation of the stump tenon, occasionally used where the work in hand demands a thin tenon and a stout stump to take heavy strains. [illustration: fig. .--joint for inside framing.] [illustration: fig. .--haunched barefaced tenon.] a joint used for inside framing is seen at fig. . the rails may be used as shown, but in the case of a door frame (as fig. ) they would have the inside edges grooved to receive the panels; the tenons would therefore be slightly narrower than shown, owing to the groove at each edge. a haunched barefaced tenon, used in similar positions to fig. , is shown at fig. . the door or frame in this case would be made of matchboarding nailed on the back as shown in the plan at fig. . wedges.--fig. shows the method of cutting wedges which are to be used to wedge the tenons; this avoids waste of material. some workers cut the wedges from the pieces left out of the haunching of the lock rail, or the bottom rail. [illustration: fig. .--cutting wedges from waste of haunching.] [illustration: fig. .--stile and cross rail with horn.] a stile and cross rail, framed together, are shown at fig. . the portion above the rail is called the horn, and it is usual to leave sufficient length of stile to project above and below the cross rails, so that there will be no tendency for the stile to burst out at the end whilst the cramping and wedging of the frame is in progress. on completing the framing the horn is cut away. in fig. we have a type of joint frequently used for garden gates. the illustration shows the method of tenoning the three pieces to the top rail, barefaced tenons being employed. [illustration: fig. .--joint used for garden gates.] [illustration: fig. .--sprocket wheel.] [illustration: fig. .--boring tool.] sprocket wheel.--at fig. are shown the guide bar and chain of a chain-mortising machine, two enlarged links of the chain being indicated at a. the chain is similar in construction to the driving chain of a bicycle, with the exception that it is provided with teeth which cut away the timber as the chain revolves. when using a chain mortiser the portion of the machine carrying the chain is fed downwards into the timber, thus cutting a clean and true mortise. if, however, a stump mortise is required it is necessary to pare away a certain amount of timber by hand, because the machine obviously leaves a semicircular bottom to the mortise. to overcome this difficulty the latest types of mortising machines have a square hole-boring attachment fixed alongside the chain. this tool, the working portion of which is illustrated in fig. , consists of a square hollow chisel (e), which is sharpened from the inside, and a revolving twist bit (d) fitted with spurs or nickers, but without a point (one spur can be seen at the bottom of the illustration). this bit revolves inside the shell like a chisel, and bores away the superfluous timber, whilst the pressure exerted on the chisel causes the corners to be cut away dead square. a mortise / in. square by ins. in depth may thus be cut. the portion marked a is the shank of the chisel (fig. ), where it is fixed into the body of the machine, and the hole at e allows the boring bit to free itself. [illustration: fig. .--method of fitting an interior table leg.] [illustration: fig. .--haunched tenon for skylight or garden frame.] [illustration: fig .--long and short shouldered tenon.] fig. indicates the method of fixing an interior leg to a table having a circular or straight top rail. the inlaid leg in this case is stump-tenoned into the top rail, and the inlaid portion of the leg is allowed to run through the rail, thus giving continuity of design. fig. shows the application of the haunched tenon (fig. ) to the making of a skylight or garden frame. in this and similar cases the side rails are rebated as shown in the section, and the bottom rail is thinner than the side rails to allow the glass to finish level upon it. long and short shouldered joint.--fig. shows a haunched mortise and tenon joint having a long and short shoulder. this is a fairly common joint in framed partitions for offices, framing for greenhouses, tool sheds, etc., and is a frequent source of annoyance to the amateur. it is necessary to use this joint when both the stiles and uprights are rebated, and it calls for accurate marking out and great care in the making. [illustration: fig. .--joint for fencing.] [illustration: fig. .--example of faulty tenon.] fig. shows the upright and rails of common garden or field fencing. the tenons are bevelled to fit and wedge each other in the mortise. the illustration gives both cross rails as shouldered, but in many cases shoulders are omitted when the rails are not thick enough to carry them. fig. indicates faulty methods of working a tenon. at a the saw has been allowed to run too far when cutting the shoulder, thus greatly weakening the tenon. at b faulty sawing has again occurred, and to remedy this defect the worker has resorted to paring the shoulder with a chisel. had the chisel been used vertically an undercut shoulder (as at b) would not have occurred. the trouble now is that the slightest amount of shrinkage in the width of the stile will show an open joint. the result will be the same if it is necessary to remove a shaving or two when planing or levelling up the face of the frame. [illustration: fig. .--self-wedging japanese tenon joint.] [illustration: fig. .--tenoned and scribed joint.] [illustration: fig. .--mitred and moulded tenon joint.] [illustration: fig. .--twin tenons.] a japanese tenoned joint, little known and rarely used in this country, is shown at fig. . for clearness the two parts are here shown separate. the joint is self-wedging and will be of interest to handicraft instructors. a tenoned and scribed joint is seen at fig. . the cross rail is cut at the shoulder, so as to fit the moulding which is worked on the stile. this is a good joint in everyday use. mitred and moulded joint.--fig. shows a type of joint largely used in light cabinet work. the method of mitreing the moulding and tenoning the stile to rail is indicated. twin tenons (fig. ).--the method of tenoning the bearers which carry the drawers, or the midfeather between two drawers, in a dressing table or similar carcase is here shown. on completion, the tenons on the midfeather are wedged diagonally. [illustration: fig .--method of pinning.] [illustration: fig. .--joining top rails to upright post.] pinning.--fig. shows the tenoning of the inside end of a wardrobe to the top of the carcase. this is also called pinning. the tenons should be wedged diagonally. the tenons and the distance between the tenons are more satisfactory if made equidistant, because if slight shrinkage occurs this is partially equalised. the width between the tenons should in no case exceed ins. top rails.--at fig. is shown the method of joining the top rails to the post of a tool shed or similar outhouse. the two rails, which are at right angles to each other, are half-lapped and mortised; the tenon on the post runs entirely through them. a tusk tenon joint, with wedge, as used to secure the binder to the girder when making floors, is indicated at fig. . the tenon here is narrow and engages the mortise, which is situated in the compressional fibres immediately adjoining the neutral layer. fig. shows a tusk tenon furnished with a drawbore pin. [illustration: fig. .--tusk tenon.] [illustration: fig. .--wedged tusk tenon.] fig. is a variation of fig. . fig. shows tusk and wedged tenons as used when making a portable book or medicine cabinet. the shelf is housed into the end, and the tenons run through the end and are secured by wedges. this allows the article to be quickly and easily taken to pieces for removal or re-polishing. the dotted line in fig. indicates that the shelf may be shaped if desired. [illustration: fig. .--another type of tusk tenon.] [illustration: fig. .--tusk tenon and wedge.] [illustration: fig. .--wheelwright's self-wedging tenon joint.] in fig. a self-wedging mortise and tenon joint used by wheelwrights is shown. the dotted line (left-hand diagram) will indicate the amount of taper given to the mortise. dovetailed and wedged tenon (fig. ).--when two pieces such as the cross rail and leg of a carpenter's bench are required to be held together by a mortise and tenon, and to be readily taken apart, the tenon is dovetailed on one side and the mortise is made of sufficient width to permit the widest part of the dovetailed tenon to pass into it. when the tenon is in its position a hardwood wedge is driven in above the tenon, as shown. [illustration: fig. .--dovetailed and wedged tenon.] [illustration: fig. .--method of fox-wedging.] fox wedged tenon (fig. ).--this is the method of securing a stub tenon by small wedges. the mortise is slightly dovetailed and two saw cuts are made in the tenon about / in. from each side. into each saw kerf a wedge is inserted and the joint glued up. the cramping operation forces the wedges into the saw cuts, thus causing the end of the tenon to spread and tightly grip the mortise. mortise and tenon with mitred face (fig. ).--this is a useful method of jointing framing which has square edges as shown; and it is equally useful even if the face edges have moulds worked upon them. if the joint has square edges a rebate may be formed to accommodate a panel by fixing a bolection moulding around the frame. a section of the bolection mould planted on the frame is shown in the lower figure. [illustration: fig. .--tenon joint with mitred face.] [illustration: fig. .--rafter joint.] [illustration: fig. .--roof joints.] roof joints.--fig. shows the method of tenoning the principal rafter to the king post, whilst fig. illustrates the tenoning of the struts to the king post, and the king post to the tie beam. both these examples are used in roof work. (see also fig. .) [illustration: fig. .--drawbore pinning.] [illustration: fig. ., fig. . operation of pegs in drawbore pinning.] drawbore pinning.--at fig. is seen the method of securing a tenon by drawbore pinning, employed when it is not convenient to obtain the necessary pressure by using a cramp. the joint is made in the usual manner, and a / -in. twist bit is used to bore a hole through piece a. the tenon is driven home and the hole is marked on the side of the tenon (b); the tenon is then withdrawn and the hole bored about / in. nearer to the shoulder than as marked on the separate diagram at c. when the tenon is finally inserted the holes will not register correctly, and if a hardwood pin be driven into the joint it will draw the shoulders of the tenon to a close joint and effectually secure the parts. sash bars.--fig. shows how to tenon a moulded sash bar to the rebated cross rail. in this illustration both shoulders of the moulded bar are shown square, but in the best class work these shoulders may be slightly housed into the cross rail to prevent side play. this type of joint is used for horticultural buildings, etc. if the lower rail be moulded with the same members as the sash bar, the end of the sash bar will have to be scribed on to it to make a fit. [illustration: fig. .--tenoning moulded sash bar.] [illustration: fig. .--tenon with tongued and grooved shoulder.] [illustration: fig. .--detail of table framing.] tenon with tongued and grooved shoulders (fig. ).--the object of the tongues and grooves here is to prevent the face of the work casting, or becoming warped, and thus spoiling the appearance of the surface of the work. if framing is to be veneered on the face side this is an exceptionally good method. table framing.--fig. indicates the framing of a rail to a dining-table leg. in cases similar to this the tenons run into the leg and almost touch each other. they are therefore mitred on the end as shown in the inset. chair frames often call for similar treatment. twin tenons with haunch, as used when the timber is of great thickness, are shown in fig. . an open slot mortise at the end of a right-angled frame is seen in fig. . fig. shows an open slot mortise and tenon joint at the end of a frame of °. both these joints are occasionally called end bridle joints. [illustration: fig. .--twin tenons for thick timber.] [illustration: fig. .--the open-slot mortise joint.] hammer head tenons.--at fig. is shown the method of jointing framing having semicircular or segmental heads. the left-hand diagram indicates the method of wedging the joint so as to draw up the shoulders; the right-hand view shows the tongueing of the shoulders, which is necessary if thick timber has to be wrought. the sketch depicts the stile when taken apart from the shaped head of the frame. clamping.--fig. shows the method of tenoning drawing boards, desk tops and secretaire falls. this is commonly called clamping. the method is used to prevent wide surfaces from winding. a variation of the joint is shown at the left-hand side, the corners in this example not being mitred. fig. shows the tenoning of a wide to a narrow rail when the joint is at an angle. inserted tenons (fig. ).--where two pieces of timber run together at an acute angle it becomes necessary to use inserted tenons. both pieces of the timber are mortised and the inserted tenons are secured into the widest piece. on the left is shown the inserted tenon, secured by the method known as fox-wedging; on the right the inserted tenon has been let into the wide rail from the edge. the narrow rail is secured by wedging the tenons from the outside edge in the ordinary manner. [illustration: fig. .--open-slot mortise at degrees.] [illustration: fig. .--hammer-head tenon joint.] dreadnought file.--at fig. is a sketch of a portion of a dreadnought file. this has superseded the old-fashioned home-made float used to clean out the sides of a mortise. [illustration: fig. .--clamping.] [illustration: fig. .--tenoning narrow rail.] [illustration: fig. .--inserted tenons.] [illustration: fig. .--dreadnought file.] [illustration: fig. .--external and internal joints.] [illustration: fig. .--setting out stiles and rails for tenoning.] general rule.--in practically all cases where a single tenon is used the thickness of the tenon should be one-third the thickness of the timber. this leaves the timber at each side of the mortise the same strength as the tenon. mortise and tenon joints for inside work may be united with glue. if, however, the work has to stand the weather a better method is to unite the joint with white lead, which is run down to the required consistency with good outside varnish. setting out the joint.--the principal use of the mortise and tenon joint is in the construction of various types of framing, such as door and window frames. in one or other of its many and varied forms it may be classed as the most important joint in the general woodworking trade. the joint may be used as an internal one, as shown at the lower rail, fig. , or as an external joint, as the upper rail of the same illustration. whatever type of framing has to be made, it is necessary that the face side of the wood be planed up straight and out of winding, and the face mark (as shown in fig. ) pencilled upon it. the best edge of the timber should next be planed up true in length, and square to the face side, and the edge mark (x) clearly placed upon it. the marking gauge is now set to the desired width, and gauge lines are marked on the wood, after which the waste wood is planed off until the timber is the required width. the thickness is gauged and treated in a similar manner, except in such cases where the finished work is to be of a rough and ready character. the two stiles (or uprights) have their faces turned to touch each other, as shown at fig. , and their length may be anything from in. to ins. longer than the required finished size. this waste wood at each end of the stiles (see arrow ho) is of importance to the work, as it prevents to a great extent the bursting of the mortise whilst cutting the hole or when knocking together the work. the small projection is called the "horn," and it is cut off after the frame has been put together. [illustration: fig. .--setting out the stiles with marking knife.] [illustration: fig. .--how to saw the tenons--first operation.] the two cross rails (fig. ), have their faces placed together as shown in the sketch. these rails may with advantage be left / in. longer than the finished size, and the portion of the tenon (which will protrude through the stile / in. at each end) may be cut off after the work is put together. (see fig. .) set out the stiles with a marking knife or penknife and a try square, as shown at fig. . in this sketch only one stile is shown for clearness of representation, but two or more stiles (as at fig. ) may be marked out at the same time, provided a -in. try square be used; in fact, marking out the stiles in pairs is to be recommended, as all cross lines will be exact owing to their being marked at the same operation. the cut made by the marking knife should be lightly carried all round the work as the mortising is cut from each edge of the stile, the cutting of the mortising being finished in the centre. the lettering on fig. is as follows:--ho, horn; m, position of mortise; h, position of haunching; a, inside line, or sight size, as it is occasionally called. set out the cross rails as at fig. , lower sketch. the lettering in this figure is as follows:--t, tenons; the small piece of the tenon lettered j is called the haunch, and the shaded portion h is cut away to allow the haunch j to fit the haunching of the stile. the tenons (as already stated) are generally one-third the thickness of the timber, thus leaving the same amount of substance at each side of the tenon as the tenon itself is composed of. the mortise gauge is set to the required distance and used as in the case of the marking gauge (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--second operation in sawing tenons.] [illustration: fig. .--cutting channel at shoulder of tenon before sawing.] to saw the tenons, place the rail in the vice as at fig. and, with a panel, tenon, or hand saw, according to the size of the work, cut down the outside of the tenon line as shown. reverse your position and cut as shown at fig. , then place the rail in a vertical position, and you will find little or no difficulty in sawing down square with the shoulder line. repeat the above methods of sawing until all the tenons are sawn. next saw out the pieces at the side of the tenon by the following procedure. place the rail against the bench stop, or in the vice, and cut a small channel in which to run your tenon saw as shown at fig. . if you have scored the line deeply with your knife when you were marking out the work, you will have little difficulty in removing a small portion with the chisel. the amount removed in the illustration is, of course, exaggerated. in the small channel thus made place the tenon saw and, guiding the saw blade with the finger so as to keep it upright or square (fig. ), saw away the waste material. remove the waste material at the sides of the tenons in a similar way, and then saw out the portion marked h, fig. , lower sketch. the mortising of the stiles may next be taken in hand by putting the stiles edgeways in the vice and boring away the bulk of the waste wood from the mortise with a suitable-sized twist bit and brace. this method will save a great amount of noise, as to a great extent it does away with the use of the mallet. take the mallet and chisel and chop down about / in. as shown at fig. ; then turn the chisel to the position shown at fig. and remove the small piece as shown. continue these two operations until you are about half-way through the wood and then start in a similar manner at the line _a_, fig. , after which turn the other edge of the timber uppermost and repeat the methods shown. [illustration: fig. .--sawing away waste material.] [illustration: fig. .--using the chisel and mallet for mortising.] fig. shows the sketch of a mortise which has its side removed so as to show the method of successive cuts with a chisel when removing the core from a mortise; this, in conjunction with the other sketches, clearly shows the methods of working. in many woodwork examinations the examiners insist that the mortise shall be removed by successive cuts with the chisel, but we certainly advise the removal of much of the waste wood with a boring bit, provided the worker can keep straight and well within the limitations of his gauge lines. [illustration: fig. .--removing waste of mortise with chisel.] removing haunching.--after removing the mortise hole, the small portion which is called the haunching will require to be removed with a chisel. this calls for no special remark, as it is clearly shown in figs. and . fig. shows an everyday type of mortise and tenon joint separated; it is used in cases where a straight joint is required on the upper or lower edge of the work, whereas the upper rail of fig. shows the full haunch on the top edge. in cases such as figs and , where the edges of the frames are grooved to receive panels, etc., the width of the tenon is reduced by the width of the groove. [illustration: fig. .--mortise with side removed.] [illustration: fig. .--the joint separated.] [illustration: fig. .--removal of haunching.] [illustration: fig. .--haunching with groove above.] this must be remembered by the worker when marking out his stiles with the marking knife. fig. (right-hand sketch) shows the haunch, tenon, and groove g at the bottom. fig. (left-hand illustration) shows g (groove) at top, and hh (the haunch) at the bottom. tenons may be glued together and wedged as shown at fig. if for inside work; but if for outside work they are generally smeared with thick paint and wedged up. for light-class cabinet work it is usual to cut the mortise about seven-eighths of the distance through the stile and make the tenon to match it; the edge of the finished work does not then show any indication of the joint, and it leaves a nice clean surface at the edge of the work for polishing or varnishing. [illustration: fig. .--interlocking joint for seat rails of chair to leg.] interlocking chair joint.--a joint designed with a view to strengthening the construction of chairs at the point where they are weakest is shown in fig. . the joint is an interlocking one so arranged that, once the chair is glued up, no motion of the side rail can be possible. the groove in the side rail tenon is cut in such a manner that, on the insertion of the back rail tenon, the joint actually draws up and, having done so, is locked in position. the exact location of this groove is obtained in a similar manner to that used in marking out tenons for drawbore pinning, _i.e._, the tenon is inserted in its mortise and the position of the back rail mortise transferred to it, after which the lines are set back by / in. (approximately) to cause the joint to draw. from the illustration the construction of the joint should be clear. the method is particularly adapted to a section of rectangular form where one side is longer than the other, such as the back leg of a chair, as this shape allows for the accommodation of the extra length of tenon required. the dowelling joint dowelling is the term generally given to the method of jointing timber and other materials by wooden or metal pegs, which are called dowels. for cabinet-making and similar work straight-grained beechwood dowels are mostly used; these may be bought by the gross, in lengths of about ins., and of any desired diameter. [illustration: fig. .--steel dowel plate.] making dowels.--many, however, prefer to make what they require for the work in hand, and the following is the method that is generally employed. pieces of straight-grained wood are wrought to a square section, after which the corners are planed away to form an octagonal section. the sharp corners are now planed away, and the roughly formed dowel is driven through a steel dowel plate, fig. , by the aid of a heavy hammer, thus giving the necessary roundness and finish to the dowels. when hammering dowels through a plate the hammer should on no account be allowed to come in contact with the face of the dowel plate, or the cutting edge of the hole will be spoilt. simply drive the dowel to within / in. of the plate and knock it out with the next dowel. [illustration: fig. .--cradle for planing dowels.] [illustration: fig. .--dowel with groove.] [illustration: fig. .--sawing groove in dowel.] to plane off the corners a "cradle" (fig. ) is made and kept for the purpose. the advantage of this cradle is obvious, preventing as it does any tendency of the partly-formed dowel to slip or wobble. a jig, or cradle, is easily made by bevelling the edges of two separate pieces of wood and then glueing and screwing them together as at fig. . a small block of wood is inserted to act as a stop whilst the planing operation is in progress. it is usual to bevel both edges of the timber from which the cradle is formed, thus accommodating all sizes of dowels from / in. to / in. in diameter. [illustration: fig. .--pricking the centres ready for boring. also showing how brace is used in conjunction with try square.] fig. shows a completed dowel with a small groove running along its entire length. the object of this groove is to allow the air and superfluous glue to escape and thus avoid splitting the work on hand; the groove also secretes a certain amount of glue, which increases its hold on the timber. fig. illustrates the method of marking out and gauging two boards for dowelling. the edges of the boards are first shot to a true joint; then the face sides are placed together and the lines for the dowels are marked across the edges with a fine pencil and the aid of a try square. the boards are then gauged from the face side, thus giving the points indicated in the sketch. [illustration: fig. .--countersink.] [illustration: fig. .--dowel rounder.] [illustration: fig. .--twist bit.] to start the twist bit (fig. ) it is a good plan to prick the board at the point of intersection of the marked lines with a sharp, circular-pointed marking awl. this obviates any tendency of the boring bit to run out of truth and thus cause unevenness on the face side of the jointed board. (see fig. .) a safe rule for the spacing of dowels when jointing sideboard tops, dressing table and wardrobe ends, etc., is to place the dowels ins. to ins. apart, and place two dowels at each end as shown at fig. . the length of the dowels should be about / in. to - / in. long. fig. shows the two boards prepared ready for glueing. the back one is bored to receive the dowels, and the front one shows the dowels glued in position. it is customary to warm the edges of the boards before spreading the glue, and cramps are required to squeeze the joint tight. these should be left on the jointed board from one to four hours according to the state of the weather. in cases where thick timber (say -in. or - / -in. boards) is to be jointed, two rows of dowels may be used, the position of the dowels being as fig. . [illustration: fig. .--marking and gauging boards for dowelling.] [illustration: fig. .--dowelled joint ready for glueing.] fig. shows the plan of a -in. cornice pole made to fit a bay window; the straight portions of the pole are generally turned in the lathe, the corner portions being afterwards jointed and worked up to the required shape. to avoid any difficulty in the setting out of the dowels, a disc of cardboard or sheet metal is made to the same diameter as that of the cornice pole; this disc is called a template. the positions of the dowels are set out geometrically, and the centres are pricked through with a fine-pointed marking awl (see sketch of template, _a_, fig. ). the template is put on the ends of the straight pole, and the dowel centres are pricked into the wood. the process is repeated on the ends of the corner block (_b_, fig. ), and if the holes be now bored at the centres indicated a true fit will be obtained. [illustration: fig. .--method of dowelling thick timber.] [illustration: fig. .--method of dowelling cornice pole by means of template.] fig. _c_ shows two portions of the circular pole jointed up to a corner block, and the dotted lines p indicate the direct line of pressure and shows the position for the cramp. when the glue is thoroughly set the corner block is sawn and spokeshaved to the desired shape as shown by the dotted line. this method is illustrated to show that, by the use of a suitable template, dowels may be exactly set out even when there is no straight or square face from which to use a marking gauge, and the method may, of course, be applied to many other examples of dowelling at the discretion of the workman. [illustration: fig. .--dowelling a mitred frame.] [illustration: fig. .--method of frame dowelling. (long and short shoulders.)] [illustration: fig. .--table leaf with dowels.] [illustration: fig. .--block for twist bit.] [illustration: fig. .--dowelling for moulded frame.] [illustration: fig. .--cap.] fig. shows one corner of a mitred and dowelled frame. it needs little or no explanation beyond the fact that the dowels should be at right angles to the line of joint, and consequently the dowel at the outside edge of the frame will have to be much shorter than the others. this gives a strong and serviceable joint, suitable for many purposes. frame dowelling.--fig. shows one corner of a frame with long and short shoulders, such as occurs when the upright is rebated through its entire length. the holes in both pieces are bored for the dowels before they are rebated. this avoids any difficulty in endeavouring to bore with only one side of the twist bit in the wood. a similar type of joint is used on nearly all kinds of glass and door frames in cabinet work. fig. is a leaf for the screw type of table. circular dowels are shown at one end, and rectangular wooden pegs at the other; both methods are equally good, and, of course, the dowels are only glued into one leaf. the object of these dowels is to guide the table leaf into its proper position when the leaf engages the table proper, and to make the flat surface of the table top and leaf register correctly and thus ensure a level surface. fig. is a wooden block made in two portions and held together by screws; it is used to fasten around a twist bit, the object being to ensure that all the dowel holes are of uniform depth. it may be adjusted as desired and firmly screwed round the twist bit; if the hole is made / in. in diameter it will clip round a / -in. or / -in. bit and will answer a dual purpose. it is a preventative for bad dowelling. fig. is an example of dowelling framing when the moulding on the edge has to be mitred. it is necessary to cut the shoulders away so as to allow the members of the moulding to intersect. the section of the mould is not shown in the sketch for clearness of representation. the portion marked h is called the "horn," and it is not cut off until after the frame is glued up; its object is to prevent the rail splitting or bursting when knocking up the frame or during the cramping process. fig. shows the method of dowelling a moulded cap to the top of a wooden bedstead post or similar pillar where it is desired to avoid any unsightliness. fig. is a dining-table leg and portion of the framing, showing the method of dowelling the frame to the leg. chairs, couch frames, etc., are made in a similar manner. fig. shows the top portion of a table leg and a home-made dowel gauge. the gauge is made of any hardwood, and steel wire pins are driven through at the required positions and sharpened similar to the spur of a marking gauge. the legs are sawn and planed up true and square, and the advantage of the gauge is that all legs are marked exactly alike and are therefore interchangeable until glued up. a gauge of this type is easily and quickly made and may be kept for its specific purpose or altered for other work. fig. indicates the queen anne type of leg, a sketch of same broken below the knee also being given. here we have another type of irregular setting out, which is accomplished in the following manner. saw and plane the broken portion of the leg true as shown; take the timber which is to be jointed and treat it in a similar manner; now place four ordinary pins on the lower portion. carefully place the top portion to the required position and smartly give it one tap with the hammer; this will cause the pin-heads to leave indentations, and if these be taken as centres for boring, accurate work will result. the new portion of the leg is afterwards sawn and wrought to the desired shape. this is an example of work where it is next to impossible to use a gauge, and as only one joint is required it is not worth the time taken to make a template. [illustration: fig. .--dowelling a dining-table leg.] [illustration: fig. .--dowel gauge for legs.] [illustration: fig. .--dowelling a cabriole leg.] the tools used in dowelling are: brace, countersink, dowel-rounder, twist bit, try-square, marking-awl, and the usual bench tools. the first four are illustrated at figs. , , and respectively. the method of working is: plane up, mark out, bore holes, countersink, glue dowels and complete joints. the scarf joint the method known as "scarfing" is used for the joining of timber in the direction of its length, enabling the workman to produce a joint with a smooth or flush appearance on all its faces. one of the simplest forms of scarfed joint is known as the half lap, in which a portion is cut out at the end of each beam or joist, equal in depth to half the full depth of the beam, and of equal length to the required scarf. the two pieces before they are placed together form a joint as shown at fig. , the projecting part (a) fitting into the recessed portion marked b and the two pieces being secured in their respective positions by screws. fig. shows a dovetailed scarf joint. this is a variation of fig. , the length of the dovetail lap being from ins. to ins. in length. fig. is an illustration of a joint designed to resist a cross strain. the face side is left flush, whilst the underside is assisted by an iron plate. the joint is secured with nuts, bolts, and washers. this type of joint is frequently used for joining purlins in roof work; the iron plate on the underside is in this case omitted. fig. is designed to resist both tension and compression and is an excellent joint for all purposes. the joint is brought together by using folding wedges as shown in the centre. [illustration: fig. .--half-lap scarf joint for light timber.] [illustration: fig. .--dovetailed scarf joint.] [illustration: fig. .--plated scarf joint used in roof work.] fig. is a variation of fig. , and it will be noticed that tenons are provided on the face and underside to resist cross strain. probably this is one of the best varieties of the scarfed joint. unfortunately, however, its production is somewhat costly, and this may be the reason that it is not more universally used. folding wedges are used to secure the two pieces in position. [illustration: fig. .--tenoned scarf joint.] [illustration: fig. .--double tenoned scarf joint.] [illustration: fig. .--scarf joint with vee'd ends.] fig. is a scarfed joint with undercut vee'd ends which prevent the joint from lipping up or down or sideways. it is a useful joint, calling for careful setting out and accurate craftsmanship. folding wedges are used in this case to draw up and secure the joint. fig. is a "fished joint," and the following difference between a scarfed and fished joint should be noted. a fished joint need not necessarily reduce the total length of the beams to be joined, and fish plates of wood or iron (or a combination of both) are fastened at each side of the joint. in a scarf joint all surfaces are flush. in fig. the beams are butt-jointed and secured by wooden plates and iron bolts. the upper plate is let into each beam, and the lower plate is provided with two wooden keys to prevent the beams sliding (or "creeping") upon the lower plate. iron nuts, bolts, and washers are used to complete the joint. [illustration: fig. .--fished joint.] in the case of the scarfed joint at fig. (used for purlins) the length of the scarf is usually made about four times that of the depth of tie beam. it has two hardwood keys which force the pieces together and thus tighten the joint. [illustration: fig. .--detail of scarfed joint in purlins.] the methods of scarfing and fish-jointing are many and varied, and, in selecting a joint, the nature of the pieces to be joined and the direction and the amount of the load should be carefully taken into consideration. the above joints come under the heading of carpentry, and the ordinary tools such as the saw, plane, boring-bit and chisels are all that are requisite and necessary to produce a sound and serviceable joint. scarfed joints are generally of large size, and they are usually made by placing the work upon sawing trestles owing to the bench being too small to accommodate the large timbers. [illustration: fig. .--example of tabled joint with straps.] [illustration: fig. .--lapped scarf joint with bolts for heavy timber.] fig. is a tabled scarf joint which admirably resists tension and compression. it is very easy to make and fit, and is not materially affected by shrinkage. the rectangular wrought iron straps are knocked up over the joint after the two pieces engage. the length of the joint should be approximately five times its thickness. fig. is an example of a lapped scarf joint which is secured with nuts and bolts. it effectively resists compressional stress in vertical posts and it may, if required, be strengthened by the addition of wrought iron fish plates. it is quite a serviceable joint for all general purposes, such as shed or garage building where fairly heavy timbers are used. the hinged joint one of the most common forms of hinged joint in use to-day is that formed by using the "butt" hinge, and many troubles experienced by the amateur, such as "hinge-bound," "stop-bound," and "screw-bound" doors, etc., are due to a lack of knowledge of the principles of hingeing. hinges call for careful gauging and accurate fitting, otherwise trouble is certain to occur. a "bound" door or box lid is said to be hinge-bound when the recess which contains the hinge is cut too deep. the frame and the body portion engage too tightly when closed, the result being that the door has always a tendency to open a little. this fault may be in many cases remedied by packing behind the hinge with one or two thicknesses of good stiff brown paper. for packing purposes such as this paper will be found to be of much more value than thin strips of wood or knife-cut veneer, the latter always having a great tendency to split when a screw or bradawl is inserted. a stop-bound door is the name applied when the door is not finished to exactly the same thickness as originally intended. this causes the door to bind on the stops at the back, as shown at fig. . the difficulty may be remedied by thinning the door a little at the back, or slightly rounding away the portion which binds. screw-bound is a common fault often overlooked by the amateur. it is caused by using screws of which the heads are too large for the countersunk holes in the hinge, and may be avoided by slightly sinking the holes in the brasswork with a countersink or rose-bit. [illustration: fig. .--stop-bound door.] [illustration: fig. .--butt hinge.] [illustration: fig. .--gauging.] [illustration: fig. .--marking for recess.] [illustration: fig. .--sawing for the recess.] alignment.--another fault that is fairly common is having the axes of the hinges out of alignment. especially is this the case when three hinges are used to hang a wardrobe or other large door. it is absolutely necessary in all cases that the exact centres of the pivot-pins of the hinges should be in a straight line. particular attention to alignment is necessary when the body and the door frame are shaped on the face side. a familiar example that every reader may inspect for himself is the curved side of a railway carriage body and railway carriage door, where he will notice that a specially wide hinge has to be used at the bottom of the door to give the necessary alignment. hinges fixed on work with their centres out of truth are often overlooked by the inexperienced worker, and this is a frequent cause of creaking. gauging.--fig. is a sketch of a brass butt hinge, open. fig. illustrates a similar hinge closed, and shows the gauge set so that the point of the marker is exactly to the centre of the pivot-pin. this distance we will call c. now turn to fig. . the distance c has been gauged from the face side of the frame. the gauge is then set to the thickness of the hinge at its thickest portion, and to prevent "hinge-bind" see that the gauge is set on the _fine_ side. remember that the tapered point of the steel spur or marking awl will part the fibres of the timber a little more than the fine point, and give you a wider gauge line than was anticipated when you set the gauge. the inexperienced worker nearly always overlooks this. the result is a hinge-bound door, the cause of which is not discovered by the worker because he is so sure that he has set the gauge correctly. the distance b, fig. , shows the line gauged for the thickness of the hinge. position of hinges.--another difficulty to the beginner is the position for his hinges, and it may here be stated that the general rule is to carry a line across the face of the work from the inside of the cross rail and place the hinge at e, as fig. . [illustration: fig. .--tool operation when paring out the hinge recess in the door.] sawing for the recess.--after marking out for the hinge, as shown at fig. , take a fine-toothed saw (a dovetail saw is considered the best) and saw down as shown at fig. , care being taken not to cut beyond the gauge lines. in this sketch three intermediate saw kerfs are shown, but if the hinge is of great length, say or ins., the removal of the waste wood will be greatly facilitated by the addition of more intermediate saw kerfs. these cuts sever the cross fibres and allow the timber to be easily pared away in short lengths. in fig. we see the tool operation when paring out the hinge recess. at the left of the drawing the recess is shown marked. take a / in. chisel and, using it as a knife (see a), deepen the gauge lines. then stab the chisel downwards, as at b, to deepen the end lines. next, take the chisel and pare away the back of the recess as at c. the work may then be completed by paring neatly till the bottom of the recess is flat. [illustration: fig. ., fig. . the hingeing of a box lid.] stopped hinged joints for box work.--fig. is a section through a small box similar to a lady's work-box (the back of the box in the illustration is enlarged in thickness to clearly show the position of the hinge). in this case the knuckle of the hinge is let into the woodwork until it is flush with the back of the box, and the gauge would have to be set to the total width of the hinge. the back edges of the lid and the back edge of the lower portion of the box are planed away at an angle of degrees as indicated by the dotted lines. fig. shows the same box with the lid open, and it will be observed that the chamfered edges come together and form a stop which prevents the lid falling backwards and breaking the box. this method of letting-in the knuckle flush is a useful one for box work because the ordinary stock brass butt hinge can be used. attention may, however, be called to the "stopped butt-hinge," which is specially made to answer the above purpose; in its action a similar mechanical principle as the one applied to the box is used. [illustration: fig. .--strap hinge.] [illustration: fig. .--reversible or double-folding screen hinge.] [illustration: fig. .--pivot hinge for screens.] [illustration: fig. .--non-reversible screen hinge.] types of hinges.--fig. is an elongated variety of the butt hinge, known in the trade as "strap hinge," "desk hinge," or "bagatelle hinge." as its name indicates, it is used on folding bagatelle tables, small writing desks, and other types of work that have but a narrow margin on which to fix the hinges. the long, narrow plates are sunk flush into the wood, the knuckle or rounded portion projecting. [illustration: fig. .--back flap hinge.] [illustration: fig. .--card table hinge.] [illustration: fig. .--pivot hinge.] [illustration: fig. .--rising butt hinge.] fig. is an illustration of the reversible or double-folding screen hinge. half the thickness of this hinge is let into each wing of the draught screen, allowing the screen to be folded either way. the hinge is costly, but effective in use. fig. is a type of pivot hinge which is used to fix at the top and bottom of a screen. fig. is the non-reversible screen hinge and, as its name implies, will only fold in one direction. fig. is a back flap hinge with a specially wide wing, used for the fall-down leaf of small tables and similar articles. fig. is a card table hinge. this is let into the edges of the table, so that all is flush or level both above and below the surface. centre or pivot hinges.--fig. is a centre or pivot hinge, used on the top and bottom of wardrobe doors, more particularly the interior door of a three-winged wardrobe where the method of fixing is confined to the cornice and plinth. the flange carrying the pins or pivot is let into the top and bottom of the door, the remaining flange being let into the cornice and plinth respectively. rising butt hinges.--fig. is the rising butt hinge, used on dining and drawing-room doors, so that when the door is opened the door rises sufficiently to clear the thickness of the carpet. this hinge has also an advantage over the ordinary butt hinge in that it is self-closing, _i.e._, the weight of the door _plus_ the bevel on the hinge joint causes the door to close. band and hook hinges and other ordinary varieties are too well known to require illustrating. acute angle hingeing.--fig. is a sectional plan of a corner cupboard showing a good method of hingeing the door. the inset _a_ shows an enlarged view of the corner carrying the hinge, also the adaptor piece _c_, which is fitted to the inside edge of the cupboard so that the hinged edges are at degrees to the face. this is a far better and stronger method than that shown at _b_, which is often attempted with disastrous results. the incorrect method _b_ allows insufficient wood for fixing purposes, and in nearly all cases the thin edge of the door breaks away during the making and fitting, or soon after completion. the adaptor piece may have a face mould worked upon it to give a pilaster-like appearance if fancy so dictates. [illustration: fig. .--hingeing door of corner cupboard.] [illustration: fig. .--inside hingeing: method of letting butt hinge into door frame and carcase.] inside hingeing.--when a door is being hung _inside_ the carcase (that is, not hinged _over_ the ends) it is permissible, in the case of light work, to let the whole thickness of the hinge into the door; and when screwing the door to the carcase it is usual to fix the knuckle of the hinge flush with the face of the carcase, thus allowing the door frame to stand back, making a break of about / in. with the face. the marking gauge should be set to the full width of the hinge; the mark, gauged on the inside of the carcase end, thus forms a line to guide the worker whilst fixing the door. to successfully fix a door it generally requires two persons, one to hold the door in position, whilst the other bores the holes and fixes the screws. [illustration: fig. .--showing top and bottom of carcase cut back to allow door to close.] [illustration: fig. .--outside hingeing.] [illustration: fig. .--section.] fig. shows the correct method of fitting butt hinges on high-class work. one wing of the hinge is let into the door, and the other wing is let into the carcase or door jamb, thus distributing a proportion of the weight to the carcase end instead of allowing the whole of the weight to be carried by the screws as would be the case in _a_, fig. . the method of sinking each portion of the hinge into the door and carcase respectively is costly; hence it is not the general practice in cheap work. in fig. the top and bottom of carcase (t and b) are shown set back to allow the door to close. outside hingeing.--fig. illustrates the portion of a door frame and carcase end when the door is hung on the face of the carcase. the correct method of letting in the hinge is shown in the enlarged section (fig. ), but, as previously mentioned, the hinge may have its entire thickness let into the door frame where it is of a light character. the door frame projects slightly over the carcase end, and occasionally a bead mould is worked on the edge of the door so as to give a finish and partly hide the joint. the bead would, of course, be the same size as the diameter of the knuckle of the hinge; and the knuckle, therefore, will form a continuation of the bead and give a workmanshiplike finish. fall fronts.--fig. is a sectional view of a fall front writing bureau fitted with centre or pivot hinges and arranged so that the edges form a stop when the desk front is turned to a horizontal position. the position for the fitting of the brass plates carrying the pivot-pin is somewhat awkward; but, by first sinking the plates into the carcase ends, and then slotting the edges of the fall, it will be found that the fall front may be put in from its horizontal position, and that sufficient room is left to enable the screwdriver to be manipulated without inconvenience. [illustration: fig. .--fall front of writing bureau.] [illustration: fig. .--revolving fly rail for table. see pivoted fly or front rail.] [illustration: fig. .--draught screen tape hinge.] fly rail.--fig. is a sketch of a small table with the top removed. a revolving fly rail is shown pivoted upon a piece of / -in. wire. the object of this fly rail is to form a support to the small hinged drop-leaf of the table. this method is suitable for small occasional tables and similar articles. draught screens.--fig. illustrates the end elevation and plan of a draught screen which is constructed of a light framework and covered with baize or american cloth. the reversible double-folding hinge (fig. ) would answer admirably for such a screen. cases occur, however, where it is desired to hinge a screen to be used for an invalid's bedside, and it is then important that all draught should be excluded through the jointed edges. the double reversible hinge will not fulfil these conditions, and the following method is therefore adopted. in the plan, fig. , a and b, two laths of hardwood (beech, birch or mahogany answer splendidly) are shown. they are made the same length and the same width as the edges of the screen, the corners being slightly rounded away. a double-folding, draught-proof hinge is then made as follows: procure good fine webbing, about - / in. wide, and the necessary large-headed tacks. lay the laths side by side as shown in fig. , and proceed to web them as shown. commence with the web under the lath a; bring it between the laths and over b; now take it round the left-hand edge of b, and round the back and between the laths and over a, continuing this method of wrapping the laths until the lower end is reached, and then fastening the webbing as indicated by the dotted lines which represent the tacks. this self-contained hinge is then fixed to the edges of the screen by boring suitable holes through the laths and using countersunk screws. this is a cheap and efficient method of overcoming the difficulty. a similar method is used for the household clothes horse. [illustration: fig. .--finger joint hinge.] [illustration: fig. .--the knuckle joint hinge.] finger joint hinge.--fig. is a finger joint--a movable interlocking joint used to support the leaf of a pembroke table. the small portion is screwed to the table rail and the shaped bracket swings out to support the drop leaf. the shaded portion of the bracket shows the timber chamfered away so that the fingers may be easily put behind the bracket to manipulate it. note that the corners are slightly rounded off, as indicated by the black portion of the sketch, and that the mortises are cut about / in. deeper than the thickness of the timber used. this joint has now been almost superseded by a cheap stamped galvanised iron bracket of exactly the same pattern. the joint, however, is still used for repair work and in cases where a stamped metal bracket has not sufficient overhang. [illustration: fig. .--open joint hingeing.] knuckle joint hinge.--fig. is a similar type of joint to the above, and is called the knuckle joint. this arrangement of hingeing allows the table leg to swing in an angle of degrees and is much neater in its appearance. it is often used to connect a movable table leg to the framing, where it is necessary for the table leg and rail to swing outwards and support a drop leaf. the pivot is formed by a piece of / -in. or / -in. round iron rod running through the centre of the joint. [illustration: fig. .--clearing the architrave mould.] open joint hingeing.--the next three illustrations apply more particularly to the hanging of the ordinary household door. fig. is termed "open joint hanging," from the fact that when the door is open a certain amount of open space exists between the edge of the door and the doorpost. this open space varies according to the position in which the butt hinge is fixed. a section is shown at which the pin of the hinge is let in level with the face of the door. this will allow the door to open as shown by the dotted line, and it will not clear the architrave moulding. [illustration: fig. .--close joint hingeing.] fig. indicates the position of the hinge fixed so as to allow the door to open and lay flat back to the architrave moulding. in this instance the butts are made with wider wings, and they are generally provided to take three screws (see fig. , right-hand wing of hinge). to determine the position of the centre pin of the hinge the following rule is observed. the centre of the pivot pin of the hinge must be _half the distance_ between the face of the door, when closed, and the outside of the architrave moulding. close joint hanging.--the method known as "close joint hanging" ensures the joint at the hanging stile being in close proximity to the hanging rail; this is shown at fig. . the first member of the architrave moulding is generally a bead of the same diameter as the knuckle of the hinge. the butt hinge is let in as shown in the illustration, and the door when opened forms a close-fitting joint. [illustration: fig. .--rule joint hinge, with leaf open.] the rule joint hinge is used to connect the top and the drop leaf of a table in cases where continuity of design is desired, so that the edge of the top and the leaf will show an ovolo moulding when the table is either open or closed. to the inexperienced worker it presents several difficulties and, if it is a first effort, it is advisable to try out a sample joint on a couple of odd pieces of timber. fig. illustrates the joint when the leaf is opened or in a horizontal position. at fig. we have the joint when the leaf is let down to a vertical position. it should be observed in the latter figure that the edge a of the drop leaf is in alignment with the axis of the hinge. steel or brass back-flap hinges (fig. ) are generally used and they are sunk into the table as suggested. set out the work full size as at fig. , and mark point , which is to be the position of the joint. draw , , at right angles to the table top. mark point on the vertical line for the centre of the hinge, and mark point approximately as shown. [illustration: fig. .--setting out for rule joint hinge.] [illustration: fig. .--the rule joint with leaf down.] with compass point on and radius to , describe an arc to . this gives us the true joint line ( , , ). the distance to is usually determined by the hinge. the knuckle of the back flap hinge is always let into the under side of the wood and the further it is inserted into the wood the more the joint will overlap at a (fig. ) which shows the joint when the flap or leaf is down. shutting joints this chapter deals with the joint made by the upright rail of a door frame which carries the lock, or handle, generally called the "slamming stile." many and varied are the methods used to make a draught and air-tight joint at the meeting of the slamming stile and the carcase end, and our sketches illustrate some of the simplest and also some of the best and most expensive methods. [illustration: fig. .--shutting stile of cupboard door.] [illustration: fig. .--showing cupboard end thicknessed (see b).] [illustration: fig. .--dust-proof cupboard door.] fig. is a part plan of the end of a simple cupboard of which the carcase end is all of one thickness (_i.e._, not lined up in thickness). a small strip of wood (a) is glued and screwed on the end to form a stop to the door and to prevent the access of dust to the interior of the cupboard. fig. illustrates a similar method; the stop (c) is seen, as in the previous illustration, but it will be noticed also that the carcase end in this case is lined up (see b) to give a pilaster-like appearance to the end, and the moulding is selected on account of its suitability to hide the joint of the lining piece. fig. is of a more intricate type, and is often used on jewellers' showcases. the end at the right hand is slightly rebated to receive the frame, and both the rail and the end are grooved with a plough plane. a separate bead is made and glued into the groove of the door frame (d), engaging the groove in the carcase end when the door is closed. the shutting stile and the end are worked with a hook joint (e), and if carefully made they are practically dust-tight. [illustration: fig. .--meeting stiles with rebated astragal.] [illustration: fig. .--door rebated for astragal.] [illustration: fig. .--door with brass astragal.] fig. shows the meeting of two doors which open outwards, a separate piece of timber being made to form a rebated astragal mould (f) and glued to the right-hand door. this method gives a neat and effective finish. fig. is similar to the above, with the exception that the rail of the door is rebated (g) to receive the astragal moulding. this method is preferred on the best class of work, because it shows no unsightly joint at the inside of the door frame. fig. illustrates the type of joint made by using a brass astragal mould (h) as employed on high-class work, frequently seen on french furniture of the louis periods. in fig. is shown a piece of brass astragal moulding, which may be procured from any cabinetmaker's ironmonger in suitable lengths. it is fixed in position by slightly rebating the edge of the door and fastening with ordinary countersunk brass screws. [illustration: fig. .--brass astragal.] [illustration: fig. .--curved cupboard doors with rebated meeting joint.] [illustration: fig. .--rebated meeting joint.] [illustration: fig. .--meeting joint with applied astragal.] fig. is a rebated joint, broken at the front by a bead moulding. the illustration shows its application to a circular-fronted cupboard, and it will be noticed that the hinged rails are received in a rebate which is worked on the carcase ends. the rebated joint at the centre of the two doors is worked slightly on the bevel, so as to allow for clearance when opening the door. two of the commonest meeting joints of doors are seen in figs. and . in the former case the stiles are rebated (as already shown in fig. ), whilst at fig. an astragal bead is glued to the right-hand stile. in fig. a bead is worked on the right-hand stile to mask the joint. fig. is the hook joint used on good-class joinery and cabinet work. a pair of special wood planes are required to make the joint in a cheap and efficient manner. the cost of a pair of / -in. hook joint planes is from _s._ to _s._ they are of similar size and general appearance to the ordinary ovolo moulding plane. [illustration: fig. .--the hook joint.] [illustration: fig. .--hook joint with loose tongues.] [illustration: fig. .--rebated joint with tongue slip.] fig. is a special type of hook joint as used on larger work. the joint may be made by using the plough plane, the rebate plane and a suitably-sized bead plane, the loose tongues being inserted as shown and fastened by screws and glue. fig. is a rebated joint with loose tongue-slip and astragal mould, suitable for frames over - / in. in thickness. the loose tongue-slip is glued into the right-hand door frame. fig. shows a shutting joint used to prevent permeation of dust to the interior of a drawer. the drawer front is grooved and engages a suitably-formed slip which is screwed to the bearer as indicated in the illustration. occasionally some difficulty is experienced when fitting the slip to a narrow drawer, but this can always be overcome by putting in the screws from the top of the bearer instead of from underneath. [illustration: fig. .--dust-proof drawer, showing the front grooved to engage a slip which is screwed to the bearer rail.] shutting joints which are required to be "light-tight," such as those used in photographic work, are generally formed by slightly grooving the frame and inserting a strip of black velvet. the friction of the high pile of the velvet prevents the filtration of light through the joint. when making air-tight showcases, one of the best and simplest tests is to place a lighted candle in the case and close all the doors; if the candle goes out within three minutes you have accomplished your object. the dovetail joint nothing definite is known as to the origin of dovetailing, but a quaint and pleasing little story which is well worth repeating runs as follows: a farmer had called in the local "joyner" to do sundry repairs at the homestead. one day, whilst enjoying a humble meal, he sat watching some doves as they hopped about the yard. struck by the movement of their wedge-shaped tails, it occurred to him to joint his timber by the interlocking method; hence we have _dovetails_. [illustration: fig. .--a single through dovetail.] [illustration: fig. .--through dovetails on carcase work (p, pins; t, tails).] through dovetailing.--one of the simplest forms of the dovetail joint is shown in fig. , where two pieces of timber are joined by the method known as "through" dovetailing. this method is used in everyday practice for joining the corners of frames, bracket trusses, and a hundred and one other articles. figs. and show the method of through dovetailing as applied to the making of boxes, plinths, and general carcase work; it is used in positions where no objection can be taken to the end grain showing on each side of the finished work. in the case of plinths and furniture cornices the foundation frame is made of yellow pine or other cheap wood, and the more expensive and rare timbers are glued and mitred around in various thicknesses and shapes, thus saving the more costly material and strengthening the construction by the method known as laminating. in many cases all that is necessary is to veneer the face sides, thus covering and hiding any unsightliness. [illustration: fig. .--dovetails for boxes, etc.] [illustration: fig. .--lap-dovetailing for drawers.] lap-dovetailing.--fig. is an example of lap-dovetailing, such as is used where a drawer side joins with the drawer front. it is not permissible to allow the end grain of the timber to show at the front of a drawer, and this is why resort is had to the lap-dovetail. as the most general use of the dovetail is for this and similar purposes, we shall therefore deal fully with the methods of marking out and the making of this class of joint. angles.--a most important point in the construction of a dovetail is to avoid having the angles of the pins and tails too acute. an inclination of one in eight is considered correct; no hard and fast rule need be obeyed, but the variation should on no account be less than one in six. [illustration: fig. .--how to obtain correct angles for dovetail template.] [illustration: fig. .--squaring and use of template.] fig. shows a simple method to obtain the correct angle. take a piece of timber and plane up the face edge (a, b) true and straight; mark out a line (c, d) at right angles to the face edge and space off ins. as shown; now measure a distance of in. (d, e), and join e to point eight. this will give the correct angle for the dovetails, and it may then be transferred to the joiners' bevel. many workers who are constantly on dovetail work make a zinc template to the exact angle and keep it specially for the purpose (fig. ). squaring.--another important point to remember is that the drawer sides must be true and squared to an exact length and planed up to thickness; otherwise the finished drawer will be in winding and out of truth. to true and square the ends of drawer sides, drawer backs and drawer front, a most useful little machine is the mitre trimmer; failing this, excellent results can be obtained by using the shooting board. [illustration: fig. .--method of marking with cutting gauge.] gauging.--after squaring up the timber accurate gauging of the ends is another important point. the gauge used should be a cutting gauge, so that the line is incised about / in. in depth, thus effectually cutting the cross fibres of the timber. fig. shows the method of using the cutting gauge. the stock of the gauge must be held well up to the end of the timber. the gauge is a most difficult tool for the novice to use, and his trouble is generally caused by holding it too flat. tilt the gauge a little so that the thumbscrew shown in the illustration goes nearer to the floor; the blade will then not bite so keenly, and better results will be obtained. the dotted lines indicate the positions which the dovetails will occupy when marked out. the gauge is set a trifle less than the thickness of the drawer sides to allow for the thickness of the steel cutter, and a gauge line is marked on the inside of the front and all round the drawer back. the gauge is now readjusted so as to leave a / -in. lap on the front, and a line marked on the ends of the front and all round the ends of the sides which will engage the drawer front. a glance at figs. and will make this clear. [illustration: fig. .--removing the waste wood.] the dovetail pins on drawer part and back are spaced out and marked on the end with the aid of the joiners' bevel, the lines being then squared down to the gauge line by the method shown at fig. --that is, by using the try-square and marking awl. the drawer front is now put into the bench vice, and the pins are cut as indicated in fig. . the drawer back is treated in a similar manner, but of course in this case it is not "lap" but "through" dovetailing, and the saw kerf goes through the timber and down to the gauge line. [illustration: fig. .--cutting away the half dovetails.] we now come to the point where it is necessary to remove the superfluous material. fig. shows a method commonly adopted and known as sawing out the waste; the saw is held at an angle and part of the inside portion of the dovetail is cut away as shown. this is a good plan for the amateur, because it shows him at the commencement of his chopping out which will be the pin and which the tail. [illustration: fig. .--showing the vertical and horizontal chisel operations in lap-dovetailing. a: the preliminary roughing-out. b: vertical chiselling; note that the first stab should be just outside the gauge line. c: marking the horizontal cut.] fig. (a) shows another method that answers well for soft woods such as pine, american whitewood and satin walnut. the drawer front is laid flat on the bench after it has been sawn, and with a mallet and sharp chisel the corner of the dovetail is knocked off as shown. this takes the bulk of the material away and the dovetail is then pared out square in the usual way. the illustration (fig. ) also shows how the chisel is held for vertical paring (b) and for horizontal paring (c). [illustration: fig. .--roughing-out by boring.] [illustration: fig. .--marking pins on drawer side.] a third method is shown at fig. . with hard, curly timbers, such as tobacco mahogany and satinwood, it is a laborious process to carefully chop away the timber in small pieces, and to overcome this difficulty we occasionally see the workman take a twist-bit and bore a series of holes as shown. a great portion of the timber may then be split away by inserting the chisel end-way into the grain, after which it is pared to a finish. as dovetailing is chiefly used for drawer making, it will be of interest to give several illustrations of variations of the joint and its uses. fig. indicates the method of marking the position of the holes in the drawer side. when the paring out of the dovetails is completed the drawer front is turned over on to the side as shown, and the position of the recesses which will engage the pin portions are marked with the marking awl as illustrated. [illustration: fig. .--marking by means of saw blade.] [illustration: fig. .--gauge lines, scores and saw cuts.] [illustration: fig. .--sawing the drawer side.] [illustration: fig. .--position of chisel for cutting channel.] the completed drawer back is marked on the sides in an exactly similar manner. another method of marking through dovetails is shown at fig . the side is held in position on the end, and the dovetail saw is inserted and drawn out of the saw kerf, thus leaving the exact mark on the drawer-back. other workers prefer a pounce-bag instead of a saw. a pounce-bag consists of a piece of fairly open woven muslin filled with a mixture of french chalk and finely-powdered whiting; the muslin is tied up with a piece of thin twine like the mouth of a flour sack. all that is necessary is to place the timber in position and bang the bag on the top of the saw-cuts, when sufficient powder will pass through the bag and down the saw kerf to mark the exact positions of the lines. sawing the dovetails.--after marking out the pins on the drawer sides, we proceed with the next operation, that is, sawing the dovetails ready for chopping out the waste material. the drawer side is taken and firmly secured in the bench screw and sawn as at fig. ; it is most important that the saw kerf is kept _inside_ the line which has been scratched by the marking awl. see fig. , where the dotted line represents the gauge line and the outside lines indicate the scores of the marking awl. failure to observe this condition will result in faulty dovetailing, and it will also prove the necessity for using a finely-toothed and thin-bladed dovetail saw. to cut out the waste wood (or core), the usual procedure is to saw away the half-dovetails as at fig. . with care, this can be accomplished with the dovetail saw, thus avoiding unnecessary labour and the use of the paring chisel. after sawing, the drawer side is placed flat upon the bench, one end in contact with the bench to prevent the drawer side from slipping away; a chisel (preferably bevelled edged) of suitable width is now taken and a small channel is cut as at a, fig. . the method of cutting this channel is shown in the same illustration. the chisel-cut is started about / in. from the gauge line; the cut is made right up to the gauge line, which (when gauging) was made / in. deep so as to cut the cross fibres of the timber. a small piece of waste wood will therefore come away as at a. the object of cutting this small channel is so that, when the chisel is held vertically on the gauge line and struck with the mallet, the chisel will have no tendency to force its way backward and overshoot the gauge line. the waste or core is now removed by holding the chisel approximately vertical and applying sufficient power to drive it half-way through the timber. the drawer side is now turned over, the operation repeated, and the core pushed out. care must be exercised whilst cutting away the core to ensure the chisel being held nearly perpendicular; if too much lead (or bevel) be given, a faulty and undercut dovetail will be the result. undercut dovetails prevent a proper grip of the glue; they give a weak joint, and often cause the face of the drawer side to be splintered whilst driving up the joint. if it be necessary to ease one or two shavings from off the drawer side whilst fitting the completed drawer in the carcase, the joint will show a greater gap as each succeeding shaving is removed. in common work, especially in soft timbers, many workers allow the pins of a drawer back to run through the sides about / in. and hammer down the pins of the dovetail. this is called "bishoping the dovetails," and is unnecessary if the work be properly made and fitted. an alternative method of dovetailing is that of cutting the dovetails first, as shown at fig. . four or six drawer sides are placed in the vice and the dovetails are sawn at one operation. a little lead (or bevel) from front to back is given whilst sawing, and if this method be used care must be taken to see that the parts of the drawer sides which will be on the inside of the completed drawer are towards the worker, or the lead will be given to the dovetails in the wrong direction. [illustration: fig. .--cutting several dovetails at once.] after sawing the dovetails in this manner the sides are placed in their respective positions on the drawer fronts or backs, and marked with a pounce-bag or by using the saw-blade method. the pins are then cut in the usual way, care being taken that the saw kerf be on the outside of the marks, otherwise the pins will finish too slack to engage with the tails. frame dovetails.--fig. is a sketch of a constructional frame such as is used for building up a cornice or plinth. at the joint marked a an edge barefaced dovetail is shown. from the separated sketches of the joint (b) it will be seen that the dovetail can be put together either from the top or the bottom of the framing as all its edges are parallel; glue is relied upon to hold it in position. the centre stretcher rail at fig. is similar, except that in this case it is a complete dovetail in place of a barefaced one. [illustration: fig. .--constructional frame (as for plinth or cornice) showing application of the dovetail joint.] some workers, when making either of the above joints, prefer to give a slight bevel to the dovetail, so that it drives tightly into the housing when put together. a variation of this type of dovetail is frequently used to joint internal uprights to the horizontal shelves of writing desks, cabinets, and bookcases, etc. the dovetailed portion is parallel for about three-fourths of its width; the remaining part is tapered towards the front edge and notched away at the face so as to conceal the method of construction. an illustration of the top portion of a division ins. wide is shown at fig. , c. the other portion is of course dovetailed to fit it. blind lap-dovetailing.--at fig. is shown a type of blind lap-dovetailing. this makes a good, sound joint, but it has the disadvantage of showing a small portion of the timber of the front rail end-way of the grain. joints of this kind are used for cornices, boxes, etc., and also for painted furniture. [illustration: fig. .--blind lap-dovetailing.] [illustration: fig. .--housed and mitred dovetail.] housed and mitred dovetail.--fig. is another form of dovetail--commonly called a housed and mitred or rebated and mitred dovetail. in this instance we see that a small portion is mitred at top and bottom edges, and when used in plinth or cornice work, or for making tea-caddies, etc., the edges are (when completing the work) covered either with the moulding, which is planted on the cornice or plinth, or with the top and bottom of the box or tea-caddy. the method of making a housed and mitred dovetail joint is seen in fig. . the ends to be joined are planed up true and square and then rebated as shown. the dotted lines indicate the portion which has been worked away. the dovetails are now sawn and pared out in the usual way and the part denoted by the arrow is afterwards cut away with a chisel and finally finished to a smooth surface with a rebate plane; the method of working is shown at fig. , where the dovetail pins are seen with the waste portions cut away. [illustration: fig. .--working a housed and mitred dovetail joint.] fig. also shows the method of cutting away the mitred part. a temporary piece of wood is planed to a true mitre and placed underneath the dovetailed piece to form a template. both pieces of the timber are now secured to the bench with a handscrew or cramp; the template a will form a guide for the chisel and rebate plane and allow a sharp edge or arris to be worked on the mitre. a secret mitred dovetail joint is illustrated at fig. ; it is used in all the better class of cabinet and box work. fig. shows the pieces separated; note the mitre at the top and bottom edge. [illustration: fig. .--secret mitre dovetailing.] [illustration: fig. .--dovetailed keys for wide surfaces.] dovetail keying.--fig. is a method used to prevent wide boards such as signboards, wide and shaped pediments, etc., from casting or warping. it is called dovetail keying. beyond calling attention to the fact that the angles at the edges of the keys, where they are bevelled, should be at or about degrees, nothing further need be said, as the drawing is self-explanatory. angle dovetail keying is shown at figs. and . [illustration: fig. .--dovetail key.] [illustration: fig. .--dovetail keying on the angle.] [illustration: fig. .--bow-fronted door dovetailed edgeways.] other varieties.--at fig. we have an everyday method of jointing circular-fronted cabinet door frames. great care must be taken in setting out and making, or a twisted frame will result. then at fig. are shown two familiar examples of dovetailing the bearer to the carcase end of a dressing table or washstand. fig. .--lap-dovetailing the top of a wardrobe to the carcase end. other examples, such as the top of a bookcase to the sides, will suggest themselves. fig. .--side view of a jewel drawer with a moulded drawer front as used on dressing tables, etc. this shows the necessity of bevelled dovetailing in order that the drawer front may be kept as thin and light as possible. [illustration: fig. .--carcase work, showing bearer rails dovetailed.] fig. .--bevelled dovetailing when pins are at right angles to the end cut. fig. .--bevelled dovetailing when the centre line of the pins is parallel to the edges of the work, used for making "hoppers," food troughs, knife boxes, etc. one corner of the box shows the joint separated. [illustration: fig. .--lap-dovetailing.] [illustration: fig. .--jewel drawer side.] [illustration: fig. .--bevelled dovetailing.] [illustration: fig. .--bevelled and dovetailed box, showing the jointing of one corner separated.] fig. .--an example of oblique dovetailing, as used on "hoppers" when one piece is vertical and the other piece is inclined. fig. .--method of dovetailing small boxes. the box is dovetailed in one width and the top and bottom glued on; the sides and ends are then cut along the dotted line, thus forming the lid. it will be noticed that a specially wide dovetail pin must be left so as to form part of the lid and part of the lower portion. [illustration: fig. .--oblique dovetailing.] [illustration: fig. .--dovetailing for small box.] setting out the joint.--for constructing a dovetail joint at the corner of a frame, as fig. , it is necessary at the outset to trim up the ends of the timber square and true. this may be accomplished by neatly sawing to the line and paring the end of the wood with a sharp chisel, or by bringing the wood to a finish with a finely-set plane, such as an iron-faced smoothing plane. the ends of the wood must be perfectly square when tested from either the face side or from the marked edge. [illustration: fig. .--corner dovetail.] [illustration: fig. .--squaring.] take a cutting gauge and set it to equal the thickness of the timber, and, holding it as already shown at fig. , strike the gauge lines on the wood as illustrated at fig. , g. proceed to mark out the dovetail pins, as at fig. ; in this illustration g again shows the gauge line. the inclination of the lines across the end of the wood should not be too great, or the joint will be a weak one, and the edges of the dovetails will be liable to crumble away when the work is knocked together. dovetailing template.--many workers who are constantly engaged upon dovetail joints make a small wooden template, as shown at fig. . this template is generally of hardwood, such as beech or walnut. the method of obtaining the correct angles of such a template has already been given on p. . notice that the lines _bb_ (fig. ) of the dovetail pins do _not_ bevel; they are parallel to the sides of the wood and at right angles to the end of the wood as shown. [illustration: fig. .--gauging.] [illustration: fig. .--marking the pins.] chisel work.--after marking out, as shown at fig. , place the wood on the bench and proceed to chop away the centre portion in the following manner. hold the chisel on the bevel and cut out a small piece to form a channel at the gauge line. now hold the chisel in a vertical position, and with a mallet strike it so as to make a cut about / in. deep. then hold the chisel on the bevel again and cut away more waste wood; proceed alternately, first forcing the chisel down vertically, and then paring the wood away with the chisel held obliquely, until you have cut half-way through the thickness of the wood. [illustration: fig. .--hand-made template for marking dovetails.] [illustration: fig. .--testing.] [illustration: fig. .--the marked piece.] turn the wood over and repeat the various operations until the core, or waste piece, is removed. pare away any little irregularities which may be left in the corners with an / -in. chisel, thus leaving all smooth and neat. lay the piece of wood which is to have the dovetail marked on it flat upon the bench, and take the piece with the dovetail pins cut upon it and place in the position shown at fig. . saw work.--take a marking awl, or a knitting needle which has had its end sharpened, and mark the lines of the dovetail in a similar manner to that shown at fig. . remove the piece a, fig. , and the lower piece shown at fig. will clearly show the marks _aa_ as they appear in fig. . place the piece (fig. ) in the vice, and saw _outside_ the lines aa, as shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. .--marking dovetails with marking awl.] after sawing down the lines aa, fig. , place the wood in the vice and, guiding the saw blade with the index finger of the left hand, cut away the small piece at the side (see fig. ). repeat the operation as may be necessary, and the completed joint will be similar to that shown at fig. . if the sawing is not neatly done it may be found necessary to pare the shoulder with a sharp chisel. drawers.--when dovetailing drawers or boxes it is necessary to square up the ends of all the stock and gauge them, as shown at fig. . this illustration shows how to gauge the lines on a drawer side; the dovetailed joint in this case, however, does not run through the drawer front and leave the work unsightly, as the joint at fig. would do. the method used is shown at fig. , and it is commonly known as lap-dovetailing. most workers cut the dovetail pins on the drawer fronts and the drawer backs first, after which they mark the drawer sides with the marking awl. the dovetailing of the drawer back is shown at fig. . this is the type known as "through dovetailing," the method being similar in regard to tool operations as the single joint shown at fig. . [illustration: fig. .--sawing the dovetails.] [illustration: fig. .--lap-dovetailing drawer front to drawer side.] [illustration: fig. .--through dovetailing.] [illustration: fig. .--chipping waste of lap dovetail.] when the pins on the drawer front have been sawn, the waste material is cut away, as at fig. . first stab down with the vertical chisel, which must make the cut about / in. in front of the gauge line (see illustration). this commencing of the cut slightly in front of the gauge line is a very important feature. the chisel may be likened to a wedge, and if the chisel edge be placed exactly upon the gauge line and force be applied to the handle, it will force the timber away equally on each side of the gauge line, and the finished depth of the hole will therefore be too deep for the thickness of the drawer side; in other words, it will press itself over the gauge line on both sides. by taking the first vertical cut on the waste side of the gauge line, and then removing a small piece with the chisel held obliquely, as at fig. , the wood is removed and less resistance is offered to the chisel when the next vertical cut is made. this overshooting the gauge line is a common fault with the beginner, who is puzzled at the result because he is certain he had his chisel exactly on the gauge line when he commenced his vertical cut. it is especially noticeable in soft-grained woods. to cut away the waste of a lap-dovetail (fig. ), the vertical and oblique cuts are repeated until the final trimming up is required, and now is the time to finish both the vertical and the horizontal cuts exactly on the gauge lines. some workers prefer to cut the drawer sides first, and if this method is preferred (and it has its advantages for cheap work) several drawer sides are cut at once by placing four or six behind one another in the vice and sawing them all at one operation. the drawer front is placed in the vice, and the drawer side held upon it, whilst the saw blade is placed in the saw kerf and drawn smartly forward. this will give the required marks at the exact position desired. it must be remembered, however, to saw just inside these dovetail-pin lines, otherwise the finished joint will be too slack, owing to the removal of the sawdust, which is practically equal to the thickness of the saw blade. machine-made dovetails.--as a general rule machine-made drawer and box dovetails show both the pins and the tails of exactly the same size. the reason is obvious after an inspection of fig. , which shows the position in which the pieces are held during the machining operations. in spite of a certain amount of prejudice they are satisfactory and thoroughly reliable and have their place in modern shop and office fittings. [illustration: fig. .--machine-made drawer front and side, apart.] [illustration: fig. .--the parts together.] [illustration: fig. .--position when machined.] dovetail grooving the dovetail housing joint should first be carefully marked out with a marking knife, so as to cut across the fibres of the wood. for obtaining the bevel on the edge of the wood a joiner's bevel may be used, and the angle should not be too acute. (see previous chapter.) take a chisel and pare away a small channel as at a, fig. , to form a small shoulder to guide the saw. [illustration: fig. .--paring away channel for dovetail grooving.] with a fine tenon or dovetail saw, cut the saw kerf as at fig. . if any difficulty is experienced in cutting the kerf true and square, you may resort to the method shown at c, fig. ; a small temporary piece of timber has been screwed on the top of the work to form a guide for the saw. [illustration: fig. .--cutting the saw kerf.] [illustration: fig. .--old woman's tooth plane.] [illustration: fig. .--guide block for bevelling.] fig. , b, shows the small channel formed by the chisel prior to the sawing operation. the sawing of the bevelled side is worked in a similar manner; but occasionally we find amateurs who adopt the method shown at fig. . a block of wood (h) is first made by boring a - / -in. hole through its entire length, and afterwards making a saw cut at the desired bevel. the object of this block, which is kept specially for the purpose, is to form a guide for those who have not full control of the dovetail saw; the back of the saw clears the hole, and the required bevel is obtained. when a saw cut has been made at each side of the groove, the surplus timber is pared away in the following manner: cut away portion e, fig. ; then cut away portion f, and lastly cut away the apex portion marked g. continue by this method of paring until the approximate depth is reached. to ensure a correct depth throughout the entire groove, the router plane (or, as it is often called, "the old woman's tooth plane," fig. ) is used. [illustration: fig. .--showing method of paring.] [illustration: fig. .--channelling the alternate piece.] with regard to cutting the alternate piece, it is necessary to first plane the end of the shelf true and square. with a cutting gauge strike the line k, fig. ; the required bevel on the edge (j) is then set out, and with the chisel a small channel is again formed. with the tenon or dovetail saw cut down the line k to the required depth, and carefully pare away the wood with a sharp chisel to the correct shape. the mitred joint although mitreing is used in everyday woodwork, it comes last in our list of regular joints simply because it has been partly dealt with in almost every previous chapter. for example, we have mitre halving in fig. , a mitre bridle joint in fig. , a tongued and grooved mitre in fig. , mitred mortise and tenon joints in figs. and , a dowelled mitre frame in fig. , and a mitred dovetail in fig. . [illustration: fig. .--mitred skirting.] [illustration: fig. .--curved mitre.] [illustration: fig. .--halving the angle.] mitreing.--the term mitreing is generally used to denote the type of joint used at the corner of a picture frame; or where two pieces of wood are bevelled away so as to fit each other, as the skirting or plinth mould at fig. . in these cases the timber is cut so that the joint is at degrees to the face, and the two pieces, when placed together, form an angle of degrees (a right angle). the term mitreing, however, is not confined to the fitting of timber around a right angle; it may be justly applied to the fitting of a moulding around an angle irrespective of the number of its degrees. one often hears such terms as "a half mitre," used to denote the fitting of a moulding around an octagonal column or pedestal, and probably it would be more correct to describe the joint as a mitre cut at - / degrees. mitreing consists of halving the angle and making each piece to fit the line of bisection. should the angle be bounded by straight lines, as at fig. , then the mitred joint will be a straight line, but should the angle be bounded by a curved and a straight line, as at fig. , a, or by two curved lines, then the mitred joint will have to be a curved line if the mouldings are to be of the same section. [illustration: fig. .--sawing block for mitreing.] finding the angle.--for straight mitres, the mitre joint line is found by bisecting the angle, as shown in the various examples, and the following instructions are given to enable the reader to follow the diagram (fig. ). take a pair of compasses, or dividers, and with any convenient opening strike out the arc a, b. put the point of the compasses on a, and mark another arc c; then, without altering the distance between the points of the compass, put the point on b, and mark the arc d. draw the line e from the corner, so that it cuts through the intersection made by the arcs c and d. the angle a b is now halved by the line e, and this method may be applied to any angle. sawing block.--for sawing mouldings, etc., to their approximate shape, a home-made sawing block is generally used, as shown at fig. . two pieces of wood are glued one on the top of the other, the required angle is transferred thereto, and the saw kerf made. in the sketch the saw kerfs are shown at degrees, right and left, and other angles and kerfs may be made where desired. planing.--after sawing the piece to approximately the correct angle, it is necessary on high-class work to plane the cut end so as to give a perfect finish and enable a glued joint to be made. this may be accomplished by using the plane on the shooting board, as shown at fig. , and, if the worker is constantly using mitres of various angles, it is an easy matter to make new angle blocks and fix them on to the board. other workers prefer the screw mitre trap shown at fig. . this apparatus takes wide plinth or cornice moulds, and the angle may be altered by fitting temporary packing pieces under the work so as to tilt the moulding to the desired angle. the method of using the plane is indicated in the illustration. another method in everyday use by those workers who are constantly mitreing wide pieces of stock at degrees is the "donkey's ear" shooting board illustrated at fig. . the plane is laid on its side on the surface of the board marked a, and used in a similar manner to that shown at fig. . [illustration: fig. .--use of plane and shooting board for mitreing.] [illustration: fig. .--the screw mitre trap.] a simple method and one that should always be remembered because it is handy when working without a shooting board is shown at fig. . set the marking or cutting gauge to the thickness of the wood to be mitred at degrees; then gauge this distance on the wood, as shown at b; draw from the line to the edge, as shown, and saw and plane to a finish. the diagonals of a square give degrees, and this is the method used to mark out the work. the end of the wood must, of course, be square with its edges before marking out in this manner. [illustration: fig. .--"donkey's ear" shooting board.] [illustration: fig. .--gauging for mitres.] [illustration: fig. .--narrow inner moulding.] [illustration: fig. .--wide mitred moulding.] fig. shows a bevelled framing into which has been mitred a narrow moulding m so as to show a correct margin around the panel. [illustration: fig. .--door with curved mitres.] [illustration: fig. .--method of setting out for a curved mitre.] fig. shows a similar framing, but with a wide moulding m mitred around it. to obtain a correct intersection of this moulding, the angles a and b are bisected. the bisection of the angles meets before the width of the moulding is cleared, therefore the angle c will again have to be bisected, and the finished joint will appear as shown. one of the simplest of mouldings with a large flat face has been chosen to illustrate this. the moulding could be all in one width, as shown, or it could be built into the framing in separate pieces, the wide flat and the piece carrying the mould. curved mitres.--we now come to what are probably the most difficult of all mitres, viz., curved mitres, and the writer well remembers in his apprenticeship days his first experience of attempting to fit the mouldings around the door shown at fig. by using straight mitres at a. this, of course, is impossible if the mouldings are of the same section and it is desired to make all the members correctly intersect. if straight mitres are used the section of the curved moulding will have to be of a different shape from the section of the straight moulding, and in these days of machine-made mouldings this method is seldom resorted to. it is better, cheaper, and easier to make curved mitres when the necessary machinery is at hand. to set out a curved mitre (see fig. ).--draw a section of the moulding full size, a, as shown at the left hand of the illustration, and project lines round the framing, as shown v, w, x, y and z. where the lines v, w, x, y and z intersect at the corner d, it clearly shows that a straight mitre will not cut all the points of intersection. a curved line will cut all the intersections, and a template made of cardboard, sheet zinc, or veneer, should be made to this shape. at the left-hand side the geometrical setting out is shown for obtaining the curve without having to resort to drawing it freehand. take half the width of the moulding, as shown by dotted line a, and where it cuts the approximation of the curved mitre place the point of the compasses and strike out a circle as shown; with the same radius place the compass point on b--that is, the inside point of the mitre, and cut the circle on the right and left with the small arcs shown at _aa_. with the same radius put the compass point at the junction of the circle and mitre line, c v, and cut the circle at right and left, viz., _ee_. [illustration: fig. .--template for mitreing.] now rule a line through _aa_, and another line through _ee_, and where these lines cut each other it will give the correct radius of the curved mitre. the advantage of knowing the correct radius of a curved mitre is of great benefit to the skilled machinist, as it enables him to set up his machine so as to give a definite result. mitreing a moulded door frame.--fig. illustrates the method of mitreing the moulded portion of a door frame where the joint is dowelled, not tenoned. a small wooden template is made out of beech or other hardwood, having its ends cut at degrees. this template is placed on the rail, as shown, and held in position by placing both the rail and the template in the vice. the face of the template forms a guide for a wide chisel, and enables the worker to gradually pare away the moulding to the correct angle. [illustration: fig. .--using panel saw in mitre box.] for sawing the mitres on large mouldings such as are used on the lid of a gramophone or wireless cabinet, a mitre sawing box and a panel saw may be used as indicated at fig. . joints for curved work fig. shows a circular frame made up in two thicknesses, the segments being screwed to each other and the joints crossed in two layers. this is a very strong method, and it is used for making circular frames and curbs up to ft. in diameter. the segments can be either long or short, the only important condition being that they must be marked out and sawn to the correct radius. fig. shows a board marked out in segments for this class of work. the longer the boards the better will they cut up, as it gives more opportunities of cutting one piece out of the other as at a a. [illustration: fig. .--circular frame in two thicknesses.] [illustration: fig. .--circular rim in halved segments.] fig. shows how to begin to put the work together. to continue this, fit other segments in position and screw them to d and e respectively. the completed work is illustrated at fig. . [illustration: fig. .--board marked for circular jointing.] [illustration: fig. .--putting circular work together.] [illustration: fig. ., fig. . method of building up semicircular head of door frame.] fig. shows a circular rim, or curb, made of segments which are halved together. this method is suitable for heavy work, where the timbers are of considerable size. the halvings are cut on the ends of the segments to any convenient shape or bevel, each one being marked so as to fit its fellow. [illustration: fig. .--part of laminated table frame.] [illustration: fig. .--half of laminated core box.] when extra length is required, semicircular or circular work is built up out of four or five thicknesses of wood, and the method is called laminating. the method of building up the semicircular head of a door frame by this method is shown at figs. and . the shaped framing for kidney-shaped writing tables and similar classes of work is built up by laminating pieces of / -in. or -in. wood, after which the face side is veneered so as to hide the glued joints. fig. shows a sketch of one quarter of an elliptical table frame levelled up and ready for applying the veneer. lamination.--if we apply to the dictionary for the word "lamination," we find that lamellar structure is the arrangements in thin plates or layers one over the other, usually having the end joints alternating, and it is a condition which allows of cleavage in one direction only. this method is used for nearly all descriptions of free or irregular curves, such as sweeps, bends, ogee shapes, and segments of circles. the timber is marked out in suitable lengths, rough-sawn and then planed true on the face, glued together, and when set the sides are cleaned up to the required shape. it is one of the strongest methods of construction, and necessarily costly. pulleys, pulley rims, and a hundred and one other jobs are built by this method. fig. shows one half of a core box built by this method, ready to be worked to the required shape. miscellaneous joints weather boards.--for outdoor buildings, such as garages, garden sheds, toolhouses, etc., "weatherboarding" is often preferred to ordinary matchboarding, chiefly because of the facility with which it throws off the rain. the boarding can be bought ready prepared. three methods of jointing are shown in the sections at fig. . the method indicated at a shows one of the most satisfactory types, its boards being planed and moulded as shown. the other two examples are more common. the boarding at b is rebated, whilst at c each board overhangs its lower neighbour. the boards for c and d are always cut tapered as indicated. [illustration: fig. .--weather boards.] [illustration: fig. .--ladder rungs.] the end grain is usually protected by nailing on a strip of timber, chamfered on both edges. ladders.--fig. illustrates the method of fastening the rung (or stave) of a ladder to the side. at a the common method is shown, the stave being simply driven into the hole and wedged. at b a much better but more expensive method of construction is given. the stave here is socketed and the pin turned to a smaller diameter. in both cases the rung, or stave, is painted before being driven into the side and wedged. [illustration: fig. .--cornice pole joint.] [illustration: fig. .--veneer keying.] ladder sides are made in two distinct ways. one method is known as "a plank side," the side being cut from a plank as shown at the section d; the other method is called "a pole side," and is constructed by cutting a straight larch pole in half and using half of the pole for each side of the ladder, as at section c. hinged cornice poles.--fig. shows a hinged joint for cornice poles and should be of interest to those who are frequently removing from house to house. the joint will adapt itself to fit any bay window (even a square bay) and it is formed by turning and cutting the two pieces shown. to fix a cornice pole to a bay window one of these joints is required for each angle of the bay, the pole being cut into suitable lengths and fixed to the hinged joints by the use of the dowel screw and a little hot glue. it is perhaps needless to remark that the diameter of the joint should be of the same diameter as the cornice pole, to enable the rings to easily slide over the surface. for fastening a turned ornament (or "finial") to the end of a cornice pole a double pointed screw (known in the trade as a "dowel screw") is used, one half of which is screwed into each part of the pieces to be joined. veneer keying.--fig. illustrates the method of strengthening the corners of boxes which are made of / -in. or / -in. timber, by securing the corners with veneer keys. the box is mitred and glued in the usual manner, and after allowing sufficient time for the glue to set, saw kerfs are made as shown at _a a_. a piece of thin saw-cut veneer is afterwards glued into the saw kerfs, and when dry the face is levelled off flush. this method is often used previous to veneering the face side of the box with rare veneers, and it is also useful for repair work. note that the saw cuts are made at an angle. small picture frames are sometimes keyed instead of nailed. muntin and skirting joint.--in the case of panelled rooms it is usually necessary to scribe the muntins (or uprights) to the skirting. the method is shown in fig. . the bead moulding of the skirting is only partly removed, as indicated, leaving a solid portion to which the muntin is skew-nailed. cot joint.--at fig. is shown an interesting joint used largely in the making of indian cots. the illustrations indicate how the cross bar and end bar are mortised into the leg. a turned hardwood peg fits into a suitably provided hole and locks the tenons, which are dry jointed (not glued) in position. the head of this peg forms an ornament (a) at the top of the leg and should fit tightly in position. at b are seen the end and cross bars in their relative positions when apart from the leg. c shows the end bar and cross bar when the cot is fixed, but in this illustration the leg is purposely left out of the drawing for a clear representation. d shows the joints of the leg portion when the part of the leg above the line at a is sawn off. the hardwood peg is shown at e. [illustration: fig. .--fixing muntin to skirting.] [illustration: fig. .--joint for home-made cot.] sideboard pillars, etc. (fig. ).--for economy, sideboard pillars are sometimes built up as indicated, the "shaft," the "base," and the "swell" being made up of three distinct pieces. turned pins are left on the shaft and the base, and these are secured at the joint by the use of a double-pointed screw called a dowel screw. this does away with the necessity of reducing the squares at the top of the wood and thus getting the turning out of a large piece of wood. notched joints.--fig. is a "notched joint," where two joists, or scantlings, cross each other, the object of the joint being to prevent the joists moving from their position without materially weakening them. for an end notch, see fig. . [illustration: fig. .--method of building up turnings.] [illustration: fig. .--notched joint.] [illustration: fig. .--the saddle joint.] the "saddle joint" (fig. ) is used for connecting upright posts to heads or sills of framing, and undoubtedly takes its name from its similarity to the way in which the saddle fits the horse. it does not weaken the framing as does a mortise and tenon joint, and shrinkage has little effect upon the joint. the "cogged joint," used for connecting purlins to rafter and joists to girders, is illustrated in fig. . [illustration: fig. .--end notch.] [illustration: fig. .--cogged joint.] [illustration: fig. .--birdsmouth joint.] [illustration: fig. .--another type of birdsmouth joint.] birdsmouth joints.--fig. is a "birdsmouth joint," a simple joint which can be readily made by the handsaw, used when a spar fits on the wall plate. a nail is shown securing it in position. fig. shows the birdsmouth joint where the spar runs over the _outside_ of the wall plate, thus allowing a fixing for an ornamental finish. [illustration: fig. .--rafter and tie beam joint.] rafter joint.--fig. shows an everyday joint, as used at the juncture of the principal rafter and the tie-beam in roof truss work. a sketch of piece a is shown separated, and it should be noted that the depth of the cut portion b should not be more than one-fourth of the total width of the tie-beam. [illustration: fig. .--method of pelleting the corner of a mitred picture frame.] pelleting.--fig. indicates the method of pelleting and screwing the corner of a picture frame. the mitre joint is first screwed and a pellet of the same timber is made to fill the hole which has been bored to receive the screw head. the pellet is glued in position and levelled off. [illustration: fig. .--patera covers to hide screws.] patera covers.--in cases where the style of ornament permits of it, patera covers are used instead of pelleting. fig. shows the jointing of shaped spandrails, etc., to carcase ends of light portable cabinet work, etc. a hole is bored about / in. deep into the end, and a screw is used to hold the shaping in position. after fixing the rail a small turned button, called a turned patera, is inserted in the hole, thus giving an ornamental finish, as shown in the front view. the turned patera is driven fairly tightly into the hole, but not glued. when it is required to take the article apart a chisel is carefully inserted under the edge of the patera to remove it, and the screw can then be taken out. this method is often used for the construction of light hanging bookcases and similar objects. for a bookcase having an end ins. wide three of these turned buttons and three screws would be used to secure the shelf to the end. pateras in different styles may be purchased from any dealer in woodworking sundries. buttoning.--the tops of tables, sideboards, etc., should not be fixed with screws in the ordinary way. at the front, screws can be driven upwards through the top rail, but at the sides and back, buttons should be employed, as in fig. , so that the top is free to shrink. it is otherwise liable to split if immovably fixed. the tops of kitchen tables are usually fixed in this way, to allow for shrinkage. [illustration: fig. .--method of buttoning a table top.] frames for oil paintings.--the method of making joints for frames on which the canvas is stretched for oil paintings is shown at fig. . they are generally mitred at the corners and fitted with loose wedges. the four parts of the frame can be held temporarily by a piece of thin board while the canvas is being tacked to the edges of the frame. in the accompanying illustrations fig. shows the action of the wedges when tightening up the frame, the result being to open the mitre joint. fig. shows the position of the saw cuts for receiving the hardwood wedges. note that the parallel groove is carried the full length of the material for greater convenience in cutting. the other groove is taken from the outer angle of the mitre joint inwards. the cut finishes with due regard to the necessary taper; see the dotted lines showing taper in fig. . the grooves will be wide enough after being cut with an ordinary hand-rip saw, but for large work they are usually grooved on the circular saw bench. [illustration: fig. ., fig. . joint and method of wedging the frames of oil paintings.] corrugated steel fasteners.--it is now many years ago since the steel saw-edge fastener first appeared on the market, but probably per cent. of amateur woodworkers have never yet sampled its advantages. in appearance it resembles a miniature corrugated galvanised sheet such as is used for roofing purposes, with the exception, however, that the corrugations are divergent instead of being parallel and that one end is ground down to a cutting edge (see fig. , a). they are made in various sizes from / in. to in. in length, whilst in regard to width they are classed by the number of corrugations and not by their measurement. [illustration: fig. .--jointing boards.] [illustration: fig. .--jointing a frame.] [illustration: the use of saw-edge corrugated steel fasteners.] to use the fastener no special tools are required; it is simply driven in with a hammer exactly as though it were a nail; once in position, however, to get it out is worse than drawing teeth. the corrugations add to the strength of the device, the wood fibres closing around them, age and rust but emphasising their grip. wall plugs.--at fig. four types of wall plugs are shown: _a_, the ordinary rectangular tapered wall plug to drive between the joints of the brickwork; _b_, the circular tapered wall plug as used to plug a wall after a star-shaped brick drill has been used; _d_, a twisted wall plug used for similar purposes to the wedge _a_, but considered to be superior in holding power owing to its twisted formation; _c_ is another type of wall plug considered to have great tenacity by reason of its corrugations. wall plugs are required in nearly all cases where it is necessary to joint woodwork to brickwork, as, for instance, heavily-framed silvered mirrors to the walls of shops. [illustration: fig. .--wall plugs, four varieties.] [illustration: fig. .--slot screwing.] [illustration: fig. .--slot screwing a bracket.] slot screwing, or keyhole screwing, is a most useful way of joining light woodwork in such a manner that the fixing method is not exposed to the eye. a stout screw is inserted to within / in. of the head, as at fig. . in the adjoining piece a hole is bored with a centre bit and a slot is cut with an / -in. chisel. the two pieces of timber are placed together, and by sliding the upper piece forward the screw runs up into the slot or keyhole and secures the joint. fig. shows the application of the joint fixing a shaped bracket to the shaped shelf; the bracket and shelf are inverted in the illustration to clearly show the method of jointing. for heavy work special brass plates are obtainable for this purpose; one plate is let flush into the upper piece and the other plate into the lower piece. battening (fig. ).--a good method of joining cross battens to drawing boards and other wide surfaces is shown here. after boring for the screws, slots are cut so as to allow the screws to move along the slots when shrinkage takes place. in fig. a similar method is applied to secure the drawer bottom to the drawer back. if shrinkage takes place in the drawer bottom and it leaves the groove in the drawer front, the screws are slackened, the drawer bottom is knocked up into the groove, and the screws again inserted. for drawing boards, etc., specially made elliptical-shaped slotted brass socket cups are made to receive the screw heads. [illustration: fig. .--battening.] [illustration: fig. .--drawer bottom joint.] puzzle joints puzzle joints are not only interesting in themselves, but are often excellent studies in craftsmanship. the majority of them, if to be satisfactory as puzzles, call for very careful setting out and cutting, entailing the same degree of skill that is demanded for high-class cabinet work. for this reason several examples may well find a place in a volume dealing with woodwork joints. as a rule, these puzzles should be made in hardwood, such as dark walnut or beech, as in whitewood the joints are soon liable to wear. [illustration: fig. .--sketch of the completed chinese puzzle.] chinese puzzle.--the ingenious puzzle of the chinese type shown in fig. is probably older than many of us could guess, but as it is one that can be made by any woodworker we give full directions as to how it may be constructed. the complete article may be called, in form, a six-pointed pyramid. it is made up of twenty-one different pieces, each cut from wood / in. wide and / in. thick; / in. wood may be used if preferred. for the purpose either sycamore or white maple is the most useful. [illustration: fig. ., fig. ., fig. . the three cross pieces.] [illustration: fig. .--key piece.] the pieces required are as follows:-- fig. .--six pieces, - / ins. long, with a half slot cut in the centre as shown. this slot must be exactly the width of the wood's thickness, and cut exactly half way through, so that, if two pieces are placed across by means of the halved joint, their surfaces will be flush. the slot must also be exactly in the centre. fig. .--six pieces, size - / ins. long, with a half-cut centre slot similar to that of fig. . fig. .--six required, these being - / ins. in length, and with slots in the middle as before. fig. .--one of these last six requires special treatment, as it forms the key block of the puzzle. after its slot has been cut, one half of the narrow part must be sawn away, as shown in fig. . the inner edge must also be gently rounded. the special use of this vital piece, which we will call the "key," will be fully explained presently. fig. .--then, in addition to these, there are three central bars to make. like the other parts they are / in. by / in., but are each - / ins. long, and are cut as shown in fig. . the end projections _a_ are / in. long, and the cut-away part is exactly half the depth of the wood. two of the three pieces (x and y in fig. ) are similar, but the slot _b_ of the third one (z) is only / in. wide instead of / in. as will be noticed, this / -in. slot is _not_ in the centre, but corresponds with the right-hand half of the larger slots of x and y. [illustration: fig. .--the central bars.] in making these twenty-one pieces, what should be borne in mind is that the different parts fit closely into each other. consequently the slots, in width, must be cut so as to grip the thickness of the wood; in depth they must be exactly half this thickness. fitting the puzzle.--the three central bars must first be joined, as those form the skeleton framework of the structure. fig. shows them in position, but as it is a puzzle in itself as to how they can be got thus some explanation is necessary. [illustration: fig. .--the three central bars in position.] [illustration: fig. .--how to adjust the bars. (note position of projecting ends, _a_.)] first stage.--first take the bars x and y (see fig. ) and arrange them as shown in fig. . it is most important that the projections _a_ of x face upwards, and that the projections _a_ of y face towards the centre. then take the bar z and bring it flat into the slot of x. the little slot of z, however, must remain _above_ the slot of x. then slide the bar y along to the centre, so that the part lettered _c_ slips into the little slot of bar z. this may seem confusing to read, but it is easy to follow when the pieces are in one's hand. the result of this rather clever arrangement is that the six arms of fig. are all exactly the same length, width, and thickness. they are also arranged so that in each arm may be clasped one piece each of figs. , , and . the three central arms may, of course, be set up in a different order, and here we have merely chosen the way that is the most simple to describe and illustrate. [illustration: fig. .--beginning to place on the cross pieces.] [illustration: fig. .--placing the key piece to overlap end projection of central bar.] second stage.--in the remaining part of the work the chief difficulty is to keep the puzzle from falling to pieces before the key finally locks it. take the longer cross parts, fig. , and clasp one to each arm. the six need not all be put on meanwhile, but only those which are most easily handled. the next size (fig. ) may then be put on. in the ordinary course each arm could be completed with its three cross pieces till the sixth was attempted, and here the reader would find that, at the last moment, his attempt was frustrated. he could not get the last small piece in, as other bars lock the puzzle. here it is that the "key" comes in. the key piece.--when the writer fits up the puzzle he finds that three of the arms may straight away be fitted complete with their three cross parts. these are the ones where the longer cross piece (fig. ) _lies flush with the back of the central bar_ (see fig. ). this is easily found out when at work on the puzzle. in the case of the other three arms there is, of course, a gap caused by the long slots of the central bars. adjust the parts on the first-named three arms, and then deal with the fourth arm, putting in all three cross parts. for the little one here, use the "key." by placing the "key" so that it _overlaps the end projection_ of the arm (see fig. ) a space is left at the centre, and means is thus afforded for getting in the three cross parts on the remaining two arms. this practically ends the puzzle. while the "key" is in its overlapping position the parts may be separated, but if it is _turned round on its narrow neck_, so that it is in exactly the same position as the other five small cross parts, it locks the whole thing so tightly that nothing but sheer force could loosen the twenty-one pieces. so far as the order of putting together is concerned, there are many equally satisfactory ways, these being determined by the ease or difficulty that one experiences in holding the half-finished puzzle. it all comes to the same in the end, and the "key" must be placed on one bar before the last three arms can be completed. the "key," moreover, must be on one of the bars where a gap is left at the centre, and not on one where fig. lies flush against the central arm as in fig. . undoing the puzzle.--to take the puzzle to pieces all that is required is to turn the "key" half round and push the other two cross bars on that arm towards the outer point. the cross bars below may then be removed, and the whole structure falls to pieces. the double dovetail puzzle (fig. ) consists of two pieces of wood (usually one dark and the other light) which, upon examination, appear to be dovetailed together from each face. this interlocking arrangement is obviously impossible, and the solution of the puzzle is only apparent on examining fig. , where it will be seen that the joint fits together diagonally. at fig. are given the diagrams for setting out. draw the outline of the elevation, plan and end view. the end view in the first instance is indicated by , , and , and it measures - / ins. square. a - / -ins. square is simply used because -ins. wood generally finishes this size after it is planed up. set out a square (a, b, c, d) which stands corner-ways in the larger square ( , , , ). project the lines d a and c b upwards as at , and on to this drawing ( ), set out the dovetail according to your own idea of length, width and bevel. project the four points of your dovetail downwards into the end view, and where these lines cut a, b, and d, c draw them downwards and rebate them into your original plan. this will give the true shape of the two dovetails and it is to this shape that you will cut your joint. the joint is in due course glued up, and next day you will plane and waste off the four corners of your model. the end view shows one corner shaded d, , a; this and the other three corners are wasted away. the result is that the dovetails are thrown into a plane different from that in which they were made, showing as fig. . [illustration: fig. .--double dovetail puzzle.] [illustration: fig. .--the two parts separated.] [illustration: fig. .--elevation, plan and end view, showing how the puzzle joint may be correctly set out.] [illustration: fig. .--dovetail puzzle. the finished joint.] [illustration: fig. .--sketch of dovetail piece.] (note that dovetail is cut on slant, the thickness at front being less than at back. see dotted line on plan below.) [illustration: fig. .--plan, looking upwards.] [illustration: fig. a.--front elevation.] [illustration: fig. b.--back elevation.] the model calls for very accurate workmanship and the joints must not be _undercut_ during the sawing and chiselling operations. the completed model measures to ins. the dovetail puzzle joint illustrated at fig. has perhaps caused more argument and controversy amongst woodworkers than any wooden joint. it may be neatly made in maple, walnut, or mahogany, and afterwards glued up. the question everyone asks is: how was it put together? [illustration: fig. .--variation of the dovetail puzzle.] take two pieces of wood such as mahogany, walnut or birch, about ins. long by - / ins. wide and - / ins. thick. truly plane them up and then set out and make the tenon and dovetailed piece (fig. ). next mark out and cut the cross bar to fit its corresponding piece. the joint will go together in a somewhat diagonal direction as it is pushed into position from the back; when closed it will appear as at fig. . for guidance, a plan, part elevation and back elevation are added. an improvement after you have gained experience in the making of this joint is to make a similar joint, leaving the face (b, fig. ) blind; it then does not show the bevelling of the dovetail at the end c. in other words, keep the line c, say, / in. back from the face of b. the joint should be glued up and it will then appear to the average worker that it is an impossible proposition. (see fig. , page .) [illustration: fig. .--a simple variation of the dovetail puzzle.] carefully note that the edges a, a are parallel to each other in spite of the fact that they slope in one direction. a further variation of the puzzle is seen in fig. . here the joint is much simpler, and can easily be followed from the illustration. [illustration: fig. .--six-piece joint puzzle.] cross puzzle.--fig. illustrates a six-piece puzzle joint, similar in some respects to fig. , but very much simpler. both a back and front view of the piece d is shown for clearness of illustration. the method of assembling the pieces is as follows: hold piece b upright, and fit piece d across; at the same time note that the small _x_ marks are opposite each other. take piece e and, holding it as shown, slide it up the piece b (see arrow) until e engages d and the small _o_ marks are opposite each other. piece c is now fitted behind d, and then piece f will slide in position and push downwards. the key-piece a is now put in position, and the puzzle is completed. [illustration: fig. .--mortising puzzle, showing how the parts fit.] mortising puzzle.--the ordinary mortising exercise is, after the first two or three attempts, generally voted as uninteresting, but, although the simple puzzle shown in fig. is practically an exercise in mortising, yet, forming as it does a puzzle, it becomes a fascinating piece of work. the puzzle is composed of three pieces of wood, each ins. long, - / ins. wide, and / in. thick. in each piece a mortise - / ins. by / in. should be cut as shown at , fig. . in one piece, marked , a groove is cut on one side, / in. wide, and in another piece ( ) a similar slot, but / in. wide, is cut, and this is continued on the other side of the groove to a depth of / in. the three pieces should be set out on a -ins. by - / -ins. by / -in. length of wood, as shown at fig. , and when ready sawn apart. [illustration: fig. .--the three parts, with sizes marked.] [illustration: fig. .--how to cut the parts.] the puzzle is put together as shown at fig. . in the first place, hold no. piece upright as shown at a, then take no. piece with slot uppermost and push it through the opening in no. piece until the nearest side of the slot projects / in. as indicated at b. next place no. piece on with the slot at the back as shown at c, and push it down until it touches the bottom of the opening in no. piece as illustrated at d. the only thing to do now is to push no. piece as far as it will go to make the figure as shown at e. in this puzzle the parts should fit together fairly tight, but should not be too stiff. [illustration: fig. .--chinese cross puzzle.] [illustration: fig. .--method of putting together.] [illustration: fig. .--the six pieces, each ins. by in. square.] chinese cross.--fig. shows a variation of the chinese cross, which is perhaps the most fascinating of all woodwork puzzles. take six pieces of hardwood (fig. ) and accurately plane and saw them so that each piece will measure ins. by in. by in. bearing in mind that all the cuts are multiples of / in., set out, saw and chisel five of the pieces to agree with the sketches , a, , a and . leave the key piece intact. the puzzle is of course to fit all the six pieces together so as to form the chinese cross or block given at fig. . as a clue to the method of assembly we give another sketch (fig. ) showing four of the pieces fixed together. the reader can, if he so desires, make the puzzle to a smaller scale by using six pieces of wood each measuring ins. long by / in. by / in. [illustration: fig. --diagonal chinese cross puzzle. (two pieces required of a, three of b and one of c.)] diagonal chinese cross.--at fig. is given a sketch of a completed chinese block or cross puzzle in which the various pieces of wood go together diagonally. plane up a piece of hardwood (which may be about ins. or ins. long) so that it measures on its end / in. square. cut the wood into six pieces which measure about - / ins. long, and then proceed to mark out, saw and pare up with the chisel two pieces like sketch a, three pieces like b, and one key piece as c. now fit these together to make the completed cross. the solution is left to the reader. fig. shows a combination of six pieces which, when fitted together, will make the chinese cross similar to fig. . plane up the strip of hardwood (birch preferred) so that it measures / in. square at the end and proceed to mark out and make two pieces like d, two like e, one like f, and one piece like g. put the pieces together to form the chinese cross. again the reader is left to solve the problem of fitting. [illustration: fig. .--another chinese cross. (two pieces required of d, two of e, and one each of f and g.)] square puzzles are of endless variety. four of these are shown, all simple to make, but not equally simple to solve. the only material required for each is a -ins. square piece of / -in. fretwood or plywood; or, if preferred, pieces of different colour may be used. the diagrams are given exactly half size, and the lines may be set out direct on the wood. it will be noticed that all four puzzles are strictly geometrical in character. [illustration: fig. .--six-piece square puzzle. (for guidance in setting out, the centre of top line is marked at a.)] [illustration: fig. .--five-piece square puzzle. (in setting out, note that the angles b b are right angles.)] [illustration: fig. .--ten-piece square puzzle. (for guidance in setting out, the centre of the four outlines are lettered at c, c, c, c.)] [illustration: fig. .--six-piece square puzzle. (the centres of the four outlines are lettered at d, d, d, d.)] fig. is made up of six pieces and is the simplest of the group to solve. although containing only five pieces, fig. will be found to give more trouble. fig. , with ten pieces, is undoubtedly the most trying puzzle, and will be found as baffling as many jig-saw pictures. fig. , again, presents only moderate difficulties. if the reader prefers, he may cut the squares to the size illustrated instead of enlarging them. [illustration: fig. .--blind dovetail puzzle joint (see page ).] index angle, mitre, , angles for dovetails, astragals, , back flap hinges, , barefaced (_see under_ tenon). barred door joint, barrow-wheel joints, battening, bevelled dovetailing, bevelling, guide block for, birdsmouth joints, blind lap-dovetailing, boards, weather, bolts for scarf joint, , boring away waste, , box, laminated core, box lid, hingeing, boxes, dovetails for, brace and bit, use of, , brass astragal, bridle joint, mitred, , bridle joint, oblique, , bridle joints, bridle joints, setting out, butt hinge, , butt hinge, rising, , butting mitred joint, buttoning, carcase work, dovetailing, card table hinges, , chair joint, interlocking, chinese cross puzzle, chinese cross puzzle, diagonal, chinese puzzle, , chisel used in dovetailing, , , chiselling (bridle joints), chiselling (halved joints), , etc. chiselling (mortise and tenon joints), , etc. circular frames, clamping, , close joint hingeing, cogged joints, column joints, combing joint, core box, laminated, corner dovetail, corner joints, halved, corner tongued joints, , cornice frame dovetailed, , cornice pole, dowelling, , cornice pole joints, corrugated steel fasteners, cot joints, countersink bit, cradle for planing, cradle for planing dowels, cramping glued joints, , cramping tongued and grooved mitre joint, , cross halving joints, , cross puzzle, cross puzzle, chinese, cross puzzle, diagonal, cross tongues, , curved work, joints for, diagonal cross puzzle, dogs, iron, , donkey's ear shooting board, door frames, semicircular head, , door joints, barred, doors, "bound," doors, hingeing, - doors, shutting joints of, , dovetail angle template, , dovetail, corner, dovetail grooving, dovetail halved joints, , , dovetail, housed and mitred, dovetail joint, the dovetail puzzles, , , , , dovetail, secret mitred, dovetail-wedged tenon joint, dovetailed keys, , dovetailed scarf joint, , dovetailing, bevelled, dovetailing, blind lap, dovetailing, lap, dovetailing, oblique, dovetailing, through, dovetails, frame, dovetails, machine made, dovetails, sawing, , dovetails, setting out, dowel cradle for planing, dowel plate, steel, dowel rounder, dowel with groove, , dowelling frames, dowelling joints, dowelling table legs, dowels, making, drawbore pinning, drawer bottom joint, drawer joints, dust-proof, drawer ploughslips, , drawers, dovetailing, , etc., dreadnought file, , drop table joint, dust-proof drawer joints, fall fronts, hingeing, fasteners, corrugated steel, feather tongues, , fencing, joint for, file, dreadnought, , finger joint hinge, , fished joint, , flap (back) hinges, , floor boards, fly rails, , fox-wedging, frame dovetails, frame joints, oxford, , frame, mirror, with bridle joints, frames, circular, frames, dowelling, frames for oil paintings, gate joint, , gauge, marking, , , gauge, marking dovetails with cutting, gauging boards for dowelling, , gauging for hinges, , glued joint, the, glueing dowelled joints, glueing rubbed joints, grooved joints (_see_ tongued and grooved), grooves, ploughing, grooving, dovetail, halved and dovetailed joints, , , halved and mitred joints, halved joint, the, halved joints, setting out, halved scarf joint, , halving joints, cross, , hammer head tenons, handscrews, , haunched tenons, hinge, butt, , hinge, finger joint, , hinge, knuckle joint, , hinge recesses, hinge, rule joint, hinged cornice pole, hinged joints, hingeing box lid, hingeing, close joint, hingeing doors, - hingeing draught screens, hingeing fall fronts, hingeing, open joint, hinges, gauging for, , hinges, various, , , , hook joints, housed and mitred dovetail, interlocking chair joint, iron dogs, , japanese self-wedging tenon joint, joint, drawer bottom, joint, fished, , joint, interlocking chair, joint, tabled scarf, joint, tie beam scarf, joints, barefaced tenon, barred door, barrow wheel, battened, birdsmouth, bridle, butting mitred, cogged, column and pillar, combing or locking, cornice pole, cot, cross halving, , dovetail, dovetailed and wedged tenon, dowelling, dust-proof drawer, fencing, for curved work, garden gate, , glued, halved, halved and dovetailed, , , haunched tenon, hinged, hook, ladder, laminated, , , , lap, light-tight, meeting, miscellaneous, mitre-faced tenon, mitre bridle, , mitre halved, mitred, mitred and tenoned, , mitred and tongued, , mortise and tenon, notched, oblique bridle, , oblique halved, , ogee-shaped, open slot mortise, partition, , ploughing for tongued and grooved, puzzle, rafter and tie beam, rafter (tenon), rebated door, roof, , , roof (tenon), rubbed, saddle, sash bar, scarf, screen, , scribed and tenoned, setting out bridle, setting out halved, setting out tenon, shouldered tenon, , , shutting, skirting and muntin, t, , tie, , tongued and grooved, tongued corner, , trestle, tusk tenon, , weather board, wheelwright's self-wedging tenon, keyhole screwing, keying, dovetail, keying, veneer, keys, dovetailed, knuckle joint hinge, , ladder joints, laminated joints, , lamination, lap dovetailing, lap dovetailing, blind, lap joints, laths, winding, lid, hingeing box, light-tight joints, locking (inter) chair joint, locking joint, marking gauge, , , matchboarding, meeting joints, mirror frame with bridle joints, mitre box, saw used in, mitre bridle joint, , mitre, curved, , , , mitre faced tenon joint, mitre halved joints, mitre sawing block, mitre, setting out a curved, , mitre template, mitre trap, screw, , mitred and housed dovetail, mitred and tenoned joint, , mitred butting joint, mitred dovetail, secret, mitred frames, dowelling, , mitred joint, the, mitred tongued joints, , mitres, curved, mortise and tenon joints, mortise, open slot, mortising, mortising puzzle, mouldings, mitreing, , muntin joint, notched joints, oblique bridle joint, , oblique dovetailing, oblique joints, halved, , ogee-shaped joint, open-joint hingeing, open slot mortise, oxford frame, halved joints for, , partition joints, , patera covers, pelleting, piano front joint, , pinning, pinning, drawbore, pins, dovetail, pivot hinges, , , plane, old woman's tooth, , plane, the plough, , , planes, tongueing and grooving, planing, cradle for, planing mitred work, plinth frame dovetailed, , plough plane, the, , , ploughing for tongued and grooved joints, ploughslips, glueing, , plugging, pole joints, cornice, puzzle, chinese cross, puzzle, cross, puzzle, diagonal chinese cross, puzzle joints, puzzle, mortising, puzzles, dovetail, , , , , , puzzles, square, rafter and tie beam joints, rafter joint (tenon), rebated door joints, reversible screen hinge, , rising butt hinge, , roof joints, , , roof joints (tenon), roof work, scarfed joints used in, , , rubbed joint, rule joint hinge, saddle joints, sash bar joints, sawing block for mitreing, sawing (bridle joints), , etc. sawing dovetails, , sawing for hinge recesses, sawing (halved joints), , , etc. sawing (tenons), , etc. scarf joint, fished, , scarf joint for heavy timber, lapped and bolted, , scarf joint, tabled, with straps, scarf joints, scarf joints, tie beam, screen hinges, , , screens, hingeing draught, screwing, slot or keyhole, screws, hiding with pateras, scribed tenon joint, secret mitred dovetail, setting out dovetails, shooting board, , , shooting board for mitreing, , , shoulders, , etc., , shoulders of tenons, tongueing, shoulders, sawing, shoulders (tenon), , , shoulders, tenon with tongued and grooved, shutting joints, sideboard pillar joints, skirting and muntin joint, skirting, mitred, skirting mould, double, , slot screwing, spandrel, jointing shaped, , spandrel with tongued joint, , sprocket wheel, square puzzles, steel fasteners, corrugated, stiles, shutting and meeting, stopped bridle joint, , stopped dovetail halving, strap hinge, , straps for scarf joints, , stump tenons, t joints, halved, , table (card) hinges, , table frame, laminated, , table framing, table joint, drop, table leg with bridle joint, table legs, dowelled, table tops buttoned, table with circular rim, joint for, tabled scarf joint, template, dovetail angle, , template for mitreing, tenon (and mortise) joints, tenon joint, dovetailed and wedged, tenon joint, mitred and moulded, , tenon joint, scribed, tenon joint, self-wedging, tenon joint with mitred face, tenon joint with tongued and grooved shoulders, tenon joints, barefaced, tenon joints, drawbore pinning for, tenon joints, setting out, tenon joints, shouldered, , , tenon joints, tusk, , tenoned scarf joint, , tenons, hammer head, tenons, haunched, tenons, inserted, , tenons, stump or stub, tenons, tongueing shoulders of, tenons, twin, , , through dovetailing, tie beam and rafter joints, tie beam scarf joint, tie joint, , tongue slips, tongued and grooved joints, applications of, tongued and grooved joints, tongued and grooved joints, ploughing for, tongued joints, corner, , tongueing and grooving planes, tongues, cross and feather, , tongues, loose, toothing plane, , trestle joint, try square, , tusk tenon joints, , twin tenons, , , twist bit, vee'd matchboarding, , vee'd scarf joint, veneer keying, wall plugs, weatherboards, wedges for tenon joints, wedging, fox, wedging frames, wheel joints, barrow, wheel, sprocket, wheelwright's self-wedging tenon joint, winding laths, printed in great britain by the whitefriars press, ltd., london and tonbridge. the woodworker series woodwork joints: how made and where used (_revised edition_). with illustrations and index. / net. cabinet construction (_revised edition_). with plates, over illustrations and index. / net. carpentry for beginners. with over illustrations and index. / net. practical upholstery. with over illustrations and index. / net. staining and polishing (_revised edition_). illustrated, and with appendix of recipes and index. / net. furniture repairing and re-upholstery. with illustrations, photographic plates and index. / net. wood turning. fully illustrated (with enlarged details) and with index. / net. wood carving. with over illustrations and index. / net. period furniture. illustrations and index. / net. household repairs and renovations (_revised edition_). illustrated. / net. timbers for woodwork. illustrated, with index. / net. woodwork tools, and how to use them (_revised edition_). with illustrations and index. / net. furniture designs (_new series_). pages of designs. / net. dining room furniture designs (_new series_). / net. bedroom furniture designs (_new series_). pages of designs. / net. modern bedroom suite designs (_new series_). / net. living-room furniture designs. designs. / net. cabinet designs (_new series_). over designs. / net. table designs. pages of designs. / net. bureau and bookcase designs (_new series_). / net. light carpentry designs (_new series_). pages of designs. / net. toy and model designs. pages of designs. / net. outdoor woodwork designs. pages of designs. / net. door making. fully illustrated, and with a series of special designs. / net. the woodworker. _d._ monthly. free specimen sent on application. evans brothers limited, montague house. russell square, london, w.c. the woodworker monthly: price sixpence _a free specimen copy sent on receipt of postcard_ in this magazine the man who does bench work at home will find month by month the precise guidance he needs for efficient, economical work. the principal features include practical directions, illustrated by working drawings, for the construction of plain and ornamental furniture and all kinds of indoor and outdoor woodwork. joint making, tool manipulation, staining and polishing, repairing, craft problems and everyday difficulties are also regular features dealt with in an eminently practical way. the contributors to the woodworker are expert craftsmen who know exactly where the home woodworker's difficulties lie, and who, from long experience, are able to impart their knowledge to others. if you have not yet seen the woodworker, send a postcard for a specimen copy. published monthly price sixpence (_free specimen copy sent on receipt of postcard_) the woodworker annual volume, pages, _s._ _d._ net _from any newsagent or direct from_ evans bros., ltd., montague house, russell square, london, w.c. produced from scanned images of public domain material from the google print project.) transcriber's note words in {curly brackets} were abbreviated in the original text, and have been expanded for this etext. greek is indicated with plus symbols, +like this+. the art of needle-work, from the earliest ages; including some notices of the ancient historical tapestries edited by the right honourable the countess of wilton. "i write the needle's prayse." _third edition._ london: henry colburn, publisher, great marlborough street. . to her most gracious majesty the queen dowager this little work, intended to illustrate the history and progress of an art ennobled by her majesty's practice, and by her example recommended to the women of england, is, by her majesty's most gracious permission, inscribed, with the utmost respect, by her majesty's most grateful and most obedient servant, the authoress. preface. if there be one mechanical art of more universal application than all others, and therefore of more universal interest, it is that which is practised with the needle. from the stateliest denizen of the proudest palace, to the humblest dweller in the poorest cottage, all more or less ply the busy needle; from the crying infant of a span long and an hour's life, to the silent tenant of "the narrow house," all need its practical services. yet have the needle and its beautiful and useful creations hitherto remained without their due meed of praise and record, either in sober prose or sounding rhyme,--while their glittering antithesis, the scathing and destroying sword, has been the theme of admiring and exulting record, without limit and without end! the progress of real civilization is rapidly putting an end to this false _prestige_ in favour of the "destructive" weapon, and as rapidly raising the "conservative" one in public estimation; and the time seems at length arrived when that triumph of female ingenuity and industry, "the art of needlework" may be treated as a fitting subject of historical and social record--fitting at least for a female hand. the chief aim of this volume is that of affording a comprehensive record of the most noticeable facts, and an entertaining and instructive gathering together of the most curious and pleasing associations, connected with "the art of needlework," from the earliest ages to the present day; avoiding entirely the dry technicalities of the art, yet furnishing an acceptable accessory to every work-table--a fitting tenant of every boudoir. the authoress thinks thus much necessary in explanation of the objects of a work on what may be called a maiden topic, and she trusts that that leniency in criticism which is usually accorded to the adventurer on an unexplored track will not be withheld from her. contents. chapter i. page introductory chapter ii. early needlework chapter iii. needlework of the tabernacle chapter iv. needlework of the egyptians chapter v. needlework of the greeks and romans chapter vi. the dark ages.--"shee-schools" chapter vii. needlework of the dark ages chapter viii. the bayeux tapestry.--part i. chapter ix. the bayeux tapestry.--part ii. chapter x. needlework of the times of romance and chivalry chapter xi. tapestry chapter xii. romances worked in tapestry chapter xiii. needlework in costume.--part i. chapter xiv. needlework in costume.--part ii. chapter xv. "the field of the cloth of gold" chapter xvi. the needle chapter xvii. tapestry from the cartoons chapter xviii. the days of "good queen bess" chapter xix. the tapestry of the spanish armada; better known as the tapestry of the house of lords chapter xx. on stitchery chapter xxi. "les anciennes tapisseries." tapestry of st. mary hall, coventry. tapestry of hampton court chapter xxii. embroidery chapter xxiii. needlework on books chapter xxiv. needlework of royal ladies chapter xxv. modern needlework the art of needlework. introduction. chapter i. "le donne son venute in eccellenza di ciascun'arte, ove hanno posto cura; e qualunque all'istorie abbia avvertenza, ne sente ancor la fama non oscura. * * * * * e forse ascosi han lor debiti onori l'invidia, o il non saper degli scrittori." ariosto. in all ages woman may lament the ungallant silence of the historian. his pen is the record of sterner actions than are usually the vocation of the gentler sex, and it is only when fair individuals have been by extraneous circumstances thrown out, as it were, on the canvas of human affairs--when they have been forced into a publicity little consistent with their natural sphere--that they have become his theme. consequently those domestic virtues which are woman's greatest pride, those retiring characteristics which are her most becoming ornament, those gentle occupations which are her best employment, find no record on pages whose chief aim and end is the blazoning of manly heroism, of royal disputations, or of trumpet-stirring records. and if this is the case even with historians of enlightened times, who have the gallantry to allow woman to be a component part of creation, we can hardly wonder that in darker days she should be utterly and entirely overlooked. mohammed asserted that women had no souls; and moreover, that, setting aside the "diviner part," there had only existed _four_ of whom the mundane qualifications entitled them to any degree of approbation. before him, aristotle had asserted that nature only formed women when and because she found that the imperfection of matter did not permit her to carry on the world without them. this complimentary doctrine has not wanted supporters. "des hommes très sages ont écrit que la nature, dont l'intention et le dessein est toujours de tendre à la perfection, ne produirait s'il était possible, jamais que des hommes, et que quand il naît une femme c'est un monstre dans l'ordre de ses productions, né expressément contre sa volonté: ils ajoutent, que, comme on voit naître un homme aveugle, boiteux, ou avec quelqu'autre défaut nature; et comme on voit à certains arbres des fruits qui ne mûrissent jamais; ainsi l'on peut dire que la femme est un animal produit par accident et par le hasard."[ ] without touching upon this extreme assertion that woman is but "un monstre," an animal produced by chance, we may observe briefly, that women have ever, with some few exceptions,[ ] been considered as a degraded and humiliated race, until the promulgation of the christian religion elevated them in society: and that this distinction still exists is evident from the difference at this moment exhibited between the countries professing mohammedanism and those professing christianity. still, though in our happy country it is now pretty generally allowed that women are "des créatures humaines," it is no new remark that they are comparatively lightly thought of by the "nobler" gender. this is absolutely the case even in those countries where civilization and refinement have elevated the sex to a higher grade in society than they ever before reached. women are courted, flattered, caressed, extolled; but still the difference is there, and the "lords of the creation" take care that it shall be understood. their own pursuits--public, are the theme of the historian--private, of the biographer; nay, the every-day circumstances of life--their dinners--their speeches--their toasts--and their _post coenam_ eloquence, are noted down for immortality: whilst a woman with as much sense, with more eloquence, with lofty principles, enthusiastic feelings, and pure conduct--with sterling virtue to command respect, and the self-denying conduct of a martyr--steals noiselessly through her appointed path in life; and if she excite a passing comment during her pilgrimage, is quickly lost in oblivion when that pilgrimage hath reached its appointed goal. and this is but as it should be. woe to that nation whose women, as a habit, as a custom, as a matter of course, seek to intrude on the attributes of the other sex, and in a vain, a foolish, and surely a most unsuccessful pursuit of publicity, or power, or fame, forget the distinguishing, the high, the noble, the lofty, the pure and _unearthly_ vocation of their sex. every earthly charity, every unearthly virtue, are the legitimate object of woman's pursuit. it is hers to soothe pain, to alleviate suffering, to soften discord, to solace the time-worn spirit on earth, to train the youthful one for heaven. such is woman's magnificent vocation; and in the peaceful discharge of such duties as these she may be content to steal noiselessly on to her appointed bourne, "the world forgetting, by the world forgot." but these splendid results are not the effect of great exertions--of sudden, and uncertain, and enthusiastic efforts. they are the effect of a course, of a system of minor actions and of occupations, _individually_ insignificant in their appearance, and noiseless in their approach. they are like "the gentle dew from heaven" in their silent unnoted progress, and, like that, are known only by their blessed results. they involve a routine of minor duties which often appear, at first view, little if at all connected with such mighty ends. but such an inference would lead to a false conclusion. it is entirely of insignificant details that the sum of human life is made up; and any one of those details, how insignificant soever _apparently_ in itself, as a link in the chain of human life is of _definite_ relative value. the preparing of a spoonful of gruel may seem a very insignificant matter; yet who that stands by the sick-bed of one near and dear to him, and sees the fevered palate relieved, the exhausted frame refreshed by it, but will bless the hand that made it? it is not the independent intrinsic worth of each isolated action of woman which stamps its value--it is their bearing and effect on the mass. it is the daily and hourly accumulation of minute particles which form the vast amount. and if we look for that feminine employment which adds most absolutely to the comforts and the elegancies of life, to what other shall we refer than to needlework? the hemming of a pocket-handkerchief is a trivial thing in itself, yet it is a branch of an art which furnishes a useful, a graceful, and an agreeable occupation to one-half of the human race, and adds very materially to the comforts of the other half. how sings our own especial bard?-- "so long as garments shall be made or worne; so long as hemp, or flax, or sheep shall bear their linnen wollen fleeces yeare by yeare; so long as silkwormes, with exhausted spoile of their own entrailes, for mans gaine shall toyle: yea, till the world be quite dissolv'd and past, so long, at least, the needle's use shall last." 'tis true, indeed, that as far as _necessity_, rigidly speaking, is concerned, a very small portion of needlework would suffice; but it is also true that the very signification of the word necessity is lost, buried amidst the accumulations of ages. we talk habitually of _mere necessaries_, but the fact is, that we have hardly an idea of what merely necessities are. st. paul, the hermit, when abiding in the wilderness, might be reduced to necessities; and in that noble and exalted instance of high principle referred to by mr. wesley,[ ] where a person unknown to others, seeking no praise, and looking to no reward but the applaudings of his own conscience, bought a pennyworth of parsnips weekly, and on them, and them alone, with the water in which they were boiled, lived, that he might save money to pay his debts.--surely a man of such incorruptible integrity as this would spend nothing intentionally in superfluities of dress--and yet, mark how many he would have. his shirt would be "curiously wrought," his neckcloth neatly hemmed; his coat and waistcoat and trousers would have undergone the usual mysteries of shaping and seaming; his hat would be neatly bound round the edge; his stockings woven or knitted; his shoes soled and stitched and tied; neither must we debar him a pocket-handkerchief and a pair of gloves. and see what this man--as great, nay, a greater anchoret in his way than st. paul, for he had the world and its temptations all around, while the saint had fled from both--yet see what _he_ thought absolutely requisite in lieu of the sheepskin which was st. paul's wardrobe. see what was required "to cover and keep warm" in the eighteenth century,--nay, not even to "keep warm," for we did not allow either great-coat or comforter. see then what was required merely to "cover," and then say whether the art of needlework is a trivial one. could we, as in days of yore, when sylphs and fairies deigned to mingle with mortals, and shed their gracious influence on the scenes and actions of every-day life--could we, by some potent spell or by some fitting oblation, propitiate the genius of needlework, induce her to descend from her hidden shrine, and indulge her votaries with a glimpse of her radiant self--what a host of varied reminiscences would that glimpse conjure up in our minds, as-- "----guided by historic truth, we _trod_ the long extent of backward time!" she was twin born with necessity, the first necessity the world had ever known, but she quickly left this stern and unattractive companion, and followed many leaders in her wide and varied range. she became the handmaiden of fancy; she adorned the train of magnificence; she waited upon pomp; she decorated religion; she obeyed charity; she served utility; she aided pleasure; she pranked out fun; and she mingled with all and every circumstance of life. many changes and chances has it been her lot to behold. at one time honoured and courted, she was the acknowledged and cherished guest of the royal and noble. then in gorgeous drapery, begemmed with brilliants, bedropped with gold, she reigned supreme in hall and palace; or in silken tissue girt she adorned the high-born maiden's bower what time the "deeds of knighthood" were "in solemn canto" told. in still more rich array, in kingly purple, in regal tissue, in royal magnificence, she stood within the altar's sacred pale; and her robes, rich in tyrian dye, and glittering with ophir's gold, swept the hallowed pavement. when battle aroused the land she inspirited the host. when the banner was unfurled she pointed to the device which sent its message home to every heart; she displayed the cipher on the hero's pennon which nerved him sooner to relinquish life than it; she entwined those initials in the scarf, the sight of which struck fresh ardour into his breast. but she fell into disrepute, and was rejected from the halls of the noble. still was she ever busy, ever occupied, and not only were her services freely given to all who required them, but given with such winning grace that she required but to be once known to be ever loved--so exquisitely did she adapt herself to the peculiarities of all. with flowing ringlets and silken robe, carolling gaily as she worked, you would see her pinking the ruffles of the cavalier, and ever and anon adding to their piquancy by some new and dainty device: then you would behold her with smoothly plaited hair, and sad-coloured garment of serge, and looks like a november day, hemming the bands of a roundhead, and withal adding numerous layers of starch. with grave and sedate aspect she would shape and sew the uncomely raiment of a genevan divine; with neat-handed alacrity she would prepare the grave and becoming garments of the anglican church, though perhaps a gentle sigh would escape, a sigh of regret for the stately and glowing vestments of old: for they did honour to the house of god, not because they were stately and glowing, but because they were offerings of _our best_. in all the sweet charities of domestic life she has ever been a participant. often and again has she fled the splendid court, the glittering ball-room, and taken her station at the quiet hearth of the gentle and home-loving matron. she has lightened the weariness of many a solitary vigil, and she has heightened the enjoyment of many a social gossip. nor even while courted and caressed in courts and palaces did needlework absent herself from the habitations of the poor. oh no, she was their familiar friend, the daily and hourly companion of their firesides. and when she experienced, as all do experience, the fickleness of court favour, she was cherished and sheltered there. and there she remained, happy in her utility, till again summoned by royal mandate to resume her station near the throne. the illustrious and excellent lady who lately filled the british throne, and who reigned still more surely in the hearts of englishwomen, and who has most graciously permitted us to place her honoured name on these pages, allured needlework from her long seclusion, and reinstated her in her once familiar place among the great and noble. * * * * * fair reader! you see that this gentle dame needlework is of ancient lineage, of high descent, of courtly habits: will you not permit me to make you somewhat better acquainted? pray travel onward with me to her shrine. the way is not toilsome, nor is the track rugged; but, "where the silver fountains wander, where the golden streams meander," amid the sunny meads and flower-bestrewn paths of fancy and taste--there will she beguile us. do not then, pray do not, forsake me. footnotes: [ ] on aurait de la peine à se persuader qu'une pareille opinion eût été mise gravement en question dans un concile, et qu'on n'eût décidé en faveur des femmes qu'après un assez long examen. cependant le fait est très véritable, et ce fut dans le concile de macon. problème sur les femmes, où l'on essaye de prouver que les femmes ne sont point des créatures humaines.--_amsterdam, ._ [ ] as, for instance, the ancient germans, and their offshoots, the saxons, &c. [ ] southey's life; vol. ii. chapter ii. early needlework. "the use of sewing is exceeding old, as in the sacred text it is enrold: our parents first in paradise began." john taylor. "the rose was in rich bloom on sharon's plain, when a young mother, with her first-born, thence went up to sion; for the boy was vow'd unto the temple service. by the hand she led him; and her silent soul the while, oft as the dewy laughter of his eye met her sweet serious glance, rejoic'd to think that aught so pure, so beautiful, was hers, to bring before her god." hemans. in speaking of the origin of needlework it will be necessary to define accurately what we mean by the term "needlework;" or else, when we assert that eve was the first sempstress, we may be taken to task by some critical antiquarian, because we may not be able precisely to prove that the frail and beautiful mother of mankind made use of a little weapon of polished steel, finely pointed at one end and bored at the other, and "warranted not to cut in the eye." assuredly we do not mean to assert that she did use such an instrument; most probably--we would _almost_ venture to say most _certainly_--she did not. but then again the cynical critic would attack us:--"you say that eve was the first professor of _needle_work, and yet you disclaim the use of a needle for her." no, good sir, we do not. like other profound investigators and original commentators, we do not annihilate one hypothesis ere we are prepared with another, "ready cut and dried," to rise, like any fabled phoenix, on the ashes of its predecessor. it is not long since we were edified by a conversation which we heard, or rather overheard, between two sexagenarians--both well versed in antiquarian lore, and neither of them deficient in antiquarian tenacity of opinion--respecting some theory which one of them wanted to establish about some aborigines. the concluding remark of the conversation--and we opined that it might as well have formed the commencement--was-- "if you want to lay down _facts_, you must follow history; if you want to establish a system, it is quite easy to place the people where you like." so, if i wished to "establish a system," i could easily make eve work with a "superfine drill-eyed needle:" but this is not my object. it seems most probable that eve's first needle was a thorn: "before man's fall the rose was born, st. ambrose sayes, without the thorn; but, for man's fault, then was the thorn, without the fragrant rosebud, born." why thorns should spring up at the precise moment of the fall is difficult to account for in a world where everything has its use, except we suppose that they were meant for needles: and general analogy leads us to this conclusion; for in almost all existing records of people in what we are pleased to call a "savage" state, we find that women make use of this primitive instrument, or a fish-bone. "avant l'invention des aiguilles d'acier, on a dû se servir, à leur défaut, d'épines, ou d'arêtes de poissons, ou d'os d'animaux." and as eve's first specimen of needlework was certainly completed before the sacrifice of any living thing, we may safely infer that the latter implements were not familiar to her. the cimbrian inhabitants of britain passed their time in weaving baskets, or in sewing together for garments the skins of animals taken in the chase, while they used as needles for uniting these simple habiliments small bones of fish or animals rudely sharpened at one end; and needles just of the same sort were used by the inhabitants of the sandwich islands, when the celebrated captain cook first visited them. proceed we to the material of the first needlework. "they sewed themselves fig-leaves together, and made themselves aprons." thus the earliest historical record; and thus the most esteemed poetical commentator. "those leaves they gather'd, broad as amazonian targe, and, with what skill they had, together sew'd, to gird their waist." it is supposed that the leaves alluded to here were those of the banian-tree, of which the leaves, says sir james forbes, are large, soft, and of a lively green; the fruit a small bright scarlet fig. the hindoos are peculiarly fond of this tree; they consider its long duration, its outstretching arms, and overshadowing beneficence, as emblems of the deity, and almost pay it divine honours. the brahmins, who thus "find a fane in every sacred grove," spend much of their time in religious solitude, under the shade of the banian-tree; they plant it near the dewals, or hindoo temples; and in those villages where there is no structure for public worship, they place an image under one of these trees, and there perform morning and evening sacrifice. the size of some of these trees is stupendous. sir james forbes mentions one which has three hundred and fifty _large_ trunks, the smaller ones exceeding three thousand; and another, whereunder the chief of the neighbourhood used to encamp in magnificent style; having a saloon, dining room, drawing-room, bedchambers, bath, kitchen, and every other accommodation, all in separate tents; yet did this noble tree cover the whole, together with his carriages, horses, camels, guards, and attendants; while its spreading branches afforded shady spots for the tents of his friends, with their servants and cattle. and in the march of an army it has been known to shelter seven thousand men. such is the banian-tree, the pride of hindûstan: which milton refers to as the one which served "our general mother" for her first essay in the art of needlework. "both together went into the thickest wood; there soon they chose the fig-tree; not that tree for fruit renown'd, but such as at this day, to indians known, in malabar or deccan spreads her arms, branching so broad and long, that in the ground the bended twigs take root, and daughters grow about the mother tree, a pillar'd shade high overarch'd, and echoing walks between: there oft the indian herdsman, shunning heat, shelters in cool, and tends his pasturing herds at loopholes cut through thickest shade: those leaves they gather'd, broad as amazonian targe; and, with what skill they had, together sew'd, to gird their waist." some of the most interesting incidents in holy writ turn on the occupation of needlework; slight sketches, nay, hardly so much, but mere touches which engage all the gentler, and purer, and holier emotions of our nature. for instance: the beloved child of the beautiful mother of israel, for whom jacob toiled fourteen years, which were but as one day for the love he bare her--this child, so eagerly coveted by his mother, so devotedly loved by his father, and who was destined hereafter to wield the destinies of such a mighty empire--had a token, a peculiar token, bestowed on him of his father's overwhelming love and affection. and what was it? "a coat of many colours;" probably including some not in general use, and obtained by an elaborate process. entering himself into the minutiæ of a concern, which, however insignificant in itself, was valuable in his eyes as giving pleasure to his boy, the fond father selects pieces of various-coloured cloth, and sets female hands, the most expert of his household, to join them together in the form of a coat. but, alas! to whom should he intrust the task? she whose fingers would have revelled in it, rachel the mother, was no more; her warm heart was cold, her busy fingers rested in the tomb. would his sister, would dinah execute the work? no; it was but too probable that she shared in the jealousy of her brothers. no matter. the father apportions the task to his handmaidens, and himself superintends the performance. with pleased eye he watches its progress, and with benignant smile he invests the happy and gratified child with the glowing raiment. this elaborate piece of work, the offering of paternal affection to please a darling child, was probably the simple and somewhat clumsy original of those which were afterwards embroidered and subsequently woven in various colours, and which came to be regarded as garments of dignity and appropriated to royalty; as it is said of tamar that "she had a garment of divers colours upon her: for with such robes were the king's daughters that were virgins apparelled." it is even now customary in india to dress a favourite or beautiful child in a coat of various colours tastefully _sewed together_; and it may not perhaps be very absurd to refer even to so ancient an origin as joseph's coat of many colours the superstition now prevalent in some countries, which teaches that a child clothed in a garment of many colours is safe from the blasting of malicious tongues or the machinations of evil spirits. in the book of samuel we read, "and hannah his mother, made him a little coat." this seems a trivial incident enough, yet how interesting is the scene which this simple mention conjures up! with all the earnest fervour of that separated race who hoped each one to be the honoured instrument of bringing a saviour into the world, hannah, then childless, prayed that this reproach might be taken from her. her prayer was heard, her son was born; and in holy gratitude she reared him, not for wealth, for fame, for worldly honour, or even for her own domestic comfort,--but, from his birth, and before his birth she devoted him as the servant of the most high. she indulged herself with his presence only till her maternal cares had fitted him for duty; and then, with a tearful eye it might be, and a faltering footstep, but an unflinching resolution, she devoted him to the altar of her god. but never did his image leave her mind: never amid the fair scions which sprang up and bloomed around her hearth did her thoughts forsake her first-born; and yearly, when she went up to the tabernacle with elkanah her husband, did she take him "a little coat" which she had made. we may fancy her quiet happy thoughts when at this employment; we may fancy the eager earnest questionings of the little group by whom she was surrounded; the wondering about their absent brother; the anxious catechisings respecting his whereabouts; and, above all, the admiration of the new garment itself, and the earnest criticisms on it; especially if in form and fashion it should somewhat differ from their own. and then arrives the moment when the garment is committed to its envelope; and the mother, weeping to part from her little ones, yet longing to see her absent boy, receives their adieux and their thousand reminiscences, and sets forth on her journey. again she treads the hallowed courts, again she meekly renews her vows, and again a mother's longings, a mother's hopes are quenched in the full enjoyment of a mother's love. beautiful and good, the blessing of heaven attending him, and throwing a beam of light on his fair brow, the pure and holy child appears like a seraph administering at that altar to which he had been consecrated a babe, and at which his ministry was sanctioned even by the voice of the most high himself, when in the solemn stillness of midnight he breathed his wishes into the heart of the child, and made him, infant as he was, the medium of his communications to one grown hoary in the service of the altar. the solemn duties ended, hannah invests her hopeful boy with the little coat, whilst her willing fingers lingeringly perform their office, as if loth to quit a task in which they so much delight. and then with meek step and grateful heart she wends her homeward way, and meditates tranquilly on the past interview, till the return of another year finds her again on her pilgrimage of love--the joyful bearer of another "little coat." and a high tribute is paid to needlework in the history of dorcas, who was restored to life by the apostle st. peter, by whom "all the widows stood weeping, and showing the coats and garments which dorcas made while she was with them." "in these were read the monuments of dorcas dead: these were thy acts, and thou shalt have these hung as honours o'er thy grave: and after us, distressed, should fame be dumb, thy very tomb would cry out, thou art blessed!" but it is not merely as an object of private and domestic utility that needlework is referred to in the bible. it was applied early to the service of the tabernacle, and the directions concerning it are very clear and specific; but before this time, and most probably as early as the time of abraham, rich and valuable raiment of needlework was accounted of as part of the _bonâ fide_ property of a wealthy man. when the patriarch's steward sought rebekah for the wife of isaac, he "brought forth jewels of silver, and jewels of gold, and _raiment_." this "raiment" consisted, in all likelihood, of garments embroidered with gold, the handiwork, it may be, of the female slaves of the patriarch; such garments being in very great esteem from the earliest ages, and being then, as now, a component portion of those presents or offerings without which one personage hardly thought of approaching another. fashion in those days was not quite the chameleon-hued creature that she is at present; nor were the fabrics on which her fancy was displayed quite so light and airy: their gold _was_ gold--not silk covered with gilded silver; and consequently the raiment of those days, inwrought with slips of gold beaten thin and cut into spangles or strips, and sewed on in various patterns, sometimes intermingled with precious stones, would carry its own intrinsic value with it. this "raiment" descended from father to son, as a chased goblet and a massy wrought urn does now; and was naturally and necessarily inventoried as a portion of the property. the practice of making presents of garments is still quite usual amongst the eastern nations; and to such an excess was it carried with regard to those who, from their calling or any other circumstance, were in public favour, that, so late as the ninth century, bokteri, an illustrious poet of cufah, had so many presents made him, that at his death he was found possessed of a hundred complete suits of clothes, two hundred shirts, and five hundred turbans. horace, speaking of lucullus (who had pillaged asia, and first introduced asiatic[ ] refinements among the romans), says that, some persons having waited on him to request the loan of a hundred suits out of his wardrobe for the roman stage, he exclaimed--"a hundred suits! how is it possible for me to furnish such a number? however, i will look over them and send you what i have."--after some time he writes a note and tells them he had _five thousand_, to the whole or part of which they were welcome. in all the eastern world formerly, and to a great extent now, the arraying a person in a rich dress is considered a very high compliment, and it was one of the ancient modes of investing with the highest degree of subordinate power. thus was joseph arrayed by pharaoh, and mordecai by ahasueras. we all remember what important effects are produced by splendid robes in "the tale of the wonderful lamp," and in many other of those fascinating tales (which are allowed to be rigidly correct in the delineations of eastern life). they were doubtless esteemed the richest part of the spoil after a battle, as we find the mother of sisera apportioning them as his share, and reiterating her delighted anticipations of the "raiment of needlework" which should be his: "a prey of divers colours, of divers colours of needlework, of divers colours of needlework on both sides, meet for the necks of them that take the spoil." job has many allusions to raiment as an essential part of "treasures" in the east; and our saviour refers to the same when he desires his hearers not to lay up for themselves "treasures" on earth, where _moth_ and rust corrupt. st. james even more explicitly: "go to now, ye rich men; weep and howl for your miseries that shall come upon you. your gold and silver is cankered, and your garments are moth-eaten." the first notice we have of gold-wire or thread being used in embroidery is in exodus, in the directions given for the embroidery of the priests' garments: from this it appears that the metal was still used alone, being beaten fine and then rounded. this art the hebrews probably learnt from the egyptians, by whom it was carried to such an astonishing degree of nicety, that they could either weave it in or work it on their finest linen. and doubtless the productions of the hebrews now must have equalled the most costly and intricate of those of egypt. this the adornments of the tabernacle testify. footnote: [ ] persia had great wardrobes, where there were always many hundred habits, sorted, ready for presents, and the intendant of the wardrobe sent them to those persons for whom they were designed by the sovereign; more than forty tailors were always employed in this service. in turkey they do not attend so much to the richness as to the number of the dresses, giving more or fewer according to the dignity of the persons to whom they are presented, or the marks of favour the prince would confer on his guests. chapter iii. needlework of the tabernacle. "the cedars wave on lebanon, but judah's statelier maids are gone." byron. gorgeous and magnificent must have been the spectacle presented by that ancient multitude of israel, as they tabernacled in the wilderness of sinai. these steril solitudes are now seldom trodden by the foot of man, and the adventurous traveller who toils up their rugged steeps can scarce picture to himself a host sojourning there, so wild, so barren is the place, so fearful are the precipices, so dismal the ravines. on the spot where "moses talked with god" the grey and mouldering remnants of a convent attest the religious veneration and zeal of some of whom these ruins are the only memorial; and near them is a small chapel dedicated to the virgin, while religious hands have crowned even the summit of the steep ascent by "a house of prayer;" and at the foot of the sister peak, horeb, is an ancient greek convent, founded by the emperor justinian years ago, which is occupied still by some harmless recluses, the monotony of whose lives is only broken by the few and far between visits of the adventurous traveller, or the more frequent and startling interruptions of the wild arabs on their predatory expeditions. but neither church nor temple of any sort, nor inquiring traveller, nor prowling arab, varied the tremendous grandeur of the scene, when the israelitish host encamped there. weary and toilsome had been the pilgrimage from the base of the mountain where the desolation was unrelieved by a trace of vegetation, to the upper country or wilderness, called more particularly, "the desert of sinai," where narrow intersecting valleys, not destitute of verdure, cherished perhaps the lofty and refreshing palm. here in the ravines, in the valleys, and amid the clefts of the rocks, clustered the hosts of israel, while around them on every side arose lofty summits and towering precipices, where the eye that sought to scan their fearful heights was lost in the far-off dimness. far, far around, spread this savage wilderness, so frowning, and dreary, and desolate, that any curious explorer beyond the precincts of the camp would quickly return to the _home_ which its vicinity afforded even there. clustered closely as bees in a hive were the tents of the wandering race, yet with an order and a uniformity which even the unpropitious nature of the locality was not permitted to break; for, separated into tribes, each one, though sufficiently connected for any object of kindness or brotherhood, for public worship, or social intercourse, was inalienably distinct. and in the midst, extending from east to west, a length of fifty-five feet, was reared the splendid tabernacle. for god had said, "let them make me a sanctuary, that i may dwell among them;" and behold, "they came, both men and women, as many as were willing-hearted, and brought bracelets, and earrings, and rings, and tablets, all jewels of gold; and every man that offered, offered an offering of gold unto the lord. and every man with whom was found blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine linen, and goats' hair, and red skins of rams, and badgers' skins, brought them. every one that did offer an offering of silver and brass brought the lord's offering: and every man with whom was found shittim-wood for any work of the service brought it. and all the women that were wise-hearted did spin with their hands, and brought that which they had spun, both of blue, and of purple, and of scarlet, and of fine linen. and all the women whose hearts stirred them up in wisdom spun goats' hair. and the rulers brought onyx-stones, and stones to be set, for the ephod, and for the breastplate; and spice, and oil for the light, and for the anointing oil, and for the sweet incense." and all these materials, which the "willing-hearted" offered in such abundance that proclamation was obliged to be made through the camp to stop their influx, had been wrought under the superintendence of bezaleel and aholiab, who were divinely inspired for the task; and the tabernacle was now completed, with the exception of some of the finest needlework, which had not yet received the finishing touches. but what was already done bore ample testimony to the skill, the taste, and the industry of the "wise-hearted" daughters of israel. the outer covering of the tabernacle, or that which lay directly over the framework of boards of which it was constructed, and hung from the roof down the sides and west end, was formed of tabash skins; over this was another covering of ram-skins dyed red; a hanging made of goats' hair, such as is still used in the tents of the bedouin arabs, had been spun and woven by the matrons of the congregation, to hang over the skins; and these substantial draperies were beautifully concealed by a first or inner covering of fine linen. on this the more youthful women had embroidered figures of cherubim in scarlet, purple, and light blue, entwined with gold. they had made also sacerdotal vestments, the "coats of fine linen" worn by all the priests, which, when old, were unravelled, and made into wicks burnt in the feast of tabernacles. they had made the "girdles of needlework," which were long, very long pieces of fine twined linen (carried several times round the body), and were embroidered with flowers in blue, and purple, and scarlet: the "robe of the ephod" also for the high priest, of light blue, and elaborately wrought round the bottom in pomegranates; and the plain ephods for the priests. but now the sun was declining in the western sky, and the busy artificers of all sorts were relaxing from the toil of the day. in a retired spot, apart from the noise of the camp, paced one in solitary meditation. stalwart he was in frame, majestic in bearing; he trod the earth like one of her princes; but the loftiness of his demeanour was forgotten when you looked on the surpassing benignity of his countenance. each accidental passer hushed his footstep and lowered his voice as he approached; more, as it should seem, from involuntary awe and reverence than from any understood prohibition. but with some of these loiterers a child of some four or five summers, in earnest chase after a brilliant fly, whose golden wings glittered in the sunlight, heedlessly pursued it even to the very path of the solitary, and to the interruption of his walk. hastily, and somewhat peremptorily, the father calls him away. the stranger looks up, and casting a glance around, from an eye to whose brilliance that of the eagle would look dim, he for the first time sees the little intruder. gently placing a hand on the child's head, "bless thee," he said, in a voice whose every tone was melody: "bless thee, little one; the blessing of the god of israel be upon thee," and calmly resumed his walk. the child, as if awed, mutely returned to his friends, who, after casting a glance of reverence and admiration, returned to the camp. here, scattered all around, are groups occupied in those varied kinds of busy idleness which will naturally engage the moments of an intelligent multitude at the close of an active day. here a knot of men in the pride of manhood, whose flashing eyes have lost none of their fire, whose raven locks are yet not varied by a single silver line, are talking politics--such politics as the warlike men of israel would talk, when discoursing of the promised land and the hostile hosts through whose serried ranks they must cut their intrepid way thither, and whom, impatient of all delay, they burn to engage. here were elder ones, "whose natural force" was in some degree "abated," and who were lamenting the decree, however justly incurred, which forbade them to lay their bones in the land of their lifelong hope; and here was a patriarch, bowed down with the weight of years, whose silver hairs lay on his shoulders, whose snow-white beard flowed upon his breast, who as he leaned upon his staff was recounting to his rapt auditors the dealing of jehovah with his people in ancient days; how the most high visited his father abraham, and had sworn unto jacob that his seed should be brought out of captivity, and revisit the promised land. "and behold," said the old man, "it will now come to pass." but what is passing in that detached portion of the camp? who sojourn in yonder tents which attract more general attention than all the others, and in which all ages and degrees seem interested? now a group of females are there, eagerly conversing; anon a hebrew mother leads her youthful and beautiful daughter, and seems to incite her to remain there; now a hoary priest enters, and in a few moments returns pondering; and anon a trio of more youthful levites with pleased and animated countenances return from the same spot. on a sudden is every eye turned thitherward; for he who just now paced the solitary glade--none other than the chosen leader of god's host, the majestic lawgiver, the meekest and the mightiest of all created beings--he likewise wends his way to these attractive tents. with him enters aaron, a venerable man, with hoary beard and flowing white robes; and follow him a majestic-looking female who was wont to lead the solemn dance--miriam the sister of aaron; and a youth of heroic bearing, in the springtime of that life whose maturity was spent in leading the chosen race to conquest in the promised land. with proud and pleased humility did the fair inmates of those tents, the most accomplished of israel's daughters, display to their illustrious visitors the "fine needlework" to which their time and talents had been for a long season devoted, and which was now on the eve of completion. the "holy garments" which god had commanded to be made "for glory and for beauty;" the pomegranates on the hem of the high priest's robe, wrought in blue and purple and scarlet; the flowers on his "girdle of needlework," glowing as in life; the border on the ephod, in which every varied colour was shaded off into a rich and delicate tracery of gold; and above all, that exquisite work, the most beautiful of all their productions--the veil which separated the "holy of holies," the place where the most high vouchsafed his especial presence, where none but the high priest might presume to enter, and he but once a year, from the remaining portions of the tabernacle. this beautiful hanging was of fine white linen, but the original fabric was hardly discernible amid the gorgeous tracery with which it was inwrought. the whole surface was covered with a profusion of flowers, intermixed with fanciful devices of every sort, except such as might represent the forms of animals--these were rigidly excluded. cherubims seemed to be hovering around and grasping its gorgeous folds; and if tradition and history be to be credited, this drapery merited, if ever the production of the needle did merit, the epithet which english talent has since rendered classical, "_needlework sublime_." long, despite the advancing shades of evening, would the visitors have lingered untired to comment upon this beautiful production, but one said, "behold!" and immediately all, following the direction of his outstretched arm, looked towards the tabernacle. there a thin spiral flame is seen to gleam palely through the pillar of smoke; but perceptibly it increases, and even while the eye is fixed it waxes stronger and brighter, and quickly though gradually the smoke has melted away, and a tall vivid flame of fire is in its place. higher and taller it aspires: its spiral flame waxes broader and broader, ascends higher and higher, gleams brighter and brighter, till it mingles in the very vault of heaven, with the beams of the setting sun which bathe in crimson fire the summits of sinai. in the eastern sky the stars gleam brightly in the pure transparent atmosphere; and ere long the moon casts pale radiant beams adown the dark ravines, and utters her wondrous lore to the silent hills and the gloomy waste. the sounds of toil are hushed; the weary labourer seeks repose; the toil-worn wanderer is at rest: the murmuring sounds of domestic life sink lower and lower; the breath of prayer becomes fainter and fainter; the voice of praise, the evensong of israel, comes stealing through the calm of evening, and now dies softly away. nought is heard but the password of the sentinels; the far-off shriek of the bat as it flaps its wings beneath the shadow of some fearful precipice; or the scream of the eagle, which, wheeling round the lofty summits of the mountain, closes in less and lesser circles, till, as the last faint gleam of evening is lost in the dark horizon, it drops into its eyrie. the moon and the stars keep their eternal watch; the beacon-light of god's immediate presence flames unchanged by time or chance. it may be that the appointed earthly shepherd of that chosen flock passes the still hours of night and solitude in communion with his god; but silence is over the wilderness, and the children of israel are at rest. chapter iv. needlework of the egyptians. "how is thy glory, egypt, pass'd away! weep, child of ruin, o'er thy humbled name! the wreck alone that marks thy deep decay now tells the story of thy former fame!" there can be little doubt that the jewish maidens were beholden to their residence in egypt for that perfectness of finish in embroidery which was displayed so worthily in the service of the tabernacle. egypt was at this time the seat of science, of art, and learning; for it was thought the highest summary which could be given of moses' acquirements to say that he was skilled in all the learning of the egyptians. by the researches of the curious, new proofs are still being brought to light of the perfection of their skill in various arts, and we are not without testimony that the practice of the lighter and more ornamental bore progress with that of the stupendous and magnificent. of these lighter pursuits we at present refer only to the art of needlework. the egyptian women were treated with courtesy, with honour, and even with deference: indeed, some historians have gone so far as to say that the women transacted public business, to the exclusion of the men, who were engaged in domestic occupations. this misapprehension may have arisen from the fact of men being at times engaged at the loom, which in all other countries was then considered as exclusively a feminine occupation; spinning, however, was principally, if not entirely, confined to women, who had attained to such perfection in the pretty and valuable art, that, though the egyptian yarn was all spun by the hand, some of the linen made from it was so exquisitely fine as to be called "woven air." and there are some instances recorded by historians which seem fully to bear out the appellation. for example: so delicate were the threads used for nets, that some of these nets would pass through a man's ring, and one person could carry a sufficient number of them to surround a whole wood. amasis king of egypt presented a linen corslet to the rhodians of which the threads were each composed of fibres; and he presented another to the lacedemonians, richly wrought with gold; and each thread of this corslet, though itself very fine, was composed of other threads all distinct. nor did these beautiful manufactures lack the addition of equally beautiful needlework. though the gold thread used at this time was, as we have intimated, solid metal, still the egyptians had attained to such perfection in the art of moulding it, that it was fine enough not merely to embroider, but even to interweave with the linen. the linen corslet of amasis, presented, as we have remarked, to the lacedemonians, surpassingly fine as was the material, was worked with a needle in figures of animals in gold thread, and from the description given of the texture of the linen we may form some idea of the exquisite tenuity of the gold wire which was used to ornament it. corslets of linen of a somewhat stronger texture than this one, which was doubtless meant for merely ornamental wear, were not uncommon amongst the ancients. the greeks made thoraces of hide, hemp, linen, or twisted cord. of the latter there are some curious specimens in the interesting museum of the united service club. alexander had a double thorax of linen; and iphicrates ordered his soldiers to lay aside their heavy metal cuirass, and go to battle in hempen armour. and among the arms painted in the tomb of rameses iii. at thebes is a piece of defensive armour, a sort of coat or covering for the body, made of rich stuff, and richly embroidered with the figures of lions and other animals. the dress of the egyptian ladies of rank was rich and somewhat gay: in its general appearance not very dissimilar from the gay chintzes of the present day, but of more value as the material was usually linen; and though sometimes stamped in patterns, and sometimes interwoven with gold threads, was much more usually worked with the needle. the richest and most elegant of these were of course selected to adorn the person of the queen; and when in the holy book the royal psalmist is describing the dress of a bride, supposed to have been pharaoh's daughter, and that she shall be brought to the king "in raiment of needlework," he says, as proof of the gorgeousness of her attire, "her clothing is of wrought gold." this is supposed to mean a garment richly embroidered with the needle in figures in gold thread, after the manner of egyptian stitchery. perhaps no royal lady was ever more magnificently dowered than the queen of egypt; her apparel might well be gorgeous. diodorus says that when moeris, from whom the lake derived its name, and who was supposed to have made the canal, had arranged the sluices for the introduction of the water, and established everything connected with it, he assigned the sum annually derived from this source as a dowry to the queen for the purchase of jewels, ointments, and other objects connected with the toilette. the provision was certainly very liberal, being a talent every day, or upwards of £ , a year; and when this formed only a portion of the pin-money of the egyptian queens, to whom the revenues of the city of anthylla, famous for its wines, were given for their dress, it is certain they had no reason to complain of the allowance they enjoyed. the egyptian needlewomen were not solely occupied in the decoration of their persons. the deities were robed in rich vestments, in the preparation of which the proudest in the land felt that they were worthily occupied. this was a source of great gain to the priests, both in this and other countries, as, after decorating the idol gods for a time, these rich offerings were their perquisites, who of course encouraged this notable sort of devotion. we are told that it was carried so far that some idols had both winter and summer garments. tokens of friendship consisting of richly embroidered veils, handkerchiefs, &c., were then, as now, passing from one fair hand to another, as pledges of affection; and as the last holy office of love, the bereaved mother, the desolate widow, or the maiden whose budding hopes were blighted by her lover's untimely death, might find a fanciful relief to her sorrows by decorating the garment which was to enshroud the spiritless but undecaying form. the chief proportion of the mummy-cloths which have been so ruthlessly torn from these outraged relics of humanity are coarse; but some few have been found delicately and beautifully embroidered; and it is not unnatural to suppose that this difference was the result of feminine solicitude and undying affection. the embroidering of the sails of vessels too was pursued as an article of commerce, as well as for the decoration of native pleasure-boats. the ordinary sails were white; but the king and his grandees on all gala occasions made use of sails richly embroidered with the phoenix, with flowers, and various other emblems and fanciful devices. many also were painted, and some interwoven in checks and stripes. the boats used in sacred festivals upon the nile were decorated with appropriate symbols, according to the nature of the ceremony or the deity in whose service they were engaged; and the edges of the sails were finished with a coloured hem or border, which would occasionally be variegated with slight embroidery. shakspeare's description of the barge of cleopatra when she embarked on the river cydnus to meet antony, poetical as it is, seems to be rigidly correct in detail. enobarbus.--i will tell you. the barge she sat in, like a burnish'd throne, burn'd on the water: the poop was beaten gold; purple the sails, and so perfumed, that the winds were love-sick with them: the oars were silver; which to the tune of flutes kept stroke, and made the water, which they beat, to follow faster, as amorous of their strokes. for her own person, it beggar'd all description: she did lie in her pavilion (cloth of gold, of tissue), o'erpicturing that venus, where we see the fancy outwork nature; on each side her stood pretty dimpled boys, like smiling cupids, with diverse-colour'd fans, whose wind did seem to glow the delicate cheeks which they did cool, and what they undid, did. agrippa.-- o, rare for antony! enobarbus.--her gentlewomen, like the nereides, so many mermaids, tended her i' the eyes, and made their bends adornings; at the helm a seeming mermaid steers; the silken tackle swell with the touches of those flower-soft hands, that yarely frame the office. from the barge a strange invisible perfume hits the sense of the adjacent wharfs. the city cast her people out upon her; and antony, bethroned in the market-place, did sit alone, whistling to the air; which, but for vacancy, had gone to gaze on cleopatra too, and made a gap in nature. it is said that the silver oars, "which to the tune of flutes kept stroke," were pierced with holes of different sizes, so mechanically contrived, that the water, as it flowed through them at every stroke, produced a harmony in concord with that of the flutes and lyres on board. such a description as the foregoing gives a more vivid idea than any grave declaration, of the elegant luxury of the egyptians. it were easy to collect instances from the bible in which mention is made of egyptian embroidery, but one verse (ezek. xxvii. ), when the prophet is addressing the tyrians, specifically points to the subject on which we are speaking: "fine linen, with broidered work from egypt, was that which thou spreadest forth to be thy sail," &c. a common but beautiful style of embroidery was to draw out entirely the threads of linen which formed the weft, and to re-form the body of the material, and vary its appearance, by working in various stitches and with different colours on the warp alone. chairs and fauteuils of the most elegant form, made of ebony and other rare woods, inlaid with ivory, were in common use amongst the ancient egyptians. these were covered, as is the fashion in the present day, with every variety of rich stuff, stamped leather, &c.: but many were likewise embroidered with different coloured wools, with silk and gold thread. the couches too, which in the daytime had a rich covering substituted for the night bedding, gave ample scope for the display of the inventive genius and persevering industry of the busy-fingered egyptian ladies. we have given sufficient proof that the egyptian females were accomplished in the art of needlework, and we may naturally infer that they were fond of it. it is a gentle and a social occupation, and usefully employs the time, whilst it does not interfere with the current of the thoughts or the flow of conversation. the egyptians were an intelligent and an animated race; and the sprightly jest or the lively sally would be interspersed with the graver details of thoughtful and reflective conversation, or would give some point to the dull routine of mere womanish chatter. it seems almost impossible to have lived amidst the stupendous magnificence of egypt in days of yore, without the mind assimilating itself in some degree to the greatness with which it was surrounded. the vast deserts, the stupendous mountains, the river nile--the single and solitary river which in itself sufficed the needs of a mighty empire--these majestic monuments of nature seemed as emblems to which the people should fashion, as they did fashion, their pyramids, their tombs, their sphynxes, their mighty reservoirs, and their colossal statues. and we can hardly suppose that such ever-visible objects should not, during the time of their creation, have some elevating influence on the weakest mind; and that therefore frivolity of conversation amongst the egyptian ladies was rather the exception than the rule. but a modern author has amused himself, and exercised some ingenuity in attempting to prove the contrary:-- "many similar instances of a talent for caricature are observable in the compositions of egyptian artists who executed the paintings on the tombs; and the ladies are not spared. we are led to infer that they were not deficient in the talent of conversation; and the numerous subjects they proposed are shown to have been examined with great animation. among these the question of dress was not forgotten, and the patterns or the value of trinkets were discussed with proportionate interest. the maker of an earring, or the shop where it was purchased, were anxiously inquired; each compared the workmanship, the style, and the materials of those she wore, coveted her neighbour's, or preferred her own; and women of every class vied with each other in the display of 'jewels of silver and jewels of gold,' in the texture of their 'raiment,' the neatness of their sandals, and the arrangement or beauty of their plaited hair." we are too much indebted to this author's interesting volumes to quarrel with him for his ungallant exposition of a very simple painting; but we beg to place in juxta-position with the above (though otherwise somewhat out of its place) an extract from a work by no means characterised by unnecessary complacency to the fair sex. "'cet homme passe sa vie à forger des nouvelles,' me dit alors un gros athénien qui était assis auprès de moi. 'il ne s'occupe que de choses qui ne le touchent point. pour moi, mon intérieur me suffit. j'ai une femme que j'aime beaucoup;' et il me fit l'éloge de sa femme. 'hier je ne pus pas souper avec elle, j'étais prié chez un de mes amis;' et il me fit la description du repas. 'je me retirai chez moi assez content. mais j'ai fait cette nuit un rêve qui m'inquiète;' et il me raconta son rêve. ensuite il me dit pesamment que la ville fourmillait d'étrangers; que les hommes d'aujourd'hui ne valaient pas ceux d'autrefois; que les denrées étaient à bas prix; qu'on pourrait espérer une bonne récolte, s'il venait à pleuvoir. après m'avoir demandé le quantième du mois, il se leva pour aller souper avec sa femme." chapter v. needlework of the greeks and romans. "------supreme sits the virtuous housewife, the tender mother-- o'er the circle presiding, and prudently guiding; the girls gravely schooling, the boys wisely ruling; her hands never ceasing from labours increasing; and doubling his gains with her orderly pains. with piles of rich treasure the storehouse she spreads, and winds round the loud-whirring spindle her threads: she winds--till the bright-polish'd presses are full of the snow-white linen and glittering wool: blends the brilliant and solid in constant endeavour, and resteth never." j. h. merivale. it was an admitted opinion amongst the classical nations of antiquity, that no less a personage than minerva herself, "a maiden affecting old fashions and formality," visited earth to teach her favourite nation the mysteries of those implements which are called "the arms of every virtuous woman;" viz. the distaff and spindle. in the use of these the grecian dames were particularly skilled; in fact, spinning, weaving, needlework, and embroidery, formed the chief occupation of those whose rank exonerated them, even in more primitive days, from the menial drudgery of a household. the greek females led exceedingly retired lives, being far more charily admitted to a share of the recreations of the nobler sex than we of these privileged days. the ancient greeks were very magnificent--very: magnificent senators, magnificent warriors, magnificent men; but they were a people trained from the cradle for exhibition and publicity; domestic life was quite cast into the shade. consequently and necessarily their women were thrown to greater distance, till it happened, naturally enough, that they seemed to form a distinct community; and apartments the most distant and secluded that the mansion afforded were usually assigned to them. of these, in large establishments, certain ones were always appropriated to the labours of the needle. "je ne dirai" (says the sarcastic author of anacharsis) "qu'un mot sur l'éducation des filles. suivant la différence des états, elles apprennent à lire, écrire, coudre, filer, préparer la laine dont on fait les vêtemens, et veiller aux soins du ménage. en général, les mères exhortent leurs filles à se conduire avec sagesse; mais elles insistent beaucoup plus sur la nécessité de se tenir droites, d'effacer leurs épaules, de serrer leur sein avec un large ruban, d'être extrêmement sobres, et de prévenir, par toutes sortes de moyens, un embonpoint qui nuirait à l'élégance de la taille et à la grâce des mouvemens." homer, the great fountain of ancient lore, scarcely throughout his whole work names a female, greek or trojan, but as connected naturally and indissolubly with this feminine occupation--needlework. thus, when chryses implores permission to ransome his daughter, agamemnon wrathfully replies-- "i will not loose thy daughter, till old age find her far distant from her native soil, beneath my roof in argos, at her task of tissue-work." and iris, the "ambassadress of heaven," finds helen in her own recess-- "----weaving there a gorgeous web, inwrought with fiery conflicts, for her sake wag'd by contending nations." hector foreseeing the miseries consequent upon the destruction of troy, says to andromache-- "but no grief so moves me as my grief for thee alone, doom'd then to follow some imperious greek, a weeping captive, to the distant shores of argos; there to labour at the loom for a taskmistress." and again he says to her-- "hence, then, to our abode; there weave or spin, and task thy maidens." and afterwards-- "andromache, the while, knew nought, nor even by report had learn'd her hector's absence in the field alone. she in her chamber at the palace-top a splendid texture wrought, on either side all dazzling bright with flow'rs of various hues." though "penelope's web" is become a proverb, it would be unpardonable here to omit specific mention of it. antinoüs thus complains of her:-- "elusive of the bridal day, she gives fond hope to all, and all with hope deceives. did not the sun, through heaven's wide azure roll'd, for three long years the royal fraud behold? while she, laborious in delusion, spread the spacious loom, and mix'd the various thread; where, as to life the wondrous figures rise, thus spoke th' inventive queen with artful sighs:-- 'though cold in death ulysses breathes no more, cease yet a while to urge the bridal hour; cease, till to great laertes i bequeath a task of grief, his ornaments of death. lest, when the fates his royal ashes claim, the grecian matrons taint my spotless fame: when he, whom living mighty realms obey'd, shall want in death a shroud to grace his shade.' thus she: at once the generous train complies, nor fraud mistrusts in virtue's fair disguise. the work she plied; but, studious of delay, by night revers'd the labours of the day. while thrice the sun his annual journey made, the conscious lamp the midnight fraud survey'd; unheard, unseen, three years her arts prevail; the fourth, her maid unfolds th' amazing tale. we saw, as unperceiv'd we took our stand, the backward labours of her faithless hand. then urg'd, she perfects her illustrious toils; a wondrous monument of female wiles." the greek costume was rich and elegant; and though, from our familiarity with colourless statues, we are apt to suppose it gravely uniform in its hue, such was not the fact; for the tunic was often adorned with ornamental embroidery of all sorts. the toga was the characteristic of roman costume: this gradually assumed variations from its primitive simplicity of hue, until at length the triumphant general considered even the royal purple too unpretending, unless set off by a rich embroidery of gold. the first embroideries of the romans were but bands of stuff, cut or twisted, which they put on the dresses: the more modest used only one band; others two, three, four, up to seven; and from the number of these the dresses took their names, always drawn from the greek: molores, dilores, trilores, tetralores, &c. pliny seems to be the authority whence most writers derive their accounts of ancient garments and needlework. "the coarse rough wool with the round great haire hath been of ancient time highly commended and accounted of in tapestrie worke: for even homer himself witnesseth that they of the old world used the same much, and tooke great delight therein. but this tapestrie is set out with colours in france after one sort, and among the parthians after another. m. varro writeth that within the temple of sangus there continued unto the time that he wrote his booke the wooll that lady tanaquil, otherwise named caia cecilia, spun; together with her distaff and spindle: as also within the chapel of fortune, the very roiall robe or mantle of estate, made in her own hands after the manner of water chamlot in wave worke, which servius tullius used to weare. and from hence came the fashion and custome at rome, that when maidens were to be wedded, there attended upon them a distaffe, dressed and trimmed with kombed wooll, as also a spindle and yearne upon it. the said tanaquil was the first that made the coat or cassocke woven right out all through; such as new beginners (namely young souldiers, barristers, and fresh brides) put on under their white plaine gowns, without any guard of purple. the waved water chamelot was from the beginning esteemed the richest and bravest wearing. and from thence came the branched damaske in broad workes. fenestella writeth that in the latter time of augustus cæsar they began at rome to use their gownes of cloth shorne, as also with a curled nap.--as for those robes which are called crebræ and papaveratæ, wrought thicke with floure worke, resembling poppies, or pressed even and smooth, they be of greater antiquitie: for even in the time of lucilius the poet torquatus was noted and reproved for wearing them. the long robes embrodered before, called prætextæ, were devised first by the tuscanes. the trabeæ were roiall robes, and i find that kings and princes only ware them. in homer's time also they used garments embrodered with imagerie and floure, work, and from thence came the triumphant robes. as for embroderie itselfe and needle-worke, it was the phrygians invention: and hereupon embroderers in latine bee called phrygiones. and in the same asia king attalus was the first that devised cloth of gold: and thence come such colours to be called attalica. in babylon they used much to weave their cloth of divers colours, and this was a great wearing amongst them, and cloths so wrought were called babylonica. to weave cloth of tissue with twisted threeds both in woofe and warpe, and the same of sundrie colours, was the invention of alexandria; and such clothes and garments were called polymita, but fraunce devised the scutchion, square, or lozenge damaske worke. metellus scipio, among other challenges and imputations laid against capito, reproached and accused him for this:--'that his hangings and furniture of his dining chamber, being babylonian work or cloth of arras, were sold for , sesterces; and such like of late days stood prince nero in , sesterces, _i.e._ forty millions.' the embrodered long robes of servius tullius, wherewith he covered and arraied all over the image of fortune, by him dedicated, remained whole and sound until the end of sejanus. and a wonder it was that they neither fell from the image nor were motheaten in yeares."[ ] it was long before silk was in general use, even for patrician garments. it has been supposed that the famous median vest, invented by semiramis, was silken, which might account for its great fame in the west. be this as it may, it was so very graceful, that the medes adopted it after they had conquered asia; and the persians followed their example. in the time of the romans the price of silk was weight for weight with gold, and the first persons who brought silk into europe were the greeks of alexander's army. under tiberius it was forbidden to be worn by men; and it is said that the emperor aurelian even refused the earnest request of his empress for a silken dress, on the plea of its extravagant cost. heliogabalus was the first man that ever wore a robe entirely of silk. he had also a tunic woven of gold threads; such gold thread as we referred to in a prior chapter, as consisting of the metal alone beaten out and rounded, without any intermixture of silk or woollen. tarquinius priscus had also a vest of this gorgeous description, as had likewise agrippina. gold thread and wire continued to be made entirely of metal probably until the time of aurelian, nor have there been any instances found in herculaneum and pompeii of the silken thread with a gold coating. these examples will suffice to show that it was not usually the _material_ of the ancient garments which gave them so high a value, but the ornamental embellishments with which they were afterwards invested by the needle. the medes and babylonians seem to have been most highly celebrated for their stuffs and tapestries of various sorts which were figured by the needle; the egyptians certainly rivalled, though they did not surpass them; and the greeks seem also to have attained a high degree of excellence in this pretty art. the epoch of embroidery amongst the romans went as far back as tarquin, to whom the etruscans presented a tunic of purple enriched with gold, and a mantle of purple and other colours, "tels qu'en portoient les rois de perse et de lydie." but soon luxury banished the wonted austerity of rome; and when cæsar first showed himself in a habit embroidered and fringed, this innovation appeared scandalous to those who had not been alarmed at any of his real and important innovations. we have referred in a former chapter to the practice of sending garments as presents, as marks of respect and friendship, or as propitiatory or deprecatory offerings. and the illustrious ladies of the classical times had such a prophetical talent of preparation, that they were ever found possessed, when occasion required, of store of garments richly embroidered by their own fair fingers, or under their auspices. of this there are numerous examples in homer. when priam wishes to redeem the body of hector, after preparing other propitiatory gifts, "----he open'd wide the sculptur'd lids of various chests, whence mantles twelve he took of texture beautiful; twelve single cloaks; as many carpets, with as many robes; to which he added vests an equal store." when telemachus is about to leave menelaus-- "the beauteous queen revolv'd with careful eyes her various textures of unnumber'd dyes, and chose the largest; with no vulgar art her own fair hands embroider'd every part; beneath the rest it lay divinely bright, like radiant hesper o'er the gems of night." that much of this work was highly beautiful may be inferred from the description of the robe of ulysses:-- "in the rich woof a hound, mosaic drawn, bore on full stretch, and seiz'd a dappled fawn; deep in the neck his fangs indent their hold; they pant and struggle in the moving gold." and this robe, penelope says, "in happier hours her artful hand employ'd." to invest a visitor with an embroidered robe was considered the very highest mark of honour and regard. when telemachus is at the magnificent court of menelaus-- "----a bright damsel train attend the guests with liquid odours and _embroider'd vests_." * * * * * "give to the stranger guest a stranger's dues: bring gold, a pledge of love; a talent bring, a _vest_, a _robe_." * * * * * "--------in order roll'd the robes, the vests are rang'd, and heaps of gold: and adding _a rich dress inwrought with art_, a gift expressive of her bounteous heart, thus spoke (the queen) to ithacus." when cambyses wished to attain some point from an ethiopian prince, he forwarded, amongst other presents, a rich vest. the ethiopian, taking the garment, inquired what it was, and how it was made; but its glittering tracery did not decoy the unsophisticated prince. when xerxes arrived at acanthos, he interchanged the rites of hospitality with the people, and presented several with median vests. probably our readers will remember the circumstance of alexander making the mother of darius a present of some rich vestures, probably of woollen fabrics, and telling her that she might make her grandchildren learn the art of weaving them; at which the royal lady felt insulted and deeply hurt, as it was considered ignominious by the persian women to work in wool. hearing of her misapprehension, alexander himself waited on her, and in the gentlest and most respectful terms told the illustrious captive that, far from meaning any offence, the custom of his own country had misled him; and that the vestments he had offered were not only a present from his royal sisters, but wrought by their own hands. outré as appear some of the flaring patterns of the present day, the boldest of them must be _quiet_ and unattractive compared with those we read of formerly, when not only human figures, but birds and animals, were wrought not merely on hangings and carpets but on wearing apparel. ciampini gives various instances.[ ] what changes, says he, do not a long course of years produce! who now, except in the theatre, or at a carnival or masquerade (spectaculis ac rebus ludiciis), would endure garments inscribed with verses and titles, and painted with various figures? nevertheless, it is plain that such garments were constantly used in ancient times. to say nothing of homer, who assigns to ulysses a tunic variegated with figures of animals; to say nothing of the massagetæ, whom herodotus relates painted animals on their garments with the juice of herbs; we also read of these garments (though then considered very antiquated) being used under the cæsars of rome. they say that alcisthenes the sybarite had a garment of such magnificence that when he exhibited it in the temple of juno at lacinium, where all italy was congregated, it attracted universal attention. it was purchased from the carthaginians, by dionysius the elder, for talents. it was twenty-two feet in breadth, of a purple ground, with animals wrought all over, except in the middle, where were jupiter, juno, themis, minerva, apollo, venus: on one sleeve it had a figure of alcisthenes, on the other of his city sybaris. that this description is not exaggerated may be inferred from the following passage from a homily on dives and lazarus by a bishop of amuasan in pontus, given by ciampini. "they have here no bounds to this foolish art, for no sooner was invented the useless art of weaving in figures in a kind of picture, such as animals of all sorts, than (rich persons) procure flowered garments, and also those variegated with an infinite number of images, both for themselves, their wives, and children. . . . . . . whensoever thus clothed they go abroad, they go, as it were, painted all over, and pointing out to one another with the finger the pictures on their garments. "for there are lions and panthers, and bears and bulls, and dogs and woods, and rocks and huntsmen; and, in a word, everything that can be thought of, all drawn to the life: for it was necessary, forsooth, that not only the walls of their houses should be painted, but their coats (tunica) also, and likewise the cloak (pallium) which covers it. "the more pious of these gentry take their subjects from the gospel history: _e.g._ christ himself with his disciples, or one of the miracles, is depicted. in this manner you shall see the marriage of cana and the waterpots; the paralytic carrying his bed on his shoulders; the blind man cured by clay; the woman with the issue of blood taking hold of the border (of christ's garment); the harlot falling at the feet of jesus; lazarus coming from the tomb: and they fancy there is great piety in all this, and that putting on such garments must be pleasing to god." the palmated garment was figured with palm-leaves, and was a triumphal or festive garment. it is referred to in an epistle of gratian to augustus: "i have sent thee a palmated garment, in which the name of our divine parent constantine is interwoven." in allusion to these lettered garments ausonius celebrates sabina (textrice simul ac poetria), whose name thus lives when those of more important personages are forgotten:-- they who both webs and verses weave, the first to thee, o chaste minerva, leave; the latter to the muses they devote: to me, sabina, it appears a sin to separate two things so near akin, so i have wrote thy verses on my coat.[ ] and again: whether the tyrian robe your praise demand, or the neat verse upon the edge descried, know both proceed from the same skilful hand: in both these arts sabina takes a pride.[ ] it is imagined that the embroidered vestments worn in homer's time bore a strong resemblance to those now worn by the moguls; and the custom of making presents, so discernible through his work, still prevails throughout asia. it is not (says sir james forbes) so much the custom in india to present dresses ready made to the visitors as to offer the materials, especially to europeans. in turkey, persia, and arabia, it is generally the reverse. we find in chardin that the kings of persia had great wardrobes, where there were always many hundred habits, sorted, ready for presents, and that more than forty tailors were always employed in this service. it is not improbable that this ancient custom of presenting a visitor with a new dress as a token of welcome, a symbol of rejoicing at his presence, may have led to many of the general customs which have prevailed, and do still, of having new clothes at any season of joy or festivity. new clothes are thought by the people of the east _requisite_ for the due solemnization of a time of rejoicing. the turks, even the poorest of them, would submit to any privation rather than be without new clothes at the bairam or great festival. there is an anecdote recorded of the caliph montanser billah, that going one day to the upper roof of his palace he saw a number of clothes spread out on the flat roofs of the houses of bagdat. he asked the reason, and was told that the inhabitants of bagdat were drying their clothes, which they had newly washed, on account of the approach of the bairam. the caliph was so concerned that any should be so poor as to be obliged to wash their old clothes for want of new ones with which to celebrate this festival, that he ordered a great quantity of gold to be instantly made into bullets, proper to be shot out of crossbows, which he and his courtiers threw, by this means, upon every terrace of the city where he saw garments spread to dry. footnotes: [ ] book viii. chap. . [ ] ciampini, vetera monimenta, cap. xiii. [ ] "licia qui texunt, et carmina; carmina musis, licia contribuunt, casta minerva, tibi. ast ego rem sociam non dissociabo, sabina, versibus inscripsi, quæ mea texta meis." [ ] "sive probas tyrio textam sub tegmine vestem, seu placet inscripti commoditas tituli. ipsius hæc dominæ concennat utrumque venustas: has geminas artes una sabina colet." chapter vi. the dark ages.--"shee-schools." "there was an auncient house not far away, renown'd throughout the world for sacred lore and pure unspotted life: so well they say it govern'd was, and guided evermore through wisedome of a matrone grave and hore, whose onely joy was to relieve the needes of wretched soules, and helpe the helplesse pore: all night she spent in bidding of her bedes, and all the day in doing good and godly dedes." faerie queene. "meantime, whilst monks' _pens_ were thus employed, nuns with their _needles_ wrote histories also: that of _christ his passion_ for their altar-clothes; and other scripture- (and more legend-) stories in hangings to adorn their houses."--fuller, ch. hist., b. . needlework is an art so indissolubly connected with the convenience and comfort of mankind at large, that it is impossible to suppose any state of society in which it has not existed. its modes varied, of course, according to the lesser or greater degrees of refinement in other matters with which it was connected; and when we find from muratori that "nulla s'è detto fin qui dell'arte del tessere dopo la declinazione del romano imperio; e solo in fuggire s'è parlato di alcune vesti degli antichi," we may fairly infer that the _ornamental_ needlework of the time was not extensively encouraged, although never entirely laid aside. the desolation that overran the world was found alike in its greatest or most insignificant concerns; and the same torrent that swept monarchs from their thrones and peers from their halls did away with the necessity for professors of the decorative arts. there needed not the embroiderer of gold and purple to blazon the triumph of a conqueror who disdained other habiliment than the skin of some slaughtered beast.[ ] the matron who yet retained the principle of roman virtue, or the fair and refined maiden of the eastern capital, far from seeking personal adornment, rather shunned any decoration which might attract the eyes and inflame the passions of untamed and ruthless conquerors. all usual habits were subverted, and for long years the history of the european world is but a bloody record of war and tumult, of bloodshed and strife. few are the cases of peace and tranquillity in this desert of tumult and blood-guiltiness; but those few "isles of the blessed" in this ocean of discord, those few sunny spots in the gloomy landscape, are intimately connected with our theme. the use of the needle for the daily necessities of life could never, as we have remarked, be superseded; but the practice of ornamental needlework, in common with every ennobling science and improving art, was kept alive during this period of desolation by the church, and by the individual labours and collective zeal of the despised and contemned monks. sharing that hallowed influence which hovered over and protected the church at this fearful season--for, from the carelessness or superstition of the barbarians, the ministers of religion were spared--nunneries, with some few exceptions, were now like refuges pointed out by heaven itself. they were originally founded by the sister of st. anthony, the hermit of the egyptian desert, and in their primitive institution were meant solely for those who, abjuring the world for religious motives, were desirous to spend their whole time in devotional exercises. but their sphere of utility became afterwards widely extended. they became safe and peaceable asylums for all those to whom life's pilgrimage had been too thorny. the frail but repentant maiden was here sheltered from the scorn of an uncharitable world; the virtuous but suffering female, whose earthly hopes had, from whatever cause, been crushed, could here weep and pray in peace: while she to whom the more tangible trouble of poverty had descended might here, without the galling yoke of charity and dependence, look to a refuge for those evil days when the breaking of the golden bowl, the loosing of the silver cord, should disable her from the exertions necessary for her maintenance. have we any--ay, with all their faults and imperfections on their heads--have we, in these days of enlightenment, any sort of substitute for the blessings they held out to dependent and suffering woman of whatever rank? convents became also schools for the education of young women of rank, who here imbibed in early youth principles of religion which might enable them to endure with patience and fortitude those after-trials of life from which no station or wealth could exempt them; and they acquired here those accomplishments, and were taught here those lighter occupations, amongst which fine needlework and embroidery occupied a conspicuous position, which would qualify them to beguile in a becoming manner the many hours of leisure which their elevated rank would confer on them. "nunneries," says fuller, "also were good shee-schools, wherein the girles and maids of the neighbourhood were taught to read and work; and sometimes a little latine was taught them therein. yea, give me leave to say, if such feminine foundations had still continued, provided no _vow_ were obtruded upon them (virginity is least kept where it is most constrained), haply the weaker sex (besides the avoiding modern inconveniences) might be heightened to an higher perfection than hitherto hath been attained. that sharpnesse of their wits and suddenness of their conceits (which their enemies must allow unto them) might by education be improved into a judicious solidity, and that adorned with arts which now they want, not because they cannot learn, but are not taught them. i say, if such feminine foundations were extant now of dayes, haply some virgins of highest birth would be glad of such places, and i am sure their fathers and elder brothers would not be sorry for the same." miss lawrance gives a more detailed account of the duties taught in them. "in consequence of convents being considered as establishments exclusively belonging to the latin church, protestant writers, as by common consent, have joined in censuring them, forgetful of the many benefits which, without any reference to their peculiar creed, they were calculated to confer. although providing instruction for the young, the convent was a large establishment for various orders of women. there were the nuns, the lay sisters, always a numerous class, and a large body of domestics; while in those higher convents, where the abbess exercised manorial jurisdiction, there were seneschal, esquires, gentlemen, yeomen, grooms, indeed the whole establishment of a baronial castle, except the men-at-arms and the archer-band. thus within the convent walls the pupil saw nearly the same domestic arrangement to which she had been accustomed in her father's castle; while, instead of being constantly surrounded with children, well born and intelligent women might be her occasional companions. and then the most important functions were exercised by women. the abbess presided in her manorial court, the cellaress performed the extensive offices of steward, the præcentrix led the singing and superintended the library, and the infirmaress watched over the sick, affording them alike spiritual and medical aid. thus, from her first admission, the pupil was taught to respect and to emulate the talents of women. but a yet more important peculiarity did the convent school present. it was a noble, a well-endowed, and an independent institution; and it proffered education as a boon. here was no eager canvassing for scholars, no promises of unattainable advantages; for the convent school was not a mercantile establishment, nor was education a trade. the female teachers of the middle ages were looked up to alike by parent and child, and the instruction so willingly offered was willingly and gratefully received; the character of the teacher was elevated, and as a necessary consequence so was the character of the pupil." but in addition to those inmates who had dedicated their lives to religion, and those who were placed there specifically for education, convents afforded shelter to numbers who sought only temporary retirement from the world under the influence of sorrow, or temporary protection under the apprehension of danger. and this was the case not merely through the very dark era with which our chapter commences, but for centuries afterwards, and when the world was comparatively civilized. our own "good queen maude" assumed the veil in the convent of romsey, without however taking the vows, as the only means of escaping from a forced marriage; and in the subsequent reign, that of stephen, so little regard was paid to law or decorum, that a convent was the only place where a maiden, even of gentle birth, if she had riches, could have a chance of shelter and safety from the machinations of those who resorted to any sort of brutality or violence to compel her to a marriage which would secure her possessions to her ravisher. it was then in the convents, and in them alone, that, during the barbarism and confusion consequent upon the overthrow of the ancient empire, and the irruption of the untamed hordes who overran southern europe from the north and west,--it was in the convents that some remnants of the ancient art of embroidery were still preserved. the nuns considered it an acceptable service to employ their time and talents in the construction of vestments which, being intended for the service of the church, were rich and sumptuous even at the time when richness and elegance of apparel were unknown elsewhere.[ ] it was no proof of either the ignorance or the bad taste or the irreligion of the "_dark_" ages, that the religious edifices were fitted up with a rich and gorgeous solemnity which are unheard of in these days of light and knowledge and economy. and besides the construction of rich and elaborately ornamented vestments for the priests, and hangings for the altars, shrines, &c., besides these being peculiarly the occupation of the professed sisters of religious houses, it was likewise the pride and the delight of ladies of rank to devote both their money to the purchase and their time to the embroidering of sacerdotal garments as offerings to the church. and whether temporarily sheltering within the walls of a convent, or happily presiding in her own lofty halls, it was oftentime the pride and pleasure of the high-born dame to embroider a splendid cope, a rich vest, or a gorgeous hanging, as a votive and grateful offering to that holy altar where perhaps she had prayed in sorrow, and found consolation and peace. footnotes: [ ] "in the most inclement winter the hardy german was satisfied with a scanty garment made of the skin of some animal."--gibbon. [ ] muratori (diss. ), speaking of the mean habiliments usual in italy even so late as the th century, adds, "ma non per questo s'hanno a credere così rozzi e nemici del lusso que' secoli. a buon conto anche in italia qui non era cieco, sovente potea mirare i più delicati lavori di seta, che _servivano di ornamenti alle chiese e alle sacre funzioni_." chapter vii. needlework of the dark ages. "last night i dreamt a dream; behold! i saw a church was fret with gold, with arras richly dight: there saw i altar, pall, and pix, chalice, and font, and crucifix, and tapers burning bright." w. s. rose. over those memorials of the past which chance and mischance have left us, time hath drawn a thick curtain, obliterating all soft and gentle touches, which connected harmoniously the bolder features of the landscape, and leaving these but as landmarks to intimate what had been there. we would fain linger on those times, and call up the gentle spirits of the long departed to describe scenes of quiet but useful retirement at which we now only dimly guess. we would witness the hour of recreation in the convent, when the severer duties of the cloister gave place to the cheerful one of companionship; and the "pale votary" quitted the lonely cell and the solitary vigil, to instruct the blooming novice in the art of embroidery, or to ply her own accustomed and accomplished fingers in its fairy creations. the younger ones would be ecstatic in their commendations, and eager in their exertions to rival the fair sempstress; whilst a gratified though sad smile would brighten her own pale cheek as the lady abbess laid aside the richly illuminated volume by which her own attention had been engrossed, and from which she had from time to time read short and instructive passages aloud, commenting on and enforcing the principles they inculcated; and holding the work towards the casement, so that the bright slanting rays of the setting sun which fell through the richly carved lattice might illumine the varied tints of the stitchery, she would utter some kind and encouraging words of admiration and praise. perhaps the work was a broidered scarf for some spiritual father, a testimony of gratitude and esteem from the convent at large; perhaps it was a tunic or a girdle which some high and wealthy lady had bespoken for an offering, and which the meek and pious sisterhood were happy to do for hire, bestowing the proceeds on the necessities of the convent; or, if those were provided, on charity. perhaps it was a pair of sandals, so magnificently wrought as to be destined as a present by some lofty abbot to the pope himself, like those which robert, abbot of st. alban's, sent to the pope adrian the fourth; and which alone, out of a multitude of the richest offerings, the pope retained;[ ] or if it were in england (for our domestic scene will apply to all the christian world) it might be a magnificent covering for the high altar, with a scripture history embroidered in the centre, and the border, of regal purple, inwrought with gold and precious stones. we say, _if in england_, because so celebrated was the english work, the opus anglicum,[ ] that other nations eagerly desired to possess it. the embroidered vestments of some english clergymen were so much admired at the papal court, that the pope, asking where they had been made, and being told "in england," despatched bulls to several english abbots, commanding them to procure similar ones for him. some of the vestments of these days were almost covered with gold and precious stones. or it might be a magnificent pall, in the days in which this garment had lost its primitive character, that taxed the skill and the patience of the fair needlewoman. it was about the year a.d. that pope gregory sent two archbishop's palls into england; the one for london, which see was afterwards removed to canterbury, and the other to york. fuller gives the following account of this garment primitively:-- "the pall is a pontificall vestment, considerable for the matter, making, and mysteries thereof. for the matter, it is made of lamb's-wooll and superstition. i say, _of lamb's-wooll, as it comes from the sheep's back, without any other artificiall colour_, spun (say some) by a peculiar order of nunnes, _first cast into the tombe of st. peter_, taken from his body (say others); surely most sacred if from both; and (superstitiously) adorned with little black crosses. for the form thereof, the _breadth exceeded not three fingers_ (one of our bachelor's lamb-skin hoods in cambridge would make three of them), _having two labells hanging down before and behind_, which the archbishops onely, when going to the altar, put about their necks, above their other pontificall ornaments. three mysteries were couched therein. first, humility, which beautifies the clergy above all their costly copes; secondly, innocency, to imitate lamb-like simplicitie; and thirdly, industry, to follow him who fetched his wandering sheep home on his shoulders. but to speak plainly, the mystery of mysteries in this pall was, that the archbishops receiving it showed therein their dependence on rome; and a mote in this manner ceremoniously taken was a sufficient acknowledgment of their subjection. and, as it owned rome's power, so in after ages it increased their profit. for, though now such palls were freely given to archbishops, whose places in britain for the present were rather cumbersome than commodious, having little more than their paines for their labour; yet in after ages the archbishop of canterburie's pall was sold for five thousand florenes:[ ] so that the pope might well have the golden fleece, if he could sell all his lamb's-wooll at that rate."[ ] the accounts of the rich embroidered ecclesiastical vestments--robes, sandals, girdles, tunics, vests, palls, cloaks, altar-cloths, and veils or hangings of various descriptions, common in churches in the dark ages--would almost surpass belief, if the minuteness with which they are enumerated in some few ancient authors did not attest the fact. still these in the most diffuse writers are a mere catalogue of church properties, and, as such, would, in the dry detail, be but little interesting to our readers. there is enough said of them, however, to attest their variety, their beauty, their magnificence; and to impress one with a very favourable idea of the female ingenuity and perseverance of those days. the cost of many of these garments was enormous, for pearls and precious jewels were literally interwrought, and the time and labour bestowed on them was almost incredible. it was no uncommon circumstance for three years to be spent even by these assiduous and indefatigable votaries of the needle on one garment. but it is only casually, in the pages of the antiquarian, that there is any record of them:-- "with their names no bard embalms and sanctifies his song: and history, so warm on meaner themes, is cold on this." "noi" (says muratori) "che ammiriamo, e con ragione, la beltà e varietà di tante drapperie dei nostri tempi, abbiam nondimeno da confessare un obbligo non lieve agli antichi, che ci hanno prima spianata la via, e senza i lumi loro non potremmo oggidì vantare un sì gran progresso nell'arti." and that this was the case a few instances may suffice to show; and it may not be quite out of place here to refer to one out of a thousand articles of value and beauty which were lost in the great conflagration ("which so cruelly laid waste the habitations of the servants of god") of the doomed and often suffering, but always magnificent, croyland abbey. it was "that beautiful and costly sphere, most curiously constructed of different metals, according to the different planets. saturn was of copper, jupiter of gold, mars of iron, the sun of brass, mercury of amber, venus of tin, and the moon of silver: the colours of all the signs of the zodiac had their several figures and colours variously finished, and adorned with such a mixture of precious stones and metals as amused the eye, while it informed the mind of every beholder. such another sphere was not known or heard of in england; and it was a present from the king of france." no insignificant proof this of the mechanical skill of the eleventh century. we are told that pope eutychianus, who lived in the reign of the emperor aurelian, buried in different places martyrs with his own hands; and he ordained that a faithful martyr should on no account be interred without a dalmatic robe or a purple colobio. this is perhaps one of the earliest notices of ecclesiastical pomp or pride in vestments. but some forty years afterwards pope silvester was invested by the hands of his attendants with a phrygian robe of snowy white, on which was traced in sparkling threads by busy female hands the resurrection of our lord; and so magnificent was this garment considered that it was ordained to be worn by his successors on state occasions: and to pass at once to the seventh century, there are records of various church hangings which had become injured by old age being carefully repaired at considerable expense; which expense and trouble would not, we may fairly infer, have been incurred if the articles in question, even at this more advanced period, had not been considered of value and of beauty. leo the third, in the eighth century, was a magnificent benefactor to the church. with the vessels of rich plate and jewels of various descriptions which were in all ages offering to the church we have nothing to do: amongst various other vestments, leo gave to the high altar of the blessed peter, the prince of the apostles, a covering spangled with gold (_chrysoclabam_) and adorned with precious stones; having the histories both of our saviour giving to the blessed apostle peter the power of binding and loosing, and also representing the suffering of peter, the prince of the apostles, and paul. it was of great size, and exhibited on st. peter and st. paul's days.[ ] pope paschal, early in the ninth century, had some magnificent garments wrought, which he presented to different churches. one of these was an altar-cloth of tyrian purple, having in the middle a picture of golden emblems, with the countenance of our lord, and of the blessed martyrs cosman and damian, with three other brothers. the cross was wrought in gold, and had round it a border of olive-leaves most beautifully worked. another had golden emblems, with our saviour, surrounded with archangels and apostles, of wonderful beauty and richness, being ornamented with pearls. in these ages robes and hangings with crimson or purple borders, called _blatta_, from the name of the insect from which the dye was obtained, were much in use. an insect, supposed to be the one so often referred to by this name in the writings of the ancients, is found now on the coasts of guayaquil and guatima. the dye is very beautiful, and is easily transferred. the royal purple so much esteemed of old was of very different shades, for the terms purple, red, crimson, scarlet, are often used indiscriminately; and a pretty correct conception may be acquired of the value of this imperial tint formerly from the circumstance that, when alexander took possession of the city of susa and of its enormous treasures, among other things there were found five thousand quintals of hermione purple, the finest in the world, which had been treasured up there during the space of years; notwithstanding which, its beauty and lustre were no way diminished. some idea may be formed of the prodigious value of this store from the fact that this purple was sold at the rate of crowns a pound, and the quintal is a hundredweight of paris. pope paschal had a robe worked with gold and gems, having the history of the virgins with lighted torches beautifully related: he had another of byzantine scarlet with a worked border of olive-leaves. this was a very usual decoration of ecclesiastical robes, and a very suitable one; for, from the time when in the beak of noah's dove it was first an emblem of comfort, it has ever, in all ages, in all nations, at all times, been symbolical of plenty and peace. this pope had also a robe of woven gold, worn over a cassock of scarlet silk; a dress certainly worth the naming, though not so much as others indebted to our useful little implement which cowper calls the "threaded steel." but he had another rich and peculiar garment, which was entirely indebted to the needlewoman for its varied and radiant hues. this was a robe of an amber colour,[ ] _having peacocks_. pope leo the fourth had a hanging worked with the needle, having the portrait of a man seated upon a peacock. pope stefano the fifth had four magnificent hangings for the great altar, one of which was wrought in peacocks. we find in romance that there was a high emblematical value attached to peacocks; not so high, however, as to prevent our ancestors from eating them; but it is difficult to account for their being so frequently introduced in designs professedly religious. in romance and chivalry they were supereminent. "to mention the peacock (says m. le grand) is to write its panegyrick." many noble families bore the peacock as their crest; and in the provençal courts of love the successful poet was crowned with a wreath formed of them. the coronation present given to the queen of our henry the third, by her sister, the queen of france, was a large silver peacock, whose train was set with sapphires and pearls, and other precious jewels, wrought with silver. this elegant piece of jewellery was used as a reservoir for sweet waters, which were forced out of its beak into a basin of white silver chased. as the knights associated these birds with all their ideas of fame, and made their most solemn vows over them, the highest honours were conferred on them. their flesh is celebrated as the "nutriment of lovers," and the "viand of worthies;" and a peacock was always the most distinguished dish at the solemn banquets of princes or nobles. on these occasions it was served up on a golden dish, and carried to table by a lady of rank, attended by a train of high-born dames and damsels, and accompanied by music. if it was on the occasion of a tournament, the successful knight always carved it, so regulating his portions that each individual, be the company ever so numerous, might taste. for the oath, the knight rising from his seat and extending his hand over the bird, vowed some daring enterprise of arms or love:--"i vow to god, to the blessed virgin, to the dames, and to the _peacock_, &c. &c." in later and less imaginative times, the peacock, though still a favourite dish at a banquet, seems to have been regarded more from its affording "good eating" than from any more refined attribute. massinger speaks of "the carcases of three fat wethers bruised for gravy, to make sauce for a single peacock." in shakspeare's time the bird was usually put into a pie, the head, richly gilt, being placed at one end of the dish, and the tail, spread out in its full circumference, at the other. and alas! for the degeneracy of those days. the solemn and knightly adjuration of former times had even then dwindled into the absurd oath which shakspeare puts into the mouth of justice shallow:-- "by _cock_ and _pye_, sir, you shall not away to night." in some of the french tapestries birds of all shapes, natural and unnatural, of all sizes and in all positions, form very important parts of the subjects themselves; though this remark is hardly in place here, as the tapestries are of later date, and not solely needlework. to return, however: mention is made in an old chronicle of _antiquitas congregatio ancilarum, quæ opere plumario ornamenta ecclesiam laborabant_. it has been a subject of much discussion whether this opus plumarium signified some arrangement of real feathers, or merely fanciful embroidery in imitation of them. lytlyngton, abbot of croyland, in edward the fourth's time, gave to his church nine copes of cloth of gold, exquisitely feathered.[ ] this was perhaps embroidered imitation. a vestment which cnute the great presented to this abbey was made of silk embroidered with eagles of gold. richard upton, elected abbot in , gave silk embroidered with falcons for copes; and about the same time john freston gave a rich robe of venetian blue embroidered with golden eagles. these were positively imitations merely; yet they evince the prevailing taste for feathered work, and, as we have shown, feathers themselves were much used. it is recorded that pope paul the third sent king pepin a present of a mantle interwoven with peacocks' feathers. and from whatever circumstance the reverence for peacocks' feathers originated,[ ] it is not, even yet, quite exploded. there are some lingering remnants of a superstitious regard for them which may have had their origin in these very times and circumstances. for how surely, where they are rigidly traced, are our country customs, our vulgar ceremonies, our apparently absurd and senseless usages, found to emanate from some principle or superstition of general and prevailing adoption. in some counties we cannot enter a farm-house where the mantel-piece in the parlour is not decorated with a diadem of peacock feathers, which are carefully dusted and preserved. and in houses of more assuming pretensions the same custom frequently prevails; and we knew a lady who carefully preserved some peacock feathers in a drawer long after her association with people in a higher station than that to which she originally belonged had made her ashamed to display them in her parlour. _this_ could not be for _mere_ ornament: there is some idea of _luck_ attached to them, which seems not improbably to have arisen from circumstances connected originally with the "vow of the peacock." at any rate, the religious care with which peacocks' feathers are preserved by many who care not for them as ornaments, is not a whit more ridiculous than to see people gravely turn over the money in their pockets when they first hear the cuckoo, or joyfully fasten a dropped horse-shoe on their threshold, or shudderingly turn aside if two straws lie across in their path, or thankfully seize an old shoe accidentally met with, heedless of the probable state of the beggared foot that may unconsciously have left it there, or any other of the million unaccountable customs which diversify and enliven country life, and which still prevail and flourish, notwithstanding the extensive travels and sweeping devastations of the modern "schoolmaster." do not our readers recollect cowper's thanksgiving "on finding the heel of a shoe?"-- "fortune! i thank thee, gentle goddess! thanks! not that my muse, though bashful, shall deny she would have thanked thee rather, hadst thou cast a treasure in her way; for neither meed of early breakfast, to dispel the fumes and bowel-raking pains of emptiness, nor noontide feast, nor ev'ning's cool repast, hopes she from this--presumptuous, though perhaps the cobbler, leather-carving artist, might. nathless she thanks thee, and accepts thy boon, whatever; not as erst the fabled cock, vain-glorious fool! unknowing what he found, spurned the rich gem thou gavest him. wherefore, ah! why not on me that favour, (worthier sure!) conferr'dst, goddess! thou art blind, thou sayest: enough! thy blindness shall excuse the deed." return we to our needlework. we have clear proof that, before the end of the seventh century, our fair countrywomen were skilled not merely in the use of the needle as applied to necessary purposes, but also in its application to the varied and elegant embroidered garments to which we have so frequently alluded, as forming properties of value and consideration. they were chiefly executed by ladies of the highest rank and greatest piety--very frequently, indeed, by those of royal blood--and were usually (as we have before observed) devoted to the embellishment of the church, or the decoration of its ministers. it was not unusual to bequeath such properties. "i give," said the wife of the conqueror, in her will, "to the abbey of the holy trinity, my tunic worked at winchester by alderet's wife, and the mantle embroidered with gold, which is in my chamber, to make a cope. of my two golden girdles, i give that which is ornamented with emblems for the purpose of suspending the lamp before the great altar."[ ] amongst some costly presents sent by isabella, queen of edward the second, to the pope, was a magnificent cope, embroidered and studded with large white pearls, and purchased of the executors of catherine lincoln, for a sum equivalent to between two and three thousand pounds of present money. another cope, thought worthy to accompany it, was also the work of an englishwoman, rose de bureford, wife of john de bureford, citizen and merchant of london. anciently, banners, either from being made of some relic, or from the representation on them of holy things, were held sacred, and much superstitious faith placed in them; consequently the pious and industrious finger was much occupied in working them. king arthur, when he fought the eighth battle against the saxons, carried the "image of christ and of the blessed mary (always a virgin) upon his shoulders." over the tomb of oswald, the great christian hero, was laid a banner of purple wrought with gold. when st. augustine first came to preach to the saxons, he had a cross borne before him, with a banner, on which was the image of our saviour christ. the celebrated standard of the danes had the sacred raven worked on it; and the ill-fated harold bore to the field of hastings a banner with the figure of an armed man worked in gold thread: to the same field william bore a standard, a gift from the pope, and blessed by his holiness. it is recorded of st. dunstan, who, as our readers well know, excelled in many pursuits, and especially in painting, for which he frequently forsook his peculiar occupation of goldsmith, that on one occasion, at the earnest request of a lady, he _tinted_ a sacerdotal vestment for her, which she afterwards embroidered in gold thread in an exquisitely beautiful style. most of these embroidered works were first tinted, very probably in the way in which they now are, or until the freer influx of the more beautiful german patterns, they lately were; and it is from this previous tinting that they are so frequently described in the old books as _painted_ garments, _pictured_ vestments, &c., this term by no means seeming usually to imply that the use of the needle had been neglected or superseded in them. the garments of edward the confessor, which he wore upon occasions of great solemnity, were sumptuously embroidered with gold by the hands of edgitha, his queen. the four princesses, daughters of king edward the elder, were most carefully educated: their early years were chiefly devoted to literary pursuits, but they were nevertheless most assiduously instructed in the use of the needle, and are highly celebrated by historians for their assiduity and skill in spinning, weaving, and needlework. this was so far, says the historian, from spoiling the fortunes of those royal spinsters, that it procured them the addresses of the greatest princes then in europe, and one, "in whom the whole essence of beauty had centered, was demanded from her brother by hugh, king of the franks." our fair readers may take some interest in knowing what were the propitiatory offerings of a noble suitor of those days. "perfumes, such as never had been seen in england before; jewels, but more especially emeralds, the greenness of which, reflected by the sun, illumined the countenances of the bystanders with agreeable light; many fleet horses, with their trappings, and, as virgil says, 'champing their golden bits;' an alabaster vase, so exquisitely chased, that the corn-fields really seemed to wave, the vines to bud, the figures of men actually to move, and so clear and polished, that it reflected the features like a mirror; the sword of constantine the great, on which the name of its original possessor was read in golden letters; on the pommel, upon thick plates of gold, might be seen fixed an iron spike, one of the four which the jewish faction prepared for the crucifixion of our lord; the spear of charles the great, which, whenever that invincible emperor hurled in his expeditions against the saracens, he always came off conqueror; it was reported to be the same which, driven into the side of our saviour by the hand of the centurion, opened, by that precious wound, the joys of paradise to wretched mortals; the banner of the most blessed martyr maurice, chief of the theban legion, with which the same king, in the spanish war, used to break through the battalions of the enemy, however fierce and wedged together, and put them to flight; a diadem, precious from its quantity of gold, but more so for its jewels, the splendour of which threw the sparks of light so strongly on the beholders, that the more steadfastly any person endeavoured to gaze, so much the more dazzled he was--compelled to avert his eyes; part of the holy and adorable cross enclosed in crystal, where the eye, piercing through the substance of the stone, might discern the colour and size of the wood; a small portion of the crown of thorns enclosed in a similar manner, which, in derision of his government, the madness of the soldiers placed on christ's sacred head. "the king (athelstan), delighted with such great and exquisite presents, made an equal return of good offices, and gratified the soul of the longing suitor by a union with his sister. with some of these presents he enriched succeeding kings; but to malmesbury he gave part of the cross and crown; by the support of which, i believe, that place even now flourishes, though it has suffered so many shipwrecks of its liberty, so many attacks of its enemies."[ ] it is not to be supposed that at a time when the "whole island" was said to "blaze" with devotion, and when, moreover, her own fair daughters surpassed the whole world in needlework, that the english churches were deficient in its beautiful adornments. far otherwise, indeed. we forbear to enumerate many, because our chapter has already exceeded its prescribed limits; but we may particularize a golden veil or hanging (vellum), embroidered with the destruction of troy, which witlaf, king of mercia, gave to the abbey of croyland; and the coronation mantle of harold harefoot, son of cnute, which he gave to the same abbey, made of silk, and embroidered with "hesperian apples." richard, who was abbot of st. alban's from to , made a present to his monastery of a suit of hangings which contained the whole history of the primitive martyr of england, alban. croyland abbey possessed many hangings for the altars, embroidered with golden birds; and a garment, which seems to have been a peculiar, and considered a valuable one, being a black gown wrought with gold letters, to officiate in at funerals. the enigmatical letters which were worked on ecclesiastical vestments in those days, were various and peculiar, and have given abundant scope for antiquarian research. we have heard it surmised that they took their rise in times of persecution, being indications (then, doubtless, slight and unostentatious ones) by which the christians might know each other. but they came into more general use, not merely as symbolical characters, but individual names were wrought, and that not on personal garments alone, for pope leo the fourth placed a cloth on the altar woven with gold, and spangled all over with pearls. it had on each side (right and left) a circle bounded with gold, within which the name of his holiness was written in precious stones. in many old paintings a letter or letters have been noticed on the garment of the principal figure, and they have been taken for private marks of the painter, but it is more probable, says ciampini,[ ] that they are either copied from old garments, or are intended to denote the dignity of the character to which they are attached. we will conclude the present chapter by remarking that one of the most magnificent specimens of ancient needlework in existence, and which is in excellent preservation, is the state pall belonging to the fishmongers company. the end pieces are similar, and consist of a picture, wrought in gold and silk, of the patron, st. peter, in pontificial robes, seated on a superb throne, and crowned with the papal tiara. holding in one hand the keys, the other is in the posture of giving the benediction, and on each side is an angel, bearing a golden vase, from which he scatters incense over the saint. the angel's wings, according to old custom, are composed of peacocks' feathers in all their natural vivid colours; their outer robes are gold raised with crimson; their under vests white, shaded with sky blue; the faces are finely worked in satin, after nature, and they have long yellow hair. there are various designs on the side pieces; the most important and conspicuous is christ delivering the keys to peter. among other decorations are, of course, the arms of the company, richly emblazoned, the supporters of which, the merman and mermaid, are beautifully worked, the merman in gold armour, the mermaid in white silk, with long tresses in golden thread. this magnificent piece of needlework has probably no parallel in this country. footnotes: [ ] when robert, abbot of st. alban's, visited his countryman pope adrian the fourth, he made him several valuable presents, and amongst other things three mitres and a pair of sandals of most admirable workmanship. his holiness refused his other presents, but thankfully accepted of the mitres and sandals, being charmed with their exquisite beauty. these admired pieces of embroidery were the work of christina, abbess of markgate. [ ] "anglicæ nationis feminæ multum acu et auri textura, egregie viri in omni valeant artificio. però fu renomato opus anglicum."--from muratori. [ ] a florene is _s._ _d._ [ ] "the pall was a bishop's vestment, going over the shoulders, made of sheep-skin, in memory of him who sought the lost sheep, and when he had found it laid it on his shoulders; and it was embroidered with crosses, and taken off the body or coffin of st. peter."--camden. [ ] anastasius bibliothecarius. de vitis romanorum pontificum. as this work is the fountain whence subsequent writers have chiefly obtained their information with regard to church vestments, that is to say, decorative ones, it may not be amiss to transcribe a passage, taken literally at random from scores of similar ones. it will give the reader some idea of the profusion with which the expensive garnitures were supplied:-- "sed et super altare majus fecit tetra vela holoserica alithina quatuor, cum astillis, et rosis chrysoclabis. et in eodem altare fecit cum historiis crucifixi domini vestem tyriam. et in ecclesia doctoris mundi beati pauli apostoli tetra vela holoserica alithyna quatuor, et vestem super altare albam chrysoclabam, habentem historiam sanctæ resurrectionis, et aliam vestem chrysoclabam, habentem historiam nativitatis domini, et sanctorum innocentium. immo et aliam vestem tyriam, habentem historiam cæci illuminati, et resurrectionem. idem autem sanctissimus præsul fecit in basilica beatæ mariæ ad præsepe vestem albam chrysoclabam, habentem historiam sanctæ resurrectionis. sed et aliam vestem in orbiculis chrysoclabis, habentem historias annunciationis, et sanctorum joachim, et annæ. fecit in ecclesia beati laurentii foris muros eidem præsul vestem albam rosatam cum chrysoclabo. sed et aliam vestem super sanctum corpus ejus albam de stauraci chrysoclabam, cum margaritis. et in titulo calixti vestem chrysoclabam ex blattin byzanteo, habentem historiam nativitatis domini, et sancti simeonis. item in ecclesia sancti pancratii vestem tyriam, habentem historiam ascencionis domini, seu et in sancta maria ad martyres fecit vestem tyriam ut supra. et in basilica sanctorum cosmæ et damiani fecit vestem de blatti byzanteo, cum periclysin de chrysoclabo, et margaritis."--i. . [ ] "de staurace." [ ] "opere plumario exquitissime præparatas." [ ] in the classical ages, they were in high repute. juno's chariot is drawn by peacocks; and olympian jove himself invests his royal limbs with a mantle formed of their feathers. [ ] the name of dame leviet has descended to posterity as an embroiderer to the conqueror and his queen. [ ] will. of malmesbury, . [ ] vet. mon. cap. . chapter viii. the bayeux tapestry.--part i. "needlework sublime." cowper. great discussion has taken place amongst the learned with regard to the exact time at which the bayeux tapestry was wrought. the question, except as a matter of curiosity, is, perhaps, of little account--fifty years earlier or later, nearly eight hundred years ago. it had always been considered as the work of matilda, the wife of the conquering duke of normandy until a few years ago, when the abbé de la rue started and endeavoured to maintain the hypothesis that it was worked by or under the direction of the empress matilda, the daughter of henry the first.[ ] but his positions, as dibdin observes,[ ] are all of a _negative_ character, and, "according to the strict rules of logic, it must not be admitted, that because such and such writers have _not_ noticed a circumstance, therefore that circumstance or event cannot have taken place." hudson gurney, charles a. stothard, and thos. amyot, esqrs. have all published essays on the subject,[ ] which establish almost to certainty the fact of the production of this tapestry at the earlier of the two periods contended for, viz. from to . in this we rejoice, because this herculean labour has a halo of deep interest thrown round it, from the circumstance of its being the proud tribute of a fond and affectionate wife, glorying in her husband's glory, and proud of emblazoning his deeds. as the work of the empress matilda it would still be a magnificent production of industry and of skill; as the work of "duke william's" wife these qualities merge in others of a more interesting character.[ ] this excellent and amiable princess was a most highly accomplished woman, and remarkable for her learning; she was the affectionate mother of a large family, the faithful wife of an enterprising monarch, with whom she lived for thirty-three years so harmoniously that her death had such an effect on her husband as to cause him to relinquish, never again to resume, his usual amusements.[ ] little did the affectionate wife think, whilst employed over this task, that her domestic tribute of regard should become an historical memento of her country, and blazon forth her illustrious husband's deeds, and her own unwearying affection, to ages upon ages hereafter to be born. for independently of the interest which may be attached to this tapestry as a pledge of feminine affection, a token of housewifely industry, and a specimen of ancient stitchery, it derives more historic value as the work of the conqueror's wife, than if it were the production of a later time. for it holds good with these historical tapestries as with the written histories and romances of the middle ages;--authors wrote and ladies wrought (we mean no pun) their characters, _not_ in the costume of the times in which the action or event celebrated took place, but in that in which they were at the time engaged; and thus, had matilda the empress worked this tapestry, it is more than probable that she would have introduced the armorial bearings which were in her time becoming common, and especially the norman leopards, of which in the tapestry there is not the slightest trace. in her time too the hair was worn so long as to excite the censures of the church, whilst at the time of the conquest the normans almost shaved their heads; and this circumstance, more than the want of beards, is supposed by mr. stothard[ ] to have led to the surmise of the anglo-saxon spies that the normans were all priests. this circumstance is faithfully depicted in the tapestry, where also the chief weapon seen is a lance, which was little used after the conquest. these peculiarities, with several others which have been commented on by antiquarian writers, seem to establish the date of this production as coeval with the action which it represents, and therefore invaluable as an historical document. "it is, perhaps," says one of the learned writers on the bayeux tapestry, "a characteristic of the literature of the present age to deduce history from sources of second-rate authority; from ballads and pictures rather than from graver and severer records. unquestionably this is the preferable course, if amusement, not truth, be the object sought for. nothing can be more delightful than to read the reigns of the plantagenets in the dramas of shakspeare, or the tales of later times in the ingenious fictions of the author of waverley. but those who would draw historical facts from their hiding-places must be content to plod through many a ponderous worm-eaten folio, and many a half-legible and still less intelligible manuscript. "yet," continues he, "if the bayeux tapestry be not history of the first class, it is, perhaps, something better. it exhibits genuine traits, elsewhere sought in vain, of the costume and manners of that age which, of all others, if we except the period of the reformation, ought to be the most interesting to us; that age which gave us a new race of monarchs, bringing with them new landholders, new laws, and almost a new language. "as in the magic pages of froissart, we here behold our ancestors of each race in most of the occupations of life, in courts and camps, in pastime and in battle, at feasts and on the bed of sickness. these are characteristics which of themselves would call forth a lively interest; but their value is greatly enhanced by their connection with one of the most important events in history, the main subject of the whole design." this magnificent piece of work is feet in length by inches in width, is now usually kept at the town-hall in rouen, and is treasured as the most precious relic. it was formerly the theme of some long and learned dissertations of antiquarian historians, amongst whom montfaucon, perhaps, ranks most conspicuous. still so little _local_ interest does it excite, that mr. gurney, in , was nearly leaving bayeux without seeing it because he did not happen to ask for it by the title of "toile de st. jean," and so his request was not understood; and ducarel, in his "tour," says, "the priests of this cathedral to whom we addressed ourselves for a sight of this remarkable piece of antiquity, knew nothing of it; the circumstance only of its being annually hung up in their church led them to understand what we wanted; no person there knowing that the object of our inquiry any ways related to william the conqueror, whom to this day they call duke william." during the french revolution its surrender was demanded for the purpose of covering the guns; fortunately, however, a priest succeeded in concealing it until that storm was overpast. bonaparte better knew its value. it was displayed for some time in paris, and afterwards at some seaport towns. m. denon had the charge of it committed to him by bonaparte, but it was afterwards restored to bayeux. it was at the time of the usurper's threatened invasion of our country that so much value was attached to, and so much pains taken to exhibit this roll. "whether," says dibdin, "at such a sight the soldiers shouted, and, drawing their glittering swords, "clashed on their sounding shields the din of war,--" confident of a second representation of the same subject by a second subjugation of our country--is a point which has not been exactly detailed to me! but the supposition may not be considered very violent when i inform you that i was told by a casual french visitor of the tapestry, that '_pour cela, si bonaparte avait eu le courage, le résultat auroit été comme autrefois_.' matters, however, have taken _rather_ a different turn." the tapestry is coiled round a machine like that which lets down the buckets to a well, and a female unrols and explains it. it is worked in different coloured worsteds on white cloth, to which time has given the tinge of brown holland; the parts intended to represent flesh are left untouched by the needle. the colours are somewhat faded, and not very multitudinous. perhaps it is the little variety of colours which matilda and her ladies had at their disposal which has caused them to depict the horses of any colour--"blue, green, red, or yellow." the outline, too, is of course stiff and rude.[ ] at the top and bottom of the main work is a narrow allegorical border; and each division or different action or event is marked by a branch or tree extending the whole depth of the tapestry; and most frequently each tableau is so arranged that the figures at the end of one and the beginning of the next are turned from each other, whilst above each the subject of the scene and the names of the principal actors are wrought in large letters. the subjects of the border vary; some of Æsop's fables are depicted on it, sometimes instruments of agriculture, sometimes fanciful and grotesque figures and borders; and during the heat of the battle of hastings, when, as montfaucon says, "le carnage est grand," the appropriate device of the border is a _layer of dead men_. "from the fury of the normans, good lord deliver us," was, we are told, in the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries a petition in the litanies of all nations.[ ] for long did england sorrow under their "fury," though _in time_ the conquest produced advantageous results to the kingdom at large. whether this norman subjugation was in accordance with the will of the monarch edward, or whether it was entirely the result of duke william's ambition, must now ever remain in doubt. harold asserted that edward the confessor appointed him his successor (of which, however, he could not produce proof); to this must be opposed the improbability of edward thus ennobling a family of whom he felt, and with such abundant cause, so jealous. probably the old chronicler (fabyan) has hit the mark when he says, "this edgarre (the rightful heir) was yonge, and specyally for harolde was stronge of knyghtes and rychesse, he wanne the reygne." be this as it may, however, harold on the very day of edward's interment, and that was only the day subsequent to his death, was crowned king in st. paul's; apparently with the concurrence of all concerned, for he was powerful and popular. and his government during the chief part of his short kingly career was such as to increase his popularity: he was wise, and just, and gracious. "anone as he was crowned, he began to fordoo euyll lawes and customes before vsed, and stablysshed the good lawes, and specyally whiche (suche) as were for the defence of holy churche, and punysshed the euyll doers, to the fere and example of other."[ ] but uncontrolled authority early began to produce its wonted results. he "waxyd so prowd, and for couetouse wold not deuyde the prayes that he took to hys knyghtys, that had well deseruyd it, but kepte it to hymself, that he therby lost the fauour of many of his knyghtys and people."[ ] this defection from his party doubtless made itself felt in the mortal struggle with the norman duke which issued in harold's discomfiture and death. proceed we to the tapestry. the first scene which the needlewoman has depicted is a conference between a person who, from his white flowing beard and regal costume, is easily recognized as the "sainted edward," and another, who, from his subsequent embarkation, is supposed to be harold. the subject of the conference is, of course, only conjectured. harold's visit to normandy is well known; but whether, as some suppose, he was driven thither by a tempest when on a cruise of pleasure; whether he went as ambassador from edward to communicate the intentions of the confessor in william's behoof; or whether, as the tapestry is supposed more strongly to indicate, he obtained edward's reluctant consent to his visit to reclaim his brother who, a hostage for his own good conduct, had been sent to william by edward; these are points which now defy investigation, even if they were of sufficient importance to claim it. harold is then seen on his journey attended by cavaliers on horseback, surrounded by dogs, and, an emblem of his own high dignity, a hawk on his fist. one great value of this tapestry is the scrupulous regard paid to points and circumstances which at first view might appear insignificant, but which, as correlative confirmations of usages and facts, are of considerable importance. thus, it is known to antiquarians that great personages formerly had two only modes of equipment when proceeding on a journey, that of war or the chase. harold is here fully equipped for the chase, and consequently the first glimpse obtained of his person would show that his errand was one of peace. the hawk on the fist was a mark of high nobility: no inferior person is represented with one: harold and guy earl of ponthieu alone bear them. in former times this bird was esteemed so sacred that it was prohibited in the ancient laws for any one to give his hawk even as a part of his ransom. in the reign of edward the third it was made felony to steal a hawk; and to take its eggs, even in a person's own ground, was punishable with imprisonment for a year and a day, besides a fine at the king's pleasure. nay, more than this, by the laws of one part of the island, and probably of the whole,[ ] the price of a hawk, or of a greyhound, was once the very same with the price of a man; and there was a time when the robbing of a hawk's nest was as great a crime in the eye of the law, and as severely punished, as the murder of a christian. and of this high value they were long considered. "it is difficult," says mr. mills,[ ] "to fancy the extravagant degree of estimation in which hawks were held during the chivalric ages. as symbols of high estate they were constantly carried about by the nobility of both sexes. there was even a usage of bringing them into places appropriated to public worship; a practice which, in the case of some individuals, appears to have been recognised as a right. the treasurer of the church of auxerre enjoyed the distinction of assisting at divine service on solemn days with a falcon on his fist; and the lord of sassai held the privilege of perching his upon the altar. nothing was thought more dishonourable to a man of rank than to give up his hawks; and if he were taken prisoner he would not resign them even for liberty." the different positions in which the hawk is placed in our needlework are worthy of remark. here its head is raised, its wings fluttering, as if eager and ready for flight; afterwards, when harold follows the earl of ponthieu as his captive, he is not, of course, deprived of his bird, but by a beautiful fiction the bird is represented depressed, and with its head turned towards its master's breast as if trying to nestle and shelter itself there. could sympathy be more poetically expressed? afterwards, on harold's release, the bird is again depicted as fluttering to "soar elate." the practice very prevalent in these "barbarous times," as we somewhat too sweepingly term them, of entering on no expedition of war or pastime without imploring the protection of heaven, is intimated by a church which harold is entering previously to his embarkation. that this observance might degenerate in many instances into mere form may be very true; and the "hunting masses" celebrated in song might, some of them, be more honoured in the breach than the observance: nevertheless in clearing away the dross of old times, we have, it is to be feared, removed some of the gold also; and the abolition of the custom of having the churches open at _all times_, so that at any moment the heart-prompted prayer might be offered up under the holy shelter of a consecrated roof, has tended very much, it is to be feared, to abolish the habit of frequent prayer. a habit in itself, and regarded even merely as a habit, fraught with inestimable good. we next see harold and his companions refreshing themselves prior to their departure, pledging each other, and doubtless drinking to the success of their enterprise whatever it might be. the horns from which they are drinking have been the subject of critical remark. we find that horns were used for various purposes, and were of four sorts, drinking horns, hunting horns, horns for summoning the people, and of a mixed kind. they were used as modes of investiture, and this manner of endowing was usual amongst the danes in england. king cnute himself gave lands at pusey in berkshire to the family of that name, with a horn solemnly at that time delivered, as a confirmation of the grant. edward the confessor made a like donation to the family of nigel. the celebrated horn of alphus, kept in the sacristy in york minster, was probably a drinking cup belonging to this prince, and was by him given together with all his lands and revenues to that church. "when he gave the horn that was to convey it (his estate) he filled it with wine, and on his knees before the altar, 'deo et s. petro omnes terras et redditus propinavit.' so that he drank it off, in testimony that thereby he gave them his lands."[ ] many instances might be adduced to show that this mode of investiture was common in england in the time of the danes, the anglo-saxons, and at the close of the reign of the norman conqueror. the drinking horns had frequently a screw at the end, which being taken off at once converted them into hunting horns, which circumstance will account for persons of distinction frequently carrying their own. such doubtless were those used of old by the breton hunters about brecheliant, which is poetically described as a forest long and broad, much famed throughout brittany. the fountain of berenton rises from beneath a stone there. thither the hunters are used to repair in sultry weather, and drawing up water with their horns (those horns which had just been used to sound the animated warnings of the chase), they sprinkle the stone for the purpose of having rain, which is then wont to fall throughout the whole forest around. there too fairies are to be seen, and many wonders happen. the ground is broken and precipitous, and deer in plenty roam there, but the husbandmen have forsaken it. our author[ ] goes on to say that he personally visited this enchanted region, but that, though he saw the forest and the land, no marvels presented themselves. the reason is obvious. he had, before the time, contracted some of the scepticism of these matter-of-fact "schoolmaster abroad" days. he wanted faith, and therefore he did not _deserve_ to see them. the use of drinking horns is very ancient. they were usually embellished or garnished with silver; they were in very common use among our saxon ancestors, who frequently had them gilded and magnificently ornamented. one of those in use amongst harold's party seems to be very richly decorated. the revellers are, however, obliged to dispatch, as their leader, harold, is already wading through the water to his vessel. the character of harold as displayed throughout this tapestry is a magnificent one, and does infinite credit to the generous and noble disposition of matilda the queen, who disdained to depreciate the character of a fallen foe. he commences his expedition by an act of piety; here, on his embarkation at bosham, he is kindly carrying his dog through the water. in crossing the sands of the river cosno, which are dangerous, so very dangerous as most frequently to cause the destruction of those who attempt their transit, his whole concern seems to be to assist the passage of others, whose inferior natural powers do not enable them to compete with danger so successfully as himself; his character for undaunted bravery is such, that william condescends to supplicate his assistance in a feud then at issue between himself and another nobleman, and so nobly does he bear himself that the proud norman with his own hands invests him with the emblems of honour (as seen in the tapestry); and, last scene of all, he disdained all submission, he repelled all the entreaties with which his brothers assailed him not personally to lead his troops to the encounter, and the corpses of , normans on this field, and of even a greater number on the english monarch's side, told in bloody characters that harold had not quailed in the last great encounter. unpropitious winds drive him and his attendants from their intended course. many historians accuse the people of ponthieu of making prisoners all whose ill fortune threw them upon their coast, and of treating them with great barbarity, in order to extort the larger ransom. be this as it may, harold has scarcely set his foot on shore ere he is forcibly captured by the vassals of guy of ponthieu, who is there on horseback to witness the proceeding. the tapestry goes on to picture the progress of the captured troop and their captors to belrem or beurain, and a conference when there between the earl and his prisoner, where the fair embroideresses have given a delicate and expressive feature by depicting the conquering noble with his sword elevated, and the princely captive, wearing indeed his sword, but with the point depressed. it is said that a fisherman of ponthieu, who had been often in england and knew harold's person, was the cause of his capture. "he went privily to guy, the count of pontif, and would speak to no other; and he told the count how he could put a great prize in his way, if he would go with him; and that if he would give him only twenty livres he should gain a hundred by it, for he would deliver him such a prisoner as would pay a hundred livres or more for his ransome." the count agreed to his terms, and then the fisherman showed him harold. hearing of harold's captivity, william the norman is anxious on all and every account to obtain possession of his person. he consequently sends ambassadors to guy, who is represented on the tapestry as giving them audience. the person holding the horses is somewhat remarkable; he is a bearded dwarf. dwarfs were formerly much sought after in the houses of great folks, and they were frequently sent as presents from one potentate to another. they were petted and indulged somewhat in the way of the more modern fool or jester. the custom is very old. the romans were so fond of them, that they often used artificial methods to prevent the growth of children designed for dwarfs, by enclosing them in boxes, or by the use of tight bandages. the sister of one of the roman emperors had a dwarf who was only two feet and a hand breadth in height. many relations concerning dwarfs we may look upon as not less fabulous than those of giants. they are, like the latter, indispensable in romances, where their feats, far from being dwarfish, are absolutely gigantic, though these diminutive heroes seldom occupy any more ostensible post than that of humble attendant. "fill'd with these views th' _attendant dwarf_ she sends: before the knight the dwarf respectful bends; kind greetings bears as to his lady's guest, and prays his presence to adorn her feast. the knight delays not." "a hugye giaunt stiffe and starke, all foule of limbe and lere; two goggling eyen like fire farden, a mouthe from eare to eare. before him came a dwarffe full lowe, that _waited on his knee_." sir cauline. "behind her farre away a dwarfe did lag that lasie seem'd, in being ever last, or wearied with _bearing of her bag_ of needments at his backe." faerie queene. the dwarf worked in the tapestry has the name tvrold placed above him, and seems to have been a dependant of odo, bishop of bayeux, william the conqueror's brother.[ ] the first negotiations are unsuccessful; more urgent messages are forwarded, and in the end duke william himself proceeds at the head of some troops to _compel_ the surrender of the prisoner. count guy is intimidated, and the object is attained; every stage of these proceedings is depicted on the canvas, as well as william's courteous reception of harold at his palace. the portraiture of a female in a sort of porch, with a clergyman in the act of pronouncing a benediction on her, is supposed to have reference to the engagement between william and his guest, that the latter should marry the daughter of the former. many other circumstances and conditions were tacked to this agreement, one of which was that harold should guard the english throne for william; agreements which one and all--under the reasonable plea that they were enforced ones--the anglo-saxon nobleman broke through. it is said that his desertion so affected the mind of the pious young princess,[ ] that her heart broke on her passage to spain, whither they were conveying her to a forced union with a spanish prince. as this young lady was a mere child at the time of harold's visit to normandy, the story, though exceedingly pretty, is probably very apocryphal. ducarel gives an entirely different explanation of the scene, and says that it is probably meant to represent a secretary or officer coming to william's duchess, to acquaint her with the agreement just made relative to her daughter. the earl of bretagne is at this moment at war with duke william, and the latter attaching harold to his party, from whom indeed he receives effectual service, arrives at mount st. michel, passes the river cosno (to which we have before alluded), and arrives at dol in brittany. parties are seen flying towards rennes. william and his followers attack dinant, of which the keys are delivered up, and the normans come peaceably to bayeux; william having previously, with his own hands, invested harold with a suit of armour. harold shortly returns to england, but not before a very important circumstance had taken place. william and harold had mutually entered into an agreement by which the latter had pledged himself to be true to william, to acknowledge him as edward's successor on the english throne, and to do all in his power to obtain for him the peaceable possession of that throne; and as harold was, the reigning monarch excepted, the first man in england, this promised support was of no trifling moment. william resolved therefore to have the oath repeated with all possible solemnity. his brother odo, the bishop of bayeux, assisted him in this matter. accordingly we see harold standing between two altars covered with cloth of gold, a hand on each, uttering the solemn adjuration, of which william, seated on his throne, is a delighted auditor; for he well knew that the oath was more fearful than harold was at all aware of. for "william sent for all the holy bodies thither, and put so many of them together as to fill a whole chest, and then covered them with a pall; but harold neither saw them, nor knew of their being there, for nought was shown or told to him about it; and over all was a phylactery, the best that he could select. when harold placed his hand upon it, the hand trembled and the flesh quivered; but he swore, and promised upon his oath, to take ele to wife, and to deliver up england to the duke; and thereunto to do all in his power, according to his might and wit, after the death of edward, if he should live, so help him god and the holy relics there! (meaning the gospels, for he had none idea of any other). many cried 'god grant it!' and when harold had kissed the saints, and had risen upon his feet, the duke led him up to the chest, and made him stand near it; and took off the chest the pall that had covered it, and showed harold upon what holy relics he had sworn, and he was sorely alarmed at the sight." footnotes: [ ] archæologia, vol. xvii. [ ] biblio. tour, vol. i., . [ ] archæol. vols. xviii., xix. [ ] one writer, bolton corney, esq., maintains that this work was provided at the expense of the chapter of bayeux, under their superintendence, and from their designs. "if it had not (says he) been devised within the precincts of a church it could not have escaped female influence: it could not have contained such indications of _celibatic_ superintendence. it is not without its domestic and festive scenes; and comprises, exclusive of the borders, about figures; but in this number there are only three females." [ ] henry iii., . [ ] archæol. vol. xix. [ ] the attempts to imitate the human figure were, at this period, stiff and rude: but arabesque patterns were now _chiefly_ worked; and they were rich and varied. [ ] henry iii., . [ ] fabyan's chron. [ ] rastell's chron. [ ] henry ii., . [ ] hist. chiv. [ ] archæol. and . [ ] master wace. roman de rou, &c., by taylor. [ ] archæologia, vol. xix. [ ] "her knees were like horn with constant kneeling." chapter ix. the bayeux tapestry.--part ii. "but bloody, bloody was the field, ere that lang day was done." hardyknute. "king william bithought him alsoe of that folke that was forlorne, and slayn also thoruz him in the bataile biforne. and ther as the bataile was, an abbey he lite rere of seint martin, for the soules that there slayn were. and the monkes well ynoug feffed without fayle, that is called in englonde abbey of bataile." immediately after the solemn ceremony described in the foregoing chapter, harold is depicted as returning to england and presenting himself before the king, edward the confessor. "but the day came that no man can escape, and king edward drew near to die." his deathbed and his funeral procession are both wrought in the tapestry, but by some accident have been transposed. his remains are borne in splendid procession to the magnificent house which he had builded (_i.e._ rebuilded), westminster abbey; over which, in the sky, a hand is seen to point as if in benediction. it is well known that the abbey was barely finished at the time of the pious monarch's death, and this circumstance is intimated in an intelligible though homely manner in the tapestry by a person occupied in placing a weathercock on the summit of the building. the first pageant seen within its walls was the funeral array of the monarch who so beautifully rebuilt and so amply endowed it. before the high altar, in a splendid shrine, where gems and jewelry flashed back the gleams of innumerable torches, and amid the solemn chant of the monks, whose "miserere" echoed through the vaulted aisles, interrupted but by the subdued wail of the mourners, or the emphatic benediction of the poor whose friend he had been, were laid the remains of him who was called the sainted edward; whose tomb was considered so hallowed a spot that the very stones around it were worn down by the knees of the pilgrims who resorted thither for prayer; and the very dust of whose shrine was carefully swept and collected, exported to the continent, and bought by devotees at a high price. we next see in the tapestry the crown _offered_ to harold (a circumstance to be peculiarly remarked, since thus depicted by his opponent's wife), and then harold shows right royally receiving the homage and gratulations of those around. but the next scene forbodes a change of fortune: "isti mirant stella," is the explanation wrought over it. for there appeared "a blasing starre, which was seene not onelie here in england, but also in other parts of the world, and continued the space of seven daies. this blasing starre might be a prediction of mischeefe imminent and hanging over harold's head; for they never appeare but as prognosticats of afterclaps." popular belief has generally invested these ill-omened bodies with peculiar terrors. "these blasing starres--dreadful to be seene, with bloudie haires, and all over rough and shagged at the top." they vary, however, in their appearance. sometimes they are pale, and glitter like a sword, without any rays or beams. such was the one which is said to have hung over jerusalem for near a year before its destruction, filling the minds of all who beheld it with awe and superstitious dread. a comet resembling a horn appeared when the "whole manhood of greece fought the battaile of salamis." comets foretold the war between cæsar and pompey, the murder of claudius, and the tyranny of nero. though _usually_, they were not _invariably_, considered as portents of evil omen: for the birth and accession of alexander, of mithridates, the birth of charles martel, and the accession of charlemagne, and the commencement of the tátár empire, were all notified by blazing stars. a very brilliant one which appeared for seven consecutive nights soon after the death of julius cæsar was supposed to be conveying the soul of the murdered dictator to olympus. an author who wrote on one which appeared in the reign of elizabeth was most anxious, as in duty bound, to apply the phenomenon to the queen. but here was the puzzle. "to have foretold calamities might have been misprision of treason; and the only precedent for saying anything good of a comet was to be drawn from that which occurred after the death of julius cæsar;" but it so happened that at this time elizabeth was by no means either ripe or willing for her apotheosis.[ ] comets, one author writes, "were made to the end the etherial regions might not be more void of monsters than the ocean is of whales and other great thieving fishes, and that a gross fatness being gathered together as excrements into an imposthume, the celestial air might thereby be purged, lest the sun should be obscured." another says, they "signifie corruption of the ayre. they are signes of earthquake, of warres, chaunging of kyngdomes, great dearth of corne, yea, a common death of man and beast." so a poet of the same age:-- "there with long bloody hair a blazing star threatens the world with famine, plague, and war; to princes death, to kingdoms many crosses, to all estates inevitable losses; to herdsmen rot, to plowmen hapless seasons, to sailors storms, to cities civil treasons." but a writer on comets in crowned all previous conjecture. "as if god and nature intended by comets to ring the knells of princes; esteeming the bells of churches upon earth not sacred enough for such illustrious and eminent performances." no wonder that the comet in harold's days was regarded with fearful misgivings. it did not, however, dismay him. duke william, as may be supposed, did not tamely submit to a usurpation of what he considered, or affected to consider, his own dominions--a circumstance which we see an envoy, probably from his party in england, makes him acquainted with. he holds a council, seemingly an earnest and animated one, which evidently results in the immediate preparation of a fleet; of which the tapestry delineates the various stages and circumstances, from the felling of the timber in its native woods to the launching of the vessels, stored and fully equipped in arms, provisions, and heroes for invasion and conquest. william in this expedition received unusual assistance from his own tributary chiefs, and from various other allies, who joined his standard, and without whom, indeed, he could not, with any chance of success, have made his daring attempt. a summer and autumn were spent in fitting-up the fleet and collecting the forces, "and there was no knight in the land, no good serjeant, archer, nor peasant of stout heart, and of age for battle, that the duke did not summon to go with him to england; promising rents to the vavassors, and honours to the barons." thus was an armament prepared of seven hundred ships, but the one which bore william, the hero of the expedition, shone proudly pre-eminent over the rest. it was the gift of his affectionate queen. it is represented in the canvas of larger size than the others: the mast, surmounted by a cross, bears the banner which was sent to william by the pope as a testimony of his blessing and approbation. on this mast also a beacon-light nightly blazed as a _point d'approche_ of the remainder of the fleet. on the poop was the figure of a boy (supposed to be meant for the conqueror's youngest son), gilded, and looking earnestly towards england, holding in one hand a banner, in the other an ivory horn, on which he is sounding a joyful reveillee. but long the fleet waited at st. valeri for a fair wind, until the barons became weary and dispirited. then they prayed the convent to bring out the shrine of st. valeri and set it on a carpet in the plain; and all came praying the holy relics that they might be allowed to pass over sea. they offered so much money, that the relics were buried beneath it; and from that day forth they had good weather and a fair wind. "than willyam thanked god and saynt valary, and toke shortly after shyppynge, and helde his course towarde englande." on the arrival of the fleet in england a banquet is prepared. the shape of the table at which william sits has been the theme of some curious remarks by father montfaucon, which have been copied by ducarel and others. it is in form of a half-moon, and was called by the romans _sigma_, from the greek +s+. it was calculated only for seven persons; and a facetious emperor once invited eight, on purpose to raise a laugh against the person for whom there would be no place. "a knight in that country (britain) heard the noise and cry made by the peasants and villains when they saw the great fleet arrive. he well knew that the normans were come, and that their object was to seize the land. he posted himself behind a hill, so that they should not see him, and tarried there watching the arrival of the great fleet. he saw the archers come forward from the ships, and the knights follow. he saw the carpenters with their axes, and the host of people and troops. he saw the men throw the materials for the fort out of the ships. he saw them build up and enclose the fort, and dig the fosse around it. he saw them land the shields and armour. and as he beheld all this his spirit was troubled; and he girt his sword and took his lance, saying he would go straightway to king harold and tell the news. forthwith he set out on his way, resting late and rising early; and thus he journeyed on by night and by day to seek harold his lord." and we see him in the tapestry speeding to his beloved master. meanwhile harold is not idle. but the fleet which, in expectation of his adversary's earlier arrival, he had stationed on the southern coast, had lately dispersed from want of provisions, and the king, occupied by the norwegian invasion, had not been able to reinstate it; and "william came against him (says the saxon chronicle) unawares ere his army was collected." thus the enemy found nor opposition nor hinderance in obtaining a footing in the island. taken at such disadvantage, harold did all that a brave man could do to repel his formidable adversary. the tapestry depicts, as well as may be expected, the battle. "the priests had watched all night, and besought and called upon god, and prayed to him in their chapels, which were fitted up throughout the host. they offered and vowed fasts, penances, and orisons; they said psalms and misereres, litanies and kyriels; they cried on god, and for his mercy, and said paternosters and masses; some the spiritus domini, others salus populi, and many salve sancte parens, being suited to the season, as belonging to that day, which was saturday. "and now, behold! that battle was gathered whereof the fame is yet mighty. "then taillefer, who sang right well, rode, mounted on a swift horse, before the duke. "loud and far resounded the bray of the horns, and the shocks of the lances, the mighty strokes of clubs, and the quick clashing of swords. one while the englishmen rushed on, another while they fell back; one while the men from over sea charged onwards, and again at other times retreated. when the english fall, the normans shout. each side taunts and defies the other, yet neither knoweth what the other saith; and the normans say the english bark, because they understand not their speech. "some wax strong, others weak; the brave exult, but the cowards tremble, as men who are sore dismayed. the normans press on the assault, and the english defend their post well; they pierce the hauberks and cleave the shields; receive and return mighty blows. again some press forwards, others yield, and thus in various ways the struggle proceeds." the death of harold's two brothers is depicted, and, finally, his own. it is said that his mother offered the weight of the body in gold to have the melancholy satisfaction of interring it, and that the conqueror refused the boon. but other writers affirm, and apparently with truth, that william immediately transmitted the body, unransomed, to the bereaved parent, who had it interred in the monastery of waltham. with the death of harold the tapestry now ends, though some writers think it probable that it once extended as far as the coronation of william. there can be little doubt of its having been intended to extend so far, though it is impossible now to ascertain whether the queen was ever enabled quite to complete her herculean task. enough there is, however, to stamp it as one of the "most noble and interesting relics of antiquity;" and, as dibdin calls it, "an exceedingly curious document of the conjugal attachment, and even enthusiastic veneration of matilda, and a political record of more weight than may at first sight appear to belong to it." taking it altogether, he adds, "none but itself could be its parallel." almost all historians describe the normans as advancing to the onset "singing the song of roland," that is, a detail of the achievements of the slaughtered hero of roncesvalles, which is well known to have been, for ages after the event to which it refers, a note of magical inspiration to deeds of "derring do". on this occasion it is recorded that the spirit note was sung by the minstrel taillefer, who was, however, little contented to lead his countrymen by voice alone. it is not possible that our readers can be otherwise than pleased with the following animated account of his deeds:[ ]-- the onset of taillefer "foremost in the bands of france, arm'd with hauberk and with lance, and helmet glittering in the air, as if a warrior-knight he were, rushed forth the minstrel taillefer-- borne on his courser swift and strong, he gaily bounded o'er the plain, and raised the heart-inspiring song (loud echoed by the warlike throng) of roland and of charlemagne, of oliver, brave peer of old, untaught to fly, unknown to yield, and many a knight and vassal bold, whose hallowed blood, in crimson flood, dyed roncesvalles' field. "harold's host he soon descried, clustering on the hill's steep side: then turned him back brave taillefer, and thus to william urged his prayer: 'great sire, it fits me not to tell how long i've served you, or how well; yet if reward my lays may claim, grant now the boon i dare to name; minstrel no more, be mine the blow that first shall strike yon perjured foe.' 'thy suit is gained,' the duke replied, 'our gallant minstrel be our guide.' 'enough,' he cried, 'with joy i speed, foremost to vanquish or to bleed.' "and still of roland's deeds he sung, while norman shouts responsive rung, as high in air his lance he flung, with well directed might; back came the lance into his hand, like urchin's ball, or juggler's wand, and twice again, at his command, whirled its unerring flight.-- while doubting whether skill or charm had thus inspired the minstrel's arm, the saxons saw the wondrous dart fixed in their standard bearer's heart. "now thrice aloft his sword he threw, 'midst sparkling sunbeams dancing, and downward thrice the weapon flew, like meteor o'er the evening dew, from summer sky swift glancing: and while amazement gasped for breath, another saxon groaned in death. "more wonders yet!--on signal made, with mane erect, and eye-balls flashing, the well taught courser rears his head, his teeth in ravenous fury gnashing; he snorts--he foams--and upward springs-- plunging he fastens on the foe, and down his writhing victim flings, crushed by the wily minstrel's blow. thus seems it to the hostile band enchantment all, and fairy land. "fain would i leave the rest unsung:-- the saxon ranks, to madness stung, headlong rushed with frenzied start, hurling javelin, mace, and dart; no shelter from the iron shower sought taillefer in that sad hour; yet still he beckoned to the field, 'frenchman, come on--the saxons yield-- strike quick--strike home--in roland's name-- for william's glory--harold's shame.' then pierced with wounds, stretched side by side, the minstrel and his courser died." we have dwelt on the details of the tapestry with a prolixity which some may deem tedious. yet surely the subject is worthy of it; for, in the first place, it is the oldest piece of needlework in the world--the only piece of that era now existing; and this circumstance in itself suggests many interesting ideas, on which, did our space permit, we could readily dilate. ages have rolled away; and the fair hands that wrought this work have mouldered away into dust; and the gentle and affectionate spirit that suggested this elaborate memorial has long since passed from the scene which it adorned and dignified. in no long period after the battle thus commemorated, an abbey, consecrated to praise and prayer, raised its stately walls on the very field that was ploughed with the strife and watered with the blood of fierce and evil men. the air that erst rang with the sounds of wrath, of strife, of warfare, the clangour of armour, the din of war, was now made musical with the chorus of praise, or was gently stirred by the breath of prayer or the sigh of penitence; and where contending hosts were marshalled in proud array, or the phalanx rushed impetuous to the battle, were seen the stoled monks in solemn procession, or the holy brother peacefully wending on his errand of charity. but the grey and time-honoured walls waxed aged as they beheld generation after generation consigned to dust beneath their shelter. time and change have done their worst. a few scattered ruins, seen dimly through the mist of years, are all that remain to point to the inquiring wanderer the site of the stupendous struggle of which the results are felt even after the expiration of eight hundred years. these may be deemed trite reflections: still it is worthy of remark, that many of the turbulent spirits who then made earth echo with their fame would have been literally and altogether as though they never had been--for historians make little or no mention of them--were it not for the lasting monument raised to them in this tapestry by woman's industry and skill. matilda the queen's character is pictured in high terms by both english and norman historians. "so very stern was her husband, and hot, that no man durst do anything against his will. he had earls in his custody who acted against his will. bishops he hurled from their bishoprics, and abbots from their abbacies, and thanes into prison;" yet it is recorded that even his iron temper was not proof against the good sense, the gentleness, the piety, and the affection of a wife who never offended him but once; and on this occasion there was so much to palliate and excuse her fault, proceeding as it did from a mother's yearnings towards her eldest son when he was in disgrace and sorrow, that the usually unyielding king forgave her immediately. she lived beloved, and she died lamented; and, from the time of her death, the king, says william of malmsbury, "refrained from every gratification." independently of the value of this tapestry as an historical authority, and its interest as being projected, and in part executed, by a lady as excellent in character as she was noble in rank, and its high estimation as the oldest piece of needlework extant--independently of all these circumstances, it is impossible to study this memorial closely, "rude and skilless" as it at first appears, without becoming deeply interested in the task. the outline engravings of it in the "tapisseries anciennes historiées" are beautifully executed, but are inferior in interest to mr. stothart's (published by the society of antiquarians), because these have the advantage of being coloured accurately from the original. in the study of these plates alone, days and weeks glided away, nor left us weary of our task. footnotes: [ ] the comet of carried dismay and horror in its course. not only mighty monarchs, but the humblest private individuals seem to have considered the sign as sent to them, and to have set a double guard on all their actions. thus sir symonds d'ewes, the learned antiquary, having been in danger of an untimely end by entangling himself among some bell-ropes, makes a memorandum in his private diary never more to exercise himself in bell-ringing when there is a comet in the sky.--aikin. [ ] by thomas amyot, esq., f.s.a.--archæol., vol. xix chapter x. needlework of the times of romance and chivalry. "as ladies wont to finger the fine needle and nyse thread." faerie queene. though, during bygone ages, the fingers of the fair and noble were often sedulously employed in the decoration and embellishment of the church, and of its ministers, they were by no means universally so. marvellous indeed in quantity, as well as quality, must have been the stitchery done in those industrious days, for the "fine needle and nyse thread" were not merely visible but conspicuous in every department of life. if, happily, there were not proof to the contrary, we might be apt to imagine that the women of those days came into the world _only_ "to ply the distaff, broider, card, and sew." that this was not the case we, however, well know; but before we turn to those embroideries which are more especially the subject of this chapter, we will transcribe, from a recent work,[ ] an interesting detail of the household responsibilities of the mistress of a family in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. "while to play on the harp and citole (a species of lute), to execute various kinds of the most costly and delicate needle-work, and in some instances to 'pourtraye,' were, in addition to more literary pursuits, the accomplishments of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the functions which the mistress of an extensive household was expected to fulfil were never lost sight of. "few readers are aware of the various qualifications requisite to form the 'good housewife' during the middle ages. in the present day, when household articles of every kind are obtainable in any country town, and, with few exceptions, throughout the year, we can know little of the judgment, the forethought, and the nice calculation which were required in the mistress of a household consisting probably of three-score, or even more persons, and who, in the autumn, had to provide almost a twelvemonth's stores. there was the fire-wood, the rushes to strew the rooms, the malt, the oatmeal, the honey (at this period the substitute for sugar), the salt (only sold in large quantities), and, if in the country, the wheat and the barley for the bread--all to be provided and stored away. the greater part of the meat used for the winter's provision was killed and salted down at martinmas; and the mistress had to provide the necessary stock for the winter and spring consumption, together with the stockfish and 'baconed herrings' for lent. then at the annual fair, the only opportunity was afforded for purchasing those more especial articles of housewifery which the careful housewife never omitted buying--the ginger, nutmegs, and cinnamon, for the christmas posset, and sheer-monday furmety; the currants and almonds for the twelfth-night cake (an observance which dates almost as far back as the conquest); the figs, with which our forefathers always celebrated palm-sunday; and the pepper, the saffron, and the cummin, so highly prized in ancient cookery. all these articles bore high prices, and therefore it was with great consideration and care that they were bought. "but the task of providing raiment for the family also devolved upon the mistress, and there were no dealers save for the richer articles of wearing apparel to be found. the wool that formed the chief clothing was the produce of the flock, or purchased in a raw state; and was carded, spun, and in some instances woven at home. flax, also, was often spun for the coarser kinds of linen, and occasionally woven. thus, the mistress of a household had most important duties to fulfil, for on her wise and prudent management depended not merely the comfort, but the actual well-being of her extensive household. if the winter's stores were insufficient, there were no markets from whence an additional supply could be obtained; and the lord of wide estates and numerous manors might be reduced to the most annoying privations through the mismanagement of the mistress of the family." the "costly and delicate needle-work" is here, as elsewhere, passed over with merely a mention. it is, naturally, too insignificant a subject to task the attention of those whose energies are devoted to describing the warfare and welfare of kingdoms and thrones. thus did we look only to professed historians, though enough exists in their pages to evidence the existence of such productions as those which form the subject of our chapter, our evidence would be meagre indeed as to the minuter details: but as the "novel" now describes those minutiæ of every day life which we should think it ridiculous to look for in the writings of the politician or historian, so the romances of the days of chivalry present us with descriptions which, if they be somewhat redundant in ornament, are still correct in groundwork; and the details gathered from romances have in, it may be, unimportant circumstances, that accidental corroboration from history which fairly stamps their faithfulness in more important particulars: and it has been shown, says the author of 'godefridus,' by learned men, in the memoirs of the french academy of inscriptions, that they may be used in common with history, and as of equal authority whenever an inquiry takes place respecting the _spirit and manners of the ages_ in which they were composed. but we are writing a dissertation on romance instead of describing the "clodes ryche," to which we must now proceed. so highly was a facility in the use of the needle prized in these "ould ancient times," that a wandering damsel is not merely _tolerated_ but _cherished_ in a family in which she is a perfect stranger, solely from her skill in this much-loved art. after being exposed in an open boat, emare was rescued by syr kadore, remained in his castle, and there-- "she tawghte hem to _sewe_ and _marke_ all _maner of sylkyn werke_, of her they wer ful fayne."[ ] syr kadore says of her-- "she ys the konnyngest wommon, i trowe, that be yn crystendom, of _werk_ that y have sene." and again describing her-- "she _sewed sylke_ werk yn bour." this same accomplished and luckless lady had, princess though she was, every advantage of early tuition in this notable art, having been sent in her childhood to a lady called abro, who not only taught her "curtesye and thewe" (virtue and good manners), but also "golde and sylke for to sewe, amonge maydenes moo:" evidently an old dame's school; where, however, we may infer from the arrangement of the accomplishments taught, and the special mention of needlework, that the extra expense would be for the _sewing_; whereas, in our time and country (or county), the routine has been, "reding and soing, three-pence a week: a peny extra for manners." this expensive and troublesome acquirement--the art of sewing in "golde and silke"--was of general adoption: gorgeous must have been the appearance of the damsels and knights of those days, when their "----clothys wyth bestes & byrdes wer _bete_,[ ] all abowte for pryde." "by that light amadis saw his lady, and she appeared more beautiful than man could fancy woman could be. she had on a robe of _indian silk, thickly wrought with flowers of gold_; her hair was so beautiful that it was a wonder, and she had covered it only with a garland."[ ] "now when the fair grasinda heard of the coming of the fleet, and of all that had befallen, she made ready to receive oriana, whom of all persons in the world she most desired to see, because of her great renown that was everywhere spread abroad. she therefore wished to appear before her like a lady of such rank and such wealth as indeed she was: the robe which she put on was adorned with _roses of gold, wrought with marvellous skill, and bordered with pearls and precious stones_ of exceeding value."[ ] "his fine, soft garments, wove with cunning skill, all over, ease and wantonness declare; these with her hand, such subtle toil well taught, for him, in silk and gold, alcina wrought."[ ] "mayde elene, al so tyte. in a robe of samyte,[ ] anoon sche gan her tyre, to do lybeau's profyte in kevechers whyt, arayde wyth golde wyre. a velvwet mantyll gay, pelored[ ] wyth grys and gray sche caste abowte her swyre; a sercle upon her molde, of stones and of golde, the best yn that empyre."[ ] we read perpetually of "kercheves well schyre,[ ] "arayde wyth ryche gold wyre." but the labours of those days were not confined to merely good-appearing garments: the skill of the needlewoman--for doubtless it was solely attributable to that--could imbue them with a value far beyond that of mere outward garnish. "she seyde, syr knight, gentyl and hende,[ ] i wot thy stat, ord, and ende, be naught aschamed of me; if thou wylt truly to me take, and alle wemen for me forsake ryche i wyll make the. i wyll the geve an alner,[ ] imad of sylk and of gold cler, wyth fayr ymages thre; as oft thou puttest the hond therinne a mark of gold thou schalt wynne, in wat place that thou be."[ ] but infinitely more marvellous is the following:--"king lisuarte was so content with the tidings of amadis and galaor, which the dwarf had brought him, that he determined to hold the most honourable court that ever had been held in great britain. presently three knights came through the gate, two of them armed at all points, the third unarmed, of good stature and well proportioned, his hair grey, but of a green and comely old age. he held in his hand a coffer; and, having inquired which was the king, dismounted from his palfrey and kneeled before him, saying, 'god preserve you, sir! for you have made the noblest promise that ever king did, if you hold it.' 'what promise was that?' quoth lisuarte. 'to maintain chivalry in its highest honour and degree: few princes now-a-days labour to that end; therefore are you to be commended above all other.' 'certes, knight, that promise shall hold while i live.' 'god grant you life to complete it!' quoth the old man: 'and because you have summoned a great court to london, i have brought something here which becomes such a person, for such an occasion.' then he opened the coffer and took out a crown of gold, so curiously wrought and set with pearls and gems, that all were amazed at its beauty; and it well appeared that it was only fit for the brow of some mighty lord. 'is it not a work which the most cunning artists would wonder at?' said the old knight. lisuarte answered, 'in truth it is.' 'yet,' said the knight, 'it hath a virtue more to be esteemed than its rare work and richness: whatever king hath it on his head shall always increase his honour; this it did for him for whom it was made till the day of his death: since then no king hath worn it. i will give it you, sir, for one boon.'----'you also, lady,' said the knight, 'should purchase a rich mantle that i bring:' and he took from the coffer the richest and most beautiful mantle that ever was seen; for besides the pearls and precious stones with which it was beautified, there were figured on it all the birds and beasts in nature; so that it looked like a miracle. 'on my faith,' exclaimed the queen, 'this cloth can only have been made by that lord who can do everything.' 'it is the work of man,' said the old knight; 'but rarely will one be found to make its fellow: it should belong to wife rather than maiden, for she that weareth it _shall never have dispute with her husband_.' britna answered, 'if that be true, it is above all price; i will give you for it whatsoever you ask.' and lisuarte bade him demand what he would for the mantle and crown."[ ] but the robe which occupied the busy fingers of the saracen king's daughter for seven long years, and of which the jewelled ornaments inwrought in it--as was then very usual--were sought far and wide, has often been referred to (albeit wanting in fairy gifts) as a crowning proof of female industry and talent. we give the full description from the romance of 'emare,' in ritson's collection:-- "sone aftur yu a whyle, the ryche kynge of cesyle to the emperour gaun wende, a ryche present wyth hym he browght, a cloth that was wordylye wroght, he wellcomed hym at the hende.[ ] "syr tergaunte, that nobyll knyghte hyghte, he presented the emperour ryght, and sette hym on hys kne, wyth that cloth rychyly dyght. full of stones ther hit was pyght, at thykke as hit myght be, off topaze and rubyes, and other stones of myche prys, that semely wer to se, of crapowtes and nakette, as thykke ar they sette for sothe as y say the. "the cloth was displayed sone, the emperoer lokede therupone, and myght hyt not se, for glysteryng of the ryche ston redy syght had he non, and sayde, how may thys be? the emperour sayde on hygh, sertes thys ys a fayry, or ellys a vanyte. the kyng of cysyle answered than, so ryche a jewell ys ther non in all crystyante. "the amerayle[ ] dowghter of hethennes made this cloth withouten lees, and wrowghte hit all with pride, and purtreyed hyt with gret honour, wyth ryche golde and asowr,[ ] and stones on ylke a side; and, as the story telles in honde, the stones that yn this cloth stonde sowghte they wer full wyde. seven wynter hit was yn makynge, or hit was browght to endynge, in herte ys not to hyde. "in that on korner made was idoyne and amadas, with love that was so trewe, for they loveden hem wit honour, portrayed they wer with trewe-love flour, of stones bryght of hewe, wyth carbankull and safere, kasydonys and onyx so clere, sette in golde newe, deamondes and rubyes, and other stones of mychyll pryse, and menstrellys with her gle. "in that other korner was dyght, trystram and isowde so bryght, that semely wer to se, and for they loved hem ryght, as full of stones ar they dyght, as thykke as they may be, of topase and of rubyes, and other stones of myche pryse, that semely wer to se, with crapawtes and nakette, thykke of stones ar they sette, for sothe as y say the. "in the thyrdde korner, with gret honour, was florys and dame blawncheflour, as love was hem betwene, for they loved wyth honour, purtrayed they wer with trewe-love-flower, with stones bryght and shene. ther wer knyghtes and senatowres, emerawdes of gret vertues, to wyte withouten wene, deamondes and koralle, perydotes and crystall, and gode garnettes bytwene. "in the fowrthe korner was oon of babylone the sowdan sonne, the amerayle's dowghter hym by, for hys sake the cloth was wrowght, she loved hym in hert and thowght, as testy-moyeth thys storye. the fayr mayden her byforn was purtrayed an unykorn, with hys horn so hye, flowres and bryddes on ylke a syde, wyth stones that wer sowght wyde, stuffed wyth ymagerye. "when the cloth to ende was wrought, to the sowdan sone hit was browght, that semely was of syghte: 'my fadyr was a nobyll man, of the sowdan he hit wan, wyth maystrye and myghth; for gret love he yaf hyt me, i brynge hit the in specyalte, thys cloth ys rychely dyght.' he yaf hit the emperour, he receyved hit wyth gret honour, and thonkede hym fayr and ryght." we must not dismiss this subject without recording a species of mantle much celebrated in romance, and which must have tried the skill and patience of the fair votaries of the needle to the uttermost. we all have seen, perhaps we have some of us been foolish enough to manufacture, initials with hair, as tokens or souvenirs, or some other such fooleries. in our mothers' and grandmothers' days, when "fine marking" was the _sine quâ non_ of a good education, whole sets of linen were thus elaborately marked; and often have we marvelled when these tokens of grandmotherly skill and industry were displayed to our wondering and aching eyes. what then should we have thought of king ryence's mantle, of rich scarlet, bordered round with the beards of kings, sewed thereon full craftily by accomplished female hands. thus runs the anecdote in the 'morte arthur:'-- "came a messenger hastely from king ryence, of north wales, saying, that king ryence had discomfited and overcomen eleaven kings, and everiche of them did him homage, and that was thus: they gave him their beards cleane flayne off,--wherefore the messenger came for king arthur's beard, for king ryence had purfeled a mantell with king's beards, and there lacked for one a place of the mantell, wherefore he sent for his beard, or else he would enter into his lands, and brenn and slay, and never leave till he have thy head and thy beard. 'well,' said king arther, 'thou hast said thy message, which is the most villainous and lewdest message that ever man heard sent to a king. also thou mayest see my beard is full young yet for to make a purfell of; but tell thou the king that--or it be long--he shall do to _me_ homage on both his knees, or else he shall leese his head.'" in queen elizabeth's day, when they were beginning to skim the cream of the ponderous tomes of former times into those elaborate ditties from which the more modern ballad takes its rise, this incident was put into rhyme, and was sung before her majesty at the grand entertainment at kenilworth castle, , thus:-- "as it fell out on a pentecost day, king arthur at camelot kept his court royall, with his faire queene dame guenever the gay, and many bold barons sitting in hall; with ladies attired in purple and pall; and heraults in hewkes,[ ] hooting on high, cryed, _largesse, largesse, chevaliers tres hardie_. "a doughty dwarfe to the uppermost deas right pertlye gan pricke, kneeling on knee; with steven[ ] fulle stoute amids all the preas, sayd, nowe sir king arthur, god save thee, and see! sir ryence of northgales greeteth well thee, and bids thee thy beard anon to him send, or else from thy jaws he will it off rend. "for his robe of state is a rich scarlet mantle, with eleven kings beards bordered about, and there is room lefte yet in a kantle,[ ] for thine to stande, to make the twelfth out: this must be done, be thou never so stout; this must be done, i tell thee no fable, maugre the teethe of all thy rounde table. "when this mortal message from his mouthe past, great was the noyse bothe in hall and in bower, the king fum'd; the queen screecht; ladies were aghast; princes puff'd; barons blustered; lords began lower; knights stormed; squires startled, like steeds in a stower; pages and yeomen yell'd out in the hall; then in came sir kay, the king's seneschal. "silence, my soveraignes, quoth this courteous knight, and in that stound the stowre began still: then the dwarfe's dinner full deerely was dight; of wine and wassel he had his wille: and when he had eaten and drunken his fill, an hundred pieces of fine coyned gold were given this dwarfe for his message bold. "but say to sir ryence, thou dwarfe, quoth the king, that for his bold message i do him defye; and shortly with basins and pans will him ring out of north gales; where he and i with swords, and not razors, quickly shall trye whether he or king arthur will prove the best barbor: and therewith he shook his good sword excalábor." drayton thus alludes to the same circumstance:-- "then told they, how himselfe great arthur did advance, to meet (with his allies) that puissant force in france, by lucius thither led; those armies that while ere affrighted all the world, by him strooke dead with feare: th' report of his great acts that over europe ran, in that most famous field he with the emperor wan: as how great rython's selfe hee slew in his repaire, who ravisht howell's neece, young helena the faire; and for a trophy brought the giant's coat away, made of the beards of kings."[ ]---- and spenser is too uncourteous in his adoption of the incident; for he not only levels tolls on the gentlemen's beards, but even on the flowing and golden locks of the gentle sex:-- "not farre from hence, upon yond rocky hill, hard by a streight there stands a castle strong, which doth observe a custom lewd and ill, and it hath long mayntaind with mighty wrong: for may no knight nor lady passe along that way, (and yet they needs must passe that way, by reason of the streight, and rocks among,) but they that ladies locks doe shave away, and that knight's berd for toll, which they for passage pay. "a shamefull use, as ever i did heare, said calidore, and to be overthrowne. but by what means did they at first it reare, and for what cause, tell, if thou have it knowne. sayd then that squire: the lady which doth owne this castle is by name briana hight; then which a prouder lady liveth none; she long time hath deare lov'd a doughty knight, and sought to win his love by all the meanes she might. "his name is crudor, who through high disdaine and proud despight of his selfe-pleasing mynd, refused hath to yeeld her love againe, untill a mantle she for him doe fynd, with beards of knights and locks of ladies lynd, which to provide, she hath this castle dight, and therein hath a seneschall assynd, cald maleffort, a man of mickle might, who executes her wicked will, with worse despight."[ ] "to pluck the beard" of another has ever been held the highest possible sign of scorn and contumely; but it was certainly a refinement on the matter, for which we are indebted to the morte arthur, or rather probably, according to bishop percy, to geoffrey of monmouth's history originally, for the unique and ornamental purpose to which these despoiled locks were applied. so particularly anxious was charlemagne to shew this despite to an enemy that, as we read in huon de bordeaux, he despatched no less than fifteen successive messengers from france to babylon to pull the beard of admiral gaudisse. and this, by no means pleasant operation, was to be accompanied by one even still less inviting. "alors le duc naymes, & tres tous les barons, s'en retournèrent au palais avec le roy, lequel s'assist sur un banc doré de fin or, & les barons tous autour de luy. si commanda qu'on luy amenast huon, lequel il vint, et se mist à genoux devant le roy, ou luy priant moult humblement que pitié & mercy voulsist avoir de luy. alors le roy le voyant en sa presence luy dist: huon puisque vers moy veux estre accordé, si convient que faciez ce que je vous or donneray. sire, ce dist huon, pour obeir à vous, il n'est aujourd'huy chose en ce monde mortel, que corps humain puisse porter, que hardiment n'osasse entreprendre, ne ia pour peur de mort ne le laisseray à faire, & fust à aller jusques à l'arbre sec, voire jusques aux portaux d'enfer combattre aux infernaux, comme fist le fort hercule: avant qu'à vous ne fusse accordé. huon, ce dist charles, je cuide qu'en pire lieu vous envoyeray, car, de quinze messages qui de par moy y ont este envoyez, n'en est par revenu un seul homme. si te diray ou tu iras, puis que tu veux qui de toy aye mercy, m'a volonté est, qu'il te convient aller en la cité de babylonne, par devers diray, & gardes que sur ta vie ne face faute, quand là seras venu tu monteras en son palais, là ou tu attendras l'heure de son disner & que tu le verras assis à table. si convient que tu sois armé de toutes armes, l'espee nuë au poing, par tel si que le premier & le plus grand baron que tu verras manger à sa table tu luy trencheras le chef quel qu'il soit, soit roy, ou admiral. et apres ce te convient tant faire que la belle esclarmonde fille à l'amiral gaudisse tu fiances, & la baises trois fois en la presence de son pere, & de tous sous qui la seront presens, car je veux que tu sçaches que c'est la plus belle pucelle qu'aujourd'huy soit en vie, puis apres diras de par moy à l'admiral qu'il m'envoye mille espreuiers, mille ours, mille viautres, tous enchainez, & mille jeune valets, & mille des plus belles pucelles de son royaume, & avecques ce, convient _que tu me rapportes une poignee de sa barbe, et quatre de ses dents machoires_. ha! sire, dirent les barons, bien desirez sa mort, quant de tel message faire luy enchargez, vous dites la verité ce dit le roy, car si tant ne fait que j'aye la barbe & les dents machoires sans aucune tromperie ne mensonge, jamais ne retourne en france, ne devant moi ne se monstre. car je le ferois pendre & trainer. sire, ce dit huon, m'avez vous dit & racompté tout ce que voulez que je face. oui dist le roy charles ma volonté est telle, si vers moy veux avoir paix. sire ce dit huon, au plaisir de nostre seigneur, je feray & fourniray vostre message." in what precise way the beards were sewed on the mantles we are not exactly informed. whether this royal exuberance was left to shine in its own unborrowed lustre, its own naked magnificence, as too valuable to be intermixed with the grosser things of earth: whether it was thinly scattered over the surface of the "rich scarlet;" or whether it was gathered into locks, perhaps gemmed round with orient pearl, or clustered together with brilliant emeralds, sparkling diamonds, or rich rubies--"sweets to the sweet:" whether it was exposed to the vulgar gaze on the mantle, or whether it was so arranged that only at the pleasure of the mighty wearer its radiant beauties were visible:--on all these deeply interesting particulars we should rejoice in having any information; but, alas! excepting what we have recorded, not one circumstance respecting them has "floated down the tide of years." but we may perhaps form a correct idea of them from viewing a shield of human hair in the museum of the united service club, which may be supposed to have been _compiled_ (so to speak) with the same benevolent feelings as that of the heroes to whom we have been alluding. it is from borneo island, and is formed of locks of hair placed at regular intervals on a ground of thin tough wood: a refined and elegant mode of displaying the scalps of slaughtered foes. these coincidences are curious, and may serve at any rate to show that king ryence's mantle was not the _invention_ of the penman; but, in all probability, actually existed. the ladies of these days did not confine their handiwork merely to the adornment of the person. we have seen that among the egyptians the couches that at night were beds were in the daytime adorned with richly wrought coverlets. so amongst the classical nations "------the menial fair that round her wait, at helen's beck prepare the room of state; beneath an ample portico they spread the downy fleece to form the slumberous bed; and o'er soft palls of purple grain, unfold _rich tapestry, stiff with inwoven gold_." and during the middle ages the beds, not excluded from the day apartments, often gave gorgeous testimony of the skill of the needlewoman, and were among the richest ornaments of the sitting room, so much fancy and expense were lavished on them. the curtains were often made of very rich material, and usually adorned with embroidery. they were often also trimmed with expensive furs: philippa of hainault had a bed on which sea-syrens were embroidered. the coverlid was often very rich: "the ladi lay in hire bed, with riche clothes bespred, of gold and purpre palle."[ ] "here beds are seen adorned with silk and gold."[ ] "------on a bed design'd with gay magnificence the fair reclin'd; high o'er her head, on silver columns rais'd, with broidering gems her proud pavilion blaz'd." "thence pass'd into a bow'r, where stood a bed, with milkwhite furs of alexandria spread: beneath, a richly broider'd vallance hung; the pillows were of silk; o'er all was flung a rare wrought coverlet of phoenix plumes, which breathed, as warm with life, its rich perfumes."[ ] the array of the knights of these days was gorgeous and beautiful; and though the materials might be in themselves, and frequently were costly, still were they entirely indebted to the female hand for the rich elegance of the _tout ensemble_. and the custom of disarming and robing knights anew after the conflict, whether of real or mimic war, to which we have alluded as a practice of classical antiquity, was as much or even more practised now, and afforded to the ladies an admirable opportunity of exhibiting alike their preference, their taste, and their liberality. "amadis and agrayes proceeded till they came to the castle of torin, the dwelling of that fair young damsel, where they were disarmed and mantles given them, and they were conducted into the hall."[ ] "thus they arrived at the palace, and there was he (the green sword knight) lodged in a rich chamber, and was disarmed, and his hands and face washed from the dust, and they gave him a rose-coloured mantle."[ ] the romance of "ywaine and gawin" abounds in instances: "a damisel come unto me, the semeliest that ever i se, lufsumer lifed never in land, hendly scho toke me by the hand, and sone that gentyl creature al unlaced myne armure; into a chamber scho me led, and with a mantil scho me cled; it was of purpur, fair and fine; and the pane of ermyne." again-- "the maiden redies hyr fal rath,[ ] bilive sho gert syr ywaine bath, and cled him sethin[ ] in gude scarlet, forord wele with gold fret, a girdel ful riche for the nanes, of perry[ ] and of precious stanes." and-- "the mayden was bowsom and bayne[ ] forto unarme syr ywayne, serk and breke both sho hym broght, that ful craftily war wroght, of riche cloth soft als the sylk, and tharto white als any mylk. sho broght hym ful riche wedes to wer." on the widely acknowledged principle of "love me, love my dog," the steed of a favoured knight was often adorned by the willing fingers of the fair. "each damsel and each dame who her obeyed, she task'd, together with herself, to sew, with subtle toil; and with fine gold o'erlaid a piece of silk of white and sable hue: with this she trapt the horse."[ ] the tabards or surcoats which knights wore over their armour was the article of dress in which they most delighted to display their magnificence. they varied in form, but were mostly made of rich silk, or of cloth of gold or silver, lined or trimmed with choice and expensive furs, and usually, also, having the armorial bearings of the family richly embroidered. thus were women even the heralds of those times. besides the acknowledged armorial bearings, devices were often wrought symbolical of some circumstance in the life of the wearer. thus we are told in amadis that the emperor of rome, on his black surcoat, had a golden chain-work woven, which device he swore never to lay aside till he had amadis in chains. the same romance gives the following incident regarding a surcoat. "then amadis cried to florestan and agrayes, weeping as he spake, good kinsman, i fear we have lost don galaor, let us seek for him. they went to the spot where amadis had smitten down king cildadan, and seen his brother last on foot; but so many were the dead who lay there that they saw him not, till as they moved away the bodies, florestan knew him by the sleeve of his _surcoat_, which was of azure, worked with silver flowers, and then they made great moan over him." the shape of them, as we have remarked, varied considerably; besides minor alterations they were at one time worn very short, at another so long as to trail on the ground. but this luxurious style was occasionally attended with direful effects. froissart names a surcoat in which sir john chandos was attired, which was embroidered with his arms in white sarsnet, argent a field gules, one on his back and another on his breast. it was a long robe which swept the ground, and this circumstance, most probably, caused the untimely death of one of the most esteemed knights of chivalry. sir john chandos was one of the brightest of that chivalrous circle which sparkled in the reign of edward the third. he was gentle as well as valiant; he was in the van with the black prince at the battle of cressy; and at the battle of poictiers he never left his side. his death was unlooked for and sudden. some disappointments had depressed his spirits, and his attendants in vain endeavoured to cheer them. "and so he stode in a kechyn, warmyng him by the fyre, and his servantes jangled with hym, to {thentent} to bring him out of his melancholy; his servantes had prepared for hym a place to rest hym: than he demanded if it were nere day, and {therewith} there {came} a man into the house, and came before hym, and sayd, 'sir, i have brought you tidynges.' 'what be they, tell me?' 'sir, surely the {frenchmen} be rydinge abrode.' 'how knowest thou that?' 'sir,' sayd he, 'i departed fro saynt saluyn with them.' 'what way be they ryden?' 'sir, i can nat tell you the certentie, but surely they take the highway to poiters.' 'what {frenchmen} be they; canst thou tell me?' 'sir, it is sir loys of saynt julyan, and carlovet the breton.' 'well, quoth sir johan chandos, i care nat, i have no lyst this night to ryde forthe: they may happe to be {encountred} though i be nat ther.' "and so he taryed there styll a certayne space in a gret study, and at last, when he had well aduysed hymselfe, he sayde, 'whatsoever i have sayd here before, i trowe it be good that i ryde forthe; i must retourne to poictiers, and anone it will be day.' 'that is true sir,' quoth the knightes about hym. 'then,' he sayd, 'make redy, for i wyll ryde forthe.' "and so they dyd." the skirmish commenced; there had fallen a great dew in the morning, in consequence of which the ground was very slippery; the knight's foot slipped, and in trying to recover himself, it became entangled in the folds of his magnificent _surcoat_; thus the fall was rendered irretrievable, and whilst he was down he received his death blow. the barons and knights were sorely grieved. they "lamentably complayned, and sayd, 'a, sir johan chandos, the floure of all chivalry, vnhappely was that glayue forged that thus hath {wounded} you, and brought you in parell of dethe:' they wept piteously that were about hym, and he herde and vnderstode them well, but he could speke no worde."--"for his dethe, his frendes, and also some of his enemyes, were right soroufull; the englysshmen loued hym, bycause all noblenesse was founde in hym; the frenchmen hated him, because they doubted hym; yet i herde his dethe greatly complayned among right noble and valyant knightes of france[ ]." across this surcoat was worn the scarf, the indispensable appendage of a knight when fully equipped: it was usually the gift of his "ladye-love," and embroidered by her own fair hand. and a knight would encounter fifty deaths sooner than part with this cherished emblem. it is recorded of garcia perez de vargas, a noble-minded spanish knight of the thirteenth century, that he and a companion were once suddenly met by a party of seven moors. his friend fled: but not so perez; he at once prepared himself for the combat, and while keeping the moors at bay, who hardly seemed inclined to fight, he found that his scarf had fallen from his shoulder. "he look'd around, and saw the scarf, for still the moors were near, and they had pick'd it from the sward, and loop'd it on a spear. 'these moors,' quoth garci perez, 'uncourteous moors they be-- now, by my soul, the scarf they stole, yet durst not question me! "'now, reach once more my helmet.' the esquire said him, nay, 'for a silken string why should you fling, perchance, your life away?' 'i had it from my lady,' quoth garci, 'long ago, and never moor that scarf, be sure, in proud seville shall show.' "but when the moslems saw him, they stood in firm array: he rode among their armed throng, he rode right furiously. 'stand, stand, ye thieves and robbers, lay down my lady's pledge,' he cried, and ever as he cried, they felt his faulchion's edge. "that day when the lord of vargas came to the camp alone, the scarf, his lady's largess, around his breast was thrown: bare was his head, his sword was red, and from his pommel strung seven turbans green, sore hack'd i ween, before garci perez hung." it casts a redeeming trait on this butchering sort or bravery to find that when the hero returned to the camp he steadily refused to reveal the name of the person who had so cravenly deserted him. but the favours which ladies presented to a knight were various; consisting of "jewels, ensigns of noblesse, scarfs, hoods, sleeves, mantles, bracelets, knots of ribbon; in a word, some detached part of their dress." these he always placed conspicuously on his person, and defended, as he would have done his life. sometimes a lock of his fair one's hair inspired the hero: "than did he her heere unfolde, and on his helme it set on hye, with rede thredes of ryche golde, whiche he had of his lady. full richely his shelde was wrought, with asure stones and beten golde, but on his lady was his thought, the yelowe heere what he dyd beholde."[ ] it is recorded in "perceforest," that at the end of one tournament "the ladies were so stripped of their head attire, that the greatest part of them were quite bareheaded, and appeared with their hair spread over their shoulders yellower than the finest gold; their robes also were without sleeves; for all had been given to adorn the knights; hoods, cloaks, kerchiefs, stomachers, and mantuas. but when they beheld themselves in this woful plight, they were greatly abashed, till, perceiving every one was in the same condition, they joined in laughing at this adventure, and that they should have engaged with such vehemence in stripping themselves of their clothes from off their backs, as never to have perceived the loss of them." a sleeve (more easily detached than we should fancy those of the present day) was a very usual token. elayne, the faire mayden of astolat gave syr launcelot "a reed sleeve of scarlet wel embroudred with grete perlys," which he wore for a token on his helmet; and in real life it is recorded that in a serious, but not desperate battle, at the court of burgundy, in , one of the knights received from his lady a sleeve of delicate dove colour, elegantly embroidered; and he fastened this favour on his left arm. chevalier bayard being declared victor at the tournament of carignan, in piedmont, he refused, from extreme delicacy, to receive the reward assigned him, saying, "the honour he had gained was solely owing to the sleeve, which a lady had given him, adorned with a ruby worth a hundred ducats." the sleeve was brought back to the lady in the presence of her husband; who knowing the admirable character of the chevalier, conceived no jealousy on the occasion: "the ruby," said the lady, "shall be given to the knight who was the next in feats of arms to the chevalier; but since he does me so much honour as to ascribe his victory to my sleeve, for the love of him i will keep it all my life." another important adjunct to the equipment of a knight was the pennon; an ensign or streamer formed of silk, linen, or stuff, and fixed to the top of the lance. if the expedition of the soldier had for its object the holy land, the sacred emblem of the cross was embroidered on the pennon, otherwise it usually bore the owner's crest, or, like the surcoat, an emblematic allusion to some circumstance in the owner's life. thus, chaucer, in the "knighte's tale," describes that of duke theseus: "and by his banner borne is his _penon_ of gold ful riche, in which ther was ybete the minotaure which that he slew in crete." the account of the taking of hotspur's pennon, and his attempt at its recapture, is abridged by mr. mills[ ] from froissart. it is interesting, as displaying the temper of the times about these comparatively trifling matters, and being the record of history, may tend to justify our quotations of a similar nature from romance. "in the reign of richard the second, the scots commanded by james, earl of douglas, taking advantage of the troubles between the king and his parliament, poured upon the south. when they were sated with plunder and destruction they rested at newcastle, near the english force which the earl of northumberland and other border chieftains had hastily levied. "the earl's two sons were young and lusty knights, and ever foremost at the barriers to skirmish. many proper feats of arms were done and achieved. the fighting was hand to hand. the noblest encounter was that which occurred between the earl douglas and sir henry percy, surnamed hotspur. the scot won the pennon of his foeman; and in the triumph of his victory he proclaimed that he would carry it to scotland, and set it on high on his castle of dalkeith, that it might be seen afar off. "percy indignantly replied, that douglas should not pass the border without being met in a manner which would give him no cause for boasting. "with equal spirit the earl douglas invited him that night to his lodging to seek for his pennon. "the scots then retired and kept careful watch, lest the taunts of their leader should urge the englishmen to make an attack. percy's spirit burnt to efface his reproach, but he was counselled into calmness. "the scots then dislodged, seemingly resolved to return with all haste to their own country. but otterbourn arrested their steps. the castle resisted the assault; and the capture of it would have been of such little value to them that most of the scotch knights wished that the enterprise should be abandoned. "douglas commanded, however, that the assault should be persevered in, and he was entirely influenced by his chivalric feelings. he contended that the very difficulty of the enterprise was the reason of undertaking it; and he wished not to be too far from sir henry percy, lest that gallant knight should not be able to do his devoir in redeeming his pledge of winning the pennon of his arms again. "hotspur longed to follow douglas and redeem his badge of honour; but the sage knights of the country, and such as were well expert in arms, spoke against his opinion, and said to him, 'sir, there fortuneth in war oftentimes many losses. if the earl douglas has won your pennon, he bought it dear, for he came to the gate to seek it, and was well beaten: another day you shall win as much of him and more. sir, we say this because we know well that all the power of scotland is abroad in the fields; and if we issue forth and are not strong enough to fight with them (and perchance they have made this skirmish with us to draw us out of the town), they may soon enclose us, and do with us what they will. it is better to loose a pennon than two or three hundred knights and squires, and put all the country to adventure.'" by such words as these, hotspur and his brother were refrained, but the coveted moment came. "the hostile banners waved in the night breeze, and the bright moon, which had been more wont to look upon the loves than the wars of chivalry, lighted up the scottish camp. a battle ensued of as valiant a character as any recorded in the pages of history; for there was neither knight nor squire but what did his devoir and fought hand to hand." the scots remained masters of the field: but the douglas was slain, and this loss could not be recompensed even by the capture of the percy. little did the "gentle kate" anticipate this catastrophe when her fairy fingers with proud and loving alacrity embroidered on the flowing pennon the inspiring watchword of her chivalric husband and his noble family--esperance. footnotes: [ ] historical memoirs of queens of england.--h. lawrance. [ ] emare. [ ] _bete_--inlayed, embroidered. [ ] amadis of gaul, bk. i. ch. xv. [ ] ibid. bk. iv. ch. iii. [ ] orl. fur.: transl. by rose. [ ] _samyte_--rich silk. [ ] _pelored_--furred. [ ] lybeaus disconus. [ ] _schyre_--clear. [ ] _hende_--kind, obliging. [ ] _alner_--pouch, bag or purse. [ ] launfal. [ ] amadis of gaul, bk. i. ch. xxx. [ ] _hende_--kind, civil, obliging. [ ] saracen king. [ ] _asowr_--azure. [ ] _hewke_--herald's coat. [ ] _steven_--voice, sound [ ] _kantle_--a corner. [ ] drayton's polyolbion, song . [ ] faerie queene. book vi. [ ] the kyng of tars. [ ] orl. fur. [ ] partenopex of blois. [ ] amadis of gaul. [ ] ibid. [ ] _rath_--speedily. [ ] _sethin_--afterward. [ ] _perry_--jewels. [ ] _bayne_--ready. [ ] orl. fur., canto . [ ] froissart, by lord berners, vol. i. p. . [ ] the fair lady of faguell. [ ] hist. chivalry. chapter xi. tapestry. the term _tapestry_ or _tapistry_ (from _tapisser_, to line, from the latin word _tapes_, a cover of a wall or bed), is now appropriated solely to woven hangings of wool and silk; but it has been applied to all sorts of hangings, whether wrought entirely with the needle (as originally indeed all were) or in the loom, whether composed of canvass and wool, or of painted cloth, leather, or even paper. this wide application of the term seems to be justified by the derivation quoted above, but its present use is much more limited. in the thirteenth century the decorative arts had attained a high perfection in england. the palace of westminster received, under the fostering patronage of henry iii., a series of decorations, the remains of which, though long hidden, have recently excited the wonder and admiration of the curious.[ ] "near this monastery (says an ancient itinerary) stands the most famous royal palace of england; in which is that celebrated chamber, on whose walls all the warlike histories of the whole bible are painted with inexpressible skill, and explained by a regular and complete series of texts, beautifully written in french over each battle, to the no small admiration of the beholder, and the increase of royal magnificence." round the walls of st. stephen's chapel effigies of the apostles were painted in oil; (which was thus used with perfectness and skill two centuries before its presumed discovery by john ab eyck in ,) on the western side was a grand composition of the day of judgment: st. edward's or the "painted chamber," derived the latter name from the quality and profuseness of its embellishments, and the walls of the whole palace were decorated with portraits or ideal representations, and historical subjects. nor was this the earliest period in which connected passages of history were painted on the wainscot of apartments, for the following order, still extant, refers to the _renovation_ of what must previously--and at some considerable interval of time probably, have been done. "anno, , hen. . mandatum est vicecomiti south'ton quod cameram regis lambruscatam de castro winton depingi faciat eisdem historiis quibus fuerat pri'us depicta." about , langton, bishop of litchfield, commanded the coronation, marriages, wars, and funeral of his patron king edward i., to be painted in the great hall of his episcopal palace, which he had newly built. chaucer frequently refers to this custom of painting the walls with historical or fanciful designs. "and soth to faine my chambre was ful wel depainted---- and all the wals with colours fine were painted bothe texte and glose, and all the romaunt of the rose." and again:-- "but when i woke all was ypast, for ther nas lady ne creture, save on the wals old portraiture of horsemen, hawkis, and houndis, and hurt dere all ful of woundis." often emblematical devices were painted, which gave the artist opportunity to display his fancy and exercise his wit. dr. cullum, in his history of hawsted, gives an account of an old mansion, having a closet, the panels of which were painted with various sentences, emblems, and mottos. one of these, intended doubtless as a hint to female vanity, is a painter, who having begun to sketch out a female portrait, writes "dic mihi qualis eris." but comfort, or at least a degree of comfort, had progressed hand in hand with decoration. tapestry, that is to say needlework tapestry, which, like the bayeux tapestry of matilda, had been used solely for the decoration of altars, or the embellishment of other parts of sacred edifices on occasions of festival, or the performance of solemn rites, had been of much more general application amongst the luxurious inhabitants of the south, and was introduced into england as furniture hanging by eleanor of castile. in chaucer's time it was common. among his pilgrims to canterbury is a tapestry worker who is mentioned in the prologue, in common with other "professors." "an haberdasher and a carpenter, a webbe, a dyer, and a tapiser." and, again:-- "i wol give him all that falles to his chambre and to his halles, i will do painte him with pure golde, and _tapite_ hem ful many a folde." these modes of decorating the walls and chambers with paintings, and with tapestry, were indeed contemporaneous; though the greater difficulty of obtaining the latter--for as it was not made at arras until the fourteenth century, all that we here refer to is the painful product of the needle alone--many have made it less usual and common than the former. pithy sentences, and metrical stanzas were often wrought in tapestry: in wresil castle and other mansions, some of the apartments were adorned in the oriental manner with metrical descriptions called proverbs. and warton mentions an ancient suit of tapestry, containing ariosto's orlando, and angelica, where, at every group, the story was all along illustrated with short lines in provençal or old french. it could only be from its superior comfort that an article so tedious in manufacture as needlework tapestry could be preferred to the more quickly-produced decorations of the pencil; it was also rude in design; and the following description of some tapestry in an old manor house in king john's time, though taken from a work of fiction, probably presents a correct picture of the style of most of the pieces exhibited in the mansions of the middle ranks at that period. "in a corner of the apartment stood a bed, the tapestry of which was enwrought with gaudy colours representing adam and eve in the garden of eden. adam was presenting our first mother with a large yellow apple, gathered from a tree that scarcely reached his knee. beneath the tree was an angel milking, and although the winged milkman sat on a stool, yet his head overtopped both cow and tree, and nearly covered a horse, which seemed standing on the highest branches. to the left of eve appeared a church; and a dark robed gentleman holding something in his hand which looked like a pincushion, but doubtless was intended for a book: he seemed pointing to the holy edifice, as if reminding them that they were not yet married. on the ground lay the rib, out of which eve (who stood the head higher than adam) had been formed; both of them were very respectably clothed in the ancient saxon costume; even the angel wore breeches, which, being blue, contrasted well with his flaming red wings." no one who has read the real blunders of artists and existing anachronisms in pictures detailed in "percy anecdotes," will think the above sketch at all too highly coloured; though doubtless the tapestry hangings introduced by queen eleanor which would be imitated and caricatured in ten thousand different forms, were in much superior style. the moors had attained to the highest perfection in the decorative arts, and from them did the spaniards borrow this fashion of hangings,[ ] and "the coldness of our climate (says her accomplished biographer, miss agnes strickland, speaking of eleanor,) must have made it indispensable to the fair daughter of the south, chilled with the damp stone walls of english gothic halls and chambers." of the chillness of these walls we may form some idea, from a feeling description of a residence which was thought sufficient for a queen some centuries later. in the year , mary, the unhappy queen of scots, writes thus:-- "in regard to my lodging, my residence is a place inclosed with walls, situated on an eminence, and consequently exposed to all the winds and storms of heaven. within this inclosure there is, like as at vincennes, a very old hunting seat, built of wood and plaister, with chinks on all sides, with the uprights; the intervals between which are not properly filled up, and the plaister dilapidated in the various places. the house is about six yards distant from the walls, and so low that the terrace on the other side is as high as the house itself, so that neither the sun nor the fresh air can penetrate it at that side. the damp, however, is so great there, that every article of furniture is covered with mouldiness in the space of four days.--in a word, the rooms for the most part are fit rather for a dungeon for the lowest and most abject criminals, than for a residence of a person of my rank, or even of a much inferior condition. i have for my own accommodation only wretched little rooms, and so cold, that were it not for the protection of the curtains and tapestries which i have had put up, i could not endure it by day, and still less by night."[ ] the tapestries, whether wrought or woven, did not remain on the walls as do the hangings of modern days: it was the primitive office of the grooms of the chamber to hang up the tapestry which in a royal progress was sent forward with the purveyor and grooms of the chamber. and if these functionaries had not, to use a proverbial expression, "heads on their shoulders," ridiculous or perplexing blunders were not unlikely to arise. of the latter we have an instance recorded by the duc de sully. "the king (henry iv.) had not yet quitted monceaux, when the cardinal of florence, who had so great a hand in the treaty of the vervins, passed through paris, as he came back from picardy, and to return from thence to rome, after he had taken leave of his majesty. the king sent me to paris to receive him, commanding me to pay him all imaginable honours. he had need of a person near the pope, so powerful as this cardinal, who afterwards obtained the pontificate himself: i therefore omitted nothing that could answer his majesty's intentions; and the legate, having an inclination to see st. germain-en-laye, i sent orders to momier, the keeper of the castle, to hang the halls and chambers with the finest tapestry of the crown. momier executed my orders with great punctuality, but with so little judgment, that for the legate's chamber he chose a suit of hangings made by the queen of navarre; very rich, indeed, but which represented nothing but emblems and mottos against the pope and the roman court, as satirical as they were ingenious. the prelate endeavoured to prevail upon me to accept a place in the coach that was to carry him to st. germain, which i refused, being desirous of getting there before him, that i might see whether everything was in order; with which i was very well pleased. i saw the blunder of the keeper, and reformed it immediately. the legate would not have failed to look upon such a mistake as a formed design to insult him, and to have represented it as such to the pope. reflecting afterwards, that no difference in religion could authorise such sarcasms, i caused all those mottos to be effaced."[ ] in the sixteenth century[ ] a sort of hanging was introduced, which, partaking of the nature both of tapestry and painting on the walls, was a formidable rival to the former. shakspeare frequently alludes to these "painted cloths." for instance, when falstaff persuades hostess quickly, not only to withdraw her arrest, but also to make him a further loan: she says-- "by this heavenly ground i tread on, i must be fain to pawn both my plate and the _tapestry_ of my dining chambers!" falstaff answers-- "glasses, glasses is the only drinking, and for thy walls a pretty slight drollery, or the story of the prodigal, or a german hunting in water-work, is worth a thousand of these fly-bitten tapestries. let it be ten pounds if thou canst. if it were not for thy humours, there is not a better wench in england! go wash thy face and draw thy action." in another passage of the play he says that his troops are "as ragged as lazarus in the _painted cloth_." there are now at hampton court eight large pieces or hangings of this description; being "the triumphs of julius cæsar," in water-colours, on cloth, and in good preservation. they are by andrea mantegna, and were valued at _l._ at the time, when, by some strange circumstance, the cartoons of raphael were estimated only at _l._ tapestry was common in the east at a very remote era, when the most grotesque compositions and fantastic combinations were usually displayed on it. some authors suppose that the greeks took their ideas of griffins, centaurs, &c., from these tapestries, which, together with the art of making them, they derived from the east, and at first they closely imitated both the beauties and deformities of their patterns. at length their refined taste improved upon these originals; and the old grotesque combinations were confined to the borders of the hanging, the centre of which displayed a more regular and systematic representation. it has been supposed by some writers that the invention of tapestry, passed from the east into europe; but guicciardini ascribes it to the netherlanders; and assuredly the bayeux tapestry, the work of the conqueror's queen, shows that this art must have acquired much perfection in europe before the time of the crusades, which is the time assigned by many for its introduction there. probably guicciardini refers to woven tapestry, which was not practised until the article itself had become, from custom, a thing of necessity. unintermitting and arduous had been the stitchery practised in the creation of these coveted luxuries long, very long before the loom was taught to give relief to the busy finger. the first manufactories of tapestry of any note were those of flanders, established there long before they were attempted in france or england. the chief of these were at brussels, antwerp, oudenarde, lisle, tournay, bruges, and valenciennes. at brussels and antwerp they succeeded well both in the design and the execution of human figures and animals, and also in landscapes. at oudenarde the landscape was more imitated, and they did not succeed so well in the figure. the other manufactories, always excepting those of arras, were inferior to these. the grand era of general manufactories in france must be fixed in the reign of henry the iv. amongst others he especially devoted his attention to the manufacture of tapestry, and that of the gobelins, since so celebrated, was begun, though futilely, in his reign. his celebrated minister, sully, was entangled in these matters somewhat more than he himself approved. . "i laid, by his order, the foundations of the new edifices for his tapestry weavers, in the horse-market. his majesty sent for comans and la planche, from other countries, and gave them the care and superintendence of these manufactures: the new directors were not long before they made complaints, and disliked their situation, either because they did not find profits equal to their hopes and expectations, or, that having advanced considerable sums themselves, they saw no great probability of getting them in again. the king got rid of their importunity by referring them to me."[ ] . "it was a difficult matter to agree upon a price with these celebrated flemish tapestry workers, which we had brought into france at so great an expense. at length it was resolved in the presence of sillery and me, that a , _l._ should be given them for their establishment. henry was very solicitous about the payment of this sum; 'having,' said he, 'a great desire to keep them, and not to lose the advances we have made.' he would have been better pleased if these people could have been paid out of some other funds than those which he had reserved for himself: however, there was a necessity for satisfying them at any price whatever. his majesty made use of his authority to oblige de vienne to sign an acquittal to the undertakers for linen cloth in imitation of dutch holland. this prince ordered a complete set of furniture to be made for him, which he sent for me to examine separately, to know if they had not imposed upon him. _these things were not at all in my taste_, and i was but a very indifferent judge of them: the price seemed to me to be excessive, as well as the quantity. henry was of another opinion: after examining the work, and reading my paper, he wrote to me that there was not too much, and that they had not exceeded his orders; and that he had never seen so beautiful a piece of work before, and that the workman must be paid his demands immediately."[ ] the manufactory languished however, even if it did not become entirely extinct. but it was revived in the reign of louis xiv., and has since dispersed productions of unequalled delicacy over the civilised world. it was called "gobelins," because the house in the suburbs of paris, where the manufacture is carried on, was built by brothers whose names were giles and john gobelins, both excellent dyers, and who brought to paris in the reign of francis i. the secret of dying a beautiful scarlet colour, still known by their name. in the year this place, till then called "gobelines' folly," changed its name into that of "hotel royal des gobelins," in consequence of an edict of louis xiv. m. colbert having re-established, and with new magnificence enriched and completed the king's palaces, particularly the louvre and the tuilleries, began to think of making furniture suitable to the grandeur of those buildings; with this view he called together all the ablest workmen in the divers arts and manufactures throughout the kingdom; particularly painters, tapestry makers from flanders, sculptors, goldsmiths, ebonists, &c., and by liberal encouragement and splendid pensions called others from foreign nations. the king purchased the gobelins for them to work in, and laws and articles were drawn up, amongst which is one that no other tapestry work shall be imported from any other country. nor did there need; for the gobelins has ever since remained the first manufactory of this kind in the world. the quantity of the finest and noblest works that have been produced by it, and the number of the best workmen bred up therein are incredible; and the present flourishing condition of the arts and manufactures of france is, in great measure, owing thereto. tapestry work in particular is their glory. during the superintendence of m. colbert, and his successor m. de louvois, the making of tapestry is said to have been practised to the highest degree of perfection. the celebrated painter, le brun, was appointed chief director, and from his designs were woven magnificent hangings of alexander's battles--the four seasons--the four elements--and a series of the principal actions of the life of louis xiv. m. de louvois, during his administration, caused tapestries to be made after the most beautiful originals in the king's cabinet, after raphael and julio romano, and other celebrated italian painters. not the least interesting part of the process was that performed by the _rentrayeurs_, or fine-drawers, who so unite the breadths of the tapestry into one picture that no seam is discernible, but the whole appears like one design. the french have had other considerable manufactories at auvergne, felletin and beauvais, but all sank beneath the superiority of the gobelins, which indeed at one time outvied the renown of that far-famed town, whose productions gave a title to the whole species, viz., that of arras. walpole gives an intimation of the introduction of tapestry weaving into england, so early as the reign of edward iii., "de inquirendo de mysterâ tapiciorum, london;" but usually william sheldon, esq., is considered the introducer of it, and he allowed an artist, named robert hicks, the use of his manor-house at burcheston, in warwickshire; and in his will, dated , he calls hicks "the only auter and beginner of tapistry and arras within this realm." at his house were four maps of oxford, worcester, warwick, and gloucestershires, executed in tapestry on a large scale, fragments of which are or were among the curiosities of strawberry-hill. we meet with little further notice of this establishment. this beautiful art was, however, revived in the reign of james i., and carried to great perfection under the patronage of himself and his martyr son. it received its death blow in common with other equally beautiful and more important pursuits during the triumph of the commonwealth. james gave £ to assist sir francis crane in the establishment of the manufactory at mortlake, in surry, which was commenced in the year . towards the end of this reign, francis cleyn, or klein, a native of rostock, in the duchy of mecklenburg, was employed in forming designs for this institution, which had already attained great perfection. charles allowed him £ a year, as appears from rymer's foedera: "know ye that we do give and grant unto francis cleyne a certain annuitie of one hundred pounds, by the year, during his natural life." he enjoyed this salary till the civil war, and was in such favour with the king, and in such reputation, that on a small painting of him he is described as "il famosissimo pittore francesco cleyn, miracolo del secolo, e molto stimato del re carlo della gran britania, ." the tapestry manufacture at mortlake was indeed a hobby, both of king james and prince charles, and of consequence was patronised by the court. during charles the first's romantic expedition to spain, when prince of wales, with the duke of buckingham, james writes--"i have settled with sir francis crane for my steenie's business, and i am this day to speak with fotherby, and by my next, steenie shall have an account both of his business, and of kit's preferment and supply in means; but sir francis crane desires to know if my baby will have him to hasten the making of that suit of tapestry that he commanded him."[ ] the most superb hangings were wrought here after the designs of distinguished painters; and windsor castle, hampton court, whitehall, st. james's, nonsuch, greenwich, and other royal seats, and many noble mansions were enriched and adorned by its productions. in the first year of his reign, charles was indebted £ to the establishment for three suits of gold tapestry; five of the cartoons were wrought here, and sent to hampton court, where they still remain. a suit of hangings, representing the five senses, executed here, was in the palace at oatlands, and was sold in for £ . rubens sketched eight pieces in charles the first's reign for tapestry, to be woven here, of the history of achilles, intended for one of the royal palaces. at lord ilchester's, at redlinch, in somersetshire, was a suit of hangings representing the twelve months in compartments; and there are several other sets of the same design. williams, archbishop of york, and lord keeper, paid sir francis crane £ for the four seasons. at knowl, in kent, was a piece of the same tapestry wrought in silk, containing the portraits of vandyck, and st. francis himself. at lord shrewsbury's (hoythorp, oxfordshire) are, or were, four pieces of tapestry from designs by vanderborght, representing the four quarters of the world, expressed by assemblages of the nations in various habits and employments, excepting europe, which is in masquerade, wrought in chiaroscuro. and at houghton (lord oxford's seat) were beautiful hangings containing whole lengths of king james, king charles, their queens, and the king of denmark, with heads of the royal children in the borders. these are all mentioned incidentally as the production of the mortlake establishment. after the death of sir francis crane, his brother sir richard sold the premises to charles i. during the civil wars, this work was seized as the property of the crown; and though, after the restoration, charles ii. endeavoured to revive the manufacture, and sent verrio to sketch the designs, his intention was not carried into effect. the work, though languishing, was not altogether extinct; for in mr. evelyn's very scarce tract intituled "mundus muliebris," printed in , some of this manufacture is amongst the articles to be furnished by a gallant to his mistress. one of the first acts of the protectorate after the death of the king, was to dispose of the pictures, statues, tapestry hangings, and other splendid ornaments of the royal palaces. cardinal mazarine enriched himself with much of this royal plunder; and some of the splendid tapestry was purchased by the archduke leopold. this however found its way again to england, being repurchased at brussels for £ by frederick, prince of wales, father of george iii. in "two well-intended statutes" were made: one for the encouragement of the linen and _tapestry manufactures_ of england, and discouragement of the importation of foreign tapestry:--and the other--start not, fair reader--the other "for regulating the packing of herrings."[ ] footnotes: [ ] see smith's history of the ancient palace of westminster. [ ] but not from them would be derived the art of painting with the needle the representation of the human figure. hence, perhaps, the awkward and ungainly aspect of these, in comparison with the arabesque patterns. from a fear of its exciting a tendency to idolatry mohammed prohibited his followers from delineating the form of men or animals in their pictorial embellishments of whatever sort. [ ] von raumer's contributions, . [ ] sully's memoirs. we have, in a subsequent chapter, a more full account of this tapestry. [ ] gent's mag., . [ ] sully's memoirs, vol. ii. [ ] sully's memoirs, vol. iii. [ ] miscellaneous state papers, vol. i. no. . [ ] "the rich tapestry and arras hangings which belonged to st. james's palace, hampton court, whitehall, and other royal seats, were purchased for cromwell: these were inventoried at a sum not exceeding £ , . one piece of eight parts at hampton court was appraised at £ , : this related to the history of abraham. another of ten parts, representing the history of julius cæsar, was appraised at £ ." chapter xii. romances worked in tapestry. "and storied loves of knights and courtly dames, pageants and triumphs, tournaments and games." rose's partenopex. it has been a favourite practice of all antiquity to work with the needle representations of those subjects in which the imagination and the feelings were most interested. the labours of penelope, of helen, and andromache, are proverbial, and this mode of giving permanency to the actions of illustrious individuals was not confined to the classical nations. the ancient islanders used to work--until the progress of art enabled them to weave the histories of their giants and champions in tapestry; and the same thing is recorded of the old persians; and this furniture is still in high request among many oriental nations, especially in japan and china. the royal palace of jeddo has profusion of the finest tapestry; this indeed is gorgeous, being wrought with silk, and adorned with pearls, gold, and silver. it was considered a right regal offering from one prince to another. henry iii., king of castile, sent a present to timour at samarcand, of tapestry which was considered to surpass even the works of asiatic artists in beauty: and when the religious and military orders of some of the princes of france and burgundy had plunged them into a kind of crusade against the turkish sultan bajazet, and they became his prisoners in the battle of nicopolis, the king of france sent presents to the sultan, to induce him to ransom them; amongst which tapestry representing the battles of alexander the great was the most conspicuous. tapestry was not used in the halls of princes alone, but cut a very conspicuous figure on all occasions of festivity and rejoicing. it was customary at these times to hang ornamental needlework of all sorts from the windows or balconies of the houses of those streets through which a pageant or festal procession was to pass; and as the houses were then built with the upper stories far overhanging the lower ones, these draperies frequently hung in rich folds to the ground, and must have had, when a street was thus in its whole length appareled and partly roofed by the floating streamers and banners above--somewhat the appearance of a suite of magnificent saloons. "then the high street gay signs of triumph wore, covered with shewy cloths of different dye, which deck the walls, while sylvan leaves in store, and scented herbs upon the pavement lie. adorned in every window, every door, with carpeting and finest drapery; but more with ladies fair, and richly drest in costly jewels and in gorgeous vest." when the black prince entered london with king john of france, as his prisoner, the outsides of the houses were covered with hangings, consisting of battles in tapestry-work. and in tournaments the lists were always decorated "with the splendid richness of feudal power. besides the gorgeous array of heraldic insignia near the champions' tents, the galleries, which were made to contain the proud and joyous spectators, were covered with tapestry, representing chivalry both in its warlike and its amorous guise: on one side the knight with his bright faulchion smiting away hosts of foes, and on the other side kneeling at the feet of beauty." but the subjects of the tapestry in which our ancestors so much delighted were not confined to _bonâ fide_ battles, and the matter-of-fact occurrences of every-day life. oh no! the lives of the saints were frequently pourtrayed with all the legendary accompaniments which credulity and blind faith could invest them with. the "holy and solitary" st. cuthbert would be seen taming the sea-monsters by his word of power: st. dunstan would be in the very act of seizing the "handle" of his infernal majesty's face with the red-hot pincers; and st. anthony in the "howling wilderness," would be reigning omnipotent over a whole legion of sprites. here was food for the imagination and taste of our notable great-grandmother! yet let us do them justice. if some of their religious pieces were imbued even to a ridiculous result, with the superstitions of the time, there were others, numberless others, scripture pieces, as chaste and beautiful in design, as elaborate in execution. the loom and needle united indeed brought these pieces to the highest perfection, but many a meek and saintly madonna, many a lofty and energetic st. paul, many a subdued and touching magdalene were produced by the unaided industry of the pious needlewoman. nay, the whole bible was copied in needlework; and in a poem of the fifteenth century, by henry bradshaw, containing the life of st. werburgh, a daughter of the king of the mercians, there is an account "rather historical than legendary,"[ ] of many circumstances of the domestic life of the time. amongst other descriptions is that of the tapestry displayed in the abbey of ely, on the occasion of st. werburgh taking the veil there. this tapestry belonged to king wulfer, and was brought to ely monastery for the occasion. we subjoin some of the stanzas:-- "it were full tedyous, to make descrypcyon of the great tryumphes, and solempne royalte, belongynge to the feest, the honour and provysyon, by playne declaracyon, upon every partye; but the sothe to say, withouten ambyguyte, all herbes and flowres, fragraunt, fayre, and swete, were strawed in halles, and layd under theyr fete. "clothes of golde and arras[ ] were hanged in the hall depaynted with pyctures, and hystoryes manyfolde, well wroughte and craftely, with precious stones all glysteryng as phebus, and the beten golde, lyke an erthly paradyse, pleasaunt to beholde: as for the said moynes,[ ] was not them amonge, but prayenge in her cell, as done all novice yonge. "the story of adam, there was goodly wrought, and of his wyfe eve, bytwene them the serpent, how they were deceyved, and to theyr peynes brought; there was cayn and abell, offerynge theyr present, the sacryfyce of abell, accepte full evydent: tuball and tubalcain were purtrayed in that place, the inventours of musyke and crafte by great grace. "noe and his shyppe was made there curyously sendynge forthe a raven, whiche never came again; and how the dove returned, with a braunche hastely, a token of comforte and peace, to man certayne: abraham there was, standing upon the mount playne to offer in sacrifice isaac his dere sone, and how the shepe for hym was offered in oblacyon. "the twelve sones of jacob there were in purtrayture, and how into egypt yonge josephe was solde, there was imprisoned, by a false conjectour, after in all egypte, was ruler (as is tolde). there was in pycture moyses wyse and bolde, our lorde apperynge in bushe flammynge as fyre, and nothing thereof brent, lefe, tree, nor spyre.[ ] "the ten plages of egypt were well embost, the chyldren of israel passyng the reed see, kynge pharoo drowned, with all his proude hoost, and how the two table, at the mounte synaye were gyven to moyses, and how soon to idolatry the people were prone, and punysshed were therefore, how datan and abyron, for pryde were full youre."[ ] then _duke_ joshua leading the israelites: the division of the promised land; kyng saull and david, and "prudent solomon;" roboas succeeding; "the good kynge esechyas and his generacyon, and so to the machabus, and dyvers other nacyon." all these "theyr noble actes, and tryumphes marcyall, freshly were browdred in these clothes royall." * * * * * "but over the hye desse, in the pryncypall place, where the sayd thre kynges sate crowned all, the best hallynge[ ] hanged, as reason was, whereon were wrought the nine orders angelicall dyvyded in thre ierarchyses, not cessynge to call _sanctus, sanctus, sanctus_, blessed be the trynite, dominius deus sabaoth, three persons in one deyte." then followed in order our blessed lady, the twelve apostles, "eche one in his figure," the four evangelists "wrought most curyously," all the disciples "prechynge and techynge, unto every nacyon, the faythtes[ ] of holy chyrche, for their salvacyon." "martyrs then followed, right manifolde;" confessors "fressely embrodred in ryche tyshewe and fyne." saintly virgins "were brothered[ ] the clothes of gold within," and the long array was closed on the other side of the hall by "noble auncyent storyes, and how the stronge sampson subdued his enemyes by his myghty power; of hector of troye, slayne by fals treason; of noble arthur, kynge of this regyon; with many other mo, which it is to longe playnly to expresse this tyme you amonge." but the powers of the chief proportion of needlewomen, and of many of the subsequent tapestry looms were devoted to giving permanence to those fables which, as exhibited in the romances of chivalry, formed the very life and delight of our ancestors in "------that happy season ere bright fancy bent to reason; when the spirit of our stories, filled the mind with unseen glories; told of creatures of the air, spirits, fairies, goblins rare, guarding man with tenderest care." these fables, says warton, were not only perpetually repeated at the festivals of our ancestors, but were the constant objects of their eyes. the very walls of their apartments were clothed with romantic history. we have mentioned the history of alexander in tapestry as forming an important part of the peace offering of the king of france to bajazet, and probably there were few princes who did not possess a suit of tapestry on this subject; a most important one in romance, and consequently a desired one for the loom. there seems an innate propensity in the writers of the romance of chivalry to exaggerate, almost to distortion, the achievements of those whose heroic bearing needed no pomp of diction, or wild flow of imagination to illustrate it. thus charlemagne, one of the best and greatest of men, appears in romance like one whose thirst for slaughter it requires myriads of "paynims" to quench. arthur, on the contrary, a very (if history tell truth) a very "so-so" sort of a man, having not one tithe of the intellect or the magnanimity of him to whom we have just referred--arthur is invested in romance with a halo of interest and of beauty which is perfectly fascinating; and it seems almost impossible to divest oneself of these impressions and to look upon him only in the unattractive light in which history represents him. a person not initiated in romance would suppose that the real actions of alexander--the subjugator of greece, the conqueror of persia, the captor of the great darius, but the generous protector of his family--might sufficiently immortalize him. by no means. he cuts a considerable figure in many romances; but in one, appropriated more exclusively to his exploits, he "surpasses himself." the world was conquered:--from north to south, and from east to west his sovereignty was acknowledged; so he forthwith flew up into the air to bring the aerial potentates to his feet. but this experiment not answering, he descended to the depths of the waters with much better success; for immediately all their inhabitants, from the whale to the herring, the cannibal shark, the voracious pike, the majestic sturgeon, the lordly salmon, the rich turbot, and the delicate trout, with all their kith, kin, relations, and allies, the lobster, the crab, and the muscle, "the sounds and seas with all their finny drove" crowd round him to do him homage: the oyster lays her pearl at his feet, and the coral boughs meekly wave in token of subjection. doubtless in addition to the legitimate "battles" these exploits, if not fully displayed, were intimated by symbols in the tapestry. the tale of troy was a very favourite subject for tapestry, and was found in many noble mansions, especially in france. it has indeed been conjectured, and on sufficient grounds, that the whole iliad had been wrought in a consecutive series of hangings. though during the early part of the middle ages homer himself was lost, still the "tale of troy divine" was kept alive in two latin works, which in formed the basis of a prose romance by a sicilian. the great original himself however, had become the companion not only of the studious and learned, but also of the fair and fashionable, while yet the flemish looms were in the zenith of their popularity. this subject formed part of the decoration of holyrood house, on the occasion of the marriage of henry the seventh's daughter to james, king of scotland in . we are told in an ancient record, that the "hanginge of the queene's gret chammer represented the ystory of troye toune, that the king's grett chammer had one table, wer was satt, hys chamerlayne, the grett sqyer, and many others, well served; the which chammer was haunged about with the story of hercules, together with other ystorys." and at the same solemnity, "in the hall wher the qwene's company wer satt in lyke as in the other, an wich was haunged of the history of hercules." the tragic and fearful story of coucy's heart gave rise to an old metrical english romance, called the 'knight of courtesy and the lady of faguel.' it was entirely represented in tapestry. the incident, a true one, on which it was founded, occurred about ; and was thus:-- "some hundred and odd years since, there was in france one captain coucy, a gallant gentleman of an ancient extraction, and keeper of coucy castle, which is yet standing, and in good repair. he fell in love with a young gentlewoman, and courted her for his wife. there was a reciprocal love between them; but her parents understanding of it, by way of prevention, they shuffled up a forced match 'twixt her and one monsieur faiell who was a great heir: captain coucy hereupon quitted france in discontent, and went to the wars in hungary against the turk; where he received a mortal wound, not far from bada. being carried to his lodging, he languished for some days; but a little before his death he spoke to an ancient servant of his, that he had many proofs of his fidelity and truth; but now he had a great business to intrust him with, which he conjured him by all means to do, which was, that after his death, he should get his body to be opened and then to take his heart out of his breast, and put in an earthen pot, to be baked to powder; and then to put the powder in a handsome box, with that bracelet of hair he had worn long about on his left wrist, which was a lock of mademoiselle faiell's hair, and put it among the powder, together with a little note he had written with his own blood to her; and after he had given him the rites of burial, to make all the speed he could to france, and deliver the box to mademoiselle faiell. the old servant did as his master had commanded him, and so went to france; and coming one day to monsieur faiell's house, he suddenly met with him, who examined him because he knew he was captain coucy's servant, and finding him timorous and faltering in his speech, he searched him, and found the said box in his pocket with the note, which expressed what was therein. he dismissed the bearer with menaces, that he should come no more near his house: monsieur faiell going in, sent for his cook, and delivered him the powder, charging him to make a little well-relished dish of it, without losing a jot of it, for it was a very costly thing; and commanded him to bring it in himself, after the last course at supper. the cook bringing in the dish accordingly, monsieur faiell commanded all to void the room, and began a serious discourse with his wife: however since he had married her, he observed she was always melancholy, and he feared she was inclining to a consumption; therefore he had provided for her a very precious cordial, which he was well assured would cure her. thereupon he made her eat up the whole dish; and afterwards much importuning him to know what it was, he told her at last, she had eaten coucy's heart, and so drew the box out of his pocket, and showed her the note and bracelet. in a sudden exultation of joy, she with a far-fetched sigh said, '_this is precious indeed_,' and so licked the dish, saying, '_it is so precious, that 'tis pity to put ever any meat upon 't_.' so she went to bed, and in the morning she was found stone dead."[ ] but a more national, a more inspiriting, and a more agreeable theme for the alert finger or the busy loom is found in the life and adventures of that prince of combatants, that hero of all heroes, guy earl of warwick. help me, shades of renowned slaughterers, whilst i record his achievements! bear witness to his deed, ye grisly phantoms, ye bloody ghosts of infidel paynims, whom his christian sword mowed down, even as corn falls beneath the the reaper's sickle, till the redoubtable champion strode breast deep in bodies over fifteen acres covered with slaughtered foes![ ] and all this from christian zeal! "in faith of christ a christian true the wicked laws of infidels, he sought by power to subdue. "so passed he the seas of greece, to help the emperour to his right, against the mighty soldan's host of puissant persians for to fight: where he did slay of sarazens and heathen pagans many a man, and slew the soldan's cousin dear, who had to name, doughty colbron. "ezkeldered that famous knight, to death likewise he did pursue, and almain, king of tyre also, most terrible too in fight to view: he went into the soldan's host, being thither on ambassage sent, and brought away his head with him, he having slain him in his tent." or passing by his "feats of arms in strange and sundry heathen lands," note his beneficent progress at home-- "in windsor forest he did slay a boar of passing might and strength; the like in england never was, for hugeness both in breadth and length. some of his bones in warwick yet, within the castle there do lye; one of his shield bones to this day hangs in the city of coventry. "on dunsmore heath he also slew a monstrous wild and cruel beast, call'd the dun cow of dunsmore heath, which many people had opprest; some of her bones in warwick yet still for a monument doth lie, which unto every looker's view, as wondrous strange they may espy. "and the dragon in the land, he also did in flight destroy, which did both men and beasts oppress, and all the country sore annoy:" or look we at him all doughty as he was, as the pilgrim of love, as subdued by the influence of the tender passion, a suppliant to the gentle phillis, and ready to compass the earth to fulfil her wishes, and to prove his devotion: "was ever knight for lady's sake so tost in love, as i, sir guy; for phillis fair, that lady bright, as ever man beheld with eye; she gave me leave myself to try the valiant knight with shield and spear, ere that her love she would grant me, who made me venture far and near." or, afterwards view him as-- "all clad in grey in pilgrim sort, his voyage from her he did take, unto that blessed, holy land, for jesus christ, his saviour's sake." lastly, recal we the time when the fierce and ruthless danes were ravaging our land, and there was scarce a town or castle as far as winchester, which they had not plundered or burnt, and a proposal was made, and per force acceded to by the english king to decide the struggle by single combat. but the odds were great: colbrand the danish champion, was a giant, and ere he came to a combat he provided himself with a cart-load of danish axes, great clubs with knobs of iron, squared barrs of steel lances and iron hooks wherewith to pull his adversary to him. on the other hand the english--and sleepless and unhappy, the king athelstan pondered the circumstance as he lay on his couch, on st. john baptist's night--had no champion forthcoming, even though the county of hants had been promised as a reward to the victor. roland, the most valiant knight of a thousand, was dead; heraud, the pride of the nation, was abroad; and the great and valiant guy, earl of warwick, was gone on a pilgrimage. the monarch was perplexed and sorrowful; but an angel appeared to him and comforted him. in conformity with the injunctions of this gracious messenger, the king, attended by the archbishop of canterbury and the bishop of chichester, placed himself at the north gate of the city (winchester) at the hour of prime. divers poor people and pilgrims entered thereat, and among the rest appeared a man of noble visage and stalwart frame, but wan withal, pale with abstinence, and macerated by reason of journeying barefoot. his beard was venerably long and he rested on a staff; he wore a pilgrim's garb, and on his bare and venerable head was strung a chaplet of white roses. bending low, he passed the gate, but the king warned by the vision, hastened to him, and entreated him "by his love for jesus christ, by the devotion of his pilgrimage, and for the preservation of all england, to do battle with the giant." the palmer thus conjured, underwent the combat, and was victorious. after a solemn procession to the cathedral, and thanksgiving therein, when he offered his weapon to god and the patron of the church, before the high altar, the pilgrim withdrew, having revealed himself to none but the king, and that under a solemn pledge of secrecy. he bent his course towards warwick, and unknown in his disguise, took alms at the hands of his own lady--for, reader, this meek and holy pilgrim, was none other than the wholesale slayer, whose deeds we have been contemplating--and then retired to a solitary place hard by-- "where with his hand he hew'd a house, out of a craggy rock of stone; and lived like a palmer poor, within that cave himself alone." nor was this at all an unusual conclusion to a life of butchery; all the heroes of romance turned hermits; and as they all, at least all of arthur's round table, were gifted with a very striking development of the organ of combativeness, their profound piety at the end of their career might not improbably give rise to a very common adage of these days regarding sinners and saints. but here was a theme for tapestry-workers! a real original, genuine english romance; for though the only pieces now extant be, or may be, translated from the french, still there are many concurring circumstances to prove that the original, often quoted by chaucer, was an ancient metrical english one. that it is difficult to find who sir guy was, or in fact, to prove that there ever was a sir guy at all, is nothing to the purpose; leave we that to antiquarians, and their musty folios. guy of warwick was well known from west to east, even as far as jerusalem, where, in henry the fourth's time, lord beauchamp was kindly received by those in high stations, because he was descended from "a shadowy ancestor, so renowned as guy." one tapestry on this attractive subject which was in warwick castle, before the year , was so distinguished and valued a piece of furniture, that a special grant was made of it by king richard ii. conveying "that suit of arras hangings in warwick castle, which contained the story of guy earl of warwick," together with the castle of warwick and other possessions, to thomas holland, earl of kent. and in the restoration of forfeited property to this lord after his imprisonment, these hangings are particularly specified in the patent of king henry iv., dated . and the castle wherein the tapestry was hung was worthy of the heroes it had sheltered. the first building on the site was supposed to be coeval with our saviour, and was called caer-leon; almost overthrown by the picts and scots, it lay in ruins till caractacus built himself a manor-house, and founded a church to the honour of st. john the baptist. here was afterwards a roman fort, and here again was a pictish devastation. a cousin of king arthur rebuilt it, and then lived in it--arthgal, first earl of warwick, a knight of the round table; this british title was equivalent to _ursus_ in latin, whence arthgal took the bear for his ensign: and a successor of his, a worthy progenitor of our valiant sir guy, slew a mighty giant in a duel; and because this giant's delicate weapon was a tree pulled up by the roots, the boughs being snagged from it, the earls of warwick, successors of the victor, bore a ragged staff of silver in a sable shield for their cognisance. we are told that,-- "when arthur first in court began, and was approved king, by force of arms great victoryes wanne, and conquest home did bring. then into england straight he came with fifty good and able knights, that resorted unto him, and were of his round table." of these the most renowned were syr perceval, syr tristan, syr launcelot du lac, syr ywain, syr gawain, syr galaas, syr meliadus of leonnoys, sir ysaie, syr gyron, &c. &c., and their various and wondrous achievements were woven into a series of tales which are known as the "romances of the round table." of course the main subject of each tale is interrupted by ten thousand varied episodes, in which very often the original object seems entirely lost sight of. then the construction of many of these romances, or rather their want of construction, is marvellous; their genealogies are interminable, and their geography miraculous. one of the most marvellous and scarce of these romances, and one, the principal passages of which were frequently wrought into tapestry, was the "roman du saint greal," which is founded upon an incident, to say the least very peculiar, but which was perhaps once considered true as holy writ. st. joseph of arimathoea, a very important personage in many romances, having obtained the hanap, or cup from which our saviour administered the wine to his disciples, caught in the same cup the blood which flowed from his wounds when on the cross. after he had first achieved various adventures, and undergone an imprisonment of forty-two years, st. joseph arrives in england with the sacred cup, by means of which numerous miracles are performed; he prepares the round table, and arthur and his knights all go in quest of the hanap, which by some, to us unaccountable, circumstance, had fallen into the hands of a sinner. all make the most solemn vow to devote their lives to its recovery; and this they must indeed have done, and not short lives either, if all recorded of them be true. none, however, but two, ever _see_ the sacred symbol; though oftentimes a soft ray of light would stream across the lonesome wild, or the dark pathless forest, or unearthly strains would float on the air, or odours as of paradise would entrance the senses, while the wandering and woeworn knight would feel all fatigue, all sense of personal inconvenience, of pain, of sickness, or of sorrow, vanish on the instant; and then would he renew his vows, and betake himself to prayer; for though all unworthy to see the holy grayle, he would feel that it had been borne on viewless pinions through the air for his individual consolation and hope. and syr galahad and syr perceval, the two chaste and favoured knights who, "after the dedely flesshe had beheld the spiritual things," the holy st. grael--never returned to converse with the world. the first departed to god, and "flights of angels sang him to his rest;" the other took religious clothing and retired to a hermitage, where, after living "a full holy life for a yere and two moneths, he passed out of this world." but wide as is the range of the romances of the "round table," they form but a portion of those which solaced our ancestors. charlemagne and his paladins were, so to speak, the solar system round which another circle revolved; alexander furnished the radiating star for another, derived chiefly perhaps from the east, where numbers of fictitious tales were prevalent about him; and many romances were likewise woven around the mangled remains of classic heroes. "the mightiest chiefs of british song scorn'd not such legends to prolong; they gleam through spenser's elfic dream, and mix in milton's heavenly theme; and dryden in immortal strain, had raised the 'table round' again." the stories of the tapestry in the royal palaces of henry viii. are preserved in the british museum.[ ] these are some of them re-copied from warton:-- in the tapestry of the tower of london, the original and most ancient seat of our monarchs, there are recited, godfrey of bulloign; the three kings of cologne; the emperor constantine; st. george; king of erkenwald; the history of hercules; fame and honour; the triumph of divinity; esther and ahasueras; jupiter and juno; st. george; the eight kings; the ten kings of france; the birth of our lord; duke joshua; the riche history of king david; the seven deadly sins; the riche history of the passion; the stem of jesse; our lady and son; king solomon; the woman of canony; meleager; and the dance of maccabee. at durham place were the citie of ladies (a french allegorical romance); the tapestrie of thebes and of troy; the city of peace; the prodigal son; esther, and other pieces of scripture. at windsor castle the siege of jerusalem; ahasueras; charlemagne; the siege of troy; and hawking and hunting. at nottingham castle, amys and amelion. at woodstock manor, the tapestrie of charlemagne. at the more, a palace in hertfordshire, king arthur, hercules, astyages, and cyrus. at richmond, the arras of sir bevis, and virtue and vice fighting. among the rest we have also hannibal, holofernes, romulus and remus, Æneas, and susannah. many of these subjects were repeated at westminster, greenwich, oatlands, bedington in surrey, and other royal seats, some of which are now unknown as such. footnotes: [ ] warton. [ ] arras, a very common anachronism. after the production of the arras tapestries, arras became the common name for all tapestries: even for those which were wrought before the looms of arras were in existence. [ ] moynes--nun. lady werburg [ ] _spyre_--twig, branch. [ ] _youre_--burnt. [ ] _hallynge_--tapestry. [ ] _faythtes_--feats, facts. [ ] _brothered_--embroidered. [ ] epistolæ ho-elianæ. [ ] "fifteen acres were covered with the bodies of slaughtered saracens; and so furious were the strokes of sir guy, that the pile of dead men, wherever his sword had reached, rose as high as his breast."--ellis, vol. ii. [ ] harl. mss. . chapter xiii. needlework in costume.--part i. "what neede these velvets, silkes, or lawne, embrodery, feathers, fringe and lace." bp. hall. "time was, when clothing sumptuous or for use, save their own painted skins, our sires had none. as yet black breeches were not." cowper. manifold indeed were the varieties in mode and material before that _beau ideal_ of all that is graceful and becoming--the "black breeches"--were invented. for though in many parts of the globe costume is uniform, and the vest and the turban of a thousand years ago are of much the same make as now, this is not the case in the more polished parts of europe, where that "turncoat whirligig maniac, yclept fashion," is the pole-star and beacon of the multitude of men, from him who has the "last new cut from stultz," to him who is magnificent and happy in the "reg'lar bang-up-go" from the eastern parts of the metropolis. it would seem that england is peculiarly celebrated for her devotion at fashion's shrine; for we are told that "an englishman, endevoring sometime to write of our attire, made sundrie platformes for his purpose, supposing by some of them to find out one stedfast ground whereon to build the summe of his discourse. but in the end (like an orator long without exercise) when he saw what a difficult peece of worke he had taken in hand, he gave over his travell, and onely drue the picture of a naked man, unto whome he gave a paire of sheares in the one hand, and a piece of cloth in the other, to the end he should shape his apparell after such fashion as himselfe liked, sith he could find no kind of garment that could please him anie while together, and this he called an englishman. certes this writer shewed himself herein not to be altogether void of iudgement, sith the phantasticall follie of our nation, even from the courtier to the carter, is such, that no forme of apparell liketh vs longer than the first garment is in the wearing, if it continue so long and be not laid aside, to receive some other trinket newlie devised. "and as these fashions are diverse, so likewise it is a world to see the costlinesse and the curiositie; the excesse and the vanitie; the pompe and the brauerie; the change and the varietie; and, finallie, the ficklenesse and the follie that is in all degrees; insomuch that nothing is more constant in england than inconstancie of attire. "in women, also, it in most to be lamented, that they doo now far exceed the lightnesse of our men (who nevertheless are transformed from the cap even to the verie shoo) and such staring attire as in time past was supposed meet for none but light housewives onlie, is now become a habit for chast and sober matrons. "thus _it is now come to passe, that women are become men, and men transformed into monsters_." this ever-revolving wheel is still turning; and so all-important now is the mode that one half of the world is fully occupied in providing for the personal embellishment of the other half and themselves; and could we contemplate the possibility of a return to the primitive simplicity of our ancient "sires," we must look in the same picture on one half of the world as useless--as a drug on the face of creation. why, what a desert would it be were all dyers, fullers, cleaners, spinners, weavers, printers, mercers and milliners, haberdashers and modistes, silk-men and manufacturers, cotton-lords and fustian-men, tailors and habit makers, mantuamakers and corset professors, exploded? we pass over pin and needle makers, comb and brush manufacturers, jewellers, &c. the ladies would have nothing to live for; (for on grave authority it has been said, that "woman is an animal that delights in the toilette;") the gentlemen nothing to solace them. "the toilette" is the very zest of life with both; and if ladies are more successful in the results of their devoirs to it, it is because "nous sommes faites pour embellir le monde," and not because gentlemen practice its duties with less zeal, devotion, or assiduity--as many a valet can testify when contemplating his modish patron's daily heap of "failures." indeed to put out of view the more obvious, weighty, and important cares attached to the due selection and arrangement of coats, waistcoats, and indispensables, the science of "cravatiana" alone is one which makes heavy claims on the time, talents, and energies of the thorough-going gentleman of fashion. he should be thoroughly versed in all its varieties--the royal george: the plain bow: the military: the ball room: the corsican: the hibernian tie: the eastern tie: the hunting tie: the yankee tie: (the "alone original" one)--the osbaldiston tie: the mail coach tie: the indian tie, &c. &c. &c. though of these and their numberless offshoots, the yankee tie lays most claim to originality, the ball room one is considered the most exquisite, and requires the greatest practice. it is thus described by a "talented" professor:-- "the cloth, of virgin white, well starched and folded to the proper depth, should be made to sit easy and graceful on the neck, neither too tight nor loose; but with a gentle pressure, curving inwards from the further extension of the chin, down the throat to the centre dent in the middle of the neck. this should be the point for a slight dent, extending from under each ear, between which, more immediately under the chin, there should be another slight horizontal dent just above the former one. it has no tie; the ends, crossing each other in broad folds in front, are secured to the braces, or behind the back, by means of a piece of white tape. a brilliant broach or pin is generally made use of to secure more effectually the crossing, as well as to give an additional effect to the neckcloth." what a world of wit and invention--what a fund of fancy and taste--what a mine of zeal and ability would be lost to the world, "if those troublesome disguises which we wear" were reduced to their old simplicity of form and material! industry and talent would be at discount, for want of materials whereon to display themselves; and money would be such a drug, that politicians would declaim on the miseries of being _without_ a national debt. commerce, in many of its most important branches, would be exploded; the "manufacturing districts" would be annihilated; the "agricultural interest" would, consequently and necessarily, be at a "very low ebb;" and the "new world," the magnificent and imperial empress (that is to be) of the whole earth, might sink again to the embraces of those minute and wonderful artificers from whom, i suppose, she at first proceeded--the coral insects; for who would want cotton! no, no. selfish preferences, individual wishes, must merge in the general good of the human race; and however "their own painted skins" might suffice our "sires," clothing, "sumptuous," as well as "for use," must decorate ourselves. to whom, then, are the fullers, the dyers, the cleaners--to whom are the spinners and weavers, and printers and mercers, and milliners and haberdashers, and modistes, and silk-men and manufacturers, cotton lords and fustian men, mantuamakers and corset professors, indebted for that nameless grace, that exquisite finish and appropriateness, which gives to all their productions their charm and their utility?--to the needlewoman, assuredly. for though the raw materials have been grown at sea island and shipped at new york,--have been consigned to the liverpool broker and sold to the manchester merchant, and turned over to the manufacturer, and spun and woven, and bleached and printed, and placed in the custody of the warehouseman, or on the shelf of the shopkeeper--of what good would it be that we had a fifty-yard length of calico to shade our oppressed limbs on a "dog-day," if we had not the means also to render that material agreeably available? yet not content with merely rendering it available, this beneficent fairy, the needlewoman, casts, "as if by the spell of enchantment, that ineffable grace over beauty which the choice and arrangement of dress is calculated to bestow." for the love of becoming ornament--we quote no less an authority than the historian of the 'state of europe in the middle ages,'--"is not, perhaps, to be regarded in the light of vanity; it is rather an instinct which woman has received from nature to give effect to those charms which are her defence." and if it be necessary to woman with her charms, is it not tenfold necessary to those who--heaven help them!--have few charms whereof to boast? for, as harrison says, "it is now come to passe that men are transformed into monsters." "better be out of the world than out of the fashion," is a proverb which, from the universal assent which has in all ages been given to it, has now the force of an axiom. it was this self evident proposition which emboldened the beau of the fourteenth century, in spite of the prohibitions of popes and senators,--in spite of the more touching personal inconvenience, and even risk and danger, attendant thereupon--to persist in wearing shoes of so preposterous a length, that the toes were obliged to be fastened with chains to the girdle ere the happy votary of fashion could walk across his own parlour! happy was the favourite of croesus, who could display chain upon chain of massy gold wreathed and intertwined from the waistband to the shoe, until he seemed almost weighed down by the burthen of his own wealth. wrought silver did excellently well for those who could not produce gold; and for those who possessed not either precious metal, and who yet felt they "might as well be out of the world as out of the fashion," latteen chains, silken cords, aye, and cords of even less costly description, were pressed into service to tie up the _crackowes_, or piked shoes. for in that day, as in this, "the squire endeavours to outshine the knight, the knight the baron, the baron the earl, the earl the king, in dress." to complete the outrageous absurdity of these shoes, the upper parts of them were cut in imitation of a church-window, to which fashion chaucer refers when describing the dress of absalom, the parish clerk. he-- "had paul 'is windowes corven on his shose." despite the decrees of councils, the bulls of the pope, and the declamations of the clergy, this ridiculous fashion was in vogue near three centuries. and the party-coloured hose, which were worn about the same time, were a fitting accompaniment for the crackowes. we feel some difficulty in realising the idea that gentlemen, only some half century ago, really dressed in the gay and showy habiliments which are now indicative only of a footman; but it is more difficult to believe, what was nevertheless the fact, that the most absurd costume in which the "fool" by profession can now be decked on the stage, can hardly compete in absurdity with the _outré_ costume of a beau or a belle of the fourteenth century. the shoes we have referred to: the garments, male or female, were divided in the middle down the whole length of the person, and one half of the body was clothed in one colour, the other half in the most opposite one that could be selected. the men's garments fitted close to the shape; and while one leg and thigh rejoiced in flaming yellow or sky-blue, the other blushed in deep crimson. john of gaunt is portrayed in a habit, one half white, the other a dark blue; and mr. strutt has an engraving of a group assembled on a memorable occasion, where one of the figures has a boot on one leg and a shoe on the other. the dauphiness of auvergne, wife to louis the good, duke of bourbon, born , is painted in a garb of which one half all the way down is blue, powdered with gold fleurs-de-lys, and the other half to the waist is gold, with a blue fish or dolphin (a cognizance, doubtless) on it, and from the waist to the feet is crimson, with white "fishy" ornaments; one sleeve is blue and gold, the other crimson and gold. in addition to these absurd garments, the women dressed their heads so high that they were obliged to wear a sort of curved horn on each side, in order to support the enormous superstructure of feathers and furbelows. and these are what are meant by the "horned head-dresses" so often referred to in old authors. it is said that, when isabel of bavaria kept her court at vincennes, a.d. , it was necessary to make all the doors of the palace both higher and wider, to admit the head-dresses of the queen and her ladies, which were all of this horned kind. this high bonnet had been worn, under various modifications, ever since the fashion was brought from the east in the time of the crusades. some were of a sugar-loaf form, three feet in height; and some cylindrical, but still very high. the french modistes of that day called this formidable head-gear _bonnet à la syrienne_. but our author says, if female vanity be violently restrained in one point, it is sure to break out in another; and romish anathemas having abolished curls from shading fair brows, so much the more attention was paid to head-gear, that the bonnets and caps increased every year most awfully in height and size, and were made in the form of crescents, pyramids, and horns of such tremendous dimensions, that the old chronicler juvenal des ursins makes this pathetic lamentation in his history of charles vi.:-- "et avoient les dames et damoyselles de chacun costé, deux grandes oreilles si larges, que quand elles vouloient passer par l'huis d'une chambre il fallait qu'elles se tournassent de costé et baisassent, ou elles n'eussent pu passer:" that is, "on every side old ladies and young ladies were seen with such high and monstrous ears (or horns), that when they wanted to enter a room they were obliged perforce to stoop and crouch sideways, or they could not pass." at last a regular attack was made on the high head-gear of the fifteenth century by a popular monk, in his sermons at nôtre dame, in which he so pathetically lamented the sinfulness and enormities of such a fashion, that the ladies, to show their contrition, made _auto da fés_ of their syrian bonnets in the public squares and market-places; and as the church fulminated against them all over europe, the example of paris was universally followed. many attempts had previously been made by zealous preachers to effect this alteration. in the previous century a carmelite in the province of bretagne preached against this fashion, without the power to annihilate it: all that the ladies did was to change the particular shape of the huge coiffures after every sermon. "no sooner," says the chronicler, "had he departed from one district, than the dames and damoyselles, who, like frightened snails, had drawn in their horns, shot them out again longer than ever; for nowhere were the _hennins_ (so called, abbreviated from _gehinnin_, incommodious,) larger, more pompous or proud, than in the cities through which the carmelite had passed. "all the world was totally reversed and disordered by these fashions, and above all things by the strange accoutrements on the heads of the ladies. it was a portentous time, for some carried huge towers on their foreheads an ell high; others still higher caps, with sharp points, like staples, from the top of which streamed long crapes, fringed with gold, like banners. alas, alas! ladies, dames, and demoiselles were of importance in those days! when do we hear, in the present times, of church and state interfering to regulate the patterns of their bonnets?"[ ] it is no wonder that fashions so very extreme and absurd should call forth animadversion from various quarters. thus wrote petrarch in :-- "who can see with patience the monstrous, fantastical inventions which the people of our times have invented to deform, rather than adorn, their persons? who can behold without indignation their long pointed shoes; their caps with feathers; their hair twisted and hanging down like tails; the foreheads of young men, as well as women, formed into a kind of furrows with ivory-headed pins; their bellies so cruelly squeezed with cords, that they suffer as much pain from vanity as the martyrs suffered for religion? our ancestors would not have believed, and i know not if posterity will believe, that it was possible for the wit of this vain generation of ours to invent so many base, barbarous, horrid, ridiculous fashions (besides those already mentioned) to disfigure and disgrace itself, as we have the mortification to see every day." and thus chaucer, a few years later:-- "alass! may not a man see as in our daies the sinnefull costlew array of clothing, and namely in too much superfluite, or else in too disordinate scantinese: as to the first, not only the cost of embraudering, the disguysed indenting, or barring, ounding, playting, wynding, or bending, and semblable waste of clothe in vanitie." the common people also "were besotted in excesse of apparell, in wide surcoats reaching to their loines, some in a garment reaching to their heels, close before and strowting out on the sides, so that on the back they make men seem women, and this they called by a ridiculous name, _gowne_," &c. &c. before this time the legislature had interfered, though with little success: they passed laws at westminster, which were said to be made "to prevent that destruction and poverty with which the whole kingdom was threatened, by the outrageous, excessive expenses of many persons in their apparel, above their ranks and fortunes." sumptuary edicts, however, are of little avail, if not supported in "influential quarters." king richard ii. affected the utmost splendour of attire, and he had one coat alone which was valued at , marks: it was richly embroidered and inwrought with gold and precious stones. it is not in human nature, at least in human nature of the "more honourable" gender, to be outdone, even by a king. gorgeous and glittering was the raiment adopted by the satellites of the court, and, heedless of "that destruction and poverty with which the whole kingdom was threatened," they revelled in magnificence. of one alone, sir john arundel, it is recorded, that he had at one time fifty-two suits of cloth of gold tissue. at this time, says the old chronicle, "cut werke was great bothe in court and tounes, bothe in mens hoddes, and also in their gounes, brouder and furres, and gold smith werke ay newe, in many a wyse, eche day they did renewe." unaccountable as it may seem, this rage of expense and show in apparel reached even the (then) poverty-stricken sister country scotland; and in laws were enacted to suppress it. it is told of william rufus, that one morning while putting on his new boots he asked his chamberlain what they cost; and when he replied "three shillings," indignantly and in a rage he cried out, "you--how long has the king worn boots of so paltry a price? go, and bring me a pair worth a mark of silver." he went, and bringing him a much cheaper pair, told him falsely that they cost as much as he had ordered: "ay," said the king, "these are suitable to royal majesty." this is merely a specimen of the monarch's shallow-headed extravagance; but the costume of his time and that immediately preceding it was infinitely superior in grace and dignity to that of the fantastical period we have been describing. the english at this period were admired by all other nations, and especially _by the french_, from whom in subsequent periods _we_ have copied so servilely, for the richness and elegance of their attire. with a tunic simply confined at the waist, over this, when occasion required, a full and flowing mantle, with a veil confined to the back of the head with a golden circlet, her dark hair simply braided over her beautiful and intelligent brow and waving on her fair throat, the wife of the conqueror looked every inch a queen, and what was more, she looked a modest, a dignified, and a beautiful woman. the male attire was of the same flowing and majestic description: and the "brutal" anglo-saxons and the "barbarous" normans had more delicacy than to display every division of limb or muscle which nature formed, and more taste than to invent divisions where, heaven knows, nature never meant them to be. the simple _coiffure_ required little care and attendance, but if a fastening did happen to give way, the anglo-norman lady could raise her hand to fasten it if she chose. the arm was not pinioned by the fiat of a _modiste_. and the material of a dress of those days was as rich as the mode was elegant. silk indeed was not common; the first that was seen in the country was in , when charlemagne sent offa, king of mercia, a belt and two vests of that beautiful material; but from the particular record made of silk mantles worn by two ladies at a ball at kenilworth in , we may fairly infer that till this period silk was not often used but as "------a robe pontifical, ne'er seen but wonder'd at." occasionally indeed it was used, but only by persons of the highest rank and wealth. but the woollens were of beautiful texture, and britain was early famous in the art of producing the richest dyes. the welsh are still remarkable for extracting beautiful tints from the commonest plants, such most probably as were used by the britons anciently; and it is worthy of note that the south sea cloths, manufactured from the inner bark of trees, have the same stripes and chequers, and indeed the identical patterns of the welsh, and, as supposed, of the ancient britons. linen was fine and beautiful; and if it had not been so, the rich and varied embroidery with which it was decorated would have set off a coarser material. furs of all sorts were in great request, and a mantle of regal hue, lined throughout with vair or sable, and decorated with bands of gold lace and flowers of the richest embroidery, interspersed with pearls, clasped on the shoulder with the most precious gems, and looped, if requisite, with golden tassels, was a garment at which a nobleman, even of these days, need not look askance. robert bloet, second bishop of lincoln, made a present to henry i. of a cloak of exquisitely fine cloth, lined with black sables with white spots, which cost a sum equivalent to £ of our money. the robes of females of rank were always bordered with a belt of rich needlework; their embroidered girdles were inlaid, or rather inwrought, with gold, pearls, and precious stones, and from them was usually suspended a large purse or pouch, on which the skill of the most accomplished needlewomen was usually expended. this rich and becoming mode of dress was gradually innovated upon until caprice reigned paramount over the national wardrobe. for "fashion is essentially caprice; and fashion in dress the caprice of milliners and tailors, with whom _recherche_ and exaggeration supply the place of education and principle." that this modern definition applied as accurately to former times as these, an instance may suffice to show. richard i. had a cloak made, at enormous cost, with precious and shining metals inlaid _in imitation of the heavenly bodies_; and henry v. wore, on a very memorable occasion, when prince of wales, a mantle or gown of rich blue satin, full of small eyelet-holes, as thickly as they could be put, and a needle hanging by a silk thread _from every hole_. the following incident, quoted from miss strickland's life of berengaria, will show the esteem in which a rich, and especially a furred garment was held. richard i. quarrelled with the virtuous st. hugh, bishop of lincoln, on the old ground of exacting a simoniacal tribute on the installation of the prelate into his see. willing to evade the direct charge of selling the see, king richard intimated that a present of a fur mantle worth a thousand marks might be a composition. st. hugh said he was no judge of such gauds, and therefore sent the king a thousand marks, declaring, if he would devour the revenue devoted to the poor, he must have his wilful way. but as soon as richard had pocketed the money he sent for the fur mantle. st. hugh set out for normandy to remonstrate with the king on this double extortion. his friends anticipated that he would be killed; but st. hugh said, "i fear him not," and boldly entered the chapel where richard was at mass, when the following scene took place:-- "give me the embrace of peace, my son," said st. hugh. "that you have not deserved," replied the king. "indeed i have," said st. hugh, "for i have made a long journey on purpose to see my son." so saying, he took hold of the king's sleeve and drew him on one side. richard smiled and embraced the old man. they withdrew to the recess behind the altar and sate down. "in what state is your conscience?" asked the bishop. "very easy," said the king. "how can that be, my son," said the bishop, "when you live apart from your virtuous queen, and are faithless to her; when you devour the provision of the poor, and load your people with heavy exactions? are those light transgressions, my son?" the king owned his faults, and promised amendment; and when he related this conversation to his courtiers he added, "were all our prelates like hugh of lincoln, both king and barons must submit to their righteous rebukes." furs were much used now as coverings for beds; and they were considered a _necessary_ part of dress for a very considerable period. in sir john cullum's hawsted, mention is made that in cecilia, widow of william talmache, died, and, amongst other bequests, left "to thomas battesford, for black coats for poor people, xxx_s._ in part." "to john camp, of bury st. edmunds, furrier, for furs for the black coats, viij_s._ xj_d._" on which the reverend and learned author remarks, "we should now indeed think that a black coat bestowed on a poor person wanted not the addition of fur: such, however, was the fashion of the time; and a sumptuary law of edward iii. allows handicraft and yeomen to wear no manner of furre, nor of bugg,[ ] but only lambe, coney, catte, and foxe." the distinction in rank was expressly shown by the kind of fur displayed on the dress, and these distinctions were regulated by law and rigidly enforced. by a statute passed in , for regulating the dress of the scottish lords of parliament, the gowns of the earls are appointed to be furred with ermine, while those of the other lords are to be lined with "criestay, gray, griece, or purray." the more precious furs, as ermine and sable, were reserved exclusively for the principal nobility of both sexes. persons of an inferior rank wore the _vair_ or _gris_ (probably the hungarian squirrel); the citizens and burgesses, the common squirrel and lamb skins; and the peasants, cat and badger skins. the mantles of our kings and peers, and the furred robes of the several classes of our municipal officers, are the remains of this once universal fashion. furs often formed an important part of the ransom of a prisoner of rank:-- "sir," quoth count bongars, "war's disastrous hour hath cast my lot within my foeman's power. name ransome as you list; gold, silver bright, palfreys, or dogs, or falcons train'd to flight; or choose you _sumptuous furs, of vair or gray_; i plight my faith the destin'd price to pay."[ ] certain german nobles who had slain a bishop were enjoined, amongst other acts of penance, "ut varium, griseum, ermelinum, et pannos coloratos, non portent." the skin of the wild cat was much used by the clergy. bishop wolfstan preferred lambskin; saying in excuse, "crede mihi, nunquam audivi, in ecclesia, cantari _catus_ dei, sed _agnus_ dei; ideo calefieri agno volo." the monk of chaucer had "------his sleeves purfiled, at the hond, with gris, and that the finest of the lond." it is not till about the year that there is any specific enumeration of the royal apparel for festival occasions. the proper officers are appointed to bring for the king on this occasion "a golden crown, a red satin mantle adorned with sapphires and pearls, a robe of the same, a tunic of white damask; and slippers of red satin edged with goldsmith's work; a balbrick set with gems; two girdles enamelled and set with garnets and sapphires; white gloves, one with a sapphire and one with an amethist; various clasps adorned with emeralds, turquois, pearls, and topaz; and sceptres set with twenty-eight diamonds."[ ] so much for the king:--and for the queen--oh! ye enlightened legislators of the earth, ye omnipotent and magisterial lords of creation, look on that picture--and on this. "for our lady the queen's use, sixty ells of fine linen cloth, forty ells of dark green cloth, a skin of minever, a _small brass pan_, and _eight towels_." but john, who in addition to his other amiable propensities was the greatest and most extravagant fop in europe, was as parsimonious towards others as selfish and extravagant people usually are. whilst even at the ceremony of her coronation he only afforded his queen "three cloaks of fine linen, one of scarlet cloth, and one grey pelisse, costing together _l._ _s._ _d._;" he himself launched into all sorts of expenditure. he ordered the minutest articles for himself and the queen; but the wardrobe accounts of the sovereigns of the middle ages prove that they kept a royal warehouse of mercery, haberdashery, and linen, from whence their officers measured out velvets, brocades, sarcenets, tissue, gauzes, and trimmings, of all sorts. a queen, says miss strickland, had not the satisfaction of ordering her own gown when she obtained leave to have a new one; the warlike hand of her royal lord signed the order for the delivery of the materials from his stores, noting down with minute precision the exact quantity to a quarter of a yard of the cloth, velvet, or brocade, of which the garment was composed. "blessed be the memory of king edward iii. and philippa of hainault his queen, who first invented clothes," was, we are told, the grateful adjuration of a monkish historian, who referred probably not to the first assumption of apparel, but to the charter which was granted first by that monarch to the "cutters and linen armourers," subsequently known as the merchant-tailors, who at that period were usually the makers of all garments, silk, linen, or woollen. female fingers had sufficient occupation in the finer parts of the work; in the "silke broiderie" with which every garment of fashion was embellished; in the tapestry; in the spinning of wool and flax, every thread of which was drawn by female hands, and in the weaving of which a great portion was also executed by them. in the forty-fourth year of this king, "as the book of worcester reporteth, they began to use cappes of divers coloures, especially red, with costly lynings; and in the year , the forty-seventh of the above prince, they first began to wanton it in a new round curtall weede, which they call a cloake, and in latin _armilausa_, as only covering the shoulders, and this notwithstanding the king had endeavoured to restrain all these inordinances and expenses in clothing; as appears by the law by parliament established in the thirty-sixth year of his reign. all ornaments of gold or silver, either on the daggers, girdles, necklaces, rings, or other ornaments for the body, were forbid to all that could not spend ten pounds a-year; and farther, that no furre or pretious and costly apparel, should be worne by any but men possessed of _l._ a year." besides the rigid enactments of the law, and the anathemas of divines, other and gentler means were from time to time resorted to as warnings from that sin of dress which seems inherent in our nature, or as inducements to a more becoming one. we quote a specimen of both:-- "there was a lady whiche had her lodgynge by the chirche. and she was alweye accustomed for to be longe to araye her, and to make her freshe and gay, insomuch that it annoyed and greued moche the parson of the chirche, and the parysshens. and it happed on a sonday that she was so longe, that she sent to the preeste that he shod tarye for her, lyke as she had been accustomed. and it was thenne ferforthe on the day. and it annoyed the peple. and there were somme that said, how is hit? shall not this lady this day be pynned ne wel besene in a myrroure? and somme said softely, god sende to her an evyll syght in her myrroure that causeth us this day and so oftymes to muse and to abyde for her. and thene as it plesyd god for an ensample, as she loked in the myrroure she sawe therein the fende, whiche shewed hymselfe to her so fowle and horryble, that the lady wente oute of her wytte, and was al demonyak a long tyme. and after god sente to her helthe. and after she was not so longe in arayeng but thanked god that had so suffered her to be chastysed."[ ] the 'garment of gude ladyis' is a lecture of a most beguiling kind, and an exquisite picture. "wald my gud lady lufe me best, and wirk after my will, i suld ane garment gudliest gar mak hir body till. "of he honour suld be her hud, upoun hir heid to weir, garneist with governance so gud, na demyng[ ] suld hir deir.[ ] "hir kirtill suld be of clene constance, lasit with lesum lufe, the mailyeis[ ] of continwance for nevir to remufe. "her gown suld be of gudliness, weill ribband with renowne, purfillit[ ] with plesour in ilk place, furrit with fyne fassoun.[ ] "her belt suld be of benignitie, about hir middill meit; hir mantill of humilitie, to tholl[ ] bayth wind and weit. "hir hat suld be of fair having[ ], and her tepat of trewth, hir patelet[ ] of gude pansing, hir hals-ribbane of rewth. "hir slevis suld be of esperance, to keip hir fra dispair; hir gluvis of the gud govirnance, to hyd hir fingearis fair. "hir schone suld be of sickernes[ ] in syne that scho nocht slyd; hir hois of honestie, i ges, i suld for hir provyd. "wald scho put on this garmond gay, i duret sweir by my seill, that scho woir nevir grene nor gray that set hir half so weill." footnotes: [ ] lady's magazine. [ ] bugg--buge, lamb's furr.--dr. jamieson. [ ] ancassin and nicolette. [ ] the first instance in which the name of this stone is found.--miss lawrence. [ ] the knyght of the toure. [ ] _demyng_--censure. [ ] _deir_--dismay. [ ] _mailyeis_--network. [ ] _purfillit_--furbelowed. [ ] _fassoun_--address, politeness. [ ] _tholl_--endure. [ ] _having_--behaviour. [ ] _patelet_--run. [ ] _sickernes_--steadfastness. chapter xiv. needlework in costume.--part ii. "and the short french breeches make such a comelie vesture that, except it were a dog in a doublet, you shall not see anie so disguised as are my countriemen of england." holinshed. "out from the gadis to the eastern morne, not one but holds his native state forlorne. when comelie striplings wish it were their chance for cenis' distaffe to exchange their lance; and weare curl'd periwigs, and chalk their face, and still are poring on their pocket glasse; tyr'd with pinn'd ruffs, and fans, and partlet strips, and buskes and verdingales about their hips: and tread on corked stilts a prisoner's pace." bp. joseph hall. "they brought in fashions strange and new, with golden garments bright; the farthingale and mighty ruff, with gowns of rich delight." a warning-piece to england. the queen (anne neville) of richard iii. seems to have been somewhat more regally accoutred than those of her royal predecessors to whom we referred in the last chapter. among "the stuff delivered to the queen at her coronation are twenty-seven yards of white cloth of gold for a kirtle and train, and a mantle of the same, richly furred with ermine. this was the dress in which she rode in her litter from the tower to the palace of westminster. this was an age of long trains, and the length was regulated by the rank of the wearer; anne, for her whole purple velvet suit, had fifty-six yards. from the entries of scarlet cloth given to the nobility for mantles on this occasion, we find that duchesses had thirteen yards, countesses ten, and baronesses eight." the costume of henry vii.'s day differed little from that of edward iv., except in the use of shirts bordered with lace and richly trimmed with ornamental needlework, which continued a long time in vogue amongst the nobility and gentry. a slight inspection of the inventories of henry viii.'s apparel will convince us of a truth which we should otherwise, readily have guessed, viz., that no expense and no splendour were spared in the "swashing costume" of his day. its general aspect is too familiar to us to require much comment. we may remark, however, that four several acts were passed in his reign for the reformation of apparel, and that all but the royal family were prohibited from wearing "any cloth of gold of purpure colour, or silk of the same colour," upon pain of forfeiture of the same and £ for every offence. shirt bands and ruffles of gold were worn by the privileged, but none under the degree of knight were permitted to decorate their shirts with silk, gold, or silver. henry viii.'s "knitte gloves of silk" are particularly referred to, and also his "handkerchers" edged with gold, silver, or fine needlework. these handkerchiefs, wrought with gold and silver, were not uncommon in the after-times. in the ballad of george barnwell, it is said of milwood-- "a handkerchief she had, all wrought with silk and gold, which she, to stay her trickling tears, before her eyes did hold." in the east these handkerchiefs are common, and it is still a favourite occupation of the egyptian ladies to embroider them. we are surprised now to find to what minute particulars legal enactments descended. "no husbandman, shepherd, or common labourer to any artificer, out of cities or boroughs (having no goods of their own above the value of £ ), shall use or wear any cloth the broad yard whereof passeth _s._ _d._, or any hose above the price of _d._ the yard, upon pain of imprisonment in the stocks for three days." it was in a subsequent reign, that of mary, that a proclamation was issued that no man should "weare his shoes above sixe inches _square_ at the toes." we have before seen that the attention of the grave and learned members of the senate, the "conscript fathers" of england, was devoted to the due regulation of this interesting part of apparel, when the shoe-toes were worn so long that they were obliged to be tied up to the waist ere the happy and privileged wearer could set his foot on the ground. now, however, "a change came o'er the spirit of the day," and it became the duty of those who exercised a paternal surveillance over the welfare of the community at large to legislate regarding the _breadth_ of the shoe-toes, that they should not be above "sixe inches square." "great," was anciently the cry--"great is diana of the ephesians;" but how immeasurably greater and mightier has been, through that and all succeeding ages, the supreme potentate who with a mesh of flimsy gauze or fragile silk has constrained nations as by a shackle of iron, that shadowy, unsubstantial, ever-fleeting, yet ever-exacting deity--fashion! at her shrine worship all the nations of the earth. the savage who bores his nose or tattooes his tawny skin is impelled by the same power which robes the courtly eastern in flowing garments; and the dark-hued beauty who smears herself with blubber is influenced by the selfsame motive which causes the fair-haired daughter of england to tint her delicate cheek with the mimic rose. and it is not merely in the shape and form of garments that this deity exercises her tyrannic sway, transforming "men into monsters," and women likewise--if it were possible: her vagaries are infinite and unaccountable; yet, how unaccountable soever, have ever numberless and willing votaries. it was once the _fashion_ for people who either were or fancied themselves to be in love to prove the sincerity of their passion by the fortitude with which they could bear those extremes of heat and cold from which unsophisticated _nature_ would shrink. these "penitents of love," for so the fraternity--and a pretty numerous one it was--was called, would clothe themselves in the dog-days in the thickest mantles lined throughout with the warmest fur: when the winds howled, the hail beat, and snow invested the earth with a freezing mantle, they wore the thinnest and most fragile garments. it was forbidden to wear fur on a day of the most piercing cold, or to appear with a hood, cloak, gloves, or muff. they supposed or pretended that the deity whom they thus propitiated was love: we aver that the autocrat under whose irreversible decrees they thus succumbed--was fashion. and, after all, who is this all-powerful genius? what is her appearance? whence does she arise? did she alight from the skies, while rejoicing stars sang pæans at her birth? was she born of the sunbeams while a glittering rainbow cast a halo of glory around her? or did she spring from ocean while nereids revelled around, and mermaids strung their harps with their own golden locks, soft melodies the while floating along the glistering waves, and echoing from the tritons' booming shells beneath? no. alas, no! she is subtle as the air; she is evanescent as a sunbeam, and unsubstantial as the ocean's froth;--but she is none of these. she is--but we will lay aside our own definition in order that the reader may have the advantage of that of one of the greatest and wisest of statesmen. "quelqu'un qui voudrait un peu étudier d'où part en première source ce qu'on appelle les modes verrait, à notre honte, qu'un petit nombre de gens, de la plus méprisable espèce qui soit dans une ville, laquelle renferme tout indifféremment dans son sein; pour qui, si nous les connaissions, nous n'aurions que le mépris qu'on a pour les gens sans moeurs, ou la pitié qu'on a pour les fous, disposent pourtant de nos bourses, et nous tiennent assujettis à tous leurs caprices." can this indeed be that supereminent deity for whom so "many do shipwrack their credits," and make themselves "ridiculous apes, or at best but like the cynnamon-tree, whose bark is more worth than its body." "clothes" writes a venerable historian, "are for necessity; warm clothes for health; cleanly for decency; lasting for thrift; and rich for magnificence. now, there may be a fault in their number, if too various; making, if too vain; matter, if too costly; and mind of the wearer, if he takes pride therein. "_he that is proud of the russling of his silks, like a madman laughs at the rattling of his fetters._ for, indeed, clothes ought to be our remembrancers of our lost innocency. besides, why should any brag of what's but borrowed? should the estrige snatch off the gallant's feather, the beaver his hat, the goat his gloves, the sheep his sute, the silkworm his stockings, and neat his shoes (to strip him no farther than modesty will give leave), he would be left in a cold condition. and yet 'tis more pardonable to be proud, even of cleanly rags, than (as many are) of affected slovennesse. the one is proud of a molehill, the other of a dunghill." but the worthy fuller's ideal picture of suitable dress was the very antipodes of the reality of elizabeth's day, when that rage for foreign fashions existed which has since frequently almost inundated the island, and our ancestors masked themselves "------in garish gaudery to suit a fool's far-fetched livery. a french hood join'd to neck italian, the thighs from germany and breast from spain. an englishman in none, a fool in all, many in one, and one in several." and shakspeare, who has perhaps suffered no peculiarity of his time to escape observation, makes portia satirize this affectation in her english admirer:--"how oddly he is suited! i think he bought his doublet in italy, his round hose in france, his bonnet in germany, and his behaviour everywhere." a reverend critic thus remarks on the luxurious modes of his time: "these tender parnels must have one gown for the day, another for the night; one long, another short; one for winter, another for summer. one furred through, another but faced; one for the workday, another for the holiday. one of this colour, another of that. one of cloth, another of silk or damask. change of apparel; one afore dinner, another at after: one of spanish fashion, another of turkey. and to be brief, never content with enough, but always devising new fashions and strange. yea, a ruffian will have more in his ruff and his hose than he should spend in a year. he which ought to go in a russet coat spends as much on apparel for him and his wife as his father would have kept a good house with." the following is of later date, and seems, somewhat unjustly we think, to satirize the fair sex alone. "why do women array themselves in such fantastical dresses and quaint devices; with gold, with silver, with coronets, with pendants, bracelets, earrings, chains, rings, pins, spangles, embroideries, shadows, rebatoes, versicoloured ribbons, feathers, fans, masks, furs, laces, tiffanies, ruffs, falls, calls, cuffs, damasks, velvets, tassels, golden cloth, silver tissue, precious stones, stars, flowers, birds, beasts, fishes, crisped locks, wigs, painted faces, bodkins, setting sticks, cork, whalebone, sweet odours, and whatever else africa, asia, and america can produce; flaying their faces to produce the fresher complexion of a new skin, and using more time in dressing than cæsar took in marshalling his army,--but that, like cunning falconers, they wish to spread false lures to catch unwary larks, and lead by their gaudy baits and dazzling charms the minds of inexperienced youth into the traps of love?" though the costume of elizabeth's day, especially at the period of her coronation was, splendid, it had not attained to the ridiculous extravagance which at a later period elicited the above-quoted strictures; and we are told that her own taste at an early period of life was simple and unostentatious. her dress and appearance are thus described by aylmer, lady jane grey's tutor, and afterwards bishop of london. "the king (henry viii.) left her rich clothes and jewels; and i know it to be true, that, in seven years after her father's death, she never in all that time looked upon that rich attire and precious jewels but once, and that against her will. and that there never came gold or stone upon her head, till her sister forced her to lay off her former soberness, and bear her company in her glittering gayness. and then she so wore it as every man might see that her body carried that which her heart misliked. i am sure that her maidenly apparel, which she used in king edward's time, made noblemen's daughters and wives to be ashamed to be dressed and painted like peacocks; being more moved with her most virtuous example than with all that ever paul or peter wrote touching that matter. yea, this i know, that a great man's daughter (lady jane grey) receiving from lady mary, before she was queen, good apparel of tinsel, cloth of gold and velvet, laid on with parchment-lace of gold, when she saw it, said, 'what shall i do with it?' 'marry!' said a gentlewoman, 'wear it.' 'nay,' quoth she, 'that were a shame, to follow my lady mary against god's word, and leave my lady elizabeth, which followeth god's word.' and when all the ladies, at the coming of the scots' queen dowager, mary of guise, (she who visited england in edward's time), went with their hair frownsed, curled, and double-curled, she altered nothing, but kept her old maidenly shame-facedness." and there is a print from a portrait of her when young, in which the hair is without a single ornament, and the whole dress remarkably simple. yet this is the lady whose passion for dress in after life could not be sated; to whom, or at least before whom (and the queen was not slow in appropriating and resenting the hint[ ]), latimer, bishop of london, thought it necessary to preach on the vanity of decking the body too finely; and who finally left behind her a wardrobe containing three thousand dresses. a modern fair one may wonder how such a profusion of dresses could be accommodated at all, even in a royal wardrobe, with fitting respect to the integrity of puffs and furbelows. but clothes were not formerly kept in drawers, where but few can be laid with due regard to the safety of each, but were hung up on wooden pegs, in a room appropriated to the sole purpose of receiving them; and though such cast-off things as were composed of rich substances were occasionally _ripped_ for domestic uses (viz., mantles for infants, vests for children, and counterpanes for beds), articles of inferior quality were suffered to _hang by the walls_ till age and moths had destroyed what pride would not permit to be worn by servants or poor relations. to this practice, also, does shakspeare allude: imogen exclaims, in 'cymbeline,'-- "poor i am stale, a garment out of fashion; and, for i am richer than to hang by the walls, i must be ripp'd--" the following regulations may be interesting; and the knowledge of them will doubtless excite feelings of joy and gratitude in our fair readers that they are born in an age where "will is free," and the dustman's wife may, if it so please her, outshine the duchess, without the terrors of parliament before her eyes:-- "by the queene. "whereas the queene's maiestie, for avoyding of the great inconvenience that hath growen and dayly doeth increase within this her realme, by the inordinate excesse in apparel, hath in her princely wisdome and care for reformation thereof, by sundry former proclamations, straightly charged and commanded those in authoritie under her to see her lawes provided in that behalfe duely executed; whereof notwithstanding, partly through their negligence, and partly by the manifest contempt and disobedience of the parties offending, no reformation at all hath followed; her maiestie, finding by experience that by clemencie, whereunto she is most inclinable, so long as there is any hope of redresse, this increasing evill hath not beene cured, hath thought fit to seeke to remedie the same by correction and severitie, to be used against both these kindes of offenders, in regard of the present difficulties of this time; wherein the decay and lacke of hospitalitie appeares in the better sort in all countreys, principally occasioned by the immeasurable charges and expenses which they are put to in superfluous apparelling their wives, children, and families, the confusion also of degrees in all places being great; where the meanest are as richly apparelled as their betters, and the pride that such inferior persons take in their garments, driving many for their maintenance to robbing and stealing by the hieway, &c. &c. "her maiestie doth straightly charge and command-- "that none under the degree of a countess wear: cloth of gold or silver tissued; silke of coulor purple. "under the degree of a baronesse:-- cloth of golde; cloth of silver; tinselled satten; sattens branched with silver or golde; sattens striped with silver or golde; taffaties brancht with silver or golde; cipresses flourisht with silver or golde; networks wrought in silver or golde; tabines brancht with silver or golde; or any other silke or cloth mixt or embroidered with pearle, golde, or silver. "under the degree of a baron's eldest sonne's wife: any embroideries of golde or silver; passemaine lace, or any other lace, mixed with golde, silver, or silke; caules, attires, or other garnishings for the head trimmed with pearle. "under the degree of a knighte's wife:-- velvet in gownes, cloakes, savegards, or other uppermost garments; embroidery with silke. "under the degree of a knighte's eldest sonne's wife:-- velvet in kirtles and petticoates; sattens in gownes, cloakes, savegards, or other uppermost garments. "under the degree of a gentleman's wife, bearing armes:-- satten in kirtles, } damaske, } tuft taffetie, } in gownes." plaine taffetie, } grograine } venice and paris seem to have been the chief sources of fashion; from these depôts of taste were derived the flaunting head-dresses, the "shiptire," the "tire valiant," &c., which were commonly worn in these days of gorgeous finery, and which were rendered still more _outré_ and unnatural by the _dyed_ locks which they surmounted. the custom of dyeing the hair is of great antiquity, and was very prevalent in the east. mohammed dyed his hair red; abu bekr his successor did the same, and it is a custom among the scenite arabs even to this day. the ancients often mixed gold dust in their hair, and the gauls used to wash the hair with a liquid which had a tendency to redden it. it was doubtless in personal compliment to queen elizabeth, that all the fashionables of her day dyed their locks of a hue which is generally considered the reverse of attraction. periwigs, which were introduced into england about , were to be had of _all colours_. it is in allusion to this absurd fashion that benedick says of the lady whom he might chuse to marry:--"her hair shall be of what colour it please god." men first wore wigs in charles the second's time; and these were gradually increased in size, until they reached the acme of their magnificence in the reign of william and mary, when not only men, but even young lads and children were disguised in enormous wigs. and though in the reign of queen anne this latter custom was not so common, yet the young men had the want of wigs supplied by artificial curlings, and dressing of the hair, which was then only performed by the women. one bill preserved amongst the harl. mss. runs thus:-- "next door to the golden ball, in st. bride's lane, fleet street, lyveth lidia beercraft. who cutteth and curleth ladies, gentlemen, and children's hair. she sells a fine pomatum, which is mixed with ingredients of her own making, that if the hair be never so thin, it makes it grow thick; and if short, it makes it grow long. if any gentleman's or children's hair be never so lank, she makes it curle in a little time, and to look like a periwig." and this, indeed, the looking like a periwig, seems to have been then the very _beau ideal_ of all beauty and perfection, for another fair tonsoress advertises to cut and curl hair after the french fashion, "after so fine a manner, that _you shall not know it to be their own hair_." how applicable to these absurdities are the lines of an amiable censor of a later day!-- "we have run through ev'ry change, that fancy, at the loom exhausted, has had genius to supply; and, studious of mutation still, discard a real elegance, a little us'd, for monstrous novelty and strange disguise." to return to elizabeth:-- the best known, and most distinguishing characteristic of the costume of her day was the ruff; which was worn of such enormous size that a lady in full dress was obliged to feed herself with a spoon two feet long. in the year , sumptuary laws were published by proclamation, and enforced with great exactness, by which the ruffs were reduced to legal dimensions. extravagant prices were paid for them, and they were made at first of fine holland, but early in elizabeth's reign they began to wear lawn and cambric, which were brought to england in very small quantities, and sold charily by the yard or half yard; for there was then hardly one shopkeeper in fifty who dared to speculate in a whole piece of either. so "strange and wonderful was this stuff," says stowe, speaking of lawn, "that thereupon rose a general scoff or byeword, that shortly they would wear ruffs of a spider's web." and another difficulty arose; for when the queen had ruffs made of this new and beautiful fabric, there was nobody in england who could starch or stiffen them; but happily her grace found a dutchwoman possessed of that knowledge which england could not supply, and "guillan's wife was the first starcher the queen had, as guillan himself was the first coachman." "afterward, in , ( th of elizabeth), one mistress dinghen vauden plasse, born at teenen in flanders, daughter of a worshipful knight of that province, with her husband, came to london, and there professed herself a starcher, wherein she excelled; unto whom her own nation presently repaired and employed her, rewarding her very liberally for her work. some of the curious ladies of that time, observing the neatness of the dutch, and the nicety of their linen, made them cambric ruffs, and sent them to mistress dinghen to starch; soon after they began to send their daughters and kinswomen to mistress dinghen, to learn how to starch; her usual price was, at that time, _l._ or _l._ to teach them to starch, and _s._ to learn them to see the starch. this mrs. dinghen was the first that ever taught starching in england." the ruffs were adjusted by poking sticks of iron, steel, or silver, heated in the fire--(probably something answering to our italian iron), and in may a lady of antwerp, being invited to a wedding, could not, although she employed two celebrated laundresses, get her ruff plaited according to her taste, upon which "she fell to sweare and teare, to curse and ban, casting the ruffes under feete, and wishing that the devill might take her when shee did wear any neckerchers againe." this gentleman, whom it is said an invocation will always summon, now appeared in the likeness of a favoured suitor, and inquiring the cause of her agitation, he "took in hande the setting of her ruffes, which he performed to her great contentation and liking; insomuch, as she, looking herself in a glasse (as the devill bade her) became greatly enamoured with him. this done, the young man kissed her, in the doing whereof, he writhed her neck in sunder, so she died miserably." but here comes the marvel: four men tried in vain to lift her "fearful body" when coffined for interment; six were equally unsuccessful; "whereat the standers-by marvelling, caused the coffin to be opened to see the cause thereof: where they found the body to be taken away, and a blacke catte, very leane and deformed, sitting in the coffin, _setting of great ruffes and frizling of haire_, to the great feare and woonder of all the beholders." the large hoop farthingales were worn now, but they were said to be adopted by the ladies from a laudable spirit of emulation, a praiseworthy desire on their parts to be of equal standing with the "nobler sex," who now wore breeches, stuffed with rags or other materials to such an enormous size, that a bench of extraordinary dimension was placed round the parliament house, (of which the traces were visible at a very late period) solely for their accommodation. strutt quotes an instance of a man whom the judges accused of wearing breeches contrary to the law (for a law was made against them): he, for his excuse, drew out of his slops the contents; at first a pair of sheets, two table-cloths, ten napkins, four shirts, a brush, a glass, and a comb; with nightcaps and other things of use, saying, "your worship may understand, that because i have no safer a storehouse, these pockets do serve me for a room to lay up my goods in,--and, though it be a strait prison, yet it is big enough for them, for i have many things of value yet within it." his excuse was heartily laughed at and accepted. this ridiculous fashion was for a short time disused, but revived again in . the breeches were then chiefly stuffed with hair. many satirical rhymes were written upon them; amongst others, "a lamentable complaint of the poore countrye men agaynst great hose, for the loss of their cattelles tales." in which occur these:-- "what hurt, what damage doth ensue, and fall upon the poore, for want of wool and flaxe, of late, whych monstrous hose devoure. "but haire hath so possess'd, of late, the bryche of every knave, that no one beast, nor horse can tell, whiche way his taile to save." henry viii. had received a few pairs of silk stockings from spain, but knitted silk ones were not known until the second year of elizabeth, when her silk-woman, mrs. montague, presented to her majesty a pair of black knit silk stockings, for a new-year's gift, with which she was so much pleased that she desired to know if the donor could not help her to any more, to which mrs. montague answered, "i made them carefully on purpose for your majestie; and seeing they please you so well, i will presently set more in hand." "do so (said the queen), for i like silk stockings so well, that i will not henceforth wear any more cloth hose." these shortly became common; though even over so simple an article as a stocking, fashion asserted her supremacy, and at a subsequent period they were two yards wide at the top, and made fast to the "petticoat breeches," by means of strings through eyelet holes. but elizabeth's predilection for rich attire is well known, and if the costume of her day was fantastic, it was still magnificent. a suit trimmed with sables was considered the richest dress worn by men; and so expensive was this fur, that, it is said a thousand ducats were sometimes given for "a face of sables." it was towards the close of her reign that the celebrated gabrielle d'estrées wore on a festive occasion a dress of black satin, so ornamented with pearls and precious stones, that she could scarcely move under its weight. she had a handkerchief, for the embroidering of which she engaged to pay crowns. and such it was said was the influence of her example in paris, that the ladies ornamented even their shoes with jewels. yet even this costly magnificence was afterwards surpassed by that of villiers, duke of buckingham, with whom it was common, even at an ordinary dancing, to have his clothes trimmed with great diamond buttons, and to have diamond hatbands, cockades, and earrings, to be yoked with great and manifold ropes and knots of pearl; in short, to be manacled, fettered, and imprisoned in jewels: insomuch that at his going to paris in , he had twenty-seven suits of clothes made, the richest that embroidery, lace, silk, velvet, gold, and gems could contribute; one of which was a white uncut velvet set all over, both suit and cloak, with diamonds valued at fourscore thousand pounds, besides a great feather, stuck all over with diamonds, as were also his sword, girdle, hatband, and spurs.[ ] it would but weary our readers were we to dwell on the well-known peculiarities of the "cavalier and roundhead" days; and tell how the steeple-crowned hat was replaced at the restoration by the plumed and jewelled velvet; the forlorn, smooth, methodistical pate, by the curled ringlets and flowing lovelock; the sober, sombre, "sad" coloured garment, with its starched folds, by the gay, varied, flowing drapery of all hues. then, how the plume of feathers gave way to the simpler band and buckle, and the thick large curling wig and full ruffle, to the bagwig, the tie, and stock. the dashing cloak and slashed sleeves were succeeded by the coat of ample dimensions, and the waistcoat with interminable pockets resting on the knees; the "breeches" were in universal use, though they were not of the universal "black" which cowper immortalises; but "black breeches" and "powder" have had their reign, and are succeeded by the "inexpressible" costume of the present day. we will conclude a chapter, which we fear to have spun out tediously, by lady morgan's animated account of the introduction, in france, of that universally-coveted article of dress--a cashmir shawl:-- "while partaking of a sumptuous collation (at rouen), the conversation naturally turned on the splendid views which the windows commanded, and on the subjects connected with their existence. the flocks, which were grazing before us had furnished the beautiful shawls which hung on the backs of the chairs occupied by our fair companions, and which might compete with the turbans of the grand signor. it would be difficult now to persuade a parisian _petite maitresse_ that there was a time when french women of fashion could exist without a cashmir, or that such an indispensable article of the toilet and _sultan_ was unknown even to the most elegant. 'the first cashemir that appeared in france,' said madame d'aubespine, (for an educated french woman has always something worth hearing to say on all subjects,) 'was sent over by baron de tott, then in the service of the porte, to madame de tessé. when they were produced in her society, every body thought them very fine, but nobody knew what use to make of them. it was determined that they would make pretty _couvre-pieds_ and veils for the cradle; but the fashion wore out with the shawls, and ladies returned to their eider-down quilts.' "monsieur ternaux observed that 'though the produce of the cashmerian looms had long been known in europe, they did not become a vogue until after napoleon's expedition to egypt; and that even then they took, in the first instance, but slowly.' the shawl was still a novelty in france, when josephine, as yet but the wife of the first consul, knew not how to drape its elegant folds, and stood indebted to the _brusque_ rapp for the grace with which she afterwards wore it. "'permettez que je vous fasse l'observation,' said rapp, as they were setting off for the opera; 'que votre schall n'est pas mis avec cette grâce qui vous est habituelle.' "josephine laughingly let him arrange it in the manner of the egyptian women. this impromptu toilette caused a little delay, and the infernal machine exploded in vain! "what destinies waited upon the arrangement of this cashemir! a moment sooner or later, and the shawl might have given another course to events, which would have changed the whole face of europe."[ ] the empress josephine (says her biographer) had quite a passion for shawls, and i question whether any collection of them was ever as valuable as hers. at navarre she had one hundred and fifty, all extremely beautiful and high-priced. she sent designs to constantinople, and the shawls made after these patterns were as beautiful as they were valuable. every week m. lenormant came to navarre, and sold her whatever he could obtain that was curious in this way. i have seen white shawls covered with roses, bluebells, perroquets, peacocks, &c., which i believe were not to be met with any where else in europe; they were valued at , and , francs each. the shawls were at length sold _by auction_ at malmaison, at a rate much below their value. all paris went to the sale. footnotes: [ ] "her majesty told the ladies, that if the bishop held more discourse on such matters, she would fit him for heaven; but he should walk thither without a staff, and leave his mantle behind him." [ ] life of raleigh, by oldys. [ ] lady morgan's france in - . chapter xv. the field of the cloth of gold. "where are the proud and lofty dames, their jewell'd crowns, their gay attire, their odours sweet? where are the love-enkindled flames, the bursts of passionate desire laid at their feet? where are the songs, the troubadours, the music which delighted then?-- it speaks no more. where is the dance that shook the floors, and all the gay and laughing train, and all they wore? "the royal gifts profusely shed, the palaces so proudly built, with riches stor'd; the roof with shining gold o'erspread, the services of silver gilt, the secret hoard, the arabian pards, the harness bright, the bending plumes, the crowded mews, the lacquey train, where are they?--where!--all lost in night, and scatter'd as the early dews across the plain." bowring's anc. span. romances. romance and song have united to celebrate the splendours of the "field of the cloth of gold." the most scrupulously minute and faithful of recorders has detailed day by day, and point by point, its varied and showy routine, and every subsequent historian has borrowed from the pages of the old chronicler; and these dry details have been so expanded by the breath of fancy, and his skeleton frame has been so fleshed by the magical drapery of talent, that there seems little left on which the imagination can dilate, or the pen expatiate. the astonishing impulse which has in various ways within the last few years been given to the searching of ancient records, and the development of hitherto obscure and comparatively uninteresting details, and vesting them in an alluring garb, has made us as familiar with the domestic records of the eighth henry, as in our school-days we were with the orthodox abstract of necessary historical information,--that "henry the eighth ascended the throne in the th year of his age;" that "he became extremely corpulent;" that "he married six wives, and beheaded two." not even affording gratuitously the codicil which the talent of some writer hath educed--that "if henry the eighth had not beheaded his wives, there would have been no impeachment on his gallantry to the fair sex." but in describing this, according to some, "the most magnificent spectacle that europe ever beheld," and to others, "a heavy mass of allegory and frippery," historians have been contented to pourtray the outward features of the gorgeous scene, and have slightly, if at all, touched on the contending feelings which were veiled beneath a broad though thin surface of concord and joy. truly, it were a task of deep interest, even slightly to picture them, or to attempt to enter into the feelings of the chief actors on that field. first and foremost, as the guiding spirit of the whole, as the mighty artificer of that pageant on which, however gaudy in its particulars the fates of europe were supposed to depend, and the earnest eyes of europe were certainly fixed--comes wolsey.--gorgeously habited himself, and the burnished gold of his saddle cloth only partially relieved by the more sombre crimson velvet; nay, his very shoes gleaming with brilliants, and himself withal so lofty in bearing, of so noble a presence, that this very magnificence seemed but a natural appendage, wolsey took his lofty way from monarch to monarch; and so well did he become his dignity, that none but kings, and such kings as henry and francis, would have drawn the eyes of the myriad spectators from himself. and surely he was now happy; surely his ambition was now gratified to the uttermost; now, in the eyes of all europe did the two proudest of her princes not merely associate with him almost as an equal, but openly yield to his suggestions--almost bow to his decisions. no--loftily as he bore himself, courtly as was his demeanour, rapid and commanding as was his eloquence, and influential as seemed his opinions on all and every one around--the cardinal had a mind ill at ease, as, despite his self-control, was occasionally testified by his contracted brow and thoughtful aspect. after exerting all the might of his mighty influence, and for his own aggrandisement, to procure this meeting between the two potentates, he had at the last moment seen fit to alter his policy. he had sold himself to a higher bidder; he had pledged himself to charles in the very teeth of his solemn engagement to francis. even whilst celebrating this league of amity, he was turning in his own mind the means by which to rupture it; and was yet withal, nervously fearful of any accident which should prematurely break it, or lead to a discovery of his own faithlessness.--so much for his enjoyment! our king henry was all delight, and eager impetuous enjoyment. he had not outlived the good promise of his youth; nor had his foibles become, by indulgence, vices. he loved to see all around him happy; he loved, more especially, to make them so. he delighted in all the exercises of the field; he was unrivalled in the tilt and the tournament; and when engaged in them forgot kings and kingdoms. his vanity, outrageous as it was, hardly sat ungracefully on him, so much was it elevated then by buoyant good humour--so much was it softened at that time by his noble presence, his manly grace, his kingly accomplishments, and his regal munificence. the stern and selfish tyrant whom one shudders to think upon, was then only "bluff king hal," loving and beloved, courted and caressed by an empire. he gave himself up to the gaieties of the time without a care for the present, a thought for the future. could he have glanced dimly into that future! but he could not, and he was happy. francis was admirably qualified to grace this scene, and to enjoy it, as probably he did enjoy it, vividly. yet was this gratification by no means unalloyed. his gentle manly nature was irritated at certain stipulations of henry's advisers, by which their most trivial intercourse was subjected to specific regulations. there were recorded instances enough of treacherous advantages taken to justify fully this conduct on the part of henry's ministers; but francis felt its injustice, as applied to himself, and at that time, made use of a generous and well-known stratagem to convince others. but in the midst of his enjoyments he had misgivings on his mind of a more serious nature, caused by the emperor's recent visit to dover. these misgivings were increased by the meeting between henry and charles at gravelines; and too surely confirmed by quickly-following circumstances. the gentle and good katharine of england, and the equally amiable queen claude, the carefully-trained stepdaughter of the noble and admirable anne of bretagne, probably derived their chief gratification here from the pleasure of seeing their husbands amicable and happy. for queens though they were, their happiness was in domestic life, and their chief empire was over the hearts of those domesticated with them. not so the dowager queen of france--the lively, and graceful, and beautiful duchess of suffolk; for though very fond of her royal brother, and devoted to her gallant husband, she had yet an eye and an ear for all the revelries around, and had a radiant glance and a beaming smile for all who crowded to do homage to her charms. and yet her heart must have been somewhat hard--and that we know it was not--if she could have inhaled the air of france, or trod its sunny soil, without recollections which must have dimmed her eye at the thoughts of the past, even whilst breathing a thanksgiving for the present. somewhat less than five years ago, she had been taken thither a weeping bride; youth, nature, inclination, nay, hope itself, sacrificed to that expediency by which the actions of monarchs are regulated. we are accustomed to read these things so much as mere historical memoranda, to look upon them in their cold unvarnished simplicity of detail, like the rigid outlines of stiff old portraits which we can scarcely suppose were ever meant to represent living flesh and blood--that it requires a strong effort to picture these circumstances to our eyes as actually occurring. in considering the state policy of the thing--and the apparent national advantage of the king of england's sister being married to the king of france--we forget that this king of england's sister was a fair young creature, with warm heart, gushing affections, and passions and feelings just opening in all the vividness of early womanhood; and that she was condemned to marry a sickly, querulous, elderly man, who began his loving rule by dismissing at once, even while she was "a stranger in a foreign land," every endeared friend and attendant who had accompanied her thither; and that, worse than all, her young affections had been sought and gained by a noble english gentleman, the favourite of the english king, and the pride of his court. surely her lot was hard; and well might she weepingly exclaim, "where is now my hope?" little could she suppose (for louis, though infirm, was not aged) that three or four short months would see her not only at liberty from her enforced vows, but united to the man of her heart. must there not, while watching the tilting of her graceful and gallant husband, must there not have been melancholy in her mirth?--must there not, in the keen encounter of wits during the banquet or the ball--must there not have mingled method with her madness? who shall record, or even refer to the hopes, and feelings, and wishes, and thoughts, and reflections of the thousands congregated thither; each one with feelings as intense, with hopes as individually important as those which influenced the royal king of france, or the majestic monarch of england! the loftiest of christendom's knights, the loveliest of christendom's daughters were assembled here; and the courteous bayard, the noble tremouille, the lofty bourbon, felt inspired more gallantly, if possible, than was even their wont, when contending in all love and amity with the proudest of england's champions, in presence of the fairest of her blue-eyed maidens,--the noblest of her courtly dames. nor were the lofty and noble alone there congregated. after the magnificent structure for the king and court, after every thing in the shape of a tenement in, out, or about the little town of guisnes, and the neighbouring hamlets, were occupied, two thousand eight hundred tents were set up on the side of the english alone. no noble or baron would be absent; but likewise knights, and squires, and yeomen flocked to the scene: citizens and city wives disported their richest silks and their heaviest chains; jews went for gain, pedlars for knavery, tradespeople for their craft, rogues for mischief. then there were "vagaboundes, plowmen, laborers, wagoners, and beggers, that for drunkennes lay in routes and heapes, so great resorte thether came, that bothe knightes and ladies that wer come to see the noblenes, were faine to lye in haye and strawe, and hold theim thereof highly pleased." the accommodations provided for the king and privileged members of his court on this occasion were more than magnificent; a vast and splendid edifice that seemed to be endued with the magnificence, and to rise almost with the celerity of that prepared by the slaves of the lamp, where the richest tapestry and silk embroidery--the costliest produce of the most accomplished artisans, were almost unnoticed amid the gold and jewellery by which they were surrounded--where all that art could produce, or riches devise had been lavished--all this has been often described. and the tent itself, the nucleus of the show, the point where the "brother" kings were to confer, was hung round with cloth of gold: the posts, the cones, the cords, the tents, were all of the same precious metal, which glittered here in such excessive profusion as to give that title to the meeting which has superseded all others--"the field of the cloth of gold." this gaudy pageant was the prelude to an era of great interest, for while dwelling on the "galanty shew" we cannot forget that now reigned solyman the magnificent, and that this was the age of leo the tenth; that charles the fifth was now beginning his influential course; that a sir thomas more graced england; and that in germany there was "one martin luther," who "belonged to an order of strolling friars." under leo's munificent encouragement, rafaello produced those magnificent creations which have been the inspiration of subsequent ages; and at home, under wolsey's enlightened patronage, colleges were founded, learning was encouraged, and the college of physicians first instituted in , found in him one of its warmest advocates and firmest supporters. a modern writer gives the following amusing picture of part of the bustle attendant on the event we are considering. "the palace (of westminster) and all its precincts became the elysium of tailors, embroiderers, and sempstresses. there might you see many a shady form gliding about from apartment to apartment, with smiling looks and extended shears, or armed with ell-wands more potent than mercury's rod, driving many a poor soul to perdition, and transforming his goodly acres into velvet suits, with tags of cloth of gold. so continual were the demands upon every kind of artisan, that the impossibility of executing them threw several into despair. one tailor who is reported to have undertaken to furnish fifty embroidered suits in three days, on beholding the mountain of gold and velvet that cumbered his shop-board, saw, like brutus, the impossibility of victory, and, with roman fortitude, fell on his own shears. three armourers are said to have been completely melted with the heat of their furnaces; and an unfortunate goldsmith swallowed molten silver to escape the persecutions of the day. "the road from london to canterbury was covered during one whole week with carts and waggons, mules, horses, and soldiers; and so great was the confusion, that marshals were at length stationed to keep the whole in order, which of course increased the said confusion a hundred fold. so many were the ships passing between dover and calais, that the historians affirm they jostled each other on the road like a herd of great black porkers. "the king went from station to station like a shepherd, driving all the better classes of the country before him, and leaving not a single straggler behind." though we do not implicitly credit every point of this humorous statement, we think a small portion of description from the old chronicler hall (we will really inflict _only_ a small portion on our readers) will justify a good deal of it; but more especially it will enlighten us as to some of the elaborate conceits of the day, in which, it seems, the needle was as fully occupied as the pen. indeed, what would the "field of the cloth of gold" have been without the skill of the needlewoman? _would it have been at all?_ "the frenche kyng sette hymself on a courser barded, covered with purple sattin, broched with golde, and embraudered with corbyns fethers round and buckeled; the fether was blacke and hached with gold. corbyn is a rauen, and the firste silable of corbyn is _cor_, whiche is a harte, a penne in english, is a fether in frenche, and signifieth pain, and so it stode; this fether round was endles, the buckels wherwith the fethers wer fastened, betokeneth sothfastnes, thus was the devise, _harte fastened in pain endles, or pain in harte fastened endles_. "wednesdaie the daie of june, the twoo hardie kynges armed at all peces, entered into the feld right nobly appareled, the frenche kyng and all his parteners of chalenge were arraied in purple sattin, broched with golde and purple velvet, embrodered with litle rolles of white sattin wherein was written _quando_, all bardes and garmentes wer set full of the same, and all the residue where was no rolles, were poudered and set with the letter ell as thus, l, whiche in frenche is she, which was interpreted to be _quando elle_, when she, and ensuyng the devise of the first daie it signifieth together, _harte fastened in pain endles, when she_. "the frenche kyng likewise armed at al pointes mounted on a courser royal, all his apparel as wel bardes as garmentes were purple velvet, entred the one with the other, embrodred ful of litle bookes of white satten, and in the bokes were written _a me_; aboute the borders of the bardes and the borders of the garmentes, a chaine of blewe like iron, resemblyng the chayne of a well or prison chaine, whiche was enterpreted to be _liber_, a booke; within this boke was written as is sayed, _a me_, put these two together, and it maketh _libera me_; the chayne betokeneth prison or bondes, and so maketh together in englishe, _deliver me of {bondes}_; put to {the} reason, the fyrst day, second day, and third day of chaunge, for he chaunged but the second day, and it is _hart fastened in paine endles, when she deliuereth me not of bondes_; thus was thinterpretation made, but whether it were so in all thinges or not i may not say." the following animated picture from an author already quoted, has been drawn of this spirit-stirring scene:-- "upon a large open green, that extended on the outside of the walls, was to be seen a multitude of tents of all kinds and colours, with a multitude of busy human beings, employed in raising fresh pavilions on every open space, or in decorating those already spread with streamers, pennons, and banners of all the bright hues under the sun. long lines of horses and mules, loaded with armour or baggage, and ornamented with gay ribbons to put them in harmony with the scene, were winding about all over the plain, some proceeding towards the town, some seeking the tents of their several lords, while mingled amongst them, appeared various bands of soldiers, on horseback and on foot, with the rays of the declining sun catching upon the heads of their bills and lances; and together with the white cassock and broad red cross, marking them out from all the other objects. here and there, too, might be seen a party of knights and gentlemen cantering over the plain, and enjoying the bustle of the scene, or standing in separate groups, issuing their orders for the erection and garnishing of their tents; while couriers, and poursuivants, and heralds, in all their gay dresses, mingled with mule drivers, lacqueys, and peasants, armourers, pages, and tent stretchers, made up the living part of the landscape. "the sounding of the trumpets to horse, the shouts of the various leaders, the loud cries of the marshals and heralds, and the roaring of artillery from the castle, as the king put his foot in the stirrup, all combined to make one general outcry rarely equalled. gradually the tumult subsided, gradually also the confused assemblage assumed a regular form. flags, and pennons, and banderols, embroidered banners, and scutcheons; silver pillars, and crosses, and crooks, ranged themselves in long line; and the bright procession, an interminable stream of living gold, began to wind across the plain. first came about five hundred of the gayest and wealthiest gentlemen of england, below the rank of baron; squires, knights, and bannerets, rivalling each other in the richness of their apparel and the beauty of their horses; while the pennons of the knights fluttered above their heads, marking the place of the english chivalry. next appeared the proud barons of the realm, each with his banner borne before him, and followed by a custrel with the shield of his arms. to these again succeeded the bishops, not in the simple robes of the protestant clergy, but in the more gorgeous habits of the church of rome; while close upon their steps rode the higher nobility, surrounding the immediate person of the king, and offering the most splendid mass of gold and jewels that the summer sun ever shone upon. "slowly the procession moved forward to allow the line of those on foot to keep an equal pace. nor did this band offer a less gay and pleasing sight than the cavalcade, for here might be seen the athletic forms of the sturdy english yeomanry, clothed in the various splendid liveries of their several lords, with the family cognisance embroidered on the bosom and arm, and the banners and banderols of their particular houses carried in the front of each company. here also was to be seen the picked guard of the king of england, magnificently dressed for the occasion, with the royal banner carried in their centre by the deputy standard bearer, and the banner of their company by their own ancient. in the rear of all, marshalled by officers appointed for the purpose, came the band of those whose rank did not entitle them to take place in the cavalcade, but who had sufficient interest at court to be admitted to the meeting. though of an inferior class, this company was not the least splendid in the field; for here were all the wealthy tradesmen of the court, habited in many a rich garment, furnished by the extravagance of those that rode before; and many a gold chain hung round their necks, that not long ago had lain in the purse of some prodigal customer." but we cease, being fully of opinion with the old chronicler that "to tell the apparel of the ladies, their riche attyres, their sumptuous juelles, their diversities of beauties, and their goodly behaviour from day to day sithe the fyrst metyng, i assure you ten mennes wittes can scarce declare it." and in a few days, a few short days, all was at an end; and the pomp and the pageantry, the mirth and the revelry, was but as a dream--a most bitter, indeed, and painful dream to hundreds who had bartered away their substance for the sake of a transient glitter: "we seken fast after felicite but we go wrong ful often trewely, thus may we sayen alle." homely indeed, after the paraphernalia of the "field of the cloth of gold," would appear the homes of england on the return of their masters. for though the nobles had begun to remove the martial fronts of their castles, and endeavoured to render them more commodious, yet in architecture the nation participated neither the spirit nor the taste of its sovereign. the mansions of the gentlemen were, we are told, still sordid; the huts of the peasantry poor and wretched. the former were generally thatched buildings composed of timber, or, where wood was scarce, of large posts inserted in the earth, filled up in the interstices with rubbish, plastered within, and covered on the outside with coarse clay. the latter were light frames, prepared in the forest at small expense, and when erected, probably covered with mud. in cities the houses were constructed mostly of the same materials, for bricks were still too costly for general use; and the stories seem to have projected forward as they rose in height, intercepting sunshine and air from the streets beneath. the apartments were stifling, lighted by lattices, so contrived as to prohibit the occasional and salutary admission of external air. the floors were of clay, strewed with rushes, which often remained for years a receptacle of every pollution.[ ] in an inventory of the goods and chattels of sir andrew foskewe, knight, dated in the th year of king henry the eighth, are the following furnitures. we select the hall and the best parlour, in which he entertained company, first premising that he possessed a large and noble service of rich plate worth an amazing sum, and so much land as proved him to be a wealthy man:-- "the hall.--a hangin of greine say, bordered with darneng (or needlework); item a grete side table, with standinge tressels; item a small joyned cuberde, of waynscott, and a short piece of counterfett carpett upon it; item a square cuberde, and a large piece of counterfett wyndowe, and five formes, &c. "perler.--imprim., a hangynge of greene say and red, panede; item a table with two tressels, and a greyne verders carpet upon it; three greyne verders cushyns; a joyned cupberd, and a carpett upon it; a piece of verders carpet in one window, and a piece of counterfeit carpett in the other; one flemishe chaire; four joyned stooles; a joyned forme; a wyker skryne; two large awndyerns, a fyer forke, a fyer pan, a payer of tonges; item a lowe joyned stole; two joyned foote-stoles; a rounde table of cipress; and a piece of counterfeitt carpett upon it; item a paynted table (or picture) of the epiphany of our lord."[ ] but notwithstanding this apparent meagreness of accommodation, luxury in architecture was making rapid strides in the land. wolsey was as magnificent in this taste as in others, as hampton court, "a residence," says grotius, "befitting rather a god than a king," yet remains to attest. the walls of his chambers at york place, (whitehall,) were hung with cloth of gold, and tapestry still more precious, representing the most remarkable events in sacred history--for the easel was then subordinate to the loom. the subjects of the tapestry in york place consisted, we are told, of triumphs, probably roman; the story of absalom, bordered with the cardinal's arms; the petition of esther, and the honouring of mordecai; the history of sampson, bordered with the cardinal's arms; the history of solomon; the history of susannah and the elders, bordered with the cardinal's arms; the history of jacob, also bordered; holofernes and judith, bordered; the story of joseph, of david, of st. john the baptist; the history of the virgin; the passion of christ; the worthies; the story of nebuchadnezzar; a pilgrimage; all bordered. this place--whitehall--henry decorated magnificently; erected splendid gateways, and threw a gallery across to the park, where he erected a tilt-yard, with all royal and courtly appurtenances, and converted the whole into a royal manor. this was not until after fire had ravaged the ancient, time-honoured, and kingly palace of westminster, a place which perhaps was the most truly regal of any which england ever beheld. recorded as a royal residence as early--almost--as there is record of the existence of our venerable abbey; inhabited by knute the dane; rebuilt by edward the confessor; remodelled by henry the third; receiving lustre from the residence, and ever-added splendour from the liberality of a long line of illustrious monarchs, it had obtained a hold on the mind which is even yet not passed away, although the ravages of time, and of fire, and the desecrations of subsequent ages, have scarcely left stone or token of the original structure. after the fire, however, henry forsook it. he it was who first built st. james's palace on the site of an hospital which had formerly stood there. he also possessed, amongst other royal retreats, havering bower, so called from the legend of st. edward receiving a ring from st. john the evangelist on this spot by the hands of a pilgrim from the holy land; which legend is represented at length in westminster abbey; eltham, in kent, where the king frequently passed his christmas; greenwich, where elizabeth was born; and woodstock, celebrated for "the unhappy fate of rosamond, who long ago prov'd most unfortunate." the ancient palace of the savoy had changed its destination as a royal residence only in his father's time. with the single exception of westminster--if indeed that--the most magnificent palace which the hand of liberality ever raised, which the finger of taste ever embellished. various indeed have been the changes to which it has been doomed, and now not one stone remains on another to say that such things have been. now--of the thousands who traverse the spot, scarce one, at long and far distant intervals, may glance at the dim memories of the past, to think of the plumed knights and high-born dames who revelled in its halls; the crowned and anointed kings who, monarch or captive, trod its lofty chambers; the gleaming warriors who paced its embattled courts; the gracious queen who caused its walls to echo the sounds of joy; the subtle heads which plodded beneath its gloomy shades; the unhappy exiles who found a refuge within its dim recesses; or[ ] the lame, the sick, the impotent, who in the midst of suffering blessed the home that sheltered them, the hands that ministered to their woes. no. the majestic walls of the savoy are in the dust, and not merely all trace, but all idea of its radiant gardens and sunny bowers, its sparkling fountains and verdant lawns, is lost even to the imagination in the matter-of-fact, business-like demeanour of the myriads of plodders who are ever traversing the dusty and bustling environs of waterloo-bridge. in our closets we may perchance compel the unromantic realities of the present to yield beneath the brilliant imaginations of the past; but on the spot itself it is impossible. who can stand in wellington-street, on the verge of waterloo-bridge, and fancy it a princely mansion from the lofty battlements of which a royal banner is flying, while numerous retainers keep watch below? probably the sounds of harp and song may be heard as lofty nobles and courtly dames are seen to tread the verdant alleys and flower-bestrewn paths which lead to the bright and glancing river, where a costly barge (from which the sounds proceed) is waiting its distinguished freight. ever and anon are these seen gliding along in the sunbeams, or resting at the avenue leading to one or other of the noble mansions with which the bright strand is sprinkled. of these, perhaps, the most gorgeous is york-place, while farthest in the distance rise the fortified walls of the old palace of westminster, inferior only to those of the ancient abbey, which are seen to rise, dimmed, yet distinct, in the soft but glowing haze cast around by the setting sun. and that building seen on the opposite side of the river? strangely situated it seems, and in a swamp, and with none of the felicity of aspect appertaining to its loftier neighbour, the savoy. yet its lofty tower, its embattled gateway, seem to infer some important destination. and such it had. the unassuming and unattractively placed edifice has outlived its more aspiring neighbours; and while the stately palace of the savoy is extinct, and the slight remains of westminster are desecrated, the time-honoured walls of lambeth yet shelter the head of learning and dignify the location in which they were reared. eastward of our position the city looks dim and crowded; but, with the exception of the sprinkled mansions to which we have alluded, there is little to break the natural characteristics of the scene between temple-bar and the west minster. the hermitage and hospital on the site of northumberland house harmonise well with the scene; the little cluster of cottages at charing has a rural aspect; and that beautiful and touching memento of unfailing love and undiminished affection--that tribute to all that was good and excellent in woman--the cross, which, formed of the purest and, as yet, unsoiled white marble, raised its emblem of faith and hope, gleaming like silver in the brilliant sky--that--would that we had it still! somewhat nearer, the may-pole stands out in gay relief from the woods which envelop the hills northward, where yet the timid fawn could shelter, and the fearful hare forget its watch; where yet perchance the fairies held their revels when the moon shone bright; where they filled to the brim the "fairy-cups" and pledged each other in dew; where they played at "hide and seek" in the harebells, ran races in the branches of the trees, and nestled on the leaves, on which they glittered like diamonds; where they launched their tiny barks on the sparkling rivulets, breathing ere morning's dawn on the flowers to awaken them, tinting the gossamer's web with silver, and scattering pearls over the drops of dew. closer around, among meadows and pastures, are all sounds and emblems of rural life; which as yet are but agreeably varied, not ruthlessly annihilated, by the encroachments of population and the increase of trade. truly this is a difficult picture to realise on waterloo-bridge, yet is it nevertheless a tolerably correct one of this portion of our metropolis at the time of "the field of the cloth of gold." footnotes: [ ] henry. [ ] strutt's manners and customs. [ ] it was at length converted into an hospital. chapter xvi. the needle. "a grave reformer of old rents decay'd." j. taylor. "his garment-- with thornes together pind and patched was." faerie queene. _hodge._ "tush, tush, her neele, her neele, her neele, man; neither flesh nor fish, a lytle thing with an hole in the ende, as bright as any syller, small, long, sharp at the point, and straight as any piller." _diccon._ "i know not what it is thou menest, thou bringst me more in doubt." _hodge._ "knowest not what tom tailor's man sits broching thro' a clout? a neele, a neele, a neele, my gammer's neele is gone." gammer gurton's needle. it is said in the old chronicles that previous to the arrival of anne of bohemia, queen of richard the second, the english ladies fastened their robes with skewers; but as it is known that pins were in use among the early british, since in the barrows that have been opened numbers of "neat and efficient" ivory pins were found to have been used in arranging the grave-clothes, it is probable that this remark is unfounded. the pins of a later date than the above were made of boxwood, bone, ivory, and some few of silver. they were larger than those of the present day, which seem to have been unknown in england till about the middle of the fifteenth century. in , however, the manufacture of brass pins had become sufficiently important to claim the attention of the legislature, an act having been passed that year by which it was enacted, "that no person shall put to sale any pins, but only such as shall be double headed and have the head soldered fast to the shank, the pins well smoothed, and the shank well sharpened." gloucestershire is noted for the number of its pin manufactories. they were first introduced in that county, in , by john tilsby; and it is said that at this time they employ , hands, and send up to the metropolis upwards of £ , of pins annually. our motto says, however, that his garment "with thornes together pind and _patched_ was;" and a french writer says, that before the invention of steel needles people were obliged to make use of thorns, fish bones, &c., but that since "l'établissement des sociétés, ce petit outil est devenu d'un usage indispensable dans une infinité d'arts et d'occasions." he proceeds:--"de toutes les manières d'attacher l'un à l'autre deux corps flexibles, celle qui se pratique avec l'aiguille est une des plus universellement répandues: aussi distingue-t-on un grand nombre d'aiguilles différentes. on a les aiguilles à coudre, ou de tailleur; les aiguilles de chirurgie, d'artillerie, de bonnetier, ou faiseur de bas au métier, d'horloger, de cirier, de drapier, de gainier, de perruquier, de coiffeuse, de faiseur de coiffe à perruques, de piqueur d'étuis, tabatières, et autres semblables ouvrages; de sellier, d'ouvrier en soie, de brodeur, de tapissier, de chandelier, d'emballeur; à matelas, à empointer, à tricoter, à enfiler, à presser, à brocher, à relier, à natter, à boussole ou aimantée, &c. &c." needles are said to have been first made in england by a native of india, in , but the art was lost at his death; it was, however, recovered by christopher greening, in , who was settled with his three children, elizabeth, john, and thomas, by mr. damar, ancestor of the present lord milton, at long crendon, in bucks, where the manufactory has been carried on from that time to the present period.[ ] thus our readers will remark, that until far on in the sixteenth century, there was not a needle to be had but of foreign manufacture; and bearing this circumstance in mind, they will be able to enter more fully into the feelings of those who set such inestimable value on a needle. and, indeed, _if_ all we are told of them be true, needles could not be too highly esteemed. for instance, we were told of an old woman who had used one needle so long and so constantly for mending stockings, that at last the needle was able to do them of itself. at length, and while the needle was in the full perfection of its powers, the old woman died. a neighbour, whose numerous "olive branches" caused her to have a full share of matronly employment, hastened to possess herself of this domestic treasure, and gathered round her the weekly accumulation of sewing, not doubting but that with her new ally, the wonder-working needle, the unwieldy work-basket would be cleared, "in no time," of its overflowing contents. but even the all-powerful needle was of no avail without thread, and she forthwith proceeded to invest it with a long one. but thread it she could not; it resisted her most strenuous endeavours. in vain she turned and re-turned the needle, the eye was plain enough to be seen; in vain she cut and screwed the thread, she burnt it in the candle, she nipped it with the scissars, she rolled it with her lips, she twizled it between her finger and thumb: the pointed end was fine as fine could be, but enter the eye of the needle it would not. at length, determined not to relinquish her project whilst any hope remained of its accomplishment, she borrowed a magnifying glass to examine the "little weapon" more accurately. and there, "large as life and twice as natural," a pearly gem, a translucent drop, a crystal _tear_ stood right in the gap, and filled to overflowing the eye of the needle. it was weeping for the death of its old mistress; it refused consolation; it was never threaded again. we give this incident on the testimony of a gallant naval officer; an unquestionable authority, though we are fully aware that some of our readers may be ungenerously sceptical, and perhaps even rude enough to attempt some vile pun about the brave sailor's "drawing a long yarn." if, however, gammer gurton's needle resembled the one we have just referred to, and that, too, at a time when a needle, even not supernaturally endowed, was not to be had of english manufacture, and therefore could only be purchased probably at a high price, we cannot wonder at the aggrieved feelings of her domestic circle when the catastrophe occurred which is depicted as follows:--the parties interested were the dame gammer gurton herself; hodge, her farming man; tib, her maid; cocke, her boy; and gib, her cat. the play from which our quotation is taken is not without some pretensions to wit, though of the coarsest kind: it is supposed to have been first performed at christ's college, cambridge, in ; and warton observes on it, that while latimer's sermons were in vogue at court, gammer gurton's needle might well be tolerated at the university. act i. scene . hodge and tib. _hodge._ "i am agast, by the masse, i wot not what to do; i had need blesse me well before i go them to: perchance, some felon spirit may haunt our house indeed, and then i were but a noddy to venter where's no need." _tib._ "i'm worse than mad, by the masse, to be at this stay. i'm chid, i'm blam'd, and beaten all th' hours on the day. lamed and hunger starved, pricked up all in jagges, having no patch to hide my backe, save a few rotten ragges." _hodge._ "i say, tib, if thou be tib, as i trow sure thou be, what devil make ado is this between our dame and thee?" _tib._ "truly, hodge, thou had a good turn thou wart not here this while; it had been better for some of us to have been hence a mile: my gammer is so out of course, and frantike all at once, that cocke, our boy, and i poor wench, have felt it on our bones." _hodge._ "what is the matter, say on, tib, whereat she taketh so on?" _tib._ "she is undone, she saith (alas) her life and joy is gone: if she hear not of some comfort, she is she saith but dead, shall never come within her lips, on inch of meat ne bread. and heavy, heavy is her grief, as, hodge, we all shall feel." _hodge._ "my conscience, tib, my gammer has never lost her neele?" _tib._ "her neele." _hodge._ "her neele?" _tib._ "her neele, by him that made me!" _hodge._ "how a murrain came this chaunce (say tib) unto her dame?" _tib._ "my gammer sat her down on the pes, and bade me reach thy breches, and by and by, a vengeance on it, or she had take two stitches to clout upon the knee, by chaunce aside she lears, and gib our cat, in the milk pan, she spied over head and ears. ah! out, out, theefe, she cried aloud, and swapt the breeches down, up went her staffe, and out leapt gib at doors into the town: and since that time was never wight cold set their eyes upon it. god's malison she have cocke and i bid twentie times light on it." _hodge._ "and is not then my breches sewed up, to-morrow that i shuld wear?" _tib._ "no, in faith, hodge, thy breches lie, for all this never the near." _hodge._ "now a vengeance light on al the sort, that better shold have kept it; the cat, the house, and tib our maid, that better should have swept it. se, where she cometh crawling! come on, come on thy lagging way; ye have made a fair daies worke, have you not? pray you, say." * * * * * act i. scene . gammer, hodge, tib, cocke. _gammer._ "alas, alas, i may well curse and ban this day, that ever i saw it, with gib and the milke pan. for these, and ill lucke together, as knoweth cocke my boy, have stacke away my dear neele, and rob'd me of my joy, my fair long straight neele, that was mine only treasure, the first day of my sorrow is, and last of my pleasure." _hodge._ "might ha kept it when ye had it; but fools will be fools still: lose that is fast in your hands? ye need not, but ye will." _gammer._ "go hie the, tib, and run along, to th' end here of the town. didst carry out dust in thy lap? seek where thou porest it down; and as thou sawest me roking in the ashes where i morned, so see in all the heap of dust thou leave no straw unturned." _hodge._ "your neele lost? it is pitie you shold lacke care and endles sorrow. tell me, how shall my breches be sewid? shall i go thus to-morrow?" _gammer._ "ah, hodge, hodge, if that i could find my neele, by the reed, i'd sew thy breches, i promise the, with full good double threed, and set a patch on either knee, shall last this months twain, now god, and saint sithe, i pray, to send it back again." _hodge._ "whereto served your hands and eyes, but your neele keep? what devil had you els to do? ye keep, i wot, no sheep. i'm fain abrode to dig and delve, in water, mire and clay, sossing and possing in the dirt, still from day to day a hundred things that be abroad, i'm set to see them weel; and four of you sit idle at home, and cannot keep a neele." _gammer._ "my neele, alas, i lost, hodge, what time i me up hasted, to save milk set up for thee, which gib our cat hath wasted." _hodge._ "the devil he take both gib and tib, with all the rest; i'm always sure of the worst end, whoever have the best. where ha you ben fidging abroad, since you your neele lost?" _gammer._ "within the house, and at the door, sitting by this same post; where i was looking a long hour, before these folke came here; but, wel away! all was in vain, my neele is never the near!" "gammer gurton's needle," says hazlitt, "is a regular comedy, in five acts, built on the circumstance of an old woman having lost her needle which throws the whole village into confusion, till it is at last providentially found sticking in an unlucky part of hodge's dress. this must evidently have happened at a time when the manufactures of sheffield and birmingham had not reached the height of perfection which they have at present done. suppose that there is only one sewing needle in a village, that the owner, a diligent notable old dame, loses it, that a mischief-making wag sets it about that another old woman has stolen this valuable instrument of household industry, that strict search is made every where in-doors for it in vain, and that then the incensed parties sally forth to scold it out in the open air, till words end in blows, and the affair is referred over to the higher authorities, and we shall have an exact idea (though, perhaps, not so lively a one) of what passes in this authentic document between gammer gurton and her gossip dame chat; dickon the bedlam (the causer of these harms); hodge, gammer gurton's servant; tyb, her maid; cocke, her 'prentice boy; doll scapethrift; master baillie, his master; dr. rat, the curate; and gib, the cat, who may fairly be reckoned one of the _dramatis personæ_, and performs no mean part." from the needle itself the transition is easy to the needlework which was in vogue at the time when this little implement was so valuable and rare a commodity. we are told that the various kinds of needlework practised at this time would, if enumerated, astonish even the most industrious of our modern ladies. the lover of shakspeare will remember that the term _point device_ is often used by him, and that, indeed, it is a term frequently met with in the writers of that age with various applications; and it is originally derived, according to mr. douce, from the fine stitchery of the ladies. it has been properly stated, that _point device_ signifies _exact_, _nicely_, _finical_; but nothing has been offered concerning the etymology, except that we got the expression from the french. it has, in fact, been supplied from the labours of the needle. _poinct_, in the french language, denotes a _stitch_; _devise_ any thing _invented_, disposed, or _arranged_. _point devise_ was, therefore, a particular sort of patterned lace worked with the needle; and the term _point lace_ is still familiar to every female. they had likewise their _point-coupé_, _point-compté_, _dentelle au point devant l'aiguille_, &c. &c. but it is apparent, he adds, that the expression _point devise_ became applicable, in a _secondary_ sense, to whatever was uncommonly exact, or constructed with the nicety and precision of stitches made or devised with the needle. various books of patterns of needlework for the assistance and encouragement of the fair stitchers were published in those days. mr. douce[ ] enumerates some of them, and the omission of any part of his notation would be unpardonable in the present work. the earliest on the list is an italian book, under the title of "esemplario di lavori: dove le tenere fanciulle et altre donne nobile potranno facilmente imparare il modo et ordine di lavorare, cusire, raccamare, et finalmente far tutte quelle gentillezze et lodevili opere, le quali pò fare una donna virtuosa con laco in mano, con li suoi compasse et misure. vinegia, per nicolo d'aristotile detto zoppino, mdxxix. vo." the next that occurs was likewise set forth by an italian, and entitled, "les singuliers et nouveaux pourtraicts du seigneur federic de vinciolo venitien, pour toutes sortes d'ouvrages de lingerie. paris, . to." it is dedicated to the queen of france, and had been already twice published. in a second part came out, which is much more difficult to be met with than the former, and sometimes contains a neat portrait, by gaultier, of catherine de bourbon, the sister of henry the fourth. the next is "nouveaux pourtraicts de point coupé et dantelles en petite moyenne et grande forme, nouvellement inventez et mis en lumière. imprimé à montbeliard, . to." it has an address to the ladies, and a poem exhorting young damsels to be industrious; but the author's name does not appear. vincentio's work was published in england, and printed by john wolfe, under the title of "new and singular patternes and workes of linnen, serving for paternes to make all sortes of lace, edginges, and cutworkes. newly invented for the profite and contentment of ladies, gentilwomen, and others that are desireous of this art. . to." he seems also to have printed it with a french title. we have then another english book, of which this is the title: "here foloweth certaine patternes of cutworkes; newly invented and never published before. also, sundry sortes of spots, as flowers, birdes, and fishes, &c., and will fitly serve to be wrought, some with gould, some with silke, and some with crewell in coullers; or otherwise at your pleasure. and never but once published before. printed by rich. shorleyker." no date. in oblong quarto. and lastly, another oblong quarto, entitled, "the needle's excellency, a new booke, wherein are divers admirable workes wrought with the needle. newly invented and cut in copper for the pleasure and profit of the industrious." printed for james boler, &c., . beneath this title is a neat engraving of three ladies in a flower garden, under the names of wisdom, industrie, and follie. prefixed to the patterns are sundry poems in commendation of the needle, and describing the characters of ladies who have been eminent for their skill in needlework, among whom are queen elizabeth and the countess of pembroke. the poems were composed by john taylor the water poet. it appears that the work had gone through twelve impressions, and yet a copy is now scarcely to be met with. this may be accounted for by supposing that such books were generally cut to pieces, and used by women to work upon or transfer to their samplers. from the dress of a lady and gentleman on one of the patterns in the last mentioned book, it appears to have been originally published in the reign of james the first. all the others are embellished with a multitude of patterns elegantly cut in wood, several of which are eminently conspicuous for their taste and beauty. we are happy to add a little further information on some of these works, and on others preserved in the british museum. "les singuliers et nouveaux pourtraicts du seigneur federic de vinciolo venitien, pour toutes sortes d'ouvrages de lingerie. dédié à la reyne. a paris, ."[ ] the book opens with a sonnet to the fair, which announces to them an admirable motive for the work itself:-- "pour tromper vos ennuis, et l'esprit employer." aux dames et damoyselles. sonnet. "l'un s'efforce à gaigner le coeur des {grands} seigneurs pour posseder en fin une exquise richesse; l'autre aspire aux estats, pour monter en altesse, et l'autre, par la guerre alléche les honneurs. "quand à moy, seulement pour chasser mes langueurs, je me sen satisfaict de vivre en petitesse, et de faire si bien, qu'aux dames ie delaisse un grand contentement en mes graves labeurs. "prenez doncques en gré (mes dames) ie vous prie, ces pourtrais ouvragez lesquels ie vous dedie, pour tromper vos ennuis, et l'esprit employer. "en ceste nouveauté, pourrez beaucoup apprendre, et maistresses en fin en cest oeuvre vous rendre, le travail est plaisant: si grand est le loyer." which, barring elegant diction and poetic rule, may be read thus:-- whilst one man worships lordly state as yielding all that he desires-- this, fertile acres begs from fate; another, bloody laurels fires. to dissipate my devils blue, trifles, i'm satisfied to do; for surely if the fair i please, my very labours smack of ease. take then, fair ladies, i you pray, the book which at your feet i lay, to make you happy, brisk and gay. there's much you here may learn anew, which _comme il faut_ will render you, and bring you joy and honour too. proceed we to the-- "ouvrages de point coupé," of which there are thirty-six. some birds, animals, and figures are introduced; but the patterns are chiefly arabesque, set off in white, on a thick black ground. then, with a repetition of the ornamented title-page, come about fifty patterns, which are represented much like the german patterns of the present day, in squares for stitches, but not so finely wrought as some which we shall presently notice. these patterns consist of arabesques, figures, birds, beasts, flowers, in every variety. to many the stitches are ready counted (as well as pourtrayed), thus:-- "ce pélican contient en longueur mailles, et en hauteur ." this pattern of maternity is represented as pecking her breast, towards which three young ones are flying; their course being indicated by the three lines of white stitches, all converging to the living nest. "ce griffon {contient} en hauteur mailles, et en {longueur} ." small must be the skill of the needlewoman who does not make this a very rampant animal indeed. "ce paon contient en longueur mailles, et en hauteur ." "la licorne en hauteur {contient} mailles, et en longueur , &c. &c." "la bordure contient mailles." "la bordure de haut {contient} mailles." this is a very handsome one, resembling pine apples. "ce quarré contient mailles." there are several of these squares, and borders appended, of very rich patterns. but the book contains far more ambitious designs. there are sol, luna, mars, mercury, jupiter, venus, saturn, neptune, and others, whose dignities and vocation must be inferred from the emblematical accompaniments. there is "la déesse des fleurs représentant le printemps." "la déesse des bleds representant l'esté." "ce bacchus representant l'autonne." "ceste figure representant l'hiver," &c. &c. appended is this "extraict du privilege." "per grace et privelege du roy, est permis a jean le clerc le jeune, tailleur d'histoires à paris, d'imprimer ou faire imprimer {vendre} et distribuer un livre intitulé livre de patrons de lingerie, dedie a la royne, nouvellement inventé par le seigneur federic de vinciolo venitien, avec deffences à tous libraires, imprimeurs, ou autres, de quelque condition et qualité quilz soyent, de faire ny contrefaire, aptisser ny {agrandir}, ou pocher lesdits figures, ny exposer en vente ledict livre sans le {congé} ou permission dudict le clerc, et ce jusques au temps et terme de neuf ans finis et accomplis, sur peine de confiscation de tous les livres qui se trouveront imprimez, et damande arbitraire: comme plus a plein est declaré en lettres patentes, données à paris ce douziesme jour de novembre, ." another work, preserved in the british museum, was published at strasbourg, , seemingly from designs of the same vinciolo. these consist of about six-and-thirty plates, with patterns in white on a black ground, consisting of a few birds and figures, but chiefly of stars and wreaths pricked out in every possible variety; and at the end of the book a dozen richly wrought patterns, without any edging, were seemingly designed for what we should now call "insertion" work or lace. there is another, by the same author, printed at basil in , which varies but slightly from the foregoing. this frederick de vinciolo is doubtless the same person who was summoned to france, by catherine de medicis, to instruct the ladies of the court in the art of netting the lace of which the then fashionable ruffs were made. in another volume we have-- "corona delle nobili et virtuose donne, nel quale si dimostra in varij dissegni tutte le sorti di mostre di punti tagliati, punti in aria, punti fiamenghi, punti à reticelle, e d'ogni altre sorte, cosi per freggi, per merli, e rosette, che con l'aco si usano hoggidì per tutta l'europa. "e molte delle quali mostre possono servire ancora per opere a mazzette. "con le dichiarationi a le mostre a lavori fatti da lugretia romana. "in venetia appresso alessandro di vecchi, ." the plates here are very similar to those in the above-mentioned works. some are accompanied by short explanations, saying where they are most used and to whom they are best suited, as-- "hopera bellissima, che per il più le signore duchese, et altre signore si servono per li suoi lavori." "queste bellissime rosette usano anco le gentildonne venetiane da far traverse." but certainly the best work of the kind is, "the needle's excellency," referred to in mr. douce's list. it contains a variety of plates, of which the patterns are all, or nearly all, arabesque. they are beautifully executed, many of them being very similar to, and equally fine with, the german patterns before the colouring is put on, which, though it guides the eye, defaces the work. these are seldom seen uncoloured, the germans having a jealousy of sending them; but we have seen, through the polite attention of mr. wilks, of regent street, one or two in this state, and we could not but admire the extreme delicacy and beauty of the work. some few of the patterns in the book we are now referring to are so extremely similar, that we doubt not the modern artists have borrowed the _idea_ of their beautifully traced patterns from this or some similar work; thereby adding one more proof of the truth of the oft quoted proverb, "there is nothing new under the sun." as a fitting close to this chapter, we give the needle's praises in full, as sung by the water poet, john taylor, and prefixed to the last-mentioned work. the praise of the needle. "to all dispersed sorts of arts and trades, i write the needles prayse (that never fades) so long as children shall be got or borne, so long as garments shall be made or worne, so long as hemp or flax, or sheep shall bear their linnen wollen fleeces yeare by yeare: so long as silkwormes, with exhausted spoile, of their own entrailes for man's gaine shall toyle: yea till the world be quite dissolv'd and past, so long at least, the needles use shall last: and though from earth his being did begin, yet through the fire he did his honour win: and unto those that doe his service lacke, he's true as steele and mettle to the backe he hath indeed, i see, small single sight, yet like a pigmy, _polipheme_ in fight: as a stout captaine, bravely he leades on, (not fearing colours) till the worke be done, through thicke and thinne he is most sharpely set, with speed through stitch, he will the conquest get. and as a souldier (frenchefyde with heat) maim'd from the warres is forc'd to make retreat; so when a needles point is broke, and gone, _no point mounsieur_, he's maim'd, his worke is done, and more the needles honour to advance, it is a tailor's javelin, or his lance; and for my countries quiet, i should like, that women kinde should use no other pike. it will increase their peace, enlarge their store, to use their tongues lesse, and their needles more. the needles sharpnesse, profit yields, and pleasure, but sharpnesse of the tongue, bites out of measure. a needle (though it be but small and slender) yet it is both a maker and a mender: a grave reformer of old rents decay'd, stops holes and seames and desperate cuts display'd, and thus without the needle we may see we should without our bibs and biggins bee; no shirts or smockes, our nakednesse to hide, no garments gay, to make us magnifide: no shadowes, shapparoones, caules, bands, ruffs, kuffs, no kerchiefes, quoyfes, chinclouts, or marry-muffes, no croscloaths, aprons, handkerchiefes, or falls, no table-cloathes, for parlours or for halls, no sheetes, no towels, napkins, pillow beares, nor any garment man or woman weares. thus is a needle prov'd an instrument of profit, pleasure, and of ornament. which mighty queenes have grac'd in hand to take, and high borne ladies such esteeme did make, that as their daughters daughters up did grow, the needles art, they to the children show. and as 'twas then an exercise of praise, so what deserves more honour in these dayes, than this? which daily doth itselfe expresse a mortall enemy to idlenesse. the use of sewing is exceeding old, as in the sacred text it is enrold: our parents first in paradise began, who hath descended since from man to man: the mothers taught their daughters, sires their sons thus in a line successively it runs for generall profit, and for recreation, from generation unto generation. with work like cherubims embroidered rare, the covers of the tabernacle were. and by the almighti's great command, we see, that aaron's garments broidered worke should be; and further, god did bid his vestments should be made most gay, and glorious to behold. thus plainly and most truly is declar'd the needles worke hath still bin in regard, for it doth art, so like to nature frame, as if it were her sister, or the same. flowers, plants and fishes, beasts, birds, flyes, and bees, hills, dales, plaines, pastures, skies, seas, rivers, trees; there's nothing neere at hand, or farthest sought, but with the needle may be shap'd and wrought. in clothes of arras i have often seene, men's figur'd counterfeits so like have beene, that if the parties selfe had been in place, yet art would vie with nature for the grace; moreover, posies rare, and anagrams, signifique searching sentences from names, true history, or various pleasant fiction, in sundry colours mixt, with arts commixion, all in dimension, ovals, squares, and rounds, arts life included within natures bounds: so that art seemeth merely naturall, in forming shapes so geometricall; and though our country everywhere is fild with ladies, and with gentlewomen, skild in this rare art, yet here they may discerne some things to teach them if they list to learne. and as this booke some cunning workes doth teach, (too hard for meane capacities to reach) so for weake learners, other workes here be, as plaine and easie as are a b c. thus skilful, or unskilful, each may take this booke, and of it each good use may make, all sortes of workes, almost that can be nam'd, here are directions how they may be fram'd: and for this kingdomes good are hither come, from the remotest parts of christendome, collected with much paines and industrie, from scorching _spaine_ and freezing _muscovie_, from fertill _france_, and pleasant _italy_, from _poland_, _sweden_, _denmark_, _germany_, and some of these rare patternes have beene fet beyond the bounds of faithlesse _mahomet_: from spacious _china_, and those kingdomes east, and from great _mexico_, the indies west. thus are these workes, _farrefetcht_ and _dearely bought_, and consequently _good for ladies thought_. nor doe i derogate (in any case) or doe esteeme of other teachings base, for _tent worke_, _rais'd worke_, _laid worke_, _frost works_, _net worke_, most curious _purles_, or rare _italian cut worke_, fine, _ferne stitch_, _finny stitch_, _new stitch_, and _chain stitch_, brave _bred stitch_, _fisher stitch_, _irish stitch_, and _queen stitch_, the _spanish stitch_, _rosemary stitch_, and _mowse stitch_ the smarting _whip stitch_, _back stitch_, and the _crosse stitch_ all these are good, and these we must allow, and these are everywhere in practise now: and in this booke there are of these some store, with many others, never seene before. here practise and invention may be free. and as a squirrel skips from tree to tree, so maids may (from their mistresse or their mother) learne to leave one worke, and to learne another, for here they may make choice of which is which, and skip from worke to worke, from stitch to stitch, until, in time, delightful practise shall (with profit) make them perfect in them all. thus hoping that these workes may have this guide, to serve for ornament, and not for pride: to cherish vertue, banish idlenesse, for these ends, may this booke have good successe." footnotes: [ ] it is worth while to remark the circumstance, that by a machine of the simplest construction, being nothing in fact but a tray, , needles thrown promiscuously together, mixed and entangled in every way, are laid parallel, heads to heads, and points to points, in the course of three or four minutes. [ ] illustrations, vol. ii. p. . [ ] this seems to be a somewhat earlier edition of the second book in mr. douce's list. chapter xvii. tapestry from the cartoons. "for, round about, the walls yclothed were with goodly arras of great majesty, woven with gold and silk so close and nere, that the rich metal lurked privily, as faining to be hidd from envious eye; yet here, and there, and every where unwares it shew'd itselfe and shone unwillingly; like to a discolour'd snake, whose hidden snares through the greene gras his long bright burnisht back declares." faerie queene. raphael, whose name is familiar to all "as a household word," seems to have been equally celebrated for a handsome person, an engaging address, an amiable disposition, and high talents. language exhausts itself in his eulogy.[ ] but the extravagant encomiums of lanzi and others must be taken in a very modified sense, ere we arrive at the rigid truth. the tone of morals in italy "did not correspond with evangelical purity;" and raphael's follies were not merely permitted, but encouraged and fostered by those who sought eagerly for the creations of his pencil. his thousand engaging qualities were disfigured by a licentiousness which probably shortened his career, for he died at the early age of thirty-seven. great and sincere was the grief expressed at rome for his untimely death, and no testimony of sorrow could be more affecting, more simple, or more highly honourable to its object than the placing his picture of the transfiguration over his mortal remains in the chamber wherein he died. it was probably within two years of the close of his short life when he was engaged by pope leo the tenth to paint those cartoons which have more than all his works immortalised his name, and which render the brief hints we have given respecting him peculiarly appropriate to this work. the cartoons were designs, from scripture chiefly, from which were to be woven hangings to ornament the apartments of the vatican; and their dimensions being of course proportioned to the spaces they were designed to fill, the tapestries, though equal in height, differed extremely in breadth. the designs were, . the nativity. . the adoration of the magi. . } } . } the slaughter of the innocents. } . } . the presentation in the temple. . the miraculous draught of fishes. . st. peter receiving the keys. . the descent of christ into limbus. . the resurrection. . noli me tangere. . christ at emmaus. . the ascension. . the descent of the holy ghost. . the martyrdom of st. stephen. . the conversion of st. paul. . paul and barnabas at lystra. . paul preaching. . death of ananias. . elymas the sorcerer. . an earthquake; showing the delivery of paul and silas from prison: named from the earthquake which shook the foundations of the building. the artist endeavours to render it ideally visible to the spectator by placing a gigantic figure, which appears to be raising the superincumbent weight on his shoulders; but the result is not altogether successful. . st. peter healing the cripple. - . contain emblems alluding to leo the tenth. these are preserved in one of the private apartments of the vatican palace. . justice. in this subject the figures of religion, charity, and justice are seen above the papal armorial bearings. the last figure gives name to the whole. when the cartoons were finished they were sent into flanders to be woven (at the famous manufactory at arras) under the superintendence of barnard van orlay of brussels, and michael coxis, artists who had been for some years pupils of raphael at rome. two sets were executed with the utmost care and cost, but the death of raphael, the murder of the pope, and subsequent intestine troubles seem to have delayed their appropriation. they cost seventy thousand crowns, a sum which is said to have been defrayed by francis the first of france, in consideration of leo's having canonised st. francis of paola, the founder of the minims. adrian the second was a man "alienissimo da ogni bell'arte;" an indifference which may account for the cartoons not being sent with the tapestries to rome, though some accounts say that the debt for their manufacture remained unliquidated, and that the paintings were kept in flanders as security for it. they were carried away by the spanish army in - during the sack of rome, but were restored by the zeal and spirit of montmorenci the french general, as set forth in the woven borders of the tapestries nos. and . pope paul the fourth ( ) first introduced them to the gaze of the public by exhibiting them before the basilica of st. peter on the festival of corpus domini, and also at the solemn "function of beatification." this use of them was continued through part of the last century, and is now resumed. in they were taken by the french from rome and sold to a jew at leghorn, and one of them was burnt by him in order to extract the gold with which they were richly interwoven; but happily they did not furnish so much spoil as the speculator hoped, and this devastation was arrested. the one that was destroyed represented christ's descent into limbus; the rest were repurchased for one thousand three hundred crowns, and restored to the vatican in . we have alluded to two sets of these tapestries, and it is believed that there were two; whether _exactly_ counterparts has not been ascertained. we have traced the migrations of one set. the other was, according to some authorities, presented by pope leo the tenth to our henry the eighth; whilst others say that our king purchased it from the state of venice. it was hung in the banqueting house of whitehall, and after the unhappy execution of charles the first, was put up, amongst other royal properties, to sale. being purchased by the spanish ambassador, it became the property of the house of alva, and within a few years back was sold by the head of that illustrious house to mr. tupper, our consul in spain, and by him sent back to this country. these tapestries were then exhibited for some time in the egyptian hall, piccadilly, and were afterwards repurchased by a foreigner. probably they have been making a "progress" throughout the kingdom, as within this twelvemonth we had the satisfaction of viewing them at the principal town in a northern county. the motto of our chapter might have been written expressly for these tapestries, so exquisitely accurate is the description as applied to them of the gold thread:-- "as here and there, and every where unwares it shew'd itselfe and shone unwillingly; like to a discolour'd snake, whose hidden snares through the greene gras his long bright burnisht back declares." the cartoons themselves, the beautiful originals of these magnificent works, remained in the netherlands, and were all, save seven, lost and destroyed through the ravages of time, and chance, and revolution. these seven, much injured by neglect, and almost pounced into holes by the weaver tracing his outlines, were purchased by king charles the first, and are now justly considered a most valuable possession. it is supposed that the chief object of charles in the purchase was to supply the then existing tapestry manufactory at mortlake with superior designs for imitation. five of them were _certainly_ woven there, and it is far from improbable that the remaining ones were also.[ ] there was also a project for weaving them by a person of the name of james christopher le blon, and houses were built and looms erected at chelsea expressly for that purpose, but the design failed. the "british critic," for january, this year, has the following spirited remarks with regard to the present situation of the cartoons. "the cartoons of raffaelle are very unfairly seen in their present locale; a long gallery built for the purpose by william the third, but in which the light enters through common chamber windows, and therefore is so much below the cartoons as to leave the greater part of them in shade. we venture to say there is no country in europe in which such works as these--unique, and in their class invaluable--would be treated with so little honour. it has been decided by competent opinions, that their removal to london would be attended with great risk to their preservation, from the soot, damp, accumulation of dust, and other inconveniences, natural or incident to a crowded city. this, however, is no fair reason for their being shut up in their present ill-assorted apartment. there is not a petty state in germany that would not erect a gallery on purpose for them; and a few thousand pounds would be well bestowed in providing a fitting receptacle for some of the finest productions of human genius in art; and of the full value of which we _alone_, their possessors, seem to be comparatively insensible. various portions of cartoons by raffaelle, part of the same series or set, exist in england; and it is far from unlikely that, were there a proper place to preserve and exhibit the whole in, these would in time, by presentation or purchase, become the property of the country, and we should then possess a monument of the greatest master of his art, only inferior to that which he has left on the walls of the vatican." of all these varied and beautiful paintings, that of the adoration of the magi, from the variety of character and expression, the splendor and oriental pomp of the whole, the multitude of persons, between forty and fifty, the various accessaries, elephants, horses, &c., with the variety of splendid and ornamental illustrations, and the exquisite grouping, is considered as the most attractive and brilliant in tapestry. as a piece of general and varied interest it may be so; but we well remember being, not so suddenly struck, as attracted and fascinated by the figure of the christ when, after his resurrection, he is recommending the care of his flock to st. peter. the colours have faded gradually and equably--(an advantage not possessed by the others, where some tints which have stood the ravages of time better than those around them, are in places strikingly and painfully discordant)--but in this figure the colours, though greatly faded, have yet faded so harmoniously as to add very much to the illusion, giving to the figure really the appearance of one risen from the dead. the outline is majestic; turn which way we would, we involuntarily returned to look again. at length we mentioned our admiration to the superintendent, and the reply of the enthusiastic foreigner precluded all further remark--for nothing further could be said:-- "madam, i should have been astonished if you had not admired that figure: _it is itself_; it is precisely _the finest thing in the world_." footnotes: [ ] for example:--"egli avea tenuto sempre un contegno da guadagnarsi il cuore di tutto. rispettoso verso il maestro, ottenne dal papa che le sue pitture in una volta delle camere vaticane rimanessero intatte; giusto verso i suoi emuli ringraziava dio d'averlo fatto nascere a' tempi del bonarruoti; grazioso verso i discepoli gl'istruì e gli amò come figli; cortese anche verso gl'ignoti, a chiunque ricorse a lui per consiglio prestò liberalmente l'opera sua, e per far disegni ad altrui o dar gl'indirizzo lasciò indietro talvolta i lavori propri, non sapendo non pure di negar grazia, ma differirla."--lanzi, vol. ii. consequently when his body before interment lay in the room in which he was accustomed to paint, "non v'ebbe sì duro artefice che a quello spettacolo non lagrimasse."--"ne pianse il papa." of his works:--"le sue figure veramente amano, languiscono, temono, sperano, ardiscono; mostrano ira, placabilità, umiltà, orgoglio, come mette bene alla storia: spesso chi mira que' volti, que' guardi, quelle mosse, non si ricorda che ha innanzi una immagine; si sente accendere, prende partito, crede di trovarsi in sul fatto.--tutto parla nel silenzio; ogni attore, _il cor negli occhi e nella fronte ha scritto_; i piccioli movimenti degli occhi, degli narici, della bocca, delle dita corrispondono a' primi moti d'ogni passione; i gesti più animati e più vivi ne descrivono la violenza; e ciò ch'è più, essi variano in cento modi senza uscir mai del naturale, e si attemperano a cento caratteri senza uscir mai dalla proprietà. l'eroe ha movimenti da eroe, il volgar da volgare; e quel che non descriverebbe lingua nè penna, descrive in pochissimi tratti l'ingegno e l'arte di raffaello."--p. . "il paese, gli elementi, gli animali, le fabbriche, le manifatture, ogni età dell'uomo, ogni condizione, ogni affetto, tutte comprese con la divinità del suo ingegno, tutto ridusse più bello."--p. . i have thought this long extract pardonable as applied to one whose finest designs are now, through so many channels, rendered familiar to us. [ ] in a priced catalogue of his majesty's collection of "limnings," edited by vertue, is the following entry. "item, in a slit box-wooden case, some two cartoons of raphael urbinus for hangings to be made by, and _the other five are by the king's appointment delivered to mr. francis cleen at mortlake, to make hangings by_."--cartonensia. chapter xviii. the days of "good queen bess." "a worthie woman judge, a woman sent for staie." "when fame resounds with thundring trump, which rends the ratling skies, and pierceth to the hautie heavens, and thence descending flies through flickering ayre: and so conjoines the sea and shore togither, in admiration of thy grace, good queene, thou'rt welcome hither." _the receyving of the queene's maiestie into hir citie of norwich._ "we may justly wonder what has become of the industry of the english ladies; we hear no more of their rich embroiderings, and curious needlework. is all the domestic simplicity of the former ages entirely vanished?"--aikin. the age of elizabeth presents a never-failing field of variety through which people of all tastes may delightedly rove, gathering flowers at will. the learned statesman, the acute politician, the subtle lawyer, will find in the measures of her burleigh, her walsingham, her cecil, abundant food for approbation or for censure; the heroic sailor will glory over the achievements of her time; the adventurous traveller will explore the eldoradic regions with raleigh, or plough the waves with drake and frobisher; the soldier will recal glorious visions of essex and sidney, while poesy wreathes a bay round the memory of the last, which shines freshly and bright even in the age which produced a ben jonson, and him "who was born with a star on his forehead to last through all time"--shakspeare. the age of elizabeth was especially a learned age. the study of the dead languages had hitherto been confined almost exclusively to ecclesiastics and scholars by profession, but from the time of henry the seventh it had been gradually spreading amongst the higher classes. the great and good sir thomas more gave his daughters a learned education, and they did honour to it; henry the eighth followed his example; lady jane grey made learning lovely; and elizabeth's pedantry brought the habit into full fashion. if a queen were to talk sanscrit, her court would endeavour to do so likewise. the example of learned studies was given by the queen herself, who translated from the greek a play of euripides, and parts of isocrates, xenophon, and plutarch; from the latin considerable portions of cicero, seneca, sallust, horace, &c. she wrote many latin letters, and is said to have spoken five languages with facility. as a natural consequence the nobility and gentry, their wives and daughters, became enthusiasts in the cause of letters. the novelty which attended these studies, the eager desire to possess what had been so long studiously and jealously concealed, and the curiosity to explore and rifle the treasures of the greek and roman world, which mystery and imagination had swelled into the marvellous, contributed to excite an absolute passion for study and for books. the court, the ducal castle, and the baronial hall were suddenly converted into academies, and could boast of splendid tapestries. in the first of these, according to ascham, might be seen the queen reading "more greeke every day than some prebendarie of this church doth read _latin_ in a whole week;" and while she was translating isocrates or seneca, it may be easily conceived that her maids of honour found it convenient to praise and to adopt the disposition of her time. in the second, observes warton, "the daughter of a duchess was taught not only to distil strong waters, but to construe greek; and in the third, every young lady who aspired to be fashionable was compelled, in imitation of the greater world, to exhibit similar marks of erudition." a contemporary writer says, that some of the ladies of the court employ themselves "in continuall reading either of the holie scriptures, or histories of our owne or forren nations about us, and diverse in writing volumes of their owne, or translating of other mens into our english and latine toongs. i might here (he adds) make a large discourse of such honorable and grave councellors, and noble personages, as give their dailie attendance upon the queene's majestie. i could in like sort set foorth a singular commendation of the vertuous beautie, or beautiful vertues of such ladies and gentlewomen as wait upon his person, betweene whose amiable countenances and costlinesse of attire there seemeth to be such a dailie conflict and contention, as that it is verie difficult for me to gesse whether of the twaine shall beare awaie the preheminence. this further is not to be omitted, to the singular commendation of both sorts and sexes of our courtiers here in england, that there are verie few of them which have not the use and skill of sundrie speaches, beside an excellent veine of writing before-time not regarded. would to god the rest of their lives and conversations were correspondent to these gifts! for as our common courtiers (for the most part) are the best lerned and endued with excellent gifts, so are manie of them the worst men when they come abroad, that anie man shall either heare or read of. trulie it is a rare thing with us now to heare of a courtier which hath but his owne language. and to saie how many gentlewomen and ladies there are, that beside sound knowledge of the greeke and latine toongs, are thereto no lesse skilful in the spanish, italian, and french, or in some one of them, it resteth not in me. sith i am persuaded, that as the noblemen and gentlemen doo surmount in this behalfe, so these come verie little or nothing at all behind them for their parts, which industrie god continue, and accomplish that which otherwise is wanting!"[ ] at this time the practice (derived from the chivalrous ages, when every baronial castle was the resort of young persons of gentle birth, of both sexes) was by no means discontinued of placing young women, of gentle birth, in the establishment of ladies of rank, where, without performing any menial offices, they might be supposed to have their own understood duties in the household, and had in return the advantage of a liberal education, and constant association with the best company. persons of rank and fortune often retained in their service many young people of both sexes of good birth, and bestowed on them the fashionable education of the time. indeed their houses were the best, if not then the only schools of elegant learning. the following letter, written in , is from a young lady thus situated: "to my good mother mrs. pake, at broumfield, deliver this. "deare mother, "my humble dutye remembred unto my father and you, &c. i received upon weddensday last a letter from my father and you, whereby, i understand, it is your pleasures that i should certifie you what times i do take for my lute, and the rest of my exercises. i doe for the most part playe of my lute after supper, for then commonlie my lady heareth me; and in the morninges, after i am reddie, i play an hower; and my wrightinge and siferinge, after i have done my lute. for my drawinge i take an hower in the afternowne, and my french at night before supper. my lady hath not bene well these tooe or three dayes: she telleth me, when she is well, that she will see if hilliard will come and teche me; if she can by any means she will, &c. &c.--as touchinge my newe corse in service, i hope i shall performe my dutye to my lady with all care and regard to please her, and to behave myselfe to everye one else as it shall become me. mr. harrisone was with me upone fridaye; he heard me playe, and brought me a dusson of trebles; i had some of him when i came to london. thus desiring pardone for my rude writinge, i leave you to the almightie, desiringe him to increase in you all health and happines. "your obedient daughter, "rebecca pake." could any thing afford a stronger contrast to the grave and certainly severe study to which elizabeth had habituated herself, than the vain and fantastic puerility of many of her recreations and habits,--the unintellectual brutality of the bearbaits which she admired, or the gaudy and glittering pageants in which she delighted? she built a gallery at whitehall at immense expense, and so superficially, that it was in ruins in her successor's time; but it was raised, in order to afford a magnificent reception to the ambassadors who, in , came to treat of an alliance with the duke of anjou. it was framed of timber, covered with painted canvas, and decorated with the utmost gaudiness. pendants of fruit of various kinds (amongst which cucumbers and even carrots are enumerated) were hung from festoons of flowers intermixed with evergreens, and the whole was powdered with gold spangles; the ceiling was painted like a sky with stars, sunbeams, and clouds, intermixed with scutcheons of the royal arms; and glass lustres and ornaments were scattered all around. here were enacted masques and pageants chiefly remarkable for their pedantic prolixity of composition, and the fulsome and gross flattery towards the queen with which they were throughout invested. everything, in accordance with the rage of the day, assumed an erudite, or, more truly speaking, a pedantic cast. when the queen (says warton) paraded through a country town, almost every pageant was a pantheon. when she paid a visit at the house of any of her nobility, at entering the hall she was saluted by the penates, and conducted to her privy chamber by mercury. even the pastry cooks were expert mythologists. at dinner, select transformations of ovid's metamorphoses were exhibited in confectionary; and the splendid iceing of an immense historic plum-cake was embossed with a delicious basso-relievo of the destruction of troy. in the afternoon, when she condescended to walk in the garden, the lake was covered with tritons and nereids; the pages of the family were converted into wood-nymphs, who peeped from every bower; and the footmen gambolled over the lawns in the figure of satyrs. scarcely we think could even the effusions of euphues--a fashion also of this period--be more wearisome to the spirit than a repetition of these dull delights. this predilection for learning, and the time perforce given to its acquisition, must necessarily have subtracted from those hours which might otherwise have been bestowed on the lighter labours and beguiling occupations of the needle. nor does it appear that after her accession elizabeth did much patronise this gentle art. she was cast in a more stirring mould. in her father's court, under her sister's jealous eye, within her prison's solitary walls, her needle might be a prudent disguise, a solacing occupation, "woman's pretty excuse for thought." but after her own accession to the throne _action_ was her characteristic. nevertheless we are not to suppose that, because needlework was not "a rage," it was frowned upon and despised. by no means. it is perhaps fortunate that elizabeth did not especially patronise it; for so dictatorial and absolute was she, that by virtue of the "right divine" she would have made her statesmen embroider their own robes, and her warriors lay aside the sword for the distaff. but as, happily, it now only held a secondary place in her esteem, we have raleigh's poems instead of his sampler, and bacon's learning instead of his stitchery. but it was not in her nature to suffer any thing in which she excelled to lie quite dormant. she was an accomplished needlewoman; some exquisite proofs of her skill were then glowing in all their freshness, and her excellence in this art was sufficiently obvious to prevent the ladies of her court from entirely forsaking it. many books, with patterns for needlework, were published about this time, and in a later one queen elizabeth is especially celebrated in a laudatory poem for her skill in it. that proficiency in ornamental needlework was an absolute requisite in the accomplishments of a country belle, may be inferred from the prominent place it holds in drayton's description of the well-educated daughter of a country knight in elizabeth's days: "the silk well couth she twist and twine, and make the fine march pine, and with the needlework: and she couth help the priest to say his mattins on a holy day, and sing a psalm in kirk. "she wore a frock of frolic green, might well become a maiden queen, which seemly was to see; a hood to that so neat and fine, in colour like the columbine, ywrought full featously." the march pine or counterpanes here alluded to, taxed in these days to the fullest extent both the purse of the rich and the fingers of the fair. elizabeth had several most expensively trimmed with ermine as well as needlework; the finest and richest embroidery was lavished on them; and it was no unusual circumstance for the counterpane for the "standing" or master's bed to be so lavishly adorned as to be worth a thousand marks. at no time was ornamental needlework more admired, or in greater request in the every-day concerns of life, than now. almost every article of dress, male and female, was adorned with it. even the boots, which at this time had immense tops turned down and fringed, and which were commonly made of russet cloth or leather, were worn by some exquisites of the day of very fine cloth (of which enough was used to make a shirt), and were embroidered in gold or silver, or in various-coloured silks, in the figures of birds, animals, or antiques; and the ornamental needlework alone of a pair of these boots would cost from four to ten pounds. the making of a single shirt would frequently cost _l._, so richly were they ornamented with "needleworke of silke, and so curiously stitched with other knackes." "woman's triflings," too, their handkerchiefs, reticules, workbags, &c., were decorated richly. we have seen within these few days a workbag which would startle a modern fair one, for, as far as regards _size_, it has a most "industrious look," but which, despite the ravages of near three centuries, yet gives token of much original magnificence. it is made of net, lined with silk; the material, the net itself, (a sort of honeycomb pattern, like what we called a few years ago the grecian lace,) was made by the fair workwoman in those days, and was a fashionable occupation both in france and england. this bag is wrought in broad stripes with gold thread, and between the stripes various flowers are embroidered in different coloured silks. the bag stands in a sort of card-board basket, covered in the same style; it is drawn with long cords and tassels, and is large enough perhaps, on emergency, to hold a good sized baby. it is more than probable that female skill was in request in various matters of household decoration. the arras looms, indeed, had long superseded the painful fingers of notable dames in the construction of hangings for walls, which were universally used, intermingled and varied in the palaces and nobler mansions by "painted cloth," and cloth of gold and silver. thus shakspeare describes imogen's chamber in cymbeline: "her bed-chamber was hanged with tapestry of silk and silver." we have remarked that henry the eighth's palaces were very splendid; elizabeth's were equally so, and more consistently finished in minor conveniences, as it is particularly remarked that "easye quilted and lyned formes and stools for the lords and ladyes to sit on" had superseded the "great plank forms, that two yeomen can scant remove out of their places, and waynscot stooles so hard, that since great breeches were layd asyde men can skant indewr to sitt on." her two presence chambers at hampton court shone with tapestry of gold and silver, and silk of various colours; her bed was covered with costly coverlids of silk, wrought in various patterns, by the needle; and she had many "chusions," moveable articles of furniture of various shapes, answering to our large family of tabourets and ottomans, embroidered with gold and silver thread. but it was not merely in courts and palaces that arras was used; it was now, of a coarser fabric, universally adopted in the houses of the country gentry. "the wals of our houses on the inner sides be either hanged with tapisterie, arras-work,[ ] or painted cloths, wherein either diverse histories, or hearbes, beasts, knots, and such like are stained, or else they are seeled with oke of our owne, or wainescot brought hither out of the east countries." the tapestry was now suspended on frames, which, we may infer, were often at a considerable distance from the walls, since the portly sir john falstaff ensconced himself "behind the arras" on a memorable occasion; polonius too met his death there; and indeed shakspeare presses it into the service on numerous occasions. the following quotation will give an accurate idea of properties thought most valuable at this time; and it will be seen that ornamental needlework cuts a very distinguished figure therein. it is a catalogue of his wealth given by gremio when suing for bianca to her father, who declares that the wealthiest lover will win her, in the taming of the shrew. _gremio._ "first, as you know, my house within the city is richly furnished with plate and gold; basons and ewers, to lave her dainty hands; my hangings all of tyrian tapestry; in ivory coffers i have stuff'd my crowns; in cypres chests my _arras_, counterpoints, costly apparel, tents, and canopies, fine linen, _turkey cushions boss'd with pearl, valence of venice gold, in needlework_, pewter and brass, and all things that belong to house or house-keeping." the age of elizabeth was one which powerfully appeals to the imagination in various ways. the æra of warlike chivalry was past; but many of its lighter observances remained, and added to the variety of life, and perhaps tended to polish it. we are told, for instance, that as the earl of cumberland stood before elizabeth she dropped her glove; and on his picking it up graciously desired him to keep it. he caused the trophy to be encircled with diamonds; and ever after, at all tilts and tourneys, bore it conspicuously placed in front of his high crowned hat. jousting and tilting in honour of the ladies (by whom prizes were awarded) continued still to be a favourite diversion. there were annual contentions in the lists in honour of the sovereign, and twenty-five persons of the first rank established a society of arms for this purpose, of which the chivalric sir henry lee was for some time president. the "romance of chivalry" was sinking to be succeeded by the heavier tomes of gomberville, scudery, &c., but the extension of classical knowledge, the vast strides in acquirement of various kinds, the utter change, so to speak, in the system of literature, all contributed to the downfall of the chivalric romance. sir philip sidney's arcadia introduced a rage for high-flown pastoral effusions; and now too was re-born that taste for metaphorical effusion and spiritual romance, which was first exhibited in the fourth century in the bishop of tricca's romance of "barlaam and josaphat," and which now pervaded the fast-rising puritan party, and was afterwards fully developed in that unaccountably fascinating work, "the pilgrim's progress." nevertheless, as yet "courted and caress'd, high placed in hall, a welcome guest," the harper poured to lord and lady gay not indeed "his unpremeditated lay," but a poetical abridgment (the precursor of a fast succeeding race of romantic ballads) of the doughty deeds of renowned knights, so amply expatiated upon in the time-honoured folios of the "olden time." the wandering harper, if fallen somewhat from his "high estate," was still a recognised and welcome guest; his "matter being for the most part stories of old time, as the tale of sir topas, the reportes of bevis of southampton, guy of warwicke, adam bell, and clymme of the clough, and such other old romances or historical rhimes." though the character of the minstrel gradually lost respectability, yet for a considerable part of elizabeth's reign it was one so fully acknowledged, that a peculiar garb was still attached to the office. "mongst these, some bards there were that in their sacred rage recorded the descents and acts of everie age. some with their nimbler joynts that strooke the warbling string; in fingering some unskild, but onelie vsed to sing vnto the other's harpe: of which you both might find great plentie, and of both excelling in their kind." the superstitions of various kinds, the omens, the warnings, the charms, the "potent spells" of the wizard seer, which "could hold in dreadful thrall the labouring moon, or draw the fix'd stars from their eminence, and still the midnight tempest,"-- the supernatural agents, the goblins, the witches, the fairies, the satyrs, the elves, the fauns, the "shapes that walk," the "uncharnel'd spectres, seen to glide along the lone wood's unfrequented path"-- the being and active existence of all these was considered "true as holy writ" by our ancestors of the elizabethan age. on this subject we will transcribe a beautifully illustrative passage from warton:-- "every goblin of ignorance" (says he) "did not vanish at the first glimmerings of the morning of science. reason suffered a few demons still to linger, which she chose to retain in her service under the guidance of poetry. men believed, or were willing to believe, that spirits were yet hovering around, who brought with them _airs from heaven, or blasts from hell_; that the ghost was duly relieved from his prison of torment at the sound of the curfew, and that fairies imprinted mysterious circles on the turf by moonlight. much of this credulity was even consecrated by the name of science and profound speculation. prospero had not yet _broken and buried his staff_, nor _drowned his book deeper than did ever plummet sound_. it was now that the alchemist and the judicial astrologer conducted his occult operations by the potent intercourse of some preternatural being, who came obsequious to his call, and was bound to accomplish his severest services, under certain conditions, and for a limited duration of time. it was actually one of the pretended feats of these fantastic philosophers to evoke the queen of the fairies in the solitude of a gloomy grove, who, preceded by a sudden rustling of the leaves, appeared in robes of transcendant lustre. the shakspeare of a more instructed and polished age would not have given us a magician darkening the sun at noon, the sabbath of the witches, and the cauldron of incantation." it were endless, and indeed out of place here, to attempt to specify the numberless minor superstitions to which this credulous tendency of the public mind gave birth or continuation; or the marvels of travellers,--as the anthropophagi, the ethiops with four eyes, the hippopodes with their nether parts like horses, the arimaspi with one eye in the forehead, and the monopoli who have no head at all, but a face in their breast--which were all devoutly credited. one potent charm, however, we are constrained to particularise, since its infallibility was mainly dependent on the needlewoman's skill. it was a waistcoat which rendered its owner invulnerable: we believe that if duly prepared it would be found proof not only against "silver bullets," but also against even the "charmed bullet" of german notoriety. thus runs the charm:-- "on christmas daie at night, a thread must be sponne of flax, by a little virgine girle, in the name of the divell; and it must be by hir woven, and also _wrought with the needle_. in the brest or forepart thereof must be made _with needleworke_ two heads; on the head at the right side must be a hat and a long beard, and the left head must have on a crowne, and it must be so horrible that it maie resemble belzebub; and on each side of the wastcote must be _wrought_ a crosse." the newspaper, that now mighty political engine, that "thewe and sinew" of the fourth estate of the realm, took its rise in elizabeth's day. how would her legislators have been overwhelmed with amazement could they have beheld, in dim perspective, this child of the press, scarcely less now the offspring of the imagination than those chimeras of their own time to which we have been alluding; and would not the wrinkled brow of the modern politician be unconsciously smoothened, would not the careworn and profound diplomatist "gather up his face into a smile before he was aware," if the first newspaper were suddenly placed before him? it is not indeed in existence, but was published under the title of "_the english mercurie_," in april, , on the first appearance near the shores of england of the spanish armada, a crisis which caused this innovation on the usual public news-letter circulated in manuscript. no. , dated july , , is the first now in existence; and as the publication only began in april, it shows they must have been issued frequently. we have seen this no. , which is preserved in the british museum.[ ] in it are no advertisements--no fashions--no law reports--no court circular--no fashionable arrivals--no fashionable intelligence--no murders--no robberies--no reviews--no crim. cons.--no elopements--no price of stocks--no mercantile intelligence--no police reports--no "leaders,"--no literary memoranda--no poets' corner--no spring meetings--no radical demonstrations--no conservative dinners--but "the "english mercurie, "published by authoritie, "for the prevention of false reportes, "_whitehall, july , ._" contains three pages and a half, small quarto, of matter of fact information. two pages respecting the armada then seen "neare the lizard, making for the entrance of the channell," and appearing on the surface of the water "like floating castles." a page of news from ostend, where "nothing was talked of but the intended invasion of england. his highnesse the prince of parma having compleated his preparationes, of which the subjoined accounte might be depended upon as _exacte and authentique_." something to say--for a newspaper. and a few lines dated "london, july , of the lord mayor, aldermen, common councilmen, and lieutenancie of this great citie" waiting on her majesty with assurances of support, and receiving a gracious reception from her. such was the newspaper of . * * * * * the great events of elizabeth's reign, in war, in politics, in legislation, belong to the historian; the great march of mind, the connecting link which that age formed between the darkness of the preceding ones (for during the period of the wars of the roses all sorts of art and science retrograded), and the high cultivation of later days, it is the province of the metaphysician and philosopher to analyse; and even the lighter characteristics of the time have become so familiar through the medium of many modern and valuable works, that we have ventured only to touch very superficially on some few of the more prominent of them. footnotes: [ ] harrison. [ ] from this separate mention of _tapisterie_ and _arras-work_ by so accurate a describer as harrison, it would seem that tapestry of the needle alone was not, even yet, quite exploded. [ ] sloane mss. no. . chapter xix. tapestry of the spanish armada, better known as tapestry of the house of lords. "he did blow with his wind, and they were scattered." 'inscription on the medal.' the year had been foretold by astrologers to be a wonderful year, the "climacterical year of the world;" and the public mind of england was at that period sufficiently credulous and superstitious to be affected with vague presentiments, even if the preparation of an hostile armada so powerful as to be termed "invincible," had not seemed to engraft on these vague surmises too real and fearful a groundwork of truth. the preparations of philip ii. in spain, combined with those of the duke of parma in the low countries, and furthered by the valued and effective benediction of the shaken and tottering, but still influential and powerful head of the roman church, had produced a hostile array which, with but too much probability of success, threatened the conquest of england, and its subjugation to the papal yoke. not since the norman conquest had any event occurred which, if successful, would be fraught with results so harassing and distressing to the established inhabitants of the island. though the norman conquest had, undoubtedly, _in the course of time_, produced a beneficial and civilising and ennobling influence on the island, it was long and bitter years ere the groans of the subjugated and oppressed anglo-saxons had merged in the contented peacefulness of a united people. yet william was certainly of a severe temper, and was incited by the unquenchable opposition of the english to a cruel and exterminating policy. philip of spain seemed not to promise milder measures. he was a bigot, and moreover hated the english with an utter hatred. during his union with mary he had utterly failed to gain their good will, and his hatred to them increased in an exact ratio to the failure of his desired influence with them. neither time, nor trouble, nor care, nor expense, was spared in this his decided invasion; and it is said that from italy, sicily, and even america, were drafted the most experienced captains and soldiers to aid his cause. well, then, might england look with anxiety, and even with terror, to this threatened and fast approaching event. but her energies were fully equal to the emergency. elizabeth, now in the full plenitude of her power, was at the acme of her influence over the wills, and in a great degree over the affections of her subjects, at least over by far the greater portion of them; one factious and discontented party there was, but too insufficient to be any effectual barrier to her designs. and the cause was a popular one: protestants and romanists joined in deprecating a foreign yoke. her powerful and commanding energies did not forsake her. her appeal to her subjects was replied to with heart-thrilling readiness, the city of london setting a noble example; for when ministers desired from it five thousand men and fifteen ships, the lord mayor, in behalf of the city, craved their sovereign to accept of ten thousand soldiers and thirty ships. this spirited precedent was followed all through the empire, all classes vied with each other in contributing their utmost quota of aid, by means and by personal service, and amongst many similar instances it is recorded of "that noble, vertuous, honourable man, the viscount montague, that he now came, though he was very sickly, and in age, with a full resolution to live and dye in defence of the queene, and of his countrie, against all invaders, whether it were pope, king, and potentate whatsoever, and in that quarrell he would hazard his life, his children, his landes and goods. and to shew his mynde agreeably thereto, he came personally himselfe before the queene, with his band of horsemen, being almost two hundred; the same being led by his owne sonnes, and with them a yong child, very comely, seated on horseback, being the heire of his house, that is, ye eldest sonne to his sonne and heire; a matter much noted of many, to see a grandfather, father, and sonne, at one time on horsebacks afore a queene for her service." for three years had philip been preparing, in all parts of his dominions, for this overwhelming expedition, and his equipments were fully equal to his extensive preparations; and so popular was the project in spain, and so ardent were its votaries, that there was not a family of any note which had not contributed some of its dearest and nearest members; there were also one hundred and eighty capuchins, dominicans, jesuits, and mendicant friars; and so great was the enthusiastic anticipation, that even females hired vessels to follow the fleet which contained those they loved; two or three of these were driven by the storm on the coast of france. this armada consisted of about one hundred and fifty ships, most of which were of an uncommon size, strength, and thickness, more like floating castles than anything else; and to this unwieldy size may, probably, be attributed much of their discomfiture. for the greater holiness of their action, twelve were called the twelve apostles; and a pinnace of the andalusian squadron, commanded by don pedro de valdez, was called the "holy ghost." the fleet is said to have contained thirty-two thousand persons, and to have cost every day thirty thousand ducats. the duke of parma's contemporary preparations were also prodigious, and of a nature which plainly declared the full certainty and confidence in which the invaders indulged of making good their object. but the preparations were doomed not to be even tried. the finesse and manoeuvres of the shrewd sir francis walsingham[ ] had caused the invasion to be retarded for a whole year, and by this time england was fully prepared for her foes. the result is known. the hollow treaty of peace into which parma had entered in order, when all preparations were completed, to take her by surprise, was entered into with an equal share of hypocritical policy by elizabeth. "so (says an old historian) as they seemed on both sides to sew the foxe's skin to the lion's." so powerful was the effect on the public mind, not only of this projected enterprise, but of its almost unhoped for discomfiture, that all possible means were taken to commemorate the event. one method resorted to was the manufacture of tapestry representing a series of subjects connected with it. at that time flanders excelled all others in the manufacture of tapestry, it was scarcely indeed introduced into england; and our ancestors had a series of ten charts, designed by henry cornelius vroom, a celebrated painter of haarlem, from which their flemish neighbours worked beautiful draperies, which ornamented the walls of the house of lords. at the time of the union with ireland, when considerable repairs and alterations were made here, these magnificent tapestries were taken down, cleaned, and replaced, with the addition of large frames of dark stained wood, which set off the work and colouring to advantage. they formed a series of ten pictures, round which portraits of the distinguished officers who commanded the fleet were wrought into a border. with a prescience, which might now almost seem prophetic, mr. john pine, engraver, published in a series of plates taken from these tapestries; and "because," says he, "time, or accident, or moths may deface these valuable shadows, we have endeavoured to preserve their likeness in the preceding prints, which, by being multiplied and dispersed in various hands, may meet with that security from the closets of the curious, which the originals must scarce always hope for, even from the sanctity of the place they are kept in." "on the th day of july, , the english discovered the spanish fleet with lofty turrets like castles, in front like a half moon, the wing thereof spreading out about the length of seven miles, sailing very slowly, though with full sails, the winds being as it were tired with carrying them, and the ocean groaning under the weight of them." this forms the subject of the first tableau. the english commanders suffered the spaniards to pass them unmolested, in order that they might hang upon their rear, and harass them when they should be involved in the channel; for the english navy were unable to confront such a power in direct and close action. the second piece represents them thus, near fowey, the english coast displayed in the back-ground, diversified perhaps somewhat too elaborately into hill and dale, and the foliage scattered somewhat too regularly in lines over each hill, but very pretty nevertheless. a small village with its church and spire appears just at the water edge, eddystone lighthouse lifts its head above the waters, and, fit emblem of the patriotism which now burned throughout the land, and even glowed on the waters, a huge sea monster uprears itself in threatening attitude against the invading host, and shows a countenance hideous enough to scare any but spaniards from its native shores. no. represents the first engagement between the hostile fleets, and also the subsequent sailing of the spanish armada up the channel, closely followed by the english, whose ships were so much lighter, that in a running warfare of this kind they had greatly the advantage. the sea is alive too with dolphins and other strange fish, with right british hearts, as it has been said that "they seemed to oppose themselves with fierce and grim looks to the progress of the spanish fleet." the view of the coast here is very good; and, where it retires from start point so as to form a bay or harbour, the perspective is really admirably indicated by two vessels dimly defined in the horizon. the views of the coast are varied and interesting; and the distances and perspective views are much more accurately delineated than was usual at the time; but, as we have remarked, they were designed by an eminent painter, and one whose particular _forte_ was the delineation of shipping and naval scenes. the pictures are certainly as a series devoid of variety. in two of them the calais shore is introduced; and the intermixture of fortifications, churches, houses, and animated spectators, eagerly crowding to behold the fleets sailing by, produces an enlivening and busy scene, which, set off by the varied, lively, and appropriate colouring of the tapestry, would have a most striking effect. but the man who, unmoved by the excitement about him, is calmly fishing under the walls, without even turning his head toward the scene of tumult, must be blessed with an apathy of disposition which the poor enraged dolphins and porpoises might have envied. with these exceptions the tapestries are all sea pieces with only a distant view of the coast, and portray the two fleets in different stages of their progress, sometimes with engagements between single ships, but generally in an apparent state of truce, the english always the pursuers, and the spaniards generally drawn up in form of a crescent. the last however shows the invading fleet hurriedly and in disorder sailing away, when bad weather, the duke of parma's delay, and a close engagement of fourteen hours, in which they "suffered grievously," having "had to endure all the heavy cannonading of their triumphant opponents, while they were struggling to get clear of the shallows," convinced them of the impossibility of a successful close to their enterprise, and made them resolve to take advantage of a southern breeze to make their passage up the north sea, and round scotland home. "he that fights and runs away, may live to fight another day." so, however, did _not_ the spaniards. "about these north islands their mariners and soldiers died daily by multitudes, as by their bodies cast on land did appear. the almighty ordered the winds to be so contrary to this proud navy, that it was, by force, dissevered on the high seas west upon ireland; and so great a number of them driven into sundry dangerous bays, and upon rocks, and there cast away; some sunk, some broken, some on the sands, and some burnt by the spaniards themselves." misfortune clung to them; storm and tempest on the sea, and inhospitable and cruel treatment when they were forced on shore so reduced them, that of this magnificent armada only sixty shattered vessels found their home; and their humbled commander, the duke de medina sidonia, was led to understand that his presence was not desired at court, and that a private country residence would be the most suitable. it was on this occasion, when the instant danger was past but by no means entirely done away, as for some time it was supposed that the armada, after recruiting in some northern station, would return, that elizabeth with a general's truncheon in her hand rode through the ranks of her army at tilbury, and addressed them in a style which caused them to break out into deafening and tumultuous shouts and cries of love, and honour, and obedience to death. thus magnificently the english heroine spoke: "my loving people,--we have been persuaded by some that are careful of our safety to take heed how we commit ourselves to armed multitudes; but i assure you i do not desire to live to distrust my faithful and loving people. let tyrants fear; i have always so behaved myself that, under god, i have placed my chiefest strength and safeguard in the loyal hearts and goodwill of my subjects; and therefore i am come amongst you, as you see at this time, not for my recreation and disport, but being resolved, in the midst and heat of the battle, to live and die amongst you all; to lay down for my god, and for my kingdom, and for my people, my honour, and my blood, even in the dust. i know i have the body but of a weak and feeble woman, but i have the heart and stomach of a king, and of a king of england too; and think foul scorn that parma or spain, or any prince of europe should dare to invade the borders of my realm; to which, rather than any dishonour shall grow by me, i myself will take up arms, i myself will be your general, judge, and rewarder of every one of your virtues in the field; i know already, for your forwardness, you have deserved rewards and crowns; and we do assure you, in the word of a prince, they shall be duly paid you. in the mean time my lieutenant-general shall be in my stead, than whom never prince commanded a more noble or worthy subject; not doubting but, by your obedience to my general, by your concord in the camp, and your valour in the field, we shall shortly have a famous victory over those enemies of my god, of my kingdoms, and of my people." the tapestry, the magnificent memorial of this great event, was lost irreparably in the devastating fire of . some fragments, it is said, were preserved, but we have not been able to ascertain this fact. one portion still exists at plymouth, though shorn of its pristine brilliancy, as some of the silver threads were drawn out by the economists of the time of the commonwealth. this piece was cut out to make way for a gallery at the time of the trial of queen caroline, was secreted by a german servant of the lord chamberlain, and sold by him to a broker who offered it to government for _l._ some inquiry was made into the circumstances, which, however, do not seem to have excited very great interest, since the relic was ultimately bought by the bishop of landaff (van mildert) for _l._ by him it was presented to the corporation of plymouth, who still possess it. footnote: [ ] he contrived, by means of a venetian priest, his spy, to obtain a copy of a letter from philip to the pope; a gentleman of the bedchamber taking the keys of the cabinet from the pockets of his holiness as he slept. upon intelligence thus obtained, walsingham got those spanish bills protested at genoa which should have supplied money for the preparations. chapter xx. on stitchery. "here have i cause in men just blame to find, that in their proper praise too partial bee, and not indifferent to womankind, * * * * * scarse do they spare to one, or two, or three, rowme in their writtes; yet the same writing small does all their deedes deface, and dims their glories all." faerie queene. "christine, whiche understode these thynges of dame reason, replyed upon that in this manere. madame ise wel {that} ye myght fynde ynowe & of grete nombre of women praysed in scyences and in crafte; but knowe ye ony that by {the} vertue of their felynge & of subtylte of wytte _haue founde of themselfe_ ony newe craftes and scyences necessary, good, & couenable that were neuer founde before nor knowne? for it is not so grete maystry to folowe and to lerne after ony other scyence founde and comune before, as it is to fynde of theymselfe some newe thynge not accustomed before. "_answere._--ne doubte ye not {the} contrary my dere frende but many craftes and scyences ryght notable hathe ben founde by the wytte and subtylte of women, as moche by speculacyon of understandynge, the whiche sheweth them by wrytynge, as in craftes, {that} sheweth theym _in werkynge of handes_ & of laboure." _the boke of the cyte of ladyes._ again we must lament that the paucity of historical record lays us under the necessity of concluding, by inference, what we would fain have displayed by direct testimony. the respectable authority quoted above affirms that "many craftes and scyences ryght notable hathe ben founde by the wytte and subtylte of women," and it specifies particularly "werkynge of handes," by which we suppose the "talented" author means needlework. that the necessity for this pretty art was first created by woman, no one, we think, will disallow; and that it was first practised, as it has been subsequently perfected, by her, is a fact of which we feel the most perfect conviction. this conviction has been forced upon us by a train of reasoning which will so readily suggest itself to the mind of all our readers, that we content ourselves with naming the result, assured that it is unnecessary to trouble them with the intervening steps. one only link in the chain of "circumstantial evidence" will we adduce, and that is afforded by the ancient engraving to which we have before alluded in our remarks upon eve's needle and thread. there whilst our "general mother" is stitching away at the fig-leaves in the most edifying manner possible, our "first father," far from trying to "put in a stitch for himself," is gazing upon her in the most utter amazement. and while she plies her busy task as if she had been born to stitchery, his eyes, _not_ his fingers, "follow the nimble fingers of the fair," with every indication of superlative wonder and admiration. in fact, it is no slight argument in favour of the original invention of sewing by women, that men very rarely have wit enough to learn it, even when invented. there has been no lack of endeavour, even amongst the world's greatest and mightiest, but poor "work" have they made of it. hercules lost all the credit of his mighty labours from his insignificance at the spinning wheel, and the sceptre of sardanapalus passed from his grasp as he was endeavouring to "finger the fine needle and nyse thread." these love-stricken heroes might have said with gower--had he then said it-- "what things she bid me do, i do, and where she bid me go, i go. and where she likes to call, i come, i serve, i bow, i look, i lowte, my eye followeth her about. what so she will, so will i, when she would set, i kneel by. and when she stands, then will i stand, _and when she taketh her work in hand_, of _wevyng or of embroidrie_. then can i _only_ muse and prie, upon her fingers long and small." our modern hercules, the leviathan of literature, was not more successful. _dr. johnson._--"women have a great advantage that they may take up with little things, without disgracing themselves; a man cannot, except with fiddling. had i learnt to fiddle i should have done nothing else." _boswell._--"pray, sir, did you ever play on any musical instrument?" _dr. johnson._--"no, sir; i once bought a flageolet, but i never made out a tune." _boswell._--"a flageolet, sir! so small an instrument? i should have liked to hear you play on the violoncello. _that_ should have been your instrument." _dr. johnson._--"sir, i might as well have played on the violoncello as another; but i should have done nothing else. no, sir; a man would never undertake great things could he be amused with small. i once tried knotting; dempster's sister undertook to teach me, but _i could not learn it_." _boswell._--"so, sir; it will be related in pompous narrative, 'once for his amusement he tried knotting, nor did this hercules disdain the distaff.'" _dr. johnson._--"knitting of stockings is a good amusement. as a freeman of aberdeen, i should be a knitter of stockings." nor was dr. johnson singular in his high appreciation of the value of some sort of stitchery to his own half of the human race, if their intellects unfortunately had not been too obtuse for its acquisition. the great censor of the public morals and manners a century ago, the spectator, recommends the same thing, though with his usual policy he feigns merely to be the medium of another's advice. "mr. spectator,--you are always ready to receive any useful hint or proposal, and such, i believe, you will think one that may put you in a way to employ the most idle part of the kingdom; i mean that part of mankind who are known by the name of the women's men, beaux, &c. mr. spectator, you are sensible these pretty gentlemen are not made for any manly employments, and for want of business are often as much in the vapours as the ladies. now what i propose is this, that since knotting is again in fashion, which has been found a very pretty amusement, that you will recommend it to these gentlemen as something that may make them useful to the ladies they admire. and since it is not inconsistent with any game or other diversion, for it may be done in the playhouse, in their coaches, at the tea-table, and, in short, in all places where they come for the sake of the ladies (except at church, be pleased to forbid it there to prevent mistakes), it will be easily complied with. it is besides an employment that allows, as we see by the fair sex, of many graces, which will make the beaux more readily come into it; and it shows a white hand and a diamond ring to great advantage; it leaves the eyes at full liberty to be employed as before, as also the thoughts and the tongue. in short, it seems in every respect so proper that it is needless to urge it further, by speaking of the satisfaction these male knotters will find when they see their work mixed up in a fringe, and worn by the fair lady for whom, and with whom, it was done. truly, mr. spectator, i cannot but be pleased i have hit upon something that these gentlemen are capable of; for it is sad so considerable a part of the kingdom (i mean for numbers) should be of no manner of use. i shall not trouble you further at this time, but only to say, that i am always your reader and generally your admirer. c. b. "p.s.--the sooner these fine gentlemen are set to work the better; there being at this time several fringes that stay only for more hands." but, alas! the sanguine writer was mistaken in supposing that at last gentlemen had found a something "of which they were capable." the days of knotting passed away before they had made any proficiency in it; nor have we ever heard that they have adopted any other branch or stitch of this extensive art. there is variety enough to satisfy anybody, and there are gradations enough in the stitches to descend to any capacity but a man's. there are tambour stitch--satin--chain--finny--new--bred-- ferne--and queen-stitches; there is slabbing--veining--and button stitch; seeding--roping--and open stitch: there is sockseam--herring-bone--long stitch--and cross stitch: there is rosemary stitch--spanish stitch--and irish stitch: there is back stitch--overcast--and seam stitch: hemming--felling--and basting: darning--grafting--and patching: there is whip stitch--and fisher stitch: there is fine drawing--gathering-- marking--trimming--and tucking. truly all this does require some +nous+, and the lords of the creation are more to be pitied than blamed for that paucity of intellect which deprives them of "woman's pretty excuse for thought." raillery apart, sewing is in itself an agreeable occupation, it is essentially a useful one; in many of its branches it is quite ornamental, and it is a gentle, a graceful, an elegant, and a truly feminine occupation. it causes the solitary hours of domestic life to glide more smoothly away, and in those social unpretending reunions which in country life and in secluded districts are yet not abolished, it takes away from the formality of sitting for conversation, abridges the necessity for scandal, or, to say the least of it, as we have heard even ungallant lordly man allow, it keeps us out of mischief. and there are frequent and oft occurring circumstances which invest it with characteristics of a still higher order. how many of "the sweet solicitudes that life beguile" are connected with this interesting occupation! either in preparing habiliments for those dependent on our care, and for love of whom many an unnecessary stitch which may tend to extra adornment is put in; or in those numberless pretty and not unuseful tokens of remembrance, which, passing from friend to friend, soften our hearts by the intimation they convey, that we have been cared for in our absence, and that while the world looked dark and desolate about us, unforgetting hearts far, far away were holding us in remembrance, busy fingers were occupied in our behoof. oh! a reticule, a purse, a slipper, how valueless soever in itself, is, when fraught with these home memories, worth that which the mines of golconda could not purchase. and of such a nature would be the feelings which suggested these well-known but exquisite lines:-- "the twentieth year is well nigh past, since first our sky was overcast, ah, would that this might be the last! my mary! "thy spirits have a fainter flow, i see thee daily weaker grow, 'twas my distress that brought thee low, my mary! "thy needles, once a shining store, for my sake restless heretofore, now rust disused and shine no more, my mary! "for though thou gladly would'st fulfil the same kind office for me still, thy sight now seconds not thy will, my mary! "but well thou play'dst the housewife's part, and all thy threads with magic art, have wound themselves about this heart, my mary!" an interesting circumstance connected with needlework is mentioned in the delightful memoir written by lady murray, of her mother, the excellent and admirable lady grisell baillie. the allusion itself is very slight, merely to the making of a frill or a collar; but the circumstances connected with it are deeply interesting, and place before us a vivid picture of the deprivations of a family of rank and consequence in "troublous times," and moreover offer us a portrait from _real life_ of true feminine excellence, of a young creature of rank and family, of cultivated and refined tastes and of high connexions, utterly forgetting all these in the cheerful and conscientious discharge, for years, of the most arduous and humble duties, and even of menial and revolting offices. it may be that my readers all are not so well acquainted with this little book as ourselves, and, if so, they will not consider the following extract too long. "they lived three years and a half in holland, and in that time she made a second voyage to scotland about business. her father went by the borrowed name of dr. wallace, and did not stir out for fear of being discovered, though who he was, was no secret to the wellwishers of the revolution. their great desire was to have a good house, as their greatest comfort was at home; and all the people of the same way of thinking, of which there were great numbers, were continually with them. they paid for their house what was very extravagant for their income, nearly a fourth part; they could not afford keeping any servant, but a little girl to wash the dishes. "all the time they were there, there was not a week that my mother did not sit up two nights, to do the business that was necessary. she went to market, went to the mill to have the corn ground, which it seems is the way with good managers there, dressed the linen, cleaned the house, made ready the dinner, mended the children's stockings and other clothes, made what she could for them, and, in short, did everything. "her sister, christian, who was a year or two younger, diverted her father and mother and the rest who were fond of music. out of their small income they bought a harpsichord for little money, but is a _rucar_ now in my custody, and most valuable. my aunt played and sang well, and had a great deal of life and humour, but no turn to business. though my mother had the same qualifications, and liked it as well as she did, she was forced to drudge; and many jokes used to pass betwixt the sisters about their different occupations. every morning before six my mother lighted her father's fire in his study, then waked him (she was ever a good sleeper, which blessing, among many others, she inherited from him); then got him, what he usually took as soon as he got up, warm small beer with a spoonful of bitters in it, which he continued his whole life, and of which i have the receipt. "then she took up the children and brought them all to his room, where he taught them everything that was fit for their age; some latin, others french, dutch, geography, writing, reading, english, &c.; and my grandmother taught them what was necessary on her part. thus he employed and diverted himself all the time he was there, not being able to afford putting them to school; and my mother, when she had a moment's time, took a lesson with the rest in french and dutch, and also diverted herself with music. i have now a book of songs of her writing when there; many of them interrupted, half-writ, some broke off in the middle of a sentence. she had no less a turn for mirth and society than any of the family, when she could come at it without neglecting what she thought more necessary. "her eldest brother, patrick, who was nearest her age, and bred up together, was her most dearly beloved. my father was there, forfeited and exiled, in the same situation with themselves. she had seen him for the first time in the prison with his father, not long before he suffered;[ ] and from that time their hearts were engaged. her brother and my father were soon got in to ride in the prince of orange's guards, till they were better provided for in the army, which they were before the revolution. they took their turn in standing sentry at the prince's gate, but always contrived to do it together, and the strict friendship and intimacy that then began, continued to the last. "though their station was then low, they kept up their spirits; the prince often dined in public, then all were admitted to see him: when any pretty girl wanted to go in they set their halberts across the door and would not let her pass till she gave each of them a kiss, which made them think and call them very pert soldiers. i could relate many stories on this subject; my mother could talk for hours and never tire of it, always saying it was the happiest part of her life. her _constant attention was to have her brother appear right in his linen and dress_; they wore little point cravats and cuffs, which many a night she sat up to have in as good order for him as any in the place; and one of their greatest expenses was in dressing him as he ought to be. "as their house was always full of the unfortunate people banished like themselves, they seldom went to dinner without three, four, or five of them to share it with them; and many a hundred times i have heard her say she could never look back upon their manner of living there without thinking it a miracle. they had no want, but plenty of everything they desired, and much contentment, and always declared it the most pleasing part of her life, though they were not without their little distresses; but to them they were rather jokes than grievances. the professors and men of learning in the place came often to see my grandfather; the best entertainment he could give them was a glass of alabast beer, which was a better kind of ale than common. he sent his son andrew, the late lord kimmerghame, a boy, to draw some for them in the cellar, and he brought it up with great diligence, but in the other hand the spigot of the barrel. my grandfather said, 'andrew! what is that in your hand?' when he saw it he ran down with speed, but the beer was all run out before he got there. this occasioned much mirth, though perhaps they did not well know where to get more. "it is the custom there to gather money for the poor from house to house, with a bell to warn people to give it. one night the bell came, and no money was there in the house but a orkey, which is a doit, the smallest of all coin; everybody was so ashamed no one would go to give it, it was so little, and put it from one to the other: at last my grandfather said, 'well, then, i'll go with it; we can do no more than give all we have.' they were often reduced to this by the delay of the ships coming from scotland with their small remittances; then they put the little plate they had (all of which they carried with them) in the lumber, which is pawning it, till the ships came: and that very plate they brought with them again to scotland, and left no debt behind them." this is a long but not an uninteresting digression, and we were led to it from the recollection that lady grisell baillie, when encompassed with heavy cares, not only sat up a night or two every week, but felt a satisfaction, a pleasure, in doing so, to execute the needlework required by her family. and when sewing with a view to the comfort and satisfaction of others, the needlewoman--insignificant as the details of her employment may appear--has much internal satisfaction; she has a definite vocation, an important function. nor few nor insignificant are her handmaidens, one or other of whom is ever at her side, inspiriting her to her task. her most constant attendant is a matron of stayed and sober appearance, called utility. the needlewoman's productions are found to vary greatly, and this variation is ascribed with truth to the influencing suggestions of the attendant for the time being. thus, for instance, when utility is her companion all her labours are found to result in articles of which the material is unpretending, and the form simple; for however she may be led wandering by the vagaries of her other co-mates, it is always found that in moments of steady reflection she listens with the most implicit deference to the intimations of this her experienced and most respectable friend. but occasionally, indeed frequently, utility brings with her a fair and interesting relative, called taste; a gentle being, of modest and retiring mien, of most unassuming deportment, but of exquisite grace; and it is even observed that the needlewoman is more happy in her labours, and more universally approved when accompanied by these two friends, than by any other of the more eccentric ones who occasionally take upon themselves to direct her steps. of these latter, fashion is one of her most frequent visitors, and it is very often found that as she approaches utility and taste retire. this is not, however, invariably the case. sometimes the three agree cordially together, and their united suffrages and support enhance the fame of the needlewoman to the very highest pitch; but this happy cordiality is of infrequent occurrence, and usually of short duration. fashion is fickle, varying, inconstant; given to sudden partialities and to disruptions unlooked for, and as sudden. she laughs to scorn utility's grave maxims, and exaggerates the graceful suggestions of taste until they appear complete caricatures. consequently they, offended, retire; and fashion, heedless, holds on her own course, keeping the needlewoman in complete subjection to her arbitrary rule, which is often enforced in her transient absence by her own peculiar friend and intimate--caprice. this fantastic being has the greatest influence over fashion, who having no staple character of her own, is easily led every way at the beck of this whimsical and absurd dictator. the productions which emanate from the hands of the needlewoman under their guidance are much sought for, much looked at, but soon fall into utter contempt. but there is another handmaiden created for the delight and solace of mankind in general, and who from the earliest days, even until now, has been the loving friend of the needlewoman; ever whispering suggestions in her ear, or tracing patterns on her work, or gently guiding her finger through the fantastic maze. she is of the most exquisite beauty: fragile in form as the gossamer that floats on a summer's breath--brilliant in appearance as the colours that illumine the rainbow. so light, that she floats on an atom; so powerful that she raises empires, nay, the whole earth by her might. her habits are the most vagrant imaginable; she is indeed the veriest little gossip in creation, but her disposition to roam is not more boundless than her power to gratify it. one instant she is in the depths of the ocean, loitering upon coral beds; the next above the stars, revelling in the immensity of space; one moment she tracks a comet in his course, the next hobnobs with the sea-king, or foots a measure with mermaids. a most skilful architect, she will build palaces on the clouds radiant with splendour and beautiful as herself; then, demolishing them with a breath, she flies to some moss-grown ruin of the earth, where a glimpse of her countenance drives away the bat and the owl; the wallflower, the moss, and the ivy, are displaced by the rose, the lily, and the myrtle; the damp building is clothed in freshness and splendour, the lofty halls resound with the melody of the lute and the harp, and the whole scene is vivid with light and life, with brilliancy and beauty. again, in an instant, all is mute, and dim, and desolate, and the versatile sorceress is hunting the otter with an esquimaux; or, pillowed on roses whose fragrance is wafted by softest zephyrs around, she listens to the strain which the bulbul pours; or, wrapped in deepest maze of philosophic thought, she "treads the long extent of backward time," by the gigantic sepulchres of egyptian kings; or else she flies "from the tempest-rocked hebrides or the icebound northern ocean--from the red man's wilderness of the west--from the steppes of central asia--from the teeming swamps of the amazon--from the sirocco deserts of africa--from the tufted islands of the pacific--from the heaving flanks of Ætna--or from the marbled shores of greece;"--and draws the whole circle of her enchantments round the needlewoman's fingers, within the walls of an humble english cottage. but it were equally unnecessary and useless to dilate on her fairy wanderings. suffice it to say that so great is the beneficent liberality of this fascinating being, that every corner of her rich domain is open to the highest or lowest of mortals without reserve; and so lovely is she herself, and so bewitching is her company, that few, few indeed, are they who do not cherish her as a bosom friend and as the dearest of companions. bearing, however, her vagrant characteristics in mind, we shall not be surprised at the peculiar ideas some people entertain of her haunts, nor at the strange places in which they search for her person. one would hardly believe that hundreds of thousands have sought her through the smoke, din, and turmoil of those lines "where all antipathies to comfort dwell,"--the railroads; while others, more adventurous, plough the ocean deep, scale the mighty mountains, or soar amid the clouds for her; or, strange to say, have sought her in the battle field 'mid scenes of bloody death. like hotspur, such would pluck her-- "from the pale-faced moon;" or would "dive into the bottom of the deep, where fathom-line could never touch the ground" for her. but she is a lady before whom strength and pride fall nerveless and abased; her gracious smiles are to be wooed, not commanded; her bright presence may be won, not forced; "for spotless, and holy, and gentle, and bright, she glides o'er the earth like an angel of light." possessing all the gentleness of her mother--_taste_, she shrinks from everything rude or abrupt; and when, as has frequently been the case, persons have attempted to lay violent hands upon her, she has invariably eluded their vigilance, by leaving in her place, tricked out in her superabundant ornaments to blind them, her half-brother--_whim_, who sprang from the same father--_wit_, but by another mother--_humour_. she herself, wanderer as she is, is not without her favourite haunts, in which she lingers as if even loath to quit them at all. finally, wherever yet the _accomplished_ needlewoman has been found, in the jewish tabernacle of old--in the grecian dome where the "tale of troy divine" glowed on the canvass--or in the bower of the high-born beauty of the "bright days of the sword and the lance"--in the cell of the pale recluse--or in the turretted prison of the royal captive--there has fancy been her devoted friend, her inseparable companion. footnote: [ ] she was then a mere child, not more, if i remember rightly, than twelve years old. chapter xxi. "les anciennes tapisseries;" tapestry of st. mary's hall, coventry; tapestry of hampton court. "there is a sanctity in the past." bulwer. all monuments of antiquity are so speedily passing away, all traces of those bygone generations on which the mind loves to linger, and which in their dim and indistinct memories exercise a spell, a holy often, and a purifying spell on the imagination are so fleeting, and when _irrevocably_ gone will be so lamented--that all testimonies which throw certain light on the habits and manners of the past, how slight soever the testimonies they afford, how trivial soever the characteristics they display, are of the highest possible value to an enlightened people, who apply the experience of the past to its legitimate and noblest use, the guidance and improvement of the present. in this point of view the work which forms the subject of this chapter[ ] assumes a value which its intrinsic worth--beautiful as is its execution--would not impart to it; and it is thus rendered not less valuable as an historical record, than it is attractive as a work of taste. "là chez eux, (we quote from the preface to the work itself,) c'est un siège ou un tournoi; ici un festin, plus loin une chasse; et toujours, chasse, festin, tournoi, siège, tout cela est _pourtraict au vif_, comme aurait dit montaigne, tout cela nous retrace au naturel la vie de nos pères, nous montre leurs châteaux, leurs églises, leurs costumes, leurs armes et même, grâce aux légendes explicatives, leur langage à diverses époques. il y a mieux. si nous nous en rapportons à l'inventaire de charles v., exécuté en , toute la littérature française des siècles féconds qui précédèrent celui de ce sage monarque, aurait été par ces ordres traduite en laine." this book consists of representations of all the existing ancient tapestries which activity and research can draw from the hiding-places of ages, copied in the finest outline engraving, with letter-press descriptions of each plate. they are published in numbers, and in a style worthy of the object. we do not despair of seeing this spirited example followed in our own country, where many a beautiful specimen of ancient tapestry, still capable of renovation by care--is mouldering unthought of in the lumber-rooms of our ancient mansions. we have seen twenty-one numbers of this work, with which we shall deal freely: excepting, however, the eight parts which are entirely occupied by the bayeux tapestry. our own chapters on the subject were written before we were fortunate enough to obtain a sight of these, which include the whole of the correspondence on the tapestry to which we in our sketch alluded. la tapisserie de nancy.--"aurait une illustre origine, et remonterait à une assez haute antiquité. prise dans la tente de charles le téméraire, lors de la mort de ce prince, en , devant la capitale de la lorraine, qu'il assiégeait, elle serait devenue un meuble de la couronne, et aurait servi au palais des ducs de ce pays, depuis rené jusqu'à charles iv.----c'est une de ces anciennes tapisseries flamandes dont le tissu, de laine tres fine, est éclairé par l'or et la soie. la soie et la laine subsistent encore, mais l'or ne s'aperçoit plus que dans quelques endroits et à la faveur d'un beau soleil. nous ferons remarquer que le costume des divers personnages que figurent dans notre monument est tout à fait caractéristique. ce sont bien là les vêtements et les ornements en usage vers la moitié du quinzième siècle, et la disposition artistique, le choix du sujet, ainsi que l'exécution elle-même portent bien l'empreinte du style des oeuvres de environ.----la maison de bourgogne était fort riche en joyaux, en vaisselle d'or ou d'argent et en _tapis_." the tapestry presents an allegorical history, of which the object is to depict the inconveniences consequent on what is called "good cheer." later on this formed the subject of "a morality." originally this tapestry was only one vast page, the requisite divisions being wrought in the form of ornamented columns. it was afterwards cut in pieces, and unfortunately the natural divisions of the subject were not attended to in the severment. more unhappily still the pieces have since been rejoined in a wrong order; and after every possible endeavour to read them aright, the publishers are indebted to the "morality" before referred to, which was taken from it, and was entitled "la nef de santé, avec le gouvernail du corps humain, et la condamnaçion des bancquetz, a la louenge de diepte et sobriéte, et la traictie des passions de l'ame." banquet, bonnecompagnie, souper, gourmandise, friandise, passetemps, je pleige d'autant, je boy à vous, and other rare personifications, not forgetting that indispensable guest _then_ in all courtly pastime, le fol, "go it" to their hearts' content, until they are interrupted _vi et armis_ by a ghastly phalanx in powerful array of apoplexie, ydropsie, epilencie, pleurisie, esquinancie, paralasie, gravelle, colicque, &c. tapisserie de dijon.--"on conviendra qu'il serait difficile de trouver un monument de ce genre plus fidèle sur le rapport historique, plus intéressant pour les arts, et plus digne d'être reproduit par la gravure. je ferai en outre remarquer combien cet immense tableau de laine, qui est unique, renferme de détails précieux à la fois pour la panoplie, pour les costumes, et l'architecture du commencement du siècle, ainsi que pour l'histoire monumentale de dijon." this tapestry, judging by the engravings in the work we quote, must be very beautiful. the groups are spirited and well disposed; and the countenances have so much _nature_ and expression in them, as to lead us readily to credit the opinion of the writer that they were portraits. the buildings are well outlined; and in the third piece an excellent effect is produced by exposing--by means of an open window, or some simple contrivance of the sort--part of the interior of the church of nôtre dame, and so displaying the brave leader of the french army, la tremouille, as he offers thanks before the shrine of the virgin. the tapestry was worked immediately after the siege of dijon, ( ) and represents in three scenes the most important circumstances relating to it; the costumes, the arms, and the architecture of the time being displayed with fidelity and exactitude. the first represents the invading army before the walls; the second a solemn procession in honour of notre-dame-de-bonne-espoir. in the midst is elevated the image of the virgin, which is surrounded by the clergy in their festal vestments, by the religious communities, by the nobility, the bourgeois, and the military, all bearing torches. to this solemn procession was attributed the truce which led to a more lasting peace, though there are some heterodox dissentients who attribute this substantial advantage to the wisdom and policy of the able commander la tremouille, who shared with bayard the honourable distinction of being "sans peur et sans reproche." tapisseries de bayard.--a château which belonged to this noted hero was despoiled at the revolution, and it was doubtless only owing to an idea of its worthlessness that some of the ancient tapestry was left there. these fragments, in a deplorable state, were purchased in , and there are yet sufficient of them to bear testimony to their former magnificence, and to decide the date of their creation at the close of the fourteenth or beginning of the fifteenth century. the subjects are taken from homer's "iliad," and "il est probable (says m. jubinal) que ce poëme se trouvait originairement reproduit en laine presque tout entier, malgré sa longueur, car ce n'était pas le travail qui effrayait nos aïeux." valenciennes was celebrated for the peculiar fineness and gloss of its tapestry. by the indefatigable industry of certain antiquarians, some pieces in good preservation representing a tournament, have lately been taken from a garret, dismantled of their triple panoply of dust, cleaned and hung up; after being traced from their original abode in the state apartments of a prince through various gradations, to the damp walls of a registry office, where, from their apparent fragility alone, they escaped being cut into floor mats. those of the chateau d'haroue, and of the collection dusommerard, are also named here; but there is little to say about them, as the subjects are more imaginary than historical. they are of the sixteenth century, representing scenes of the chase, and are enlivened with birds in every position, some of them being, in proportion to other figures, certainly _larger_ than life, and "twice as natural." tapisseries de la chaise dieu.--"l'abbaye de la chaise dieu fut fondée en par robert qu'alexandre de canonisa plus tard en ; et dont l'origine se rattachait à la famille des comtes de poitou. "robert fut destiné de bonne heure aux fonctions du sacerdoce." he went on pilgrimage to the tombs of some of the apostles, and it was on his return thence that he was first struck with the idea of founding a coenobitical establishment. "réuni à un soldat nommé etienne, à un solitaire nommé delmas, et à un chanoine nommé arbert, il se retira dans la solitude, et s'emparant du désert au profit de la religion, il planta la croix du sauveur dans les lieux jusqu'à-là couverts de forêts et de bruyères incultes, et rassembla quelques disciples pour vivre auprès de lui sous la règle qu'un ange lui avait, disait il, apportée du ciel. "bientôt la réputation des cénobites s'étendit; robert fut reconnu comme leur chef. de toutes parts on accourut les visiter. des donations leur furent faites, et sur les ruines d'une ancienne église une nouvelle basilique s'éleva. "telle est à peu prés l'histoire primitive de l'abbaye de la chaise-dieu." the chaise-dieu tapestries are fourteen in number, three of them are ten feet square, and the others are six feet high by eighteen long, excepting one which measures nearly twenty-six feet. twelve are hung on the carved wood-work of the choir of the great church, and thus cover an immense space. further off is the ancient choir of the monks, of which the wood-work of sculptured oak is surprisingly rich. not even the cathedral of rheims, of which the wood-work has long been regarded as the most beautiful in the kingdom, contains so great a number. unhappily in times of intestine commotion this chef d'oeuvre has been horribly mutilated by the axes of modern iconoclasts, more ferocious than the barbarians of old. the two other tapestries are placed in the church of the penitents, an ancient refectory of the monks which now forms a dependent chapel to the great temple. these magnificent hangings are woven of wool and silk, and one yet perceives almost throughout, golden and silver threads which time has spared. when the artist prepared to copy them for the work we are quoting, no one dreamt of the richness buried beneath the accumulated dust and dirt of centuries. they were carefully cleaned, and then, says the artist, "je suis ébloui de cette magnificence que nous ne soupçonnions plus. c'est admirable. les gobelins ne produisent pas aujourd'hui de tissus plus riches et plus éclatans. imaginez-vous que les robes des femmes, les ornemens, les colonnettes sont émaillés, ruisselants de milliers de pierres fines et de perles," &c. it would be tedious to attempt to describe individually the subjects of these tapestries. they interweave the histories of the old and new testaments; the centre of the work generally representing some passage in the life of our saviour, whilst on each side is some correspondent typical incident from the old testament. above are rhymed quatrains, either legendary or scriptural; and below and around are sentences drawn from the prophets or the psalms. these tapestries appear to have been the production of the close of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth centuries, denoting in the architecture and costumes _more_ the reigns of charles viii. and louis xi., than of louis xii. and francis i. such pieces were probably long in the loom, since the tapestry of dijon, composed of a single _lai_ of twenty-one feet, required not less, according to a competent judge, than ten years' labour. there are some most beautiful, even amongst these all-beautiful engravings, which we much regret to see there--engravings of the tapestry in the cathedral of aix, which tapestry ought still to enrich our own country. shame on those under whose barbarous rule these, amongst other valuable and cherished monuments, were, as relics of papistry, bartered for foreign gold. "l'histoire manuscrite de la ville d'aix dit que cette tapisserie avait servi à l'église de st. paul de londres ou à toute autre église cathédrale d'angleterre; qu'à l'époque de la réformation, les tableaux et les tapisseries ayant été exclus des temples, les anglais cherchèrent à vendre dans les pays étrangers quelques-unes des tapisseries qui ornaient leurs cathédrales, et _qu'ils en brûlèrent un plus grand nombre_!" this tapestry represents the history of our saviour, in twenty seven compartments, being in the whole about feet long. it is supposed to have been woven about , when william warham was archbishop of canterbury, and chancellor. warham had been previously bishop of london; and as his arms are on this tapestry, and also the arms of two prior bishops of london who are supposed to have left legacies to ornament the church which were applied towards defraying the expenses of this manufacture, it seems quite probable that its destination was st. paul's, and not any other cathedral church. the arms of the king are inwrought in two places; for henry contributed to the embellishment of this church. he loved the arts; he decorated churches; and though he seceded from the roman communion, he maintained throughout his life magnificent decorations in his favourite churches as well as the worship of the ancient catholic church. it was first under edward, and more decidedly under elizabeth, that the ceremonies of the church were completely changed, and that those which had been considered only decent and becoming were stigmatised as popish. nor did this fantasy reach its height until the time of cromwell. lord douglas, earl of buchan, who founded the society of antiquaries in edinburgh, endeavoured during the interval of the peace of amiens, to treat with the archbishop of aix for the repurchase of this tapestry. he would have placed it in a gothic church belonging to an ancient scotch abbey on his domains. he had already ornamented this church with several beautiful monuments of antiquity, and he wished to place this tapestry there as a national monument, but the treaty was broken off. the tapestries of aulhac, representing the siege of troy, and those of beauvais, embracing a variety of subjects from history both sacred and profane; of the louvre, representing the miracle of st. quentin, tapestry representing alexander, king of scotland; and those of st. remi, at rheims, are all engraven and described. those of the magnificent cathedral church at rheims, consisting of forty tapestries, forming different collections, but all on religious subjects, will probably form the material for future numbers. * * * * * that there are ancient tapestries existing in england fully equal to those in france is, we think, almost certain; but of course they are not to be summoned from the "vasty deep" of neglect and oblivion by the powerless voice of an obscure individual. gladly would we, had it been in our power, have enriched our sketch by references to some of them. the following notice of a tapestry at coventry is drawn from "smith's selections of the ancient costume of britain;" and the names of the tapestries at hampton court palace from "pyne's royal residences." we have recently visited hampton court for the express purpose of viewing the tapestries. there, we believe, they were, entirely (with the exception of a stray inch or two here and there) hung over with paintings. the splendid though neglected tapestry of st. mary's hall at coventry offers a variety of materials no less interesting on account of the sanctity and misfortunes of the prince (henry vi.) who is there represented, than curious as specimens of the arts of drawing, dyeing, and embroidery of the time in which it was executed. it is thirty feet in length and ten in height; and is divided into six compartments, three in the upper tier and three in the lower, containing in all upwards of eighty figures or heads. the centre compartment of the upper row, in its perfect and original state, represented the usual personification of the trinity--(the trinity guild held its meetings in the hall of st. mary) surrounded by angels bearing the various instruments of the passion. but the zeal of our early reformers sacrificed this part of the work, and substituted in its stead a tasteless figure of justice, which now holds the scales amidst the original group of surrounding angels. the right hand division of this tier is occupied with sundry figures of saints and martyrs, and the opposite side is filled with a group of female saints. in the centre compartment below is represented the virgin mary in the clouds, standing on the crescent, surrounded by the twelve apostles and many cherubs. but the two remaining portions of this fine tapestry constitute its chief value and importance to the city of coventry, as they represent the figures of henry vi., his queen, the ambitious, and crafty, and cruel, yet beautiful and eloquent and injured margaret of anjou, and many of their attendants. during all the misfortunes of henry, the citizens of coventry zealously supported him; and their city is styled by historians "queen margaret's secret bower." as the tapestry was purposely made for the hall, and probably placed there during the lives of the sovereigns, the figures may be considered as authentic portraits. * * * * * the first presence chamber in hampton court is (or was) hung with rich ancient tapestry, representing a landscape, with the figures of nymphs, fawns, satyrs, nereides, &c. there is some fine ancient tapestry in the king's audience chamber, the subjects being, on one side, abraham and lot dividing their lands; and on the other, god appearing to abraham purchasing ground for a burying-place. the tapestry on the walls of the king's drawing-room represents abraham entertaining the three angels; also abraham, isaac, and rebecca. the tapestry which covers three sides of the king's state bedchamber represents the history of joshua. the walls of the queen's audience chamber are covered with tapestry hangings, which represent the story of abraham and melchisedec, and abraham and rebecca. the ball room is called also the tapestry gallery, from the superb suite of hangings that ornament its walls, which was brought from flanders by general cadogan, and set up by order of george i. the series of seven compartments describes the history of alexander the great, from the paintings of the celebrated charles le brun. the first represents the story of alexander and his horse bucephalus; the second, the visit of alexander to diogenes; the third, the passage of alexander over the granicus; the fourth, alexander's visit to the mother and wife of darius, in their tent, after the battle of arbela; the fifth, alexander's triumphal entrance into babylon; the sixth, alexander's battle with porus; the seventh, his second entrance into babylon.--these magnificent hangings were wrought at the gobelins. the tapestry hangings in the king's private bedchamber describe the naval battle of solebay between the combined fleets of england and france and the dutch fleet, in . * * * * * of all the tapestries here recorded, the last only, representing the battle of solebay, are now visible. footnote: [ ] "les anciennes tapisseries historiées, ou collection des monumens les plus remarquables, de ce genre, qui nous soient restés du moyen age." a paris. chapter xxii. embroidery. "flowers, plants and fishes, beasts, birds, flyes, and bees, hils, dales, plaines, pastures, skies, seas, rivers, trees, there's nothing neere at hand, or farthest sought, but with the needle may be shap'd and wrought." john taylor. perhaps of all nations in very ancient times the medes and babylonians were most celebrated for the draperies of the apartments, about which they were even more anxious than about their attire. all their noted hangings with which their palaces were so gorgeously celebrated were wrought by the needle. and though now everywhere the loom is in request, still these and other eastern nations maintain great practice and unrivalled skill in needle embroidery. sir john chardin says of the persians, "their tailors certainly excel ours in their sewing. they make carpets, cushions, veils for doors, and other pieces of furniture of felt, in mosaic work, which represents just what they please. this is done so neatly, that a man might suppose the figures were painted instead of being a kind of inlaid work. look as close as you will, the joining cannot be seen;" and the hall of audience at jeddo, we are told, is a sumptuous edifice; the roof covered with gold and silver of exquisite workmanship, the throne of massy gold enriched with pearls, diamonds, and other precious stones. the tapestry is of the finest silk, wrought by the _most curious hands_, and adorned with pearls, gold, and silver, and other costly embellishments. about the close of the ninth or beginning of the tenth century, the caliph moctadi's whole army, both horse and foot, (says abulfeda) were under arms, which together made a body of , men. his state officers stood near him in the most splendid apparel, their belts shining with gold and gems. near them were black and white eunuchs. the porters or door-keepers were in number . barges and boats, with the most superb decorations, were swimming on the tigris. nor was the palace itself less splendid, in which were hung _ , pieces of tapestry, , of which were of silk embroidered with gold_. the carpets on the floor were , . a hundred lions were brought out with a keeper to each lion. among the other spectacles of rare and stupendous luxury, was a tree of gold and silver, which opened itself into eighteen larger branches, upon which, and the other less branches sate birds of every sort, made also of gold and silver. the tree glittered with leaves of the same metals, and while its branches, through machinery, appeared to move of themselves, the several birds upon them warbled their natural notes. the skill of the eastern embroiderer has always had a wide field for display in the decoration of the _tents_, which were in such request in hot countries, among nomadic tribes, or on military excursions. the covering of tents among the arabs is usually black goats' hair, so compactly woven as to be impervious to rain. but there is, besides this, always an inner one, on which the skill and industry of the fair artisan--for both outer and inner are woven and wrought by women--is displayed. this is often white woollen stuff, on which flowers are usually embroidered. curious hangings too are frequently hung over the entrances, when the means of the possessors do not admit of more general decoration. magnificent _perdahs_, or hangings of needlework, are always suspended in the tents of persons of rank and fashion, who assume a more ambitious decoration; and there are accounts in various travellers of tents which must have been gorgeous in the extreme. nadir shah, out of the abundance of his spoils, caused a tent or tabernacle to be made of such beauty and magnificence as were almost beyond description. the outside was covered with fine scarlet broad cloth, the lining was of violet coloured satin, on which were representations of all the birds and beasts in the creation, with trees and flowers; the whole made of pearls, diamonds, rubies, emeralds, amethysts, and other precious stones; and the tent-poles were decorated in like manner. on both sides of the peacock throne was a screen, on which were the figures of two angels in precious stones. the roof of the tent consisted of seven pieces; and when it was transported to any place, two of these pieces packed in cotton were put into a wooden chest, two of which chests were a sufficient load for an elephant: the screen filled another chest. the walls of the tent--tent-poles and tent-pins, which were of massy gold, loaded five more elephants; so that for the carriage of the whole were required seven elephants. this magnificent tent was displayed on all festivals in the public hall at herat, during the remainder of nadir shah's reign. sir j. chardin tells us that the late king of persia caused a tent to be made which cost , , _l._ they called it the house of gold, because gold glittered everywhere about it. he adds, that there was an inscription wrought upon the cornice of the antechamber, which gave it the appellation of the throne of the second solomon, and at the same time marked out the year of its construction. the following description of antar's tent from the bedouin romance of that name has been often quoted:-- "when spread out it occupied half the land of shurebah, for it was the load of forty camels; and there was an awning at the door of the pavilion under which of the absian horse could skirmish. it was embroidered with burnished gold, studded with precious stones and diamonds, interspersed with rubies and emeralds, set with rows of pearls; and there was painted thereon a specimen of every created thing, birds and trees, and towns, and cities, and seas, and continents, and beasts, and reptiles; and whoever looked at it was confounded by the variety of the representations, and by the brilliancy of the silver and gold: and so magnificent was the whole, that when the pavilion was pitched, the land of shurebah and mount saadi were illuminated by its splendour." extravagant as seems this description, we are told that it is not so much exaggerated as we might imagine. "poetical license" has indeed been indulged in to the fullest extent, especially as to the size of the pavilion; yet marco polo in sober earnest describes one under which , soldiers might be drawn up _without incommoding the nobles at the audience_. it is well known that mohammed forbade his followers to imitate any animal or insect in their embroideries or ornamental work of any sort. hence the origin of the term _arabesque_, which we now use to express all odd combinations of patterns from which human and animal forms are excluded. that portion of the race which merged in the moors of spain were especially remarked for their magnificent and beautiful decorative work; and from them did we borrow, as before alluded to, the custom of using tapestry for curtains. at the present day none are perhaps more patient and laborious embroiderers than the chinese; their regularity and neatness are supposed to be unequalled, and the extreme care with which they work preserves their shades bright and shining. the indians excel in variety of embroidery. they embroider with cotton on muslin, but they employ on gauze, rushes, skins of insects, nails and claws of animals, of walnuts, and dry fruits, and above all, the feathers of birds. they mingle their colours without harmony as without taste; it is only a species of wild mosaic, which announces no plan, and represents no object. the women of the wandering tribes of persia weave those rich carpets which are called turkey carpets, from the place of their immediate importation. but this country was formerly celebrated for magnificent embroideries, and also for tapestries composed of silk and wool embellished with gold. this latter beautiful art, though not entirely lost, is nearly so for want of encouragement. but of all eastern nations the moguls were the most celebrated for their splendid embroideries; walls, couches, and even floors were covered with silk or cotton fabrics richly worked with gold, and often, as in ancient times, with gems inwrought. but this empire has ever been proverbial for its splendour; at one time the throne of the mogul was estimated at , , _l._ sterling, made up by diamonds and other jewels, received in gifts during a long succession of ages. we have, in a former chapter, alluded to the custom of embroidery in imitation of feathers, and also for using real feathers for ornamental work. this is much the custom in many countries. some of the inhabitants of new holland make artificial flowers with feathers, with consummate skill; and they are not uncommon, though vastly inferior, here. various articles of dress are frequently seen made of them, as feather muffs, feather tippets, &c.; and we have seen within the last few months a bonnet covered with _peacock's_ feathers. this, however, is certainly the _extreme_ of fancy. the celebrated mrs. montague had hangings ornamented with feathers: the hangings doubtless are gone: the name of the accomplished lady who displayed them in her fashionable halls is sinking into oblivion, but the poet, who perchance merely glanced at them, lives for ever. on mrs. montague's feather hangings. "the birds put off their ev'ry hue, to dress a room for montague. the peacock sends his heavenly dyes, his _rainbows_ and his _starry eyes_; the pheasant plumes, which round infold his mantling neck with downy gold; the cock his arch'd tail's azure shew; and, river blanch'd, the swan his snow. all tribes beside of indian name, that glossy shine, or vivid flame, where rises, and where sets the day, whate'er they boast of rich and gay, contribute to the gorgeous plan, proud to advance it all they can. this plumage, neither dashing shower, nor blasts that shape the dripping bow'r, shall drench again or discompose-- but screen'd from ev'ry storm that blows it boasts a splendour ever new, safe with protecting montague." some canadian women embroider with their own hair and that of animals; they copy beautifully the ramifications of moss-agates, and of several plants. they insinuate in their works skins of serpents and morsels of fur patiently smoothed. if their embroidery is not so brilliant as that of the chinese, it is not less industrious. the negresses of senegal embroider the skin of different animals of flowers and figures of all colours. the turks and georgians embroider marvellously the lightest gauze or most delicate crape. they use gold thread with inconceivable delicacy; they represent the most minute objects on morocco without varying the form, or fraying the finest gold, by a proceeding quite unknown to us. they frequently ornament their embroidery with pieces of money of different nations, and travellers who are aware of this circumstance often find in their old garments valuable and interesting coins. the saxons imitate the designs of the most accomplished work-people; their embroidery with untwisted thread on muslin is the most delicate and correct we are acquainted with of that kind. the embroidery of venice and milan has long been celebrated, but its excessive dearness prevents the use of it. there is also much beautiful embroidery in france, but the palm for precedence is ably disputed by the germans, especially those of vienna. this progress and variations of this luxury amongst various nations would be a subject of curious research, but too intricate and lengthened for our pages. we have intimations of it at the earliest period, and there is no age in which it appears to have been totally laid aside, no nation in which it was in utter disrepute. some of its most beautiful patterns have been, as in architecture, the adaptation of the moment from natural objects, for one of the first ornaments in roman embroidery, when they departed from their primitive simplicity in dress, was the imitation of the leaf of the acanthus--the same leaf which imparted grace and ornament to the corinthian capital. but it would be endless to enter into the subject of patterns, which doubtless were everywhere originally simple enough, with "here and there a tuft of crimson yarn, or scarlet crewel." and patient minds must often have planned, and assiduous fingers must long have wrought, ere such an achievement was perfected, as even the covering of the joint stool described by cowper:-- "at length a generation more refin'd improved the simple plan; made three legs four, gave them a twisted form vermicular, and o'er the seat with plenteous wadding stuff'd, induc'd a splendid cover, green and blue, yellow and red, of tapestry richly wrought and woven close, or needlework sublime. there might ye see the piony spread wide, the full-blown rose, the shepherd and his lass, lapdog and lambkin with black staring eyes, and parrots with twin cherries in their beak." but from the days of elizabeth the practice of ornamental needlework, of embroidery, had gradually declined in england: the literary and scholastic pursuits which in her day had superseded the use of the needle, did not indeed continue the fashion of later times; still the needle was not resumed, nor perhaps has embroidery and tapestry ever from the days of elizabeth been so much practised as it is now. many _individuals_ have indeed been celebrated, as one thus:-- "she wrought all needleworks that women exercise, with pen, frame, or stoole; all pictures artificial, curious knots or trailes, what fancy could devise; beasts, birds, or flowers, even as things natural." but still embroidery had ceased to be looked upon as a necessary accomplishment, or taught as an important part of education. in the early part of the last century women had become so mischievous from the lack of this employment, that the "spectator" seriously recommends it to the attention of the community at large. "mr. spectator, "i have a couple of nieces under my direction who so often run gadding abroad, that i do not know where to have them. their dress, their tea, and their visits, take up all their time, and they go to bed as tired doing nothing, as i am often after quilting a whole under-petticoat. the only time they are not idle is while they read your spectator, which being dedicated to the interests of virtue, i desire you to recommend the long-neglected art of needlework. those hours which in this age are thrown away in dress, play, visits, and the like, were employed in my time in writing out receipts, or working beds, chairs, and hangings for the family. for my part i have plied my needle these fifty years, and by my good will would never have it out of my hand. it grieves my heart to see a couple of idle flirts sipping their tea, for a whole afternoon, in a room hung round with the industry of their great-grandmother. pray, sir, take the laudable mystery of embroidery into your serious consideration; and as you have a great deal of the virtue of the last age in you, continue your endeavours to reform the present. "i am, &c., ------" "in obedience to the commands of my venerable correspondent, i have duly weighed this important subject, and promise myself from the arguments here laid down, that all the fine ladies of england will be ready, as soon as the mourning is over (for queen anne) to appear covered with the work of their own hands. "what a delightful entertainment must it be to the fair sex whom their native modesty, and the tenderness of men towards them exempt from public business, to pass their hours in imitating fruits and flowers, and transplanting all the beauties of nature into their own dress, or raising a new creation in their closets and apartments! how pleasing is the amusement of walking among the shades and groves planted by themselves, in surveying heroes slain by the needle, or little cupids which they have brought into the world without pain! "this is, methinks, the most proper way wherein a lady can show a fine genius; and i cannot forbear wishing that several writers of that sex had chosen to apply themselves rather to tapestry than rhyme. your pastoral poetesses may vent their fancy in great landscapes, and place despairing shepherds under silken willows, or drown them in a stream of mohair. the heroic writers may work of battles as successfully, and inflame them with gold, or stain them with crimson. even those who have only a turn to a song or an epigram, may put many valuable stitches into a purse, and crowd a thousand graces into a pair of garters. "if i may, without breach of good manners, imagine that any pretty creature is void of genius, and would perform her part herein but very awkwardly, i must nevertheless insist upon her working, if it be only to keep her out of harm's way. "another argument for busying good women in works of fancy is, because it takes them off from scandal, the usual attendant of tea-tables and all other inactive scenes of life. while they are forming their birds and beasts, their neighbours will be allowed to be the fathers of their own children, and whig and tory will be but seldom mentioned where the great dispute is, whether blue or red is now the proper colour. how much greater glory would sophronia do the general if she would choose rather to work the battle of blenheim in tapestry than signalise herself with so much vehemence against those who are frenchmen in their hearts! "a third reason i shall mention is, the profit that is brought to the family when these pretty arts are encouraged. it is manifest that this way of life not only keeps fair ladies from running out into expenses, but is at the same time an actual improvement. "how memorable would that matron be, who shall have it subscribed upon her monument, 'she that wrought out the whole bible in tapestry, and died in a good old age, after having covered yards of wall in the mansion house!' "the premises being considered, i humbly submit the following proposals to all mothers in great britain:-- " . that no young virgin whatsoever be allowed to receive the addresses of her first lover, but in a suit of her own embroidering. " . that before every fresh humble servant she shall be obliged to appear with a new stomacher at the least. " . that no one be actually married until she hath the child-bed pillows, &c., ready stitched, as likewise the mantle for the boy quite finished. "these laws, if i mistake not, would effectually restore the decayed art of needlework, and make the virgins of great britain exceedingly nimble-fingered in their business." chapter xxiii. needlework on books. "and often did she look on that which in her hand she bore, in velvet bound and broider'd o'er-- her breviary book." marmion. "books are ours, within whose silent chambers treasure lies preserved from age to age-- these hoards of truth we can unlock at will." wordsworth. deep indeed are our obligations for those treasures which "we can unlock at will:" treasures of far more value than gold or gems, for they oftentimes bestow that which gold cannot purchase--even forgetfulness of sorrow and pain. happy are those who have a taste for reading and leisure to indulge it. it is the most beguiling solace of life: it is its most ennobling pursuit. it is a magnificent thing to converse with the master spirits of past ages, to behold them as they were; to mingle thought with thought and mind with mind; to let the imagination rove--based however on the authentic record of the past--through dim and distant ages; to behold the fathers and prophets of the ancient earth; to hold communion with martyrs and prophets, and kings; to kneel at the feet of the mighty lawgiver; to bend at the shrine of the eternal poet; to imbibe inspiration from the eloquent, to gather instruction from the wise, and pleasure from the gifted; to behold, as in a glass, all the majesty and all the beauty of the mighty past, to revel in all the accumulated treasures of time--and this, all this, we have by reading the privilege to do. imagination indeed, the gift of heaven, may soar elate, unchecked, though untutored through time and space, through time to eternity, and may people worlds at will; but that truthful basis which can alone give permanence to her visions, that knowledge which ennobles and purifies and elevates them is acquired from books, whether "song of the muses, says historic tale, science severe, or word of holy writ, announcing immortality and joy." the "word of holy writ," the bible--we pass over its hopes, its promises, its consolations--these themes are too sacred even for reference on our light page--but here, we may remark, we see the world in its freshness, its prime, its glory. we converse truly with godlike men and angelic women. we see the mighty and majestic fathers of the human race ere sin had corrupted all their godlike seeming; ere sorrow--the bequeathed and inherited sorrows of ages--had quite seared the "human face divine;" ere sloth, and luxury, and corruption, and decay, had altered features formed in the similitude of heaven to the gross semblance of earth; and we walk step by step over the new fresh earth as yet untrodden by foot of man, and behold the ancient solitudes gradually invaded by his advancing steps. most gentle, most soothing, most faithful companions are books. they afford amusement for the lonely hour; solace perchance for the sorrowful one: they offer recreation to the light-hearted; instruction to the inquiring; inspiration to the aspiring mind; food for the thirsty one. they are inexhaustible in extent as in variety: and oh! in the silent vigil by the suffering couch, or during the languor of indisposition, who can too highly praise those silent friends--silent indeed to the ear, but speaking eloquently to the heart--which beguile, even transiently, the mind from present depressing care, strengthen and elevate it by communion with the past, or solace it by hopes of the future! listen how sweetly one of the first of modern men apostrophises his books:-- "my days among the dead are past; around me i behold, where'er these casual eyes are cast, the mighty minds of old; my never-failing friends are they, with whom i converse day by day. "with them i take delight in weal, and seek relief in woe; and while i understand and feel how much to them i owe, my cheeks have often been bedew'd, with tears of thoughtful gratitude. "my thoughts are with the dead; with them i live in long past years; their virtues love, their faults condemn, partake their hopes and fears, and from their lessons seek and find instruction with a humble mind. "my hopes are with the dead; anon my place with them will be, and i with them shall travel on through all futurity; yet leaving here a name, i trust, that will not perish in the dust."[ ] yet how little are we of the present day, who have books poured into our laps, able to estimate their real value! nor is it possible that they can ever again be estimated as they once were. the universal diffusion of them, the incalculable multiplication of them, seems to render it impossible that the world can ever be deprived of them. no. we must call up some of the spirits of the "pious and painful" amanuenses of those days when the fourth estate of the realm, the public press--was not--to tell us the real value of the literary treasures we now esteem so lightly. he will tell us that in his day the donation of a single book to a religious house was thought to give the donor a claim to eternal salvation; and that an offering so valued, so cherished, would be laid on the high altar amid pomp and pageantry. he might perhaps personally remember the prior and convent of rochester pronouncing an irrevocable sentence of damnation on him who should purloin or conceal their treasured latin translation of aristotle's physics. he would tell us that the holiest and wisest of men would forego ease and luxury and spend laborious years in transcribing books for the good of others; he will tell us that amongst many others, osmond, bishop of salisbury, did this, and perchance he will name that guido de jars, in his fortieth year, began to copy the bible on vellum, with rich and elegant decorations, and that the suns of half a century had risen and set, ere, with unintermitting labour and unwearied zeal, he finished it in his ninetieth. he will also tell us, that when a book was to be sold, it was customary to assemble all persons of consequence and character in the neighbourhood, and to make a formal record that they were present on this occasion. thus, amongst the royal mss. is a book thus described:-- "this book of the sentences belongs to master robert, archdeacon of lincoln, which he bought of geoffrey the chaplain, brother of henry vicar of northelkingston, in the presence of master robert de lee, master john of lirling, richard of luda, clerk, richard the almoner, the said henry the vicar and his clerk, and others: and the said archdeacon gave the said book to god and saint oswald, and to peter abbot of barton, and the convent of barden." these are a few, a very few of such instances as a spirit of the fourteenth century might allude to--to testify the value of books. indeed, even so late as the reign of henry the vi., when the invention of paper greatly facilitated the multiplication of mss. the impediments to study, from the scarcity of books, must have been very great, for in the statutes of st. mary's college, oxford, is this order--"let no scholar occupy a book in the library above one hour, or two hours at the most; lest others shall be hindered from the use of the same." the scarcity of parchment seems indeed at times to have been a greater hindrance to the promulgation of literature than even the laborious and tedious transcription of the books. about , one master hugh, being appointed by the convent of st. edmondsbury to write a copy of the bible, for their library, could procure no parchment in england. the following particulars of the scarcity of books before the era of printing, gathered chiefly by warton, are interesting. in , lupus, abbot of ferrieres in france, sent two of his monks to pope benedict the third, to beg a copy of cicero de oratore, and quintilian's institutes, and some other books: for, says the abbot, although we have part of these books, yet there is no whole or complete copy of them in all france. albert, abbot of gemblours, who with incredible labour and immense expense had collected a hundred volumes on theological, and fifty on general subjects, imagined he had formed a splendid library. about , charlemagne granted an unlimited right to hunting to the abbot and monks of sithin, for making their gloves and girdles of the skins of the deer they killed, and covers for their books. at the beginning of the tenth century, books were so scarce in spain, that one and the same copy of the bible, st. jerome's epistles, and some volumes of ecclesiastical offices and martyrologies, often served several different monasteries. amongst the constitutions given to the monks of england by archbishop lanfranc, in , the following injunction occurs: at the beginning of lent, the librarian is ordered to deliver a book to each of the religious; a whole year was allowed for the perusal of this book! and at the returning lent, those monks who had neglected to read the books they had respectively received, are commanded to prostrate themselves before the abbot to supplicate his indulgence. this regulation was partly occasioned by the low state of literature in which lanfranc found the english monasteries to be; but at the same time it was a matter of necessity, and partly to be referred to the scarcity of copies of useful and suitable authors. john de pontissara, bishop of winchester, borrowed of his cathedral convent of st. swithin at winchester, in , bibliam bene glossatam, or the bible, with marginal annotations, in two large folio volumes; but he gives a bond for due return of the loan, drawn up with great solemnity. this bible had been bequeathed to the convent the same year by his predecessor, bishop nicholas de ely: and in consideration of so important a bequest, and marks in money, the monks founded a daily mass for the soul of the donor. about roger de tusula, dean of york, gave several latin bibles to the university of oxford, with a condition that the students who perused them should deposit a cautionary pledge. the library of that university, before the year , consisted only of a few tracts, chained or kept in chests in the choir of st. mary's church. books often brought excessive prices in the middle ages. in , walter, prior of st. swithin's at winchester, and afterwards abbot of westminster, purchased of the monks of dorchester in oxfordshire bede's homilies and st. austin's psalter, for twelve measures of barley, and a pall on which was embroidered in silver the history of birinus converting a saxon king. about , a copy of john de meun's roman de la rose was sold before the palace-gate at paris for forty crowns, or _l._ _s._ _d._ in edward the third's reign, one hundred marks (equal to _l._) were paid to isabella de lancaster, a nun of ambresbury, for a book of romance, purchased from her for the king's use. warton mentions a book of the gospels, in the cotton library, as a fine specimen of saxon calligraphy and decorations. it is written by eadfrid, bishop of durham, in the most exquisite manner. ethelwold his successor did the illuminations, the capital letters, the picture of the cross, and the evangelists, with infinite labour and elegance; and bilfred, the anchorite, covered the book, thus written and adorned, with silver plates and precious stones. it was finished about . the encouragement given in the english monasteries for transcribing books was very considerable. in every great abbey there was an apartment called "the scriptorium;" where many writers were constantly busied in transcribing not only the service books for the choir, but books for the library. the scriptorium of st. alban's abbey was built by abbot paulin, a norman, who ordered many volumes to be written there, about . archbishop lanfranc furnished the copies. estates were often granted for the support of the scriptorium. that at st. edmundsbury was endowed with two mills. the tithes of a rectory were appropriated to the cathedral convent of st. swithin, at winchester, _ad libros transcribendos_, in the year . nigel in the year gave the monks of ely two churches, ad libros faciendos. when the library at croyland abbey was burnt in , seven hundred volumes were consumed which must have been thus laboriously produced. fifty-eight volumes were transcribed at glastonbury during the government of one abbot, about the year . and in the library of this monastery, the richest in england, there were upwards of four hundred volumes in the year . but whilst there is sufficient cause to admire the penmen of former days, in the mere transcription of books, shall we not marvel at the beauty with which they were invested; the rich and brilliant illuminations, the finely tinted paintings, the magnificent and laborious ornament with which not merely every page, but in many manuscripts almost every line was decorated! they, such as have been preserved, form a valuable proportion of the riches of the principal european libraries: of the vatican of rome; the imperial at vienna; st. mark's at venice; the escurial in spain; and the principal public libraries in england. the art of thus illuminating mss., now entirely lost, had attained the highest degree of perfection, and is, indeed, of ancient origin. in the remotest times the common colours of black and white have been varied by luxury and taste. herodotus and diodorus siculus mention purple and yellow skins, on which mss. were written in gold and silver; and amongst the eastern nations rolls of this kind (that is gold and silver on purple), exquisitely executed, are found in abundance, but of a later date. still they appear to have been familiar with the practice at a much more remote period; and it is probable that the greeks acquired this art from egypt or india. from the greeks it would naturally pass to the latins, who appear to have been acquainted with it early in the second century. the earliest specimen of purple or rose-coloured vellum is recorded in the life of the emperor maximinus the younger, to whom, in the commencement of the third century, his mother made a present of the poems of homer, written on purple vellum in gold letters. such productions were, however, at this time very rare. the celebrated codex argenteus of ulphilas, written in silver and gold letters on a purple ground, about , is probably the most ancient existing specimen of this magnificent mode of calligraphy. in the fourth century it had become more common: many ecclesiastical writers allude to it, and st. jerome especially does so; and the following spirited dialogue has reference to his somewhat condemnatory allusions. "purple vellum greek mss.," says breitinger, "if i remember rightly, are scarcer than white crows!" belinda. "pray tell us 'all about them,' as the children say." philemon. "well, then, at your next court visit, let your gown rival the emblazoned aspect of these old purple vellums, and let stars of silver, thickly 'powdered' thereupon, emulate, if they dare, the silver capital greek letters upon the purple membranaceous fragments which have survived the desolations of time! you see, i do not speak _coldly_ upon this picturesque subject!" alimansa. "nor do i feel precisely as if i were in the _frigid_ zone! but proceed and expatiate." philemon. "the field for expatiating is unluckily very limited. the fact of the more ancient mss. before noticed, the _pentateuch_ at _vienna_, the fragment of the gospels in the british museum, with a psalter or two in a few libraries abroad, are all the mss. which just now occur to me as being distinguished by a _purple tint_, for i apprehend little more than a _tint_ remains. whether the white or the purple vellum be the more ancient, i cannot take upon me to determine; but it is right you should be informed that st. jerom denounces as _coxcombs_, all those who, in his own time, were so violently attached to your favourite purple colour." lisardo. "i have a great respect for the literary attainments of st. jerom; and although in the absence of the old italic version of the greek bible, i am willing to subscribe to the excellence of his own, or what is now called the _vulgate_, yet in matters of taste, connected with the harmony of colour, you must excuse me if i choose to enter my protest against that venerable father's decision." philemon. "you appear to mistake the matter st. jerom imagined that this appetite for purple mss. was rather artificial and voluptuous; requiring regulation and correction--and that, in the end, men would prefer the former colour to the intrinsic worth of their vellum treasures." * * * * * we must not omit the note appended to this colloquy. "the general idea seems to be that purple vellum mss. were intended only for 'choice blades,' let us rather say, tasteful bibliomaniacs--in book collecting. st. jerom, as philemon above observes, is very biting in his sarcasm upon these 'purple leaves covered with letters of gold and silver.'--'for myself and my friends (adds that father), let us have lower priced books, and distinguished not so much for beauty as for accuracy.' "mabillon remarks that these purple treasures were for the 'princes' and 'noblemen' of the times. "and we learn from the twelfth volume of the specileginum of theonas, that it is rather somewhat unseemly 'to write upon purple vellum in letters of gold and silver, unless at the particular desire of a prince.'" "the _subject_ also of mss. frequently regulated the mode of executing it. thus we learn from the th epistle of boniface (bishop and martyr) to the abbess eadburga, that this latter is entreated 'to write the epistles of st. peter, the master and apostle of boniface, in letters of gold, for the greater reverence to be paid towards the sacred scriptures, when the abbess preaches before her carnally-minded auditors.'" about the close of the seventh century the archbishop of york procured for his church a copy of the gospels thus adorned; and that this magnificent calligraphy was then new in england may be inferred from a remark made on it that "inauditam ante seculis nostris quoddam miraculam." this art, however, shortly after declined everywhere; and in england the art of writing in gold letters, even without the rich addition of the purple-tinted material, seems to have been but imperfectly understood. the only remarkable instance of it is said to be the charter of king edgar, in the new minster at winchester, in . in the fourteenth century it seems to have been more customary than in those immediately preceding it. but we have been beguiled too long from that which alone is connected with our subject, viz., the _binding_ of books. probably this was originally a plain and unadorned oaken cover; though as books were found only in monastic establishments, or in the mansions of the rich, even the cover soon became emblematic of its valuable contents. the early ornaments of the back were chiefly of a religious character--a representation of the virgin, of the infant saviour, of the crucifixion. dibdin mentions a latin psalter of the ninth century in this primitive and substantial binding, and on the oaken board was riveted a large brass crucifix, originally, probably, washed with silver; and also a ms. of the latin gospels of the twelfth or thirteenth century, in oaken covers, inlaid with pieces of carved ivory, representing our saviour with an angel above him, and the virgin and child. the carved ivory may probably be a subsequent interpolation, but it does not the less exemplify the practice. but as the taste for luxury and ornament increased, and the bindings, even the clumsy wooden ones, became more gorgeously decorated--the most costly gems and precious stones being frequently inlaid with the golden ornaments--the shape and form of them was altogether altered. with a view to the preservation and the safety of the riches lavished on them, the bindings were made double, each side being perhaps two inches thick; and on a spring being touched, or a secret lock opened, it divided, almost like the opening of a cupboard-door, and displayed the rich ornament and treasure within; whilst, when closed, the outside had only the appearance of a plain, somewhat clumsy binding. at that time, too, books were ranged on shelves with the leaves in front; therefore great pains were taken, both in the decoration of the edges, and also in the rich and ornamental clasps and strings which united the wooden sides. these clasps were frequently of gold, inlaid with jewels. the wooden sides were afterwards covered with leather, with vellum, with velvet,--though probably there is no specimen of velvet binding before the fourteenth century; and, indeed, as time advanced, there is scarcely any substance which was not applied to this purpose. queen elizabeth had a little volume of prayers bound in solid gold, which at prayer-time she suspended by a gold chain at her side; and we saw, a few years ago, a small devotional book which belonged to the martyr-king, charles, and which was given by him to the ancestress of the friend who showed it to us, beautifully bound in tortoise-shell and finely-carved silver. but it was not to gold and precious stones alone that the bindings of former days were indebted for their beauty. the richest and rarest devices of the needlewoman were often wrought on the velvet, or brocade, which became more exclusively the fashionable material for binding. this seems to have been a favourite occupation of the high-born dames about elizabeth's day; and, indeed, if we remember the new-born passion for books, which was at its height about that time, we shall not wonder at their industry being displayed on the covers as well as the insides[ ]. but very probably this had been a favourite object for the needle long before this time, though unhappily the fragility of the work was equal to its beauty, and these needleworked covers have doubtless, in very many instances, been replaced by more substantial binding. the earliest specimen of this description of binding remaining in the british museum is "fichetus (guil.) rhetoricum, libri tres. (impr. in membranis) to. paris ad sorbonæ, ." it has an illuminated title-page, showing the author presenting, on his knees, his book to the pope; and it is decorated throughout with illuminated letters and other ornaments; for long after the invention of printing, blank spaces were left, for the capitals and headings to be filled up by the pencil. hence it is that we find some books quite incomplete; these spaces having been left, and not filled up. when the art of illuminating still more failed, the red ink was used as a substitute, and everybody is acquainted with books of this style. the binding of fitchet's 'rhetoric' is covered with crimson satin, on which is wrought with the needle a coat-of-arms: a lion rampant in gold thread, in a blue field, with a transverse badge in scarlet silk; the minor ornaments are all wrought in fine gold thread. the next in date which i have seen there is a description of the holy land, in french, written in henry vii.'s time, and illuminated. it is bound in rich maroon velvet, with the royal arms: the garter and motto embroidered in blue; the ground crimson; and the fleurs-de-lys, leopards, and letters of the motto in gold thread. a coronet, or crown, of gold thread, is inwrought with pearls; the roses at the corners are in red silk and gold; and there is a narrow border round the whole in burnished gold thread. there is an edition of petrarch's sonnets, printed at venice in . it is in beautiful preservation. the back is of dark crimson velvet, and on each side is wrought a large royal coat-of-arms, in silk and gold, highly raised. the book belonged to edward vi., but the arms are not his. queen mary's psalter, containing also the history of the old testament in a series of small paintings, and the work richly illuminated throughout, had once an exterior worthy of it. the crimson velvet, of which only small particles remain to attest its pristine richness, is literally thread-bare; and the highly-raised embroidery of a massy fleur-de-lys is also worn to the canvas on which it was wrought. on one side scarcely a gold thread remains, which enables one, however, to perceive that the embroidery was done on fine canvas, or, perhaps, rather coarse linen, twofold: that then it was laid on the velvet, seamed to it, and the edges cut away, the stitches round the edge being covered with a kind of cordon, or golden thread, sewed over;--just, indeed, as we sew muslin on net. there are three, in the same depository, of the date of queen elizabeth. one a book of prayers, copied out by herself before she ascended the throne. the back is covered with canvas, wrought all over in a kind of tentstitch of rich crimson silk, and silver thread intermixed. this groundwork may or may not be the work of the needle, but there is little doubt that elizabeth's own needle wrought the ornaments thereon, viz., h. k. intertwined in the middle; a smaller h. above and below, and roses in the corners; all raised high, and worked in blue silk and silver. this is the dedication of the book: "illustrissimo ac potentissimo henrico octavo, angliæ, franciæ, hiberniæq. regi, fidei defensori, et secundum christum ecclesiæ anglicanæ et hibernicæ supremo capiti. elizabeta majest. s. humillima filia omne felicitatem precatur, et benedictionem suam suplex petit." there is in the bodleian library among the mss. the epistles of st. paul, printed in old black letter, the binding of which was also queen elizabeth's work; and her handwriting appears at the beginning, viz. "august.--i walk many times into the pleasant fields of the holy scriptures, where i plucke up the goodliesome herbes of sentences by pruning: eate them by reading: chawe them by musing: and laie them up at length in the hie seate of memorie by gathering them together: that so having tasted thy sweeteness i may the less perceive the bitterness of this miserable life." the covering is done in needlework by the queen (then princess) herself: on one side an embroidered star, on the other a heart, and round each, as borders, latin sentences are wrought, such as "beatus qui divitias scripturæ legens verba vertit in opera."--"vicit omnia pertinax virtus." &c., &c.[ ] there is a book in the british museum, very _petite_, a ms containing a french pastoral--date --of which the satin or brocade back is loaded with needlework in gold and silver, which now, however, looks heavy and tasteless. but the most beautiful is archbishop parker's, "de antiquitate britannicæ ecclesiæ:" a.d. . the material of the back is rich green velvet, but it is thickly covered with embroidery: there has not indeed, originally, been space to lay a fourpenny-piece. it is entirely covered with animals and flowers, in green, crimson, lilac, and yellow silk, and gold thread. round the edge is a border about an inch broad, of gold thread. of the date of is a book of magnificent penmanship, by the hand of a female, of emblems and inscriptions. it is bound in crimson silk, having in the centre a prince's feather worked in gold-thread, with the feathers bound together with large pearls, and round it a wreath of leaves and flowers. round the edge there is a broader wreath, with corner sprigs all in gold thread, thickly interspersed with spangles and gold leaves. all these books, with the exception of the one quoted from ballard's memoirs, were most obligingly sought out and brought to me by the gentlemen at the british museum. probably there are more; but as, unfortunately for my purpose, the books there are catalogued according to their authors, their contents, or their intrinsic value, instead of their outward seeming, it is not easy, amidst three or four hundred thousand volumes, to pick out each insignificant book which may happen to be-- "in velvet bound and broider'd o'er." footnotes: [ ] southey. [ ] we have seen cartouche-boxes embroidered precisely in the same style, and probably therefore of the same period as some of the embroidered books here referred to. [ ] ballard's memoirs. chapter xxiv. needlework of royal ladies. "thus is a needle prov'd an instrument of profit, pleasure, and of ornament, which mighty queenes have grac'd in hand to take." john taylor. needlework is an art so attractive in itself; it is capable of such infinite variety, and is such a beguiler of lonely, as of social hours, and offers such scope to the indulgence of fancy, and the display of taste; it is withal--in its lighter branches--accompanied with so little bodily exertion, not deranging the most _recherché_ dress, nor incommoding the most elaborate and exquisite costume, that we cannot wonder that it has been practised with ardour even by those the farthest removed from any necessity for its exercise. therefore has it been from the earliest ages a favourite employment of the high and nobly born. the father of song hardly refers at all to the noble dames of greece and troy but as occupied in "painting with the needle." some, the heroic achievements of their countrymen on curtains and draperies, others various rich and rare devices on banners, on robes and mantles, destined for festival days, for costly presents to ambassadors, or for offerings to friends. and there are scattered notices at all periods of the prevalence of this custom. in all ages until this of "inventions rare steam towns and towers." the preparation of apparel has fallen to woman's share, the spinning, the weaving, and the manufacture of the material itself from which garments were made. but, though we read frequently of high-born dames spinning in the midst of their maids, it is probable that this drudgery was performed by inferiors and menials, whilst enough, and more than enough of arduous employment was left for the ladies themselves in the rich tapestries and embroideries which have ever been coveted and valued, either as articles of furniture, or more usually for the decoration of the person. rich and rare garments used to be infinitely more the attribute of high rank than they now are; and in more primitive times a princess was not ashamed to employ herself in the construction of her own apparel or that of her relatives. of this we have an intimation in the old ballad of 'hardyknute'--beginning "stately stept he east the wa', and stately stept he west." "farewell, my dame, sae peerless good, (and took her by the hand,) fairer to me in age you seem, than maids for beauty fam'd. my youngest son shall here remain to guard these lonely towers, and shut the silver bolt that keeps sae fast your painted bowers. "and first she wet her comely cheeks, and then her boddice green, her silken cords of twisted twist, well plett with silver sheen; and apron set with mony a dice of needlewark sae rare, wove by nae hand, as ye may guess, save that of fairly fair." but it harmonises better with our ideas of high or royal life to hear of some trophy for the warrior, some ornament for the knightly bower, or some decorative offering for the church, emanating from the taper fingers of the courtly fair, than those kirtles and boddices which, be they ever so magnificent, seem to appertain more naturally to the "milliner's practice." therefore, though we give the gentle fairly fair all possible praise for notability in the "apron set with mony a dice of needlework sae rare," we certainly look with more regard on such work as that of the danish princesses who wrought a standard with the national device, the raven,[ ] on it, and which was long the emblem of terror to those opposed to it on the battle-field. of a gentler character was the stupendous labour of queen matilda--the bayeux tapestry--on which we have dwelt too long elsewhere to linger here, and which was wrought by her and under her superintendence. queen adelicia, the second wife of henry i., was a lady of distinguished beauty and high talent: she was remarkable for her love of needlework, and the skill with which she executed it. one peculiar production of her needle has recently been described by her accomplished biographer; it was a standard which she embroidered in silk and gold for her father, during the memorable contest in which he was engaged for the recovery of his patrimony, and which was celebrated throughout europe for the exquisite taste and skill displayed by the royal adelicia in the design and execution of her patriotic achievement. this standard was unfortunately captured at a battle near the castle of duras, in , by the bishop of liege and the earl of limbourg, the old competitor of godfrey for lower lorraine, and was by them placed as a memorial of their triumph in the great church of st. lambert, at liege, and was for centuries carried in procession on rogation days through the streets of that city. the church of st. lambert was destroyed during the french revolution. the plain where this memorable trophy was taken is still called the "field of the standard." perhaps, second only to queen matilda's work, or indeed superior to it, as being entirely the production of her own hand, were the needlework pieces of joan d'albert, who ascended the throne of navarre in . though her own career was varied and eventful, she is best known to posterity as the mother of the great henry iv. she adopted the reformed religion, of which she became, not without some risk to her crown thereby, the zealous protectress, and on christmas-day, , she made a public profession of the protestant faith; she prohibited the offices of the catholic religion to be performed in her domains, and suffered in consequence many alarms from her catholic subjects. but she possessed great courage and fortitude, and baffled all open attacks. against concealed treachery she could not contend. she died suddenly at the court of france in , as it was strongly suspected, by poison. this queen possessed a vigorous and cultivated understanding; was acquainted with several languages, and composed with facility both in prose and verse. her needlework, the amusement and solace of her leisure hours, was designed by her as "a commemoration of her love for, and steadiness to, the reformed faith." it is thus described by boyle: "she very much loved devices, and she wrought with her own hand fine and large pieces of tapestry, among which was a suit of hangings of a dozen or fifteen pieces, which were called the prisons opened; by which she gave us to understand that she had broken the pope's bonds, and shook off his yoke of captivity. in the middle of every piece is a story of the old testament which savours of liberty--as the deliverance of susannah; the departure of the children of israel out of egypt; the setting joseph at liberty, &c. and at all the corners are broken chains, shackles, racks, and gibbets; and over them in great letters, these words of the third chapter of the second epistle to the corinthians, ubi spiritus ibi libertas. "to show yet more fully the aversion she had conceived against the catholic religion, and particularly against the sacrifice of the mass, having a fine and excellent piece of tapestry, made by her mother, margaret, before she had suffered herself to be cajoled by the ministers, in which was perfectly well wrought the sacrifice of the mass, and a priest who held out the holy host to the people, she took out the square in which was this history, and, instead of the priest, with her own hand substituted a fox, who turning to the people, and making a horrible grimace with his paws and throat, delivered these words, dominus vobiscum." we are told that anne of brittany, the good queen of france, assembled three hundred of the children of the nobility at her court, where, under her personal superintendence, they were instructed in such accomplishments as became their rank and sex, but the girls, most especially, made accomplished needlewomen. embroidery was their occupation during some specified hours of every day, and they wrought much tapestry, which was presented by their royal protectress to different churches. her daughter claude, the queen of francis i., formed her court on the same model and maintained the same practice; queen anne boleyn was educated in her court, and was doomed to consume a large portion of her time in the occupation of the needle. it was an employment little suited to her lively disposition and coquettish habits, and we do not hear, during her short occupation of the throne, that she resorted to it as an amusement. "ai lavori d'aracne, all'ago, ai fusi inchinar non degnò la man superba." the practice of devoting some hours to embroidery seems to have continued in the french court. when the young queen of scots was there, the french princesses assembled every afternoon in the queen's (catherine of medici's) private apartment, where "she usually spent two or three hours in embroidery with her female attendants." it is also said, that katharine of arragon was in the habit of employing the ladies of her court in needlework, in which she was herself extremely assiduous, working with them and encouraging them by her example. burnet records, that when two legates requested once to speak with her, she came out to them with a skein of silk about her neck, and told them she had been within at work with her women. an anecdote, as far as regards the skein of silk, somewhat more housewifely than queenly. in this she differed much from her successor, queen catherine parr, for having had her nativity cast when a child, and being told, from the disposition of the stars and planets in her house, that she was born to sit in the highest seat of imperial majesty; child as she was, she was so impressed by the prediction, that when her mother required her to work she would say, "my hands are ordained to touch crowns and sceptres, not needles and spindles." when the orphaned daughter of this lady, by the lord admiral, was consigned to the care of the duchess of suffolk, the furniture of "her former nursery" was to be sent with her. the list is rather curious, and we subjoin it. "two pots, three goblets, one salt parcel gilt, a maser with a band of silver and parcel gilt, and eleven spoons; a quilt for the cradle, three pillows, three feather-beds, three quilts, a testor of scarlet embroidered with a counterpoint of silk say belonging to the same, and curtains of crimson taffeta; two counterpoints of imagery for the nurse's bed, six pair of sheets, six fair pieces of hangings within the inner chamber; four carpets for windows, ten pieces of hangings of the twelve months within the outer chamber, two quishions of cloth of gold, one chair of cloth of gold, two wrought stools, a bedstead gilt, with a testor and counterpoint, with curtains belonging to the same." return we to katharine of arragon: her needlework labours have been celebrated both in latin and english verse. the following sonnet refers to specimens in the tower, which now indeed are swept away, having left not "a wreck behind." "i read that in the seventh king henrie's reigne, fair katharine, daughter to the castile king, came into england with a pompous traine of spanish ladies which shee thence did bring. she to the eighth king henry married was, and afterwards divorc'd, where virtuously (although a queene), yet she her days did pass in working with the _needle_ curiously, as in the tower, and places more beside, her excellent memorials may be seen; whereby the _needle's_ prayse is dignifide by her faire ladies, and herselfe, a queene. thus far her paines, here her reward is just, her works proclaim her prayse, though she be dust." the same pen also celebrated her daughter's skill in this feminine occupation. mary was skilled in all sorts of embroidery; and when her mother's divorce consigned her to a private life, she beguiled the intervals of those severer studies in which she peaceably and laudably occupied her time in various branches of needlework. it is not unlikely the psalter we have alluded to elsewhere was embroidered by herself; and a reference to the fashionable occupations of the day will bring to our minds various trifling articles, the embroidery of which beguiled her time, though they have long since passed away. "her daughter mary here the sceptre swaid, and though she were a queene of mighty power, her memory will never be decaid, which by her works are likewise in the tower, in windsor castle, and in hampton court, in that most pompous roome called paradise; who ever pleaseth thither to resort, may see some workes of hers, of wondrous price. her greatness held it no disreputation to take the needle in her royal hand; which was a good example to our nation to banish idleness from out her land: and thus this queene, in wisdom thought it fit, the needle's worke pleas'd her, and she grac'd it." we extract the following notice of the gentle and excellent lady jane grey, from the 'court magazine.' "ten days' royalty! alas, how deeply fraught with tragic interest is the historic page recording the events of that brief period! and how immeasurable the results proceeding therefrom. love, beauty, religious constancy, genius, and learning, were seen in early womanhood intermingling their glorious halo with the dark shadowings of despotism, imprisonment, and violent death upon the scaffold! "in the most sequestered part of leicestershire, backed by rude eminences, and skirted by lowly and romantic valleys, stands bradgate, the birth-place and abode of lady jane grey. the approach to bradgate from the village of cropston is striking. on the left stands a group of venerable trees, at the extremity of which rise the remains of the once magnificent mansion of the greys of groby. on the right is a hill, known by the name of 'the coppice,' covered with slate, but so intermixed with fern and forest-flowers as to form a beautiful contrast to the deep shades of the surrounding woods. to add to the loveliness of the scene, a winding trout-stream finds its way from rock to rock, washing the walls of bradgate until it reaches the fertile meadows of swithland. "in the distance, situate upon a hill, is a tower, called by the country-people old john, commanding a magnificent view of the adjoining country, including the distant castles of nottingham and belvoir. with the exception of the chapel and kitchen, the princely mansion has now become a ruin; but a tower still stands, which tradition points out as her birth-place. traces of the tilt-yard are visible, with the garden-walls, and a noble terrace whereon jane often walked and sported in her childhood; and the rose and lily still spring in favourable nooks of that wilderness, once the pleasance, or pleasure-garden of bradgate. near the brook is a beautiful group of old chestnut-trees. "'this was thy home then, gentle jane, this thy green solitude; and here at evening from the gleaming pane, thine eye oft watched the dappled deer (while the soft sun was in its wane) browsing beside the brooklet clear; the brook runs still, the sun sets now, the deer yet browseth--where art thou?' "instead of skill in drawing she cultivated the art of painting with the needle, and at zurich is still to be seen, together with the original ms. of her latin letters to the reformer bullinger, a toilet beautifully ornamented by her own hands, which had been presented by her to her learned correspondent." in the court of catherine de medicis mary queen of scots was habituated to the daily practice of needlework, and thus fostered her natural taste for the art which she had acquired in the convent--supposed to have been st. germaine-en-laye, where she was placed during the early part of her residence in france. she left this convent with the utmost regret, revisited it whenever she was permitted, and gladly employed her needle in embroidering an altarpiece for its church. this predilection for needlework never forsook her, but proved a beguilement and a solace during the weary years of her subsequent imprisonment, especially after she was separated from the female friends who at first accompanied her. during a part of her confinement, while she was still on comparatively friendly terms with elizabeth, she transmitted several elegant pieces of her own needlework to this princess. she wrought a canopy, which was placed in the presence-chamber at whitehall, consisting of an empalement of the arms of france and scotland, embroidered under an imperial crown. it does not appear at what period of her life she worked it. during the early part of her confinement she was asked how, in unfavourable weather, she passed the time within. she said that all that day she wrought with her needle, and that the diversity of the colours made the work seem less tedious; and she continued so long at it till very pain made her to give over. "upon this occasion she entered into a pretty disputable comparison between carving, painting, and working with the needle; affirming painting, in her own opinion, for the most commendable quality. no doubt it was during her confinement in england that she worked the bed still preserved at chatsworth." the following notices from her own letters, though trifling, are interesting memorials of this melancholy part of her life:-- "july , .--i pray you send me some pigeons, red partridges, and barbary fowls. i mean to try to rear them in this country, or keep them in cages: it is an amusement for a prisoner, and i do so with all the little birds i can obtain. "july , .--always bear in mind that my will in all things be strictly followed; and send me, if it be possible, some one with my accounts. he must bring me patterns of dresses and samples of cloths, gold and silver, stuffs and silks, the most costly and new now worn at court. order for me at poissy a couple of coifs, with gold and silver crowns, such as they have made for me before. remind breton of his promise to send me from italy the newest kind of head-dress, veils, and ribands, wrought with gold and silver, and i will repay him. "september .--deliver to my uncle the cardinal the two cushions of my work which i send herewith. should he be gone to lyons, he will doubtless send me a couple of beautiful little dogs; and you likewise may procure a couple for me; for, except in reading and working, i take pleasure solely in all the little animals i can obtain. you must send them hither very comfortably put up in baskets. "february , .--i send the king of france some poodle-dogs (barbets), but can only answer for the beauty of the dogs, as i am not allowed either to hunt or to ride."[ ] it is said that one of the articles which in its preparation beguiled her, perchance, of some melancholy thoughts, was a waistcoat which, having richly and beautifully embroidered, she sent to her son; and that this selfish prince was heartless enough to reject the offering because his mother (still surely queen of scotland in his eyes) addressed it to him as prince. the poet so often quoted wrote the subjoined sonnet in queen elizabeth's praise, whose skill with her needle was remarkable. she was especially an adept in the embroidering with gold and silver, and practised it much in the early part of her life, though perhaps few specimens of her notability now exist:-- "when this great queene, whose memory shall not by any terme of time be overcast; for when the world and all therein shall rot, yet shall her glorious fame for ever last. when she a maid had many troubles past, from jayle to jayle by maries angry spleene: and woodstocke, and the tower in prison fast, and after all was england's peerelesse queene. yet howsoever sorrow came or went, she made the needle her companion still, and in that exercise her time she spent, as many living yet doe know her skill. thus shee was still, a captive, or else crown'd, a needlewoman royall and renown'd." of mary ii., the wife of the prince of orange, bishop fowler writes thus:--"what an enemy she was to idleness! even in ladies, those who had the honour to serve her are living instances. it is well known how great a part of the day they were employed at their needles and several ingenuities; the queen herself, when more important business would give her leave, working with them. and, that their minds might be well employed at the same time, it was her custom to order one to read to them, while they were at work, either divinity or some profitable history." and burnet thus:--"when her eyes were endangered by reading too much, she found out the amusement of work; and in all those hours that were not given to better employment she wrought with her own hands, and that sometimes with so constant a diligence as if she had been to earn her bread by it. it was a new thing, and looked like a sight, to see a queen working so many hours a day." her taste and industry in embroidery are testified by chairs yet remaining at hampton court. the beautiful and unfortunate marie antoinette, lively as was her disposition, and fond as she was of gaiety, did not find either the duties or gaieties of a court inconsistent with the labours of the needle. she was extremely fond of needlework, and during her happiest and gayest years was daily to be found at her embroidery-frame. her approach to this was a signal that other ladies might equally amuse themselves with their various occupations of embroidery, of knitting, or of _untwisting_--the profitable occupation of that day; and which was so fashionable, such a "rage," that the ladies of the court hardly stirred anywhere without two little workbags each--one filled with gold fringes, laces, tassels, or any _golden_ trumpery they could pick up, the other to contain the gold they unravelled, which they sold to jews. it is said to be a fact that duchesses--nay, princesses--have been known to go about from jew to jew in order to obtain the highest price for their gold. dolls and all sorts of toys were made and covered with gold brocades; and the gentlemen never failed rendering themselves agreeable to their fair acquaintance by presenting them with these toys! every one knows that the court costume of the french noblemen at that period was most expensive; this absurd custom rendered it doubly, trebly so; and was carried to such an excess, that frequently the moment a gentleman appeared in a new coat the ladies crowded round him and soon divested it of all its gold ornaments. the following is an instance:--"the duke de coigny one night appeared in a new and most expensive coat: suddenly a lady in the company remarked that its gold bindings would be excellent for untwisting. in an instant he was surrounded--all the scissors in the room were at work; in short, in a few moments the coat was stripped of its laces, its galoons, its tassels, its fringes; and the poor duke, notwithstanding his vexation, was forced by _politeness_ to laugh and praise the dexterity of the fair hands that robbed him." but what a solace did that passion for needlework, which the queen indulged in herself and encouraged in others, become to her during her fearful captivity. this unhappy princess was born on the day of the lisbon earthquake, which seemed to stamp a fatal mark on the era of her birth; and many circumstances occurred during her life which have since been considered as portentous. "'tis certain that the soul hath oft foretaste of matters which beyond its ken are placed." one circumstance, simple in itself and easily explained, is recorded by madame campan as having impressed marie with shuddering anticipations of evil:-- "one evening, about the latter end of may, she was sitting in the middle of her room, relating several remarkable occurrences of the day. four wax candles were placed upon her toilet; the first went out of itself--i relighted it; shortly afterwards the second, and then the third, went out also: upon which the queen, squeezing my hand with an emotion of terror, said to me, 'misfortune has power to make us superstitious; if the fourth taper go out like the first, nothing can prevent my looking upon it as a fatal omen!'--the fourth taper went out." at an earlier period goëthe seems, with somewhat of a poet's inspiration, to have read a melancholy fate for her. when young he was completing his studies at strasburg. in an isle in the middle of the rhine a pavilion had been erected, intended to receive marie antoinette and her suite, on her way to the french court. "i was admitted into it," says goëthe, in his memoirs: "on my entrance i was struck with the subject depicted in the tapestry with which the principal pavilion was hung, in which were seen jason, creusa, and medea; that is to say, a representation of the most fatal union commemorated in history. on the left of the throne the bride, surrounded by friends and distracted attendants, was struggling with a dreadful death; jason, on the other side, was starting back, struck with horror at the sight of his murdered children; and the fury was soaring into the air in her chariot drawn by dragons. superstition apart, this strange coincidence was really striking. the husband, the bride, and the children, were victims in both cases: the fatal omen seemed accomplished in every point." the following notices of her imprisonment would but be spoiled by any alteration of language. we shall perceive that one of her greatest troubles in prison, before her separation from the king and the dauphin, was the being deprived of her sewing implements. "during the early part of louis xvi.'s imprisonment, and while the treatment of him and his family was still human, his majesty employed himself in educating his son; while the queen, on her part, educated her daughter. then they passed some time in needlework, knitting, or tapestry-work. "at this time the royal family were in great want of clothes, insomuch that the princesses were employed in mending them every day; and madame elizabeth was often obliged to wait till the king was gone to bed, in order to have his to repair. the linen they brought to the tower had been lent them by friends, some by the countess of sutherland, who found means to convey linen and other things for the use of the dauphin. the queen wished to write a letter to the countess expressive of her thanks, and to return some of these articles, but her majesty was debarred from pen and ink; and the clothes she returned were stolen by her jailors, and never found their way to their right owner. "after many applications a little new linen was obtained; but the sempstress having marked it with crowns, the municipal officers insisted on the princesses picking the marks _out_, and they were forced to obey. "_dec. ._--an officer, at the head of a deputation from the commune, came to the king and read a decree, ordering that the persons in confinement should be deprived of all scissors, razors, knives--instruments usually taken from criminals; and that the strictest search should be made for the same, as well on their persons as in their apartments. the king took out of his pocket a knife and a small morocco pocket-book, from which he gave the pen-knife and scissors. the officer searched every corner of the apartments, and carried off the razors, the curling-irons, the powder-scraper, instruments for the teeth, and many articles of gold and silver. they took away from the princesses their knitting-needles and all the little articles they used for their embroidery. the unhappy queen and princesses were the more sensible of the loss of the little instruments taken from them, as they were in consequence forced to give up all the feminine handiworks which till then had served to beguile prison hours. at this time the king's coat became ragged, and as the princess elizabeth, his sister, was mending it, as she had no scissors, the king observed that she had to bite off the thread with her teeth--'what a reverse!' said the king, looking tenderly upon her; 'you were in want of nothing at your pretty house at montreuil.' 'ah, brother!' she replied, 'can i feel a regret of any kind while i share your misfortunes?'" the empress josephine is said to have played and sung with exquisite feeling: her dancing is said to have been perfect. she exercised her pencil, and--though such be not now antiquated for an _élégante_--her needle and embroidery-frame, with beautiful address. towards the close of her eventful career, when, after her divorce from bonaparte, she kept a sort of domestic court at navarre or malmaison, she and her ladies worked daily at tapestry or embroidery--one reading aloud whilst the others were thus occupied; and the hangings of the saloon at malmaison were entirely her own work. they must have been elegant; the material was white silk, the embroidery roses, in which at intervals were entwined her own initials. an interesting circumstance is related of a conversation between one of those ministering spirits a _soeur de la charité_ and josephine, in a time of peculiar excitement and trouble. at the conclusion of it, the _soeur_, having discovered with whom she was conversing, added, "since i am addressing the mother of the afflicted, i no longer fear my being indiscreet in any demand i may make for suffering humanity. we are in great want of lint; if your majesty would condescend"----"i promise you shall have some; we will make it ourselves." from that moment the evenings were employed at malmaison in making lint, and the empress yielded to none in activity at this work. few of my readers will have accompanied me to this point without anticipating the name with which these slight notices of royal needlewomen must conclude--a name which all know, and which, knowing, all reverence as that of a dignified princess, a noble and admirable matron--adelaide, our dowager queen. it was hers to reform the morals of a court which, to our shame, had become licentious; it was hers to render its charmed circle as pure and virtuous as the domestic hearth of the most scrupulous british matron; it was hers to combine with the chilling etiquette of regal state the winning virtues of private life, and to weave a wreath of domestic virtues, social charities, and beguiling though simple occupations, round the stately majesty of england's throne. the days are past when it would be either pleasurable or profitable for the queen of the british empire to spend her days, like matilda or katharine, "in poring over the interminable mazes of tapestry;" but it is well known that queen adelaide, and, in consequence of her majesty's example, those around her, habitually occupied their leisure moments in ornamental needlework; and there have been, of late years, few bazaars throughout the kingdom, for really beneficent purposes, which have not been enriched by the contributions of the queen dowager--contributions ever gladly purchased at a high price, not for their intrinsic worth, but because they had been wrought by a hand which every englishwoman had learnt to respect and love. footnotes: [ ] this sacred standard was taken by the saxons in devonshire, in a fortunate onset, in which they slew one of the sea-kings with eight hundred of his followers. so superstitious a reverence was attached to this ensign that its loss is said to have broken the spirit of even these ruthless plunderers. it was woven by the sisters of inguar and ubba, who divined by it. if the raven (which was worked on it) moved briskly in the wind, it was a sign of victory, but if it drooped and hung heavily, it was supposed to prognosticate discomfiture. [ ] von raumer's contributions. chapter xxv. on modern needlework. "our country everywhere is fild with ladies, and with gentlewomen, skild in this rare art." taylor. "for here the needle plies its busy task, the pattern grows, the well-depicted flower wrought patiently into the snowy lawn, unfolds its bosom; buds, and leaves, and sprigs, and curling tendrils gracefully dispos'd, follow the nimble fingers of the fair; a wreath that cannot fade." cowper. "the great variety of needleworks which the ingenious women of other countries, as well as of our own, have invented, will furnish us with constant and amusing employment; and though our labours may not equal a mineron's or an aylesbury's, yet, if they unbend the mind, by fixing its attention on the progress of any elegant or imitative art, they answer the purpose of domestic amusement; and, when the higher duties of our station do not call forth our exertions, we may feel the satisfaction of knowing that we are, at least, innocently employed."--mrs. griffiths. the triumph of modern art in needlework is probably within our own shores, achieved by our own countrywoman,--miss linwood. "miss linwood's exhibition" used to be one of the lions of london, and fully deserves to be so now. to women it must always be an interesting sight; and the "nobler gender" cannot but consider it as a curious one, and not unworthy even of their notice as an achievement of art. many of these pictures are most beautiful; and it is not without great difficulty that you can assure yourself that they are _bonâ fide_ needlework. full demonstration, however, is given you by the facility of close approach to some of the pieces. perhaps the most beautiful of the whole collection--a collection consisting of nearly a hundred pieces of all sizes--is the picture of miss linwood herself, copied from a painting by russell, taken in about her nineteenth year. she must have been a beautiful creature; and as to this copy being done with a needle and worsted,--nobody would suppose such a thing. it is a perfect painting. in the catalogue which accompanies these works she refers to her own portrait with the somewhat touching expression, (from shakspeare,) "have i lived thus long----" this lady is now in her eighty-fifth year. her life has been devoted to the pursuit of which she has given so many beautiful testimonies. she had wrought two or three pieces before she reached her twentieth year; and her last piece, "the judgment of cain," which occupied her ten years, was finished in her seventy-fifth year; since when, the failure of her eyesight has put an end to her labours. the pieces are worked not on canvas, nor, we are told, on linen, but on some peculiar fabric made purposely for her. her worsteds have all been dyed under her own superintendence, and it is said the only relief she has ever had in the manual labour was in having an assistant to thread her needles. some of the pieces after gainsborough are admirable; but perhaps miss linwood will consider her greatest triumph to be in her copy of carlo dolci's "salvator mundi," for which she has been offered, and has refused, three thousand guineas. the style of modern embroidery, now so fashionable, from the berlin patterns, dates from the commencement of the present century. about the year - , a print-seller in berlin, named philipson, published the first coloured design, on checked paper, for needlework. in , madame wittich, who, being a very accomplished embroideress, perceived the great extension of which this branch of trade was capable, induced her husband, a book and print-seller of berlin, to engage in it with spirit. from that period the trade has gone on rapidly increasing, though within the last six years the progression has been infinitely more rapid than it had previously been, owing to the number of new publishers who have engaged in the trade. by leading houses up to the commencement of the year , there have been no less than fourteen thousand copper-plate designs published. in the scale of consumption, and, consequently, by a fair inference in the quantity of needlework done, germany stands first; then russia, england, france, america, sweden, denmark, holland, &c., the three first names on the list being by far the largest consumers. it is difficult to state with precision the number of persons employed to _colour_ these plates, but a principal manufacturer estimates them as upwards of twelve hundred, chiefly women. at first these patterns were chiefly copied in silk, then in beads, and lastly in dyed wools; the latter more especially, since the germans have themselves succeeded in producing those beautiful "zephyr" yarns known in this country as the "berlin wools." these yarns, however, are only dyed in berlin, being manufactured at gotha. it is not many years since the germans drew all their fine woollen yarns from this country: now they are the _exporters_, and probably will so remain, whatever be the _quality_ of the wool produced in england, until the art of _dyeing_ be as well understood and as scientifically practised. of the fourteen thousand berlin patterns which have been published, scarcely one-half are moderately good; and all the best which they have produced latterly are copied from english and french prints. contemplating the improvement that will probably ere long take place in these patterns, needlework may be said to be yet in its infancy. the improvement, however, must not be confined to the berlin designers: the taste of the consumer, the public taste must also advance before needlework shall assume that approximation to art which is so desirable, and not perhaps now, with modern facilities, difficult of attainment. hitherto the chief anxiety seems to have been to produce a glare of colour rather than that subdued but beautiful effect which makes of every piece issuing from the gobelins a perfect picture, wrought by different means, it is true, but with the very same materials. the berlin publishers cannot be made to understand this; for, when they have a good design to copy from, they mar all by the introduction of some adventitious frippery, as in the "bolton abbey," where the repose and beautiful effect of the picture is destroyed by the introduction of a bright sky, and straggling bushes of lively green, just where the artist had thought it necessary to depict the stillness of the inner court of the monastery, with its solemn grey walls, as a relief to the figures in the foreground. many ladies of rank in germany add to their pin-money by executing needlework for the warehouses. france consumes comparatively but few berlin patterns. the french ladies persevere in the practice of working on drawings previously traced on the canvas: the consequence is that, notwithstanding their general skill and assiduity, good work is often wasted on that which cannot produce an artist-like effect. they are, however, by far the best embroideresses in chenille,--silk and gold. by embroidery we mean that which is done on a solid ground, as silk or cloth. the tapestry or canvas-work is now thoroughly understood in this country; and by the help of the berlin patterns more _good_ things are produced here as articles of furniture than in france. the present mode of furnishing houses is favourable to needlework. at a time when fashion enacted that all the sofas and chairs of an apartment should match, the completely furnishing it with needlework (as so many in france have been) was the constant occupation of a whole family--mother, daughters, cousins, and servants--for years, and must indeed have been completely wearisome; but a cushion, a screen, or an odd chair, is soon accomplished, and at once takes its place among the many odd-shaped articles of furniture which are now found in a fashionable saloon. francfort-on-the-maine is much busying itself just now with needlework. the commenced works imported from this city are made up partly from berlin patterns, and partly from fanciful combinations; but although generally speaking _well worked_, they are too complicated to be easy of execution, and very few indeed of those brought to this country are ever _finished_ by the purchaser. the history of the progress of the modern tapestry-needlework in this country is brief. until the year , the berlin patterns were known to very few persons, and used by fewer persons still. they had for some time been imported by ackermann and some others, but in very small numbers indeed. in the year , they, for the first time, fell under the notice of mr. wilks, regent-street, (to whose kindness i am indebted for the valuable information on the berlin patterns given above,) and he immediately purchased all the good designs he could procure, and also made large purchases both of patterns and working materials direct from berlin, and thus laid the foundation of the trade in england. he also imported from paris a large selection of their best examples in tapestry, and also an assortment of silks of those exquisite tints which, as yet, france only can produce; and by inducing french artists, educated for this peculiar branch of design, to accompany him to england, he succeeded in establishing in england this elegant art. this fashionable tapestry-work, certainly the most useful kind of ornamental needlework, seems quite to have usurped the place of the various other embroideries which have from time to time engrossed the leisure moments of the fair. it may be called mechanical, and so in a degree it certainly is; but there is infinitely more scope for fancy, taste, and even genius here, than in any other of the large family of "satin sketches" and embroideries. yes, there is certainly room in worsted work for genius to exert itself--the genius of a painter--in the selection, arrangement, and combination of colours, of light and shade, &c.; we do not mean in glaring arabesques, but in the landscape and the portrait. there is an instance given by pennant,[ ] where the skill and taste of the needlewoman imparted a grace to her picture which was wanting in the original. "in one of the apartments of the palace (lambeth) is a performance that does great honour to the ingenious wife of a modern dignitary--a copy in needlework of a madonna and child, after a most capital performance of the spanish murillo. there is most admirable grace in the original, which was sold last winter at the price of guineas. it made me lament that this excellent master had wasted so much time on beggars and ragged boys. beautiful as it is, the copy came improved out of the hand of our skilful countrywoman: a judicious change of colour of part of the drapery has had a most happy effect, and given new excellence to the admired original." whilst recording the triumphs of modern needlework, we must not omit to mention a school for the education of the daughters of clergy and decayed tradesmen, in which the art of silk-embroidery was particularly cultivated. this school was under the especial patronage of queen charlotte; and a bed of lilac satin, which was there embroidered for her, is now exhibited at hampton court, and is really magnificent. could we now take a more extended view of modern needlework, how wide the range to which we might refer,--from the jewelled and golden-wrought slippers of the east to the grass-embroidered mocassins of the west; from the gorgeous and glittering raiment of the courtly persian, the voluptuous turk, or the luxurious indian, to the simple, unattractive, yet exquisitely wrought garment made by the californian from the entrails of the whale: a range wide as the antipodes asunder in every point except one! that is--the equal though very differently displayed skill, ingenuity, and industry of the needlewoman in almost every corner of the hearth from the burning equator to the freezing pole. this we must now pass. finally,--feeling as we do that though ornamental needlework may be a charming occupation for those ladies whose happy lot relieves them from the necessity of "darning hose" and "mending nightcaps," yet that a proficiency in plain sewing is the very life and being of the comfort and respectability of the poor man's wife,--we cannot close this book without one earnest remark on the systems of teaching needlework now in use in the central, national, and other schools for the instruction of the poor. there, now, the art is reduced to regular rule, taught by regular system; and there are books of instruction in cutting, in shaping, in measuring,--one for the (late) model school in dublin, and another, somewhat similar, for that in the sanctuary, westminster, which would be a most valuable acquisition to the work table of many a needle-loving and industrious lady of the most respectable middle classes of society. any of our readers who have been accustomed, as we have, to see the domestic hearths and homes of those who, brought up from infancy in factories, have married young, borne large families, and perhaps descended to the grave without ever having learned how to make a petticoat for themselves, or even a cap for their children,--any who know the reality of this picture, and have seen the misery consequent on it, will join us cordially in expressing the earnest and heartfelt hope that the extension of mental tuition amongst the lower classes may not supersede, in the smallest iota, that instruction and practice in sewing which next, the very next, to the knowledge of their catechism, is of vital importance to the future well-doing of girls in the lower stations of life.[ ] * * * * * and now my task is finished; and to you, my kind readers, who have had the courtesy to accompany me thus far, i would fain offer a few words of thanks, of farewell, and, if need be, of apology. this is, i believe, the first history of needlework ever published. i have met with no other; i have heard of no other; and i have experienced no trifling difficulties in obtaining material for this. i have spared no labour, no exertions, no research. i have toiled through many hundreds of volumes for the chance of finding even a line adaptable to my purpose: sometimes i have met with this trifling success, oftener not. i do not mention these circumstances with any view to exaggerate my own exertions, but merely to convince those ladies, who having read the book, may feel dissatisfied with the amount of information contained therein, that really no superabundance of material exists. the subject has in all ages been deemed too trifling to obtain more than a passing notice from the historical pen. to myself, my exertions have brought their own "exceeding rich reward;" for if perchance they were at times productive of fatigue, they yet have winged the flight of many lonely hours which might otherwise have induced weariness or even despondency in their lagging transit. to you, my countrywomen, i offer the book, not as what it _might_ be, but as the best which, under all circumstances, i could now produce. the triumphant general is oftentimes deeply indebted for success to the humble but industrious pioneer; and those who may hereafter pursue this subject with loftier aims, with more abundant leisure and greater facilities of research, may not disdain to tread the path which i have indicated. i offer to you my book in the hope that it will cause amusement to some, gratification perhaps of a higher order to others, and offence--as i trust and believe--to none. footnotes: [ ] some account of london.-- . [ ] it cannot be too generally known that within late years schools have been attached to the factories, where, for a fixed and certain proportion of their time, girls are instructed in sewing and reading. the end. london: printed by w. clowes and sons, stamford street. transcriber's note archaic and variable spelling is preserved as printed. minor punctuation errors have been repaired. hyphenation and use of accents have been made consistent in the main text where there was a prevalence of one form over another. however, inconsistencies are preserved as printed where material originates from different authors. the title page contains the word 'needle-work.' the author's text, and a repeat of the title, uses 'needlework'. this has been preserved as printed. the following items were found: page viii--the page number for the chapter titled "the needle" was omitted from the table of contents. reference to the text shows it to be page , and this has been added in the appropriate place. page --there is some obscured text at the end of the page. given the context and the amount of space, it seems reasonable to assume that the missing words are 'he is' and these have been added in this etext. page , third footnote--mentions the word alner, but doesn't define it. "an illustrated dictionary of words used in art and archaeology" by j. w. mollett defines it as: "aulmonière. the norman name for the pouch, bag, or purse appended to the girdle of noble persons, and derived from the same root as 'alms' and 'almoner'. it was more or less ornamented and hung from long laces of silk or gold; it was sometimes called alner." the transcriber has added 'pouch, bag or purse' as a definition. page --there is an obscured word in the line, "with steven f-ll- stoute". comparison with other sources of the same verse show the word to be fulle, which has been used in this etext. page --the footnote marker in the text was missing. the transcriber has checked the referenced text, and inserted a marker in what appears to be the correct place. page --the speaker of the line "her neele" was obscured. it appears that the speaker should be tib, and this has been inserted. the following amendments have been made: page --certain amended to certains and meurissent amended to mûrissent--"... et comme on voit à certains arbres des fruits qui ne mûrissent jamais; ..." page --footsep amended to footstep--"each accidental passer hushed his footstep ..." page --le amended to la--"suivant la différence des états, elles apprennent à lire, ..." page --elle amended to elles--"... mais elles insistent beaucoup plus sur la nécessité ..." page --supurb amended to superb--"... seated on a superb throne, and crowned with the papal tiara." page , footnote--lvo. amended to vol.--"archæologia, vol. xix." page --manngement amended to management--"... for on her wise and prudent management depended not merely the comfort, ..." page --macheloires amended to machoires--"... car si tant ne fait que j'aye la barbe & les dents machoires sans aucune tromperie ne mensonge, ..." page --sixteeenth amended to sixteenth--"in the sixteenth century[ ] a sort of hanging was introduced, ..." page --repeated 'to' deleted--"so she went to bed, and in the morning she was found stone dead." page --renowed amended to renowned--"help me, shades of renowned slaughterers, whilst i record his achievements!" page --frence amended to french--"at durham place were the citie of ladies (a french allegorical romance); ..." page --britions amended to britons--"... and, as supposed, of the ancient britons." page --eylet-holes amended to eyelet-holes--"... full of small eyelet-holes, as thickly as they could be put, ..." page --his amended to hir--"hir hat suld be of fair having ..." page --meurs amended to moeurs--"... nous n'aurions que le mépris qu'on a pour les gens sans moeurs, ..." page --magnificience amended to magnificence--"... lasting for thrift; and rich for magnificence." page --marshelling amended to marshalling--"... using more time in dressing than cæsar took in marshalling his army, ..." page --permittez amended to permettez--"permettez que je vous fasse l'observation, ..." page --bouyant amended to buoyant--"... so much was it elevated then by buoyant good humour ..." page --wtth amended to with--"... mingled with mule drivers, lacqueys, and peasants, ..." page --chandellier amended to chandelier--"... de brodeur, de tapissier, de chandelier, d'emballeur; ..." page --finalment amended to finalmente--"... et finalmente far tutte quelle gentillezze et lodevili opere, ..." page --repeated 'of' deleted--"it is dedicated to the queen of france, ..." page --damoiselles amended to damoyselles--"aux dames et damoyselles." page --baccus amended to bacchus--"ce bacchus representant l'autonne." page --delli amended to delle--"corona delle nobili et virtuose donne, ..." page --mayzette amended to mazzette--"e molto delle quali mostre possono servire ancora per opere a mazzette." page --logg amended to long--"so long as hemp of flax, or sheep shall bear ..." page , footnote--al amended to ad--"... e per far disegni ad altrui o dar gl'indirizzo ..." page , footnote--della dita amended to delle dita--"... degli narici, della bocca, delle dita corrispondono a' primi moti d'ogni passione; ..." page , footnote--del amended to dal--"... e ciò ch'è più, essi variano in cento modi senza uscir mai dal naturale, ..." page , footnote--ridusce amended to ridusse--"... tutte comprese con la divinità del suo ingegno, tutto ridusse più bello." page --privat eapartments amended to private apartments--"these are preserved in one of the private apartments of the vatican palace." page --closely amended to closely--"... the spanish armada up the channel, closely followed by the english, ..." page --morte amended to mort--"prise dans la tente de charles le téméraire, lors de la mort de ce prince, ..." page --intérressant amended to intéressant--"... plus intéressant pour les arts, et plus digne d'être reproduit par la gravure." page --destinée amended to destiné--"robert fut destiné de bonne heure aux fonctions du sacerdoce." page --jusque-là converts amended to jusqu'à-là couverts--"... il planta la croix du sauveur dans les lieux jusqu'à-là couverts de forêts et de bruyères incultes, ..." page --émaillées amended to émaillés, and ruisselantes amended to ruisselants--"... les colonnettes sont émaillés, ruisselants de milliers de pierres fines et de perles, ..." page --libaries amended to libraries--"... and the principal public libraries in england." page --illuminaitng amended to illuminating--"when the art of illuminating still more failed, ..." page --scarely amended to scarcely--"... scarcely one-half are moderately good; ..." http://www.archive.org/details/primaryhandwo dobbrich transcriber's note: text in italics is enclosed by underscores (_italics_). text in bold face is enclosed by equal signs (=bold=). primary handwork * * * * * * the macmillan company new york · boston · chicago · dallas atlanta · san francisco macmillan & co., limited london · bombay · calcutta melbourne the macmillan co. of canada, ltd. toronto * * * * * * [illustration: house of the three bears built by first-grade class. columbia, missouri. see page .] primary handwork by ella victoria dobbs, b.s., a.m. assistant professor of manual arts university of missouri new york the macmillan company all rights reserved copyright, , by the macmillan company. set up and electrotyped. published june, . norwood press j. s. cushing co.--berwick & smith co. norwood, mass., u.s.a. dedicated to the little children of america with the wish that all their school days may be happy days preface this book is the outgrowth of long experience as a teacher of primary grades, followed by special study of handwork as a factor in elementary education. it is written with three objects in view: first, to gather into a single volume various methods already in use in the more progressive schools, and for which the best suggestions are scattered through current periodicals: second, to organize these methods and present them in a simple form for the use of teachers who have had no special training in handwork processes: third, accepting conditions as they exist in the small town school and the one-room country school, as a basis of organization, to offer suggestions which may be easily adapted to the conditions of any school with a view to bringing present practice into closer harmony with the best educational ideals. no claim is laid to originality, beyond the small details in which one person's interpretation of a large problem will differ from that of another. the projects here outlined have been tested in the public schools of columbia, missouri, under conditions which are common to towns of about the same size. the point of view has been influenced chiefly by the educational philosophy of prof. john dewey, especially as expressed in his essay "the child and the curriculum." the author wishes here to make grateful acknowledgement to dr. dewey, not only for the helpfulness of his writings, but also for the inspiration of his teaching. thanks are also due to dr. naomi norsworthy of teachers college, and to dean w. w. charters of missouri university, for encouragement in planning the book and for criticism of the manuscript. especial acknowledgment is here made to prof. r. w. selvidge of peabody college for teachers, formerly of this university, for hearty coöperation and helpful suggestions in working out the problems described in this book, and to the teachers of the columbia schools for their most efficient services in testing these problems in their classrooms. e. v. d. university of missouri, february, . contents chapter page i. introduction ii. paper cutting and poster making iii. booklets iv. criticism and standards of workmanship v. the house problem vi. the village street vii. sand tables and what to do with them viii. animals and toys ix. holidays x. general suggestions and summary references list of illustrations page house of the three bears _frontispiece_ . paper cutting. first grade . paper cutting. second grade . paper cutting. second grade . paper tearing . paper cutting. third grade . paper cutting. fourth grade . pamphlet sewing . japanese sewing . house arranged on a shelf . a medieval castle . house arranged on a table--front view . house arranged on a table--side view . house arranged on a table--back view . house plan . arrangement of windows . detail of hollow square . borders . looms and samples of weaving . box house by second grade . detail for paper weaving . furniture from wood blocks . furniture from wood blocks . home of white cloud, the pueblo girl . detail of stairway . box house, showing roof . detail of gable . colonial kitchen . house of the three bears . cornstalk house . a flour mill . box house and stores . a village street . a grocery. fourth grade . a grocery. third grade . a dry goods store . home in a hot country . home in a cold country . a sand-table farm. first grade . a sand-table farm. second grade . detail of chicken fence . detail of paper tree . overall boys' farm . an apple orchard . robinson crusoe . pueblo indian village . a home in switzerland . two little knights of kentucky . how cedric became a knight . a sugar camp . a western cattle ranch . the story of three little pigs . a japanese tea garden . a coal mine . a chariot race . a circus parade . three-ply wooden animals . detail for three-ply wooden animals with movable parts . notched rest for animals . balancing figures . some simple toys . adjusting jumping-jack in frame primary handwork primary handwork chapter i introduction in setting forth the plan and purpose of this little book the author wishes to lay equal emphasis on its limitations. the outlines and suggestions which follow are designed for the use of grade teachers who have had little or no training in handwork processes but who appreciate the necessity of making worthy use of the child's natural activity and desire to do. the outlines are arranged with reference to schools which are not provided with special equipment and which have scant funds for supplies. the projects require only such materials as empty goods boxes, and odds and ends of cloth and paper, which are easily obtainable in any community. no extra time is required for the work, and it may be successfully carried out by any teacher who is willing to devote a little study to the possibilities of things near at hand. these outlines do not form a course of study to be followed in regular order nor in set lessons coming at a definite time. they are, rather, a series of suggestions to be used wherever and whenever they will serve a worthy purpose. they are not to be regarded as a _special_ subject, having little or no connection with the regular class work, but rather as an illustrative method of teaching the regular subject matter whenever the teaching can be done more effectively by means of concrete illustrations. it is proposed to make greater use of construction as a medium of expression, and place _making_ more nearly on a par with talking, writing, and drawing. any of the projects outlined may be modified to suit varying conditions, and the emphasis placed according to the needs of a particular class. all the suggestions are given in very simple form, chiefly from the standpoint of the first grade, for the reason that it is easier to add to the details of a simple problem than to simplify one which is complex. it is not the purpose here to emphasize the training of the hand or the development of technique in handwork processes to the extent commonly expected of a course in manual arts, though considerable dexterity in the use of tools and materials will undoubtedly be developed as the work proceeds. while careless work is never to be tolerated in construction any more than it would be tolerated in writing or drawing, the standard is to be only such a degree of perfection as is possible through a child's unaided efforts. it is proposed to provide him with things to do of such interest to him that he will wish to do his best, and things of such a nature that they will please him best when they are well done, and so stimulate a genuine desire for good work. to this end the suggestions relate to things of immediate value and use to the children themselves, rather than to things commonly comprehended in a list of articles which are useful from the adult point of view. the work is to be kept on a level with the child's experience and used as a means of broadening his experience and lifting it to a higher level. it must also be kept on the level of his constructive ability in order that he may do things _by himself_, and develop independence through feeling himself master of his tools. neither patterns nor definite directions are provided for the details of the projects outlined, for the reason that it is desired to make every project a spontaneous expression of the child's own ideas. to this end the outline serves only as a framework, to be filled in as the worker desires. the ready-made pattern implies dictation on the part of the teacher and mechanical imitation and repetition on the part of the pupil,--a process almost fatal to spontaneous effort. while it is possible through a method of dictation to secure results which seem, at first, to be much better than the crude constructions which children are able to work out for themselves, it is only a superficial advantage, and one gained at the expense of the child's growth in power to think and act independently. it is an advantage closely akin to the parrotlike recitation of the pupil who catches a few glib phrases and gives them back without thought, as compared with the recitation of the pupil who thinks and expresses his thoughts in his own childish language. these outlines are intended not only to emphasize independence in self-expression, but also to foster a social spirit through community effort and develop a sense of responsibility through division of labor. a child's shortcomings will be brought home to him much more vividly if he fails to contribute some essential assigned to him in the construction of a coöperative project, and thereby spoils the pleasure of the whole group, than when his failure affects only his individual effort in a group of duplicate projects. these outlines are intended also to suggest a method of opening up to the children, in an attractive way, the great field of industry. their deep interest in playing store leads easily to a study of the source, use, and value of various forms of merchandise and the essential features of various trades and occupations. problems of this sort are fascinating to children in all the lower grades, are rich in valuable subject matter, and suggest things to do which are both interesting and worth while. without attempting to exhaust any phase of the subject, they awaken an intelligent interest in the industrial world and tend to stimulate thoughtful observation. they help to give the children correct ideas about industrial processes as far as their knowledge goes, and to create a desire for further knowledge. this general information lays a good foundation for later and more serious study of the industries and the choice of a vocation. these outlines are offered as a means of bridging the gap between the formal methods and outgrown courses of study still in use and the richer curriculum and more vital methods toward which we are working. much time must be spent in study and experimentation before a satisfactory reorganization of the curriculum can be worked out. without waiting until this work shall be wholly completed, it is possible at once to vitalize the most formal course of study through the use of freer methods, which permit and encourage self-directed activity on the part of the pupil. the use of such methods will not only tend to create a deeper interest in school work, but must also help toward the great problem of reorganization, by throwing into stronger relief the strength and weakness of our present common practice. chapter ii paper cutting and poster making paper and scissors form a fascinating combination to all children, and offer a very direct means of self-expression. in the language of a small boy who attempted to tell how to do it, "you just think about something and then cut out your _think_." the teacher is concerned chiefly with the "think" and the way in which it is expressed. the children are interested in paper cutting chiefly from the pleasure of the activity. beyond the immediate pleasure in the process, the cuttings are valuable only as they indicate the clearness of the child's ideas and measure his ability to express them. the process is educative only in so far as it helps the small worker to "see with his mind's eye" and to give tangible shape to what he thus sees. it is important, therefore, that the work be done in a way that will emphasize the thinking rather than the finished product. the first question arising is, to what extent shall a pattern be used? shall the teacher cut out the object and bid the class follow her example? shall she display a silhouette or outline drawing of the object she desires the children to cut, or shall they work without any external guide to justify or modify the mental picture? shall they be given a pattern and be allowed to draw around it? all of the above methods are used to a greater or less extent. long experience seems to indicate that the first cutting of any object should be unassisted by any external representation of it whatever, in order that the attention of each child may be focused upon his own mental picture of the object. when he has put forth his best effort from this standpoint, he should compare his cutting with the real object or a good picture of it and be led to see the chief defects in his own production and then allowed to try again. [illustration: fig. .--story of jack horner on poster and sand table. snowflakes in background. first grade. columbia, missouri.] for example, after telling the story of mother hubbard, the children may be interested in cutting out dogs. no picture or other guide should be used at first, since every child knows something about dogs. the first cuttings are likely to be very poor, partly because the children have not sufficient control over the scissors and largely because their ideas are very vague. in a general comparison of work they will help each other with such criticisms as, "this dog's head is too big." "that dog's legs are too stiff." they are then ready to try again. only when they have reached the limit of their power to see flaws in their work do they need to compare it with the real dog or its picture. only after a child has attempted to express his idea and has become conscious in ever so small a degree of the imperfection of his expression will he really be able to see differences between the real object and his representation of it, and thereby clarify his mental picture. [illustration: fig. .--paper cutting. second grade, columbia.] the child's imagination is so strong that he is apt to see his productions not as they are but as he means them to be, and he is unable to distinguish between the original and his copy of it. if the picture or silhouette is presented at first, his work becomes to a large extent mere copying rather than self-expression. if the teacher cuts out a dog and displays it as a sample, the class will be apt to see that piece of paper only and not a real dog. if the children are permitted to draw the outline either freehand or around a pattern, still less mental effort is required, and in cutting they see only the bit of line just ahead of the scissors and not the object as a whole. such methods (_i.e._ the use of outlines, silhouettes, etc.) will produce better immediate results. it will be easier to distinguish dogs and cats from cows and horses if a pattern is provided, but it will not produce stronger children. such methods only defeat the chief purpose of the work, which is to stimulate the mental effort required to hold the mental image of the object in the focus of attention during the time required to reproduce it in the material form. [illustration: fig. .--paper cutting. second grade.] it is also often asked whether the children shall always cut directly and without modification or whether they shall be permitted to trim off the imperfections of their first attempts. while any rule must always be interpreted in the light of immediate circumstances, it is generally best to cut directly, and after noting the defects, cut again. it is then possible to compare the several attempts and see if improvement has been made. attention should be directed to the most glaring defect only, and an attempt made to correct it. for example, if the dog's head is too large, do not trim down, but cut another dog and try for better proportions. compare the second attempt with the first, to measure improvement. even little children can be taught to work in this thoughtful way, looking for the defects in their own work and making definite attempts to correct them. to this end much cutting from an unlimited supply of newspaper or scratch paper will accomplish more than a few exercises in better paper which must be trimmed and worked over for the sake of economy. if little children are allowed to trim off, they are apt, in the pure joy of cutting, to trim too much and lose the idea with which they started--a process which tends to vagueness rather than clearness. to prevent this it is often helpful to preserve both pieces of paper, _i.e._ the cutting and the hole. (see fig. .) =paper tearing.=--paper tearing serves many of the same purposes sought in cutting, and has several strong points in its favor. working directly with the finger tips tends to develop a desirable dexterity of manipulation. the nature of the process prevents the expression of small details and tends to emphasize bold outlines and big general proportions. working directly with the fingers tends also to prevent a weak dependence upon certain tools and tends to develop power to express an idea by whatever means is at hand. [illustration: fig. .--paper tearing.] =posters.=--the term "poster" as here used includes all mounted pictures made by children, such as cuttings, drawings, paintings, and scrap pictures. a poster may be the work of one child or of a group. a single poster may tell the whole story, or a series of posters may be made to show a sequence of events. a series of posters may be bound together in book form. for poster making single sheets of paper, medium weight and of neutral tone, are needed. the sheets should be of uniform size for individual use so that they could be bound together if desired. for coöperative work and special problems larger sheets will be needed. suggested problems for paper work =cutting out pictures.=--this serves well for first effort with scissors. the interest in the picture furnishes a motive, while the outline serves as a guide and allows the attention to be given wholly to the control of the scissors. _free cutting of single objects_--such as animals, fruits, trees, furniture, utensils, etc.--intensifies and clarifies mental pictures and stimulates observation if the child is led to express his own ideas first and then to compare his expression with the original and note his deficiencies. as far as possible choose objects with strong bold outlines for the first attempts. there should be some marked feature, such as bunny's long ears, which calls for emphasis. to cut a circular piece of paper which might be an apple or a peach, a walnut or a tomato, will not aid much in clarifying a mental picture, while bunny's long ears, even though crudely cut, will be more deeply impressed on the child's mind. =illustrations for stories.=--_single illustration._--after a story has been read aloud and the characters and events freely discussed by the class, each child may be encouraged to represent the part which has appealed to him--_i.e._ "cut what he wants to cut." after the cuttings are mounted they will probably form a series which will tell the whole story. when several children illustrate the same feature, it offers opportunity for comparison and judgment as to which ones have told the story most effectively. for example, in the story of the three bears, the cuttings may show the three bears in three relative sizes, the three chairs, the three beds, the table, and the three bowls of porridge. (see notes on criticism.) [illustration: fig. .--free cutting. third grade. columbia, missouri.] _series._--let each child select the two or three most important events in a story and illustrate these in a single poster or series of posters. _community poster._--a long story such as the "old woman and the silver sixpence" may be illustrated by the class as a whole, each child cutting some one feature. this requires attention to relative proportions so that the parts may be in harmony when assembled. such posters may be used for wall decoration. =charts.=--poster making may also include the making of charts containing samples of manufactured articles in various stages of development. for example, a chart on cotton might show raw cotton, cord, thread, cloth of various sorts, lace, paper, and other materials made from cotton. such a chart might also include pictures of cotton fields, spinning and weaving machinery, and other related features. =materials.=--too much can scarcely be said in favor of much cutting from an unlimited supply of common wrapping paper, newspaper, or other waste paper, in which the children are entirely unhampered by such injunctions as, "be careful and get it just right the first time, because you can't have another paper if you waste this piece." the possible danger of cultivating wastefulness is less serious and more easily overcome than the very probable danger of dwarfing and cramping the power of expression. here, if anywhere, the rule holds good that we learn to do by doing, and abundant practice is essential to success. _black silhouette_ or _poster_ paper is most effective when mounted, but is too expensive for general use in large classes. _brown kraft_ paper and _tailor's pattern_ paper serve well for both cuttings and mounts. both of these papers may be had by the roll at a low cost. the tailor's paper comes in several dull colors, which make good mounts for cuttings from white scratch paper or the fine print of newspaper. _bogus_ paper makes an excellent mount and is very inexpensive. =the pasting process.=--to a large number of teachers the pasting lesson is a time to be dreaded and its results a cause of discouragement. especially is this true if the class is large and the teacher attempts to have all the class pasting at one time. in many phases of school work it is so much easier to control forty or fifty children if they all act in unison that we are prone to use the method too often and apply it to forms of work much better managed by groups. the process of teaching little folks to paste is greatly simplified by the use of the group method. [illustration: fig. .--free cutting. fourth grade. columbia, missouri.] if the room affords a large table at which a small group may work, the teacher can easily supervise the work of the entire group. if there is no table, the teacher can work with one or two rows at a time or have very small groups come to her desk. the secret of the success of the group method lies in having the rest of the class busy with some occupation sufficiently interesting to prevent impatience while waiting for turns. the command to "fold hands and sit still till your turn comes" is sure to cause trouble, because children are physically unable to obey it. the most important factor in successful pasting is a liberal supply of waste paper. each child should be supplied with a number of single sheets of newspaper torn to convenient size, to paste on, each sheet to be discarded as soon as used. this decreases the danger of untidy work. with the cutting laid upon the waste paper, the paste may be spread with brush, thin wood, or thick paper, well out over the edges. as soon as the pasted cutting is lifted the waste paper should be folded over to cover all wet paste and lessen the possibility of accidents. after the cutting is placed upon the mount, a clean piece of waste paper should be laid over it and rubbed until the air is all pressed out and the cutting adheres firmly. the waste paper overlay may be rubbed vigorously without harm, whereas a light touch of sticky fingers directly upon the cutting will leave a soiled spot, if it does not tear the moist paper. if children are carefully taught in small groups to follow this method of pasting, in a fairly short time all but the weakest members of the class will be able to paste neatly without much supervision. chapter iii booklets the making of booklets forms a valuable accompaniment to almost every phase of school work. even simple exercises, when put into book form, take on a dignity otherwise impossible and seem more worth while. it is impossible to work with much enthusiasm and care on exercises which are destined only for the wastebasket. the chief value in the making of booklets is lost when they are made for display purposes only. many difficulties are sure to arise when the teacher, for the sake of her own reputation, sets an arbitrary standard and tries to force every member of the class to meet it. because of these difficulties many teachers dread and avoid work of this sort, but the trouble lies in our false standards and poor methods rather than in the process itself. when the exhibit idea is uppermost, each page must be examined with great care, done over again and again if need be, until the standard is reached or the patience of both teacher and pupil exhausted. in such a case the work practically ceases to be the child's own. instead of expressing an idea of his own in his own way, he tries to express the teacher's idea in the teacher's way, and it is not surprising that he fails so often. the booklet serves its best purpose when it combines both value and need; that is, when it is something which seems worth while to the pupil and when he feels responsible for its success. he should feel something akin to the responsibility one feels in writing an important letter; that is, that it must be right the first time because there is no opportunity to try again and that he cannot afford to do less than his best because what is done will stand. to "express his own idea in his own way" does not mean that his work is to be undirected or that poor results are to be accepted. it does mean that when an idea and a means of expressing it have been suggested to him, he shall be allowed to do the best he can by himself, and that when he has done his best, it shall be accepted even though imperfect. under no circumstances should his work be "touched up" by the teacher. if he is not asked to do things which are too hard for him, he will not make many serious errors. if these are wisely pointed out, they will not often be repeated. if his attention is held to one or two important features at a time, each effort will mean some gain. the making of a booklet in the primary grades should really consist in making a cover to preserve pages already made or to receive pages on certain topics as they are finished. the making of an animal book, for example, might be a continuous process. whenever a new animal is studied and a cutting or drawing of it made, the new page may be added to the book. the first books should be picture books only, collections of cuttings, drawings, and mounted pictures. as the children learn to write they may add first the name and then short descriptions of the pictures, the development proceeding by easy stages until their composition work takes the form of the illustrated story. books which are a collection of single sheets are, as a rule, most satisfactory in the primary school. the single sheet is much more convenient to use, and there is always an inspiration in beginning with a fresh sheet of paper. it is more difficult to paste cuttings into a book, and if pages are spoiled, the book is spoiled. if separate sheets are used, a poor one may be done over or discarded without affecting the rest. the making of booklets and posters offers an excellent opportunity for developing artistic appreciation. it is not enough for the teacher to provide only good colors from which the children may choose, and to supervise the spacing of pictures and then flatter herself that because the results are good that the children are developing good taste. unless they really want the good things, little real gain has been made. unless they see some reason for the arrangement of a page, other than that the _teacher wants it that way_, little has been accomplished. the first attempts will show little or no idea of balance or good spacing. the early color combinations are apt to be crude. if the best things they do are praised and their attention is constantly directed to the good points in things about them, they will begin to want those things. they will begin gradually to feel a greater pleasure in a well-balanced page than in one on which big and little pictures are stuck indiscriminately. if they are given all possible freedom in matters of choice, it will be possible to measure their real progress and to know what points need emphasis. the more accustomed the children are to tasteful surroundings, the easier will be their progress, but whether they come from tasteful homes or the reverse, the process is the same. real progress will undoubtedly be slow, but it should be upon a sure foundation. suggested topics for booklets =stories.=--series of illustrations either cut or drawn for any of the stories read by the class. _animal book._--cuttings or sketches of animals. the name and short statement of some characteristic may be added by children who are able to write. trees, flowers, fruits, etc., may be treated in the same way. _a. b. c. book._--a page for each letter of the alphabet to be filled with pictures and names of objects having the same initial letter. _house book._--a page for each room, upon which may be mounted pictures of things appropriate to the room. newspaper advertisements and catalogs furnish abundant material for this problem. the work not only helps the children to classify present knowledge, but offers opportunity for judgment as to arrangement and relative proportions. _how people live._--a book of pictures of houses in different countries. _famous houses._--pictures of famous buildings and homes of famous people. _what we wear._--pictures showing materials from which clothing is made, the methods of production and manufacture. _what we eat._--vegetable foods may be grouped as roots, stalks, leaves, seeds, etc. animal foods may be classified according to the animal from which they are obtained and the part of the animal from which they are cut. suggestions for cooking may be added. _how we travel._--pictures showing vehicles and conveyances of all sorts, classified as ancient and modern, or according to the countries in which they are used, or the motive power, as horses, electricity, steam, etc. in connection with elementary geography and history, booklets and posters may be made up from pictures cut from discarded papers, catalogs, and magazines, as well as original drawings. a great variety of topics may be profitably illustrated in this way. as, for example, land and water forms, famous mountains, lakes, rivers, etc., products and processes of cultivation and manufacture, famous people, costumes and customs of other times and places, utensils and weapons of earlier times. =fastenings.=--the simplest method of binding single sheets is by means of paper fasteners and eyelets. though these are not expensive, some schools cannot afford to buy them. cords may be used in several ways and serve as part of the decoration. _the simple tie._--punch three holes in the margin, at least one half inch from the edge to prevent tearing out. insert the cord in the middle hole, carry through one end hole, then through the other end hole, then back through the middle and tie. (see fig. .) _japanese sewing._--punch holes at regular intervals, as one inch apart. sew through first hole twice, making a loop around the back,--repeat the process until a loop has been made for each hole,--carry the cord in and out through the holes back to the starting point, filling in the blank places and making a continuous line, and tie ends together with a small knot. (see fig. .) [illustration: fig. .--pamphlet sewing.] [illustration: fig. .--japanese binding.] =decoration.=--only the simplest decoration should be attempted. a plain cover of good color tied with a cord of harmonious color will have elements of beauty without further decoration. a single border line well placed may be used and offers opportunity for developing a nice sense of proportion by studying the results to see which borders are neither too near the edge nor too far from it. a well-printed, well-placed title is often the most satisfactory decoration. printing should be introduced early, and the children encouraged to make good plain letters. in order to get the title in good proportion and well placed, it is helpful to cut a piece of paper the desired size and lay it on the cover, moving it about to see where it looks best. until the children have learned to do fairly neat work it is often helpful to print the title on a separate piece and paste it in place. it is discouraging to spoil an otherwise good cover by a bad letter, and this process lessens that danger. before the children learn to print, a simple border or band across the cover may take the place of the title. the border may be drawn in crayons or be free-hand cuttings. too much emphasis cannot be laid upon the beauty of simplicity in decoration. children are inclined to think beauty means fanciness and that beauty increases with the quantity of decoration. it is necessary to begin early to develop a taste for good design. chapter iv criticism and standards of workmanship =criticism.=--an important feature of all self-directed activity is the ability to judge one's efforts and intelligently measure one's success. this ability is a matter of slow growth and must be cultivated. it is not enough for the teacher to pass judgment upon a piece of work and grade its quality. the worker himself must learn to find his own mistakes and how to correct them. class criticism offers the best means of developing this power, but must be tactfully conducted. little children are brutally frank in expressing their opinions and need to be taught how to be truthful and yet not unkind. they need to be taught what to look for and how to find it, and how to compare one thing with another and discover why one pleases and another displeases. the first essential in the training is emphasis on the good rather than the bad. it is a gospel of "do" rather than of "don't." the earliest efforts of the class may well be confined to comments upon the features they like and, if possible, the reason for the liking. this will forestall any tendency to call undue attention to the poor efforts of weak workers. at first many children will scarcely discriminate between their admiration for a piece of work and their love for the worker and will be apt to praise the work of their special friends. this tendency will gradually disappear through the development of a real basis of appreciation. the second essential concerns the improvement of the things which are not good. criticism which merely points out what is bad is of little value. helpful criticism must point out what is good and why, and what is weak and how to make it stronger. if, for example, the class is considering the success of their efforts to illustrate the story of the three bears, they should be encouraged to make such comments as, "john's chairs look too small for his table," "mary's bowls are all about the same size." the criticism should direct the thought to its possible remedy. it is generally better to pass over defects for which no immediate remedy can be suggested. =standards of workmanship.=--the standard of excellence by which acceptable work is measured must always vary according to the ability of the class. the best the child can do, alone and unaided, should be the only standard of measurement, and his best efforts should always be accepted, no matter how crude. in no other way can real growth be observed and genuine progress made. in schools where arbitrary standards are set either by supervisors or by the rivalry of teachers, the tendency to _help_ the children by doing part of the work for them for the sake of the _apparent_ results, offers the teacher's most serious temptation to selfishness. in a few cases it is helpful for the teacher to add a few strokes to a drawing or adjust some detail in construction, that the child may see the value of certain small changes in the place where they will mean most to him. such work should not be exhibited as an example of the child's accomplishment, but should be treated as practice work. as a rule the teacher's demonstration should be made on other material and not on that used by the pupil. in no particular are primary schools open to greater criticism than in the too common habit of setting arbitrary standards of excellence and attempting to force all children to reach them. such standards are usually too high for honest attainment and tempt or force the teacher to use methods which cannot be defended by any sound principle of pedagogy. values change with the purpose of the work. a thing is well made when it serves its purpose adequately. toys must be strong enough to permit handling. mechanical toys must work. sewing must be strong as well as neat. in illustrative problems, in which effect is the chief consideration, technique needs little emphasis, and workmanship may be of a temporary character. each thing made should establish its own standard in a way to appeal to the child's common sense. chapter v the house problem the making of a playhouse has long been an accepted feature of primary work, but we have not always made it yield all of which it is capable, either in the self-directed activity of the children or in correlated subject matter. it has, in many cases, been only a bit of recreation from the more serious work of the school. in a house prepared by the janitor or older pupils the children have been allowed to arrange and rearrange ready-made furniture contributed from their playthings at home, but little creative work has been attempted. in other cases an elaborate house, carefully planned by the teacher, has been built and furnished by the children, but, because of the detailed planning, the children's part in it became merely a mechanical following of directions. in some cases relative proportions in rooms and furnishings have received scant attention; in others, color harmonies have been all but ignored. these varying methods of carrying out the house-building idea are not without value and may often be justified by local conditions, but their results are meager compared with the possible richness of the problem. playing at house building and housekeeping appeals to an interest so universal that children of all times and nations yield to its power. it is therefore necessary to take account of its influence in their development and to dignify it with the approval of the school. we must refine and enrich it by our direction and suggestion without robbing it of its simplicity and charm. [illustration: fig. .--box house, arranged on a shelf.] [illustration: fig. .--medieval castle. built by third grade. franklin, indiana. an example of elaborate work which aroused the interest of pupils and patrons and paved the way for freer work later.] in the suggestions which follow, an attempt is made to utilize this natural activity of children in an occupation which appeals to them as worth while. at the same time it may furnish ample opportunity for the general development and effective teaching of various phases of subject matter which are incident to the occupation, _i.e._ number in connection with measurements, art in the proportions and color combinations, language through discussions and descriptions. the work is kept on the level of the children's experience by throwing them constantly on their own responsibility in every possible detail, the teacher never dictating the method of procedure and guiding the work with as few suggestions as possible. the work, being on the level of their experience, appeals to the children as very real and worth while. it is, therefore, intensely interesting, and they work without urging. =general plan.=--a house may be constructed from several empty goods boxes, each box forming one room of the house. the boxes or rooms are arranged in convenient order, but are not fastened together. adjoining rooms are connected by doors carefully cut in both boxes so that the holes match. windows are also sawed out where needed. the walls are papered, careful attention being given to color schemes, border designs, and relative proportions in spacing. floors are provided with suitable coverings--woven rugs, mattings, linoleums, tiles, according to the purpose of the room. each step is discussed and more or less definitely outlined before the actual making is begun, furnishing opportunity for oral language of a vital sort. completed parts are examined and criticized, furnishing further opportunity for exercise in oral language while directing attention to strong and weak points in the work. the materials needed are easily obtainable and inexpensive, consisting chiefly of empty boxes and odds and ends of paper, cloth, and yarn, together with carpenters' scraps. the tools needed are few, and in some cases may be brought from home by the children for a few days, as needed. the necessary time is found by making the incidental problems serve as subject matter for regular lessons. making designs for tiling, linoleum, and borders for wall paper, planning relative proportions for doors, windows, and furnishings will supply material for very practical lessons in art. the problems incident to the measurement of doors and windows, tables and chairs, are number work of a vital sort and may be legitimately used as a regular number lesson. discussions, descriptions, and definite statements of plans all form vital language exercises if rightly used. house plans in detail =materials.=--_empty store boxes of soft wood._--sizes may vary, but where several are grouped for a house, they should be near enough the same height to make a fairly level ceiling. about × × in. is a convenient size. _paper for walls._--scraps of ingrain wall papers may be had from dealers for little or nothing. cover paper in good colors may be purchased by the sheet. tailor's paper and brown wrapping paper serve well, and are sold by the roll at a low price. _pasteboard_ (strawboard or juteboard) may be used for the roof. _weaving materials._--rugs may be made from carpet rags, rug yarns, rovings, chenille, or jute; towels from crochet cotton; and hammocks from macramé cord or carpet warp. [illustration: fig. .--house arranged on a table. front view. built by first grade. columbia, missouri.] _wood for furniture._--bass, white pine, poplar, or other soft wood. box tops, if of soft wood, may be made to serve nearly all needs. if possible, provide thin wood (about / in. thick) in various widths, from one inch to six inches, so that only one dimension need be measured. provide also thick pieces - / in. or in. square for beds and chairs; / in. square for table legs. _nails_ of various sizes, chiefly inch brads, are needed. [illustration: fig. .--house arranged on a table. side view. built by second grade. columbia, missouri.] =tools.=--the tools actually necessary are few. a class can _get along_ with one saw and still do good work, though there will be times when several saws will facilitate progress. some tools are needed only for a short time and sometimes may be borrowed from the homes. it is more satisfactory to have the school provided with the essential tools whenever possible. the essential tools include: _brace and auger bit_, for boring holes in doors and windows. needed for a short time only. _compass saw_, for sawing out doors and windows. _crosscut saw_, for sawing off lumber. school should own at least one. _miter box_, for holding lumber and guiding saw. an old one, good enough for children's use, will frequently be contributed by a carpenter. the miter box should be fastened firmly to a low table or box. [illustration: fig. .--house arranged on a table. back view. built by second grade. columbia, missouri.] _hammers_, several of medium size. _try-square_, a very valuable tool for setting right angles, provided the teacher and pupils know how to use it. =arrangement of rooms.=--the sort of house a man can build is governed by his resources and his site. considering the number of boxes as resources and the table or shelf on which they are to stand as the site, the same big factors which enter into any house-building problem control the size and style of the schoolroom playhouse. what sort of house is desired? what sort of house can be built from the materials at hand? what sort of house can be built in the space at our disposal? [illustration: fig. .--house plan.] the boxes may be arranged on a shelf with all the open sides toward the class, as in fig. . this economizes space, and all of the rooms are visible at once. a two-story house is easily built on this plan. if economy of space is not necessary, the boxes may be placed on a table with the open sides of the boxes toward the edges of the table, as in figs. , , and . this permits a more artistic grouping of the rooms. (see fig. .) the responsibility in grouping the boxes should be thrown as fully as possible upon the children, the teacher merely suggesting where necessary. it should be their house, not the teacher's. the planning should not be hurried but time allowed to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of different plans and reach an agreement. in trying to express individual opinions convincingly their ideas will become clearer--a factor in the development of the children which is much more important than any of the actual details of the house itself. whether the class decides to have one or two bedrooms in the house is a matter of small consequence. whether or not they are growing in power to appreciate conditions and make an intelligent decision is a matter of great consequence. their decisions when made may not always reach the high standard at which the teacher is aiming, but if they have really made a decision, not merely followed the teacher's suggestion, and if their independent selections from time to time show a higher standard of appreciation and greater refinement of taste in ever so small a degree, it is evidence of genuine growth upon a sure foundation. [illustration: fig. .--arrangement of windows.] =doors and windows.=--the size and arrangement of doors and windows should be freely discussed. various possible arrangements may be sketched upon the blackboard by the children. for example, see fig. , _a_ and _b_. when a plan is adopted, the doors and windows should be carefully drawn on the _outside_ of each box, using the try-square to get right angles. bore holes in the corners of the doors and windows and saw out with keyhole or compass saw. in order to avoid mistakes it is well, after sawing out the opening for a door in one box, to place the two boxes together and test the measurements before sawing out the second opening. a mistake of this sort, however, is not fatal, but may prove the most effective way of impressing the workers with the necessity of careful measurement. =walls.=--the decoration of the walls will furnish material for several art lessons. the discussion should turn first to the suitability of different styles for different purposes, such as tiling for kitchen and bathroom walls, light papers for dark rooms, etc. the division of wall space will be the next point to be settled, _i.e._ the height of the tiling or wainscot, the width of a border, or the effect of horizontal and vertical lines in breaking up wall space. these questions may be discussed as far as the immediate circumstances and the development of the class suggest. the question of color combinations demands special attention. unless the children come from refined homes their ideas of color will be very crude, and if contributions of material have been asked for, some gaudy impossibilities in flowered paper are apt to be presented. if so, it may require considerable tact on the part of the teacher to secure a satisfactory selection without casting any reflections on the taste of somebody's mother. this difficulty may be avoided to a degree by providing all the materials necessary. it is not enough, however, to cause the children to select good combinations at the teacher's suggestion while in their hearts they are longing for the gaudy thing she has frowned upon. it is better to get an honest expression from them, even though it is very crude, and endeavor to educate their taste to a love for better things, so that each time they choose the choice may be on a higher level of appreciation. immediate results may not be as beautiful by this plan, and apparent progress may be slow, but only by some such method can a real appreciation be developed which will prevent the return to the crude expression as soon as the teacher's influence is withdrawn. [illustration: fig. .--detail of hollow square.] plain papers generally give the most pleasing effects. attractive borders may be made by cutting simple units and repeating them at intervals. almost any motif may be used for the unit. animals, birds, trees, flowers, ships, etc., serve well. the process of making the border should be a serious lesson in design. a good border is not merely the repetition of a pretty figure. the units must not be too far apart nor too close together. the shape of the figure used must be such that each unit seems to need the next one. little children will usually take greatest pleasure in working from some nature motif, as flower or animal, but interesting work can be done with simple geometric figures. take, for example, the hollow square. fold a square of paper on both diagonals. (see fig. .) cut on dotted line. let each child cut several and lay them in order for a border or mount them on a paper of different color. let the work of the class be put up for general criticism. (see notes on criticism.) several points which very small children are able to appreciate will be found to enter into the success or failure of their efforts. the hollow square itself may be cut too wide and look clumsy, or cut too narrow and look frail. in the arrangement they may be too close together and look crowded, or too far apart and look scattered. a sensitiveness to good proportions comes naturally to only a few people, but nearly all are capable of a higher degree of appreciation if their attention is directed to the essential elements which make things good or bad. the beginnings of this appreciation lie in simple things which are easily understood by first-grade children. [illustration: fig. .--borders using hollow square.] =floors.=--many of the considerations which enter into the selection of wall decorations are of equal importance in choosing floor coverings. what will be suitable to the purpose of each room? why do we use linoleum in the kitchen and warm rugs in the bedroom? shall we use small rugs or a carpet? what colors must we have on the floor to harmonize with the colors on the wall? what designs are possible and desirable for the materials we have to use? _rug weaving materials._--the market offers a wide variety of materials prepared especially for school use. among them the most satisfactory for use with small workers are cotton rovings, loose twisted jute, and cotton chenille. these, especially the first two, are coarse and work up rapidly, and may be had in very desirable colors. even the cheapest of them, however, will prove an expensive item for the school with limited funds, and ordinary carpet rags may be made to serve every purpose. often these will be contributed by members of the class. by a careful selection and combination of colors very artistic results can be produced which are in some respects more satisfactory than any obtained from the so-called weaving materials, and have the added advantage of costing practically nothing. [illustration: fig. .--looms and samples of weaving.] _looms._--the market also offers a great variety of looms for school use, many of them quite simple in construction and moderate in price. in schools where bench work is taught, the making of a loom is an excellent problem either for the weavers themselves or for an older class working for them. if the looms are made by the little weavers themselves, only the simplest possible construction should be used, that the work may be completed and the loom put to use before the worker loses sight of the fact that the purpose is to provide carpet for the house. children lose interest in long-drawn-out processes, and for that reason it is better to provide them with the necessary tools as far as possible while interest in the house building is keen. later, if considerable enthusiasm has been aroused for weaving, individual looms may be made for home use. for the school with scant funds a very satisfactory loom may be improvised by driving nails one fourth inch apart in the ends of a shallow box of convenient size and stretching the warp threads across the open top. for very small rugs a cardboard loom will serve. this may be made by cutting notches or punching holes along opposite edges of a piece of cardboard into which the warp may be strung. if a knitting needle is inserted at each side, the cardboard will be stiffened and the edges of the rug kept straight. weaving needles may be purchased from supply houses. wooden needles cost cents per dozen. sack needles serve well for small rugs and may be had at any hardware store for cents per dozen. _weaves._--for first weaving the plain "over one, under one" on cotton warp with rags or other coarse woof is generally best. variety may be introduced by weaving a stripe or border of a different tone near each end of the rug. vertical stripes serve well as another easy method of variation and are produced by using two woof threads of different tones and weaving first with one and then with the other. this weave is very attractive as the body of the rug with a plain border at either end. as soon as the children have mastered the plain weave and have a fairly clear idea of the possibilities in design through varying the colors in the woof only, they may be initiated into the mysteries of the "gingham weave" and allowed to experiment with the variations in warp as well as in woof. cotton rovings is an excellent material for weaves of this sort. this weave may also be used with raffia to make matting for the dining-room floor. [illustration: fig. .--box house by second grade. columbia, missouri.] paper mats may also be used as carpets with good effect. weaving paper strips is often an easier process to little children than weaving with textiles, except where very coarse textile materials are used. for paper mats select paper of suitable color and cut to the size desired for the mat. fold on the short diameter. cut slashes from the folded edge, not less than one half inch apart, to within one inch of edge of the paper (see fig. ), leaving a margin on all four sides of the mat. for weavers, cut from paper of harmonious tone, strips equal in width to the slashes in the mat. [illustration: fig. .--detail of paper weaving.] variations of the simple over one, under one weave add interest to the work and also give practice in number combinations such as over one, under two, etc. work of this sort is used in many schools as a method of teaching number, the teacher dictating the combinations while the interest of the children centers in the new pattern which develops under their fingers. while such work has much to be said in its favor, it is open to criticism, especially in the matter of dictation. all the children in any one group will not work with equal speed. some will undoubtedly "get behind" and others will lose time while waiting for the slow ones. accidents are liable to happen in individual cases. many of these undesirable features may be eliminated while still retaining the valuable part of the work by writing the directions on the board instead of dictating them to the children. it then becomes a lesson in reading as well as in number. each child is thrown more completely upon his own responsibility and can proceed as rapidly and as steadily as his capacity permits. his rate of progress will often be a fair measure of his ability for independent thought and action, which is the real measure for successful teaching. as the hardest feature in this method is in keeping the right line and not repeating or omitting any direction, a social spirit may be encouraged by allowing the children to work in groups and take turns in _keeping the place_ while the others work. in one first grade where this plan was in vogue the children discovered a book on the teacher's desk which contained numerous designs, many of them much more intricate than she would have attempted to use as classwork. their instinct for exploration led them to struggle with the directions until they had worked out some designs which would have proved dismal failures had they been attempted as class lessons. in this instance those who belonged to the persevering group were happy in a new-found sense of strength and independence, while the others had accomplished as much as any would have done under the dictation method. =furniture.=--the problem of furniture for the school playhouse has been discussed in numerous publications, and nearly every writer on the subject of primary handwork offers suggestions on this topic. the suggestions include a range in materials and processes from very simple foldings in paper to quite complex processes in reeds and raffia and methodical construction in wood. among the various materials and styles in common use, folded paper furniture has the advantage of being quickly made. the process is of sufficient interest to little children to hold their attention, and in order to secure the desired result they must hear the directions intelligently and obey them promptly. these are desirable habits to form. it is quite possible, however, for the work to be done in a very formal, mechanical way, in which the children merely follow directions, often blindly, without any clear purpose and very little thought. success or failure is due largely to chance; for, if by accident even a good worker "loses out" on a direction, his work is at a standstill until special help is given. he is unable to proceed because he does not know what to do next. there is very little opportunity in such a process for independent thought or action. it is not self-directed activity. a second objection to paper furniture is its lack of stability. paper which is pliable enough to fold readily will not hold its own weight long when made into furniture, and very soon becomes wobbly. to overcome this tendency to wobble, heavier papers are often used and new complications arise. heavy papers do not fold readily without scoring. scoring demands considerable accuracy of measurement--often to a degree beyond the power of a six-year-old. the stiff papers, being hard pressed, are harder to paste, and neat work is often an impossibility, unless considerable assistance is given. it is possible to make satisfactory furniture in a great variety of styles from stiff paper, and the processes involve some excellent practice in measurement and design. the processes necessary to obtain these satisfactory results are, however, beyond the ability of children in the lower grades. even fairly satisfactory results are impossible unless an undue amount of assistance is given by the teacher. in actual practice, where stiff paper is used a few of the best workers in the class are helped to make the few pieces needed in the playhouse and the unhappy failures of the rest of the class are promptly consigned to the wastebasket. very pretty furniture may be made from reeds and raffia, but the processes are too difficult to be successfully performed by small children. the reeds do not lend themselves readily to constructions small enough to suit the average playhouse, and the larger pieces are out of proportion to the other features of the house. the use of wood overcomes the most serious of the objections to be made to other materials, besides being the material most commonly used in "real" furniture. wooden furniture is stable, and a great variety of processes in construction are possible without introducing complications which prevent independent work on the part of the little people. the processes necessary to the construction of very simple yet satisfactory wooden furniture may be reduced to measuring one dimension, sawing off, and nailing on. measuring one dimension is quite within the powers of six-year-olds. _sawing off_ is not difficult if soft lumber is used, and it becomes very simple by the help of the miter box. _nailing on_ is difficult if the nails must be driven into the edges of thin boards, but if thin boards are nailed to thick boards, nails may "go crooked" without serious consequences, and the process becomes quite easy. these processes have the advantage of being particularly fascinating to small boys, in contrast to the girlish character of many forms of primary handwork. (see figs. and .) [illustration: fig. .--furniture from wood blocks.] [illustration: fig. .--furniture from wood blocks.] _processes._--for the sake of convenience and clearness in these directions it will be assumed that the class is provided with pieces of wood two inches square which will be referred to as × . also with thin wood in a variety of widths from in. to in. material of other dimensions would serve the purpose equally well, and for many of the parts odd pieces from the scrap box will answer every purpose. the directions are intended only to suggest how to proceed, and it is left to the teacher to adapt them to the material and conditions with which she works. ( ) _to make a chair._ use × for seat and thin wood in. wide for back. children should measure and decide how much to saw off from strip of × in order to make a square block or cube for the seat. they should estimate the length of the back of the chair, then measure and saw off the thin wood needed. nail the back piece to the cube and finish with a coat of water-color paint or color with crayon. an armchair may be made by the addition of shorter pieces of thin wood to the sides of the chair. ( ) _to make table with pedestal._ use × for pedestal. use thin wood in. wide for top. use thin wood in. wide for base. measure and saw off in. of × for pedestal. measure _enough_ of the in. wood to make a square top and _enough_ of the in. wood to make a square base. do not tell the children what they can discover for themselves. they should decide how high the table ought to be and how large to suit the size of the room. nail the square pieces to the two ends of the pedestal. finish by same method used for chairs. ( ) _for ordinary table._ use thin wood for top. use / × / for legs. measure and saw off pieces needed. measure places for legs about one inch from corner of top in order to allow an overhang. children frequently put the legs flush with the edge of the table, which gives a clumsy appearance. nail through the top with a comparatively long nail. ( ) _to make a double bed._ use wood / to in. thick for body. use thin wood of corresponding width for head and foot boards. class or individual workers should decide on dimensions for different parts and height of body of bed from the floor. ( ) _for single bed._ proceed as for double bed, using narrow pieces of wood, or use six or seven inches of × for body of bed and make head and foot boards after the style of chair back. ( ) _dressing table._ decide upon dimensions needed. use × for body. use thin wood of equal width for back. use tinfoil for mirror. indicate drawers with pencil lines. ( ) _couch._ use piece of × of desired length and make couch cover of appropriate material, or add back and arms of thin wood to piece of × and finish to match other furniture. ( ) _piano._ use wood / or in. thick for body. nail on piece / × / for keyboard. draw keys on paper and paste on keyboard. ( ) _kitchen stove._ use × or any scrap or empty box of appropriate size and shape. color black with crayon. add chalk marks or bits of tinfoil to indicate doors and lids. make hot-water tank of paper. pieces of reed, wire, or twigs covered with tinfoil make good water pipes. macaroni sticks and lemonade straws have served this purpose. [illustration: fig. .--home of white cloud, the pueblo girl. second grade. columbia, missouri.] =clay furnishings.=--for such articles as the kitchen sink, the bathtub, and other bathroom fittings clay is a satisfactory material. these articles may be modeled by the children, in as good an imitation of the real fittings as they are able to make. various methods may be used for holding the kitchen sink and the bathroom basin in place, and it is much better for the children to evolve one of their own than to follow the teacher's dictation from the start. if they meet serious difficulties, a suggestion from her may help clear the way. two long nails driven into the wall will give a satisfactory bracket on which the sink may rest. two short nails may be driven through the back while the clay is moist and may serve also as a foundation for faucets. the basin, bathtub, and stool may each be built solid to the floor. the teakettle and other stove furniture may be modeled in clay. electric light bulbs of clay suspended by cords from the ceiling have a realistic air. paper shades of appropriate color add to the general effect. =miscellaneous furnishings.= _bedding._--paper or cloth may be used for bedding, as circumstances suggest. if interest in _real_ things is strong, the making of the sheets and pillow cases offers an opportunity for some practice with the needle. if time is limited, paper may be used. _curtains._--curtains also may be made from either paper or regular curtain material. if paper is used, it should be very soft, such as plain japanese napkins. scraps of plain net or scrim are most desirable. some child is apt to contribute a piece of large-patterned lace curtain, but the tactful teacher will avoid using it if possible, and direct the children's thoughts toward a better taste in draperies. _portières_ may be made of cloth, of knotted cords, or chenille. _couch pillows_ may be made from cloth or may be woven on a small card. _towels_ for the bathroom may be woven from crochet cotton. _the fireplace_ may be made of cardboard marked off and colored to represent brick. a shallow box may be made to serve the purpose. cut out the opening for the grate and lay real sticks on andirons made from soft wire; or draw a picture of blazing fire and put inside. the fireplace may also be made of clay. pebbles may be pressed into the clay if a stone fireplace is desired. if clay is used, several small nails should be driven into the wall before the fireplace is built up, to hold the clay in place after it dries. _bookcases_ may be made of cardboard, using a box construction, and glued to the wall. or a block of wood about one inch thick may be used. in either case mark off the shelves and books with pencil lines, and color the backs of the books with crayon. =the stairway.=--in a two-story house the hardest problem will usually be the stairs. some good work in number may be done while finding out how many steps will be needed and where the stairway must begin in order to reach the second floor in comfort. even quite small children can deal with this problem if presented in a simple way. for example, if the box or room is ten inches high, how many steps in. wide and in. high will be needed, and how far out into the room will they come? the children can work out the plan on the blackboard. measurements may be modified to suit the ability of the class and the needs of the room. the variety of possible constructions in building the staircase corresponds to the varying ability of classes. a strip of paper may be folded back and forth and made to serve with least mature classes. this paper stair will sag unless it rests on a board or piece of stiff pasteboard. a substantial stairway may be made by sawing two thin boards for supports, as in fig. , and nailing on steps of thin wood or cardboard. there is usually one boy in every first grade who is capable of as difficult a piece of handwork as this. he is apt, also, to be the boy who takes least interest in the general work of the class, and often it is possible to arouse him to special effort through some such problem. the stairway may be made of heavy cardboard with a construction similar to that just described, but this requires pasting instead of nailing and is much more difficult for little children. [illustration: fig. .--detail of stairway.] =the roof.=--the making of the roof is another part of the house building which may often be given into the special care of the two or three over-age pupils who need special problems. the plan which they evolve from their study of the needs of the case will usually be of greater value to them, even though it may not be the best that could be suggested. the roof may be made of wood as a base, with either wood or cardboard shingles tacked on in proper fashion; or it may be made of cardboard with the shingles merely indicated by lines made with crayon. if the wood base is used, wood gables may be made for sides or ends of the house. to these, long boards may be nailed to form a solid roof. shingles two inches long by about one inch wide may be cut from cardboard or very thin wood and tacked to the boards. the children should be spurred to study the roofs of houses and find out how the shingles are arranged, and discover for themselves, if possible, the secret of successful shingling. [illustration: fig. .--box house, showing roof. built by summer class, teachers college, new york.] [illustration: fig. .--detail of gable.] a cardboard roof is in many ways easier to build. in a house similar to the one shown in fig. two gables are used, and the roof slopes to front and back. the framework can be very simply made. at the two gable ends place uprights made of two pieces of wood joined in the form of an inverted t. (see fig. .) these should be nailed to the box. a ridgepole may then be nailed to the upper ends of the uprights. if the house is not large, no other framework will be necessary. if the slope of the roof is long enough to allow the cardboard to sag, light strips of wood extending from the ridgepole to the outer edge of the box may be added. if a single piece of cardboard of sufficient size is available, it may be scored[ ] and bent at the proper place and laid over the ridgepole, with the edges extending beyond the box to form the eaves. or, two pieces may be used, one for each slope of the roof, each piece being tacked to the ridgepole. chimneys may be made from paper and colored to represent bricks or stone. [illustration: fig. .--colonial kitchen. columbia, missouri.] the outside of the house may be treated in several ways. it may be sided after the manner of frame houses by tacking on strips of paper or cardboard lapped in the proper fashion. it may be covered with paper marked in horizontal lines to represent siding, in irregular spaces to represent stone, or in regular spaces to represent brick, and finished in the appropriate color. or, a coat of paint or stain may be applied directly to the box. variations in house problem a playhouse for its own sake is a justifiable project for primary children and one which may be repeated several times without exhausting its possibilities. each time it is repeated the emphasis will fall on some new feature, and the children will wish to do more accurate work. in the lowest grades very simple houses of one or two rooms may be built for story-book friends, such as the "three bears" or "little red riding hood," with only such furniture as the story suggests. in intermediate grades the house may have an historical motive and illustrate home life in primitive times or in foreign countries, such as a colonial kitchen in new england, a pioneer cabin on the western prairies, a dutch home, a japanese home, etc. in upper grades it may become a serious study in house decoration. as the motive for making the house changes, the character and quality of its furnishings will change. the block furniture described above will give way to more accurate models in either wood or paper. some excellent suggestions for paper furniture for advanced work may be found in the _manual training magazine_. as skill in construction increases, a wish for something more realistic than the box construction will arise, and the elements of house framing will be studied with great eagerness. =the house of the three bears.= (see fig. .)--this house was made early in the year by a class of first-grade children. the walls were papered in plain brown paper. the carpets were woven mats of paper. the chairs, table, and beds were made according to the methods already described in the playhouse outline. the stove and the doll were contributed. the bears were modeled in clay. the children played with the house and its contents throughout the year. the bears were broken and made over many times--a process which not only afforded great pleasure, but also developed considerable skill in modeling. =another bears' house.=--this house, shown in frontispiece, was made in the spring, near the end of the school year, by a class of first-grade children all of whom were under seven and many of whom were very immature. the story of the three bears was taken up after christmas, told and retold, read, and dramatized by the children. teddy bears were brought to school. many bears were modeled in clay, each child making the set of three many times. [illustration: fig. .--house for the three bears. first grade. columbia, missouri.] the children laid off spaces on the table for individual bears' houses and made furniture for these as their fancy prompted. the furniture was made of wood after the general style described above. later, carpets were woven for these individual playhouses. each carpet was woven to a given dimension, making it necessary to use the rule. this was their introduction to the rule as a tool for measuring. every child in a class of forty made one or more pieces of furniture and wove one or more small carpets from rags. nearly all made some bedding. [illustration: fig. .--cornstalk house. built by second-grade class. franklin, indiana.] later, four boxes were secured and arranged as a house. the openings for doors were marked off during school time, but were sawed out by a few children who remained during the noon intermission. this is the only part of the work which was not done during regular class time. the papering was done by two or three of the most capable children, while the rest were deeply absorbed in weaving. all made borders. certain borders were selected for the house, and several children worked together to make enough of the same pattern for one room. selections were then made from the carpets and furniture already made by the children. the roof was made chiefly by one boy who "knew a good way to make it." the porches were also individual projects by pupils who had ideas on the subject and were allowed to work them out. the children became very familiar with every phase of the story and attacked any expression of it with the feeling, "that's easy." they wrote stories, _i.e._ sentences about bears. each child at the close of the year could write on the blackboard a story of two or more sentences. they made pictures of bears in all sorts of postures with colored crayon and from free-hand cuttings. they modeled the bears in clay over and over again, keeping up a large family in spite of many accidents. =coöperative building.=--figures , , and show three rooms of a four-room house built by the first and second grades working together. the living room and bedroom were furnished by first-grade children. the dining room, kitchen, and bath were furnished by the second grade. four boxes were used. (see diagram, page , fig. .) each room, except the bath, was a separate box. after a general plan had been agreed upon by the teachers, the boxes were carried to the several rooms and each class worked quite independently. when the rooms were finished, they were assembled on a table in the hall and the roof put on. [illustration: fig. .--a flour mill. built by fourth grade. columbia, missouri.] =the flour mill.=--the flour mill, shown in fig. , was built in connection with a study of the general subject of milling by a fourth-grade class. the class visited a flour mill. they were shown the various machines, and the function of each was explained to them. they made hasty sketches of the machines and a rough diagram of their arrangement on the floors. they got the dimensions of the floors and height of the ceiling. an empty box was remodeled to approximate the dimensions of the building. small representations of the machines were made and placed in the proper relation to each other. no attempt was made to show more than the external proportions in the small representation. the work served its best purpose in keeping the children thinking definitely about what they had seen. the attempt to express their thoughts in tangible form deepened the mental impression, even though the tangible results were crude and lacked many details. the conveyer being of special interest, two boys worked out a larger model which illustrated the band-bucket process. this is shown in fig. , at the right of the mill. small cups were made of soft tin and fastened to a leather strap. the strap was fastened around two rods, placed one above the other. the lower rod was turned by a crank fastened on the outside of the box. two or three brads driven into the lower rod caught into holes in the strap and prevented slipping. the machine successfully hoisted grain from the lower box to one fastened higher up, but not shown in the picture. the model was very crude in its workmanship, but it showed the ability of fourth-grade boys to successfully apply an important principle in mechanics, and it gave opportunity for their ingenuity to express itself. the work was done with such tools and materials as the boys could provide for themselves, and without assistance other than encouraging suggestions from the teacher. this bit of construction accompanied a broad study of the subject of milling, including the source and character of the raw materials, the processes involved, the finished products and their value. chapter vi the village street playing store is a game of universal interest. making a play store is a fascinating occupation. these are factors which cannot be overlooked in any scheme of education which seeks to make use of the natural activities of children. the downtown store stands to the children as the source of all good things which are to be bought with pennies. it is usually the first place outside the home with which they become familiar, and its processes are sure to be imitated in their play. in their play they not only repeat the processes of buying and selling, but try to reproduce in miniature what they regard as the essential features of the real store. if they are allowed to play this fascinating game in school, it may, by the teacher's help, become at once more interesting and more worth while. curiosity may be aroused through questions concerning what is in the store, where it came from, how it got there, what was done to make it usable, how it is measured, and what it is worth. in seeking answers to these questions, the fields of geography, history, and arithmetic may be explored as extensively as circumstances warrant and a whole curriculum is built up in a natural way. after such study, stores cease to be the _source_ of the good things they offer for sale. the various kinds of merchandise take on a new interest when the purchaser knows something of their history, and a new value when he knows something of the labor which has gone into their manufacture. [illustration: fig. .--box house and stores. grades one, three, and two. columbia, missouri.] being a subject of universal interest, it may be adapted to the conditions of the various grades. it being also impossible to exhaust the possibilities of the subject in any single presentation, it may profitably be repeated with a change of emphasis to suit the development of the class. for example, in the second grade, the study of the street is chiefly a classification of the various commodities which are essential to our daily life, and a few of the main facts of interest concerning their origin. those a little older are interested in the processes of manufacture and the geography of their sources. in playing store, weights and measures, the changing of money, and the making of bills take on an interest impossible in the old-fashioned method of presenting these phases of arithmetic. discussions and narratives supply oral language work, and descriptions, letters, and notes provide material for written exercises. the class may be divided into groups, each group contributing one store to the street, or the attention of the whole class may be centered on one store at a time, as the immediate conditions suggest. if the former method is used, as each store is finished it may be used as subject matter for the entire class, while the important facts concerning it are considered. the first permits a broader scope; the second a more exhaustive study. in either case visits to the real stores studied are important supplements to the work. [illustration: fig. .--a village street. third grade. columbia, missouri.] =general directions.=--discuss the stores on a village street. which are most important? why? decide how many stores the class can build, and choose those most necessary to a community. if self-organized groups[ ] are allowed to choose the part they are to work out, both interest and harmony are promoted and leadership stimulated. use a box for each store. each group is usually able to provide its own box. paper inside of box with clean paper, or put on a coat of fresh paint. make appropriate shelving and counters of thin wood. stock the store with samples of appropriate merchandise as far as possible. supplement with the best representations the children can make. they should be left to work out the problem for themselves to a large extent, the teacher giving a suggestion only when they show a lack of ideas. =suggestions for details of representation.=--_clay modeling._--clay may be used to model fruits and vegetables, bottles and jugs for the grocery; bread, cake, and pies for the bakery; different cuts of meat for the butcher shop; horses for the blacksmith shop and for delivery wagons. clay representations may be made very realistic by coloring with crayon. _canned goods._--paper cylinders on which labels are drawn before pasting serve well for canned goods. cylindrical blocks may be cut from broom sticks or dowel rods and wrapped in appropriately labeled covers. _cloth._--rolls of various kinds of cloth should be collected for the dry goods store. figures may be cut from fashion plates and mounted for the "ready to wear" department. _hats._--hats may be made for the millinery store from any of the materials commonly used. this is a good way for girls to develop their ingenuity and resourcefulness. _the store front._--the front of each store may be made of either wood or cardboard, the spaces for doors and windows being left open that the merchandise may be conveniently handled. brick or stone fronts, second-story windows, offices, etc., may all be indicated as artistically as the capacity of the class permits by the use of colored crayons. the sign is an important feature and should stimulate an interest in well-made lettering. =additional projects.=--in addition to representations of retail shops, various industries, such as the carpenter shop, blacksmith shop, flour mill, ice plant, and other familiar industries, may be represented. coöperative institutions, such as the post office and fire department, should be included in the study. [illustration: fig. .--a grocery. fourth grade.] =excursions.=--wherever possible, the plant should be visited by the class. before making the visit, the class should discuss what they expect to see, and go prepared to find out definite things. each child should have at least one question which he is to ask, or one item of information for which he is to be responsible to the class on the return. often the visit is more worth while to the class after they have tried to make a representation from what they already know and from what they can read on the subject. they are then more conscious of their needs and more alive to the important elements than when they are merely seeing a new thing which is to a great extent foreign to their experience. if they make the visit first, they are apt to feel the need of another when they attempt to work out their representation. if they make a representation first, they are quite sure to be dissatisfied with it and want to make another after they have made the visit. in either case their consciousness of need is a measure of growth. =correlation.=--while the building of a store is in progress the study of the sources and processes of manufacture of the various articles of merchandise will supply valuable subject matter in several fields. _english._--books containing information on the subject will be read with a definite purpose and more than ordinary interest. especially if the group method is used, will the members of a group be proud to bring to the class interesting items concerning their particular part of the work. these narratives and descriptions may be made excellent practice in either oral or written english and will be of the sort dewey characterizes as "having something to say rather than having to say something." _geography._--this study may also enter as deeply into the field of geography as the development of the class warrants. it will be geography of a vital sort. how these things are brought to us touches the field of transportation, creating an interest in ships and railroad trains, pack mules and express wagons. _history._--the study of the process of manufacture opens up the field of industrial history, and in this, as in the geography, the study is limited only by the capacity of the class. _number._--in the field of number the possibilities are also unlimited, in studying the weights and measures used for different commodities, the actual prices paid for these things, and the usual quantities purchased. playing store will involve the making of bills, the changing of money, and the measuring of merchandise. different pupils may take turns acting as salesmen or cashier. the common practices of business life should be followed as closely as possible, only in this case each purchaser should make out his own bills. actual purchase slips may be brought from home and used in number lessons. an inventory of the stock may be taken and will supply excellent practice in addition and multiplication. after the example of _real_ stores, a stock-taking sale at reduced rates may be advertised. the writer answered such an advertisement by a third grade and asked how much could be purchased for one dollar. pencils were busy at once, and a variety of combinations suggested. one pupil was quickly called to account by his mates for offering only ninety-five cents' worth of merchandise for the dollar. by these and numerous other exercises which will suggest themselves to lively children and wide-awake teachers a vast amount of vital subject matter may be dealt with in a natural way, quite on the level of the child's experience and interest. [illustration: fig. .--a grocery. third grade. columbia, missouri.] _art._--the art side also may receive due attention in the general proportioning and arrangement of the stores, in the modeling of certain features from clay, as enumerated above, in the making of labels for boxes and cans, in the writing of signs and advertisements, and in the color combinations. these features are to a great extent incidental to other problems just as the use of good taste is incidental to all the affairs of life and should receive corresponding emphasis. illustrations figure shows about half the stores built by one third-grade class. some of the subject matter drawn from the various stories was as follows: in connection with the grocery, a study of the source of various articles of food with oral and written descriptions of processes of manufacture; the common measures used in the grocery, and ordinary amounts purchased. in connection with the meat market, the names of various kinds of meat, the animals from which they are obtained, and the part of the animal which furnishes certain cuts; as, for example, ham, bacon, chops. the current prices and approximate quantity needed for a meal made practical number work. the bakery called for an investigation of the processes of bread making and a study of the material used. in all of the processes the teacher had opportunity to stress the necessity for proper sanitation. in connection with the dry goods store, the distinguishing characteristics of cotton, wool, linen, and silk were emphasized and illustrated by the samples collected for the store and by the clothing worn by the children. common problems in measuring cloth enlivened the number lessons. the millinery store disclosed considerable ingenuity in the field of hat manufacture, and a lively business in doll hats was carried on for some time. in connection with the post office, registered letters, dead letters, money orders, rural free delivery, etc., were discussed, and the advantages of coöperation touched upon. [illustration: fig. .--a dry goods store. third grade.] the other stores of the village street offer further opportunity for becoming better acquainted with the common things which lie close at hand and touch our daily lives. [illustration: fig. .--home in a hot country.] [illustration: fig. .--home in a cold country.] chapter vii sand tables and what to do with them a sand table should be considered one of the indispensable furnishings of every schoolroom. its possibilities are many and varied. it may be used merely as a means of recreation and the children allowed to play in the sand, digging and building as fancy suggests. or it may be used as the foundation for elaborate representations, carefully planned by the teacher, laboriously worked out by the children, and extravagantly admired by the parents on visitors' day. while both of these uses may serve worthy ends on certain occasions, the most valuable function of the sand table strikes a happy medium between the two, as means of illustrating and emphasizing various features of the daily lessons. in this capacity the laborious efforts of the show problem on the one hand and purposeless play of the other are both avoided. in this capacity the work on the sand table goes along hand in hand with the regular work in geography, history, language, or any subject in which it is possible through an illustration to teach more effectively. the purpose of this work is not so much to produce fine representations as to help the children to clarify and strengthen their ideas through the effort to express them in concrete form. the value lies in the development which comes to the children while they work. the technique of processes of construction is of secondary importance, though careless work ought never to be permitted. the completed project has little value after it has served its purpose as an illustration and may be quickly destroyed to make way for the next project. for this reason emphasis is laid on the general effect rather than the detail of construction. the work should be done well enough to serve the purpose, but time should not be spent on unnecessary details which do not add to the value as an illustration. in most cases speed is an important element. the project should be completed while the subject it illustrates is under discussion, if it is to be of most service. the first essential is that the work shall be done wholly by the children. the teacher may by skillful questions help them to build up in imagination the project they intend to work out, so that they may work with a definite purpose. she may sometimes suggest improved methods of working out various features when the improvements will add to the value of the illustration, but she should seldom, if ever, plan a project definitely or dictate the method of procedure. not least among the possible benefits to be derived from work of this kind is the development of resourcefulness. the necessity for expressing an idea in concrete form with whatever materials are at hand often calls for considerable ingenuity. ability of this sort will show itself only when the children are expressing their ideas with utmost freedom and feel the responsibility for the success of their work. the more earnestly the children try to express their ideas, the greater will be their development. the teacher should feel that she is hindering the growth of the children and defrauding them of their legitimate opportunity for development when she allows an over-anxiety for tangible and showy results to make her take the responsibility upon herself. the details of method are best presented through a detailed description of typical illustrations actually worked out in the classroom. a sand-table farm--home life in the country the study of home life as a general subject will include "our home" and the homes of other people who live under different conditions. to the town child the country will often be somewhat familiar and hold the second place in his interest. in the country school the farm may often be the best place to begin. various questions will arise as soon as it is decided to make a sand-table farm, the answers to which will be governed by the habits of the locality. what sort of farm shall we have? shall we raise stock, fruit, corn, wheat, vegetables, or a little of everything? what shall we need to plant in each case, and in what proportion? how much pasture land shall we need? what buildings? what machinery? [illustration: fig. .--a sand-table farm. first grade. columbia, missouri.] [illustration: fig. .--a sand-table farm. second grade. columbia, missouri.] =fences.=--as soon as the question of crops and the division of the table into fields is settled, the problem of fencing presents itself. what sort of fence is needed, wire, boards, pickets, rails, or hedge? how far apart shall the posts be set, how tall should they be, and how many will be needed? how many boards? how wide? how long? how many wires? the making of the fencing will supply material for one or more number lessons. various materials may be used. _twigs_ may be cut to given lengths and set in concrete (clay) posts. _for wire fence_, cut posts from small wooden sticks. drive small tacks in each post--one for each wire. use fine spool wire or wire raveled from fly screen. twist wires once around each tack, or drive the tacks in firmly so that the wire is held by the head of the tack. this is not an easy fence for very little children to make. [illustration: fig. .--detail of chicken fence.] _to make board fence._ cut posts required length, and decide upon distance between posts. make boards of thin strips of wood or of pasteboard. nail boards to posts with tacks or small brads. this is a very easy fence to make and gives some good exercise in measuring. _rail fences_ may be made from toothpicks or burnt matches. _picket fence_ for the dooryard may be made on wooden foundation with cardboard pickets. _hedge fence_ should be made from some fine-leafed plant. cedar twigs serve well. _chicken fence_ may be cut from paper as per illustration. fold paper several times, lengthwise. cut across the fold as indicated by arrows. stretch lengthwise as shown in fig. , _a_ and _b_. =buildings.=--the class should decide on the buildings needed. each building should be assigned to a group of two or three workers. each group should be held responsible for its contribution and should work out its problem with as little help as possible. if the children are able to plan a barn and make it, even though it is a very crude affair, more has been accomplished than if a very cunning structure had been made after plans, dictated and closely supervised by the teacher. _wood_ is the best building material for general use. _pasteboard_ serves well, but it is less substantial. it is also harder to cut and paste heavy cardboard than it is to saw and nail thin wood. _clay_ may be used for all buildings which are commonly made of concrete. =stock.=--the different kinds of animals needed on the farm and the number of each will furnish profitable subject matter for class discussion. the animals may be modeled from clay. while the animals will of necessity be very large in proportion to the acreage of the farm, attention should be directed to the relative proportions between horses and hogs, cattle and sheep. differences of this sort do not trouble little people, as their work is sure to show. the point should be stressed only sufficiently to help them to see a little more clearly and express their ideas a little more adequately each time they try. the accuracy of the result is important only as an index that the children are steadily developing in power to see and do, and gaining self-reliance. _the modeling process._--the best method seems to be simply to _begin_, and, for example, model as good a horse as possible; then discuss the results, note a few serious defects, and try again, endeavoring to correct them. encourage rapid work which gives the general proportions of the animal in the rough. beginners are apt to waste time in a purposeless smoothing of the clay, in mere tactual enjoyment. discourage the tendency to finish the details of a horse's head, for example, before the body has been modeled. repeat the process as often as time and the interest of the children warrant, but be satisfied if the children are doing the best they can, even though the results are crude and not so good as some other class has produced. the children should always feel that the work is their own. for this reason the teacher's help in clay modeling should be through demonstration rather than by finishing touches to the child's work. imitation is a strong instinct in little children, and watching the teacher model a better horse than he can make will help a child to improve his own. one thing to be especially avoided is the attempt to bring every class to a uniform degree of excellence according to adult standards. such an ideal encourages the giving of help in a way which hinders real development though it may produce immediate results. =trees.=--this topic will call out a discussion of the uses of trees; which trees are shade trees, which are cultivated for their fruit, the distinguishing characteristics of the different varieties, and the ones best suited to this particular farm. twigs from the real tree should be used wherever possible. in other cases the trees may be cut from paper. if a good green paper is not at hand, use drawing paper and color with crayons. a realistic effect is gained by cutting the tree from folded paper. (see fig. .) cut three pieces for each tree and paste together at the fold, then open out. make the trunk long enough to be driven an inch or more into the sand. [illustration: fig. .--detail of paper tree.] the making of the trees will furnish material for both art and nature study lessons. as far as circumstances permit the real trees should be studied, giving the children first-hand experience whether it be much or little. they should test the trees they cut by comparing them with real trees of the same variety. if this is impossible, the best pictures available should be used. (see notes on paper cutting.) =crops.=--when the various parts of the farm are about ready, the fields may be sown. the sand should be made very wet before the seed is put in and sprinkled frequently (twice a day), as the top dries off very quickly. after the seeds have germinated little sprinkling need be done, as the roots will find enough moisture in the wet sand underneath, and it is desirable to retard rather than hasten growth. if carefully managed, a table can be kept green for several weeks. for corn, check holes well into the sand and drop one grain into each hole. see that rows are straight and holes evenly spaced. sow wheat, oats, barley, etc., _very thickly_, cover lightly with dry sand, and sprinkle. timothy serves well for meadow and lawn, as it puts up a fine blade. blue grass sends up a fine blade, but is very slow in germination. clover does not make a velvety lawn, but a little in the pasture will make an interesting contrast. vegetables may be planted in the garden. they will not develop to any great extent, but will serve to emphasize different habits in germination; as, for example, the contrast between beans and corn. =correlation.=--the opportunity for nature study afforded by the farm problem will prove one of its most interesting and valuable features as the progress in plant growth is noted from day to day. the farm problem combines well with both language and art work in supplying vital material for both. in addition to the interesting discussions which naturally arise concerning the building and planting, a diary may be kept by each child. _keeping a diary._--the date of planting may be noted and the date when each variety of seed first appears above ground. with the larger seeds, as corn and beans, a seed may be dug up each day and examined, so that the children may appreciate what is going on below ground. drawings may be made of the seeds, showing the changes in appearance from day to day. after the seed leaves appear the daily growth may be measured and noted in the diary. after a few days seeds may be dug up again that the roots may be examined. at various stages of growth different varieties of seeds may be dug up, laid upon a paper, and sketched by the children. the facts they note may be stated in simple, well-formed sentences, either oral or written or both. [illustration: fig. .--an eskimo village and the overall boys' farm. first grade. columbia, missouri.] _art._--the sketching will serve well as the day's art lesson, though its chief value is in helping the children to see clearly. their efforts will be crude but the teacher should constantly keep in mind that the chief aim is not to obtain fine sketches. its purpose is to help the children to a better appreciation of the plant through the effort put forth in making the sketch. the technique of the drawing should be emphasized only so far as it will help them express better what they see, and not to the point where they attempt to copy the teacher's strokes. the teacher should be satisfied if every child is doing his best and making steady progress, even though that best may be crude and not up to the standard reached by the teacher who struggles for fine results. [illustration: fig. .--an apple orchard. first grade. columbia, missouri.] _english._--for children who are able to write the diary offers a natural means of gaining experience in the use of common forms of punctuation; as, for example, the writing of dates and the use of a comma in a series, as well as the punctuation of simple statements, in such entries as the following: april , . we planted the seeds on our farm to-day. we planted corn, wheat, oats, and beans. in all work of this sort it is difficult to overestimate the advantage of separate sheets of paper over a notebook with sewed leaves, in the hands of the children. with the fresh sheet always comes an inspiration, no matter what failures have gone before. poor pages can be done over when necessary, but do not haunt the workers with their discouraging suggestions, as in the use of a notebook. the leaves may be gathered together into a binding of some sort. even covers of plain brown wrapping paper can be made artistic with a simple border line well placed or a design cut from a paper of a different tone. written work which culminates in an attractive booklet, however simple, seems more worth while than exercises written into a commonplace notebook or on scratch paper which goes to the wastebasket soon after the mistakes have been commented on. _number._--the farm problem also supplies abundant opportunity for gaining experience with number. in addition to the actual measurement of the materials used for fences and buildings, the scope may be widened, where conditions warrant, to include estimates and calculations of the amount of the material used. for example, how many inches or feet of wire will be needed to make a three-wire fence of given length? how large a piece of cardboard will be needed to cut boards one fourth or one half inch wide for a four-board fence fifteen inches long? these estimates may be translated, _as far as the children are able to appreciate the connection_, into quantities and values of the same material in real problems connected with real farms. it is important, however, to be careful not to carry work of this sort so far beyond the experience of the children that it becomes wholly foreign and abstract to them. we are too apt to forget that it is _experience_ and not _objects_, which is the vital factor in concreteness. [illustration: fig. .--robinson crusoe. third grade. columbia, missouri.] in connection with the nature study a variety of number exercises grow out of the questions which the situation prompts. as, for example, in connection with the corn crop: how many seeds were planted? in how many rows? how many seeds in a row? how many came up? how many failed to germinate? how many more came up than failed? if each good seed should produce two ears of corn, how many would we have? what would they be worth at a given price? etc. [illustration: fig. .--pueblo indian village. second grade. columbia, missouri.] in an ungraded school, while the younger children might confine their efforts to counting as above, the older children might answer the same questions in terms of percentage and in the probable quantities on a real farm. the stock farm may be treated in the same way. how many cows? how much milk will they give? what will it be worth? how much butter would it make? what will it cost to keep the cows? what is the farmer's profit? these and many other questions will suggest themselves to both teacher and pupils, once the subject is opened up. they will be _practical questions in so far as they touch the experience of the children_ in such a way as to appeal to them as real questions. each individual teacher must decide how far and into what field it is worth while to lead any particular class. =the sand table.=--the various types of sand tables range all the way from the hardwood, zinc-lined article, provided with a drainpipe, down to the homemade structure evolved from a goods box. the quality of the table does not greatly affect the quality of the work to be done on it, but there are several points which affect the convenience of the workers. the height of the table should allow the children to work comfortably when standing beside it. a long, narrow table is seldom as satisfactory as one more nearly square, but it should never be too wide for the children to reach the center easily. any table with tight joints in the top and four- or five-inch boards fitted tightly around the edge will serve the purpose. the inside of the box should be painted to prevent warping and leaking. an "ocean blue" is a good color, as it makes a good background for islands. if no table is available, a goods box may be turned on its side, the top covered with oilcloth, and a frame, made from the cover of the box, fitted around the edge. the inside of the box may be used as a closet in which to store tools and materials, and a neat appearance given to the whole by a curtain of denim or other plain, heavy material. illustrative problems one of the most valuable uses of the sand table is in making illustrations for stories, historical events, and similar topics in which the relations between people and places is important. no definite rules can be laid down for working out such illustrations. the conditions under which they are made, the time to be devoted to the work, the importance of the subject, all affect both the nature and the quality of the work. any material which lends itself to the purpose should be called into service. the method of procedure is best set forth by describing several problems as actually worked out by children. [illustration: fig. .--a home in switzerland. second grade. columbia, missouri.] ( ) =story of columbus=--_first grade._ _materials used._--paper for cutting and folding, twigs for forests, acorns for tents, large piece of glass for ocean. _details of illustration._--the piece of glass was imbedded in sand in the middle of the table; one end of the table represented spain, the other, america. the representation of spain included: "castles in spain" being large houses with many windows in which the king and queen lived. they were cut from paper. many people, cut from paper, including kings and queens and the friends of mr. columbus who came to tell him "good-by." the kings and queens were distinguished by royal purple robes and golden crowns and necklaces, produced by the use of colored crayon. the three ships made from folded paper. in one of them sat mr. columbus. fishes, of paper, inhabited the hollow space underneath the glass. the forest primeval was shown on the american side by green twigs of trees set very close together. on pulling apart the leaves and peering into the depths of this forest, one found it inhabited by bears and other wild beasts, also cut from paper. the indians lived in a village of acorn tents set up in a little clearing on the shore. flags.--the spanish region was identified by a spanish flag, while the stars and stripes waved above the indian village. _values._--the project being on the level of the children's experience, they worked freely and with intense interest. the characters in the story were all very real to them. they literally swarmed about the table whenever opportunity was given, moving the figures about as they told the story over and over again. mr. columbus sailed across the sea many times. many boats were made and named for one of the three, according to the preference of the maker. they peeped into the forest and shuddered in delightful fear "lest a bear get me." they made and remade the scene as new ideas suggested themselves during several days of columbus week. [illustration: fig. .--two little knights of kentucky. fourth grade. columbia, missouri.] [illustration: fig. .--how cedric became a knight. fourth grade. columbia, missouri.] [illustration: fig. .--a sugar camp. built late in the spring by a third-grade class. they enjoyed the green grass, though it suggests an overlate season.] several discrepancies existed which are mentioned here because they troubled some overconscientious visitors. the stars and stripes did not come into existence until centuries after columbus died and therefore never waved over the indian village which he found. but chronology does not trouble the first grader very much, while "my country" and "my flag" are ideas which are developing together. and when he is singing, "columbus sailed across the sea, to find a land for you and me," the red, white, and blue forms the most fitting symbol in his representation of that land. the wild animals which infested the sand-table forest are not all mentioned in the histories as found on san salvador, but they did exist in the child's idea of the wild country which the white men found on this side of the atlantic. the children having truthfully expressed their ideas, the teacher had a basis from which to develop, correct, and emphasize such points as were of real importance, while the unimportant features would fade out for lack of emphasis. [illustration: fig. .--a western cattle ranch.] on the occasion of the supervisor's visit the members of the class vied with each other in telling the story and explaining the significance of the various illustrations. the supervisor expressed a wish to own some of the cuttings, whereupon, at a hint from the teacher, the class which had gathered about the sand table scampered joyfully (but quietly) back to their seats. scissors and paper were quickly distributed, and in about five minutes an empty shoe box was required to hold the collection of "mr. columbuses," kings and queens in royal purple, gold crowns, and necklaces, ships, fishes, etc., that were showered upon the guest. needless to say many scraps of paper had fallen to the floor. the teacher remarked that it was time for the brownies to come. down went all the heads for a sleepy time. the teacher slipped about, tapping here and there a child, who quickly began gathering up the scraps as joyously as he had helped to make them. the supervisor bade them good-by, with a wish that all children might begin their school life under such happy and wholesome influences. ( ) =story of jack horner=[ ]--_first grade._--as the story was read the different characters were subjects for free paper-cutting exercises. an abundance of paper (scratch paper and newspaper) was supplied, and each child allowed to cut each figure many times, very quickly. the story was also dramatized and acted out over and over again. figure shows the result of an hour's work in assembling the various characters and telling the whole story on the sand table and in a poster. the different figures to be cut were assigned to or chosen by the different children, the teacher taking care that no characters were omitted. having cut figures of the various characters as they were met in the story, all were eager to reproduce the part called for, and in a few minutes more than enough cuttings were made to supply both sand table and poster with ample material. two groups of children, one for the poster and one for the sand table, were assigned the work of placing the figures. the teacher superintended both projects, giving a few suggestions as needed, but throwing the responsibility upon the children as much as possible. this problem was worked out by the same class which made the columbus illustration just described. the jack horner story was illustrated in the spring, after much work of this sort had been done. the quality of the cuttings showed an interesting improvement over the cuttings made for the columbus story, which came during the third week of the school year. ( ) =story of three little pigs.=--this is a long story, and three weeks were occupied in reading it and dramatizing it. during this time there were frequent discussions about how it was to be worked out on the sand table. contributions in great variety were brought in: straw for the straw house, twigs for the house of sticks, bags of brick dust to make a roadway different from the sand, rose hips to be tied to a small branch to represent the apple tree, and various other articles. [illustration: fig. .--the story of three little pigs. first grade. columbia, missouri.] [illustration: fig. .--a japanese tea garden. third grade. columbia, missouri.] [illustration: fig. .--a coal mine. fourth grade. columbia, missouri.] the houses were built as suggested by the pictures in the reader. the pig and wolf were modeled in clay, each being shown in the several different positions described in the story. over and over a little clay pig rolled down the hill in a paper churn and frightened a clay wolf. one group, not having wherewithal to build a brick house, used a wooden one made by another group. another class made the brick house out of blocks, and built in a fireplace with its kettle ready to hold the hot water whenever the wolf should start for the chimney. (see fig. .) ( ) =japanese tea garden.=--a third-grade class used the sand table to illustrate what they had gleaned from reading several stories and descriptions of life in japan, in connection with elementary geography. the sand-table representation included a tiny bridge across a small stream of "real" water. the "real river" was secured by ingenious use of a leaking tin can which was hidden behind a clump of trees (twigs). a thin layer of cement in the bed of the river kept the water from sinking into the sand. a shallow pan imbedded in the sand formed a lake into which the river poured its waters. (see fig. .) ( ) =a coal mine.=--the sand table shown in fig. was worked out by a fourth-grade class in connection with the geography of the western states. descriptions and pictures were studied with great earnestness to find out how to fix it, and the children made it as they thought it ought to be. the actual making occupied very little time, the various parts being contributed by different pupils. problems of this sort develop leadership. there is usually one whose ideas take definite shape promptly and whose suggestions are willingly followed by his group. if there is one pupil in the class whose ability to lead is so strong that the others are overshadowed, it is sometimes well to let the work be done by small groups who use the table turn about. this plan stimulates a wholesome rivalry and discourages dawdling. ( ) =stories.=--illustrations for two stories are shown on page . in the first (fig. ) part of the class made a representation on the sand table while the rest prepared a poster from paper cuttings. in the second (fig. ) empty shoe boxes were used in making the castle. very little time was spent on either project. [illustration: fig. .--a chariot race. second grade. pasadena, california.] chapter viii animals and toys the circus and the zoölogical garden are always centers of interest to little children and may be used to great advantage to furnish the point of departure in the study of animal life. making the animals in some form crystallizes the interest in the animals represented, and awakens interest in their habits and home. the handwork may be used as an illustrative factor connected with geography and nature study, or the making of the circus may be the starting point, and incidentally furnish subject matter in several fields. for example, geography and nature study grow out of the search for facts concerning the animals themselves, _i.e._ size, color, food, home, value, etc. the desire for such information gives purpose to reading. oral and written descriptions supply subject matter for practice in english. reducing the actual proportions of animals to a definite scale and problems relating to their commercial value make practical use of the knowledge of number. art enters into the making of free-hand sketches, cuttings, and patterns for wooden models. [illustration: fig. .--a circus parade.] a good circus or "zoo" may be worked out in a variety of materials. paper, cardboard, clay, and wood all serve well. to get the best value from the problem it should be as free as possible from copy work. the children should consult the best sources of information at their disposal, which may range all the way from ordinary picture books to natural history and encyclopedia descriptions. they should find out, unaided, as much as possible concerning the animal in question: his size, color, food, home, values, etc.,--the teacher supplementing with interesting and necessary items not at the disposal of the class. free-hand cuttings and pencil sketches should be compared with the best pictures obtainable and the real animal whenever possible. such patterns as are needed should be made by the children themselves. ready-made patterns will produce better proportioned animals, but more dependent, less observant children also. methods in detail =realistic animals in three-ply wood.=--secure necessary items of measurement and decide upon scale. one inch for each foot is best for younger children. [illustration: fig. .--three-ply wooden animals.] draw rectangle proportioned to the extreme length and height of the animal. draw into the rectangle a _profile_ sketch of the animal, being careful that it comes to the line on each side. _all four feet must_ touch the base line. considerable practice may be needed before a good sketch can be drawn. the animal may be represented as standing, walking, or running, but must be drawn in profile. cut out the sketch and make by it three patterns: one of the head, body, and tail; one of the body and right legs; one of the body and left legs. care must be taken to get good lines at shoulder and rump. (see fig. .) [illustration: fig. .--detail of three-ply animals with movable parts.] lay the pattern on the wood so that the grain runs lengthwise of the legs and other frail parts and draw outline carefully. use basswood one fourth inch thick, or other soft wood. saw out the parts with a coping saw. be careful in sawing to keep the blade in a vertical position in order that the edges may be true. nail or glue the parts together. if the animal does not stand perfectly, rub the feet on a piece of sandpaper. use water color or crayon to give proper color. _three-ply animals with movable parts._--to make the head movable, saw the part from the body on a curved line, as shown in fig. . fasten with a single nail through the shoulder. the curved line must be a part of a circle and the nail must be at the center. the edges should be smooth to allow easy action. the tail may be adjusted by a similar plan. the parts may be made to move automatically by suspending a weight on cords which are attached to the movable parts, as shown in fig. . if the weight is to be used, cut off the body part on the double dotted line to allow room for the cords to swing. a figure of this sort must be fastened on a pedestal or platform which will extend over the edge of the table. a slot must be cut in the pedestal wide enough to allow the cords to swing freely. (see fig. .) the pedestal may be a long board or piece of heavy cardboard which can be tacked to the table or held firm by a clamp, or it may be a thin board fastened to a u-shaped block which is held firm on the edge of the table by a wedge. =cardboard and paper animals that stand.=--for younger children who cannot handle the saw easily cardboard or stiff paper may be used. [illustration: fig. .--notched rest for animals.] to make the animal stand the feet may be tacked to a small piece of wood about one inch square on the end and as long as needed, or a cardboard brace, such as is used on easels, may be glued to the back. a realistic effect is given if the animal is cut with two legs and the brace made to represent the other two, or a piece of cardboard cut as in fig. may be used as a brace, the body of the animal fitting into the notch. _clay_ makes an excellent medium, but it requires more skill in clay than in wood to get an equally good effect. clay animals should be modeled with a pedestal, and the separations between the two forelegs and the two hind legs merely indicated. if each leg is modeled separately, the figure is likely to be frail. [illustration: fig. .--balancing figures.] =balancing figures.=--design such figures as a prancing horse or dancing bear and saw from a single piece of wood. a little below the center of the figure insert a curved wire, on the other end of which is a ball of clay or other weight. the wire must be fastened firmly so that it cannot turn. adjust so that the figure balances. figures of people in foreign costumes, children running and jumping, as well as all sorts of animals, are very fascinating problems of this sort. (see fig. .) =seesaw figures.=--such groups as two boys chopping wood, two chickens drinking, two dogs tugging at a string, wrestling boys, and similar groups are interesting problems of the seesaw type. (see fig. .) _detail._--cut the figures from cardboard. make with a long pedestal. color with crayon or water color. use two light sticks for the seesaw, to which tack one figure in a vertical position and the other on a slant. fasten to each stick with one tack. if a central figure is used, tack firmly to lower stick. work the figure by moving the upper stick while the lower one is held firm. [illustration: fig. .--some simple toys.] =toys.=--a box of carpenter's scraps of soft wood will supply material for a variety of toys which may be made by the children themselves, thereby more than doubling the fun. a few suggestions are given in detail. the making of these will suggest others. (see fig. .) _doll's swing._--a heavy block for a base, two tall uprights, and a crosspiece will make the frame. make a seat from cardboard or use the end of a small box and suspend from crossbar. _doll's teeter._--use a heavy block for a base. two uprights with double-pointed tacks or notches in the top. drive two double-pointed tacks in lower side of teeter board at center. slip a small rod through the tacks and rest in the notches on the uprights. suspend a weight by cords from the lower side of the board, adjust until the board balances. the ends of the board should be provided with box seats for the doll's comfort. _railroad train._--for cars, saw pieces from a square stick. for engine, use pieces of broomstick or other cylinder. soft wood is better if obtainable. for wheels, use pieces of small broomstick or dowel rod. (see fig. .) let the children study real trains and make the best imitation they can work out. _jumping jacks._--cut the figure from light weight cardboard. make head and body in one piece. cut two arms long enough to reach well above the head. make the hands very large. cut two legs either with or without a joint at the knee. color with crayon or water color. [illustration: fig. .--adjusting jumping jack in frame.] fasten the legs and arms to the body with a string tied loosely to allow free movements. make a frame of two light stiff sticks and a crosspiece fastened between them near the lower end of the sticks. fasten with a single nail at either end of the crosspiece. cut notches near the upper ends of the sticks. fasten the figure to the frame by a stout thread. use a coarse needle and carry the thread through the hands twice, leaving a loop on each side to slip over the ends of the sticks into the notches. a small block or folded bit of cardboard between the hands to keep them apart will improve the movement of the toy. adjust the figure so that the threads are parallel when the figure hangs below the inverted frame. (see fig. .) when the frame is held upright, the figure will hang between the sticks and the threads will be crossed. press the lower ends of the frame together to make the jumping jack perform. _merry-go-round._--use a heavy block for a base. bore a hole in the center and insert a square stick, about in. long. for arms, use two pieces about / in. thick and in. long. fasten these together in the form of a cross and nail to the top of the upright with a single nail. an awl may be used to make the hole a little larger than the nail so that the arms will revolve easily. suspend a box seat of wood or cardboard from each arm to complete the toy. (see fig. .) =games.=--_ring toss._--use two square pieces of board at least / in. thick, one piece larger than the other. bore a hole in the center of the smaller piece with a / -in. auger bit. for the upright use a stick / in. square and about in. long. whittle the corners of the stick until it fits firmly into the hole in the small board. nail the small board to the large one. for the rings use reeds, venetian iron, or hoops from small buckets or cart wheels. wrap the rings with raffia or yarn. make at least three rings of varying sizes. (see fig. .) playing ring toss and keeping tally makes an excellent number game. _ten pins._--from bogus or other heavy paper roll and paste cylinders about three inches in diameter and about twelve inches long. these may be set on end, and any of the common ten pin games played with the help of a soft rubber ball. keeping tally gives excellent practice in number. _bean bag game._--draw three circles of different sizes on a large sheet of heavy cardboard. carefully cut out the circles with a sharp-pointed knife. mount a picture of some animal on each piece cut out. fasten the pieces back in place by a single cloth hinge pasted on the back, and at the lowest part of the circle. tack the sheet of cardboard to a light wooden frame to keep it from bending. let the frame rest against the wall at a slight angle. bean bags thrown at the animals will knock them down as they go through the holes. the bean bags should be made by the children. various number games may be played with bean bags. chapter ix holidays the various holidays which come during the year mean so much to little children that they should receive special notice and should suggest the form of handwork to be done at the time. =thanksgiving= suggests attention to harvest products, to be modeled in clay, cut from paper, or drawn with crayon; the making of sand-table scenes showing early new england life in various phases; the making of various utensils and commodities of the primitive home which differ from our own; as, for example, the making of candles, the hour glass, and the sundial. =christmas= suggests the making of toys and all sorts of things suitable for gifts. if the work centers around the christmas tree, it offers opportunity for coöperation in making trimming such as paper chains, pop-corn strings, etc., as well as individual gifts. if a tree is not obtainable, a box may be dressed up in imitation of santa's sleigh drawn by cardboard reindeer. whatever else is done in honor of the visit of st. nicholas, the spirit of giving should be cultivated by making gifts to some younger or less fortunate groups. picture books may be made for sick children, doll furniture and other toys for the orphans' home or some family of unfortunates. a sack might arrive a week or two before christmas accompanied by a telegram from santa requesting contributions to help him out in some specific way and stating that it would be called for at a certain time. when a "real santa" calls for the sack, he may leave in its place another containing some unexpected treat for the children themselves. the gifts which the children contribute should be of their own making, that they may have a full sense of real giving and not merely the pleasure of delivering the parcels mother has provided. =valentine's day= offers an opportunity for developing appreciation of a higher form of art than the shop windows frequently offer, and also investing with pure, sweet sentiment a day which means, in some quarters, only vulgar sentimentality and coarse jests. =easter= offers a similar opportunity for emphasis on the fine things in color and subjects for greeting cards. the season also suggests emphasis on study of budding plants and young animal life by means of cutting, painting, and modeling. =hero days= suggest a variety of forms of handwork, such as picture making with crayons or cuttings, or pictures in three dimensions on the sand table, for intensifying important phases of the hero's life; illustrated stories in booklet form; and the making of "properties" for dramatic representations. these things offer a welcome change from the stereotyped "speaking day," and stimulate originality and self-reliance. so much has been written and so many suggestions are constantly being offered in school journals that specific suggestions for _things to make_ seem superfluous here. =individual problems.=--while community problems must form a large part of the handwork in the lower grades, it is desirable to have, from time to time, projects which seek a definite result from each pupil. in the community problem it is possible for the strong pupil to monopolize the values of the work by imposing his ideas upon his fellows and by doing all the work while the slower pupils are getting ready to begin. in the same way it is possible for the lazy pupil to shirk much of his responsibility through the eagerness of his companions. it is therefore necessary to maintain a balance by the use of individual problems of a more definite type. these may often be specific parts of the community problem, but this will not meet all the needs of the case. the special days offer excellent occasion for work of this sort in addition to the coöperative problems which are undertaken by the class as a whole. chapter x general suggestions and summary =modification of outlines.=--all the projects outlined in the foregoing pages are capable of modification and adaptation to the needs of several grades. for this reason, in nearly every problem, many more suggestions are offered than will often be applicable in any one instance of its development. the directions are, for the most part, given from the standpoint of the first grade, on the principle that it is easier to add to the detail of a problem than to simplify it. on the other hand, the directions are not generally specific in detail, in order to prevent as far as possible a mechanical copying of any project. =emphasis on self-expression.=--it is desired to place special emphasis upon the point that each project undertaken, if it is to reach its highest value, must come as fully as possible from the children themselves and be to the very fullest extent _their self-expression_. _not any house described in this book, nor any house seen in another schoolroom, nor even the house which i, as teacher, plan in detail, will be most valuable to my class_; but rather _our house_, which _we, teacher and pupils_ working together, evolve to suit our own needs and fancies, using suggestions gathered from every available source, but adapting them to our own needs. =self-directed activity and discipline.=--the terms "self-directed activity" and "self-expression" must not be confounded with the idea of letting the children do as they please in any random and purposeless fashion. if one were to start out to escort a group of children to a certain hilltop, it is quite probable that some of them would run part of the way. others would walk in twos and threes, and these would change about. they would halt to look at things that attracted their attention. the leader would halt them to observe some interesting point which they might otherwise miss. should any of them wander from the right path the leader would call them back, and any frail child would be helped over the hard places. yet with all this freedom the group might move steadily forward and reach the hilltop in due time. all progress up the hill of knowledge should follow a similar plan. the teacher should have a very definite idea of the end to be attained. the children should work with a purpose, and that purpose should be of such immediate interest to them that they would be anxious to attain it. they would then work earnestly, and discipline would settle itself. handwork projects should be sufficiently simple to allow each worker to see his way through, or at least find his way without waiting for directions at each step. instead of a blind following of such directions the worker should at all times feel himself the master of his tools and materials and be able to make them obey his impulse and express his idea. this attitude toward work can be secured only when the work is kept quite down to the level of the child's ability and appreciation. only by this means can we hope to establish the inspiring and strengthening "habit of success." =introduction of new methods.=--the question arises, how shall work of this sort be adapted to a course of study which is already full and does not provide time for handwork? handwork takes more time than bookwork, and children evolve plans but slowly. if the teacher waits for the children to evolve plans and then carry them out on their own responsibility, the quantity of work produced will be small and the quality poor compared with the results gained by other methods. the freer method must be justified, not by its tangible results, but by its value as a means of individual development. if it is true that "one good idea known to be thine own is worth a thousand gleaned from fields by others sown," then it follows that a small quantity of crude work may often represent greater genuine growth than a larger quantity of nicely finished work, if the latter has been accomplished by such careful dictation that individual thought on the part of the pupils was unnecessary. common sense is the best guide in introducing a new method of work. any sudden transition is likely to be disastrous. responsibility in new fields should be shifted from teacher to pupils as rapidly as they are able to carry it, but it should never be transferred in wholesale fashion. this is especially true of a class that is accustomed to wait for the teacher's permission or command in all the small details of schoolroom life, such as speaking, moving about the room, etc. the freer methods may be introduced by either of two plans. in carrying through the first sand-table project, for example, the teacher may plan the details quite as definitely as is her custom in general work, assign each part to a particular pupil, and guide his execution of it as far as necessary. with each succeeding project more and more freedom may be granted, as the children become accustomed to community work and learn how to use the materials involved. or, the work may be introduced by allowing two or three very trustworthy pupils to work out, quite alone, some simple project which will appeal to the entire class as very desirable. other projects may be worked out by other pupils as they show themselves worthy of trust. such a plan sets a premium upon independence and ability to direct one's own actions, and has a beneficial effect upon general discipline. each individual teacher must follow the plan which best accords with her individual habits and the conditions under which she works. no rule can be rated as best under any and all circumstances. =new and different projects.=--teachers frequently spend time and nerve force seeking new projects supposedly to stimulate the interest of the children. often a careful examination into the true motives back of the search would prove that it is not so much to stimulate the interest of the children as to call forth the admiration of other teachers. because a house was built last year does not hinder the building of another this year. if the children are allowed ample freedom, the houses will not be alike. if the teacher is centering her interest in the development of the children and not in the things the children make, the projects will always be new because worked out in a new way by a different group of children. monotony comes about through the teacher's attempt to plan out details and impose them upon the children, a process quite similar to the use of predigested foods. =quality of work.=--methods such as outlined above are sometimes criticized because of the crudity of the results. it is sometimes argued that the crude work establishes low standards and that better finished work of a more useful type is more desirable in school projects. certainly everything which is done in school should be useful. school years are too precious to be wasted, in any degree, on a thing which is useless. but it is important to have a right standard for measuring the usefulness of a project. since it is the child's interest and effort which are to be stimulated, his work must be useful from his point of view. the things that he works upon must be valuable to him personally. it is not enough for the teacher to be satisfied with the value of the subject matter. it must, as far as possible, be self-evident to the child himself. in the growing period a child is always anxious to excel himself and attain a higher level, nearer the adult standards. he measures his growth, not only in inches, but in ability to run faster, jump farther, count higher, and so on. so long as he is stimulated by an interesting motive he puts forth his best effort. it is only when we set him tasks and demand blind obedience that he lags. if his crude work represents his best effort, honestly put forth, he will, and he does, desire to do something better each time he tries. if he is permitted to work freely upon projects of immediate interest to him, he not only becomes familiar with various materials and the purposes they may serve, but he also begins to realize his inability to make them always obey his impulse. as soon as he discovers that there are better and easier ways of working which bring about more satisfactory results, he is anxious to learn the tricks of the trade; and he comes to the later, more technical courses in handwork, not only with more intelligence, but also with an appreciation of their value which is reflected in the quality of his work. =summary.=--the last word, as the first in this little book, would stress the fact that it is always possible to improve present conditions. activity is an essential factor in a child's development in school as well as out. handwork is an important phase of this necessary activity. neither lack of time, scarcity of material, nor lack of training on the part of the teacher is a sufficient excuse for failure to use some handwork in every school. much can be accomplished with materials which are to be found anywhere, without using more time than is ordinarily devoted to the subject, and with better results, if we will but realize that educative handwork is not confined to the making of a few books, boxes, mats, or baskets after a prescribed pattern, however good in themselves these may be, but is also a means through which we may teach other subject matter. we not only learn to do by doing, but we come to _know_ through trying to _do_. and we often learn more through our failures than through our successes. we defraud the children if we deprive them of this important factor in their development. any teacher who is willing to begin with what she has and _let the children do_ the best they can with it, will find unexpected resources and greater opportunities at every hand. let us not allow ourselves to grow disheartened through vain wishes for the impossible or for the advantages of some other field, but attack our own with vigor and determination; for "the common problem, yours, mine, every one's is--not to fancy what were fair in life provided it could be--but, finding first what may be, then find how to make it fair up to our means." references dewey--the school and the child; school and society; the child and the curriculum. o'shea--dynamic factors in education. scott--social education. dopp--the place of industries in elementary education. bone--the service of the hand in the school. sargent--fine and industrial arts. row--the educational meaning of manual arts and industries. charters--methods of teaching. bagley--the educative process. russell--the school and industrial life. educational review, dec. . sykes and bonser--industrial education. teachers college record, sept. . bennett--the place of manual arts in education. educational review, oct. . richards--handwork in the primary school. manual training magazine, oct. . references for classroom use coping saw work johnston school drawing daniels little folks handy book beard world at work series dutton big people and little people of other lands shaw how we are fed chamberlain how we are clothed chamberlain how we are sheltered chamberlain continents and their people chamberlain how the world is fed carpenter how the world is clothed carpenter how the world is housed carpenter around the world series tolman youth's companion series lane the bird woman chandler the tree dwellers dopp the early cave men dopp the later cave men dopp printed in the united states of america. footnotes: [ ] in scoring cardboard cut about halfway through the board on the _outside_ of the fold. [ ] see scott's "social education." [ ] see riverside primer. * * * * * * transcriber's notes: additional spacing after some of the quotes is intentional to indicate both the end of a quotation and the beginning of a new paragraph as presented in the original text. printer's inconsistencies in hyphenation have been retained. transcribers note: the spelling in this text has been preserved as in the original. obvious printer's errors have been corrected. you can find a list of the corrections made at the end of this e-text. * * * * * the art of modern lace-making. * * * * * price: fifty cents or two shillings. * * * * * published by the butterick publishing co. (limited). _london and new york._ printed in new york. [illustration] introduction. owing to the growing popularity of the fascinating art of lace-making and the appeals of our readers to place it within their reach, we have prepared this pamphlet. in making it a perfect instructor and a reliable exponent of the favorite varieties of lace, we have spared neither time nor expense, and are most happy to offer to our patrons what a celebrated maker of modern lace has pronounced as "the finest book upon lace-making to be found on either continent." the illustrations, in the main, are direct reproductions from genuine, hand-made modern laces, such as any lady may make who masters the instructions found upon these pages. the beauty of these laces is beyond question, their durability all that can be desired, and their textures may be varied from an extreme delicacy to a sumptuous opposite. in introducing the art of modern lace-making into the realms of our readers, we feel all of the pleasure we are sure we thus convey. the butterick publishing co., limited. contents. pages to -- lace-making, ancient and modern methods. pages to -- stitches used in modern lace-making. pages to -- fancy braids cords, rings and buttons. pages to -- designs, lace articles, edgings, etc., etc., in modern lace. pages to -- darned net samples, kerchiefs, tidies, edgings, insertions, etc., etc., with designs for the same and other articles. lace-making ancient and modern methods. the art of making lace in one form or another has existed from the earliest ages. there are scriptural references to various web-like fabrics, which were of rude construction, no doubt, but whose general characteristics were identical with those productions of modern skill which have for centuries been known as lace. homer and other ancient writers constantly mention net-works of fancifully embroidered materials; gold thread-work was known to the romans; and as egyptian robes of state are depicted upon the tombs of the earlier dynasties as being fashioned from a looped net-work or crochet, it is probable that the israelites learned the art from the egyptians. museums contain specimens of lace dating back to periods that to us of the present day seem mere dreams of reigns and eras, and history includes a scattered literature of lace which proves that the art must have been practised almost from the beginning. up to the sixteenth century, however, open work embroidery was the favorite decoration, and from it the tangible origin of lace seems derived. during the renaissance period the first book of embroidery patterns and lace-work appeared. the earliest volume bearing a date was printed at cologne in ; and it was during the reign of richard iii. of england that the word lace was first used in the descriptions of the royal wardrobe. at first the best known laces were those of venice, milan and genoa. the italians claim the invention of point or needle-made lace; but the venetian point is now a product of the past, and england and france supply most of the fine laces of the present time. lace-makers in the various european countries are trained to the work from childhood; but it is said that the makers of honiton lace, the fabric of which queen victoria's wedding gown was made, are rapidly decreasing in numbers, so that there are few persons now living who understand the construction of this exquisite "pillow" lace. the costly point and honiton and the dainty mechlin and valenciennes of bygone days can only be produced by trained lace-workers, whose skilful fingers weave bobbins of cobweb-like thread to and fro over the "pillow" necessary to antique methods; and for this reason fine lace-making is practically beyond the skill of the amateur. besides, some of the threads in the very filmy laces are so fine that they cannot be successfully manipulated except in a moist atmosphere, such as that of great britain; and even there some of the more exquisite specimens must perforce be made in underground rooms, since it is only there that the proper degree of moisture can be obtained. in dry climates these gossamer-like threads would roughen and break at almost the slightest touch. referring to the known origin of some of the earlier laces, a writer upon the subject says: "they say it was a woman, barbara uttmann, who invented pillow lace in the th century. women have ever been patrons of lace-making. victoria has kept the honiton laces in fashion, and it was the duchess of argyle who introduced lace-making in scotland. the countess of erne and lady denny and lady bingham began it in ireland, and lady de vere gave her own brussels point for patterns when the first irish point was made at curragh. it was elizabeth of denmark who introduced lace-making in that country, and the archduchess sophia who started lace schools in bohemia. "now at least i can have laces," said anne of austria, when louis xiii., her husband died, and her court was famous for its cleanliness and its spanish point. colbert had three women as coadjutors when he started lace-making in france. it was because josephine loved point d'alençon that napoleon revived it. eugenie spent $ , for a single dress flounce, and had $ , , in fine laces." victoria's favorite, honiton, is not considered a particularly beautiful lace, although its weaving is so tedious and difficult. "real honiton laces," so says an authority, "are made up of bits and bits fashioned by many different women in their own little cottages--here a leaf, there a flower, slowly woven through the long, weary days, only to be united afterward in the precious web by other workers who never saw its beginning. there is a pretty lesson in the thought that to the perfection of each of these little pieces the beauty of the whole is due--that the rose or leaf some humble peasant woman wrought carefully, helps to make the fabric worthy the adorning of a queen or the decoration of an altar, even as the sweetness and patient perfection in any life makes all living more worthy and noble. a single flower upon which taste and fancy were lavished, and which sustained and deft labor brought to perfection, represents the lives of many diligent women workers. it has become so much the fashion to worship all things ancient that most lovers of fine lace would prefer to have it a century old; and yet there never was a time when laces were more beautiful, more artistic and more unique in design than just at the present day; for modern laces preserve the best features of the laces that have gone before them, and have added so many new inspirations that except for the sentiment, the romance or the history connecting this scrap with a title, that with a famous beauty, and another with some cathedral's sacred treasure, the palm would certainly be given to the gauze-like production of the poor flax thread spinner of the present day." not all people know the difference between point lace which is made with the needle, and pillow lace which is made with the bobbins--but much of the beautiful point lace of the present day is made with the needle, and its beauty stands a favorable comparison with the more costly pillow lace. strictly modern lace-making is a result of american ingenuity, and it has so simple a basis and is so easy to learn that any woman of average skill may, with little difficulty, produce by its different processes, laces that are really magnificent and quite as substantial and useful as they are exquisitely beautiful. in america modern lace-making has been developed to a high degree of perfection by its pioneer, mrs. grace b. mccormick, in whose designing rooms at no. broadway, new york, may be seen specimens of modern laces of every variety, from dainty needle-point to a very elaborate kind known as the royal battenburg. this english name for an american production was selected in honor of the battenburg nuptials, which occurred about the time a patent for making the lace was applied for at washington. only a few years have elapsed since this plucky little woman made a single piece of lace edging from common braid as an experiment, and sold it for a trifling sum. love for the work and perseverance have enabled her to overcome obstacles that would have discouraged a woman of ordinary energy, and she has gradually improved upon her earlier methods until modern lace occupies a front rank among the numerous dainty forms of needle-work of the day. one of the finest specimens lately placed on exhibition is a table-cloth intended for use at elaborate dinners. it is made of the finest table linen and royal battenburg lace. the cloth is, of course, very large, and the lace, in the form of wide insertion, is let in above the border and is also arranged to divide the center into three squares. an outside border of edging to match completes this exquisite production, which has been two years in course of construction, and is valued at four hundred and seventy-five dollars. the same style of lace may be made by any one who studies the art and in any width or form, and it may be produced in many textures, although really intended for heavy effects. the making of such lace possesses a great charm for womankind in general, and will undoubtedly retain favor as long as needlecraft remains a pastime and employment with the gentler sex. materials. the requirements of modern lace-making are few. the products are classed as honiton, point, duchesse, princesse, royal battenburg or old english point, etc., etc.; but all are made with various braids arranged in different patterns and connected by numerous kinds of stitches, many different stitches often appearing in one variety of lace. the materials required are neither numerous nor expensive. the following is a complete list: tracing cloth, leather or _toile cirée_, lace braids of various kinds, linen thread, two or three sizes of needles, a good thimble and a pair of fine sharp scissors. for each kind of lace there is a special sort of braid in various patterns, and the selection of the thread depends entirely upon the variety and quality of lace to be made. this selection should be left to the decision of the teacher or the skilled maker of laces, as she knows from experience the proper combinations of materials. thus, in making honiton and point lace, thread in twelve different degrees of fineness is used; and as the braids also vary in size, the thread must always be adapted to the braid. for battenburg lace the thread is in eight sizes, the finest being used only for "whipping curves" or drawing edges into the outlines required. the "ideal honiton" is a new lace made with fancy honiton braid and wash-silk floss in dainty colors, and is exquisite for doilies, mats, table scarfs and center-pieces. designs sold by lace-makers are usually drawn upon tracing cloth, as this is flexible and much more agreeable to work upon than any other material. the tracing cloth, when the braid is arranged, is basted to a foundation of leather or _toile cirée_; or smooth wrapping-paper may be basted under the design and will furnish all the support that is necessary, while being lighter than the _toile cirée_. it must be remembered that the work is really wrong side out while in progress, so that it will not show its true beauty until finished and removed from the foundation or pattern. according to the braid and thread selected, these laces may be made of fairy-like fineness or of massive elegance--general results being dainty enough for the gown of a bride or sumptuous enough for the adornment of an altar. lace-making establishments will furnish designs of any width or shape desired, and will also originate designs for special articles for which there are only occasional calls. regular edging designs are ordinarily made in four widths--from quite narrow to very wide; and not infrequently a handkerchief design is enlarged sufficiently to form a square for a table or a fancy stand. in filling in the spaces of any design or pattern, the worker may choose the stitches that please her best, if she does not like those accompanying the design that she has selected or that has been sent her. stitches used in modern lace-making. as in all fancy work which has a set of foundation stitches peculiar to it that may be varied according to the proficiency and ingenuity of the maker, so has modern lace a series of primary stitches from which may be evolved many others. a large number of illustrations of stitches, some of which are primary or foundation stitches, while others are combinations, are here presented, with full instructions for making; and the entire series given will make perfectly plain to the student the ease with which she may combine or invent stitches, when those of the design she is to work are not to her liking. the first stitch given is the main foundation stitch. plain point stitches. nos. and .--point de bruxelles or brussels point.--among the stitches most used in lace-making is point de bruxelles or brussels point. it is simply a button-hole stitch worked loosely, and it must be done with regularity, as the beauty of the work depends almost wholly upon the evenness of the stitches. brussels point is occasionally used as an edge, but is more frequently seen in rows worked back and forth to fill in spaces, or as a ground work. the illustrations clearly represent the method of making this stitch. [illustration: no. .--point de bruxelles (brussels point).] [illustration: no. .--point de bruxelles worked in rows.] no. .--point de venise, or venice point.--this stitch is worked from left to right, like brussels point. work loose button-hole stitch, and in this stitch work button-hole stitches tightly drawn up, then work another loose button-hole stitch, then more tight button-hole stitches in the loose one; repeat to the end of the row, and fasten off. [illustration: no. .--point de venise (venice point).] no. .--petit point de venise, or little venice point.--this stitch is worked in the same manner as point de venise, but one tight stitch only is worked in each loose button-hole stitch. this is a most useful stitch for filling in small spaces. [illustration: no. .--petit point de venise (little venice point).] no. .--italian lace stitch.--commence at the right side and pass the thread to the left. _first row._--make a loose button-hole stitch into the braid to form a loop, then pass the needle under the line of thread, making the loops an eighth of an inch apart. _second row._--pass the thread back to the left, make a button-hole stitch in every loop, and pass the needle under the line of thread after each button-hole stitch. [illustration: no. .--italian lace stitch.] no. .--cobweb lace stitch.--commence at the right side, pass the thread to the left, work button-hole stitches, miss the space of , which will leave a small loop, and continue these details to the end. _second row._--pass the thread back to the left side, work button-hole stitches in each loop, taking up the line of thread with the loop, as seen in the engraving. [illustration: no. .--cobweb lace stitch.] no. .--point brabanÇon.--this stitch is worked as follows from left to right: _first row._--make long, loose point de bruxelles, and short loose one alternately, to end of row. _second row._--make tight point de bruxelles in the long, loose stitch, and short, loose point de bruxelles in the short, loose stitch on previous row, and repeat across the row. _third row._--same as first. [illustration: no. .--point brabançon.] no. .--point de valenciennes, or valenciennes stitch.--this stitch appears complicated, but is really easy to work. begin at the left hand and work point de bruxelles stitches at unequal distances, every alternate stitch being the larger. _second row._--upon the first large or long stitch, work close button-hole stitches, then short point de bruxelles stitch under the one above, then close stitches, and so on to the end of the row (right to left). _third row._--make close button-hole stitches in the of previous row, short point de bruxelles, close, in the bruxelles stitch, short point de bruxelles, close, short point de bruxelles, close, short, close, short and repeat. _fourth row._--make close, short point de bruxelles, close, short, close, short, close, short, and repeat. continue the rows until sufficient of the pattern is worked. [illustration: no. .--point de valenciennes (valenciennes stitch).] no. .--point d'espagne, or spanish point.--this variety of stitch is worked from left to right as follows: insert the needle in the edge of the braid, keeping the thread turned to the right, and bringing it out inside the loop formed by the thread (see illustration no. ); the needle must pass from the back of the loop through it. pass the needle under the stitch and bring it out in front, thus twice twisting the thread, which produces the cord-like appearance of this stitch. at the end of each row fasten to the braid and sew back, inserting the needle once in every open stitch. [illustration: no. .--point d'espagne (spanish point).] no. .--genoa lace stitch.--commence at the right side, and work as follows: _first row._--work button-hole stitches, miss the space of , work , miss the space of , work . continue to the end. _second row._--work stitches close together, into the spaces of the , and more into the loop at each side of it. miss the stitches, and make as before. _third row._--make close stitches, into the last spaces of the , into the loop, and into the first spaces of the next, and so on to the end. _fourth row._--repeat the first, making the stitches into the loop, and the into the center spaces of the nine. [illustration: no. .--genoa lace stitch.] no. .--flemish lace stitch.--commence at the right side, and work as follows: _first row._--work button-hole stitches close together, miss the space of , work , miss the space of ; this will leave a large loop and a small one alternately. _second row._--make button-hole stitches in the larger loops and in the small ones. _third row._--repeat the first row, making stitches in each loop of the second row. [illustration: no. .--flemish lace stitch.] no. .--point de fillet, or net groundwork stitch.--this stitch is also represented at no. , on page , but the method of making the knot is here illustrated. it is used for ground-work where brussels net is not imitated, and is very effective wherever it is used. it is begun in the corner or crosswise of the space to be filled. a loose point de bruxelles stitch is first taken and fastened to the braid, then passed twice through the braid as shown in the illustration, and worked in rows backward and forward as follows: point de bruxelles stitch, then before proceeding to the next stitch, pass the needle _under_ the knot, _over_ the thread, and again _under_ it, as shown in the illustration. this stitch is very quickly worked. [illustration: no. . point de fillet (net groundwork stitch).] no. .--point de reprise.--this stitch is worked by darning over and under two threads forming a triangle. the space is filled by parallel and crosswise bars placed at equal distances, and on the triangles thus produced point de reprise is worked. [illustration: no. .--point de reprise.] no. .--point turque, or turkish point.--this easy and effective stitch is very appropriate for filling either large or small spaces; the thread employed should be varied in thickness according to the size of the space to be filled. _first row._--work a loop into the braid, bringing the thread from right to left, passing the needle through the twist and through the loop (see engraving), draw up tight and repeat. _second row._-- straight thread from right to left. _third row._--work the same as first, using the straight thread in place of the braid, and passing the needle through the loop of the previous row, as shown in the illustration. [illustration: no. .--point turque (turkish stitch).] no. .--treble point d'espagne.--this stitch is worked in exactly the same way as the open and close varieties just mentioned, as follows: close stitches, open, close to the end of each row. sew back, and in the next row make open, close, open, close to the end; repeat the rows as far as necessary, taking care that the close and open stitches follow in regular order. diamonds, stars, squares, blocks and various other pretty patterns may be formed with this stitch. [illustration: no. .--treble point d'espagne.] no. .--point d'espagne (close).--this stitch is worked like open point d'espagne (see no. , page ) but so closely as to only allow the needle to pass through in the next row. it is also worked from left to right, and is fastened to the braid at the end of each row. [illustration: no. .--point d'espagne. (close.)] no. .--point de grecque or grecian point.--point de grecque is made from left to right, and is worked backward and forward. it is begun by stitch in loose point de bruxelles and followed by of close point d'espagne; then bruxelles, point d'espagne, to the end of the row; in returning work in the same manner. [illustration: no. .--point de grecque (grecian point).] no. .--point de cordova.--this stitch is useful as a variation, and resembles the point de reprise of guipure lace making. it is worked in a similar manner, over and under the sides of squares formed by intersecting straight lines of the thread. [illustration: no. .--point de cordova.] no. .--point d'alenÇon, with twisted stitch.--this stitch is used to fill in narrow spaces where great lightness of effect is desired, and is usually seen along the sides of insertions and the tops of edgings. plain point d'alençon is worked over and under in bars in a sort of herring-bone pattern, and a twisted stitch is made as seen in the engraving, by twisting the thread three times around each bar and knotting it at the angles as pictured. the effect is similar to one of the drawn-work hem-stitches. [illustration: no. .--point d'alençon, with twisted thread.] no. .--point d'angleterre.--this lace is worked as follows: cover the space to be filled in with lines of thread about an eighth of an inch apart, then form cross-lines, intersecting those already made and passing alternately under and over them; work a rosette on every spot where two lines cross by working over and under the two lines about times round; then twist the thread twice round the ground-work thread, and begin to form another rosette at the crossing threads. [illustration: no. .--point d'angleterre.] no. .--point de fillet and point de reprise.--the net-work seen in this engraving is the first stitch mentioned, while the block-work is the second. both are clearly illustrated and need no written explanation of the methods employed in making them. [illustration: no. .--point de fillet and point de reprise.] no. .--point de tulle.--this stitch is used as a ground-work for very fine work, and is worked in rows backward and forward in the same stitch as open point d' espagne. when this is completed the work is gone over a second time by inserting the needle under one twisted bar, bringing it out and inserting it at + and bringing it out again at the dot. this produces a close double twist which is very effective. [illustration: no. .--point de tulle.] no. . fan lace stitch.--commence at the right side, and work as follows: _first row._--make button-hole stitch and miss the space of , which will leave a long loop. _second row._--make button-hole stitches in each loop. _third row._--make stitches into the spaces between the , and so decrease one in every row until only one remains, as may be seen by referring to the illustration. [illustration: no. .--fan lace stitch.] no. .--rose point lace stitch.--make a foundation of single threads, crossing them to form the large squares. work a button-hole stitch at each crossing to make it firm. now begin at the top, at the right side and fill the first square with brussels net stitches, finishing at the lower left corner. fill every alternate square in the same way as seen in the picture. now cross the open squares diagonally with two threads, twisting each thread around the adjoining one as represented. (carry one thread across all the squares from corner to corner first, then twist back, fastening at the corner started from; cross these threads in the same way from the opposite direction). when twisting the thread back from the last set of crossings, make a rosette at each center crossing as follows: keep the space open with a pin and trace round it with a darning movement five or six times; commence at the single thread and work a close button-hole stitch over the tracing entirely around, and then twist along the single thread to the center of the next square. this is a very effective design for spaces. [illustration: no. .--rose point lace stitch.] wheels and rosettes. wheels and rosettes are used to fill up spaces, or in combination, to form lace. no. .--rosette in raised point d'angleterre.--this rosette is worked in a manner similar to the english wheel, the difference being that after each stitch is passed round and under the bars, the thread is passed loosely around in the reverse direction, as shown in the illustration, before proceeding to make the next stitch. [illustration: no. .--rosette in raised point d'angleterre.] no. .--mechlin lace wheels.--this is one of the prettiest stitches in point lace, but also one of the most difficult to work correctly. it is made thus: work a number of diagonal bars in button-hole stitch on a single thread in one direction, then begin at the opposite side in the same way, and work or stitches past the spot where the two lines cross; pass the thread round the cross twice, under and over the thread to form a circle. work in button-hole stitch half of one-quarter, make a dot by putting a fine pin in the loop instead of drawing the thread tight, and work button-hole stitches in the loop held open by the pin, then take the pin out and continue as before. beginners will do well to omit the dot, leaving the loop only on the wheel. mechlin wheels are also worked in rows upon horizontal and parallel lines of thread. [illustration: no. .--mechlin lace wheels.] no. .--english wheel.--this is worked in the same manner as sorrento wheels, but instead of _winding_ the thread over and under the bars, the needle is inserted under each bar, and brought out again between the thread and the last stitch; this produces a kind of button-hole stitch, and gives the square, firm appearance possessed by this wheel. [illustration: no. .--english wheel.] nos. and .--sorrento wheel.--this is worked by fastening the thread in the pattern to be filled up, as indicated by the letters. fasten it first to the place _a_, then at place _b_, carrying it back to the middle of the first formed bar by winding it round; fasten again at _c_, carrying it back again to the center by winding it around the bar, and so on to all the letters; then work over and under the bars thus formed. [illustration: no. .--sorrento wheel.] [illustration: no. .--sorrento wheel.] no. .--close english wheels.--these wheels may be used in open spaces and may be very easily made from the engraving. they are much like the wheels used in drawn work--indeed, many of the stitches used in lace are identical with those used in drawn-work. [illustration: no. .--close english wheels.] bars and picots. the word "bar" is applied to the many stitches used to connect the various parts of point lace, and the beauty of the work depends greatly upon the class of bar selected and its suitability to the lace stitches used. nos. and .--raleigh bars.--these bars are much used in making battenburg lace and are very effective. they are worked over a foundation or net-work of coarse thread, and are twisted in places so that they will more easily fall into the desired form. by following the numbering from to , in no. , a square place may be easily filled, and portions of this arrangement applied to form ground-work of any shape desired. upon this ground-work tight point de bruxelles stitches are made, and the dot worked upon these in one of the following ways: [illustration: no. .--net-work for working raleigh bars.] dot or picot.--_first method._--make tight point de bruxelles stitches, loose point de bruxelles; pass the needle under the loop and over the thread, as shown in point de venise bars at no. , on page , and draw up, leaving a small, open loop as in tatting. work tight point de bruxelles stitches, and repeat. _second method._--proceed as above directed, but instead of continuing the tight stitches, work two or three tight stitches in the loop thus formed and repeat. [illustration: no. .--raleigh bars.] _third method._--work tight point de bruxelles stitches; loose, through which pass the needle point, wind the thread three or four times round the point (see no. , page ), press the thumb tightly on this, and draw the needle and thread through the twists. this is a quick mode of making the picot, and imitates most closely the real spanish lace. illustration no. shows how this stitch may also be applied as a _regular_ ground-work, but the beauty of old point ground-work bars consists of variety in form. no. .--italian ground stitch.--commence at the left side, and work as follows: _first row._--make a loose button-hole stitch to form a loop a quarter of an inch wide, and then make a plain stitch into the loop to twist it, and continue to the end. _second row._--make two plain stitches into each loop, working back to the left. _third row._--repeat first row. [illustration: no. .--italian ground stitch.] no. .--open lace bars.--pass a thread from right to left. make it firm by working a second stitch into the braid; work button-hole stitches on this line of thread, close together. then work button-hole stitch on the lower thread at the left hand side, and draw it close to the stitches on the line of thread. miss the space of and repeat. [illustration: no. .--open lace bars.] nos. and .--sorrento bars.--each of the bars is worked from right to left, a straight thread being carried across and fastened securely with a stitch. the return consists of a simple twist under and over the straight thread; three of these bars are usually placed close together at equal distances between the groups. the thread is sewn carefully over the braid in passing from one spot to another. [illustration: no. .--sorrento bars.] [illustration: no. .--sorrento bars.] nos. and .--venetian bars.--the bar at no. is so simple that it really needs no description. it is worked over two straight threads in reverse button-hole stitch. no. shows the venetian bar used as the veining of a leaf and worked upon sorrento bars. [illustration: no. .--venetian bars.] [illustration: no. .--venetian bars.] no. .--point d'anvers bars.--two upright bars form the foundation. the thread is carried over and under them as seen in the engraving, the side loops being added by the method depicted at the top of the point. the over and under work in point d'anvers bars, without the side loops, is often used for plain bars for filling in odd spaces or wheels in heavy lace. [illustration: no. .--point d'anvers bars.] no. .--point grecque bars.--these bars are so simply made that they are great favorites with beginners. they are begun at the top of the point, one straight thread being carried to the bottom; then the cross bars are worked after the method seen in the illustration. [illustration: no. .--point grecque bars.] no. .--bars of point d'angleterre.--these bars may be worked singly or to fill up a space, as in the illustration. work rosettes as in point d'angleterre; when each rosette is finished twist the thread up the foundation thread to the top, fasten with one stitch, then pass it under the parallel line running through the center and over into the opposite braid; repeat on each side of each rosette, inserting the threads as seen in the illustration. [illustration: no. .--bars of point d'angleterre.] no. .--point de venise bars (edged).--begin at the right hand and stretch a line of thread to the left side of the braid, fastening it with one tight stitch of point de bruxelles. upon this line work a succession of tight point de bruxelles stitches. then in every third stitch work one point de venise stitch. [illustration: no. .--point de venise bars (edged).] no. .--d'alenÇon and sorrento bars.--at nos. and (page ), a description of the method of making sorrento bars is given, while at no. (page ), is a description of plain and fancy d'alençon stitches. the two methods are combined in the work seen at no. where the process is so clearly illustrated that a mere novice in lace-work could not fail to produce it perfectly. the combined stitch is used in filling in spaces, etc., etc. [illustration: no. .--d'alençon and sorrento bars.] no. .--picot or dot on sorrento bar.--this dot is worked between rows of point de bruxelles, twisted stitches being worked into the loop left by the twisted thread; this forms a picot resembling satin stitch in appearance. [illustration: no. .--picot or dot on sorrento bar.] no. .--d'alenÇon bars.--these bars are worked upon point de bruxelles edging, and are only applied to the inner part of a pattern, never being used as ground-work bars. the thread is merely passed three times over and under the point de bruxelles stitches, the length of these bars being regulated by the space to be filled; when the third bar is completed a tight point de bruxelles stitch fastens off the bars, and the thread is passed through the next point de bruxelles stitch. [illustration: no. .--d'alençon bars.] no. .--plain venetian bars.--these bars are worked so as to form squares, triangles, etc., in button-hole stitch upon a straight thread. the _arrow_ in the illustration points to the direction for working the next stitch. [illustration: no. .--plain venetian bars.] no. .--dotted point de venise bars.--these pretty bars are worked as follows: stretch the thread from right to left; on this work tight stitches of point de bruxelles, then insert a pin in this last stitch to hold it open and loose, pass the needle under the loose stitch and over the thread, as clearly shown in the illustration, and in this loop work tight point de bruxelles stitches. then work more stitches and repeat to end of row. [illustration: no. .--dotted point de venise bars.] the making of the dots or purls before mentioned as picots, is an important feature in bar work. all three names are employed for the same class of stitch. no. .--third method of making picots or dots.--this method has been fully described in connection with the making of raleigh bars at nos. and (page ), and requires no further description at this point. all dots and picots render work much more effective, and may be introduced at will by the worker. [illustration: no. .--third method of making picots or dots.] in making modern lace, the various kinds require appropriate braids. there are three classes of these braids--those for battenburg lace, those for plain honiton and point, and those for the newest kind of lace, which is called the "ideal honiton." each class of braids contains many designs and widths, and a large number of them, together with various cords, buttons and rings also used are illustrated on following pages. fancy braids, cords, rings and buttons. braids. the braids, cords, rings and buttons illustrated upon the following two pages are all used in modern lace-making. they are all made of pure linen thread, and according to the fancy, the lace including them may be heavy or light. royal battenburg lace, as originated, was heavy--in some cases massive; but at present many lighter varieties are made, as will be surmised upon an inspection of the braids for its manufacture which are represented on the pages mentioned. as shown by no. , these braids are about a third narrower than their actual width, and the picot edges numbered and are plain tatting made for the purpose, as the picot edges woven for lighter laces are not heavy enough for battenburg lace. the numbers opposite the specimens are simply for convenience in ordering, if the order is sent the lady mentioned in another part of the book as the pioneer of lace-making in america; but in ordering from other lace-makers or manufacturers of braids, these numbers will be of little use, as every lace-maker or manufacturer has his or her own individual identifications for materials. almost any of the braids, or those very similar, may be found at large fancy stores, but in buying them at such stores, be careful to get _linen_ braids, as cotton braids do not make pretty lace, neither do they wear or launder well. in ordering these braids from other lace-makers or from fancy stores, it will be necessary to forward the illustration of the kind wanted, as the braids cannot be described with sufficient accuracy to obtain the desired varieties. some are sold by the yard, some by the dozen yards and others by the piece, according to the position to be occupied in the work. the point, honiton and princess braids are represented full size, and are much daintier in texture than the battenburg braids. of this class of braids (see no. ) are made the plain honiton and point laces, and the braids for these two laces combined produce the princess lace--a creation whose beauty fully entitles it to its royal name. the braids seen at no. , page , are those which are used in making the new "ideal honiton" lace represented in another portion of the book. as illustrated, these braids are three-quarters of their proper widths, the top braid, no. , being just one inch wide in the fabric itself. the "ideal honiton" is one of the prettiest laces made, and is very appropriate for tidies, doilies, squares and scarfs. it is daintily secured to the finest of lawn in charming designs, and then the lawn is cut out from beneath it. (see doily, page ). the cords seen at no. are used in making battenburg laces, and greatly increase the beauty of the work in addition to forming a distinctive species of lace. after the ordinary battenburg is worked with quite thick braid, the cord, in any size desired, is used to follow one edge of the design, as will be seen from illustrations upon other following pages. rings and buttons. the rings and buttons illustrated, are made throughout of linen thread in layers of button-hole stitches, and are sold by the dozen or gross. buttons arranged as grapes (see no. , page ), add greatly to the sumptuous effect of a heavy lace, and may be purchased already arranged as illustrated, or they may be arranged by the purchaser of a quantity of them. the latter method is a good plan if spaces are to be filled with clusters which must be of a certain shape. [illustration: no. .--braids used in making battenburg lace.] [illustration: no. .--braids used in making honiton, point and princess lace.] [illustration: no. .--braids used in making "ideal honiton" lace.] [illustration: no. .--cords, rings and buttons used in making battenburg lace.] designs, lace articles, edgings, insertions, etc., in modern lace. of necessity, most of the designs and specimens given on this and the following pages are smaller than the articles they represent, but they afford a correct idea of the method of making and the beauty of modern lace, and also its adaptability to dainty accessories of the toilet and the household. as before mentioned any design desired can be obtained from any lace-making establishment in any size, width or shape, according to the requirements of the article or lace to be made, and individual taste. ingenious students will no doubt be able to adapt for themselves the designs offered, but it is not advisable for those who have no talent in the matter of drawing or designing to undertake an elaborate adaptation, though they may easily accomplish a simple one. besides, a professional designer will furnish the design for a moderate sum, perfectly outlined upon tracing cloth, with ink, and with the proper filling-in stitches perfectly delineated; and if the student wishes it, will select the thread and braid appropriate for the design; or the student may select the braid she fancies, and the designer will then select the thread suitable for the braid. no. . design for a lace handkerchief. this design is suitable for point lace braid, but is of course very much reduced in size, in order to show the effect and arrangement of a design ready for working, as sent out from the lace-maker's. by a reference to the various stitches illustrated on preceding pages, the stitches shown in one corner of the design may be readily identified. the following engraving shows how braid is applied to a design before the stitches are begun. [illustration: no. .--design for a lace handkerchief.] no. . method of placing braid upon designs. this illustration shows the method of arranging braid upon designs for modern lace, and how, after the braid is basted along the pattern, the tracing cloth is basted to _toile cirée_ or to smooth, light brown wrapping paper to provide sufficient firmness for working. the following instructions apply particularly to engraving no. , but their principle should be observed and applied to any design decided upon, as good results in lace-making largely depend upon the arrangement of the braid. run on a straight line of braid for the lower edge, with fine stitches, working as shown, from left to right. take another piece of braid, or the other end of the same piece, and begin to lay the braid by "running" stitches in its center, keeping it as smooth and even as possible. the outer edge presents no difficulty, but the inner edge will not lie evenly without being drawn in by a needle and thread, as follows: fasten whipping thread securely, and insert the needle in and out of the edge of the braid, as if for fine gathering; this thread when drawn up will keep the braid in its place. two or three fastening-off stitches should be worked when each circle, half circle, or rounded curve of a pattern is finished, as the drawing or gathering thread remains in the work, and forms an important, though unseen, part of its structure. before cutting off the braid run a few stitches across it to prevent it from widening. joins should be avoided, but when a join is indispensable, stitch the braid together, open and turn back the ends, and stitch each portion down separately. when passing the thread from one part to another, run it along the center of the braid, allowing the stitches to show as little as possible. in commencing, make a few stitches, leaving the end of the thread on the wrong side and cutting it off afterwards. in fastening off, make a tight button-hole stitch, run in three stitches, bring the needle out at the back, and cut off. [illustration: no. .--method of placing braid upon designs.] no. . royal battenburg lace bureau-scarf. the engraving on the opposite page represents the article above mentioned, and shows the effectiveness of this magnificent and durable lace. in actual size the scarf is about a yard and one-half long and one-half yard wide, and is made of a heavy battenburg braid, having a fancy edge (see nos. or , on page ) and cord, rings and buttons. the main part of the design is outlined with the braid, cord is used as a veining for the leaves, and the rings and buttons are introduced here and there over the surface, as seen in the picture. raleigh bars with picots connect the border and center designs, while the palms along the border as well as other small spaces are filled in with point turque and point de grecque stitches. sorrento bars are also used in some of the long leaf-like spaces, while in a few of the circular spaces point d'angleterre rosettes are introduced. these rosettes are also frequently called "spiders," and are made, according to the space, large or small; and according to the requirements of the braid selected, heavy or light. for convenience in giving the name of this lace, the full title is rarely used--"battenburg lace" being considered sufficient to identify the fabric from the other and lighter laces. battenburg lace is made both heavy and light, according to personal taste or the object for which the lace is intended, but it was originally designed for heavy work only. [illustration: no. .--royal battenburg lace bureau-scarf.] no. . point lace doily for a toilet cushion. this dainty doily may be made of the point lace braids illustrated at nos. and , together with the picot edging no. , seen on page . in filling in the spaces, thread suitable for the braid is used, and the stitches are point de valenciennes, point d'espagne, sorrento bars, point de bruxelles, open rings and "spiders." as all of these stitches, with many others are illustrated in that section of this book devoted to stitches, it will be unnecessary to repeat the details for making, as they are fully given in the department mentioned. it will also be understood that most of the articles illustrated are not of full size, but in some instances are nearly so. the doily just described is illustrated about three-quarters of its actual size; but by using a fine braid a doily of fairy-like texture, and just the size of the engraving may be produced. any one accustomed to drawing may enlarge this or any of the designs given, but only clever fingers should try this experiment. [illustration: no. .--point lace doily for a toilet cushion.] no. . battenburg edging, with cord. this is a very elegant looking lace, though simply made after the regular battenburg method. a plain braid (no. , page ) is chosen to form the outlines, and after the stitches are filled in, cord of a suitable size is carried around the petals and foliage of the design, and rows of it are also used to indicate the vine, though the latter may be outlined with the tape and then with the cord. the petals of the blossoms are filled in in point de bruxelles and point de venise stitches, while point d'espagne and point brabançon are used for the foliage and vine. point grecque and d'alençon bars are also used at the very heart of the blossom, and raleigh net-work bars connect the design to the edge and are dotted here and there with "spiders." [illustration: no. .--battenburg lace, with cord.] no. . battenburg insertion, with cord. this insertion matches the edging or lace above described, and is, therefore, made in exactly the same way, except that the design is double. both the edging and insertion may be made of any width desired; and the design will be found very pretty for fancy-edge or plain braids without the cord. buttons or rings may be used in place of the "spiders" seen in the engravings if preferred. [illustration: no. .--battenburg insertion, with cord.] no. . design for a honiton lace cap. the design illustrated is, of necessity, much smaller than the cap it is intended for; but the clever student may easily enlarge it to, or design one for herself of the size required. lace-makers will duplicate designs in any size desired for a moderate sum, thus saving the amateur much work and at the same time putting her to little expense. the design here illustrated might also be used for handkerchief corners, scarf-ends, etc., etc.; and any of the stitches illustrated on preceding pages may be selected for filling-in purposes. [illustration: no. .--design for a honiton lace cap.] no. . design for a corner in battenburg, point, or honiton lace. according to the article to be decorated, this design will be found appropriate for either of the braids used for the laces above mentioned. for table scarfs, tidies, heavy borders, etc., etc., the battenburg braids should be selected; but for handkerchiefs or doilies, the point or honiton braids are the proper ones to choose for this design. raleigh bars, brussels point and any other stitches preferred, may be used in filling in the spaces. when a design is procured from a lace-maker a portion of it is always marked with the stitches to be used; but this is not an arbitrary matter, since the one who is to make the lace, may desire to and may insert other stitches in preference to those indicated. [illustration: no. .--design for a corner in battenburg, point, or honiton lace.] no. . doily in "ideal honiton" lace-work and linen lawn. one of the prettiest and the very newest of the modern laces is here illustrated. it is made of two of the many varieties of honiton braids, wash-silk floss and linen lawn. the braid is basted smoothly upon a square of lawn in the design illustrated (though individual taste will no doubt suggest many other equally pretty designs), after which the _inner_ edges of the braid are permanently secured by a "short and long stitch." this is merely a short and long button-hole stitch _reversed_ so that the cross loops are on the edge of the braid, while the stitches them selves extend beyond the braid, into the lawn, as seen in the engraving. two short stitches alternate with single long ones throughout this part of the work. the outer edges are then fastened to the square by tiny button-hole scollops. then the lawn is cut from under the squares formed by the braid, and the openings are button-holed through the lawn and braid so that the edges of the lawn will not fray. when this is done the spaces are filled in with fancy stitches, and when they are completed the lawn is cut away from the edge-scollops with a pair of fine sharp, scissors. in the doily illustrated "spiders" and point de venise stitches are used for filling in the spaces. the floss used may be white or tinted, the latter washing as well as the white; but as a rule, white or yellow flosses are selected in preference to other colors. "ideal honiton" scarfs, tidies, doilies, pillow shams, tray cloths, etc., etc., may be purchased with the braid already basted on in a pretty design and with the necessary threads or floss, or they may be designed at home, and by either method will result in a beautiful variety of modern lace. [illustration: no. .--doily of "ideal honiton" lace and linen lawn.] no. . design for a corner in battenburg lace. although this design is intended for battenburg lace, and may be made up of any of the braids used for that kind of lace, it will also be found suitable for the finer point or honiton braids for handkerchiefs, doilies, mats, etc., etc. as illustrated it would be suitable for a handkerchief. enlarged and followed in battenburg braid it would make a very handsome border for a table-scarf, curtains or draperies, or a substantial decoration for a gown of wash fabric or other goods. raleigh bars, "spiders" and point de bruxelles stitches are used for filling in, and a dainty picot edge is sewed to the outer line of the braid. plain or fancy braid may be used for this design. if fancy loop-edge braid is selected, the picot edge will not be needed, the loops taking its place. [illustration: no. .--design for a corner in battenburg lace.] no. . battenburg edging. the edging here illustrated is represented about one-third less than its actual width, but the design is so distinctly brought out that its beauty in any width may be readily conceived. it is formed of fancy battenburg braid, but may be made from a plain variety if preferred. the design is known as the fern leaf and is easy to follow. sorrento bars are used to connect the work, and "spiders" are made here and there to add variety to the work. point de bruxelles stitches are used to fill in the spaces at the sides of the leaves, and, with the fancy braid, produce a very dainty, delicate effect. [illustration: no. .--battenburg edging.] no. . battenburg insertion. this insertion is made to match the edging seen above it, but is much wider than the edging, though formed of the same braid. either design could be varied so as to result in an edging and insertion of equal width, or the edging could be arranged for an insertion, and the insertion illustrated changed into an edging. [illustration: no. .--battenburg insertion.] no. . finger-bowl doily of princess lace and linen lawn. princess lace, (also known as duchesse lace) as elsewhere mentioned, results from combining honiton and point lace braids in one design; and a charming specimen of this lovely lace is here illustrated. the doily is pictured only a trifle smaller than its actual size, and even in its full size is a very dainty affair. after the braids are basted along the design, they are then connected by twisted bars that are an adaptation from the point d'alençon bars with the twisted stitch; and the spaces are filled in in small d'angleterre rosettes or "spiders." as few bars as possible are employed for the spiders, in order to produce a very delicate effect. the lawn center is added last. [illustration: no. .--finger-bowl doily of princess lace and linen lawn.] no. . design for insertion, or a center-piece, in battenburg lace. as suggested by the title, the design here presented may be used for insertion, or for a center to a table cloth or scarf, or a handsome spread. as represented it is intended for a center-piece, and the lace from which the engraving was made is about half-a-yard long and one-fourth of a yard wide. the ground-work is formed of raleigh bars made with picots, and the loops of braid are filled in with twisted point d'alençon bars. this center-piece is very pretty made of ribbon with silk thread for the bars, and in this event it may be made of any color desired, and added to a spread or scarf of surah silk or fine cloth, for which a border to match may be made. [illustration: no. .--design for insertion, or a center-piece, in battenburg lace.] no. . queen anne tray-cloth of battenburg lace and linen. this pretty cloth is intended for a queen anne tray, and its lace edges curve upward and just over the rim of the tray when it is laid upon it. the center is of fine table-linen, while the edge is formed of battenburg braid, buttons and fancy stitches. as will be seen, the corner spaces are filled in with point d'angleterre rosettes or "spiders," the large border spaces and corresponding corner ones are filled in with picot bars, while the very fine work seen in the triangles and square spaces are point de venise stitches, and half-spiders are made in the other triangles. the narrow, straight inner border is composed of bars and tiny buttons arranged as represented. the cloth is hem-stitched before the braid is laid on, and the corners are cut out from underneath after the work is otherwise completed. [illustration: no. .--queen anne tray-cloth of battenburg lace and linen.] no. . design for a butterfly in point lace. (full size). butterflies for the corners of handkerchiefs, scarf-ends and the points of caps or coiffures are favorite designs in point and honiton laces. the one illustrated is very dainty and exceedingly simple to execute. the upper portion of each wing has a point de reprise ground-work, but the solid sections are tiny spiders instead of point de reprise triangles. the outer tips of the wings are filled in with raleigh bars, while similar bars, point de bruxelles stitches and a point d'angleterre rosette complete the lower wings. any of the fine point or honiton braids may be chosen for the outlining of the butterfly, and a fine over-and-over stitch or fine cord may be used to mark the lines extending from the head. [illustration: no. .--design for a butterfly in point lace. (full size).] no. . design for a doily or handkerchief of point or honiton lace. this design, as illustrated, is of course too small for either a doily or handkerchief, but an expert lace-maker can enlarge it to any size desired; and the clever amateur will find no difficulty in doing the same thing, as the outlines are not at all intricate, and may be easily followed. in sending for the braid for this, or similar designs, it is advisable to permit the lace-maker addressed to select them, and of course, the thread, since her long experience enables her at once to correctly judge what materials are appropriate for the articles you wish to make, especially if she knows the size the article is desired to be. the stitches, as here indicated, are point d'angleterre rosettes, and point de fillet, with small "spiders" on the latter. a dainty picot-braid edges the design. [illustration: no. .--design for a doily or handkerchief of point or honiton lace. (half size.)] no. . "cardinal's point" lace. this engraving represents a modern adaptation of an ancient lace which may be made of fancy battenburg braid and plain raleigh bars. the design is not especially definite in its outlines, and may be imitated with any variations which may seem pleasing to the copyist. the picots are made after the method directed at the illustration of point de venise bars in the department devoted to stitches. "cardinal's point" of genuine make is of italian origin, and in the earlier eras, was largely used for the decoration of church vestments and draperies. [illustration: no. .--"cardinal's point" lace.] nos. and . battenburg edging and insertion, with cord. these two engravings show a very pretty design for battenburg lace made with a cord finish. the application of the cord has been fully described elsewhere, where a different design of the same kind of work is given. in the present instance the spaces are filled in with twisted bars, "spiders" and rosettes in point d'angleterre. the specimens from which the engravings were made are a trifle wider than seen in the pictures; but the width is a matter of individual taste, and also a result of the braid selected. a professional lace-maker will enlarge or adapt the design to accord with personal requirements. [illustration: no. .--battenburg edging, with cord.] [illustration: no. .--battenburg insertion, with cord.] no. . tape-guipure design, found in an old church. the design here illustrated was found in the old church of santa margherita, in italy. it was drawn on parchment, and was undoubtedly intended as a design for altar lace. it was mentioned in a book of accounts for the year , found in the archives of the church designated and is therefore of antique origin; but it may be easily adapted to modern methods of lace-making, and could be appropriately filled in with either italian or genoa lace stitches or with a combination of both, and twisted bars. done with fancy battenburg braid, it would be quite similar in effect to the "cardinal's point" illustrated on another page. [illustration: no. .--tape-guipure design, found in an old church.] no. . battenburg church lace. the engraving opposite illustrates a magnificent specimen of modern church lace made of battenburg braid with a limited introduction of honiton braid. the specimen itself is considerably wider than represented, but as the width is a matter of individual taste, the engraving will serve as a design for a narrow church lace. sorrento bars are used to connect the braids and to form foundations for the spiders or rosettes here and there inserted, and the lace is delicately bordered with a dainty picot-braid. the fancy stitches in the main portions of the cross are point de valenciennes, while those in the minor sections are point de bruxelles. point de fillet is used for the central portion of the large t-shaped symbol, while the stitch forming the other symbol is one never used except for church lace, and consists of two or three sets of fine stitches so interlaced as to seem to form one solid stitch. in making church lace any insignia desired can be introduced by a professional designer--an accomplishment that is usually beyond the inventive powers of the novice in lace-making. [illustration: no. .--battenburg church lace.] no. . english needle-point. this is a very handsome design combining the lily and the rose. the foundation work is made with unbleached linen braid having an ornamental edge, and the filling-in is done with fine and coarse linen thread in various stitches. raleigh bars with picots define the upper edge of the edging, and sorrento bars on which buttons are worked form the ground work. point de grecque, point d'angleterre, d'alençon bars plain and twisted, point de bruxelles and "spiders" are also used in making this lace, as will be seen from a close inspection of the engraving. this specimen of lace is very handsome when developed in black silk braids and silk thread, for black costumes. [illustration: no. .--english needle point.] no. . punch-glass doily of point lace and lawn. as represented this doily is about three-fourths of its actual size. it is made of fine linen lawn, and a set generally comprises a dozen. fine point lace braid is used to outline the design, and then rosettes in point d'angleterre, and "spiders" or small rosettes are made in the openings as represented. the alternate outer scallops are filled in with point de bruxelles stitches, and a dainty picot-braid is added to the edge by the usual over-and-over stitch. [illustration: no. .--punch-glass doily of point lace and lawn.] no. . point lace collar and cuff. a very handsome point lace set is here illustrated, and may be easily followed by an expert lace-maker; but it will be wiser for the novice to obtain a pattern or design of the shape and size desired, from a professional lace-maker. point de grecque, point de bruxelles, point de venise, sorrento bars, and rosettes and rings are all employed in carrying out this design. as elsewhere mentioned, any fine stitch preferred may be used for filling-in purposes when those suggested or marked out upon a design are not admired. [illustration: no. .--point lace collar and cuff.] no. . design for table scarf in battenburg lace. the scarf-end from which this design was copied is about ten inches deep, and it is about fourteen or fifteen inches wide. it will be seen from these dimensions, that it is impossible to produce a full-size design of it on these pages, but one of any size desired may be obtained at any lace-makers; or, a clever student of lace-making may enlarge the design to suit her own requirements. according to the size of the scarf-end, wide or narrow braid must be selected, with thread to correspond. the stitches used in filling in are point de fillet, point de bruxelles and point d'angleterre, and raleigh, sorrento and d'alençon bars, and rosettes and "spiders." [illustration: no. .--design for a table scarf in battenburg lace.] no. . apple design for a corner in battenburg lace. this design is for the corner of a scarf, spread, tidy or pillow-sham and is very popular, as it is effective though simply made. the fine stitches are point de bruxelles, while the others are raleigh, sorrento and point grecque bars. plain or fancy braid, or a combination of both may be used in this design with a charming effect. [illustration: no. .--apple design for a corner in battenburg lace.] no. . roman punch-glass doily in point lace. doilies of this description are generally made about four inches square. the engraving opposite pictures the doily mentioned as somewhat smaller, but the design is sufficiently large to enable the student to make her doilies as large as she desires them to be, as it is easy to follow. the corner spaces are filled in with twisted bars and rings worked at the same time; but rosettes or spiders may be worked in place of the rings if preferred. the corner spaces are filled in in point brabançon, and for those at each side point de bruxelles is used. the doily is edged with a fine picot-braid that finishes it daintily, and very sheer linen lawn is used for the center. [illustration: no. .--roman punch-glass doily in point lace.] no. . modern russian lace. the design illustrated may be followed in battenburg braid or plain lace tape, and any of the fancy stitches mentioned and described among the rosettes, bars and picots may be employed for filling-in purposes. cream white or unbleached braids or tapes are prettier for russian lace than pure white. russian lace is a very durable as well as effective trimming for household draperies, and also for gowns of wash fabrics or those of cotton fabrics which will not need renovating. [illustration: no. .--modern russian lace.] no. . russian lace. this engraving represents a specimen of genuine russian lace made of fine braid, and wrought with bars similar to raleigh bars, except that they have no picots. the russians have always been noted for their exquisite needle-work, but as a nation they have never had any established lace manufactory. the workers of the small amount of lace produced are scattered about at their own houses, and many of them are poor ladies of gentle birth. most of the laces, however, are made by the peasantry, who bring them to st. petersburg where sale for them is found. [illustration: no. .--russian lace.] no. . bow-knot design for modern lace. this fashionable design may be developed in various widths and braids as an insertion, or as an appliqué on lawn. the ground-work may be formed of raleigh bars, or of twisted bars made like the net-work for raleigh bars. the loops of the bows may be filled in with point de bruxelles or any fine stitch preferred. the design is pretty for bordering table scarfs, tidies, valances and curtains when heavy braids are selected. the finer braids render the design appropriate for handkerchiefs and dainty trimming laces. [illustration: no. .--bow-knot design for modern lace.] no. . princess lace doily design. the design here illustrated may be enlarged or simplified to please individual taste, and it may be made of honiton braid as well as point. the connecting stitches may be point de bruxelles, raleigh and sorrento bars, "spiders" or any of the fine stitches described and illustrated in the department devoted to stitches. a dainty picot braid follows the outer edge of the doily. this design, enlarged sufficiently, would form an elegant pattern for a lace handkerchief. [illustration: no. .--princess lace doily design.] no. . altar lace (battenburg). this very elegant specimen of altar lace is, in reality, about nine or ten inches deep; but, for want of space the engraving represents it as only about half as wide. the design, however, is perfect in detail, and the illustration fully displays its effectiveness, and discloses the variety of connecting and filling-in stitches used. a delicate battenburg braid is chosen for the foundation, and in addition to regular lace stitches, those from drawn work are here and there interspersed. the cross is filled in in point de venise, (or side stitch as it is sometimes called), and the same stitch is seen in the central design at each side of the cross. drawn-work effects are seen also in these central figures and along the borders. sorrento bars are here made and knotted at the center like drawn strands, or are connected by rosettes or "spiders" made in drawn-work style. at the center of the cross is a large drawn-work wheel, while small maltese crosses and half-crosses are made elsewhere in the work by the drawn-work method, sorrento bars taking the place of the usual strands. the central section of the border at the right of the cross is done in point de bruxelles which is afterward button-holed as in bar-work, and a button-hole picot edge follows the lower outlines of the pattern. raleigh bars with picots form the connecting ground-work throughout the work. this beautiful specimen shows two distinct methods of filling in the sections between the crosses. either may be used alone, or the two may be used alternately with the crosses. [illustration: no. .--altar lace (battenburg.)] no. . battenburg or point lace collar and cuff. these engravings represent a very graceful design for a lace collar and cuffs. as suggested in the title, the set may be made of point or battenburg braid. the leaf-points are all filled in with d'alençon bars in the twisted stitch, while the centers are completed with rosettes or small open "spiders," and the latter are distributed elsewhere as will be seen by inspecting the engraving. point de grecque is also introduced into some of the spaces, and raleigh bars are used for the ground-work. any of the stitches previously described may be used in making such a collar if those mentioned are not admired; and the addition of buttons or rings will improve the work greatly. [illustration: no. .--battenburg or point lace collar and cuff.] no. . flounce in battenburg lace. a very elegant flounce of battenburg lace may be made after the design represented on the opposite page. the picture shows the flounce just one-half its actual width; but even this width would be very handsome as a band for the bottom of a dress. by a close inspection of the stitches seen and a reference to these illustrated in the department devoted to stitches, the various kinds here used may be easily identified. they consist of point de venise, point de bruxelles, sorrento and d'alençon bars and "spiders." a fine picot braid edges each side of the flounce. the design can be obtained in any width desired from a reliable lace-maker. [illustration: no. .--flounce in battenburg lace (one-half the actual width).] no. . butterfly design for point lace. this design is for point lace braid, and is very easily made. fancy bars made after an adaptation from the d'alençon bars, and point de venise stitches are used for filling in. the butterfly may be used as a portion of an edging design, or as a corner or center for any small article to be decorated. the lines extending from the head are made with a fine over-and-over stitch, or a fine cord. [illustration: no. .--butterfly design for point lace.] no. . venetian point lace. this is a design containing many of the features of antique lace patterns, and is made of narrow tape and fine cord combined with fancy stitches. the lace from which the engraving is made is about twice as wide as the picture represents it, but as the pattern differs in its sections for several inches at a time, the design could not be given full size. it will be seen that in the section illustrated no two figures are alike. the filling-in stitches consist of combinations and groupings of many of the stitches previously illustrated and described. [illustration: no. .--venetian point lace.] no. . butterfly design for fine battenburg lace. this design, developed in battenburg lace with d'alençon and sorrento bars and small "spiders" or dots, makes a pretty ornament for centers or corners, or is effective when introduced as a part of an edging design. point or honiton braids may also be made up by this design. [illustration: no. .--butterfly design for fine battenburg lace.] no. . design for insertion. a very pretty design for insertion is here given. the braid may be basted as seen in the picture, and then the bars may be made of single threads, and of single threads over-wrought with button-hole stitches. or, any of the bars or other stitches described, may be used to connect the braid and fill in the spaces. tiny "spiders" are already used to fill in the circles. [illustration: no. .--design for insertion.] no. . design for a lace border and corner. a great deal must be left to the ingenuity of the worker in filling in this design, which is not of the orthodox modern variety but may be readily transformed into that class by an adaptation of modern stitches. with the methods of the latter well mastered, the worker will have no trouble in bringing out the design just as it is illustrated; but she may also by the exercise of a little judgment and taste substitute many other pretty filling-in stitches for those here pictured. [illustration: no. .--design for a lace border and corner.] no. . design for a butterfly in point lace. another butterfly design is here given for point lace, though it may also be developed in a larger size in battenburg braid for decorative purposes. the filling-in stitches are d'alençon and raleigh bars, point de venise and point de bruxelles, and point d'angleterre rosettes. [illustration: no. .--design for a butterfly in point lace.] no. . italian lace. this lace is of a conventional italian pattern, and is filled in with the italian lace and ground-stitches, and sorrento bars. the lower edge is very daintily completed with a button-hole effect. the design is simple, elegant, and popular, and may be wrought in battenburg or the finer braids, and in any width desired, the braid selected and the width decided upon determining the use to which the lace shall be put. [illustration: no. .--italian lace (half size).] no. . modern venetian point. the engraving shows a reduced representation of a very elegant specimen of modern lace--the reduction in size being necessary in order to present the whole design. in making the lace, narrow braid and cord are used for the foundation of the design, and then the filling-in stitches are made and at the same time rings and buttons and bars and picots are introduced. some of the filling-in stitches are combinations--as in the figures with very open bars where point d'espagne and point brabançon are combined, and at the middle section of the central figure where point de valenciennes and point brabançon are combined. other stitches used are d'alençon bars, raleigh bars, church stitch, point de bruxelles, "spiders," sorrento bars, and picots. the greater the variety in the filling-in stitches, the more beautiful the lace. a picot edge finishes the lace in a very dainty manner along its lower outline, while a cord forms the upper edge. [illustration: no. .--modern venetian point.] no. . design for modern lace. this design may be made up in battenburg braid, or of point or honiton braid according to the texture of the lace desired. in making it for garments or articles that are to be renovated occasionally, the battenburg braids are advisable; but for daintier uses, point or honiton may be chosen. the raleigh-bar stitch, point de bruxelles, and "spiders" may be used in following the outlines given for stitches. [illustration: no. .--design for modern lace.] no. . corner in modern lace. the suggestions given above will also apply to this design, which may be used for a table spread, or a handkerchief, according to the braid selected. as illustrated, the design is of pretty dimensions for a doily or a toilet-cushion cover, or for a handkerchief. all of the bar work seen may be done with single threads instead of the complete raleigh method, and the rosettes or "spiders" may be larger or smaller as preferred. [illustration: no. .--corner in modern lace.] no. . pillow-sham of battenburg lace and linen. a very elaborate pillow-sham is here illustrated. it is made of battenburg braid and appropriate thread, together with an intermingling of rings, and forms one of the most elegant appointments of a handsomely furnished bed-room. the pattern is very distinct and is called the "rose and leaf" design. the ground-work is formed of rings and raleigh bars, while the centers of the roses and their leaves are filled in in various fancy stitches which include the crosses and rosettes used in drawn-work, sorrento bars, points de venise and bruxelles, d'alençon bars, etc., etc. if desired the linen square may be made larger, and the lace but one row of blossoms in width. the square is made of the finest household linen and is completed with a broad hem-stitched hem before the lace is added. the lace design may be obtained in any width desired by sending to a professional lace-maker; or, a clever student may be able to enlarge the design herself. [illustration: no. .--pillow-sham of battenburg lace and linen.] no. . design for princess or duchesse lace collar and cuffs. although this design is represented very small, it is sufficiently clear to convey a good idea of its outlines, and enable a student of average ability to adapt it to collar and cuffs of any size desired. raleigh bars are used in connecting the various portions of the braids, while any of the fine stitches preferred may be chosen to fill in around the loops of the blossoms and foliage. a fine picot braid finishes the edge. [illustration: no. .--design for princess or duchesse lace collar and cuffs.] no. . english needle-point lace. this engraving illustrates a very beautiful specimen of modern-point lace in a design combining the lily and the rose. raleigh bars and buttons render the heavy part of the work effective, while the daintier point stitches and bars are used to fill in the floral sections--coarse and fine thread being used in the work. this lace, like any of the varieties now fashionable may be made wide or narrow, or fine or coarse by designs furnished as required by lace-makers in general; and the patterns may also be developed in silk or ribbon needle-point, which is a style of ornamentation appearing extensively as a decoration for scarfs, piano and table covers, mantel valences, etc., etc. [illustration: no. .--english needle-point lace.] no. . royal battenburg lace. this design was among the first ones of this lace to appear, and is fully entitled to its royal name. fancy battenburg braid was selected for the foundation, and various stitches chosen for filling-in purposes. among the stitches are point de bruxelles, made similarly to the italian lace stitch, point de fillet, plain raleigh bars, point d'alençon, rosettes, rings and point de grecque. the central figure conveys a hint of the outlines of the royal crown, and the lace is really sumptuous in design and texture. in , mrs. grace mccormick, the originator of the design and lace was awarded a diploma for her work which was forwarded from washington, where she applied for a patent for her specimens of royal battenburg lace, of which this is one. [illustration: no. .--royal battenburg lace.] no. . roman lace (coral pattern). the design here given is for a lappet or scarf-end, and will afford a suggestion for the making of larger articles or edging in similar arrangements of braid. it will be observed that the braid forms irregular lines that recall the branchings of coral, and it will be a very easy matter for an amateur lace-maker to similarly arrange her braid for any purpose she desires. fine raleigh bars form the connecting work, and a button-hole picot-finish is made along the edge of the braid which forms the border. in making an edging, a definite outline could be kept for the lower edge, and above this an irregular or indefinite outline arranged. [illustration: no. .--roman lace (coral pattern).] no. . tidy of battenburg lace. the tidy here illustrated is made entirely of battenburg lace, and is a beautiful specimen of this kind of work. the border design is the same as the one previously described for a pillow-sham, except that but one row of the blossoms and foliage is used. the center is composed of rows of braid crossed to form squares or open spaces that are filled in with rosettes in point d'angleterre. this center is attached to the braid at the inner edge of the border by a series of bars arranged in d'alençon style and then wrought with the thread after the method used in d'anvers bars. this tidy, enlarged, forms an elegant design for a pillow-sham. when laid over a tinted silk spread or pillow, a sham of this design shows its full beauty. when the braid is basted on in the outlines desired, the remainder of the work will be a pleasing pastime, as none of it is so fine as to require very close attention. [illustration: no. .--tidy of battenburg lace.] no. . modern lace. a handsome specimen of lace is here illustrated. it will be observed that the braid from which it is made is woven like fine binding braid, and in this respect differs from any of the lace-braids herein illustrated. it will also be seen that no two figures of the design are alike, and that various stitches are used in completing them, many being combinations of or adaptations from the stitches illustrated at the beginning of this pamphlet. the engraving is sufficiently plain to enable the worker to decide which stitches are used alone or in combination, and to guide her correctly in their application. the picot-edge is done in point de venise stitch. [illustration: no. .--modern lace.] no. . modern-point lace edging. this is an easy design to follow and is simply made. heavy sorrento bars with picot loops form the ground-work, while the filling-in stitches are of the same class done in fine thread in regular squares and also a combination of point de fillet and point de grecque. a dainty picot-finish is added at the lower edge. this edging is pretty for bordering draperies or decorating dresses, and may be made as fine or as coarse as desired. [illustration: no. .--modern-point lace edging.] no. . square in modern-point lace. in this design will be observed a favorite combination--the rose and the butterfly. close inspection will also disclose that the filling-in stitches are of a diverse character, and that to this diversification much of the beauty of the work is due. as most of the stitches are easily recognized, and as the copyist can easily adapt methods for the combinations seen, it will not be necessary to definitely describe them. the square may be used for a scarf-end in connection with the edging no. seen on page , if the braid selected is sufficiently fine. when coarser braid is chosen, the square will be pretty for doilies, tidies or the center of a table spread. the design may be daintily made up of ribbon, with silk for the stitches. in this event it may be set into a scarf or drapery of china or surah silk with charming results. [illustration: no. .--square in modern-point lace.] no. . louis xiv. curtain-lace. this is a very popular decoration for curtains and vestibule doors and is made of heavy écru or white net and braid. the design selected is generally a border with a corner piece, and sometimes a center piece. the specimen here given is simply a square of the net decorated as illustrated to convey an idea of this at present fashionable curtain lace. the design is first traced on tracing cloth that is then underlaid with brown paper to hold it stiffly in place. the net is then laid over this and smoothly basted down so that the tracing shows through plainly. then écru or white battenburg braid is used to follow the design, and is shaped into the leaves and flowers seen, rings being used for the centers of the blossoms and écru or white cord for the stems. the net is cut from under the rings at the centers of the large roses, and each opening is filled in with point de fillet and english wheels. the effect is very rich and the work is not difficult to do. when a curtain is thus embroidered or decorated with braid, it is bordered the same as the square illustrated, or upon that principle, with rows and points of battenburg braid. ribbon is often used in this way for tidies, bureau scarfs and various other little household decorations, and in this event the flower and foliage tints may be carried out in the design. [illustration: no. .--louis xiv. curtain-lace.] darned-net scarfs, kerchiefs, tidies, edgings, insertions, etc., etc., with designs for the same and other articles. bobbin net, or "bobbinet," or "net" as it is now commonly called, was first made by machinery in , and was so called because the threads from which it was made were wound upon bobbins, and _twisted_ into meshes instead of being _looped_ in knitting style as they were previous to the invention of the machine. the latter was invented by john heathcoat, the son of an english farmer; but to france must be given the credit of introducing the "darned work" by which some of its costliest net laces were first made. from these laces originated the industry of darning net by machinery and by hand, and in all grades from fine silk-blonde and brussels net to the coarsest wash net, such as is used for curtains and draperies. in the earlier days the pattern was stamped on the net by means of wooden blocks, and the net was then placed in a frame, and the darner with her left hand under the lace followed the design with her needle and cotton, linen or silk floss held over the work in the right hand. this method may be employed at the present time; or, the design may be drawn on thick paper and the net basted over it; or, if the net is coarse the design may be followed by counting the meshes and inserting the needle and floss accordingly; or the design may be transferred to the net itself by black or colored pencils, or stamping. the darner must decide for herself which method for holding the work she will use. some of the most expert darners simply hold the net loosely in their hands and copy the design by eye alone. wash-silk floss, india floss which is of linen but looks like silk, and ordinary darning flosses are all used for this work. darned net is liked for many purposes, as will be observed by the variety of designs and illustrations given on these pages. no. . scarf-end of darned net. this illustration pictures a very pretty scarf-end, but presents it only half of its actual width. the scarf is about a yard in length and is darned with linen floss and edged with the finest feather-edge braid. the center portions of the flowers and foliage are cut out after the solid darning is made, and the spaces are then filled in with a fancy mesh done with fine cotton in point de bruxelles stitch. [illustration: no. .--scarf-end of darned net (half size).] no. . narrow cuff of darned net. this engraving presents a cuff of darned net in its actual width. the design is also suitable for an edging and may be easily changed into an insertion. feather-edge braid is used to complete the cuff. a collar may be made to match if desired. [illustration: no. .--narrow cuff of darned net.] no. . corner of kerchief of darned net. this kerchief is made similarly to the scarf-end illustrated on page , and as represented, the corner is only one-half its actual size. the kerchief itself is about twenty-two inches square and is very dainty in effect. the stars which fill in the central portion are very simple to make, and the eyelets in each are punched with a bodkin and then worked once around in point de bruxelles or button-hole stitch. the kerchief is made of fine brussels net and the darning is done with india floss. [illustration: no. .--corner of kerchief of darned net (half size).] no. . tidy of darned net. this engraving represents a charming little tidy made of coarse wash-net darned with wash-silk floss in oriental colorings. the tidy has an inch wide hem and is about eleven inches wide and twelve long. the hem is fastened down by three rows of darning stitches, the outer row being deep garnet, the middle row bright old-rose and the inner row deep orange. one small fan is made of the orange and pale-blue, another of the old-rose with sulphur-yellow, and the third peacock-blue and crimson. one large fan is made of pale-pink and silver-gray (darned together), and wood-brown; another is made of the garnet and the sulphur-yellow, while the third is made of orange and pale-blue. the scrolls meeting at the center are made, one of wood-brown, one of sulphur-yellow and one of garnet, and the rest of the design is made in different shades of dull green. laid over white, this tidy is very effective. it may be darned in one color on white, black or écru net if preferred, and with linen floss. [illustration: no. .--tidy of darned net.] no. . tie-end of darned net. a tie-end in its actual width is here illustrated. the tie is about three-quarters of a yard long, and is darned in all-over style in the design seen in the engraving, with linen floss. a line of fine feather-edge braid finishes the tie in a dainty manner. this design may be used for any other article preferred, and its details will also suggest other designs of a similar character which may be invented by the worker. this scarf as well as the others just described, may be made up in black if preferred; and in this event it will be easier for the darner to follow the meshes if she bastes her net over a white background. the design may or not be traced on this background. [illustration: no. .--tie-end of darned net (full width).] no. . darned-net edging, with over-wrought stitch. this handsome edging is darned upon a wide strip of net with coarse and fine embroidery cotton, and after the pattern is completed the lower edge of the net is cut away. the coarse cotton is used to outline the design and fill in some of the central portions, while the fine is darned in between the outer and center portions, and is used for the over-wrought portions. these portions are "run" back and forth loosely to form a raised foundation for the buds and rose-centers before the over-wrought work is done. the edging is given full-size and no difficulty will be experienced in following the design or making the lace; and the design may be adapted to any article of wear that can be made of darned net. a scarf or kerchief, dotted with rosebuds made like those of this design would be a very dainty article of personal adornment; and the buds might be made of pale-pink or yellow floss with a charming effect. the floral idea might be further carried out by using shaded green floss for the foliage. [illustration: no. .--darned-net edging, with overwrought stitch (full size).] nos. and . darned-net edgings. it will not be necessary to give special instructions for either of the edgings here illustrated, as both are given full size and the designs are perfectly distinct. no. is finished with a button-holed scallop from which the net is cut away when the work is completed. either edging may be made of white, écru or black net as preferred, and the floss may be white or tinted, or of cotton, linen or silk. in making no. upon black net, silver or gilt thread or colored flosses will be found very effective. black net thus darned is very pretty for ruching and jabots for dress-waists. in making darned edgings, net may be purchased in various edging widths, and in this style is often called "footing." when bobbin net (or bobbinet as it is now called) was first invented, it was made only one inch wide but now it may be purchased three and one-half yards wide if desired. [illustration: no. .--darned-net edging.] [illustration: no. .--darned-net edging.] no. . pillow-sham of darned net. this engraving represents one of the many uses to which darned net is put. moderately coarse net was selected, and the darning was done with linen floss in the various patterns seen, and which are repeated in a larger form on the following pages. the sham was hemmed after the darning was finished, and a frill of darned-net edging was then added. tinted silk or sateen should be laid under such a sham in order to bring out the beauty of the work. the ambitious darner may make a bed-spread to correspond with her shams, if she has the time to devote to the task and the patience to complete it; and in making such a set, she need not confine herself to the designs here given, but may select any others she admires, or may originate a design herself. individual ideas as to decoration so widely differ, that clever workers are sure to evolve designs of various characters and a generally uniform beauty. blossoms, leaves, carvings, oriental figures, brocades, etc., etc., all afford dainty ideas for designs for darned net. [illustration: no. .--pillow-sham of darned net.] no. . center of pillow-sham. this engraving presents an enlarged representation of the center of the pillow-sham seen on page , and also shows its suitability for the center of a tidy. the inner design is very easy to follow, as will be seen by referring to no. on page , where a large illustration of it is seen supplemented by a vine-border at each side. the outer border of this center-piece is very simple, and may be darned in diamonds as large or as small as desired. [illustration: no. .--center of pillow-sham.] no. . section of pillow-sham. in looking at the sham illustrated on page , the design illustrated at no. will be seen at either side of the middle-stripe design. as here represented it will be easy to copy either for a pillow-sham or for any article of decoration or personal use desired. the ingenious worker will find many methods of combining it with other designs or applying it as an insertion, a border or an edging; and she may also use her own taste as to darning with white or colored floss, or using white, écru, fancy-colored or black net. [illustration: no. .--section of pillow-sham.] no. . section of pillow-sham. this design has been mentioned in connection with the pillow-sham seen upon page , and the engraving represents it perfectly. it may be employed for the purpose mentioned or adapted to any other use required, and may be copied exactly or varied to suit individual taste. black net darned with gold thread in this design would be pretty for decorating a black silk gown or trimming a black hat. [illustration: no. .--section of pillow-sham.] no. . section of pillow-sham. another portion of the pillow-sham mentioned is here illustrated, but the design is quite as appropriate for any other decorative purpose. yokes for night-dresses may be darned in this pattern, or in any of the ones previously given, with a very pretty effect; and when tinted ribbon, mull or lawn is laid under the darned stripes, the effect is very dainty indeed. yokes to children's dresses may also be darned in this pattern or the others, and little caps or hoods may be made to match and lined with a tinted or white fabric. [illustration: no. .--section of pillow-sham.] no. . end of drapery-scarf of darned net. the end of the drapery-scarf from which this engraving was made is about fourteen inches square, and the sides are turned under for about a quarter of an inch, or a little more, and darned down closely to represent a selvedge. the design is oriental in outline and is easy to follow. as represented the scarf is made of white net and darned with white linen floss; but the oriental effect may be carried out more perfectly if the darning is done with colored flosses with an intermingling of silver or gilt thread. white, black, écru or colored net may be used. two ends are made and then gathered to a smaller square of net. this small square is then drawn together through the center under a bow of wide satin ribbon, and the scarf is then fastened to the article of furniture it is to decorate. to its ends may be added tassels, rings or any edge-finish that is in accord with the materials of the scarf. black net darned with gold, crimson, peacock-blue, and pale-yellow and pale-olive, results in a charmingly eastern or oriental effect. [illustration: no. .--end of drapery-scarf of darned net.] no. . design for a corner or square of darned net. a very pretty design, as simple as it is effective, is here represented. according to the purpose for which the work is intended, and the color of the net selected, the darning may be done in cotton, linen or silk, and in white, black, écru or colors. the pattern may be modified in any way pleasing to the taste, or diversified by the introduction of portions of other designs or individual ideas. [illustration: no. .--design for a corner or square of darned net.] no. . border for darned net. a pretty border for tidies, draperies, flounces, yokes, collars or any article requiring a border is here illustrated. any of the suggestions given above may be adopted in making this border, which may be used separately or in combination with other borders, according to individual taste. gold thread upon black or white net would, in this design, result in a very effective dress decoration. [illustration: no. .--border for darned net.] no. . design for darned net. this pretty pattern may be used as a border, insertion or stripe for personal or household articles, and is one of the most popular designs in use. it is very easy to follow and is illustrated full size. it might be used to border the lower edge of a wide flounce for a petticoat, or, with equal propriety, applied to a tidy or a window drapery, providing the worker regulates the size of the design appropriately for the work in hand. for window draperies it would need to be much broader and larger in other ways than as represented. [illustration: no. .--design for darned net.] no. . edging of darned net. the design here presented is of full size, and very easy to work. a dainty edge in button-hole stitch is worked for the border, and the net is afterward cut out to form the tiny scallops. this is a pretty pattern for neck and wrist frills, jabots or ruffles, or for the adornment of kerchiefs for the neck or pockets, or for any purpose for which lace edging is selected. [illustration: no. .--edging of darned net.] no. . design for darned net. this engraving represents a flounce of darned-net in its actual size or width. it will be seen that the design is simple, but at the same time very effective. the flounce is for a child's dress made of net darned all over in the pattern seen in the picture, and worn over a tinted silk slip. the all-over work is very pretty indeed, and the design may be put to any of the many uses for which darned net is suitable. it is pretty for yokes, pillow-shams, counterpanes, infants' dresses and carriage-robes, parasol-covers, sofa-pillow covers, and in fact for any article that may be made of lace. the points of the flounce are darned back and forth in selvedge effect; but they may be worked in button-hole stitch if preferred. a touch of color may be given the work by using a little tinted or colored floss with the white, though the latter is most generally selected for darning net. in using tints, more delicate shades will be found in silk darning-flosses. [illustration: no. .--design for darned net.] no. . design in darned net. this design is extremely simple, and it may be used separately as a border or insertion, or in combination with parts of other designs in making up a large or elaborately-worked article. it is dainty enough for the decoration of an infant's garment if desired for such ornamentation, or heavy enough for elaborating an adult's attire. [illustration: no. .--design in darned net.] no. . design for a yoke or section of a garment in darned net. the yoke, sleeves, collar, cuffs and flounce of a child's dress were beautifully darned in the design illustrated by this engraving, and the effect was far more charming than can be conveyed by a picture. the little gown was airy enough for a sprite, and its greatest cost was in the outlay of the time devoted to its construction; and even this could not be counted a real outlay, as only odd moments of leisure were employed in making the pretty garment. white net, white floss and white india lawn were the composing materials. [illustration: no. .--design for a yoke or section of a garment in darned net.] nos. and . designs for darned net. both of these designs are very pretty for diverse purposes, and also very easy to follow. either may be used as a heading, an insertion or a border, separately or in conjunction with other designs. many of the suggestions given concerning other designs upon previous pages will apply to these two designs, which fact leaves little to suggest for them individually. each darner will think out for herself many uses to which to put designs, many combinations in which they will prove effective, and many colorings suggested by the tints which govern her room or her wardrobe; all of which would be an impossible task for any one person, unacquainted with the surroundings of all our students to accomplish. one idea from one person will suggest another idea to a second person, and thus, in the lace-work at the beginning and after part of this book, as in all fancy work, upon an evolution of ideas must rest the great responsibility of an endless variety of designs. [illustration: no. .--design for darned net.] [illustration: no. .--design for darned net.] mrs. grace b. mccormick, lace-maker for the best families of new york and other cities, _designer and manufacturer of modern hand-made laces_, and importer of materials for laces, needle-work and general household decorative work, and also of fine linens and linen lawn. [illustration] designs for borders, pillow-shams, edgings, insertions, tray-cloths, center-pieces, buffet and bureau scarfs, tidies, pin-cushion covers, doilies, collars and cuffs, coiffures, dress sets, panels, handkerchiefs, flounces, vestibule and window curtains, and all household garnitures; also exceptionally rich designs for church and altar laces, etc., etc. these designs will be furnished for _royal battenburg, honiton, english needle-point, princess, russian and "ideal honiton" laces, in any size or shape required._ also designs for darned net. particular attention paid to making estimates, and drafting special designs and selecting the proper braids, threads, needles, etc., etc., for the same. also, always on hand a fine assortment of imported and american samples of crocheted laces; also crocheted mats, doilies, tidies, scarf-ends, etc., etc. * * * * * curtains and fine laces skilfully cleaned and repaired. * * * * * all information desired concerning _modern or antique laces, materials, quantities and prices, cheerfully supplied upon_ receipt of _inquiry_, _full address_ and _return postage_. address, _mrs. grace b. mccormick_, broadway, new york. * * * * * transcriber's note: summarized here are the corrections applied to the text. corner or crosswise of the space "crosswise" was printed as "crossswise" cloth is basted to _toile cirée_ "cirée" was printed as "circé" match may be made. this was printed as "may be mad" what materials are appropriate "appropriate" was printed as "appropiate" as it is easy to follow. "is" was missing in text no. . the heading was missing. d'alençon bars and "spiders." "d'" was missing also be developed in a larger size "in" was printed twice no. . no. . headings and where mixed up mission furniture how to make it part three popular mechanics handbooks chicago popular mechanics company copyrighted, by h. h. windsor this book is one of the series of handbooks on industrial subjects being published by the popular mechanics co. like the magazine, these books are "written so you can understand it," and are intended to furnish information on mechanical subjects at a price within the reach of all. the texts and illustrations have been prepared expressly for this handbook series, by experts; are up-to-date, and have been revised by the editor of popular mechanics. the dimensions given in the stock list contained in the description of each piece of furniture illustrated in this book call for material mill-planed, sanded and cut to length. if the workman desires to have a complete home-made article, allowance must be made in the dimensions for planing and squaring the pieces. s- -s and s- -s are abbreviations for surface four sides and surface two sides. contents piano bench, library table, princess dresser, sewing box, fern stand, wardrobe, finish, oak table, book trough, oak serving table, umbrella stand, chafing-dish buffet, writing desk, music rack and bookstand, dictionary and magazine stand, leather-back armchair, wall shelf, pedestal, magazine rack, hall tree, table for the den, table, sewing, burlap-covered window seat, quarter-sawed oak settee, screen, , mission bookrack, round extension dining table, arm dining chair, hall bench, sewing table, side chair, another piano bench, another screen, folding card table, magazine stand, tabouret, porch swing, foot warmer, plate rack for dining room, mission sideboard, list of illustrations piano bench detail of the piano bench detail of the library table the finished library table dresser made of quarter-sawed oak detail of the princess dresser sewing box made of walnut and ash detail of the sewing box detail of the fern stand finished stand in quartered oak the wardrobe complete detail of wardrobe detail of construction finished table detail of book trough book trough complete serving table complete detail of serving table umbrella stand detail of umbrella stand buffet in quartered oak method of fastening with screws detail of the chafing-dish buffet writing desk made of plain-sawed oak detail of the writing desk complete stand detail of the stand detail of the dictionary and magazine stand stand made in oak arm chair complete detail of the arm chair complete wall shelf wall shelf detail completed pedestal detail of the pedestal detail of the magazine rack magazine rack complete detail and finished view of hall tree table completed detail of a den table fig. --the rough cedar box without the covering fig. --design of the covering strip put on over the burlap mission settee made of quarter-sawed oak detail of the oak settee detail of one section screen of three sections detail of the bookrack the complete bookrack detail of the table table for the dining-room set armchair of the dining-room set detail of the armchair detail of the hall bench bench made of plain oak sewing table in plain oak detail of the sewing table construction of the drawer side chair of dining-room set detail of the side chair detail of the piano bench piano bench in quarter-sawed oak plain-oak frame with burlap panels detail of the frame detail of the card table card table ready for use the legs fold on the under side of top stand complete detail of stand detail of tabouret finished tabouret complete porch swing detail of the porch swing detail of the foot warmer oak stool with brass cover detail of plate rack dining-room plate rack sideboard for the dining-room set detail of the sideboard a piano bench [illustration: piano bench in black walnut] the piano bench shown in the accompanying picture was made of black walnut and was finished natural. the finish was applied in the following manner: first, all the parts were well scraped and sandpapered, then the surface was covered with a coating of boiled linseed oil. after this had stood several hours, or until it had had time to penetrate the wood, the surplus liquid was wiped off with a flannel cloth. after the oil had stood for hours, a thin coat of shellac was applied and allowed to harden overnight. the next morning this shellac was sandpapered lightly with no. paper and a coat of floor wax was applied according to the directions which are found upon every can. two more coats of wax were applied after intervals of half an hour and the finish was completed. the effect is very pleasing. the oil brings out the rich color of the wood and the shellac and wax serve to preserve the color. the following stock is needed: top, by - / by - / in., s- -s. posts, - / by - / by in., s- -s. rails, / by - / by in., s- -s. rails, / by - / by in., s- -s. lower rails, / by - / by in., s- -s. stretcher, / by - / by in., s- -s. slats, / by - / by in., s- -s. with the exception of the legs all the stock is specified mill-planed to thickness upon two surfaces. the legs are specified planed on four sides. square the legs to length and the rails, stretcher, slats, etc., to width and length. [illustration: detail of the piano bench] lay out and work the tenons of the rails and stretcher. the slats are best made without tenons, the whole end of each slat being "housed" into the rails. the reason for this is obvious--it is a difficult matter to fit two or more pieces between fixed parts when their ends are tenoned. when the ends are housed any slight variation in the lengths adjusts itself. it is necessary, however, to chisel the sides of the mortises carefully, but this is a simple matter compared with getting the shoulders of the tenons, etc., all just alike. assemble the parts, using good hot glue. put the ends of the bench together first. when the glue has hardened on these, place the stretcher and side rails. fasten the top to the frame from the under side, either by glued blocks and screws or by angle irons. a library table a library table of neat appearance and correct proportions is shown in the accompanying sketch and detail drawing. this table looks best when finished in quarter-sawed oak, although any of the other furniture woods can be used if desired. if the material is ordered from the mill cut to length, squared and sanded, much of the hard labor can be avoided. order the following pieces: legs, by by - / in., s- -s. top, - / by by in., s- -s. end pieces, / by - / by in., s- -s. top rails, / by by in., s- -s. top rails, / by by - / in., s- -s. lower brace, / by by in., s- -s. shelves, / by by in., s- -s. slats, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. drawer fronts, / by - / by in., s- -s. drawer sides, / by - / by in., soft wood. drawer ends, / by - / by - / in., soft wood. drawer bottoms, / by - / by - / in., soft wood. drawer supports, / by by - / in., soft wood. drawer supports, / by by in., soft wood. [illustration: detail of the library table] start work on the legs by beveling the tops and squaring them up and laying out the mortises for the shelves as shown in section bb. care should be taken to get the legs mortised in pairs and all cut the same height. this is best done by placing the four legs side by side with the ends square, and then laying out the mortises across all four at once with a try-square. [illustration: the finished library table] the table top is made of several boards which are doweled and glued together. be careful to get the best side of each board up and have the joints a tight fit. the corners should be cut out for the posts as shown. the posts are to be fastened to the board by means of screws. the holes can be counterbored for the heads and then plugged. the top rails are also fastened to the top board by means of screws. the end pieces can now be made. two or more boards will have to be glued together for these. the top corners will have to be cut to fit about the top rails. cleats can be used in fastening them to the top board. the shelves also have the corners cut to fit into the mortises in the posts. they are held to the end boards by means of screws. if the parts all fit perfectly square and tight, they can be glued and screwed together, which will complete the table except for the slats and drawers. the slats can be fastened on with nails, then the heads covered with fancy nails which can be secured for this purpose. the drawer supports can now be put in. they are screwed to the end boards as shown. a bottom brace should be fastened under the lower shelves to help steady the table. the two drawers are made as shown in the detail sketch. no handles are needed as the lower edge of the front board can be used for pulling them out. when the table is complete it should be carefully gone over with fine sandpaper and all rough spots removed. scrape the glue from about the joints as finish will not take where there is any glue. apply the stain preferred or the one that matches the other furniture. this can be any of the many stains supplied by the trade for this purpose. a princess dresser a design of a princess dresser that is well proportioned and of pleasing appearance is shown in the accompanying sketch and detail drawing. the cost is very moderate and if a mill is not too far away, a great amount of labor can be saved by ordering the material ready cut to length, squared and sanded. quarter-sawed oak should be used and the material needed will be as follows: [illustration: dresser made of quarter-sawed oak] posts, - / by - / by in., s- -s. top board, / by by in., s- -s. side rails, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. end rails, / by by - / in., s- -s. end panels, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. drawer partition, by - / by - / in., s- -s. back board, / by - / by in., s- -s. mirror supports, / by - / by in., s- -s. side pieces for mirror, / by by in., s- -s. end pieces for mirror, / by by - / in., s- -s. drawer fronts, / by by - / in., s- -s. drawer front, / by by in., s- -s. by bevel mirror. the following pieces may be of any soft wood: drawer slides, / by by in. drawer sides, / by by in. drawer bottoms, / by by in. drawer bottom, / by by - / in. - / sq. ft. of / -in. pine for back. first be sure the posts are perfectly square and of equal length. either chamfer or round the upper ends as desired. the mortises can now be laid out and cut or they can be left until the rail tenons are all made and then marked and cut directly from each tenon. the posts as well as the end rails should have grooves cut in them to take the / -in. end panels. the top board should have the corners cut to fit about the posts. the corners of the back board should be rounded as shown in the drawing. the end sections of the dresser can be glued together first, care being taken to get the joints square and tight. when these are dry the side rails and drawer slides can be fitted and glued in place. the top board is held in position by means of screws through cleats which are fastened to the inner sides of the rails. [illustration: detail of the princess dresser] the mirror frame is made by mortising the end pieces with the side pieces as shown. it is rabbeted on the back to hold a by -in. mirror. after the mirror is securely fastened in the frame a thin wood covering should be tacked on the back to protect the glass. the frame swings between two upright posts which are securely fastened to the body of the dresser as shown. the drawers are made and fitted in the usual manner. the drawing shows two drawers in the top compartment, but one exactly like the lower can be made and used instead by simply leaving out the in. partition. suitable handles for the drawers can be purchased at any hardware store. the back is made of soft wood and is put on in the usual manner. scrape all surplus glue from about the joints as the stain will not take where there is any glue. finish smooth with fine sandpaper and apply the stain desired, which may be any of the many mission stains supplied by the trade for this purpose. a sewing box a rather unique sewing box, and one that is quite as convenient as unique, is shown in the illustration. the material is walnut and ash. the posts are walnut and the slats and top rail ash. both are finished in their natural colors. the following is the stock bill: posts, - / in. in diameter and in. long, walnut. bottom, / by - / by - / in., s- -s, walnut. top rails, / by - / by in., s- -s, ash. under rails, / by / by in., s- -s, walnut. slats, / by / by - / in., s- -s, ash. in ordering the stock it will be wise to combine the lengths of pieces having like widths and thicknesses. if not possible to secure doweling of the diameter indicated for the verticals, it is an easy matter to take a square piece of stock, lay it off and work it into an eight-sided prism. after this, the arrises may again be planed until it has and then sides. the rest may be removed with sandpaper. or it is possible that curtain pole stock will be available. saw these posts to length and leave the ends square. [illustration: sewing box made of walnut and ash] square up the stock for the other parts. work the bottom piece to a -in. square. the rails are not to be squared on the ends but are to be mitered each in turn. the bottom is fastened to the posts by metal brackets. [illustration: detail of the sewing box] chisel out recesses in the posts so that the bottom may be inserted. insert the corners and use glue and nails to hold them in place. place the lower of the two top rails, notching out the posts as is necessary to bring the inner edge of these rails in position. fasten to the posts. miter and place the top rails. the slats, it will be noted, are fastened to the bottom from the outer side and to the lower of the two top rails from the inner side. brass-headed tacks such as upholsterers use are required. in finishing, sandpaper all parts and then apply a coat of boiled linseed oil. allow this to stand a half hour or so and then wipe the surface clean. after this has dried thoroughly apply a thin coating of shellac and allow it to harden. sand the shellac when hard with no. sandpaper and then apply several coats of wax, polishing in the usual manner. two pairs of castors will add to the ease with which the box may be moved about. a fern stand when making the fern stand shown in the accompanying sketch use quarter-sawed oak if possible, as this wood is the most suitable for finishing in the different mission stains. considerable labor can be saved in its construction by ordering the stock from the mill ready cut to length, squared and sanded. order the following pieces: posts, - / by - / by in., s- -s. side rails, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. shelf supports, / by by - / in., s- -s. top, / by by in., s- -s. shelf, / by by in., s- -s. slats, / by by in., s- -s. the legs are made first. be sure they are square and of equal length. the mortises can be laid out and cut or they can be left until the tenons on the side rails are all made, then marked and cut from each tenon. the top rails and the slats are exactly alike for the four sides, as the table is square. in addition to the tenons on the rails, grooves should be cut in each for the ends of the slats to fit into as shown in the cross section in the detail drawing. holes should be cut in the slats as shown. [illustration: detail of the fern stand] the top board should have the corners cut out to fit around the posts. it is held in place by means of screws through cleats which are fastened to the inner sides of the top rails. the bottom board or shelf rests upon two rails that are mortised into the posts as shown. the top and bottom boards should be of one piece if possible, otherwise two or more boards will have to be glued together. before gluing up the joints see that all the pieces fit together square and tight. the posts and rails should be glued and assembled, then the top and bottom boards put in place to hold the frame square when the clamps are put on. [illustration: finished stand in quartered oak] leave to dry for about hours before removing the clamps. fasten the top and bottom boards in place and then go over the stand with fine sandpaper and remove all surplus glue and rough spots. a wardrobe the wardrobe or clothes closet shown in the accompanying sketch and detail drawing will be found a great convenience in a bedroom where closet space is limited or where there is no closet at all. it provides ample room for hanging suits, dresses and other wearing apparel, as well as space for boots and shoes. it can be made of any of the several furniture woods in common use, but quarter-sawed oak will be found to give the most pleasing effect. the stock should be ordered from the mill ready cut to length, squared and sanded. in this way much labor will be saved. the following pieces will be needed: posts, - / by - / by - / in., s- -s. front rails, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. top and bottom board, each / by - / by in., s- -s. top back rail, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. lower back rail, / by by - / in., s- -s. end rails, / by by - / in., s- -s. end uprights, / by by - / in., s- -s. end panels, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. shelves, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. drawer fronts, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. door, / by - / by in., s- -s. shelf partition, / by by in., s- -s. drawer fronts, / by by in., s- -s. drawer front, / by by in., s- -s. partition (several pieces), / by - / by - / in., s- -s. door uprights, / by - / by in., s- -s. top rails, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. middle rails, / by by - / in., s- -s. lower rails, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. center uprights, / by - / by in., s- -s. panels, / by by - / in., s- -s. pieces, / by - / by in., soft wood. pieces, / by by in., soft wood. pieces, / by - / by in., soft wood. pieces, / by by in., soft wood. pieces, / by - / by in., soft wood. pieces, / by - / by - / in., soft wood. pieces, / by by in., soft wood. piece, / by - / by - / in., soft wood. back (several pieces), / by by in., s- -s. [illustration: the wardrobe complete] first be sure the posts are perfectly square and of equal length. the upper ends can be chamfered or rounded if desired. the two front posts are alike, as are the back ones. the mortises should be laid out in each pair of posts and then cut with a sharp chisel, or they can be left until the tenons are all made, and then marked and cut from each tenon. grooves should be cut on one side of all the posts to take the end panels. the front and lower back rails are plain except for the tenons at each end, but the end rails and the center uprights should have grooves cut for the panels the same as the posts. the top back rail serves as a top back board and should have the corners rounded as shown in the detail drawing. the frame can now be assembled. glue should be used on all the joints as it makes them much stiffer. be careful to get the frame together perfectly square, or it will be hard to fit the doors and the shelves. the top and bottom boards should have the corners cut to clear the posts. the closet is divided into two compartments by a partition. this can be made of plain boards or panels similar to those in the ends, as desired. place the shelves in position as shown. they are held in place by means of cleats and screws. the one shelf has a partition in its center with a door on one side and two small drawers on the other. drawers should be fitted to three of the other compartments. they are made in the usual manner except that the front boards should be cut out at the top for a handhold as shown. the doors are fitted by a tenon and mortise joint at the ends. they have a centerpiece and panels to match the ends of the closet. suitable hinges and a catch should be supplied. these can be purchased at any hardware store. [illustration: detail of the wardrobe] the backing is put on in the usual manner. it should be finished on the front side. when complete, the closet should be carefully gone over with fine sandpaper and all glue and rough spots removed. apply stain of the desired color. this may be any of the many mission stains supplied by the trade for this purpose. a finish an appropriate finish is obtained as follows: first thoroughly scrape and sandpaper the various parts, then apply a coat of brown flemish water stain. allow this to dry well, then sand it lightly with no. sandpaper to lay the grain. again apply the flemish stain, but this time have it weakened by the addition of an equal amount of water. when dry, sand again as on the first coat. upon the second coat of stain apply a thin coat of shellac. this is to protect the high lights from the stain in the filler which is to follow. sand lightly, then apply a paste filler of a sufficiently dark shade to make a dark field for the brown flemish. clean off the surplus and polish in the usual manner. upon the filler, after it has hardened overnight, apply a coat of orange shellac. successively apply several coats of some good rubbing varnish. polish the first coats with haircloth or curled hair, and the last with pulverized pumice stone, mixed with raw linseed or crude oil. an oak table the accompanying illustration shows another style of a mission table. the stock for this table if ordered as follows and sanded will require only the work of making the joints and putting them together: posts, in, square - / in., s- -s. upper rails, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. lower rails, / by by - / in., s- -s. top pieces, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. slats, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. stretcher, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. this table may be made with mortise and tenon joints or with dowels as desired. if dowels are used, the upper and lower rails should be made in. shorter than shown in the drawing. be sure to get the pieces for the posts with their surfaces square to each other and their ends sawed square off. this will simplify the assembling a great deal. make the posts exactly the same length, - / in., and chamfer a / -in, bevel on their tops. square up the four upper rails, by in., marking the working face and edge to work from when laying out the tenons later. square up the two lower rails, - / by in. these must be exactly the same length as the upper rails. the two ends of the table having the slats should be glued up first. lay out the tenons on the upper and lower rails for these two ends and be sure to work from the marked face and edges, using a knife line. cut the tenons, and, by placing them against the posts in the exact position they are to occupy, mark the places for the mortises. these joints should be numbered so that each mortise may be cut to fit its own tenon. [illustration: detail of construction finished table] square up the slats, by - / in., and cut mortises in the upper and lower rails / in. deep to let them in. the number of these slats, their size and spacing may be arranged to suit one's own idea. put the posts, upper and lower rails, and slats together without glue first to determine if the parts fit properly, and then glue and clamp them together. hot glue will hold best, if the room and lumber are warm; if not, it is best to use ordinary liquid glue. while the glue on these two ends of the table is setting, the other upper rails, top, and stretcher may be finished. the top will have to be made of two or three pieces joined together with dowels and glue. if possible, use only two boards and be sure the grain in both pieces runs the same way when they are put together. after the ends which were glued have set at least hours, the clamps may be taken off and the other two upper rails tenoned and mortised in place. the stretcher may be held with two / -in. dowels in each end, or with two round-head screws put through the lower rails. when gluing up the whole table, be sure the sides are square to each other. the top may now be squared up by in. and the corners cut out for the top of the posts. the top may be fastened as shown at a and b in the drawing, or by cleats screwed to the inside of the upper rails and top. before staining, be sure that all surplus glue is scraped off and the surfaces sanded clean. a weathered or fumed oak stain is suitable for this table. a good weathered oak stain may be made by mixing a little drop black ground in oil with turpentine and a little linseed oil. put this stain on with a brush and allow to stand until it begins to flatten or dull, then rub off across the grain with a rag or piece of cotton waste. when thoroughly dry, apply one coat of very thin shellac. after this has dried, finish with two coats of wax. the shellac prevents the turpentine in the wax from rubbing out the stain. to get a good wax finish the work should dry until it will not show finger marks, before rubbing. book trough [illustration: detail of book trough] a very cheap but attractive book trough is shown in the accompanying photograph. this piece of mission furniture will be found useful in the home or office and can be made by anyone who has a slight knowledge of tools. the material should be either oak or chestnut, which can be secured from the planing mill dressed and sandpapered ready to cut the tenons and mortises. the stock needed will be as follows: ends, / in. by in. by in., s- -s. shelf, / in. by in. by in., s- -s. trough pieces, / in. by in. by in., s- -s. keys, / in. by / in. by in. [illustration: book trough complete] the two end pieces should be made first with the top corners rounded off and the lower end, which is of simple design, can be cut out with a bracket saw and smoothed with a wood rasp. the mortises should then be laid out according to the sketch and cut, by first boring / -in. holes and finishing with a chisel, being careful to keep all edges clean and free from slivers. the shelf can now be made by cutting a double-key tenon at each end to fit the end pieces. the space between the two tenons at each end can be cut out with a bracket saw and finished with a rasp. the key holes should be mortised as shown in the sketch. the trough pieces are made in a similar manner, care being taken to have all tenons and mortises perfectly square and a good fit, so the trough when assembled will have a neat and workmanlike appearance. the trough can be finished in any one of the many mission finishes which are supplied by the trade for this purpose. an oak serving table the serving table is another useful piece of furniture that can be made in mission style. this table should be made in quarter-sawed oak and stained very light. the stock order is as follows: posts, by by in., s- -s. posts, by by in., s- -s. top, by by in., s- -s. side rails, / by by - / in., s- -s. end rails, / by by - / in., s- -s. back panel, / by by - / in., s- -s. stretcher, by by - / in., s- -s. slat, / by - / by in., s- -s. [illustration: serving table complete] the four posts are ordered in. longer than necessary for squaring to length and the two back posts should be chamfered / in. on top, as they are the longest and project above the back panel. all of the posts are cut tapering for a space of in. from the bottom ends. mortises in the posts and tenons on the rails are laid out and cut as shown by the dimensions in the drawing. these parts are then well glued and put together. the top, which should be of well seasoned wood, is cut to fit around the back posts so the back edge and the back side of the posts are flush. the back panel is placed in mortises cut in the corners of the back posts. this is done so the back surface of the panel will be flush the same as the edge of the top. the slat is fastened with round-headed brass screws on the front of the two back posts about half way between the top and the ends of the posts. [illustration: detail of serving table] the top may be fastened to the rails by one of two methods. one way is to use a small button made of wood and so mortised as to set in the rails and then fastened to the top with screws. about six of these buttons will be sufficient to hold the top in place. the other method is to bore a hole slanting on the inside of the rails, directing the bit toward the top, which will make a seat--if not cut too deep--for a screw that can be turned direct into the top. the glue must be removed from about the joints and the surfaces smoothed over with fine sandpaper before applying the stain. the directions for staining will be found on the can in which it is sold. the grain of the wood will show up well if the surface is given a dull waxed finish after staining. an umbrella stand [illustration] the umbrella stand shown in the accompanying illustration will be found quite appropriate for the hall or reception room that is furnished in mission style. it can be made of any of the furniture woods, but quarter-sawed oak gives the best results. the stock necessary to make this stand can be secured from the mill ready cut to length, squared and sanded, and is given in the following list: posts, - / by - / by in., s- -s. top rails, / by by in., s- -s. lower rails, / by by in., s- -s. slats, / by by in., s- -s. bottom, / by by in. first square up the posts and bevel the tops as shown in the detail sketch. place them side by side, on a flat surface with the ends square and lay out the mortises with a try-square on all four pieces at the same time. this will insure your getting them all straight and of the same height. now lay out the tenons on the rails in the same manner and cut them to fit the mortises in the posts. mortises should also be cut in the rails for the ends of the side slats as shown. try all the joints and see that they fit tight and square. glue two sides of the stand together and let them dry for at least hours, then glue the remaining parts, being careful to get everything together perfectly square. the bottom board can now be fitted in place. it should have a hole cut in it for the drip pan. the pan should be about or in. in diameter. one suitable for the purpose can be purchased in any hardware store. the bottom board can be fastened to the rails with nails driven from the under side, or cleats can be nailed to the rails for it to rest upon. [illustration] when the stand is complete, scrape all glue from about the joints and go over the whole with fine sandpaper, removing all rough spots. apply the finish you like best, or the one that will match your other furniture. should the builder want an entire hand-made stand, the drip pan may be beaten into shape from sheet brass or copper. this kind of work is known as repoussé. after beating the pan into shape, it can be finished in antique, old copper or given a polished surface, as desired. a chafing-dish buffet the chafing-dish buffet is something very convenient and attractive for the dining room. for the best effect it should be made of quartered oak, stained brown or weathered and trimmed with brass hardware. [illustration: buffet in quartered oak] to save a great deal of uninteresting labor, secure the following pieces of stock, surfaced on four sides and cut to length: legs, - / by - / by in., s- -s. rails, / by by in., s- -s. rails, / by by in., s- -s. panels, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. panel, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. shelves, / by by in., s- -s. top, / by by in., s- -s. stiles for door, / by by in., s- -s. rails for door, / by by in., s- -s. back, / by by in., s- -s. slats, / by by in., s- -s. begin the work on the rails for the sides of the stand. have them all squared up to exactly the same length and to the correct width and thickness. mark the tenons on the ends of each and cut them with a saw and chisel. when this is finished, try the legs to see that they are all the same length and that their surfaces are square with each other. next mark the mortises in the legs for the tenons of the rails. to make the mortises, first bore to depth with a bit / in, smaller than the width of the mortise and cut to the line with a chisel. [illustration: method of fastening with screws] before gluing up the sides, cut the mortises in two lower rails for the tenons on the ends of the shelves. these tenons, with the smaller mortises in them for the keys, should be cut first. square up the two side panels and cut grooves / in. wide and / in. deep for them in the rails and part of the legs. make the eight slats in. long, in. wide and / in. thick, and cut mortises for them in the two upper rails. [illustration: detail of the chafing-dish buffet] the two sides of the buffet are now ready to be glued up and clamped. while the glue on these is setting, make the door. the rails are mortised into the stiles / in. and both are grooved to receive the panel. it is best to get the stock a little full for the door so that it may be made up a little larger than necessary and planed down to fit. there only remains to fit in the shelves and fasten the top and back. the top and back are held with screws as shown in sketch. taper the keys only slightly, otherwise they will keep working loose. stain with two coats of weathered oak, give one coat of thin shellac to fix the stain and two coats of wax for a soft-gloss finish. a writing desk the desk shown in the illustration was made of plain-sawed white oak. the copper lighting fixtures were made by the amateur as were the hinges and the drawer pulls. the doors are fitted with art-glass panels. the following stock list is needed: top, / by - / by in., s- -s. posts, by by in., s- -s. rails, / by - / by in., s- -s. rails, / by - / by in., s- -s. rails, / by - / by in., s- -s. stretcher, / by - / by in., s- -s. drawer fronts, / by - / by in., s- -s. drawer sides, / by - / by in., s- -s. drawer backs, / by by in., s- -s. drawer bottoms, / by by in., s- -s. slides, / by - / by in., s- -s. guides, / by by in., s- -s. cabinet posts, by by in., s- -s. cabinet posts, by by in., s- -s. back, / by by in., s- -s. shelf, / by by in., s- -s. shelves, / by by in., s- -s. door pieces, / by by in., s- -s. door pieces, / by by in., s- -s. square the legs to length and lay out and cut the mortises thereon. lay off the tenons on the rails, after having squared the rails to length and width, and cut them. work up the top of the table and then the drawer stock and cabinet. assemble the ends of the frame first, using good hot glue and enough clamps to hold the parts together properly. after the glue has hardened on these, the clamps may be removed and the front, back rails and the stretcher assembled. [illustration: writing desk made of plain-sawed oak] while the glue is hardening on the main frame the top cabinet may be built and assembled. this cabinet is detachable from the table proper and is to be held in place by means of cleats upon the back. these cleats are not specified in the bill; they may be obtained from scrap stock. [illustration: detail of the writing desk] for a piece of woodwork of this style some of the softer browns of the mission stains will be most appropriate. after all parts have been thoroughly cleaned by scraping and sandpapering, a stain may be applied. allow this to dry, then sand it lightly and apply a thin coat of shellac. sand the shellac lightly and apply a filler of a color to match the stain, but darker in tone, of course. clean off the surplus in the usual manner and then apply a coat of shellac. sand this lightly and apply several coats of some good polishing wax. music rack and bookstand the illustration shows a very handy music and bookstand, which also can be used at the bedside as a reading stand. the following list of material will be required for construction: standard, - / by - / by in., s- -s. horizontal, - / by - / by in., s- -s. crosspiece, - / by - / by in., s- -s. crosspiece, - / by - / by in., s- -s. braces, - / by - / by in., s- -s. board, / by by in., s- -s. blocks, - / in. square. gauge clamps. strip, / by by in., s- -s. round-head brass screws. brass rod, / in. in diameter and in, long. brass piece, / by / by in. [illustration: complete stand] cut a tenon on the lower end of the upright and make a mortise in the center of the long crosspiece to receive the tenon. the horizontal has tenons cut on both ends which fit into mortises cut in the sides of both crosspieces. the upper corners on the ends of both crosspieces are cut sloping on a -deg. angle. the blocks for the feet are attached to the under side and at the end on each crosspiece with screws and hot glue, the screw heads being sunk so that they will not catch on carpets or mar the floor. the braces are attached with round-head screws after they are cut on each end to fit the standard and crosspiece. [illustration: detail of the stand] the book rest is cut from the board. the openings are made by sawing the pieces out with a coping saw, and the edges are dressed up with a sharp chisel. the lip strip is then glued to the lower edge of the board. one end of the board is now fitted into a slot cut in one of the gauge clamps. the slot must be cut at the right angle to give the desired slope to the book rest. the gauge clamps are joined with two small square strips of oak as shown. the small rod brace is flattened at both ends and a hole drilled in each to fasten it with screws as shown. the brass strip is bent in the middle at right angles and drilled to receive screws for fastening it in the corner of the upright and horizontal pieces. a dictionary and magazine stand the accompanying picture shows a stand that is intended primarily for holding a large-size dictionary. the shelves may be utilized for holding books, magazines or sheet music. it will stand wear best if made of some hard wood, such as oak. of the soft woods chestnut has the best grain for finishing, being hardly distinguishable from red oak. the following pieces will be necessary: sides, / by by - / in., s- -s. shelf, / by - / by in., s- -s. shelf, / by by in., s- -s. shelf, / by - / by in., s- -s. top, / by by in., s- -s. lip, / by / by in., s- -s. keys, / by by - / in., s- -s. begin work on the sides by preparing a joint edge on each piece and from this square up the lower ends and square lines across the inner surfaces to indicate the positions of the lower edges of the shelves. next, smooth off the mill marks from the broad surfaces of the shelves and square them to size on one edge and the two ends. [illustration: detail of the dictionary and magazine stand] [illustration: stand made in oak] return to the side pieces and lay out the outline, but do not cut to these lines until the gains and mortises which are to receive the ends of the shelves and their tenons have been laid out and cut. laying out these outlines at this time is done so as to give the exact width the shelves are to have. these dimensions can be determined by measuring across the sides between the outlines at the points where the shelves are to be placed. the shelves which have no tenons are to be let into the sides / in. they should be shouldered / in. back from the edge so that the groove will not show on the face. the lip on the front of the top shelf may be fastened by means of very small brads, the heads of which should be covered with putty, colored to match the finish. a suitable finish may be obtained as follows: first see that all the mill marks are removed, using a smooth plane and steel scraper and sandpaper, then apply a coat of cathedral-oak water stain. when dry, sandpaper lightly, using no. paper. apply a second coat of stain, diluting it by the addition of an equal volume of water. this is to produce a stronger contrast. sand this lightly and put on a very thin coat of shellac to bind the filler and to prevent the stain in the filler which follows from discoloring the high lights. sand this lightly and put on a coat of paste filler according to the directions that will be found on the can. this filler should be colored in the following proportions: light paste filler, lb.; van dyke brown, lb. after the filler has hardened, sand it lightly and put on a coat of orange shellac. follow this with several coats of some good rubbing varnish. the first coats should be rubbed with haircloth or curled hair, and the last with powdered pumice stone and raw linseed or crude oil. a leather back arm chair [illustration: arm chair complete] [illustration: detail of the arm chair] a mission arm chair of simple design and construction is shown in the accompanying illustration. this chair is suitable for any room of the house and can be made of wood to match other furniture. quarter-sawed oak is the wood most generally used, and it is also very easy to obtain. the stock can be ordered from the mill, cut to length, squared and sanded. following is a list of the material that will be needed: front legs, by by - / in. back legs, by by in. arm rests, by by in. rails, / by by - / in. rails, / by by - / in. . back pieces, / by by - / in. piece leather, in, square. piece burlap, in, square. pieces leather, by in. pieces burlap, by in. box oz. tacks. - / doz. ornamental nails. start with the front legs. cut a tenon - / in. square and / in, long on one end to fit the arm rests. the mortises for the side rails are cut / in. wide and / in, deep. the tenons on the rails are cut to fit these mortises, care being taken to get them all the same length between shoulders. the back legs are cut with an offset of in. as shown in the detail drawing and also have mortises cut in them for the back crosspieces. the upright pieces in the back are fastened into the crosspieces by means of tenons and mortises, and should be in place when the crosspieces are fastened to the legs. the arms are cut from the by by -in. pieces. be careful to get them so they will pair. the outside edge can be either curved or straight as desired. the front ends of the arms are held in place by mortises which fit over the tenons on the ends of the front legs, while the back ends are held in place by round-headed screws as shown. the chair is now ready to be glued. be sure to get the parts together perfectly square, and when dry scrape off all surplus glue around the joints, for stain will not adhere to glue and a white spot will be the result of failing to remove it. go over the parts carefully with fine sandpaper and remove all rough marks. then apply the stain you wish to use. to make the seat, first fit boards in the bottom and nail them to the side rails as shown. fill the space with hair or elastic cotton felt to about in. above the edge of the rails. bind this down tightly with a piece of burlap and tack the edges to the rails. cut out the corners of the burlap so that it will fit about the posts. put the leather on over this and tack the edges to the bottoms of the rails. then finish with the ornamental nails as shown. to finish the back, first tack a piece of burlap over the opening, then place a layer of hair or cotton felt on this about in. thick. stretch the leather over this and fasten with ornamental nails. the back side is finished in the same manner, except that the hair is omitted. a wall shelf coarse-grained woods make up into furniture and take a more satisfactory finish than close-grained woods. for this reason chestnut or oak is suggested for this shelf. chestnut has a beautiful grain and is soft and easily worked. there will be needed the following pieces: sides, pieces, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. lower shelf, piece, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. upper shelf, piece, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. lower back, piece, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. upper back, piece, / by by - / in., s- -s. in making out this stock bill the pieces have been specified / in. wider and / in, longer than the finished piece is to be to allow for squaring up. the thicknesses are specified mill-planed exact so that all that is necessary is to merely plane off the mill-marks from the two broad surfaces. it is quite possible that one may have a particular space or a particular set of books to place in the shelf. in such a case the length of the horizontals should be lengthened or shortened to meet the particular demands when ordering the lumber. [illustration: complete wall shelf] begin work by squaring the horizontals to size. they are to be all of the same length. next shape up the end pieces. the amount of slope for the front edges is indicated on the drawing. after all these pieces have been squared up and the mill-marks removed, the dadoes or grooves and gains may be laid out and cut. beginners are prone to underestimate the importance of getting all the mill-marks off before putting on any finish. when boards are planed at the mill the planing is done by means of two or four knives revolving above or below the board--sometimes both above and below at the same time. these knives leave the surfaces filled with little ridges and hollows across the grain. these hollows, though they are hardly visible to the eye on the unfinished surface, show up as ugly streaks upon the surface after it has had a finish of stain and filler applied. the joints here used are typical and the beginner can readily find how they are to be made from any good book on wood-working. [illustration: wall shelf detail] there are several ways of fastening the parts. they may be fastened by means of round-head blued screws. they may be fastened with carriage screws. the one in the illustration was put together with ordinary wire nails and the heads of these covered with ornamental heads to represent old-fashioned hand-wrought nails. it will be found easier to apply the finish of stain and filler before the parts are assembled. a suitable finish is obtained as follows: after the parts are thoroughly sanded, put on a coat of filipino water stain, wiping it off with an old cloth before it has had time to soak into the wood very much. allow this to dry. then sand lightly, using no. paper, after which fill the pores of the wood with a black paste filler--directions will be found on the can. follow this, when hardened, with several coats of floor wax. a pedestal the pedestal shown in the accompanying illustration is another piece of furniture that can be made in the mission style. it is very simple in design and construction, and can be made by anyone who has a few simple tools and a slight knowledge of their use. it is best to make it of quarter-sawed oak as this is the most easily procured wood and also looks the best when finished. if you order the material from the mill ready cut to length, squared and sanded, much hard labor will be saved. following is a list of the material needed: top, / by by in., s- -s. bottom, / by by in., s- -s pieces, / by by in. sides, / by by in., s- -s. sides, / by - / by in. piece, / by by in. blocks, in. square. [illustration: completed pedestal] having the boards for the post cut to the proper length and square, nail them together as shown in the detail drawing. use finishing nails, then set the heads and fill the holes with putty. next, nail the / by -in. piece on one end of the post leaving the edges projecting even on all sides. pick out the best board for the top. on the under side and / . in. in from the edges, nail four of the / by by -in. pieces which have been previously mitered as shown in the plan view. now fasten this top to the post by nailing through the projecting edge of the top piece into the top board. be careful to get this top on square with the post and exactly in center. the bottom board is made in the same manner as the top board and is nailed to the lower end of the post as shown. four -in. square blocks should be fastened to the bottom for the pedestal to rest on. when complete, sandpaper smooth and apply any one of the many mission stains that are supplied by the trade for this purpose. [illustration] after staining the wood, the surface can be given a polished or dull finish, as desired. mission furniture requires a dull finish, and this may be obtained by applying a coat of wax, well rubbed on the wood. magazine rack the accompanying cut shows a magazine rack that will find favor with many amateur wood-workers on account of its simplicity in design and its rich, massive appearance when properly finished. it is so constructed that each piece may be polished, stained and finished before it is finally put together. quarter-sawed oak is the best wood to use. plain-sawed oak looks well, but it is more liable to warp than quarter-sawed and this is quite an element in pieces as wide as the ones here used. following is a list of the material needed: posts, by by in., s- -s. shelves, by by in., s- -s. f.h. screws, in. long. considerable labor can be saved if the material be ordered from the mill ready cut to length, squared and sanded. the corner posts should be made first. the most convenient and accurate method of laying out the mortises is to square one end of each post and lay them on the bench flat, with the squared ends even with each other; then clamp them securely and lay out the mortises on one side across all four pieces at once; then loosen the clamp and project the marks to the other side with a try-square. now saw along these marks, making each cut just deep enough to bring the mortises diagonally across the piece from one corner to the opposite corner as shown in the detail sketch. be careful not to get the mortises wider than the shelves are thick. bevel the tops of the posts as shown. [illustration: detail of the magazine rack] [illustration: magazine rack complete] see that the ends of the shelves are square and smooth, then set a scratch gauge so that the scriber is just in. from the face of the block and mark this distance off each way from the corner of the shelves. saw these corners diagonally across as shown, being careful not to saw off too much. the parts can now be assembled. place all the parts in position, then pass a rope around each end and twist it up tightly with a small stick. if this is properly done, you can now pick up the rack and handle it in any way you wish. the screws can now be put in the corners. you can use flat-head screws and plug the holes, or you can use round-head blue screws and let the heads project. after the screws are all in, dress off all unevenness where the shelves are mortised into the posts, then mark each shelf and post so that you can put it together again after the parts are finished. take the rack apart and transfer the marks to some part of the mortises and shelves that will not be covered with the finish you intend to put on. apply the finish you wish to use and when the parts are thoroughly dry they can be reassembled and your rack will be complete. a hall tree when making the hall tree as shown in the accompanying illustration use quarter-sawed oak if possible, as this wood is the most suitable for finishing in the different mission stains. this is a very useful and attractive piece of mission furniture and is also very easy to construct. the stock can be purchased ready cut to length, mill-planed and sandpapered on four sides as given in the following list: post, by by in. posts, by by in. braces, / by by - / in. arms, / by by - / in. [illustration: detail and finished view of hall tree] first square up all the posts and bevel them at the tops as shown. then cut the mortises making them / in. wide and / in. deep. cut the tenons on the braces to fit these mortises. be careful to get the distance between the shoulders of the braces all of the same length. a good way to do this is to place them all side by side on a flat surface with the ends square and lay them all out at once. the top arms can be made in the same manner. the tenons should fit good and tight in all the posts. the parts can now be glued and clamped together. when they are dry, scrape all the surplus glue from about the joints and go over the whole with fine sandpaper, removing all rough spots. apply the finish you like best or the one that will match your other furniture. purchase a few hooks at a hardware store and fasten in the upper arms as shown, and the hall tree is complete. a table for the den the table shown in the accompanying sketch is especially appropriate for the den; it might be used in any other part of the house as well. it may be built of plain-sawed red oak, or of quarter-sawed white oak. the wood should be thoroughly seasoned and devoid of imperfections. order the material as follows: top piece, / in. thick by in. square, s- -s. legs, - / in. square by in. long, s- -s. upper horizontals, - / by by in., s- -s. lower horizontals, / by - / by in., s- -s. keys, / by by in., s- -s. lay out and cut the circular top first. next cut the four legs to length. to get the slopes for the ends of the legs and the shoulders of the tenons, lay out a full-sized drawing in pencil and lay the bevel along these lines, adjusting the parts to the lines. [illustration: table completed] the top horizontals have grooves cut on either side to allow the posts to "set in." this is to give the frame more rigidity. the lower horizontals or stretchers are to be tenoned through the posts and keyed. that the keys may be alike in size, a good plan is to make them first, then make the mortises in the stretchers to correspond. work the keys to the proper thickness, unless they were ordered so, then to length and joint one edge straight and square. next lay off across the key the lines a and b of the drawing so that a shall measure / in. and b / in. draw a sloping line through these points and work this edge of the key to size and shape. round the top of the key as shown. then mortise, in the tenon, for the key can then be laid out to / in. for the top opening and / in. for the bottom. [illustration: detail of a den table] the most satisfactory finish for mission designs, and the easiest to apply, is wax. it is an old finish that was superseded by varnish. our ancestors used to make wax polish by "cutting" beeswax with turpentine. cut up the beeswax and add to it about one-third its volume of turpentine. heat to the boiling point in a double boiler. or, melt a quantity of beeswax and to this add an equal volume of turpentine. care must be taken that the turpentine shall not catch fire. rapid drying and hardening waxes can be purchased now-a-days. they require a smooth surface and a thin application for a successful result. too much wax upon a rough surface will produce very ugly, white, chalk-like spottings as the wax dries. these are especially noticeable upon dark finishes. waxes colored black overcome this, but are not necessary if the ordinary wax is properly applied. --stain the wood, if a very dark finish is desired. --if the wood is coarse grained, put on one or two coats of paste filler and rub it off carefully, that a smooth surface may be prepared. allow the stain hours in which to dry, also each coat of filler. --with a soft cloth apply as thin a coating of wax as can be and still cover the wood. wax is in paste form. --allow this to stand five or ten minutes, then rub briskly with a soft dry cloth to polish. --let stand hours, then apply another coat. [illustration: window seat fig. --the rough cedar box without the covering] a burlap-covered window seat a portable window seat of neat appearance, which is designed to take the place of a cedar chest, is shown in the accompanying sketch. if care is taken to make the joints fit well, the box will be practically airtight and mothproof, providing a place in which to store extra bedding or furs. the following list of materials will be needed: ft. -in. thick cedar boards for the box. piece pine, by in. by ft. long. ft. of / by -in. oak strips. ft. of / by -in. oak strips. doz. r.h. / -in, long brass screws. piece green burlap, by in. pieces green burlap, by in. pieces green burlap, by in. pieces red burlap, - / in. square. the box as shown in fig. is made first. nail the sides and the bottom to the ends, being careful to get the box perfectly square. the corners can be dovetailed together if desired. the extra time it takes in making the dovetailed joints will greatly add to the durability of the box. the box can be made much stronger by nailing the sides and ends to posts in. square placed on the inside. cleats should also be placed on the inside, at the bottom, as shown. fasten four blocks, in. square, to the bottom for the box to rest upon. these can be attached with long screws run through from the bottom of the box. [illustration: fig. --design of the covering strip put on over the burlap] the green burlap is glued to the outside of the box. be careful not to apply too much glue on the burlap, or it will soak through. this should be tried out on a scrap piece, and when the proper application of glue is ascertained, applied to one side of the burlap and stuck on the box. place the cloth on so the weave will run in the same direction on all sides. the oak slats are cut and fit over the burlap as shown in fig. . care should be taken to make the mitered joints a tight fit. after the miters are all cut and the location of the squares, found, they are marked so that pieces of red burlap may be placed over the green before the slats are fastened permanently. the slats are put in place over the burlap and fastened with small brass screws. cover the top or lid with green burlap, allowing the edges to lap over the ends and sides and fasten under the side strips. this top can be stuffed with excelsior, if desired, and tacks with large heads driven in to hold it in place. the slats can be stained any color to suit the maker. they should be removed from the box when being stained so as not to spot or stain the burlap. quarter-sawed oak settee the mission settee shown in the accompanying picture should be made of quarter-sawed white oak. the material needed will be as follows: posts, - / by - / by - / in., s- -s. end rails, - / by by in., s- -s. end slats, / by - / by in., s- -s. front rail, - / by by in., s- -s. lower back rail, - / by by in., s- -s. upper back rail, - / by by in., s- -s. cleats for seat frame, - / by by in., s- -s. cleats for seat frame, - / by by in., s- -s. [illustration: mission settee made of quarter-sawed oak] on account of the unusual width of the pieces that go into the makeup of this settee, it will be necessary to have the wood thoroughly seasoned before putting them together, otherwise shrinkage will cause them to crack open. begin work by making the ends of the settee first. cut the posts to length, chamfering both top and bottoms somewhat so that they shall not splinter or cause injury to the hands. next lay out and cut the mortises as shown on the drawing. with the posts finished, lay out the end rails, cutting the tenons and the mortises into which the ends of the slats are to be fitted. it should be noted that the drawing calls for the "setting in" of the whole of the ends of the slats, there being no shoulders. this is much easier and gives just as satisfactory a result, provided the sides of the mortises are carefully cut. thoroughly scrape and sandpaper all these parts and then put the ends together. in addition to the glue it will be well to through pin each of the tenons and mortises. these pins may be put in flush and permanent on the ends of the settee. on the side rails, however, the pins are to be allowed to project so that they can be removed, and no glue is used in the joint. while the glue of the ends is hardening, prepare the rails of front and back. scrape and sandpaper these and when the clamps can be removed from the ends put the whole frame together. the ends of all projecting tenons are chamfered. the illustration shows a loose leather cushion. there is quite a variety of materials out of which such a cushion can be made. the best, of course, is leather. in the highest class of furniture where loose cushions are used, the seat base is formed by solidly mortising a frame together on which is woven a heavy cane seating. this in turn is fastened to the inside of the piece of furniture, and the cushions when placed upon it make a very comfortable seat. the stock bill for this settee calls for such a frame. wood slats may be substituted if desired. [illustration: detail of the oak settee] this piece of furniture will look well if finished in weathered oak. see that all glue is removed from the surface, and that the wood is clean and smooth, and apply a coat of weathered oak oil stain. sandpaper this lightly with no. paper when the stain has thoroughly dried, and put on a coat of lackluster or an equivalent. a screen in selecting or making up mission furniture for the home, a screen is necessary sometimes to add to the appearance of a room. the screen shown in the accompanying illustration consists of a few parts which are easily put together. the stock can be bought of any planing mill planed, sanded and cut to the proper lengths. the cloth, which should be of dark color, can be purchased at a dry goods store. the following list of material will be needed. posts, in. square by in. rails, / in. square by in. rails, / in. square by in. panels, / by by in. yd. of cloth. double-acting hinges. doz. - / -in. slender screws. cut or plow a groove / in. wide and / in. deep in the center of one surface on each of the / -in. rails. cut out the ends with a compass saw. the five holes are bored with a -in. bit. the edges of these panels are inserted in the grooves of the / -in. rails, using plenty of good glue. when the glue has dried for at least hours the screen frame can be put together. holes for the screws should be bored through the posts where the / -in. rails are joined and a screw turned into the end grain of each rail. scrape off all the surplus glue and sandpaper all the parts well. when this is done the finish can be applied. any one of the mission stains can be used and finished with wax and polished. [illustration: detail of one section] the cloth is cut to length, a hem sewed on each end and one / -in. rail put through each hem. place the top rail in position and screw it fast. stretch the cloth tight and fasten the lower / -in. rail with screws at the bottom. each section of the screen is finished in the same way. the hinges are attached about in. from each end of the posts in the same manner as hanging a door. the sections can be made up in various ways to suit the builder. instead of using cloth, heavy paste-board, or board made up to take the place of plaster on walls of dwellings, may be substituted, thus forming a ground that will take paint and bronze decorations. a piece of this material can be easily cut to fit the opening in each section. [illustration: screen of three sections] a mission bookrack the accompanying sketch shows a bookrack designed strictly along mission lines. enough stock may be found among the scrap, as no piece is over in, in width or thickness. if stock is not on hand, secure the following, cut to exact lengths: stretchers, by by in., s- -s. posts, by by - / in., s- -s. rails, by by in., s- -s. slats, / by / by - / in., s- -s. arrange the pieces as they are to be in the finished rack and number both parts of each joint. there will be twelve lap joints, and great care must be taken to mark them accurately and to cut to exactly half the depth of each piece. first fit the posts and rails of the ends. to mark the width of each notch, lay the piece which is to fit into the notch upon it and thus get the exact size. knife lines must be used for the width and light gauge lines for the depth of each notch. [illustration: detail of the bookrack] next lay out and cut joints between the stretchers and ends. in each end there are four slats which should be mortised into the rails / in. glue the pieces in place and clamp them with handscrews. a rubber-headed tack in the bottom of each post will prevent the marring of the surface upon which the rack is to rest. [illustration: the complete bookrack] mission, weathered or fumed-oak stain will look well. a waxed finish should be used. before applying the wax, it is well to use a very thin coat of shellac as a foundation. let this coat stand for a few hours and allow an interval of at least an hour between applying the coats of wax. should the rack wind a little, it may be remedied by cutting off part of two diagonally opposite racks. a round extension dining table [illustration: detail of the table] this extension table should be made of some hard wood, preferably white oak. it will be a difficult matter to secure legs of the sizes indicated in solid pieces of clear stock. it will be possible, however, to secure them veneered upon white-pine cores. if the veneering is properly done these will serve the purpose very well, the lighter weight, due to the white-pine core, being an advantage. the circular facing is best made by first sawing a segment of the circle of the size wanted and then veneering the outer surface of this. order the following stock: legs, by by - / in., s- -s. leg, by by - / in., s- -s. rails, - / by by in., s- -s. facing segments, - / by - / in. on a -in. radius. top, - / in. thick on a -in. radius, s- -s; extra boards, - / by by in., s- -s. slides, - / by - / by - / in., s- -s, maple. slides, - / by - / by - / in., s- -s, maple. frame pieces, / by by in., s- -s, maple. frame pieces, / by by in., s- -s, maple. frame pieces, / by by - / in., s- -s, maple. [illustration: table for the dining-room set] there are various ways of arranging the slides to work one with the other. several patented devices are on the market that permit a ready adjustment with but little effort and are used extensively by commercial manufacturers. the amateur will do well to secure a set before he undertakes to work these slides to shape. prepare the legs by cutting them to length. lay out and work the mortises. the ends of the facings are to be tenoned and housed into the posts. prepare the rails by cutting the tenons and shaping the lower edges as shown in the drawing. prepare the top. after this, assemble this much of the frame, using plenty of clamps and good hot glue. next get the under frame and the slides ready and attach them as shown. there will be needed plenty of glue blocks for reinforcing the facing where it is fastened to the top, etc. for a finish, apply a filler colored, as desired. upon this, after it has hardened and been sanded with no. paper, apply a coat of shellac. upon the shellac apply successively several coats of some good rubbing varnish. rub the first coats with haircloth and the final coat with pulverized pumice and crude or linseed oil. if an effect is wanted that will contrast, stain the wood first with a water stain. sand this lightly when dry, then apply a second coat of stain diluted one-half with water. again sand and then apply a thin coat of shellac. sand this lightly, and apply the filler and the varnish as described above. an arm dining chair [illustration: armchair of the dining-room set] this armchair will look well if made of plain-sawed oak. quarter-sawed oak might be used, or black walnut if desired. the stock bill specifies the various parts mill-planed to size as far as possible. if some amateur craftsman should prefer to do his own surfacing, thereby saving somewhat on the expense, he should add / in. to the width of each piece, providing the stock is mill-planed to thickness. it is hardly profitable to get stock entirely in the rough if the work is to be done by hand. the following is the stock bill: front posts, - / by - / by in., s- -s. piece for back posts, - / by by in., s- -s. arm pieces, / by by - / in., s- -s. seat rails, by - / by in., s- -s. seat rails, by - / by in., s- -s. lower side rails, / by - / by in., s- -s. front and back lower rails, / by - / by in., s- -s. back rail, / by - / by in., s- -s. back rail, / by - / by in., s- -s. slats, / by by - / in., s- -s. slat, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. braces, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. the design shown is for a chair in which the width of front and back is the same. also the back leg parallels the front below the seat. in commercial practice the backs are usually made somewhat narrower than the fronts and the back leg is slanted somewhat below the seat as well as above. as this construction necessitates sloping shoulders on all tenons it complicates the problem when the work is not done by machinery. the ambitious amateur may readily get the proportion of slant by measuring common chairs. for mission effects the chair looks well with front and back the same width. prepare the front posts first and then the rear. the rear posts are to be cut from the single piece of stock specified. by proper planning both pieces may be gotten out without trouble. lay off and cut the mortises. saw the rails to length and lay out and cut the tenons. the back rails are to have mortises in their edges to receive the ends of the slats. instead of tenoning these slats make mortises large enough to receive the whole end--in other words, house the ends. shape the two arms, then glue up the back and then the front of the chair. after the glue has set sufficiently, assemble the remainder of the parts. [illustration: detail of the armchair] thoroughly scrape and sandpaper the parts and then apply the finish. for a seat, either a leather cushion may be placed upon slats or the bottom may be upholstered in the usual manner, using webbing on heavy canvas, and then felt or hair with a top of canvas and leather; the whole being firmly fastened with tacks and the leather with ornamental nails. a hall bench all the stock for this bench should be of / -in. oak, excepting the slats, which may be of a cheaper wood. the following list of lumber will be required to build it: slats, / by by in., cheap wood. cleats, / by by in., cheap wood. end rails, / by by - / in., oak, s- -s. ends, / by by - / in., oak, s- -s. sides, / by by in., oak, s- -s. pieces, / by - / by in., oak, s- -s. [illustration: detail of the hall bench] start the work by first cutting the two pieces of / by - / by -in. material diagonally in. from each corner, thus making the legs. the edges are planed square and the ends should be rounded a little so that there will be no splinters projecting. the legs are mortised in. deep for the side rails. the tenon ends are cut on the rails, care being taken to get the right angle and a good fit. these can now be fastened together, using hot glue on the entire surface of the joint. [illustration: bench made of plain oak] while these are drying the ends can be made as shown in the plan. the by -in. holes are cut at equal distances apart. be sure that each end is perfectly square, then glue and dowel the -in. strips at each end. the ends are then glued and nailed to the sides, using finishing nails, which are set and the holes filled with colored putty. the cleats are now fastened, extra care being taken when fastening them over the joints where the legs receive the side rails, as this will help to strengthen the joints. the slats rest on these cleats and are placed at equal distances apart. the bench is now finished, but before applying the stain, see that all parts are free from glue and are well sandpapered. the leather cushion should be the loose kind and of a shade to harmonize with the finish. a sewing table this convenient and useful table will be much appreciated by any woman. it has two drawers for sewing material, and two drop leaves to spread the work upon. the following list of material will be needed for its construction. the sizes given are exact, so if the stock cannot be bought at a mill ready planed and squared, a slight allowance must be made for this. posts, - / by - / by in., s- -s. rails, / by by - / in., s- -s. top, / by by in., s- -s. leaves, / by by in., s- -s. drawer fronts, / by by - / in., s- -s. drawer sides, / by by in., s- -s. drawer backs, / by - / by in., s- -s. drawer bottoms, / by - / by in., s- -s. drawer slides, / by by in., s- -s. panels, / by - / by in., s- -s. brackets, / by by in., s- -s. have the surfaces of the legs exactly square with each other. the ends must be square with all surfaces, but need not be planed smooth as neither will be seen in the finished table. [illustration: sewing table in plain oak] arrange the rails in position. the two rails in each side and back are placed with the -in. surface out, while the three in the front have the -in. surface up for the drawers to slide upon. mark the tenons, in, by / in., with a knife and gauge lines on each end of the rails for the sides and back. mark the tenons, / in. by / in., as shown in the sketch, on each end of front rails. cut all the tenons with a backsaw and smooth them with a chisel. [illustration: detail of the sewing table] carefully mark the mortises in the legs, taking measurements for each mortise from the tenon which is to go into it. fit together all rails and legs without glue to detect any errors. see that the panels for sides and back are squared up true and the surfaces smooth. mark the grooves for the panels in the side and back rails and legs. cut the grooves with a chisel or plow plane to a depth of / in. glue up the joints and clamp the two table sides first. while the glue is setting, square up and smooth the top and two leaves perfectly. now glue up the whole table, having set in the front and back rails and panel. the drawer slides, two on each side, should next be put in. a nail through them and into each leg will hold them, as there is only the weight of the drawers resting on them. fasten the top with screws through the rails from the under side. the leaves are attached with two -in. butt hinges which must be set in flush with the under surface to prevent a crack showing between the table top and leaf when the latter is raised. the small bracket hinged to the panel supports the open leaf. [illustration: construction of the drawer] the drawers are now made. allow the side to lap over the front / in. as shown in sketch and fasten it with nails. the bottom should be let into the sides and front / in., but must not be nailed to them, because this would cause the drawer to stick, when the bottom expands. metal rings or wooden knobs will do well for the drawer pulls. stain to any desired shade and finish with a wax if a dull gloss is wanted, or with one coat of shellac and two coats of varnish for a highly polished surface. a side chair a companion piece to the chair with arms and the sideboard is the side chair illustrated herewith. it should be made of the same kind of wood and finished to correspond with the armchair. order the following stock list: front posts, - / by - / by - / in., s- -s. piece for back posts, - / by - / by - / in., s- -s. seat rails, by by in., s- -s. lower side rails, / by - / by in., s- -s. lower front and back rails, / by - / by in., s- -s. back rail, / by - / by in., s- -s. back rail, / by by in., s- -s. slat, / by by - / in., s- -s. slats, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. square up the front posts to length. from the single piece specified cut out the back posts, giving them the amount of slant indicated in the drawing. set these four posts upright in the positions they are to occupy relative to one another in the finished piece, and mark off, as with penciled circles, the approximate locations of mortises. after this, lay them on the bench side by side, even the lower ends and locate accurately the ends of the mortises. gauge their sides. saw the rails to length and lay out the shoulder lines and the cheeks of the tenons and cut them. plan to house the ends of the slats in the back rails. [illustration: side chair of dining-room set] while the drawing shows a chair in which the front and back are of equal width, the amateur may make the back narrower if he so desires. a measurement of a common chair will give the proportions. [illustration: detail of the side chair] place the front and the back in the clamps and after the glue has had time to harden, assemble the remaining parts. thoroughly scrape and sandpaper all the parts, carefully removing any surplus glue. wood finish will not "take hold" where any glue has been allowed to remain. the seat may be given the same treatment as suggested for the armchair. this should not be done, however, until the finish has been applied. a simple finish is obtained by the application of a coat of paste filler of a soft brown color, if oak has been used. apply and clean this off in the manner directed by the manufacturers and after it has had hours in which to harden, sand it lightly with no. paper. over this apply a thin coat of shellac. allow this to harden, then sandpaper lightly with fine paper. upon the shellac apply several coats of some good rubbing wax. follow the directions that are to be found upon the cans, being careful not to apply too much at a time. if too much wax is applied, it stays in the small pores of the wood and produces an ugly chalk-like appearance. another piano bench the piano bench shown is best made of black walnut or oak and should be finished in the natural color for walnut, but stained some rich brown for oak. the following pieces will be needed: top, by - / by - / in., s- -s. legs, by - / by - / in., s- -s. rails, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. stretcher, / by - / by in., s- -s. the keys can be secured from the waste that will be cut off from the other parts. square up the top in the usual manner to the size indicated in the working drawing. in a similar manner square up the stretcher to width and length. there will be no need to square the ends of the rails as they are to be cut off on a slant. square up the sides or edges and then lay off and cut the slanting ends, smoothing them with the plane. lay off and work the shape on their under edges. [illustration: detail of the piano bench] the ends are best laid off by means of a template or pattern for which a piece of rather heavy paper will do. lay off the main dimensions on a center line. sketch in the curve of the edge after the slant has been laid out. lay out the form at the bottom, then fold the paper along the center line and trace the other half. with this pattern lay off the outline upon the wood. for convenience in laying out the grooves for the rails and the mortise for the tenon on the stretcher, it is well to work a face edge upon each leg and allow this to remain until these joints have been made and the parts fitted. the shape at the bottom of the leg is merely suggestive and may be modified as desired. lay out and work the tenons on the stretcher. then lay out and work the grooves upon the rails. each side of each rail is grooved / in, to allow the leg to be recessed. this is done to give the bench the bracing that is needed to make it stand firmly. work the grooves in the legs and the mortises for the rails. [illustration: piano bench in quarter-sawed oak] it should be noted that the mortise for the key in the stretcher must be laid out before the shoulders and cheeks of the tenon on which the mortise is made are cut off. otherwise there would be no place to put the gauge in marking the sides of the mortise for the key. thoroughly scrape all the parts and then assemble them. no glue is needed. the rails are held in place by dowel pins, the heads of which are allowed to project slightly and rounded so as to give an ornamental effect. the top is attached by means of small angle irons or by means of blocks and screws fastened to the corners made by top and rails. another screen the screen shown in the accompanying illustration is made of burlap and plain-sawed oak. the stock list follows: posts, - / by - / by in., s- -s. base pieces, by by - / in., s- -s. horizontals, / by - / by in., s- -s. horizontal, / by - / by in., s- -s. vertical, / by - / by in., s- -s. braces, - / by - / by - / in., s- -s. the two base pieces may be shaped first. the drawing shows the form and the dimensions. make use of a face edge in laying out the mortises in the base pieces for the uprights, before these face edges are removed to make the slanting sides. work the verticals to length, laying out and cutting the tenons at the bottoms, and shaping the tops as shown. lay out and shape the three horizontals as shown, working the tenons upon the ends of each and the mortises in the lower two for the tenons of the middle vertical. for the braces, secure a face edge on each piece and square one end of each to that. lay off the curve free-hand upon one block and cut it out. use this block as a pattern or template to lay off the others. thoroughly scrape and sandpaper all the parts, then assemble them, using clamps and good hot glue. take care to see that there is no warp in the frame as it lies in the clamps. after the glue on the frame has hardened, remove the clamps and attach the base blocks and the braces. the braces are secured by means of round-head screws. [illustration: plain-oak frame with burlap panels] remove the surplus glue and then apply a finish as desired. for the paneling, frames will be needed about which to fasten the burlap. these may be made of / -in, soft wood and the following pieces will be necessary: pieces, / by by in., s- -s. pieces, / by by in., s- -s. pieces, / by by in., s- -s. pieces, / by by in., s- -s. make these frames enough smaller than the openings they are to occupy to allow for burlap and tacks. these frames are held in place by putting fixed nails in the top of each frame before the burlap is attached. holes are bored in the rails to correspond to them. the lower edges of the frames are held in place by nails inserted up through the rails upon which the frames rest. [illustration: detail of the frame] a folding card table the accompanying sketch shows the details of a card table that can be folded up and carried about or stored away when not in use. we would advise making two tables at the same time, as the material for both can be purchased nearly as cheaply as for one. the material necessary for making one table is given in the following list: piece, / by - / by - / in., basswood or poplar. pieces, / by - / by - / in., basswood or poplar. legs, in. square, - / in. long; oak. pieces, in. square, in. long; oak. side pieces, / by - / by - / in.; oak. pieces, - / in. long, single groove electric wire moulding with batten. piece cardboard, / in. thick, - / in. square. pieces brass rod, - in. diameter, in. long. small copper washers, / or / in. outside diameter and drilled / in. brass corners, - / in, deep. - / doz. no. oval head brass screws, / in. long. no. , / -in. rubber screw tips. piece felt, yd. square. sheet wadding, yd. square (if pad is wanted under felt). pt. wood stain. doz. no. wire beads, in. long. some -oz., -oz., and -oz. flat-head tacks. begin by squaring up the four legs making them all - / in. long and in. square. also square up the crosspieces marked b in the detail drawing. these should be in. long and should have / -in. holes about in. deep drilled in both ends of each for the / -in. oak swivel pins. measure back - / in. from one end of each and bore a / -in. hole, / in. deep as shown. now cut a tenon on one end of each leg, / in. long, that will fit tightly in this / -in. hole. round the corners of the piece b at the top as shown at c. fasten the two pieces together with glue and brads, being careful to get them square with each other. after the glue is set bore a / -in. hole in the center of the leg, in. from the edge of the crosspiece, for the brace rod. bevel the corners as shown. sandpaper them smooth, then stain and polish. [illustration: detail of the card table] [illustration: card table ready for use] lay the two pieces marked d and e in the sketch on a level surface with the / -in. edge up, place the cardboard on top and tack it fast to the pieces, using -oz. tacks. place the center piece in and tack it fast also. fasten the ends to the other pieces with brads. the four pieces of electric wire moulding should each measure exactly - / in. long, or the same length as the center piece. fit a piece of wood about in. long in the groove at each end of the moulding, plane down and fasten with brads. next take the thin batten or covering strip that comes with the moulding and bore a / -in. hole in the center, in, from one end, and a / -in. hole, - / in. from the other end. with a gouge cut a slot / in. wide from one hole to the other in the center as shown in the section a-a. sandpaper this slot smooth and then fasten the batten to the moulding with small brads driven in about in. apart. at a point / in. from each end and in the center drill / -in. holes through the moulding at the small ends of the slots. these are for the ends of the brace rods to spring into, to lock the legs when they are open. tack the two pieces of moulding marked f and j on the remaining edges of the cardboard with the slots facing in and the large holes of the slots at opposite sides, then place the other two pieces (g and h) in. inside of these, or just the length of the cross ends of the legs, with the slots facing the first two placed (f and j) and tack fast with -oz. tacks. use brads at the ends and be careful that they do not enter the / -in. holes. this part of the table can now be stained or painted the same as the legs. the / -in. side pieces can also be stained at this time. the ends of the brass rods can be bent in a vise. one end should be in. long and should be square with the stock. measure - / in. center to center and bend in opposite direction, leaving this end at a slight angle out from square. just at this bend raise a burr with a sharp chisel to keep the washer on. now place five of the copper washers on the -in. end and batter the end of the rod so they will not slip off. they should be loose so that they will roll and slip on the brace. slip a washer on the other end and put the end of the rod through the / -in. hole in the leg from the short end side, place another washer on the rod, saw off and rivet down the end. [illustration: the legs fold on the under side of top] to put the legs in the table, slip the end of one of the braces and the washers in the large hole in the slot, shove it up until the / -in. hole in the crosspiece and the one in the moulding meet, then drive an oak dowel or rod into each end. this is the hinge or pivot that the legs swing on. when the leg is extended the end of the brace rod should spring into the / -in. hole in the moulding and lock the leg in place. rubber tips should be put on the bottom ends of the legs. two wooden buttons should be made and fastened to the cardboard as shown at k for locking the legs when they are closed. the felt can now be put on the top of the table. stretch it tightly and then tack the edges securely to the sides of the table. now fasten on the / -in. side pieces and the brass corners with the small brass screws as shown on the drawing, and the table is complete. magazine stand if you do not possess the necessary tools for getting out the material used in this piece of furniture, it can be purchased from a mill already planed, sanded and cut to lengths given in the list. any kind of wood can be used, but quarter-sawed red oak with a mission stain and waxed, gives the best appearance. the following pieces will be needed: shelves, / by by in., s- -s. shelf, / by by in., s- -s. shelf, / by by in., s- -s. slats, / by - / by in., s- -s. slats, / by - / by in., s- -s. doz. in. no. round-head screws. take the four shelves and line them up with their backs and ends even and clamp them together firmly. mark the places for the slats across the edges of the shelves, making the first line / in. from their ends. use a square to get the lines at right angles to the surface. another line is drawn - / in. from the first, or the width of the slat. the ends of the shelves are marked in the same manner, beginning from the back edges and making the first line / in. from them, and then another line - / in. from the first, or the width of the slat. make a line across the ends, / in. from the front edge of the -in, shelves, and another line - / in. back from the first one. this will leave - / in. and - / in. of space respectively from the front edges of the -in. and -in. shelves. shift the shelves so they will be even on the front edges and mark them the same as the back. make a / -in. depth mark on all edges between the lines and cut this material out. this can be done while the shelves are clamped together. [illustration: stand complete] [illustration: detail of stand] place the shelves on end in their order and start by screwing on the back slats on both ends first, then screw on the two front slats. turn the stand down and put on the two back slats. attach the two front slats on the top shelf first. then bore the places for the remaining holes and turn in the screws. this will bend the slats into place. the two remaining slats are screwed on the ends of the shelves without letting them in, making the spaces equal. mark each slat / in. below the bottom shelf and saw them off. the stand can be taken apart, sandpapered and stained. a tabouret the stock necessary to make a tabouret of craftsman design as shown in the accompanying illustration can be purchased from the mill ready cut to length, squared and sanded. quarter-sawed oak is the best wood to use and it is also the easiest to secure. order the following pieces: legs, - / in. square by in. long. top, / in. thick by in. square. top rails, / by by in. lower rails, / by by in. first square up the four legs. bevel the tops at an angle of deg. and hollow out the lower part of the legs as shown in the detail sketch. clamp them together with the ends square and lay out the mortises all at once. cut the tenons on the rails to fit these mortises. lay them out in the same manner as the posts so as to get them all the same distance between shoulders. the upper rails should be cut out underneath as shown. [illustration: detail of tabouret] the rails and posts can now be glued together. be careful to get them joined perfectly square. when they are dry cut and fit the top as shown. this is fastened to the top rails by means of screws from the inside. remove all surplus glue from about the joints, as the finish will not take where there is any glue. go over the whole with fine sandpaper and remove all rough spots, then apply the finish you like best. [illustration: finished tabouret] [illustration: complete porch swing] a porch swing the porch swing shown in the illustration can be made of southern pine at a very moderate cost. it should be suspended by rustless black chains and eyebolts passing through the lower rails. if cushions are desired they can be made up quite cheaply of elastic felt covered with denim cloth. these pieces, dressed and sanded, may be bought at the mill: rails, - / by by in., s- -s. rail, - / by by in., s- -s. posts, - / by by in., s- -s. posts, - / by by in., s- -s. rails, - / by by - / in., s- -s. arm rests, / by by in., s- -s. slats, / by by in., s- -s. ft. flooring for bottom. cleats, / by - / by in., s- -s. plane and square the ends of all the rails and posts. lay out the lap joints for the back rails and posts. use a knife line for this and saw exactly to the line to avoid trimming with the chisel. when sawing be careful to cut exactly halfway through the thickness of each piece. in the same way make the lap joints between the front rail and posts. have the two end rails exactly the same length and proceed to fasten the front and back posts to them, using -in. lag screws and washers. bore through the posts and part way into the ends of the end rails for the lag screws. [illustration: detail of the porch swing] the slats are mortised / in. into the back rails, or a / -in. groove may be planed in these rails, the entire distance between joints, to receive the slats. a rabbeting plane will be needed for this. the arm rests lap over the back posts and are held to them with -in. round-head screws. they may be fastened to the top of the front posts with round-head screws or dowel pins. ordinary pine flooring makes a good, tight seat, or / -in. board may be used if desired. fasten the cleats, which support the seat, to the front and back lower rails with - / -in. screws. to bring out the beautiful grain of southern pine, stain it brown or black and finish with two coats of waterproof varnish. a foot warmer this foot warmer is so constructed that two bricks may be heated and placed inside of the stool. oak is the most suitable wood to use, and the following pieces will be needed: legs, - / by - / by in., s- -s. side rails, / by by - / in., s- -s. top pieces, / by - / by in., s- -s. bottom piece, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. piece asbestos, - / by - / in. pieces asbestos, by - / in. sheet of brass, by in., gauge. hinges, elbow catch, doz. ornamental tacks. the work may be started by shaping the four legs and cutting the mortises for the rails. tenons are cut on the ends of the rails to fit in the mortises made in the posts. they are then glued together, care being taken to get the stool perfectly square. the top frame can now be made and covered with the sheet of brass. the frame has mitered corners and the inside of the frame must be even with the inside of the rails. this in turn is fastened to the stool with the two hinges on the back and the elbow catch on the front side to keep it closed. [illustration: detail of the foot warmer] the design on the brass can be made by tacking it on a board, laying out the design and piercing the background with some sharp-pointed tool. this leaves the design raised with a smooth surface. the brass can now be removed from the board, placed on the frame and fastened with the ornamental tacks. turn the stool bottom side up and line the inside of the rails with asbestos; then place the bricks on the inside of the stool. both should fit up tight to the brass when the bottom is in place. [illustration: oak stool with brass cover] the stool is now ready for the finish, which can be of some stain to match the other furniture in the room where it is to be used. a plate rack for the dining room this plate rack can be made of any kind of wood and finished to match other pieces of furniture in the room, but as it is of mission design, oak is the most suitable lumber, as it takes the mission stain so nicely. the material required is as follows: posts, - / by - / by in., s- -s. top, / by - / by in., s- -s. plate rails, / by - / by in., s- -s. back boards, / by - / by in., s- -s. side boards, / by - / by in., s- -s. shelves, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. plate rests, / by / by in., s- -s. [illustration: detail of plate rack] this stock is specified to exact thickness, but some allowance is made for trimming on the edges and ends. begin work by squaring up the posts to length and beveling the top ends, then trim the back and side boards. these are nailed together, lapping the back board over the side board. the posts are fastened with dowels placed at equal distances apart. hot glue is used in the joints. [illustration: dining-room plate rack] the four shelves are now put in place. these are notched out to fit around the posts and are nailed and glued. while the glue is hardening on these, the plate rails can be cut. these have / -in grooves near the front edge to receive the lower edge of the plates when resting against the two strips placed in. above the plate rails and far enough back to prevent the plates from falling forward. the rails are fastened to the two sides with dowels, three at each end being sufficient. the two strips fit in mortises cut in the side pieces. the top is then put on. this fits around the posts and rests on the sides. hooks on which to hang cups are placed under the rails. all parts are thoroughly sandpapered before the stain is applied. a mission sideboard [illustration: sideboard for the dining-room set] the sideboard is a piece designed to go with the armchair and side chair with similar paneling design. like these chairs the sideboard should be made of hard wood and should be similarly finished. the drawer pulls, if not made of wood, should be of such metal and design as to harmonize with the mission style. wrought-iron effects in plain outlines are appropriate. drawer sides, bottoms and backs may be made of some soft wood, such as yellow poplar. the small top drawer may be lined with ooze leather for holding silverware. obtain the following stock: posts, by by in., s- -s. posts, by by in., s- -s. top, by by in., s- -s. plate rails, / by by in., s- -s. plate rail, / by - / by in., s- -s. rails, / by by in., s- -s. rails, / by - / by in., s- -s. rails, / by by in., s- -s. slats, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. slats, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. panels, / by - / by in., s- -s. back rail, / by by in., s- -s. back rail, / by - / by in., s- -s. back rail, / by by in., s- -s. back stiles, / by - / by in., s- -s. back stiles, / by - / by in., s- -s. back panel, / by by - / in., s- -s. back panel, / by - / by in., s- -s. back panels, / by by in., s- -s. drawer front, / by by - / in., s- -s. drawer fronts, / by by - / in., s- -s. drawer fronts, / by by - / in., s- -s. drawer ends, / by by in., s- -s, poplar. drawer ends, / by by in., s- -s, poplar. drawer ends, / by by in., s- -s, poplar. drawer backs, / by by in., s- -s, poplar. drawer backs, / by by in., s- -s, poplar. drawer bottoms, / by by in., s- -s, poplar. drawer bottoms, / by by in., s- -s, poplar. drawer supports, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. drawer supports, / by - / by in., s- -s. drawer slides, / by by in., s- -s. middle verticals, / by by in., s- -s. drawer guides can be made from scrap stock. a detailed description is hardly necessary for such a piece of work as this. anyone capable of building it, will know the order of the different operations that are required in its construction. [illustration: detail of the sideboard] it may be said that the two back panels at either side of the small drawers may be filled with beveled plate glass instead of wood if one so choose. transcriber's notes: folio : "millplaned" changed to "mill-planed" folio : started new paragraph at "the bottom board...." added captions to illustrations: folio : "umbrella stand" folio : "detail of umbrella stand" folio " "detail of pedestal" none none none transcriber's note: if the pdf version of the book is viewed using facing pages with even numbered pages on the left, you will see a close approximation of the original book. notations of the form "( , ) " appear at the bottom of some pages; they are probably printer's references for assembling to book. the text only version is of limited use because of the many figures used. i recommend the pdf or rtf versions. some of the projects should be approached with care since they involve corrosive or explosive chemicals, electricity and steam boilers. do not use lead solder, particularly on cooking utensils. whether you simply want to travel back into the mind of a young boy at the beginning of the twentieth century, or want to try your hand at some interesting projects in carpentry, machinery, kites and many other areas, have fun. the following are definitions of unusual (to me) terms used frequently in the text. terms batten - narrow strip of wood. bevel (bevelling) - a cut that is not a right angle. bradawl - awl with a beveled tip to make holes in wood for brads or screws. chamfer - cut off the edge or corner; bevel. boss - enlarged part of a shaft where another shaft is coupled or a wheel or gear is keyed. broach - to shape a hole with a tapered tool. carbide - calcium carbide, used to produce acetylene (c h ) gas for lighting and welding. compo - "composition", like plastic. creosote - an oily liquid containing phenols and creosols, obtained from coal tar. used as a wood preservative and disinfectant. can cause severe neurological disturbances if inhaled. deal - a fir or pine board of standard dimensions fish-plate - a plate bolted to the sides of two abutting railroad tracks. fretworking - ornamental design, often in relief. gasholder gasometer - storage container for fuel gas, especially a large, telescoping, cylindrical tank. gland - the outer sleeve of a stuffing box that prevents leakage past a moving machine part. glass paper - paper faced with pulverized glass, like sandpaper. gudgeon - a metal pivot or journal at the end of a shaft or an axle, around which a wheel or other device turns. joiner - a cabinetmaker. linoleum - a floor covering made in sheets by pressing heated linseed oil, rosin, powdered cork, and pigments onto a burlap or canvas backing. lissom - easily bent; supple longitudinal - relating to length. mortice - cavity in a piece of wood or other material, prepared to receive a tenon and form a joint. panel saw - handsaw with fine teeth. pinion - gear with a small number of teeth designed to mesh with a larger gear. plinth - architectural support or base. rasp - coarse file with sharp, raised, pointed projections. sleeper - railroad crosstie. spanner - wrench spirit lamp - alcohol lamp; see example on page . spirit - alcohol strake - ridge of thick planking on the side of a wooden ship. strut - any part designed to hold things apart or resist compressive stress; tap - cut screw threads tenon - projection on the end of a piece of wood shaped for insertion into a mortise to make a joint. tenon saw - saw with a thin blade for cutting tenons. tinning - coating with soft solder. turner - person who operates a lathe or similar device. tyre - tire vestas - matches; vestai is the roman goddess of the hearth, worshiped in a temple containing the sacred fire tended by the vestal virgins. currency conversion prices are quoted in old english currency, pounds, shillings, pence. " s. d." is read as " shillings and pence." pence/penny shilling-- pence. crown-- shillings. pound-- shillings. guinea-- shillings. the approximate value of prices in is: unit value in currency english pound us dollars pence . . shilling . . crown . . pound . . [end transcriber's note.] [illustration: large model locomotive] photo: daily mirror. large model locomotive built for one of the royal princes of siam by messrs. bassett-lowke, limited. it is one-quarter the size of a modern express engine; weighs two tons, with tender; is fifteen feet long; will pull seventy persons; and has a highest speed of about thirty miles an hour. things to make by archibald williams author of "victories of the engineer," "how it works," "how it is made," etc., etc. thomas nelson and sons, ltd. london, edinburgh, and new york preface. the making for oneself of toys and other objects of a more or less useful character has certain advantages over buying them. in the case of the more elaborate and costly articles, it may enable one to possess things which otherwise would be unobtainable. secondly, a home-made article may give a satisfaction more lasting than is conferred by a bought one, though it may be less beautiful to look upon. thirdly, the mere making should be a pleasure, and must be an education in itself. to encourage readers to "use their hands" the following chapters have been written. the subjects chosen provide ample scope for the exercise of ingenuity and patience; but in making my selection i have kept before me the fact that a well-equipped workshop falls to the lot of but a few of the boys who are anxious to develop into amateur craftsmen. therefore, while the easiest tasks set herein are very easy, the most difficult will not be found to demand a very high degree of skill, or more than a very moderate outlay on tools. i may say here that i have been over the ground myself to find out its difficulties for my readers, and that i made an engine similar to that described in chapter xv (the most elaborate mechanism included in the book) with very simple tools. some of the items which i had on my original list were abandoned, because they presupposed the possession of comparatively expensive machines. my selection has also been guided by the desire to cater for different tastes. in some cases the actual manufacture of the thing described may be regarded as the most instructive and valuable element, and may appeal most forcibly to the "handy" boy; in others--the harmonograph provides a good instance--the interest centres round the experiments made possible by the construction of a simple piece of apparatus; in some the utility of the article manufactured is its chief recommendation. i feel certain that anyone who follows out the pages of this volume with hand as well as with eye, will have little reason to regret the time so spent. the things made may in course of time be put aside and forgotten, but the manual skill acquired will remain. nowadays one can buy almost anything ready-made, or get it made without difficulty; yet he who is able to make things for himself will always have an advantage over the person to whom the use of tools is an unprobed mystery. contents. i. sawing trestle ii. a joiner's bench iii. a handy bookstand iv. a house ladder v. a developing sink vi. a poultry house and run vii. a shed for your bicycle viii. a target apparatus for rifle shooting ix. cabinet-making x. telegraphic apparatus xi. a reciprocating electric motor xii. an electric alarm clock xiii. a model electric railway xiv. a simple reciprocating engine xv. a horizontal slide-valve engine xvi. model steam turbines xvii. steam tops xviii. model boilers xix. quick-boiling kettles xx. a hot-air engine xxi. a water motor xxii. model pumps xxiii. kites xxiv. paper gliders xxv. a self-launching model aeroplane xxvi. apparatus for simple scientific experiments xxvii. a rain gauge xxviii. wind vanes with dials xxix. a strength-testing machine xxx. lung-testing apparatus xxxi. home-made harmonographs xxxii. a self-supplying matchbox xxxiii. a wooden workbox xxxiv. wrestling puppets xxxv. double bellows xxxvi. a home-made pantograph xxxvii. a silhouette drawing machine xxxviii. a signalling lamp xxxix. a miniature gasworks things to make. i. a sawing trestle a strong and stable sawing trestle is one of the most important accessories of the carpenter's shop, whether amateur or professional. the saw is constantly being used, and for it to do its work accurately the material must be properly supported, so that it cannot sway or shift. anybody who has been in the habit of using a wobbly chair or box to saw on will be surprised to find how much more easily wood can be cut when resting on a trestle like that illustrated by figs. to . the top, a, of the trestle is inches long, inches wide, and inches thick. at one end it has a deep nick, to serve much the same purpose as the notched board used in fretworking; also to hold on edge such things as doors while their edges are planed up. pushed back against the wall the trestle is then "as good as a boy." [illustration: fig i.--leg of sawing trestle (left). trestle seen from above (right).] the four legs are made of by inch stuff. to start with, the pieces should be inches long, to allow for the waste of cutting on the angle. cutting the notches.--make four marks inches from the four corners of the top, set your bevel to an angle of degrees (or cut an angle out of a card with the help of a protractor), and lay a leg against each mark in turn, the end projecting an inch or so above the top. move the leg about till it makes the proper angle at the mark, and draw a pencil line down each side of the leg as close up as possible. since the legs may vary slightly in size, use each once only for marking, and number it and the place to which it belongs. lines must now be drawn along the upper and under sides of the top, parallel to and / -inch from the edge, to complete the marking out of the notches. cut just inside the side marks with a fine tenon saw, and remove the wood between the cuts back to the top and bottom marks with a broad, sharp chisel, making the surface of the cut as true and flat as you can. then "offer" the leg that belongs to the cut, its end projecting an inch or so. if it won't enter, bevel off the sides of the cut very slightly till it will. a good driving fit is what one should aim at. while the leg is in place, draw your pencil in the angles which it makes with the top above and below, to obtain the lines ab, cd (fig. , a). bevelling the legs.-the marking out of the bevels will be much expedited if a template is cut out of tin or card. it should be just as wide as the legs, and at a point inches from one end run off at an angle of degrees from one edge. (see fig. ,b.) [illustration: fig. .-showing how to cut sloping joint for trestle leg.] draw with a square a line, eel, across what is to be the inside of the leg. the template is applied to the end side of the leg and moved up till its sloping edge occupies a position in which a perpendicular dropped on to it from c is / inch long. mark the line ef (fig. , b) and the perpendicular cg. the bevel is marked on the other side of the leg, the, angle of the template being at e (fig. , a) to guide the saw, which is passed down through the leg just outside the marks till in line with cd. the piece is detached by a cross cut along cg, cd. this procedure, which sounds very complicated, but is really very simple, and performed much more quickly than it can be described, yields a leg properly bevelled and provided with a shoulder to take the weight of the top. [illustration: fig. --end elevation of sawing trestle.] the leg at the diagonally opposite corner is an exact replica of the one first made; the other two are similar, but the direction of the bevels is reversed, as will be evident after a little consideration. when all the legs are ready, knock them into place, driving the shoulders tight up against the top, and nail them on. the projections are sawn off roughly and planed down flush with the top. then affix the tie c at each end, and plane its edges off neatly. truing the legs.--stand the stool on end, top flat against the wall. measure off a -inch perpendicular from the wall to the outside corner of each of the two upper legs. (fig. .) lay a straightedge from mark to mark, and draw lines across the legs. reverse the trestle, and do the same with the legs at the other end. then turn the trestle on its side, and draw lines on the other outside faces of the legs, using the lines already made as guides. if the operation has been carried through accurately, all eight lines will be in a plane parallel to the top. cut off the ends of the legs below the lines, and the trestle is finished. ii. a joiner's bench. after finishing his sawing trestle the reader may be willing to undertake a larger job, the manufacture of a joiner's bench--if he does not already possess a good article--heavy and rigid enough to stand firm under plane and hammer. for the general design and detailed measurements he is referred to figs. and , in which the dimensions of each part are figured clearly. the length of feet, width of feet (exclusive of the back e), and height of feet - / inches will be found a good average. if the legs prove a bit long for some readers, it is a simple matter to lay a plank beside the bench to raise the (human) feet an inch or two. in order to give rigidity, the struts s s of the trestles at the end and the braces dd on the front are "halved" where they overlap the legs and front so as to offer the resistance of a "shoulder" to any thrust. [illustration: fig. .--front elevation of joiner's bench] materials.--the cost of these will be, approximately: wood, s. d.; [ shillings. pence] bench screw, s. d.; nails and screws, s.; or s. in all. it is advisable to show the timber merchant the specifications, so that he may cut up the stuff most economically. if the wood is mill-planed before delivery a lot of trouble will be saved, as no further finish will be required, except perhaps at the top corners. in passing, one should remark that the boards used should be of the widths and lengths given; while as regards thickness the figures must be taken as nominal, as in practice the saw cut is included. thus a -inch board would, when planed, be only / to / inch thick, unless the actual size is specified, in which case something extra might be charged. construction. the trestles.--these should be made first. begin by getting all the legs of exactly the same length, and square top and bottom. then cut off two -inch lengths of the by inch wood, squaring the ends carefully. two of the legs are laid on the floor, one end against the wall or a batten nailed to the floor and arranged parallel to one another, as gauged by the piece c, which is nailed on perfectly square to both, and with its top edge exactly flush with the ends of the legs. next take the by inch wood for the struts, and cut off a piece inches long. two inches from one end of it make a cross mark with the square, and from the ends of the mark run lines towards the end at an angle of degrees. cut along these lines, and lay one of the edges just cut up against c, and flush with the outer edge of l (fig. ). tack the strut on temporarily to both legs, turn the trestle over, and draw your pencil (which should have a sharp point) along the angles which the strut makes with the legs. this gives you the limits of the overlaps. detach the strut. the marking-gauge now comes into use. set it at / inch, and make marks on the sides of the strut down to the limits, pressing the guide against what will be the inner face of the board. the ends must now be divided down along the gauge scratches to the limit mark with a tenon or panel saw, the saw being kept on the inside of the mark, so that its cut is included in the / inch, and a cross cut made to detach the piece and leave a shoulder. the strut is "offered" again to the legs, and a mark is drawn across the bottom parallel to the ends or the legs for the final saw cut. nail on the strut, pressing the legs well up against the shoulders. its fellow on the other side of the legs is prepared in exactly the same manner; and the second trestle is a duplicate of the first, with the exception that the directions of the struts are reversed relatively to the c piece, to preserve the symmetry--which, however, is not an important point. [illustration: fig. .--end elevation of joiner's bench.] back and front.--the only operation to be performed on the front piece b and the back g is the notching of them both on the inside faces at the centre to take the ends of the bearer f, which performs the important function of preventing any bending of the top planks. lay the boards together, top edges and ends level, and mark them at the same time. the square is then used on the faces to give the limits for the notches, which should be / inch deep and chiselled out carefully. draw cross lines with your square inches from each end of both pieces, on the inside, to show where the legs are to be. bore holes in the boards for the -inch screws which will hold them to the legs. attaching the trestles.--stand the trestles on their heads and lay the back and front up to them, using the guide marks just drawn. a nail driven part way in through one of the screw holes, and a batten tacked diagonally on the dd lines, will hold a leg in position while the screws are inserted. (make sure that the tops of the legs and the top edges of b and g are in the same plane.) affixing the braces.--the braces dd, of by inch stuff, can now be marked off and cut exactly down the middle to the limits of the overlap. screw on the braces. the bearer f is next cut out. its length should be such as to maintain the exact parallelism of b with g, and the ends be as square as you can cut them. fix it in position by two -inch screws at each end. the bench is now ready for covering. begin with the front board, a . bore countersunk holes for -inch screws over the centre of the legs and half an inch from the front edge, foot apart. arrange al with its front edge perfectly flush with the face of b, and tack it in place by nails driven through a couple of screw holes, and insert all the screws. the middle board, a , is laid up against it, and the back board, a (bored for screws like the front board), against that. screw down a . you must now measure carefully to establish lines over the centres of cc and f. attach each board to each of these by a couple of screws. all screws in the top of the bench are countersunk / inch below the surface. screw the ledge e, of by / inch wood, on to the back of g, with - / inches projecting. this will prevent tools, etc., slipping off the bench. [illustration: fig. .--perspective view of joiner's bench] the vice.--this important accessory consists of an by by inch piece, v, a -inch diameter wooden bench screw and threaded block, and a guide, f. (note.--a - / -inch diameter wrought iron screw is very preferable to the wooden, but its cost is about s. more.) v should be tacked to b while the -inch hole for the bench screw is bored through both with a centre bit, at a point inches from the guide end on the centre line of v. this hole must be made quite squarely to enable the screw to work freely. if a -inch bit is not available, mark out a -inch ring and bore a number of small holes, which can afterwards be joined by a pad-saw; and finish, the hole thus formed with a half-round rasp. the threaded block for the screw is attached to the inner side of h in the angle formed by the leg and the board a . the guide f is then fitted. this is pinned in to v, and the slides through b. if a rectangular piece is used, cut the hole in v first; then screw v up tightly, and mark b through v. it may be found more convenient to use a circular piece, in which case the holes for it can be centre-bitted through v and b in one operation. if after fitting v projects above a, plane it down level. the finishing touches are rounding off all corners which might catch and fray the clothes, and boring the / -inch holes, hh, for pegs on which planks can be rested for edge planing. for a "stop" to prevent boards slipping when being planed on the flat, one may use an ordinary -inch wood screw, the projection of which must of course be less than the thickness of the board planed. many carpenters employ this very simple expedient; others, again, prefer a square piece of wood sliding stiffly through a hole in a and provided on top with a fragment of old saw blade having its teeth projecting beyond the side facing the work. the bench is countersunk to allow the teeth to be driven down out of the way when a "clear bench" is required. just a word of warning in conclusion. don't be tempted to nail the parts together--with the exception of the trestle components--to save trouble. the use of screws entails very little extra bother, and gives you a bench which can be taken to pieces very quickly for transport, and is therefore more valuable than a nailed one. iii. a handy bookstand. a bookstand of the kind shown in fig. has two great advantages: first, it holds the books in such a position that their titles are read more easily than when the books stand vertically; second, it can be taken to pieces for packing in a few moments, as it consists of but four pieces held together by eight removable wedges. we recommend it for use on the study table. oak or walnut should preferably be chosen as material, or, if the maker wishes to economize, american whitewood or yellow pine. stuff / inch (actual) thick will serve throughout if the stronger woods are used; / inch for the shelf parts in the case of whitewood or pine. the ends (fig. ) are sawn out of pieces - / by inches, and nicely rounded off on all but the bottom edge, which is planed flat and true. the positions for the holes through which the shelf eyes will project must be marked accurately, to prevent the stand showing a twist when put together. the simplest method of getting the marks right is to cut a template out of thin card and apply it to the two ends in turn, using the base of each as the adjusting line. fret-saw the holes, cutting just inside the lines to allow for truing up with a coarse file. [illustration: fig. .--perspective view of bookstand.] the shelves a and b are inches long, exclusive of the lugs c, c, c, c, and - / and - / inches wide respectively. as will be seen from fig. , b overlaps a. both have their top edges rounded off to prevent injury to book bindings, but their bottom edges are left square. as the neatness of the stand will depend largely on a and b fitting closely against the sides, their ends should be cut out and trued carefully, special attention being paid to keeping the shoulders between and outside the lugs in a straight line. the wedge holes in c, c, c, c measure / by / inch, and are arranged to be partly covered by the sides, so that the wedges cannot touch their inner ends. (see fig. .) this ensures the shelves being tightly drawn up against the sides when the wedges are driven home. [illustration: fig. .--end elevation of bookstand.] the wedges should be cut on a very slight taper of not more than half an inch in the foot run, in order to keep their grip. prepare a strip as thick as the smaller dimension of the holes, / inch wide at one end, and / inch wide at the other. assemble the parts and push the piece through a hole until it gets a good hold, mark it across half an inch above the hole, and cut it off. then plane the strip down parallel to the edge that follows the grain until the end will project half an inch beyond the lug next fitted. mark and cut off as before, and repeat the process until the eight wedges are ready in the rough. then bevel off the outside corners and smooth them--as well as the rest of the woodwork--with fine glass paper. shelves and sides should be wax-polished or given a coat or two of varnish. [illustration: fig. . plan or bookstand shelf.] don't drive the wedges in too tight, or yon may have to lament a split lug. if the stand is to be used for very heavy books, or the shelves are much longer than specified here, it is advisable to bring the angle of the shelves down to the bottom of the standards, to relieve the shelves of bending strain at the centre; or to use stouter material; or to unite the shelves at two or three points by thin brass screws inserted through holes drilled in the overlapping part. iv. a house ladder. the preparation and putting together of the parts of a ladder having round, tapered rungs let into holes in the two sides is beyond the capacity of the average young amateur; but little skill is needed to manufacture a very fairly efficient substitute for the professionally-built article--to wit, a ladder of the kind to which builders apply the somewhat disparaging adjective "duck." the rungs of such a "duck" ladder are merely nailed to the outside if the ladder is required for temporary purposes only; but as we are of course aiming at the construction of a thing made to last, we shall go to the trouble of "notching-in" each rung (see fig. ), so that the sides shall take the weight directly, and the nails only have to keep the rungs firmly in position. the objection to notching-in is that it reduces the strength of the ladder, which is of course only that of the wood between the bottom of the notches and the plain side. therefore it is necessary to have sides somewhat deeper than would be required for a centrally-runged ladder; which is pierced where the wood is subjected to little tension or compression. [illustration: fig. --house ladder and details of letting in a rung] materials.--the length of the ladder will decide what the stoutness of the sides should be. for a ladder about feet long, such as we propose to describe, larch battens by - / inches (actual) in section and free from knots, especially at the edges, will be sufficiently strong to carry all reasonable weights without danger of collapse. but be sure to get the best wood obtainable. the rungs may be of by inch stuff, though by / inch will suffice for the upper half-dozen, which have less wear, and are shorter than those below. the rungs are inches apart (fig. ), centre to centre. the distance may be increased to a foot, or even more if weight-saving is an object. construction. preparing the sides.--these are cut to exactly the same length, which we will assume to be feet inches, planed quite smooth and rounded off slightly at the corners to make handling comfortable. before marking them for the rungs it is important that they shall be so arranged that both incline equally towards a centre line. stretch a string tightly three inches above the ground, and lay the sides of the ladder on edge to right and left of it, their ends level. adjust the bottom ends - / , the top ends - / inches from the string, measuring from the outside. tack on cross pieces to prevent shifting, and then, starting from the bottom, make a mark every inches on the outside corners, to show the position of the tops of the rungs. a piece of the wood to be used for making the rungs of is laid up to the pairs of marks in turn, and lines are drawn on both sides of it. cutting the notches.--the work of marking the ends of the notches will be quickened, and rendered more accurate, if a template (fig. ) is cut out of tin. the side ac is / to / inch deep. apply the template to both faces of the side in turn, with its corner a at the line below the rung, and de flush with the upper corner. when all the notches have been marked cut down the ac line of each with a tenon saw, and chisel along bc till the wedge-shaped chip is removed. finish off every notch as neatly as possible, so that the rungs may make close contact and keep water out. preparing the rungs.--lay a piece of rung batten across the lowest notches, the end overhanging the side by a quarter of an inch or so to allow for the taper of the ladder, and draw your pencil along the angles which it makes with the sides. mark the positions of the nail holes. cut off the rung at the cross lines; drill the four nail holes on the skew, as shown in fig. ; and round off all the corners. the other rungs are treated in the same manner, and the sides are then separated, for the inside top corner and both back corners, which will be handled most, to be well rounded off and rubbed smooth with glass paper. assembling.--before putting the parts together give them a coating of paint, as the contact surfaces will not be accessible to the brush afterwards. when the paint has dried, lay the sides out as before, and nail on the rungs with -inch nails. to counteract any tendency of the sides to draw apart, a light cross bar should be fixed on the back of the ladder behind the top and bottom rungs. round off the end angles of the rungs, and apply a second coating of paint. note.--a ladder of this kind is given a more presentable appearance if the rungs are let in square to the sides and flush, but at the sacrifice either of strength or lightness, unless narrow rungs of a hard wood, such as oak, be used. moreover, square notches are not so easy to cut out as triangular. for a short ladder, not more than feet long, the section of the sides may safely be reduced to - / by inch (actual), if good material is selected. v. a developing sink. many amateur photographers are obliged to do their developing in odd corners and under conditions which render the hobby somewhat irksome if a large number of plates have to be treated. the main difficulty is to secure an adequate water supply and to dispose of the waste water. at a small expenditure of money and energy it is easy, however, to rig up a contrivance which, if it does not afford the conveniences of a properly equipped dark room, is in advance of the jug-and-basin arrangement with which one might otherwise have to be content. a strong point in favour of the subject of this chapter is that it can be moved without any trouble if the photographer has to change his quarters. the foundation, so to speak, of the developing sink is a common wooden washstand of the kind which has a circular hole in the top to hold the basin. a secondhand article of this sort can be purchased for a shilling or two. a thoroughly sound specimen should be selected, even if it is not the cheapest offered, especial attention being paid to its general rigidity and the good condition of the boards surrounding the basin shelf. [illustration: fig. .--a home-made developing sink for the darkroom.] the area of the top is generally about by inches; but if a stand of larger dimensions can be found, choose it by preference. the general design of the sink and its equipment is shown in fig. . for the uprights, which rest on the beading of the washstand, use two boards inches wide, / inch (actual) thick, and inches long. the top shelf, to carry the pail or other water container, should be of -inch stuff; and the two lower shelves be not more than inches wide and / inch thick. space the shelves at least inches apart, so that they may accommodate tall bottles. the superstructure will gain in rigidity if the intermediate shelves are screwed to the uprights, in addition to being supported on ledges as indicated; and if the back is boarded over for at least half its height, there will be no danger of sideways collapse, when a full bucket is put in position. the top of the washstand, on which the developing will be done, must be provided with a tray of lead or zinc. lead is preferable, as lying flatter; but the jointing at the corners is more difficult than the soldering of sheet zinc, which, though more liable to chemical corrosion, is much lighter than the thinnest lead--weighing about - / lbs. to the square foot--that could well be used. if lead is selected, the services of a plumber had better be secured, if the reader has had no experience in "wiping a joint." a zinc tray is prepared by cutting out of a single sheet a piece of the shape shown in fig. . the dimensions between the bending lines (dotted) are / inch less in both directions than those of the shelf. the turn-ups a, a, b, b, should not be less than - / inches wide. allow half an inch at each end of b b for the turnover c. turn a a up first, then b b, and finally bend c c round the back of a a, to which they are soldered. a drop of solder will be needed in each corner to make it water-tight. when turning up a side use a piece of square-cornered metal or wood as mould, and make the angles as clean as possible, especially near the joints. [illustration: fig. .--showing how the tray for sink is marked out.] a drain hole, an inch or so in diameter, is cut in the centre of the tray. to prevent the hands being injured by the tray, the front should be covered by a / -inch strip of zinc doubled lengthwise, or be made a bit deeper than - / inches in the first instance and turned over on itself. before the tray is put in position the basin hole must be filled in, except for an opening to take the waste pipe. the plug is pad-sawed out of wood of the same thickness as the top, to which it is attached by crossbars on the under side. the whole of the woodwork, or at least those parts which are most likely to get wetted, should then be given a coat or two of paint. a waste pipe, somewhat larger than the drain hole and inches long, having been firmly soldered to the tray, beat the edges of the hole down into the pipe. then prepare a wooden collar to fit the pipe outside, and drill a hole on the centre line to take a carpenter's screw. if the edges of the tray are supported on slats / to / inch thick, and its centre is kept in contact with the wood by the collar pressing against the underside of the shelf, any water will naturally gravitate to the centre and escape by the waste pipe. this automatic clearance of "slops" is a very desirable feature of a developing sink. to prevent water splashing on to the sides of the stand and working down between tray and wood, tack pieces of american cloth on the sides with their edges overlapping the tray edges by an inch or so. a small two-handled bath is the most convenient receptacle for the waste water. it should hold at least a quarter as much again as the water tank, so as to avoid any danger of overfilling. a piece of old cycle tyre tubing, tied to the waste pipe and long enough to reach below the edge of the bath, will prevent splashing--which, when chemicals are being poured away, might prove disastrous to light-coloured clothes. the supply pipe has a siphon-piece of "compo" tubing at the top, to draw off the water when the tube has been filled by suction, and a small tap at the bottom. this tap, when not in use, should be held back out of the way by a wire hook attached to the lowest of the upper shelves. a piece of linoleum should be cut to fit the bath-shelf and protect the drawer below. vi. a poultry house and run. this chapter should be of interest to the keeper of poultry on a small scale, for even if the instructions given are not followed out quite as they stand, they may suggest modifications to suit the taste and means of the reader. the principle of the combined run and house--which will accommodate a dozen fowls without overcrowding, especially if it be moved from time to time on to fresh ground--will be understood from figs. and . the first of these shows the framework to which the boards for the house and the wire for the run are nailed. its over-all length of feet is subdivided into five "bays" or panels, feet long (nearly) between centres of rafters. two bays are devoted to the house, three to the run. [illustration: fig. .--frame for poultry house and run (above). completed house and run (below).] one square ( by feet) of weather boarding inches wide, for covering in the house. feet of by , for base and ridge. feet of by , for eight rafters. feet of by - / , for four rafters. feet of by - / , for door frames and doors. feet of by , for tie t. feet of -foot wire netting. two pairs of hinges; two locks; staples, etc. the materials used comprise:-- the total cost as estimated from prices current at the time of writing is s. this cost could be considerably reduced by using lighter stuff all through for the framework and doors and by covering in the house with old boards, which may be picked up cheaply if one is lucky. whether it is advisable to sacrifice durability and rigidity to cost must be left to the maker to decide. anyhow, if the specifications given are followed, an outfit warranted to last for several years will be produced. a few points.--the vertical height of the run is just under feet, the tips being cut away from the rafters at the apex. the width at the ground is exactly feet. the base angles made by aa with b (fig. ) are degrees; that which they make with one another, degrees. the rafters r and r at each end of the house are half an inch thicker than the rest, as they have to stand a lot of nailing. construction. cutting the rafters.--if floor space is available, chalk out accurately the external outline of a pair of rafters ( inches long each before shaping) and a line joining their lower ends. then draw a line bisecting the ridge angle. with this template as guide the rafters can be quickly cut to shape. another method is to cut one rafter out very carefully, making a notch for half the width of the ridge, and to use it as a pattern for the rest. in any case the chalked lines will prove useful in the next operation of pairing the rafters and uniting them by a tie just under the ridge notch. cut a by inch notch at the bottom of each rafter, on the outside, for the base piece. the two end pairs have the b pieces (fig. ) nailed on to them, and r the tie t, which should be in line with the rafters. the other three pairs require temporary ties halfway up to prevent straddling during erection. door frames and doors.--the method of fixing the frame of the door at the run end is shown in fig. . the material for the frame being / inch thicker than that of the rafters, there is room for shoulders at the top angles, as indicated by dotted lines. the door frame at the house end is of the same thickness as r so that no overlapping is possible. this being the case, screws should be used in preference to nails, which are liable to draw a sloping face out of position as they get home. [illustration: fig. .--on left, elevation of end of run; on right, door for run.] the doors are made of by inch stuff, halved at the corners. cut out the top and bottom of the two sides; lay them on the floor so as to form a perfect rectangle, and nail them together. the strut is then prepared, care being taken to get a good fit, as any shortness of strut will sooner or later mean sagging of the door. cut the angles as squarely as possible, to ensure the strut being of the same length both inside and out. note.--as the door is rectangular, it does not matter which corners are occupied by the ends of the strut; but when the door is hung, the strut must run relatively to the side on which the hinges are, as shown in fig. . amateurs--even some professionals--have been known to get the strut the wrong way up, and so render it practically useless. covering the ends of the house.--the ends of the house should be covered before erection, while it is still possible to do the nailing on the flat. the run end is boarded right over, beginning at the bottom, and allowing each board to overlap that below it by inch. the board ends are flush with the outer sides of the rafters. when boarding is finished, cut (with a pad saw) a semicircular-topped run hole, inches high and inches wide, in the middle of the bottom. any structural weakness caused by severing the two lowest boards is counteracted by the two grooved pieces in which the drop-door moves. odds and ends of weather boards should be kept for the door end of the house, which requires short pieces only, and is not boarded below the top of b . the door may be weather-boarded to match the rest of the end, or covered by a few strakes of match-boarding put on vertically. the two base pieces, b and b , and the ridge should be marked off for the rafters at the same time. all three are -foot lengths of by wood, unless you prefer the ridge to project a bit, in which case you must allow accordingly. stand all three pieces together on edge, and make the marks with a square across the tops. allow a distance of feet between the outside faces of r and r ; halve this distance to get the centre of r ; and subdivide the distance between r and r so that each rafter is separated from its neighbours by an equal space, which will be foot inches. number the marks and continue them down the sides of the boards with the square. there should be a mark on each side of the place to be occupied by the intermediate rafters, to prevent mistakes; for it is obvious that if a rafter is fixed on the left side of a single ridge mark and on the right of the corresponding mark on the base, the result will not be pleasing. erection.--the services of a second pair of hands are needed here, to hold while nailing is done. nail holes having been drilled in the tops of the rafters and in the base pieces, the ends are stood upright and tacked to the ridge at the places marked for them, and after them the intermediate rafters, working from one end to the other. then tack on the base pieces, b , b . get the ends quite perpendicular, and nail a temporary cross strut or two on the outside of the rafters to prevent shifting while the final nailing up is done. covering the shed.--sixteen boards, feet inches long, are needed for each side, as, owing to the overlap of one inch, each tier covers only five of the inches. the ridge is made watertight by a strip of sheet zinc, a foot wide, bent over the top and nailed along each edge. waterproofing.--all the woodwork should now be given a coating of well-boiled tar, paint, creosote, or some other preservative, worked well down into the cracks. creosote and stoprot are most convenient to use, as they dry quickly. netting.--when the preservative has dried, fix on the netting with / -inch wire staples. begin at the base on one side, strain the netting over the ridge, and down to the base on the other side. be careful not to draw the rafters out of line sideways. the last edge stapled should be that on the roof of the house. note.--when driving nails or staples into a rafter or other part, get a helper to hold up some object considerably heavier than the hammer on the farther side to deaden the blow. lack of such support may cause damage, besides making the work much more tedious and difficult. finishing off.--the doors are now hung, and fitted with buttons and padlocks. the stops should be on the doors, not on the frames, where they would prove an obstruction in a somewhat narrow opening. perches should be of by inch wood, rounded off at the top, and supported in sockets at each end so as to be removable for cleaning; and be all on the same level, to avoid fighting for the "upper seats" among the fowls. a loose floor, made in two pieces for convenience of moving, will help to keep the fowls warm and make cleaning easier, but will add a few shillings to the cost. the inside of the house should be well whitewashed before fowls are admitted. to prevent draughts the triangular spaces between the roof boards and rafters should be plugged, but ample ventilation must be provided for by holes bored in the ends of the house at several elevations, the lowest feet above the base. handles for lifting may be screwed to the faces of b and b halfway between the door frame and the corners. vii. a shed for your bicycle. the problem, how to house one or more cycles, often gives trouble to the occupiers of small premises. the hall-way, which in many cases has to serve as stable, is sadly obstructed by the handles of a machine; and if one is kept there, the reason generally is that no other storage is available. if accommodation is needed permanently for two or three cycles belonging to the house, and occasionally for the machine of a visitor, and if room is obtainable in a backyard or garden in direct communication with the road, the question of constructing a really durable and practical cycle shed is well worth consideration. i say constructing, because, in the first place, a bought shed costing the same money would probably not be of such good quality as a home-made one; and secondly, because the actual construction, while not offering any serious difficulty, will afford a useful lesson in carpentry. [illustration: fig. .--cycle shed completed.] cycle sheds are of many kinds, but owing to the limitations of space it is necessary to confine attention to one particular design, which specifies a shed composed of sections quickly put together or taken apart--portability being an important feature of "tenants' fixtures"--and enables fullest advantage to be taken of the storage room. as will be seen from the scale drawings illustrating this chapter, the doors extend right across the front, and when they are open the whole of the interior is easily accessible. the fact that the cycles can be put in sideways is a great convenience, as the standing of the machines head to tail alternately economizes room considerably. [illustration: fig. .--plan of corner joints of cycle shed.] i ought to mention before going further that the shed to be described is very similar, as regards design and dimensions, to one in a back issue of cycling. by the courtesy of the proprietors of the journal i have been permitted to adapt the description there given.[ ] [footnote : by mr. hubert burgess. ] dimensions and general arrangements.--the shed is feet long over all, feet inches high in front, feet high at the back, feet deep over all, under the roof, which projects inches fore and aft, and inches at each end. it consists of seven parts: two sides, roof, back, front frame and doors, and a bottom in two sections. the reader should examine the diagrams (figs. to ) to get a clear understanding of the disposal of the parts at the corners. fig. makes it plain that the frames of the back and front overlap the frames of the sides, to which they are bolted; and that the covering of the back overlaps the covering of the sides, which in turn overlaps the front frame. all corner joints are halved. in order to allow the doors to lie flush with the front of the doorframe uprights, the last must project the thickness of the door boards beyond the frame longitudinals; and to bring the front uprights of the sides up against the uprights of the door frame, the longitudinals are notched, as shown (fig. ), to the depth of the set-back for the doors. materials.--the question of cost and the question of materials cannot be separated. a shed even of the dimensions given consumes a lot of wood, and the last, that it may withstand our variable and treacherous climate for a good number of years, should, as regards those parts directly exposed to the weather, be of good quality. yellow deal may be selected for the boards; pitch pine is better, but it costs considerably more. for the frames and non-exposed parts generally ordinary white deal will suffice. [illustration: fig. .-types of match boarding: (a) square joint; (b) double.-v; (c) single-v.] the scale drawings are based on the assumption that matching of one of the forms shown in fig. , and measuring inches (actual) across, exclusive of the tongue, and / inch (actual) thick, is used. as advised in the case of the carpenter's bench, (p. ) the prospective constructor should let the wood merchant have the specifications, so that he may provide the material in the most economical lengths. the following is a rough estimate of the wood required, allowing a sufficient margin for waste: - / (over tongue) by / inch (actual) yellow match boarding for sides, roof, back, and doors: - / squares = sq. feet. = feet run. white - / by / inch square-shouldered flooring: / square = sq. feet. = feet run. by - / inch battens = feet run. by - / inch battens = feet run. by inch battens = feet run. by - / inch battens = feet run. by - / inch battens = feet run. there will also be required: twelve -inch bolts and nuts. two pairs -inch cross-garnet hinges. two door bolts. one lock (a good one). four yards of roofing felt. two gallons of stoprot. three lbs. wire-nails a few dozen -inch and i- / -inch screws. the total cost of the materials will come to about pounds, s. construction. the scale drawings are so complete as to dimensions that, assuming the materials to be of the sizes specified, they may be followed implicitly. it is, of course, easy to modify the design to suit any slight differences in dimensions; and to avoid mistakes all the stuff should be gauged carefully beforehand. [illustration: fig. .-side of cycle shed.] the sides.--when laying out the frames for these it is necessary to bear in mind that the front upright is somewhat less than feet inches long, and the back upright rather more than feet, owing to the slope of the roof, and to the fact that they are set in inches from the back and front. to get the lengths and angle of the half-joints right, lay the verticals, which should be feet inches and feet inch long before trimming, on the floor, at right angles to the bottom of the frame ( feet - / inches long) and quite parallel to one another. (we will assume the half-joints to have been made at the bottom.) the batten for the top is laid across the ends of the verticals, its top edge in line with a -foot -inch mark at a point inches beyond the front vertical, and with a -foot mark inches beyond the back vertical, the distances being measured perpendicularly from the bottom of the frames produced. the lines for the joints can then be marked, and the joints cut. the notches for the roof stays should not be cut till the roof is being fitted. [illustration: fig. .--boards at top of side, fixed ready for cutting off.] use the side frame first made as template for the other. the shelves are notched at the ends, so that their back faces shall be flush with the board side of the frame. fix the corners with the screws, and plane off the projecting angles of the uprights. when putting on the boards, start at the back of the frame. plane down the groove edge of the first board until the groove is out of the board, and apply the board with - / inches projecting beyond the frame. leave a little spare at each end of every board, and when the side is covered run a tenon-saw across both ends of all the boards close to the frame, and finish up with the plane. this is quicker and makes a neater job than cutting each board to size separately. [illustration: fig. .-back of cycle shed.] the back (fig. ).--when laying out the frame for this, remember that there is a bevel to be allowed for along the top, and that the height of the frame at the front must be that of the back of a side frame. (see fig. .) the boards should be cut off to the same slope. twenty-four boards should exactly cover the back. cut the tongue neatly off that last fixed, and glue it into the groove of the first board. the front.--the frame requires careful making. for details of corner joints see fig. . the -inch faces of the top and bottom bars are vertical. the upper side of the top bar is planed off to the angle of the slope. (fig. .) [illustration: fig. . detail of eaves.] the doors (fig. ).--these are the most difficult parts to construct, as the braces which prevent the front edges dropping must be carefully fitted in order to do their work properly. the eleven outside boards of each door are held together by two -inch ledges inches away from the ends, and one -inch central ledge. allow a little "spare" on the boards for truing up. boards and ledges having been nailed together, lay a piece of by - / inch batten across the ledges on the line which the braces will take, and mark the ledges accordingly. next mark on the batten the ends of the braces. these project half an inch into the ledges, and terminate on the thrust side in a nose an inch long, square to the edge of the brace. the obtuse angle is flush with the edge of the ledge. cut out the braces, lay them in position on the ledges, and scratch round the ends. chisel out the notches very carefully, working just inside the lines to ensure the brace making a tight fit. if there is any slackness at either end, the brace obviously cannot carry the weight of the door until the door has settled slightly, which is just what should be prevented. therefore it is worth while taking extra trouble over this part of the work. [illustration: fig. .-doors of shed.] cautions.--don't get the nose of the brace too near the end of the ledge. nail the boards on specially securely to the ledges near the ends of the braces. fitting the doors.--the doors should now be laid on the top of the frame and secured to it by the four hinges. the long ends of these are held by screws driven through the boards into the bearers; the cross pieces are screwed to the uprights of the door frame. the doors when closed should make a good but not tight fit with one another. putting the parts together. the two sides, front, and back are now assembled, on a level surface, for drilling the holes for the bolts which hold them together. the positions of the bolts will be gathered from the drawings. get the parts quite square before drilling, and run the holes through as parallel to the sides as possible. if the bolts are a bit too long, pack washers between nut and wood until the nut exerts proper pressure. caution.--the hole must not be large enough to allow the square part just under the head to revolve, for in such a case it would be impossible to screw up the nut. its size ought to be such as to require the head to be driven up against the wood. [illustration: fig. roof attachment] the roof.--the boards of this are attached to a frame which fits closely inside the tops of the sides, back, and front. to get the fit of the frame correct, it must be made a bit too wide in the first instance, and then be bevelled off at the front, as shown in fig. , and the reverse way at the back. the ends are notched for the stays aa, and the frame then tacked firmly, by driving nails into the sides, etc., below it, in the position which it will occupy when the roof is on, except that it projects upwards a little. cut off twenty-five boards feet inches long. omitting the end ones for the present, lay the remainder up to one another in order, their ends an equal distance from the frame, and nail to the frame. lift off the roof, insert and secure aaaa, and nail on the end boards. then rule parallel straight lines feet inches apart across all the boards from end to end of the roof, and cut along these lines. the roof is replaced after notches have been cut in the tops of the sides to take aaaa, and secured to the vertical parts by six bolts, the positions of which are shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. .--top of cycle shed. fig. .--floor of shed.] the floor (fig. ).--the making of this is so simple a matter that one need only point out the need for notching the end boards to allow the floor to touch the sides and back, and the doors when closed. it should be screwed to the frames, on which it rests, in a few places. preserving the wood.--all outside wood is dressed with stoprot or creosote, rubbed well into the joints of the boarding. felting the roof.--the felt is cut into -foot lengths, and each length has its ends turned over and nailed to the underside of the roof. the strips must overlap an inch or two. when the felt is on, dress it with boiled tar, and sprinkle sand over it while the tar is still liquid. fitting.--the two bolts to hold one door top and bottom and the lock are now fitted, and a couple of hooks screwed into the door frame clear of the door, to sling a machine from while it is being cleaned or adjusted. mounting the shed.--the shed must be raised a few inches above the ground, on bricks or other suitable supports. don't stand it close to a wall. air should be able to circulate freely under and all round it. cutting down expense. if the cost appears prohibitive, it may be reduced somewhat ( ) by using thinner boards; ( ) by reducing the height of the shed by foot. a very cheap shed, but of course not comparable in quality with the one described, can be made by using odd rough boards for the outside, and covering them with roofing felt well tarred. viii. a target apparatus for rifle shooting. the base is a -inch board, inches long and inches wide. the target-holder is a piece of wood - / inches square, and a couple of inches longer than the side of the largest target to be used. to one face nail a piece of strip lead as weight; and to the parallel face attach, by means of brads driven in near one edge, a piece of thin wood of the same size as the face. the free long edge of this should be chamfered off slightly on the inside to enable the target to be slipped easily between it and the roller. the roller is pivoted on two short spindles--which can be made out of stout wire nails--driven into the ends near the face farthest from the weight. (see fig. .) for standards use a couple of the small angle irons used for supporting shelves, and sold at about a penny each. these are screwed on to the board inches from what may be considered to be the rear edge, and are so spaced as to leave room for a washer on each spindle between the roller and the standards, to diminish friction. [illustration: fig. .-side elevation of disappearing target apparatus.] remove one standard, and drive into the roller a piece of stout wire with its end bent to form an eye. the inclination of the arm to the roller is shown in fig. . to the front of the board now nail a rectangle of stout sheet iron, long and deep enough to just protect the standards and roller. place the roller in position, insert a target, and revolve the roller to bring the target vertical. a small wire stop should now be fixed into the baseboard to prevent the arm coming farther forward, and a hole for the operating string be drilled in the protection plate at the elevation of the eye on the arm. the edges of this hole need careful smoothing off to prevent fraying of the string. a small eyelet or brass ring soldered into or round the hole will ensure immunity from chafing. drive a couple of long wire nails into the front edge of the board outside the iron screen to wind the string on when the target is put away. it may prove a convenience if plain marks are made on the string at the distances from which shooting will be done. the above description covers apparatus for working two or more targets simultaneously on a long roller, or separately on separate rollers mounted on a common baseboard. if it is desired to combine with the apparatus a "stop" for the bullets, the latter (a sheet of stout iron of the requisite strength) may be affixed to the rear of the baseboard, and furnished with a handle at the top to facilitate transport. ix. cabinet-making. a match-box cabinet. this is useful for the storage of small articles, such as stamps, pens, seeds, needles, and a number of other minor things which easily go astray if put in a drawer with larger objects. the best boxes for the purpose are those used for the larger bryant and may matches. select only those boxes of which the tray moves easily in the case. the cases should be stood on end on some flat surface while being glued together. a box or drawer with truly square corners is useful for assembling them in; if they are packed into one corner they cannot slew about. press the boxes together while the glue is setting. now glue the back ends of the cases (from which the trays should have been removed), and press them against a piece of thin card. when the glue is dry, apply some more with a small brush to the back angles inside the covers, to ensure a good hold on the backing. trim off the card to the outline of the pile. [illustration: fig. .--match-box cabinet.] select for the front end of the drawer that for which the wood is doubled over. paste outside the end a piece of white paper, whereon words and numbers will be more plainly visible. the life of the trays will be increased if the insides are neatly lined with thin paper. for "handles" use boot buttons, or loops of thin brass wire, or brass paper clips. to give the cabinet a neat appearance you should cover it outside with paper of some neutral tint; and if you wish it to be stable and not upset when a rather sticky drawer is pulled out, glue it down to a solid wooden base of the proper size. a cardboard cabinet. we now proceed to a more ambitious undertaking--the manufacture of a cabinet for the storage of note-paper, envelopes, labels, etc. the only materials needed are some cardboard and glue; the tools, a ruler and a very sharp knife. for the marking out a drawing board and t-square are invaluable. the cardboard should be fairly stout, not less than / inch thick. begin with the drawers; it is easier to make the case fit the drawers than vice versa. mark out the drawers as shown in fig. . the areas aa are the front and back; bb the sides. the dotted lines indicate the lines along which the cardboard is bent up. the sides are of exactly the same length as the bottom, but the front and back are longer than the bottom by twice the thickness of the cardboard, so as to overlap the sides. (the extra length is indicated by the heavy black lines.) [illustration: fig. .--drawer of cardboard cabinet marked ready for cutting.] measure and cut out very carefully to ensure all the drawers being of the same size. lay a piece of card under the thing cut to avoid blunting the knife or damaging the table. when the blanks are ready, cut them almost through along the dotted lines. use several strokes, and after each stroke test the stubbornness of the bend. when the card is almost severed it will bend up quite easily. note.--bend as shown in the inset c; not the other way, or you will snap the card. if you should be so unlucky as to cut the card through in places, paste a strip of thin paper along the line before turning up. the four flaps are now bent up, glued together, and covered outside with paper. this part of the business is easy enough if a small square-cornered wooden box be used as a support inside at each angle in turn. it is advisable to glue strips along all the bends both inside and outside. the external strips should be flattened down well, so as to offer no loose edges. compare the drawers, and if one is slightly wider than the rest, use it to guide you in making the measurements for the case. the sides and back of the case are cut out of a single piece. the sides should be a quarter of an inch deeper than the drawers to allow some overlap; the back slightly wider than the drawer. as each drawer will be separated from that above it by a shelf, allowance must be made for the shelves, and also for a twentieth of an inch or so of "play" to each drawer. to keep on the safe side leave a little extra stuff to be removed later on. cut out the bottom to fit inside the back and sides exactly, and a sufficient number of shelves of precisely the same size as the bottom. attach the bottom to the sides and back with internal and external strips. when the glue has set, place the guide drawer in position, and lay on it a piece of thin card to cover it over. this card is merely a removable "spacer." along the side and back edges of the shelf stick projecting strips of stout paper. when the adhesive is dry, turn the strips round the end at right angles to the division, glue them outside, and lay the division in position on top of the "spacer." place the second drawer and shelf in like manner, and continue till the top of the cabinet is reached. then mark off and cut away any superfluous card. glue the top edges, and stand the cabinet head downwards on a piece of cardboard. trim off the edges of this, and the top is completed, except for binding the corners. then attend to the outside back corners of the case, and paste strips in the angles under the shelves. the strips should be forced well into the angles. for handles use brass rings let sufficiently far through the fronts of the drawers for a wedge of card to be slipped through them and stuck in position. the appearance of the cabinet will be enhanced by a neatly applied covering of paper. a cigar-box cabinet. at the rate of a halfpenny or less apiece one may buy the cigar boxes made to hold twenty-five cigars. these boxes, being fashioned by machinery, are all--at any rate all those devoted to a particular "brand"--of the same dimensions; they are neatly constructed, and their wood is well seasoned. anyone who wishes to make a useful little cabinet may well employ the boxes as drawers in the said cabinet (fig. ). each box should be prepared as follows:-remove the lid and paper lining, and rub all the paper binding off the outside angles with a piece of coarse glass paper. this is a safer method than soaking-off, which may cause warping and swelling of the wood. then plane down the tops of the two sides till they are flush with the back and front, and glue into the corners small pieces of wood of right-angled-triangle section to hold the sides together and the bottom to the sides. to secure the parts further cut a number of large pins down to / inch, and drive these into the sides through holes carefully drilled in the bottom. finally, rub the outside of the drawer well with fine glass paper or emery cloth till the surface is smooth all over. the case.--if mahogany can be obtained for this, so much the better, as the wood will match the boxes. in default of it, a white wood, stained, will have to serve. [illustration: fig. .--cabinet with cigar-box drawers.] the two sides of the case should be prepared first wood / inch thick is advised. each side is inch wider than the depth (outside) of a drawer from front to back. (whether the drawers shall slide in lengthways or flatways is for the maker to decide.) the length of a side is calculated on the basis that the drawers will be separated from one another by runners / to / inch deep, and that a slight clearance must be allowed for the drawers to slide in and out freely. in the first instance cut the sides a bit too long. if it be preferred to insert the bottom between the sides, the length must be increased accordingly. the runners are cut out of the box lids, and planed till their top and bottom edges are parallel. their length is / inch less than the depth of a drawer. to fill up the spaces between the drawers in front you will need some slips of the same depth as the runners, and / inch longer than the drawer, so that they may be let / inch into the sides of the case at each end. affixing the runners.--this is a very easy matter if a wooden spacer, slightly wider than the depth of the drawer, is prepared. having decided which is to be the inside face and the forward edge of a side, lay the side flat, and apply the spacer with one edge flush with the bottom of the side, or as far away from it as the thickness of the bottom, as the case may be, and fix it lightly in position with a couple of tacks. the first runner is laid touching the spacer and a little back from the edge to give room for the cross-bar, and fastened by means of short tacks, for which holes had better be drilled in the runner to prevent splitting. the spacer is now transferred to the other side of the runner, and the second runner is fastened on above it; and so on till all the runners are in position. the square should be used occasionally to make sure that the tops of the runners are parallel to one another. the other side having been treated in like manner, any spare wood at the top is sawn off. the notches for the front cross-bars between drawers are cut out with a very sharp narrow chisel. the top and bottom.--make the top of the same thickness as the sides; the bottom of somewhat stouter wood. if the bottom is cut a bit longer than the width of the case, and neatly bevelled off, it will help to smarten the appearance of the cabinet. when fixing the sides to the bottom and top get the distance correct by placing the top and bottom drawers in position, and insert a piece of thin card between one end of the drawer and the side. this will ensure the necessary clearance being allowed for. the back.--cut this out of thin wood. the top of a sweetstuff box-costing about a halfpenny--will do well enough. it should be quite rectangular and make a close fit, as it plays the important part of keeping the case square laterally. bevel its back edges off a bit. push it in against the back ends of the runners, and fix it by picture brads driven in behind. the front bars should now be cut to a good fit and glued in the notches. this completes the construction. drop handles for the drawers may be made out of semicircles of brass wire with the ends turned up. the handles are held up to the drawer by loops of finer wire passed through the front and clinched inside. the finishing of the outside must be left to the maker's taste. varnishing, or polishing with warmed beeswax, will add to the general appearance, and keep out damp. the total cost of a ten-drawer cabinet ought not to exceed eighteen pence. a tool cabinet. the wooden cabinet shown in fig. is constructed, as regards its case, in the same way as that just described, but the drawers are built up of several pieces. the over-all dimensions of the cabinet represented are as follows: height, including plinth, inches; width, - / inches; depth, - / inches. the drawers are inches wide (outside), by - / inches from back to front, and, reckoning from the bottom upwards, are - / , , - / , , , , , and - / inches deep. [illustration: fig. .--large cabinet (a), details of drawer joints (b, c, d), and padlock fastening (e).] the construction of the drawers is indicated by the diagrams, fig. , b, c, d. the fronts are of / -inch, the sides and backs of / -inch, and the bottoms of (barely) / -inch wood. the grooves should not come nearer than / -inch to the bottom edge, or be more than / inch wide and deep. the possessor of a suitable "plough" plane will have no difficulty in cutting them out; in the absence or such a tool the cutting gauge and chisel must be used. the back piece of a drawer has / -inch less height than the front, to allow the bottom to be introduced. the ends or the bottom are bevelled off towards the top edge to fit the grooves, so that no part may be above the grooves. glue should be used to attach the sides of a drawer to the back and front in the first place, and nails be added when the glue has set. as an aid to obtaining perfect squareness, without which the drawers will fit badly, it is advisable to mark out on a board a rectangle having the exact inside dimensions of a drawer, and to nail strips of wood up to the lines on the inside. if the parts are put together round this template they will necessarily fit squarely. divisions.--if the drawers are to be subdivided in one direction only, the partitions should run preferably from back to front, as this enables the contents of a compartment to be more easily seen. where two-direction division is needed the partitions are cut as shown in fig. . all partitions should touch the bottom, and be made immovable by gluing or nailing. it is a mistake to have so many divisions in a drawer that the fingers cannot get into them easily. wooden knobs for the drawers can be bought very cheaply of any turner, or suitable brass knobs at any ironmonger's. take care that the knobs are in line with one another; otherwise the general appearance of the cabinet will suffer. [illustration: fig. .--divisions of drawer notched to cross each other.] lock and key.--if a cabinet is intended for storage of articles of any value it should be provided with lock and key. one lock will secure all the drawers if attached to a flap hinged on one side to the cabinet, as shown in fig. a, to engage a catch projecting from one of the drawers. a special form of lock is sold for the purpose. if the single flap seems to give a lop-sided effect, place a fellow on the other side, and fit it with sunk bolts to shoot into the overhanging top and plinth. if you wish to avoid the expense and trouble of fitting a lock, substitute a padlock and a staple clinched through the front of a drawer and passing through a slot in the flap (fig. , e). alternative method.--the fixing of the front bars can be avoided if the front of each drawer (except the lowest) be made to overhang the bottom by the depth of the runner. this method, of course, makes it impossible to stand a drawer level on a level surface. x. telegraphic apparatus. the easily made but practical apparatus described in this chapter supplies an incentive for learning the morse telegraphic code, which is used for sending sound signals, and for visible signals transmitted by means of flags, lamps, and heliograph mirrors. signalling is so interesting, and on occasion can be so useful, that no apology is needed for introducing signalling apparatus into this book. the apparatus in question is a double-instrument outfit, which enables an operator at either end of the line to cause a "buzzer" or "tapper" to work at the other end when he depresses a key and closes an electric circuit. each unit consists of three main parts--( ) the transmitting key; ( ) the receiving buzzer or tapper; ( ) the electric battery. the principles of an installation are shown in fig. . one unit only is illustrated, but, as the other is an exact duplicate, the working of the system will be followed easily. [illustration: fig. .--morse alphabet] a wooden lever, l, is pivoted on a support, a. passing through it at the forward end is a metal bar having at the top a knob, k, which can be grasped conveniently in the fingers; at the other a brass screw, o, which is normally pulled down against the contact, n, by the spiral spring, s. the contact m under k is in connection with the binding post t and n with binding post t ; k is joined up to t , and o to t . t and t are connected with one of the line wires; t with the other wire through a battery, b; t with the other wire through the buzzer, r. [ ] [footnote : for the buzzer may be substituted the tapper, described on a later page.] assuming both keys to be at rest, as in fig. , the two buzzers are evidently in circuit with the line wires, though no current is passing. if the stem of k is depressed to make contact with m, the electric circuit of which the battery, b, forms part is completed, and the buzzer at the other end of the lines comes into action. since the depression of k raises o off n, the "home" buzzer's connection with the line wires is broken, to prevent the current being short-circuited. the fact that this buzzer is periodically in circuit, even when the key is being worked, makes it possible for the operator at the other end to attract attention by depressing his key, if he cannot read the signals sent. [illustration: fig. --telegraphic apparatus; sending key, buzzer and battery] making the keys. transmitting keys can be bought cheaply, but not so cheaply as they can be made. the only expense entailed in home manufacture is that of the screw terminals for connecting the keys with the lines and buzzers. these cost only a penny each, and, if strict economy is the order of the day, can be dispensed with should the apparatus not have to be disconnected frequently. the size of the key is immaterial. the keys made by me have levers inch wide and - / inches long, oak being chosen as material, on account of its toughness. k is in each case a small wooden knob on a piece of / -inch brass rod; o a - / -inch brass screw; a a piece of sheet brass - / inches long, marked off carefully, drilled / inch from the centre of each end for the pivot screws, and in four places for the holding-down screws, and bent up at the ends to form two standards. if you do not possess any brass strip, the lever may be supported on wooden uprights glued and screwed to the base. [illustration: fig. --telegraphic apparatus mounted on baseboard] contact m is a small piece of brass attached to the base by a screw at one end and by t at the other. k was drilled near the end to take the short coil of insulated wire joining it to t , and o was similarly connected with t . the spring, s, should be fairly strong. a steel spiral with a loop at each end is most easily fitted. drill holes in the lever and base large enough for the spring to pass through freely, make a small cross hole through the lever hole for a pin, and cut a slot across the base hole for a pin to hold the bottom of the spring. adjust the lever by means of screw o so that there is a space of about / -inch between k and m when o and n are in contact, and after the spring has been put in position give the screw a turn or two to bring k down to within / inch of m. this will put the required tension on the spring. the buzzers.--for these i selected a couple of small electric bells, costing s. d. each. their normal rate of vibration being much too slow for telegraphic purposes, i cut off the hammers to reduce the inertia, and so adjusted the contact screw that the armature had to move less than one hundredth of an inch to break the circuit. this gave so high a rate of vibration that the key could not make and break the circuit quickly enough to prevent the buzzer sounding. a morse tapper or sounder. in postal telegraph offices a "sounder," and not a "buzzer," is generally used to communicate the signals. instead of a continuous noise, lasting as long as the key at the transmitting station is held down, the operator at the receiving station hears only a series of taps made by an instrument called a "sounder." the principle of this simple device is illustrated by the working diagrams in fig. . m is a horseshoe magnet fixed to a base, a. close to it is an armature, ar, of soft iron, attached to a lever, l, which works on a pivot and is held up against a regulating screw, p , by the pull of the spring sp. when current passes through the magnet the armature is attracted, and the point of the screw s strikes against p ; while the breaking of the circuit causes l to fly back against s . the time intervening between the "down" and "up" clicks tells the operator whether a long or a short--dash or a dot--is being signalled. [illustration: fig. .-elevation and plan of telegraphic sounder.] materials.--a horseshoe magnet and armature taken from an electric bell provide the most essential parts of our home-made instrument in a cheap form. if these are available, expense will be limited to a few pence. oak or walnut are the best woods to use for the lever, being more resonant than the softer woods, and for the standard b and stop v. any common wood is good enough for the base a. the lever l is inches long, / inch deep, and / -inch wide, and is pivoted at a point - / inches from the stop end. the hole should be bored through it as squarely as possible, so that it may lie centrally without b being out of the square. a piece of metal is screwed to its top face under the adjusting screw s . the spring is attached to l and a in the manner already described on p. in connection with the "buzzer." the plate p should be stout enough not to spring under the impact of the lever. fig. is an end view of the standard b. the drilling of the pivot hole through this requires care. the screw s should be so adjusted as to prevent the armature actually touching the cores of the magnets when attracted. the ends of the magnet winding wire, after being scraped, are clipped tightly against the base by the binding posts t t . if sounders are used in place of buzzers they are connected up with the keys, batteries, and line wires in the manner shown in fig. . batteries. the dry cells used for electric bells are the most convenient batteries to use. they can now be purchased at all prices from a shilling upwards, and give about - / volts when in good condition. one cell at each end will suffice for short distances, or for considerable distances if large conductors are used. if a single cell fails to work the buzzer strongly through the circuit, another cell must be added. [illustration: fig. .--standard for sounder.] for ease in transport it will be found advisable to mount key, buzzer, and battery on a common baseboard, which should be provided with a cover and handle. the three parts are interconnected with one another, and the line wire terminals as sketched in fig. . this arrangement makes the apparatus very compact and self-contained. as a finishing touch fit the lid inside with clips for holding a stiff-backed writing pad and pencil for the recording of messages. lines.--fencing made of stout galvanized iron wires strung on wooden posts supplies excellent conductors for practice purposes, provided the posts be quite dry. in wet weather there will be leakage. (fencing with metal posts is, of course, unsuitable, as every post short-circuits the current.) the two wires selected for land lines must be scraped quite bright at the points where the connections are to be made. it is an easy matter to rig up a telegraph line of galvanized wire / to / inch in diameter, strung along insulators (the necks of bottles serve the purpose excellently) supported on trees, posts, or rough poles. the length of the line will be limited by the battery power available, but a -volt battery at each end will probably suffice for all experimental purposes. a second wire is not needed if one terminal at each end is connected with a copper plate sunk in the ground, or with a metal fence, drain-pipe, etc. xi. a reciprocating electric motor. the electric motor to be treated in this chapter illustrates very prettily the attractive force of a hollow, wire-wound bobbin on a movable core, when the electric current is passed through the wire. if one inserts the end of an iron rod into the coil, the coil exerts a pull upon it, and this pull will cease only when the centre of the rod is opposite the centre of the coil. this principle is used in the "electric gun," which in its simplest form is merely a series of powerful coils arranged one behind another on a tube through which an iron or steel projectile can pass. the projectile closes automatically the circuit of each coil in turn just before reaching it, and breaks it before its centre is halfway through the coil, being thus passed along from one coil to the other with increasing velocity. our motor is essentially a very inefficient one, its energy being small for the current used, as compared with a revolving motor of the usual kind. but it has the advantage of being very easy to make. [illustration: fig. .--electric reciprocating engine and battery.] how it works.--the experimental engine, constructed in less than a couple of hours, which appears in fig. , consists of a coil, c, strapped down by a piece of tin to a wooden bedplate; a moving plunger, p, mounted on a knitting-needle slide rod, sr; a wire connecting rod, sr; a wooden crank, k; and a piece of knitting-needle for crank shaft, on which are mounted a small eccentric brass wipe, w, and a copper collar, d. against d presses a brass brush, b connected with the binding post, t ; while under w is a long strip of springy brass against which w presses during part of every revolution. t is connected to one end of the coil winding, and t through a -volt accumulator or three dry cells, with the other end of the coil. when w touches b the circuit is completed, and the coil draws in the plunger, the contact being broken before the plunger gets home. the crank rotates at a very high speed if there is plenty of battery power, all the moving parts appearing mere blurs. construction. the coil is made by winding oz. of no. cotton-covered wire (price d. to d.) on a boxwood reel inches long and - / inches in diameter, with a / -inch central hole. before winding, bore a hole for the wire through one end of the reel, near the central part, and mount the reel on a lathe or an improvised spindle provided with a handle of some kind. the wire should be uncoiled and wound on some circular object, to ensure its paying out regularly without kinking; which makes neat winding almost impossible. draw a foot of the wire through the hole in the reel, and drive in a tiny peg--which must not protrude inwards--to prevent it slipping. lay the turns on carefully, forcing them into close contact, so that the next layer may have a level bed. on reaching the end of the layer, be equally careful to finish it neatly before starting back again. when the wire is all on, bore a hole as near the edge of the finishing edge as possible, and draw the spare wire through. then cut a strip of tough paper of the width of the coils, coat one side with paste, and wrap it tightly round the outside to keep the wire in place. note.--insulation will be improved if every layer of wire is painted over with shellac dissolved in alcohol before the next layer is applied. flatten the reel slightly with a file at the points of contact with the baseboard, to prevent rolling. the plunger is a tube of thin iron, / inch less in diameter than the hole in the reel, and / inch longer than the reel. if a ready-made tube is not available, construct one by twisting a piece of tin round a metal rod, and soldering the joint. as it is difficult to make a jointed tube cylindrical, and a close fit is needed to give good results, it is worth going to a little trouble to get a plunger of the right kind. the ends of the plunger are plugged with wood and bored centrally for the slide rod, which should not be cut to its final length until the parts are assembled. the crank shaft is - / inches of a stout knitting needle mounted in a sheet brass bearing. the crank, a fragment of oak or other tough wood, is balanced, and has a throw of / inch. the crank-shaft hole should be a trifle small, so that the crank shall get a tight hold of the shaft without pinning. the collar, d, and wipe, w, are soldered to the shaft after this has been passed through its bearings. the brush b should press firmly, but not unnecessarily so, against the collar. for b one must use very springy brass strip, a piece about inches long and / inch wide being needed. bend it to the arc of a large circle, and screw one end down to the base by the binding screw t . the other end, which should not touch the base, is confined by the heads of a couple of small screws, by means of which the strip is adjusted relatively to the wipe. fixing the coil.--cut a strip of tin - / inches wide and inches long. punch a couple of holes near one end, and nail this to the side of the base, with its forward end - / inches from the crank shaft. pass the strip over the coil, and bend it down towards the base. drill a couple of screw holes, and screw the other end down so that the coil is gripped fairly tight. fixing the plunger. two small guides, g g , are made for the plunger. the holes through which the slide rod moves should be a good fit, and their centres at the level of the centre of the coil. screw holes are bored in the feet. pass the plunger through the coil, and place the guides on the rod. then draw the plunger forward till / inch projects. bring g close up to it, mark its position, and screw it to the base. the other guide, g , should be - / inches away from the rear of the coil. [illustration: fig. .--plan of electric reciprocating engine.] the coil and guides must be adjusted so that the plunger does not touch the coil anywhere during a stroke, packings being placed, if necessary, under coil or guides. when the adjustment is satisfactory, screw the coil down tightly, and cut off any superfluous parts of the rod. the connecting rod.--bore a hole near the end of the plunger for a screw to hold the rear end of the connecting rod. pull the plunger out till - / inches project, turn the crank full forward, and measure off the distance between the centres of the plunger hole and the crank pin. drive a couple of wire nails into a board, and twist the ends of a piece of / -inch wire round them twice. this wire constitutes a connecting rod amply strong enough to stand the pulls to which it will be subjected. fix the rod in position. adjusting the wipe.--turn the wipe, w, round until it makes contact with b , and, holding the crank shaft with a pair of pliers, twist the crank on it till it just begins the return stroke. then turn the crank to find out how long the wipe remains in contact, and adjust the crank relatively to the wipe so that the crank is vertical when the period of contact is half finished. the length of this period is controlled by the set screws at the free end of b . other details. the fly wheel may be a disc of wood. oil all the rubbing parts slightly. connect t to one terminal of the battery, t to the coil, and the other terminal of the battery to the coil. set the engine going. if it refuses to run, make sure that b is pressing against d. the speed of the engine may possibly be improved by careful adjustment of b and an alteration in the setting of the crank, and will certainly be accelerated by increasing the number of battery cells. the cost of the engine described was about s, d., exclusive of the battery. xii. an electric alarm clock. anybody who possesses an alarm clock with an external gong, an electric bell, and a battery, may easily make them combine to get the drowsiest of mortals out of bed on the chilliest of winter mornings. the arrangement has as its secondary advantages and capabilities-- (l) that the clock can be placed where its ticking will not disturb the person whom it has to arouse in due course (some of the cheaper clocks are very self-advertising); ( ) that one clock can be made to operate any number of bells in different parts of the house. the main problem to be solved is, how to make the alarm mechanism of the clock complete an electric circuit when the alarm "goes off." if you examine an alarm clock of the type described, you will find that the gong hammer lies against the gong when at rest, and that its shaft when in motion vibrates to and fro about a quarter of an inch. [illustration: fig. .--plan of release gear of electric alarm, as attached to clock.] fig. shows a. method of utilizing the movement of the hammer. a piece of wood, inches long, wide enough to fill the space between the rear edge of the clock and the hammer slot, and / inch thick, has its under side hollowed out to the curvature of the clock barrel. this block serves as a base for two binding posts or terminals, t t . a vertical slit is made in t and in this is soldered [to] one end of a little piece of spring brass strip, inch long and / inch wide. to the back of the other end of the strip solder a piece of / inch wire, projecting l inch below the strip. the strip must be bent so that it presses naturally against t . a little trigger, b, which you can cut out of sheet brass, is pivoted at a, where it must be raised off the base by a small washer. it projects / inch beyond the base on the gong support side. a square nick is cut in it at such a distance from a that, when the wire spike on c is in the nick, the strip is held clear of t . the other end of the trigger, when the trigger is set, must be / inch from the shank of the alarm hammer--at any rate not so far away that the hammer, when it vibrates, cannot release c from the nick. to fix the base on to the top of the clock, the works must be removed (quite an easy matter to accomplish) and holes bored for a couple of screws put through from the inside. if the underside of the base is not quite correctly curved, take care not to force in the screws far enough to distort the barrel. it is advisable to do the fitting of the parts of the release after the base has been fixed, and before the works are replaced. the position of the hammer shaft can be gauged accurately enough from the slot in the case. the tails of the terminals t t must be truncated sufficiently not to penetrate the base and make contact with the barrel, or a "short circuit" will be evident as soon as the battery is connected up. [illustration: fig. .--electric alarm releaser, as attached to separate wooden clock casing.] if the bell, battery, and clock are in the same room, a single dry cell will give sufficient current; but if the circuit is a long one, or several bells have to be operated, two or more cells will be required. an alternative arrangement.--should the reader prefer to have the clock quite free from the release--and this is certainly convenient for winding and setting the alarm--he should make a little wooden case for the clock to stand in, just wide enough to take the clock, and the back just as high as the top of the barrel. the release is then attached to a little platform projecting from the back, care being taken that the lever is arranged in the correct position relatively to the hammer when the clock is pushed back as far as it will go (fig. ). if a self-contained outfit is desired, make the case two-storied: the upper division for the clock, the lower for the cell or cells. the bell may be attached to the front. a hinged fretwork front to the clock chamber, with an opening the size of the face; a door at the back of the cell chamber; and a general neat finish, staining and polishing, are refinements that some readers may like to undertake. setting the alarm.--a good many alarm clocks are not to be relied upon to act within a quarter of an hour or so of the time to which they are set. but absolute accuracy of working may be obtained if the clock hands are first set to the desired hour, and the alarm dial hand revolved slowly till the alarm is released. the hands are then set at the correct time, and the alarm fully wound. xiii. a model electric railway. the rapid increase in the number of electrically worked railways, and the substitution of the electric for the steam locomotive on many lines, give legitimate cause for wondering whether, twenty or so years hence, the descendants of the "rocket" will not have disappeared from all the railways of the world, excepting perhaps those of transcontinental character. [illustration: fig. .--electric locomotive.] the change is already spreading to model plant, and not without good reason, as the miniature electric railway possesses decided advantages of its own. instead of having to chase the locomotive to stop or reverse it, one merely has to press a button or move a switch. the fascinations of a model steam locomotive, with its furnace, hissing of steam, business-like puffings, and a visible working of piston and connecting rods, are not to be denied, any more than that a full-sized steam locomotive is a more imposing object at rest or in motion than its electric rival. on the other hand, the ease of control already noticed, and the absence of burning fuel, water leakage, smoke and fumes, are strong points in favour of the electric track, which does no more harm to a carpet than to a front lawn, being essentially clean to handle. under the head of cost the electric locomotive comes out well, as motors can be purchased cheaply; and connecting them up with driving wheels is a much less troublesome business than the construction of an equally efficient steamer. one may add that the electric motor is ready to start at a moment's notice: there is no delay corresponding to that caused by the raising of steam. the track we will consider this first, as its design must govern, within certain limits, the design of the locomotive. there are three systems of electrical transmission available. . the trolley system, with overhead cable attached to insulators on posts, to carry the current one way, the rails being used as the "return." this system has the disadvantages associated with a wire over which the human foot may easily trip with disastrous effect. . that in which one of the wheel rails is used for taking the current to the motor, and the other as the return. the objection to the system is that the wheels must be insulated, to prevent short circuiting; and this, besides causing trouble in construction, makes it impossible to use the ordinary model rolling stock. to its credit one may place the fact that only two rails are needed. . the third and, we think, best system, which has an insulated third rail as one half of the circuit, and both wheel rails as the return, the motor being kept in connection with the third rail by means of a collector projecting from the frame and pressing against the top of the third rail. the last, for reasons of convenience, is placed between the wheel rails. we will assume that this system is to be employed. [illustration: fig. .--details of rails for electric track.] gauge.--for indoor and short tracks generally it is advisable to keep the gauge narrow, so that sharp curves may be employed without causing undue friction between rails and wheels. in the present instance we specify a -inch gauge, for which, as also for - / and - / inch, standard rolling stock is supplied by the manufacturers. track construction.--it is essential that the centre rail and at least one of the wheel rails shall have all joints bonded together to give a clear course to the electric current, and the centre rail must be insulated to prevent leakage and short-circuiting. where a track is laid down more or less permanently, the bonding is most positively effected by means of little fish-plates, screwed into the sides of the abutting rails; but in the case of a track which must be capable of quick coupling-up and uncoupling, some such arrangement as that shown in fig. is to be recommended. fig. (a) is a cross vertical section of the track; fig. (c) a longitudinal view; while fig. (b) shows in plan a point of junction of two lengths of rail. the wheel rails are made of carefully straightened brass strip / inch wide and / inch thick, sunk rather more than / inch into wooden sleepers (fig. , a), - / inches long and / inch wide (except at junctions). the sleepers are prepared most quickly by cutting out a strip of wood - / inches wide in the direction of the grain, and long enough to make half a dozen sleepers. two saw cuts are sunk into the top, inches apart, reckoning from the inside edges, to the proper depth, and the wood is then subdivided along the grain. the saw used should make a cut slightly narrower than the strip, to give the wood a good hold. if the cut is unavoidably too large, packings of tin strip must be forced in with the rail on the outside. to secure the rails further, holes are bored in them on each side of the sleeper (see fig. , c), and fine iron or, brass wire is passed through these, round the bottom of the sleeper, and made fast. [illustration: fig. .--tin chair for centre rail of electric track.] the centre rail is soldered to small tin chairs, the feet of which are pinned down to the sleepers. the top of the rails must project slightly above the chairs, so that the current collector may not be fouled. junctions.--at these points one / -inch sleeper is reduced to / -inch width, and the other increased to inch, this sleeper being overlapped / inch by the rails of the other section. to the outsides of the wheel rails are soldered the little angle plates, aa, bb, attached to the sleepers by brass tacks, which project sufficiently to take the brass wire hooks. these hooks must be of the right length to pull upon the tacks in aa and make a good contact. the centre rails are bonded by two strips of springy brass, riveted to one section, and forced apart at their free end by the interposed strip. two pins projecting from the narrower sleeper fit into holes in the wider to keep the sections in line at a junction. general.--the sleepers of straight sections are screwed down to / by / inch longitudinals, which help to keep the track straight and prevent the sleepers slipping. sections should be of the same length and be interchangeable. make straight sections of the greatest convenient length, to reduce the number of junctions. sleepers need not be less than inches apart. fix the sleepers on the longitudinals before hammering the rails into the slots. [illustration: fig. .--laying out a curve for electric track.] curves.--a simple method of laying out a semi-circular curve is shown in fig. . sleepers and longitudinals are replaced by / -inch boards, inches wide. three pieces, about inches long each, have their ends bevelled off at an angle of degrees, and are laid with their ends touching. two semi-circles of and inch radius are drawn on the boards to indicate the positions of the rails, and short decapitated brass nails are driven in on each side of a rail, about an inch apart, as it is laid along one of these lines. (see fig. . a.) the inside nails must not project sufficiently to catch the wheel flanges. the spring of the brass will prevent the rail falling out of place, but to make sure, it should be tied in with wire at a few points. the centre rail should on the curves also be / inch deep, and raised slightly above the bed so as to project above the wheel rails. the method already described of bonding at joints will serve equally well on curves. if the outer rail is super-elevated slightly, there will be less tendency for the rolling stock to jump the track when rounding the curve. when the rails are in place the boards may be cut with a pad-saw to curves corresponding with the breadth of the track on the straight. if the boards incline to warp, screw some pieces of / -inch strip iron to the under side across the grain, sinking the iron in flush with the wood. the brass strip for the rails costs about one penny per foot run. iron strip is much cheaper, but if it rusts, as it is very likely to do, the contact places will need constant brightening. points.--fig. shows the manner of laying out a set of points, and connecting up the rails. the outside wheel rails, it will be seen, are continuous, and switching is effected by altering the position of the moving tongues, pivoted at pp, by means of the rod r, which passes through a hole in the continuous rail to a lever or motor of the same reversible type as is used for the locomotive. if a motor is employed, r should be joined to a crank pin on the large driven cog--corresponding to that affixed to the driving wheel (fig. )--by a short rod. the pin is situated at such a distance from the axle of the cog wheel that a quarter of a revolution suffices to move the points over. the points motor must, of course, have its separate connections with the "central station." to show how the points lie, the rod r also operates a semaphore with a double arm (fig. ), one end of which is depressed--indicating that the track on that side is open--when the other is horizontal, indicating "blocked." the arms point across the track. [illustration: fig. .--points for electric railway.] details.--the tongues must be bevelled off to a point on the sides respectively nearest to the continuous rails. the parts aa are bent out at the ends to make guides, which, in combination with the safety rails, will prevent the wheels jumping the track. care should be taken to insulate centre rail connecting wires where they pass through or under the wheel rails. it is advisable to lay out a set of points, together with motor and signals, on a separate board. [illustration: fig. .--double-armed signal, operated by points.] preservation of track.--all the wooden parts of an outdoor track should be well creosoted before use. the electric locomotive. an elevation and a plan of this are given in fig. . the two pairs of wheels are set close together, so that they may pass easily round curves. [illustration: fig. .--plan and elevation of electric locomotive.] the motor.--a motor of ordinary type, with electro field magnets, is unsuitable for traction, as it cannot be reversed by changing the direction of the current, unless a special and rather expensive type of automatic switch be used. while a motor of this kind is, in conjunction with such a switch, the most efficient, the motor with permanent field magnets is preferable as regards cost and ease of fixing. it can be reversed through the rails. the armature or revolving part must be tripolar to be self-starting in all positions. a motor of sufficient power can be bought for half a crown or less--in any case more cheaply than it can be made by the average amateur. the motor used for the locomotive illustrated was taken to pieces, and the magnet m screwed to a strip of wood - / inches wide; and for the original armature bearings were substituted a couple of pieces of brass strip, hh, screwed to two wooden supports, ss, on the base, e (fig. , a). it was found necessary to push the armature along the spindle close to the commutator piece, c, and to shorten the spindle at the armature end and turn it down to the size of the original bearing, in order to bring the motor within the space between the wheels. the place of the small pulley was taken by an -toothed pinion wheel, engaging with a pinion soldered to the near driving wheel, the diameter of which it exceeded by about / inch. the pair, originally parts of an old clock purchased for a few pence, gave a gearing-down of about times. the position of the driven wheels relatively to the armature must be found experimentally. there is plenty of scope for adjustment, as the wheels can be shifted in either direction longitudinally, while the distance between wheel and armature centres may be further modified in the length of the bearings, be. these last are pieces of brass strip turned up at the ends, and bored for axles, and screwed to the under side of the base. to prevent the axles sliding sideways and the wheels rubbing the frame, solder small collars to them in contact with the inner side of the bearings. the frame.--having got the motor wheels adjusted, shorten e so that it projects inches beyond the centres of the axles at each end. two cross bars, gg, - / inches long, are then glued to the under side of e, projecting / inch. to these are glued two / -inch strips, ff, of the same length as e. a buffer beam, k, is screwed to g. a removable cover, abedfg, is made out of cigar-box wood or tin. the ends rest on gg; the sides on ff. doors and windows are cut out, and handrails, etc., added to make the locomotive suggest the real thing--except for the proportionate size and arrangement of the wheels. electrical connections.--the current collector, cr, should be well turned up at the end, so as not to catch on the centre rail joints, and not press hard enough on the rail to cause noticeable resistance. the fixed end of cr is connected through t with one brush, b, and both wheel bearings with t . [illustration: fig. .--reversing switch.] electrical fittings.--the best source of power to use is dry cells giving - / to volts each. these can be bought at s. apiece in fairly large sizes. four or five connected in series will work quite a long line if the contacts are in good condition. a reversing switch is needed to alter the direction of the current flow. the construction of one is an exceedingly simple matter. fig. gives a plan of switch and connection, from which the principle of the apparatus will be gathered. the two links, ll, are thin springy brass strips slightly curved, and at the rear end pivoted on the binding posts t t . underneath the other ends solder the heads of a couple of brass nails. the links are held parallel to one another by a wooden yoke, from the centre of which projects a handle. the three contacts c c c must be the same distance apart as the centres of the link heads, and so situated as to lie on the arcs of circles described by the links. the binding post t is connected with the two outside contacts--which may be flat-headed brass nails driven in almost flush with the top of the wooden base--by wires lying in grooves under the base, and t with the central contact. as shown, the switch is in the neutral position and the circuit broken. [illustration: fig. .--multiple battery switch.] multiple battery switch.--to control the speed of the train and economize current a multiple battery switch is useful. fig. explains how to make and connect up such a switch. the contacts, c to c , lie in the path of the switch lever, and are connected through binding posts t to t with one terminal of their respective cells. the cells are coupled up in series to one another, and one terminal of the series with binding posts t and t . by moving the lever, any number of the cells can be put in circuit with t . the button under the head of the lever should not be wide enough to bridge the space between any two contacts. change the order of the cells occasionally to equalize the exhaustion. [illustration: fig. .--adjustable resistance for controlling current.] resistance.--with accumulators, a "resistance" should be included in the circuit to regulate the flow of current. the resistance shown in fig. consists of a spiral of fine german silver wire lying in the grooved circumference of a wood disc. one of the binding posts is in connection with the regulating lever pivot, the other with one end of the coil. by moving the lever along the coil the amount of german silver wire, which offers resistance to the current, is altered. when starting the motor use as little current as possible, and open the resistance as it gets up speed, choking down again when the necessary speed is attained. general.--all the three fittings described should for convenience be mounted on the same board, which itself may form the cover of the box holding the dry cells or accumulators. some suggestions. instead of dry cells or accumulators a small foot or hand operated dynamo generating direct, not alternating current, might be used. its life is indefinitely long, whereas dry cells become exhausted with use, and accumulators need recharging from time to time. on occasion such a dynamo might prove very convenient. anyone who possesses a fair-sized stationary engine and boiler might increase the realism of the outdoor track by setting up a generating station, which will give a good deal of extra fun. xiv. a simple reciprocating engine. figs. and illustrate a very simple form of fixed-cylinder engine controlled by a slide valve. an open-ended "trunk" piston, similar in principle to that used in gas engines, is employed; and the valve is of the piston type, which is less complicated than the box form of valve, though less easily made steam-tight in small sizes. the engine is single-acting, making only one power stroke per revolution. the cylinder is a piece of brass tubing; the piston another piece of tubing, fitting the first telescopically. provided that the fit is true enough to prevent the escape of steam, while not so close as to set up excessive friction, a packing behind the piston is not needed; but should serious leakage be anticipated, a packing of thick felt or cloth, held up by a washer and nuts on the gudgeon g, will make things secure. similarly for the built-up piston valve p may be substituted a piece of close-fitting brass rod with diameter reduced, except at the ends, by filing or turning, to allow the passage of steam. construction. [illustration: fig. .--elevation of simple reciprocating steam engine.] the bed is made of wood, preferably oak, into the parts of which linseed oil is well rubbed before they are screwed together, to prevent the entry of water. a longitudinal groove is sawn in the top of the bed, as indicated by the dotted line in fig. , to give room for the connecting rod in its lowest position, and a cross groove is scooped in line with the crank shaft to accommodate the lower part of the crank disc and the big end of the rod. (if the wing w under the cylinder is screwed to the side of the bed, instead of passing through it, as shown, a slight cutting away of the edge will give the necessary clearance in both cases. ) [illustration: fig. .--plan of simple reciprocating steam engine.] the cylinder and valve tube a should be flattened by filing and rubbing on emery cloth, so that they may bed snugly against one another and give a good holding surface for the solder. a steam port, s p, should next be bored in each, and the "burr" of the edges cleaned off carefully so as not to obstruct valve or piston in the slightest degree. "tin" the contact surfaces thinly, and after laying valve tube and cylinder in line, with the portholes corresponding exactly, bind them tightly together with a turn or two of wire, or hold them lightly in a vice, while the solder is made to run again with the aid of a spirit lamp. if it seems necessary, run a little extra solder along the joint, both sides, and at the ends. the valve, if built up, consists of a central rod, threaded at the rear end, four washers which fit the tube, and a central spacing-piece. the forward washer is soldered to the rod. behind this is placed a felt packing. then come in order the central spacing-piece, with a washer soldered to each end, a second packing, and a fourth washer. the series is completed by an adjusting nut to squeeze the packings, and a lock nut to prevent slipping. the back end of the valve must be wide enough to just more than cover the steam port. if the felt proves difficult to procure or fit, one may use a ring or two of brass tubing, with an external packing of asbestos cord. the cylinder wing w should have the top edge turned over for an eighth of an inch or so to give a good bearing against the cylinder, and be held in position by a wire while the soldering is done. it is important that the line of the wing should be at right angles to a line passing through the centres of the valve tube and cylinder. shaft bearings.--take a piece of strip brass half an inch or so wide and - / inches long. bore four holes for screws, and scratch cross lines an inch from each extremity. turn up the ends at these lines at right angles to the central part, stand the piece on some flat surface, and on the outer faces of the uprights scratch two cross lines at the height of the centre of the cylinder above the bed. mark the central points of these lines. next select a piece of brass tubing which fits the rod chosen for the crank shaft, and bore in the bearing standards two holes to fit this tubing. slip the tubing through the standards and solder it to them. the ends and central parts of the tubing must now be so cut away as to leave two bearings, bb--that at the fly-wheel end projecting far enough to allow the fly wheel, when brought up against it, to just clear the bed; that at the crank end being of the proper length to allow the eccentric to be in line with the valve rod, and the crank disc to occupy its proper position relatively to the central line of the cylinder. finish off the standards by filing the tops concentrically with the bearings. the eccentric may be built up from a metal disc about / inch diameter and two slightly larger discs soldered concentrically to the sides. the width of the middle disc should be the same as that of the eccentric rod. a careful filer could make a passable eccentric by sinking a square or semicircular groove in the edge of a wide disc. the centre of the eccentric must be found carefully, and a point marked at a distance from it equal to half the travel of the valve. to ascertain this, pull the valve forward until the steam port is fully exposed, insert a bar at the rear end of the valve tube, and mark it. then push the valve back until a wire pushed through the port from the cylinder side shows that the port is again fully exposed. insert and mark the bar again. the distance between the marks gives you the "travel" required. order of assembly.--the following list of operations in their order may assist the beginner: make the bed. cut out cylinder barrel, piston, and valve tube. bevel off the ends of the last inside to allow the valve to enter easily. make the valve. bore the steam ports, and solder valve tube and cylinder together. solder holding-down wing, w, to cylinder. finish off the piston. solder the bearings in their standards. prepare shaft, crank disc, crank pin, and piston rod. fix the cylinder to the bed, in which a slot must be cut for the wing and holding-down bolt. attach the piston rod to the piston, and insert piston in cylinder. bore hole for shaft in centre of crank disc, and another, / inch away (centre to centre), for crank pin. solder in crank pin squarely to disc. pass shaft through bearings and slip on the crank disc. pass front end of piston rod over the crank pin. lay bearing standard on bed squarely to the centre line of the cylinder, turn crank fully back, and move the standard about till the back end of the piston clears the back end of the cylinder by about / inch. get standard quite square, and adjust sideways till connecting rod is in line with axis of cylinder. mark off and screw down the standard. make the eccentric, eccentric rod, and strap. slip eccentric on shaft. put valve in position and draw it forward till the port is exposed. turn the eccentric forward, and mark the rod opposite centre of valve pin. bore hole for pin, and insert pin. hold the crank shaft firmly, and revolve eccentric till the port just begins to open on its forward stroke. rotate crank disc on shaft till the crank pin is full forward. solder eccentric and disc to shaft. solder steam pipe to cylinder, and a brass disc to the rear end of the cylinder. fit a fly wheel of metal or wood. this must be fairly heavy, as it has to overcome all friction during the return or exhaust stroke. action of engine.--during the forward motion of the piston the valve is pushed back by the eccentric until the steam port is fully opened, and is then drawn forward, covering the port. at the end of the power stroke the port has begun to open to the air, to allow the steam to escape throughout the exhaust stroke, in the course of which the valve is pushed back until, just at the end of the stroke, the steam port begins to open again. notes.-- (l.) the connecting rod may be made shorter than shown in figs. and ; but in that case the piston also must be shortened to allow for the greater obliquity of the rod at half-stroke. ( .) if two opposed cylinders are made to operate the one crank, a double-acting engine is obtained. both valves may be operated by a single eccentric, the connecting rod of one being pivoted to a small lug projecting from the eccentric strap. if three cylinders are set degrees apart round the crank shaft, a continuous turning effect is given. this type will be found useful for running small dynamos. ( .) if it is desired to use the exhaust steam to promote a draught in the boiler furnace, it should be led away by a small pipe from the rear end of the valve tube. xv. a horizontal slide-valve engine. the reader who has succeeded in putting together the simple engine described in the preceding chapter may wish to try his hand on something more ambitious in the same line. the engine illustrated in figs. to will give sufficient scope for energy and handiness with drill and soldering iron. the writer made an engine of the same kind, differing only from that shown in the design of the crosshead guides, without the assistance of a lathe, except for turning the piston and fly wheel--the last bought in the rough. files, drills, taps, a hack saw, and a soldering iron did all the rest of the work. solder plays so important a part in the assembling of the many pieces of the engine that, if the machine fell into the fire, a rapid disintegration would follow. but in actual use the engine has proved very satisfactory; and if not such as the highly-skilled model-maker with a well-equipped workshop at his command would prefer to expend his time on, it will afford a useful lesson in the use of the simpler tools. under lbs. of steam it develops sufficient power to run a small electric-lighting installation, or to do other useful work on a moderate scale. [illustration: fig. .--elevation of a large horizontal engine.] the principal dimensions of the engine are as follows: bedplate (sheet zinc), - / inches long; - / inches wide; / inch thick. support of bedplate ( / inch zinc), inches high from wooden base to underside of bedplate. cylinder (mandrel-drawn brass tubing), - / inches internal diameter; - / inches long over all. piston, - / inches diameter; / inch long. stroke of piston, - / inches. connecting rod, inches long between centres; / inch diameter. piston rod, - / inches long; / inch diameter. valve rod, - / inches long; / inch diameter. crank shaft, inches long; / inch diameter. centre line of piston rod, - / inches laterally from near edge of bed; - / inches from valve-rod centre line; - / inches vertically above bed. centre line of crank shaft, - / inches from cross centre line of cylinder. bearings, inch long. eccentric, / -inch throw. fly wheel, diameter, - / inches; width, inch; weight, lbs. pump, / -inch bore; / -inch stroke; plunger, inches long. [illustration: fig. .--plan of a large horizontal engine.] other dimensions will be gathered from the various diagrams of details. the reader will, of course, suit his own fancy in following these dimensions, or in working to them on a reduced scale, or in modifying details where he considers he can effect his object in a simpler manner. the diagrams are sufficiently explicit to render it unnecessary to describe the making of the engine from start to finish, so remarks will be limited to those points which require most careful construction and adjustment. [illustration: fig. .--standards of bedplate.] the bedplate.--this should be accurately squared and mounted on its four arch-like supports. (for dimensions, consult fig. .) half an inch is allowed top and bottom for the turnovers by which the supports are screwed to the bedplate and base. the ends of the longer supports are turned back so as to lie in front of the end supports, to which they may be attached by screws or solder, after all four parts have been screwed to the bed. care must be taken that the parts all have the same height. drill all holes in the turnovers before bending. use / -inch screws. turn the bed bottom upwards, and stand the four supports, temporarily assembled, on it upside down and in their correct positions, and mark off for the / -inch holes to be drilled in the bed. a hole / inch in diameter should be cut in the bedplate for the exhaust pipe, round a centre inches from the end and - / inches from the edge on the fly-wheel side, and two more holes for the pump. making the cylinder slide and valve.--the cylinder barrel must be perfectly cylindrical and free from any dents. mandrel-drawn brass tubing, / -inch thick, may be selected. if you cannot get this turned off at the ends in a lathe, mark the lines round it for working to with the aid of a perfectly straight edged strip of paper, - / inches wide, rolled twice round the tube. the coils must lie exactly under one another. make plain scratches at each end of the paper with a sharp steel point. cut off at a distance of / -inch from the lines, and work up to the lines with a file, finishing by rubbing the ends on a piece of emery cloth resting on a hard, true surface. [illustration: fig. .-cylinder standard before being bent.] a square-cornered notch / inch deep and / inch wide must now be cut in each end of the barrel, the two notches being exactly in line with one another. these are to admit steam from the steam ways into the cylinder. cylinder standards.-use / or / inch brass plate for these. two pieces of the dimensions shown in fig. are needed. scratch a line exactly down the middle of each, and a cross line / inch from one end. the other end should be marked, cut, and filed to a semicircle. drill three / -inch holes in the turnover for the holding-down screws. the two standards should now be soldered temporarily together at the round ends and trued up to match each other exactly. place them in the vice with the bending lines exactly level with the jaws, split the turnovers apart, and hammer them over at right angles to the main parts. whether this has been done correctly may be tested by placing the standards on a flat surface. take the standards apart, and scratch a cross line on each - / inch from the lower surface of the foot on the side away from the foot. make a punch mark where the line crosses the vertical line previously drawn, and with this as centre describe a circle of the diameter of the outside of the barrel. cut out the inside and file carefully up to the circle, stopping when the barrel makes a tight fit. on the inside of the hole file a nick / inch deep, as shown in fig. . remember that this nick must be on the left of one standard and on the right of the other, so that they shall pair off properly. standards and barrel must now be cleaned for soldering. screw one standard down to a wood base; slip one end of the barrel into it; pass the other standard over the other end of the barrel, and adjust everything so that the barrel ends are flush with the, outer surfaces of the standard, and the nicks of the barrel in line with the standard nicks. then screw the other standard to the base. solder must be run well into the joints, as these will have to stand all the longitudinal working strain. the next step is the fitting of the cylinder covers. if you can obtain two stout brass discs - / inches in diameter, some trouble will be saved; otherwise you must cut them out of / -inch plate. the centre of each should be marked, and four lines degrees apart be scratched through it from side to side. a circle of / -inch radius is now drawn to cut the lines, and punch marks are made at the eight points of intersection. solder the covers lightly to the foot side of their standards, marked sides outwards, and drill / -inch holes through cover and standard at the punch marks. make matching marks on the edges. unsolder the covers, enlarge the holes in them to take / -inch screws; and tap the holes in the standards. this method will ensure the holes being in line, besides avoiding the trouble of marking off the standards separately. bore a / -inch hole in the centre of one cover--be sure that it is the right one--for the piston rod. you can now proceed to the making of the piston-rod gland (fig. , g ). fig. shows how this is built up of pieces of tubing and brass lugs for the screws. if possible, get the tubular parts trued in a lathe. [illustration: fig. .--vertical section of cylinder.] before the gland is soldered to the cover, the cover should be put in place, the piston rod attached to the piston, and the parts of the gland assembled. push the piston rod through the cover until the piston is hard up against the back of the cover. slip the gland over the rod, turn it so that the screws are parallel to the foot of the standard, and make the solder joint. this is the best way of getting the gland exactly concentric with the cylinder so that the piston rod shall move without undue friction. but you must be careful not to unsolder the cylinder from its standard or the parts of the gland. blacken the piston rod in a candle flame to prevent solder adhering. steam chest.--the walls of the steam chest are best made in one piece out of / -inch brass by cutting out to the dimension given in fig. . a sharp fret saw will remove the inside rectangle. get both inside and outside surfaces as square as possible in all directions, and rub down the two contact faces on emery cloth supported by an old looking-glass. [illustration: fig. .-wall-piece for steam chest, with gland and valve rod in position.] two perfectly flat plates of / -inch brass are cut to the size given in fig. , or a little longer both ways, to allow for working down to the same area as the wall-piece. this operation should be carried out after soldering the three pieces together. file and rub the sides until no projections are visible. then drill twelve / -inch holes right through the three parts. after separating them, the holes in the walls and what will be the cover must be enlarged to an easy fit for / -inch bolts, and the valve plate tapped. now drill / -inch holes centrally through the ends of the walls for the valve rod. if the first hole is drilled accurately, the second hole should be made without removing the drill, as this will ensure the two holes being in line. if, however, luck is against you, enlarge the holes and get the rod into its correct position by screwing and soldering small drilled plates to the outside of the chest. also drill and tap a hole for the lubricator. the attachment of the gland (fig. , g ) is similar to that of the cylinder gland, and therefore need not be detailed. the valve plate (fig. ).--three ports must be cut in this--a central one, / by / inch, for the exhaust; and two inlets, / by / inch, / inch away from the exhaust. these are easily opened out if a series of holes be drilled along their axes. [illustration: fig. .--valve plate.] the steam ways.--the formation of the steam ways between valve plate and cylinder is the most ticklish bit of work to be done on the engine as it entails the making of a number of solder joints close together. [illustration: fig. .--piece for steam ways.] we begin by cutting out of / -inch sheet brass a piece shaped as in fig. . parallel to the long edges, and / inch away, scribe bending lines. join these by lines / inch from the short edges, and join these again by lines / inch from the bending lines. cuts must now be made along the lines shown double in fig. . bend parts cc down and parts bb upwards, so that they are at right angles to parts aa. the positions of these parts, when the piece is applied to the cylinder, are shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. .--valve plate and steam ways in section.] one must now make the bridge pieces (fig. , a, a) to separate the inlet passages from the exhaust. their width is the distance between the bent-down pieces cc of fig. , and their bottom edges are shaped to the curvature of the cylinder barrel. finally, make the pieces bb (fig. ), which form part of the top of the steam ways. in the assembling of these parts a blowpipe spirit lamp or a little "tinol" soldering lamp will prove very helpful. the following order should be observed: ( .) solder the piece shown in fig. to the cylinder barrel by the long edges, and to the cylinder supports at the ends. this piece must, of course, cover the steam ports in the cylinder. ( .) put pieces aa (fig. ) in position, with their tops quite flush with the tops of bb (fig. ), and solder them to the cylinder barrel and sides of the steam-way piece. ( .) solder the valve plate centrally to bb, and to the tops of aa, which must lie between the central and outside ports. take great care to make steam-tight joints here, and to have the plate parallel to the standards in one direction and to the cylinder in the other. ( .) solder in pieces bb. these should be a tight fit, as it is difficult to hold them in place while soldering is done. ( .) bore a / -inch hole in the lower side of the central division and solder on the exhaust pipe. slide valve.--the contact part of this is cut out of flat sheet brass (fig. ), and to one side is soldered a cap made by turning down the edges of a cross with very short arms. the little lugs aa are soldered to this, and slotted with a jeweller's file to engage with notches cut in the valve rod (see figs. and ). [illustration: fig. .-parts of slide valve.] the crank and crank shaft.--the next thing to take in hand is the fixing of the crank shaft. this is a piece of / or / inch steel rod inches long. the bearings for this may be pieces of brass tubing, fitting the rod fairly tight. by making them of good length-- inch--the wear is reduced to almost nothing if the lubricating can is used as often as it should be. each bearing is shown with two standards. the doubling increases rigidity, and enables an oil cup to be fixed centrally. the shape of the standards will be gathered from fig. , their outline being dotted in behind the crank. cut out and bend the standards--after drilling the holes for the foot screws--before measuring off for the centres of the holes; in fact, follow the course laid down with regard to the cylinder standards. make a bold scratch across the bedplate to show where the centre line of the shaft should be, and another along the bed for the piston-rod centre line. (position given on p. .) bore holes in the bearings for the oil cups, which may be merely forced in after the engine is complete. the crank boss may be made out of a brass disc - / inches diameter and / inch thick, from which two curved pieces are cut to reduce the crank to the shape shown in fig. . the heavier portion, on the side of the shaft away from the crank pin, helps to counterbalance the weight of the connecting and piston rods. in fig. (plan of engine) you will see that extra weight in this part has been obtained by fixing a piece of suitably curved metal to the back of the boss. the mounting of the crank boss on the shaft and the insertion of the crank pin into the boss might well be entrusted to an expert mechanic, as absolute "squareness" is essential for satisfactory working. screw-thread attachments should be used, and the crankshaft should project sufficiently to allow room for a flat lock nut. the crank pin will be rendered immovable by a small lock screw penetrating the boss edgeways and engaging with a nick in the pin. fixing the standards and bearings.--place the two bearings in their standards and slip the crank shaft through them. place standards on the bed, with their centre lines on the crank-shaft centre line. the face of the crank should be about / inch away from the piston rod centre line. bring the nearer bearing up against the back of the disc, and arrange the standards equidistantly from the ends of the bearing. the other bearing should overlap the edge of the bed by about / inch. get all standards square to the edge of the bed, and mark off the positions of screw holes in bed. remove the standards, drill and tap the bed-plate holes, and replace parts as before, taking care that the lubricating holes in the bearings point vertically upwards. then solder bearings to standards. if any difficulty is experienced in getting all four standards to bed properly, make the bearing holes in the two inner ones a rather easy fit. the presence of the crank-shaft will assure the bearings being in line when the soldering is completed. the standards and bed should have matching marks made on them. the eccentric.--this can be formed by soldering two thin brass discs - / -inch diameter concentrically to the sides of a disc of - / -inch diameter and / inch thick. the centre of the shaft hole must be exactly / inch from the centre of the eccentric to give the proper valve-travel. drill and tap the eccentric edgeways for a lock screw. a piece to which the eccentric strap, eccentric rod, and pump rod are attached is cut out of / -inch brass. its shape is indicated in fig. . the side next the eccentric must be shaped as accurately as possible to the radius of the eccentric. the strap, of strip brass, is fastened to the piece by four screws, the eccentric rod by two screws. crosshead and guides.--the crosshead (figs. and ) is built up by soldering together a flat foot of steel, a brass upright, and a tubular top fitting the piston rod. the guides, which consist of a bed, covers, and distance-pieces united by screws (fig. ), have to withstand a lot of wear, and should preferably be of steel. the importance of having them quite flat and straight is, of course, obvious. [illustration: fig. .--cross section of crosshead and guide.] the last - / inches of the piston rod has a screw thread cut on it to engage with a threaded hole in the fork (cut out of thick brass plate), to which the rear end of the connecting rod is pinned, and to take the lock nut which presses the crosshead against this fork. assuming that all the parts mentioned have been prepared, the cylinder should be arranged in its proper place on the bed, the piston rod centrally over its centre line. mark and drill the screw holes in the bed. the valve gear.--we may now attend to the valve gear. a fork must be made for the end of the valve rod, and soldered to it with its slot at right angles to the slots which engage with the valve lugs. slip the rod into the steam chest, put the valve on the rod, and attach the chest (without the cover) to the valve plate by a bolt at each corner. pull the valve forward till the rear port is just uncovered, and turn the eccentric full forward. you will now be able to measure off exactly the distance between the centres of the valve-rod fork pin and the rear screw of the eccentric. the valve connecting rod (fig. , vcr) should now be made and placed in position. if the two forward holes are filed somewhat slot-shaped, any necessary adjustment of the valve is made easier. if the adjustment of vcr and the throw of the eccentric are correct, the valve will just expose both end ports alternately when the crank is revolved. if one port is more exposed than the other, adjust by means of the eccentric screws till a balance is obtained. should the ports still not be fully uncovered, the throw of the eccentric is too small, and you must either make a new eccentric or reduce the width of the valve. (the second course has the disadvantage of reducing the expansive working of the steam.) excess movement, on the other hand, implies too great an eccentric throw. setting the eccentric.--turn the crank full forward, so that a line through the crank pin and shaft centres is parallel to the bed. holding it in this position, revolve the eccentric (the screw of which should be slackened off sufficiently to allow the eccentric to move stiffly) round the shaft in a clockwise direction, until it is in that position below the shaft at which the front steam port just begins to show. then tighten up the eccentric lock screw.[ ] [footnote : the reader is referred to an excellent little treatise, entitled "the slide valve" (messrs. percival marshall and co., poppin's court, fleet street, e.c. price d.), for a full explanation of the scientific principles of the slide valve.] the connecting rod.--the length of this from centre to centre of the pins on which it works should be established as follows:--slip over the piston rod a disc of card / inch thick. then pass the rod through the gland and assemble the crosshead and fork on its end, and assemble the guides round the crosshead foot. turn the crank pin full forward, pull the piston rod out as far as it will come, measure the distance between pin centres very carefully, and transfer it to a piece of paper. the rod consists of a straight central bar and two rectangular halved ends. the ends should be cut out of brass and carefully squared. through their exact centres drill / -inch holes, and cut the pieces squarely in two across these holes. the sawed faces should be filed down to a good fit and soldered together. now drill holes of the size of the pins, using what remains of the holes first made to guide the drill. the bolt holes are drilled next, and finally the holes for lubrication and those to take the rods. then lay the two ends down on the piece of paper, so that their pinholes are centred on the centre marks, and the holes for the rod are turned towards one another. cut off a piece of steel rod of the proper length and unsolder the ends. the rod pieces must then be assembled on the rod, and with it be centred on the paper and held in position while the parts are soldered together. other details. adjusting the guides.--put the connecting rod in place on its pins, and revolve the crank until the guides have taken up that position which allows the crosshead to move freely. then mark off the holes for the guide holding-down screws, and drill and tap them. packings.--the glands and piston should be packed with asbestos string. don't be afraid of packing too tightly, as the tendency is for packing to get slacker in use. the rear end of the cylinder should be bevelled off slightly inside, to allow the packed piston to enter easily. joints.--the cylinder head and valve chest joints should be made with stout brown paper soaked in oil or smeared with red lead. all screw holes should be cut cleanly through the paper, and give plenty of room for the screws. [illustration: fig. .-vertical section of force pump driven by engine.] when making a joint, tighten up the screws in rotation, a little at a time so as not to put undue strain on any screw. wait an hour or two, and go round with the screw-driver again. lubrication.--when the engine is first put under steam, lubrication should be very liberal, to assure the parts "settling down" without undue wear. the pump.--fig. shows in section the pump, which will be found a useful addition to the engine. (for other details, see figs. and .) its stroke is only that of the eccentric, and as the water passages and valves are of good size, it will work efficiently at high speed. the method of making it will be obvious from the diagrams, and space will therefore not be devoted to a detailed description. the valve balls should, of course, be of gun-metal or brass, and the seatings must be prepared for them by hammering in a steel ball of the same size. in practice it is advisable to keep the pump always working, and to regulate the delivery to the boiler by means of a by-pass tap on the feed pipe, through which all or some of the water may be returned direct to the tank. the tank, which should be of zinc, may conveniently be placed under the engine. if the exhaust steam pipe be made to traverse the tank along or near the bottom, a good deal of what would otherwise be wasted heat will be saved by warming the feed water. making a governor. [illustration: fig. .--elevation of governor for horizontal engine. above is plan of valve and rod gear.] it is a great advantage to have the engine automatically governed, so that it may run at a fairly constant speed under varying loads and boiler pressures. in the absence of a governor one has to be constantly working the throttle; with one fitted, the throttle can be opened up full at the start, and the automatic control relied upon to prevent the engine knocking itself to pieces. the vertical centrifugal apparatus shown in fig. was made by the writer, and acted very well. the only objection to it is its displacement of the pump from the bed. but a little ingenuity will enable the pump to be driven off the fly wheel end of the crank shaft, or, if the shaft is cut off pretty flush with the pulley, off a pin in the face of the pulley. turning to fig. , a is a steel spindle fixed in a base, l, screwed to the bed. b is a brass tube fitting a closely, and resting at the bottom on a / -inch piece of similar tubing pinned to a. a wooden pulley jammed on b transmits the drive from a belt which passes at its other end round a similar, but slightly larger, pulley on the crank shaft. this pulley is accommodated by moving the eccentric slightly nearer the crank and shortening the fly-wheel side bearing a little. the piece g, fixed to b by a lock screw, has two slots cut in it to take the upper ends of the weight links dd; and c, which slides up and down b, is similarly slotted for the links ee. each of the last is made of two similarly shaped plates of thin brass, soldered together for half their length, but separated / inch at the top to embrace the projections of d. to prevent c revolving relatively to b, a notch is filed in one side of the central hole, to engage with a piece of brass wire soldered on b (shown solid black in the diagram). a spiral steel spring, indicated in section by a number of black dots, presses at the top against the adjustable collar f, and at the bottom against c. the two weights ww are pieces of brass bar slotted for driving on to dd, which taper gently towards the outer edge. when the pulley revolves, centrifugal force makes ww fly outwards against the pressure of the spring, and the links ee raise c, which in turn lifts the end of lever m. a single link, n, transmits the motion from a pin on m to the double bell-crank lever o (see fig. ) pivoted on a standard, p, attached to the bedplate. the slotted upper ends of p engage with pins on an adjustable block, r, which moves the governing valve v (solid black), working in the tube s through a gland. the higher m is raised the farther back is v moved, and its annular port is gradually pushed more out of line with two ports in the side of the valve tube, thus reducing the flow of steam from the supply pipe to the cylinder connection on the other side of the tube. this connection, by-the-bye, acts as fulcrum for lever m, which is made in two parts, held together by screws, to render detachment easy. the closer the fit that v makes with s the more effective will the governing be. the gland at the end of s was taken from an old cylinder cover. regulation of the speed may be effected either ( ) by driving the governor faster or slower relatively to the speed of the crank shaft; ( ) by altering the position of w on d; ( ) by altering the compression of the spring by shifting f; ( ) by a combination of two or more of the above. generally speaking, ( ) is to be preferred, as the simplest. the belt may be made out of a bootlace or fairly stout circular elastic. in either case the ends should be chamfered off to form a smooth joint, which may be wrapped externally with thread. final hints. all parts which have to be fitted together should have matching marks made on them with the punch. to take the parts of the valve chest as an example. as we have seen, these should be soldered together, finished off outside, and drilled. before separating them make, say, two punch marks on what will be the upper edge of the valve plate near the end, and two similar marks on the chest as near the first as they can conveniently be. in like manner mark the chest cover and an adjacent part of the chest with three marks. it is utterly impossible to reassemble the parts incorrectly after separation if the marks are matched. marking is of greatest importance where one piece is held up to another by a number of screws. if it is omitted in such a case, you may have a lot of trouble in matching the holes afterwards. jacket the cylinder with wood or asbestos, covered in neatly with sheet brass, to minimize condensation. if the steam ways, valve chest, and steam pipe also are jacketed, an increase in efficiency will be gained, though perhaps somewhat at the expense of appearance. boiler.--the boiler described on pp. - , or a vertical multitubular boiler with about sq. inches of heating surface will drive this engine satisfactorily. xvi. model steam turbines. steam turbines have come very much to the fore during recent years, especially for marine propulsion. in principle they are far simpler than cylinder engines, steam being merely directed at a suitable angle on to specially shaped vanes attached to a revolving drum and shaft. in the parsons type of turbine the steam expands as it passes through successive rings of blades, the diameter of which rings, as well as the length and number of the blades, increases towards the exhaust end of the casing, so that the increasing velocity of the expanding steam may be taken full advantage of. the de laval turbine includes but a single ring of vanes, against which the steam issues through nozzles so shaped as to allow the steam to expand somewhat and its molecules to be moving at enormous velocity before reaching the vanes. a de laval wheel revolves at terrific speeds, the limit being tens of thousands of turns per minute for the smallest engines. the greatest efficiency is obtained, theoretically, when the vane velocity is half that of the steam, the latter, after passing round the curved inside surfaces of the vanes, being robbed of all its energy and speed. (for a fuller description of the steam turbine, see how it works, chap. iii., pp. - .) the turbines to be described work on the de laval principle, which has been selected as the easier for the beginner to follow. a very simple turbine. we will begin with a very simple contrivance, shown in fig. . as a "power plant" it is confessedly useless, but the making of it affords amusement and instruction. for the boiler select a circular tin with a jointless stamped lid, not less than inches in diameter, so as to give plenty of heating surface, and at least - / inches deep, to ensure a good steam space and moderately dry steam. a shallow boiler may "prime" badly, if reasonably full, and fling out a lot of water with the steam. clean the metal round the joints, and punch a small hole in the lid, half an inch from the edge, to give egress to the heated air during the operation of soldering up the point or joints, which must be rendered absolutely water-tight. [illustration: fig. .--simple steam turbine.] for the turbine wheel take a piece of thin sheet iron or brass; flatten it out, and make a slight dent in it an inch from the two nearest edges. with this dent as centre are scribed two circles, of / and / inch radius respectively. then scratch a series of radial marks between the circles, a fifth of an inch apart. cut out along the outer circle, and with your shears follow the radial lines to the inner circle. the edge is thus separated into vanes (fig. ), the ends of which must then be twisted round through half a right angle, with the aid of a pair of narrow-nosed pliers, care being taken to turn them all in the same direction. [illustration: fig. .--wheel for steam turbine, showing one vane twisted into final position.] a spindle is made out of a large pin, beheaded, the rough end of which must be ground or filed to a sharp point. next, just break through the metal of the disc at the centre with a sharpened wire nail, and push the spindle through till it projects a quarter of an inch or so. soldering the disc to the spindle is most easily effected with a blowpipe or small blow-lamp. the boiler.--in the centre of the boiler make a dent, to act as bottom bearing for the spindle. from this centre describe a circle of / -inch radius. on this circle must be made the steam port or ports. two ports, at opposite ends of a diameter, give better results than a single port, as equalizing the pressure on the vanes, so that the spindle is relieved of bending strains. their combined area must not, however, exceed that of the single port, if one only be used. it is important to keep in mind that for a turbine of this kind velocity of steam is everything, and that nothing is gained by increasing the number or size of ports if it causes a fall in the boiler pressure. the holes are best made with a tiny morse twist drill. as the metal is thin, drill squarely, so that the steam shall emerge vertically. for the upper bearing bend a piece of tin into the shape shown in fig. . the vertical parts should be as nearly as possible of the same length as the spindle. in the centre of the underside of the standard make a deep dent, supporting the metal on hard wood or lead, so that it shall not be pierced. if this accident occurs the piece is useless. place the wheel in position, the longer part of the spindle upwards, and move the standard about until the spindle is vertical in all directions. scratch round the feet of the standard to mark their exact position, and solder the standard to the boiler. the top of the standard must now be bent slightly upwards or downwards until the spindle is held securely without being pinched. a / -inch brass nut and screw, the first soldered to the boiler round a hole of the same size as its internal diameter, make a convenient "filler;" but a plain hole plugged with a tapered piece of wood, such as the end of a penholder, will serve. half fill the boiler by immersion in hot water, the large hole being kept lowermost, and one of the steam vents above water to allow the air to escape. a spirit lamp supplies the necessary heat. or the boiler may be held in a wire cradle over the fire, near enough to make the wheel hum. be careful not to over-drive the boiler. as a wooden plug will probably be driven out before the pressure can become dangerous, this is a point in favour of using one. corrosion of the boiler will be lessened if the boiler is kept quite full of water when not in use. a practical steam turbine. the next step takes us to the construction of a small turbine capable of doing some useful work. it is shown in cross section and elevation in fig. . [illustration: fig. .--model steam turbine, showing vertical cross section (left) and external steam pipe (right).] the rotor in this instance is enclosed in a case made up of two stout brass discs, d and e, and a / -inch length of brass tubing. the plates should be / -inch larger in diameter than the ring, if the bolts are to go outside. the stouter the parts, within reason, the better. thick discs are not so liable to cockle as thin ones, and a stout ring will make it possible to get steam-tight joints with brown-paper packing. the wheel is a disc of brass, say, / inch thick and inches in diameter; the spindle is / inch, of silver steel rod; the bearings, brass tubing, making a close fit on the rod. if you cannot get the ring ends turned up true in a lathe--a matter of but a few minutes' work--rub them down on a piece of emery cloth supported on a true surface, such as a piece of thick glass. now mark out accurately the centres of the discs on both sides, and make marks to show which face of each disc is to be outside. on the outside of both scribe circles of the size of the bearing tubes, and other circles at the proper radius for the bolt hole centres. on the outside of d scribe two circles of -inch and - / -inch radius, between which the steam pipe will lie. on the inside of d scribe a circle of - / -inch radius for the steam ports. on the outside of e mark a / -inch circle for the exhaust pipe. on the inside of both mark the circles between which the ring must lie. bolt holes.--the marks for these, six or twelve in number, are equally spaced on the outside of one plate, and the two plates are clamped or soldered together before the boring is done, to ensure the holes being in line. if the bolts are to screw into one plate, be careful to make the holes of the tapping size in the first instance, and to enlarge those in d afterwards. make guide marks in the plates before separating, between what will be the uppermost holes and the circumference. bolts.--these should be of brass if passed inside the ring. nuts are not necessary if e is tapped, but their addition will give a smarter appearance and prevent-the bolts becoming loose. bearings.--bore central holes in the discs to a good fit for the bearings, and prepare the hole for the exhaust pipe. this hole is most easily made by drilling a ring of small holes just inside the mark and cutting through the intervening metal. for a, b, and c cut off pieces of bearing pipe, / , / , and / inch long respectively, and bevel the ends of b and c as shown, to minimize friction if they rub. file all other ends square. (lathe useful here.) bore oil holes in b and c, and clear away all the "burr." make scratches on the bearings to show how far they should be pushed through the case. now assemble the case, taking care that the edge of the ring corresponds exactly with the circles marked on the discs, and clean the metal round the bearing holes and the bearings themselves. the last are then placed in position, with the lubricating holes pointing upwards towards the guide marks on the discs. push the spindle rod through the bearings, which must be adjusted until the rod can be revolved easily with the fingers. then solder in the bearing with a "tinol" lamp. the wheel.--anneal this well by heating to a dull red and plunging it in cold water. mark a circle of - / -inch radius, and draw radial lines / inch apart at the circumference from this circle to the edge. cut out along the lines, and twist the vanes to make an angle of about degree with the central part, and bend the ends slightly backward away from the direction in which the rotor will revolve. (the directions given on p. for making a steam top wheel can be applied here.) bore a hole in the centre to make a tight fit with the spindle, and place the rotor in position, with piece b in contact on the c side. get everything square (rotation will betray a bad wobble), and solder the three parts together with the blow-lamp. mount the rotor squarely by the spindle points between two pieces of wood held lightly in the vice, and, with the aid of a gauge fixed to the piece nearest the wheel, true up the line of the vanes. (lathe useful here.) the steam pipe is inches (or more) of / -inch copper tubing, well annealed. to assist the bending of it into a ring one needs some circular object of the same diameter as the interior diameter of the ring round which to curve it. i procured a tooth-powder box of the right size, and nailed it firmly to a piece of board. then i bevelled off the end of the pipe to the approximately correct angle, laid it against the box, and drove in a nail to keep it tight up. bending was then an easy matter, a nail driven in here and there holding the pipe until the ring was complete. i then soldered the end to the standing part, and detached the ring for flattening on one side with a file and emery cloth. this done, i bored a hole through the tube at f to open up the blind end of the ring. attaching the ring to disc d is effected as follows:--tin the contact faces of the ring and disc pretty heavily with solder, after making poppet marks round the guide circles so that they may not be lost under the solder. the ring must be pressed tightly against its seat while heating is done with the lamp. an extra pair of hands makes things easier at this point. be careful not to unsolder the spindle bearing, a thing which cannot happen if the bearing is kept cool by an occasional drop or two of water. a little extra solder should be applied round the points where the ports will be. the steam ports.--these are drilled (with a / -inch twist drill), at an angle of about degrees to the plate, along the circle already scribed. if you have any doubt as to your boiler's capacity, begin with one hole only, and add a second if you think it advisable. as already remarked, pressure must not be sacrificed to steam flow. lubricators.--these are short pieces of tubing hollowed at one end by a round file of the same diameter as the bearings. a little "tinol" is smeared over the surfaces to be joined, and the lubricators are placed in position and heated with the blow-lamp until the solder runs. to prevent the oil flowing too freely, the lubricators should be provided with airtight wooden plugs. escape pipes.--the pipe for the exhaust steam is now soldered into disc e, and a small water escape into the ring at its lowest point. this pipe should be connected with a closed chamber or with the exhaust at a point lower than the base of the turbine case. stirrup.--fig. shows a stirrup carrying a screw which presses against the pulley end of the spindle. this attachment makes it easy to adjust the distance between the rotor and the steam ports, and also concentrates all end thrust on to a point, thereby minimizing friction. the stirrup can be fashioned in a few minutes out of brass strip. drill the holes for the holding-on screws; drill and tap a hole for the adjusting screw; insert the screw and centre it correctly on the spindle point. then mark the position of the two screw holes in e; drill and tap them. feet are made of sheet brass, drilled to take the three (or two) lowermost bolts, and bent to shape. note.--a side and foot may be cut out of one piece of metal. the difficulty is that the bending may distort the side, and prevent a tight joint between side and ring. assembling.--cut out two rings of stout brown paper a quarter of an inch wide and slightly larger in diameter than the casing ring. in assembling the turbine finally, these, after being soaked in oil, should be inserted between the ring and the discs. put in four screws only at first, and get the ring properly centred and the bearings exactly in line, which will be shown by the spindle revolving easily. then tighten up the nuts and insert the other bolts, the three lowest of which are passed through the feet. affix the pulley and stirrup, and adjust the spindle longitudinally until the rotor just does not rub the casing. the soldering on of the cap of a completes operations. to get efficiency, heavy gearing down is needed, and this can be managed easily enough with the help of a clockwork train, decreasing the speed five or more times for driving a dynamo, and much more still for slow work, such as pumping. a more elaborate turbine. [illustration: fig. .--vertical section of steam turbine with formed blades (left); outside view of turbine, gear side (right).] the turbine just described can hardly be termed an efficient one, as the vanes, owing to their simple formation, are not shaped to give good results. we therefore offer to our readers a design for a small turbine of a superior character. this turbine is shown in elevation and section in fig. . the casing is, as in the preceding instance, made up of flat brass plates and a ring of tubing, and the bearings, bg , bg , of brass tube. but the wheel is built up of a disc inches in diameter, round the circumference of which are equally-spaced buckets, blades, or vanes, projecting / inch beyond the edge of the disc. the wheel as a whole is mounted on a spindle - / inches long, to which it is secured by three nuts, n n n . one end of the spindle is fined down to take a small pinion, p , meshing with a large pinion, p , the latter running in bearings, bg , in the wheel-case and cover. the drive of the turbine is transmitted either direct from the axle of p or from a pulley mounted on it. construction. [illustration: fig. .--plate marked out for turbine wheel blades. b is blade as it appears before being curved.] the wheel.--if you do not possess a lathe, the preparation of the spindle and mounting the wheel disc on it should be entrusted to a mechanic. its diameter at the bearings should be / inch or thereabouts. (get the tubing for the bearings and for the spindle turned to fit.) the larger portion is about twice as thick as the smaller, to allow room for the screw threads. the right-hand end is turned down quite small for the pinion, which should be of driving fit. the blades.--mark out a piece of sheet iron as shown in fig. to form rectangles, by l/ inch. the metal is divided along the lines aaaa, bbbb, and ab, ab, ab, ab, etc. the piece for each blade then has a central slot / inch long and as wide as the wheel disc cut very carefully in it. bending the blades.--in the edge of a piece of hard wood inch thick file a notch / inch wide and / inch deep with a / -inch circular file, and procure a metal bar which fits the groove loosely. each blade is laid in turn over the groove, and the bar is applied lengthwise on it and driven down with a mallet, to give the blade the curvature of the groove. when all the blades have been made and shaped, draw diameters through the centre of the wheel disc, and at the ends make nicks / inch deep in the circumference. true up the long edges of the blades with a file, and bring them off to a sharp edge, removing the metal from the convex side. fixing the blades.--select a piece of wood as thick as half the width of a finished blade, less half the thickness of the wheel disc. cut out a circle of this wood inches in diameter, and bore a hole at the centre. the wheel disc is then screwed to a perfectly flat board or plate, the wooden disc being used as a spacer between them. slip a blade into place on the disc, easing the central slit, if necessary, to allow the near edge to lie in contact with the board--that is parallel to the disc. solder on the blade, using the minimum of solder needed to make a good joint. when all the blades are fixed, you will have a wheel with the blades quite true on one side. it is, therefore, important to consider, before commencing work, in which direction the concave side of the blades should be, so that when the wheel is mounted it shall face the nozzle. to make this point clear: the direction of the nozzle having been decided, the buckets on the trued side must in turn present their concave sides to the nozzle. in fig. the nozzle points downwards, and the left side of the wheel has to be trued. therefore b has its convex, b its concave, side facing the reader, as it were. the nozzle is a - / inch piece of brass bar. drill a / -inch hole through the centre. on the outside end, enlarge this hole to / inch to a depth of / inch. the nozzle end is bevelled off to an angle of degrees, and a broach is inserted to give the steam port a conical section, as shown in fig. , so that the steam may expand and gain velocity as it approaches the blades. care must be taken not to allow the broach to enter far enough to enlarge the throat of the nozzle to more than / inch. [illustration: fig. .--nozzle of turbine, showing its position relatively to buckets.] fixing the nozzle.--the centre of the nozzle discharge opening is - / -inches from the centre of the wheel. the nozzle must make an angle of degrees with the side of the casing, through which it projects far enough to all but touch the nearer edges of the vanes. (fig. .) the wheel can then be adjusted, by means of the spindle nuts, to the nozzle more conveniently than the nozzle to the wheel. to get the hole in the casing correctly situated and sloped, begin by boring a hole straight through, / inch away laterally from where the steam discharge hole will be, centre to centre, and then work the walls of the hole to the proper angle with a circular file of the same diameter as the nozzle piece, which is then sweated in with solder. it is, of course, an easy matter to fix the nozzle at the proper angle to a thin plate, which can be screwed on to the outside of the casing, and this method has the advantage of giving easy detachment for alteration or replacement. balancing the wheel.--as the wheel will revolve at very high speed, it should be balanced as accurately as possible. a simple method of testing is to rest the ends of the spindle on two carefully levelled straight edges. if the wheel persists in rolling till it takes up a certain position, lighten the lower part of the wheel by scraping off solder, or by cutting away bits of the vanes below the circumference of the disc, or by drilling holes in the disc itself. securing the wheel.--when the wheel has been finally adjusted relatively to the nozzle, tighten up all the spindle nuts hard, and drill a hole for a pin through them and the disc parallel to the spindle, and another through n and the spindle. (fig. .) gearing.--the gear wheels should be of good width, not less than / inch, and the smaller of steel, to withstand prolonged wear. constant lubrication is needed, and to this end the cover should make an oil-tight fit with the casing, so that the bottom of the big pinion may run in oil. to prevent overfilling, make a plug-hole at the limit level, and fit a draw-off cock in the bottom of the cover. if oil ducts are bored in the bearing inside the cover, the splashed oil will lubricate the big pinion spindle automatically. [illustration: fig. .--perspective view of completed turbine.] general--the sides of the casing are held against the drum by six screw bolts on the outside of the drum. the bottom of the sides is flattened as shown (fig. ), and the supports, s s , made of such a length that when they are screwed down the flattened part is pressed hard against the bed. the oil box on top of the casing has a pad of cotton wool at the bottom to regulate the flow of oil to the bearings. fit a drain pipe to the bottom of the wheel-case. testing.--if your boiler will make steam above its working pressure faster than the turbine can use it, the nozzle may be enlarged with a broach until it passes all the steam that can be raised; or a second nozzle may be fitted on the other end of the diameter on which the first lies. this second nozzle should have a separate valve, so that it can be shut off. xvil. steam tops. a very interesting and novel application of the steam turbine principle is to substitute for a wheel running in fixed bearings a "free" wheel pivoted on a vertical spindle, the point of which takes the weight, so that the turbine becomes a top which can be kept spinning as long as the steam supply lasts. these toys, for such they must be considered, are very easy to make, and are "warranted to give satisfaction" if the following instructions are carried out. a small top.--fig. shows a small specimen, which is of the self-contained order, the boiler serving as support for the top. [illustration: fig. .-simplest form of steam top.] [ ] [footnote : spirit lamp shown for heating boiler.] for the boiler use a piece of brass tubing inches or so in diameter and inches long. (the case of an old brass "drum" clock, which may be bought for a few pence at a watchmaker's, serves very well if the small screw holes are soldered over.) the ends should be of brass or zinc, the one which will be uppermost being at least / inch thick. if you do not possess a lathe, lay the tube on the sheet metal, and with a very sharp steel point scratch round the angle between tube and plate on the inside. cut out with cold chisel or shears to within / inch of the mark, and finish off carefully--testing by the tube now and then--to the mark. make a dent with a centre punch in the centre of the top plate for the top to spin in. [illustration: fig. .--wheel of steam top, ready for blades to be bent. a hole is drilled at the inner end of every slit to make bending easier.] solder the plates into the tube, allowing an overlap of a quarter of an inch beyond the lower one, to help retain the heat. the top wheel is cut out of a flat piece of sheet iron, zinc, or brass. its diameter should be about - / inches, the vanes / inch long and / inch wide at the circumference. turn them over to make an angle of about degrees with the spindle. they will be more easily bent and give better results if holes are drilled, as shown in fig. . the spindle is made out of a bit of steel or wire--a knitting-needle or wire-nail--not more than inch in diameter and - / inches long. the hole for this must be drilled quite centrally in the wheel; otherwise the top will be badly balanced, and vibrate at high speeds. for the same reason, the spindle requires to be accurately pointed. the steam ports are next drilled in the top of the boiler. three of them should be equally spaced ( degrees apart) on a circle of -inch radius drawn about the spindle poppet as centre. the holes must be as small as possible-- / to / inch--and inclined at an angle of not more than degrees to the top plate. the best drills for the purpose are tiny morse twists, sold at from d. to d. each, held in a pin vice rotated by the fingers. the points for drilling should be marked with a punch, to give the drills a hold. commence drilling almost vertically, and as the drill enters tilt it gradually over till the correct angle is attained. if a little extra trouble is not objected to, a better job will be made of this operation if three little bits of brass, filed to a triangular section (fig. a), are soldered to the top plate at the proper places, so that the drilling can be done squarely to one face and a perfectly clear hole obtained. the one drawback to these additions is that the vanes of the turbine may strike them. as an alternative, patches may be soldered to the under side of the plate (fig. , b) before it is joined to the barrel; this will give longer holes and a truer direction to the steam ports. [illustration: fig. . steam port details.] note that it is important that the ports should be all of the same diameter and tangential to the circle on which they are placed, and all equally inclined to the plate. differences in size or direction affect the running of the top. solder the spindle to the wheel in such a position that the vanes clear the boiler by an eighth of an inch or so. if tests show that the top runs quite vertically, the distance might be reduced to half, as the smaller it is the more effect will the steam jets have. a small brass filler should be affixed to the boiler halfway up. a filler with ground joints costs about d. a wick spirit lamp will serve to raise steam. solder to the boiler three legs of such a length as to give an inch clearance between the lamp wick and the boiler. if the wick is arranged to turn up and down, the speed of the top can be regulated. a large top.--the top just described must be light, as the steam driving it is low-pressure, having free egress from the boiler, and small, as the steam has comparatively low velocity. the possessor of a high-pressure boiler may be inclined to make something rather more ambitious--larger, heavier, and useful for displaying spectrum discs, etc. the top shown in fig. is inches in diameter, weighs oz., and was cut out of sheet-zinc. it stands on a brass disc, round the circumference of which is soldered a ring of / -inch copper tubing, furnished with a union for connection with a boiler. [illustration: fig. .---large steam top and base.] the copper tubing must be well annealed, so as to bend quite easily. bevel off one end, and solder this to the plate. bend a couple of inches to the curve of the plate, clamp it in position, and solder; and so on until the circle is completed, bringing the tube snugly against the bevelled end. a hole should now be drilled through the tube into this end--so that steam may enter the ring in both directions-and plugged externally. by preference, the ring should be below the plate, as this gives a greater thickness of metal for drilling, and also makes it easy to jacket the tube by sinking the plate into a wooden disc of somewhat greater diameter. under lbs. of steam, a top of this kind attains a tremendous velocity. also, it flings the condensed steam about so indiscriminately that a ring of zinc inches high and inches in diameter should be made wherewith to surround it while it is running. if a little bowl with edges turned over be accurately centred on the wheel, a demonstration of the effects of centrifugal force may be made with water, quicksilver, or shot, which fly up into the rim and disappear as the top attains high speed, and come into sight again when its velocity decreases to a certain figure. a perforated metal globe threaded on the spindle gives the familiar humming sound. a spectrum disc of the seven primary colours--violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red--revolved by the top, will appear more or less white, the purity of which depends on the accuracy of the tints used. xviii. model boilers. a chapter devoted to the construction of model boilers may well open with a few cautionary words, as the dangers connected with steam-raisers are very real; and though model-boiler explosions are fortunately rare, if they do occur they may be extremely disastrous. therefore the following warnings:-- ( .) do not use tins or thin sheet iron for boilers. one cannot tell how far internal corrosion has gone. the scaling of / inch of metal off a "tin" is obviously vastly more serious than the same diminution in the thickness of, say, a / -inch plate. brass and copper are the metals to employ, as they do not deteriorate at all provided a proper water supply be maintained. ( .) if in doubt, make the boiler much more solid than is needed, rather than run any risks. ( .) fit a steam gauge, so that you may know what is happening. ( .) test your boiler under steam, and don't work it at more than half the pressure to which it has been tested. (see p. .) in the present chapter we will assume that the barrels of all the boilers described are made out of solid-drawn seamless copper tubing, which can be bought in all diameters up to inches, and of any one of several thicknesses. brass tubing is more easily soldered, but not so good to braze, and generally not so strong as copper, other things being equal. solid-drawn tubing is more expensive than welded tubing or an equivalent amount of sheet metal, but is considerably stronger than the best riveted tube. boiler ends may be purchased ready turned to size. get stampings rather than castings, as the first are more homogeneous, and therefore can be somewhat lighter. flanging boiler ends.--to make a good job, a plate for an end should be screwed to a circular block of hard wood (oak or boxwood), having an outside diameter less than the inside diameter of the boiler barrel by twice the thickness of the metal of the end, and a rounded-off edge. the plate must be annealed by being heated to a dull red and dipped in cold water. the process must be repeated should the hammering make the copper stubborn. stays should be used liberally, and be screwed and nutted at the ends. as the cutting of the screw thread reduces the effective diameter, the strength of a stay is only that of the section at the bottom of the threads. riveting.--though stays will prevent the ends of the boiler blowing off, it is very advisable to rivet them through the flanges to the ends of the barrel, as this gives mutual support independently of soldering or brazing. proper boiler rivets should be procured, and annealed before use. make the rivet holes a good fit, and drill the two parts to be held together in one operation, to ensure the holes being in line. rivets will not close properly if too long. dies for closing the rivet heads may be bought for a few pence. soldering, etc.--joints not exposed directly to the furnace flames may be soldered with a solder melting not below degrees fahr. surfaces to be riveted together should be "tinned" before riveting, to ensure the solder getting a good hold afterwards. the solder should be sweated right through the joint with a blow-lamp to make a satisfactory job. all joints exposed to the flames should be silver-soldered, and other joints as well if the working pressure is to exceed lbs. to the square inch. silver-soldering requires the use of a powerful blow--lamp or gas-jet; ordinary soft soldering bits and temperatures are ineffective. brazing is better still, but should be done by an expert, who may be relied on not to burn the metal. it is somewhat risky to braze brass, which melts at a temperature not far above that required to fuse the spelter (brass solder). getting the prepared parts of a boiler silver-soldered or brazed together is inexpensive, and is worth the money asked. [illustration: fig. .] some points in design. the efficiency of a boiler is governed chiefly ( ) by the amount of heating surface exposed to the flames; ( ) by the distribution of the heating surface; ( ) by the amount of fuel which can be burnt in the furnace in a given time; ( ) by avoiding wastage of heat. the simplest form of boiler, depicted in fig. , is extremely inefficient because of its small heating surface. a great deal of the heat escapes round the sides and the ends of the boiler. moreover, a good deal of the heat which passes into the water is radiated out again, as the boiler is exposed directly to the air. fig. shows a great improvement in design. the boiler is entirely enclosed, except at one end, so that the hot gases get right round the barrel, and the effective heating surface has been more than doubled by fitting a number of water-tubes, aaa, bbbb, which lie right in the flames, and absorb much heat which would otherwise escape. the tubes slope upwards from the chimney end, where the heat is less, to the fire-door end, where the heat is fiercer, and a good circulation is thus assured. the babcock and wilcox boiler is the highest development of this system, which has proved very successful, and may be recommended for model boilers of all sizes. the heating surface may be increased indefinitely by multiplying the number of tubes. if a solid fuel-coal, coke, charcoal, etc.-fire is used, the walls of the casing should be lined with asbestos or fire-clay to prevent the metal being burnt away. [illustration: fig. --side and end elevations of a small water-tube boiler.] the horizontal boiler has an advantage over the vertical in that, for an equal diameter of barrel, it affords a larger water surface, and is, therefore, less subject to "priming," which means the passing off of minute globules of water with the steam. this trouble, very likely to occur if the boiler has to run an engine too large for it, means a great loss of efficiency, but it may be partly cured by making the steam pass through coils exposed to the furnace gases on its way to the engine. this "superheating" evaporates the globules and dries the steam, besides raising its temperature. the small water-tube is preferable to the small fire-tube connecting furnace and chimney, as its surface is exposed more directly to the flames; also it increases, instead of decreasing, the total volume of water in the boiler. a vertical boiler. [illustration: fig. .--details of vertical boiler.] the vertical boiler illustrated by fig. is easily made. the absence of a water jacket to the furnace is partly compensated by fitting six water-tubes in the bottom. as shown, the barrel is inches long and inches in outside diameter, and the central flue - / inches across outside solid-drawn / -inch tubing, flanged ends, and four / -inch stays--disposed as indicated in fig. (a) and (b)--are used. the / or / inch water-tubes must be annealed and filled with lead or resin before being bent round wooden templates. after bending, run the resin or lead out by heating. the outflow end of each pipe should project half an inch or so further through the boiler bottom than the inflow end. mark out and drill the tube holes in the bottom, and then the flue hole, for which a series of small holes must be made close together inside the circumference and united with a fret saw. work the hole out carefully till the flue, which should be slightly tapered at the end, can be driven through an eighth of an inch or so. the flue hole in the top should be made a good fit, full size. rivet a collar, x (fig. , a), of strip brass / inch above the bottom of the flue to form a shoulder. another collar, y (fig. , c), is needed for the flue above the top plate. put the ends and flue temporarily in place, mark off the position of y, and drill half a dozen / -inch screw holes through y and the flue. also drill screw holes to hold the collar to the boiler top. the steam-pipe is a circle of / -inch copper tube, having one end closed, and a number of small holes bored in the upper side to collect the steam from many points at once. the other end is carried through the side of the boiler. [illustration: fig. .--perspective view of horizontal boiler mounted on wooden base.] assembling.--the order of assembling is:--rivet in the bottom; put the steam-pipe in place; rivet in the top; insert the flue, and screw collar y to the top; expand the bottom of the flue by hammering so that it cannot be withdrawn; insert the stays and screw them up tight; silver-solder both ends of the flue, the bottom ends of the stays, and the joint between bottom and barrel. the water-tubes are then inserted and silver-soldered, and one finishes by soft-soldering the boiler top to the barrel and fixing in the seatings for the water and steam gauges, safety-valve, mud-hole, filler, and pump-if the last is fitted. the furnace is lined with a strip of stout sheet iron, inches wide and - / inches long, bent round the barrel, which it overlaps for an inch and a half. several screws hold lining and barrel together. to promote efficiency, the furnace and boiler is jacketed with asbestos--or fire-clay round the furnace--secured by a thin outer cover. the enclosing is a somewhat troublesome business, but results in much better steaming power, especially in cold weather. air-holes must be cut round the bottom of the lining to give good ventilation. a boiler of this size will keep a by - / inch cylinder well supplied with steam at from to lbs. per square inch. a horizontal boiler. [illustration: fig. .--longitudinal section of large water-tube boiler.] the boiler illustrated by fig. is designed for heating with a large paraffin or petrol blow-lamp. it has considerably greater water capacity, heating surface--the furnace being entirely enclosed--and water surface than the boiler just described. the last at high-water level is about , and at low-water level , square inches. the vertical section (fig. ) shows / -inch barrel, inches long over all and inches long between the end plates, and inches in diameter. the furnace flue is - / inches across outside, and contains eleven / -inch cross tubes, set as indicated by the end view (fig. ), and / inch apart, centre to centre. this arrangement gives a total heating surface of about square inches. if somewhat smaller tubes are used and doubled (see fig. ), or even trebled, the heating surface may be increased to - square inches. with a powerful blow-lamp this boiler raises a lot of steam. tubing the furnace flue.--before any of the holes are made, the lines on which the centres lie must be scored from end to end of the flue on the outside. the positions of these lines are quickly found as follows:--cut out a strip of paper exactly as long as the circumference of the tube, and plot the centre lines on it. the paper is then applied to the tube again, and poppet marks made with a centre punch opposite to or through the marks on the paper. drive a wire-nail through a piece of square wood and sharpen the point. lay the flue on a flat surface, apply the end of the nail to one of the poppet marks, and draw it along the flue, which must be held quite firmly. when all the lines have been scored, the centring of the water tubes is a very easy matter. [illustration: fig. .-end of horizontal boiler, showing position of holes for stays and fittings.] the two holes for any one tube should be bored independently, with a drill somewhat smaller than the tube, and be opened to a good fit with a reamer or broach passed through both holes to ensure their sides being in line. taper the tubes-- - / inches long each--slightly at one end, and make one of the holes a bit smaller than the other. the tapered end is passed first through the larger hole and driven home in the other, but not so violently as to distort the flue. if the tubes are made fast in this way, the subsequent silver-soldering will be all the easier. [illustration: fig. .--doubled cross tubes in horizontal boiler flue.] the steam dome.--the large holes-- inches in diameter--required for the steam dome render it necessary to strengthen the barrel at this point. cut out a circular plate of metal inches across, make a central hole of the size of the steam dome, and bend the plate to the curve of the inside of the barrel. tin the contact faces of the barrel and "patch" and draw them together with screws or rivets spaced as shown in fig. , and sweat solder into the joint. to make it impossible for the steam dome to blowout, let it extend half an inch through the barrel, and pass a piece of / -inch brass rod through it in contact with the barrel. the joint is secured with hard solder. solder the top of the dome in / inch below the end of the tube, and burr the end over. the joint should be run again afterwards to ensure its being tight. [illustration: fig. .--showing how to mark out strengthening patch round steam dome hole.] the positions of stays and gauges is shown in fig. . chimney.--this should be an elbow of iron piping fitting the inside of the flue closely, made up of a -inch and a -inch part. the last slips into the end of the flue; the first may contain a coil for superheating the steam. a multitubular boiler. [illustration: fig. .--cross section of multitubular boiler.] figs. and are respectively end and side elevations of a multitubular boiler having over square inches of heating surface--most of it contributed by the tubes--and intended for firing with solid fuel. the boiler has a main water-drum, a, inches in diameter and inches long, and two smaller water-drums, b and c, - / by inches, connected by two series of tubes, g and h, each set comprising tubes. the h tubes are not exposed to the fire so directly as the g tubes, but as they enter the main drum at a higher point, the circulation is improved by uniting a to b and c at both ends by large -inch drawn tubes, f. in addition, b and c are connected by three / -inch cross tubes, e, which prevent the small drums spreading, and further equalize the water supply. a - / -inch drum, d, is placed on the top of a to collect the steam at a good distance from the water. materials.--in addition to - / feet of by / inch solid-drawn tubing for the main, and feet of - / by / inch tubing for the lower drums, the boiler proper requires - / feet of / -inch tubing, inches of / -inch tubing, - / feet of -inch tubing, foot of - / -inch tubing, and ends of suitable size for the four drums. [illustration: fig. .--longitudinal section of multitubular boiler.] construction. [illustration: fig. .-two arrangements for tube holes in multi tubular boiler.] the centres for the water-tubes, g and h, should be laid out, in accordance with fig. , on the tops of b and c and the lower part of a, along lines scribed in the manner explained on p. . tubes h must be bent to a template to get them all of the same shape and length, and all the tubes be prepared before any are put in place. if the tubes are set / inch apart, centre to centre, instead of - / inches, the heating surface will be greatly increased and the furnace casing better protected. assembling.--when all necessary holes have been made and are of the correct size, begin by riveting and silver-soldering in the ends of the drums. next fix the cross tubes, e, taking care that they and b and c form rectangles. then slip the f, g, and h tubes half an inch into the main drum, and support a, by means of strips passed between the g and h tubes, in its correct position relatively to b and c. the e tubes can now be pushed into b and c and silver-soldered. the supports may then be removed, and the a and h tubes be got into position and secured. drum d then demands attention. the connecting tubes, kk, should be silver-soldered in, as the boiler, if properly made, can be worked at pressures up to lbs. per square inch. the casing is of / -inch sheet iron, and in five parts. the back end must be holed to allow a, b, and c to project inch, and have a furnace-door opening, and an airway at the bottom, inches wide and inch deep, cut in it. the airway may be provided with a flap, to assist in damping down the fire if too much steam is being raised. in the front end make an inspection opening to facilitate cleaning the tubes and removing cinders, etc. the side plates, m m, are bent as shown in fig. , and bolted to a semicircular top plate, n, bent to a radius of inches. a slot, - / inches wide and - / inches long, must be cut in the top, n, to allow it to be passed over drum d; and there must also be a or - / inch hole for the chimney. a plate, p, covers in d. a little plate, o, is slipped over the slot in n, and asbestos is packed in all round d. the interior of the end, side, and the top plates should be lined with sheet asbestos held on by large tin washers and screw bolts. to protect the asbestos, movable iron sheets may be interposed on the furnace side. these are replaced easily if burnt away. the pieces m m are bent out at the bottom, and screwed down to a base-plate extending the whole length of the boiler. the fire-bars fill the rectangle formed by the tubes b, el, and e . a plate extends from the top of e to the front plate of the casing, to prevent the furnace draught being "short circuited." boiler fittings. [illustration: fig. .-safety valve.] safety valves.--the best all-round type is that shown in fig. . there is no danger of the setting being accidentally altered, as is very possible with a lever and sliding weight. the valve should be set by the steam gauge. screw it down, and raise steam to the point at which you wish the safety valve to act, and then slacken off the regulating nuts until steam issues freely. the lock nuts under the cross-bar should then be tightened up. in the case of a boiler with a large heating surface, which makes steam quickly, it is important that the safety-valve should be large enough to master the steam. if the valve is too small, the pressure may rise to a dangerous height, even with the steam coming out as fast as the valve can pass it. [illustration: fig. .-steam gauge and siphon.] steam gauges.--the steam gauge should register pressures considerably higher than that to be used, so that there may be no danger of the boiler being forced unwittingly beyond the limit registered. a siphon piece should be interposed between boiler and gauge (fig. ), to protect the latter from the direct action of the steam. water condenses in the siphon, and does not become very hot. [illustration: fig. .-water gauge.] water gauges should have three taps (fig. ), two between glass and boiler, to cut off the water if the glass should burst, and one for blowing off through. very small gauges are a mistake, as the water jumps about in a small tube. when fitting a gauge, put packings between the bushes and the glass-holders, substitute a piece of metal rod for the glass tube, and pack the rod tightly. if the bushes are now sweated into the boiler end while thus directed, the gauge must be in line for the glass. this method is advisable in all cases, and is necessary if the boiler end is not perfectly flat. pumps.--where a pump is used, the supply should enter the boiler below low-water level through a non-return valve fitted with a tap, so that water can be prevented from blowing back through the pump. as regards the construction of pumps, the reader is referred to p. and to chapter xxii. filling caps.--the filling cap should be large enough to take the nozzle of a good-sized funnel with some room to spare. beat the nozzle out of shape, to give room for the escape of the air displaced by the water. the best form of filling cap has a self-seating ground plug, which, if properly made, is steam-tight without any packing. if needed, asbestos packing can easily be inserted between plug and cap. mud-holes.--all but the smallest boilers should have a mud-hole and plug in the bottom at a point not directly exposed to the furnace. in fig. it is situated at the bottom of the barrel. in figs. and there should be a mud-hole in one end of each of the three drums, a, b, and c. the plug may be bored at the centre for a blow-off cock, through which the boiler should be emptied after use, while steam is up, and after the fire has been "drawn." emptying in this way is much quicker than when there is no pressure, and it assists to keep the boiler free from sediment. [illustration: fig. .--steam cock.] steam cocks.-the screw-down type (fig. ) is very preferable to the "plug" type, which is apt to leak and stick. testing boilers.--the tightness of the joints of a boiler is best tested in the first instance by means of compressed air. solder on an all-metal cycle valve, "inflate" the boiler to a considerable pressure, and submerge it in a tub of water. the slightest leak will be betrayed by a string of bubbles coming directly from the point of leakage. mark any leaks by plain scratches, solder them up, and test again. [illustration: fig. .--benzoline lamp for model central-flue boiler.] the boiler should then be quite filled with cold water, and heated gradually until the pressure gauge has risen to over the working pressure. there is no risk of an explosion, as the volume of the water is increased but slightly. the third test is the most important and most risky of all-namely, that conducted under steam to a pressure well above the working pressure. in order to carry out the test without risk, one needs to be able to watch the steam-gauge from a considerable distance, and to have the fire under control. my own method is to set the boiler out in the open, screw down the safety-valve so that it cannot lift, and raise steam with the help of a blow-lamp, to which a string is attached wherewith to pull it backwards along a board. if the boiler is to be worked at lbs., i watch the steam gauge through a telescope until lbs. is recorded, then draw the lamp away. after passing the test, the boiler, when pressure has fallen, say, lbs., may safely be inspected at close quarters for leaks. this test is the only quite satisfactory one, as it includes the influence of high temperature, which has effects on the metal not shown by "cold" tests, such as the hydraulic. do not increase your working pressure without first re-testing the boiler to double the new pressure to be used. fuels.--for very small stationary boilers the methylated spirit lamp is best suited, as it is smell-less, and safe if the reservoir be kept well apart from the burner and the supply is controllable by a tap or valve. (see fig. .) [illustration: fig. .-paraffin burner for vertical boiler.] for medium-sized model boilers, and for small launch boilers, benzoline or petrol blow-lamps and paraffin stoves have become very popular, as they do away with stoking, and the amount of heat is easily regulated by governing the fuel supply. fig. is a sketch of a blow-lamp suitable for the horizontal boiler shown on pp. , and , while fig. shows a convenient form of paraffin stove with silent "primus" burner, which may be used for a horizontal with considerable furnace space or for vertical boilers. in the case of all these liquid fuel consumers, the amount of heat developed can be increased by augmenting the number of burners. where a gas supply is available its use is to be recommended for small stationary boilers. solid fuels.--the chief disadvantages attaching to these are smoke and fumes; but as a solid fuel gives better results than liquid in a large furnace, it is preferred under certain conditions, one of them being that steam is not raised in a living room. charcoal, coke, anthracite coal, and ordinary coal partly burned are the fuels to use, the fire being started with a liberal supply of embers from an open fire. every solid-fuel boiler should have a steam-blower in the chimney for drawing up the fire; and if a really fierce blaze is aimed at, the exhaust from the engine should be utilized for the same purpose. xix. quick boiling kettles. [transcriber's note: do not use lead solder on articles associated with human or animal consumption.] the principles of increasing the area of heating surface in model boilers may be applied very practically to the common kettle. the quick-boiling kettle is useful for camping out, for heating the morning tea water of the very early riser, and for the study "brew," which sometimes has to be made in a hurry; and, on occasion, it will be so welcome in the kitchen as to constitute a very useful present to the mistress of the house. as the putting in of the tubes entails some trouble, it is worth while to select a good kettle for treatment. get one that is made of thick tinned sheet iron (cast-iron articles are unsuitable), or even of copper, if you are intent on making a handsome gift which will last indefinitely. the broad shallow kettle is best suited for tubing, as it naturally has a fair heating surface, and its bottom area gives room for inserting plenty of tubes. also, the tubes can be of good length. let us, therefore, assume that the kettle will be of at least inches diameter. in figs. (a) and (b) are shown two forms of fire-tube kettles (a and b) and two of water-tube (c and d). for use over a spirit or swedish petroleum stove the first two types are most convenient; the third will work well on a stove or an open fire; and the last proves very efficient on an open fire. one may take it that, as a general rule, areas of heating surface being equal, the water-tube kettle will boil more quickly than the fire-tube. fire-tube kettles. the tubing of figs. (a) and (b) presents a little difficulty in each case. the straight tube is the more difficult to insert, owing to the elliptical shape of the ends; whereas the bent tube requires only circular holes, but must be shaped on a template. the tubing used for (a) should have at least / -inch internal diameter, for (b) / inch, and be of thin copper. hot gases will not pass willingly through tubes much smaller than this, in the absence of induced or forced draught. for convenience in fitting, the tubes should run at an angle of degrees to the bottom and side of the kettle, as this gives the same bevel at each end. find the centre of the bottom, and through it scratch plainly four diameters degrees apart. from their ends draw perpendiculars up the side of the kettle. [illustration: fig. (a).] now draw on a piece of paper a section of the kettle, and from what is selected as a convenient water-level run a line obliquely, at an angle of degrees, from the side to the bottom. measuring off from this diagram, you can establish the points in the side and bottom at which the upper and longer side of the tubes should emerge. mark these off. next bevel off a piece of tubing to an angle of degrees, cutting off roughly in the first instance and finishing up carefully with a file till the angle is exact. solder to the end a piece of tin, and cut and file this to the precise shape of the elliptical end. detach by heating, scribe a line along its longest axis, and attach it by a small countersunk screw to the end of a convenient handle. place this template in turn on each of the eight radii, its long axis in line with it, being careful that the plate is brought up to the marks mentioned above, and is on the bottom corner side of it. scratch round plainly with a fine steel point. to remove the metal for a tube hole, it is necessary to drill a succession of almost contiguous holes as near the scratch as possible without actually cutting it. when the ring is completed, join the holes with a cold chisel held obliquely. then file carefully with a round file, just not cutting the scratch. as the side of the hole nearest to the bottom corner should run obliquely to enable the tube to pass, work this out with the file held at an angle. as soon as a pair of holes (one in the bottom, the other in the side) have been made, true up the side hole until a piece of tubing will run through it at the correct angle. then bevel off the end to degrees and pass the tube through again, bringing the bevel up against the bottom hole from the inside. if it is a trifle difficult to pass, bevel off the edge slightly on the inside to make a fairly easy driving fit. (take care not to bulge the bottom of the kettle.) mark off the tube beyond the side hole, allowing an eighth of an inch extra. cut at the mark, and number tube and hole, so that they may be paired correctly later on. when all the tubes are fitted, "tin" the ends with a wash of solder before returning them to their holes. if there is a gap at any point wide enough to let the solder run through, either beat out the tube from the inside into contact, or, if this is impracticable, place a bit of brass wire in the gap. use powdered resin by preference as flux for an iron kettle, as it does not cause the rusting produced by spirit of salt. if the latter is used, wipe over the solder with a strong ammonia or soda solution, in order to neutralize the acid. as the hot gases may tend to escape too quickly through large tubes, it is well to insert in the upper end of each a small "stop," x--a circle of tin with an arc cut away on the bottom side. to encourage the gases to pass up the tubes instead of along the bottom, a ring of metal, y, may be soldered beyond the bottom holes, if an oil or spirit stove is to be used. this ring should have notches cut along the kettle edge, so as not to throttle the flame too much. [illustration: fig. --(b), (c), and (d).] as the tubes for these require bending to shape in each case, the three types may be grouped together. the tubes of c and d, which require bending to somewhat sharp curves, may be of / -inch internal diameter. in the last two cases the direction of the water travel is shown. the up-flow end, which projects farther through the bottom than the down-flow, is nearer the centre, where, if a gas stove is used, the heat is more intense than at the circumference of the bottom. (note.-if type c is for use on a three-support stove, increase the number of tubes to , equally spaced, degrees apart, so that the kettle may be adjusted easily.) the copper tubing should be annealed or softened by heating to a dull red and plunging in cold water. cut a wooden template of the exact outline of the inside line of the shape that the tube is to assume, and secure this firmly to a board. fill the tube with melted resin, to prevent, as much as possible, "buckling" or flattening on the curves. the tube must be kept up to the template by a stop of hard wood, at the end at which bending commences. don't cut the tube into lengths before bending, as short pieces are more difficult to handle. when a piece sufficient for a tube has been bent, cut it oft, and remove the resin by heating. the fitting of the tubes is an easy matter, as the holes are circular. pair off a tube with its holes and number it. a fluted reamer will be found invaluable for enlarging them to the correct size. tin all tubes at points where they are to be attached to the kettle. in fig. (c) and (d) care should be taken to make all the tubes project the same distance, so that the kettle may be level when resting on them. xx. a hot-air engine. the pretty little toy about to be described is interesting as a practical application to power-producing purposes of the force exerted by expanding air. it is easy to make, and, for mere demonstration purposes, has an advantage over a steam-engine of the same size in that it can be set working in less than a minute, and will continue to act as long as a small spirit flame is kept burning beneath it; it cannot explode; and its construction is a simpler matter than the building of a steam-engine. [illustration: fig. .--vertical section of hot-air engine.] principles of the hot-air engine.--fig. gives a sectional view of the engine. the place of what would be the boiler in a steam-engine of similar shape is taken by an air chamber immediately above the lamp, and above that is a chamber through which cold water circulates. in what we will call the heating chamber a large piston, known as the displacer, is moved up and down by a rod d and a connecting rod cr . this piston does not touch the sides of the chamber, so that the bulk of the air is pushed past it from one end of the chamber to the other as the piston moves. when the displacer is in the position shown--at the top of its stroke--the air is heated by contact with the hot plate c, and expands, forcing up the piston of the power cylinder, seen on the left of the engine. (the power crank and the displacer crank are, it should be mentioned, set at right angles to one another.) during the second half of the power stroke the displacer is moved downwards, causing some of the air to pass round it into contact with the cold plate d. it immediately contracts, and reduces the pressure on the power piston by the time that the piston has finished its stroke. when the power piston has reached the middle of its downward stroke, the displacer is at its lowest position, but is halfway up again when the power piston is quite down. the air is once again displaced downwards, and the cycle begins anew. the motive power is, therefore, provided by the alternate heating and cooling of the same air. construction.--the barrel and supports were made out of a single piece of thin brass tubing, - / inch internal diameter and - / inch long. the heating end was filed up true, the other cut and filed to the shape indicated in fig. by dotted lines. the marking out was accomplished with the help of a strip of paper exactly as wide as the length of the tube, and as long as the tube's circumference. this strip had a line ruled parallel to one of its longer edges, and - / inches from it, and was then folded twice, parallel to a shorter edge. a design like the shaded part of fig. was drawn on an end fold, and all the four folds cut through along this line with a pair of scissors. when opened out, the paper appeared as in fig. . [illustration: fig. .] we now--to pass into the present tense--wrap this pattern round the tube and scratch along its edges. the metal is removed from the two hollows by cutting out roughly with a hack saw and finishing up to the lines with a file. the next things to take in hand are the displacer rod d and the guide tube in which it works. these must make so good a fit that when slightly lubricated they shall prevent the passage of air between them and yet set up very little friction. if you cannot find a piece of steel rod and brass tubing which fit close enough naturally, the only alternative is to rub down a rod, slightly too big to start with, until it will just move freely in the tube. this is a somewhat tedious business, but emery cloth will do it. the rod should be - / inches, the tube - / inches, long. i used rod / inch in diameter; but a smaller rod would do equally well. [illustration: fig. .] the two plates, a and b, are next prepared by filing or turning down thin brass[ ] discs to a tight fit. (note.--for turning down, the disc should be soldered centrally to a piece of accurately square brass rod, which can be gripped in a chuck. i used a specially-made holder like that shown in fig. for this purpose.) [footnote : thin iron plate has the disadvantage of soon corroding.] when a good fit has been obtained, solder the two discs together so that they coincide exactly, and bore a central hole to fit the guide tube tightly. before separating the plates make matching marks, so that the same parts may lie in the same direction when they are put in position. this will ensure the guide tube being parallel to the barrel. the power cylinder is a piece of brass tubing inches long and of / -inch internal diameter. the piston is of / -inch tubing, fitting the cylinder easily, and thick enough to allow a shallow packing recess to be turned in the outside. brass washers turned or filed to size form the ends of cylinder and piston. the connecting rod cr is a piece of strip brass, - / inches long, between centres of holes. this had better be cut off a bit long in the first instance, and be fitted to the little stirrup which attaches its lower end to the piston. the drilling of the crank pinhole should be deferred till the cylinder and crank are in position. [illustration: fig. .--exterior view of hot air engine.] putting in the water-chamber discs.--clean the inside of the barrel thoroughly with sandpaper; also discs a and b round the edges and the central holes. disc a is forced in from the crank end a little further down than it is to be finally, and then driven up from below until at all points its lower side is exactly three inches from the bottom edge of the barrel. disc b is then forced up - / inches from the bottom end. the guide tube-- which should have been cleaned--having been driven into place, solder is run all round the joints. if the barrel is heated over a spirit lamp, this operation is performed very quickly. ("tinol" soldering paste is recommended.) before soldering in b, drill a small hole in the barrel between a and b to allow the air to escape. attaching the cylinder.--scratch a bold line through the centre of one of the crank holes to the bottom of the barrel, to act as guide. drill a / -inch hole in the barrel on this line just below plate b, and a similar hole in the bottom of the cylinder. (the cylinder end should be put in position temporarily while this is done to prevent distortion.) flatten down the cylinder slightly on the line of the hole, so that it may lie snugly against the barrel, and clean the outside of the barrel. lay the cylinder against the barrel with the holes opposite one another, and push a short piece of wood through to exclude solder from the holes and keep the holes in line. half a dozen turns of fine wire strained tightly round cylinder and barrel will hold the cylinder in place while soldering is done with a bit or lamp. the end of the cylinder should then be made fast. the displacer.--this is a circular block of wood--well dried before turning-- / inch thick and / inch less in diameter than the inside of the barrel. the rod hole in it should be bored as truly central as possible. a hole is drilled edgeways through the block and through the rod to take a pin to hold the two together. to prevent it splitting with the heat, make a couple of grooves in the sides to accommodate a few turns of fine copper wire, the twisted ends of which should be beaten down flush with the outside of the block. the bottom of the block is protected by a disc of asbestos card held up to the wood by a disc of tin nailed on. the crank shaft and crank.--the central crank of the crank shaft--that for the displacer--has a "throw" of / inch, as the full travel of the displacer is / inch. if the bending of a rod to the proper shape is beyond the reader's capacity, he may build up a crank in the manner shown in fig. . holes for the shaft are bored near the tops of the supports, and the shaft is put in place. after this has been done, smoke the shaft in a candle flame and solder two small bits of tubing, or bored pieces of brass, to the outside of the supports to increase the length of the bearing. the power-crank boss is a - / -inch brass disc. this crank has a "throw" of / inch. [illustration: fig. .-details of built-up crank.] connecting rods.--put a piece of card / inch thick in the bottom of the cylinder and push the piston home. turn the power crank down and mark off the centre of the hole for the crank pin in the connecting rod cr . solder a piece of strip brass on each side of the rod at this point; measure again, and drill. the top of the displacer rod d is now filed flat on two sides and drilled. slip a ring / inch thick over the rod and push the rod upwards through the guide tube till the displacer can go no farther. turn the displacer crank up and measure from the centre of the hole in the rod to the centre of the crank. the top of the connecting rod should be filed to fit the under side of the crank, against which it should be held by a little horseshoe-shaped strap pinned on. (fig. ). (be sure to remove the ring after it has served its purpose.) the water circulation.--the water chamber is connected by two rubber tubes with an external tank. in fig. the cooling water tank is shown, for illustrative purposes, on the fly-wheel side of the engine, but can be placed more conveniently behind the engine, as it were. two short nozzles, e and e , of / -inch tube are soldered into the water chamber near the top and bottom for the rubber pipes to be slipped over, and two more on the water tank. for the tank one may select a discarded lb. carbide tin. cut off the top and solder on a ring of brass wire; make all the joints water-tight with solder, and give the tin a couple of coatings of paint inside and outside. [illustration: fig. .] closing the hot-air chamber.--when all the parts except the lamp chamber have been prepared, assemble them to make sure that everything is in order. the lower end of the hot-air chamber has then to be made air-tight. soldering is obviously useless here, as the heat of the lamp would soon cause the solder to run, and it is impossible to make a brazed joint without unsoldering the joints in the upper parts of the engine. i was a bit puzzled over the problem, and solved it by means of the lower part of an old tooth-powder box stamped out of a single piece of tin. this made a tight fit on the outside of the barrel, and as it was nearly an inch deep, i expected that if it were driven home on the barrel and soldered to it the joint would be too near the water chamber to be affected by the lamp. this has proved to be the case, even when the water is nearly at boiling point. if a very close-fitting box is not procurable, the space between box and barrel must be filled in with a strip of tin cut off to the correct length. the lamp chamber.--cut out a strip of tin inches wide and inch longer than the circumference of the lower end of the hot-air chamber. scratch a line / inch from one of the sides, a line / inch from the other, and a line / inch from each of the ends. a lamp hole is cut in the centre, and ventilation holes inch apart, as shown in fig. . if the latter holes are made square or triangular (base uppermost), and the metal is cut with a cold chisel so as to leave the side nearest the edge unsevered, the parts may be turned up to form supports for the barrel. [illustration: fig. .--plate for lamp chamber cut out ready for bending.] the slit lower side of the plate is splayed out into a series of "feet," by three or more of which, the chamber is secured to the base. bend the plate round the barrel and put the two screws and bolts which hold the ends in place, and tighten them until the barrel is gripped firmly. screw the engine to its base, fit on the rubber water connections, and fasten down the tank by a screw through the centre of the bottom. the screw should pass through a brass washer, between which and the tank should be interposed a rubber washer to make a water-tight joint. the lamp.--the lamp shown in fig. was made out of a truncated brass elbow, a piece of / -inch brass tube, and a round tin box holding about / -pint of methylated spirit. a tap interposed between the reservoir and burner assists regulation of the flame, and prevents leakage when the lamp is not in use. running the engine.--the power and displacer cranks must be set exactly at right angles to one another, and the first be secured by soldering or otherwise to the crank shaft. the fly wheel will revolve in that direction in which the displacer crank is degrees ahead of the other. [illustration: fig. l .-spirit lamp for hot-air engine, with regulating tap.] the packing of the piston should be sufficiently tight to prevent leakage of air, but not to cause undue friction. when the packing has settled into place, an occasional drop of oil in the cylinder and guide tube will assist to make the piston and slide air-tight. the engine begins to work a quarter of a minute or so after the lamp is lit, and increases its speed up to a certain point, say revolutions per minute. when the water becomes very hot it may be changed. the power might be applied, through demultiplying gear, to a small pump drawing water from the bottom of the tank and forcing it through the water chamber and a bent-over stand pipe into the tank again. this will help to keep the water cool, and will add to the interest of the exhibit by showing "work being done." xxi. a water motor. fig. is a perspective view of a simple water motor which costs little to make, and can be constructed by anybody able to use carpenter's tools and a soldering iron. it will serve to drive a very small dynamo, or do other work for which power on a small scale is required. a water supply giving a pressure of lbs. upwards per square inch must be available. we begin operations by fashioning the case, which consists of three main parts, the centre and two sides, held together by brass screws. for the centre, select a piece of oak inch thick. mark off a square, inches on the side; find the centre of this, and describe a circle inches in diameter. a bulge is given to the circle towards one corner of the square, at which the waste-pipe will be situated. cut out along the line with a keyhole saw. then saw out the square of wood. a / -inch hole is now bored edgeways through the wood into the "bulge" for the escape, and in what will be the top edge is drilled a / -inch hole to allow air to enter. [illustration: fig. l .--simple water turbine.] cut out the sides, and screw them on to the centre at the four corners, taking care that the grain runs the same way in all three pieces, so that they may all expand or contract in the same direction. plane off the edges of the sides flush with the centre. the parts should now be separated, after being marked so that they can be reassembled correctly, and laid for a quarter of an hour in a pan of melted paraffin wax, or, failing this, of vaseline, until the wood is thoroughly impregnated. reassemble the parts, and put in the rest of the holding screws, which should have their heads countersunk flush with the wood. [illustration: fig. .--water turbine, with pulley side of casing removed.] for the shaft select a piece of steel rod / inch in diameter, and or inches long; for the bearings use two pieces, / inch long each, of close-fitting brass tube. now take a drill, very slightly smaller in diameter than the bearings, and run holes right through the centres of, and square to, the sides. both holes should be drilled at one operation, so that they may be in line. with a wooden mallet drive the bearings, which should be tapered slightly at the entering end, through the sides. push the shaft through them. if it refuses to pass, or, if passed, turns very unwillingly, the bearings must be out of line; in which case the following operation will put things right. remove the bearing on the pulley side, and enlarge the hole slightly. then bore a hole in the centre of a metal disc, inch in diameter, to fit the bearing; and drill three holes for screws to hold the disc against the case. rub disc and bearing bright all over. replace the bearing in its hole, slip the disc over it, and push the shaft through both bearings. move the disc about until the shaft turns easily, mark the screw holes, and insert the screws. finally, solder the bearing to the disc while the shaft is still in place. the wheel is a flat brass disc inches in diameter. polish this, and scratch on one side twelve equally spaced radii. at the end of each radius a small cup, made by bending a piece of strip brass / inch wide and / inch long into an arc of a circle, is soldered with its extremities on the scratch. a little "tinol" soldering lamp (price s. d.) comes in very handy here. to fix the wheel of the shaft requires the use of a third small piece of tubing, which should be turned off quite square at both ends. slip this and the wheel on the shaft, and make a good, firm, soldered joint. note.-- consult fig. for a general idea of the position of the wheel, which must be kept just clear of the case by the near bearing. [illustration: fig. .--plan of water turbine, showing arrangement of nozzle.] the nozzle should be a straight, tapered tube of some kind--the nose of a large oil can will serve the purpose. the exit must be small enough to allow the water to leave it at high velocity; if too large, the efficiency of the wheel will be diminished. to the rear end of the nozzle should be soldered a piece of brass tubing, which will make a tight fit with the hose pipe leading from the water supply. a few small brass rings soldered round this piece will prevent the hose blowing off if well wired on the outside. now comes the boring of the hole for the nozzle. fig. shows the line it should take horizontally, so that the water shall strike the uppermost bucket just below the centre; while fig. indicates the obliquity needed to make the stream miss the intervening bucket. a tapered broach should be used to enlarge the hole gradually till the nozzle projects sufficiently. if the line is not quite correct, the tip should be bent carefully in the direction required. one must avoid distorting the orifice, which should be perfectly circular; clean it out with a small twist drill of the proper size. a brass elbow, which may be purchased for a few pence, should be driven into the waste hole, and a small shield be nailed under the air hole. a couple of screwed-on cross pieces are required to steady the motor sideways and raise the elbow clear of the ground. the motor may be geared direct to a very small dynamo, if the latter is designed to run at high speeds. if a geared-down drive is needed, a small pulley--such as is used for blinds, and may be bought for a penny--should be attached to the shaft, and a bootlace be employed as belt. avoid overloading the wheel, for if it is unable to run at a high speed it will prove inefficient. [illustration: fig. l .-water motor working a photographic dish-rocker.] lubrication.--the water will keep the bearings cool, but the bearings should be well lubricated. the most convenient method of effecting this is to bore holes in the bearings, and from them run small pipes to an oil reservoir on the top of the case (as in fig. ), where they are fed on the siphon principle through strands of worsted. alternative construction.--if an all-metal case is preferred, the reader might utilize the description given of a steam turbine on pp. - . the details there given will apply to water as well as steam, the one exception being that a nozzle of the kind described above must be substituted for the steam pipe and small ports. xxii. model pumps. every steam boiler which has to run for long periods and evaporate considerable quantities of water should be in connection with a pump capable of forcing water in against the highest pressure used. on a previous page (p. ) we have described a force pump driven directly off the crank shaft of an engine. as the action of this is dependent on the running of the engine, it is advisable, in cases where the boiler may have to work an engine not provided with a pump of its own, to install an independent auxiliary pump operated by hand or by steam, and of considerable capacity, so that in an emergency water may be supplied quickly. [illustration: fig. l .-vertical section of force pump.] making a hand pump.--fig. shows the details of a hand pump which is easy to make. the barrel is a length of brass tubing; the plunger a piece of brass or preferably gun-metal rod, which fits the tube closely, but works easily in it. the gland at the top of the barrel, e, is composed of a piece, d, of the same tubing as the barrel, sliding in a collar, c, soldered to e. the bottom of d and top of e are bevelled to force the packing against the plunger. the plates a and b, soldered to d and c respectively, are drawn together by three or more screws. a brass door-knob makes a convenient top for the plunger. when the knob touches a, the bottom of the plunger must not come lower than the top of the delivery pipe, lest the water flow should be impeded and the valve, v, injured. round off the end of the plunger, so that it may be replaced easily and without disarranging the packing if pulled out of the pump. the valves are gun-metal balls, for which seats have been prepared by hammering in steel cycle balls of the same size. be careful to select balls considerably larger than the bore of the pipes on which they rest, to avoid all possibility of jamming. an eighth of an inch or so above the ball, cross wires should be soldered in to prevent the ball rising too far from its seat. [illustration: fig. .] a convenient mounting for a hand pump is shown in fig. . the plate, f, of the pump is screwed to a wooden base resting on a framework of bent sheet zinc, which is attached to the bottom of a zinc water tray. the delivery pipe, g, will be protected against undue strains if secured by a strap to the side of the wooden base. the same pump is easily adapted to be worked by a lever, which makes the work of pumping easier. fig. gives details of the top of the plunger and the links, b. a slot must be cut in the plunger for the lever, a, to pass through, and the sides bored for a pivot pin. the links are straddled (see sketch of end view) to prevent the back end of the lever wobbling from side to side. [illustration: fig. .--details of lever for force pump.] a steam pump.--the pump illustrated in fig. belongs to what is probably the simplest self-contained type, as no fly wheel, crank, or eccentric is needed for operating the valve. the steam cylinder and the pump are set in line with one another (in the case shown, horizontally), and half as far apart again as the stroke of the cylinder. the plunger is either a continuation of the piston rod, or attached to it. [illustration: fig. --view of steam pump, showing details.] an arm, s, fixed at right angles to the piston rod, has a forked end which moves along the rod. this rod is connected with the slide valve through the rocking arm, r and the rod, r . on it are two adjustable stops, t t , which s strikes alternately towards the end of a stroke, causing the valve to shift over and expose the other side of the piston to steam pressure. the absence of the momentum of a fly wheel makes it necessary for the thrust exerted by the piston to be considerably greater than the back pressure of the water, so that the moving parts may work with a velocity sufficient to open the valve. if the speed falls below a certain limit, the valve opens only part way, the speed falls, and at the end of the next stroke the valve is not shifted at all. the diameter of the plunger must be decided by the pressure against which it will have to work. for boiler feeding it should not exceed one-third that of the piston; and in such case the piston rod and plunger may well be one. a piston valve, being moved more easily than a box valve, is better suited for a pump of this kind, as friction should be reduced as much as possible. construction. the cylinder will not be described in detail, as hints on making a slide-valve cylinder have been given on earlier pages. the piston rod should be three times as long as the stroke of the cylinder, if it is to serve as pump plunger; and near the pump end an annular groove must be sunk to take a packing. the pump, if designed to work horizontally, will have the valves arranged like the pump illustrated in fig. ; if vertically, like the pump shown in fig. . both suction and delivery pipes should be of ample size, as the pump works very fast. the pump is mounted on a foot, f, made by turning up the ends of a piece of brass strip, and filing them to fit the barrel. the bed can be fashioned out of stout sheet brass or zinc. let it be of ample size to start with, and do not cut it down until the pump is complete. rule a centre line for cylinder and pump, and mount the cylinder. pull out the piston rod plunger as far as it will go, and slip the pump barrel on it. the foot of the pump must then be brought to the correct height by filing and spreading the ends until the plunger works quite easily in the pump, when this is pressed down firmly against the bed. when adjustment is satisfactory, mark the position of the foot on the bed, solder foot to barrel, and drill and tap the foot for the holding-down screws. don't forget that the distance between pump and cylinder gland must be at least - / times the stroke. the valve motion can then be taken in hand. cut off for the guides, g g , two pieces of stout brass strip, - / inches long and / inch wide. lay them together in a vice, and bore the holes (fig. ) - / inches apart, centre to centre, for the / -inch rods, r r . the feet are then turned over and a third hole bored in g , midway between those previously made, to take the end of the support, pp, of the rocking lever. [illustration: fig. .--end view of striking mechanism of steam pump.] screw g g down to the bedplate, / inch away from the cylinder centre line. g is abreast of the mouth of the pump, g about half an inch forward of the end of the cylinder. the striker, s, is a piece of brass strip soldered to / inch of tubing fitting the piston rod. (see fig. .) its length is decided by running a rod through the upper holes in g g , allowance being made for the notch in the end. the collar is tapped for two screws, which prevent s slipping on the piston rod. the rods for r r are now provided with forks, made by cutting and filing notches in bits of brass tubing. the notches should be half as deep again as the rocking lever is wide, to give plenty of room for movement. solder the forks to the rods, and put the rods in place in the guides, with the forks as far away from g as the travel of the slide valve. then measure to get the length of the rocking lever support. one end of this should be filed or turned down to fit the hole drilled for it; the other should be slotted to fit the lever accurately. the rocking lever, rl, which should be of steel, is slotted at each end to slide on the pins in the forks, and bored for the pivot pin, which, like those in the forks, should be of hardened steel wire. assemble the rocking lever in its support and the rod forks, and solder on the support. to the back end of r solder a steel plate, a, which must be bored for the pin in the valve fork, after the correct position has been ascertained by careful measurement. the stops, t t , are small, adjustable collars, kept tightly in place on r by screws. setting the striker.--assemble all the parts. pull out the piston rod as far as it will go, and push the slide valve right back. loosen the striker and the forward stop, and slide them along in contact until the striker is close to the pump. tighten up their screws. then push the piston rod fully in, draw the valve rod fully out, and bring the rear stop up against the striker, and make it fast. each stop may now be moved / inch nearer to a point halfway between them to cause "cushioning" of the piston, by admitting steam before the stroke is quite finished. a pump made by the author on this principle, having a - / inch stroke and a / -inch bore, will deliver water at the rate of half a gallon per minute against a head of a few feet. note.--to steady the flow and prevent "water hammer," a small air-chamber should be attached to the delivery pipe. an alternative arrangement.--if the reader prefers a steam pump which will work at slow speeds, and be available, when not pumping, for driving purposes, the design may be modified as shown diagrammatically in fig. . the striker becomes a cross head, and is connected by a forked rod passing on each side of the pump with the crank of a fly wheel overhanging the base. the valve is operated in the ordinary manner by an eccentric on the crankshaft. the steadying effect of the fly wheel and the positive action of the valve make it possible to use a larger pump plunger than is advisable with the striking gear. with a pump piston of considerably greater diameter than the piston rod, the pump may be made double-acting, a gland being fitted at the front end for the piston rod to work through, and, of course, a second set of valves added. [illustration: fig. .--plan of steam pump with fly wheel.] a suggestion. for exhibition purposes a small, easily running, double-action pump might be worked by the spindle of a gramophone. a crank of the proper throw and a connecting rod must be provided. both delivery pipes feed, through an air-chamber, a fountain in the centre of a bowl, the water returning through an overflow to the source of supply, so that the same water may be used over and over again. xxiii. kites. plain rectangular box kites.--the plain box kite is easy to make and a good flier. readers should try their hands on it before attempting more complicated models. lifting pressure is exerted only on the sides facing the wind, but the other sides have their use in steadying the kite laterally, and in holding in the wind, so that they justify their weight. proportions of box.--each box has wind faces one and a third times as long as the sides, and the vertical depth of the box is about the same as its fore and aft dimensions. that is, the ends of the boxes are square, and the wind faces oblong, with one-third as much area again as the ends. little advantage is to be gained from making the boxes proportionately deeper than this. the distance between the boxes should be about equal to the depth of each box. construction. after these general remarks, we may proceed to a practical description of manufacture, which will apply to kites of all dimensions. it will be prudent to begin on small models, as requiring small outlay. having decided on the size of your kite, cut out two pieces of material as wide as a box is to be deep, and as long as the circumference of the box plus an inch and a half to spare. machine stitch / inch tapes along each edge, using two rows of stitching about / inch from the edges of the tape. then double the piece over, tapes inside, and machine stitch the ends together, three quarters of an inch from the edge. note.--all thread ends should be tied together to prevent unravelling, and ends of stitching should be hand-sewn through the tape, as the greatest strain falls on these points. the most convenient shape for the rods is square, as fitting the corners and taking tacks most easily. the sectional size of the rods is governed by the dimensions of the kite, and to a certain extent by the number of stretchers used. if four stretchers are employed in each box, two near the top and two near the bottom, the rods need not be so stout as in a case where only a single pair of central stretchers is preferred. lay the two boxes flat on the floor, in line with one another, and the joins at the same end. pass two rods through, and arrange the boxes so that the outer edges are / inch from the ends of the rods. (these projections protect the fabric when the kite strikes the ground). lay the rods on one corner, so that the sides make an angle of degrees with the floor, pull the boxes taut--be careful that they are square to the rods--and drive three or four tacks through each end of the box into the rods. then turn them over and tack the other sides similarly. repeat the process with the other rods after measuring to get the distances correct. the length of the stretchers is found approximately by a simple arithmetical sum, being the square root of the sum of the squares of the lengths of two adjacent sides of the box. for example, if each box is by inches, the diagonal is the square root of ( squared plus squared) = square root of = inches. the space occupied by the vertical rods will about offset the stretch of the material, but to be on the safe side and to allow for the notches, add another half-inch for small kites and more proportionately for large ones. it is advisable to test one pair of stretchers before cutting another, to reduce the effect of miscalculations. the stretcher notches should be deep enough to grip the rods well and prevent them twisting, and one must take care to have those on the same stretcher exactly in line, otherwise one or other cannot possibly "bed" properly. a square file is useful for shaping the notches. ordinarily stretchers do not tend to fall out, as the wind pressure puts extra strain on them and keeps them up tight. but to prevent definitely any movement one may insert screw eyes into the rods near the points at which the stretchers press on them, and other eyes near the ends of the stretchers to take string fastenings. these attachments will be found useful for getting the first pair of stretchers into position, and for preventing the stretchers getting lost when the kite is rolled up. the bridle is attached to four eyes screwed into the rods near the tops of the boxes. (see fig. .) the top and bottom elements of the bridle must be paired off to the correct length; the top being considerably shorter than the bottom. all four parts may be attached to a brass ring, and all should be taut when the ring is pulled on. the exact adjustment must be found by experiment. in a very high wind it is advisable to shorten the top of the bridle if you have any doubt as to the strength of your string, to flatten the angle made by the kite with the wind. [illustration: fig. .--details of stretcher attachment for diamond-shaped box kites.] diamond box kites.--in another type of box kite the boxes have four equal sides, but the boxes are rhombus-shaped, as in fig. , the long diagonal being square to the wind, and the bridle attached at the front corner. for particulars of design and construction i am much indebted to mr. w. h. dines, f.r.s., who has used the diamond box kite for his meteorological experiments to carry registering meteorographs several thousands of feet into the air. the longitudinal sticks used at the corners have the section shown in fig. . they are about four times as wide at the front edge, which presses against the fabric, as at the back, and their depth is about twice the greater width. this shape makes it easy to attach the shorter stretchers, which have their ends notched and bound to prevent splitting. [illustration: fig. .--plan of diamond box kite, showing arrangement of stretchers.] fig. is a perspective diagram of a kite. the sail of each box measures from top to bottom one-sixth the total circumference of the box, or, to express the matter differently, each face of the box is half as long again as its depth. the distance separating the boxes is equal to the depth of a box. the sides of a box make angles of degrees and degrees with one another, the depth of the space enclosed from front to back being the same as the length of a side. with these angles the effective area of the sails is about six-sevenths of the total area. therefore a kite of the dimensions given in fig. will have an effective area of some thirty square feet. [illustration: fig. .--diamond box kite in perspective. ties are indicated by fine dotted lines.] the long stretchers pass through holes in the fabric close to the sticks, and are connected with the sticks by stout twine. between stretcher and stick is interposed a wedge-shaped piece of wood (a in fig. ), which prevents the stick being drawn out of line. this method of attachment enables the boxes to be kept tight should the fabric stretch at all--as generally happens after some use; also it does away with the necessity for calculating the length of the stretchers exactly. the stretchers are tied together at the crossing points to give support to the longer of the pair. the dotted lines ab, ac, ad, em, and en in fig. indicate ties made with wire or doubled and hemmed strips of the fabric used for the wings. ab, running from the top of the front stick to the bottom of the back stick, should be of such a length that, when the kite is stood on a level surface, the front and back sticks make right angles with that surface, being two sides of a rectangle whereof the other two sides are imaginary lines joining the tops and bottoms of the sticks. this tie prevents the back of the kite drooping under pressure of the wind, and increases the angle of flight. the other four ties prevent the back sails turning over at the edges and spilling the wind, and also keep them flatter. this method of support should be applied to the type of kite described in the first section of this chapter. string attachment.--a box kite will fly very well if the string is attached to the top box only. the tail box is then free to tilt up and trim the kite to varying pressures independently of the ascent of the kite as a whole. when the bottom box also is connected to the string it is a somewhat risky business sending a kite up in a high wind, as in the earlier part of the ascent the kite is held by the double bridle fairly square to the wind. if any doubt is entertained as to the ability of the string to stand the pressure, the one-box attachment is preferable, though possibly it does not send the kite to as great a height as might be attained under similar conditions by the two-box bridle. [illustration: fig. .--box kite with rear wings.] when one has to attach a string or wire to a large kite at a single point, the ordinary method of using an eye screwed into the front stick is attended by obvious risks. mr. dines employs for his kites (which measure up to nine feet in height) an attachment which is independent of the front stick. two sticks, equal in length to the width of the sail, are tacked on to the inner side of the sail close to the front stick. rings are secured to the middle of the sticks and connected by a loop of cord, to which the wire (in this case) used for flying the kite is made fast. a box kite with wings.--the type of kite shown in fig. is an excellent flyer, very easy, to make and very portable. the two boxes give good longitudinal stability, the sides of the boxes prevent quick lateral movements, and the two wings projecting backwards from the rear corners afford the "dihedral angle" effect which tends to keep the kite steadily facing the wind. the "lift," or vertical upward pull, obtained with the type is high, and this, combined with its steadiness, makes the kite useful for aerial photography, and, on a much larger scale, for man-lifting. the materials required for the comparatively small example with which the reader may content himself in the first instance are: wooden rods or bamboos, feet long and / inch in diameter. yards of lawn or other light, strong material, inches wide. yards of unbleached tape, / inch wide. brass rings, inch diameter. the boxes.--cut off yards inches of material quite squarely, fold down the middle, crease, and cut along the crease. this gives two pieces by inches. double-stitch tape along the edges of each piece. lay the ends of a piece together, tapes inside, and stitch them together half an inch from the edge. bring a rod up against the stitching on the inside, and calculate where to run a second row of stitching parallel to the first, to form a pocket into which the rod will slip easily but not loosely. (see fig. , a.) remove the rod and stitch the row. now repeat the process at the other end of the folded piece. the positions of the other two rod pockets must be found by measuring off inches from the inner stitching of those already made. (be careful to measure in the right direction in each case, so that the short and long sides of the box shall be opposite.) fold the material beyond the -inch lines to allow for the pockets and the / -inch "spare," and make the two rows of stitching. [illustration: fig. .--plan of box kite with rear wings.] repeat these operations with the second strip of material, and you will have prepared your two boxes, each measuring, inside the pockets, by about inches. (see fig. .) now cut out the wings in accordance with the dimensions given in fig. . each is - / inches long and inches across at the broadest point. it is advisable to cut a pattern out of brown paper, and to mark off the material from this, so arranging the pattern that the long - / -inch side lies on a selvedge. [the edge of a fabric that is woven so that it will not fray or ravel.] [illustration: fig. .--wing for box kite.] double stitch tapes along the three shorter sides of each wing, finishing off the threads carefully. then sew the wings to what will be the back corners of the boxes when the kite is in the air--to the "spares" outside the rod pockets of a long side. take your needle and some strong thread, and make all corners at the ends of pockets quite secure. this will prevent troublesome splitting when the kite is pulling hard. sew a brass ring to each of the four wing angles, aa, bb, at the back, and as many on the front of the spares of the rod pockets diagonally opposite to those to which the wings are attached, halfway up the boxes. these rings are to take the two stretchers in each box. slip four rods, after rounding off their ends slightly, through the pockets of both boxes, and secure them by sewing the ends of the pockets and by the insertion of a few small tacks. these rods will not need to be removed. the cutting and arrangement of the stretchers and the holes for the same require some thought. each stretcher lies behind its wing, passes in front of the rod nearest to it, and behind that at the corner diagonally opposite. (see fig. .) the slits through which it is thrust should be strengthened with patches to prevent ripping of the material. two persons should hold a box out as squarely as possible while a stretcher is measured. cut a nick / inch deep in one end of the stretcher, and pass the end through the fabric slits to the ring not on the wing. pull the wing out, holding it by its ring, and cut the stretcher off inch from the nearest point of the ring. the extra length will allow for the second nick and the tensioning of the material. now measure off the second stretcher by the first, nick it, and place it in position. if the tension seems excessive, shorten the rods slightly, but do not forget that the fabric will stretch somewhat in use. [illustration: fig. .--box kite with front and back wings.] make the stretchers for the second box, and place them in position. the wings ought to be pretty taut if the adjustments are correct, but should they show a tendency to looseness, a third pair of stretchers of light bamboo may be inserted between the other two, being held up to the rods by loops of tape. in order to be able to take up any slackness, the wing end of each stretcher may be allowed to project a couple of inches, and be attached by string to the near ring, as described on p. . the bridle to which the flying string is attached is made up of four parts, two long, two short, paired exactly as regards length. these are attached to eyes screwed into the front rods three inches below the tops of the boxes. adjustment is made very easy if a small slider is used at the kite end of each part. these sliders should be of bone or some tough wood, and measure inch by / inch. the forward ends of the bridle are attached to a brass ring from which runs the flying string. it is advisable to bind the stretchers with strong thread just behind the notches to prevent splitting, and to loosen the stretchers when the kite is not in use, to allow the fabric to retain as much as possible of its elasticity. the area of the kite affected by wind is about square feet; the total weight, - / lb. the cost of material is about s. the experience gained from making the kite described may be used in the construction of a larger kite, six or more feet high, with boxes by by inches, and wings inches wide at the broadest point. if a big lift is required, or it is desired to have a kite usable in very light breezes, a second pair of wings slightly narrower than those at the back may be attached permanently to the front of the boxes, or be fitted with hooks and eyes for use on occasion only. (fig. .) in the second case two sets of stretchers will be needed. [illustration: fig. .--simple string winder for kite.] note.--if all free edges of boxes and wings are cut on the curve, they will be less likely to turn over and flap in the wind; but as the curvature gives extra trouble in cutting out and stitching, the illustrations have been drawn to represent a straight-edged kite. kite winders.--the plain stick which small children flying small kites on short strings find sufficient for winding their twine on is far too primitive a contrivance for dealing with some hundreds of yards, may be, of string. in such circumstances one needs a quick-winding apparatus. a very fairly effective form of winder, suitable for small pulls, is illustrated in fig. . select a sound piece of wood, / -inch thick, inches wide, and about foot long. in each end cut a deep v, the sides of which must be carefully smoothed and rounded with chisel and sandpaper. nail a wooden rod, inches long and slightly flattened where it makes contact, across the centre of the board, taking care not to split the rod, and clinch the ends of the nails securely. the projecting ends of the rods are held in the hands while the string runs out. the projecting piece, a, which must also be well secured, is for winding in. the winding hand must be held somewhat obliquely to the board to clear the spindle. winding is much less irksome if a piece of tubing is interposed between the spindle and the other hand, which can then maintain a firm grip without exercising a braking effect. this kind of winder is unsuited for reeling in a string on which there is a heavy pull, as the hands are working at a great disadvantage at certain points of a revolution. [illustration: fig. .--plan of string-winding drum, frame, and brake.] a far better type is shown in figs. and . select a canister at least inches in diameter, and not more than inches long, with an overlapping lid. get a turner to make for you a couple of wooden discs, / inch thick, and having a diameter inches greater than that of the tin. holes at least / inch across should be bored in the centre of each. cut holes inch across in the centre of the lid and the bottom of the canister, and nail the lid concentrically to one disc, the canister itself to the other. then push the lid on the tin and solder them together. this gives you a large reel. for the spindle you will require a piece of brass tubing or steel bar foot long and large enough to make a hard driving fit with the holes in the wood. before driving it in, make a framework of / -inch strip iron (fig. ), / or / inch thick, for the reel to turn in. the width of this framework is inch greater than the length of the reel; its length is twice the diameter of the canister. rivet or solder the ends together. halfway along the sides bore holes to fit the spindle. make a mark inch from one end of the spindle, a second l/ inch farther away from the first than the length of the reel. drill / -inch holes at the marks. select two wire nails which fit the holes, and remove their heads. next cut two / -inch pieces off a tube which fits the spindle. the reel, spindle, and framework are now assembled as follows: [illustration: fig. .--end view of string winder, showing brake and lever.] push the end of the spindle which has a hole nearest to it through one of the framework holes, slip on one of the pieces of tubing, drive the spindle through the reel until half an inch projects; put on the second piece of tubing, and continue driving the spindle till the hole bored in it shows. then push the nails half-way through the holes in the spindle, and fix them to the ends of the reel by small staples. a crank is made out of / -inch wood (oak by preference) bored to fit the spindle, to which it must be pinned. a small wooden handle is attached at a suitable distance away. if there is any fear of the wood splitting near the spindle, it should be bound with fine wire. an alternative method is to file the end of the spindle square, and to solder to it a piece of iron strip in which a square hole has been made to fit the spindle. the crank should be as light as is consistent with sufficient strength, and be balanced so that there shall not be unpleasant vibration when the string runs out fast, and of course it must be attached very securely to the spindle. what will be the front of the framework must be rounded off on the top edge, which has a wire guide running parallel to it (fig. ) to direct the string on to the reel; and into the back are riveted a couple of eyes, to which are attached the ends of a cord passing round the body, or some stationary object. [illustration: fig. .--string winder in operation.] a pin should be provided to push into a hole at one end of the reel and lock the reel by striking the framework, and it will be found a great convenience to have a brake for controlling the reel when the kite is rising. such a brake is easily fitted to the side of the frame, to act on the left end of the reel when a lever is depressed by the fingers. there should be a spring to keep it off the reel when it is not required. the diagrams show where the brake and brake lever are situated. note.--to obtain great elevations a fine wire (piano wire / inch in diameter) is generally used, but to protect the user against electric shocks the wire must be connected with an "earthed" terminal, on the principle of the lightning conductor. xxiv. paper gliders. in this chapter are brought to your notice some patterns of paper gliders which, if made and handled carefully, prove very satisfactory. gliders are sensitive and "moody" things, so that first experiments may be attended by failure; but a little persistence will bring its reward, and at the end of a few hours you will, unless very unlucky, be the possessor of a good specimen or two. the three distinguishing features of a good glider are stability, straightness of flight, and a small gliding angle. if the last is as low as in , so that the model falls but foot vertically while progressing feet horizontally, the glider is one to be proud of. materials.--the materials needed for the gliders to be described are moderately stout paper--cream-laid notepaper is somewhat heavy for the purpose--and a little sealing wax or thin sheet metal for weighting. [illustration: fig. .--paper glider: model "a."] [illustration: fig. .--how to launch model "a."] model "a."--double a piece of paper inches long and - / inches wide, and cut out, through both folds, the shape shown in fig. . flatten the piece and fold the "head" inwards four times on the side away from the direction in which the paper was folded before being cut out. flatten the folds and fix to the centre a little clip formed by doubling a piece of thin metal / by / inch. make certain that the wings are quite flat, and then, holding the glider between thumb and first finger, as shown in fig. , push it off gently. if the balance is right, it will fly quite a long way with an undulating motion. if too heavy in front, it will dive; if too light, it will rise suddenly and slip backwards to the ground. the clip or the amount of paper in the head must be modified accordingly. this type is extraordinarily efficient if the dimensions, weighting, and shape are correct, and one of the easiest possible to make. model "b."--the next model (fig. ), suggesting by its shape the langley steam-driven aeroplane, has two sets of wings tandem. double a piece of paper and cut out of both folds simultaneously a figure of the shape indicated by the solid lines in the diagram. the portion a is square, and forms the head weight; b indicates the front planes, c the rear planes. bend the upper fold of each pair into the positions b , c , marked by dotted lines. their front edges make less than a right angle with the keel, to ensure the wings slanting slightly upwards towards the front when expanded. the model is now turned over, and the other wings are folded exactly on top of their respective fellows. then the halves of the head are folded twice inwards, to bring the paper into as compact a form as possible. it remains to open out the wings at right angles to the keel, and then raise their tips slightly so that the two planes of a pair shall make what is called a "dihedral" angle with one another. [illustration: fig. .--details of paper gliders: model "b" above, model "c" below.] before launching, look at your model endways and make sure that the rear planes are exactly in line with those in front. it is essential that they should be so for straight flight. then grip the keel at its centre between finger and thumb and launch gently. mark how your glider behaves. if it plunges persistently, trim off a very little of the head. if, on the contrary, it settles almost vertically, weight must be added in front. the position of the weight is soon found by sliding a metal clip along the keel until a good result is obtained. note that if the leading edges of the front wings are bent slightly downwards the glider may fly much better than before. a good specimen of this type is so stable that if launched upside down it will right itself immediately and make a normal flight. model "c."--this is cut out of doubled paper according to the solid lines of fig. . the three sets of planes are bent back in the manner already described, but the front planes are given a somewhat steeper angle than the others. this type is very stable and very fairly efficient. general remarks.--always pick up a glider by the keel or middle, not by one of the wings, as a very little distortion will give trouble. the merits of a glider depend on length, and on straightness of flight; so in competition the launching height should be limited by a string stretched across the room, say feet above the floor. if the room be too short for a glider to finish its flight, the elevation at which it strikes the wall is the measure of its efficiency. out-of-door flights are impracticable with these very frail models when there is the slightest breeze blowing. on a perfectly calm day, however, much better fun can be got out of doors than in, owing to the greater space available. a good glider launched from a second-floor window facing a large lawn should travel many yards before coming to grass. large gliders of the types detailed above can be made of very stout paper stiffened with slips of cane or bamboo; but the time they demand in construction might perhaps be more profitably spent on a power-driven aeroplane such as forms the subject of the next chapter. xxv. a self-launching model aeroplane. by v. e. johnson, m.a. this article deals not with a scale model--a small copy of some full-sized machine--but with one designed for actual flight; with one not specially intended to create records either of length or duration, but which, although small details must perforce be omitted, does along its main lines approximate to the "real thing." partly for this reason, and partly because it proves a far more interesting machine, we choose a model able to rise from the ground under its own power and make a good flight after rising, assuming the instructions which we give to have been carefully carried out. it is perhaps hardly necessary to add that such a machine can always be launched by hand when desired. before entering into special details we may note some broad principles which must be taken into account if success is to attend our efforts. important points.--it is absolutely essential that the weight be kept down as much as possible. it is quite a mistake to suppose that weight necessarily means strength. on the contrary, it may actually be a cause of weakness if employed in the wrong place and in the wrong way. the heavier the machine, the more serious the damage done in the event of a bad landing. one of the best and easiest ways of ensuring lightness is to let the model be of very simple construction. such a model is easier to build and more efficient when constructed than one of more complicated design. weigh every part of your model as you construct it, and do not be content until all symmetrically arranged parts which should weigh the same not only look alike but do actually balance one another. (note.--the writer always works out the various parts of his models in grammes, not ounces.) if a sufficiently strong propeller bearing weighing only half a gramme can be employed, so much the better, as you have more margin left for some other part of the model in which it would be inadvisable to cut down the weight to a very fine limit. details.--to pass now to details, we have four distinct parts to deal with:-- . the framework, or fuselage. . the supporting surfaces, consisting of the main plane, or aerofoil, behind, and the elevator in front. . the propellers. . the motor, in this case two long skeins of rubber; long, because we wish to be able to give our motor many turns, from to, say, , as a limit, so that the duration of flight may be considerable. [illustration: fig. .-sections of backbone for model aeroplane.] the backbone.--for the backbone or central rod take a piece of pitch pine or satin walnut inches long, / inch deep, and / inch broad, and plane it down carefully until it has a t-shaped section, as shown in fig. , and the thickness is not anywhere more than / inch. it is quite possible to reduce the thickness to even / inch and still have a sufficient reserve of strength to withstand the pull of strands of / -inch rubber wound up , times; but such a course is not advisable unless you are a skilful planer and have had some experience in model-making. if you find the construction of the t-shaped rod too difficult, two courses are open-- (l) to get a carpenter to do the job for you, or ( ) to give the rod the triangular section shown in fig. , each side of the equilateral triangle being half an inch long. [illustration: fig. --side elevation of model aeroplane.] the top of the t or the base of the triangle, as the case may be, is used uppermost. this rod must be pierced in three places for the vertical masts employed in the bracing of the rod, trussing the main plane, and adjusting the elevator. these are spaced out in fig. , which shows a side elevation of the model. their sectional dimensions are / by / inch; their respective lengths are given in fig. . round the front edges and sharpen the rear. in fig. is shown the correct attitude or standing pose necessary to make the model rise quickly and sweep boldly up into the air without skimming the ground for some to yards as so many models do. e is the elevator ( by inches); a the main plane ( - / by inches); w the wheels; and rs the rear skid, terminating in a piece of hooked steel wire. the vertical bracing of these masts is indicated. the best material to use for the purpose is japanese silk gut, which is very light and strong. to brace, drill a small, neat hole in the mast and rod where necessary, pass through, and tie. do the same with each one. to return to the central mast, which must also form the chassis. this is double and opened out beneath as shown in fig. , yz being a piece similar to the sides, which completes, the triangle x y z and gives the necessary rigidity. attach this piece by first binding to its extremities two strips of aluminium, or by preference very thin tinned iron, tl and t . bend to shape and bind to xy, xz as shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. .--front elevation of chassis.] [illustration: fig. l .-wheel for model aeroplane chassis.] [illustration: fig. .--plan of model aeroplane.] the wheels and chassis.--ww are the two wheels on which the model runs. they are made of hollow brass curtain rings, inch in diameter, such as can be bought at four a penny. for spokes, solder two strips of thin tinned iron to the rings, using as little solder as possible. (fig. .) to connect these wheels with the chassis, first bind to the lower ends of xy, xz two strips of thin tinned iron, t and t , after drilling in them two holes of sufficient size to allow a piece of steel wire of "bonnet pin" gauge to pass freely, but not loosely, through them. soften the wire by making it red hot and allowing it to cool slowly, and solder one end of this wire (which must be quite straight and - / inches long) to the centre of the cross pieces or spokes of one wheel. pass the axle through the holes in the ends of xy, xz, and solder on the other wheel. your chassis is then finished. the rear skid (rs in fig. ) is attached to the central rod by gluing, and drilling a hole through both parts and inserting a wooden peg; or the upright may be mortised in. on no account use nail, tack, or screw. attach the vertical masts and the horizontal ones about to be described by gluing and binding lightly with thread, or by neatly glued strips of the hart's fabric used for the planes. horizontal spars, etc.--to consider now the horizontal section or part plan of the model, from which, to avoid confusion, details of most vertical parts are omitted. referring to fig. , it will be seen that we have three horizontal masts or spars--hs , inches; hs , inches; and hs , slightly over inches long. the last is well steamed, slightly curved and left to dry while confined in such a manner as to conform to the required shape. it should so remain at least twenty-four hours before being fixed to the model. all the spars are attached by glue and neat cross bindings. if the central rod be of triangular instead of t section, the join can be made more neatly. the same remarks apply to the two and inch struts at the propeller end of the rod, which have to withstand the pull of the rubber motor on ppl. these two pieces will have a maximum strength and minimum weight if of the t section used for the rod. if the work is done carefully, / inch each way will be sufficient. main plane and elevator.--the framework of each plane is simply four strips of satin walnut or other suitable wood, / inch broad and / inch or even less in thickness for the main plane, and about / by / inch for the elevator. these strips are first glued together at the corners and left to set. the fabric (hart's fabric or some similar very light material) is then glued on fairly tight--that is, just sufficiently so to get rid of all creases. the main plane is then fixed flat on to the top of the central rod by gluing and cross binding at g and h. (a better but rather more difficult plan is to fasten the rectangular frame on first and then apply the fabric.) the same course is followed in dealing with the elevator, which is fixed, however, not to the rod, but to the -inch horizontal spar, hs , just behind it, in such a manner as to have a slight hinge movement at the back. this operation presents no difficulty, and may be effected in a variety of ways. to set the elevator, use is made of the short vertical mast, m . a small hole is pierced in the front side of the elevator frame at z, and through this a piece of thin, soft iron wire is pushed, bent round the spar, and tied. the other end of the wire is taken forward and wrapped three or four times round the mast m , which should have several notches in its front edge, to assist the setting of the elevator at different angles. pull the wire tight, so that the elevator shall maintain a constant angle when once set. h h is a piece of to gauge wire bent as shown and fastened by binding. it passes round the front of the rod, in which a little notch should be cut, so as to be able to resist the pull of the twin rubber motors, the two skeins of which are stretched between h h and the hooks formed on the propeller spindles. if all these hooks are covered with cycle valve tubing the rubber will last much longer. the rubber skeins pass through two little light wire rings fastened to the underside ends of hs . (fig. .) the front skid or protector, fs, is made out of a piece of thin, round, jointless cane, some inches in length, bent round as shown in fig. , in which a b represents the front piece of the t-shaped rod and x y z a the cane skid; the portion x y passing on the near side of the vertical part of the t, and z a on the far side of the same. at e and f thread is bound right round the rod. should the nose of the machine strike the ground, the loop of cane will be driven along the underside of the rod and the shock be minimized. so adjust matters that the skid slides fairly stiff. note that the whole of the cane is on the under side of the top bar of the t. [illustration: fig. .--front skid and attachment to backbone.] bearings.--we have still to deal with the propellers and their bearings. the last, tn and tnl (fig. ), are simply two tiny pieces of tin about half a gramme in weight, bent round the propeller spar hs at b and b . take a strip of thin tin / inch wide and of sufficient length to go completely round the spar (which is / by / inch) and overlap slightly. solder the ends together, using a minimum amount of solder. now bore two small holes through wood and tin from rear to front, being careful to go through the centre. the hole must be just large enough to allow the propeller axle to run freely, but not loosely, in it. primitive though such a bearing may seem, it answers admirably in practice. the wood drills out or is soon worn more than the iron, and the axle runs quite freely. the pull of the motor is thus directed through the thin curved spar at a point where the resistance is greatest--a very important matter in model aeroplane construction. to strengthen this spar further against torsional forces, run gut ties from b and bl down to the bottom of the rear vertical skid post; and from b to b also pass a piece of very thin piano wire, soldered to the tin strips over a little wooden bridge, q, like a violin bridge, on the top of the central rod, to keep it quite taut. [illustration: fig. --"centrale" wooden propeller.] propellers.--to turn now to the propellers. unless the reader has already had fair experience in making model propellers, he should purchase a couple, one right-handed and one left-handed, as they have to revolve in opposite directions. it would be quite impossible to give in the compass of this article such directions as would enable a novice to make a really efficient propeller, and it must be efficient for even a decent flight with a self-launching model. the diameter of the two propellers should be about - / to - / inches, with a pitch angle at the extremities of about to degrees as a limit. the "centrale" type (fig. ) is to be preferred. such propellers can be procured at messrs. a. w. gamage, ltd., holborn, e.c.; messrs. t. w. k. clarke and co., kingston-on-thames; and elsewhere. for the particular machine which we are considering, the total weight of the two propellers, including axle and hook for holding the rubber, should not exceed / oz. this means considerable labour in cutting and sandpapering away part of the boss, which is always made much too large in propellers of this size. it is wonderful what can be done by care and patience. the writer has in more than one case reduced the weight of a propeller by more than one-half by such means, and has yet left sufficient strength. the combined axle and hook should be made as follows:--take a piece of thin steel wire, sharpen one end, and bend it as shown at c (fig. ). pass the end b through a tight-fitting hole in the centre of the small boss of the propeller, and drive c into the wood. solder a tiny piece of / -inch brass tubing to the wire axle at a, close up to the rubber hook side of the propeller, and file quite smooth. the only things now left to do are to bend the wire into the form of a hook (as shown by the dotted line), and to cover this hook, as already advised, with a piece of valve tubing to prevent fraying the rubber skeins. [illustration: fig. .--axle and hook for propeller.] weight.--the weight of a model with a t-shaped central rod / inch thick should be - / oz. probably it will be more than this--as a maximum let us fix oz.--although - / oz. is quite possible, as the writer has proved in actual practice. in any case the centre of gravity of the machine without the rubber motor should be situated inch behind the front or entering edge of the main plane. when the rubber motor ( strands of / -inch rubber for each propeller, total weight oz.) is in position, the centre of gravity will be further forward, in front of the main plane. the amount of rubber mentioned is for a total weight of - / oz. if the weight of the model alone be oz., you will probably have to use strands, which again adds to the weight, and makes one travel in a vicious circle. therefore i lay emphasis on the advice, keep down the weight. the front edge of the elevator should be set about / inch higher than the back, and the model be tried first as a glider, with the rubber and propellers in position. if it glides satisfactorily, wind up the motor, say turns, and launch by hand. when a good flight has been obtained, and the correct angle of the elevator has been determined, place the model on a strip of linoleum, wind up, and release the propellers. the model should rise in its own length and remain in the air (if wound up turns) at least three quarters of a minute. choose a calm day if possible. if a wind blows, let the model face the breeze. remember that the model flies high, and select a wide open space. do not push the model forward; just release the propellers, held one in each hand near the boss by the fingers and thumb. as a lubricant for the rubber use pure glycerine. it is advisable to employ a geared-up mechanical winder, since to make , turns with the fingers is rather fatiguing and very tedious. simple as this model may seem in design, one built by the writer on exactly the lines given has met the most famous flying models of the day in open competition and proved successful against them. xxvi. apparatus for simple scientific experiments. colour discs for the gramophone.--the gramophone, by virtue of its table revolving at a controllable speed, comes in useful for a series of optical experiments made with coloured discs bearing designs of different kinds. the material needed for these discs is cardboard, covered with white paper on one side, or the bristol board used by artists. the discs on which the designs are drawn should be made as large as the gramophone table will take conveniently, so as to be viewed by a number of people at once. to encourage readers who do not possess a gramophone, it may be pointed out that a gramophone, is merely a convenience, and not indispensable for turning the discs, which may be revolved on a sharpened pencil or any other spindle with pointed ends. the vanishing spirals (fig. ).--this design, if spun slowly in a clockwise direction, gives one the impression that the lines all move in towards the centre. if the disc is turned in an anti-clockwise direction, the lines seem to move towards the circumference and disappear. to get the proper effect the gaze should be fixed and not attempt to follow the lines round. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] the rolling circles.--figs. and are variations of the same idea. in fig. two large circles are described cutting one another and enclosing a smaller circle concentric with the disc. when spun at a certain rate the larger circles will appear to run independently round the small. the effect is heightened if the circles are given different colours. if black only is used for the large circles, the eyes should be kept half closed. in fig. two pairs of circles are described about two centres, neither of which is the centre of the disc. the pairs appear to roll independently. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] the wriggling line (fig. ).--if this design is revolved at a low speed and the eye is fixed on a point, the white (or coloured) line will seem to undulate in a very extraordinary manner. the line is made up of arcs of circles, and as the marking out is somewhat of a geometrical problem, a diagram (fig. ) is added to show how it is done. the dotted curves are those parts of the circles which do not enter into the design. begin by marking out the big circle a for the disc. the circumference of this is divided into six equal parts (chord equal to radius), and through the points of division are drawn the six lines from the centre. describe circles aaa, each half the diameter of a. the circles bbb are then drawn from centres on the lines rrr, and with the same radius as aaa., the same centres are used for describing the circles a a a and b b b , parts of which form the inner boundary of the line. the background should be blackened and the belt left white or be painted some bright colour. [illustration: fig. .] another optical illusion is afforded by fig. . two sets of circles are described about different centres, and the crescent-shaped areas between them coloured, the remainder of the disc being left white. the disc is revolved about the centre of the white areas, and one gets the impression that the coloured parts are portions of separate discs separated by white discs. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] the magic spokes (fig. ).--place a design like this on the gramophone and let it turn at high speed. the radial lines seem but a blur. now punch a hole one-eighth of an inch in diameter in a piece of blackened card, and, standing well away from the gramophone, apply your eye to the hole and move the card quickly to and fro. the extreme briefness of the glimpses obtained of the moving lines seems to rob them of motion, or even make them appear to be moving in the direction contrary to the actual. instead of a single hole, one may use a number of holes punched at equal intervals round a circle, and revolve the card on the centre. if a certain speed be maintained, the spokes will appear motionless. the substitution of a long narrow slit for a circular hole gives other effects. [illustration: fig. .] a colour top.--cut a -inch disc out of white cardboard and blacken one-half with indian ink. on the other half draw four series of concentric black lines, as shown in fig. . if the disc is mounted on a knitting needle and spun in a horizontal plane, the black lines will appear of different colours. a clockwise rotation makes the outermost lines appear a greenish blue, those nearest the centre a dark red, and the intermediate groups yellow and green. a reversal of the motion reverses the order of the colours, the red lines now being farthest from the centre. the experiment is generally most successful by artificial light, which contains a larger proportion of red and yellow rays than does sunlight. the speed at which the top revolves affects the result considerably. it should be kept moderate, any excess tending to neutralize the colours. [illustration: fig. .] the magic windmill.--mark a circle - / inches in diameter on a piece of notepaper, resting the centre leg [of the compass] so lightly that it dents without piercing the paper. with the same centre describe a / -inch circle. join the circles by eight equally spaced radial lines, and an eighth of an inch away draw dotted parallel lines, all on the same side of their fellow lines in order of rotation. cut out along the large circle, and then with a. sharp knife follow the lines shown double in fig. . this gives eight little vanes, each of which must be bent upwards to approximately the same angle round a flat ruler held with an edge on the dotted line. next make a dent with a lead pencil at the exact centre on the vane side, and revolve the pencil until the dent is well polished. [illustration: fig. .] hold a pin, point upwards, in the right hand, and with the left centre the mill, vanes pointing downwards, on the pin (fig. ). the mill will immediately commence to revolve at a steady pace, and will continue to do so indefinitely; though, if the head of the pin be stuck in, say, a piece of bread, no motion will occur. the secret is that the heat of the hand causes a very slight upward current of warmed air, which is sufficient to make the very delicately poised windmill revolve. a pneumatic puzzle.--for the very simple apparatus illustrated by fig. one needs only half a cotton reel, three pins, and a piece of glass or metal tubing which fits the hole in the reel. adjust a halfpenny centrally over the hole and stick the pins into the reel at three equidistant points, so that they do not quite touch the coin, and with their ends sloping slightly outwards to allow the halfpenny to fall away. [illustration: fig. .--apparatus for illustrating an apparent scientific paradox.] press the coin against the reel and blow hard through the tube. one would expect the coin to fall; but, on the contrary, the harder you blow the tighter will it stick, even if the reel be pointed downwards. only when you stop blowing will it fall to the floor. this is a very interesting experiment, and will mystify onlookers who do not understand the reason for the apparent paradox, which is this. the air blown through the reel strikes a very limited part of the nearer side of the halfpenny. in order to escape, it has to make a right-angle turn and pass between coin and reel, and, while travelling in this direction, loses most of its repulsive force. the result is that the total pressure on the underside of the coin, plus the effect of gravity, is exactly balanced by the atmospheric pressure on the outside, and the coin remains at that distance from the reel which gives equilibrium of forces. when one stops blowing, the air pressure on both sides is the same, and gravity makes the coin fall away. the function of the pins is merely to keep the halfpenny centred on the hole. if steam is used instead of human breath, a considerable weight may be hung from the disc without dislodging it. the magic swingers.--the easily made toy illustrated next is much more interesting than would appear from the mere picture, as it demonstrates a very striking physical phenomenon, the transference of energy. if two pendulums are hung close together from a flexible support and swung, their movements influence one another in a somewhat remarkable way--the swing of the one increasing as that of the other dies down, until a certain point is reached, after which the process is reversed, and the "dying" or "dead" pendulum commences to come to life again at the expense of the other. this alternation is repeated over and over again, until all the energy of both pendulums is exhausted. [illustration: fig. .-magic pendulums.] to make the experiment more attractive, we substitute for the simplest possible pendulums--weights at the end of strings--small swings, each containing a figure sitting or standing on a seat, to the underside of which is attached a quarter of a pound of lead. to prevent the swings twisting, they are best made of strong wire bent as shown in fig. , care being taken that the sides are of equal length, so that both hooks may press equally on the strings. eighteen inches is a good length. the longer the swing, and the heavier the weight, the longer will the experiment last. the swings are hung, six inches apart, from a stout string stretched tightly between two well-weighted chairs or between two fixed points. the string should be at least feet long. with two equally long and equally weighted pendulums, the three following experiments may be carried out:-- . let one, a, start from rest. the other, b will gradually die, and a swing to and fro more and more violently, till b at last comes to a dead stop. then a will die and b in turn get up speed. the energy originally imparted to b is thus transferred through the string from one pendulum to the other an indefinite number of times, with a slight loss at every alternation, until it is finally exhausted by friction. . swing them in opposite directions, but start a from a higher point than b. they will each alternately lose and gain motion, but will never come to rest, and will continue to swing in opposite directions--that is, while a swings north or east b will be swinging south or west, and vice versa. . start them both in the same direction, but one from a higher point than the other. there will be the same transference of energy as in ( ), but neither will come to rest between alternations, and they will always swing in the same direction. unequal lengths.--if for one of the original pendulums we substitute one a couple of inches longer than the other, but of the same weight, the same set of three experiments will provide six variations among them, as in each case either the longer or the shorter may be started first or given the longer initial swing, as the case may be. the results are interesting throughout, and should be noted. three or more pendulums.--if the number of pendulums be increased to three or more, the length of all being the same, a fresh field for observation is opened. with an increase of number a decrease in the individual weighting is advisable, to prevent an undue sagging of the string. in conclusion, we may remark that a strong chain stretched between two trees and a suitable supply of rope will enable the reader and his friends to carry out all the experiments on a life-size scale. a smoke-ring apparatus.--get a large tin of the self-opening kind and cut a hole inches across in the bottom. then make a neat circular hole - / inches in diameter in the centre of a paper disc somewhat smaller than the bottom of the tin, to which it is pasted firmly on the outside. the other end--from which the lid is removed--must be covered with a piece of sheet rubber stretched fairly tight and secured to the tin by string passed over it behind the rim. an old cycle or motor car air tube, according to the size of the tin, will furnish the rubber needed; but new material, will cost only a few pence (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--smoke-ring apparatus.] a dense smoke is produced by putting in the tin two small rolls of blotting paper, one soaked in hydrochloric acid, the other in strong ammonia. the rolls should not touch. to reduce corrosion of the tin by the acid, the inside should be lined with thin card. [illustration: fig. .--smoke-making apparatus.] a ring of smoke is projected from the hole in the card if the rubber diaphragm is pushed inwards. a slow, steady push makes a fat, lazy ring come out; a smart tap a thinner one, moving much faster. absolutely still air is needed for the best effects, as draughts make the rings lose shape very quickly and move erratically. given good conditions, a lot of fun can be got out of the rings by shooting one through another which has expanded somewhat, or by destroying one by striking it with another, or by extinguishing a candle set up at a distance, and so on. the experimenter should notice how a vortex ring rotates in itself while moving forward, like a rubber ring being rolled along a stick. a continuous supply of smoke can be provided by the apparatus shown in fig. . the bulb of a scent spray is needed to force ammonia gas through a box, made air-tight by a rubber band round the lid, in which is a pad soaked with hydrochloric acid. the smoke formed in this box is expelled through a pipe into the ring-making box. caution.--when dealing with hydrochloric acid, take great care not to get it on your skin or clothes, as it is a very strong corrosive. xxvii. a rain-gauge. the systematic measurement of rainfall is one of those pursuits which prove more interesting in the doing than in the prospect. it enables us to compare one season or one year with another; tells us what the weather has been while we slept; affords a little mild excitement when thunderstorms are about; and compensates to a limited extent for the disadvantages of a wet day. the general practice is to examine the gauge daily (say at a.m.); to measure the water, if any, collected during the previous twenty-four hours; and to enter the record at once. gauges are made which record automatically the rainfall on a chart or dial, but these are necessarily much more expensive than those which merely catch the water for measurement. this last class, to which our attention will be confined chiefly, all include two principal parts--a metal receiver and a graduated glass measure, of much smaller diameter than the receiver, so that the divisions representing hundredths of an inch may be far enough apart to be distinguishable. it is evident that the smaller the area of the measure is, relatively to that of the receiver, the more widely spaced will the graduation marks of the measure be, and the more exact the readings obtained. [illustration: fig. .--standard rain-gauge.] the gauge most commonly used is that shown in fig. . it consists of an upper cylindrical part, usually or inches in diameter, at the inside of the rim, with its bottom closed by a funnel. the lower cylindrical part holds a glass catcher into which the funnel delivers the water for storage until the time when it will be measured in a graduated glass. the upper part makes a good fit with the lower, in order to reduce evaporation to a minimum. such a gauge can be bought for half a guinea or so, but one which, if carefully made, will prove approximately accurate, can be constructed at very small expense. one needs, in the first place, a cylindrical tin, or, better still, a piece of brass tubing, about inches high and not less than inches in diameter. (experiments have proved that the larger the area of the receiver the more accurate are the results.) the second requisite is a piece of stout glass tubing having an internal diameter not more than one-quarter that of the receiver this is to serve as measuring glass. [illustration: fig. .--section of homemade rain-gauge.] the success of the gauge depends entirely upon ascertaining accurately how much of the tube will be filled by a column of water inch deep and having the same area as the receiver. this is easily determined as follows:--if a tin is to be used as receiver, make the bottom and side joints watertight with solder; if a tube, square off one end and solder a flat metal to it temporarily. the receptacle is placed on a perfectly level base, and water is poured in until it reaches exactly to a mark made inches from the end of a fine wire held perpendicularly. now cork one end of the tube and pour in the water, being careful not to spill any, emptying and filling again if necessary. this will give you the number of tube inches filled by the inches in the receiver. divide the result by , and you will have the depth unit in the measure representing inch of rainfall. the measuring should be done several times over, and the average result taken as the standard. if the readings all agree, so much the better. preparing the scale.--the next thing is to graduate a scale, which will most conveniently be established in indelible pencil on a carefully smoothed strip of white wood inch wide. first make a zero mark squarely across the strip near the bottom, and at the unit distance above it a similar mark, over which "one inch" should be written plainly. the distance between the marks is next divided by / -inch lines into tenths, and these tenths by / -inch lines into hundredths, which, if the diameter of the receiver is four times that of the tube, will be about / inch apart. for reading, the scale is held against the tube, with the zero mark level with the top of the cork plugging the bottom. it will, save time and trouble if both tube and scale are attached permanently to a board, which will also serve to protect the tube against damage. making the receiver.--a tin funnel, fitting the inside of the receiver closely, should be obtained, or, if the exact article is not available, a longer one should be cut down to fit. make a central hole in the bottom of the receiver large enough to allow the funnel to pass through up to the swell, and solder the rim of the funnel to the inside of the receiver, using as little heat as possible. if you select a tin of the self-opening kind, you must now cut away the top with a file or hack-saw, being very careful not to bend the metal, as distortion, by altering the area of the upper end of the tin, will render the gauge inaccurate. the receiver should be supported by another tin of somewhat smaller diameter, and deep enough to contain a bottle which will hold or inches of rainfall. in order to prevent water entering this compartment, tie a strip of rubber (cut out of an old cycle air tube) or other material round the receiver, and projecting half an inch beyond the bottom (fig. ). all tinned iron surfaces should be given a couple of thin coats or paint. the standard distance between the rain gauge and the ground is one foot. the amount caught decreases with increase of elevation, owing to the greater effect of the wind. the top of the gauge must be perfectly level, so that it may offer the same catchment area to rain from whatever direction it may come. [illustration: fig. .--self-measuring gauge.] another arrangement.--to simplify measurement, the receiver and tube may be arranged as shown in fig. . in this case the water is delivered directly into the measure, and the rainfall may be read at a glance. on the top of the support is a small platform for the receiver, its centre directly over the tube. the graduations, first made on a rod as already described, may be transferred, by means of a fine camel's hair brush and white paint, to the tube itself. to draw off the water after taking a reading, a hole should be burnt with a hot wire through the bottom cork. this hole is plugged with a piece of slightly tapered brass rod, pushed in till its top is flush with the upper surface of the cork. if the tube has small capacity, provision should be made for catching the overflow by inserting through the cork a small tube reaching to a convenient height-say the -inch mark. the bottom of the tube projects into a closed storage vessel. note that the tube must be in position before the graduation is determined, otherwise the readings will exaggerate the rainfall. [illustration: fig. .--gauge in case.] protection against the weather.--a rain-gauge of this kind requires protection against frost, as the freezing of the water would burst the tube. it will be sufficient to hinge to the front of the support a piece of wood half an inch thicker than the diameter of the tube, grooved out so as to fit the tube when shut round it (fig ). xxviii. wind vanes with dials. it is difficult to tell from a distance in which direction the arrow of a wind vane points when the arrow lies obliquely to the spectator, or points directly towards or away from him. in the case of a vane set up in some position where it will be plainly visible from the house, this difficulty is overcome by making the wind vane operate an arrow moving round a vertical dial set square to the point of observation. figs. to are sketches and diagrams of an apparatus which does the work very satisfactorily. the vane is attached to the upper end of a long rod, revolving freely in brackets attached to the side of a pole. the bottom end of the rod is pointed to engage with a nick in a bearer, in which it moves with but little friction. near the end is fixed a horizontal bevel-wheel, engaging with a vertical bevel of equal size and number of teeth attached to a short rod running through a hole in the post to an arrow on the other side. between arrow and post is room for a dial on which the points of the compass are marked. the construction of the apparatus is so simple as to call for little comment. the tail of the vane is made of two pieces of zinc, tapering from inches wide at the rear to inches at the rod, to which they are clipped by screws and nuts. a stay soldered between them near the stern keeps the broader ends a couple of inches apart, giving to the vane a wedge shape which is more sensitive to the wind than a single flat plate. the pointer also is cut out of sheet metal, and is attached to the tail by means of the screws already mentioned. it must, of course, be arranged to lie in a line bisecting the angle formed by the two parts of the tail. [illustration: fig. --wind vane with dial.] the rod should preferably be of brass, which does not corrode like iron. if the uppermost inches or so are of / -inch diameter, and assigned a bracket some distance below the one projecting from the top of the pole, the remainder of the rod need not exceed / to / inch in diameter, as the twisting strain on it is small. or the rod may be built up of wooden rods, well painted, alternating with brass at the points where the brackets are. [illustration: fig. .--elevation and plan of vane.] the bevel gearing.--two brass bevel wheels, about inch in diameter, and purchasable for a couple of shillings or less, should be obtained to transmit the vane movements to the dial arrow. grooved pulleys, and a belt would do the work, but not so positively, and any slipping would, of course, render the dial readings incorrect. the arrow spindle (of brass) turns in a brass tube, driven tightly into a hole of suitable size bored through the centre of the post (fig. ). it will be well to fix a little metal screen over the bevel gear to protect it from the weather. [illustration: fig. .--details of bevel gear and arrow.] the dial--this is made of tinned iron sheet or of / -inch wood nailed to / -inch battens. it is held up to the post by -inch screws passing through front and battens. at the points of contact, the pole is slightly flattened to give a good bearing; and, to prevent the dial being twisted off by the wind, strip iron or stout galvanized wire stays run from one end of a batten to the other behind the post, to which they are secured. the post should be well painted, the top protected by a zinc disc laid under the top bracket, and the bottom, up to a point inches above the ground level, protected by charring or by a coat of boiled tar, before the dial and the brackets for the vane rod to turn in are fastened on. a white dial and black arrow and letters will be most satisfactory against a dark background; and vice versa for a light background. the letters are of relatively little importance, as the position of the arrow will be sufficient indication. it gives little trouble to affix to the top of the pole arms, each carrying the initial of one of the cardinal points of the compass. the position of these relatively to the direction in which the dial will face must be carefully thought out before setting the position in the ground. in any case the help of a compass will be needed to decide which is the north. having set in the post and rammed the earth tightly round it, loosen the bracket supporting the vane rod so that the vane bevel clears the dial bevel. turn the vane to true north, set the dial arrow also to north, and raise the bevel so that it meshes, and make the bracket tight. note.--in the vicinity of london true north is degrees east of the magnetic north. the pole must be long enough to raise the vane clear of any objects which might act as screens, and its length will therefore depend on its position. as for the height of the dial above the ground, this must be left to individual preference or to circumstances. if conditions allow, it should be near enough to the ground to be examined easily with a lamp at night, as one of the chief advantages of the system is that the reading is independent of the visibility of the vane. a dial indoors.--if some prominent part of the house, such as a chimney stack, be used to support the pole--which in such a case can be quite short--it is an easy matter to connect the vane with a dial indoors, provided that the rod can be run down an outside wall. an electrically operated dial.--thanks to the electric current, it is possible to cause a wind vane, wherever it may be set, to work a dial situated anywhere indoors. a suggested method of effecting this is illustrated in figs. to , which are sufficiently explicit to enable the reader to fill in details for himself. [illustration: fig. .--plan and elevation of electric contact on vane post.] in-this case the vane is attached (fig. ) to a brass tube, closed at the upper end, and supported by a long spike stuck into the top of the pole. a little platform carries a brass ring, divided into as many insulated segments as the points which the vane is to be able to register. thus, there will be eight segments if the half-points as well as the cardinal points are to be shown on the dial. the centre of each of these segments lies on a line running through the centre of the spike to the compass point to which the segment belongs. the tube moves with it a rotating contact piece, which rubs against the tops of the segments. below it is a "brush" of strip brass pressing against the tube. this brush is connected with a wire running to one terminal of a battery near the dial. [illustration: fig. .--magnetic recording dial.] the dial.--this may be either vertical or horizontal, provided that the arrow is well balanced. the arrow, which should be of some light non-magnetic material, such as cardboard or wood, carries on its lower side, near the point, a piece of soft iron. under the path of this piece is a ring of equally spaced magnets, their number equaling that of, the segments on the vane. between arrow and magnets is the dial on which the points are marked (fig. ). each segment is connected by a separate wire with the corresponding dial magnet, and each of these, through a common wire and switch, with the other terminal of the battery (fig. ). in order to ascertain the quarter of the wind, the switch is closed. the magnet which is energized will attract the needle to it, showing in what direction the vane is pointing. to prevent misreading, the dial may be covered by a flap the raising of which closes the battery circuit. a spring should be arranged to close the flap when the hand is removed, to prevent waste of current. [illustration: fig. .--another type of electric dial with compass needle for pointer.] the exactitude of the indication given by the arrow depends on the number of vane segments used. if these are only four, a n. read- ing will be given by any position of the vane between n.e. and n.w.; if eight, n. will mean anything between n.n.e. and n.n.w. telephone cables, containing any desired number of insulated wires, each covered by a braiding of a distinctive colour, can be obtained at a cost only slightly exceeding that of an equal total amount of single insulated wire. the cable form is to be preferred, on account of its greater convenience in fixing. the amount of battery power required depends on the length of the circuit and the delicacy of the dial. if an ordinary compass needle be used, as indicated in fig. , very little current is needed. in this case the magnets, which can be made of a couple of dozen turns of fine insulated wire round a / -in soft iron bar, should be arranged spokewise round the compass case, and care must be taken that all the cores are wound in the same direction, so as to have the same polarity. otherwise some will attract the n. end of the needle and others repel it. the direction of the current flow through the circuit will decide the polarity of the magnets, so that, if one end of the needle be furnished with a little paper arrow-head, the "correspondence" between vane and dial is easily established. an advantage attaching to the use of a compass needle is that the magnet repels the wrong end of the needle. [illustration: fig. .--general arrangement of electric wind recorder.] the brush and segments must be protected from he weather by a cover, either attached to the segment platform or to the tube on which the vane is mounted. the spaces between the segments must be filled in flush with some non-conducting material, such as fibre, vulcanite, or sealing-wax; and be very slightly wider than the end of the contact arm, so that two segments may not be in circuit simultaneously. in certain positions of the vane no contact will be made, but, as the vane is motionless only when there is no wind or none to speak of, this is a small matter. xxix. a strength-testing machine. the penny-in-the-slot strength-testing machine is popular among men and boys, presumably because many of them like to show other people what their muscles are capable of, and the opportunity of proving it on a graduated dial is therefore tempting, especially if there be a possibility of recovering the penny by an unusually good performance. for the expenditure of quite a small number of pence, one may construct a machine which will show fairly accurately what is the value of one's grip and the twisting, power of the arms; and, even if inaccurate, will serve for competitive purposes. the apparatus is very simple in principle, consisting of but five pieces of wood, an ordinary spring balance registering up to lbs., and a couple of handles. the total cost is but a couple of shillings at the outside. fig. is a plan of the machine as used for grip measuring. the base is a piece of deal inch thick, feet long, and - / inches wide. the lever, l, is pivoted at p, attached to a spring balance at q, and subjected to the pull of the hand at a point, r. the pressure exerted at r is to that registered at q as the distance pq is to the distance pr. as the spring balance will not record beyond lbs., the ratio of pq to pr may conveniently be made to , as this will allow for the performances of quite a strong man; but even if the ratio be lowered to to , few readers will stretch the balance to its limit. the balance should preferably be of the type shown in fig. , having an indicator projecting at right angles to the scale through a slot, as this can be very easily fitted with a sliding index, i, in the form of a / -inch strip of tin bent over at the ends to embrace the edges of the balance. construction. [illustration: fig. .--plan of strength tester.] [illustration: fig. .--grips of strength tester.] as the pressures on the machine are high, the construction must be solid throughout. the lever frame, a, and pivot piece, c, should be of one-inch oak, and the two last be screwed very securely to the baseboard. the shape of a is shown in fig. . the inside is cut out with a pad saw, a square notch being formed at the back for the lever to move in. the handles of an old rubber chest expander come in useful for the grips. one grip, d, is used entire for attachment to the lever; while of the other only the wooden part is required, to be mounted on a / -inch steel bar running through the arms of a near the ends of the horns. if a handle of this kind is not available for d, one may substitute for it a piece of metal tubing of not less than / -inch diameter, or a / -inch wooden rod, attached to an eye on the lever by a wire passing through its centre. a handle, if used, is joined to the lever by means of a brass plate / inch wide and a couple of inches long. a hole is bored in the centre somewhat smaller than the knob to which the rubber was fastened, and joined up to one long edge by a couple of saw cuts. two holes for good-sized screws must also be drilled and countersunk, and a socket for the knob must be scooped out of the lever. after making screw holes in the proper positions, pass the shank of the knob through the slot in the plate, and screw the plate on the lever. this method holds the handle firmly while allowing it to move freely. the lever tapers from - / inches at the pivot to / inch at the balance end. the hole for the pivot-- / -inch steel bar--should be long enough to admit a piece of tubing fitting the bar, to diminish friction, and an important point, be drilled near the handle edge of the lever, so as to leave plenty of wood to take the strain. the last remark also applies to the hole for the balance pin at q. the balance support, b, and the pivot piece, c, are - / and - / inches high respectively. run a hole vertically through c and the baseboard for the pivot, which should be - / inches long, so as to project inch when driven right home. take some trouble over getting the holes in l and c quite square to the baseboard, as any inaccuracy will make the lever twist as it moves. to prevent the pivot cutting into the wood, screw to the top of c a brass plate bored to fit the pivot accurately. the strain will then be shared by the screws. the horns of a should be long enough to allow the outside of the fixed grip to be - / inches from the inside of the handle. the balance is secured first to the lever by a pin driven through the eye of the hook, and then to b by a -inch screw passed through the ring. the balance should just not be in tension. when the apparatus is so far complete, test it by means of a second balance applied to d. set the scale-marker at zero, and pull on the d balance till, say, lbs. is attained. if the fixed balance shows lbs. on what is meant to be a to ratio, the setting of r relatively to p and q is correct. if, however, there is a serious discrepancy, it would be worth while making tests with a very strong balance, and establishing a corrected gradation on a paper dial pasted to the face of e. for twisting tests we need a special handle (see fig. ), which is slipped on to the pivot and transmits the twist to l through a pin pressing on the back of the lever. the stirrup is made out of strip iron, bent to shape and drilled near the ends for the grip spindle. to the bottom is screwed and soldered a brass or iron plate, into the underside of which the pin is driven. [illustration: fig. .--handle for twisting test.] to prevent the handle bending over, solder round the pivot hole / inch of brass tubing, fitting the pivot closely. tests.--grip tests should be made with each hand separately. the baseboard should lie flat on a table or other convenient support, and be steadied, but not pushed, by the hand not gripping. twisting tests may be made inwards with the right hand, and back-handedly with the left. the apparatus is stood on edge, square to the performer, resting on the horns of a and a support near the balance. finger tests are made by placing the thumb on the front face of b, and two fingers on the farther side of the lever, one to the left and the other to the right of the tail of the balance. xxx. lung-testing apparatus. the capacity of the lungs, and their powers of inspiration and expiration, can be tested by means of easily constructed apparatus which will interest most people who are introduced to it. the reduction of the capabilities of the lungs to figures affords a not unprofitable form of entertainment, as even among adults these figures will be found to vary widely. air volume measuring.--the air which the lungs deal with is scientifically classified under four heads: . tidal air, which passes into and out of the lungs in natural breathing. about cubic inches in an adult (average). . reserve air, which can be expelled after a normal expiration. about cubic inches. . complemental air, which can be drawn in after a normal inspiration. about cubic inches. . residual air, which cannot be removed from the lungs under any conditions by voluntary effort. about cubic inches. the first three added together give the vital capacity. this, as an addition sum will show, is very much greater than the volume of air taken in during a normal inspiration. the simplest method of testing the capacity of an individual pair of lungs is embodied in the apparatus shown in figs. and . a metal box is submerged, bottom upwards, in a tank of somewhat larger dimensions, until the water is level with the bottom inside and out. a counterweight is attached to the smaller box to place it almost in equilibrium, so that if air is blown into the box it will at once begin to rise. if we make the container - / inches square inside, in plan, every inch it rises will represent approximately cubic inches of air blown in; and a height of inches, by allowing for cubic inches, with a minimum immersion of half an inch, should suffice even for unusually capacious lungs. the outside box need not be more than inches all ways. [illustration: fig. .--section of lung-capacity tester.] unless you are an expert with the soldering iron, the making of the boxes should be deputed to a professional tinman, who would turn out the pair for quite a small charge. specify very thin zinc for the air vessel, and have the top edges stiffened so that they may remain straight. on receiving the boxes, cut a hole / -inch diameter in the centre of the bottom of the air vessel, and solder round it a piece of tubing, a, inch long, on the outside of the box. in the centre of the larger box make a hole large enough to take a tube, e, with an internal diameter of / inch. this tube is inches long and must be quite straight. next procure a straight wire, c, that fits the inside of the small tube easily; make an eye at the end, and cut off about inches. bore a hole for the wire in a metal disc inch across. [illustration: fig. .--perspective view of lung-capacity tester.] the air container is then placed in the water box and centred by means of wooden wedges driven in lightly at the corners. push the small tube through its hole in the water box, and thrust the wire--after passing it through the disc and the projection on the air container--into the tube. the tube should reach nearly to the top of the air container, and the wire to the bottom of the water box. solder the tube to the box, the wire to the disc, and the disc to the container. a little stay, s, will render the tube less liable to bend the bottom of the box. plug the tube at the bottom. the wire sliding in the tube will counteract any tendency of the container to tilt over as it rises. a nozzle, d, for the air tube is soldered into the side of a, as shown. the counterweight is attached to the container by a piece of fine strong twine which passes over two pulleys, mounted on a crossbar of a frame screwed to the sides of the water box, or to an independent base. the bottom of the central pulley should be eight inches above the top of the container, when that is in its lowest position. for recording purposes, make a scale of inches and tenths, and the corresponding volumes of air, on the side of the upright next the counterweight. the wire, w, is arranged between counterweight and upright so that an easily sliding plate, p, may be pushed down it by the weight, to act as index. [illustration: fig. .--apparatus for showing lung power.] notes.--the pulleys must work easily, to reduce friction, which renders the readings inaccurate. absolute accuracy is not obtainable by this apparatus, as the rising of the container lowers the water level slightly, and the air has to support part of the weight of the container which was previously borne by the water. but the inaccuracy is so small as to be practically negligible. a pressure recorder. [transcribers note: even with the precautions used in this project, health standards of would consider any exposure to mercury dangerous. water could be substituted and the column lengths scaled up by about . .] if mercury is poured into a vertical tube closed at the bottom, a pressure is exerted on the bottom in the proportion of approximately one pound per square inch for every two inches depth of mercury. thus, if the column is inches high the bottom pressure is slightly under lbs. per square inch. this fact is utilized in the pressure recorder shown in fig. , a u-shaped glass tube half filled with mercury. a rubber tube is attached to the bent-over end of one of the legs, so that the effects of blowing or suction may be communicated to the mercury in that leg. normally the mercury stands level in both tubes at what may be called the zero mark. any change of level in one leg is accompanied by an equal change in the opposite direction in the other. therefore, if by blowing the mercury is made to rise an inch in the left leg, the pressure exerted is obviously that required to support a two-inch column of mercury--that is, lb. per sq. inch. this gives a very convenient standard of measurement, as every inch rise above the zero mark indicates lb. of pressure. construction. the mercury tube should be made first. take a piece of glass tubing inches long, and bend it at a point inches from one end after heating in a spirit flame. the legs should be kept as parallel as possible. lay the tube, while the heated part is still pliant, on a flat surface, the bend projecting over the edge, so that the two legs shall be in line. when the glass has cooled, bend over two inches of the longer leg to an angle of about degrees. a standard for the tube is now made out of one-inch wood. hollow out a bed in which the tube shall lie and be completely protected. to the right of the tube the standard is notched to take a small bottle. the notch should be slightly narrower than the diameter of the bottle, and have its sides hollowed out to fit. halfway up the tube draw a zero mark across the standards, and above this a scale of inches in fractions on both sides. each inch represents lb. pressure. the cork of the bottle must be pierced with a red-hot wire for two glass tubes, one of which is bent over for the blowing tube. both tubes should be pointed at the bottle end so that they may enter the cork easily. make the top of the cork air tight with sealing-wax. the purpose of the bottle is to catch any mercury that might be sucked out of the tube; one does not wish mercurial poisoning to result from the experiments. also it prevents any saliva entering the mercury tube. when the latter has been secured to the standard by a couple of slips of tin nailed to the front, connect it up with the bottle, and fill it up to the zero mark with mercury poured in through a small paper funnel. the open end of the tube should be provided with an inch of tubing. clips placed on this and on the rubber connection between tube and bottle will prevent the escape of mercury should the apparatus be upset when not in use. the average blowing pressure of which the lungs are capable is about - / lbs. per square inch; inspiration pressure without mouth suction about lb. per square inch; suction pressure - / to lbs. per square inch. caution.--don't ask people with weak lungs to try experiments with the apparatus described in this chapter. xxxi. home-made harmonographs. have you ever heard of the harmonograph? if not, or if at the most you have very hazy ideas as to what it is, let me explain. it is an instrument for recording on paper, or on some other suitable surface, the figures described by two or more pendulums acting in concert. the simplest form of harmonograph is shown in fig. . two pendulums are so suspended on points that their respective directions of movement are at right angles to one another--that is, pendulum a can swing only north and south, as it were, and pendulum b only east and west. on the top of b is a platform to carry a card, and on the upper end of a a lever is pivoted so as to be able to swing only vertically upwards and downwards. at its end this lever carries a pen, which when at rest lies on the centre of the card platform. [illustration: fig. .--simple rectilinear harmonograph.] the bob, or weight, of a pendulum can be clamped at any point on its rod, so that the rate or "period" of swing may be adjusted or altered. the nearer the weight is brought to the point of suspension, the oftener will the pendulum swing to and fro in a given time--usually taken as one minute. from this it is obvious that the rates of swing of the two pendulums can be adjusted relatively to one another. if they are exactly equal, they are said to be in unison, and under these conditions the instrument would trace figures varying in outline between the extremes of a straight line on the one hand and a circle on the other. a straight line would result if both pendulums were released at the same time, a circle,[ ] if one were released when the other had half finished a swing, and the intermediate ellipses would be produced by various alterations of "phase," or time of the commencement of the swing of one pendulum relatively to the commencement of the swing of the other. [footnote : it should be pointed out here that the presence of friction reduces the "amplitude," or distance through which a pendulum moves, at every swing; so that a true circle cannot be produced by free swinging pendulums, but only a spiral with coils very close together.] but the interest of the harmonograph centres round the fact that the periods of the pendulums can be tuned to one another. thus, if a be set to swing twice while b swings three times, an entirely new series of figures results; and the variety is further increased by altering the respective amplitudes of swing and phase of the pendulums. we have now gone far enough to be able to point out why the harmonograph is so called. in the case just mentioned the period rates of a and b are as : . now, if the note c on the piano be struck the strings give a certain note, because they vibrate a certain number of times per second. strike the g next above the c, and you get a note resulting from strings vibrating half as many times again per second as did the c strings--that is, the relative rates of vibration of notes c and g are the same as those of pendulums a and b--namely, as is to . hence the "harmony" of the pendulums when so adjusted is known as a "major fifth," the musical chord produced by striking c and g simultaneously. in like manner if a swings four times to b's five times, you get a "major third;" if five times to b's six times, a "minor third;" and if once to b's three times, a "perfect twelfth;" if thrice to b's five times, a "major sixth;" if once to b's twice, an "octave;" and so on. so far we have considered the figures obtained by two pendulums swinging in straight lines only. they are beautiful and of infinite variety, and one advantage attaching to this form of harmonograph is, that the same figure can be reproduced exactly an indefinite number of times by releasing the pendulums from the same points. [illustration: fig. .--goold's twin elliptic pendulum hamonograph.] but a fresh field is opened if for the one-direction suspension of pendulum b we substitute a gimbal, or universal joint, permitting movement in all directions, so that the pendulum is able to describe a more or less circular path. the figures obtained by this simple modification are the results of compounded rectilinear and circular movements. [illustration: fig. .--benham's miniature twin elliptic pendulum harmonograph.] the reader will probably now see even fresh possibilities if both pendulums are given universal movement. this can be effected with the independent pendulums; but a more convenient method of obtaining equivalent results is presented in the twin elliptic pendulum invented by mr. joseph goold, and shown in fig. . it consists of--( ) a long pendulum, free to swing in all directions, suspended from the ceiling or some other suitable point. the card on which the figure is to be traced, and the weights, are placed on a platform at the bottom of this pendulum. ( ) a second and shorter free pendulum, known as the "deflector," hung from the bottom of the first. this form of harmonograph gives figures of infinite variety and of extreme beauty and complexity. its chief drawback is its length and weight, which render it more or less of a fixture. fortunately, mr. c. e. benham of colchester has devised a miniature twin elliptic pendulum which possesses the advantages of the goold, but can be transported easily and set up anywhere. this apparatus is sketched in fig. . the main or platform pendulum resembles in this case that of the rectilinear harmonograph, the card platform being above the point of suspension. value of the harmonograph.--a small portable harmonograph will be found to be a good means of entertaining friends at home or elsewhere. the gradual growth of the figure, as the card moves to and fro under the pen, will arouse the interest of the least scientifically inclined person; in fact, the trouble is rather to persuade spectators that they have had enough than to attract their attention. the cards on which designs have been drawn are in great request, so that the pleasure of the entertainment does not end with the mere exhibition. an album filled with picked designs, showing different harmonies and executed in inks of various colours, is a formidable rival to the choicest results of the amateur photographer's skill. practical instructions for making harmonographs. pendulums.--for the rectilinear type of harmonograph wooden rods / to / inch in diameter will be found very suitable. they cost about d. each. be careful to select straight specimens. the upper pendulum of the miniature twin elliptic type should be of stouter stuff, say a broomstick; that of the goold apparatus stouter still. all pendulums on which weights are slid up and down should be graduated in inches and fractions, reckoning from the point of suspension as zero. the graduation makes it easy to re-establish any harmony after the weights have been shifted. suspensions.--for a harmonograph to give satisfaction it is necessary that very little friction should be set up at the point of suspension, so that the pendulums may lose amplitude of swing very slowly. one-way suspensions are easily made. two types, the point and knife-edge respectively, are shown in fig. and the top part of fig. . the point suspension is most suitable for small rods and moderate weights; the knife-edge for large rods and heavy weights which would tend to crush a fine point. [illustration: fig. .--gimbal giving universal movement: point suspension.] points should rest in cup-shaped depressions in a metal plate; knife-edges in v-shaped grooves in a metal ring. [illustration: fig. .--knife-edge universal-motion gimbal.] screws turned or filed to a sharp end make convenient points, as they can be quickly adjusted so that a line joining the points lies exactly at right angles to the pendulum. the cups to take the points should not be drilled until the points have been thus adjusted. make a punch mark on the bedplate, and using this as centre for one of the points, describe an arc of a circle with the other. this will give the exact centre for the other cup. it is evident that if points and cup centres do not coincide exactly there must be a certain amount of jamming and consequent friction. in making a knife-edge, such as that shown in fig. , put the finishing touches on with a flat file drawn lengthwise to ensure the edge being rectilinear. for the same reason the v slots in the ring support should be worked out together. if they are formed separately, the chances are against their being in line with one another. gimbals, or universal joints, giving motion in all directions, require the employment of a ring which supports one pair of edges or points (fig. ), and is itself supported on another pair of edges or points set at right angles to the first. the cups or nicks in the ring should come halfway through, so that all four points of suspension shall be in the same plane. if they are not, the pendulum will not have the same swing-period in all directions. if a gimbal does not work with equal freedom in all ways, there will be a tendency for the pendulum to lose motion in the direction in which most friction occurs. by wedging up the ring of a gimbal the motion of the pendulum is changed from universal to rectilinear. if you are making a harmonograph of the type shown in fig. , use a gimbal for the platform pendulum, and design it so that the upper suspension gives a motion at right angles to the pen pendulum. the use of two little wedges will then convert the apparatus in a moment from semirectilinear to purely rectilinear. weights.--the provision of weights which can be slipped up and down a rod may present some difficulty. of iron and lead, lead is the more convenient material, as occupying less space, weight for weight, and being more easily cast or shaped. i have found thin sheet roofing lead, running lbs. to the square foot, very suitable for making weights, by rolling a carefully squared strip of the material round the rod on which it will have to move, or round a piece of brass tubing which fits the rod. when the weight has been rolled, drill four holes in it, on opposite sides near the ends, to take nails, shortened so that they just penetrate all the laps but do not enter the central circular space. these will prevent the laps sliding over one another endways. a few turns of wire round the weight over the heads makes everything snug. just one caution here. the outside lap of lead should finish at the point on the circumference where the first lap began, for the weight to be approximately symmetrical about the centre. an alternative method is to melt up scrap lead and cast weights in tins or flowerpots sunk in sand, using an accurately centred stick as the core. this stick should be very slightly larger than the pendulum rod, to allow for the charring away of the outside by the molten metal. (caution.--the mould must be quite dry.) failing lead, tin canisters filled with metal scrap may be made to serve. it will in this case be necessary to bore the lid and bottom centrally and solder in a tube fitting the rod, and to make an opening through which the weighting material can be inserted. adjustment of weights.--as lead is too soft a metal to give a satisfactory purchase to a screw--a thread cut in it soon wears out--it is better to support a leaden weight from underneath by means of a brass collar and screw. a collar is easily made out of a bit of tubing thickened at the point where the screw will pass by soldering on a suitably shaped piece of metal. drill through the reinforcement and tubing and tap to suit the screw used, which may well be a camera tail screw, with a large flat head. i experienced some trouble from the crushing of wooden rods by a screw, but got over it as follows. the tubing selected for the collar was large enough to allow a piece of slightly smaller tubing to be introduced between it and the rod. this inner piece was slit from one end almost to the other, on opposite sides, and soldered at one end to the outer tube, a line joining the slots being at right angles to the axis of the screw. the pressure of the screw point was thus distributed over a sufficient area of the wood to prevent indentation. (see fig. .) [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .--pivot for pen lever.] pen levers.--the pen lever, of whatever kind it be, must work on its pivots with very little friction, and be capable of fine adjustment as regards balance. for the rectilinear harmonograph the form of lever pivot shown in fig. is very suitable. the spindle is a wire nail or piece of knitting needle sharpened at both ends; the bearings, two screws filed flat at the ends and notched with a drill. the brass standard should be drilled and tapped to fit the screws fairly tight, so that when once adjusted they may not slacken off. if the lever is made of wood, the tail may be provided with a number of metal pegs on which to place the weights; if of wire, the tail should be threaded so that a brass weight and lock screw may be moved along it to any desired position. it is very important that the pressure of the pen on the card should be reduced to a minimum by proper balancing, as the friction generated by a "heavy" pen slows the pendulum very quickly; and that the centre of gravity should be below the point of suspension, to put the pen in stable equilibrium. the lever shown in fig. is suitable for the twin elliptic pendulum. in this case the lever is not moved about as a whole. mr. c. e. benham advocates the use of wood covered with velvet to rest the lever points on. for keeping the pen, when not in use, off the platform, a small weight attached to the lever by a thread is convenient. when the pen is working, the weight is raised to slacken the thread. [illustration: fig. .--end of pen lever.] attaching pen to lever.--in the case of wooden levers, it is sufficient to slit the end centrally for a few inches after drilling a hole rather smaller than the pen, at a point which lies over the centre of the card platform, and quite squarely to the lever in all directions, so that the pen point may rest squarely on the card. (fig. .) another method is to attach to the end of the lever a vertical half-tube of tin, against which the pen is pressed by small rubber bands; but even more convenient is a small spring clip shaped as in fig. . [illustration: fig. .--clip to hold glass pen.] the card platform should be perfectly flat. this is essential for the production of good diagrams. if wood is used, it is advisable to glue two thin pieces together under pressure, with the grain of one running at right angles to the other, to prevent warping. another important point is to have the card platform square to the rod. if a piece of tubing fitting the rod is turned up true in the lathe and soldered to a disc screwed to the underside of the table, perpendicularity will be assured, and incidentally the table is rendered detachable. to hold the card in place on the table, slit a spring of an old photographic printing frame down the middle, and screw the two halves, convex side upwards, by one end near two opposite corners of the platform. (see fig. .) if cards of the same size are always used, the table should be marked to assist adjustment. making pens.--the most satisfactory form of pen is undoubtedly a piece of glass tubing drawn out to a point, which is ground down quite smooth. the making of such pens is rather a tedious business, but if care be taken of the pen when made it will last an indefinite time. tubing / or / inch in external diameter is suitable. break it up (by nicking with a file) into -inch lengths. take a piece and hold its centre in the flame of a small spirit lamp, and revolve it till it softens. then draw the glass out in as straight a line as possible, so that the points may be central. if the drawing is done too fast, the points will be much too long to be of any use: half an inch of taper is quite enough. assuming that a point of satisfactory shape has been attained--and one must expect some failures before this happens--the pen may be placed in the pen lever and ground down on a perfectly clean wet hone laid on the card platform, which should be given a circular movement. weight the lever so as to put a fair pressure on the point. the point should be examined from time to time under a strong magnifying-glass, and tested by blowing through it into a glass of water. for very liquid ink the hole should be as small as you can possibly get it; thick inks, such as indian, require coarser pens. the sharp edge is taken off and the width of the point reduced by drawing the pen at an angle along the stone, revolving it all the time. the nearer to the hole you can wear the glass away the finer will be the line made by the pen. another method is as follows:--seal the point by holding it a moment in the flame. a tiny bulb forms on the end, and this has to be ground away till the central hole is reached. this is ascertained by the water test, or by holding the pen point upwards, so that light is reflected from the tip, and examining it under the magnifier. then grind the edge off, as in the first case. care of pens.--the ink should be well strained, to remove the smallest particles of "suspended matter," and be kept corked. fill the pen by suction. on no account allow the ink to dry in the pen. squirt any ink out of it when it is done with, and place it point downwards in a vessel of water, which should have a soft rubber pad at the bottom, and be kept covered to exclude dust. or the pen may be cleaned out with water and slipped into a holder made by rolling up a piece of corrugated packing-paper. if the point gets stopped up, stand the pen in nitric or sulphuric acid, which will probably dissolve the obstruction; and afterwards wash it out. inks.--i have found stephens's coloured inks very satisfactory, and can recommend them. paper and cards.--the paper or cards used to draw the figures on should not have a coated surface, as the coating tends to clog the pen. the cheapest suitable material is hot pressed paper, a few penny-worths of which will suffice for many designs. plain white cards with a good surface can be bought for from s. to s. per thousand. lantern slides.--moisten one side of a clean lantern slide plate with paraffin and hold it over a candle flame till it is a dead black all over. very fine tracings can be obtained on the smoked surface if a fine steel point is substituted for the glass pen. the design should be protected by a cover-glass attached to it by a binding strip round the edges. details of harmonographs. the reader may be interested in details of the apparatus shown in figs. and , made by the writer. the rectilinear harmonograph, shown in fig. , has pendulums of / -inch wood, inches long, suspended inches from the lower ends, and set inches apart, centre to centre. the suspensions are of the point type. the weights scale lbs. each. the platform pendulum is provided with a second weight, which can be affixed above the suspension to slow that pendulum for : , : , : , and higher harmonies. the baseboard is plain, and when the apparatus is in action its ends are supported on boxes or books laid on two tables, or on other convenient supports. the whole apparatus can be taken to pieces very quickly for transport. the total cost of materials used did not exceed s. d. the twin elliptic pendulum of fig. is supported on a tripod base made of three pieces of - / x - / inch wood, inches long, with ends cut off to an angle of degrees to give a convenient straddle, screwed at the top to an oak head / inch thick, and braced a foot below the top by horizontal crossbars inches wide and / inch thick. for transport this stand can be replaced by a flat baseboard similar to that of the rectilinear harmonograph described in the last paragraph. the main pendulum is a straight ash rod, inches long and - / inches in diameter, suspended - / inches from its upper end. two weights of - / lbs. each, made of rolled sheet lead, are provided for this pendulum. according to the nature of the harmony, one only, or both together below the suspension, or one above and one below, are used. the weight of the lower pendulum, or deflector, is supported on a disc, resting on a pin passing through the bottom of a piece of brass tubing, which is provided with an eye at its upper end. this eye is connected by a hook with several strands of silk thread, which are attached to the upper pendulum by part of a cycle tyre valve. the stem part of the valve was cut off from the nut, and driven into a suitably sized hole in the end of the main pendulum. the screw collar for holding the valve in place had a little brass disc soldered to the outside, and this disc was bored centrally for the threads to pass through. the edges of the hole had been rounded off carefully to prevent fraying of the threads. (fig. .) the over-all length of the pendulum, reckoning from the point of suspension, is inches. the weights of the lower pendulum are several in number, ranging from l lb. to lbs. [illustration: fig. .--suspension for lower weight of twin elliptic harmonograph.] working the harmonograph.--a preliminary remark is needed here. harmonies are, as we have seen, a question of ratio of swing periods. the larger the number of swings made by the more quickly moving pendulum relatively to that of the slower pendulum in a given time, the higher or sharper is the harmony said to be. thus, : is a higher harmony than : , and : is lower or flatter than : . the tuning of a harmonograph with independent pendulums is a simple matter. it is merely necessary to move weights up or down until the respective numbers of swings per minute bear to one another the ratio required. this type of harmonograph, if made of convenient size, has its limitations, as it is difficult to get as high a harmonic as : , or the octave with it, owing to the fact that one pendulum must in this case be very much shorter than the other, and therefore is very sensitive to the effects of friction. [illustration: fig. a.--hamonograms illustrating the ratio : . the two on the left are made by the pendulums of a twin elliptical harmonograph when working concurrently; the three on the right by the pendulums when working antagonistically.] [illustration: fig. a.--harmonograms of : ratio (antagonistically). (reproduced with kind permission of mr. c. e. benham.)] the action of the twin elliptic pendulum is more complicated than that of the rectilinear, as the harmony ratio is not between the swings of deflector and upper pendulum, but rather between the swings of the deflector and that of the system as a whole. consequently "tuning" is a matter, not of timing, but of experiment. assuming that the length of the deflector is kept constant--and in practice this is found to be convenient--the ratios can be altered by altering the weights of one or both pendulums and by adjustment of the upper weight. for the upper harmonies, : down to : , the two pendulums may be almost equally weighted, the top one somewhat more heavily than the other. the upper weight is brought down the rod as the ratio is lowered. to continue the harmonies beyond, say, : , it is necessary to load the upper pendulum more heavily, and to lighten the lower one so that the proportionate weights are or : . starting again with the upper weight high on the rod, several more harmonies may be established, perhaps down to : . then a third alteration of the weights is needed, the lower being reduced to about one-twentieth of the upper, and the upper weight is once more gradually brought down the rod. exact figures are not given, as much depends on the proportions of the apparatus, and the experimenter must find out for himself the exact position of the main weight which gives any desired harmonic. a few general remarks on the action and working of the twin elliptic will, however, be useful. . every ratio has two forms. (a) if the pendulums are working against each other-- antagonistically--there will be loops or points on the outside of the figure equal in number to the sum of the figures in the ratio. (b) if the pendulums are working with each other--concurrently--the loops form inside the figure, and are equal in number to the difference between the figures of the ratio. to take the : ratio as an example. if the tracing has + = loops on the outside, it is a specimen of antagonistic rotation. if, on the other hand, there are - = loops on the inside, it is a case of concurrent rotation. (fig. , a.) . figures with a ratio of which the sum of the numbers composing it is an even number (examples, : , : , : ) are symmetrical, one half of the figure reproducing the other. if the sum is uneven, as in : , : , : , the figure is unsymmetrical. (fig. , a.) . the ratio : is the easiest to begin upon, so the experimenter's first efforts may be directed to it. he should watch the growth of the figure closely, and note whether the repeat line is made in front of or behind the previous line of the same loop. in the first case the figure is too flat, and the weight of the upper pendulum must be raised; in the second case the weight must be lowered. immediately an exact harmonic is found, the position of the weight should be recorded. interesting effects are obtained by removing the lower pendulum and allowing the apparatus to describe two elliptical figures successively, one on the top of the other, on the same card. the crossing of the lines gives a "watered silk" appearance to the design, which, if the pen is a very fine one and the lines very close together, is in many cases very beautiful. readers who wish for further information on this fascinating subject are recommended to purchase "harmonic vibrations," published by messrs. newton and co., wigmore street, london, w. this book, to which i am much indebted, contains, besides much practical instruction, a number of charming reproductions of harmonograms. before closing this chapter i should like to acknowledge the kind assistance given me by mr. c. e. benham, who has made a long and careful study of the harmonograph. xxxii. a self-supplying matchbox. this useful little article can be constructed in a couple of hours by a handy person. in general idea it consists of a diamond-shaped box to hold vestas, working up and down diagonally on a vertical member (a in fig. ( )), which passes through slits at the top and bottom, and runs in grooves cut in the sides of the box. the top of a is grooved to allow a match to rest on it. when the box is drawn up to the full extent allowed by a transverse pin in the slot shown in fig. ( ), the groove is at the lowest point of the box, and is covered by the matches. when the box is lowered, a catches a vesta and takes it up through the top, as seen in fig. , for removal by the fingers. the only materials required are a cigar-box, some pins, and a supply of glue. the box should be carefully taken to pieces, and the parts soaked in hot water till freed of all paper, and then allowed to dry under pressure, small slips of wood being interposed across the grain to keep them separate and permit the passage of air. [illustration: fig. .--self-supplying matchbox, with match in position for removal by fingers.] when the wood is dry, cut out with a fret saw two pieces shaped like fig. ( ), to form the ends of the box. allow a little surplus, so that the edges may be finished off neatly with chisel and plane. the two ends should match exactly, or there will be trouble at a later stage. now cut, down the centre of each a groove for one edge of a to run in. by preference it should be square; but if you do not possess the necessary chisel, a v groove made with a knife will suffice--and, of course, in this case the edges of a will have to be bevelled to fit. [illustration: fig. .--details of self suplying matchbox.] the four sides of the box, bb and cc, are next cut out. their sectional shape is shown in fig. ( ). they should be rather longer than the length of the ordinary vesta, and all of exactly the same length, and rectangular. a very small hack saw (costing about s.) with fine teeth is the best possible tool for close cutting, and a small shilling iron plane is invaluable for truing and bevelling the edges. the glue pot, which we will assume to be ready for use, is now needed to attach the fixed b (the other b is hinged to form a lid for filling the box through) and cc to the ends. this operation must be carried out accurately, so that the slots may not be blocked. while the glue is setting, cut out a, allowing an extra / inch of width for fitting. the slot down the centre is best made with a fret saw, and should be smoothed internally by drawing a strip of fine glass paper to and fro through it. the length of the slot is of great importance. it must reach to just that distance from the top edge which brings that edge flush with the bottom of the box when the box is raised; and in the other direction must permit the box to settle on to its foot, so that the match lifted shall project above the box. work the edges of a down carefully (double-bevelling them if the notches are v-shaped) till a will run easily, but not loosely, in the box. then cut out two slips, dd, and bevel them at the top to an angle of degrees. put a in place and glue them on, taking care that the glue does not hold them fast to a. pierce a small hole through dd, in line with the slot, and insert a pin. draw the box fully up, and see if the top of a sinks to the proper place. if it projects a little, lengthen the slot a trifle. cut out the supports ee, finish them neatly, and glue them to a. make sure that the pin lets the box touch them. fix on the lid b with two pins for pivots, and fit a little catch made of brass wire. to give extra security, drive ordinary pins, cut off to / inch, through the sides into fixed b, cc, and dd, and through ee into a. this is an easy enough business if pilot holes are made with a very fine awl or a tiny drill, and a small, light hammer is used. it now remains only to go over the whole box with glass paper or emery cloth, and to glue a diamond of coarse glass paper to one end for striking the matches on. note that the lid must not be opened when the box is down, as it would be wrenched off its pivots. xxxiii. a wooden workbox. the box illustrated by fig. was copied from an article of norwegian manufacture. its construction is an extremely simple matter, provided that one can get a piece of easily bent wood (birch, for instance), not exceeding / inch in thickness, for the sides. [illustration: fig. .--showing how to draw an ellipse.] [illustration: fig. .--norwegian workbox.] the bottom of the box is made of / or / inch wood, cut to an oval or elliptical shape. to mark out an ellipse about inches long and - / inches wide--this will be a. convenient size--stick two pins into the board - / inches apart, pass a loop of thread inches in circumference round these, and run the point of a pencil round the pins in the path which it has to take when confined by the slack of the loop (fig. ). fret-saw along the line. the wood strip for the side is - / inches deep, and - / inches longer than the circumference of the bottom. the ends are thinned off somewhat, as shown in fig. , to prevent the lap having a clumsy appearance, and the surface is smoothed all over with sandpaper. bore a number of small nail holes / inch from one edge, and then steam the wood over a big saucepan or other suitable vessel until it is quite lissom. when attaching the side piece to the bottom, begin at the middle, and work first towards what will be the inside end of the lap, and then towards the outside end. nails are driven in through the holes already drilled. when nailing is finished, clip the top of the overlap with a hand-vice or screw spanner, to prevent the tops of the ends sliding over one another, and bore a line of holes l/ inch apart, and at the same distance from the outer end. fine copper wire drawn to and fro through alternate holes from one end of the row to the other and back again, will secure the joint. the lid overlaps the side / inch in all directions and has a square notch cut in it at one end to pass under the piece a, and at the other a deeper, circular-ended nick to enable it to pass over the key b when that is turned into the position shown in the illustration. a is cut out of / -inch wood; b, in one piece, out of / -inch. their length under the heads exceeds the inside depth of the box by the thickness of the lid. a is affixed rigidly to the side by small screws or wire, while b must be attached in a manner, which will allow the head to rotate. cut two nicks round the shank, and two horizontal slots at the same height through the end of the box. a couple of brass rings must then be procured of such a size that, when flattened into a somewhat oval shape, they will project beyond the slots sufficiently to allow a piece of wire to pass through them and prevent their being drawn back again. quarter-inch wood will do for the lid. a handle is made out of a couple of inches of small cane bent into a semicircle, let through the lid at each end, glued, and cut off flush. the exterior may be decorated by a design in poker-work, or be stained and varnished. this is left to the maker's discretion. xxxiv. wrestling puppets. [illustration: fig. .--peg marked for cutting and drilling.] the expenditure of a halfpenny, and a quarter of an hour's use of a pocket knife, bradawl, and pliers, will produce a toy which is warranted to amuse grown-ups as well as children. wrestlers made out of clothes pegs may be bought for a copper or two in the street, and are hardly a novelty; yet a few notes on home production will not be a waste of space, as making is cheaper, and much more interesting, than buying. the clothes pegs used must be of the shape shown in fig. , with a round top. they cost one penny per dozen. drill holes through body and legs as indicated in fig. . cut the legs from the "trunk,'" and whittle them to the shape of fig. . the arms, made out of any thin wood, are - / inches long between centres of end holes. to get the best results the two arms and the four legs should be paired off to exactly the same length. [illustration: fig. .--clothes-peg wrestlers.] the neatest method of attaching the parts is to use small brass tacks, which must, of course, be of somewhat larger diameter than the holes in the body. holes in arms and legs are a loose fit, so that the wrestlers may be very loose-jointed, and the tacks must not be driven in far enough to cause any friction. instead of tacks one may use wire passed through the parts and secured by a bend or loop at each end. wire has the disadvantage of entangling the thread which works the figures. when assembling is finished, bore holes in the centres of the arm pieces, pass a piece of wire through, and twist it into a neat loop at each end. to one loop tie feet of strong thread (carpet thread is best), and to the free end of the thread a large nail or hook. the other loop has feet or so of thread tied to it, to be worked by the hand. if the thread is stained black, it will be practically invisible by artificial light. the nail or hook is stuck under the edge of the carpet, or into some crack or cranny which affords a good hold, and the wrestlers are worked by motions of the hand. the funniest antics are produced by very slight jerks. if the arms are set too close together the heads may stick between them, in which case one must either flatten off the sides of the heads or insert fresh arm wires of greater length. if a head persists in jamming against the thread wire or getting under it and staying there, cut / inch off a pin and stick it into the front of the crown, so that the head is arrested by the wire when the wrestler bends forward. [illustration: fig. .--large wrestlers made of stout wood.] large wrestlers.--a more elaborate and realistic pair is shown in fig. . the originals of the sketch are inches high. half-inch deal was used for the bodies, / -inch for the legs and arms. the painting-in of hair, features, tights, and shoes adds considerably to the effect. the heads and limbs are mere profiles, but anyone with a turn for carving might spend a little time in rounding off and adding details which will make the puppets appear more lifelike. xxxv. double bellows. the small-sized bellows which have become popular in sitting-rooms are usually more ornamental than efficient, and make one think regretfully of the old-fashioned article of ample capacity which is seldom seen nowadays. fig. illustrates a method of coupling up two small bellows in such a manner as to provide an almost continuous blast, besides doubling the amount of air sent through the fire in a given time, at the coat of but little extra exertion. a piece of wood half an inch thick is screwed across one bellows just behind the valve hole. the two bellows are then laid valve facing valve, and are attached to one another by a strip of tin passed round the wood just behind the nozzles and by tying the two fixed handles together. [illustration: fig. .--double-acting bellows. two methods of coupling shown.] make a rectangle of stout wire somewhat wider than the handles and long enough to reach from the outer face of one moving handle to that of the other, when one bellows is quite closed and the other full open. the ends of the wire should be soldered together, and the ends of the link held up to the handles by a couple of staples. an alternative method is to use a piece of wood with a screw driven into it at right angles near each end through the staples on the handles (fig. , a). in place of the staples you may use screw-in eyes fitting the screws. xxxvi. a home-made pantograph. the pantograph is a simple apparatus for copying drawings, maps, designs, etc., on a reduced or enlarged scale, or to the same size as the original. [illustration: fig. .--details of simple pantograph.] a sketch of a pantograph is given in fig. . four rods are jointed together to form a parallelogram, the sides of which can be lengthened or shortened to suit the scale of reproduction. one is attached by a fixed pivot at a to the board on which the drawing is done. at b and e are removable pivots, used for adjusting the rods; at c is a pivot which projects an inch or so below the rods. the pointer is inserted at d for enlargement, or at f for reduction, the pencil being in the unoccupied hole at d or f. if a same-sized copy is desired, the fixed pivot is transferred to d, and the pencil and pointer placed at a and f respectively. construction of an enlarging and reducing pantograph.--cut out of / -inch oak, walnut, or beech four rods / inch wide and inches long. smooth them well all over, and make marks near the ends of each, exactly inches apart. the graduation of the rods for the adjustment pivot holes is carried out in accordance with the measurements given in fig. . it is advisable to mark out and bore each rod separately if you do not possess a machine which will drill holes quite perpendicularly; if you do, all four rods can be drilled at one operation. in fig. the lower row of numerals indicates the number of times (in diameters) the original is enlarged when all four holes similarly figured are used; the upper row, the size of the copy as compared with the original in case of reduction. if proportions other than those given are required, a very little calculation will locate the necessary holes. pivots.--all the pivots must fit their holes accurately, as any looseness at the joints detracts from the truth of reproduction. for pivots band b and e may use brass screws and small pieces of hard wood as nuts to hold them in position. the nuts should screw on rather stiffly, and not be forced hard against the rods, as free motion with little friction at all joints is essential for good work. [illustration: fig. .--diagram showing how to mark off pantograph rods. the dotted lines above rod give distances of holes from ends.] the fixed pivot at a may be merely the shank of a wire nail of the proper size driven into the board, a cork collar being slipped over it to keep the rod the proper distance from the board. for c use a screw to the head of which has been soldered half an inch of a round-headed brass nail, which will move easily over the paper. at d is needed a hollow pivot, fashioned out of a quarter of an inch of pencil-point protector or some other thin tube, burred over slightly at the ends so as not to fall out. the end of b at f has a slotted hole to grip the pencil or pointer, as the case may be. a same-size pantograph.--for making a same-size copy, tracing may be preferred to the use of a pantograph; but if a pantograph is adopted, a special apparatus may be constructed for the purpose. the arrangement is exactly the same as that already described, excepting that the only holes needed are those at a, c, d, f, at the middle points of the four rods, the parallelogram formed by the rods being equal-sided. the fixed pivot is situated at d, and pencil and pointer holes are made at a and f. using the pantograph.--when adjusting the instrument for reduction or enlargement, make sure that the adjustment pivots are in the holes corresponding with the scale. the fixed pivot, pointer, and pencil must be rigid, and, with pivot c, be of such a length that the pantograph as a whole moves parallel to the paper. a little sliding weight to place on the rod near the pencil will be found useful for keeping the pencil point in constant contact with the paper. if the apparatus works stiffly, ease the holes a trifle and lead-pencil the wood at all points where two surfaces rub. it is absolutely impossible to make a good reproduction with a stiff, jerky pantograph. to decide the positions of original and the paper for the copy, get the pointer centred on the original and adjust the paper till its centre is under the pencil. xxxvii. a silhouette drawing machine. with this very simple apparatus you will be able to give good entertainment to such of your friends as may wish to have black paper records of their faces in profile. the machine is merely a long rod, with a sliding pencil attached to one end and a metal pointer stuck into the other, supported near the pencil end on a pivot which permits free movement in all directions. for heads and busts only, the rod and pointer combined need not be more than feet inches long. the rod is a / -inch blind rod, the pointer a stout knitting-needle driven axially into one end of the rod. this pointer, being of small diameter, follows the minor curves and angles of the features much more closely than would be possible with the rod. the support is a piece of wood, - / inches square and to inches long, screwed on to a large foot, which should be fairly heavy, as any tilting or slipping will, of course, spoil the silhouette. the universal joint for the rod is made by soldering a small u-shaped piece of metal to the end of a short metal bar. the ends of the u are drilled for a pin passing through the rod; and a hole is sunk into the top of the support to take the bar. the fit should be close, to prevent the pivot rocking about, and the hole in the support deep enough to bring the bottom of the stirrup down against the wood. if a series of holes half an inch apart is drilled, through the rod, the nearest inches from the pencil end, the size of the silhouette proportionately to the original can be varied by moving the pin from one hole to another. [illustration: fig. .--silhouettograph in use.] [illustration: fig. a.--group of silhouettes drawn with the machine described.] the pencil holder is inches of tubing, in which the pencil can slide easily without shaking. if necessary, the size of the pencil should be reduced by rubbing with glass paper. bind the holder tightly to the end of the rod away from the pointer, so that one extremity just overhangs the rod. a piece of thin elastic is tied to the unsharpened end of the pencil and to the pencil tube, the adjustment allowing the pencil to project an inch when the elastic is taut but not stretched. a fairly soft pencil and a thick, smooth paper or card give the best results. paper should be backed by something hard to prevent the pencil digging in. attach the paper to a firm vertical surface, such as the side of a box, a drawing board, a wall, etc. using the machine.--the rod support, paper, and sitter should be arranged so that the rod is level at the height of the sitter's nose and the pencil on the centre of the paper. bring the support near enough to the paper to drive the pencil back into the tube until the point projects only half an inch. a thread attached to the pencil will enable you to keep the pencil off the paper until you wish to begin drawing the profile. begin with the pointer pressing against the sitter's chest, and bring it over the face and down the back of the head and neck. do not press it into the hair, but carry it along what you consider to be the outline; though it must be in actual contact with the features and clothes. it is hardly necessary to mention that the sitter must keep perfectly still if the silhouette is to be at all accurate. the tracing is cut round with fine-pointed scissors, and the paper blacked and stuck on a piece of white card. some trouble is saved by using paper white on one aide and black on the other. if duplicates are needed, two or more pieces of paper should be stuck together by the corners and to the paper on which the silhouette is drawn, and all be cut through at one operation. with a little practice the actual tracing of the outline occupies but a few seconds. things are expedited if an assistant adjusts the paper and pencil. xxxviii. a signalling lamp. visual signalling is effected at night in the morse code by means of a lamp fitted with an easily-moved shutter, which passes or cuts off the light at the will of the operator. readers who know the morse code might well go to the trouble of constructing in duplicate the simple apparatus to be described, as the possession of an outfit will enable them to extend their signalling capabilities. the stand for the lamp is admirably supplied by the ordinary camera tripod. for the illuminant we may select any good acetylene cycle lamp. for this a holder is made of / -inch wood, according to the sketch shown in fig. . the width of all the four parts should be about inches greater than the front glass of the lamp. b and c should be sufficiently far apart to allow the lamp to rest on the rim above the carbide chamber; and the front, a, should be at least an inch higher than the top of the lamp glass. [illustration: fig. .--signalling lamp with quick-moving shutter.] the hole cut in b must be so situated as to bring the front of the lamp close to the front of the holder, so that the greatest possible amount of light may be utilized. the hole in a should be rather larger than the lamp front, and, of course, be accurately centred. mark these two holes off carefully, and cut out with a pad saw or fret saw. a socket must be attached to the centre of the underside of the base to take the camera screw; or, if such a socket is not easily obtainable, a hole should be drilled in the base to take an ordinary wood screw of good size, the surplus of which is cut off so as not to interfere with the lamp. the shutter.--the woodwork is so simple that nothing further need be said about it. the more difficult part of the business is the making of the shutter, which must be so constructed that it can be opened and closed rapidly by motions similar to those used in working the telegraph key described in a preceding chapter. speed of working is obtained by dividing the shutter into two or three parts, each revolving on its own spindle, but all connected so as to act in perfect unison. the thinnest sheet brass or iron obtainable should be used, so that the tension of the spring used to close the shutter need not be great. our illustration shows a two-part shutter, each half an inch wider than the hole in the front, and jointly a similar amount deeper. the upper half overlaps the lower, outside, by a quarter of an inch. the spindles are two straight pieces of brass wire, revolving in sockets which are most easily made of notched pieces of wood (as shown in fig. ), with removable caps of strip tin. the lower spindle should be an inch longer than the width of the front, to allow for a cranked end, to which the closing spring will be attached. having cut out the halves of the shutter, solder the spindle wires to one edge of each on what will be the back side. the wires must be so arranged as to allow a quarter of an inch to project beyond the left edge of the front, as the opening mechanism is situated on this side as the most convenient for the operator. take a couple of metal discs, an inch or so in diameter, and bore a hole in each near the circumference to fit the ends of the pivots fairly tight. three-eighths of an inch from this--centre to centre--bore and tap a hole for a small screw. the tapping should be done with a taper tap and carried just so far that the screw turns stiffly without danger of being broken off by the screw-driver. next find the correct positions of the parts of the shutter and the spindle sockets on the front of the holder, and mark them off carefully. screw the wooden parts of the sockets to the front. four little "distance pieces" should now be cut out of small tubing, or made by twisting tin round the spindle, to place on the spindles between shutter and sockets, so that the shutters cannot shift sideways. the right-hand end of the lower spindle must be bent over (after slipping on the distance piece) to form a / -inch crank making an angle of degrees with the line of the front, in an upward direction, as it will be depressed by the opening of the shutter. flatten out the end with a hammer, and drill a small hole near the tip. the shutters can now be placed in position, and the caps of the sockets be screwed on. the next thing to make is the connecting rod to join the cranks at the left side of the front. for this purpose we may use a piece of fairly stiff strip metal--brass by preference-- or inches long. half an inch from one end make a mark with the centre punch; then measure off exactly the distance between the shutter spindles, and make a second punch mark. drill holes at the marks large enough, for the disc screws to pass through easily, but not loosely. attach the rod to the discs by the screws, and slip the discs on to the ends of the shutter spindles. (the free end of the rod should be upwards.) press the shutters against the front so that they cannot open, adjust the discs at an angle of degrees to the front in an upward direction, and solder them firmly to the spindles. the upper end of the connecting rod should be turned over to form a finger rest, or be sharpened off to take a knob. the last operation is the fitting of the spring to close the shutter. a spiral spring attached at one end of the crank on the lower spindle and at the other to a nail projecting from the side of the front is the most convenient arrangement. if you have not got a spiral spring, you can easily make a. fairly efficient substitute out of hard brass wire wound a few times round a large wire nail. an alternative method of springing is to add an arm, a, to the connecting rod, as shown by dotted lines in fig. , and to use the projection for engaging a spring, made by winding hard brass wire a few times round a nail. a screw passed through the coil holds it to the front. the tension of the spring must be just sufficient to close the shutter smartly and prevent it rebounding far enough to pass any light. xxxix. a miniature gasworks. the most primitive method of making coal gas on a small scale is to fill a tin--which must have folded, not soldered, joints--with small coal, punch a hole in the bottom, and place it lid downwards in the fire. gas soon begins to issue, but, owing to the quantity of moisture and impurities present, it will not ignite until some minutes have elapsed. the flame, when it does make its appearance, is very smoky and gives little light, because, in addition to the coal gas of commerce, there are present ammonia gas, sulphuretted hydrogen, carbonic acid, tar vapour, etc., which prevent brightness of flame. [illustration: fig. .--general view of gas-making apparatus.] a miniature gasworks, if it is to be worthy of its name, must obviously endeavour to separate the troublesome components from the useful gas. the doing of this involves several processes, all simple enough in principle, and requiring but simple apparatus for demonstration on a small scale. to take them in order the processes are-- (l) the formation of gas in a retort; ( ) the condensation of the tar; ( ) the condensation of steam; ( ) the removal of the ammonia gas; ( ) the removal of the sulphuretted hydrogen and carbonic acid. the last two processes are, in a real gasworks, usually separated, but for simplicity's sake we will combine them. finally, the storage of the gas has to be provided for. the retort.--to get very good results, the retort should be of cast iron, and have a removable air-tight cover; but, to keep down expense, we will use an ordinary -pound self-opening coffee tin. a short piece of brass pipe is soldered into the lid near one edge to carry off the gas as it is generated. to get a fairly gas-tight joint, red-leaded asbestos string should be rammed tightly between the lid and the tin. the tin may be laid on an open fire on the slant, the lid end uppermost, and the pipe at the top, where the gas will collect; or, if you wish to make things more realistic, you may easily construct an oven with sides and back of fire-brick, and front of sheet iron, through the hole in which the tin is pushed horizontally, so that only half an inch projects. this is a. suitable arrangement for out of doors. [illustration: fig. .--vertical section of condenser.] the hydraulic main.--this is represented in fig. by a double-necked bottle, b, standing in a bowl of cold water. the pipe from the retort passes through the cork in one neck and dips half an inch below the surface of the water inside. the gas, on meeting the water, is cooled, and some of the steam in it is condensed, also most of the tar present, which floats on the top of the water. from the bottle the gas passes on to the condensers, where the process of cooling is completed gradually. the condenser (fig. ) is so designed as to cause the gas to pass through several pipes in succession. the base consists of a tin box, inches long, wide, and - / deep. this is divided longitudinally down the centre by a - / -inch partition, soldered to the bottom and sides; and the two divisions are again subdivided, as shown in fig. , by shorter cross partitions. [illustration: fig. .--plan of condenser.] for the condensing pipes, "compo" tubing of / -inch outside diameter is convenient. the amount required will, of course, depend on the number of pipes used and the length of the individual pipes. the design shows pipes, each feet long, bent to a semicircular curve (fig. ) at the middle to form very long, narrow horse-shoes. the pipes are supported at the curve by the crossbar, s (fig. ), of a frame, and their ends enter short pieces of brass tubing soldered into holes in the bottom of the tin box. rubber bands make the joints air-tight. [illustration: fig. .--vertical section of purifier.] the base is stood bottom upwards in a larger tin containing an inch and a half of water. the water acts as a seal, preventing the passage of the gas from one compartment to another through the pipes which it traverses, in the order indicated by the arrows and numbers in fig. , to reach the outlet. on its way the gas is deprived of any water and of any traces of tar. the condensed water and tar fall from the open ends of the pipes into the base. the purifier is made of a large tin with overlapping lid. near the bottom is soldered on an inlet pipe; just below the lid an outlet pipe. cut out two discs of perforated zinc or sheet tin to fit inside the tin easily, but not loosely. (if tin is used, make a number of small holes in it.) the lower of the discs (fig. , bl) has three wire legs, aa, soldered to it, to support the upper disc, b. three short supports keep it clear of the bottom. the tin must be charged with a mixture of two parts green sulphate of iron and one part lime. the lime should be slaked a short time before use. the sulphate, lime, and sufficient water to moisten the whole are ground into a pulp and left to dry. the dry mixture, which has a reddish-yellow colour, is broken up fine. put tray b into place and spread half the chemical over it; then lay b on the top and cover it with the remainder. the lid joint is sealed by a broad rubber band. while passing through the tin, the ammonia, sulphuretted hydrogen and carbonic acid gases all combine with the chemical, and fairly pure gas issues from the outlet. the gasholder.--as the gasometer is an important feature of a gasworks, our small plant should contain its counterpart, as it serves to regulate the pressure of the gas, and, therefore, the steadiness of the flame, as well as affording storage room. as a gasometer, one may use a container made on the principle of the lung-testing apparatus described on p. ; or the gasholder of a lantern acetylene apparatus, which must, of course, be suitably counterweighted. working the plant.--when starting up the plant, leave the burner open until inflammable gas issues, so that the air present in the various chambers may be displaced. [transcribers note: premature lighting of the burner may cause the flame to propagate into the system and explode. i speak from experience.] index. aeroplane, model, self-launching. bedplate for engine. bellows, double. bench, joiner's. benham's harmonograph. bicycle shed. boilers, model. bookstand. box kites. cabinets, cardboard, cigar-box, match-box, tool. circles, rolling. clock, electric alarm. colour top. cylinder, double-acting steam. developing sink. doors for shed. double-acting horizontal steam engine. double bellows. eccentrics. electric alarm clock. electric motor, reciprocating. electric railway. engine, hot-air. experiments, apparatus for simple scientific. fuels for model boilers. gasworks, miniature. ganges, rain, water, gimbals, or universal joints. gliders, paper. goold's harmonograph. governor for engine. harmonographs. hot-air engines. house ladder. joiner's bench. kettles, quick-boiling. kites, box. kite winders. ladder, house. lamp, signalling. locomotive, electric. lung-testing apparatus. magic swingers. windmill. match-boarding. match-box, self-supplying. morse code. morse sounder. motor, electric. motor, water. nozzle for steam turbine. pantograph. pendulums for harmonograph. pens for harmonograph. pneumatic puzzle. poultry house. propellers for aeroplane. pumps. puppets, wrestling. puzzle, pneumatic. railway, electric. rain gauges. reciprocating steam engine, simple. resistance, adjustable, for electric railway. reversing switch for electric railway. riveting. safety valves. sawing trestle. shed for bicycle. signalling lamp. silhouette drawing machine. simple scientific experiments. sink, developing. slide valve. smoke-ring apparatus. soldering. spokes, magic. steam cocks. steam engines. steam gauge. steam pump. steam tops. steam turbines. strength. testing machines. swingers, magic. switch, multiple battery. switch, reversing. target apparatus. telegraphic apparatus. testing boilers. tool cabinet. top, colour. tops, steam. track for model railway. trestle, sawing. turbines, model steam. vanishing spiral. vice for joiner's bench. water gauge. water motor. weights for harmonograph pendulums. windmill, magic. wind vanes; electric. workbox, norwegian. wrestling puppets. wriggling line. the end. printed in great britain at the press of the publishers. [transcribers note: mis-spelled words in the original left as is. below is a list of all known mis-spelled words kept from the original: table of contents - classification of plates bowels - should be bowls chapter ii - speed of the lathe centrificial - should be centrifugal chapter ix - methods of fastening stock epecially - should be especially chapter xi - spiral turning modelling - should be modeling chapter xi - plates b-v-- -b, b´ midde - should be middle] a course in wood turning by archie s. milton otto k. wohlers [illustration: bruce milwaukee (publishers stamp)] the bruce publishing company milwaukee, wisconsin copyright archie s. milton otto k. wohlers preface this book is the outgrowth of problems given to high school pupils by the writers, and has been compiled in logical sequence. stress is laid upon the proper use of tools, and the problems are presented in such a way that each exercise, or project, depends somewhat on the one preceding. it is not the idea of the writers that all problems shown should be made, but that the instructor select only such as will give the pupils enough preliminary work in the use of the tools to prepare them for other models following. the related matter on the care of the lathe and tools, the grinding of chisels, the polishing of projects, and the specific directions and cautions for working out the various exercises and projects with the drawings, make the book not only valuable for reference, but also as a class text to be studied in connection with the making of projects. the drawings show exact dimensions and are tabulated in the upper right-hand corner in such a way that they may be used in a filing case if desired. at least two designs are shown for each model, and these may be used as suggestions from which students, with the aid of the instructor, may work out their own designs. the book has been divided into two parts: (a) spindle turning, and (b) face-plate turning. the same order is followed in each part; the related information is supplied where required as the pupil progresses. part a takes up the following: (i) exercises; (ii) models, involving the same tool processes, only in a somewhat different degree; (iii) oval turning, explaining the use of two centers; (iv) duplicate turning, where identical pieces are turned. part b is arranged as follows: (i) exercises; (ii) models, which are an application of cuts in exercises that involve only face-plate work; (iii) models, which require chucking; (iv) assembling exercises, involving spindle turning, face-plate work and chucking; (v) spiral turning, showing the method of turning a spiral on the lathe. the ultimate aim of this book is to give, through the exercises and problems, a thorough understanding of the principles of wood turning by gradually developing the confidence of the pupil in the complete control of his tools, at the same time suggesting harmonious lines in design which will lead to other ideas in designing problems. table of contents pages chapter i. introductory --commercial and educational values of wood turning --elements of success - chapter ii. the lathe --care of the lathe --speed of the lathe --method of figuring the diameter of pulleys --rules for finding the speeds and sizes of pulleys --points on setting up the lathe and shafting - chapter iii. wood turning tools --grinding and whetting turning tools --the gouge --the parting tool --scraping tools - chapter iv. spindle turning --centering stock --clamping stock in the lathe --adjusting the tool rest --position of the operator at the lathe --holding the tools --use of the tools in spindle turning - chapter v. tool processes in spindle turning --the roughing cut --the sizing cut --the smoothing cut --testing for smoothness --measuring for length --squaring ends --cutting off --shoulder cuts --taper cuts --v cuts-concave cuts --convex cuts --combination cuts --chisel handles --mallets and handles --vise handles - chapter vi. oval turning --tool operations - chapter vii. duplicate turning --use of measuring stick --use of templets chapter viii. finishing and polishing --ordinary cabinet finishing --french polishing --method of applying french polish - chapter ix. face-plate and chuck turning --methods of fastening stock --small single screw face-plate --large surface screw face-plate --gluing to waste stock --lathe adjustments --position of tool rest - chapter x. tool processes in face-plate and chuck turning --straight cuts --roughing off corners --calipering for diameter --smoothing cut --roughing cut on the face --smoothing the face --laying off measurements --external shoulders --internal shoulders --taper cuts --v cuts --concave cuts --convex cuts --combination cuts --use of scraping tools --internal boring --turning a sphere - chapter xi. spiral turning --single spiral, straight shaft --tapered shaft --double spiral, tapered shaft --double spiral, straight shaft --double groove spiral, straight shaft - plates--spindle turning. straight cuts, shoulder cuts, - taper cuts, - v cuts, - concave cuts, - convex cuts, - combination cuts, - chisel handles, - cabinet file handle, scratch awl handle, carving tool handle, turning chisel handle, mallets, - gavels, - darning eggs, - stocking darner, potato masher, rolling pins, - vise handle, screw driver handles, - pene hammer handle, claw hammer handle, indian clubs, - dumb bells, - ten pins, plates--chuck turning. straight cuts, - shoulder cuts, - taper cuts, - v cuts, - concave cuts, - convex cuts, - combination cuts, - match boxes, - pin trays, - hair pin receivers, - hat pin receivers, - ornamental vases, - spinnet, towel rings, - card trays, - picture frames, - nut bowls, - napkin rings, - jewel boxes, - collar boxes, - sphere, checker men, candle sticks, - shaving stands, - reading lamp stands, - pedestal, smokers' stands, - pin cushion and spoon holder, chess men, - pedestals, - electric reading lamps, - magazine holders, - classification of plates a. spindle turning i. exercises . straight cuts, a . shoulder cuts, a-b-c-d . taper cuts, a-b-c-d-e-f . v cuts, a-b . concave cuts, a-b-c . convex cuts, a-b-c-d . combination cuts, a-b-c ii. models . chisel handles, a-b-c-d-e-f-g . mallets, a-b . gavels, a-b-c-d . stocking darners, a-b-c . potato mashers, a-b . rolling pins, a-b . vise handles, a iii. oval turning . screw-driver handles, a-b . hammer handles, a-b iv. duplicate turning . indian clubs, a-b . dumb-bells, a-b . tenpins, a . drawer pulls, a-b b. face-plate and chuck turning i. exercises . straight cuts, a-b . shoulder cuts, a-b . taper cuts, a-b . v cuts, a-b . concave cuts, a-b . convex cuts, a-b . combination cuts, a-b-c ii. face-plate models . match boxes, a-b-c . pin trays, a-b . hair pin receivers, a-b . hat pin receivers, a-b . ornamental vases, a-b-c . spinnet, (game) a iii. chuck models . towel rings, a-b-c . card trays, a-b-c-d . picture frames, a-b-c-d . nut bowels, a-b-c-d . napkin rings, a-b-c . jewel boxes, a-b-c-d-e-f-g-h . collar boxes, a-b-c . spheres, a . checker men, a iv. assembling exercises . candle sticks, a-b-c-d-e . shaving stands, a-a´-b-b´ . reading lamp stands, a-b-c . pedestals, a . smoking stands, a-b . pin cushions and spool holder, a . chess men, a-a´ v. spiral turning . pedestal, (single) a-a´, (double) b . reading lamps, (single) a-a´-a´´ (double) b-b´ . magazine holder, a-a´ chapter i introductory wood turning has had a definite place in the commercial world for a great many years. it is used in various forms in making furniture and furniture parts, building trim, tool parts, toys, athletic paraphernalia and many other useful and beautiful articles in common use. when properly taught in the schools it is one of the most valuable types of instruction. it appeals to pupils more than any other type of manual work, as it embodies both the play and work elements. it is very interesting and fascinating and, in the hands of a skilled instructor, is readily correlated with other work. wood turning gives a pupil preliminary experience necessary in pattern making and machine shop work. it brings into play the scientific element by demonstrating the laws governing revolving bodies. in bringing the chisel into contact with the revolving surface, the mathematical principle of the "point of tangency" is illustrated. excellent tool technique is developed in wood turning as on the exactness of every movement depends the success of the operator, and any slight variation will spoil a piece of work. this brings in a very close correlation of the mental and motor activities and also gives the student an opportunity for observing and thinking while at work. when his tool makes a "run" he must determine the reason and figure out why a certain result is obtained when the chisel is held in a given position. certain cuts must be fully mastered, and it takes a good deal of experience and absolute confidence in one's self in manipulating the tools before it is possible to attempt skilful work. if scraping is allowed the educational value of the work is lost. in wood turning a vast field for design and modeling is opened, and art and architecture can be correlated. the pupil will see for himself the need of variety in curves and must use his judgment in determining curves that are so harmonious and pleasing that they will blend together. if properly taught the beauty in the orders of architecture can be brought out in the making of the bead, fillet, scotia, cove, etc. a feeling of importance is excited in a boy when he sees his hands shaping materials into objects of pleasing form. wood turning properly taught awakens the aesthetic sense and creates a desire for the beautiful. the boy or man who has learned to make graceful curves and clean-cut fillets and beads will never be satisfied with clumsy effects which are characteristic in cheap commercial work, made only to sell. success in turning depends on the following: . care of lathe, tools, selection of materials. . study of the scientific elements of-- a. revolving bodies. b. points of tangency. c. study of results by reasoning and observing. . development of technique and exactness. . correlation of mental and motor activities. chapter ii the lathe the sizes of turning lathes are given as ", ", etc. these figures denote the diameter, or size, of the largest piece of work that can be turned on them. the measurement is taken from the center point of the live center to the bed of the lathe (usually " or ") and is one-half the diameter of the entire circle. the length of a lathe is determined by the length of a piece of work that can be turned. this measurement is taken from the points of the live and dead centers when the tail stock is drawn back the full extent of the lathe bed. fig. shows a turning lathe with sixteen principal parts named. the student should learn the names of these parts and familiarize himself with the particular function of each. care of the lathe the lathe should be oiled every day before starting. at the end of the period the lathe should be brushed clean of all chips and shavings, after which it should be rubbed off with a piece of waste or cloth to remove all surplus oil. all tools should be wiped clean and put in their proper places. if a student finds that his lathe is not running as it should, he should first call the attention of the instructor to that fact before attempting to adjust it; and then only such adjustments should be made as the instructor directs. speed of the lathe the speed of the lathe should range from to revolutions per minute when the belt is on the smallest step of the cone pulley. at this speed stock up to " in diameter can be turned with safety. stock from " to " in diameter should be turned on the second or third step, and all stock over " on the last step. the speed at which a lathe should run depends entirely upon the nature of the work to be done and the kind of material used. pieces that cannot be centered accurately and all glued-up work with rough corners should be run slowly until all corners are taken off and the stock runs true. at high speed the centrificial force on such pieces is very great, causing the lathe to vibrate, and there is a possibility of the piece being thrown from the lathe thus endangering the worker as well as those around him. after the stock is running true the speed may be increased. [illustration: fig. . - wood turning lathe] to figure the diameter of pulleys suppose a motor runs r.p.m. and is fitted with a " pulley. suppose also, a main shaft should run r.p.m. then, : :: x : ; or, x = , x = , or the diameter of the large pulley on the main shaft. suppose again that a line shaft runs r.p.m., and a counter shaft r.p.m. the counter shaft has a pulley " in diameter. the pulley on the line shaft must then have a diameter of ". : :: : x; or, x = , x = " suppose the cone pulley on the counter shaft runs r.p.m.; a lathe spindle runs r.p.m., when connected with the small cone pulley which has a diameter of ". the large cone pulley has then a diameter of ". : :: : x or, x = ; x = " rules for finding the speeds and sizes of pulleys . to find the diameter of the driving pulley: multiply the diameter of the driven by the number of revolutions it should make and divide the product by the number of revolutions of the driver. ( x = ; ÷ = "--diameter of motor pulley.) . to find the diameter of the driven pulley: multiply the diameter of the driver by its number of revolutions and divide the product by the number of revolutions of the driven. ( x = ; ÷ = "--diameter of the driven pulley.) . to find the number of revolutions of the driven pulley: multiply the diameter of the driver by its number of revolutions and divide by the diameter of the driven. ( x = ; ÷ = --revolutions of driven pulley.) points on setting up lathe and shafting the counter shaft should be about ' above the lathe. a distance of ' from the center of the shaft to the center of the spindle is sufficient. in setting a lathe or hanging a counter shaft it is necessary that both be level. the counter shaft must be parallel to the line shaft. when the counter shaft is in position a plumb bob should be hung from the counter shaft cone to the spindle cone; the lathe should be adjusted so that the belt will track between the two cone pulleys. the axis of the lathe must be parallel to that of the counter shaft. the lathe, however, need not be directly beneath the counter shaft as the belt will run on an angle as well as perpendicular. chapter iii wood turning tools a wood turning kit should consist of one each of the following tools. fig. shows the general shape of these tools. - / " gouge / " gouge / " gouge / " gouge - / " skew / " skew / " skew / " skew / " parting tool / " round nose / " round nose / " square nose / " square nose / " spear point / " right skew / " left skew slip stone with round edges " outside calipers " inside calipers " dividers " rule / pt. oil can bench brush grinding and whetting turning tools skew chisel the skew chisel is sharpened equally on both sides on this tool the cutting edge should form an angle of about ° with one of the edges. the skew is used in cutting both to the right and to the left, and therefore, must be beveled on both sides. the length of the bevel should equal about twice the thickness of the chisel at the point where it is sharpened. in grinding the bevel, the chisel must be held so that the cutting edge will be parallel to the axis of the emery wheel. the wheel should be about " in diameter as this will leave the bevel slightly hollow ground. cool the chisel in water occasionally when using a dry emery. otherwise the wheel will burn the chisel, taking out the temper; the metal will be soft and the edge will not stand up. care should be exercised that the same bevel is kept so that it will be uniformly hollow ground. the rough edge left by the emery wheel should be whetted off with a slip stone by holding the chisel on the flat side of the stone so that the toe and heel of the bevel are equally in contact with it. rub first on one side and then on the other. the wire edge is thus worn off quickly as there is no metal to be worn away in the middle of the bevels. the chisel is sharp when the edge, which may be tested by drawing it over the thumb nail, is smooth and will take hold evenly along its entire length. if any wire edge remains it should be whetted again. [illustration: fig. . - lathe tools] gouge the gouge used in wood turning is beveled on the outside and is ground so that the nose is approximately semi-circular in shape. the tool is a combination of the round nose chisel and the ordinary gouge. the bevel should extend well around to the ends so that the cutting edge extends to each side. this is necessary to avoid the abrupt corners which would be present if the nose were left straight across as in the ordinary wood-working gouge. in making shearing cuts the round nose permits the tool to be rolled to the side to avoid scraping the work. the length of the bevel should be about twice the thickness of the blade at the point where the sharpening begins. the sharpening of a gouge for turning is rather difficult for the average student. the ordinary gouge which has a square nose may be beveled by merely turning it half way around and back again. in working out the round nose of a gouge for wood turning, it is necessary that the handle be swung from one side to the other while, at the same time, the chisel is revolved to cut the bevel evenly. it is sometimes necessary to allow some pupils to use the side of the emery wheel in sharpening the gouge. this kind of grinding, however, does not leave the tool hollow ground as when the face of the wheel is used. to complete the sharpening the rough edge is worked smooth on a slip stone, the cross section of which is wedge-shaped and the edges of which are rounded. the toe and heel of the beveled side of the gouge are brought into contact with the flat side of the stone. as the sharpening proceeds the wire edge is worked to the inside of the gouge. the rounded edge of the stone is then placed inside the gouge and is worked back and forth until the rough edge disappears. great care must be taken not to bevel the inside of the gouge when whetting with the round edges of the stone, as the result will be the same as with an ordinary chisel or plane bit. parting tool the parting tool is sharpened on both sides. this tool differs from the ordinary chisel in that it is between / " and / " thick and only about / " wide at the widest point, which is in the center of its entire length. the bevels must meet exactly at the center, or the widest point, and should make an angle of about ° with each other. if the bevels do not meet at the widest point the tool will not clear, and the sides will rub against the revolving stock; the tool will be burned and will thus lose its temper. the bevel should be hollow ground slightly as then comparatively little metal need be removed when whetting. scraping tools the round nose, square nose, spear point, right skew and left skew are scraping tools, used chiefly in pattern work and sometimes in face-plate work. they are sharpened on one side only, and the bevel is about twice the thickness of the chisel at the point where sharpened. these tools should be slightly hollow ground to facilitate the whetting. scraping tools become dull quite easily as their edges are in contact with the wood almost at right angles. after sharpening, the edges of these tools may be turned with a burnisher or the broad side of a skew chisel in the same manner that the edge of a cabinet scraper is turned though not nearly to so great a degree. this will help to keep the tool sharp for, as the edge wears off, the tool sharpens itself to a certain extent. the chisel is of harder material than a cabinet scraper so that it will not stand a great amount of turning over on the edge. small pieces will be broken out, unless a flat surface is rubbed against the edge at a more acute angle than was used in the whetting. if a narrow burnisher is used, pieces are more likely to be broken out from the sharp edge and thus make the tool useless. chapter iv spindle turning spindle turning is the term applied to all work done on a lathe in which the stock to be worked upon is held firmly between the live and dead centers. there are two methods in common use in wood turning: first, the scraping or pattern-makers' method; and second, the cutting method. each has its advantages and disadvantages, but it is necessary that both be learned in order to develop a well rounded turner. care should be exercised, however, that each method be used in its proper place. the first is slower, harder on the cutting edge of tools, and less skill is required to obtain accurate work; the second is faster, easier on the cutting edge of tools, and the accuracy of results obtained depends upon the skill acquired. as skill is the one thing most sought for in high school work, the use of the cutting method is advocated entirely for all spindle turning and, with but few exceptions, for face-plate and chuck turning. to center stock if the wood to be turned is square or rectangular in shape the best way to locate the center is to draw diagonals across the end of the stock. the point of intersection locates the center. clamping stock in the lathe take the live center from the spindle and with a wooden mallet drive the spur deep into the wood. never drive the wood onto the live center while in the spindle because serious injury may be done the machine by such practice. when extremely hard wood is being used, it is a good practice to make saw cuts along the diagonal lines and bore a hole at the intersection, thus allowing the spur to enter the wood more freely. oil the other end of the wood while holding it in a vertical position, and give the oil a chance to penetrate into the wood. then replace the live center by taking the stock and center and forcing it into the spindle by a sudden push of the hand. the tail stock is then moved about / " to " from the end of the piece to be turned, having the tail spindle well back in the tail stock. the tail stock is then clamped to the lathe bed. turn the tail stock hand wheel until the wood is held firmly. work the cone pulley by hand at the same time, so that the cup or dead center will be forced deeply into the wood, so deeply that the live center will not continue to turn. now turn the dead spindle back until the live spindle begins to turn freely and clamp the dead spindle fast. [illustration: fig. ] adjusting the tool rest horizontally the tool rest should be set about / " from the farthest projecting corner of the wood and should be readjusted occasionally as the stock diminishes in size. the vertical height varies slightly according to the height of the operator. it is even with the center of the spindle for a short person; / " above for a medium person; and / " above for a tall person. so long as the stock is in its square form the tool rest should never be adjusted while the machine is in motion as there is danger of the rest catching the corners and throwing the stock from the machine. also see that everything is clamped tight before starting the lathe. position of the operator the operator stands firmly on the floor back far enough from the lathe to allow him to pass the tools from right to left in front of his body without changing the position of the feet. it may be found convenient to turn slightly, bringing the left side of the body a little closer to the lathe. in no case, however, should the tools be brought in contact with the body as the cutting operation from right to left should be accomplished by a movement of the arms alone and not the swaying of the body. (fig. .) holding the tools all tools should be held firmly but not rigidly. the right hand should grasp the handle at the extreme end for two reasons: first, to give as much leverage as possible so that the tool will not be thrown from the hands in case it should catch in the wood; second, a slight wavering of the hand will not cause as much variance in the cuts as when held closer up to the rest. the left hand should act as a guide and should be held over the tool near the cutting edge. the little finger and the back part of the palm of the hand should touch the tool rest thus assuring a steady movement. the left hand should not grasp the tool at any time. (fig. .) use of the tools in spindle turning the correct use of the various tools used in spindle turning will be explained in detail as the steps are worked out in the sequence of operations on the exercises in section a-i. chapter v tool processes in spindle turning exercise a-i-- -a. straight cuts . the roughing cut (large gouge). fig. . place the gouge on the rest so that the level is above the wood and the cutting edge is tangent to the circle or surface of the cylinder. the handle should be held well down. [illustration: fig. .] roll the gouge over slightly to the right so that it will make a shearing cut instead of a scraping cut. this rolling of the tool will also throw the chips from the operator. then lift the handle slowly, forcing the cutting edge deep enough into the wood to remove all or nearly all of the corners, at the end of the work which is being turned. this cut is begun about / " from the dead center end. work back another / ", moving toward the live center and make a second cut, and so on until the entire length of the cylinder is gone over. this method of removing corners should always be followed to avoid any possibility of breaking a large sliver from the stock, with consequent danger to the worker. the tool may then be worked from one end to the other, getting a fairly-smooth, regular surface, slightly above the diameter required. however, do not begin on the very edge of the cylinder end. it is better to begin about " from one end and work to the other, and then reverse and work back. the tool should also be held at a slight angle to the axis of the cylinder, with the cutting point always in advance of the handle. [illustration: fig. .] . the sizing cut (small gouge). fig. . set the calipers to the required diameter of the cylinder. with a small gouge held in the right hand scrape grooves about " apart, holding the calipers in the left hand perpendicular to the cylinder and measuring the cuts as they are made. the scraping should continue until the calipers will pass easily over the cylinder. it will be well while scraping to work the handle of the gouge a little from side to side so that the nose has more clearance. this will prevent the piece which is being turned from chattering or vibrating. the calipers will be slightly sprung by coming in contact with the revolving stock but this error in diameter will be removed by the finishing cut which removes these marks from the finished cylinder. . the smoothing cut (large skew). fig. . lay the skew chisel on the rest with the cutting edge above the cylinder and at an angle of about ° to the surface. slowly draw the chisel back and at the same time raise the handle until the chisel begins to cut about / " to / " from the heel. the first cut is begun from " to " from either end and is pushed toward the near end. then begin at the first starting point and cut toward the other end. one should never start at the end to make a cut as there is danger that the chisel will catch and cause the wood to split or that the chisel will be torn from the hands. the first cut takes off the bumps and rings left by the gouge, and takes the stock down so one can just see where the scraping to size was done. then take the last cut and remove all traces of these, leaving the cylinder perfectly smooth and of the required diameter at each end. test the cylinder for accuracy with a straight edge. [illustration: fig. .] . testing for smoothness. in testing for smoothness place the palm of the hand, with the fingers extended straight, lightly on the back of the cylinder opposite the tool rest. this position will avoid any possibility of the hand being drawn in between the cylinder and the rest. [illustration: fig. .] . measuring for length (rule and pencil). fig. . hold the back edge of the rule in the left hand and place it on the tool rest so that the front edge is almost in contact with the revolving cylinder. with a sharp pencil mark off the required length, starting from the dead center end. the first mark should be just far enough in on the cylinder to insure cutting past the point of the dead center. this will leave all surplus stock at the live center end where it is needed, because, if not enough stock is left at this end, there is danger of striking the live center spur with the tool and of injuring the chisel and perhaps the work. in case several measurements are to be made, as in some of the following exercises, the rule should not be moved until all are marked. this will insure more accurate work than if the rule be changed several times. . squaring ends (small skew and parting tool). fig. . this operation is done with the toe or acute angle of the / " or / " skew chisel. place the chisel square on the tool rest. swing the handle out from the cylinder so that the grind, which forms the cutting edge, next to the stock is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. the heel of the chisel is then tipped slightly from the cylinder in order to give clearness. raise the handle and push the toe of the chisel into the stock about / " outside the line indicating the end of the cylinder. swing the handle still farther from the cylinder and cut a half v. this will give clearance for the chisel point and will prevent burning. continue this operation on both ends until the cylinder is cut to about / " in diameter. the remaining / " is then removed by taking very thin cuts (about / ") holding the chisel as first stated. after each cut is made the end should be tested for squareness by holding the edge of the chisel over the end of the cylinder. [illustration: fig. .] this is an easy cut after it is mastered, but is one of the hardest to learn. should the operator lose control of the tool and allow any part other than the point to touch the cylinder, a run or gashing of the wood will be caused. in large cylinders where considerable stock has to be cut away in order to square the ends, time will be saved by sizing the ends down with the parting tool to within / " of the desired line, leaving enough stock at the base of the cuts to still hold the cylinder rigid while cutting on the ends. [illustration: fig. .] for this operation hold the parting tool on the rest with the cutting edge parallel to the axis of the cylinder and the lower grind tangent to the cylinder. lift the handle and force the cutting edge into the wood; at the same time push the chisel forward to keep it at the proper tangency. . cutting off (small skew). fig. . after both ends have been squared cut away stock, at both ends, to leave just enough to hold the cylinder from separating from the waste ends. with the chisel held in the right hand in the same position as in squaring the ends, and the fingers of the left hand around the stock to catch it, slowly force the point of the chisel into the stock at the live center end, until it is cut free and the cylinder stops in the operator's hand. too much pressure should not be used in this operation or it will cause the cylinder to twist off instead of being cut, and will leave a ragged hole in the end. the dead center end, which has been scored heavily before cutting off at the live center, is then removed by holding the grind of the chisel flat on the end of the cylinder. the latter is revolved by hand until the stock is cut away. exercise a-i-- -a. shoulder cuts . turn a cylinder to the largest diameter required. . lay off measurements with rule and pencil. . with the gouge (where space permits) or the parting tool (in narrow spaces) rough out surplus stock, keeping / " away from the lines indicating shoulders. . caliper to the diameter of the second step. . the shoulders are cut down as described in "squaring ends, step , straight cuts." . the new diameter or step is then trued up with a skew chisel in the same manner as a cylinder; except that in nearing the shoulder the chisel is pushed up on the cylinder until the heel, which is the only part that can be worked into the corner, becomes the cutting point. fig. . in very narrow steps it will be advisable to use the heel entirely as a cutting point. in spaces between shoulders, too narrow to permit the use of the skew chisel, very effective work can be accomplished by slightly tipping the parting tool sideways to allow a shearing cut to be taken with the cutting edge. . where several steps are required on the same cylinder, each successive one is worked out as above described. note:--all preliminary steps in working stock to size, laying of dimensions, etc., in preparation for the exercise in hand, will be omitted in the following exercises: exercise a-i-- -a. taper cuts [illustration: fig. .] calipering for new diameters. for all diameters on tapers the calipers should be set / " larger than the desired measurement in order to avoid working under size in the finishing cut which removes all caliper marks. if the taper runs to the extreme end of the cylinder, as in plate a-i-- -a, a parting tool should be used, instead of a gouge, to take off a very thin shoulder. if the taper forms an internal angle as in plate a-i-- -b, a gouge is used as in step --sizing cut--plate a-i-- -a. in other cases where tapers connect with straight cylindrical shoulders it is best to turn the shoulders to size before working the tapers. in cutting a long straight taper the skew chisel is used, much in the same manner as in ordinary cylinder work, except that at the start of each cut the heel must be the cutting point. this will avoid any chance of the chisel catching and drawing back and thus gouging the wood beyond the starting point. as soon as the cut is well under way the chisel may be pushed up on the cylinder so that the cutting point is a little above the heel. all cuts should be made from the highest point on the cylinder to the lowest and thus cut across the grain of the wood. in making the cut, care should be taken to see that the chisel is not tipped to a greater angle than that of the taper wanted. should that be done a hollow, or dished out, taper is sure to be the result instead of a straight one. exercise a-i-- -a. v cutting in cutting v's a small skew is almost always used and the cutting is done with the heel. place the chisel square on the tool rest so that the cutting edge is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. draw the chisel back and raise the handle so that the heel is driven into the wood, thus scoring it. this cut should not be too deep or the chisel will burn. this scoring should be at the exact center of the v cut. swing the handle a little to the right and at the same time tip the chisel so that the grind, which forms the cutting edge, is at an angle of about ° with the axis of the cylinder. the handle is then raised at an angle of ° bringing the heel down to make a good cut. the chisel is then swung to the other side and a similar cut is taken. these cuts are continued, together with the center scoring, until quite close to the pencil marks. test the angle before the finishing cut is taken. it will be found best to have the v slightly greater than ° at the base until the final cut is made, at which time it can be trued up. the v should be tested with the square end of a rule. the cylinder should not be in motion while testing. when angles other than ° are cut, the cutting edge of the chisel should be tipped so that it is parallel or nearly so to the side of the cut desired. a-i-- -a. concave cuts the concave cuts as a rule will give the pupil considerable trouble at first owing to the fact that the grind, which forms the cutting edge and which must be held perpendicular to the cylinder at the start, is on the under side of the tool and cannot be seen. however, as soon as the correct angle of the tool is located, the cut will be found as easy as any. concaves are usually made with a medium sized gouge either the / " or / ". place the gouge on the rest with the grind or cutting edge well above the wood. the tool is then rolled on its side so that the grind at the cutting point, which is on the lip of the gouge well below the center, is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. fig. . slowly raise the handle to force the gouge into the wood. as soon as the gouge has taken hold, the tool is forced forward and upward by a slight lowering of the handle, while at the same time it is rolled back toward its first position. care should be taken not to roll the chisel too fast or a perfect arc will not be cut. [illustration: fig. .] by this triple action the grind, which comes in contact with the surface of the curve, forces the lip sidewise and cuts one quarter of a circle. reverse the position of the gouge and cut from the other side in the same manner to form the other half of the semi-circle. the cutting should always stop at the base of the cut as there is danger that the tool will catch when cutting against the grain of the wood on the other side. repeat this operation until within about / " of the required size. at the end of each successive cut the tool should have been forced far enough forward and upward to bring the grind or nose of the chisel well out on top of the cut. fig. . the exact depth of the concave is then calipered in the usual manner as described before. a finishing cut is then taken after the cut has been tested with a templet. [illustration: fig. .] a-i-- -a. convex cuts the convex cut, or bead as it is usually called, is generally considered the hardest cut to make.--the cut is made with the heel of a small skew chisel, usually the / " or / ". after the cylinder has been marked off, rough out all stock between the beads with a parting tool. the base of the cuts is finished the same as described in plate a-i-- -a, for shoulder cutting. with a sharp pencil mark the center of each bead to be made. this line is the starting point for all cutting. place the chisel on the rest, with the cutting edge above the cylinder and the lower grind tangent to it. draw the chisel back and raise the handle to bring the heel of the chisel in contact with the cylinder at the line indicating the center of the bead. the chisel is then moved to the right (if cutting the right side of the bead); at the same time the chisel is continually tipped to keep the lower grind tangent to the revolving cylinder and also to the bead at the point of contact. fig. . this cut is continued until the bottom of the bead is reached. it is well in turning a series of beads to work the same side of all before reversing to the other side. note:--the same principles employed in this exercise are also used in working out long convex curves such as are found in chisel handles, mallet handles, etc. the only exception is that in most cases the point of contact need not be the heel of the chisel but higher up as in ordinary straight work. a-i-- -a--combination cuts these exercises are so designed as to include one or more of each of the foregoing cuts. the student here is given an opportunity of combining these cuts into one finished product. [illustration: fig. .] an analysis of the exercise chosen should be made to determine which of the various cuts should be made first, second, etc., in order to produce the exercise in the shortest time and with the least amount of tool manipulation. after the student has mastered these cuts with a certain degree of skill and accuracy, he is ready to apply them in working out various models in section ii. a-ii-- -a. chisel handles at this point it is well to state that the small end of all work should be turned at the dead center. in the case of chisel handles the socket or ferrule end is at the dead center where the stock can safely be cut away to permit the fitting of the ferrule or the socket. after the stock is turned to a cylinder of the largest dimension desired, the taper, for the socket chisel, should be turned first and fitted to the chisel in which it is to be used. then the rest of the handle is worked out. ferrules should also be fitted in the same manner. a drive fit should be used for all ferrules. a-ii-- and . mallets and gavels the biggest source of trouble in these models is getting the handles to fit true. this is caused by not getting the hole in the head straight. turn the head to a cylinder / " larger than the finished dimension. then bore the hole perpendicular to the axis as near as possible, either by leaving it between the lathe centers or by placing it in a vise. the handle is then fitted into the head. a snug fit is necessary. if one side "hangs" or is lower than the other the centers are moved sufficiently to correct it. the head is then turned to exact size and finished. a-ii-- . vise handles. turn the spindle with the solid head to dimensions. bore a hole through a - / " square block and fit the block snugly to the end of the spindle. turn this block to the same dimensions as the other head. this method will save chucking the second head and is much quicker. chapter vi oval turning oval work as a problem in turning will be found to be a very good one as well as interesting to the pupil. it brings in the principle of the oval as used in ordinary shop practice; (arcs from points on the major and minor axes). for thick heavy ovals the off-centering is very slight, while for long, thin ones the off-centering is greater. the measurements given on plates a-iii-- -a, b and a-iii-- -a, b will give a good idea of approximate distances to be used. while the tool operations are much the same as in other spindle turning there is one notable difference. the design must be worked out by eye, because of the nature of the work no caliper measurements can be made for depth of cuts. to get the best results the stock of oval turning should be cut square or slightly rectangular in cross-section and about " longer than the model to be made. the thickness of the stock should be about / " greater than the major axis of the oval wanted. the centers are located in the usual manner after which perpendicular lines are drawn from the sides, passing through the points of the centers. from the ends of one of these, perpendicular lines are extended lengthwise of the stock (on opposite sides) meeting the corresponding perpendicular at the other end of the stock. these lines form the ridge of the oval. on the other perpendiculars, the points for off-centering are laid off, measuring the required distance on both sides of the center point. with a / " drill bore holes / " deep at each of the off-centering points as well as the original center. this will insure the lathe centers penetrating the stock at the proper point. the stock is then placed in the lathe, using two corresponding off-center points as centers. with the lathe running at third speed turn down the stock to the horizontal line forming the ridge of the oval, excepting for a distance of about - / " at the ends. the stock at the ends is necessary for the off-centering and, if cut away, will spoil the centering for the other side, especially at the live center end. the stock is then changed to the other off-center points and the second side is cut down to the line. all measurements are then laid out and the design is cut, changing the stock in the lathe when necessary. care should be taken that the sharp ridge left on the work forms a straight line the full length of the stock. after the design has been finished, the stock is centered on the true center and a very thin cut is taken the full length of the object to remove the sharp corners. the model is then sandpapered while the lathe is running very slowly. chapter vii duplicate turning under the head of duplicate turning have been classified only such models as clearly indicate the necessity of making two or more articles to complete the model or set of articles desired. but it is not intended to convey the idea that other models may not be made in duplicate as in many cases it is very desirable and even preferable that they should be made that way. whatever the problem may be the suggestions offered at this point may be applied effectively. whenever two or more models are to be made identically alike there are always two possibilities of inaccuracies that will render the work dissimilar: first, inaccurate measuring both for length and points of new diameters and also on the new diameters themselves; second, a variation in the curved surfaces either on long convex or concave cuts. the first difficulty can be overcome to a great extent by the use of a measuring stick. this stick should be made of any soft wood. it should be straight on one edge and about the thickness of an ordinary rule. on the straight edge lay off very carefully measurements for length, shoulders, beads, concaves and all points where calipering for new diameters will be necessary. insert at each point measured a small brad which has been sharpened at both ends, leaving the end protrude about / ". care should be taken that all brads protrude the same distance. after the stock has been turned to the largest diameter, the stick is held in the position of the rule while measuring and the points are forced against the revolving cylinder, thus scoring it. this stick can be used as many times as the model is to be made and the measurements will always be the same. to avoid dissimilar curves it is well to cut out a full sized templet of the model to be made. this templet can be made of any thin, stiff material, preferably light sheet iron. in some cases it will be necessary to make the templet in several pieces in order to help facilitate the tool operations. the use of this templet will not only be a help to getting all curved surfaces the same, but will also check up on the various new diameters on the model. the cylinder should never be in motion while the templet is being used. chapter viii finishing and polishing to get a high and lasting polish on wood, the work must be first sanded so as to be perfectly smooth. in addition to this, open grained wood, such as oak, must be properly filled with a wood filler. if properly sharpened tools have been used very little sanding is required, and then worn sandpaper should be used as it does not cut into the work as new paper cuts. remember sandpaper is not to be used as a tool in cutting down stock when working to dimensions. in using old sandpaper run the lathe at a moderate speed to avoid burning the wood, especially on square or round fillets. keep the edges of the work sharp and do not wear them round. in using new sandpaper use a fine grit ( or ) and move the paper from one end of the work to the other slowly, so that no scratches result on the surface of the work. the work may be finished by one of two methods. in the first method as in finishing ordinary cabinet work, the pieces should be stained and filled. in applying filler, run the lathe at the slowest speed after the material has dried sufficiently to rub into the pores of the wood. if the highlights are to be brought out, as in the case of oak, stain and then give a light coat of shellac, and apply the filler after the shellac is dry. the shellac keeps the dark filler from staining the flakes of the oak darker, and the pores of the wood fill in as before. the pores become darker than the flakes, and at the same time a smooth surface is produced. after the filler has hardened the wood may be waxed or varnished. the second method, or french polishing, is rather difficult to apply and requires a little skill. a close grained wood, like maple, will be found more satisfactory for the beginner. an open grained wood may be filled in the ordinary way, or the grain may be filled by rubbing into the pores of the wood a combination of shellac, rotten stone or pumice, oil and alcohol. rotten stone is used for dark wood and pumice is used for light wood. the wood may be left in the natural or stained as in the first method. the mixture of shellac, rotten stone, oil and alcohol, is applied to the work with a pad made of cotton waste, wrapped in cheese cloth to keep it from sticking to the work. it should be about - / " in diameter and / " thick. hold the pad over the mouth of a bottle of shellac and tip the bottle so that the shellac comes in contact with the pad. the shellac will remain clean in a bottle and will be handy. the mouth of the shellac bottle should be about " in diameter and should be dipped once. do likewise with a bottle, having a mouth / " in diameter, containing alcohol. this should be dipped twice allowing the alcohol to dilute the shellac. then drop on a couple of drops of oil and rub over the pad evenly; this aids in distributing the shellac properly and keeps the pad from sticking to the work. a bottle may also be used for this. for the rotten stone use a pepper shaker so that it may be sifted on the work as needed. when the mixture has been applied to the pad, hold the pad against the work lightly at first, until most of the moisture has been worked out of it, and then gradually increase the pressure until the pad is almost dry. in putting on the first coat, use more shellac and alcohol and just enough oil at all times to prevent the pad from sticking to the work. however, the pad should not contain as much shellac that it can be squeezed out with the fingers. when the pad is dry, another mixture is applied, and where open grained wood is used, rotten stone, or pumice stone, is sprinkled on the work to gradually fill up the pores and to build up a smooth surface. run the lathe at a low speed, depending on the size of the piece that is being polished. allow the first coat to dry before applying a second coat for, if too much is put on at any one time, the heat generated in the rubbing will cause the shellac to pull, and it will form rings by piling up. these rings may be worked out in two ways, either by a slight pressure of the pad on the rings or by cutting them with alcohol applied to the pad. if too much alcohol is used it will cut through the shellac and remove what has already been rubbed on. if at any time too much shellac is used it will pile up and form rings. too much rotten stone will cut down the polish and by absorbing the mixture will leave the pad dry. if too much oil is used the polish will become dull after a day or two. after the first coat has hardened apply the second, but use less shellac and more alcohol and just enough oil to prevent the pad from sticking. this may be done by dipping the tip of a finger in the oil and spreading it over the pad. the entire mixture should be so that only a dampness can be felt on the pad. as the process goes on less oil and shellac are used. all oil must be removed when applying the last coat, or the piece will lose its polish. all the pores should be filled, and no rings should be on the finished work. where a natural finish is desired, apply a coat of boiled linseed oil twelve hours before the work is to be polished. this will bring out the grain and will also aid in applying the first coat; no oil need then be used in the first coat. a great amount of practice and patience is required to get a first class polish. polishing can only be learned by experience. correct your troubles in properly proportioning the mixture. never use too much shellac as it will build up too fast and will not harden, thus causing rings; or it will pull and catch to the pad, thus forming bunches. the purpose of alcohol is mainly to dilute the shellac and to prevent against putting it on the work too fast, but care must be taken not to use too much alcohol to cut the shellac entirely. the oil helps to distribute the shellac evenly, but it must be removed when finishing the last coat, or the polish will not remain. it also helps to keep the pad from sticking to the work. it is impossible to obtain a polish that will be as lasting and rich by any method other than the one described. for success it is essential to learn the proportions of the mixture and to acquire skill in applying the materials by using exactly the right pressure and the right movement of the pad. chapter ix face-plate and chuck turning face-plate and chuck turning open an entirely new field of work from that taken up in previous chapters of this book. if handled correctly, it has much greater educational and practical value than cylinder turning. from the practical standpoint the field of work is broader and the models to be made are of much greater value. aside from this, trade methods and practices can be applied and a broad insight into commercial work can be given the student. in some details of chuck turning the tool operations already learned can be employed, but for the most part they are entirely different. in order to preserve the educational value of the work as brought out by skill and dexterity in handling tools, it will be necessary to use the cutting method wherever possible. in some instances that method will be impossible, and the scraping method must be used. methods of fastening stock all the work thus far has been on models where the stock worked upon is held between the live and dead centers. in face-plate and chuck turning the work is done at the head stock only and the piece is supported by means of a face-plate, or chuck, that is fastened to a face-plate, which is screwed onto the end of the live spindle. there are three methods of fastening stock to the face-plate, and it depends upon the nature of the exercise or model to be made which method is used. . small single screw face-plate. for all work that does not require deep cutting in the center, such as in towel rings, picture frames, etc., the small face-plate with a single screw should be used. note:--should it be found difficult to keep the block from working loose and turning, it is a good plan to fold a piece of sandpaper, grit side out, and place it between the face-plate and the stock. . large surface screw face-plate. for all work that does not require deep cutting on the outside, such as exercises, jewel boxes, etc., as well as all large stock, and all stock from which chucks are to be made, the large face-plate with the surface screws should be used. . gluing to waste stock. a block of scrap wood is fastened to a face-plate the same as for a chuck and surfaced off square. the block from which the model is to be made is planed square on one side and glued to the block on the face-plate with a sheet of paper between the two. to separate the model from the chuck, after it is completed, place a chisel on the waste stock, / " back of the glue joint at such a point as will bring the chisel parallel to the grain of the model, and strike lightly with a mallet. this will cause the paper to separate and the model to become free. this method will be found very convenient epecially on models where the base is to be left straight. it will also be found to save much stock when working with expensive woods. lathe adjustments to get the best results in face-plate or chuck turning there should be no end play in the spindle of the lathe. the spindle should always be tested out, and if any play is found, should be adjusted before attempting any work. it is almost impossible to make a true cut when such a condition obtains. position of tool rest for all face-plate and chuck turning the tool rest should be kept as close to the stock as possible, the same as in spindle turning, regardless of the angle it may be set. vertically, the rest in most cases should be sufficiently below the center of the stock to bring the center or cutting point of the tools used, when held parallel to the bed of the lathe, even with the center of the stock. this last condition will necessitate adjusting the height occasionally when changing from large to small tools. chapter x tool processes in face-plate and chuck turning b-i-- -a. straight cuts . roughing off corners. ( / " gouge.) fig. . the tool rest is set crosswise to the bed of the lathe and parallel to the face of the stock. place the gouge on the rest with the handle well down. roll the gouge to the left until the grind which forms the cutting edge is perpendicular to the stock. the point of contact should be slightly below the center or nose of the tool. the handle of the gouge is then swung well to the back of the lathe or to the operator's right. the gouge is then pushed forward into the stock and to the left, making a shearing cut. the cut should not be too heavy. the starting point for this cut should be a line which will indicate the largest diameter or circle that can be made from the block.--this cut should be repeated until the corners are removed from the block. to complete the cutting of thick stock it will be found necessary to change the tool rest to an angle of ° with the bed of the lathe. [illustration: fig. .] when hardwood is being turned it is sometimes advisable to saw the block almost round with a compass saw or bandsaw, if one is to be had. should this be done the preceding steps are omitted. the tool rest is then placed parallel with the lathe bed and a roughing cut is taken with the gouge the entire thickness of the block. the lathe should be run on second or third speed until the corners are removed, and then changed to first speed. . calipering for diameter. the true diameter is then calipered the same as in spindle work. . smoothing cut. a smoothing cut is taken with a skew chisel the same as in spindle work. [illustration: fig. .] . roughing cut on the face. ( / " gouge.) fig. . the rest is now placed parallel to the bed of the lathe and slightly above the center of the spindle. place the gouge on the rest on its edge with the grind toward the stock and parallel to the face to be surfaced. the nose of the gouge is the cutting point. the handle is then raised and the cutting point is forced toward the center. a very thin shaving should be taken. if the gouge is allowed to roll back so the grind above the cutting point comes in contact with the wood it is sure to catch and gash the wood. . smoothing the face. (small skew chisel.) fig. . for all work up to " in diameter, the surface may be smoothed by using a small skew chisel in the same manner as in squaring the ends of stock in cylinder work. (step --exercise a-i-- -a, straight cuts.) for larger work, place the chisel flat on the rest with the toe next to the stock and the back edge of the chisel parallel to the face to be surfaced. the point of the chisel is then forced toward the center of the stock, using the straight back of the tool as a guide against the finished surface. only a very thin cut should be taken at a time. [illustration: fig. .] note:--while this operation may be termed a scraping cut, it will be found to be much easier on the tool than if the cutting edge were held flat against the work as in other scraping cuts. the surface of the work should be tested for squareness by holding the edge of the chisel or a straight edge across the face. laying off measurements in laying off measurements on the face of the stock a pencil compass or dividers should be used. set the compass or dividers to one-half the diameter of the circle wanted. while one point is held at the exact center of the stock, which is easily located while the stock is revolving, the other is brought in contact with the revolving stock until a circle of the correct diameter is marked. [illustration: fig. .] should the center of the stock be cut away, rendering this method impossible, the following method may be used: set the compass or dividers to the exact diameter wanted. place one point in contact with the stock a little to one side of the required line on the part that is to be cut-away. bring the other point to the stock and see if it touches the line first made. if not, move the first point until the two points track in the same line. [illustration: fig. .] the rest should be set at the exact center for measuring. all measurements on the edge of the stock can be made with pencil and rule as in cylinder turning. b-i-- -a. shoulder cuts . external shoulders. fig. . the surplus stock at each successive shoulder is roughed out with a / " gouge, keeping well outside the finished measurements. the gouge for this work is held in the same position as described in b-i-- -a, step , for roughing off corners. [illustration: fig. .] . for the finishing cut a small skew chisel is used, and the process is the same as that used in squaring ends of stock. both the vertical and horizontal shoulders can be handled easily by this method. fig, . . internal shoulders. for internal shoulder cutting the same methods may be used for roughing out and cutting the horizontal shoulders, but for the vertical or base shoulder it will be necessary to use the scraping process. (see "use of scraping tools.") b-i-- -a. taper cuts taper cutting will not be found hard as the gouge and skew chisel are used in the same manner as described in b-i-- -a, steps and . after the stock has been roughed away with the gouge to the approximate angle desired, a smoothing cut is taken with the skew. care should be taken that the skew chisel is held at the exact angle of the taper desired. b-i-- -a. v cuts v cutting will also be found easy as the tool process is exactly the same as that used in spindle turning. exercise a-i-- -a. fig. . b-i-- -a. concave cuts place the / " gouge on the rest with the handle parallel to the bed of the lathe. roll the gouge on its edge and swing the handle so that the grind is perpendicular to the stock with the nose of the tool as the cutting point. [illustration: fig. .] force the gouge forward into the wood. as soon as the cut is started, the handle is lowered and swung to the left; (if cutting the left side of the concave) at the same time the tool is rolled back toward its original position. this movement brings the cutting point farther down on the lip and the grind, resting on the side of the cut, will force the gouge sidewise and will form one-quarter of the circle. fig. . [illustration: fig. .] this cut is continued from alternate side until the concave is nearly to size. the cut should be tested with a templet before the finishing cut is taken. b-i-- -a. convex cuts rough out the stock between the beads with a parting tool. hold the edge of the gouge on the rest with the handle, parallel to the bed of the lathe, to make the nose the cutting point. swing the handle to the left so that the grind will form a tangent to the bead at its highest point. the gouge is then forced into the stock and to the right; at the same time the handle is swung to the right; keeping the grind tangent to the bead at the point of contact. fig. . this cut is continued until the base of the bead is reached. b-i-- -a. combination cuts as in spindle turning, a combination exercise should be given at this point to provide an opportunity for studying out the best methods of working the various cuts just described into a finished product. use of scraping tools when scraping is to be employed, it should be done with only those tools that are made for that purpose, i.e., square nose, round nose, spear point, right and left skew. the handling of these tools will be found easy. the only point to remember is that they should be held flat on the tool rest and parallel to the bed of the lathe when in use. in general practice the ordinary skew chisel should not be used as a scraping tool, for the cutting edge is not sharpened to withstand the heavy strain required by such work. should it be necessary, however, to use a skew chisel as a scraper, the tool should be held so that the top grind is parallel to the bed of the lathe while in use. internal boring in roughing out the center for napkin rings, jewel boxes, etc., the quickest method is to work it out with a small gouge. place the gouge on the rest parallel to the bed of the lathe, having the point even with the center of the stock. force the gouge into the wood until a hole is bored to the depth required. if the hole is deeper than ", remove the tool often and clear out the shavings in order not to burn the point. in order to enlarge the hole to the proper size the point of the gouge is pressed against the left side of the hole a little above the center and a shearing cut is taken. to obviate the danger of the tool catching, all cuts should start from the back of the hole and proceed toward the front. [illustration: fig. .] b-iii-- -a. sphere after the sphere is turned as nearly perfect as is possible when working between centers (steps to ) it is cut free from the waste stock and is centered in a chuck. the chuck is made of any soft wood and should be cut in the end grain, which will insure equal pressure on all sides. equal pressure cannot be obtained if the chuck is cut in cross grain wood, owing to the tendency of side grain to give more than the end grain. the sphere should be forced into the chuck with slightly over half protruding. very thin cuts should be taken and the sphere should be revolved one-quarter turn after each until true. as the sphere becomes smaller during the cutting, it will be necessary to cut the face of the chuck down and bore the hole deeper and smaller in order to keep more than half of it protruding at all times. [illustration: mirror (see pages - ).] to remove the sphere tap the chuck lightly with a hammer just above it, at the same time pull out on the sphere. chapter xi spiral turning spiral turning is a subject that has received very little attention by most schools in which wood turning is taught. spiral work is seen in antique furniture and also in the modern furniture of the present day. it seems that it takes the wheel of fashion about a century to make a complete turn, for what our forefathers neglected and destroyed the people of the present day value and cherish. spiral work gives excellent practice in shaping and modelling wood. it brings into play the principle of the helix as used in cutting threads, etc.; and its form, size and shape may be varied according to the taste of the individual. as in threads so in spiral work we have single and double spirals, and their form and proportion depend upon their use and application in furniture making. a variation of the spiral may be made in several ways: first, by changing the number of turns of the spiral on a straight shaft; second, by running a spiral on a tapered shaft; third, by changing the shape or form of the spiral itself; and fourth, by making more than one spiral on a shaft. it is uncommon to see ten or twelve spirals running around a single shaft. some of the forms of the above types are fully taken up and explained in the work that is to follow. plates b-v-- -a, a´. single spiral. straight shaft to work out a single spiral for a pedestal proceed as follows: . turn a cylinder - / " in diameter. make the ends slightly larger in order that the design may be turned on each, after the spiral has been worked out. . lay off spaces - / " apart on the cylinder while the spindle is turning in the lathe and divide each of these into four equal parts. each one of these large spaces represents one turn of the spiral. a good proportion is slightly less than the diameter of the cylinder; thus the diameter of the cylinder equals - / " and the width of the space - / ". . on the cylinder parallel to the axis draw lines a-a b-b c-c d-d. these lines should be ° apart as shown in the top diagram (plate b-v-- -a´). line d-d is on the other side of the cylinder as shown in the top and middle diagrams. [illustration: fig. .] . start on line a-a at point x, circle , and draw a line connecting it with line b-b on circle ´. then connect b-b on circle ´ with c-c on circle and so on until a spiral has been drawn the entire length of the cylinder. this line will form the ridge of the spiral as shown in the middle diagram. . next begin on line c-c at circle , and draw a line connecting it with d-d on circle ´ then to line a-a on circle , and so on as before. this spiral represents the center of the groove or the portion which is to be cut away. this is not shown in the diagram because more or less confusion would be caused with the line representing the ridge of the spiral. . begin on line c-c at circle , and saw to a depth of / ". saw the entire length of the cylinder leaving about - / " at the ends. do not follow the line here, but switch off gradually and follow circles and , so as to allow the spiral to begin and end gradually and not abruptly. . rough out with a knife or chisel by cutting on both sides of the saw cut. then use a wood rasp to finish shaping out the spiral. when properly shaped out allow the lathe to turn slowly and smooth with sandpaper by following the spiral as the lathe turns. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. -a.] [illustration: fig. .] . cut the design on both ends of the cylinder and polish. plates b-v-- -a, a´, a´´. single spiral. tapered shaft to lay off a single spiral for the electric lamp shown in figs. and a proceed as follows: . select your wood and bore a hole through it. plug the hole and center the piece in the lathe. this insures getting the hole exactly in the center, and it will not be cut into while the cutting of the groove of the spiral proceeds. a groove may also be cut in two pieces of stock and glued together to form a hole through the stock. . turn a cylinder - / " in diameter, tapering it to - / " at the one end; this part should be - / " long. both ends should be left larger than - / " as the lower and upper designs must be cut here. . let the spindle revolve in the lathe and draw circles as shown in the layout (plate b-v-- -a´). the number of circles will vary with the taper. since seven turns are needed in the present spiral, circles will be necessary--four circles for each turn of the spiral as shown in the middle diagram. a good proportion to follow is to measure the diameter of the spindle at circle and lay off this distance from circle to circle . then measure the diameter at circle and lay off this diameter from circle to circle and so on until all circles have been made. then divide these large divisions into four equal parts. . draw four lines the entire length of the spindle, each ° apart as shown by the heavy lines in the middle diagram. the heavy circles of the same diagram represent the complete turns of the spiral. . lay out the line representing the ridge of the spiral as shown in the middle diagram. begin on circle , where the straight line crosses it, draw to circle ´ at the point where the next straight line crosses it, then to -- ´-- -- ´ and so on until the end is reached. this forms the ridge of the spiral as shown in diagram . next it may be more convenient to draw another line representing the groove. in this case begin at point x in the middle diagram, opposite the point where first started, and continue in the preceding manner, making this line parallel to the other line. . saw on the line last made, being careful not to saw too deeply. the depth must be / " less than half the diameter of the spindle where the cut is made. this saw cut forms the groove of the spiral. the groove is then cut out by hand with a chisel or knife, by working down the wood on both sides of the saw cut. after the spirals have been roughed out, a rasp is used to finish shaping them. the work is then sandpapered smooth, while the spindle is revolved slowly in the lathe. . cut designs on the ends of the cylinder and polish. plates b-v-- -b, b´. double spiral. tapered shaft to work out a double spiral for the electric lamp illustrated in fig. proceed as follows: . turn up the spindle in the usual manner. since the base of the shaft is larger than the top, the spiral must also be in proportion and lines a-a´, b-b´, c-c´, d-d´, and e-e´, are drawn around the shaft. to get the approximate spacing from circles a-a to b-b measure the diameter at a-a´ plus about / " and lay off from a-a´ to b-b´. then take the diameter of b-b´ plus about / " and lay off from a-a´ to b-b´. then take the diameter at b-b´ plus about / " and lay off from circle b-b´ to c-c´ and so on. if the shaft is tapered more, a different proportion must be used. also if it is desired to have the twist wind around the shaft three times, a variation must be made in the number of circles. [illustration: fig. .] . if it is desired to have the twist wind around the shaft twice, draw circles - ´, - ´, - ´, and - ´ and the spaces will grow proportionately smaller at the small end. . draw four lines running lengthwise on the spindle and ° apart as shown in the midde figure in heavy lines (plate b-v-- -b´). . begin at a and draw a curved line to where the ° line crosses circle - ´. from there extend the line to where the next ° line crosses circle b-b´ at point b´. continue in this manner until the other end of the shaft is reached. begin at a´ and draw a line on the opposite side of the shaft. these two lines running around and along the shaft form the grooves while the portion in between forms the beads of the double spiral. . saw to the desired depth, being / " less than half the diameter at the point where cut. with a chisel or knife form the grooves and beads. it is necessary to be careful about not ending the grooves too abruptly. (see point in plates b-v-- -a, a´.) smooth with a rasp and sandpaper while the lathe is revolving slowly. . cut the design on the ends and polish. plates b-v-- -a, a´. double groove spiral. straight shaft to work out the double groove spiral for the magazine holder illustrated, proceed as follows: . square up the stock to - / ". center carefully and turn the design on both ends as shown, in the upper diagram (plate b-v-- -a´). turn the cylinder between the top and bottom, making it - / " long and - / " in diameter. [illustration: fig. .] . divide the cylinder into two equal parts. each part represents one revolution of the spiral. . divide each half into four equal parts as shown in the top and center diagrams (plate b-v-- -a´), - ´, - ´, - ´ and so on. the proportion of the distance between these circles should be one-half the diameter of the cylinder. . draw lines a-a, b-b, c-c, and d-d, parallel to the axis of the cylinder ° apart. . with a band / " wide of any substantial material (preferably a narrow strip of tin or a watch main spring) begin on the line a-a at circle , and connect circle ´ at line b-b, and then connect circle at c-c, and so on until the spiral is made the entire length. mark on both sides of the / " band so as to keep the spiral parallel. . next begin at the line c-c where circle crosses it and connect from here to ´ at b-b. proceed as in step , as shown in the center diagram. . now erase the extreme ends of the spiral near circles and , and deviate from the original spiral and follow the circles in a more parallel direction so as to allow the spiral to begin and end gradually and not too abruptly. refer to the lower diagram for this. . cut out portions of wood between the bands previously marked around, as shown in the lower figure. the wood should be cut out with a knife so as to leave the corners sharp on the narrow bands. the portion cut out should be a semi-circle and can be sanded by making a spindle a little smaller than the distance between the bands and fastening sandpaper on the spindle. place in the lathe and hold the spiral on the sandpaper cylinder at an angle so that the spiral will fit. turn gradually and the sandpaper will smooth up the portion between the bands and true it up. at the ends where the grooves are smaller, use a smaller stick around which sandpaper has been wound and work out by hand. . it is well to cut straight down, about / " deep, along the lines marking out the narrow bands. then the wood will not be so likely to split while removing the stock which forms the grooves between the bands. . cut out the mortises in the square portions which have been left at both ends. make the frame work for the sides and cane. glue together and polish. note:--by making the posts smaller and using the same construction for a side a nice looking book stall may be made. the proportions for the posts are the same as mentioned in step . [transcribers note: there are line art illustrations after this point in the book. they are all provided in the illustrated html edition of this book.] french polishing and enamelling a practical work of instruction including numerous recipes for making polishes, varnishes, glaze-lacquers, revivers, etc. by richard bitmead author of "the cabinet-maker's guide," "the upholsterer's guide," etc. fourth edition [illustration: capio lumen] london crosby lockwood and son , stationers' hall court, ludgate hill [_all rights reserved_] printed by william clowes and sons, limited, london and beccles. author's preface. early in the present century the method generally adopted for polishing furniture was by rubbing with beeswax and turpentine or with linseed-oil. that process, however, was never considered to be very satisfactory, which fact probably led to experiments being made for the discovery of an improvement. the first intimation of success in this direction appeared in the _mechanic's magazine_ of november , , and ran as follows: "the parisians have now introduced an entirely new mode of polishing, which is called _plaque_, and is to wood precisely what plating is to metal. the wood by some process is made to resemble marble, and has all the beauty of that article with much of its solidity. it is even asserted by persons who have made trial of the new mode that water may be spilled upon it without staining it." such was the announcement of an invention which was destined ultimately to become a new industry. the following pages commence with a description of the art of french polishing in its earliest infancy, care having been taken by the author, to the best of his ability, to note all the new processes and manipulations, as well as to concisely and perspicuously arrange and describe the various materials employed, not only for french polishing but for the improving and preparation of furniture woods, a matter of great importance to the polisher. the arts of staining and imitating, whereby inferior woods are made to resemble the most costly, are also fully treated, as well as the processes of enamelling, both in oil-varnishes and french polish, together with the method of decorating the same. the condition of the art of polishing in america is dwelt upon, and various interesting articles written by practical polishers in the states, which appeared in their trade journal, _the cabinet-maker_, have been revised and printed in this work. a number of valuable recipes, and other instructive matter, useful alike to the amateur and to the practical workman, are also given. contents. chapter i. _the improving and preparation of furniture woods._ page improving matching painting dyed polishes chapter ii. _stains and imitations._ imitation mahogany imitation rosewood imitation walnut imitation ebony imitation oak imitation satin-wood a blue stain a green stain a purple stain a red stain imitation purple-wood stain chemicals used in staining process of staining ready-made wood stains chapter iii. _french polishing._ the polish used rubbers position filling-in applying the polish spiriting-off prepared spirits antique style dull or egg-shell polish polishing in the lathe chapter iv. _cheap work._ glazing stencilling charcoal polishing chapter v. _re-polishing old work_ chapter vi. _spirit varnishing._ varnishes brushes and pencils mode of operation east indian varnishes chapter vii. _general instructions._ remarks on polishing the polishing shop chapter viii. _enamelling._ materials tools mode of operation polishing another process decorations chapter ix. _american polishing processes._ use of fillers making fillers japan of the best quality fillings for light woods another for light woods for mahogany or cherry wood for oak wood for rosewood for black walnut ( ) " ( ) an oil colour for black walnut ( ) finishing black walnut finishing finishing veneered panels, etc. light woods (dead finish) mahogany or cherry wood oak rosewood, coromandel, or kingwood (a bright finish) walnut finishing cheap work with one coat of varnish wax finishing a varnish polish with copal or zanzibar varnish polishing varnish an american polish reviver chapter x. _miscellaneous recipes._ oil polish wax polish waterproof french polish varnish for musical instruments french varnish for cabinet-work mastic varnish cabinet-maker's varnish amber varnish colourless varnish with copal seedlac varnish patent varnish for wood or canvas copal varnish carriage varnish transparent varnish crystal varnish for maps, etc. black varnish black polish varnish for iron varnish for tools to make labels adhere to a polished surface to remove french polish or varnish from old work colouring for carcase work cheap but valuable stain for the sap of black walnut polish (american) for removing stains, etc., from furniture walnut stain to be used on pine and white-wood rosewood stain rosewood stain for cane work, etc. french polish reviver morocco leather reviver hair-cloth reviver to remove grease stains from silks, damasks, cloth, etc. to remove ink stains from white marble chapter xi. _materials used._ alkanet-root madder-root red-sanders logwood fustic turmeric indigo persian berries nut-galls catechu thus sandarach mastic benzoin copal dragon's blood shellac amber pumice-stone linseed-oil venice turpentine oil of turpentine methylated spirits french polishing and enamelling. chapter i. _the improving and preparation of furniture woods._ for a french polisher to be considered a good workman he should, in addition to his ordinary ability to lay on a good polish, possess considerable knowledge of the various kinds of wood used for furniture, as well as the most approved method of bringing out to the fullest extent their natural tones or tints; he should also be able to improve the inferior kinds of wood, and to stain, bleach, or match any of the fancy materials to which his art is applied, in a manner that will produce the greatest perfection. the following information is given to facilitate a thorough knowledge of the above processes. =improving.=--iron filings added to a decoction of gall-nuts and vinegar will give to ebony which has been discoloured an intense black, after brushing over once or twice. walnut or poor-coloured rosewood can be improved by boiling half an ounce of walnut-shell extract and the same quantity of catechu in a quart of soft-water, and applying with a sponge. half a pound of walnut husks and a like quantity of oak bark boiled in half a gallon of water will produce much the same result. common mahogany can be improved by rubbing it with powdered red-chalk (ruddle) and a woollen rag, or by first wiping the surface with liquid ammonia, and red-oiling afterwards. for a rich mild red colour, rectified spirits of naphtha, dyed with camwood dust, or an oily decoction of alkanet-root. methylated spirits and a small quantity of dragon's blood will also produce a mild red. any yellow wood can be improved by an alcoholic solution of persian berries, fustic, turmeric, or gamboge. an aqueous decoction of barberry-root will serve the same purpose. birch when preferred a warm tint may be sponged with oil, very slightly tinted with rose-madder or venetian red; the greatest care should be used, or it will be rendered unnatural in appearance by becoming too red. maple which is of a dirty-brown colour, or of a cold grey tint, and mahogany, ash, oak, or any of the light-coloured woods, can be whitened by the bleaching fluid (see "matching"). numerous materials may be improved by the aid of raw linseed-oil mixed with a little spirits of turpentine. artificial graining may be given to various woods by means of a camel-hair pencil and raw oil; two or three coats should be given, and after standing for some time the ground should have one coat of oil much diluted with spirits of turpentine, and then rubbed off. =matching.=--old mahogany furniture which has been repaired may be easily matched by wiping over the new portions with water in which a nodule of lime has been dissolved, or by common soda and water. the darkeners for general use are dyed oils, logwood, aquafortis, sulphate of iron, and nitrate of silver, with exposure to the sun's rays. for new furniture in oak, ash, maple, etc., the process of matching requires care and skill. when it is desirable to render all the parts in a piece of furniture of one uniform tone or tint, bleach the dark parts with a solution of oxalic acid dissolved in hot water (about two-pennyworth of acid to half a pint of water is a powerful solution); when dry, if this should not be sufficient, apply the white stain (see pp. , ) delicately toned down, or the light parts may be oiled. for preserving the intermediate tones, coat them with white polish by means of a camel-hair pencil. on numerous woods, carbonate of soda and bichromate of potash are very effective as darkeners, as are also other preparations of an acid or alkaline nature, but the two given above are the best. a good way of preparing these darkeners, says the "french polisher's manual," an excellent little work published in perth some years since, is to procure twopennyworth of carbonate of soda in powder, and dissolve it in half a pint of boiling water; then have ready three bottles, and label them one, two, three. into one put half the solution, and into the other two half a gill each; to number two add an additional gill of water, and to number three two gills. then get the same quantity of bichromate of potash, and prepare it in a like manner; you will then have six staining fluids for procuring a series of brown and dark tints suitable for nearly all classes of wood. the bichromate of potash is useful to darken oak, walnut, beech, or mahogany, but if applied to ash it renders it of a greenish cast. if a sappy piece of walnut should be used either in the solid or veneer, darken it to match the ground colour, and then fill in the dark markings with a feather and the black stain (see pp. , ). the carbonate solutions are generally used for dark surfaces, such as rosewood represents, and a still darker shade can be given to any one by oiling over after the stain is dry. the better way of using these chemical stains is to pour out into a saucer as much as will serve the purpose, and to apply it quickly with a sponge rubbed rapidly and evenly over the surface, and rubbed off dry immediately with old rags. dark and light portions, between which the contrast is slight, may be made to match by varnishing the former and darkening the latter with oil, which should remain on it sufficiently long; by this means the different portions may frequently be made to match without having recourse to bleaching or staining. =painting.=--the next process is painting. it frequently happens in cabinet work that a faulty place is not discovered until after the work is cleaned off; the skill of the polisher is then required to paint it to match the other. a box containing the following colours in powder will be found of great utility, and when required for use they should be mixed with french polish and applied with a brush. the pigments most suitable are: drop black, raw sienna, raw and burnt umber, vandyke brown, french naples yellow (bear in mind that this is a very opaque pigment), cadmium yellow, madder carmine (these are expensive), flake white, and light or venetian red; before mixing, the colours should be finely pounded. the above method of painting, however, has this objection for the best class of furniture, that the effects of time will darken the body of the piece of furniture, whilst the painted portion will remain very nearly its original colour. in first-class work, therefore, stained polishes or varnishes should be applied instead of these pigments. =dyed polishes.=--the methods of dyeing polish or varnish are as follows: for a red, put a little alkanet-root or camwood dust into a bottle containing polish or varnish; for a bright yellow, a small piece of aloes; for a yellow, ground turmeric or gamboge; for a brown, carbonate of soda and a very small quantity of dragon's blood; and for a black, a few logwood chips, gall-nuts, and copperas, or by the addition of gas-black. the aniline dyes (black excepted) are very valuable for dyeing polishes, the most useful being turkey-red, sultan red, purple, and brown. a small portion is put into the polish, which soon dissolves it, and no straining is required. the cheapest way to purchase these dyes is by the ounce or half-ounce. the penny packets sold by chemists are too expensive, although a little goes a long way. chapter ii. _stains and imitations._ in consequence of the high price demanded for furniture made of the costly woods, the art of the chemist has been called into requisition to produce upon the inferior woods an analogous effect at a trifling expense. the materials employed in the artificial colouring of wood are both mineral and vegetable; the mineral is the most permanent, and when caused by chemical decomposition within the pores it acts as a preservative agent in a greater or less degree. the vegetable colouring matters do not penetrate so easily, probably on account of the affinity of the woody fibre for the colouring matter, whereby the whole of the latter is taken up by the parts of the wood with which it first comes into contact. different intermediate shades, in great variety, may be obtained by combinations of colouring matters, according to the tint desired, and the ideas of the stainer. the processes technically known as "grounding and ingraining" are partly chemical and partly mechanical, and are designed to teach the various modes of operation whereby the above effects can be produced. we will commence with =imitation mahogany.=--half a pound of madder-root, and two ounces of logwood chips boiled in a gallon of water. brush over while hot; when dry, go over it with a solution of pearlash, a drachm to a pint. beech or birch, brushed with aquafortis in sweeping regular strokes, and immediately dried in front of a good fire, form very good imitations of old wood. venetian red mixed with raw linseed-oil also forms a good stain. the following is a method in common use by french cabinet-makers. the white wood is first brushed over with a diluted solution of nitrous acid; next, with a solution made of methylated spirits one gill, carbonate of soda three-quarters of an ounce, and dragon's blood a quarter of an ounce; and a little red tint is added to the varnish or polish used afterwards. black american walnut can be made to imitate mahogany by brushing it over with a weak solution of nitric acid. =imitation rosewood.=--boil half a pound of logwood chips in three pints of water until the decoction is a very dark red; then add an ounce of salt of tartar. give the work three coats boiling hot; then with a graining tool or a feather fill in the dark markings with the black stain. a stain of a very bright shade can be made with methylated spirits half a gallon, camwood three-quarters of a pound, red-sanders a quarter of a pound, extract of logwood half a pound, aquafortis one ounce. when dissolved, it is ready for use. this makes a very bright ground. it should be applied in three coats over the whole surface, and when dry it is glass-papered down with fine paper to a smooth surface, and is then ready for graining. the fibril veins are produced by passing a graining tool with a slight vibratory motion, so as to effect the natural-looking streaks, using the black stain. a coat of the bichromate of potash solution referred to on page will make wildly-figured mahogany have the appearance of rosewood. =imitation walnut.=--a mixture of two parts of brown umber and one part of sulphuric acid, with spirits of wine or methylated spirits added until it is sufficiently fluid, will serve for white wood. showy elm-wood, after being delicately darkened with the bichromate solution no. , page , will pass for walnut; it is usually applied on the cheap loo-table pillars, which are made of elm-wood. equal portions of the bichromate and carbonate solutions (see page ), used upon american pine, will have a very good effect. another method for imitating walnut is as follows: one part (by weight) of walnut-shell extract is dissolved in six parts of soft-water, and slowly heated to boiling until the solution is complete. the surface to be stained is cleaned and dried, and the solution applied once or twice; when half-dry, the whole is gone over again with one part of chromate of potash boiled in five parts of water. it is then dried, rubbed down, and polished in the ordinary way. the extract of walnut-shells and chromate of potash are procurable at any large druggist's establishment. a dark-brown is the result of the action of copper salts on the yellow prussiate of potash; the sulphate of copper in soft woods gives a pretty reddish-brown colour, in streaks and shades, and becomes very rich after polishing or varnishing. different solutions penetrate with different degrees of facility. in applying, for instance, acetate of copper and prussiate of potash to larch, the sap-wood is coloured most when the acetate is introduced first; but when the prussiate is first introduced, the heart-wood is the most deeply coloured. pyrolignite of iron causes a dark-grey colour in beech, from the action and tannin in the wood on the oxide of iron; while in larch it merely darkens the natural colour. most of the tints, especially those caused by the prussiates of iron and copper, are improved by the exposure to light, and the richest colours are produced when the process is carried out rapidly. =imitation ebony.=--take half a gallon of strong vinegar, one pound of extract of logwood, a quarter of a pound of copperas, two ounces of china blue, and one ounce of nut-gall. put these into an iron pot, and boil them over a slow fire till they are well dissolved. when cool, the mixture is ready for use. add a gill of iron filings steeped in vinegar. the above makes a perfect jet black, equal to the best black ebony. a very good black is obtained by a solution of sulphate of copper and nitric acid; when dry, the work should have a coat of strong logwood stain. =imitation oak.=--to imitate old oak, the process known as "fumigating" is the best. this is produced by two ounces of american potash and two ounces of pearlash mixed together in a vessel containing one quart of hot water. another method is by dissolving a lump of bichromate of potash in warm water; the tint can be varied by adding more water. this is best done out of doors in a good light. very often in sending for bichromate of potash a mistake is made, and chromate of potash is procured instead; this is of a yellow colour, and will not answer the purpose. the bichromate of potash is the most powerful, and is of a red colour. a solution of asphaltum in spirits of turpentine is frequently used to darken new oak which is intended for painter's varnish, or a coating of boiled oil. another method of imitating new oak upon any of the inferior light-coloured woods is to give the surface a coat of stephens's satin-wood stain, and to draw a soft graining-comb gently over it, and when the streaky appearance is thus produced a camel-hair pencil should be taken and the veins formed with white stain. this is made by digesting three-quarters of an ounce of flake white (subnitrate of bismuth), and about an ounce of isinglass in two gills of boiling water; it can be made thinner by adding more water, or can be slightly tinted if desired. proficients in staining and imitating can make american ash so like oak that experienced judges are frequently deceived, the vein and shade of the spurious wood looking nearly as natural as the genuine. after the veining is done, it should be coated with white hard varnish, made rather thin by adding more spirits, after which the ground can be delicately darkened if required. =imitation satin-wood.=--take methylated spirits one quart, ground turmeric three ounces, powdered gamboge one and a-half ounces. this mixture should be steeped to its full strength, and then strained through fine muslin, when it will be ready for use. apply with a sponge, and give two coats; when dry, glass-paper down with fine old paper. this makes a good imitation for inside work. by the addition of a little dragon's blood an orange tint can be produced. a yellow colour can also be given to wood by boiling hot solutions of turmeric, persian berries, fustic, etc. but the colour is very fugitive. a more permanent colour results from nitric acid, and last of all by the successive introduction of acetate of lead and chromate of potash. sulphate of iron also stains wood of a yellowish colour when used as a preservative agent, so much so, that the use of corrosive sublimate is recommended for this purpose when it is desirable to preserve the light colour. =a blue stain.=--this dye can be obtained by dissolving east indian indigo in arsenious acid, which will give a dark blue. a lighter blue can be obtained by hot solutions of indigo, of sulphate of copper, and by the successive introduction of pyrolignite of iron and prussiate of potash. =a green stain.=--dissolve one ounce of roman vitriol in a quart of boiling water, to which is added one ounce of pearlash; the mixture should then be forcibly agitated, and a small quantity of pulverised yellow arsenic stirred in. a green is also the result of successive formations in the pores of the wood of a blue and a yellow as above indicated, and by a hot solution of acetate of copper in water. a yellowish green may be obtained by the action of copper salts on the red prussiate of potash. =a purple stain.=--boil one pound of logwood chips in three quarts of water, until the full strength is obtained; then add four ounces of pearlash and two ounces of powdered indigo. when these ingredients are thoroughly dissolved, it is ready for use, either hot or cold. a purple is also obtained by a boiling hot solution of logwood and brazil-wood, one pound of the former and one quarter of a pound of the latter to a gallon of water. =a red stain.=--methylated spirits one quart, brazil-wood three ounces, dragon's blood half an ounce, cochineal half an ounce, saffron one ounce. steep the whole to its full strength, and strain. a red can also be produced by macerating red-sanders in rectified spirits of naphtha. an orange-red colour may be obtained by the successive action of bichloride of mercury and iodide of potash, madder, and ammoniacal solutions of carmine. =imitation purple-wood stain.=--grind a piece of green copperas on coarse glass-paper, and mix with polish coloured with red-sanders. this makes a capital purple stain, and is used by french cabinet-makers. these dyestuffs may be much improved by the addition of a mordant applied after they are dry; this will greatly assist in modifying and fixing the tints and shades which the dyes impart. the best thing for the purpose, in the writer's opinion, is clear ox-gall, which, besides being useful as a mordant, will destroy all unctuous matter. =chemicals used in staining.=--it may perhaps be useful here to give the common or popular names of the chemicals employed in the operations of staining and imitating, as few polishers know them by the scientific names used by chemists:-- nitric acid is but another phrase for aquafortis. sulphuric acid, for oil of vitriol. ammonia, for spirits of hartshorn. sulphate of magnesia, for epsom salts. nitrate of potass, for sal prunelle. chlorine, for aqua regia. sulphate of copper, for blue vitriol. subborate of soda, for borax. superoxalate of potass, for salts of sorrel. hydrochlorate of ammonia, for sal ammoniac. subnitrate of bismuth, for flake white. acetic acid, for vinegar. acetate of lead, for sugar of lead. sulphate of lime, for gypsum. carbonate of potass, for pearlash. bitartrate of potass, for cream of tartar. nitrate of silver, for lunar caustic. supercarbonate of iron, for plumbago. cyanide of iron, for prussian blue. subacetate of copper, for common verdigris. susquecarbonate of ammonia, for sal volatile. alcohol, for pure spirit. sulphate of iron, for green copperas. sulphate of zinc, for white copperas. =process of staining.=--the natural qualities of woods are very variable; so also are the textures of the different sorts usually used for staining. it will be readily perceived that there is no fixed principle upon which certain peculiar tints or shades can be produced with any degree of certainty. in order to arrive at the best results, the stainer is recommended to observe the following rules:-- all dry stuffs are best reduced to powder, when it is possible, before macerating or dissolving them. all liquids should be strained or filtered before use. the requisite ingredients should always be tested before a free use is made of them, as the effect produced by a coat of stain cannot be accurately ascertained until it is thoroughly dry. amateurs in staining had far better coat twice or thrice with a weak stain than apply a strong one; for if too dark a tint is first obtained it is often irremediable. flat surfaces will take stain more evenly if a small portion of linseed-oil is first wiped over, well rubbed off, and allowed to dry, then lightly papered down with fine glass-paper. end-way wood which is of a spongy nature should first have a coat of thin varnish, and when dry well glass-papered off. for applying stain a flat hog-hair tool is the best; and for a softener-down a badger-hair tool is used. for mahogany shades and tints a mottler will be found of service, as will also a soft piece of turkey sponge. for oak, the usual steel graining-comb is employed for the streaking, and for veining badger sash-tools and sable pencils. =ready-made wood stains.=--there are numerous stains suitable for common work in the market obtainable at a small cost by residents in london, but it is cheaper for those who reside in country towns to make their own, if only a small quantity is required. the principal makers of wood stains are h. c. stephens, of , aldersgate-street, e.c., and jackson, , union-street, southwark, s.e. these makers prepare stains in a liquid state, and also in powders for oak, walnut, mahogany, satin-wood, ebony, and rosewood. the powders are sold in packages at s. per lb. or s. for two ounces, and are soluble in boiling water. judson, of , southwark-street, s.e., makes a mahogany powder in sixpenny packets, and any reliable oilman will sell a good black stain at d. per quart, or a superior black stain at s. d. per quart. fox, of , bethnal green-road, also prepares stains in a liquid state. chapter iii. _french polishing._ =the polish used.=--the oil or wax polish was used for all kinds of furniture before the introduction of french polish, the invention of which, as its name implies, is due to french cabinet-makers. it was first introduced into england about seventy years since; some time elapsed, however, before it was brought to a high state of perfection. at first apprentices or porters were entrusted with the polishing, they having been usually called upon to do the wax polishing; but in course of time it was found that its successful adoption implied the possession of considerable skill, and it came to be regarded as an art of no little importance--so much so, that the early polishers who had perfected themselves used to work in a shop with closed doors, lest the secret of their success should be discovered. from that time polishing became a separate branch of the cabinet business. the following original recipe as first invented has been extracted from a french work, the _dictionnaire technologique_, not, however, for its usefulness (it having gone into disuse many years ago), but as a matter of curiosity:-- "_french polish._" gum sandarach ounces drachms gum mastic in drops " " shellac (the yellower the better) " " alcohol of . specific gravity quarts and pint. "pound the resinous gums, and effect their solution by continued agitation, without the aid of heat; if the woods are porous, add seven ounces one drachm of venice turpentine. if an equal weight of ground glass be added, the solution is more quickly made, and is also otherwise benefited by it. before using, the wood should be made to imbibe a little linseed-oil, the excess of which should be removed by an old flannel." notwithstanding the improvement made upon the old processes by this new method, it was by no means considered to be perfect, for the polish was found to impart its brown tinge to the light-coloured woods, especially in marqueterie work, and to deteriorate their appearance. it will be readily seen that it was a great desideratum among polishers to render shellac colourless, as, with the exception of its dark-brown hue, it possesses all the properties essential to a good polish or spirit varnish in a higher degree than any of the other resins. in the society of arts came forward with its valuable aid and offered a premium of a gold medal, or thirty guineas, "for a polish or varnish made from shell or seed-lac, equally hard, and as fit for use in the arts as that at present prepared from the above substance, but deprived of its colouring matter." after numerous experiments, this long-felt want was perfectly attained by dr. hare, who was awarded the premium. his method was as follows: "dissolve in an iron kettle one part of pearlash in about eight parts of water; add one part of shell or seed-lac, and heat the whole to ebullition. when the lac is dissolved, cool the solution, and impregnate it with chlorine till the lac is all precipitated. the precipitate is white, but its colour deepens by washing and consolidation; dissolved in alcohol, lac, bleached by the process above mentioned, yields a polish or varnish which is as free from colour as any copal varnish." at the present time shellac is bleached by filtration over animal charcoal. numerous experiments were afterwards made in the manufacture of polishes; several chemists devoted their attention to its manufacture, and an improved polish was soon produced which was used for a number of years. the following are its proportions:-- shellac ounces. sandarach / ounce. white resin / " benzoin / " gum thus / " o.p. finishing spirit / a gallon. the "filling-in" processes also began to be used, which effected a considerable saving in the quantity of polish usually required, and in consequence of the expensiveness of spirits of wine rectified spirits of naphtha was used as a substitute for the making of polishes, etc.; but it was discovered that its continued use soon affected the eyesight of the workmen, and it had to be abandoned, the methylic alcohol, pyroxylic spirit, or wood spirit, as it has been differently called, taking its place. this was first discovered by mr. philip taylor in , and is obtained by distilling wood. messrs. dumas & peligot, after analysing it, determined that it contained · per cent. of carbon, · per cent. of hydrogen, and per cent. of oxygen. when pure, it remains clear in the atmosphere; but for the sake of economy it is often employed in the manufacture of other compounds called methylated. this spirit began to be much used in the manufacture of polishes and varnishes in the year , and has continued to be much used ever since. the wonderful improvements which have been effected in polishes since their first introduction obviously prove that they have now arrived at a very high point of perfection, and polishing is now justly acknowledged, both by skilled artisans and connoisseurs, to be an important decorative art. french polish or varnish at the present time can easily be obtained at most chemists or oil shops, or direct from the manufacturers, amongst whom may be mentioned mr. w. urquhart, , edgware-road, w.; messrs. turner & sons, to , broad-street, bloomsbury, w.c.; messrs. william fox & son, bethnal green-road, e.; mr. g. purdom, , commercial-road, e. the london prices are: best french polish, s. d. per gallon; best white polish, s. per gallon; brown or white hard varnish, s. per gallon; patent glaze, s. per gallon; methylated spirits, s. d. per gallon. for those who prefer to make their own, the following will be found an excellent recipe:-- ounces of orange shellac. ounce of benzoin. ounce of sandarach. / gallon of methylated spirits. pound the gums well before mixing with the spirit, as this will hasten their dissolution. white polish for white wood and marqueterie work should be made with bleached shellac instead of the above. in making polishes or varnishes, the mixture will frequently require shaking until dissolved. =rubbers.=--in commencing to polish, the materials required are old flannel for the rubbers and clean old linen or cotton rags for the coverings, the softer the better; some polishers, however, prefer white wadding for rubbers instead of flannel. rubbers for large surfaces are usually made of soft old flannel, firmly and compactly put together somewhat in the form of a ball, and the more they possess softness and compactness, and are large and solid, the more quickly and satisfactorily will they polish extensive surfaces. small pliable rubbers are usually employed for chairs or light frame-work. perhaps for a beginner a rubber made of old flannel may be best, as it takes some little practice to obtain the necessary lightness of hand. the rubber for "spiriting-off" should be made up from a piece of old flannel or woollen cloth, and covered with a piece of close rag, doubled. carefully fold the rag and screw it round at the back to make it as firm as possible, and sprinkle some spirit on the face of it just as it is covered; then give it two or three good smacks with the palm of the hand, and begin by laying on as lightly as possible for the first few strokes and gradually increase the pressure as the rubber gets dry; then take off the first fold of the cover and work it perfectly dry. the rubber should present to the wood you are about to work on a smooth-rounded or convex surface. have beside you linseed-oil in one receptacle, and some french polish in another. apply one drop of polish and one drop of oil, and polish with a circular movement--traversing steadily the _whole_ surface to be polished, and from time to time, as may be necessary (when the rubber gets sticky and harsh, indicating that the inside needs replenishing with more polish), open and apply more of it, and again draw over the linen cover, holding it tightly to form the convex face proper to do the work. after replenishing, the rubber will probably need a little more oil to help it to work smoothly. having thus worked on one coat of polish evenly over all the wood until it has got what may best be described as a _full look_, set it aside for two or three hours to sink in and become hard, and when completely dry, lightly paper off with glass-paper (very finest), afterwards dusting the surface to remove any trace of powder, and lay on a second coat of polish in the same method. then allow twenty-four hours to dry. another light papering may possibly be needed--dust off as before recommended and let the wood have a _third_ coat of polish. for this third coat a fresh rubber should be made, the inside being sparingly supplied with spirits of wine instead of polish. put a double fold of linen over it, touch it with one drop of oil, and go very lightly and speedily over the whole work. in spiriting-off--the object of which is to remove any trace of smudge that may blur the surface unless removed thus by spirit--you should go gently to work, using a very light hand, or you may take the polish off as well, amateurs more especially. =position.=--all work should be placed in an easy and accessible position while it is being polished, so that the eye may readily perceive the effect of the rubber; this will greatly help to relieve the difficulties attending the polishing of a fine piece of furniture. it should also be kept quite firm, so that it cannot possibly move about. the most suitable benches for polishers are the ordinary cabinet-makers' benches, with the tops covered with thick, soft cloths; these cloths should not be fastened down, it being an advantage to be able to remove them when required. when a piece of work too large to be placed upon the bench is in hand, pads will be found useful to rest it upon. these can be made by covering pieces of wood about two feet in length by three inches in width with cloth several times doubled, the work being placed so that a good light falls upon it. all thin panelling should be tacked down upon a board by the edges while polishing. =filling-in.=--the first process the wood usually undergoes is "filling-in." this consists in rubbing into the pores of the wood russian tallow and plaster of paris, which have been previously heated and mixed together so as to form a thick paste. for rosewood, or to darken mahogany, a little rose-pink should be added. after well rubbing in, the surface should be cleared from all the surplus paste with the end of the scraper, and then rubbed off with shavings or old rags, and made quite clean. for birch or oak, some use whiting or soft putty moistened with linseed-oil for the filling; this preparation prevents in a great measure the rising of the grain. for white delicate woods, such as sycamore, maple, or satin-wood, plaster of paris, mixed with methylated spirit, is used. when polishing pine, a coat of young's patent size ( d. per lb.) is used instead of the above mixtures, and when dry is rubbed down with fine glass-paper. some workmen, who regard their modes of filling-in as important secrets, do their work surprisingly quick by the methods here given. the various processes are soon acquired by a little practice, and contribute greatly to the speedy advancement of a smooth and imporous ground, which is the most important point to observe in polishing. =applying the polish.=--in commencing to use the polish some are provided with a small earthenware dish, into which the polish is poured for wetting the rubbers; while others make a slit in the cork of the polish bottle, and so let it drip on to the rubber; whichever method is adopted, the rubber should not be saturated, but receive just enough to make a smear. every time after wetting the rubber and putting on the cover it should be pressed upon the palm of the hand, or if a small rubber it can be tested between the thumb and finger. this is an important operation, for by it the polisher can easily tell the exact state of moisture, and at the same time, by the pressure being applied, the moisture is equalised. the tip of the finger should then be just dipped into the linseed-oil, and applied to the face of it; if the rubber should be rather sappy, the greatest care must be used or a coarse streaky roughness will be produced; extreme lightness of hand is required until the rubber is nearly dry. (it would be a serious error to bear heavily on the rubber while the surface is moist; to do so, and to use too much oil on the rubber, are the causes of many failures in polishing.) in commencing to work, pass the rubber a few times gently and lightly over the surface in the direction of the grain; then rub across the grain in a series of circular movements, all one way, in full and free sweeping strokes, until the rubber is dry. continue this operation until the pores are filled in, and the surface assumes a satisfactory appearance. it should then be left for about twelve hours; the polish will be well into the wood by that time. the polish should then be carefully rubbed down with no. glass-paper; this will remove the atomic roughness usually caused by the rising of the grain during the sinking period. in flat-surface work a paper cork can be used, and the rubbing lightly and regularly done in a careful manner, so as to avoid rubbing through the outer skin, especially at the edges and corners, or the work will be irremediably defaced. the woods which possess a rising grain are well known to polishers; these are the light-coloured woods with a coarse grain, viz., ash, birch, and oak. this rising of the grain can in a great measure be prevented by passing a damp sponge over the work before commencing the polishing, allowing it to dry, and papering it. after the rubbing or smoothing-down process is finished, the work should be well dusted; the polishing can then recommence. the above operation must be again repeated with a rotary motion and gradually increased pressure as the rubber gets dry, and finished by lighter rubbings the way of the grain; this will remove any slight marks that may be occasioned by the circular movements of the rubber. working too long on any one part is to be avoided, nor should the rubber be allowed to stick even for an instant, or it will pull the coating of polish off to the bare wood. the rubber should be covered with a clean part of the rag as soon as a shiny appearance becomes apparent upon it, or at each time of damping, and less oil should be used towards the end of the operation, so as to gradually clear it all off from the surface. rubber marks can be removed by rubbing in a direction the reverse of the marks with a half-dry rubber and increased pressure. when the work has received a sufficient body, in finishing the drying of the last rubber, ply it briskly the way of the grain to produce a clean dry surface for the spiriting-off. the following is the method usually employed on fine carved or turned work when finished in the best style. in the first place it is embodied with polish, using a small rubber for the operation, after which it should have one coat of shellac (two parts by weight of shellac to one of spirits) applied with a brush, and when dry it should be carefully smoothed down with flour paper, the utmost caution being observed in dealing with the sharp edges, or the carving will be spoiled. then it is embodied with polish again, and one coat of glaze applied with the greatest care. a few hours should be allowed to harden, and then finished off with a rubber slightly damped with thin polish. this is an expensive method, but it will pay in appearance for all the time bestowed. for the best class of cabinet and pianoforte work in amboyna or burr-walnut it is advisable not to use linseed-oil on the sole of the rubber when polishing, but the best hog's lard; the reason for this is that these veneers being so extremely thin and porous the oil will quickly penetrate through to the groundwork, softening the glue, and causing the veneers to rise in a number of small blisters. of course, this is not always the case, but the use of lard instead of oil will be found a good preventative. lard is also used on the above class of work when it is desirable to preserve the colour of the wood in its natural state. the following method is employed for the best work: immediately on receiving the job from the cabinet-maker, a good coating of thin, clean glue should be applied with a sponge or brush; this is allowed to dry, and thoroughly harden; it is then cleaned off, using the scraper and glass-paper, cutting it down to the wood. the bodying-in with white polish is the next process, the usual sinking period being allowed; it is again cleaned off, but the scraper this time should not quite reach the wood. then embody again, and treat in a like manner. in getting up the permanent body, commence with a slight embodying; let this stand, and when the sinking period is over rub it down with a felt rubber and powdered pumice-stone; continue this several times, till the surface presents a satisfactory appearance, and the job is ready for the spiriting process. by this means the wood will retain its natural colour, and a beautiful transparent polish will result, and remain for a number of years. this also is an expensive process, but the result cannot be obtained in any other way. =spiriting-off.=--most polishers affirm that if an interval of at least a couple of hours elapse between the final embodying and the spiriting-off the brilliancy of the polish will be improved, and remain harder and more durable. the spirit is applied in exactly the same way as the polish, and the same rubber can be used, but it should be covered with more than one fold of the soft linen rag; care should be taken not to make it very wet, or the gum on the surface of the work will be redissolved, and a dulness instead of a brilliancy will result. if the spirit should be very strong, the rubber should be breathed upon before using, and a little more oil taken up; some, however, prefer to mix a little polish with the spirit, while others prefer the spirit to be weakened by exposure to the air for a few hours; experience alone must be the teacher in this particular; but if the spirit should not "bite," as it is termed, all will be well. the last rubber should be worked a little longer than usual, and a trifle quicker, so as to remove the slight greasy moisture on the surface. the finishing touch is given to the work by a soft rag loosely rolled up and just a few drops of spirit dropped upon it, applied quickly the way of the grain. this will remove every defect, and leave it clear and brilliant. if, in a short time after finishing, the polish becomes dull or rough, it will be owing to too much oil being absorbed in the process and working through the surface, combined with dust. it should be cleaned off first with a soft cloth, damped with a little warm water, and the whole repaired, as at first, with equal parts of polish and spirits mixed together, using the least possible damp of oil to make it finish clear; there is no danger of its happening again. in all cases the work must be rubbed till quite dry, and when nearly so the pressure may be increased. the rubber for spiriting-off should be made up from a piece of old flannel, and be covered with a piece of old rag. this is preferable to very thin rag, and will give a better finish. =prepared spirits.=--this preparation is useful for finishing, as it adds to the lustre and durability, as well as removes every defect of other polishes, and it gives the surface a most brilliant appearance. it is made of half a pint of the very best rectified spirits of wine, two drachms of shellac, and two drachms of gum benzoin. put these ingredients in a bottle and keep in a warm place till the gum is all dissolved, shaking it frequently; when cold add two teaspoonfuls of the best clear white poppy oil; shake them well together, and it is fit for use. =antique style.=--for mediæval or old english furniture a dull polish is generally preferred to a french polish, because it has a gloss rather than a brilliant polish, which materially assists in showing up mouldings or carvings to the best advantage; it is also more in character with the work of the middle ages. another advantage is the facility of obtaining a new polish (after being once done) should the first one get tarnished, as the finishing process can be performed without difficulty by any one, and a new polish obtained each time. on receiving a job which is required to be done in this style, it should be "filled-in" in the usual manner, and afterwards bodied with white polish to a good extent; it is then left for a sinking period (say twelve hours). the work is then carefully rubbed down with powdered pumice-stone and a felt-covered block or rubber, and after well dusting it is ready for finishing. the preparation used for this process is mainly composed of bees'-wax and turpentine (see wax polish, page ), well rubbed in with a piece of felt or a woollen rag, and finished off by rubbing briskly with a very soft cloth or an old handkerchief to produce a gloss. =dull or egg-shell polish.=--this is another style of finishing for mediæval work; the process is very simple. in commencing a job to be finished in this style, the process of "filling-in" and "embodying" are first gone through, then a sinking period is allowed, after which it is embodied again, till the work is ready for finishing. all the parts should be carefully examined to see if there is a good coating of polish upon them. this is important, for if the work should be only thinly coated it is liable to be spoiled by rubbing through in the last process. after allowing a few hours for the surface to harden, a pounce bag of powdered pumice-stone should be applied to the work, and a felt-covered rubber used, rubbing down in the direction of the grain until the work is of the desired dulness. for the cheaper kind of work done in this style, the first process, of course, is the filling-in; then a rubber of wadding is taken and used without a cover, made rather sappy with polish and a few drops of oil added; and after bodying-in with this sufficiently, the work should be stood aside for twelve hours, then rubbed down with some fine worn glass-paper. the embodying is then again commenced, a proper rubber and cover being used; and when sufficient is put on, and while the surface is still soft, the pounce above mentioned should be applied, and rubbed down with a piece of wadding slightly moistened with linseed-oil until the desired dulness appears. this is becoming the fashionable finish for black walnut work. =polishing in the lathe.=--the lathe is of more use to a polisher than a great many persons outside the trade would imagine. by its aid turned work can be finished in a most superior style, and in less time than by hand. the articles usually done by the lathe are wood musical instruments, such as clarionets, flutes, etc.; also cornice-poles, ends, and mahogany rings, the latter being first placed in a hollow chuck and the insides done, after which they are finished upon the outside on a conical chuck. for table-legs, chair-legs, and all the turnery used in the cabinet-work, it will be found of great advantage to finish the turned parts before the work is put together. most of the best houses in the trade finish their work in this way, where all the work is polished out entirely with the rubber. in the first place, the filling-in is done. the band is thrown off the pulley and the work rubbed in; at the same time the pulley is turned round by the left hand. when this is done, the band is replaced and the work cleaned off with rags or shavings, the lathe to be driven with speed to get a clean surface. when applying the polish the lathe should revolve with a very slow motion. the rubbers best adapted for turned work are made of white wadding, as the hollows and other intricacies can be completely finished out with a soft rubber. the work should first receive a coating of thick shellac, two parts by weight of shellac to one of methylated spirits, and applied with a brush or a soft sponge; after a couple of hours this is nicely smoothed with fine paper, and the "bodying-in" completed with the soft rubber and thin polish. there are numerous hard woods which do not require filling-in, amongst which may be mentioned boxwood, cocus, ebony, etc.; these may be rapidly polished in the lathe, on account of their texture, with the white polish. in spiriting-off a very soft piece of chamois leather (if it is hard and creased it will scratch) should be damped with methylated spirits, then wrung so that the spirit may be equally diffused; the lathe should then be driven at a rapid speed, and the leather held softly to the work. in a few minutes, if a dark wood, a brilliant surface will be produced. chapter iv. _cheap work._ =glazing.=--glaze is known to the trade under several names, such as slake, finish, and telegraph; it is used only for cheap work, when economy of time is a consideration, and is made as follows: mastic, oz.; benzoin, ozs.; methylated spirit, gills. a superior article can be obtained from g. purdom, , commercial road, whitechapel, e., who is the manufacturer of a "patent glaze." first give the work a rubber or two of polish after the "filling-in"; it is important to dry the last rubber thoroughly, so that no unctuousness remains upon the surface before applying the glaze, otherwise it will be of no effect. the way to apply it is as follows: prepare a rubber as for polishing and make it moderately wet, and take only one steady wipe the way of the grain, never going over the same surface twice while wet; and when dry, if one coat is found not to be enough, apply a second in the same manner. for mouldings or the backs and sides of chair-work, this is generally considered to be sufficient. some polishers will persist in using glaze to a large extent, even on the best-paid work; but it is not recommended, as the surface will not retain its brilliancy for a lengthened period, particularly in hot weather. nothing is so good for the best class of work as polishing entirely with french polish. the way of treating small flat surfaces such as the frames of tables, looking-glasses, builders' work, etc., is to first fill in, and give one or two rubbers of polish, drying the last rubber thoroughly; then glaze, and after a period of two or three hours finish with a rubber slightly wetted with thin polish. it is a bad plan to put glaze on newly-spirited work, or to re-apply it on old bodies. the following is another method for cheap work: a coating of clear size is first given in a warm state (this can be obtained at most oil-shops), and when dry is rubbed down with fine glass-paper, after which a coating of varnish is applied with a sponge or a broad camel-hair brush, giving long sweeping strokes. the tool should be plied with some degree of speed, as spirit varnishes have not the slow setting properties which distinguish those of oil, and care should be taken not to go over the same part twice. when this is thoroughly hard it is nicely smoothed with fine paper, a few rubberfuls of polish is given, and it is then ready for spiriting-off. another plan is frequently adopted for cheap work: make a thin paste with plaster of paris, suitably tinted and watered, and well rub in across the grain with a piece of felt or old coarse canvas till the pores are all full; any superfluity should be instantly wiped off from the surface before it has time to set. the succeeding processes are papering and oiling. in applying the polish, which should be done immediately after oiling, the rubber should be made rather sappy with thin polish, and worked without oil. during the embodying a pounce-bag containing plaster of paris is sparingly used; this application tends to fill the pores and also to harden the body of polish on the exterior, but too much should not be used, or it will impart a semi-opaque appearance to the work. this first body is allowed sufficient time to harden; it is then rubbed down lightly with flour paper or old worn no. , and then embodied with thicker polish or a mixture of polish and varnish, and the smallest quantity of oil applied to the rubber. when a sufficient body of polish is given to the work, the surface is rubbed very carefully with a lump of moist putty plied in the longitudinal direction of the grain; this will bring up a gloss, and very little spiriting will be required. =stencilling.=--an imitation of marqueterie on light-coloured woods can be obtained by the following method: cut a stencil pattern in stout cartridge paper (this is best done upon a piece of glass with the point of a sharp penknife), and place it on the centre of a panel or wherever required, and have ready some gas-black mixed with thin polish; apply this with a camel-hair pencil over the cut-out pattern, and when it is removed finish the lines and touch up with a finer tool. the work should be first bodied-in, and when the pattern is dry rubbed down with a piece of hair-cloth (the smooth side down) on a cork rubber to a smooth surface, after which the polishing can be proceeded with until finished. upon oak this will have the appearance of inlaid work. =charcoal polishing.=--a method known as "charcoal polishing" is now much used for producing the beautiful dead-black colour which seems to have the density of ebony. its invention is due to french cabinet-makers. the woods used by them are particularly well adapted for staining black or any other colour, limetree, beech, cherry, pear, soft mahogany, or any wood of a close and compact grain being the woods usually selected. the first process is to give the work a coating of camphor dissolved in water and made rather strong; this will soon soak into the wood, and immediately afterwards another coat composed of sulphate of iron-water with a few nut-galls added. these solutions in blending penetrate the wood and give it an indelible tinge, and also prevent insects from attacking it. after these coats are dry, rub the surface with a hard brush (an old scrubbing-brush will do) the way of the grain, after which rub the flat parts with natural stick charcoal, and the carved or indented portions with powdered charcoal; the softest portion of the charcoal only should be used, because if a single hard grain should be applied it would seriously damage the surface. the workman should have ready at the same time a preparation of linseed-oil and essence of turpentine (linseed-oil one gill, and essence of turpentine one teaspoonful), a portion of which should be freely taken up with a piece of soft flannel and well rubbed into the work. these rubbings with the preparation and charcoal several times will give the article of furniture a beautiful dead-black colour and polish. this method of polishing is applied to the black-and-gold furniture, cabinets, etc., in imitation of ebony. another good black polish is obtained by gas-black being applied to the rubber after wetting with french polish, the cover being then put on and worked in the usual manner. these black polishes should not be applied if there are coloured woods in the piece of furniture. should the work be already dyed black, or in black veneers, it is best to use white polish, which will greatly help to preserve the transparent density of the dye. chapter v. _re-polishing old work._ if the piece of furniture requiring to be re-polished should be in bad condition, it is best to clean off thoroughly, using the liquid ammonia (see page ), or by the scraper and glass-paper. the indentations may be erased by dipping into hot water a piece of thick brown paper three or four times doubled and applying it to the part; the point of a red-hot poker should be immediately placed upon the wet paper, which will cause the water to boil into the wood and swell up the bruise; the thickness of the paper prevents the wood from being scorched by the hot poker. after the moisture is evaporated, the paper should be again wetted if required. if only shallow dents, scratches, and broken parts of the polish present themselves, carefully coat them two or three times with a thick solution of shellac, and when the last coating becomes hard carefully paper down with a piece of old glass-paper and a cork rubber. if the surface should be in good condition, it is necessary only to remove the viscid rust; this is done by friction with a felt-covered rubber and pure spirits of turpentine; by this means the polish remains unsullied. if the surface should not be in very good condition, a flannel should be used smeared with a paste of bathbrick-dust and water, or a paste made of the finest emery flour and spirits of turpentine. after cleansing, and before the polish is applied, it is a good plan to just moisten the surface with raw linseed-oil; this will cause the old body to unite with the new one. in order to carry out the process of re-polishing with facility, it is necessary to disunite all the various parts, such as panels, carvings, etc., before commencing the operation. the polish is applied in the usual manner, and when a good body is laid on the work should be set aside for twelve hours, after which it can be finished. it should be particularly observed that in polishing no job should be finished immediately after the rubbing-down process; a sinking period should always be allowed. if the work should be immediately finished, the consequences are that in a few hours all the marks and scratches of the paper, etc., will be discernible, and the polished surface will present a very imperfect appearance, although looking perfect when first finished. holes and crevices may be well filled up with a cement made in the following manner: in a large iron spoon place a lump of beeswax about the size of a walnut, a pinch of the pigments mentioned on page , according to the colour required, a piece of common rosin the size of a nut, and a piece of tallow as large as a pea; melt, and it is ready for use. some add a little shellac, but much will make it very brittle. a similar substance to the above can be bought at the french warehouses. chapter vi. _spirit varnishing._ most polishers are agreed that to obtain a good surface with varnish it is necessary to give the work, where it is possible to do so, a rubberful of polish first, and to thoroughly dry the rubber; but in most carved work the surface is not accessible, and the brush must be used. sometimes the carving is extremely coarse, and with an open porous grain, in which case it is best to oil it first and then to fine-paper it down; by this process a thin paste is formed by the attrition, which materially assists in filling up the pores. before commencing to use the varnish have ready an earthenware dish or box,--one of the tins used for the preserved meats or fish will answer the purpose,--with two holes drilled so that a piece of wire can be fastened diametrically across the top; this is called a "regulator," and when the brush is passed once or twice over this it prevents an unnecessary quantity of varnish being transferred to the work. =varnishes.=--the ingredients for making varnish are very similar to those for making polish, but the proportions are somewhat different. furniture varnish consists of two kinds, viz.: the brown-hard and the white-hard; the former is used for dark woods, such as mahogany, walnut, rosewood, etc.; whilst the latter is used for the light-coloured woods, in conjunction with the white polish. a few years since the brown-hard varnish was made from these ingredients: gallon of methylated spirit, ozs. of shellac, ozs. of rosin, ozs. of benzoin, ozs. of sandarach, ozs. of white rosin. the brown-hard varnish which is used at the present time is made differently, and produces a better result; it is made from the following: gallon of methylated spirit, ozs. of shellac, ozs. of rosin, ozs. of benzoin. the white-hard or transparent varnish for white wood is made with gallon of methylated spirit, ozs. of bleached shellac, ozs. of gum sandarach. in making either polishes or varnishes, all the gums should be first pounded and reduced to powder before mixing with the spirit, and when mixed they should be occasionally well shaken or stirred, so as to hasten their dissolution. =brushes and pencils.=--the brushes used for varnishing are either flat, in tin, or round, tied firmly to the handle, and made of camel's-hair; but the small white bristle-tools and red-sable pencils will frequently be found of service in coating delicate carving, or turned work. varnish brushes can be obtained from a quarter of an inch to four inches and upwards in width; the most useful brush, however, for general use is about an inch wide. it is important that brushes should be cleaned in spirits immediately after use, for if laid by in varnish they lose their elasticity and are soon spoiled; but if this preservative principle is ever neglected, the hardened brush should be soaked in methylated spirit, and if wanted for immediate use the spirit will soften the varnish quicker if made luke-warm. the spirit should be gently pressed out by the finger and thumb. all varnish brushes when not in use should be hung up, or kept in such a position that they do not rest upon their hairy ends, either in a box or tin free from dust. =mode of operation.=--it is usual in varnishing to give the work three coats, and always allow each coat to dry thoroughly before applying the next. it should be noted that spirit varnishes begin to dry immediately they are laid on; therefore, on no account should they be touched with the brush again whilst wet, or when dry they will present a rough surface. always ply the brush quickly, and never go over a second time. when giving the first or second coats it is unimportant how they are applied, whether across the grain or with the grain, but the finishing coat should always be with the grain. if the varnish should appear frothy when laid on, it is of no consequence, as it will dry smooth if equally and evenly applied before a good fire or in a warm atmosphere. coloured varnishes can be made in exactly the same manner as coloured polishes (see page ). the beautiful glossy black varnishes so admired on indian cabinet-work, specimens of which can be seen at the indian museum, are very difficult to obtain in england, but a description of them may be interesting. =east indian varnishes.=--the sylhet varnish is composed of two parts of the juice of the bhela (the tree which bears the marking nuts of india), and one part of the juice of the jowar. the articles varnished with it at sylhet are of the most beautiful glossy black; and it seems equally fitted for varnishing iron, leather, paper, wood, or stone. it has a sort of whitish-grey colour when first taken out of the bottle, but in a few minutes it becomes perfectly black by exposure to the air. in the temperature of this country it is too thick to be laid on alone; but it may be rendered more fluid by heat. in this case, however, it is clammy, and seems to dry very slowly. when diluted with spirits of turpentine, it dries more quickly; but still with less rapidity than is desirable. the _tsitsi_, or rangoon varnish, is less known than the sylhet varnish. it is probably made from the juice of the bhela alone. it appears to have the same general properties as the sylhet varnish, but dries more rapidly. the varnish from the _kheeso_, or varnish-tree, may be the same as the rangoon varnish, but is at present considered to be very different. the kheeso grows particularly in kubboo, a valley on the banks of the ningtee, between munnipore and the burman empire. it attains to such a large size, that it affords planks upwards of three feet in breadth, and in appearance and grain is very like mahogany. a similar tree is found in great abundance and perfection at martaban. a poisonous vapour exhales from several of the indian varnishes, especially from that of sylhet, and is apt to produce over the whole skin inflammations, swellings, itchings, and pustules, as if the body had been stung by a number of wasps. its effects, however, go off in a few hours. as a preventative the persons who collect the varnish, before going to work, smear their faces and hands with greasy matter to prevent the varnish poison coming into contact with their skin. chapter vii. _general instructions._ =remarks on polishing.=--amateurs at french polishing will be more successful on a large surface than a small one. when polishing, the rubber-cloth should be changed occasionally, or the brightness will not remain when finished. a most efficacious improver of many kinds of woods is raw linseed-oil mixed with a little rectified spirits of turpentine. french polish can be tinted a light-red with alkanet-root, and a dark-red with dragon's blood. a good turkey sponge is capable of spreading either stain or varnish more smoothly than a camel's-hair brush on a flat surface. the sub-nitrate of bismuth mentioned on p. is beginning to supersede oxalic acid for bleaching processes. thin panels for doors should be securely tacked down to a level board, and polished with a large round flannel rubber having a very flat sole. fret-work panels should have all the edges entirely finished with varnish before they undergo the above operation. to get a good polish upon a full-fret panel is considered by polishers to be the most difficult part in the work, on account of the extreme delicacy and frangibility of the work and the great carefulness required. soft spongy wood may be satiated by rubbing a sponge well filled with polish across the grain until it becomes dry. in polishing a very large surface, such as a loo-table top or a wardrobe end, it is best to do only half at a time, or if a large top a quarter only. the approved method of treating dining-table tops is to well body-in with french polish, after which thoroughly glass-paper down with fine paper, and then use the oil polish (see page ). immediately after using a rubber, it should be kept in an air-tight tin canister, where it will always remain fresh and fit for use. =the polishing shop.=--a few words as to the polishing shop may be acceptable to those who possess ample room and desire the best results. first in order is the location and arrangement of the finishing rooms. preference is to be given to the upper rooms of a building for several reasons, among which may be named the securing of better light, greater freedom from dust, and superior ventilation. a good light in this, as in many other arts, is a very important matter, and by a good light we mean all the light that can be obtained without the glare of the direct rays of the sun. light from side windows is preferable to that from skylights for three reasons: ( ) skylights are very liable to leakage; ( ) they are frequently, for greater or less periods, covered with snow in winter; ( ) the rays of the sun transmitted by them in summer are frequently so powerful as to blister shellac or varnish. good ventilation is at all times of importance, and especially so in summer, both as tending to dry the varnish or shellac more evenly and rapidly, and as contributing to the comfort of the workmen. the latter consideration is of importance even as a matter of economy, as men in a room the atmosphere of which is pleasant and wholesome will feel better and accomplish more than they could do in the close and forbidding apartments in which they sometimes work. any suggestion in reference to freedom from dust, as a matter to be considered in locating rooms for this business, would seem to be entirely superfluous, as it is clear that there is hardly any department of mechanical work which is so susceptible to injury from dust as the finishing of furniture, including varnishing and polishing. finishing rooms may be arranged in three departments. the first should include the room devoted to sand-papering and filling. these processes, much more than any other part of furniture polishing, produce dirt and dust, and it is plain that the room devoted to them should be so far isolated from the varnishing room as not to introduce into it these injurious elements. another room should be appropriated to the bodying-in, smoothing and rubbing-down processes. the third room is for spiriting and varnishing, or the application of the final coats of varnish, which is the most important of all the processes in finishing. it requires a very light and clean room, and a greater degree of heat than a general workroom. it should, as nearly as possible, be uniform, and kept up to _summer heat_; in no case ought the temperature to fall below fifty nor rise higher than eighty-five degrees fahrenheit while the varnishing process is going on. varnishing performed under these circumstances will be more thorough in result, have a brighter appearance and better polish, than if the drying is slow and under irregular temperature. for drying work, the best kind of heat is that from a stove or furnace. steam heat is not so good for two reasons: ( ), it is too moist and soft, causing the work to sweat rather than to dry hard, and ( ), the temperature of a room heated by steam is liable to considerable variation, and especially to becoming lower in the night. this _fire heat_ is as necessary for the varnishing room in damp and cloudy weather in summer as it is in winter. at all seasons, and by night as well as by day, the heat should be as dry as possible, and kept uniformly up to summer heat, by whatever means this result is secured. varnished work, after receiving the last coat, should be allowed to remain one day in the varnishing room. it may then be removed into the general workroom. a remark may be proper here, viz., that there is sometimes a failure to secure the best and most permanent results from not allowing sufficient time for and between the several processes. an order is perhaps to be filled, or for some other reason the goods are "rushed through" at the cost of thoroughness and excellence of finish. the following suggestion is made by way of caution in reference to the disposal of oily rags and waste made in the various processes of finishing. these articles are regarded as very dangerous, and are frequently the cause of much controversy between insurance companies and parties who are insured. the best way to dispose of this waste is to put it into the stove and burn it as fast as it is produced. if this rule is strictly adhered to there will be no danger of fire from this source. all liquid stock should be kept in close cans or barrels, and as far from the fire as possible. chapter viii. _enamelling._ the process of enamelling in oil varnishes as applied to furniture must be understood as a smooth, glossy surface of various colours produced by bodies of paint and varnish skilfully rubbed down, and prepared in a peculiar way so as to produce a surface equal to french polish. ornament can be added by gilding, etc., after the polished surface is finished. we will begin with the white or light-tinted enamel. the same process must be pursued for any colour, the only difference being in the selection of the materials for the tint required to be produced. it should be observed that enamelling requires the exercise of the greatest care, and will not bear hurrying. each coat must be allowed sufficient time for the hardening, and the rubbing down must be patiently and gently done; heavy pressure will completely spoil the work. =materials.=--the materials used for the purpose above named are: white lead ground in turpentine and the best white lead in oil; a clear, quick, and hard-drying varnish, such as the best copal, or the varnishes for enamel manufactured by mr. w. urquhart, , edgware road, w.; or white coburg and white enamel varnish, ground and lump pumice-stone, or putty-powder, great care being taken in the selection of the pumice-stone, as the slightest particle of grit will spoil the surface; and rotten-stone, used either with water or oil. =tools.=--the tools required are several flat wooden blocks, of various sizes and forms, suitable for inserting into corners and for mouldings--these must be covered with felt on the side you intend to use, the felt best adapted for the purpose being the white felt, from a quarter to half an inch in thickness, which can be obtained of messrs. thomas wallis & co., holborn circus, or at the woollen warehouses; two or three bosses (made similar to polish rubbers) of cotton-wool, and covered with silk (an old silk handkerchief makes capital coverings); wash or chamois leather, and a good sponge. =mode of operation.=--if the wood is soft and porous it is best to commence with a coating of size and whiting applied in a warm state, which is allowed to dry; it is then rubbed down with glass-paper, and two coats of common paint given, mixed in the usual way and of the same colour as you intend to finish with. in practice this is found to be best; after these two coats are thoroughly dry, mix the white-lead ground in turps, with only a sufficient quantity of varnish to bind it, thinning to a proper consistency with turps. it is as well to add a little of the ordinary white-lead ground in oil, as it helps to prevent cracking. give the work four or five coats of this, and allow each coat to dry thoroughly. when it is hard and ready for rubbing down, commence with a soft piece of pumice-stone and water, and rub just sufficient to take off the roughness. now use the felt-covered rubbers and ground pumice-stone, and cut it down, working in a circular manner. the greatest care is required to obtain a level surface free from scratches. after the work is well rubbed down, if it should appear to be insufficiently filled up, or if scratched, give it two more coats, laid on very smoothly, and rub down as before. if properly done, it will be perfectly smooth and free from scratches. wash it well down, and be careful to clean off all the loose pumice-stone. then mix flake-white from the tube with either of the above-named varnishes, till it is of the consistency of cream. give one coat of this, and when dry give it another, adding more varnish. let this dry hard, the time taken for which will of course depend upon the drying qualities of the varnish; some will polish in eight or nine days, but it is much the best to let it stand as long as you possibly can, as the harder it is, the brighter and more enduring will be the polish. when sufficiently hard, use the felt, and very finely-ground pumice-stone and water; with this cut down till it is perfectly smooth; then let it stand for a couple of days, to harden the surface. =polishing.=--in commencing to bring up a polish, first take rotten-stone, either in oil or water; use this with the felt rubber for a little while, then put some upon the surface of the silk-covered boss, and commence to rub very gently in circular strokes; continue this till there is a fine equal surface all over. the polish will begin to appear as you proceed, but it will be of a dull sort. clean off: if the rotten-stone is in oil, clean off with dry flour; if in water, wash off with sponge and leather, taking care that you wash it perfectly clean and do not scratch. you will now, after having washed your hands, use a clean damp chamois leather, holding it in the left hand, and using the right to polish with, keeping it clean by frequently drawing it over the damp leather. with the ball of the right hand press gently upon the work, and draw your hand sharply, forward or towards you; this will produce a bright polish, and every time you bring your hand forward a sharp shrill sound will be heard similar to rubbing on glass. continue this till the whole surface is one bright even polish. it will be some time before you will be able to do this perfectly, especially if the skin is dry or hard, as it is then liable to scratch the work. a smooth, soft skin will produce the best polish. for the interior of houses, the "albarine" enamel manufactured by the yorkshire varnish company, of ripon, is recommended. this article combines in itself a perfectly hard solid enamel of the purest possible colour; and for all interior decorations, where purity of colour and brilliancy of finish are desired, it is universally admitted to be the most perfect article of the kind hitherto introduced to the trade. it is applied in the same manner as ordinary varnish. _another process._--the preceding section describes the process of enamelling by oil varnishes, and the directions referring to the polishing will be found of value for the "polishing up" on painted imitations of woods or marbles. there is another process whereby an enamel can be produced upon furniture at a much cheaper rate than the preceding, and one too, perhaps, in which a polisher may feel more "at home." the work should first have a coating of size and whiting (well strained); this will act as a pore-filler. when dry, rub down with fine paper, after which use the felt-covered rubber and powdered pumice-stone, to remove all the scratches caused by the glass-paper and to obtain a smooth and good surface. then proceed to make a solution for the enamel: first procure two ounces of common isinglass from the druggist's, and thoroughly dissolve it in about a pint of boiling water; when dissolved, stir in two ounces and a-half of subnitrate of bismuth--this will be found to be about the right quantity for most woods, but it can be varied to suit the requirements. with this give the work one coat, boiling hot; apply it with a soft piece of turkey sponge, or a broad camel's-hair brush, and when dry cut down with powdered pumice-stone; if a second coat is required, serve in precisely the same manner. then proceed to polish in the ordinary way with white polish. after wetting the rubber, sprinkle a small quantity of the subnitrate of bismuth upon it; then put on the cover, and work in the usual manner; continue this till a sufficient body is obtained, and after allowing a sufficient time for the sinking and hardening it can be spirited off. enamelled furniture has had, comparatively speaking, rather a dull sale, but there is no class of furniture more susceptible of being made to please the fancy of the many than this. it can be made in any tint that may be required by the application of judson's dyes, and the exercise of a little skill in the decoration will produce very pleasing effects. =decorations.=--the decorations are usually ornaments drawn in gold. a cut-out stencil pattern is generally used, and the surface brushed over with a camel's-hair pencil and japanner's gold size, which can be obtained at the artist's colourman's, or, if preferred, can be made by boiling ozs. of linseed-oil with oz. of gum anîme and a little vermilion. when the size is tacky, or nearly dry, gold powder or gold leaf is applied. the gold is gently pressed down with a piece of wadding, and when dry the surplus can be removed with a round camel's-hair tool. in all cases where gold has been fixed by this process it will bear washing without coming off, which is a great advantage. chapter ix. _american polishing processes_ the method of polishing furniture practised by the american manufacturers differs considerably from the french polishing processes adopted by manufacturers in most european countries. this difference, however, is mostly compulsory, and is attributable to the climate. the intense heat of summer and the extreme cold of winter will soon render a french polish useless, and as a consequence numerous experiments have been tried to obtain a polish for furniture that will resist heat or cold. the writer has extracted from two american cabinet-trade journals, _the cabinet-maker_ and _the trade bureau_, descriptions of the various processes now used in the states, which descriptions were evidently contributed by practical workmen. the following pages are not, strictly speaking, a mere reprint from the above-named journals, the articles having been carefully revised and re-written after having been practically tested; attention to them is, therefore, strongly recommended. in these processes the work is first filled in with a "putty filler," and after the surface has been thoroughly cleaned it is ready for shellac or varnish. second, a coating of shellac is next applied with a brush or a soft piece of turkey sponge. this mixture is composed of two parts (by weight) of shellac to one of methylated spirits, but what is called "thin shellac" is composed of one part shellac to two of spirits. after the coating is laid on and allowed to dry, which it does very soon, it is rubbed carefully with fine flour glass-paper, or powdered pumice-stone--about four coats are usually given, each one rubbed down as directed. third, when the surface has received a sufficient body, get a felt-covered rubber and apply rotten-stone and sweet oil in the same manner as you would clean brass; with this give the work a good rubbing, so as to produce a polish. fourth, clean off with a rag and sweet oil, and rub dry; then take a soft rag with a few drops of spirit upon it, and vapour up to a fine polish. with these few preliminary remarks, the following will be easily understood. =use of fillers.=--the cost of a putty filler consists chiefly in the time consumed in applying it. in the matter of walnut-filling much expense is saved in the processes of coating and rubbing if the pores of the wood be filled to the surface with a substance that will not shrink, and will harden quickly. the time occupied in spreading and cleaning a thin or fatty mixture of filler, or a stiff and brittle putty made fresh every day, is about the same, and while the thin mixture will be subject to a great shrinkage, the putty filler will hold its own. it will thus be seen that a proper regard to the materials used in making fillers, and the consistency and freshness of the same, form an important element in the economy of filling. a principal cause of poor filling is the use of thin material. by some a putty-knife is used, and the filling rubbed into the surfaces of mouldings with tow, while others use only the tow for all surfaces, mostly, however, in cases of dry filling. in the use of the wet filler, either with a knife or with tow, workmen are prone to spread it too thin because it requires less effort, but experience shows that the greatest care should always be taken to spread the putty stiff and thick, notwithstanding the complaints of workmen. in fact, this class of work does not bring into play so much muscle as to warrant complaints on account of it. nor can there be any reasonable excuse for taking a longer time to spread a stiff filler than a thin filler. good results are not always obtained by the use of thick fillers, because the putty is spread too soon after the application of the first coat of oil, which liquid should be quite thin, and reduced either with benzine or turpentine, so that when the putty is forced into the pores the oil already in them will have the effect of thinning it. as an illustration of the idea meant here to be conveyed, we will suppose a quantity of thick mud or peat dumped into a cavity containing water, and a similar quantity of the same material dumped into another cavity having no water; the one fills the bottom of the cavity solid, while the other becomes partly liquid at the bottom, and must of necessity shrink before it assumes the solidity of the former. hence it appears that work to be filled should be oiled and allowed to stand some time before receiving the filler, or until the oil has been absorbed into the pores. the preparatory coating should not be mixed so as to dry too quickly, nor allowed to stand too long before introducing the putty, for in this case the putty when forced along by the knife will not slip so easily as it should. the cost of rubbing and sand-papering in the finishing process is very much lessened if the cleaning be thorough, and if all the corners and mouldings be scraped out, so that pieces of putty do not remain to work up into the first coat of shellac, or whatever finish may be used as a substitute for shellac. another important feature in hard filling is to let the work be well dried before applying the first coat of finish. one day is not sufficient for the proper drying of putty fillers, and if in consequence of insufficient drying a part of the filling washes out, it is so much labour lost. as a safeguard against washing out, these fillers should be mixed with as much dryer or japan as the case warrants, for it frequently occurs that work must be finished, or go into finish, the day following the filling, whether it be dry or not. by observing the main facts here alluded to, good filling may always be obtained, and at a cost not exceeding that of poor work. for the light woods, including ash, chestnut, and oak, the filling is similar to that used in walnut, except the colouring material, which, of course, must be slight, or just enough to prevent the whiting and plaster from showing white in the pores. this colouring may consist of raw sienna, burnt sienna, or a trifle raw, or umber; one of these ingredients separate, or all three combined, mixed so as to please the fancy and suit the prevailing style. the colouring may be used with a dry filling, although a wet filling is more likely to give a smooth finish and greater satisfaction, and the colour of the filler can be seen better in the putty than in the dry powder. upon cheap work a filler should be used that requires the least amount of labour in its application. for this purpose liquid fillers, like japan, are suitable. if, however, a fine finish on fine goods is required, the putty compositions of various mixtures are the more appropriate. the secret of the process of filling consists in the mixing of the compounds and the method of using them. a liquid filler or a japan simply spread over the work in one or two coats can hardly be called filling, yet this will serve the purpose very well for cheap furniture. thick compositions or putty fillers are composed of whiting and plaster, or similar powders having little or no colour. this material is mixed with oil, japan, and benzine, with a sufficient quantity of colouring matter to please the fancy. the value of these fillers is in proportion to their brittleness or "shortness," as it is termed, and, to give them this quality, plaster is used and as much benzine or turpentine as the mixture will bear without being too stiff or too hard to clean off. sometimes a little dissolved shellac is used to produce "shortness." this desirable feature of a filler is best effected by mixing a small quantity of the material at a time. many workmen mistakenly mix large batches at a time with a view of securing uniformity of colour, and this is one cause why such fillers work tough and produce a poor surface. an oil mixture soon becomes fatty and tough, and must be reduced in consistency when used, as it is apt when old to "drag" and leave the pores only partly filled. these fillers should be mixed fresh every day, and allowed to stiffen and solidify in the wood rather than out of it. the surface of a pore is the largest part of it, and it is desirable to fill it to a level as nearly as possible. this is done by using the filler thick or stiff. =making fillers.=--in making "fillers," a quantity of the japan which is used in the ingredients can be made at one time, and used from as occasion may require. it is made in the following manner: _japan of the best quality._--put / lb. gum shellac into gall. linseed-oil; take / lb. each of litharge, burnt umber, and red-lead, also oz. sugar of lead. boil in the mixture of shellac and oil until all are dissolved; this will require about four hours. remove from the fire, and stir in gall. of spirits of turpentine, and the work is finished. _fillings for light woods._--take lb. of whiting, lb. calcined plaster (plaster of paris), / gall. of raw linseed-oil, qt. of spirits of turpentine, qt. of brown japan, and a little french yellow to tinge the white. mix well, and apply with a brush; rub it well with excelsior or tow, and clean off with rags. this thoroughly fills the pores of the wood and preserves its natural colour. _another for light woods._--take lb. of whiting, lb. of calcined plaster, lb. of corn starch, oz. calcined magnesia, gall. of raw linseed-oil, / gall. spirits of turpentine, qt. of brown japan, oz. french yellow. mix well, and apply with brush; rub in well with excelsior or tow, and clean off with rags. _for mahogany or cherry wood._--take lb. of whiting, lb. of calcined plaster, / oz. dry burnt sienna, oz. venetian red, qt. of boiled linseed-oil, pt. of spirits of turpentine, and pt. of brown japan. mix well, apply with brush, and rub well in with excelsior or tow. clean off with rags dry. _for oak wood._--take lb. of whiting, lb. calcined plaster, oz. dry burnt sienna, / oz. of dry french yellow, qt. raw linseed-oil, pt. benzine spirits, and / pt. white shellac. mix well, apply with brush, rub in with excelsior or tow, and clean off with rags. _for rosewood._--take lb. of fine whiting, lb. of calcined plaster, lb. of rose-pink, oz. of venetian red, / lb. of vandyke brown, / lb. of brandon red, gall. of boiled linseed-oil, / gall. of spirits of turpentine, qt. of black japan. mix well together, apply with brush, rub well in with tow, and clean off with rags. _for black walnut_ ( ).--for medium and cheap work. take lb. of whiting, lb. dry burnt umber, lb. of vandyke brown, lb. of calcined plaster, / lb. of venetian red, gall. of boiled linseed-oil, / gall. of spirits of turpentine, qt. of black japan. mix well and apply with brush; rub well with excelsior or tow, and clean off with rags. _for black walnut_ ( ).--an improved filling, producing a fine imitation of wax finish, may be effected by taking lb. of whiting, with lb. of calcined plaster, oz. of calcined magnesia, oz. of dry burnt umber, oz. of french yellow to tinge the white. add qt. of raw linseed-oil, qt. of benzine spirits, / pt. of very thin white shellac. mix well, and apply with a brush; rub well in, and clean off with rags. _an oil-colour for black walnut_ ( ), to be used only on first-class and custom work.--take lb. of burnt umber ground in oil, lb. of burnt sienna ground in oil, qt. of spirits of turpentine, pt. of brown japan. mix well and apply with a brush. sand-paper well; clean off with tow and rags. this gives a beautiful chocolate colour to the wood. numerous compositions are in the market for filling the pores of wood, and in this connection particular attention has been given to walnut, for the reason that this wood is used in large quantities in the furniture industry, and is nearly, if not quite, as porous as any other of the woods used. a variety of walnut fillings have been recommended to the trade in order to meet the demand consequent upon the different grades of finish and the method of obtaining the finish, so that it would be difficult to pronounce as to the superiority of any one filling for general purposes. in treating this subject, attention should be given to the necessities for the use of filling, so that each one may determine for himself the kind of composition best adapted for the work in hand, and the best method of applying it. =finishing.=--having described the methods of making and applying the "fillings," we will now describe the mode of finishing, and begin with the "dead-oil finish." we can remember when a satisfactory oil-finish was produced either with a good quality of japan or a fair quality of spirits. these materials are recommended to be used by inexperienced workmen and those not familiar with the mixing of the various grades of japan and varnish with oil, turpentine, benzine, etc. this method of oil-finish, too, is scarcely inferior to the shellac or spirit-varnish method, and it is cheaper. when the best finish is desired, a sufficient number of coats to fill the pores of wood to a level are required, and then the whole surface should be subjected to the rubbing process. the use of these fillers provides an oil-finish in a simplified form for those who are not aware of the difference between hard and soft gum compositions as a base for rubbing. in fact, the rubbing process constitutes a fine oil-finish, and requires a hard gum, whether it be of japan, varnish, or shellac. the use of varnish or its substitute as a filler and finish is more frequent than the use of shellac, and for cheap work it is equally good. the surface produced by a hard gum composition must be smooth and dead, or but slightly glossed, so as to admit of the pores being filled full or to a level. it may be added that a coat or any number of coats of the composition referred to above is substantially a filling, and the quality of finish depends upon the number of coats, together with the amount of rubbing applied. thus far we have simply called attention to the best quality of oil-finish and the manner of producing it. possibly three-fourths of all wood-finishing, particularly walnut-finishing, is several degrees below the best quality. in fact, oil-finish may imply only one coat of any composition that will dry, while two coats may be regarded as fair, and three coats a very good quality of finish. for the class of finish not rubbed down with pumice-stone and water, oil-varnish would be out of place on account of its gloss; hence shellac, being in composition similar to japan, is the better material, because of its dull appearance or lack of gloss as compared with shellac. in addition to the liquid fillers already mentioned, there is a putty or powder filling used for cross-grained woods, or such woods as have a deep pore. this filling is forced into the wood previous to the application of the other finishing compounds, with the use of which it in no way interferes. on the contrary, it economises the use of the liquid fillers, and, while constituting a part of an oil-finish, is also a finish wholly independent of the other methods mentioned--that is to say, the same results can be obtained by the use of either one, although the putty or powder filling is attended with greater expense both as to time and material. the hard filling is generally used on walnut, ash, and all coarse-grained woods. with regard to oil-finishes, viz., spirit-varnish or oil-varnish, shellac is thought by many to be the best for fine work; but others think differently. we may say of shellac that it will finish up into any degree of polish, and while it will not retain a french polish long in this climate, it will replenish easier and cheaper than any other finish, and continue to improve under each application. for a common finish, however, oil preparation is as good as shellac, and even for a fine finish it is only second to shellac, if made of a hard gum. on common finish, too, the oil will wear better than shellac in stock or on storage, so far as preserving its freshness is concerned. the cost of oil-finish is governed chiefly by the amount of labour expended on it. a suite of walnut furniture can be well rubbed with sand-paper in two hours, or even less; while two weeks could be profitably employed in rubbing another suite with pumice and water. =black walnut finishing.=--the fashionable finish for black walnut work, particularly chamber sets, is what is known to the trade as the "dead-oil finish." it is admired, perhaps, because it has a gloss, rather than a shine of the varnish stamp. there is no more labour required upon it than upon a bright finish, but the process of manipulation is different, and harder to the fingers. it should be premised that the walnut work of the day bears upon its surface, to a greater or less extent, raised panels covered with french burl veneer. and upon this fact largely depends the beauty of the production. and the endeavour is to so finish the article that there shall be a contrast between the panel and the groundwork on which it is placed. in other words, the former should be of a light colour, while the latter is of a darker shade. in that view the palest shellac should be used on the panels, and darker pieces, liver coloured, etc., on the body of the work. the darker grades of shellac are the cheaper, and will answer for the bulk of the work, but the clearest only for the panels. in commencing to finish a job direct from the cabinet-maker's hand, rough and innocent of sand-paper, first cover the panels with a coat of shellac to prevent the oil in the filling from colouring them dark. next, cover the body of the work with a wood filling composed of whiting and plaster of paris, mixed with japan, benzine, and raw linseed-oil, or the lubricating oil made from petroleum; the whole covered with umber, to which, in the rare cases when a reddish shade is wanted, venetian red is also added. this filling is then rubbed off with cloths, and by this process tends to close up the grain of the wood and produce an even surface. more or less time should be allowed after each of the several steps in the finishing process for the work to dry and harden, though much less is required in working with shellac than with varnishes composed of turpentine, oil, and gums. but the time that should be allowed is often lessened by the desire to get the work through as soon as possible, so that no standard can be set up as to the number of hours required between each of the several processes. it would be well if twelve hours intervened, but if work to which ten days could well be devoted must be hurried through in three, obviously the processes must follow each other in a corresponding haste. a coating of shellac is then given the whole work, light on the panels and dark on the body work, and when it has dried and hardened, which it does very soon, it may be rubbed down. this process of "rubbing down" should be done evenly and carefully, so as not to rub through the shellac at any point, and be done with the finer grades of sand-paper for the cheaper class of work, particularly at first, but at a later period of the process, and for the better class of articles in all cases, hair-cloth should be used, the material for the "rubbing down" being pumice-stone moistened with raw linseed-oil for the best work, and the lubricating oil, before mentioned, for cheaper work, or the covered parts of the better grades. this rubbing down involves labour, wear of fingers and finger-nails, and is carried on with an ordinary bit of hair-cloth, the smooth surface next the wood, and not made in any particular shape, but as a wad, ball, or otherwise. in the corners and crevices where the hair-cloth will not enter it will be necessary to use sand-paper of the finest grades, and worn pieces only. three coats of shellac are put on, followed each time by this rubbing-down process, each one giving the work a smoother feeling and a more perfect appearance. afterwards, to complete the whole, a coating of japan thinned with benzine is applied, which gives to the work a clean appearance and the dead glossy finish. there is this objection to the above style of finish, that the japan catches all the dust which touches it, and holds it permanently, so that many of the best workmen will not have work finished in this way for their own private houses, preferring the brighter look given by shellac and varnish without rubbing down the last coat, believing that the work can be kept much cleaner. =finishing veneered panels, etc.=--the large oval panels of desks, etc., covered with french veneer, are generally taken out and finished by themselves. the process is similar to that above given, with successive coats of shellac and varnish, and the oil and pumice-stone rubbing down; but the final part of this latter process is a rubbing down with rotten-stone; then the merest trifle of sweet-oil is applied all over the surface and wiped off. (see rosewood, etc., farther on.) _for light woods (dead finish)._--apply two or three coats of white shellac; rub down with pumice and raw linseed-oil, and clean off well with rags; use varnish-polish on the panels. _another._--finish as in the previous recipe. for a flowing coat of varnish-finish apply one flowing coat of light amber varnish. if a varnish-polish is desired, apply three coats of zanzibar polishing varnish. rub down and polish, and the result will be a splendid finish. _mahogany or cherry wood._--for shellac _dead finish_ apply two coats of yellow shellac. rub down with pumice and raw linseed-oil. if a varnish-finish is desired, apply a flowing coat of light amber varnish or shellac thus rubbed. the panels should receive two coats of zanzibar polishing varnish. _oak._--for a _dead finish_ give three coats of shellac, two-thirds of white and one-third of yellow, mixed. rub down with pumice and raw linseed-oil. for a cheap varnish-finish give one flowing coat of light amber varnish in the shellac, rubbed as directed. varnish-polish the panels. _rosewood, coromandel, or kingwood (a bright finish)._--apply two thin coats of shellac, sand-papering each coat; then apply three or four coats of zanzibar polishing varnish, laying it on thin, and giving it sufficient time to dry thoroughly. when it is perfectly hard, rub down with pumice and water. polish with rotten-stone to a fine lustre, clean up with sweet-oil, and vapour up the oil with a damp alcohol rag. the result is a splendid mirror-like polish. this is the method employed in polishing pianofortes in america. _walnut._--for a cheap finish, apply one coat of yellow shellac. when dry, sand-paper down. apply with brush; rub in well; clean off with rags. this gives a very fair finish. for a medium _dead finish_ apply two or three coats of yellow shellac. when dry, rub down with pumice and raw linseed-oil; clean up well; varnish-polish the panels. for _finish._ before using the above filling, give the work one coat of white shellac. when dry, sand-paper down, and apply the above filling. give two coats of white shellac; rub down with pumice and raw linseed-oil; clean up well with brown japan and spirits of turpentine, mixed. wipe off. this is a good imitation of wax-finish; it is waterproof, and will not spot as wax-finish does. the panels are to be varnished-polished. this is to be used with the improved filling no. . for _finish._ apply three coats of yellow shellac; rub down with pumice and raw linseed-oil; clean off well. varnish-polish the panels. use this with the oil colour no. . =finishing cheap work.=--_with one coat of varnish._--give the work a coat of boiled linseed-oil; immediately sprinkle dry whiting upon it, and rub it well in with tow all over the surface. the whiting absorbs the oil and completely fills the pores of the wood. for black walnut add a little dry burnt umber. for mahogany or cherry add a little venetian red, according to the colour of the wood. the application can be made to turned work while in motion in the lathe. clean off well with rags. the work can then be finished with a single coat of varnish, and for cheap work makes a very good finish. for varnishing large surfaces, a two-inch oval varnish brush is to be used first to lay out the varnish, and then a two-inch flat badger flowing-brush for a softener. the latter lays down moats and bubbles left by the large brush. a perfectly smooth glass-like surface is thus obtained. when not in use, these tools should be put into a pot containing raw linseed-oil and spirits of turpentine. this keeps them in a better working condition than if they are kept in varnish, making them clean and soft. standing in varnish they congeal and become hard as the spirit evaporates from the varnish. for shellacing a large surface use a two-inch bristle brush; for small work, such as carvings and mouldings, use a one-and-a-half inch flat brush. these brushes when not in use should be taken from the various pots and deposited in an earthen pot sufficiently large to hold all the shellac brushes used in the shop. put in enough of raw linseed-oil and thin shellac to cover the bristles of the brushes. kept in this manner, they will remain clean and elastic, and will wear much longer. _wax finishing._--take / gall. of turpentine, / lb. yellow beeswax, lb. white beeswax, / lb. white rosin. pulverise the rosin, and shave the wax into fine shavings. put the whole into the turpentine, and dissolve it cold. if dissolved by a fire-heat, the vitality of the wax is destroyed. when it is thoroughly dissolved, mix well and apply with a stiff brush. rub well in, and clean off with rags. when dry, it is ready for shellac or varnish as may be desired. _a varnish polish._--take oz. gum shellac, oz. gum sandarach, drachm venice turpentine, gall. alcohol. put the mixture into a jug for a day or two, shaking occasionally. when dissolved it is ready for use. apply a few coats. polish by rubbing smooth. for the commonest kind of work in black walnut a very cheap polish can be made in the following manner: take gall. of turpentine, lb. pulverised asphaltum, qt. boiled linseed-oil, oz. venetian red. put the mixture in a warm place and shake occasionally. when it is dissolved, strain and apply to the wood with a stiff brush. rub well with cloth when dry. then take pt. of thin shellac, / pt. boiled linseed-oil. shake it well before using. apply with cloth, rubbing briskly, and you will have a fine polish. _with copal or zanzibar varnish._--as a substitute for filling, the wood may receive one coat of native coal-oil, thinned with benzine-spirits; then apply one coat of shellac, and follow with varnish, as desired. the time is not far distant when manufacturers must and will use varnish for the finishing of all kinds of furniture on account of the high price of shellac. furniture finished in the last-named method may be rubbed with either water or oil. water has a tendency to harden varnish, while oil softens it. if water is used there will be a saving of oil and rags. in the other case shellac, when rubbed with oil, should be cleaned with japan. this removes the greasy and cloudy appearance which is left after the rubbing with oil, and the work will have a clean, dry, and brighter appearance than otherwise. we suggest another idea for finishing black walnut for a cheap or a medium class of work. in the first place, fill the pores of the wood, and apply one thin coat of shellac to hold the filling in the pores of the wood. let this stand one day; sand-paper down with fine paper, then with a brush apply a coat of coach japan. rub well, and clean off with rags. let this stand one day to dry, then, with some sand-paper that has been used before, take off the moats from the japan. go over the whole surface with a soft rag saturated with japan; wipe and clean off carefully, and the job is finished. this, though a cheap finish, is a good one for this class of work. we give one more method of finishing black walnut, that is, with boiled linseed-oil only, and there is no other way of obtaining a genuine oil-finish. sand-paper the wood down smoothly; apply a coat of boiled linseed-oil over the whole surface; sand-paper well, and clean up dry with rags; let it stand one day to dry, then apply one more coat of oil; rub well in with rags, but do not use sand-paper on this coat. apply three, four, or more coats in the same way. when the work has received the last coat of oil and is dry, sand-paper down with old paper. then clean up with the best coach japan with rags, and let the work stand one day to dry. the panels are to be varnish-polished the same as other wood. the work is then finished, and ready for the warerooms. this method takes a longer time than finishing with either varnish or shellac; but the cost is less both for materials and for labour, the workman being able to go over a greater surface in the same time. the work will stand longer, and the method gives a rich and close finish, bringing out the figure and rich colour of the wood better than in any other method of finishing. it does not cost so much as shellac finish; it only requires a little more time for drying between the coats of oil. in finishing in varnish or shellac, to get the body or surface for polishing three or four coats are frequently applied, which is liable to produce a dull cloudy appearance. for this reason, and having in view the high and increasing price of stock, it seems to us that this really superior method of finishing in oil must take the place of shellac and varnish-finish in good work. =polishing varnish.=--this is certainly a tedious process, and considered by many a matter of difficulty. the following is the mode of procedure: put two ounces of powdered tripoli into an earthen pot or basin, with water sufficient to cover it; then, with a piece of fine flannel four times doubled, laid over a piece of cork rubber, proceed to polish your varnish, always wetting it well with the tripoli and water. you will know when the process is complete by wiping a part of the work with a sponge and observing whether there is a fair and even gloss. clean off with a bit of mutton suet and fine flour. be careful not to rub the work too hard, or longer than is necessary to make the face perfectly smooth and even. some workmen polish with rotten-stone, others with putty-powder, and others with common whiting and water; but tripoli, we think, will be found to answer best. =an american polish reviver.=--take of olive-oil lb., of rectified oil of amber lb., spirits of turpentine lb., oil of lavender oz., tincture of alkanet-root / oz. saturate a piece of cotton batting with this polish, and apply it to the wood; then, with soft and dry cotton rags, rub well and wipe off dry. this will make old furniture in private dwellings, or that which has been shop-worn in warerooms, look as well as when first finished. the articles should be put into a jar or jug, well mixed, and afterwards kept tightly corked. this is a valuable recipe, and is not known, the writer believes, outside of his practice. chapter x. _miscellaneous recipes._ =oil polish.=--one quart of cold-drawn linseed-oil to be simmered (not boiled) for ten minutes, and strained through flannel; then add one-eighth part of spirits of turpentine: to be applied daily with soft linen rags, and rubbed off lightly; each time the oil is applied the surface should be previously washed with cold water, so as to remove any dirt or dust. this method of polishing is particularly useful for dining-table tops; it will in about six weeks produce a polish so durable as to resist boiling water or hot dishes, and be like a mirror for brilliancy. =wax polish.=--eight ounces of beeswax, oz. of resin, and / oz. of venetian turpentine, to be melted over a slow fire; the mass, when quite melted, is poured into a sufficiently large stone-ware pot, and while it is still warm oz. of rectified turpentine are stirred in. after the lapse of twenty-four hours the mass will have assumed the consistency of soft butter, and is ready for use. a small portion of the polish is taken up with a woollen rag and rubbed over the surface of the work--at first gently, then more strongly. when the polish is uniformly laid on, the surface is once more rubbed lightly and quickly with a fresh clean rag to produce a gloss. =waterproof french polish.=--take oz. gum benjamin, / oz. gum sandarach, / oz. gum anîme, / oz. gum benzoin, and pt. alcohol. mix in a closely-stoppered bottle, and put in a warm place till the gums are well dissolved. then strain off, and add / gill of poppy-oil. shake well together, and it is ready for use. =a varnish for musical instruments.=--take one gallon of alcohol, lb. gum sandarach, / lb. gum mastic, lbs. best white resin, lbs. gum benzoin; cut the gums cold. when they are thoroughly dissolved, strain the mixture through fine muslin, and bottle for use; keep the bottle tightly corked. this is a beautiful varnish for violins and other musical instruments of wood, and for fancy articles, such as those of inlaid work. it is also well adapted for panel-work, and all kinds of cabinet furniture. there is required only one flowing coat, and it produces a very fine mirror-like surface. apply this varnish with a flat camel's-hair or sable brush. in an hour after application the surface is perfectly dry. =french varnish for cabinet-work.=--take of shellac / oz. gum mastic and gum sandarach, of each / oz., spirit of wine by weight oz. the gums to be first dissolved in the spirit, and lastly the shellac. this may be best effected by means of the water-bath. place a loosely-corked bottle containing the mixture in a vessel of warm water of a temperature below the boiling point, and let it remain until the gums are dissolved. should evaporation take place, an equal quantity to the spirit of wine so lost must be replaced till the mixture settles, then pour off the clear liquid for use, leaving the impurities behind; but do not filter it. greater hardness may be given to the varnish by increasing the quantity of shellac, which may be done to the amount of one-twelfth of the lac to eleven-twelfths of spirit. but in this latter proportion the varnish loses its transparency in some degree, and must be laid on in very small quantities at a time. =mastic varnish.=--mastic should be dissolved in oil of turpentine, in close glass vessels, by means of a gentle heat. this varnish is extensively used in transparencies, etc. =cabinet-maker's varnish.=--take lbs. very pale gum shellac, oz. gum mastic, gallon alcohol. dissolve in a cold atmosphere with frequent stirring. =amber varnish.=--this is a most difficult varnish to make. it is usually prepared by roasting the amber and adding hot linseed-oil, after which turpentine can be mixed if required. but for a small quantity, dissolve the broken amber, without heat, in the smallest possible quantity of chloroform or pure benzine. heat the linseed-oil, remove it from the fire, and pour in the amber solution, stirring all the time. then add the turpentine. if not quite clear, heat again, using the utmost caution. =colourless varnish with copal.=--to prepare this varnish the copal must be picked; each piece is broken, and a drop of rosemary-oil poured on it. those pieces which, on contact with the oil, become soft are the ones used. the pieces being selected, they are ground and passed through a sieve, being reduced to a fine powder. it is then placed in a glass, and a corresponding volume of rosemary-oil poured over it; the mixture is then stirred for a few minutes until it is transformed into a thick liquor. it is then left to rest for two hours, when a few drops of rectified alcohol are added, and intimately mixed. repeat the operation until the varnish is of a sufficient consistency; leave the rest for a few days, and decant the clear. this varnish can be applied to wood and metals (_journal of applied chemistry_). =seedlac varnish.=--wash oz. of seedlac in several waters; dry it and powder it coarsely. dissolve it in one pint of rectified spirits of wine; submit it to gentle heat, shaking it as often as convenient, until it appears dissolved. pour off the clear part, and strain the remainder. =patent varnish for wood or canvas.=--take gallon spirits of turpentine, / lbs. asphaltum. put them into an iron kettle on a stove, and dissolve the gum by heat. when it is dissolved and a little cool, add pint copal varnish and pint boiled linseed-oil. when entirely cool it is ready for use. for a perfect black add a little lamp-black. =copal varnish.=--dissolve the copal, broken in pieces, in linseed-oil, by digestion, the heat being almost sufficient to boil the oil. the oil should be made drying by the addition of quick-lime. this makes a beautiful transparent varnish. it should be diluted with oil of turpentine; a very small quantity of copal, in proportion to the oil, will be found sufficient. =carriage varnish.=--take oz. gum sandarach, / oz. orange shellac, / oz. white resin, oz. turpentine, pints alcohol. dissolve and strain. use for the internal parts of carriages and similar purposes. this varnish dries in ten minutes. =transparent varnish.=--take gallon alcohol, lbs. gum sandarach, / lb. gum mastic. place them in a tin can. cork tight and shake frequently, placing the can in a warm place. when dissolved it is ready for use. =crystal varnish for maps, etc.=--mix together oz. canada balsam and oz. spirits of turpentine. before applying this varnish to a drawing or a painting in water-colours the paper should be placed on a stretcher, sized with a thin solution of isinglass in water, and dried. apply the varnish with a soft camel's-hair brush. =a black varnish.=--mix a small quantity of gas-black with the brown hard varnish previously mentioned. the black can be obtained by boiling a pot over a gas-burner, so that it almost touches the burner, when a fine jet-black will form at the bottom, which remove and mix with the varnish, and apply with a brush. =a black polish= can be made in the same way: after wetting the rubber, just touch it with the black. place the linen cover over, touch it with oil, and it is ready for work. =varnish for iron.=--take lbs. pulverised gum asphaltum, / lb. gum benzoin, gallon spirits of turpentine. to make this varnish quickly, keep in a warm place, and shake often till it is dissolved. shade to suit with finely-ground ivory-black. apply with a brush. this varnish should be used on iron-work exposed to the weather. it is also well adapted for inside work, such as iron furniture, where a handsome polish is desired. =varnish for tools.=--take oz. tallow, oz. resin; melt together, and strain while hot to remove the specks which are in the resin. apply a slight coat on the tools with a brush, and it will keep off the rust for any length of time. =to make labels adhere to a polished surface.=--brush the back of a label over with thin varnish or polish, and press down with a soft rag; this must be done quickly, as the polish soon becomes dry. this is the way labels are put on pianofortes, and also the paper imitation of fancy woods on polished pine-work. =how to remove french polish or varnish from old work.=--cleaning off old work for re-polishing or varnishing is usually found difficult, and to occupy much time if only the scraper and glass-paper be used. it can be easily accomplished in a very short time by washing the surface with liquid ammonia, applied with a piece of rag; the polish will peel off like a skin, and leave the wood quite bare. in carvings or turned work, after applying the ammonia, use a hard brush to remove the varnish. unadulterated spirits of wine used in a tepid state will answer the same purpose. =colouring for carcase work.=--in the best class of cabinet-work all the inside work--such as carcase backs, shelves, etc.--is made of good materials, such as wainscot, soft mahogany, havannah cedar, or american walnut; but for second-class work, pine or white deal is used instead, and coloured. the colouring matter used should match with the exterior wood. for mahogany take / lb. of ground yellow ochre to a quart of water, and add about a tablespoonful of venetian red--a very small quantity of red in proportion to the yellow is sufficient for mahogany--and a piece of glue about the size of a walnut; the whole to be well stirred and boiled. brush over while hot, and immediately rub off with soft shavings or a sponge. for the antique hues of old wainscot mix equal parts of burnt umber and brown ochre. for new oak, bird's-eye maple, birch, satin-wood, or any similar light yellowish woods, whiting or white-lead, tinted with orange chrome, or by yellow ochre and a little size. for walnut, brown umber, glue size, and water; or by burnt umber very moderately modified with yellow ochre. for rosewood, venetian red tinted with lamp-black. for ebony, ivory-black; but for the common ebonised work lamp-black is generally used. when the colouring is dry, it should be rubbed down with a piece of worn fine glass-paper, and polished with beeswax rubbed on a very hard brush--a worn-out scrubbing-brush is as good as anything--or it can be well rubbed with dutch rush. in polishing always rub the way of the grain. the cheap work seldom gets more than a coat of colour rubbed off with shavings. =cheap but valuable stain for the sap of black walnut.=--take gallon of strong vinegar, lb. dry burnt umber, / lb. fine rose-pink, / lb. dry burnt vandyke brown. put them into a jug and mix them well; let the mixture stand one day, and it will then be ready for use. apply this stain to the sap with a piece of fine sponge; it will dry in half an hour. the whole piece is then ready for the filling process. when completed, the stained part cannot be detected even by those who have performed the work. this recipe is of value, as by it wood of poor quality and mostly of sap can be used with good effect. =polish for removing stains, etc., from furniture (american).=--take / pint alcohol, / oz. pulverised resin, / oz. gum shellac, / pint boiled linseed-oil. shake the mixture well, and apply it with a sponge, brush, or cotton flannel, rubbing well after the application. =walnut stain to be used on pine and white-wood.=--take gallon of very thin sized shellac; add lb. of dry burnt umber, lb. of dry burnt sienna, and / lb. of lamp-black. put these articles into a jug, and shake frequently until they are mixed. apply one coat with a brush. when the work is dry, sand-paper down with fine paper, and apply one coat of shellac or cheap varnish. it will then be a good imitation of solid walnut, and will be adapted for the back-boards of mirror-frames, for the backside and inside of case-work, and for similar work. =rosewood stain.=--take lb. of logwood chips, / lb. of red-sanders, / gallon of water. boil over a fire until the full strength is obtained. apply the mixture, while hot, to the wood with a brush. use one or two coats to obtain a strong red colour. then take gallon of spirits of turpentine and lb. of asphaltum. dissolve in an iron kettle on a stove, stirring constantly. apply with a brush over the red stain, to imitate rosewood. to make a perfect black, add a little lamp-black. the addition of a small quantity of varnish with the turpentine will improve it. this stain applied to birchwood gives as good an imitation of rosewood as on black walnut, the shade on the birch being a little brighter. =rosewood stain for cane work, etc.=--take gallon alcohol, lb. red-sanders, lb. dragon's blood, lb. extract logwood, / lb. gum shellac. put the mixture into a jug, and steep well till it obtains its full strength. then strain, and it will be ready for use. apply with brush, giving one, two, or more coats, according to the depth of colour desired. then give one or more coats of varnish. this stain is suitable for use on cane, willow, or reed work, and produces a good imitation of rosewood. =french polish reviver.=--this recipe will be found a valuable one. if the work is sweated and dirty, make it tolerably wet, and let it stand a few minutes; then rub off and polish with a soft rag. it is important that the ingredients should be mixed in a bottle in the order as given: vinegar, gill; methylated spirit, gill; linseed-oil, / pint; butter of antimony (poison), oz. raw linseed-oil, moderately thinned with turpentine or spirits of wine, will also make a good reviver. old furniture, or furniture that has been warehoused for a long time, should be washed with soda and warm water previous to applying the reviver. =morocco leather reviver.=--the coverings of chairs or sofas in morocco, roan, or skiver can be much improved by this reviver. if old and greasy, wash with sour milk first. the reviver should be applied with a piece of wadding, and wiped one way only, as in glazing. the colour can be matched by adding red-sanders. methylated spirit, / pint; gum benzoin, oz.; shellac, / oz. mix, and shake up occasionally until dissolved. =hair-cloth reviver.=--mix equal parts of marrow-oil (neats-foot), ox-gall. and ivory-black, to be well rubbed with a cloth. this composition forms a valuable renovator for old hair-cloth. =to remove grease stains from silks, damasks, cloth, etc.=--pour over the stain a small quantity of benzoline spirit, and it will soon disappear without leaving the least mark behind. the most delicate colours can be so treated without fear of injury. for paint stains chloroform is very efficacious. =to remove ink stains from white marble.=--make a little chloride of lime into a paste with water, and rub it into the stains, and let it remain a few hours; then wash off with soap and water. chapter xi. _materials used._ =alkanet-root= (botanical name, _anchusa tinctoria_).--this plant is a native of the levant, but it is much cultivated in the south of france and in germany. the root is the only part used by french polishers to obtain a rich quiet red; the colouring is chiefly contained in the bark or outer covering, and is easily obtained by soaking the root in spirits or linseed-oil. the plant itself is a small herbaceous perennial, and grows to about a foot in height, with lance-shaped leaves and purple flowers, and with a long woody root with a deep red bark. =madder-root= (_rubia tinctoria_).--this plant is indigenous to the levant; but it is much cultivated in southern europe, and also in india. its uses are for dyeing and staining; it can be procured in a powdered state, and imparts its red colour when soaked in water or spirits. this is a creeping plant with a slender stem; almost quadrangular, the leaves grow four in a bunch; flowers small, fruit yellow, berry double, one being abortive. the roots are dug up when the plant has attained the age of two or three years; they are of a long cylindrical shape, about the thickness of a quill, and of a red-brownish colour, and when powdered are a bright turkish-red. extracts of madder are mostly obtained by treating the root with boiling water, collecting the precipitates which separate on cooling, mixing them with gum or starch, and adding acetate of alumina or iron. this is in fact a mixture of colouring matter and a mordant. =red-sanders= (_pterocarpus santalinus_).--the tree from which this wood is obtained is a lofty one, and is to be found in many parts of india, especially about madras. it yields a dye of a bright garnet-red colour, and is used by french polishers for dyeing polishes, varnishes, revivers, etc. =logwood= (_hæmatoxylon campeachianum_).--this is a moderate-sized tree with a very contorted trunk and branches, which are beset with sharp thorns, and blooms with a yellow flower. it is a native of central america and the west indies. this valuable dye-wood is imported in logs; the heart-wood is the most valuable, which is cut up into chips or ground to powder for the use of dyers by large powerful mills constructed especially for the purpose. logwood, when boiled in water, easily imparts its red colour. if a few drops of acetic acid (vinegar) is added, a bright red is produced; and when a little alum is added for a mordant, it forms red ink. if an alkali, such as soda or potash, is used instead of an acid, the colour changes to a dark blue or purple, and with a little management every shade of these colours can be obtained. logwood put into polish or varnish also imparts its red colour. =fustic= (_maclura tinctoria_).--this tree is a native of the west indies, and imparts a yellow dye. great quantities are used for dyeing linens, etc. the fustic is a large and handsome evergreen, and is imported in long sticks. =turmeric= (_curcuma longa_).--turmeric is a stemless plant, with palmated tuberous roots and smooth lance-shaped leaves. it is imported from the east indies and china. the root is the part which affords the yellow powder for dyeing. it is also a condiment, and is largely used in indian curry-powder. paper stained with turmeric is used by chemists as a test for alkalies, and it is also used in making dutch, pink, and gold-coloured varnishes. =indigo= (_indigofera tinctoria_).--indigo is a shrub which grows from two to three feet in height, and is cut down just as it begins to flower. it is cultivated in almost all the countries situated in the tropics. the dye substance is prepared from the stems and leaves, and is largely used in calico-printing. =persian berries= (_rhamnus infectorius_).--these berries are the produce of a shrub of a species of buckthorn common in persia, whence they derive their name; but large quantities are also imported into england from turkey and the south of france. the berries are gathered in an unripe state, and furnish a yellow dye. =nut-galls.=--these are found upon the young twigs of the turkish dwarf oak (_quercus infectoria_), and are produced by the puncture of an insect called cynips. the supply is principally from turkey and aleppo. nut-galls contain a large quantity of tannin and gallic acid, and are extensively used in dyeing. =catechu.=--this is obtained from the east indies, and is the extract of the _acacia catechu_, a thorny tree. the wood is cut up into chips similar to logwood, and after boiling and evaporation the liquor assumes the consistency of tar; but when cold it hardens, and is formed into small squares. it is extensively used by tanners in place of oak bark. =thus.=--thus is the resin which exudes from the spruce-fir, and is used by some polishers in the making of polishes and varnishes. =sandarach= is the produce of the _thuya articulata_ of barbary. it occurs in small pale yellow scales, slightly acid, and is soluble in alcohol; it is used in both polishes and varnishes. =mastic= exudes from the mastic-tree (_pistacia lentiscus_), and is principally obtained from chios, in the grecian archipelago. it runs freely when an incision is made in the body of the tree, but not otherwise. it occurs in the form of nearly colourless and transparent tears of a faint smell, and is soluble in alcohol as well as oil of turpentine, forming a rapidly-drying but alterable varnish, which becomes brittle and dark-coloured by age. =benzoin.=--this is the produce of the american tree _laurus benzoin_, and also of the _styrax benzoin_ of sumatra, which is called "gum benjamin"; it is used in polishes and varnishes, and as a cosmetic, and is also burnt as incense in catholic churches. =copal= is one of the most valuable of gums, and is furnished by many countries in the districts of africa explored by mr. h. m. stanley, the discoverer of livingstone. copal is found in a fossil state in very large quantities. the natives collect the gum by searching in the sandy soil, mostly in the hilly districts, the country being almost barren, with no large tree except the adansonia, and occasionally a few thorny bushes. the gum is dug out of the earth by the copal gatherers at various depths, from two or three to ten or more feet, in a manner resembling gold-digging; and great excitement appears when a good amount is discovered. the gum is found in various shapes and sizes, resembling a hen's egg, a flat cake, a child's head, etc. there are three kinds, yellow, red, and whitish; and the first furnishes the best varnish and fetches the highest price from the dealers. many of the natives assert that the copal still grows on different trees, and that it acquires its excellent qualities as a resin by dropping off and sinking several feet into the soil, whereby it is cleansed, and obtains, after a lapse of many years, its hardness, inflammability, and transparency. =dragon's blood= is the juice of certain tropical plants of a red colour, especially of the tree _pterocarpus draco_. after the juice is extracted, it is reduced to a powder by evaporation. it is used for darkening mahogany, colouring varnishes or polishes, etc., and for staining marble. chemists also use it in preparing tinctures and tooth powders. =shellac=--or, more properly, _gum-lac_--is a resinous substance obtained from the bihar-tree, and also from the _ficus indica_, or banyan-tree. it exudes when the branches are pierced by an insect called the _coccus ficus_. the twigs encrusted with the resin in its natural state is called stick-lac. when the resin is broken off the twigs, powdered, and rubbed with water, a good deal of the red colouring matter is dissolved, and the granular resin left is called seed-lac; and when melted, strained, and spread into thin plates it is called shellac, and is prepared in various ways and known by the names of button, garnet, liver, orange, ruby, thread, etc., and is used for many purposes in the arts. shellac forms the principal ingredient for polishes and spirit varnishes. red sealing-wax is composed of shellac, venice turpentine, and vermilion red; for the black sealing-wax ivory-black is used instead of the vermilion. shellac is soluble in alcohol, and in many acids and alkalies. lac-dye is the red colour from the stick-lac dissolved by water and evaporated to dryness. the dye, however, is principally from the shrivelled-up body of the insect of the stick-lac. shellac is produced in the largest quantity and the best quality in bengal, assam, and burmah. the chief seat of manufacture is calcutta, where the native manufacturers are accused of adulterating it with resin to a considerable extent. the best customers are great britain and the united states, though the demand in the italian markets appears to be on the increase. =amber= is a yellow, semi-transparent, fossil resin; hard but brittle, and easily cut with a knife; tasteless, and without smell, except when pounded or heated, and then it emits a fragrant odour. it has considerable lustre; becomes highly electric by friction; and will burn with a yellow flame. it is found in nodules of various sizes in alluvial soils, or on the seashore in many places, particularly on the shores of the baltic. amber is much employed for ornamental purposes, and is also used in the manufacture of amber-varnish. it will not dissolve in alcohol, but yields to the concentrated action of sulphuric acid, which will dissolve all resins except caramba wax. =pumice-stone.=--this well-known light and spongy volcanic substance is extensively quarried in the small islands that lie off the coast of sicily. its porosity and smooth-cutting properties render it of great value to painters and polishers for levelling down first coatings. ground pumice-stone is the best for cutting down bodies of polish or varnish that are more advanced towards completion. the best way to get a surface to a piece of lump pumice-stone is to rub it down on a flat york stone, or, better still, an old tile that has been well baked. pumice-stone should not be allowed to stand in water; it causes the grain to contract and to harden, thereby deteriorating its cutting properties. =linseed-oil.=--this valuable oil is obtained by pressure from the seed of the flax plant (_linum usitatissimum_). linseed contains on an average about per cent. of oil, though the amount varies materially, the percentage obtained fluctuating considerably, not being alike on any two successive days. this is partly due to the varying richness of the seed, and partly to the manner in which it is manipulated in extracting the oil, it being a very easy matter to lose a considerable percentage of the oil by a lack of skill in any of the processes, though they all seem so simple. the first thing done with the seed from which the oil is to be extracted is to pass it through a screen, to cleanse it from foreign substances. the seed is received in bags containing from three to four bushels, and pockets containing one-sixth of that amount. having been screened it is passed through a mill, whose large iron-rollers, three in number, grind it to a coarse meal. thence it is carried to what are known as the "mullers," which are two large stones, about eight feet in diameter and eighteen inches thick, weighing six tons each, standing on their edges, and rolling around on a stone bed. about five bushels of the meal are placed in the mullers, and about eight quarts of hot water are added. the meal is afterwards carried by machinery to the heaters, iron pans holding about a bushel each. these are heated to an even temperature by steam, and are partly filled with the meal, which for seven minutes is submitted to the heat, being carefully stirred in order that all parts may become evenly heated. at the end of that time the meal is placed in bags, which in turn are placed in hydraulic presses, iron plates being placed between the bags. pressure is applied for about eight minutes, until, as is supposed, all the oil is pressed out, leaving a hard cake, known to the trade as oil-cake, or linseed-cake. the product of these various processes is known as "raw" oil, a considerable portion of which is sold without further labour being expended upon it. there is, however, a demand for "boiled" oil, for certain purposes where greater drying properties are needed. to supply this want oil is placed in large kettles, holding from five hundred to one thousand gallons, where it is heated to a temperature of about degrees, being stirred continually. this process, when large kettles are used, requires nearly the entire day. while the boiling process is going on, oxide of manganese is added, which helps to give the boiled oil better drying properties. a considerable portion of the oil is bleached, for the use of manufacturers of white paints. =venice turpentine.=--this is obtained from the larch, and is said to be contained in peculiar sacs in the upper part of the stem, and to be obtained by puncturing them. it is a ropy liquid, colourless or brownish green, having a somewhat unpleasant odour and bitter taste. =oil of turpentine= is the most plentiful and useful of oils. it is obtained in america from a species of pine very plentiful in the carolinas, georgia, and alabama, known as the long-leaved pine (_pinus australis_), and found only where the original forest has not been removed. =methylated spirits.=--the methylated spirit of commerce usually consists of the ordinary mixed grain, or "plain" spirit, as produced by the large distillers in london and elsewhere, with which are blended, by simply mixing in various proportions, one part vegetable naphtha and three parts spirits of wine. the mixing takes place in presence of a revenue officer, and the spirits so "methylated" are allowed to be used duty free. the revenue authorities consider the admixture of naphtha, having so pungent and disagreeable a smell, a sufficient security against its sale and consumption as a beverage. no process has yet been discovered of getting rid of this odour. it is illegal for druggists to use it in the preparation of medicinal tinctures, unless they are for external use. printed by william clowes and sons, limited, london and beccles. crosby lockwood & son's list of works on trades and manufactures, the industrial arts, chemical manufactures, counting house work, etc. a complete catalogue of new and standard books relating to civil, mechanical, marine and electrical engineering; 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[_just published net_] = / = "the authors have succeeded in treating the subject in a clear and compact way, giving an easily comprehensible review of the different processes."--_mining journal._ "the book will be eagerly read, and the authors may be assured that their labour will be appreciated. we anticipate that the book will be a success; at any rate it possesses the necessary merit."--_science and art of mining._ =commercial correspondent, foreign.= being aids to commercial correspondence in five languages--english, french, german, italian, and spanish. by conrad e. baker. third edition, carefully revised throughout. crown vo, cloth / "whoever wishes to correspond in all the languages mentioned by mr. baker cannot do better than study this work, the materials of which are excellent and conveniently arranged. they consist not of entire specimen letters, but--what are far more useful--short passages, sentences, or phrases expressing the same general idea in various forms."--_athenæum._ =confectioner, modern flour.= containing a large collection of recipes for cheap cakes, biscuits, &c. with remarks on the ingredients used in their manufacture. by r. wells = / = =confectionery, ornamental.= a guide for bakers, confectioners and pastrycooks; including a variety of modern recipes, and remarks on decorative and coloured work. with original designs. by robert wells. crown vo, cloth = / = "a valuable work, practical, and should be in the hands of every baker and confectioner. the illustrative designs are worth treble the amount charged for the work."--_bakers' times._ =cotton manufacture.= a manual of practical instruction of the processes of opening, carding, combing, drawing, doubling and spinning, methods of dyeing, &c. for the use of operatives, overlookers, and manufacturers. by j. lister. vo, cloth = / = =dangerous goods.= their sources and properties, modes of storage and transport. with notes and comments on accidents arising therefrom. for the use of government and railway officials, steamship owners, &c. by h. j. phillips. crown vo, cloth = / = =dentistry (mechanical).= a practical treatise on the construction of the various kinds of artificial dentures. by c. hunter. crown vo, cloth = / =discount guide.= comprising several series of tables for the use of merchants, manufacturers, ironmongers, and others, by which may be ascertained the exact profit arising from any mode of using discounts, either in the purchase or sale of goods, and the method of either altering a rate of discount, or advancing a price, so as to produce, by one operation, a sum that will realise any required profit after allowing one or more discounts: to which are added tables of profit or advance from / to per cent., tables of discount from / to / per cent., and tables of commission, &c., from / to per cent. by henry harben, accountant. new edition, corrected. demy vo, half-bound =£ s.= "a book such as this can only be appreciated by business men, to whom the saving of time means saving of money. the work must prove of great value to merchants, manufacturers, and general traders."--_british trade journal._ =drying machinery and practice.= a handbook on the theory and practice of drying and desiccating, with classified description of installations, machinery, and apparatus, including also a glossary of technical terms and bibliography. by thomas g. marlow, grinding, drying, and separating machinery specialist. medium vo. about pages, with illustrations [_in the press, price about_] = / = _net._ =electricity in factories and workshops: its cost and convenience.= a handbook for power producers and power users. by a. p. haslam, m.i.e.e. pages, with numerous illustrations. large crown, vo, cloth _net_ = / = =electro-metallurgy.= a practical treatise. by alexander watt. tenth edition, enlarged and revised. including the most recent processes. crown vo, cloth = / = =electro-plating.= a practical handbook on the deposition of copper, silver, nickel, gold, aluminium, brass, platinum, &c., &c. by j. w. urquhart, c.e. fifth edition, revised. crown vo, cloth = / = =electro-plating & electro-refining of metals= being a new edition of alexander watt's "electro-deposition." revised and rewritten by a. philip, b.sc., principal assistant to the admiralty chemist. crown vo, cloth _net_ = / = part i. electro-plating--preliminary considerations--primary and secondary batteries--thermopiles--dynamos--cost of electrical installations of small output for electro-plating--historical review of electro deposition--electro deposition of copper--deposition of gold by simple immersion--electro deposition of gold--various gilding operations--mercury gilding--electro deposition of silver--imitation antique silver--electro deposition of nickel, tin, iron and zinc, various metals and alloys--recovery of gold and silver from wash solutions--mechanical operations connected with electro deposition--materials used in electro deposition. part ii. electro metallurgy--electro metallurgy of copper--cost of electrolytic copper refining--current density as a factor in profits--some important details in electrolytic copper refineries--electrolytic gold and silver bullion refining--electrolytic treatment of tin--electrolytic refining of lead--electrolytic production of aluminium and electrolytic refining of nickel--electro galvanising. "eminently a book for the practical worker in electro-deposition."--_engineer._ =electro-typing.= the reproduction and multiplication of printing surfaces and works of art by the electro-deposition of metals. by j. w. urquhart, c.e. crown vo, cloth = / = =engineering chemistry.= a practical treatise for the use of analytical chemists, engineers, iron masters, iron founders, students and others. comprising methods of analysis and valuation of the principal materials used in engineering work, with numerous analyses, examples and suggestions. by h. phillips. third edition, revised. crown vo, pp., with illustrations, cloth _net_ = / = =explosives, modern, a handbook on.= a practical treatise on the manufacture and use of dynamite, gun-cotton, nitro-glycerine and other explosive compounds, including collodion-cotton. with chapters on explosives in practical application. by m. eissler, m.e. second edition, enlarged. crown vo, cloth = / = "a veritable mine of information on the subject of explosives employed for military, mining, and blasting purposes."--_army and navy gazette._ =explosives: nitro-explosives.= the properties, manufacture, and analysis of nitrated substances, including the fulminates, smokeless powders, and celluloid. by p. g. sanford, f.i.c., f.c.s., public analyst to the borough of penzance. second edition, enlarged. with illustrations. demy vo, cloth _net_ = / = nitro-glycerine--nitro-cellulose, etc.--dynamite--nitro-benzol, roburite, bellite, picric acid, etc.--the fulminates--smokeless powders in general--analysis of explosives--firing point, heat tests, determination of relative strength, etc. "one of the very few text-books in which can be found just what is wanted. mr. sanford goes steadily through the whole list of explosives commonly used, he names any given explosive, and tells of what it is composed and how it is manufactured. the book is excellent."--_engineer._ =factory accounts: their principles and practice.= a handbook for accountants and manufacturers, with appendices on the nomenclature of machine details, the income tax acts, the rating of factories, fire and boiler insurance, the factory and workshop acts, etc., including a glossary of terms and a large number of specimen rulings. by emile garcke and j. m. fells. fifth edition, revised and enlarged. demy vo, cloth = / = "a very interesting description of the requirements of factory accounts.... the principle of assimilating the factory accounts to the general commercial books is one which we thoroughly agree with."--_accountants' journal._ =flour manufacture.= a treatise on milling science and practice. by friedrich kick, imperial regierungsrath, professor of mechanical technology in the imperial german polytechnic institute, prague. translated from the second enlarged and revised edition. by h. h. p. powles, a.m.inst.c.e. pp., with folding plates, and woodcuts. royal vo, cloth =£ s.= "this invaluable work is the standard authority on the science of milling."--_the miller._ =french polishing and enamelling.= including numerous recipes for making polishes, varnishes, glaze, lacquers, revivers, &c. by r. bitmead. crown vo, cloth = / = =gas engineer's pocket-book.= comprising tables, notes and memoranda relating to the manufacture, distribution and use of coal gas and the construction of gas works. by h. o'connor, a.m.inst.c.e. third edition. revised. crown vo, leather. _net_ = / = general constructing memoranda--general mathematical tables--unloading materials and storage--retort house--condensers--boilers, engines, pumps, and exhausters--scrubbers and washers--purifiers--gasholder tanks--gasholders--workshop notes--manufacturing--storing materials--retort house (working)--condensing gas--exhausters, etc.--washing and scrubbing--purification--gasholders (care of)--distributing gas--testing--enriching processes--product works--supplementary. "the book contains a vast amount of information."--_gas world._ =gas engineering.= see producer gas practice and industrial gas engineering. =gas fitting.= a practical handbook. by john black. revised edition. with illustrations. crown vo, cloth = / = =gas lighting.= see acetylene. =gas lighting for country houses.= see petrol air gas. =gas manufacture, chemistry of.= a practical manual for the use of gas engineers, gas managers and students. by harold m. royle, chief chemical assistant at the beckton gas works. demy vo, cloth, pages, with numerous illustrations and coloured plate. _net_ = / = preparation of standard solutions--analysis of coals--description of various types of furnaces--products of carbonisation at various temperatures--analysis of crude gas--analysis of lime--analysis of ammoniacal liquor--analytical valuation of oxide of iron--estimation of naphthalin--analysis of fire-bricks and fire-clay--art of photometry--carburetted water gas--appendix containing statutory and official regulations for testing gas. valuable excerpts from various important papers on gas chemistry, useful tables, memoranda, etc. =gas works.= their construction and arrangement, and the manufacture and distribution of coal gas. by s. hughes, c.e. ninth edition. revised by h. o'connor, a.m.inst.c.e. crown vo = / = =gold working. jeweller's assistant= for masters and workmen, compiled from the experience of thirty years' workshop practice. by g. e. gee. crown vo = / = =goldsmith's handbook.= alloying, melting, reducing, colouring, collecting, and refining. manipulation, recovery of waste, chemical and physical properties; solders, enamels, and other useful rules and recipes, &c. by g. e. gee, sixth edition. crown vo, cloth = / = =goldsmith's and silversmith's complete handbook.= by g. e. gee. crown vo, half bound = / = =hall-marking of jewellery.= comprising an account of all the different assay towns of the united kingdom, with the stamps at present employed; also the laws relating to the standards and hall-marks at the various assay offices. by g. e. gee. crown vo = / = =handybooks for handicrafts.= by paul n. hasluck. see page . =horology, modern, in theory and practice.= translated from the french of claudius saunier, ex-director of the school of horology at macon, by julien tripplin, f.r.a.s., besançon watch manufacturer, and edward rigg, m.a., assayer in the royal mint. with seventy-eight woodcuts and twenty-two coloured copper plates. second edition. super-royal vo, =£ s.= cloth; half-calf =£ s.= "there is no horological work in the english language at all to be compared to this production of m. saunier's for clearness and completeness. it is alike good as a guide for the student and as a reference for the experienced horologist and skilled workman."--_horological journal._ =illuminating and missal painting on paper and vellum.= a practical treatise on manuscript work, testimonials, and herald painting, with chapters on lettering and writing, and on mediæval burnished gold. with two coloured plates. by philip whithard (first-class diploma for illumination and herald painting, printing trades exhibition, ). pages. crown vo, cloth _net_ = / = =interest calculator.= containing tables at , / , , / , , / , / , , / , / and per cent. by a. m. campbell, author of "the concise calendar." crown vo, cloth _net_ = / = =iron and metal trades' companion.= for expeditiously ascertaining the value of any goods bought or sold by weight, from _s._ per cwt. to _s._ per cwt., and from one farthing per pound to one shilling per pound. by thomas downie. strongly bound in leather, pp. = / = "a most useful set of tables. nothing like them before existed."--_building news._ =iron-plate weight tables.= for iron shipbuilders, engineers and iron merchants. containing the calculated weights of upwards of , different sizes of iron plates, from ft. by ins. by / in. to ft. by ft. by in. worked out on the basis of lbs. to the square foot of iron of in. in thickness. by h. burlinson and w. h. simpson. to, half bound =£ s.= =labour contracts.= a popular handbook on the law of contracts or works and services. by david gibbons. fourth edition, with appendix of statutes by t. f. uttley; solicitor. f'cap. vo, cloth = / = =laundry management.= a handbook for use in private and public laundries. cr. vo, cloth = / = =law for manufacturers, employers and others, etc.= see "every man's own lawyer." a handy-book of the principles of law and equity. by a barrister. forty-seventh ( ) edition, including the legislation of . pp. large crown vo, cloth [_just published._] _net_ = / = summary of contents: landlord and tenant--vendors and purchasers--contracts and agreements--conveyances and mortgages--joint-stock companies--partnership--shipping law--dealings with money--suretiship--cheques, bills and notes--bills of sale--bankruptcy--masters, servants and workmen--insurance: life, accident, etc.--copyright, patents. trade marks--husband and wife, divorce--infancy, custody of children--trustees and executors--taxes and death duties--clergymen, doctors, and lawyers--parliamentary elections--local government--libel and slander--nuisances--criminal law--game laws, gaming, innkeepers--forms of wills, agreements, notices, etc. "a useful and concise epitome of the law."--_law magazine._ "a complete digest of the most useful facts which constitute english law."--_globe._ "a dictionary of legal facts well put together. the book is a very useful one."--_spectator._ =leather manufacture.= a practical handbook of tanning, currying, and chrome leather dressing. by a. watt. fifth edition, revised and enlarged. vo, cloth _net_ = / = chemical theory of the tanning process--the skin--hides and skins--tannin or tannic acid--gallic acid--gallic fermentation--tanning materials--estimation of tannin--preliminary operations--depilation or unhairing skins and hides--deliming or bating--tanning butts for sole leather--tanning processes--tanning by pressure--quick tanning--harness leather tanning--american tanning--hemlock tanning--tanning by electricity--chemical tanning--miscellaneous processes--cost of american tanning--manufacture of light leathers--dyeing leather--manufacture of white leather--chrome leather manufacture--box calf manufacture--chamois or oil leather manufacture--currying--machinery employed in leather manufacture--embossing leather--fellmongering--parchment, vellum, and shagreen--gut dressing--glue boiling--utilisation of tanner's waste. "a sound, comprehensive treatise on tanning and its accessories."--_chemical review._ leather manufacture. practical tanning:= a handbook of modern processes, receipts and suggestions for the treatment of hides, skins, and pelts of every description, including various patents relating to tanning, with specifications. by louis a. flemming, american tanner. second edition, in great part re-written, thoroughly revised, and much enlarged. illustrated by six full-page plates. medium vo, cloth, pages [_just published._] _net_ = / = =magnetos for automobilists, how made and how used.= a handbook of practical instruction in the manufacture and adaptation of the magneto to the needs of the motorist. by s. r. bottone, late of the collegio del carmine, turin, author of "the dynamo," "ignition devices," &c. second edition, enlarged. with illustrations. crown vo, cloth net = / = =marble and marble working.= a handbook for architects, sculptors, marble quarry owners and workers, and all engaged in the building and decorative industries. containing numerous illustrations and thirteen coloured plates. by w. g. renwick, author of "the marble industry," "the working of marble for decorative purposes," etc. pages. medium vo, cloth = / = the chemistry of marble--its geological formation--a short classification of marbles--antiquity of the marble industry--ancient quarries and methods of working--modern quarries and quarrying methods--machinery used in quarrying--european and american systems compared--marble as building material--uses of marble other than for building purposes-sources of production: italian, french, belgian, and greek marbles, etc.--marbles of the united kingdom and british colonies--continental marble working--marble working machinery--marble working in the united states--american machinery described and compared--marble working: a british industry--marble substitutes and imitations--practical points for the consideration of architects--hints on the selection of marble--list of marbles in ordinary use, with descriptive notes and instances of their application. =mensuration and gauging. a pocket-book= containing tables, rules, and memoranda for revenue officers, brewers, spirit merchants, &c. by j. b. mant. second edition. mo, leather. = / = "should be in the hands of every practical brewer."--_brewers' journal._ =metric tables, a series of.= in which the british standard measures and weights are compared with those of the metric system at present in use on the continent. by c. h. dowling, c.e. vo, cloth = / = "mr. dowling's tables are well put together as a ready-reckoner for the conversion of one system into the other."--_athenæum._ =metrology, modern.= a manual of the metrical units and systems of the present century. with an appendix containing a proposed english system. by lowis d'a. jackson, a.m.inst.c.e., author of "aid to survey practice," etc. large crown vo, cloth = / = "we recommend the work to all interested in the practical reform of our weights and measures."--_nature._ =motor car, the.= a practical manual for the use of students and motor car owners, with notes on the internal combustion engine and its fuel. by robert w. a. brewer, a.m.inst.c.e., m.i.m.e., m.i.a.e. pages. with numerous illustrations. demy vo, cloth _net_ = / = =motor car catechism.= containing about questions and answers explaining the construction and working of a modern motor car. for the use of owners, drivers, and students. by john henry knight. second edition, revised and enlarged, with an additional chapter on motor cycles. crown vo, with illustrations _net_ = / = the petrol engine--transmission and the chassis--tyres--duties of a car driver--motor cycles--laws and regulations. =motor cars for common roads.= by a. j. wallis-tayler, a.m.inst.c.e. pp., with illustrations. crown vo. = / = =motor vehicles for business purposes.= a practical handbook for those interested in the transport of passengers and goods. by a. j. wallis-tayler, a.m.inst.c.e. with illustrations. demy vo, cloth _net_ = / = resistance to traction on common roads--power required for motor vehicles--light passenger vehicles--heavy passenger vehicles--light goods vans--heavy freight vehicles--self-propelled vehicles for municipal purposes--miscellaneous types of motor vehicles--cost of running and maintenance. =oils and allied substances. an analysis.= by a. c. wright, m.a.oxon., b.sc.lond., formerly assistant lecturer in chemistry at the yorkshire college, leeds, and lecturer in chemistry at the hull technical school. demy vo, cloth _net_ = / = the occurrence and composition of oils, fats and waxes--the physical properties of oils, fats, and waxes, and their determination--the chemical properties of oils, fats, and waxes from the analytical standpoint--detection and determination of non-fatty constituents--methods for estimating the constituents of oils and fats--description and properties of the more important oils, fats, and waxes, with the methods for their investigation--examination of certain commercial products. =organ building (practical).= by w. e. dickson, m.a., precentor of ely cathedral. second edition, crown vo = / = =paints, mixed. their chemistry and technology.= by maximilian toch. with photomicrographic plates and other illustrations _net_ = / = the pigments--yellow, blue, and green pigments--the inert fillers and extenders--paint vehicles--special paints--analytical--appendix. =painting for the imitation of woods and marbles.= as taught and practised by a. r. van der burg and p. van der burg, directors of the rotterdam painting institution. royal folio, cloth, / by / in. illustrated with full-size coloured plates; also plain plates, comprising figures. fifth edition _net_ = / = =painting, graining, marbling, and sign writing.= with a course of elementary drawing and a collection of useful receipts. by e. a. davidson. ninth edition. coloured plates. crown vo, cloth, = / =; cloth boards, = / = =paper-making.= a practical manual for paper makers and owners and managers of paper-mills. with tables, calculations, etc. by g. clapperton, paper-maker. with illustrations of fibres from micro-photographs. second edition, revised and enlarged. crown vo, cloth _net_ = / = chemical and physical characteristics of various fibres--cutting and boiling of rags--jute boiling and bleaching--wet picking--washing, breaking, and bleaching--electrolytic bleaching--antichlor--cellulose from wood--mechanical wood pulp--esparto and straw--beating-- loading--starching--colouring matter--resin, size, and sizing--the fourdrinier machine and its management--animal sizing--drying--glazing and burnishing--cutting, finishing--microscopical examination of paper--tests for ingredients of paper--recovery of soda--testing of chemicals--testing water for impurities. "the author caters for the requirements of responsible mill hands, apprentices, etc., whilst his manual will be found of great service to students of technology, as well as to veteran paper-makers and mill-owners. the illustrations form an excellent feature."--_the world's paper trade._ =paper-making.= a practical handbook of the manufacture of paper from rags, esparto, straw, and other fibrous materials. including the manufacture of pulp from wood fibre, with a description of the machinery and appliances used. to which are added details of processes for recovering soda from waste liquors. by a. watt. with illustrations. crown vo = / = =paper making, chapters on.= a series of volumes dealing in a practical manner with all the leading questions in connection with the chemistry of paper-making and the manufacture of paper. by clayton beadle, lecturer on paper-making before the society of arts, and , and at the battersea polytechnic institute, , etc., etc. each volume is published separately, at the price of = / = _net_ per vol. volume i, comprises a series of lectures delivered on behalf of the battersea polytechnic institute in . crown vo. pp. _net_ / volume ii. comprises answers to questions on paper-making set by the examiners to the city and guilds of london institute, - . crown vo, pp. _net_ = / = volume iii. comprises a short practical treatise in which boiling, bleaching, loading, colouring, and similar questions are discussed. crown vo, pp. _net_ = / = contents:--"brass" and "steel" beater bars--the size and speed of beater rolls--the fading of prussian blue papers--the effect of lowering the breast roll--the effect of "loading" on the transparency of paper--"terra alba" as a loading for paper--the use of alum in tub sizing--the influence of temperature on bleaching--the use of refining engines--agitation as an auxiliary to bleaching--the heating of "stuff" for the paper machine--the comparative results of quadruple and open effect evaporation--how to prevent electrification of paper on the machine--transparency of papers--the "life" of machine wires--edge runners. volume iv. contains discussions upon water supplies and the management of the paper machine and its influence upon the qualities of papers. crown vo, pp. _net_ = / = contents:--the bulking of papers--special qualities of "art" papers--the "ageing" and storage of papers--the use of lime in boiling--controlling the mark of the "dandy"--"machine" and "hand" cut rags--froth on paper machine--scum spots in paper--consumption of water in the manufacture of paper--the management of suction-boxes--the shrinkage of paper on the machine--paper that does not shrink or expand--the production of non-stretchable paper--the connection between "stretch" and "expansion" of papers--"stretch" and "breaking strain"--paper testing machines. volume v. concerning the theory and practice of beating. crown vo. with photomicrographs and other illustrations. _net_ = / = contents:--early beating appliances--the hollander--the economy of beating--difficulties of arriving at definite results--behaviour of different fibres--"refining"--power consumption--a comparison of two different kinds of beaters--power consumed in the "breaking," "beating," and "refining" of different materials--dealing with the "circulation" and "agitation" in a hollander--comparisons of large and medium-sized hollanders when beating "hard" and "soft" stock--trials to determine the relative merits of stone and metal beater-bars--trials with breakers, reed beaters, and kingsland refiners--a system of beating combined with a system for continuous bleaching--beaters and refiners--power consumed in grinding wood-pulp--the reduction in length of fibres at different stages of beating--method for determining the "wetness" of beaten stuff--the position of beaters in old and modern paper-mills--appendix. =para rubber. its cultivation & preparation.= by w. h. johnson, f.l.s., ex-director of agriculture, gold coast colony, west africa, director of agriculture, mozambique company, east africa, commissioned by government in to visit ceylon to study the methods employed there in the cultivation and preparation of para rubber and other agricultural staples for market, with a view to introduce them into west africa. second edition, rewritten and greatly enlarged, with numerous illustrations. demy vo, cloth _net_ = / = the world's production and consumption of rubber--the para rubber tree at home and abroad--propagation--planting and cultivating--soils and manures--pests--latex--collecting the latex--rubber manufacture--the antisepticisation of rubber--drying and packing rubber for export--yield of para rubber from cultivated trees--establishment and maintenance of a para rubber plantation--commercial value of the oil in hevea seeds. =pastrycook and confectioner's guide.= for hotels, restaurants, and the trade in general, adapted also for family use. by r. wells, author of "the bread and biscuit baker" = / = =petrol air gas.= a practical handbook on the installation and working of air gas lighting systems for country houses. by henry o'connor, f.r.s.e., a.m. inst. c.e., &c., author of "the gas engineer's pocket book." pages with illustrations. crown vo, cloth _net_ = / = description of previous plants and systems for country-house lighting, difficulties with, objections and prices--history of petrol gas, comparative costs--petrol, its nature, dangers, and storing, notes on the law regarding same--burners, description of same, piping, mantles--general principles of parts of plants--motive power meters--weight-driven plants--root's blowers--hot-air engines--pelton water-wheels--descriptions of various plants--extract from an act for the safe-keeping of petroleum and other substances of a like nature--appendix--useful notes. =petroleum. the oil fields of russia and the russian petroleum industry.= a practical handbook on the exploration, exploitation, and management of russian oil properties, the origin of petroleum in russia, the theory and practice of liquid fuel. by a. b. thompson, a.m.i.m.e., f.g.s. pp., with numerous illustrations and photographic plates. second edition revised. super-royal vo, cloth _net_ = / = =petroleum mining and oil-field development.= a guide to the exploration of petroleum lands, and a study of the engineering problems connected with the winning of petroleum. including statistical data of important oil fields. notes on the origin and distribution of petroleum, and a description of the methods of utilizing oil and gas fuels. by a. beeby thompson, a.m.i.mech.e., f.g.s. author of "the oil fields of russia." pages, illustrations, including full-page plates. demy vo, cloth. [_just published._] _net_ = / = "it is an admirable text-book by a competent authority on an interesting subject."--_mining magazine._ "the present effort is likely to receive a warm welcome in engineering circles, and it can be cordially commended for perusal. it will doubtless have that large sale to which its merits entitle it."--_mining world._ "the general aspects of the petroleum industry are fully and ably laid out."--_engineer._ =pigments, artists' manual of.= showing their composition, conditions of permanency, non-permanency, and adulterations, etc., with tests of purity. by h. c. standage. third edition. crown vo, cloth = / = =portland cement, the modern manufacture of.= by percy c. h. west, chemical engineer and consulting chemist. in three volumes. vol. i., dealing with "machinery and kilns." about pages, medium vo. with numerous illustrations. [_nearly ready, price about_] = / = =producer gas practice (american) and industrial gas engineering.= by nisbet latta, m.amer.soc.m.e., m.amer.gas inst. pages, with illustrations. demy to, cloth [_just published._] _net_ = /-= producer operation--cleaning the gas--works details--producer types--moving gases--solid fuels--physical properties of gases--chemical properties of gases--gas analysis--gas power--gas engines--industrial gas applications--furnaces and kilns--burning lime and cement--pre-heating air--doherty combustion economiser--combustion in furnaces--heat: temperature, radiation and conduction--heat measurements: pyrometry and calorimetry--pipes, flues, and chimneys--materials: fire clay, masonry, weights and rope--useful tables--oil fuel producer gas. =recipes, formulas and processes, twentieth century book of.= edited by gardner d. hiscox, m.e. nearly , scientific, chemical, technical, and household recipes, formulas and processes for use in the laboratory and the office, the workshop and the home. medium vo, pp., cloth. _net_ = / = selected list of contents:--absinthe--acid proofing--adhesives-- alcohol--alkali--alloys--aluminium--ammonia--aniline--antidotes for poison--anchovy preparations--antiseptics--antiques--baking powders-- arometers--beverages--bleaching--brass--brick--carbolic acids--casting-- celluloid--cheese--ceramics--cigars--coffee--condiments--copper-- cosmetics--cotton--diamond tests--donarite--dyes--electro plating-- embalming--enamelling--engraving--essences--explosives--fertilisers-- filters--food adulterants--gelatine--glass--gold--gums--harness dressings--horn--inks--insecticides--iron--ivory--jewellers' formulas-- lacquers--laundry preparations--leather--linoleum--lubricants-- matches--metals--music boxes--oils--paints--paper--perfumes--petroleum-- photography--plaster--plating--polishes--porcelain--poultry--putty--rat poisons--refrigeration--ropes--rubber--rust preventives--salt--screws-- silk--silver--soaps--solders--spirit--sponges--steel--stone-- thermometers--tin--valves--varnishes--veterinary formulas--watchmakers' formulas--waterproofing--wax--weights and measures--whitewash-- wood--yeast. =rubber hand stamps.= and the manipulation of rubber. a practical treatise on the manufacture of indiarubber hand stamps, small articles of indiarubber, the hektograph, special inks, cements, and allied subjects. by t. o'conor sloane a.m., ph.d. with numerous illustrations. square vo, cloth = / = =savouries and sweets.= suitable for luncheons and dinners. by miss m. l. allen (mrs. a. macaire), author of "breakfast dishes," etc. thirty-first edition. f'cap vo, sewed = / = or, quarter bound, fancy boards = / = =sheet metal-worker's guide.= a practical handbook for tinsmiths, coppersmiths, zincworkers, &c., with diagrams and working patterns. by w. j. e. crane. crown vo, cloth = / = =sheet metal-worker's instructor.= comprising geometrical problems and practical rules for describing the various patterns required by zinc, sheet-iron, copper, and tin-plate workers. by r. h. warn. third edition. revised and further enlarged by j. g. horner, a.m.i.m.e. crown vo, pp., with illustrations, cloth = / = =silversmith's handbook.= alloying and working of silver, refining and melting, solders, imitation alloys, manipulation, prevention of waste, improving and finishing the surface of the work, etc. by george e. gee. fourth edition revised, crown vo, cloth = / = =soap-making.= a practical handbook of the manufacture of hard and soft soaps, toilet soaps, etc. with a chapter on the recovery of glycerine from waste leys. by alexander watt. seventh edition, including an appendix on modern candlemaking. crown vo, cloth = / = "the work will prove very useful, not merely to the technological student, but to the soap boiler who wishes to understand the theory of his art."--_chemical news._ =soaps, candles, and glycerine.= a practical manual of modern method of utilisation 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revised. with over illustrations. crown vo, cloth _net_ = / = =watches and other timekeepers, history of.= by j. f. kendal, m.b.h. inst. = / = boards; or cloth = / = =watchmaker's handbook.= intended as a workshop companion for those engaged in watchmaking and the allied mechanical arts. translated from the french of claudius saunier, and enlarged by julien tripplin, f.r.a.s., and edward rigg, m.a., assayer in the royal mint. fourth edition. cr. vo, cloth = / = "each part is truly a treatise in itself. the arrangement is good and the language is clear and concise. it is an admirable guide for the young watchmaker."--_engineering._ =weight calculator.= being a series of tables upon a new and comprehensive plan, exhibiting at one reference the exact value of any weight from lb. to tons, at progressive rates, from d. to s. per cwt., and containing , direct answers, which, with their combinations, consisting of a single addition (mostly to be performed at sight), will afford an aggregate of , , answers; the whole being calculated and designed to ensure correctness and promote despatch. by henry harben, accountant. sixth edition, carefully corrected. royal vo, strongly half bound =£ s.= "a practical and useful work of reference for men of business generally."--_ironmonger._ "of priceless value to business men."--_sheffield independent._ =wood engraving.= a practical and easy introduction to the study of the art. by w. n. brown. crown vo, cloth. = / = handybooks for handicrafts. by paul n. hasluck. author of "lathe work," etc. crown vo, pp., price s. each. [symbol: right pointing hand]_these_ handybooks _have been written to supply information for_ workmen students, _and_ amateurs _in the several handicrafts, on the actual_ practice _of the_ workshop, _and are intended to convey in plain language_ technical knowledge _of the several_ crafts. _in describing the processes employed, and the manipulation of material, workshop terms are used; workshop practice is fully explained; and the text is freely illustrated with drawings of modern tools, appliances, and processes._ =metal turner's handybook.= a practical manual for workers at the foot-lathe. with illustrations = / = "the book displays thorough knowledge of the subject."--_scotsman._ =wood turner's handybook.= a practical manual for workers at the lathe. with illustrations = / = "we recommend the book to young turners and amateurs."--_mechanical world._ =watch jobber's handybook.= a practical manual of cleaning, repairing, and adjusting. with illustrations = / = "all connected with the trade should acquire and study this work."--_clerkenwell chronicle._ =pattern maker's handybook.= a practical manual on the construction of patterns. with illustrations = / = "a most valuable, if not indispensable, manual for the pattern-maker."--_knowledge._ =mechanic's workshop handybook.= a practical manual on mechanical manipulation, embracing information on various handicraft processes. with useful notes and miscellaneous memoranda. comprising about subjects = / = "should be found in every workshop, and in all technical schools."--_saturday review._ =model engineer's handybook.= a practical manual on the construction of model steam engines. with upwards of illustrations = / = "mr. hasluck has produced a very good little book."--_builder._ =clock jobber's handybook.= a practical manual on cleaning, repairing, and adjusting. with illustrations = / = "it is of inestimable service to those commencing the trade."--_coventry standard._ =cabinet worker's handybook.= a practical manual on the tools, materials, appliances, and processes employed in cabinet work. with upwards of illustrations = / = "amongst the most practical guides for beginners in cabinet-work."--_saturday review._ =woodworker's handybook.= embracing information on the tools, materials, appliances and processes employed in woodworking. with illustrations = / = "written by a man who knows, not only how work ought to be done, but how to do it, and how to convey his knowledge to others."--_engineering._ "mr. hasluck writes admirably, and gives complete instructions."--_engineer._ "mr. hasluck combines the experience of a practical teacher with the manipulative skill and scientific knowledge of processes of the trained mechanician, and the manuals are marvels of what can be produced at a popular price."--_schoolmaster._ "helpful to workmen of all ages and degrees of experience."--_daily chronicle._ bradbury, agnew, & co. ld., london and tonbridge. ( . . . .) _weale's scientific & technical series._ mathematics, arithmetic, &c. geometry, descriptive. j. f. heather /- practical plane geometry. j. f. heather /- analytical geometry. j. hann & j. r. young /- geometry. part i. (euclid, bks. i.--iii.) h. law / part ii. (euclid, books iv., v., vi., xi., xii.). h. law / geometry, in vol. (euclid's elements) / plane trigonometry. j. hann / spherical trigonometry. j. hann /- the above vols., bound together / differential calculus. w. s. b. woolhouse / integral calculus. h. cox / algebra. j. haddon /- key to ditto / book-keeping. j. haddon / arithmetic. j. r. young / key to ditto / equational arithmetic. w. hipsley / arithmetic. j. haddon / mathematical instruments. heather & walmisley /- drawing & measuring instruments. j. f. heather / optical instruments, j. f. heather / surveying & astronomical instruments. j. f. heather / the above vols., bound together / mensuration and measuring. t. baker / slide rule, & how to use it. c. hoare / measures, weights, & moneys. w. s. b. woolhouse / logarithms, treatise on, with tables. h. law /- compound interest and annuities. f. thoman /- compendious calculator. d. o'gorman / mathematics. f. campin /- astronomy. r. main & w. t. lynn /- statics and dynamics. t. baker / superficial measurement. j. hawkings / building & architecture. building estates. f. maitland /- science of building. e. w. tarn / building, art of. e. dobson and j. p. allen /- book on building. sir e. beckett / dwelling houses, erection of. s. h. brooks / cottage building. c. b. allen /- acoustics of public buildings. prof. t. r. smith. / practical bricklaying. a. hammond / practical brick cutting & setting. a. hammond / brickwork. f. walker / brick and tile making. e. dobson /- practical brick & tile book. dobson & hammond /- carpentry and joinery. t. tredgold & e. w. tarn / atlas of plates to the above /- handrailing, and staircasing. g. collings / circular work in carpentry. g. collings / roof carpentry. g. collings /- construction of roofs. e. w. tarn / joints used by builders. j. w. christy /- shoring. g. h. blagrove / timber importer's & builder's guide. r. e. grandy /- plumbing. w. p. buchan / ventilation of buildings. w. p. buchan / practical plasterer. w. kemp /- house-painting. e. a. davidson /- elementary decoration. j. w. facey /- practical house decoration. j. w. facey / gas-fitting. j. black / portland cement for users. h. faija & d. b. butler /- limes, cements, & mortars. g. r. burnell / masonry and stone cutting. e. dobson / arches, piers, and buttresses. w. bland / quantities and measurements. a. c. beaton / complete measurer. r. horton /- superficial measurement. j. hawkings / light, for use of architects. e. w. tarn / hints to young architects. wightwick & guillaume / dictionary of architectural terms. j. weale /- architecture, orders. w. h. leeds / architecture, styles. t. t. bury /- the above vols., bound together / architecture, design. e. l. garbett / the above vols., bound together /- architectural modelling. t. a. richardson / vitruvius' architecture. j. gwilt /- grecian architecture. lord aberdeen /- the above vols., bound together /- fine arts. dictionary of painters. p. daryl / painting, fine art. t. j. gullick & j. timbs /- grammar of colouring. g. field & e. a. davidson /- perspective. g. pyne /- glass staining & painting on glass / music. c. c. spencer / pianoforte instruction. c. c. spencer / industrial & useful arts. cements, pastes, glues & gums. h. c. standage /- clocks, watches and bells. lord grimthorpe / goldsmith's handbook. g. e. gee /- silversmith's handbook. g. e. gee /- goldsmith's & silversmith's handbook. g. e. gee /- hall-marking of jewelry. g. e. gee /- cabinet maker's guide. r. bitmead / practical organ building. w. e. dickson / coach building. j. w. burgess / brass founder's manual. w. graham /- french polishing and enamelling. r. bitmead / house decoration. j. w. facey /- letter-painting made easy. j. g. badenoch / boot and shoemaking. j. b. leno /- mechanical dentistry. c. hunter /- wood engraving. w. n. brown / laundry management /- crosby lockwood & son, , stationers' hall court, e.c. [transcriber's note: the following advertisements were moved from the front of the book.] _weale's scientific & technical series._ civil engineering & surveying. civil engineering. h. law & d. k. clark / pioneer engineering. e. dobson / iron bridges of moderate span. h. w. pendred /- iron and steel bridges & viaducts. f. campin / constructional steel & ironwork. f. campin / tubular & girder bridges. g. d. dempsey /- materials and construction. f. campin /- sanitary work. c. slagg /- roads & streets. law, clark, & wallis-tayler /- construction of gasworks. s. hughes & h. o'connor /- well-sinking. j. g. swindell & g. r. burnell /- drainage. g. d. dempsey & d. k. clark / blasting and quarrying. j. burgoyne / foundations and concrete work. e. dobson / pneumatics. c. tomlinson / surveying. t. baker & f. e. dixon /- mechanical engineering, &c. engineering drawing. j. maxton / fuels, analysis and valuation. h. j. phillips /- fuel. c. w. williams & d. k. clark / boilermaker's assistant. j. courtney /- boilermaker's ready reckoner. j. courtney /- boilermaker's ready reckoner and assistant /- steam boilers. r. armstrong / steam and machinery management. m. p. bale / steam and the steam engine. d. k. clark / steam engine, theory of. t. baker / steam engine. dr. lardner / locomotive engines. g. d. dempsey & d. k. clark /- locomotive engine driving. m. reynolds / stationary engine driving. m. reynolds / model locomotive engineer. m. reynolds / modern workshop practice. j. g. winton / mechanical engineering. f. campin / details of machinery. f. campin /- elementary marine engineering. j. s. brewer / power of water. j. glynn /- mechanism and machines. t. baker & j. nasmyth / mechanics. c. tomlinson / cranes and machinery. j. glynn / smithy and forge. w. j. e. crane / sheet-metal worker's guide. w. j. e. crane / elementary electric lighting. a. a. c. swinton / mining & metallurgy. mining calculations. t. a. o'donahue / mineralogy. a. ramsay / coal mining. sir w. w. smyth & t. f. brown / metallurgy of iron. h. bauerman /- mineral surveyor's guide. w. lintern / slate and slate quarrying. d. c. davies /- mining and quarrying. j. h. collins / subterraneous surveying. t. fenwick & t. baker / mining tools. w. morgans / plates to ditto. to / physical geology. portlock & tate /- historical geology. r. tate / the above vols., bound together. / electro-metallurgy. a. watt / navigation, shipbuilding, &c. navigation. j. greenwood & w. h. rosser / practical navigation. greenwood, rosser & law /- navigation and nautical astronomy. j. r. young / mathematical & nautical tables. law & young /- masting and rigging. r. kipping /- sails and sailmaking. r. kipping / marine engines. r. murray & g. carlisle / naval architecture. j. peake / ships, construction of. h. a. sommerfeldt / plates to ditto. to / ships and boats. w. bland / =agriculture & gardening.= fertilisers & feeding stuffs. dr. b. dyer _net_ /- draining and embanking. prof. j. scott / irrigation and water supply. prof. j. scott / farm roads, fences, and gates. prof. j. scott / farm buildings. prof. j. scott /- barn implements and machines. prof. j. scott /- field implements and machines. prof. j. scott /- agricultural surveying. prof. j. scott / the above vols., bound together /- farm management. r. s. burn / landed estates management. r. s. burn / farming--soils, manures, and crops. r. s. burn /- farming--outlines--farming economy. r. s. burn /- farming--cattle, sheep, and horses. r. s. burn / farming--dairy, pigs, and poultry. r. s. burn /- farming--sewage & irrigation. r. s. burn / the above vols., bound together /- book-keeping for farmers. j. m. woodman / ready reckoner for land. a. arman /- miller's & farmer's ready reckoner /- hay and straw measurer. j. steele /- meat production. j. ewart / the sheep. w. c. spooner / multum-in-parvo gardening. s. wood /- forcing garden. s. wood / market and kitchen gardening. c. w. shaw /- kitchen gardening. g. m. f. glenny / cottage gardening. e. hobday / garden receipts. c. w. quin / potatoes: how to grow. j. pink /- culture of fruit trees. m. du breuil / tree planter & plant propagator. s. wood /- tree pruner. s. wood / tree planter, propagator, & pruner. s. wood / grafting and budding. c. baltet / bees for pleasure & profit. g. g. samson _net_ /- crosby lockwood & son, , stationers' hall court, e.c. transcriber's notes: page . add period after "the above processes" . varnsh corrected to varnish . from corrected . closing quote added after polish . polish aud spirits changed to and . added parens close after "finish . earthern corrected to earthen . boiled-linseed oil corrected to boiled linseed-oil . period after coarsely . campeachiaum corrected to campeachianum . published net added right bracket . net added right bracket . of metals added period . added right bracket ] . material [added right bracket] uses of . "refining"--power consumption added dashes . added ] in places mission furniture how to make it part i popular mechanics handbooks chicago popular mechanics co. copyrighted, , by h.h. windsor this book is one of the series of handbooks on industrial subjects being published by the popular mechanics company. like popular mechanics magazine, and like the other books in this series, it is "written so you can understand it." the purpose of popular mechanics handbooks is to supply a growing demand for high-class, up-to-date and accurate text-books, suitable for home study as well as for class use, on all mechanical subjects. the text and illustrations, in each instance, have been prepared expressly for this series by well known experts, and revised by the editor of popular mechanics. contents home-made mission chair, how to make a lamp stand, how to make a porch chair, how to make a tabouret, how to make a morris chair, home-made mission book rack, how to make a mission library, home-made mission candlestick, another style of mission chair, how to make and finish a magazine stand, home-made lawn swing, how to make a portable table, how to make a combination billiard table and davenport, easily made book shelves, a blacking case tabouret, how to make a roll top desk, how to make a roman chair, how to make a settee, how to make a pyrographer's table, mission stains, filling oak, wax finishing, fuming of oak, how to make black wax, the styles of chairs, how to make a piano bench, how to make a mission shaving stand, a mission waste-paper basket, a cellarette pedestal, a dresser, a mission sideboard, a hall or window seat, a mission plant stand, a bedside medicine stand, a mission hall chair, list of illustrations suitable for dining room use, details of chair construction, the completed lamp, construction of shade, details of construction of library lamp stand, details of home-made porch seat, porch chair finished, details of tabouret, tabouret as completed, complete morris chair without cushion, details of a morris chair, light but strong, details of stand, this picture is from a photograph of the mission table described in this article, showing dimensions of table, details of table construction, candlestick, details of candlestick, mission chair complete, details of mission chair construction, completed stand, details of the magazine stand, the completed swing, details of seat, showing construction of stand, table for outdoor use, by swinging the top back the table is transformed into the elegant davenport seen on the opposite page, the billiard table as converted into a luxurious davenport--a child can make the change in a moment, details showing dimensions of parts, details of shoe rest, details of tabouret construction, the desk complete, details of tabouret construction, the desk complete, rolltop details, details, detail of pigeonholes, the roman chair, details of parts of chair, a complete two-cushion settee, details of a mission settee, details of the cushion, convenient pyrographer's table, storage for apparatus, chairs , chairs , chairs , chairs , piano bench, piano bench details, shaving stand details, shaving stand complete, mirror frame and standards details, waste-paper basket to match library table, detail of waste-paper basket, plain-oak cellarette pedestal, detail of cellarette pedestal, dresser in quarter-sawed oak, detail of the dresser, detail of the mission sideboard, mission sideboard in quarter-sawed oak, seat made of quarter-sawed oak, detail of the hall or window seat, detail of the plant stand, complete plant stand, medicine stand in quarter-sawed oak, detail of the medicine stand, detail of the hall chair, complete hall chair in plain oak, home-made mission chair [illustration: suitable for dining room use] [illustration: details of chair construction] a mission chair suitable for the dining room can be made from any one of the furniture woods to match the other articles of furniture. the materials can be secured from the planing mill dressed and sandpapered ready to cut the tenons and mortises. the material list can be made up from the dimensions given in the detail drawing. the front legs or posts, as well as the back ones, are made from - / -in. square stock, the back ones having a slope of in. from the seat to the top. all the slats are made from / -in. material and of such widths as are shown in the detail. the three upright slats in the back are / -in. material. the detail drawing shows the side and back, the front being the same as the back from the seat down. all joints are mortised in the posts, as shown. the joints, however, can be made with dowels if desired. if making dowel joints they must be clamped very tight when glued and put together. the seat can be made from one piece of / -in. material, fitted with notches around the posts. this is then upholstered with leather without using springs. leather must be selected as to color to suit the kind of wood used in making the chair. the seat can also be made with an open center for a cane bottom by making a square of four pieces of / -in. material about in. wide. these pieces are fitted neatly to the proper size and dowelled firmly together. after the cane is put in the opening the cane is covered over and upholstered with leather in the same manner as with a solid bottom. how to make a lamp stand and shade a library light stand of pleasing design and easy construction is made as follows: square up a piece of white oak so that it shall have a width and thickness of - / in. with a length of in. square up two pieces of the same kind of material to the same width and thickness, but with a length of in. each. square up two pieces to a width and length of in. each with a thickness of - / in. if a planing mill is near, time and patience will be saved by ordering one piece - / in. square and in. long, two pieces - / in. thick and in. square, all planed and sandpapered on all surfaces. the long piece can then be cut at home to the lengths specified above. the -in. piece is for the upright and should have a / -in. hole bored the full length through the center. if the bit is not long enough to reach entirely through, bore from each end, then use a red-hot iron to finish. this hole is for the electric wire or gas pipe if gas is used. the two pieces for the base are alike except the groove of one is cut from the top and of the other from the under side, as shown. shape the under sides first. this can best be done by placing the two pieces in a vise, under sides together, and boring two holes with a -in. bit. the center of each hole will be - / in. from either end and in the crack between the pieces. the pieces can then be taken out, lines gauged on each side of each, and the wood between the holes removed with turning saw and scraper steel. [illustration: the completed lamp] the width of the grooves must be determined by laying one piece upon the other; a try-square should be used to square the lines across the pieces; however, gauge for depth, gauging both pieces from their top surfaces. chisel out the grooves and round off the corners as shown in the sketch, using a / -in. radius. these parts may be put together and fastened to the upright by means of two long screws from the under side, placed to either side of the / -in. hole. this hole must be continued through the pieces forming the base. the braces are easiest made by taking the two pieces which were planed to - / in. thick and in. square and drawing a diagonal on each. find the middle of this diagonal by drawing the central portion of the other diagonal; at this point place the spur of the bit and bore a -in. hole in each block. saw the two blocks apart, sawing along a diagonal of each. plane the surfaces on the saw cut smooth and sandpaper the curve made by the bit. fasten the braces in place by means of roundhead blued screws. to make a shade such as is shown in the illustration is rather difficult. the shade is made of wood glued up and has art glass fitted in rabbets cut on the inner edges. such shades can be purchased ready to attach. the sketch shows one method of attaching. four small pieces of strap iron are bent to the shape shown and fastened to the four sides of the upright. electric globes--two, three or four may be attached as shown. [illustration: construction of shade] the kind of wood finish for the stand will depend upon the finish on the wooden shade, if shade is purchased. brown flemish is obtained by first staining the wood with flemish water stain diluted by the addition of two parts water to one part stain. when this is dry, sandpaper the "whiskers" which were raised by the water and fill with a medium dark filler. directions will be found on the filler cans. when filler has hardened, apply two coats of wax. [illustration: details of construction of library lamp stand] the metal shade as shown in the sketch is a "layout" for a copper or brass shade of a size suitable for this particular lamp. such shades are frequently made from one piece of sheet metal and designs are pierced in them as suggested in the "layout." this piercing is done by driving the point of a nail through the metal from the under side before the parts are soldered or riveted together. if the parts are to be riveted, enough additional metal must be left on the last panel to allow for a lap. no lap is needed when joints are soldered. a better way, and one which will permit the use of heavier metal, is to cut each side of the shade separately and fasten them together by riveting a piece of metal over each joint. the shape of this piece can be made so as to accentuate the rivet heads and thus give a pleasing effect. for art-glass the metal panels are cut out, the glass is inserted from the under side and held in place by small clips soldered to the frame of the shade. pleasing effects are obtained by using one kind of metal, as brass, and reinforcing and riveting with another metal, such as copper. [illustration: details of home-made porch seat] how to make a porch chair the illustration shows a very comfortable and attractive porch chair that can be made with few tools and easily procured material. most any kind of wood will answer, says the american carpenter and builder, but if open grained wood, such as oak or chestnut, is used, the parts should be filled with a paste filler. if the natural color of the wood is not desired, the wood may first be stained, the filler being colored somewhat darker than the stain. procure enough lumber to make all the pieces shown in the detail drawing and finish to the dimensions shown, being careful to make the corresponding pieces exactly alike in order to preserve the perfect symmetry which is necessary in work of this kind. in boring the holes care must be taken to keep both edges of the holes sharp and clean. the holes should each be bored until the spur shows; the bit should then be withdrawn and the rest of the boring be done from the other side. the semicircular notches are made by placing the two pieces edge to edge in the vise and placing the spur of the bit in the crack. the -in. bit is used. as it will be difficult to finish the boring of these blocks from the second side, the parts remaining may be cut out with the knife after the pieces have been separated. five / -in. dowel rods are needed. it is possible to get these in one long piece if you happen to live near a mill and then all you will have to do is to saw off the desired lengths. however, if they cannot be got easily you can make your own. two rods each - / in. long; two rods each - / in. and one rod - / in. give the exact lengths. it is well to cut each piece a little longer than required so that the ends which are imperfectly formed may be cut off. these rods should fit tight and may be fastened in addition with a small screw or nail from the under or back side. [illustration: porch chair finished] the hand rests should be nailed to the arms with small nails or brads before the arms are bolted. the illustration of the assembled chair shows the relative position. the bolts should be / in. and of the following lengths: bolts - / in. long; bolts in. long; bolts in. long. washers should be placed between adjacent pieces of wood fastened together with bolts and also at both ends of the bolts. this will require washers in all. while the size of the chair may be varied, it will be necessary to keep the proportions if the parts are to fold properly. how to make a tabouret secure from the planing mill the following pieces and have them planed and sandpapered on two surfaces: for the top, one piece / in. thick and in. square. for the legs, four pieces / in. thick, - / in. wide and - / in. long. for the lower stretchers, two pieces / in. thick, - / in. wide and - / in. long. for the top stretchers, two pieces / in. thick, - / in. wide and - / in. long. no stock need be ordered for the keys, as they can be made out of the waste pieces remaining after the legs are shaped. begin work on the four legs first. while both sides of each leg slope, it will be necessary to plane a joint edge on each leg from which to lay out the mortises, grooves and to test the ends. it will be necessary to have a bevel square to use in marking off the slopes and for testing them. to get the setting for the bevel square, make a full sized "lay out" or drawing of the necessary lines in their proper relation to one another and adjust the bevel to those lines. from the joint edge lay out the mortises, grooves and the slopes of sides and ends of the legs. cut the mortises and grooves first, then shape up the sides. saw the sides accurately and quite close to the lines, finishing with the steel cabinet scraper. [illustration: details of tabouret] next make the bottom stretchers. in laying out the cross lap joint, the working faces are both to be up when the joint is completed, therefore lay off one groove on the face of one piece and on the side opposite the face on the other. in gauging for depth, however, be careful to keep the gauge block against the working face of each piece. in laying out the mortises for the keys, the opening on the top surface is to be made / in. longer than on the under surface. the slope of the key will therefore be / in. of slope to each / in. of length. the drawing shows the mortise as / in. from the shoulders of the tenon. this distance is the same as the thickness of the leg and to insure the key's pulling the shoulder up against the leg firmly, should any of the legs happen to be a little less than / in., it is well to make the mortise slightly nearer the shoulder than / in. it is a good plan to lay out the mortise in the tenon at the same time the shoulders of the tenons are laid out. otherwise the joint edge being cut off in making the tenon there is no convenient way to locate this mortise accurately. lay off the top stretchers according to the dimensions shown in the drawing. observe the same precautions about the cross lap joint as were given for the lower stretchers, except that the joint edges are to be placed up in this latter case. make sure the grooves are laid out in the middle before cutting. as a test, place the pieces side by side, examine the markings, then turn one of them end for end and again examine. the grooves into which the legs pass are / in. deep and must be very carefully cut. their purpose is to give rigidity to the tabouret frame. bore two holes in each stretcher for the screws that are to fasten the top in place. make the keys, scrape all the parts and sandpaper those that were not so treated at the mill. use glue to fasten the tops of the legs to the top stretchers and assemble these parts. the top is octagonal or eight-sided. to make it, square up a piece to - / by - / in. measure the diagonal, take one-half of it and measure from each corner of the board each way along the edges to locate the places at which to cut off the corners. connect these points, saw and plane the remaining four sides. there is to be a / -in. bevel on the under side of the top. scrape and sandpaper these edges and secure the top to the stretchers with screws. [illustration: tabouret as completed] much time can be saved and a better result obtained if the wood finishing is done before the parts are put together. especially is this true if stain and filler are used. a very pretty finish and one easily put on even after the parts are put together is obtained as follows: take a barrel and stuff up the cracks or paste paper over them so as to make it as near airtight as possible. in some out-of-the-way place put a dish with about oz. of strong ammonia. set the tabouret over this dish and quickly invert the barrel over the tabouret. allow the fumes to act on the wood for at least hours. remove the barrel and allow the fumes to escape. polish with several coats of wax such as is used upon floors. directions for waxing will be found on the cans that contain the wax.. this produces the rich nut-brown finish so popular in arts and crafts furniture and is known as fumed oak. how to make a morris chair the stock necessary to make a morris chair of craftsman design as shown in the engraving can be purchased mill-planed and sandpapered on four sides as given in the following list: posts - / by by in. front and back rails / by - / by in. side rails / by - / by in. arm pieces / by - / by in. slats / by by in. cleats by by - / in. back stiles by - / by - / in. back rails by by in. back slats / by - / by in. back support / by / by in. support rests by - / by - / in. dowels / in. diameter, in. long. first make and put together the sides of the chair. while the glue is setting on these parts make and assemble the back. the front and back rails may next be made and placed and the cleats and bottom slats fastened. with the adjustment of the back the chair is ready for the finish. the posts are to be tenoned on the upper ends. these tenons are to project / in. above the arm and should be slightly beveled. the lower ends of the posts, likewise, all other projecting ends, should be beveled to avoid their splintering. all sharp corners, as on the arms, should be sandpapered just enough to take their sharpness off, so as not to injure the hand. that the chair may be properly inclined, the rear posts are cut in. shorter than the forward ones. to get the correct slant on the bottoms of these posts, lay a straightedge so that its edge touches the bottom of the front post at its front surface, but keep it in. above the bottom of the rear post. mark with pencil along the straightedge across both posts. [illustration: complete morris chair without cushion] [illustration: details of a morris chair] at the rear ends of the arms are the notched pieces that allow the back to be adjusted to different angles. these pieces may be fastened in place either by means of roundhead screws from above or flatheads from underneath the arms. the notches are to be cut / in. deep. if more than three adjustments are wanted, the arms must be made correspondingly longer. the dimensions for the tenons on all the larger pieces will be found on the drawing. for the back, the tenons of the cross pieces, the rails, should be / by - / -in. for the slats, the easiest way is to not tenon them but to "let in" the whole end, making the mortises in the rails / by - / in. this will necessitate cutting the sides of the mortises very accurately, but this extra care will be more than compensated by not having to bother with the cutting of tenons on each end of the three back slats. to finish the chair, put on a coat of water stain, first removing all surplus glue and thoroughly scraping and sandpapering all the parts that were not so treated at the mill. the color of the stain will depend upon the finish desired, whether golden, mission, etc. water stains cause the grain of the wood to roughen, so it will be necessary to resandpaper the surfaces after the stain has dried, using fine paper. next apply a coat of filler colored to match the stain. directions for its application will be found upon the cans in which the filler comes. after the filler has hardened put on a very thin coat of shellac. what step is taken next will depend upon what kind of a surface is desired. several coats of polishing wax may be put on. this is easily done--directions will be found on the cans--and makes the most satisfactory finish for mission and craftsman furniture. it is the easiest to apply. several coats of shellac or of varnish might be put on instead of wax. each coat of the shellac should be rubbed when thoroughly dried with curled hair or fine steel wool or fine oiled sandpaper. rub the first coats of varnish with hair-cloth or curled hair and the last coats with pulverized pumice stone and crude oil or raw linseed oil. cushions for the chair can be made at home. they may be made of art leather such as spanish roan skin and the top and bottom parts fastened together by lacing leather thongs through holes previously punched along the edges of the parts. a very pretty effect is obtained by using thongs of a different but harmonious color. the manner of lacing may be any one of the various laces such as are used in lacing belts or as shoestrings. these cushions may be filled with hair or cotton felt. denim or burlap may also be used as a covering and are much less expensive than the leather. lace one side and the two ends, then place filling and finish lacing. art leather cushions retail at from $ to $ a pair and the denim and burlap at $ to $ . the bottom cushion should be made the full size of the chair. the front and back rails extend a little above the slats and thus hold it in place. the back cushion will settle down a little and therefore may be made nearly the full length from the slats to the top of the back. home-made mission book rack [illustration: light but strong] when making the book rack as shown in the accompanying photograph use quarter-sawed oak if possible, as this wood is the most suitable for finishing in the different mission stains. this piece of furniture is very attractive and simple to construct. the upper shelf can be used for vases or a plant of some kind, while the lower shelves afford ample room for books and magazines. the slats and legs are fastened to the shelves with -in. round-headed brass screws. these can be purchased from any hardware store. one screw is used at each joint of a slat and shelf which calls for screws in all. holes should be bored into the slats and legs in which to insert the screws. this will keep the wood from splitting. the dimensions are given in the diagram sketch, although these may be changed to suit the requirement of the builder. if no glue is used on the joints when setting up, the rack can easily be taken apart and put in a small bundle for moving. [illustration: details of stand] how to make a mission library table the mission library table, the drawings for which are here given, has been found well proportioned and of pleasing appearance. it can be made of any of the several furniture woods in common use, such as selected, quarter-sawed white oak which will be found exceptionally pleasing in the effect produced. [illustration: this picture is from a photograph of the mission table described in this article] if a planing mill is at hand the stock can be ordered in such a way as to avoid the hard work of planing and sandpapering. of course if mill-planed stock cannot be had, the following dimensions must be enlarged slightly to allow for "squaring up the rough." [illustration: showing dimensions of table] for the top, order piece - / in. thick, in. wide and in. long. have it s- -s (surface on four sides) and "squared" to length. also specify that it be sandpapered on the top surface, the edges and ends. for the shelf, order piece / in. thick, in. wide and in. long, with the four sides surfaced, squared and sandpapered the same as for the top. for the side rails, order pieces / in. thick, in. wide and in. long, s- -s and sanded on one side. for the end rails, pieces / in. thick, in. wide and in. long. other specifications as for the side rails. for the stretchers, into which the shelf tenons enter, pieces - / in. thick, - / in. wide and in. long, surfaced and sanded on four sides. for the slats, pieces / in. thick, - / in. wide and in. long, surfaced and sanded on four sides. for the keys, pieces / in. thick, - / in. wide and - / in. long, s- -s. this width is a little wide; it will allow the key to be shaped as desired. the drawings obviate any necessity for going into detail in the description. fig. gives an assembly drawing showing the relation of the parts. fig. gives the detail of an end. the tenons for the side rails are laid off and the mortises placed in the post as are those on the end. care must be taken, however, not to cut any mortises on the post below, as was done in cutting the stretcher mortises on the ends of the table. a good plan is to set the posts upright in the positions they are to occupy relative to one another and mark with pencil the approximate positions of the mortises. the legs can then be laid flat and the mortises accurately marked out with a fair degree of assurance that they will not be cut where they are not wanted and that the legs shall "pair" properly when effort is made to assemble the parts of the table. [illustration: details of table construction] the table ends should be glued up first and the glue allowed to harden, after which the tenons of the shelf may be inserted and the side rails placed. there is a reason for the shape, size and location of each tenon or mortise. for illustration, the shape of the tenon on the top rails permits the surface of the rail to extend almost flush with the surface of the post at the same time permitting the mortise in the post to be kept away from that surface. again, the shape of the ends of the slats is such that, though they may vary slightly in length, the fitting of the joints will not be affected. care must be taken in cutting the mortises to keep their sides clean and sharp and to size. in making the mortises for the keyed tenons, the length of mortise must be slightly in excess of the width of the tenon--about / in. of play to each side of each tenon. with a shelf of the width specified for this table, if such allowance is not made so that the tenons may move sideways, the shrinkage would split the shelf. in cutting across the ends of the shelf, between the tenons, leave a hole in the waste so that the turning saw or compass saw can be inserted. saw within one-sixteenth of the line, after which this margin may be removed with chisel and mallet. in fig. is shown two views of the keyed tenon and the key. the mortise for the key is to be placed in the middle of the tenon. it will be noted that this mortise is laid out - / in. from the shoulder of the tenon while the stretcher is - / in. thick. this is to insure the key's pulling the shelf tightly against the side of the stretcher. keys may be made in a variety of shapes. the one shown is simple and structurally good. whatever shape is used, the important thing to keep in mind is that the size of the key and the slant of its forward surface where it passes through the tenon must be kept the same as the mortise made for it in the tenon. the top is to be fastened to the rails by means either of wooden buttons, fig. , or small angle irons. there are a bewildering number of mission finishes upon the market. a very satisfactory one is obtained by applying a coat of brown flemish water stain, diluted by the addition of water in the proportion of two parts water to part stain. when this has dried, sand with no. paper, being careful not to "cut through." next, apply a coat of dark brown filler; the directions for doing this will be found upon the can in which the filler is bought. one coat usually suffices. however, if an especially smooth surface is desired, a second coat may be applied in a similar manner. after the filler has hardened, a very thin coat of shellac is to be put on. when this has dried, it should be sanded lightly and then one or two coats of wax should be properly applied and polished. directions for waxing are upon the cans in which the wax is bought. a beautiful dull gloss so much sought by finishers of modern furniture will be the result of carefully following these directions. home-made mission candlestick there are many kinds of mission candlesticks, but few of them carry out the mission design throughout. herewith is illustrated a candlestick which may be made from the various woods that will have the style and lines of mission craft work. the base is made from -in. material, - / in. square. two holes are bored and countersunk for screws to hold the post and handle. the post is - / in. high, bored in one end to fit the size of a candle. the post is covered with a / -in. thick cap, in. square. this, also, is bored to fit the candle. the handle is / in. thick and in. long with a / -in. square mortise and is notched to fit the base. the wood may be selected to match any other piece of furniture and finished in any of the mission stains. [illustration] [illustration: details of candlestick] another style of mission chair the material necessary to make a mission chair as shown in the accompanying illustration may be secured from a planing mill with all four surfaces squared and sandpapered. the mill can do this work quickly and the expense will be nothing compared with the time it takes to do the work by hand. the following is the stock list: legs, - / by - / by - / in. bottom end rails / by - / by - / in. bottom side rails / by - / by - / in. top end rails / by - / by - / in. top back rail / by - / by - / in. cleats / by - / by - / in. slats / by by in. this design was purposely made simple. if it is considered too severe and the worker has had some experience in woodwork, it can easily be modified by adding vertical slats in back and sides. these should be made of / -in. stock and their ends should be "let into" the rails by means of mortises. either plain red oak or quarter-sawed white oak will do. begin by squaring up one end of each leg, marking and cutting them to length and planing up the second ends so that they shall be square. both the top and bottom of each leg should be beveled or rounded off about / in. so that they may not splinter or cause injury to the hand. when all of the legs have been made of the same length, set them on end in the positions they are to have relative to one another and mark with pencil the approximate locations of the mortises. next, place them on the bench, side by side, even the ends and square sharp lines across to indicate the ends of the mortises. the drawing shows the dimensions to use. a sharp pencil should be used for this marking and the lines should be carried entirely across the two faces of each piece. [illustration: mission chair complete] set the gauge for the side of the mortise nearest the face edge. with this setting, mark all the mortises, then set for the second side of the mortise and complete the gauging. there are two ways of cutting small mortises in common use. one is by using a chisel of a width just equal to that of the mortise. the other is by using a smaller chisel after the mortise has first been bored with the brace and bit. in the first method the cutting is begun at the middle of the mortise where a v-shaped opening is made the full depth of the mortise that is to be. continuing from the middle, vertical cuts are taken first toward one end and then toward the other. the chips are pried out as the cutting proceeds. in making the last cut this prying must be omitted, otherwise the edge of the mortise would be ruined. it will be necessary to stand so as to look along the opening in order to get the sides plumb. this method of cutting, when once the "knack" has been attained, will be found much easier, quicker and more accurate for small openings, such as these, than the usual method. the second method, which is the usual one, needs no description. [illustration: details of mission chair construction] the rails should next have the tenons cut on their ends. it may not be out of place to remind the amateur that the lengths of the various like pieces can best be laid off by placing them on the bench, measuring off the proper distances on one of them and then with try-square marking across the edges of all of them at once. this not only saves time in that but one set of measurements need be made, but it insures all the pieces being similarly laid off. in measuring off for the shoulders of the tenons, begin at the middle of the length of the rail and measure half of the distance each way. by doing so, if there are any slight differences in the lengths of the pieces this difference will be divided between the two tenons and no harm will be done. in gauging the tenons take the precaution to mark a working face and joint edge, even if all the surfaces were finish-planed at the mill. it is very important that all tenon gauging be done from these faces. the same is true of the legs or posts, and the slats if there are to be any. to avoid confusion it is well to number each tenon by means of the chisel with a roman numeral and its corresponding mortise with the same. this will prevent the fitting of one tenon into more than one mortise. put the parts together with warm glue if it can be had, otherwise use the prepared cold glue. in cold weather the wood ought to be warmed before the glue is applied. put the ends of the chair together first. when the glue has set on these put the other rails in place. when clamping up the second set of rails make sure the frame of the chair is square. the best way to test for squareness is to measure the diagonals with a stick. spring the frame until they measure alike, using a brace to hold the frame in position until the glue can harden. before staining, scrape off any surplus glue, for stain will not adhere to glue and a white spot will be the result of failing to remove it. fasten cleats to the front and back rails with screws. to these cleats fasten the slats as shown in the drawing. a cushion of spanish leather, such as is shown in the photograph, can be bought at the furniture store or the upholsterer's. it can be made by the amateur quite easily, however. the two parts are fastened together with leather thongs and the filling is of hair or elastic felt. a cushion for the back might well be provided. to finish the wood to match a brown leather proceed as follows: with a cloth or brush, stain the wood with brown flemish water stain diluted by the addition of four parts of water. when this has dried, sandpaper smooth, using no. paper held on the tips of the fingers. apply a dark brown filler. when this has flatted, i.e., when the gloss has disappeared, which will be in the course of ten or fifteen minutes, wipe off clean with excelsior and then with waste or a cloth. allow this to dry over night, then apply two or three coats of wax. polish each coat with a flannel cloth by briskly rubbing it. a settle can be made after this design by using longer front and back rails. rails in. between shoulders will make a good length for a settle. how to make and finish a magazine stand for the magazine stand shown herewith there will be needed the following pieces: top, / in. by - / in. by - / in. shelf, / in. by - / in. by - / in. shelf, / in. by - / in. by - / in. shelf, / in. by - / in. by - / in. sides, / in. by - / in. by - / in. brace, / in. by - / in. by in. brace, / in. by - / in. by - / in. braces, / in. by in. by in. order these pieces mill-planed on two surfaces to the thickness specified above and also sandpapered. quarter-sawed white oak makes the best appearance of all the woods that are comparatively easy to obtain. plain sawed red or white oak will look well but are more liable to warp than the quarter-sawed. this is quite an element in pieces as wide as these. begin work on the sides first. plane a joint edge on each and from this work the two ends. the ends will be square to the joint edge but beveled to the working face. a bevel square will be needed for testing these beveled ends. to set the bevel make a drawing, full size or nearly so, of the front view and place the bevel on the drawing, adjusting its sides to the angle wanted. work from a center line in laying off the drawing. having planed the ends, lay off the sides. this is done by measuring from the joint edge along the bottom in., from the joint edge along the top - / in. and from this in. connect the points by means of a pencil and straightedge. [illustration: completed stand] before cutting off the joint edges of the pieces measure off and square lines across to indicate the locations of the shelves. put both pieces together and mark across both joint edges at once to insure getting both laid off alike. the design at the bottom can be varied to suit the fancy of the worker. for such a design as is shown, draw on paper, full size, half of it; fold on the center line and with scissors cut both sides of the outline by cutting along the line just drawn. trace around this pattern on the wood, and saw out with compass or turning saw. the shelves may now be made. the bevel of the ends of the shelves will be the same as for the ends of the side pieces. the lengths may be obtained by measuring the drawing. remember that length is always measured along the grain and that the end grain of the shelves must extend from side to side in this stand. the widths may be obtained by measuring the width of the sides at the points marked out on them for the location of the shelf ends. it is best not to have the shelves the full width of the sides, since the edges of the shelves are to be faced with leather. make each shelf / in. less than the width of the side, at the place that the shelf is to be fastened. the top will be squared up in the usual manner, in. wide by in. long. these parts may now be put together. they may be fastened in any one of a variety of ways. round-head blued screws may be placed at regular intervals through the sides. finishing nails may be used and the heads set and covered with putty stained to match the wood. finish nails may be placed at regular intervals and fancy headed nails used to cover the heads. [illustration: details of the magazine stand] the braces should be formed and fitted but not fastened until the finish has been applied. thoroughly scrape and sandpaper all parts not already so treated. probably no other finish appeals to so many people as golden oak. there is no fixed standard of color for golden oak. different manufacturers have set standards in their part of the country, but the prevailing idea of golden oak is usually that of a rich reddish brown. proceed as follows: egg shell gloss: .--one coat of golden oak water stain, diluted with water if a light golden is desired. .--allow time to dry, then sandpaper lightly with fine sandpaper. this is to smooth the grain and to bring up the high lights by removing the stain from the wood. use no. sandpaper and hold it on the finger tips. .--apply a second coat of the stain diluted about one-half with water. this will throw the grain into still higher relief and thus produce a still greater contrast. apply this coat of stain very sparingly, using a rag. should this stain raise the grain, again rub lightly with fine worn sandpaper, just enough to smooth. .--when this has dried, put on a light coat of thin shellac. shellac precedes filling that it may prevent the high lights--the solid parts of the wood--from being discolored by the stain in the filler, and thus causing a muddy effect. the shellac being thin does not interfere with the filler's entering the pores of the open grain. .--sand lightly with fine sandpaper. .--fill with paste filler colored to match the stain. .--cover this with a coat of orange shellac. this coat of shellac might be omitted, but another coat of varnish must be added. .--sandpaper lightly. .--apply two or three coats of varnish. .--rub the first coats with hair cloth or curled hair and then with pulverized pumice stone, crude oil or linseed oil. affix the braces just after filling, using brads and puttying the holes with putty colored to match the filler. the shelves may be faced with thin leather harmonizing with the oak, ornamental headed tacks being used to fasten it in place. home-made lawn swing [illustration: the completed swing] the coming of spring and summer calls forth various kinds of porch and lawn furniture. a porch or lawn swing to accommodate two or more persons is a thing desired by most people. the lawn swing as shown in the picture is portable and does not need stakes to hold it to the ground. while this swing is substantial and rigid it can be moved from place to place on the lawn, or the chains can be fastened with heavy hooks to the ceiling of a porch instead of using the stand. either ropes or chains may be used to hang the swing and should be of such length that the seat will be about in. from the ground or floor. the drawing giving the dimensions for constructing the seat shows how the parts are put together. the front and back apron pieces are mortised to receive a -in. square tenon cut on the crosspieces that support the slats. each end of the apron pieces extends in., and a hole is bored at a into which the hanging ropes or chains are fastened. if ropes are used, bore the holes to fit the rope and when the end of each rope is put through a hole it is tied in a knot to keep from slipping out. chains can be fastened with eye bolts. small carriage or stove bolts are used to hold the slats on the framework and cross pieces. the arm rests are fastened with wood screws. [illustration: details of seat] the drawing for the stand gives all the dimensions for its construction. split the upright pieces or legs with a saw cut to the length as shown. a bolt should be put through each piece edgewise at the end of the saw cut, to keep the wood from splitting any farther when the ends are spread to receive the bolts through the cross pieces at the top. the upper ends of the ropes or chains are fastened close to and under the bolt holding the inside forks of the uprights. this bolt can be long enough to fasten a clevis that will hang underneath for this purpose. the whole swing can be painted with a forest green color which is very suitable for summer outdoor furniture. [illustration: showing construction of stand] how to make a portable table [illustration: table for outdoor use] a table for outdoor use that can be taken apart, stored or changed from place to place may be made at small expense. fasten cleats with screws, as shown in fig. , to the bottom of a board of suitable size. the legs are built with a cross piece, a, fig. , at the top which fits into slot formed by the cleats, cc, and a crosspiece, b, that has two cleats, d, making a place to receive the bottom end of the brace, e, fig. . the upper ends of the braces, ee, fit in between two pieces, f, fastened in the middle of the board. the three pins fitting loosely in dd and f, fig. , are all that holds table together. the end view is shown in fig. . how to make a combination billiard table and davenport a small size billiard table which can be converted quickly into a davenport is made as follows: secure clear, selected plain sawed white oak in sizes as indicated by the drawing. have these planed at the mill to the widths and thicknesses specified. the lower part should be made first. cut the four posts to length, chamfering the ends somewhat so that they will not splinter when in use. lay out and cut the mortises which are to receive the rails. the lower rails are to be - / in. thick and the mortises are to be laid out in the legs so as to bring their outer surfaces almost flush with those of the posts. the upper rails are - / in. wide. the slats are / in. thick. tenons should be thoroughly pinned to the sides of the mortises as shown in the illustration. the braces are - / in. thick and are fastened to place with roundhead screws and glue. the seat may be made by putting in a solid bottom that shall rest upon cleats fastened to the inner surfaces of the rails. the top of this bottom should rest about / in. below the top edge of the rails. a well filled leather cushion completes this part. a more satisfactory result is obtained by putting in springs and upholstering the seat. upon this the leather cushion can be placed. [illustration: by swinging the top back the table is transformed into the elegant davenport seen on the opposite page] [illustration: the billiard table as converted into a luxurious davenport--a child can make the change in a moment] the top or table is built upon and about a heavy frame of well seasoned - / -in. by - / -in. white pine. the parts to this frame are thoroughly mortised and tenoned together. middle stretchers, lengthwise and crosswise, give added strength and rigidity. upon this frame the slate bed is leveled by planing the frame wherever necessary. slats are fastened to the bed by screws, the heads of which are countersunk so that they may be covered over even with plaster of paris. [illustration: details showing dimensions of parts] the top and side facings are built together, the angle being reinforced with block and glue, as shown in detail. these facings, to which the cushions are attached, are afterward made fast to the frame by ornamental headed screws. the detail and photograph show the manner of applying the under facing. before attaching the top and side facings, the bed cloth should be placed over the slate and fastened. the nap of the cloth should run from the head toward the opposite end of the table. draw the cloth as tight as possible, taking care that there shall be no wrinkles. the billiard cushions can be bought ready to cover. the bumpers which keep the top from striking the front posts can be obtained by making proper selection from oak door bumpers carried in stock by hardware dealers. the brass swing bars, most likely, can be obtained at the same place. the upholstering on the under side of the top--the back of the davenport--is to be built upon a stout frame made of some suitable common wood, and the whole set in the recess formed as shown in the detail drawing--the whole being fastened from the back before the slate bed is put in position. effort should be made to select leather of a color that will harmonize with the wood finish which is to be applied. easily made book shelves very cheap but useful and attractive book shelves are shown in the accompanying drawing. the vertical strips, a, may be / in. by in. and are screwed to four shelves, b, each cut to the shape of a quarter circle. the screws are all countersunk and as the heads all come on the side next to the wall, they do not show. the design might be varied somewhat to suit the fancy of the builder, although the appearance of the shelves constructed as shown is very pleasing, especially so if the workmanship is good and the wood carefully stained and varnished. the total cost of construction was less than cents. [illustration] a blacking case tabouret [illustration] a substantial piece of mission furniture which may be used as a tabouret or plant stand as well as a blacking case, in which there is a receptacle for brushes, blacking and a shoe rest, is shown in the illustration. the stock can be secured mill-planed, sandpapered and in lengths almost ready to be assembled. the stock list consists of the following pieces: posts, - / by - / by in. side rails, by - / by - / in. top pieces, by - / by - / in. bottom, / by - / by - / in. cleat, by by in. the posts and cleat are surfaced on four sides, while the other pieces are surfaced on only two sides. the allowance of / in. on the side rails, top and bottom, is for fitting the joints. be sure the surfaces of the pieces for the posts are square and the ends sawed square off, making the posts exactly the same length when they come from the mill. [illustration: details of shoe rest] square up the four side rails to by in. cut one end of each post tapering with a chisel; face and sandpaper the posts and side rails before making the joints. the side rails are attached to the posts with three dowels to each joint. the place for each dowel is located by making a line exactly in the middle lengthwise on each end of each side rail. three lines are made to intersect this middle line, as shown in the detail. drive a / -in. brad in each intersection allowing a small portion of each brad to project, and cut off the heads. gauge a line in the middle of each post at the top where the joints are to be made and press the end of a side rail containing the brads against the post. this will mark the places to bore holes for the dowels. pull out the brads and bore holes for the dowel pins. [illustration: details of tabouret construction] when gluing up the side rails and posts, first put on a coat of glue on the ends of the side rails and let it dry. this will fill up the pores in the end grain of the wood which will make a strong joint when finally glued together. the dowel pins are made / in. square with a slight taper at the ends. these can be easily forced into the holes, when the ends of the side rails are coated with glue and ready to be put together, by clamps pressing on the outside of the posts. the bottom is held in position with narrow strips tacked on the lower edge of the side rails. square up the top pieces to by in. and fasten one piece to the top with cleats and screws as shown in the drawing. the other piece is hinged to the first one with two -in. hinges. the shoe rest can be made from a block of wood and covered with sheet tin, copper or brass, or a cast-iron rest can be purchased. the rest is fastened to the under side of the hinged top. stain the wood any dark color and apply a very thin coat of shellac. put on wax and you will have a finish that can be renewed at any time by wiping with a little turpentine and rewaxing. how to make a roll top desk [illustration: the desk complete] the materials for this roll top desk can be purchased from a mill dressed and sandpapered so the hardest part of the work will be finished. the wood must be selected to suit the builder and to match other articles of furniture. the following list of materials will be required: lineal ft. of by in. hardwood. lineal ft. of by in. hardwood. lineal ft. of / by in. hardwood. lineal ft. of / by - / in. hardwood. lineal ft. of by in. hardwood. lineal ft. of / by in. soft wood. sq. ft. of / by in. soft wood. piece in. wide and in. long hardwood. pieces by in. in. long. [illustration] the upper and lower back panels are constructed very similar, the only difference being in the height. the inside edge of the -in. pieces is plowed with a / -in. plow / in. deep exactly in the center and also both edges of each -in. piece. the -in. pieces in the upper back panel and the -in. pieces in the lower back panel must be cut / in. longer and a / -in. tongue made on each end to fit into the plowed groove and form a mortise joint. the upper back panel is filled in with four boards - / in. wide and - / in. long, while the four boards in the lower back panel are - / in. wide and - / in. long cut from the / -in. hard wood. when the grooves are cut properly, the joints made perfect and the boards fitted to the right size, these two panels can be assembled and pressed together in cabinet clamps. this will make the outside dimensions as given in the drawing. the end panels are made very similar to the lower back panel, the only difference being in the width of the filling boards, which are - / in. for the outside end panels and in. for the inside panels. one end panel and one inside panel make the sides of one pedestal. as the end panels are in. wider than the inside panels they overlap the back panel and cover up the rough ends of the boards. a -in. piece in. wide is fastened at the top and bottom of each end and inside panels as shown by the dotted lines. the lower back panel is fastened on by turning screws through the back and into the ends of these pieces. the bottom pieces have -in. notches cut out, as shown, into which to fit two crosspieces across the bottom of the pedestal for holding the casters. the top end panels are made as shown in the drawing, the inside edge of the pieces being plowed out, making a groove the same size as in the other pieces of the panels. the panel board is cut to the proper shape from the / -by -in. material. the length given in the material list will be sufficient if the pointed ends are allowed to pass each other when laying out the design. [illustration] instead of cutting a groove for the roll top curtain, one is made by fastening a / -by / -in. strip / in. down from the edge and on the inside of the panel. a thin / -by - / -in. strip is bent to form the shape of the edge and fastened with round-headed brass screws. a -in. piece is fastened at the back and a groove cut into it as shown by the dotted line into which to slide a / -in. back board. the top is a -in. board in. long. as both pedestals are made alike, the detail of only one is shown. the partitions upon which the drawers slide are made up from -in. square material with a -in. end fitted as shown. dimensions are given for the divisions of each drawer, but these can be changed to suit the builder. the detail of one drawer is shown, giving the length and width, the height being that of the top drawer. the roll top curtain is made up from -in. pieces / in. thick and in. long, cut in an oval shape on the outside, tacked and glued to a piece of strong canvas on the inside. the end piece is in. wide, into which two lift holes or grooves are cut and a lock attached in the middle of the edge. a drawer lock can be made as shown and attached to the back panel and operated by the back end of the roll top curtain when it is opened and closed. the top board, which is by in., can be fitted with end pieces as shown or left in one piece with the edges made rounding. at this point in the construction of the parts they can be put together. the sides of each pedestal are fastened together by screws passed through the -in. square pieces forming the partition and into the sides of the panels. when each pedestal is put together the lower back panel is fastened to them with screws turned into the pieces provided as stated in making the end panels. the top board is now adjusted with equal edges projecting and fastened in position with finishing nails. as the top panels cover directly over where the nails are driven, the heads will not show. the upper back panel is fastened to the curved ends and the whole top held to the top board with cast corner brackets that can be purchased at any hardware store. the top should not be drawn together too close before the / -in. back board is put in the grooves and the roll top curtain placed in position. [illustration] the detail showing the pigeon holes gives sizes for openings by in., two book stalls at the ends, in. wide, and two small drawers. this frame is built up as shown from the / -in. soft wood, and fastened in the back part of the top with small brads. how to make a roman chair in making this roman chair, as well as other articles of mission furniture, the materials can be ordered from the mill with much of the hard work completed. order the stock to make this chair as follows: posts, - / by - / by in. top rails, / by - / by in. bottom rails, / by - / by in. rails, / by by in. side rails, / by by in. stretcher, / by by in. [illustration: the roman chair] have all these pieces mill planed on the four sides straight and square, also have them sandpapered on the four sides of each. plain sawed white or red oak finishes nicely and is easily obtained. the sizes are specified exact as to thickness and width, but the lengths are longer than is needed. this is to allow for cutting and fitting. begin by squaring one end of each post; measure the length in. and, placing all of them side by side, square a line across the four, saw, then plane these ends square. the top and bottom side rails are treated in a similar manner, their length being - / in. each. these pieces extend right through the posts projecting / in. beyond the surface. the mortises in the posts must be cut smoothly and of exact size. wood pins fasten these rails and posts together. the other rails have tenons / by in. shouldered on the two edges and one side. the mortise in the post is placed central. on the ends of the chair the shouldered side is turned in (see photograph), while on the front and back they are turned out. miter the ends of these tenons. these tenons are to be glued and clamped--the ends of the chair being put together first. when this is dry the sides are clamped. the stretcher should have its ends shouldered on the two edges so as to make a - / -in. tenon. allow the tenons to extend - / in. beyond the cross rail and cut mortises in these tenons for the keys. all projecting tenons, as well as the tops and bottoms of the posts, should be chamfered about / in. for the seat, screw cleats to the insides of the rails and place a platform of thin boards so that its top surface is / in. below the top of the rails. a cushion can be made, as shown in the photograph, by lacing with leather thongs two pieces of spanish leather cut to proper length and width. when nearly laced fill with any of the common upholsterer's fillings. [illustration: details of parts of chair] for a brown stain, dissolve by boiling in oz. of water, extract of logwood the size of a walnut. apply hot and repeat until the desired color is obtained. stains can be bought ready prepared, however, and are quite satisfactory. finish by applying several coats of wax. how to make a settee this handsome piece of mission furniture is designed to be made up in three different pieces as desired, the only changes necessary being in the length of the one front and the two back rails. the settee can be made into a three-cushion length by adding the length of another cushion to the dimensions of the one front and two back rails. a companion piece chair can be made by using suitable length rails to admit only one cushion. the following stock list of materials ordered mill-planed and sandpapered will be sufficient to make up the settee as illustrated. oak is the most suitable wood which can be finished in either mission or a dark golden oak. rails by by - / in. end rails by by - / in. posts - / in. square by - / in. slats / by by - / in. cleats in. square by in. all the rails are mortised into the posts for a depth of / in., also the slats are mortised / in. into the rails. the material list gives the exact dimensions for the rails and slats as they will not need to be squared for entering the mortises, provided you are careful to get all lengths cut to dimensions. when cutting the mortises take care to get them square and clean. the posts have / in. extra added for squaring up and cutting the corners sloping on the top ends. the joints are all put together with glue. nails can be driven into the posts intersecting the tenons of the rails on the inside, as they will not show and will help to make the settee more solid. [illustration: a complete two-cushion settee] [illustration: details of a mission settee] the cushions can be made with or without springs as desired. if made without springs, slats must be provided in the material list / in. thick, in. wide and in. long to be placed on the cleats fastened to the inside of each bottom rail. the two cleats are fastened one on each inside of the front and back rails with screws. the location as to height of these cleats will depend upon the kind of cushions used. the parts necessary to make the cushions with springs are as follows: pieces by - / by in. pieces by - / by in. pieces by - / by in. -in. springs. pieces leather about by in. [illustration: details of the cushion] an open box is made from two -in. and two -in. pieces, and across the bottom are mortised and set in four -in. pieces to form slats on which to set the springs. the tops of the springs are tied or anchored with stout cords running in both directions and fastened to the inside of the pieces forming the open box. these should be tied in such manner as to hold each spring so it cannot slip over and come in contact with another spring. roan or pebbled leather are very popular for cushions for this style of furniture. the leather is drawn over the springs and tacked to the outside of the open box frame. when complete the cushions are set in loose on the cleats, which should, in this case, be placed about in. from the top of the rails. how to make a pyrographer's table [illustration: convenient pyrographer's table] any pyrographer will appreciate the construction of the table and cabinet as illustrated. anyone doing burnt wood work will know the annoyance of building up a steady support for the arm to the level of the article on which the work is to be done. the size of this table may be made to suit the surroundings and the space of the builder. figure shows the table with a slot cut in the side support in which to place the thumb screw of the bracket as shown on top of the table. it will be noticed, fig. , that while both drawer and cabinet are available for storing the apparatus, they are not in the way of the operator while sitting at his work; the drawer overhangs the knees and the cabinet is far enough back not to interfere with sitting up close to the work. the bracket shelf slides in the slot at the side of the table, and is fastened to any height by the thumb screw there is also a smaller slide bracket on the shelf to clamp irregular objects to the side of the table. the thumb screws, hinges and drawer pulls can be purchased from any hardware store. when the table is not in use for pyrography it can be used for a writing table or a round top provided and attached on which to play games. when used for this purpose the bracket, as well as the pyrographic outfit, is stowed away in the cabinet as shown in fig. . [illustration: storage for apparatus] mission stains what is mission oak stain? there are many on the market, with hardly two alike in tone. the true mission oak stain may be said to show a dull gray, the flakes showing a reddish tint, while the grain of the wood will be almost a dead black. to produce such a stain take lb. of drop black in oil and / oz, of rose pink in oil, adding a gill of best japan drier, thinning with three half-pints of turpentine. this will make about qt. of stain. use these proportions for a larger quantity of stain. strain it through cheese cloth. japan colors will give a quicker drying stain than that made with oil colors, and in this case omit the japan and add a little varnish to bind it. one of the most popular of all the fancy oaks has been that known as flemish, and this in spite of its very somber color, says wood craft. there are several ways of producing flemish finish; you can fill the wood with a paste filler strained with raw umber, and when dry apply a stain of transparent flat raw umber, and for the darker shades of finish use drop black with the umber. varnish and rub down. according to a foreign technical journal, french workmen mahoganize various kinds of woods by the following method: the surface of the wood to be stained is made perfectly smooth. then it is given a coating of dilute nitric acid which is rubbed well into the wood fiber. then it is stained with a mixture made by dissolving - / oz. of dragon's blood in a pint of alcohol, this solution being filtered, and then there is added to it one-third of its weight of sodium carbonate. apply this mixture with a brush, and repeat the coats at intervals until the surface has the appearance of polished mahogany. in case the luster should fail it may be restored by rubbing with a little raw linseed oil. the description of the process is meager, and hence he who would try it will have to experiment a little. a good cheap mission effect for oak is to mix together equal parts of boiled linseed oil and good asphaltum varnish, and apply this to the wood with a brush; in a minute or so you may rub off surplus with a rag, and when dry give a coat of varnish. a gallon of this stain will cover about sq. ft. filling oak a very good hardwood filler for oak, either for a natural or golden effect, may be made from two parts of turpentine and one part of raw linseed oil, with a small amount of good japan to dry in the usual time. to this liquid add bolted gilder's whiting to form a suitable paste, it may be made thin enough for use, if to be used at once, or into a stiff paste for future use, when it can be thinned down for use, says woodworkers' review. after applying a coat of filler, let stand until it turns gray, which requires about minutes, depending upon the amount of japan in the filler, when it should be rubbed off with cotton waste or whatever you use for the purpose. a filler must be rubbed well into the wood, the surplus only being removed. the application of a coat of burnt umber stain to the wood before filling is in order, which will darken the wood to the proper depth if you rub off the surplus, showing the grain and giving a golden oak effect. the filling should stand at least a day and night before applying shellac and varnish. wax finishing in wax-finishing hardwoods, use a paste filler and shellac varnish to get a good surface. of course, the wax may also be rubbed into the unfilled wood but that gives you quite a different effect from the regular wax polish, says a correspondent of wood craft. with soft woods you first apply a stain, then apply a liquid filler or shellac, according to the quality of work to be done. the former for the cheaper job. the usual proportion of wax and turpentine is two parts of the former to one part of the latter, melting the wax first, then adding the spirits of turpentine. for reviving or polishing furniture you can add three or four times as much turpentine as wax, all these proportions to be by weight. to produce the desired egg-shell gloss, rub vigorously with a brush of stiff bristles or woolen rag. the fuming of oak darkened oak always has a better appearance when fumed with ammonia. this process is rather a difficult one, as it requires an airtight case, but the description herewith given may be entered into with as large a case as the builder cares to construct. oak articles can be treated in a case made from a tin biscuit box, or any other metal receptacle of good proportions, provided it is airtight. the oak to be fumed is arranged in the box so the fumes will entirely surround the piece; the article may be propped up with small sticks, or suspended by a string. the chief point is to see that no part of the wood is covered up and that all surfaces are exposed to the fumes. a saucer of ammonia is placed in the bottom of the box, the lid or cover closed, and all joints sealed up by pasting heavy brown paper over them. any leakage will be detected if the nose is placed near the tin and farther application of the paper will stop the holes. a hole may be cut in the cover and a piece of glass fitted in, taking care to have all the edges closed. the process may be watched through the glass and the article removed when the oak is fumed to the desired shade. wood stained in this manner should not be french polished or varnished, but waxed. the process of waxing is simple: cut some bees-wax into fine shreds and place them in a small pot or jar. pour in a little turpentine, and set aside for half a day, giving it an occasional stir. the wax must be thoroughly dissolved and then more turpentine added until the preparation has the consistency of a thick cream. this can be applied to the wood with a rag and afterward brushed up with a stiff brush. how to make black wax when putting a wax finish on oak or any open-grained wood, the wax will often show white streaks in the pores of the wood. these streaks cannot be removed by rubbing or brushing. prepared black wax can be purchased, but if you do not have any on hand, ordinary floor wax can be colored black. melt the floor wax in a can placed in a bucket of hot water. when the wax has become liquid mix thoroughly into it a little drop black or lampblack. allow the wax to cool and harden. this wax will not streak, but will give a smooth, glossy finish. the styles of chairs there are distinct styles of chairs embracing the period from b.c. to a.d.--nearly , years. of all the millions of chairs made during the centuries, each one can be classified under one or more of the general styles shown in the chart. this chart was compiled by the editor of decorative furniture. the colonial does not appear on the chart because it classifies under the jacobean and other styles. a condensed key to the chart follows: $egyptian.-- b.c. to b.c.$ seems to have been derived largely from the early asian. it influenced assyrian and greek decorations, and was used as a motif in some french empire decoration. not used in its entirety except for lodge rooms, etc. $grecian.-- b.c. to b.c.$ influenced by egyptian and assyrian styles. it had a progressive growth through the doric, ionic and corinthian periods. it influenced the roman style and the pompeian, and all the renaissance styles, and all styles following the renaissance, and is still the most important factor in decorations today. $roman.-- b.c. to a.d.$ rome took her art entirely from greece, and the roman is purely a greek development. the roman style "revived" in the renaissance, and in this way is still a prominent factor in modern decoration. $pompeian.-- b.c. to a.d.$ sometimes called the grecian-roman style, which well describes its components. the style we know as greek was the greek as used in public structures. the pompeian is our best idea of greek domestic decoration. pompeii was long buried, but when rediscovered it promptly influenced all european styles, including louis xvi, and the various georgian styles. $byzantine.-- a.d. to a.d.$ the "eastern roman" style, originating in the removal of the capital of the roman empire to constantinople (then called byzantium). it is a combination of persian and roman. it influenced the various moorish, sacracenic and other mohammedan styles. $gothic.-- to .$ it had nothing to do with the goths, but was a local european outgrowth of the romanesque. it spread all over europe, and reached its climax of development about . it was on the gothic construction that the northern european and english renaissance styles were grafted to form such styles as the elizabethan, etc. [illustration] $moorish.-- to .$ the various mohammedan styles can all be traced to the ancient persian through the byzantine. the moorish or moresque was the form taken by the mohammedans in spain. $indian.-- b.c. to a.d.$ the east indian style is almost composite, as expected of one with a growth of nearly , years. it has been influenced repeatedly by outside forces and various religious invasions, and has, in turn, influenced other far eastern styles. $chinese.-- b.c. to a.d.$ another of the ancient styles. it had a continuous growth up to b.c., since when it has not changed much. it has influenced western styles, as in the chippendale, queen anne, etc. $japanese.-- b.c. to a.d.$ a style probably springing originally from china, but now absolutely distinct. it has influenced recent art in europe and america, especially the "new art" styles. $italian gothic.-- to .$ the italian gothic differs from the european and english gothic in clinging more closely to the romanesque-byzantine originals. $tudor.-- to .$ the earliest entry of the renaissance into england. an application of renaissance to the gothic foundations. its growth was into the elizabethan. $italian renaissance, fifteenth century.-- to .$ the birth century of the renaissance. a seeking for revival of the old roman and greek decorative and constructive forms. $italian renaissance, sixteenth century.-- to .$ a period of greater elaboration of detail and more freedom from actual greek and roman models. $italian renaissance, seventeenth century.-- to .$ the period of great elaboration and beginning of reckless ornamentation. $spanish renaissance.-- to .$ a variation of the renaissance spirit caused by the combination of three distinct styles--the renaissance as known in italy, the gothic and the moorish. in furniture the spanish renaissance is almost identical with the flemish, which it influenced. $dutch renaissance.-- to .$ a style influenced alternately by the french and the spanish. this style and the flemish had a strong influence on the english william and mary and queen anne styles, and especially on the jacobean. $german renaissance.-- to .$ a style introduced by germans who had gone to italy to study. it was a heavy treatment of the renaissance spirit, and merged into the german baroque about . $francis i.-- to .$ the introductory period when the italian renaissance found foothold in france. it is almost purely italian, and was the forerunner of the henri ii. $henri ii.-- to .$ in this the french renaissance became differentiated from the italian, assuming traits that were specifically french and that were emphasized in the next period. $louis xiii.-- to .$ a typically french style, in which but few traces of its derivation from the italian remained. it was followed by the louis xiv. $elizabethan.-- to .$ a compound style containing traces of the gothic, much of the tudor, some dutch, flemish and a little italian. especially noted for its fine wood carving. $jacobean.-- to .$ the english period immediately following the elizabethan, and in most respects quite similar. the dutch influence was, however, more prominent. the cromwellian, which is included in this period, was identical with it. $william and mary.-- to .$ more dutch influences. all furniture lighter and better suited to domestic purposes. [illustration] $queen anne.-- to .$ increasing dutch influences. jacobean influence finally discarded. chinese influence largely present. $louis xiv.-- to .$ the greatest french style. an entirely french creation, marked by elegance and dignity. toward the end of the period it softened into the early rococo. $georgian.-- to .$ a direct outgrowth of the queen anne, tempered by the prevailing french styles. it includes chippendale, hepplewhite and sheraton, but these three great cabinetmakers were sufficiently distinct from the average georgian to be worthy separate classification. $chippendale.-- to .$ the greatest english cabinet style. based on the queen anne, but drawing largely from the rococo, chinese and gothic, he produced three distinct types, viz.: french chippendale, chinese chippendale and gothic chippendale. the last is a negligible quantity. $louis xv.-- to .$ the rococo period. the result of the efforts of french designers to enliven the louis xiv, and to evolve a new style out of one that had reached its logical climax. $hepplewhite.-- to .$ succeeded chippendale as the popular english cabinetmaker. by many he is considered his superior. his work is notable for a charming delicacy of line and design. $louis xvi.-- to .$ the french style based on a revival of greek forms, and influenced by the discovery of the ruins of pompeii. $sheraton.-- to .$ a fellow cabinetmaker, working at same time as hepplewhite. one of the colonial styles (georgian). $r. & j. adam.-- to .$ fathers of an english classic revival. much like the french louis xvi and empire styles in many respects. $empire.-- to .$ the style created during the empire of napoleon i. derived from classic roman suggestions, with some greek and egyptian influences. $new arts.-- to date.$ these are various worthy attempts by the designers of various nations to create a new style. some of the results are good, and they are apt to be like the "little girl who had a little curl that hung in the middle of her forehead," in that "when they are good they are very, very good, but when they are bad they are horrid." [illustration] [illustration] how to make a piano bench [illustration] all the material used in the making of this piano bench is in. thick, excepting the two rails, which are / in. thick. the bench can be made from any of the furniture woods, but the case may demand one made from mahogany. if so, this wood can be purchased from a piano factory. the following stock list of materials may be ordered from a mill, planed and sandpapered: top, by by - / in. ends, by by in. stretcher, by by - / in. side rails, / by by - / in. keys, by by - / in. cleats, by by in. the dimensions given, with the exception of the keys and cleats, are / in. longer than necessary for squaring up the ends. the two rails are cut slanting from a point - / in. from each end to the center, making them only in. wide in the middle. the rails are "let into" the edges of the ends so the outside of the rails and end boards will be flush. the joints are put together with glue and screws. the cleats are fastened with screws to the inside of the rails and to the top. the stretcher has a tenon cut on each end which fits into a mortise cut in each end. the tenons will have sufficient length to cut the small mortise for the key. [illustration] the kind of wood used will determine the color of the stain for the finish. this also depends on matching other pieces of furniture. how to make a mission shaving stand this attractive and useful piece of mission furniture will be appreciated by the person that does his own shaving. the shaving stand can be made at home by a handy man in his spare time as the stock can be ordered from a mill ready for making the joints and attaching the few pieces of hardware. the following is a stock list of materials: posts - / in. square by - / in. slats / by by - / in. cross rails by - / by in. end rails by - / by in. top / by - / by - / in. bottom / by by in. ends / by - / in. square. back / by - / by - / in. door / by - / by - / in. drawer ends / by - / by - / in. partition / by by in. partition / by by in. pieces of soft wood / by - / by in. posts in. square by - / in. bottom piece / by - / by - / in. mirror frame pieces / by - / by - / in. sticks for pins. hinges lock drawer pulls beveled glass mirror - / by - / in. while this piece of furniture can be made in any kind of wood, the novice will find that quarter-sawed oak will work up and finish better than the other woods. the stock list given has dimensions / in. larger in some instances for dressing and squaring where necessary. [illustration] the tenons and mortises are first cut for the crosspieces at the bottom of the posts, and, as it is best to use dowels at the top, holes are bored in the bottom piece and also the ends of the slats for pins. the bottom piece is also fastened to the posts with dowels. the bottom must have a square piece cut out from each corner almost the same size as the posts. when setting the sides together the end board and posts can be doweled and glued together and after drying well the posts can be spread apart far enough to insert the bottom rail and two slats. the rail and slats should be tried for a bit before putting on any glue, which may save some trouble. [illustration: shaving stand complete] after the sides are put together, the back is put in and glued. the top is then put on and fastened with cleats from the inside. the partitions are put in as shown and the door fitted. two drawers are made from the ends and the soft wood material. the drawer ends may be supplied with wood pulls of the same material or matched with metal the same as used for the hinges. [illustration: mirror frame and standards details] the pieces for the mirror frame must be rabbeted / in. deep to take the glass, and the ends joined together with a miter at each corner. the two short posts are tenoned and mortises cut in the bottom piece for joints and these joints well glued together. the bottom piece is then fastened to the top board of the stand. this will form the standards in which to swing the mirror and its frame. this is done with two pins inserted in holes bored through the standards and into the mirror frame. after the parts are all put together, cleaned and sandpapered, the stand is ready for the finish. a mission waste-paper basket [illustration: waste-paper basket to match library table] the basket shown in the accompanying sketch is designed to be used with a library table having slats in the ends and wooden handles on the drawers. the finish is made to match that of the table by fuming, when completely assembled, in a large-size size, clean garbage can, with fumes of concentrated ammonia. [illustration: detail of waste-paper basket] the following quarter-sawed white-oak stock should be procured in the exact dimensions given. this may be had, planed and cut to lengths, from a mill for a slight extra charge. it is advisable not to have them sandpapered, as the very coarse sandpaper generally used, gives a bad surface for finishing. posts, - / by - / by - / in., s- -s. rails, / by by - / in., s- -s. rails, / by by - / in., s- -s. slats, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. handle pieces, by by - / in., s- -s. handle pieces, / by / by in., s- -s. bottom, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. see that the posts are absolutely square cross section. mark with a pencil--not gauge--the chamfers on the ends of the posts and plane them off. carefully mark the tenons on the ends of all the rails with a knife and gauge lines. be sure that the distance from the tenon shoulder at one end of rail to the shoulder at the other end is exactly the same on each rail. cut the tenons, using a backsaw and chisel. arrange the pieces as they are to stand in the finished basket, and number each tenon and mortise. mark all the mortises on the posts, being sure to keep the distances between the top and lower rail the same on each post. cut each mortise to fit the correspondingly numbered tenon. next, mark the mortises for the slats in the rails, allowing the whole slat to go in / in. the handles are next in order. the pieces going into the rail should be fastened with a round / -in. tenon cut on one end and glued in place. the crosspiece should be mortised all the way through these pieces and held in place by a brad from the under side. now put the whole basket together without gluing, in order that errors, if any, may be detected. if everything fits perfectly, the basket is ready to be glued. for best results hot glue should be used. first glue up two opposite sides with the slats in place. clamps must be used. when these have set for at least hours, the other rails and slats may be glued in place and clamped. it is a good idea to pin the tenons in place with two -in. brads driven from the inside. the handles are then glued in place, using hand screws to hold them until the glue sets. the bottom should rest on thin cleats, without being nailed to them, so that it may be removed when the basket is to be emptied of small papers, etc. before applying the stain, see that all glue spots are removed and all surfaces sanded to perfect smoothness. if a fumed finish is not desired, any good stain may be used, after which a thin coat of shellac and two coats of wax should be applied. allow plenty of time for drying between the coats. a cellarette pedestal [illustration: plain-oak cellarette pedestal] the illustration shows a unique article for the den. it serves as a pedestal and has one side which opens on hinges allowing the inside to be used as a smoker's cabinet or cellarette. all the lines are straight and the corners square, making it easy to construct. white oak will make up best, although ash, birch or southern pine may be used with good effect. stock of the following sizes should be bought, surfaced and cut to width and length: top pieces, / by by in., s- -s. base pieces, / by by in., s- -s. sides, / by by - / in., s- -s. back, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. door, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. blocks, / by by in., s- -s. shelves, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. pieces, / by by in., s- -s. make the top and base of two pieces, glued and screwed together with the grain crossed. this method prevents warping. to keep the end grain from showing, a strip of / -in. lumber may be put on all around as shown in the drawing. have the sides, front and back squared up perfectly. the sides are to overlap the back and to be fastened to it with round-head brass or blue screws. to the center of the top and base attach one of the - / -in. square pieces. over these, fit the sides and back and fasten them with screws or nails. the four corner blocks are now put under the base. two or more shelves may be set in as shown. brass or copper hinges will look well if a dark stain is to be used. around the sides and back a -in. strip should be fastened to the base to give added strength. if a dull finish is desired, apply two coats of stain and two of prepared wax. if a polished surface is wanted, first fill the pores of the wood with any standard filler, which can be purchased at a paint store. after this has dried partly, rub off any surplus filler, rubbing across the grain of the wood. when perfectly dry apply one coat of shellac and as many coats of varnish as desired, rubbing down each coat, except the last, with no. sandpaper and pumice stone. [illustration: detail of cellarette pedestal] a dresser the dresser shown in the illustration was made of quarter-sawed white oak and finished golden and waxed. the mirror is of beveled glass and the following is the stock bill: top, / by - / by in., s- -s. posts, - / by - / by in., s- -s. end rails, / by - / by in., s- -s. stiles, / by - / by in., s- -s. panels, / by by in., s- -s. facings, / by - / by in., s- -s. top frame pieces, / by by in., s- -s. top frame pieces, / by by in., s- -s. mirror supports, by by in., s- -s. mirror support, / by - / by in., s- -s. drawer front, / by - / by in., s- -s. drawer front, / by - / by in., s- -s. drawer fronts, / by - / by in., s- -s. partition, / by by in. mirror-frame pieces, / by by in., s- -s. mirror-frame pieces, / by by in., s- -s. the following material list may be of common stock and not quarter-sawed: mirror-backing pieces equivalent to / by - / by in., s- -s. cleats, / by by in., s- -s. drawer-support frame pieces, / by by in. drawer-support frame pieces, / by by in. slides taken from scrap stock, / by by in. back pieces, / by - / by in., s- -s. back pieces, / by by in., s- -s. drawer sides, / by - / by in., s- -s. drawer backs, / by by in., s- -s. drawer backs, / by by in., s- -s. drawer bottoms, / by by in., s- -s. drawer bottoms, / by by in., s- -s. in working up the various parts proceed in the usual manner. if not thoroughly familiar with the various tool processes involved, it will be necessary to investigate pieces of near-by furniture and to read up some good text dealing with the processes involved. [illustration: dresser in quarter-sawed oak] the exact size of the mirror is by in. and the frame should be rabbeted to correspond. [illustration: detail of the dresser] for a finish, a coat of paste filler colored so as to give a rich golden brown should be applied first. allow this to harden, after rubbing and polishing it in the usual manner, then apply a thin coat of shellac. sand this lightly when hard, and over this apply a coat of orange shellac. over the shellac put several coats of some good rubbing wax and polish each coat well. if a striking contrast is wanted for the medullary rays of the quartering, apply a golden-oak stain first. sand this lightly, then apply a second coat diluted one-half with solvent and sand again lightly. apply a thin coat of shellac, then, when dry, sand lightly and apply paste, and proceed as before. a mission sideboard oak is the most suitable material for making this sideboard and it should be first-class stock, planed and cut to the dimensions given in the following list: top, / by by in., s- -s. top shelf, / by by in., s- -s. bottom, / by by in., s- -s. back posts, by by in., s- -s. front posts, by by in., s- -s. standards, by by in., s- -s. mirror rails, / by by in., s- -s. mirror rails, / by by in., s- -s. front and back rails, / by by in., s- -s. end rails, / by by in., s- -s. standard rails, / by by in., s- -s. vertical pieces, / by - / by in., s- -s. horizontal piece, / by by - / in., s- -s. drawer front, / by by - / in., s- -s. piece, / by by in. vertical door pieces, / by by in., s- -s. horizontal door pieces, / by by in., s- -s. drawer sides, / by by in., s- -s. drawer bottom, / by by - / in., s- -s. back panel, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. door panels, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. side panels, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. [illustration: detail of the mission sideboard] begin work by cutting the posts to the length indicated in the detail drawing. the top ends are tapered with a / -in. slant. these posts are cut in pairs and it is best to stand them up in the same position they will be in the finished sideboard, and mark the sides to be mortised with a pencil. also cut the grooves into which the panels are to fit. these are to be / in. wide and a little over / in. deep. [illustration: mission sideboard in quarter-sawed oak] the rails are cut with tenon ends to match the mortises, and also have grooves to receive the panels. the bottom part of the back is closed with a panel and two rails, one at the same height from the floor as the front bottom rail, and the top one even with the under side of the top. the large panel is for the opening thus formed. these parts are now put together, using plenty of good hot glue, and spreading it well on the mortises and tenon ends. when drawing the frame together with the clamps, care must be taken to get it square. after the glue is hard enough to remove the clamps, the top and bottom are put in place. the corners of the top are notched out to fit around the posts, while the bottom is cut to fit on the inside of the rails and is held in place by putting screws in at an angle through the bottom into the rails. the top is also fastened in this way, except that the screws are run through the rails into the top. the two vertical pieces are now put in place. drive nails through the bottom and into these pieces. on the top end use screws driven at an angle. glue may be used if desired. the doors are made to match these openings. the corners are mitered and the backs rabbeted to receive the panels. these panels may be made in art glass if so desired. the horizontal piece for the drawer to rest upon is now put in place and fastened by driving nails through the vertical pieces. the drawer is made to fit this opening, and it should be lined with velvet to keep the silverware in good condition. the standards and shelves are put on as shown in the drawing. the mirror is put in a frame, which is made to fit the back opening and has the corners mitered and the back rabbeted to receive the mirror. thoroughly scrape and sandpaper all parts that are visible. the sideboard is now ready to be finished as desired. a hall or window seat [illustration: seat made of quarter-sawed oak] a simple design for a hall or window seat is shown in the accompanying sketch and detail drawing. anyone who has a few sharp tools, and is at all handy with them, can make this useful and attractive piece of furniture in a few spare hours. quarter-sawed oak is the best wood to use in its construction, as it looks best when finished and is easy to procure. if the stock is ordered from the mill ready cut to length, squared and sanded, much of the labor will be saved. the following is a list of the material needed: corner posts, - / by - / by in., s- -s. side rails, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. end rails, / by by - / in., s- -s. side braces, by by - / in., s- -s. end braces, by by - / in. s- -s. seat, by by - / in., s- -s. top end braces, / by by - / in., s- -s. slats, / by by - / in., s- -s. square up the four posts and lay out the mortises according to the drawing. to do this, lay them on a flat surface with the ends square and mark them with a try-square. the tenons on the end and side rails are laid out in the same manner as the posts. the end rails should be marked and mortises cut for the upright slats as shown in the detail drawing. fit the end and side braces with mortise and tenon joints. the two end frames can now be glued and clamped together and set away to dry. put all the parts together before gluing to see that they fit square and tight. the seat should be made of one piece if possible, otherwise two or more boards will have to be glued together. the corners should be cut out to fit around the posts. it rests on the side rails and cleats fastened to the inner side of the end rails. when the window seat is complete go over it carefully and scrape all the surplus glue from about the joints, as the finish will not take where there is any glue. remove all rough spots with fine sandpaper, then apply the stain best liked, which may be any one of the many mission stains supplied by the trade for this purpose. if this window seat is well made and finished, it will be an ornament to any home. [illustration: detail of the hall or window seat] a mission plant stand for the mission plant stand shown in the illustration secure the following list of quarter-sawed white-oak stock, cut and finished to size: top, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. posts, - / by - / by in., s- -s. rails, / by by in., s- -s. rails, / by by in., s- -s. shelf, / by by in., s- -s. slats, / by by - / in., s- -s. slats, / by by - / in., s- -s. test all surfaces of the posts with a try-square to see that they are square with each other. lay out the tenons on the ends of the rails as shown in the sketch and cut with a tenon saw and chisel. arrange the posts and rails as they are to stand and number each tenon and mortise. lay out the mortises in the legs, taking the measurements directly from the tenon which is to fit that mortise. cut the mortises, first having bored to the depth with a / -in. bit. [illustration: detail of the plant stand] the slats should now be made and mortised into the top rail / in. they come outside of the lower rail and are held to it with two small brads, fancy-headed tacks, or round-head screws. in laying out the mortises for the lower rails, care must be taken to have them set / in. farther in than the upper rails so the slats may come outside. set up the stand without glue or screws to see that all pieces fit accurately. then glue up the sides with the slats first. after these have set for hours, fit in the other two rails and the shelf. three flat-head screws should be used to hold the shelf in place. these must be placed so the slats will cover them when they are attached. [illustration: complete plant stand] when this work is completed it is ready for the top. a good method of attaching the top is shown in the sketch. the screws used for fastening should be -in. no. . bore into the rail - / in. with a bit / in. larger than the head of the screw. then bore through the rest of the way with a bit a little larger than the shank of the screw. thus a little space is left for expansion and shrinkage of the top. scrape and sandpaper thoroughly to remove all marks or glue spots. finish with two coats of weathered-oak stain, followed by two coats of black wax. a bedside medicine stand the accompanying sketch and detail drawing show a design of a bedside stand. this is a very desirable piece of furniture and is simple and easy to make. quarter-sawed oak is the best wood to use in its construction. the material should be ordered from the mill ready cut to length, squared and sanded. the following list of material will be required: posts, - / by - / by in., s- -s. top board, by by in., s- -s. intermediate boards, / by - / by in., s- -s. side boards, / by by - / in., s- -s. back board, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. side rails, / by by in., s- -s. door, / by by - / in., s- -s. back board, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. panels, / by - / by in., s- -s. slats, / by by - / in., s- -s. drawer front, / by - / by - / in., s- -s. sides for drawer, / by - / by in., s- -s. back for drawer, / by - / by - / in., soft wood. bottom for drawer, / by - / by in., soft wood. [illustration: medicine stand in quarter-sawed oak] start work on the four posts by rounding the top corners and shaping the feet as shown. the four posts are identical and the mortises should be laid out on all four at once so as to get them all alike. these should be carefully cut with a sharp chisel. on the inner surface of each leg cut a groove to hold the side boards of the lower compartment. next prepare the two wide and the four narrow crosspieces, tenoning them to fit the mortises already cut in the legs. the lower crosspieces should also have grooves cut in them to hold the side boards of the compartment. the two complete sides can now be glued and clamped together and set away to dry. while they are drying the remaining parts of the stand can be made. the three horizontal boards are now made by notching out the corners to fit around the legs. they are supported by fastening small cleats to the inner surface of each crosspiece. [illustration: detail of the medicine stand] the two ends can now be set up and connected. notch out the corners of the top board and fit it in place. the top is fastened down by means of screws set in at an angle from below. the back boards can be of soft wood and are fastened in place in the usual manner. the door should be of one piece if possible and should have suitable hinges and a catch. make and fit the drawer in place, and the stand is ready for the finish. first scrape all the surplus glue from about the points so the stain will not be kept from the wood. finish smooth with fine sandpaper, then apply stain of the color desired. a mission hall chair this hall chair is designed to take up as little room as possible. for its construction the following stock will be needed: back, / by by in., s- -s. sides, / by by in., s- -s. seat, / by by in., s- -s. stretcher, / by by in., s- -s. brace, / by by in., s- -s. piece, / by / by in., for cleats. these dimensions are for finished pieces, therefore / in. should be allowed for planing if the stock cannot be secured finished. lay out and cut the design on the back, sides, and brace. to cut the openings, first bore a hole near one corner to get the blade of a coping saw through and proceed to saw to the lines. smooth the edges after sawing by taking a thin shaving with a sharp chisel. a file will not leave a good surface. mark the tenons on the ends of the stretcher and cut them with a backsaw and make smooth with a chisel. from the tenons mark the mortises in the sides through which they are to pass. [illustration: detail of the hall chair] [illustration: complete hall chair in plain oak] to cut these mortises, first bore a row of holes with a / in. bit, boring halfway from each side so as not to split off any pieces. now make of scrap material the two keys and from them mark the small mortises in the tenons. before putting the chair together, the cleats for holding the seat should be fastened to the sides, back and brace. use flat-head screws for this purpose. then put the sides and stretcher together, and fasten the back to the sides with flat-head screws. the brace should be put in next, using three round-head screws in each end. there only remains the top, which is held by screws through the cleats from the under side. stain with two coats of weathered or mission-oak stain, and then apply a thin coat of "under-lac" or shellac and two coats of wax. [illustration] * * * * * transcriber's notes: table of contents was moved to the front of the doument bold text in the original manuscript is indicated with "$...$" folio : "chipppendale" changed to "chippendale". folio : " drawer ends / x ? x - / " was changed to an assumed - / from context of the illustration. a table of contents was added to the front of the text. a list of illustrations was added to the front of the text. note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the more than original illustrations. see -h.htm or -h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h/ -h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h.zip) the scientific american boy or the camp at willow clump island by a. russell bond [illustration: fun in swimming.] new york munn & co., publishers copyright, , by munn & co., new york press of the kalkhoff company new york preface all boys are nature lovers. nothing appeals to them more than a summer vacation in the woods where they can escape from the restraints of civilization and live a life of freedom. now, it may appear to be a bit of presumption to attempt to advise the boy camper how to spend his time. surely the novelty of outdoor life, the fascinating charm of his surroundings, will provide him plenty of entertainment. but, after all, a camp generally affords but two major amusements, hunting and fishing. these have been fully covered by a vast number of books. however, there is another side of camp life, particularly in a boys' camp, which has been very little dealt with, namely, the exercise of one's ingenuity in creating out of the limited resources at hand such devices and articles as will add to one's personal comfort and welfare. it is, therefore, the aim of this book to suggest certain diversions of this character for the boy camper which, aside from affording him plenty of physical exercise, will also develop his mental faculties, and above all stimulate that natural genius which is characteristic of every typical american boy. to this end the story contains descriptions of a large collection of articles which can be made by any boy of average intelligence, not only in the camp but at home as well. the use of a narrative to connect the various incidents marks a departure in this class of book, and it is believed that the matter will thus be made more realistic and interesting. in all cases full directions are given for making the various articles. while it is not presumed that the directions will be slavishly followed, for this would defeat the general aim of the work, yet all the principal dimensions are given so that they can be used, if desired. i beg to acknowledge the courtesy of mr. daniel c. beard and mr. henry d. cochrane in supplying a number of photographs. the directions for making the lee boards (page ) were obtained from data furnished by the latter. many of the details recorded in the chapter on tramping outfits are to be accredited to mr. edward thorpe. in the preparation of this book i have received valuable assistance from my colleague, mr. a. a. hopkins. a. russell bond. new york, october, . contents chapter i. page "bill" the old trunk. christmas vacation. "bill's" skate sail. willow clump island. organizing the society. chapter ii. skate sails the double swedish sail. the single swedish sail. the lanteen sail. the danish sail. bat's wings. chapter iii. snow shoes, skis and swamp shoes chair seat snow shoe. barrel stave snow shoe. barrel hoop snow shoe. the sioux snow shoe. the iroquois snow shoe. the ainu snow shoe. the norwegian ski. the swamp shoe or swiss snow shoe. chapter iv. tent making farewell meeting. word from uncle ed. the canvas tent. adjustable ridge pole. tie blocks. the annex. chapter v. preparing for the expedition tent fly. provisions and supplies. umbrella rib crossbow. megaphone. the scow. chapter vi. off to the island a unique alarm clock. the trip to the island. preliminary exploration. a rustic table. the small filter. the barrel filter. the _klepalo_. chapter vii. surveying the surveying instrument. spirit levels. the tripod. surveyor's chain. surveyor's rod. a simple method of surveying. mapping the island. chapter viii. swimming swimming on a plank. shooting the rapids. restoring the drowned. how to work over a patient alone. chapter ix. bridge building the spar bridge. the rope railway. the suspension bridge. the pontoon bridge. the king rod truss. stiffening the bridge. the king post bridge. chapter x. canvas canoes uncle ed's departure. a visit from mr. schreiner. the sailing canoe. stretching on the canvas. the rudder. the deep keel. canoe sails. lee boards. indian paddling canoe. chapter xi. house building the grass hut. the goblins' dancing platform. dutchy takes a dare. a path up the fissure. rope ladders. the derrick. the tree house. sliding doors. chapter xii. trouble with the tramps the scow is stolen. a council of war. vengeance. a double surprise. tramp-proof boat mooring. chapter xiii. wigwagging and heliographing wigwag signals. the wigwag alphabet. abbreviations. wigwagging at night. the heliograph. the single mirror instrument. the sight rod. the screen. focusing the instrument. heliograph signaling. the international telegraph code. the double mirror instrument. chapter xiv. ice boats, sledges and toboggans breaking camp. the ice boat. the sledge. the toboggan. the rennwolf. ice creepers. chapter xv. the subterranean club a cave-in. excavating for the cave. covering the cave. the big bug club. midnight banquets. the club pin. the combination lock. chapter xvi. scooters a sail in the scow. our craft strikes the ice. the scooter scow. a sprit sail. scooter sailing. a meeting of the society. an interview with mr. van syckel. the scooter canoe. chapter xvii. an arctic expedition willow clump island in winter. kindling a camp fire. the outdoor fireplace. a stone-paved fireplace. a cold night in the hut. mountain climbing. a poor shelter. a costly camp fire. a friend in time of trouble. chapter xviii. tramping outfits sleeping bags. bill's "mummy case." the "a" tent. a camp chair. a camp bed. the camp bed in a shower. a nightmare. pack harness. riveting. chapter xix. the land yacht the frame of the yacht. a simple turnbuckle. stepping the mast. mounting the frame on bicycle wheels. the tiller. a "leg-of-mutton" sail. a sail through the country. chapter xx. easter vacation bill's cave. the barrel stave hammock. the barrel armchair. the summer toboggan. tailless kites. a five-foot malay kite. an eight-foot malay kite. the elastic belly band. putting the kites to work. the diamond box kite. chapter xxi. the water wheel the water wheel. surveying for the water wheel. towers for the water wheel. the wheel. the buckets. the paddles. the receiving trough. setting up the towers. mounting the water wheel. cooling the filter barrel. the canvas bucket. mr. halliday's water wheel. chapter xxii. the log cabin foundation of log cabin. a logging expedition. the log raft. the sail-rigged raft. building the log cabin. the roof of the log cabin. door and window frames. the fireplace. the proper way to build a stone wall. the floor of the cabin. the door hinges and latch. the window sash. bunks. stopping up the chinks. chapter xxiii. the windmill digging the well. the windmill tower. the crank shaft. the wind wheel. a simple brake. the pump. pump valves. action of the pump. chapter xxiv. the gravity railroad the car. the flanged wheels. car axles. mounting the wheels. the railway track. the carpenter's miter box. laying the track. the first railway accident. testing the track. chapter xxv. the cantilever bridge frames for the cantilever bridge. erecting the towers. setting up the frames. binding and anchoring the structure. the center panels of the bridge. a serious interruption. dispossessed. farewell to willow clump island. reddy's cantilever bridge. [illustration: map of willow clump island and vicinity.] the scientific american boy. chapter i. "bill." "bill," he was it, the scientific american boy, i mean. of course, we were all american boys and pretty scientific chaps too, if i do say it myself, but bill, well he was the whole show. what he didn't know wasn't worth knowing, so we all thought, and even to this day i sometimes wonder how he managed to contrive and execute so many remarkable plans. at the same time he was not a conceited sort of a chap and didn't seem to realize that he was head and shoulders above the rest of us in ingenuity. but, of course, we didn't all have an uncle like bill did. bill's uncle ed was one of those rare men who take a great interest in boys and their affairs, a man who took time to answer every question put to him, explaining everything completely and yet so clearly that you caught on at once. uncle ed (we all called him that) was a civil engineer of very high standing in his profession, which had taken him pretty much all over the world, and his naturally inquisitive nature, coupled with a wonderful memory, had made him a veritable walking encyclopedia. with such an uncle it is no wonder that bill knew everything. of course, there were some things that puzzled even bill. but all such difficulties, after a reasonable amount of brain-work had failed to clear them, were submitted to uncle ed. uncle ed was always prompt (that was one thing we liked about him), and no matter where he was or what he was doing he would drop everything to answer a letter from the society. the old trunk. [illustration: fig. . the old trunk in the attic.] [illustration: fig. . the black walnut box.] but hold on, i am getting ahead of my story. i was rummaging through the attic the other day, and came across an old battered trunk, one that i used when i went to boarding-school down in south jersey. that trunk was certainly a curiosity shop. it contained a miscellaneous assortment of glass tubes, brass rods, coils of wire, tools, fish hooks--in fact, it was a typical collection of all those "valuables" that a boy is liable to pick up. down in one corner of the trunk was a black walnut box, marked, with brass letters, "property of the s. s. i. e. e. of w. c. i." on my key-ring i still carried the key to that box, which had not been opened for years. i unlocked the box and brought to light the "records and chronicles of the society for the scientific investigation, exploration and exploitation of willow clump island." for hours i pored over those pages, carried back to the good old times we used to have as boys along the banks of the delaware river, until i was brought sharply back to the present by the sound of the dinner bell. it seemed that the matter contained in those "chronicles" was too good to be kept locked up in an old trunk. few boys' clubs ever had such a president as bill, or such a wonderful bureau of information as uncle ed. for the benefit of boys and boykind in general, i decided then and there to publish, as fully as practicable, a record of what our society did. christmas vacation. this was how the society came to be formed. bill, whom i met at boarding-school, was an orphan, and that's why he was sent to boarding-school. his uncle had to go down to brazil to lay out a railroad, i believe, and so he packed bill off to our school, which was chosen in preference to some others because one of the professors there had been a classmate of uncle ed's at college. bill roomed with me, and naturally we became great chums. when christmas time came, of course i invited him to spend the holidays with me. my home was situated in the little village of lamington, on the jersey side of the delaware river. here we arrived late at night on the saturday before christmas. a cold wind was blowing which gave promise of breaking the spell of warm weather we had been having, and of giving us a chance to try our skates for the first time. true to our expectations, the next day was bitterly cold, and a visit to the canal which ran along the river bank, just beyond our back fence, showed that quite a thick skim of ice had formed on the water. monday morning, bright and early, found us on the smooth, slippery surface of the canal. "us" here includes, in addition to bill and myself, my two younger brothers, jack and fred, and also dutchy van syckel and reddy schreiner, neighbors of ours. it was the custom at the first of december every year to drain out most of the water in the canal, in order to prevent possible injury to the canal banks from the pressure of the ice. but there was always a foot or two of water covering the bottom of the canal, and this afforded a fine skating park of ample width and unlimited length, while the high canal banks on each side protected us from the bitter wind that was blowing. toward noon, however, the wind shifted and swept at a terrific rate down the narrow lane between the canal banks. we could scarcely make headway against the blow. it was too much for bill, who wasn't as used to skating as we were. he sat down in a sheltered nook and commenced to think. when bill sat down to think it always meant that something was going to happen, as we soon learned. "say, jim," said he to me, "have you got any canvas up at the house?" "no," i replied. "what do you want it for?" "i want to rig up a skate sail. if you have an old sheet, that will do just as well." "well, i guess i can find you an old sheet. do you think you can make one?" "sure thing," answered bill, and off we went to the house, where i received my first lesson on the practical genius of my chum. "bill's" skate sail. [illustration: fig. . laying out the sail.] [illustration: fig. . the tape tie strings.] [illustration: fig. . "bill's" sail complete.] the old sheet which mother furnished us was laid out on the floor and two corners were folded over to the center, as shown in the drawing, making a triangle with base feet long and sides each about feet inches long. the surplus end piece was then cut off, and a broad hem turned and basted all around the edges of the triangle. bill wanted to work the sewing machine himself, but mother was afraid he would break something, so she sewed down the hem for us. then, under bill's supervision, she re-enforced the corners by sewing on patches of cloth. along the diagonal a strip of heavy tape was sewed, leaving loops at intervals, which afterward were cut and provided means for tying the sail to the mast. tie strings of tape were also sewed at the corners, as shown in the illustration, and then a trip was made to the garden in search of suitable spars. a smooth bean pole of about the right weight served for the mast, and another stick with a crotch at one end served as the boom or cross-spar. the spars were cut to proper length, and the sail was then tied on, as illustrated, with the crotch of the cross-spar fitted against and tied to the center of the mast. a light rope, long enough to provide plenty of slack, was tied to the ends of the mast to assist in guiding the sail when in use. in the meantime i had procured another sheet from one of our neighbors, and bill helped me make a sail for myself. it was not until long after dark that we finished our work. willow clump island. the next day we tried the sails and it didn't take me very long to learn how to steer the device. the wind had changed again and this time blew up the canal. we took the line of least resistance, and went skimming up the ice lane like birds for several miles before we realized how far we were getting away from home. as we rounded a bend in the canal, much to my astonishment, i saw just before us the bridge at raven hill, eight miles from our town. we started to go back, but the wind was too strong for us, and there wasn't much room in which to do any tacking; nor could we make any progress when the sails were folded. i began to get extremely tired and rather exasperated at bill for not having thought of the return trip before he led me such a hot pace up the canal. but bill was getting tired, too. "look here, jim," he said, "we haven't covered a mile, and i'm worn out." "why in thunder didn't you think of this before we started?" i returned. "how much money have you with you?" was the reply. "what's that got to do with it?" "i'll tell you in a minute. how much have you?" a careful search of my dozen odd pockets netted the sum of twenty-seven cents. "i have fifty-nine," said bill, "and that makes eighty-six altogether, doesn't it? isn't there a railroad depot near here?" "there is one at raven hill, and the next is at lumberville. that is about eleven miles from home." "well," said bill, "at three cents each per mile that would amount to sixty-six cents. let's sail on to lumberville and then take the train back." on we sped to lumberville, only to find that the next train was not due until noon, and it was now just half past ten. time never hung heavy on our hands. out on the river we espied an island. i had heard of this island--willow clump island, it was called--but had never been on it; consequently i fell in with bill's suggestion that we make it a visit. owing to the rapids which separated the island from the jersey shore, we had to go up stream a quarter of a mile, to where a smooth sheet of ice had formed, over a quiet part of the river; thence we sailed down to the island along the pennsylvania side. "what a capital island for a camp," cried bill, after we had explored it pretty thoroughly. "have you ever been out camping?" i had to confess i never had, and then bill gave me a glowing account of his experiences in the adirondacks with his uncle the year before, which so stirred up the romance in me that i wanted to camp out at once. "shucks!" said bill, "we would freeze in this kind of weather, and besides, we've got to make a tent first." we then sat down and made elaborate plans for the summer. suddenly the distant sound of a locomotive whistle interrupted our reveries. "jiminy crickets!" i exclaimed. "that's the train coming through spalding's cut. we've got to hustle if we are to catch it." we were off like the wind, and a merry chase brought us to the lumberville depot in time to flag the train. we arrived at lamington at half past twelve, a trifle late for dinner, rather tired and hungry, but with a glowing and i fear somewhat exaggerated account of our adventure for the credulous ears of the rest of the boys. organizing the society. the camping idea met with the hearty approval of all, and it was decided to begin preparations at once for the following summer. dutchy, whose father was a member of a geographical society, suggested that we form a society for the exploration of willow clump island. by general acclamation bill was chosen president of the society, dutchy was made vice-president, reddy was elected treasurer, and they made me secretary. it was dutchy who proposed the name "the society for the scientific investigation, exploration and exploitation of willow clump island." it was decided to make an expedition of exploration as soon as we could make skate sails for the whole society. chapter ii. skate sails. the duties of the secretary, as defined in the constitution which dutchy van syckel drew up, were to keep a record of all the acts of the society, the minutes of every meeting, and accurate detailed descriptions of all work accomplished. therefore, while the rest of the society was busy cutting up old sheets, levied from the surrounding neighborhood, and sewing and rigging the sails under bill's direction, i, with pad and pencil in hand, took notes on all the operations. the double swedish sail. [illustration: fig. . dimensions of double swedish sail. n. b.--the mark (') means feet and (") means inches.] [illustration: fig. . halyards looped onto pole.] [illustration: fig. . the double swedish sail.] bill evolved some new types of sails which differed materially from the type described in the first chapter. one was a double sail--"the kind they use in sweden," he explained. one of the sheets which the foraging party brought in was extra large; it measured approximately two yards and a half square. this was folded on itself, making a parallelogram seven feet six inches long and three feet nine inches wide. the sheets we had were all rather worn and some were badly torn, so that we had to make our sails of double thickness, sewing patches over the weak spots. a broad hem was turned down at each end, and heavy tape was sewed on, leaving loops as before, to attach them to the spars. this reduced the length of our sail to seven feet three inches. the end spars were spaced apart by a light pole about ten feet long, to which they were tied at the points of intersection. the spars were also braced by halyards looped over the ends of the pole in the manner indicated in the drawing (fig. ). it took a crew of two boys to manipulate this sail. in use, the pole of the rig was carried on the shoulders, and the sail was guided by means of ropes attached to the lower corners of the vertical spars. these ropes in nautical language are called "sheets." the boy at the rear was the pilot and did the steering, because his position behind the sail gave him an unobstructed view in all directions. when changing tack the sail was lifted overhead to the other side of the crew. [illustration: fig. . changing tack.] the single swedish sail. [illustration: fig. . the single swedish sail.] another sail of similar form, but for use of one boy only, is shown in fig. . this had a height of six and one-half feet at the forward end and three feet at the rear; and its length was five feet. this sail was very satisfactory in light winds, owing to its great area. in use we found that it was very important to keep the lower edge against the leg, as indicated by the arrow. the rig was manipulated just like the double swedish sail, lifting it over the head when it was desired to change tack. the lanteen sail. [illustration: fig . the lanteen sail.] [illustration: fig. . hinge for spars.] [illustration: fig. . leather mast step.] [illustration: fig. . wooden mast step.] the lanteen sail we found to be a very good rig. it was made in the form of a triangle, measuring eight feet on one side, seven and one-half feet on another side and six and one-half feet on the third. the six and one-half foot side was secured to a boom, and the seven and one-half foot side to a yard. the yard and boom were hinged together by a leather strap nailed on as shown in fig. , and to this hinge a rope was attached, which served as a sheet. these spars were secured to a mast erected perpendicularly to the boom and intersecting the yard a little above its center. we had had some trouble with the first sails we made in keeping the base of the sail against the body, and to overcome this difficulty bill proposed tying the bottom of the mast to the leg. this was a rather risky thing to do, as we learned later, for in case of accident it would be difficult to get clear of the sail. it was reddy who finally solved the problem by rigging up a step for the mast. it consisted of a leather tag tied to the leg, and provided with a hole into which the bottom of the mast was fitted. to prevent the mast from slipping too far into the step the lower portion of it was whittled down, leaving a shoulder which rested on the leather. bill later devised another step, which consisted of a wooden block (fig. ) strapped to the leg and formed with a shallow socket to receive the end of the mast. the danish sail. [illustration: fig. . the danish sail.] [illustration: fig. . topsail of the danish rig.] but the most satisfactory sail we found to be the danish sail, though it was not until we had served quite a long apprenticeship and sustained many pretty bad falls that we mastered the art of manipulating these sails properly. our ideas on this sail were obtained from a french illustrated paper which dutchy van syckel picked up in his father's library. this sail was formed with a topsail so arranged that it could be lowered when the wind was too strong. the dimensions of the sail as we made it are given in the drawing (fig. ). the top of the sail was lashed to a spar, which was connected by a short stick to another spar tied to the mainsail about eighteen inches lower down. the sail was strengthened with an extra strip of cloth along the lower spar, and the tie strings were applied in the usual way. the connecting stick, or topmast we may call it, was hinged to the lower spar by means of a short piece of leather strap, which was passed round the spar in the form of a loop and its two ends nailed to the bottom of the topmast. the topmast extended above the upper spar a short distance, and to this we fastened the flag which our society had adopted. a couple of strong cords were secured to the center spar to provide for fastening the sail onto the skater. tied to the lower corners of the mainsail were two sticks which were used for guiding the sail when in flight. [illustration: fig. . before the wind. fig. . topsail lowered. fig. . skating against the wind. fig. . on the port tack.] the different methods of sailing with this rig are shown in figs. - . when sailing with the wind the skater would stand very erect, bending backward in proportion as the wind blew fresher. by inclining the sail in one direction or the other, the skater could tack to port or starboard. when moving against the wind by skating in the usual way, the body was bent forward in such manner that the sail lay horizontal, so that it would not offer a purchase for the wind. bat's wings. [illustration: fig. .] one more sail deserves mention. it was bill's idea, and it came near to ending his career the first day he tried it. it had no spars at all, but was merely a strip of cloth of somewhat triangular shape. the upper side was tied to the head, and the two corners to the wrists, while the lower portion was tied to the ankles. this converted him into a huge white-winged bat. bill had to try it at once, even though the rest of the sails were not finished, and a very comical spectacle he made as he flapped his wings in his endeavors to tack. when the wind was too strong for him he had merely to drop his arms and thus lower sail. at length he became tired of holding his arms out at full length, and i got him a stick to put over his shoulders and rest his arms on. but that stick was bill's undoing, for coming around a sudden bend in the canal he caught the full force of the wind, which knocked him flat on his back before he could disentangle himself from the stick and lower sail. it took us some time to bring him back to consciousness, and a very scared lot of boys we were for a while. however, the lesson was a good one, for after that we were very cautious in experimenting with sails that had to be tied on, such as the danish rig and the lanteen rig, before reddy invented the mast step. it was not until the day after christmas that the sails were all completed, but then there was scarcely any wind blowing and we could not attempt the expedition to the island. chapter iii. snow shoes, skis and swamp shoes. the next day, sunday, it began to snow, and we realized that our chance of skating up to willow clump island was spoiled. all the afternoon it snowed, and the next morning we woke to find the ground covered to a depth of eight inches and snow still falling. but who ever heard of a boy complaining because there was snow on the ground? here were new difficulties to overcome, new problems to solve, and new sports provided for our amusement. there was no disappointment shown by any of the members of the s. s. i. e. e. of w. c. i., as they met in the woodshed immediately after breakfast to discuss proceedings for the day. there seemed to be but one way of reaching the island, and that was by means of snow shoes. bill had only a vague idea of how snow shoes were made. chair seat snow shoe. [illustration: fig. . chair seat snow shoe] the first pair was made from a couple of thin wooden chair seats which we found in the shed. they proved quite serviceable, being very light and offering a fairly large bearing surface. the chair seats were trimmed off at each side to make the shoes less clumsy, and a loop of leather was fastened near the center of each shoe, in which the toe could be slipped. this shoe possessed the disadvantage of being too flat and of picking up too much snow when used. barrel stave snow shoe. [illustration: fig. . barrel stave snow shoe.] another pair of shoes was made from barrel staves. at first one stave was made to serve for a shoe, but we found that two staves fastened together with a pair of wooden cleats were much better. jack was the proud inventor of these shoes and insisted that they were far more satisfactory than the elaborate ones which were later devised. barrel hoop snow shoe. [illustration: fig. . barrel hoop snow shoe.] now that jack had shown his ingenuity, fred thought it was his turn to do something, and after mysteriously disappearing for the space of an hour we saw him suddenly come waddling back to the shed on a pair of barrel hoops covered with heavy canvas. he had stretched the canvas so tightly across the hoops that they were bent to an oval shape. it was claimed for these shoes, and with good reason, that they were not so slippery as the barrel stave shoe, for they permitted the foot to sink slightly into the snow. after dinner, dutchy came back with a book of his father's, a sort of an encyclopedia in which several different kinds of snow shoes were illustrated. reddy, whose father owned a sawmill, volunteered to provide us with strips of hickory from which to make the frames. the sioux snow shoe. [illustration: fig. . sioux shoe.] [illustration: fig. . frame of the sioux shoe.] [illustration: fig . web of the sioux shoe.] [illustration: fig. . weaving needle] the sioux snow shoe was the first type we tackled. two strips of hickory feet long and / inch square in section, were bent over a pair of spreaders and securely fastened together at each end. the spreaders were about inches long and located about inches apart. they were notched at the ends, as shown in fig. , to receive the side strips, which were not fastened together until after they had been nailed to the spreaders. we found that the most satisfactory way of fastening together the ends of the hickory strips was to bolt them together. when the frame was completed, we began the tedious process of weaving in the filling or web of the snow shoe. first we cut notches in the edges of the spreaders, spacing these notches an inch apart. then we procured several balls of heavy twine at the corner store. tying one end of the cord to the right side stick about three inches below the forward spreader, we stretched a strand down to the notch at the left end of the lower spreader. the strand was drawn taut, and after making several twists around it the cord was tied to the left side stick three inches above the spreader. from this point the cord was stretched to the notch at the right end of the upper spreader, twisted several times and brought back to the starting point. the cord was now wrapped around the side stick for a space of about an inch, and then carried down to the second notch on the lower spreader, whence it was woven through the other two strands and tied about the left side stick about four inches from the spreader. thus the weaving continued, passing the cord alternately over and under any cross strands encountered. in order to make the left side correspond with the right, a separate cord was wound around it, filling up the space between the strands of the web. the filling above and below the spreaders could not be so methodically done, but we managed to weave the strands quite neatly with about the same mesh as used at the center. to facilitate the weaving we improvised a rough needle of a piece of wire. the latter was bent double to receive the cord which was wedged in between the two arms of the needle. the iroquois shoe. [illustration: fig. . bending the hickory strips.] [illustration: fig. . frame of iroquois shoe.] [illustration: fig. . iroquois snow shoe.] but the best snow shoe we made was the iroquois shoe. the frame of this shoe was made of hickory strips of the same width and thickness as used in the sioux shoe, but feet long. the strips were bent in a loop and the ends were bolted together. how to bend the wood without breaking it seemed a very difficult problem. wood, we knew, could be easily bent without breaking if boiled or steamed for a while; but we had nothing large enough in which to boil a strip of wood feet long. bill hit upon the plan of wrapping the stick with burlap and then pouring boiling water on it until it became sufficiently soft to bend easily. an old oats-sack was cut up into strips and wound onto the hickory sticks for a distance of inches at each side of the center. we then repaired to the kitchen to do the steaming. the hickory stick was held over a large dish-pan filled with boiling water, and from this we dipped out the water and poured it slowly over the burlap wrapping of the stick. after a little of this treatment the stick was sufficiently steamed to permit of bending to the required shape. the ends were then firmly secured by means of bolts passed through bolt holes which had been previously drilled. the frame was completed by fitting the spreader sticks in place, after which it was laid away to dry. when the frame was perfectly dry we started weaving the web. in this case, however, instead of cord we used cane strips, which we had bought from a chair caner. this necessitated drilling holes in the side sticks to receive the cane strips. the web consisted of strands crossing each other diagonally, as illustrated. our second pair of iroquois snow shoes was made with a web of rawhide which we bought from a hardware store at millville. the ainu snow shoe. [illustration: fig. . ainu snow shoe.] one of the snowshoes described in the book was very much like fred's barrel-hoop snow shoe in appearance. according to the description, it was a type used by the ainus, a peculiar people living in the cold northern islands of japan. as the shoe seemed quite simple and rather unique, we thought we would make one like it. two hickory strips each feet long were bent to a u-shape and lashed together, forming an oval about feet inches long by inches wide. the frame was held to oval shape by tying the sides together. then the filling was woven in, running the strands diagonally, as shown in fig. . we had excellent weather for snow shoes after that snowstorm. a thaw followed by a cold spell caused a thick crust to form on the snow which would nearly hold us up without the aid of our snowshoes. we were rather awkward with those shoes for a while, trying to keep them clear of each other, and we found it particularly hard to turn sharply without causing one shoe to run foul of the other. but with a little practice we soon felt quite at home on them. in order to prevent cutting the web with our heels, we found it necessary to wear rubbers. [illustration: fig. . the norwegian ski.] our vacation came to an end before we were prepared for the expedition to willow clump island. but before leaving the subject on snow shoes, two more shoes remain to be described, namely the swiss snow shoe and the norwegian ski. the swiss shoe was made during the summer and the ski during the following winter. the norwegian ski. [illustration: fig. . bending the ski.] [illustration: fig. . the ski stick.] the norwegian ski was made of close-grained wood, inch thick, - / inches wide and feet long. about inches from the forward end the wood was planed down to a thickness of / of an inch. this end was placed in the dish-pan of boiling water, and in a short time it was pliable enough to permit of bending. it was secured in the proper bent position by slipping the toe end of the shoe between the banisters on the back porch and nailing a cleat back of the heel end. when the ski was perfectly dry the toe strap was nailed on just back of the balancing point, and also another strap, to be secured about the ankle. then a cleat was nailed onto the ski to fit against the heel of the shoe. in use we found it best to cut a groove in the bottom of the ski, so as to give us a better grip on the snow in climbing up hills. with the skis we had to use short poles or "ski sticks" to assist in starting, stopping and steering when coasting. the ski stick was a bean pole provided with a wooden block near the lower end, to prevent it from being forced too far through the snow. the swiss snow shoe or swamp shoe. [illustration: fig. . the swiss snow shoe.] the swiss shoe was made primarily to assist us in exploring some boggy land a short distance up the river from our island. the original swamp shoes were made from the bottoms of two old baskets, and they worked so admirably that it was decided to equip the whole society with them. uncle ed, when told about them, informed us that that was the kind of snow shoe used in switzerland. of course, we could not afford to destroy a pair of baskets for each member of the club, and so we had to weave the shoes from the willows which grew on the island. chapter iv. tent making. we had a farewell meeting of the society the evening before bill and i had to return to boarding-school. at this meeting plans were made for the easter vacation. we also considered the matter of getting parental permission for our summer outing. so far we had been afraid to breathe a word of our plans outside of the society, since fred had said something about it in the presence of father and had been peremptorily ordered to banish all such hair-brained, wild west notions from his head. we realized from that incident that the consent of our parents would not be so very easily obtained. but bill came forward with a promising suggestion. he would write to his uncle ed and see if he couldn't be persuaded to join the expedition. at first we demurred. we didn't want a "governor" around all the time. but bill assured us that his uncle was "no ordinary man"; that he would not interfere with our plans, but would enter right into them and give us many valuable pointers. though not by any means convinced, we told him to go ahead and invite his uncle, as that seemed about the only means of winning over our fathers and mothers. the society was then adjourned until our easter vacation began, each member promising to earn and save as much money as he could in the meantime to buy the materials for a tent and provisions for the summer outing. word from uncle ed. [illustration: fig. . breadths sewed together for roof and side walls of tent.] bill's letter to uncle ed was answered as quickly as the mail could travel to brazil and back. uncle ed heartily approved of our plans, and said that he would be delighted to join the expedition. he could not be on hand before the st of july, but that would give us plenty of time to make all necessary preparations. he told us not to worry about gaining the consent of our parents. he would write to them and see them all personally, if necessary to win their approval. the canvas tent. [illustration: fig. . the sail stitch.] when at last spring arrived and we returned to lamington on our easter vacation, quite a sum of money had been collected, nearly $ . , if i remember rightly; at any rate plenty to buy the materials for a good-sized tent and leave a large surplus for provisions, etc. bill figured out on paper just how much canvas we would need for a tent feet wide by - / feet long, which he estimated would be about large enough to hold us. it took yards, inches wide. then we visited the village store to make our purchase. canvas we found a little too expensive for us, but a material called drill seemed about right. it cost ten cents a yard, but since we wanted such a quantity of it the price was reduced to a total of $ . . we repaired to the attic to lay out the material. [illustration: fig. . cutting out the door flaps.] [illustration: fig. . sewing on the door flaps.] first we cut out four lengths of yards and inches each. the strips were basted together, lapping the edges inch and making a piece feet inches long by feet inches wide. mother sewed the breadths together on the machine, using a double seam, as in sail making; that is, two parallel rows of stitching were sewed in, one along each overlapping edge, as shown in fig. . a -inch hem was then turned and sewed at the ends of the goods, so that the piece measured exactly feet long. it served for the roof and side walls of the tent. our next operation was to cut three strips feet long, and sew them together with a double seam as before. this piece was now slit along the center line _m_, fig. , making two lengths feet inches wide. the strips were then cut along the diagonal lines _a a_, forming the end walls or doors, so to speak, of the tent. in sewing on the door flaps we started first at the bottom of the side _c_, sewing it to the side edge of the main piece, as shown in fig. , and running the seam up for a distance of exactly feet inches. after all the door strips had been sewed along their _c_ edges the sewing was continued up the diagonal or _a_ edges. in cutting out the door pieces we had allowed inch on each side for hems and seams, so that the door pieces met without lapping at the exact center of the main or body piece, that is, at the peak of the tent. [illustration: the wall tent set up in the back yard.] [illustration: fig. . adjustable ridge pole.] [illustration: fig. . the tent set up.] our next step was to fasten the necessary ropes and loops. ten -foot lengths of light rope were procured. these were fastened at the top of the side walls, that is, feet inches from the ends of the main or body piece, one at each corner and one on each seam. the cloth was strengthened at these points with patches sewed on the inside. at the bottom of the side walls we sewed on loops of heavy tape. these were spaced about inches apart. along the _b_ edges of the door pieces tie strings of tape were fastened. a rope feet long was attached to the peak at the front and at the rear of the tent. the front and rear posts of the tent were made from scantlings measuring by inches, which were procured from mr. schreiner's lumber yard. they were planed smooth and sawed off to a length of feet inches. a slot was cut in the end of each stick to a depth of inches and measuring slightly over an inch in width. for the ridge pole a strip inch thick, - / inches wide and feet long was secured. this was fitted into the slotted ends of these posts, where it was fastened by wooden pegs slipped into holes drilled through the ends of the posts and the ridge pole. a number of these peg holes were provided, so that if the canvas stretched the ridge pole could be raised or lowered to prevent the walls from dragging on the ground. we set up the tent in our back yard to see if it was properly constructed. twelve stakes were required, ten for the sides and one for the ridge stays at the front and rear. the side stakes were driven into the ground at a distance of about feet from the center of the tent. first we tied the guy ropes to the stakes, but later we found it much easier to secure them with tie blocks. tie blocks. [illustration: fig. . the wood tie block.] [illustration: fig. . the wire tie.] [illustration: fig. . bottom of tent wall.] these were made of wood / inch thick, inch wide and each measured inches long. a hole was drilled into the block at each end and through these holes the rope was threaded. a knot in the rope then held the end from slipping out. the loop between the two holes, or the bight, as sailors would call it, was now slipped over the stake, and the rope hauled tight by drawing up the tie block, as shown in fig. . a still later improvement consisted in making ties of stout galvanized iron wire, bent to the form shown in fig. . the wooden ties were apt to swell and split open when exposed to the weather, while the wire ties could always be relied upon. the walls of the tent were held down along the bottom by railway spikes hooked through the tent loops and driven into the ground. wooden pegs with notches to catch the loops would have served as well, but dutchy happened to find a number of the spikes along the track and in his usual convincing manner argued that they were far better than pegs because their weight would hold the cloth down even if they were not firmly embedded in the ground. the annex. we were surprised to find out how small the tent was after it was set up. we could see at once that when we had put in all the stores and provisions we would need, there would not be room enough for six boys and a man to stretch themselves out comfortably in it. bill had evidently made a miscalculation, but he suggested that we remedy the error by building an annex for our kitchen utensils and supplies. [illustration: fig. . cutting out the annex.] [illustration: fig. . the annex applied.] this gave us a two-room tent, which we found to be quite an advantage. twelve more yards of drill were bought and cut into two strips, each feet inches long. the breadths were then sewed together, and the ends turned up and hemmed to make a piece feet long and feet inches wide. tape loops were then sewed on as before, and ropes were fastened on at the top of the side walls, that is, feet inches from the ends of the strips. we thought it would be better to have a slanting ridge on the annex, so we cut out a wedge-shaped piece from the center of the two strips, as shown by dotted lines _b b_ in fig. . this wedge-shaped piece measured feet at the outer end of the annex, and tapered down to a point at the inner end. the canvas was then sewed together along these edges. tie strings were sewed to the inner edge of the annex and corresponding ones were attached to the main tent a little ways back from the edge, so that the two could be tied together, with the annex lapping well over on the roof and side walls. a notch was cut out of the peak of the annex, so that it could be tied around the rear post of the tent, and notches were cut at the top of the side walls to permit passing the cloth around the wall ropes. instead of supporting the ridge of the annex on a ridge pole, we used the rear guy line of the tent, propping it up with a scantling about - / feet long. chapter v. preparing for the expedition. school closed on the st of june that year, just ten days before the expected arrival of uncle ed. the first thing we did was to set up our tent in the back yard and camp out so as to become acclimatized. it is good that we did this, for the very first night a heavy summer shower came up which nearly drenched us. the water beat right through the thin canvas roof of our tent. had we been able to afford the best quality of canvas duck, such an occurrence would probably have been avoided. but we solved the difficulty by using a tent fly; that is, a strip of canvas stretched over the tent and spaced a short distance from it to break the fall of the rain drops. [illustration: fig. . the wall tent with the fly fastened on.] tent fly. [illustration: fig. . the fly ridge pole.] again we had to visit the village storekeeper; this time we bought out his whole remaining stock, sixteen yards of drill. this was cut into four-yard strips, which were sewed together as before and the ends turned up and hemmed. tie strings were sewed to the ends of the strips so that the fly could be tied to the wall ropes of the tent. at the ridge the fly was supported about six inches above the tent rope by a second ridge pole held by pegs in the top holes of the tent posts. provisions and supplies. the ten days before uncle ed arrived were busy indeed. we had to gather together the necessary provisions and supplies. our personal outfits were very simple. each member supplied himself with a change of underwear, a bathing suit, a blanket and a toothbrush. a single comb and brush served for the entire society, and was used on sundays, the only day we really dressed up. all the rest of the time we lived in our bathing suits, except, of course, on cold rainy days. our kitchen outfit consisted of a large cooking pot, two kettles, a frying pan, a coffee pot, a small oil stove, a half-dozen each of plates, cups, saucers, knives and forks, a dozen spoons, two tablespoons, and, in addition, several large plates and bowls for pantry use. we also took with us a dish-pan and several dish-towels. for our larder we collected the following: a bag of flour, ten pounds of sugar, two pounds of salt, three pounds of coffee, four pounds of oatmeal, four pounds of butter, two pounds of lard, six pound of beans, six pounds of rice, three pounds of bacon, six cans of condensed milk, a dozen eggs, box of pepper, and several jars of canned peaches and pears, and also a half dozen glasses of jelly. it was dutchy who suggested that we have a chicken yard, in connection with our camp, to supply us with fresh eggs. it was a capital idea, and by the dint of some coaxing we managed to secure the loan of a half dozen hens and a rooster. our miscellaneous list included a spade, pick and shovel, an ax, a hatchet, two large pails, a barn lantern, a can of kerosene, a dozen candles, a cocoa box filled with matches, a pair of scissors, needles, buttons, pins and safety pins, a spool of white and another of black cotton, fishing tackle, a roll of heavy twine, a coil of rope, and a set of dominoes and checkers. but most important of all was a chest of tools belonging to reddy. these were all collected when uncle ed arrived. dutchy also contributed a large compass, which we found very useful later on, for surveying the island. crossbow. reddy had a shotgun which he wanted to bring along, but my father, and dutchy's as well, wouldn't let us go camping if there was to be any gunpowder along, so we had to leave it behind. of course we didn't miss it at all when we got to the island, because there was so much else to do; but we all agreed with dutchy, that "it wouldn't be no sort of a scientific expedition without takin' a gun along." as a substitute i suggested a bow and arrow. they all laughed at such a "kiddish" idea; all but bill, i mean. [illustration: drifting down the schreiners' brook.] [illustration: paddling in the old scow.] [illustration: fig. . binding the bow.] [illustration: fig. . the trigger.] [illustration: fig. . the trigger set for firing.] [illustration: fig. . the umbrella rib crossbow.] "it ain't such a bad notion," said he, "only a crossbow would be better. i've seen them made out of umbrella ribs so they'd shoot like greased lightning." of course we had to have one of these wonderful weapons. down in the ash heap we found two broken umbrellas with -inch ribs. bill selected ten good ribs, from which he wrenched off the spreaders with a pair of pliers. the ribs were then bound together by winding stout twine around them. the winding was very evenly and closely done, so that the cord completely covered the ribs, making a solid rod of spring steel. but before winding we had laid in between the ribs a piece of heavy twine, to which the bowstrings could be tied after the bow was all wound. the stock of our crossbow was cut out of a board of soft wood inch thick to as near the shape of a gun as we could get it. a hole was drilled through the muzzle end to receive the bow, and then the bowstring was tied fast. along the upper edge of the barrel a v-shaped channel was cut. the channel was not very deep, only enough to receive a tenpenny nail with the head projecting half-way above the sides. a notch was cut across the barrel, through this channel, at the trigger end, and a trigger made of heavy iron wire, bent to the shape shown in fig. , was hinged to the gun by a bolt which passed clear through the stock and through both eyes of the trigger. by using two nuts on the bolt, and tightening one against the other, they were prevented from working loose and coming off. when we wanted to fire the gun the bowstring was drawn back, and held by slipping it into the notch, and a nail was laid in the channel with its head against the bowstring. then, on pulling the trigger, the bowstring was lifted out of the notch, and sent the nail off sailing. the long-grooved barrel insured a very good aim. megaphone. [illustration: fig. . the megaphone.] [illustration: fig. . layout of the megaphone.] [illustration: fig. . brass fastener.] [illustration: fig. . the mouthpiece.] another device we made in preparation for the expedition was a megaphone. a sheet of light cardboard inches square was procured. at the center of one edge a pin was stuck into the cardboard, then a piece of stout thread was looped over the pin and the two ends were knotted together just inches from the pin. another knot was also made inches from the pin. now, with a pencil hooked into the loop, and resting first against the inner knot and then against the outer one, two arcs were drawn on the paper, one of -inch radius and the other of -inch radius. a line was now drawn from the pin to the point where the longer arc met the right hand edge of the paper, and a dotted line was drawn from the pin to a point - / inches from the edge at the other end of the arc. from a point inch to the left of the pin we then drew a line to the left end of the arc. with a scissors we cut the cardboard along the arcs and straight lines, all but the dotted line, leaving a piece of the shape shown in fig. . this piece was rolled into a cone with the right edge lapped over the left edge and lying against the dotted line. in this position it was held by means of several brass fasteners of the kind shown in fig. . a mouthpiece was formed out of a block of wood in which a large hole had been drilled. the block was then cut away until the walls were quite thin. the hole was reamed out at the top, as shown in fig. , and the outer surface was tapered so that the small end of the megaphone would fit snugly on it. we planned to reach our camping grounds by way of the canal, and had provided for that purpose a large scow, which we expected to tow up to lumberville and drag over to the river. the scow. [illustration: fig. . side pieces of the scow.] [illustration: fig. . frame of the scow.] [illustration: fig. . nailing on the bottom.] [illustration: fig. . sockets for rowlocks.] [illustration: fig. . thole pin.] [illustration: fig. . nailing on the decks.] [illustration: fig. . the oar.] our scow was made as follows: two / -inch pine boards, inches wide and feet long, were selected from reddy's father's lumber pile. these were used for the side pieces of the boat, and we tapered them off at the end to a width of - / inches. this was done by making a straight cut from the end to a point three feet back along the edge of the board and then rounding off the edge with a draw-knife. when one board had been shaped, it was used as a pattern for the other, which was thus cut to exactly the same size. for the end pieces two strips, inches wide and feet - / inches long, were sawed out of a -inch board. then for the bottom we procured a number of / -inch boards, feet long and inches wide, which we cut into -foot lengths. at bill's suggestion, before nailing the parts together, we secured some strips of flannel, which were saturated with paint, and laid between the seams so as to make the boat perfectly water-tight. the side and end boards were then nailed together, with the strips of flannel between, the side boards overlapping the end boards, as shown in fig. . after planing down the end boards until their edges laid flush with the edges of the side pieces, the bottom boards were nailed on, strips of cloth being inserted between them, as well as along the edges of the side and end boards. to brace the bottom a / -inch board was placed at the center, inside the boat, and bent down against the floor, to which it was nailed with wire nails. the nails were driven into the board from the outer side of the boat and were clinched inside. along the upper edges of the side boards two strips inches wide and inch thick were nailed. two notches were cut in the inner side of each strip before it was nailed on. the notches were / inch deep, - / inches wide, inches apart and about - / feet from the stern end. when the strips were nailed in place these notches formed sockets to receive the rowlocks. a strip was also nailed across the stern of the boat and formed with two central notches, to receive the rowlocks for a steering oar. this strip, however, was inches wide, and projected inch above the end board, so as to lie flush with the deck boards, which were later applied. six thole pins, / inch thick, - / inches long and inches wide, were cut out of an oak board. the lower end of each pin was reduced to a width of - / inches for a length of inches. the thole pins were then fitted snugly in the notches. two cleats, nailed to the side boards inside, inches below the upper edge, served to support a seat board inch thick and feet - / inches long. the aft edge of the seat was about inches forward of the rowlocks. the boat was completed by nailing on a couple of deck boards at each end. the oars were made of -inch pine boards, feet long and inches wide. they were blocked out at mr. schreiner's sawmill and then shaped and smoothed down with a draw-knife and spoke-shaved. they were - / inches at the handle and inches immediately below, tapering down to a diameter of - / inches at the top of the blade. the blades were inches long, inches wide, and planed down to a thickness of / inch along the edges. chapter vi. off to the island. the morning of july d dawned bright and clear, but long before daybreak the members of the s. s. i. e. e. of w. c. i. were astir. the jolly red sun peeping over the eastern hills witnessed an unaccustomed sight. six greatly excited boys were running back and forth from the barn to the canal, bearing all manner of mysterious bundles, which were carefully deposited in a freshly painted scow. yes, all six of us were there. a unique alarm clock. we hadn't expected to see reddy schreiner at such an early hour, for he was always a sleepyhead, and no alarm clock would ever wake him. but this was an exceptional day, and, besides, reddy was quite an original chap. he had taken one of the borrowed roosters into his room the night before, and when, early in the morning, mr. chanticleer had mounted the footboard of the bed, flapped his wings and given vent to his opinion of a boy who persisted in sleeping at that late hour of the day, the noise was too much for even reddy's drowsy sensibilities. [illustration: fig. . off to the island.] the trip to the island. [illustration: the ledge below the goblins' platform.] [illustration: the camp at willow clump island.] our scow was not large enough to carry all the things we had to take with us, but as mr. schreiner was going to take uncle ed up in his wagon, we left the rest of our luggage for him to bring along. we boys walked the eleven miles up the canal to lumberville, towing the barge. it was a tiresome task; but we divided the work into two-mile shifts, two boys towing at a time and then each taking a mile ride as steersman in the boat. it was about noon when we arrived at lumberville, and then we had to unload our boat before we could haul it out of the canal and down to the river. the river on the jersey side of the island was so shallow that we waded across, pushing the boat ahead of us. the current was too swift to permit of rowing, and it was rather hard for us to keep our footing. but we managed to reach our destination finally without any mishap. the island was thickly wooded, except for a small clearing where we landed. the first thing we did was to unpack our eatables, and jack, the cook, soon had an appetizing pan of bacon and eggs sputtering on the kerosene stove. [illustration: fig. . dragging the scow over to the island.] preliminary exploration. as no better position offered at the time we pitched our tent in the clearing, pending a thorough search for a more suitable place elsewhere. around the tent we dug a trench about a foot deep to prevent water from entering our quarters when it rained. it was about time for uncle ed and mr. schreiner to appear with the rest of our luggage, so we did not have time to do much exploring, but sauntered southward along the shore, always on the lookout for their arrival. about a quarter of a mile from the tent we came across the wreck of an old bridge, which had been washed down by some freshet. this was a great find, and served us many purposes, as will appear later. while we were examining the wreck we heard a distant "halloa" from the mainland. there was uncle ed sitting on a pile of goods on the railroad bank looking for all the world like an italian immigrant. we answered with a shout and scrambled back to the clearing. then we ran splashing through the water, pushing the boat before us. it didn't take us long to load up and carry him back to the island. a rustic table. [illustration: fig. . the rustic table.] uncle ed entered into our fun at once. he was as enthusiastic as a boy over the surroundings, and when we told him of the old bridge he started right off to investigate, taking the ax with him. soon he had pried off a number of the planks, which we used for a flooring to our tent. then he built us a table out of four forked sticks, driven into the ground, and supporting two cross sticks, on which a pair of planks were laid. the small filter. "well, now, boys," said uncle ed, wiping the perspiration from his forehead, "i am as thirsty as a whale. where do you get your drinking water? is there a spring on the island?" we told him that we used the river water. [illustration: fig. . the small filter.] "what, river water! that won't do at all," he cried. "you'll all have the typhoid fever. we must build a filter. i brought some charcoal with me for this very purpose." taking one of our pails he broke a hole in the bottom of it and stuffed a sponge in the hole. a layer of small stones was then placed in the pail, over this a layer of broken charcoal with the dust carefully blown out, then a layer of clean sand, and finally a layer of gravel. each layer was about two inches thick. the pail was suspended from a branch in a cool place and proved an excellent filter, the water trickling out through the sponge being perfectly pure and sweet, no matter how dirty it had been when poured in; but the capacity of the filter was too small, and uncle ed said he would make us a larger one on the morrow if no spring was discovered in the meantime. the sun was getting low in the west, and we therefore postponed the exploration of our island until the following day. we had been up since four o'clock that morning and had done some pretty hard work; so, immediately after supper, we turned in and, lulled by the murmuring of the river, were soon fast asleep. the barrel filter. [illustration: fig. . the barrel filter.] immediately after breakfast the next day we started out in two parties to search the island. the only discovery of any moment was that made by dutchy's party, which found a small island separated from ours by a narrow channel, through which the water ran like a mill-race. no spring was discovered, so uncle ed had to construct his large filter. bill and i went over to lumberville in search of a couple of cider barrels and a pailful of charcoal. the barrels were placed one on top of the other after cutting a large hole in the top of the lower barrel, and a smaller one in the bottom of the upper one. the latter opening was covered by an inverted saucer. over this we spread a -inch layer of coarse sand, then a -inch layer of charcoal, a -inch layer of clear, sharp sand, and a -inch top layer of gravel. the lower barrel was provided with a faucet, through which we could draw off the filtered water as desired. in order to keep the water cool we placed the filters in a shady place near the river, and piled up earth around the lower barrel. "now, boys," said uncle ed, "form in line there, and we will go through a fire drill." he arranged us about five feet apart in a line extending from the filter to the river. we had six pails, and these dutchy filled one at a time, passing them up the line to reddy, who emptied them into the upper barrel and then threw them back to dutchy to be refilled. working in this way it did not take long to fill up the filter, and the burden of keeping the barrels full, instead of falling on one person, was shared alike by all. [illustration: fig. . filling the barrel.] the klepalo. our camp outfit was further augmented by a dinner call. we discovered the necessity of such a call on our very first day of camping. dutchy was so excited by his discoveries of the morning that he started out alone in the afternoon to make a further search. the rest of us were lazy after the noon meal, and were lolling around taking it easy during the heat of the day, and discussing plans for the future. but dutchy's energetic nature would not permit him to keep quiet. he took the scow and waded with it against the strong current to the deeper and quieter water above the island. then he rowed a long way up stream. he was gone all the afternoon. supper time came and still he didn't appear. the sun was high, and i presume he didn't realize how late it was getting. finally, just at sunset, he came drifting down with the current, tired and hungry, and ready for a large meal. but we had finished our supper an hour before, and poor dutchy had to be content with a few cold remnants, because the cook had declared he wouldn't prepare an extra meal for a fellow who didn't have sense enough to know when it was meal time. then it was that uncle ed bethought himself of the _klepalo_. "you ought to have some sort of a dinner call," he declared, "so that any one within a mile of camp will know when dinner is ready." [illustration: the _klepalo_.] "did you ever hear of a _klepalo_? no? well, i was down in macedonia a couple of years ago inspecting a railroad, and i stopped off for the night at a small bulgarian village. the next day happened to be a _prasdnik_, or saint's day, and the first thing in the morning i was awakened by a peculiar clacking sound which i couldn't make out. calling my interpreter i found out from him that it was a _klepalo_ for calling the people to church. the people there are too poor to afford a bell, and so in place of that they use a beam of oak hung from a rope tied about the center, and this beam is struck with a hammer, first on one side, and then the other. sometimes an iron _klepalo_ is used as well, and then they strike first the beam and then the iron bar, so as to vary the monotony of the call. i found that the wooden _klepalo_ could be heard for a distance of about one and a half miles over land, and the iron one for over two miles. now we can easily make a wooden _klepalo_ for use in this camp, and then if dutchy, or any of the rest of us, keep within a mile and a half of camp there won't be any trouble with the cook." so we built a _klepalo_, getting from lumberville a stick of seasoned oak, - / inches thick, inches wide and feet long. a hole was drilled into the stick at the center, and by a rope passed through this hole the beam was suspended from a branch overhanging the camp. jack, the cook, regularly used this crude device to call the hungry horde to meals. chapter vii. surveying. one of the first things we did after getting fairly settled in our new quarters was to make a complete survey of willow clump island and its immediate surroundings. our surveying instruments were made as follows: the surveying instrument. [illustration: fig. . baseboard of the surveying instrument.] [illustration: fig. . sighting blocks on the baseboard.] out of a -inch board we cut a base inches long and inches wide. in the center we sawed out a circular opening of about inches diameter and covered this at the bottom by a circular piece inch thick and inches in diameter, thus forming a socket in which our compass fitted snugly. a hole inch in diameter was drilled through the center of this circular piece to receive the pivot pin of a tripod. across each end of the baseboard we secured a block inches long, inches wide and inch thick. a -inch sight hole was drilled through each block at its center. a ring of cardboard, on which uncle ed marked with radial lines the degrees of the circle, was placed over the compass socket, with the zero and degree marks pointing toward the sight blocks. the outer faces of the end blocks were now wet with mucilage and a hair was stretched vertically across the center of each sight hole. the hairs were then adjusted by sighting through the holes and moving the nearer hair sidewise until it was exactly in line with both the zero and the degree marks on the cardboard. then a hair was stretched horizontally across the center of each sight hole. great care was taken to place the hairs at exactly the same height above the baseboard. to protect the hairs after they were adjusted, they were covered with a piece of glass, which was secured in place by tacks driven into the wood with their heads projecting over the edges of the glass. spirit levels. from one of his pockets uncle ed produced two small bottles, the kind used for holding homeopathic pills. these he filled nearly to the top with water, corked them and wedged them into grooves cut lengthwise in the baseboard at opposite sides of the cardboard ring. these grooves were filled with putty, and to make sure that the bottles were level with the baseboard the latter was floated on a bit of quiet water and the bottles were pressed down at one end or the other until the bubble within rested at the exact center. the tripod. [illustration: fig. . the tripod head.] [illustration: fig. . the tripod leg.] [illustration: fig. . the surveying instrument complete.] [illustration: fig. . the protractor.] the tripod head was formed of a wooden disk inches in diameter, with a wooden pin projecting from its center adapted to engage the hole in the circular piece above referred to. to the bottom of the tripod head were nailed three blocks inches long and inch square in cross-section. the tripod legs were made of light strips of wood, / inch by inch by feet long, which we secured from one of the mills at lumberville. each leg was formed of two of these strips, nailed securely together to within inches of the top. at the upper ends the strips were spread to receive the blocks on the tripod head. in this position they were held by headless wire nails driven into the ends of the blocks and fitting into holes drilled in the strips. for a plumb line we tacked a cord to the center of the tripod head, and attached a good-sized sinker to its lower end. in connection with this plumb line we occasionally used a protractor consisting of a semicircle of cardboard inches in diameter, on which the degrees of the circle were marked off with radiating lines, as illustrated in fig. . by holding the straight edge of this protractor against the base of the tripod, and noting the number of degrees between the degree mark and the plumb line, we could tell at a glance at what angle from the horizontal the instrument was tipped. surveyor's chain. [illustration: fig. . the surveyor's chain.] [illustration: fig. . forming the links.] [illustration: fig. . a double-ringed link.] we made a surveyor's chain of wire links, each inches long, instead of . inches, which is the length of a standard surveyor's link. the wire we used was no. galvanized iron, which was rather stiff and difficult to bend. in order to make all the links of exactly the same size and shape we used a form, around which they were bent. the form consisted of a -inch board in which two / inch holes were drilled, just - / inches apart, measured from their centers. an oak pin, / inch in diameter, was driven into each hole and projected about an inch above the board. two blocks of oak were secured to the baseboard, just before each pin, as shown in fig. . this form gave great satisfaction. a groove was cut in the side of one of the pins to receive the ring of a completed link, while the wire was passed through this ring and bent around the peg to form the ring of the new link. after each link was formed it was carefully measured, and, if too long, was shortened by flattening the rings endwise, or, if too short, was lengthened by pinching together the sides of the rings. there were fifty links in our chain, and every tenth one was formed with a double ring at the end, so as to distinguish it from the rest (see fig. ). the surveyor's rod. [illustration: fig. . cutting out a disk.] [illustration: fig. . the sighting disk] [illustration: fig. nut fastened in block.] we completed our outfit by making a surveyor's rod out of a straight stick of wood about feet long. a target or sighting disk was mounted on the stick. this disk was inches in diameter, and was sawed out of a -inch square board by making straight cuts across the corners and then smoothing off the edge to a perfect circle with a draw-knife. the thickness of the disk was only / inch. at the back of the disk we fastened a block of wood with a slot cut in it to receive the rod, as shown in fig. . to hold the disk at different heights on the rod a small bolt was used. the nut on this bolt was slipped into a hole on the block at the bottom of the slot and held in place by driving in nails about it, as illustrated in fig. . the bolt was then passed through the hole and threaded through the nut, with its inner end bearing against the rod. the disk could thus be held at any desired position by tightening up the bolt. a piece of white paper was now pasted over the disk. the paper was marked off into quarters, and opposite quarters were painted black so that it would be easy to sight, from a distance, the exact center of the target. a simple method of surveying. of course, none of us had studied trigonometry, but uncle ed devised a very simple method by which we could determine distances quite accurately without much figuring. "if you will tell me the length of one side of a triangle and the angles it makes with the other two sides," said uncle ed, "i'll tell you the length of the other two sides and the size of the third angle. this is how i will do it: [illustration: fig. . diagram of our first lesson in surveying.] "say the line is inches long and one angle is degrees, while the other is degrees. let us draw a -inch straight line. this we will call our base line. now we will place the base edge of our protractor on the base line with its center at the right hand end of the line. at the degree mark we will make a dot on the paper so, and draw a line from the right hand end of the base line through this dot. now we will do the same thing at the opposite end, making a dot at degrees from the line, and draw a line from the left hand end of the base line through this dot. "if we extend these lines until they intersect, we will have the required triangle, and can measure the two sides, which will be found to be about inches and inches long, and the third angle will measure just degrees. it doesn't make any difference on what scale we draw the triangle, whether it be miles, yards, feet, inches or fractions of an inch, the proportions will be the same. if the base line had been half-inches, or inches long, and the same angles were used, the other two lines would measure half-inches, or six inches, and half-inches, or inches. if the base line were quarter-inches long, the sides would be inches and inches long. [illustration: fig. . determining the distance to the tree.] "now, for example, i am going to measure the distance to that tree over there. get out your chain and measure off a straight line feet long. now, i'll set the surveying instrument with the plumb-bob right over the end of this line, and sight through the two sight holes until i bring the two vertical hairs in line with each other and the tree. look at the compass needle. it points to the degree mark on the cardboard ring. now, bill, you hold the rod at the other end of our base line while i swing this instrument around and sight it. there, the needle points to degrees, and subtracting this from the difference, degrees, is the angle at the right end of our base line. we'll do the same thing at the other end of our line. see, the compass needle points to degrees, and now sighting to the pole at the other end of the line we find that the needle points to . the difference, degrees, is therefore the size of the angle at the left end of our base line. now we will draw this out on paper, as we did our first triangle, using quarter-inches to represent feet. our base line was feet long, and we will therefore draw a line quarter-inches, or - / inches long, on our drawing board. on this line we will construct the triangle, using the angles and degrees. there, that's how our triangle looks, and the right hand side measures - / inches, while the left hand side measures - / inches. that is, quarter-inches for one side and - / quarter-inches for the other. as each quarter-inch represents a foot, you will find that the tree is about feet from the right end of our base line and feet inches from the left hand end. of course, our instrument is not perfect, neither is our drawing; but if you measure it off with the chain you will see that i am not very far from correct." mapping the island. most of our surveying was done by actual measurement, the surveying instrument being used only to determine the exact direction of the measurement. however, there were some measurements which we could not make directly with the chain. for example, we wished to know just how far it was from our tent to the jersey shore of the river. we measured off a base line along our shore feet long and sighted to a point directly across the river from our tent. the angle in front of our tent was degrees, and at the other end of the base line was degrees. when we drew out our triangle on the scale of feet to the inch we found that the shorter side directly in front of the tent was almost exactly inches long. this meant that the river at this point was , feet wide, nearly a quarter of a mile. on the other side of the island we found, in the same way, that the river at its narrowest point was about feet wide. this portion of the river we named lake placid, as the water was very still and quite deep. this was due to a sort of natural dam formed at the lower end of our island. the small island that dutchy found was kite-shaped, with a tail of boulders which extended almost all the way across to a rocky point on the pennsylvania shore. the channel between "kite island," as we called it, and willow clump island was not more than fifteen feet wide in some places, and through this the water swept with a swift current down past a narrow neck of land to join the main current. this narrow stretch of land we named the tiger's tail, owing to its peculiar shape. it was in the hook at the end of this tail that we discovered the old bridge wreck above referred to. from the tip of the tiger's tail to point lookout, at the extreme upper end of willow clump island, it was a little under a half-mile. the shore all along lake placid was very steep, except near point lookout. at one place there was a shallow bay which we called the lagoon. chapter viii. swimming. [illustration: fig. . the diving tree.] lake placid was a favorite swimming place for us. we used to plunge in from the branches of a tree which overhung the water a little ways above the lagoon and made a natural springboard. we could all swim like ducks, except dutchy, who couldn't do anything but paddle. however, uncle ed was an expert, and he took dutchy in hand and soon made a pretty good swimmer out of him. he also taught us some fancy strokes. of course i took no record of these lessons. you would hardly expect me to sit on the bank with a book in hand jotting down notes while the rest were splashing around in the cool water having the best of fun in the world, and even if i had, i wouldn't republish the notes here, because whoever heard of a boy learning to swim while reading a book on the subject? a beginner had better leave books alone and plunge right into the water. he will soon learn to keep himself afloat and can then practise any fancy strokes that he sees others try. then, again, don't try to learn in shallow water, because you will never do it. of course it doesn't pay to jump into water that is over your head unless there is a good swimmer near by to help you out. but you will never learn to swim until you have become accustomed to putting your head under water. you can not swim with a dry face. the first time we went swimming, we couldn't persuade dutchy to try it. the water was deep right up to the very bank and he had never been in over his head. instead he sat up in the diving tree swinging his feet and trying to hide the fact that he was having a dull time. "say, we've got to douse that fellow," said reddy. "you're right; he needs a wash," said jim. "let's sneak up behind him and chuck him in." they landed a little ways up the stream behind a large bush and then crept down stealthily on their victim. but dutchy had his suspicions aroused and saw them coming. he scrambled out of the tree in a jiffy and tore off into the woods as fast as his legs could carry him. swimming on a plank. [illustration: fig. . swimming on a plank.] we didn't expect to see him again that afternoon, for the pace he was leading should have carried him miles in no time; but while he couldn't swim, dutchy had his own ideas of fun on the water. it was about twenty minutes later that we saw him coming down-stream lying full length on one of the -inch planks taken from the bridge wreck. he was paddling himself along with arms and legs hung over the sides of the plank. we all gave him a cheer, and then started out to have some fun with him. we tried to pull him off his raft, but he stuck on like a leech. it was only when we made his craft turn turtle that dutchy got his head under water. but it wasn't a moment before he scrambled back on top again, gasping and sputtering to get the water out of his nose and mouth. uncle ed all this time had been sunning himself on the bank, when suddenly he uttered a shout of warning. we were right at the mouth of the mill-race. for the moment we forgot about dutchy, and swam out for shore. before we realized it dutchy was caught in the current, and was being swept full tilt down the stream. my but wasn't he scared. i can see him yet clinging for dear life to the plank, his face the color of ashes and his eyes bulging out in terror. first he tried to make for the bank, but the water was so swift that when the front end of the board struck land the rear end swung around in a circle, carrying him on again, but backward this time, before we could reach him. two or three more times the plank struck the bank and turned him around, while we raced along the high bank, scrambling down to catch him every time he headed for shore, but each time just missing him. then he swung out past the tiger's tail into the open river just above the rapids. fortunately he was going along headforemost this time, and uncle ed, who had just arrived, panting and breathless, from running, shouted to him to keep his head and steer for a narrow opening between two jutting boulders. i don't know whether dutchy did any steering or not, but the raft shot straight through the opening, and was lost in a cloud of spray. in a moment he reappeared below the rapids, paddling like mad for a neck of land on the pennsylvania side of the river. dutchy would never own up that he was afraid. he never told a lie under other circumstances, but when it came to a question of courage he had the habit of stretching facts to the very limit. even in this case, he said that he started out with the idea of shooting the rapids, and if we hadn't flustered him so, he would not have bumped into the bank and turned about so many times. dutchy was a very glib talker. he nearly persuaded us that it was all done intentionally, and his thrilling account of the wild dash between the rocks and through the shower of spray stirred us up so that we all had to try the trick too. shooting the rapids. the next day, while uncle ed was taking a nap, we stole off to the upper end of lake placid, each one towing a plank. we needn't have been so afraid of uncle ed, for we found out later that he intended to try a plank ride through the rapids himself next time he went in swimming. down lake placid we paddled in single column to the mill-race. in a moment the current had caught us and we were off. i shall never forget the thrilling ride down the swirling mill-race, the sudden pause as we shot out into the open river, the plunge between the boulders and the dive through the spray. it was all over too soon. something like coasting--whiz, whiz-z-z, and a half-mile walk. were it not for the trouble of hauling the planks back by the roundabout course along the pennsy shore we would have thought shooting the rapids a capital game. restoring the drowned. [illustration: fig. . pressing the water out of the stomach.] [illustration: fig. . expanding the chest.] [illustration: fig. . squeezing out the air from the lungs.] it was on the second day after dutchy's exploit of the rapids that bill came so near drowning. he probably would have drowned if uncle ed hadn't been on hand to work over him. bill was a fine swimmer, but even the best of swimmers will sometimes get a cramp, so it is never safe for any one to go into the water without some one at hand to help him out in case of accident. in the present case bill was doing some fancy strokes by himself over near the pennsy shore, while the rest of us were watching uncle ed give dutchy a lesson in swimming. all of a sudden bill threw up his hands and sank. i happened to glance up as he did it. we thought he was fooling at first, but soon made out that he was in genuine trouble. uncle ed dropped dutchy to my tender care, and raced over with a powerful stroke to the spot where he had last seen his nephew. he failed to find him on the first dive, but the second time was successful and he carried the lifeless body to the pennsylvania shore. in the meantime i had landed dutchy and with the rest of the boys had crossed the lake. uncle ed first laid bill on his back and hastily wiped dry the mouth and nostrils. then he pried his jaws apart, holding them open with a piece of wood wedged in between the teeth. after which he turned him on his face over a log which was placed under his stomach. by stomach i do not mean the bowels, but the real stomach, which lies just under the ribs in front. then he pressed with a good weight on the back directly over the log for nearly a minute, causing the water to flow out of the mouth. dutchy had by this time rowed across in the scow, in which fortunately there happened to be some of uncle ed's clothing. this he took and rolled into a bundle, then bill was laid on his back over the roll of clothing, which was arranged to raise the pit of his stomach above the rest of his body. uncle ed now wrapped a handkerchief around his forefinger, and with it wiped out bill's mouth and throat. reddy, who was the least excited of the lot, was told to draw bill's tongue forward so as to prevent it from falling back and choking the windpipe. this he did with the dry part of the handkerchief, drawing the end of the tongue out at the corner of the mouth, and holding it there while uncle ed and i started the pumping action, which produced artificial respiration. i was directed to grasp bill's arms just below the elbows, and swing them vertically in an arc until the hands met the ground again above the head. this expanded the chest. uncle ed at the same time stood over the body with his elbows on his knees and hands extended, as illustrated in fig. . then i swung the arms up and back to the sides of the body, but just before the hands touched the ground uncle ed seized the body in both hands just below the ribs, and as soon as i touched the arms to the ground he swung forward with all his weight on his hands, squeezing the waist and pushing upward so as to force out the air in the chest. then he slowly counted, one, two, three, four, all the time steadily increasing the pressure, until at the signal four, with a final push, he shoved himself to the first position, shown in fig. . at the same signal i drew the arms up again over the head, and held them there while uncle ed again counted four; then i returned the arms to the sides, and uncle ed repeated the squeezing process. these movements were continued for about three minutes, and then bill gave a short, faint gasp. we kept on with the artificial respiration, assisting the gasps, which gradually grew stronger, until they had deepened into steady breathing. then we stripped off the wet bathing suit, and wrapping bill in uncle ed's clothing, laid him in the bottom of the boat. while dutchy hurried the boat across, uncle ed rubbed the patient's arms and legs. the rest of us swam over and ran for blankets from the tent. bill was wrapped in one of the blankets and the other was used as a stretcher, on which we carried him to the tent. then one of us was sent post-haste across to lumberville for some whiskey, which was diluted in hot water and given the patient a teaspoonful at a dose, every fifteen minutes at first, and then at less frequent intervals. uncle ed kept bill in bed all the next day for fear of congestion of the lungs. he told us that unless the patient kept perfectly quiet for a couple of days, he was liable to be seized with a sudden attack of hard breathing that might choke him to death in a short time. to stop such an attack he told us that the best plan was to apply a mustard plaster to the chest, and if the patient commenced to gasp, to start pumping the arms and squeezing the waist so as to help him breathe. after bill had come around and was himself again uncle ed gave us a thorough drill in methods of restoring the drowned. he laid down on the grass and made us practise on him the various directions which he gave us. how to work over a patient alone. [illustration: fig. . working alone over a patient.] "if you boys hadn't been so excited," he said, "i would have made you rub bill's body and limbs while we were pumping the air into him, but i knew you would get in the way, and be more of a bother than a help. you must learn to be calm in any accident; excitement doesn't pay. keep steadily and slowly at your pumping, for you might have to do it for four hours before the patient comes to." he taught us just how to swing the arms and squeeze the ribs to best advantage, and how to hold the tongue without getting in the way of the arms as they were pumped back and forth. there was also a special way of rubbing the arms and legs. the limbs were always rubbed upward, or toward the body, with the bare hands, or a dry cloth if there was one at hand, but this all had to be done without interfering with the pumping action. "if the patient doesn't come around in five minutes," he said, "turn him on his face again over the roll of clothing, or any other suitable substitute, and press out the water from the stomach, rolling him first to one side and then to the other; be sure to get all the water out." when we had learned our lesson well, uncle ed took dutchy for his patient, and proceeded to show us how a man could work over him alone. first he went through the operation of squeezing the water out of him, and drying his nose and mouth, much to the patient's discomfort; then he drew dutchy's tongue out of the corner of his mouth, holding it there by closing the jaws on it, and holding the jaws together by passing a handkerchief over his chin and lapping it over his head. after that he began to pump, seizing the patient's arms and swinging them up over the head and back, as before. just as the arms were dropped back to the sides of the body, he squeezed them in against the ribs, at the same time drawing upward toward the head and counting four each time, as he had done before. but the lesson was abruptly interrupted by dutchy, whose imagination was worked up to such a pitch that i actually believe he thought he had been drowning. anyway, he squirmed out of uncle ed's grasp, and wouldn't play patient any longer. for several days after that we couldn't persuade him to venture near deep water. chapter ix. bridge building. willow clump island was, for the most part, a trackless wilderness, and as soon as we had made our map we laid out roads to the different important points. our main highway ran from point lookout to tiger's tail. this road was made rather winding, to add to its picturesqueness, and from it a number of shorter roads branched off. spar bridge. [illustration: figs. and . frames for the spar bridge.] [illustration: fig . the spar bridge.] we ran a bridge across the mill-race at its narrowest point. this bridge was made of trees which we had cut down in making our road. it was quite a piece of engineering, built under uncle ed's guidance. two frames were made of the shape shown in figs. and . the side sticks were feet long and spaced about feet apart at the base by crosspieces. at the upper end one frame was made feet wide and the other feet wide. the side and cross spars were mortised together and secured by lashing a rope around them. to make the frames more rigid we braced them with diagonal braces nailed on. when completed we set the frames up on opposite sides of the stream and with ropes carefully lowered their upper ends until they interlocked, the side spars of each frame resting on the cross spars of the other. in the angles formed by the crossing side spars a center spar was laid, and a number of floor beams or spars were stretched to this from the opposite shores. on these a flooring was spread made of saplings, cut and trimmed to the right size. a rustic railing on each side of the bridge completed the structure. the rope railway. [illustration: fig. . the swing seat.] [illustration: fig. . tying the ropes to the seat.] the mill-race was crossed further down by a rope line on which we rigged a traveling carriage. a light manila rope was used, anchored to a tree at each side about fifteen feet from the ground. a pulley block with a wheel or sheave inches in diameter was mounted to travel on the rope. suspended from this block by means of fall and tackle was a swing seat. this, as shown in fig. , was merely a board fastened with four rope strands to the ring of the tackle block. a single rope was used, with the ends tied firmly together. the loop thus formed was passed through the ring of the tackle block and the opposite ends were twisted over the ends of the seat board in the manner illustrated in fig. . the tackle blocks were quite small, having -inch sheaves, and they, together with the large pulley or "traveling block," as we called it, cost us about $ . . two light ropes were fastened to the large traveling block, each rope long enough to reach across the stream. the ropes extended to opposite anchorages, where each was passed over a branch of the tree and belayed on a cleat within easy reach. a fellow could draw himself up clear of the ground by pulling on the free end of the fall, as a painter does; then tying the swing fast in this position, he would pull himself across the stream by means of the rope stretched to the opposite anchorage. the swing could be drawn back by the next one who wanted to cross. we also used this aerial line for transporting loads from one island to the other. [illustration: fig. . the rope railway.] suspension bridge. [illustration: fig . barrel-stave flooring.] [illustration: fig. . the suspension bridge.] our aerial railway didn't last long. we soon tired of it, and instead utilized the materials for a rope suspension bridge. we procured from lumberville half a dozen old barrels and used the staves as a flooring for the bridge. the staves were linked together by a pair of ropes at each end woven over and under, as indicated in the drawing fig. . notches were cut in the staves to hold the ropes from slipping off. the flexible flooring thus constructed was stretched across the river and secured to stakes driven firmly in the ground. a pair of parallel ropes were extended across the stream about three feet above the flooring, with which they were connected at intervals of five feet. the bridge was feet long, and while rather shaky, owing to the fact that there were no braces to prevent it from swaying sidewise, still it was very strong and did excellent service. pontoon bridge. [illustration: fig. . the pontoon bridge.] at the head of the mill-race, where the channel was fifty feet wide, we built a pontoon bridge. we were fortunate in securing six good cider barrels at low cost, also a quantity of "slabs" from one of the sawmills of lumberville. "slab" is the lumberman's name for the outside piece of a log which is sawn off in squaring up the sides. we made a raft of these materials and floated them down the river to lake placid. the bridge was made by anchoring the barrels in the channel about eight feet apart, and laying on them the floor beams, which supported a flooring of slabs. the floor beams were narrow planks inch by inches, taken from the bridge wreck, and they were placed on edge to prevent sagging. of course we had no anchors for securing the barrels, but used instead large stones weighing about pounds each, around which the anchor lines were fastened. we found it rather difficult to sink these improvised anchors at just the right places, for we were working at the very mouth of the mill-race, and were in constant danger of having our scow sucked down into the swirling channel. once we were actually drawn into the mill-race and tore madly down the rushing stream. by bill's careful steering we managed to avoid striking the shore, and just as we were off the tiger's tail reddy succeeded in swinging a rope around an overhanging limb and bringing us to a sudden stop. a moment later we might have been dashed against the rocks in the rapids below and our boat smashed. shooting rapids in a scow is a very different matter from riding through them on a plank. the king rod truss. our bridge building operations were not entirely confined to the island. two of them were built on the schreiner grounds at lamington. reddy schreiner's home was situated a little distance above the town where cedar brook came tumbling down a gorge in the hills and spread out into the schreiners' ice pond. thence it pursued its course very quietly through the low and somewhat swampy ground in the schreiners' back yard. over this brook reddy was very anxious to build a bridge. accordingly, before returning to school in the fall bill made out a careful set of plans for the structure, and after we had gone the rest of the society, under reddy's guidance, erected the bridge. [illustration: fig. . the king rod bridge.] the structure was a cross between a suspension bridge and a spar bridge. the banks of the stream were so low that, instead of resting the floor of the bridge on top of the inclined frames, as we had done over the mill-race, it was suspended from the spars by means of wires. the crossing ends of the spars were nailed together and their lower ends were firmly planted about four feet apart in the banks of the brook. a stick nailed to the apex of each pair of spars served temporarily to brace them apart. the center cross beam of the bridge was now suspended from the spars by means of heavy galvanized iron wire (no. , i should say). the beam was hung high enough to allow for stretch of the wire, making the roadway incline upward from both sides to the center. aside from carrying the floor of the bridge, this beam was used to brace the inclined spars when the temporary crosspiece was removed. the ends of the beam projected about thirty inches beyond the bridge at each side, and they supported braces which extended diagonally upward to the crossing ends of the spars. when this was done the temporary crosspiece above referred to was removed. as the span between the center cross beam and the banks was a little too long to provide a steady floor, a couple of intermediate cross beams were suspended from the inclined spars. the floor beams were then laid in place and covered with a flooring of slabs. stiffening the bridge. the bridge was a pretty good one, except for a slight unsteadiness between the center and either end. when uncle ed saw it he showed us at once where the trouble lay. our intermediate cross beams were hung from the center of the spars, and consequently made them bend, because the strain came across their length, while at the center of the bridge there was no chance for the spars to bend, because the strain was exerted along their length, that is, it tended merely to push the ends of the spars deeper into the banks. to remedy the trouble he proposed propping up the center of each spar with a brace running from the center crosspiece. the dotted lines in fig. show how these braces were applied. they made the floor perfectly solid throughout, and gave the bridge a much better appearance. uncle ed told us that the structure might be called a "king rod truss," except that in place of rods we had used wires. [illustration: the king rod bridge.] [illustration: the bridge over cedar brook gorge.] the king post bridge. the other bridge on the schreiner property was built in the following summer, just before we started on our second expedition to willow clump island. it spanned the brook at the gorge, and was therefore a more difficult engineering feat. mr. schreiner himself asked us to build it, and we felt greatly honored by the request. a search was made in the van syckel library for a suitable type. at last we found one that seemed properly suited to the requirements. it was called a "king post truss," and was very similar to the king rod bridge. while the design of the bridge was simple, yet it required some ingenuity to put it together. in setting up the other bridge the scow had been anchored in the center of the stream and used as a working platform, from which it had been an easy matter to put the various parts together. in this case our scow was obviously of no use, so we laid a couple of long logs across the chasm, and a few slats were nailed across them to provide a temporary bridge or working platform. the platform sagged considerably at the center, because the span was fully eighteen feet; but the logs were large, and we knew they were strong enough to support our weight. however, as an extra precaution, we tied the ends to stakes driven in the ground, so that they could not possibly slip off the banks. [illustration: fig. . the king post frame.] [illustration: fig. . the king posts set in position.] [illustration: fig. . the permanent cross beam made fast.] first we set about constructing the king posts, which were made as shown in fig. . two stout posts feet long were connected at the top by a tie stick, which spaced them feet apart. to make a secure fastening they were notched together and strengthened with diagonal braces. each king post was notched on opposite sides, at about thirty inches from the top. a temporary tie piece was also nailed across the lower ends of the king posts. the frame thus formed was set up at the center of the span and temporarily held by nailing the lower tie piece to the working platform. four stout spars were now cut, each about fifteen feet long. taking a pair at a time, we planted their lower ends firmly in the opposite banks and sawed off their upper ends until they could just be hammered into the notches in the king post. this required careful fitting, but by making the spars a little too long to start with, and then shaving them down with a draw-knife, we managed to make fairly good joints. a couple of long wire nails in each spar made the structure perfectly secure. the king posts were now sawed off just above the temporary tie piece, and the permanent cross beam was fastened to these ends with straps of heavy wire wound tightly about them. the working platform sagged so much that we were able to lay this cross beam above it. from the ends of the cross beam diagonal braces extended to the king posts (fig. ). our working platform was now removed and replaced with the permanent floor beams, which were firmly nailed to the center cross beam and to the inclined spars at the shore ends. the floor beams were quite heavy and needed no support between the king posts and shore. a rustic floor was made of small logs sawed in two at mr. schreiner's sawmill. light poles were nailed to the flooring along each edge, giving a finish to the bridge. we also provided a rustic railing for the bridge of light poles nailed to the king posts and the diagonal spars. chapter x. canvas canoes. like all inhabitants of islands, we early turned our attention to navigation. our scow was serviceable for transporting materials back and forth across the strips of shallow water between our quarters and the jersey shore. we never attempted to row across, because progress would have been entirely too slow, and we would have drifted down to the rapids long ere we could reach the opposite side. but on lake placid matters were different. although there was no settlement near us on the pennsylvania shore, to occasion our crossing the water for provisions and the like, yet the quiet stretch was admirably suited to boating for pleasure, and mighty little pleasure could we get out of our heavy scow. uncle ed's departure. owing to a sudden business call uncle ed left us after he had been with us nearly three weeks. but, before going, he explained carefully to bill just how to construct a canvas canoe. jack, the cook, who was anxious to lay in a second supply of provisions, accompanied uncle ed as far as millville, the next town below lamington. here uncle ed bought five yards of canvas, inches wide, several cans of paint and a quantity of brass and copper nails and tacks. these supplies, together with the food provisions that jack had collected, were brought to us late in the afternoon by mr. schreiner. mr. schreiner also brought the necessary boards and strips of wood for the framework of our canoe. a visit from mr. schreiner. we invited mr. schreiner to spend the night with us, and this he did after fording with some difficulty the swift-running river. in the morning we showed him our quarters, our filter, the roads we had built, the spar bridge across to kite island, our surveying instrument and the chart we had made of the vicinity. he was greatly pleased with our work, and it was then that he gave us an order for the bridge over the gorge. from that day on he became our staunchest ally, so that when my father and mr. van syckel complained that we were loafing away a lot of time which could be more profitably spent in study or work, mr. schreiner stood up for us and declared that our experiences on the island were doing us far more good, both physically and mentally, than any other work that they could conceive of; that before condemning us they should pay us a visit and see how we were employing our time. the sailing canoe. [illustration: exploring the river in the indian canoe.] [illustration: fig. . stern post of the canoe.] [illustration: fig. . stern of the canoe.] [illustration: fig. . center form.] [illustration: fig. . bulkheads.] [illustration: fig. . center braces.] [illustration: fig. . top view of the canoe frame.] [illustration: fig. . side view of the canoe frame.] immediately after mr. schreiner's departure we started work on the canoe. a strip of spruce inch thick, inches wide and feet long served as the keelson. at the stern a post - / inches thick, inches wide and inches high was secured to the keelson with brass screws. this was braced as indicated in fig. . at the bow a stem piece was attached to the keelson. this stem was cut to a somewhat semicircular form, as shown in fig. . the outer edge was tapered with a draw-knife to a thickness of / inch and a brace was nailed to the inner edge. our next work was to cut out three forms, one of the shape shown in fig. and two like that shown in fig. . the first form was set up on the keelson midway between the stem and stern, and the other two were spaced about four feet each side of the center form. the center form was used only for shaping the frame of the boat, and was not intended to be permanently affixed to the canoe. therefore, we fastened it to the keelson very lightly, so that it could be readily removed. the other two forms, however, were made permanent parts of the frame, serving as bulkheads. the gunwales were now secured in position. these were of spruce / inch thick and inches wide. the ends were beveled off so as to neatly fit the stem piece and the stern post, to which they were fastened by brass screws. then we applied the longitudinal strips, or rib bands, which were of / -inch thick spruce inch wide. ten of these bands were used, equally spaced apart on the center form, to which they were lightly tacked; but they were nailed securely to the bulkheads and the stem piece and stern post. the cross ribs were made of barrel hoops which we had soaked in water for a day or so to render them pliable enough to be bent into place. these hoops were split to a width of / inch, and secured first to the keelson, then to the longitudinal strips and finally to the gunwales. copper tacks were used for nailing the ribs in place, and these were long enough to be passed through the rib bands and clinched on the outside. forty cross ribs were nailed on, and at the center of the canoe they were spaced about three inches apart. the center form was then removed and cut along the dotted lines shown in fig. . the semicircular pieces thus obtained were now strengthened with strips on their inner edges, and wedged in between the keelson and the gunwales, to which they were nailed, as shown in fig. . a pair of cleats nailed to the cross ribs served as supports for the seat of the canoe. the frame of the boat was completed by nailing in place two deck beams of / -inch square pine and four corner pieces between the gunwales and the bulkheads, so as to make an elliptical well hole or deck opening. before laying on the canvas covering the edges of the gunwales, keelson, deck beams, stem and stern posts were smoothed down with sandpaper. [illustration: fig. . lacing the canvas on the frame.] stretching on the canvas. [illustration: fig. . tacking the canvas to the keel.] the frame was laid in the center of the canvas and the latter drawn around it. then with a large needle and strong twine we sewed both edges of the cloth together with long stitches, lacing the canvas over the frame as a shoe is laced over a foot. this done, the boat was turned deck downward and the canvas was tacked to the keelson. in each case, before driving in a tack a daub of white lead was applied, to water-proof the spot. at the stem and stern a gore (narrow triangular piece) was cut out of the canvas so as to make it lie smooth on the frame, and white lead was painted in between the overlapping edges. the canoe was then turned deck upward and the lacing tightened, while we carefully worked out all wrinkles in the cloth. after tacking the canvas along the gunwales on the outside, it was trimmed off, leaving sufficient margin to be brought over the gunwales and tacked inside. two triangular pieces were cut out for the decks, and these were lapped over the outer canvas and tacked to the gunwales. a narrow molding along the edge of the boat served to cover the tack heads and added a certain finish to the canoe. a keel plate inches wide and inch thick was attached to the outside of the boat, and then, after wetting the canvas, it was given a coat of white lead and oil. when this was perfectly dry it was sandpapered and the second coat applied. the rudder. [illustration: fig. . the rudder.] [illustration: fig. . the rudder hinge.] the canoe was now complete except for the rudder, which was cut from a / -inch board to about the shape shown in fig. . strips - / inches wide and / inch thick were nailed to each side of the blade, forming a post, to the top of which a crosspiece or tiller was fastened. a cleat nailed to the pillar at each side of the rudder post served to greatly strengthen the joint. the rudder was hinged to the canoe by a rod, which passed through four brass screw eyes, two threaded into the rudder and a corresponding pair screwed into the stern. for convenience in steering we ran our tiller rope clear around the boat, through screw eyes in the gunwales and a pulley at the stem, so that the steersman could guide his craft from any point in the canoe. the deep keel. [illustration: fig. . bottom of canoe, showing deep keel.] [illustration: fig. . end view, showing deep keel.] we planned to use our canoe as a sailboat, and had to provide a deep keel, which, for convenience, was made detachable. this keel was inches wide, / inch thick and feet long, and was fastened at the center of the canoe. screw eyes about twelve inches apart were threaded alternately into opposite sides of the keel plate. corresponding hooks were attached to the keel in position to hook into the screw eyes, and thus hold the keel firmly in place. canoe sails. [illustration: fig. . the mast step.] [illustration: fig. . the mainsail.] [illustration: fig. . the mizzen sail.] our boat was fitted with two masts, a mainmast and a mizzen or dandy mast. the former was feet long and the latter feet long, and each measured - / inches in diameter at the base, tapering to about inch diameter at the upper end. they were held in brass bands, or clamps, bent around them and secured to the bulkheads, as shown in fig. . the sails were of the lanteen type. the mainsail measured - / feet along the boom, - / feet along the yard and feet at the leach. the dimensions of the mizzen sail were: along the boom, feet; along the yard, - / feet; and at the leach, feet. the boom was attached to a strap of leather on the mast, and was thus given freedom to swing around in any desired position. the yard was similarly attached, and was raised by a cord, which passed through pulleys at the top and at the base of the mast and extended to a cleat within easy reach of the occupant of the boat. a double paddle was fashioned from a board inch thick, inches wide and feet long. the blades were shaved down to a thickness of / of an inch at the edges. it will be observed that we used no iron in the construction of this boat. uncle ed has warned us not to, because iron rusts out so easily and is apt to damage both the canvas and the wood with which it is in contact. [illustration: fig. . the double paddle.] a canoe is rather a tipsy thing to sail in, as we soon learned, and it was lucky that we could all swim, else our vacation might have ended very tragically; for the very first time bill and i tried the boat an unexpected gust of wind struck us and over we went. we were very poor sailors at first, but it didn't take us long to catch on. lee boards one thing that bothered us greatly in sailing was the keel of our canoe. it was forever getting twisted, particularly when we tried to make a landing. there were only a few places along the island where the water was deep enough to permit our coming right up to shore without striking the keel. the fastening was not very strong, and every once and awhile it would be wrenched loose. the matter was made the subject of a special letter to uncle ed, and in due time his answer was received. as usual, he offered a first-class solution of the difficulty. "don't use a keel," he wrote; "lee boards are much better." then he went on to explain what was meant by lee boards: "the leeward side of a boat is the opposite of the windward side; that is, that side of the boat which is sheltered from the wind. lee boards, then, are boards which are hung over the lee side of a boat to prevent it from drifting to leeward, and they serve to take the place of a keel or centerboard." [illustration: fig. . a lee board.] [illustration: fig. . section of the canoe, showing lee board.] [illustration: fig. . the lee boards in use on canoe.] following uncle ed's direction we fastened a strip of wood across the canoe about six feet from the bow, nailing it firmly to the gunwales. this provided a support to which the lee boards were secured. the lee boards were paddle-shaped affairs of the form and dimensions shown in fig. . each paddle near the top was hinged to the end of a board three inches wide and a foot long. the paddle was held at right angles to the board by means of a hook. each board was fastened with door hinges to a baseboard which extended the width of the boat and was attached to the crosspiece of the canoe by means of a couple of bolts. the bolt heads were countersunk, so that the hinged boards could lie flat over them. to the top of each lee board two ropes were attached, one passing forward around a pulley and thence back to a cleat within easy reach of the occupant of the canoe, and the other passing directly back to this cleat. by pulling the former rope the lee board was lifted out of the water, while the latter rope was used to swing the board into working position. when tacking to port (left), the board on the left side of the canoe was lowered and the other was raised, as shown in fig. , and when tacking to the starboard (right) the board on the right side was lowered, while the left one was raised. [illustration: the indian canoe fitted with lanteen sail and lee boards.] the indian paddling canoe. [illustration: fig. . center form.] [illustration: fig. . intermediate form.] [illustration: fig. . the stem piece.] [illustration: fig. . skeleton frame of canoe.] [illustration: fig. . section at center of canoe.] our sailing canoe proved such a good one that we decided to build a second. this was to be much lighter, for paddling only, and of the true indian shape, with wide, bulging sides and raised stem and stern. the dimension of the forms used are given in figs. and . these forms, it will be observed, were notched to receive the keelson and gunwales. the keelson was formed of -inch spruce inches wide and feet long. the stem and stern, which were both of the same shape, were cut from a -inch board to the form shown in fig. , and were firmly secured to the keelson. this made the boat feet long. the forms were then set in place on the keelson, one at the center and the others three feet each side. the gunwales were formed of / -inch by - / -inch spruce, and the twelve rib bands used were of the size used in our first boat. as none of these forms was to remain in the boat, nails were driven very lightly into them, with heads projecting so that they could easily be withdrawn when it was time to remove the forms. the cross ribs were passed under the keelson inside of the rib bands and outside of the gunwales, as shown in fig. . after they were set in place and firmly secured with copper tacks, a band was nailed to the keelson to form the keel. to produce the raised stem and stern, four wedge-shaped pieces were nailed to the tops of the gunwales, as indicated in fig. . the forms were then removed and were replaced with cross sticks braced between the gunwales. the center cross stick was provided with two corner pieces, as shown in fig. , adapted to fit under the gunwales and against the rib bands. the canvas was then applied in the manner described before, but was tacked to the upper edge of the gunwale instead of the outer side, and the tacks were covered by a half-round molding which extended around the entire boat. after the lacing was cut the edge of the canvas was secured to the under edges of the gunwales. the canoe was then completed by fastening on a -inch square keel and treating the boat with two coats of paint. the paddle was a duplicate of the one described in connection with the sailing canoe. [illustration: fig. . wedge pieces at the ends.] i remember that we eventually equipped our paddling canoe with a sail and a pair of lee boards, though no record of this fact appears in the chronicles of the society. [illustration: fig. . the cross braces.] chapter xi. house building. one afternoon fred, who had waded over to lumberville after some provisions, came splashing back holding aloft a large square envelope. it was from uncle ed and contained a photograph of a group of wichita indians building a large grass lodge. in a brief explanatory letter uncle ed suggested that we build a similar hut on our island. the grass hut. [illustration: fig. . making the frame of the straw hut.] [illustration: fig. . doorway of the hut.] the grass lodge appealed to us as very picturesque, and we set to work immediately on its construction. we made our hut much smaller, however, only feet in diameter, and or feet high. first we procured two dozen light poles between and feet long. these we set up about inches apart in a circle like a stockade, the sticks being buried in the ground to a depth of inches. at one side a space of feet was allowed for a doorway. inside the stockade we erected a working platform of planks supported on barrels, and standing on this we took two opposite poles, bent them inward and lashed their upper ends together. then a second pair of opposite poles were similarly bent inward and tied, and so we proceeded until the entire stockade had been converted into a dome-shaped cage. around these poles we laid lighter sticks, or bands, tying them at the points of intersection. at the doorway two posts were set firmly in the ground, projecting upward to a height of feet. a lintel nailed across the top of the posts completed the door frame. sticks were nailed to the lintel and to the side posts, extending to the main frame of the hut, to which they were tied. we were now ready to thatch our hut. reddy and dutchy went over to lumberville for several bales of straw. we tied the straw in bunches and applied it to the frame, copying, as best we could, the process illustrated in the photograph. but for its location the hut would have proved a very serviceable habitation. in order to have a good, dry dwelling without laying down a board flooring, we had selected for its site the sandy shore at point lookout. this part of the island was not sheltered with trees, and the hot sun beat down on our hut so strongly that we found the quarters very uncomfortable indeed. it was this fact that led to the construction of a tree hut--a building that would be perfectly dry and yet shaded and cool. bill had read of such houses in the philippines and felt confident that we could build one. we couldn't decide at first where to locate our hut until dutchy moved that we build it in the gnarled oak tree overlooking the "goblins' dancing platform." immediately the motion was seconded and unanimously carried. the goblins' dancing platform. just above the town of lumberville there was a cliff which rose sheer feet above the level of the river. so perpendicular was the cliff that a stone dropped from the overhanging ledge at the top would fall straight down to the railroad track below without touching a twig in its course. back of this broad ledge there was a very peculiar formation. a column of stone rose abruptly feet higher and was topped with a large slab about feet in diameter. this was known all over that region as the goblins' dancing platform. the only possible way of gaining the summit of the column was by climbing a scraggly oak tree which grew on the high ground back of the pillar, crawling out on an overhanging limb, and then dropping down to the platform below. it was in this oak that we decided to build our house. it was a very inaccessible spot, and to reach it we had to make a wide detour around the back of the hill, and through the fields of a cranky farmer, who more than once threatened to fill us with bird shot for trespassing on his property. how were we to carry all our building materials up to this great height? one would think that the difficulties would be enough to discourage us, but not so with the s. s. i. e. e. of w. c. i. nothing daunted us. dutchy takes a dare. our first task was to try some other approach to the top of the cliff. at one side of the overhanging ledge there was a fissure in the rocks which ran from the base of the pillar to the foot of the cliff. down this zigzag crevice dutchy had scrambled, one afternoon, on a dare. we were rather frightened when he started, because it was a very hazardous undertaking, and we watched him anxiously, peering over the edge of the precipice. by bracing his back against one of the walls of the rock, and digging his feet into the niches and chinks of the opposite wall, he safely made his way to a shelf about half-way down, where he paused to rest. from that point on the fissure widened out, and a steep, almost vertical incline, sparsely covered with vegetation, led to the railroad track below. i think he must have become rather frightened at his position, because he hesitated long before he resumed his downward course, and when he finally did make the attempt his foot slipped upon the moss-covered rocks and down he fell, scratching and clawing at every shrub within reach. believing him to be killed, we rushed down the hill and around to the foot of the cliff. it probably took us about fifteen or twenty minutes, though it seemed ages before we came upon our venturesome comrade coolly trying to pin together a rent of inconvenient location and dimensions in his trousers. "say, dutchy, are you killed?" cried bill, breathlessly. "killed, nothing," he replied, with scorn. "i suppose you fellows think i had a fall. well, i didn't." "you didn't, eh? we saw you slip." "oh, go on. i came down that way on purpose. there was no use in picking my way down like a 'fraid cat, when i could just as well take a smooth and easy toboggan slide on the bushes all the way down." smooth and easy toboggan slide! well, you should have seen the hillside. the course was well defined by the torn and uprooted shrubs and the pile of branches and vines at dutchy's feet. whether the hare-brained dutchy really imagined he could glide easily down on the shrubbery, his frantic movements on the way certainly belied his story, and when, the next day, we proposed that he repeat the trick, somehow he didn't seem to be very enthusiastic on the subject. [illustration: wichita indians building a straw hut.] a path up the fissure. [illustration: fig. . the jacob's ladder.] it was up this fissure that we decided to haul materials for our tree hut. our first task was to build steps and ladders in the steepest parts. we had no tool for cutting out niches in the rock, but wherever natural depressions were formed we wedged in sticks of wood between the side walls to serve as ladder rungs. if no such niches appeared for considerable height, we would stretch a rope ladder to the next fixed rung. in most places the natural formation of the rock was such as to afford sufficient footing. rope ladders. [illustration: fig. . rope ladder.] the rope ladders were made of two parallel side straps, tightly stretched between the fixed sticks, and then at intervals of fifteen inches we inserted the ends of the ladder rung between the strands of the rope. below and above each rung the rope was bound with cord. the rungs were notched at the ends to prevent them from slipping out. [illustration: fig. . a ladder rung.] [illustration: fig. . the derrick.] after providing a means for scaling the cliff (we called it the jacob's ladder), we were still confronted with the problem how to cart our building materials to the top. it was a very hard task and you couldn't have hired us to do it under any other circumstances. first, bill planned out on paper just how the house was to be built, and we cut all the pieces to the right size so as not to carry up any superfluous matter. when all was ready the boards and sticks were loaded on the scow, and ferried over to the cliff. then we carried them on our backs, three or four at a time, up the slanting hillside to the first ledge. from there up, owing to the steepness of the ascent, we had to employ different tactics. the derrick. [illustration: fig. . the derrick in use.] a derrick was constructed of two sticks feet long, which were bolted together at the top, and secured about five feet apart at the bottom by a cross piece, as shown in fig. . the derrick was then taken apart and with some difficulty hauled piecemeal up to the next ledge above. here it was put together again. the fall and tackle used in our aerial railway was attached to the apex of the derrick, and the latter was then erected with the legs set into depressions in the ledge and the upper ends slanting outward but kept from falling over the edge by a rope tied to one of the fixed rungs set in the fissure. with this derrick we hoisted up the boards in a few hauls. the job was a very ticklish one, but bill used the greatest care to prevent accident. the derrick, rope and tackle were carefully tested before used, and as soon as the load was attached to the lower pulley block the two who did the loading were instructed to crawl back into the fissure so as to be out of danger in case anything gave way. at one time a stick which had been carelessly tied did fall, and it might have badly hurt some one had we not observed this precaution. when we had raised the material to the second ledge we transferred operations to the top ledge, and when the materials had been hauled up to this point we finally rigged up our fall and tackle in the old oak tree itself. the tree house. [illustration: fig. . main girder of the tree house.] [illustration: fig . top view of the platform.] the tree had two large limbs which extended out at a wide angle from the main trunk. across these two limbs, at about seven feet out, we laid our first girder, nailing it securely in place. then to the main trunk we nailed the second girder on a level with the first. diagonal braces were extended from the trunk to support the ends of this girder, and a tie piece was nailed to the braces, as shown in fig. , to prevent them from spreading. the girders were rough sticks about inches in diameter and feet long. we cut flat faces on them at the points where they were nailed to the tree, and then, to make them doubly secured, we nailed cleats, or blocks of wood, to the tree under them. the floor beams were then laid across and nailed to the girders. they were cut to a length of feet so as to project beyond the outer girder to provide for a piazza overhanging the goblins' platform. six floor beams were used, spaced inches apart. all branches projecting up between the beams were then cut away and a flooring of slabs was laid on. to the main trunk six feet above the flooring, a stick or (to use the technical term), "wall plate," was nailed on, and its ends were supported by upright posts resting on the platform. thirty inches from the outer end of the platform two more posts were erected eight feet high and secured by sticks nailed across from the other posts, and also by a second wall plate connecting their upper ends. four more posts were erected, one between each pair of the corner posts, and then we were ready to enclose the framing. [illustration: fig. . the frame of the house.] [illustration: fig. . nailing on the clapboards.] the sidewalls were first clapboarded, because we were afraid the roof would not hold us until the framing had been strengthened by nailing on the siding. slab boards were used for this purpose. beginning at the bottom, the boards were laid on, each lapping over the one below, as shown in fig. , so as to shed water. in each side we cut a window opening and nailed on a window casing of the type shown in fig. , which will be described in a moment. as soon as the clapboards were applied, we nailed on the rafters and then applied the roofing. the same principle was here used for shedding water. the lowest board was first laid on, and then the others were successively applied, each lapping over the one below. [illustration: fig. . the window casing.] [illustration: fig. . the window sash.] the window casings we used each consisted of a frame about inches square, but with the upper and lower pieces extending inches beyond one of the side pieces. on these extended pieces a slideway was formed for the window sash by nailing on two strips of wood about / inch square and over them a pair of wider strips projecting inward, so as to overlap the edges of the sash. the window sash consisted of a frame - / inches square, made of / -inch square strips over which canvas was tightly stretched and tacked. a spool was nailed on at one side for a handle. these windows were closed only in rainy weather, to keep the water out. sliding doors. [illustration: fig. . section of the door and frame.] we had two doors; one at the back of the house, from which a ladder extended down to the ground, and another opening out onto the veranda, from which we dropped a ladder down to the goblins' dancing platform. in order to save space we used sliding instead of swinging doors. the back door frame was - / feet high and the front door frame feet high. the doors were mounted on the outside of the building. the side posts of each frame were - / feet apart, and the lintel and sill extended feet beyond the side post at one side. the upper face of the lintel was planed down perfectly smooth, and its edges were tapered off to make a track for the rollers on the door. the rollers consisted of two spools, which turned on tenpenny nails driven into the top of the door. at the lower end two more spools were mounted, turning on nails driven in the bottom edge of the door. the rims of the spools extended slightly beyond the outer face of the door and rolled against the sill. to keep the water from leaking in at the top a slanting board was fastened above it, as shown in fig. . the back door was similarly constructed. our tree house was completed by a running balustrade around the veranda. it strangely happened that just after our tree house had been built we received a photograph from uncle ed of a filipino tree house made of bamboo. [illustration: a filipino bamboo tree house.] chapter xii. trouble with the tramps. we were a proud lot when the house was finally completed. from the veranda we had an excellent view up and down the river. we could see our camp on the island and keep watch of our goods. late one afternoon dutchy and i were lolling about on the goblins' platform, idly watching a hawk soaring above us. the rest of the boys had returned to the island in canoes an hour before and left the heavy scow for us to row back. it was drawing near supper time and we had about decided to start for home, when i chanced to see a scow up the river. it looked exactly like ours, and in it were two men, evidently drunk, from the way they carried on. a glance showed me that our scow was not at its moorings. how were we to reach the camp? one of the men had evidently seen us and was pointing us out to his companion. we rushed down the jacob's ladder, but by the time we reached the river bank they were in midstream and heading rapidly northward. our shouts merely brought forth derisive laughter. we were certainly in a predicament. first we ran back up the cliff, and tried from there to gain the attention of the rest of the fellows. they evidently saw us but couldn't make out what we wanted. then we ran down to a point opposite the island and called to them. but the wind was against us and we couldn't make them hear, so we had to plunge in and wade across. a council of war. immediately we summoned a war council. dutchy and jack were chosen by lot to guard the camp, while the rest of us started in pursuit in canoes. by the time we got under way the sun had dropped back of the pennsylvania hills and the shadows were climbing slowly up the jacob's ladder. swiftly we paddled up-stream, keeping close to the western shore, where the water was very quiet. we didn't expect to go far, because there were rapids less than three miles up, and we were sure that no tramps would ever be ambitious enough to row a heavy scow against the swift current at that point. as we rounded a sharp bend in the river, we noticed a camp fire a few hundred feet further up, around which five or six men were lounging, and there, just below them, was our scow. what were four boys to do against six grown men? we were each armed with a club, and could have made a pretty good fight if necessary, but after a whispered consultation we decided it would be best to wait until dark, when we could creep up quietly and steal away unnoticed with our boat. vengeance. it seemed as if darkness never would come. it was scarcely dusk when our patience gave out and we paddled up stealthily, hugging the shore. bill gained the scow unnoticed, but just as he was about to push off he discerned the body of a man within. it was one of the tramps lying there in a drunken stupor. what was to be done? every moment was precious. a yell from the fireside decided him. with a mighty push he launched the boat out into the current, while we threw him a line and towed the boat out to midstream. with a volley of curses the men sprang up and pelted us with stones. but they were poor shots, and we escaped without serious injury. our prisoner, in the meantime, was snoring heavily in the scow undisturbed. we took him down-stream and then unceremoniously picked him up and dumped him overboard within a few feet of the shore. it was a rude awakening, and nearly frightened the wits out of the man. but it brought him to his senses, and in a moment we were dodging more stones, sent with such good aim that we had to lie flat in the bottoms of the boats until the current carried us out of reach. a double surprise. it was now quite dark, and we had some difficulty in groping our way back to camp. there was no moon and the stars were obscured by clouds. our only course was to follow the shore line until we got around the bend, and then we steered for the beacon fire, which, by prearrangement, had been kindled on point lookout. but the spirit of mischief was in us. we thought we would have some fun with dutchy. we could see him silhouetted against the blaze. jim and i hung back in the canoes, while reddy and bill went on with the scow, splashing their oars and shouting and singing in disguised voices, like drunken men. dutchy was evidently very much agitated. his "hello, there! boat ahoy!" was greeted with derisive yells. [illustration: fig. . a joke on dutchy.] "say, we'll lick the life out of you, the same as we did them other kids," shouted reddy. this was too much for dutchy. he ran for all he was worth, yelling for jack to come quick. we had a merry laugh over the situation when suddenly the tables were turned. something whizzed past bill's ear; i was stung on the arm with a heavy nail; a large stone hit the scow; reddy had his hat knocked off, and fred upset his canoe trying to duck out of reach of the invisible missiles before we could make our assailants understand that we were friends and not the tramps. the joke was on us after all. we hadn't counted on dutchy's accurate aim or jack's skill with the crossbow. tramp-proof boat mooring. [illustration: fig. . a tramp-proof mooring.] around the camp fire that night we discussed our adventures and made plans to prevent their recurrence. it was evident, for one thing, that we would have to moor our boats off shore in such a way that they would be out of reach of meddlesome persons, and yet could be drawn in toward shore by any one who knew how. this was the way we did it. a pair of galvanized iron ring bolts were procured on jack's next trip to lamington for provisions, also a light rope about forty feet long. the ring bolts were screwed into a pair of stout anchor stakes about two feet from their lower ends. the rope was passed through the rings and the ends were joined by tying them to a galvanized iron link. then it was soaked for a while to shrink it before it was set in place. after the rope had shrunk sufficiently, the two stakes were driven into the bed of the river, one close to the bank and the other far enough out to hold the rope belt clear of the bottom. both stakes were sawed off under water, just above the ring bolts, so that they were hidden from sight. when we wanted to moor our boats we secured their anchor ropes or "painters" to the link. a large stepping stone marked the spot were the inner stake was driven, and standing on this stone we were able to reach down and haul in on the lower strap of the belt to draw the boat out a safe distance from shore, and then when we wanted to use our boat again we would haul in the upper strap to draw the boat in toward shore. chapter xiii. wigwagging and heliographing. our tramp adventure was really quite a blessing to us, for it taught us the necessity of a good signaling system between the goblins' platform and the island and led to our learning how to wigwag, and later to the construction of a heliograph. uncle ed, when he read of our experience, sent us the u. s. army "manual of signaling." fred, the tailor of our camp, made us two white flags with red centers. each flag was two feet square and was fastened to a light staff about five feet long. then we got out the manual and practised sending signals, at first within shouting distance, until we got to be quite expert. wigwag signals. [illustration: fig. - . ready, first movement, second movement, third movement.] there were only three different movements that could be made with flags, but in the book different combinations of these movements were given to represent each letter of the alphabet and the numbers from to . all these movements were begun and ended by holding the flagstaff upright, directly in front of the body, as shown in fig. . the first movement was to swing the flag down to the right and back (fig. ), the second to the left and back (fig. ), and the third forward and back (fig. ). the following table gives the different combinations used for various letters: the wigwag alphabet. a j s b k t c l u d m v e n w f o x g p y h q z i r tion numerals. [illustration: fig. . the signal for letter "b."] the numbers , and indicate respectively the first, second and third movements. for instance, a was represented by the combination , which means that the flag must be swept to the left and back twice. b is represented by the combination , that is, a sweep to the left, two sweeps to the right and a final sweep to the left, as shown in fig. . the end of a word was represented by a sweep forward and back; the end of a sentence by two sweeps forward and back, and the end of a message by three sweeps forward and back. it will be noticed that the same combinations are used for and z, and _tion_, and f, and j, and g, and v, and m, and and b. the following abbreviations were given in the manual: abbreviations. a after n not ur your b before r are w word c can t the wi with h have u you y yes these abbreviations saved a lot of time, for when we wanted to signal the word _after_ instead of spelling it out-- - - - - - --we used the signal for a-- --followed by to signify that it was the end of the word. before was represented by - , _your_ by - - , etc. it took quite a little practice to learn the different combinations. fred and reddy soon became experts, and could flash the signals back and forth at a great rate. wigwagging at night. [illustration: fig. . wigwagging at night.] at night we used a torch in place of a flag. the torch consisted of a roll of dried birch bark tied with wire to the end of a staff. it was found necessary to place another torch on the ground directly in front of the signaler so as to fix a central point and enable one to determine whether the moving torch was swung to the left or right. a later improvement was to use three lanterns, one in each hand and one attached to the waist to fix the central position. it was quite an advantage to have a lantern in each hand, for it saved changing over from one to the other when a second movement followed a first or a first movement a second. the heliograph. the book that uncle ed sent us had in it a description of a heliograph, that is, an instrument for sending signals with flashes of sunlight. although our wigwagging system was good enough for our requirements, yet we thought it would be more scientific to use the sun instrument, and besides, the latter could be used for signaling many miles. the single mirror instrument. [illustration: fig. . trunnion for mirror.] [illustration: fig. . the single mirror instrument.] the first thing we did was to procure a small mirror about inches square, mounted in a wooden frame. then we got a pair of small square head bolts about / of an inch in diameter and inch long, also two strips of brass / inch wide and inches long. in the center of each brass strip we drilled a hole just large enough to admit the shank of one of the bolts, and then the strips were fastened with screws tight against opposite edges of the mirror frame, with the heads pressed against the frame and the shanks sticking out at each side, as shown in fig. . these projecting shanks served as "trunnions" (that is, pivots) for the mirror to turn on when it was mounted in place. after the trunnions had been set in place we made a peep hole in the center of the mirror by cutting out a piece of the wooden back of the frame and scratching away the silver from the back of the glass. only a very small hole was required, about / inch in diameter. great care was taken to have the unsilvered spot exactly on a line with the trunnions and just half-way between them. this done, we took two sticks of / -inch wood, inch wide and - / inches long. in the upper end of each stick a slot was cut / inch deep and / inch wide. into these slots the trunnions of the mirror were placed, and then the nuts were screwed tightly on, clamping the sticks against the sides of the mirror. the sticks were now connected by nailing a / -inch strip at the bottom, and braced by a couple of corner pieces. this formed a swiveled frame for the mirror, which was clamped to the base of the instrument by means of a bolt - / inches long. the bolt passed through the bottom board of the frame, squarely under the peep hole of the mirror and through the baseboard of the instrument near one end. the baseboard was inches wide, inches long and / inch thick. the sight rod. [illustration: fig. . the sight rod.] [illustration: fig. . nut set in baseboard.] at the end opposite to where the mirror frame was swiveled we mounted a sight rod, which was merely a round stick of wood / inch in diameter and about inches long. we cut the stick from one of the rounds of an old broken chair. the upper end of the rod was whittled to a point and one side was flattened as shown in fig. . out of a piece of heavy white cardboard we cut a round disk about / inch in diameter, with a shank inch long sticking out at one side. this was fastened with a single tack to the flattened end of the rod in such a position that the point lay exactly against the center of the disk. the disk could then be turned up or down, to cover or uncover the point of the rod, as desired. the rod was fitted snugly into a hole in the baseboard, and could be raised or lowered to any extent desired, but we had to provide some sort of an arrangement for making it stay where it was put. a small hole was drilled from the edge of the baseboard through to the hole in which the rod was fitted. a square socket was chiseled out around the small hole to receive a nut. the nut was firmly wedged in and held in place by driving in nails along the edges. a bolt or machine screw was threaded through the nut, so that its inner end pressed against the sighting rod. by tightening this screw the rod could be secured at any height desired. the instrument was mounted on a tripod similar to the one used for our surveying instrument. to this it was attached by means of a bolt, which passed through the center of the baseboard and the tripod head. the screen. [illustration: fig. . section through shutter.] [illustration: fig. . general view of screen.] the screen, or shutter, of the heliograph was mounted on a separate tripod, so as to prevent shaking the mirror when it was operated. it was made something like a window shutter. we cut out two slats, each - / inches wide and inches long. they were made of hardwood / inch thick. the upper and lower edges were tapered down to a thickness of / inch. light nails were driven into the slats at the ends, and the nail heads were then filed off so that the projecting ends formed trunnions for the slats to turn on. the slats were linked to a connecting rod with double point tacks. a small double point tack was driven into the upper edge of each slat about / inch from the right hand end. then through each of these tacks we hooked a second double point tack and drove it into the rod. the tacks on the rod were placed just inches apart. a substantial frame was then made of / -inch stuff - / inches wide. the frame was square, with an opening that measured inches each way, into which the slats were fitted. before nailing the frame together we drilled holes in the side pieces for the trunnions of the slats to turn in. these holes were just - / inches apart. after the slats had been set in place, the frame was fastened together and then nailed to a baseboard, which was fastened by a bolt to the tripod. the shutter was operated by a key something like a telegraph key. it was made of a narrow stick of wood hinged at one end to the lower strip of the shutter frame, and a spool sawed in two was fastened to the other end to serve as a handle for the key. a string connected the key with the connecting rod. the slats were kept closed by a spring, which was fastened at one end to the connecting rod and at the other to the top of the frame. at first we used a rubber band for this purpose, but it soon wore out, so we then made a spiral spring out of stiff spring brass wire by wrapping it around a pencil. when the key was pressed down the slats would be turned open, as shown in fig. ; but as soon as the key was released the spring would pull them back again. focusing the instrument. [illustration: fig. . the heliograph in operation.] we were now ready to commence operations with our instruments. the heliograph was set up on the ledge at the top of the cliff. first the disk was turned down, uncovering the point of the sighting rod. then bill sighted through the unsilvered spot in the mirror and shifted the rod up and down until the tip end came squarely in line with the door of our straw hut, where jack was seated, notebook in hand, to take down our message. reddy stood by him with his wigwag flag to answer back. when the instrument was properly sighted the shutter was set up directly in front of it and the sighting disk turned up to cover the point of the sighting rod. then came the rather troublesome task of focusing the mirror. the mirror reflected a square panel of light, in the center of which there was a small shadow spot made by the unsilvered peep hole. the object was to get this shadow to fall on the center of the sighting disk. we knew that then the mirror would reflect the sunlight squarely on the straw hut. we found it quite easy to direct this shadow spot to the disk by holding a sheet of paper in front of the mirror six or eight inches away, and following up the spot on the paper until it reached the disk. heliograph signaling. [illustration: fig. . top view, showing position of mirror and shutter.] when at last we succeeded in properly focusing the mirror bill pressed the key down three times, sending three quick flashes to jack as a signal that he was ready to begin. reddy wigwagged back o. k., and then the first heliographic message was sent from the ledge to the island. it was a rather mixed-up message, and kept jim and reddy wigwagging back and forth very strenuously to straighten matters out. it was my duty to keep the mirror focused. as the sun moved across the sky the shadow spot would move off the disk, and i had to keep shifting the mirror to bring the spot back where it belonged. we used the international telegraph code, which we had been studying every evening for a week, but it was many weeks before we learned how to use it correctly, even slowly. the international telegraph code is as follows: a ·- b -··· c -·-· d -·· e · f ··-· g --· h ···· i ·· j ·--- k -·- l ·-·· m -- n -· o --- p ·--· q --·- r ·-· s ··· t - u ··- v ···- w ·-- x -··- y -·-- z --·· ·---- ··--- ···-- ····- ····· -···· --··· ---·· ----· ----- the three short flashes bill sent represented the letter s, which stood for the word "signal." a was formed by a short flash followed by a long flash; b by a long flash followed by three short ones, and so on. the key was held down three times as long for the long flash as for the short one. we found the best way of learning to send the signals properly was to count for each short flash, and for each pause between parts of the letter, and for each dash and for each pause between letters. between words we counted . thus, for the letter a the key would be down when we counted , up when we counted , down while we counted , , , and up while we counted , , , for the pause after each letter. it was rather a confusing code, i admit, but in time we mastered it, all but reddy and fred, who never would learn, but instead used the wigwag code, letting a short flash stand for , a long flash for and a double long flash for . the double mirror instrument. [illustration: fig. . the double mirror instrument.] [illustration: fig. . top view, showing position of the two mirrors and the screen.] our heliographing instrument did excellent service sending flashes from the cliff to the island, but we couldn't make it work very well sending messages from the island to the cliff, because we had to face almost due north, and then the sun was nearly always at our backs and couldn't shine squarely on the mirror. this led to our building a double mirrored heliograph the following summer. to begin with, we built an instrument which was the exact duplicate of our first heliograph; then, in addition, to fit in the socket of the sighting rod, we rigged up a second mirror, which was mounted in exactly the same way as the first. the second mirror was called the station mirror, and differed from the other, or sun mirror, in having a small patch of white paper pasted at the center instead of a peep hole. when using this instrument, we set it up so that the station mirror faced the ledge, then by sighting through the hole in the sun mirror at the reflection in the station mirror we could see just what was in focus. the station mirror had to be moved until the patch at its center hid the ledge from view. after that the sun mirror was shifted until the shadow spot fell on the white patch of the station mirror. when once the station mirror was focused, it could be clamped tightly in place by screwing up the trunnion and swivel nuts. but the sun mirror had to be constantly shifted to keep the shadow on the patch. another way of focusing the mirrors was to stand behind the instrument with the head close to the station mirror, shift the sun mirror until the entire station mirror was reflected in it, with the white patch squarely over the unsilvered spot; then still looking at the sun mirror, the station mirror was shifted until the reflection of the distant station was brought squarely in line with the unsilvered spot on the mirror. the station mirror was now firmly bolted and the sun mirror adjusted until the shadow spot fell on the paper patch. chapter xiv. ice boats, sledges and toboggans. as our vacation was drawing to a close, we began to make plans for the christmas holidays. our previous christmas vacation had been so completely taken up with preparations for the trip to willow clump island that we had had no time for the trip itself. we resolved this time to have everything ready beforehand, so that we could spend the entire two weeks in solid pleasure. our skate sails and snow shoes were stored in the attic, ready for use. if we were to make a trip in the snow we would need a sledge, and then, too, we wanted to make an ice boat. it would hardly pay to build these on the island and then cart them home, so it was decided to break up camp a couple of weeks before school commenced. breaking camp. consequently, on the first day of september we gathered up our belongings, corraled our chickens, packed our goods, and the next day started for home. mr. schreiner, in response to a letter from the secretary, came down with a large wagon in which the majority of the things were packed. the rest of our luggage was stowed in the scow and the canoes, and these were towed down the canal, as before. we reached home late in the afternoon, tired and hungry. it was a treat to sit at the table again and eat some of mother's appetizing dishes. and say, wasn't that pie great, though! my, how ravenous we were! and then a soft, comfortable bed with spotless white sheets and pillow cases. how soundly we did sleep that night! you can just bet we were all glad enough to get back to civilization, though, of course, no one could have dragged out the confession from a single one of us. the ice boat. [illustration: fig. . the backbone.] [illustration: fig. . frame of the ice boat.] [illustration: fig. . runner shoe.] [illustration: fig. . the rudder shoe.] school commenced on the th of september that year, so we hadn't much time to spare. work was begun immediately on the ice boat. our first ice boat was rather a crude one. a by inch scantling feet long was used for the backbone of the boat. the scantling was placed on edge, and to lighten it and improve its appearance it was tapered fore and aft from a point feet from the bow end. the thickness of the ends of the backbone was but inches, as shown in fig. . to the under edge of the backbone, feet from the forward end, a crosspiece was nailed. this crosspiece was a -inch board inches wide and feet long. braces were then run from the ends of the crosspiece to the forward and rear ends of the backbone, and at the rear end several boards nailed across the braces served as a seat for the boat. our next task was to rig up the runners. for these we used skates, which were so arranged that we could remove them whenever we wanted to. three blocks of wood were used for the runner shoes. two of them were cut from a by scantling and measured a foot in length. the third block was only inch thick, but was otherwise of the same dimensions. the skates were laid face downward on the blocks with the clamping levers open; then we marked the places where the clamping jaws touched the wood and drilled holes at these points. the forward end of each block was also tapered off to fit flat against the face of the skate. then by inserting the jaws in the holes and closing the levers, the skate was clamped to the block, just as it would be to a shoe. the two -inch blocks were bolted to the ends of the crosspiece, but the third block needed further attention, as it was to be used for the rudder or steering runner. [illustration: fig. . the tiller.] [illustration: fig. . drilling the mast step.] the rudder post was shaped from a block of hardwood inches square and inches long. two inches from the lower end saw cuts were made in the side of the block to a depth of / inch. then with a chisel the sides were split off, forming a large pin with a square shank inches long. next the corners of the shank were cut off, rounding it to a diameter of - / inches. the runner block was fastened securely to the head of the rudder post with screws. a - / -inch hole was now drilled into the backbone at the stern end to receive the rudder post. a tiller was next cut out of a -inch board to the shape shown in fig. . a slot was cut in the end of the tiller, and the latter fitted snugly over the top of the post, where it was held in place by screws threaded in through the sides. [illustration: fig. . the mainsail.] the mast of our boat was a pole feet long, tapering from a diameter inches at the base to - / inches at the top. a step for the mast was cut from a by block inches long. a -inch hole was drilled into the face of this block. we had no drill large enough to bore this hole, but accomplished the same result by drilling eight / -inch holes inside of a -inch circle (fig. ), and then used a chisel to cut off the projecting pieces. the mast step was firmly bolted to the backbone at its thickest part, that is, just four feet from the forward end. the mast was braced with stay ropes stretched from the top to the forward end of the backbone and to the ends of the crosspiece. a -foot pole, tapering from - / inches to inch in diameter, was used for the boom of the mainsail, and for the gaff we used a -foot pole of the same diameter. [illustration: fig. . jaws of the boom.] [illustration: fig. . a cleat.] the dimensions of the mainsail are given in fig. . for mast hoops we used curtain rings. five were attached to the sail along the luff, and one was fastened with a piece of leather to the end of the gaff. we used a different scheme for holding the boom to the mast. the forward end of the boom was flattened at the sides and a couple of cheek blocks were bolted on, forming jaws of the shape indicated in fig. . the jaws were whittled out to fit nicely around the mast, and were kept from slipping off by a piece of rope passed around the mast and threaded through the ends of the cheek blocks. half a dozen small pulley blocks were now procured, of the type used on awnings. a rope called the throat halyard was strung from the throat or forward end of the gaff through a pulley block near the top of the mast, and led down to the backbone, where it was "belayed," or wrapped around a cleat. the cleat, which was whittled out of a stick of wood, was made in the form indicated in fig. . a short length of rope was strung through a pulley block and tied with some slack to the upper end and to the center of the gaff. this rope is called a "bridle," and to the pulley block on this "bridle" a rope was attached called the "peak halyard." the peak halyard was passed through a pulley block at the top of the mast, and belayed on a cleat at the side of the backbone. for the main sheet (that is, the rope used for guiding the mainsail) two pulley blocks were fastened to the backbone, one just in front of the seat and the other a few feet further forward, and two more were lashed to the boom, midway between these blocks. the sheet was fastened near the aft end of the backbone and then strung through the blocks in the order illustrated, the free end of the sheet being brought back to the seat, where a cleat was provided, to which it could be secured when desired. [illustration: fig. . the jib-sail.] [illustration: fig. . the ice boat completed.] the jib-sail was now cut out to the dimensions given in fig. . the foot of the sail was lashed to a jib-boom feet inches long. the jib-boom was attached to the backbone at its fore end by means of a couple of screw eyes. the eye of one of these was pried open, linked through the other and then closed again. one of the screw eyes was now screwed into the head of the jib-boom and the other was threaded into the end of the backbone. the upper corner or "head" of the jib was tied to a jib-halyard, which passed through a block at the top of the mast, and was secured on a cleat on the backbone. on the jib we used two sheets. they were attached to the end of the jib-boom and passed on opposite sides of the mast through blocks on the crosspiece to the stern of the boat, where separate cleats were provided for them. this completed our ice boat, and a very pretty little boat she was. it was with great reluctance that we furled the sails, unstepped the mast, and stowed away the parts in our attic until old jack frost should wake up and furnish us with a field of smooth ice. the sledge. [illustration: fig. . a spacing block.] [illustration: fig. . the runners and rails spaced apart.] our sledge was patterned after a picture of one used by peary in one of his arctic expeditions. first we got four strips of hickory inch thick, - / inches wide and feet long for the runners and side rails. beginning inches from the ends, each stick was tapered gradually to a thickness of / an inch. then we made eight spreaders or spacing blocks, each - / inches thick, - / inches wide and inches long. in each end a notch / inch deep was cut to receive the runners and side rails. in the edge of each block, midway of its length, a slot inch deep was cut to receive the cross sticks of the sledge. first we nailed the runners and rails to the blocks, fastening them with screws, spacing the blocks inches from the ends, and inches apart from center to center. then we bent the ends of the rails and runners together, fastening them with bolts, as in fig. . four crosspieces, or floor beams, were cut out of a -inch board, each inches wide and inches long. these were fitted into the slots in the space blocks and secured with screws. a cross stick was also fastened between the rails and runners at the forward end. on the floor beams we nailed a flooring of / -inch slats, inches wide and feet long. at the rear end these slats projected inches beyond the last space block and over them a cross slat was nailed. a stick of hickory - / feet long was soaked in hot water, as described on page , and was bent to an u-shape. the ends were then fitted over the first cross stick, and under the first floor supports, and securely nailed in place. another stick of hickory feet long was similarly bent, and the ends slipped over the rear cross slats and fitted against the rear space blocks, in which position the stick was securely nailed. [illustration: fig. . the sledge.] it was our intention to shoe the runners with strips of brass, but these were not procurable in our village, and we had no time to go down to millville. however, the village blacksmith came to our rescue and shod our sledge with sleigh runner iron. we had planned to make two more devices for our winter sports--a toboggan and a peculiar looking contrivance called a "rennwolf," a picture of which dutchy happened to unearth in one of his father's books. unfortunately bill and i had to return to school before either of these was completed. however, the work was entrusted to reddy, who was quite handy with tools, and jack, who was made secretary _pro tempore_, took notes on the work. the toboggan. [illustration: fig. . tying down the head piece of the toboggan.] the toboggan was made of light flexible hickory boards, / of an inch thick, inches wide and feet long. three of these boards were used, and they were fastened together with cross sticks or battens, about inches wide and / an inch thick. there were six of these battens spaced about inches apart, and secured to the floor boards with flathead screws introduced from the under side and countersunk so that the heads would not project below the bottom of the toboggan. at the forward end we screwed on a head piece of oak, / of an inch thick, - / inches wide and inches long. the head piece was fastened to the under side of the boards, so that when they were curved up into a hood it would lie on top. the ends of the head piece, which projected inch each side of the boards, were notched to hold the rope, which was tied fast after the boards had been steamed. the boards were steamed by wrapping them in burlap for a distance of feet from the forward end, and pouring boiling water over them, as was done with the snow shoes (page ). before bending the boards we had fixed screw eyes in the ends of each batten, except the forward one; a rope had been strung through these screw eyes and the ends were now tied to the head piece and drawn tight so as to bend the boards into a graceful curve. in this way the ropes were of service not only for curving the front end into a hood, but also for side rails, to hold on by when shooting swiftly around curves. [illustration: fig. . the toboggan.] the rennwolf. the runners of the rennwolf were made of hickory strips, inch thick, inches wide and feet long. at their forward ends these strips were tapered down to a thickness of / an inch and curved upward. about inches from the rear end of each runner an upright post was nailed. the post was feet long and was braced by a diagonal brace inches long, as shown in fig. . a tie bar was nailed to the post about or inches from the bottom and connected with the forward curved end of the runner. [illustration: fig. . dimensions of rennwolf.] the two runners were now placed parallel to each other about inches apart, and connected by four cross bars, one at the forward end, and three on the upright posts, in about the positions illustrated. the upper cross bar was extended inches beyond the posts at each side, and served as a handle for guiding the queer craft. an -inch square board was used for the seat of the rennwolf. it rested on the second cross-bar of the post about inches from the runners, and the forward end was supported on legs nailed to the tie bars. on each runner back of the posts a loop of leather was nailed, large enough to receive the toe of one shoe. when using this odd sled one foot would rest on the runner with the toe in the strap, and by kicking out against the snow or ice with the other foot the rennwolf would be made to spin along at a rapid rate. of course, when coasting both feet would rest on the runners and the sled was steered by an occasional side push at the right or left. owing to the great length of the runners the rennwolf would easily ride over uneven surfaces and thin spots in the ice. [illustration: fig. . the rennwolf in use.] ice creepers. [illustration: fig. . the ice creeper.] in order to provide a better hold for the propelling foot, we fastened around the toe a strap of leather, through which a number of long tacks projected. their sharp points would stick into the ice, and prevent the foot from slipping. the seat of the rennwolf was convenient for carrying a coat or any light luggage, and it was often used to give a friend a very exhilarating ride. chapter xv. the subterranean club. i am afraid we were not very glad to get back to school that fall. it seemed very hard to give up the sport we had been having, and our heads were brimful of new schemes which we could hardly wait to put into practice. but we soon learned that there are many things that could be done during recreation hours at school. we had intended building a cave on our island that summer, but our vacation came to an end before we got around to it. there seemed no reason why we shouldn't dig one in the woods at the back of the schoolhouse. a cave-in. bill had read somewhere that if you dig a cave under a tree the roots of the tree will support the ground on top and make a natural and substantial roof. it sounded very reasonable, we thought; in fact, we never questioned the truth of the statement, because we had somehow gotten the notion that books were never wrong, and that whatever was set up in type must surely be so. but events proved that the man who wrote that book had never attempted to build a cave in the manner he described, at least not in the loose, sandy soil of south jersey. a large spreading cedar was selected as the tree which should support the roof of our cave. it was situated on a mound at the edge of the woods. first a passageway, or ditch, was dug at the bottom, and then we begun tunneling in the side of the mound under the roots of the tree. for a while the ground above held, and our tunnel had reached a length of about four feet, when suddenly, without the slightest warning, the sandy soil gave way and we were engulfed. bill, who was furthest within the cave, was almost entirely covered, while i was buried to the shoulders. a crowd of boys came to our assistance and dug us out. poor bill was almost smothered before they scooped the sand away from around his mouth and nose. the boys made slow work of it, having to dig with their hands and a couple of shingles, because the two spades we had were buried with us at the bottom of the cave. of course, this little episode gave us a scare, but it was only temporary. we swore every one to secrecy, so that mr. clark, the principal, wouldn't hear of the mishap and suppress any further cave building. it was obvious that the only roof we could depend on for our cave would be a wooden roof. if we had been at willow clump island we would have gotten any amount of slabs from the lumber mills across the river. one of our schoolmates, a day scholar, came to the rescue. his name was chester hill, a little bit of a chap, about the shortest for his age that i have ever seen. his name was so at variance to his size that we called him "hillock," for short. now hillock lived on a farm about eight miles from school, and used to drive in every day on a farm wagon. he had helped us dig the cave under the cedar tree, and when he learned that we would need some lumber to build a safe cave, he told us that he had an uncle who owned a lumber mill on the morris river, from whom he was sure we could get all the slabs we wanted. of course, we were delighted, and laid our plans for an elaborate cave house. hillock promised to be on hand on the following saturday afternoon with his load of lumber. excavating for the cave. we immediately set out to make the necessary excavation. the side of a bushy knoll was chosen as a suitable site. first we carefully transplanted the bushes that grew in the square we had marked out for the cave, and cutting the sod into squares, piled it all neatly to one side. then we shoveled away the top-soil and heaped it up for future use. after that we dug away the sandy subsoil. the cave proper we planned to make about feet by feet, with a passageway feet wide and feet long, leading in from a large bush at the base of the knoll. our excavation was therefore somewhat t-shaped (see fig. ). at the deepest part we had to dig down about feet. [illustration: fig. . excavation for the cave.] [illustration: fig. . framework of the cave.] the digging was all done by saturday, when hillock pulled up with a big load of slabs. slabs are a very unsatisfactory kind of wood for most purposes. being the outside cut, they are usually very irregular and weak in spots. in many places they are almost clear bark. of course, had our pocketbooks permitted, we would have used stout scantlings for the corner posts of our cave house and substantial boards for the walls, roof and flooring, but we had to be content with materials at hand. eight of the best slabs were selected for our corner posts; four of them we cut to the length of feet and the others to a length of feet. the long slabs were set up at the rear of the cave, two at each corner, one flat against the rear wall, with its edge buried in the corner, and the other against the side wall, with its edge tight against the rear slab, as in fig. . the same was done at the forward corners with the shorter slabs. a couple of slabs were now set up on each side of the passageway, and a corresponding pair against the rear wall. the upper and lower ends of the uprights were then connected with slabs, called stringpieces. [illustration: fig. . the siding and flooring.] the sides were now boarded up with upright slabs nailed to the stringpieces. an opening feet inches high was left in the forward wall for a passageway. several slabs were now placed on the edge across the bottom of the cave, to serve as floor beams, upon which a flooring of slabs was laid. next the rafters were set in place, one on each upright slab. slots were cut in the ends of the uprights to receive the rafters, which were slabs placed on edge. as the forward uprights were feet shorter than the rear ones, the rafters were given a good slant, so that the roof would properly shed any water that might soak in through the ground above. [illustration: fig. . notching in the rafters.] the roof was laid on the same way that we had made the roof of our tree house; that is, a slab was first nailed at the forward end of the rafters with its edge projecting far enough to make a good eave; then the second slab was nailed on, with its edge overlapping the first, and a third with its edge overlapping the second, and so on with the rest. at the rear end of the roof a hole was cut, into which we fitted a piece of stovepipe. we didn't plan to have a fire in the house, but set the stovepipe in place to provide the necessary ventilation. as the pipe had an elbow in it, there was no danger of rain or dirt falling through it. the upper end of the stovepipe was concealed among some rocks at the top of the knoll. a suitable flooring was now laid in the passageway, and the sides were boarded up to a height of feet from the floor at the entrance to a height of feet inches at the inner end. a roof of slabs was nailed on, and then we were ready to cover our slab house with dirt. covering the cave. we avoided piling on the dirt very deep, because there was danger of breaking in the roof with a heavy load. a thin layer of sand covered with the top-soil brought up the level to about that of the rest of the knoll. then the sod was laid back in place and well watered, and the few bushes planted back in their original positions. our sodding should have been done in the spring for best results. the frost soon killed the grass, and the bushes withered away. but a few cents' worth of grass seed was sowed in, and in time gave the knoll a very natural appearance. a bush at the bottom concealed the entrance of the cave, so that no one who was not in the secret would have suspected that beneath that innocent looking knoll were gathered the members of the "big bug club." the big bug club. [illustration: fig. . a section through the completed cave.] of course, we had to organize a secret society, to occupy our subterranean dwelling. in that i fear we overstepped the rules of the school. of course, mr. clark knew of our cave, in fact he visited us there once, lowering his dignity sufficiently to squeeze into the narrow passageway, and playing bill a game of chess at our club table. he seemed quite pleased with our work, and complimented us very highly on the masterful way in which we had built the underground house. we told him that we had organized a club of the older fellows to play indoor games and have occasional spreads, but we did not tell him that most of our spreads were held at the dead of night, when there was no moon and the stars were hidden by clouds. at o'clock each night the bell rang for us to turn out our lights, and after that the six members would each, in turn, keep a half-hour watch, that is, first one would sit up and try to keep awake for half an hour, after which he would waken the next fellow, who at the end of a half hour would rouse the third, and so on, until o'clock, when the sixth watcher would wake up the entire club. then we would all creep out the back window in the hall, onto the roof of the rear annex of the schoolhouse, and thence climb down a rope ladder to the ground. midnight banquets. i suppose we could have just as easily have tiptoed downstairs and out the back door, but it would have spoiled the romance of it all. the absolute stillness and the pitch-black darkness of the night were awe-inspiring. the roll of a pebble or the crack of a twig under foot would set us all atingle as we stole out to our cave house. sometimes the night was so black that we could hardly find the entrance of the cave. once inside, in the light of a few candles, the nervous tension was relieved, and we reveled in a banquet of cold victuals and dainties, purchased out of the monthly club dues. our meetings in the cave lasted scarcely half an hour. in fact, the meeting, and even the banquet, were mere incidentals. the main enjoyment consisted in stealing out to the cave and back again, always at the risk of getting caught. usually when we got to bed again we would be too excited to fall asleep right away, and when we did finally drop off our sleep was so sound that several times the breakfast bell caught one or more of us still napping. the club pin. [illustration: fig. . the club pin.] the only other charm our secret club afforded was the wearing of a mysterious club pin. it was a silver beetle, with the letter g engraved on the head and the letter b on the body, while down the center of the back was the letter i (see fig. ). in public we called ourselves the g. i. b.'s, but it was only the initiated members who knew that these letters were to be read backward, and, with the beetle on which they were engraved, signified the "big bugs." of course, we had some secret signs and signals, a secret hand grasp, a peculiar whistle as a warning to run, another meaning "lie still," and a third signifying "all is well." the combination lock. [illustration: fig. the notched washers.] [illustration: fig. . washers fastened on spools.] [illustration: fig. . the combination lock.] we found it necessary to close the entrance of our cave with a door fastened with a padlock, so as to keep meddlers out. the entire school had watched us build the cave house, and, of course, knew just where our entrance lay. then, in addition to the outer door, we put in another one, half-way down the dark passageway. on this bill rigged up a simple combination lock which would baffle any one who managed to pick the padlock. this inner door opened outward. it was hinged to the floor of the passageway, and swung up against a frame set in the passageway. at the top was a board whose lower edge lay flush with the edge of the door when it was closed. for the combination lock we used a couple of spools, each with one head cut off and the central hole plugged up with a stick of wood. in the floor and the top board of the frame, holes were drilled just large enough for the shanks of the spools to fit snugly in them. next we made a trip to a hardware store for a file and a couple of large copper washers, about - / inches in diameter. the washers were fastened to the inner ends of the spools after they had been pushed through the hole. the washer on the door came just to the edge of the door, while the other extended below the door frame and lapped under the door washer. then in the edge of the washer on the frame a notch was filed, while in the other washer two notches were filed, so as to leave a tooth which fitted snugly into the notch of the first washer (see figs. , ). the door was locked by turning both the washers until the notch and tooth came in line with each other, then pushing the tooth through the notch, and turning the washers so that the frame washer hooked over the door washer. then the door could be opened only when the tooth and notch were brought in line. on the head of each spool we pasted a disk of white cardboard, the edge of which was graduated, as in fig. . then we had a secret combination, say - , which meant that when the spools were turned so that the number on the door spool came in line with the number on the frame spool the tooth and notch would be in line, and the door could then be opened. of course, this combination was known to the members of the club only, and any one outside who tried to open the door might have tried for some time without bringing the tooth and notch into line with each other. occasionally we changed the combination by loosening the screws which held the washers, and turning them so that the notch and tooth came opposite different numbers on the dials. this was done so that if any one should chance to learn our combination he could not make use of it very long. chapter xvi. scooters. "hello, dutchy! what in thunder have you got there?" it was bill who spoke. we were on our way home for the winter holidays, and had been held up at millville by reddy schreiner, who had informed us that dutchy was down by the river with the boat to give us a sail up to lamington. a vision of a fleet ice boat skimming up the river at express train speed swam before our eyes. but the next moment, as we turned the corner into river street, we were surprised by the sight of our old scow just off the pier at anchor, and in open water. it was rigged up with a jib and mainsail, which were flapping idly in the wind. it had also been altered by decking over the top, with the exception of a small cockpit, evidently for the purpose of keeping out the water when she heeled over under the wind. we were disappointed and quite annoyed at not finding the ice boat on hand; furthermore, our annoyance was considerably heightened by dutchy's broad grin of evident delight at our discomfiture. "the river wasn't all frozen over," he explained, "and we couldn't bring the ice boat down, so we rigged up the scow and she came down splendidly." a sail in the scow. there was nothing to do but to jump in, though i, for one, would have taken the train in preference had there been one inside of two hours. dutchy, however, seemed to be in a surprisingly good humor, and kept up a lively chatter about things that the club had made in our absence. the skis, which have already been described on page , had been built under reddy's guidance, and they had already used them on willard's hill, coasting down like a streak and shooting way up into the air off a hump at the bottom. then there was the toboggan slide down randall's hill, and way across the river on the ice. our craft strikes the ice. dutchy talked so incessantly that we hadn't noticed the field of ice which we were nearing. just at this point bill turned around with an exclamation. "here, dutchy, you crazy fellow, where are you going to? hard to port, man--hard aport--or you will crash into the ice!" but dutchy only grinned nervously. "i tell you, you will smash the boat!" bill cried again, making a dive for the steering oar; but just then the boat struck the ice, and both bill and i were thrown backward into the bottom of the boat. but the boat didn't smash. [illustration: a sail on the scooter scow.] there was a momentary grinding and crunching noise, and, much to my surprise, i found that the old scow had lifted itself clean out of the water, and was skating right along on the ice. then dutchy could control himself no longer. he laughed, and laughed, as if he never would stop. he laughed until the steering oar dropped from his hands, and the old scow, with the head free, swung around and plunged off the ice ledge with a heavy splash into the open water again. then reddy, who was almost equally convulsed, came to his senses. "now you've done it, dutchy; you're a fine skipper, you are! how do you expect to get us back to shore again?" the steering oar was left behind us on the ice, and there we were drifting on the open water, with no rudder and no oar to bring us back. the scooter scow. [illustration: fig. . scow with runners nailed on.] the only thing we could do was to wait until the wind or current carried us to the ice or land. in the meantime dutchy, who had suddenly sobered down when we took our water plunge, explained how he had rigged up the scow to travel both on ice and on water. he called the rig a sled boat, but the name by which such a rig is now known is a "scooter." it was dutchy's idea primarily, but reddy had engineered the work. along the bottom of the scow two strips of hickory had been nailed to serve as runners. the hickory strips had been bent up at the forward end, as shown in fig. . each runner was shod with a strip of brass, fastened on with flathead screws, which were countersunk, so that the heads should not project below the brass. this virtually made a sledge out of the old scow, and didn't spoil it for use on the water. a sprit sail. [illustration: fig. . mainsail of scooter scow.] [illustration: fig. . the snotter.] [illustration: fig. . jib-sail of scooter scow.] a sprit sail and jib were rigged up. the dimensions of these sails, which were taken from a book in mr. van syckel's library, are given in the illustrations. a sheet of heavy muslin was made to measure feet square, as indicated by dotted lines in the drawing; then the corners were cut off along the full lines shown in the illustration. the edges were now hemmed all around, and the lower edge of the sail was lashed to a boom, feet inches long. to the luff were attached a number of mast rings, which were slipped over a stout mast projecting about feet inches above the deck of the boat. the peak of the sail was held up by a spar called a sprit. the sprit was sharpened at each end, and the point at the upper end was inserted in a loop of heavy cord fastened to the peak of the sail, while the lower point of the sprit rested in the loop of a rope on the mast, called a "snotter." the snotter was a short piece of rope with a loop at each end. it was wrapped around the mast, as shown in the drawing, with one loop holding it in place, like a slip knot, and the other supporting the end of the sprit. a single halyard was used to raise this sail. it was attached to the boat and passed over a block in the mast. when raising the sail it was first partly hoisted, then the sprit was hooked in the loop and the snotter, after which the throat halyard was drawn taut. then the snotter was pulled up the mast as far as it would go, flattening out the sail. the jib-sail was made out of the large corner piece left when cutting the mainsail. the dimensions of the jib-sail are given in fig. . it was such a small sail that no boom was used with it. in place of a rudder the steering oar had to be used. this was made of a rake handle with a large trowel blade fastened to the end of it. the sharp blade cut into the ice, and so steered the scow when it was running as an ice boat, and in the water the blade offered sufficient resistance to act as a rudder. scooter sailing. but to return to our sail home to lamington, we were not out on the open water long before the current carried us back to the ice ledge. reddy jumped off and soon returned with the steering oar; then we proceeded on our way homeward, now in the water and now on ice. once or twice the scow was unable to climb out of the water, because she had not sufficient headway, and was clumsy and heavy with four boys aboard. then we had to push off until we could get a sufficient start. it struck me that while dutchy was quite clever to think of such a rig, yet it was very clumsy and capable of much improvement. bill wasn't saying very much all this time, and i could see he was doing a lot of thinking. evidently he was planning some improvement, but bill was a very considerate fellow, and did not want to spoil dutchy's pleasure just then by telling him how much better a scooter he might have built. it wasn't until after supper, when a meeting of the s. s. i. e. e. of w. c. i. was called, that bill came out with his scheme. a meeting of the society. "why not mount the sailing canoe on runners, instead of the scow? you would have a very light rig then, and it would sail like a streak." "mr. president," said reddy, "your plan sounds first-rate, but how are you going to fasten runners onto the canoe?" "i've thought all that out," replied bill. "if we can only get hold of a pair of sleigh runners it won't take long to rig up the sled boat." dutchy, who had looked rather crestfallen at a suggestion of an improvement on his pet invention, now suddenly brightened up. "i know where we can get the sleigh runners!" he exclaimed. "dad has an old ramshackle sleigh in the barn that is just falling to pieces with dry rot. i'll ask him for it to-night." "do you think you can get it?" inquired bill. "i guess so," dutchy answered, rather doubtfully. "but say, suppose we send a delegation to see him about it?" an interview with mr. van syckel. this was agreed upon, and in the morning, as soon as breakfast had been downed, the entire society marched in a body into mr. van syckel's library. i was appointed spokesman, with bill to back me, while the rest of the party were strung out behind, with dutchy bringing up the rear. mr. van syckel was not the man to take much interest in boys' work, but we happened to strike him at the right moment, and before our interview was over we had told him all our experiences of the summer before and all our plans for the future. then we did a good turn for dutchy, too. mr. van syckel had always considered his boy a "know-nothing," and was very much surprised to find that he had invented the scooter scow. why, he actually seemed proud of his son, much to dutchy's embarrassment. after that there was no trouble about getting the sleigh runners, and mr. van syckel forgot the objections he had offered at first. the scooter canoe. [illustration: fig. . runners of scooter canoe.] naturally we were very much elated at our success, and straightway made for the barn, where we began operations on the scooter canoe. the sleigh was an old-fashioned affair, with rather broad wooden runners. first we removed the body of the sleigh, and then the runners were cut down to a height of about inches. we spaced them apart about inches, and connected them with four crosspieces at the top. the runners were now placed over our larger canoe, with forward ends about on a line with the mast, and the crosspieces were fastened with screws to the gunwales. as an additional security, a pair of crosspieces were now run under the canoe at each end and fastened with screws to the keel. at the bow the keel was shod with a strip of brass. the rudder was taken off the boat, and an oar lock was fastened to the stern to hold the steering oar. in place of lee boards we nailed a couple of thin boards over each runner, as shown in the drawing. we were in a hurry to finish this, as our vacation was short, so we used on the scooter canoe the sails that we had made for our ice boat. this required a bowsprit, but as we had little time to spare we used the jib-boom of the ice boat, nailing it to the deck beam of the canoe. we decided that the jib-sail could be used without a boom, as we had done with the scow. the mast was braced by stays attached to the ends of the runners and bowsprit. this spread of canvas was far greater than that originally provided for sailing the canoe, but the heavy runners on each side helped to keep the boat on even keel, and then to further balance the sail a board was nailed across the aft end of the boat. this overhung the runners about inches each side, and in a strong wind we could sit out on the windward end of this board, thus preventing the scooter from heeling over too far. [illustration: fig. . the scooter canoe.] chapter xvii. an arctic expedition. as soon as our scooter canoe was completed we prepared for the long-planned winter expedition to willow clump island. the weather conditions were ideal. we had had ten days of steady cold weather, which had followed a heavy fall of snow, so that we could tramp up the island on snow shoes, or we could use our scooter canoe and scooter scow on the river. it was out of the question to use our skate sails or the ice boat on the river, and the canal would be serviceable only in case the wind should blow from a southerly quarter. but we stowed them on the sledge for use on lake placid. on the tuesday morning following christmas we made the start. bill in the scooter canoe and dutchy in the scooter scow sailed up the river, and the rest of us, on snow shoes, took the tow path of the canal, hauling the sledge along. we carried provisions for a week and a good supply of blankets. the island was reached without mishap, except that dutchy had to be helped several times in dragging the heavy scow around the rapids. bill reached the island long before we did, and after unloading the canoe came racing back under a stiff breeze for a second load. then he took his turn at hauling the sledge, while reddy sailed the reloaded scooter canoe up to the island. willow clump island in winter. we brought no tent with us, as we expected to take up our quarters in the straw hut. when we reached the hut we hardly recognized it. it was almost completely covered with snow and looked like an eskimo house. the snow had drifted well up over the north side, completely closing the entrance. we had to set to work at once with a shovel and open up a passageway, and then we had to shovel out a large pile of snow that had drifted into the hut from the open doorway. kindling a camp fire. in the meantime jack scoured the island for some dry wood. in this he was not very successful, because everything was covered with snow, and when he tried to kindle a fire in the open space in front of our hut he found the task an exceedingly difficult one. unfortunately we forgot to bring the oil stove with us, and the prospect of something warm to eat was exceedingly remote. we hadn't yet learned the trick of building a camp fire in wet weather. after exhausting our stock of paper fred and i started over to lumberville for several newspapers and a can of kerosene. we went to old jim halliday's, who had befriended us on one or two occasions the previous summer, and made known to him our troubles. "what! a can of oil to build yer fire with? well, ye won't git it from me. i know a man as got blowed up apourin' oil on a fire. why, shucks, boys, you don't need no oil ner paper nuther on that there island. its chuck-full of silver birch trees, and there ain't no better kindlin' than birch bark." birch bark! why, yes, why hadn't we thought of that? we had used it for torches the summer before and knew how nicely it burned. so back we skated to camp, and then, peeling off a large quantity of bark from the birch trees around us, we soon had a rousing big fire in front of the hut. the outdoor fireplace. [illustration: fig. . an outdoor cooking fire.] but there were more things to be learned about open fires. in our summer outing jack had done most of his cooking on a kerosene stove, and he soon found that it was a very different matter to cook over an unsheltered fire. the heat was constantly carried hither and thither by the gusts of wind, so that he could scarcely warm up his saucepans. we had to content ourselves with cold victuals for the first meal, but before the next meal time came around we had learned a little more about fire building. two large logs were placed about inches apart, and the space between them was filled in with pieces of bark and small twigs and sticks. the back of the fireplace was closed with stones. one touch of a match was enough to kindle the fire, and in a moment it blazed up beautifully. the logs at the sides and the stones at the back prevented the wind from scattering the flames in all directions, and a steady draft poured through the open end of the fireplace and up through the heart of the fire. the side logs were so close together that our cooking utensils could be supported directly on them. a stone-paved fireplace. [illustration: fig. . a stone-paved fireplace.] the following summer we continued our open fireplace experiments. instead of using logs we drove stakes into the ground, forming a small circular stockade about feet high and feet in diameter. a paving of small stones covered the floor of the fireplace, and a lining of stones was laid against the wall. the stakes were driven in on a slant, as illustrated in fig. , so as to better support the stone lining. a break in the stockade at one side let in the necessary draft. two of the stakes on opposite sides of the fire were made extra long, and were crotched at their upper ends. they served to support the cross stick from which our kettles were hung. this form of fireplace was more satisfactory for baking than the one in which logs were used for the side walls, because the stone lining retained the heat much longer. to bake biscuit, a pot of beans, or the like, the ashes would be drawn away from the stone paving and the pot placed directly on the hot stones, after which it was covered with hot embers and ashes. a cold night in the hut. but to return to our experiences on the island. we found it very cold on the first night in the hut. we were afraid to build a fire inside lest the straw thatchings would catch fire, and so we huddled together in the corner, rolled up tightly in our blankets. but it was cold, nevertheless. we had no door to close the opening into the hut, and instead had piled up branches of cedar and hemlock against the doorway. but a bitterly cold northwest wind was blowing down the river, and we couldn't keep warm, no matter what we did. most of the boys were ready to go right home, but we stuck it out until the morning, and then after we had toasted ourselves before a blazing bright fire, and had eaten a hot breakfast, we forgot much of the discomfort of the night and were ready for more "fun." we thought we would spend the next night in our tree house, and so, right after breakfast, we packed up our blankets and some provisions and started for the jacob's ladder. mountain climbing. each fellow was provided with a pair of ice creepers of the same sort as we had used in connection with the rennwolf (see page ). in addition to this each boy was provided with a home-made alpine stock, consisting of a stout wooden stick in the end of which a large nail was driven and the head filed off. thus equipped we came to the foot of the cliff, and much to our delight found it one mass of ice from top to bottom. now was our chance to try some swiss mountain climbing. bill took the lead, with an old hatchet in his hand, to hack out any necessary footholds in the ice wall, and the rest of us strung out behind him tied to a long rope, each boy about or feet from the one ahead. bill cautioned us to keep our distance, holding the rope taut in one hand, so that if a fellow stumbled he could be kept from falling either by the one in front or by the one behind. "besides," he said, "if the rope drags on the ice, it is liable to be cut or worn so that it will break when any strain was put on it." now, one would think from all these precautions that we were launched on a perilous expedition. that was the impression we were trying to make on ourselves, though, as a matter of fact, any one of us could have climbed the cliff unaided and without any ice implements if he had used ordinary care not to slip on the ice-clad ladder rounds or the snow-covered ledges. [illustration: fig. . winter expedition to the goblins' platform.] a poor shelter. the climb was without mishap and we reached our tree house, only to find it so badly racked by storm and weather that it was clearly out of the question to attempt to spend the night there. the wind howled around the house and whistled through dozens of cracks and chinks that had opened in the walls. all that we could do, therefore, was to turn back to the island and make the best of our straw hut again. on the way, however, we stopped at lumberville for some straw to be used for bedding. the afternoon was spent sailing around on lake placid and the large smooth stretch above the island. a costly camp fire. after supper bill and reddy went into the hut to arrange the straw bedding, while the rest of us gathered wood for a huge bonfire in front of the hut. the wind was blowing right down the river and we expected it to carry the warmth of the fire into the hut. the fire was built some distance in front of the doorway, so as to prevent the hut from catching fire. but we had evidently miscalculated the strength of the wind, for no sooner was the fire fairly started than a shower of flaming brands was blown right into the hut. in a moment the straw blazed up, cutting off all escape for bill and reddy. fortunately the framing was not strong and the frost had loosened up the foundations, so that a few frantic kicks opened an exit in the rear of the hut just in time to save our comrades from cremation. once it was fairly started we were powerless to put out the blaze until the hut was ruined. the snow that covered the walls checked the fire somewhat, but the thatching burned from the inside, melting the snow and dropping it suddenly into the flaming straw bedding on the floor. as we sat in a gloomy ring about the camp fire, watching the tongues of flame play about the charred ribs of our hut, we had reason to be thankful that the wind had played its pranks before we turned in for the night. what a risk we had run of being all burned to death! it made me shudder to think of it. well, our hut was burned. what next? that was the question put before the society. [illustration: bill gets tangled up with his skis.] [illustration: warming the lunch on a cold day.] "might build a snow hut," suggested dutchy. "now, be sensible," answered reddy. "we can't build a snow hut in five minutes." "the best plan," i volunteered, "would be to go over to jim halliday's and ask him to let us sleep in his barn." immediately the suggestion was acted upon. a friend in time of trouble. old jim halliday greeted us very gruffly. he said he wouldn't have us in his barn. "you'll be amussin' up the hay so't wouldn't be fit fer the horses to eat. any boy that is fool enough to build a fire on a straw bed ought to go right home to his mother, and he hadn't oughter be trusted with matches, nuther. he might get his fingers burned." but i caught a twinkle in the old man's eyes and wasn't surprised to have him end his lecture by taking us into the kitchen and seating us around an old-fashioned log fire while "marthy," his daughter, made us some hot coffee to take the chill out of our bones. we didn't sleep in the barn that night. the hallidays had only one spare bed, hardly enough for six boys, and the old man didn't want to be partial to any two of us, but his daughter solved the difficulty by dragging down two large feather mattresses and laying them on the kitchen floor in front of the hearth. before bidding us "good night," mr. halliday put on his sternest expression and bade marthy clear out all the matches from the room. "jest as like as not they'll set fire to the house," he growled. "i expect this is my last night on airth." and then, with a solemn warning not to hang our clothes on the flames, and to "keep them feather beds offen the embers," he left us to a comfortable night's rest. in the morning, after we had disposed of all the hot griddle cakes we could eat, and had sincerely thanked our host and hostess for their hospitality, we wended our way back to the island, silently packed up our goods and started home for lamington. "well, this isn't going to happen again," was bill's comment. "next year we'll have a log cabin on the island." [illustration: fast asleep in a sleeping bag.] [illustration: how the pack harness was worn.] chapter xviii. tramping outfits. our winter expedition to willow clump island filled us with a wholesome respect for arctic explorers. if we could find it so uncomfortable with the thermometer only at degrees above zero, what would it be to endure a temperature of , or even degrees below zero? we were interested to learn how they managed to stand it. this led to a study of the subject in mr. van syckel's library. sleeping bags. in one of the books dutchy came across the description of a sleeping bag. it was made of reindeer's skin sewed into a large bag with the fur side turned in. this bag was large enough to hold three or four sleepers, and each man was covered with a pair of woolen bags, one bag slipped inside the other. the woolen bags were made of blankets sewed together and provided with flaps at the upper ends to cover the head of the sleeper. of course, we had to make a sleeping bag, too. the innermost bag was made of an old quilt and the next one of a blanket that we were fortunate enough to get hold of. but when it came to the reindeer skin we were balked, until we happened to run across a piece of rubber sheeting at the village store. this was a lucky find, for i doubt if one country store in a hundred carries such stock. the piece was just large enough to cover the blanket bag and allow for an ample flap to cover the head. to be sure, this furnished a shelter for only one person, and there were six in the society. it was clear that the treasury could not afford the expense of six sleeping bags; but as such a device would be useful only under very unusual circumstances we decided that two sleeping bags would be all the society would need. we had been rather curious to explore the country back of the hills on the pennsylvania side of the river, and with some light provisions and these sleeping bags strapped to the back a couple of boys could make quite an extended tour, unmindful of weather conditions. on real hot nights a fellow could get into the quilt bag and sleep on the blanket and waterproof bag. in cold weather the combination of all three bags provided sufficient warmth. the rubber bag would protect the sleeper from any moisture in the ground, and would also keep him thoroughly dry, even in a pouring rain. bill's "mummy case." [illustration: fig. . bottom piece of sleeping bag.] [illustration: fig. . top piece of sleeping bag.] [illustration: fig. . headboards.] our second sleeping bag was bill's own design, and was, in many respects, an improvement on the first, though it looked ridiculously like an egyptian mummy case. the inner bags were just like those of the first sleeping bag, but as there was no more rubber sheeting in town we had to make the outer bag of enameled cloth, such as is used for carriage curtains. out of this cloth bill cut a piece of the shape shown in fig. to serve as bottom, sides and ends of the sleeping bag. the bag was sewed wrong side out; that is, the piece was laid with enameled side up, and then the corners were sewed together after painting the seams with white lead. then a top piece was cut out, of the size indicated in fig. . the edges were hemmed over a piece of rope, which thus formed a corded edge. now, with the enameled side of the cover piece turned inward, its edges were sewed to the edges of the first piece. the bag was now turned inside out, so that the enameled surface lay on the outside and the seams turned inward. the corded edge on the cover piece lapped over the sides, forming a watershed. [illustration: fig. . the mummy case.] [illustration: fig. . sleeping bag in use.] it was bill's idea to rig up the flap in such a manner that it would not lie against the face, so that the sleeper could have plenty of fresh air, even in rainy weather. this required the use of two headboards, of the form shown in fig. . the headboards were connected at the bottom by a thin board, and to this framework the sides of the bag were nailed. to the end flap several cleats were nailed, adapted to fit into notches cut in the headboards. the cleat at the end of the flap was laid on edge, as shown, and fitted into deep notches in the headboards just above the edge of the cover piece. this held the flap securely, preventing it from flying open in a heavy wind. at the same time the small space between the flap and the cover piece allowed for an ample supply of fresh air. when using this sleeping bag, if there was any indication of a shower, we took care to have the head pointed to windward so as to prevent entrance of rain through this air space. the "a" tent. [illustration: fig. . the "a" tent.] in connection with the sleeping bags it may be well to describe here a curious shelter dutchy and i came across in one of our tramps. it was just about dusk one day when we discovered a temporary camp at which a couple of men were preparing dinner. they informed us that they were naturalists on a two weeks' outing. at their invitation we joined camp with them. they had a small "a" tent of balloon silk, under which they kept their provisions. the tent had no ridge pole, but was supported instead by a rope stretched between two trees (see fig. ). a camp chair. [illustration: fig. . the camp chair.] [illustration: fig. . pockets in the canvas back.] the camp was also furnished with an easy canvas chair, made by driving a couple of short posts in the ground for front legs and a pair of longer ones for the back. a piece of canvas was hung over these posts, forming both seat and back. the posts were driven into the ground on a slant, as illustrated in fig. , and the canvas was formed with pockets at the corners which were hooked over these posts. this made a very comfortable chair, though, of course, it was fixed to one spot. when the men moved camp they would carry with them only the canvas piece, and at the next stopping place new posts were chopped and used for legs. [illustration: waiting for a bite.] [illustration: temporary shelter under an "a" tent.] the camp bed. [illustration: fig. . canvas bed.] but what interested us most was the form of bed they had. this, like the chair, consisted of a piece of canvas arranged to be supported on posts cut from the woods in the neighborhood of the camp. the canvas piece was feet wide and feet long, with a wide hem at each side, forming pockets through which poles were passed, as in a stretcher. the ends of the poles were supported on posts driven into the ground. the poles were also propped up at the center, as shown, the pockets being cut away and bound, so as not to permit any wear on the canvas. to prevent the posts from leaning inward under the weight of the sleeper, they were braced apart by cross sticks. [illustration: fig. . bed set up on posts.] the camp bed in a shower. [illustration: fig. . a poncho.] [illustration: fig. . camp bed in the rain.] [illustration: fig. . umbrella with fly.] as a precaution against rain, a tall post was set up at the head and another at the foot of the bed, and a rope was stretched over the posts with the ends fastened to stakes driven into the ground. over this rope a rubber "poncho" was laid to keep off the rain. a "poncho," by the way, is a blanket of rubber cloth about - / feet wide and feet long, in the center of which is a slit through which you can put your head; then the rubber cloth falls over you like a cape, as in fig. , and makes a perfect protection against rain. the ponchos these men had were not quite long enough to cover the whole bed, so they fastened umbrellas to the head posts, as shown in fig. . during a shower in the woods the rain comes straight down in large drops, caused by the water collecting on the leaves. to prevent these large drops from splashing through the umbrellas, they laid pieces of cloth over the umbrellas, which served, like the fly of a tent, to check the fall of rain drops. a nightmare. i slept in the mummy case that night and dutchy in the first sleeping bag. it must have been about midnight when i was awakened by a most unearthly yell. it sent the cold chills running up and down my back. a second scream brought me into action, and i struggled to throw back the head flap, which had become caught. it seemed an age before i could open it and wriggle out of the bag. dutchy was sitting up in bed with a look of horror on his face, and his whole body was in a tremor of fear. one of the men dashed a glass of water in his face, which brought him back to his senses. it was only a nightmare, we found. dutchy dreamed he had been injured in a railway accident and had been taken for dead to the morgue. he tried to let them know that he was alive, but couldn't utter a sound, until finally he burst out with the yells that roused the camp. then, as he awoke with the horror of the dream still on him, his eyes fell on the two stretcher beds that looked like biers and the black coffin-like sleeping bag. it was not much wonder that dutchy was frightened. the camp did certainly have a most ghastly appearance in the vague moonlight that filtered through the trees, and it must have been still more gruesome to see the coffin and biers suddenly burst open and the corpses come running toward him. to prevent any further nightmare we set dutchy's sleeping bag under the "a" tent, where he would be saved the horror of again waking up in a morgue. pack harness. [illustration: fig. . pack harness.] in the morning our friends broke camp and started westward. dutchy and i watched them packing up their goods into a couple of very compact bundles, which they strapped to their backs with a peculiar pack harness. i took careful note of the way the harness was put together, and when we returned to the island we made two sets for use on our tramping expeditions. a canvas yoke was first cut out to the form shown in fig. . we used two thicknesses of the heaviest brown canvas we could find, binding the two pieces together with tape. the yoke was padded with cotton at the shoulders and a strap was fastened to each shoulder piece. these were arranged to be buckled to a pair of straps fastened to the back of the yoke and passing under the arms. riveted to these straps were a pair of straps used for fastening on the pack. the yoke straps were attached with the rough side against the yoke, while the pack straps were riveted on with the rough side uppermost, as indicated in the drawing. riveting. [illustration: fig. . riveting the straps together.] the method of riveting together the leather straps may need a word of explanation. a copper rivet was passed through a hole in the two straps; then the washer was slipped over the projecting end of the rivet. this washer had to be jammed down tight against the leather, and to do this we drilled a hole of the diameter of the rivet in a block of wood, and putting this block over the washer, with the end of the rivet projecting into the hole, we hammered the block until the washer was forced down tight against the leather. then taking a light tack hammer we battered down the end of the rivet onto the washer. care was taken to do this hammering very lightly, otherwise the end would have been bent over instead of being flattened. chapter xix. the land yacht. only one thing of importance occurred between our christmas holidays and eastertide: this was bill's invention of the tricycle sailboat or land yacht. we had returned to school with sailing on the brain. our skate sail served us well enough while there was any ice, but as spring came on we wished we had our canoe with us, or even the old scow to sail on the lakes near the school. once we seriously considered building a sailboat, but the project was given up, as we had few facilities for such work. but bill wasn't easily baffled, and i wasn't surprised to have him come tearing into the room one day, yelling, "i've got it! i've got it!" in his hands were two bicycle wheels, which i recognized as belonging to a couple of bicycles we had discarded the year before. "what are you going to do with them?" i inquired. "i'm going to make a tricycle sailboat." "what?" "a tricycle sailboat, a land boat, or anything you've a mind to call it. i mean a boat just like our ice boat only on bicycle wheels instead of skates. we can sail all over south jersey on the thing. come on down and help me build it." the frame of the yacht. [illustration: fig. . the backbone and crosspiece.] i followed him to the shed at the back of the school and found that he had already procured a couple of scantlings for the frame of the boat. the sticks were inches thick and inches wide. the backbone was cut to a length of feet, and a -foot link was sawed off for the crosspiece. the two pieces were securely nailed together about feet from the forward end of the backbone. the crosspiece was set on edge, but a notch was cut in it about inch deep to receive the backbone. we might have braced the frame with wooden braces, as in the ice boat, but we thought that this time we would vary the design by using wire bracing instead, thus making the frame much lighter. i asked bill how he proposed to tighten the wire. turnbuckles were the thing, but i knew that they were rather expensive. "just you leave that to me," said bill. "i've a scheme that i think will work out all right." a simple turnbuckle. [illustration: fig. . an eye bolt.] [illustration: fig. . stretching the guy lines.] at the hardware store of the town we bought a pound of no. iron wire, eight large screw eyes and six eye bolts, with nuts and washers. both the screw eyes and eye bolts had welded eyes and the shanks of the eye bolts were inches long. a pair of screw eyes were now threaded into the backbone at each side about inches from the end, and at each end of the crosspieces an eye bolt was fastened. i began to see bill's plan. he was going to draw the wire taut by tightening up the nuts on the eye bolts. to get the best effect the hole for the eye bolt had to be drilled in on a slant, so that the bolt would pull directly in the line of the wire. to get just the right angle we ran a cord from the screw eye on one side to the point where the bolt was to be inserted, and traced its direction on the crosspiece. the hole for the eye bolt was now drilled parallel with the mark we had traced. the same was done at the other end of the crosspiece. a pair of screw eyes were now screwed into the backbone at the fore end and a pair of eye bolts were set at a corresponding angle in the ends of the crosspiece. the crosspiece was notched at each side so that the nuts and washers on the eye bolts would have a square seating. then we stretched on the wire guy lines, drawing them as tight as possible, with the eye bolts held in place by a turn or two of the nuts, after which we screwed up the nuts as far as we could, thus drawing up the wire until it was very taut. this done the second nut was threaded onto each bolt against the first so as to lock it in place and prevent it from jarring loose. stepping the mast. [illustration: fig. the frame with wire braces.] our next task was to step the mast. we found in the shed an old flagstaff feet long and inches in diameter. the lower end of this, for about a foot, we whittled down to a diameter of inches, and drove it into a hole in the backbone inches from the forward end. the mast was stayed by a wire stretched from the head to an eye bolt at the fore end of the backbone. the end of the mast which projected below the backbone was stayed with wire running forward to an eye bolt and aft to a screw eye on the backbone, and also with a pair of wires running to screw eyes threaded into the crosspiece near the ends. we couldn't very well use eye bolts on these wires except at the fore end, but we stretched the wires as tight as possible before the screw eyes were screwed all the way in, and then, as we turned the screw eyes, the wire was wound up on them and drawn fairly taut. fig. shows a side view of the frame, and wires marked and are the same as illustrated in fig. , which is a top or plan view of the frame. mounting the frame on bicycle wheels. [illustration: fig. . bracing the mast.] we were now ready to mount the frame on the bicycle wheels. we used only the front wheels of the bicycles with the forks in which they were journaled. the shanks at the top of the forks were firmly driven into holes in the crosspiece near the ends. for the steering wheel bill took the front fork and wheel of his new bicycle, letting the shank into a hole at the stern end of the backbone. the tiller. [illustration: fig. . the tiller.] [illustration: fig. . the seat.] for a tiller we used a piece of an old rake handle. a small hole was first drilled into the handle and the end of the stick was then split through the hole, permitting the projecting shank of the fork to be driven tightly into the hole. the split wood was now tightly closed onto the shank by means of a bolt (see fig. ). in the rubbish heap we found an old chair. the legs were sawed off and the seat was then firmly nailed to the backbone. the back of the chair was cut down so that it just cleared the tiller. a "leg-of-mutton" sail. [illustration: fig. . leg-of-mutton sail.] [illustration: fig. . the sailor's stitch.] [illustration: fig. . laying out the sail.] everything was now completed but the sail. this was a triangular or "leg-of-mutton" affair, of the dimensions given in fig. . it was made of light canvas, inches wide, of which we bought yards. out of this we took one strip feet long, one feet, one feet, and one feet long. we had no sewing machine, and therefore had to sew the strips together by hand. the selvedge edges of the strips were lapped over each other about an inch and then they were sewed together sailor fashion, that is, each edge was hemmed down, as shown in fig. . the strips were sewed together so that at the foot each projected at least inches below the next shorter one. this done, the sail was cut to the dimensions given, allowing - / inches all around for the hem. the hem was turned over a light rope, forming a strong corded edge. at the clew, tack and head loops were formed in the rope which projected from the canvas, and at intervals along the foot the canvas was cut away, exposing the rope so that the sail could be laced to the boom, as illustrated. the boom was a pole feet long attached to the mast by means of a screw hook threaded into the end of the boom and hooked into a screw eye on the mast, after which the screw hook was hammered so it would close over the screw eye to keep it from slipping off. the sail was raised by a halyard passing over a block at the top of the mast. the sheet was fastened near the end of the boom, passed through a block on the backbone, back of the tiller, and through another block on the boom, and was led to a cleat within easy reach of the chair seat. a sail through the country. [illustration: fig. . a sail on the land yacht.] our land yacht proved to be quite a successful craft in the flat country around the school. of course, we could not sail everywhere; a country road is too narrow for any tacking when it comes to sailing against the wind. we hadn't thought of that when we made our trial trip. a strong east wind was blowing and so we ventured forth on a road that led due west from our school. off we sped before the wind for two miles, until we came to a sharp turn in the road. then we began to think of turning homeward. but this was a very different proposition. the wind was dead against us and to try to tack from side to side of the road was useless, because we would hardly get under way on one tack before we had to swing around on the other tack, losing all our momentum. it ended up by our lowering sail and ignominiously trundling the yacht back to school. after that we carefully selected our course, and never sailed away from home before the wind unless we knew of a roundabout way that would lead us back to port on a couple of reaches (long tacks). chapter xx. easter vacation. just before easter that year bill's aunt dorothy invited him to spend eastertide with her and bring along his roommate. i accepted the invitation with alacrity. bill had once spent a whole summer at his aunt's home, and when we arrived there he had many old haunts to visit. we spent the first day rambling through the woods, in the hills and back of the house. bill's cave. he introduced me to a cave which he believed was known to only two other boys, both of whom had since moved to new york city. the mouth of the cave was almost closed by a large boulder that had lodged in front of it. we had to climb to the top of this rock, and then letting ourselves down with a rope we slid down the sloping rear face of the boulder into a crevice in the rocks. then after squirming under a ledge we emerged into a large chamber, which appeared to be as dark as night after our sudden entrance from the outer light. [illustration: fig . sliding down into the cave.] bill lighted a candle which projected from a chink in the wall. by its light i saw that there was a pool in the center of the cave fed from a spring at one point. from the pool the water trickled off into a tiny stream to the mouth of the cave, where it was lost in a crack in the rocks. the water was ice cold and clear as crystal. around the pool were several chairs and a table made by bill and his two friends. that was evidently where bill had gotten his idea of a subterranean club. the barrel stave hammock. [illustration: fig. . the barrel stave hammock.] [illustration: fig. . tying the staves together.] hanging between a couple of projecting rocks was a hammock made of barrel staves. the hammock was a very simple affair, made by drilling a -inch hole in each end of each barrel stave. the staves were then connected by two ropes on each side, woven alternately in and out through these holes, that is, one rope would be passed down through one stave, up through the next, down through the third, etc., and through the same holes another rope would be threaded in and out but in the opposite direction. the end staves of the hammock were provided with double holes, as shown in fig. , so as to make them lie flat, then the ropes were threaded through them. the barrel armchair. [illustration: fig. . the armchair frame.] [illustration: fig. . casters on the chair.] [illustration: fig. . tacking on the straw sandwiches.] [illustration: fig. . the barrel armchair.] aside from the hammock and the rustic furniture there was a fine armchair, made from a barrel that had been sawed off, as in fig. , to form the arms and back. the barrel was raised from the ground by setting it on a couple of boards arranged in the form of a v. then a caster was fastened to the point of the v and another at each end, making a three-legged chair of it. the chair was upholstered with ticking stuffed with straw. first a piece of ticking large enough for the back was laid on the ground and covered over with an even layer of straw. over the straw a second piece of ticking was laid, making what bill called a "straw sandwich." this was nailed to the chair back along the edge and at the bottom, drawing the cloth as taut as possible. to make a better finish for the chair, the ticking was covered with dark red denim. then strips of braid were laid on the chair back, crossing each other like a lattice. at the crossing points of the braid brass-headed tacks were nailed right through the sandwich into the wood, producing the padded upholstered effect. next a long, thin sandwich was made to run along the edge of the back, and another one to run around the chair just below the seat, also a couple of small sandwiches to cover the legs and the brackets leading to them. these were all covered with denim before being tacked to the chair and then they were bound with tape at intervals to produce the padded effect. the rest of the woodwork was covered with denim, and a neat ruffle made by aunt dorothy hung about the bottom of the chair. a thick, round sandwich was now made to cover the seat board. this was also given a padded effect by binding it with tape. the seat board was not nailed to the chair, but rested on four cleats nailed to the barrel on the inside. when the seat was lifted out it uncovered a shallow chest in which various things could be stored. the summer toboggan. [illustration: fig. . the summer toboggan.] bill informed me that he and his two chums used to spend hot summer afternoons in this cool place whittling out various ornaments and making furniture for the cave. in one corner were a number of home-made amusement devices, one of which struck me as rather odd. it consisted of a pair of large barrel staves, hollow side up and connected with two short boards, as in fig. . bill said it was a summer toboggan, to be used on grass instead of snow. i had never heard of such an affair, and, of course, had to have a demonstration. bill went to the top of the hill and from there coasted down the grassy slope in fine style. tailless kites. "there's a better place over on the other side of the hill," he said, and led the way to his favorite coasting spot. but here our attention was diverted from coasting by the curious sight of a full-grown man flying a kite. we found out afterward that he was a professor keeler, who had made a great scientific study of kites. professor keeler was very affable, and we soon got acquainted with him. his kite was way up in the air, almost out of sight, and was pulling like everything. neither bill nor i could hold it long. but the most remarkable part of it all to me was the fact that the kite had no tail. i had heard of tailless kites made like a box, but this one appeared to be very much like the kites i had made in my younger days, and i well knew the importance of a long tail to keep such a kite steady. we asked the professor about it, and were informed that this kite was of the malay type, which is so designed that the cloth bellies out into pockets on each side of the central stick or backbone, and these pockets balance the kite while the backbone acts as a rudder. finding that we were interested in the subject he gave us full instructions for making kites from to feet long, and these i jotted down for future use. in a -foot kite he said the stick should be / inch thick and / inch wide, in a -foot kite / inch thick and / inch wide, in a -foot kite / inch thick and / inch wide, and in an -foot kite / inch thick and inch wide. on the following summer we built a -footer and also an -footer. [illustration: fig. . coasting in summer.] a five-foot malay kite. [illustration: fig. . tying on the cleats.] [illustration: fig. . hook on the vertical stick.] [illustration: fig. . double hook.] [illustration: fig. . connection at corner.] for the -foot kite we used two sticks of hickory / of an inch wide, / an inch thick, and each feet long. according to directions, one stick was laid across the other at a point two-elevenths of its length from the top. two-elevenths of feet is a little less than inches, and so we fastened on the cross stick inches from the upper end of the backbone. the sticks were not nailed together, because this would have weakened the frame just at the point where it was under the greatest strain. instead we followed the professor's directions and tied cleats to each stick, as shown in fig. , so as to form sockets. then the sticks were laid across each other, each stick fitting into the socket of the other, just like a mortised joint. a coat of shellac on the bottom of each cleat glued it temporarily to the stick, after which it was very tightly bound with fine cord. the stick and cleats were now thoroughly shellaced. the end of each stick was tapered off to receive a brass ferrule of the kind used on chisel handles. they can be bought at any hardware store. at the end of the backbone we fastened hooks made of brass, bent to the form shown in fig. . the cross sticks were also provided with hooks, but these were double, as shown in fig. , so that a hook lay on both the front and the rear side of the frame. [illustration: fig. . bending the cross stick.] the frame was covered with a kind of cloth called "percaline." the cloth was hemmed along each edge over heavy picture wire, and at each corner the wire was twisted around a small solid ring of brass. the rings were now slipped over the hooks on the frame and then the cross stick was bowed back by fastening a wire to the rear hooks and drawing it taut. professor keeler told us to tighten this bowstring until the distance from the wire to the cross stick at the center was equal to one-tenth of the length of the stick. as our sticks were each feet long we tightened the wire until the cross stick bowed out inches, as in fig. . the belly band of the kite was fastened at one end to the lower end of the backbone and at the upper end to a wire hook at the juncture of the two sticks. the hook was fastened to the cross stick by flattening the ends and running them under the cord used for binding on the cleats (see fig. ). a buttonhole was made in the cloth covering to let this hook project through. the belly band was just long enough, so that it could be stretched over to one end of the cross stick, as in fig. , and at this point, that is, inches from the upper end of the belly band, a brass ring was made fast, to which the main kite string was tied. the kite possessed the advantage that it could be quickly taken apart and folded into a small space. an eight-foot malay kite. [illustration: fig. . belly band hook.] our -foot kite was made in the same way only the sticks were / inch thick, inch wide and feet long. the cross stick was fastened - / inches (two-elevenths of feet) from the top of the backbone and it was bowed back - / inches (one-tenth of feet). the wire in the hem of the covering was a double thickness of the heaviest picture wire obtainable. [illustration: fig. . the -foot malay kite.] [illustration: fig. . malay kite with elastic belly band.] the elastic belly band. an important change was made in the belly band of the kite. the lower strand was made elastic by tying it fast to a number of heavy rubber bands, as in fig. . when flying the kite, if a sudden, strong puff of wind struck it, the elastic belly band would give, tilting up the lower end of the kite so that the wind passed under; but as soon as the gust had passed the rubber bands would draw the lower end of the kite back against the wind. the elastic belly band had the effect of making the kite rise almost vertically. sometimes it would even sail square overhead. the -foot kite was a very powerful one. to hold it we had to use a very strong cord, the kind used by upholsterers for tying down the springs in a chair or a sofa. putting the kites to work. bill tested the strength of the kite once by hooking a spring scale to the kite string. the scale was made to register weights up to pounds. but our kite yanked the pointer immediately past the -pound mark as far as it would go. we judged from this that the kite would lift at least pounds. such a pull as this it seemed a pity to waste, but how to utilize the power was a problem until one day, when the kite was soaring up on a south wind, dutchy suggested that we tie it to one of the canoes and go sailing up-stream. we tried the trick at once, but it didn't work very well, because the canoe was too light. the kite would drop unless there was a heavy pull on the string. we had better success with the scow, however, which provided a sufficient drag on the kite, and with the two kites to pull us we sailed a long ways up-stream, drifting down with the current when we had gone as far as we cared to. the diamond box kite. [illustration: fig. . the scow towed by kites.] [illustration: fig. . cleat for spreader.] [illustration: fig. . corner stick and spreader.] [illustration: fig. . the narrow frame.] [illustration: fig. . tacking on the cloth.] [illustration: fig. . forked end of long spreader.] professor keeler also gave us instructions for making a diamond-shaped box kite, and though we never built one, it may not be amiss to publish his instructions here. i quote from the chronicles of the s. s. i. e. e. of w. c. i.: "materials: four sticks, / inch thick by / inch wide by inches long, for the corner sticks. two sticks, / inch thick by / inch wide by inches long, for the short spreaders. two sticks, / inch square by about inches long, for the long spreaders. two strips of cloth inches long, hemmed at each edge to a width of inches. whittle out twelve cleats to the form shown in fig. . at the ends of the -inch spreaders nail cleats on each side with long wire brads, so as to form forks, as shown in fig. , in which two of the corner sticks are held. the short spreaders are fastened to the corner sticks, inches from the ends, with brads driven through the cleats, making the frame (as in fig. ). to prevent the frame from skewing off sidewise it should be braced with wire running diagonally across from one corner stick to the other. ordinary soft stovepipe wire will do. care must be taken to have the spreaders meet the corner sticks squarely or at right angles. now take one of the cloth strips and sew its ends together to form a band. the end should be lapped about an inch and fastened with the sailor stitch (see fig. ). the same should be done to the other cross strip, and then each band should be marked off with pencil lines at four points, all equidistant from each other. the two bands may now be tacked to the two ends of the frame with opposite pencil lines over the edges of the corner sticks, as in fig. . the two remaining corner sticks are then nailed to the bands at the two other pencil lines. these corner sticks will now be braced apart by the long spreaders, which are notched to the right length to stretch the cloth taut. a cleat is nailed over each notch, as shown in fig. , forming forks to hold the corner pieces. the long spreaders are now forced down until they meet the short spreaders, to which they are tied with waxed string. the long spreaders may be nailed to the corner sticks by driving brads right through the cloth into the cleats and the sticks. the belly band may be fastened to any one of the corner sticks at the spreaders, and from the points where it is tied it should measure about inches in length. the point where the main string should be attached to the belly band may be best determined by experiment." [illustration: fig. . the diamond box kite.] chapter xxi. the water wheel. summer found us again on willow clump island with heads full of new ideas. bill had come across an old copy of ewbanks' "hydraulics" in the school library. it was a book describing machines of the ancients--principally devices for raising water. rather dry reading, i thought, even though it was a wet subject; but bill seemed to find it absorbingly interesting. i came in late one afternoon, after a glorious game of baseball, only to find bill poring over the yellowed leaves of the "hydraulics" as fascinated as most fellows would be over a detective story. it exasperated me to note that he thought more of this old book than he did of our baseball team. "bill," i exclaimed, "what's got into you? i can't for the life of me see what is so entertaining in that prehistoric book." "oh, go way. don't bother me," was the surly reply. but i wouldn't be put off that way. quickly i snatched the book from his grasp and threw it out the window. "now, sir," i cried, "maybe you will kindly explain to me why you persist in studying that old volume, to the neglect of our baseball team." "don't get so excited, old chap," he replied. "that book is all right. i'm studying up some new schemes for next year's expedition to willow clump island. why, there are lots of things in that old book that we can make." and he proceeded to unfold his plans, sketching out some curious designs of water wheels and pumps. by the time school closed for the summer bill had thoroughly digested that volume, and was ready to reconstruct many of the ancient machines. the water wheel. our first work on reaching the island was to erect a water wheel, or "noria," as it was called in the book, in front of the camp. it had been a great nuisance to keep our filter barrel full. every few days we would have to form a bucket brigade, passing pails of water up the line until the barrel was filled. now bill proposed to do away with all this bother and let the river do the work for us. surveying for the water wheel. we first determined the height of the upper filter barrel above the level of the river. this was done with our surveying instrument, which was set level with the top of the barrel. we sighted with the instrument to a long pole that was held upright at the edge of the water. the pole had been marked off into feet with white chalk marks, and on sighting through the sight holes we found that the hairs came in line with the eleventh chalk mark. the top of the filter was, therefore, feet above the level of the river. bill figured that it would be necessary to construct a wheel about feet in diameter in order to raise the water to the proper height. [illustration: fig. . surveying for the water wheel.] towers for the water wheel. [illustration: fig. . frame for large tower.] first we built the towers to support the wheel. one tower was feet high and the other only feet. the large tower was made something like a very tall and narrow saw-horse. two stout poles feet long were flattened at their upper ends and nailed together, with the ends projecting about a foot, as shown in fig. . at the bottom these poles were spaced feet apart by a cross bar, and about - / feet from the bottom a pair of boards were nailed to opposite sides of the pole to serve as supports for the axle of the water wheel. another pair of -foot poles was now similarly fastened together and then the two pairs were spaced about feet apart and connected at the top and bottom with boards. [illustration: fig. . the large tower.] [illustration: fig. . v-shaped trough.] at the top two smooth boards were used and these were nailed to the inner sides of the projecting ends, which were tapered off. in this manner a v-shaped trough was formed. the boards were firmly nailed together at their meeting edges so as to prevent them from warping apart. a diagonal brace at each corner made the wedge-shaped tower very substantial. a number of cleats nailed to one of the poles provided a ladder by which we could mount to the top of the tower. the shorter tower was a three-legged affair, made of three -foot poles. at first two of these were flattened and nailed together at their upper ends, and they were braced at the top and bottom. the third leg was then nailed in place and braced by cross bars connecting it with the other two poles. the wheel. [illustration: fig. . the small tower.] [illustration: fig. . the hub.] we were now ready to make the wheel. from lumberville four / -inch boards, each inches wide and feet long, were procured; also a bar of iron / of an inch in diameter and feet long. at the center of one of the boards a block of wood inches long and inches in diameter was nailed on for a hub. a / -inch hole was now drilled through this hub and the board. holes were also drilled into the other boards at their centers. then they were all strung onto the bar and spaced like spokes at equal angles apart. bill had figured it out some way that the ends of the boards should be just about feet - / inches apart. when the boards were all arranged we nailed them together at the center, and connected the ends with narrow tie boards, as indicated in fig. . the buckets. [illustration: fig. . the water wheel.] eight large tomato cans were now procured and fastened to the spokes at the ends on the inner side, that is, the side the hub was nailed to. we couldn't very well nail on the cans, so we punched two holes in the side of each can and then secured them to the spokes by passing bolts through these holes and the boards. the paddles. [illustration: fig. . a paddle.] then we cut sixteen paddles of the form shown in fig. . eight of these were inches long, and the rest measured inches. a slot inches deep was cut in each paddle of just the right width to slip over the tie boards. the shorter paddles were fastened on just back of the spokes, and the rest were secured half-way between each spoke. the paddles were braced by stretching a wire from one to another all the way around the wheel. the receiving trough. [illustration: fig. . how the paddles and cans were attached.] [illustration: fig . the receiving trough.] our next task was to nail the receiving trough in place on the higher tower. we set up the towers on land and mounted the wheel between them with the axle resting in the crotch of the short tower and in a deep notch cut in the cross boards of the larger one. the cans on the wheel faced the larger tower, but the hub at the center and a block nailed to the larger tower spaced the wheel far enough out so that the cans did not strike the tower as they revolved. we carefully measured the distance between the spokes and the larger tower, and then built a square trough of a size to just fit into this space. this trough was nailed across the end of the v-shaped trough on top of the tower, but a notch was cut in the side so that the water would pour from the square or receiving trough into this v-shaped one. the square trough was about feet long and its sides were inches high; but at the ends we had to cut them down to a height of but inches, so as to permit the cans to pass without hitting them. setting up the towers. our filter was located nearly feet from the end of the river, and in order to get a good current of water to revolve our wheel we had to place it about feet from shore. this necessitated building a trough line feet long. ten feet of this line were already provided in the top of the tall tower. this tower was now set up in place with the legs firmly wedged into holes excavated in the bottom of the river. the legs on the shore side were sunk a little deeper, so as to tilt the trough slightly shoreward. the outer end of the trough was about feet above the level of the water. we needed but one more tower to support the remainder of the trough line. this tower was built like the first one, but was much shorter, as it was erected on land and the level of the trough at the top had to be or inches lower so as to make the water flow. we connected the towers by another v-shaped trough section. this we nailed to the under side of the first trough and to the inside of the second trough. the latter was then in the same way connected by a trough section with the upper filter barrel. we now rigged up our shorter tower about a foot from the taller one, wedging in the legs so that the top came level with the slotted boards of the other tower. mounting the water wheel. then came the task of mounting our wheel in place. we were working in a pretty strong current and found it no easy matter. in the first place, the wheel was floated down to the towers, but there it got jammed and we couldn't lift it up. one of the paddles was broken and a bucket wrenched off before we could disentangle the wheel from the towers, and then the wheel was carried quite a distance down-stream before we could drag it in to shore. our next attempt was more successful. this time we anchored the wheel so that it just cleared the towers, then fastening a couple of long guy ropes to it, we raised the wheel on edge, while a boy stood on each side holding the ropes to keep the wheel steady. the anchor rope was now slowly paid out and the wheel was rolled in between the towers. this done, the wheel was lifted up and the axle rod was pushed in, with the ends of the rod resting in slots of the boards on the tall tower and in the crotch on the shorter one. to prevent the axle rod from working endwise out of its bearings, we nailed pieces of wood across the crotch and the slots against the ends of the rod. then we cast off the anchor rope and our wheel started work, the cans dipping up the water as they were carried around by the wheel and pouring it out of the top into the receiving trough, from which the water flowed down into the filter barrel. cooling the filter barrel. [illustration: fig. . the water wheel in action.] the trough line was very leaky and a great deal of water splashed out of the buckets. but for all that, within a few moments our barrel was full and overflowing. we hadn't figured on its filling so rapidly, but we soon found a way of utilizing the surplus water. it was led to a half-barrel in which we washed our dishes, and from there it flowed through a ditch back to the river. the water for the wash barrel was taken from the top of the upper filter barrel. but we let the lower filter barrel flow over so that it would be kept wet on the outside. our filter was fortunately placed at a point where a good breeze struck it, and we shoveled away the earth that had been piled around it so that the wind playing on the wet barrel evaporated the moisture, making the water inside very cool. the canvas bucket. [illustration: fig. . bottom of bucket.] this same trick was used for cooling our drinking water whenever we went off on an expedition away from camp. we had a heavy canvas bucket, the kind used on ships. we would fill this bucket with water and then hang it up in the wind. the water seeping out of the pores of the bucket would be evaporated by the wind, and this would, in a few moments, make the water inside delightfully cool. such buckets may be bought for $ . to $ . apiece, but ours was a home-made affair, and made somewhat differently from the store kind. the canvas used was the heaviest we could find. a piece inches in diameter was cut out for the bottom. a ring inches in diameter, made of heavy brass wire, was laid on the canvas, and the cloth was turned over it and sewed down the inside of the ring. for the sides of the bucket we cut a piece inches wide and inches long. the upper edge was strengthened by a piece of light rope held in place by hemming the cloth over it. the lower edge was now sewed to the bottom, just inside the wire ring and then the ends of the piece were joined, completing the sides of the bucket. the bail of the bucket was formed of a piece of rope fastened to the roped upper edge of the bucket. [illustration: fig. . the canvas bucket.] but to return to the current wheel; the day after it was completed, when i went over to lumberville for the mail, i was met by old jim halliday, who wanted to know what sort of a rig we had out on the river. i told him, and after a dint of much persuasion, induced him to take a ride back in the scow with me. he had never visited our camp and hadn't realized how handy we were with the tools, because, with the exception of the current wheel, all our work had been done on the opposite side of the island. we made him a guest of honor, showing him over the whole place. the bridges struck him as remarkably clever, but what pleased him most was our current wheel. "i swan," he said. "ef that ain't jest the thing i have been awantin' for the past twenty year. what'll ye sell me the hull plant fer, boys?" mr. halliday's water wheel. [illustration: fig. . mr. halliday's water wheel.] we thought he was fooling at first, but when he had assured us that he was in earnest, bill told him that we needed our own plant, but we could build him a similar and even better current wheel for any amount he thought it was worth to him. the figure settled on was six dollars (a dollar apiece) for our work, mr. halliday paying for the material. it was not a large sum, but it seemed a lot to us, and considering the scarcity of money in that region it was pretty generous pay. we built mr. halliday's current wheel just like our own, except that the paddles were much broader, and instead of using cans for the buckets mr. halliday supplied us with small dinner pails. the method of fastening on the pails is shown in fig. . a stick was nailed across the end of each spoke and the bail of the pail was held by a screw eye threaded into this stick. the pails would hang straight, holding all the water without spilling a drop until the receiving trough was reached. this trough was fastened high enough to strike the bottom of the pails as they went by, tipping them over and emptying them of their contents. from the trough the water ran directly into a large cider barrel and from here was carried through a pipe to mr. halliday's barn. a stopcock was here provided so that he could turn the water on or off, as he desired. the use of pails was a great improvement on tin can buckets. fully three times as much water was poured into the receiving trough, because not a drop was spilled out on the way up. chapter xxii. the log cabin. immediately after fitting out jim halliday with his water wheel we set to work on our log cabin. as a model we had a photograph of a log hut which uncle ed had sent us. as the cabin was designed particularly for use in winter time, we decided that it should be located where it would be sheltered from the northern winds and would be exposed to the sun. the ideal spot seemed to be on the southern shore of kite island, which was backed by a thick grove of trees but gave an unobstructed view in front for a distance of about four miles down-stream. foundation of log cabin. first we staked out the plan of the house. it was to be feet long by feet wide, so we leveled off a space of this area, and at the corners, where the greatest weight of the building would come, large rocks were embedded in the ground. a logging expedition. the logs for the house were cut from a tract of wooded land about five miles up the river, belonging to mr. schreiner. to be sure we could have cut the timber from our own island, but when reddy had said something to his father about our building a log cabin, mr. schreiner had warned us not to cut down any of the trees without the owner's permission. all we could learn about the owner was that his name was smith, and that he lived somewhere in new york city. it seemed unlikely that he would ever have anything to say about our cutting down a few trees, but rather than run any risk mr. schreiner advised us to make use of his woods for any timber we might need. accordingly we started out early one morning on a logging expedition. we had no apparatus for handling any logs more than or inches in diameter, and bill reckoned it out that we would have to have about fifty logs of this size for the sides of the building alone. this did not mean that fifty trees had to be chopped down, because we could usually cut two logs from a single tree. as the logs would have to overlap about a foot at each corner, we had to cut the longer ones to a length of feet and the others to a length of feet. aside from these we had to have several -foot logs for the roof. only the straightest logs were chosen, and while bill and reddy wielded the axes the rest of us hacked off the small branches with hatchets and hauled the sticks down the river. here we tied them together to make a raft. the log raft. [illustration: fig. . tying the logs together.] this was done by running a pair of ropes alternately over and under the logs at each end (see fig. ). about fifteen were thus fastened together, and then as an extra precaution a log was laid across each end of the raft and tied fast. as soon as we had cut enough timber for our first raft, we all ceased work, to take a ride down the river on the logs. two of us, armed with poles, were to do the steering. there was one spot in the river of which we were rather apprehensive. that was a bit of shallow, swift water three miles from camp. a line of rocks jutted up from the river, forming a natural dam which was broken only at the eastern end. the water swirled madly through this opening, and veering off a huge rock which lay directly in front of the gap turned sharply westward. as we neared this dam the river became deeper and deeper, until finally we could no longer reach bottom with the poles, and could not properly steer the boat. for some time we drifted helplessly round and round in the still water above the dam. then suddenly the current caught us and we swept like a shot for the opening. the gap was quite wide, and had we only thought to provide ourselves with oars we could have steered the raft clear of the rocks below, but we were entirely at the mercy of the current, and with a terrific crash we were hurled head on against the boulder. [illustration: getting dinner.] [illustration: the photo after which our log cabin was modeled.] just what happened then i can not say. when i undertook to record the incident in the chronicles of the s. s. i. e. e. of w. c. i., i found there were five entirely different versions of the affair besides my own. i knew that immediately after the shock i found myself struggling in the water just below the rock over which i must have been slung by the force of the impact. dutchy declared up and down that he had sailed fifty feet in the air astride of a log. bill had been almost stunned by a blow on the head and was clinging desperately to a jagged projection of the rock. the ropes that had held the raft together had parted, scattering the logs in all directions, and i could see the rest of the crew hanging on to them for dear life. shouting to bill to let go his hold on the rock. i swam over and caught him as he drifted down, then i helped him ashore. leaving bill to recuperate i rushed down the bank, shouting to the others to paddle the logs over toward shore. then i plunged in, and pulling myself up on the nearest log, paddled shoreward as we had done on the planks when shooting the rapids. in this way one by one we corralled the logs, and after tying them together again resumed our voyage down the river. we now had no swift water to fear and were able to guide the raft successfully down to lake placid. but here we moored it, not venturing to take it past the mill-race until we had gotten the oars from the scow and nailed on oar locks at each side and the rear, so that we could properly row and steer the raft safely to kite island. the sail-rigged raft. [illustration: fig. . a sail-rigged raft.] when we went up the river again we carried the oars with us, also the sail and mast belonging to our ice boat, as there was a good breeze blowing down-stream. our second trip was more successful. the mast was stepped in a small but solid box nailed to the logs. in the top of this box a hole was cut for the mast to fit into and then the mast was braced with guy lines. we came down the river in fine style, steering straight for the opening in the dam, and just as we were about to shoot through reddy and i plied the oars for all we were worth on the port (left) side so as to swing the raft around past the boulder. however, we didn't escape entirely without accident, for the raft rode up on a submerged ledge, dipping the starboard side clear under water and nearly tipping us over. but in a moment the raft had righted itself and we had smooth sailing for the rest of the way. building the log cabin. [illustration: fig. . foundation logs notched.] [illustration: fig. . foundation logs fitted together.] [illustration: fig. . a corner of the log wall.] our third expedition completed the number of logs we required for the log cabin. two large -foot logs were chosen for the foundation logs at the front and rear of the building. the logs were flattened along the bottom so that they would have a firmer bearing on the ground, and particularly on the corners, where they rested on foundation stones. each log was now notched about a foot from the ends. the notches were inches long and about inches deep. care was taken to place those on one log squarely opposite the notches on the other. a pair of -foot logs were now laid across the foundation logs and rolled along them until another half-turn would have dropped them into the notches (shown in fig. ). then notches were cut in the -foot logs to correspond, so that when the final half-turn was given one notch would fit over the other, making a mortise joint (fig. ). when the side logs were in position notches were cut in their upper surface to receive a pair of -foot logs which were rolled onto them, notched and dropped into place. then another pair of side logs were laid on, and so the work progressed. the notches in each log were cut to a depth equal to one-quarter the diameter of the log; that is, if the log was inches in diameter the notch was made inches deep, and if inches in diameter it was cut to a depth of - / inches. when the logs were laid in place no space intervened between them, as will be clearly understood by reference to fig. . we found, after a few logs had been set in place, that our cabin was growing faster at one end than at the other. the trouble was that our logs were not of uniform diameter throughout, and we had been laying the butt ends, which were larger, all at one end of the building. so we had to take down the logs and relay them with the butt end of the front foundation log at one end and that of the rear foundation log at the other. then the cross logs were laid on with their butt ends on the small ends of the foundation logs. the next end logs were laid with their small ends on the butt ends of the cross logs, and so on, taking care never to lay the butt end of one log across the butt end of another. in this way the walls were built up evenly to a height of feet. [illustration: fig. . piece cut out to admit saw.] we had planned to make a large open fireplace in the cabin, and this necessitated cutting an opening in the rear wall. but we did not want to cut the opening until the wall was built up to its full height lest it might buckle while the remainder of the logs were being placed in position. so we merely cut a piece out of the top log to make room for a saw when we were ready to cut the complete opening. as our fireplace was to be feet in width, a -foot piece was cut out of the center of the log. then the ends were supported by cleats nailed on each side, as shown in fig. . this done the building was continued as before, but as the walls grew we found it more and more difficult to raise the logs to position. we could not lift them directly to the top of the wall, but had to roll them up on "skids"; that is, on a pair of -foot logs which were laid against the top of the wall. when the walls had reached a height of about feet above the foundation logs, a length feet inches long was cut out of the top log to allow space for sawing out the front door and window, and also a -inch piece was cut out for the side window. cleats temporarily held the sawed ends of the logs, while the walls were carried on up to a height of a little over feet from the foundation logs. the roof of the log cabin. [illustration: fig. . skids] then we started laying the roof. a -foot log was now notched in place at each side, with its forward end projecting about feet over the front of the cabin to form a shelter in front of the building. a pair of -foot logs were then laid in position. the next pair of -foot logs were laid about inches in from the sides, and after a pair of the cross logs had been set in place a third pair of logs were laid about inches from the sides. finally, a single -foot log was set in place at the center, to serve as the ridge beam of the roof. the roof logs were all carefully tested to see if they were sound before we laid them in place, because we did not want to run any risk of the roof falling in, particularly in the winter time, when it would be heavily covered with snow. a chalk line was drawn from the ridge beam to the lower roof beam, and the cross logs were sawed off along this line, as indicated in fig. . several slabs were now procured and laid across the roof beams to serve as rafters. these rafters projected about inches beyond the side walls of the cabin, so as to support the eaves. over the rafters we laid a roofing of slabs, starting with the bottom and lapping them, as we had done on our tree house. [illustration: fig. . how the roof logs were laid.] the door and window frames. we were now ready to cut out and frame the doors and window openings. the front window of the cabin was to be close beside the door, so we merely widened the door opening at the top to include the window opening as well (see figs. and ). the door was made - / feet wide, and was cut down to the foundation logs. the window opening was cut to a depth of inches. before sawing out the opening we wedged pieces of wood between the logs along the line we were to follow with the saw, so as to keep them in place. after the opening had been made a couple of stout boards were nailed to the sawed ends of the logs at each side, to hold them securely in place and make a suitable framing for the door. the cleats were then removed. the foundation log and the one at the top of the opening were flattened, to serve as the sill and lintel of the door. between the door and window a short post was wedged in place. this post was flattened on opposite sides, so that the door jamb could be nailed against it on one side and the window frame on the other. the side window was next cut out and framed. after it had been framed it measured feet square. [illustration: fig. . the finished roof.] the fireplace. then came the task of building our fireplace. first we sawed out the opening, cutting right through the rear foundation log. then we gathered from the river a large number of the flattest stones we could find. with these we planned to build the three outer walls of our chimney. but the question of getting mortar to bind the stones together bothered us for a while. "if only we could find a bed of clay. don't any of you know of one around here?" queried bill. but none of us remembered seeing any clay bed in the vicinity. "if we were in south jersey now," i said, "we could use some of that red mud they have down there. it sticks like the mischief to shoes and pant legs. i bet it would hold those stones together." "red mud? why there's plenty of it over the hill, back of lumberville," said reddy. "all the roads over there are red shale roads, and i saw some red banks along the river when we went after the logs." that was just what we wanted. the banks reddy referred to turned out to be genuine red shale, and soon we had ferried several scow loads of the stuff down to kite island. when the shale was wet it made quite a sticky mortar. the foundations of the chimney were laid in a trench about feet deep, and the side walls of the chimney were carried inside of the cabin and covered the ends of the logs at the chimney opening. the side walls extended outward a distance of feet, where they were joined by the rear wall of the chimney. the proper way to build a stone wall. in making our chimney we could not rely on the red shale to hold the stones as firmly as good lime mortar would, so we had to be careful that each stone, as it was laid, had a firm bearing. the stones were embedded in a thick layer of mud, and if they showed any tendency to teeter we propped them up by wedging small stones under them until they lay solid. another thing that we were very careful about was to "break joints"; that is, to keep the joints in each layer of the stones from coinciding with those in the next layer, above or below. to make sure of this we made it a point to lay a stone over each joint in the top of the wall and then to fill in the space between the stones with smaller stones. in this way the wall was made very substantial. [illustration: fig. . how to build a wall.] when the masonry had been carried up to the top of the chimney opening, a heavy timber about inches wide was laid across the walls close against the wall of the building. this was to support the fourth wall of the chimney, and so we flattened its upper surface. to prevent it from catching fire it was covered with a thick plastering of mud, and then to keep the mud from cracking and flaking off we procured a piece of tin and tacked it over the log. the tin also extended over the top log of the opening. then we went on with the building of the chimney walls, carrying them up about a foot above the ridge of the roof. our chimney was completed by paving the bottom with stones, well packed in mud and nicely smoothed off to make the hearth. the hearth extended about inches into the cabin, and was framed with logs, as shown in fig. . the floor of the cabin. a number of logs were now laid on the ground to serve as floor beams. slabs were used for the floor. we had some trouble in making the floor perfectly even, because the floor beams were rather irregular, and a great deal of time was spent in smoothing the logs off to a common level. if we had the work to do over again we would have bought two or three planks and laid them on edge to support the flooring. [illustration: fig. . building the chimney.] [illustration: fig. . section through the fireplace.] the door hinges and latch. [illustration: fig. . the door hinges.] [illustration: fig. . the latch guard.] [illustration: fig. . door catch.] a door was now constructed by battening together a number of slabs. in place of a hinge a hole was drilled into the sill and another into the lintel directly in line with it. two sticks of wood were then whittled to fit snugly, but without jamming, into these holes. these sticks were then nailed to the inner face of the door, with their whittled ends projecting into the holes, forming pintles on which the door could turn. a narrow strip of wood was nailed to the outer jamb for the door to close against. the latch consisted of a stick of wood, fastened to the door at one end with a nail. it hooked onto a catch whittled out of hard wood to the form illustrated in fig. , and nailed to the jamb. then to keep the latch from dropping too far when the door was open, and to guide it when slammed against the catch, we whittled out a guard piece to the form illustrated in fig. , and nailed this to the door, with the latch projecting through the slot of the guard. a string was now fastened to the latch and passed through a hole in the door. a block was tied to the end of the latch string to prevent it from slipping back through the hole; but at night, when we did not want to be molested by any intruders, we untied the block and drew in the latch string. the window sash. [illustration: fig. . the latch.] for our windows we made wooden sashes which fitted nicely into the window openings. a small hole was drilled through the sash at each side into the frame, and nails inserted in these holes held the sash in place, and served also as hinge pins for the sash to turn on. the sash could be taken out at any time by removing these nails. as we could not afford to use glass for our windows, we covered the sashes first with cloth, and later, when it occurred to us that in winter time it would be difficult to keep the cold air out, we used oiled paper. bunks. [illustration: fig. . hinged window sash.] [illustration: fig. . bunks.] our next work was directed toward providing sleeping accommodations in the log cabin. a large log was laid on the floor the full length of the cabin, as far out as possible without interfering with the opening of the front door. stakes were laid across this log, with their opposite ends wedged in between the logs of the wall. a nail or two in each slab held it in place. this formed a sort of shelf feet long, which was divided at the center to form two bunks, each wide enough for two persons. but as there were six of us in the society, we had to provide two more berths. a stout post was set into a hole in the ground, and nailed firmly at the bottom to the lower berth log and at the top to one of the roof beams. this post supported a second berth log, which extended the full length of the building at a height of about feet from the floor, and was wedged at the ends between the logs of the house. cleats were nailed to the walls under this berth log to make it perfectly secure. then slabs were nailed across it to form the two bunks. stopping up the chinks. the log cabin was completed by stopping up all the chinks between the logs of the walls. strips of wood and bits of bark plastered with mud were driven into all the cracks and crevices until everything was made perfectly tight. chapter xxiii. the windmill. when our log cabin was completed we immediately transferred our camp from the tent to the hut. but at the very outset we were confronted with the problem of getting drinking water. we hadn't thought of that before. it was easy enough to move the filter barrels, but when it came to moving the water wheel we could find no suitable place for it anywhere near the log cabin. the water of lake placid was too quiet, while the mill-race and the rapids on the other side of kite island ran so swiftly that we were afraid the water wheel would be swept away with its course. the matter was carefully considered at a special meeting of the society. it occurred to bill that we might build a windmill in place of the water wheel, and use it to pump water from a well which could be dug near the hut. "we wouldn't have to use a filter, then," he said. "why not?" i asked. "why, because the sand of the island will strain out all the dirt in the water. you see, the water in the well will have to soak in from the river, and by the time it gets through all the gravel and sand between the river and the well it ought to be filtered pretty clear." digging the well. [illustration: fig. . digging the well.] that sounded logical, and so we adopted the plan at once. we chose a spot quite near the hut for our well. when we had dug down about feet we struck water, but continued excavating until the water lay feet deep in the well. while making the excavation we shored up the sides with planks, to prevent the loose soil from falling in on us and smothering us, as it so nearly did when we were digging our first cave. by "shoring," i mean we lined the walls with planks, which were driven into the ground with large wooden mallets. the planks were braced apart with sticks at frequent intervals. as the well hole grew deeper we had to rig up a bucket to haul the dirt out. our bucket was a soap box attached to a rope, which passed through a pulley at the top of the well. the pulley was supported by a tripod made by firmly lashing together the upper ends of three stout poles and spreading their lower ends far enough apart to straddle the mouth of the well, as shown in fig. . after the well had been carried down to a sufficient depth, we began laying the stone wall, which was to form the permanent lining. we knew that the wooden walls would not do, because they would soon decay. our stone wall, which was built up of flat stones like the chimney of the log house, was not very strong, i fear, and had not the soil around it been pretty firm it would probably have caved in. however, if it served no other purpose, it formed a fairly good finish for the well. the windmill tower. [illustration: fig. . frame for the tower.] the mouth of the well was carefully covered with planks while we constructed the windmill above it. for the tower of the windmill we chose four long sticks. they must have measured about feet in length, and were from to inches in diameter. with them we made two frames of the form given in fig. , using slabs to brace them apart. these frames were now set in position, with their lower ends firmly planted in holes in the ground, and the tower was completed by nailing on a number of diagonal braces. a couple of boards were nailed across the upper ends at opposite sides, and holes were drilled through them to provide bearings for the wind wheel shaft. the crank shaft. [illustration: fig. . the crank shaft.] the shaft was a piece of heavy iron rod which we procured from the blacksmith at lumberville. under bill's direction the blacksmith hammered a u-shaped bend at the center of the shaft, so as to form a crank, and then he flattened the rod near the ends (see fig. ). when the shaft was set in its place these flat spots lay just outside of the bearing boards, and then, to keep the shaft from sliding back and forth in its bearings, we fastened on two clamps over these flattened parts. the clamps were made of pairs of hardwood blocks bolted together in the manner indicated in fig. . the wind wheel. [illustration: fig. . a clamp.] [illustration: fig. . wedge for wind wheel.] [illustration: fig. . spokes of wind wheel.] [illustration: fig. . wind wheel blade.] our next task was to construct the wind wheel. first we procured three boards, each inches wide and - / feet long. a / -inch hole was drilled in the center of each board, and then, with these holes coinciding, the boards were nailed together, with their ends projecting, like spokes, equally distant from each other. six wedges were now made of the size indicated in fig. . these were made of a x -inch scantling, sawed diagonally in two and then planed down to the given dimensions. the wedges were now nailed firmly to the spokes, as shown in fig. . for the blades we used six thin boards, each about feet long. each blade measured inches in width at the outer end, and tapered down to a width of inches at the inner end, as illustrated in fig. . the blades were now securely nailed to the wedges, and their outer ends were braced together by means of wires stretched from the forward edge of each blade to the rear edge of the next one ahead. the wheel was then fitted onto the shaft and nailed to one of the clamps. in this way it was practically keyed to the shaft. we did not make any vane for our windmill. it did not need any. the wind nearly always blew either up or down the river, more often up the river, for the prevailing summer winds in that part of the country are southerly. but, aside from that, east and west winds could not very well reach us on account of the hills on both sides of the river. the wheel was set facing the north, because the strongest winds came from that direction, and as an extra brace against these winds we stretched wires from the projecting end of the shaft to the center of each blade. a simple break. [illustration: fig. . the wind wheel.] a brisk northerly wind was blowing when we set the wheel in place, and it began to revolve at once, before we could nail it to the clamp. to stop it we nailed a stick of wood to the tower, so that its end projected in the path of the blades and kept the wheel from turning around. this brake was swung up to the dotted position illustrated when we were ready to have the wheel revolve, but it could be thrown down at any time to stop it. the pump. [illustration: fig. . side view of the wind wheel, showing brake.] our pump was made of a galvanized leader pipe; that is, a pipe used to carry off rain water from the roof of the house. the pipe was only about feet long, and so we had to piece it out with a long wooden box pipe. a block closed the lower end of this box, and the leader pipe fitted snugly into a hole in the block (fig. ). a spout was set into the upper end of the box pipe to carry the water to the cask, which was to serve as our water reservoir. the pump valves. [illustration: fig. . the box pipe.] [illustration: fig. . the lower valve.] [illustration: fig. . the piston valve.] we plugged the bottom of the leader pipe with a block of wood, in the center of which a large hole was drilled. the hole was covered with a piece of leather nailed at one side, so that it could lift up to let water into the pipe. the piston was made of a disk of wood of slightly smaller diameter than the inside of the pipe, and over it was fastened a piece of leather just large enough to fit snugly against the walls of the pipe. this piston was fastened to a wooden rod long enough to reach from well within the pipe to the wind wheel shaft. a strip of brass was bent over the crank, or u-shaped bend in the shaft, and its ends were fastened to the rod. [illustration: the old windmill at work on a lumberville farm.] action of the pump. [illustration: fig. . connection of rod and crank.] it was rather a crude pump, but it did all the work we required of it. as the wheel went around the crank shaft would move the piston up and down. whenever the piston went down, the air in the pipe would press up the edges of the leather disk and squeeze past (see fig. ). then when the piston came up again, the leather disk, being backed by the wooden disk beneath it, was kept flat, so that no air could force its way back into the pipe. this made a partial vacuum in the pipe, and the water from the well rushed up through the valve at the bottom to fill it (see fig. ). when next the piston went down the bottom valve closed and more air forced its way past the piston. then on the next upward stroke more water flowed into the pipe, until, after a number of strokes, all the air was pumped out and the water which took its place began to force its way up past the piston and eventually to flow out of the spout into the cask. our old windmill was sold to a farmer near lumberville when we broke camp that fall. we carted it over and set it up for him. a number of years later i saw it still faithfully at work pumping water for his cattle. the original pump had been worn out and a new one substituted, but otherwise the old windmill remained just as we had first rigged it up. [illustration: fig. . fig. . action of the pump.] chapter xxiv. the gravity railroad. "about all we lack now," said dutchy, when the windmill had been completed, "is a railroad." "then suppose we build one," was bill's unexpected rejoinder. we all thought he was joking, but he wasn't. "i don't mean a steam railroad," he said, "but a gravity railroad." "a what?" "a gravity railroad. oh, you know what that is--a roller toboggan--the kind they have down at coney island." and he went on to explain how we could rig up a simple roller toboggan on our island. his plan was to build an inclined trestle on the high ground just below the lagoon, and then run wooden tracks along the shore down to the pontoon bridge, and across the mill-race to kite island. we started first to dig a road down to the bridge, because the bank was quite high at this point. the task was rather greater than we anticipated, but we kept steadily at it until we had cut a fairly good road through the bank, though the grade was rather steep. before proceeding with the trestle and track we thought the best plan would be to build our car, and then we could use it as a gauge to determine how far apart the rails should be set. the car. [illustration: fig. . putting the car body together.] first we got a x -inch scantling, and cut from it two lengths, each feet inches long. these were laid on edge just inches apart, and then a number of boards were nailed across from one scantling to the other and sawed off flush with their edges. the floor thus formed was now turned over so that the scantlings lay uppermost and the sides of the car were then nailed on with their edges overlapping the ends of the floor boards. the sides, which were about inches high, were each made of two boards firmly battened together. great care was taken to securely nail both the flooring and the sides to the scantlings, because these scantlings were to carry the wheels of the car. the car body was completed by nailing on the end pieces which overlapped both the flooring and the side walls. the flanged wheels. [illustration: fig. . the car wheel.] next we sawed out the wheels of our car. from a board of hardwood / of an inch thick four disks, inches in diameter, were sawed out. then from a board inch thick four -inch disks were sawed out. we cut these disks in the same way as we had made the disks for our surveying rod (see page ), by making cuts across corners and finally smoothing off the angles with a draw-knife. a half-inch hole was now drilled in the center of each disk. then on each large disk a smaller one was placed, with the center holes of the two coinciding and the grain of one lying across the grain of the other. in this position they were firmly nailed together, making a wheel like those used on a railway car, with the small disc forming the tread of the wheel and the large disk serving as a flange. the car axles. [illustration: fig. . car body with axles in place.] for the car axles we bought four / -inch bolts, inches long, with two washers and two nuts for each bolt. in each side of the car, about inches from the ends, we nailed face blocks; that is, blocks of wood for the wheels to bear against. these face blocks were only / inch thick. then in these blocks holes were drilled which were carried clear through the scantling. the holes were just large enough for the bolts to fit snugly in them. the bolts were inserted from the inside, so that their threaded ends projected out at each side of the car. a patch of wood was nailed to the scantling over each bolt head to prevent the bolt from slipping back into the car. then the wheels were mounted on these bolts, which served as axles. mounting the wheels. [illustration: fig. . section showing how to fasten on the wheel.] first a washer was placed on the axle, then the wheel was applied, with the larger or flange disk against the face block, after which another washer was slipped on. a nut was screwed against this washer just tightly enough to keep the wheel snugly in place, and yet let it turn freely on its axle. then to keep this nut from shaking loose a second nut was screwed on against it. while one fellow held the first nut from turning, another screwed the second nut against it as tightly as he could. the second nut is technically known as a "jam nut," or "lock nut." the car was completed by laying a couple of boards across from one scantling to the other to serve as seats. the railway track. [illustration: fig. . the inclined trestle.] [illustration: fig. . joints of the track.] the trestle was now begun. first we erected a level platform, which was to be the starting point of the railway. this was made very substantial by planting the corner posts firmly in the ground and then bracing them together with diagonal braces. a couple of planks leaning against the platform at one side provided a convenient means for mounting to the top. from the platform the trestle ran down at an easy incline to the ground. it was made of x -inch scantlings supported at intervals on posts driven into the ground. the opposite posts were firmly braced with boards fastened diagonally across them. the scantlings were to serve as rails, and so we fastened them at the proper distance apart with ties nailed to the under side. but to be sure that the rails were not too far apart or too close together, the car was rolled over the track and the rails were set to keep the tread disks of the wheels on them and the flange disks just clear of their inner edges. the ends of the rails were cut off at an angle, making a slanting joint, as shown in figs. and . they were fastened firmly together by nailing a piece of board on the bottom and also on the outer side. the carpenter's miter box. [illustration: fig. . carpenter's miter box.] to make sure that the ends were all cut to the same angle, we made a carpenter's "miter box." two sideboards were nailed to a baseboard, making a trough large enough for the scantling to be set in it. then we sawed through the sides of the trough at an angle of degrees. when we wanted to cut the end of the scantling at an angle it was placed in the trough, and with the saw set in the saw cuts, as a guide, we were sure that they would all be cut at the same angle. laying the track. [illustration: fig. . how the track was anchored.] from the bottom of the inclined trestleway we continued the track down the slope to the river; but for the sake of economy, instead of using x -inch scantlings for the rails, we bought a number of -inch planks at lumberville, and had them sawed up into strips inches wide. these -inch square rails were fastened together with slabs nailed on at frequent intervals. to maintain the proper gauge the car was rolled over each pair of rails, which were nailed first at the ends and center. to anchor the track we drove short posts into the ground so that their upper ends lay flush with the surface. a post was provided under each joint and one under the center of each rail, and then the slab ties were nailed securely to these posts. in imitation of a full-sized railway, we made it a point to "break joints" on our track; that is, to make the end of one rail come in line with the center of the opposite rail, as shown in fig. . our track was continued across the pontoon bridge and ran around the west shore of kite island. the track was straight as far as the shore of kite island, whence, by an easy curve, it was carried around to the log cabin. the first railway accident. dutchy was the first one to try the railway. he sneaked back to the platform while the rest of us were putting a few last touches on the track. the first we knew the car came tearing down the track at full speed, with dutchy yelling at the top of his voice for us to get out of his way. bill was on the bridge when the car came along and he had no time to run for shore, but with great presence of mind he jumped into the water and clung to one of the barrels. but the joke of it all was that dutchy himself got a wetting too. the track at the middle of the bridge was not quite true to gauge. it was this very spot that bill was fixing up when dutchy came along. the end of a rail was bent in far enough to catch the flange of one of the car wheels, and in a moment dutchy, car and all, was slung head over heels into the mill-race. fortunately no serious harm was done. dutchy landed a little ways down-stream, and reddy, by quick work, managed to rescue the car just as it was floating off under the suspension bridge. the car was undamaged except that the flange of a wheel was split off. of course, bill was as mad as a hornet at dutchy, and expressed his feelings in no mild terms. but his anger was somewhat tempered by the fact that dutchy received as bad a punishment as he had inflicted. [illustration: the start of the gravity railroad.] testing the track. we had to cut a new flange disk for the broken wheel, and to prevent the flanges from splitting off again we nailed a batten across the inner face of each wheel extending down to the very edge of the flange disk. this batten was fastened on across the grain. when everything was completed the car was started down the track empty to see if it would keep the rails. it went beautifully as far as the bridge, but was too light to run much beyond. the next time we loaded it up with stones and had the pleasure of watching it sail down hill, across the bridge and vanish out of sight around the shore of kite island. that was demonstration enough. we knew it would carry us safely and it did. the next time we tried it four of us piled into the small car, and in a moment we were off on a most thrilling ride, which ended right in front of the log cabin, where the car came to a sudden stop after riding off the end of the rails and plowing through the sand for a short space. chapter xxv. the cantilever bridge. there is one more piece of work done by our society which yet remains to be described, and that is the cantilever bridge. this we all voted to be the greatest of our achievements on the island. to be sure, it was uncle ed's design, but i think we justly deserve credit for the masterful way in which it was erected. in our search for types of bridges before building the king post bridge, we came across a simple cantilever bridge that didn't look very difficult to construct. to be sure, none of us knew a thing about stresses and strains, and ingenious though we were, bill realized that the task of designing a cantilever bridge was far beyond him. nevertheless, we were sure we could build one if only we had a good set of plans. a letter was therefore mailed to uncle ed, asking him for the required details. the answer came promptly from western australia, asking us to send him the exact width of the water we wished to span, the depth of the water, the distance from the top of one bank to the top of the other, and the exact height of the banks above water level. we decided we would build the bridge across the mouth of the lagoon. the distance here between the two banks measured a little over feet. the banks were very precipitous, and rose - / feet above the level of the water. all these details, together with soundings of the bottom, all the way across, were sent to uncle ed, and on the day after our railway was completed quite a bulky package was received in answer. it contained complete directions for building the bridge of wooden frames, which were so designed that they needed merely to be hooked together to form the bridge, though to make the structure perfectly safe uncle ed cautioned us to tie the frames together wherever they met. i am half afraid to tell my readers how to build this bridge, as it required the utmost care, and had to be built just so to avoid disaster. bridge building is a serious business, and i would not advise any one to attempt building this, of all bridges, who does not propose to follow instructions implicitly. uncle ed told us that if we built it properly, and with sound timbers, we would find the bridge strong enough to support a dozen boys, but he warned us not to crowd more than that number on it. frames for the cantilever bridge. [illustration: fig. . a frame (make four).] [illustration: fig. . b frame (make four).] [illustration: fig. . c frame (make four).] [illustration: fig. . d frame (make four).] the frames with which the cantilever bridge was built were made of saplings from to inches in diameter. we procured them from mr. schreiner's lands up the river. in making the frames the sticks were fastened together with / -inch bolts inches long. it was quite a strain on our pocketbooks to buy these bolts, but uncle ed had written that nails or spikes would be useless to stand the strains of so large a bridge, and that if we could not get any bolts we had better give up the idea of building a cantilever bridge. to make sure that we made no mistakes, uncle ed had made a drawing of each different size of frame we would need, designating each with a different letter, and then these same letters were marked on a general view of the bridge, so that we would know exactly where the frames belonged. these drawings are reproduced here in figs. to and . we had to make four frames each, of the _a_, _b_, _c_ and _e_ sizes, two each of the _f_, _g_ and _l_ sizes and one each of the _h_, _i_, _j_ and _k_ sizes. of the _d_ frames two were made with the ends cut away on the outer half, as illustrated in fig. , and two were cut away at the inner side, the reason for which will appear presently. when fastening the timbers together we cut notches in each stick, as shown in fig. . the depth of each notch was just one-quarter the diameter of the stick; that is, the notch was / of an inch deep in a -inch stick and inch deep in a -inch stick. care was taken not to exceed this depth, for fear of weakening the sticks. in the case of frame _d_, the sticks were not notched or mortised together. it will be noticed that the measurements are given to the inner edges of the sticks in some cases, and to the outer edges in others. the reason for this, as uncle ed explained it, was because the thickness of our sticks would vary considerably, and it was important that many of the measurements be exact, otherwise the frames would not fit into each other as they should. another thing to which he called our attention was the fact that frames _a_, _b_, _e_, _f_, _h_, _k_ and _l_ were stiffened with cross braces, while the rest were not. the braced frames, he wrote, were those which would be under a compression strain, while the others would be under tension; that is, when any weight was placed on the bridge it would push against the ends of the braced frames, trying to crush them, but would pull on the unbraced frames, trying to tear them apart. in fact, the bridge would have been just as strong had we used heavy iron wire in place of the unbraced frames, and the only reason uncle ed did not recommend our doing so was because we had no simple way of stretching the wire taut. [illustration: fig. . e frame (make four).] [illustration: fig. . f frame (make two).] [illustration: fig. . g frame (make two).] [illustration: fig. . h frame (make one).] [illustration: fig. . i frame (make one).] [illustration: fig. . j frame (make one).] [illustration: fishing off the cantilever bridge.] [illustration: the cantilever bridge in reddy's back yard.] erecting the towers. [illustration: fig. . k frame (make one).] [illustration: fig. . l frame (make two).] [illustration: fig. . notching the sticks together.] we built the complete set of frames before attempting to erect the bridge. then we began by building the towers. two _a_ frames were set on end and spaced feet apart at the top and feet apart at the bottom, measuring not from the inner but from the outer edges of the frames. in this position they were connected by short spars, notched in place. the notches for these connecting spars will be seen in fig. on the main or vertical timbers of frame _a_, just below the upper and middle cross sticks and above the lower cross sticks. the upper connecting spars were wedged tightly under the cross sticks, and served as an additional support for them. diagonal braces were nailed from one frame to the other, as illustrated in fig. . the towers were built on opposite banks, at the mouth of the lagoon, and when completed we lowered them carefully down the banks into the water. according to directions they were to be set just feet apart, measuring from the center of one tower to the center of the other. the water was quite shallow where the towers rested, but the bottom was pretty firm. holes were dug in the bottom for the legs of the tower to set into, and then large stones were piled around each leg to provide a firm foundation for the towers. setting up the frames. [illustration: fig. . view of part of the bridge, with letters indicating the various frames.] a _b_ frame was now hauled out to one of the towers and lifted by its narrower end, with fall and tackle, until its lower tie piece rested on the projecting ends of the center crosspieces of the tower. the upper end of the frame was held against the top of the tower, while a _c_ frame was hooked over the upper ends of the tower legs; then frame _b_ was allowed to swing outward until its smaller end locked with the outer end of frame _c_. it will be observed in fig. that the upper crosspiece or tie piece of frame _b_ was fastened to one side of the vertical sticks and the lower tie piece to the other side. this was done purposely, so that when the frame was set in position the bottom tie piece would be on the lower side of the frame and the top piece would lie on the upper side, as shown in fig , or, better still, in fig. . the rest of the frames were all arranged to be set in place with their tie pieces on the lower side, or facing the towers, as will be clearly understood by examining the illustrations. as soon as the _b_ and _c_ frames were set up on one side of the tower, another pair of _b_ and _c_ frames was set up on the other side of the same tower. a cantilever bridge must always be built out on both sides of the tower at the same time, otherwise it will be overbalanced on one side and topple over. after the _b_ and _c_ frames were in place we took two _d_ frames, with oppositely cut ends, and rested their tie sticks on the top of the tower, just under the ends of the _c_ frames. the ends of the two _d_ frames overlapped at the center of the tower, and, as one was cut away at the outer side and the other at the inner side, they fitted neatly together and were fastened with bolts. the _d_ frames were supported near their outer ends with _e_ frames, which rested on the _b_ and _c_ frames. fig. shows an _e_ frame set in position on the landward side of the tower, while two of the boys are climbing out on the opposite _b_ and _c_ frames preparatory to setting up the other _e_ frame. a cross stick was now bolted to each _d_ frame, just beyond the upper ends of the _e_ sticks. this done, the frame _f_ was hooked in between the ends of _b_ and _c_, at the shoreward side of the tower, and its outer ends were supported by frame _g_, which was hooked over frame _d_ and the upper ends of frame _e_. the frame _l_ was then rested on the ends of frame _f_ and _g_, and supported the shore end of frame _d_. a stick nailed across frame _d_ on each side of the upper ends of frame _l_ served to hold the latter in place. binding and anchoring the structure. [illustration: fig. . preparing to put an e frame in place.] as the different frames were coupled together, we bound the overlapping ends with soft iron wire. the place where frames _b_, _c_, _e_ and _f_ came together was quite a vital point, and we took pains to make the wire binding at this place doubly strong. as soon as the _l_ frame was in place we anchored the bridge to shore by running wires from the ends of the _d_ frame and the ends of the _g_ frame to stakes driven into the banks. the frames on the second tower were now similarly erected and anchored, after which we were ready to put in the center panels of the bridge. the center panels of the bridge. first, the frame _h_ was wedged into place and thoroughly fastened by a liberal winding of wire. next the frames _i_ and _j_ were set in place, and in order to do this we had to remove the upper tie pieces of these frames. then one frame was hooked in the other, and the two were carried out on the scow under the center of the bridge. ropes were tied to the ends of the two frames, and they were lifted together, like a wide _v_, to the position shown in fig. , after which the tie pieces were bolted on again, resting against the ends of the _e_ frames. as an additional security, two sticks were bolted to the under side of the frame _h_, one at each side of the _i_ and _j_ frames. the bridge was then completed by wedging the frame _k_ under the ends of the _d_ frames, and also placing a stick across each tower under the joints of the _d_ frames. we planned to run our gravity railway across this bridge, moving our platform and trestle to the opposite bank; so instead of flooring our bridge with slabs, we fastened ties across at intervals of or inches. these ties were sticks inches in diameter, which were secured to the _d_ frames. a serious interruption. [illustration: fig. . a general view of our cantilever bridge.] we were just preparing to lay the tracks across the bridge when we met with a serious interruption. mr. halliday had told us that a few days before our arrival that summer mr. smith, the owner of the island, and another man had paid a visit to the place. jim halliday himself had rowed them over, and learned from their conversation that mr. smith was trying to sell the island, and that the stranger, a mr. gill, was a prospective purchaser. all summer long we had been dreading the return of this customer, though, as time passed without his putting in an appearance, we almost forgot the incident. but now, at the end of august, just as we had about completed our cantilever bridge, who should arrive but this very man gill and three other men with a large tent and camping outfit. it was a sorrowful crowd of boys that watched the wagon with their belongings ford the shallow water over to our island. we felt that the island was ours by right of discovery and occupation, but we were powerless to force our claims. and what if they did not insist on our leaving the island? it would not be the same place with strangers around to meddle with our things. dispossessed. but the new owner of the island was even more of a boor than we had anticipated. as soon as he landed he wanted to know what we were doing on his property, and peremptorily ordered us off. bill answered that we were camping there, and politely asked if we couldn't stay out the summer. but gill would not listen to the idea. we must get off the island that very day or he would see to it that we did. i tell you it made us boil. we were just itching to give the pompous little man the sound thrashing he deserved, but knew that we would stand a very small show against his three powerful companions. at any rate, we were determined not to leave at once. instead, we repaired to kite island, taking our belongings with us. then we cut away the suspension, spar and pontoon bridges, so that we would not be annoyed by any of the gill crowd. we were resolved that they should not benefit by any of the things we had built. at the dead of night we paddled back to willow clump island, crept past the slumbering intruders and waded out to the old water wheel. after a good deal of exertion we managed to dislodge the smaller tower, letting the wheel drop into the river and float away. then we made for the cantilever bridge. it didn't take us very long to cut away the wire bindings, unhook the frames and drop them into the lagoon. but the task was quite a perilous one, as the night was pitch black. finally, nothing remained of the bridge but the two towers, which were left as monuments to mark the spot where our last piece of engineering on the island was done. [illustration: building the cantilever bridge over cedar brook.] farewell to willow clump island. we spent several days on kite island, knowing that we were safe from intrusion, because the gill crowd had but one boat, and that was on the jersey side of the island. we felt confident that they would not take the trouble of wading around point lookout with their boats, as we had done; nevertheless, to prevent a surprise, we kept a sentry posted on the lake placid side of the island and gathered a pile of stones for ammunition. but our fun was spoiled, and we finally decided to break camp and bid farewell forever to willow clump island and its vicinity. our goods were ferried over to jim halliday's farm, where we were given shelter. the windmill, as i have already stated, was sold to a farmer at lumberville, and we were kept busy for several days carting it over and setting it up in place. when everything had been done we stole back to kite island and set fire to the log cabin. the next day mr. schreiner took us home in a couple of his wagons. thus ended our "investigation, exploration and exploitation of willow clump island." the work of two summers was practically all destroyed in a few days. reddy's cantilever bridge. i believe i have given a careful account of everything that was recorded in the chronicles of the society. we were too discouraged to undertake anything new in the two weeks before school opened. i presume i might mention here reddy's cantilever bridge, which, however, had really nothing to do with the s. s. i. e. e. of w. c. i., because our society was formally disbanded the day before bill and i returned to school. about a month after leaving home i received a letter from reddy inclosing three interesting photographs, which are reproduced herewith. reddy certainly had the bridge fever, because soon after we had left he started to work, with the rest of the boys, on a cantilever bridge across cedar brook. the brook was entirely unsuited to such a structure, because the banks were very low; but he made the towers quite short and built an inclined roadway leading up to the top of them. the legs of the towers were driven firmly into the bank, making them so solid that he thought it would be perfectly safe to build the frames out over the brook without building them at the same time on the shore side. but he had made a miscalculation, for when a couple of the boys had crawled out on the _b_ and _c_ frames to set up an _e_ frame the structure commenced to sag. the trouble was remedied by propping up the tower with a stout stick driven into the river bottom and wedged under the upper tie piece of the tower. the towers were really too short to make a well proportioned bridge, for the panels had to be made very long and narrow, so as to reach across. but on the whole it was a very creditable structure when completed, though it had only half as long a span as our cantilever bridge over the lagoon. index a "a" tent, abbreviations, wigwag, accident, railway, the first, ainu snow shoe, alarm clock, a unique, alphabet, wigwag, alpine stock, anchoring cantilever bridge, annex, the, arctic expedition, armchair, barrel, axles of railroad car, b bags, sleeping, banquets, midnight, barrel armchair, barrel filter, barrel hoop snow shoe, barrel stave hammock, barrel stave snow shoe, bat's wings, bed, a camp, bed in shower, belly band, elastic, bending wood, bicycle wheels, mounting frame on, big bug club, "bill," bill's cave, bill's skate sail, binding cantilever bridge, blades of wind wheel, boat, ice, boat mooring, tramp-proof, boat, scow, box kite, diamond, box, the black walnut, brake for wind wheel, bridge building, bridge, cantilever, bridge, king post, bridge, king rod, bridge, pontoon, bridge, reddy's cantilever, bridge, spar, bridge, stiffening, bridge, suspension, bridge wreck, bucket, the canvas, buckets for water wheel, bunks, c camp bed, camp bed in shower, camp, breaking, camp chair, a, camp fire, a costly, camp fire, kindling, canoe, indian paddling, canoe lee boards, canoe rudder, canoe, the sailing, canoe sails, canoe, scooter, canoe, stretching on canvas, canoes, canvas, cantilever bridge, cantilever bridge, anchoring, cantilever bridge, binding frames, cantilever bridge, center panels, cantilever bridge, frames for, cantilever bridge, reddy's, cantilever bridge, setting up frames of, cantilever bridge towers, canvas bucket, canvas canoes, canvas, stretching on canoe, canvas tent, car axles, car for gravity railroad, car, mounting wheels on, carpenter's miter box, cave, bill's, cave, covering the, cave, excavating for, cave, framing, cave-in, a, center panels of cantilever bridge, chain, surveyor's, chair, a camp, chair seat snow shoe, cheek blocks, chinks in log cabin, stopping up, christmas vacation, clamp for crank shaft, clapboards, nailing on, cleat, a, climbing, mountain, clock, a unique alarm, club, the big bug, club pin, club, the subterranean, code, international telegraph, combination lock, council of war, crank shaft, the, creepers, ice, crossbow, crossbow trigger, cutting out disk, d danish sail, derrick, the, diamond box kite, digging the well, disk, cutting out, disk, sighting, dispossessed, diving tree, door hinges, door latch, doors, sliding, double mirror heliograph, double surprise, drill, fire, drowned, how to restore, alone, drowned, restoring the, e easter vacation, elastic belly band, expedition, arctic, expedition, logging, expedition, preparing for, exploration, preliminary, f farewell to willow clump island, fastener, brass, filter, the barrel, filter barrel, cooling the, filter, the small, fire drill, fireplace of log cabin, fireplace, outdoor, fireplace, stone-paved, fissure, path up the, flanged wheels, fly, ridge pole, fly for tent, fly, umbrella with, focusing heliograph instrument, frame on bicycle wheels, frames for cantilever bridge, frames of cantilever bridge, setting up, friend in time of trouble, g goblins' dancing platform, grass hut, gravity railroad, h halliday, jim, hammock, barrel stave, harness, pack, heliograph, the, heliograph, double mirror, heliograph instrument, focusing, heliograph screen, heliograph sight rod, heliograph signaling, heliograph, single mirror, hinge for spars, hinges, door, house building, house, log, house, the tree, hut, cold night in, hut, log, hut, straw, i ice boat, the, ice boats, sledges and toboggans, ice, craft strikes the, ice creepers, indian paddling canoe, instrument, double mirror, instrument, single mirror, instrument, surveying, international telegraph code, iroquois snow shoe, island, mapping the, island, off to the, island, trip to the, j jacob's ladder, jaws of boom, jib-sail for ice boat, jib-sail for scooter scow, jim halliday, k king post bridge, king rod truss, kite, diamond box, kite island, kite, malay, -foot, kite, malay, -foot, kites, putting to work, kites, tailless, _klepalo_, the, l ladder, the jacob's, ladders, rope, lagoon, the, lake placid, land yacht, land yacht, a sail on, lanteen sail for canoe, lanteen skate sail, latch, door, latch string, lee boards, canoe, "leg-of-mutton" sail, levels, spirit, lock combination, log cabin, log cabin, building the, log cabin door hinges, log cabin door latch, log cabin door and window frames, log cabin fireplace, log cabin, floor of, log cabin, foundation of, log cabin, roof of, log cabin, stopping up chinks, log cabin window sash, log raft, logging expedition, m mainsail for canoe, mainsail for ice boat, malay kite, -foot, malay kite, -foot, mapping the island, mast of land yacht, stepping, mast step, ice boat, mast step, leather, mast step, wooden, megaphone, megaphone mouthpiece, midnight banquets, mill-race, the, mirror instrument, heliograph, miter box, carpenter's, mizzen sail of canoe, mooring, tramp-proof boat, mountain climbing, mouthpiece of megaphone, "mummy case," n needle, weaving, night, cold, in the hut, nightmare, a, noria, norwegian ski, numerals, wigwag, o oar, the, off to the island, organizing the society, outdoor fireplace, outfits, tramping, p pack harness, paddling canoe, indian, paddles for water wheel, panels, center, of cantilever bridge, path up the fissure, patient, how to work over, alone, pin, the club, plank, swimming on, platform, goblins' dancing, point lookout, pole, ridge, poncho, pontoon bridge, poor shelter, a, preparing for the expedition, protractor, the, provisions and supplies, pump, the, pump, action of, pump valves, the, r raft, log, raft, sail-rigged, railroad car, railroad car axles, railroad flanged wheels, railroad, gravity, railway track, the, railway accident, the first, railway, rope, railway spikes, rapids, shooting the, receiving trough for water wheel, records of the s. s. i. e. e. of w. c. i., reddy's cantilever bridge, rennwolf, the, restoring the drowned, ridge pole, ridge pole, fly, riveting, rod, heliograph sight, rod, surveyor's, rope ladders, rope railway, rowlocks, sockets for, rudder, canoe, rudder shoe, ice boat, runner shoe, ice boat, runners of scooter canoe, runners of sledge, rustic table, s s. s. i. e. e. of w. c. i., records of, sail, jib, for scooter, sail, "leg-of-mutton," sail, mizzen, of canoe, sail-rigged raft, sail, sprit, for scooter, sail stitch, sail through the country, sailing canoe, the, sailor's stitch, sails, canoe, sails for ice boat, sandwiches, straw, schreiner, a visit from mr., scooter canoe, scooter sailing, scooter scow, scooters, scow, the, scow, a sail in, scow, scooter, scow, stolen, screen, heliograph, seat, swing, shaft, the crank, shelter, a poor, shooting the rapids, sight rod, sighting blocks, sighting disk, signaling, heliograph, signals, wigwag, simple method of surveying, single mirror heliograph, sioux snow shoe, skate sail, bat's wings, skate sail, bill's, skate sail, danish, skate sail, double swedish, skate sail, lanteen, skate sail, single swedish, skate sails, ski, norwegian, ski sticks, skids, slabs, sledge, the, sleeping bags, sliding doors, snotter, snow shoe, ainu, snow shoe, barrel hoop, snow shoe, barrel stave, snow shoe, chair seat, snow shoe, iroquois, snow shoe, sioux, snow shoe, swiss, snow shoes, society, meeting of, society, organizing the, spar bridge, spars, hinge for, spikes, railway, spiral spring, spirit levels, spring, spiral, sprit sail, stepping mast of land yacht, stitch, the sail, stitch, sailor's, stick, ski, stiffening the bridge, stone-paved fireplace, stone wall, how to build, straw hut, straw sandwiches, subterranean club, summer toboggan, supplies and provisions, surprise, a double, surveying, surveying, first lesson in, surveying instrument, surveying, a simple method of, surveying for water wheel, surveyor's chain, surveyor's rod, suspension bridge, swamp shoe, swedish sail, double, swedish sail, single, swimming, swimming on a plank, swing seat, swiss snow shoe, t table, a rustic, tailless kites, telegraph code, international, tent, the "a", tent, annex, tent, canvas wall, tent fly, tent 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water wheel, towers for, water wheel towers, setting up, war, council of, weaving needle, well, digging the, wheel, the wind, wheels for gravity railroad, wheels, mounting, on car, wheels, mounting frame on, wigwag abbreviations, wigwag alphabet, wigwag numerals, wigwag signals, wigwagging and heliographing, wigwagging at night, willow clump island, willow clump island, farewell to, willow clump island in winter, wind wheel, wind wheel blades, wind wheel brake, windmill, windmill tower, window hinge, window sash, log cabin, wings, bat's, wire tie, wood, bending, wood tie block, word from uncle ed, y yacht, land, yacht, land, frame of, the most popular scientific paper in the world scientific american established weekly, $ . a year; $ . six months this unrivaled periodical is now in its sixtieth year, and, owing to its ever-increasing popularity, it enjoys the largest circulation ever attained by any scientific publication. every number contains sixteen large pages, beautifully printed, handsomely illustrated; it presents in popular style a descriptive record of the most novel, interesting and important developments in science, arts and manufactures. it shows the progress of the world in respect to new discoveries and improvements, embracing machinery, mechanical works, engineering in all its branches, chemistry, metallurgy, electricity, light, heat, architecture, domestic economy, agriculture, natural history, etc. it abounds in fresh and interesting subjects for discussion, thought or study. to the inventor it is invaluable, as every number contains a complete list of all patents and trade-marks issued weekly from the patent office. it promotes industry, progress, thrift and intelligence in every community where it circulates. the scientific american should have a place in every dwelling, shop, office, school, or library. workmen, foremen, engineers, superintendents, directors, presidents, officials, merchants, farmers, teachers, lawyers, physicians, clergymen--people in every walk and profession in life--will derive satisfaction and benefit from a regular reading of the scientific american. if you want to know more about the paper send for "fifteen reasons why you should subscribe to the scientific american," and for "five reasons why inventors should subscribe to the scientific american." fifty-two numbers make large pages, equal to , ordinary magazine pages, and , illustrations are published each year. can you and your friends afford to be without this up-to-date periodical, which is read by every class and profession? remit $ . by postal order or check for a year's subscription, or $ . for six months. munn & company, publishers no. broadway, new york city just published home mechanics for amateurs by george m. hopkins author of "experimental science" mo, pages, illustrations. price, $ . , postpaid the book deals with wood-working, household ornaments, metal-working, lathe work, metal spinning, silver working; making model engines, boilers and water motors; making telescopes, microscopes and meteorological instruments, electrical chimes, cabinets, bells, night lights, dynamos and motors, electric light, and an electrical furnace. it is a thoroughly practical book by the most noted amateur experimenter in america. every reader of "experimental science" should possess a copy of this most helpful book. it appeals to the boy as well as the more mature amateur. holidays and evenings can be profitably occupied by making useful articles for the home or in building small engines or motors or scientific instruments. table of contents sent on application. munn & company publishers of the "scientific american" broadway, new york scientific american reference book pages six colored plates price $ . this book is intended to furnish the reader with information not obtainable in any other work of reference. it is not an encyclopedia, nor is it an annual, but it contains a mass of information that should be within the reach of every family. this work has been prepared in response to the many thousands of inquiries received by the editor of the scientific american on the widest possible range of topics, and it is through these inquiries that the editors of the reference book have been enabled to determine the scope of this work. it deals with the "progress of discovery," "shipping and yachts," "the navies of the world," "the armies of the world," "railroads of the world," "population," "education," "telegraphs," "submarine telegraphs," "wireless telegraphy," "patents," "trade-marks," "copyrights," "manufactures," "iron and steel," "departments of the federal government," "the post-office," "international institutions and bureaus," "mines and mining," "farms and food," "mechanical movements," "chemistry," "astronomy," "weights and measures," and a host of other subjects, such as "aerial navigation," "radium," etc. this valuable compendium has been put at a very low price, so that it may be within the reach of every one. it is fully illustrated, and has colored plates showing the flags of all nations, the funnels and house flags of lines in american trade, and the international signal code. descriptive circular sent upon request munn & company, publishers broadway :: :: new york city [transcriber's note: bold face type is surrounded by =equal signs= and italic type by _underscores_.] handicraft for girls a tentative course in needlework, basketry, designing, paper and card-board construction, textile fibers and fabrics and home decoration and care designed for use in schools and homes _prepared by_ idabelle mcglauflin _supervisor of the girls' handwork in the denver public schools_ [illustration] published by the manual arts press peoria, illinois copyright idabelle mcglauflin explanatory note. the exercises in this five-year course are based upon an estimated time of one hour per week in the first two years, and one and one-half hours in the last three, the school year consisting of thirty-eight weeks. all materials, with the exception of that used for the full-sized garments and some of the christmas gifts, are supposed to be furnished by the board of education. in many instances the pupils are allowed the privilege of supplying themselves with a better grade of material if they wish. in every case a substitute is given for the full-sized garment if the home cannot furnish the material. all supplies can be purchased by the class collectively or individually, if the board of education so desires. every exercise in handicraft should embody an educational principle, making sure the training of the judgment, the eye, or the memory, and tending to develop skill, patience, accuracy, perseverance, dexterity or artistic appreciation. contents. chapter i.--suggestions to teachers general directions for pupils of sewing classes. drills for beginners. chapter ii--course of instruction first year--third grade. detailed description of exercises. chapter iii.--course of instruction second year--fourth grade. detailed description of exercises. chapter iv.--course of instruction third year--fifth grade. detailed description of exercises. chapter v.--course of instruction fourth year--sixth grade. detailed description of exercises. chapter vi.--course of instruction fifth year--seventh grade. detailed description of exercises. chapter vii.--description of stitches stitches used in plain sewing. ornamental stitches. miscellaneous. chapter viii.--textile fibers and fabrics silk. cotton. flax. wool. chapter ix.--dress and its relation to art chapter x.--paper, cloth and cardboard construction chapter xi.--home furnishing, decoration and care chapter xii.--basketry general directions for making the coil basket. the sewed baskets. chapter i. suggestions to teachers. the teacher's preparation for the lesson consists in doing each exercise before presenting the lesson to the class. it will take some of your time to do so, but it will save hours of time and much worry in the end, and you will thus discover how best to present the difficult points of the lesson. a well finished piece gives to the child a complete mental picture of what she is undertaking, and acts as an inspiration; she will work quicker, easier, and better because of it. this impulse and a clear demonstration of the method of doing, will enable her to work far more independently of the teacher than would otherwise be possible, and will give more satisfactory results. what are designated as "electives" in this book are designed to meet the needs of classes or individuals doing the work a second time or of teachers who find the regular work too difficult. large classes can be handled with less wasted energy by dividing the class into groups that are doing the same work. this saves endless repetition and enables the teacher to give better general supervision. this is the most vulnerable point in class work. a teacher may work laboriously and still waste her own and the children's time by too close an adherence to the individual method of instruction. those children whose turn comes toward the end of the line will have lost much of the value of the lesson. children require constant supervision. it is not teaching to examine the work when finished and order it ripped out. the fault is then with the teacher and not with the child. each successive step should be inspected and corrected before the next one is taken. i would go still farther and have every pupil, even in the advanced grades, submit a sample of her work on every stitch to be used in each exercise. children are always eager to begin a new piece, and if required to practice until the result is satisfactory will very soon do good work. you then have this to refer to and can hold them to their best. there is absolutely no value in poor, careless, puttering work. unless the child has a high ideal and strives to reach it, the time of the lesson is wasted. encourage self-criticism. work should be done to one's own satisfaction whether it is to be seen by others or not. do not allow pupils to take their work home unless it is some required practice work. it is not the object to cover a certain amount of ground, but to inculcate high standards of excellence and some technical skill. they cannot accomplish this by themselves. i would prefer that classes do not complete the entire course rather than have good work sacrificed to quantity. there is a difference between careful, painstaking effort, and the puttering away of valuable time. avoid delay in distributing supplies. be sure that every member of the class understands clearly the object of the lesson. do not encourage waste by a too liberal supply of material. too much stress cannot be laid upon the careful preparation of the cloth to be used. trim all edges neatly before hemming, facing, gathering, etc. _do not allow children to sew without basting._ the time required for careful basting is well spent. it is not expected that the various pupils of the class will advance with the same degree of proficiency. some will require a much longer time on an exercise than others. as it is greatly to the advantage of the class in the end, and saves time and tiresome repetition to give each new exercise or stitch as a class lesson, the average pupils should regulate the time for taking up new work. a teacher of resources will find ways and means of bringing up the work of slow pupils, and profitable 'busy work' for those who work more rapidly. for the former, a little extra time each day--not as a punishment, but as an opportunity to catch up--would be all that is necessary. for the latter, there is a great variety of interesting, useful work. it is a pedagogic truism that every teacher, consciously or unconsciously, imparts to her class her own inclinations. an enthusiastic class indicates an ardent interest on the part of the teacher, and a distaste for work and a lack of zeal on the part of the pupils are equally indicative of the teacher's attitude. bear in mind that an unprepared teacher or a poorly presented lesson can make almost any exercise difficult and distasteful to the class. do not blame pupils for poor work for which you are yourself responsible. suggestions for teachers general directions for pupils of sewing classes. . be sure that the hands are clean. . always sit erect--well back in the seat--with the light coming over the left shoulder, both feet upon the floor, because the body will not become as tired, the hand will not shade the work and it is easier to see the stitches. do not fasten the work to the knee, because a stooping position easily becomes a habit. . place the thimble upon the second finger of the right hand. either the side or end of the thimble can be used. never sew without one. . measure the thread either from shoulder to shoulder or from the end of the finger to the elbow. a long thread becomes soiled and worn before being used up and is more liable to knot. . wind the thread once around the forefinger and break from the spool, because the broken thread twists more easily to a point than when cut. cut the thread from the work when finished to avoid drawing the stitches or breaking at the wrong place. . thread the needle from the end that hangs from the spool. in this way you are working with the twist of the thread and there is less danger of knotting and kinking. . do not wet the thread in the mouth. roll the end of the thread between the thumb and forefinger and place through the eye of the needle. . to tie a knot wind the thread around the forefinger once and a little over, and twist by rubbing the finger down the side of the thumb. with the nail of the second finger bring the knot thus formed to the end of the thread. . hold the unfinished work in the left hand. . do not bite the threads. . trim the selvedge, as it is hard to sew through and draws up when washed. . the knot is always buried except in the basting which is to be removed. drills for beginners. drill . threading the needle with cotton. needle no. ; colored thread. a. prepare the cotton by twisting between thumb and forefinger. b. place the thread in the eye of the needle. c. draw the thread through with the right hand. drill . making the knot. a. hold the needle in the right hand and the end of the thread in the left. b. wind the thread around the forefinger once and a little over, and twist the threads together by rubbing the finger down the side of the thumb. do not accept careless knots. drill . use of the thimble. a. push the needle with the thimble. b. push the needle back with the finger of the left hand. _never allow a pupil to sew without a thimble._ drill . threading the yarn needle. a. prepare the yarn by loosening the end with the needle. b. place the yarn over the point of the needle and draw into a smooth loop. c. draw the needle out and thread into the loop. needles no. will carry thread no. needles no. will carry thread no. needles no. will carry thread no. needles no. will carry thread no. needles no. will carry thread no. needles no. will carry linen thread--luster cotton chapter ii. course of instruction. first year--third grade. equipment. sewing box. pin cushion-- pins. thimble. needles. scissors. thread cards. practice piece--unbleached muslin, " × ". order of exercises. prepare thread cards--cardboard " × ", designed and cut for four kinds of thread. exercise no. --basting design. exercise no. --running design no. . exercise no. --overhanding on practice piece. exercise no. --pot holder--weaving--christmas piece.[ ] exercise no. --running design--no. . exercise no. --overhanding--running designs and together. exercise no. --running design no. .[ ] exercise no. --hemming a towel.[ ] exercise no. --running design no. [ ] exercise no. --overhanding--running designs and together. overhanding nos. and to and .[ ][ ] footnotes: [ ] see electives, page . [ ] see electives, page . [ ] see electives, page . [ ] see electives, page . [illustration: no. - . children in native costume. suggestive designs in outline for the running stitch.] detailed description of exercises. _teach:_ one inch, one-half inch, one-fourth inch. _practice:_ "drills for beginners," page . exercise no. --basting. _materials:_ unbleached muslin " × " stamped with the three basting stitches, no. , page ; colored thread no. ; needle no. . make pupils perfectly familiar with the _name_ and _use_ of this stitch. see "description of stitches used in plain sewing," page . beginning at the right hand follow the lines of the design with the thread, placing the knots over the dots on the right hand side and fastening over the dots at the left. under each stamped row of stitches put in one, two, three or more rows, depending upon the rapidity with which each individual works. this will help to keep the class uniform. exercise no. --running. _materials:_ stamped running design no. , page . unbleached muslin " × "; colored thread no. ; needle no. . make pupils perfectly familiar with the _name_ and _use_ of this stitch. see "description of stitches used in plain sewing," page . the object of this model is to give the pupils practice in the running stitch. these designs are more interesting than practicing on plain cloth, so if the work is not satisfactory, cut the knot, pull out the thread, and try again. give special attention to the knots and the fastening of the threads and the general neatness of the work. place the knot on the wrong side and follow the lines of the design with the running stitch. exercise no. --overhanding. _materials:_ practice piece; colored thread no. ; needle no. . teach the overhanding stitch on the practice piece. see "description of stitches used in plain sewing," page . change the color of the thread once or twice and teach the joining of the thread. baste two folded edges together and insist upon neat, careful work. exercise no. --pot holder--weaving--christmas piece.[ ] _materials:_ weaving frame; netting needles; candle wicking in two colors; brass rings. [illustration: the woven pot holder made of candle wicking.] teach the principles of cloth weaving and the terms warp, woof and selvedge. the weaving frames are made from one-inch board, " × ". three-fourths of an inch from and parallel to the top and bottom drive a row of nails, having very small heads, one-half inch apart, leaving an inch margin at both sides. tie a slip knot in the end of the wicking and slip it over one of the corner nails. pass the wicking back and forth around the nails first on one side and then the other. this forms the warp. draw the threads fairly tight and tie around the last nail. thread the other color of wicking into the netting needles, weave across the warp threads alternately taking up and passing over them. in alternate rows take up the threads passed over in the preceding row. do not draw the woof threads tight enough to draw the holder in at the sides. slip from the frame and fasten the loose ends by weaving them back into the holder. work a brass ring with the blanket stitch, using a strand of the wicking and sew it to one of the corners. exercise no. --running. _materials:_ running design no. , page , " × "; colored thread no. ; needle no. . follow the lines of the design with the running stitch. exercise no. --overhanding. _materials:_ white thread no. ; needle no. . running designs and are to be overhanded together. turn a quarter-inch fold on the long side of both pieces. baste the folded edges together and overhand. exercise no. --running.[ ] _materials:_ running design no. , page , " × "; colored thread no. ; needle no. . follow the lines of the design with the running stitch. exercise no. --hemming--paper folding for a hem.[ ] _materials:_ paper - / " × ". fold the long way of the paper. first fold of the hem, one-fourth of an inch. turn half an inch hem on one side and an inch hem on the other. have each child cut from a card a gauge for measuring the hems and insist that the hems be turned evenly. teach the hemming stitch on the practice piece with colored thread. trim the edge neatly, fold the hem accurately and baste in place. bad habits, that are hard to correct later, can so easily be formed in making this stitch that i wish to caution teachers in regard to the position of the needle in relation to the hem, the amount of cloth taken on the needle and the tendency toward making the blind stitch or the damask hem instead of the plain hemming stitch. hemming a towel. _materials:_ crash, " woof, " warp; white thread no. ; needle no. ; tape - / inches. turn one-fourth inch fold on each side and across the bottom and baste. turn the second fold one-fourth of an inch on the sides and baste. hem the sides. turn an inch hem at the bottom, baste and hem, giving special attention to the corners where the bottom hem is turned over the side hems. hem the top with a quarter-inch hem if there is no selvedge. sew a loop in the middle of the top on the selvedge edge as follows: turn in one-fourth of an inch at both ends of the tape. place the ends of the tape side by side and down one-fourth of an inch from the edge of the towel. hem around the ends of the tape and back-stitch across the tape just at the edge of the towel. exercise no. --running.[ ] _materials:_ running design no. , page , " × "; colored thread no. ; needle no. . follow the lines of the design with the running stitch. exercise no. --overhanding.[ ][ ] _materials:_ white thread no. ; needle no. . running designs and are to be overhanded together. turn a quarter-inch fold on the long sides of both pieces. baste the folded edges together and overhand. running designs and are to be overhanded to and . turn a quarter-inch fold at the top of one piece and the bottom of the other, baste the folded edges together and overhand. [illustration: doll's quilt--elective.] electives. [ ] running designs no. and may be omitted, (this will also cut out exercise no. ) and selections from the following substituted to fill in the time, pupils furnishing their own materials and teachers planning their own designs: pen wipers. pin disks. needle books. small pin cushions for the sewing box. a wiper for eye-glasses. [ ] the four running designs in exercise no. may be made into a doll's quilt by basting to a lining, turning in and overhanding the edges together and tacking. pupils will furnish their own materials for the lining. [ ] instead of the small towel encourage children to ask their mothers for a dish towel which they can bring from home to hem. some house-keeper of the neighborhood might be glad to have her dish-towels hemmed for her by the class. [ ] instead of the pot holder a child's picture-book may be substituted. see "paper, cloth and cardboard construction," page . chapter iii. course of instruction. second year--fourth grade. equipment. sewing box. pin cushion-- pins. thimble. needles. scissors. thread cards. practice piece--unbleached muslin " × ". order of exercises. prepare thread cards--cardboard " × ", designed and cut for four kinds of thread. exercise no. --seam sampler--seam a--combination stitch. exercise no. --emery balls.[ ] exercise no. --seam sampler--seam b--stitching. exercise no. --bags--christmas piece.[ ] exercise no. --seam sampler--seam c--half-back stitching. exercise no. --doily--blanket stitch--outline stitch.[ ] exercise no. --seam sampler--seam d--french seam. exercise no. --a pair of dolls' pillow cases.[ ] exercise no. --seam sampler--seam e--french fell. exercise no. --textile fibers and fabrics--silk. footnotes: [ ] see electives, page . [ ] see electives, page . [ ] see electives, page . [ ] see electives, page . detailed description of exercises. _review:_ one inch, one-half inch, one-fourth inch. _teach:_ one-eighth inch, three-eighths inch, seven-eighths inch. seam sampler. _materials:_ plain percale " warp, " woof; white thread no. ; needle no. . five exercises of the second year sewing will consist of seam work on the seam sampler. _each stitch will be first taught on the practice piece._ make pupils perfectly familiar with the names and uses of the different stitches as they are taught. as the year's work progresses compare the different seams and teach when, where and why these various seams are used in garment making. see "description of seams," page . that the pupils may not lose interest in their sewing the seam work is alternated with miscellaneous exercises. fold the percale with the warp into three equal pieces. cut off one piece. have each pupil label her large piece with her name. collect and put them away until ready for seam b. do not leave them in the boxes or they will be lost, or soiled with too much handling. exercise no. --seam a--combination stitch. see description of "seam sampler" given above. _materials:_ first section of seam sampler. fold with the warp through the center, and cut on the fold. baste these two edges together one-fourth of an inch from the edge. sew with the combination stitch three-eighths of an inch from the edge. exercise no. --emery balls.[ ] _materials:_ unbleached muslin, - / " × - / "; red cashmere - / " × - / " (this amount provides for four); thread, yellow, white and red; emery powder; needles no. and no. ; green luster cotton. to cut the pattern of the strawberry emery ball: draw a circle three inches in radius, and cut on the line. cut a circle from the unbleached muslin for the lining and one a quarter of an inch larger from the cashmere for the outside; cut both into quarters. to make the case: fold the two edges of the muslin together and sew in a seam with the combination stitch, rounding the point to give the strawberry shape. turn in a good seam at the top and gather. fill with the powdered emery and fasten the gathering thread by overhanding over the top. [illustration: the completed seam sampler illustrating exercises nos. , , , , and .] before sewing up the outside put in the stitches, with yellow thread, to represent the seeds of the strawberry as follows: hold the wrong side of the cloth toward you and put in a row of tiny stitches half an inch apart. one-fourth of an inch above these put in another row with the stitches midway between those of the last row, and so continue. if desired these may be omitted and the seeds represented by french knots when the strawberry is finished. seam up the outside, slip it over the case, arranging the seams on opposite sides to avoid the possibility of powder sifting through. overhand the top and cover with the green luster cotton to represent the calyx, leaving a loop for the stem. exercise no. --seam b--stitching. _materials:_ second section of seam sampler. fold with the warp through the center and cut on the fold. baste these two edges together one-fourth of an inch from the edge. stitch three-eighths of an inch from the edge. exercise no. --bags--christmas piece.[ ] the christmas piece will consist of bags of any size, shape or style for which the pupils wish to furnish their own materials. this gives the teacher an opportunity to exercise her own ingenuity and taste and to have some individuality in her work. there is a great variety, from the utility bag made of cheap, pretty material, costing only a few pennies, to the more elaborate ones made of dainty silk or ribbon. a little tact will easily adapt the style of bag to the home into which it is to go, for the purpose for which it is to be used, and the purse of the donor. following are the directions for a simple button-bag: _materials:_ a soft washable fabric, " warp, " woof; thread; needles; narrow tape inches. [illustration: bags to illustrate exercise no. .] crease an inch hem at each end. fold the cloth with the two hems right sides together and baste from the lower edge of the hems to the bottom of the bag. stitch a quarter-inch seam. turn in the ends of the hems even with the sides of the bag and overhand from the top five-eighths of an inch, leaving an opening for the tapes three-eighths of an inch wide at the bottom of the hem. baste and hem the hems, fastening securely at each side of the tape openings, as there is considerable strain when the tapes are drawn. put in a row of running stitches parallel to and five-eighths of an inch from the top of the bag, for the tape opening. with a tape needle draw in the two tapes, sew the ends of each together and draw out of opposite openings so that the place of joining will not show. overcast the seams. exercise no. --half-back stitching. _materials:_ first and second sections of the seam sampler. baste the two sections together one-fourth of an inch from the edge. sew with the half-back stitch three-eighths of an inch from the edge. exercise no. --a doily--blanket stitch and the kensington outline stitch.[ ] _materials:_ imitation butchers' linen " × "; white luster cotton; needle no. . an exercise in paper cutting for the doily design. have pupils provide themselves with ten or twelve pieces of paper eight inches square for practice cutting. fold the first paper three times and cut a convex, concave or compound curve from corner to corner. open and study these curved lines and select the most graceful. cut again making corrections. cut a design in straight lines. cut one composed of both straight and curved lines. do not work haphazard, but criticise, compare and reject. the surface requires little decoration if the doily is pleasing in outline. that which is placed upon it should have some relation to the outline. study the space to be decorated and how it can be divided or ornamented by lines, curved or straight, that may serve as a real decoration, but avoid too elaborate designs. before beginning the doily have a finished pattern. the pattern may be transferred to the cloth by tracing the pattern with a hard pencil, using carbon paper between pattern and cloth, or the pattern may be pinned on and the outline drawn and the design put on freehand. [illustration: original designs for the doily by fourth grade girls.] to work the doily. finish the edge with the blanket stitch. see "blanket stitch," page . work the lines of the design with the kensington outline stitch. exercise no. --french seam. _materials:_ third section of the seam sampler. fold with the warp through the center and cut on the fold. follow the directions for the french seam. exercise no. --a pair of miniature pillow cases.[ ] _materials:_ two pieces bleached muslin - / " warp, - / " woof; white thread no. ; needle no. . in a pillow case the warp threads should run lengthwise of the pillow. crease a quarter-inch fold across one end and on both sides. fold with the warp through the center so that the seam just turned comes on the inside, baste the folded edges together on the right side. overhand on the right side, using no knot, but sewing over the end of the thread. turn a three-quarter inch hem, baste and hem. trim the seam and overcast. exercise no. --french fell. _materials:_ seam sampler. sew section three of the seam sampler to the others with the french fell. follow directions for the french fell. exercise no. --textile fibers and fabrics--silk. under the heading "textile fibers and fabrics," page , will be found subject matter which can be used in correlation with the geography, language and history work. the fourth grade subject is silk. secure if possible the silk cocoon and make a collection of silk fabrics. language papers on the subject can be illustrated with pictures cut from papers and magazines. electives. [ ] a choice may be had between the strawberry and the tomato emery ball. tomato emery ball--_materials:_ unbleached muslin " × "; red cashmere " × "; emery powder; red thread no. ; green luster cotton. to cut the pattern: draw a circle one and one-fourth inches in radius and cut on the line. cut the two pieces for the lining and the two for the outside of the same size. place the right sides of the two pieces of cashmere together between the two pieces of lining. baste all together. sew with the back stitch one-fourth of an inch from the edge, leaving an opening for turning and filling. turn in a seam at the opening, fill with powder and close by overhanding the edges together. flatten as much as possible and make the creases seen in the tomato by tightly drawing the thread of luster cotton from the center around the outside and back to the center, repeating several times. make a little tuft of the luster cotton in the middle at the top. [ ] the order of the doily and the bag may be reversed, using the doily for the christmas piece instead of the bag, or the paper box may be substituted. see "cloth and cardboard construction," page . [ ] simple toilet articles in white, such as a handkerchief case, may be substituted for the doily, teachers planning their own designs. [ ] one pillow-case may be omitted and a pillow for the other case made instead. this may be stuffed with crumpled bits of paper. use unbleached muslin for the pillow. chapter iv. course of instruction. third year--fifth grade. equipment. sewing box. pin cushion-- pins. thimble. needles. scissors. thread cards. practice piece--unbleached muslin " × ". order of exercises. prepare thread cards--cardboard " × " designed and cut for four kinds of thread. exercise no. --patching sampler--hemmed patch. exercise no. --mitered corner. exercise no. --patching sampler--overhand patch. exercise no. --basketry--christmas piece.[ ][ ] exercise no. --napkin--damask hem.[ ] exercise no. --flannel patch. exercise no. --a pair of sleeve protectors. exercise no. --a garment brought from home to be repaired. exercise no. --a pin cushion.[ ] exercise no. --textile fibers and fabrics--cotton. footnotes: [ ] see electives, page . [ ] see electives, page . [ ] see electives, page . [ ] see electives, page . detailed description of exercises. review the divisions of the inch. patching sampler. _materials:_ gingham " warp, " woof; white thread no. ; needle no. . it is desirable that each girl cut the two patches and the two pieces to be patched from the same piece of cloth, that there may be no difficulty in matching the pattern, when patching or when later sewing the two patched pieces together. fold the piece of gingham, eight inches by thirteen inches woof, with the warp into three sections, two of them eight inches warp by five inches woof, and the third eight inches warp by three inches woof. fold the three-inch piece across the warp in the center for the two patches. cut on the creases. pin one patch to one of the large pieces, label with the girl's name and put it away for exercise no. . exercise no. --hemmed patch. _materials:_ first section of patching sampler. the hemmed patch is the strongest and the one most commonly used for repairing garments. the patch will not be noticeable if the pattern is skilfully matched. when matching stripes or plaids always turn on the line where the color changes, never through the middle of a stripe. ten minutes spent on a paper pattern will prevent the mistakes beginners usually make in this exercise. trim the patch and crease a quarter-inch fold on the four sides. place the patch in the center of the large piece (which we will imagine to be worn) and baste around it, matching the pattern carefully. do not allow pupils to go any farther until the patch is basted on exactly right. turn to the right side and cut out the part supposed to be worn by the following successive steps: . measure one-half inch (or as near it as the pattern will permit) from the edge of the patch, using pins for marking the line where it is to be cut. . cut out the center, leaving about one-half inch extending over the patch. . clip the corners diagonally the _exact_ width of the fold to be turned in. _take great care and do not cut in too far_, as this will spoil the patch. . turn in the edge, baste and hem. . hem the patch on the wrong side. [illustration: the mitered corner.] exercise no. --mitered corner. _materials:_ paper. teach the mitered corner on paper only. have it done over and over until every pupil understands how it is done, and can do it alone, rapidly and perfectly. ask pupils to bring paper from home, as almost any kind will do for this practice work. have it made in hems of several widths. see description of "miscellaneous" exercises, page . exercise no. --overhand patch. _materials:_ second section of the patching sampler. the overhand patch is used on very thin material, such as lawn, dimity or organdy, where strength is not required and where the two thicknesses of cloth around the edge of the hemmed patch would be too noticeable. the pattern should be as carefully matched as in the hemmed patch and equal care given to the corners. a paper pattern will assist beginners. fold the large piece of gingham with the four corners together and clip off the point from the center. the following are the successive steps for making the overhand patch: . measure on each side of the center, with the warp, one and one-fourth inches and with the woof three-fourths of an inch. mark with pins. . cut out the oblong at these points (or as near as the pattern permits, observing also the pattern of the patch to be used.) . clip the corners diagonally the _exact_ width of the fold to be turned in. . turn in the fold on the four sides of the hole. . crease the folds on the four sides of the patch so that it will fit exactly into the hole, matching patterns. . beginning near the middle of one side overhand the patch in, matching as you overhand. do not baste. the two patched pieces are to be overhanded together. turn a quarter-inch fold on each with the warp, matching the pattern, baste together and overhand. teach the overcasting on the practice piece and overcast all raw edges on the patching sampler. exercise no. --basketry--christmas piece.[ ][ ] this subject has such limitless possibilities and its success or failure rests so entirely with the teacher that it will be necessary for each teacher to prepare herself to teach it and decide upon the style, size and general character of the design of the baskets to be made by her class, allowing the pupils as far as possible to work out their individual tastes. see chapter on "basketry," page . exercise no. --napkin--damask hem.[ ] _materials:_ damask - / " × - / "; white thread no. ; needle no. . see description of the damask hem, page . trim the napkin square. crease a half-inch hem on the four sides. the corners are to be mitered, and this is more easily done by basting the side hems in place, skipping across the corners when basting. turn out the corners and miter them. hem the corners with the flat hem and the sides with the damask hem. exercise no. --flannel patch. _materials:_ flannel - / " × - / ", patch " × "; sewing silk; needle no. . see description of the herringbone stitch, page . cut from the center of the large piece of flannel a two-inch square. trim the patch square and place it over this hole. baste at both edges. teach the herringbone stitch on the practice piece, and herringbone over the raw edges of the patch. turn one fold three-eighths of an inch wide on the four sides of the large piece, baste and herringbone stitch the raw edge. _keep the raw edges trimmed._ exercise no. --a pair of sleeve protectors. _materials:_ cotton twill - / " × "; tape "; ribbon elastic "; white thread no. ; needle no. . [illustration: a cooking set, consisting of an apron (exercise no. ), sleeve protectors (exercise no. ), and a holder and case (an elective for exercise no. ).] to cut the pattern of a sleeve protector: cut an oblong eight inches by ten and one-half inches. fold through the center the long way. mark the top of the folded edge a, the bottom b, the upper right hand corner c and the lower d. measure down on the folded edge from a four inches and mark e. measure down from c four inches and mark f. measure up from d five inches and mark g. measure on the line b d three and one fourth inches from b and mark h. connect g and h with a straight line. with e as the center and e a as the radius draw a quarter of a circle connecting a and f. cut on the lines h g, and a f. cut the sleeve protectors from the pattern. beginning at the center of the bottom and holding the wrong side of the cloth next to you, baste the edge of the sleeve protector to the line running through the middle of the tape. make a tiny pleat in the tape at each corner so that when doubled over it will round the corners smoothly. join the ends of the tape by folding back both ends and overhanding them together on the wrong side. hem the tape down on the right side. before basting the tape down on the wrong side, fasten the elastic in place on one side of the sleeve protector. the elastic is in two pieces, two inches in length. place the first piece one inch from the bottom and the second piece three inches above the first. baste the tape down on the wrong side and hem, leaving the opening for the other end of the elastic, which is fastened in place after the hemming is done. lay the binding smooth over the elastic and stitch along the edge of the tape, through the elastic, to hold in place. exercise no. --a garment brought from home to be mended. ask every pupil to bring some article from home, in preference a garment, to be mended. there is no home that cannot furnish a garment that needs repairing. this is a practical application of exercises , or , and is a valuable experience for the children. exercise no. --a pin cushion.[ ] _materials:_ these will be furnished by the pupils. pupils and teachers will plan their own designs, adapting them to the material furnished. the cushions may be of any size, shape or kind. do not have the children incur expense, as small pieces of ribbon, silk or bright bits of many kinds of cloth can be made into attractive cushions. hardwood sawdust, sifted, makes an excellent filling. exercise no. --textile fibers and fabrics--cotton. under the heading "textile fibers and fabrics," page , will be found subject matter which can be used in correlation with the geography, language and history work. the fifth grade subject is cotton. many interesting collections can be made that will be instructive for the children. [illustration: pin cushions to illustrate exercise no. .] a. cotton fabrics with their names and uses. b. pictures. c. cotton fiber in the various stages of manufacture. d. maps upon which can be located the countries producing cotton and cities noted for the manufacture of cotton cloth. e. compositions on cotton and allied subjects. electives. [ ] the round holder and case may be substituted for the basketry, or a blank book with paper cover or the folding envelope case may be made instead. see "paper, cloth and cardboard construction," page . [ ] the pin cushion may be substituted for the basketry and the book cover, or the book bag, or the round holder given for exercise no. . [ ] a book cover or a book bag for carrying books may be substituted for the pin cushion. a round holder and case. _materials:_ unbleached muslin, " × "; bleached muslin " × - / "; strap " × - / "; bias binding " × "; wadding. to cut the circular pattern: cut a square of paper eight inches by eight inches and fold it three times. measure three and five-eighth inches from the point on each folded edge and once between these edges. draw a curved line connecting these points and cut on the line. the case is cut from this pattern, a circle having a radius of three and five-eighth inches and the holder from a pattern one-fourth of an inch smaller with a radius of three and three-eighth inches. the holder: cut from the unbleached muslin two circular pieces. turn in one-fourth of an inch around both pieces. place the wadding between them; pin and baste together. overhand the folded edges. quilt the holder in a simple pattern with the running stitch. the case: cut from the bleached muslin two circular pieces. fold one piece with the warp through the center and cut on the fold. turn an eighth of an inch hem on each of the straight edges just cut, and hem. the pupils who work rapidly could design a simple decoration for the front of the case. this could be traced, or drawn with a hard pencil and worked with a coarse, colored thread in any decorative stitch, before making the case. place the half circles on the large circle and baste around the edge. this will leave an opening of about half an inch into which the holder will easily slip. make the strap by which the holder case is hung from the belt, by folding in the edges at the sides and across one end and overhanding together. the raw end of the strap is then fastened at one end of the case-opening, so that it will come under the binding. see description of the bias, page . teach the cutting and joining of bias pieces, first with paper and then with the cloth. in order to give the pupil this valuable experience cut the binding in three pieces and join them together. stitch along the edge of the binding where it folds back against the strap. slip the holder into the case. a book cover. _materials:_ grass linen or holland " woof by " warp; white thread no. ; needles nos. and ; luster cotton. the design: start several weeks before the class is ready to make it, arouse an interest, and study designs for book covers. ask pupils to bring from home books having good designs on the covers. have them tell why they like certain ones and do not favor others. in a word, educate their tastes in this line before expecting them to originate designs. do not attempt anything elaborate. many artistic effects can be obtained by interlacing straight lines and these have the advantage of being easily worked. paper cutting is an excellent medium for experimenting, if a unit is to be repeated or if curves are desired in the outline. for example, fold an oblong, four and one-half by seven inches, through the center both ways, and cut on a slightly curving line from the folded edges to the corner. quite a variety of simple, graceful outlines can be made by slightly varying these curves, which, with a simple unit repeated around the center or in each corner makes an effective design. have the finished pattern before starting the book cover. trace on the cloth by means of the carbon paper. it will be necessary to crease the cover over the book before putting on the design, so that it may be placed just right. to make the book cover: work the design with the outline stitch before sewing up the seams. overcast the raw edges at the top and bottom of the cover and hem with a quarter-inch hem the two ends that fold into the book. the raw-edged hem, finished with the herringbone stitch, could be used in place of the plain hem, if desired. turn in the top and bottom of the cover so that the book will slip in easily. overhand that part which folds into the books to the outside, at top and bottom, thus forming the pockets into which the covers of the book slip. do the overhanding on the wrong side and then turn it to the right side. a book bag. _materials:_ galatea, kaiki or burlap " woof, " warp; two strips for handles " warp by " woof; thread no. ; needle no. . the decoration of the bag should be done before sewing up the ends. very artistic effects can be obtained in the applique. see directions for the design of the book cover, page . cut a three-inch strip from the length of the piece for the end pieces. divide this into two pieces seven and one-half by three inches. find the middle of one end of both end pieces and notch them. fold the large piece with the warp through the center and notch at both ends of the fold. turn in a quarter of an inch around the large piece and baste. turn in a quarter of an inch across the notched end and sides of the end pieces. place the notch at the end of one side piece to one in the large piece, right sides together, and pin in place. overhand on the wrong side the two together across the end and up both sides. put in the other end piece in the same way. trim the end pieces even with the top of the case. turn a three-quarter inch hem at the top. before hemming make the straps for the handles by turning in and overhanding the edges. insert both ends of one strap under the hem of the right side of the bag, two inches from the middle or four inches apart and the other strap on the left side. hem, and fasten the handles to the edge of the hem by backstitching. [ ] a cover for a pin cushion affords a good application for the mitered corner. this can be made any size, square or oblong. ornament with fine feather stitching and the star stitch. chapter v. course of instruction. fourth year--sixth grade. equipment. sewing box. pin cushion-- pins. thimble. needles. scissors. thread cards. practice piece--unbleached muslin " × ". order of exercises. prepare thread cards--cardboard " × "--designed and cut for four kinds of thread. exercise no. --stocking darning. exercise no. --placket sampler--a placket. exercise no. --an apron--christmas piece.[ ] exercise no. --placket sampler--the gusset.[ ] exercise no. --buttonholes. exercise no. --placket sampler--the nightgown opening. exercise no. --hemstitched collar or handkerchief.[ ] exercise no. --placket sampler--bands. exercise no. --an underskirt. exercise no. --textile fibers and fabrics--flax. footnotes: [ ] see electives, page . [ ] see electives, page . [ ] see electives, page . detailed description of exercises. teach the yard measure and its divisions. see note under exercise no. --buttonholes. [illustration: stockinet darning.] exercise no. --stocking darning. _materials:_ stockinet " × "; cardboard " × "; darning cotton; darning needle; a pair of worn stockings. see description of stocking darning, page . pupils will furnish their own cardboard and have it cut and ready for the lesson, also a pair of worn stockings. the cardboard is a substitute for the darning ball. do not stretch the cloth too tightly over the card, nor put in a needless number of stitches at the back to hold it on, five or six being sufficient to hold it temporarily in place. the darning cotton winds from the spool in several strands loosely twisted together. separate and use two, three or more strands, depending upon the texture of the cloth to be darned. take care not to split the threads when weaving across them, and also avoid putting the threads so far apart that holes are left between them. in fact, try to have pupils understand that they are supplying a piece of cloth that has been worn away, and that when finished should match as nearly as possible in color and texture the cloth that is being repaired. stockinet, like stockings, is a knitted, not a woven fabric, and as every stitch is drawn through the one below it, it is very necessary that the loops be caught before they ravel back. prepare the hole for darning by whipping the edge with fine thread, catching up all the severed loops. either a round or an oblong hole may be cut in the stockinet, the round hole being three-fourths of an inch across, and the oblong three-fourths of an inch by one inch. follow the exercise in stockinet darning, in which the principles of darning have been taught, with the darning of a pair of worn stockings that the pupils have brought from home. every child in the class must be given this practical and useful experience. if there is difficulty in securing these stockings, members of the class or the teacher can readily supply the deficiency. exercise no. --placket sampler--a placket. _materials:_ calico " woof, " warp; facings and bands " × "; white thread no. ; needle no. . see description of plackets, page . upon this sampler is taught the placket, the gusset, the nightgown opening and two different methods of putting on bands, and in addition a review of the french seam and the french fell. it is made in sections which are combined later. these lessons are interspersed with other exercises that the pupils may not become tired of this piece. teach the placket and the nightgown opening first on paper. it will save time and trouble in the end. fold the large piece of calico across the warp through the center and cut on the fold. fold one of these pieces with the warp, through the center and cut. the first exercise of the "placket sampler" is done on one of these quarters. as these sections are to be sewed together later each girl must have her own pieces. to avoid the possibility of their being lost or soiled, those not in use should be wrapped in paper, labeled and collected by the teacher and kept until ready for exercise no. . [illustration: placket sampler (front view).] first section of the placket sampler: fold the piece of calico with the warp, through the center and cut an opening on this fold five inches in length. then follow the directions for making placket b. facing eleven inches by two inches. exercise no. --an apron--the christmas piece.[ ][ ] _materials:_ pupils will select and furnish their own materials for an apron. this may be of any style or kind, and will afford an excellent opportunity for carrying out their individual tastes. this may necessitate the teaching of the principles of bands which can be done with the practice piece. see description of bands, page . [illustration: placket sampler (back view).] [illustration: aprons--exercise no. .] exercise no. --placket sampler--the gusset.[ ] second section of the placket sampler. _materials:_ the second quarter of the large piece of calico; a two-inch square of calico for the gusset. fold with the warp through the center, and cut an opening on this fold five inches in length. then follow the directions for making the gusset. sew the two sections together with the french fell. hem the sides with a quarter-inch hem. exercise no. --buttonholes. _materials:_ blue percale " woof by " warp; scraps of calico for practice pieces; white thread no. and no. ; needles no. and no. . remember the old adage _practice makes perfect_. see description of the buttonhole, page . _note:_ scraps and odd pieces of calico can be used for the practice work on buttonholes. as the buttonhole requires a great deal of practice it is well to keep these pieces in the sewing box and work at it at odd times during the progress of the years' work. encourage the girls, too, to practice on the buttonhole for home work. in this way they will gradually acquire the skill which only comes with practice. fold the cloth, wrong side out, with the woof and through the center, and baste the edges together. begin with the blind buttonhole. the buttonhole model is intended to show how much skill has been acquired. fold the percale through the center, with the _woof_, and baste the edges together. make the buttonholes three-fourths of an inch long and one inch apart. exercise no. --placket sampler--the shirt sleeve or nightgown opening. _materials:_ half of the large piece of calico; facing " × ". fold with the warp through the center and cut an opening on this fold five inches in length. then follow the directions for the nightgown opening. hem the side of the narrower part with a quarter-inch hem. exercise no. --a hemstitched collar.[ ][ ] _materials:_ butcher's linen, collar - / " warp by " woof, india linen band - / " warp by - / " woof; practice piece " warp by " woof; white thread no. ; needle no. . measure the neck and decide upon the length of collar and width of hem before trimming. see directions for hemstitching, page . put the collar band on the collar. the collars may be still further ornamented with fine feather stitching, the star stitch or french knots. exercise no. --placket sampler--bands--hemmed and overhanded. see description of bands and gathering, pages and . to avoid soiling the cloth put the bands on before seaming the halves of the placket sampler together. this can be done with the exception of the band on the long side of the nightgown opening, which will have to be done after this side is basted to the other section, cut off and hemmed, and will therefore be the last thing to be done on the sampler. put the hemmed bands on the side having the placket and the gusset, and the overhand bands on the side of the nightgown opening. length of bands: on the first half, short bands cut two inches, one and one-half inches finished; long band cut four inches, three and one-half inches finished; on the last half, bands cut three and three quarters inches, three and one-quarter inches finished. sew the two sections of the sampler together with the french seam. the section having the two openings is a little narrower than the other. baste the two sections together, basting the little pleats at the end of the placket and the nightgown opening, and sew them into the seam. do not cut off the long side until basted nearly across, then cut off and hem the side. finish with the last band. exercise no. --an underskirt. _materials:_ pupils will furnish their own material for an underskirt for themselves. the patterns which their mothers use can be secured from the home, or one pattern used by all the members of the class. these skirts may be made plain or trimmed with tucked ruffles of cloth or with embroidery, depending upon the wishes of the mothers, the skill and taste of the individuals and the material furnished. should there be difficulty in securing material for the garment, a small model on the half-inch scale or one of the electives can be substituted. insist that the work be well done, neatly finished and first class throughout. use sewing machines when available. points to emphasize in the making of a skirt: . cut a correct pattern before beginning the skirt. do not trust to making corrections when cutting out. . baste the straight edge of one gore to the bias edge of another when making a gored skirt. this prevents the sagging which would occur if two bias edges were sewed together. . allow plenty in hem and tucks for letting down when making garments for growing girls. exercise no. --textile fibers and fabrics--flax. under the heading "textile fibers and fabrics," page , will be found subject matter which can be used in correlation with the geography, language and history work. the sixth grade subject is flax. make a collection of the flax products, fabrics, etc. a class set of compositions, each member of the class taking different subdivisions of the subject, would make an interesting collection which could be put together in a simple binding done by members of the class. see "paper and cardboard construction," page . electives. [ ] placket a may be substituted for the gusset, if desired. [ ] a pin cushion cover may be hemstitched in place of the collar. make this a square seven inches by seven inches, or an oblong five inches by nine inches, or any size to fit a particular cushion that can be cut from these pieces, or any size for which the pupils furnish their own material. [illustration: round bottom bag with raffia covering.] [ ] pupils who desire to furnish their own materials for a linen handkerchief may substitute this for the hemstitched collar. [ ] basketry may be substituted for the apron, or a clipping case or a postal-card album may be made instead. see "paper, cloth and cardboard construction," page . the round bottom bag with a fancy raffia covering. make the bag any size desired; a circle of three or four inches in diameter makes a practical one. draw the pattern for the raffia covering on paper, the circle for the bottom being the same size as that of the bottom of the bag. the design for the sides may be in as many sections as desired. the tops of these sections may be shaped to suit one's taste--round, pointed or fancy. when the pattern is completed baste a strand of raffia on the pattern, following the lines of the design. then closely blanket stitch with raffia on both sides of these strands. the spaces may then be filled with fancy lace stitches. chapter vi. course of instruction. fifth year--seventh grade. equipment. sewing box. pin cushion-- pins. thimble. needles. scissors. thread cards. practice piece--unbleached muslin " × ". order of exercises. prepare thread cards--cardboard " × ", designed and cut for four kinds of thread. exercise no. --a trial piece for finishing the bottom of drawers. exercise no. --an underwaist or corset cover. exercise no. --collars, jabots, bows, etc.--christmas piece.[ ] exercise no. --a study of home furnishing, decoration and care.[ ] exercise no. --twist buttonholes. exercise no. --a pair of drawers. exercise no. --cloth darning. exercise no. --textile fibers and fabrics--wool. footnotes: [ ] see electives, page . [ ] see electives, page . detailed description of exercises. review divisions of the foot and yard measure. exercise no. --a trial piece for finishing the bottom of a pair of drawers. _materials:_ india linen " × ", ruffle " woof, " warp; white thread no. ; needle no. . [illustration: a trial piece, giving practice on the hemmed seam, tucking, and putting a ruffle into a hem-tuck.] hemmed seam: one inch and a quarter from the top crease a fold with the warp. cut on this crease. see description of the hemmed seam, page . putting a ruffle into a hem-tuck and tucking: measure up from the bottom two and one-fourth inches--or twice the width of the hem-tuck plus one-fourth inch for the seam--and crease with the warp, across the piece. stitch, or run by hand an inch tuck, taking care to measure and make perfectly even. measure up three-eighths of an inch from this stitching and crease for another tuck. stitch, or run by hand an eighth of an inch tuck. measure up three-eighths of an inch for another tuck. put in a cluster of three tucks. hem the ruffle with an eighth of an inch hem, gather and stroke the gathers. see description of gathering and sewing a ruffle to a straight edge, page . place the wrong sides of the cloth and ruffle together and baste to the edge extending below the hem-tuck, bringing the seam exactly to the edge of the tuck. baste and stitch the edge of the hem-tuck over the seam of the ruffle. exercise no. --an underwaist or corset cover. _materials:_ pupils may furnish their own materials for an underwaist such as they wear. this may be of any style. patterns can be secured from the mothers. if there is any difficulty in securing supplies from the home, a child's waist on a small scale may be substituted. the small waist. _materials:_ bleached muslin " woof by " warp, bias facings " by "; white thread no. ; needle no. . see the draft for the pattern of the small underwaist, page . patterns: multiply all dimensions by four. each girl can draft her pattern from the teacher's dictation, or one pattern can be drafted before the lesson and the members of the class cut their patterns from this one. insist that the patterns be exact. have the patterns pinned on, and submitted for inspection before the cutting is done, to avoid blunders and waste of material. cut the front double. one inch has been allowed for the hem on the backs. [illustration: draft for pattern of underwaist. _this draft can be used for an underwaist of any size. determine the length of the under arm seam in the garment required and divide this by - / . multiply all dimensions by this quotient. as a small fraction complicates the process and makes very little difference, use the whole number which is nearest the quotient obtained. the slight alterations necessary can be made in the fitting._] [illustration: front of corset cover and back of girl's underwaist.] baste, half-back stitch and fell the seams. turn the hems at the back, baste and hem. see description of the bias, page . put the bias facing on the bottom first, then around the neck, and last around the armholes. teach the joining of the bias facing by having the bottom facing in two pieces and then insist that the ends of the armhole facing be joined in the same way. overhand neatly the ends of the bottom and neck facings. make four quarter-inch buttonholes and sew on the buttons. exercise no. --collars, jabots, bows, etc.--christmas piece.[ ] the styles of dressing the neck vary greatly from season to season. this is also modified by the taste of individuals. pupils may furnish their own material for any kind of collar desired, after thoughtful consideration of the prevailing styles. it is possible to make a great variety of useful and dainty articles at a trifling expense which will be most acceptable christmas gifts. if so intended, lead the pupils to study the appropriateness of their gifts. those pupils who find it difficult to furnish their own material may substitute a collar made from an imitation of linen which will afford the same experience in making, but will not be quite as desirable an article to wear. _materials:_ imitation linen " woof, " warp. this amount will cut either the dutch collar by piecing the band, or the ordinary stiff collar. the patterns for both, or the collars from which patterns can be cut, can be brought from home by some member of the class. be absolutely sure of the size before cutting out the collar, as a quarter of an inch will make a difference in the comfort and fit. it is an excellent plan to have collars of different sizes-- , - / , , - / --in the class, try them on, and mark the buttonholes on the bands from the right sized collars. the "dutch" collar can be made with a plain hem and finished with the fine featherstitching or any of the ornamental stitches, or it can be embroidered in a simple pattern with the eyelet embroidery. this gives an excellent opportunity for an original design, or if so desired a pattern can be transferred by the use of the carbon paper. the stiff collar, if made double, is first sewed up on the wrong side and then turned and stitched along the edge on the right. it is then put into the double band, which has been made in the same way. if so desired the collar can be made of a single embroidered piece with the worked edge, or finished with the hemstitched edge and ornamented with fancy stitches. exercise no. --a study of home furnishing, decoration and care.[ ] the success of this exercise will depend entirely upon the interest and ingenuity of the teacher. see "home furnishing, decoration and care," page . exercise no. --twist buttonholes. _materials:_ french flannel - / " warp by - / " woof; twist; sewing silk; needle no. and no. . see description of the buttonhole, page . pupils will furnish their own twist and flannel for the practice work. it is not necessary that these should match in color. double the flannel through the center the long way, baste along the folded edge and around the piece. overcast the raw edges. begin one-half inch from the top and make the buttonholes three-fourths of an inch long and three-fourths of an inch apart. strand, overcast and finish with the bar. exercise no. --a pair of drawers. _materials:_ pupils may furnish their own materials for a full-sized garment. this may be made in any style. patterns can be secured from the mothers or exchanged among the members of the class, or a pattern may be drafted from the diagram. secure the pattern first and have the girls measure it to determine the amount of material needed. if there is any difficulty in securing supplies from the home, a pair of child's drawers on a smaller scale may be substituted. the directions for making the small drawers will assist in making the full-sized garment. the small drawers. _materials:_ bleached muslin " woof, " warp; ruffling, india linen " woof, - / " warp; white thread no. ; needle no. . [illustration: draft for a pattern of a pair of drawers. _this draft can be used for a pattern of any size. determine the length at the side of the garment required, and divide this by - / and multiply all dimensions by this figure. as a small fraction complicates the process and will make very little difference in this garment, use the whole number which is nearest the quotient obtained. fold a large piece of paper, the fold of which will represent the fold at the side of the drawers. draw the diagram enlarged upon one side of this. the lines for both the front and back are the same, except the two inside lines at the top, which will cut the front a little smaller than the back. it is for this reason that it is drawn on the double paper._] patterns: see the draft for the drawers pattern, page . multiply the dimensions by four. each girl can draft a pattern from the teacher's dictation, or one pattern can be drafted and cut before class time, and the members of the class cut their patterns from this one. a strip of muslin thirty-six inches by eleven inches will cut the drawers by careful management. the lesson in economy and the experience of cutting from a close pattern is a valuable one for the girls, as it is a problem which will confront them many times in life. fold the cloth the short way through the center, and pin the selvedge edges together. allow three and one-half inches from the fold for the placket facings and bands, thus keeping the extra cloth in one large piece. pin the pattern in position, and cut the two lengths, at the same time taking care that the lengthwise fold of the pattern is straight with the warp threads. if the pattern does not allow for hem and tucks, provide the extra length when cutting. the right sides are now together; mark them before separating, and avoid the chance of making both pieces for the same leg, a mistake easily made by more experienced needlewomen. finish the bottom of the drawer legs with one-eighth inch tucks, one-half inch hem-tuck and the ruffle as in exercise no. . one-half inch in front of the side fold cut an opening, with the warp, four inches in length. this may be made in both legs or in the right one only, and may be finished with the gusset, placket a or placket b, keeping in mind that the back buttons over the front. finish all seams with the french seam except where the ends of the ruffle are joined with the hemmed seam. gather the fullness at the top on both sides of the front and the back seams, and draw up to the desired length of band. if two openings have been cut at the sides make the back band one inch longer than the front. place buttons and make buttonholes where desired. exercise no. --cloth darning. _materials:_ albatros " × "; sewing silk; needle no. ; beeswax. see description of cloth darning, page . four holes, cut as follows, are to be darned on this piece of cloth: no. . in the lower left hand corner one inch from the bottom and the side, cut one inch straight with the warp. darn with split sewing silk on the wrong side. no. . in the upper left hand corner, one inch from the top and side, cut one inch with the warp and one inch with the woof. this will serve for a three-cornered tear. darn on the right side with ravelings. spread the stitches at the corner like the sticks of a fan. no. . in the lower right-hand corner, one inch from the bottom and the side cut one inch on the bias. darn with split sewing silk on the wrong side. no. . in the upper right-hand corner, one inch from the top and the side cut one inch across the warp. this will serve for a worn place in the cloth. place the patch under it and baste around the edge. darn with ravelings on the right side. trim the edges of the patch smooth and herringbone stitch with ravelings around it. finish the edge of the piece with the blanket stitch. follow this exercise with the repairing of some article brought from home that will give a practical experience in cloth darning. should there be any difficulty in securing these articles there are plenty of homes that will supply enough for the entire class. _this must be done under the teacher's supervision._ exercise no. --textile fibers and fabrics--wool. under the heading "textile fibers and fabrics," page , will be found subject matter which can be used in correlation with the geography, language and history work. the seventh grade subject is wool. [illustration: a set of underwear. exercises , , , and an elective.] electives. [ ] an exercise in paper and cardboard construction, adapted to the skill of the class, may be substituted for the christmas exercise. see chapter on "paper and cardboard construction," page . [ ] in connection with the study of home furnishing and decoration an exercise in passepartout or the making of lamp shades would be excellent. chapter vii. description of stitches. stitches used in plain sewing. . basting. . blind stitch. . buttonholes. . combination stitch. . darning. . gathering. . half-back stitch. . hemming. . overcasting. . overhanding. . running. . slip stitch. . stitching. ornamental stitches. . bands. . blanket stitch. . chain stitch. . couching. . feather stitch. . french knots. . hemstitching. . herringbone stitch. . kensington outline. . lazy daisy or star stitch. miscellaneous. . bias. . cloth. . eyelets and loops. . joining and fastening threads. . mitered corner. . patterns. . plackets. . putting in sleeves. . seams. a. bound seam. b. flannel seam. c. french fell. d. french seam. e. hemmed seam. . sewing on buttons. . sewing on hooks and eyes. . sewing on lace. . tucking. stitches used in plain sewing. =basting.=--basting is temporary sewing used to hold the cloth in place while putting in permanent stitches. as the basting threads are to be removed, place the knot on the right side. fasten the threads securely by taking two or three backstitches. in removing basting threads clip the threads at short intervals that they may be taken out easily. much of the success of the work depends upon careful basting. the extra time required will be repaid ten-fold. one stitch at a time for beginners, later two or three stitches may be taken. in basting hems, baste not on the edge, but very near it. do not baste on the line where you expect to stitch, but as near it as possible. a. an even basting is used on hems, seams of garments, or wherever two pieces of cloth are to be held firmly together. take up one-fourth of an inch and skip one-fourth. b. uneven basting is used where very careful basting is unnecessary, as in the seams of skirts, or in working on a material that clings together, as a guide for stitching. take up an eighth of an inch and skip three-eighths. when only loose basting is required, as when holding the lining and outside together, a long stitch and two short ones may be used. =blind stitch.=--the blind stitch and slip stitch are used to fasten a hem lightly where it is desired to conceal the stitches. to blind stitch a hem, turn back the edge of the hem to the basting and, holding the cloth along the edge of the finger, catch first cloth and then hem with a single stitch that does not show on either side. a slip stitch is a long stitch on the wrong side and a blind stitch on the hem. it is used on the milliner's fold. =buttonholes.=--a buttonhole is a slit cut and worked to admit a button for fastening purposes. it is much easier for beginners to commence on the blind buttonhole. this is made by working around a line instead of cutting the hole. the stitch, the fan, and the finishing can thus be learned without the care of the raw edge. the directions for making the buttonhole are as follows: [illustration: stitches used on plain sewing. --three styles of basting. --the running stitch. --the gathering. --the backstitch. --the half-back stitch. --the combination stitch. --the overcasting.] a. preparation of the hole. a. _cutting_--with the buttonhole scissors cut the hole one-fourth of an inch from the folded edge and straight with the threads of the cloth. b. _stranding_--the strand consists of carrying the thread along the edge of the buttonhole near enough to be easily covered by the buttonhole stitch, for the purpose of adding strength to the buttonhole. thread two needles, one with fine thread or sewing silk and the other with coarser thread or twist, depending upon the kind of buttonhole to be made. place a knot in the coarse thread or twist, and with the folded edge of the cloth toward the left hand, bring the needle out just below the lower right hand end of the buttonhole, which is the end farthest from the folded edge. at the other end put the needle into the cloth just below the end of the cut and bring it out just above, which will carry the thread along the edge of the buttonhole. repeat the same on the other side bringing the thread out at the point of starting. do not cut this thread, as this is ready to begin the buttonhole stitch after the overcasting. c. _overcasting_--with the fine thread or sewing silk begin at the lower right-hand end. the object of the overcasting is to prevent raveling while working the buttonhole and the fewer stitches which will accomplish this purpose the better. as the overcasting must be covered by the buttonhole stitch do not take over two or three threads deep and just as few stitches on each side as is absolutely necessary to prevent the loosening of the threads. some materials do not require overcasting. b. working the buttonhole. a. _the stitch_--determine how deep a stitch is necessary so that the threads will not pull out, always keeping in mind that _the shorter the stitch the better the buttonhole will look_. this depends upon the kind of material in use. the first stitch begins one thread beyond the end of the slit. holding the buttonhole along the cushion of the left forefinger with the folded edge of the cloth toward the left, place the needle into the slit under the lower edge of the buttonhole and draw the needle half way through. with the needle still pointing toward the chest take up the double thread at the eye of the needle and place it under the point, passing _from right to left_. draw the needle and thread out, and from you, so that the purl or twist comes to the edge of the slit. (this makes a firmer edge than when the thread is carried around the needle from left to right.) each stitch is a repetition of the above. place the stitches about the width of a thread apart, as this will avoid a crowded appearance and makes a firm, hard edge. do not jerk the thread, but draw steadily and tight; otherwise the edge will be rough. avoid stretching the buttonhole; the edges should touch when finished. b. _the fan_--at the end near the folded edge--the round end--spread the stitches like the sticks of a fan, drawing them closer at the top and spreading at the bottom. five stitches will work nicely around the end, the third stitch being straight with the buttonhole. c. method of finishing the buttonhole. a. the simplest manner of finishing is as follows: the buttonhole stitches at this end are at right angles to the slit, and not rounding as at the other end. after finishing the last buttonhole stitch, pass the needle down between the first and second stitch, and bring it out between the last and next to the last stitch. draw the thread tight so as to bring the edges of the buttonhole together. put in several stitches in the same place. pass the needle to the under side and fasten the thread. [illustration: method of buttonholing.] b. _the bar_--the thread being at the top of the last stitch, pass the needle down between the first and second stitch and out at the bottom of the last stitch. put in three threads across the width of the buttonhole, bringing the thread out at the bottom of the last buttonhole stitch. turn the cloth so that the thumb covers the thread and the buttonhole, and work the bar by bringing the needle out each time over the thread, as in the blanket stitch. draw the purl edge toward the buttonhole. do not put in too many stitches, as it makes the loop stand away from the buttonhole. near the middle of the bar take one stitch through the cloth to hold it down. c. _caution_--be sure that the thread is long enough to work the buttonhole, but not over-long, as the thread wears and is more liable to break. use care and not break the thread, but in case this happens, take out the last few stitches, thread the needle on this short end, pass through the last purl, and fasten the thread on the under side. with the new thread fasten without a knot on the wrong side, bring through the last purl at the edge of the buttonhole and continue. on cloth that ravels badly put in two parallel rows of running stitches and then cut the buttonhole between the rows. =combination stitch.=--the combination stitch consists of three little running stitches and a backstitch over the last running stitch. take three running stitches on the needle and pull it through. take up the last running stitch for the first of the next group of three. it is a little stronger than the running stitch. =darning.=--the object in darning is to repair a rent, if possible so that it cannot be perceived. the warp and woof threads that have been worn away are to be rewoven into the cloth. no knots are needed. leave a short end of thread to be clipped when the darn is finished. a. stocking darning. stockings should be darned on the wrong side. a square hole makes a more symmetrical darn than a round one, and should be used wherever there is no widening or narrowing in the knitting, as on the leg of a stocking. a round hole is better for the heel and toe. cut away the part that is badly worn. first put in the warp threads, taking care to take up on the needle all the little loops around the hole and making the darn symmetrical in shape. then put in the woof threads, weaving carefully across the warp over the hole, passing over the threads that were taken up on the preceding row. _give special attention to the edge of the hole, passing first over and then under the edge, that there may be no ridge._ if the hole is large or stretched out of shape, draw up the edges by whipping with fine thread. the darning stitches should extend only as far as the worn part. if the warp threads have strengthened the worn part sufficiently the woof threads may be extended only far enough over the edge to fasten securely. in darning a large hole it is sometimes wise to begin putting in the warp threads at the center first to prevent stretching. do not draw the threads too tight, as they will shrink when washed. b. cloth darning. this may be done with thread, ravelings or hair. in darning with thread darn on the wrong side, with ravelings or hair on the right. darn at right angles to the tear or cut. continue the darning stitches on each side of the tear only far enough to strengthen the worn part, usually a quarter, sometimes an eighth of an inch, is sufficient. continue the darn an eighth of an inch beyond the end of the tear. the repairing shows less if the rows of darning stitches are of unequal length. in darning take up the threads of cloth passed over in the preceding row, slipping the needle over one edge of the tear and under the other going one way and reversing this order going the other way. this makes the edge smooth and does not throw it up in a ridge. if the material to be darned is thin or stretches easily, place the rent over a piece of glazed paper and baste around it before darning. if the cloth is worn and thin, place a piece of cloth under and darn through the two thicknesses. take great care not to stretch the hole or to draw the threads tight enough to pucker. =gathering.=--gathering is an uneven stitch made by passing over twice as much as is taken on the needle. when the thread is drawn up this gives the appearance of fine gathering on the right side and admits of considerable cloth being gathered into a small space. gathering is used in joining a full part to a straight piece, as the skirt to the band, etc. gather with a strong single thread a little longer than than the space to be gathered. _never use a double thread._ if the thread becomes knotted a new thread must be put in from the beginning. hold the cloth, as in the running stitch, with the right side toward you, using the wrist motion. make a large knot in the thread so that it cannot slip through the cloth, and place the knot on the _wrong_ side. at the end of the gathering slip the needle off and make a knot in the thread, that it may not pull out. a. stroking gathers. for stroking or placing gathers use a coarse needle or a pin. draw up the gathering thread just tightly enough so that the pin can be easily inserted between the gathers and fasten by winding over a pin placed at right angles to the last stitch. begin at the left hand, placing the pin in the fold of the first stitch and stroke gently downward, holding the pin obliquely. after each successive stroke press the pleat under the thumb of the left hand. continue the same with every stitch. b. sewing the gathered part to the straight piece. divide both into halves, quarters or eighths, depending upon the length, and pin the points of division together. draw up the gathering thread to the proper length and fasten by winding over a pin. arrange the gathers even before basting. baste just above the gathers, holding the gathered piece next to you. _stitch just below the gathering thread._ c. gauging. gauging or double gathering is done by having a second row of gathering stitches of equal length and directly below those of the first (so that when both threads are drawn up the cloth lies in pleats). in heavy material three or four threads may be put in. gauging is usually used on heavy material or on a folded edge that is to be overhanded to a band. d. gathering by whipping a rolled edge. ruffles of lawn, linen or embroidery are sometimes put upon the edge instead of into a facing or seam, and when so placed it is desirable to avoid the raw edge on the under side. hold the work over the left forefinger and roll the edge toward you between the thumb and forefinger. place the needle under the roll on the right side, passing out at the top of the roll. whip about one inch and draw up the thread. it is necessary to use a strong thread for whipping and gathering the edge of a ruffle. =half-back stitch.=--half-back stitching is similar to the stitching. the long forward stitch on the under side is three times the length of the backstitch on the upper side, and a space the length of the backstitch is left between the stitches. see stitching, page . =hemming.=--a hem is a fold made by twice turning over the edge of a piece of cloth, and then sewing it down. the first fold is most important; if that is turned even there will be little trouble with the second. _trim the edge of the cloth before turning the hem._ it is well to make and use a gauge of the required width. if a wide hem is turned, baste along the second fold or bottom of the hem first, and then at the top. on woolen goods or material that does not crease easily it is necessary to baste the first fold. either bury the knot between the folds of the hem or leave one-half inch of thread and hem over it. a. hemming stitch. hold the hem across the cushion of the left forefinger and point the needle a little to the left across the middle of the thumb. take up a few threads of the cloth and a few threads of the fold and draw the needle through. take care that the stitches are regular, of equal length and of equal distance apart. _do not confuse the hemming stitch with the blind stitch, or the damask hem._ join the threads by leaving a half-inch of the old thread and a half-inch of the new to be tucked under the edge of the hem and be hemmed over. teachers will find the following suggestions helpful in teaching the hemming stitch: put the needle in _almost_ straight with the hem, not at right angles to it. take up as little cloth on the needle as possible; bring the needle directly through the hem, making one stitch of it instead of dividing the stitch as in the blind stitch. crowd the point of the needle under the edge of the hem. do not insert the needle a distance from the hem, trusting to puckering it up. b. damask hem. damask is a heavy fabric woven of heavy threads of one color in which the pattern is brought out by a change in the direction of the threads, and when new is stiff with much dressing. from the very nature of the cloth it is impossible to hem well with the flat hem. the two folds of the hem are turned the desired width and the hem is then turned back flat to the cloth and creased. the edge of the hem and the crease thus formed are overhanded together with fine even stitches. when laundered this irons perfectly smooth and the stitches do not show on the right side. do not confuse this method of hemming with the flat hem, as each has its own use. =overcasting.=--overcasting is done by taking loose stitches over the raw edge of cloth from right to left to keep it from raveling. the depth of the stitch depends upon the material to be overcast, usually an eighth of an inch is sufficient. the stitches should be twice as far apart as they are deep. the needle is inserted from the under side of the cloth and points a little to the left, making a slanting stitch. keep the spaces even and the stitches of equal length. _always trim the edges before overcasting._ do not overcast a selvedge edge. take only one stitch at a time and be careful not to draw the edge of the cloth. =overhanding.=--overhanding is done by sewing closely over two edges of cloth from right to left. the cloth may have a folded or selvedge edge. careful basting is necessary to good overhanding. the needle is placed at a right angle to the seam and should point to the chest. no knot is used; a short end of the thread is left and overhanded under. hold the work horizontally along the edge of the cushion of the left forefinger and the thumb. do not wind the cloth over the end of the finger. the stitches are straight on the under side and slanting on the top. do not draw the threads tight enough to make a hard seam and also avoid a loose stitch that will not hold the edges together when the seam is opened. a deep stitch is not necessary for strength and will not look well on the right side when opened. to join the threads leave a half-inch of the old and a half-inch of the new, lay them along the edge and overhand over them. =running.=--running is done by taking up and slipping over an equal amount of cloth. running is used for seams that do not require great strength, and also for tucking. care should be taken not to draw the thread tight enough to pucker. make a small knot in the thread and conceal it on the wrong side or in the folds of the cloth. hold the work in the left hand between the thumb and cushion of the forefinger; hold the needle in the work between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand. use the wrist motion. fasten the thread by passing the needle through to the wrong side and taking two backstitches. =slip stitch.=--see blind stitch, page . =stitching.=--stitching is so called because it resembles machine stitching. it is also known as backstitching. stitching is done by taking a stitch backward on the upper side of the cloth and a long stitch forward on the underside, making the stitches meet on the top as in machine stitching. use a small knot in beginning. hold the work over the cushion of the left forefinger. fasten the threads on the wrong side by taking several backstitches, one over the other, through one thickness of the cloth. to join threads in stitching fasten securely on the wrong side and begin with a small knot, bringing the thread through at the proper place for beginning the new stitch. it is used where strength is required, or on garments too small to go into a machine conveniently. ornamental stitches. =applique.=--this is an ornamentation produced by cutting a design from one kind or color of cloth and placing it upon another. very beautiful effects can be obtained, with perfect harmony of color and the proper combinations of textiles. the edge can be finished with the blanket, couching, kensington or chain stitch. =blanket stitch.=--the blanket stitch, often erroneously called the buttonhole stitch, is used for finishing raw edges. it is worked from _left to right_, and the buttonhole stitch from _right to left_. the depth of the stitch and the space between stitches may be varied and will depend upon its use. if the thread is not fastened and joined carefully the symmetry of the stitches will be broken. a new thread must come up through the loop of the last stitch. a. to finish the edge of flannel or heavy cloth: insert the needle at a point the desired depth of the blanket stitch and take one or two running stitches to the edge of the cloth, which will bring the thread in position for the first stitch. make the first blanket stitch over these running stitches. holding the edge of the cloth toward you insert the needle at the same point as before and bring the needle out over the thread and draw the loop thus made to the edge of the cloth. repeat for successive stitches. for a simple finish for a flannel edge the stitches should not be placed too close together. as far apart as the depth of the stitch is a good rule, unless greater ornamentation is desired, when three, five or seven stitches may radiate from one point. b. for embroidering an edge--straight, scalloped or irregular. [illustration: ornamental stitches. --the chain stitch. --the kensington stitch. --two styles of feather stitching. --the herringbone stitch. --three styles of blanket stitch.] the stitches are the same as in "a" but should be placed close enough together so that the threads touch, making a firm edge. the embroidery should be done before the edge is cut. it can then be finished in various ways. the narrow edge can be turned back and whipped down on the wrong side, or blanket stitched just over the edge with fine cotton thread. on lingerie pieces the edge is not cut until after the first laundering. if desired the edge can be padded before working with the blanket stitch. the padding is done with a soft, coarse thread by working along the edge with either the kensington or chain stitch, or it may be heavily "padded" by filling the space. c. the blanket stitch is also used for working the loop and the buttonhole bar. d. see couching, below. e. see lazy daisy or star stitch, page . =chain stitch.=--the chain stitch is used for outlining a design, marking garments, etc. insert the needle on the line and draw the thread through to the knot. insert again at the same point and take up on the needle cloth for the desired length of stitch and draw the needle out _over_ the thread. in placing the needle for succeeding stitches begin inside the preceding stitch. the half-chain stitch is very effective for stems of flowers, or wherever a fine outline stitch can be used. this is made the same as the chain stitch, except that the needle is inserted just outside and to the right of the loop instead of in the end of the loop. =couching.=--couching is a coarse blanket stitch done over two or three strands of silk, linen or cotton floss. it makes an attractive finish for a hem line and also for finishing the edge in applique. =feather stitch.=--the principal use of the feather stitch being that of ornamentation requires that it shall be evenly and carefully done, or it fails in its purpose. the feather stitch consists of alternating stitches, or groups of stitches, slanting toward a center line. the stitch may be varied greatly by the length of the stitch, the slant of the stitch, and the number of stitches on each side. the tendency is to gradually increase the length of the stitch which must be carefully avoided, as well as a change in the slant. do not make too long a stitch, as there is danger of catching and breaking the thread. the feather stitch can be used very effectively in scroll designs for the ornamentation of sofa pillows, cushion covers, collars, underwear, etc. a. single feather stitching. work toward you, holding the cloth over the left forefinger. with a knot in the thread insert the needle from the under side a short distance to the right or left of the line the feather stitching is to follow (which may be designated the center line) and draw the thread through. place the left thumb over the thread to hold it down, and on the opposite side take up a slanting stitch, the top of which is as far from the center line as the length of the stitch, and the bottom touching the center line. draw the needle out over the thread which will thus form a loop of the thread from the first stitch. on the opposite side take up another slanting stitch the top of which is an equal distance from the center line and even with the bottom of the last stitch. repeat for successive stitches. at the end of a thread fasten by passing the needle down where the thread last came through the cloth, thus holding the loop from the last stitch in place. begin a new thread by passing the needle up through this loop. b. double feather stitching. this consists of alternating groups of two, three or more stitches instead of single stitches. the successive stitches of each group must be placed directly under the first stitch of the group. =french knot.=--bring the needle through from the under side. with the needle in the right hand, take hold of the thread with the left hand about an inch from the cloth and, holding it taut, wind it several times around the point of the needle. return the needle to the same hole through which it came out, and draw it back to the under side. =hemstitching.=--hemstitching is a method of hemming in which a few parallel threads are drawn, the hem turned to the line thus formed, and hemmed down with the same stitch that separates the cross threads in successive clusters. there are several modifications of the hemstitch. the following methods have been selected as being the best for four reasons: ( ) the thread is thrown under the edge of the hem, and consequently wears longer and shows less. ( ) the only part of the thread showing on the right side is the loop around the cross threads. ( ) it is readily taught to children, as it is simple, easy to remember, and can be given as two distinct parts. ( ) it is the natural way to hold the hem. a. _drawing the threads_--measuring from the edge of the cloth, allow twice the width of the desired hem when finished, plus the first fold, and draw several threads, the exact number depending upon the texture of the fabric. draw the first thread the entire length before starting the second, as it is liable to break where the first one did. the first thread being drawn, the second will come more readily. beginners are inclined to draw too many threads. unless both edges are to be hemstitched the opening should be narrow enough so that the threads at the top will not loosen. b. _the hem_--turn the first fold of the hem and baste to the exact line of the opening. careful basting is indispensable to good hemstitching, and especially so at a corner where two hems cross. miter all corners of hems that are more than one-fourth of an inch in width. c. _the stitch_--hold the cloth over the left forefinger as in ordinary hemming. bury the knot by inserting the needle under the edge of the hem and drawing it through. the stitch consists of two distinct parts, ( ) forming the loop around the cross threads, and ( ) catching down to the edge of the hem: ( ) pointing the needle toward you and holding the thread under the left thumb, take up on the needle three or four of the cross threads. draw the needle out over the thread, thus forming the loop, and tight enough to separate the cross threads. ( ) insert the needle under the edge of the _hem_ only and take an ordinary hemming stitch. repeat and for the next stitch. =herringbone stitch.=--the herringbone or catch stitch is a cross stitch used to finish the raw edges of flannel or heavy material. it serves both the purpose of overcasting over a raw edge and that of hemming. it is used on raw edged hems to avoid the ridge formed by the first fold of a hem, on the flannel patch and for finishing the flannel seam, which may be pressed open and both single edges herringbone stitched, or both folded to one side and finished over the double edge. in most cases the open seam looks better. the stitch consists of single, alternating running stitches made first to the right and then to the left, working from you instead of toward you as in ordinary running. the thread being carried across from one stitch to another, gives the appearance of a cross stitch. the stitches on each side must be in straight rows, with the outer row just over the edge of the flannel. the stitch should be no deeper than necessary to prevent pulling out. a good rule for beginners is to make the top of each stitch even with the bottom of the last stitch. _point the needle toward you in making the stitch, but work away from you._ the edge of the flannel must be kept smooth. this being a cross stitch the thread of one part of the stitch is on top and the other underneath. be sure that this is regular, those slanting in the same direction should be always either to the top or to the bottom. =kensington outline stitch.=--this stitch is used to follow the line of a design for ornamentation. to avoid the knot, when starting begin half an inch from the end of the line to be followed, and put in three or four running stitches, bringing the thread out at the proper place for starting. turn the cloth around, holding it over the left forefinger, and work from you. pointing the needle toward you, take a short running stitch directly on the line keeping the thread always on the right side of the needle, except on a line curving sharply to the left when the thread will fall more naturally to the left side. the thread being carried from one stitch to another gives the effect of a long diagonal stitch on the right side and running stitches on the wrong. the length of the stitch will be determined by the size of the thread, and the character of the line to be covered, a curved line requiring a shorter stitch than a straight one. =lazy daisy or star stitch.=--this is a variation of the blanket stitch. insert the needle at the point desired for the center of the flower and draw the thread through. insert again at the same place and take up the desired length of stitch on the needle, drawing the needle out over the thread. pass the needle down through the cloth at the point where it came out, but on the other side of the loop, thus forming a second loop at the end of the petal to hold it in place, and return the needle again to the center of the flower. make as many petals as desired and finish with the french knot in the center of the flower. this stitch also makes a pretty star, using six points and finishing without the french knot. miscellaneous. =bands=.--a band is a straight piece of cloth used to finish garments at the neck, wrist or waist. it may be sewed to a straight, gathered or pleated edge. a band cut with the warp is stronger than one cut with the woof. a. hemmed band. see description of the gathering, page . gather as desired. place the right sides of the cloth and band together and baste just above the gathering thread, taking care that the gathers are arranged perfectly even. stitch just below the gathering thread. turn in a fourth of an inch at the ends and along the other side of the band. fold the band over just covering the gathers, and baste. hem or stitch along the edge, overhanding the ends of the band. b. overhand band. see description of gauging, page . make the band by turning in one-fourth of an inch all around, folding and basting the edges together. overhand the ends of the band. the whipping of the full part to the band will be sufficient to hold the two sides of the band together. turn back the raw edges of the piece to be gathered one-half inch and gather once, twice or three times as desired. pin to the band and overhand, taking a stitch for each pleat of the gathers. fasten all bands very securely. =bias.=--a bias is a diagonal cut. to cut a true bias, fold over the corner of the cloth so that the warp and woof threads are parallel. a choice bias is a true bias, having the twill of the cloth at right angles to the cut. great care should be taken in measuring and cutting bias strips to have them the same width throughout the length. also avoid stretching after cutting. a. to cut a bias facing, bias binding or fold, measure in the desired width on the true bias at a number of points. draw a line, crease in a fold or baste where the facing is to be cut off. b. to put on a bias facing, place the edge of the strip, right sides together, even with the edge of the cloth to be faced, baste and stitch. turn the facing back _exactly_ in the seam and baste along the edge so that the facing will not show on the right side. turn the fold at the top, baste and hem. a bias facing for a curve should be cut narrow enough so that by stretching one edge of the facing it will lie perfectly smooth when finished. c. to join two bias strips--cut the ends to be joined straight with the threads of the cloth and place the right sides together, slipping the top piece past the under piece the width of a seam, but having the top edges even. stitch where the facings cross, open the seam and crease; or, after trimming, a seam may be turned back at the end of each piece and the folded edges overhanded together. =cloth.=--a fabric woven of fibers, either animal or vegetable. the edges of cloth are known as the selvedge, the threads running lengthwise the warp, and those crossing the warp from selvedge to selvedge the woof. the selvedge should be trimmed off, as it is hard to sew through and draws up when wet. =eyelets and loops.=--an eyelet is a small hole made and worked in a garment to receive a cord, stud or loop of a button. punch the hole with a stiletto, pushing the threads apart rather than breaking them. overhand closely from right to left with short even stitches. a large eyelet may be cut out and worked around with the buttonhole stitch. a blind loop is made in place of the eye to receive a hook. put three or four long stitches in the same place beginning at the left, so that the thread will be at the proper place for working the loop with the blanket stitch. =joining and fastening thread.=--when sewing, care should be taken in joining threads. the manner in which it is done depends upon the stitch in use. in hemming, leave a half-inch of the old and a half-inch of the new thread, tuck both under the hem and continue hemming over the threads. the same plan is followed in overhanding. in the blanket stitch, feather stitch, herringbone, chain and buttonhole stitch the new thread must come out through the last stitch. thoughtful attention should be given to the fastening of threads, as careful, painstaking work may soon be rendered useless by the loosening of the thread from the end. after fastening securely clip off all threads that the work may be not only strong, but neat. the usual fastening consists of several backstitches taken in the same place. =mitered corner.=--two hems crossing at right angles may be finished either with the square or the mitered corner. to miter a corner, turn and crease a quarter-inch fold on both sides. turn the second fold of the hem the desired width on both sides and crease. open out the corner and place a dot where the inner creases cross. place a second dot a quarter of an inch from the first toward the corner. through this second point draw a line passing from side to side, across the corner, being careful that the line is an equal distance from the corner on both sides. cut off the corner on this line. fold both hems again on the creases before made and pin the hem on one side in place. make a pin hole as near the exact point where the hems cross as possible, passing through both hems. fold in the bias edge on the hem that is not pinned down, _exactly from the pin hole to the corner_, causing the edges of the two hems to meet at an angle of forty-five degrees. =patterns.=--with the varied, complex and ever-changing styles of fashion, individual pattern drafting (except for a very simple article) is impracticable, usually resulting in commonplace garments and involving useless time and labor. for the trifling sum of ten or fifteen cents reliable, up-to-date patterns can be secured which are cut to established measurements by a fashion expert. a good needlewoman supplies herself with a good pattern and then cuts accurately, bastes carefully, and finishes neatly, and in nearly all cases, results will be satisfactory. =plackets.=--a placket is an opening made in a garment. there are several ways of finishing an opening, but in all cases, except when the gusset is used, the underside should extend some distance under the top to prevent gaping. a. a placket with a continuous binding. this is the placket used on children's drawers, night shirts, under garments, etc. cut the opening the desired length. cut the facing with the warp a little more than twice the length of the opening and twice the desired width when finished, plus one-fourth inch, or more, allowed for seams. the following are the successive steps for making the placket: a. fold the cloth, right sides together, in a line with the opening. b. double the facing across the warp, through the center, wrong sides together. c. slip this between the folds of the cloth so that the fold of the facing will just come to the end of the opening. this will bring the right side of facing to the right side of the cloth. d. baste the facing to the cloth down one side and up the other side of the opening. e. stitch with an eighth of an inch seam, which will render unavoidable a small pleat at the end of the opening the width of the seam. f. crease the facing back over the opening exactly in the seam. g. turn an eighth of an inch fold the length of the facing down the other side. h. fold this over the seam to the stitching, baste, and hem. i. at the top of the opening fold the right-hand facing back and stitch along the edge to hold in place. b. a placket with an extension hem on one side and a flat facing on the other. this is the placket used on dress skirts, petticoats and carefully tailored garments. follow the directions for the successive steps for making placket a through "g," as the two plackets are the same to this point. the left side of the facing will consist of an extension hem the same as in placket a, the only difference in the plackets being the manner of finishing the right side or top facing. h. after turning the fold the length of the facing, place the edge of this fold to the stitching on the other side of the seam, and crease the facing through the center the long way, as in placket a. i. as the right side is to be hemmed down as a facing, it is desirable to cut out one thickness of the cloth, leaving, of course, the quarter-inch inside the long crease, and also at the cross fold, at the end of the opening as the first fold on the facing. j. baste this facing flat to the cloth, and hem. k. stitch once across the _top facing only_, just at the bottom end of the opening. c. a finish for a shirt sleeve or nightgown opening. as this consists of an extra piece which extends over the opening, it is necessary to allow for this in cutting, so that the middle of this piece will come in the center when finished. when cutting this opening in a nightgown, cut to the right of the center one-half the width the facing is to be when finished. the following are the successive steps for making the nightgown opening: a. cut the opening the desired length. cut the facing in two pieces, one a little more than twice the length of the opening, and the other the length of the opening plus the width of the facing, both pieces to be the desired width plus the allowance for seams. (these two pieces will be designated the long and the short facings.) b. place the short facing to the right-hand side of the opening, right sides of cloth together and even at the top. pin in place. c. place the long facing to the back of this same side with the right side of facing to the wrong side of the cloth, thus having the three thicknesses of cloth together. pin in place and baste a quarter of an inch from the edge. stitch an eighth of an inch seam. d. the long facing is a continuous facing, the same as in plackets a and b. baste up the other side and stitch, the seam being on the right side of the cloth. e. crease both facings open in the seams. turn in a fold on the other side of the short facing and turn the end to a square point. f. turn a fold the length of the long facing so that it matches the width of the short piece. g. baste the two facings together and the flat facing to the cloth. h. stitch around the short facing and twice across it at the end of the opening. stitch or hem the under side of the flat facing. d. the gusset. this method of finishing an opening is sometimes used on drawers and night-shirts instead of placket a. the following are the successive steps for making the gusset: a. cut the opening the desired length. b. hem both sides with a very narrow hem running to a point at the end of the opening. c. cut a piece of cloth one and one-half inches square. on this square fold down one corner three-fourths of an inch on the sides and cut it off. turn a fold one-eighth of an inch all around this piece. place the corner which is opposite the diagonal cut to the middle of this cut and crease. d. to sew the gusset in, place the apex of the triangle to the end of the opening and overhand on the wrong side to the crease before made. e. fold over the remaining part to the wrong side, baste and hem. stitch along the fold of the gusset to strengthen it. [illustration: formation of gusset.] =putting in sleeves.=--after trimming the arm hole, measure one inch back from the shoulder seam and mark with a pin. fold the garment at the arm hole with this pin at the top of the fold and place another directly opposite it. call this point a. remove the first pin to avoid confusion. for a sleeve for an adult, measure from the shoulder seam five inches on the front and mark with a pin. call this point b. measure from the shoulder seam three inches on the back and mark with a pin. call this point c. with the sleeve right side out place the under seam of the sleeve at a and pin together at this point. the gathers are to come at the top of the sleeve between b and c. for misses and children the measurements should be decreased proportionately. measure the sleeve on the arm-hole and cut small notches at b and c. gather the sleeve between these notches one-fourth of an inch from the edge, with a strong thread a little longer than the distance to be gathered. put in a second gathering one-eighth of an inch from the first. put in place at points a b and c; draw up the gathering threads to the proper length and fasten by winding around a pin. arrange the gathers between b and c, pushing them a little closer together in front of the shoulder seam. hold the inside of the sleeve next to you and, beginning at b, baste first around the plain part, then the gathered part. stitch inside the basting and bind the seam. =seams.=--a seam is formed by sewing together two pieces of cloth. there are several different methods of joining them. those known as the raw seams may be joined by stitching, half-back stitching, overhanding or the combination stitch. the closed or finished seams are known as the french fell, french seam, hemmed seam, flannel seam and the bound seam. no garment should be finished with a raw seam, which is only properly used when covered with a lining, or as the first step in one of the finished seams. a. french fell. place the two pieces to be joined, right sides together, edges even and baste one-fourth of an inch from the edge. sew with the combination stitch (or machine stitching) three-eighths of an inch from the edge. trim three-sixteenths of an inch from the _under_ side of the seam and crease the _upper_ side of the seam over this. (in hand sewing there is a long stitch on the under side. be sure to trim from this side so that the short stitch comes on the top.) on the right side of the garment crease carefully and baste along the edge of the seam to prevent the fullness which beginners are so liable to have over the french fell on the right side. turn to the wrong side, baste the seam flat to the cloth, and hem. b. french seam. place together the wrong sides of the pieces to be joined, and baste one-fourth of an inch from the edge. with the running stitch sew one-eighth of an inch from the edge. carefully trim off the ravelings, fold the right sides together and crease exactly in the seam, baste and stitch the seam, taking care that no ravelings can be seen and that the seam is perfectly smooth on the right side. c. hemmed seam: this is used for joining thin material, lace, etc. on one piece fold an eighth of an inch seam (or more, if necessary) to the right side of the cloth, and on the other piece fold an eighth of an inch seam to the wrong side. place the right sides of the two pieces together with the raw edge of one piece under and to the folded edge of the other. baste this fold down over the raw edge sewing through the three thicknesses of cloth. fold over in the crease and baste through the four thicknesses. stitch, or hem by hand, along the edge of the seam on both sides of the cloth. d. flannel seam: the flannel seam is used on material so thick that it is necessary to finish over a raw edge, instead of with a seam involving several thicknesses of cloth. place together the right sides of the two pieces to be joined and baste one-eighth of an inch from the edge. stitch one-fourth of an inch from the edge and remove the bastings. trim the seams smooth, open and baste flat to the cloth. herringbone stitch over the raw edge of both sides of the seam. one side of the herringbone stitch should come just over the raw edge of the flannel. the edges must be kept smooth, and unless the flannel ravels easily, the herringbone stitch should be not over one-eighth of an inch deep and close together. this stitch is used also on the flannel patch. e. bound seam: seams may be bound with the two parts of the seam together, or they may be pressed open and bound separately. this may be done with a bias strip, binding ribbon or tape. a. _binding the entire seam_--place together the two right sides of the pieces to be joined and baste one-eighth of an inch from the edge. place the bias binding (three-fourths of an inch wide) with the wrong side of the cloth up and the edge of the binding one-eighth of an inch from the edge of the seam, and baste in place. stitch through the three thicknesses of cloth a quarter of an inch from the edge. turn in one-eighth of an inch on the other side of the binding and hem it down just above the stitching on the other side of the seam. this method of binding is used on the arm-holes of garments or wherever it is not feasible to open the seam and bind separately. b. _the open bound seam_--prepare the seam as above without the bias binding. trim and press the seam open. double the binding ribbon through the center and crease. place the raw edge of the seam to the fold of the ribbon and run along the edge, catching through to the under fold. tape may be used for binding, but must be basted on first and hemmed down. =sewing on buttons.=--there are two important requirements for sewing on buttons--to put in sufficient thread, and to fasten this thread securely that it may not loosen from the end. in sewing flat buttons on coats, jackets, etc., place a small button on the under side and sew through it to avoid having the stitches show on the under side. a. _the loop or shank button_--place the button in position with the loop at right angles to the edge of the cloth. hold the button with the left hand and overhand the loop to the cloth. pass the thread to the under side and fasten. b. _four-hole button_--in sewing on flat buttons insert the needle from the right side and back in order to hide the knot under the button. place the button in position and hold a pin across the button for the purpose of lengthening the stitches. put in five or six stitches diagonally across the button and over the pin. change the position of the pin and repeat. slip the pin out, pass the needle through the cloth only, and wind the thread around the threads between the button and the cloth. pass the needle through the cloth and fasten securely. c. _two-hole button_--place the button so that the stitches will come at right angles to the edge of the cloth, with the pin across the button. proceed as with the four-hole button. =sewing on hooks and eyes.=--in sewing hooks and eyes on a garment it is best, where practicable, to cover the ends with the lining of the garment or with a piece of tape. in sewing them on the edge of a hem or facing turn the edge of the hem back over the ends of the hooks and eyes and hem it down. where they are to be covered they should be strongly overhanded to the garment first. when covering is not feasible place the hook or eye in position and buttonhole around the top, beginning at the right-hand side and inserting the needle under and up through the hole, throwing the thread around the needle as in the buttonhole stitch. the hook should be sewed down at the point before breaking the thread. the worked loop is often used in place of the metal eye. for this purpose cut a stiff pointed piece of cardboard the length of the desired loop and work the loop over this, when the cardboard can be easily slipped out. the loop is worked from left to right with the blanket stitch the same as the bar of the buttonhole. =sewing on lace.=--when sewing lace to an edge always hold the lace next to you. lace may be put on straight or gathered. at the top of most laces will be found a coarse thread woven into the lace for the purpose of gathering. before drawing this up divide the lace and the edge upon which it is to be placed into halves, quarters or eighths, depending upon the length, and pin, with right sides together, at points of division. then draw up the thread, arrange the gathers even, and overhand to the edge with fine even stitches. if the gathering thread is not in the lace, put it in and proceed as above. if the lace is to be put on plain hold it loosely to the edge and overhand. a. sewing lace around a corner: when sewing the lace on plain to round a corner, overhand to a point as far from the corner as the width of the lace. (this point may be designated a, and a point an equal distance from the corner on the other side b.) from a measure on the lace twice its width and pin at the corner. allow the same fullness on the other side and pin at b. continue overhanding from b, leaving the corner until later, when the gathering thread will be put in, gathers arranged and the lace overhanded to the edge. if the lace is wide baste it in place at the corners before overhanding. when sewing gathered lace to an edge, to round a corner proceed as above with this exception: the same fullness must be allowed on the corner that is allowed on the straight edge, in addition to that required to carry the lace around the corner without drawing. for example: if one-half the length of the lace is allowed for fullness on the straight edge, at the corner allow two and one-half times the width of the lace instead of twice its width. b. sewing two ends of lace together: the manner of sewing two ends of lace together will depend upon the kind of lace to be joined, the pattern, strength, etc. the first aim to be considered is to have the joining strong enough so that it will not pull apart. the second is to join it so that it will show as little as possible. several methods are suggested: a. lace made up of units can be easily joined by overhanding these units together. b. if the pattern permits, cut the lace with the pattern, lay one edge over the other and buttonhole over each raw edge with fine thread. c. sew the lace right sides together, in a narrow seam. lay the seam flat and buttonhole over the raw edge and at the same time down to the lace. d. turn a narrow fold on one piece to the right side and on the other piece to the wrong side, slip one under the other and hem down the two edges as in the hemmed seam. =tucking.=--crease the first tuck where desired. for the second tuck measure from the first and allow twice the width of the tuck plus the desired space between. repeat for the successive tucks. putting a ruffle into a hem-tuck. this makes an excellent finish for the bottom of underskirts, petticoats and drawers. measure up from the bottom twice the width of the desired hem plus one-fourth of an inch for the seam and crease for a tuck. stitch the tuck. this will leave the raw edge extending one-fourth of an inch below the edge of the tuck. place the ruffle along this edge, wrong sides together, and baste in a quarter-inch seam. baste the tuck over the seam and stitch along the edge. chapter viii. textile fibers and fabrics. the fibers used in the manufacture of cloth are of two different natures, vegetable and animal. the vegetable fibers may be divided into three distinct classes: . the cotton, having soft, lint-like fibers, one-half to two inches in length, is obtained from the seed-pods, called "bolls." . the fibers from flax, hemp and jute are flexible and of soft texture, ten to one hundred inches in length. . the hard or leaf fibers, including manila, sisal, istle and the new zealand fibers, all having rather stiff woody fibers, one to ten feet long, are obtained from the leaf or the leaf stem. the animal fibers are obtained from the wool bearing animals such as common sheep, angora and cashmere goats and the hair of the camel. the silk fiber is obtained from the cocoon of a caterpillar. silk. silk is the most beautiful of all fabrics. it is made from the fiber produced by the silk-worm which is a species of caterpillar. so perfectly does this little worm do its work that no spinning is required. this fiber, placed under a microscope, looks like a glass thread. it is the light playing along this smooth surface that gives to silk its beautiful luster. silk first came to europe from china where the industry had been cultivated for many centuries. it is said this was begun by a woman, the wife of an emperor, in the year b. c., and the culture of the mulberry, upon the leaves of which the silk-worm feeds and thrives, forty years later. several unsuccessful attempts have been made to introduce the cultivation of the silk industry into the united states. as the business requires a large amount of cheap labor for a short time during the year, it has not as yet been found profitable. machines are of little use, except in reeling the silk. the moth lays its eggs, about five hundred in number, in august or september, and they hatch the following may, just at the time the mulberry comes into leaf. these little caterpillars are hatched and fed in-doors, and they eat like hungry school-boys for a month or more, until they are about three inches long. at this period they sicken and cast their skins, after which they begin eating as eagerly as ever. in about a month, however, the worms stop eating altogether, crawl up on the twigs which are placed on large trays, and begin to spin their cocoons. there are two little openings in the head of the worm, from which comes two thread-like substances resembling glue, from which the silk is made. these stick close together and form a flat thread. the silk-worm by moving its head about, wraps this thread around its body, wrapping from the outside inward, until it has completely inclosed itself in this silken blanket. then it goes to sleep. if left to itself it would in two or three weeks bore its way out of this silky covering and come forth a feeble white moth. but as the cutting of this hole in the cocoon injures the fibers, only just enough for the next year's crop are allowed to come out. the rest are stifled in a hot oven. after the outsides of the cocoons are removed they are placed in hot water which softens the gum that is in the silk so that it can be wound off on reels. the silk fiber is all in one piece, and about one thousand feet long. there is always a portion of the cocoon which is too tangled to be wound, and it is made into what is called spun silk. spun silk is carded like wool. the removal of the natural gum, by boiling in strong soap suds, effects a considerable loss in weight, the cleansing process, however, causing it to take on very beautiful tints. this loss has led to the weighting of silk by mixing cheaper materials with it. an artificial silk is made from the fiber of the ramie plant which grows in china and malay. this is sometimes known as china silk. mercerized cotton has also been treated so as to very successfully imitate silk. cotton. =the plant.=--cotton is one of the most important vegetable fibers, distinguished from all other fibers by the peculiar twist it possesses which makes it especially adapted to spinning. it is cultivated between the twentieth and thirty-fifth parallels north of the equator. this is known as the cotton belt. within this belt lie the cotton districts of the united states, northern mexico, egypt, northern africa, asia and india. although cotton is cultivated mainly for the fiber surrounding the seeds, its by-products, the seeds and stalks, are of great commercial importance, being manufactured into oil-meal, oil cakes, cottolene, etc. there are about fifty species of the cotton plant but only a few are cultivated, the best known and most commonly used being the "american upland," which is now cultivated in many parts of the world. the two varieties grown in the united states are the "sea island" and the "upland." the former is much more valuable because its fiber is longer. it is cultivated on the islands and low-lying coasts of south carolina, georgia and florida. the latter, while not so valuable, furnishes most of the crop and is grown over a wide area. the plant grows from seven to ten feet high. the leaves are sprinkled with small black dots. the hollyhock-like flowers are white and yellow when they first open, but two days later they turn a dull red. surrounding the flowers are three or four cup-shaped green leaves which together are called squares. these remain after the petals have dropped, to serve as a protection to the bolls. cotton thrives best in a rich, deep soil with a hot, steamy atmosphere. it should have plenty of moisture while growing and a dryer period during the ripening and gathering of the crop. the most of the cotton crop is planted by the twentieth of may. six weeks after it begins blossoming the first bolls are ready for picking. this is done by hand, and as the bolls do not all ripen at the same time, it is necessary to go over the field many times, and the picking often lasts until the middle of december. the cotton is gathered into baskets hung from the shoulders of the pickers. =the preparation of the fiber.=--after the cotton is picked it is taken to the gin which separates the fiber from the seed. until the cotton gin was invented in , by a connecticut teacher, then living in georgia, the cultivation of cotton was not profitable, as one person could only clear the seeds from five or six pounds a day. this machine has revolving teeth which drag the cotton between parallel wires, leaving the seeds behind. with this machine a slave could clean about a thousand pounds in a day. this gave a wonderful impetus to the cotton industry, and its cultivation increased enormously. after the seeds are removed the cotton is put up into bales weighing about five hundred pounds each, and is then ready for shipping. when these bales are received at the factory the cotton is so closely matted together that it must be broken up or loosened. this is done in the blending room where it is first run through heavily weighted and spiked rollers which pull the cotton apart. it is then blended or mixed to make it of uniform quality. after this it is taken to the carding room. here the fibers are drawn parallel to one another and bits of leaves and unripe fibers removed, when it is put through the drawing frame, consisting of a pair of rollers. these parallel, untwisted fibers are now called "slivers." from the drawing frame these "slivers" go to the slubbing machines where it is lightly twisted and wound on bobbins. this process is repeated on similar machines each one drawing the thread out and twisting it a little more, until it is finally ready for spinning. =spinning.=--two systems of spinning are in use at the present time, ring spinning and self-acting mule spinning. the former is done mostly by women and children, and produces a hard, round irregular yarn. the latter machines, operated only by men and very strong women, are complicated, but produce an exceedingly soft and fine yarn. the thread used for sewing and for the manufacture of lace is made by twisting several fine threads together. sewing thread is usually composed of from six to nine threads spun separately and then twisted into one. thread is sometimes passed very rapidly through a flame which burns off the fuzz making it very smooth. =weaving.=--three operations are necessary in the manufacture of cloth; first, the separation of the warp threads on the loom, so that the shuttle containing the woof can pass through. second, the movement of the shuttle, back and forth, among the warp threads. third, the beating up the woof. flax. the fibers of flax are spun and woven into a fabric called linen. this is one of the most ancient industries known to man. linen is often mentioned in the bible and the ancient egyptians wrapped their mummies in this fabric. it is said that the finest linen of the present day looks coarse beside that from the egyptian looms in the days of the pharaohs. the hebrew and egyptian priests wore garments made of this fine linen. =the plant.=--flax grows from two to three feet high, and has a blue flower. a field of flax in blossom is very beautiful. while it is grown extensively in many parts of europe, asia and america, the soil and climate of ireland, france and the netherlands are especially adapted to its growth, and it is in these countries that it reaches its greatest perfection. the fiber of the bark is the part of the plant used in the manufacture of cloth. linseed oil is expressed from the seed. =the preparation of the fiber.=--when the plant is ripe it is pulled up by the roots and beaten to loosen the seeds which are then shaken out. next the stems are steeped in soft water and afterward allowed to ferment. they are then dried and passed between fluted rollers which breaks the woody part of the stems which are again beaten to remove this woody part from the fiber. the fiber is then made into bundles and sent to the mill to be spun, where it is first roughly sorted, the longest and best portions being separated from the short raveled ones. these inferior portions are called "tow." the treatment of the flax fiber for spinning is similar to that of the cotton (page ), being drawn and twisted and drawn out again, repeating this process several times. =spinning.=--coarse and heavy yarns are spun dry, but fine yarn must be spun wet. some varieties of velvet and velveteen are made from linen. much of the so-called linen cloth of the present day is mixed with cotton or jute. the principles of weaving are the same as that of the cotton. see page . for many centuries the weaving of linen was conducted as a household industry. the first attempt to manufacture it on a large scale was in england in . it is now one of the national industries. linen is bleached after it is woven. in the olden times it was spread upon the grass, or lawn, and the action of the sun, air and moisture whitened it, and for this reason it was called "lawn," and it is still so designated. in the modern process of bleaching, the linen is first singed by being passed rapidly over hot cylinders which makes the cloth smooth. it is then boiled in lime water, washed and afterwards scoured in a solution of sulphuric acid, exposed to the air for a time and again scoured. lastly, it is boiled in soda-lye water and dried over hot tin rollers. the gloss on linen is made by first mangling, then starching, and finally running it between heavy rollers. linen is chiefly manufactured in france, belgium, germany, england and the united states. france is noted for the finest kinds of lawn and cambric, while ireland excels in the production of table linen. the largest portion of the sheeting and toweling is made in scotland. the linen manufactures of the united states consist principally of toweling and twine. wool. wool is the fleecy covering of sheep. it is distinguished by its waviness and the scaly covering of the fibers. the scales are more pointed and protrude more than those of hair. this gives it a tendency to mat or felt. the waviness of wool is due to the spiral structure of the fibers. next to cotton, wool is the most extensively used of all the textile fibers. the romans developed a breed of sheep having wool of exceeding fineness, and later introduced their sheep into spain. here they were still further improved, and it was not many years until spain led the world in the production of wool. the fine wooled merino sheep originated here. australia and the united states are also great wool-producing countries. =classification.=--there are three classes of wool, classified according to the length, fineness and felting qualities: . the carding or clothing wool. . the combing or worsted wool. . the blanket or carpet wool. wool on different parts of the same animal varies greatly, that on the shoulders being the finest and most even. all unwashed wool contains a fatty or greasy matter called yolk or suint. this keeps the fiber from matting together and also protects the fleece from injury. the yolk must be removed before the wool is manufactured into cloth. when the fleece is cut from the body of the sheep it sticks together so that it can be spread out like the hide of an animal, and each fleece is tied in a separate bundle. a few years ago sheep shearing was done by hand. this was a busy time, especially on large ranches where thousands of sheep were to be sheared and it required a large crew to do the work. it is now accomplished with much less time, labor and expense by machinery. alpaca and mohair are classed as wools, but the former is produced by the alpaca goat and the latter by the angora goat. cashmere wool comes from the cashmere goat, found in thibet, and is very costly, as only the finest parts of the fleece are used. in the far eastern countries beautiful, costly fabrics are made from the long hair of the camel. =preparation.=--when wool comes to the factory in the raw state it must be scoured. this is done by passing it through machines containing strong soap suds, and afterwards rinsing it. after the wool is dry it is mixed or blended. mixing is an operation of great importance and is done to make the wool of uniform quality. portions of wool from different lots, qualities and colors are placed in alternate layers and blended. if it is desired to mix other materials with the wool, such as silk, cotton or shoddy, it is added at this time. the wool is harsh to the touch after it has been scoured, owing to the removal of the yolk. to restore its natural softness it is slightly sprinkled with oil during the process of mixing. =carding and spinning.=--the process of carding produces a thread having fibers projecting loosely from the main thread in little ends which form the nap of the finished cloth. after it is carded it is wound on spools and is ready for the spinning. in spinning the threads are held together by their scales and the waviness of the fiber which prevents them from untwisting. another valuable feature of wool is its elasticity, which makes it soft to the touch and this is retained in the manufactured goods. =woolens.=--there are two classes of woolen textiles, woolens and worsteds, depending upon the character of the fiber used, and the treatment to which it is subjected. the shorter varieties of wool are used in woolens, while the long fibers are combed out and used for the worsteds. in making woolen yarns the wool is simply carded and very loosely spun, but in making worsted thread the wool is combed out and hard twisted. owing to the nap of the woolen goods the weaving is scarcely visible, but in the manufacture of worsteds the weave is evident and a great variety of designs is possible. a variety of effects can also be produced by the character of the finish. among the principal varieties are: . the dress face finish, such as broadcloth and beaver. . the velvet finish. . the scotch or melton finish. . the bare face finish, which has the nap completely sheared off. while the finish may differ, the general treatment of the cloth is practically the same. the first step is called pulling, when the cloth is soaked in hot water and pulled by a pulling machine. it is soaked, pulled and beaten until it is only half its original length and breadth. it is then rinsed and stretched on a frame where it will dry without a wrinkle. at this time the nap is raised by beating the cloth with the spike head of the teasel plant or its substitute. the pile or nap is then trimmed so as to present a uniform surface, when it is wound tightly around a huge drum and immersed in hot water. finally it is pressed in a hydraulic press, during which time steam is forced through it. this is to give solidity and smoothness to the cloth and also to add luster to the finished fabric. chapter ix. dress, and its relation to art. art education should bring to every girl a greater appreciation of beauty and a sufficient knowledge to enable her to beautify her home and to dress herself becomingly. this is the real "applied art" or "applied design" of which we have heard much but seen little. the power and skill necessary to originate an intricate and artistic design, and a technical knowledge of color-blending are worth something to the individual, but the ability to apply this knowledge later to the decoration of her home and to the selection of her own wardrobe is of vastly greater importance. an artist who paints the human figure, draws and erases and draws again, and yet again, that the contour of the form he creates may be right in proportion and graceful in line. he studies his coloring, he compares, rejects and blends for a particular shade or tint that makes for complete harmony. no discordant note of color nor turn of line that detracts from the beauty of the whole is allowed. and there are artistic makers-of-garments who put into the costumes they create the same thought and care that the artist spends upon his canvas, but the prices of both are within the reach of very few. nearly every woman must plan her own wardrobe and choose the furnishings for her home and this is what "art" and "domestic art" in the public schools should train the girl of to-day--the woman of the future--to do. art on paper is the preparation for a journey--packing the suitcase, as it were, necessary but toilsome; the application of art principles to the problems of real life, the delightful excursion, opening the eyes to real beauty and its possibilities. may the children in our schools have something more than the drudgery of preparation. clothing was first designed in the early ages, no doubt, as a covering and protection to the body; it has come, however, to mean something more than this. it is an expression of the character, the nicety of taste--or lack of it--the discrimination and judgment of the individual. in the selection of one's garments there are a number of points which must be taken into consideration, such as health and comfort, cost, fitness, color and style, as well as beauty. and above all, the average woman must pause and consider last season's garments, that are too good to be discarded and must form a part of this year's wardrobe. it is quite disastrous to plunge ahead and buy a blue dress, because blue happens to be stylish, if the hat to be worn with it is a green or brown "left over." while a due regard to the opinions of others demands a certain conformity to the customs of the time and place in which one lives, there is always a latitude allowed which enables one to exercise individual needs, taste and preference. health and comfort should take rank before everything else. a style which interferes with either is an absurdity which anyone of good sense will avoid. neatness should be considered above beauty or style. a soiled collar, hooks, eyes and buttons missing, gloves out at finger ends, shoes dusty and unpolished, braid hanging from the skirt, the waist and skirt separated are all accidents which may befall anyone, but are most deplorable when they become chronic. it has been wisely said that the best dressed woman is she of whose clothing one is unconscious, whose dress is neither conspicuous from extreme style nor too noticeable from a total disregard of the custom of the times. good taste demands that one be not overdressed. street and business suits and young girls' school dresses should be plain, well made and neat, of subdued and becoming color. "costly thy habit as thy purse can buy," wrote shakespeare, and the advice still holds good. economy does not consist, however, of buying cheap, shoddy material. trimming can be dispensed with to the improvement of the average garment, but a dress made of good cloth will out-wear, look better, give greater self-respect, and in the end cost less than several dresses made of cheap stuff, as the cost of making is no more for the one than the other. this is a principle that applies as well to underwear. simple garments, well made of firm fine cambric are much to be preferred to those overtrimmed with cheap lace and sleazy embroidery. some colors and styles are becoming to certain complexions and forms and are quite the reverse to others. a short stout person should avoid plaids, while one overly tall should never select stripes. the lines of the garment are equally important--any method of trimming that gives length, the long lines of the "princess" and the "empire" styles are a boon to the short figure, while the overskirt, the deep flounce, and the bands of trimming running around the skirt, all help to break the long lines for the tall woman. belts that by contrast divide the figure are not good unless one wishes to shorten the height. waists and skirts of the same color usually have more style and give better form. give careful heed to the selection of color, not only to the dress but to the accessories, hat, gloves, collar, belt and shoes, as well. in fact, consider the costume as a whole made up of parts, each one of which must harmonize with every other. before sewing machines were to be found in every home and ready made clothing in the stores styles did not change so rapidly. commercial conditions now make it to the advantage of a great army of people that the styles in dress change often and radically. the manufacturers of cloth, the wholesale merchants with their agents, the retailers and their numerous clerks, wholesale garment-makers and their many employes, pattern-makers, dress-makers, milliners and the manufacturers of all minor articles of clothing are all benefitted by this oft recurring change in style. this condition has come about so gradually that we hardly realize to what extent we are victims of trade-tricks. it is not necessary nor desirable that woman should enslave herself to follow all the vagaries of style. [illustration: child's picture book.] chapter x. paper, cloth and cardboard construction. a child's picture book. _materials:_ pink, blue or yellow paper cambric inches; coarse thread; coarse needle; bright, pretty pictures which the children have cut from papers, magazines, cards, etc.; paste. fold the cloth through the center with the warp and cut on the fold. fold both strips into three equal pieces with the woof, and cut. fold each piece through the center parallel to the selvedge. place two pieces together and pin at the fold, and "pink" through the four thicknesses, around the edges with a "pinking iron." do the same with the other pieces. when finished place them all together and stitch at the fold at follows: . mark three holes on the fold with the needle, one in the middle and one two inches above it, and another two inches below it. . tie a large knot two inches from the end of the thread. . insert the needle at the lowest hole, from the inside, and draw it through leaving two inches of the thread to tie. . pass over the middle hole and down through the upper one, out through the middle hole on one side of the long thread, and back through the same hole on the other side of the thread, and tie the two ends of the thread together. paste a pretty card or large picture on the outside for the cover. page the book with neat figures and write the name of the child for whom the book is designed on the inside of the cover. arrange and paste in the pictures neatly. a box with cover. _materials:_ cardboard for foundation " × "; cover " × "; colored paper for covering; strips of cloth or glue-tape for staying corners; glue. use tooth-picks in applying the glue. [illustration: no. and no. --one-piece boxes. no. .--two-piece box. box and cover alike.] [illustration: group of boxes.] find the center of the card by drawing both diagonals. measure two and one-half inches from the center toward the sides. draw straight lines passing through these points connecting opposite edges, thus forming a five-inch square in the center. cut out the corners on these lines. hold the edge of a ruler firmly to the lines of the square and bend the cardboard. fold the strip of cloth or tape through the center and put the glue on this, using very little, and taking care to keep it back from the edge. cover the corners with the cloth. cut a strip of the colored paper twenty-one inches by two and three-fourth inches. put a very little glue on the outside of the box and cover with the colored paper. turn over the edges and glue them down. follow the same directions for making the cover, measuring two and five-eighth inches from the center of the seven-inch square of cardboard. cover the sides and top with the colored paper, the strip for the sides being twenty-two inches by one and one-half inches, and the top a five-inch square. this box can be made in any size or shape, the same general plan being followed. a blank book with paper cover re-inforced with cloth. _materials:_ strong felt paper " × "; book cloth for back " × - / ", for corners pieces " × - / "; lining paper for covers, sheets - / " × - / "; number of sheets of paper desired for the book - / " × - / "; coarse thread; coarse needle; glue. use tooth-picks in applying the glue. draw a line on the felt paper through the middle the long way and fold on the line. measure on the outside one and one-fourth inches from the corners along both edges, and place points. connect these points with straight lines. place the long edge of the cloth corner to this line, and fold it over the corner and crease. remove and trim it even before gluing on. put the glue always on the cloth and use as little as possible. crease the strip of book-cloth for the back, through the center, but do not glue in place until after the leaves are sewed in. fold the sheets of paper through the center of the book. follow the same directions for sewing the leaves together as given in the description of "a child's picture book," page . finish by gluing the paper lining on the inside of the cover and the strip of book-cloth down the back. [illustration: a blank book.] this book could be made any size or shape, and decorated as desired. a folding envelope case for papers. _materials:_ strong felt paper, or its substitute; (a sheet " × " cut through the center the short way will make two cases. if two harmonious colors be selected, the corners cut from one case can be used to decorate another); book cloth in one-inch strips for binding; glue. use tooth-picks in applying the glue. [illustration: back and front views of a folding envelope case for papers.] on the wrong side, find the center of the paper twenty inches by fifteen inches by drawing both diagonals. measure four and one-fourth inches from the center toward the sides. draw straight lines passing through these points connecting opposite sides, thus forming an eight-and-a-half inch square in the center. cut out the four corners on these lines. fold in the four sides on the lines of the square. a strap, which will fasten the case by slipping through a slit cut in the opposite side, is to be made on one of the long flaps as follows: place a point at the middle on the edge of the flap, and measure an inch along the edge on both sides of this point. measure down two inches from these last points and place dots. connect these dots by straight lines with the top and sides. cut the corners out on these lines. trim the end of the strap to a point beginning one-half inch from the corners and cutting to the center point. it is necessary to trim the edges of the flaps that there may be no difficulty in folding one over another. measure one-half inch from the corners of the flaps and connect this point with the corner of the square, and cut on these lines. fold the half-inch strip of book-cloth through the center; place the glue on the cloth and glue it for a binding around the raw edges of the case. finish the corners of the binding with the square or mitered corner. fold the fastening strap over the opposite side, and place a point at the corners to locate the place where the slit is to be cut. connect these two points by a straight line and draw another parallel to, and three-fourths of an inch from it. cut on these lines with a knife. this slit must be strengthened by the book-cloth. cut a piece two and three-fourths inches by one and one-fourth inches and glue over the strip on the wrong side; clip the edges at the ends of the slit, and bring through to the right side, and glue them down. the piece for the covering of the right side may be cut the exact width of the slit, and the ends cut in some fancy shape. this may be cut from the cloth, or the paper used in the design. the front of the case can be decorated as desired. very beautiful effects can be obtained by cutting out the design from paper that harmonizes in color and gluing it on. this makes a very useful case for holding school papers, and if neatly and carefully done, is an excellent exercise. clipping case. _materials:_ envelopes, - / " × - / "; strips of book-cloth - / " × "; strip of book-cloth " × - / "; pieces of book-cloth " × - / "; heavy felt paper " x "; sheets lining paper - / " x - / "; glue. put the glue on the _cloth_ each time with tooth-picks. [illustration: clipping case.] follow the directions for making the cover of the "blank book with paper cover re-inforced with cloth," page . the envelopes take the place of the sheets of paper and are fastened in place as follows: . on the back and front of the envelopes draw a line parallel to and one-half inch from the bottom. . fold a strip of book-cloth one inch by nine and one-half inches through the center the long way. . glue one-half of this folded strip to the half-inch below the line on the back of one envelope and the other half to the half-inch below the line on the front of another envelope. continue thus until the four envelopes are fastened together. . glue half of a strip of the cloth to the front of the first envelope and the other half to the front of the cover to hold in the desired position. do the same at the back. . glue in the lining papers on the covers. the outside may be decorated as desired. a postal card album. _materials:_ paper for leaves of book; pulp board in three pieces, " × ", " × - / ", " × "; book-cloth in two pieces " × "; lining paper in two pieces - / " × - / "; glue; eyelet punch and eyelets. [illustration: two views of a post card album--closed and open.] to be of value the work in this exercise must be exact, with measurements perfectly accurate. the glue is to be used sparingly and spread upon the cloth and not on the pulp board. draw on the book-cloth an oblong five by eight inches, which will leave a margin of one-half inch. put the glue on the cloth and place the pulp board five by eight inches over the oblong. turn over the edges and finish. glue the lining paper in place. place under weight as soon as finished. the front cover is made the same with the exception of a joint in the pulp board. draw on the second piece of book-cloth an oblong five by eight inches. draw a line one inch from and parallel to one end of the oblong. draw a second line one-fourth of an inch from this. spread the glue on the cloth and place the two pieces of pulp board on the oblong with a quarter-inch space between them, and proceed as before. both covers can be made with the joint if desired. punch with the eyelet tool two holes in each cover three inches apart and one-half inch from the edge, and put in the eyelets. _take care that these holes are directly opposite._ cut the paper for the book into sheets four and one-half by seven and three-fourths inches (or four and one-half by fifteen and one-half inches), and fold. punch the eyelets _exactly even_ with those in the cover. place a postal-card three and one-half by five and one-half inches on the sheets with a half-inch margin at top, bottom and end, and make two points on each of the four sides, one one-half inch from the corner, and the other one inch. connect corresponding points by slant lines and cut with a knife on these lines. the outside cover can be decorated in any way desired. this style of cover can be used for a book of any size or shape. picture framing. select a mount of the proper color for the picture to be used, and passepartout paper to harmonize. cut to the desired size and shape. cut a piece of cardboard to the same size. have a glass cut to the size of the mount, also a mat for the picture, if desired. place the picture in position on the mount, and draw guide lines to aid in pasting the picture in place. put the two rings used for the purpose of hanging the picture, into the cardboard back before putting the parts together. the rings should be placed exactly even, measuring down from the top about one-third of the width of the picture, and in at the sides one inch. clean the glass carefully, and place it over the picture. between the cardboard back and the picture place two or three layers of newspaper. be sure that the back is placed with the rings toward the top. tie all together very tightly with a strong cord, passing the cord only around one way of the picture. cut the passepartout paper the length of the picture and crease it over the edges. moisten the paper and stick it first to the glass and then draw it firmly over the edge and down on the cardboard back. it is necessary _to work rapidly after the paper is moistened_. finish the other edge in the same manner. before removing the cord, tie another around the other way. finish the two ends in the same manner as the sides, with the exception of the corners. cut the passe-partout paper an inch longer than the side to be covered, and do not fasten down quite to the corner. trim for a mitered corner on the glass side and cut a narrow strip the thickness of the glass, and stick it down along the other edge. tie a cord into the rings for hanging. [illustration] a four sided, collapsible candle or lamp shade. _materials:_ cardboard; book-cloth or japanese tissue paper; passe-partout paper. cut a pattern of one section of the shade in the form of a trapezoid having the longer parallel five and seven-eighth inches, the shorter parallel one and three-eighth inches and the altitude four and one-half inches. candle shadeholders are uniform in size being six and one-half inches in circumference. to fit this circular holder, the shade may be rounded out at the top, although it can be used with the straight edge. cut a strip of cardboard five inches wide, and from this cut the four sides of the shade. the decoration of the shade may be varied greatly. the design may be drawn upon the back of the cardboard and cut out the same as a stencil, care being taken that the proper bridges are in place. the book-cloth is then pasted on the back. if the cardboard is intended as a framework only, construct a second trapezoid one-half inch inside the other, and cut on the lines. the possibilities for decoration are limitless. a design may be stenciled, embroidered, or worked with any of the fancy stitches upon any thin material through which the light will shine, and then pasted over the back of the frame-work. fancy silks are also very effective. when the sections are finished, fasten them together with the passe-partout paper. lay them all face downward with the sides to be joined placed as closely together as possible, and stick the moistened paper over adjoining edges. book-cloth or any firm material can be used instead of the passe-partout paper. [illustration] chapter xi. home furnishing, decoration and care. bright, clean, tasteful and well regulated homes will add more to the sum of human happiness than anything else in life. a happy home does not always mean a costly one. the simple, tidy home of the day laborer may have the home-atmosphere that the mansion may lack. a home can be tastefully, even if cheaply, furnished. a thoughtful teacher can impart to her class a love of home and a respect and honor for the labor that keeps that home clean, attractive and wholesome, and instill womanly traits that may add greatly to the happiness of the individuals and the betterment of all with whom they come in contact. a familiarity with the conditions of an ideal home and the aroused interest of the girls who will be the home-makers in a few years will have an influence and value that is limitless. the parents, also, may receive suggestions through their children that will react on the present home conditions. every teacher will invent her own method of reaching her particular class, depending upon their needs and environment, using all necessary tact. an outline is given below which will suggest a few topics and one method of conducting the lessons. there are many kindred subjects, such as good ventilation, plenty of sunlight, good house-keeping, etc., that can be brought into the discussions, but the enthusiasm which is aroused is really the vital point of the lesson. an imaginary home. when furnishing a home take into consideration sanitary conditions, use, convenience, economy and artistic effects. . ask pupils to make clippings of house plans from papers, magazines, etc. study and compare them. . decide upon a plan for a simple house, and have some member of the class draw the floor plans upon the blackboard where it can remain for a time. . several points must be considered in conjunction, that there may may be harmony throughout the house as the rooms open into each other. a. the color scheme and design for each room. some samples of cloth or paper to show the exact colors and combinations of colors decided upon. b. decoration of the walls. c. the floor finish or covering. d. color of shades and curtains that the outside may present a favorable appearance. . divide the class into sections and assign a room to each section to suggest detail in style of furnishing and decorating. a. living room. b. dining room. c. kitchen. d. pantry. e. hall. f. sleeping rooms. g. bath. h. laundry. . avoid over-crowding the rooms with furniture and cluttering with too many pictures and useless and inartistic bric-a-brac, and dust-collectors. . the care of the home: this topic will enable the teacher to give many helpful suggestions. assign sub-divisions of the subject to different members of the class: a. sweeping. b. dusting. c. care of bare floors. d. window washing. e. dish washing. f. care of cupboards. g. care of book-shelves, daily papers, magazines, etc. h. care of sleeping rooms, beds, etc. i. care of bath rooms. chapter xii. basketry. basketry is one of the oldest handicrafts known to man, but it reached its greatest excellence with the tribes of american indians who wove baskets from the grasses, reeds and rushes which they gathered as they wandered from place to place in their nomadic life. these materials were colored with dyes made by cooking the bark of certain trees and the roots and bulbs of plants, a knowledge of which was handed down from mother to daughter. the designs were not meaningless, but represented by symbols their prayers to the deity for rain, success to a war party, or a petition for favorable crops. or it might be they chronicled the victory over a hostile tribe, a maiden's love for a stalwart brave, or a thousand other events of their lives in conventionalized symbolic form. the shape, size and use varied as much as the design. the material used by the indians is not available for us but imported raffia, rattan and rushes form excellent substitutes. raffia, a product of the island of madagascar, is a soft, pliable, yellowish fiber growing next to the bark of a species of palm tree. rattan is the product of a kind of palm which grows in india. it is stripped of leaves and split into round or flat strips of different sizes. a more instructive occupation cannot be found for children than basketry and its allied subjects. it not only is fascinating in itself, but develops patience, judgment, dexterity and skill, and embodies the satisfaction of making a beautiful and useful article. it is not only an educative occupation for school, but for the home as well. baskets are known as the woven baskets made of the round or flat rattan and the sewed baskets made from the raffia and reeds. general directions for making the coil basket. =preparation of materials.=--round reeds are sold in sizes from the very fine number to the coarse number . hemp cord of different sizes may be substituted for the reeds of a flexible basket if desired. [illustration: beginning a basket in any weave. --the reed sharpened to a flat point. --the end of the sharpened reed wound with raffia. --the end of the reed curled into a small "button." --splicing reeds by cutting both to a flat point.] beginning about two inches from one end of the reed, sharpen to a flat point. coil the other end, leaving ten or fifteen inches uncoiled, and tie with raffia two or three times. soak the reeds in water until very pliable, then remove and wipe dry before using. the raffia may be used wet or dry as one prefers. it may be used in coarse strands for the large baskets or split to any size desired for the finer stitches, but should be kept uniform. the basket sewing requires either the sharp or blunt tapestry needle, varying in size between number and number . thread the end of the raffia that has been cut from the tree into the needle, thus working with the fiber, as it is less liable to split. much of the beauty of the basket will depend upon the smoothness and neatness of the work. =beginning the basket.=--baskets may be classified as round or oval. a. the round basket. draw the sharpened end of the pliable reed between the thumb and finger into the smallest possible coil. lay the end of the raffia to the point and along the sharpened end of the reed and hold it in place with the left hand. by a sharp turn in the thread begin winding over the reed and raffia to the point. then shape into the coil by sewing through the center, thus forming the "button" as in the illustration. [illustration: baskets begun in three different weaves. --round basket in the navajo weave. --oval basket in the lazy squaw weave. --round basket in the mariposa weave] b. the oval basket: [illustration: group of baskets showing variety in size, shape and design.] the end of the reed is not sharpened, and must be very soft and pliable, or it cannot be bent together at the desired length, two, three, four, five or more inches from the end, without breaking. it will do no special harm if it splits, however, as it is to be covered with the raffia. lay the end of the raffia to the end of the reed, along the reed and around the bend, and by a sharp turn in the thread wind four or five times over the raffia, covering the bend in the reed. the two reeds may then be caught together by the stitch selected for the basket, or the "navajo" or "figure eight stitch" may be used and the other stitch introduced on the second round. =splicing the reed.=--as the reed naturally coils somewhat take care to splice it so that the coil in the two pieces remains the same, otherwise it would draw apart. sharpen the top side of one reed and the underside of the other to a long flat point and slip one past the other until the two together form the uniform size of the reed. it is sometimes advisable for a novice to wind the spliced reeds with fine thread, but experience will teach one to do the splicing with the sewing of the basket. =splicing the thread.=--when a new thread is needed lay the end of the old thread along the reed and place the new thread over it, and by a sharp turn in the thread, wind once or twice over both, and continue the stitch as before. when the ends are firmly fastened clip them off. =shaping the basket.=--coiled basketry admits of the greatest variety in shape and size, from the simple table mat to the exquisitely beautiful jar and vase forms, while the stitches lend themselves to an endless variety of design ranging from the simplest to the most intricate patterns. it is well to have in mind the shape and design before beginning the basket, as haphazard work is not apt to be satisfactory. baskets can be easily shaped to any desired form, as this depends entirely upon the position of each succeeding reed upon the one below it. =introduction of color.=--all reeds in the coiled basket are wound twice with the raffia. it is important to keep this in mind when putting in designs. the colored raffia is introduced in the same manner that the thread is spliced, by laying it along the reed and sewing over it. when working out designs in color do not cut the thread when changing from one to another, but lay the thread not in use along the reed and sew over it, bringing it out when ready to use it again. as an aid in dividing the space for a design a piece of paper may be cut and folded into the desired number of sections, and these marked on the basket. these spaces are then filled in without regard to the exact number of stitches required to cover the reeds. beginners should make a study of indian baskets and their designs. =finishing the basket.=--cut the end of the reed to a flat point two inches in length, and gradually taper the stitching off so that it shows where it ends as little as possible. the last two rows of the basket might be stitched with colored raffia unless it detracts from the design. [illustration: basket showing the navajo weave.] description of basket stitches. the stitching proceeds along a continuous coil, so that each stitch is passed beneath the stitches of the coil beneath. for convenience in analyzing these stitches the two reeds may be designated as the loose reed and the fastened reed. =the navajo stitch (figure eight).=--hold the commenced coil in the left hand which will cause the work to proceed from the right toward the left. (a) pass the thread between the two reeds _toward_ you, (b) over the loose reed _from_ you, (c) between the two reeds _toward_ you, (d) down between the stitches of the fastened reed _from_ you, and beginning again at (a) pass the thread between the two reeds toward you completing the figure eight. draw the two reeds firmly together. [illustration: basket showing the lazy squaw weave.] this is the stitch used by the indians in making the baskets which they ornamented with feathers, wampum, shells and beads. =the lazy squaw stitch=.--this stitch is made up of two parts, a long and a short stitch. hold the commenced coil in the left hand and work from right to left. (a) wrap the thread toward you _over_ and _around_ the loose reed once, (b) then _over_ the loose reed again, (c) and down _from_ you between the stitches of the fastened reed and back to (a). this completes the long-and-short stitch. the story of the origin of the name "lazy-squaw" stitch is interesting. if the squaw was inclined to slight her work she would wrap the loose reed several times before taking the long and more difficult stitch which bound the two reeds together. she would then receive from her companions the ignominious title of "lazy-squaw." as a modification of this stitch the wrapping of the loose reed is omitted, and the long stitch only is used. this passes each time between the stitches of the coil beneath. [illustration: basket showing the mariposa weave.] =the mariposa stitch (knotted).=--in analyzing this stitch we find that it is made up of three parts. it is the same as the lazy squaw stitch with the addition of the knotted effect obtained by passing the thread around the long stitch. hold the commenced coil in the left hand and work from right to left, (a) wrap the thread toward you over and around the loose reed once, (b) then over the loose reed again, (c) and down _from_ you between the stitches of the fastened reed, thus binding the two reeds together, (d) bring the needle up _between_ the two reeds at the left side of the long stitch, (e) cross over this stitch, going down between the two reeds at the right of the long stitch. bring the thread over the loose reed and begin wrapping again as at (a). =the samoan stitch (lace effect).=--baskets that are to be lined are very pretty made of this stitch. it is also very effective combined with other stitches, or as the finishing coil of a basket. the samoan stitch is a modification of the mariposa stitch, the only difference being in the space between the reeds and the passing of the thread around the long stitch two, three or more times, which gives the lace effect. the reeds _must_ be held firmly, however, and the thread passed around the long stitch times enough to make the basket firm. books on the manual arts =clay work.= by katherine morris lester. this book has been written by a grade teacher and art worker to help teachers in acquiring the technique of clay working, and to give them suggestions concerning the teaching of the several types of clay work suited to pupils in the elementary schools. it covers the study of natural forms, the human figure in relief and the round, animal forms, story illustration, architectural ornament, tiles, hand-built pottery and pottery decoration. the book is richly illustrated with more than fifty half-tone and line cuts showing processes, designs, and the work of children from ten to twelve years of age. price, $ . . =classroom practice in design.= by james parton haney. a concise up-to-date, richly illustrated brochure on the teaching of applied design. price, cents. =the wash method of handling water colour.= by frank forrest frederick. a brief, clear, comprehensive text printed in sepia and illustrated with wash drawings and a water-color painting by the author. price, cents. =simplified mechanical perspective.= by frank forrest frederick. a book of simple problems covering the essentials of mechanical perspective. it is planned for pupils of high school age who have already received some elementary training in mechanical drawing. it is simple, direct and practical. price, cents. =the construction and flying of kites.= by charles m. miller. this contains seven full-page plates of drawings of kites and fifteen figures--over forty kites shown. details of construction given; a kite tournament is described. full of interesting suggestions. price, cents. =coping saw work.= by ben w. johnson. contains working drawings and suggestions for teaching a course of work in thin wood that is full of fun for the children, and affords ample means for training in form study, construction, invention and careful work. has been called "applied mechanics for the fourth grade." price, cents. =selected shop problems.= by george a. seaton. a collection of sixteen problems in woodworking made to meet the needs of busy teachers of manual training. each problem has been put to the test and has proven satisfactory to the teacher who designed it and the pupil who made it. price, cents. =beginning woodwork.= at home and in school. by clinton s. van deusen; illustrated by edwin v. lawrence. a full and clear description in detail of the fundamental processes of elementary benchwork in wood. this description is given through directions for making a few simple, useful articles suitable either for school or home problems. price, $ . . =handwork in wood.= by william noyes. a notable book on woodworking. it is the result of extensive research and long experience in teaching and in training teachers. it is a comprehensive and scholarly treatment of the subject and is the one book of reference which teachers of woodworking feel that they must always have at hand. price, $ . . =essentials of woodworking.= by ira s. griffith, illustrated by edwin v. lawrence. a text book on woodworking tools, materials and processes to supplement the instruction given by the teacher. very fully illustrated. price, $ . . =woodwork for schools on scientific lines.= by james thomas baily and s. pollitt. this is the american edition of an english book containing practical problems, many of which have been designed to correlate mathematics and physical science with manual training. price, cents. =problems in woodworking.= by m. w. murray. a convenient collection of good problems ready to place in the hands of the pupil. price, cents. =problems in furniture making.= by fred d. crawshaw. thirty-two plates of working drawings of simple, artistic furniture, with notes on construction, finish and design. price, $ . . =problems in mechanical drawing.= by charles a. bennett, with drawings made by fred d. crawshaw. the purpose of this book is to furnish teachers of classes beginning mechanical drawing with a large number of simple, practical problems in convenient form for immediate use. price, $ . . =problems in wood-turning.= by fred d. crawshaw. a collection of problems presented in the form of plates excellent in draftsmanship. contains a brief, clear text on the science and art of wood-turning; also a chapter on "form and proportion," which shows how accepted principles of art may be applied in designing objects to be turned in wood. price, cents. =manual training magazine.= edited by charles a. bennett. published bi-monthly. price, $ . a year. * * * * * in addition to the above, we keep in stock the best books on the manual arts issued by other publishers. the manual arts press :: peoria, ill. * * * * * transcriber's notes: obvious punctuation errors repaired. unless an obvious majority appeared, varied hyphenation was retained. page , "stich" changed to "stitch" (with the running stitch) page , "carboard" changed to "cardboard" (cardboard " × ") page , the anchor for footnote was missing from the page. it was added. (christmas piece [ ][ ]) pages and , there once reference but two different notes for the basketry substitute project. to make this easier, the second reference was changed to which necessitated changing the third reference to . page , "kaiki" is a little used but actual variant of "khaki" and was retained. page , anchor missing for footnote . added. (christmas piece.[ ][ ] pages and , same issue as above with double note references. edited as above. page , "button holes" changed to "buttonholes" to match rest of usage (quarter-inch buttonholes and sew) page , "sitch" changed to "stitch" (next to the last stitch) page , "no" changed to "do" (do not confuse this) page , "lop" changed to "loop" (side is the loop) page , "guaging" changed to "gauging" (description of gauging) page , "of" changed to "or" (ten or fifteen cents) page , "especialy" changed to "especially" (makes it especially) page , "weeeks" changed to "weeks" (six weeks after it) page , "pharoahs" changed to "pharaohs" (days of the pharaohs) page , "in" changed to "is" (blossom is very) page , "detacts" changed to "detracts" (line that detracts) page , "indiviual" changed to "individual" (judgment of the individual) page , double word "the" removed. original read (end of the the pliable) page , "baseket" changed to "basket" (in the coiled basket are) proofreading team. what dress makes of us by dorothy quigley illustrations by annie blakeslee i am indebted to the editors of the new york _sun_ and new york _journal_ for kindly allowing me to include in this book articles which i contributed to their respective papers. preface. did you ever observe, dear comrade, what an element of caricature lurks in clothes? a short, round coat on a stout man seems to exaggerate his proportions to such a ridiculous degree that the profile of his manly form suggests "the robust bulge of an old jug." a bonnet decorated with loops of ribbon and sprays of grass, or flowers that fall aslant, may give a laughably tipsy air to the long face of a saintly matron of pious and conservative habits. a peaked hat and tight-fitting, long-skirted coat may so magnify the meagre physical endowments of a tall, slender girl that she attains the lank and longish look of a bottle of hock. oh! the mocking diablery in strings, wisps of untidy hair, queer trimmings, and limp hats. alas! that they should have such impish power to detract from the dignity of woman and render man absurd. because of his comical attire, an eminent oxford divine, whose life and works commanded reverence, was once mistaken for an ancient new england spinster in emancipated garments. his smoothly shaven face, framed in crinkly, gray locks, was surmounted by a soft, little, round hat, from the up-turned brim of which dangled a broken string. his long frock-coat reached to just above his loosely fitting gaiters. the fluttering string, whose only reason for being at all was to keep the queer head-gear from sailing away on the wind, gave a touch of the ludicrous to the boyish hat which, in its turn, lent more drollery than dignity to the sanctified face of the old theologian. who has not seen just such, or a similar sight, and laughed? who has not, with the generosity common to us all, concluded these were the mistakes and self-delusions of neighbors, relatives, and friends, in which we had no share? i understand how it is with you. i am one of you. before i studied our common errors i smiled at my neighbor's lack of taste, reconstructed my friends, and cast contemptuous criticism upon my enemies. one day i took a look at myself, and realized that "i, too, am laughable on unsuspected occasions." the humbling knowledge of seeing myself objectively, gave me courage to speak to the heart of you certain home truths which concern us all, in homely language which we can all understand. that you may discern the comicality and waggery in ill-chosen clothes, i have endeavored to hint to you in these talks some of the ways gew-gaws and garments make game of us. may you discover that your dress is not making you a laughable object; but if, by any chance, you should note that your clothes are caricaturing you, take heart. enjoy the joke with the mirth that heals and heartens, and speedily correct your mistakes. the lines of your form, the modelling of your face, are they not worthy of your discerning thought? truly! whatever detracts from them detracts from sculpture, painting, and poetry, and the world is the loser. a word to the thinking is sufficient. d.q. contents. preface chapter i. how women of certain types should dress their hair style for wedge-shaped faces style for heavy jaws style for eyes set too high style for eyes set too low style for long faces with long noses for faces with protruding noses chapter ii. hints for the selection of becoming and appropriate styles in head-gear the magic of the bonnet style for women with broad face and heavy chin style for women with tapering chin hat for the chubby woman for women who have sharp and prominent profiles for the woman with an angular face women who should not wear horns chapter iii. lines that should be recognized and considered in making costumes style for tall slender women the coat the short stout women should wear the cloak or cape for a tall women chapter iv. how plump and thin backs should be clothed chapter v. corsages appropriate for women with unbeautifully modelled throats and shoulders chapter vi. hints on dress for elderly women chapter vii. how men caricature themselves with their clothes what dress makes of us. * * * * * chapter i. how women of certain types should dress their hair. the pleasing, but somewhat audacious statement of the clever writer who asserted, "in the merciful scheme of nature, there are no plain women," is not as disputable as it may seem. honest husbands, to be sure, greet the information with dissenting guffaws; gay deceivers reflect upon its truth by gallantly assenting to it, with a mocking little twinkle in their eyes; and pretty women, upon hearing it, remark sententiously "blind men and fools may think so." discerning students of womankind, however, know that if every woman would make the best of her possibilities, physically, mentally, and spiritually, it would be delightfully probable that "in the merciful scheme of nature" there need be no plain women. have we not lord chesterfield's word for it, that "no woman is ugly when she is dressed"? it is no unworthy study to learn to make the best of, and to do justice to, one's self. apropos of this, to begin--where all fascinating subjects should begin--at the head, it behooves every woman who wishes to appear at her best, to study the modelling of her face that she may understand both its defective and perfect lines. by a proper arrangement of her hair a woman can do much to obscure or soften her bad features, and heighten the charm of her good ones. romancers have written, and poets have sung, of the bewitchment in nut-brown locks, golden tresses, and jetty curls. every woman, if so inclined, may prove for herself the transfiguring effect in a becoming coiffure. in fact, the beauty of a woman's face and her apparent age are greatly affected by the way she wears her hair. a most important detail that too few consider, is, the proper direction in which to comb the hair. women literally toss their tresses together without any attention to the natural inclination of the individual strands or fibres. they comb their hair "against the grain." those who do so never have beautifully and smoothly arranged coiffures. each little hirsute filament has a rebellious tendency to go in the direction nature intended it should, and refuses to "stay where it is put," giving the head in consequence, an unkempt and what is termed an "unladylike" appearance. the criss-cross effect resulting from combing and arranging the hair contrary to "the grain" is conspicuously apparent in the coiffure of no less a personage than eleanora duse, who, as may be seen from the picture, pays little attention to the natural tendency of the dark tresses that cover her shapely head. the bang has the dishevelled appearance of a pile of jack-straws. the side-locks instead of being combed or brushed to follow the contour of the head, fall loosely and fly in opposite directions. [illustration: no. ] the difference in appearance between the women of the smart sets in america and those of less fashionable circles is due, in a great measure, to the beautifully dressed coiffures of the former. a hair-dresser arranges, at least once a week, the hair of the modish woman if her maid does not understand the art of hair-dressing. many women of the wealthy world have their maids taught by a french coiffeur. a wise woman will adopt a prevailing mode with discretion, for, what may be essentially appropriate for one, may be fatally inappropriate for another. in adjusting her "crown of glory" a woman must consider the proportions of her face. she should be able to discern whether her eyes are too near the top of her head or, too far below; whether she has a square or wedge-shaped chin; a lean, long face, or a round and bountifully curved one. she should be alert to her defects and study never to emphasize nor exaggerate them. why, through stupidity or carelessness, make a cartoon of yourself, when with a proper appreciation of your possibilities you can be a pleasing picture? it is just as glorious to be a fine picture or a poem as it is to paint the one, or write the other. indeed, a woman who harmoniously develops the best within her has the charm of an exquisite poem and inspires poets to sing; and if by the grace and beauty of her dress she enhances her natural endowments and makes herself a pleasing picture, the world becomes her debtor. in the important matter of becomingly arranging the hair, the following sketches and suggestions may hint to bright, thinking, women what styles to choose or avoid. for wedge-shaped faces. [illustration: no. ] [illustration: no. ] the least-discerning eye can see that the wedge-shaped face no. is caricatured, and its triangular proportions made more evident, by allowing the hair to extend in curls or a fluffy bang on either side of the head. women with delicately modelled faces with peaked chins should avoid these broad effects above their brows. it is obvious in the sketch no. , that the wedge-shaped face is perceptibly improved by wearing the hair in soft waves, or curls closely confined to the head and by arranging a coil or high puff just above and in front of the crown. this arrangement gives a desirable oval effect to the face, the sharp prominence of the chin being counteracted by the surmounting puffs. for heavy jaws. it may readily be seen that a woman with the square, heavy-jawed face pictured by no. , should not adopt a straight, or nearly straight, bang, nor wear her hair low on her forehead, nor adjust the greater portion of her hair so that the coil cannot be seen above the crown of her head. the low bang brings into striking relief all the hard lines of her face and gives the impression that she has pugilistic tendencies. [illustration: no. ] to insure artistic balance to her countenance, and bring out the womanly strength and vital power of her face, her hair should be arranged in coils, puffs, or braids that will give breadth to the top of her head as shown by no. . a fluffy, softly curled bang adds grace to the forehead and gives it the necessary broadness it needs to lessen and lighten the heaviness of the lower part of the face. a bow of ribbon, or an aigrette of feathers, will add effectively the crown of braids or puffs which a wise woman with a square jaw will surmount her brow if she wishes to subdue the too aggressive, fighting qualities of her strong chin. [illustration: no. ] for short faces. the sisterhood who have short, chubby faces should, in a measure, observe certain rules that apply in a small degree to those who have heavy chins. as may be observed even with a casual glance, the little short-faced woman depicted by no. , causes her round facial disk to appear much shorter than it really is by allowing her hair to come so far down on her forehead. she further detracts from her facial charms by wearing "water-waves." water-waves are scarcely to be commended for any type of face, and they are especially unbecoming to the woman who is conspicuously "roly-poly." the round eyes, knobby nose, and round mouth are brought into unattractive distinctness by being re-duplicated in the circular effects of the hair. this mode of dressing the hair makes a short face look common and insignificant. [illustration: no. ] do you not see that this type is immensely improved by the arrangement of the coiffure in no. ? by combing her hair off her forehead her face acquires a look of alertness and intelligence, besides being apparently lengthened. she can wear her bang in soft crimps brushed back from her brow, if this plain arrangement is too severe. [illustration: no. ] for eyes set too high. a low forehead is supposed to be a sign of beauty in woman. the brows of the famous venuses are low and broad. perhaps for this reason many women wear their hair arranged low upon their foreheads. whether the hair should be worn low on the brow depends chiefly on two things,--"the setting of the eyes, and the quality of the face." [illustration: no. - / ] a good rule to observe is the artistic one, to the effect that "the eyes of a woman should be in the middle of her head." that is, if an imaginary line were drawn across the top of the head and another below the chin, exactly midway between the two the eyes should be set. the japanese type of woman should carefully observe the foregoing hint. observe no. - / . nature has not been artistic. the eyes are too near the top of the head. the defect is exaggerated and emphasized by the wearing of the hair low on the forehead. in some faces of this type the face is brutalized in appearance by this arrangement. the expression and whole quality of the countenance can be greatly improved by arranging the hair as shown by no. , which is the soft pompadour style. the duchess of marlborough, formerly consuelo vanderbilt, frames her naïve, winsome face, which is of the japanese type, in a style somewhat like this. her dark hair forms an aureole above her brow, and brings into relief the dainty, oval form of her face. even simply brushing the hair off the forehead without crimp or roll will improve the appearance of this type of face and give it a better artistic balance. [illustration: no. ] [illustration: no. ] for eyes set too low. women whose eyes are set too far down in their faces should adopt a mode of arranging their hair exactly the opposite of those whose eyes are set too near the top of their heads. it is apparent that no. exaggerates the distance of her eyes from the crown of her head, and makes them appear to be set lower than they really are by building her hair high, and by brushing her bang back so severely from her brow. a bald forehead is rarely becoming to any woman. a few stray curls or soft waves lend grace to even the most perfect of brows. [illustration: no. ] by bringing the hair down over the forehead, as suggested in no. , a woman with this type of face can easily improve her appearance. by this graceful arrangement her face loses the childish and sometimes stupid expression that is peculiar to the type, as may be discerned in no. . when the hair is properly arranged this element of childlikeness lends a certain appealing sweetness not unattractive even in the faces of matured matrons. by dressing the hair low so the coil does not appear above the crown, as in no. , the eyes are apparently properly placed. for long faces with long noses. the woman who wears her silken tresses arranged on either side of her head, draped like curtains from a central parting, is to be envied if she can do it and yet look young and pretty. she is the madonna type and seems to possess all the attributes of gentleness, modesty, and meekness, and angelic sweetness that are supposed to characterize the distinctively feminine woman. this is the ideal style of coiffure much bepraised by man, because, according to a bright modern amazon, "it makes a woman look so meek." [illustration: no. ] the only type to which it is really becoming is the italian. the type with _matte_ complexion, soft eyes, finely chiselled nose, and delicately oval chin, look ideally sweet and feminine with the hair arranged _à la_ madonna. [illustration: no. ] long faces of the form pictured by no. exaggerate the longness and leanness of their faces by wearing their locks like looped curtains. a long nose with two long lines on either side of the cheek seems longer than it is, as the observer may discern three lines instead of only the nasal one, and the impression of longness is emphasized. not only is the length of the countenance made more noticeable, but years and years are apparently added to the actual age. that no. , which shows a parting and soft waves that do not come below the ears, is to be preferred by a woman whose features are of this character need hardly be explained. the improvement in looks is quite obvious. [illustration: nos. and ] no. is an example of a misguided woman of the pudgy type who, for some inexplicable reason, arranges her hair in the madonna style. it is utterly unsuited to her face. unless her ears are deformed this style of hirsute lambrequins should not be worn by a full, round-faced woman. the arrangement sketched in no adds effectively to her appearance, not only making her look younger, but less inane. [illustration: no. ] for faces with protruding noses. women with decidedly protruding, or irregular, tip-tilted noses should be especially careful in arranging their coiffures. any woman who arranges her hair as in sketch no. caricatures her facial defects by increasing the too protuberant lines of her nose. the distance from the end of her nose and the tip of the topmost knot of hair is too long for either beauty or intelligence. the shape of her head acquires idiotic proportions, and her nose is placed entirely "out of drawing" and is obtrusively conspicuous when seen in profile. this type of woman is generally classified among the inquisitive, bright, and energetic. she should aim to modify the unhappy angularity of her profile as well as to repress her gossipy tendencies. the graduated coil of hair and waved coiffure, shown by no. , are most felicitous in their effect on this type of face. [illustration: no. ] [illustration: no. ] no. reveals an error in an opposite direction. the snubbed-nose girl, by fixing her hair in a bun-like coil, gives the impression that her coiffure is held by invisible strings by her nose, which gets a more elevated look than it otherwise would have, because of the bad angle at which the coil is placed. [illustration: no. ] no. , which is a picturesque variation of the popular coif, manifestly improves this type of face, and makes the nose appear less obtrusive. a woman should carefully study the contour of her head from every side; the modelling of her face; the length and inclination of her nose; the setting of her eyes; and the breadth and form of her brow, and adopt a becoming coiffure that will give artistic balance to her face, and never absolutely change the style whatever the mode in hair-dressing may be. in england, the court hair-dresser years ago studied the character of the head and face of the princess of wales, and designed a coiffure for her which she has never varied until recently; then she merely arranged her fringe lower down on her forehead than she has ever worn it before. the general style, however, she preserves intact, and wears her hair, and has for many years, as is shown in the picture--no. . her daughters, who have faces the same shape as hers, dress their coiffures similarly. in never changing the style of arranging her hair, the princess of wales owes in no small degree her apparent air of youthfulness. [illustration: no. ] no matter what the prevailing style these rules may be practically applied. chapter ii. hints for the selection of becoming and appropriate styles in head-gear. closely allied to the subject of hair-dressing is that of head-gear. indeed many of the hints regarding appropriate coiffures for certain styles of faces are equally applicable to the selection of suitable hats and bonnets. the choosing of millinery is the more momentous of the two, of course, for i need scarcely remind you that nature left us no choice in hair. no matter what its color or texture we desire to keep it and if we are wise we will make the best of it. in regard to hats we are personally responsible and our follies are upon our own heads. the power of caricature being greater in hats than in hair-dressing, is it not fit that we should give careful and intelligent consideration to the selection of our millinery that the ugly lines in our otherwise beautiful faces may not be at the mercy of mocking bunches of ribbons, comically tilted straws, or floppy bits of lace? the magic of the bonnet. once upon a time, i think that was the exact date, there was a man distinguished in a certain kingdom as the ugliest person in the realm. according to a blithe romancer, he was so distinctively unpleasing in form and feature that he challenged the attention of the king who, in whimsical mood, made him a royal retainer. the man so conspicuously lacking in beauty enjoyed his eminent position and privileges for some time. but even ugliness, if it attain distinction, will excite envy in the low-minded. a former associate of the unbeautiful man in invidious temper brought the news one day to the king, that there was an old woman in his domain that was uglier than the lowly-born man who by kingly favor held so high a place. "bring her to the court. judges shall be called to decide. if she is uglier she shall stay and he shall go," was the royal mandate. when the old woman appeared she was easily decided to be by far the uglier of the two. at the critical moment when the king was upon the eve of dismissing the man from his retinue, a friend of the unfortunate shouted, "put her bonnet on him!" this was done, and lo! a fearful change was wrought. by unanimous acclamation he was declared to be "the ugliest creature on earth." the old woman, true to the instincts of her sex, refused to wear her bonnet again. like many of her sisters of modern times, she had not before discovered the possibilities in a bonnet to enhance the beauty of the face or decrease its charms. if woman could see themselves objectively, as did the old woman, they would keenly realize the necessity of considering the lines of hat or bonnet in relation to those of their faces, and would learn to obscure defects and bring into prominence their prettiest features. as there are a few rules to govern what each type should select, every one of the fair sisterhood has an equal opportunity to improve her appearance by selecting in the millinery line the distinctive adornment suited to her individual style. [illustration: no. ] for women with broad face and heavy chin. by a curious law of contrariety the woman with a broad, heavy chin seems to have an ungovernable penchant for trig little round bonnets, or trim turbans with perky aigrettes, like that in sketch no. . by obeying this wilful preference she obscures whatever delicacy may be in the modelling of her features and brings into conspicuous relief the ugliest lines of her face. her chin is apparently increased in heaviness and the broadness of her face is made prominent. she could easily have restored the artistic balance to her facial lines by wearing a large hat, rather heavily trimmed, as in no. , thus effectively modifying the strong curves of the chin and signally improving her appearance. if a woman's face is fairly proportioned, not too short for its breadth, and she can not afford plumes, this type of woman can still give a becoming balance to her face by adopting hats that are trimmed with flamboyant bows that flare horizontally across the hat, diverging from a central knot in the from. [illustration: no. ] for the woman with tapering chin. [illustration: no. ] the woman who is the exact opposite of the type with the ample lower jaw, but whose chief disadvantage lies in her broad, manly brow and tiny tapering chin, should avoid all horizontal trimmings, bows or broad hat-brims. it is clear, in no. , that such trimmings increase the wedge-like appearance of the face and give it the grotesque suggestion of an ordinary flower-pot in which grows a sickly plant. this type can perceptibly improve upon nature by choosing the style of hat and neck-gear shown by no. . [illustration: no. ] the crinkly ovals that form the brim of the hat, and the soft, graceful arrangement of the hair in front that decreases the too broad effect of the brow, and the full fluffy ruff snuggled up closely to the chin, produce a pleasing transformation of the meagre-looking original that to the uninitiated seems little short of magical. the broad, cravat-like bows, and the flaring ones known as "incroyables," were beneficently wedge-like faces and throats that have lost the seductive curves of youth. hat for the chubby woman. [illustration: no. ] that amiable type of woman formed conspicuously upon the circular plan often unconsciously impresses the fact of her fatal tendency to rotundity by repeating the roundness of her globular eyes, the disk-like appearance of her snub nose and the circle of her round mouth, and the fulness of her face by wearing a little, round hat in the style portrayed by no. . [illustration: no. ] the curls of her bang, the feathers in her hat, the high collar of her jacket make more significant the fact that her lines are not artistic and that her face is unbeautifully round. she can enhance her charms and apparently decrease the too spherical cut of her countenance by adopting the mode illustrated in no. . the angular bows on the hat, the geometric lines of the broad hat-brim, the precise cut of the lapels on the corsage, the neat throat-band and v-shaped vesture--all insinuate in a most engaging way a dignity and fine, high-bred poise totally obliterated by the circular style of dress erroneously adopted by the misguided woman in no. . [illustration: no. ] for women who have sharp and prominent profiles. in buying a hat many of the "unfair sex"--as the modern wag dubs the progressive sisters who wish to have all man's rights and privileges and keep their own besides--never seem to consider their heads but from a front point of view. in consequence, as sketch no hints, a head seen from the side frequently appears, if not idiotically, very inartistically, proportioned. [illustration: no. ] occasionally a hat presents as comical an effect in a from as in a side view, as may be seen in no. . the wearer was an elderly woman with gray hair which hung down in a half-curled bang on either side of her thin face. her hat which was simply "dripping" with feathers suggested a fanciful letter "t" and exaggerated the thinness of her face in a remarkably funny way. the feathers overhanging the brim increased the broadness of the hat, and looked singularly waggish fluttering against the spriggy-looking projections of gray hair. the rules for the wedge-shaped face, as may readily be discerned, apply here. [illustration: nos. and ] women who have sharp and prominently outlined profiles have a curious tendency to choose hats, the brims of which project too far forward in front, and turn up too abruptly and ungracefully in the back. as shown in no. the protruding brim gives the head and face the unattractive proportions of the capital letter "f." the length of the nose is emphasized by the line of the hat-rim above it and it appears unduly obtrusive. the flat arrangement of the hair and the curve of the hat-brim in the back also exaggerate the obtrusive qualities of the features. by choosing a hat somewhat similar to the one sketched in no. , the unattractive sharpness of the profile is modified, and the alert, agreeable quality of the face, that was obscured by the shelf-like brim, becomes apparent. the observer feels, if he does not voice it, that it is a progressive spirit advancing forward instead of an ungainly head-piece that looks like a curious trowel. for the woman with an angular face. [illustration: nos. and ] the woman with the angular features presented in no. should not wear a sailor-hat or any hat with a perfectly straight rim. the sailor-hat or any style bordering on it should be selected with utmost discrimination. this mode is unbecoming to a woman more than forty; or, to one who through grief or worry prematurely attains a look of age, or to one whose features are irregular. the straight brim across the face is very trying. it casts a shadow deepening the "old marks" and instead of being a frame to set off, it seems to cut off, the face at an inartistic angle. the woman with angular features, as may be seen by no. , can wear with impunity, and always should wear, a hat the brim of which is waved, turned, twisted, or curved in graceful lines. the uneven brim of her hat makes an effective complement to the angularity of her chin, which is further softened by the feathery ruff that encircles her throat. the curves of the ostrich plumes, and the studied carelessness of the arrangement of her coiffure, subdue the angles of her face which are brought out in unbecoming prominence by the sailor-hat. women who should not wear horns. the velvet horns on either side of a hat, the steeple-like central adornments that were once much in favor, and the mercury wings that ornament the coiffure for evening dress, produce some startling, disagreeable, and amusing effects not altogether uninteresting to consider. faces in which the eyes are set too near the forehead acquire a scared look by being surmounted by a bonnet upon which the trimming gravitates to a point in an arrangement not unsuggestive of a reversed fan, horns, or a steeple. the most unpleasing developments result from the wearing of the horn-like trimmings either in velvet or jet. if the face above which they flare has less of the spiritual than the coarse propensities in it, the grotesque turns and twists in the head-gear emphasize the animality in the lines characteristic of low-bred tendencies, and the whole countenance is vulgarized. one face acquires the look of a fox, another of a certain type of dog, and so on. the most amusing exaggerations of distinctive facial lines are produced by mercury wings. the good-natured woman of the familiar type depicted in no. brings every bovine attribute of her placid countenance into conspicuous relief by surmounting her face with the wings of the fleet-footed god. the cow-like form and serenity of her features are made laughably obvious. [illustration: no. ] short, delicately-faced women can adorn their coiffures with mercury wings with most charming results. wings, or perpendicular bows, add length to the lines of the short face, giving it a certain suggestion of refinement and distinction that is wholly destroyed by the wearing of any trimmings that show at the sides. no matter what the prevailing style these rules may be practically applied. chapter iii. lines that should be recognized and considered in making costumes. mme. la mode, much misrepresented as are all who are embarrassed with world-wide popularity always considers when designing fashions that women vary in form, as in mood. she suits all needs, although this fact has never been cast to her credit. with a beautiful sense of adjustment--as obvious as that in nature, that projects the huge watermelon to ripen on a slender vine on the ground and swings a greengage plum on the stout stem of a tree to mature in storm or shine--mme. la mode, arbiter of styles, balances her fashions. never came the big hat without the small bonnet. accompanying the long cloak is the never-failing short cape. side by side may be found the long coat and the short, natty jacket. this equilibrium in wearing apparel may be traced through all the vagaries of fashion. everybody's need has been considered, but everybody has not considered her need. the short, stout woman passes by the long coat better adapted to her and seizes a short jacket--a homeopathic tendency of like suiting like, sometimes efficacious in medicine, but fatal in style. style for tall slender woman. the very tall, slender woman frequently ignores a jaunty jacket and takes a long coat like that shown in no. . to even the sluggish fancy of an unimaginative observer she suggests a champagne bottle, and to the ready wit she hints of no end of amusing possibilities for caricature. the very tall woman should know that long lines from shoulder to foot give height, and she must discerningly strive to avoid length of line in her garments until she dons the raiment of the angels. [illustration: nos. and ] horizontal lines crossing the figure seem to decrease height, and should be used as much as possible in the arranging and trimming of the tall woman's garments. by selecting a shorter coat equally modish, as shown by no. , the too tall woman shortens her figure perceptibly. the belt cuts off from her height in a felicitous way, and the collar, also horizontal, materially improves the size of her throat. the high collar, such as finishes the coat, in no. , adds to the length. those who have too long arms can use horizontal bands on sleeves most advantageously. the coat the short stout woman should wear. the short jacket that so graciously improved the appearance of the slender specimen of femininity is sinister in its effect on the short, stout woman, in sketch no. . it should be the study of her life to avoid horizontal lines. length of limb is to be desired because it adds distinction. her belt, the horizontal effect of the skirt of the jacket, the horizontal trimming of the bottom of the skirt, all apparently shortening her height, tend to make her ordinary and commonplace in appearance. [illustration: nos. and ] if her hips are not too pronounced she can wear the long coat, shown in picture no. . the v-shaped vesture gives her a longer waist, and the long lines of the revers add to the length of her skirt. if her hips are too prominent, she should avoid having any tight-fitting garments that bring the fact into relief. she should not wear the long coat, but she can effectively modify it to suit her needs, by only having a skirt, or tabs, or finishing straps in the back. if her jacket or basque is finished off with a skirt effect, it is best to have the little skirt swerve away just at the hip-line, half revealing and half concealing it. the front should be made in a jacket effect, finishing just at the waist-line and opening over a blouse front that will conceal the waist-line. it is best for the too short, stout woman to obscure her waist-line as much as possible, to apparently give her increase of height. to put the waist-line high up adds to length of limb, and, of course, is to be desired, but the fact that what is added below is taken from above the waist, should impel careful discrimination in the arrangement of this equatorial band. the cloak or cape for a tall woman. the long circular cloak is another graceful garment that can be worn with charming effect by the woman of classic height, but should never be in the wardrobe of a very tall woman except for use at the opera, when its service is chiefly required in the carriage, or when its wearer is sitting. it is so obvious, in sketch no. , that the vertical lines the folds of the cloak naturally fall into give a steeple-like appearance to the tall woman it enfolds, that it is scarcely necessary to comment upon it. [illustration: no. ] that her judicious selection should have been the short cape, which comes, as all capes should, to be artistic, well below the elbows, is clearly illustrated in picture no. . the horizontal trimming very becomingly plays its part in the generally improving effect. [illustration: no. ] the one who can wear the long cloak in an unchallengeable manner is the short, stout woman, shown in sketch no. . by wearing the short cape with circular, fluffy collarette, sketched in no. , she gives herself the look of a smothered, affrighted cochin china chicken; or, as an imaginative school-girl remarked of her mother who wore a cape of similar style, "she looks as if her neck were encircled by bunches of asparagus." [illustration: nos. and ] the military dignity she acquires by wearing the long cape is becoming to a degree, and gives her distinction in form. by remembering that horizontal trimmings apparently decrease the height, and that vertical lines add to it, those who desire to appear at their best will use discernment in dividing their basques with yokes, or corsage mountings at the bust-line or frills at the hip-line. a flounce on the corsage at the bust-line, another at the hip-line, and yet another at the bottom of the shirt, increases the impression of bulkiness most aggressively and gives a barrel-like appearance to the form of a stout woman that is decidedly funny, as may be seen in sketch no. . a study of the lines of the form will not only aid one in adopting a more becoming style of dress, but will sharpen the artistic perceptions, thus adding to the joy of life. [illustration: no. ] "a beautiful form is better than a beautiful face" and should be clothed so that its lines may appear at their best, and not be exaggerated and caricatured. the figure is seen many more times than the face, and the defects of the former are more conspicuous than those of the latter. do not be unjust to your beautiful body, the temple of your soul; above all, do not caricature it by selecting your clothes with indiscriminating taste. no matter what the prevailing mode these rules may be practically applied. chapter iv. how plump and thin backs should be clothed. she was from the middle-west, and despite the fact that she was married, and that twenty-one half-blown blush roses had enwreathed her last birthday cake, she had the alert, quizzical brightness of a child who challenges everybody and everything that passes with the countersign--"why?" she investigated new york with unabashed interest, and, like many another superior provincial, she freely expressed her likes and dislikes for its traditions, show-places, and people with a commanding and amusing audacity. her objections were numerous. the chief one that made a deep impression upon her metropolitan friends was her disapproval of sarah bernhardt's acting. the middle-westerner, instead of becoming ecstatic in her admiration, and at a loss for adjectives at the appearance of the divine sarah, merely perked at the great french artist for some time and then demanded, querulously: "what's the matter with her? why does she play so much with her back to the audience? i don't like it." it was a shock to the adorers of sarah bernhardt to hear her so irreverently criticised. they loyally united in her defence, and sought to squelch the revolter by loftily explaining that the actress turned her back so often to the audience because she had such a noble, generous nature and desired to give the other actors a chance. "she lets them take the centre of the stage, as they say in the profession," remarked one of the party, who prided herself upon being versed in the _argot_ of the theatre. "but she plays with her back to the audience when she is speaking and acting, and everybody else on the stage is still but herself," petulantly insisted the western philistine, showing no signs of defeat. the situation was not wholly agreeable. the worshippers of sarah could say nothing more in justification of her turning her back on them, but, with true feminine logic, concluded, "if sarah bernhardt turns her back on the audience it is right, and that is all there is to say." just at this dramatic moment a voice from the adjoining row providentially interposed. the voice belonged to a well-known exponent of physical culture, who was never so happy as when instructing the intellectually needy. she said: "i will tell you why she plays with her back towards the audience more than any other actress upon the stage to-day." the middle-westerner, no less impressed than her metropolitan friends, listened eagerly. the exponent of straight backs and high chests explained didactically: "the back is wonderfully expressive; indeed it is full of vital expression. bernhardt knows this better than any other actress because she has studied statuary with the passion of a sculptor, and because she understands that, not only the face, but the entire physical structure, is capable of expressing dramatic emotions. strong feeling and action may be strikingly revealed by the back. imprecations, denunciations, even prayers, seem to be charged with more force when an actress delivers them with her back turned, or half-turned to the audience. "bernhardt's back expresses a storm of fury when she imprecates vengeance," said the voice of authority. "not only on the stage is the expression of the back discernible, and a knowledge of its character valuable, but in every-day life in drawing-room and street. how many women consider their backs when they dress? look at the backs here deformed by laces and fallals," she went on contemptuously. "the majority of women never look below their chins and i believe not one in ten ever looks thoughtfully at her back," she said emphatically. the dramatic value of a well-poised, expressive back may only concern the thousands of young women who are aspiring to be a sarah bernhardt or a rachel; but a knowledge of what constitutes a properly and artistically clothed back should be of interest to all women in civilized countries. that there is much truth in the assertion that "the majority of women never look below their chins, and not one in ten ever looks thoughtfully at her back," every observer of womankind might testify. [illustration: no. ] the open placket-hole and sagging waist-band, sketched in no. , is an all too familiar sight that advertises the fact that too few women take even a cursory look at their backs. fathers and brothers who wish to protect their womankind from adverse criticism frequently give impromptu lectures upon this very subject, as this slovenly arrangement of skirt and basque is not only seen in grand street, second avenue, and equally unfashionable quarters, but in fifth avenue where the modish set are _en évidence_. if the dainty safety-pin displayed in no. , goes out of vogue, the time-honored custom of sewing hooks to the waist-band of the dress, is always in fashion. indeed, many women prefer this way of connecting separate skirt and waist to using a conspicuous pin. this is almost too trivial a detail to discourse upon, but it is as true that details make dress as it is that "trifles make life"--and neither life nor dress is a trifle. [illustration: no. ] the offence in no. is more the result of untidiness than of a lack of artistic discrimination. nos. - / and , on the contrary, outrage the laws of art, and display ignorance of the value and beauty of lines. no. - / might serve to conceal a deformity of the shoulders. that really seems its only excuse for being. the full, ugly, straight pleat that falls to just below the waist-line lends neither grace nor style to the figure. it is too short to give the distinction and dignity that handsome wraps with long lines almost invariably do, although they seem to add age to the form. there is a hint of youth in this ungraceful jacket to be sure, but it is not especially attractive in its suggestion of youthfulness. [illustration: no. - / ] [illustration: no. ] no. , with a line at the neck-band, crossed bands in the centre of the shoulders, and lines across the back, is obviously inartistic. the back of a venus, even, would be detracted from by such criss-crossed effects. happy the woman who has so shapely a back she can afford to allow her waist to fit smoothly and plainly, unbroken by any conspicuous lines. if bands must be used to remedy the deficiencies of ungenerous nature, let them be at the neck and waist; and if the back is unconscionably long, a band, or fold, or ruffle across the shoulders is to be commended. [illustration: no. ] no. reveals a glaring error frequently made by the thin sisterhood. a tall, slender woman with a long waist, should not emphasize her length of lines by wearing pointed or v-shaped effects. the v-shaped arrangement, either in cut or trimmings, apparently increases her "longness and leanness." she should aim to shorten her waist instead of lengthening it as the basque finished with a point obviously does. the drooping sleeves elongate her shoulder-lines, and bring into clearer relief her meagre proportions. she can easily improve her appearance by adopting either style of gown portrayed by nos. , or . the broad belt at the waist-line in no. , and the flamboyant lace or braided piece that adorns the shoulders, perceptibly adds to her breadth and decreases her length. [illustration: no. ] [illustration: no. ] no. is a felicitous cut for a street dress for a slim sister. the jaunty bloused waist smartly conceals deficiencies in fine points. the tall, thin sisterhood should eschew pointed effects and study to attain apparent breadth by using trimmings arranged horizontally. bands of velvet, braid in waved lines, ruffles, and not too deeply cut scallops, may be used effectively by the very slender, who sometimes appear as if they are "without form and void," as the earth was "in the beginning." [illustration: no. ] no. is an exposition of the mistake made by the sturdy sisterhood of stout and pendulous proportions. it is plain to be seen that the fluffy ruche at the throat-band, and the ruffle at the shoulder, and the spreading bow at the waist, and the trimmed sleeves, add bulkiness to a form already too generously endowed with flabby rotundity. corpulent women must forego the swagger little basques or any sort of short, flounced effects below the waist-line. [illustration: no. ] [illustration: no. ] nos. and are eminently adapted to the matron of ample dimensions. one observer of beauty-giving effects has not unadvisedly called the waist-line "the danger-line." a stout sister, above all others, should not accentuate the waist-line. she should conceal it as much as possible. the coat back of no. apparently lengthens the waist. the same effect is produced by the arrangement of ribbons in no. , and by the long-pointed basque. v-shaped effects and long-pointed basques are as becoming to those burdened with flesh as they are unbecoming to tall, thin women. long, graceful folds and draperies are admirable for the stout sisterhood, who should avoid short sacques and tight-fitting garments that give the on-looker an uncomfortable impression; there is too much in a small space. very light colors and thin textures that billow and float should be eschewed by the large, fleshy woman who wishes to give the impression that she possesses the lines of a finely modelled statue. she should avoid puffs and any suggestion of the pulpy and clumsy, and be careful not to sub-divide the body of her dress by plaits or braids laid on horizontally across or above the bust, or below the hips. horizontal lines invariably decrease the height; for that reason stout women should not wear dresses cut square in the neck, but should adhere to the graceful v-or heart-shaped cut which has a tendency to give length. the rotund woman with a short waist, sketched in no. , may improve her figure, as shown in no. , by choosing belts and collars the exact shade of her shirt-waists in summer, and by not cutting off her height by any sort of outside belt on winter gowns. [illustration: no. ] [illustration: no. ] tall, stout women should forego high heels on their shoes, high hats, and striped dresses. although stripes increase the effect of height, they also add to that of breadth. a plain cloth basque and skirt of striped material make a happy compromise and can be worn with becoming effect by a stout woman. [illustration: no. ] a basque cut high behind and on the shoulders apparently gives height. a very stout woman should never wear double skirts or tunics or dresses with large sprawling patterns, such as depicted by cut no. , which suggests furniture stuffs. a large woman who had a fancy for wearing rich brocades figured with immense floral designs was familiarly called by her kind friends "the escaped sofa." white, or very light colors, should never be worn by the stout; they greatly increase the apparent size. large plaids should also be eschewed. small checks and plaids may sometimes be becoming. neither the too thin nor the too stout should adopt a style of gown that caricatures the form as does the voluminous wrapper, finished with a box-pleat, as shown in no. . there is no grace in straight lines. [illustration: nos. and ] no. , which accentuates the height of the over-tall, thin woman, is better adapted to enhance the charms of a woman of finer proportions. the bony and scrawny, of the type of no. , seem to have a perverse desire to wear what makes their poverty in physical charms only more conspicuous. a woman of distinction in boston, who is exceedingly thin and tall, wore watteau pleats so frequently, even on reception and evening gowns that she was dubbed by a wag "the fire-escape," a title which so strikingly characterized her style, that the term was adopted by all her friends when they exchanged confidences concerning her. the garment with the watteau pleat is not unlike the princesse gown which is a very trying style except to handsomely proportioned women. a tall, well-developed woman, such as shown in sketch no. , adorns the princesse gown and attains in it a statuesque beauty. in suggesting statuary it fulfils the true ideal of dress, which should hint of poetry, art, sculpture, painting. the massing of colors; the arrangement of lines, the quality of textures, the grace and poise of the wearer--do not these hint of picture, statue, music? chapter v. corsages appropriate for women with unbeautifully modelled throats and shoulders. despite the traditional belief that a décolleté corsage is a tyrannous necessity of evening dress, a woman not graciously endowed with a beautifully modelled throat and shoulders may, with perfect propriety, conceal her infelicitous lines from the derisive gaze of a critical public. women are indebted to that gentle genius, la duse, for the suggestion that a veiled throat and bust may charmingly fulfil the requirements of evening dress, and also satisfy that sense of delicacy peculiar to some women who have not inherited from their great-great-grandmothers the certain knowledge that a low-necked gown is absolutely decorous. the women who does not possess delicate personal charms commends herself to the beauty-loving by forbearing to expose her physical deficiencies. unless it is because they are enslaved by custom, it is quite incomprehensible why some women will glaringly display gaunt proportions that signally lack the exquisite lines of firm and solid flesh. a throat like a ten-stringed instrument, surmounting square shoulders that end in knobs that obtrude above unfilled hollows, is an unpleasing vision that looms up conspicuously too often in opera-box and drawing-room. [illustration: no. ] the unattractive exhibition , is a familiar sight in the social world. how insufferably ugly such uncovered anatomy appears in the scenery of a rich and dainty music-room may be readily imagined by those who have been spared the unpleasing display. it is so obvious that shoulders like these should always be covered that it seems superfluous to remark that this type should never wear any sleeve that falls below the shoulder-line. [illustration: no. ] the sleeve falling off the shoulder was invented for the classic contour, set forth in no. . nor ribbons, nor lace, nor jewel are needed to enhance the perfect beauty of a fine, slender, white throat, and the felicitous curves of sloping shoulders. one whose individual endowments are as meagre as are those presented in no. may improve her defects by adopting either style of corsage, shown in sketches nos. and . a woman's throat may lack a certain desirable roundness, and her shoulders may recede in awkward lines, and yet between these defective features the curves may have a not unpleasing daintiness and delicacy in modelling that can be advantageously revealed. a modish velvet throat-band, such as is shown by no. , is one of the most graceful conceits of fashion. the too slim throat encircled by velvet or ornamented with a jewelled buckle or brooch is effectively framed. the unsightly lines of the shoulders are covered, and just enough individual robustness is disclosed to suggest with becoming propriety the conventional décolleté corsage. the princess of wales is as constant to her velvet or pearl neck-band, as to her especial style of coiffure. her throat, in evening dress, never appears unadorned by one or the other of these beautiful bands that so cleverly conceal defects and seem to bring out more richly the texture and coloring of handsome bare shoulders. [illustration: no. ] [illustration: no. ] those who do not approve of the décolleté style of dress, or whose ungraceful proportions might well be entirely concealed, can wear with appropriateness and benefit the corsage shown in no. . this has much in its favor for a slender body. the upper part of the waist may be made of chiffon or crêpe, which is beautifully--one might say benignly--translucent. it has an insinuating transparency that neither reveals nor conceals too much. the neck-band of velvet or satin, full and soft, apparently enlarges the throat. the sleeves may be in whatever style in cut prevails. this costume carries perfectly into effect the requirements of evening dress, and may be worn with equal fitness to formal functions or to informal affairs. a coat-sleeve of lace, crêpe, or chiffon, beflounced at the wrist, may be inserted under the short satin sleeves when the occasion does not require gloves. the soft, white setting of thin textures around the throat and shoulders clears the complexion and brings into relief the pretty, delicate lines of a refined face. [illustration: nos. and ] it is plain to be seen that the unattractive specimen of femininity, no. ., with the long, wrinkled neck and sharply lined face is unbecomingly costumed in the v-shaped basque and corsage which apparently elongate her natural lankness. a charming and always fashionable yoke-effect that she can wear to advantage is shown by no. . this style of corsage is equally effective for a too thin or a too muscular neck. the filling is of tulle. a square-cut corsage is most becoming to the woman whose narrow shoulders have a consumptive droop. the angular cut apparently heightens the shoulders and decreases their too steeple-like inclination. the round cut, if it frames a full throat, is also an effective style for sloping shoulders. the v-shaped cut is most becoming to the short-necked woman, whose aim should be to increase the length of her throat. it is not only the too thin neck that needs to be clothed with discrimination. throats and shoulders that are too robust are improved by being covered. the arms and shoulders, however, are often the chief beauty of a fleshy woman, and it is to her advantage to give them as effective a setting as possible. [illustration: no. ] [illustration: no. ] as is obvious in no. , the stout woman apparently increases her breadth by wearing a flamboyant corsage, and she hides the most exquisite lines of her arm with her sleeves. the princesse style of gown, in no. , gives her apparent length of waist. the modest lace flounce that falls in vertical folds decreases her formidable corsage. the knotted twist of silk reveals the full beauty of her arm. [illustration: no. ] in dressing the throat there are a few rules to be remembered. a too long, stem-like neck may be apparently shortened by a standing ruff or a full, soft band of velvet. the tight, plain band of velvet should never be worn by a woman with a very slim neck, as is plainly discernible in sketch no. . [illustration: no. ] the plain, military collar emphasizes the thinness of the slender woman's throat; but the soft crushed fold of velvet apparently enlarges the pipe-like proportions of the thin woman's neck, as may be seen in sketch no. . the tight-fitting collar should not be worn by the corpulent woman with a thick neck, as is shown by sketch no. . [illustration: no. ] the thickness of the throat of the woman pictured in no. may seem due to the folds of the velvet, which give a pleasing hint of a slender throat, a delusion not to be despised by the woman burdened with flesh. [illustration: no. ] all the sisterhood,--stout, thin, long-throated, or short,--should know the hour when the withering touch of age begins to shrink the soft, round curves distinctive of the full, sweet throat of healthful youth. no regretful vanity should be allowed to glamour their eyes to the fact that time has them by the throat, to put it melodramatically. the wise woman will not please herself with a fatal delusion. she will realize it is illusion she needs-yards of it--lace or velvet, or any beautifying texture that will conceal the deadly lines of age. chapter vi. hints on dress for elderly women. dress has much to do with a youthful or aged appearance. shawls and long mantles that fall from the shoulders give even youthful figures a look of age, because the lines are long and dignified and without especial grace. beautiful wraps, or coats that do not come very far below the hip-line, can be worn becomingly by elderly ladies, neither emphasizing their years nor making them appear too frivolously attired. there is a smack of truth in the maxim, _as a woman grows old the dress material should increase in richness and decrease in brightness_. handsome brocades, soft, elegant silks, woollen textures, and velvets are eminently suitable and becoming to women who are growing old. black, and black-and-white, soft white chiffon veiled in lace, cashmeres, and such refined tissues should be selected by those in "the first wrinkles of youth." grays combined with filmy white material, dull bronzes lightened with cream-tinted lace, are also charmingly appropriate. pale blue veiled in chiffon is another grateful combination. white should be worn more than it is by old ladies. it is so suggestive of all that is clean, bright, and dainty; and if there is anything an old lady should strive to be in her personal appearance it is dainty. exquisite cleanliness is one of the most necessary attributes of attractive old age, and any texture that in its quality and color emphasizes the idea of cleanliness should commend itself to those in their "advanced youth." little old thin women, large ones too, for that matter, who are wrinkled and colorless, should not wear diamonds. the dazzling white gems with pitiless brilliancy bring out the pasty look of the skin. the soft glow of pearls, the cloudlike effects of the opal, the unobtrusive lights of the moonstone harmonize with the tints of hair and skin of the aged. elderly women should not wear bright flowers on their bonnets or hats. fresh-looking roses above a face that has lost its first youthfulness only make that fact more obvious. forget-me-nots, mignonettes, certain pretty white flowers, the palest of pink roses, or the most delicate tint of yellow veiled with lace are not inappropriate for those who do not enjoy wearing sombre bonnets and hats which are composed only of rich, black textures. lace cleverly intermingled with velvet and jewelled ornaments of dull, rich shades are exceedingly effective on the head-gear of the old. those who are gray-haired--and indeed all women as they grow old--should wear red above their brows instead of under their chins. a glint of rich cardinal velvet, or a rosette of the same against gray hair is beautiful. lace! lace! lace! and still more lace for the old. _lace is an essential to the dress of a woman more than forty years of age_. jabots, ruches, yokes, cascades, vests, and gowns of lace, black or white, are all for the old. rich lace has an exquisitely softening effect on the complexion. thin women with necks that look like the strings of a violin should swathe, smother, decorate, and adorn their throats with lace or gossamer fabrics that have the same quality as lace. these airy textures, in which light and shadow can so beautifully shift, subdue roughnesses of the skin and harshness in lines. old dame nature is the prime teacher of these bewitching artifices. note her fine effects with mists and cobwebs, with lace-like moss on sturdy old oaks, the bloom on the peach and the grape. nature produces her most enchanting colorings with dust and age. laces, gauzes, mulls, chiffons, net, and gossamer throw the same beautiful glamour over the face and they are fit and charming accompaniments of gray hair, which is a wonderful softener of defective complexions and hard facial lines. too much cannot be written upon the proper arrangement in the neck-gear of the aged. the disfiguring wrinkles that make many necks unsightly may be kept in obeyance by massaging. no matter what the fashion in neck-gear, the aged must modify it to suit their needs. an old lady with a thin, pipe-stem neck should adopt a full ruche and fluffy, soft collar-bands. i cannot forbear repeating that tulle as light as thistle bubbles, either white or gray or black, is exquisitely effective for thin, scrawny necks. the fleshy, red neck should be softened with powder and discreetly veiled in chemisettes of chiffon and delicate net. old ladies may keep in the style, thus being in the picture of the hour; but it is one of the divine privileges of age that it can make its own modes. absolute cleanliness, cleanliness as exacting as that proper nurses prescribe for babies, is the first and most important factor in making old age attractive. rich dress, in artistic colors, soft, misty, esthetic, comes next; then the idealizing scarfs, collars, jabots, and fichus of lace and tulles. old people becomingly and artistically attired have the charm of rare old pictures. if they have soul-illumined faces they are precious masterpieces. chapter vii. how men caricature themselves with their clothes. although in the dress of man there are fewer possibilities of caricature than in that of woman, yet, "the masterpieces of creation" frequently exaggerate in a laughable--and sometimes a pitiable--way, certain physical characteristics by an injudicious choice of clothes. as the fashion in hair-dressing does not grant man the privilege of enhancing his facial attractions; nor of obscuring his defects by a becomingly arranged coiffure; and, as the modes in neck-gear are such that he cannot modify the blemishes of a defective complexion by encircling his athletic or scrawny throat with airy tulle, or dainty lace, that arch-idealizer of pasty-looking faces; and as he has forsworn soft, trailing garments that conceal unclassic curves and uninspiring lines of nether limbs, it behooves him to be more exactingly particular even than woman in the selection of his wearing apparel. far be it from me, however, to remind man of his many limitations--in dress. that he can never know the rapture of donning a becoming spring bonnet, nor the pleasure of possessing "real lace" things, nor the sensuous charm of being enwrapped in caressing furs, or sleazy, silken garments as exquisite in color and texture as beautiful, fresh flowers, only delicate consideration for his feelings constrains me from expatiating upon at length. i would rather be able to remind him that he can make his limitations his advantages, than reveal to him what he misses in not being a woman. to treat of this important subject adequately and convincingly, one would require the masterly discernment of a skillful and accomplished tailor, the experienced knowledge of a well-dressed man, and the alertly critical perception of a loving woman who, even in the matter of clothes, wishes the dearest of men to her, to do full justice to himself and her ideal of him on all occasions. although certain of the foregoing qualifications must needs be lacking, nevertheless this timorous pen, with more trepidation than courage it must be confessed, begs to call attention to a few obvious details in masculine attire that caricature, more or less, peculiarities in the forms and features of men. to be sure, in the matter of head-gear man is not conspicuously at the mercy of burlesquing ribbons, flowers, and feathers, and he has fewer opportunities than women to make himself ridiculous, yet a few suggestions regarding certain shapes of head-gear for certain types of faces, applicable to women are equally applicable to him. the same rule that applies to the women of the wedge-shaped type of face applies to the man of the wedge-shaped type, as may be seen in sketches nos. and . it is obvious that the youth depicted in no. detracts from the manliness of his face and emphasizes the pointed appearance of his countenance by wearing a hat with a broad brim projecting over his ears. this style of hat appears more frequently in straw than in any other texture, but the effect of a wide, projecting rim is the same in any material. no. , it is plain, improves the appearance of the long, slim-faced man. an alpine hat would not be unbecoming to him, the high oval of the crown forming a balance for the lower part of the face. [illustration: no. ] [illustration: no. ] the man with a pugilistic chin should endeavor to select a hat that will not make his heavy jaw as prominent as does the stiff derby, in no. . [illustration: no. ] a soft alpine hat, or one somewhat of the style of no. , improves his appearance. the high crown and wide, gracefully rolling brim counter-balance the weight and prominence of the jaw. [illustration: no. ] apropos of the minor details of man's garments, the button as a feature of clothes has never been fully done justice to. it is a sustaining thing we know, something we can hang to, fasten to, and even tie to. that properly placed buttons contribute to our mental poise and therefore to our physical repose, is hinted in that absurdly engaging story, anent the smart boy who was the envy of his spelling-class, because he always stood first. you remember, no doubt, that an envious but keen-eyed classmate observed that the smart speller worked off his nervous apprehensiveness by twirling the top button of his coat as he correctly spelled word after word, day in and day out; and how the keen-eyed one played the part of a stealthy villain and surreptitiously cut the button off the coat. and do you remember the dramatic ending? how the smart one on the fatal day sought to "press the button" and finding it gone, lost his wits completely and failed ignominiously? many of us when we have lost a sustaining button, have we not felt as ridiculously helpless and wit-benumbed as the smart speller? [illustration: no. ] we all sub-consciously acknowledge our dependence upon buttons, but not many of us, evidently, have observed that even buttons have a certain possibility of caricature in them; and that they may add to, or detract from, the appearance of manly forms. the consideration of properly placed buttons may seem trivial to you, but if you will observe sketches nos. and , you may discern that a thin man may apparently increase his breadth and add a certain manly touch to his figure, by changing the buttons at the waist-line of his coat. the buttons placed so near together, in no. , really make his toothpick proportions too obvious. his back is made to look broader by placing the buttons wider apart, as shown in no. , and changing the cut of his coat-tail. [illustration: no. ] that the fat man may also present a more attractive back to his enemies by considering the placing of his buttons, may be seen in drawings nos. and . the buttons decorating no. are placed so far apart that they increase in an ungainly way the breadth of the back at the waist-line. if they are placed nearer together, and the seams graduated to meet them, they give the illusion of better and more desirable proportions, as may be seen in no. . [illustration: no. ] [illustration: no. ] that the thin man may also present a more imposing and broader front to the world, is suggested in sketches nos. and . the contracted look of the coat in no. is somewhat due to the buttons of his double-breasted coat being placed too closely together. the slender man who wishes to give the impression of being broad-chested may have the buttons on his coat placed a little farther apart than fashion may allow, as shown in sketch . the proportions may be easily preserved by a careful adjustment of the shoulder-seams and the seams under the arms. [illustration: no. ] [illustration: no. ] [illustration: no. ] the waist-line is not so much "a danger line" to man as to woman, yet man should not wholly ignore his equator. if he is long-waisted he can apparently balance his proportions by having his skirt shortened, as in no. , and his waist-line raised the merest bit. if he is too short-waisted he can lengthen his skirt and lower his waist-line, as shown in no. . in the one he escapes appearing too long and lanky in body, and in the other he obscures a lack of becoming inches that tends to give him a dumpy appearance. [illustration: no. ] if you study your fellow-men you will observe that few are really perfectly proportioned. one man will have the body of a viking on the legs of a dwarf, or one will have the legs of an apollo supporting the short body of a pigmy. the man who has a kingly body, too broad in proportion to his legs, as shown in sketch no. , should endeavor to modify his physical defect by the careful selection of his coats. he should have his coats cut to give him as much length of leg as possible. a skilful tailor will know just what subtle changes and adjustments to make. the improvement in appearance and gain in height is pictured in sketch . the coat being shorter and the waist of the trousers being raised a trifle, the man's limbs seem longer, which is an improvement. long lines tend to give elegance and grace in bearing. another thing for the too robust type of man to consider is the style of his trousers. no. hints what he must not choose. such brazen plaids only make him appear offensively aggressive in size. long, fine lines, such as shown in no. , give an impression of length and apparently lessen the width. [illustration: no. ] too long lines, however, are almost as undesirable as too short ones. over-tall, thin men sometimes make themselves look like telegraph poles or flagstaffs by wearing short coats that expose in a graceless way the whole length of their limbs. they suggest cranes and other fowl that give the impression of being "all legs." [illustration: no. ] when the legs are proportioned more like a stick of macaroni or a lead pencil than the shapely limbs of an adonis, they appear exceedingly funny when surmounted by a short coat, such as pictured in no. . a famous general in the civil war did not despise cotton as a fortification to protect him from the onslaught of the enemy. the over-tall, thin man, who is not unsuggestive of a picket, should not be ashamed to fortify himself with cotton or any other sort of padding that intelligent tailors keep in stock. he should build his shoulders up a bit and be generally, but most carefully and artistically, enlarged. his coat should be lengthened, as in sketch go, to cut off just as much of the longness of limb as can possibly be allowed without destroying artistic proportions. the very tall, thin man who unthinkingly wears a very short coat should be brave and never turn his back to his enemy. [illustration: no. ] if he wears black and white check trousers and a short blue coat, he should travel with a screen. a man in just such a rig attracted no end of comment in a fashionable hotel. the caricaturing effect of his trousers and coat were unspeakably comical. the wearer had a face as grave as an undertaker's and the air of a serious-minded college professor; but he had the nondescript look of a scarecrow composed of whatever available garments could be obtained from the cast-off wardrobe of summer boarders in a farmhouse. [illustration: no. ] coats assuredly have the power of making cartoons--living, jocular cartoons--of their wearers. it would hardly seem necessary to call attention to the fact that a man of huge dimensions should not wear a short coat, such as shown in sketch no. , yet his type is too frequently seen attired in this style. a man so dressed certainly seems the living exemplification of the definition of a jug, namely, "a vessel usually with a swelling belly, narrow mouth, and a handle, for holding liquors." it cannot be reiterated too often that a large, stout man should aim to acquire the distinction and dignity given by long lines. if his body is proportioned so he really has neither length of torso nor of limb he must pay more attention to the cut of his clothes and attain length in whatever artistic way he can. the long coat, as may be seen in sketch no. , not only apparently adds length but it conceals too protuberant curves. [illustration: nos. and ] of course, character counts far more than clothes, we will all agree to that, but at first glance it is a man's clothes that impress people. clothes affect our behavior somewhat. for instance, "when the young european emigrant, after a summer's labor puts on for the first time a new coat, he puts on much more. his good and becoming clothes put him on thinking that he must behave like people who are so dressed; and silently and steadily his behavior mends." of course, there is an uplifting truth in george herbert's maxim, "this coat with my discretion will be brave," yet, i am inclined to think that the majority of men who will stop to consider will agree with emerson, who says, "if a man has not firm nerves and has keen sensibility, it is perhaps a wise economy to go to a good shop and dress himself irreproachably. he can then dismiss all care from his mind, and may easily find that performance an addition of confidence, a fortification that turns the scale in social encounters, and allows him to go gayly into conversations where else he had been dry and embarrassed. i am not ignorant,--i have heard with admiring submission the experience of the lady who declared 'that the sense of being perfectly well dressed gives a feeling of inward tranquillity which religion is powerless to bestow.'" a popular clothier in new york, understanding this trait of his fellow-men, voices this same sentiment in his advertisement in this succinct way: "seriously now. have you ever stopped to think that if you wear good clothing it adds much to that independent, easy feeling you should have when you come in contact with other men?" i think it was lord chesterfield who said: "a man is received according to his appearance, and dismissed according to his merits." there is a bit of truth in this we would all admit, i have no doubt, if we studied the question. clothes affect our own poise, ease, and attitude toward others and the expression of others toward us, but, after all, we rely upon the man or woman instead of upon the impression we receive from the clothes. the garments, after we have noticed them in a superficial way, are chiefly interesting to us, because they are arch-betrayers of the physical and mental poise of the man. no matter what the cut of the cloth, no matter what _cachet_ of a fashionable tailor a suit may have, or what its richness of material, the attitude "à la decadence" of no. would make the best clothes in christendom look shabby and unattractive. [illustration: no. ] this too familiar carriage of the american man makes one wish to have the power to reverse the faces--as dante did those of the false prophets, so those who stand "à la decadence" might see what ridiculous figures they cut in drawing-room and street. the curved backs and rounded-out shoulders would make fair-looking chests, and the flat chests would represent respectable-looking backs. a man owes it to the spirit within him not to stand or walk in such an attitude. he should brace up and keep bracing up persistently, unremittently, until he attains a more manly bearing. [illustration: no. ] the wholly alive fellow pictured in sketch no. would make homespun look elegant. his chest is forward. he does not sag in front at the waist, protruding his abdomen in not only an inartistic, but an unhealthy manner; but he strides masterfully forward with an air of inspiriting "aliveness." the perfect poise of his attitude is not unsuggestive of the apollo belvedere--the model for all men--a picture of which every college boy should have to place beside the prettiest girl in his collection of pretty girls, to constantly remind him to carry himself like a young god. distributed proofreaders note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the original illustrations. see -h.htm or -h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.net/ / / / / / -h/ -h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.net/ / / / / / -h.zip) the lady's album of fancy work for consisting of novel, elegant, and useful designs in knitting, netting, crochet, braiding, and embroidery with clear and explicit directions for working the patterns address encouraged by the kind welcome which greeted their former efforts to provide a volume worthy the attention of the ladies of the united kingdom, the publishers of the _lady's album of fancy-work_ have issued a similar production for . solicitous to preserve the favourable consideration so flatteringly accorded, every care has been taken to render the _lady's album of fancy-work_ for as attractive and useful as possible; no expense has been spared in its artistic illustration, letterpress, and embellishment; and it will be found an elegant ornament in the drawing-room as well as a useful ally at the work-table. the patterns and designs are of the most useful and varied character: specimens are given of each style of work recently invented; and no article either of ornament or use at present in fashion is omitted. the exercise of the needle has been from time immemorial a favourite occupation with the females of every country; and the allusions to the subject from cotemporary historians and poets evince that this feminine pursuit was regarded with approval and respect. the invention of embroidery is ascribed to the phrygians; and we also learn from ancient authors, that the sidonians particularly excelled in this beautiful art of decorative needlework; it must have also made considerable progress in the country soon after the norman conquest, from the accounts that are recorded of the robes embroidered in gold and silver, generally worn by persons of rank at that period. the bayeux tapestry also remains to us as a lasting trophy of the skill and industry of queen matilda and the ladies of her court, and is not more interesting as a historical record than as a specimen of the needlework of the mediæval age. the introduction of knitting into this country is comparatively of modern date; so late as the middle of the sixteenth century. the invention of the art is usually ascribed to the spaniards; though the scotch, with some appearance of justice, assert their claims as its originators. like all inventions, knitting has undergone wonderful improvements since it was first simply used for stocking-making: and the value attached to stockings so made may be judged from the fact, that a pair were deemed a fitting present from one sovereign to another. a pair of knitted hose was amongst the gifts received by that lover of finery, queen elizabeth; but no record remains to shew if these were preserved with the three thousand robes which were found after her death in the wardrobe of england's maiden queen. the love for domestic occupations, which is so admirable a trait in the character of our countrywomen, has often been a subject of gratulation; and that female ingenuity and skill may continue to be employed in embellishing the drawing-room, rather than in directing the political intrigues of the _salon_, must be desired by all interested in the preservation of those domestic attributes which give so pleasing a charm to home, and secure the comfort of all around. the taste which her majesty queen victoria evinces for feminine pursuits and occupations has naturally exercised considerable influence in preserving habits of industry amongst her female subjects; and to her majesty's example, and that of the amiable queen dowager, may be ascribed that the labours of the english embroideress are now justly appreciated, and her work esteemed as in no respects inferior to the produce of foreign ingenuity. in expressing their thanks for the patronage extended to the _lady's album of fancy-work_ for , the publishers take leave to state that the present volume contains designs and patterns for various articles in embroidery, braid-work, crochet, knitting, netting, ribbon-work, scagliola, and indian ornamental work; all of which are executed and engraved in a style of unusual superiority. each pattern is accompanied with plain and explicit directions; and it is hoped that their execution will afford many hours of pleasurable employment to the fair and industrious votaress of the needle. contents. explanation of the various terms used in crochet general instructions for embroidery . front for lady's cabinet (embroidery) . cover for cake-basket (netting) . infant's bonnet (crochet) . lace for pocket-handkerchief (crochet) . elizabethan watch-hook (crochet) . music-stool cover (crochet) . cover for album (embroidery) . serviette for cruet-stand (crochet) . screen (embroidery) . a long purse in honeycomb pattern (netting) . german knitting-bag (crochet) . cigar-case (embroidery) . collar au feston (embroidery) . card-case (scagliola work) . claret-jug mat (embroidery) , . corner for handkerchief (embroidery) . cover for easy-chair (crochet) . lady's reticule (crochet) . spectacle-case (scagliola work) . toilet-cushion (crochet) . bonnet-preserver (knitting) . small ottoman (embroidery) . card-basket (crochet) . raised crochet collar (crochet) . a chess-board (scagliola work) . garniture for toilet-basket (crochet) . greek cap (embroidery) . flower-stand (crochet) . cover for tassel of window-blind (crochet) . under-sleeve (crochet) . smoking cap (embroidery in braid) . baby's cap (crochet) . lace for cap (crochet) . apron (embroidery) . limerick lace scarf (tambour) . a knitting-bag (netting) . vase-stand (netting) . watch-pocket (braid) . mitten (crochet) . collar (crochet) . centre of a cover for music-book or portfolio (embroidery) . winter head-dress (crochet) . "baboche," or ornament for candles . chess-board (scagliola work) . d'oyley (crochet) . gauntlet cuff (crochet) . liqueur-stand mat (embroidery) . border for a lace scarf or veil (crochet appliqué) . card-case (crochet) . round collar (crochet) . prince of wales's plume (embroidery) . pattern for window-curtains (netting) . gentleman's braces (embroidery) . toilet-cushion (embroidery) . the helen cap (netting) . screen (indian ornamental work) . heartsease (knitting) . serviette for liqueur-stand (crochet) . a new and elegant work for sofa-pillows, card-baskets, &c. (ribbon work) . lady's silk mitten (crochet) . couvrette for devotional chair (netting) . sachet (embroidery) . pen-wiper (embroidery in braid) . pattern for footstool or cushion (berlin work) . a mat for a flower-vase (crochet) , . lady's slipper (embroidery in braid) explanation of the various terms used in crochet. chain-stitch open crochet.--this consists of five or any uneven number of loops attached by a plain stitch to every third stitch of the foundation, and in the succeeding rows to the centre loop of the chain of previous row. three chain crochet.--work a chain of three loops as in chain-stitch open crochet. double crochet.--work as follows: having made a chain, pass the needle through the first loop on the chain, draw the cotton through the loop, there will now be two loops on the needle, through these draw the cotton. single crochet.--insert the needle in the loops, and draw the cotton through this loop and that on the needle. ribbed crochet.--this is worked in a similar manner to double crochet, only that the under loop of the previous row is taken, and it is done in rows to and fro. long stitch.--twist the cotton round the needle, pass it through the loop, draw the cotton through the first two loops on the needle, then catch the cotton again and draw it through the next two loops; there will be one loop left on the needle. double long stitch.--this resembles long stitch, excepting that the cotton is twisted twice round the needle. treble long stitch.--twist the cotton three times round the needle. single open crochet.--this is a succession of long stitches, with a chain-stitch between each, missing one stitch of the foundation; in the succeeding rows the long stitch is worked between the two long stitches of the preceding rows. double open crochet.--this consists of two long stitches, then two chain-stitches; or it may be varied by making one long stitch, two chain-stitches, missing the same number of stitches in foundation as there are chain-stitches. treble open crochet.--work three long stitches, then three chain, missing three of the foundation. vandyke open crochet.--work three long stitches into one of the foundation, make one chain-stitch, miss three of the foundation; repeat. in the next and following rows the long stitches are worked in the chain-stitch. * * * * * general instructions for embroidery. the various elegant designs for handkerchiefs, jupons, shirts, &c. are worked in raised satin stitch. the material used is french working-cotton; numbers or will be found suitable for most purposes, but this must be regulated by the quality of the cambric. handkerchiefs embroidered in colours continue to be extremely fashionable; the patterns in the _lady's album_ are of the most novel description, and quite suitable for this style of work. the names and initial letters are worked in satin-stitch, sewing over the lines. the lady's album of fancy needlework. * * * * * embroidery. . front for lady's cabinet. _materials--black satin; six shades of crimson, five shades of yellow, three shades of puce, two shades of scarlet, three shades of yellow-greens, three shades of blue-greens, and two shades of brown embroidery silk, or of chenille_. draw the design upon the satin, frame the work, and work in embroidery-stitch. the rose-leaves with the yellow-greens, the leaves of thistles with the blue-greens, the stems with brown, the thistle and bud of thistle with the shades of puce, working the centre of the former with the shades of scarlet. work the rose on the right hand of thistle with the four darkest shades of crimson, and that on the left and the buds with the four lightest shades. work the remaining rose with the yellow shades. work the designs for corners in a similar manner, shading according to the taste of the worker. the above design is adapted for the front or door of a small rosewood or an inlaid ebony cabinet, suitable for a lady's boudoir or dressing-room. it looks well if worked upon white instead of black satin; and if the former is used, it is advisable to have plate-glass as a protection to the needlework. * * * * * [illustration: no. . front for lady's cabinet.] [illustration: no. cover for cake-basket.] * * * * * netting. . cover for cake-basket. _materials--raworth's crochet-thread no. , darning-cotton no. , meshes nos. and , cornucopia gauge_. with the crochet-thread make a foundation by netting loops on the large mesh, join and net rounds on mesh no. , then on mesh no. net loops in one, missing every alternate loop; net rounds on mesh no. , then on the large mesh net loops in one, missing, as before, every alternate loop; net rounds on the small mesh, net loops in every alternate loop on the large mesh, then net rounds on mesh no. ; (a) net loops, then net back, leaving the last of the loops: continue netting these loops to and fro, decreasing one loop at the end of each row by leaving the last loop, and net until but one loop remains; repeat from (a) all round. this forms the scalloped edge. with the cotton embroider the pattern in darning-stitch, as given in illustration. * * * * * crochet. . infant's bonnet. _materials--drab crochet-thread and a middle-sized hook_. make a chain of stitches; unite and work three rounds in double crochet, increasing in every loop in the first round, in every alternate in the second, and in every third in the third round. _ th round_. l, ch worked in every loop of previous round.-- _ th round_. l worked in l of last round, ch; repeat.-- _ th round_. l in the l, ch; repeat.-- _ th round_. double crochet.-- _ th round_. double crochet, increasing in every eighth stitch.-- _ th round_. double crochet, increasing as before; repeat from fourth round four times, then work l, ch, miss three times, then three rounds of double crochet without increasing; work these last six rounds three more times. this completes the bonnet. _for the roll_.--make a chain the width required; work three rows in double crochet; three rows l, ch, miss ; after which work alternately three rows of double crochet; three rows l, ch, miss , increasing a stitch at the beginning and end of each row; these six rows may be repeated five more times, or till the size wished for is worked. make up the bonnet on a foundation covered with blue silk, form the roll for the edge with wadding, trim with a small plume of blue feathers, or a rosette of blue ribbon. the above directions are for a bonnet for an infant of five or six months old, but by increasing the number of rounds and rows for the roll a larger size may be worked. * * * * * crochet. . lace for pocket-handkerchief. _material--raworth's crochet-thread no. _. work a chain the required length; d c. into every stitch of this chain.-- _ d row_. d l s, * c s, miss ; d l s into fourth; repeat from *.-- _ d row_. c s, s c into d l s; * c s, miss d l s, s c into second d l s; repeat from *.-- _ th row_. begin on centre of loop of ; * c s, s c round the same loop, close to first stitch; c s, s c round centre of next loop; repeat from *. _ th row_. commence on centre of c s in last row; * c s, s c into top of c s; c s, s c into centre of c s; repeat from *.--_ th row_. d c, l s, d c round every c s in last row.-- _ th row_. commence on centre of l s; * c s, s c into same stitch to form a ring; d c round this seventeen times; c s, miss , scallop, s c into second scallop; repeat from *.-- _ th row_. commence on top stitch of d c, round the ring in last row; * c s, s c into same stitch; c s, d c round centre of next loop of c s; c s, s c into centre stitch of ring; repeat from *.-- _ th row_. begin in small loop at top of ring; c s, l s into same small loop; * c s, s c into fifth of c s in last row; c s, s c into fourth of next loop of c s; c s, l s into top loop; c s, l s into same loop; repeat from *.-- _ th row_. begin in small loop at top of former small loop; * c s, s c into next small loop; repeat from *.-- _ th row_. begin on centre of c s; * c s, t l s into same stitch; c s, s c into last part of t l s; c s, s c into first stitch of the row; c s, s c into centre of next c s *; repeat from * to *.-- _ th row_. c s, d into small loop of c s; repeat.-- _ th row_. c s, s c into centre of c s; repeat.-- _ th row_. c s, s c into centre of c s; repeat.-- _ th row_. * c s, l s round c s; c s, l s round same loop of ; c s, s c into same loop; c s, miss loop of c s, s c round next loop; repeat from *. * * * * * crochet. . elizabethan watch-hook. _materials--half-an-ounce of pink four-thread berlin wool, half-an-ounce of white ditto, four yards of cord, and a pair of pearl watch-hooks_. with pink work in double crochet over the cord a circle of three inches and a half diameter; there should be stitches round the edge, on which work the border, thus:-- _ st row white_. work stitch in open crochet, chain, miss of the foundation; repeat.-- _ d row white_. work two treble long stitches into every space, chain stitch between each.-- _ d row pink_. work open crochet into every space, chain; repeat.-- _ th row pink_. plain crochet, chain, miss , plain; repeat. tack the loops in the centre, and sew on a pearl watch-hook. * * * * * [illustration: no. . infant's bonnet.] [illustration: no. . lace for pocket-handkerchief.] [illustration: no. . elizabethan watch-hook.] [illustration: no. .] [illustration: no. .] * * * * * crochet . music-stool cover. _materials--shaded green berlin wool, four threads; ivory crochet-hook_. make a round the size of a shilling, and work thirty-two treble-stitches round it.-- _ d round_. treble, chain; repeat.-- _ d round_. single into the middle treble-stitch of the in last round, treble in the loop of chain; repeat.-- _ th round_. single into the third of the treble, chain, single into the seventh of the treble; repeat.-- _ th round_. treble, chain, treble in the chain of five in the last round, chain; repeat.-- _ th round_. treble over the treble, chain, treble in the loop of chain, chain, treble over the second, treble, chain; repeat.-- _ th round_. treble over the first treble-stitches, chain, treble, chain, treble, chain; repeat.-- _ th round_. treble, commencing on the last treble-stitches in the last round, chain, treble, chain; repeat.-- _ th round_. treble over the middle of the treble, chain, treble, chain; repeat.-- _ th round_. single into the last chain-stitch in the last round, _(a)_ chain, single into the second of the chain of seven, chain, single into the last but one of the chain; repeat from _(a)_.-- _ th round_. single into the centre stitch of the chain, chain; repeat. _ th round_. treble.-- _ th, th, and th rounds_. single open.-- _ th, th, and th rounds_. the same, only making treble-stitches together, with chain.-- _ th round_. plain treble.-- _ th round_. single, chain into every stitch in the last round.-- _ st round_. treble into the centre of the loop of chain, chain, single into second loop of chain, chain; repeat.-- _ d round_. treble, commencing on the chain-stitch before the treble in last round, chain, single over the single in last round, chain; repeat.-- _ d round_. treble, commencing on the chain-stitch before the treble in last round, chain, single over the single in last round, chain; repeat.-- _ th round_. treble, commencing as before, and making a chain-stitch between each treble, chain, single over the single in last round, chain; repeat. * * * * * embroidery . cover for album. _materials--black or crimson satin or velvet, gold thread, and gold-coloured silk braid_. draw the pattern with a white crayon, and work the leaves and the name with the gold thread in embroidery-stitch; sew on the braid on the scroll which encircles the cover. * * * * * crochet. . serviette for cruet-stand. _materials--raworth's crochet-thread no. , or three shades of rose and one of drab crochet-thread_. if the coloured threads are used, commence with the lightest pink, and make a chain of stitches; work on each side and in the end of this in close double crochet, increasing by making three stitches in the end-stitches.-- _ d round_. long, chain, miss , except at the three end-stitches, when none must be missed.-- _ d round_. long in the long of last round, chain; increase at the ends by working long in the alternate chain-stitches.-- _ th round (with the second shade)_. single, chain, miss ; repeat all round.-- _ th round_. work a stitch of double crochet in each of the chain-stitches, and in the first two of the single of last round, chain, unite to the single in the ring which this forms; work single, chain, long, chain, long, double long, long, chain, long, chain, single, work double in the single; repeat all round.-- _ th round (with the darkest shade)_. single in the centre of the chain-stitches, chain, single in double long, chain; repeat.-- _ th round_. double crochet in every stitch of last round. _for the forget-me-nots_.--with drab make a chain of stitches, unite, and into this ring work long stitches, chain-stitches; repeat four times more. make a chain of stitches for the stem, and fasten off. _for the leaves_.--make a chain of stitches, work double crochet down this chain, pass the thread under the stalk, and draw it through the stitch on the opposite side. work long stitch into each of the next loops; chain-stitches, (_a_) single crochet into the next loop; long stitch into the following loop; double long into the next; treble long into the next; double long, single long, chain; repeat from (_a_) to the treble long, which brings you to the point of leaf. work on the reverse side double long, long, single, (_a_) chain, single, double long, long, single; repeat from (_a_), and finish by working down the stem. forget-me-nots and leaves will be required. cut a paper pattern the size and shape required; tack the centre of serviette to this, the right side to the paper, arrange the leaves and flowers as indicated in illustration; work stems for the flowers in chain-stitch, and to this attach each flower; work between the flowers and the leaves in button-hole stitch, and sew the leaves and flowers to the centre. * * * * * [illustration: no. . music stool cover] [illustration: no. . cover for album.] * * * * * embroidery . screen. _materials--black satin, three shades of green chenille, three shades of brown chenille gold twist, and gold beads_. work the shamrocks with the green chenille, veining the leaves with gold twist; the foliage in the background is also worked with green chenille. the framework of the harp is executed with beads, and the strings with twist. the wolf-hound is worked with brown chenille in embroidery-stitch, as also are the stems of the shamrocks and foliage. * * * * * netting . a long purse in honeycomb pattern. _materials--three skeins of coarse purse silk, either a rich green, dark blue, or cerise, according to fancy; mesh no. _. for the length, you will require a foundation of stitches. _ st row_. net plain.-- _ d row_. net the d stitch, then the st, now net the th, and afterwards the d; continue in this way to the end of the row.-- _ d row_. the first and every alternate stitch of last row will appear to be twisted, into which net stitch; but into d and every other net ; repeat to the end of the row.-- _ th row_. net plain, leaving the extra stitches of last row unnetted; these rows form the pattern, which must be repeated fourteen times more; join one-third of the rows together at each side, net rows round the opening with a no. mesh, draw up the ends, and finish with steel tassels and slides. * * * * * crochet. . german knitting-bag. _materials--green and puce berlin wool (four shades of green and three of puce), three skeins of each shade, and four skeins of black wool. one pair of tassels of corresponding colours, and a quarter of a yard of morocco leather for lining, will also be required_. work in double-stitch crochet, passing the hook through both the upper and under loop of the stitch of the preceding row. with black make a chain nine inches in length. work row; work rows with each shade of green, commencing with the darkest; work rows with black, then work row with each shade of puce, commencing at the darkest. work five stripes with each colour, and in working the last row but one of black work chain, miss , fourteen stitches from each end. these form button-holes. _for the ends_.--with darkest green make a chain of stitches; unite, and work two rounds, increasing in every stitch in the first and every alternate in the second round. work two rounds with each of the other shades, increasing always in the same stitch. work one round with black, one with the lightest puce, then one with black. work a second end in the same manner. _for the handle_.--with black make a chain fourteen inches in length. work one row with the second shade of green, one with the mid shade of puce, then one with the third shade of green, and one again with black. crochet in the ends to the body of the bag. line with leather. sew on the handle, the tassels, and also two buttons on the side opposite to the button-holes. sew gimp round the joining at the ends, or work plain stitches, chain, miss , with black wool.-- _ d row_. stitch of double crochet in every stitch. * * * * * embroidery . cigar-case. _materials--dark crimson velvet, or cachmere and gold twist or embroidery silk; if the latter, three shades of green, three of rose, three of blue, three of yellow, three of violet, and two of brown will be requisite_. draw the pattern on the material with a white crayon, and work in embroidery-stitch with gold twist or the silks, as may be preferred; if the silks are used, work the leaves with the shades of green, the stems with brown, the pansy with the shades of violet and yellow, the buds of the rose with the greens and the rose-colours, and the forget-me-nots with blue, carefully blending the shades as may be suggested by the taste of the worker. finish with a row of gold twist sewed round the edge of the case. * * * * * embroidery . collar au feston. _materials--cambric muslin and french working-cotton no. , or black silk and fine sewing-silk_. having drawn the pattern on the material, work the lines and the edge in button-hole stitch; then cut out the spaces between the lines, leaving only the parts which are worked. * * * * * [illustration: no. . serviette] [illustration: no. . screen.] [illustration no. . long purse in honeycomb pattern.] * * * * * scagliola work . card-case. see directions in page . * * * * * embroidery . claret-jug mat. _materials--white silk or cachmere; three shades of scarlet, three of blue, three of green, and two of yellow chenille; five shades of scarlet berlin wool, two skeins of each shade; and two skeins of white wool_. draw the pattern on the material; work in embroidery-stitch the centre flower with the shades of scarlet, and the stamens of the flower with two shades of yellow. the buds are worked with scarlet, the small flowers with blue, and the leaves with green. work the fringe from the directions for fringe for liqueur-stand, and line with green silk. * * * * * embroidery , . corner for handkerchief. _materials--french cotton no_. . work in raised satin stitch. * * * * * crochet. . cover for easy-chair. _materials--raworth's crochet-thread no. , and pink and drab crochet-thread of corresponding quality_. with drab make a chain the length required.-- _ st and d rows_. double crochet.-- _ d row_. long, chain, miss ; repeat.-- _ th row_. long, chain, (a) long, chain, miss ; repeat from (a).-- _ th row_. long, chain, (a) long, worked on the last stitch of chain and above the first four long of last row; repeat from (a).-- _ th, th, and th rows_. as _ th row_, but that the number of edge-stitches must decrease in each row.-- _ th row_. long, the first worked above the second long of last row, the remaining above the remaining long, and in the first stitch of chain; repeat.-- _ th, th, and th rows_. as _ th row_, increasing the number of edge-stitches.-- _ th row_. with white, double crochet.-- _ th row_. long, chain, miss ; repeat.-- _ th row_. stitches of double, _(a)_ make a chain of loops, form a circle by working a plain stitch into the ninth loop; chain, plain, worked into the second loop; chain, plain, worked into the third loop; chain, plain, worked into the fifth loop; chain, plain, worked into the sixth loop; chain, plain, worked into the eighth loop; work a stitch of single crochet in each of the remaining chain stitches, then stitches of double crochet in the fifteen following stitches of the th row; repeat from _(a)_ to the end of row. with pink work rows of single open crochet between the flowers already worked with white, attaching the thread to the second stitch of foundation in the _ st row_, and finishing in the third chain in the opposite leaf. in the _ d row_, fasten the thread to the third chain of second leaf, and finish at the opposite leaf.--_ d row_. fasten on at the fifth chain of second leaf, and finish at the opposite leaf.--_ th row_. commence at third chain of third leaf, and finish at opposite leaf. work thus between each of the flowers to the end of row, then work a row of single open crochet. with white work row in double crochet, and a row, long, chain, miss ; repeat. recommence again at d row, and repeat the stripes of drab five times, and of pink three times. procure two tassels of the colours used in the cover for chair, and attach to the sides. * * * * * crochet. . lady's reticule. _materials--drab crochet-thread, two shades of narrow blue satin ribbon, cord and tassels to correspond with the ribbon; a piece of blue and a piece of white silk as a lining_. make a chain of stitches.-- _ st row_. double crochet.-- _ d row_. chain, long.-- _ d row_. long worked in the chain, chain; repeat.-- _ th and two following rows_. long, chain.-- _ th, th, th, th, and th rows_. like the _ d_ and _ d_; repeat from the d row twice, and finish with rows, long, chain, miss . crochet the sides together, work a row of double-long stitches around the top, in which to insert the cord, and finish with a row of double crochet. pass the ribbon through the rows of chain, long, placing the lightest in the centre strip, as will be seen by referring to illustration. make a double lining with the silk; place the white next the reticule, and the blue inside, and finish with cord and tassels. * * * * * [illustration: no. . german knitting bag.] [illustration: no. cigar-case.] [illustration: no. . collar au feston.] [illustration: no. . card-case.] [illustration: no. .] [illustration: no. .] * * * * * scagliola work . spectacle-case. procure a case made of sycamore wood of proper shape. upon this draw the design with a pencil, trace over the pencil-marks with indian ink and a fine crow-quill; then fill in the ground with indian ink and a camel's-hair brush. after two or three days, varnish with the best picture-varnish. * * * * * crochet. . toilet-cushion. _material--raworth's thread no. _. make a chain of stitches, join and work rounds in double crochet.-- _ th round_. chain, long in every alternate stitch.-- _ th round_. double crochet.-- _ th round_. chain crochet.-- _ th round_. two chain crochet-stitches, chain, long in the centre loop of th, chain crochet-stitch.-- _ th round_. three chain crochet-stitches, chain over the long.-- _ th round_. double crochet.-- _ th round_. chain, long in every alternate stitch.-- _ th round_. double crochet.-- _ th round_. two chain crochet-stitches, long in th stitch.-- _ th round_. four chain crochet-stitches, long over the long.-- _ th round_. three chain crochet-stitches, long.-- _ th round_. two chain crochet, long.-- _ th round_. chain, long.-- _ th round_. four chain crochet-stitches over the long, long in the centre loop of chain.-- _ th round_. five chain crochet-stitches, long over the long.-- _ th round_. three chain crochet, long.-- _ th round_. two chain crochet, long.-- _ th round_. chain, long.-- _ th round_. double crochet.-- _ th round_. chain, long, missing two stitches.-- _ th round_. double crochet.-- _ th round_. chain, long in centre of th stitch.-- _ st round_. chain, long over the long.-- _ d round_. chain, long.-- _ d round_. chain, long.-- _ th round_. chain, long.-- _ th round_. double crochet. _lace_.--_ st round_. chain, long, missing stitches.-- _ d round_. chain, long in centre of chain, chain, long over the long.-- _ d round_. chain crochet to the centre of chain, chain crochet to the centre of chain, chain, long.-- _ th round_. chain. work this lace round the top of the row of leaves which is to form the side of cushion, commencing at the th round. * * * * * knitting . bonnet-preserver. _materials--raworths thread no. , or fine knitting-cotton; pins no _. cast on _ _ stitches.-- _ st row_. plain.-- _ d row_. knit , (a) thread forward, knit together; repeat from (a).-- _ d row_. pearl.-- _ th row_. cast off stitches at the beginning and end of the row, knit the remaining stitches.-- _ th row_. pearl.-- _ th row_. knit , (a) thread forward, knit , thread forward, knit together; repeat from (a), and finish with knit .-- _ th row_. pearl.-- _ th row_. knit , knit together, (a) thread forward, knit together, knit , knit together, thread forward, knit ; repeat from (a), and finish with knit together, knit .-- _ th row_. pearl.-- _ th row_. knit , (a) thread forward, knit , thread forward, knit together, knit , knit together; repeat from (a), and finish with knit .-- _ th row_. pearl. commence again at th row, beginning each row with knit , and knit until five diamonds are worked; knit two plain rows, then thread forward, knit together, after which a pearl row, and cast off loosely in knitting the two last diamonds, and the remaining rows increase by making a stitch at the beginning and end of each row; join the piece behind, and pass a narrow ribbon through the open loops and down the front, leaving sufficient for strings. * * * * * embroidery . small ottoman. _materials--black satin; four shades of scarlet, four ditto of crimson, four ditto of amber, four ditto of peach, three ditto of stone-colours, three ditto of blue, three ditto of blue greens, three ditto of yellow greens, and one skein of white embroidery silk or of berlin wools_. draw the pattern upon the satin, and work in embroidery stitch. commence the first dahlia with shades of amber; the second with the shades of stone-colour, using white for the lightest; the third with scarlet shades; the fourth with peach shades; the roses with the crimsons; the lilies with the stone-colours, using white for the lightest shade; and the forget-me-nots with the shades of blue. work the rose-leaves with the yellow greens, and the dahlia-leaves with the blue greens; work the stems with brown. the stamens of the yellow dahlia must be worked with green, but in all the others with yellow. * * * * * [illustration: no. claret-jug mat] [illustration: nos . corners for handkerchief] [illustration: no. . cover for easy-chair] * * * * * crochet. . card-basket. _materials--shaded green, shaded amber, shaded geranium-colour, berlin wool; two skeins of blue, two of green, berlin wool, and two yards of wire, will also be required_. with shaded green make a chain of nine stitches; unite and work ten rounds in close double crochet, increasing in every stitch in the first round, in every alternate in the second, and in the same stitch in each of the succeeding rounds.-- _ th round_. work along stitch in each stitch, missing every ninth stitch.-- _ th round_. long, chain, miss .-- _ th round (with amber)_. long worked in the chain of last round, chain; repeat.-- _ th round_. close double crochet.-- _ th round (with shaded green)_. long worked in one stitch, chain, miss ; repeat.-- _ th round_. close double crochet.-- _ th round (with amber)_. long worked above the one chain of th round, chain; repeat.-- _ th and_ _ th rounds_. close double crochet. the last of these rounds is worked over a wire, and a round in close double crochet, with amber, is also worked over a wire in the th round, to form the bottom of basket. wrap four pieces of wire, the height of the basket, with green wool, and attach to the inside at regular distances. prepare a piece of wire, in like manner, for the handle. work the handle as follows: with shaded green make a chain the length required.-- _ d row (with amber)_. close double crochet.-- _ d row (with green)_. close double crochet; sew this to the wire, which must be placed in the under side. prepare the flowers and leaves which ornament the edge of the basket in the following manner: _geranium_.--with geranium-coloured wool make a chain of five stitches, unite, and work a round in double crochet, increasing in every stitch; work a round without increasing, then work single crochet, chain, long, chain, single crochet, in one stitch, miss , and repeat in every alternate stitch. _for the cup of the flower_.--with green make a chain of five stitches, unite, and work single, long, single in every stitch. make the stamens with amber wool, and sew the stamens and flower to the cup. _for geranium-bud_.--with geranium-colour make a chain of three stitches, unite, increase in the second round by working two in each alternate stitch; work rounds without increasing; then work two rounds decreasing in every stitch. with green make a chain of four stitches, unite, and work single, long, single; repeat three times, and draw the bud through this, leaving a piece for the stem, which must be wrapped with green wool. _forget-me-not_.--with blue make a chain of five, unite, and into this ring work single, long, single; repeat four times. _for the cup of the flower_.--with green make a chain of four stitches, work single, long in every loop; make stamens with pieces of amber wool; place the flower within the cup, draw the stamens through, and sew at the end, leaving a piece of wool for the stem, which is wrapped with green. _for the leaves_.--with green make a chain of stitches; work down one side of these for stitches in single crochet; turn to the other side, work single, long, in the first two stitches; (_a_) single, long, in third stitch; double long in the fourth; long, chain, in the fifth stitch; repeat from (_a_) once, and work long, double long, in the ninth and tenth stitches, and in the last stitch work two treble long. work the other side of leaf to correspond. work down the chain to the fifteenth stitch; from this work a chain of stitches, and work a leaf from the directions already given. work a third leaf on the reverse side of stem. seven geraniums and three buds will be required, and fifteen forget-me-nots and seven sprays of leaves will also be needed. arrange the flowers and leaves on the basket as seen in illustration, and sew on the handle. * * * * * [illustration: no. . lady's reticule.] [illustration: no. . spectacle case.] [illustration: no. . toilet cushion.] [illustration: no. . bonnet preserver.] * * * * * crochet . raised crochet collar. _materials--raworth's crochet-thread no. , and a middle-sized tambour-needle_. cut out in paper the shape of the collar you wish to make, but half an inch larger all round. _edging for the collar_.--make a chain about one-third longer than the outside of your paper pattern, turn and work the first row along the chain in long crochet, making a chain stitch after each long one, and missing the corresponding loop of the chain.-- _ d row_. turn again, keeping the work on the right side; make chain stitches, and along the opposite edge of the long stitches, (_a_), work plain stitches, and in the tenth a chain of stitches; turn, and along the vein just made work stitches in double crochet, and plain stitch in the loop from which the chain springs; repeat from (_a_) throughout the row. break off your cotton, and begin the next row and all the following at the other end.-- _ d row. (b_) work plain stitches, then work round the vein in long stitches, making an additional stitch at the top; repeat from (_b_).-- _ th row. (c_) work plain stitches, then round the leaf in long stitches, making additional stitches in the top loop; repeat from (_c_).-- _ th row. (d_) work plain stitches, then, in double crochet, making round the leaf an additional stitch in the top loop; repeat from _(d)_.-- _ th row. (e)_ work plain stitches, and round the leaf in double crochet, without making a stitch at the top; repeat from _(e)_. to complete your edging, work a row of double crochet on the other edge of the row of long stitches. _flowers for the collar_.-- make a chain of stitches; close it by taking a plain stitch in the first of the chain; work in every loop of this small ring long stitches, with a chain-stitch between each of the long ones. in finishing the round, make a stitch to complete the number of twenty-five loops; then _(a)_ work plain stitches, and in the fifth make a chain of stitches; turn, work stitches in double crochet along the chain, and plain in the loop from which the chain springs; repeat from _(a)_ four times. you have then three veins; work round them as directed for the leaves of the edging; after the second row of double crochet break off your cotton. according to the size of the collar, five or six flowers will be sufficient, if you make also the trifoliums. _trifoliums_.--make a chain of stitches; turn, and work along the chain plain stitches, a vein of stitches; plain, a vein of stitches; more plain stitches, another vein of ; plain stitches, and break off the cotton. begin at the first end, and work the two rows of long stitches exactly as directed for the leaves of the edging; at the end of the two following rows, which are in double crochet, round the leaves, instead of breaking off the cotton, work in double crochet from the third leaflet to the first; thus connecting the work in one single leaf with three divisions. having prepared the required number of flowers and leaves, baste your edging on the paper pattern, so that the whole of the leaves rest on the paper; then work a chain rather loose, to connect the two ends of the collar on the neck side; turn, and work along that chain a row of double crochet. baste this narrow band carefully half an inch from the edge of the paper; then begin a row of double crochet inside the collar, throwing, at even distances, a slanting chain from the edging to the neckband, working back each time along that chain in long or double crochet; repeat the same operation from the neckband to the edging, so as to divide the whole middle of the collar in a certain number of diamonds; baste the diamonds to the paper, place alternately in each a flower or a trifolium, and, with a sewing-needle and fine french embroidery cotton, connect the flowers and leaves to the inside edges of the diamonds in long twisted stitches, rows of button-hole stitches, or any kind of lace-work. after being washed and starched, the collar ought to be pressed on the wrong side with the head of a round nail warmed in the fire. * * * * * page- . scagliola work . a chess-board. this description of drawing is called scagliola work, or a mischia (mixed workmanship); it was first invented by guido tassi, and the art was afterwards improved and perfected by henry hugford, a monk, of vallambrosa. it was first used to counterfeit marbles; and the altar of st. antonio, in the church of st. nicolo, at carpi, is still preserved as a monument of extraordinary skill and beauty. it consists of two columns, representing porphyry, and adorned with a pallium, embroidered as it were with lace; while it is ornamented in the margin with medals bearing beautiful figures. the dicromi, or yellow figures on a black ground, in imitation of the etruscan vases, are now most admired in scagliola work; and as the art is one easy of attainment, we shall describe it. having procured a piece of sycamore of the desired size and shape, you draw upon it with a pencil, first the centre piece, and afterwards the border; you then trace over the pencil marks with indian-ink and a fine crow-quill, and next fill in the ground with indian-ink and a camel's-hair brush. after two or three days, varnish with the best picture-varnish. if sycamore cannot be procured, deal will answer the purpose, covered with good cream-coloured drawing-paper. * * * * * [illustration: no. . small ottoman] [illustration: no. . card basket.] [illustration: no. . collar.] * * * * * crochet. . garniture for toilet-basket. _materials--raworth's crochet-thread no. ; penelope crochet no. _. make a chain of stitches; work round this, at each side and the ends, long, chain, miss , increasing by missing but stitch at the ends. work rounds thus; then make a round of double crochet. for the sides, work rounds in the same manner, but increasing in every alternate round by making chain-stitches between the long; finish with the following lace: _pattern for lace_.-- _ st round_. long, chain, miss , long, chain, miss , long, chain, miss , long, chain, miss ; repeat.-- _ d round_. long, the first worked over the last stitch of chain; the others in succeeding stitches, chain, long, chain, long, chain; repeat.-- _ d round_. long worked over the centre long stitches, chain, long, chain, long, chain; repeat.-- _ th and th rounds_. long, chain, the long worked in the centre stitch of chain; repeat.-- _ th round_. long worked in the centre stitch of chain, chain, miss ; repeat.-- _ th round_. long, the first in the last chain stitch, the succeeding above the first, long, chain, miss , long, chain; repeat.-- _ th, th, and th rounds_. plain, worked in the centre stitch of chain of last round, chain, long, miss , long, chain, miss , long, chain, miss , chain; repeat. line the basket with rose-coloured satin before sewing in the crochet lining; wrap the handle with ribbon of shade to correspond with the satin, and place small rosettes at each side. * * * * * embroidery . greek cap. _materials required will be a quarter of a yard of common bed-ticken, but of a good broad stripe; some fine gold thread, also some silver thread, and various coloured silks_. measure the size round the head, and cut a piece of ticken to the length, and of the depth of seven inches; work on the _black_ stripes in herring-bone; stitch a row of gold and silver cord, alternate; and on the intermediate _white_ stripes work, according to fancy, different coloured silks, also in herring-bone stitch, only rather larger, to fill up the stripe. cut a piece of ticken round, and of about - / inches in diameter; work it in the same manner, and mount it on a circular piece of card; full the headpiece round the small crown, line it with some bright-coloured persian, and trim it with a gilt band, and gilt tassel to match. this cap is so simple a work, that it hardly allows any one to suppose it will look as pretty as it certainly does. * * * * * crochet. . flower-stand. _materials--scarlet and green shaded eight-thread berlin wool; penelope crochet needle no. _. with scarlet make a chain of stitches, join and work a round in double crochet, increasing in every stitch.-- _ d round_. long, chain, miss all round.-- _ th round_. long in the centre stitch of chain, chain; repeat all round.-- _ th round_. double crochet.-- _ th round_. long, the centre one above the long in d round, chain; repeat all round.-- _ th round_. long worked in the chain stitches, chain; repeat all round.-- _ th round_. double crochet.-- _ th round_. long worked over the chain stitches, chain; repeat.-- _ th round_. stitch of solid long stitch in every loop.-- _ th round (with the green wool_). long, chain, miss ; repeat.-- _ th round_. long, chain, miss ; repeat.-- _ th round_. chain of stitches, worked in every third stitch with a plain stitch.-- _ th and three following rounds_. chain of stitches, worked in the centre stitch of chain of previous round.-- _ th round_. chain, plain, taking the centre chain-stitch of every th chain of ; repeat all round, and this completes the mat. * * * * * crochet. . cover for tassel of window-blind. _materials--raworth's crochet-thread no. _; _penelope crochet no. _. make a chain of stitches, join and work two rounds in single open crochet.-- _ d round_. chain, long; repeat.-- _ th round_. long, chain, long, chain, long, chain; repeat.-- _ th round_. long worked in the last chain-stitch, and over the long stitches and in the first chain-stitch, chain, long chain, long, chain; repeat.-- _ th round_. long worked as in th round, chain, long, chain, long, chain; repeat.-- _ th round_. long worked as before, chain, long, chain, long, chain; repeat.-- _ th round_. long worked as before, chain, long, chain, long, chain; repeat.-- _ th round_. long, chain, long, chain; repeat.-- _ th round_. long, chain, long, chain; repeat.-- _ th round_. long, chain, long, chain; repeat.-- _ th round_. long, chain, long, chain, long, chain; repeat.-- _ th round_. long, chain, long, chain, long, chain; repeat.-- _ th round_. long, chain, long, chain, long, chain; repeat.-- _ th round_. long, chain, long worked in the centre stitch of the chain, chain, long, chain, long, chain, long, chain; repeat.-- _ th round_. long, chain, long, chain, long, chain, long, chain, long, chain; repeat.-- _ th round_. long, chain, long worked in the centre stitch of chain, chain, long, chain, long, chain, long, chain, long, chain, long, chain; repeat.-- _ th round_. long, chain, long, chain, long, chain, long, chain, long, chain, long, chain.-- _ th round_. long, chain; repeat all round.-- _ th round_. long, chain, miss ; repeat all round.-- _ st round_. plain, chain, miss ; repeat all round.-- _ d round_. chain, long, miss ; repeat all round. * * * * * [illustration: no. . scagliola work.] [illustration: no. . garniture for toilette-basket.] [illustration: no. . greek cap.] * * * * * crochet. . under-sleeve. _material--raworth's crochet-thread no_. . _band of insertion for the wrist_.-- c s, unite d c round this ring eighteen times, which will cover about three-quarters of the ring. turn the work wrong side up. c s, miss , s c into third stitch; repeat this five times more. turn d c, l s, d c, into every space formed by c s, d c round the remaining part of the ring six times; fasten off, leaving one end about three inches long. turn on the wrong side. begin on the third stitch of third scallop of last flower. c s, s c into fifth stitch of next scallop, forming a loop over the two centre scallops. turn. d c round this loop eighteen times. turn. * c s, miss , s c into third stitch; repeat from * five times more. turn. d c, l s, d c into every space formed by c s; fasten off, leaving one end as in last flower. work fifteen of these flowers, thread a fine needle with the ends left, and make a few stitches on the wrong side to secure them. the band between the two puffings is to be worked exactly the same; but there must be eighteen flowers instead of fifteen. commence the fulness on the band for the wrist on the first scallop, at the edge, c s (working in the end of the thread), s c into the centre of next scallop, * c s, s c into the first scallop of next flower. c s, s c into next scallop; repeat from * to the end of the band. _ d row_. commence on the first loop of c s in last row, * c s, d c round the next loop, c s, d c round the same loop; repeat from * to the end of the row.--_ d row_. commence on first loop of c s in last row, c s, d c into next loop, c s, d c into next loop; repeat to the end of the row.--_ th row_. commence on the same loop of c s, as the last row was begun on c s, d c round the centre of first loop in last row, * c s, d c round the next loop; repeat from * to the end of the row. after the d c stitch round the last loop in this row, make c s, and draw the end of the cotton through. _these c s must be worked at the end of every alternate row, in order to keep the ends of the fulness even_. work four more rows like the two last, making in all six rows, then seven rows, having c s in each loop, every alternate row of which is begun in the same loop as the preceding row, having c s in the first loop. then work six more rows like the former six, having c s in each loop. this will make nineteen rows of loops: fasten off. work a fulness on the upper band of insertion in exactly the same manner, and gather it in at the top next the sleeve in this way: commence on the first loop c s, take the next loop on the needle, and d c round it once, c s, * d c round next loop once, c s; repeat from * to end of row. in the next row, work l s into every stitch of last row. to unite the fulness on the wristband to the upper band of insertion, turn them both on the wrong side, and hold them as if they were to be sewn together, the insertion being at the back. take the first loop, and the centre stitch of the first scallop, on the needle, and work s c to unite them, c s, s c the next loop and centre stitch of the next scallop, o c s, s c the next loop and centre of first scallop in next flounce together, c s, s c next loop and next scallop, o * c s, s c next loop and next scallop, c s; take the next loop on the needle _without_ the scallop, and s c once round it, c s, s c the next loop and next scallop together; repeat from * to end of row, except on the two last flowers, which must be worked as from o to o. _for the edging on the wristband_.--commence on the first scallop of the insertion, * c s, s c into next scallop, c s, s c into next scallop; repeat from * to end of row. _ d row_. c s, l s, into first loop of last row, * c s, l s into same loop, c s, l s into next loop; repeat from * to end of row.-- _ d row_. c s, d c round every loop of last row.-- _ th row_. c s, l s into every loop of last row.-- _ th row_. begin on the first loop of third row, c s, l s into first loop of last row, c s, d c into next loop, * c s, l s into next loop, c s, d c into next loop; repeat from *.-- _ th row_. d c stitches round first loop of c s in last row, c s, * miss the l s, d c four times round the next loop of c s, d c round the next loop, c s; repeat from *.-- _ th row_. begin on first loop of in last row, c s, s c _between_ the two loops of d c each, * c s, s c round the centre of c s in last row, c s, d c round the same loop, c s, s c between the two loops of d c; repeat from * to end of row. this finishes the edging. d c round the ends of the puffings, taking in the ends left on finishing the rows. make a chain of stitches at the ends of the two bands of insertions, and s c into the edge for a small loop. d c round these twenty-four times, and sew a small pearl button on the other ends of the bands. the insertion may have a narrow satin ribbon run through the open holes, finished by a small bow at the upper part of the sleeve. * * * * * [illustration: no. . flower-stand.] [illustration: no. . cover for tassel of window-blind.] [illustration: no. . under-sleeve.] [illustration: no. . smoking cap.] [illustration: no. . baby's cap.] [illustration: no. . border for a baby's cap.] * * * * * embroidery in braid . smoking cap. _materials--claret-coloured velvet, gold braid, and a gold band and tassels_. six pieces of velvet, three nails in length, and the width given in diagram will be required, and these must be sloped to a point. draw the designs upon the velvet with a white crayon, and sew on the braid; arrange the patterns in alternate order; neatly join the pieces of velvet, and edge each joining with braid; line with silk, and finish with band and tassels. * * * * * crochet. . baby's cap. _materials--raworth's threads nos. and , and penelope crochet no. _. with no. make a chain of loops, join and work a round of double crochet.-- _ d round_. open crochet all round.-- _ d round_. double crochet all round.-- _ th round_. chain, long, missing loops of preceding round; repeat.-- _ th round_. double crochet all round.-- _ th and th rounds_. chain, crochet; repeat.-- _ th round_. double crochet all round.-- _ th round_. chain, long, missing loops of preceding round; repeat.-- _ th round_. double crochet all round.-- _ th and th rounds_. -chain crochet, increasing as required, to form the round for crown.-- _ th round_. three -chain crochet, long in centre loop of every fourth -chain crochet-stitch of preceding round; repeat.-- _ th round_. three -chain, chain over the long of preceding round; repeat.-- _ th, th, th, and th rounds_. like the th and th rounds.-- _ th round_. -chain crochet all round.-- _ th round_. -chain crochet-all round.-- _ st round_. double crochet. this completes the crown of the cap; leave one-third to form the neck. the front of the cap must be worked throughout on one side, commencing at the right hand. _front.-- st round_. chain, long, missing loop of preceding round; repeat.-- _ d round_. double crochet.-- _ d round_. -chain crochet.-- _ th round_. three -chain crochet, long in centre loop of every fourth -chain crochet stitch of preceding row; repeat.-- _ th row_. three -chain double crochet over the long stitches of preceding row; repeat.-- _ th row_. three -chain crochet, chain, long, chain, long, chain, long, chain, long, missing loop between each long over the double crochet of preceding row; repeat.-- _ th row_. three -chain crochet, double crochet over the long stitches of preceding row; repeat.-- _ th row_. -chain crochet; repeat. _ th, th, th,_ _ th, and th rows_, like the th, th, th, th, and th rows.-- _ th row_. -chain crochet.-- _ th row_. double crochet, missing every alternate loop of preceding row.-- _ th row_. chain, long, missing loops of preceding row; repeat.-- _ th row_. double crochet.-- _ th row_. -chain crochet; repeat.-- _ th row_. -chain crochet; repeat.-- _ th row_. three -chain crochet, five long in centre loop of every fourth -chain crochet-stitch; repeat.-- _ st row_. -chain crochet, chain over the long of preceding row.-- _ d row_. -chain crochet; repeat.-- _ d, th, th, and th rows_, like the th, th, st, and d rows.-- _ th row_. -chain crochet; repeat.-- _ th row_. double crochet; repeat.-- _ th row_. chain, long, missing loops of preceding row; repeat.-- _ th row_. double crochet; repeat. work the ends of the front and that part of the crown that was left to form the neck, in double crochet, rounding the crown part by missing every second loop; then work chain, long, missing loops of preceding row; then a row of double crochet: this completes the cap. draw with narrow satin ribbon, and trim with the following lace:-- * * * * * . lace for cap. this lace must be worked throughout on one side, commencing at the right-hand side of foundation. make a chain the required length with thread no. ; work row in double crochet.-- _ st row_. thread no. double crochet.-- _ d row_. chain, long in every alternate loop of foundation; repeat.-- _ d row_. double crochet.-- _ th row_. -chain crochet.-- _ th row_. three -chain crochet, long in centre loop of every fourth -chain crochet-stitch of preceding row; repeat.-- _ th row_. -chain crochet, chain over the five long stitches of preceding row; repeat.-- _ th row_. -chain crochet.-- _ th row_. five -chain crochet, long in centre loop of every sixth -chain crochet-stitch of preceding row; repeat.-- _ th row_. five -chain crochet, chain over the long stitches of preceding row; repeat.-- _ th row_. -chain crochet.-- _ th row_. -chain crochet.-- _ th row_. three -chain crochet, long in centre loop of every fourth -chain crochet-stitch of preceding row; repeat.-- _ th row_. three -chain crochet, double crochet over the long stitches of preceding row; repeat.-- _ th row_. three -chain crochet, chain, long, chain, long, chain, long, chain, long, missing loops between each long; repeat.-- _ th row_. three -chain crochet, double crochet over the long stitches of preceding row; repeat.-- _ th row_. chain, long, chain, long, chain, long, chain, long, chain, long, missing loops between each long; repeat.-- _ th row_. double crochet.--_ th row_. -chain crochet. * * * * * [illustration: no. . apron.] [illustration: no. .] [illustration: no. .] [illustration: no. . scarf.] [illustration: no. .] [illustration: no. .] * * * * * embroidery . apron. _materials--black satin and four shades of crimson, two ditto of blue, three ditto of green, and white embroidery silk_. draw the design on the satin, and work in embroidery stitch the large flowers with the shades of crimson, commencing each petal with the second shade, then work with the third, and finish with the lightest. commence the centre of the flower with the lightest, then work with the second shade, after which work the two upper divisions with the two next shades in regular order. work the cup of the flower with the middle shade of green, and the piece beneath with the second shade of crimson. work the stems with the lightest green, and the leaves with the other two shades. work the centre part of the small flowers with the darkest crimson, the small petals which encircle this with the next shade of crimson; then work with the darkest blue, after which with the lightest, and finish the edge of the flower with white. work the pockets and the band in a similar manner, and finish with cord and tassels. * * * * * tambour . limerick lace scarf. _materials--brussels net, french working-cotton no. , raworth's sewing-cotton no. , and a fine pearl edge_. work the outline of the pattern and the edge with french cotton in tambour-stitch, and fill in the spaces with the sewing-cotton in the same stitch, or, if preferred, in darning-stitch; work dots in the places indicated in the design, and, after washing the scarf, sew a pearl edge all round. a description of head-dress, for which this scarf is intended, will be found in the london and paris fashions of no. of the _lady's newspaper_. * * * * * netting . a knitting-bag. _materials--raworth's crochet-thread no. ; a reel of pink cotton of the same size, or two pieces of white and two of pink netting-silk; three silk pink and white tassels; two yards and a half of silk bag-cord; half-a-yard of pink sarsnet; three meshes cornucopia gauge of no. , no. , and one no. ; two netting-needles; and a piece of cane used for drawn bonnets_. set on stitches with no. mesh, join the round in pink cotton.--_no_. _mesh_. net rounds of alternate white and pink.--* _no_. _mesh (white cotton). _ plain rounds.--_no. mesh_. take of the preceding row together in pink cotton; plain round, same cotton and mesh.--_no_. _mesh (white cotton_). make stitches in each stitch of the preceding row; round plain, same cotton and mesh.--_no_. _mesh (pink cotton_). net plain rounds; recommence from * twice; finish top of bag by plain rows in white of no. mesh, for the cords to pass through; plain rows in pink of no. mesh; last row, double pink cotton, with no. mesh. take the half-yard of sarsnet, join it up neatly, make runners the width of the cane, the first at three inches from the bottom, the second at two inches from the first, and the third two inches from the second; run a piece of cane ten inches long in the first runner, another piece of sixteen inches and a half long in the second runner, and one of eleven inches and a half long in the third runner; tack each of these bands of cane to the rows of fine netting to form the shape, close up the bottom, and place a tassel; run the cord round the top of bag, and fasten a tassel to each end. * * * * * netting . vase-stand. _materials--shaded green, shaded scarlet, and shaded amber berlin wool; meshes nos. , , and _. with scarlet make a foundation of loops on mesh no. ; join and net round on mesh no. ; fasten on the green; net loops in ; then net rounds more with green, without increasing; fasten on the scarlet; net round on mesh no. , on mesh no. , on mesh no. , and on mesh no. ; fasten on the green; net loops in every loop on mesh no. ; net round with amber on mesh no. ; fasten on the scarlet wool in the fourth round from edge, that is, in the same loops as that in which the row of scarlet, netted on mesh no. , was netted; into this row net row on mesh no. ; net more rows with scarlet on mesh no. ; then with green net loops in each loop on mesh no. ; net row with amber on mesh no ; fasten on the scarlet in the last row of green in the centre of the mat; into this row net row on mesh no. ; then net more rows in the same mesh; net loops in each loop on mesh no. ; row with amber on mesh no. . * * * * * braid . watch-pocket. _materials--pink silk or satin, a piece of white silk braid, white silk fringe, and white satin ribbon_. draw the pattern on the silk with a white crayon, and hem the braid on; trim with the fringe, and rows of satin ribbon. [illustration: no. . knitting-bag.] [illustration: no. .] [illustration: no. .] [illustration: no. vase-stand.] [illustration: no. watch-pocket.] * * * * * crochet. . mitten. _materials--raworth's crochet-thread nos_. _and_ , _or black crape silk_. the receipt for the back of mitten is here given, the underpart and the thumb being simply french ground-work, finished at the top and bottom like the back, leaving an opening at the side for the thumb. make a chain long enough to go round the wrist in thread no. , and work one plain row. fasten on thread no. , and work one treble and row of french ground of six stitches to each hole.-- _ st fancy row_. holes of french ground, long close, french ground.-- _ d row_. french ground, long close, french ground.-- _ d row_. french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground.-- _ th row_. french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground.-- _ th row_. french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground.-- _ th row_. french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground.-- _ th row_. french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground.-- _ th row_. french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground.-- _ th row_. french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground.-- _ th row_. french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground.-- _ th row_. french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground.-- _ th row_. french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground.-- _ th row_. french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground.-- _ th row_. french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground.-- _ th row_. french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground.-- _ th row_. french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground.-- _ th row_. french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground.-- _ th row_. french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground, long close, french ground.-- _ th row_. french ground, long close, french ground.-- _ th, st, and d rows_. french ground.-- _ d row_. plain, long close, plain into each loop. _for the edging_.-- treble, french ground.-- _ st fancy row_. hole of french and long close alternately all round.-- _ d row_. wholes of french ground, long close all round.-- _ d row_. long close, chain, long close, chain all round.-- _ th row_. same as the d.-- _ th row_. long close, chain, chain, chain, chain to be worked into the same loop, chain; repeat all round. the engraving will greatly assist in working out this. _explanation of terms_.--french ground: six chain stitches united to the centre stitch of former row. long close: long stitches, without any chain-stitch between. * * * * * crochet. . collar. _flowers for the border_.--the following is the mode of working this pattern:--make chain. turn. miss , plain, chain, long, chain. continue to work long and chain all round the flower.-- _ d round_. plain under every chain; plain in the stem. fasten off for the leaf. chain. turn. miss ; long stitches in following chain, plain; chain to cross the stem; long, plain in the same chain as last long; long, plain, long to turn the point; plain, long, plain twice; plain in stem. fasten off. the second flower, worked as the first, is united to it by working the eighth plain stitch of the last round of the flowers into a stitch the same distance from the stem of the first flower. to turn the corners of the collar, work a flower without a leaf. continue these flowers the length of the collar. _leaves and flowers for the centre_:-- _first leaf_. chain. turn. insert the needle into the nineteenth chain; plain, chain to cross the stem; long into three following chain; long in chain, long, long in chain; long to turn the points. then down the other side of the leaf the same. plain in the stem; chain to cross the stem.-- _second leaf_. chain, and work as first leaf. when finished, work plain down the stem.-- _third leaf_. chain. turn. miss , plain, long, plain.-- _the flower_. chain. turn. insert the needle in the tenth chain to form a loop; work plain stitches in the loop.-- _ st round_. chain, miss , plain five times.-- _ d round_. plain stitches in every chain.-- _ d round_. chain, miss , plain; repeat. plain in the stem. fasten off for the band. work a chain the length of the collar.-- _ st row_. plain.-- _ d row_. plain, long, double long, long, plain; repeat. _directions for making up the collar_.--after the leaves, flowers, band, and border are worked, cut the shape of the collar in pink or blue paper; gum a piece of holland at the back of the paper, to prevent its tearing; tack the border on the paper pattern, the right side downwards; then sew on the sprigs as in the engraving. sew the edges of the leaves and flowers nicely, to prevent their turning up; then, with a sewing-needle and fine cotton, unite the flowers, leaves, and borders, by passing the needle from one part of a leaf or flower to another four or five times; then pass the needle under the bars formed six or eight times, according to the length of the bar; pass the needle to another part, and continue to connect the work in this manner throughout the collar. * * * * * [illustration: no. . mitten.] [illustration: no. . floral collar.] [illustration: no. . centre of a cover for music book or portfolio.] [illustration: no. . winter head-dress.] [illustration: no. . "baboche," or candle ornament.] * * * * * embroidery . centre of a cover for music-book or portfolio. _materials--black satin or velvet; three shades of green, two ditto of crimson, two ditto of blue, and one skein of olive silk; and one piece of silver twist_. work, in embroidery-stitch, the leaves with the greens, the flowers with the crimson, the stems with the olive, the harp with blue, the cords of harp with the silver twist, and the shamrocks with green. * * * * * crochet. . winter head-dress. _materials--half-an-ounce of shaded scarlet berlin wool, and six skeins of white wool; penelope crochet no. _. with white make a chain measuring inches. work a row in single open crochet. with scarlet work rows, decreasing stitch at the end of each row. work the next row with white, and continue alternately rows scarlet and white, decreasing every row until rows are completed. _for the borders_.--with white work in chains of , missing every alternate stitch at the back, and taking every stitch at the sides; and for the space of stitches in the centre of the cap miss stitches. work a second row of chains of at the sides. work an additional border in the same manner, taking the stitches above the third row of white. pass casings of scarlet ribbon through each of the rows of white wool, place loops of the same between the borders, join the cap behind, and finish with a rosette of ribbon. * * * * * . "baboche," or ornament for candles. the materials required are, a quarter of a yard of bright rose-coloured glazed muslin, a quarter of a yard of white glazed jaconet muslin, two pieces of card of three inches and a half long and one inch broad; join in, and cut out of rose and white jaconet muslin twenty pieces of each colour; fold them, and sew on the card rose, then white, all round, and your baboche will be completed.--(_see_ drawing.) we assure our fair readers they are exceedingly pretty, and certainly not found _difficult_. * * * * * scagliola work . chess-board. see directions in page . * * * * * crochet. . d'oyley. _materials--shaded scarlet and green double berlin wool; raworth's crochet-thread no_. ; _penelope crochet no_. . with green make a chain of stitches, unite the ends; then make chain, single into each loop of the preceding chain.-- _ st round_. chain, single in the centre loop of the chain; repeat four times.-- _ d, d, and th rounds_. treble, chain, miss ; repeat, uniting the ends of each round, and taking the loops at the back of the chain.-- _ th round (crochet-thread_.) treble, chain, miss , treble, chain, treble twice, chain, miss ; repeat.-- _ th round (green wool)_. treble over the in the last row, double, chain, single through the loop in the last round twice, chain, single; repeat.-- _ th round (crochet-thread)_. treble over the in the last round, double, chain, single over the in the last round.-- _ th round (scarlet)_. treble, double, chain, double through the loop, chain, double twice, chain, double; repeat. * * * * * [illustration: no. . chess-board.] [illustration: no. . d'oyley.] [illustration: no. . gauntlet cuff.] * * * * * crochet. . gauntlet cuff. _materials--white and scarlet berlin wool, three shades, and shaded green wool; penelope crochet no_. . with white make a chain of loops, and work from the directions given for collar, page . finish, to correspond with, collar, placing a rosette in the centre of the cuff, and fastening with a hook and eye. * * * * * embroidery . liqueur-stand mat. _materials--white silk or cashmere; three shades of crimson, three ditto of green, two ditto of brown chenille; five shades of scarlet berlin wool, four skeins of each shade; and four skeins of white berlin wool_. draw the pattern on the material, and work in embroidery-stitch; the roses with the shades of crimson; the leaves with green, shading according to taste; and the stems with brown. in working the designs for the corners, it is an improvement to introduce brown leaves occasionally. work a shaded fringe round the edge with the wools on a mesh an inch and a half in width. work the first round with white; the second, the lightest crimson; after which, work one round with each shade to the darkest; cut and comb the fringe, and line the mat with green silk. * * * * * crochet applique . border for a lace scarf or veil. _materials--if for a black veil, fine black crochet-silk; if white, raworth's crochet-thread no_. . the illustration represents the corner of the border. _the rose.-- st row_. c s, l s into eighth stitch, * c s, miss , l s into third; repeat from * to end of chain, except the last three stitches, then c s, s c into last stitch.-- _ d row_. c s, l s over s in last row (this row is worked on the other side of chain, where the two stitches were missed), * c s, l s over next s; repeat from * to end of row. turn. c s, l s round the c s of last row, * c s, l s round the c s of next space; repeat from * to end of row. turn. c s, miss one space, l s into second space, * c s, miss one space, l s into second space; repeat from * to end of row. after the last l s one space is left. c s, l s into this. turn. c s, l s into second space, c s, miss one space, l s into second, c s, l s into next, c s, s c into last space. fasten off. commence again on last s c stitch of first row. l s, d l s into first space towards the top, d l s into next space, l s, d c into third space, l s, d l s into next space, t l s into top space, d l s, l s into next, d c, l s into next, d l s into next, d l s, l s into next space. continue all round thus: d l s into next or corner space, d l s into next and every other space except the end, into which d l s, l s. turn. c s, miss , s c into third, c s, miss , d c into third, * c s, miss , l s into third. continue from * thirteen times, then c s, d c into third stitch, c s, miss , s c into third. turn. d c round every c s all along the last row, c s, s c into middle stitch of the first of three scallops at the top of the rose, c s, s c into second stitch of top scallop, c s, s c into middle of top scallop, c s, s c into last stitch but one of same scallop, c s, s c into middle of next scallop, c s, s c into first of d c stitches round the space of last row * c s, miss , s c into seventh; repeat from * until these chains meet where they were begun; then * l c s, s c into s c stitch on the other side of first chain; repeat from * all round. _wreath of leaves and buds_.--for the wreath under the corner rose: c s, s c down twelve of these, * c s, s c into third s c stitch; repeat from * three times more, which brings it to top stitch; c s, s c into same stitch, * c s, s c into third stitch down the other side; repeat from * three times more; pass the thread under the stalk, d c into first loop of c s, * c, s c round next loop of c s; repeat from * three times, which brings it to top loop; c s, s c into same loop; repeat the c into every loop down the other side; s c, c s for a stalk; c s, d l s into fifth stitch, more d l s into same stitch. turn. d c along the top of these d l s. turn. d c along last d c stitches; c s, s c into d c stitch on the other side. fasten off; this forms the bud. commence again at the last s c of the stalk of leaf, s c along thirteen stitches; repeat the leaf and bud five times more; s c the remaining c s for a stalk. the wreaths under the roses at the sides are only to have five leaves and five buds on each, and require a chain of eighty-two stalks for the stem. tack the flowers on paper wrong side up, as seen in the illustration. tack the buds to the roses, and unite the leaves by a slight band in button-hole stitch. tack the edges of the roses together, and the ends of the stems to the adjoining wreath; then remove the paper, and lay the bordering upon the edge of the scarf or veil, which should be of brussels net. sew the edge of the upper scallops of the rose to the net very firmly, and cut away the superfluous net. * * * * * [illustration: no. . liqueur-stand mat.] [illustration: no. ] [illustration: no. ] [illustration: no. . border for a lace scarf or veil] [illustration: no. . purse.] * * * * * crochet. . card-purse. _materials--one skein of cerise, one of blue fine crochet-silk, one skein of gold twist; one hank of gold beads no. , one ditto of silver; a gilt top and tassel will also be required_. thread the gold beads on the cerise silk, and the silver on the blue, and with the cerise make a chain of stitches, unite; make stitches in each stitch in the st round, in every alternate in the d, and in every third in the d, passing down a bead in every stitch; work thus, increasing in each stitch until there are bead-stitches in the round; now decrease each division of the star, working bead-stitches, plain, increasing in the plain stitch; then decrease bead-stitch in every round till but one remain, increasing always in the same stitch in each round; work plain rounds, still increasing as before; work round with gold twist, without increasing; round with cerise, passing down a bead at every stitch; and round again with twist. commence with blue, and work plain round. there ought now to be stitches in the round; if a greater number should be found, decrease by missing a stitch as may be found necessary. this must be done in the first round worked with blue.--_ d round (with blue)_. plain, beads, plain, bead-stitches; repeat all round.-- _ d round_. plain, beads; repeat.-- _ d round_. plain, beads; repeat.-- _ th round_. plain, beads, plain, beads; repeat.-- _ th round_. plain, beads, _ _ plain, beads, plain, bead; repeat.-- _ th round_. plain, beads, plain, beads, plain, bead, plain, beads; repeat.-- _ th round_. plain, beads, plain, beads, plain, bead; repeat.-- _ th round_. plain, beads, plain, beads, plain, beads.-- _ th round_. plain, beads, plain, beads, plain, beads; repeat.-- _ th round_. plain, beads, plain, bead, plain, beads, plain, beads; repeat.-- _ th round_. plain, bead, plain, beads, plain, beads; repeat.-- _ th round_. plain, beads, plain, beads; repeat.-- _ th round_. plain, beads; repeat,--_ th round_. plain, beads; repeat.-- _ th round_. plain, beads, plain, beads; repeat.-- _ th round_. plain, decreasing by missing every th stitch. work round with gold, then divide the purse, and work one-half with cerise; work rows, passing down a bead at every stitch, and decreasing a stitch at the beginning and end of each row; work the other half to correspond; sew on to the top, and finish with tassel in the centre of star. * * * * * crochet. . round collar. _materials--white, and three shades of scarlet and shaded green berlin wool;_ _penelope crochet no. _. with white make a chain of stitches; work a row of single open crochet.-- _ d row (lightest scarlet)_. chain, long, miss ; repeat to the end.-- _ d row (second shade of scarlet)_. long worked in the centre long stitch of previous row, chain; repeat.-- _ th row (dark scarlet)_. long worked above the long, and the last and first stitches of the chain, chain; repeat.-- _ th row (green)_. commence in the edge stitch of third row. chain, miss *, long, chain, miss ; repeat from *, and work to the end, which must be finished with chain, plain, worked in the third row.-- _ th row (white)_. commence at the edge-stitch of the third row. chain, * plain worked above the long of previous row, chain: repeat from * to the end, and finish with chain. fasten the white wool to the second stitch of fourth row, chain, plain worked above the long of fourth row; repeat. pass through every second stitch of white row, and place a rosette of ribbon at the end. * * * * * embroidery . prince of wales's plume. _materials--crimson satin and gold twist_. draw the design, and work in embroidery-stitch. this elegant design is suitable for the centre of a book-cover, a watch-pocket, and many other purposes, which the taste of the worker may suggest. * * * * * netting . pattern for window-curtains. _materials--raworths crochet-thread no. , or fine knitting-cotton_. use cotton no. for embroidering the pattern. meshes no. , no. , and a flat mesh three-fourths of an inch in width, will be required for the edge. commence with a foundation of loops on mesh no. , and net till the length required is worked; then net the following edge at the sides and end; net two loops in every loop on the large mesh, making four loops in the corner loops.-- _ d row_. take two loops together, netting two in these.-- _ d row_. take every loop on mesh no. .-- _ th row_. like d row.-- _ th row_. net two loops in every loop on the large mesh.-- _ th and th rows_. like d and th. work the pattern in darning-stitch, as in illustration. * * * * * [illustration: no. . round collar.] [illustration: no. . prince of wales's plume.] [illustration: no. . pattern for window-curtains.] [illustration: no. . gentleman's braces.] * * * * * embroidery . gentleman's braces. _materials--black velvet or white satin ribbon of a very good quality, and five shades of crimson and three of green embroidery silk_. line the ribbon with linen; draw the design, and work in embroidery-stitch, shading, as taste may direct,--the leaves with the greens, and the roses with crimson, using three shades for each rose, and working first only with the lightest shades, then with the darkest only. * * * * * embroidery . toilet-cushion. _materials--white or black satin; three shades of crimson, three shades of yellow, three shades of green, and two shades of olive green embroidery silk; one yard of crimson and one yard of green chenille will also be required_. draw the pattern on the material, and work in embroidery-stitch one rose with the shades of crimson, and the second with the shades of yellow; the leaves with the shades of green, and the stems with olive; work a few stitches with the shades of the roses in the centre of the rose-buds, and work the corner designs with green and olive. in the arrangement of the colours, the taste and judgment of the worker must be exercised, as much depends upon the harmoniously blending of the various shades. * * * * * netting . the helen cap. _materials--scarlet floss silk, or five shades of scarlet berlin wool; meshes nos. and ; cornucopia gauge, and a flat mesh, an inch in width_. the cap is worked in honeycomb netting, and the borders and rosette in plain netting. with the darkest shade make a foundation of stitches on mesh no. , net rows with each shade, increasing a stitch at the end of each row; leave one-half of the cap plain, and net a border in the following manner on the remaining loops and at the ends:--with the darkest shade net loops in every loop on the flat mesh, increasing by making loops in each of the three corner stitches; then on mesh no. , net loop in each, and finish by netting a row with the next shade on the smallest mesh: this must be repeated at each side of the cap. for the second border, net loops on the flat mesh on a foundation of wool, and finish to correspond with the first border. two pieces netted in this manner are required, and they are arranged in festoons at the sides of the cap. pass a cord the size required through the foundation-stitches, join it, and sew on a rosette made in the following manner:--with the darkest shade net loops on mesh no. ; then with the next shade net rows at each side and at the ends; make this into a rosette with long ends, as in illustration. this elegant and becoming head-dress derives its name from the beautiful sister-in-law of the emperor of russia, the grand duchess helen, who introduced this style of coiffure at st. petersburg. * * * * * indian ornamental work . screen. beautiful cabinets, work-boxes, work-tables, fire-screens, &c., may be painted in imitation of ebony inlaid with ivory by the following means:--let your screen be made of an elegant form, but merely of common white wood or deal, prepared as below. _composition for the surface of wood_.--steep one ounce of glue in a pint of cold water all night; throw off the water in the morning. take six ounces of finest white lead in powder, mix it by degrees in a mortar, with about half a pint of cold water, till it is perfectly smooth, then place it, along with the glue, in a clean pan. add half a pint more water; set it on the fire, stirring constantly till it boils. let it boil three minutes; take it off, and pour it into a stone jar, and continue to stir it occasionally till cold. when cold, but before it congeals, take a clean paint-brush, and paint your screen with the composition. when it is quite dry, rub it over with sand-paper, to make it quite smooth; then give it another coat of the white composition, repeating the rubbing with sand-paper as before. repeat this same process five or six times, until you obtain a smooth, equal, white surface. when that is accomplished, dissolve the fourth of an ounce of isinglass in a quarter of a pint of water; when cold, but liquid, give the screen a coat of it with a clean brush, and do not use the sand-paper after it. _to ornament the screen_.--lay a sheet of black tracing-paper on the screen, with the black side downwards; then place a pattern above it, with the right side uppermost; place a weight here and there, to prevent it slipping; then trace over the outline with a rather blunt stiletto. on removing the paper, you will find the outline of the pattern transferred to the surface of the screen. trace over the outline, and shade, in lines, with a fine camel's-hair pencil dipped in newman's lamp-black; fill in with the same. _varnish_.--place four ounces of rectified spirit of wine in a wide-mouthed bottle; add one ounce of gum sandarac, a quarter of an ounce of gum mastic, and a drachm of camphor, all in powder. put a stopper in the bottle, set it near a fire, and shake it occasionally. when all the gums are quite dissolved, add one ounce of oil of turpentine; then strain through muslin into another clean, dry wide-mouthed bottle. let it stand a day or two before using. _mode of varnishing_.--take a large clean new varnish-brush, dip it into the bottle, and then cover over all your screen with it. when perfectly dry, give it another coat, and so on till it has had six coats; let it remain untouched for two days; rub it smooth with sand-paper; then give it two more coats of varnish, and repeat the rubbing, being careful to wait between each coat till the last is dry, and not to rub with sand-paper sooner than two days after varnishing, and never give more than two coats of varnish in a day--one in the morning, another at night. when you think it looks clear and sufficiently thick, give it another coat without using the sand-paper after it; let it stand four days; then rub it all over with pounded rottenstone, and wipe it off with a wet cloth; after which take a little florence oil and hair-powder, and polish with your hand. * * * * * [illustration: no . toilet cushion.] [illustration: no. . the helen cap.] [illustration: no. . screen] [illustration: no. . heartsease] * * * * * knitting . heartsease. _materials--split berlin wool, and knitting-needles no. ; cornucopia gauge_. _violet petals_.--cast on three stitches with a bright shade of violet; knit and pearl in alternate rows, making a stitch at the beginning of every row, until you have fourteen or sixteen stitches; then knit and pearl six rows alternately, without increase, and continue in knitted and pearled rows, decreasing one stitch at the beginning of each row, till six or eight stitches alone remain; these cast off in the plain row, taking the two last as one before you turn the last stitch over. two petals like these are required. _large yellow petal_.--take a bright, though rather deep, shade of yellow wool, split; cast on three stitches, knit and pearl in alternate rows, increasing one stitch before and one after the middle stitch in the plain row, till you have fifteen or seventeen stitches; take a higher shade of yellow, and work six more alternate plain and pearled rows, still increasing in the middle, but decreasing one stitch at the beginning of every row; change your wool for a deep violet, and continue to knit in alternate plain and pearled rows, decreasing one stitch at the beginning of each row, till seven stitches only remain; these cast off, taking the two last as one. _two smaller petals_.--exactly like the large one, but increased only to thirteen stitches. sew a fine wire round each petal with split wool, tie the five petals together with a bit of green. _buds_.--take eight or ten lengths of split wool, yellow and violet, place across a piece of wire, fold the wire, twist the ends, turn down the ends of wool, tie them round the wire, leaving out the length required for the bud (about a quarter of an inch); cover the stem with green wool, split; also the stem of the heartsease. _leaves_.--begin with a shade of green wool, split as for one of the yellow petals, but you have thirteen stitches; cast off three at the beginning of the two following rows, go on increasing again to thirteen; cast off three at each end, and make thus as many scallops as will look well--in general three or four on each side make a very good-sized leaf; after the last scallops, decrease one stitch at the beginning of every row, till the leaf comes to a point. * * * * * crochet. . serviette for liqueur-stand. _materials--raworth's thread no. , and three shades of manlove's pink crochet thread of corresponding size_. with the lightest shade make a chain of stitches; join to form a round. _ st round_. double crochet, increasing in every stitch.-- _ d round_. chain. plain, miss ; repeat.-- _ d round_. chain, plain, taking the centre stitch of chain of previous round; repeat.-- _ th round_. double crochet, increasing in every fifth stitch.-- _ th round_. chain, plain, miss ; repeat.-- _ th round_. double crochet.-- _ th round_. chain, plain above the centre stitch of chain in th round; repeat.-- _ th round (second shade of pink)_. chain, plain, worked in the plain of last round; repeat.-- _ th round_. double crochet.-- _ th round_. chain, plain, miss ; repeat.-- _ th round_. chain, plain, worked in the centre stitch of chain of last round; repeat.-- _ th round_. double crochet, increasing in every ninth stitch. now divide the work into three parts, commence with the darkest shade, and work as follows:--fasten on the thread three stitches from the centre of one of these divisions; make a chain of stitches, plain, miss .-- _ d row_. commence one stitch from the first stitch in last row, chain, long in every stitch; repeat, finishing by working a stitch in advance.-- _ d row_. commence as in last row, chain, long, miss , and finish as before.-- _ th row_. commence and finish as before, long, chain, miss ; repeat.-- _ th row_. chain, long, miss ; repeat, beginning and finishing as before.-- _ th row_. long, chain, miss ; repeat, commencing and finishing as before. now work the other two divisions in the same manner; after which work long, chain, miss , all round; then work a round in double crochet. this completes the centre. _for the edge_.--with white work long, chain, miss , all round.-- _ d round_. chain, plain, miss ; repeat.-- _ d round_. chain, plain worked in the centre stitch of chain; repeat.-- _ th round_. plain worked in the centre stitch of chain, long worked in the following stitches: plain, chain, plain in the centre stitch of chain, chain; repeat. * * * * * [illustration: no. . serviette for liqueur stand] [illustration: no. . ribbon-work.] [illustration: no. . lady's silk mittens.] [illustration: no. . couvrette for devotional chair.] * * * * * ribbon work . a new and elegant work for sofa pillows, anti-macassars, card-baskets, &c. we will describe how to make an anti-macassar:-- _take penelope canvass, three quarters of a yard long, half a yard wide; a piece of crimson china ribbon; one piece of gold-colour, one of shaded lilac, and a rug-needle_. prepare the canvass by cutting away every alternate threads, and draw them out the whole length of the canvass; next cut away and draw them out with tweezers, every alternate threads, the whole of the width of the canvass. next thread the rug-needle with crimson ribbon, and sew over the first threads of canvass the lengthway of the canvass; when at the end, pass the needle to the next threads and sew them over, taking care to keep the ribbon flat as possible; when at the top, return and cover the next two threads with the same coloured ribbon. this will make stripes. proceed the same with the gold-colour, stripes; then the lilac, stripes; then recommence with the crimson, and continue the same until you have the whole length finished. next commence to sew over the same from side to side, which will form a chequered pattern, and has a rich effect. finish round with a ruche of satin ribbon or fringe, crimson colour. if desired, can be worked with slight silk. * * * * * crochet. . lady's silk mitten. _materials_-- _pieces of fine black crochet silk_; _bundles of no_. _steel beads; penelope crochet no_. . make a chain of stitches; work row in plain-stitch crochet.-- _ d row_. edge-stitches, bead-stitch, plain to the end of row.-- _ d row_. plain.-- _ th row_. same as d row.-- _ th, th, and th rows_. plain.-- _ th row_. plain, bead to the end of row.-- _ th, th, and th rows_. as th row.-- _ th, th, and th rows_. plain.-- _ th row_. plain-stitch, bead-stitch to the end of row.-- _ th row_. plain. this completes the band for the arm, which must be worked on one side, detaching the silk at the end of each row. work rows in chain-stitch open crochet, making loops in each chain, and missing stitches in working the first row, join and work in rounds; work _ _ rounds, then divide the mit in half, and leave a space for the thumb; the silk must be detached at the end of the row. work to the centre of the back of hand, make chain-stitches, pass down a bead in making the next chain-stitches, crochet to the centre stitch of chain of last row; then work stitches, passing down a bead at each stitch, then _ _ chain-stitches; work to the end of row. work rows, increasing the number of bead-stitches by commencing at the preceding chain-stitch; then work rows, decreasing as seen in illustration; the last of these must be worked in rounds instead of rows; work _ _ rounds in chain-stitches of as before, then a round of chain-loops in each chain. work one-half plain for the inner part of the hand, then bead, plain. next round plain. work rows thus on the back of the hand; bead-stitches, plain stitches. next round plain; then bead-stitch, plain as before, and finish with a plain round. now work the thumb as follows:--work a chain of , missing every third stitch; repeat three times, then work rounds, decreasing in each round by passing the loop through the centre stitches of two of the chains; work rounds without decreasing, and finish with rounds of close double crochet, making every alternate stitch of the centre round a bead-stitch. work a loop on the band, and fasten with a button. * * * * * netting . couvrette for devotional chair. _materials--raworth's thread no_. , _knitting-cotton no_. , _shaded amber berlin wool, mesh no_. . commence with a foundation of loops, and net till the proper length is completed. work the pattern in darning-stitch with cotton. net a fringe with shaded wool, making two loops in every loop, using a flat mesh two inches broad. * * * * * [illustration: no. sachet] [illustration: no. . pen-wiper.] [illustration: no. . pattern for footstool.] * * * * * embroidery . sachet. _materials--a quarter of a yard of pale-blue satin, one yard and one-eighth of blue silk fringe, three shades of green, and two shades of olive-green embroidery silk, and a small bundle of pearl beads_. draw the design upon the satin, and work in embroidery-stitch, the leaves with the shades of green, the stems with the shades of olive, and the grapes with the beads. use such perfume as may be preferred, and trim round the edge with the fringe. * * * * * _embroidery in braid_. . pen-wiper. _materials--blue cachmere and gold-coloured braid_. draw the pattern, and sew on the braid; edge with button-hole stitch. * * * * * _berlin work_. . pattern for footstool or cushion. _materials--canvass no. ; scarlet, black, and white berlin wool; fourth shade of blue, fourth ditto of green, fourth ditto of peach berlin wool; amber floss silk, six skeins of each of the wools, and a similar quantity of silk will be required; also a piece of fine piping-cord, and emerald-green velvet ribbon_. cut the canvass into strips inches in width, and the length required; sew lengths of cord upon the canvass, leaving threads between each cord; the cord will cover a space of threads. leave a margin threads from this, and with black work stitches over the th and th cords opposite each other; with blue work stitches on the same cords on the right side, and with green on the left; with peach work stitches on the th and th cords, above the stitches of black; and with scarlet stitches on the th and th cords, underneath the black. there will now be stitches worked. with white work stitches on a line with each of the preceding stitches, and on the cords above the stitches of peach and below the scarlet; with amber silk work stitches in the same manner. this completes the first diamond. the pattern is repeated to the end of row. the spaces between the diamonds are worked as follows: with black work stitches on a line with each stitch of amber; with peach work the stitches between the black on the d and th cords; on the right hand work stitches with blue on the st and d cords, and on the left with green; work the centre stitches with silk. the opposite space is worked in a similar manner, substituting scarlet for peach. for a cushion it will be necessary to work strips of this pattern; and, in making it up, a length of velvet ribbon of a similar width is placed between each division of work. finish with green cord and tassels. * * * * * [illustration: no . a mat for a flower-vase.] [illustration: nos. , . lady's slipper.] * * * * * crochet. . a mat for a flower-vase. _material--raworth's crochet thread no_. . _centre flower_.-- c s, unite, work into this ring c s, l s, * c s, l s; repeat from * eleven times, finish with c s, s c into third stitch of first, c s.-- _ d round_. d c into first space, * c s, d c into next space; repeat from * into every space, finish with c s, s c into first d c of the round.-- _ d round_. d c round every loop of c s in last round. _the eight leaves round this flower_.--commence on one of the stitches at the edge of this flower, c s, s c back (this is for the stripe in the centre of leaf), * c s, miss , d c into fourth; repeat from * five times, which brings it to top stitch of leaf, c s, d c into same stitch, c s, miss , d c into fourth six times down the other side of the stripe, draw out the loop on the needle a little, pass the thread under the leaf, d c round the first loop, c s, d c round the next loop, * c s, d c round the next; repeat from * four times, which brings it to top loop, c s into same top loop, c s into five more loops down the other side, c s, d c into last loop, pass the thread under the leaf, d c three times round the loop next to stripe, five times round next loop, six times round every loop up to the top, d c, l s, d c round the top loop, d c round every chain of six down the other side, d c round chain of , d c round the last loop at bottom of leaf next to the stripe; fasten off. make another leaf in the same manner at the opposite side of the centre flower, and one at an equal distance between these two; another on the other side to correspond, which will make four leaves, then work four more leaves between these , and the eight leaves will be finished. _for the rounds of open work proceed thus:_ commence on the point of one of the leaves, work c s, d c into point of next leaf; repeat this all round, not making the c s too tight.-- _ d round_. d c into every stitch of this round.-- _ d round_. l s, * c s, miss , l s into third stitch; repeat from *.-- _ th round_. d c into every stitch of last round.-- _ th round_. l s, * c s, miss , l s into third stitch; repeat from *.-- _ th round_. d c into every stitch of last round.-- _ th round_. l s, c s, miss , l s into third; repeat from * all round.-- _ th round_. d c into every stitch of last round. work on the inside of the first round of c s a ring, thus: commence on centre, c s _between_ the leaves, c s, unite on foundation-stitch, d c twenty-four times round this ring; repeat these rings between every two leaves, making eight in all. _the leaves on the outside of the open rounds_.-- commence on stitch opposite to the point of one of the large leaves. c s, l s into sixth stitch, * c s, miss , l s into third; repeat three times more from *. s c into foundation-stitch, then d c round first loop; d c, l s, d c round next three loops, d c, l s, d c round top loop; d c, l s, d c round three loops on the other side of leaf; d c round last loop. make another leaf in the same manner, beginning at the same foundation-stitch. fasten off. then two more leaves exactly the same, opposite the points of all the large centre leaves. then two more leaves opposite each of the d c rings inside the open rounds (which will be at an equal distance on each side from the others). there will now be thirty-two small leaves, two and two, the upper point of each leaf to be turned _outwards_, and to be tacked with needle and thread to the point of the next leaf, which it will meet easily. (care must be taken to refer to the engraving for the manner in which the mat is to be finished, as it will greatly assist the explanations.) for the small roses between the leaves, which are made separately: c s, unite, c s, long stitch into ring, * c s, l s; repeat from * seven times. c s, s c into third stitch of first c s. _ d round_. s c round first space, c s, l s, into same space, * c s, miss space, l s into next space; repeat from * all round. finish with c s, s c into third stitch of c s. fasten off sixteen roses for the round. place one of these roses between every pair of the leaves which proceed from the same foundation, and sew it at the edge to the third scallop of the leaves; then commence between the points of the leaves which were sewn together, * c s, d c into centre of edge of small rose, c s, d c between the points of the leaves; repeat from * all round, then d c stitches _round_ every chain. _sprigs between the c s_.-- c s, unite on twelfth. d c round this loop twenty-two times. s c up remaining c s for stalk. fasten off, leaving an end to sew the sprig on the mat. turn wrong side up. commence on fifth stitch from stalk on the _right-hand side_ of the flower, * c s, unite in same stitch. turn again. into this circle work d c stitches *. turn wrong side up. s c up to top of ring formed by c s; repeat from * to * for another ring. turn wrong side. s c down to fifth stitch from stalk. repeat another ring, when the work will be on the right side. bring the cotton to the side of this last ring nearest to stalk. c s, s c into top of last ring. c s, s c into same stitch. c s, s c into foundation close to the lower part of ring. c s, s c into _foundation-ring,_ close to centre ring, at the top. c s, s c into top of ring; c s, s c into same stitch; c s, s c into foundation at bottom of ring; c s, s c into foundation at lower part of next ring; c s, s c into top of ring; c s, s c into same stitch; c s, s c into foundation at the other side of ring. fasten off. sixteen of these sprigs are required, and sixteen more small roses. place one sprig between each of the chains of d c, where they meet at the points of the leaves, and sew them by the thread which was left at the end of the stalk. confine them to the d c by the lower c s. place a small rose between each of these sprigs, fastening them together where they meet. the best way is, to cut out a circle in coloured paper, and (after the crochet work is completed) place the mat wrong side up upon it, and fasten the flowers to it and to each other, as it will then be quite flat and smooth. * * * * * _embroidery in braid_. , . lady's slipper. _materials--black satin or velvet, gold braid, and gold beads_. pencil the design on tissue-paper, trace this over with ink, tack the pattern thus prepared on the right side of the satin or velvet. sew the braid on by the pattern, and when completed tear away the paper. sew on the beads with strong sewing-silk in the spaces indicated in the design. transcriber's note obvious typographical errors have been corrected. a list of corrections is found at the end of the text. [illustration: _under sleeves._ _baby's hood._ _crochet collar._] the new guide to knitting & crochet. by marie jane cooper. published by j. s. cooper, foreign and british depÔt of berlin patterns, and materials for ladies' fancy works, royal marine library, marine parade, hastings: and parry, blenkarn & co., london. the new guide to knitting and crochet, dedicated by permission, to the countess of wicklow, whose kindness to the authoress, will ever be remembered with grateful feelings of respect, by her most obedient servant, marie jane cooper preface. i venture to publish the new guide to knitting and crochet, believing it will prove both instructive and amusing to those ladies, whose taste leads them to such pursuits. the authoress being practically acquainted with these arts, she warrants them correct, and trusts they will meet with a favourable reception by the public, and be found a useful appendage to every work-table. hastings, january . index. page _siberian cuffs_ _leaf pattern for a pincushion_ _twisted knitting_ _vandyke border_ ib _open-knitted lace cuffs_ _prudence cap_ _cardinal cape_ ib _shell-pattern purse_ _a very beautiful cap crown_ ib _head piece for cap_ _insertion for cuffs_ _feather pattern_ _edgings_ ib _another edge_ _leaf stitch_ ib _knitted muff_ _long sleeves for under a dress_ ib _opera cap_ _shetland shawl_ _star-pattern shawl_ _shetland knitted scarf_ _leaf pattern for an anti-macassar_ _knitted fringe_ _knitted bag, with black, garnet, or steel beads_ ib _directions for a full-sized quilt_ _chair back pattern_ ib _a broad open lace_ _hour-glass pattern cuffs_ _a very handsome mat_ ib _ribbed mitts_ _watch chains_ ib _directions for a purse_ ib _a bag to hold wools_ _baby's shoes_ ib _toilet cushion_ _a stocking_ ib _knitted fringe_ _carriage boots_ ib _baby's hood_ _for the hood_ ib _knitted bustle_ _anti-macassar_ ib _harlequin quilt, with tufts_ _ruff for the neck_ _polka coat, for a child_ _a very pretty fringe_ _under sleeves_ _baby's knitted body_ _band for baby's body_ _edging for ditto_ _gentleman's woollen gloves_ _to form a pattern for the back_ ib crochet _directions for the different stitches in close and open crochet_ _raised crochet_ _chain open crochet_ ib _single open crochet_ ib _double open crochet_ _treble open crochet_ ib _vandyke open crochet_ ib _a pretty neck tie_ _a new sofa pillow_ ib _a carpet bag_ ib _a neck rest, or cushion_ _a brioche, or turkish cushion_ _a very elegant bag_ _original pattern for a crochet collar_ _plain purse_ _mouchoir case_ ib _warm muffatees_ ib _raised crochet slippers_ _anti-macassar_ ib _shawl_ _watch chains_ _ladies' cuffs_ ib the new guide to knitting and crochet siberian cuffs. nine shades of wool used double, or double berlin, either in shades of sable or chinchilli, look best. cast on sixty stitches, knit three plain rows with the darkest shade; in the fourth row seam two stitches together; pass the wool round, seam two together; pass the wool round, seam two together, and so on till the end of the row. join on the next shade, and knit three plain rows. in the fourth row, seam two together; pass the wool round, and seam two together the same as before; continue in this manner knitting three plain rows and an open row of each shade, until the ninth of white. only knit two plain rows; this will reverse the shades: join the second lightest shade, and knit one plain row and one open row; two plain rows; continue knitting one plain row, one open row, and two plain rows of each shade; it will then correspond in appearance with the other side; then sew the two edges together, and let the join come in the centre of the wrong side, and it will look as though knit double. leaf pattern for a pincushion. cast on each needle forty-five stitches, fifteen for each pattern. _first round_--pass the thread in front, purl two, knit one, taking the back part of the loop; purl two, slip one, knit one, and bring the slipped stitch over the last knit, knit six, bring the thread forward; knit one; continue this till the round is completed. _second round_--thread before, purl two, knit one, taking the back part of the loop; purl two, slip one, and cast the slipped over; knit the remaining stitches plain; in the first row you have increased one stitch in every fifteen; the second brings them to the original number; knit these rounds alternately, making the holes (which occur in every alternate row) one stitch sooner each time, _i. e._, knitting five, then four, then three, then two, then one, instead of six stitches, and plain to the purled stitches, then commence as before. twisted knitting. begin with about twenty stitches on one needle, and with the other knit two or three plain rows; next row knit six plain, purl eight, knit the remainder plain; knit the next row plain, and so on for twelve rows; next row, when the right side is towards you, after knitting the first six stitches plain, take a third needle, and slip off four stitches, and keep them behind till you have knit the next four; then knit them; this forms the twist; then knit the remaining six plain; knit the next row plain, and so on for twelve rows; then repeat the twist. vandyke border. cast on nine stitches, slip one, knit one, bring the thread forward, and knit two together for three times, thread forward, knit one, purl the next row; repeat these two rows alternately, increasing one plain stitch each time in the fancy row, until you have eighteen stitches; to decrease the point, slip the first, knit two together, bring the thread forward, and knit two together for four times, until it is reduced to nine stitches; every alternate row is purled. open knitted lace cuffs. needles no. , and no. , boar's-head cotton. cast on thirty-four stitches, knit four plain rows. _fifth row_--knit two, slip one, knit one, pass the slipt one over the knitted one, bring the thread forward, knit one, thread forward, knit one, thread forward, purl one, and so on to the end of the row. commence the next row by slipping one, and continue as before, till you come to the end of the row, where you will have two plain stitches left, which are to be knit; continue with these rows alternately, until the cuff is long enough for the wrist, then cast off the stitches, and edge it with narrow valenciennes lace, or with the vandyke edging. prudence cap. cast on fifty stitches coloured wool, knit eight rows, knitting and purling alternate rows, and twisting each stitch; five rows of coloured, and four of white wool, knit loosely on small ivory pins, for the edge. cardinal cape. cast on seventy-two stitches in the brioche stitch, which is done by bringing the wool forward; slip one stitch off underneath, and knit two together, coloured wool, and knit one row, besides the casting-on row, white wool, knit four times from end to end; and then leave six stitches each time, till you have formed one gore; twice and back with coloured wool; and then another white gore; fourteen white gores, and finish with one coloured row; and then cast off. border for the lower end, with an open scollop: run one string round the row of holes, and another string in a few stitches lower to form the waist; the brioches are done in the same manner; but twelve gores, and each different colours; you cast on sixty stitches instead of seventy-two: six oz. white, and two coloured four-thread fleecy, or double berlin wool, is enough for cape and border. shell pattern purse. cast on ninety-six stitches, pins no. ; thread a row of beads; knit three plain rows; purl the close scollop; and every purl stitch knit a bead, twelve rows of beads deep at each end; and ten rows of beads deep in the middle; three plain rounds; cast off. a very beautiful cap crown. no. pins, and , boar's-head cotton. cast on three stitches on each of three needles. _first row_--plain. _second row_--make one, knit one, to the end of the row. _third_--plain. _fourth_--make one, knit two, to the end. _fifth_--plain. _sixth_--make one, knit three. _seventh_--plain. _eighth_--make one, knit four. _ninth_--plain. _tenth_--make one, knit five. _eleventh_--plain. _twelfth_--make one, knit six. _thirteenth_--plain. _fourteenth_--make one, knit one, make one, slip one, knit one, turn over; knit four. _fifteenth_--plain. _sixteenth_--make one, knit one, make one, slip one, knit one, turn over; make one, slip one, knit one, turn over; knit three. _seventeenth_--plain. _eighteenth_--make one, knit one, make one, slip one, knit one, turn over; make one, slip one, knit one, turn over; make one, slip one, knit one, turn over; make one, slip one, knit one, turn over; knit two. _nineteenth_--plain. _twentieth_--make one, knit one, make one, slip one, knit one, turn over; make one, slip one, knit one, turn over; make one, slip one, knit one, turn over; make one, slip one, knit one, turn over; knit one. _twenty-first_--plain. _twenty-second_--make one, knit one, make one, slip one, knit one, turn over; make one, slip one, knit one, turn over; make one, slip one, knit one, turn over; make one, slip one, knit one, turn over; make one, slip one, knit one, turn over. _twenty-third_--plain. border. _twenty-fourth row_--purl; catch up a stitch at each point of the star. _twenty-fifth_--purl. _twenty-sixth_--knit two stitches together, all round. _twenty-seventh_--throw the thread over the needle, before every stitch. _twenty-eighth_--plain. _twenty-ninth_--purl; now begin at _row twenty-five_, and knit the border over again twice. head-piece of the cap. a round of eyelet holes; four plain rounds, bring the cotton forward, take two together, for five rounds; four plain rounds, bring cotton forward, and knit two together, for five rounds; four plain rounds; a round of eyelet holes; four plain rounds; bring the cotton forward, knit two together, knit five; bring cotton forward, knit one; bring cotton forward, knit two together, knit three; knit two together, bring cotton forward, knit two together, knit three-knit two together, knit five; bring cotton forward, knit two together, knit one, knit two together, bring cotton forward, knit one stitch. insertion for cuffs. a row of eyelet holes, done by bringing the cotton forward, and knitting two together; afterwards five plain rows; knit six, pass the seam stitch over, bring the cotton forward, and knit two together, four plain; knit four; pass the seam stitch over, bring cotton forward, and knit two together, knit one; bring cotton forward, knit two together, knit one; knit three; pass the seamed stitch over, bring cotton forward, knit two together, knit three; bring cotton forward, knit two together, take one off; knit two together, and draw over. feather pattern. nineteen stitches for each pattern on three pins; bring the thread forward, and knit one, three times; take two together, three times; knit one (centre stitch), decrease three times more, increase three times; knit three plain rounds. edgings. cast on twelve stitches. _first row_--knit three, make one, take two together, knit one, make one, take two together, three times over. _second_--knit two, and purl one, three times; knit three, make one, take two, knit one. _third_--knit three, knit three, make one, take two together, knit ten. _fourth_--cast off three, knit eight, make one, take two, knit one. another edge. cast on eight stitches. _first row_--knit three, make one, take two together, knit one, make two, knit two. _second row_--knit three, purl one, knit three, make one, take two together, knit one. _third row_--knit three, make one, take two, knit five. _fourth row_--cast off two, knit four, make one, take two, knit one; commence again. leaf stitch. this is for one pattern only. cast on eight stitches. _first row_--make a stitch, knit one, make one, knit two, take two together, knit two. _second row_--plain. _third row_--make one, knit three, make one, knit one; diminish, knit one. _fourth row_--plain. _fifth row_--make one, knit five, make one, diminish. _sixth row_--plain; diminish by taking two stitches off together, knitting one, and drawing two over the knitted one. knitted muff. cast on forty-five stitches, every row alike; slip a stitch at the beginning, knit one, purl one, repeat to the end a piece about twenty inches in length, enough for a moderate sized muff, lined with gros-de-naples, stuffed with wool, and enough horse hair to keep it in shape: shades of wool to imitate sable, are the best colours. long sleeves to wear under a dress. no. pins, and six-thread embroidery fleecy. cast on forty-two stitches loosely, and knit and purl three stitches alternately, for twelve turns; knit ten turns plain; knit thirty-five turns plain, increasing one stitch on each turn; knit twenty turns plain, increasing one stitch every other turn; repeat the twelve turns, as at the beginning. opera cap. cast on seventy-four stitches white wool, purl one row, knit one row white, purl one row coloured, bring the wool forward, and knit two as one; purl one row, knit one row white, purl one row, knit one row white; this forms the border. _first division_--coloured; purl one row, knit one row, decreasing one stitch at each end; knit one row, knit a fancy row, by taking two stitches together, keeping the wool before the pin. _second division_--white; purl one row, decreasing one stitch at each end, knit one row, decreasing two stitches at each end; knit one row, decreasing one stitch at each end; knit one fancy row as before. _third division_--coloured; purl one row, decreasing one stitch at each end; knit one row without decreasing; knit a fancy row, as before. _fourth division_, _fifth_, _sixth_, _seventh_--the same as the third, to be repeated alternately with white and coloured wool. _eighth division_--white. _ninth_--coloured: in these two last divisions, only two stitches are to be decreased in each, and this is to be done in the row, after the one at each end. n.b. there should be forty stitches left on the pin in the last row; if the pins are small, begin with eighty stitches, and then there should be forty-six left, instead of forty; pick up thirty stitches on each side, and make the borders at the sides and back, like the first: make up the cap, by turning in the border to the fancy row, and hem it all round: it is to be tied behind, and under the chin, with ribbon, or plaitted wool, with tassels of the same. shetland shawl pattern. shetland wool, and no. pins; about one hundred and sixty stitches; cast on any number of stitches that will divide by six. _first row_--bring the wool forward, knit one, wool in front, knit one, slip one, knit two as one; bring the slipt stitch over, then knit one. _second row_--purl knitting. _third row_--wool forward, knit three; wool forward, slip one, knit two as one, and cast over. _fourth row_--purl knitting. _fifth row_--knit one, slip one, knit two as one, and bring the slipt stitch over, and then knit one, make one, knit one, wool forward. _sixth row_--purl knitting. _seventh row_--slip one, knit two as one, and cast over, make one, knit three, make one. _eighth row_--purl knitting; there are to be two plain stitches at the beginning and end of each row, to form an edge; take up the stitches on each ride, and knit the border in the feather pattern, increasing one stitch at each end of the rows, to form the corner. star-pattern shawl, in two colours. cast on four stitches in blue wool. _first row_--wool before the pin, knit one, wool before, slip one, knit two not together; pass the slipt stitch over them; repeat this to the end. _second row_--purl knitting in claret. _third row_--game as the first, in blue. _fourth row_--same as the second, in claret; repeat these rows until there are one hundred and eighty stitches on the pin: cast off and finish with a fringe; as the increasing adds an irregular stitch, some rows will have one, and others two knitted stitches at the commencement. shetland knitted scarf. commence with the pattern of the border by casting on one hundred stitches for the width of the scarf; no. pins and shetland wool are required. _first row_--knit two together four times, bring the wool forward, and knit one eight times, knit two as one four times, purl one, repeat to the end of the row. _second row_--purled. _third row_--plain. _fourth row_--purled; repeat from the first row, until the pattern is about fourteen inches deep. commence the centre as follows (this is done in white wool--the borders in shades). _first row_--plain knitting before beginning the pattern. _first row_ of the pattern, wool before, slip one, knit one, pass the slip stitch over, knit one, purl one; repeat to the end of the row. _second and following rows_--repeat, every row being alike; both ends of the scarf are to be made the same, by reversing the knitting of the border; they may be finished with a red knitted or netted fringe of the same wool doubled twice. leaf pattern, for an anti-macassar. cast on any number of stitches that will divide by eight. _first row_--make a stitch, knit one, make one, knit two, slip two as one, knit one, and draw the slipt ones over it; purl back. _third row_--make one, knit three, make one, knit one; diminish; knit one, purl back. _fifth row_--make one, knit five; diminish; purl back. _seventh row_--diminish, knit two, make one, knit one, make one, purl back. _ninth row_--knit one, diminish, knit one, make one, knit three, make one, purl back. _eleventh row_--make one, knit five, make one, purl back. knitted fringe. cast on seven stitches, slip the first, bring the cotton forward, and knit two together twice, then put the needle into the last stitch, without drawing it out, until you have wound the cotton round two fingers three times, the whole of which must be taken together as one stitch; knit the last stitches back row plain knitting. knitted bag, with black, garnet, or steel beads. thread half a bunch of beads on a skein of coarse netting silk, and cast on eighty-eight stitches. _first and second row_ plain knitting without beads. _third row_--slip one, knit one with a bead, knit one to the end of the row; repeat from first row eighty-four times; observe, at the commencement of every row, to make a slipt stitch; join up the two sides, leaving an opening at the top, and finished with two bars and a gold or steel chain, a fringe of the garnet beads, with gold points; it should have a stiff lining. no. pins, eight skeins of silk, and four bunches of beads, including those required for the fringe, will be wanted. directions for a full-sized quilt. no. cotton, no. pins. eight stripes with one hundred and thirteen stitches for each, with a border of fifty stitches; a counterpane without a border will require more stripes. chair back pattern. cast on one hundred and eighty stitches, pins no. ; knit the length on the pins; pattern stitch is cast over twice, and take two as one; knit one; do this for five rows, knitting back plain each time; then reverse the pattern; then cast over twice; knit one and take two five times. a broad open lace. cast on fifteen stitches, slip one, knit one, turn over four times; knit two as one; turn over; knit two as one; repeat; turn over; knit two as one four times more; knit one. _second row_--slip one, knit twelve, purl one, knit one, purl one, knit two. _third row_--plain knitting. _fourth row_--plain. _fifth row_--slip one, knit one, turn over five times, knit two as one, turn over, knit two as one, repeat, turn over, knit two as one five times more, knit one. _sixth row_--slip one, knit fifteen, purl one, knit one, purl one, knit three. _seventh row_--plain. _eighth row_--plain. _ninth row_--cast off seven, and begin at the first row to knit one, turn over four times, and commence again. hour glass pattern cuffs. to be sewn down at one end; cast on sixty loops, knit twenty-two rows of white, then two rows of each colour, three shades are required, and white, four rows of white, two rows of each colour, three shades; four rows of white, two rows of each colour, three shades, four of white, six of white, ribbed two, and knit two, two coloured of each shade ribbed; the same ten of white ribbed ditto, two of coloured, six of white, and cast off. a very handsome mat. this mat is made to imitate fur, with ermine in the centre. to make this mat a yard long and three quarters wide, you require one pound of fleecy; that is, a quarter of a pound of each of four shades for the border, half a pound of white for the middle, and one pound of common for the back; also two skeins of black for the tails; it must all be in six-thread fleecy, except the common for the back, which requires twelve-thread. no. pin, by the eagle gauge, is required. cast on seventy-two stitches with the common white, knit one plain row, then take a skein of the darkest or lightest, according to fancy, cut the skein into half, and divide each half into four, so that the pieces may be about half a quarter in length; slip the first stitch; then take two of the pieces of wool, put them on the left hand pin, twisting it so that one may be behind and the other in front; knit the next stitch, and the two pieces of wool altogether; bring the ends in front and knit another stitch, one plain row between each, and three rows of each four shades; cut previous to commencing the second shade put in two pieces of the darkest at each end; this for three rows: the third shade, two pieces of each of the previous shades, and so on, until you have completed the border, by knitting in the four shades; then put in two pieces of each colour, and commence the white; you will have forty-eight stitches for the white; knit twelve rows, that is to say, six rows putting the pieces in, and every other one being plain, makes the twelve rows; then knit in six pieces, take two of the black, and then twelve more white, one piece of black and twelve more white, one more of black; if the mat is larger or smaller, the centre stitches have only to be equally divided by spots of black: the next row you must put in two black over the one in the previous row, and in the third row one of black over each two; then six more rows of white, that is twelve with the plain one, and then knit in twelve pieces before you commence the black; repeat this as above-mentioned; you will find that this time you will have only space for two black spots; continue in this way till it is finished: it is then combed out until it resembles fur; you then twist the four pieces of black together to resemble the tail; a little gum is then used in twisting this. after having been well combed, they are made up on a stiff back. they may also be made with an ermine outside, and a coloured centre, but they are not so pretty. ribbed mitts. cast on fifty-six stitches round the wrist; increase till you have seventy-four by the thumb; take off twenty-three stitches for the thumb; these ought to be twenty-one rows in depth, sixteen from the bottom, and five above the thumb. watch chains. cast on three stitches, slip a stitch, take one off, knit one, and slip the previous one over. for a purse. cast on with no. pins, and a middling-sized silk, of which you require four skeins; make a stitch, take one off, knit one, and slip the previous one over this. a bag to hold wools. cast on one hundred and forty five stitches with cruels, of which you require six skeins for one bag; two yards of ribbon, and two and a half of another colour, to bind the ring; six different shades, and fourteen rows of each colour in the plain stitch of knitting; the centre double the number of rows. baby's shoes. cast on thirty-six stitches, scarlet german wool; two rows of red; sixteen rows of white; narrow, by taking two together, on the seventeenth and twenty-first rows; knit thirteen more rows, then divide the stitches into three, viz.:--ten, twelve, and ten: knit twenty rows on the middle needle, which has the twelve stitches, and bind, or cast them off; take up the front, as you would a stocking heel, and make twelve stitches beyond; knit two rows narrowing at the toe, every other row; this is to be repeated six times, and then at the heel, still narrowing the same in front, till you have only sixteen stitches which bind off, take up the red stitches in front, catching one white one each time, till the other side is like the first; you may introduce open stitches on the instep, and round the leg. toilet cushion. cast on thirty-six loops on the two first pins, and forty-eight on the other; knit two plain rounds one purl, three plain, six plain, with the thread brought forward, two plain, one purl, one plain, fifteen plain, one plain, one purl, one purl narrowing one, eleven plain, slip one, knit one, pass it over, one plain, one purl, one plain, narrow once, seven plain, slip one, knit one, pass it over. a stocking. cast on one hundred and three stitches for the first six rounds; knit two, and purl two, then one row, every stitch turned; twenty-four purl, taking in one on each side the seam, eight purl, take in again, eight purl, and take in; then twelve purl, and increase; which must be done by making a stitch on each side the seam; three purl, and increase again, three purl, and increase again, fourteen purl, take in, three purl, take in; do this until you have taken in sixteen times; twenty purl; set the heel by dividing the stitches, when there will be, if correct, thirty-five for the heel, and thirty-six for the instep; knit nineteen, purl the twentieth, purl under two stitches beyond the seam, on the wrong side, and take two together; this do on each side, till you have taken up all, to each end, when there will remain seven stitches on your pin, take up the stitches, and in the third row, make a stitch; in every third stitch in the next round, take two stitches together, where the instep and heel join, do this every other round, till you have reduced the heel stitches to the same number you have on your instep pin; forty-four rounds plain, take in on each side the heel and instep, leaving two stitches between; knit two rounds, take in the same again, this do six times, then take in every other round five times, two rounds every time, when you will have twenty-three or twenty-four stitches remaining, which cast off. knitted fringe. cast on eight stitches; slip the first, make one, knit two together, put in a piece of cotton or wool on the left hand needle, knit one stitch, bring the ends in front, and knit another, put them back, and knit the remainder, the next row plain, except the stitch you put the piece in, take three all together. carriage boots. cast on fifty-six stitches, with black wool; knit ten rows coloured, ten black, ten coloured, ten black; increase sixteen ribs on each side; after the increasing is finished, knit three rows ribbed, with coloured wool; thirty-seven rows of black; these ought to be done in three-thread fleecy, and fine pins. baby's hood. piece round the neck. cast on one hundred and forty stitches; knit six rows plain, knitting four on each pin plain, and purl, twelve rows of double knitting, twenty-four rows narrowing at the end, in double knitting, eight rows plain knitting, and cast off. for the hood. cast on one hundred and five stitches, ribbing five, and knitting five; knit six rows, and begin double, knitting four at each end plain, of which knit thirty-two rows, and then narrow off at each end six times, knit six rows plain, and cast off; double this in the middle, gather up about three nails, and stitch a string in front beyond the ribbed purl. knitted bustle. for this you require six ounces of eight-thread fleecy, and two pair of pins, no. and no. , by the eagle gauge. cast on sixty stitches on the fine pins, and knit six rows, knitting two, and purling two stitches; then take the larger sized one, and knit thirty rows, putting the wool twice round the pin; then another piece but only twenty-six rows, and the third only eighteen rows. commence always in this manner, with the fine pins, join them altogether at the part which is ribbed, and put it on a string. anti-macassar. cast on one hundred stitches on no. pins, with no. cotton, and knit one plain row (pattern). _first row_--purled. _second row_--cotton forward, and take two together. _third row_--purled. _fourth row_--plain, with no. pins, cotton twice over the pins; repeat these four rows until the square is complete; sew every six threads of the large row tightly together in the centre, with scarlet german wool, fastening off each six securely and separately; then knit any fringe you may fancy, and join it on. harlequin quilts, with tufts. plain double knitting, with six-thread fleecy, in pieces of six inches square, each of the pieces being about twenty-four stitches each way; when finished, they are to be sewn together with a tuft of black wool at the corner of each square. the tufts may be made in the following manner:--take a groved wooden mesh, an inch in width, wind round it four-thread black fleecy about twelve times; slip a coarse thread in the grove, and tie the wool quite tight, leaving an end to it that may be drawn through and attached to the quilt; cut the loops of wool through on the opposite side of the mesh, then comb and shear it neatly, for a quilt two yards and a half square, two hundred and twenty-five pieces will be required: it will take two hundred and fifty-six tufts. ruff for the neck. for this you require five-thread super fleecy, and two sized pins, no. and no. ; cast on fifty stitches on no. , and knit seventeen plain rows. _eighteenth row_--double the piece of knitting, and knit the casting on row in with this one. _nineteenth, twentieth, and twenty-first rows_--are plain, with no. pins. _twenty-second row_--knit one, bring the wool forward, and take two together to the end. _twenty-third, twenty-fourth, and twenty-fifth rows_--plain now; no. pins, and knit eighteen rows to match the first fold; sew this side down to match the other; run a ribbon through the holes for strings. a polka coat, for a child. cast on twenty-five stitches, which will make seventy-five ribs, in the brioche stitch, which is done by bringing the wool forward, slipping a stitch the purl way, and knit two together; bring the wool forward, knit twenty-four rows, or twelve turns of white; then commence the scarlet, by leaving eighteen stitches on each side, knit twenty-four rows, or twelve turns of scarlet; then begin to take in, which is done by knitting the first thirty on each side, without decreasing; then bring the wool forward, slip one stitch, and knit five together; repeat this till within thirty on the other side, which, knit without decreasing, until you have only forty ribs, or one hundred and twenty stitches; knit forty-eight rows, or twenty-four turns, in this manner, still leaving the white on each side; put thirty stitches on another needle for the front, knit those backwards and forwards for thirty-six rows, or eighteen turns; then knit all the stitches but one rib, turn back, and finish the row, and so on, leaving one rib more each time, till it is the proper length for the shoulder. cast off, but be particular that the slanting side is not in front; finish the other side in the same way, then take up the stitches for the back; knit thirty-six rows, to correspond with the fronts for the arm-hole; then knit backwards and forwards, leaving one rib each way, until it is the same length as the slanting part in front, which are to be joined together; cast off; now take up the white stitches on each side, and knit till it is long enough to go up the sides; for the sleeves; cast on seventy-two stitches, knit thirty rows, then twelve more, leaving one rib on the one side to form the wide part; for the collar; cast on seventy-six stitches, and knit twelve rows, leaving one rib on each side; then sixteen rows of white; cast off; cast on eighteen stitches for the cuff, and knit till it is long enough to go round the bottom of the sleeve; twist a cord of the same coloured wool, and put in the waist behind, with a tassel at the ends; the same under the collar. these may be done in four-thread fleecy, but they look much better in double berlin wool, no. pins, by the eagle gauge. for a lady's, you must cast on stitches in proportion, and larger pins. a very pretty fringe. cast on nine stitches; knit one row; second row, begin by knitting two plain stitches; pass the cotton twice round the pin, and take off two stitches; then put on the loop. having cut the cotton into lengths you may require for the fringe, and knit one stitch, pass the loop forward, and knit another; then pass it back, and knit two stitches; bring it forward again, and knit one more; in the next row, knit four stitches, and take off the loop and one of the stitches, leaving five to knit off plain. under sleeves. no. , boar's-head cotton, no. needles, by the eagle knitting gauge. set on seventy-eight stitches, twenty-six on each needle, six stitches in each pattern. _first round_--bring the thread forward, knit three plain; bring the thread forward, slip one off without knitting, knit the two next together, then lift the slipped one over the taken-in loop. _second round_--plain, then knit one stitch of the next row. _third round_--bring the thread forward, slip one off without knitting, knit the two next together, then lift the slipped one over the taken-in loop, knit three. _fourth round_--plain, then knit one stitch of the next row. _fifth round_--bring the thread forward, knit one; bring the thread forward, take two together, knit one, take two together. _sixth round_--plain, then knit one stitch of the next row. _seventh round_--bring the thread forward, knit one; bring the thread forward, take two together; knit one, take two together. _eighth round_--plain; then knit one stitch of the next row. _ninth round_--bring the thread forward, knit one; bring the thread forward, take two together; knit one, take two together. _tenth round_--plain, then knit one stitch of the next row. _eleventh round_--bring the thread forward, knit one; bring the thread forward, take two together; knit one, take two together. _twelfth round_--plain; continue this till it is long enough, then cast it off very loosely. knitted edgings to trim this under-sleeve. needles no. , boar's-head cotton no. . _first row_--slip one, knit two; bring the thread forward, slip one off without knitting, knit the two next together, then lift the slipped one over the taken-in loop; bring the thread forward, knit three, bring the thread forward, take two together; bring the thread forward twice, take two together; bring the thread forward twice, take two together, knit one. _second row_--slip one, knit two; purl one, knit two; purl all but four, knit one; bring the thread forward, take two together, knit one. _third row_--slip one, knit two; bring the thread forward, take two together; bring the thread forward, take two together; knit one, take two together; bring the thread forward, knit three; bring the thread forward twice, take two together; bring the thread forward twice, take two together, knit one. _fourth row_--slip one, knit two; purl one, knit two; purl all but four, knit one; bring the thread forward, take two together, knit one. _fifth row_--slip one, knit two; thread forward, take two together, knit one; bring the thread forward, slip one off without knitting; knit two together; then lift the slipped one over the taken-in loop; bring the thread forward, knit six; bring the thread forward twice, take two together; bring the thread forward twice, take two together, knit one. _sixth row_--slip one, knit two; purl one, knit two; purl all but four, knit one; bring the thread forward, take two together, knit one. _seventh row_--slip one, knit two; bring the thread forward, take two together; take two together, bring the thread forward, knit one; bring the thread forward, take two together, knit seven; bring the thread forward twice, take two together; bring the thread forward twice, take two together, knit one. _eighth row_--cast off eight, purl eleven, knit one; bring the thread forward, take two together, knit one: you must purl the half stitches. begin again at the first row. baby's knitted body. this body is part of knitting, which is let into cambric. no. , boar's-head cotton, needles no. , eagle knitting gauge. the front is made in the following manner:--set on seven stitches, knit two plain rows; then begin the pattern row; make one stitch, knit a stitch, bring the cotton forward, take off one without knitting, knit two, bring the unknitted one over the other two; knit the second row plain; the third row the same as the first; these two rows form the pattern. you must only make a stitch, and knit one, at the commencement of every pattern-row, this is to increase the front; the pattern is continued throughout; the row is, bring the cotton forward, take off one without knitting, knit two, bring the unknitted one over the two. when you have one or two stitches at the end of the row, they must be knitted plain; continue these two rows till you have done enough for the front of a baby's body, then cast off very loosely. the sleeves are knitted in the same way, only begin with nine stitches; then knit two plain rows; cast off when proper size. band for baby's body. cast on twenty-one stitches; pins and cotton as before. _first row_--slip one, knit two; bring the thread forward, and knit two together, knit three, knit two together; bring the thread forward, and knit one; bring the thread forward, and knit two together, knit five; bring the thread forward; knit two together, knit one. _second row_--slip one, knit two; bring the thread forward; knit two together; knit the remaining stitches plain all but three; bring the thread forward, and knit two together, knit one. _third row_--slip one, knit two; bring the thread forward, and knit two together, knit two, knit two together; bring the thread forward; knit three; bring the thread forward, and knit two together, knit four; bring the thread forward, and knit two together, knit one. _fourth row_--the same as the second. _fifth row_--slip one, knit two; bring the thread forward, and knit two together, knit one, knit two together; bring the thread forward, and knit two; bring the thread forward, and knit two together, knit one; bring the thread forward, and knit two together, knit three; bring the thread forward, and knit two together, knit one. _sixth row_--the same as the second. _seventh row_--slip one, knit two; bring the thread forward, and knit two together, knit two together; bring the thread forward; knit seven; bring the thread forward, and knit two together, knit two; bring the thread forward, and knit two together, knit one. _eighth row_--the same as the second. _ninth row_--slip one, knit two; bring the thread forward, and knit two together, knit two; bring the thread forward, and knit two together, knit three, knit two together; bring the thread forward, and knit four; bring the thread forward, and knit two together, knit one. _tenth row_--the same as the second. _eleventh row_--slip one, knit two; bring the thread forward, knit two together, knit three; bring the thread forward, knit two together, knit one, knit two together; bring the thread forward, knit five; bring the thread forward, knit two together, knit one. _twelfth row_--the same as the second. _thirteenth row_--slip one, knit two; bring the thread forward, knit two together, knit four; bring the thread forward, and knit three together; bring the thread forward, knit six; bring the thread forward, and knit two together, knit one. _fourteenth row_--the same as the second; then recommence as at the first row. edging to trim the body and sleeves. cast on seven stitches. _first row_--slip one, knit two; bring the thread forward, and knit two together; make two stitches, and knit two together. _second row_--make one, knit two, purl one, knit two; bring the thread forward, and knit two together, knit one. _third row_--slip one, knit two; bring the thread forward, and knit two together, knit four. _fourth row_--cast off two, knit three; bring the thread forward, and knit two together, knit one; then commence as at first. gentleman's woolen gloves. pins no. --wool three-thread fleecy. cast on seventy-two stitches, and knit twenty rounds; purling two, and knitting two; then knit six rounds plain. to form a pattern for the back. _first round_--knit seven, purl one; knit eight, purl one; knit eight, purl one; knit the rest plain. _second round_--knit six, purl three; knit six, purl three; knit six, purl three; rest plain. _third round_--knit five, purl five; knit four, purl five; knit four, purl five; rest plain. _fourth round_--knit as the second. _fifth round_--knit as the first. knit ten rounds plain, still purling one stitch on the end of each diamond. begin the thumb by making one stitch in each of the two last, at the same time increasing one plain stitch in the first and third purl stitches. continue increasing two stitches on the two thumb stitches, each other round, till you have twenty-four extra stitches, which place on another pin, and knit forty rounds without them. divide the thumb stitches on three pins, and increase two more on the under part of it; knit round, decreasing the same part (the under) till you have twenty-two left, which knit on till long enough, when again decrease till you have nine stitches only; break off the wool, and with a worsted needle, draw it through all the stitches, and fasten it inside. divide your stitches for each finger, taking two more for each of the two first fingers, than for the other two; it is better to measure by a glove, for the length of the fingers and thumb: this pattern is for the left hand, and wants the pattern for the back, reversing and knitting on the last, instead of the first pin; two-thread fleecy is required. directions for the different stitches in close and open crochet work. the greater part of close crochet articles are done in the double-plain stitch, which is done by taking a piece of wool, and casting on as many loops in chain-stitch as you may require, with the needle; it is very simple, being only to form a loop and draw the wool through one and another; the easiest manner would be, to continue drawing the wool through from right to left; this will make the work the same on both sides. the plain single-crochet is done by merely drawing the one loop you have on your needle through each stitch. plain double crochet is when you have cast on the foundation-loops, draw the wool through one stitch; take it up again, and through two; this stitch is used for table-covers and sofa-cushions; also when patterns are worked in. in the double-stitch crochet, you take both sides of the loop, but that is only used when you require it thick, and is very nice for soles for shoes. raised crochet is worked alternately from one side to the other, drawing the wool quite through, and taking the underneath part of the loop. the chain open crochet is made of chains, as for instance, five or seven loops drawn one through the other, and joined to the centre stitch of the preceding row; this is very pretty for purses, with a bead on each of the centre stitches. single open crochet is done by putting your needle under the wool, and then through the loop, draw the wool through, you will find that you have three stitches on your needle; draw the wool through the first two stitches, and then through the other two; you will now have one loop: make one by drawing the wool through that one; put it underneath and through the next loop but one; repeat as before. double open crochet is done by drawing it through in the same manner as you did for the single, but omitting the one-loop stitch until you have done two long stitches between each of the long ones. treble open crochet is much the same as the preceding patterns, but having three long stitches and three loop stitches between; in the next row, remember to make the long stitches upon the loops, and the loops on the preceding long stitches; you increase by going twice in the same loop, and decrease by missing one loop. there is another stitch called the treble vandyke open crochet, which is done by three long stitches, but put through the same loop. a pretty neck tie, of treble open crochet, and two colours in double berlin. cast on one hundred and forty loops, and do one row of each colour; three of white and five of coloured will make it wide enough; finish with a chenille tassel at each end. a new sofa pillow, in treble open crochet. choose nine shades of double berlin wool. cast on eighty loops, and commence with the darkest shade; one row of each colour to the lightest, and the same to the darkest. you may do them in shaded wool, with white between: make it about three complete stripes or half-a-yard square; you can crochet both sides, or have silk at the back. a carpet bag. this is done in the plain double crochet, also in plain double berlin wool. cast on sixty loops, and choose a pretty crochet pattern for the border on each side--say a narrow border of green leaves, perhaps ten or twelve stitches wide, on a scarlet ground, the centre a black ground, with a diamond arabesque pattern, in bright golds, scarlets, greens, and blues; to be about half-a-yard wide altogether, with the border on the other side; you can vary the other part of the bag at pleasure. they are made up with patent leather sides and bottom, with steel at the top. in working patterns, be particular to pass the whole between the needle and the wool you are working with. neck rest, or cushion, for the back of a chair. these are very comfortable for an invalid, they are generally done in shaded wool, and six colours, say scarlet, green, lilac, orange, blue and drab. cast on ninety loops, and eight rows of each colour; this is done in the plain double crochet, and when you cast on the loops for the foundation, join the ends, and work round, they are finished with velvet ends, and two pieces of cord round each piece of velvet; black looks better than coloured. a brioche, or turkish cushion. cast on thirty loops with black wool, crochet four rows all round, increasing one stitch at the end; then take a skein of shaded double berlin, and commence one stitch below the point of the black; work round to the top of the other side, then commence four loops below, and work till within four of the other side, and so on for eight rows, leaving three less each time; twelve pieces are required done in this manner; all different colours are prettier, or at least six, and repeat them once when you have finished, then crochet them all together and six rows completely round the bottom; you will find you have a space in the middle; crochet enough rows to fill this up, decreasing every three loops; make a round cushion, and cover it with your crochet: put a brioche mount in the centre. a very elegant bag, in french blue silk, and steel beads. commence by casting on three hundred loops, and crochet six plain rows in black, then thread your beads on the blue, and crochet a piece, which is done by making the wrong side of crochet the right; when you are putting on the beads, you must put your needle through the loop, pass a bead up close to the stitch, and finish it, and so on, until the piece is completed; then twelve rows plain, in blue, and six black; the seventh and eighth are done in the plain open crochet. to pass the cord through, you ought to choose a pattern from forty to fifty rows deep. you may also do round bags, commencing with three stitches, and increasing one in every other, for the first six rounds, and one in every three, for the next twelve, and so on until the bottom is large enough; then as many rounds as you require for the size of the bag; they are pretty in stripes of different colours, with beads or patterns of another colour, upon every alternate stripe. original pattern of a crochet collar. cast on one hundred and forty loops, crochet one plain row, then one row of plain open crochet in every loop, one row of the open vandyke treble crochet; the following of close crochet, if done correctly, will form a leaf. _first_--work along stitch in every loop. _second_--work three long stitches into three loops, make four chain stitches, miss two loops of the foundation, work a stitch of double plain crochet into the next, make four chain stitches, miss two of the foundation, and repeat. _third row_--work three long stitches over the three in the last row, make five chain stitches, work a stitch of double crochet over the one in the last row, make five chain stitches, and repeat. _fourth round_--the same as the third. _fifth row_--work five stitches of double crochet, beginning on the last chain stitches; before the three long stitches in last row, make eight chain stitches, and repeat one row quite round of the single open crochet; in every loop at the corners of the collar, you must increase two stitches at each end row. to commence the border, or edge of the collar, which of course is carried round as the preceding row--_first row_--make a long stitch, make one chain stitch, work another long stitch in the same loop, make three chain stitches, miss two of the foundation, and repeat. _second row_--work a long stitch into the one chain stitch in last row, make one chain stitch, work another long stitch into the same place, make two chain stitches, and repeat. _third row_--the same as the second. _fourth row_--work a long stitch into the one chain stitch of the last row, make six chain stitches, and repeat: these collars may be worked in many other patterns, some of which are to be found in a book called crochet collars. no. , or , boar's-head cotton, and a small steel needle is required. a plain purse. cast on seventy or eighty loops, and crochet six rows in double open crochet; it is prettier in two colours, say french blue, and ponceau, seven stripes are wide enough; they look well with one end square, and a fringe of beads at the bottom. a mouchoir case, in treble vandyke crochet. choose any pretty shades, or shaded double berlin, with rather a small sized hook; cast on one hundred loops, and crochet if in shades, one row of each colour, about thirty rows is required to make it wide enough; they are joined so as to leave it open down the centre, and lined with silk or satin; you will find them better with some scent in between the lining: they are to be fastened with a pretty button, or ribbon. warm muffatees. cast on for a gentleman, forty loops in double berlin, and crochet twenty rounds in shaded wool, then six rows of the chain open crochet; ladies' may be done in single wool. raised crochet slippers. these are to be done in two colours, say shaded blue or scarlet, with black stripes between; cast on twelve loops, crochet four rows in black, increasing one stitch on each side, and one in the middle, this will form a point on the top of the foot; then two rows of red wool, increasing; you ought to have three stripes of black, and two of coloured; leave all the stitches except twelve at the side, continue six stripes of black, and seven of coloured: will make them large enough for a lady; join the stripe to twelve stitches on the other side, sew these to a cork sole, and bind them round the top with ribbon. anti-macassar, in six shades of wool, or coarse cotton, to imitate old lace. cast on one hundred and thirty loops, crochet one plain row, then commence with four stitches in the single open crochet; make four loops, miss two of the foundation, four long stitches, four chain stitches, and so on, in the next row; be particular to make the long stitches come over the chain, and _vice versa_; one row of the double open crochet quite round, one of the single another of the double open, and then a pretty vandyke edge, if in wool, one row of each shade. shawl. these made with two coloured grounds in stripes, are very handsome; say black and white, with a pattern of two colours, four shades of each, perhaps lilacs and greens on the white ground, and french blue and scarlet on the black, with a narrow stripe of gold colour, between each stripe of the ground. cast on five loops with black, and increase one stitch at the commencement, one in the middle, and one at the end; then break off your wool, and commence at the same side, this is at the neck, and is to be done in the plain double crochet; continue in this manner until the shawl is large enough, then loop on a fringe; these must be done in double german wool, with the fringe in fleecy. watch chains. cast on five loops, and crochet round until long enough; beads may be introduced the same as on purses, which have a very pretty effect. ladies' cuffs, in shaded single wool. cast on forty-four loops, and crochet one row of single open, and one row of plain double; six rows in the same manner; then do three rows on each side, in the chain open crochet, run ribbon in and out; these have a very pretty effect; they are to be joined and done round. minerva press: printed by darling and son, leadenhall street, london. transcriber's note the following typographical errors were corrected. page error iii changed to iii changed to alternately, untill changed to alternately, until one coloured row: changed to one coloured row; _third division_--coloured changed to _third division_--coloured; inrease again changed to increase again eagle guage changed to eagle gauge eagle guage changed to eagle gauge eight, purl one: changed to eight, purl one; stitches between: changed to stitches between; long stitches: you changed to long stitches; you piece of velvet: changed to piece of velvet; transcriber's note the illustrations were originally located after the table of contents. they have been moved to follow the patterns that they illustrate. obvious typographical errors have been corrected. a list of corrections is found at the end of the text. the corrections listed on the errata page have been made in the text. knitting, crochet, and netting, with twelve illustrations. by m^lle. riego de la branchardiere, teacher of fancy works. london: published by s. knights, , 'change alley, cornhill. . [_registered at stationers' hall._] price s. d. printed by kelly & pritchett, , houndsditch, london. to lady martins, this little work is humbly dedicated, with her kind permission, by the authoress. preface the authoress, having had much experience in teaching, and always writing her own directions, has been induced to publish this little volume for the use of her pupils; and as all the receipts have been tried, she can with confidence answer for their accuracy. should any further instructions be required, she will wait upon any lady, who will apply at s. knights, , 'change alley, cornhill; howell and james, regent street; and at all the principal berlin shops. contents. knitting. page terms used in knitting manchette or undersleeves vandyke edging taie d'oreiller davidoff cap twelve d'oyleys:-- rosette pattern pique pattern chenee pattern eglantier pattern tablette pattern plume pattern mimosa pattern lattice pattern lady bruce's pattern festoon pattern target pattern arabesque pattern knitted purse anti macassar shetland shawl vandyke edging turkish pattern muff pelerine foot muff driving mitts point lace edging scollop edging diamond edging treble diamond edging fringe for d'oyleys travelling cap shetland scarf petit point quilt or table cover border for quilt baby's socks square shawl border for shawl polka child's frock carriage mat réseau quilt fringe for quilt crochet. terms used in crochet shepherd's crochet double crochet treble crochet crochet in two colors six round d'oyleys:-- diamond pattern damier pattern trellis pattern filet pattern scollop pattern seme pattern fringe for d'oyleys scollop for d'oyleys wheel pattern insertion ecaille pattern edging open vandyke edging close vandyke edging double scollop edging diamond insertion cuffs, diamond pattern edge for cuffs crochet collar round sofa pillow bead crochet handsome bead purse bead purse table cover in squares bell pulls greek cap card case bag square sofa pillow half-square shawl another shawl crochet shoes sole for shoes crochet open purse shamrock purse honey comb edging anti-macassar travelling bag table cover a chain cap netting. anti-macassar d'oyley bread basket d'oyley netted purse purse for a lady bead purse wedding purse with motto plain purse with motto terms used in knitting. _cast on_--make a loop on pin, and with the other pin knit a plain stitch without taking it off, pass it on to the left pin and repeat. _cast off_--knit stitches, pass the st stitch knitted over the nd, knit , turn the nd stitch over the last, and repeat to the end; then cut off the cotton and draw it through to fasten it. the st stitch of every row should be slipped. to make round after casting on pins with the th pin, knit the st stitch cast on. _in purling a row_, the wool should be in front of the pin. when there are purl and plain stitches in a row, bring the cotton forward to purl, and pass it back before knitting the plain stitch. _to knit together_--slip a stitch, knit together, turn the slipped stitch over them, leaving but stitch. _a slipped stitch_ should always be taken off the purl way. _to purl_, is to put the pin the contrary way to knitting plain; in knitting, the pin is put up the stitch, in purling it is put down. when this mark (*) occurs in a row, the stitches before it are not to be repeated in the row, being merely the edge stitches to prevent the work from decreasing; thus, when knit together is in a row, the row generally begins with knit together, and ends the same. _the stitch over_ in many of the patterns, is always knitted as the st stitch, as many patterns end with make , it could not be done without this stitch. many ladies in working a pattern, copy on cards each row separately; this prevents confusing one row with another. the stitches between the mark, thus (knit together times) are worked, knit together, knit together, knit together; this prevents useless repetition. the pins and meshes are all gauged by the standard or wire-drawer's gauge. _to raise stitches_--put the pin in the selvedge or side of the knitting, put the wool round the pin as in knitting, and bring it through, so as to form a stitch. _to make a stitch_--bring the wool forward between the needles. knitting. manchette or undersleeves. _in colors of berlin wool._ _pins , , , pair of each, with the colored wool cast on with pins, stitches._ st row--purl , knit . nd row--knit , purl . repeat these rows times more, making in all rows, then join on the white wool, and with no. pins, knit plain row. th row--make , knit together. repeat the last rows times more, making in all of white; then the color, with no. pins, knit the first rows, join on white, with no. pins, knit the rows of white as before; then with colored wool, no. pins, knit the first rows and cast off; finish at the commencement with vandyke edge as follows. vandyke edging. _pins no. , white wool, cast on stitches._ st row--slip , knit , make , knit together, make , knit together. nd row--make , knit , purl , knit . rd row--slip , knit , make , knit together, knit . th row--plain. th row--slip , knit , make , knit together, make , knit together, make , knit together. th row--slip , knit , purl , knit , purl , knit . th row--slip , knit , make , knit together, knit . th row--cast off all but stitches, knit them plain, and commence at st row. for each sleeve vandykes are required. _to make stitches is to put the wool twice round the pin._ taie d'oreiller. _in shetland wool._ _this pillow is lined with pink or blue satin._ _pins , cast on stitches, or for each pattern, and over._ st row--knit together, * knit , make , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, make , knit , knit together, repeat from mark; at the end of this row, make , knit together. nd row--purl. rd row--knit together, * knit , make , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, make , knit , knit together. th row--purl. th row--knit together, * make , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, make , knit together. th row--purl. th row--knit , make , knit together, make , knit , knit together, knit , make , knit together, make . th row--purl. th row--knit , make , knit together, make , knit , knit together, knit , make , knit together, make , knit . th row--purl. th row--knit , make , knit together, make , knit together, make , knit together, make , knit . th row--purl. work until square, and finish with a vandyke edge in the same wool, and no. pins. the davidoff cap. _border white with black spots, middle violet or scarlet, pins no. , berlin wool, cast on stitches._ with white knit rows plain. th row--black and white, knit black stitch and white. th row-- white, bring the white forward, pass the black to the back, knit , bring the black forward, pass the white to the back, repeat, knit rows plain of white. th row--black and white, knit white, and repeat the th row. th row-- white, bring the wool forward, pass the black to the back, knit , bring the black forward, pass the white to the back, and repeat the th row; repeat from st row once more; this finishes the border. with violet wool begin at the other end of the pins. st row--make , knit together. nd and rd rows--plain. th row--purl. repeat these rows, knitting together at the beginning of every row, times; cast off. with white wool, raise stitches round the violet, to form the border at the back, and knit the same as the first pattern. cast off, and finish with ribbon, or cord, and tassels to match. set of twelve d'oyleys, _these patterns are suited for anti-macassars, bread d'oyleys, shawls, &c._ _pins no. , cotton no. ._ rosette pattern. _cast on stitches, or for each pattern, and at the end._ st row--knit , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, knit , repeat, at end of row knit more. nd row--purl. rd row--knit , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together. th row--purl. th row--knit , make , knit together, make , knit . th row--purl. th row--knit , make , knit together, knit , knit together, make . th row--purl. th row--knit , make , knit together, knit , knit together, make , knit . th row--purl. th row--knit together, * make , knit , make , knit together, repeat from mark; at the end of the row make , knit together. th row--purl pique pattern. _cast on stitches, or for each pattern, and over._ st row--knit , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, knit , at the end of row knit . nd row--purl. rd row--knit , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together. th row--purl. th row--knit , make , knit , knit together, knit , make , knit . th row--purl. th row--knit together, * make , knit , knit together, make , knit together, knit , make , knit together, repeat from mark, at end of row make , knit together. th row--purl. chenee pattern. _cast on stitches, or for each pattern, and over._ st row--knit , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, at end of row knit . nd row--make , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together. rd row--knit , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together. th row--knit together, * make , knit , make , knit together, at the end of row make , knit together. th row--knit , make , knit together, knit , knit together, make . th row--knit , make , knit together, make , knit together, make . th row--knit , make , knit together, knit , knit together, make . th row--knit , make , knit together, make , knit . eglantier pattern. _cast on stitches, or for each pattern, and over._ st row--knit together, * knit , make , knit , make , knit , knit together, repeat from mark, at end of these rows knit together. nd row--purl. rd row--knit together, * knit , make , knit , make , knit , knit together, repeat from mark. th row--purl. th row--knit together, * make , knit , make , knit together, repeat from mark. th row--purl. th row--knit , make , knit , knit together, knit , make . th row--purl. th row--knit , make , knit , knit together, knit , make , knit . th row--purl. th row--knit , make , knit together, make , knit . th row--purl. tablette pattern. _cast on stitches, or for each pattern, and over._ st row--knit together, * make , knit , make , knit together, repeat from mark, at end of row make , knit together. nd row--plain. rd row--knit , make , knit together, knit , knit together, make . th row--plain; repeat the last rows twice more, in all rows. th row--knit , make , knit together, make , knit . th row--plain. th row--knit , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together. th row--plain. repeat the last rows twice more, and commence at st row. plume pattern. _cast on stitches, or for each pattern, and over._ st row--knit together, * knit , make , knit , make , knit , knit together, repeat from mark; at the end of the row knit together. nd row--purl; repeat these rows twice more. th row--knit together, * knit , make , knit , make , knit , knit together; repeat from mark. th row--purl. th row--knit together, * make , knit , make , knit together. th, th, and th rows--plain. th row--knit , make , knit , knit together, knit , make . th row--purl; repeat the last rows twice more. th row--knit , make , knit , knit together, knit , make , knit . th row--purl. st row--knit , make , knit together, make , knit . nd, rd, and th rows--plain. mimosa pattern. _cast on stitches, or for each pattern, and over._ st row--purl , knit together, knit , purl , make , knit , make ; at the end of row purl . nd row--knit , purl , knit , purl ; at end of row knit . rd row--purl , knit together, knit , purl , knit , make , knit , make , knit . th row--knit , purl . th row--purl , knit together, knit , purl , knit , make , knit , make , knit . th row--knit , purl , knit , purl . th row--purl , knit together, purl , knit , make , knit , make , knit . th row--knit , purl , knit , purl . th row--purl , make , knit , make , purl , knit together, knit . th row--knit , purl , knit , purl . th row--purl , knit , make , knit , make , knit , purl , knit together, knit . th row--knit , purl . th row--purl , knit , make , knit , make , knit , purl , knit together, knit . th row--knit , purl , knit , purl . th row--purl , knit , make , knit , make , knit , purl , knit together. th row--knit , purl , knit , purl . lattice pattern. _cast on stitches, or for each pattern._ st row--knit , (make , knit together twice,) knit . nd row--plain. rd row--knit , (make , knit together twice,) knit . th row--plain. th row--knit , (make , knit together twice,) knit . th row--plain. th row--knit , (make , knit together twice.) th row--plain. th row--knit , (knit together, make twice,) knit . th row--plain. th row--knit , (knit together, make twice,) knit . th row--plain. th row--(knit together, make twice,) knit . th row--plain. lady bruce's pattern. _cast on stitches, or for each pattern, and over._ st row--knit , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, make , knit together, knit ; at end of row knit , beside the pattern. nd row--purl. rd row--knit , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, make , knit together; at end of row knit . th row--purl. th row--knit together, * make , knit , make , knit together, make , knit together, repeat from mark; at end of row instead of knitting together, make , knit together, knit . th row--purl. th row--make , knit together, knit , knit together, make , knit together, make , knit ; at end of row knit together, knit . th row--purl. th row--knit , make , knit together, knit , knit together, make , knit together, make , knit ; at end of row knit , make , knit together, knit . th row--purl. th row--knit , make , knit together, make , knit together, make , knit ; at end of row knit , make , knit together. th row--purl. festoon pattern. _cast on stitches, or for each pattern._ st row--purl , (knit together twice,) (make , knit , times,) make , (knit together twice.) nd row--purl , knit . target pattern. _cast on stitches, or for each pattern, and over._ st row--knit , make , knit together, make , knit ; at end of row knit plain. nd row--plain. rd row--knit together, * make , knit , make , knit together; repeat from mark at end of row, make , knit together. th row--plain. arabesque pattern. _cast on stitches, or for each pattern, and over._ st row--knit , make , knit together, make , knit , knit together, knit , make ; knit the last stitches the same as st every row. nd row--knit , make , knit together, purl , make , purl , purl together, purl , make , purl . rd row--knit , make , knit together, knit , make , knit , knit together, knit , make , knit . th row--knit , make , knit together, purl , make , purl together, make , purl . finish them with fringe or scollop edging. knitted purse. _pins no. , coarse netting silk no. , steel beads, thread the beads on the silk, cast on stitches._ st row--make , knit together; at end of row knit plain. nd row--make , slip beads down close to the pin, knit together; at end of row knit plain. repeat these rows until there are inches cast off, and sew up - / inches on each side, leaving - / inches for the opening. the long bead tassels suit this purse best. anti-macassar _pins no. , cotton no. , cast on stitches, or for each pattern._ st row--knit , make , knit together, make , knit , knit together, purl , knit together, knit , purl , knit , knit together, purl , knit together, knit , make ; at the end of every row knit , make , knit together. nd row--knit , make , knit together, purl , knit , purl , knit , purl , knit , purl . rd row--knit , make , knit together, make , knit , make , (knit together, purl , times,) knit together, make , knit , make . th row--knit , make , knit together, purl , knit , purl , knit , purl , knit , purl . th row--knit , make , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, purl , knit together, make , knit , make . th row--knit , make , knit together, purl , knit , purl . th row--knit , make , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, make , knit , make . th row--knit , make , knit together, purl ; finish with fringe. shetland shawl. _this shawl may be worked with a colored border._ _diamond border and leaf pattern middle. pins no. , cast on stitches._ border. st row--knit , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, knit . nd row--plain. rd row--knit , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, knit . th row--plain. th row--knit , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, knit , make , knit together, knit . th row--plain. th row--knit , knit together, make , knit , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, knit , make , knit together, knit . th row--plain. th row--knit , knit together, make , knit , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, knit , make , knit together, knit . th row--plain. th row--knit together, make , knit , knit together, make , knit , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, knit , make , knit together, knit . th row--plain. th row--knit , make , knit together, knit , make , knit together, knit , knit together, make , knit , knit together, make , knit . th row--plain. th row--knit , make , knit together, knit , make , knit together, make , knit , knit together, make , knit . th row--plain. th row--knit , make , knit together, knit , knit together, make , knit . th row--plain. th row--knit , make , knit together, knit , knit together, make , knit . th row--plain. st row--knit , make , knit together, make , knit . nd row--plain. repeat this pattern once more, then with a needle and thread, take stitches off the pin; these stitches are to be left for the side border. with the white wool knit stitches plain, leaving stitches for the other side; fasten them, and commence the middle. st row--slip , knit , turn the slipped stitch over the knitted , knit , make , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, make , knit , knit together. nd row--purl. rd row--slip , knit , turn the slipped stitch over it, knit , make , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, make , knit , knit together. th row--purl. th row--slip , knit , turn over, make , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, make , knit together. th row--purl. th row--knit , * make , knit together, make , knit , knit together, knit , make , knit together, make , knit together; repeat from mark. th row--purl. th row--knit , make , knit together, make , knit , knit together, slip , knit , turn over, knit , make , knit together, make . th row--purl. th row--knit , make , knit together, make , knit , knit together, slip , knit , turn over, knit , make , knit together, make , knit . th row--purl. th row--knit , make , knit together, make , knit together, slip , knit , turn over, make , knit together, make , knit . th row--purl. th row--knit together, knit , (make , knit together, times,) make , knit . th row--purl. repeat this pattern until the middle is square; then knit the sides the same as the first pattern, until the same length as the middle, sew them to it, and put all the stitches on pin; then knit the border the same as commencement. finish with the following fringe. vandyke fringe for shetland shawl. _pins no. , cast on stitches._ st row--make , knit together times, make , knit . nd row--plain. rd row--make , knit together times, make , knit . th row--plain. th row--make , knit together times, make , knit . th row--plain. repeat the last rows until there are plain stitches. th row--knit together, make , times, knit together, knit . th row--plain. st row--knit together, make , times, knit together, knit . nd row--plain. repeat these rows until there are on the pin, then repeat from st row; when sufficient is made in the plain row, cast off stitches, leaving to be pulled out for the fringe. turkish pattern for a muff. _double berlin wool, colors, black and gold._ _pins no. , cast on stitches on each of pins._ st round--gold color, leaving the wool in front of pin, slip , pass the wool round the pin so as to bring it in front, purl together. nd round--black, knit , (this is a black stitch,) slip , (a gold loop,) knit . rd round--same as nd; at the end of this round, take the last stitch off the right hand pin, and put it on the left; repeat from st round. pelerine. _double berlin wool, scarlet or blue middle, white and black border, in imitation of minerva, pins no. , cast on stitches with scarlet._ st row--slip , knit , * make , knit , repeat from mark. nd row--purl. rd row--slip , knit , make , knit , make , slip , knit , turn the slipped stitch over the knitted, (make , knit twice.) th row--purl. th row--slip , knit , make , knit ; these are the edge stitches, and therefore not repeated in the row. make , slip , knit , turn the slipped stitch over, and repeat until the last stitches; then make , knit twice. repeat the last rows, until there are stitches on the pin, knit a purl row, next row knit the edge stitches and patterns, (or stitches); cast off stitches, and, with another pin, finish the row. this finishes the back. the ends are then decreased in the following manner: the wool is now at the left side, leave the stitches on the other pin, and work the other , thus: st row--purl, at the end of row purl together. nd row--slip , knit , turn over, repeat the pattern to the end. rd row--as st. th row--the same as nd; at the end make , knit . repeat these rows until there are but stitches, cast off, and commence the other side. st row--purl together, purl the rest. nd row--commence with pattern. rd row--same as first. th row--knit together, and repeat pattern. repeat these rows until finished. for the border, white wool, raise stitches from the outside selvedge. st row--make , purl , repeat. nd row--pattern. rd row--purl. th row--pattern. th row--purl. th row--pattern. th row--make , purl . th row--make , slip , knit , turn over, make , slip , knit , turn over, repeat. th row--purl. th row--same as th. th row--purl, cast off. raise stitches, with white, on the wrong side, round the neck, and work as the white border. for the tufts, cut black wool in pieces of - / inch, take pieces, and sew them alternately on the border. plaid foot muff. _scarlet, dark blue, and green -thread fleecy._ _pins no. , cast on stitches in scarlet._ st row--plain. nd row--purl. rd row--green, purl. th row--blue, slip , knit . th row--blue, purl , slip . th row--blue, slip , purl . th row--blue, purl , slip . th row--green, plain. th row--scarlet, purl. th row--scarlet, purl. th row--scarlet, plain. th row--green, purl. th row--blue, knit , slip , knit . th row--blue, purl , slip , purl . th row--same as th. th row--same as th. th row--green, plain. th row--scarlet, plain. repeat until square, cast off. for the side, cast on stitches, and knit sufficient to go round sides of the square. for the lining. with white wool, cast stitches; make , slip , knit together, repeat until square; work pieces. cut pieces of mill board the size of the square, and for the side; stretch the work on , and cover the other with cloth, stuffed with fine combed wool, and finish with roleau and cord. driving mitts. _ pins no. , -thread fleecy, cast on stitches on each of pins, and on the rd._ st round--knit , purl , for rounds. st round--plain. nd round--purl , knit . rd round--plain. th round--knit , purl , knit . the last rounds form the pattern, and are worked throughout the mitts. th round--purl , make , knit , make , purl , this is for the thumb; knit the rest of round plain. knit rounds, (or pattern,) purling the st and th stitches. th round--purl , make , knit , make , purl , knit the rest to pattern. knit rounds, and continue increasing for the thumb, every th round working the pattern on the thumb; continue until there are stitches on the thumb, knit patterns without increasing; then leave the stitches, or fasten them with a needle and thread; cast on stitches, and knit patterns, then purl , knit for rounds, cast off, put the stitches on pins, take up the stitches, cast on, and knit rounds of pattern, purl , knit for rounds, cast off. knit the other mitt exactly the same. point lace edging. _pins no. , boar's head cotton , cast on stitches._ st row--knit , make , (knit together twice,) make , knit , make , knit together, knit , make , knit , make , knit . nd row--make , knit together, knit , make , knit , make , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, knit , make , knit together. rd row--knit , make , knit together, make , knit together, knit , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, knit , make , knit . th row--make , knit together, knit , (make , knit together, make , knit together, make , knit , twice,) knit , make , knit together. th row--knit , make , knit together, make , knit together, knit , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, knit , make , knit , make , knit together, knit . th row--make , knit together, knit , (make , knit , make , knit together, twice,) make , knit , make , knit together. th row--knit , make , knit together, (knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, knit , twice,) knit , make , knit together, knit . th row--make , knit together, (knit , make , knit together, make , knit together, make , twice,) knit , make , knit together, knit , make , knit together. th row--same as th row. th row--make , (knit together twice,) (make , knit together, make , knit , twice,) make , knit together, knit , make , knit together. th row--knit , (make , knit together, make , knit together, knit , knit together, make , knit , twice,) knit together, knit . th row--make , (knit together twice,) (make , knit together, make , knit together, make , knit , twice,) knit , make , knit together. th row--knit , make , knit together, make , knit together, knit , knit together, make , knit , (make , knit together, knit , twice.) th row--make , (knit together twice,) (make , knit together, make , knit , twice,) make , knit together. th row--knit , make , (knit together twice,) make , knit , make , knit together, knit , knit together, make , knit together, knit . th row--make , (knit together twice,) make , knit together, make , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, knit , make , knit together. scollop edging. _pins no. , boar's head cotton no. , cast on stitches._ st row--knit , make , knit together, knit . nd row--knit , make , knit , make , knit together, knit . rd row--knit , make , knit together, knit . th row--knit , make , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, knit . th row--the same as st row, knitting plain stitch more. th row--knit , make , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, knit . th row--the same as th. th row--knit , (make , knit together twice,) make , knit , make , knit together, knit . th row--same as th. th row--knit , (make , knit together twice,) make , knit , make , knit together, knit . th row--same as th. th row--knit , (make , knit together, times,) make , knit , make , knit together, knit . th row--same as th. th row--knit , (make , knit together, times,) make , knit , make , knit together, knit . th row--same as th. th row--knit , knit together, (make , knit together, times,) knit , make , knit together, knit . th row--same as th. th row--knit , knit together, (make , knit together, twice,) knit , make , knit together, knit . th row--same as th. th row--knit , knit together, (make , knit together, twice,) knit , make , knit together, knit . st row--same as th. nd row--knit , knit together, make , knit together, knit , make , knit together, knit . rd row--same as rd. th row--knit , make , knit together, knit , make , knit together, knit . diamond edging. _pins no. , boar's head cotton no. , cast on stitches._ st row--make , knit together, make , knit , knit together, knit . nd row--plain. rd row--make , knit together, make , knit , make , knit . th row--plain. th row--make , knit together, make , knit , make , knit . th row--plain. th row--make , knit together, make , knit together, knit , knit together, make , knit together, knit . th row--plain. th row--(make , knit together, twice,) make , knit together, knit . th row--plain. th row--make , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, knit . th row--plain. treble diamond edging. _cast on stitches, pins no. , cotton no. ._ st row--knit , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together, knit . nd row--make , knit together, knit the rest plain. rd row--knit , make , knit , make , knit . th row--same as nd. th row--knit , knit together, make , knit together, make , knit , make , knit . th row--same as nd. th row--knit , knit together, make , knit , make , knit , make , knit . th row--same as nd. th row--knit , make , knit , make , knit together, make , knit together, knit . th row--same as nd. th row--knit , knit together, make , knit together, make , knit together, knit together. th row--same as nd. fringe for d'oyleys. _pins no. , double cotton, cast on stitches._ st row--knit , make , knit together. all the rows are the same; when finished, cast off stitches, leaving to be pulled out for the fringe. travelling cap. _ colors, double berlin wool, pins no. , cast on stitches._ st row--colored, purl. nd row--plain. rd row--purl. th row--white, purl. th row--make , knit together. repeat the last rows times more. th row--colored, purl. th row--purl. th row--plain. th row--white, purl. th row--knit together, make . repeat the last rows times more; work from st row once more; there will now be ribs of colored: this is for the front. commence at the other end of the pin, and knit colored ribs; this will make the pattern come on the wrong side. knit stitches, leaving on the pin, turn back, knit , turn back, leaving on the other side; knit ribs of stitches, then put all the stitches on pin, and knit ribs all along; cast off, draw up the ends, and finish with cord and tassel. shetland scarf. _pins no. , cast on stitches._ work the rosette, eglantier, or lattice pattern, as in d'oyleys, and finish with same fringe. the first and last quarter of a yard looks well in shades of wool. petit point quilt. _or table cover._ _pins no. , double berlin wool, shaded and plain white. with the white cast on stitches for each yard; if larger, any even number of stitches._ st row--shaded wool, knit , bring the wool forward, slip , pass the wool back. nd row--purl , pass the wool back, slip , bring the wool forward. rd row--white, same as st row. th row--white, same as nd row. repeat these rows until the required length, cast off, and finish with the following border for quilt. _measure the sides of the work; cast on with white wool stitches for each yard, and for every inches more._ st row--purl. nd row--plain. rd row--shaded wool, (knit together, times,) (make , knit , times,) make , (knit together, times,) knit . th row--purl. th row--same as rd. th row--purl. th row--same as rd. th row--white, purl. repeat from st row times, knit row, purl row; cast off, and sew on to quilt. baby's socks. _pins no. , berlin wool, pink and white. with pink cast on stitches._ knit rows, making a stitch at the beginning of every row; then rows, making a stitch every other row; this increase is for the toe. knit rows plain, knit stitches at the toe, turn back, and knit rows of stitches; leave them on the pin, and with a third pin, and white wool, commence at the other side. knit a plain row, turn back, make , knit together, to the end. next row, plain; turn back, make , knit together, for stitches, leaving on the pin; turn back, make , knit together to the end, and repeat the last rows times. cast on stitches; next row make , knit together, to the end, or stitches; plain row; then with the colored wool that was left at the stitches knit a plain row on, the stitches of white; knit rows plain; then rows, knitting together every other row at the toe; and rows, knitting together at the beginning of every row: cast off. for the leg, white wool raise stitches from the colored part, and from the white piece across; knit the stitches left on the pin; there will now be stitches on the pin. pattern: make , knit together; rows plain; repeat for patterns, and cast off. then, with colored wool, cast on stitches, knit rows, and cast off; draw the slanting part together, and sew this piece in. square shawl. _pins no. , double berlin or -thread fleecy, cast on stitches._ st row--knit , make , knit together, knit , knit together, make , knit ; at the end of row knit plain. nd row--purl. rd row--make , knit together, knit , make , knit together, make , knit . th row--purl. th row--knit , knit together, make , knit , make , knit together. th row--purl. th row--knit together, * make , knit , make , knit together, knit , make , knit together, repeat from mark; at the end of row, make , knit together. th row--purl. work until square. border. _in two colors._ _cast on stitches._ with white, or any color that accords well with the middle, knit rows plain, knitting together at the end of each row. th row--same color as middle, knit , slip ; at the end of these rows knit together. th row--purl , slip . th row--knit , slip , knit . th row--purl , slip , purl . then with white rows plain, knitting together at the end. th row--with the color, knit , slip , knit ; at the end of these rows knit together. th row--purl , slip , purl . th row--knit , slip , knit . th row--purl , slip , purl . white; knit rows, knitting together at the end. th row--slip , knit . th row--purl , slip , purl . th row--knit , * knit , slip ; repeat from mark. th row--slip , purl . with white knit rows, cast off. work pieces the same, sew them on to the shawl, and finish with a knotted fringe. polka. _for a child._ _pins no. , double berlin wool, or -thread fleecy, cast on stitches with white._ st row--make , slip , knit together; this is the stitch throughout the polka. knit rows, join on the color, and knit rows; then knit stitches, knit together, work on with pattern for stitches, knit together, finish the row with pattern. next row knit stitches, make , slip , knit together, knit stitches, make , slip , knit together, finish the row with pattern. knit rows. knit stitches, and knit together, knit stitches of pattern, knit together; finish the row with pattern. next row knit stitches of pattern, make , slip , knit together, knit stitches of pattern, make , slip , knit together; finish with pattern. knit rows; decrease as above, knitting less in the middle. knit rows; decrease again. knit rows. knit stitches of pattern, then knit , knit together, to within stitches of the end; finish with pattern. next row, after knitting the stitches, make , slip , knit together, within ; there will now be stitches on the pin. knit rows. knit the stitches, leave them, and with another pin, cast off stitches for the arm hole, knit stitches of pattern, cast off stitches; leave the fronts on the pins, and knit rows; then knit together, finish the row in pattern. at the end of the next row, knit together. knit rows. knit together at the end of the next row. knit rows. knit together at the end. knit rows. knit together. cast off the back. for the fronts, knit rows, knit together at the arm hole; at the end of next row, knit together. knit rows, decrease again, knit rows, decrease, knit rows, decrease, knit rows, decrease as before; cast off stitches at the front, decrease at the arm hole. next row, cast off stitches, decrease at the arm hole, and cast off. knit the other front the same. sleeve. _cast on stitches._ knit rows of pattern. st row--knit stitches, turn back. nd row--knit to the end. rd row--knit stitches, turn back. th row--knit to the end. th row--knit stitches, turn, knit to the end. th row--knit stitches, turn, and knit to the end. th row--knit stitches, turn, and knit to the end. st row--knit stitches, turn, and knit to the end. then knit rows all along; cast off. collar. _cast on stitches._ with white, knit rows; join on the color, knit rows. st row--knit stitches, turn back, and knit to within stitches of the other end; turn back, knit till within . next row, the same; turn back, knit till within . next row, the same, knit till within . next row, the same, knit till within . cast off. for the side border and cuffs, cast on stitches with white, and knit the length of the color. child's frock. _for a child or years of age._ _pins no. , berlin wool, shades of each color, and white. with the darkest shade, cast on stitches._ pattern--make , knit together, knit . all the rows are the same. knit rows of each shade, and of white; shaded, white, shaded; knit the rest white until long enough. body. _cast on stitches._ with the th shade, knit the pattern to the lightest shade, and rows of white; then knit stitches of pattern, cast off stitches. with another pin knit stitches, turn back, and knit rows of stitches; this is for the front. for the back: on the side where the stitches were cast off, knit rows of white; on the other side, cast off stitches, knit rows; put all the stitches on pin again, and with the lightest shade, work to the darkest. for the sleeves. _cast on stitches with the darkest shade._ knit to the lightest, then of white; cast off. sew the skirt to a band, and round the neck and sleeves with a vandyke edging as nd receipt. carriage mat. _no. pins, -thread fleecy, or -thread doubled, border white with black spots, and scarlet or orange middle. with the white cast stitches; cut a skein of white and black in pieces of inches._ st row--knit , take pieces of the cut wool, white, put them on the left pin, and cross them, so as to bring end in front, and at the back; then with the right hand pin, knit the loop and a stitch together, bring the end at the back forward between the pins. nd row--plain. rd row--slip the st stitch, and repeat the st row. th row--plain. th row--the same as the st row, putting on black loop and white, alternately. th row--plain. repeat from st row once more; in the th row, put on white loops before commencing the pattern, to bring the black spots in a diamond. then commence the middle; knit in loops of white, of color, and of white. repeat until the middle is square, and knit the white to correspond with the beginning. when finished, it must be sent to be sheared and combed. réseau quilt. _pins no. , -thread fleecy, pink and white; cast on stitches with white._ st row--pink, having wool in front, slip , make , by turning the wool round the pin, purl together. nd row--with white, at other end of pin, knit , slip , (this is a pink loop,) knit . rd row--slip , purl . th row--with pink, at the other end, make , slip , knit together. th row--white, knit , slip . th row--slip , purl . repeat from st row. finish with knitted fringe. _cast on stitches, with doubled wool._ st row--make , knit together, knit ; all the rows are the same. knit rows of each color; when finished cast off stitches, leaving to be pulled out for the fringe. terms used in crochet. _to make a chain_--make a loop, and draw the wool through it. _to commence a row_--put the needle in the side of the st stitch, bring the wool through, and work a chain stitch. after the st row, there is always a stitch at the side. _miss a stitch_--pass over of the row before. _to increase_--work stitches in . _to decrease_--miss a stitch. in crochet that is worked square, at the end of a row, cut the wool off, and draw it through to fasten it; begin at the other end. _in the chain_--put the needle through the loop formed by the chain stitches, in the row before, instead of in a stitch. crochet. shepherd or single crochet. _this stitch is usually worked round, for cuffs, muffatees, boots, &c. &c._ make a chain, join it, keep the loop on the needle. st round--put the needle in the st chain stitch, draw the wool through; there will now be loops on the needle; draw the last loop through the st. in the nd and following rounds, take the st part of the chain on the needle. plain, double, or french crochet. make a chain. after commencing the row, put the needle in a stitch of the chain, draw the wool through; there will be loops on the needle. take the wool on the needle again, and draw it through the loops. at the end, cut the wool off, draw it through, and begin at the other end. treble crochet. make a chain. after commencing the row, put the wool round the needle, put the needle in a stitch of the chain, draw the wool through; there will be loops on the needle. take the wool on the needle again, draw it through of the loops; take up the wool again, and draw it through the . this is stitch. crochet. _in two colors._ this is always worked in plain crochet. lay the color not wanted along, and work over it. in changing the color, draw it through before finishing the stitch, when there are loops on the needle. six crochet d'oyleys, round. _these d'oyleys are very beautiful._ _boar's head cotton, no. , or berlin wool, in plain, open, and treble crochet._ diamond pattern. _make a chain of stitches, and join it._ st round-- treble chain stitch in every chain stitch. nd round-- treble, chain, miss . rd round-- treble, chain, miss . th round-- treble, chain, miss . th round-- treble, chain, miss . th round--miss , treble, chain, miss , treble, chain. th round--miss , treble, chain, miss , treble, chain. th round--miss , treble, chain, miss , treble, chain. th round--miss , treble, chain, miss , treble, chain, miss , treble, chain, miss , treble, chain. th round-- treble, chain, miss , treble, chain, miss , treble, chain, miss . th round-- treble, chain, treble, chain, miss , treble, chain, miss . th round-- treble, chain, treble, chain, miss , treble, chain, miss . damier pattern. _make a chain of stitches._ st round-- plain in every stitch. nd round-- chain, miss , plain. rd round-- chain, miss , plain. th round-- chain, miss , plain in of the round before. th round-- chain, miss , plain in , plain. th round-- chain, miss , plain in , plain. th round-- chain, miss , plain in , plain. th round-- treble, chain, miss . th round-- chain, plain, miss . th round--plain. th round-- chain, miss , plain; the plain are in the middle of the chain in the th round. th round-- plain, and in the th stitch. th round-- treble, chain, miss . th round-- chain, miss , treble. th round-- treble, miss , chain. trellis pattern. _a chain of stitches._ st round-- chain, and plain in every stitch. nd round-- chain, plain; the plain stitch in the middle of the chain, in the last round. rd round-- chain, plain; the plain stitch in the middle. th round--same as rd. th round-- chain, plain. th round--treble. th round-- chain, miss , treble. th round-- treble in , miss , chain; the chain over the in last row. th round--same as th. th round-- treble in , miss , chain. th round-- treble, miss , chain. th round--same as th. filet pattern. _chain of stitches._ st round-- chain, plain in every stitch. nd round-- plain, miss . rd round-- chain, miss , plain; the plain in the middle of the chain in st round. th round-- plain, and plain in the th stitch. th round-- plain, chain, miss . th round--plain. th round-- chain, miss , plain in the chain of last round. th round--plain. th round-- chain, miss , plain. th round-- chain, miss , plain in chain of last round. th round--same as th. th round--same as th. th round-- plain, miss . th round-- treble, chain, miss . scollop pattern. _make a chain of stitches._ st round-- treble, chain, in every stitch. nd round-- treble, putting the needle through the chain of round before, chain. rd round-- treble in the chain of last round, chain. th round-- treble in the chain, chain. th round-- treble in the chain, chain. th round-- chain, miss , plain in the middle of the treble in last round. th round-- treble, chain, in every stitch for stitches, miss . th and th rounds-- treble, chain, miss . th round-- plain, chain, miss . th round-- chain, miss , plain, chain, miss , treble. th round-- treble, chain, miss . seme pattern. _make a chain of stitches._ st round-- plain in every stitch. nd round-- chain, treble. rd round-- chain, treble in , miss . th round-- treble in , chain, miss . th round-- chain, miss , treble. th round-- treble in , chain, miss . th round-- treble, chain, miss . th round-- treble in , chain, miss . th round-- treble in , chain, miss . th round-- treble in , chain, miss . th round-- treble in , chain, miss ; the treble stitches in the chain of the last round. fringe for d'oyleys. _cut a skein of cotton in pieces of inches._ put the needle in a stitch of the work, take pieces of the cotton, fold them on the needle, draw them through, and draw the ends through the loop, pull it tight. knitting cotton, no. , is the best for the fringe. scollop for d'oyleys. _to be worked on the d'oyleys._ st round-- chain, miss , plain. nd round-- treble, chain for stitches, chain, miss , plain, chain, miss . wheel pattern insertion. _boar's head cotton no. , fine steel needle, make a chain of stitches for each yard._ st round-- treble stitches in , chain, miss , plain, chain, miss . nd round--turn the work so as to work in the chain on the other side; work the same as st row, the treble in the same stitch as the treble on the other side. ecaille pattern edging. _boar's head cotton no. , fine steel needle, make a chain of stitches for each yard._ st row-- treble, chain, miss . nd row-- chain, miss , plain. rd row-- chain, miss , (this over the chain in the last row,) plain, in the middle of the plain in last row. th row-- chain, miss , plain in the middle of the plain in the last row. open vandyke edging. _chain and cotton as last receipt._ st row--treble. nd row--the same. rd row-- plain, chain, miss . th row-- chain, plain; the plain stitches are always in the middle of the chain in last row; chain, miss , plain, chain, miss , plain, chain, miss , plain; turn back, so as to work on the th row. th row-- chain, miss , plain, chain, miss , plain, chain, miss , plain; turn back. th row-- chain, miss , plain, chain, miss , plain. work shepherd's stitches down the side of vandyke, so as to bring the thread to the rd row: this forms vandyke. repeat from th row. close vandyke edging. _commence as last receipt._ st row-- treble, chain, miss . nd row-- chain, treble; turn back, so as to work on nd row. rd row-- chain, miss , treble, turn back. th row-- chain, miss , treble, chain; work shepherd stitches to bring the cotton to the nd row. commence from nd row. when all the vandykes are worked, finish with a row of chain, miss , plain, all round them. double scallop edging. _commence as before._ st row-- treble, chain, miss . nd row-- chain, miss , treble. rd row-- plain, chain, miss . th row-- chain, plain, chain, miss , ( chain, plain, times.) th row--the same as rd, except the plain stitches are to be worked in the middle of the last scollop. th row--same as th. diamond insertion. st row--treble. nd row-- treble, chain, miss , treble, chain, miss . rd row-- treble, chain, miss , treble, chain, miss , treble. th row--same as nd. th row--same as st. cuffs. _diamond pattern._ _make a chain of stitches, boar's head cotton no. ._ st row-- treble, chain, miss , treble, chain, miss ; at the end of these rows, treble, chain, beside the pattern. work backwards and forwards. nd row-- treble, chain, miss , treble, chain, miss , treble. rd row-- treble, chain, miss , treble, chain, miss , treble. th row-- treble, chain, miss , treble, chain, miss , treble. th row-- treble, chain, miss , treble, chain, miss , treble. th row--same as th. th row--same as rd. th row--same as nd. th row--same as st. edging for cuffs. _to be worked on._ st row-- treble, chain, miss . nd row--treble. rd row--same as st. th row-- treble in the chain stitch of last row, chain, plain in the chain of last row, chain; work the same on the other side. work down the side of the cuff plain, working chain stitches for button holes. crochet collar. _make a chain of stitches, no. cotton._ st row-- treble, chain, miss . nd row-- chain, plain, miss . rd row-- plain, chain; the plain stitch is always in the middle of the chain in the row before. repeat the rd row times. then row, chain, plain, miss . finish with a small cord and tassels. round sofa pillow. _double berlin wool, make a chain of stitches, work it backwards and forwards. shaded wool, colors violet, green, scarlet, blue, and orange._ st row--violet, chain, treble in , miss . work rows more the same, always working the treble stitches in the chain stitch of the row before; then rows of green, of scarlet, blue, orange, and commence at st row. the size must be according to the pillow it is to cover, about inches. bead crochet. thread the beads on the silk, and pass a bead down before working the stitch; this is always worked on the wrong side. handsome bead purse. _with square ends, pattern no. , middle size netting silk, colours ponceau white, shaded green, and no. steel beads. make a chain of stitches._ with ponceau make it round, and work rounds plain; then rounds of pattern in ponceau, in white, in shaded green, in white, of ponceau, rounds plain ponceau, and rows backwards and forwards, for the opening, working bead stitches at the beginning and end of every other row; make it round again, work plain rounds, repeat pattern. finish the ends with a fringe of steel beads. [illustration: ] bead purse. _pattern no. ._ _colours white and shaded blue, gold or steel beads, no. . make a chain of stitches white._ make it round; work rounds plain, and rounds, putting a bead on every stitch, shaded blue; work the star pattern; then rounds in beads with white, rounds plain, and rows backwards and forwards for the opening, working bead stitches at the beginning and end of every other row; make it round, and repeat the pattern. finish with a fringe of beads. [illustration: ] table cover. _in squares, plain crochet._ _each square is a different color in berlin wool; colors violet, green, scarlet, stone, blue, and orange, shades of each color and black; work rounds of each shade. make a chain of stitches with the lightest shade._ st round--work stitches in . nd round-- stitches in , plain. rd round-- stitches in , plain. th round-- nd shade, in , plain. th round-- stitches in , plain. th round-- rd shade, in , plain. th round-- in , plain. th round-- th shade, in , plain. th round-- in , plain. th round-- th shade, in , plain. th round-- in , plain. th round-- th shade, in , plain. th round-- in , plain. th round--black, in , plain. th round-- in , plain. this finishes square. work all the colors the same; when sufficient are made, crochet them together with black. a small pattern may also be worked in each square. bell pulls. _pattern no. ._ _in double berlin wool, the ground claret, shades of green, and of orange; make a chain of stitches for each quarter of a yard._ st row--orange. nd row-- nd shade. rd row-- rd shade. th row--claret. th row--darkest green and claret; work the first row of pattern with the green. th row-- nd shade of green and claret. th row-- rd shade of green and claret. th row-- th shade of green and nd shade of orange. th row-- th shade of green, rd shade of orange. th row--same as th. th row--same as th. th row--same as th. th row--same as th. th row--same as rd. th row--as nd. th row--as st. [illustration: ] greek cap. _patterns nos. and ._ _coarse netting silk, and gold twist._ _ground black, shades of ponceau, of green, of orange; make a chain of stitches with black._ st round-- stitches in . nd round-- ponceau, lightest shade, ponceau, black in . rd round-- ponceau in , black. th round-- ponceau in ponceau, black. th round-- ponceau in , ponceau, black. repeat the last rounds, working ponceau more each round until there are stitches; rounds of black, plain, in the th stitch; rounds of gold, thus-- treble, chain, miss , black round plain, next round black, plain and in in the th stitch, then work the pattern with black ground. st round--darkest green and black. nd round-- nd shade of green and black. rd round-- rd shade of green and black. th round--darkest ponceau and black. th round-- nd shade and black. th round-- rd shade and black. th round--darkest blue and black. th round-- nd shade and black. th round-- rd shade and black. th round--darkest orange and black. th round-- nd shade and black. th round-- rd shade and black. th round-- th shade and black. th round--plain black. th round--black, plain and in in the th stitch. this finishes the increase; it will now be inches round; repeat the gold rounds and the pattern until within inches of the finish; then work the rounds of gold, round of ponceau; then pattern no. in the gold on ponceau ground. if required larger, it must be increased before the nd pine pattern in the black rounds. [illustration: ] [illustration: ] cigar or card case. _pattern no. ._ _middle sized silk, shaded scarlet and blue no. , steel and gold beads. make a chain of stitches in scarlet._ st round-- stitches in . nd round-- plain, in the nd stitch. rd round-- in the rd stitch, repeat the last round, working stitch more until there are stitches; thread on the scarlet rows of steel beads; work rounds, putting a bead on every stitch; thread the gold beads on the blue; work plain round; then commence the star pattern; after the pattern plain row; thread three rows of steel beads on the blue, and work three rounds a bead on every stitch; then work the star pattern in scarlet and gold beads; work another piece the same. it is then made up on a frame. bag. _in treble open crochet._ _colors, white, blue, and gold twist._ _make a chain of stitches._ pattern, treble, chain, miss , work rounds of each color for inches, and finish with cord and tassels to match. square sofa pillow. _pattern no. . berlin wool._ _make a chain of stitches, or for double berlin wool. colours, shades of green, of scarlet, of stone, and white._ st pattern--open crochet, treble, chain, miss . st row--darkest green. nd row-- rd shade of green, working the treble stitches in the chain of the last row. rd row-- nd shade of green. th row-- st shade of green. nd pattern, no. . st row--darkest stone and darkest scarlet. nd row-- rd shades of stone and scarlet. rd row-- nd shades of stone and scarlet. th row-- st shades of stone and scarlet. th row--white. this is the ground of the stripe. th row-- st shade of green and white. th row-- nd shade and white. th row-- rd shade and white. th row-- th shade and white. th row--same as th. th row--same as th. th row--same as th. th row--same as th. th row--as th. th row--as th. th row--as rd. th row--as nd. th row--as st. then work the open pattern again, and repeat until square. [illustration: ] half-square shawl. _plain crochet. double chené wool of various colors and black. make a chain of stitches._ st row--work stitches in at the beginning of the row; work the rest plain at the end of the row; leave inches of wool for the fringe. in commencing a row the ends must be worked under for a few stitches. pattern-- row black and chené. increase until there are stitches; then loop in a fringe to correspond with the other side. another shawl. _ shades of violet, of stone, and white._ increase as the last, and work row of each shade. crochet shoes. _berlin wool, pattern no. ._ the shoes must be worked from a paper pattern the size required. commence at the toe, and increase by working stitches in at the beginning and end of the row until sufficiently deep. for the sides work about a third of the front. gold color and french blue for the ground, and shades of each for the pattern. st row-- stitches of blue and of gold. nd row--gold. rd row--gold and dark blue. th row-- nd shade of blue and gold. th row-- rd shade of blue and gold. th row--gold color, repeat from st row. the next pattern the same, except the ground is blue, and the spots shades of gold. [illustration: ] sole for shoes. _ thread black fleecy._ _make a chain of stitches._ st row-- row plain. this is not repeated. nd row--take both sides of the chain on the needle and work according to shape, working it backwards and forwards. crochet purse. _ nd size netting silk, colours. no. steel beads. make a chain of stitches._ st row-- treble, chain, pass a bead down, miss ; work rows of each colour for inches. shamrock purse. _pattern no. ._ _in close crochet, fine silk; colors, green, violet, and white; steel and gold beads, no. . make a chain of stitches with white; thread the steel beads upon the white._ work rows the same as in last receipt, then with green and gold beads, work the pattern; then rows of white, with steel beads, as before, and with violet and gold beads, work the pattern again. three stripes of each color form the purse. [illustration: ] honeycomb edging. _make a chain of stitches for each yard. boar's head cotton no. ._ st row-- chain, miss ( plain, chain, miss , times), plain. nd row-- treble, chain in the chain of the row before; repeat times, chain ( plain, chain, miss , times), plain, chain. rd row-- treble, chain, miss , times, chain ( plain, chain, miss , twice), plain, chain. th row-- plain and treble in every treble stitch of the last row; then chain, plain, chain, plain, chain. anti-macassar. _boar's head cotton no. , or knitting cotton no. . make a chain of stitches. work backwards and forwards._ st row-- treble, chain, miss , treble, chain, miss , treble; at the end, work treble, chain, beside the pattern. nd row-- treble, chain, miss , treble, chain, miss , treble, chain, miss , treble. rd row-- treble, chain, miss , treble, chain, miss , treble, chain, miss , treble, chain, miss , treble. th row-- treble, chain, miss , ( treble, chain, miss , times,) treble, chain, miss . th row--same as rd. th row--same as nd. th row--same as st. work inches. finish with double scollop edging. travelling bag. _pattern no. ._ _in double berlin wool, shades of scarlet, shades of stone, shades of couleur de bois, light green, black, white, and shaded blue. make a chain of stitches._ st row--black and darkest bois, stitches of each. nd row-- nd shade and black. rd row-- rd shade, plain. th row-- th shade and green, stitches of green, and of bois, lightest shade. th row--white and st shade of scarlet, white, and scarlet. th row-- nd shade of scarlet, st shade of stone; stone, scarlet, stone, scarlet. th row-- nd shade of stone, rd shade of scarlet; same as th row. th row-- rd shade of stone, th shade of scarlet; same as th row. th row-- th shade of stone, th shade of scarlet. th row--same as th. repeat the colors back again, ending with a plain row of the darkest couleur de bois, and the rows of stitches; then rows of shaded blue; work until there are inches. finish with a clasp. [illustration: ] table cover. _pattern no. ._ _berlin wool. make a chain of stitches in single wool, or in double, for each / -yard. colors-- shades of crimson, green, and violet; ground--black and shaded orange._ st row--black. nd row--lightest crimson and black. rd row-- nd shade crimson and black. th row-- rd shade and black. th row-- th shade and black. th row--dark green and black. th row-- nd shade and black. th row-- rd shade and black. th row-- th shade and black. th row--white and black. th row--lightest violet and black. th row-- nd shade of violet and black. th row-- rd shade and black. th row-- th shade and black. then row of black, and rows of shaded orange. a chain. _fine brown braid._ wind the braid in balls, join them together, and make a loop; then, holding the braids over the th finger, work a chain stitch with each of the braids alternately, until yard and a / long. fasten it with a steel slide. cap. _in berlin wool shaded, and floss silk. make a chain of stitches._ pattern-- treble, chain, miss . work rows, leaving stitch at the beginning and end of every row, to decrease it; work a row all round, and then commence the border. st row--work chain stitches, miss , plain. nd row--the same. rd row-- chain, miss , plain; the plain stitch in the middle of the chain of last row. th row--same as rd for a rd of the row; break the wool off. th row-- chain, miss , plain, for a rd of the row. work the other side the same; then a row of the floss silk, the same as the th, all along. finish with a ribbon for the back and ends. netting. anti-macassar. _as pattern no. ._ _mesh no. , cotton no. , foundation stitches._ net rows. for the fringe, with double cotton, and a mesh inches wide, net stitches in all round; it is then embroidered thus--thread a rug needle with the cotton, and begin in the corner; take thread, and miss , twice, as in darning; work threads in each; then work the contrary way, forming a vandyke. work rows in this manner; then count the middle stitch of the work, and make a diamond, same as the border. various patterns may be worked in this manner, but they are impossible to describe. [illustration: ] d'oyley. _mesh no. , cotton no. , stitches._ net rows. fringe--mesh inch wide, stitches in , all round. embroidered as anti-macassar. bread basket d'oyley. _mesh no. , cotton no. , stitches._ net rows. fringe as d'oyley. netted purse. _for a gentleman._ _mesh no. , coarse netting silk, stitches._ net inches; join up stitches on each side, leaving for the opening. this purse takes skeins of silk. lady's purse. _mesh no. , skeins of nd size purse silk, stitches._ net inches, join up stitches on each side, leaving for the opening. bead purse. _mesh no. , coarse silk, and no. beads bunches, stitches; measure yard and a / of silk, thread a small sewing needle with it._ st row--net the st stitch, thread beads, pass them close to the last stitch; net the stitch, and continue putting beads in every stitch. nd row--the same, keeping the beads on the outside. work inches, join up stitches on each side, leaving for the opening. wedding purse. _with motto no. ._ _extra fine white netting silk, and no. gold beads; meshes nos. , , and ; stitches._ with no. mesh net rows. no. mesh, net stitches in . no. mesh, net plain rows. no. mesh, net row. no. mesh, net a row, netting stitches together every stitch; repeat. net rows. repeat this pattern twice more. in the next pattern, instead of working the rows with no. mesh, work the motto no. . with no. mesh, net plain row, net stitches, and then begin the motto; finish the row plain. then cut the silk off, commence at the other end, and work the second row of motto; at the end of this row, cut the silk off, and knot the ends together, to prevent losing a stitch. after the motto is finished, net plain row, and repeat the first pattern times. the beads are put on in the following manner,--thread a bead, (with a small needle,) net stitch, pass the silk under the mesh, put the needle through the bead, bring the silk in front again; this brings the bead on the knot. [illustration: _sia felice_] another purse. _with motto no. ._ _fine silk, brown or blue, mesh no. , no. steel beads, stitches._ net inches plain. then commence the motto, putting the beads in as former receipt. net stitches, net the first row of motto, finish the row plain; cut the silk off, and commence at the other end. net inches plain, to correspond with the other side. [illustration: _memoria_] london: printed by kelly & pritchett, , houndsditch. errata. page , in th row, for slip , read _slip _. page , in th row, for purl , read _knit _. page , in st round, for treble, read _ treble chain_. page , in second round, for chain, read _ plain_. transcriber's note the following typographical errors were corrected: page error are all guaged changed to are all gauged wire-drawer's guage changed to wire-drawer's gauge knit together changed to knit together. stitches, or changed to stitches, or rd row knit together, knit changed to rd row knit together, knit , long bead tassells changed to long bead tassels th rouud changed to th round miss , plain, changed to miss , plain. fringe of beads changed to fringe of beads. round of ponceau: changed to round of ponceau; of gold, changed to of gold. chain, miss twice changed to chain, miss , twice th row-- changed to th row-- th a vankyke. changed to a vandyke. transcriber's note: in this text version the instructions for designs, which were split over intermittent pages, have been presented in one place for easier following. [illustration: original designs _for_ infants _and_ juveniles _by mary hoyer_ directions on page volume no. ... twenty five cents] [illustration: _dress your child in_ original styles _by_ mary hoyer] _dedicated to those who knit "smartly...."_ here are new worlds for you to conquer ... in a book that meets the needs of both beginner and expert in the art of knitting and crocheting. here are complete instructions that can be followed with the utmost confidence. explore this treasury of original designs. your needles will experience new thrills. you'll have lots of fun. and your children will look smarter than ever before. this book is _yours_! copyrighted by mary hoyer printed by juvenile styles publishing company, penn st., reading, pa. a publication devoted to original and distinctive knitted and crocheted garments juvenile styles mary hoyer, editor and designer volume number [illustration] _mothers of all young americans_ the season of - promises to be the biggest of all seasons in knitting--you'll be knitting for the boys at camp--and in your spare time for the young americans who are at the fireside with you. so--mothers, get out your knitting needles or crocheting hooks and relax in a nice big chair, turn on your radio to some soothing music, unwind your yarn--and in the pages of this book will be enough inspiration to make mr. and miss young america the world's best dressed children. there are infants and juvenile styles cleverly and colorfully designed--and the smart young miss has her day too, for there are some garments that will be sure to meet with her approval and needs. we sincerely hope that this book will be of invaluable use to those who "knit smartly". mary hoyer if you are unable to obtain our style books at your local yarn shop, send c in coin to the following address published by ... juvenile styles publishing company penn street, reading, pa. _a convalescing jacket ensemble_ no. _needles_--_ pair bone nos. and american standard._ _material_--_ one ounce balls, pink saxony, mother's. --one ounce balls, pink saxony, baby's. one-half ounce contrasting shade, saxony._ _scale_--_ sts to inches, no. needles. size mother's, months, baby's._ mother's jacket _back_--with no. needles, cast on sts, *k , sl st, repeat from *across row, ending with k , p back. repeat these rows for inches. bind off sts at beg of the next rows for underarm ( sts). k tog at beg of the next rows ( sts). continue in pattern for more inches. change to no. needles, on right side, *p , k , repeat from *across row, ending with p . on next row, k , p across row. repeat these rows, for inches. bind off sts at beg of the next rows, bind off remaining sts for back of neck. _right front_--with no. needles, cast on sts, work in pattern for ½ inches. bind off sts at beg of the next row at underarm, p tog at beg of the next rows at underarm. work even for more inches. at beg of the next row at front, bind off sts. change to no. needles and repeat yoke pattern (p , k ) for inches, bind off sts at beg of the next row at neck edge. now k tog at beg of every row at neck edge, until sts remain. bind off sts at beg of every row at shoulder, times and continue to k tog at neck edge, until all sts are bound off. work left front to correspond. _sleeves_--with no. needles, cast on sts, work in pattern, p , k , ending with p . next row, k , p , ending row with k , repeat these rows for inches. work more row and inc st at beg and end of row. change to no. needles and work in pattern, k , slip st, end row with k . p back. continue to work in pattern and inc st at beg and end of every th row until you have sts. work even until sleeve measures inches from cuff or desired length to underarm. bind off sts at beg of the next rows, then bind off sts at beg of the next rows. now k tog at beg and end of every k row until sts remain, bind off. sew up seams at underarm and shoulder, sew up sleeves and insert into armhole gathering at top a little. hem the bound off sts at front. work rows of s c around yoke and neck working loops for buttonholes on right side of yoke, on first row. with contrasting shade start smocking on right hand side at bottom of yoke. sew the first k sts tog, then the next k sts, leave the thread loose between the smocked sts. repeat across row. start nd row, turn, skip first k st and work back in same manner. work fronts and rows of smocking on cuffs in same manner. sew on buttons. baby's jacket _back_--with no. needles, cast on sts, *k , sl st, repeat from *across row, ending with k , p back. repeat these rows for inches. bind off sts at beg of the next rows ( sts). work in pattern for ¾ inch more. with no. needles, *p , k (right side), repeat from *across row, ending with p . next row, k , p , repeat these rows for ¼ inches. bind off sts at beg of the next rows, bind off remaining sts for back of neck. _right front_--with no. needles, cast on sts, work in pattern for inches, bind off sts at beg of the next row at underarm, k back. purl sts tog at underarm, work pattern for ¾ inch more. bind off sts at beg of the next row at front edge (hem). with no. needles, *p , k , repeat from *across row, next row k , p , across row. repeat these rows for ½ inches. at beg of next row at front edge, bind off sts, then k tog at beg of every row at neck edge, until you have sts left. bind off sts at beg of the next rows at shoulder edge and continue to k tog at neck edge, until all sts are bound off. work left front to correspond. _sleeves_--with no. needles, cast on sts, p , k , across row. next row, k , p , repeat these rows for inch. with no. needles, k , slip st, ending with k (k last sts tog), p back. work in pattern, increasing st at each end, every inch, until sleeve measures inches ( sts). work inch even. bind off sts at beg of the next rows. k tog at beg of every row, until you have sts left, bind off. sew up seams at underarm and shoulder, sew up sleeves and insert into armhole gathering at top a little. hem the bound off sts at front. work rows of s c around yoke and neck working loops for buttonholes on right side of yoke, on first row. with contrasting shade start smocking on right hand side at bottom of yoke. sew the first k sts tog, then the next k sts, leave the thread loose between the smocked sts. repeat across row. start nd row turn, skip first k st and work back in same manner. work fronts and rows of smocking on cuffs in same manner. sew on buttons. booties with no. needles, cast on sts, *k , sl st, repeat from *across row, ending with k , p back. repeat these rows for inches. on right side, k , *y o, k tog, repeat from *across row, p back. k , then p , k , for sts, turn, k , p for sts. repeat these rows on sts for rows, break thread. holding right side toward you, pick up sts on side of instep, k across front of instep, pick up sts on other side of instep, k on last sts. k rows even. *on next row dec st at each end and sts spaced at equal distances apart. k rows even, repeat from * times, bind off. sew seam at sole and back. with strands of yarn, ch sts. tape thru beading. sew ½ inch hem in top of bootie. [illustration: no. the very smartest thing for the convalescing mother and child is this matching ensemble in shell pink with turquoise smocking. mother wears a jacket--and baby too wears a jacket with booties to match. _detailed illustration of booties on page ._ _directions on opposite page._] _his majesty_ no. [illustration] knitted infant set size--infant _needles_--_ pair american standard no. (or circular)._ _material_--_saxony-- fold. sacque-- one ounce balls. cap-- one ounce ball. booties--one-half ounce._ _gauge_--_ sts to one inch._ sacque starting at neck, cast on sts. k rows. row --k , *y o, k tog, repeat from *across row, ending with y o, k tog, k . row --k row. row --*k , inc in next st, repeat from *across row, do not inc in last sts thruout yoke. rows - - - --k. repeat from row to , more times. p row, k row, for rows, keeping first and last sts k on purled rows for border. k row on purled side. repeat row . k rows. repeat rows to inclusive ( sts). k sts, k back on sts for sleeve. *p row, k row for rows on sleeve. k rows ( ribs), making a dec at beg and end of first k row, repeat from * times. p row, k row for rows, on th row, *k , k tog, repeat from *across row. k rows. repeat rows and . k rows, bind off loosely on wrong side. k across back and nd sleeve ( sts), k back on sts for sleeve. work sleeve same as other sleeve. fasten thread and k over front sts. k back having all sts on needle. *p row, k row for rows, always keeping first and last sts k on purled rows for border. k rows ( ribs). repeat from * times. k row, p row for rows. k rows, bind off loosely on wrong side. with double strands of yarn, chain sts, tape thru beading at neck. sew up sleeve seams. cap with no. needles, cast on sts, k , p for ¾ of an inch. change to no. needles, *p row, k row for rows. k rows ( ribs), repeat from * more times. p row, k row for rows. on next k row, bind off sts loosely, k , bind off sts, loosely. fasten thread at beginning of the sts and work in garter st for inch. on next row, *dec sts at equal distances apart. work inch even, repeat from *once, work ½ inch even. sew sides to back piece. with no. needles, pick up (on right side) sts across bottom of cap and k , p for rows. next row, k , *y o, k tog, repeat from *across row. k , p for more rows, bind off loosely. make a chain of s c about inches long with strands of yarn, tape thru beading. [illustration: no. picture the king or queen of your household be-decked in this saxony cap, sacque, and bootie ensemble. the young heir surely deserves to look his--or her--best at all times. smocked booties are detail of booties style . directions on page .] knee bootie with no. needles, cast on sts, k , p , ribbing for rows. k , *y o, k tog, repeat from *across row. continue to k , p , for rows. to start knee shaping: k , turn, k , turn, k , turn, k , turn. continue to k st more on every row for rows, then k sts more on every row until all sts are on needle. *work inch even, dec st at beg and end of next row, repeat from *until back seam measures ½ inches from ribbing ( sts). beading: k , *y o, k tog, repeat from *across row. k ribs. now k across sts, turn, k sts, turn, on these sts, k rows ( ribs), for instep. break thread. holding right side toward you, pick up sts on side of instep. continue across front of instep, pick up sts on other side of instep, k on last sts ( sts). k rows even. *on next row, dec st at each end and sts spaced at equal distances apart. k rows even, repeat from * times. bind off, sew seam at sole and back. with strands of yarn, ch sts. tape thru beading. short booties with no. needles, cast on sts loosely. k rows ( ribs). on next row, k , *y o, k tog, repeat from *across row. *k ribs. k row, p row for rows, repeat from *once. k ribs. next row, k *y o, k tog, repeat from *across row. k ribs. now k across sts, turn, k sts, turn, on these sts, k rows ( ribs) for instep. break thread. holding right side toward you, pick up sts on side of instep. continue across front of instep, pick up sts on other side of instep, k on last sts ( sts). k rows even. *on next row, dec st at each end and sts spaced at equal distances apart. k rows even, repeat from * times. bind off, sew seam at sole and back. with strands of yarn, ch sts. tape thru beading. _baby's three-piece crocheted set_ no. [illustration] size months _ bone crochet hook, size ._ _material_--_baby zephyr pompadour. one ounce balls pink. one ounce ball, blue. for sacque, cap and booties._ sacque _row _--with pink, ch sts (to measure ½ inches, loosely), work s c in nd ch from hook, s c in next st, s c in next ch, s c in each of the next ch, *skip s c, s c in each of the next ch, s c in next st, s c in each of the next ch, repeat from *across row, ending with s c ( points). _row _--ch , turn, work s c in each of the next sts (picking up back loop only), s c in next st, s c in each of the next sts, *skip s c, s c in each of the next sts, s c in next st, s c in each of the next sts, repeat from *across row, ending with s c, do not break thread. _row _--with blue, ch , turn, repeat row for rows of blue. alternate pink and blue every rows, until you have rows. _row _--ch , turn, follow pattern for points and end with s c ( s c for shoulder) work on these sts for rows. ch sts loosely at neck edge. s c in nd ch from hook, s c in next st, * s c in next st, s c in each of the next sts, skip st, s c in each of the next sts, repeat from *across row, ending with s c ( points). work on these points for rows, break thread. with blue, attach yarn at neck edge and work over points, ending with s c. work to correspond to other front. the front just completed will have more row than the other side. continue with pink, ch , turn, *skip sts, work d c in next st, picking up both threads, skip sts, d c in next st, d c in last st just skipped (making an x), repeat from *across front, ending with d c in last st, ch , work d c in first st on back, skip sts, d c in next st, d c in st just skipped, repeat between **across back, ending with a shell. ch for underarm and continue across front, beg with a shell ending row with d c in last st. ch , turn, *skip d c, d c in next st, d c in st just skipped, d c between the x pattern, repeat from *across front. skip ch, work d c in next ch, skip ch, d c in next ch, d c in st just skipped. skip ch, d c in next ch. follow pattern across back, underarm and front; end row with d c in ch at beg of row. ch , work remainder of sacque same as last rows for more rows. break thread. [illustration: no. baby graduates with highest honors from style to this set for that afternoon stroll with mother. just the thing to wear to get those beneficial sunrays. made in delicate pink and blue of baby zephyr pompadour.] _scallop_--with blue, fasten thread at left hand corner, ch , *work d c in center of x pattern, s c in center of next pattern, repeat from *end row with a shell and s c in corner. with pink, fasten thread at front edge on right side and s c up front, then ch at neck edge, *skip st, d c in next st, repeat from *around neck, s c down left front. work picot on bottom as follows: *ch , loosely, sl st into next st, repeat from *around bottom, break thread. _sleeves_--with pink fasten thread at underarm, work s c around armhole. row --ch , *skip s c, work d c in next st, skip s c, d c in next st, d c in st just skipped, repeat from *around row, ending with d c in same st as ch at beg of row ( shell, x patterns), sl st in rd ch. sl st more sts, ch . row --work d c between next x pattern, continue pattern around row and end row same as row . work more rows in same manner. on th row, work d c in x pattern and an x pattern in each shell. _cuff_--work rows of s c with pink (decreasing every th st on first row). work rows of blue. sl st at end of last row, ch . _scallops_--with blue, *skip s c, work d c in next st, skip s c, s c in next st, repeat from *around row. with pink, *ch , loosely, sl st into next st, repeat from *around row, break thread. _cord_--with strand of pink and blue, make a ch inches in length, tape thru beading. make a ch inches long tape thru end of yoke. cap ch , join, work s c in ring, then work s c in each st, until there are sts around. inc in every th st, until there are sts around. now inc in every th st, until there are sts around, sl st in next st. to start pattern: row --ch , *skip s c, work d c in next st, skip s c, d c in next st, d c in last st just skipped (making an x pattern), repeat from *around row ending with d c in same st at beg of ch , join in rd st of ch at beg of row. ( shell, x patterns). sl st over sts of first shell at beg of row, ch . row --*work d c between x of row below, d c between rd and th d c of next shell, d c between nd and rd d c of same shell (making an x), repeat from *around row, ending with d c in same st at beg of row. sl st in rd ch at beg of row, sl st over d c, ch . row --work d c in center of x pattern, work an x in next shell, continue around row, ending with sl st in ch at beg of row, sl st over d c, ch . row --repeat row . row --make an x in next shell of row below, work in pattern around row for shells, x patterns, end row with d c in nd d c of next shell, ch , turn. row --make an x pattern in first shell, continue pattern around row, ending with x pattern in last shell, make d c in rd ch at beg of row, ch , turn. work more rows in this manner. _band_--ch , turn, *work s c in each of the first sts, s c in next st, s c in each of the next sts, skip sts, repeat from *across row, end with s c, ch , turn. row --* s c in each of the first sts, picking up back thread only, s c in next st, s c in each of the next sts, skip st, repeat from *across row, ending with s c. with contrasting shade work rows. alternating rows of each color once more. with strand of pink, strand of blue work rows of s c around back of cap, skipping a few sts in each row to fit nape of neck. _ties_--at end of last row, ch sts, sl st in th ch from hook, ch , sl st in same st. make more ch loops, break thread, fasten thread at other side of cap and work in same manner. booties _instep_--with pink, ch , work sc in nd ch from hook, s c in next st, s c in next st, s c in each of the next sts, skip st, s c in each of the next sts, s c in next st, s c in each of the last sts. ch , turn. row --work s c in each of the next sts (picking up back st), s c in next st, s c in each of the next sts, skip st, s c in each of the next sts, s c in next st, s c in each of the last sts, do not break thread. work rows of contrasting shade, alternating rows of each color, until you have rows. with pink, ch sts loosely and sl st to other end. s c in each st around instep and chs, for rnds. work more rnds, decreasing sts to each rnd, do not have decreases come over those of previous rnd, break thread and sew seam of sole. work rows of s c around top of bootie, decreasing sts in each rnd, join with a sl st. ch , skip st, work * d c in next st, ch , repeat from * ( d c), join with a sl st. ch , skip ch of row below. *work d c between next d c, skip d c, d c between next d c, d c between last d c just skipped (an x pattern), repeat from *around row, end row with d c in same st as ch at beg of row, sl st in rd ch. sl st over sts, ch , work d c between first x pattern, make an x pattern over next shell, end row same as first row. work more rows in same manner. with blue, work scallops as follows: sl st over sts, ch , *work d c in x pattern, s c in center of next scallop, repeat from *around bootie; sl st in same st at beg of row. with pink, *ch , loosely, sl st in next st, repeat from *around row. with strand of pink, blue, ch sts, tape thru bootie and tie. _royal highness_ no. cape and hood in "summer sky blue" size-- months to year _needles_--_ pair american standard no. . circular no. ._ _material_--_paradise zephyr ounces._ _gauge_--_ sts to inch._ cape starting at neck, with no. needles, cast on sts, k , p , for rows. beading: k , *y o, k tog, repeat from *across row. k , p for rows, cast on sts. change to no. circular needle. _yoke_--work in garter st (k each row). row --k , *inc st, k , repeat from *across row to within last sts, k . do not inc in first and last sts thruout yoke. cast on sts. row --k row. row --on next row, k back to within last sts, bind off sts for buttonhole, k . on next row, cast on sts over those bound off, k across row. *repeat row (but do not cast on the sts). k rows even. repeat from *until you have sts, working more buttonholes, inch apart. on next row, k sts, *slip st, k sts, repeat from *to within sts, slip st, k . on next row, k , p to within last sts (purling the sl st), k , repeat these rows for inch. on next k row, k , inc st, k , inc st, k , sl st, continuing pattern across row, making an inc in center of each gore. inc in th to last st same as beg of row. work even for inch. inc in same manner every inch, until cape measures inches from end of yoke. k rows, ribs, bind off loosely on wrong side. _cord_--ch , join, work s c in ring. work s c in each st, until you have s c. work even until you have rows. fill with cotton. s c around decreasing a few sts in each row to close opening. ch inches. make another ball in same manner and attach to nd end. [illustration: no. even the baby is thought of when it comes to knitting--perhaps more so than the adult--for here is baby's early fall cape and hood for those evenings when it is just a bit too cool for baby to be without some sort of covering. here is a practical answer, and an answer soft and alluring. the embroidery on the cape and hood has that "smart touch" that gives the garment a look of regality--for his--or her--_royal highness_--the baby.] hood starting at first half of neck edge, with no. needles, cast on sts, k , p for rows. change to no. needles. *k row, p row for inch always knitting first sts on purled rows for border at front. now k sts tog at back edge, repeat from *until piece measures inches, sts (measuring after the k , p edge). work inch even. to start peak at top: _row _--k sts, turn. _row _ and all even rows, p back, slipping first st. _row _--k , turn. _row _--k , turn. _row _--k , turn. _row _--k , turn. all sts are now on left hand needle (this completes half of hood). on next row starting at back, k , turn. following row: k , turn. next row k , turn. continue in this manner, increasing sts every other row, until you have sts on right hand needle, turn. p back and on next row, k . work other half to correspond increasing st every inch at back edge. fold in half and sew seam. sew hood to cape, starting about inches from beading at beg of cape, gathering across leaving inches at end. _linda_ no. coat and bonnet size - years _needles_--_bone american standard no. . bone crochet hook, size ._ _material_--_knitting worsted, fold. coat-- ounces. bonnet-- ounces. yards of hat cord. wooden buttons._ _gauge_--_ sts to inch k. sts to inch cr._ coat _back_--cast on sts ( sts, size ), work in garter st (k each row), for inch. p row, k row, for inches, inches from bottom. on next k row, dec sts as follows: k tog, k , k tog, k , k tog k , k tog ( sts). work inch even. k tog, k , k tog, k , k tog, k , k tog ( sts). work inch even. make another dec in same manner, having decreases come directly above those of previous rows, every inch until you have inches, sts. work inches even or desired length to underarm. bind off sts at beg of the next rows for under arm, then k tog at beg of the next rows ( sts). work rows even. on next k row, *k , k tog, repeat from *across row but do not k last sts tog. yoke is worked in garter st for inches ( ½ inches, size ). bind off sts at beg of the next rows, bind off remaining sts for back of neck. _left front_--cast on sts ( sts, size ), work in garter st for inch. k sts for border, p across, k row, p row for inches always k sts on purled rows at front for border. on next k row, dec sts as follows: k tog, k , k tog, k ( sts). work inch even. k tog, k , k tog, k ( sts). work inch even. make another dec in same manner, having decreases come directly above those of previous row, every inch, until you have inches, sts. work inches even or desired length to underarm. bind off sts at beg of the next row that begins at underarm, then k sts tog at beg of every row at underarm, times ( sts). work rows even. on next k row, *k tog, k repeat from *across row, k last sts. work yoke in garter st for inches ( ½ inches, size ). bind off sts at neck edge, then k sts tog at beg of every row at neck edge, until you have sts. bind off sts on next rows that begin at armhole and dec st on every row that begins at neck edge. _right front_--work to correspond until piece measures inches, measuring on border at front. work buttonholes as follows: k sts on border side, bind off sts for buttonhole, k across. on next row, cast on sts over those bound off on previous row. continue same as left side and continue buttonholes ½ inches apart. _sleeves_--cast on sts, ( sts, size ), work in garter st for inches ( ½ inches, size ). on next row, *k , inc st repeat from *across row ( sts). *k row, p row for inch, inc st at each end, repeat from *until sleeve measures inches from bottom ( sts). work inches even, or desired length to underarm. bind off sts at beg of the next rows, then sts ( sts off on each side). k sts tog at beg and end of every th row, until you have sts, bind off. _pockets_--cast on sts, p back. inc in first and last st on k rows, until you have sts. k row, p row, until piece measures ¼ inches. *k , k tog, repeat from *across row. k in garter st for ¾ inch, bind off loosely. sew fronts and back tog, sew sleeves tog and insert into armholes with seams meeting at underarm. sew on buttons. _collar_--holding wrong side toward you, skip sts, pick up sts to within last sts. k first sts, p to within last sts, k sts. on next row, inc in every th st across row. work ½ inch even. inc in every th st across. work ½ inch even. inc in every th st. work rows in garter st, bind off on wrong side. sew pockets and embroider as shown on illustration. [illustration: no. a welcome addition to any young lady's wardrobe. notice particularly the treatment of the hat--decidedly new and very young ladyish with hand embroidered grosgrain ribbon on the brim and on the pockets. just the thing for those cool evenings in summer or fall.] bonnet _crown_--ch , join, work s c in ring, work s c in each st until there are sts around. now inc st in every th st, until there are sts around, then every th st until there are sts. work even until crown measures inches from center to edge. dec sts to each rnd but do not have decreases over those on previous rows, until crown measures ½ inches from center to edge or desired headsize. ch , turn, work row of s c around bonnet to within sts at beg of row. *ch , turn, work row of s c in each st across row to within ch , at beg of row, repeat from * more times. on next row, sew cord at beg of row, *s c over cord increasing every th st. adjust cord at end of each row, ch , turn, repeat from *for more row. on next rows inc in every th st. on next rows inc in every th st. on last rows, work even. cut cord and sew. work row of s c over ends of brim and back of cap. block lightly. embroider flowers on grosgrain ribbon and sew on sides and front of brim. sew grosgrain ribbon in same manner on back of brim. turn back rows without cord and attach bows on each side as shown on illustration. _bonnie annie laurie_ illustration on front cover no. plaid coat and bonnet in royal blue size to years _needles_--_ pair american standard no. ._ _material_--_knitting worsted, four ounce skeins. sports yarn (for embroidering) red, yellow, green. -inch zipper open._ _gauge_--_ ½ sts to inch._ coat _back_--starting at bottom, cast on sts, ( sts, size ), k rows ( ribs). p row, k row for ½ inches. now dec sts as follows: k tog, k , k tog, k , k tog, k , k tog ( sts). work inch even. make another dec: k tog, k , k tog, k , k tog, k , k tog ( sts). *work inch even and make another dec in same manner, having decreases come directly above those of previous decreases, repeat from *until piece measures inches ( sts). work inch even ( inches, size ). *now inc st on each side, work inch even, repeat from *once. work even until back measures inches or desired length to underarm. bind off sts at beg of the next rows, then k tog at beg of the next rows ( sts off on each side). work even until armhole measures inches ( ½ inches, size ), measuring straight up from where the sts were bound off. bind off sts at beg of the next rows, bind off remaining sts loosely for back of neck. _left front_--cast on sts ( sts, size ). k rows ( ribs). p row, k row for ½ inches, always keeping first sts k on purled rows for border at front. now dec sts as follows: k tog, k , k tog, k ( sts). work inch even and *make another dec in same manner, work inch even. repeat from *until piece measures inches ( sts). work inch even ( inches, size ). *now inc st at seam end, work inch even, repeat from *once. work even until front measures inches or desired length to underarm. bind off sts at beg of next row for underarm, then k tog at beg of every row at underarm more times. work even until armhole measures ½ inches from where the sts were bound off ( inches, years). on next row that begins at neck edge, bind off sts. p sts tog at beg of every row at neck edge, until sts remain. bind off sts at beg of the next rows at shoulder and continue to p tog at neck, until all sts are bound off. work right front to correspond. [illustration: no. smart, colorful and easy on the eye is this two-piece ensemble for the young lady. the coat is first knit and then the plaid is embroidered in green, yellow and red. the only note of contrasting plainness is in the collar of the coat and the back of the bonnet. the coat closes with a convenient zipper.] _sleeves_--cast on sts ( sts, size ), k rows ( ribs). now p row, k row for ½ inches, *inc st on each end, work even for inch, repeat from *until sleeve measures inches from beginning ( sts). work inch even or desired length to underarm. bind off sts at beg of the next rows, then k tog at beg and end of every k row, until sts remain. work other sleeve in same manner. embroidering (see swatch). fold back in half at neck edge, place a marker. count sts on left side of marker. with red yarn insert tapestry needle from wrong side to right side. *now insert needle over thread and down thread, bringing needle from wrong to right side threads below, repeat from *to bottom of coat. count sts to right of marker, with red, make another row in same manner. fasten ends securely. count sts on either side of these rows and make more row with red, in same manner. with yellow work row on next thread to right side of each red row. measure inches from bottom of back, with red make a running st, inserting needle over thread and under threads across row, do not pull too tightly. *skip rows of knitting and on th row, make another running st with red, repeat from *to top of coat. with green make row below red in same manner. _fronts_--on th row from shoulder edge, with red, work from top to bottom same as back. count rows, with red, make another row in same manner. measure inches from bottom, work running sts with red and green to match back. _sleeves_--make same st from top of sleeve to bottom starting in center of sleeve, with red and yellow. skip rows on either side make one more row, with red and yellow. work running sts with red and green starting inches from bottom of coat, every th row to top of sleeve. sew shoulder seams. _collar_--holding wrong side of coat toward you, pick up sts. p row, k row, knitting first and last sts on p rows for border for ½ inch. inc in every th st across row. work ½ inch even. inc in every th st across. work ½ inch even. inc every th st across. work ½ inch even. work ribs in garter st, bind off loosely on wrong side. sew back to fronts and sew up sleeves, insert into armholes, having seams meet at underarm. make two small inverted pleats at top of sleeves. insert zipper. bonnet starting at side of front. with no. needles, cast on sts, p row, k row for rows, inc st at beg of next row (place marker, this is back edge). work rows even. inc st at beg of next row, continue to inc st at beg of every th row, until you have sts. work even until piece measures inches from beg. now dec st at back edge every th row, until you have sts. work rows even, bind off. _back_--cast on sts. p row, k row, for inch. *on next row, inc st at beg and end, work inch even, repeat from *until piece measures inches, sts. *now work rows even, dec st at beg and end of next k row, repeat from * more times ( sts). k tog at beg and end of every row, until sts remain. fold front piece of cap in half crosswise, place marker. count sts on each side of marker. with red yarn make a running st inserting needle over one thread and under threads across row, do not pull too tightly. skip sts from other side of marker, work another row in same manner. work more rows, rows from each side of rows just finished. with green work one more row in same manner st above. count rows from straight end of piece, work yarn lengthwise with red as follows: *insert needle over one thread and down one thread bringing needle from wrong to right side threads below. repeat from *to end of piece. count rows (about ½ inches from end of piece), with red make another row in same manner. with yellow make another row in same manner one thread above. sew ½ inch hem on straight end of front piece; sew other end to back piece (place marker at center of each piece first). work rows of s c around bottom of cap. attach small bows made of grosgrain ribbon leaving ends to tie. attach feather as shown on illustration. purse _purse_--cast on sts, p row, k row for inches or enough rows to make a perfect square. work another piece in same manner. embroider stripes same as in coat about ¾ inch from sides. sew sides tog s c around other sides. strap--ch , work s c in nd ch from hook, s c in each of the next sts. *ch , turn, work s c in each of the sts, repeat from *until piece measures inches. sew ends to top of squares. insert four inch zippers (or zipper if preferred). attach tassels on zipper ends, made with a few strands of yarn. _sunny_ no. slip-over-cardigan-panties size-- months to one year _needles_--_no. american standard._ _material_--_kashmir fleece-- one ounce balls._ _½ yard of elastic._ _ pearl buttons._ _gauge_--_ sts to inch._ slip-over _back_--starting at bottom, cast on sts ( sts, size ), k , p for inches. k row, p row for ½ inches, ( inches, size ). bind off sts at beg of the next rows, then k tog at beg of the next rows ( sts). work even for inches ( ½ inches, size ). k rows ( ribs). on next row k , bind off sts loosely, k . on these sts, p row, k row for rows, k rows, bind off loosely. fasten thread at beg of the other shoulder and work in same manner. [illustration: no. the suit consists of slip-over cardigan and panties and is just the thing for a one year old to wear when welcoming his--or her--first birthday party guests. the king of the house will do justice to this handsome suit.] _front_--work front same as for back to underarm. bind off sts at beg of the next rows, then k tog at beg of the next rows ( sts). on next purled row, p , k , p . k back. on next purled row, p , k , p , k , p , k , p . k back. continue pattern in this manner more sts in pattern on each side, on purled rows, until all sts are in pattern. work in pattern until armhole measures same as for back, having last ribs k in garter st. on next row, k , bind off sts loosely, k . on these sts, k rows ( ribs), on next row, work buttonholes as follows: k sts at shoulder edge, bind off , k , bind off , k , bind off , k . on next row, cast on sts over those bound off. k more rows, bind off. work other shoulder to correspond. fold shoulders tog, having buttonholes overlap the stockinette st band. when picking up sleeve sts, pick up sts thru both pieces at top of shoulder. _sleeves_--pick up sts, starting after the bound off sts, to bound off sts at other end. p back, pick up sts at each end of every row, until all sts are picked up ( sts). *work ½ inch or rows, k tog at beg and end of next row, repeat from *until sleeve measures inches ( sts). k , p (ribbing), for inch, bind off loosely. sew on buttons with tape on shoulder piece. boat is worked in cross stitch as shown on illustration. cardigan _back_--starting at bottom, cast on sts ( sts, size ), k , p for inches. k row, p row for inches ( ½ inches, size ). bind off sts at beg of the next rows, then k tog at beg of the next rows ( sts). work even for inches ( ½ inches, size ). k rows ( ribs). on next row k , bind off sts loosely, k . on these sts, p row, k row for rows. (put other sts on st holder). now inc st at beg of every k row at neck edge, until you have sts. cast on sts at neck edge. p row, k row always keeping last sts k on purled rows for border. work ½ inches from beginning of border, then inc st at end of k rows, times at underarm, then cast on sts at underarm. work even for inches continuing border. k , p ribbing for inches, bind off loosely, k , p . work right front to correspond. start buttonholes inch from beg of border as follows: k , bind off , p across. on next row, cast on sts over those bound off. continue more buttonholes ½ inches apart. _band at neck_--pick up sts, k , p ribbing for row, on next row, k , p , k , bind off sts, k , p across row. on next row cast on sts over those bound off. k , p for more rows, bind off, k , p . _sleeves_--pick up sts, starting after the bound off sts, to bound off sts at other end. p back. pick up sts at each end of every row, until all sts are picked up ( sts). *work ½ inch or rows, k tog at beg and end of next row, repeat from *until sleeve measures inches ( sts). k , p (ribbing), for inch, bind off loosely. sew up side seams and sleeves. sew on buttons with ribbon on wrong side. panties cast on sts, loosely ( sts, size ), k , p for rows. next row, k , *y o, k tog, repeat from *across row. k , p for more rows. k row, p row for inches from start ( ½ inches, size ). to start shaping of crotch; k , inc in next st, k , inc in next st, k , p back. k , inc in next st, k , inc in next st, k , p back. k sts and inc in same manner, having more sts between increases until you have sts between increases. bind off sts at beg of each row (continue to inc for crotch in same manner), until all sts are bound off on each side of crotch ( sts). k row, p row on these sts (crotch) for ½ inches. cast on sts at end of every row and dec in same manner as you increased, thus having sts less on each k row, between crotch. k row, p row on sts, for ½ inches ( inches, size ). k , p , for rows. next row, k , *y o, k tog, repeat from *across row. k , p for more rows, bind off loosely. pick up sts around each leg, k , p , ribbing for inch, bind off loosely. fold tog on wrong side easing longer side in for back. tape with elastic. [illustration] _land of nod_ no. five-piece ensemble with carriage robe size months to year _needles_--_ pair american standard no. and . double point, no. . (for mitts)._ _material_--_jacket-- ounces (germantown -fold used in complete ensemble). leggins-- ounces. hood-- ounces. mitts-- ounce. shoes-- ounce. afghan-- ounces. imported angora-- balls. zipper._ _gauge_--_ sts to inch._ jacket _back_--with no. needles, cast on sts. ( sts, size ). *p sts, k , repeat from *across row, ending with p . k next row (right side). repeat these two rows for inches. bind off sts at beg of the next rows, then k sts tog at beg of the next rows ( sts). work even for inches ( ½, size ), measuring straight up from where the sts were bound off. bind off sts at beg of the next rows, bind off remaining sts for back of neck. _left front_--cast on sts ( sts, size ). *p , k , repeat from *across row, ending with k . k next row. repeat these rows for inches. on the p gore, bind off sts for underarm, then k sts tog at beg of every row at underarm times ( sts off). work even for inches ( ½ size ). on next row that begins at neck edge, bind off sts, follow pattern across. p sts tog at beg of every row that begins at neck edge until sts remain. bind off sts at beg of the next rows that begin at shoulder and continue to k sts tog at neck edge, until all sts are bound off. _right front_--work right front to correspond having k gores meet for zipper. _sleeves_--cast on sts ( sts, size ), p , k across row, k back. work in pattern for inches. inc st on each side every inch until sleeve measures ½ inches from start. bind off sts at beg of the next rows, then bind off sts at beg of the next rows ( sts off on each side). now k sts tog at beg and end of every th row, until sts remain, bind off. sew up seams at underarm and shoulders. sew sleeves tog, insert sleeves into armholes. _collar_--with wrong side towards you pick up sts. *p , k , repeat from *across row ending with p . k back. work more rows in pattern. on wrong side make an inc in each k gore. work in pattern until collar measures inches, bind off loosely. work row of s c around collar and fronts. sew on zipper. leggins _cuff_--with no. needles, cast on sts ( sts, size ), k , p for rows. change to no. needles, k , p for more rows. k next row, increasing every th st across row. p row, k row, increasing every th row at beg and end, until you have sts. now inc in every th row, until you have sts. inc in every nd row until you have sts ( sts, size ), or desired length to crotch. work rows even. *on next k row, bind off sts, k to end of row. on next purled row, p sts tog (place marker for back) repeat from *once. work rows even, dec st at beg and end of next k rows. now dec st every th row at front edge, times, meanwhile dec every th row at back edge, times. work rows even ( rows, size ). on next purled row, p , turn, slip first st. k to back edge, p , k back, p . k back, p , k back, p , k back. p across all sts. change to no. needles, k , p for rows. on next row, k , *y o, k tog, repeat from *across row. k , p for more rows, bind off loosely, k , p . work other leg to correspond. sew each leg tog up to crotch; sew front and back seams. ch sts, insert thru beading. hood starting at first half of neck edge, cast on sts ( sts, size ), work in garter st (k each row), for inches. to start peak at top: *dec st by knitting the nd and rd sts tog, place marker, this side will be referred to as back. inc in rd st at front edge. k rows ( ribs), repeat from *once ( inches) from start. now bind off sts at beg of front edge and k tog at beg of next row at back edge. continue to k nd and rd sts tog at beg of every row at back edge and k tog at beg and end of every row at front edge, until you have sts. continue in same manner at back edge and work even at front, until you have sts. now inc in first st at beg of front edge and bind off sts at beg of every row at back edge, until you have sts, bind off. work another piece in same manner and sew tog. _band at neck_--cast on sts, work in garter st for inches, bind off. sew band to bottom of hood gathering hood to fit snug, leave ends to tie. _pompom_--with a small card board, ¼ inches in width, wrap yarn around cardboard times, sew at one end, cut at other. make more in same manner, sew pieces together, trim. mitts cast sts on first needle, sts on nd needle, sts on rd needle, with th needle k , p for rows. *y o, k tog, repeat from *for round. k , p for rows. remainder of mitten is k. inc st on each needle sts. work inches even. ( ½ inches, size ). *k , k tog, repeat from *for round. work rows even. *k , k tog, repeat from *for round. *work round even. k , k tog, repeat from *until sts remain. weave sts tog or bind off, fold and sew. ch sts, tape thru beading of cuff. put ends of ch thru cuff of sweater and tie. shoes cast on sts, k back. k , inc in each of the next sts, k . k rows. k , inc in each of the next sts, k . k rows. continue in this manner, until you have sts. k , y o, k tog, k , y o, k tog, k . k rows. k , put on st holder, bind off , k . k back on sts, cast on , k back. on next row, *k , y o, k tog, k . k rows, repeat from * times, put on st holder. work other side to correspond. pick up sts. *p back. k next row and dec st at beg and end and sts in center, spaced at equal distances apart, repeat from * times. weave these sts tog or bind off and sew. weave back sts tog or bind off and sew. ch sts, tape thru beading. carriage robe inches width. inches length. _gauge_--_ sts to inch._ _pattern_--_multiple of , plus sts._ with no. needles, cast on sts, *k , sl st, repeat from *across row, end row with k . next row, p back, purling the sl st. repeat these rows for inches. with angora or contrasting shade of yarn, embroider as follows: insert needle from wrong side to right side, on left side at the sl st. *skip sl st, insert needle from right to left, thru next sl st, repeat from *to length of robe. do not break thread, insert needle from right to left working from bottom to top (making an x). work rows of s c around robe, working sts in corners. [illustration: no. five piece ensemble, with carriage robe for a tiny baby. what a pleasure you will have in fondling the well dressed baby who has the foresight to have in his wardrobe this five piece suit, consisting of leggings, cap, jacket, mittens and shoes. the jacket has a convenient zipper front. to finish, you may trim with angora or a contrasting shade of yarn may be used.] _a sailor's sweetheart_ no. crocheted jacket size to years _ bone crochet hook, size ._ _material_--_cashmere sports, two ounce balls. one-half ounce ball white and red. gold buttons._ _back_--ch (to measure about inches). ( chs, size ). work s c in nd ch from hook, s c in each ch. ch , turn, work rows of s c. on th row, inc in every th st across row ( s c). next row, ch , turn, insert hook in nd ch from hook, draw yarn thru, insert needle in first s c, wrap, draw thru loops, wrap thru more (same as d c). *insert needle in large loop of st, draw thru, insert needle in next s c, complete same as d c, repeat from *across row (right side). ch , turn, s c in each st across row. repeat these rows for inches. on next s c row, s c to within last sts, ch , turn, follow pattern across row to within last sts. ch , turn, s c across row; do not s c in last sts, ch , follow pattern across row, do not work in last sts. follow pattern across for the next rows and do not work in last st of each row ( sts off on each side). work in pattern for ½ inches, or desired length to shoulder. on next s c row, *s c to within last sts, ch , turn, s c to within last sts at other end, (remainder of back is worked in s c rows), repeat from * more times, break thread. [illustration: no. this young lady is wearing one of the most colorful of jackets. crocheted in royal blue, with a white sailor collar that has a touch of red--so three cheers for the red, white and blue. an added bit of glamour is the gold buttons down the front. ship ahoy!] _left front_--ch , ( chs, size ) work s c in nd ch from hook, work s c in each ch across row. ch , turn, work rows of s c. on th row, inc in every th st across row. work same as back to underarm. on next s c row, work to within last sts of underarm. ch , follow pattern across row. on next row, s c to within last sts, *ch . follow pattern across row, on next row, s c to within last st, repeat from * times. ( sts off at underarm). when piece measures about ½ inches from underarm work pocket as follows: work over sts from underarm side. pocket: with another strand of yarn, ch sts loosely, work in pattern for inches, break thread, insert pocket. continue pattern on pocket for sts and skip on sweater; continue across front. follow pattern until front measures ½ inches from bottom at front edge, dec sts at front edge (by not working in last s c and the turning cr). work even at armhole edge, and do not work in last st of every row at neck edge, until you have sts. when piece measures same as back to shoulder, s c to within last sts at shoulder edge, times (same as back), and continue to dec at neck more times. work right front to correspond, omitting pocket. _sleeves_--ch sts (to measure about inches), ( chs, size ). work s c in nd ch from hook, s c in each ch to end of row. ch , turn, work rows of s c. on th row inc sts across row at equal distances apart. work in pattern same as for back for inch. on next row, inc st on each side. continue to inc st on each side every inch until you have sts across row. work even until sleeve measures inches from bottom of cuff or desired length to underarm. *on next row work to within sts at end of row, repeat from *once. on next row work to within sts at end of row, repeat from *once ( sts). now work to within st of each row until you have sts left. sew shoulder scams and sides. sew sleeves and insert into armholes making a small inverted pleat at top. starting at right front, work row of s c completely around fronts and neck. work more rows of s c on left front, break thread. work row of s c on right front making ch loops for buttonholes about inches apart. work more rows of s c over chains. work rows of s c of red on pocket, rows of white, sew ends. _collar_--ch sts, work s c in nd ch from hook, s c in each ch across row. work in pattern for inches. work over sts. dec st (by not working in last st) at end of every s c row on outer edge of collar until you have sts. work other side of collar to correspond. work row of s c around outside edge of collar, increasing sts in each corner. work rows of blue, rows of red. sew to jacket. _tyrol_ no. knitted jacket and hat size to years _needles_--_american standard no. ._ _material_--_knitting worsted, ½ four ounce skeins, for both jacket and hat. seven wooden buttons._ _scale_--_ sts to inch._ jacket _back_--with no. needles and strands of yarn cast on sts (size , sts), *k , p across row. next row, p , k , repeat from *for ½ inches. bind off sts at beg of the next rows, then k tog at beg of the next rows, sts remaining. work even for ½ inches ( inches, size ). bind off sts at beg of the next rows, bind off remaining sts for back of neck. _left front_--cast on sts (size , sts) *k , p across row to within last sts, k last sts (border). next row, k , p , k across row, ending with p . repeat from *until piece measures inches. *next row, on right side, k , p , k , p , k , p , k , p , k , k . next row, k , p , k , p , k , p , k , p , k , p . repeat from *until piece measures ½ inches. bind off sts at beg of next row at underarm, then k tog at beg of next rows at underarm ( sts). work even for inches, ( ½ inches, size ). now bind off sts at border edge and dec st at beg of every row at neck edge, until sts remain. bind off sts at beg of the next rows at shoulder and continue to dec at neck edge, more times. _right front_--cast on sts. k , *k , p , repeat from *across row. next row, p , k to within last sts. k last sts. repeat these rows for inch. then work buttonhole as follows: p , k across row to within sts, bind off , k . next row, k , cast on sts over those bound off, continue pattern across row. continue same as left front working buttonholes every inches. _sleeves_--cast on sts, k , p , ribbing for inches. inc st on each side and inc st on each side every inches, until sleeve measures inches ( sts). bind off sts at beg of the next rows, then k tog at beg of the next rows ( sts). k tog at beg and end of every th row, until you have sts, bind off. sew shoulder seams. _band at neck_--pick up sts and k , p , across row. *on next row, dec st at beg and end of every row, repeat from *until you have sts, bind off. sew seams at underarm and sleeves, insert sleeves into armholes, gathering a little at top of sleeve. embroider heart in center of panel with rust. the center flowers with brown (yellow centers). top and bottom flowers with orange (brown centers). work stems with green. sew on buttons. [illustration: no. an authentic style note emphasized by the embroidery in gay colors down the panels in the front, which may be easily applied. there is a hat to match. we used beige complemented with contrasting colors.] hat with no. needles, strands of yarn, cast on sts. k , p for inches. next row, k tog (p , k ) for sts, (continue with half of hat) turn, *k tog at beg and end of every row at center back and k tog at beg of every th row at front edge until you have sts left. bind off sts at beg of every row at back edge until all sts are bound off. work other side to correspond. sew up back of cap. s c around entire cap. with contrasting yarn ( strands) chain inches, break thread, tape thru front. make small pompoms. make pompom of different shades, sew tog, trim. sew on ends of cord, tie in knot. embroider as shown on illustration. _goldilocks_ no. little princess and her dolly size - years _needles_--_ circular needle, no. . pair american standard no. ._ _material_--_kashmir sports yarn; ounces, size ; ounces, size . -inch zipper._ _gauge_--_ ½ sts to inch._ dress starting at bottom, with no. circular needle, cast on sts, size ( sts, size ), do not join. k in garter st for rows, ribs. _size _--work as follows: p , *k , p , repeat from * times, k , p . k back. repeat these rows for inch. first dec: k , k tog, k , k tog, k , *k tog, k , k tog, k , k tog, k , k tog, k , repeat from * times, dec last panel same as first panel. *work inch even. make another dec in same manner having decreases come directly above previous decreases. ( sts less after each decreased row). repeat from *until you have sts. work even until piece measures inches or desired length to waist line. _size _--k rows for border same as size . p , *k , p , repeat from * times, k , p . k back, repeat these rows for inch. first dec: k , k tog, k , k tog, k , *k tog, k , k tog, k , k tog, k , k tog, k , repeat from * times, dec last panel same as first panel. work inch even. make another dec in same manner every inch, until you have sts. work even until piece measures inches or desired length to waist line. *k (size , k ) (including k sts), with no. needles, k , p , for sts, continue with circular needle, k (back gore), with no. needles, k , p , for sts. continue with no. circular needle, k (size , k ). p back following pattern, repeat from *for ½ inches. on right side of work continue on no. circular needle same as before without ribbing for ¾ inches. ( ¼ inches, size ). size and --from now on continue fronts and back for size same as size only you will have more st on each front and more sts in back. k to underarm, put on st holder. bind off . k sts for back, put other front on st holder, p sts tog at beg of the next rows ( sts). work even following pattern for ½ inches ( inches size ). bind off sts at beg of the next rows, bind off remaining sts for back of neck. continue on left front, bind off sts for underarm, following pattern, k tog at underarm more times ( sts) work even for inch more ( ½ inches, size ). on wrong side, p , k (border for top of pocket), p across. k back, repeat these rows for more rows. on next row, p , bind off sts for pocket edge, p across. with separate yarn, cast on sts, k row, p row for ½ inches, put on st holder. k sts, k the sts from st holder for pocket, k across. p row, k row for inch. now p tog at beg of every row at neck edge until sts remain. bind off sts at beg of the next rows at shoulder and continue to p tog at neck edge, until all sts are bound off. work right front to correspond. _sleeves_--with no. needles, cast on sts (size , sts), k , p , for ¾ inch. change to no. needles, k row, next row, p , k , p , k , p . k back. k these last rows and inc st at each end every th row, until sleeve measures inches from beginning, sts. now inc sts in center gore as follows: *k to first gore and k sts after gore, inc st, k to within sts of nd gore, inc st, k across. continue to inc at seam ends every th row and sts between gores every th row, repeat from *until piece measures inches, sts. bind off sts at beg of the next rows, then k tog at beg and end of next k row, now k tog at beg and end of every th row (continue to inc sts between gores every th row) until you have sts. now k tog at beg and end of every k row (do not inc in center gores), until you have sts. now k , p ribbing between gores and continue to k tog at beg and end of every k row, until ribbing measures ¾ inch, bind off. [illustration: no. fit for a princess too!--though she doesn't have to be of royal lineage. any charming young lady can wear this type of knitted dress and feel--well--_like a princess_. the dress has a zipper closure and a modish flared skirt--and a sailor collar. the princess is holding a doll--wearing a duplicate of her dress.] _collar_--with white, cast on sts, k rows, ribs. k row, p row, always knitting first and last sts on purled rows (border). continue these rows for inches. k , bind off sts, k . work rows even on last sts, keeping k border on outer edge. now dec st every th row on neck edge and dec st on outer edge (by knitting th and th st tog) every th row, until you have sts, bind off. with red and royal blue, embroider rows around collar as illustrated. sew shoulder seams. sew up sleeve seams, sew into armhole having fullness at top of sleeve. sew pockets on inside of dress (do not stitch thru on right side). sew on collar. insert zipper. _instructions for the knitted doll dress and beret for style no. as shown in illustration, will be found in "mary's dollies, a doll booklet," vol. ._ _boy blue_ no. four-piece boy's ensemble size to years _needles_--_ pair american standard no. ._ _material_--_ two ounce balls kashmir sports for complete outfit. separate pieces require the following: slip-over-- two ounce balls. jacket-- two ounce balls. pants-- ½ ounces. beret-½ ounce. zipper-- inch separating._ _gauge_--_ ½ sts to inch._ jacket _back_--cast on sts ( sts, size ). row --*p , k , repeat from *across row, ending with p . row --k back (right side). repeat these rows for inches, k , p for sts, following pattern across row to within last sts, k , p for sts. k , p ribbing for sts on each side for inch. now work in pattern, until piece measures inches from start. bind off sts at beg of the next rows for underarm. then k tog at beg of the next rows at underarm ( sts). work even until armhole measures inches, from where the sts were bound off. bind off sts at beg of the next rows, bind off remaining sts for back of neck. [illustration: no. consists of pants, slip-over, jacket and beret. the ideal thing for cool summer nights or early fall. you will notice, particularly, the jacket, which has side ties and slanted pockets just like dad's--and a zipper closure in the front to make putting on or taking off a delight and a definite accomplishment for a _very young man_. we used _king's blue_. note the _white anchor_ on the slip-over.] _left front_--cast on sts ( sts, size ). k (border), *p , k repeat from *across row, ending with k . k next row. repeat these rows for inches. on next row at seam end, k , p , for sts, follow pattern across row. continue pattern with k , p ribbing for sts at seam end for inch. continue same as for back to underarm. bind off sts at beg of next row at underarm, then k sts tog at beg of every row at underarm, times, sts. work even for inches, measuring straight up from where the sts were bound off. bind off sts at beg of next row at neck edge, then k sts tog at beg of every row at neck edge, until sts remain. bind off sts at beg of shoulder edge, times and continue knitting sts at neck edge until all sts are bound off. work right front to correspond. _sleeves_--cast on sts ( sts, size ). *work in pattern for ¾ inch, inc st at both ends, repeat from *until sleeve measures inches ( sts) or desired length to underarm. bind off sts at beg of the next rows ( sts), then k sts tog at beg and end of every th row, until sts remain. now k tog at beg and end of every row until sts remain, bind off. sew fronts and back together and sew up sleeve and insert into armholes having seams meet at underarm. sew shoulder seams. _collar_--skip sts (border), on each side, with wrong side toward you, pick up sts, p row, k row, knitting first and last sts on purled rows, for ½ inch. inc st in every th st across. work ½ inch even. inc in every th st across. work ½ inch even. inc in every th st across. work ½ inch even. work ½ inch in garter st, bind off loosely on wrong side of collar. _tabs on sides_--cast on sts, k , p , for ½ inches. k tog at beg and end of every row, until you have sts, draw thru. work more pieces in same manner. _pockets_--cast on sts, *k , p , repeat from *across row, k back. work pattern for inch. k row, p row for ½ inches. k tog at beg and end of every row, until sts remain, bind off. work row of s c around edge. sew on pockets as shown on illustration. sew on tabs at k , p border, tie in knots. sew in zipper. slip-on _back_--cast on sts, ( sts, size ). row --*p , k , repeat from *across row, ending with p . row --k back (right side), repeat these rows for inches. k row, p row, for inches, from start. bind off sts at beg of the next rows, for underarm, then k sts tog at beg of the next rows at underarm ( sts). work even until armhole measures inches, measuring straight up from where the sts were bound off. k , bind off k . bind off sts at beg of the next rows at shoulder edge and k tog at neck edge, until all sts are bound off. work other shoulder to correspond. _front_--work same as back until piece measures ½ inches above underarm, k sts, bind off center , k , p back on sts, k sts tog at beg of every row at neck edge, until sts remain. bind off sts at beg of the next rows that beg at shoulder and continue to k tog at neck edge, until all sts are bound off. work other side to correspond. _front band at neck_--on right side, pick up sts, p , k across, ending with p , k back. repeat these rows for ¾ inch. _back band at neck_--pick up sts. work same as front. sew shoulder seams and pick up sts for sleeves, starting after bound off sts to within bound off sts at end of armhole. pick up sts at beg of every row, until you have sts. *work rows even. on next k row, dec st at each end, repeat from *until sleeve measures inches, sts. dec sts across row. now work in pattern for ¾ inch, bind off. sew up seams at underarm and sleeves. embroider anchor as shown on illustration. pants with no. needles, cast on sts ( sts, size ), k , p ribbing for rows. next row, k , *y o, k tog, repeat from *across row. continue ribbing for more rows. now shape back as follows: k , turn, (slip the first st when purling back), p back, k , turn, p back, k , turn, p back. continue in this manner, working more sts every k row until there are sts, then p back and on sts, k row, turn, p , k , p , repeat these rows for ½ inches ( inches, size ). now inc st at each end every th row, times, then every th row times, continuing to k center sts to hem. ( sts). dec st at each end every other row times. work even for inch. p row on k side. p row, k row for rows, bind off loosely. make other leg to correspond, starting shaping of back on opposite side as follows: p , turn, k back. p , turn, k back and continue in this manner until there are sts, then k back and continue same as other leg. sew up seams and turn back hem. press creases back and front. beret with no. needles, cast on sts, p back. row --inc in each st ( sts), p back. row --*inc st, k st, repeat from *across row ( sts). p back. row --*inc st, k sts, repeat from *across row. continue in this manner having more st between each increase, until you have sts between each increase. k row, p row without increasing, for rows. now dec in same manner as you increased. *k sts tog, k , k tog, repeat from *across row, p back. dec in this manner having st less between each dec for more k rows. k row on purled side (hem), then k row, p row for ½ inch, bind off loosely. turn back ½ inch hem and sew. block flat. _majorette_ no. knitted jacket and hat - years _ pair bone needles, american standard no. ._ _material_--_knitting worsted, ounces, royal blue. sports yarn, ounce, gold. buttons._ _gauge_--_ ½ sts to inch._ jacket _back_--cast on sts ( sts, size ), k rows. now p row, k row, for rows, k rows ( ribs), (this completes border) p row, k row for inches ( inches, size ) measuring from bottom. bind off sts at beg of the next rows, k sts tog at beg of the next rows ( sts off on each side). work even for ½ inches ( inches, size ), measuring straight up from where the sts were bound off. bind off sts at beg of the next rows, place center sts on st holder. _left front_--cast on sts, k rows. *k , p , k (border), p across. k next row, repeat these rows for inches, working border on bottom same as for back. bind off, sts at beg of the next row that begins at underarm, then k sts tog at beg of every row at underarm until you have sts off. work even until armhole measures inches. k sts (border), place on st holder, then k sts tog at beg of every row at neck edge until sts remain. bind off sts at beginning of shoulder times, work even at neck edge. _right front_--work to correspond, working first buttonhole inch from bottom as follows: work sts, bind off , follow pattern across. cast on sts over those bound off on previous row. work buttonholes every inches after first buttonhole ( buttonholes). [illustration: no. this season, more than in many recent seasons, the military motif is getting quite a play. the classical "_blue and gold_" is carried out to singular effect with this jacket of blue trimmed with gold buttons and--no less--epaulettes on the shoulders, the fringe of which is ply sports yarn. the hat repeats the color theme of the jacket with striking effect.] _sleeves_--cast on sts, k rows, p row, k row for rows, k rows. p row, k row for inches, *inc st at each end, work inch even, repeat from *until piece measures inches from bottom ( sts). work inch even. bind off sts at beg of the next rows, then bind off sts at beg of the next rows, ( sts). now k sts tog at beg and end of every th row, until sts remain. now k tog at beg and end of every row until sts remain, bind off. _epaulets_--epaulets are k in garter st. cast on sts, k row. now inc st at beg of every row, until you have sts. work even for inches. bind off sts, k . k back on sts and k tog at beg of every row that begins in center of piece, bind off last sts. sew shoulder seams. _band at neck_--place epaulets at center of shoulder seam with the points overlapping back and the bound off sts over fronts. pick up sts from st holder at front, pick up sts around neck, picking up epaulets with neck sts, k off back. continue other side and front in same manner ( sts), k row. work buttonholes as follows: k , bind off , k across. on next k row, cast on sts over those bound off. k row, p row for rows always k first and last sts on purled rows for edge. k rows, bind off loosely on wrong side. sew back to fronts and sew up sleeve seams, insert sleeves into armholes, having fullness at top. stitch end of epaulets at shoulder. sew on buttons. _fringe_--with two ply gold yarn, cut fringe inches in length. with two strands, tape thru each stitch around epaulets as shown on illustration, trim. hat with no. needles, cast on sts, p back. row --inc in each st ( sts). p back. row --*inc st, k st, repeat from *across row ( sts), p back. row --*inc st, k sts, repeat from *across row. continue in this manner having more st between each inc, until you have sts between each inc ( sts). now k each row back and forth until piece measures inches, from k rows. bind off loosely on wrong side. wrap contrasting shade of light weight yarn one yard long, times, cut at both ends. with main color, wrap times, cut at both ends. twist each of these ends as tightly as possible. now twist the two pieces together. make a large knot, leaving ends for tassel, cut evenly. _swiss shalet_ no. crocheted coat and hat in "morning glory blue" to years _ afghan hook, size or , inch._ _material_--_knitting worsted. coat-- four ounce skeins. hat- ounces. buttons._ _gauge_--_ sts to inch. rows inch._ coat _back_--chain sts (to measure inches) for bottom of coat, ( sts, size ). row --skip ch, *draw up a loop in next ch; repeat from *across foundation ch ( loops on hook). wrap, draw thru loop, *wrap, draw thru loops; repeat from *across row. this completes first row. row --*bring yarn to front of work, insert hook under vertical loop, hold yarn with left thumb on right side of work, draw up a loop; repeat from *across row ( loops). always wrap and take off the loops same as first row to complete row. repeat row for border until border measures inch. remainder of back is worked in plain afghan st. row --insert needle in nd vertical loop, draw up all vertical loops across row. row --wrap, draw thru loop, *wrap, draw thru loops; repeat from *across row. repeat these rows for inches. make first dec as follows: draw loop thru first vertical loops (a dec). draw up loops, make another dec in same manner, draw up loops, make a dec, draw up loops, dec last loops. ( loops). *work inch even. dec more loops in same manner having decreases come directly above those on previous decreases. repeat from * more times ( sts, inches). work inches even ( inches, size ). now inc st at beg and end of next row as follows: *y o hook (inc) work across row to within last loop, y o hook (inc) pick up last st. work inch even, repeat from * more times. work inch even ( inches, sts), or desired length to underarm. sl st over loops for underarm. work across row to within loops. now dec st at beg and end of each row, times ( sts). work even until armhole measures inches measuring straight up from slip sts. *sl st over sts, work across row to within loops, repeat from * more times. sl st remaining sts for back of neck. [illustration: no. a practical coat crocheted in an afghan stitch that will survive many seasons of wear. the peter pan collar preserves that "little girl" look, while the wooden buttons impart a note of sweet sophistication.] _front_--chain sts to measure inches ( sts, size ). work inch of border same as back. work in plain afghan st for inches. on next row make a dec as follows: make a dec, draw up loops, make another dec, draw up loops. work inch even. dec sts every inch more times ( sts, inches). work inches even. now inc st at seam end every inch, times. work inches even, or desired length to underarm. sl st over loops, work across row, work back. dec same as for back until you have sts off altogether. work inches even from armhole. pick up loops make a dec (pick up loops tog), pick up loops, work back. work rows even, pick up loops, make a dec, pick up loops, skip last loop for neck edge. continue to skip last st at neck edge every row, until loops remain. slip over sts at beg of the next rows for shoulder, and continue to slip last st at neck edge, slip st over last sts. work other side to correspond. _sleeves_--ch sts, to measure ½ inches ( sts, size ). work border for inch. work in plain afghan st for inches. inc st at each end every inch until sleeve measures inches, sts. work inch even or desired length to underarm. sl st over loops, work across row to within loops, work back. sl st over loops, work across row to within loops, work back. *work row even. sl st over loop, work row to within loop, work back, repeat from *until loops remain, bind off. _bands at front--_starting at neck edge on left front (work border same as border on bottom), *pick up sts ( st in each row) now inc st by picking up st between next row, repeat from *for ( sts) or complete length of coat, for rows. on right front starting at bottom, work rows even make buttonholes on next row as follows: pick up loops, *sl st over loops, pick up loops, repeat from *to end of row. work back chaining sts over those bound off. work more rows. sl sts off on th row. _collar_--ch , work in afghan st always working first and last sts in border st same as bottom of coat. on next row, pick up loops *inc, pick up loops, repeat from * more times, inc, pick up last loops. continue to inc inside of borders every row and above previous increases every other row, thruout collar, until you have rows. work rows even in border st, bind off on rd row. s c up front of collar. sew up seams at underarm and sleeve seams. sew shoulder seams and insert sleeves into armholes making small pleats on top of sleeve. sew on collar starting after border and ending before border. sew on buttons. hat _piece at back_--ch sts. row --skip ch, *draw up a loop in next ch; repeat from *across foundation ch ( loops on hook). wrap, draw thru loop, *wrap, draw thru loops; repeat from *across row. this completes first row. work more rows in same manner. row --make a dec as follows: draw loop thru first vertical loops (a dec) draw up each loop across row, dec last loops. repeat these rows more times ( loops on needle). work more rows, decreasing st at beg and end of every row. *pick up loop, sl st, repeat from *until all loops are off. break thread, ch , draw up a loop in each ch ( loops on hook). complete row. work more rows. row --inc st at beg of next row as follows: y o hook (an inc); pick up each loop across row to within last loop, wrap (an inc), pick up last loop. repeat these rows, until you have loops. work even on loops until piece measures inches. now dec loop on each end. continue to dec loop on each end every th row, until you have loops. work rows even. sew these ends tog. fold back piece in half, mark the center of wide end. fold long piece in half, mark center. have markers meet and sew tog. tack grosgrain ribbon around to fit headsize and make small tailored bow with inch streamers. _colleen_ no. jerkin, socks and beanie in red sports yarn size _needles_--_ pair american standard no. ._ _material_--_kashmir sports-- two ounce balls. beanie--one ounce. buttons._ _gauge_--_ sts to inch._ jerkin _back_--starting at bottom, cast on sts, *k , p , repeat from *across, ending row with k . next row, right side, k back. *repeat these rows for inch. dec st at each end, repeat from * times, inches ( sts). work inches even. *inc st at each end, work inch even, repeat from *for times, inches, sts. work ½ inch even. bind off sts at beg of the next rows for underarm ( sts). k sts tog at beg of the next rows ( sts). work even until armhole measures inches, measuring straight up from where the sts were bound off. on next k row, k sts, k , p ribbing to within last sts. bind off sts at beg of the next rows, continue to follow k , p sts for back of neck, bind off remaining sts. _front_--work same as for back until piece measures inches (having decreases and increases same on sides as back). on next row on right side, k , k , p for sts (border for pocket), k , p , k , for sts (border for pocket), k . follow pattern across row and, k , p , for pocket borders, for inch. on next row, follow pattern to pocket borders, bind off k , p borders, loosely in k , p . _pockets_--cast on sts. k , p across row, ending p . k back. continue pattern for inches, put sts on st holder. make another pocket with k border, on opposite edge. put on st holder also. on wrong side, follow pattern for sts, insert sts for pocket (following pattern), continue across row, inserting nd pocket. continue same as for back, until piece measures inches above armhole. now work in pattern on first sts for inches, bind off sts at armhole edge, times, then bind off remaining sts. work last sts in same manner. _band at neck_--holding right side of work toward you, pick up sts along left side of neck, k across sts (center front), pick up sts along right side. k , p , decreasing sts at each corner, every row (always have decreases over previous decreases). on th row, inc st at beg and end of row. when border measures inch, bind off in k , p . sew shoulder seams. pick up sts around armholes, k , p for inch, bind off k , p . sew up right side seams. on left front, pick up sts, k , p for rows. on next row, k , *bind off sts for buttonhole, k , repeat from * times, bind off for buttonhole, k . on next row, cast on sts over those bound off. work more rows, bind off k , p loosely. work left back to correspond omitting buttonholes. work row of s c around bottom or turn under ½ inch. sew pockets; do not have sts showing on right side. sew on buttons. beanie with no. needles, cast on sts, p back. row --inc in each st ( sts), p back. row --*inc st, k st, repeat from *across row ( sts). p back. row --*inc st, k sts, repeat from *across row. continue in this manner, having more st between each increase, until you have sts between each increase. k row, p row without increasing, for rows. now decrease in same manner as you increased. *k sts tog, k , k tog, repeat from *across row, p back. decrease in this manner having st less between each decrease for more k rows. k row on purled side (hem), then k row, p row for ½ inch, bind off loosely. turn back ½ inch hem and sew. socks--no. _needles_--_ set no. steel._ _material_--_kashmir sports-- ounces._ _gauge_--_ sts to inch. size ._ cast on sts ( - - ), k , p for ½ inches. k in pattern (k , p for rnd. k next rnd), until work measures ½ inches from beg. k first sts of first needle on rd needle. dec st at beg of first needle and st at end of rd needle. continue decreasing in this manner every ½ inch, more times ( sts). k even until work measures ½ inches from beg or desired length. _heel_--k , slip last sts of rnd on same needle ( sts). divide remaining sts evenly on needles for instep. work ½ inches in stockinette st (k) on heel sts, knitting the first and last st of every row, end with purled row. _to shape heel_--k , sl st, k , p.s.s.o., turn, p , p tog, turn. *k , sl st, k , p.s.s.o., turn, p , p tog, turn. repeat from *until all sts are worked. k back sts, this completes heel. slip all instep sts on needle. with another needle, k remaining heel sts and pick up sts along side of heel. with another needle, pick up sts along other side of heel and k remaining heel sts. work rnd even, keeping instep sts in pattern. _instep_--first needle: k to last sts. k tog, k . nd needle, work in pattern. rd needle, k , p tog thru back of sts. k to end of needle. k rnds even. continue to dec in this manner every th rnd more times ( sts remaining on each of the first and rd needles). continue to work even until foot measures ½ inches from where sts were picked up at heel. _to shape toe_--first rnd: (k , k tog) times. k rnds even. th rnd: (k , k tog) times; continue decreasing sts every rd rnd in above manner, until there are sts remaining, break thread, draw thru remaining sts, fasten securely. weave elastic thread into wrong side of cuff with a tapestry needle. [illustration: no. a neat combination that can be worn for either sports or school. the jerkin has a square neckline that is different and the stitch of the jerkin is repeated in the socks. notice the buttons on the sides of the jerkin. _detailed illustration of socks on page ._ _directions on opposite page._] _spiral socks and slip-over_ no. size _needles_--_ pair american standard no. and no. ._ _material_--_kashmir sports-- two ounce balls._ _gauge_--_ ½ sts to inch--waist inches--chest inches._ slip-over _back_--with no. needles, cast on sts, k , p ribbing for inches. change to no. needles. row --k (k , p , times), k (p , k , times), p . _row _--k (p , k , times), p , (k , p , times), k . _row _--same as row . _row _--same as row . _row _--(k , p , times), k (p , k , times). _row _--(p , k , times), p (k , p , times). _row _--same as row . _row _--same as row . _row _--k , p (k , p , times), k (p , k , times), p , k . _row _--p , k (p , k , times), p (k , p , times), k , p . _row _--same as row ; increasing in first and last st. _row _--(p , k , times), p (k , p , times). _row _--k , p (k , p , times), k , (p , k , times), p , k . _row _--p , k (p , k , times), p , (k , p , times), k , p . _row _--same as row . _row _--same as row . _row _--k , p (k , p , times), k (p , k , times), p , k . _row _--p , k (p , k , times), p (k , p , times), k , p . _row _--same as row . _row _--same as row . _row _--inc first st (p , k , times), p , k , p (k , p , times), inc last st. _row _--p (k , p , times), k , p , k (p , k , times), p . _row _--k (p , k , times), p , k , p (k , p , times), k . _row _--same as row . _row _--k (p , k , times), p , k , p (k , p , times), k . _row _--p (k , p , times), k , p , k (p , k , times), p . _row _--same as row . _row _--same as row . _row _--(p , k , times), p , k , p (k , p , times). _row _--(k , p , times), k , p , k (p , k , times). _row _--same as row . _row _--same as row . continue moving pattern over st every rows in above manner always working stockinette sts in center of piece and increasing st at each end every inch until you have sts. continue even until work measures ½ inches from beginning. bind off sts at beg of the next rows. dec st at beg of the next rows, ( sts). work even until armhole measures inches measuring straight up from where the sts were bound off. work in pattern for sts, bind off sts, work remaining sts. bind off sts at beg of shoulder edge, times. work other shoulder to correspond, joining yarn at inside of neck. [illustration: no. this stocking is knit spirally and regardless which way you pull on the stocking you automatically get a heel and toe--so you see--mothers, this is a boon to leisure moments when you ordinarily would be darning. you will notice that the spiral stitch is repeated diagonally in the sweater and is very smart--especially for the young fellows who want to make _that impression_.] _front_--work same as for back until piece measures ½ inches from beginning ( inches above armhole). work sts in pattern, bind off sts for neck. work sts, k sts tog at beg of every row at neck edge, until sts remain. work even until armhole measures inches, measuring from bound off sts. bind off sts at beg of shoulder, times. work other shoulder to correspond. _sleeves_--with no. needles, cast on sts, k , p for inches. change to no. needles and work in pattern, working first row as follows: k , p (k , p , times), k (p , k , times), p , k . continue in pattern increasing st on each end every inches until piece measures inches, sts or desired length to underarm. bind off sts at beg of next rows. bind off sts at beg of next rows. now dec st at beg of every row until sts remain, bind off. _band at neck_--front--with no. needles, holding right side toward you, pick up sts across front, k , p for inch. bind off loosely in k , p . _band at back_--pick up sts k , p for inch. sew shoulder seams and band at neck. sew seams at underarm. insert sleeves into armholes, having seams meet. socks _spiral ribbed socks, without heels._ no. _needles_--_ set no. steel._ _material_--_heather sports yarn-- ounces. red, yellow and royal blue / ounce each. spool elastic thread._ _gauge_--_ sts to inch._ with heather cast on sts ( sts on each of needles). work in ribbing (k , p ) for rnds. attach yellow yarn and k rnd, k , p for rnd. with heather, k rnd k , p for rnds. with red, k rnd, k , p for rnds. with heather, k rnd, k , p for rnds. with royal blue, k rnd, k , p for rnds. with heather k rnd, k , p for rnds. with red, k rnd; k , p for rnds. with heather k rnd, k , p , for rnds. with yellow k rnd; k , p for rnd. with heather k rnd; k , p for rnds. join elastic thread, k rnd; *k , p for rnds. th rnd, k , p to last st. put this st on next needle. th rnd (first needle) k , p to last st. put this st on next needle. ( nd needle), same as first needle. ( rd needle), k , p to end. this moves pattern over forming a spiral. repeat from *, until work measures inches from beginning, or desired length; after patterns have been completed with elastic thread, continue with yarn for patterns, then work more patterns with elastic. join yarn and complete. _toe_--p , p tog for rnd. p rnds even. p , p tog for rnd. p rnds even. continue decreasing in this manner, purling rnds even after every decrease rnd, times more. break thread and run through remaining sts. fasten off. _queen of hearts_ no. six piece ensemble in "red and white" size to years _needles_--_ pair bone needles, size . circular needle size , -inch._ _material_--_cashmere sports yarn. jacket-- two ounce balls white. skirt-- two ounce balls red. cap-- two ounce ball white._ _gauge_--_ ½ sts to inch._ jacket _back_--cast on sts ( sts, size ). k row, p row for ¾ inch. p row on k side, to turn for hem. continue to k row, p row, until work measures ¾ inches from start. dec st on each side ( sts). *work inch even, dec st on each side, repeat from *once ( sts). work inches even. now inc st on each side. *work inch even, inc st on each side, repeat from *until piece measures ¾ inches from start ( sts). work inch even ( inches, size ). bind off sts on each side for underarm, then k sts tog at beg of the next rows ( sts). work even for inches ( ½ size ) measuring straight up from where the sts were bound off. bind off sts at beg of next rows, bind off remaining sts for back of neck. [illustration: no. the answer to any problem that would arise in regard to a skating costume. the very essence of smartness that may be used as a spring, fall or winter ensemble. jacket, by the way, closes with a zipper, and the heart motif is repeated on cap, jacket and mitts.] _front_--cast on sts, p back. inc in each st, p back. inc in first and last sts in every k row, until you have sts. cast on sts at beg of the next rows ( sts). on next k row, cast on sts (place marker), this will be seam end. k row, p row for inch. *dec st at seam end, work inch even, repeat from *once. work inches even. *now inc st on seam end. work inch even, repeat from *until piece measures inches from marker ( sts). work inch even. bind off sts at seam end for underarm, then k sts tog at beg of every row at underarm, times ( sts). work even for inches ( ½ size ). bind off sts at neck edge, then k sts tog at beg of every row at neck edge, until sts remain. bind off sts at beg of every row that begins at shoulder and continue to k sts tog at neck edge, until all sts are bound off. _sleeves_--cast on sts, p row, k row for ¾ inches. p row on k side (to turn for hem), continue to k row, p row for inches. *inc st at each end. work inch even, repeat from *, until sleeve measures ¾ inches ( sts), work ½ inch even or desired length to underarm. bind off sts at beg of the next rows, then sts at beg of the next rows. k sts tog at beg and end of every k row, until you have sts, bind off. on fronts at bottom, pick up sts on right side, p row, k row, decreasing st on k rows at point, for rows, bind off. _collar_--holding wrong side toward you, pick up sts, cast on sts at beg of next rows for hem. k , p across to within last sts, k . k row, p row for rows. *k , inc st, repeat from *across row, work rows even. *k , inc st, repeat from *across row, work rows even. *k , inc st, repeat from *across row, work rows even. *k , inc st, repeat from *across row. work rows even. bind off sts, p row on k side. bind off sts at beg of next row, p row, k row for more rows, bind off loosely. _finishing_--sew up seams at underarm and sleeve seams, insert sleeves into arm holes, having seams meet at underarm. turn under hems and sew. work row of s c up each side at fronts. _heart_--with red yarn, cast on sts, p back. k next row, increasing in each st. p back (when increasing, inc on nd st from ends). inc at beg and end of every row until you have sts. inc at beg and end of k rows only until you have sts. work rows even. now dec sts on every k row same as you increased, until you have sts. p back. k over sts, p back. now k tog every k row at beg and end until you have sts, bind off. work other sts to correspond. work row of s c around heart, pin heart into shape desired, block and sew on jacket as shown on illustration. skirt with no. circular needle, cast on sts. join being careful not to twist sts. k row, p row, for rows for border ( ribs). *p , k , repeat from *for rnd. k next rnd. repeat these rnds for inch. on next rnd, make a decreased row as follows: *p , k sts, k tog, k , k tog, k , repeat from *for rnd ( sts). work in pattern for inch. make another decreased rnd as follows: *p , k sts, k tog, k , k tog, k , k tog, k , repeat from *for rnd ( sts). work in pattern for inch. continue to dec sts ( sts in each gore, dec on each side of gore, on rd and th sts, st in center of each gore), until skirt measures inches, sts, ( waist). work ½ inch even. now dec sts to the rnd, omitting center decreases sts ( waist). work ½ inch even or desired length to waist line. p row, k ½ inch even, bind off loosely. insert elastic and turn for hem. cap _side of cap_--with no. needle, cast on sts, *k row. on next row, k , (border), p back, repeat from *for inch. now inc st at end of next row and continue to k on purled rows for border. work inch even. inc st every inch on same side, until you have sts, inches. work inches even. now dec st every inch same as you increased, sts, work inch even, bind off. _back of cap_--cast on sts, *k row, p row for rows, inc st at beg and end of next row, repeat from *until you have sts, inches. work ½ inch even, now dec st on each end and dec st on each end every th row, until you have sts, p row, k row, bind off. fold front piece in half, mark center of cap at opposite edge from border. place mark in center of bound off sts on back of cap. sew center back to front piece having markers meet. block seam lightly on right side of cap. with red work scallops around seam of cap, as follows: holding back of cap toward you, fasten yarn at bottom, ch , *skip a space, work ( h d c, d c, h d c) in next st, skip a space, s c in next space, repeat from *around back of cap about scallops. _ties_--ch , work s c around bottom of cap (continuing with same thread), skipping about sts, ch sts. work row of s c over chains and back of cap. block lightly into shape. _hearts_--with red, cast on sts, p sts. k increasing in each st, p back. *on next row inc in first sts and last sts, p back, repeat from *once. k row, p row even for rows. k tog, k , turn, p tog, p , k tog, k turn. p tog, p , bind off sts, break thread. work other sts to correspond and work row of s c around heart. sew hearts on each side of cap as shown on illustration. slip-over no. size to years _needles_--_ pair bone size and ._ _material_--_ one ounce balls kashmir fleece._ _gauge_--_ sts to inch--no. needles._ _back_--with no. needles, cast on sts (size , sts), k , p for inches. change to no. needles, k row, p row, until piece measures inches. bind off sts at beg of the next rows for underarm, then k tog at beg of the next rows ( sts). work even until armhole measures ½ inches, measuring straight up from where the sts were bound off. on next k row, k , put remainder of sts on st holder. p back on sts. on next row, bind off sts at beg of every row at armhole edge, times and p tog at beg of every row at neck edge. work other sts to correspond. _neck band_--with no. needles, pick up sts, k , p ribbing for inch, bind off, k , p . _front_--cast on (size , ), k , p for inches. change to no. needles. on next row, k , k , p for sts, k . on next row p , p , k , for sts, p . next row, k , k , p , for sts, k . next row, p , p , k , for sts, p . continue in this manner having sts less in pattern on every row, until all sts are k. p row, k row until piece measures same as for back. bind off sts at beg of the next rows, then k tog at beg of the next rows ( sts). work even until armhole measures inches ( ½ inches, size ). k , k , p , k . next row, p , p , k , p , k , p . next row, k (k , p , times), k . next row, p (p , k , times), p . continue in this manner having more sts in pattern every row, until you have sts in pattern. k , put remainder of sts on st holder. p back. p tog at beg of every th row, at neck edge until sts remain. bind off sts at beg of every row at armhole edge, times, work even at neck edge. work other side to correspond, (put , k , p ) on st holder. band at neck. pick up sts, k , p following pattern across front, pick up sts on other side. k , p for inch, bind off k , p . _sleeves_--with no. needles, cast on sts. k , p for ½ inches. change to no. needles, k , k , p for sts, k . next row, p , p , k , for sts, p . k , k , p for sts, k . p , p , k for sts, p . continue in this manner having sts less in pattern every row, until all sts are k, inc st on each end and continue to inc st on each end every th row, until sleeve measures ½ inches ( sts). bind off sts at beg of the next rows, then sts at beg of the next rows ( sts). k tog at beg and end of every th row until you have sts, bind off. sew up shoulder seams, sew back and front together. sew sleeve seams and insert into armhole. mittens no. size to , to _needles_--_ set of bone, no. ._ _material_--_ ½ oz. knitting worsted._ _gauge_--_ sts to inch._ _cuff_--cast on sts, sts on each needles, on rd needle, *p rnds. k rnds, repeat from * more times. k , p around row for inches (size to ), inches (size to ). put next sts on st holder and cast on sts. continue to k , p for ½ inches (size to ), ½ inches (size to ). on next rnd, k tog, p tog for rnd. k , p for rnds. k tog until you have sts, draw through and sew. _thumb_--pick up sts from st holder, pick up sts from hand. k , p for ½ inches, size to ( ¾ inches, size to ), then p the p sts tog for rnd. next rnd k the k sts tog for rnd ( sts), draw through and sew. with red sports yarn make small hearts as follows: with no. needles, cast on sts, p sts, k increasing in each st. p back. *inc in first and last st, p back, repeat from *once. k row, p row. k tog, k , turn, p back. k , k tog, bind off. work other sts to correspond. make another heart in same manner. sew pieces tog and fill with red yarn. make more hearts in same manner. with strands of sports yarn, ch sts, sew heart on each end, tie a bow and sew on mitts as shown on illustration. these can easily be removed when washing. _directions for socks on page ._ _aloha_ no. herringbone coat and hat in "shark blue" size _needles_--_ pair american standard no. ._ _material_--_heather knitting worsted. coat-- four ounce skeins. hat-- four ounce skein._ _gauge_--_ patterns to inches, (coat); sts to inch, (hat)._ _pattern stitch_--_multiple of , plus st._ _bust measure_--_ inches._ swatch _swatch_--cast on sts, row , p. row -k sts, *inc in next st by knitting st in next st of row below in back, then k the next st, k sts, k tog, k , repeat from *across row, ending with k tog. row --p. row --*k sts tog, k sts, inc st (same as row ), k sts, repeat from *across row, ending k . [illustration: no. the young lady who has a "_know_" in style will immediately sense the style value of this swagger-style coat. the patch pockets relieve the plain front and give it an air of distinction. notice particularly the herring-bone stitch giving the garment the tailored effect. the coat can be finished with machine stitching--or by hand. the accompanying beret is finished in red, white and blue ribbon. notice too the emblem on the beret.] coat _right half of back_--cast on sts, p back. row k , *inc st (same as swatch) k , k tog, k , repeat from *across row, ending with k tog, p back. row --*k tog, k , inc st, k , repeat from *ending with k . repeat these rows for inches (place marker for side seam). make first dec (on side seam), on nd row of pattern as follows: k tog, k , *inc st, k , k tog, k , repeat from *across row, ending with k tog, p back. (always dec on nd row of pattern when decreasing thruout coat). next row, k tog, k , *inc st, k , k tog, k , repeat from *across row, ending with k . p back. *k , inc st, k , k tog, repeat from *across row ending with k tog. p back. repeat last rows for inches. nd dec: k tog k , *inc st, k , k tog, k , repeat from *across row, ending with k tog. on next purled row make a dec at center seam, p tog, continue purling across. k tog, k , *inc st, k , k tog, k , repeat from *ending with k , p back. k , *inc st, k , k tog, k , repeat from *across row, ending with k , k tog, p back. repeat these last rows, for inches. make another dec on seam end, k tog, *inc st, k , k tog, k , repeat from *ending with k , k tog, p back. k tog, *inc st, k , k tog, k , repeat from *ending with k , p back. k , inc st, *k , k tog, k , inc st, repeat from *ending with k , k tog, p back. repeat these last rows for inches. dec in this manner, knitting sts tog at side seam, every inches, and p tog at center seam every inches, until piece measures inches from bottom. work even for inches or desired length to underarm ( sts). bind off sts at beg of next row at underarm, k sts tog at beg of the next rows at underarm ( sts). work even for ¾ inches. bind off sts at beg of the next rows, bind off remaining sts for neckline. work other half of back to correspond. _left front_--cast on sts, work in pattern same as for back for inches. now dec st at seam end. work inches even. make a dec at seam end every inches until piece measures inches, meanwhile dec st at front edge every inches ( sts). work even to underarm inches or desired length to underarm. bind off sts at beginning of the next row at underarm. continue to k sts tog at underarm until you have sts. work even at underarm and dec every inches at front edge, until piece measures ½ inches above the bound off sts ( sts). bind off sts at beg of next row at neck edge. now k sts tog at beg and end of every row at neck edge, until sts remain. bind off sts at beg of the next rows at armhole and continue to dec at neck edge, in same manner. work right front to correspond, until you have inches from bottom. k sts, bind off sts for buttonhole continue pattern across row, p back and cast on sts over those bound off. continue same as left front working buttonholes inches apart. [illustration] _sleeves_--cast on sts, work in pattern for ½ inches. now inc st at each end. continue to inc st at each end every ½ inches, until sleeve measures ½ inches ( sts). work even until sleeve measures inches or desired length to underarm. bind off sts at beg of the next rows. bind off sts, at beg of the next rows ( sts). now k sts tog at beg and end of every k row, until sts remain, bind off. _collar_--cast on sts, p back. k next row, increasing st at beg and end (inc st at beg and end of every other k row thruout collar). k row, p row for rows. on next row, inc in every th st across row. work rows even, make another inc in same manner more times, having increases come directly above those of previous increases. k row, p row, bind off sts, k across on p side (hem line). then bind off sts, k across. p row, k row for more rows, bind off loosely. _pockets_--cast on sts. work in pattern for rows. cast on sts. work back. cast on more sts. work in pattern for ½ inches. bind off sts at beg of the next rows. work even on sts for rows, bind off. block all pieces before hemming. sew backs tog. sew fronts to side seams of back. sew shoulder seams. sew ¾ inch hem on fronts, bottom of coat and sleeves. sew hem in collar and pockets. sew pocket to coat as shown on illustration. sew collar to neck edge about inch from fronts after hem on fronts. sew sleeve seams and insert into armhole having two small inverted pleats at top of sleeve. sew on buttons. insert shoulder pads. hat ch , join, work s c in ring, s c in each st, until you have sts around. now inc in every th st, until you have sts around, then in every th st, until there are sts around. inc in every th, until there are sts around. work rnds even, break thread. this will be center back. count sts on each side of center back, place markers, holding right side toward you, s c from marker to marker, break thread. nd short row: count sts from center back and s c to within sts from center back on other side, decreasing sts spaced at equal distances apart. work more short rows in same manner as nd row (working sts more on each side toward center back). work more rows in same manner, decreasing sts to the rnd. work rows even or dec to fit headsize. tack grosgrain ribbon around band, sew on emblem. abbreviations used in knitting and crochet instructions the following abbreviations are used throughout the book. k knit p purl ch chain h d c half double crochet cr crochet sl st slip stitch rnd round beg beginning tr cr triple crochet s c single crochet d c double crochet tog together st stitch sts stitches y o yarn over p picot p.s.s.o pass slip stitch over *(asterisk). when this symbol appears, continue working until instructions refer you back to this symbol. _even_ means that a row must be worked without increasing or decreasing. _work_ means to continue with the stitch as described. _half double crochet_--yarn over, draw up a loop in st, yarn over and draw through all loops on hook. _slip stitch_--insert hook in next st, yarn over and draw through both loops on hook. * * * * * _blocking_--pin the garment, with rust proof pins, wrong side out, on a pressing board in exactly the measurements desired. place a damp cloth over garment and with a moderately hot iron, press lightly, allowing the steam to go through. lay on a flat surface until thoroughly dry. _needle gauge_--when making a garment--work a swatch, using the needles called for to determine whether or not your work measures the same number of stitches to the inch as given in the scale. change size of needles accordingly. _when using colors_--in changing color always k the first row on right side regardless of pattern. * * * * * [illustration: _get these other editions ... own the complete juvenile styles library_] you will want these other popular editions of juvenile styles by mary hoyer little wonder that so many mothers have collected all these editions of juvenile styles. these four books comprise a modern library of knitting and crocheting for infants thru 'teen age ... a wealth of easy-to-follow instructions for a few well invested pennies. complete your juvenile styles library today. mary's dollies is a companion book containing instructions for dollies' garments. you'll enjoy knitting and crocheting distinctively styled garments truly worthy of your time and talent. _if your local store cannot supply our books, send direct to_ juvenile styles publishing company penn street reading, pennsylvania (include c extra to cover mailing costs) * * * * * america's biggest doll value "_miss victory_" exclusive creation of your favorite designer mary hoyer with instructions for lovely knitted and crocheted costumes this gorgeous, exclusive doll positively represents "the _most value_ for _your money_" ... and also, "the _most thrills_ for _your daughter_" (or any other good little girl you know.) it is built as sturdily as the finest quality pre-war dolls! and "miss victory" has a hair coiffure designed by mary hoyer, who has designed the six charming costumes illustrated in volume of "mary's dollies." you get volume free with your purchase of this " doll--both at the bargain price of only $ . postpaid. simply send check or money order for one or more dolls, and state your preference in hair color: blonde, medium or dark brown. [illustration: _free_ with purchase of doll -> mary's dollies] important--the six costumes and their instructions are easy-to-follow. you will truly enjoy knitting these little outfits yourself, from odds-and-ends of yarn in your basket. no expense--and very, very little time involved. just "happy moments of knitting." remember, volume is _free_ with the doll; you can also purchase the two previous volumes of "mary's dollies" at the same time for c each. [illustration: as advertised in mccall's new costumes still available for only c each volumes five & six] mail your order today _don't delay_ order this doll and these books today _from_ juvenile styles publishing company penn street reading, pa. transcriber's note: inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the original document have been preserved. obvious typographical errors have been corrected. cycling and shooting knickerbocker stockings how to knit them [illustration] [illustration] [illustration] cycling and shooting knickerbocker stockings how to knit them with plain and fancy turnover tops by h. p. ryder london macmillan and co. ltd. new york: the macmillan co. richard clay and sons, limited, london and bungay. how to knit knickerbocker stockings general directions the difficulty in giving knitting directions arises from no two people knitting alike. some do so too loosely, others too tightly. in good work the loops should just run easily on the needles. in order to secure your stocking being the right size, it will be well before you start it to test your knitting by casting on stitches and knitting rows. if, with alloa yarn and no. needles, the knitting measures about a square inch, your stocking will work out medium size. if, however, the square is much larger or smaller, then alter the size of needles to suit your knitting, taking bigger or smaller needles as required. _this is a very important point to attend to._ the directions given are for a medium-sized stocking, both in length and width. any one who has knitted a stocking by them will see at _once_ how easy it is to enlarge or diminish the size. _how to join wool_ never make a knot, but knit a few stitches with both wools. the extra thickness never shows, and the ends may be cut off close with impunity. _raising_ it is helpful and saves much counting, if, when you raise or decrease, you knit along with the wool, on that stitch _only_, a piece of fine white wool or thread. it is easily withdrawn afterwards, but it enables you to see at a glance which is your back needle, and the last time you raised or decreased. you _raise_, by putting your needle before knitting next stitch through the loop below, in reality the stitch of the last round, and drawing the wool through it. you must be very careful not to make a hole, a slight twist as you take up the stitch prevents this. _tops in fingering_ when you knit with two wools, carrying them on at the back, the knitting is much more even if one colour, say the dark, is knitted with wool from right hand in the usual english way, but keep the lighter coloured wool over finger on _left_ hand, and take it up as the germans always knit. this sounds troublesome, but is really quite easy with a little practice. another simple but useful direction in knitting with wool carried on at the back i must give. when you knit or more stitches with one colour, to avoid too long a loop at the back, which is apt to get pulled, at the rd or th stitch lay the wool you are _not_ using level with your needle so as to come above or rather _between_ the needle and the wool you are going to knit with. when the stitch is knitted, you will find the wool caught lightly through at the back. knickerbocker stocking with fancy top. no. . _required._-- needles no. , tested by walker's bell gauge, cuts of alloa yarn (heather mixture), ½ cut of red to correspond. k stands for knit, p for purl. with heather mixture cast on stitches, on each needle. knit rounds of k , p alternately. purl two rounds. in the next round you use the two colours alternately. don't break off the wool until directed to do so. [illustration] st pattern round.--with red wool, k . heather wool k , but in knitting these put the wool _twice_ round the needle instead of once as in ordinary knitting; this is done to lengthen the stitch. repeat. nd round.--_red_ wool, k , slip the knitted stitches on to the same needle, letting the wool drop to make a long stitch. when you slip, put in needle, as if to purl, from right to left. repeat. rd, th, and th rounds.--same as nd. th round.--_heather_ wool. knit all. th and th rounds.--purl all. th round.--_red_ wool, k , *, _heather_ wool, k , putting wool _twice_ round needle, _red_ wool, k , repeat from *, end with k _red_ wool. th, th, th and th rounds.--_red_ wool, k , *, slip , k , repeat from *, end with k . th round.--_heather_ wool. knit all. th and th rounds.--purl all. repeat from st round _once_ more. repeat up to th round _once_. you will have coloured squares. break off red wool. with heather wool k , p alternately every round until your stocking measures, from casting on, a length of _six_ inches. _stocking leg_ before beginning to rib the stocking leg, you must turn what you have knitted inside out to make the fancy top fall over correctly. do this and arrange your stitches as follows. place on st needle, which will be called the _back_ or heel needle, on the nd, on the rd needle. st round.--p , k , p , k , p , k , knit together, k , knit together, k , *, p , k , p , k , p , k , repeat from *. you will have stitches on back needle, in all. nd round.--* p , k , p , k , p , k , repeat from *. this ribbing broad and narrow alternately is carried down the leg. in future, directions are only given for the increasings and decreasings made on the st or back needle. repeat the nd round until your stocking measures from casting on _eight_ inches. _to increase for calf of leg_ st round.--back needle. p , k , p , k , p , k , raise (see general directions), knit till within of end of broad rib, when raise , k , _etc._ by _etc._ please understand you are to knit the ribs according to pattern rest of round. rib rounds with stitches in centre back needle, broad rib. th round.--same as st. rib rounds with stitches in centre back, broad rib. th round.--same as st. rib, with stitches in centre back needle, broad rib, until your stocking measures _eleven_ inches from casting on. _decreasing_ this is done _twice_ in the round at first, afterwards only once. st round.--back needle. p , k , p , k , p , k , knit two together; knit until within of end of this broad rib, when knit together, k , etc. rib rounds.--you will have stitches in back needle rib. th round.--same as st. rib rounds.-- stitches back needle rib. th round.--same as st. rib rounds.-- stitches back needle rib. th round.--same as st. rib rounds.-- stitches on back needle rib. _decreasing once in round_ st round.--back needle. p , k , p , k , p , k , knit together, k , etc. after the decreasings, purl or knit the next rib according to pattern. nd and rd rounds.--p , k , p , k , p , k , etc. observe two rounds only are knitted between decreasings. th round.--p , k , p , k , p , k , knit together, k , etc. th and th rounds.--p , k , p , k , p , k , etc. th round.--p , k , p , k , p , k , knit together, k , etc. th and th rounds.--p , k , p , k , p , k , etc. th round.--p , k , p , k , p , k , knit together, k , etc. th and th rounds.--p , k , p , k , p , k , etc. th round.--p , k , p , k , p , k , knit together, etc. th and th rounds.--p , k , p , k , p , k , etc. th round.--p , k , p , k , p , knit together, etc. th and th rounds.--p , k , p , k , p , k , etc. th round.--p , k , p , k , p , purl together, p , k , p , k , p , etc. th and st rounds.--p , k , p , k , p , etc. nd round.--p , k , p , k , p , purl together, p , etc. rd and th rounds.--p , k , p , k , p , etc. th round.--p , k , p , k , purl together, p , etc. th and th rounds.--p , k , p , k , p , etc. th round.--p , k , p , k , purl together, etc. th and th rounds.--p , k , p , k , p , etc. st round.--p , k , p , k , knit together, k , etc. nd and rd rounds.--p , k , p , k , etc. th round.--p , k , p , k , knit together, k , etc. th and th rounds.--p , k , p , k , etc. th round.--p , k , p , k , knit together, etc. th and th rounds.--p , k , p , k , etc. th round.--p , k , p , knit together, etc. st and nd rounds.--p , k , p , k , etc. rd round.--p , k , p , purl together, p , etc. th and th rounds.--p , k , p , etc. th round.--p , k , p , purl together, p , etc. th and th rounds.--p , k , p , etc. th round.--p , k , p , p together, etc. this finishes the decreasings. you will have stitches left on your back needle, stitches in all on the needles. your decreasings will have formed a good =v=-shaped slant. continue ribbing until the stocking measures, from casting on, inches. you must not pull out the stocking, but place it flat on the table and measure it with a rule. _heel_ prepare for heel by ribbing to end of back needle, from next needle knit off on back needle the broad rib of stitches. knit on a nd needle the small ribs and of the next broad rib stitches, in all stitches. on a rd needle k and next small ribs, stitches in all. now pass the stitches of broad rib on to the heel or back needle. this gives you stitches on the heel needle. the heel is formed by knitting the heel needle backwards and forwards. st row.--slip (when you slip st stitch put in needle from right to left), k , p , k , p , k , p , k , turn. nd row.--slip , p , k , p , k , p , k , p , turn. repeat these _two_ rows until you have knitted rows. _to round heel_ st row.--slip , k , knit together, k , turn. nd row.--slip , p , purl together, p , turn. rd row.--slip , k , knit together, k , turn. th row.--slip , p , purl together, p , turn. th row.--slip , k , knit together, k , turn. th row.--slip , p , purl together, p , turn. th row.--slip , k , knit together, k , turn. th row.--slip , p , purl together, p , turn. th row.--slip , k , knit together, k , turn. th row.--slip , p , purl together, p , turn. th row.--slip , k , knit together, turn. th row.--slip , p , purl together. stitches will be left on the heel needle. _to form the foot_ this is done by taking up, and as you take up knitting through the loops down side of length of heel. in taking up be particular to put your needle through both sides of the loops. st side needle. slip , k (these are the heel stitches). take up, and as you take up knit stitches down side of heel. purl stitches off next needle on this st side needle. with a nd needle rib all the stitches on the next two needles but the _two_ last. this needle is henceforward called the instep needle. on a rd needle purl the stitches left, and with it take up, and as you take up knit stitches down other side of heel, also knit on to it stitches off the st side needle; these are the half of the heel stitches left after rounding it. count loops on your needles. you ought to have on each side needle, on the instep needle. _to shape the foot_ st round.-- st side needle. knit plain until within stitches of end of needle, when knit together, p . instep needle. k , p , k , p , k , p , k , p , k . nd side needle. p , knit together, knit to end of needle. repeat this round four times. you will have stitches left on each side needle. th round.-- st side needle. knit all but last, which are purled. instep needle. rib according to pattern. nd side needle. p , knit the rest. th round.--same as st. repeat th and th rounds until you have only stitches left on each side needle, on instep needle, in all. repeat the th round until your foot measures, including the heel, ½ inches. _toe_ prepare for toe by knitting to end of instep needle, and on that needle knit stitches off the next. next needle. knit plain. rd needle. knit to within stitches of end, when knit together, k , and pass the last stitch on to instep needle. you will have stitches on instep needle, on each of the others. _to decrease the toe_ st round.--instep needle. k , knit together, knit to within of end, when knit together, k . next needle. knit , knit together, knit to end. rd needle. knit to within of end, knit together, k . nd, rd and th rounds.--knit all. repeat these rounds _twice_ more. th round.--same as st. th and th rounds.--knit all. repeat th, th and th rounds _once_ more. th round.--same as st. repeat this until you have only stitches left on the instep and on back needles, in all. slip the back stitches on one needle, knit the back and front needles together, casting off at the same time. stocking, no. .--plain top cast on same number of stitches as for fancy top. rib, by k , p alternately, or k , p alternately a length of six inches from casting on. you do not need with plain top to turn your stocking inside out, as both sides are alike. arrange your stitches as directed for "stocking leg," and follow out the pattern. stocking, no. _required._-- needles no. , ½ cuts of blue speckled alloa yarn, ½ cut of blue alloa yarn, ½ cut of tan-coloured ditto. k stands for knit, p for purl. _with speckled wool._--cast on stitches, on two, on the third needle. the rib throughout the stocking is knit , purl . work rounds of this rib, k , p . _blue wool._--one round plain knitting. nd round.--the rib, k , p . each time you change the wool the st round must be plain knitting, the other rounds are ribbed. don't break off the different coloured wool until told to do so. _tan wool._--seven rounds. recollect to knit all st round. _speckled wool._--two rounds. _blue wool._--nine rounds. _speckled wool._--two rounds. _tan wool._--seven rounds. _blue wool._--two rounds. now break off all the wools, excepting the speckled. [illustration] _speckled wool._--rib until your stocking measures, from casting on, _six_ inches. to make your stocking top fall over correctly, you must now turn your work inside out and continue the rib until your stocking measures, from casting on, _nine_ inches. be careful after you have turned it to knit over the knitted stitches, and to purl over the purled ones. _increasing for calf_ directions are only given for the _back_ needle, where the increasing is made. follow the usual ribbing in the rounds. back needle. st round.--this must be a needle with stitches on it. (see directions for _raising_ in general directions.) k , p , k , p , raise , p , _etc._ by _etc._ understand is meant _continue the usual rib_. nd round.--k , p , k , p , etc. rd round.--k , p , k , p , raise , p , etc. th round.--k , p , k , p , etc. th round.--k , p , k , p , raise , p , etc. th round.--k , p , k , p , k , p , etc. th round.--k , p , k , p , raise , k , p , etc. th round.--k , p , k , p , k , p , etc. th round.--k , p , k , p , k , raise , k , p , etc. th round.--k , p , k , p , k , p , etc. th round.--k , p , k , p , k , raise , k , p , etc. th round.--k , p , k , p , k , p , etc. th round.--k , p , k , p , k , raise , k , p , etc. th round.--k , p , k , p , k , p , etc. th round.--k , p , k , p , k , raise , k , p , etc. th round.--k , p , k , p , k , p , etc. th round.--k , p , k , p , k , raise , k , p , etc. th round.--k , p , k , p , k , p , etc. repeat th round until your stocking measures, from casting on, ½ inches. you will have stitches on your _back_ needle. _decreasing_ this is done every other round. in the _intermediate_ rounds follow the ribbing as usual, and where the decreasing has been made knit, if over knitted stitches, purl when over-purled. st round.--back needle. k , p , k , p , knit together, k , etc. rd round.--k , p , k , p , knit together, k , etc. th round.--k , p , k , p , knit together, k , etc. th round.--k , p , k , p , knit together, k , etc. th round.--k , p , k , p , knit together, k , etc. th round.--k , p , k , p , knit together, p , etc. th round.--k , p , k , p , purl together, p , etc. th round.--k , p , k , p , purl together, p , etc. th round.--k , p , k , purl together, p , etc. th round.--k , p , k , purl together, etc. st round.--k , p , k , knit together, k , p , etc. rd round.--k , p , k , knit together, k , p , etc. th round.--k , p , k , knit together, k , p , etc. th round.--k , p , k , knit together, k , p , etc. th round.--k , p , k , knit together, k , p , etc. st round.--k , p , k , knit together, k , p , etc. rd round.--k , p , k , knit together, k , p , etc. th round.--k , p , k , knit together, k , p , etc. th round.--k , p , k , knit together, p , etc. th round.--k , p , knit together, p , etc. st round.--k , p , purl together, p , etc. rd round.--k , p , purl together, p , etc. th round.--k , p , purl together, etc. th round.--k , purl together, etc. th round.--k , knit together, k , etc. st round.--k , knit together, k , etc. rd round.--k , knit together, k , etc. th round.--k , knit together, k , etc. th round.--k , knit together, k , etc. th round.--k , knit together, k , etc. th round.--k , p . repeat this round until your stocking measures, from casting on, inches. you will have stitches in all on your needles. _heel_ prepare for heel by knitting to end of back needle; from next needle knit off on back needle as follows, k , p , k . on a nd needle, k , p , k , p , k . on a rd needle, k , p , k , p , k , then pass the remaining loops on to the heel needle. you will have stitches on heel needle, on the nd, on the rd. the heel is made by knitting the back needle backwards and forwards. st row.--slip (when you slip st stitch, put in needle from right to left), k , p , k , p , k , p , k , p , k , _turn_ and work back. nd row.--slip , p , k , p , k , p , k , p , k , p , _turn_. repeat these _two_ rows for rows. _to round heel_ st row.--slip , k , knit together, k , turn. nd row.--slip , p , purl together, p , turn. rd row.--slip , k , knit together, k , turn. th row.--slip , p , purl together, p , turn. th row.--slip , k , knit together, k , turn. th row.--slip , p , purl together, p , turn. th row.--slip , k , knit together, k , turn. th row.--slip , p , purl together, p , turn. th row.--slip , k , knit together, k , turn. th row.--slip , p , purl together, p , turn. th row.--slip , k , knit together, k , turn. th row.--slip , p , purl together. you will have stitches left on heel needle. _to form the foot_ this is done by taking up, and as you take up knitting through the slipped loops down side of heel. be particular in taking up to put your needle through both sides of the loops. st side needle. slip , k (these are the heel stitches). take up, and as you take up knit stitches down side of heel. on _same_ needle knit stitches off next needle. work on a nd needle ribbing according to pattern, all the stitches on the next two needles _excepting_ the two last. this needle is henceforward called the _instep_ needle. on a rd needle knit the stitches left, and with it take up, and as you take up knit stitches down other side of heel, also knit on it stitches off st side needle (these are part of the heel stitches). count loops on your needles. you should have on st side needle, on instep, on nd side needle, in all. _to shape the foot_ st round.-- st side needle. knit plain until within of end of needle, when knit together, k . instep needle. rib to pattern. nd side needle. k , knit two together, knit to end. repeat this round _four_ times. th round.--knit plain side needles, rib the instep. th round.--same as st. repeat th and th rounds until you have only stitches left on st side needle, on instep, stitches on nd side needle. in all stitches. repeat th round until your foot measures, including heel, ½ inches. _toe_ this is all knitted plain. prepare for it by knitting to end of instep needle on same needle, knit stitches off next needle. knit plain next needle. rd needle. knit plain to within stitches of end, slip these two on to instep needle. you will have stitches on instep needle, on the back needles. _to decrease the toe.--knit_ st round.--instep needle. k , knit together, knit to within of end, when knit together, k . next needle. k , knit together, knit to end. rd needle. knit to within of end, when knit together, k . nd, rd and th rounds.--knit all. repeat these _four_ rounds _twice_ more. th round.--same as st. th and th rounds.--knit all. repeat th, th and th rounds _once_ more. th round.--same as st. repeat this round until you have only stitches left on your instep needle, and on the back needles. slip the on back needles all on one needle. cast off by knitting back and front needles together in the usual way. stocking, no. .--plain top cast on same number of stitches as for fancy top. rib, that is, k , p alternately, a length of _nine_ inches. (follow directions from "increasing for calf.") fancy top, no. this top can be knitted as a change with either stocking leg. same quantity of wool required. with stocking wool cast on stitches, on each needle. knit rounds of k , p alternately. th round.--* slip (taking it off as if purled, that is, putting the needle-point through the loop from right to left. all slipped stitches in this pattern are to be worked in this way). knit together; repeat from *. knit loosely, not to draw the wool tight. th round.--* throw wool over needle _twice from back to the front_, purl . this purled stitch is the slipped one of previous round. with wool still in front of needle slip (the knit together of last round), after which pass the wool to the back. repeat from *. th round.--knit plain, letting the thrown over _twice_ wool drop, and knit it as one stitch. to make sure you have done this correctly, count over your stitches; there should be on each needle. _coloured stripe._-- th round, knit all. th round.--same as th. th round.--same as th. th round.--same as th. these four rounds constitute the pattern. with wool your stocking is knitted; repeat these four rounds _twice_, that is, rounds. _coloured stripe._--repeat pattern _three_ times. [illustration] _stocking wool._--repeat pattern _twice_. _coloured stripe._--repeat pattern _once_, break off coloured wool. _stocking wool._--repeat pattern _once_. knit , purl alternately until your top measures inches from casting on. the rest of stocking knit according to receipt no. . (see directions for stocking leg.) [illustration] fancy top, no. this is a very simple but effective top. with wool your stockings are to be knitted, cast on stitches. rib, that is k , p alternately for five rounds. _with red wool._--make , by throwing wool over the needle, and knit together. repeat this throughout this round and three more rounds. _dark wool._-- rounds of make and knit together. _red wool._-- rounds of same. _dark wool._-- rounds of same. _red wool._-- rounds of same. _dark wool._--knit round plain. rib, that is k , p alternately until your top measures inches from casting on. rest of stocking knit according to directions. (see receipts nos. or .) stocking tops in fingering wool. no. if checks and plaids are knitted in alloa yarn, carrying on wool at the back, they are so thick and clumsy no one likes them. i therefore give directions for patterns to be knitted in -ply fingering wool and _larger_ needles. after you have knitted the top, you continue the rest of leg with alloa yarn and the smaller needles. be careful to match exactly colour of fingering and alloa. no. _required._-- needles no. . small quantity, say ½ cut, of fingering wool, same colour as alloa the stocking is to be knitted with, and ½ cut of crimson fingering. cast on stitches, on two, on rd needle, with darker fingering. st round.--k , p alternately. nd round.--p , k alternately. rd round.--same as st. th round.--same as nd. in next round you work with both colours, carrying them on at the back. you must be particular not to pull or drag them too tightly. (read carefully the "general directions.") [illustration] st _pattern_ round.--crimson wool k , *, dark wool k , crimson k , repeat from *, end with crimson k . nd round.--crimson k , *, dark k , crimson k , repeat from *, end with crimson k . rd round.--crimson k , *, dark k , crimson k , repeat from *, end crimson k . th round.--crimson k , *, dark k , crimson k , repeat from *, end crimson k . th round.--crimson k , *, dark k , crimson k , repeat from *, end crimson k . th round.--dark k , *, crimson k , dark k , repeat from *, end dark k . th round.--dark k , *, crimson k , dark k , repeat from *, end with k . th round.--dark k , *, crimson k , dark k , repeat from *, end with k . th round.--dark k , *, crimson k , dark k , repeat from *, end dark k . th round.--dark k , *, crimson k , dark k , repeat from *, end dark k . repeat these rounds _three_ times _more_. break off crimson wool. st round.--knit all. nd round.--k , p alternately. rd round.--p , k alternately. repeat nd and rd rounds until your stocking top measures, from casting on, _six_ inches. the rest of stocking is knitted in alloa yarn with needles no. . you can knit it either as pattern no. or . see "stocking leg." having stitches on your needle, you must, in commencing the ribbing, narrow off the extra stitches. [illustration] zigzag top in fingering, no. _required._-- needles no. . -ply fingering wool in two colours ½ cut of each. with dark wool cast on stitches, on two, on third needle. st round.--k , p alternately. nd round.--p , k alternately. repeat these two rounds. st pattern round.--the colours are used alternately. red k , dark k , repeat to end of round. nd round.--red k , *, dark k , red k , repeat from *, end with red k . rd round.--red k , *, dark k , red k , repeat from *, end red k . th round.--red k , *, dark k , red k , repeat from *, end red k . th round.--red k , *, dark k , red k , repeat from *, end red k . th round.--dark k , red k , repeat. th round.--red k , *, dark k , red k , repeat from *, end red k . th round.--red k , *, dark k , red k , repeat from *, end red k . th round.--red k , *, dark k , red k , repeat from *, end red k . th round.--red k , *, dark k , red k , repeat from *, end red k . repeat these ten rounds _three_ times more. st round.--knit all. nd round.--k , p alternately. rd round.--p , k alternately. repeat nd and rd rounds until your stocking measures, from casting on, _six_ inches. the rest of the stocking is knitted in alloa wool with needles no. , as in previous directions. diamond pattern top _required._-- needles no. , -ply fingering wool in two colours, ½ cut of each. with dark wool cast on stitches, on each needle. st round.--k , p alternately. nd round.--p , k alternately. repeat these two rounds _twice_ more. _light wool._--knit st round plain. nd round.--k in light wool, k in dark wool, repeat in two colours rest of round. [illustration] rd round.--k st stitch dark wool, nd light, repeat in two colours alternately. th round.--knit in light colour. th, th and th rounds.--knit in dark colour. you now begin the pattern. it is knitted plain in alternate colours, carrying on wool at the back. [l for light wool, d for dark.] st round.--light k , dark k , repeat. nd round.--light k , *, dark k , light k , dark k , repeat from *, end with light k . rd round.--dark k , light k , dark k , light k , dark k , light k , dark k , light k . th round.--dark k , *, light k , dark k , light k , dark k , light k , dark k , repeat from *, end with dark k . th round.--light k , dark k , light k , dark k , light k , dark k , light k , dark k . th round.--light k , *, dark k , light k , dark k , light k , dark k , light k , repeat from *, end with light k . th round.--light k , *, dark k , light k , dark k , light k , dark k , light k , repeat from *, end light k . th round.--dark k , light k , dark k , light k , dark k , light k , repeat. th round.--dark k , *, light k , dark k , light k , dark k , light k , dark k , repeat from *, end dark k . th round.--dark k , *, light k , dark k , light k , dark k , light k , dark k , repeat from *, end dark k . th round.--dark k , *, light k , dark k , light k , dark k , light k , dark k , repeat from *, end dark k . th round.--dark k , light k , dark k , light k , dark k , light k , repeat. th round.--light k , *, dark k , light k , dark k , light k , dark k , light k , repeat from *, end light k . th round.--light k , *, dark k , light k , dark k , light k , dark k , light k , repeat from *, end light k . th round.--light k , dark k , light k , dark k , light k , dark k , light k , dark k , repeat. th round.--dark k , *, light k , dark k , light k , dark k , light k , dark k , repeat from *, end dark k . th round.--dark k , light k , dark k , light k , dark k , light k , dark k , light k , repeat. th round.--light k , *, dark k , light k , repeat from *, end light k , repeat. th round.--light k , dark k , repeat. this round finishes the diamond. knit rounds with dark wool. knit round with light wool. th round.--k with dark wool, k with light alternately. th round.--k with light wool, k with dark alternately. th round.--knit with light wool, which you afterwards break off. th round.--knit with dark wool. th round.--k , p alternately. th round.--p , k alternately. repeat th and th rounds until your top measures, from casting on, _six_ inches. knit the rest of your stocking in alloa yarn with needles no. . don't forget in the st round to take two stitches together at intervals, to make the number right for whichever stocking leg you are going to knit. the scotch custom of having wooden legs to dry the stockings on when they are washed, prevents their running up, and keeps them a very good shape. by same author. winter comforts, and how to knit them. post free, _s._ _d._ children's comforts, and how i knit them. post free, _s._ _d._ how to knit the richmond glove. post free, ½_d._ how to knit socks. by e. ryder. post free, _s._ _d._ how to knit stockings. by e. ryder. post free, _s._ _d._ how to knit spun silk socks and stockings. by e. ryder. post free, _s._ _d._ these knitting cards can be procured from mr. cookes, _stationer_, richmond, yorkshire. transcriber's notes: for the text version, the capitalization on the title page was adjusted to attempt to preserve relative importance of the text on the page. chapter descriptions in the table of contents were changed from all caps to title case. small caps elsewhere were converted to all caps. gesperrt (spaced out lettering), used in various places in the front matter, and for chapter numbers, was not retained. words in italics are surrounded by _underscores_. punctuation varies widely and was kept as printed; most other inconsistencies were kept as printed. inconsistencies in spelling retained, along with the few corrections made, are listed at the end of this text. the original plates do not have captions. to make it easier for the reader to check the text against the description of the figures, the contents of each "list of illustrations" entry has been copied into the illustration tag for the corresponding plate. except for the frontispiece (pl.  ), the captions for the plates have been moved from the original mid-paragraph placement to between paragraphs. [illustration: pl.  . figure  . head-dress of lady ardene. . a kind of hat. . steeple head-dress. , . head-dresses of lady rolestone. . heart-shaped head-dresses. , . head-dresses of the time of henry viii. , . hats of the time of george ii. . nithsdale hood. . hat of the time of william iii. , . hats of the time of charles i. , , . head-dresses of . . head-dress of . . head-dress of the time of henry vi. . combination of figs.  , . , . hats for ladies in . . style of . , , . style of . ] dress as a fine art. with suggestions on children's dress. by mrs. merrifield. with an introduction on head dress. by prof. fairholt. boston: john p. jewett and company. cleveland, ohio: jewett, proctor, and worthington. . entered, according to act of congress, in the year , by john p. jewett & co., in the clerk's office of the district court of the district of massachusetts press of geo. c. rand, wood cut and book printer, cornhill, boston. stereotyped at the boston stereotype foundry. preface. the fact that we derive our styles of dress from the same source as the english, and that the work of mrs. merrifield has been circulated among the forty thousand subscribers of the "london art journal," might perhaps be deemed sufficient apology for offering it in its present form to the american public. it has received the unqualified approbation of the best publications in this country;--entire chapters having been copied into the periodicals of the day; this added to the above, and also to the high standing of the author, has induced the publishers to offer it to the great reading public of this country. the chapter on head-dresses, which commences the book, is of much interest in itself, and affords an explanation of many of the descriptions in the body of the work. the closing chapter, on children's dress, by mrs. merrifield, will be deemed of more value by most persons than the cost of the entire work. a few verbal alterations only have been made in the original;--the good sense of every reader will enable him to understand the local allusions, and where they belong to england alone, to make the application. contents. page chapter i. description of head-dresses, chapter ii. dress, as a fine art, chapter iii. the head, chapter iv. the dress, chapter v. the feet, chapter vi. remarks on particular costumes, chapter vii. ornament--economy, chapter viii. some thoughts on children's dress.--by mrs. merrifield, illustrations. plate i. figure  . head-dress of lady ardene. . a kind of hat. . steeple head-dress. , . head-dresses of lady rolestone. . heart-shaped head-dresses. , . head-dresses of the time of henry viii. , . hats of the time of george ii. . nithsdale hood. . hat of the time of william iii. , . hats of the time of charles i. , , . head-dresses of . . head-dress of . . head-dress of the time of henry vi. . combination of figs.  , . , . hats for ladies in . . style of . , , . style of . plate ii. figure  . style of . , . head-dress of . . head-dress of the french peasantry. . fashion of . , . fashion of . . head-dress of the commencement of the present century. . english housemaid. . gigot sleeves, with cloak worn over. . from a picture in the louvre. plate iii. figure  . dress, with short waist and sleeves. . dress of the mother of henry iv. . dress of henrietta maria. . from the "illustrated london news." plate iv. figures  , . from the plates of sommaering, shows the waist of the venus of antiquity. , . the waist of a modern lady, from the above. . from the "london news." . woman of mitylene. . algerine woman. . the archon's wife. plate v. figure  . athenian peasant. . shepherdess of arcadia. . athenian woman. . french costume of the tenth century. . lady of the time of henry v. plate vi. figure  . after parmegiano. . titian's daughter. . lady harrington. . roman peasant. . gigot sleeves. plate vii. figure  . from bonnard's costumes. . sancta victoria. . anne, countess of chesterfield, from vandyck. . woman of markinitza. plate viii. figure  . lady lucy percy, from vandyck. , . by jules david, in "le moniteur de la mode." . the hoop, after hogarth. plate ix. figure  . from rubens's "descent from the cross." . from a drawing by gainsborough. . woman of myconia. . queen anne. plate x. figure  . charlotte de la tremouille. . after gainsborough. . after gainsborough. . costume of mrs. bloomer. plate xi. figure  . from the embroidery on fig.  , pl.  . . from the sleeve of the same dress, above. . from the sleeve of the pelisse. . the pattern embroidered from the waist to the skirt of the dress, fig.  , pl.  . . the border of the shawl, fig.  . . sleeve of the same, figure  . . design on the apron, fig.  , pl.  . . from the border of the same dress, fig.  . plate xii. figure  . pattern round the hem of the long under dress, fig.  , pl.  . , . borders of shawls. . infant's dress, exhibited at the world's fair in london. , . from "le moniteur de la mode," by jules david and réville, published at paris, london, new york, and st. petersburg. chapter i. description of head-dresses. fig.  is a front view of a head-dress of lady arderne, (who died about the middle of the fifteenth century.) the caul of the head-dress is richly embroidered, the veil above being supported by wires, in the shape of a heart, with double lappets behind the head, which are sometimes transparent, as if made of gauze. such gauze veils, or rather coverings for the head-dress, are frequently seen in the miniatures of mss. figs.  , , are here selected from the royal ms. in fig.  , the steeple head-dress of the lady is entirely covered by a thin veil of gauze, which hangs from its summit, and projects over her face. fig.  has a sort of hat, widening from its base, and made of cloth of gold, richly set with stones. such jewelled head-dresses are represented on the heads of noble ladies, and are frequently ornamented in the most beautiful manner, with stones of various tints. the slab to the memory of john rolestone, esq., sometime lord of swarston, and sicili, his wife, in swarkstone church, derbyshire, who died in , gives the head-dress of the said sicili as represented in fig.  . it is a simple cap, radiating in gores over the head, having a knob in its centre and a close falling veil of cloth affixed round the back. it seems to have been constructed as much for comfort as for show: the same remark may be applied to fig.  , which certainly cannot be recommended for its beauty, being a stunted cone, with a back veil closely fitting about the neck, and very sparingly ornamented; it was worn by mary, wife of john rolestone, who died in . these may both have been plain country ladies, far removed from london, and little troubled with its fashionable freaks. fig.  represents the fashionable head-dress of the last days of the house of york. it has been termed the heart-shaped head-dress, from the appearance it presents when viewed in front, which resembles that of a heart, and sometimes a crescent. it is made of black silk or velvet, ornamented with gold studs, and having a jewel over the forehead. it has a long band or lappet, such as the gentlemen then wore affixed to their hats. figs.  and represent head-dresses worn in the time of henry viii. these are a sort of cap, which seem to combine coverchief and hood. fig.  was at this time the extreme of fashion. it is edged with lace, and ornamented with jewelry, and has altogether a look of utter unmeaningness and confusion of form. fig.  has a hood easier of comprehension, but no whit better in point of elegance than her predecessors; it fits the head closely, having pendent jewels round the bottom and crossing the brow. figs.  and are hats of a very simple style, such as were worn during the reign of george ii., when an affected simplicity, or milk-maiden look, was coveted by the ladies, both high and low. the hood worn by fig.  was a complete envelope for the head, and was used in riding, or travelling, as well as in walking in the parks. these were called nithsdales, because lady nithsdale covered her husband's face with one of them, after dressing him in her clothes, and thus disguised he escaped from the tower. fig.  represents a hat worn during the reign of william iii. by a damsel who was crying, "fair cherries, at sixpence a pound!" it is of straw, with a ribbon tied around it in a simple and tasteful manner; the hat is altogether a light and graceful affair, and its want of obtrusiveness is perhaps its chief recommendation. figs.  and are hats such as were worn by citizens and their wives during the reigns of james and charles i. figs.  , , , were such head-dresses as were in vogue in . fig.  was of a deep orange color, with bands of dark chocolate brown; a bunch of scarlet tufts came over the forehead, and it was held on the head by a kerchief of white muslin tied beneath the chin. fig.  is a straw bonnet, the crown decorated with red perpendicular stripes, the front over the face plain, and a row of laurel leaves surrounds the head; a lavender-colored tie secures it under the chin. bonnets somewhat similar to those now worn were fashionable two years previous to this; yet a small, low-crowned hat, like the one in fig.  , was as much patronized as any head-dress had ever been. cocked hats, such as is represented in fig.  , were worn by the gentlemen in the last part of the year . fig.  represents one of the head-dresses worn during the reign of henry vi. it is a combination of coverchief and turban. fig.  is a combination of the head-dress of fig.  with the lappeted hood of fig.  . in , a very large-brimmed hat became fashionable with the ladies, and continued in vogue for the next two years; an idea of the back view of it is given in fig.  , and a front view in fig.  . it was decorated with triple feathers, and a broad band of ribbon was tied in a bow behind, and allowed to stream down the back. the elegance of turn which the brim of such a hat afforded was completely overdone by the enormity of its proportion; and the shelter it gave the face can now be considered as the only recommendation of this fashion. the hat worn by fig.  was the style of . feathers were then much in favor, and a poet of the time writes of the ladies,-- "no longer they hunt after ribbons and lace; _undertakers_ have got in the milliner's place; with hands sacrilegious they've plundered the dead, and transferred the gay plumes from the hearse to the head." [illustration: pl.  . figure  . style of . , . head-dress of . . head-dress of the french peasantry. . fashion of . , . fashion of . . head-dress of the commencement of the present century. . english housemaid. . gigot sleeves, with cloak worn over. . from a picture in the louvre. ] fig.  represents the head-dress worn in . at no period in the history of the world was any thing more absurd in head-dress than the one here depicted. the body of this erection was formed of tow, over which the hair was turned, and false hair added in great curls; bobs and ties, powdered to profusion, then hung all over with vulgarly large rows of pearls, or glass beads, fit only to decorate a chandelier; flowers as obtrusive were stuck about this heap of finery, which was surmounted by broad silken bands and great ostrich feathers, until the head-dress of a lady added three feet to her stature, and "the male sex," to use the words of the "spectator," "became suddenly dwarfed beside her." to effect this, much time and trouble were wasted, and great personal annoyance was suffered. heads, when properly dressed, "kept for three weeks," as the barbers quaintly phrased it; that they would not really "keep" longer, may be seen by the many receipts they gave for the destruction of insects, which bred in the flour and pomatum so liberally bestowed upon them. fig.  is another fashionable outdoor head-dress. fig.  represents one of the hats invented to cover the head when full dressed. it is as extravagant as the head-dresses. it is a large but light compound of gauze, wire, ribbons, and flowers, sloping over the forehead, and sheltering the head entirely by its immensity. fig.  shows how immensely globular the head of a lady had become; it swells all around like a huge pumpkin, and curls of a corresponding size aid in the caricature which now passed as fashionable taste. as if this were not load enough for the fair shoulders of the softer sex, it is swathed with a huge veil or scarf, giving the wearer an exceedingly top-heavy look. in , the ladies appeared in hats similar to those worn by the gentlemen in ; these are represented in figs.  and . they were gayly decorated with gold strings, and tassels, crossed and recrossed over the crown. the brims were broad, raised at the sides, and pointed over the face in a manner not inelegant. fig.  has the tall, ugly bonnet, copied from the french peasantry; a long gauze border is attached to the edges, which hangs like a veil around the face, and partially conceals it. a hat of a very piquant character was adopted by the ladies in , of which a specimen is given in fig.  . it is decorated with bows, and a large feather nods not ungracefully over the crown from behind. a person with good face and figure must have looked becomingly beneath it. fig.  is an example of the bad taste which still peeped forth. it is one of the most fashionable head-dresses worn in , and is the back view of a lady's head, surmounted by a very small cap or hat, puffed round with ribbon; the hair is arranged in a long, straight bunch down the neck, where it is tied by a ribbon, and flows in curls beneath; long curls repose one on each shoulder, while the hair at the sides of the head is frizzed out on each side in a most fantastic form. the hat of fig.  , shaped like a chimney pot, and decorated with small tufts of ribbon, and larger bows, which fitted on a lady's head like the cover on a canister, was viewed with "marvellous favor" by many a fair eye, in the year . it was sometimes bordered with lace, as in fig.  , thus hiding the entire head, and considerably enhancing its ugliness. chapter ii. dress, as a fine art. in a state so highly civilized as that in which we live, the art of dress has become extremely complicated. that it is an art to set off our persons to the greatest advantage must be generally admitted, and we think it is one which, under certain conditions, may be studied by the most scrupulous. an art implies skill and dexterity in setting off or employing the gifts of nature to the greatest advantage, and we are surely not wrong in laying it down as a general principle, that every one may endeavor to set off or improve his or her personal appearance, provided that, in doing so, the party is guilty of no deception. as this proposition may be liable to some misconstruction, we will endeavor to explain our meaning. in the first place, the principle is acted upon by all who study cleanliness and neatness, which are universally considered as positive duties, that are not only conducive to our own comfort, but that society has a right to expect from us. again: the rules of society require that to a certain extent we should adopt those forms of dress which are in common use, but our own judgment should be exercised in adapting these forms to our individual proportions, complexions, ages, and stations in society. in accomplishing this object, the most perfect honesty and sincerity of purpose may be observed. no deception is to be practised, no artifice employed, beyond that which is exercised by the painter, who arranges his subjects in the most pleasing forms, and who selects colors which harmonize with each other; and by the manufacturer, who studies pleasing combinations of lines and colors. we exercise taste in the decoration and arrangement of our apartments and in our furniture, and we are equally at liberty to do so with regard to our dress; but we know that taste is not an instinctive perception of the beautiful and agreeable, but is founded upon the observance of certain laws of nature. when we conform to these laws, the result is pleasing and satisfactory; when we offend against them, the contrary effect takes place. our persons change with our years; the child passes into youth, the youth into maturity, maturity changes into old age. every period of life has its peculiar external characteristics, its pleasures, its pains, and its pursuits. the art of dress consists in properly adapting our clothing to these changes. we violate the laws of nature when we seek to repair the ravages of time on our complexions by paint, when we substitute false hair for that which age has thinned or blanched, or conceal the change by dyeing our own gray hair; when we pad our dress to conceal that one shoulder is larger than the other. to do either is not only bad taste, but it is a positive breach of sincerity. it is bad taste, because the means we have resorted to are contrary to the laws of nature. the application of paint to the skin produces an effect so different from the bloom of youth, that it can only deceive an unpractised eye. it is the same with the hair: there is such a want of harmony between false hair and the face which it surrounds, especially when that face bears the marks of age, and the color of the hair denotes youth, that the effect is unpleasing in the extreme. deception of this kind, therefore, does not answer the end which it had in view; it deceives nobody but the unfortunate perpetrator of the would-be deceit. it is about as senseless a proceeding as that of the goose in the story, who, when pursued by the fox, thrust her head into a hedge, and thought that, because she could no longer see the fox, the fox could not see her. but in a moral point of view it is worse than silly; it is adopted with a view to deceive; it is _acting a lie_ to all intents and purposes, and it ought to be held in the same kind of detestation as falsehood with the tongue. zimmerman has an aphorism which is applicable to this case--"those who conceal their age do not conceal their folly." the weak and vain, who hope to conceal their age by paint and false hair, are, however, morally less culpable than another class of dissemblers, inasmuch as the deception practised by the first is so palpable that it really deceives no one. with regard to the other class of dissemblers, we feel some difficulty in approaching a subject of so much delicacy. yet, as we have stated that we are at liberty to improve our natural appearance by well-adapted dress, we think it our duty to speak out, lest we should be considered as in any way countenancing deception. we allude to those physical defects induced by disease, which are frequently united to great beauty of countenance, and which are sometimes so carefully concealed by the dress, that they are only discovered after marriage. having thus, we hope, established the innocence of our motives, we shall proceed to mention the legitimate means by which the personal appearance may be improved by the study of the art of dress. fashion in dress is usually dictated by caprice or accident, or by the desire of novelty. it is never, we believe, based upon the study of the figure. it is somewhat singular that while every lady thinks herself at liberty to wear any textile fabric or any color she pleases, she considers herself bound to adopt the form and style of dress which the fashion of the day has rendered popular. the despotism of fashion is limited to _form_, but _color_ is free. we have shown, in another essay, (see closing chapter,) what licentiousness this freedom in the adoption and mixture of colors too frequently induces. we have also shown that the colors worn by ladies should be those which contrast or harmonize best with their individual complexions, and we have endeavored to make the selection of suitable colors less difficult by means of a few general rules founded upon the laws of harmony and contrast of colors. in the present essay, we propose to offer some general observations on form in dress. the subject is, however, both difficult and complicated, and as it is easier to condemn than to improve or perfect, we shall more frequently indicate what fashions should not be adopted, than recommend others to the patronage of our readers. the immediate objects of dress are twofold--namely, decency and warmth; but so many minor considerations are suffered to influence us in choosing our habiliments, that these primary objects are too frequently kept out of sight. dress should be not only adapted to the climate, it should also be light in weight, should yield to the movements of the body, and should be easily put on or removed. it should also be adapted to the station in society, and to the age, of the individual. these are the essential conditions; yet in practice how frequently are they overlooked; in fact, how seldom are they observed! next in importance are general elegance of form, harmony in the arrangement and selection of the colors, and special adaptation in form and color to the person of the individual. to these objects we purpose directing the attention of the reader. it is impossible, within the limits we have prescribed ourselves, to enter into the subject of dress minutely; we can only deal with it generally, and lay down certain broad principles for our guidance. if these are observed, there is still a wide margin left for fancy and fashion. these may find scope in trimmings and embroidery; the application of which, however, must also be regulated by good taste and knowledge. the physical variety in the human race is infinite; so are the gradations and combinations of color; yet we expect a few forms of dress to suit every age and complexion! instead of the beautiful, the graceful, and the becoming, what are the attractions offered by the dress makers? what are the terms used to invite the notice of customers? novelty and distinction. the shops are "magasins de nouveautés," the goods are "distingués," "recherchés," "nouveaux," "the last fashion." the new fashions are exhibited on the elegant person of one of the dress maker's assistants, who is selected for this purpose, and are adopted by the purchaser without reflecting how much of the attraction of the dress is to be ascribed to the fine figure of the wearer, how much to the beauty of the dress, or whether it will look equally well on herself. so the fashion is set, and then it is followed by others, until at last it becomes singular not to adopt some modification of it, although the extreme may be avoided. the best dressers are generally those who follow the fashions at a great distance. fashion is the only tyrant against whom modern civilization has not carried on a crusade, and its power is still as unlimited and despotic as it ever was. from its dictates there is no appeal; health and decency are alike offered up at the shrine of this moloch. at its command its votaries melt under fur boas in the dog days, and freeze with bare necks and arms, in lace dresses and satin shoes, in january. then, such is its caprice, that no sooner does a fashion become general, than, let its merits or beauties be ever so great, it is changed for one which perhaps has nothing but its novelty to recommend it. like the bed of procrustes, fashions are compelled to suit every one. the same fashion is adopted by the tall and the short, the stout and the slender, the old and the young, with what effect we have daily opportunities of observing. yet, with all its vagaries, fashion is extremely aristocratic in its tendencies. every change emanates from the highest circles, who reject it when it has descended to the vulgar. no new form of dress was ever successful which did not originate among the aristocracy. from the ladies of the court, the fashions descend through all the ranks of society, until they at last die a natural death among the cast-off clothes of the housemaid. fig.  . had the bloomer costume, which has obtained so much notoriety, been introduced by a tall and graceful scion of the aristocracy, either of rank or talent, instead of being at first adopted by the middle ranks, it might have met with better success. we have seen that jenny lind could introduce a new fashion of wearing the hair, and a new form of hat or bonnet, and mme. sontag a cap which bears her name. but it was against all precedent to admit and follow a fashion, let its merits be ever so great, that emanated from the stronghold of democracy. we are content to adopt the greatest absurdities in dress when they are brought from paris, or recommended by a french name; but american fashions have no chance of success in aristocratic england. it is beginning at the wrong end. the eccentricities of fashion are so great that they would appear incredible if we had not ocular evidence of their prevalence in the portraits which still exist. at one period we read of horned head-dresses, which were so large and high, that it is said the doors of the palace at vincennes were obliged to be altered to admit isabel of bavaria (queen of charles vi. of france) and the ladies of her suite. in the reign of edward iv., the ladies' caps were three quarters of an ell in height, and were covered by pieces of lawn hanging down to the ground, or stretched over a frame till they resembled the wings of a butterfly.[ ] at another time the ladies' heads were covered with gold nets, like those worn at the present day. then, again, the hair, stiffened with powder and pomatum, and surmounted by flowers, feathers, and ribbons, was raised on the top of the head like a tower. such head-dresses were emphatically called "_têtes_." (see chapter on head-dress.) fig.  . but to go back no farther than the beginning of the present century, where mr. fairholt's interesting work on british costume terminates, what changes have we to record! the first fashion we remember was that of scanty clothing, when slender figures were so much admired, that many, to whom nature had denied this qualification, left off the under garments necessary for warmth, and fell victims to the colds and consumptions induced by their adoption of this senseless practice. to these succeeded waists so short that the girdles were placed almost under the arms, and as the dresses were worn at that time indecently low in the neck, the body of the dress was almost a myth. fig.  . [ ] mr. planché has shown, in his "history of british costume," that these head-dresses are the prototypes of those still worn by the women of normandy. about the same time, the sleeves were so short, and the skirts so curtailed in length, that there was reason to fear that the whole of the drapery might also become a myth. a partial reaction then took place, and the skirts were lengthened without increasing the width of the dresses, the consequence of which was felt in the country, if not in the towns. then woe to those who had to cross a ditch or a stile! one of two things was inevitable; either the unfortunate lady was thrown to the ground,--and in this case it was no easy matter to rise again,--or her dress was split up. the result depended entirely upon the strength of the materials of which the dress was composed. the next variation, the _gigot_ sleeves, namely, were a positive deformity, inasmuch as they gave an unnatural width to the shoulders--a defect which was further increased by the large collars which fell over them, thus violating one of the first principles of beauty in the female form, which demands that this part of the body should be narrow; breadth of shoulder being one of the distinguishing characteristics of the stronger sex. we remember to have seen an engraving from a portrait, by lawrence, of the late lady blessington, in which the breadth of the shoulders appeared to be at least three quarters of a yard. when a person of low stature, wearing sleeves of this description, was covered with one of the long cloaks, which were made wide at the shoulders to admit the sleeves, and to which was appended a deep and very full cape, the effect was ridiculous, and the outline of the whole mass resembled that of a haycock with a head on the top. fig.  . one absurdity generally leads to another; to balance the wide shoulders, the bonnets and caps were made of enormous dimensions, and were decorated with a profusion of ribbons and flowers. so absurd was the whole combination, that, when we meet with a portrait of this period, we can only look on it in the light of a caricature, and wonder that such should ever have been so universal as to be adopted at last by all who wished to avoid singularity. the transition from the broad shoulders and gigot sleeves to the tight sleeves and graceful black scarf was quite refreshing to a tasteful eye. these were a few of the freaks of fashion during the last half century. had they been quite harmless, we might have considered them as merely ridiculous; but some of them were positively indecent, and others detrimental to health. we grieve especially for the former charge: it is an anomaly for which, considering the modest habits and education of our countrywomen, we find it difficult to account. it is singular that the practice of wearing dresses cut low round the bust should be limited to what is called full dress, and to the higher, and, except in this instance, the more refined classes. is it to display a beautiful neck and shoulders? no; for in this case it would be confined to those who had beautiful necks and shoulders to display. is it to obtain the admiration of the other sex? that cannot be; for we believe that men look upon this exposure with unmitigated distaste, and that they are inclined to doubt the modesty of those young ladies who make so profuse a display of their charms. but if objectionable in the young, whose youth and beauty might possibly be deemed some extenuation, it is disgusting in those whose bloom is past, whether their forms are developed with a ripe luxuriance which makes the female figures of rubens appear in comparison slender and refined, or whether the yellow skin, stretched over the wiry sinews of the neck, remind one of the old women whom some of the italian masters were accustomed to introduce into their pieces, to enhance, by contrast, the beauty of the principal figures. every period of life has a style of dress peculiarly appropriate to it, and we maintain that the uncovered bosom so conspicuous in the dissolute reign of charles ii., and from which, indeed, the reign of charles i. was not, as we learn from the vandyck portraits, exempt, should be limited, even in its widest extension, to feminine youth, or rather childhood. if the dress be cut low, the bust should be covered after the modest and becoming fashion of the italian women, whose highly picturesque costume painters are so fond of representing. the white drapery has a peculiarly good effect, placed as it is between the skin and richly-colored bodice. as examples of this style of dress, we may refer to sir charles eastlake's "pilgrims in sight of rome," "the grape gatherer of capri," by lehmann, and "the dancing lesson," by mr. uwins, all of which are engraved in the _art journal_. another hint may be borrowed from the italian costume; we may just allude to it _en passant_. if bodices fitting to the shape must be worn, they should be laced across the front in the italian fashion. fig.  . by this contrivance the dress will suit the figure more perfectly, and as the lace may be lengthened or shortened at pleasure, any degree of tightness may be given, and the bodice may be accommodated to the figure without compressing it. we find by the picture in the louvre called sometimes "titian's mistress" that this costume is at least as old as titian. we have noticed the changes and transitions of fashion; we must mention one point in which it has continued constant from the time of william rufus until the present day, and which, since it has entailed years of suffering, and in many instances has caused death, demands our most serious attention. we allude to the pernicious practice of tight lacing, which, as appears from contemporary paintings, was as general on the continent as in england. the savage american indian changes the shape of the soft and elastic bones of the skull of his infant by compressing it between two boards; the intelligent but prejudiced chinese suffers the head to grow as nature formed it, but confines the foot of the female to the size of an infant's; while the highly-intellectual and well-informed european lady limits the growth of her waist by the pressure of the stays. when we consider the importance of the organs which suffer by these customs, surely we must acknowledge that the last is the most barbarous practice of the three. we read in the history of france that the war-like franks had such a dislike to corpulency that they inflicted a fine upon all who could not encircle their waists with a band of a certain length. how far this extraordinary custom may have been influential in introducing the predilection for small waists among the ladies of that country, as well as our own through the norman conquerors, we cannot determine. during the reign of queen elizabeth, the whole of the upper part of the body, from the waist to the chin, was encased in a cuirass of whalebone, the rigidity of which rendered easy and graceful movement impossible. the portrait of elizabeth by zucchero, with its stiff dress and enormous ruff, and which has been so frequently engraved, must be in the memory of all our readers. stiffness was indeed the characteristic of ladies' dress at this period; the whalebone cuirass, covered with the richest brocaded silks, was united at the waist with the equally stiff vardingale or fardingale, which descended to the feet in the form of a large bell, without a single fold. there is a portrait in the possession of mr. seymour fitzgerald of the unfortunate mary queen of scots, when quite young, in a dress of this kind; and one cannot help pitying the poor girl's rigid confinement in her stiff and uncomfortable dress. fig.  represents jeanne d'albret, the mother of henry iv., in the fardingale. [illustration: pl.  . figure  . dress, with short waist and sleeves. . dress of the mother of henry iv. . dress of henrietta maria. . from the "illustrated london news." ] with henrietta maria dresses cut low in the front, (fig.  ,) and flowing draperies, as we find them in the vandyck portraits, came into fashion, but the figure still retained its stiffness around the waist, and has continued to do so through all the gradations and variations in shape and size of the hoop petticoat, and the scanty draperies of a later period, until the present day.[ ] [ ] the fardingale differed from the hoop in the following particulars: the hoop petticoat was gathered round the waist, while the fardingale was without a fold of any description. the most extraordinary instances we remember to have seen of the fardingale, are in two or three pictures of the virgin in the spanish gallery in the louvre, where the fardingale in which the virgin is dressed takes the form of an enormous mitre. if the proportions of the figure were generally understood, we should not hear of those deplorable, and in many cases fatal, results of tight lacing which have unfortunately been so numerous. so general has the pernicious practice been in this country, that a medical friend, who is professor of anatomy in a provincial academy, informed us that there was great difficulty in procuring a model whose waist had not been compressed by stays. that this is true of other localities besides that alluded to, may be inferred from a passage in mr. hay's lecture to the society of arts "on the geometrical principles of beauty," in which he mentions having, for the purpose of verifying his theory, employed "an artist who, having studied the human figure at the life academies on the continent, in london, and in edinburgh, was well acquainted with the subject," to make a careful drawing of the best living model which could be procured for the purpose. mr. hay observes, with reference to this otherwise fine figure, that "the waist has evidently been compressed by the use of stays." in further confirmation of the prevalence of this bad habit, we may refer to etty's pictures, in which this defect is but too apparent. we fear, from mr. planché's extracts, that the evil was perpetuated by the poets and romance writers of the norman period; and we are sure that the novelists of our own times have much to answer for on this score. had they not been forever praising "taper waists," tight lacing would have shared the fate of other fashions, and have been banished from all civilized society. similar blame does not attach to the painter and sculptor. the creations of their invention are modelled upon the true principles of proportion and beauty, and in their works a small waist and foot are always accompanied by a slender form. in the mind of the poet and novelist the same associations may take place: when a writer describes the slender waist or small foot, he probably sees _mentally_ the whole slender figure. the small waist is a _proportionate_ part of the figure of his creation. but there is this difference between the painter and sculptor, and the novelist. the works of the first two address themselves to the eye, and every part of the form is present to the spectator; consequently, as regards form, nothing is left to the imagination. with respect to the poet and novelist, their creations are almost entirely mental ones; their descriptions touch upon a few striking points only, and are seldom so full as to fill up the entire form: much is, therefore, necessarily left to the imagination of the reader. now, the fashion in which the reader will supply the details left undetermined by the poet and novelist, and fill up their scanty and shadowy outlines, depends entirely upon his knowledge of form; consequently, if this be small, the images which arise in the mind of the reader from the perusal of works of genius are confused and imperfect, and the proportions of one class of forms are assigned to, or mingled with, those of others, without the slightest regard to truth and nature. when we say, therefore, that writers leave much to the imagination, it may too frequently be understood, to the _ignorance_ of the reader; for the imaginations of those acquainted with form and proportion, who generally constitute the minority, always create well-proportioned ideal forms; while the ideal productions of the uneducated, whether expressed by the pencil, the chisel, or the pen, are always ill proportioned and defective. the most efficient method of putting an end to the practice of tight lacing will be, not merely to point out its unhealthiness, and even dangerous consequences, because these, though imminent, are uncertain,--every lady who resorts to the practice hoping that she, individually, may escape the penalty,--but to prove that the practice, so far from adding to the beauty of the figure, actually deteriorates it. this is an effect, not doubtful, like the former case, but an actual and positive fact; and, therefore, it supplies a good and sufficient reason, and one which the most obtuse intellect can comprehend, for avoiding the practice. young ladies will sometimes, it is said, run the risk of ill health for the sake of the interest that in some cases attaches to "delicate health;" but is there any one who would like to be told that, by tight lacing, she makes her figure not only deformed, but positively ugly? this, however, is the plain unvarnished truth; and, by asserting it, we are striking at the root of the evil. the remedy is easy: give to every young lady a general knowledge of form, and of the principles of beauty as applied to the human frame, and when these are better understood, and acted on, tight lacing will die a natural death. the study of form, on scientific principles, has hitherto been limited entirely to men; and if some women have attained this knowledge, it has been by their own unassisted efforts; that is to say, without the advantages which men derive from lectures and academical studies. in this, as in other acquirements, the pursuit of knowledge, as regards women, is always attended with difficulties. while fully concurring in the propriety of having separate schools for male and female students, we do think that a knowledge of form may be communicated to all persons, and that a young woman will not make the worse wife, or mother, for understanding the economy of the human frame, and for having acquired the power of appreciating its beauties. we fear that there are still some persons whose minds are so contracted as to think that, not only studies of this nature, but even the contemplation of undraped statuary, are derogatory to the delicacy and purity of the female mind; but we are satisfied that the thinking part of the community will approve the course we recommend. dr. southwood smith, who is so honorably distinguished by his endeavors to promote the sanatory condition of the people, strenuously advocates the necessity of giving to all women a knowledge of the structure and functions of the body, with a view to the proper discharge of their duties as mothers. he remarks (preface to "philosophy of health") on this subject, "i look upon that notion of delicacy which would exclude women from knowledge calculated in an extraordinary degree to open, exalt, and purify their minds, and to fit them for the performance of their duties, as alike degrading to those to whom it affects to show respect, and debasing to the mind that entertains it." at the present time, the knowledge of what constitutes true beauty of form is, perhaps, best acquired by the contemplation of good pictures and sculpture. this may not be in the power of every body; casts, however, may be frequently obtained from the best statues; and many of the finest works of painting are rendered familiar to us by engravings. the _art journal_ has done much in diffusing a taste for art, by the engravings it contains from statues, and from the fine works of english art in the "vernon gallery." engravings, however, can of course represent a statue in one point of view only; but casts are now so cheap as to be within the reach of all persons. small models of the "greek slave" are not unfrequently offered by the italian image venders for one shilling; and although these are not sharp enough to draw from, the form is sufficiently correct to study the general proportions of the figure; and as this figure is more upright than statues usually are, it may be found exceedingly useful for the above purpose. one of these casts, or, if possible, a sharper and better cast of a female figure, should be found on the _toilette_ of every young lady who is desirous of obtaining a knowledge of the proportions and beauties of the figure. we believe it will always be found that the beauty of a figure depends not only upon the symmetry of the parts individually, but upon the harmony and proportion of each part to the rest. the varieties of the human form have been classed under the general heads of the broad, the proportionate, and the slender. the first betokens strength; and what beauty soever, of a peculiar kind, it may display in the figure of the hercules, it is not adapted to set off the charms of the female sex. if, however, each individual part bears a proportionate relation to the whole, the figure will not be without its attraction. it is only when the proportions of two or three of the classes are united in one individual, that the figure becomes ungraceful and remarkable. the athletic--if the term may be applied to females--form of the country girl would appear ridiculous with the small waist, and the white and taper fingers, and small feet of the individuals who come under the denomination of slender forms. the tall and delicate figure would lose its beauty if united to the large and broad hands which pertain to the stronger type. a small waist and foot are as great a blemish to an individual of the broad variety as a large waist and foot are to the slender. "there is a harmony," says dr. wampen, "between all the parts in each kind of form, but each integral is only suited to its own kind of form. true beauty consists not only in the harmony of the elements, but in their being suitable to the kind of form." were this fundamental truth but thoroughly understood, small waists and small feet would be at a discount. when they are recognized _as small_, they have ceased to be beautiful, because they are disproportionate. where every part of a figure is perfectly proportioned to the rest, no single parts appear either large or small. the ill effects of the stays in a sanatory point of view have been frequently pointed out, and we hope are now understood. it will, therefore, be unnecessary to enlarge on this head. we have asserted that stays are detrimental to beauty of form; we shall now endeavor to show in what particulars. [illustration: pl.  . figures  , . from the plates of sommaering, shows the waist of the venus of antiquity. , . the waist of a modern lady, from the above. . from the "london news." . woman of mitylene. . algerine woman. . the archon's wife. ] the natural form of the part of the trunk which forms the waist is not absolutely cylindrical, but is flattened considerably in front and back, so that the breadth is much greater from side to side than from front to back. this was undoubtedly contrived for wise purposes; yet fashion, with its usual caprice, has interfered with nature, and by promulgating the pernicious error that a rounded form of the waist is more beautiful than the flattened form adopted by nature, has endeavored to effect this change by means of the stays, which force the lower ribs closer together, and so produce the desired form. nothing can be more ungraceful than the sudden diminution in the size of the waist occasioned by the compression of the ribs, as compared with the gently undulating line of nature; yet, we are sorry to say, nothing is more common. a glance at the cuts, figs.  , , , , from the work of sommæring, will explain our meaning more clearly than words. fig.  represents the natural waist of the venus of antiquity; fig.  , that of a lady of the modern period. the diagrams and show the structure of the ribs of each. it will be seen that, by the pressure of the stays, the arch formed by the lower ribs is entirely closed, and the waist becomes four or five inches smaller than it was intended by nature. is it any wonder that persons so deformed should have bad health, or that they should produce unhealthy offspring? is it any wonder that so many young mothers should have to lament the loss of their first born? we have frequently traced tight lacing in connection with this sad event, and we cannot help looking upon it as cause and effect. by way of further illustration, we refer our readers to some of the numerous engravings from statues in the _art journal_, which, though very beautiful, are not distinguished by small waists. we may mention, as examples, bailey's "graces;" marshall's "dancing girl reposing;" "the toilet," by wickman; "the bavaria," by schwanthaler; and "the psyche," by theed. there is another effect produced by tight lacing, which is too ungraceful in its results to be overlooked, namely, that a pressure on one part is frequently, from the elasticity of the figure, compensated by an enlargement in another part. it has been frequently urged by inconsiderate persons, that, where there is a tendency to corpulency, stays are necessary to limit exuberant growth, and confine the form within the limits of gentility. we believe that this is entirely a mistake, and that, if the waist be compressed, greater fulness will be perceptible both above and below, just as, when one ties a string tight round the middle of a pillow, it is rendered fuller at each end. with reference to the waist, as to every thing else, the _juste milieu_ is literally the thing to be desired. it has been already observed, that a small waist is beautiful only when it is accompanied by a slender and small figure; but, as the part of the trunk, immediately beneath the arms, is filled with powerful muscles, these, when developed by exercise, impart a breadth to this part of the figure which, by comparison, causes the waist to appear small. a familiar example of this, in the male figure, presents itself in the hercules, the waist of which appears disproportionately small; yet it is really of the normal size, its apparent smallness being occasioned by the prodigious development of the muscles of the upper part of the body. the true way of diminishing the apparent size of the waist, is, as we have remarked above, by increasing the power of the muscles of the upper part of the frame. this can only be done by exercise; and as the habits of society, as now constituted, preclude the employment of young ladies in household duties, they are obliged to find a substitute for this healthy exertion in calisthenics. there was a time when even the queens of spain did not disdain to employ their royal hands in making sausages; and to such perfection was this culinary accomplishment carried at one period, that it is upon record that the emperor charles v., after his retirement from the cares and dignities of the empire, longed for sausages "of the kind which queen juaña, now in glory, used to pride herself in making in the flemish fashion." (see mr. stirling's "cloister life of charles v.") this is really like going back to the old times, when-- "the queen of hearts, she made some tarts." in england, some fifty years ago, the young ladies of the ancient city of norwich were not considered to have completed their education, until they had spent some months under the tuition of the first confectioner in the city, in learning to make cakes and pastry--an art which they afterwards continued when they possessed houses of their own. this wholesome discipline of beating eggs and whipping creams, kneading biscuits and gingerbread, was calculated to preserve their health, and afford sufficient exercise to the muscles of the arms and shoulders, without having recourse to artificial modes of exertion. it does not appear that the ancients set the same value upon a small waist as the moderns; for, in their draped female figures, the whole circuit of the waist is seldom visible, some folds of the drapery being suffered to fall over a part, thus leaving its exact extent to the imagination. the same remark is applicable to the great italian painters, who seldom marked the whole contour of the waist, unless when painting portraits, in which case the costume was of course observed. it was not so, however, with the shoulders, the true width of which was always seen; and how voluminous soever the folds of the drapery around the body, it was never arranged so as to add to the width of the shoulders. narrow shoulders and broad hips are esteemed beauties in the female figure, while in the male figure the broad shoulders and narrow hips are most admired. [illustration: pl.  . figure  . athenian peasant. . shepherdess of arcadia. . athenian woman. . french costume of the tenth century. . lady of the time of henry v. ] the costume of the modern greeks is frequently very graceful, (fig.  , peasant from the environs of athens,) and it adapts itself well to the figure, the movements of which it does not restrain. the prevailing characteristics of the costume are a long robe, reaching to the ground, with full sleeves, very wide at the bands. this dress is frequently embroidered with a graceful pattern round the skirt and sleeves. over it is worn a pelisse, which reaches only to the knees, and is open in front; either without any sleeves, or with tight ones, finishing at the elbows; beneath which are seen the full sleeves of the long robe. the drapery over the bust is full, and is sometimes confined at the waist by a belt; at others it is suffered to hang loosely until it meets the broad, sash-like girdle which encircles the hips, and which hangs so loosely that the hands are rested in its folds as in a pocket. the drapery generally terminates at the throat, under a necklace of coins or jewels. the most usual form of head-dress is a veil so voluminous as to cover the head and shoulders; one end of the veil is frequently thrown over the shoulder, or gathered into a knot behind. the shoes, apparently worn only for walking, consist generally of a very thick sole, with a cap over the toes. one glance at the graceful figures in the plates is sufficient to show how unnecessary stays are to the beauty of the figure. fig.  , shepherdess of arcadia. the modern greek costumes which we have selected for our illustrations, from the beautiful work of m. de stackelberg, ("costumes et peuples de la grèce moderne," published at rome, ,) suggest several points for consideration, and some for our imitation. the dress is long and flowing, and high in the neck. it does not add to the width of the shoulders; it conceals the exact size of the waist by the loose pelisse, which is open in front; it falls in a graceful and flowing line from the arm-pits, narrowing a little at the waist, and spreading gently over the hips, when the skirt falls by its own weight into large folds, instead of curving suddenly from an unnaturally small waist over a hideous bustle, and increasing in size downward to the hem of the dress, like a bell, as in the present english costume. figs.  and are selected from the "illustrated london news." (volume for , july to december, pp. and .) the one represents out-door costume, the other in-door. many such are scattered through the pages of our amusing and valuable contemporary. for the out-door costume we beg to refer our readers to the large woodcut in the same volume, (pp. , .) if a traveller from a distant country, unacquainted with the english and french fashions, were to contemplate this cut, he would be puzzled to account for the remarkable shape of the ladies, who all, more or less, resemble the figure we have selected for our illustration; and, if he is any thing of a naturalist, he will set them down in his own mind as belonging to a new species of the genus _homo_. looking at this and other prints of the day, we should think that the artists intended to convey a satire on the ladies' dress, if we did not frequently meet with such figures in real life. the lady in the evening dress (fig.  ) is from a large woodcut in the same journal representing a ball. this costume, with much pretension to elegance, exhibits most of the faults of the modern style of dress. it combines the indecently low dress, with the pinched waist, and the hoop petticoat. in the figure of the woman of mitylene, (fig.  ,) the true form and width of the shoulders are apparent, and the form of the bust is indicated, but not exposed, through the loosely fitting drapery which covers it. in the figure of the athenian peasant, (fig.  ,). the loose drapery over the bust is confined at the waist by a broad band, while the hips are encircled by the sash-like girdle in which the figure rests her hands. the skirt of the pelisse appears double, and the short sleeve, embroidered at the edge, shows the full sleeve of the under drapery, also richly embroidered. in the second figure from the environs of athens, (fig.  ,) we observe that the skirt of the pelisse, instead of being set on in gathers or plaits, as our dresses are, is "gored," or sloped away at the top, where it unites almost imperceptibly with the body, giving rise to undulating lines, instead of sudden transitions and curves. in the cut of the arcadian peasant, (fig.  ,) the pelisse is shortened almost to a spencer, or _côte hardie_, and it wants the graceful flow of the longer skirt, for which the closely fitting embroidered apron is no compensation. this figure is useful in showing that tight bodies may be fitted to the figure without stays. the heavy rolled girdle on the hips is no improvement. the dress of the algerine woman, (fig.  ,) copied from the "illustrated london news," bears a strong resemblance to the greek costume, and is very graceful. it is not deformed either by the pinched waist or the stays. in the tenth century, the french costume (fig.  ) somewhat resembled that of the modern greeks; the former, however, had not the short pelisse, but, in its place, the ladies wore a long veil, which covered the head, and reached nearly to the feet. the greek and oriental costume has always been a favorite with painters: the "vernon gallery" furnishes us with two illustrations; and the excellent engravings of these subjects in the _art journal_ enable us to compare the costumes of the two figures while at a distance from the originals. the graceful figure of "the greek girl," (engraved in the _art journal_ for ,) painted by sir charles eastlake, is not compressed by stays, but is easy and natural. the white under-drapery is confined at the waist, which is short, by a broad girdle, which appears to encircle it more than once, and adds to the apparent length of the waist; the open jacket, without a collar, falls gracefully from the shoulders, and conceals the limits of the waist; every thing is easy, natural, and graceful. m. de stackelberg's beautiful figure of the "archon's wife" (fig.  ) shows the district whence sir c. eastlake drew his model. there is the same flowing hair,--from which hang carnations, as in the picture in the "vernon gallery,"--the same cap, the same necklace. but in the baron's figure, we find the waist encircled with a broad band, six or seven inches in width, while the lady rests her hand on the sash-like girdle, which falls round the hips. turn we now to pickersgill's "syrian maid," (engraved in the _art journal_ for :) here, we see, the artist has taken a painter's license, and represented the fair oriental in stays, which, we believe, are happily unknown in the east. how stiff and constrained does this figure appear, after looking at sir c. eastlake's beautiful "greek girl;" how unnatural the form of the chest! the limits of the waist are not visible, it is true, in the "syrian maid," but the shadow is so arranged, that the rounded form, to which we have before alluded, and which fashion deems necessary, is plainly perceptible; and an impression is made that the waist is small and pinched. we could mention some cases in which the girdle is omitted altogether, without any detriment to the gracefulness of the figure. such dresses, however, though illustrative of the principle, are not adapted to the costume of real life. in sculpture, however, they frequently occur. we may mention gibson's statue of her majesty, the female figure in m'dougall's "triumph of love," and "penelope," by wyatt, which are engraved in the _art journal_, (the first in the year , the others in .) but the drapery of statues can, however, scarcely be taken as a precedent for that of the living subject, and although we mention that the girdle is sometimes dispensed with, we are far from advocating this in practice; nay, we consider the sash or girdle is indispensable; all that we stipulate for is, that it should not be so tight as to compress the figure, or impede circulation. in concluding our remarks on this subject, we would observe, that the best means of improving the figure are to secure freedom of motion by the use of light and roomy clothing, and to strengthen the muscles by exercise. we may also observe, that singing is not only beneficial to the lungs, but that it strengthens the muscles, and increases the size of the chest, and, consequently, makes the waist appear smaller. singing, and other suitable exercises in which both arms are used equally, will improve the figure more than all the backboards in the world. chapter iii. the head. there is no part of the body which has been more exposed to the vicissitudes of fashion than the head, both as regards its natural covering of hair, and the artificial covering of caps and bonnets. at one time, we read of sprinkling the hair with gold dust; at another time, the bright brown hair, of the color of the horse-chestnut, so common in italian pictures, was the fashion. this color, as well as that beautiful light golden tint sometimes seen in italian pictures of the same period, was frequently the result of art, and receipts for producing both tints are still to be found in old books of "_secreti_." both these were in their turn discarded, and after a time the real color of the hair was lost in powder and pomatum. the improving taste of the present generation is, perhaps, nowhere more conspicuous than in permitting us to preserve the natural color of the hair, and to wear our own, whether it be black, brown, or gray. there is also a marked improvement in the more natural way in which the hair has been arranged during the last thirty years. we allude, particularly, to its being suffered to retain the direction intended by nature, instead of being combed upright, and turned over a cushion a foot or two in height. these head-dresses, emphatically called, from their french origin, _têtes_, were built or plastered up only once a month: it is easy to imagine what a state they must have been in during the latter part of the time. madame d'oberkirch gives, in her memoirs, an amusing description of a novel head-dress of this kind. we transcribe it for the amusement of our readers. "this blessed th of june she awakened me at the earliest dawn. i was to get my hair dressed, and make a grand _toilette_, in order to go to versailles, whither the queen had invited the countess du nord, for whose amusement a comedy was to be performed. these court _toilettes_ are never-ending, and this road from paris to versailles very fatiguing, especially where one is in continual fear of rumpling her petticoats and flounces. i tried that day, for the first time, a new fashion--one, too, which was not a little _gênante_. i wore in my hair little flat bottles, shaped to the curvature of the head; into these a little water was poured, for the purpose of preserving the freshness of the natural flowers worn in the hair, and of which the stems were immersed in the liquid. this did not always succeed, but when it did, the effect was charming. _nothing could be more lovely than the floral wreath crowning the snowy pyramid of powdered hair!_" few of our readers, we reckon, are inclined to participate in the admiration of the baroness, so fancifully expressed, for this singular head-dress. we do not presume to enter into the question whether short curls are more becoming than long ones, or whether bands are preferable to curls of any kind; because, as the hair of some persons curls naturally, while that of others is quite straight, we consider that this is one of the points which must be decided accordingly as one style or the other is found to be most suitable to the individual. the principle in the arrangement of the hair round the forehead should be to preserve or assist the oval form of the face: as this differs in different individuals, the treatment should be adapted accordingly. the arrangement of the long hair at the back of the head is a matter of taste; as it interferes but little with the countenance, it may be referred to the dictates of fashion; although in this, as in every thing else, simplicity in the arrangement, and grace in the direction of the lines, are the chief points to be considered. one of the most elegant head-dresses we remember to have seen, is that worn by the peasants of the milanese and ticinese. they have almost uniformly glossy, black hair, which is carried round the back of the head in a wide braid, in which are placed, at regular intervals, long silver pins, with large heads, which produce the effect of a coronet, and contrast well with the dark color of the hair. [illustration: pl.  . figure  . after parmegiano. . titian's daughter. . lady harrington. . roman peasant. . gigot sleeves. ] the examples afforded by modern sculpture are not very instructive, inasmuch as the features selected by the sculptors are almost exclusively greek, whereas the variety in nature is infinite. with the greek features has also been adopted the antique style of arranging the hair, which is beautifully simple; that is to say, it is parted in the front, and falling down towards each temple, while the long ends rolled lightly back from the face so as to show the line which separates the hair from the forehead, or rather where it seems, as it were, to blend with the flesh tints--an arrangement which assists in preserving the oval contour of the face, are passed over the top of the ear, and looped into the fillet which binds the head. the very becoming arrangement of the hair in the engraving, from a portrait by parmegianino, (fig.  ,) is an adaptation of the antique style, and is remarkable for its simplicity and grace. not less graceful, although more ornamental, is the arrangement of the hair in the beautiful figure called "titian's daughter." fig.  . in both these instances, we observe the line--if line it may be called--where the color of the hair blends so harmoniously with the delicate tints of the forehead. the same arrangement of the hair round the face may be traced in the pictures by murillo, and other great masters. sir joshua reynolds has frequently evinced consummate skill in the arrangement of the hair, so as to show the line which divides it from the forehead. for some interesting remarks on this subject, we refer our readers to an "essay on dress," republished by mr. murray from the "quarterly review." nothing can be more graceful than sir joshua's mode of disposing of the hair when he was able to follow the dictates of his own good taste; and he deserves great credit for the skill with which he frequently treated the enormous head-dresses which in his time disfigured the heads of our countrywomen. the charming figure of lady harrington (fig.  ) would have been perfect without the superstructure on her beautiful head. how stiff is the head-dress of the next figure, (fig.  ,) also, after sir joshua, when compared with the preceding. the graceful spanish mantilla, to which we can only allude, is too elegant to be overlooked: the modification of it, which of late years has been introduced into this country, is to be considered rather as an ornament than as a head-covering. it has been recently superseded by the long bows of ribbon worn at the back of the head--a costume borrowed from the roman peasants. fig.  . the fashion for young people to cover the hair with a silken net, which, some centuries ago, was prevalent both in england and in france, has been again revived. some of the more recent of these nets are very elegant in form. the hats and bonnets have, during the last few years, been so moderate in size, and generally so graceful in form, that we will not criticize them more particularly. it will be sufficient to observe that, let the brim be what shape it will, the crown should be nearly of the form and size of the head. if this principle were always kept in view, as it should be, we should never again see the monster hats and bonnets which, some years ago, and even in the memory of persons now living, caricatured the lovely forms of our countrywomen. chapter iv. the dress. we shall consider the dress, by which we mean, simply, the upper garment worn within doors, as consisting of three parts--the sleeve, the body, and the skirt. the sleeve has changed its form as frequently as any part of our habiliments: sometimes it reached to the wrist, sometimes to a short distance below the shoulder. sometimes it was tight to the arm; sometimes it fell in voluminous folds to the hands; now it was widest at the top, then widest at the bottom. to large sleeves themselves there is no objection, in a pictorial point of view, provided that their point of junction with the shoulder is so conspicuous that they do not add to the apparent width of the body in this part. the lines of the sleeves should be flowing; and they are much more graceful when they are widest in the lower part, especially when so open as to display to advantage the beautiful form of the wrist and fore-arm. in this way, they partake of the pyramid, while the inelegant gigot sleeve, which for so long a period enjoyed the favor of the ladies, presents the form of a cone reverted, and is obviously out of place in the human figure. when the large sleeve, supported by canes or whalebones, forms a continuous line with the shoulder, it gives an unnatural width to this part of the figure--an effect that is increased by the large collar which conceals the point where the sleeve meets the dress. examples of the large, open sleeve, in its extreme character, may be studied with most advantage in the portraits of vandyck. fig.  , lady lucy percy, after vandyck. the effect of these sleeves is frequently improved by their being lined with a different color, and sometimes by contrasting the rich silk of the outer sleeve with the thin gauze or lace which forms the immediate covering of the arm. the figures in the plates will show the comparative gracefulness of two kinds of large sleeves, namely, that which is widest at the top, and that which is widest below. if the outline of the central figure of our more modern group, (fig.  ,)--consisting of three figures, which is copied from a french work,--were filled up with black, a person ignorant of the fashion might, from the great width of the shoulders, have mistaken it for the farnese hercules in petticoats. the large sleeves, tight in the upper part, and enlarging gradually to the wrist, which are worn by the modern greeks, are extremely graceful. when these are confined below the elbow, which is sometimes done for convenience, they resemble somewhat the elbow sleeves with wide ruffles which were so common in the time of sir joshua reynolds. sleeves like those now worn in greece were fashionable in france in the tenth century, and again about the beginning of the sixteenth century. they were also worn by jeanne d'albret, the mother of henry iv., and are seen in fig.  . a very elegant sleeve, fitting nearly close at the shoulder, and becoming very full and long till it falls in graceful folds almost to the feet, prevailed in england during the time of henry v. and vi. fig.  , copied from a manuscript of the time of henry v., now preserved in the british museum. on the authority of professor heideloff, it is said to have existed also in flanders in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, and in france in the fifteenth century. in the examples of continental costume, the _tout ensemble_ is graceful, and especially the head-dress; while in england the elegant sleeve is accompanied with very short waists, and with the hideous, horned head-dresses then fashionable. the effect of these sleeves much resembles that of the mantles of the present day, and from its wide flow is only adapted for full dress, or out-of-door costume. the sleeves worn under these full ones were generally tight. at a much later period, the large sleeves were made of more moderate dimensions, both in length and width, and a full sleeve of fine lawn or muslin, fastened at the wrist with a band, and edged with a lace ruffle, was worn beneath. this kind of sleeve has recently been again introduced into england, but has given place to another form, in which the under sleeve of lace or muslin, being of the same size as the upper, suffers the lower part of the arm to be visible. the effect of this sleeve, which is certainly becoming to a finely-formed arm, is analogous to that of the elbow sleeve, which, with its deep ruffles of point lace, is frequent on the portraits of sir joshua reynolds. [illustration: pl.  . figure  . from bonnard's costumes. . sancta victoria. . anne, countess of chesterfield, from vandyck. . woman of markinitza. ] the slashed sleeve, criticized by shakspeare in the "taming of the shrew," was sometimes very elegant. the form in which it appears in fig.  , worn in the fifteenth century, is particularly graceful. not so, however, the lower part of the sleeve. in the preceding remarks, we have considered the sleeve merely in a picturesque point of view, without reference to its convenience or inconvenience. the length of the waist has always been a matter of caprice. sometimes the girdle was placed nearly under the arms; sometimes it passed to the opposite extreme, and was suffered to fall upon the hips. sometimes it was drawn tightly round the middle, when it seemed to cut the body almost in two, like an hourglass. judging from what we see, we should say that this is a feat which many ladies of the present time are endeavoring to achieve. the first and third cases are almost equally objectionable, because they distort the figure. the hip girdle, which is common in greece (as shown in figs.  and ) and oriental countries, prevailed also in england and france some centuries ago. the miniatures of old manuscripts furnish us with examples of long-waisted dresses fitting closely to the person, sometimes stiffened like the modern stays, at others yielding to the figure. the waist of this kind of dress reached to the hips, where it was joined to the full petticoat, which was gathered round the top--an extremely ungraceful fashion. the hip girdle, properly used, is, however, by no means inelegant. it is not at all necessary that it should coincide with the waist of the dress; it should be merely looped or clasped loosely round the figure, and suffered to fall to its place by its own weight. but to enable it to do so in a graceful manner, it is essential that the skirt of the dress should be so united with the body as to produce no harsh lines of separation, or sudden changes of curvature; as, for example, when the skirt is set on in full plaits, or gathers, and spread over a hoop. we have before noticed, that this point was attended to by rubens, (fig.  ,) by vandyck, (fig.  ,) by sir joshua reynolds, and by the modern greeks. we refer also to the elegant figure  . the most natural situation for the girdle, or point of junction of the body with the skirt, is somewhere between the end of the breast bone and the last rib, as seen in front--a space of about three or four inches. fashion may dictate the exact spot, but within this space it cannot be positively wrong. the effect is good when the whole space is filled with a wide sash folded round the waist, as in sir c. eastlake's "greek girl," or some of the graceful portraits by sir joshua reynolds. how much more elegant is a sash of this description than the stiff line which characterizes the upper part of the dress of "sancta victoria." (fig.  .) the whalebone, or busk, is absolutely necessary to keep the dress in its proper place. the resemblance in form between the body of the dress of this figure and those now or recently in fashion cannot fail to arrest the attention of the reader. stiff, though, as it undoubtedly is, the whole dress is superior to the modern in the general flow of the lines uniting the body and skirt. long skirts are more graceful than short ones, and a train of moderate length adds to the elegance of a dress, but not to its convenience. long dresses, also, add to the apparent height of a figure, and for this reason they are well adapted to short persons. for the same reason, waists of moderate length are more generally becoming than those that are very long, because the latter, by shortening the skirt of the dress, diminish the apparent height. besides the variation in length, the skirts of dresses have passed through every gradation of fulness. at one time, it was the fashion to slope gradually from the waist, without gathers or plaits; then a little fulness was admitted at the back; then a little at the front, also. the next step was to carry the fulness all round the waist. in the graceful costume of the time of vandyck, and even in the more stiff and formal dress delineated in the pictures of rubens, the skirt was united to the body by large, flat plaits, when the fulness expanded gradually and gracefully, and the rich material of the dress spread in well-arranged folds to the feet. the lines were gently undulating and graceful, and that unnatural and clumsy contrivance called a "bustle"--a near relation of the hoop and fardingale--was at that time happily unknown. this principle of uniting the skirt gradually with the body of the dress is carried out to the fullest extent by the modern greeks. in the figure of the peasant from the neighborhood of athens, (fig.  ,) the pelisse is made without gathers or plaits: the skirt, which hangs full round the knees, is "gored" or sloped away till it fits the body at the waist. the long underskirt is, as we find from the figure of the woman of makrinitza, (fig.  ,) gathered several times, so as to lie flat to the figure, instead of being spread over the inelegant "bustle." it is only necessary to compare these graceful figures, in which due regard has been paid to the undulating lines of the figure, with a fashionable lady of the present day, whose "polka jacket," or whatever may be the name of this article of dress, is cut with violent and deep curves, to enable it to spread itself over the bustle and prominent folds of the dress. [illustration: pl.  . figure  . lady lucy percy, from vandyck. , . by jules david, in "le moniteur de la mode." . the hoop, after hogarth. ] not satisfied with the bustle in the upper part of the skirt, some ladies of the present day have returned to the old practice of wearing hoops, to make the dresses stand out at the base. these are easily recognized in the street by the "swagging"--no other term will exactly convey the idea--from side to side of the hoops, an effect which is distinctly visible as the wearer walks along. it is difficult to imagine what there is so attractive in the fardingale and hoop, that they should have prevailed, in some form or other, for so many years, and that they should have maintained their ground in spite of the cutting, though playful, raillery of the "spectator," and the jeers and caricatures of less refined censors of the eccentricities of dress. they were not recommended either by beauty of line or convenience, but by the tyrant fashion, and we owe some gratitude to george iv., who banished the last relics of this singular fashion from the court dress, of which, until his time, it continued to form a part. who could imagine that there would be an attempt to revive the hoop petticoat in the nineteenth century? we invite our readers to contrast the lines of the drapery in the figures after vandyck, (figs.  and ,) and those in the modern greek costume, (figs.  and ,) with that of a lady in a hoop, after a satirical painter, hogarth, (fig.  ,) and two figures from a design by jules david, in "le moniteur de la mode," a modern fashionable authority in dress. (figs.  and .) there can be no doubt which is the most graceful. the width of the shoulders and the tight waist of the latter, will not escape the notice of our readers. chapter v. the feet. the same bad taste which insists upon a small waist, let the height and proportions of the figure be what they will, decrees that a small foot is essential to beauty. size is considered of more importance than form; and justly so if it is a _sine qua non_ that the foot must be small, because the efforts that are made to diminish its size generally render it deformed. we have before mentioned that to endeavor to diminish the size of the human body in a particular part, is like tying a string round the middle of a pillow; it only makes it larger at the extremities. it is so with the waist, it is so with the foot. if it be crippled in length, or in width across the toes, it spreads over the instep and sides. the italians and other nations of the south of europe have smaller hands and feet than the anglo-saxons; and as this fact is generally known, it is astonishing that people of sense should persist in crippling themselves merely for the reputation of having small feet. here again we have to complain of poets and romance writers; ladies would not have pinched their feet into small shoes, if these worthies had not sung the praises of "tiny feet." "her feet, beneath her petticoat, like little mice, stole in and out, as if they feared the light." nor are painters--portrait painters, we mean, and living ones too--it is needless however, to mention names--entirely free from blame for thus ministering to vanity and false taste. they have sacrificed truth to fashion in painting the feet smaller than they could possibly be in nature. but it is not only with the endeavor to cripple their dimensions that we are inclined to quarrel. we object _in toto_ to the shape of the shoe, which bears but little resemblance to that of the foot. we have heard persons say that they could never see any beauty in a foot. no wonder, when they saw none but those that were deformed by corns and bunions. how unlike is such a foot to the beautiful little--for little it really is in this case--fat foot of a child, before its beauty has been spoiled by shoes, or even to those of the barefooted children one sees so frequently in the street. were it not for these opportunities of seeing nature we, in this country, should have but little idea of the true shape of the human foot, except what we learn from statues. according to a recent traveller, we must go to egypt to see beautiful feet. it is impossible, he says, to see any thing more exquisite than the feet and hands of the female peasants. the same beauty is conspicuous in the hindoo women. let us compare now the shape of the foot with that of the sole of a shoe. when the foot is placed on the ground, the toes spread out, the great toe is in a straight line with the inner side of the foot, and there is an opening between this and the second toe. the ancients availed themselves of this opening to pass through it one of the straps that suspended the sandal. the moderns on the contrary press the toes closely together, in order to confine them within the limits of the shoe; the consequence is, that the end of the great toe is pressed towards the others, and out of the straight line, the joint becomes enlarged, and thus the foundation is laid for a bunion; while the toes, forced one upon another, become distorted and covered with corns. one of the consequences of this imprisonment of our toes is, that, from being squeezed so closely together, they become useless. let any one try the experiment of walking barefooted across the room, and while so doing look at the foot. the toes, when unfettered by the shoes, spread out and divide from one another, and the body rests on a wider and firmer base. we begin to find we have some movement in our toes; yet, how feeble is their muscular power, compared with that of persons who are unaccustomed to the use of shoes! the hindoo uses his toes in weaving; the australian savage is as handy (if the term can be applied to feet) with this member, as another man is with his hands; it is the unsuspected instrument with which he executes his thefts. the country boy, who runs over the roof of a house like a cat, takes off his shoes before he attempts the hazardous experiment; he has a surer hold with his foot on the smooth slates and sloping roof. the exercise of the muscles of the foot has the effect of increasing the power of those of the calf of the leg; and the thinner the sole, and the more pliant the materials of which the shoe is made, the more the power is developed. dancing masters, who habitually wear thin shoes, have the muscles of the leg well developed, while ploughmen, who wear shoes with soles an inch thick, have very little calf to their leg. the french sabot is, we consider, better than the closely fitting shoe of our country people; because it is so large, that it requires some muscular exertion to keep it in its place. we have frequently seen french boys running in sabots, the foot rising at every step almost out of the unyielding wooden shoe. wooden clogs and pattens are as bad as the thick shoes of the country people. when clogs are necessary, the sole should be made of materials which will yield to the motion of the foot. the american indian's moccasins are a much better covering for the foot than our shoes. if thick soles are objectionable by impeding the free movement of the limb, what shall we say to the high heel which was once so popular, and which threatens again to come into fashion? it is to be hoped, however, when the effects of wearing high heels are duly considered, that this pernicious custom will not make progress. it is well for their poor unfortunate votaries, that the introduction of certain fashions is gradual; that both mind and body--perhaps we should be more correct in saying the person of the wearer and the eye of the spectator--are, step by step, prepared for the extreme point which certain fashions attain; they have their rise, their culminating point, and their decline. the attempt to exchange the short waists, worn some thirty or forty years ago, for the very long waists seen during the past year, would have been unsuccessful; the transition would have been too great--too violent; the change was effected, but it was the work of many years. the same thing took place with regard to the high head-dresses which were so deservedly ridiculed by addison, and in an equally marked degree with respect to high heels. the shoes in the cut, after gainsborough, (fig.  ,) are fair specimens of what were in fashion in his time. let the reader compare the line of the sole with that of the human foot placed, as nature intended it, flat on the ground. the heel was in some cases four and a half inches high; the line, therefore, must have been in this case, a highly inclined plane, undulating in its surface, like the "line of beauty" of hogarth. the position of the foot is that of a dancer resting on the toes, excepting that the heel is supported, and the strain over the instep and contraction of the muscles of the back of the leg and heel must be considerable; so much so we are told, that the contraction of the latter becomes habitual; consequently, those persons who have accustomed themselves to the use of high heels, are never afterwards able to do without them. it is said that "pride never feels pain;" we should think the proverb was made for those who wear high heels, for we are told, although we cannot speak from personal experience, that the pain on first wearing shoes of this kind, in which the whole weight of the body seems to thrust the toes forward into the shoe, is excruciating; nothing but fashion could reconcile one to such voluntary suffering. the peas in the shoes of the pilgrims could scarcely be more painful. [illustration: pl.  . figure  . from rubens's "descent from the cross." . from a drawing by gainsborough. . woman of myconia. . queen anne. ] it was with some surprise that we found among m. stackelberg's graceful costumes of modern greece a pair of high-heeled shoes, (fig.  ,) which might rival in ugliness and inconvenience any of those worn in england. we have known an instance where the lady's heels were never less than an inch and a half high. we were sorry to observe some of these high-heeled shoes in the great exhibition, and still more so, to see that shoes with heels an inch high are likely to be fashionable this season. could we look forward to this height as the limit of the fashion, we might reconcile ourselves to it for a time; but, judging from past experience, there is reason to fear that the heel will become continually higher, until it attains the elevation of former years. not content with imprisoning our feet in tight shoes, and thereby distorting their form and weakening their muscular power, we are guilty of another violence towards nature. nature has made our toes to turn inwards; when man is left to himself the toes naturally take this direction, though in a much less degree than in the infant. the american indian will trace a european by his footprints, which he detects by the turning out of the toes; a lesson we are taught in our childhood, and especially by our dancing master. sir joshua reynolds used to say, "the gestures of children, being all dictated by nature, are graceful; affectation and distortion come in with the dancing master." now, observe the consequence of turning out the toes. the inner ankle is bent downwards towards the ground, and the knees are drawn inwards, producing the deformity called knock-kneed; thus the whole limb is distorted, and consequently weakened; there is always a want of muscular power in the legs of those who turn their toes very much outwards. it must be remarked, however, that women, from the greater breadth of the frame at the hips, naturally turn the toes out more than men. in this point also, statues may be studied with advantage. where form only is considered, it is generally safer to refer to examples of sculpture than painting; because in the latter, the artist is apt to lose sight of this primary object in his attention to color and form; besides, it is the sculptor only, who makes an exact image of a figure which is equally perfect, seen from all points of view. the painter makes only a pictorial or perspective representation of nature, as seen from one point of view only. what pains we take to distort and disfigure the beautiful form that nature has bestowed upon the human race! now building a tower on the head, then raising the heel at the expense of the toe; at one time confining the body in a case of whalebone, and compressing it at the waist like an hour glass; at another, surrounding it with the enormous and ungraceful hoop, till the outline of the figure is so altered, that a person can scarcely recognize her own shadow as that of a human being. chapter vi. remarks on particular costumes. we must now offer a few brief remarks upon certain costumes which appear to us most worthy of our attention and study, for their general elegance and adaptation to the figure. of the modern greek we have already spoken. the style of dress which has been immortalized by the pencil of vandyck is considered among the most elegant that has ever prevailed in this country. it is not, however, faultless. the row of small curls around the face, however becoming to some persons, is somewhat formal; and although the general arrangement of the hair, which preserves the natural size and shape of the head, is more graceful than that of the time of sir joshua reynolds, we think it would have been more pleasing had it left visible the line which divides the hair from the forehead. with regard to the dress itself, it is apparent, in the first place, that the figures are spoiled by stays; secondly, that the dress is cut too low in front; and thirdly, that the large sleeves sometimes give too great width in front to the shoulders. these defects are, in some degree, counterbalanced by the graceful flow of the ample drapery, and of the large sleeves, which are frequently widest at their lower part, and by the gently undulating line which unites the waist of the dress with the skirt. the vandyck dress, with its voluminous folds, is, however, more appropriate to the inhabitants of palaces, than to the ordinary occupants of this working-day world. the drapery is too wide and flowing for convenience. the annexed cut, (fig.  ,) representing charlotte de la tremouille, the celebrated countess of derby, exhibits some of the defects and many of the beauties of the vandyck dress. lely's half-dressed figures may be passed over without comment; they are draped, not dressed. kneller's are more instructive on the subject of costume. the dress of queen anne, (fig.  ,) in kneller's portrait, is graceful and easy. the costume is a kind of transition between the vandyck and reynolds style. the sleeves are smaller at the shoulder than in the former, and larger at the lower part than in the latter; in fact, they resemble those now worn by the modern greeks. the dress is cut higher round the bust, and is longer in the waist than the vandycks, while the undulating line uniting the body and skirt is still preserved. while such good examples were set by the painters--who were not, however, the inventors of the fashions they painted--it is astonishing that these graceful styles of dress should have been superseded in real life by the lofty head-dresses and preposterous fashions which prevailed during the same period and long afterwards, and which even the ironical and severe remarks of addison, in the "spectator," were unable to banish from the circles of fashion. speaking of the dresses of ladies during the reigns of james ii. and william iii., mr. planché, in his "history of british costumes," says, "the tower or commode was still worn, and the gowns and petticoats flounced and furbelowed, so that every part of the garment was in curl;" and a lady of fashion "looked like one of those animals," says the "spectator," "which in the country we call a friesland hen." but in we find mr. addison remarking, "the whole sex is now dwarfed and shrunk into a race of beauties that seems almost another species. i remember several ladies who were once nearly seven foot high, that at present want some inches of five. how they come to be thus curtailed i cannot learn; whether the whole sex be at present under any penance which we know nothing of, or whether they have cast their head-dresses in order to surprise us with something in that kind which shall be entirely new: though i find most are of opinion they are at present like trees lopped and pruned, that will certainly sprout up and flourish with greater heads than before." the costume of the time of sir joshua reynolds, as treated by this great artist, though less splendid, appears to us, with the exception of the head-dress, nearly as graceful, and far more convenient than the vandyck dress. it is more modest, more easy, and better adapted to show the true form of the shoulders, while the union of the body of the dress with the skirt is effected in the same graceful manner as in the vandyck portraits. the materials of the drapery in the latter are generally silks and satins; of the former, it is frequently muslin and stuff of a soft texture, which clings more closely to the form. that much of the elegance of both styles of dress is to be attributed to the skill and good taste of the painters, is evident from an examination of portraits by contemporary artists. much also may be ascribed to the taste of the wearer. there are some people who, though habited in the best and richest clothes, never appear well dressed; their garments, rumpled and untidy, look as if they had been pitched on them, like hay, with a fork; while others, whose dress consists of the most homely materials, appear well dressed, from the neatness and taste with which their clothes are arranged. [illustration: pl.  . figure  . charlotte de la tremouille. . after gainsborough. . after gainsborough. . costume of mrs. bloomer. ] many of the costumes of gainsborough's portraits are elegant and graceful, with the frequent exception of the extravagant head-dress and the high-heeled shoes. the easy and very pleasing figure, (fig.  ,) after this accomplished artist, is not exempt from the above defects. in our next illustration, (fig.  ,) gainsborough has not been so happy. the lady is almost lost in her voluminous and fluttering drapery, and the dishevelled hair and the enormous hat give to the figure much of the appearance of a caricature. leaving now the caprices of fashion, we must notice a class of persons who, from a religious motive, have resisted for two hundred years the tyranny of fashion, and, until recently, have transmitted the same form of dress from mother to daughter for nearly the same period of years. the ladies of the society of friends, or, as they are usually called, "quakers," are still distinguished by the simplicity and neatness of their dress--the quiet drabs and browns of which frequently contrast with the richness of the material--and by the absence of all ornament and frippery. every part of their dress is useful and convenient; it has neither frills, nor flounces, nor trimmings to carry the dirt and get shabby before the dress itself, nor wide sleeves to dip in the plates and lap up the gravy and sauces, nor artificial flowers, nor bows of ribbons. the dress is long enough for decency, but not so long as to sweep the streets, as many dresses and shawls are daily seen to do. some few years back the quaker ladies might have been reproached with adhering to the letter, while they rejected the spirit, of their code of dress by adhering too literally to the costume handed down to them. the crowns of their caps were formerly made very high, and for this reason it was necessary that the crowns of their bonnets should be high enough to admit the cap crown; hence the peculiarly ugly and remarkable form of this part of the dress. the crown of the cap has, however, recently been lowered, and the quaker ladies, with much good sense, have not only modified the form of their bonnets, but have also adopted the straw and drawn silk bonnet in their most simple forms. in the style of their dress, also, they occasionally approach so near the fashions generally worn, that they are no longer distinguishable by the singularity of their dress, but by its simplicity and chasteness. we venture now to devote a few words to the bloomer costume, (fig.  ,) although we are aware that we are treading on tender ground, especially as the costume involves a sudden and complete change in the dress. independently of its merits or demerits, there are several reasons why it did not succeed in this country. in the first place, as we have before observed, it originated in america, and was attempted to be introduced through the middle ranks. in the second place, the change which it endeavored to effect was too sudden. had the alteration commenced with the higher classes, and the change been effected gradually, its success might possibly have been different. thirdly, the large hat, so well adapted to the burning sun of america, was unnecessary, and remarkable when forming a part of the costume of adult ladies in this country, although we have seen that hats quite as large were worn during the time of gainsborough. another reason for the ill success of the bloomer costume is to be found in the glaring and frequently ill-assorted colors of the prints of it, which were every where exposed in the shop windows. by many sober-minded persons, the large hat and glaring colors were looked upon as integral parts of the costume. the numerous caricatures also, and the injudicious attempts to make it popular by getting up "bloomer balls," contributed to render the costume ridiculous and unpopular. setting aside the hat, the distinguishing characteristics of the costume are the short dress, and a polka jacket fitting the body at the throat and shoulders, and confined at the waist by a silken sash, and the trousers fastened by a band round the ankle, and finished off with a frill. on the score of modesty there can be no objection to the dress, since the whole of the body is covered. on the ground of convenience it recommends itself to those who, having the superintendence of a family, are obliged frequently to go up and down stairs, on which occasions it is always necessary to raise the dress before or behind, according to circumstances. the objection to the trousers is not to this article of dress being worn, since that is a general practice, but to their being seen. yet we suspect few ladies would object on this account to appear at a fancy ball in the turkish costume. the disadvantages of the dress are its novelty--for we seldom like a fashion to which we are entirely unaccustomed--and the exposure which it involves of the foot, the shape of which, in this country, is so frequently distorted by wearing tight shoes of a different shape from the foot. the short dress is objectionable in another point of view, because, as short petticoats diminish the apparent height of the person, none but those who possess tall and elegant figures will look well in this costume; and appearance is generally suffered to prevail over utility and convenience. if to the bloomer costume had been added the long under-dress of the greek women, or had the trousers been as full as those worn by the turkish and east indian women, the general effect of the dress would have been much more elegant, although perhaps less useful. setting aside all considerations of fashion, as we always do in looking at the fashions which are gone by, it was impossible for any person to deny that the bloomer costume was by far the most elegant, the most modest, and the most convenient. chapter vii. ornament--economy. ornament, although not an integral part of dress, is so intimately connected with it, that we must devote a few words to the subject. under the general term of ornament we shall include bows of ribbon, artificial flowers, feathers, jewels, lace, fringes, and trimmings of all kinds. some of these articles appear to be suited to one period of life, some to another. jewels, for instance, though suitable for middle age, seem misplaced on youth, which should always be characterized by simplicity of apparel; while flowers, which are so peculiarly adapted to youth, are unbecoming to those advanced in years; in the latter case there is contrast without harmony; it is like uniting may with december. the great principle to be observed with regard to ornament is, that it should be appropriate, and appear designed to answer some useful purpose. a brooch, or a bow of ribbon, for instance, should fasten some part of the dress; a gold chain should support a watch or an eyeglass. trimmings are useful to mark the borders or edges of the different parts of the dress; and in this light they add to the variety, while by their repetition they conduce to the regularity of the ornamentation. [illustration: pl.  . figure  . from the embroidery on fig.  , pl.  . . from the sleeve of the same dress, above. . from the sleeve of the pelisse. . the pattern embroidered from the waist to the skirt of the dress, fig.  , pl.  . . the border of the shawl, fig.  . . sleeve of the same, figure  . . design on the apron, fig.  , pl.  . . from the border of the same dress, fig.  . ] ornament is so much a matter of fashion, that beyond the above remarks it scarcely comes within the scope of our subject. there is one point, however, to which the present encouragement of works of design induces us to draw the attention of our readers. we have already borrowed from the beautiful work of m. de stackelberg, some of the female figures in illustration of our views with regard to dress; we have now to call the attention of our readers to the patterns embroidered on the dresses. these are mostly of classic origin, and prove that the descendants of the greeks have still sufficient good taste to appreciate and adopt the designs of their glorious ancestors. the figures in the plates being too small to show the patterns, we have enlarged some of them from the original work, in order to show the style of design still cultivated among the peasants of greece, and also because we think the designs may be applied to other materials besides dress. some of them appear not inappropriate to iron work. when will our people be able to show designs of such elegance? fig.  is an enlarged copy of the embroidery on the robe of the peasant from the environs of athens, (fig.  .) it extends, as will be seen, half way up the skirt. fig.  is from the sleeve of the same dress. fig.  is the pattern embroidered on the sleeve of the pelisse. fig.  is the pattern from the waist to the hem of the skirt of an athenian peasant's dress, (fig.  .) fig.  is the border to the shawl; fig.  , the sleeve of the last-mentioned dress; fig.  , the design on the apron of the arcadian peasant, (fig.  .) fig.  is the border of the same dress. fig.  is the pattern round the hem of the long under-dress of the athenian peasant, (fig.  ;) fig.  , the border of a shawl, or something of the kind. fig.  is another example. the brocade dress of sancta victoria (fig.  ) offers a striking contrast to the simple elegance of the greek designs. it is too large for the purpose to which it is employed, and not sufficiently distinct; and, although it possesses much variety, it is deficient in regularity; and one of the elements of beauty in ornamental design, namely, repetition, appears to be entirely wanting. in these respects, the superiority of the greek designs is immediately apparent. they unite at once symmetry with regularity, and variety with repetition. [illustration: pl.  . figure  . pattern round the hem of the long under dress, fig.  , pl.  . , . borders of shawls. . infant's dress, exhibited at the world's fair in london. , . from "le moniteur de la mode," by jules david and réville, published at paris, london, new york, and st. petersburg. ] the examination of these designs suggests the reflection that when we have once attained a form of dress which combines ease and elegance with convenience, we should tax our ingenuity in inventing ornamental designs for decorating it, rather than seek to discover novel forms of dress. the endless variety of textile fabrics which our manufacturers are constantly producing, the variety, also, in the colors, will, with the embroidery patterns issued by our schools of design, suffice to appease the constant demand for novelty, which exists in an improving country, without changing the form of our costume, unless to adopt others which reason and common sense point out as superior to that in use. we are told to try all things, and to hold fast to that which is good. the maxim is applicable to dress as well as to morals. the subject of economy in dress, an essential object with many persons, now claims our attention. we venture to offer a few remarks on this head. our first recommendation is to have but few dresses at a time, and those extremely good. if we have but few dresses, we wear them, and wear them out while they are in fashion; but if we have many dresses at once, some of them become quite old-fashioned before we have done with them. if we are rich enough to afford the sacrifice, the old-fashioned dress is got rid of; if not, we must be content to appear in a fashion that has long been superseded; and we look as if we had come out of the tombs, or as if one of our ancestors had stepped out of her picture frame, and again walked the earth. as to the economy of selecting the best materials for dresses, we argue thus: every dress must be lined and made up, and we pay as much for making and lining an inferior article, as we do for one of the best quality. now, a good silk or merino will wear out two bad ones; therefore, one good dress, lining and making, will cost less than two inferior ones, with the expenses of lining and making them. in point of appearance, also, there is no comparison between the two; the good dress will look well to the last, while one of inferior quality will soon look shabby. when a good silk dress has become too shabby to be worn longer as a dress, it becomes, when cut up, useful for a variety of purposes; whereas an inferior silk, or one purely ornamental, is, when left off, good for nothing. plain dresses, that is to say, those of a single color, and without a pattern, are more economical as well as more quiet in their appearance than those of various colors. they are also generally less expensive, because something is always paid for the novelty of the fashion; besides, colored and figured dresses bear the date on the face of them, as plainly as if it was there in printed characters. the ages of dress fabrics are known by the pattern; therefore dresses of this description should be put on as soon as purchased, and worn out at once, or they will appear old-fashioned. there is another reason why vari-colored dresses are less economical than others. where there are several colors, they may not all be equally fast, and if only one of them fades the dress will lose its beauty. trimmings are not economical; besides their cost in the first instance, they become shabby before the dress, and if removed, they generally leave a mark where they have been, and so spoil the appearance of the dress. dresses made of one kind of material only, are more durable than those composed of two; as, for instance, of cotton and silk, of cotton and worsted, or of silk and worsted. when the silk is merely thrown on the face of the material, it soon wears off. this is also the case in those woollen or cotton goods which have a silken stripe. the question of economy also extends to colors, some of which are much more durable than others. for this we can give no rule, except that drabs and other "quaker colors," as they are frequently called, are amongst the most permanent of all colors. for other colors we must take the word of the draper. there is no doubt, however, but that the most durable colors are the cheapest in the end. in the selection of colors, the expense is not always a criterion; something must be paid for fashion and novelty, and perhaps for the cost of the dye. the newest and most expensive colors are not always those which last the longest. it is not economical to have the dresses made in the extremity of the fashion, because such soon become remarkable; but the fashions should be followed at such a distance, that the wearer may not attract the epithet of old-fashioned. we conclude this part of our subject with a few suggestions relative to the selection of different styles and materials of dress. the style of dress should be adapted to the age of the wearer. as a general rule, we should say that in youth the dress should be simple and elegant, the ornaments being flowers. in middle age, the dress may be of rich materials, and more splendid in its character; jewels are the appropriate ornaments. in the decline of life, the materials of which the dress is composed may be equally rich, but with less vivacious colors: the tertiaries and broken colors are particularly suitable, and the character of the whole costume should be quiet, simple, and dignified. the french, whose taste in dress is so far in advance of our own, say, that ladies who are _cinquante ans sonnés_, should neither wear gay colors, nor dresses of slight materials, flowers, feathers, or much jewelry; that they should cover their hair, wear high dresses and long sleeves. tall ladies may wear flounces and tucks, but they are less appropriate for short persons. as a general rule, vertical stripes make persons appear taller than they really are, but horizontal stripes have a contrary effect. the latter, mr. redgrave says, are not admissible in garment fabrics, "since, crossing the person, the pattern quarrels with all the motions of the human figure, as well as with the form of the long folds in the skirts of the garment. for this reason," he continues, "large and pronounced checks, however fashionable, are often in bad taste, and interfere with the graceful arrangement of the drapery." is it to show their entire contempt for the principles of design that our manufacturers introduced last year not only horizontal stripes of conspicuous colors, but checks and plaids of immense size, as autumnal fashions for dress fabrics? we had hoped that the ladies would have shown the correctness of their taste by their disapproval of these unbecoming designs, but the prevalence of the fashion at the present time is another evidence of the triumph of fashion over good taste. a white and light-colored dress makes the wearers appear larger, while a black or dark dress causes them to appear smaller than they actually are. a judicious person will, therefore, avail herself of these known effects, by adopting the style of dress most suitable to her stature. to sum up, in a few words, our impressions on this subject, we should say that the best style of dress is that which, being exactly adapted to the climate and the individual, is at once modest, quiet, and retiring, harmonious in color and decoration, and of good materials. we conclude with the following admirable extract from tobin's "honeymoon," which we earnestly recommend to the attention of our fair readers. i'll have no glittering gewgaws stuck about you to stretch the gaping eyes of idiot wonder, and make men stare upon a piece of earth, as on the star-wrought firmament--no feathers, to wave as streamers to your vanity; nor cumbrous silk, that with its rustling sound makes proud the flesh that bears it. she's adorned amply, that in her husband's eye looks lovely-- the truest mirror that an honest wife can see her beauty in! _julia._ i shall observe, sir. _duke._ i should like well to see you in the dress i last presented you. _julia._ the blue one, sir? _duke._ no, love,--the white. thus modestly attired, a half-blown rose stuck in thy braided hair, with no more diamonds than those eyes are made of, no deeper rubies than compose thy lips, nor pearls more precious than inhabit them, with the pure red and white, which that same hand which blends the rainbow, mingles in thy cheeks; this well-proportioned form (think not i flatter) in graceful motion to harmonious sounds, and thy free tresses dancing in the wind, thou'lt fix as much observance, as chaste dames can meet without a blush. we look forward hopefully to a day when art-education will be extended to all ranks; when a knowledge of the beautiful will be added to that of the useful; when good taste, based upon real knowledge and common sense, will dictate our fashions in dress as in other things. we have schools of art to reform our taste in pottery, hardware, and textile fabrics, not to speak of the higher walks of art, painting, sculpture, and architecture. the handle of a jug, the stem of a wine glass, the design for dress silks or lace veils, will form the subjects of lectures to the students of the various schools of design; disquisitions are written on the important question whether the ornamental designs should represent the real form of objects, or only give a conventional representation of them; while the study of the human figure, the masterpiece of creation, is totally neglected, except by painters and sculptors. we hope that the study of form will be more extended, that it will be universal, that it will, in fact, enter into the general scheme of education, and that we shall hereafter see as much pains bestowed in improving by appropriate costume the figure which nature has given us, as we do now in distorting it by tight stays, narrow and high-heeled shoes, and all the other deformities and eccentricities of that many-faced monster, fashion. the economy of the frame, and the means of preserving it in health and beauty, should form an integral part of education. there can be no true beauty without health; and how can we hope to secure health if we are ignorant of the means of promoting it, or if we violate its precepts by adopting absurd and pernicious fashions? surely it is not too much to hope that dressmakers will hereafter attend the schools of design, to study the human form, and thence learn to appreciate its beauties, and to clothe it with appropriate dress, calculated to display its beauties to the greatest advantage, and to conceal its defects--the latter with the reservation we have already noticed. we hope, also, that the shoemaker will learn to model the shoe upon the true form of the foot. manufacturers are now convinced of the importance and utility of schools of design; and whether the article hereafter to be produced be a cup and saucer, a fender, a pattern for a dress, or for furniture, for a service of plate or a diamond tiara, it is thought proper that the pupil, as a preliminary course that cannot be dispensed with, should commence with the study of the human figure. yet is not dress an art-manufacture as well as a cup and saucer, or a teaboard? is there less skill and talent, less taste required to clothe the form which we are told is made after god's own image, than to furnish an apartment? why should not dressmakers and tailors attend the schools of design, as well as those artisans who are intended to be employed in what are called art-manufactures? why should not shoemakers be taught the shape and movements of the foot? if this were the case, we are satisfied that an immediate and permanent improvement would be the consequence in our style of dress. would any person acquainted with the human form, and especially with the little round form of an infant, have sent to the great exhibition an infant's robe shaped like that in our cut. fig.  . an infant with a waist "growing fine by degrees and beautifully less"!--was there ever such a deformity? we believe that many portrait painters stipulate that they should be allowed to dictate the dress, at least as regards the arrangement of the colors, of their sitters; the reason of this is, that the painter's selection of dress and color is based upon the study of the figure and complexion of the individual, or the knowledge of the effects of contrast and harmony of lines, tissues, and colors, while the models which are presented for his imitation too frequently offer to his view a style of dress, both as regards form and color, which set the rules of harmony at defiance. now, only suppose that the dressmaker had the painter's knowledge of form and harmony of lines and colors, what a revolution would take place in dress? we should no longer see the tall and the short, the slender and the stout, the brown and the fair, the old and the young, dressed alike, but the dress would be adapted to the individual; and we believe that, were the plan of study we recommend generally adopted, this purpose might always be effected without the sacrifice of what is now the grand desideratum in dress--novelty. the reasons why the art of dressmaking has not hitherto received the attention which it deserves, are to be sought for in the constitution of society. the branches of manufacture which require a knowledge of design, such as calico printing, silk and ribbon weaving, porcelain and pottery, and hardware manufactures, are conducted on a large scale by men of wealth and talent, who, if they would compete successfully with rival manufacturers, find it necessary to study and apply to their own business all the improvements in science, with which their intercourse with society gives them an opportunity of becoming acquainted. it is quite otherwise with dressmaking. a woman is at the head of every establishment of this kind, a woman generally of limited education and attainments, from whom cannot be expected either liberality of sentiment or enlarged views, but who possibly possesses some tact and discrimination of character, which enables her to exercise a kind of dictatorial power in matters of dress over her customers; these customers are scarcely better informed on the subject than herself. the early life of the dressmaker is spent in a daily routine of labor with the needle, and when she becomes a mistress in her turn, she exacts from her assistants the same amount of daily labor that was formerly expected from herself. work, work, work with the needle from almost childhood, in the same close room from morning to night, and not unfrequently from night to morning also, is the everlasting routine of the monotonous life of the dressmakers. they are working for bread, and have no leisure to attend to the improvement of the mind, and the want of this mental cultivation is apparent in the articles they produce by their labor. when one of the young women who attends these establishments to learn the trade, thinks she has had sufficient experience, she leaves the large establishment, and sets up in business on her own account. in this new situation she works equally hard, and has, therefore, no time for improving her mind or taste. of the want of this, however, she is not sensible, because she can purchase for a trifle all the newest patterns, and the thought never enters her poor little head, that the same fashion may not suit all her customers. this defective education of the dressmakers, or rather their want of knowledge of the human form, is one of the great causes of the prevalence of the old fashion of tight lacing; it is so much easier to make a closely-fitting body suit over a tight stay than it is on the pliant and yielding natural form, in which, if one part be drawn a little too tight, or the contrary, the body of the dress is thrown out of shape. supposing, on the other hand, the fit to be exact, it is so difficult to keep such a tight-fitting body in its place on the figure without securing its form by whalebones, that it is in vain to expect the stays to become obsolete until the tight-fitting bodice is also given up. this will never take place until not only the ladies who are to be clothed, but the dressmakers, shall make the human form their study, and direct their efforts to set off their natural advantages by attending to the points which are their characteristic beauties. a long and delicate throat, falling shoulders, not too wide from point to point, a flat back, round chest, wide hips--these are the points which should be developed by the dress. whence it follows, that every article of dress which shortens the throat, adds height or width to the shoulders, roundness to the back, or flatness to the chest, must be radically wrong in principle, and unpleasant and repulsive in effect. in the same manner, whatever kind of dress adds to the height of a figure already too tall and thin, or detracts from the apparent height of the short and stout, must be avoided. these things should form the study of the dressmaker. as society is now constituted, however, the dressmaker has not, as we have already observed, leisure to devote to studies of the necessity and importance of which she is still ignorant. the reform must be begun by the ladies themselves. they must acquire a knowledge of form, and of the principles of beauty and harmony, and so exercise a controlling influence over the dressmakers. by this means, a better taste will be created, and the dressmakers will at length discover their deficiency in certain guiding principles, and will be driven at last to resort to similar studies. but in this case a startling difficulty presents itself--the poor dressmaker is at present over-worked: how can she find leisure to attend the schools of design, or even pursue, if she had the ability, the necessary studies at home? a girl is apprenticed to the trade at the age of thirteen or fourteen; she works at it all her life, rising early, and late taking rest; and what is the remuneration of her daily toil of twelve hours? eighteen pence, or at most two shillings a day, with her board![ ] as she reckons the value of the latter at a shilling, it follows, that the earnings of a dressmaker, in the best period of her life, who goes out to work, could not exceed fifteen shillings, or, at the most, eighteen shillings a week, if she did not--at the hazard of her health, which, indeed, is frequently sacrificed--work at home before she begins, and after she has finished, her day's work abroad. the carpenter or house painter does not work harder, or bring to bear on his employment greater knowledge, than the poor dressmaker; yet he has four shillings sixpence a day, without his board, while she has only what is equivalent to two shillings sixpence, or three shillings. what reason can be assigned why a woman's work, if equally well done, should not be as well paid as that of a man? a satisfactory reason has yet to be given; the fact, however, is indisputable, that women are not in general so well paid for their labor as men. [ ] of course it will be understood that these are the english prices; but does not the comparison hold good between male and female labor in this country? although these remarks arose naturally out of our subject, we must not digress too far. to return to the dressmaker. if the hours of labor of these white slaves who toil in the dressmaking establishments were limited to ten or twelve hours, as in large factories, two consequences would follow: the first is, that more hands would be employed, and the second, that the young women would have time to attend schools, and improve their minds. if they could also attend occasional lectures on the figure, and on the harmony of color and costume with reference to dress, the best effects would follow. those dressmakers who are rich enough, and, we may add, many ladies also, take in some book of fashions with colored illustrations, and from this they imbibe their notions of beauty of form and elegance of costume. how is it possible, we would ask, for either the dressmaker or the ladies who employ them to acquire just ideas of form, or of suitable costume, when their eyes are accustomed only to behold such deformed and unnatural representations of the human figure as those in the accompanying plates? figs.  and . is it any wonder that small waists should be admired, when the books which aspire to be the handmaids and mirrors of fashion present to their readers such libels on beauty of form? now, suppose that lithographed drawings of costumes issued occasionally from the schools of design, is it not reasonable to suppose that, with the knowledge which the students have acquired of the human figure, the illustrations would be more accurate imitations of nature? an eye accustomed to the study of nature can scarcely bear to contemplate, much less to imitate, the monsters of a depraved taste which disgrace the different publications that aspire to make known the newest fashions. many of the illustrations of these publications, although ill proportioned, are executed in a certain stylish manner which takes with the uneducated, and the mechanical execution of the figures is also good. this, however, is so far from being an advantage, that it only renders them the more dangerous; like the song of the siren, they lead only to evil. we are told that many of the first parisian artists derive a considerable part of their income from drawing the figures in the french books of fashion and costume, and that, in the early part of his career, horace vernet, the president of the french academy, did not disdain to employ his talents in this way. we cannot, however, refrain from expressing our surprise and honest indignation that artists of eminence, especially those who, like the french school, have a reputation for correct drawing, and who must, therefore, be so well acquainted with the actual as well as ideal proportions of the female figure, should so prostitute their talents as to employ them in delineating the ill-proportioned figures which appear in books of fashions. it is no small aggravation of their offence, in our eyes, that the figures should be drawn in such graceful positions, and with the exception of the defective proportions, with so much skill. these beauties only make them more dangerous; the goodness of their execution misleads the unfortunate victims of their fascination. what young lady, unacquainted with the proportions of the figure, could look on these prints of costumes and go away without the belief that a small waist and foot were essential elements of beauty? so she goes home from her dressmaker's, looks in the glass, and not finding her own waist and foot as small as those in the books of fashion, gives her stay-lace an extra tightening pull, and, regardless of corns, squeezes her feet into tight shoes, which makes the instep appear swollen. both the figures in our last plates were originally drawn and engraved by jules david, and reville, in "_le moniteur de la mode_," which is published at paris, london, new york, and st. petersburg. let our readers look at these figures, and say whether the most determined votary of tight lacing ever succeeded in compressing her waist into the proportions represented in these figures. we should like to hear that lectures were given occasionally, by a lady in the female school of design, on the subjects of form, and of dress in its adaptation to form and to harmony of color. we have no doubt that a lady competent to deliver these lectures will readily be found. after a course of these lectures, we do not hesitate to predict that illustrations of fashion emanating from this source would be, in point of taste, every thing that could be desired. we venture to think that the students of the female school may be as well and as profitably employed in designing costumes, as in inventing patterns for cups and saucers or borders for veils. until some course, of the nature we have indicated, is adopted, we cannot hope for any permanent improvement in our costume. chapter viii. some thoughts on children's dress. by mrs. merrifield. can any good and sufficient reason be given, said a friend, as we were contemplating the happy faces and lively gestures of a party of boys and girls, who, one cold, frosty evening, were playing at the old game called "i sent a letter to my love," why, when one of the party picks up the ball which another has thrown down, the boys always stoop, while the girls (with the exception of one little rosy girl, who is active and supple as the boys) invariably drop on one knee? at first we almost fancied this must be a new way of playing the game; but when one of the seniors threw a handful of _bonbons_ among the children, and in their eager scramble to pick up the tempting sweets we observed the same respective actions, namely, that the boys stooped, while the girls knelt on one knee, we began to meditate on the cause of this diversity of action. a little more observation convinced us that the girls, though equally lively, were less free in their movement than the boys. we observed, also, that every now and then some of the girls stopped and hitched their clothes, (which appeared almost in danger of falling off,) with an awkward movement, first upon one shoulder, and then on the other, while others jerked one shoulder upwards, which caused the sleeve on that side to sink nearly to the elbow. "now," we exclaimed, "we can solve the problem: the different actions are caused by the difference in the dress; let us see where the difference lies." so we continued our observations, and soon found that the boys were all dressed in high dresses up to the throat, while the bands which encircled their waists were so loose as merely to keep the dress in its place without confining it; in short, that their dress did not offer the slightest restraint on their freedom of movement. it was otherwise with the girls, excepting the little rosy girl before mentioned: they were dressed in low dresses, and their shoulders were so bare that we involuntarily thought of a caterpillar casting its skin, and began to fear, from the uneasy movement of their shoulders, that the same thing might happen to the children, when we observed that this was rendered impossible by the tightness of the clothes about the waist. the mystery was now cleared up; the tightness of the dress at the waist, while it prevented the children from "slipping shell," as it were, entirely destroyed their freedom of movement. we could not help contrasting these poor girls--dressed in the very pink of fashion, with their bare shoulders, compressed waists, and delicate appearance--with the rosy face, quick and active movement, and thick waist of the little girl before alluded to; and we sighed as we thought that, induced by the culpable folly or ignorance of parents, "pale decay would steal before the steps of time, and snatch 'their' bloom away." "whence does it arise," continued my friend, "that the boys are clad in warm dresses, suited to the season, their chests and arms protected from the wintry air, and their feet incased in woollen stockings, while the girls are suffered to shiver at christmas in muslin dresses, with bare necks and arms, and silk or thin cotton stockings? are they less susceptible of cold than boys? is their circulation less languid, that their clothes are so much thinner? are their figures better, their health stronger, for the compression of their tender bodies by stays?" at this point our cogitations were stopped by a summons to supper; and after supper, hats and shawls were produced, and we took our leave. our young companions, fatigued with their exertions, soon fell asleep in the corners of the carriage, and we were left to our own meditations. our thoughts once more reverted to the subject of children's dress, and gradually assumed the following form:-- the subject of dress, which is so important both to our health and comfort, is usually treated as a matter of fashion, and is regulated partly by individual fancy, partly by the dictates of the _modiste_. fashion, as it applies to the costume of men, is, with the exception of the hat, controlled by convenience and common sense; but with regard to the dress of women and children, neither of these considerations has any weight. the most extravagant and _bizarre_ arrangements of form and colors will meet with admirers and imitators, provided they emanate from a fashionable source. the dress of children, especially, appears to be exceedingly fantastic in its character, and, with regard to that of girls, is ill adapted to secure the enjoyment of health and the perfect development of the figure. we venture to offer a few remarks on this highly interesting theme. in discussing the subject of children's dress, several points present themselves for our consideration, namely, first, the adaptation of the costume to the climate, the movements, and healthful development of the figure; and secondly, the general elegance of the habiliments, the harmony of the colors, and their special adaptation to the age and individual characteristics of children. the first are essential conditions; the latter, though too frequently treated as the most important, may, in comparison with the first, be deemed non-essentials. we shall remark on these subjects in the before-mentioned order. with regard to the adaptation of the dress of children to the climate, this appears so evident that any observations upon it might be deemed almost unnecessary; yet, in practice, how little is it understood! the great object in view in regulating the warmth of the clothing, is to guard the wearer from the vicissitudes of the climate, and to equalize the circulation, which is accelerated by heat and retarded by cold. children are habitually full of activity, which quickens the circulation and produces a determination to the skin; in other words, causes some degree of perspiration, and if this, perspiration be suddenly checked by the application of cold, illness in some shape or other is induced. in order to lessen this risk, the clothing should be light and warm; sufficiently warm to shield the child from the effects of cold, but not to elevate greatly the temperature of the body. the latter would only render the child more susceptible of cold. children are, by some over-careful but not judicious parents, so burdened with clothes that one is surprised to find they can move under the vast encumbrance. there is much diversity of opinion among medical men as to the propriety of wearing flannel next to the skin. the arguments appear to be in favor of the practice, provided that the thickness of the flannel be proportioned to the seasons of the year. in winter it should be thick; in summer it can scarcely be too thin. flannel is preferable to linen or calico, because, although it may be saturated with perspiration, it never strikes cold to the skin; whereas linen, under similar circumstances, always does, and the sudden application of cold to the skin, when warmed by exercise, checks the circulation, and causes illness. parents are frequently guilty of much inconsistency in the clothing of their children. the child, perhaps, has delicate lungs; it must, therefore, have warm clothing; so garment after garment, made fashionably, that is to say, very full and very short, is heaped one upon the other over the chest and upper part of the body, until the poor child can scarcely move under the heavy burden with which, with mistaken kindness, it has been laden, while the lower limbs, in which the circulation is most languid, and which require to be protected as well as the chest, are frequently exposed to the air, and the foot is covered with a shoe which is too thin to keep it dry. the consequence of this arrangement is, that the child, oppressed by the weight of its clothing, becomes overheated, and being cooled too hastily, catches severe colds. the habiliments of children cannot be too light in weight; and this is perfectly consistent with a proper degree of warmth. those parents are greatly to blame who, influenced only by appearance, and the wish to dress their children fashionably, add to the weight of their clothing by introducing so much unnecessary fulness into the skirts. the next point for consideration, and which is not inferior in importance to the last, is the adaptation of the dress to the movements and healthful development of the figure; and, strange to say, this point is almost entirely overlooked by those who have the management and control of children, although a few honest and sensible medical men have raised their warning voices against the system now pursued. we hear every where of the march of intellect; we are perpetually told that the schoolmaster is abroad; lessons and masters of all kinds are endeavoring "to teach the young idea how to shoot;" while the little delicate frame which is to bear all this mental labor is left to the ignorance of mothers and nurses, and the tender mercies of the dressmaker, who seems to think that the human frame is as easily moulded into an imitation of those libels on humanity represented in books of fashionable costume as the materials with which she works. would that we had powers of persuasion to convince our readers how greatly these figures, with their excessively-small waists, hands and feet, deviate from the actual proportions of well-formed women! unfortunately, the pinched waist is too common in real life for those unacquainted with the proportions of the figure not to think it one of the essential elements of beauty. so far, however, from being a beauty, a small waist is an actual blemish. never, until the economy of the human frame is studied by all classes, and a knowledge of the principles on which its beauties depend is disseminated among all ranks, can we hope that just ideas will be entertained on this subject. if there is one thing in which the schoolmaster or the reformer is more wanted than in another, it is in our dress. from our birth to our death we are the slaves of fashion, of prejudice, and of circumstances. the tender, unresisting infant, the delicate girl, the mature woman, alike suffer from these evil influences; some fall victims to them, others suffer during life. let us consider the dress of an infant. here, however, it must be acknowledged that of late years much improvement has taken place in some respects, although much still remains to be done. caps, with their trimming of three or four rows of lace, and large cockades which rivalled in size the dear little round face of the child, are discontinued almost entirely within doors, though the poor child is still almost overwhelmed with cap, hat, and feathers, in its daily airings, the additional weight which its poor neck has to sustain never once entering into the calculation of its mother and nurse. fine feathers, it is said, make fine birds. this may be true with respect to the feathered creation, but it is not so with regard to children. they suffer from the misplaced finery, and from the undue heat of the head. and yet the head has, generally speaking, been better treated by us than the rest of the body. when we look back upon the history of costume, it really seems as if men--or women, shall we say?--had exercised their ingenuity in torturing the human frame, and destroying its health and vigor. the american indian compresses the tender skull of the infant, and binds its little body on to a flat board; the chinese squeezes the feet of the females; the italian peasants, following the custom of the orientals, still roll the infant in swathing bands; the little legs of the child, that when left to its own disposal are in perpetual motion, now curled up to the body, then thrust out their extreme length, to the evident enjoyment of their owner, are extended in a straight line, laid side by side, and bandaged together, so that the infant reminds one in shape of a mummy. in this highly cultivated country we are guilty towards our infants of practices quite as senseless, as cruel, and as contrary to nature. the movements of the lower limbs, so essential to the healthy growth of the child, are limited and restrained, if not altogether prevented, by the great weight that we hang upon them. the long petticoats, in which every infant in this country has been for centuries doomed to pass many months of its existence, are as absurd as they are prejudicial to the child. the evil has of late years rather increased than diminished, for the clothes are not only made much longer, but much fuller, so that the poor victim has an additional weight to bear. many instances can be mentioned in which the long clothes have been made a yard and a quarter long. the absurdity of this custom becomes apparent, if we only imagine a mother or nurse of short statue carrying an infant in petticoats of this length; and we believe that long clothes are always made totally irrespective of the height of mother or nurse. imagine one or the other treading on the robe, and throwing herself and the child down! imagine, also, the probable consequences of such an accident! and when one ventures to express doubts as to the propriety of dressing an infant in long clothes, instead of arguments in their favor, one is met by the absurd remark, "a baby looks so grand in long clothes!" we have for some years endeavored, as far as our influence extended, to put an end to this practice, and in some cases we have so far succeeded as to induce the mother to short-coat the child before it was three months old, and even previous to this period to make the under garments of a length suited to the size of the child, while the frock or robe, as it is called, retained the fashionable length. the latter, being of fine texture, did not add considerably to the weight of the clothes. children who have the free use of their limbs not only walk earlier than others, but are stronger on their feet. another evil practice, which some years since prevailed universally, was that of rolling a bandage, three inches in width, and two or three yards in length, round the body of the child. the pain that such a bandage, from its unyielding nature, would occasion, not to speak of its ill effects on the health, may be readily imagined. this bandage was, in fact, a kind of breaking in for the tight lacing, the penalty which most females in this country have had, at some period or other, to undergo. there is no end of the inconsistencies of children's dress. if, in early infancy, they are buried in long petticoats, no sooner can they walk than the petticoats are so shortened that they scarcely cover the child's back when it stoops. the human race has a wonderful power of accommodating itself to a variety of temperatures and climates; but perhaps it is seldom exposed to greater vicissitudes than in the change from long clothes to the extremely short and full ones that are now fashionable. the very full skirt is not so warm in proportion to its length as one of more moderate fulness; because, instead of clinging round the figure, it stands off from it, and admits the air under it. the former is also heavier than the latter, inasmuch as it contains more material; and the weight of the clothing is a great disadvantage to a child. a sensible medical writer, dr. john f. south, in an excellent little work entitled "domestic surgery," makes some very judicious observations relative to children's dress. of the fashion of dressing boys with the tunic reaching to the throat, and trousers, which are both so loose as to offer no impediment to freedom of motion, he approves; but he condemns, in the strongest terms, "the unnatural"--mr. south remarks he had almost said "atrocious--system to which, in youth, if not in childhood, girls are subjected for the improvement of their figure and gait." it is fortunate for the present generation that it is the fashion for the dresses of even little girls to be made as high as the throat; the old fashion of cutting the frock low round the neck, which still exists in what is called "full dress," is objectionable on more than one account. in the first place, it is objected to on the consideration of health; because the upper part of the chest is not protected from the influence of currents of air, and by this means, as mr. south observes, the foundation is laid for irritable lungs. in the next place, the dress is generally suffered to fall off the shoulders, and is, in fact, only retained in its place by the tight band about the waist. to avoid the uneasiness occasioned by the pressure of the latter, the child slips its clothes off one shoulder, generally the right, which it raises more than the other; the consequence of this is, that the raised shoulder becomes permanently higher than the other, and the spine is drawn towards the same side. it is said that there is scarcely one english woman in fifty who has not one shoulder higher or thicker than the other; and there appears but little doubt that much of this deformity is to be ascribed to the above-mentioned cause. in confirmation of this opinion, it may be mentioned that the practice of wearing dresses low in the neck is almost peculiar to english girls; french girls, nearly from infancy, wear high dresses, and it is certain that deformity is not so frequent among french women as it is among english. the discipline of tight lacing is frequently begun so early in life, that the poor victim has little or no recollection of the pain and suffering occasioned by the pressure of the stiff and uncomfortable stays before the frame has become accustomed to them. those of our readers who were fortunate enough to escape this infliction in early life, and who adopted stiff stays at a more mature age, can bear testimony to the suffering occasioned by them during the first few weeks of their use. "o," said a girl who put on stiff stays, for the first time, at the age of fourteen or fifteen, "i wish bedtime was come, that i might take off these stiff and uncomfortable stays, they pain me so much." "hush, hush!" exclaimed a starch old maiden aunt, shocked at what she thought the indelicacy of the expression which pain had wrung from the poor girl; "you must bear it for a time; you will soon get used to it." used to it! yes, indeed, as the cook said the eels did to skinning, and with, as regards the poor girls, almost as disastrous consequences. there are three points of view in which tight lacing is prejudicial. it weakens the muscles of the shoulders and chest, which rust, as it were, for want of use; it injures, by pressure, the important organs contained in the chest and trunk; and, lastly, instead of improving the figure, it positively and absolutely deforms it. a waist disproportionately small, compared with the stature and proportions of the individual, is a greater deformity than one which is too large; the latter is simply clumsy; it does not injure the health of the person, while the former is not only prejudicial to health, but to beauty. were our fair readers but once convinced of this fact, there would be an end of tight lacing; and the good results arising from the abolition of this practice would be evident in the improved health of the next generation. what a host of evils follow in the steps of tight lacing! indigestion, hysteria, spinal distortion, consumption, liver complaints, disease of the heart, cancer, early death!--these are a few of them, and enough to make both mothers and daughters tremble. it is an aggravation of the evil that is brought upon us frequently by the agency of a mother--of her upon whose affection and experience a child naturally relies in all things, and whose lamentable ignorance of what constitutes beauty of form, as well as her subjection to the thraldom of fashion, is the prolific source of so much future misery to her unsuspecting daughter. education is the order of the day; but surely that education must be very superficial and incomplete, of which the study of the economy of the human form, its various beauties, and the wonderful skill with which it was created, form no part. a girl spends several years in learning french, italian, and german, which may be useful to her should she meet with french, italians, or germans, or should she visit the continent; she spends three, four, five, and sometimes six hours a day, in practising on the piano, frequently without having any real talent for this accomplishment, while she is kept in utter ignorance of that which is of vital consequence not only to herself, but to her future offspring, namely, a knowledge of what constitutes true beauty, and contributes to the preservation of health, and, we may also add, of good humor and happiness; for it is one of the evils attending ill health, that it frequently induces a fretful and irritable state of mind. instead of the really useful knowledge of the economy of the frame, and the means of preserving health, girls are taught the constrained attitudes and the artificial deportment of the dancing master. the remark of sir joshua reynolds on this subject has been often quoted. he said, "all the motions of children are full of grace; affectation and distortion come in with the dancing master." to dancing itself there is not the slightest objection; it is at once an agreeable and healthy occupation, and it affords a pleasing and innocent recreation. the pleasure which most children take in it, in spite of the "exercises" which they are compelled to practise, proves, we think, its utility. the treatment of the feet is on a par with that of the rest of the body. the toes are thrust close together into a shoe, the shape of the sole of which does not resemble that of the foot. it is generally narrower than the foot, which, therefore, hangs over the sides. the soles of children's shoes are, moreover, made alike on both sides, whereas the inside should be nearly straight, and the width of the sole should correspond exactly with that of the foot. boots, which have been so fashionable of late years, are very convenient, and have a neat appearance, but they are considered to weaken the ankle, because the artificial support which they give to that part prevents the full exercise of the muscles, which waste from want of use. shoes should be cut short in the quarter, because the pressure necessary to keep such shoes as are now worn on the feet will, in this case, be on the instep instead of the toes, which will, by this arrangement, have more room. we shall conclude our observations on children's dress, considered in a sanitary point of view, in the words of mr. south. "if, then, you wish your children, girls especially, to have the best chance of health, and a good constitution, let them wear flannel next their skin, and woollen stockings in winter; have your girls' chests covered to the collar bones, and their shoulders _in_, not _out_ of their dresses, if you would have them straight; and do not confine their chests and compress their digestive organs by bone stays, or interfere with the free movement of their chests by tight belts, or any other contrivance, if you desire their lungs should do their duty, upon which so mainly depends the preservation of health."--_sharpe's london magazine._ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ note.--the fig.  , referred to on the top of page , is not found in the plate; but the same style of dressing the hair may be seen in fig.  . transcriber's notes and amendments: inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation retained: ardene/arderne makrinitza/markinitza parmegianino/parmegiano sommæring/sommaering reville/réville outdoor/out-door 'head dress' on the title page was left un-hyphenated, as printed. amendments to the text as originally printed: list of illustrations and chapter vii (caption for plate xii.) ' , . from "le moniteur de la mode,"' to ' , . from "le moniteur de la mode,"' chapter ii. 'the lady in the evening dress (fig )' to 'the lady in the evening dress (fig. )' chapter vi. 'the materials of the drapery in the latter is' to 'the materials of the drapery in the latter are' chapter vii. 'ribbon, artificial flowers. feathers,' to 'ribbon, artificial flowers, feathers,' 'the environs of athens, (fig.  .)' to 'the environs of athens, (fig.  .)' produced from scanned images of public domain material from the google print project.) my knitting book. by miss lambert, (authoress of the hand-book of needlework.) [illustration] london: john murray, albemarle street. . price eighteen pence. richards, , st. martin's lane. preface. the examples of knitting, contained in the following pages, have been selected with the greatest care,--many are original,--and the whole are so arranged as to render them comprehensible even to a novice in the art. knitting being so often sought, as an evening amusement, both by the aged and by invalids, a large and distinct type has been adopted,--as affording an additional facility. the writer feels confident in the recommendation of "my knitting book," and humbly hopes it may meet with the same liberal reception that has been accorded to her "hand-book of needlework." the numerous piracies that have been committed on her last mentioned work, have been one inducement to publish this little volume; and from the low price at which it is fixed, nothing, but a very extended circulation, can ensure her from loss. some few of the examples have been selected from the chapter on knitting, in the "hand-book." _ , new burlington street_, _november ._ contents. explanation of terms used in knitting the standard filiÈre siberian cuffs a knitted silk cuff open stitch for cuffs very pretty cuffs muffatees with two colours gentlemen's muffatees plain ribbed muffatees another pair of muffatees knitted cuffs, shell pattern double knitted cuffs a brioche fringe pattern knitting an opera cap a sontag, or cephaline a bonnet cap double knitting for comforters, etc. knitted lace knitted insertion coral trimming for a muslin dress barley-corn stitch a muff, in colours of sable another muff close stitch for a waistcoat, etc long sleeves to wear under the dress twelve patterns for d'oyleys, tidies, etc. i.--leaf and trellis pattern ii.--rose-leaf pattern iii.--point pattern iv.--gothic pattern v.--scotch pattern vi.--chevron pattern vii.--vandyke pattern viii.--lace pattern ix.--fish-bone pattern x.--german pattern xi.--diamond pattern xii.--shell pattern cable knitting a purse pretty stitch for a purse a pence jug, or purse a strong purse a pretty open stitch for a purse open stitch purse with beads a purse in fine silk herringbone, or shetland stitch for a purse five pretty patterns for bags i.--diagonal check pattern bag ii.--lozenge pattern bag iii.--hem-stitch pattern bag iv.--spider pattern bag v.--stripe pattern bag a bag, with black or garnet beads knitted fringe vandyke border a warm half-square shawl a warm double knitted scarf, in two colours a border for a shawl or quilt raised knitting for a shawl a russian shawl, in brioche stitch a light stitch for a shawl star pattern shawl, in two colours barÈge knitting for shawls a shetland knitted scarf shetland pattern for a shawl other patterns for shawls double diamond stitch for a quilt a quilt a light and warm counterpane cross stitch pattern for a quilt another quilt a quilt, or couvre-pied, in squares a cover for an air pillow a baby's hood a baby's sock another baby's sock a baby's stocking a carriage boot a double-knitted night sock a frileuse or neck tippet wheel pattern for tidies, etc knitted coral hints on knitting my knitting book. explanation of terms used in knitting. _to cast on._--the first interlacement of the cotton on the needle. _to cast off._--to knit two stitches, and to pass the first over the second, and so on to the last stitch, which is to be secured by drawing the thread through. _to cast over._--to bring the cotton forward round the needle. _to narrow._--to lessen, by knitting two stitches together. _to seam._--to knit a stitch with the cotton before the needle. _to widen._--to increase by making a stitch, bringing the cotton round the needle, and knitting the same when it occurs. _a turn._--two rows in the same stitch, backwards and forwards. _to turn._--to change the stitch. _to turn over._--to bring the wool forward over the needle. _a row._--the stitches from one end of the needle to the other. _a round._--a row, when the stitches are on two, three, or more needles. _a plain row._--that composed of simple knitting. _to pearl a row._--to knit with the cotton before the needle. _to rib._--to work alternate rows of plain and pearl knitting. _to bring the thread forward._--to bring the cotton forward so as to make an open stitch. _a loop stitch._--made by bringing the cotton before the needle, which, in knitting the succeeding stitch, will again take its own place. _to slip or pass a stitch._--to change it from one needle to the other without knitting it. _to fasten on._--the best way to fasten on is to place the two ends contrariwise, and knit a few stitches with both together. for knitting, with silk, or fine cotton, a _weaver's_ knot will be found the best. _to take under._--to pass the cotton from one needle to the other, without changing its position. _pearl, seam, and rib-stitch_--all signify the same. n.b. the _sizes_ of the _needles_ are given according to the _standard filière_. * * * * * the following engraving represents the _standard filière_, or knitting and netting needle gauge, an instrument invented some time since by the authoress, and now in general use, by which the different sizes of knitting and netting needles can be ascertained with the greatest accuracy. [illustration: the standard filière.] it is necessary, in giving or following directions for knitting, to caution knitters to observe a medium in their work--not knitting either too loose or too tight. siberian cuffs. nine shades of german wool, used double, will be required.--no. needles. cast on sixty-four stitches with the darkest shade;--knit three plain rows. _fourth row_--bring the wool forward, knit two together. repeat these four rows, (which form the pattern), nine times,--taking a lighter shade of wool each time. a knitted silk cuff. coarse black netting silk.--four needles, no. . cast on twenty-eight stitches on each of three needles:--knit two plain rounds. _third round_--bring the silk forward, slip one; knit one; pass the slipped stitch over it; knit one; pearl one. repeat the third round, until the cuff be of the depth required; then,--knit two plain rounds to correspond with the commencement. open stitch for cuffs. with coarse silk.--four needles, no. . cast on any even number of stitches, on each of three needles. _first round_--knit two together. _second round_--bring the silk forward, knit one. _third round_--plain knitting. repeat from the first round. very pretty cuffs. two colours are generally used--say red and white. they are prettiest in four-thread embroidery fleecy, or german wool.--two needles no. , and two no. , will be required. cast on forty-six stitches. } bring the wool forward, knit two together. } white. knit six plain rows. } knit six plain rows. } bring the wool forward, knit two together. } red. knit six plain rows. } knit six plain rows. } bring the wool forward, knit two together. } white. knit six plain rows. } knit six plain rows. } bring the wool forward, knit two together. } red. knit six plain rows. } knit six plain rows. } white. bring the wool forward, knit two together. } take double wool, and needles double the size. knit one plain row. } pearl one row. } knit two plain rows. } white. pearl one row. } knit one row. } knit one plain row. } red. pearl one row. } repeat these two red and white stripes, alternately, four times, and finish with the two stitches together, as at the commencement. the cuffs, when finished, roll over at the top. muffatees with two colours. german wool,--three needles, no. . the prettiest colours are cerise and brown;--commencing with the brown. cast on eighty-eight stitches, viz.--thirty on each of two needles, and twenty-eight on the third.--knit four rounds,--two stitches of each alternately pearl and plain. knit one plain round. pearl three rounds. the above is all with one colour,--the brown. take off two stitches without knitting; knit six with the cerise.--repeat, alternately, to the end of the round. the next nine rounds are the same. knit one plain round with the brown. pearl three rounds. commence again with the cerise,--knitting four stitches only at the beginning of the round;--then take off two stitches, and knit six, alternately, as before. these cuffs may be worked to any desired length, finishing off the same as at the commencement. gentlemen's muffatees. cast on fifty-four stitches, in double german wool.--no. needles. _first row_--bring the wool forward, slip one; knit two together.--repeat. every row is the same,--the first and last stitches being plain. when finished they are to be sewn up. plain ribbed muffatees. four needles will be required. cast on each of three needles, eighteen or twenty-four stitches, according to the size desired. _first round_--knit three; pearl three;--alternately. _second and succeeding rounds_--repeat the first. another pair of muffatees. three-thread fleecy, or zephyr wool.--no. needles. cast on thirty-six stitches. knit twenty plain stitches, and sixteen in double knitting. when they are sufficiently large, knit or sew them up. the double knitting comes over the hand, the plain knitting setting tight to the wrist. knitted cuffs, shell pattern. these may be made either with silk, cotton, or fine wool.--needles no. . cast thirty stitches on each of two needles, and forty on a third;--knit one plain round. _second round_--pearl one; pass the silk back, knit one; pearl one; bring the silk forward, knit one, by which you make a loop stitch;--repeat this five times, which, with the loop stitch, will make thirteen from the last pearled stitch. commence the pattern again, as at beginning of round. _third round_--pearl one; knit one; pearl one; slip one; knit one, pass the slip-stitch over it; knit nine; knit two together.--repeat to the end of the round. _fourth round_--same as third, except that there will be only seven plain stitches to knit. _fifth round_--same as third, with only five plain stitches. there will now be the same number of stitches on the needles as at the commencement, viz.--seven for the shell part of the pattern, and three for the division. knit one plain round, except on the three division stitches, which are to be knitted as before. commence again as at second round. when the cuffs are of sufficient length, knit a plain round to correspond with the beginning. the prettiest way of knitting these cuffs will be to work the first pattern in cerise;--the next five in white; the next five, alternately in cerise and white; then five in white; and finish with one in cerise. double knitted cuffs. these cuffs are prettiest in single german wool; two colours are required,--say claret and white. they will take sixteen skeins of white wool and eight of claret--no. needles. cast on forty-six stitches in claret,--pearl four rows. pearl one row white; in the next--bring the wool forward, knit two together:--repeat these two rows of white, twice,--making altogether six rows. the four rows of claret in pearl knitting, and the six rows of white, are now to be repeated, alternately, until six stripes of each are worked. then,-- pick up seventy stitches in claret, on the right side, at one of the narrow ends, and pearl one row. repeat the six rows of white,--finishing with the four rows of claret, and cast off. repeat the same at the other end of the cuff,--observing that the knitting of the frill is to be on the wrong side. sew up the cuffs, and double them, so as to allow the frill, at the one end, to appear above that at the other. a brioche[a]. the _brioche_ knitting-stitch is simply--bring the wool forward, slip one; knit two together. a brioche is formed of sixteen straight narrow stripes, and sixteen wide stripes, the latter gradually decreasing in width towards the top or centre of the cushion. it may be made in three-thread fleecy, or double german wool, with ivory or wooden pins, no. . cast on ninety stitches, in black, for the narrow stripe; knit two turns;--then, three turns in gold colour, and two turns again in black. this completes the narrow stripe. the conical stripe is knitted as follows:--bring the wool forward, knit two together, twice, and turn; knit these two, and two more of the black and turn; continue this,--taking each time two more stitches of the black, until within two stitches of the top, and turn; the wool will now be at the bottom or wide part of the stripe. commence again with the black, as in the former narrow stripe, knitting the two black stitches at the top. it may be also as well to diminish the narrow stripes by turning when within two stitches of the top, in the centre row of gold colour. by a _turn_ is meant one row and back again. the colours for the conical stripes may be any two or four colours, which assort well together; or each may be different. when the last conical stripe is finished, it is to be knitted to the first narrow stripe.--the brioche is to be made up with a stiff bottom of mill board, about eight inches in diameter, covered with cloth. the top is drawn together, and fastened in the centre with a tuft of soft wool, or a cord and tassels. it should be stuffed with down or fine combed wool. [a] so called from its resemblance, in shape, to the well known french cake of that name. fringe pattern knitting. cast on any even number of stitches, in german wool--no. needles. turn the wool round the needle, bringing it in front again; knit two together, taken in front. every row is the same. an opera cap. no. needles--double german wool, or three-thread fleecy. cast on eighty stitches,--white. pearl one row, } white. knit one row, } pearl one row,--coloured. in the next row,-- bring the wool before the needle, and knit two stitches together. pearl one row, } white. knit one row, } pearl one row, } white. knit one row, } the above forms the border. _first division_--coloured. pearl one row. knit one row, decreasing one stitch at each end. knit one row. knit a fancy row, by bringing the wool forward, and knitting two stitches together. _second_--white. pearl one row, decreasing one stitch at each end. knit one row, decreasing two stitches at each end. knit one row, decreasing one stitch at each end. knit a fancy row as before. _third_--coloured. pearl one row, decreasing one stitch at each end. knit one row, decreasing one stitch at each end. knit one row, _without_ decreasing. knit the fancy row as before. _fourth_, _fifth_, _sixth_, _seventh_-- the third division is to be repeated, alternately with white and coloured wool. _eighth_--white. _ninth_--coloured. in these two last divisions, only two stitches are to be decreased in each; this is to be done in the row after the pearl,--decreasing one stitch at each end. n.b. there should be forty-six stitches left on the needle in the last row. pick up thirty stitches on each side, and make the borders at the sides and back like that in front. make up the cap by turning in the border to the fancy row, and hem it all round: it is to be tied behind, and under the chin, with ribbons or plaited wool, with tassels of the same. a sontag, or cephaline the border for this cap is worked the same as the preceding,--casting on one hundred and two stitches;--single german wool;--no. needles. knit one row in white, to bring the pearl on the right side. then,-- with the darkest shade, bring the wool round the needle, pearl two together; pearl one.--repeat to the end of the row. in the next row--bring the wool forward, knit two together; knit one.--repeat to the end of the row. knit forty-two rows in the same manner, taking in one stitch at the end of almost every row, so that the number of stitches in the last row is reduced to seventy-two, taking care to keep the pattern regular, and changing the colour every two rows. take up forty stitches, on each side, and knit one row of white round all the three sides: knit another row to make the pearl, and finish the border with white and coloured wool, as in the preceding cap. finish with ribbons, or cords and tassels. the border is knitted in white, and the middle shade of whatever colour is used in the head piece. this is prettiest in five distinct shades of any colour, with one or two rows of white between each division of shade. a bonnet cap. cast on ninety stitches, in hair-brown german wool, for border.--no. needles. _first, second, and third rows_--plain knitting. _fourth row_--bring the wool forward, knit two together. then,-- commence with another colour--say white. _fifth, sixth, and seventh rows_--plain knitting. _eighth row_--bring the wool forward, knit two together. repeat these last four rows seven times: then the brown border as before. they form a band of about four inches wide, which is to be drawn up at the two ends, and strings attached to tie it close to the chin. then, cast on forty stitches and commence another band with the brown border as above,--three rows of the pattern in white, and repeat the brown border. this is to be sewn or knitted on to the head piece, and forms the band for the back. a ribbon is to be run through it, to tie it close to the head. double knitting for comforters, etc. large-sized needles, no. , and four-thread fleecy, will be required. cast on any even number of stitches. _first row_--bring the wool forward, slip one; pass the wool back, knit one, turning the wool twice round the needle.--repeat to the end of the row. every succeeding row is the same.--the stitch knitted in one row, is the slip-stitch in the next. knitted lace. cast on twelve stitches with very fine cotton, or thread.--no. needles. _first row_--slip one; knit two; pearl one; knit two together; turn the thread once round the needle, knit two; pearl one; knit one; turn the thread once round the needle, knit two, taken together at the back. _second row_--slip one; knit one; turn the thread twice round the needle, knit two; pearl two together; turn the thread once round the needle, knit one; pearl two together; turn the thread twice round the needle, pearl two together; knit one. _third row_--slip one; knit two; pearl one; knit two; turn the thread once round the needle, knit two together, taken at the back; knit one; knit two together; knit three. _fourth row_--slip one; turn the thread once round the needle; pearl one; knit two together; turn the thread once round the needle, knit four; pearl two together; turn the thread twice round the needle, pearl two together; knit one. _fifth row_--slip one; knit two; pearl one; knit two; knit two together; turn the thread twice round the needle, knit three; pearl two together; knit one. _sixth row_--slip one; knit one, pass the slip-stitch over it; slip one; knit one, pass the slip-stitch over it; slip one; knit one, pass the slip-stitch over it; slip one; knit two; turn the thread once round the needle, pearl two together; turn the thread once round the needle, pearl two together; knit one; turn the thread twice round the needle, pearl two together; knit one. there should now be twelve stitches on the needle as at the commencement.--repeat from the first row. knitted insertion. cast on nine stitches in fine cotton; no. needles. slip one; knit two; bring the cotton forward, knit two together; knit one; bring the cotton forward, knit two together; pearl one.--repeat. this may be used for trimming muslin curtains, etc. coral trimming for a muslin dress. cast on two stitches.--no. needles, rather short. turn the wool round the needle, so as to bring it in front again; knit the two stitches, take together in the front. every row is the same. barley-corn stitch. cast on any uneven number of stitches, with eight-thread zephyr fleecy, or double german wool, and no. needles. slip the first stitch, keeping the wool in front of the needle; turn the wool round the needle, so as to bring it in front again; knit two together, taken in front. continue turning the wool round the needle, and knitting two together, to the end of the row. all the rows are the same. the two stitches, which are to be taken together, appear always as if tied together. a muff, in colours of sable. cast on seventy or eighty stitches. _first, second, and third rows_--plain knitting. _fourth row_--bring the wool forward, knit two together, taken at the back.--repeat to the end of the row. repeat these four rows, until the piece be about eighteen inches long, admitting that the shading comes in correctly. two no. needles are required, and double german wool, in four distinct shades to match the colour of sable. commence with the lightest shade,--then the second, third, and darkest, reversing them again to the lightest. another muff. cast on forty-five stitches.--no. needles. every row is worked the same, with a slip-stitch at the beginning;--knit one; pearl one.--repeat to the end of the row. it will require a piece of about twenty inches long, to make a moderate sized muff, which should be lined with gros de naples; and stuffed with wool, and a sufficient quantity of horse-hair to retain it in shape. cord and tassels to match the colour of the muff, may be sewn at the ends; or it may be drawn up with ribbons. close stitch for a waistcoat, &c. to be knitted in two colours,--say claret and blue.--no. needles. german wool. _first row_--with claret,--knit one; slip one.--repeat to the end of the row. _second row_--with claret,--knit one; bring the wool forward, slip one; pass the wool back, knit one.--repeat to the end of the row. _third row_--with claret,--slip one; knit one.--repeat to the end of the row. _fourth row_--with claret,--bring the wool forward, slip one; pass the wool back, knit one.--repeat to the end of the row. _fifth and sixth rows_--same as first and second,--in blue. commence again, as at first row. long sleeves to wear under the dress. no. needles, and six-thread embroidery fleecy. cast on forty-two stitches very loosely, and alternately knit, and pearl, three stitches, for twelve turns. knit ten turns plain. knit thirty-five turns plain,--increasing one stitch at the beginning and end of each turn. knit twenty turns, plain--increasing one stitch every other turn. repeat the twelve turns as at the commencement. the twelve following patterns are intended for d'oyleys, tidies, fish or basket napkins; they are to be worked with no. knitting cotton, and no. needles.--they may also be adapted, with a change of material, for shawls, counterpanes, bags, and many other articles. i. leaf and trellis pattern. cast on any number of stitches that may be divided by twenty,--twenty stitches forming each pattern. _first row_--pearl knitting. _second row_--knit five;(a) bring the thread forward, knit two together, three times; bring the thread forward, knit two; knit two together; knit ten.--repeat from (a). _third row_--pearl knitting. _fourth row_--knit six;(b) bring the thread forward, knit two together, three times; bring the thread forward, knit two; knit two together; knit five; knit two together; knit two; bring the thread forward, knit one.--repeat from (b). _fifth row_--pearl knitting. _sixth row_--knit seven;(c) bring the thread forward, knit two together, three times; bring the thread forward, knit two; knit two together; knit three; knit two together; knit two; bring the thread forward, knit three.--repeat from (c). _seventh row_--pearl knitting. _eighth row_--knit eight;(d) bring the thread forward, knit two together, three times; bring the thread forward, knit two; knit two together; knit one; knit two together; knit two; bring the thread forward, knit five.--repeat from (d). _ninth row_--pearl knitting. _tenth row_--knit nine;(e) bring the thread forward, knit two together, three times; bring the thread forward, knit two; slip one; knit two together, pass the slipped stitch over them; knit two; bring the thread forward, knit seven.--repeat from (e). _eleventh row_--pearl knitting. _twelfth row_--(f) knit five; knit two together; knit two; bring the thread forward, knit two together, three times; bring the thread forward, knit one; bring the thread forward, knit two; knit two together.--repeat from (f). _thirteenth row_--pearl knitting. _fourteenth row_--knit four;(g) knit two together; knit two; bring the thread forward, knit two together, three times; bring the thread forward, knit three; bring the thread forward, knit two; knit two together; knit three.--repeat from (g). _fifteenth row_--pearl knitting. _sixteenth row_--knit three;(h) knit two together; knit two; bring the thread forward, knit two together, three times; bring the thread forward, knit five; bring the thread forward, knit two; knit two together; knit one.--repeat from (h). _seventeenth row_--pearl knitting. _eighteenth row_--knit two; knit two together;(i) knit two; bring the thread forward, knit two together, three times; bring the thread forward, knit seven; bring the thread forward, knit two; slip one; knit two together, pass the slipped stitch over them.--repeat from (i). _nineteenth row_--pearl knitting. _twentieth row_--commence again, as at fourth row. ii. rose-leaf pattern. this pattern may be worked with any number of stitches that can be divided by ten, adding three stitches,--one for the symmetry of the pattern, and two for the borders. n.b. the termination of each row must be exactly the same (reversed) as the commencement. cast on forty-three stitches; pearl one row. _first row_--knit one;(a) pearl one; knit two together; knit two; bring the thread forward, knit one; bring the thread forward, knit two; knit two together.--repeat from (a). _second row_--knit one;(b) knit one; pearl two together; pearl one; bring the thread forward, turning it round the needle, pearl three; turn the thread round the needle, pearl one; pearl two together.--repeat from (b). _third row_--knit one;(c) pearl one; knit two together; bring the thread forward, knit five; bring the thread forward, knit two together.--repeat from (c). _fourth row_--knit one; pearl two together;(d) bring the thread forward, turning it round the needle, pearl seven; bring the thread forward, turning it round the needle, pearl three together.--repeat from (d). _fifth row_--knit two; bring the thread forward, knit two; knit two together; repeat, as in first row, from (a). _sixth row_--knit one; pearl two; bring the thread forward, turning it round the needle, pearl one; pearl two together; repeat, as in second row, from (b). _seventh row_--knit four; bring the thread forward, knit two together; repeat, as in third row, from (c). _eighth row_--knit one; pearl four; bring the thread forward, turning it round the needle, pearl three together; repeat, as in fourth row, from (d). _ninth row_--commence again, as at first row. iii. point pattern. cast on six stitches for each pattern, and two over for the edge. _first row_--knit two;(a) knit two together; bring the thread forward, knit one; bring the thread forward, knit two together; knit one.--repeat from (a). _second row_--plain knitting. _third row_--knit two together; knit one;(b) bring the thread forward, knit three; bring the thread forward, knit three together.--repeat from (b).--at the end of this row, plain knit the two last stitches. _fourth row_--plain knitting. _fifth row_--knit two;(c) bring the thread forward, knit two together; knit one; knit two together; bring the thread forward, knit one.--repeat from (c). _sixth row_--plain knitting. _seventh row_--knit three; bring the thread forward, knit three together; bring the thread forward.--repeat.--at the end of this row, bring the thread forward, knit two. _eighth row_--plain knitting. iv. gothic pattern. cast on any number of stitches that can be divided by ten.--knit four plain rows. _fifth row_--knit one; bring the thread forward, knit three;(a) slip one; knit two together, pass the slipped stitch over them; knit three; bring the thread forward, knit one; bring the thread forward, knit three.--repeat from (a). _sixth row_--pearl knitting. repeat the fifth and sixth rows three times, and commence again with the four plain rows. v. scotch pattern. cast on seven stitches for each pattern. _first row_--knit two; knit two together; bring the thread forward, knit one; bring the thread forward, knit two together.--repeat. _second row_--plain knitting. _third row_--knit one;(a) knit two together; bring the thread forward, knit three; bring the thread forward, knit two together.--repeat from (a). _fourth row_--plain knitting. _fifth row_--knit two; bring the thread forward, knit two together; knit one; knit two together; bring the thread forward.--repeat. _sixth row_--plain knitting. _seventh row_--knit two; bring the thread forward, knit two together; knit one; knit two together; bring the thread forward.--repeat. _eighth row_--plain knitting. _ninth row_--knit two; bring the thread forward, knit two together; knit one; knit two together; bring the thread forward.--repeat. _tenth row_--plain knitting. _eleventh row_--knit three; bring the thread forward, knit three together; bring the thread forward, knit one.--repeat. _twelfth row_--plain knitting. _thirteenth row_--knit three; knit two together; bring the thread forward, knit three.--repeat. _fourteenth row_--plain knitting. commence again, as at first row. vi. chevron pattern. cast on any number of stitches that can be divided by eight. _first row_--pearl knitting. _second row_--knit two together; knit three; bring the thread forward, knit three.--repeat. repeat these two rows twice,--making in all six rows. the pattern, as above worked, turns to the left; in the next six rows it should turn to the right,--this is to be done by bringing the thread forward before the open stitch of the preceding row. commence again as at first row, knitting alternately six rows with the pattern to the left, and six rows with the pattern to the right. vii. vandyke pattern. cast on any number of stitches that can be divided by ten. _first row_--pearl knitting. _second row_--plain knitting. _third row_--pearl knitting. _fourth row_--bring the thread forward, knit two; knit two together; pearl one; knit two together; knit two; bring the thread forward, knit one.--repeat. commence again, as at first row. viii. lace pattern. cast on any number of stitches that can be divided by six. _first row_--knit one; knit two together; bring the thread forward, knit one; bring the thread forward, knit two together.--repeat. _second row_--pearl knitting. repeat the two first rows, four times,--making altogether ten rows. _eleventh row_--knit two together;(a) bring the thread forward, knit three; bring the thread forward, knit three in one, (by slipping the first stitch, knitting the second, and passing the slip-stitch over the knitted one; then passing the last stitch off the right hand needle on to the left hand needle, and slipping the second stitch over the first, and passing the stitch back again on to the right-hand needle).--repeat from (a). _twelfth row_--pearl knitting. _thirteenth row_--knit one; bring the thread forward, knit two together; knit one; knit two together; bring the thread forward.--repeat.--finish this row by bringing the thread forward, and knitting two together, to prevent its decreasing. _fourteenth row_--pearl knitting. repeat the two last rows four times. _twenty-third row_--knit two;(b) bring the thread forward, knit three in one (as before); bring the thread forward, knit three.--repeat from (b). commence again, as at first row. ix. fish-bone pattern. cast on any uneven number of stitches. _first row_--slip one; knit one;(a) bring the thread forward, slip one, taking it in front; knit one, pass the slip-stitch over it; knit two.--repeat from (a).--there will be three plain stitches to knit at the end of the row. _second row_--slip one;(b) turn the thread round the needle, and bring it in front again; pearl two together; pearl two.--repeat from (b). x. german pattern. cast on twenty-one stitches for each pattern. _first row_--pearl knitting. _second row_--knit two together; knit three; knit two together; knit one; bring the thread forward, knit one; bring the thread forward, knit one; knit two together; knit three; knit two together; knit one; bring the thread forward, knit one; bring the thread forward, knit two.--repeat. _third row_--pearl knitting. _fourth row_--knit two together; knit one; knit two together; knit one; bring the thread forward, knit three; bring the thread forward, knit one; knit two together; knit one; knit two together; knit one; bring the thread forward, knit three; bring the thread forward, knit two.--repeat. _fifth row_--pearl knitting. _sixth row_--slip one; knit two together, pass the slip-stitch over them; knit one; bring the thread forward, knit five; bring the thread forward, knit one; slip one; knit two together, pass the slip-stitch over them; knit one; bring the thread forward, knit five; bring the thread forward, knit two.--repeat. _seventh row_--pearl knitting. _eighth row_--knit two; bring the thread forward, knit one; bring the thread forward, knit one; knit two together; knit three; knit two together; knit one; bring the thread forward, knit one; bring the thread forward, knit one; knit two together; knit three; knit two together--repeat. _ninth row_--pearl knitting. _tenth row_--knit two; bring the thread forward, knit three; bring the thread forward, knit one; knit two together; knit one; knit two together; knit one; bring the thread forward, knit three; bring the thread forward, knit one; knit two together; knit one; knit two together.--repeat. _eleventh row_--pearl knitting. _twelfth row_--knit two; bring the thread forward, knit five; bring the thread forward, knit one; slip one; knit two together, pass the slip-stitch over them; knit one; bring the thread forward, knit five; bring the thread forward, knit one; slip one; knit two together, pass the slip-stitch over them.--repeat. commence again, as at first row. xi. diamond pattern. cast on eight stitches for each pattern. _first row_--bring the thread forward, knit one; bring the thread forward, knit two together; knit three; knit two together.--repeat. _second row_--pearl knitting. _third row_--bring the thread forward, knit three; bring the thread forward, knit two together; knit one; knit two together.--repeat. _fourth row_--pearl knitting. _fifth row_--bring the thread forward, knit five; bring the thread forward, slip one; knit two together, pass the slip-stitch over them.--repeat. _sixth row_--pearl knitting. _seventh row_--knit two together; knit three; knit two together; bring the thread forward, knit one; bring the thread forward.--repeat. _eighth row_--pearl knitting. _ninth row_--knit two together; knit one; knit two together; bring the thread forward, knit three; bring the thread forward.--repeat. _tenth row_--pearl knitting. _eleventh row_--bring the thread forward, knit three; bring the thread forward, knit two together; knit one; knit two together.--repeat. commence again, from fourth row. xii. shell pattern. cast on twenty-five stitches for each pattern. _first row_--knit two together, four times; bring the thread forward, knit one, eight times; knit two together, four times; pearl one.--repeat. _second row_--pearl knitting. _third row_--plain knitting. _fourth row_--pearl knitting. commence again, as at first row. cable knitting. cast on any number of stitches that can be divided by six, in german wool--no. needles. _first row_--pearl knitting. _second row_--plain knitting. _third row_--pearl knitting. _fourth row_--plain knitting. _fifth row_--pearl knitting. _sixth row_--plain knitting. _seventh row_--pearl knitting. _eighth row_--slip three stitches on to a third needle, always keeping that needle in front; knit the next three stitches; then knit the three stitches that were slipped on the third needle; take the third needle again, and slip three more stitches on it, keeping it as before in front, and knit the next three stitches; then knit the three stitches slipped on the third needle; continue the same to the end of the row. commence again, as at first row. a purse. cast on one hundred stitches.--no. needles. _first row_--slip one; knit one, pass the slip-stitch over it; bring the silk forward, knit one; bring the silk forward, pearl one.--repeat to the end of the row. every succeeding row is the same. three skeins of coarse netting silk are required. it forms a strong gentleman's purse. pretty stitch for a purse. cast on any even number of stitches, with middle-sized netting silk.--no. needles. _first row_--plain knitting. _second row_--knit two together.--the first and last stitches in this row are to be knitted plain. _third row_--make one between each stitch, by taking up the silk between the stitches of the preceding row, except between the two last stitches. _fourth row_--plain knitting. _fifth row_--pearl knitting. repeat from second row. a pence jug, or purse. five needles, no. , with claret and green german wool. commence with the _handle_;--by casting on four stitches in claret, and knitting, in plain rows backwards and forwards, until it be two inches long. cast on six stitches on the same needle, twenty-six on the second, and ten on the third: then,-- knit from the first needle,--knit two; pearl two; alternately. with the second needle--pearl two; knit two; pearl two; pass the wool back, slip one; knit one, pass the slip-stitch over it; knit the remaining stitches plain, within seven of the end; then,--knit two together; knit one; pearl two; knit two. on the next needle--pearl two; knit two; alternately,--repeating three rounds, until twelve stitches only remain on the second needle, which finishes the _spout_. knit three rounds,--every two stitches, alternately pearled and plain. knit five rounds--green } every two stitches knit three rounds--claret } alternately pearled knit five rounds--green } and plain. knit one plain round, and pearl three rounds,--in claret. knit one plain round, bringing the wool forward between every two stitches. pearl three rounds. knit one plain round. in the next two rounds,--bring the wool forward, knit two together. then,-- knit one plain round with claret; pearl three rounds; knit one plain round; in the next two rounds, bring the wool forward and knit two together; knit one plain round; pearl three rounds. divide the stitches on the four needles,--twelve on each. then,-- in plain stocking knitting, knit five rounds, decreasing one alternately, at each end, and in the middle of the needle. knit three rounds more, decreasing occasionally. divide the stitches on three needles; knit a plain round, and pearl three rounds without decreasing; finish with plain rounds, decreasing until only four stitches remain on each needle. draw up the small opening and attach the lower end of the handle to the side of the jug. it may also be worked in silk. a strong purse. cast on any number of stitches that can be divided by three.--no. needles. _first row_--bring the wool forward, slip one; knit two, pass the slip-stitch over them.--repeat to the end of the row. _second row_--plain knitting. _third row_--knit two, before the pattern is commenced, that the holes may come in a diagonal direction. _fourth and fifth rows_--same as second and third. _sixth row_--same as first. this purse will take five skeins of second-sized netting silk. it particularly requires stretching. a pretty open stitch for a purse. four skeins of fine purse-silk, and four needles, no. , will be required. cast on twenty stitches on each of three needles. _first round_--plain knitting. _second round_--bring the silk forward, knit two together. repeat the above two rounds four times. _eleventh round_--plain knitting.--pass the last stitch of this round, after it is knitted, on to the next needle. _twelfth round_--commence by knitting two together, before bringing the silk forward;--this change causes the pattern to assume a kind of vandyke form. pass the last stitch of each needle of this round, on to the next needle. repeat the two last rounds four times;--commence again as at first round, working alternately the ten rounds of each pattern, until the opening of the purse be required to be made; this is to be worked in rows backwards and forwards, like the first ten rounds, in order to keep the edges even. the other end is then to be made like the first. open stitch purse with beads. second-size purse twist, and needles no. , are required. cast on sixty stitches in netting silk. _first row_--knit one; bring the silk forward, knit two together; bring the silk forward, pass on a bead, placing it behind the needle; knit two together.--continue the same to the end of the row, placing a bead every alternate pattern. _second row_--same as the first, without beads. _third row_--knit one; bring the silk forward, pass on a bead; then,--continue as in first row. a purse in fine silk. cast on three stitches, for each pattern.--no. needles. _first row_--bring the silk forward, knit two together; knit one.--repeat. _second row_--bring the silk forward, pearl two together; pearl one.--repeat. herringbone, or shetland stitch for a purse. cast on any number of stitches that can be divided by four.--no. needles. about eighty stitches will be required. _first row_--bring the silk forward, slip one; knit one, pass the slip-stitch over it; knit one; bring the silk forward, pearl one.--repeat to the end of the row. every row is the same. three skeins of second-sized silk will be required. the five following patterns will be found very pretty for bags;--they should be knitted with second-sized purse twist,--no. needles. i. diagonal check pattern bag. cast on eight stitches for each pattern. _first round_--pearl one; bring the silk forward, slip one; knit one, pass the slip-stitch over it; knit four; pearl one.--repeat. _second round_--pearl one; knit six; pearl one.--repeat. _third round_--pearl one; knit one; bring the silk forward, slip one; knit one, pass the slip-stitch over it; knit three; pearl one.--repeat. _fourth round_--repeat the second. _fifth round_--pearl one; knit two; bring the silk forward, slip one; knit one, pass the slip-stitch over it; knit two; pearl one.--repeat. _sixth round_--repeat the second. _seventh round_--pearl one; knit three; bring the silk forward, slip one; knit one, pass the slip-stitch over it; knit one; pearl one.--repeat. _eighth round_--repeat the second. commence again, as at first row. ii. lozenge pattern bag. cast on thirteen stitches for each pattern. _first round_--pearl two; knit four; bring the silk forward, slip one; knit two together, pass the slip-stitch over them; bring the silk forward, knit four.--repeat. _second round_--pearl two; knit two; knit two together; bring the silk forward, knit three; bring the silk forward, knit two together, taken at the back.--repeat. _third round_--pearl two; knit one; knit two together; bring the silk forward, knit five; bring the silk forward, knit two together, taken at the back; knit one.--repeat. _fourth round_--pearl two; knit two together; bring the silk forward, knit three; bring the silk forward, knit two together; knit two; bring the silk forward, knit two together, taken at the back.--repeat. _fifth round_--pearl two; knit two; bring the silk forward, knit two together, taken at the back; knit three; knit two together; bring the silk forward, knit two.--repeat. _sixth round_--pearl two; knit three; bring the silk forward, knit two together, taken at the back; knit one; knit two together; bring the silk forward, knit three.--repeat. commence again, as at first row. iii. hem-stitch pattern bag. cast on thirteen stitches for each pattern. _first round_--knit two; bring the silk forward, knit two together; knit one; bring the silk forward, knit two together; pearl one; bring the silk forward, slip one; knit one, pass the slip-stitch over it; pearl three.--repeat. _second round_--knit two together; bring the silk forward, knit one; knit two together; bring the silk forward, knit two; pearl two; bring the silk forward, slip one; knit one, pass the slip stitch over it; pearl two.--repeat. _third round_--knit two; bring the silk forward, knit two together; knit one; bring the silk forward, knit two together; pearl three; bring the silk forward, slip one; knit one, pass the slip-stitch over it; pearl one.--repeat. _fourth round_--knit two together; bring the silk forward, knit one; knit two together; bring the silk forward, knit two; pearl four; bring the silk forward, slip one; knit one, pass the slip-stitch over it.--repeat. _fifth round_--knit two; bring the silk forward, knit two together; knit one; bring the silk forward, knit two together; pearl six.--repeat. _sixth round_--knit two together; bring the silk forward, knit one; knit two together; bring the silk forward, knit two; pearl one; bring the silk forward, slip one; knit one, pass the slip-stitch over it; pearl three.--repeat. _seventh round_--knit two; bring the silk forward, knit two together; knit one; bring the silk forward, knit two together; pearl two; bring the silk forward, slip one; knit one, pass the slip-stitch over it; pearl two.--repeat. _eighth round_--knit two together; bring the silk forward, knit one; knit two together; bring the silk forward, knit two; pearl three; bring the silk forward, slip one; knit one, pass the slip-stitch over it; pearl one.--repeat. _ninth round_--knit two; bring the silk forward, knit two together; knit one; bring the silk forward, knit two together; pearl four; bring the silk forward, slip one; knit one, pass the slip-stitch over it.--repeat. _tenth round_--knit two together; bring the silk forward, knit one; knit two together; bring the silk forward, knit two; pearl six.--repeat. commence again, as at first row. iv. spider pattern bag. cast on any number of stitches that can be divided by six. _first round_--bring the silk forward, slip one; knit two together, pass the slip-stitch over them; bring the silk forward, knit three.--repeat. _second round_--plain knitting. _third round_--bring the silk forward, knit two together, twice; knit two.--repeat. _fourth round_--plain knitting. _fifth round_--bring the silk forward, knit three; bring the silk forward, slip one; knit two together, pass the slip-stitch over them.--repeat. commence again, as at first round. v. stripe pattern bag. cast on six stitches for each pattern. _first round_--turn the silk round the needle, pearl three; bring the silk forward, slip one; knit two together, pass the slip-stitch over them.--repeat. _second, third, and fourth rounds_--alternately pearl three and knit three. commence again, as at first round. a bag, with black or garnet beads. no. needles, eight skeins of netting silk, and four bunches of beads, including those for the fringe, will be required. thread half a bunch of beads on a skein of claret netting silk, and cast on eighty-eight stitches. _first and second rows_--plain knitting, without beads. _third row_--slip one; knit one with a bead; knit one.--repeat the same, alternately, to the end of the row. repeat from first row, eighty-four times. observe at the commencement of every row to make a slip-stitch. join up the two sides, leaving an opening at the top, and finish with two bars and a gold chain. a fringe of the garnet beads, with gold points, is the prettiest trimming. it should have a stiff lining. knitted fringe. this may be made of any sized wool or cotton, according to the purpose for which it is required; it may also be _spaced_ with two or more colours, working alternately six rows in each. cast on eight stitches. knit two; bring the wool forward, knit two together; knit one; bring the wool forward, knit two together; knit one. when a sufficient number of rows are knitted to form the length of fringe desired,-- cast off five stitches, leaving three to unravel for the fringe. with four-thread fleecy, no. needles may be used. vandyke border. this border is generally knitted in cotton, and may be used for muslin curtains, for knitted or netted fish napkins, and for "tidies" for the backs of chairs, or ends of sofas. cast on seven stitches, on no. needles. _first and second rows_--plain knitting. _third row_--slip one; knit two; turn over, knit two together; turn over twice, knit two together. _fourth row_--bring the thread forward, knit two; pearl one; knit two; turn over, knit two together; knit one. _fifth row_--slip one; knit two; turn over, knit two together; knit four. _sixth row_--knit six; turn over, knit two together; knit one. _seventh row_--slip one; knit two; turn over, knit two together; turn over twice, knit two together; turn over twice, knit two together. _eighth row_--knit two; pearl one; knit two; pearl one; knit two; turn over, knit two together; knit one. _ninth row_--slip one; knit two; turn over, knit two together; turn over twice, knit two together; turn over twice, knit two together; turn over twice, knit two together. _tenth row_--knit two; pearl one; knit two; pearl one; knit two; pearl one; knit two; turn over, knit two together; knit one. _eleventh row_--slip one; knit two; turn over, knit two together; knit nine. _twelfth row_--cast off all but seven; knit four; turn over, knit two together; knit one. this finishes the first vandyke.--commence again, as at third row. a warm half-square shawl. four-thread fleecy, or eight-thread zephyr fleecy, of two colours, say rose and white.--no. needles. cast on one stitch, rose colour, and increase at the beginning of every other row, until there are ten stitches on the needle. in the next row--knit seven stitches for the border, which is throughout in plain knitting; join on the white wool, and pearl three, increasing on the last stitch. in the next row--bring the wool forward, slip one; knit two, pass the slipped stitch over them; knit the remaining white stitch plain; knit the seven stitches for the border, twisting the two colours in the changing of them. in the next row--knit the seven stitches for the border; pearl the white, increasing at the end as before. repeat the two last rows, which comprise the whole pattern, until the shawl is of the required size, and finish with the plain knitted border, to correspond with the other side. n.b. in the fancy row of the white, when uneven stitches occur at the end of the row, they are to be knitted plain. a warm double knitted scarf, in two colours. cast on thirty-six stitches in blue six-thread fleecy.--no. needles. _first row_--bring the wool forward, slip one; pass the wool back, knit one, turning the wool twice round the needle.--repeat to the end of the row. each succeeding row is the same, observing that the knit-stitch always comes over the slip-stitch. it will require seven rows of blue, seven of white, seven of blue, thirty-eight of white, seven of blue, seven of white, and seven of blue. cast off and draw up the ends. finish with blue and white tassels. a border for a shawl or quilt. this border should be knitted separate, with the same sized needles and wool as the shawl or quilt, and afterwards sewn on. cast on any even number of stitches. _first row_--bring the wool forward, knit two together. _second row_--plain knitting. repeat these two rows alternately. raised knitting for a shawl. two no. and one no. needles should be used. cast on any even number of stitches, that may be required, with german wool. _first row_--with the small needle, alternately make one stitch, and knit two stitches together. _second row_--plain knitting, with large needle. _third row_--plain knitting, with small needle. _fourth row_--pearl knitting, with small needle. repeat, from the first row. this kind of knitting is also well adapted for hoods, muffs, cuffs, etc. it is very pretty for a shawl in stripes,--knitting three patterns alternately of each colour. for a shawl, one yard and a half square, about three hundred and sixty stitches would be required. a russian shawl, in brioche stitch. german wool.--no. needles. for a shawl one yard and a half square, about three hundred and sixty stitches will be required.--five shades each, of two different colours, turned back, with the lightest in the centre, knitting two rows of each shade, look very well.--the following are good colours,--scarlet and stone colour,--blue and brown,--lilac and red brown,--lilac and white. the brioche-stitch is simply--bring the wool forward, slip one; knit two together. a light stitch for a shawl. three-thread fleecy.--no. needles. cast on any even number of stitches.--bring the wool forward, knit two together, alternately, to the end of the row. every row is the same. star pattern shawl, in two colours. cast on four stitches in blue zephyr wool, or four-thread fleecy.--no. needles. _first row_--bring the wool forward, knit one,--(these two stitches form the increase, and therefore are _not_ to be _repeated_); bring the wool forward, slip one; knit two, pass the slip-stitch over them.--repeat the same to the end of the row. _second row_--pearl knitting in claret. _third row_--the same as first,--in blue. _fourth row_--the same as second,--in claret. repeat these rows alternately, in blue and claret, until there are one hundred and eighty stitches on the needle; cast off, and finish with a netted fringe. as the increasing adds an irregular stitch, some rows will have one, and others two knitted stitches, at their commencement. barège knitting for shawls. commence with any number of stitches that may be divided by three.--no. needles, finest _lady betty's_ wool.--knit one plain row. _second row_--bring the wool forward, knit three; bring the wool forward, knit three together, taking them off at the back. _third row_--pearl knitting. _fourth row_--bring the wool forward, knit three together, taking them off at the back; bring the wool forward, knit three. _fifth row_--pearl knitting. repeat from the second row. when a pattern, in one or more colours, is to be introduced, break off the ground colour, and fasten on the colour next to be used, in the following manner.--having made a slip knot in the end of the wool, pass it on the needle in the left hand: twist the end of the coloured wool and that of the ground, together,--knit, in plain knitting, the stitches required for the pattern, then fasten off, by making a loop, and commence again with the ground colour,--fastening on again as above. any number of colours may thus be introduced, to form flowers or other patterns, which, however, are always to be done in plain knitting. a shetland knitted scarf. commence with the pattern for the border, by casting on one hundred stitches for the width of the scarf.--no. needles, and four-thread embroidery, or _lady betty's_ wool. _first row_--knit two stitches together, four times; bring the wool forward, knit one, eight times; knit two stitches together, four times; pearl one.--repeat to the end of the row. _second row_--pearl knitting. _third row_--plain knitting. _fourth row_--pearl knitting. repeat from the first row, until the pattern be about fourteen inches deep. commence the centre as follows:--working one row of pearl knitting, before the pattern commences. _first row_--bring the wool forward, slip one; knit one, pass the slip stitch over it; knit one; pearl one.--repeat to the end of the row. _second and following rows_--repeat the first,--every row being alike. if the wool be split, it exactly imitates the shetland wool. in splitting, the wool will frequently break; but this is not important, as by laying the ends contrariwise, and twisting them together, a few stitches may be so knit, that the joins are not perceptible. both ends of the scarf are to be made alike, by reversing the knitting of the border. they may be finished with a tied, knitted, or netted fringe, of the same wool, without splitting, or of fine german wool. shetland pattern for a shawl. this should be worked in _lady betty's_ wool, or four-thread embroidery fleecy, with no. or needles. cast on any number of stitches that may be divided by six. _first row_--bring the wool forward, knit one; bring the wool forward, knit one;--slip one; knit two together, pass the slip-stitch over them; knit one. _second row_--pearl knitting. _third row_--bring the wool forward, knit three; bring the wool forward, slip one; knit two together, pass the slip-stitch over them. _fourth row_--pearl knitting. _fifth row_--knit one; slip one; knit two together, pass the slip-stitch over them; knit one; bring the wool forward, knit one; bring the wool forward. _sixth row_--pearl knitting. _seventh row_--slip one; knit two together, pass the slip-stitch over them; bring the wool forward, knit three; bring the wool forward. _eighth row_--pearl knitting. n.b. there are to be two plain stitches at the beginning and end of each row, to form an edge. other patterns for shawls. with fine shetland, or _lady betty's_ wool, and no. needles, most beautiful shawls may be knitted from the leaf and trellis pattern (page ), point pattern (page ), scotch pattern (page ), or lace pattern (page ). double diamond stitch for a quilt. this is prettiest in stripes of about five inches in width, in any two colours. cast on any number of stitches that can be divided by three, allowing two over, for a stitch at each end of the row. _first row_--plain knitting. _second row_--slip one;(a) bring the wool forward, slip one; knit two together.--repeat from (a).--plain knit the last stitch. _third row_--slip one; knit one; the next stitch is a double stitch (that is,--a stitch and a loop)--knit the stitch and slip the loop;--continue to knit the stitch and slip the loop, to the end of the row. _fourth row_--commence again, as at second row. in every other _second_ row, there will be a double stitch after the first one,--this is to be knitted without bringing the wool forward. all the other stitches are to be knitted the same as before. n.b. the last stitch of every row is to be knitted plain. a quilt. this may be knitted as a baby's quilt, or it may be done in small squares for a large quilt.--eight-thread zephyr fleecy.--no. needles. cast on any number of stitches that can be divided by three,--for a square of six inches, say forty-five; for a baby's quilt, two hundred and thirty-one. _first row_--slip one; knit two, taken together in the front;(a) turn the wool round the needle, and bring it again in front; slip one; knit two together.--repeat from (a). every row is alike. n.b. the two last stitches at the end of the row are to be--the first pearled,--the second knitted. a light and warm counterpane. six-thread fleecy in two colours--say blue and white; or, what is preferable, german quilt wool--needles no. , pointed at both ends. cast on any number of stitches in blue. _first row_--plain knitting, turning the wool twice round the needle. _second row_--join on the white wool, knit one; knit two together, turning the wool twice round the needle;--continue knitting two together, and turning the wool twice round the needle, to the end of the row, but plain knit the last stitch. _third row_--commence at the other end of the needle; knit two stitches taken together in front, twisting the wool twice round the needle. _fourth row_--white,--knit one; knit two together, turning the wool twice round the needle; knit one. _fifth row_--commence again as at third row. cross stitch pattern for a quilt. two colours,--say gold colour and white.--no. needles, pointed at both ends.--cast on any number of stitches. _first row_--white,--knit one plain stitch, turning the wool twice round the needle.--repeat to the end of the row. _second row_--gold colour,--joining on the colour where the last row of white commenced;--knit one plain stitch, turning the wool once round the needle; knit the long stitch and the one that was knitted in the last row together, turning the wool twice round the needle.--repeat to the end of the row,--when one stitch will be left, which is to be knitted the same as the plain stitch at the beginning of the row. _third row_--white,--knit two together, taken in the front, turning the wool twice round the needle.--repeat to the end of the row. _fourth row_--gold colour,--the same as the third,--knitting one plain stitch at the commencement of the row, and one plain stitch at the end of the row, twisting the wool once round the needle. _fifth row_--white,--knit two together, twisting the wool twice round the needle.--repeat to the end of the row. _sixth row_--commence again, as at second row. it may be as well to remark, that two rows are knitted at the back, and two at the front. another quilt. this should be knitted in stripes of six inches in width.--cast on any number of stitches that may be divided by three;--german quilt wool.--no. needles. _first row_--bring the wool forward, slip one; knit two, pass the slip-stitch over them.--repeat. _second row_--pearl knitting. _third row_--knit two, before the pattern is commenced, that the holes may come in a diagonal direction. _fourth row_--pearl knitting. _fifth row_--same as third. a quilt, or couvre-pied, in squares. this may be worked with zephyr fleecy,--no. needles, each piece being about three and a half inches square. every square is worked in two colours,--as blue and white; lilac and white; gold colour and white; green and white; etc. these pieces are afterwards to be joined together, arranging them, according to their several colours. each square, however, if preferred, may be worked the same. the following directions are for a square in green and white:-- _first row_--bring the wool forward, knit one,--in green. work _five_ more _rows_, in the same manner, when there should be seven stitches on the needle. _seventh row_--bring the wool forward, knit two,--in green; join on the white,--knit three;--join on another length of green,--knit two. _eighth row_--bring the green wool forward, knit two; pearl three, white; knit three, green. _ninth, and tenth rows_--knit to the end of each row, with green, increasing at the beginning, as before. _eleventh row_--bring the wool forward, knit two, green; knit seven, white; knit two, green. _twelfth row_--bring the wool forward, knit two, green; pearl seven, white; knit three, green. _thirteenth, and fourteenth rows_--knit to the end of each row, with green, increasing, as before. _fifteenth row_--bring the wool forward, knit two, green; knit eleven, white; knit two, green. _sixteenth row_--bring the wool forward, knit two, green; pearl eleven, white; knit three, green. _seventeenth, and eighteenth rows_--same as thirteenth and fourteenth.--there should now be nineteen stitches on the needle,--one half of the square being completed. the decreasing then commences as follows:-- _nineteenth row_--slip one, knit two together, knit one, green; knit eleven, white; knit four green. _twentieth row_--slip one, knit two together, knit one, green; pearl eleven, white; knit three, green. _twenty-first, and twenty-second rows_--green--decreasing at the beginning of each row. _twenty-third row_--slip one, knit two together, knit one, green; knit seven, white; knit four, green. _twenty-fourth row_--slip one, knit two together, knit one, green; pearl seven, white; knit three, green. _twenty-fifth, and twenty-sixth rows_--green,--decreasing, as before. _twenty-seventh row_--slip one, knit two together, knit one, green; knit three, white; knit four, green. _twenty-eighth row_--slip one, knit two together, knit one, green; pearl three, white; knit three, green. the white is now done with. the square is to be finished with plain rows of green,--decreasing, at the commencement of each. a cover for an air pillow. cast eighty stitches on each of three needles, no. .--three-thread fleecy. _first round_--bring the wool forward, knit one.--repeat. _second round_--slip one; knit one, pass the slip stitch over it.--repeat. repeat the first and second rounds, alternately. a baby's hood. four-thread _lady betty's_ wool,--pink and white may be used. eight needles will be required, viz. four no. , two no. , and two, each one inch in circumference. cast on eighty-two stitches, with pink, no. needles,--knit four plain rows. knit four plain rows. } } bring the wool forward, knit two } together. } white. } knit three plain rows. } repeat the last four rows, six times.--there will now be thirty-six rows from the commencement. cast sixteen more stitches on the same needle, to form the piece at the back.--repeat six more rows of the pattern.--knit two plain rows in pink;--then, divide the stitches on three no. needles, to form a round,--as a commencement for the crown. knit _three_ plain _rounds._ _fourth round_--bring the wool forward, knit two together.--repeat. _fifth round_--knit two together; knit twelve.--repeat. _sixth round_--knit two together; knit eleven.--repeat. _seventh round_--knit two together; knit ten.--repeat. _eighth round_--plain knitting. _ninth round_--bring the wool forward, knit two together.--repeat. _tenth round_--knit nine; knit two together.--repeat. _eleventh round_--knit eight; knit two together.--repeat. _twelfth round_--knit seven; knit two together.--repeat. _thirteenth round_--plain knitting. _fourteenth round_--bring the wool forward, knit two together.--repeat. _fifteenth round_--knit two together; knit eight.--repeat. _sixteenth round_--knit two together; knit seven.--repeat. _seventeenth round_--knit two together; knit six.--repeat. _eighteenth round_--plain knitting. _nineteenth round_--bring the wool forward, knit two together.--repeat. _twentieth round_--knit eight; knit two together.--repeat. _twenty-first round_--knit seven; knit two together.--repeat. _twenty-second round_--knit six; knit two together.--repeat. _twenty-third round_--plain knitting. _twenty-fourth round_--bring the wool forward, knit two together.--repeat. _twenty-fifth round_--knit two together; knit five.--repeat. _twenty-sixth round_--knit two together; knit four.--repeat. _twenty-seventh round_--knit two together; knit three.--repeat. _twenty-eighth round_--plain knitting. the crown is now finished; it is to be drawn up with a needle and wool. the opening at the back must be sewn up; and a band, corresponding with the plain knitting in front, is to be formed by raising fifty-six stitches in pink, and knitting three plain rows, with the no. needles. then, with white, cast sixteen stitches on the same needle, and knit seventy-two stitches; cast on sixteen stitches, and knit three rows of eighty-eight stitches. in the next row,--bring the wool forward, knit two together. knit six plain rows. with the large needles, form the ruff, by knitting two rows in white, and two in pink; then, work twenty-two rows--knitting four rows in white, and two in pink, alternately. cast off, and sew it, so as to form a very loose double ruff round the throat. for the front of the hood, raise eighty-two stitches, and, with the no. needles, knit one plain row. then, with the large needles,--knit two plain rows in white; two in pink; and four in white. cast off.--this, when sewn double, finishes the borders of the hood. it is to be drawn, with ribbon, at the back and front. a baby's sock. cast on twenty-eight stitches in _pink_ german wool.--no. needles. knit six turns, increasing a stitch at each row, to form the toe and heel. knit six more turns, increasing a stitch at one end only, for the toe. cast off thirty stitches on another needle;--knit the remaining sixteen stitches, for eighteen turns, and cast them off on another needle. with _white_,--pick up the thirty pink stitches;--knit three plain rows;--in the next row, bring the wool forward, knit two together. knit three plain rows; leave sixteen stitches on the needle, and repeat the pattern in white, across the instep, seven times, which is afterwards to be sewn to the pink knitting for the toe. cast on sixteen stitches in white,--to correspond with the other side. knit two plain rows;--in the next, bring the wool forward, knit two together,--the whole length of the row;--knit one plain row in pink, taking up the stitches that were cast off for the toe. this side of the shoe is to be made to correspond with the other, by decreasing instead of increasing.--the shoe and the white in the instep will now be finished. pick up the stitches both of the shoe and instep;--knit three plain turns. take a larger needle,--bring the wool forward, knit two together, forming the holes to pass the ribbon through. knit three plain turns with the small needle. in the next row, bring the wool forward, knit two together. knit three plain rows. in the next,--bring the wool forward, knit two together; repeat the same, until the sock be of the height desired.--cast off very loosely. another baby's sock. four-thread fleecy, or four-thread _lady betty's_ wool.--no. needles. cast on twenty-six stitches. _first row_--pearl two; knit two; alternately, to the end of the row. _second row_--knit two; pearl two. _third row_--pearl two; knit two. _fourth row_--pearl knitting. repeat the above four rows, twelve times,--making altogether fifty-two rows--but, in the fifty-second row, pearl fourteen stitches only, and cast off the remaining twelve stitches. then,-- raise fourteen stitches, pearling them at the same time, at the commenced end, leaving twelve, to correspond with those cast off at the other end. repeat the four rows, as before, three times,--making in all twelve rows. fasten off, by drawing up these stitches with a needle and wool, to form the toe, and sew up the shoe at the sole. twenty-seven stitches are now to be raised at the top of the shoe, round the leg; then,--alternately pearl one row, and knit one row, for five rows, and cast off.--this forms a finish to the top. the shoe is to be laced across with ribbon. a baby's stocking. cast on twenty-three stitches in brown,--no. needles, and knit six turns,--increasing one stitch at each end, for the toe and heel. knit six turns, increasing one stitch only, at the toe. there will now be forty-one stitches on the needle. cast off twenty-five stitches, and knit the remaining sixteen stitches, for eighteen turns. one side of the shoe and instep will now be made. cast on twenty-five stitches, and work the other side of the shoe to correspond. pick up the stitches, with white, across the instep. knit two turns, catching in one loop of the sides of the shoe, in each row, to join them together. knit one turn in brown; two in white; one in brown; two in white; and one in brown.--the shoe and instep will now be finished. pick up the stitches of the shoe, on each side of the piece which forms the instep. there should now be forty stitches on the needle. knit seven turns in white; then, eighteen turns, increasing a stitch at the beginning and end of every other turn. knit three plain turns; then eighteen turns,--decreasing one stitch in every other turn, at the beginning and end. forty stitches will now be found on the needle. knit and pearl two, alternately, for five turns. knit two plain rows. knit one row in red; then, cast off loosely. the shoe is to be sewn up into its shape, and the stocking closed up. a carriage boot. two colours,--say blue and claret,--four, or six-thread fleecy,--needles no. . cast seventeen stitches on each of three needles, with claret; pearl six rounds, knit five rounds.--then,-- with blue,--knit one round, pearl one round, alternately, for six rounds. with claret,--repeat the last six rounds. repeat the two last stripes, twice. then,-- from the first needle,--knit fourteen stitches, with claret; join on the blue; knit twenty-three, leaving fourteen stitches (claret), corresponding with the other side, on the third needle; then, turn back and knit five rows, slipping the first stitch at the commencement of each row. repeat the last stripe, three times; first--with claret, second--with blue, third--with claret. in the next three stripes of the alternate colours, knit two together at the commencement, and end, of every third row. then,--knit one stripe (claret), knitting two together at the commencement of each row. cast off.--this finishes the front of the boot. commence again at the fourteen claret stitches that were left on the first needle,--knit these, and cast on another thirty-six stitches in claret; knit six plain rows.--in the next row, knit two together, at the commencement. knit nine more rows, knitting two together at the commencement of every other row.--in the next four rows,--knit two together at the commencement of each row.--this completes the first half of the foot. knit the fourteen remaining stitches on the third needle, casting on thirty-six stitches, as before, and finish the other half of the foot in the same manner. the two halves of the foot are then to be sewn together, and the foot sewn to the front of the boot. a double-knitted night-sock. cast on eighty-eight stitches in white, four or six-thread fleecy.--no. needles. n.b. in every row the first stitch is to be slipped;--the last stitch is to be plain knitted. _first row_--plain knitting. _second row_--knit one, pass the wool forward; slip one, pass the wool back.--repeat. repeat the second row, twenty-eight times. _thirty-first row_--knit sixty-two stitches, the same as second row; then,--knit two together, to the end of the row. _thirty-second row_--cast off twenty-five stitches; knit thirty-eight stitches, same as second row; cast off remaining twenty-five stitches. knit nineteen rows, the same as second row. _fifty-second row_--slip one; knit two together; knit fourteen stitches, the same as second row; knit two together; knit the remaining stitches, the same as second row. _fifty-third row_--repeat the last. _fifty-fourth row_--slip one; knit two together; knit the remaining stitches, the same as second row. repeat the last row, seven times. _sixty-second row_--slip one; knit two together; knit eight stitches, the same as second row; knit two together; knit the remaining stitches, the same as second row. _sixty-third row_--repeat the last. knit three rows, the same as second row. draw up the stitches for the toe, and sew up the back and front. a frileuse or neck tippet. cast on thirty stitches, with double german wool.--needles, one inch and three quarters in circumference. plain knit thirty rows, slipping the first stitch of every row.--cast off loosely. tie with cords and small tassels. wheel pattern for tidies, etc. _flax knitting thread_, no. .--needles, no. . cast on any number of stitches that can be divided by ten. _first row_--knit one; bring the thread forward, knit three; slip one; knit two together, pass the slip-stitch over them; knit three; bring the thread forward.--repeat. _second row_--plain knitting. repeat these two rows, alternately. knitted coral. cast on four stitches, with fine flat scarlet worsted braid, no. needles. plain knitting, but slipping the first stitch of every row. hints on knitting. a plain stitch at the beginning of each row, commonly called an _edge stitch_, is a great improvement in most instances, as it makes an uniform edge, and the pattern is kept more even at its commencement. in most knitting, the edge-stitch is slipped. it is easiest to learn to knit, by holding the wool over the fingers of the left hand; the position of the hands is more graceful when thus held. it is always advisable to cast off loosely. when it is requisite to cast off, and continue the row on a separate needle, it is sometimes better to run a coarse silk through the cast off stitches; they are easily taken up, when required, and the inconvenience of the idle needle is avoided. in knitting, when a pattern is spoken of, it means as many rows as form the pattern. the end. _just published, in post vo. elegantly bound, price s. d. carefully revised, and considerably enlarged, with additional woodcuts of patterns, etc._ the third edition of the hand-book of needlework, being a complete guide to every kind of decorative needlework, crochet, knitting, and netting, with a brief historical account of each art. by miss lambert. contents: chap. i. introduction. ii. tapestry. iii. materials in general. iv. wool. v. silk. vi. gold and silver. vii. chenille, braid, etc. viii. canvas. ix. berlin patterns. x. implements. xi. drawing patterns for embroidery, braiding, etc. xii. framing work. xiii. embroidery. xiv. stitches. xv. canvas work. xvi. braiding and appliqué. xvii. bead work. xviii. crochet. xix. knitting. xx. netting. xxi. needlework of the english queens and princesses. xxii. "the praise of the needle." with one hundred and fifteen illustrative engravings on wood, of patterns, implements, etc. critical notices of the work. "one of mr. murray's series of handbooks, which seem destined to embrace all the arts of life as well as all the sights in the world. miss lambert's treatise is one of practical utility, its information being the product of experience: after sketching the history of needlework, it proceeds to describe the various kinds of materials used, such as wool, silk, gold thread, beads, &c.; the canvas, patterns, frames, and implements, required; the different kinds of stitches; the mode of working certain patterns and shapes; the processes of embroidery, knitting, and netting. the volume is very handsomely got up, and illustrated profusely with wood-cuts; nothing seems wanting to its completeness."--_spectator._ "we venture to recommend it as containing a great deal of practical information respecting embroidery, frame work, knitting, netting, braiding, bead work, and other profound mysteries, of which we, of the uglier sex, know nothing.... we soon became interested in the historical portion, which is gracefully and well written--so that the work is a good book, instructive when the party consulting it desires instruction, and amusing whenever she is weary of work. miss lambert observes in her preface, that she has endeavoured, and we will add successfully, 'to embrace those subjects which appeared most worthy of notice in a treatise on decorative needlework, and by combining a brief historical sketch, with a detailed account of the practice of each department, to render them more generally interesting than a mere manual of directions and examples.'"--_athenæum._ "this is the most curious, complete, and erudite treatise on the art of needlework that has, probably, ever been compiled.... the variety, fulness, and systematic arrangement of the book, not to say one word about its numerous engravings, and the remarkably elegant style in which it is 'gotten up,' demand unmixed applause."--_atlas._ "a very elegant and useful work. the directions how to ply the needle are plain and easy of comprehension, and the plates which accompany the letterpress and illustrate the designs, will be found of great assistance to the ready acquirement of the art and its numerous principles. the ample instructions for drawing patterns, purchasing implements, framing, and properly finishing work, will be found not the least available portion of the book."--_literary gazette._ "an eminently practical work; clear in its explanation, precise in its directions, natural in its arrangements. the style is simple and easy; the collateral information abundant. its value is enhanced by historical notices, which have been prepared with judgment and knowledge, and are not disfigured by the slightest affectation."--_polytechnic review._ "the first edition of miss lambert's 'hand-book' has been entirely sold off, a better proof of its excellence than aught we could say in its behalf; and a second edition has just appeared with an embossed cover, which will render it an ornament to the drawing-room table, as well as an object of utility from the nature of its contents. to this edition several new patterns and engravings have been added, and additional directions for crochet, knitting, netting, &c."--_morning post._ "the authoress seems to be thoroughly mistress of her craft, and has produced not only a very instructive, but a very amusing volume upon a branch of the fine arts now become again so fashionable.... a more elegant or entertaining volume can scarcely be found on a drawing-room table."--_globe._ "this is a pleasant book, a good book, and a book worthy to be bought by mothers and daughters, and studied, _con amore_, in quiet parlours and snug nurseries. it is well produced. its knowledge is practical, as a few extracts, which may be of advantage to our readers, will best show."--_pictorial times._ "replete with excellent _practical_ information, clear and concise rules for acquiring a knowledge of all the varied branches of the art, illustrated by a series of beautifully executed designs, representing implements, patterns, material, and numerous articles of modern fancy-work, eminently calculated to initiate the unlearned (aye, and learned too) in all the mysteries of tent-stitch, embroideries, braid, appliqué, bead, chenille, canvas, and berlin work, &c. in short, the work justifies its title; it possesses an elegant exterior, and we prognosticate that few ladies will willingly dispense with so much silent instruction."--_sunday times._ "the pretty volume now before us, has been compiled with exceeding care, and strict attention to the most minute details; all is well-arranged.... the illustrations are a valuable addition to the interest and information of a volume which deserves a place on the table of every lady."--_art union._ "a new and carefully revised edition of this very elegant work is here presented to us, and we do not hesitate to assure our fair readers, that they will find it highly deserving of a place on the boudoir and drawing-room tables. the volume, we should premise, is exclusively devoted to ornamental needlework, and will be found as interesting as it is useful, for, in addition to very clear and accurate instructions for acquiring a proficiency in every branch of the art, it contains an historical notice of its cultivation from the earliest ages."--_court journal._ "this 'hand-book' cannot fail to assist the best taste; _utile et dulce_ have been carefully blended, and the descriptive letter-press has evidently been given by a well-informed mind."--_court gazette._ "this elegantly printed volume contains a complete encyclopædia of information for the fair votaries of the needle. the various mysteries of tapestry work, embroidery-work, and so forth, are fully laid open, with a clearness of statement, and completeness of direction, which leave nothing to desire."--_illustrated london news._ london: john murray, albemarle street. richards, printer, , st. martin's lane. the ladies' library, of rural household economy. _the following volumes are now published:_ vol. .--gardening, with a calendar of practical operations and directions for every month in the year. by mrs. loudon. with illustrative woodcuts. _sixth edition_. fcap. vo., s. vol. .--modern botany; or, a popular introduction to the natural system and classification of plants. by mrs. loudon. with one hundred and fifty illustrations. fcap. vo., s. vol. .--farming; or, plain directions for rearing all sorts of domestic poultry; with the best mode of managing the dairy and piggery, together with useful hints on the rural economy of small families. by author of "british husbandry." with woodcuts. fcap. vo. vol. .--domestic cookery, suited to the present advanced state of the art, but founded upon principles of economy and practical knowledge, and adapted for the use of private families. by mrs. rundell. _sixty-fifth edition._ improved by the addition of nine hundred new receipts, and a chapter on indian cookery. fcap. vo., s. _of this volume upwards of , copies have been sold._ vol. .--family receipts; a collection of more than a thousand valuable receipts in various branches of domestic economy. _new edition._ fcap. vo. s. d. vol. .--vegetable physiology. by mrs. loudon. with numerous illustrations. fcap. vo. (_just ready._) _each volume is strongly bound in cloth, and may be purchased separately._ [turn over. elementary works for young persons. i. mrs. markham's history of england, from the first invasion by the romans, to the end of the reign of william the fourth, with conversations at the end of each chapter. _tenth edition_, with numerous woodcuts. vols. mo. s. ii. mrs. markham's history of france, from the conquest of gaul by julius cæsar, to the reign of louis philippe, with conversations at the end of each chapter. _fifth edition_, with numerous woodcuts. vols. mo. s. iii. bertha's journal during a visit to her uncle in england; with a variety of interesting and instructive information. _fifth edition._ mo. s. d. iv. conversations on nature and art, for the information and amusement of young persons. by a lady. vols. mo. s. d. each. v. philosophy in sport made science in earnest; or the first principles of natural philosophy inculcated by aid of the ordinary toys and sports of youth. _fifth edition._ with woodcuts. fcap. vo. s. vi. sentences from the proverbs, in english, french, italian, and german. for the daily use of young persons. by a lady. mo. s. d. vii. letters from italy to a younger sister. with sketches of history, literature, and art. by catherine taylor. _second edition._ vols. mo. s. viii. little arthur's history of england. by lady callcott. _sixth edition._ mo. s. ix. stories from the history of england for children. _thirteenth edition._ mo. s. x. progressive geography for children. by the author of "stories for children." _third edition._ mo. s. xi. gospel stories for children. an attempt to render the chief events of the life of our saviour intelligent and profitable to young children. _second edition._ mo. s. d. xii. year book of natural history, arranged for each month. by mrs. loudon. with woodcuts. mo. s. * * * * * john murray, albemarle street. * * * * * transcriber's note: the following printer's errors have been corrected in the text: netting needle gauge "guage" printed for "gauge" in original a brioche[a]. missing footnote marker added _fourth row_--with claret,--bring the wool forward, slip one; pass the wool back, knit one.--repeat to the end of the row. "on" printed for "one" in original knit one, pass the slip-stitch over it; pearl one.--repeat. "slip-stich" printed for "slip-stitch" in original knit nineteen rows, the same as second row. "twenty" in original, needs to be nineteen to fit into pattern +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | transcriber's notes | | | | * minor typographical errors have been corrected silently. | | | | * inconsistencies in spelling (including hyphenation) and | | formatting have not been corrected, except that sandpaper has | | been changed to sand-paper. | | | | * special characters and formatting: | | * a v-shaped symbol is represented as [v]; | | * text printed in italics and bold face in the original work are | | represented here as _text_ and =text=, respectively; | | * small capitals in the original work are represented by all- | | capitals; | | * superscript characters in the original work are represented | | here as regular characters. | | * asterisms are represented as [***]; | | * in-line illustrations are represented as [figure]; | | * in the multi-page table the repeated headings and 'carry | | forward' / 'carried forward' have been removed. | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ hand-craft. drawing books. kindergarten drawing book. part i. compiled by t. g. rooper. two hundred blackboard drawing exercises for infants' classes. small quarto, cloth, price s. d. kindergarten drawing book. part ii. compiled by t. g. rooper. (curved lines.) small quarto, cloth, price s. infants' drawing books. _a varied occupation._ book i. vertical and horizontal lines of varying lengths in combination. book ii. vertical and horizontal lines, with oblique lines drawn at angles of degrees. book iii. vertical and horizontal lines, with oblique lines drawn at various angles. price twopence each. _recommended by the science and art department for beginning in elementary day schools._ junior drawing books. =three books. price twopence each.= drawing books. _to meet the requirements of the new class subject--drawing--and forming a complete course of instruction in freehand and geometry, with full directions and space for working._ freehand. book i. lines, angles, parallels. simple right-lined forms. book ii. simple right-lined forms. book iii. simple combinations of straight and curved lines, forming familiar symmetrical figures. book iv. more advanced combinations of straight and curved lines, forming symmetrical figures. books v. & vi. familiar symmetrical objects of the home. books vii. & viii. stage ii. of the science and art department. books ix. & x. common objects in light and shade. _ inches by - / inches, paper covers, twopence each._ _books i.-viii. have sixteen pages. books ix. and x. eight pages._ geometry. book i. lines, parallels, angles and triangles drawn with rulers. book ii. quadrilaterals and simple geometrical figures drawn with rulers. book iii. lines and angles. book iv. drawing to scale. book v. triangles, quadrilaterals, circles and tangents. book vi. polygons, ellipses, inscribed and described figures. book vii. inscribed and described figures. book viii. proportionals and areas. book ix. simple scales, projection of rectangular solids, and plane figures. book x. ditto (more advanced), and with sections. book xi. projection of circular solids and sections. _books i.-viii., inches by - / inches, paper covers, twopence each._ _books ix.-xi., inches by - / inches, paper covers, threepence each._ [***] _a book of specimen pages of this series will be forwarded free to head-teachers on application. single copies of any of the books are sent post-free on receipt of the published price._ studies in machine design. by c. f. archer, certificated teacher, subject ii. elementary stage. . hexagon and square-headed bolts and nuts. . flange coupling of shafts of different diameter. . hydraulic pipe joint. . steam piston. . cylinder cover and stuffing box. . full way stop valve. _on separate sheets, - / inches by - / inches, the six in a packet_, =sixpence=. advanced stage. . launch engine. . details of crank shaft and columns. . details of slide valve and link motion. . details of piston, crosshead, and connecting rod. . launch engine cylinder. . details of bed-plate. _on separate sheets, - / inches by - / inches, the six in a packet_, =sixpence=. griffith, farran, okeden & welsh, london. hand-craft: _the most reliable basis of technical education in schools and classes._ a text book embodying a system of pure mechanical art, without the aid of machinery; being an english exposition of slÖjd as cultivated in sweden, and generally adopted by all scandinavian peoples, to their great advantage. _explained and illustrated_ by john d. sutcliffe, of the manchester recreative evening classes. with an introduction by t. c. horsfall, j.p. new york charles e. merrill & co. & lafayette place introduction. it is surprising that so few efforts have hitherto been made in this country to introduce manual training into elementary schools. adequate reason for making such training part of the national system of education exists in the fact, that a large proportion of the people have to earn their livelihood by industries for the attainment of a high degree of skill in which early training of hand and eye is as necessary as it is for success in the use of musical instruments. there can be no doubt that if, in , a system, resembling that of sloyd, had been generally introduced into english elementary schools, the joiners, metal-workers, and most other craftsmen of to-day, would possess more skill in their own work, and more interest in all kinds of manual work, than they do now possess, and that english workpeople, finding that their children received at school kinds of training obviously well fitted to increase wage-earning power, would less commonly than now be careless with regard to their children's attendance at school. this reason for desiring the introduction of manual training into elementary schools might have been expected to suggest itself to all persons who are acquainted with the conditions under which the mass of english people live; but experience gained in sweden and other countries where the sloyd system has been largely used, proves that there are also strong educational reasons for desiring that sloyd shall be introduced into all english elementary schools as soon as possible. it has been found that this admirably graduated system of training not only fosters deftness of hand and correctness of eye, as it might be expected to do, but also has distinctly moral and intellectual effects, as it promotes patient attention, steady application, and interest in work, to a very high degree. its effect on many of the large class of children who, though not dullards, show lack of interest in, and deficiency in the power to understand, the subjects comprised in the ordinary school-curriculum, has been most beneficial. in their sloyd-lessons many of these children have found themselves the equals, some more than the equals, of companions far their superiors at book-work, and have by this gained a confidence in their own ability which has often reacted on their power and their will to conquer their other lessons. thus many children who, when they first began sloyd, were distinctly below the average in intelligence, have become under its influence completely "normal." on nearly all children the effect of this kind of training has been so vivifying that, at least, as much progress has been made with other subjects, when several hours weekly have been given to sloyd, as had been made previously when all the school-time was given to them. the general educational value of sloyd has, indeed, been found to be so great, that in some schools in swedish towns as many as eight hours are given to it each week. all persons who know how badly prepared are the majority of the children who now leave our elementary schools for gaining rapidly skill in the work by which they have to live, or for taking an intelligent interest in their own work or in the best handiwork of others, most strongly desire that the educational authorities in this country will no longer delay the introduction of a system, the great usefulness of which has been so fully ascertained in other lands, and for which many well-trained english teachers can now be obtained. mr sutcliffe brought to the careful study of sloyd, knowledge of the methods of wood-carving; and his treatise will doubtless be found to be helpful to all teachers of the new system. t. c. horsfall, j.p. swanscoe park, near macclesfield. * * * * * note by the author. some friends have advised that elementary suggestions should have been given as guidance for the use of the tools. everything of the kind has been omitted, because it is vain to rely upon book knowledge in such matters. how to handle and use the tools can only be well imparted by a competent teacher in practice. the author avails himself of two more lines, wherein to acknowledge the valuable literary assistance he has received from his friend, mr richard russell, of ashbourne house, herne hill, london. j. d. s. pendleton, manchester, _march ._ hand-craft. for some generations there has been cultivated in sweden, and amongst scandinavian and kindred peoples, a course of training in personal ingenuity, unknown in most other countries. it does not seem to have ever been persevered in after the manner of trading industry, but as a means of promoting throughout the community a taste and skill for the performance of highly-finished productions in mechanical art, proceeding from the simple to the complex, and resulting in a widely-diffused facility for all kinds of constructive occupations. such course or system of training is called sloyd, and written slöjd. for the majority of english people such a word cannot have a meaning, and cannot appeal with adequate force to popular appreciation. the nearest equivalent in english to the swedish word slöjd would seem to be hand-craft, or mechanical training for the hand, undertaken voluntarily for the satisfaction of acquiring manual skill in general, as distinguished from a handicraft of limited application, pursued of necessity from day to day, rather by routine than by skill. hand-craft is therefore adopted as synonymous in england with the word slöjd in sweden. as cultivated in sweden, it involves all kinds of manual training, and is applicable to highly finished productions in leather, metal, and various other substances, but it suffices, for educational purposes, to limit teaching and exercise to objects made of wood. it must always be borne in mind that hand-craft is mainly educational, and is valuable, not for what it produces, but for the training which the production involves; just as the letters of the alphabet, and their accurate use, are the essential preliminaries to literary attainments. it imparts and cultivates mechanical dexterity, just as learning to read and write spontaneously developes mental capacity. therefore, whoever masters a course of hand-craft acquires an aptitude for all kinds of material processes. such an aptitude, while useful and gratifying to the individual, is of the greatest consequence amongst people so deeply interested as the english are in manufacturing pursuits. hand-craft also has strong claims to be cultivated as a recreation, and experience proves that it may be so regarded, with every prospect of becoming popular as such. touching this matter of recreation, and those who have not the faculty for viewing the subject in that light, reference may be made to familiar facts with reference to chess. perhaps there is nothing that, to the uninitiated, appears more stupid, insipid, and purposeless than the progress of that game. yet there are thousands, who have so regarded it, who, after being well initiated, have become interested and absorbed by it, to an extent exceeding the possibilities of their original belief. so it is with hand-craft, with this difference, that hand-craft, while supplying an incentive to wholesome perseverance, developing into a fascinating recreation, is suggestive at every turn of life-long utility, with reference to an infinite variety of probable subsequent experience. it promotes a delightful consciousness of the merits of neat, natty tastefulness and judgment with reference to every material thing, and trains the mind and the eye, as well as the hand, to perceive and appreciate excellence of design and finish, proportion, beauty, and adaptability of the most familiar appliances. training of this kind has, in recent years, been much stimulated by the establishment of an institute or seminary for its teaching and cultivation at nääs in sweden, where very generous accommodation and facilities are provided for the instruction of teachers from all parts of sweden and the rest of the world. the subsequent mission of each of those teachers is to diffuse the taste and knowledge he has thus acquired amongst his own people on his return to them, or amongst other people where he may find encouragement to settle for that purpose. thus have the foundations been laid for this genial drawing out and exercise of latent mechanical genius amongst the people of england. with the object of widening those foundations, these pages have been prepared; primarily as forming a text book for teachers, but also as an incentive to parents, educationists, and statesmen to fortify the rising generation of england against the opprobrium so justly alleged against the english of the present day, that they are behind the rest of the industrial world in those elements of mechanical taste and skill, which are becoming more and more essential to the maintenance of manufacturing and commercial prosperity. an earnest determination to promote amendment in these respects cannot be better carried into effect than by insisting that hand-craft shall be regarded as an essential branch of the technical education that is now struggling to assert itself usefully. if such a branch be left out, the mere teaching of routine trade processes will inevitably fail. such routine processes are many of them in heavy-handed, rough disregard of the nicety, accuracy, finish, and judgment which intelligent exercise in hand-craft can alone impart; which is the only reliable basis for the superior mechanical results so much needed. hand-craft in wood is distinguished from carpentry or joinery in many important respects. there is no division of labour. everything produced is the entire work of one operator, for the defects of which he is solely responsible. this directness of responsibility is one of the great merits of hand-craft, being calculated to promote wholesome pride in the excellence of complete work; a sentiment that is apt to be very weak, or totally wanting, where division of labour is much relied upon. the intellectual faculties are brought into unison with the hand, by knowledge and experience developing together with increasing dexterity. genuine respect and sympathy are developed for manual toil by familiarity with its application. love of work in general is developed, and a taste for it instilled by practical experience of its utility. habits of attention, perseverance, industry, and discipline are formed, cultivated, and unconsciously grafted upon the pupil, by the application necessary to excel. independence, order, and cleanliness spontaneously grow and become part of the nature of the operator. manual dexterity being thoroughly established, the operator is endowed with the consequent acquired ability for dealing with the practical business of life. education being the object that should be constantly kept in view, in the teaching and practice of hand-craft, it should be thoroughly appreciated that it is adapted for forming and shaping the entire bent of all the faculties. the objects recommended to work upon are all small, and are therefore within the capacity of the very young, and of both sexes. for the same reason, the eye, the hand, and the judgment are trained to precise form and finish in the minutest details. this is important, for, though it is generally easier to make something large and rough than small and smooth, no one who is incapable of making a small model well can make a large one any better. small objects are invariably the best training to work upon, as being certain to inspire appreciation for neatness, exactness, and accuracy. basis of teaching. practical teaching of hand-craft is based upon models for imitation. these models, distinguished by numbering from a and b to , are represented by the drawings accompanying these pages, and the instructions hereafter subjoined are explained by reference to the drawings. the following is a list of the models. [***] the second column indicates the kind of wood required--b. signifying beech or birch, and f. signifying fir, commonly called deal or pine; the class of wood usually distinguished as pine being preferable to the rougher-grained wood generally classed as deal. no. wood. names of models. a. b. kindergarten pointer. b. b. another variety of the same. . b. parcel-pin or carrier. . f. flower-stick. . b. envelope opener. . f. rectangular flower-stick. . f. pencil holder. . f. key label. . b. thread-winder. . f. dibble for the garden. . b. pen-rest. . f. flower-pot stand. . b. paper-knife. . b. knife-rest. . b. bowl, for toilette, &c. . b. hammer handle. . b. handle for chisel or file. . b. spoon. . f. chopping-board. . b. measure (half-yard). . b. scoop for flour, sugar, &c. . f. hanging-pegs. . f. stand for flower-pot, &c. . f. footstool. . f. & b. book carrier. . b. ladle. tools and appliances. the following is a list of tools and appliances necessary for producing the models before enumerated, with the cost of each, both swedish and english. descriptions of articles. best swedish. best english. _s._ _d._ _s._ _d._ carpenter's bench in pine, ft. long knife (resembling a shoemaker's) two frame saws, blades / and - / wide [ ] tenon or dovetail saw (small) jack plane smooth plane three furmer chisels, / , / , and - / wide three outside gouges, / , / , and - / wide two-foot rule square ( in.) bevel ( in.) marking gauge compasses hammer (small) mallet oilstone scraper, with round end two files (half round), one rough, the other smooth chopper or axe spokeshave (iron) screw-driver glue-pot and brush pincers two brad-awls brace and twenty-four bits sand-paper no. a pencil --------------------------- [ ] =========================== [ ] nothing exactly like this swedish saw is made in england. [ ] exclusive of carriage from gothenburg. although the prices of the english tools are so much higher than the swedish (with few exceptions), they are cheaper in the end. they are more carefully made; the wood is drier and better selected; and swedish steel is not to be compared with english. at the same time, the swedish tools are good enough to put into the hands of school boys and girls, and they have also the advantage of being considerably lighter in weight. the bench. a drawing of the bench is annexed, to show the difference between one adapted for sloyd or hand-craft and the kind in common use by carpenters. the sloyd bench is usually about ft. long, ft. wide, and ft. in. high. as shown in the drawing, it has an extra bench screw at the end, which enables the student to fix a piece of level wood rigidly on the top of the bench, by placing the end against a stop, as shown in the drawing, and bringing the pressure of the end screw to bear on the other end. the numerous holes (shown in the drawing) on the bench top, are so arranged that the stop can be fixed in any of them. for school work the benches are often made double--that is, with a screw on each side and on each end of the bench. this arrangement economises space, and answers all practical purposes; enabling two students to work at one bench. the sloyder will find it an advantage to fix a small drawer under the bench top. in this he should keep his sand-paper and files, as nothing is so detrimental to the edges of the sharp tools as these two articles. [illustration] tool exercises. the making of the models involves training in the exercises enumerated in the following list, the numbering being for subsequent reference. . long cut (with grain). . end cut (across grain). . oblique cut. . bevel cut. . sawing off. . convex cut. . long sawing. . edge planing. . squaring with set square. . gauging. . drilling with brace and shell-bit. . flat planing. . filing. . drilling with brace and centre-bit. . curved sawing. . concave cut. . bevelled planing. . shaping with plane. . chopping. . cross-sawing. . mortising with knife. . wave-sawing. . plane surface-cut with knife. . scraping. . obstacle-planing. . perpendicular chiselling. . concave chiselling or gouging. . gouging with spoon-iron. . oblique chiselling. . smoothing with spokeshave. . shaping with spokeshave. . oblique sawing. . oblique planing. . end planing. . exercises with smoothing plane. . work in hard wood. . dowelling or round mortising. . bevelling edge with plane oblique. . gluing. . sinking in of iron plates. . nailing. . sinking of nails. . bevelling with shaping knife. . perpendicular gouging. . point planing. . oblique grooving. . circular sawing. . fixing with screws. . modelling with knife. making of the models. the following are the descriptions of how to apply the exercises to the making of the models. no. a. kindergarten pointer. (requiring exercises and .) commence with a piece of beech, rather more than in. long, and not less than / in. thick. it is all the better, for this and other exercises, if it is split from a larger piece, and has no side either square or straight. with the knife, make one side level and smooth, to a width rather exceeding / in. when that is done perfectly, make another straight side at right angles to the first. trim the ends; then mark with the pencil at each end a / -in. square, with the two straight sides as bases. then cut two additional straight sides in unison with those squares. this will produce a stem a shade more than in. long and / in. square. mark each end with a diagram thus [figure]; then draw corresponding lines along each side. then, letting one end remain the same size; reduce the other end to / in. square (as shown in centre of diagram) by tapering each side symmetrically throughout. this will result in the stem being / in. square at one end and / in. square at the other end. then, guided by the diagram at the thicker end, take off the four corners symmetrically throughout, thus producing a tapered octagonal stem. then, in like manner, take off the eight corners with great precision, so as to maintain uniform symmetry, and the result will be a tapered stem, approximately round throughout and pointed at one end. the long cut having, thus far, been solely resorted to, measure from the point, and make a mark at in.; then cut off at the mark, thus exercising the cross cut. then, by judiciously applying sand-paper, the pointer may be made perfectly smooth and almost perfectly round, as it should be throughout. no. b. kindergarten pointer. (requiring exercises , , and .) proceed as for the previous model until the round pointer is produced. then apply exercise to the two oblique cuts shown from _a_ to _a_ in the figures , , and , of drawings no. b. these oblique cuts demand great care and precision, as the cuts should be precisely opposite each other, perfectly level and symmetrical. no. . parcel-pin or carrier. (requiring exercises , , and .) commence with a piece of beech rather more than in. long and / in. thick. reduce it in like manner as previously described to a stem in. long and / in. square throughout. then apply exercise , and so bevel the sides and ends as to make chamfers, as shown in figs. , , and of drawings no. . then draw a line across the centre of one side, and there cut a [v]-shaped notch as shown in figs. and , so as to provide for a string. then finish with a piece of sand-paper laid upon a flat surface, upon which first rub the sides, then the chamfers, and lastly the ends. no. . flower-stick. (requiring exercises , , , and .) this is the first model made in soft wood, and introduces exercise , sawing off. from the edge of a / -in. board saw off a piece the same width as the thickness, and about in. long. proceed as for no. a until a rod is produced / in. square throughout. then, by a cross made from corner to corner [figure] find the centre of one end. then take off the corners throughout until an octagonal rod is produced; then take off the eight corners so as to make the rod round and the same thickness throughout. then apply exercise , the convex cut, and point the end where the centre is marked. then measure from the point and mark at in., and there cut off at right angles. then apply sand-paper, and the result will be a tapered symmetrical round rod, pointed at one end, as shown in drawings no. . [illustration: _no. a._ _kindergarten pointer_] [illustration: _no. b._ _kindergarten pointer_] [illustration: _no. ._ _parcel carrier_] [illustration: _no. ._ _round plant stick_] no. . envelope opener. (requiring exercises , , , and .) saw from beech, a piece about in. long, / in. wide and / in. thick. with the knife, make one of the flat sides perfectly level and smooth throughout, and cut one end across at right angles. with a fine pencil, draw on the level side the outline of fig of drawings no. , and also, with compasses, describe on the end the semicircle shown by fig of drawings no. , with the flat edge for the base. apply the long cut to the edges at right angles to the flat side. then, on each of the edges thus flattened, draw a line showing the course of the tapering illustration on the first side of fig. of drawings no. . apply the long cut to each of those lines, at right angles to the edges. this will produce a rod, flat on one side, and presenting a tapered half square on the other. then shave off the corners of that square, so as to produce half a tapered octagon; then shave off the corners of that octagon, being careful that the work is in unison with the semicircle previously described on the thick end. when so far done to satisfaction, round both ends symmetrically, as shown in figs. and of drawings no. , and finish with sand-paper. no. . rectangular flower-stick, with chamfered or bevelled corners. (requiring exercises , , , , , and .) in this model the jack plane and the try square are used for the first time. saw off from pine a piece about in. long and / in. square. plane one side straight and true, and one of the other sides at right angles. cut each end across at right angles, and on each end, using the planed edges as basis, mark fig. of drawings no. . then plane the other two sides at right angles, so as to produce a square rod, which, at every part throughout its length, should fit the try square. then, with the plane, take about two shavings off each corner, in unison with the figures at the ends. then, with the knife, cut the point from _a_ to _a_ as shown in fig. of drawings no. . then measure from the long-pointed end, mark the exact length, cut across at the mark, and cut the other end to a point with eight sides as shown in figs. and . finish with sand-paper at the long-pointed end only. [illustration: _no. ._ _envelope opener_] [illustration: _no. ._ _plant stick_] [illustration: _no. ._ _pencil holder_] no. . pencil holder. (requiring exercises , , , , and .) this model for the first time introduces the brace and bit. saw off from pine a piece in. long, and / in. square. with the knife, cut one end across at right angles, and make it smooth. find the centre of the end as for model no. . fix the stem vertically in the bench screw, with the smooth end upwards. fit a / -shell-bit into the brace, and bore a centre hole in the end of the stem as shown in fig. of drawings no. , and to the depth dotted in fig. . great care must be taken in drilling, so that the hole may be clean and perpendicular. with the knife, pare down each side so as to leave a / -in. square, with the drilled hole in the centre. find the centre in the opposite end. mark a line about - / in. from the drilled end, as shown in fig. . from that line, shave each side down to the centre last found. then take off the corners so as to make a tapered octagon. then take off the corners of the octagon, so as to produce a round tapered rod. measure from the thick end and mark the exact length, and, at the mark, cut across. then round the end as shown in fig. , and finish with sand-paper. note.--this is a repetition to a considerable extent of model on a larger scale. the student may be tempted to proceed without going through the processes described, but the temptation should be rigorously resisted, as a satisfactory result cannot be obtained except by adhering to all the details prescribed. no. . key label. (requiring exercises , , , , , , , , and .) this is mainly intended for an exercise in planing, and it is better to get out a piece of pine sufficient for two models--that is, about in. long, - / in. wide, and in. thick. plane one side, and then one edge, perfectly straight and square to each other. then set the gauge to - / in. to fit fig. of drawings no. . apply the gauge to the straightened edge and mark off the width along the smooth side. then plane that edge down to the line so made, using the try-square to keep the edge at right angles with the straightened side. next find the centre / in. from the top end, as shown in fig. . from that centre describe with the compasses a semicircle. then fit a / -shell-bit into the brace, and bore a hole, at the centre of the semicircle, right through. then set the gauge to / in. for the thickness, as shown by fig. . apply the gauge to the straightened side, and mark the line for thickness along each edge. then plane the rough side down to those lines. then, with the knife, cut round precisely to the semicircle, using the try-square frequently. [if a double length is commenced with, as before recommended, the centering, marking, drilling, and rounding must be done at both ends.] measure from the rounded end, and rule with the square, the length of - / in. then, with tenon or dovetail saw, cut off just outside the line. then, with the knife, pare down to the line, and with a file, smooth that end as well as the rounded end, finishing throughout with sand-paper. no. . thread-winder. (requiring exercises , , , , , , , , , , , and .) beech is required, about in. long, in. wide, and / in. thick. plane one side and one edge. draw the centre line _a_ to _b_ in fig. of drawings no. . with square and compasses draw all the other lines shown in the same fig. then fit a / in. centre-bit to the brace, and bore two holes, one at _a_ and the other at _b_. then, with the smaller turning saw, cut the two outside curved edges as shown in fig. . with the knife, trim to the lines, making the edges square, as shown in fig. . then shave and slightly round each semicircle, as shown in figs. and , smoothing the edges with the file. then set the marking gauge to / in., and, with the smooth side for a base, mark gauge lines on each edge for thickness, and plane the rough side down to those lines. then set the plane very fine and take a shaving off the face side so as to remove the pencil and compass marks. then finish with sand-paper. no. . dibble for garden. (requiring exercises , , , , , , , , , and .) saw out from fir a piece in. long and - / in. square. plane one side straight and another side at right angles. set the marking gauge to in., and with the planed side as base, mark lines for thickness along each planed side. then plane the rough sides down to those lines, using the try square frequently. then, at each end find the centre thus [figure] with additional lines showing octagons thus [figure]. with the marking gauge draw lines from end to end of each side corresponding with the corners of each octagon. plane the corners of the square down to those octagon lines, thus producing an octagonal rod, and completing the first exercise in bevel planing. plane off the corners of the octagon throughout, thus producing a rod approximately round, shown in fig. of drawings no. , and so completing the first exercise in shaping with plane. measure from one end for the point as shown in fig. , and, with the knife, cut the point as roundly and symmetrically as possible, referring to the centre marked at the end as a guide for the precise place of the point. then measure from the point and mark at in. cut across at that mark, and round the blunt end thus made, as shown at top of fig. . with the file, dress the end and stray angles throughout, and finish with sand-paper. [illustration: _no. ._ _key label_] [illustration: _no. ._ _pack thread winder_] [illustration: _no. ._ _garden dibble_] no. . pen rest. (requiring exercises , , , , , , , , and .) cut from beech a piece in. long, in. wide, and / in. thick. plane one side and one edge at right angles, then gauge and plane to thickness and height, as shown in fig. of drawings no. , but flat on all sides. saw across both ends at right angles, so as to reduce the length to - / in. select one edge as the top, and, with the square, rule a central line from _e_ to _e_, and a line across at each of the places marked _a_, _b_, _c_, and _d_ in fig. , continuing each line down both sides. then, at each end, mark the central place represented by the dot in fig. . from each of those central places describe the semicircle shown at top of fig. . then mark a line from end to end on each side half way between the top and the bottom. then, with the knife, and working to the semicircle at each end, take off the corners of the top, so making half an octagon, and, by taking off the corners of the half octagon, produce a top corresponding to the semicircle at each end, as shown in fig. , taking care that the top of the semicircle throughout centres to the line previously drawn from _e_ to _e_. then, with the tenon saw, at each of the places marked _a_, _b_, _c_, and _d_, saw across a right angle slit / in. deep. then, with the knife or a chisel, cut out the space shown in fig. from _a_ to _b_ and from _c_ to _d_, taking care that the side of each space is true and square. then, with the file, round each base as shown at the top of the shaded section in fig. . then smooth with the file where required, and finish with sand-paper. no. . flower-pot stand. (requiring exercises , , , , , , , , , and .) this consists of two pieces, as shown in figs. and of drawings no. , each piece so made as to cross and fit the other at the centre, hence called a flower-pot cross, the whole being a test of exactness and good work, surpassing any preceding model. cut from pine a piece in. long, - / in. wide, and / in. thick. plane one side and one edge at right angles; then gauge for height and thickness, and plane the other side and edge as shown by the section represented in fig. . saw across the middle so as to make two pieces, and, from the end of each so cut, measure off and saw both to the equal length of - / in. each, taking care that both ends of each are accurate right angles. then place them on their sides and draw the centre line indicated by _a b_, continuing the line all round each piece. from the centre, mark off the places indicated by _e f_ and _g h_. at _c_ and _d_ of each, with the compasses, describe the quarter circle shown at each top corner of the figures, striking the segments from the respective dots shown for the purpose near each top corner. then, with the bottom edge for a base, draw a gauge line on each side of both pieces to the depth represented by _i j_, and with the tenon saw, make a slit at _e_ and _f_ to the depth of such gauge line. then, with the knife or chisel, cut out the openings between _e_ and _f_ to the depth of the gauge line, taking care to finish the opening perfectly level and true. then, at the bottom of one piece and the top of the other, as shown in figs. and , gauge, saw, and cut out the spaces from _g_ to _h_ in the same manner as for the spaces before mentioned. the openings from _g_ to _h_, if well done, will fit accurately in all directions, and, when put together, will form a firm cross. then, with the knife, round the corners of each piece, at _c_ and _d_. then smooth with file where required, and finish with sand-paper. no. . knife rest.[ ] [ ] no. (paper knife) appears, for convenience of illustration, on page , but it should be proceeded with before no. . (requiring exercises , , , , , , , , , , , , and .) cut from beech a piece about in. long, in. wide, and / in. thick. plane one side and one edge at right angles. then saw across one end at right angles, and, measuring from that end, mark off the length at - / in., and saw off that end at the mark, taking care to maintain right angles. then gauge and plane the rough side and rough edge to a width of / in. and a thickness of / in. then choose one edge for the top, and, along the centre of that edge, draw a line from _c_ to _c_, as shown in fig. of drawings no. , and continue the line to the extremities of both ends. then, in manner described for no. , gauge, slit, and cut out with chisel the spaces shown in the same fig. of drawings no. , from _a_ to _a_ and _b_ to _b_. then, with compasses, as indicated in the same fig., describe on both sides of each top corner, the segment of a circle represented in each case from _c_ to _d_. then, for the first time, resort to concave chiselling, and with a broad chisel cut away the corners down to the segments previously described. this process requires great care and judgment. fix one end of the work upwards in the bench screw, with the top side nearest to the operator, and, after taking off the corner to a considerable extent, with the bevelled side of the chisel towards the wood, shave small pieces away until the segment marks are reached, taking care to keep the whole curve at right angles to the sides throughout. then, turn the work, and dress the corner at the other end in like manner. then file judiciously where required, and finish with sand-paper. [illustration: _no. ._ _pen rest._] [illustration: _no. ._ _flower pot cross._] [illustration: _no. ._ _knife rest._] no. . paper-knife. (requiring exercises , , , , , , , , , , , and .) cut from beech a very straight-grained piece, in. long, in. wide, and / in. thick. plane one side and one edge at right angles. then, on the planed side, to the size and shape indicated, draw the whole of fig. of drawings no. , letting the straight edge serve as the line from _a_ to _b_. with the smaller turning saw cut round all the curved parts, carefully adhering to the drawn figure. then gauge all round for thickness, as shown in fig. , plane the rough side down to the gauge lines, and with the knife trim the curved edges where required. with the set gauge, mark the centre of the straight edge from _a_ to _b_, and guided by that centre, pare down each corner of the straight edge, so as to make a straight chamfer on each side about / in. wide, terminating with a sharp edge at the place where the gauge line was drawn, as shown in fig. . pare down the corners of both chamfers, and pare each side symmetrically, so as to produce a blade gradually diminishing throughout from a back / in. thick to a sharp edge. then pare down the end of the back to a lancet-shaped point, as shown in fig. . round the corners of both edges of the handle, so as to make them symmetrical throughout, and also pare the corners of the back of the blade so as to round it on both sides very slightly. file judiciously with a light hand where required, and then, for the first time using the scraper, complete the blade with great care by scraping, finishing as usual with sand-paper. no. . bowl for toilette, &c. (requiring exercises , , , , , , , , , , , , and .) this model is shown in the perspective fig. of drawings no. . commence for it by cutting from beech a piece about in. long, in. wide, and - / in. thick. plane one side and one edge at right angles. then gauge for a thickness of in. and plane the rough side to the gauge lines. determine by choice which side shall be the bottom of the bowl and which the top. find the centre of the bottom side by drawing the lines from _a_ to _b_ and from _c_ to _d_ as shown in fig. . repeat these lines on the edges and top side, using the try square. then, on the bottom side, with compasses and square, draw the whole of the figures constituting the entire diagram shown by fig. , and on the top side draw freehand the larger oval or ellipse diagram shown by fig. , being guided by the points of the guide-lines first drawn for the purpose. then, with the turning saw, cut round by the line of the ellipse on the top side, and finish the edge square with chisel and file. then, with finger and pencil, mark a line about / in. inside the outer edge all round the larger ellipse. with a / -in. gouge cut out the centre so as to form the inside of the bowl, the depth and shape being shown by the dotted lines of fig . having so symmetrically shaped the inside and made it as smooth as the gouge is capable of, with the round end of the scraper dress as smoothly as possible, and finish with sand-paper, before proceeding with the bottom side. [illustration: _no. ._ _paper knife_] [illustration: _no. ._ _bowl for toilette or writing table_] to complete the bottom side, leave the ellipse in the centre untouched, and from its outline to the outer edge of the lip of the bowl, shave with the knife so as to produce in all directions a curve corresponding to those at each end of fig. . take a shaving off the flat bottom with the smoothing plane, so as to remove the compass marks. then file judiciously and lightly where required, scrape perfectly smooth, and finish with sand-paper. [***] this no. is a very interesting study and a keen test of application, care, and skill, anything like carelessness being sure to leave its tell-tale marks. no. . hammer-handle. (requiring exercises , , , , , , , , , , , and .) this study exercises ability in the mastery of elliptical lines, and in the use of the spokeshave in exercises and . cut from beech a piece about in. long, - / in. wide, and - / in. thick. plane one side and one edge at right angles. on the smooth side thus produced, with the pencil sketch throughout the whole of fig. of drawings no. . then, with the turning saw, cut at right angles to the curved lines on both edges throughout, and finish the shaping with the spokeshave, taking care to maintain right angles. then, on one of the edges, with pencil, sketch throughout the whole of fig. , and, with saw and spokeshave, shape both sides in unison with that sketch, still carefully maintaining right angles throughout. then, with the knife, shave off the corners so as to make four symmetrical chamfers throughout. then, with the spokeshave, remove the corners of the chamfers, and proceed with the paring down until the required symmetrical elliptical shape is arrived at, as shown by figs. , , and . saw across at right angles at each end to the exact length, and finish with file, scraper, and sand-paper. no. . handle for chisel or file. (requiring exercises , , , , , , , , , , , and .) from beech cut a piece in. long, in. wide, and - / in. thick. plane one side and one edge at right angles. gauge for greatest width shown from _a_ to _b_ in fig. of drawings no. , and also for greatest thickness shown by _a_ to _b_ in fig. . plane the rough side and edge down to the respective gauge lines, thus producing a piece of equal thickness throughout, with the sides and edges at right angles. saw across one end at right angles. on the face thus produced on that end sketch fig. complete. fit a / -in. bit to the brace and bore a hole in the centre of the same end to the depth shown by the dotted lines in the upper part of fig. . plane from _a_ to _c_ and from _b_ to _d_, thus slightly tapering the sides and edges, but maintaining right angles throughout. measure from the thin flat end and mark the length of in. then, from the centre of the line _a_ to _b_ of fig. , describe a semicircle on each side as shown at bottom of fig. . with turning saw and chisel, shape each side of that end to the semicircle. then plane off the angles so far as to make the shape in unison throughout with fig. , presenting sides corresponding to fig. , and edges corresponding to fig. . then complete the shape of the thick end with knife, as shown in fig. , and finish with file, scraper, and sand-paper. [illustration: _no. ._ _hammer handle_] [illustration: _no. ._ _chisel handle_] no. . spoon. (requiring exercises , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and .) from very carefully selected beech cut a piece in. long, - / in. wide, and - / in. thick. plane one side and one edge at right angles. sketch on the flat edge the complete outline of fig. of drawings no. . with the turning saw, cut to the outline at right angles on the upper side only, completing with chisel and file. on the shaped side thus produced, make a centre line as shown in fig. , then the cross lines. then, with compasses as guides and checks, mark the outlines of the handle shown in fig. , and, with freehand, sketch the ellipse. with bits and brace drill a / -in. hole right through at each centre marked _b_, and a / -in. hole at each centre marked _c_. then, with the turning saw, cut to the outline at right angles throughout, completing the process with gouge, knife, and file. then, in the manner described for making the inside of no. , make the inside of the spoon in unison with the dotted curve of fig. . the inside of the spoon being thus completed, proceed with the outside. mark on the edge the outline _d d d d d_ for the under side of the spoon. with the turning saw, cut out to that outline, and round with the knife, as shown in the sections of figs. , , and . take care to keep carefully outside the lines when cutting with the knife, and apply the file, scraper, and sand-paper for finishing. [***] the under part of the spoon is a capital exercise in modelling with the knife, and, if one process is completed before the next is commenced, requires no more than ordinary application and care. no. . chopping-board. (requiring exercises , , , , , , , , , , , and .) [illustration: _no. ._ _spoon._] this especially involves straight and square planing. cut from deal a piece in. long, - / in. wide, and in. thick. plane one side perfectly level and one edge perfectly straight at right angles. gauge and mark for width at - / in. find and mark the centre line _a_ to _b_ in fig. of drawings no. . set the compasses to a radius from _a_ to _b_, and describe, with _a_ for the centre, the semicircle shown at the top of the fig. fit a -in. centre-bit to the brace, and drill a hole with _a_ for the centre, taking care that it goes vertically through at right angles, and that there is no splitting when the bit is nearly through. with the small turning saw, cut round the semicircle at right angles, and, with the chisel, shave off and round the two corners that spring from the semicircle, also at right angles. then, measuring from the centre of the rounded end at _b_, mark the entire length at - / in., and, with the tenon saw, cut off at the mark at right angles. then shave and round at right angles the two bottom corners. plane the bottom edge smooth, and file the edges where necessary. set the gauge at / in., mark with it the edge all round for thickness, and plane the rough side down to the mark, perfectly level throughout. then, with the smoothing plane, take a thin shaving from the first side, merely enough to remove the marks, taking care to maintain an accurate level. finish throughout with sand-paper. [***] the object of deferring the planing of the second side until so late a period, is that, at the same time, minute chipping and roughness of edge on that side, almost certain to result from the boring and sawing, are at the same time disposed of. no. . half-yard measure. (in the original sloyd model this is a half-metre measure.) (requiring exercises , , , , , , , , , , , , , and .) select from beech an exceptionally straight-grained piece in. long, - / in. wide, and / in. thick. plane one side and one edge at right angles, both scrupulously straight and even; then gauge, mark to a nicety for - / in. wide and / in. thick, and plane to the gauge marks with great exactitude, thus producing a four-cornered rod of uniform size throughout. saw across one end at right angles. measure from that cut end, mark the length of in., and saw across at the mark. then set the gauge precisely at / in., and, passing it along each edge, mark on both sides for the lines _a_ to _b_ in fig. of drawings no. , continuing the lines from end to end of the entire rod. then, with the square, mark across the place for _a a_, and there saw a slit on each side down to the gauge line. then proceed to the first exercise in obstacle planing (no. .) thus, pass the smooth plane along each edge from _b_ to _a_, as far as the obstacle of the corner will allow. of course the planing cannot be continued into the corners, but, whatever is left by the plane must be got out by the chisel and file. then, on each side, sketch for the handle, as shown in fig. , the gauge line, previously there, forming part of the sketch. then, with the turning-saw, cut out to the sketch and gauge lines. with the knife, make the chamfers shown in figs. and . then shave the corners and round the end of the handle, as shown in fig. . file and scrape lightly where required, and finish with sand-paper. [illustration: _no. ._ _knife or chopping board._] [illustration: _no. ._ _yard measure._] no. . scoop. (requiring exercises , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and .) cut from beech a carefully-selected piece in. long, in. wide, and in. thick. plane one side and one edge at right angles, with exceptional care. then, on the smooth edge sketch the outline of the upper side _a_ to _a_ of fig. of drawings no. . saw to the outline at right angles throughout, afterwards correcting inaccuracies with chisel and plane. on the smooth shaped side thus produced, sketch the outline of fig. . with - / -in. centre bit drill the holes indicated by _b b_, right through. saw to the outline all round, carefully maintaining right angles throughout and, as before, correcting inaccuracies with chisel and plane. then, at the upper edge of the invisible end at the bottom of fig. , find the centre represented by _c_ in fig. . fix compasses to a radius from _c_ to _d_, and, from the centre before found, describe a semicircle, and from the same centre another semicircle with a radius about / in. longer. the centre of the inner of those semicircles represents the bottom of the inside of the scoop at _f_ of fig. , and the outer one represents the bottom of the outside at the same point. next, with / -in. gouge, make a furrow just inside the outline of the face of the scoop, as previously recommended for model no. . then, from that furrow as a starting-point, in all directions, with / -gouge, scoop out from back to front, to the depth indicated by the dotted line of fig. , and to the width at front of the semicircle previously drawn on the end, but gradually diminishing the inner capacity so as to make it smallest near the handle, in about the same proportion as indicated for the bottom by the dotted line in fig. . then file and scrape inside where required, and finish so far with sand-paper. then, upon each edge, draw the outline of the bottom of the scoop, shown in fig. . saw throughout that outline at right angles. then from _e_ to _f_ plane all round to the semicircle indicated by the outer line of fig. previously described on the end. then, with the knife, cut the handle to the section indicated by fig. , and continue the shaping to _e_ as indicated by the shaded lines of fig. . file the handle and outside of scoop where required, and finish with sand-paper. [***] the most difficult part of this model is that shaded in fig. , which requires special attention and care. [illustration: _no. ._ _scoop._] no. . hanging pegs or rack. (requiring exercises , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and .) from deal cut out two pieces, one in. long, - / in. wide, and / in. thick; the other in. long, in. wide, and / in. thick. commencing with the larger piece, plane one side and one edge at right angles. then gauge-mark to a width of in., and plane the rough edge down to that mark. at the centre of the width draw a line from end, as shown in fig. , _f_ to _f_. on that line, with compasses, mark the points indicated by _a_, _b_, _c_, of fig. of the drawings no. . at each point drill a / in. hole right through, taking great care to drill vertically. with the square, draw the cross lines at _d d_, the intersections with the central line forming additional central points. set compasses to a radius of / in., and, from each of those central points, describe a semicircle as shown in the fig.; then from each of the same central points describe an outer semicircle as also shown in the fig. with tenon saw make a nick at each of the four points _g_, in each case reaching to the outer of the semicircles, each nick being strictly at right angles. then, with turning saw, follow the line of each of the outer semicircles. then dress the edges all round with chisel and file as required. then gauge-mark all round for a thickness of / in., and plane the rough side down to the mark, evenly throughout. gauge-mark all round for the chamfer, in the proportion shown in fig. , and chamfer to the mark accordingly, using the plane for the sides and the knife for the curves and corners. file throughout where necessary, and finish with sand-paper. the smaller piece of deal being to make the pegs with, plane it on one side and one edge at right angles, then gauge-mark for a width of / in. and for a thickness of / in., as illustrated in section by fig. . saw across into three lengths of in. each. place them together on their sides, and sketch one side of each as shown from _j_ to _k_ and _l_ in fig. , leaving the space from _j_ to _m_ untouched. with the try square repeat the lines of this sketch on both sides of each. with saw and knife cut each peg to the sketch, finishing the whole, excepting the circular plug. then at the inner end, find the centre as denoted in fig. , and, using the same centre-bit as for fig. , describe a circle mark as dotted in fig. . then, with the tenon saw, cut by the "shoulder" to a depth of / in., and pare the circle with the knife to the shoulder _j_, so making a round plug, a little too large to go into the holes of fig. . then, with the file, carefully reduce the size of each plug so as to very accurately and tightly fit one hole at a time in fig , where wedging must not be tolerated. the perfection of this part of the work is to be tested by ascertaining that the pegs are precisely in a line, and that each one fits all round to the face of the board into which it is inserted. [illustration: _no. ._ _clothes rack._] having thus fitted each plug to its own hole, and marked it for identification, the pegs may be completed. cut down each one, with the tenon saw, from _k_ to _x_, and, with the chisel, pare down from _j_ to _k_, first making it square and afterwards slightly rounding it, as shown in section of fig. . with a sharp chisel cut round to the outside of the semicircle for the top of the peg. file this round and then cut the chamfer with the knife. file as required, and finish with sand-paper. the pegs being thus made ready for fixing, clean the face of the board (fig. ) with the smooth plane, and the edges and chamfers with sand-paper. then glue in each plug, using the try square to make sure that they project at right angles. then put the whole away for not less than six hours, to allow the glue to set well. then, as each plug has been purposely made slightly too long, saw off each projection at the back, and smooth the whole of the back with the plane, so effecting the finishing touches. to avoid the necessity for nailing to the wall, get two pieces of hoop-iron about - / in. long and / in. wide. to adapt each piece for its purpose, cut one end round and punch in a nail hole and two smaller screw holes, as shown in fig. . with a chisel cut a neat recess for each iron so that it can be sunk flush with the back, as shown in fig. , and, inserting the screws, the work will be complete. no. . flower-pot stand. (requiring exercises , , , , , , , , , , , , , and .) this is an especially good subject for straight sawing, straight planing, and nailing. cut from deal a piece about in. long, in. wide, and in. thick. with the jack-plane face one side and one edge perfectly straight and true at right angles. gauge-mark for / in. thick, and plane the rough side down to the gauge-line. square one end with the plane, mark to length shown in fig. of drawings no. , cut with tenon saw to mark, and square the end with smooth plane. then gauge-mark for thickness of lath shown in fig. , and saw off a shade inside the gauge-lines. in like manner cut five laths, and plane each to the gauge line. the laths being thus made, sufficient wood will be left for the supports. make the width of the supports the same as that of the laths. after gauging and planing the supports to depth as fig. , saw off to the -in. length. square the ends with a chisel and set out on each the distance _a a_, fig. . gauge to _b b_, fig. , and with the tenon saw, cut to the gauge-line at _a a_, and with the knife remove the piece between _a_ and _a_. then mark on each lath the distance the supports are from each end of the laths, and nail on the laths--the outside laths first, then the centre one, and finally the other two. [illustration: _no. ._ _flower pot stand._] no. . foot-stool. (requiring exercises , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and .) cut from deal two pieces, one in. long, in. wide, and - / in. thick; the other in. long, - / in. wide, and in. thick. the former piece is for the laths, and it must be prepared and cut as in no. , making each lath to finish in. wide, / in. thick, and - / in. long. the wood for the support must now be proceeded with. plane one side and one edge at right angles, and gauge-mark for width of in. and thickness of - / in. plane the rough side and edge down to the gauge-marks. then saw through the centre so as to make two pieces of / in. thickness each. place the pieces side by side, and nail them together with two - / -in. wrought nails, so that both pieces can be operated upon together. then draw on one outer side the diagram shown on the unshaded part of fig. of drawings no. , and, with the aid of try-square and compasses, repeat the diagram on the other outer side. then cut off each end nearly to the end lines of the diagrams, and, with the smoothing plane, finish at perfect right angles. then, with a / -in. centre-bit, drill at the spots marked _a a_ on each diagram, penetrating on one side a little more than an inch, and finishing by drilling from the other side in precise unison. the drilling throughout must be exactly vertical. then proceed with the arch shown in fig. , with the turning saw cutting out the three semicircles, which finish with gouge and file, taking care to maintain right angles at every point. then separate the pieces, smooth each face with the smoothing plane, and the circular parts with file and sand-paper. the respective parts being now complete, mark on each lath the distance the supports are from the ends shown in fig. . then nail on the laths, _b b_ first, _c_ next, and the others afterwards. then, having first taken care to punch down all the nails sufficiently, plane a few shavings off the tops of the laths to make them clean and level. [***] if the laths are well and truly nailed on, their ends should be in perfect line. any defect in that respect must be remedied by carefully and judiciously planing; but the perfection of work is when no such planing is necessary. no. . book-carrier. (requiring exercises , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and .) this is made partly in hard and partly in soft wood. [illustration: _no. ._ _foot stool._] [illustration: _no. ._ _book carrier_] for the handle, cut from beech a piece in. long, in. wide, and / in. thick. plane one side and one edge. then gauge-mark for - / in. wide and / in. thick, and plane the rough side and edge down to each gauge-mark. then draw on one side the diagram of the handle shown in fig. of drawings no. . with the turning saw, cut to the inner and outer lines of the diagram. with the plane, round the top of the handle, as shown in fig. , and, with the knife, round and smooth the other parts, taking care that all the right angles are strictly maintained. then, with an / -in. centre-bit, drill a hole for each screw, as shown in the fig., and, with the knife, counter-sink for the heads of the screws. with the knife, make the chamfers at the corners of the curves, as shown in fig. , and finish completely with scraper and sand-paper. the handle being thus finished, cut from deal a piece in. long, - / in. wide, and / in. thick, and plane one side and one edge at right angles. gauge-mark for in. wide, and / in. thick, and plane the rough side and edge down to the gauge-marks. square one end, measuring from that end, saw off at in. on the larger piece remaining, draw the lines _a b_ and _a b_ in the positions shown in fig. ; then, with the compasses, set off the spaces from _a_ to _c_ and from _a_ to _c_, _b_ to _c_ and _b_ to _c_, _a_ to _d_ and _a_ to _d_, _b_ to _d_ and _b_ to _d_. then set the gauge to half the thickness, and with it mark the edges on the four places indicated in each case from _c_ to _d_. set the bevel to the oblique line at each side of the dovetails, and transfer this bevelled line to each side at points _c c c c_ and _d d d d_. then, with tenon saw, cut down each line _c d_ to the depth of the gauge line, and, with a small chisel, remove the whole of the pieces between the nicks made by the saw. this will result in two grooves for dovetailed tongues, as shown above, _a a_ in fig. , designed to strengthen and prevent from warping the upper half of the holder. the grooves having been thus made ready, the dovetails must be prepared. from deal cut two pieces, each in. long, - / in. wide, and / in. thick. plane one side of each and bevel one edge to the pitch the bevel was previously set for. then, on the planed side, mark - / in. at one end, - / in. at the other end, and take to that width, afterwards bevelling the edge as before. then fit each of the tongues provided, driving them tight into their places. when they fit exactly, glue the planed side and the edges, and drive them to their positions, being careful not to split off the ends. then allow time for the glue to set, and cut off the projecting ends of the tongues and plane them and the face of the board to a level. cut off to exact length, measuring from the lines _a b_. then smooth both boards with the plane, nail them together with two small nails, and square the ends. then gauge and nick with the saw for the recesses _e e_, removing the wood from each recess with the knife, so making grooves for a strap to pass round. then screw on the handle in the manner indicated by both figs., and finish as required with sand-paper. no. . ladle. (requiring exercises , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and .) [illustration: _no. ._ _ladle._] cut from beech a piece in. long, in. wide, and in. thick. the manner of proceeding resembles that required for no. . plane one side and one edge at right angles, and draw on the planed side the diagram shown in fig. of drawings no. . with a - / -in. centre-bit, drill two holes right through, as indicated by the dotted circles. saw round the outside lines of the diagram, taking care not to obliterate the lines. trim exactly to the lines with a chisel, gouge, and file. then mark on each edge the upper curved line of fig. . saw to that line without obliterating it, finishing with spokeshave, plane, chisel, and file. then cut out the bowl of the ladle, using a small gouge for the edge, and a larger one for obtaining the depth, which must be governed by the white section shown in fig. , and finished with file, scraper, and sand-paper before proceeding with the under side. when the bowl is thus finished, mark on each side the curve for the under side shown in fig. . saw just outside the line, and proceed to shape the under side--the bowl to the shaded section of fig. , and the handle to the section of fig. . for finishing the bowl, fix the handle in the bench screw, and pare with a wide chisel, afterwards applying the knife for completing the bowl and handle. for the finishing touches use the file, scraper, and sand-paper. end. turnbull and spears, printers, edinburgh. lace curtain cleaning a successful home business by mrs. albert leigh copyrighted how i started a successful home business in the following pages will be found valuable instructions to all who have applied for them. they are for your own use, and should not be given or loaned to others, if you wish to succeed yourself. my advice to all is to begin this little book at the beginning, and read it carefully to the end, then begin work in earnest--experience is the best teacher, and i wish to show you, from my own experience how i succeeded in building up a successful business right here in my own home, in spare time only. for the first year my profits were over $ . . there is no royal road to success, nor do i know of any in which patience and perseverance are more requisite than in the lace curtain laundry business, though the work is easy, pleasant and to all who master these instructions and apply them persistently, should not fail to achieve the success that i have, and more. illness in my family first inspired me with the ambition to help keep our home together, and i shall never regret the thought which prompted me to start the lace curtain laundry business, which has proved such a success to me. there is no profession where the beginner can learn so quickly, none in which the financial returns are so liberal, so i, being inexperienced, took courage, patience and perseverance for my motto, and the result is a nice home business built on the inspiration of a thought. business enterprises that women can successfully engage in are very scarce, but as this business is so easily conducted in the home, any woman with a fair amount of ambition, who wants to earn her own living, or who desires to assist with family expenses, in spare time, or who wishes to increase her spending allowance and does not wish to leave home in doing so; "this business offers the opportunity." make your strike for independence now, by following my instructions, you will never regret it; for in a few months' time you will own a business of your own--a business that will remain permanent for years to come and will become more profitable, the longer you operate it. my method as this business requires little or no capital to start, i lost no time in making a beginning, having all the necessary appliances, such as tubs, boiler, wringer and stretchers, in my own home use, adding two new pair of stretchers with the first money earned at my business, and taking my parlor for my work shop, i was ready to begin. in the first place i mentioned my proposition to a few friends, who gave me every encouragement, and in a few days i received a few orders, which netted me $ clear for the first week. in the evenings, i wrote down fifty names and addresses of the best residents of our city, having borrowed an old phone book from my next door neighbor for this purpose, then i wrote each a polite note stating my business, and soliciting their patronage, promising to give special care and attention in laundrying without tearing, also guaranteeing points and curtains even. this brought me many orders, as also did a polite note to the president of our civic betterment club, who very kindly read my note to the members at one of their meetings. the following week i sent a note to the president of the auxiliary of the y.m.c.a., with like results. at this time, fall cleaning being about over, i set to work to form a plan for spring work, which i knew would be heavy, as my business increased right along as it become known, so i visited all the hotels, apartment houses, clubs and dr. offices soliciting their patronage also, and the result is; i had more work than i could do; now i have to systemize my work by taking in only what i know i can do in a week without over-lating myself, as i employ no help whatever. the secret of my success when the curtains first come in i look them over, if torn or worn, my aim is to not make them any worse; i measure each pair of curtains, length and width, marking it down in a book, for the purpose, with the owner's name, how many pair and the price charged, this keeps me posted for future reference. most people put their lace curtains in cold water over night to extract the dirt; i find this takes out a little of the smoked lint, not the dirt, to me it seems to fasten it in, it certainly takes more time and labor to get it out, besides being harder on the hands and the curtains also. try this way: take your largest tub, fill to the top with luke warm water take one large cup of my excellent soap solution and mix in the water thoroughly, now fold each curtain to about a foot square, put into this tub of water until the tub is full, leave for half hour, pressing them down occasionally, you will see the dirt fairly drop out, at the end of half hour take one or two out at one time into fairly hot water unfolding them a little while washing them, you will find this process not only protects the curtains but is easier to laundry, put them through your wringer gently, never wring them with the hands as this tears them. if the curtains are pure white i boil them a little, if ecru i merely scald them sometimes they don't even require scalding, but must be rinsed thoroughly; sometimes when the curtains are very frail i don't put them through the wringer, i squeeze them with my hands in a ball, after they are all clean. i dry out of doors if possible, then if it is wet the next day i can starch and put them on the stretchers indoors, in a vacant room kept for the purpose, and with a stove in it for cold weather, it dries quickly. i find by drying all my curtains first i can make the starch the right consistency, that is, most people want them just stiff enough to hang pretty, so i try to get them about the same weight as when new; if the curtain is of a heavy make less starch will be required, but if they are of a net or some other flimsy material it takes more starch--after doing a few pair it is easy to guess just what you require for all curtains. the first curtain put on the stretcher is always the most tedious, but after that it is easy. i never put on more than one pair of heavy; if of light material i get as many on as the pins will take, providing, of course, the curtains are all of one length; and i always try to make the stretcher fit the curtain, not the curtain fit the stretcher. to begin with you will need pair of stretchers, two of the adjustable pin and one of the stationary pin kind, the first named are for the scallop edge curtains as they can be placed at correct distances apart--this is important--the stationary pin stretchers are for the straight edge curtain, these must be stretched from the four corners, working them on perfectly even and straight, never try to put a scallop curtain on these stretchers, as the pins are never the same distance apart. when i first commenced my laundry business, i found great difficulty, and wasted much time in trying to find the right figures on the stretchers, so i invented a scheme which has saved me hours of time, and a great deal of patience: i simply went over the figures with pen and ink, now i can see them at a glance. i often have curtains come in which require some mending; if i have time i do this at night, before starching of course; i charge extra for this and according to amount of work required, the ladies are more than willing to pay for this, and it adds to your work too; makes it look so much better. when taking the curtains off the stretchers, unscrew each corner a little and raise the lower bar, this will bring the curtain off easier and without tearing. sometimes the edges and joints require pressing, i do this as i take them off the stretcher, or at night, if i am short of time. i charge c a curtain extra for this, when ready to send home i fold them as little as possible, the fewer the creases the better they look. after wrapping them nicely, i write a note to each, in which i ask, should the work just returned meet with approval, to kindly hand my enclosed card to one of their friends, this invariably brings me a new customer. the card enclosed is simply a plain neat card with name and address only, this with my note i enclose in an envelope addressed to my customer and fastened to the parcel. most of my work is brought to me and called for, this saves me a great deal of time and trouble, but the ladies are more than willing to do this, if their curtains are done satisfactory. since commencing the laundrying of curtains i have been asked to laundry many other articles, such as shirtwaists, fancy lace dresses, jabots, dinner mats, doilies, scarfs, laces of all kinds, bed spreads and even blankets, but working only in my spare time i have confined myself to curtains and door panels only yet it goes to show that the woman with more time at her disposal could do all this kind of work, including the mending and make a splendid living, more especially when there are three and four in the family. in conclusion i must say i find that politeness, cleanliness and neatness of person in approaching the people adds a great part in the secret of success in all trades. enclosed with these instructions will be found my price list for all curtain work and from which i never vary. for any other information a two cent stamp enclosed will bring it to you by return mail. for success, i am very sincerely yours, mrs. albert leigh, bullett ave., s.e. roanoke, va. pointers from instructions at a glance . before wetting curtains measure length and width. . don't put curtains to soak in cold water over night, one half hour in the morning in luke warm water will be better. . don't be afraid to use the soap solution, it won't injure the curtains or the hands. . don't wring the curtains with your hands simply squeeze them or put them gently through the wringer. . after washing them clean dry thoroughly all your curtains, you will then know just what consistency to make your starch; make them as near their weight as when new, they hang better. . prepare your starch the night before, this will save lots of time, and you won't have to wait till it cools. . make a straining bag of one yard of crash toweling and strain all your starch before using as sometimes it lumps and sticks to the curtains. . if any mending is required do it before starching them and when clean. . don't forget to charge extra for this, according to amount of mending required. . get the adjustable-pin stretcher for scallop curtains, and stationary stretcher for straight edge curtains. . go over the figures and lines on your stretchers with pen and ink, you will then see them at a glance. . for narrow curtains and short lengths, bore holes in your stretchers to meet the requirements. . when the curtains are ready to fold, don't fold them too much, the fewer the creases the better they look. . don't forget to enclose with each parcel your card, asking to kindly hand it to a friend. . always give a receipt in return for payment, this protects you and your customer too. . don't be afraid to approach the people, they are only too glad to know of you and that their curtains be cared for. . go to the best houses, to the hotels, apartment houses, clubs, doctors' offices and anywhere where curtains are used in public buildings. . your clean and neat appearance will count for everything in this business. . make your prices the same to one and all, with no favors, and terms strictly cash. . be polite to all, even if you are annoyed sometimes, it will pay in the end. my excellent soap solution three pounds fels-naptha soap, one fourth of a pound mule team borax, one pound of sal soda, one cup turpentine, six quarts of rain water--into the six quarts of water add the soap cut into small pieces, boil till thoroughly desolved, then add the borax and sal soda, let this desolve also before adding the turpentine, then boil for minutes, altogether, keep in gallon jars. * * * * * my price list battenburg curtains c to $ . frilled muslin, ironed all over c to $ . heavy aplique c to $ . irish point net curtains c to c oriental curtains, pressing and cleaning c to c fish net curtains, long c plain nottingham lace curtains c panel curtains of all kinds, each c short muslin sash curtains, each c door panels, cleaned and pressed, each c to c self-instructor in the art of hair work, dressing hair, making curls, switches, braids, and hair jewelry of every description. compiled from original designs and the latest parisian patterns by mark campbell. new york: m. campbell, broadway. chicago: south clark street. mdccclxvii. entered according to act of congress, in the year , by mark campbell, in the clerk's office of the district court of the united states, for the northern district of illinois. preface. the necessity for a comprehensive work, giving a full and detailed explanation of the art of manufacturing hair work in all its various branches, has been so frequently urged upon the attention of the author, that, in compliance with an almost universal demand, he has concluded to publish a book which will clearly illustrate the art of hair dressing, and making hair jewelry and hair work of every description. his perfect familiarity with the business--the result of many years' successful experience--renders him eminently competent to impart the fullest information upon the subject of which he treats, while the great consumption and rapidly increasing demand for every description of hair goods, will make this work he now presents to the public, one of particular interest to all classes. heretofore the art of making these goods has been zealously guarded by a few dealers, who have accumulated fortunes, and would still retain it a profound secret but for the publication of this book. this is the only descriptive volume ever published on hair work. it is an elaborate, carefully prepared book, containing over one thousand drawings, devices and diagrams, engraved at great expense to the publisher, and accompanied with the most comprehensive instructions. it not only reveals to the most ordinary comprehension the hitherto concealed mysteries of the art, but will prove an indispensable adjunct to every lady's toilet table, as by its aid she will not only be able to dress her own hair in every variety of style, but make her own hair jewelry and articles of hair work, including switches, braids, curls, waterfalls, &c., assisted by a reference to plates of the most modern european and american styles. for children, no art or accomplishment is more useful than the ability to make articles of tasteful ornament in hair work. this work will open to all such persons a path to agreeable and profitable occupation. jewelry dealers, from the clear instructions herein given, can manufacture any required pattern of hair jewelry, and add, without extra expense, a new and lucrative branch to their business. persons wishing to preserve and weave into lasting mementos, the hair of a deceased father, mother, sister, brother, or child, can also enjoy the inexpressible advantage and satisfaction of _knowing_ that the material of their own handiwork is the actual hair of the "loved and gone." no other work ever met with such an earnest demand as this treatise upon the art of hair braiding. it must certainly commend itself to the ladies of our country as invaluable. even a hasty perusal will convince every one of its utility and worth. translations in french and german are in progress. [illustration] introductory remarks. in this book of instruction, i have introduced for practice the easiest braids first--which are chain braids. the first pattern, found on page , is a very easy and handsome one, and should be practiced to perfection before trying any other, as it will enable the beginner to execute all others after the first is perfected. a new beginner should be particular to place the strands correctly upon the table, and mark the cover with precision, after the manner shown in the diagram. i have, by the introduction of plates, diagrams and explanatory remarks, made comprehensive and simple the execution of all the braids herein contained. the novice should first give special attention to preparing the hair for braiding, the adjustment of it to the bobbins, weights, molds, &c., of which plates, and full explanations are to be found elsewhere in this book. i wish to impress upon the mind of the worker, that every change made with the strands changes the numbers of them to correspond with the numbers on the table. for example: lift no. over no. , which would make no. no. , and no. no. , &c. [illustration: braiding table and position in braiding.] square chain braid. take sixteen strands, eighty hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, take nos. ,--one in each hand--lift them over the table, one on each side of the mold, and lay them between nos. at b, and bring back the nos. from b, one on each side of the mold, and lay them between nos. at a; then go to c, lift nos. over between nos. at d, passing one strand each side of the mold, and bring back nos. from d, and lay between nos. at c. then you are through the braid, ready to commence at a, as at first, and repeat until finished. [illustration] braid this over a mold, made of small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off the weights, tie the ends fast on the wire, and push the braid tight together; then boil in water about ten minutes, and take it out and put in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until quite dry; then slip it off the wire on to the cord, sew the ends of the braid so it will not slip, and put a little shellac on the end to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. reverse chain braid. take sixteen strands and place on table like pattern. commence at a with sixty hairs in a strand. take nos. , lift over table to b, lay them in between nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b, and lay in between nos. at a. then walk around table to c; take nos. and lift over table and lay them in between nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d to c; then take nos. at c, lift over table and lay them inside of nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d to c. after braiding several times round to suit your taste, say five, reverse the braid by commencing at c, and braiding as you did at a, by taking nos. at c, lift over table to d, and lay them in between nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d, and lay in between nos. at c. then go to a and take nos. , lift over table and lay in between nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a, then take nos. at a, lift over table and lay in between nos. at b, and fetch back nos. from b to a, then commence at c again and braid five times. then commence at a as you did at first, reversing it every time you braid it five times through. braid it over a small wire, tie the ends on the wire, boil and dry the same as chain on page nine, only you need not press the braid together on the wire. [illustration] sixteen twist chain. take sixteen strands, with eighty hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a and b; take no. at a in right hand, and no. at b in left hand, and swing them around the table to the right, changing places with them. then take nos. at c and d and change as at a and b. then go to b and take nos. at b and a, and change them by taking no. at b in right hand and no. at a in left hand, and swing them around table to the right as before, changing places with them. then go around the table to d, and take nos. at d and c, and change places as before, then take nos. at a and b and change as before. then take nos. at c and d and change places with them. then take nos. at b and a and change as before. then take nos. at d and c and change as before. then commence at a, as at first, repeating until the braid is finished. [illustration] striped snake chain braid. take thirty-two strands with twelve hairs in a strand, or any number that can be divided by four, and sixty strands for usual size, and place them on table like pattern. have every alternate two strands of black hair, and the others of light hair. commence at a, taking two strands of light hair in left hand, nos. and , and take two strands of black hair in right hand, nos. and , and cross no. (light) over no. (dark), then no. (light) under no. (dark), then no. (dark) over nos. and (light); so on around the table to the right until you get to a; then commence and work back to the left by taking light hair in left hand and dark hair in right hand, as before, and put no. (dark) over no. (light), and no. (dark) under no. (light), and no. (light) over nos. and (dark), so on around the table till you get to a; then commence as at first, so on, braiding first one way around the table then the other till you have the chain completed. [illustration] braid it over wood, or brass wire, the size and length you wish your chain. when braided take off your weights, tie the ends fast and boil and dry, then take out the mold and put a cord through with some cotton wrapped around it so it will be soft and pliable. this is called the striped snake braid, and can be braided all of one color if desired. cable chain braid. take any number of strands that can be divided by two, eighty hairs in a strand, twenty strands for usual size, place on table like pattern. commencing, take no. at a in right hand and no. at b in left hand, and swing around the table to the right, and lay the one in right hand at no. at b, and the one in left hand at no. at a; then bring back no. at b with right hand, and no. at a in left hand, to the left, then take no. and swing to the right, then no. and swing to the left, so on, round first to the right then to the left, with every number of strands till you get to no. ; then commence as at first, and so on till the chain is as long as required. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire, and push the braid together on the wire; boil in water about ten minutes, then take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry; then take it out and slip off the wire on to the cord, and sew the ends of the braid so it will not slip on the cord, and put a little shellac on the end to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. snake chain braid. take thirty-two strands, or any number that can be divided by four, twelve hairs in a strand, and sixty strands for usual size; place them on table like pattern. commence at a, lift no. in your right hand, and put your left under your right hand and take up no. and bring it back of no. , and lay them both down; then take no. up and lay it between nos. and , then take the next four to the right, and so on till you get around the table; then commence and braid back around the table to the left, but reverse the braid by braiding it this way: lift no. with your left hand, pass your right under and take no. and bring it back over no. , and lay them both down; then take no. and lift it over in between nos. and , and so on, till you get around the table. then commence as at first, braid one way, then the other, till you have it as long as required. braid it over wood or brass wire the size and length you wish your chain; when braided take off your weights, tie the ends fast, and boil and dry them; take out the mold and put a cord through with some cotton wrapped around it so that it will be soft and pliable. this is called the snake chain braid. [illustration] eight square chain braid. take sixteen strands, eighty hairs in a strand, and place them on the table like pattern. commence at a, take nos. strands, lift across the table and lay down inside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a, then lift nos. at a over inside nos. at b and bring nos. from b to a, then lift nos. from a to b, and bring back nos. from b to a, then lift nos. from a to b and bring back nos. from b to a, then commence at nos. again and repeat until the chain is completed. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of an needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire and push the braid together on the wire; then boil in water about ten minutes; then take it out and put in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry; then take it out and slip it off of the wire on to the cord, and sew the ends of the braid so it will not slip on the cord, and put a little shellac on the end to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. half-twist chain braid. take sixteen strands or any number that can be divided by two, usually eighty hairs in a strand. commence at a and b, take no. at a in right hand, and no. at b in left hand, and swing them around table to right, and lay the one in right hand down at b across over no. , and the one in right hand lay down across over no. at a; then go to c and d, and change no. as before at a and b; then go to the next two strands and change as before, so on around the table, taking the next two each time until the chain is completed. directions same as on page . [illustration] square chain braid. take sixteen strands, eighty hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, lift nos. across table and lay in between nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then go to c, take nos. and lift across table and lay in between nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d to c; then go to a, take nos. and lift across inside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then go to c, lift nos. across inside of nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d to c; then go to a and commence as at first, and repeat until it is the required length. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire, and push the braid close together; then boil in water about ten minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry; then take it out and slip it off the wire on to the cord, sew the ends of the braid so it will not slip, and put a little shellac on the ends to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. cable twist chain braid. take sixteen strands, eighty hairs in a strand, and place them on table like pattern. commence at a and b with nos. , passing them around table to the right, and leave no. from a at b, and no. from b at a. then take nos. at a and b, and pass around table to right, and leave the one from a at b, and the one from b at a. then take nos. at a and b, changing places with them; then take nos. and change as before; then take nos. at a and b and change them as before; then take nos. at a and b and change as at first; then take nos. and change as before; then take nos. and change as before; then take nos. and change as before, so on until the braid is finished, all the time taking the third strand to the right, or forward, and the second one to the left, or backward. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire and push the braid together on the wire; then boil in water about ten minutes; then take it out and put in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry; then take it out and slip it off of the wire on to the cord, and sew the ends of the braid so it will not slip on the cord, and put a little shellac on the end to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. twist chain braid. take eighteen strands, eighty hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a and b, take nos. and swing around table to the right, and place the no. from a over the nos. and at b, and the no. from b over the nos. and at a; then go to c and d, take the nos. and change the same; then go to e and f and change the same; then go to b and a, and change as at first,--all the time taking the nos. , and swinging to the right, for when you lay them over the nos. and it makes them nos. , and makes nos. nos. --and so on, until the chain is finished. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire, and push the braid close together; then boil in water about ten minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry; then take it out and slip it off the wire on to the cord, sew the ends of the braid so it will not slip, and put a little shellac on the ends to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. twist chain braid. take sixteen strands, eighty hairs in a strand, and place them on table like pattern. commence at a and b, take no. at a in right hand and no. at b in left hand and swing them around the table to the right and lay the one in the right hand down at b, over across nos. , and , and the one in the left hand at a over across nos. , and , then go to c and take no. at c and d and change as before at a and b; then go to b and take no. at b and a and change them by taking no. at b in right hand, and no. at a in left hand and swing them round the table to the right as before, laying them across over nos. , and ; so on braiding around the table to the right until you have it the required length. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire and push the braid together on the wire; then boil in water about ten minutes; then take it out and put in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry; then take it out and slip it off of the wire on to the cord, and sew the ends of the braid so it will not slip on the cord, and put a little shellac on the end to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. rib chain braid. take sixteen strands, eighty hairs in a strand, and place them on table like pattern. commence at a, take nos. and lift over across table outside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a outside of nos. at a, then take nos. at c and cross over inside of nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d inside of nos. at c, then go back to a and braid as before, so on repeating until it is finished. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire and push the braid together on the wire; then boil in water about ten minutes; then take it out and put in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry; then take it out and slip it off of the wire on to the cord, and sew the ends of the braid so it will not slip on the cord, and put a little shellac on the end to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. twist chain braid. take ten strands, eighty hairs in a strand, and place them on the table like pattern. commence at a and b, take nos. and swing them around the table to the right, and leave no. from a at b and the no. from b at a, then take the nos. and swing them around the table to the right and change places with each other, then take nos. and change places as before; then take nos. and change places as before; then take nos. and change places as before; then commence at nos. and repeat until the braid is finished. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire and push the braid together on the wire; then boil in water about ten minutes; then take it out and put in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry; then take it out and slip it off of the wire on to the cord, and sew the ends of the braid so it will not slip on the cord, and put a little shellac on the end to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. half twist chain braid. take sixteen strands, seventy-five hairs in a strand, and place on the table like pattern. commence at a take nos. and , lift across the table to b, and lay no. outside of no. , and lay no. between nos. and , and bring back nos. and from b to a, and lay no. outside of no. , and no. outside of no. at a; then go to c and take nos. and , lift over table to d and lay no. outside of no. , and lay no. between nos. and , and bring back nos. and from c, and lay no. outside of no. , and no. outside of no. at c; then go to b and change the same, and so on around the table to the right until the braid is finished. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire and push the braid together on the wire; then boil in water about ten minutes; then take it out and put in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry; then take it out and slip it off of the wire on to the cord, and sew the ends of the braid so it will not slip on the cord, and put a little shellac on the end to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. cable chain braid. take twenty strands, seventy-five hairs in a strand, place on table like pattern. commence at a, lift nos. over across the table inside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then take nos. at a, cross over and lay them between nos. at b, and carry back nos. from b to a; then take nos. at a, cross over inside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then take nos. at a and cross over inside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then take nos. at a, cross over inside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then take nos. at b, cross over inside of nos. at a, and bring back nos. from a to b; then take nos. at b and cross over inside of nos. at a, and bring back nos. from a to b; then take nos. , so on around the table to the right until the braid is finished, all the time taking the next two. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire and push the braid together on the wire; then boil in water about ten minutes; then take it out and put in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry; then take it out and slip it off of the wire on to the cord, and sew the ends of the braid so it will not slip on the cord, and put a little shellac on the end to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. sixteen square chain braid. take thirty-two strands, fifty hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, lift nos. across inside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then change at c and d, e and f, and g and h the same, then go to a, lift nos. across in place of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then change at c and d, e and f, and g and h the same. then you are through the braid, ready to commence at a, as at first, repeating the changes until the braid is finished. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire, and push the braid close together; then boil in water about ten minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry; then take it out and slip it off the wire on to the cord, sew the ends of the braid so it will not slip, and put a little shellac on the ends to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. german twist chain braid. take sixteen strands, eighty hairs in a strand, and place them on the table like pattern. commence at a and b, take no. at a in right hand and no. at b in left hand, and swing them around to the right and change places with them; then take no. at c in right hand and no. at d in left hand, and swing around table to the right and change places as before; then take no. at b in right hand and no. at a in left hand and swing to the right and change as before; then take no. at d in right hand and no. at c in left hand and swing to the right and change as before; then take no. at a in right hand and no. at b in left hand and change as before; then take no. at c in right hand and no. at d in left hand and change as before; then take no. at b in right hand and no. at a in left hand and change as before then take no. at d in right hand and no. at c in left hand and change as before. then commence at a as at first and repeat till the braid is finished. [illustration] for further directions see page . fancy square chain braid. take twenty-four strands, seventy hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a--change nos. at a across inside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a, then go to c, change nos. across inside of nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d to c, then take nos. at e in right hand and no. at f in left hand, lift across table in place of nos. at g and h, and bring back nos. from g and h to f and e; then take nos. at e and f and change across to g and h, and lay in place of nos. , and bring back nos. from g and h to f and e; then take nos and change across to g and h as before; then take nos. at f and e and change across to g and h as before; then go to c and change the nos. across to d, and bring the nos. from d to c; then go to a and change the nos. across to b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then go to e and h, take no. at h in right hand, and no. at e in left hand, and lift across in place of nos. at f and g, and bring back nos. from f and g to e and h; then take nos. at e and h and change across in place of nos. at f and g, and bring back nos. from f and g to e and h; then take nos. at e and h and change across in place of nos. at f and g and bring back nos. from f and g to e and h; then take nos. at e and h, and change across in place of nos. at f and g, and bring back nos. from f and g to e and h; then go to a and commence as at first, and repeat till the chain is finished. [illustration] for further directions see page . fancy square chain braid. take twenty-four strands, seventy hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, lift nos. across inside of no. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then change nos. at c and d the same; then change nos. at e and f the same; then go to a, lift nos. across to b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then change nos. at c and d the same; then change nos. at e and f the same, and you are through the braid ready to commence at a as at first. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire and push the braid together on the wire; then boil in water about ten minutes; then take it out and put in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry; then take it out and slip it off of the wire on to the cord, and sew the ends of the braid so it will not slip on the cord and put a little shellac on the end to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. square chain braid. take sixteen strands, eighty hairs in a strand, and place them on the table like pattern. commence at a, change the nos. across inside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then take no. at a change over in place of nos. at b and bring back nos. from b to a; then go to c, and change the nos. from c to d, and bring back nos. from d to c; then take nos. at c and change over in place of nos. at d, and bring back nos from d to c; then go to a and begin as at first, repeating until the braid is finished. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire and push the braid together on the wire; then boil in water about ten minutes; then take it out and put in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry, then take it out and slip it off of the wire on to the cord, and sew the ends of the braid so it will not slip on the cord, and put a little shellac on the end to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. fancy twist chain braid. take thirty-two strands, fifty hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. change nos. at a across inside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then change in the same way, successively, the nos. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , --then you are through, ready to commence as at first. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire and push the braid together on the wire, then boil in water about ten minutes; then take it out and put in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry; then take it out and slip it off of the wire on to the cord, and sew the ends of the braid so it will not slip on the cord, and put a little shellac on the end to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. fancy twist chain braid. [illustration] take sixteen strands, eighty hairs in a strand, and lay on table like pattern. commence at a and b--take no. at a in left hand and no. at b in right hand, swing around table to the left, and change places with them; then take no. at b in right hand and no. at a in left hand, and swing around the table to the right and change places with them; then take no. at a in right hand and no. at b in left hand, and swing around the table to the left, and change places as before; then take no. at a in right hand and no. at b in left hand and swing around table to the left and change as before; then take no. at a in left hand, and no. at b in right hand and swing around table to the right and change as before; then take no. at a in right hand and no. at b in left hand, and swing around table to the left and change as before; then take no. at a in right hand and no. at b in left hand, swing around table to the left and change as before, then take no. at a in left hand and no. at b in right hand, swing around table to the right and change as before; then take no. at a in right hand and no. at b in left hand and swing around table to the left and change as before; then take no. at a in right hand and no. at b in left hand and swing around table to the left and change as before; then take no. at a in left hand and no. at b in right hand and swing around table to the right and change as before; then take no. at a in right hand and no. at b in left hand and swing around table to the left and change as before; then take no. at a in right hand and no. at b in left hand and swing around table to the left and change as before, then take no. at a in left hand and no. at b in right hand, and swing around table to the right and change as before. then commence at a as at first. braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire and push the braid together on the wire; then boil in water about ten minutes; then take it out and put in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry; then take it out and slip it off of the wire on to the cord, and sew the ends of the braid so it will not slip on the cord, and put a little shellac on the end to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. double twist chain braid. take eighteen strands, eighty hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a and b--take no. at a in right hand and no. at b in left hand and swing them around the table to the right and change places with them; then change the nos. , and the same way; then count back five to the left (not counting the one last braided), bringing you to no. --swing as before to the right and change places; then change the nos. , and the same way; then count back five, bringing you to no. --change the same; and so on, first counting two forward and change three times, and then count five back and change the same, so on until the braid is finished. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire and push the braid together on the wire; then boil in water about ten minutes; then take it out and put in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry; then take it out and slip it off of the wire on to the cord, and sew the ends of the braid so it will not slip on the cord, and put a little shellac on the end to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. fancy cable chain braid. take sixteen strands, eighty hairs in a strand, and place them on the table like pattern. commence at a and b, take no. at a in right hand and no. at b in left hand, and swing them around to the left and change places with them; then take successively nos. , , , , , , , , , , , and change the same; then commence as at first with no. , so on repeating until the braid is finished. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire and push the braid together on the wire; then boil in water about ten minutes; then take it out and put in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry then take it out and slip it off of the wire on to the cord, and sew the ends of the braid so it will not slip on the cord, and put a little shellac on the end to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. half square chain braid. take twenty four strands, seventy hairs in a strand, and arrange like pattern. commence at a, take nos. and lay them in the place of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then take nos. at c and lay in the place of nos. at d and bring back nos. from d to c. then take the nos. from h and lay between the nos. at g, and bring back the nos. from g to h; then take the nos. at h and place between the nos. at g, and bring back the nos. from g to h; then take nos. at e and place between nos. at f, and bring back the nos. from f to e; then take the nos. at e and place them inside of nos. at f, and bring back the nos. from f to e. commence at a as at first, and repeat until the braid is finished. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire and push the braid together on the wire; then boil in water about ten minutes; then take it out and put in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry; then take it out and slip it off of the wire on to the cord, and sew the ends of the braid so it will not slip on the cord, and put a little shellac on the end to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. twelve square chain braid. take twenty-four strands, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, take nos. and place between nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b and lay in place of nos. at a; then change the nos. at a, and b the same way; then change the succeeding numbers, , , and , all the same way. then you are through the braid, ready to commence at nos. again, as at first, and repeat until the braid is the desired length. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire, and push the braid close together; then boil in water about ten minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry; then take it out and slip it off the wire on to the cord, sew the ends of the braid so it will not slip, and put a little shellac on the ends to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. flat twist chain braid. take eight strands, ninety hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence, take no. at a in right hand, and no. at b in left hand, and swing around table to the right--the no. in the right hand over across nos. , and at b, and the no. in the left hand over across nos. , and at a; repeat until the braid is finished. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire and push the braid together on the wire; then boil in water about ten minutes; then take it out and put in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry; then take it out and slip it off of the wire on to the cord, and sew the ends of the braid so it will not slip on the cord, and put a little shellac on the end to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. rib chain braid. take sixteen strands, eighty hairs in a strand, and place them on the table like pattern. commence at a, take both no. strands and cross over in between nos. on the opposite side to b, then bring back both nos. from b to a, and place them in between nos. ; then walk around table to c and braid it across table to d as before. then commence at a and repeat until braid is finished. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire and push the braid together on the wire; then boil in water about ten minutes; then take it out and put in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry; then take it out and slip it off of the wire on to the cord, and sew the ends of the braid so it will not slip on the cord, and put a little shellac on the end to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. fancy cable chain braid take any number of strands that can be divided by two, eight hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence by taking no. at a and b and change places by swinging them to the right; then take no. at a and b and change places with them by swinging to the left; then take no. at a and b and change places by swinging them to the right; then nos. , and change places by swinging them to the left, and so on, swinging to the right and left alternately, until the braid is finished. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire and push the braid together on the wire; then boil in water about ten minutes; then take it out and put in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry; then take it out and slip it off of the wire on to the cord, and sew the ends of the braid so it will not slip on the cord, and put a little shellac on the end to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. square cable chain braid. take any number of strands that can be divided by two, eighty hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a and b, take nos. and swing them around table to the right--no. from a around to b across no. at b, and no. from b across no. at a; then take nos. at c and d and change as before; then change the same at e and f and at b and a, so on around the table to the right until the chain is completed. any number of strands can be used by increasing the number in each place, or by having three, four, five or six in a place, care being taken to cross all the strands. for instance, there are four strands, no. must be crossed over all as you braid around the table. by adding strands a different braid is formed. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire and push the braid together on the wire; then boil in water about ten minutes; then take it out and put in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry; then take it out and slip it off of the wire on to the cord, and sew the ends of the braid so it will not slip on the cord, and put a little shellac on the end to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. fob chain braid. take twenty strands, seventy hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, cross no. in the right hand over the no. in the left hand, and then go to b and cross no. in the left hand over no. in the right hand; then go back to a and take nos. and cross inside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then take nos. and change the same; then change nos. the same; then go to c and take nos. and cross inside of nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d and lay inside of nos. at c; then commence at a as at first, and repeat until the braid is finished. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire and push the braid together on the wire; then boil in water about ten minutes; then take it out and put in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry; then take it out and slip it off of the wire on to the cord, and sew the ends of the braid so it will not slip on the cord, and put a little shellac on the end to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. square ribbed chain braid. take twenty strands, seventy hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence take no. at a in right hand and no. at b in left hand, swing to the right and change places with them; then take nos. at a and lay inside of nos. at b, and bring nos. from b and lay inside of nos. at a; then go to c and take no. in right hand and no. at d in left hand, swing to the right and change places with them; then take nos. at c and lay inside of nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d and lay inside of nos. at c. then commence at a as at first, and repeat until the braid is finished. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire and push the braid together on the wire; then boil in water about ten minutes; then take it out and put in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry, then take it out and slip it off of the wire on to the cord, and sew the ends of the braid so it will not slip on the cord, and put a little shellac on the end to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. double loop chain braid. take twenty-four strands, sixty hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a and b: take nos. at a, and lift them across the table, and lay the one in left hand between nos. at b, and the one in right hand on the outside of nos. at b, and bring back the nos. from b to a. then pass round the table to the right, and change (in the same manner) successively, the nos. , , , , , , , , , , and ; then commence at a with nos. , as at first, and repeat until the braid is finished. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire, and push the braid close together; then boil in water about ten minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry; then take it out and slip it off the wire on to the cord, sew the ends of the braid so it will not slip, and put a little shellac on the ends to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. knot chain braid. take thirty-two strands with fifty hairs in a strand, and place them on table like pattern. commence at a, take nos. and lift over across table, and lay outside of nos. at b, then bring back nos. from b and lay outside of nos. at a; then take nos. at a and lift over across table and lay outside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b and lay outside of nos. at a; then change nos. at a and b the same; then take nos. and change the same; then go to d and change the same as at a; then go to b and change the same; then go to c and change the same, and you are ready to commence again at a, as at first: repeat until braid is finished. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire and push the braid together on the wire; then boil in water about ten minutes; then take it out and put in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry; then take it out and slip it off of the wire on to the cord, and sew the ends of the braid so it will not slip on the cord, and put a little shellac on the end to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. double rib chain braid. take thirty-two strands, sixty hairs in a strand and place on table like pattern. commence at a, take nos. and lift over table and lay outside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b and lay outside of nos. at a; then go to d and change the nos. the same as at a and b; then go to b and change the same as at a; then go to c and change the same way, and then to a and change as at first, and so on, repeating the changes until the braid is finished. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire, and push the braid close together; then boil in water about ten minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry; then take it out and slip it off the wire on to the cord, sew the ends of the braid so it will not slip, and put a little shellac on the ends to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. fancy chain braid. [illustration] take sixteen strands eighty hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, change nos. across inside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then take nos. at a and change across inside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then go to c and change the nos. and the nos. across with the numbers at d the same as at a; then return to a and commence as at first and repeat ten times. then change the figures on the table to correspond with the following diagram: [illustration] then commence at a and b, take no. at a in right hand and no. at b in left hand, and swing around the table to the right, changing places with them; then take nos. at c and d and change the same; then change nos. at b and a the same; then change the nos. at d and c the same; then take nos. at a and b and change the same; then change the nos. at c and d; then the nos. at b and a; then the nos. at p and c; then commence at a as at first, and repeat ten times, so on braiding alternately ten rounds by the directions of each pattern until the braid is finished. fancy chain braid. [illustration] take sixteen strands eighty hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, change nos. across inside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then take nos. at a and change across inside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then go to c and change the nos. and the nos. across with the numbers at d the same as at a; then return to a and commence as at first and repeat ten times. then change the figures on the table to correspond with the following diagram: [illustration] then commence at a, take nos. and , lift across table to b and lay no. outside of no. , and no. between nos. and , and bring back nos. and from b to a, and lay no. outside of no. , and no. outside of no. at a; then go to c and take nos. and and lift over table to d, and lay no. outside of no. , and no. between nos. and , and bring back nos. and from c and lay no. outside of no. and no. outside of no. at c; then go to b and change the same, and so on around the table to the right, braiding alternately ten rounds by each diagram until the braid is finished. fancy chain braid. [illustration] take sixteen strands eighty hairs in a strand, and place them on table like pattern. commence at a, lift nos. over across the table and lay them in between nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then go to c and change the nos. across with the nos. at d the same; then take nos. at a and change across inside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then change the nos. at c across inside of nos. at d the same; then commence at a as at first, and repeat ten times. then change the numbers on table to correspond with the following pattern or diagram: [illustration] then commence at a, take nos. and , lift across table to b and lay no. outside of no. , and no. between nos. and , and bring back nos. and from b to a, and lay no. outside of no. , and no. outside of no. at a; then go to c and take nos. and and lift over table to d, and lay no. outside of no. , and no. between nos. and , and bring back nos. and from c and lay no. outside of no. and no. outside of no. at c; then go to b and change the same, and so on around the table to the right, braiding alternately ten rounds by each diagram until the braid is finished. fancy chain braid. [illustration] take sixteen strands, eighty hairs in a strand, and place them on the table like pattern. commence at a and b, take no. at a in right hand and no. at b in left hand, swing around the table to the right and change places with them; then take nos. at c and d and change as at a and b; then change nos. at b and a the same; then change the nos. at d and c the same; then take nos. at a and b and change the same; then change the nos. at c and d; then the nos. at b and a, and also the nos. at d and c, all the time swinging to the right. braid around ten times. [illustration] then commence at a, take nos. and , lift across table to b and lay no. outside of no. , and no. between nos. and , and bring back nos. and from b to a, and lay no. outside of no. , and no. outside of no. at a; then change the same at c, b and d; then commence again at a and braid ten rounds, so on braiding alternately ten rounds by the directions of each pattern until the braid is finished. fancy chain braid. [illustration] take sixteen strands eighty hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, change nos. across inside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then take nos. at a and change across inside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then go to c and change the nos. and the nos. across with the numbers at d the same as at a; then return to a and commence as at first and repeat ten times. then change the figures on the table to correspond with the following diagram: [illustration] then commence at a and b, take no. at a in right hand and no. at b in left hand, and swing them around the table to the right, and lay the one in right hand down at b over across nos. , and , and the one in left hand at a over across nos. , and ; then go to c and change the nos. at b and d the same; then go to b and change the nos. at b and a the same; so on, braiding around the table to the right, alternately braiding ten rounds by the directions of each pattern until the braid is finished. fancy chain braid. [illustration] take sixteen strands, eighty hairs in a strand, and place them on table like pattern. commence at a, lift nos. over across the table and lay them in between nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then go to c and change the nos. across with the nos. at d the same; then take nos. at a and change across inside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then change the nos. at c across inside of nos. at d the same; then commence at a as at first, and repeat ten times. then change the numbers on table to correspond with the following pattern or diagram: [illustration] then commence at a and b, take no. at a in right hand and no. at b in left hand, and swing them around the table to the right, and lay the one in right hand down at b over across nos. , and , and the one in left hand at a over across nos. , and ; then go to c and change the nos. at b and d the same; then go to b and change the nos. at b and a the same; so on, braiding around the table to the right, alternately braiding ten rounds by the directions of each pattern until the braid is finished. double rib chain braid. take twenty-six strands, sixty hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a and b, take nos. and change places by swinging them around the table to the left; then take the third strands to the right of a and b, and change places by swinging them around the table to the right; then take the fourth strands to the right of the ones last taken, and change places by swinging them around the table to the left, and so on working around the table to the right; first swinging the strands to the left, and then to the right, taking alternately the third and fourth strands to the right of the ones last used, until the braid is finished. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire, and push the braid together; then boil in water about ten minutes, and then take out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry; then take it out and slip it off the wire and on the cord, and sew the ends so it will not slip, and put a little shellac on the end to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid vary the number of hairs in a strand. rope chain braid. take twenty-four strands, sixty hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, take no. in right hand, swing around the table to the right and lay in place of no. at b, and bring back no. from b and lay in place of no. at a; then take no. at a in left hand, and change places with no. at b by swinging around to the left; then go to c, take nos. and lift over table and lay inside of nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d and lay in place of nos. at c; then go to e and change the nos. at e and f the same as at a and b; then go to g and change the same as at c and d, and so on, alternately changing, first as at a and b, and then as at c and d, until the braid is finished. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire, and push the braid together; then boil in water about ten minutes, and then take out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry; then take it out and slip it off the wire and on the cord, and sew the ends so it will not slip, and put a little shellac on the end to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. diamond shaped chain braid. take twenty-four strands, seventy hairs in a strand, and place on the table like pattern. commence at a, take nos. lift across table and lay in between nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then take nos. at a and lift across table and lay between nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then go to f, take no. in right hand, swing around to the right and lay in place of no. at e; then take no. at e in left hand and swing around to the left and lay in place of no. at f; then go to c, take nos. lift across table, and lay them in between nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d to c; then take nos. at c, lift across the table and lay between nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d to c; then you are through the braid, ready to commence as at first. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire, and push the braid together; then boil in water about ten minutes, and then take out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry; then take it out and slip it off the wire and on the cord, and sew the ends so it will not slip, and put a little shellac on the end to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. fancy square chain braid. take twenty-four strands, eighty hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, take no. in right hand, swing around to the right and lay in place of no. at b; then take no. at b in left hand, swing around table to the left and lay in place of no. at a; then go to c, take no. in right hand, swing around the table to the right and lay outside of no. at d, and bring back no. from d to c; then take no. at c in left hand, swing around the table to the left and lay outside of no. at d, and bring back no. from d to c; then go to e and change the nos. at e and f the same as you did at a and b; then change the nos. at g and h the same as you did at c and d. then you are through the braid, ready to commence at a, as at first. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire, and push the braid together; then boil in water about ten minutes, and then take out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry; then take it out and slip it off the wire and on the cord, and sew the ends so it will not slip, and put a little shellac on the end to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. fancy square chain braid. take twenty-four strands, eighty hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, take no. in right hand, swing around to the right and lay in place of no. at b; then take no. at b in left hand, swing around table to the left and lay in place of no. at a; then go to c, take nos. and lift them across the table and lay in between nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d to c; then go to e, and change the nos. at e and f the same as you did at a and b; then go to g, and change the nos. at g and h the same as you did at c and d. then you are through the braid, ready to commence at a, as at first. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire, and push the braid together; then boil in water about ten minutes, and then take out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry; then take it out and slip it off the wire and on the cord, and sew the ends so it will not slip, and put a little shellac on the end to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. fancy square chain braid take twenty-four strands, eighty hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, take no. at the left side of a in the right hand, and no. at the left of b in the left hand, swing them around the table to the right and lay the one from b at the right of a, and the one from a at the right of b; then go to c, take no. at the left side of c in the right hand, and no. at the left side of d in the left hand, swing them around the table to the right, and lay the one from c at the right of d, and the one from d at the right of c; then go to b, take nos. and lift them across table and lay between nos. at a, and bring back nos. from a to b; then change nos. and the same way; then go to c, take nos. and lift across the table and lay between nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d to c; then change nos. and the same way. then you are through the braid, ready to commence as at first, at a. [illustration] for explanation see page . fancy square chain braid. take twenty-four strands, eighty hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, take nos. and lift across the table and lay between nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then change nos. the same way; then go to c, take nos. and lift them across the table and lay between nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d to a; then change nos. the same way; then go to e, take nos. and and lift them across the table to f, and lay no. from e at the right of no. at f, and no. from e at the right of no. at f, and bring back the nos. and from f to e; then go to g and change the same from g to h as you did at e and f. then you are through the braid, ready to commence at a, as at first. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire, and push the braid together; then boil in water about ten minutes, and then take out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry; then take it out and slip it off the wire and on the cord, and sew the ends so it will not slip, and put a little shellac on the end to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. fancy twist braid. take twenty-four strands, seventy hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, take nos. cross over and lay between nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b and lay between nos. at a; then go to e, take nos. and and cross over to f, and lay no. down at the right of no. at f, and no. at the right of no. at f, and and bring back nos. and from f to e; then go to c, and change the nos. at c and d the same as you did at a and b; then go to g, and change the nos. at g and h the same as you did at e and f. then you are through the braid, ready to commence at a, as at first. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire, and push the braid together; then boil in water about ten minutes, and then take out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry; then take it out and slip it off the wire and on the cord, and sew the ends so it will not slip, and put a little shellac on the end to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid vary the number of hairs in a strand. flat chain braid. take twenty-four strands, seventy hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, take nos. and change places by crossing one over the other; then go to b and cross the nos. the same way; then go back to a, take nos. and cross over and lay between nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then take nos. at a, and cross over and lay between nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then change nos. and the same way; then go to c, take nos. and and cross over to d, and lay the no. from c down at the left of no. at d, and the no. from c down at the left of no. at d, and bring back the nos. and from d to c; then take the nos. and , cross over to d and lay the no. from c down at the right of no. at d, and the no. from c down at the right of no. at d, and bring back nos. and from d to c. then you are through the braid, ready to commence at a, as at first. [illustration] for explanation see page . necklace pattern. [illustration] take sixteen strands, twenty hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, take nos. and left across to b, lay in place of nos. and at b, and bring back nos. and from b to a; then take no. at a in right hand and no. in left hand, pass right hand round table to the right to b, and lay the no. from a in place of no. at b, and bring back no. from b to a in right hand, and pass left hand round table to the left, and lay no. from a in place of no. at b, and bring back no. from b to a, and lay no. from b down at no. at a, and lay no. from b down at no. at a, then go to c and take nos. across over inside of nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d to c; then go to a and repeat this all three times; then the fourth time at c you take nos. at c across over to d and lay outside of nos. at d, bring back the nos. from d to c and lay them outside of nos. at c; then you are through the braid, ready to commence as at first at a. braid it over a small cord so as to put it up together. necklace pattern. take sixteen strands, twenty hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, take nos. at a lift across inside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then go to c, take nos. at c lift across inside of nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d to c; then commence at a again and repeat it three times; then commence at a, take nos. across to b and lay them outside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a and lay outside of nos. at a; then go to c and change from c to d the same as from a to b; then you are through the braid, ready to commence as at first. [illustration] braid this over a small wire, with a hole in one end like the eye of a needle, so as to draw a small cord in the place of the wire. when you have it braided, take off your weights, tie the ends fast on the wire and push the braid together on the wire; then boil in water about ten minutes; then take it out and put in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry; then take it out and slip it off of the wire on to the cord, and sew the ends of the braid so it will not slip on the cord, and put a little shellac on the end to keep it fast. if you want it elastic, use elastic cord. to vary the size of the braid, vary the number of hairs in a strand. necklace pattern. take sixteen strands, twenty hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, take nos. at a across over inside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then take nos. at a across over inside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then take no. at c in right hand and no. at d in left hand and change them, lay the no. from c in place of no. at d, and lay the no. from d in place of no. at c; then change the nos. and at a and b as at first; then change the nos. at c and d, as you did the nos. at c and d; then change the nos. and , as before, at a and b; then take nos. at c and d and change as you did the nos. at c and d; then change again nos. and at a and b as at first; then take the nos. at c and d and change as you did the nos. at c and d; then you are through the braid, ready to commence as at first. [illustration] braid this without cord or wire. necklace pattern. [illustration] take sixteen strands, twenty hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, take nos. lift over to b in place of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then take nos. at a and change over in place of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then take no. at a in right hand and no. at b in left hand, and lay them inside of nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d and lay in place of nos. at a and b; then take no. at a in left hand and no. at b in right hand, and lay inside of nos. at c, and bring back nos. from c to a and b, and lay in place of nos. ; then commence as at first and repeat this three times, then take nos. at a, lift over to b in place of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then take nos. at a and change over in place of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then take nos. at a and b, lay inside of nos. at d; then take nos. at a and b, lay inside of nos. at c; then take nos. at a and lay outside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b and lay outside of nos. at a; then take nos. at c, lift over inside of nos. at d and bring back nos. from d and lay inside of nos. at c; then take no. at c, on the side next to b, in right hand, and lay it inside of no. at b; then take the no. at d, next to b, in left hand, and lay it inside of no. at b; then take the no. at c, next to a, in right hand, and lay it inside of no. at a; then take no. at d, next to a, and lay it inside of no. at a; then take the nos. and at a, lift over to b, and lay outside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. and from b and lay outside of nos. at a; then lift nos. at a over and lay in place of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a, and lay in place of nos. at a; then take no. at a, in left hand, and no. at b in right hand, and lay them inside of nos. at c, and bring the nos. from c back in place of the nos. at a and b; then take no. at b in left hand, and no. at a in right hand, and lay them inside of nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d and lay in place of nos. at a and b; then you are through the braid, ready to commence as at first. necklace pattern. [illustration] take twenty-two strands, fifteen hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. have the strands at a and b black hair, and those at c and d light hair. commence at a, take nos. and cross over inside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b and lay in place of nos. at a, then take nos. at a, cross over inside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b and lay inside of nos. at a; then take no. at c in right hand, and no. at d in left hand, cross over and lay the no. from c at d, and the no. from d at c; then change the nos. and at a and b as at first; then take the nos. at c and d and change them as you did the nos. ; then change again at a and b as at first; then take the nos. at c and d, and change as you did the nos. ; then change again at a and b, and so on till you get to nos. , and after changing that, change again at a and b; then change nos. again, then those at a and b, then nos. , then at a and b, then nos. , and so on back to no. , and change no. there as you did nos. . always braid those at a and b between each of those at c and d. necklace pattern. [illustration] take strands, twenty-five hairs in a strand, and place on table like this pattern. commence at a, take nos. lift across inside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a, then go to c and take nos. at c and cross inside of nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d to c, then go to a and change nos. from a to b, as at first, then take nos. at e and f and swing round table with the same, and lay down in between nos. at a and b, and lay the no. at a and b in the place of no. at e and f, then change the nos. at c across inside of nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d to c, then change nos. at a and b the same, then the nos. at c and d again, then take nos. at h and g, swing round table with the same, and lay in between nos. at c and d, and lay the right hand ones at c and d up in place of no. at h and g, then you are through the braid ready to commence as at first. braid it over a cord so to push it together. necklace or edging braid. take sixteen strands, fifteen hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, lift nos. across inside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then take nos. at a, lift across inside of nos. at b, and cross them, the one in right hand over the left, and bring back nos. from b to a, and cross the right over the left; then go to d, lift nos. across inside of nos. at c, cross the right over the left, and bring back nos. from c to d, and cross the right over the left; then repeat all from the beginning three times round the table. then go to d, lift nos. , cross the right over the left, and lay them outside of nos. at c; then go to a, lift nos. across inside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then take nos. at a, lift across inside of nos. at b, cross the right over the left, and bring back nos. from b to a, and cross them; then go to d, lift nos. across inside of nos. at c, cross the right over the left, and bring back nos. from c to d; then take nos. at c, and lay inside of nos. at d, and leave them there. then you are through the braid, ready to commence at a, as at first. [illustration] see explanation on page . head dress or necklace braid. take twenty-four strands, eighty hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, lift nos. and across inside of nos. and at b, and bring back nos. and from b to a; then go to c, lift nos. and across inside of nos. and at d, and bring back nos. and from d to c; then go to a and change the nos. and from a to b the same as at first; then take nos. at e and f, swing round table to the left, and lay them down between nos. and at a and b; then lay the nos. at a and b in place of nos. at e and f; then change the nos. and at c across inside of nos. and at d, and bring back nos. and from d to c; then change the same at a and b; then change again at c and d the same; then take nos. at h and g, swing round table to the left, and lay them between nos. and at c and d, and lay the nos. at c and d in place of nos. at h and g. then you are through the braid, ready to commence at a, as at first. [illustration] braid it over a strong cord, and when braided push it close together, tie the ends, and boil in water five minutes; then heat it in an oven until it is quite dry, and it is ready for use. ring pattern. take thirteen strands, fifteen hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, lift no. over between nos. and at a; then take no. at a, and lift over between nos. and at b; then take no. at b, and lift over between nos. and at c; then lift no. at c over between nos. and at c; then lift no. at c over between nos. and at b; then lift no. at b over between nos. and at a. then you are through the braid, ready to commence as at first, and repeating until it is the required length. then tie it out straight on a flat stick, boil it in water five minutes, then heat it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry, and then it is ready for use. [illustration] the above directions, after braiding, will suffice for finishing all ring braids, unless other directions are given. ring braid. [illustration] take twenty-four strands, twenty hairs in the strands at c and d, and ten hairs in the strands at a and b, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, take nos. and lift across table and lay inside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b and lay outside of nos. at a; then go to c, take nos. , cross over and lay in between nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d to c; then take nos. at c, cross inside of nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d to c; then take nos. at c, cross over inside of nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d to c; then commence at a, and change them at a and b as at first; then go to c and commence with the nos. . you must leave the nos. every other time and the nos. every other time, and braid it as at first. rib ring braid. [illustration] take nineteen strands, twenty hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, take no. and lift over nos. and , under and , over , , , and , and lay over to b; then take no. at b, lift over nos. and , under and , over , , , and , and lay over to a; then you are through the braid, ready to commence at a, as at first,--first round to the left, and then to the right, and so on, repeating the changes as above, until the braid is finished. then tie it out straight on a flat stick, boil in water five minutes, then heat it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning until it is quite dry, and then it is ready for use. ring pattern. [illustration] take twenty strands, twenty hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, take the nos. and lift across the table and lay in place of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then take the nos. , and , and change the same; then go to c, take the nos. and lift across the table and lay in place of nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d to c; then commence again at a, take nos. and lift over the table and lay in the place of nos. at b, and bring back the nos. from b to a; then change the nos. and the same as the nos. ; then go to c and change the nos. over in the place of nos. at d, and bring back the nos. from d to c; then go to a, and take the nos. , and , and change the same as before; then go to c and change the same as before. then you are through the braid ready to commence at a, as at first, and repeat until the braid is finished. ring pattern. [illustration] take twenty strands, twenty hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, take nos. and lift over across the table, and lay in place of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b and lay in place of nos. at a; then take nos. , and , and change their places the same as nos. ; then go to c, take nos. and lift over across the table and lay in place of nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d to c; then go to a, take nos. and lift them over the table and lay in place of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then take nos. and and change the same; then go to c, take nos. and lift them over the table and lay in place of nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d to c. then you are through the braid, ready to commence at a, as at first, and repeat the changes until the braid is finished. ring pattern. take twenty strands, fifteen hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, take nos. , lift across to b, and lay inside of nos. , and bring back nos. from b and lay in between nos. at a; then go to c, take nos. and lift over inside of nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d to c; then take nos. at c, and cross over inside of nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d to c; then take nos. at c, cross over inside of nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d to c; then commence again at a, as at first, and repeat until it is braided the desired length. [illustration] when the braid is finished, tie it out straight on a flat stick, boil in water five minutes, and heat in an oven until perfectly dry, and then it is ready for use. ring pattern. [illustration] take twenty strands, twenty hairs in a strand, and lay on table like pattern. commence at a, take nos. and lift over table and lay in place of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then take nos. and change the same; then the nos. , and change the same; then go to c, take the nos. and lay outside of the nos. ; then go to d, and take the nos. and lay outside of the nos. ; then go to c, and take nos. and lift over table and lay in place of nos. at d, and bring back the nos. from d to c; then go to a, take nos. and lift across the table and lay in place of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then take nos. at a, and lift across table in place of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then go to c, take nos. and lay outside of nos. ; then go to d, take nos. and lay outside of nos. ; then go to c, take nos. and lift over table in place of nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d to c. then you are ready to commence at a, as at first, and repeat until finished. ring pattern. [illustration] take fifteen strands, twenty hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, by taking no. and lifting it over nos. , and , under nos. , , and , and pass it over to b; then take no. at b, lift over nos. , and , under , , and , and pass it over to a; then you are through, ready to commence at a, as at first, and repeat until the braid is finished,--first round to the left, and then round to the right. ring pattern. [illustration] take nineteen strands, ten hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, take no. and lift over nos. , and , under and , over and , under and , and pass it over to b; then take no. at b, and lift over nos. , and , under and , over and , under and , and lay it over to a; then go to a and commence at no. , as at first, and repeat over and over, first to the left and then to the right, and so on, until the braid is finished. then tie it out straight on a flat stick, boil in water five minutes, and heat it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry, and then it is ready for use. ring pattern. [illustration] take twenty-four strands, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, take nos. and lift across inside of nos. at b, and bring back nos. inside of nos. at a; then go to c, and take nos. and cross over inside of nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d to c; then take nos. at c, and cross over inside of nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d to c; then take nos. at c, and cross over inside of nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d to c; then take nos. at c, and cross over inside of nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d to c; if you wish to reverse every other time, you may leave the nos. and not braid them; then you are ready to commence at a as at first. ring pattern. [illustration] take twenty-four strands, sixteen hairs in a strand, and place on the table like pattern. commence at a, take nos. and cross over to b, lay in between nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b and lay in place of nos. at a; then take nos. at a, and change them the same way; then nos. the same; then nos. the same. then take nos. at c and d, and lift over nos. ; then lift nos. at c over in place of nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d to c; then go to a, and take nos. , cross over between nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then take nos. and change the same way; then take nos. and change the same. then go to c and d, and lift nos. over nos. , and then lift nos. at c over and lay in place of nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d and lay in place of nos. at c; then you are ready to commence as at first, at a, and repeat until the braid is finished. you will place double weight on the strands at c and d. ring pattern. [illustration] take twenty-eight strands, of twelve hairs, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, take nos. and cross over the table and lay in place of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then change the nos. the same. then take nos. at a, and lift over the table in place of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then take nos. and change the same way. then go to c and d, and lift the nos. over the nos. ; then take nos. at c, and lift them over the table inside of nos. at d, and bring back the nos. from d and lay in place of nos. at c; then go to a, and take nos. and cross over in place of nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then take nos. , , and , and change all the same. then go to c and d, and lift nos. over nos. ; then lift nos. at c over the table, and lay them inside of nos. at d, and bring back nos. from d to c. then you are through the braid, ready to commence at a, as at first, and repeat until the braid is finished. place extra weight on the strands at c and d. ring or bracelet pattern. [illustration] take twenty-four strands, twenty hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern, thirteen on the right side and eleven on the left. take no. at right hand, lift over nos. and , and under nos. and , and over no. ; then take no. again, in right hand, and lift over nos. and , and under nos. and ; then take the same two that you have braided along, and lift over two strands, and under two, till you get to the center; then pass the same two strands across to the left side, and lay them down next to no. ; then commence on the left side with no. , and braid the left side as you did the right; then the braid is through, ready to commence as at first, with no. at right hand, and so on. repeat till finished. ring pattern. [illustration] take thirteen strands, twelve hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence by lifting no. over nos. and , and under nos. and , and over nos. and , and lay it next to no. on the left side, making seven on the left side; then commence on the left side, take the outside one and braid it into the middle, over two and under two, till you get to the center, and lay it across on the opposite side; then you are through with the braid, and ready to commence as at first, with the no. at right hand. you can have any odd number of strands you please. ring pattern. [illustration] take twenty strands, ten hairs in a strand, and lay on table like pattern. commence at a, take no. in right hand and swing it round the table to the right, and lay it across no. at b, and bring back no. from b to a; then take no. at a in left hand, and swing it round the table to the left, and lay it across no. at b, and bring back no. from b to a. then commence at c and d; take no. at c in left hand, and no. at d in right hand, and change places with them by passing the left hand over the right; then take nos. at c and d, and change the same way; then take nos. and change the same way; then take nos. and change the same way. then go to b, and change the nos. at e and f as you did at c and d, by commencing at nos. first, then the nos. , and , in succession. then you are through the braid, ready to commence as at first, at a. braid it over a small wire. bracelet tight braid. take any number of strands that can be divided by four,--sixty being the usual number--fifteen hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, with the inside row of figures, lift no. over no. , and nos. and over nos. and , and so on round table to the left, till you get to a; then go to c, braid to the left, lift nos. and over nos. and , and so on round to a; then commence at a and braid round to the right; lift no. over no. , and nos. and over nos. and , and so on round table to a; then go to c, braid round to the right, and lift nos. and over nos. and , and so on round to a. then you are through the braid, ready to commence as at first. [illustration] braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, tying it so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. bracelet braid. [illustration] take sixteen strands, thirty hairs in a strand, and place on the table like pattern. commence at a, take the nos. and and lay them over nos. right and left; then lay the nos. at a over nos. at c and d, and bring back the nos. from c and d and lay outside of nos. at a; then lay the nos. at a over nos. ; then go to b and repeat the same as at a, only change the nos. at b with the nos. at c, instead of the nos. at c; then lift the nos. at a over and lay between nos. at b, and bring back nos. from b to a; then go to c and lift nos. and over between nos. and at d, and bring back the nos. and from d to c. then you are through the braid, ready to commence at a, as at first. braid this over a small wire, and place double weight on the strands at c and d, and nos. at a and b. bracelet braid. take any number of strands that can be divided by four,--forty being the usual number for this braid--twelve hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, with the inside row of figures, and lift no. over no. ; then no. over no. ; then no. over nos. and ; then go to b and change the same way, and so on round the table to a. then go to c, commence with the outside row of figures, and braid round to the left; lift no. over no. ; then no. over no. ; then no. over no. ; then no. over no. , and so on round the table to a; then you will be through the braid, ready to commence as at first. [illustration] braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, tying the braid so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven, as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. elastic bracelet braid. take any number of strands that can be divided by four,--forty being the usual number for this braid--fifteen hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, with the inside row of figures, lift no. in right hand, and put your left hand under the right hand, and take nos. and and bring them back, and cross them over no. , and lay them all down; then go to b, and change the same way, and so on round the table to a. then go to c, commence with the outside row of figures, and braid round to the left; lift no. in left hand, and put your right hand under the left hand and take nos. and , bring them back, cross them over no. , and lay them all down, and so on round the table to a; then you will be through the braid, ready to commence as at first. [illustration] braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, tying the braid so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven, as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. elastic bracelet braid. take any number of strands that can be divided by four--sixty being the usual number for this braid--fifteen hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, with the inside row of figures, and braid round table to the right; lift no. over no. , and no. over nos. and ; then repeat with the same strands, the no. over no. , and no. over nos. and . then go to b and braid the same, and so on round table to a. then go to c, commence with the outside row of figures, and braid round table to the left; lift no. over no. , and no. over nos. and ; then repeat with the same strands, the same as you did at a and b, and so on round table to a. then you are through the braid, ready to commence as at first. after it is braided turn the braid inside out. [illustration] braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, and push it tight together, tying it so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. double elastic bracelet braid. take any number of strands that can be divided by four--sixty being the usual number for this braid--fifteen hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, with the inside row of figures; and braid round table to the right; cross no. over no. , and no. over nos. and ; then repeat with the same strands. then go to b, and braid the same, and so on round table to the right, until you get to a. then go to c, and braid back round table to the left, by crossing no. over no. , and no. over no. , and no. over no. ; then repeat with the same strands, and so on round table till you get to a. then you are through the braid, ready to commence as at first. [illustration] braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, and push it tight together, tying it so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. fancy tight bracelet braid. take any number of strands that can be divided by four,--sixty being the usual number--fifteen hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, with the inside row of figures, lift no. over no. , and nos. and over nos. and ; then go to b, and braid the same to the left until you get to a; then commence at c, with the outside row of figures, and braid round table to the left again; lift nos. and over nos. and , and so on round table till you get to a. then commence with the inside row of figures at a, and lift no. over no. , and nos. and over nos. and ; then go to b, and braid the same to the right, and so on round table to a; then commence at c with the outside row of figures, and braid round to the right, lift nos. and over nos. and , and so on round table to a; then you are through the braid, ready to commence as at first. be sure and braid the first two times round table to the left, and the last two to the right. [illustration] braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, tying it so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. to have it elastic use elastic cord. reverse tight bracelet braid. take any number of strands that can be divided by four,--sixty being the usual number--fifteen hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, with the inside row of figures, lift no. over no. , and no. over no. , then no. over nos. and ; then go to b and change the same to the left, and so on round table to a; then go to c, braid to the left with the outside row of figures, lift nos. and over nos. and , and so on round to a. then commence again at a and braid round to the right; lift no. over no. , then no. over no. , and nos. and over no. , and so on round table to a; then commence at c and braid to the right, lift nos. and over nos. and , and so on round to a. then you are through the braid, ready to commence as at first. [illustration] braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, tying it so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. banded bracelet braid. take any number of strands that can be divided by four,--sixty being the usual number--fifteen hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, with the inside row of figures, lift no. over no. , and no. over no. , then no. over no. , and no. over no. ; braid round table to the left till you get to a, then repeat the same at c with the outside row of figures. after braiding the second time round, commence again at a, with the inside row of figures, and braid round to the right; lift nos. and over nos. and , and so on round to a; then repeat, at c, with the outside row of figures. then you are through the braid, ready to commence as at first. [illustration] braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, tying it so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. plain open braid. take any number of strands that can be divided by four,--sixty being the usual number--fifteen hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, with the inside row of figures, lift no. over no. , no. over no. , no. over no. , and no. over no. ; then no. over no. , no. over no. , and no. over nos. and . braid round table to the left till you get to a, then repeat the same at c, only braid the outside row of figures. then you are through the braid, ready to commence as at first. [illustration] braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, tying it so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. open fine braid. take any number of strands that can be divided by four,--eighty being the usual number for this braid--four hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, with the inside row of figures, lift no. over no. ; then no. over no. ; then no. over no. ; then nos. and over no. ; then no. over no. . then go to b and change the same way, and so on round the table to a. then go to c, and commence with the outside row of figures, and change the same as you did at a, and so on round the table, when you will be through the braid, ready to commence at a, as at first. [illustration] braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, tying the braid so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven, as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. open fine braid. take any number of strands that can be divided by four,--eighty being the usual number for this braid--four hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, with the inside row of figures, lift no. over nos. , and ; then no. over nos. and ; then no. over nos. and ; then no. over no. . then go to b and change the same, and so on round the table to a. then go to c, and commence with the outside row of figures, and change the same as you did at a, and so on round the table, when you will be through the braid, ready to commence at a, as at first. [illustration] braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, tying the braid so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven, as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. open lace braid. take any number of strands that can be divided by four,--sixty being the usual number--fifteen hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, with the inside row of figures, lift no. over no. , no. over no. , no. over no. , no. over no. , and so on round the table to the left to a; then commence at c, lift no. over no. , no. over no. , no. over no. , no. over no. , no. over no. and no. over no. . then you are through the braid, ready to commence as at first. [illustration] braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, tying it so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. open braid. take any number of strands that can be divided by four,--eighty being the usual number for this braid--four hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, with the inside row of figures, lift no. over no. ; then no. over no ; then no. over no. ; then no. over no. ; then no. over no. ; then no. over no. . then go to b and change the same way, and so on round the table to a. then go to c, and commence with the outside row of figures, and change the same as you did at a, and so on round the table, when you will be through the braid, ready to commence at a, as at first. [illustration] braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, tying the braid so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven, as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. basket tight braid. take thirty-two strands, or any number that can be divided by four, fifteen hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, with the inside row of figures, and braid round the table to the left; lift no. over no. , no. over no. , and no. over no. ; then commence at c, with the outside row of figures, and braid round the table to the left; lift nos. and over nos. and ; then commence at a, as before, and braid round the table to the right; put no. under no. , and lift no. over no. , and no. over no. ; then commence at c, as before, and braid round the table to the right, and put nos. and under nos. and . then you are through the braid, ready to commence at a, as at first. [illustration] braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, tying the braid so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven, as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. tight braid. take any number of strands that can be divided by four,--forty being the usual number--twelve hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, with the inside row of figures, and lift nos. and over nos. and ; then go to b and change the same way, and so on round table to a. then go to c, commence with the outside row of figures, and braid round to the left; lift nos. and over nos. and , and so on round the table to a. then you will be through the braid, ready to commence as at first. [illustration] braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, tying it so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. acorn tight braid. take any number of strands that can be divided by four,--sixty being the usual number--fifteen hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, with the inside row of figures, lift no. over no. , no. over no. , no. over no. , and no. over no. , and so on round table to the right till you get to a; then commence at c, braid round to the right, lift nos. and over nos. and , and so on round table to a. then you are through the braid, ready to commence at a, as at first. [illustration] braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, tying it so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. half tight braid. take any number of strands that can be divided by four,--sixty being the usual number--fifteen hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, with the inside row of figures, lift no. over no. , and nos. and over nos. and , and so on round table to a; then commence at c with the outside row of figures, lift no. over no. , no. over no. , no. over no. , nos. and over no. , and no. over no. , and so on round table to a. then you are through the braid, ready to commence at a, as at first. [illustration] braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, tying it so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. fancy tight braid. in this pattern you braid with eight strands, or with two groups of fours. commence at b, lift no. in left hand and lay down between nos. and at c, and take no. at c in right hand; then lift no. at b over between nos. and at c, and take no. at c in right hand; then lift no. at b over between nos. and at c, and take no. at c in right hand; then lift no. at b over next to no. at c, and take no. at c in right hand, and then lift those in right hand over to b, and lay them all down. braid round to the right till you get to a, then take the next eight strands, and braid round table to the left; lift no. at c over between nos. and at b, and take no. at b in left hand; then lift no. at c over between nos. and at b, and take no. at b in left hand; then lift no. at c over between nos. and at b, and take no. at b in left hand; then lift no. at c over next to no. at b, and take no. at b in left hand, and then lift those in left hand over to c and lay them all down, and so on round table, taking the next eight strands, till you get to a. then you are through the braid, ready to commence as at first. [illustration] see explanation on page . plain tight braid. take any number of strands that can be divided by four,--eighty being the usual number for this braid--four hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, with the inside row of figures, lift no. over no. ; then no. over no. ; then no. over no. ; then no. over no. . then go to b and change the same way, and so round the table to a. then go to c, and commence with the outside row of figures, and change the same as you did at a, and so on round the table, when you will be through the braid, ready to commence at a, as at first. [illustration] braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, tying it so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. acorn braid. take any number of strands that can be divided by four,--sixty being the usual number--fifteen hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, with the inside row of figures, lift no. over no. , no. over no. , no. over no. , and no. over no. , and so on round table to a; then go to c, take the outside row of figures, and make the same changes round to a, and repeat alternately at a and c, until the braid is long enough to cover the bottom of the acorn, and then commence at a with the inside row of figures; lift no. over no. , no. over no. , no. over no. , no. over no. , no. over no. , and no. over no. , and so on round to a; then go to c, take the outside row of figures, and make the same changes round to a; then repeat until the braid is long enough to make the top or bur of the acorn. then you are through the braid, ready to commence as at first. [illustration] braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, tying it so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. half open braid. take any number of strands that can be divided by four,--sixty being the usual number--fifteen hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, with the inside row of figures, lift no. over between nos. and at b; then lift no. at b over between nos. and of the next four strands, and so on round table to the left to a; then go to c, take the outside row of figures, lift no. over no. , no. over no. , nos. and over no. ; then no. over no. , and no. over no. , and so on round the table to the right, till the braid is finished. [illustration] braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, tying it so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. overshot braid. [illustration] take any number of strands that can be divided by four,--sixty being the usual number--fifteen hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, with the inside row of figures, braid to the right, lift no. over nos. and , no. over no. , and no. over no. , and so on round to a; then go to c and repeat the same changes, with the outside row of figures, round to a; then commence at a with the inside row of figures, and braid to the left; lift no. over nos. and , no. over no. , and no. over no. , and so on round to a; then go to c, and repeat the same changes, with the outside row of figures, round to a. then you are through the braid, ready to commence as at first. braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, tying it so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. diamond tight braid. [illustration] take any number of strands that can be divided by four,--sixty being the usual number--fifteen hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, with the inside row of figures, and have nos. and of white hair, and nos. and of black hair; lift nos. and over nos. and , and so on round table to the left, to a; then go to c, and braid round table to the right; lift nos. and over nos. and , and so on round table to a. then you are through the braid, ready to commence as at first. braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, tying it so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. spiral striped braid. [illustration] take any number of strands that can be divided by four,--sixty being the usual number--fifteen hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, with the inside row of figures, and have alternately four strands of white hair and four of black; braid round table to the left, lift nos. and over nos. and , and so on round table to a; then go to c, braid round table to the right, lift nos. and over nos. and , and so on round to a. then you are through the braid, ready to commence as at first. braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, tying it so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. empress tight braid. take any number of strands that can be divided by four,--sixty being the usual number--fifteen hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, with the inside row of figures, lift no. over no. , no. over no. , no. over no. , and no. over no. ; braid round table to the left till you get to a, then go to c, take the outside row of figures, and braid round to the right; lift nos. and over nos. and , and so on round to a, and repeat with the inside row of figures, and then repeat again with the outside row; then you are through the braid, ready to commence at a, as at first. commence at c every other time, for you only braid the first change of figures once, and the last change three times. [illustration] braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, tying it so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. open check braid. take any number of strands that can be divided by four,--eighty being the usual number--four hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. have one-half the strands white and one-half black, and place on table alternately, four white and four black. commence at a, with the inside row of figures, lift no. over no. , no. over no. , no. over no. , nos. and over no. , and no. over no. . then go to b and change the same way, and so on round table to a. then go to c, commence with the outside row of figures, and change the same as you did at a, and so on round the table; then you will be through the braid, ready to commence at a, as at first. [illustration] braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, tying it so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. scotch plaid braid. take any number of strands that can be divided by four,--eighty being the usual number--four hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. have one-third the strands white hair, one-third black, and one-third red, and place on table alternately, four white, four black, and four red. commence at a, with the inside row of figures, lift no. over no. , no. over no. , no. over no. , nos. and over no. , and no. over no. . then go to b and change the same way, and so on round table to a. then go to c, commence with the outside row of figures, and change the same as you did at a, and so on round the table; then you will be through the braid, ready to commence at a, as at first. [illustration] braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, tying it so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. half open braid. take any number of strands that can be divided by four,--sixty being the usual number--fifteen hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, with the inside row of figures, lift no. over no. , no. over no. , no. over no. , and no. over no. ; braid half way round the table, and then braid the last half by lifting no. over no. , no. over no. , no. over no. , no. over no. , no. over no. , and no. over no. , and so on round to a; then go to c and repeat the same. then you are through the braid, ready to commence as at first. [illustration] braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, tying it so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. open striped braid. take any number of strands that can be divided by four,--eighty being the usual number--four hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, with the inside row of figures, and have one-half the strands white hair, and one-half black, and place alternately one strand of white, and one strand of black; lift no. over no. , no. over no. , no. over no. , nos. and over no. , and no. over no. . then go to b and change the same way, and so on round table to a. then go to c, commence with the outside row of figures, and change the same as at a, and so on round table; then you will be through the braid, ready to commence as at first. [illustration] braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, tying it so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. chinchilla open braid. take any number of strands that can be divided by four,--eighty being the usual number--four hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, with the inside row of figures, and have one-half of the strands white hair, and one-half black, and place alternately two strands of white and two of black; lift no. over no. , no. over no. , no. over no. , nos. and over no. , and no. over no. ; then go to b and change the same way, and so on round table to a. then go to c, commence with the outside row of figures, and change the same as you did at a, and so on round table. then you will be through the braid, ready to commence at a, as at first. [illustration] braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, tying it so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. fancy lace braid. take any number of strands that can be divided by four,--eighty being the usual number--four hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, with the inside row of figures, and have one-half the strands white hair, and one-half black, and place alternately two strands of white, and two strands of black; lift no. over no. , no. over no. , no. over no. , no. over no. , no. over no. , and no. over no. . then go to b and change the same way, and so on round to a. then go to c, commence with the outside row of figures, and change the same as you did at a, and so on round table; then you will be through the braid, ready to commence at a, as at first. [illustration] braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, tying it so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. striped elastic braid. take any number of strands that can be divided by four,--sixty being the usual number--fifteen hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, with the inside row of figures, and have one-half the strands white hair, and one-half black, and place alternately nos. and of white, and nos. and of black; lift no. over no. , and no. over nos. and ; then repeat with the same strands, the no. over no. , and no. over nos. and . then go to b and braid the same, and so on round table to a. then go to c, commence with the outside row of figures, and braid round to the left; lift no. over no. , and no. over nos. and ; then repeat with the same strands, the same as at a and b, and so on round to a. then you are through the braid, ready to commence as at first. after it is braided, turn the braid inside out. [illustration] braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, tying it so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. open striped braid. take any number of strands that can be divided by four,--sixty being the usual number--fifteen hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, with the inside row of figures, and have one-half of the strands white hair, and one-half black, and place alternately one strand of white and one of black; lift no. over no. , and no. over nos. and ; then repeat with the same strands, the no. over no. , and no. over nos. and . then go to b and braid the same, and so on round table to a. then go to c, commence with the outside row of figures, and braid round to the left; lift no. over no. , and no. over nos. and ; then repeat with the same strands, the same as at a and b, and so on round to a. then you are through the braid, ready to commence as at first. after it is braided, turn the braid inside out. [illustration] braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, tying it so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. wide striped braid. take any number of strands that can be divided by four,--eighty being the usual number,--four hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, with the inside row of figures, and have one-fourth of the strands white hair, and three-fourths black, and place all the white strands on one side of the table, and all of the black on the other side; lift no. over no. , no. over no. , no. over no. , nos. and over no. , and no. over no. . then go to b and change the same way, and so on round table to a. then go to c, commence with the outside row of figures, and change the same as at a, and so on round table; then you are through the braid, ready to commence as at first. [illustration] braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, tying it so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. neapolitan tight braid. take any number of strands that can be divided by four,--eighty being the usual number--four hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, with the inside row of figures, and have one-fourth of the strands white hair, and three-fourths black,--the nos. white, and the nos. , and black; lift no. over no. , no. over no. , no. over no. , and no. over no. . then go to b and change the same way, and so on round table to a. then go to c, commence with the outside row of figures, and change the same as at a, and so on round table; then you are through the braid, ready to commence as at first. [illustration] braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, tying it so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. open braid. take any number of strands that can be divided by four,--eighty being the usual number for this braid--four hairs in a strand, and place on table like pattern. commence at a, with the inside row of figures, lift no. over no. ; then no. over no. ; then no. over no. ; then no. over no. . then go to b and change the same way, and so round the table to a. then go to c, and commence with the outside row of figures, and change the same as you did at a, and so on round the table, when you will be through the braid, ready to commence at a, as at first. [illustration] braid this over a round stick, the size you want the braid for use, varying the number of strands according to the size of the stick; then slip the braid from the stick on to the mold you wish to use, tying the braid so it will fit the mold exactly, and then boil in water five minutes, and take it out and put it in an oven, as hot as it will bear without burning, until it is quite dry. then it is ready for use. directions for new beginners. the hair to be used in braiding should be combed perfectly straight, and tied with a string at the roots, to prevent wasting. then count the number of hairs for a strand, and pull it out from the tips, dip it in water and draw it between the thumb and finger to make it lie smoothly; then tie a solid, single knot at one end, the same as you would with a sewing thread. the bobbin. to prepare the bobbin for the hair, wind it with white thread, as shown in the plate, and fasten it with a slip-knot over the knob, leaving an end of some three inches, with a solid knot tied at the end of it. to adjust the hair to the bobbins, take the prepared strands of hair and tie the knotted ends in a square knot to the ends of the strings on the bobbins. when each strand is thus prepared and tied to the bobbin strings, place them even, and tie the ends with a string to prevent their slipping. see cut of bobbins on another page. how to place them on the table-cover for braiding. place the strands across the table-cover, over the numbers, as shown in the diagram, and fasten a weight to the end of them, under the table, through the center of cover; then tie the mold or form to be braided, around in the center, and you are ready for braiding. for further reference, see plate of table, with explanations. [illustration: braiding table. no. .] the table cover, as shown in diagram no. , represents the under side of the cover, showing the rim that fits over the cap, allowing the cover to revolve, for the convenience of the braider. the cavity through the cover and cap allows the braid, with the weight attached, to pass through as fast as braided. for reference see braiding table complete, with bobbins and weights attached, on page . [illustration: braiding table no. .] the above cut represents braiding table no. , complete, showing the strands over the cover, with bobbins attached; also, the weight attached to the braid, showing the manner of its passing through the table. [illustration: braiding table and position in braiding.] [illustration: wood braiding bobbins. no. . no. .] the above cut shows the wood bobbins, for fine open work or tight braids. no. is used for braiding any pattern of from one to four hairs in a strand. no. is used for braiding any pattern of from five to twenty hairs in a strand. to prepare the bobbins for use, see explanations on page . [illustration: lead bobbins. no. . no. .] the above cut shows the size and shape of the lead bobbins. the no. size is used for braiding rings and chains, that have but few hairs in a strand--from twenty to forty. no. is used for braiding chains that have from forty to one hundred hairs in a strand. either size will answer for any pattern of chain or ring, but to vary the size of the bobbin according to the number of hairs in a strand, gives it a nicer finish. to prepare the bobbin, wind it with thread, as shown in the cut, leaving the thread some three inches long, with a solid knot tied at the end. [illustration: lead weight.] the above cut shows the weight used for drawing the work through the center of the table as fast as braided, and to balance the bobbins. attention should be given to have the weight balance the bobbins properly, as too great a weight will make the braid loose, or too light a weight will leave it rough. use any number of weights required to balance the bobbins. [illustration: forms for braiding over. no. . no. . no. . no. .] the above cuts are made of wire and wood, for braiding over. the nos. and are for braiding chains over--the no. for small chains, and the no. for large sizes. no. is used for braiding tight or open work braids, of from thirty to forty strands. no. is used for the same braids, with from forty to sixty strands in a braid. the mold may be made any length, to accommodate the work. [illustration: forms for braiding over. no. . no. . no. .] the above cuts show the size of forms used for tight or open work braids. the no. is used for braids of from sixty to eighty strands, no. of from eighty to one hundred, and no. from one hundred to one hundred and twenty, according to the fineness of the braid. [illustration: explanations on bracelets. no. . no. .] the above cuts represent the completed bracelet braid. the no. is formed from fourteen small braids, braided according to diagram and explanation on page ,--using, however, but thirty-two strands, instead of eighty. after you have the small braids all completed and prepared, as required in the explanation, sew them together at one end, so they all lie smooth and flat, then divide them off in twos, using each two as one strand, and plait them together; commence at the right side, take one strand at a time, and lift over one and under two till you get to the center, then commence on the left side and braid the same way, and so on till finished. then sew the ends well, trim them, and put on a little shellac to fasten them in the clasps. no. is from the same pattern, and is prepared and finished up in the same manner. for this bracelet you use fifteen small braids, divide them into threes for each strand, and lift over one and under one, from each side to the center. [illustration: explanations on bracelets. no. . no. .] the no. cut of the above bracelet braids, is formed from patterns on pages and , and instead of using forty and sixty strands, use but thirty-two for each. braid six small braids from pattern on page , and three from pattern on page . sew them tight together at one end, divide them off in threes, with the open work braid between the two tight ones, use each three as one strand, and plait them together in a common three strand braid. no. is braided according to pattern on page . have three of the braids, sew them fast at one end, and then twist them carefully and evenly together; then sew and fasten with shellac, and it is ready for being gold mounted. [illustration: explanations on bracelets. no. . no. .] the no. cut of the above bracelet braids, is formed from patterns on pages and . have two small braids from each of the patterns, lay them side by side, as in cut, and sew them firmly together, either with some of the hair, or with very fine silk of the same color. then sew and trim the ends, and fasten with shellac. no. is braided from patterns on pages and . have four small braids like pattern on page , and two like pattern on page . place them side by side, as in cut, and prepare and finish up the same as in the above. [illustration: explanations on bracelets. no. . no. .] the patterns used for the no. , represented above, are found on pages and . have one braid from pattern on page , and two from that on page . place them side by side, as in cut, sew the ends firmly together, either with some of the hair, or with very fine silk of the same color. then sew and trim the ends, and fasten with shellac. for the no. , use two small braids from pattern on page , one from pattern on page , and two from pattern on page . place them as in cut, sew them together, and prepare the same as no. . [illustration: explanations on bracelets. no. . no. .] the no. of the above bracelet braids, is made up of two small braids from pattern on page , and three from pattern on page , using, however, but thirty-two strands, instead of sixty. place them side by side, as in cut, and sew them together with some of the hair, or with fine silk of the same color. sew, trim and shellac the ends, and they are ready for the gold mounting. no. is formed of four small braids, from pattern on page , and is prepared, sewed and finished up the same as no. . lithographed designs. the following lithographic designs of hair jewelry, flowers and pictures, are given for the purpose of showing a few of the many beautiful forms into which the human hair may be transposed. each and every one of the devices on the following pages, with the exception of the flowers and pictures, can be braided from the diagrams and explanations given in the first one hundred and twenty pages of this book. select any article you may wish to make, and by referring to the patterns, you can easily find the style and directions whereby to braid it. we might have given twice the number of patterns, or even more, but any person can, after a little experience, readily invent new and different styles of braids, and by so doing, each can satisfy their own peculiar taste. the making of hair flowers is very simple, and yet, of course, every one has first to learn it. supply yourself with as many different colors of hair as you can, and by applying gum tragacanth, it renders it capable of being cut in any shape you may wish--such as leaves, twigs, buds, &c., and by judiciously arranging the colors, the effect will be very pleasing. pictures are made in the same manner, and any one possessing the least artistic skill, can make any flower or picture they may desire, and many pleasing adornments and lasting mementos may thereby be had. all articles intended to be worn as jewelry, should, of course, be mounted with gold, and as this kind of work is not done in all jewelry establishments, i wish to say that my facilities for this branch of business is complete, and the work done is in the best possible manner. i can guarantee satisfaction in all cases, let the style desired be what it may. in sending braids to be mounted, draw on paper, as near as can be, the style or design you want. [illustration: m. campbell's, designs of hair jewelry.] [transcriber's note: for this text edition, fifty instances of the [illustration] tag were removed at this point. this was done in an effort to make reading the text less tedious. the actual illustrations can, of course, be seen in the html edition of this text.] weaving hair for switches. [illustration] the above cut represents the apparatus used for weaving hair into switches, curls, wigs, &c. it is a very simple arrangement, and can be easily constructed. provide two straight sticks, about twelve inches long, and in one of them bore three small holes, two inches apart, in which to place as many thumb-screws, to be used for tightening or loosening the cords; in the other, have a single wooden pin or nail, to fasten the cords to. place the sticks in a firm, upright position, about three feet apart, either by boring holes through a table, or by using mortised blocks, such as is plainly shown in cut, at the right end. after placing them in position, put on three cords, as shown in diagram, numbered , and . for this weft use linen thread, at nos. , and . in commencing to weave, place the hair between two cards, as shown in diagram, and draw out with the right hand, between the thumb and fore-finger, the quantity of hair required for the size of the weft; then change it into the left hand, and place it up to the threads, nos. , and , as shown in diagram; lay the strand over no. , under no. , over no. , around under no. , over nos. and , around under nos. and , over no. , around under nos. and , and over no. . then push the strands together, as in cut. [illustration: sewing switches. no. . no. .] the no. of the above cuts represents the winding and sewing of the switch after it is woven. for sewing a switch on points, after weaving, take berlin cord, about one-sixteenth of an inch thick, and tie a solid knot at the end, and sew the end of the weft to the knotted end of the cord; then wind the weft around the cord, as shown in cut, the length of point desired, turning the end of the cord over to form a loop. cut the weft according to the number of points desired in the switch. cut no. shows the switch all complete. weaving hair for curls. [illustration] in commencing to weave, place the hair between two cards, or stiff brushes, as shown in diagram, pressing them tight together, so that in drawing out, it is perfectly free from tangles; draw out with the right hand, between the thumb and fore-finger, the quantity of hair required for the size of the weft; then change it into the left hand, and lift it up to the no. cord, as shown in diagram; lay the strand over no. , under no. , over no. , around under no. , over nos. and , around under nos. and , over no. , around under no. , over no. , and under no. . then push the strands together, as shown in diagram. for this weft use fine, strong linen thread. making and preparing curls. [illustration: no. .] [illustration: no. .] after weaving, according to directions on page , take a piece of ribbon an inch wide, the same color of hair, and as long as you wish the curls to be in width, and sew the weft to it back and forth. after that is done, pipe them, which is done in this manner: dampen the hair, comb each curl out straight, and wind it tightly on a rattan stick about four inches long, having each curl on a separate stick, and commencing to wind at the tip end, tying them firmly to keep in place. then boil in water for thirty minutes, and place in an oven as hot as they will bear without burning, until quite dry. when dry and perfectly cool, take them off the sticks, and smooth over a curling iron, the size you wish the curls. side curls and frizzes should be prepared the same way. cut no. represents a set of curls and puffs. for explanation of puffs, see page . weaving hair for wigs. [illustration] in commencing to weave, place the hair between two cards, or stiff brushes, as shown in diagram, pressing them tight together, so that in drawing out, it is perfectly free from tangles; draw out with the right hand, between the thumb and fore-finger, the quantity of hair required for the size of the weft; then change it into the left hand, and lift it up to the no. cord, as shown in diagram; lay the strand over no. , under no. , over no. , around under no. , over nos. and , around under nos. and , over no. , around under no. , over nos. and , around under nos. and , over no. around under nos. and , and over no. . then push the strands together, as shown in diagram. for this weft use sewing silk. weaving hair for waterfalls and bows prepare the same as above, and place the strand under no. , over nos. and , around under nos. and , over no. , around under nos. and , over no. , around under no. , and over nos. and . aside from these changes, follow directions given above. making waterfalls and bows. [illustration: no. .] [illustration: no. .] [illustration: no. .] in making a chignon, you have first to make the cushion. take the combings or waste hair, which is of no other use, and place it between the cards or stiff brushes, the same as for weaving. use the weaving apparatus, with two piping cords, instead of three small ones, and wind the hair all up, by passing over, between and under the cords. boil and dry it, and then pull out the cord, which leaves it all crimped, ready to weave, according to directions on page . then sew it on a cord, the same as a switch, and form it in any shape you desire, for a waterfall, bow or puffs. this completes the cushion. then weave the long hair for the covering, according to directions on page , and sew it to the top end of the cushion; comb it out smooth, cover the cushion, and tie a cord around it immediately at the bottom; then bring up the end of the hair, and pin it to the inside. cut no. is intended to represent the cushion, and no. the complete waterfall. cut no. represents the bow, which is made in the same manner, by using two small cushions, like cut no. , and placing between them a strand of smooth or braided hair. making puffs and coils. [illustration: no. .] [illustration: no. .] [illustration: no. .] to make puffs for front of head, from false hair, similar to cut no. , weave hair from eight to twelve inches long, according to directions on page ; then take a ribbon, about one and a half inches wide, any length required, and tack it on a wig block, or straight piece of board, and sew the weft crossways a quarter of an inch apart, till the ribbon is entirely covered; then divide it off in as many puffs as desired, comb each out straight, and wind it over the two fore-fingers, close up to ribbon, and put in a hair-pin to retain it. to make puffs for back of head, cut no. , prepare the same way; make the foundation the shape and size you wish the puffs, and sew it on the same way you want the puffs to run. the puffs may be made over a cushion, formed of crimped hair the shape wanted, and wound over that instead of the fingers. ladies not wearing false hair, can have her own hair dressed by following the above directions. cut no. represents a coil, which is made from a switch, and wound over a long roll of crimped hair. they are much nicer, but more expensive, by being made altogether from a switch, as that can be twisted into a rope or braided, before coiling. explanations on hair dressing. i herewith present, on the following pages, a number of engravings illustrative of a few of the many styles of hair dressing, accompanied with explanatory remarks as to their execution. they are the latest and most fashionable european and american styles, and will prove indispensable to every lady's toilet, as, from the explanations, they will be able, with very little practice, to dress their own hair in any desired style; and when any new style is inaugurated, after studying and practicing the directions given with each illustration, she will find it an easy matter to arrange it accordingly. any one learning hair dressing, should acquire perfectly the execution of the first pattern--the promenade head-dress--as that is very easily arranged, and when you have once executed it in a perfect manner, the others will prove comparatively easy. the manner of dressing the hair at the present day calls for much attention, and many inquiries are addressed us on the subject. it is plain, however, that what would correspond with the complexion and physiognomy of one, would certainly have a distasteful appearance on another; consequently, in answering inquiries, i can do nothing more than give the different styles worn. before giving my illustrations on hair dressing, i have given instructions how to weave hair for chignons, curls, switches, &c., and how to put them in shape, and with the directions given with each illustration on hair dressing, it will certainly be an easy task to arrange the hair in any style that is now or may be in fashion. [illustration: promenade head-dress.] our first cut represents the promenade head-dress, but is worn as frequently in the drawing-room, and even at public and private assemblies--in fact, a common and very pretty style. explanation: comb the front hair between the temples straight back, over a cushion of crimped hair, forming a chignon; then make two braids of two small switches, and place one of them over the top of the chignon, and the other across the forehead, forming a diadem, turning the ends under; then comb the hair from temples over the braids, and put back under the chignon, and fasten. place a net of pearl or gilt beads over the chignon, as in cut. you can use false hair for covering cushion, if desired. [illustration: reception head-dress.] this head-dress is a most charming composition, and entirely new. it is adapted either for a brown or fair complexion, to be worn at grand dinners or receptions. ornamented with pearl or gilt, it is in good taste for evening parties. explanation: curl the hair across forehead, or use false curls, combing the hair straight back, and form a chignon of curls at the back. place a diadem plait across forehead, and raise the hair from the temples over the plait. trim with roses and ribbans, or to suit dress. [illustration: soiree or evening head-dress.] this cut illustrates the soiree or evening head-dress. it is a very unique and modern style, suited for almost any complexion, and very easily executed. explanation: comb the hair straight back between the temples, tie it, and curl the ends, or use a set of long false curls. place a diadem plait, made from a switch, across the forehead; then comb the hair back from the temples, over the ends of the plait, twist it, pass it back under the curls, and fasten firmly. use a fancy back-comb on top of curls, and pin an ornament to diadem plait, with feather and chain attached, as in cut, or trim to suit dress. [illustration: grand evening party head-dress.] a very graceful head-dress, of a bold style, suited for a young lady of brown or fair complexion, and is in good taste to be worn at the theatre or grand evening parties. explanation: make a parting over the head, from ear to ear, two inches from front; on the forehead, between the temples, curl the hair in small friz curls, and from the temple to the ear, make loose puffs. divide the hair in three partings over the head, and roll each in a large puff; then form a large puff of the back hair, round the nape of the neck, as in cut. fasten a large set of loose curls over the puff, with a comb or other ornament. for reference, see page . [illustration: empress head-dress.] a charming head-dress, and entirely new, perfectly suiting a fair complexion. it may serve for the theatre or evening parties. when powdered it preferably suits a brown or brunette. explanation: make a front parting, and a cross one from ear to ear. divide each side into five parts; of the front parting make three puffs on each side. the remaining four make into long puffs, as in cut, according to explanations on page . the back hair may be arranged in the same style of puffs, or with a double chignon, placing a single, long false curl or braid, back of each ear. trim with orange leaves, or to suit dress. [illustration: parisian head-dress.] this head-dress, both bold and graceful, is suitable for any complexion or age, when the physiognomy allows it. explanation: comb back the hair from the forehead between the temples, make a large puff on the temples, and three puffs above each ear. place a cushion at the back of head, and comb the hair over it, forming a chignon; then place a diadem plait, or twist, made from a large switch, round on the top of head, trimmed with leaves or ribbon, as shown in cut. [illustration: the apollo head-dress.] this head-dress is one of the most graceful styles. it was worn in the time of louis xivth, and well agrees with the fashion of the present day. with some modifications, it is suited to every complexion. explanation: crimp the front hair, and raise it over the temples with a puff comb. comb the hair just above the ear back, and friz the ends, and curl the back hair in large flowing curls, as shown in the cut. [illustration: the modern head-dress.] a head-dress of elegant composition, coming down from antiquity, suitable for a young and pretty woman, and perfectly agreeing with a fair complexion. explanation: part the hair from temple to temple, one inch from front, comb it up on the forehead, and curl the ends in small snap curls; then comb the hair back from the temples, and form a loose puff. make three partings across the head, and form a puff of each. of the back hair, make a braided or plaited chignon, with a few friz curls underneath; then make two puffs back of the ear, as shown in cut. wear a fancy comb or band over the top of chignon. [illustration: evening promenade head-dress.] a head-dress of extraordinary simplicity, and of a most genteel kind, becoming a dark complexion. it may be adapted for the opera by changing the trimming. explanation: first crimp all the hair, then place a cushion high up under the hair at the back, forming a chignon, and friz the ends of the hair from ear to ear under the chignon. tuck the hair high up on the forehead, place bands of ribbon over the head with a net at the back, and bring the hair above the ear up, and fasten to the ribbon. pin a ribbon streamer to the net, as in cut. [illustration: the shepherdess head-dress.] an elegant head-dress, and was worn in the time of louis xvi, for balls and evening parties, or as a disguise when powdered. explanation: separate the hair across the head from ear to ear, three inches from front, and roll it in puffs according to directions on page . do up the back hair in a double chignon, either with your own or false hair; add a set of false curls underneath the chignon, extending from ear to ear. trim to suit dress with leaves, flowers and ribbon, as shown in illustration. [illustration: court head-dress.] a rich head-dress, having a great stamp of distinction, and for that reason will be adapted for a court head-dress, or grand evening parties. explanation: make a parting over the head from ear to ear, two inches from front, and form a row of nine small puffs over the forehead. comb the remaining hair back, and divide into four partings around the head, and form each parting in a large puff, as in cut. add a few small friz curls and orange blossoms between the puffs. for reference see page . [illustration: young bride's head-dress.] an exquisite head-dress, of a very graceful style, and well agreeing with a fair or brown complexion, to be worn by a young bride, or at grand assemblies. explanation: comb the hair back and place a set of small loose curls across the forehead; place a diadem plait over the top of the curls, and comb the hair off the temples over the ends of the plait, and form a chignon or bow of the back hair, and place a three-strand braid around the chignon, made either from the ends of hair from the temple or a switch. add a crown of white blossoms and a veil, as shown in the engraving. if not for a bride, trim to match dress. [illustration: neapolitan head-dress.] an exquisite head-dress, of exceedingly graceful and modern style, agreeing with nearly every complexion; may be worn as a promenade or at small parties. explanation: part the hair from front to crown, and from ear to ear; crimp the front, and braid the ends in a three-strand braid, and trim the ends with ribbon. either braid or twist the back hair, and form into a coil. place a small plait across the forehead, as shown in the engraving. deck the hair with flowers or beads, to suit the occasion. synoptic of human hair. in placing before the public the only book ever published in the "art of hair work," it is but due to the purchasers of it to say something in relation to the trade in human hair. it is not my intention, however, to enter into an extended detail and complete history, but simply give a few items that will serve to show what enormous strides have been taken within the last few years in this branch of business. it is a business that but few know anything about--at least in this country, for it is comparatively new here--but it is one that is very rapidly increasing, and is now almost doubling itself each year. the larger quantity, in fact nearly the whole amount of hair retailed in this country is imported from europe, where the dealing in human hair has been made an established and legitimate business for years, and a great deal of attention is paid in purchasing and preparing it for the market. paris is the greatest market for the sale of human hair in the world; but the amount of superfluous hair used and worn throughout all europe, could we give the figures, would seem incredible. the amount imported to the united states in the years of and was not far from , and , pounds, which was valued at that time at from $ , to $ , , . since that time it has been steadily increasing, and the amount imported last year may be set down at three times as much as during the years above mentioned. paris also finds as great a sale for the article in russia as in america--the shipments to each being about equal. thus, it will be seen, that if all the hair reserved in europe for the home demand were added to that which is imported, the amount would be almost beyond conception; and yet, but about one-tenth part of the whole production ever leaves its native country. it is mostly procured from the markets of france, italy, russia and germany, and large quantities are obtained from norway and sweden. the norwegians were among the first to make ornaments of hair to be worn as jewelry, but, in a great measure, we are indebted to the french for the perfection to which the art has attained. of the different varieties of hair, that which is obtained in france and italy is by far the best, being of a much finer texture, even color, and of a more glossy appearance than that from other countries. the principal requirement in hair to make it valuable is length, and after it is thrown upon the market it is all assorted--the long from the short--which is a task of extreme difficulty. the prices of hair range all the way from $ to $ per pound, (a wide range, but certainly not too large,) and is rated according to hue, length and texture. the smallest price paid is for the short, coarse hair of the poorest quality, and which can be used only for certain purposes. hair of the ordinary colors range in price from $ to $ per pound, but that of gray and white from $ to $ per pound, and even then is not considered exorbitant. in fact, hair is worth any and all prices. we know of one dealer who had in his possession a very small quantity, weighing but a half pound and measuring seventy inches, for which he was offered _four hundred dollars!_ and, strange as it may appear, he refused to accept it. white hair is mostly obtained by being picked from the gray, and it not unfrequently happens that many hundred pounds have to be assorted before being able to secure one single pound of pure white. it is mainly used in the manufacture of wigs, and it frequently puzzles the dealer to prepare one for a customer that will exactly match, and this, with the scarcity of the article, cause the extraordinary price. hair is shipped in both a prepared and unprepared state. that which is prepared undergoes a process of washing, scouring and cleansing, which leaves it in the nicest possible state; all the oil, dirt and other unhealthy substances are completely separated from it, leaving it perfectly free from all unhealthy influences. that which is shipped in an unprepared, or raw state, is subjected to the same process of cleansing after its arrival, and it is so thorough that it is altogether impossible for anything except the hair to remain. it has frequently been examined with a microscope, which has proved in every case how successful the cleansing process had been, for it revealed nothing whatever of a foreign nature, and, in fact, after its extraordinary cleaning it would be simply impossible. after being fully prepared it is then made into switches, curls, plaits, fronts, wigs, chignons, and not a small amount is used in the manufacture of hair jewelry, and such other articles as are worn for ornaments. the jewelry manufactured at this time is as durable as the all gold jewelry, and is done in a style of surpassing neatness, thus rendering it beautiful, either as an ornament or memento. there are but very few places in the united states where hair jewelry is made, and as it is comparatively a new business, but few have learned it. it is surprising, however, to notice the many beautiful patterns and elegant designs into which it is transformed. there is nothing in the way of jewelry or ornament of any description but what is or may be made from human hair; and, after being gold-mounted, the contrast between them makes the hair jewelry preferable to the all gold. there are many strange incidents related of the human hair suddenly changing its color--many of which it is hard to believe--and the causes assigned are various. we are told of persons who, from excessive grief, found their hair had gradually changed from a dark brown to an almost perfect white; others, from the same cause, in the short space of one week discovered their hair plentifully streaked with grey, giving them the appearance, although young, of being quite old. many have had their hair change on account of extreme fright, but we have now to give the first instance we have ever heard of its turning from white to that of any other color, except by the aid of dyes. a parisian, m. stanislaus martin, has published in the _bulletin de therapeutique_ the curious case of a worker in metals who had wrought in copper only five months, and whose hair, which was lately white, is now of so decided a _green_ that the man cannot appear in the street without immediately becoming the object of general curiosity. he is perfectly well, his hair alone being affected by the copper, notwithstanding the precautions taken by him to protect it from the action of the metal. chemical analysis shows that his hair contains a notable quantity of acetate of copper, and that it is to this circumstance that it owes its beautiful green color, which is most singular and remarkable. the practice of wearing false hair, although it was not generally dealt in as traffic, has been in vogue many hundred years. the greek and roman ladies were, in olden times, as active in their toilet for the head as the fashionable ladies of the present day, and false hair was always brought into requisition, which was then obtained from the germans, and they in turn from their slaves. powdering the hair, which is now the rage in all fashionable circles, is also an ancient practice, and was as much indulged in by the men as the women. history tells us that the consumption of hair powder by the soldiers of george ii was enormous. it was calculated, that inasmuch as the military force of england and the colonies was, including cavalry, infantry, militia and fensibles, , , each man used a pound of flour a week, simply for powdering their hair. the quantity consumed in this way was , tons per annum; an amount sufficient to sustain , persons on bread. gold and silver hair powder was also plentifully used, and at a time much earlier in the world's history, than is generally supposed. josephus relates that solomon's horse-guards daily strewed their heads with gold-dust, which glittered in the sun; and there are similar instances of different personages recorded in the bible. the human hair seems to have been given us both for an ornament and covering--being susceptible of transformation in almost any desired shape, and apparently indispensable for covering and protecting the head. the ancient greeks were very partial to long hair, considering it by far the more becoming; but the egyptians regarded it as an incumbrance, shaved their heads, and substituted wigs. the ancients, generally speaking, strangely considered a fine head of hair so desirable, that it became sacred. they frequently dedicated it to the gods, on important occasions of marriage, victory, escape from death and danger, and the burial of friends. different styles of wearing the hair, was resorted to for denoting the various grades, or positions in life, of the people, some wearing it quite long, others short, and some dressing it in a peculiar manner,--each style, or length, being according to the condition, wealth, or social standing of the wearer. plucking it out, or neglecting it, was a token of affliction. hair contains a very small quantity of water, manganese, iron, and various salts of lime, which have been found by the various methods of analyzation, and it is owing to these properties that it is peculiarly indestructible. it has been found on mummies, more than twenty centuries old, in a perfect and unaltered state, and many instances are related, which are now admitted to be facts, of the hair continuing to grow, for a time, after death. there has never before been a book written and published, that was particularly dedicated to the subject of hair, and as the field is a vast one, both as regards the importance of the subject, and the information to be gained thereby, it is simply strange that no one has ever entered it. it has been too long neglected, and the increasing necessity for a treatise of this kind, has been pressed upon the attention of the author, and induced the publication of this work, which will certainly meet the necessities of the age. there is much else that might be said on this subject that would prove both interesting and instructive, but we prefer for the present to let it rest. we have endeavored in preparing this book both to instruct and amuse; for, by following its instructions, it may be made to be profitable and highly remunerative, and in making articles, either for gifts, mementoes, or otherwise, it will certainly be amusing and entertaining. we have given the instructions in a way that all may readily understand, and as the patterns are numerous, and the designs elegant, we think there can be nothing lacking to make the book all it claims to be. the principal offices for the sale of these books, will be at my establishments, no. broadway, new york, and no. south clark street, chicago. [illustration] retail department. [illustration] in placing before the trade my list of hair jewelry and hair goods, i beg sincerely to thank my customers for the increasing support i have received from them, and let them be assured i shall do all on my part to merit a continuance of the same. the following is a list of some of the leading articles i import, manufacture and sell, at wholesale and retail, and at prices less than can be found in any other house on this continent. i import human hair of the finest quality! of every length and shade, prepared and unprepared, _which i furnish the trade at low prices_: _hair jewelry, gold mountings for hair jewelry, gent's wigs and toupees, ladies' wigs, switches, braids, curls, waterfalls, frizettes, coils, bows, fronts, scratches, bands, hair-nets, ornamental hair, partings, whiskers, beards, mustaches, puffs, curling-irons, curling-sticks, crimping-irons, perfumery, pomades and creams, soaps, hair brushes, combs, hair oils, cosmetiques, crimping-pins._ "chrevolion," for the hair! for restoring the growth and natural color of the hair, and beautifying the complexion. face powders, rouges and french enamel. hair powders-- diamond powder, gold powder, silver powder. wig material, and tools of every description! in conclusion, i again renew my thanks to my customers, and trust, by the best attention to all orders, to give them increased satisfaction, as well as to merit the support of any portion of the trade who have not heretofore favored me with their commands. all orders sent by mail, accompanied by a post office certificate, will be promptly filled and a safe return guaranteed. wig manufactory. [illustration] wigs! toupees! switches! curls! the great success i have met with, and the rapidly increasing demand for goods of my manufacture, is owing mainly to the superior quality of hair which i import exclusively for my trade, and the superior workmanship in their manufacture. _wigs! wigs! wigs! wigs!_ i have the largest assortment of wigs in the united states, and manufacture to order any and every style. gent's wigs and toupees, ventilated on human hair gauze or silk seams. weft wigs and toupees, with or without seams, of straight or natural curly hair. ladies' wigs, short or long glossy hair, straight, natural curly or frizzed. also fronts and bandoes. [illustration: directions for measuring the head for a wig. no. --the circumference of the head. no. --from forehead to nape. no. --from ear to ear, across the forehead. no. --from ear to ear, over the top of the head. no. --from temple to temple, round back of the head.] to measure for toupee or scratch, cut a piece of paper the exact size and shape of bald spot. send your orders according to the above directions, and we will warrant a fit. i offer to the public the largest assortment of switches, curls, braids and frizzettes, to be found in any establishment in america, and defy competition in quality and price. manufacturing department. [illustration: gold jewelry manufactory.] [illustration: hair braiding rooms.] i manufacture and sell, at wholesale and retail, hair jewelry and _gold mountings for hair jewelry_, of every pattern and device, to suit the fancy of my patrons. i have given years of study and practical experience to this branch of my business, and have so perfected and enlarged my manufacturing facilities, as to feel confident of being able to give entire satisfaction, in workmanship and price. i furnish or make the gold mountings for hair jewelry, of any style or pattern desired. i also furnish the braids separate from the mountings, or the two complete. persons buying books, and wishing to procure _braiding tables,_ _weights,_ _bobbins,_ _moulds_ _or forms,_ will be supplied at very low rates. for the accommodation of my trade, i have made arrangements to have braiding tools and material manufactured in very large quantities, which i will furnish at prices sufficient only to cover the cost of manufacture and transportation. campbell's chrevolion. [illustration] campbell's chrevolion for _restoring the color and growth of the hair, purifying, whitening and beautifying the complexion._ it is a preventive and sure cure for baldness, _cleansing the scalp of dandruff and all impurities, invigorating the roots of the hair, giving it life, health, and its_ natural color. it is a sure cure for rough skin, freckles, sunburn, and all impurities of the complexion. campbell's chrevolion. [illustration: m. campbell's chrevolion manufactory.] [illustration: before using] [illustration: after using] m. campbell's chrevolion no. , for _restoring the hair to its natural color_. this wonderful preparation needs only to be used to be appreciated. it is free from those objections that accompany preparations compounded from minerals, which have been offered to the public in imitation of chrevolion. it will restore the natural color of the hair with but two or three applications. it is a common practice with compounders, when presenting an article to the public, to advertise an array of testimonials purporting to be from distinguished persons, but i prefer to rest the success of the chrevolion strictly upon its efficacious merit, knowing it will do all that is claimed. [illustration: pointing hand] sold by all the principal druggists in this country, and prepared by m. campbell, broadway, n. y., and south clark street, chicago, ill. campbell's chrevolion. [illustration: ladies' hair dressing.] [illustration: before using.] [illustration: after using.] chrevolion no. , for purifying and whitening the complexion and _restoring the growth of the hair_. this complexion purifyer is a magical curative for the face and scalp. it will allay all feverish humor of the skin, and remove freckles, pimples sunburn and other eruptions, leaving the face soft, white and beautiful, with _but two or three applications_. hundreds of cases, where the hair was dropping, and baldness seemed inevitable, have been effectually cured by the use of the chrevolion. prepared only by m. campbell. sold by all the principal druggists in this country. price $ . per bottle. hair jewelry. price list. no. mount's. compl't. $ $ index. title. page. preface, introductory remarks, position in braiding, square chain braid, reverse braid, sixteen twist chain braid, striped snake chain braid, cable chain braid, snake chain braid, eight square chain braid, half twist chain braid, square chain braid, cable twist chain braid, twist chain braid, to rib chain braid, twist chain braid, half twist chain braid, cable chain braid, sixteen square chain braid, german twist chain braid, fancy square chain braid, to square chain braid, fancy twist chain braid, to double chain braid, fancy cable chain braid, half square chain braid, twelve square chain braid, flat twist chain braid, rib chain braid, fancy cable chain braid, square chain braid, fob chain braid, square rib chain braid, double loop chain braid, knot chain braid, double rib chain braid, fancy chain braid, to double rib chain braid, rope chain braid, diamond shaped chain braid, fancy square chain braid, to fancy twist chain braid, flat chain braid, necklace pattern braid, to necklace or edging braid, necklace or head dress braid, ring pattern braids, to ring or bracelet braids, to bracelet tight braids, to elastic bracelet braids, to double elastic bracelet braid, fancy tight bracelet braid, reverse tight bracelet braid, banded tight bracelet braid, plain open braid, open fine braid, open fine braid, open fine lace braid, to basket tight braid, tight braid, acorn tight braid, half tight braid, fancy tight braid, plain tight braid, acorn braid, half open braid, overshot braid, diamond tight braid, spiral striped braid, empress tight braid, open check braid, scotch plaid braid, half open braid, open striped braid, chinchilla open braid, fancy lace braid, striped elastic braid, open striped braid, wide striped braid, neapolitan tight braid, open braid, directions for new beginners, braiding table no. , braiding table no. , braiding table and position in braiding, wood braiding bobbins, lead braiding bobbins, lead weight bobbins, forms for braiding over, to explanations on bracelets, to lithograph designs, to weaving hair for switches, sewing switches, weaving hair for curls, making and preparing curls, weaving hair for wigs, making waterfalls or bows, making puffs and coils, explanations on hair dressing, hair dressing, to synoptic of human hair, to retail department, wig manufactory, manufacturing department, campbell's chrevolion, campbell's chrevolion, no. , campbell's chrevolion, no. , price list, to index, to * * * * * transcriber's notes: obvious punctuation errors repaired. some patterns began with small caps and some did not. for the sake of consistancy, all patterns now begin with small caps. this will show up as all caps in the text version. index, the page numbers were missing and the transcriber supplied them for the following entries: preface; introductory remarks; position in braiding; and square chain braid. page , repeated word "and" removed from text. original read (and and lift over table) page , "very" changed to "vary" (vary the size of the braid) page , , "t" changed to "it" (keep it fast) page , "ocross" changed to "across" (b over across nos. ) page , "srtand" changed to "strand" (four hairs in a strand) page , "llustrative" changed to "illustrative" (engravings illustrative of a) page , "prefably" changed to "preferably" (it preferably suits a brown) page , "effectualy" changed to "effectually" (been effectually cured by) page , missing " " added to table, fourth line ( ) the boy mechanic book [illustration: four-passenger coasting bobsled see page ] the boy mechanic book things for boys to do how to construct devices for winter sports, motion-picture camera, indoor games, reed furniture, electrical novelties, boats, fishing rods, camps and camp appliances, kites and gliders, pushmobiles, roller coaster, ferris wheel and hundreds of other things which delight every boy with illustrations copyrighted, , by h. h. windsor chicago popular mechanics co. publishers * * * * * transcriber's note: this etext differs from the original as follows. two minor typographical errors were found and corrected. in the chapters on making fly-fishing rods (pages - ), several lists of materials or dimensions that were printed as running text have been reformatted as lists for clarity. the text is unchanged. * * * * * [illustration: after the first station has been selected, it is marked by a pile of stones, a stake, or, if precise work is to be done, a tack in the top of a stake. the table is then set up over this station point and leveled so that the surface of the paper will be truly horizontal (inset: uncle john's farm scale / " = ' jimmy smith--surveyor) ] [illustration: the boy surveyor] plane-table surveying by harold g. mcgee [in the training of a boy for a trade or profession there is none so profitable for outdoor work as that of a surveyor. this article sets forth how to accomplish surveying and the making of simple maps with the use of commonplace tools that any boy can make.--editor.] surveying and map making have always been two of the most interesting things a civil engineer has had to do. and, like george washington, many of the men we look up to today as successes in different lines worked as surveyors in their younger days. surveying takes one out of doors, and is apt to lead him into the unknown and unexplored byways of the earth. though modern surveyors often use precise and expensive instruments, creditable surveys can be made with simple and inexpensive apparatus. of such apparatus, two of the simplest are the plane table and the camera. since one must know the principles of plane-table surveying before he can do camera surveying, this paper will describe the plane table alone, leaving the camera for another chapter. a plane table is simply a drawing board mounted on a tripod so that it can be set up and worked upon in the field. one kind of plane table, which is used in the army for reconnaissance, does not even have a tripod; it is simply strapped to the arm of the man who is using it. plane-table maps vary greatly in scale and the area they represent. landscape artists' plans may show only single city lots, while some topographic maps cover hundreds of square miles on a single sheet. for maps of a small farm, a park, or a residence block in the city, a plane table is almost ideal, since plane-table maps are made with rather simple apparatus and do not require much actual measuring on the ground. most objects are located without ever going to them, or even sending a rod-man to them. [illustration: just a few weeks after george washington's sixteenth birthday, in , lord fairfax, owner of a large estate in virginia, took him into his employ as a surveyor] besides the plane table itself and a sheet of paper, only a small carpenter's level, a tape to measure a few distances with, and some spikes for markers, a hard lead pencil, a ruler, and a few needles are absolutely necessary for this sort of a map. [illustration: three stations are used for setting the plane table in succession to locate the various objects table at sta. a - table at sta. b - table at sta. c ] to start a plane-table map, a station must first be selected from which as many as possible of the objects to be located on the finished map can be seen. ordinarily, the objects one would locate are corners of buildings, fence corners, intersections of roads, corners of lots, banks of streams, possibly trees, and section and quarter-section corners in the country. a railroad, a lake, a mountain, or anything which forms a noticeable landmark in any particular locality, ought to be on the map. in mapping a territory which has never been surveyed before, the first surveyor may name the hills and streams. after the first station has been selected, it is marked by a pile of stones, a stake, or, if precise work is to be done, a tack in the top of a stake. the table is then set up over this station point and leveled so that the surface of the paper will be truly horizontal. generally, too, the board is "oriented," that is, placed so that two of its edges point north and south and two east and west. it is then clamped so that it will not move while working on it. to begin the map, a point on the table is chosen to represent the station on the ground over which the table is set. this point is marked by sticking a fine needle into the paper, vertically. a small triangle should be drawn around the needle hole in the paper and labeled "sta. a," so that it will not be lost in the maze of points which will soon cover the sheet. by sighting past this needle toward some object which is wanted on the map, like the corner of a house, its direction can be marked by setting another needle on the far side of the table, in line with the first and the given object. then, if a ruler or straightedge be placed against these two needles and a fine line drawn connecting them, this line will show the exact direction of the object from sta. a. all the other objects which are wanted on the finished map and can be seen from sta. a are located by direction in the same way. the first points to have their direction thus marked ought to be the next stations to be occupied. if all the objects to be located can be seen from three stations, or even two of three stations, three stations will be sufficient. the distance to one of them from sta. a should be carefully measured and laid off to scale along its direction line on the map. its place on the map should be marked exactly as the first station was, substituting b for a. it is wise, after every few sights at other objects, to take a sight along the line ab to make sure that the board has not turned. a good map is impossible if the board twists. to measure the distance between stations, a or -ft. tape, or some accurate substitute, is necessary. an ordinary piece of iron telegraph wire, ft. long, is a good substitute. a point, about - / ft. from one end, is marked with a little lump of solder. a chisel dent in this solder will mark one end of the -ft. section. then, with a borrowed tape or a good rule, measure off and mark every ft., just as the first point was marked, until the entire ft. have been laid off. the last ft. should be divided into feet. in all this measuring and marking, the wire must be stretched out taut and straight. the extra - / ft. at each end are used for making handles. by estimating the tenths of a foot, measurements can be made with such a tape, or "chain," as an old-time surveyor might call it, just as accurately as they can be laid off on the map. [illustration: an alidade, consisting of two sights and a straightedge, takes the place of the two needles] [illustration] two men are required for measuring, or "chaining," a head and a rear chainman. the rear chainman holds the -ft. end of the tape on the station point, while the head chainman takes his end forward toward the station to which they are measuring. when he has gone nearly the length of the tape, the rear chainman calls "halt." the head chainman stops and draws the tape up tight, while the rear chainman holds his division end on the starting point. then the head chainman sticks a spike into the ground to mark the place where his division end comes, calls out "stuck," and starts on toward the object point. large spikes make good marking pins, especially if they have little red or white strips of cloth tied to them. surveyors use markers. one is stuck into the ground at the starting point and is carried forward by the rear chainman, who also picks up the markers at each -ft. point as soon as the head chainman calls "stuck." in this way, the number of markers which the rear chainman has in his hand is always the same as the number of hundreds of feet which the last set marker is from the starting point. in measuring between two points, care must be taken to draw the tape out taut and straight, its two ends must be level with each other, and it must be exactly in line with the two points between which the measurement is being made. in measuring downhill, one end may have to be held up high, and the point on the ground where the end division would come, found by dropping a stone from the place where it is in the air and watching for the spot where the rock strikes the ground. a surer way to do this is to hold a plumb-bob string on the last division and carefully let the bob down until it touches the ground. a rod with a red or white flag on it ought to be placed at or just beyond the point to which the measurement is to be made so that the rear chainman can easily line in the head chainman. the latter, before he places his marker, looks back to the rear chainman to be told whether or not he is "on line" with the object point. if he is not, and ought to go to the rear chainman's right to get "on," the latter holds out his right arm and the head chainman moves accordingly. when he reaches the right point, the rear chainman signals "all right" by holding out both of his arms and then dropping them to his side; the marker is stuck, and both move up a hundred feet and repeat the process. after all the points possible have been located from sta. a, and the direction lines labeled lightly in pencil so that they can be distinguished when the board has been removed from the station, the plane table is picked up and carried to sta. b. here it is again set up, leveled, and oriented by making the direction of the line ab on the paper exactly the same as that of the line from sta. a to sta. b on the ground. this is done by placing needles at points a and b on the table and then turning the board until the two needles and sta. a are in line. sights are taken on the same objects which were "shot" at sta. a, and to objects which were not visible from sta. a. the intersection of the lines of sight toward a given object from a and from b marks the location on the paper of that object. if the two ends of a straight fence have been located in this way, a straight line joining the points will show the location of the fence on the map. by exactly similar methods, every other object is located on the paper. in order to avoid errors, it is an excellent scheme to locate three stations near the outside edges of the area to be mapped, and locate all objects possible by sights from each of the three stations. if, instead of all three crossing each other at a point, the lines of sight from the three stations form a triangle, something is wrong. if the triangle is very small, it may be safe to use its center as the correct point; if not, the work must be repeated and checked. locating even a few points by this method may prevent some bad blunders. the three stations ought to form as nearly as possible, an equilateral triangle; and the distances between all of them should be measured and laid out accurately on the plane table. [illustration: a rigid tripod is made of strips for legs, which are fastened to a large top] there are two ways in which the map may be finished, inked, or traced. by drawing in the "culture," that is, the things built by man, like the houses, the fences, the roads, and the railroads, in black ink; the topography, that is, the hills and valleys, in brown; the water, in blue, and then erasing all the construction lines, a very neat map can be made. another way is to get some "onion-skin" paper, or some tracing cloth, tack it over the penciled map, and trace the lines right through, using black india ink. this tracing can be blueprinted, just as a photographic film. a plain, neat title, describing location of map; who made it and when; the scale used; why it was made, if it was made for a special purpose, and the direction of the north point, ought to be on every map. the topographic sheets published by the united states geological survey are good samples to follow. they have been published for a great many places all over the country, and single copies can be obtained by sending cents to the director, united states geological survey, washington, d. c. [illustration: from an original drawing of a survey of mount vernon, made by george washington at the age of ] plane tables are almost as easily made as they are bought. if there is no old drawing board around the house, a new bread board from the ten-cent store will serve. for ordinary work, a table which is or in. square will do very well. the board must be mounted on a tripod so that it will be rigid while it is being worked upon and yet can be unclamped and oriented. a brass plate, with a hole in it and a nut soldered over the hole, screwed to the bottom of the board will permit the board and tripod to be bolted together in good shape. another method, which is not nearly as good, is to drill a hole clear through the board, countersink it on top for a bolt head, and bolt the board and tripod head directly together. with the brass plate and nut, the camera tripod can be pressed into service if a nut of the proper size has been used. the camera tripod is, however, apt to be wabbly with a drawing board on top; a much more satisfactory tripod can be built as shown in the accompanying drawings. each leg is made of two strips of wood, / by / in. and ft. long. these strips are screwed together at their lower ends, gripping a spike between them which will prevent the legs from slipping on the ground. the tops of the strips are spread apart and screwed to the opposite ends of an oak or maple cleat. this cleat is, in turn, screwed to the under side of the circular tripod head. in place of the two needles and the ruler described for marking the line of sight, most plane-table men use an alidade, which is a combination of two sights and a straightedge. a very simple alidade may be made by mounting two needles on a ruler. the straight edge of the ruler is placed against the needle which marks the station at which the plane table is set up. then, by swinging the ruler around this needle until its two sighting needles come in line with some object, the line of sight can be drawn directly on the paper along the edge of the ruler. a surveyor in india once made an alidade out of a piece of straightedge and two sights made of native coins hammered out by a native blacksmith. two pieces of cigar box, one with a fine vertical saw slit in it, and the other with a vertical slot and a piece of fine wire or silk thread stretched down the center, glued to a well planed, straight, flat piece of wood, make a fine alidade. a careful worker may be able to put his sights on hinges so that they will fold down when not in use. more than anything else, map making rewards care and accuracy, and shows up slipshod workmanship. if the pencils are sharp, the lines fine, and if the work is checked often, beautiful maps can be made with very simple apparatus. * * * * * white marks on waxed surfaces may be removed by rubbing lightly with a soft rag moistened in alcohol, after which rub with raw linseed oil. machine for sketching pictures an ordinary drawing board, with the attachments shown, provides an easy way to sketch pictures, even if one is not proficient in this line of work. it is only necessary to look through the sight and move the pencil about so that the knot in the thread follows the outline of the landscape or object being drawn. [illustration: this machine aids a person in drawing the true outline of a picture] the size of the machine depends on the one building it, but a fair-sized drawing board is sufficient for the beginner. a strip of wood is fastened to the board, near one edge, which has a metal piece on each end, fastened to the under side and bent up over the end to form an extension for the rod to support the moving parts. the strip of wood should be / in. wide and / in. thick, and the sliding arm, holding the pencil, / in. wide and / in. thick. a like strip, but much shorter than the one fastened to the board, is also fitted with metal pieces in an inverted position so the projections will be downward. a / -in. rod is run through holes in the metal pieces of the strips at both ends, and soldered to those on the strip fastened to the board. this will make a hinged joint, as well as one that will allow the upper strip to slide horizontally. centrally located on the upper strip are two more strips, fastened with screws at right angles to the former, with a space between them of / in. for the sliding center piece holding the pencil. these pieces are further braced with a wire at the back, and crosspieces are screwed both on top and under side, to make a rigid guide for the sliding pencil holder. an upright is fastened to the side of one of these pieces over the center of the upper horizontal sliding piece for a screw eye to hold the thread. another screw eye is turned into the crosspiece just under the one on the support, so that the thread will run perpendicularly between them. two more screw eyes are fastened, one into the upper surface of the rear crosspiece, and the other in the end of the pencil holder, near the pencil. by connecting these screw eyes, as shown, with a thread, having a rubber band fastened in the rear end and a knot tied in it near the screw eye in the upper end of the vertical stick, a means for following the outlines of the picture is provided. a vertical stick is fastened to the front edge of the board by means of a notch and wedge. in the upper end of this stick a very small hole is bored for a sight, similar to a peep sight on a rifle. to use the machine, set the board on a table, or tripod, and level it up in front of the object to be drawn. look through the sight at the front of the board and move the pencil about to keep the knot of the thread on the outlines of the picture to be drawn.--contributed by wm. c. coppess, union city, ind. * * * * * a walnut filler is made of lb. burnt turkey umber, lb. of burnt italian sienna, both ground in oil, then mixed to a paste with qt. of turpentine and pt. of japan drier. [illustration: the boy surveyor] camera surveying by harold g. mcgee [this article explains the preparation of the camera for taking the pictures at each of the three stations, after which the plates are developed, printed and kept until a convenient time may be had for plotting the ground. the succeeding article will give in detail the making of the map from the photographs.--editor.] camera surveying is simply plane-table surveying in which the landscape has been photographically picked up and carried indoors. it has the enormous advantage that one can obtain a record of the utmost fidelity in a small fraction of the time taken to do the field work of even a sketchy plane-table survey, and that plotting can be done in the comfort and with the conveniences of a drafting room. when the hours one can work are short or the periods of clear, dry weather are few and far between, a camera is an ideal surveying instrument. it sees and records with the click of the shutter. surveying by camera was proposed early in the infant days of photography; but not until the eighties were photographic surveys commenced in earnest. with the extensive surveys of the canadian rockies by the canadian government within the past decade and the topographic surveys of the alps, the camera has very recently indeed achieved the dignity of being known as a "sure-enough" surveying instrument. even today, few surveyors have ever used photography for making surveys, even though for mountain topography or any survey which includes a large number of distinctive, inaccessible landmarks, the camera asks no odds of either the plane table or the stadia transit. a camera survey taken of the summer cottage or the camping ground will be a source of great delight while it is being plotted up of winter evenings. there is something weird in watching each tent and dock slip into its place with naught but a pair of dividers and a few pictures to do the trick. and when the map is done, there are all the data to tell just where a tennis court can go or a walk ought to be built. in making surveys, a plate camera will do more accurate work than will a film camera; and a fixed focus is a big help in plotting. in spite of the special and expensive instruments which have been designed solely for surveying work, a little ingenuity on the part of the owner of most any kind of a camera, be it big or little, film or plate, box or folding, will do wonders toward producing good results. [illustration: a t-shaped level with adjusting nuts is located on the camera box, or on the bed of the folding camera] to be used for surveying, a camera must be fitted with a spirit level and some arrangement for cross hairs. a t-shaped level on the bed or the box, carefully adjusted, will show when the plate is vertical and when the perpendicular line from the center of the plate to the center of the lens is horizontal. actual cross hairs in the camera are not as good as four tiny points of v's, one projecting from the middle of each side, top, and bottom of the camera box, just in front of the plate holder. how the level is to be adjusted so that a line between the upper and lower points will be truly vertical, and one through the die-side points truly horizontal and on a level with the center of the lens when the bubbles are in the center of the spirit level, will be described later. [illustration: to prepare a camera for surveying, it is necessary to arrange that the axial center line through lens to the plate shall be level (inset: the camera is set up, complete with thread or pencil-line cross hairs and level, then focused on a stake so that its top will just come to the horizontal cross hair at the center of the plate when the level tube parallel with the center line of lens reads level) ] camera preparation to prepare a camera for surveying, it is necessary to arrange that the axial center line through the lens to the plate shall be level, and that the location of the horizontal and vertical center lines shall be indicated on the plate. a spirit level is the best solution of the first problem, and indicated center points of the second. the spirit level preferably may be of the t-form, with two level tubes, or of the "universal" circular form, with which some hand cameras are equipped. however, ordinary hand-camera levels are generally too rough and difficult of adjustment to insure accurate work. on a view camera, the level may be conveniently located on the bed which carries the lens board. if it is screwed to the under side of the arms it will be convenient for use and out of the way. the bed is likewise a good location for the level on a folding hand camera, while the top of the box is about the only possible location with a box-type instrument. the cross hairs or center-line indicators should be placed on the back of the camera, just in front of the plate. if indicators are used, fine-thread cross hairs or pencil lines drawn on the ground glass must be used temporarily for making adjustments. generally, the two cross hairs will divide the plate vertically and horizontally into four equal parts and the hairs or indicators will join the center point of the sides and top and bottom of the opening immediately in front of the plate. but it is essential that the cross hairs have their intersection in a line perpendicular to the plate and passing through the center of the lens. thus in a camera in which the lens is not placed in the center of the plate, or in which the rising and sliding front has placed the lens off center, either or both of the cross hairs may be off center with regard to the plate. [illustration: the ordinary round level may be used, but it is not so good as the t-level] after the cross-hair indicators and the level have been attached to the camera, adjustments are necessary. surveyors distinguish between permanent and temporary adjustments, permanent adjustments being those for which the instrument maker is responsible, and temporary adjustments being those which can be and are made in the field. the principal permanent or maker's adjustments of the surveying camera are those which insure the center line through the lens, or axial center line, or line of collimation, being perpendicular to the plate, the intersection of the cross hairs being on this line, and that the cross hairs themselves are mutually perpendicular. temporary or field adjustments must be so made that one tube of the spirit level shall be parallel with the axial center line through the lens and the other parallel with the horizontal cross hair. [illustration: the cross hairs or center-line indicators should be placed on the back of the camera] the first field adjustment is made in the following manner. the camera is set up, complete with thread or pencil-line cross hairs and level, and focused on a stake whose top shall just come to the horizontal cross hair at the center of the plate, when the level tube parallel with the center line of the lens reads level. this stake may be driven to the required elevation or a rod may be held on it and the point where, in the image on the ground glass, it is intersected by the cross hair marked with pencil on the rod as it is held vertically on the stake. the distance to this stake is measured from the camera and another similar stake set at the same elevation by the same method, but in an opposite direction and at the same distance from the camera. the two stakes or the mark on the vertical rod which is held on these stakes in turn will be level with each other, though they may not be level with the camera. the camera is then moved to a point very much closer to one stake than to the other and again leveled. the vertical distance from one stake-top or mark on the rod is measured and the camera then focused on the second stake. if the level is actually in adjustment, the distance from the second stake top or mark will be exactly the same as it was on the first. if not, the difference, or "error," is found between the two vertical distances from the cross hair to the two stake tops. half this error is corrected by raising or lowering one end of the level tube by means of the threaded nuts which are placed on it for the purpose. the whole process is then repeated until the vertical distances from the horizontal cross hair at the center to the two level stakes, one close to and one distant from the camera, are identical. the axial center line of the lens, or the line of collimation, is then in adjustment with the level. all that remains is to make the horizontal cross hair parallel with the cross level. [illustration: the maker's adjustments should insure the line of collimation being perpendicular to the plate] this is done by using one marked stake. the camera is leveled as far as the "fore-and-aft" level is concerned and the horizontal cross-hair point at the center marked on the stake. the camera is then swung round until the stake just shows on one edge of the ground glass, the fore-and-aft or longitudinal level being checked to make sure its bubble is still in the center. then the bubble in the cross or transverse level tube is brought to the center by means of the threaded adjusting nuts, and the camera is thrown hard over so that the stake appears along the opposite edge of the plate. this time, the bubble of the longitudinal level being kept in the center, half the error introduced by turning from one edge to the other is corrected. all of the adjustments are then rechecked, and if they are found correct the instrument is ready for use. if a circular level be used, the method of adjustment is exactly the same, the swing of the bubble along the axis of the camera and transverse to it being used to determine the longitudinal and transverse adjustments. slips of paper may be used for lifting one side in place of the adjustment nuts of the t-level. a leveling head or ball-and-socket joint on the top of the tripod will be found of material aid in leveling the instrument. no great mechanical genius is necessary to prepare a camera for or to make a successful camera survey. but if a boy have not patience and an infinite desire for accuracy, camera surveying, or indeed any sort of surveying, will be a source of neither pleasure, satisfaction, nor profit. to make transparent paper transparent paper of parchmentlike appearance and strength, which can be dyed with almost all kinds of aniline dyes and assumes much more brilliant hues than ordinary colored glass, can be made in the following manner: procure a white paper, made of cotton or linen rags, and put it to soak in a saturated solution of camphor in alcohol. when dry, the paper so treated can be cut up into any forms suitable for parts of lamp shades, etc. toasting bread over an open fire having experienced some difficulty in obtaining good toast over a gas or open fire i tried the following plan with good results: an old tin pan was placed over the flame and the ordinary wire bread toaster clasping the slice of bread was held about / in. from the pan. in a few minutes the toast was crisp and ready to serve.--contributed by katy doherty, new york city. adjustable stilts the beginner with stilts always selects short sticks so that he will not be very far from the ground, but as he becomes more experienced, the longer the sticks the better. then, too, the small boy and the large boy require different lengths of sticks. the device shown makes a pair of sticks universal for use of beginners or a boy of any age or height. [illustration: stilts having stirrups that can be set at any desired height] to make the stilts, procure two long sticks of even length, and smooth up the edges; then begin at a point ft. from one end and bore holes, / in. in diameter and in. apart from center to center. if there is no diestock at hand, have a blacksmith, or mechanic, make a thread on both ends of a / -in. rod, in. long. bend the rod in the shape shown, so that the two threaded ends will be just in. apart from center to center. the thread on the straight horizontal end should be so long that a nut can be placed on both sides of the stick. a piece of a garden hose or small rubber hose, slipped on the rod, will keep the shoe sole from slipping. the steps can be set in any two adjacent holes to give the desired height.--contributed by walter veene, san diego, cal. grape arbor built of poles in building outdoor structures, such as grape arbors, pergolas, or arches, it is not necessary to use sawed lumber, as they can be built as substantial, and frequently more artistic and cheap, of poles. these are easily obtained, especially in the country or in the smaller cities where there usually are many trees and gardens. [illustration: arbor made of poles which are supported by one row of uprights (fig. , fig. )] the illustrated grape arbor consists of but one row of uprights. across the top of each is placed a horizontal support for the roof poles, as shown in fig. , which is carried near its outer end by an inclined brace. the brace should be connected at each end with a toe joint, as shown in fig. . the upper end of the upright is beveled off on both sides, to form a double-splayed joint with the crosspiece. in order to securely bind the roof of the arbor, the long poles, or roof beams, should be notched near each end to fit over the supports. similar notches in the poles forming the side of the arbor are to fit the uprights, thereby binding them together and preventing toppling over. each set of long poles connecting two uprights should have the end notches the same distance apart, one pole being used as a gauge. all the joints and notches may be cut with a sharp hatchet. in setting the arbor, the uprights should first be assembled complete with braces and roof supports, and placed in the ground a distance apart corresponding to that of the notches on the long poles. the uprights being set, the long poles are placed and fastened with nails.--contributed by w. e. crane, cleveland, ohio. forcing fruit blossoms for decorations twigs trimmed from the fruit trees rather late in the season had quite large buds on them, and we experimented with them in this way: a large box was filled with wet sand, and the twigs were stuck in it and the box set in the warmest corner of the yard. the buds soon swelled and burst into bloom. we then arranged a smaller box of sand and put the blooming twigs into it, and took it into the house where they remained fresh for several days.--contributed by a. louise culver, oakland, cal. corner cleaner attached to a scrubbing brush [illustration] dirt will accumulate and harden in the corners of a floor and the baseboard just because the end of the scrubbing brush will not enter them. the water gets in with the dirt and leaves a hard crust. this may be easily cleaned out if a metal point is attached to the end of the brush handle, as shown in the illustration. it is used as a scraper to break up the crust and clean it out where the bristles will not enter.--contributed by l. e. turner, new york city. [illustration: the boy surveyor] plotting a camera survey by harold g. mcgee [the camera records pictures that can be taken in camp or on a vacation trip and kept until more leisure may be had in winter for plotting the ground.--editor.] a previously measured base triangle with "stations" at each corner is necessary for making a camera survey, just as it is for the plane-table survey. it is preferable to have each of the three sides measured independently, though if one side has been accurately chained, the other two may be less satisfactorily determined by the use of the plane table. if the camera has a fixed focus, it is possible to make an entire survey from the two ends of a single base line; but this method has no check and should be used only when and where the triangle method is impossible. with an adjustable focus, it will rarely give good results. [illustration: two fine hair lines must be scratched on each plate before it is used to plot from, or to make pictures from which the plotting is done] once the triangle has been laid out, the fieldwork is very simple. the camera is set up at one station, carefully leveled, and then a series of pictures is taken, each single plate overlapping the last so as to form a panorama of the area to be mapped. the focus of the lens must not be changed during a series, and plotting is facilitated by keeping the focus constant during all the exposures which make up a survey. to secure good depth of focus, a small stop is generally used, since it is necessary to use a tripod to keep the camera level. if contours are to be drawn, the height of the lens above the ground at the station should be measured and recorded. after a series has been taken at each station, the fieldwork is complete. it is an excellent plan to keep a record of the plate numbers, and the order in which and the station from which the exposures were made, so that the or plates which a small survey will comprise may not get hopelessly mixed up. if the camera is turned each time to the right, clockwise, and the plates are numbered a- , a- , b- , etc., indicating by a- , for example, the leftmost plate taken at sta. a; by a- , the plate just to the right of a- , just as ii is to the right of i on the clock dial, and by b- , the fourth to the right taken at sta. b, there ought to be no difficulty in identifying the plates after the exact details of the ground are forgotten. [illustration: plot of the ground as it should appear after locating the objects as they are shown on the pictures from each point of the triangle] while the pictures are being taken, "flags" of white wood or with white-cloth streamers tied to them must be stuck in the ground or held at the other stations in order that their exact location can be readily and certainly found on the plates. a few distinctive stakes, some with one and some with two or three strips of cloth tied to them, placed at important points on the ground will help immensely in the location of knolls and shore lines. in plotting a camera survey, either the original plates, the prints, or enlargements may be used. the plates are the most accurate if a corrected lens has been used; and the enlargements made back through the lens will be best if the images on the plates are distorted. in any case, two fine hair lines must be scratched on each plate before it is used to plot from, or to make the prints from which the plotting is to be done. one of these lines should connect the points at the top and bottom of the plate, and the other, the points at the sides. the vertical line divides the objects which were on the right of the center of the camera from those that were on the left, and the horizontal line connecting the points on the sides separates the objects that were above the camera from those that were below. if the survey has been made with a lens that does not cover the plate fully or that has considerable uncorrected aberration, causing distorted shapes near the edges and corners of the picture, results can be materially improved by plotting from enlargements. in making the enlargements, the back of the camera should be removed and the light should be allowed to pass through the plate and the lens in the reverse order and direction of that in which it passed when the negative was made. in this way, the errors which were made by the lens originally will be straightened out, and the resulting enlargements will be free from distortion. to make successful enlargements for surveying work, the easel on which the bromide paper is tacked must be square with the camera, and the paper itself should be flat and smooth. it is just as necessary to keep the easel at a constant distance from the camera during the enlarging as it was to keep the same focus while the original negatives were being made. [illustration: in plotting a camera survey the base triangle is first carefully laid out on the paper to such a scale that the map will be of desirable size] in plotting a camera survey the base triangle is first carefully laid out on the paper to such a scale that the map will be of a desirable size. with the apex of the triangle representing sta. a, say, as a center, a circle is drawn with a radius as nearly equal as possible to the distance between the optical center of the lens and the plate when the picture was taken. ordinarily this will be the focal length of the lens; but if the camera was not focused most sharply on an object a great distance off, the radius may be greater. this radius is called the "mapping constant." when an approximate distance for the mapping constant has been determined by measurements on the camera or by knowing the focal length of the lens, the circle, or rather the arc, fg between the two lines to stations b and c, is drawn. the plates taken at sta. a, and ranged around this circle on the outside and just touching it, will show the landscape exactly as seen from a. in the accompanying diagram showing the method of determining the mapping constant and of locating the traces of the plates, the letters f, g, h, j, p, r and s designate points referring to the true mapping constant, and the construction necessary to locate the traces of the plates. the primed letters f', f'', g', g'', etc., are used to show similar points where the trial mapping constant is either too long or too short. the following description refers equally to the construction necessary with true or trial-mapping constants. next, a line fh is drawn perpendicular to the line ab of the triangle at the point f where the arc intersects it. on this line is laid off, in the proper direction, a distance equal to the distance on the plate or print from sta. b to the center vertical line. from this point is drawn a light line, hj, toward the center of the arc. where this line crosses the arc, at j, a tangent, kjm, is drawn, which will show the location of the plate a- on the drawing. this line is called the trace of the plate. an object which appears both on plate a- and a- is next picked out and its location on the trace of plate a- determined by measuring the distance jn equal to the distance on the plate from the image of the object to the center vertical line. a light line, no, joining this last-found point with sta. a, is then drawn. where this last line crosses the arc, at o, a tangent, op, to the arc is drawn, and the trace of the plate a- is found with the aid of the point which appears on both plates just as plate a- was located from the picture of sta. b. the traces of plates a- and a- are found in exactly the same way as was that of a- . if the radius of the arc has been estimated correctly, sta. c will be found to be exactly on the point where the trace of the plate showing the station crosses the line ac on the paper. if it does not fall on the line ac, which is generally the case, everything must be erased except the original triangle. first, however, a radial line s'g', or s''g'', is drawn from the location of sta. c on the trace of the plate a- , or , as the case may be, to the arc, and the point of intersection of this line and the arc, g' or g'', is preserved. if this point, g' or g'', is outside the base triangle, the next trial arc should be drawn with a larger mapping constant as a radius, or vice versa. if the second mapping constant is off, find again the point of intersection of the radial line through the new location of sta. c on the newly located trace of the last plate and the new arc. join this point and the one found previously, in the same manner, with a straight line, g'g''. the point g where this last drawn line intersects the line ac of the base triangle, will be the point through which the arc, with the correct mapping constant as radius, ought to pass, provided the first two approximations were not too far in error. this third trial ought to make the location of the traces of the plates exactly correct. if, however, the focus of the camera was changed between exposures at one station, the traces of the plates will not all be at an equal distance from the station point, and their location will be an almost impossible task. the traces of the plates taken at stations b and c are found in exactly the same manner as were those for sta. a. after the traces have all been located, it is a good plan to ink them in lightly and erase the pencil construction lines which would otherwise form an impenetrable maze. the traces located, the difficult and tiresome part of the plotting is over; the landscape, brought indoors photographically, is located as with the plane table; all that remains to be done is to take the sights and find the points on the paper which show where the objects were on the ground. [illustration: from each station the mapping constant is laid out by the focal distance of the camera or distance of the plate from the lens, and the location of traces of the plates determined] this taking the sights is a simple matter. with a pair of dividers, the distance from a given object from the center line of the plate is measured. this distance is laid off on the proper side of the point marking the center line of the trace of the same plate; a radial line is drawn through the trace at the given distance from the center-line point and the station at which the given plate is taken; this is one line of sight to the object. the same object is located from another station in the same way; as on the plane table, the intersection of the two lines to the same object marks the location of the point which represents the object on the map. obtaining elevations for the drawing of contours is a slightly longer process. contours are lines joining points of equal elevation; they represent successive shore lines, if the area mapped were inundated and the water should rise slowly foot by foot. if the contours are close together, the ground represented has a steep slope, and vice versa. if, on a map, a number of points are of known elevation, it is simply a question of judgment and practice to tell where contour lines go. before contours can be drawn the elevations of a considerable number of points must be known. if the elevation of any one of them is known and the difference between that one and any other can be found, determining the elevation of the second point is simply a problem in addition or subtraction. if it be desired to find, for instance, the difference in elevation between sta. c and the corner of the fence, as shown in the sketch, two solutions are possible, as follows: first: perpendicular to the line of sight from sta. c to the fence corner, two lines are drawn, one at the intersection of the trace of the plate by the line of sight, and one at the point on the paper which shows the location of the fence corner. on the first of these two lines is laid off the distance y', equal to the distance of the ground at the fence post above or below the horizontal center line on the plate. through this point, on the first perpendicular on the line of sight, is drawn a line through the sta. c and extended to an intersection with the second drawn perpendicular. the distance from the corner of the fence, on the paper, to this intersection is the distance y, the difference in elevation from the center of the camera at sta. c to the ground at the fence post. this solution is longer and less desirable than the second. second: in place of perpendicular lines to the line of sight, the trace of the plate, and a line, through the point representing the object, parallel with the trace, may be used. a datum plane, or reference surface, from which all elevations are measured up to the ground surface must be assumed. the united states geological survey uses mean, or average, sea level for the datum in all its topographic sheets. generally, unless there is a united states geological survey "bench mark," a monument of carefully determined elevation referred to sea level, within the limits of the survey, it is better to assume the elevation of some point, as sta. c, at ft., or greater if necessary to place the datum plane below the ground level at all points within the area to be mapped. other elevations are figured from the assumed elevation of sta. c. allowance must be made for the height of the center of the camera above the ground at sta. c in computing elevations above sta. c. all elevations determined for the purpose of drawing contours are ground elevations and not the elevation of the top of objects located on the map. the topographic sheets of the geological survey are good examples to follow, in drawing contours. for many purposes, contours are not essential, and the refinements necessary for their drawing may be omitted. how to build a skiff the following is a description of an easily constructed -ft. skiff, suitable for rowing and paddling. this is the type used by many duck hunters, as it may be easily pushed through marshes. it is constructed of / -in. dressed pine, or cypress. [illustration: the skiff is especially constructed for use in shallow water and marshes by duck hunters, but with the addition of a keel it makes a good craft for almost any water as a rowboat (fig. )] [illustration: (fig. )] the sides consist of planks, in. wide, but -in. planks may be used, the length being ft. in. two stem pieces are constructed as shown in fig. , and the plank ends are fastened to them with screws. nail a crosspiece on the plank edges in the exact center, so as to space the planks in. apart, as shown in fig. ; then turn it over and nail another crosspiece in the center of the planks for width, and make the spacing of the other edges in. plane the lower edges so that, in placing a board across them, the surfaces will be level. the floor boards are in. wide and fastened on crosswise, being careful to apply plenty of red lead between all joints and using galvanized nails, in. long. [illustration: (fig. )] a deck, in. long, is fastened on each end, as shown in fig. . it is made of strips fastened to a crosspiece. the seats, or thwarts, consist of -in. boards, and are placed on short strips fastened to the side planks about in. from the bottom. the oarlocks are held in a wedge-shaped piece of wood, having a piece of gas pipe in them for a bushing, the whole being fastened at the upper edge of the side planks with screws, as shown in fig. . the location of these must be determined by the builder. [illustration: (fig. )] some calking may be required between the bottom, or floor, boards, if they are not nailed tightly against one another. the calking material may be loosely woven cotton cord, which is well forced into the seams. the first coat of paint should be of red lead mixed with raw linseed oil, and when dry any color may be applied for the second coat. while, for use in shallow water, these boats are not built with a keel, one can be attached to prevent the boat from "sliding off" in a side wind or when turning around. when one is attached, it should be / in. thick, in. wide, and about ft. long.--contributed by b. francis dashiell, baltimore, md. * * * * * an aniline color soluble in alcohol, by adding a little carbolic acid, will hold fast on celluloid. double-swing gate with common hinge [illustration: the post and gate are cut away back of the hinge to allow the latter to swing back] ordinary hinges can be easily bent and so placed on posts that a gate can be swung in either direction. as shown in the illustration, hinges can be made to fit either round or square posts. the gate half of the hinge is fastened in the usual way. the post half is bent and so placed that the hinge pin will approximately be on a line between the centers of the posts. the gate and post should be beveled off to permit a full-open gateway.--contributed by r. r. schmitz, birmingham, ala. testing out induction coils while winding an induction coil, i found it necessary to test the sections for continuity. having no galvanometer, i connected a battery and low-resistance telephone receiver in series with the section and battery. the battery and telephone receiver may also be used for testing out the secondary of an induction coil, to determine if it is burnt out.--contributed by john m. wells, moosomin, can. how to make a surveyor's transit by bennett blacklidge [illustration: detail of parts for the construction of a transit which can be used, with fairly accurate results, in doing amateur surveying for railroad work, town sites and the laying out of maps] a boy who likes to do the things that "grown ups" do can derive considerable pleasure from the making of a transit, which will enable him to start in surveying railroads, laying off town sites, and doing lots of kindred work. it is necessary to have a compass, and one, - / in. in diameter, can be purchased at a reasonable price. a hole is bored with an expansive bit into a board, / in. in thickness, just deep enough to admit the compass snugly, then a circle, a, - / in. in diameter, is drawn, having the same center as the compass hole, and the disk is cut out with a compass or scroll saw. a ring, b, is cut in the same manner from the same material, its inside diameter being such that the ring just fits around the disk a, and the outside diameter, - / in. another block, - / in. in diameter, is glued to the bottom of the small disk a. this will appear as shown at c. a small hole is bored in the center of the bottom block on the under side to receive the threaded end of the screw on a camera tripod. by careful adjustment the threads in the wood will hold the transit firmly. a plumb bob must be attached exactly in the center of the tripod head. this can be easily done if the head is wood, but in case the top is of metal, the line can be attached to the screw with a double loop, as shown at d, so that the bob will hang centrally. two standards are made as shown at e, each about in. high, and fastened to the ring b in the positions shown in the drawing of the complete instrument. an arc of a circle is marked on one of the standards, as shown, to designate angles, the markings being laid out with a bevel protractor. the pointer is a hand from an old alarm clock. the telescope arrangement consists of a piece of pasteboard tubing, about - / in. in diameter, one end being covered with a piece of black paper with a pinhole in the exact center, and the other equipped with "cross hairs." four small notches are cut in the latter end of the tube, exactly quartering it, and two silk threads as fine as can be obtained, are stretched across in these notches. the tube is fastened to a block of wood, in. wide and in. long, with small tacks and two pieces of fine copper wire. this block is pinioned between the standards with two nails. the hand is secured to the nail in such a position that it will point straight down when the tube is level. the instrument is adjusted in the following manner: it is set up where a lone tree can be seen, about one mile distant, and the center of the cross hairs is carefully set on the tree. then a very fine wire is stretched across the compass, as shown at f, and while keeping it directly over the center of the compass it is also placed on a direct line pointing to the tree. very small brass nails, driven in at g and h, serve to fasten it in the position thus found. when this adjustment has been made the telescope can be turned to sight any object, after first placing the instrument so that the needle points to the n on the dial, and a glance at the wire will show the exact direction in which the object is located. the instrument is then taken to a level stretch of road and set up, and a stick is placed on end and marked at the height of the telescope. the stick is taken along the road about yd., the telescope sighted on it, and the hand set. this makes the instrument level enough for all practical purposes. the plumb bob is then dropped, a distance of ft. measured from it on the road, and a mark made. the telescope is sighted on this mark, and a mark is made on the standard at the point of the arc, to which the hand points. another ft. is measured, or ft. from the bob, and another mark made. the telescope is sighted on it, and the location of the hand again marked. this works well up to about ft., then the marks begin to come very close together. this method is used for laying out town sites. the instrument is set up directly over a stake from which to work, and the telescope is turned down until the -ft. mark is indicated, when the operator looks through the telescope and tells his helper where to set the stake. then another is driven at the next point, and so on, until the limit of the instrument is reached. when doing railroad surveying several start out together, one with an ax to cut away brush; one to carry pegs; two to measure, or chain, the distance between stakes, and one to do the sighting. in this manner a line can be run that comes very near being perfectly straight for three miles. a concrete example of how the transit was used to lay out a map of a ranch will now be given. the start was made on an east and west fence. the instrument was set ft. from the fence at one point, and at the other end of the fence the stick was set at a point ft. from the fence. when the stick was sighted, the wire cut the e and w on the compass, thus showing that the fence was set on a line, due east and west. the distance was measured from the fence to the house, which was / mile, and this was noted in a book. this operation was repeated on the rear, and the distance found to be ft. while the compass showed the direction to be deg. west of south. the next line ran ft. and deg. east of south. this was kept up all the way around. after these notes had been obtained, it was an easy matter to take a piece of plain paper and strike a line representing north and south and lay off the directions. a bevel protractor was used to find the degrees. the transit was set on the posts of the corrals and this saved the measuring out from the inclosure. the creek was surveyed in the same manner. so many feet south-west, so many feet west, so many feet deg. south of west, and so on, until its length was run. the transit can also be used for finding distances without measuring. a line from a to b is sighted, and f represents a point / mile distant, the line from f to g being ft. a line is now sighted from a, through g to c. a person standing at d is directed to move toward the point e and he is stopped as soon as sighted in the telescope. he then measures the distance from d to e. suppose this distance is ft. as each ft. means / mile, and the ft., / mile, the point e is - / miles from the transit. this method can be used quite extensively and distances obtained are fairly accurate. * * * * * a small whisk broom makes a handy cleaner to brush the caked grease and lint from pulleys and gear wheels where waste and rags are useless. to enlarge or reduce plots sometimes it is necessary to enlarge or reduce a plot to a different scale. this can be easily and quickly accomplished without resorting to the slow process of protracting the angles and scaling the individual lines. [illustration: enlarging and reducing plots by radial lines from a common point located properly] take any point, p, and from it draw light pencil lines through each of the corners of the plot. on any one of these lines, as ap, lay off with dividers ac equal to cp. place a triangle on the line ab and with a straightedge, or another triangle, laid on the line ap, slide the former to the point c, then draw line cd parallel with ab until it intersects the radial line pb. in the same manner draw line de parallel with bf, and so on, all about the plot. a test of accuracy will be in striking the point c with the last line. if the original plot has a scale of ft. to the inch the reduced plot would be ft. to the inch. if it is required to enlarge the plot to ft. to the inch, make ag equal to ap, and proceed as in the first case, using g as the starting point. the location of the point p is arbitrary and may be outside of the boundary of the plot or figure to be enlarged or reduced, but should be so located, if possible, that the radial line to any corner does not parallel either of the plot lines to that corner. if the point cannot be so located for all the lines, it may be necessary to scale the lines. a little practice in picking out the best location for the point will give gratifying results.--contributed by junius d. mccabe, pittsburgh, pa. a lathe bench while working at a bench, or foot-power lathe, it is quite convenient to have some sort of a seat to sit on while at work, or between operations. in making such a seat, i used a board, in. long and in. wide, for the top, and two boards, in. long and in. wide, for the supports. these boards were / in. thick. the supports were squared at the ends and securely fastened to the top with nails, their positions being in. in from the ends of the top board. these were well braced, as shown, and a cross board was placed between them, near the lower ends. [illustration: the bench provides a seat for the worker in doing operations on a small foot lathe] the projecting ends of the top were cut out, and a box, in. deep, constructed against the supports. a covering was made to fit in each of the openings in the top board and hinged to the outer edge of the box. the boxes made a convenient place for the tools used in the turning work.--contributed by harold r. harvey, buhl, idaho. cleaning and polishing shoes in using the polishes now on the market for tan shoes, i found that the leather cracked in an unreasonably short time. the following was suggested and tried out with good results. wash the shoes with castile soap and water by applying the mixture with a dauber. work up a little lather and then rub dry with a cloth, without rinsing. the leather will be cleaned without becoming dark, and it will not crack. a higher polish may be obtained by using some paste polish in the usual manner.--contributed by george bliss, washington, d. c. shaving cabinet mounted on an adjustable pedestal the illustration represents a shaving cabinet mounted on an adjustable pedestal, whose style and size are such that it may easily be moved about or set away without requiring much room. the material required for its construction is as follows: framed mirror, by in. square-head bolt and wing nut, / by in. cabinet sides, / by by in. partitions and shelf, / by by in. cabinet top, / by by - / in. cabinet bottom, / by by - / in. cabinet backs and doors, / by - / by - / in. cabinet moldings, by by in. cabinet support, by by in. pedestal moldings, by by in. pedestal frames, by by in. base, by by in. screws, nails, and varnish. [illustration: the mirror and cabinet are mounted on a pedestal that can be moved as desired] the sidepieces of the cabinet are extended at one corner, thereby forming the supports for the mirror. the door fits in between the sides and may be attached either by hinges or two wood screws, one on each side, holes being bored in the sides forming a loose fit for the screw so they can freely turn with the door. the pedestal consists of a -in. square box resting on the base block, and secured in place by means of molding strips. the sliding support for the cabinet consists of a -in. square piece secured to the bottom of the cabinet by means of molding, and provided with a slot so the support can freely slide over the clamp bolt, which fastens it in place by clamping it against the pedestal. if it is desired to conceal the head of the bolt, a recess should be made in the pedestal frame for it, as shown, so the support will freely slide over it. before assembling the pedestal it will be necessary to drill a hole in the front side in line with the recess of the back side, and insert the bolt. if this precaution is not taken, it will not be possible to insert the bolt, unless a hole be made for the head either through the back side or front side.--contributed by d. toppan, watervliet, n. y. four-passenger coasting bobsled by r. h. allen [illustration: coasting is one of the best sports a boy enjoys during winter, and a sled of luxury is something to be proud of among others on a hill or toboggan slide] coaster bobs usually have about the same form of construction, and only slight changes from the ordinary are made to satisfy the builder. the one shown has some distinctive features which make it a sled of luxury, and the builder will pride himself in the making. a list of the materials required is given on the opposite page. any wood may be used for the sled, except for the runners, which should be made of ash. shape the runners all alike by cutting one out and using it as a pattern to make the others. after cutting them to the proper shape, a groove is formed on the under edge to admit the curve of a / -in. round iron rod about / in. deep. the iron rods are then shaped to fit over the runner in the groove and extend up the back part of the runner and over the top at the front end. the extensions should be flattened so that two holes can be drilled in them for two wood screws at each end. if the builder does not have the necessary equipment for flattening these ends, a local blacksmith can do it at a nominal price. after the irons are fitted, they are fastened in place. the top edges of the runners are notched for the crosspieces so that the top surfaces of these pieces will come flush with the upper edges of the runners. the location of these pieces is not essential, but should be near the ends of the runners, and the notches of each pair of runners should coincide. when the notches are cut, fit in the pieces snugly, and fasten them with long, slim wood screws. small metal braces are then fastened to the runners and crosspiece on the inside, to stiffen the joint. [illustration: details showing the method of rear-sled oscillation, the bracing, and the steering wheel] as the rear sled must oscillate some, means must be provided for this tilting motion while at the same time preventing sidewise turning. the construction used for this purpose is a hinged joint. the heavy by -in. crosspiece is cut sloping on the width so that it remains in. thick at one edge and tapers down to a feather edge at the opposite side. this makes a wedge-shaped piece, to which surface the three large hinges are attached. the piece is then solidly fastened to the upper edges of the runners that are to be used for the rear sled, and so located that the center of the piece will be in. from the front end of the runners. the supporting crosspiece on the front sled is fastened on top of the runners, at a place where its center will be in. from the front end of the runners. the top board is prepared by making both ends rounding and planing the surfaces smooth. on the under side, the two crosspieces are placed, which should have two / -in. holes bored through the width of each, near the ends, to receive the eyebolts. they are placed, one with its center in. from the end to be used for the rear, and the other with its center in. from the front end, and securely fastened with screws. the shore is placed in the center of the board, and wires are run over it connecting the eyebolts. the eyebolts are then drawn up tightly to make the wire taut over the shore. this will prevent the long board from sagging. list of materials top. - / ft. long, in. wide, and - / in. thick. runners. in, long, in. wide, and in. thick. crosspieces, in. long, in. wide, and in. thick. pieces, in, long, in. wide, and in. thick. piece, in. long, in. wide, and in. thick. shore, in. long, in. wide, and in. thick. seat backs. in. long, in. wide, and in. thick. dowel. ft. long, and in. in diameter. rods. / in. in diameter, and in. long. eyebolts, / in. by in. long. hinges, -in. strap. hinges, -in. strap. on the upper side of the board and beginning at the rear end, the backs are fastened at intervals of in. they are first prepared by rounding the corners on the ends used for the tops, and the opposite ends are cut slightly on an angle to give the back a slant. they are then fastened with the small hinges to the top board. on the edges of the top board, -in. holes are bored about in. deep, and pins driven for foot rests. these are located in. apart, beginning about in. from the front end. the dowel is used for the pins, which are made in. long. [illustration: the top board is well braced on the under side and fitted with four backs on top to make it a luxurious riding sled, and the runners are provided with metal shoes for speed] the steering device consists of a broom handle, cut to in. in length, with one end fastened in a hole bored centrally in the -in. crosspiece of the front sled. a hole is bored in the top board through the center of the crosspiece fastened to the under side for the steering post. the broomstick is run through this hole after first placing two metal washers on it. after running the stick through, a collar is fastened to it just above the top board, so that the top cannot be raised away from the sled. at the upper end of the broomstick a steering wheel is attached, made from a nail-keg hoop. a piece of wood is fastened across its diameter, and the hoop is covered with a piece of garden hose and wrapped with twine. in the center of the crosspiece, a hole is bored to snugly fit on the broom handle, which is then fastened with screws. the rear sled is fastened to the top board with screws through the extending wings of the hinges and into the crosspiece. holes are bored in the front ends of all runners, and a chain or rope is attached in them, the loop end of the rear one being attached to the under side of the top board, and the one in the front used for drawing the sled. to prevent drill from catching as it passes through metal the regular slope of a drill will cause the cutting edge to catch as it breaks through the metal on the opposite side of the piece being drilled. but if a twist drill is ground more flat like a flat drill, it will not "grab" into the metal as it passes through.--contributed by james h. beebee, rochester, n. y. [illustration] an ice boat and catamaran by robert k. patterson this combination is produced by using the regular type of ice boat and substituting boats for the runners, to make the catamaran. in constructing the ice boat, use two poles, or timbers, one ft. and the other - / ft. long, crossed at a point - / ft. from one end of the longer timber. the crossed pieces are firmly braced with wires, as shown. the mast, which should be about ft. long, is set into a mortise cut in the long timber, in. from the front end, and is further stabilized by wires, as shown. a jib boom, about ft. long, as well as a main boom, which is - / ft. long, are hung on the mast in the usual manner. [illustration: the ice boat provides an ideal outing in winter where there is a body of water large enough for sailing] the front runners consist of band-iron strips, in. long, in. wide, and / in. thick, with one edge ground like the edge of a skate, and the ends rounding, which are fastened with bolts to the sides of wood pieces, in. long, in. wide, and in. thick, allowing the ground edge to project about inch. when the ice-boat frame is made of poles, the runners are attached to a piece of wood, in. long, shaped as shown and fastened at right angles with bolts running through the shouldered part diagonally. this makes a surface on which the pole end rests and where it is securely fastened with bolts. if squared timbers are used, the runners can be fastened directly to them. the rear, or guiding, runner is fastened between two pieces of wood, so that its edge projects; then it is clamped in a bicycle fork, which should be cut down so that about in. of the forks remain. a hole is bored through the rear end of the long pole to receive the fork head, the upper end of which is supplied with a lever. the lever is attached to the fork head by boring a hole through the lever end at a slight angle to fit the head, allowing sufficient end to be slotted, whereupon a hole is bored through the width of the handle, and a bolt inserted, to act as a clamp. [illustration: the ice-boat details, showing construction with straight poles having detachable runners so the boats can be supplied in their stead to make a sailing catamaran for use in summer] a board is fastened on two crosspieces mortised in the upper part of the pole, for a place to sit on when driving the boat. the sail can be constructed of any good material to the dimensions given. to rig up the ice boat for use as a catamaran, place a pole across the stern, the length of the pole being equal to the one used on the front part of the ice boat. two water-tight boats are constructed, ft. long, in. wide, and in. deep at the center. to make these two boats procure six boards, ft. long, in. wide, and in. thick. three boards are used to make each boat. bend one board so that it will be in an arc of a circle, then nail on the two side boards, after which the edges of the sides are cut away to the shape of the bent board. the runners are removed from the ice boat, and the boats fastened to the pole ends. a rudder is attached in the place of the rear, or guiding, runner. the tops of the boats, or floats, can be covered and made water-tight. mind-reading effect with cards five cards are shown, and some one person is asked to think of two cards in the lot, after which the performer places the cards behind his back and removes any two cards, then shows the remaining three and asks if the two cards in mind have been removed. the answer is always yes, as it cannot be otherwise. to prepare the cards, take any cards from the pack and paste the back of one card to another, making five double cards. removing any two cards behind the performer's back reduces the number of cards to three, and when these are turned over they will not have the same faces so that the ones first seen cannot be shown the second time even though all five cards were turned over and shown. an air pencil to make embossed letters the device illustrated is for making embossed letters on show cards, signs, post cards, etc. a small bulb, such as used on cameras, is procured, also the spout from a small oilcan. the bulb is fastened to the spout as shown. the material for use in the pencil is quick-drying mucilage thickened with flake white. if some special color is desired, tint the mixture with aniline. fill the spout with the mixture and attach the bulb. squeeze the bulb gently while forming the letters, then dust over with bronze, and allow to dry. [illustration: the oilcan spout is the reservoir to hold the paint, and the bulb produces the air pressure] an endless dish or floor mop a good way to use up cord that collects about the house, is to make an endless dish or floor mop of it. procure a thin board that will make a good length and wind the cord around it, then remove it from the board and tie the bunch together in the center. combination tie rack and collar holder an unusual though simple tie rack can be made by supporting the tie bar in the center. by this arrangement the ties can be placed on it from either end, thus avoiding the tedious threading through, required on the ordinary rack supported at each end. collars may be hung on a peg placed above the tie bar. the pieces can be glued together and a good finish given in the usual way. the rack can be hung up by two screw eyes. the material required consists of four pieces, dimensioned / by by in., / by / by - / in., / by / by - / in., and / by / by in. respectively.--contributed by arthur c. vener, dallas, texas. [illustration: collar and tie rack with open-end hangers so that the articles can be slipped on easily without being passed behind a bar as is usually the case] [illustration:] skates made of wood skates that will take the place of the usual steel-runner kind and which will prevent spraining of the ankles, can be made of a few pieces of / -in. boards. four runners are cut out, in. wide at the back and - / in. wide at the front, the length to be in. longer than the shoe. the top edges of a pair of runners are then nailed to the under side of a board in. wide, at its edges. a piece of board, or block, in. wide is fastened between the runners at the rear, and one in. wide, in front. two bolts are run through holes bored in the runners, one just back of the front board, or block, and the other in front of the rear one. four triangular pieces are fastened, one on each corner, so that the heel and toe of the shoe will fit between them, and, if desired, a crosspiece can be nailed in front of the heel. straps are attached to the sides for attaching the skate to the shoe. both skates are made alike.--contributed by f. e. kennar, hennessey, okla. [illustration: skates made of wood to take the place of the steel-runner kind and prevent sprained ankles] * * * * * the best paint for paper roofing is asphaltum varnish. [illustration:] an ice glider by mildred e. thomas the enthusiastic pushmobilist need not put aside his hobby during the winter, as an amusement device for use on ice, which will surpass the very best pushmobile, can be easily made as shown in the illustration. [illustration: the glider is pushed over the ice similarly to a pushmobile, and the speed that can be attained is much greater] similar to an ice yacht, only a great deal smaller, the ice glider will require three ordinary skates, two of which are fastened to the ends of the front crosspiece, so that their blades will stand at an angle of about deg. with their edges outward. to get this angle, tapering blocks are fastened to the crosspiece ends, as shown. the skates are then fastened to these blocks. [illustration: detail of the parts for the construction of the ice glider, or pushmobile] the crosspiece is in. long and about in. wide. in the center of this piece an upright is constructed, in. high. the edges of the front crosspiece are cut on a slant so that a piece nailed to its front and back edge will stand sloping toward the rear. a handle, in. long, is fastened between the two uprights at the upper end. the rear part is made of a board, in. wide and in. long. the remaining skate is fastened in a perfectly straight position on the rear end. the skates may be attached with screws run through holes drilled in the top plates, or with straps. the front end of the rear board has a hole for a bolt to attach it to the center of the front crosspiece, so that the latter will turn to guide the glider. a pusher is prepared from a block of wood, into which nails are driven with their ends projecting on the under side. the block is strapped to one shoe, as shown. [illustration: the block of wood with projecting nails to fasten on the shoe that does the pushing] the glider is used in the same manner as a pushmobile. the pusher can be made in another way by using sole leather instead of the block. small slots are cut in the sides for the straps. nails are driven through the leather so that the points project. either kind of pusher is especially adapted for the pushmobile to prevent wear on the shoe. prony brake for testing small motors the ordinary prony brake is not, as a rule, sensitive enough to make an accurate test on small motors, such as those used in driving sewing machines, washing machines, vacuum cleaners, etc. the arrangement shown in the accompanying sketch has been used for this purpose with good results and was very accurate. the operation of the brake is exceedingly simple. [illustration: prony brake used in connection with a small balance to find the horsepower] a pulley without a crown face is attached to the shaft of the motor, which is fastened to the top of a table or bench, and a balance mounted directly over the pulley. the support for the balance should be a narrow strip, which in turn is supported on two upright pieces, as shown. a light rope is put under the pulley, and the ends are looped over the platforms of the balance so that it does not interfere with the operation of the balance. the ends of the rope should be vertical and parallel. the piece upon which the balance rests is raised by inserting wedges, thus increasing the tension in the rope. the resulting friction of the rope on the pulley increases the load. if the motor is running in the direction indicated by the arrow on the pulley, the tension in the left-hand end of the rope will be greater than in the right-hand end and a weight must be placed on the right-hand platform of the balance. when the weight w is adjusted so that the two pointers on the platforms are exactly opposite each other, the value of the weight w, in pounds, will represent the difference in pull, in pounds, between a and b. if the value of the weight w is known and also the speed of the machine when the weight was determined, the horsepower output can be computed by means of the following equation: . � l � w � r.p.m. hp. = ----------------------- , � in this equation, l is the distance in inches from the center of the pulley to the center of the rope. two ordinary spring balances may be substituted for the beam balance and the difference in their readings taken for the value w. for best results, the tension in the slack end of the rope should be as small as possible, and it may be necessary to wrap the rope one or more times completely around the pulley. a mystic fortune teller fortune telling by means of weights striking glasses or bottles is quite mysterious if controlled in a manner that cannot be seen by the audience. the performer can arrange two strikes for "no," and three for "yes" to answer questions. any kind of bottles, glass, or cups may be used. in the bottles the pendulum can be suspended from the cork, and in the glasses from small tripods set on the table. [illustration: the rocking of the table is caused by the pressure of air in the bulb under the foot, the movement causing the pendulum to swing and strike the glass] the secret of the trick is as follows: a rubber tube with a bulb attached to each end is placed under a rug, one bulb being located under one table leg and the other near the chair of the performer set at some distance from the table where it can be pressed with the foot. some one selects a pendulum; the performer gazes intently at it, and presses the bulb under his foot lightly at first; then, by watching the swaying of the pendulum selected, he will know when to give the second impulse, and continue until the weight strikes the glass. as the pendulums are of different lengths they must necessarily swing at different rates per second. the impulses must be given at the proper time or else the pendulum will be retarded instead of increased in amplitude. a table with four legs is best to use, and the leg diagonally opposite that with the bulb beneath it must not touch the carpet or floor. this can be arranged by placing pieces of cardboard under the other two legs.--contributed by james j. mcintyre. holding prints in a liquid-filled tray [illustration: push pins on the under side of the board raise it and provide a space for the prints in the liquid] after having considerable trouble in keeping my paper prints in the hypo fixing bath from curling, which would force the edges out of the liquid, i found the plan here illustrated a success. i procured a piece of wood, the size of a postcard, and stuck four glass push pins into one surface, one at each corner, and fastened a handle to the center of the upper side. the papers are first placed in the bath, then the board is set over them with the pins down. this holds the prints under the liquid but does not press them tightly together.--contributed by j. j. kolar, maywood, ill. * * * * * a piece of an old gunny sack will polish brass work very nicely. cellar-door holder [illustration] a cellar door that opened up against a wall required a catch of some kind to keep it open at times. as i did not want a catch to show on the wall, i devised a holder as shown. three pieces of wood were nailed to the under side of the door in such positions that they formed a recess in which a fourth piece, in. wide and in. thick, would slide endways. a knob was attached to the upper end of the slide, which served the double purpose of a handle and a stop for the slide. the manner of using the holder is clearly shown.--contributed by h. t. smith, topeka, kansas. an emergency pencil compass [illustration] the need of a compass when none was at hand caused me to quickly devise a substitute for the work. a piece of stiff wire, about the length of the pencil, was procured, and several turns were made around the pencil, as shown. the lower straight end was filed to a point. the wire can be bent to obtain the radius distance.--contributed by preston ware, rome, ga. * * * * * a very effective dip for brass and copper articles, that will leave a clean and bright finish, is qt. of aqua fortis, gal. of sulphuric acid, pt. of water and a pinch of salt. renewing carbon paper when carbon paper has been used several times, the preparation becomes almost worn off on some parts, while other parts of the paper are as good as new. the process of renewing is very simple and it can be done by anyone without special apparatus. all that is necessary is to hold the paper in front of a fire or over a radiator a few seconds. the heat will cause the preparation to dissolve and spread over the paper, so that when it is dry the paper will have a new coating. this can be repeated, and in some cases will double the life of the carbon paper.--contributed by chester m. kearney, danville, quebec. how to clinch a finishing nail [illustration] a wire or finishing nail may be clinched as nicely as a wrought nail, if a nail punch or piece of iron is placed along the side of it, as shown at a, and the nail hammered into an arched form, as at b. the punch or rod is then withdrawn and the arch driven into the wood.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. to prevent washbasin bottom from wearing out the ears from some sirup buckets were removed and three of them soldered, at equal distances apart, on the bottom of the washbasin near the outside edge of the lower part. these prevented the wear from coming on the bottom of the basin, and it lasted several times as long as ordinarily.--contributed by a. a. ashley, blanket, texas. * * * * * to curl feathers, heat slightly before a fire, then stroke with something like the back of a case knife. [illustration] snowshoes: how to make and use them by stillman taylor part i--shapes of snowshoes to the inventive mind of the north american indian we owe the snowshoe, and its conception was doubtless brought about through that prolific source of invention--necessity. the first models were crude web-footed affairs, but improvements in model and manner of filling the frames were gradually added until the perfected and graceful shoe of the present was finally reached. the first snowshoes were made by the indians, and the indians of maine and canada continue to fashion the finest models today. the snowshoe is a necessity for the sportsman and trapper whose pleasure or business leads him out in the open during the winter season, when roads and trails are heavily blanketed by a deep fall of powdery snow. but the use of the web shoe is by no means confined to the dweller in the wilderness, since the charm of wintry wood and plain beckons many lovers of the outdoors to participate in this invigorating sport, and snowshoe tramps are fast growing in popularity in and about our cities and towns. all the modern snowshoes are constructed upon practically the same general lines, although the types of frames differ considerably in size as well as in shape, and the filling of hide is often woven in many varied and intricate patterns. the frame or bow--usually made of ash in order to get strength with light weight--is bent in many shapes, but the one shown in the diagram is a typical general-purpose shoe, and may be called standard. the frame is held in shape by means of two wooden cross braces, neatly mortised into the frame. these braces are spaced some or in. apart, and so divide the shoe into three sections, known as the toe, center, and heel. the filling is woven into a lanyard, which is a light strip of hide firmly laced to the frame through a double row of holes drilled in the wood. the center filling is woven of heavy strands of rawhide, in a fairly coarse mesh, because this part of the shoe must bear the weight of the body and the brunt of wear. the end fillers for toe and heel are woven of lighter strands of hide, and the mesh is, of course, smaller. [illustration: the frame of a snowshoe in its usual construction, showing the crosspieces with their laced fillings of hide and the different parts named, for a ready reference] as may be noted by referring to the drawing, a center opening or "toe hole" is provided, and as the greater strain on the filling lies directly under the ball of the foot, the shoe is reinforced at this point by the "toe cord" running across, and the "toe-cord stays," which are tied in on each side of the toe hole--one end being fastened to the toe cord and the other lashed over the wooden cross bar of the frame. these reinforcing cords are formed of several strands of hide, the stays being again wound with finer strands. to prevent slipping and to secure a good foothold while walking, the manner of attaching the foot to the shoe is of importance, and this is done by making use of a toe strap, which will allow the toe to push down through the toe opening as the heel of the foot is lifted in the act of walking. a second strap, or thong, leading from the top around the foot, above the curve of the heel, is needed to lend additional support in lifting the snowshoe, to effect the easy shambling stride characteristic of the snowshoer. there are, of course, a great number of models or styles, some one style being popular in one locality, while an altogether different style is preferred in another part of the country. the most representative types are well shown in the illustrations, and a brief description will point out their practical advantages, because each model possesses certain merits--one model being designed for fast traveling in the open, another better adapted for brush travel, while others are more convenient for use in a hilly country where much climbing is done, and so on. [illustration: a: snowshoe experts regard this as an extreme style, for it is long and narrow] style a is regarded by snowshoe experts as an extreme style, for it is long and narrow. it is designed for fast traveling over smooth and level country, and over loose, powdery snow. this style is much used by the cree indians, and is usually made in. wide by in. long, with a deeply upcurved toe. it is a good shoe for cross-country work, but is somewhat difficult to manage on broken trails, when the snow is packed, and also affords rather slippery footing when crossing ice. owing to the stout construction of the frame and reinforcement needed to retain the high, curved toe, style a is more difficult to manage than the more conservative models, and its stiffness of frame makes it more fatiguing to wear, while its use is a decided handicap in mountainous districts, because a curved toe always makes hill climbing more difficult. [illustration: b: this snowshoe is considered the ordinary eastern model and one best adapted for all-around use] style b may be considered the ordinary eastern model, and a common style best adapted for all-around use. it is a neat and gracefully designed frame, about in. wide and in. long, and is usually made with a slightly upcurving toe, about in. turn at the toe being correct. when made by the indians of maine, this model is fashioned with a rather heavy heel, which is an advantage for fast walking, while it increases the difficulty in quick turning. [illustration: c: the style illustrated here is splendid for general purposes and is a favorite among hunters and woodsmen] style c is a favorite model among the hunters and woodsmen of new england. this is a splendid style for general purposes in this section of the country, since the full, round toe keeps the toe up near the surface, and lets the heel cut down more than the narrow-toe models. style c is an easy shoe to wear, and while not so fast as the long, narrow frame, its full shape is more convenient for use in the woods. it is usually made with about to - / -in. turn at the toe. [illustration: d: this is the familiar "bear's-paw" model, originated by the northeastern trapper for use on short tramps and in brush] style d is the familiar "bear's paw," a model originating with the northeastern trapper. this model is well adapted for short tramps in the brush, and having a flat toe, is likewise a good shoe for mountain climbing. for tramping about in thick brush, a short, full shoe enables one to take a shorter stride and turn more quickly, but it is a slow shoe for straight-ahead traveling. when purchasing a pair of snowshoes, some few important considerations should be kept in mind, and the size and model will depend upon the man to some extent, since a large, heavy man will require a larger snowshoe than would suffice for a person of lighter weight. height also enters into the choice, and while a small person can travel faster and with less fatigue when equipped with a proportionately small shoe, a tall man will naturally pick out a larger-sized snowshoe for his use. for a country where deep snows prevail, larger sizes are best, but in localities where the snow packs solidly and there is considerable ice, and in mountainous districts, or for rough-country traveling, the smaller sizes will give more satisfaction and prove more durable also. for a wet-snow locality, the center filling should be strung in rather coarse mesh, while for soft, powdery snow, a finer mesh will be the logical choice. there are snowshoes and snowshoes, and while there are fine models regularly stocked by a few of the better sporting-goods firms, there is likewise a deal of poorly made snowshoes on the market. it is well to pay a fair price and secure a dependable handmade article, for the cheaper snowshoes--often filled with seine twine and the cheapest hide (commonly known in the trade as "gut")--will warp and twist in the frame, and the shoddy filling will soon become loosened up and "bag" after a little use. the best snowshoes that the writer is acquainted with are made by the indians, and the filling is ordinarily made of neat's hide; cowhide for the center filling, and calfskin for the toe and heel. a first-class pair of snowshoes may be had for about $ to $ . , and when possible to do so, it is best to have them made to order. this plan is, of course, necessary in case one wishes to incorporate any little wrinkles of his own into their making, or desires a flatter toe, lighter heel, or a different mesh from the usual stock models. where but one pair of snowshoes is purchased, style b will probably prove the best selection, and should be ordered with the flat toe, or a turn not greater than in. the frame may be in either one or two pieces, depending upon the size of the shoe and the ideas of the indian maker, but it is well to specify white ash for the frames in the order. no indian maker would be guilty of using screws or other metal fastenings, but many of the cheap and poorly fashioned snowshoes are fastened at the heel with screws, thus making this a decidedly weak point, since the wood is quite certain to split after a little rough service. in contrast to the poor workmanship of these low-priced snowshoes, the indian-made article is fashioned from sound and properly seasoned wood; the cross bars are snugly fitted by mortising to the frame; the filling is tightly woven, and the heel is properly fastened by lacing with a rawhide it is a good idea to select a filling of good heavy weight and with a firmly woven and open mesh, say, about / in. the toe and heel sections will, of course, be of finer-cut hide and smaller mesh, and it is wise to avoid those shoes employing seine twine for the end filling. some factory-made snowshoes are given a coat or two of varnish, but this, while serving to make them partly waterproof, makes them rather slippery when crossing logs and ice. most woodsmen prefer to leave both frame and filling in their natural condition. the indian-made snowshoe is always thong. however, indian makers are likely to make the toe small and leave the wood to form a rather heavy heel. some few woodsmen and sportsmen may prefer this model, but the majority favor a fuller toe and a lighter heel for general use, because the regulation indian model, cutting down at toe and heel equally deep, increases the difficulty of easy traveling over soft snow, although it is a good shoe when used over broken trails. when buying snowshoes at the store, see that the frames are stoutly and well made, and for all-around use, provided with a generously large toe hole, so that ample foot covering may be used. this point is generally overlooked in the machine-made product, and the toe cords are also frequently roughly formed, thus chafing the feet and making them sore. these details may or may not prove a handicap for short tramps near town, but for long trips through the woods, they are important considerations. the indian manner of tying the snowshoe to the foot by means of a single twisted and knotted thong is a good method of attachment, in that, if the thong is properly adjusted to the requisite snugness in the first place, the shoes may be quickly removed by a simple twist of the ankle. a better fastening is secured by using a fairly wide ( / in.) toe strap and a long thong. the toe strap is placed over the toes, immediately over the ball of the foot, and secured against slipping by weaving the ends in and out between the meshes of the filling until it reaches the frame on either side. this grips the toe strap firmly and does away with the necessity of tying a knot. a narrow thong, about ft. long, is now doubled, the center placed just above the heel of the foot, and the ends passed under the toe cord, just outside of the toe-cord stays on each side. the thong is then brought up and across the toes, one end passing over and the other under the toe strap. each end of the thong is now looped around the crossed thong, on either side, and then carried back over the back of the heel and knotted with a common square or reef knot. calfskin makes a good flexible foot binding, or a suitable strip of folded cloth or canvas may be used. the regulation snowshoe harness, consisting of a leather stirrup for the toe and an instep and heel strap, will be found more comfortable than the thong, and when once adjusted snugly to the foot, the shoes may be quickly taken off and put on again by pushing the heel strap down, when the foot may be slipped out of the toe stirrup. the use of heavy leather shoes is of course undesirable, and the only correct footwear for snowshoeing is a pair of high-cut moccasins, cut roomy enough to allow one or more pairs of heavy woolen stockings to be worn. the heavy and long german socks, extending halfway to the knee, drawn on over the trouser legs, are by far the most comfortable for cold-weather wear. the feet, thus shod, will not only be warm in the coldest weather, but the free use of the toes is not interfered with. leather shoes are cold and stiff, and the heavy soles and heels, chafing against the snowshoes, will soon ruin the filling. soldering and riveting by john d. adams there are two simple processes that every experimenter should master: soldering and riveting. the large soldering copper will find only a very restricted use with the amateur on account not only of its clumsiness, but of the fact that it requires a fire, which is often impracticable to obtain. the experimenter should therefore construct a small alcohol lamp, which, after a little experience, will reveal the following advantages: it may be brought into instant use at any place; it will make a more perfect connection; with a small blowpipe places may be reached that are entirely inaccessible to the large iron; several small pieces may be set in position and soldered without disturbing them, which is quite impossible with the large iron. to make such a lamp, procure a small wide-mouthed bottle so that very little alcohol will be necessary and the lamp may be tipped at any desired angle. a short piece of seamless brass tubing should be procured, or, preferably, one of those capped brass cylinders for holding pencil leads, the button of which should be sawn off and the cap used to keep the alcohol from evaporating. a good, sound cork is next in order, and in cutting the central hole, use the brass tube, which should be sharpened around the lower end. proceed with a rotary motion, and a clean core will be removed. if an ordinary lamp wick is not at hand, soft cotton string may be bundled up as a substitute. such a lamp is safe, odorless and will not blacken the work in the least as in the case of kerosene or gasoline. [illustration: (alcohol lamp)] there are many good soldering fluxes on the market, but that obtained by dissolving as much scrap of zinc as possible in muriatic acid will solder practically everything that may be necessary, provided, of course, the surfaces are filed or scraped bright. wire solder is usually the most convenient, as small pieces can be readily cut off and placed directly on the work where required. a small blowpipe is often a valuable adjunct, as it makes possible a long, narrow flame that may be directed in almost any direction. [illustration: a small torch made of a penholder is handy to use in soldering electrical apparatus] where numerous small connections are to be made, as is often the case with electrical apparatus, the small torch illustrated will be found very convenient. it is simply an old penholder with the wood portion shortened somewhat and the metal end filed off square and cleaned out. this is then filled with wicking, and it is only necessary to dip it in alcohol in order to soak up enough to solder an ordinary connection. the second simple process, of which many fail to appreciate the usefulness in experimental work, is that of riveting--particularly when done on a small scale. very often the material in hand is tempered steel and cannot, therefore, be soldered to advantage, or it may be a case where subsequent heating makes a heat-proof connection imperative. then, again, the joint may require the combined strength of both solder and rivet. when properly set, the strength of the ordinary brass pin, when used as a rivet, is quite great. should the work require a particularly soft rivet, it is only necessary to hold the pin for a moment in the flame of a match. a somewhat larger and stronger rivet may be made by softening and cutting to the required length the small flat-headed nails used in making cigar boxes. the ordinary shingle nail is also of a suitable shape after the burrs have been filed off under the head. [illustration] in setting these small rivets, it is absolutely necessary that they closely fit the holes, as at a, otherwise the result will be as indicated at b in the sketch. be careful not to leave too great a length for rounding over on the metal. this extra length should approximately equal the diameter of the rivet and must be filed flat on the top before riveting. in case of pins, it will be found easier to cut them off to the proper length after they are inserted. use the smallest hammer available, striking many light blows rather than a few heavy ones. [illustration: a few joints where rivets are used to hold the parts solidly together] a whistle cut a circular piece of tin any convenient size, preferably in. in diameter, and bend it across the diameter so that it will be in a narrow u-shape. then drill or punch a hole through both parts as shown. place it in the mouth with the open edges out, being sure to press the lips on the metal tightly on both upper and lower pieces outside of the holes and to rest the tongue against the edge of the tin, even with the holes, and blow. [illustration] the result of the first attempt may not be a sound, but with a little practice any familiar tune may be whistled.--contributed by chas. c. bradley, w. toledo, o. card-and-coin trick if a card is balanced on the finger and a coin placed on the card directly over the finger, one would not think that the card could be flipped out leaving the coin on the finger end. this is easily accomplished, if care is taken to snap the card sharply and squarely.--contributed by r. neland, minneapolis, minn. [illustration] how to make a costumer with but little skill, and such tools as are ordinarily found around a home, a plain but serviceable costumer can be made, as shown in the sketch. the necessary materials for it are: one main post, - / in. square and about - / ft. long; four legs, or foot brackets, / by by in.; four brass clothes hooks, and the necessary screws and varnish for assembling and finishing. [illustration] the center post should be chamfered at the top to relieve the abruptness. the four legs should all be made alike and in some shape that allows them to be fastened to the post in a simple manner. in the sketch, the legs are fastened to the post by one visible screw at the top and one put in on an incline through the bottom edge of the leg. the clothes hooks are fastened to the post in pairs at different heights, thereby preventing the screws of adjacent hooks from running into one another. the finish of the costumer should be such as to match the woodwork of its surroundings.--contributed by harry a. packard, norway, maine. window catch used for locking an extension table to prevent the two ends of an extension table from pulling apart when not desired, an ordinary window catch can be fastened and locked in place to the under side of the table top with one part on each end of the table. if but one catch is used and fastened in the center, it is best to mark it off first, and then pull the table ends apart to fasten the catch more easily. it may be desired to use two catches for a very heavy table, in which case it would be best to place one on either side of the center.--contributed by f. m. griswold, new york, n. y. relieving pressure on heated canned foods for opening in opening a can of food that has been heated, the instant the cover is punctured the steam will force out a part of the contents, which is very annoying. to avoid this, pour a little cold water on the cover and allow it to remain a few seconds, then turn it off and immediately puncture the cover. this will counteract the interior force, and the can may be opened without trouble.--contributed by joseph kohlbecher, jr., san francisco, cal. clothespin bag [illustration] clothespins are usually kept in a bag, and the one our home possessed had a draw string which would always stick and hold the bag shut. the remedy for this, and a time saver also, was to remove the draw string and insert instead a piece of wire, which was afterward shaped to a circle with an eyelet at the joint. the bag can be hung on a nail and the mouth is always open to its fullest extent, yet lies flat against the wall.--contributed by jas. a. hart, philadelphia, pa. [illustration] snowshoes: how to make and use them by stillman taylor part ii--making the shoe [in making the snowshoe it may be necessary to refer to the previous chapter to select the style, or to locate the name of the parts used in the description.--editor.] snowshoe making is an art, and while few, if any, white men can equal the indian in weaving the intricate patterns which they prefer to employ for filling the frames, it is not very difficult to fashion a good solid frame and then fill it by making use of a simple and open system of meshing. for the frames, white ash is much the best wood, but hickory and white birch are dependable substitutes, if the former cannot be obtained. birch is perhaps the best wood to use when the sportsman wishes to cut and split up his own wood, but as suitable material for the frames may be readily purchased for a small sum, probably the majority of the readers will elect to buy the material. any lumber dealer will be able to supply white ash, and it is a simple matter to saw out the frames from the board. the sawed-out frame is inferior to the hand-split bow, but if good, selected material can be obtained, there will be little, if any, difference for ordinary use. when dry and well-seasoned lumber is used, the frame may be made to the proper dimensions, but when green wood is selected, the frame must be made somewhat heavier, to allow for the usual shrinkage in seasoning. for a stout snowshoe frame, the width should be about - / in.; thickness at toe, / in., and thickness at heel, / in. the frame should be cut in. longer than the finished length desired, and in working the wood, remember that the toe of the finished frame will be the center of the stick; the heel, the end of the stick, and the center of the shoe will lie halfway between the heel and toe. [illustration: the design of the snowshoe is traced on a board, and blocks are used to shape the frame or bow] after the frames have been finished, the dry wood must be steamed before it can be safely bent to the required shape, and before doing this, a wooden bending form must be made. an easy way to make this form is to first draw a pattern of the model on a sheet of paper, cut out the pencil mark, and, placing this pattern on a board, carefully trace the design on the wooden form. a number of cleats, or blocks, of wood will now be needed; the inside blocks being nailed in position, but the outside stay blocks being simply provided with nails in the holes, so they may be quickly fastened in position when the steamed frame is ready for the form. to make the frame soft for bending to shape, steaming must be resorted to, and perhaps the easiest way of doing this is to provide boiling water in a wash boiler, place the wood over the top, and soak well by mopping with the boiling water, shifting the stick about until the fibers have become soft and pliable. after or minutes of the hot-water treatment, wrap the stick with cloth and bend it back and forth to render it more and more pliable, then use the hot-water treatment, and repeat the process until the wood is sufficiently soft to bend easily without splintering. the toe being the greatest curve, must be well softened before putting on the form, otherwise the fibers are likely to splinter off at this point. when the frame is well softened, place it on the bending form while hot, slowly bend it against the wooden inside blocks, and nail on the outside blocks to hold it to the proper curve. begin with the toe, and after fastening the outside blocks to hold this end, finish one side, then bend the other half to shape. the bent frame should be allowed to dry on the form for at least a week; if removed before the wood has become thoroughly dry and has taken a permanent set, the frame will not retain its shape. the same bending form may be used for both frames, but if one is in a hurry to finish the shoes, two forms should be made, and considerable pains must be taken to make them exactly alike in every way. [illustration: locate the cross bars by balancing the frame, then fit the ends in shallow mortises] when the frames are dry, secure the tail end of the frame by boring three holes about in. from the end, and fasten with rawhide. the work of fitting the two cross bars may now be undertaken, and the balance of the snowshoe depends upon fitting these bars in their proper places. before cutting the mortise, spring the two bars in the frame about in. apart, and balance the shoe in the center by holding it in the hands. when the frame exactly balances, move the bars sufficiently to make the heel about oz. heavier than the toe, and mark the place where the mortises are to be cut. the cross bars and mortise must be a good tight fit, and a small, sharp chisel will enable the builder to make a neat job. it is not necessary to cut the mortise very deep; / in. is ample to afford a firm and snug mortised joint. the lanyard to which the filling is woven is next put in, by boring pairs of small holes in the toe and heel sections, and lacing a narrow rawhide thong through the obliquely drilled holes. three holes are then bored in the cross bar--one on each side about - / in. from the frame, and the third in the center of the bar; the lanyard being carried through these holes in the cross bar. [illustration: begin weaving the toe filling at the corner of cross bar and frame, carrying it around in a triangle until complete] begin the toe filling first, by making an eye in one end of the thong, put the end through the lanyard loop and then through the eye, thus making a slipknot. start to weave at the corner where the bar and frame are mortised, carry the strand up and twist it around the lanyards in the middle of the toe, then carry it down and make a like twist around the lanyard loop in the opposite corner. the thong is now looped around the next lanyard (no. from the crossbar lanyard) and fastened with the twisted loop knot illustrated. continue the strand across the width of toe space and make a similar loop knot on no. lanyard on the starting side, twist it around the strand first made and loop it under the next cross-bar lanyard loop, then carry it up and twist it around the lanyard loop in the toe of the frame, continuing in the same manner until the last lanyard of the toe is reached, when the space is finished by making the twisted loop knot until the space is entirely filled. it is a difficult matter to describe by text, but the illustrations will point out the correct way, and show the manner of making an endless thong by eye-splicing, as well as illustrating the wooden bodkin or needle used in pulling the woven strands taut. this bodkin is easily made from a small piece of wood, about / in. thick, and about in. long. to simplify matters, the heel may be filled in the same manner as the toe. [illustration: an endless thong is made with eyes cut in the ends of the leather, and each part is run through the eye of the other] for the center, which must be woven strong and tight, a heavier strand of hide must be used. begin with the toe cord first, and to make this amply strong, carry the strand across the frame five or six times, finishing with a half-hitch knot, as shown, then carry it up and twist it around the cross bar to form the first toe-cord stay. [illustration: the heel filling is woven by making the connection with the lanyard in the same manner as for the toe filling] as may be noted, the center section is filled by looping back and twisting the strands as when filling the toe. however, the filling is looped around the frame instead of a lanyard, and a clove hitch is used. a toe hole, in. wide, must be provided for, and when enough of the filling has been woven in to make this opening, the thong is no longer looped around the cross bar, but woven through the toe cord. as the filling ends in the toe cord, it should be woven in and out at this point several times, finishing the toe hole by looping a strand around the cross bar at the side of the toe hole, then passing it down the toe-cord stay by twisting around it; then twisted around the toe cord along the filling to the other side of the toe hole, where it is twisted around the toe-cord stay on the opposite side, looped around the frame and ended in a clove hitch. [illustration: the center must be woven strong and tight, and for this reason a heavier strand of hide must be used] at the first reading, it will doubtless appear difficult, but a careful examination of the illustrations will soon show how the trick is done, and indeed it is really a very simple matter, being one of those things which are easier to do than it is to tell how to do them. the method of filling has been purposely made simple, but the majority of shoes are filled in practically the same manner, which answers quite as well as the more intricate indian design. the knack of using the snowshoe is quickly mastered, providing the shoes are properly attached, to allow the toe ample freedom to work down through the toe hole as each foot is lifted. the shoe is, of course, not actually lifted in the air, but rather slid along the surface, half the width of one shoe covering the other when it is lifted in the act of walking. at first the novice may be inclined to think snowshoes a bit cumbersome and unwieldy, and doubt his ability to penetrate the brush. however, as the snowshoer becomes accustomed to their use, he will experience little if any difficulty in traveling where he wills. when making a trail in a more or less open country, it is a good plan to blaze it thoroughly, thus enabling one to return over the same trail, in case a fall of snow should occur in the meantime, or drifting snow fill up and obliterate the trail first made. when the trail is first broken by traveling over it once by snowshoe, the snow is packed well and forms a solid foundation, and even should a heavy fall of snow cover it, the blaze marks on tree and bush will point out the trail, which will afford faster and easier traveling than breaking a new trail each time one journeys in the same direction. a well-made pair of snowshoes will stand a couple of seasons' hard use, or last for a year or two longer for general wear. to keep them in good shape, they should be dried out after use, although it is never advisable to place them close to a hot fire, or the hide filling will be injured. jumping puts severe strain on the frame of the shoe, and while damage may not occur when so used in deep, soft snow, it is well to avoid the possibility of breakage. accidents will now and then happen, to be sure, and as a thong may snap at some unexpected moment, keep a strand or two of rawhide on hand, to meet this emergency. combination settee rocker and cradle by fastening a frame with hinges to the front of a settee rocker, a combination piece of furniture can be made, which may be used either as a regular settee or as a cradle. for this purpose, a covered frame should be provided, being sufficiently long to extend across the front between the arm supports and having such a width that it will easily fit under the arms when hinged to the seat, as shown in the illustration. to keep the frame in position while serving as a cradle front, or when turned down for regular use, screw hooks are placed at each end, so that, in the former case, the frame, when swung up, can be secured in place by attaching the hooks to screw eyes fastened under the arm supports; while, for regular use, the frame is secured in its swung-down position by fastening the hooks into screw eyes properly placed in the front legs.--contributed by maurice baudier, new orleans, la. [illustration: a settee rocker with a front attachment to make it into a cradle when desired] [illustration] a snowball thrower by albert bates, jr. the snow fort with its infantry is not complete without the artillery. a set of mortars, or cannon, placed in the fort to hurl snowballs at the entrenched enemy makes the battle more real. a device to substitute the cannon or a mortar can be easily constructed by any boy, and a few of them set in a snow fort will add greatly to the interest of the conflict. [illustration: the dimensioned parts and the detail of the completed snowball thrower] the substitute, which is called a snowball thrower, consists of a base, a, with a standard, b, which stops the arm c, controlled by the bar d, when the trigger e is released. the tripping of the trigger is accomplished by the sloping end of d on the slanting end of the upright f. sides, g, are fastened on the piece f, with their upper ends extending above the bar d, to prevent the latter from jumping out when it is released by the trigger. the trigger e is tripped with the handle h, connected to the piece j, on which all the working parts are mounted. the upper end of the arm c has a piece, k, to which is attached a tin can, l, for holding the snowball to be thrown. a set of door springs, m, furnishes the force to throw the snowball. [illustration: cannonading a snow fort with the use of a snowball thrower] all the parts are given dimensions, and if cut properly, they will fit together to make the thrower as illustrated. springs on the chains of a porch swing two coil springs of medium strength placed in the chains of a porch swing will make it ride easier and also take up any unpleasant jars and rattles occasioned when a person sits heavily in the swing. if the swing is provided with a four-chain suspension, the springs should be used on the two rear chains to get the best results.--contributed by e. k. marshall, oak park, illinois. homemade water meter where it is necessary to measure water in large quantities the meter illustrated will serve the purpose as well as an expensive one, and can be made cheaply. the vessel, or bucket, for measuring the water is made diamond-shaped, as shown in fig. , with a partition in the center to make two pockets of a triangular shape, each holding qt., or any amount of sufficient size to take care of the flow of water. [illustration: when a bucket is filled to the proper amount it is turned out by the weight (fig. , fig. , fig. )] the part forming the pockets is swung on an axis fastened to the lower part, which engages into bearings fastened to the sides of the casing, as shown in fig. . stops, a, are placed in the casing at the right places for each pocket to spill when exactly qt. of water has run into it. it is obvious that when one pocket is filled, the weight will tip it over and bring the other one up under the flow of water. the registering device consists of one or more wheels worked with pawls and ratchets, the first wheel being turned a notch at a time by the pawl b, fig. . if each pocket holds qt., the wheel is marked as shown, as each pocket must discharge to cause the wheel to turn one notch. the second wheel is worked by the lever and pawl c, which is driven with a pin d located in the first wheel. any number of wheels can be made to turn in a like manner.--contributed by f. a. porter, oderville, utah. a snowball maker snowball making is slow when carried on by hand, and where a thrower is employed in a snow fort it becomes necessary to have a number of assistants in making the snowballs. the time of making these balls can be greatly reduced by the use of the snowball maker shown in the illustration. [illustration: a device for making snowballs quickly and perfectly spherical in shape] the base consists of a board, in. long, - / in. wide, and in. thick. a block of wood, a, is hollowed out in the center to make a depression in the shape of a hemisphere, - / in. in diameter and - / in. deep. this block is nailed to the base about in. from one end. to make the dimensions come out right, fasten a block, b, in. high, made of one or more pieces, at the other end of the base with its back edge - / in. from the center of the hemispherical depression. on top of this block a lever, c, in. long is hinged. another block, d, is made with a hemispherical depression like the block a, and fastened to the under side of the lever, so that the depressions in both blocks will coincide. the lever end is shaped into a handle. two uprights, e, are fastened to the back side of the block a as guides for the lever c. a piece is fastened across their tops, and a spring is attached between it and the lever. a curtain-roller spring will be suitable. in making the balls a bunch of snow is thrown into the lower depression and the lever brought down with considerable force.--contributed by abbott w. france, chester, pa. an inexpensive bobsled [illustration: a bobsled of simple construction using ordinary barrel staves for the runners] any boy who can drive a nail and bore a hole can have a bobsled on short notice. the materials necessary are four good, solid barrel staves; four blocks of wood, in. long, in. wide, and in. thick; two pieces, in. long, in. wide, and in. thick; one piece, in. long, in. wide, and - / in. thick; and a good board, ft. long, in. wide, and in. thick. the crosspieces and knees are made with the blocks and the -in. pieces, in. long, as shown; to which the staves are nailed for runners. one of these pieces with the runners is fastened to one end of the board, the other is attached with a bolt in the center. the - / by -in. piece, in. long, is fastened across the top of the board at the front end. a rope fastened to the knees of the front runners provides a means of steering the sled. the sled can be quickly made, and it will serve the purpose well when an expensive one cannot be had.--contributed by h. j. blacklidge, san rafael, cal. motor made of candles [illustration: tallow dripping from the ends alternately lessens the weight of the arms and causes the tube to tip] a tube of tin, or cardboard, having an inside diameter to receive a candle snugly, is hung on an axle in the center that turns in bearings made of wood. the construction of the bearings is simple, and they can be made from three pieces of wood as shown. the tube should be well balanced. pieces of candle are then inserted in the ends, also well balanced. if one is heavier than the other, light it and allow the tallow to run off until it rises; then light the other end. the alternate dripping from the candles will cause the tube to tip back and forth like a walking beam. it will keep going automatically until the candles are entirely consumed.--contributed by geo. jaques, chicago. kettle-handle support [illustration] the handle of a kettle lying on the kettle rim will become so hot that it cannot be held in the bare hand. to keep the handle fairly cool it must be supported in an upright position. to do this, form a piece of spring wire in the shape shown, and slip it over the kettle rim. the shape of the extending end will hold the handle upright and away from the heat. how to make a monorail sled a monorail sled, having a simple tandem arrangement of the runners, is very easily constructed as follows: the runners are cut from -in. plank of the size and shape given in the sketch, and are shod with strap iron, in. wide and / in. thick. round iron or half-round iron should not be used, as these are liable to skid. the square, sharp edges of the strap iron prevent this and grip the surface just as a skate. [illustration: an exhilarating glide accompanied by a buoyant sense of freedom only obtained in the monorail type] the top is a board ft. long and in. thick, securely fastened to the runners as follows: blocks are nailed, or bolted, on either side of the upper edge of the rear runner and the top is fastened to them with screws. the runner is also braced with strap iron, as shown. the same method applies to the front runner, except that only one pair of blocks are used at the center and a thin piece of wood fastened to their tops to serve as the fifth wheel. [illustration: the construction is much more simple than making a double-runner bobsled] the hole for the steering post should be in. from the front end and a little larger in diameter than the steering post. the latter should be rounded where it passes through the hole, but square on the upper end to receive the steering bar, which must be tightly fitted in place. in coasting, the rider lies full length on the board with his hands on the steering bar. this makes the center of gravity so low that there is no necessity for lateral steadying runners, and aside from the exhilarating glide of the ordinary sled, the rider experiences a buoyant sense of freedom and a zest peculiar to the monorail type. then, too, the steering is effected much more easily. instead of dragging the feet, a slight turn of the front runner with a corresponding movement of the body is sufficient to change the direction or to restore the balance. this latter is, of course, maintained quite mechanically, as everyone who rides a bicycle well knows.--contributed by harry hardy, whitby, ont. binding magazines to bind magazines for rough service, proceed as follows: place the magazines carefully one on top of the other in order, and space the upper one, near the back edge, for two rivets, marking off three equal distances, or, perhaps, the center space longer than the other two. make two holes through all the magazines on the marks with an awl, or drill, then drive nails of the right length through them. use small washers on both ends of the nails under the head and at the point, which is cut off and riveted over. this makes a good, serviceable binding for rough use.--contributed by carl w. lindgreen, los angeles, cal. [illustration] a shellac cement as shellac is the basis of almost all cements, a good cement can be made by thickening shellac varnish with dry white lead. the two may be worked together on a piece of glass with a putty knife. [illustration] a blackboard for children take a wide window shade and attach it to a roller as if hanging it to a window. cut it to about ft. in length, hem the lower edge and insert in the slot in the usual manner. procure some black slate paint and cover the shade on one side, giving it two coats. allow sufficient time for the first coat to dry before applying the second coat. a blackboard of this kind is strong, and if attached to the wall with the shade fixtures, it can be rolled out of the way when not in use.--contributed by elizabeth motz rossoter, colorado springs, col. how to make a ski staff a ski staff will greatly assist progress over level stretches and is an aid to the ski runner in preserving his balance. a homemade staff that is easy to construct is shown in fig. . at the upper end is a narrow leather loop for the wrist; at the extreme lower end a spike is placed for use on icy ground, and just above this spike is a disk, or stop, which, in deep snow, prevents the staff from sinking in too far and gives the necessary leverage for steering, propelling or righting oneself as needed. [illustration: the staff, being made of a bamboo pole, is strong as well as light (fig. , fig. , fig. )] the staff is made of a piece of bamboo pole, - / or - / in. in diameter, and - / ft. long. the leather for the loop can be made from an old strap, shaved down thinner and cut to a width of about / in. the stop is a disk of wood, / in. thick and in. in diameter. this material should be well-seasoned white pine or spruce and coated with shellac. a hole is bored through the center of the disk to let it pass upward on the staff about in. here it is fastened with two pieces of heavy wire, a and b, fig. . in this diagram, c is the staff, and d, the stop or disk. the wire a passes through the staff below the wire b and at right angles to it, wherefore the wire b must be bent as shown. both wires are fastened to the stop with staples. the lower end of the staff, as shown in fig. , is plugged with hard wood, which is bored part way through its center to admit a wire spike. slight recesses are made in the sides of this hole to anchor the lead which is poured in around the spike. the point of the latter is sharpened and then the bamboo wound with waxed twine, or fine wire, to prevent its splitting. * * * * * fine emery cloth, glued to both sides of a piece of bristol board, makes a handy tool for cleaning the platinum points of a vibrator. a game played on the ice a novel and interesting winter game for young and old, described as a novelty by a swedish paper, is played as follows: [illustration: a player in action ready to spear a ring that hangs on the line between the poles] two poles of convenient height are erected on the ice; if skating on a shallow pond they may be driven through the ice and into the ground, but if the water is deep, holes must be bored through the ice and the poles will soon freeze solidly in them. a rope is stretched between the poles at such a height as is suited to the size of the players, or as agreed on to make the game more or less difficult, and on this are strung a number of pieces of board, a, each having a ring of spring steel, b, attached to its lower end. the purpose of the game is to run at good speed between the poles and catch a ring on a spear, each player being entitled to make a certain number of runs, and the winner being the one who can catch the most rings. the spears may be made of broom handles tapered toward one end, and with a shield made of tin and attached at a suitable distance from the thicker end (pattern c). the line is fastened at the top of one pole and run through a pulley, d, at the top of the other, thence to a weight or line fastener. each player should start from the same base line and pass between the poles at such a speed that he will glide at least ft. on the other side of the poles without pushing himself forward by the aid of the skates. twenty runs are usually allowed each player, or players may divide into two parties, playing one against the other, etc. an umpire will be needed to see that fair play is maintained and settle any disputes that may arise. an electric display for a show window a novel window display that is very attractive, yet simple in construction and operation, can be made in the following manner: first, make a small watertight chamber, a, as long as the focal length of the lens to be used, and having a glass window, b, at one end, and a small round opening, c, at the other. in this opening is placed a cork through which a glass tube about in. long is inserted. the tube makes a smooth passage for the stream of water flowing out of the box. water from any source of supply enters the chamber through the tube d, which may be a pipe or hose, whichever is most convenient. the interior is painted a dull black. a convenient and compact light is placed at the window end of the box. a very good light can be made by placing an electric light with a reflector in a closed box and fastening a biconvex lens, f, in the side facing the window of the water box. when the electric light and the water are turned on, the light is focused at the point where the water is issuing from the box, and follows the course of the stream of water, illuminating it in a pleasing manner. [illustration: the arrangement of the boxes showing the path of the light rays through the water] a still better effect can be obtained by passing colored plates between the lens f and the window b. a glass disk with sectors of different colors may be revolved by any source of power, such as a small electric motor or even a waterwheel turned by the flowing water. two or three streams of water flowing in different colors make a very pretty display and may be produced by using two or more boxes made up in the same manner. the apparatus should be concealed and nothing but the box end or tube with the flowing water shown.--contributed by grant linton, whitby, ont. strainer for a milk pail [illustration] even though a milker may be careful, small particles of dirt, hairs, etc., will fall into the milk pail. it is true that the milk is strained afterward, but a large percentage of the dirt dissolves and passes through the strainer along with the milk. the best plan to prevent this dirt from falling into the milk is to put a piece of cheesecloth over the pail opening, securing it there by slipping an open wire ring, a, over the rim. the milk will readily pass through the cloth without spattering.--contributed by w. a. jaquythe, richmond, cal. baking bread in hot sand a driving crew on the river wanted to move camp, but the cook objected as he had started to bake. one of the party suggested using a modified form of the method of baking in vogue more than a century ago, which was to place the dough in the hot earth where a fire had been burning. so, to help the cook out, a barrel was sawed in half and the bread, after being properly protected, was placed in each half barrel and covered with hot sand. two of the men carried the half barrels on their backs. when the new camp was reached the bread was done.--contributed by f. b. ripley, eau claire, wis. how to make small cams [illustration: channels of the cams formed with strips of brass soldered to the drum or disk] in making models of machinery or toy machines, cams are very often required. a simple way of making these is to lay out the cam plate, or drum, and then bend pieces of brass to the correct shape and solder them in place, whereupon they may be smoothed up with a file or scraper. a cam of this sort on a drum is shown in the sketch at a, and on a faceplate, at b. the method is not quite as accurate as milling, but answers the purpose in most cases.--contributed by chas. hattenberger, buffalo, n. y. display holder for coins [illustration: two pieces of glass inclosing between them coins of the same size and thickness] if the luster of coins fresh from the mint is to be preserved, they must be immediately placed so as to be protected against contact with the hands. a good holder that will display both sides of a coin can be made of two pieces of glass, bb, between which is placed a cardboard cut as shown at a. the cardboard should be about the same thickness as the coins. the glass may be framed by using strips of wood rabbeted to receive the edges of both pieces; or their edges may be bound with passe-partout tape. even when a frame is used, it is best to bind the edges as this will prevent tarnish from the air. old negative glass is suitable for making the holder.--contributed by r. b. cole, new haven, conn. holder for skates while sharpening the base of the holder is cut from a board and should be about in. longer than the skate. two clamps are cut as shown at a, from metal of sufficient thickness to hold the skate firmly, then bent to shape and attached to the baseboard with bolts having wing nuts, as shown at b and c. [illustration: the holder provides a way to grind a slight curve in the edge of a skate blade] one edge of the board is provided with two pins, d and e, solidly fastened, which are of sufficient height to bring the center of the blade on a level with the grinder axle. an adjusting screw, f, is provided for the grinder base to adjust the skate blade accurately. the support g is for use on baseboards where skates with strap heels, h, are to be sharpened. the shape of the clamp for this support is shown at j. when the skate is securely clamped to the base the blade can be easily "hollow ground" or given a slight curve on the edge.--contributed by c. g. smith, brooklyn, n. y. a homemade direct-view finder for cameras every hand camera and most of the tripod cameras are equipped with finders of one type or another, and usually one in which the image of the field is reflected upward on a small ground glass--being, in fact, a miniature camera obscura. the later and generally more approved style of finder has a small concave lens conveniently set on the outer edge of the camera. when this direct-vision type of finder is used, the camera is held so that the finder is at the height of the eye, a condition that is particularly desirable. when in a crowd, of course, the professional and many amateurs are familiar with the method of holding the camera inverted over the head and looking up into the finder to determine the range of the field. even this method is inconvenient, often impractical. the up-to-date newspaper photographer insists on having his camera equipped with direct finders, as it saves him much trouble and many failures. anyone with a little ingenuity can change one of the old-type finders into a combination device, either direct or indirect. the sketches are self-explanatory, but it may be said that fig. represents a box camera with a regulation finder set in one corner of the box. to make it a direct finder, a small brass hinge is used. cut off part of one wing, leaving a stub just long enough to be attached to the front of the camera directly above the lens of the finder and so as not to interfere with it, and high enough to permit the other wing to be turned down on the ground glass, with space allowed for the thin glass mirror a, that is to be glued to the under side of the long wing. the joint of the hinge should work quite stiffly in order to keep it from jarring out of any position in which it may be set. [illustration: two types of ordinary view finders and methods of converting them into direct-view finders] if the wing is turned upward at an angle of deg., the finder can be used as a direct-vision instrument when held at the height of the eyes. the image reflected from the small mirror is inverted, but this is no disadvantage to the photographer. the small pocket mirror given out for advertising purposes serves very well for making the reflecting mirror. the finder shown in fig. is another very common kind, and one that is readily converted into the direct type by inserting a close-fitting mirror, b, on the inside of the shield to be used as a reflector of the finder image. if the mirror is too thick, it may interfere with the closing of the shield, though in many cases this is not essential, but if it should be necessary to close down the shield in order to fold the camera, it can usually be readjusted to accommodate the mirror. a non-rolling spool bend a piece of wire in the shape shown in the illustration and attach it to a spool of thread. the ends of the wire should clamp the spool slightly and the loop in the wire will keep it from rolling. place the end of the thread through the loop in the wire and it will not become tangled.--contributed by j. v. loeffler, evansville, ind. [illustration] how to make a cartridge belt procure a leather belt, about - / in. wide and long enough to reach about the waist, also a piece of leather, in. wide and twice as long as the belt. attach a buckle to one end of the belt and rivet one end of the narrow piece to the belt near the buckle. cut two slits in the belt, a distance apart equal to the diameter of the cartridge. pass the narrow leather piece through one slit and back through the other, thus forming a loop on the belt to receive a cartridge. about / in. from the first loop form another by cutting two more slits and passing the leather through them as described, and so on, until the belt has loops along its whole length. [illustration: two pieces of leather of different widths forming a belt for holding cartridges] the end of the narrow leather can be riveted to the belt or used in the buckle as desired, the latter way providing an adjustment for cartridges of different sizes.--contributed by robert pound, lavina, mont. removing iodine stains a good way to chemically remove iodine stains from the hands or linen is to wash the stains in a strong solution of hyposulphite of sodium, known as "hypo," which is procurable at any photographic-supply dealer's or drug store. there is no danger of using too strong a solution, but the best results are obtained with a mixture of oz. of hypo to oz. of water. bed-cover fasteners the arrangement shown in the sketch is easily made and will keep the bed covers in place. the covers are provided with eyelets, either sewed, a, or brass eyelets, b, or in. apart along the edge. a wood strip, c, by - / in., is cut as long as the width of the bed and fastened to the frame with wire, bolts, or wedges. screwhooks, about - / in. long, are turned into the strip so that they will match with the eyelets placed in the covers. thus the covers will be kept in place when the bed is occupied, and the bed is also easily made up.--contributed by warren e. crane, cleveland, o. [illustration: the hooks prevent the covers from slipping off the sleeper and keep them straight on the bed] collar fasteners [illustration] an excellent fastener to be used on soft collars can be assembled from an ordinary paper fastener and two shoe buttons of the desired color. this device keeps the soft collar in good shape at the front, and serves the purpose just as well as a more expensive collar fastener. the illustration shows how it is used.--contributed by b. e. ahlport, oakland, cal. operating a bathroom light automatically a device for automatically turning an electric light on and off when entering and leaving the room is illustrated in the sketch. a pull-chain lamp socket is placed upon the wall or ceiling, and is connected to a screw hook in the door by a cord and several rubber bands, as shown. [illustration: operating the electric lamp switch or key by the opening of the door] when the door is opened, the lamp is lit, and when leaving the room the opening of the door again turns it out. the hook should be placed quite close to the edge of the door, to reduce the length of the movement, and even then it is too much for the length of the pull required to operate the switch, hence the need of the rubber bands. the lamp chain pulls out just in., and consequently the lamp is lit when the door is opened part way; and swinging the door farther only stretches the rubber. this is an advantage, however, because the lamp is sure to light regardless of the swing of the door. if no rubber were used, the door would have to open just a certain distance each time. if the cord is connected to the hook with a loop or a ring, it may be easily disconnected during the day when not needed. a light coil spring may be used in place of the rubbers.--contributed by c. m. rogers, ann arbor, michigan. a finger-ring trick [illustration] a coin soldered to some inexpensive ring, or a piece of brass cut from tubing, will make an interesting surprise coin for friends. the ring when placed on the middle finger with the coin in the palm makes the trick complete. ask some one if he has ever seen such a coin, or say it is a very old one, as the date is almost worn away. he will try to pick it up, but will find it fast to the finger.--contributed by wm. jenkins, new york city. preventing marks from basting threads on wool in making up woolen garments it is necessary to press portions of them before removing the basting threads. sometimes the marks of the basting threads show after the pressing. this can be avoided by using silk thread for basting instead of the usual cotton thread. the silk thread will not leave any marks.--contributed by l. alberta norrell, gainesville, ga. * * * * * cranberries will keep fresh for weeks if placed in water in a cool place. skating merry-go-round by henry burich after once making and using the ice merry-go-round as illustrated, no pond will be complete unless it has one or more of these devices. to construct an amusement device of this kind, select a good pole that will reach to the bottom of the pond. the measurement can be obtained by cutting a hole in the ice at the desired place and dropping in a line weighted on one end. a sufficient length of the pole should be driven into the bottom of the pond to make it solid and allow the upper end to project above the surface of the ice at least feet. a turning crosspiece for the upper end of the pole is made as follows: first prepare the end of the pole by sawing it off level, then cutting off the bark and making it round for a metal ring which should be driven on tightly. a pin, about / in. in diameter, is then driven into a hole bored in the end of the pole. the crosspiece is made of by -in. material, at least ft. long. a hole is bored in the center to receive the pin in the pole end. [illustration: skaters holding the rope ends are drawn around in a circle rapidly by the revolving crosspiece, turned near the center by other skaters] the crosspiece is easily pushed around the pole and the faster it goes the closer to the center the pushers can travel. ropes can be tied to the ends of the crosspiece for the skaters to hold on to as they are propelled around in a circle. relieving air pressure when closing record boxes the ordinary pasteboard boxes for holding phonograph records are very hard to close, due to the air pressure on the inside. i overcome this difficulty by making three small holes in the cover with a pin.--contributed by robert bandul, new orleans, la. a steering sled [illustration: the extra runner in front is pivoted, and when turned, guides the sled] an ordinary hand sled can be easily converted into a sled that can be guided like a bobsled by the addition of one extra runner. to attach this runner, a piece of wood is fastened to the under side and in the center at the front end of the sled top. a runner with a crosspiece on top is pivoted to the extending wood piece, which should be of a length to make the position comfortable when the coaster, sitting on the sled top, has his feet on the ends of the crosspiece. careful measurements should be made to have the lower edge of the runner on a level with or a little lower than the sled runners. to hold a straw hat on the head [illustration: the rubber bands are linked like a lock stitch and fastened in the band] on windy days it is almost impossible to make a straw hat stay on the head. to avoid this trouble, place rubber bands through the sweatband. before inserting, make them into loops, as shown, and draw enough to be comfortable to the head. this device will save a good many steps when the wind blows.--contributed by t. d. hall, fort worth, texas. carrying fishhooks in a cane pole the person using a cane pole for fishing can easily provide a place for the hooks and sinkers in the first large joint of the pole. cut the cane off just above the first large joint, and it will leave a space, or in. long, which can be used for the hooks and sinkers. a cork is fitted in the end, to hold them in place.--contributed by victor e. carpenter, south bend, ind. drying small laundered articles where mechanical drying is not in use it takes considerable time to hang out a number of handkerchiefs, laces, collars, etc., and very often the wind will blow away many of them. the task of drying these articles is made light by using a bag of mosquito netting with the articles placed in it and hung on a line. the air can pass through the netting and when the articles are dry it does not take long to take them out.--contributed by edward p. braun, philadelphia, pa. decorative wood panels procure an unplaned board that is deeply scored by the teeth of the saw and mark an outline of the desired figure on its surface. sandpaper the background lightly, cut in a moon and smooth down the tree trunks. the background can be smoothed with a sharp chisel, or large portions planed, but in all cases leave the foliage rough. finish the surfaces with oils or stains, applying colors to suit the parts; a piece of dried red cedar, oiled, will produce a warm red, and a green red cedar, oiled, becomes soft yellow, each producing a very pretty effect. these panels offer unlimited opportunity for originality in design and color finishing of different woods.--contributed by mrs. wm. donovan, seattle, wash. [illustration: the designs are worked into the unfinished surface of boards with sandpaper, sharp chisels and a plane, and then colored with dyes to produce the desired effect] fishing-rod making and angling by stillman taylor part i--a one-piece casting rod the pleasures of outdoor life are most keenly enjoyed by those sportsmen who are familiar with all the little tricks--the "ins and outs"--of the open. it is the active participation in any chosen sport which makes the sport well worth while, for the enjoyment gleaned from little journeys to forest and stream largely rests with the outer's own knowledge of his sport. not all of the fun of fishing lies in the catching of the fish, since the satisfaction which comes through handling a well-balanced rod and tackle must be reckoned the chief contributor to the outing. in other words, the pleasures of fishing do not depend so much upon the number of fish caught, as the manner in which the person fishes for them. the rod is naturally the first and important consideration in the angler's kit, and it is the purpose of these articles to set forth, at first, a few hints which my own long experience leads me to think may be of some assistance to those anglers who enjoy making and repairing their own rods and tackle, to be followed, later, by some suggestions on the art of angling generally. the hints given are merely my own methods, and while they may not be the best way of accomplishing the desired end, a good fishing rod may be constructed. like the majority of amateurs, i have achieved the desired results with a few common tools, namely, a saw, plane, jackknife, file, and sandpaper. these simple tools are really all that is needed to turn out a serviceable and well-finished rod of excellent action. kind of material the great elasticity and durability of the split-cane or split-bamboo rod cannot be easily disputed. the handmade split bamboo is unquestionably the best rod for every kind of fishing, but it is also the most expensive and the most difficult material for the amateur to work. in making the first rod or two, the beginner will be better satisfied with the results in making a good solid-wood rod. of course, glued-up split-bamboo butts, joints, and tip stock may be purchased, and if the angler is determined to have only bamboo, it is advisable to purchase these built-up sections rather than to risk certain failure by attempting to glue the cane. however, there are several good woods particularly well adapted for rod making, and while slightly inferior to the finest bamboo in elasticity and spring, the carefully made solid-wood rod is good enough for any angler and will probably suit the average fisherman as well as any rod that can be purchased. bethabara, or washaba, a native wood of british guinea, makes a fine rod, but it is a heavy wood, very hard, and for this reason is perhaps less desirable than all other woods. with the single exception of snakewood it is the heaviest wood for rod making and is only used for short bait-casting rods. possessing considerable strength bethabara can be worked quite slender, and a -ft. casting tip can be safely made of oz. weight. greenheart, a south american wood, is popular alike with manufacturers and amateur rod makers, and per-cent of the better class of solid-wood rods are made of this material. it resembles bethabara in color, but is lighter in weight, although it apparently possesses about the same strength and elasticity. in point of fact, there is little, if any, choice between these woods, and providing sound and well-selected wood is used, the merits of a rod made of bethabara or greenheart are more likely to be due to the careful workmanship of the maker than to the variety of the wood used. dagame, or dagama, a native of the forests of cuba, is in many respects the ideal material for rod making, as it has strength and elasticity. this wood is straight-grained and free from knots, which makes it easily worked; it polishes well and is durable. while there is always more or less difficulty about procuring first-class bethabara and greenheart, dagame of good quality is easily obtained. lancewood is much used in turning out the cheaper grades of fishing rods, but it is somewhat soft and has a marked tendency to take set under the strain of fishing and warp out of shape. it is less expensive than the other woods, and while it has a straight and even grain, there are numerous small knots present which make this material less satisfactory to work than the other woods. for heavy sea rods, lancewood may serve the purpose fairly well, but for the smaller fishing tools this material is inferior to bethabara, greenheart, and dagame. other woods are often used, and while a good rod may be frequently made from almost any of them, the three mentioned are held in the highest esteem by the angling fraternity. for the first rod, the amateur will make no mistake in selecting dagame, whether the slender fly rod or the more easily constructed short bait-casting tool is to be made. the necessary tools the construction of a thoroughly well-made and nicely balanced rod is more a matter of careful work than outfit, but a few suitable tools will greatly facilitate the labor. a good firm workbench, or table, ft. or more in length, will be needed. a regulation bench vise will come in handy, but one of the small iron vises will do very well. a couple of iron planes, one of medium size for rough planing-up work, and a small -in. block plane for finishing, will be required. as the cutters of the planes must be kept as sharp as possible to do good work, a small oilstone--preferably one in a wood case with cover to keep out dust--will be needed; a coarse single-cut mill file about in. long; a few sheets of no. and no. sandpaper; a sheet or two of fine emery cloth; a small thin "back" or other saw, and a steel cabinet scraper. [illustration: two tools for gauging the diameter of the rods, and a homemade scraper (fig. , fig. , fig. )] a caliper of some kind is a necessity, and while the best is a micrometer, fig. , registering to a thousandth part of an inch, as well as indicating ths, ths, ds, and ths, this tool is somewhat expensive, but a very good caliper may be had in the sliding-arm type, fig. , with the scale graduated to ths and taking work up to in. in diameter. cheaper measuring gauges are to be had in plenty, but as the brass and boxwood scales are provided only with coarse graduations, the better quality of mechanics' tools will give better satisfaction. [illustration: (fig. )] the set of grooved planes used by the professional rod makers are rather expensive, although they are most convenient for quickly rounding up the rod to the desired diameter. however, the beginner may dispense with the planes by making the tool illustrated in fig. . to make this handy little tool purchase a steel wood scraper, such as cabinetmakers use, and file a series of grooves along the edges with a round file. file at right angles to the steel, finishing up with a finer file to give a sharp cutting edge. the tool thus made is very handy for scraping the rod after it has been roughly rounded with the plane. its use will be mentioned later on in the description. five-foot bait-casting rod the short one-piece bait-casting rod with but one ferrule is the easiest rod to make, and for this reason the beginner will do well to select this popular type for the first attempt. as the total length of the rod is to measure ft., exclusive of the agate tip, the wood should be or in. longer to allow for cutting down to inches. having selected a good strip of dagame, / in. square, run the plane along each side and from both ends. this will determine the direction in which the grain runs. drill two holes at the end decided upon for the butt, spacing them about / in. from the end, as shown in fig. . drive a stout brad in the corner of the bench top and hook the butt end over the nail. by rigging the stick up in this manner it will be securely held, and planing may be done with the grain with greater ease and accuracy than when the end of the stick is butted up against a cleat nailed to the bench top. the wood should be planed straight and true from end to end and calipered until it is / in. square. it may appear crooked, but this need not trouble one at this stage of the work, since it may be made perfectly straight later on. overlook any kinks, and do not attempt to straighten the stick by planing more from one side than the other. the chief thing to be done is to fashion a square stick, and when the caliper shows the approximate diameter, draw crosslines at the ends to find the center. the length of the hand grasp should be marked out. if a double grasp is wanted, allow in. from the butt end. this will afford an -in. hand grasp after sawing off the end in which the holes were drilled. for a single hand grasp make an allowance of in. however, the double grasp--with cork above and below the reel seat--is preferred by most anglers because it affords a better grip for the hand when reeling in the line. mark the hand-grasp distance by running a knife mark around the rod in. from the butt end. [illustration: diagram or layout for a one-piece bait-casting rod, showing calipered dimensions for each six inches of length. a paper pattern of any rod may be drawn up, providing the amateur rod maker has a rod to use for a pattern, or possesses the exact diameter of the rod at intervals of six inches along its length (fig. )] lay out a diagram showing the full length of the rod by placing a strip of paper--the unprinted back of a strip of wall paper is just the thing--on the bench and drawing two lines from the diameter of the butt to that of the tip. while the caliber of casting rods differs somewhat, the dimensions given will suit the average angler, and i would advise the beginner to make the rod to these measurements. for the butt, draw a line, exactly / in. long, across the paper and from the center of this line run a straight pencil mark at right angles to the tip end, or in. distant, at which point another crossline is drawn, exactly / in. long, to represent the diameter. connect the ends of these two crosslines to make a long tapering form. divide this pattern into eight equal parts, beginning at in. from the butt end, marking a crossline at every in. this layout is shown exaggerated in fig. . if it is desired to copy a certain rod, find the diameter at the several -in. stations with the caliper and write them down at the corresponding sections of the paper diagram. however, if a splendid all-around casting rod is desired, it is perfectly safe to follow the dimensions given in fig. , which show the manner of dividing the paper pattern into the equal parts and the final diameter of the rod at each -in. station, or line. [illustration: gauge made of sheet brass having slots corresponding in length and width with the caliper-layout measurements (fig. )] procure a small strip of thin brass, or zinc, and file nine slots on one edge to correspond in diameter with the width of the horizontal lines which indicate the diameter of the rod on the pattern. this piece is shown in fig. . by making use of the pattern and the brass gauge, the rod may be given the desired taper and the work will proceed more quickly than if the caliper is alone relied upon to repeatedly check up the work. when a good layout of the work is thus made, the next step is to carefully plane the stick so that it will be evenly tapered in the square. plane with the grain and from the butt toward the tip end, and make frequent tests with caliper and gauge, noting the diameter every in. mark all the thick spots with a pencil, and plane lightly to reduce the wood to the proper diameter. reduce the stick in this manner until all sides have an even taper from the butt to the tip. the stick should now be perfectly square with a nice, even taper. test it by resting the tip end on the floor and bending it from the butt end. note the arch it takes and see if it resumes its original shape when the pressure is released. if it does, the elasticity of the material is as it should be, but if it remains bent or takes "set," the wood is very likely to be imperfectly seasoned and the rod should be hung up in a warm closet, or near the kitchen stove, for a few weeks, to season. to facilitate the work of planing the stick to shape, a length of pine board with a groove in one edge will be found handy. a -ft. length of the ordinary tongue-and-groove board, about in. thick, will be just the thing. as the tip of the rod is smaller than the butt, plane the groove in the board to make it gradually shallower to correspond to the taper of the rod. nail this board, with the groove uppermost, to the edge of the workbench, and place the rod in the groove with one of the square corners up, which can be easily taken off with the finely set plane. plane off the other three corners in a like manner, transforming the square stick into one of octagon form. this part of the work should be carefully done, and the stick frequently calipered at each -in. mark, to obtain the proper taper. it is important to make each of the eight sides as nearly uniform as the caliper and eye can do it. set the cutter of the small plane very fine, lay the strip in the groove and plane off the corner the full length of the stick, then turn another corner uppermost and plane it off, and so on, until the stick is almost round and tapering gradually from the mark of the hand grasp to the tip. to make the rod perfectly round, use the steel scraper in which the grooves were filed and scrape the whole rod to remove any flat or uneven spots, and finish up by sandpapering it down smooth. the action of the rod differs with the material used, and in trying out the action, it is well to tie on the tip and guides and affix the reel by a string in order to try a few casts. if the action seems about right, give the rod a final smoothing down with no. sandpaper. [illustration: the four different types of hand grasps are a wood sleeve bored to fit the butt of the rod; the built-up cork over a wood sleeve; a cane-wound grasp, and the double cord-wound grasps with a reel seat between them (fig. )] for the hand grasp nothing is so good as solid cork, and while hand grasps may be purchased assembled, it is a simple matter to make them. in fig. are shown four kinds of handles, namely, a wood sleeve, or core, a, bored to fit the butt of the rod and shaped for winding the fishing cord; a built-up cork grasp, b, made by cementing cork washers over a wood sleeve, or directly to the butt of the rod; a cane-wound grip, c, mostly used for salt-water fishing, and the double-wound grip, d, made in one piece, then sawed apart in the center, the forward grip being glued in place after the reel seat is in position. to make a grip, select a number of cork washers, which may be obtained from dealers in the wholesale drug trade, or from any large fishing-tackle dealer. make a tool for cutting a hole in their centers from a piece of tubing, or an old ferrule of the required diameter, by filing one edge sharp, then covering the other end with several thicknesses of cloth. turn this tube around in the cork like a wad cutter. if the cutter is sharp, a nice clean cut will result, but the opposite will likely occur if an attempt is made to hammer the tube through the cork. having cut the butt end of the rod off square, about in. from the end, or enough to remove the holes, smear a little hot glue on the end, drop a cork washer over the tip of the rod and work it down to the butt. cut another cork, give the first one a coat of glue, slip the former over the tip and press the two together, and so on, until about corks have been glued together in position. this will give a hand grasp a trifle over in. long. [illustration: the corks glued in place on the butt and the wood sleeve, or reel-seat core, ready to slide down and glue in position (fig. )] a sleeve will be needed for the reel seat to slip over, and a soft-wood core of this sort can be purchased from any dealer in rod-making materials, or it can be made at home. for the material procure a piece of white pine, about / in. in diameter and in. long. a section sawed from a discarded curtain roller will serve the purpose well. bore a / -in. hole through the piece and plane down the outside until it slips inside the reel seat. it should be well made and a good fit, and one end tapered to fit the taper of the reel seat, while the opposite end should be about / in. shorter than the reel seat. slide this wood sleeve down the rod, as shown in fig. , coat the rod and the upper part of the last cork with glue and force the sleeve tightly in place. a day or two should be allowed for the glue to set and thoroughly dry, before giving the hand grasp the final touches. if a lathe is at hand, the hand grasp may be turned to any desired shape, but most anglers prefer a cylindrical-shaped grip, leaving the top cork untrimmed to form a kind of shoulder when the metal reel seat is pressed into the cork. if corks of - / -in. diameter are purchased, but little trimming will be necessary to work the hand grasp down to - / in. in diameter. this size seems to fit the average hand about right. the lower corks will need a little trimming to fit the taper of the butt cap so that it may fit snugly in place. cement the butt cap in place by heating the cap moderately hot, then rub a little of the melted ferrule cement inside the cap, and force it over the cork butt. when the cement has hardened, drive a small brass pin or brad through the cap, and file the ends off flush with the metal surface. all the guides, ferrules, and reel seat are shown in fig. . the regulation metal reel seat is about - / in. long, and in fitting it to the old type of bait rod, the covered hood is affixed to the upper end of the reel seat. this arrangement is satisfactory enough for the -ft. bait rod, but it is rather awkward in fitting it to the short bait-casting rod, as with the hood at the upper end the reel is pushed so far forward that it leaves in. or more of the reel seat exposed, and the hand must grip this smooth metal instead of the cork. to avoid this, it is best to cut the reel seat down to - / in. and affix the reel seat to the rod with the hood at the lower end near the hand. for a single hand grasp, a tapered winding check will be needed to make a neat finish and this should be ordered of the correct diameter to fit the reel seat at the lower end and the diameter of the rod at the other. in the double hand grasp the winding check is used to finish off the upper end of the cork, which is tapering to fit the rod at this point. in assembling the reel seat, push it with the hooded end well down and work it into the cork to make a tight waterproof joint. push the reel seat up the rod, coat the sleeve with cement and push the reel seat home. drive a small pin through the hooded end and reel seat to make the whole rigid. this pin should not be driven through the rod or it will weaken it at this point. just let it enter the wood a short distance to prevent the reel seat from turning. the upper or double grasp is fashioned after the reel seat is in position, and the corks are cemented on and pushed tightly together in the same manner as used in forming the lower grasp. the first cork should be pressed tightly against the upper end of the reel seat and turned about so that the metal may enter the cork and form a tight joint. as many corks as are required to form a grip of proper length are in turn cemented to each other and the rod. after the glue has become dry, the cork may be worked down and tapered to make a smooth, swelled grasp. the winding check is now cemented on, to make a neat finish between the upper grip and the rod. before affixing the guides, go over the rod with fine sandpaper, then wet the wood to raise the grain, and repeat this operation, using old sandpaper. if an extra-fine polish is wanted, rub it down with powdered pumice and oil, or rottenstone and oil, and finish off with an oiled rag. to fit the agate tip, file down the end of the rod with a fine-cut file until it is a good fit in the metal tube. melt a little of the ferrule cement and smear a little on the tip of the rod, then push the agate down in place. spar varnish is often used to protect the rod, but extra-light coach varnish gives a better gloss, and it is as durable and waterproof as any varnish. it is only necessary to purchase a quarter pint of the varnish, as a very small quantity is used. the final varnishing is, of course, done after the rod has been wound and the guides are permanently whipped in position. however, it is an excellent idea to fill the pores of the wood by rubbing it over with a cloth saturated in the varnish before the silk whippings are put on. merely fill the cells of the wood and wipe off all surplus, leaving the rod clean and smooth. the guides may now be fastened in place, and for the -ft. rod, but two of them are necessary. the first guide should be placed - / in. from the metal taper which finishes off the upper hand grasp, and the second guide spaced - / in. from the first. by spacing the guides in this manner, the line will run through them with the least possible friction. winding, or whipping, the rod before whipping on the guides, take a fine file and round off the sharp edges of the base to prevent the possibility of the silk being cut. measure off the required distances at which the guides are to be affixed, and fasten them in position by winding with a few turns of common thread. ordinary silk of no. a size may be used, but no. is the best for small rods. most anglers agree that the size of the silk to use for the whippings should be in proportion to the size of the rod--heavy silk for the heavy rod, and fine silk for the small rod. size a is the finest silk commonly stocked in the stores, but one or more spools of no. and no. may be ordered from any large dealer in fishing tackle. as a rule, size gives a more workmanlike finish to the butt and joints of fly and bait rods, while no. is about right to use for winding the tips. in fact, all rods weighing up to oz. may be whipped with no. size. [illustration: the mountings used on a bait-casting rod consist of a reel seat, butt cap, taper sleeve, narrow agate guide, agate offset top, one ring guide, and a welted, shouldered ferrule (fig. )] in whipping the rod, the so-called invisible knot is used. begin the whipping, as shown at e, fig. , by tucking the end under the first coil and holding it with the left thumb. the spool of silk is held in the right hand and the rod is turned to the left, sufficient tension being kept on the silk so that it can be evenly coiled with each strand tightly against the other. a loop of silk, some in. long, is well waxed and placed so that its end will project a short distance beyond the last coil which finishes the whipping. this detail is shown at f. in whipping on guides, begin the whipping at the base and work over the pointed end of the flange, winding on sufficient silk to extend about / in. beyond the pointed flange of the guide base. when the last coil is made, cut off the thread from the spool and tuck the end under the whipping by pulling on the ends of the waxed loop, as shown at g. cut off the ends neatly with a sharp knife. [illustration: both ends of the silk thread are placed under the winding to form an invisible knot (fig. )] for colors, bright red and a medium shade of apple green are the best, since these colors keep their original tint after varnishing, and are less likely to fade than the more delicate shades. red finished off with a narrow circle of green always looks well, and red with yellow is likewise a good combination. narrow windings look much better than wide whippings, and a dozen turns make about as wide a winding as the angler desires. for edgings, three or four turns of silk are about right, and these should be put on after the wider windings have been whipped on and in the same manner, although it is best to tuck the ends of the edging beneath the wider winding when pulling the end through to make the invisible knot. varnishing the rod after winding the rod, see that all fuzzy ends are neatly clipped off, then go over the silk windings with a coat of shellac. the shellac can be made by dissolving a little white shellac in grain alcohol. warm the shellac and apply it with a small camel's-hair brush, giving the silk only two light coats. allow the rod to stand a couple of days for the shellac to become thoroughly dry. a small camel's-hair brush will be required for the varnishing--one about / in. wide will do. if the varnishing is to be done out of doors, a clear and warm day should be selected, and the can of coach varnish should be placed in a pot of hot water for five minutes, so that the varnish will spread evenly. a temperature of about deg. is best for this work, as the varnish will not spread if cold or in a cold place. the varnish should be evenly brushed on, and care taken that no spots are left untouched. hang up by the tip to dry in a room free from dust. while the varnish will set in four or five hours, it is a good plan to allow three days for drying between coats. two coats will suffice to protect the rod, but as coach varnish, properly applied, is rather thin in body, three coats will give complete protection to the wood. the materials required for this rod are, dagame or greenheart stick, ft. long and / in. square; reel seat with straight hood, / in.; butt cap, in.; taper, small end / in.; offset, or angle, agate top, / in., and narrow agate guides, / in., all in german silver; doz. corks, - / by - / in., and two -yd. spools of silk, red and green, size. automatic watering system for poultry yards where a large number of poultry is cared for, the annoyance and attention necessary to furnish a constant water supply can be overcome by using the system shown in the illustration. for this purpose a storage tank must be provided. this may be some old toilet flush tank, or any open reservoir that will hold sufficient water to keep all the drinking pans supplied. a float is provided and connected with a stop valve, so that when the float drops below a certain level, the valve will be turned open, and a fresh supply of water will enter the storage tank, thereby again raising the float and closing the valve. [illustration: simple arrangement of a flush tank in connection with a system of pipes to supply one or more pans of water for the poultry yard] each drinking pan should be about in. in diameter by in. deep, and is drilled for a / -in. hole to fit a / -in. pipe. at the pan end, the pipe is threaded so that a lock nut and leather washer can be attached on each side of the pan bottom, to provide a watertight joint; at the other end, the pipe is screwed into a tee in the / -in. main line which connects with the storage tank. in using the system, sufficient water is run into the tank to fill the pans about three-quarters full. the float may then be adjusted to a shut-off position for the inlet valve. all pans are automatically kept at one level, even though several may be used considerably more than others. when the general water level has dropped sufficiently, the float, dropping with it, will open the stop valve, and cause the water to enter the tank and pans until the original level is again restored.--contributed by d. e. hall, hadlyme, connecticut. changing pip on a card cut out the center pip on the five-spot of spades with a sharp knife. cut a slot centrally in another card, about / in. wide and - / in. long. glue the surfaces of both cards together near the edges to form a pocket for a slide, which is cut from another card and has one-half of its surface colored black. a drop of sealing wax attached to the back of the sliding part, so that it projects through the slot, provides a means of moving the slide in the pocket. a lightning change can be made from a five-spot to a four-spot while swinging the card. [illustration] to make a special envelope any size of envelope for mailing special papers or documents can be made as follows: all envelopes are of the same shape as shown in fig. ; the size for the papers to be inclosed is represented by the dotted lines in fig. . the projections a are coated with paste, and the flap b is folded over them. the envelope is then ready for the inclosure. the flap c is pasted and folded over as with an ordinary envelope.--contributed by l. e. turner, new york city. [illustration: various stages in the forming of an envelope to make any size for special papers (fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. )] automatically extinguishing a candle candles can be easily fitted with attachments to extinguish the light at a set time. to determine the length of time, it is necessary to mark a candle of the size used and time how long a certain length of it will burn. then it is sufficient to suspend a small metal dome, or cap, to which a string is attached, directly over the flame, and run the opposite end of the string over nails or through screw eyes, so that it can be tied around the candle such a distance from the flame end, that the part between the flame and the string will be consumed in the time desired for the light to burn. when this point is reached, the string slips off the candle, and the cap drops on the flame. [illustration] clothespin newspaper holder a simple newspaper holder can be made by cutting away a portion of one side of an ordinary clothespin, drilling a hole through the thick end for a screw or nail, and fastening it in place where desired. another way is to split off one side of a clothespin and cut the bottom of the remaining part tapering as shown; then drill a hole to avoid splitting the piece and fasten in a convenient place.--contributed by j. p. rupp, norwalk, o. [illustration: shaping a clothespin head and fastening it to a wall provides a holder for newspapers] holder for a dory rudder the rudder of a sailing dory or rowboat often comes off in rough water, and in order to keep it in place and yet have it easily detachable at will, the following method is useful: procure a -in. length of soft-iron rod and bend one end of it into a loop large enough to fit around the rudder pin after the latter is inserted in the eyelet. insert screws at a, b and c, letting them project about / in. from the surface. bend the rod at d and a in the shape shown, and with a little adjustment it will easily snap into position. it will prevent the rudder from riding up out of the eyelets, but can be detached instantly. the device should be applied to the upper pin so as to be within easy reach.--contributed by b. a. thresher, lakeville, connecticut. [illustration: the loop on the iron rod holds the pin of the rudder in the eye] trimming photographs in trimming small photograph prints i experienced some difficulty in getting them square, and i did not care to invest in a trimming board. by following a line drawn around the print with a triangle, it was impossible to make a perfect rectangle. in the place of a trimming board i now use a piece of glass cut a little smaller than the desired print. the edges of the glass are smoothed by filing or grinding them. in making a glass, be sure to have the corners cut at perfect right angles and the edges ground straight. the glass is easily located over the print, and by holding the two tightly together the edges of the print can be trimmed with a pair of shears.--contributed by e. leslie mcfarlane, nashwaaksis, n. b. a metal polish a metal polish that is safe to use about the home is composed of parts alcohol, parts ammonia water, parts water, - / parts carbon tetrachloride, parts kieselguhr, parts white bole, and parts of chalk. these substances can be purchased at a local drug store and should be mixed in the order named. any grease on metal will be dissolved by this solution.--contributed by loren ward, des moines, iowa. fishing-rod making and angling by stillman taylor part ii--various two and three-piece rods while the action of the one-piece rod is undeniably better than when the rod is made in two or three pieces, it is less compact to carry. to make a -ft. two-piece bait-casting rod, the same dimensions as given for the one-piece rod will make a very fine fishing tool. it is well to make two tips in view of a possible breakage. the rod may consist of two pieces of equal length, but a rod of better action is secured by making the butt section somewhat shorter with a relatively longer tip. by making the butt section about in. long, exclusive of ferrule and butt cap, and the tip section - / in. long, a splendid little rod is obtained which will fit any of the regulation rod cases of -in. length. to make a - / -oz. rod of this kind with a cork hand grasp, caliper it in the same manner as the one-piece rod, making the butt section - / in. long, tapering from / in. at the upper end of the hand grasp to / in. at the ferrule. the tip is made in. long, tapering from / in. to / in. by making the tip and butt to these lengths, both parts will be of equal length when the ferrules and the tops are added. the material list is as follows, the attachments being made of german silver: dagame or greenheart butt, / in. by ft. long; two tips / in. by ft. long; one / -in. reel seat with straight hood; one -in. butt cap; one taper, / in. at the small end; two / -in. offset agate tops; two / -in. narrow agate guides; two no. size one-ring casting guides; one / -in. welted and shouldered ferrule, with two closed-end centers, one for each tip; two dozen cork washers, - / in. in diameter, and two spools of winding silk. [illustration: the making of a rod not only affords much pleasure, but the rod can be constructed as desired] the three-piece rod should be made up to ft. in length to secure the best action, but even if so made, the use of the extra ferrules makes the rod less resilient and elastic than the rod of one or two-piece construction. the best action is obtained only when the rod bends to a uniform curve, and since the ferrules cannot conform to this curve, or arc, the more joints incorporated in a rod, the less satisfactory it will be from an angling standpoint. convenience in packing and carrying are the sole merits which the many-jointed rod possesses. complete specifications for making a three-piece bait-casting rod, together with a material list, is as follows: a rod, about - / ft. long with a single or double hand grasp made of cork, will weigh about oz. caliper the butt so that it will taper from / in to / in at the cap of the ferrule, making it - / in. long. the middle joint is tapered from / in. to / in., and is - / in. long. the tips are in. long and are tapered from / in. to / in. dagame or greenheart is used for the butt, joint, and tips, and german silver for the fittings. all pieces are ft. long, the butt is / in., the joint and tips, / in. one / -in. reel seat with straight hood; one -in. butt cap; one taper, small end / in.; one / -in. welted and shouldered ferrule; one / -in. welted and shouldered ferrule with two closed centers, one for each tip; two / -in. offset agate tops; two / -in. narrow agate guides; two no. size one-ring casting guides; two dozen cork washers, and winding silk, size or . fly rods for trout and bass having made a good bait-casting rod, the amateur will find little trouble in making a rod with a number of joints, and no special instructions need be given, since the work of planing and smoothing up the wood, and finishing and mounting the rod, is the same as has been described in detail before. for fly fishing for trout, accuracy and delicacy are of more importance than length of cast, and the rod best suited to this phase of angling differs greatly from that used in bait casting. a stiff, heavy rod is entirely unsuited for fly casting, and while it is, of course, possible to make a rod too willowy for the sport, the amateur, working by rule of thumb, is more likely to err on the other side and make the fly rods of too stout a caliber. the idea is simply to help the amateur over the hard part by giving a list of dimensions of a representative trout and a bass fly rod. to make a -ft. trout fly rod, with a cork grasp having a length of in. above the reel seat, caliper the material as follows: the butt is tapered from / in. to / in. at ft. from the butt end; - / ft., / in.; ft, / in.; - / ft., / in., and ft., / in. the first in. of the middle joint is calipered to / in.; ft, / in.; - / ft, / in.; ft., / in.; - / ft, / in., and ft., / in. the first in. of the tips are calipered to / in.; ft, / in.; - / ft., / in.; ft., / in.; - / ft, / in., and ft., / in. all joints are made - / in. long. the material used is dagame, or greenheart, the butt being / in. by ft., the joint / in. by ft., and the tips / in. by ft. the attachments, of german silver, are: one / in. reel seat, fly-rod type with butt cap; one taper, / in. at the small end; one / -in. welted and shouldered ferrule; one / -in. welted and shouldered ferrule with two closed-end centers, one for each tip; two no. snake guides for the butt joint; three no. snake guides for the middle joint, and six no. snake guides, three for each tip section; two no. agate angle fly tops, the kind to wind on; one dozen cork washers, and two -yd. spools of winding silk, size. a bass fly rod - / ft. long, weighing - / oz., with a cork grasp, - / in. above the reel seat, is calipered as follows: the butt is tapered from / in. to / in. ft. from the end; - / ft. from butt, / in.; ft., / in.; - / ft., / in., and ft., / in. the first in. of the middle joint is / in.; ft., / in.; - / ft., / in.; ft., / in.; - / ft., / in., and ft., / in. the first in. of the tips, / in.; ft., / in.; - / ft., / in.; ft, / in.; - / ft., / in., and ft, / in. the joints are - / in. long. the mountings are the same as for the trout fly rod. dagame, or greenheart, wood is used, the butt being / in. by ft., the joint / in. by ft. and the tips / in. by feet. the two-piece salt-water rod with an -in. double cork hand grasp, the whole being - / ft. long, is made to weigh about oz., with the following caliperings: a uniform taper of / in. to / in., from the cork grasp to the ferrule, is given to the butt. the first in. of the tips is / in.; ft., / in.; - / ft., / in.; ft, / in.; - / ft., / in.; and to tip, / in. the joints are made - / in. long. dagame, or greenheart, is used with german-silver mountings. both pieces of wood are ft. long, the butt being of / -in. and the tip of / -in. material. one / -in. reel seat with straight hood, one -in. butt cap, one / -in. ferrule, one taper with small end / -in.; one / -in. stirrup-tube agate top; two no. bell guides; two dozen cork washers, and two spools, size a, winding silk. [illustration: the mountings for a fly rod consist of a reel seat with a straight hood, a taper, snake guide, agate angle top, and serrated ferrule. the toothed ends are wound with silk to afford additional strength] the independent-butt rod the independent-butt rod, in which the hand grasp contains the ferrule and the tip is made in one piece, is a favorite type with many of the best fishermen. this mode of construction may be used with all classes of rods, the light fly and bait-casting rods, and the heavier caliber rods used in salt-water angling. in rods of this type, it is only necessary to use the same size ferrule to make as many tips as desired to fit the one butt. tips of several calibers and weights may thus be fashioned to fit the one butt, and if the single-piece tip is too long for some special use, one tip may be made a jointed one for ease in carrying. the independent butt, or hand grasp, is made by fitting the ferrule directly on a length of dagame, or greenheart, which has been rounded so that the seated ferrule will not touch the wood. the ferrule is then cemented and riveted in place, and a soft-pine sleeve is fitted over the wood core and the ferrule. the forward end of the sleeve is, of course, tapered to fit the taper of the reel seat, and when properly fitted, its lower end will project about / in. beyond the pine sleeve. glue the sleeve on this wood core, cement the reel seat to the sleeve, and rivet the reel seat in place. the cork washers are glued in position, working the first one into the metal edge of the reel seat, to make a nice, tight joint at this point. the other corks are then glued in place until the hand grasp is of the desired length. the projecting end of the wood core is then cut off flush with the last cork, and the rod is mounted in the usual manner. in making a double hand grasp, the forward grasp may be fitted over the wood core in the fashion already described in making the hand grasp for the one-piece bait-casting rod, or the forward grasp may be fitted to the tip, just above the ferrule, as preferred. both methods are commonly used, the only difference being in the manner of finishing up the forward grasp. if the forward grip is affixed to the ferruled end of the tip, two tapered thimbles will be required to make a nice finish. the heavy-surf, or tarpon, rod is made up of an independent, detachable butt, in. long, having a solid-cork or cord-wound hand grasp, and a one-piece tip, - / ft. long, altogether weighing - / oz. it is uniformly calipered to taper from / in to / in. one piece of dagame, or greenheart, in. by - / ft., will be required. one -in. reel seat for detachable butt, including one / -in. male ferrule; one - / -in. butt cap; two no. wide, raised agate guides; two no. trumpet guides; one / -in. agate stirrup top; two spools of winding silk, a-size, and two dozen cork washers, or sufficient fishline to cord the butt. the guides are whipped on double, the first set spaced in. from the top, and the second, in. from the reel. the core of the independent, or detachable, butt is constructed of the same material as the rod, which makes the hand grasp somewhat elastic and very much superior to a stiff and rigid butt. homemade ball catch for cabinet doors to make a ball catch, procure a piece of brass, in. long, / in. wide, and about / in. thick, and an old gas burner having a diameter of / in. as described by work, london, the threaded part of the burner is cut off, which forms a contracted end that will hold a steel ball / in. in diameter and allow it to project / in. a hole is drilled in the center of the brass plate, and the barrel soldered in place. a piece of spiral spring is inserted behind the ball. the stiffness of the spring will depend on the use of the catch. the barrel is cut to length and plugged. another plate of brass is fitted with screw holes and a hole in the center to receive the projecting ball part, for the strike. [illustration] combination needle and thread tray when any attempt is made to keep sewing material, such as needles, spools, or buttons, separate, each of the articles is usually kept in some special drawer, or by itself, and when necessary to use one, the others must be found, frequently necessitating many extra steps or much lost time in hunting up the various articles. the illustrated combination tray avoids this difficulty. it consists of two round trays fastened together near one edge with a wood screw, which is loosely fitted in the lower tray but screwed into the upper to permit them being swung apart. extra thickness and weight should be given the bottom piece so no tipping will result when the top is swung out to expose the buttons in the lower section. the thread spools are placed on pegs set in the upper tray, and the cushion in the center is provided for the pins and needles.--contributed by j. harger, honolulu, hawaiian islands. [illustration] repairing worn escapement wheel of a clock when the ordinary clock has served its usefulness and is apparently worn out, the jeweler's price to overhaul it frequently amounts to almost as much as the original purchase price. one weak place in the clock is the escapement wheel. the points soon wear down, thereby producing a greater escapement and pendulum movement, resulting in an increased strain and wear of the clock. if the tips of the teeth on the wheel are bent up slightly with a pair of pliers, the swing of the pendulum will be reduced, thereby increasing the life of the clock. many of the grandfather's clocks can be put in order in this manner so as to serve as a timepiece as well as a cherished ornament.--contributed by c. f. spaulding. chicago, ill. * * * * * a piece of work should never be fingered while filing it in a lathe. [illustration: if he would take full advantage of any sport and reap the greatest pleasure from a day spent in the open, the sportsman should get together a good outfit] fishing-rod making and angling by stillman taylor part iii--trout fishing with fly and bait the art of angling is generally viewed as one of the world's greatest recreations, and while each and every phase of fishing may be said to possess certain charms of its own, fly fishing for trout is regarded by most well-informed sportsmen as the alpha and omega of the angler's art. this is so because the trout family are uncommonly wary and game fish, and the tackle used for their capture is of finer balance and less clumsy than any employed in angling for the coarser game fishes. if he would take full advantage of any sport and reap the greatest pleasure from a day spent in the open, it is really necessary for the sportsman to get together a good outfit. it is not essential to have a very expensive one, but it should be good of its kind, well proportioned for the purpose for which it is to be used. the beginner, who buys without good knowledge of the articles required, or fails to use careful discrimination, is almost certain to accumulate a varied assortment of junk, attractive enough in appearance, perhaps, but well-nigh useless when it is tested out on the stream. a good representative outfit, then, is of the first importance; it means making a good beginning by initiating the novice in the sport under the most favorable conditions. let us then consider the selection of a good fishing kit, a well-balanced rod, the kind of a reel to use with it, the right sort of a line, flies, and the other few items found in the kit of the practical and experienced trout fisherman. selecting a good fly rod the ordinary fishing pole may be bought offhand at almost any hardware store, but a well-balanced rod for fly fishing should be well tested out beforehand. the requirements call for a rod of comparatively light weight, a rod that is elastic and resilient, and yet strong enough to prove durable under the continued strain of much fishing. if the angler has made his own rod, as suggested in former chapters, he will have a good dependable fly rod, but the large majority of anglers who are about to purchase their first fishing kit should carefully consider the selection of the rod. at the outset it must be understood that good tackle is simply a matter of price, the finest rods and reels are necessarily high in price, and the same thing may be said of lines and flies. providing the angler has no objection to paying $ , or more, for a rod, the choice will naturally fall upon the handmade split bamboo. for this amount of money a fair quality fly rod may be purchased, the finer split bamboos costing anywhere up to $ , but under $ it is very doubtful whether the angler can procure a built-up rod that is in every way satisfactory. the question may arise, is a split-bamboo rod necessary? the writer's own long experience says that it is not, and that a finely made solid-wood rod, of greenheart or dagame, is quite as satisfactory in the hands of the average angler as the most expensive split bamboo. a good rod of this sort may be had for $ , and with reasonable care ought to last a lifetime. the points to look for in a fly rod, whether the material is split bamboo or solid wood, is an even taper from the butt to the tip; that is, the rod should register a uniform curve, or arc, the entire length. for general fly casting ft. is a handy length, and a rod of - / oz. weight will prove more durable than a lighter tool. a good elastic rod is wanted for fly casting, but a too willowy or whippy action had best be avoided. however, for small-brook fishing, where the overgrown banks prohibit long casts, a somewhat shorter and stiffer rod will be more useful. for casting in large northern streams, where the current is swift and the trout run to a larger size, a - / or -ft. rod of oz. weight is often preferred. of course, the veteran angler can safely use a much lighter rod than the beginner, and one occasionally meets a man on the stream that uses a -oz. rod for pretty heavy fishing. to be on the safe side, the novice will make no mistake in choosing a rod of fair length and conservative weight. when selecting a rod in the tackle shop, do not rest content with a mere examination of the appearance, but have the dealer affix a reel of the weight and size intended to be used with it. by reeling on a short length of line and reeving it through the guides and then fastening the end to a weight lying upon the floor, a very good idea of the rod's behavior may be gained, since by reeling in the line and putting tension on the rod its elasticity and curve may be seen and felt as well as in actual fishing. to give the utmost satisfaction, the rod should fit its owner, and several rods should be tried until one is found that most fully meets the angler's idea of what a rod should be. if one happens to have a good fly reel, by all means take it along and attach it to the rod while making the tests. it is practically impossible to gauge the balance of a rod without affixing the reel, and many a finely balanced tool will appear badly balanced until the proper-weight reel is affixed to it. the proper kind of reel for fly fishing nothing is so good as the english style of click reel, which is made with a one-piece revolving side plate and with the handle affixed directly to it. any kind of a balanced-handle reel is an out-and-out nuisance on the fly rod, because it has no advantage in quickly recovering the line, and the projecting handle is forever catching the line while casting. in fly casting, the length of cast is regulated by the amount of line taken from the reel before the cast is made, and it is while "pumping" this slack line through the guides, in making the actual cast, that the balanced or projecting handle is very apt to foul the line. a good reel that is smooth-running like a watch will cost about $ , but a very good one may be had for $ , and cheaper ones, while not so durable, may be used with fair satisfaction. the heavier multiplying reels, so essential for bait casting from a free reel, are altogether unsuited for the fly rod, being too heavy when placed below the hand, which is the only proper position for the reel when fly casting. the single-action click reel, having a comparatively large diameter, but being quite narrow between the plates, is the one to use, and hard rubber, or vulcanite, is a good material for the side plates, while the trimmings may be of german silver or aluminum. the all-metal reel is of about equal merit, but whatever the material, the most useful size is one holding about yd. of no. e size waterproof line. a reel of this capacity will measure about in. in diameter and have a width of about / in. between plates. a narrow-spooled reel of this type enables the fisherman to reel in the line plenty fast enough. owing to the fact that the reel is placed below the grip on fly rods, a rather light-weight instrument is needed to balance the rod. of the two extremes, it is better to err on the side of lightness, because a heavy reel makes a butt-heavy rod and, throwing extra weight on the wrist and arm, makes casting increasingly difficult after an hour's fishing. an old hand at the game will appreciate this point better than the novice. [illustration: the english pattern is the best type of reel for trout fishing, and a gun-metal, or other dark finish, is better than shiny nickelplate] [illustration: fly book with clips for holding snelled flies, so that the gut is kept straight between pads of felt] [illustration: aluminum box with clips for holding flies tied on eyed hooks, each clip having places for seven flies] [illustration: a folding-handle landing net may be left at home, but most old anglers like to have it handy when needed] [illustration: willow creel, or basket, leather-bound with a metal fastening, the number three size being about right] [illustration: leader box of black-finished aluminum with felt pads to keep the leaders moist and pliable] [illustration: a three-joint fly rod with cork hand grasp and extra tip, and rod case made of aluminum tubing] the kind of line to use the fly-casting line used by a veteran is generally of silk, enameled and having a double taper; that is, the line is thickest in the center and gradually tapers to a smaller diameter at each end. single-tapered lines are likewise extensively used, and while they cost less, they are tapered at one end only and cannot be reversed to equalize the wear caused by casting. the level line, which has the same diameter throughout its entire length, is the line most generally used, but the cast cannot be so delicately made with it. for the beginner, however, the level line in size no. e is a good choice. for small-brook fishing, no. f is plenty large enough. in choosing the size of line, there is a common-sense rule among fly casters to select a line proportioned to the weight of the rod. for a light rod a light line is the rule, and for the heavier rod a stouter line is the logical choice. if the rod is of a too stiff action, use a comparatively heavy line, and it will limber up considerably; if the rod is extremely "whippy," use the lightest line that can be purchased, and used with safety. a fine leader marks the expert caster the leader for trout is preferably of single gut, and as fine as the angler's skill will allow. the fly caster's rule is to use a leader whose breaking strain is less than the line, then, when the tackle parts, it is simply a question of putting on a new leader and the more expensive line is saved. ready-made leaders may be purchased, or the angler can tie them up as desired. for length, a or - / -ft. leader is about right for average fishing. longer leaders are used, and while they sometimes are of advantage, the -ft. length is more useful. a longer leader is awkward to handle because the loop is apt to catch in the top of the rod when reeling in the line to bring the fish close to the landing net. leaders may be had with a loop at each end, or with loops tied in, for using a cast of two or three flies. for all average casting, the two-fly cast is the best, but the expert angler uses the single-fly very often. for lake fishing, the single large fly is generally preferred. for using two flies, the leader is provided with three loops, one at the top, another at the bottom, and an extra loop tied in about in. from the lower loop. in fly casting, the first, or upper, fly is known as the "dropper," and the lower one as the "tail" fly. for the single-fly cast but two loops are required. gut used for leaders should be carefully selected, and only those lengths which are of uniform diameter and well rounded chosen, the lengths which show flat and rough spots being discarded. dry gut that is very brittle should be handled very little, and previous to a day's fishing the leaders must be soaked in water over night to make them pliable, then coiled in between felt pads of the leader box to keep them in fishing shape. after use, put the frayed leaders aside and dry them out between the flannel leaves of the fly book. gut is the product of the silkworm, and the best quality is imported from spain. it comes in bundles, or hanks, of , strands, to in. long and in different thicknesses, or strengths. the heaviest are known as "royal" and "imperial," for salmon; "marana," for extra-heavy bass; "padron," for bass; "regular," for heavy trout; "fina," for light trout, and "refina," for extra-light trout. the grades "fina" and "refina" are well suited for all average fly fishing, while the heavier sizes are useful for heavy large fishing. to make the leaders, soak the strands of gut in warm water over night until they are soft and pliable. select the strands for each leader of the desired thickness and length so that the finished leader will have a slight taper to one end only. by using the "fina" gut for the upper length and tying in two lengths of "refina" gut, a nicely tapered leader of light weight is obtained. begin the leader by uniting the strands together to make it the correct length, three -in. strands being about right for average casting. the "single water knot" is the strongest and neatest to use. make it by taking the thick end of the strand and doubling it back enough to tie in a common knot just large enough for the line to pass through and drawing it up tightly. tie a single loose knot in the other end of the strand, about / in. in diameter and close to the end; take the next thickest strand of gut, thread the thicker end through the loose knot and tie a second square knot around the strand, as shown at a. by pulling on the two long ends the loops can be drawn up tightly, and the two knots will slide together and make a neat and very strong knot. repeat this operation until as many strands of gut are knotted together as required to make the leader of the desired length. for making the loop at the ends, a double-bighted knot, tied as shown at b, is used. if a dropper fly is desired, do not pull the water knot tightly, but first insert a short length of gut with a common knot at the end and a loop in the other, then draw the water knot up tightly, and a short snell will be made for attaching the fly as usually. [illustration: (a) the single water knot used in tying leaders; (b) a good knot for making the loop at the end of the leaders; (c) an angler's knot used for attaching the line to the leader, and (d) a jam knot for attaching eyed flies, or hooks, to the leader or snell] flies for trout fishing the standard selection of artificial flies numbers about , but the average fisherman will find about selected patterns to answer every need. for making up the most "killing" flies for the trout season, the following can be recommended: use red ibis, stone fly, cinnamon, red spinner, and parchmenee belle, for april; turkey brown, yellow dun, iron blue, spinner, montreal and red fox, for may; spider, black gnat, silver doctor, gray drake, orange dun, and green drake, for june; july dun, grizzly king, pale evening dun, red ant, and brown palmer, for july; seth green, coachman, shad, governor, august dun, and royal coachman, for august, and black palmer, willow, whirling dun, queen of the water, and blue bottle, for september. to attach a line to the leader the well-known "angler's knot" is mostly used. this knot is shown at c. the snelled fly is attached by passing the loop over the loop of the leader and inserting the fly through the leader loop. when eyed flies are used they are often attached direct to the leader, or a looped snell may be used as in the ordinary american-tied fly. to attach the eyed fly direct to the leader, the common "jam knot," shown at d, is mostly used, and when the slipknot is drawn up tightly and the extra end cut off it makes a small, neat knot, not apt to slip. catch to hold two joining doors open where two open doors meet, a catch to keep them open can be made of a piece of wire, shaped as shown. the hooks at the ends of the wire are slipped over the shanks of the knobs.--contributed by w. a. saul, lexington, mass. [illustration] * * * * * strips cut from wood dishes used by grocers for butter, thoroughly soaked in warm water, will make excellent repair pieces for market baskets. bicycle oil lamp changed to electric light the desire for an electric light for my bicycle caused me to change a fine oil lamp, too good to be thrown away, so that an electric globe could be used in it. the oil cup of the lamp was removed, and a wood push button fastened in its place with three screws. before fastening the push button, a porcelain socket was attached to its bottom, and connections were made between socket and push button, ends being left protruding for connection to the battery. a small flash-light battery was fastened to the lamp bracket. a small rubber washer was placed between the head of the push button on the switch and the cap, so that in screwing the cap up, a permanent connection was made. the lamp can be used as a lantern when removed from the bicycle.--contributed by lee baker, chicago. [illustration: a push button with socket and miniature globe used in an oil lamp for electric light] lifter for removing eggs from hot water an improvement over the customary way of removing eggs from hot water with a tablespoon, is to use an old-fashioned coffee strainer. this brings up the eggs without carrying hot water with them.--contributed by l. e. turner, new york, n. y. * * * * * genuine oxalic acid may be used for removing stains from all woods except mahogany. double top for a table the need of two tables in a kitchen where there was space for only one, was the cause of devising the arrangement shown in the illustration. an ordinary kitchen table was mounted on trunk casters or domes so that it could be moved easily, whereupon a zinc top was put on it with raised edges. the table was then placed against the wall where it was to be used, and an extra, plain top fitted to it and hinged to the wall. [illustration: an extra top covers the table when it is placed against the wall] when it was desired to wash dishes on the zinc top, the table was pulled out without disturbing the articles on the hinged top. after drying the dishes, they are removed from the zinc top to the hinged part, and the table is pushed back against the wall.--contributed by louis drummond, philadelphia, pa. [illustration: the table when drawn out uncovers the zinc tray, fastened on top] [illustration: as a general thing, the veteran fly fisherman prefers to wade with the current, and fishes the water in front of him by making diagonal casts across the stream] fishing-rod making and angling by stillman taylor part iv--trout fishing with fly and bait how to cast the fly to be able to cast the artificial fly a distance of ft., or more, and let the feathered lure alight upon the desired bit of water as lightly as a falling leaf is no small accomplishment, for fly casting is an art, and to become an expert, much practice is necessary. the personal assistance of a skillful caster is not often available, but if the angler will follow the suggestions outlined, a beginner will soon grasp the knack of handling the fly rod, and the casting will steadily improve with practice. as the knack of handling a gun is best gained--not in the field, shooting live game, but through shooting at targets--so may the art of fly casting be more quickly acquired by intelligent practice conducted away from the stream, in the back yard, or any other place roomy enough to swing the rod and a moderately long line. by practicing in this way, the angler's attention is focused upon the cast and is not partly occupied with the excitement of fishing. to make a good beginning, let the reel contain about yd. of common, braided, linen line (size e is about right) and instead of a fly, or hook, affix a small split shot to the end of the line. it is well to begin with a cheap rod and save a good outfit, and if the angler learns how to make a fairly long and accurate cast with a common rod, he may feel assured that he can even do better with a first-rate outfit. [illustration: fig. --the proper way to take hold of the handle with the reel on the under side] the first point to observe in making the cast is to grip the rod correctly, and this is done by grasping the rod at the right point where it balances best. by shifting the hand about this point of balance is quickly found, for at no other point will the rod "hang" well in the hand. in casting, the reel is turned to the under side of the rod with the thumb extended along the top of the grip, as shown in fig. . taking up an easy casting position, with the left foot slightly advanced, pull from the reel about yd. of line and let this slack line fall in coils upon the ground in front; bring the rod up slightly above the horizontal, as shown in fig. , and with a quick snap of the wrist, avoiding shoulder or body movement, throw the tip upward, checking it sharply as soon as the tip is carried over the shoulder about ° beyond the vertical plane as in fig. . this snappy upstroke of the rod makes the "back cast," by projecting the line high in the air, and carries it well behind the angler. before the line has fully straightened out behind, and before it has an opportunity to fall much below the caster's shoulders, the rod is snapped forward with a quick wrist-and-forearm movement, which throws the line forward in front of the fisherman and in the direction he is facing, which finishes the cast with the rod in the position shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. --begin the cast with the rod in a position just above the horizontal plane] long and accurate fly casting is much more a matter of skill than muscle, and while some fly fishermen cast directly from the shoulder and upper arm, and thus use a considerable amount of muscular force in making the cast, this cannot be regarded as the best method of casting. the great elasticity of the fly rod ought to be taken full advantage of by the caster, and if this is done, casting will be naturally accomplished by the wrist and forearm. to make strenuous efforts to hurl the fly through the air, using an arm or body movement, is extremely tiring after an hour or so of fishing, while if the cast is made from the wrist, aided by the forearm, the snap of the rod may be depended upon to project the fly to greater length of line and allow it to fall close to the desired spot, lightly and without splashing. timing the back cast is the most difficult detail of fly casting, because the line is behind the angler and the eye cannot aid the hand. the novice will soon acquire the knack of casting, however, if he will remember to keep the elbow close to the side, and to keep the line well up in the air when making the back cast, and to begin the forward movement before the line has fully straightened out behind him. after a little practice, the hand will feel the slight tension communicated to the rod as the line begins to straighten out, and this should be taken advantage of to correctly time the forward movement. counting "one" for the upstroke, "two and" for the interval required for the line to straighten out in the rear, and "three" for the forward movement, is also a good way to time the cast. at the beginning the caster should make no attempt to secure distance. accuracy and delicacy in placing the fly on the water is of much more importance than length of cast in trout fishing, and to attain this end, it is a good plan to place a newspaper about ft. distant and try to drop the end of the line on this mark. when the caster can drop the line on the target lightly and with reasonable accuracy, he may feel justified in lengthening his cast. other casts than the overhead cast just described are occasionally used, as the spey, switch, wind, and flip casts, but the overhead cast is mostly used, although it is much more difficult to master. to make the spey cast, the angler requires a rapid stream which will carry the line downstream until it is straight and taut, the tip of the rod being held as long as possible to accomplish this end. the rod is then raised high in the air with a quick wrist movement, which lifts the line from the water to the extreme end, then without pausing the rod is carried upstream with just sufficient force to let the fly fall just above the angler. the line is now on the reverse, or upper, side of the fisherman, when with a sweep of the rod the line is projected over the water's surface--not along the surface--in the manner used in making the overhead cast. [illustration: fig. --the rod is quickly checked when it is carried over the shoulder about degrees] the switch cast is sometimes useful when trees or rocks are immediately back of the fisherman, thus preventing the line from extending far enough backward to make the overhead cast. in making this cast the line is not lifted from the water, but merely to the surface by raising the tip of the rod. the line is dragged through the water by carrying the tip in the direction one is standing until it is as far in the rear as the obstructions will permit. by a quick downward sweep of the rod the line is projected with sufficient force to roll it forward in a large coil or loop, much as a wheel rolls on a track. the wind cast is a modification of the switch cast, but easier to make. the caster brings his line almost to his feet, and with a quick downward motion of the rod the line is thrown in a long loop against the wind. the underhand and the flip casts are so simple that it seems almost unnecessary to describe them. both are short casts and are only used when the angler is fishing in an overgrown stream. the underhand cast is really a side cast, inasmuch as the short line is lifted from the water in a loop and propelled in the desired direction by a side sweep of the rod. the flip cast is made by holding the fly between the thumb and finger and with a few coils of line in the right hand. bend the rod like a bow, release the fly suddenly, and the snap of the rod will project it in the desired direction and allow it to drop lightly like a fly. handling the flies in the water as a general thing the veteran fly fisherman prefers to wade with the current and fishes the water in front of him by making diagonal casts across the stream. a good fisherman will systematically cover every inch of good water and little will be left to chance. the novice is inclined to fish his flies in a contrary manner, he casts more or less at random, and is as likely to splash the flies recklessly about in the most impossible places as he is to drop them in a favorable riffle or pool. to be able to pick out fishable water, the angler should know something about the habits of the trout, their characteristics at the several seasons of the fishing year, and their habits, which differ greatly in different streams. a fishing knowledge of the stream to be visited is of much value, but if the angler knows how to make a fair cast and possesses average skill in handling flies on water, there should be no question but that he will creel a fair number of trout even though he casts in strange waters. [illustration: fig. --the cast is finished by throwing the line forward with a quick wrist-and-forearm movement] to imitate the action of the natural insect is the most successful manner of fishing the flies, and as the natural fly will struggle more or less when borne down with the current, the fisherman endeavors to duplicate this movement by making his artificial fly wriggle about. this motion must not be overdone, for if the flies are twitched and skipped about, or pulled against the current, the wary trout will refuse to fall for any such obvious deceit. a gentle motion of the wrist will cause the fly to move somewhat as the natural insect will struggle. in making the cast do not cast directly down or upstream, but across the current at an angle. let the flies fall upon the water as lightly as possible, so that the water will carry them downstream over the likely places where the trout are hiding. keep the line as taut as possible by drawing the slack in with the left hand. the flies should not be allowed to soak in the water, neither should they be retrieved in haste. the experienced fly caster will invariably fish with a wet line, that is to say, with a slightly submerged fly, and will let the flies drag over as much water as possible before making a second cast. owing to the fact that trout lie with their noses pointing upstream awaiting their food carried down by the current, the caster will naturally take pains to float his flies downstream with the leader fairly taut. to neglect this detail and allow the leader to float in a wide loop near or before the flies is slovenly fishing, and few trout will strike a fly presented in this amateurish fashion. early in the fishing season, and when the stream is flooded and discolored after a heavy rain, it is a good plan to fish the flies below the surface. fishing in this manner makes it more difficult to tell when to strike a fish, and some little practice is needed to determine the opportune moment by feeling the slight tension on the line. many fish will be pricked to be sure, but some trout will be creeled, and fishing with the submerged fly is sometimes the only way trout can be taken. on fair days and in smooth water, better luck may be expected when the fly is kept upon the surface, and this is easily managed by keeping the tip of the rod well in the air. often the fisherman can take advantage of a bit of floating foam, and if the fly is cast upon it and allowed to float with it downstream, the ruse will often prove effective. the trout is a hard striker and it is not unusual to have a trout rush ahead of the fly in his attempt to mouth it. in rapid water the savage rush of the fish is sufficient to hook it securely, but when casting in quiet pools, the hook is imbedded by a snap of the wrist. at what exact moment to strike, as well as the amount of force to use, depends upon circumstances. when fishing in small streams and brooks where the trout run small, much less force is necessary to hook the fish, but in quiet water and in larger streams where or -lb. trout are not uncommon, the fish may be struck with a smart upward jerk of the forearm and wrist. so far as my experience goes, the matter of striking is governed by the temperament as well as the judgment of the angler. the deliberate thinking man is likely to strike too late, while the nervous individual, striking too early, is apt to prick the trout and roll him over. the best time to fish for trout is when they are feeding on the surface; and in the early days of spring, when there are few flies about, the warmer part of the day, say, from in the morning to in the afternoon, will prove to be the most successful time. later on, when flies are numerous, good luck may be expected at an early hour in the morning, and in the hot summer months the cooler hours of the day may be chosen. of course, there are many exceptions, since there are many cool days in summer, as well as exceptionally warm days in spring, and these changes of weather should be considered. however, extremes are not likely to make good fishing, and the trout will not rise as freely on cold, windy days, nor will they fight as gamely. on hot days, too, not so much luck can be expected during the hours of the greatest heat-- to --but a good basket of trout may be creeled early in the morning or late in the afternoon of summer. a bright, clear day is usually the best for fly fishing, because the sun brings out more flies, but a warm rain, or even a fog, is also considered good fishing weather. among the live baits available for trout fishing are the minnow, white grub, cricket, grasshopper, and other insects, and last, but by no means least, the common angle or earthworm. the minnow is beyond a doubt the most enticing morsel that can be offered to a hungry trout, and a minnow may be reckoned to secure a rise when other baits fail. the inconvenience of transporting this bait is a great drawback, and as minnows are delicate fish, a minnow bucket is necessary for their preservation. this means a lot of trouble, as the water must be frequently changed or aerated, and this labor, together with the difficulty of carrying a bulky pail through the brush, makes this desirable bait almost impossible for stream and brook fishing. the salt-water minnow, known as a "shiner" or "mummychug," is a topnotch trout bait, and being much tougher than the fresh-water minnow, makes a bait often used by anglers residing near the seacoast. the white grub, or larvae of the so-called may beetle, is a good bait available for early-season fishing, and may be obtained in the early spring months by spading up grass land. the grub is about in. long, and of a creamy yellow color with a darker head. it may be kept a month, or more, by putting it in a box with a number of pieces of fresh turf. crickets, grasshoppers, and many other insects, make good baits, while the earthworm is a good all-around bait for trout. a supply dug some days before and kept by packing in fresh moss and slightly moistening with milk and water will prove more attractive in appearance and the worms will be tougher and cleaner to handle than when carried in earth. other good baits include the fin of a trout, and if this is used in combination with the eye of the same fish, it forms an attractive lure. in using this bait, do not puncture the eyeball, but hook through the thin flexible skin surrounding the eye. a fat piece of salt pork, cut into pieces in. long and / in. wide, makes a fairly good bait. spoons and other spinning baits are presumably attractive, but few sportsmen use them when angling for so fine a fish as trout. [illustration:] houses made of poles by lola a. pinchon [in this article descriptions are given of several shelters suitable for a resort, but the reader may select any one of them that answers his needs and build a camp house, or fit up a more substantial one to make living quarters for the whole year.--editor.] [illustration: houses made of poles] being forced to take the open-air treatment to regain health, a person adopted the plan of building a pole house in the woods, and the scheme was so successful that it was decided to make a resort grounds, to attract crowds during holidays, by which an income could be realized for living expenses. all the pavilions, stands, furniture, and amusement devices were constructed of straight poles cut from young growth of timber with the bark remaining on them. outside of boards for flooring and roofing material, the entire construction of the buildings and fences consisted of poles. [illustration: the frame construction of the house made entirely of rough poles, the verticals being set in the ground, plumbed, and sighted to make a perfect rectangle of the desired proportions] a level spot was selected and a house built having three rooms. the location was in a grove of young timbers, most of it being straight, and trees were easily found that would make posts ft. long, required for the sides, and two poles ft. long, for the center of the ends, so that they would reach to the ridge. the plot was laid out rectangular and marked for the poles, which were set in the ground for a depth of ft., at distances of ft. apart. this made the house ft. high at the eaves with a square pitch roof; that is, the ridge was ft. high in the center from the plate surfaces for this width of a house. the rule for finding this height is to take one-quarter of the width of the house for the height in the center from the plate. [illustration: the steps are supported on pairs of vertical poles set in the ground to make different levels] the corner poles were carefully located to make the size by ft., with a lean-to by ft., and then plumbed to get them straight vertically. the plates for the sides, consisting of five poles, were selected as straight as possible and their ends and centers hewn down to about one-half their thickness, as shown at a and b, and nailed to the tops of the vertical poles, the connection for center poles being as shown at c. the next step was to secure the vertical poles with crosspieces between them which were used later for supporting the siding. these poles were cut about ft. long, their ends being cut concave to fit the curve of the upright poles, as shown at d. these were spaced evenly, about ft. apart from center to center, on the sides and ends, as shown in the sketch, and toenailed in place. the doors and window openings were cut in the horizontal poles wherever wanted, and casements set in and nailed. the first row of horizontal poles was placed close to the ground and used both as support for the lower ends of the siding and to nail the ends of the flooring boards to, which were fastened in the center to poles laid on stones, or, better still, placed on top of short blocks, ft. long, set in the ground. these poles for the floor should be placed not over ft. apart to make the flooring solid. [illustration: gate openings were made in the fence where necessary, and gates of poles hung in the ordinary manner] a lean-to was built by setting three poles at a distance of ft. from one side, beginning at the center and extending to the end of the main building. these poles were about ft. long above the ground. the rafter poles for this part were about - / ft. long, notched at both ends for the plates, the ends of the house rafters being sawed off even with the outside of the plate along this edge. the rafter poles for the house were in all, ft. long, and were laid off and cut to fit a ridge made of a board. these poles were notched about in. from their lower ends to fit over the rounding edge of the plate pole, and were then placed directly over each vertical wall pole. they were nailed both to the plate and to the ridge, also further strengthened by a brace made of a piece of board or a small pole, placed under the ridge and nailed to both rafters. on top of the rafters boards were placed horizontally, spaced about ft. apart, but this is optional with the builder, as other roofing material can be used. in this instance metal roofing was used, and it only required fastening at intervals, and to prevent rusting out, it was well painted on the under side before laying it and coated on the outside when fastened in place. if a more substantial shelter is wanted, it is best to lay the roof solid with boards, then cover it with the regular prepared roofing material. some large trees were selected and felled, then cut into -ft. lengths and the bark removed, or if desired, the bark removed in -ft. lengths, and nailed on the outside of the poles, beginning at the bottom in the same manner as laying shingles, to form the siding of the house. if a more substantial house is wanted, boards can be nailed on the poles, then the bark fastened to the boards; also, the interior can be finished in wall board. the same general construction is used for the porch, with horizontal poles latticed, as shown, to form the railing. it is very easy to make ornamental parts, such as shown, on the eave of the porch, by splitting sticks and nailing them on closely together to make a frieze. floors are laid on the porch and in the house, and doors hung and window sash fitted in the same manner as in an ordinary house. [illustration: all furniture, together with the large lawn swings, took on the general appearance of the woodland, and as the pieces were made up of the same material as the houses, the cost was only the labor and a few nails] a band stand was constructed on sloping ground, and after setting the poles, the floor horizontals were placed about ft. above the ground, on the upper side, and ft. on the lower side. the poles used were about ft. long. instead of having the horizontals ft. apart, the first was placed ft. above the floor, the next at about one-half the distance from the lower one to the plate at the top, and the space between was ornamented with cross poles, as shown. a balcony or bay was constructed at one end, and a fancy roof was made of poles whose ends rested on a curved pole attached to the vertical pieces. steps were formed of several straight poles, hewn down on their ends to make a level place to rest on horizontal pieces attached to stakes at the ends. a pair of stakes were used at each end of a step, and these were fastened to a slanting piece at the top, their lower ends being set into the ground. the manner of bracing and crossing with horizontals makes a rigid form of construction, and if choice poles are selected for the step pieces, they will be comparatively level and of sufficient strength to hold up all the load put on them. the roof of this building was made for a sun shade only and consisted of boards nailed closely together on the rafters. [illustration: the entrance to the grounds was given an inviting appearance with large posts and swinging gates] an ice-cream parlor was built on the same plan, but without any board floor; the ground, being level, was used instead. there were five vertical poles used for each end with a space left between the two poles at the center, on both sides, for an entrance. this building was covered with prepared roofing, so that the things kept for sale could be protected in case of a shower. a peanut stand was also built without a floor, and to make it with nine sides, nine poles were set in the ground to form a perfect nonagon and joined at their tops with latticed horizontals. then a rafter was run from the top of each post to the center, and boards were fitted on each pair of rafters over the v-shaped openings. the boards were then covered with prepared roofing. a railing was formed of horizontals set in notches, cut in the posts, and then ornamented in the same manner as for the other buildings. fences were constructed about the grounds, made of pole posts with horizontals on top, hewn down and fitted as the plates for the house; and the lower pieces were set in the same as for making the house railing. gates were made of two vertical pieces, the height of the posts, and two horizontals, then braced with a piece running from the lower corner at the hinge side to the upper opposite corner, the other cross brace being joined to the sides of the former, whereupon two short horizontals were fitted in the center. a blacksmith formed some hinges of rods and strap iron, as shown, and these were fastened in holes bored in the post and the gate vertical. a latch was made by boring a hole through the gate vertical and into the end of the short piece. then a slot was cut in the side to receive a pin inserted in a shaft made to fit the horizontal hole. a keeper was made in the post by boring a hole to receive the end of the latch. large posts were constructed at the entrance to the grounds, and on these double swing gates, made up in the same manner as the small one, were attached. these large posts were built up of four slender poles and were considerably higher than the fence poles. the poles were set in a perfect square, having sides about in. long, and a square top put on by mitering the corners, whereupon four small rafters were fitted on top. the gates were swung on hinges made like those for the small gate. among the best and most enjoyed amusement devices on the grounds were the swings. several of these were built, with and without tables. four poles, about ft. long, were set in the ground at an angle, and each pair of side poles was joined with two horizontals, about ft. long, spreaders being fastened between the two horizontals to keep the tops of the poles evenly spaced. the distance apart of the poles will depend on the size of the swing and the number of persons to be seated. each pair of side poles are further strengthened with crossed poles, as shown. if no table is to be used in the swing, the poles may be set closer together, so that the top horizontals will be about ft. long. the platform for the swinging part consists of two poles, ft. long, which are swung on six vertical poles, about ft. long. these poles are attached to the top horizontals with long bolts, or rods, running through both, the bottom being attached in the same manner. poles are nailed across the platform horizontals at the bottom for a floor, and a table with seats at the ends is formed of poles. the construction is obvious. a short space between two trees can be made into a seat by fastening two horizontals, one on each tree, with the ends supported by braces. poles are nailed on the upper surface for a seat. other furniture for the house and grounds was made of poles in the manner illustrated. tables were built for picnickers by setting four or six poles in the ground and making a top of poles or boards. horizontals were placed across the legs with extending ends, on which seats were made for the tables. chairs and settees were built in the same manner, poles being used for the entire construction. an electric water heater procure the barrel and cap from a hand bicycle pump and prepare them as follows: make a tube of paper, about double the thickness of a postal card, to fit snugly in the pump barrel and oil it slightly before slipping it into place. procure some resistance wire of the proper length and size to heat quickly. the wire can be tested out by coiling it on some nonconducting material, such as an earthen jug or glazed tile, and connecting one end to the current supply and running the other wire of the supply over the coil until it heats properly. cut the resistance at this point and temporarily coil it to fit into the bottom of the pump barrel, allowing one end to extend up through the space in the center with sufficient length to make a connection to supply wires. mix some dental plaster to the consistency of thick cream and, while keeping the wire in the center of the pump barrel, pour in the mixture until it is filled to within - / in. of the top. allow the plaster to set for about a day, then remove it from the barrel and take off the paper roll. the coil of wire at the bottom is now straightened out and wound in a coil over the outside of the plaster core, allowing sufficient end for connecting to the supply wires. [illustration: an electric heating coil made of resistance wire placed in a bicycle-pump barrel for boiling water] cut two or three disks of mica to fit snugly in the bottom of the pump barrel, also cut a mica sheet to make a covering tube over the coil on the plaster core and insert the whole into the barrel. the two terminals are connected to the ends of a flexible cord which has a plug attached to the opposite end. be sure to insulate the ends of the wire where they connect to the flexible cord inside of the pump barrel under the cap. in winding the resistance wire on the core, be sure that one turn does not touch the other. the heater when connected to a current supply and placed in qt. of water will bring it to a boil quickly.--contributed by a. h. waychoff, lyons, colo [illustration] camps by f. s. charles a good site, pure water in abundance, and a convenient fuel supply, are the features of a temporary camp that should be given first consideration when starting out to enjoy a vacation in the woods. the site should be high and dry, level enough for the tent and camp fire, and with surrounding ground sloping enough to insure proper drainage. a sufficient fuel supply is an important factor, and a spot should be chosen where great effort is not required to collect it and get it into proper shape for the fire. [illustration: wall tent] [illustration: lean-to of boughs] [illustration: log cabin] when locating near streams of water be careful to select a spot above high water mark so the ground will not be overflowed by a sudden rise of the stream. do not select the site of an old camp, as the surroundings are usually stripped of all fuel, and the grounds are unclean. division of work clear the selected spot and lay out the lines for the tent, camp fire, etc. if the camping party consists of more than two persons, each one should do the part allotted to him, and the work will be speedily accomplished. remember that discipline brings efficiency, and do not be slack about a camp just because it is pleasure. one of the party should attend to the camp fire and prepare the meals while another secures the fuel and water. the tent can be unpacked and the ground cleared by the other members of the party, and when ready, all should assist in raising the tent, especially if it is a large one. tents an ordinary a or wedge tent is sufficient for one or two campers. where you do not wish to locate permanently, this tent can be set up and taken down quickly. it should have a ring fastened to the cloth in each peak through which to pass a rope or line to take the place of a ridge pole. such a tent can be pitched between two trees or saplings, and, after tying the rope to the trees, it can be tightened with a long forked stick, placed under one end of the rope. if two trees are not conveniently located, then two poles crossed and tied together will make supports for one or both ends, the ridge line running over them and staked to the ground. [illustration: fire between two logs] [illustration: fire built against a log] on a chilly night, the a tent is quite advantageous. the stakes can be pulled on one side and the cloth doubled to make a lean-to, open on the side away from the wind. a fire can be built in front and the deflected heat on the sleeper will keep him comfortable and warm. for larger parties, the wall tent with a fly is recommended. these tents can be purchased in various sizes. the fly is an extra covering stretched over the top to make an open air space between the two roofs. it keeps the interior of the tent delightfully cool in hot summer weather and provides a better protection from rain. the fly can be made extra long, to extend over the end of the tent, making a shady retreat which can be used for lounging or a dining place. protection from insects where mosquitoes and other insects are numerous, it is well to make a second tent of cheesecloth with binding tape along the top to tie it to the ridge pole of the regular tent. the sides should be made somewhat longer than the regular tent so that there will be plenty of cloth to weight it down at the bottom. this second tent should be made without any opening whatever. the occupant must crawl under the edge to enter. the cheesecloth tent is used inside of the ordinary tent, and when not in use it is pushed aside. [illustration: forked sticks supporting cooking utensils] two camps are illustrated showing the construction of a lean-to for a temporary one-season camp, and a log cabin which makes a permanent place from year to year. (a more elaborate and more expensive camp was described in the may issue of this magazine.) the construction of these camps are very simple. the first is made of poles cut in the woods. a ridge pole is placed between two trees or held in place with poles of sufficient length, set in the ground. poles are placed on this at an angle of about deg., forming a lean-to that will be entirely open in front when finished. the poles are covered, beginning at the bottom, with pine boughs, laid in layers so as to make a roof that will shed water. a large fire, built a short distance from the open front will make a warm place to sleep, the heat being reflected down the same as described for the a tent. a permanent camp a good permanent camp is a log cabin. this can be constructed of materials found in the woods. trees may be felled, cut to length, and notched to join the ends together at each corner so as to leave little or no space between the logs. the roof is constructed of long clapboards, split from blocks of wood. the builder can finish such a camp as elaborately as he chooses, and for this reason the site should be selected with great care. camp fires there is no better way to make a camp fire than to have a large log or two against which to start a fire with small boughs. larger sticks can be placed over the logs in such a way as to hold a pot of water or to set a frying pan. forked sticks can be laid on the log and weighted on the lower end with a stone, using the upper end to hang a cooking vessel over the flames. two logs placed parallel, with space enough between for the smaller sticks, make one of the best camp cooking arrangements. two forked sticks, one at each end of the logs, may be set in the ground and a pole placed in the forks lengthwise of the fire. this makes a convenient place for hanging the cooking utensils with bent wires. food supplies the conditions in various localities make a difference in the camper's appetite and in consequence no special list of food can be recommended, but the amount needed by the average person in a vacation camp for two weeks, is about as follows: bacon lb. ham " flour " corn meal " rice " baking powder / " sugar " beans " salt " lard " coffee " a number of small things must be added to this list, such as pepper, olive oil, sage, nutmeg and vinegar. if the weight is not to be considered, canned goods, preserves, jam and marmalade, also vegetables and dried fruits may be added. do not forget soap and matches. food can be kept cool in a box or a box-like arrangement made of straight sticks over which burlap is hung and kept wet. this is accomplished by setting a pan on top of the box and fixing wicks of cloth over the edges. the wicks will siphon the water out evenly and keep the burlap wet. a drinking tube when on a walking tour through the woods or country, it might be well to provide a way to procure water for drinking purposes. take with you several feet of small rubber tubing and a few inches of hollow cane of the size to fit the tube. in one end insert the cane for a mouthpiece, and allow the other end to reach into the water. exhaust the air from the tube and the water will rush up to your lips.--contributed by l. alberta norrell, augusta, ga. washing photographic prints the usual way of washing photographic prints is to place them in a shallow tray in which they will become stuck together in bunches, if they are not often separated. a french magazine suggests that a deep tank be used instead, and that each print be attached to a cork by means of a pin stuck through one corner, the cork thus becoming a float which keeps the print suspended vertically, and at the same time prevents contact with its nearest neighbor. camp furnishings by chelsea curtis fraser when on a camping trip nothing should be carried but the necessities, and the furnishings should be made up from materials found in the woods. a good spring bed can be made up in the following manner: cut two stringers from small, straight trees, about in. in diameter, and make them about ft. long. all branches are trimmed off smooth and a trench is dug in the ground for each piece, the trenches being in. apart. small saplings, about in. in diameter, and as straight as can be found, are cut and trimmed of all branches, and nailed across the stringers for the springs. knots, bulges, etc., should be turned downward as far as possible. the ends of each piece are flattened as shown at a, fig. , to give it a good seat on the stringers. a larger sapling is cut, flattened, and nailed at the head of the bed across the stringers, and to it a number of head-stay saplings, b, are nailed. these head-stay pieces are cut about in. long, sharpened on one end and driven a little way into the ground, after which they are nailed to the head crosspiece. [illustration: a camp bed made of saplings with several layers of boughs for the mattress (fig. )] in the absence of an empty mattress tick and pillow cover which can be filled with straw, boughs of fir may be used. these boughs should not be larger than a match and crooked stems should be turned down. begin at the head of the bed and lay a row of boughs with the stems pointing toward the foot. over this row, and half-lapping it, place another row so that the tops of the boughs lie on the line c and their stems on the line d. this process is continued until the crosspiece springs are entirely covered, and then another layer is laid in the same manner on top of these, and so on, until a depth of or in. is obtained. this will make a good substitute for a mattress. a pillow can be made by filling a meal bag with boughs or leaves. [illustration: a table made of packing-box material and a wash basin stand of three stakes (fig. , fig. )] a good and serviceable table can be constructed from a few fence boards, or boards taken from a packing box. the table and chairs are made in one piece, the construction being clearly shown in fig. . the height of the ends should be about in., and the seats about in. from the ground. the other dimensions will be governed by the material at hand and the number of campers. a wash-basin support can be made of three stakes, cut from saplings and driven in the ground, as shown in fig. . the basin is hung by its rim between the ends of the stakes. wherever a suitable tree is handy, a seat can be constructed as shown in fig. . bore two -in. holes, in. apart, in the trunk, in. above the ground, and drive two pins, about in. long, cut from a sapling into them. the extending ends are supported on legs of the same material. the seat is made of a slab with the rounding side down. a clothes hanger for the tent ridge pole can be made as shown in fig. . the hanger consists of a piece, in. long, cut from a -in. sapling, nails being driven into its sides for hooks. the upper end is fitted with a rope which is tied over the ridge pole of the tent. [illustration: a seat against the trunk of a tree, and a clothes hanger for the tent ridge pole (fig. , fig. )] a fruit stemmer in the berry season the stemmer shown in the sketch is a very handy article for the kitchen. it is made of spring steel and tempered, the length being about - / in. the end used for removing the stem is ground from the outside edge after tempering. a ring large enough to admit the second finger is soldered at a convenient distance from the end on one leg.--contributed by h. f. reams, nashville, tennessee. [illustration] a homemade fountain pen a very serviceable fountain pen can be made from two - rifle cartridges and a steel pen. clean out the cartridges, fit a plug tightly in the end of one shell, and cut it off smooth with the end of the metal. drill a / in. hole in the center of the wood plug and fit another plug into this hole with sufficient end projecting to be shaped for the length of the steel pen to be used. the shank of the pen and the plug must enter the hole together. one side of the projecting end of the plug should be shaped to fit the inside surface of the pen and then cut off at a point a little farther out than the eye in the pen. on the surface that is to lie against the pen a groove is cut in the plug extending from near the point to the back end where it is to enter the hole in the first plug. the under side of the plug is shaped about as shown. [illustration: one cartridge shell makes the fountain part of the pen, and the other the cap] the other cartridge is cut off at such a point that it will fit on the tapering end of the first one, and is used for a cap. the cartridge being filled with ink and the plug inserted, the ink will flow down the small groove in the feeder plug and supply the pen with ink. care must be taken that the surface of the smaller plug fits the pen snugly and that the groove is not cut through to the point end. this will keep the ink from flooding, and only that which is used for writing will be able to get through or leak out.--contributed by edwin n. harnish, ceylon, canada. destroying caterpillars on grapevines the grapes in my back yard were being destroyed by caterpillars which could be found under all the large leaves. the vine was almost dead when i began to cut off all the large leaves and those eaten by the caterpillars, which allowed the sun's rays to reach the grapes. this destroyed all the caterpillars and the light and heat ripened the grapes.--contributed by wm. singer, rahway, n. j. * * * * * it will require gal. of ordinary mixed calcimine to cover sq. ft. of plastered surface, sq. ft. of brickwork and sq. ft. of average woodwork. a camp provision box while on a camping-and canoeing trip recently, i used a device which added a touch of completeness to our outfit and made camp life really enjoyable. this useful device is none other than a provision or "grub" box. [illustration: the provision box ready for use in camp, the cover turned back on the brackets and the legs extended] from experience campers know that the first important factor in having a successful trip is compactness of outfit. when undertaking an outing of this kind it is most desirable to have as few bundles to carry as possible, especially if one is going to be on the move part of the time. this device eliminates an unnecessary amount of bundles, thus making the trip easier for the campers, and doubly so if they intend canoeing part of the time; and, apart from its usefulness as a provision container, it affords a general repository for the small articles which mean so much to the camper's welfare. the box proper may be made of any convenient size, so long as it is not too cumbersome for two people to handle. the dimensions given are for a box i used on a canoe trip of several hundred miles; and from experience i know it to be of a suitable size for canoeists. if the camper is going to have a fixed camp and have his luggage hauled, a larger box is much to be preferred. a glance at the figures will show the general proportions of the box. it may be possible, in some cases, to secure a strong packing box near the required dimensions, thus doing away with the trouble of constructing it. the distinguishing features of this box are the hinged cover, the folding legs, and the folding brackets. the brackets, upon which the top rests when open, fold in against the back of the box when not in use. the same may be said of the legs. they fold up alongside the box and are held there by spring-brass clips. [illustration: the brackets for the cover as well as each of the four legs fold against the sides of the box in such a manner as to be out of the way, making the box easy to carry and store away in a small space] on our trips we carry an alcohol stove on which we do all of our cooking. the inner side of the top is covered with a sheet of asbestos, this side being uppermost when the hinged top is opened and resting on the folding brackets. the stove rested on this asbestos, thus making everything safe. the cover is large enough to do all the cooking on, and the box is so high that the cooking can be attended to without stooping over, which is much more pleasant than squatting before a camp fire getting the eyes full of smoke. the legs are hinged to the box in such a manner that all of the weight of the box rests on the legs rather than on the hinges, and are kept from spreading apart by wire turnbuckles. these, being just bolts and wire, may be tucked inside the box when on the move. the top is fitted with unexposed hinges and with a lock to make it a safe place for storing valuables. [illustration: detail of the turnbuckle, button to hold the brackets, and the spring clip for holding the legs on the side of the box] in constructing the cover it is well to make it so that it covers the joints of the sides, thus making the box waterproof from the top, if rain should fall on it. a partition can be made in one end to hold odds and ends. a tray could be installed, like the tray in a trunk, to hold knives, forks, spoons, etc., while the perishable supplies are kept underneath the tray. give the box two coats of lead paint, and shellac the inside. the wire braces for the legs are made as follows. procure four machine bolts, about / in. in diameter and in. long--any thread will do--with wing nuts and washers to fit. saw or file off the heads and drill a small hole in one end of each bolt, large enough to receive a no. galvanized iron wire. two inches from the bottom of each leg drill a hole to take the bolt loosely. determine the exact distance between the outside edges of the legs when the box is resting on them. make the wire braces in. longer than this distance so that the bolts will protrude through the holes in the legs and allow for putting on the nuts and washers. screwing up on the nuts draws the wire taut, thus holding the legs firm. the size of the top determines the dimensions of the folding brackets which support it when open. these brackets may be solid blocks of wood, but a lighter and more serviceable bracket is constructed as follows. if the top is in. wide and in. long, make the brackets by in. constructing the brackets so that their combined length is in. shorter than the total length of the box, facilitates their folding against the back of the box when not in use. this point is clearly shown in the drawing. our brackets were made of / -in. oak, - / in. wide, and the joints halved together. they are hinged to the back of the box as shown; and when folded are held in place by a simple catch. the weight of the lid is sufficient to hold the brackets in place when open, but to make sure they will not creep when in use insert a / -in. dowel in the end of each so that it protrudes / in. drill two holes in the top to the depth of / in., so that when the top rests on the brackets, these holes engage with the dowels. in hinging the brackets to the back see that they are high enough to support the lid at right angles to the box. the box here shown is made of / in. white pine throughout. the legs are / by - / by in. they are fastened to the box with ordinary strap hinges. when folded up against the box they do not come quite to the top so that the box should be at least in. high for -in. legs. about in. from the bottom of the legs drive in a brad so it protrudes / in. as shown. this brad engages in a hole in the spring-brass clip when folded up as shown in the illustration. if in a fixed camp, it is a good idea to stand the legs in tomato cans partly full of water. this prevents ants from crawling up the legs into the box, but it necessitates placing the wire braces higher on the legs. our box cost us nothing but the hardware, as we knocked some old packing boxes to pieces and planed up enough boards to make the sides. of course, the builder need not adhere to these dimensions, for he can make the size to suit his requirements, while the finish is a matter of personal taste. * * * * * a blue writing ink is easily made of oz. prussian blue, - / oz. oxalic acid and pt. of soft water. shake and allow it to stand until dissolved. wall pockets in a tent when camping i find a few wall pockets sewed to the tent walls at the back end provide a convenient means to hold the soap, mirror, razor and other small articles liable to be lost. the pockets can be made of the same material as the tent and sewed on as a patch pocket.--contributed by a. m. barnes, atlanta, ga. camp stoves the camp stoves illustrated are different forms of the same idea. both can be taken apart and laid flat for packing. iron rods, / in. in diameter, are used for the legs. they are sharpened at the lower end so that they may be easily driven into the ground. the rods of the one shown in the first illustration are bent in the form of a hook at the upper end, and two pieces of light tire iron, with holes in either end, are hung on these hooks. across these supports are laid other pieces of the tire iron. in the other stove, the rods have a large head and are slipped through holes in the four corners of the piece of heavy sheet iron used for the top. a cotter is slipped through a hole in each rod just below the top, to hold the latter in place.--contributed by mrs. lelia munsell, herington, kansas. [illustration: camp-stove top, either solid or pieced, supported on rods at the corners] attractor for game fish a piece of light wood, shaped as shown and with four small screweyes attached, makes a practical attractor for game fish, such as bass, etc., by its action when drawn through the water or carried by the flow of a stream. hooks are attached to three of the screweyes and the fourth one, on the sloping surface, is used for the line.--contributed by arthur vogel, indianapolis, ind. [illustration: a device for attracting game fish which is used in place of bait] simple photographic-print washer the ordinary washbowl supplied with a faucet may be easily converted into a washing tray for photographic prints or film negatives. procure a medicine dropper from a druggist, and attach it to the faucet end with a short piece of rubber tubing. be sure to procure a dropper that has the point turned at right angles to the body. [illustration: the whirling motion set up by the forced stream at an angle thoroughly washes prints] when the water is turned on it is forced through the small opening in the dropper in such a manner that the water in the bowl is kept in a constant whirling motion. this will keep the prints on the move, which is necessary for a thorough washing. how to make an electric fishing signal a unique electric fishing signal, which may be rigged up on a wharf or pier, and the electric circuit so arranged as to operate an electric bell or buzzer, located in the fisherman's cottage, or any other convenient place, may be constructed as follows: obtain two pieces of / -in. spring brass, one in. long and / in. wide, and the other in. long and / in. wide. mount a -in. brass wood screw, a, in one end of the -in. piece as shown. [illustration: construction of the parts to make the contact points and the electric connections] place over the end of the -in. piece a thin sheet of insulating fiber, b, allowing it to extend down on each side about in. then bend a piece of / -in. brass, c, over the insulating fiber, allowing it to extend down on each side the same distance as the insulating fiber. drill a small hole through the lower ends of the u-shaped piece of brass, c, the insulation, b, and the -in. piece, while they are all in place. remove the insulation and the u-shaped brass piece, and tap the holes in the brass for a machine screw, d. enlarge the hole in the -in piece, and provide an insulating bushing for it with an opening of the same diameter as the brass machine screw. mount a small binding post, e, on one side of the u-shaped piece of brass, and the parts may then be put together and held in place by means of the brass screw. drill two holes in the other end of the -in piece, also two holes in one end of the -in piece, and rivet them together with two small rivets. the -in. piece should project beyond the end of the -in. piece. a piece of thin spring brass should be made into the form of a spiral, f, and fastened to the upper end of the -in. piece. provision should be made for attaching the fishline to the inside end of the brass spiral. a small binding post should be soldered to either the -in. or -in. piece, at the bottom. if the device is set up with the head of the brass adjusting screw in the top of the -in. piece, pointing in the direction the line to the fishing hook is to run, and if a fish pulls upon the line, the -in. piece is pulled over and touches the point of the adjusting screw. if a battery and bell, or buzzer, is connected as shown, the circuit will be completed when the -in. piece comes in contact with the adjusting screw, and the bell will ring. a chair swing a comfortable porch or lawn swing can be easily and quickly made with a chair as a seat, as follows. procure some rope of sufficient strength to bear the weight of the person, and fasten one end securely to one of the front legs of the chair and the other end to the same side of the back as shown in the illustration, allowing enough slack to form a right angle. another piece of rope, of the same length, is then attached to the other side of the chair. the supporting ropes are tied to these ropes and to the joist or holding piece overhead.--contributed by wm. a. robinson, waynesboro, pa. [illustration: the ropes are tied to the chair so that it will be held in a reclining position] another broom holder of the many homemade devices for holding a broom this is one of the simplest, and one that any handy boy can make. [illustration] it consists of a string, about ft. long, with a knot at one end and the other tied to a nail or staple driven into the wall. to hang up the broom simply turn the string around the handle as shown, and the broom will be held securely, because its weight will pull the string taut and the knot at the end will prevent the string from running off the handle.--contributed by jef de vries, antwerp, belgium. squaring wood stock the device shown in the sketch is a great help to the maker of mission furniture as a guide on short cuts. it consists of two pieces of wood, a and b, preferably of oak, fastened together at right angles by two large flat-head screws. the pieces should be placed exactly at right angles. [illustration: the saw teeth edge can be run through both pieces, the stock being in the corner] a cut is then made through both pieces. the cut on b should be exactly at right angles to the surface of piece a. this device can be either clamped on a board or merely held by hand, and will insure a true cut.--contributed by f. w. pumphrey, owensboro, ky. a wind vane a novelty in wind vanes is shown in the accompanying sketch. the vane can be made of sheet metal or carved from light wood. the wings are so set on the body as to cause the dragon to rise when the wind strikes them. the dragon is pivoted on a shaft running through its center of gravity, so it will readily turn with the wind. the tail part may also be made to revolve as the propeller of an aeroplane. [illustration] the length and size of the shaft will depend on the dimensions of the dragon, and similarly, the location of the weights on the chains will be determined by its size and weight. upon these circumstances and the varying velocities of the wind will depend how high the dragon will rise on its shaft, and the height reached by it will thus serve to indicate--in a relative manner only--the velocity of the wind, but it is also possible to arrange the weights at such distances apart that the dragon will rise to a in a -mile wind, to b in a -mile wind, to c in a -mile gale, and so on, with as many weights as desired. this can be done with the aid of an anemometer, if one can be borrowed for some time, or the device may be taken to the nearest weather bureau to be set.--contributed by h. j. holden, ontario, cal. * * * * * never rock a file--push it straight on filing work. how to make a flutter ring the flutter ring is for inclosing in an envelope and to surprise the person opening it by the revolving of the ring. the main part is made of a piece of wire, a, bent so that the depth will be about in. and the length in. procure or make a ring, in. in diameter. the ring should be open like a key ring. use two rubber bands, bb, in connecting the ring to the wire. [illustration: the shape of the wire and manner of attaching the rubber bands to the ring] to use it, turn the ring over repeatedly, until the rubber bands are twisted tightly, then lay it flat in a paper folded like a letter. hand it to someone in this shape or after first putting it into an envelope. when the paper is opened up, the ring will do the rest.--contributed by d. andrew mccomb, toledo, o. a kitchen utensil hanger every cook knows how troublesome it is to have several things hanging on one nail. when one of the articles is wanted it is usually at the back, and the others must be removed to secure it. a revolving rack for hanging a can opener, egg beater and cooking spoons, etc., takes up less space than several nails, and places every article within easy reach as well as providing individual hooks for all the pieces. [illustration: the hook support revolves so as to make each one readily accessible for hanging utensils] the rack is easily made of a block of wood, - / in. in diameter and in. thick; an arm, / in. wide, / in. thick and in. long, and a metal bracket. the arm is fastened to the bracket and the bracket to the wall. a screw is turned through a loose-fitting hole bored in the end of the arm and into the disk. screw hooks are placed around the edge of the disk as hangers.--contributed by a. r. moore, toronto, can. homemade hinges for boxes a very simple form of hinge can be made as shown in the sketch. it is merely a matter of cutting out two pieces of flat steel, a, punching holes in them for screws or nails, and fastening them to the box corners, one on each side. when the box is open, the lid swings back clear and is out of the way. a hinge of this kind is very strong. for a light box, the parts can be cut from tin.--contributed by chas. homewood, waterloo, iowa. [illustration: hinge parts made of sheet metal and their use on a box cover] to remove odors from ice boxes an easy way to prevent odors in an ice box is to place a can of coke in the box. this will take up all gases and prevent milk from tasting of onions or vegetables which may be kept in the box. in factories where bad odors are apt to spoil the men's lunches put up in pails or baskets, a box can be constructed to hold these receptacles and a large pail of coke placed in it. anything placed in this box will remain free from odors, and fresh.--contributed by loren ward, des moines, iowa. preventing window sash from freezing to the sill when it is cold enough to cause the window sash to freeze fast in the bathroom and bedrooms not having double sash, much discomfort will be experienced and the health may even be menaced. i have discovered a simple method to overcome this difficulty. lay on the outside sill, close up against the window frame, a thin, narrow strip of wood, on which the window can rest when down. this gives a continual current of fresh air between the sashes at the center, but no unpleasant draft below, and no amount of dripping and freezing will fasten the window sash upon it.--contributed by mary murry, amherst, nova scotia. a hanger for the camp [illustration] a garment, or utensil, hanger can be easily made for the camp in the following manner: procure a long strap, about - / in. wide, and attach hooks made of wire to it. each hook should be about in. long and of about no. gauge wire. bend a ring on one end of the wire and stick the other end through a hole punched in the center of the belt. the ring will prevent the wire from passing through the leather, and it should be bent in such a manner that the hook end of the wire will hang downward when the width of the belt is vertical. these hooks are placed about in. apart for the length of the belt, allowing sufficient ends for a buckle and holes. the strap can be buckled around a tree or tent pole.--contributed by w. c. loy, rochester, ind. * * * * * never stand in a direct line of a swiftly revolving object, such as an emery wheel. locking several drawers with one lock [illustration] a lock for a number of drawers in a bench or cabinet may be applied with a strip of wood hinged to the cabinet edge so that it will overlap the drawer fronts, as shown. a hasp and staple complete the arrangement for use with a padlock.--contributed by h. w. hahn, chicago. a lightning-calculation trick by means of a simple arrangement of numbers, a calculation can be made which will easily puzzle any unsuspecting person. if the two numbers , and be written out in multiplication form, very few will endeavor to write down the answer directly without first going through the regular work. by placing the in front of the and the back of the , the answer is obtained at once, thus: , � = , , . a larger number which can be treated in the same way is the following: , , , , � = , , , , . an adjustable nutcracker [illustration] the advantage of the nutcracker shown in the illustration is that it can be adjusted to various-sized nuts. the handles are similar to those usually found on nutcrackers except that they are slotted at the cracking end to receive a special bar. this bar is in. long, / in. wide, and / in. thick, with / -in. holes drilled in it at intervals to allow for adjustment. cotters are used in the holes as pins. substitute for a rubber stamp a large number of coupons had to be marked, and having no suitable rubber stamp at hand, i selected a cork with a smooth end and cut the initials in it. i found that it worked as well, not to say better, than a rubber stamp. an ordinary rubber-stamp pad was used for inking. angular letters will cut better than curved ones, as the cork quickly dulls the edge of any cutting tool.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. [illustration: initials cut in a cork served the purpose in the absence of a rubber stamp] a furniture polish a good pastelike furniture polish, which is very cheap and keeps indefinitely, can be made as follows: mix oz. of white wax, oz. of pearlash, commonly known as potassium carbonate, and oz. of water. heat the mixture until it becomes dissolved, then add oz. of boiled linseed oil and oz. of turpentine. stir well and pour into cans to cool. apply with a cloth and rub to a polish. the paste is nonpoisonous. a hanging vase [illustration] a very neat and attractive hanging corner vase can be made of a colored bottle. the bottom is broken out or cut off as desired and a wire hanger attached as shown. the opening in the neck of the bottle is well corked. rectangular shaped bottles fitted with hangers can be used on walls.--contributed by a. d. tanaka, jujiya, kioto, japan. filing soft metals it is well known to mechanics that when lead, tin, soft solder or aluminum are filed, the file is soon filled with the metal and it will not cut. it cannot be cleaned like the wood rasp by dipping it into hot water or pouring boiling water over it, but if the file and the work are kept wet with water, there will be no trouble whatever. both file and work must be kept thoroughly wet at all times.--contributed by j. h. beebee, rochester, n. y. locking screws in door hinges when screws once work loose in hinges of doors they will never again hold firmly in the same hole. this trouble can be avoided if the screws are securely locked when they are first put on the door. the sketch shows a very successful way to lock the screws. the hole in the hinge for the screw is filed to produce a notch, as shown at a, deep enough to receive a small wire nail or brad, which is driven through the slot in the screw head at one side, as shown at b. [illustration: the screw is permanently locked with a small nail driven into the slot prepared for it] to remove grease from clothing equal parts of ether, ammonia and alcohol make a solution that will readily remove grease from clothing. the solution must be kept away from fire, and should be contained in corked bottles as it evaporates quickly, but can be used without danger. it removes grease spots from the finest fabrics and is harmless to the texture. * * * * * jeweler's rouge rubbed well into chamois skin is handy to polish gold and silver articles with. [illustration: stove made of an old oilcan with extending sides and weighted with sand for use on a fishing boat holds the cooking vessel safely in a sea] a canoe stove by f. v. williams limited space and the rocking motion of salmon-fishing boats in a heavy sea on the pacific coast brought about the construction of the canoe stove shown in the illustration. it is made of a discarded kerosene can whose form is square. a draft hole is cut in one side of the can, or in. from the bottom, and a layer of sand placed on the bottom. two holes are punched through opposite sides, parallel with the draft hole and about in. from the top edge. rods are run through these holes to provide a support for the cooking utensil. the smoke from the fire passes out at the corners around the vessel. [illustration] the main reason for making the stove in this manner is to hold the cooking vessel within the sides extending above the rods. no amount of rocking can cause the vessel to slide from the stove top, and as the stove is weighted with the sand, it cannot be easily moved from the place where it is set in the canoe. the use of such a stove in a canoe has the advantage that the stove can be cleaned quickly, as the ashes and fire can be dumped into the water and the stove used for a storage box. the whole thing may be tossed overboard and a new one made for another trip. to prevent washboard from slipping in tub the modern stationary washtubs are box-shaped, with one side set at an outward angle or slope. the washboard, when used in these tubs, will slide up and down against the sloping part of the tub while the clothes are rubbed against them. this annoying trouble can be avoided by tacking, on the top edge of the board, strips of rubber cut from a discarded bicycle tire, placing the rubber side out. the friction of the rubber prevents any motion of the board.--contributed by jas. a. hart, philadelphia, pa. * * * * * to print on celluloid, use a good gloss ink and old rollers. clips to hold magazine pages together [illustration] when a magazine is placed in a bookcase the outer pages are liable to turn back if it is inserted with the back on the outside. to overcome this difficulty i made clips for each magazine to hold the open pages together. each clip was made of wire, about in. long, shaped as shown. the width of the clip is made equal to the thickness of the magazine and the extending ends are slightly pressed together so that they will spring and grip the pages.--contributed by w. a. saul, e. lexington, massachusetts. slide-opening cover for a plate holder the length of time required for the slide of a plate holder to be removed on a reflecting camera spoiled many of my plates, because strong light would enter the unprotected slot when the camera was in certain positions. to protect this slot so that the slide could be left out indefinitely, i made a cover of a piece of sheet metal having three slots, to admit screws turned into the camera. a knob was attached at the center. the illustration shows the application of this cover. in fig. the plate holder is shown slipped in with the cover back, and fig. shows the slide drawn and the cover over the slot opening.--contributed by b. j. weeber, new york city. [illustration: the two positions occupied by the slide-opening cover as it is used on a camera (fig. , fig. )] magnetic-suspension pendulum when a pendulum is not periodically supplied with energy its amplitude grows smaller and finally the motion ceases, due to the resistance of the air and the friction at the point of suspension. usually the suspension is in the form of a knife edge bearing against plates of agate; sometimes the pendulum rod is simply attached to a very slender and flexible spring without any bearings. but the minimum of friction is obtained by means of magnetic suspension, as the following experiment will prove. if the rod of a pendulum about in. long, beating half seconds, is sharpened to a needle point and suspended from one of the poles of a magnet, it will be found that, if set into motion, it will continue to swing times as long as the ordinary knife-edge suspended pendulum, and it will not stop until after about hours, while one working on agate plates will stop in from to minutes. similarly a top, provided with a fine-pointed axis of iron, will spin much longer when suspended from a magnet. magnetic suspension is used in precision instruments; for example, the minute mirrors which are used in certain telegraph systems to register writing photographically at the receiving end. use for pencil stubs [illustration] in mechanical drawings cast iron is indicated by a series of straight lines across the parts made of this material. these lines can be quickly made with the usually discarded pencil stubs, if these are saved and sharpened in the following manner: the point is filed flat, as shown at a; then a slot is filed in the center of the lead with a knife file, as shown at b, and the points sharpened as in c. in this way two lines are drawn at one stroke neatly and in half the time.--contributed by j. kolar, maywood, ill. * * * * * to sharpen a carving knife draw the edge through and against the open edge of a pair of shears. [illustration] how to build a paddle-wheel boat by p. a. baumeister the paddle-wheel boat, illustrated herewith, was built in the spare time i had on rainy afternoons and saturdays, and the enjoyment i derived from it at my summer camp more than repaid me for the time spent in the building. the materials used in its construction were: side boards, ft. long, in. wide and / in. thick. side boards, ft. long, in. wide and / in. thick. outside keel board, ft. long, in. wide and / in. thick. inside keel board, ft. long. in. wide and / in. thick. sq. ft. of tongue-and-groove boards, / in. thick, for bottom and wheel boxes. piece, in. square and in. long. washers. iron cranks. screweyes. ft. of rope. nails. the dimensions given in the drawing will be found satisfactory, but these may be altered to suit the conditions. the first step will be to cut and make the sides. nail the two pieces forming each side together and then cut the end boards and nail them to the sides. lay this framework, bottom side up, on a level surface and proceed to nail on the bottom boards across the sides. the ends of these boards are sawed off flush with the outside surface of the sides after they are nailed in place. the material list calls for tongue-and-groove boards for the bottom, but plain boards can be used, although it is then difficult to make the joint water-tight. when the tongue-and-groove boards are used a piece of string, well soaked in white lead or paint and placed in the groove of each board, will be sufficient to make a tight joint. having finished the sides and bottom, the next step will be to fasten on the bottom keel. adjust the board to its position and nail it in the center part where it lies flat on the bottom boards, then work toward the ends, gradually drawing it down over the turn and nailing it down. if the keel board cannot be bent easily, it is best to soak it in hot water where the bend takes place and the wood can then be nailed down without the fibers breaking. the inside keel is put on in the same manner, but reversed. [illustration: the boat as it appears without the spring and running board and used as a pleasure craft or for carrying freight, the operator facing in the direction of the boat's travel] the next procedure is to make the paddle wheels. the hub for each wheel is made of a -in. square piece of timber, in. long. trim off the corners to make sides to the piece, then bore a / -in. hole through its center. the blades of each wheel, in all, are in. long, in. wide and / in. thick. one end of each blade is nailed to one side of the hub, then it is braced as shown to strengthen the wheel. [illustration: detail drawing of the boat and one of the paddle wheels. all the material required for the construction is such that can be cut and shaped with ordinary tools found in the home workshop] the cranks are made of round iron, / in. in diameter, and they are keyed to the wheels with large nails in the manner shown. i had a blacksmith shape the cranks for me, but if one has a forge, the work can be done at home without that expense. the bearings for the crankshafts consist of wood, although it is preferable to use for this purpose two large iron washers, having a hole slightly larger than the diameter of the shaft, and drill holes in their rims so that they can be screwed to the wheel-box upright as shown. the bearings thus made are lubricated with a little lard or grease. [illustration: detail of paddle-wheel fastening, the springboard construction and the fastening for the rudder control] the paddle-wheel boxes are built over the wheels with the dimensions given in the drawing, to prevent the splashing of water on the occupants of the boat. the trimmings for the boat consist of three seats, a running board and a springboard. the drawings show the location of the seats. the springboard is built up of boards, / in. thick, as shown, only nailing them together at the back end. this construction allows the boards to slide over each other when a person's weight is on the outer end. the action of the boards is the same as of a spring on a vehicle. it is necessary to have a good brace across the boat for the back end of the springboard to catch on--a by -in. timber being none too large. at the point where the springboard rests on the front seat there should be another good-sized crosspiece. the board can be held in place by a cleat and a few short pieces of rope, the cleat being placed across the board back of the brace. a little diving platform is attached on the outer end of the springboard and a strip of old carpet or gunny sack placed on it to prevent slivers from running into the flesh. in making the spring and running board, it is advisable to make them removable so that the boat can be used for other purposes. the boat is steered with a foot-operated lever, the construction of which is clearly shown. for the tiller-rope guides, large screweyes are used and also for the rudder hinges, the pin of the hinge being a large nail. the hull can be further strengthened by putting a few angle-iron braces either on the in or outside. to make the boat water-tight will require calking by filling the cracks with twine and white lead or thick paint. the necessary tools are a broad, dull chisel and a mallet. a couple of coats of good paint, well brushed into the cracks, will help to make it watertight as well as shipshape. the boat may leak a little when it is first put into the water, but after a few hours of soaking, the boards will swell and close the openings. this boat was used for carrying trunks, firewood, rocks, sand, and for fishing, and last, but not least, for swimming. the boat is capable of carrying a load of three-quarters of a ton. it draws very little water, thereby allowing its use in shallow water. it has the further advantage that the operator faces in the direction the boat is going, furnishing the power with his hands and steering with his feet. a camp loom [illustration: loom constructed of sticks for weaving grass or moss into a camp mattress] the camper who desires to "rough it" as much as possible and to carry only the necessities will find it quite a comfort to construct the bedding from grass or moss by weaving it in the manner of making a rag carpet, using heavy twine or small rope as the warp. two stakes are set the width of the bed or mattress to be made, and a cross stick is attached to their tops. several stakes are set parallel with the cross stick and at a distance to make the length of the mattress. the warp is tied between the tops of the stakes and the cross stick. an equal number of cords are then attached to the cross stick and to another loose cross stick which is used to move the cords up and down while the grass or moss is placed in for the woof. the ends of the warp are then tied to hold it together. when breaking up camp the cords can be removed and carried to the next camp.--contributed by w. p. shaw, bloor west, can. a milk-bottle carrier carrying a milk bottle by the rim is tiresome work for the fingers, so i constructed a handle, as shown in the sketch, from a piece of wire. the carrier can be easily placed in the pocket. [illustration: a carrier made of wire to quickly attach on a milk-bottle neck] the part fitting under the rim of the bottle neck is bent to form two semicircles, one hooking permanently at a, while the other is hooked at b after it is sprung around the neck of the bottle.--contributed by lawrence b. robbins, harwich, mass. how to make a war kite by park snyder the material required for the making of a war kite is three pine sticks, each in. long, one stick in. long, one stick in. long, all / in. square; yd. of cambric; a box of tacks; some linen thread, and ft. of stout twine. place two -in. sticks parallel with each other and in. apart, then lay the -in. piece across at right angles to them in. from the upper ends, as shown in fig. , and fasten the joints with brads. at a point in. below this crosspiece, attach the -in. crosspiece. [illustration: the line should be a very strong one, then banners can be flown on it] the extending ends of all the three long pieces are notched, fig. , and the line is stretched taut around them, as shown by the dotted lines. [illustration: the sticks are fastened solidly with brads, and the cloth sewed to the string around their ends (fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. )] if the cambric is not of sufficient size to cover the frame, two pieces must be sewed together, then a piece cut out to the shape of the string, allowing in. to project all around for a lap. the cambric is sewn fast to the string with the linen thread. fasten the cloth to the frame part with the tacks, spacing them in. apart. the space in the center, between the sticks, is cut out. make two pieces of the remaining goods, one in. by in., and the other in. by in. the remaining -in. stick is fastened to these pieces of cambric, as shown in fig. , and the whole is fastened to the main frame so as to make a v-shaped projection. the bridle strings, for giving the proper distribution of pull on the line to the kite, are fastened, one to the upper end of the long stick in the v-shaped piece attached to the kite, and the other to the lower end, as shown in fig. . the inclination can be varied to suit the builder by changing the point of attachment of the kite line to the bridle. if it is desired to fly the kite directly overhead, attach the line above the regular point and for low flying make the connection below this point. the regular point is found by trial flights with the line fastened temporarily to the bridle, after which the fastening is made permanent. paper glider that loops the loop by c. a. thompson the usual paper glider shaped as shown in fig. can be made to loop the loop and make corkscrew flights if prepared according to sketches herewith. it should be carefully made in the first place so that in its regular form it flies perfectly straight. [illustration: ordinary paper glider and the manner of throwing it to make the different flights (fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. )] to make the glider loop, the rear corners of the wings should be turned up at right angles, as in fig. , and the glider launched with a great deal of force with the nose pointed slightly upward. this will require some practice, but one soon learns the trick. after looping once, as shown in fig. , the glider descends in volplane. this form of glider will also right itself, if dropped from a height, nose downward, as shown in fig. . for a corkscrew flight the glider is prepared as in fig. ; one rear corner being bent up and the other down. in this form it flies horizontally, or downward, while rapidly rotating around its longitudinal axis, as shown in fig. . to make a spiral descent, the rear corners of the wings are bent up as in fig. , and, further, the rear corner of the keel is bent at right angles, fig. , whereupon it is thrown in the ordinary manner. it then takes the course shown in fig. . a water filter a cheap and very effective water filter can be made of a flower pot by plugging the hole in the bottom with a piece of sponge and fitting it as follows: place powdered charcoal on top of the sponge to a depth of in., then in. of clean silver sand, and lastly in. of small stones and gravel. it is hung with a bail at the top. a combination electrically operated door lock the illustration shows a very useful application of an ordinary electric door lock in the construction of a combination lock and alarm to be operated from the outside of the building. [illustration: the brass-tack heads holding the numerals in place constitute the combination points] the three numerals, , , and , or any other combination of numbers constituting the house number on a door, are made of some kind of insulating material and fastened in place on a base of insulating fiber, or wood, about / in. thick, by means of ordinary brass-headed tacks, as indicated by the black dots. the tacks will extend through the base a short distance so the electrical connections may be made by soldering wires to them, as shown by the diagram, alternate tacks being connected together with the exception of three; for instance, a, b, and c. the terminals of the leads that are connected to alternate tacks are in turn connected to the terminals of a circuit composed of an ordinary vibrating bell, d, and battery, e. if any two adjacent tack heads be connected together, except tacks a, b, and c, the bell circuit will be completed and the bell ring, which will serve as an indication that some one is tampering with the circuit. the person knowing the combination, connects the tack heads a and b, and at the same time connects the tack head c with f or g, or any other tack head that is connected to the plus side of the battery, whereby a circuit will be completed through the lock h and the door is opened. any metallic substance, such as a knife, key, or finger ring, may be used in making the above indicated connection, and there will be no need of carrying a key for this particular door so long as the combination is known. the base upon which the numbers are mounted and through which the points of the tacks protrude, should be mounted on a second base that has a recess cut in its surface to accommodate the wires and points of the tacks. the combination may be made more or less complicated, as desired, by connecting the tacks in different ways, and by using a separate battery for the bell and lock. the circuit leading to the door lock, if there is one already installed, may be used and then no extra circuit is needed. such a device has been used on a private-desk drawer with entire satisfaction. the battery was placed in the back end of the drawer, and if it happened to fail, a new one could be connected to the points b and j so that the drawer could be opened and a new battery put in. lock for a fancy hairpin [illustration: the bend in the pin will hold in the hair and prevent the loss of the pin] to avoid losing a fancy hairpin, bend one leg of the pin as shown in the illustration. the hair caught in the notch formed by the bend will prevent the pin from dropping out.--contributed by w. c. loy, rochester, ind. * * * * * a metal surface polished with oil will keep clean longer than when polished dry. [illustration] an aeroplane kite by w. a. reich after building a number of kites from a recent description in amateur mechanics i branched out and constructed the aeroplane kite shown in the illustration, which has excited considerable comment in the neighborhood on account of its appearance and behavior in the air. [illustration] the main frame consists of a center-stick, a, in. long, and two cross-sticks, of which one, b, is in. long and the other, c, - / in. long. the location of the crosspieces on the centerpiece a is shown in the sketch, the front piece b being - / in. from the end, and the rear piece c, - / in. from the other end. the ends of the sticks have small notches cut to receive a string, d, which is run around the outside to make the outline of the frame and to brace the parts. two cross-strings are placed at e and f, in. from either end of the centerpiece a, other brace strings being crossed, as shown at g, and then tied to the cross-string f on both sides, as at h. [illustration: the kite being tailless rides the air waves like an aeroplane in a steady breeze] the long crosspiece b is curved upward to form a bow, the center of which should be - / in. above the string by which its ends are tied together. the shorter crosspiece is bent and tied in the same manner to make the curve - / in., and the centerpiece to curve - / in., both upward. the front and rear parts, between the end and the cross-strings e and f, are covered with yellow tissue paper, which is pasted to the crosspieces and strings. the small wings l are purple tissue paper, in. wide at m and tapering to a point at n. the bridle string is attached on the centerpiece a at the junction of the crosspieces b and c, and must be adjusted for the size and weight of the kite. the kite is tailless and requires a steady breeze to make it float in the air currents like an aeroplane. the bridle string and the bending of the sticks must be adjusted until the desired results are obtained. the bridle string should be tied so that it will about center under the cross-stick b for the best results, but a slight change from this location may be necessary to make the kite ride the air currents properly. the center of gravity will not be the same in the construction of each kite and the string can be located only by trial, after which it is permanently fastened. [illustration: general plan and outline of the kite, which may be built in any size, if the proportions are kept, and its appearance in the air on a steady breeze] distilling apparatus for water [illustration: homemade still for removing the impurities in water that is used in mixing chemicals] pure water, free from all foreign substances, is frequently wanted for making up photographic solutions and many other purposes. an apparatus for distilling water can be very easily made from galvanized pipe fittings. the outer cooling jacket a is a piece of -in. pipe, ft. long, threaded on both ends, and bored and tapped for / -in. pipe at b and c. a hole is bored and tapped for / -in. pipe in each of the two caps used on the ends of the pipe a, and a piece of / -in. pipe, d, ft. in. long, is run through the holes as shown. the joints are soldered to make them water-tight. two / -in. nipples, in. long, are screwed in at b and c. the retort, or boiler, e, in which the impure water is boiled may be made of any suitable vessel and heated with a bunsen or gas burner. a beaker, or other vessel, f, is placed below the lower end of the small pipe. the cold water from the faucet, which flows into the outer jacket at c and out at b, condenses the steam in the small pipe d, turning it into water which falls into the beaker in large drops. the water is often distilled a second time to remove any impurities which it might still contain.--contributed by o. e. tronnes, evanston, ill. telephone stand for a sloping desk having a sloping-top desk and being compelled to use the telephone quite frequently, i devised a support for the telephone so that it might stand level and not fall off. the sides of the stand were cut on the same slope as the desk top, and their under edges were provided with rubber strips to prevent slipping.--contributed by j. m. kane, doylestown, pa. [illustration: stand with a level surface for a desk telephone to be used on a sloping desk top] [illustration] tandem monoplane glider by george f. mace the monoplane glider illustrated has better fore-and-aft stability than the biplane, is lighter in proportion to the supporting surface, simpler to build, and requires very little time to assemble or take apart. the material list is as follows: frame pieces of bamboo, ft. long, tapering from - / to in. pieces of spruce, / in. thick, in. wide, and ft. long. pieces of spruce, / in. thick, in. wide, and ft. long. wings main-wing bars, spruce, / in. thick, - / in. wide, and ft. long. wing crosspieces, spruce, / in. square, and ft. long. wing ribs, poplar or spruce, / in. thick, / in. wide, and in. long. the first thing to do is to make the main frame which is composed of the four bamboo poles. the poles take the corners of a -ft. square space and are supported with the pieces of spruce that are ft. and ft. long, the shorter lengths running horizontally and the longer upright, so that each upright piece extends ft. above the two upper poles. all joints should be fastened with / -in. stove bolts. the wire used to truss the glider is no. gauge piano wire. the trussing is done in all directions, crossing the wires between the frame parts, except in the center or space between the four poles. [illustration: the start of the glide should be made from the top of a hill, then a little run will carry the airman several hundred feet through the air] the framework of the main wings is put together by bolting one of the crosspieces at each end of two wing bars, then another ft. from each end, whereupon the wing bars are bolted to the main frame. the frame is then braced diagonally between these pieces. the ribs, spaced ft. apart, are fastened to this frame with -in. brads. the ribs are so bent that the highest part will be or in. above the horizontal. the bending must be uniform and is done when fastening them in place. the material used to cover the wings and rudders is strong muslin. the cloth is first tacked to the front wing bar, then to the ribs, and sewed to a wire which is fastened between the ends of the ribs. large brass-head tacks should be used through a strip of tape to fasten the cloth to the ribs. the rear wings are constructed in a similar manner. after the cloth is in place it is coated with starch or varnish. [illustration: details of tandem monoplane glider, showing the main frame and wing construction, and the manner of placing the crossed bracing wires between the parts and to the wing ends] [illustration] the two vertical rectangular spaces in the main frame, just under the rear wings, are covered with cloth to act as a rudder. the upper and lower bracing wires for the wings are attached with snaps and rings so that the glider can be easily taken apart. it is best not to use the glider in a wind greater than miles an hour. it is started from the top of a hill in the usual manner. glides can be made running from to several hundred feet. carrier for a suitcase where it is necessary to carry a well filled and heavy suitcase the light truck shown in the sketch will be a great assistance. the truck is constructed on the folding plan, similar to a go-cart, and can be carried on the side of the case. the wheels are those used on a go-cart, with rubber tires and about in. in diameter. these are fitted to standards carrying a hinged top piece, the upper ends of the standards being hinged in a like manner. the standards should be cut to the proper length for the person carrying the suitcase.--contributed by mrs. harriet m. s. kerbaugh, allentown, pa. [illustration: the small truck will greatly assist the carrying of a heavily loaded suitcase] light in a keyhole remove the lock and cut the mortise deep enough to admit a -volt battery lamp with a suitable socket attached. the lamp is then connected to wires which are concealed and run to a battery of three dry cells in the basement or other convenient place. a small push button is attached in the line and placed near the knob on the door. a small recess must be cut in the mortise so that the light from the lamp will shine directly on the inside of the plate over the keyhole.--contributed by armand f. lamarre, st. remi, can. [illustration] how to make a monoplane glider by william grotzinger a simple glider of the monoplane type can be easily constructed in a small workshop; the cost of materials is not great and the building does not require skilled workmen. select the material with care and see that the wood is straight-grained and free from knots. the following list of spruce pieces is required: main wing spars, / by - / in. by ft. rudder spars, / by in. by ft. wing crosspieces, / by / in. by ft. rudder crosspieces, / by / in. by ft. piece for main-frame crosspieces, / by in. by ft. arm pieces, - / by in. by - / ft. the following list of poplar pieces is required in making the supports for the cloth covering on the wings and rudders. main-wing ribs, / by / by in. rudder ribs, / by / by in. rudder ribs, / by / by in. the following list of oak pieces is needed: piece, / by - / in. by ft. piece, / by - / in. by ft. piece, / by / in. by - / ft. pieces, / by - / in. by ft. pieces, / by by in. in addition to the lists given, four pieces of bamboo, ft. long, tapering from or - / in. at the large end to / in. at the small end, are used for the main frame. [illustration: monoplane glider in flight] construction the first part to make is the main frame a which is constructed of the four bamboo poles. they are made into a rectangular frame with crossbars marked b cut to the right length from the -ft. piece of spruce, / in. by in. the bars c and d are of oak cut from the -ft. piece, / in. by - / in. all of these crossbars are fastened together in rectangular form by means of stove bolts. the bamboo poles are then bolted to the inner corners of the frames with / -in. bolts. place the bolts through the bamboo close to a joint to prevent splitting. the frame is then rigidly trussed by diagonal wires marked e crossing all rectangles. the wire used for trussing all the parts throughout the glider is piano wire, gauge. the arm pieces are bolted to the sides of the rectangular frames beneath the wings. [illustration: plan view] [illustration: side elevation] [illustration: front elevation] [illustration: wing bar] the framework of the main wings or planes should be put together by bolting the cross struts f at regular intervals on the under side of the main spars g. brace the frame diagonally with the piano wire. the ribs are nailed to the main spars by using -in. brads. the ribs are spaced ft. apart, and curved so that the highest part will be in. from the horizontal. each rib extends in. back of the rear spar. the rudder is made in the same manner. the vertical rudder is made to fold. a small pocket arrangement h is made from which the rigs of the vertical rudder diverge. the covering of the wings and rudders should be a good quality of muslin or some light aeronautical goods. the cloth should be tacked to the front spar, to the ribs, and then sewn to a wire which connects the ends of the ribs. construct the triangular arrangement marked j to which the wings are braced. the wing bar supports are shown in the illustration. the bottom wires are braced to the crossbar k shown in the front elevation. the bracing wires are all fastened to a snaphook which can be snapped into the rings at the places marked l. this method will allow one quickly to assemble or take apart the plane and store it in a small place. the vertical rudder should be braced from each rib to the front spar of the horizontal rudder and then braced by the wires m to hold the rudder from falling back. the rudder is then braced to the main frame and the main frame is braced by the wires n to the wings. this will hold the plane rigid. use snaphooks and eyebolts wherever possible so that the plane can be quickly assembled. assembling the triangular arrangement j is bolted to the wings and the top wires put in place. the wings are then put on the main frame and bolted to the bars marked c and d, after which the bottom wires are fixed in place. gliding take the glider to the top of a hill, step into the center of the main frame just a little back of the center of the wings. put your arms around the arm pieces, face the wind and run a few steps. you will be lifted off the ground and carried down the slope. the balancing is done by shifting the legs. the glides should be short at first, but by daily practice, and, as the operator gains skill, glides can be made up to a length of several hundred feet. do not attempt to fly in a wind having a velocity of more than miles an hour. exerciser for a chained dog the exerciser consists of a disk, ft. in diameter, pivoted in the ground near the kennel. the disk revolves on a / -in. pin set in a post made of a by -in. piece of timber. the disk is made of common lumber fastened together with battens on the under side. our dog seems to enjoy this kind of exercise.--contributed by hazel duncan, denver, colo. [illustration: revolving disk exerciser] a laboratory gas generator the sketch illustrates a gas generator designed for laboratories where gases are needed in large quantities and frequently. the shelf holding the large inverted bottle is of thick wood, and to reinforce the whole apparatus, a -in. copper strip is placed around the bottle tightly and fastened with screws turned into the woodwork. the shelf above is attached last, and upon it rests the bottle of commercial acid required in the gas generation. the pump shown is for use in starting the siphon. [illustration: gas generator of large capacity that will work automatically as the gas is removed] the large bottle used as a generator may be either a or -gal. size, and after it is placed in the position shown, a sufficient amount of the solid reagent needed in gas generating is placed in the mouth before the exit tube, leading away below, is fixed in position. if sulphureted hydrogen is required, ferrous sulphide is used; if hydrogen is required, zinc is placed within; and to make a carbon dioxide, marble, or its equivalent, is inserted. whatever gas is required, a sufficient quantity of the solid material is put in to last for some time in order not to disturb the fastenings. when all is ready, the pump is used gently to start the acid over the siphon and into the generator from below. the gas generated by the action of the acid on the solid soon fills the bottle. the screw clamp on the exit tube is loosened and the gas passes into the bottle of water and charges it, in the case when sulphureted hydrogen is required. in the other cases, when sufficient gas has been generated, the screw clamp is tightened, and the gas soon attains considerable pressure which forces the acid back out of the generator and into the acid bottle above. the whole apparatus now comes to an equilibrium, and the gas in the generator is ready for another use.--contributed by w. m. mills, bakersfield, cal. holding small armatures for winding procure a strip of sheet metal, in. long, in. wide, or as wide as the armature core is long, and / in. thick. bend this into a u-shape, as shown, and file each end similar to the barb on a fishhook. drill two holes for a bolt to pass through the sheet-metal ends. fasten a screw or bolt in the center of the bend, to be used for gripping in a chuck or polishing head. core segments can be quickly wound with this device.--contributed by geo. b. schulz, austin, illinois. [illustration: armature cores are easily revolved to fill the core openings with insulated wire] [illustration] footstool for cement floors a clerk finding the cement floor of the office uncomfortably cold to the feet, devised a footstool in the following manner: a shallow box was procured, and four small truck casters were fastened to the bottom. a piece of carpet was laid on the inside of the bottom and some old newspapers placed on top of it. when seated at the desk, he placed his feet inside the box on the papers. the casters elevated the box from the cement, just high enough to avoid dampness and cold, and permitted an easy change of position.--contributed by l. alberta norrell, gainesville, ga. homemade telegraph sounder the material required to construct a telegraph sounder, like the one shown in the sketch, consists of two binding posts, magnets, a piece of sheet metal, and a rubber band. these are arranged as shown, on a wood base or, better still, on a metal box. in using a metal-box base, be sure to insulate the connections at the magnet coils and binding posts. [illustration: an inexpensive and homemade sounder for use in learning the telegraph codes] this instrument will be found by those studying the telegraph codes to give good results, equal to any of the expensive outfits sold for this purpose.--contributed by chas. j. la prille, flushing, n. y. laboratory force filter the sketch represents a force filter which is well adapted for use in small laboratories. the water is turned on at the faucet and draws the air through the side tube by suction, which in turn draws the air in a steady stream through the wolff bottles. the tubes may be attached to a filter inserted in a filter bottle and filtering thus greatly facilitated. the connection to the faucet can be made, as shown in the detailed sketch, out of a long cork, by boring a hole large enough to fit the faucet through the cork and another slanting hole, joining the central hole, on the side for a pipe or tube. at the lower end of the cork a tube is also fitted, which may be drawn out to increase the suction. the inclined tube should be slightly bent at the lower end.--contributed by w. m. mills, bakersfield, cal. [illustration: a slight vacuum is formed by the water flowing through the cork, which forces the filter] beginner's helper for roller skating one of the most amusing as well as useful devices for a beginner on roller skates is shown in the sketch. the device is made of / -in. pipe and pipe fittings, with a strip of sheet metal in. wide fastened about half way down on the legs. on the bottom of each leg is fastened an ordinary furniture caster which allows the machine to roll easily on the floor. the rear is left open to allow the beginner to enter, then by grasping the top rail he is able to move about on the floor at ease, without fear of falling.--contributed by j. h. harris, berkeley, cal. [illustration: beginner cannot fall] atmospheric thermo-engine the device illustrated has for its object the production of power in small quantities with little attention and no expense. all that is needed to produce the power is common ordinary water, and the device will continue to operate until the amount of water placed in the receptacle has evaporated. [illustration: details of the engine] the device consists of a rectangular vessel provided with legs and a cover. each end of the vessel is provided with an opening, a, adapted to receive and hold in place plaster-of-paris cups, b. the part extending into the tank is provided with a wick, c, which reaches to the bottom of the vessel. a glass tube, d, is provided with a bulb on each end and partly filled with alcohol, the remaining space being exhausted of air. the glass tube is secured to a hanger which is pivoted to the bottom of the vessel. after a quantity of water has been poured into the vessel and the device allowed to stand undisturbed for a few minutes, the tube will begin to move with an oscillating motion. some of the water in the vessel has been conducted by means of the wicks c to the bent plaster cups, from the surface of which it evaporates, thus absorbing latent heat and producing a lower temperature in the cups than that of the surrounding atmosphere. the bulb in contact with the cup thus acquires a lower temperature than the one at the end d, which will result in condensation of the alcohol vapor within the former. the pressure of the vapor in the lower bulb will then force the alcohol up the inclined tube into the higher bulb, the evaporation in the lower bulb maintaining the pressure therein. when a sufficient quantity of alcohol has been forced into the upper bulb, it will descend, and thus elevate the other bulb into its cup. the phenomena just described will be repeated in this bulb and the oscillation will continue until the water in the vessel has been absorbed and evaporated.--contributed by e. w. davis, chicago. a mirror an aid in rowing a boat the young oarsman is apt to experience difficulty in keeping a straight course until he has had some practice. rowing a boat in a narrow channel calls for considerable skill to hold a course in mid-stream. a variation of force in pulling the oars almost instantly results in the rowboat making a landfall on one or the other of the banks. [illustration: the mirror attached to a boat] the skilled oarsman does not need an appliance that the beginner might welcome. with the aid of a mirror conveniently supported at a suitable angle and height before the oarsman's face, the water, the shores and approaching boats may be seen with distinctness. the mirror may be set directly in front or a little distance to one side as shown in the sketch.--contributed by thaleon blake, sidney, o. developing tray made of a tin can obtain a tomato or other can, or in. long and in. in diameter, which should be secured before it has been opened, says camera craft. cut both ends exactly half way around, keeping close to the edge, as shown in the first sketch, and slit it lengthwise to open the side. trim off the end pieces to within in. of the center and cut off the surplus tin of the sides of the can, leaving enough to bend over and form the ends of the tank as shown in the second sketch. [illustration: for developing roll films] the support, as shown in the last sketch, is made by screwing together three pieces of wood, the base piece being - / in. square and thick enough to make the tank solid and heavy. bend the sides of the can over the edges of the two uprights and tack them firmly to the sides, bending the tin so as to have a rounded surface that will not scratch the films. the ends of the can are bent over sharply to form the sides of the tank. procure a round wood stick, the length of the tank, place in position, and fasten with a screw through the tin at both ends. give the whole tank two coats of black asphaltum varnish to protect it from the action of the developer. white rubber on croquet arches [illustration] a white cloth is usually tied to croquet arches when the game is played late in the evening. a much better plan is to slip a piece of white rubber tubing about ft. long on the arch. this tubing can be purchased at any local drug store. this makes the top part of the arch conspicuous so that it may be plainly seen in the dark, and, when the tubing becomes soiled it can be cleaned off with a damp cloth.--contributed by john blake, franklyn, mass. illuminating an outside thermometer during the season of furnace fires the thermometer outside the north window becomes of added interest and usefulness in helping one to judge the proper draft adjustments of the furnace for the night. a pocket electric flashlamp is convenient for examining the thermometer after dark, but it is not always at hand, matches are dangerous when lace curtains are at the window, and besides, the reflection from the glass of both matches and flashlamp on the inside makes it very difficult to read the thermometer. [illustration] to avoid these difficulties i attached to my thermometer the device shown herewith, which consists of a miniature battery lamp placed at the back of the translucent-glass thermometer and operated by a battery within the house, the light being turned on by an ordinary push button placed conveniently inside of the window. a strip of brass, a, / in. wide by / in. thick, was riveted (soldering will do) to the lower support of the thermometer. the free end of this brass strip was bent around a disk of hardwood, b, and fastened to it by three or four small screws in such a manner that the disk made a circular platform just behind the thermometer scale. this disk was slightly larger than the mouth of a small, thin tumbler. on the upper surface of this disk was fastened with shellac and small nails close to the periphery, a disk of cork, / in. thick, this cork disk being a close fit for the mouth of the tumbler. a miniature porcelain electric-lamp socket was fastened with screws on the cork of the base. wires were then run from the lamp socket through the cork and wood disks and the whole painted with melted paraffin to close all apertures and keep out moisture. good rubber-covered electric-light wire will do nicely for the wiring outside the house, although, if it can be obtained, a piece of lead-covered paired wire is preferable. these wires must be only long enough to reach inside the house, where they may be joined to the ordinary sort of wire used in electric-bell work for connecting with push button and battery. a -volt lamp of about cp. will be sufficient to illuminate the thermometer and allow the scale and mercury column to be distinctly seen. it may be found necessary to make some adjustment by bending the brass strip in order to bring the lamp centrally behind the scale and at the proper height to give the best lighting on the range of from to deg. over the lamp is placed the tumbler for protection from the weather, and, if desired, half of the tumbler may be painted as a reflector on the inside with white enamel paint, although, in practice, i have not found this necessary. within the house the push button should be placed at the window where it can be most conveniently reached when viewing the thermometer, and connections may be made to the battery regularly used for ringing the house bells, or to a separate battery of, say, dry cells, placed in some location, as a closet, near the thermometer.--contributed by c. f. a. siedhof, winchester, mass. how to make an automobile robe when driving an automobile in cold weather, it is impossible to have a robe come down over the feet without being in the way so that it is inconvenient in working the pedals. procure a common heavy robe and cut two holes in it about in. from the bottom just large enough for the toe of the shoes to slip through and bind the edges with cloth or fur. the in. of robe below the holes should come back under the feet so that no wind can enter. make the holes far enough apart so that both outside pedals can be reached easily and you will have no trouble with your feet. this robe, with the use of overshoes, will insure comfort in driving a car.--contributed by earl r. hastings, corinth, vt. locating a droplight in the dark it is very hard to locate an electric-light globe in a dark room. anyone trying to find one by striking the air in its vicinity with one hand, usually finds that the globe is not there, although the hand may have passed within / in. of the globe. [illustration: covering a wide range] the best way to locate a globe is to approach the proximity of the drop with thumbs touching and fingers extended as shown in the sketch, in which manner the hands will cover a radius of about in. and offer a better chance of locating the light quickly than if one groped about with one hand extended.--contributed by victor labadie, dallas, tex. lighting a room for making photographs when it becomes too cold for the amateur photographer to take pictures outdoors, he generally lays aside his camera and thinks no more about it until the coming of another spring or summer. while some winter scenes would make up an interesting part of anyone's collection, it is not always pleasant to go out to take them. some derive pleasure from making groups and portraits, but this is very difficult, if the room is not well lighted. overhead light is the best for this work and few residences are constructed to furnish this kind of light. [illustration: light reflected on ceiling] i find a very good way to get a light overhead is to take a large mirror--one from an ordinary dresser will do--and place it in the window in such a position that the reflection will strike the ceiling just above the subject. the result will be a soft but very strong light, almost equal to a north skylight. splendid portraits can be made in this way.--contributed by chas. piper, kokomo, ind. detachable hinged cover for kettles a kettle cover equipped with the hinge shown in fig. will not fall off when in place, and can be raised or removed entirely when desired. [illustration: wire clasps on hinge (fig. , fig. )] one wing of an ordinary hinge is soldered or riveted to the cover and wire clasps soldered to the other wing. it is slipped on the kettle as shown in fig. . the cover is interchangeable and can be placed on almost any kettle. a use for discarded wafer razor blades a paper trimmer and mat cutter can be made from a wafer razor blade. as a paper trimmer, place the blade c over the part a of the razor, as shown, with only two of the holes engaging in one post and the center screw. then place the part b in position and clamp with the handle. this will allow about / in. of the blade to project at one end. if a part of the extending blade is cut or broken off, it will be more easily handled. the cutter is guided along the straightedge as shown in fig. . [illustration: (fig. )] if it is desired to make a more permanent form of instrument, or if no holder is at hand and only a castoff wafer blade, a handle, c, may be cut from a piece of wood and fitted with two or three binding-posts, a, taken from an old battery, to hold the blade b in place, as shown in fig. . [illustration: blade attached to handle (fig. )] armatures for small motors without the proper tools and material, the amateur electrician will find it quite difficult to construct a small armature for a battery motor that will run true, without vibration and have a neat appearance. ordinary cast-iron gears or pinions, as shown in fig. , make excellent cores for armatures on small motors. a gear of any number of teeth can be used for an armature with a smaller number of coils by cutting out a certain number of teeth. for example, a gear with teeth will take coils, but if every other tooth is cut out, it will take only coils, etc. the teeth can be easily chipped out with a cold chisel. [illustration: gear used as a core (fig. , fig. )] larger armatures can be made from gears with spokes, the spokes being cut out, if a ring armature is desired. the gear, when wound, can be mounted on a hub made of empty thread spools. the spool can be turned at one end to insert it in the armature, and if too long, one end will serve for the core of the commutator, as shown in fig. . this combination will make a neat, efficient little armature, which will run quite free from vibration. only simple tools, such as a hammer, cold chisel, file, jackknife and a vise, are required.--contributed by r. j. nault, hartford, conn. ice creeper for shoe heels many persons, young and old, have falls every winter on the ice or snow which can be avoided if their shoes are fitted with ice creepers. a very efficient device of this kind, which any boy can make at home in a short time, is shown in the sketch. these ice creepers need not be removed from the shoes or boots until the winter is past, for they may be worn indoors without injuring the finest floor. the two plates a may be made from either iron or steel--preferably the latter. an all-steel scraper, or a piece of a saw blade, makes good creepers. draw the temper by heating the steel to a cherry red and then letting it cool slowly. it may then be sawn with a hacksaw, cut with a cold chisel, or filed into plates of the proper shape, as shown. the teeth are filed to points. the two l-shaped slots are made by drilling / -in. holes through the plates, and then sawing, filing or chiseling out the metal between the holes. the projections at the ends are then bent out at right angles with heavy pliers or the claws of a hammer, and finally the plates bent to fit the curve of the heel. [illustration: creeper attached to heel] the creepers are attached by means of round-head wood screws turned into the leather. in this operation place the teeth of the plates just below the bottom of the heel and turn the screws into the ends of the upright slots until the heads just bind. the plate as set when indoors or else not needed is shown at b. to place the plate so it will grip the ice, slide it to the right, which will bring the screws into the horizontal slots, as shown at c.--contributed by chelsea c. fraser, saginaw, mich. opening screw-top fruit jars [illustration] screw-top fruit jars may be easily opened in the following manner: secure a strap with a buckle and place it around the top as if it were to be buckled, but instead draw the loose end back and hold it with the thumb as shown. turn cover and strap while held in this position and it will easily turn from the jar.--contributed by chas. a. bickert, clinton, iowa. lamp-chimney cleaner lamp chimneys of various makes are very difficult to clean quickly and thoroughly. the simple device shown in the sketch makes the cleaning process a simple matter. the cleaner is made of a round rubber ball with slits cut in it as shown and then fastened to the end of a stick. when a cloth is placed over the ball it presses evenly against the curved surfaces of the glass. there is no danger of breaking a chimney with this cleaner. [illustration: rubber ball on stick] a pop-corn popper [illustration] the accompanying sketch shows the construction of a pop-corn popper for thoroughly flavoring the corn with the hot butter or lard, and at the same time mixing it with the necessary amount of salt. procure a metal bucket that just fits the bottom of the frying pan. the stirring device is made of heavy wire bent as shown and provided with an empty spool for a handle. a brace is made of tin bent in the shape shown and riveted to the bottom of the bucket.--contributed by f. a. wirth, farwell, texas. a homemade floor polisher an efficient and cheap floor polisher may be readily constructed in the following manner: make a box about by by in., or the exact size may be determined by building it around the household flatirons as these are used to give weight and pressure. the handle, which is attached as shown, should be at least - / in wide at the hinged end and should be sandpapered where it is grasped by the hands. a half-strap hinge is preferable, with the strap part fastened to the handle. the bottom of the polisher is covered with a piece of brussels carpet. [illustration: flatirons in the box] in use, it is well to set the polisher on a soft piece of cotton or flannel cloth, which may be readily renewed when badly soiled. a more sightly polisher may be made by filling the box with pieces of old iron or lead, tightly packed with paper to prevent rattling, and attaching a cover over the top. the handle may be hinged directly to this cover by means of a full-strap hinge.--contributed by b. o. longyear, ft. collins, colo. simple way to mark poison bottles [illustration] a way to prevent any possible mistake of taking bottles containing poisons is to mark them as shown in the sketch. this method provides a way to designate a poison bottle in the dark. the marker is made of a circle of heavy cardboard with a hole in the center so as to fit tightly over the neck of the bottle. no matter how dark it may be or how much of a hurry a person may be in, one cannot fail to note the character of the contents of the bottle as soon as the hand touches the cardboard marker.--contributed by katharine d. morse, syracuse, n. y. removing varnish a good and easy way to remove varnish from old furniture is to wash the surface thoroughly with -per-cent alcohol. this dissolves the varnish and the wood can then be cleaned with a strong solution of soap, or weak lye. if lye is used, it should be washed off quickly and the wood dried with flannel cloth. when the wood is thoroughly dry it will take a fine finish.--contributed by loren ward, des moines, iowa. curling-iron heater the curling-iron holder shown in the sketch can be made of metal tubing having the size to fit both iron and gas jet. one-half of the tubing for a portion of its length is removed, as shown in fig. . the remaining part is bent as in fig. and set on the burner of the gas jet. [illustration: heater on gas jet (fig. , fig. )] the tube prevents the curling iron from becoming black with soot. the position on the jet may be changed. the tube can be placed on the jet and removed with the curling iron.--contributed by w. a. jaquythe, richmond, cal. * * * * * a whisk broom is the best cleaner for a gas stove. it will clean dirt from nickel parts as well as from the burner, grates, ovens and sheet-metal bottoms. preserving flowers in color and form one of the most distressing sides of botanical study is the short life of the colors in flowers. those who have found the usual method of preserving plants by pressure between paper unsatisfactory will be interested to learn of a treatment whereby many kinds of flowers may be dried so that they retain a great deal of their natural form and color. the flowers should be gathered as soon as the blossoms have fully opened. it is important that they should be quite dry, and in order to free them of drops of rain or dew, they may be suspended with heads downward for a few hours in a warm place. it is well to begin with some simple form of flower. [illustration: placing the flowers on the steel pins...] a large, strongly made wooden box--one of tin is better--will be necessary, together with a sufficient amount of sand to fill it. if possible, the sand should be of the kind known as "silver sand," which is very fine. the best that can be procured will be found far from clean, and it must, therefore, be thoroughly washed. the sand should be poured into a bowl of clean water. much of the dirt will float on the surface. this is skimmed off and thrown away, and clean water added. the sand should be washed in this manner at least a dozen times, or until nothing remains but pure white grains of sand. the clean sand is spread out to dry on a cloth in a thin layer. when thoroughly dry, it should be placed in a heavy earthenware vessel and further dried in a hot oven. allow it to remain in the oven for some time until it is completely warmed through so that one can scarcely hold the bare hands in it. [illustration: ...and pouring the dry sand around them] obtain a piece of heavy cardboard and cut it to fit easily in the bottom of the box. through the bottom of the cardboard insert a number of steel pins, one for each of the flowers to be preserved. take the dry blossoms and press the stalk of each on a steel pin so that it is held in an upright position. when the cardboard is thus filled, place it in the box. [illustration: the dried flowers] the warm sand is put in a bag or some other receptacle from which it can be easily poured. pour the sand into the box gently, allowing it to trickle slowly in so that it spreads evenly. keep on pouring sand until the heads of the flowers are reached, taking care that all of them stand in a vertical position. the utmost care must be taken, when the heads are reached, to see that all the petals are in their right order. remember that any crumpled flowers will be pressed into any position they may assume by the weight of the sand. when the box is filled it should be covered and set aside in a dry place. the box should be allowed to stand at least hours. after the first day, if only a small amount of sand has been used, the material may have cooled off to some extent, and the box must be set in a moderately heated oven for a short time, but no great amount of warmth is advisable. after hours the box may be uncovered and the sand carefully poured off. as the flowers are now in a very brittle condition, any rough handling will cause serious damage. when all the sand has been emptied, the cardboard should be removed from the box and each blossom taken from its pin. in the case of succulent specimens, the stems will have shrunk considerably, but the thinner petals will be in an almost natural condition. the colors will be bright and attractive. some tints will have kept better than others, but most of the results will be surprisingly good. whatever state the flowers are in when they are taken from the box, if the drying process has been thorough, they will keep almost indefinitely. flowers preserved in this manner are admirable for the decoration of homes. if they are exposed to light, care should be taken to see that the direct sunshine does not strike them, as it will fade the colors. sprigs with leaves attached may be dried in this way, but it has been found that much of the intensity of the green is lost in the process. reading pulse beats with the sun's rays the pulse beats may be counted by this unusual method. on a clear day, when the sun is shining brightly, darken a room and select one window toward the sunlight, which should be prepared as follows: draw the curtain part way down and cover the rest of the window with a heavy cardboard. cut a small hole in the cardboard to admit a beam of light. set a bowl of water on a table in the path of the beam so as to deflect it to the ceiling as shown by the dotted lines in the sketch. [illustration: sun's rays deflected to the ceiling] it is now a simple matter to show the pulse beats. place the wrist against the edge of the bowl as shown, and the beam of light directed to the ceiling will record every beat of the pulse by short, abrupt movements. artistic wood turning some very odd and beautiful effects can be obtained in lathe work by making up the stock from several pieces of various kinds of wood glued together. the pieces can be arranged in many pleasing combinations, and if good joints are made and a good quality of glue used, the built-up stock is just as durable as a solid piece. candlesticks turned from built-up stock are especially attractive, parts of the various light and dark woods appearing here and there in all manner of odd shapes and proportions. if the stock is placed off center in the lathe, a still greater variety of effects will be produced. the application of a potassium-bichromate solution to the finished work turns each piece a different color. this solution can be made in any depth of color by varying the amounts of potassium salt and water. maple or birch treated with this solution are colored to a rich osage orange which cannot be surpassed in beauty. mahogany is turned a deep reddish brown, and walnut is darkened a great deal. the solution is applied as evenly as possible with a camel's-hair brush while the wood is turning in the lathe. the grain of the wood is somewhat roughened by this process, but it can be dressed down again with very fine sandpaper. [illustration: vase made of different woods] in polishing the work, only the best shellac should be used, and several thin coats applied rather than one or two heavy ones. each coat, with the exception of the last, should be sandpapered slightly. powdered pumice stone on a cloth held in the palm of the hand can be used to apply a beautiful luster. some suggestions as to the manner of combining various woods, and a simple candlestick of mahogany and maple are shown in the sketch.--contributed by olaf tronnes, wilmette, ill. a variable condenser a simple variable condenser for receiving in wireless, which will give good results, was made by a correspondent of modern electrics as follows: each clip on the switch was made of ribbon brass or copper in the shape shown at a, the first one from the joint of the knife switch being the longest and each succeeding one shorter. the handle was taken from a single-pole switch. the case was made of oak and varnished and the condenser was made of tinfoil and thin sheets of mica, by in. in size. after placing the condenser in the case, hot paraffin was poured around it. [illustration: lever and clips] adjustable baking-pan shoes at times bread, meat, or other food, placed in ordinary baking pans in the oven becomes burned on the bottom. if the detachable metal strips shown in the sketch are placed on the pan, this will not happen, as the pan does not come in direct contact with the oven floor. [illustration: shoe and how it is attached to the pan] the attachment can be placed on agate ware or sheet-iron pans of any length. the shoes are made from light v-shaped metal strips and in two parts, as shown, with the edges of one part lapped over so that the other strip will slide in it. [illustration: cars lined up ready for the start and the course patrolled by the boy scouts, all traffic being halted for the race and the roadway made clear for the entire half mile of track] a pushmobile race pending the time set for a -mile international automobile race that was scheduled to take place several weeks later, a number of boys in the sixth and seventh grades of a public school were enthusiastic over the idea of building for themselves, in the school shops, pushmobiles and having a race meet similar to the large one advertised. [illustration] [illustration] [illustration: the cars winning the first, second and third prizes respectively, the "hoosier" being penalized yards at the starting tape for having larger and better-grade wheels] the pushmobiles were made and the race run as an opening feature of a field meet held in the city. the course was about a half mile long, and was chosen to give the contestants plenty of curves, a part of the run being over brick streets and the final quarter on the regular track where the field meet was held. interest was added to the event by petitioning the mayor of the city for a permit to run the race, and the boy scouts patrolled the route, while the city policemen cleared the streets, and during the race all traffic was halted. two of the requirements for entering the race were that the car had to be made in the school shops and that it must have a certain kind of a wheel, which in this case was one condemned by a local factory, thus making the wheels and wheel base of all cars alike. two boys to a car constituted a racing team, and during the race they could exchange positions at their pleasure. the necessity of "nursing" their cars down the steep grades and around difficult corners developed into an important factor. all cars were named and numbered. the car that finished first was disqualified for the reason that it took on a fresh pusher along the course. the cars were constructed under the supervision of the regular shop instructor, and a drawing was furnished each boy making a car. the design of the hood and the arrangement of the seat and steering gear was left for each boy to settle as he desired. the matter of expense was watched closely by each one. most of the hoods and seats were constructed of empty dry-goods boxes. [illustration: the entire chassis was made of cypress wood, all cars of the same length and width, the hoods and seats being the only parts optional in size and shape for the builder] with the aid of the sketch any boy can make a car as strong as the "peugeot" that won the race. the side rails of the main frame were made of cypress, in. long and in. square. the location of the crossbars a and b is very important, as they give rigidity to the frame and reinforce the two bolsters c and d. the size of the hood and the location of the seat determine where they should be set into the rail, after which they are fastened with large wood screws. the three bolsters c, d, and e are cut from regular by -in. stock. be careful to get a uniform distance between the rails when they are framed together. if desired, the dimensions can be increased, but do not reduce them, as this will narrow the tread too much. the bolt connecting the bolsters c and e is a common carriage bolt, in. long and / in. in diameter. a washer is placed between the pieces c and e, to make the turning easy. two pieces of / -in. soft-steel rod were used for the axles, a hole being drilled near each end for a cotter, to hold the wheels in place, and also holes through the diameter between the wheels, for - / -in. screws to fasten the axles to the bolsters. the steering wheel is constructed of a broom handle with a small wheel fastened to its upper end, and the lower end supported by a crossbar, f, and the back end of the hood. before fastening the crossbar f in place, adjust the steering wheel to the proper height for the seat; then it is fastened with nails driven through the sides of the hood. the construction of the steering device is very simple. the crossarm g is a piece of timber, in. long, in. wide and in. thick, rounded on the ends and provided with a large screw eye near each end on the under side to which are fastened the ends of two small-linked chains. the chains are then crossed and fastened to the bottom bolster in front and as near the wheels as practical. the connection is made with a screw eye similar to the one used in the crossarm. another type of steering device may be made by building on the rod a -in. drum which takes the place of the steering arm. it is a more positive appliance, but is somewhat harder to make and adjust. the making of the hood and the seat completes the car. decide upon the shape and size of the hood, but, in any case and irrespective of the size, it will require a front and back end. these are made first and then secured at the proper distance apart with two side rails. these two ends are nailed on the ends of the connecting rails. it is then well to fasten the hood skeleton to the car frame and cover it after the steering device is in place. the seat bottom is cut the shape desired, and fastened to the rear bolster and crosspiece, first placing a piece of the proper thickness under the front edge, to give it the desired slant backward. the back curved part can be formed of a piece of sheet metal and lined on the inside with wood pieces, or with cloth or leather, padded to resemble the regular cushion. pencil rack the simple pencil rack shown in the sketch can be easily made from any suitable strip of metal, preferably brass of about no. gauge. mark off a number of rectangles corresponding to the number of pencil holders desired. with a sharp chisel, cut through the metal on three sides of each rectangle, leaving one of the short sides untouched. the loose laps can then be bent to a shape suited to hold a pencil. the rack can be fastened in place with nails or screws through holes pierced at each end.--contributed by mark gluckman, jersey city, n. j. [illustration: a strip of sheet metal cut and clips formed to make a pencil rack] * * * * * indistinct but not entirely worn-off dates on coins may be read by heating slightly. reducing size of a hat sweatband very often a hat has been worn for some time and it becomes too loose on the head, then paper is used in the sweatband to reduce the size. a better, easier, and neater method, as well as one that will be cooler for the head, is to insert a flat lamp wick inside of the sweatband. wicks of all thicknesses and widths are easily obtained.--contributed by maurice bandier, new orleans, la. a catapult the catapult shown in the sketch is one i constructed some time ago and found to be amusing and very inexpensive. the catapult consists of a small piece of dowel or pine, whittled into the shape of a handle, a screweye, an elastic band and an arrow. it is surprising how a well-balanced arrow will fly into the sky until lost to sight when propelled through the eye of the screw with a medium-strong elastic. a number of forms of this simple gun were made, but the one shown is the simplest and most effective.--contributed by c. a. needham, new york, n. y. [illustration: the eye of the screw serves as a guide for the arrow] growing clean strawberries a very good method of growing individual strawberry plants that will produce large clean berries is to provide a covering constructed from a board in. square with a -in. hole bored in the center. this covering is placed over the plant, as shown in the sketch, to keep down weeds, retain moisture, and to make a base for the ripening berries. a shower cannot spatter dirt and sand on the growing fruit. the rays of the sun beating on the surface of the board will aid in the ripening. [illustration: growing strawberries on the surface of a board where they will ripen fast and keep clean] if a log can be obtained, the boards can be made better and more quickly. disks about in. thick are sawed from the log and holes in their centers either cut with a chisel or bored, as desired. the grain of the wood will be vertical and no warping will take place--contributed by johnny banholster, gresham, oregon a magic change card procure two cards, the " " of diamonds and the " " of spades, for example. bend each exactly in the center, with the face of the cards in, and then paste any card on the back, with its face against the two ends of the bent cards. the two opposite ends will then have their backs together, and these are also pasted. the illustration clearly shows this arrangement. [illustration: a card having two faces, either of which can be shown to the audience instantly] to perform the trick pick up this card, which is placed in the pack beforehand, and show to the audience both the front and back of the card, being sure to keep the center part flat against one end or the other, then pass the hand over the card, and in doing so catch the center part and turn it over. the card can be changed back again in the same manner.--contributed by r. bennett, pittsburgh, pa. cleaning pearl articles a good way to clean pearl articles or ornaments is to moisten them with alcohol and then dry in magnesia powder or french chalk. these last two articles may be purchased at any drug store and the process of cleaning is absolutely harmless. it also polishes the pearl and will not bleach delicate colors. bed for a camp a quickly made bed for a camp is shown in the illustration. the corner posts consist of four forked stakes driven in the earth so that the crotches are on a level and about ft. from the ground. poles are laid in the crotches, lengthwise of the bed, and canvas covering double-lapped over them. if desired, the canvas can be stitched along the inside of the poles.--contributed by thomas simpson, pawtucket, r. i. [illustration: canvas bed made on two poles laid in the crotches of forked stakes] sail for a boy's wagon every boy, who loves a boat and has only a wagon, can make a combination affair in which he can sail even though there is no water for miles around. one boy accomplished this as shown in the illustration, and the only assistance he had was in making the sails. [illustration: the sail wagon will travel at a good speed in a stiff breeze] the box of the wagon is removed and the boat deck bolted in its place. the deck is in. wide and ft. long. the mast consists of an old rake handle, ft. long; the boom and gaff are broomsticks, and the tiller is connected with wire to the front axle, which gives perfect control of the steering. the sails are made of drilling. on a brick pavement the sail wagon can draw two other wagons with two boys in each, making in all five boys. of course a good wind must be blowing. with two boys it has made a mile in five minutes on pavement.--contributed by arthur carruthers, oberlin, ohio. extracting a broken screw a screw will often break off in a piece of work in such a manner that it is quite impossible to remove it by using a pair of pliers or a wrench. in this case the following method is very efficient and expedient. drill a small hole in the screw as near the center as possible. roughen the edges on the tang of a file with a cold chisel, and drive the tang into the hole with a mallet. the roughened edges of the tang exert enough friction on the metal to remove the screw by turning the file in the proper direction. keeping out dampness a good way to keep a bed from becoming damp, if left for any length of time, is to place a blanket on the top after it is made up. take the blanket off before using and the bed covers will be quite dry, as the blanket absorbs the moisture.--contributed by g. nordyke, lexington, ore. a double-claw hammer for pulling nails straight a nail pulled with an ordinary claw hammer will be bent in the operation, and for this reason the double claw is used to draw the nail straight out of the wood. an ordinary claw hammer can be easily converted into a double-claw by filing out one of the claws as shown. the notch is filed only large enough to slip under the head of an average-size nail. after drawing the nail a short distance in the usual manner the small notch is set under the head of the nail which is then pulled out straight.--contributed by j. v. loeffler, evansville, ind. [illustration: the small notch on the end of the claw makes it easy to pull a nail straight] [illustration] a cyclemobile by frank pfefferle the cyclemobile is of the three-wheeled type and can be easily constructed in the home workshop with ordinary tools. the main frame is built up of two sidepieces, aa, fig. , each in. thick, in. wide, and ft. long, joined together at the front end with a crosspiece, b, of the same material, in. long. the sides are placed slightly tapering so that the rear ends are in. apart at the point where they are joined together with the blocks and rear-wheel attachments. a crosspiece, c, in. long, is fastened in the center of the frame. [illustration: three-wheeled cyclemobile propelled like a bicycle and steered as an automobile] the place for the seat is cut out of each sidepiece, as shown by the notches at d, which are ft. from the rear ends. two strips of wood, e, / in. thick, in. wide, and in. long, are fastened with nails to the rear ends of the sides, as shown. the rear wheel is a bicycle wheel, which can be taken from an old bicycle, or a wheel may be purchased cheaply at a bicycle store. it is held in place with two pieces of strap iron, f, shaped similar to the rear forks on a bicycle, and each piece is bolted to a block of wood in. thick, in. wide, and in. long, which is fastened to the sidepiece with the same bolts that hold the strap iron in place. the blocks are located in. from the rear ends of the sidepieces. [illustration: detail of the parts for constructing an automobile-type foot-power car (fig. )] [illustration: (fig. )] the pedal arrangement, fig. , consists of an ordinary bicycle hanger, with cranks and sprocket wheel set into the end of a piece of wood, in. thick, in. wide and in. long, at a point in. from one end. the pieces gg are nailed on across the frame at the front end of the car, to hold the hanger piece in the center between the sidepieces, as shown in fig. . a small pulley, h, is made to run loosely on a shaft fastened between the sidepieces. this is used as an idler to keep the upper part of the chain below the seat. [illustration: (fig. )] the front axle is in. long, pivoted as shown at j, fig. , in. from the front end of the main frame. two small brass plates, kk, are fastened with screws on the under edge of each sidepiece, as shown, to provide a bearing for the axle. the front wheels are taken from a discarded baby carriage and are about in. in diameter. [illustration: (fig. )] a good imitation radiator can be made by cutting a board to the dimensions given in fig. . a large-mesh screen is fastened to the rear side to imitate the water cells. [illustration: (fig. )] the steering gear l, fig. , is made of a broom handle, one end of which passes through the support m and fits into a hole bored into the lower part of the imitation radiator board. a steering wheel, n, is attached to the upper end of the broom handle. the center part of a rope, o, is given a few turns around the broom handle, and the ends are passed through the openings in screweyes, pp, turned into the inner surfaces of the sidepieces aa, and tied to the front axle. [illustration: (fig. )] the seat is constructed of / -in. lumber and is built in the notches cut in the main frame shown at d, fig. . the body frame is made of lath, or other thin strips of wood, that can be bent in the shape of the radiator and nailed to the sidepieces, as shown in fig. . these are braced at the top with a longitudinal strip. the frame is then covered with canvas and painted as desired. how to make a humidor the humidor is an ideal gift for any person who smokes. the wood for making one, as shown in the illustration, may be of spanish cedar, mahogany, or quartered oak, as the builder desires. the box and cover are made and glued together in one piece, then the cover is sawed off to insure a perfect fit. a strong corner connection is shown at a. a piece of a strawberry box or peach basket makes a good key to glue in the grooves. care must be taken to run the grain with the width and not with the length of the strip. [illustration: the amount of moisture within the box is shown on the dial in the cover] finish the outside of the box with two coats of the desired stain, then cover with a coat of wax, shellac, or varnish. the inside should be finished with one coat of white lead and two or three coats of white enamel, to make the wood impervious to moisture. in the center of the cover top is set a piece of glass and to the under side of the latter a hygrometer is attached with a little glue. this instrument tells the relative humidity, or the amount of moisture, in the air within. the moisture may be regulated by adding a few drops of water, as needed, to a piece of ordinary blotting paper placed on the inside.--contributed by james t. gaffney, chicago. telephoto attachment for a hand camera it is not necessary to purchase an expensive telephoto lens for a box or hand camera if the owner has a pair of opera or field glasses. first focus the glasses on the distant object to be photographed and then set the camera. one of the glasses is placed directly in line with and in front of the camera lens, as shown in the sketch. if the camera is of the focusing type, it is focused in the ordinary manner. box and other cameras are set as usual. [illustration: a field glass placed in front of a camera lens will increase the diameter of the photograph] the glasses should be well supported in front of the camera lens, as any slight move will be quite perceptible on the ground glass. as the light rays are largely reduced in passing through the field glass and camera lens, it is necessary to give a much longer exposure. this can only be determined by trying it out, as lenses have different speeds.--contributed by charles leonard, st. john, can. a turn feeding table for birds never in the past has the public at large taken so great an interest in protecting and furthering the well-being of birds as at present. in addition to protective legislation, clubs everywhere are organizing to promote bird life and many citizens, old and young, are making bird houses and feeding tables. one of the best forms of feeding tables which i have ever seen is shown in the sketch. it possesses a great advantage over the average table in being turned automatically, whirling about by the action of the winds and always keeping its open front on the lee or protected quarter. this is a good feature especially in the fall and winter, the very time when birds need and seek protection from storms and cold winds. to make such a feed table almost any kind of boards can be utilized. the shelter may be of any shape or size to suit the tastes of the maker, but one constructed to the dimensions given will be found to work well in most localities. along the center of the roof is attached a wing, a, which is an active aid in causing the wind to keep the open front turned away. the shelter turns upon a wood or iron rod which passes from the end of a post up through the central bottom and central roof of the structure. if wood is used for the rod, it should be about in. in diameter and of hard stock. an iron rod may be somewhat smaller. keep the holes well greased. [illustration: a feeding table for birds that will keep its open side protected from the storms] the house should be given a couple of coats of white, red, or green paint, and the post painted to correspond. feed and water are placed in shallow dishes on the floor and they should be blocked to keep them from sliding out.--contributed by c. c. fraser, saginaw, mich. a sack holder an old granite kettle or tin pail with the bottom cut out and three -penny wire nails bent and fastened on with rivets, as shown at a, makes as good a sack holder as one could desire. a chain attached to the handle makes it conveniently adjustable to the proper height for the sack. [illustration: a granite kettle forms a holder that makes it easy to fill the sack] time indicator for medicine bottles [illustration] the time to give a patient the next dose of medicine can be set on the indicator, as shown in the sketch, and retained without fear of its being changed until the dose is again given. the indicator consists of a strip of paper which will reach around the bottle neck and is divided into equal parts representing hours and half hours. the paper is then pasted to the bottle neck. an ordinary pin is then pushed into the cork as shown. after a dose of medicine is given to the patient the cork is replaced so that the head of the pin will indicate the time for the next dose. by this method, an accidental shifting of the indicator is almost impossible. a washtub stand usually two old chairs or an old box makes the stand for the washtub, and these are not always the right height. a stand, like that shown in the illustration and having the proper height for the one who does the washing, can be easily made of by -in. material and a few boards. as it is shown, the wringer is fastened on top of the back and may remain there all the time, it being out of the way, always in its proper place, and held very firmly. [illustration: stand provides a place for the washing utensils and it is always the proper height] a light bracket, on which to set the clothes basket, can be made and fastened on the back of the stand, connected with two hinges and supported by a leg hinged to the bracket, the lower end of the leg resting on the floor back of the stand. a small drawer may also be provided in the front, in which to put away the soap and brushes, and the wash boiler can be set underneath. when one is through washing, the bracket at the back is let down, the washstand set up against the wall out of the way, and everything is then in its place, ready for the next wash day.--contributed by chas. homewood, waterloo, ia. pipe used as a leather punch [illustration] the sketch shows how a very cheap and serviceable leather punch can be made of an old pipe nipple. pieces of pipe of almost any size can be found around a shop, and it is, therefore, usually possible to quickly make a punch of the required size. the cutter end can be ground very thin to prevent an over-cut, while a small slot cut a little above it will allow the removal of the leather slugs. for its purpose, this homemade tool is all that can be desired in cheapness and utility. to prevent oilcloth from cracking a good method to prevent oilcloth from cracking, when it is used on shop tables or counters, is to first cut a paper cover for the table on which to place the oilcloth and prepare it as follows: the paper should be well oiled with common machine oil and placed smoothly on the table to be covered. the oilcloth is then smoothed out on top of the paper and stretched tightly. the oiled paper tends to keep the under side of the cloth moist, which prevents cracking. the cloth wears much longer because the paper acts as a pad. [illustration] how to make a flymobile by edward sieja the boy owning a pushmobile, or even a power-driven auto car, is often very much disappointed because motion soon stops when the power is not applied. the car illustrated is of a little different type, being equipped with a flywheel that will propel the car and carry the rider a considerable distance after stopping the pedaling. the flywheel also aids the operator, as it will steady the motion and help him over a rough place or a bump in the road. [illustration: the flymobile is a miniature automobile in appearance and is propelled by foot power] the main frame of the flymobile is made up of a few pieces of by -in. timbers. the pieces a are ft. in. long, and the end crosspieces b, in. long. these are jointed, glued and screwed together, as shown in fig. . the frame that supports the driving parts consists of a piece, c, ft. in. long, and a piece d, ft. in. long. these are fitted in the main frame and securely fastened to the end crosspieces b. two other crosspieces, e and f, are used to strengthen the driving-parts frame. [illustration: plan and elevation of the flymobile, showing the location of the working parts, to which, with a few changes, a motorcycle engine can be attached to make it a cyclecar; also details of the brakes, belt tightener and coaster-brake hub (fig. )] the entire hanger g, with its bearings, cranks and pedals, can be procured from a discarded bicycle and fastened to the piece c; the barrel holding the bearings being snugly fitted into a hole bored in the piece with an expansive bit. the location will depend on the builder and should be marked as follows: place the hanger on top of the piece c, then put a box or board on the frame where the seat is to be and set the hanger where it will be in a comfortable position for pedaling. mark this location and bore the hole. [illustration: (fig. )] the transmission h consists of a bicycle coaster-brake hub, shown in detail in fig. . a split pulley, j, in. in diameter, is bored out to fit over the center of the hub between the spoke flanges. the halves of the pulley are then clamped on the hub with two bolts, run through the holes in opposite directions. their heads and nuts are let into countersunk holes so that no part will extend above the surface of the pulley. the supports for the hub axle consist of two pieces of bar iron, in. long, drilled to admit the axle ends, and screws for fastening them to the frame pieces c and d. this construction is clearly shown in fig. . the arrangement of the coaster-brake hub produces the same effect as a coaster brake on a bicycle. the one propelling the flymobile may stop the foot-power work without interfering with the travel of the machine, and, besides, a little back pressure on the pedals will apply the brake in the same manner. the flywheel k should be about in. in diameter with a -in. rim, or face. such a wheel can be purchased cheaply from any junk dealer. the flywheel is set on a shaft, turning between the pieces c and d and back of the coaster-brake wheel h. two pulleys, l, about in. in diameter, are fastened to turn with the flywheel on the shaft and are fitted with flanges to separate the belts. the ends of the shaft should run in good bearings, well oiled. [illustration: (fig. )] another pulley, m, in. in diameter, is made of wood and fastened to the rear axle. an idler wheel, shown in fig. , is constructed of a small pulley, or a large spool, attached to an l-shaped piece of metal, which in turn is fastened on the end of a shaft controlled by the lever n. the function of this idler is to tighten up the belt or release it, thus changing the speed in the same manner as on a motorcycle. the elevation of the flymobile is given in fig. , which shows the arrangement of the belting. the size of the pulleys on the flywheel shaft causes it to turn rapidly, and, for this reason, the weight of the wheel will run the car a considerable distance when the coaster hub is released. [illustration: (fig. )] the rear axle revolves in bearings, half of which is recessed in the under edges of the pieces a while the other half is fastened to a block, screwed on over the axle. a simple brake is made as shown in fig. . two metal pieces, o, preferably brass, are shaped to fit over the shaft with extending ends for fastening them to the pieces p and q, as shown. these pieces are hinged with strap iron, r, at one end, the other end of the piece p being fastened to the crosspiece f, fig. , of the main frame. the lower piece q is worked by the lever s and side bars, t. a small spring, u, keeps the ends of the pieces apart and allows the free turning of the axle until the brake lever is drawn. the lever s is connected by a long bar to the hand lever v. [illustration: (fig. )] the steering apparatus w, figs. and , is constructed of a piece of gas pipe, ft. in. long, with a wheel at one end and a cord, x, at the other. the center part of the cord is wound several times around the pipe and the ends are passed through screweyes in the main frame pieces a and attached to the front axle, which is pivoted in the center under the block y. the lower end of the pipe turns in a hole bored slanting in the block. a turn of the steering wheel causes one end of the cord to wind and the other to unwind, which turns the axle on the center pivot. the wheels are bicycle wheels, and the ends of the front axle are turned to receive the cones and nuts, instead of using the regular hub axles. the ends of the rear axle are turned to closely fit the hubs after the ball cups have been removed. a large washer and nut clamp each wheel to the axle so that it will turn with it. the body can be made up as desired, from sheet metal, wood, or cloth stretched over ribs of wood, and painted in the manner of an automobile. a tank and tires can be placed on the back to add to the appearance. fenders and a running board can be attached to the main frame. with the addition of some crosspieces in the main frame at the front and a motorcycle engine fastened to them so that the driving sprocket will be in line with the sprocket on the coaster hub, the builder will have a real cyclecar. the die-and-box trick the die-and-box trick, so often performed on the stage, is a very interesting and mystifying one. the apparatus, however, is simple, consisting of a box, die, a piece of tin in the form of three adjacent sides of the die, and a hat. the die and box are constructed entirely of wood, / in. thick, and the piece of tin can be cut from any large coffee can. the box is closed by four doors, as shown in fig. , two of which are - / in. square, and the others, - / in. by - / in. the first two are the front doors and are preferably hinged with cloth to the two uprights a and b. small pieces of tin are fastened on the doors at c and d, to provide a means to open them. the other doors are placed on top and are hinged to the back, as shown. [illustration: with the false die in place it appears as if the box were empty] the die is in. square on all sides, and is constructed of two pieces, in. square; two pieces, - / in. by in., and two pieces, - / in. square. these are fastened together with / -in. brads. the tin, forming the false die, is cut out as shown in fig. , and is then bent on the dotted lines and soldered together on the joint formed by the two edges e and f. all parts should be painted a dull black with white spots on the die and false die. [illustration: the box with doors on one side and the top, (fig. )] [illustration: ...and the false-die pattern (fig. )] the trick is performed as follows: procure a hat from some one in the audience and place in it the die with the tin false die covering three sides of the block, at the same time telling the audience that the block will be caused to pass from the hat into the box, the latter being placed some distance away. inform the audience that it would be more difficult for the die to pass from the box into the hat. remove the tin piece from the hat and leave the die, holding the surfaces of the false die toward the audience. this will give the impression that the die has been removed. set the hat on the table above the level of the eyes of the audience. with the back of the box toward the audience, open one top door and insert the tin piece in the right-hand compartment so that one side touches the back, another the side and the other the bottom of the box. close the door and open the two doors of the opposite compartment which, when shown, will appear to be empty. tilt the box to this side and open the doors of the side opposite to the one just opened, which, of course, will be empty. this should be done several times until some one asks that all doors be opened at the same time. after a few more reversals and openings as given, open all doors and show it empty, then take the die from the hat.--contributed by harold l. groesbeck, salt lake city, utah. homemade pantograph the pantograph consists of four pieces of wood, the dimensions depending somewhat on the size of the work to be drawn. a convenient size for ordinary drawing and enlarging is constructed of four pieces of hardwood, preferably maple, / in. thick and / in. wide, two of them - / in. in length and the other two, - / in. long. these are planed and sandpapered and the ends cut round. [illustration: a picture can be enlarged or reduced by setting the screweyes in the holes designated] all four pieces are laid flat on a level board or bench top with their edges together so that the edges of the two longer pieces make right angles with a line drawn tangent to their ends. one end of one short piece is placed flush with the lower ends of the two long pieces, and one end of the other short piece flush with the upper ends, as shown. they should be clamped down solidly to keep them from moving while laying off the divisions. light lines are drawn across their faces as designated by the dimensions. on these lines and exactly in the center of the pieces make small marks with a pencil point. through the pieces a and b holes are drilled to snugly receive the body of a small screweye. the other two pieces are drilled with a smaller drill so that the threads of the screweye will take hold in the wood. the end c of the piece a has a metal stand made of brass as shown at d. this is fastened to the end of the wood with a small bolt. the hole should be a snug fit over the body of the bolt. the lower ends of the brass are drilled to admit thumb tacks for holding it to the drawing board. the joint at e is made of a suitable binding post that can be procured at an electrical shop, the shank below the two joined pieces to be the same length as the height of the metal stand d. the end should be filed round and polished so that it will slip over the board or paper easily. the stylus or tracing point f is made of another binding post, in the same manner, but instead of a rounding end a slightly blunt, pointed end is filed on it. the end of the piece g is strengthened by gluing a small block of the same material on both upper and under side. a hole is then made through them to receive a pencil rather tightly. the holes, as will be seen, are numbered from to . at the crossing of each pair, h and j, the screweyes must be set in the holes numbered alike on both pieces of each pair. this will insure the proper working of the parts. the other numbers designate how much the instrument will enlarge a picture or reduce it. on the pair not numbered in the sketch the numbers run in the opposite direction. the end c is fastened to the left side of the drawing board, the picture to be enlarged is placed under the stylus or tracer point, and the paper under the pencil point g. move the tracing point over the general outline of the picture without making any line before starting, so as to make sure that the paper and picture are located right. it is then only necessary to take hold of the pencil and move it over the paper while watching the tracer point to keep it following the lines of the picture. to make a reduced picture, the original is placed under g, the tracer point changed to g and the pencil to f. trapping mosquitoes [illustration] mosquitoes that light on the ceiling may be easily destroyed with the instrument shown in the sketch. it consists of a cover, such as used on jelly glasses, nailed to the end of an old broom handle. a little kerosene oil is placed in the cover and the device is passed closely beneath the location of the mosquitoes. they will be overcome by the fumes and drop into the fluid as soon as it comes under them.--contributed by j. j. kolar, maywood, ill. pen rack on an ink bottle [illustration] a piece of wire, about ft. long, is bent into the shape shown and slipped over the neck of the ink bottle. the ends forming the loop around the neck should fit tightly. the upper part of the wire is shaped to hold the penholder.--contributed by w. a. saul, e. lexington, mass. substitute for a broken bench-vise nut [illustration: two pieces of strap iron shaped to fit the square thread make a good substitute nut] it is frequently the case that the nut on a bench-vise screw breaks from being subjected to a too violent strain. if one is working in a place where a new nut cannot be obtained, the broken part may be replaced by the substitute shown in the sketch. any piece of strap iron may be used, and with a round file and a drill the two pieces can soon be made and attached to the bench with screws or bolts. a slight twist of the shaped ends is necessary to make them fit the angle of the thread.--contributed by oscar m. waddell, lamedeer, mont. scissors sharpener [illustration: in attempting to cut the hardened steel pin the edge is drawn sharp] procure an ordinary wood clothespin and drill a / -in. hole through its blades, then insert a piece of hardened / -in. drill rod, which should be a driving fit. in using this device, take the scissors and attempt to cut the steel rod. do this three or four times and a good cutting edge will be obtained.--contributed by wm. j. tolson, lyons, iowa. * * * * * an imitation-gold color may be made with flake white, ground in varnish and tinted with a touch of vermilion. when striping or lettering is done with this, it will have the appearance of real gilding work. floor push button an ordinary electric push button can be used for a floor push button by placing it on a bracket or shelf attached to a joist, as shown, and using a nail for the extension push. a / -in. hole is bored through the floor, also through a small piece of wood fastened beneath the floor, at the right place to direct the nail so that it will strike directly upon the small black knob of the push button. the nail should be just long enough to rest lightly on the knob.--contributed by reginald r. insole, hamilton, can. [illustration: push button on joist] a wrist brace to strengthen a weak wrist, take a piece of leather, preferably white oak tanned, in. wide and in. long, and carefully shave it down with a sharp knife, until it is / in. thick. then cut it as shown in fig. , the wide part or body being in. long, and the narrow part or neck, in. long and in. wide. cut a semicircular hole, in. from the extreme end of the body, / in. wide and - / in. long, to allow the neck to slip through, then punch three holes in each end and lace with rawhide or shoestring, or, better still, if you happen to have a small buckle, sew it neatly to the body. it looks better and saves time in adjusting. when complete and on the wrist, it will appear as in fig. .--contributed by j. h. harris, berkeley, cal. [illustration: brace made of leather] protecting a kettle handle from heat [illustration] the wood handle of a kettle or cooking utensil when not in use usually comes in contact with the side of the vessel and it will absorb enough heat each time to finally char and crack the wood. the heat of the handle at times is so intense that it often results in a burned hand. the spiral metal handle provides a way for cooling by exposing a considerable surface to the air, yet the metal retains the heat so that many times it is too hot to handle. if a wood handle is provided with a coil of wire as shown in the accompanying sketch, the wood cannot come in contact with the side of the heated vessel and the air encircling the wood prevents it from getting too hot to handle. the spiral can be attached to a metal handle with solder. tin can used for watering chickens [illustration] an ordinary discarded tomato can makes a good watering vessel for young chickens. care must be taken in opening the can to cut the tin so the cover will hinge. cut the tin about - / in. from the bottom so that it will form a u-shaped piece as shown in the sketch and push the hanging portion in the can. fill the can up to the opening with water, close the cover and set it in the coop.--contributed by l. alberta norrell, augusta, ga. [illustration] how to make a hurdle the hurdle consists of two standards, a reach, and a swing. the swing is first made in the shape of a rectangle of four pieces of wood, about / in. thick and - / in. wide, of which two are in. and the others in. long. these pieces are nailed together in the manner shown. [illustration: the swing of the hurdle will turn when slightly touched and right itself again] each standard is made of three pieces of wood, / in. thick, in. wide, and in. long. nail the pieces firmly together, as shown, and connect their bases with another piece of the same material, in. long. when this is finished, connect the swing to the standards with long nails, a, at the ends slightly off center. before inserting the nails, make the holes in each standard to receive them large enough to permit the nails to turn freely without allowing the heads to pass through. thus the frame will swing freely at the slightest touch of the jumper's foot, and right itself immediately.--contributed by c. c. fraser, saginaw, mich. oil burner for a cook stove the parts of the burner consist of ordinary gas pipe and fittings. the pipe in which the kerosene oil is converted into gas is / in. in diameter and is connected to a supply tank of oil with / -in. pipe. the burner part is also constructed of / -in. pipe having three / -in. holes drilled in each end for the gas to escape where it burns. these burners are located just beneath the large pipe so that the flames will heat it and convert the oil into gas. a needle valve, a, is used to control the flow of oil. the burner is placed in the fire box of the stove, and the pipes connected through a hole drilled in the stove door, at b. [illustration: a very cheap grade of kerosene oil can be used in this burner with success] the tank may be rectangular or round and should be of sufficient strength to withstand or lb. of pressure. the top of the tank has a pet cock where a connecting hose from an air pump may be attached. the tank is filled about half full and just a little pressure of air is put on the oil. to start the burner, run a little oil in a pan or fire shovel and light it so that the flames will convert the oil into gas in the large pipe, then turn the valve a and regulate the flame.--contributed by robert hays, siloam springs, ark. a fish stringer the illustration shows a very simple and inexpensive device for the angler to string and carry fish. it is made of a pail handle through which is passed a piece of soft wire, having sufficient length for bends or loops at each end, and a piece of chain. a chain in. long is sufficient. one end of the chain is fastened in the loop at one end of the handle, and the other has a piece of wire attached for pushing through the gills of the fish. the other end of the wire through the handle is arranged in a hook to catch into the links of the chain.--contributed by g. o. reed, stratford, canada. [illustration: inexpensive stringer made of a pail handle and small chain] substitutes for drawing instruments three of the most used draftsman's instruments are the compass, ruler and square or triangle. when it is necessary to make a rough drawing and no instruments are at hand, common and easily obtainable things can be used as substitutes. [illustration: a compass, ruler and square made of ordinary things at hand] a sheet of heavy paper folded as shown at a will serve as a ruler, and the same sheet given another fold will make the square b. if given another fold diagonally, a -deg. triangle is formed. a substitute compass is readily made of a short pencil and a pocket knife, as shown at c.--contributed by jas. j. joyce, olongopo, philippine islands. how to make an aspirator a simple aspirator that may be used for a number of different purposes, such as accelerating the process of filtering, emptying water from tubs, producing a partial vacuum in vessels in which coils are being boiled in paraffin, etc., may be constructed as follows: obtain two pieces of brass tubing of the following dimensions: one in. long and / in. outside diameter, and the other, in. long and / in. outside diameter. drill a hole in one side of the large tube, about in. from one end, of such a diameter that the small brass tube will fit it very tightly. take an ordinary hacksaw and cut a slot in the side of the large piece, as shown at a. this slot is sawed diagonally across the tube and extends from one side to the center. obtain a piece of sheet brass that will fit into this slot tightly, and then solder it and the small tube into the large tube. the slot and hole for the small tube should be so located with respect to each other that the small tube will empty into the larger one directly against the piece of sheet brass soldered in the slot. [illustration: detail of the aspirator and its connections to a faucet, for increasing the speed of filtration] the upper end of the large tube should be threaded inside to fit over the threads on the faucet, or an attachment soldered to it similar to those on the end of an ordinary garden hose. a rubber hose should be attached to the small tube and connected, as shown, to a piece of glass tubing that is sealed in the cork in the top of the large bottle. the funnel holding the filter paper is also sealed into the cork. melted paraffin may be used in sealing the glass tube, funnel and cork in place, the object being to make them airtight. the filter paper should be folded so that it sticks tightly against the sides of the funnel when the liquid is poured in, thus preventing any air from entering the bottle between the paper and the funnel. turn on the faucet, and it will be found that the time required to filter any liquid will be greatly reduced. be careful, however, not to turn on too much water, as the suction may then be too strong and the filter paper become punctured. a key-holder hook [illustration] a good hook for hanging keys, toothbrushes and other small articles can be made from ordinary wire staples, as shown at a. one leg of the staple is cut away as shown at b and the other leg driven into the board as shown at c. these will answer the purpose as well as screwhooks.--contributed by w. c. heidt, chicago. a hand hoe a hand hoe, especially adapted for weeding or cultivating small truck, particularly onions, can be made of a piece of hard wood, / by - / in. by ft. long, and a piece of old bucksaw blade. a blade, in. long and in. wide, bent into a loop is attached with bolts to the handle.--contributed by geo. h. miller, iowa city, iowa. [illustration: bucksaw blade attached to a hardwood handle] seed receptacle for bird-cages a handy seed and water container for a bird-cage can be made of a common spice tin. the receptacle can be filled without removal by simply taking off the cover. thus the seed will not be scattered. [illustration: spice tin attached to the wires of a bird-cage for a water or seed receptacle] the tin is attached by cutting a hole in the back as shown, and bending the side edges to fit over the wires to hold it in place. the bottom strip is a support which rests on the floor of the cage and prevents the tin from slipping down on the wires. kitchen-utensil scraper a flexible utensil scraper is one of the most useful articles i have in my kitchen. it covers such a large surface in scraping pans, kettles, etc., that this most disagreeable part of the kitchen work is quickly and easily accomplished. [illustration: the blade is flexible so it can readily shape itself to the curves of a kettle] the flexible blade is attached to the tin handles with small rivets. the blade should be thin and narrow enough to allow it to bend. when the handles are pressed together, the blade curves to the shape of the utensil's surface.--contributed by mrs. della schempp, brodhead, wis. anchor posts for a lawn swing a very substantial and convenient base for a lawn swing can be made by using four anchor posts of cement, as shown in fig. . the posts are made with a recess, a, to receive the legs of the swing, and of any suitable size. they may be placed with the upper face on a level with the lawn, or higher if desired. [illustration: ar. anchor post of cement and a mold box for shaping four posts at a time (fig. , fig. )] a rough mold box, fig. , lined with paper, will do for making the posts. the box does not require any top or bottom; it is simply placed on a board and lifted away when the blocks are thoroughly dried. if the blocks are leveled when placed in the earth, the swing may be taken down and erected again without the usual leveling and bracing.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. automatic filter [illustration] this funnel-filling filter automatically prevents the solution from running over if the filtering is slow or the filter substance becomes clogged. the upper inverted bottle holds the solution to be filtered, the cork being fitted with a glass tube as shown, and when in use the cork is forced into the neck of the bottle so that no air can enter between it and the glass. the support for holding the bottles has two brackets, one to fit the neck of the upper bottle and the other used as a shelf for the receiving bottle. in operation, the solution runs from the upper bottle into the funnel, holding the filter paper, but it cannot fill the funnel completely, because the end of the glass tube is lower than the edge of the funnel, and as soon as the liquid in the funnel covers the end of the tube, all inflow of air into the upper bottle is stopped, and, thereby, further flow of the solution into the funnel prevented, until enough has filtered through to uncover the end of the tube and thus permit air to again enter the upper bottle.--contributed by g. simons, chicago. grinding scissors whether a pair of scissors be ground or filed, the marks or scratches left from the contact with the abrasive should all extend across the bevel in the direction of the line ed, fig. , and never in the direction of the line gf. if the cutting edge be examined under a magnifying glass, the tool marks or scratches left by the sharpening process will be very plainly seen, and where these scratches intersect with the face hi, fig. , of the blade, they will appear as teeth along the cutting edge ik. [illustration: the direction of the grinding tool should be slightly sloping toward the handles] as a pair of scissors close, the natural tendency is to thrust the material to be cut out of the angle abc, fig. , but if these small teeth formed on the cutting edge point in the direction of the line ed, this slipping action is prevented or retarded because the fibrous material adheres to the fine teeth on the cutting edge of the blades. wet paper, silks, mohair cloths, etc., can be sheared with perfect ease and dispatch, when scissors are sharpened in this manner. the same principle holds good for metal snips. the angle hij, fig. , varies according to the material to be cut, and the type of shear. a greater angle is required on metal shears than on shears for domestic uses.--contributed by a. clifton, chicago. to repair a leak in a canoe after striking some rocks with our canoe, it sprung three very bad leaks. these were effectively patched with pieces of cheesecloth, well soaked in liquid shellac, which were pasted on the outside of the leak. after allowing this to set for a few hours, it will be almost impossible to remove the patch. this is an inexpensive and almost invariably a sure remedy for leaks. when the cloth is dry, paint it over with the same color as the boat, and the repair can scarcely be seen.--contributed by william b. smith, new york city. holder for loose window glass [illustration] when the putty becomes loose and the glazing points work out on window glass, temporary repairs may be made by using a small piece of tin or sheet iron bent as shown in the sketch. the clip is inserted under the edge of the glass and hooked over the back of the sash parts. this will hold the glass firmly in place and also prevent rattling. a homemade bench vise a form of a bench vise that can be easily made and attached to a workbench is shown in the illustration. this vise requires no screw, and the parts can be made from scrap material. [illustration: the vise jaw as it is attached to the bench and the substitute screw arrangement] the substitute a for the screw is a rectangular piece of wood and is fastened with a tenon in a mortise cut in the vise jaw b. the clamping arrangement consists of a strap, c, attached to the piece a, then run over a pulley, d, and fastened to a foot pedal, e. the foot pedal is fulcrumed on a crosspiece of the bench and has a ratchet so as to hold it when the vise is set. the lower end of the vise is fitted with the usual form of device for parallel adjustment. a coil spring is located in the center for use in quickly opening the vise when the foot pedal is released.--contributed by a. c. westby, porter, minn. a cover strainer quite frequently the cook or housewife wishes to pour the hot water or liquid from boiling vegetables or other foods without removing the solids from the kettle. this is easily accomplished, if small holes are drilled in the cover as shown in the sketch. the saucepan or kettle can be tilted and the liquid drains through the holes. further, the steam from cooking food can readily escape through the holes, thus preventing the cover from vibrating, or the liquids from boiling over. [illustration: a sufficient number of holes are drilled in the edge of the cover to make a strainer] homemade corn sheller where there is but a small quantity of corn to be shelled a sheller can be made of a few scraps of wood usually found on a farm. a block of wood having a sloping notch cut from one end is mounted on three legs as shown. the notched part as well as the lever is thickly filled with spikes driven in so that their heads protrude about / in. [illustration: the projecting nail heads in the block and lever, as they pass, shell the corn] the ear of corn is placed in the notched part and the lever pressed down. two or three strokes of the lever will remove all the kernels from the cob. a box is provided and conveniently located on one leg to catch the shelled corn.--contributed by a. s. thomas, gordon, ont. an ornamental metal flatiron holder this antique iron holder or stand can be easily constructed by the amateur bent-iron worker. a strip of iron is bent over at the ends to form the side legs, and the front leg is formed of another piece, welded in the center. [illustration: ornamental stand made of either strap iron or sheet metal to hold a flatiron] openings for the crosspieces are then cut, the legs bent into a scroll shape, and the crosspieces inserted and fastened by spreading or upsetting the ends. instead of using strap iron, the stand can be cut from good sheet metal. this would save the trouble of welding on the front leg. how to make a watch demagnetizer a watch demagnetizer that will give excellent satisfaction may be made as follows: [illustration: dimensioned parts for the construction of the core over which the insulated wire is wound] procure a sheet of / in. brass, - / in. by in. bend this piece of brass around a piece of hard wood having a rectangular cross section of - / in. by in. the joint between the two ends should be made on one side, and the edges should lack about / in. of touching. next obtain two pieces of / in. brass, - / in. by in., and cut an opening in each of these, - / in. by - / in., as shown in the sketch. bend one edge of each of these pieces over at right angles to the main portion of the piece. solder these two pieces on the ends of the rectangular tube of brass and cut a slot in each of them to correspond to the one in the rectangular tube. place the rectangular piece of wood back in the tube and you are ready for the winding. use no. gauge single cotton-covered copper wire and fill the winding space. several layers of paper should be placed on the brass tube and between the layers of wire, to serve as an insulation. holes may be drilled in the projecting portions on the ends and the coil can then be mounted on a wooden base. mount two binding posts on this base and connect the terminals of the winding to them. to use the demagnetizer, connect it to a -volt alternating-current circuit with a rheostat in circuit of such a form that the current will not exceed three amperes and that it may be reduced to practically zero in value by increasing the resistance of the rheostat. the magnetic field inside the coil is rapidly changing in direction and will tend to destroy any permanent magnetism that may be possessed by an object placed inside of it. the full current of three amperes should be allowed to pass through the winding for a few minutes after the object to be demagnetized is inserted, and then gradually reduced, and the object removed. remodeling a talking machine having a talking machine of an old model with a tapered horn i decided to change it into a more modern type, and this was accomplished as follows: an auxiliary base was constructed of / in. wood on which to set the part which revolves the disks. the inside of this base is so constructed as to form a horn or sounding box. the two sides and sloping bottom of the horn-part are made of / in. wood. the form of this box is shown in fig. . the dimensions should be determined according to the size of the talking machine. [illustration: the horn or sounding box is constructed in the auxiliary base... (fig. )] [illustration: ...and the part for connecting the sounding tube to the box consists of ordinary gas pipe fastened with a clip at the back (fig. )] the connecting parts to the original horn were turned downward, as shown at a, fig. , with the opening entering a piece of ordinary gas pipe of sufficient length to allow an elbow with a nipple to enter the auxiliary base. the pivot-holding device for connection a is shown at d. the parts are attached to the box with a clasp, e, and with three screws in the nipple c, the end view of which is shown at f. the talking machine is placed on the auxiliary base as shown in fig. . this construction produces a talking machine on the order of a cabinet machine without the tapering horn.--contributed by h. w. j. lomglatz, harrisburg, pa. [illustration: (fig. )] needle for sewing burlap a needle for sewing burlap can be easily made of the ordinary opener that comes with sardine cans. all that is necessary to convert this tool into a needle is to grind the blunt end to a sharp point, as shown in the sketch.--contributed by g. c. beven, sault ste. marie, ont. [illustration: the can opener is provided with an eye and to make a needle the end is sharpened] a mysterious revolving wheel the mystery of this wheel is that it seems to revolve automatically without any visible external power. it is at the same time an amusing trick and an instructive experiment. the apparatus required is very simple and can be made at home. [illustration: the wheel as it is mounted on a needle, and lamp and box containing magnet to make it turn] a glass bottle is half filled with sand and water, so that it will stand securely, and a cork placed in the neck. into this cork a needle should be inserted so that it projects perpendicularly, which is most easily done by heating one end of the needle to a red heat and then pushing it into the cork as deeply as possible. into a disk of cork of suitable thickness and at four points on its side, at equal distances apart, are inserted four pieces of copper wire of the same length, each bent at the outer end to form a hook--these copper wires thus forming the spokes of the wheel. the rim is made of a small iron wire bent in a circular shape and held in the hooks on the ends of the copper wires. the now completed wheel is balanced on the free point on the needle, so that it can turn easily. place an alcohol lamp in such a position that when it is lighted the tip of the flame will just reach the rim of the wheel. (any other flame that will not soot the rim may be used.) in the box a, placed with its bottom level with the wheel, put a horseshoe magnet so that the flame is opposite one of its poles. after the lamp has been lighted for a few seconds, the wheel will begin to revolve, seemingly without cause. why does it do so? because the magnet magnetizes or attracts the part of the ring nearest it while cold, but not when it is glowing. instead, it will attract the cooler part of the ring nearest behind the flame and so on, the wheel thus spinning round, faster in the same proportion as the magnet is stronger and the iron rim smaller. if this experiment is shown before spectators as a trick, the performer may say to the audience that he alone can make the wheel spin around without touching it. should some one accept his challenge, he may, in a careless way, move the box containing the magnet away or turn it around so that it will not influence the iron ring and then, of course, the wheel will remain immovable. how to make a rabbet plane a rabbet plane is very little used by mechanics, but when it is wanted for a piece of work, it is wanted badly. while doing an unusual piece of work i needed a rabbet plane, and having none, i made a plane as shown in the sketch in less time than it would have taken to go out and borrow one. [illustration: a plane made of a piece of by -in. pine, a chisel and a large wood screw] the body of the plane was made of a piece of by -in. pine, ft. long. a -in. chisel was used for the bit. a place was marked on one side of the wood to be cut out for the chisel, and a -in. hole bored through, the narrow way, so that one edge of the bit cut through the bottom, forming a slit for the edge of the chisel. after cutting a groove for the chisel blade and turning in a long wood screw as shown, to hold the chisel in place, i had as good a rabbet plane as could be purchased.--contributed by w. h. young, thompson, ga. eye shield for a microscope the difficulty and discomfort amateurs experience in learning to use a microscope with both eyes open, or in trying to keep one eye shut, can be easily overcome by attaching a piece of cardboard, similar in shape to the one shown in the sketch, to the barrel of the microscope. the hole a should be of sufficient diameter to allow the cardboard to slide freely up and down on the barrel to the proper adjustment. this simple arrangement will relieve a great deal of the eye strain and will be of assistance to the most experienced users of microscopes.--contributed by g. b. fenton, charleston, w. virginia. [illustration: shield to cover the eye that is not used when looking into a microscope] transferring magazine pictures select pictures from newly printed papers and magazines. rub wax from a paraffin candle over a sheet of clean white paper, covering a space as large as the picture to be copied. place the paper, waxed side down, on the picture and while holding it firmly with the fingers of one hand, rub the back thoroughly with some hard substance until all parts of the picture have been gone over. remove the paper and a perfect copy of the picture will be found upon the waxed side.--contributed by kenneth g. merlin, brooklyn, n. y. a homemade egg separator secure some small wire and a very large can. cut the wire into several pieces and bend them as shown at a, cut the can and bend the side down as shown and punch holes to receive the upper ends of the wires. make the holes so that the wires will be about / in. apart. [illustration: the contents of the egg is placed on the wires which will separate the yolk from the white] a glue-spreader holder [illustration] the spreader that is supplied with bottles of liquid glue should not be placed on any surface, as it will soon stick to it. a holder that will keep the spreader in a safe place can be made of a piece of wire which is twisted about the neck of the bottle, as shown in the sketch, and the ends bent up to receive the spreader. stop on a chair rocker for a baby for a baby, too small to rock without tipping the chair over, a small willow or other suitable rocking chair may be made safe in the following manner: [illustration: the strip on the rocker prevents the child tipping the chair too far either way] a strip, a, is fastened on the outside of the rocker with small screws so that it may be removed without injuring the chair. a rubber-covered tack driven in on the under side at each end of the strip modifies the shock and the baby can rock to its heart's content without danger of turning over.--contributed by mrs. g. w. coplin, bay city, mich. homemade countersink for wood a round or flat-head bolt can be made into a good rosebit or reamer for countersinking holes for screw heads. in the illustration, fig. shows a reamer made of a round-head bolt, and fig. , one made of a square-head bolt. the round-head makes the best reamer as more cutters can be filed in the surface and less work is required to file it into shape. [illustration: round and square heads of bolts shaped and notched to make countersinks (fig. , fig. )] to maintain a constant level of liquids in vessels it is frequently desirable in laboratory experiments, and in practical work as well, to maintain a constant level in a tank without allowing it to become full. in many cases an outlet pipe at a certain height in the side of the tank is not desirable, and in laboratory experiments with beakers or crocks is, of course, impossible. [illustration] the diagram shows a simple but effective constant-level device. the outer end of the inverted u-tube is curved upward so that it never empties. if desired, the upward curve may be omitted and the straight end immersed in a small vessel of water. all that is necessary now for the successful working of the device is that the inner or tank end, a, of the tube be lower than the outer end--in other words, below the level of the end b--and the inner end below the level of the fluid. of course, the u-tube must be first filled with liquid and will then act as an intermittent, never-breaking siphon. should the tank fill above the end b, the siphon drains the fluid down to that level and no lower, even if the inner leg of the tube reach the bottom. to maintain this level against loss by evaporation some slight inflow is necessary. it will be noted that if the inner end of the siphon were above the outer end, the siphon would break as soon as the liquid in the tank fell to the inner mouth.--contributed by harry n. holmes, richmond, ind. homemade electric bed warmer the heat developed by a carbon-filament lamp is sufficiently high to allow its use as a heating element of, for instance, a bed warmer. there are a number of other small heaters which can be easily made and for which lamps form very suitable heating elements, but the bed warmer is probably the best example. all that is required is a tin covering which can be made of an old can about - / in. in diameter. the top is cut out and the edge filed smooth. the lamp-socket end of the flexible cord is inserted in the can and the shade holder gripped over the opening. a small lamp of about five candlepower will do the heating. a flannel bag, large enough to slip over the tin can and provided with a neck that can be drawn together by means of a cord, gives the heater a more finished appearance, as well as making it more pleasant to the touch. [illustration] a flash-light telegraph on a kite line [illustration: the flash of the light on the string may be read as far as it can be seen] an ordinary pocket flash lamp is prepared in the following manner: a brass spring, as shown in the sketch, is bound tightly to the flash lamp with a cord, and two wires, one at each end, are twisted around the lamp's body, forming two loops at the top. the kite string is run through the loops and over the spring. the lamp is then placed near the kite. the ordinary pull on the kite string does not close the spring, but a sharp jerk will pull the string in contact with the push button and its slight pressure causes an instant flash of the light. by this method words may be spelled out in the telegraph code.--contributed by joe v. romig, allentown, pa. hangers for barn tools means should be provided to have a place for all the tools used in and about a barn. the forks and shovels are usually stood up in a corner, but they can be more conveniently taken care of by making a hanger for them. the illustration shows how a hanger can be easily made and screwed to the wall of a barn. the hanger is cut from a piece of board and has a hole bored into it the size of the handle on the fork or shovel, then a notch is sawn into the hole to pass the handle through. the board may contain one or as many notches as there are forks and shovels to be hung on it. the implements are hung with the fork or shovel end upward.--contributed by r. snyder, glidden, ia. [illustration: a notched board provides a way to hang all the tools used about a barn] guide ropes on a bobsled the sketch shows the front end of a bobsled or double runner made of a plank bolted upon two sleds. the front sled is so pivoted on the bolt a that it may be turned to steer the bob, and to accomplish this result the steersman ordinarily sits with his feet braced against the projecting ends of the crosspiece and passes the steering ropes outside of his feet, with the ropes crossed as shown. the crossing of the ropes is supposed to add leverage, but that is quite wrong. [illustration: the most efficient way of attaching ropes to the guiding runners of a bobsled] the rope, running from b to c, has a lever arm from a to e. if the ropes were not crossed, the rope would lie along the dotted line bd, whose lever arm is the distance af, which is always greater than ae, therefore the uncrossed ropes have more leverage. observe what takes place when the sled is steered to the left: the distance ae decreases much more rapidly than af, and when the crossed ropes have lost all their power, the uncrossed ropes are still useful. many a spill has been caused by turning the sled to a position from which the crossed ropes were unable to restore it to a central position, and most of such spills would have been avoided if the ropes had not been crossed.--contributed by r. r. raymond, wilmington, del. brush hanger for a dark room [illustration] necessity may be the mother of invention, but it is also the grandmother of application, and application is the practical side of invention. both the amateur and the professional photographer have been bothered by spotting and unequal development of negatives and prints in tray development, due to various causes, and sometimes by the presence of dirt particles or the unequal or incomplete flowing of the developer over the surface of the sensitive emulsion. most professionals and many amateurs are familiar with the use of the camel's-hair brush to avoid failures of this character, and many of them use a brush for local development in certain cases where it is necessary or desirable. usually the brush is kept in a small glass cup, somewhere close at hand, but it is often in the way when not wanted and misplaced when most needed. the brush can be kept within reach and handy for the operator by arranging a light counterweight and pulley with a string attached to the brush, so that, normally, the brush will hang from the ceiling directly over the developing tray and can be obtained for use when desired. the detail of this brush-string and counterweight combination was deliberately appropriated from the old plan of suspending the piece of chalk over a billiard table, so that the players could easily reach it, when needed, while, when released, it would be pulled out of the way by the counterweight. the developing brush thus suspended is always ready, never misplaced, nor in the way for other operations. this arrangement is particularly convenient where a bathroom is used as a dark room, and the shelf space is limited. this same manner of counterweighting chalk on the billiard table may be applied to a stove-lid lifter, to keep it within easy reach and always cool enough to handle. the simplest and most inexpensive way of making this apparatus is to cut off a small piece of lead pipe for a counterweight, and, in the absence of a suitable pulley, use an ordinary screweye fastened in the ceiling. the latter is really better than a pulley because the string cannot run off the screweye. the arrangement is better understood by referring to the sketch. lighting a basement light there was no switch at the basement door and it was difficult to find the droplight in the dark. instead of going to the expense of placing a switch, the contrivance illustrated and described was rigged up and proved equal to the requirements. a / -in. piece of wood was cut about in. long by in. wide and a recess made at one end for the socket, as shown. a / -in. hole was drilled in the center, about in. from one end, and another, large enough to receive the projection from a pull socket, about in. from the other end, or the end to be used as the bottom of the block. a clamp made of spring brass, as shown, was screwed securely to the board, to clamp the socket firmly. a wire was passed through the small hole and stretched across the room from the door at a height to bring the light about ft. from the floor. then the socket was clamped to the strip with the chain passed through the hole cut for it. the cord attached to the chain was run to the door casing, passed through a screweye and weighted with a nut or some light object, to keep it taut. to light the lamp or put it out only a pull on the string was necessary. [illustration: socket attachment to turn a basement light on or off from a distance] the light can be slid along on the wire from one end of the room to the other, or can be detached from the strip when desired by unhooking the cord from the chain and taking the socket from the clamp. if more desirable, the block can be fastened permanently to some object instead of being on the wire.--contributed by l. m. eifel, chicago. projecting protractor readings a simple and efficient means of projecting protractor readings to a larger size is shown in fig. . one point of the compass is placed at the center of the protractor and an elastic band is looped between the points. then the points are spread to the radius desired, and the protractor is read where the elastic band crosses its scale. a light band should be used, and looped as shown in fig. . in this way a circle of any size may be quickly divided, if a pencil mark is made each time the band comes over the proper figure.--contributed by thos. l. parker, wibaux, mont. [illustration: the extension marks can be easily read on the protractor under the elastic band (fig. )] [illustration: (fig. )] removing grease from paint when removing grease from paint by using ordinary cleaners, the paint is liable to come off in the washing. a good and cheaply applied method is to rub the painted surface with a paste of ordinary whiting. this is allowed to dry and when it is rubbed off with a cloth the dirt and grease is taken away with it. the whiting is cheap and can be purchased at any drug store. a door stop [illustration] a very good door stop can be easily made of a piece of metal as shown in the sketch. the metal is bent and fastened with screws to the wall against which the door swings. the extending end fits under the door knob and prevents it from striking the wall.--contributed by c. r. poole, los angeles, california. stretching a curtain without a frame a good way to avoid using the ordinary four-pole curtain stretcher is to make use of the following method. take the lace curtain and fold it once lengthwise; then pin it up on a tightly stretched line with a large number of clothespins, and slip a clean pole between the two sides to keep it taut. this method not only stretches the curtain satisfactorily, but saves considerable time otherwise required in pinning the curtain to the four-sided frame.--contributed by h. wynning, chicago, ill. [illustration: a lace curtain hung double on a line with a pole inserted in the fold] welding small resistance-wire connections in making connections, especially in electrical heating devices subject to high temperatures, it is out of the question to use solder, since the temperature reached in the device would cause the solder to melt and run out. a convenient arrangement for welding the connections of flatirons, or any other fine wires, is shown in the illustration. the ends of the wires to be welded are twisted together, and the weld is completed by forming an arc, one electrode of which is the twisted connection and the other a piece of carbon. the resistance of the heating unit in the iron is sufficient to limit the amount of the current flow so that a short circuit does not result.--contributed by g. irving davis, albany, n. y. [illustration: an arc is formed with a piece of carbon, to weld the twisted ends of wire together] bench with folding seats to provide a bench with seats, or shelves, which cannot easily be taken away unless the table is brought along, hinged brackets are attached to stationary crosspieces, which are fastened on the extended end braces of the table. when in use, the brackets are turned down, thereby providing a rigid support for anything that may be put on them. if it is desirable to have the brackets out of the way, as when carrying the bench, it is only necessary to fold them up.--contributed by j. m. kane, doylestown, pa. [illustration: bench, or table, with a seat on each side that can be folded for carrying purposes] rim of wire wastebasket wrapped with felt in offices where wire wastebaskets are used, the finish of the desks is often marred by the top rim of the baskets rubbing against them. this can be overcome by wrapping strips of felt around the rim to form a buffer.--contributed by miss f. d. schweiger, kansas city, mo. [illustration] a homemade roller coaster by j. h. sanford the popular roller coaster that furnishes untold amusement for the multitudes that patronize amusement parks during the summer can be easily duplicated in a smaller way on a vacant lot or back yard for the children of the home; or the boys of a neighborhood could contribute to a fund and construct quite an elaborate affair, on the same lines as described, for the combined use of the owners. the one described was built with a track, ft. long, ft. high at one end and ft. at the other, the track between being placed on the ground. in coasting from the high end to the low one, the coaster will run up on the incline, then drift back to within ft. of the starting end. the car was built to seat four children or two adults. the cost of all the materials for building this roller coaster did not exceed $ . [illustration: inexpensive back-yard roller coaster, suitable for the enjoyment of the young as well as the older persons] the track is of simple construction and requires but little description. it is necessary to have it straight and nailed firmly to the crossties on the ground and to the trestles where it is elevated. the ties and trestles are placed about ft. apart. the two trestles for the starting platform should be set so that there is a slant to the track of about in. for starting the car without pushing it. the car can be carried back for starting by adults, but for children a small rope can be used over the platform to draw it back on the track, or a small windlass may be arranged for the purpose. [illustration: detail of the car, wheels and the trestle, which is attached to a tie] the main frame of the car is ft. long and about in. wide, firmly fastened at the corners. the axles for the wheels are machine steel, in. long, turned up on the ends and threaded in the manner of a bicycle axle to fit parts of bicycle hubs, attached to the main frame as shown at a. the wheels are solid, in. in diameter and in. thick, and are set on the bicycle cone of the ball cup, after they are properly adjusted, and securely fastened between washers with a nut on the end of the axle. guide wheels, b, are placed on the sides in the manner shown. these wheels are ordinary truck casters, not the revolving kind, in. in diameter. about / -in. clearance should be provided between the guide wheels b and the guard rail c, on the track. when the car is made in this manner it runs close to the track and there is no place where a child can get a foot or hand injured under or at the sides of the car. the one described has been used by all the children, large and small, for a year without accident. door-bell alarm a simple door-bell alarm for informing one when the door of a shop or dwelling is opened is shown in the accompanying sketch. it consists of a piece of spring brass, a, bent into a circle in the center so that it may be clamped on the doorknob bar by means of a small bolt or screw. the two ends of this piece should be separated as shown and a second piece, b, mounted on the door so that its outwardly projecting end is between the ends of the piece a. one terminal of an ordinary vibrating bell circuit is then connected under the head of the clamp screw, and the other terminal under one of the screws holding the piece b in place on the door. it is now obvious that the bell circuit will be completed and the alarm sounded when the knob is turned. make sure that the piece a is bent so that the circuit is completed before the latch has moved a sufficient amount to allow the door to open. [illustration: wiring diagram and connections to an electric bell that rings when a door knob is turned] the circuit leading to and from the switch may be completed through the hinges of the door, but it would be better to use small coil springs as shown. there would then be no likelihood of the circuit being open at any time, which might occur if the hinges were used. * * * * * discolored coffee and teapots may be restored to their original brightness by boiling them a few minutes in a solution of borax water. [illustration] a playground ferris wheel the whole wheel is carried on two uprights, each by in., by ft. long. in the upper ends of these pieces, a, a half circle is cut out to receive the main shaft b. the end of the uprights are sunk ft. into the earth and about ft. apart, then braced as shown. they are further braced by wires attached to rings which are secured with staples near the top. the bearings should each have a cap to keep the shaft in place. these can be made of blocks of wood with a semicircle cut out, the blocks being nailed over the shaft, while it is in place, the nails entering the ends of the uprights. [illustration: detail of the uprights, axle and spokes, and the end and side elevations of the completed wheel, showing braces and cars attached] the main shaft c is made of a - / -in. square piece of good material, ft. long. the ends are made round to serve as bearings, and the square part is fitted with the spokes or car carriers. these consist of pieces, each in. thick, in. wide and ft. long. in the center of each piece cut a notch one-half the thickness so that when each pair of pieces is crossed they will fit together with the surfaces smooth, as shown at d. a square hole is cut through the pieces as shown to fit on the square part of the main axle. while it is not shown in the illustration, it is best to strengthen this joint with another piece of wood, cut to fit on the axle and securely attached to the spokes. the cars or carriers are made of two sugar barrels cut in half. the hoops are then securely nailed, both inside and outside; a block of wood, e, securely attached to the half barrel on the outside, and another block on the inside opposite the outside block. holes are bored - / ft. from the ends of the spokes and a bolt run through them and through the blocks on the edges of the half barrels. the extending ends of the spokes are used to propel the wheel. four children can ride in the wheel at one time.--contributed by maurice baudier, new orleans, la. a merry-go-round pole an inexpensive merry-go-round can be made of a single pole set in the ground where there is sufficient vacant space for the turning of the ropes. the pole may be of gas pipe or wood, long enough to extend about ft. above the ground. an iron wheel is attached on the upper end so that it will revolve easily on an axle, which may be an iron pin driven into the post. a few iron washers placed on the pin under the wheel will reduce the friction. [illustration: the ropes being tied to the wheel rim will easily turn around the pole] ropes of varying lengths are tied to the rim of the wheel. the rider takes hold of a rope and runs around the pole to start the wheel in motion, then he swings clear of the ground. streamers of different colors and flowers for special occasions may be attached to make a pretty display.--contributed by j. bert mitchell, wichita, kans. a theatrical night scene with the appearance of fireflies use small shining christmas-tree balls, about the size of a hickory nut, strung on strong black linen threads. the thread is put loosely over a hook at the back of the stage among the evergreens that are used for the background. the ends of the threads are brought, like a pair of reins, to the front of the stage, diagonally, and there manipulated by some one in a wing near the front, standing high enough to prevent the threads from touching the heads of the actors. these bright little particles darting back and forth among the trees appear very lifelike, and with the addition of a crescent moon just peeping through the trees, the likeness to a summer night is quite striking. the moon effect is made by using a piece of dark cardboard, about ft. square, covered thickly with small green boughs, and by cutting a crescent-shaped opening in the center, covering it with yellow tissue paper. this cardboard is placed well back in the trees and a lantern hung behind it.--contributed by miss s. e. jocelyn, new haven, conn. hulling walnuts procure a barrel that is water-tight and mount it on a shaft so that it runs between standards like a barrel churn. fill the barrel about half full of walnuts, cover them with water and throw in a small quantity of gravel as grinding material. close the opening tightly and turn the barrel for about minutes. the walnuts will come out clean and smooth as glass.--contributed by arthur seufert, the dalles, oregon. stick for lowering top sash of a window to make it easy to raise and lower the upper sash of a bathroom window which is behind the bathtub i devised the following: procuring two screweyes i opened one sufficiently to slip it into the other as shown at a. then one was screwed into the top rail of the sash and the other into the end of a light stick a little longer than the length of upper sash. [illustration: the stick is fastened to the window sash with screweyes and is always ready for use] the device is left on the window permanently and affords a ready means of handling the sash without stepping into the bathtub, which would otherwise be necessary.--contributed by w. e. morey, chicago. an adjustable hacksaw frame the frame is constructed of cold-rolled steel, / in. in diameter and - / in. long, bent into the shape shown and then cut in two parts at a. starting at a point about / in. from the ends made by the cut, drill / -in. holes, then space three other holes in. between centers and drill them / in. in diameter. [illustration: the frame is shaped of cold-rolled steel and made adjustable with a piece of steel tubing] a piece of steel tubing, / in. in inside diameter and - / in. long, is notched on the ends to receive the pins b and c. slots are cut in the ends d and e, to admit the blade of a saw, and half-round notches filed on the outside surface for holding pins used in the hole of the saw blade. the spring of the steel will be sufficient to keep the saw blade in place. the / -in. holes in the frame will permit adjustment for different lengths of blades.--contributed by clarence b. hanson, fitchburg, mass. a bedroom cabinet the cabinet shown in the illustration can be made an ornament with a little care in workmanship and a choice selection of materials. the cabinet may be either fastened to the head or foot of the bed, facing in either of two directions. [illustration: the cabinet makes a handy place to keep necessary articles for a sick person] the size of the cabinet will depend on the choice of the maker, and if the bed is brass, the wood can be finished natural and fitted with brass bands for brackets and holding clips.--contributed by w. e. crane, cleveland, o. a dull black for cameras such parts of a camera that are apt to reflect light must be covered with a dull black. a mixture for this purpose is made of lampblack, about a teaspoonful, and enough gold size to make a paste as thick as putty. add about twice the volume of turpentine and apply to the parts with a camel's-hair brush. as the turpentine fumes are detrimental to the sensitive plate, the camera should be left open until these fumes have entirely disappeared. a door fastener [illustration] sometimes it is necessary to fasten a door in a manner to prevent children from opening it, yet so that it is easily opened from either side. this can be done by putting a screw or curtain hook on the inside of the door frame and using a piece of cord long enough to loop over both hooks. a person coming in or out can remove the loop from either side.--contributed by john a. cohalan, philadelphia, pa. * * * * * a floor wax can be made by melting lb. of yellow beeswax in / pt. of hot, raw linseed oil; then adding pt. of turpentine. umbrella used as a flower trellis procure a discarded umbrella and remove the cloth, leaving only the steel frame. join the ends of the ribs by running a fine wire through the tip of each rib and giving it one turn around to hold them at equal distances apart. the handle is then inserted in the ground and some climbing vine planted beneath it. the plant will climb all over the steel frame and make a very attractive lawn piece.--contributed by john f. campbell, n. somerville, massachusetts. [illustration: frame supporting a vine] combined shade and awning an ordinary window shade makes a good awning as well as a shade, if it is attached to the outside of the window with the device shown in the illustration. the shade and spring roller are put into a box for protection from the weather and the box is fastened in the window casing at the top. a narrow slit on the under side of the box permits the shade to be drawn out. the stick at the end is removed and a u-shaped wire inserted in the hem in its stead. the wire is bent so the ends may be inserted in holes in the window casing. as the shade is drawn out, it is extended outward by the wire in the position of an awning.--contributed by arthur kesl, chicago, ill. [illustration: shade attachments] vaulting-pole attachments some means must be provided on vaulting-pole standards to allow for the free release of the pole should the vaulter strike it in going over. one of the simplest of the many devices that can be used for this purpose is shown in fig. . it is made of heavy wire, bent and slipped over the standard as shown in fig. . the projection on the inside of the link is used similar to the tongue of a buckle in adjusting the height of the pole on the standards. [illustration: pole adjuster on standard (fig. , fig. , fig. )] each standard has a series of holes on its front side. these holes may be numbered for convenience. the pole in place is shown in fig. .--contributed by john dunlap, craghead, tollcross, england. separating drinking glasses when two thin glasses are put one into the other they often become stuck and cannot be removed. to separate them with ease, set the lower glass in warm (not hot) water and pour cold water in the upper one. the expansion of the lower and the contraction of the upper will make release an easy matter.--contributed by maurice baudier, new orleans, la. * * * * * bronze striping, when thoroughly dry, should be covered with a thin coat of white shellac to keep it from tarnishing. a magic string procure a few pieces of cotton string, each about - / ft. long, and fill them well with soap. prepare a brine by dissolving three tablespoonfuls of salt in a cup of water. place the strings in the brine and allow them to soak for two hours, or longer. it is necessary that they be thoroughly saturated with the brine. when taken out of the brine and thoroughly dried, suspend one of them from a nail on a ledge, and hang a finger ring on its lower end. apply a lighted match to the string and allow it to burn. the ring will not fall, but will hang by the ash.--contributed by c. frank carber, dorchester, mass. edging flower beds to improve the appearance of a flower bed, it must be edged evenly and quite often. as this became a tiresome task, i constructed an edger, as shown in the sketch. it consists of a wheel on a -ft. length of material, by in. in size, made tapering and having a cross handle, in. long, attached to its end. the wheel is in. in diameter, and the cutter is attached, as shown, across the center of the wheel axle, to make the edger turn easily on curves and corners. the cutter is in. long and turned under - / in. it is pushed along in the same manner as a garden cultivator.--contributed by a. s. thomas, amherstburg, can. [illustration: an edger, similar to a garden plow, for quickly trimming the sod around a flower bed] an electric stirring machine desiring a stirring machine for mixing photographic chemicals, i set about to design the one shown in the illustration. the base and upright are made of pine, in. thick, the former in. wide and in. long, the latter in. wide and in. long. a / in. slot, in. long, is cut in the center of the upright, and two pieces of sheet metal or tin, in. wide and in. long, bent at right angles along the center of their length, are placed at equal distances, on each side of the slot, and fastened with screws. the distance between these pieces depends on the motor used, as its base should fit snugly between them. [illustration: a self-contained electric stirring machine for use in mixing photographic chemicals] a small battery motor is purchased, and its shaft is removed and replaced with one measuring in. in length. to the end of the shaft is soldered a piece of wire, bent as shown in the sketch. a bolt is attached to the center of the motor base, so that its threaded end will pass through the slot in the upright, where it is held with a wing nut. the battery cells may be placed on the back of the upright and a small switch mounted at the top and in front.--contributed by ray f. yates, niagara falls, n. y. a clothes rack the rack is constructed of hard wood throughout, and as each piece is made, it should be sandpapered and varnished or otherwise finished. the plan view is shown in fig. ; the construction of an arm, in fig. ; and the pin, in fig. . [illustration: any number of arms up to its limit may be used at a time (fig. )] [illustration: (fig. )] [illustration: (fig. )] [illustration: (fig. )] the base is / in. thick and of the dimensions shown in fig. . the projection on each side, measuring - / in. long and in. wide, is made separately and glued to the main part after dressing and beveling the edges. the shelf consists of material in. thick and made in a semicircular form on a radius of - / in. on this arc, lay off chords, as shown in fig. ; the first ones on each side being one-half the length of the others. carefully square up the edges for appearance. to lay off the post holes, scribe an arc of a circle on a - / -in. radius. start at the edge on this arc and lay off eight chords of equal lengths, and bore / -in. holes on the marks. the posts are turned up, as shown by the detail, fig. . this will require seven posts and two half posts. the half posts are secured to the base with small brads. the round part at the end is turned slightly tapering, so as to make a tight fit in the hole of the shelf. after stringing the posts on a piece of brass wire, / in. in diameter, and bending it in the proper shape, the posts are glued in the holes. a t-shaped slot with a long top and a short leg is cut out with a scroll saw in one end of each arm. make sure to have each slot exactly / in. from the upper side of each arm. all edges should be well rounded to prevent tearing of the clothes. make a semicircular platform for the arms to bear upon when extended. this may be either half of a turned disk or built up in the three segments, each fastened with screws to the base. if the brass wire is exactly in. from the shelf and the thickness of the wood between the t-slot and the upper edge of the arm / in., the thickness of the platform should be slightly under / in. to make the arms rest horizontally when they are extended. the shelf is fastened to the base with three or four -in. screws, and the ends of the brass wire are run through holes in the base and clinched on the back side. the rack may be fastened in place on the kitchen wall with two large wood screws, or, if the wall is brick, with expansion bolts. the fastening in either case must be secure to hold the heavy weight of wet clothes.--contributed by d. a. price, wilmington, del. how to make a pair of foot boats on ponds or small lakes not deep enough for a boat one can use the foot boats, as illustrated, for walking on the water. the boats are made of white wood, known as basswood, as this wood is easily bent when steamed, and the curved part should be shaped neatly. [illustration: foot boats for walking on shallow water where a boat cannot be used] two sides are cut out, as shown, and the boards are nailed or, better still, screwed to them. each straight part may consist of one piece, in which case there will be no joints to make waterproof, but if boards of sufficient size cannot be had, pieces can be used. in this instance the edges should be planed smooth, so that a good joint may be had, which can be made watertight with white lead. it is best to make the bottom of one piece if possible, at least for the length of the curve. the wood is thoroughly steamed, then fastened in place on the curved part. a strap of suitable length is fastened on the top for the toe, so that the boats can be controlled with the feet. to propel the boats along easily, a web or wing should be attached to the under side, so that it will catch the water on the back thrust while it will fold up when the boat is slid forward.--contributed by waldo saul, lexington, mass. a green-corn holder neat and attractive green-corn holders for table use can be made of small-sized glass drawer knobs, having a bolt in. in length. the bolt head is cut off with a hacksaw, and its body is filed to make four sides running to a taper, leaving enough threads to secure it in the knob. the threads are smeared with white lead, then it is screwed into the knob and sufficient time allowed for the lead to set before using it. [illustration: the glass knobs make a clean and sanitary holder for the ear of corn] a pair of knobs are required for each ear of corn served. the square bolt end will hold the ear securely while the kernels are eaten from the cob.--contributed by victor labadie, dallas, texas. inflating toy balloons the inflation of rubber balloons may be accomplished with manufactured gas by using the simple pipe arrangement shown in the sketch. the connection a is for the gas hose, which is similar to those used for a table lamp. the gas bag b is a football or punching bag connected to the pipe as shown. this receives the gas as it is let in by the valve a. the toy balloon c is connected to the pipe in the same manner and the valve d used to regulate the flow of gas. the gas is easily pressed out of the ball into the balloon. [illustration: pipe arrangement, punching bag and valves to admit gas to a toy rubber balloon] as hydrogen gas is much better than the manufactured gas, it is best to use and can be put in the balloon in the same manner. electric-light mystery a novel attraction for a window display can be made of a piece of plate glass neatly mounted on a wood base, and an electric light which is placed on the top edge and may be lighted apparently without any wire connections. [illustration: electric light mounted on top of a plate glass with hidden connections on the glass edge] the method of concealing the connections is to paint the edges of the glass green, then, before the paint is quite dry, lay on a thin strip of copper, making the connections at the base on both sides, and to the lamp in the same manner. another coat of paint is applied to cover the strip. the color should be an imitation of the greenish tint of glass edges. any desired lettering can be put on the glass.--contributed by o. simonson, brooklyn, n. y. an oar holder persons rowing boats, particularly beginners, find that the oars will slip out of the oarlocks, turn or fall into the water. this may be avoided by turning a screweye of sufficient size to prevent binding on the lock into the oar and placing it over the lock as shown at a, so that the pull will be against the metal. the oars will never slip or jump out, will always be in the right position, and it is not necessary to pull them into the boat to prevent loss when not rowing. the locks will not wear the oars, as the pull is on the metal eye. place the eye so it will have a horizontal position on the side of the oar when the blade is in its right position. [illustration: the screweye in position on the oar and over one prong of the oarlock] cooking food in paper a flat piece of paper is much more convenient to use than a paper sack in cooking, as it can be better fitted to the size of the article to be cooked. wrap the article as a grocer wraps sugar, folding and refolding the two edges together until the package is of the proper size, then fasten with clips and proceed to close the ends in the same way. this avoids all pasted seams and makes the package airtight.--contributed by j. j. a. parker, metamora, o. washing photograph prints photographic prints may be washed in a stationary washbowl with just as good results as if washed in a high-priced wash box, by cutting off the upper end of the rubber nipple on a bent glass medicine dropper and placing it on the faucet as shown in the illustration. this arrangement causes the water to whirl around in the bowl, which keeps the prints in constant motion, thus insuring a thorough washing.--contributed by l. o. d. sturgess, arlington, oregon. [illustration: a medicine dropper on a faucet produces a whirling motion of the water in the bowl] combination lock for a drawer the principal parts of the combination lock are the five disks shown in fig. . these are best made of sheet brass, about / in. thick and - / in. in diameter. the pins for turning the disks are each made a driving fit for a hole drilled through the metal at a point / in. from the center. notches are cut in the disks c, d and e, fig. , to receive the latch end, and the disk b is made like a cam, its use being to raise the latch into its keeper when the handle is turned backward. the disk a is without a notch and has only a pin for turning the other disks. [illustration: the parts as they are attached to a drawer front to make a combination lock (fig. )] the disks are mounted on the inside of the drawer front in a u-shaped piece of metal, f, fig. , which carries a / -in. pin, g, as their bearing. the disks are placed on this pin with rubber washers, h, j, k, l and m, between them. these serve the purpose of preventing the disks from turning too freely. the disk a is fastened tightly to the end of the rod n, which is / in. in diameter. the outer end of this rod is fitted with a handle or turning head as desired. that shown at o is made of two pieces of wood screwed together, with a pointer, p, placed between them. a washer, r, is placed between the drawer end and the handle to take up any looseness and to allow the free turning of the rod. [illustration: (fig. )] a dial, s, is made of paper and the division marks and numbers placed upon it. the latch t is fitted in a u-shaped piece of metal, u, which is fastened to the inside of the drawer end where its heel will rest on the edges of the disks. when the right combination is made by turning the handle first one way and then the other, the latch will drop into the notches of the disks as they will be all in one place. when the drawer is to be locked, turn the handle back from the last turn made for the combination and the latch will be driven upward into its keeper and the notches scattered so that the latch will not drop until the combination is again set. the numbers for the combination can be found after the disks are in place and by turning the handle until the notch comes up to the place for the heel of the latch. the number beneath the pointer is noted; then the next turned up in a like manner, all being done while the drawer is open and the disks in plain sight. the combination can be changed only by changing the location of the pins in the disks.--contributed by c. b. hanson, fitchburg, massachusetts. how to start small machine screws [illustration] small machine screws are sometimes very difficult to start, especially when used in parts of a machine that cannot be easily reached with the fingers. a good way to start them is by means of a piece of fine wire wound snugly around the screw under its head. they can be placed and started by means of the wire and when the first threads have caught the screw it can be held by the screwdriver while the wire is withdrawn.--contributed by f. w. bently, huron, s. d. an umbrella holder for display purposes [illustration] a holder that is especially adapted for use in hanging umbrellas for display in a store can be easily made of a piece of wire wound in a coil, as shown in the sketch, to fit over the end on the umbrella stick. the coil at one end of the spring is formed into a hook so that the umbrellas may be hung in screweyes or on a line, as the case may be. the end of the umbrella is stuck into the spring, as shown, which grips it tightly.--contributed by abner b. shaw, n. dartmouth, mass. holder for a milk card [illustration] it is the general practice of milkmen to furnish a monthly card on which the housewife marks the needs of the day and then hangs it outside of the door for the information of the driver. this card also serves as a record for checking the accounts of the milk delivered during the month, and therefore it is desirable to protect it from snow and sleet. in order to furnish this protection and at the same time make it unnecessary for any one to go outside of the door to hang up the card on stormy days, one of our readers has submitted the following plan which he has used for some time. on the outside of the kitchen door, where the milkman is to deliver his bottles, this man has fastened an ordinary picture frame with glass but no backing except the door. through the door and just below the upper edge of the glass is cut a thin slot inclining downward and outward so that the milk card can be easily pushed through the slot and thus be displayed behind the glass in the frame. by this protection it is kept free from mud, snow and ice. it is not necessary to step outside to place the card in the frame. frame for printing post cards from negatives as i desired to print only a portion of some of my by -in. plates on post cards and the part wanted was near the edge of the plate, i cut out the printing frame, as shown at a in the sketch, to accommodate that part of the card i reserved for a margin. this permitted the card to be placed in the frame without making a bend.--contributed by j. h. maysilles, rochelle, ill. [illustration: slots cut in the frame to receive the post cards without bending them] finger protection on laboratory vessels a simple way of protecting the fingers against being burned by laboratory vessels in which liquids are boiling or chemical reactions producing great heat are going on, is shown in the sketch. a rather thick cord or yarn is wrapped around the neck of the vessel in the manner shown, the upper end being drawn through the loop at the top and cut off, and the lower end then pulled out and a knot tied in it close to the windings of the yarn. [illustration: the ends of the cord are held tightly and the winding protects the hands] inlaying metals by electroplating very pretty and artistic effects of silver or nickel inlay on bronze, copper, etc., or copper on dark oxidized metals, may be obtained by means of etching and electroplating. the metal on which the inlay is to be used is first covered with a thin coating of wax and the design scratched through to the metal with a sharp, hard point of some kind. the design is then etched in slowly with well diluted nitric acid, allowing the etching to penetrate quite deeply. the metal is then taken out and after a thorough rinsing in water is hung in the plating bath. as the wax has been left on, the plating will fill the lines of the design only, and will not touch the covered surface. when the etched lines are filled, the object is taken out of the bath and the wax removed.--contributed by s. v. cooke, hamilton, can. a novel show-window attraction this moving show-window attraction can be simply and cheaply made. the things necessary are a small battery motor, a large horseshoe magnet and a large polished steel ball, perfectly true and round, such as used in bearings. the other materials usually can be found in any store. procure some thick cardboard and cut two disks, in. in diameter, and two disks, - / in. in diameter. glue these together to make the wheel a, the larger disks forming the flanges. make a smaller wheel, b, the size of which will be governed by the speed of the motor used. the wheel a is mounted in a box to run with its surface close to the under side of the cover, which should be of a thin, stiff cardboard. the wheel b is mounted on an axle that runs in metal bearings. the magnet d is placed on the wheel a. the steel ball e is put on the thin cover of the box, and the magnet causes it to roll around as the wheel turns. the box inclosing the mechanical parts should be placed out of sight when used in a window.--contributed by clarence guse, spokane, wash. [illustration: the steel ball is caused to roll around on the cover by the moving magnet] how to make a mop wringer a mop wringer may be made and attached to an ordinary pail in the following manner: two pieces of metal, a, are attached securely at opposite sides of the edge of the pail, holes being drilled in their upper ends to serve as bearings for the roller b. the piece of metal c, which is duplicated at the opposite side of the pail, is pivoted on a bolt. these pieces also carry a roller, e, at their upper ends, and have a crosspiece, f, at their lower ends. discarded wringer rollers can be used for b and e. a coil spring is attached as shown, to keep the rollers separate and in a position to receive the mop. when the mop is placed between the rollers they are brought together by a pressure of the foot on the crosspiece f.--contributed by j. dennis mckennon, new britain, conn. [illustration: the parts may be either attached to a metal or wood pail with bolts or screws] a vise used as a caliper gauge not infrequently it is desired to know the distance from one side to another of some part that cannot be directly measured with a rule, and when no calipers are at hand. but with a vise handy, the measurement can be made with ease and with sufficient accuracy for all practical purposes if the vise is not too worn. this trick is particularly adapted for calipering threaded parts, as threads cannot be measured readily with ordinary calipers. how this may be done is shown in the sketch, which illustrates the method as applied to a screw. the work is gripped between the jaws of the vise and the opening then measured with a rule.--contributed by donald a. hampson, middletown, new york. [illustration: the jaws of a vise, if they are true, will make a caliper gauge giving a perfect measurement] homemade tack puller a very handy tack puller can be made of a round-head bolt. on one side of the head file a v-shaped notch and screw a wood handle on the threads. this makes a very powerful puller that will remove large tacks from hardwood easily. [illustration: the shape of the head permits a leverage action that lifts the tack easily] how to make a radium photograph the radium rays, like the x-rays, affect the photographic plate, as is well known, but it would naturally be supposed that the enormous cost of radium would prevent the making of such a photograph by the amateur. it is a fact, however, that a radium photograph can be made at home at practically no cost at all, provided the amateur has patience enough to gather the necessary material, which is nothing else but broken incandescent gas mantles. these (especially welsbach mantles) contain a salt of the rare metal thorium, which is slightly radioactive. the thing to do, then, is to collect a sufficient quantity of broken mantles to cover the bottom of a small cardboard box--a dryplate box, for instance--with a layer of powdered mantle substance. upon this layer and pressed tightly against it is placed a piece of cardboard; then some metal objects, a button, hairpin, a buckle, or the like, are laid on the cardboard and covered with a sensitized paper. this is again covered with a piece of cardboard and the box filled with crumpled paper to the top. the cover is then put on, the box tied up with a piece of string and set in some place where it is sure to be left undisturbed. the radium rays from the powdered mantles readily penetrate the cardboard and paper, but not the metal articles. being very weak, the rays must be given four weeks to accomplish their work. after that time, however, if the sensitive paper is taken out, pictures of the metal objects in white on a dark background will be found on it. these pictures will not be so sharp as ordinary photographs, because the rays are not focused, but they fairly represent the originals and the experiment is an interesting one. * * * * * a good imitation mahogany stain consists of part venetian red and parts yellow lead, mixed with thin glue size, and is laid on with a woolen cloth. fountain for an ordinary pen fill the hollow end of an ordinary penholder with cotton--not too tightly--and one dip of the pen will hold enough ink to write a full page. the cotton should be changed each day. a small piece of sponge will answer the same purpose. it is necessary to dip the pen deeply into the ink.--contributed by j. e. noble, london junction, ontario. pulling wire through curved electric fixtures to facilitate the running of electric wires through curved fixtures, nick a heavy shot, a, and fasten it on a cord, b, in the same manner as a fishline is weighted. the shot will roll through the fixture tube, carrying the cord with it. a cord strong enough to pull the wires through can be easily drawn through the opening in this manner. the shot should, of course, not be so large that it can possibly bind in the tube. [illustration: a shot that will pass through the fixture arm will carry a cord for pulling in the wires] an automatically closing drawer a very ingenious way to have a drawer close automatically is to attach a weight so that the rope or cord will pull on the rear end of the drawer. the sketch clearly shows the device which is an attachment similar to that used for closing gates. this can be applied to drawers that are frequently drawn out and in places where a person is liable to have the hands full. [illustration: the rope and weight attached to the back end of the drawer pulls it closed] a cork puller [illustration] the stopper of any ordinary bottle can be easily removed with a puller such as shown in the sketch. the puller is inserted between the stopper and the neck of the bottle until the hook end will pass under the bottom of the stopper, then given a quarter turn and pulled upward. the construction of the puller vents the cork as it enters and thus no vacuum is created. the cork is pulled more easily than with an ordinary corkscrew, and there is no danger of tearing the cork to pieces. uses for a bamboo pole select a good bamboo pole, about ft. long, and cut it into three lengths as follows: a piece from the top, - / ft. long; the next length, - / ft. long, and the remaining end of the pole, about ft. long. the - / -ft. length is equipped with a screw hook in the smaller end, as shown in fig. . this stick is useful in lowering window shades that have a ring or screw eye attached to the lower part of the shade. when the stick is not in use, it is hung on the edge of the window casing. [illustration: a bamboo pole cut in three pieces makes a window-shade stick, duster holder and clothesline pole (fig. , fig. , fig. )] the - / -ft. length makes the long handle for a duster. procure an old-style lamp-chimney cleaner, wind a cord around the wires a few inches below the point where they begin to spread to keep them from coming apart, then cut or file the wires off in. below the winding. this leaves a straight shank, over which a ferrule is slipped before it is inserted into the small end of the pole. fill the remaining space in the pole end with plaster of paris, and when it has set, slip the ferrule into place on the pole end. if a ferrule is not at hand, a fine wire can be wound around the end to prevent the pole from splitting. when using this pole to dust hardwood floors, tops of doors, window casings and picture frames, put a dusting cloth into the claws and slide the ring into place, as shown in fig. . the longer and larger end of the pole is used as a clothesline pole. one end of this pole is fitted with a yoke made of no. gauge galvanized wire, as shown in fig. . the wire for the yoke is in. long, and after bending it in shape, the two upper ends should be in. wide at the top and in. deep. insert the straight end of the wire into the smaller end of the pole and set it in firmly with plaster of paris. the end of the pole should be securely wound with wire to keep the bamboo from splitting.--contributed by gertrude m. bender, utica, n. y. making common lock less pickable the ordinary lock can be readily changed so that it will be quite impossible to pick it with a common key. the way to do this is to cut off the small hollow portion of the key that fits over the pin. this part is placed on the pin of the lock and soldered, or fastened by any other means, so it cannot come out of the lock. this will prevent any ordinary key from entering the keyhole.--contributed by a. j. hamilton, benton, ark. [illustration: the small end cut from the key is fastened on the pin of the lock] to color tan leather black an inexpensive and effective way to blacken tan leather is as follows: the leather is first rubbed with a -per-cent solution of tannic acid, which may be purchased at any drug store. this treatment should be applied and the leather well dried. it should be rubbed with a cloth hard enough to produce a polish, then apply a -per-cent solution of iron sulphate. a chemical reaction takes place as the last solution is rubbed into the leather, making it black. after this is dry, the leather can be polished in the usual way. to prevent corks sticking in bottle necks [illustration] corks will always adhere to the necks of bottles containing glue or other sticky liquids, with the result that it becomes necessary to cut or dig the cork into small pieces in order to remove the contents from the bottle. a simple and effective way to prevent a cork from sticking is to place a small piece of waxed paper on the bottle opening so that when the cork is pressed in, the paper will be between the cork and glass, as shown. to remove rust stains from clothing many times when working around machinery, the clothes will come in contact with iron and get rust stains. these may be removed by using a weak solution of oxalic acid which must be applied carefully as it is highly poisonous. sometimes the stain can be removed by washing the spot in buttermilk, in which case rubbing is necessary. * * * * * small bits of onion placed in a room will absorb the disagreeable odors of paint and turpentine. eraser holder any small piece of steel with a point, similar to that shown in the sketch, will make a good eraser holder. the saving of erasers is nothing compared to the convenience of having a small eraser with a chisel edge or point when delicate erasing is required. it is not clumsy as the usual chunk of rubber with a blunt point, for the person erasing can see what he is doing. i use a leg of an old pair of dividers and cut my erasers in four parts in shapes similar to that shown in the sketch by the dotted lines, and can use them easily until they are about the size of a pea. the friction between the rubber and steel, after the point has been inserted into the rubber, holds the two together nicely.--contributed by james f. burke, lakewood, o. [illustration: a very small eraser can be held on the point and used for delicate erasures] bleaching ivory a good method to bleach ivory ornaments is to rub on a solution made of a small quantity of unslaked lime, bran and water. the mixture should be wiped off after the ivory has become sufficiently bleached, and the surface then rubbed with sawdust or magnesia, which gives it a brilliant polish. a soap shake [illustration] to utilize scraps of soap, make a soap shake of a medium-size baking-powder can, as shown in the sketch. punch holes in the can with an ice pick or some other sharp-pointed instrument, and attach a large wire to the center, twisting the ends to form a handle.--contributed by elizabeth p. grant, winchester, virginia. ear repair on a bucket [illustration] a broken ear for a bail on a metal pail or bucket can be replaced with a window-shade fastener, such as shown at a in the sketch. the base of the fastener is turned down flat and attached with screw bolts or rivets, as shown at b.--contributed by harold robinson, suffern, n. y. cleaning dirt from tufts in upholstering [illustration: (fig. , fig. )] a handy device for cleaning furniture upholstering and vehicle-seat tuftings may be easily made as follows: take an ordinary round paintbrush and cut the handle off, leaving it about - / in. long, then saw a v-shaped notch in it, as shown in fig. . attach the brush to the ratchet screwdriver, fig. , by inserting the screwdriver blade in the notch of the brush handle, and secure it by wrapping a strong cord around the handle. place the brush in the tuft and work the screwdriver handle, as in turning a screw. a few quick turns of the brush will throw out the dirt which is impossible to remove with a straight brush. painting lead pipe the paint applied to lead pipes will chip and peel off, and to prevent this i first cover the lead surface with a thin coat of varnish, then apply the paint on the varnish. a lead pipe painted in this way will retain its coating.--contributed by f. schumacher, brooklyn, n. y. attaching a vise jaw to a bench procure a toothed metal rail or rack, a, such as is used for small ladder tracks, and mount it on the lower edge of the guide rail for the lower end of the vise jaw. provide a slot, b, in the leg of the bench, through which the rail can run with plenty of play room. a beveled plate, c, is attached to the face of the bench leg at the bottom of the slot, so that it will engage the teeth of the rack. [illustration: the rack on the lower guide rail provides a means to keep the vise jaws parallel] in use, when opening the vise by means of the screw, the rack will drag along the plate, and stop and engage a notch when the opening operation ceases. when it is desired to reduce the opening, it is only necessary to lift the rail by means of the string d. a button is tied to the upper end of the string on top of the bench, to keep it handy for changing the jaw.--contributed by harry f. lowe, washington, district of columbia. removing vegetable stains to remove stains of vegetables or fruits of any kind from cloth or wood, the following method is very good: the stained piece is first moistened with water and then placed in a jar or pail that can be covered. a lump of sulphur is ignited and dropped into the jar. place the sulphur on a fire shovel when lighting it to avoid burns. the burning sulphur should be placed in the receptacle on the side where the stain will be exposed to the fumes. the sulphur burns slowly so that the articles will not be harmed. after the sulphur has burned away, the jar should be kept closed for a few minutes and when the articles are removed, the stains will be gone. this is harmless to try, and the cloth will not be injured if it is in a dry condition. the articles should be washed and dried as soon as they are taken out of the jar. picture-frame corner joints very often the amateur craftsman comes across a picture which he would like to have framed, but the difficulty and insecurity of the ordinary miter joint for the corners discourage him from trying to make the frame. a very easy way to construct a rigid frame is shown in the illustration. the size of the frame must be determined by the picture to be framed. the width, a, of the pieces depends upon one's own taste. four pieces, the desired length and width and / in. thick, should be dressed out of the material intended for the frame. four other pieces, / in. thick and / in. narrower than the first four pieces, are next made ready and fastened with glue and flat-head screws to the back of the first pieces, as shown. this allows / in. for glass, picture and backing, and / in. to lap over the front of the picture on all edges. [illustration: square and mitered lap joints for making rigid picture frames in natural or stained woods (fig. , fig. )] by arranging the pieces as shown in fig. , a strong corner lap is secured. a miter lap joint which is not so strong is shown in fig. . the latter gives a mitered-joint effect. this method does away with the use of the rabbeting plane and miter box, both of which are difficult to use with accuracy. two screws should be used in each joint to reinforce the glue.--contributed by james gaffney, chicago, ill. hunting-knife handles very artistic handles for hunting knives and carving sets can be made by using disks of horn. procure some cowhorns from a slaughter house and split them with a saw, using only the large portion of the horn. the split horn is then heated by dry heat--an oven is best--then pressed between two cold plates to a flat piece. if well heated, it is surprising how easily this can be done. the piece is then cut into squares of suitable size which are marked and perforated in the center, the hole being a trifle smaller than the tang of the blade. the tang should be flat and a little longer than the desired handle, with the end made round and threaded for a nut. [illustration: the finished handle, if the work is well done, is easily mistaken for agate] a suitable washer is placed on the tang, which is then heated sufficiently to burn its way through the pieces of horn as they are put on the metal. when a sufficient number of disks are on the tang a washer should be slipped on and followed by a round nut. pressure is applied by turning the nut and repeated heatings of the disks will force them together to make perfect joints. only a moderate pressure should be applied at a time. the handle is now to be finished to the shape desired. if black and colored pieces of horn are interspersed, the finished handle will have the appearance of agate. the blade and handle can be lacquered and the ferrules nickelplated.--contributed by james h. beebee, rochester, n. y. holding wood in a sawbuck anyone who has used a sawbuck knows how inconvenient it is to have a stick roll or lift up as the saw blade is pulled back for the next cut. with the supplementary device, shown in the sketch, which can be easily attached to the sawbuck, these troubles will be eliminated. it consists of two crosspieces hinged to the back uprights of the sawbuck and a foot-pressure stirrup fastened to their front ends as shown. spikes are driven through the crosspieces so that their protruding ends will gouge into the stick of wood being sawed. the stirrup is easily thrown back for laying a piece of wood in the crotch. [illustration: the holding attachment easily adjusts itself to the stick of wood placed in the crotch] a new pail-cover handle the handle of the cover, instead of being attached to the center, is placed near the edge and bail of the pail. on the bail and just above the handle of the cover there is formed a loop large enough to accommodate the thumb. with this arrangement, the cover may be removed with the use of but one hand. [illustration: the bail loop and the handle make it easy to remove the cover with one hand] drip-pan alarm the trouble caused by overflowing of the drip pan for an ice box or refrigerator can be overcome by attaching a device that will sound an alarm when the water reaches a level safely below the overflow point. a device of this kind may be attached to the back of the refrigerator as shown in the sketch. a float, a, is attached to the lower end of a rod, b, which slides through staples cc. at the upper end of the rod, a v-shaped copper sheet, d, is soldered. this makes the contact points in the electric wiring. the battery e can be placed under or back of the refrigerator as desired. the method of wiring is clearly shown. [illustration: the float in the pan, and contacts for closing the circuit to ring the bell] a live-bait pail [illustration] every fisherman knows that live bait will soon die if they do not receive sufficient air. i have succeeded in keeping bait alive and healthy by using a pail of my own construction, which is provided with a compressed-air space to force air to the surface of the water. the air space a takes up one-fifth of the interior at the bottom of the pail, and an ordinary hand bicycle pump is used to fill it through a bicycle-tire valve, b. the pipe c from the air space extends up along the side of the pail and the upper end is bent so that it just touches the surface of the water. the pipe contains a valve to regulate the flow of air. after the pail has been standing for an hour or more, the bait will rise to the top. the valve is then opened for a few minutes, and the minnows will soon swim around in the water as when this was fresh.--contributed by t. whelan, paterson, n. j. a mouse trap [illustration] after using various means to catch the mice in my pantry, i finally decided i could not catch them in the ordinary manner. knowing that mice are not afraid of dishes but will run all over them, while they will stay away from other things, i took a dinner plate, a bowl that held about qt., a thimble, filled with toasted cheese, and arranged the articles as shown in the sketch, balancing the bowl on the thimble. when the mouse nibbled the cheese, the bowl came down on it, making it a prisoner. the whole was then dropped in a pail of water. scald the dish and bowl before using them again to remove all traces of the mouse. quickly made rheostat a short time ago i found it necessary to melt some silver, and in setting up an arc light to obtain the heat i made a rheostat by winding wire around a large earthenware jar. as the jar is a conductor and would not burn, it served the purpose perfectly. in winding the wire, be careful to keep the coils from touching each other.--contributed by p. d. merrill, chicago, ill. [illustration] sunlight flasher for the garden by claude l. woolley the following apparatus is likely to be novel, and certainly very striking when erected on country estates, particularly on high lands, hillsides, and along the seashore, where the flashes may be seen for many miles out at sea. it is not unusual in country gardens to see a large hollow glass globe silvered on the inside, mounted on a pedestal, brilliantly reflecting the sunlight. the apparatus described is an elaboration of the idea. the drawing shows in diagram the general construction, exact measurements not being given. however, a convenient height is - / to ft., and the circular frame, carrying the mirrors, may be to in. in diameter. [illustration: the flasher as it appears on the stand and the details of its construction] the supporting frame, of galvanized sheet iron or sheet copper, may be either circular or hexagonal in shape. mounted upon a vertical shaft is a skeleton circular frame, carrying a double row of small mirrors, or ordinary flat mirror glass, mounted in grooves provided for them; the upper row inclined slightly upward, and the lower row slightly downward. if a greater number of angles of reflection are desired, the mirrors may be smaller, and arranged in four circular rows instead of two, each row being inclined at a slightly different angle. the shaft is pointed at the lower end and rests in a bearing drilled with a v-shaped depression, the bearing being supported by soldering or riveting at each end to the inner sides of the pedestal shell. the upper portion of the shaft passes through a bearing which is also soldered or riveted at the ends, to the inner surfaces of the pedestal shell. the mirrors, mounted on the shaft, thus are free to revolve vertically with very little friction. upon the lower end of the shaft is fastened a light gear wheel of rather large diameter, and this in turn is geared to a smaller gear mounted on the end of the armature shaft of a small electric motor of the type that may be driven with a few dry cells; the relation of the sizes of the gears being such as will cause the mirrors to revolve slowly, when the motor is running at normal speed. connected to the motor are two or more dry, or other suitable batteries, a small door being provided on the side of the lower part of the pedestal to enable the batteries to be replaced, or turned off, and to give access to the motor. a circular shield is erected over the mirror carrier, surmounted by an ornamental ball, to protect from the weather and to provide a more finished appearance. a waterproof canvas cover may be slipped over the whole in rainy weather. as new mirror faces at varying angles are constantly being presented to the sun, vivid flashes are constantly occurring when viewed from almost any angle or position on the side where the sun is shining. the circular shield on top is supported in position by four metal strips secured by soldering to the shield and the supporting pedestal. such a device may be constructed without much expense, producing a most brilliant effect over miles of territory. the small driving motor may be replaced with a suitable spring or weight-driven clockwork; or four hollow hemispherical metal cups may be mounted on arms, or placed at right angles, and the arms in turn mounted upon a vertical shaft and arranged above the mirror carrier and geared in such manner that the mirrors will revolve slowly, while the cups are revolving with comparatively high speed by the force of the wind. the mounted revolving cups are similar in form to the apparatus used by the u. s. weather bureau for measuring the speed of the wind. they will respond to a good breeze from any point of the compass. an automatic blowpipe a fine-pointed flame can be used to advantage for certain work, and the alcohol flame and blowpipe have become a necessity, but these may be improved upon so as to make the apparatus automatic in action and more efficient in its work. a bottle or receptacle, a, having a large bottom to provide a sufficient heating surface, is supplied with a cork and a tube, b, bent at right angles. the receptacle, a, is supported on a stand so that it may be heated with a small lamp, c. the light d may be a candle, alcohol lamp, or any flame set at the right distance from the end of the tube b. [illustration] the receptacle a is partly filled with alcohol, and the heating lamp lit. the heat will turn the alcohol into gas and cause a pressure, driving it through the tube b, so that it is ignited by the flame from d. the flame will have a fine point with sufficient heat to melt glass.--contributed by w. r. sears, st. paul, minn. homemade steam-turbine engine select a tomato can, or any can in which vegetables or fruit is sold, and carefully unsolder the small cap on the end when removing the contents. when the can is empty, clean it well and solder the cap in place again. procure a strip of brass, bend it as shown at a and solder it to the can top in the center. cut a piece of about no. gauge wire, the length equal to the opening between the uprights of the u-shaped piece of brass, with about / in. added for a small pulley wheel. the uprights are punched or drilled at their upper ends to admit the wire which is then adjusted in place. [illustration: the boiler is made of a fruit or vegetable can and the turbine of thin metal strips] two strips of tin are cut to fit in between the standards and are notched in the center, as shown at b, and slightly bent to fit over the wire shaft. these are soldered to the wire between the uprights. a small hole is punched on one side in the top of the can so that it will center the paddle of the wheel. on the opposite side of the top another larger hole is punched and tightly fitted with a wood plug. this is the opening for filling the boiler with water. the can should be filled about two-thirds full and set on a stove. the steam, coming under pressure from the small hole, strikes the paddles of the wheel with considerable force and causes it to revolve rapidly. be careful not to set the boiler on too hot a fire. electric switch for exposing photographic printing papers the proper time to expose a printing paper under a negative should be determined and the negative marked for future printing. when this time has been found some means should be provided for making the exposure exactly the same, then the prints will be perfect and of a good tone at all times. for this purpose the instrument shown in the illustration was designed and used with entire satisfaction. [illustration: time switch for operating an electric light in printing photographic developing papers] the device consists of an ordinary cheap watch, a standard, or support, for an adjusting screw, a small coil, a movable armature, a knife switch, and a trip arrangement. a neat box or case, about in. square and in. high, is first constructed. a round recess, / in. deep, is cut in the center of the top, to admit the watch. the standard a is made of brass, / in. thick and / in. wide, bent as shown, and a / -in. hole is drilled in the end of the long arm where it will exactly center over the pivot holding the watch hands. a / -in. rod, b, is closely fitted in the hole and supplied with a knurled wheel, c, on the upper end, and an l-shaped arm, d, is fastened to the lower end. the end of this arm should be filed to a point, or a very thin piece of brass soldered to it, so that the end will just touch the minute hand of the watch. the tip end of the point should be bent slightly from the perpendicular toward the direction in which the watch hands are moving, so that, when it is set, the moving hand will easily break the contact. the magnetic arrangement consists of a -ohm coil, e, mounted, as shown, to one side of the case, where it operates the trip levers. the armature parts consist of an l-shaped piece of brass, f, pivoted at g, to which a square piece of soft iron, h, is attached. two small parts, k, are bent and attached as shown, to furnish a limit stop for the piece f and a support for a spiral spring which holds the armature h away from the coil. the knife switch l is fastened to the bottom of the case so that the handle will project through a slot in one side of the box. a trip piece, m, and a small eye for attaching a spiral spring, n, are soldered to the knife switch. these two attachments for the switch are insulated from the other parts. two binding posts are mounted on top, one being connected to one terminal of the coil e and the other to the watch case. the other terminal of the coil is connected to the standard a. the two binding posts are connected in series with one or two dry cells, and the switch l is connected in series with the lamp used for printing. the operation is as follows: the arm d, being set for a certain time, the lever of the switch l is set and the light remains lit until the minute hand strikes the point on the arm d, when the battery circuit is closed causing the coil to draw the armature h and allowing the spring n to open the switch l. the lamp is then extinguished.--contributed by james p. lewis, golden, colorado. how to make a wing nut [illustration] finding that i needed some wing nuts and not being able to purchase them in the size i wanted, i made them from the ordinary nuts. a hole was drilled through opposite corners of each nut and a staple made of wire riveted in the holes as shown in the sketch. the staple should be long enough to admit the end of the bolt.--contributed by clarence l. orcutt, buffalo, n. y. cork-covered clothes peg [illustration] when screws or nails are used to hang clothes or other articles on, run the nail or screw through a bottle cork as shown. the cork will prevent the nail or screw from tearing the article and also insure the cloth against rust marks, should the article be wet. shaping an old broom a broom, having the straws bent and out of shape, yet not worn out, can be fixed up like new in the following manner: slightly dampen the straw with water and wrap with heavy paper, then place a weight on it. after standing under pressure for several days the straw will be restored to the shape of a new broom. paint brushes can be treated in the same manner, but in that case linseed oil should be used instead of water. [illustration: method of straightening the straws] how to make a bolster [illustration] the sketch shows a simple bed bolster which i have made and which can be constructed at very little cost. three circular pieces of poplar or pine, - / in. in diameter, are required. these may be made in one cut by nailing the pieces together. then nail on ten / by -in. strips, in. long, or as long as the width of the bed, leaving about / in. space between the strips. these strips will thus go about two-thirds of the way around the circle, leaving room to insert the pillows when the bed is not in use. cover the bolster with building paper or any other suitable material, and it is ready for the pillow shams.--contributed by c. martin, jr., chicago. a fish-scaling knife a useful fish-scaling and skinning knife can be made of an old broken hacksaw blade. this must be at least in. long and will make a knife with a -in. blade. grind the blade to the shape shown and make a handle for it by using two strips of maple, / in. thick and in. long. these are riveted together with in. of the blade between them.--contributed by john l. waite, cambridge, mass. [illustration: scaling knife] to prevent moles from damaging growing seeds the food most liked by the ground mole is the sprouts of peas and corn. a way to protect these growing seeds is to dip them in kerosene just before planting. the mole will not touch the oil-covered seed, and the seeds are not injured in the least.--contributed by j. w. bauholster, gresham, o. [illustration: the heliograph as it is used by neighboring boys to send messages on a clear day by flashing the sun's rays from one to the other, which can be read as far as the eye can see the light] how to make a heliograph by r. b. huey the heliograph which is used in the army provides a good method of sending messages by the reflection of the sun's rays. in the mountains there are stations from which messages are sent by the heliograph for great distances, and guides carry them for use in case of trouble or accident. the wireless telegraph delivers messages by electricity through the air, but the heliograph sends them by flashes of light. the main part of the instrument is the mirror, which should be about in. square, set in a wood frame and swung on trunnions made of two square-head bolts, each / in. in diameter, and in. long, which are firmly held to the frame with brass strips, / in. wide, and in. long. the strips are drilled centrally to admit the bolts, and then drilled at each end for a screw to fasten them to the frame. this construction is clearly shown in fig. . [illustration: detail of the parts for making the mirror and sight rod which are placed on a base set on a tripod top, the whole being adjusted to reflect the sun's rays in any direction desired (fig. )] a hole is cut centrally through the backing of the frame and a small hole, not over / in. in diameter, is scratched through the silvering on the glass. if the trunnions are centered properly, the small hole should be exactly in line with them and in the center. [illustration: (fig. )] a u-shaped support is made of wood strips, / in. thick and in. wide, the length of the uprights being - / in. and the crosspiece connecting their lower ends a trifle longer than the width of the frame. these are put together, as shown in fig. , with small brackets at the corners. a slot, / in. deep and / in. wide, is cut into the upper end of each upright to receive the trunnions on the mirror frame. nuts are turned on the bolt ends tightly, to clamp the standard tops against the brass strips on the mirror frame. the cross strip at the bottom is clamped to the base by means of a bolt, - / in. long. the hole for this bolt should be exactly below the peephole in the mirror and run through one end of the baseboard, which is / in. thick, in. wide and in. long. [illustration: (fig. )] at the opposite end of the base, place a sighting rod, which is made as follows: the rod is / in. in diameter and in. long. the upper end is fitted with a piece of thick, white cardboard, cut / in. in diameter and having a projecting shank in. long, as shown in fig. . the rod is placed in a / -in. hole bored in the end of the baseboard, as shown in fig. . to keep the rod from slipping through the hole a setscrew is made of a small bolt with the nut set in the edge of the baseboard, as shown in fig. . [illustration: (fig. )] [illustration: the parts in detail for making the tripods... (fig. , fig. )] the tripod head is formed of a wood disk, in. in diameter, with a hole in the center, and three small blocks of wood, in. square and in. long, nailed to the under side, as shown in fig. . the tripod legs are made of light strips of wood, / in. thick, in. wide and ft. long. two of these strips, nailed securely together to within in. of the top, constitute one leg. the upper unnailed ends are spread to slip over the blocks on the tripod top. these ends are bored to loosely fit over the headless nails driven part way into the block ends. one tripod leg is shown in fig. . [illustration: ...and the shutter for flashing the light,... (fig. , fig. )] the screen, or shutter, is mounted on a separate tripod and is shown in fig. . cut out two slats, / in. thick, - / in. wide and in. long, from hard wood, and taper both edges of these slats down to / in. small nails are driven into the ends of the slats and the heads are filed off so that the projecting ends will form trunnions for the slats to turn on. make a frame of wood pieces, / in. thick and - / in. wide, the opening in the frame being in. square. before nailing the frame together bore holes in the side uprights for the trunnions of the slats to turn in. these holes are - / in. apart. the frame is then nailed together and also nailed to the tripod top. the shutter is operated with a key very similar to a telegraph key. the construction of this key is shown in fig. . a part of a spool is fastened to a stick that is pivoted on the opposite side of the frame. the key is connected to the slats in the frame with a bar and rod, to which a coil spring is attached, as shown in fig. . figure shows the positions of the tripods when the instrument is set to flash the sunlight through the shutter. the regular telegraph code is used in flashing the light. [illustration: ...and diagram showing the location of the tripods to direct the light through the shutter (fig. )] to set the instrument, first turn the cardboard disk down to uncover the point of the sight rod, then sight through the hole in the mirror and adjust the sight rod so that the tip end comes squarely in line with the receiving station. when the instrument is properly sighted, the shutter is set up directly in front of it and the cardboard disk is turned up to cover the end of the sight rod. the mirror is then turned so that it reflects a beam of light with a small shadow spot showing in the center made by the peephole in the mirror, which is directed to fall on the center of the cardboard sighting disk. it will be quite easy to direct this shadow spot to the disk by holding a sheet of paper or in. in front of the mirror and following the spot on the paper until it reaches the disk. the flashes are made by manipulating the key operating the shutter in the same manner as a telegraph key. twine cutter for use at a wrapping counter [illustration] a cutter for use at the wrapping counter in a drug or confectionery store may be easily made from a double-edged razor blade and a piece of thin board--a piece of cigar box will do. cut the wood in the shape shown, with a protecting piece over the edge of the razor. screws are turned through the holes in the blade and into a support on the paper holder or any other convenient place.--contributed by t. f. managhan, philadelphia, pa. frosting brass a very fine ornamental finish, resembling brushed work, may be applied to brass articles by boiling them in a caustic-potash solution, then rinsing in clear water, whereupon they are dipped into dilute nitric acid until the oxide is removed, then rinsed quickly and dried in sawdust. the surface should be lacquered while the metal is hot. a cupboard-door spice-box shelf to keep the spice boxes in a handy place where they would be together and not behind larger articles on the cupboard shelves, i made a special spice-box shelf, as shown, to hang on the inside of the cupboard door. the shelf swings out with the door as it opens, and is made of two bracket ends to which a bottom board and front crosspiece is nailed. the size of the shelf and its capacity are only limited by the space on the door.--contributed by austin miller, santa barbara, california. [illustration: the shelf will hold all the spice boxes and keep them handy] starting a siphon [illustration] it is often necessary in a laboratory to siphon acids and poisonous liquids. if a pump is used there is always danger of the liquid entering the pump and damaging it, and, besides, a pump is not handy for this purpose. to fill a siphon by suction from the mouth, great care must be taken to keep from drawing the liquid into the mouth. one of the best ways to fill a siphon is to procure a large dropper and having pressed all the air out of the bulb insert the end in the siphon. releasing the pressure on the bulb will cause it to draw the liquid into the siphon.--contributed by bedell m. neubert, newtown, conn. a window-seat sewing box the combined window seat and sewing box shown was made by using a shoe-packing box for the foundation. this was covered with matting and the edges and corners finished with wood strips, / in. thick and stained a dark red. three trays were provided on the inside at the top part of the box, each of the two upper ones occupying one-fourth of the box opening and sliding on a pair of guides fastened to the sides of the box while the lower tray is one-half the length of the box and slides on guides placed far enough below the upper trays to allow it to pass beneath these. the three trays were used for keeping sewing materials, such as buttons, hooks and eyes, etc. when the trays are all moved to one end it gives access to the lower part of the box where the work or mending is kept out of sight. [illustration: a window-seat workbox for sewing materials, made of an ordinary shoe-packing box] the inside of the cover is - / in. deep and shelves are arranged for thread and silk spools on either side, the center space being used for the shears, thimbles and scissors. the little shelves are made of two pieces each half as wide as the depth of the box cover. the first half of the shelf is fastened in place, then a row of cotters attached with wood screws whereupon the other half of the shelf is put in place. the edges of the cover are rounded on the outside to make an attractive seat. [illustration: the spindles for the spools are made of cotters fastened with screws in the shelves] while no dimensions are necessary, as the box can be of any size to suit the maker it may be mentioned that the one shown is in. long, in wide and in. deep.--contributed by r. b. thomas, lowell, mass. cutting a glass bottle [illustration] it is sometimes necessary to cut a heavy glass bottle or cylinder. four methods are in use. a carborundum disk having a thin edge, if kept wet and rotated at a high speed, will cut heavy glass, but the cylinder must be fed against the wheel very gently. a better way is to make a file mark--clean, but not very deep--around the cylinder and heat it with a long slender flame while slowly rotating the cylinder all the time. it is very important that the gas flame should not spread over the surface of the glass, for it is only the file mark that should be heated. a mere glancing touch is sufficient. usually the glass will crack off in a very clean cut. sometimes a fine platinum wire is wound around in the file mark and heated by an electric current. less common is the trick of wrapping a strand of yarn soaked in turpentine around the mark and burning it. the principle is the same in each case. the unequal heating of the glass causes it to break.--contributed by harry h. holmes, richmond, ind. to clean painted or frescoed walls use a paste made of vinegar and baking soda with a small amount of salt added. the ingredients should be mixed in a large dish and applied to the wall with a cloth. the grease and fly specks as well as the carbon deposits from kitchen smoke are quickly removed. the mixture is harmless. after the wall is thoroughly cleaned, it should be washed with warm water and soap, then dried with a cloth. the mixture works equally well on enameled baths and glass or white porcelain. securing papers in a mailing tube the illustrations show two methods of securing papers or photographs in a mailing tube. in fig. the mailing tube a is shown in cross section and the manner of running the string through the pasteboard walls illustrated. the ends of the string are drawn up and tied over or under the label. if the label is pasted over the string or string ends as they are tied, it makes a sealed package which is rated as first-class matter. [illustration: the string in either case prevents the papers from slipping out of the mailing tube (fig. )] the second way is to run the cords in a cross form through holes near the ends, as in fig. , then tie the knots as at bb. in each instance even if the papers fit the tube loosely, they will be held securely and can be easily extracted when the knots are untied. [illustration: (fig. )] cooling tube for a laboratory still a simple and very effective device to replace the cumbersome cooling or condensation coil of a still for the amateur's laboratory can be easily made as follows: procure an ordinary straight glass tube of fairly large diameter and heat it in the flame of an alcohol lamp with the use of a blowpipe or in a bunsen burner with a very reduced flame so that only a small spot of the tube is brought to a red heat at one time then, with a previously pointed and charred stick of wood--a penholder for instance--produce a small recess in the wall by pushing the charred end gently into the glowing part of the tube. this procedure is repeated until the whole tube is thus provided with small recesses. the indentations should be made in spiral lines around the tube, thus increasing the surface that is in contact with the cooling water. the operation of making the recesses is shown in fig. . the walls of the recesses should have a regular and uniform slant. [illustration: method of indenting the walls of the glass tube and its application as a still (fig. )] the tube thus produced can either be used as a rectifier (fig. ) above a vessel, for fractional distillation because it will allow the most volatile parts to pass out first, or as a condenser (fig. ), the arrangement of which needs no explanation. the amateur will find it much easier to make this tube than to coil a very long one. [illustration: (fig. , fig. )] a comb cleaner [illustration] a good comb cleaner that does the work easily and quickly can be made from a worn-out varnish brush. the brush selected should not be over in. wide; it should be thoroughly cleaned with benzine and the bristles cut to a bevel, as shown in the sketch. in use, brush across the comb parallel with the teeth, and the dirt between them will be easily removed.--contributed by john v. loeffler, evansville, ind. scraping off surplus water on a grindstone when using a grindstone, an ample flow of water is desirable in order to insure good cutting, and the objectionable spattering may be overcome by fastening a piece of leather to the grindstone frame so that its edge will bear lightly upon the stone just below the point where the work is held. this will scrape off all surplus water from the grinding surface and prevent spattering.--contributed by thos. l. parker, wibaux, mont. a paper drinking cup the cup is readily made of a piece of paper in. square. lay the paper on a flat surface, turn the point a over to meet the point b and crease on the dotted line cd, fig. , then turn the corner d up to meet the line bc, fig. , making sure that the new edge de is parallel with the lower edge and crease. turn the corner c in the same manner, that is, fold it over to the point e and crease. fold the two corners at b outward and down, and crease, and the cup is complete as shown in fig. .--contributed by w. douglas matthews, chappaqua, new york. [illustration: several cups can be nested together and carried in the pocket or hand bag (fig. , fig. , fig. )] homemade brush for cleaning upholstered furniture a durable brush for cleaning upholstered furniture can be made in the following manner: procure a piece of haircloth, which is made of horsehair woof and linen warp. strips of haircloth, cut lengthwise and - / in. wide, are laid out smooth on a table and a strip of wrapping paper, / in. wide, is firmly glued to one edge. when this has dried, take out the warp that is not covered by the paper. brush the fringe of horsehair until it is straight and even, and before commencing to wind, measure in. from one end and glue this portion to the side of a strip of soft wood, in. long, / in. wide and / in. thick. when dry, wind the glued length of haircloth and paper around the wood strip, applying glue to each separate turn of winding. the turns should be kept flush on the side that has been glued and the fringed part brushed and straight. [illustration: brush made of strip of upholsterers' haircloth with the warp removed and fastened to a handle] the part to be glued to the handle must be perfectly even in its windings and held firmly in place while the glue is hardening. the winding should be continued until the brush is - / in. thick. the handle is made of a piece of wood, in. long, - / in. wide and / in. thick. wood that takes a cherry or mahogany stain is preferable. shape it about as shown in the sketch and round off the edges. the part to which the brush is to be attached must be given a light coat of glue. when that has dried, glue the back of the brush to it, and after the glue has hardened, glue a piece of gimp around the brush part, then drive upholsterers' tacks into the gimp and wood, / in. apart. stain and varnish the handle. the back of the handle can be used as a beater, and the brush for removing the dust.--contributed by gertrude m. bender, utica, n. y. removing calcium deposits on glass a good way to clean glass vessels in which hard water is boiled is to use the following mixture to remove not only the calcium deposits, but also rust or sulphur stains that may be present. the solution is a mixture of ammonia water and a few ounces of salt. this should be placed in the glass vessel and boiled until the deposits disappear. the ammonia water may be made of any strength by diluting if necessary. a cold-chisel guide when making long cuts with a cold chisel, it is almost impossible to guide the chisel edge along a line made with a scriber or pencil and have a straight cut. i find that it is much easier to use a guide, as shown in the sketch. the guide is made of a piece of wood, about ft. long and - / in. wide. a slot is cut in the center, wide enough to receive the chisel edge snugly, and about in. long. the guide is clamped to the work, and the cold chisel slipped along in the slot as it is successively hit with a hammer.--contributed by g. h. holter, jasper, minn. [illustration: the guide makes it easy to follow along a straight line when cutting with a cold chisel] care of paintbrushes [illustration] when laying aside paintbrushes, the usual custom is to place them in water and then forget all about them until needed again, with the result that the water usually is found more or less evaporated and the brushes hardened. if a quantity of oil, a, is poured on the water b, it will prevent this evaporation and keep the brushes in good shape. filter in a pump spout [illustration] the sketch shows how to place an ordinary sponge in a pump spout, to filter out sand and dirt particles that may come up with the water as it is pumped. a wire is fastened in the sponge so that it can be easily taken out for washing. when washing the sponge give the pump handle a few strokes so that the dirt collected in the spout will be washed out. do not press the sponge too tightly into the spout, as this will stop the flow of water.--contributed by chas. homewood, waterloo, iowa. brown stain for wood bichromate of potassium gives a lustrous, rich, light to dark brown stain on woods. the crystals are first dissolved into a saturated solution, which is then diluted with water. the stained surface needs no rubbing, as the stain leaves the wood perfectly clear for any desired finish. the satinlike appearance of wood treated by this stain cannot be produced with any of the pigment stains.--contributed by august meyer. an egg boiler in boiling eggs the usual method of dropping the eggs from a spoon into the boiling water often results in a burn, as well as in cracking of the eggs by the fall. in removing the eggs from the hot water and taking one out at a time, no two will be cooked alike. to overcome these difficulties i constructed an egg boiler as illustrated. [illustration: the eggs are prevented from becoming cracked and all are easily handled in one operation] a pan was procured--tin or aluminum as desired--about in. deep and - / in. in diameter, and holes were drilled in the bottom having dimensions as shown. a handle was attached to the center with washers and nuts. the small ends of the eggs are set in the - / -in. holes and the whole pan set in a vessel of boiling water. when the boiling is completed, the entire lot of eggs are removed at the same time. as the device with its load of cooked eggs is quite pleasing in appearance, it may be set on a plate and the eggs served from it on the table.--contributed by w. e. crane, cleveland, o. removing black deposit an bathtubs a good way to remove the black deposit left on bathtubs by the water is to use a strong solution of sulphuric acid. the acid should be poured on the discolored enameled surface and washed around with a cloth. the acid should not touch the hands so it is best to use a stick to move the cloth. neither should it be allowed to touch the metal parts, but if this happens, no harm will result if it is quickly rubbed off with a cloth and water then applied. in using this acid never pour water into the acid, but always pour the acid into the water.--contributed by loren ward, des moines, iowa. a stocking-stretcher form a simple as well as inexpensive device for preventing the shrinking of stockings, more particularly those of children, after they have been washed, thus saving great wear and tear on the fabrics and increasing their length of life, is shown in the illustration. the stretcher can be made by anyone, a knowledge of woodcraft or art being unnecessary. if used, the device will prove to effect quite a saving in money, labor and worry in the course of a year. [illustration: the spring of the two parts tends to hold the yarn and keep it from shrinking] place a new and unused stocking, that properly fits the foot, flat on a heavy piece of cardboard or a wood board, if desired, and mark an outline of the stocking on the board with a pencil. cut out the design with a penknife or heavy pair of scissors and smooth the edges. a design having the same shape and size as the stocking results. duplicate boards can be easily made. place a spool, such as used to hold the finest silk thread, near the upper end of the first form and on top of this place the second. then drive a nail through the boards and spool and clinch it, or better still, use a small bolt. when the stockings are washed and the dampness wrung out as well as possible, stretch them over the boards and hang them up to dry. they will retain their shape and are easily ironed.--contributed by wm. p. kennedy, washington, d. c. stick holder for a chopping block having a lot of branch wood, from / in. to in. in diameter, to saw, and not wishing to bother with a sawbuck, i rigged up a chopping block, as shown in the sketch, by fastening a piece of board to one side of the block with small lag screws. the piece to be sawed was laid across the block in the notch. if the piece is held down on the block with one foot, the wood is very easily sawn.--contributed by wilfred b. sylvester, reading, mass. [illustration: the notched board fastened to the chopping block turns it into a sawbuck] cleaning gold and platinum a good way to clean gold or platinum jewelry is to first brush with soapsuds, then dust magnesia powder over the article and allow it to dry. a few rubs with a cloth makes the article shine with great luster. as magnesia powder is highly inflammable, it must be kept away from fire. a twine spool the pieces of twine used in tying parcels delivered to a residence are either thrown away or tied together and wound into a ball for future use. the method i use for keeping the pieces of twine is to wind them over a discarded photographic-film spool. the spool was slipped on a finishing nail driven into the wall. the crank for turning the spool was made of a piece of wire, bent as shown and slipped into the slot end of the spool. one end of the first piece of string was tied to the core and then wound around it, the next piece tied to the first and wound up, and so on, as the strings were taken from the packages from time to time. when a string is needed for any purpose i always know where to find it, and it is easier to take it from the spool than from a ball.--contributed by w. resseguie, susquehanna, pa. [illustration: the film spool as it is attached to a wall, and the crank for turning it] reinforcing chair bottoms embossed-leather-board chair bottoms can be made as serviceable as leather in the following manner: turn the chair upside down and fill the hollow beneath the seat with excelsior, soft rags or fine shavings, then nail a / -in. wood bottom over the filling with brads. make the wood bottom / or / in. larger than the opening. it will thus not be seen, and the seat will last as long as the chair.--contributed by j. h. sanford, pasadena, california. a novelty chain an inexpensive chain for hanging painted glass panels, transparencies or photographs can be made by joining paper clips together to form the links. a box of clips will make a chain about ft. long. such a chain can be made in a few minutes and a length of ft. will hold about lb. [illustration: the paper-clip links may be joined to make a chain of any desired length] if the chain is to be used for holding photographs, each inner loop end is bent out slightly. closet holders for linen a combination drawer and shelf for a linen closet is much better than a shelf or a drawer. it is constructed in the manner of a drawer with sides and a back, the front being open and the ends of the sides cut rounding. a clip is attached to the under side of the bottom, near the front edge, to provide a means for pulling out the holder. [illustration: the holder can be pulled out like a drawer and is as accessible as a shelf] sheets, towels, table cloths, napkins, etc., can be neatly piled on the holder and can be seen without digging down to the bottom. it has the advantage over the shelf that it can be pulled out without anything falling off, and the linen on the back part can be easily reached as well as that in front. the closet may contain as many holders as is necessary and should be provided with a door for keeping out dust.--contributed by h. a. sullwold, st. paul, minn. preserving dry batteries the life of dry batteries, which are to be used in wet or damp places, may be considerably lengthened by being treated in the following manner: the batteries are placed in glass jars a little wider and higher than themselves. a layer of dry sawdust is placed in the bottom, for the battery to rest on, and the sides are packed with sawdust to within / in. of the top. waterproof wires are connected to the binding posts and melted paraffin poured over the battery to the top of the jar. the carbon and zinc terminals should be marked to avoid trouble when connecting several cells together. batteries treated in this manner are waterproof and can be submerged in water if necessary.--contributed by olaf tronnes, evanston, ill. a cleaner for brass in some recent laboratory experiments the following solution was found to cleanse brass very quickly without harm to the hands or the metal. an ounce of alum was put into a pint of boiling water and the solution rubbed on the brass with a cloth. stains as well as tarnish were quickly removed. the solution is inexpensive and easily prepared.--contributed by loren ward, des moines, iowa. homemade graduate [illustration] if a certain quantity of liquid is to be frequently measured out, it is best to have a graduate marked for this amount without any other markings upon it. to make a graduate for this purpose, procure a pickle or olive bottle of the type shown in the drawing and file a vertical line, a, on each side. these lines should be at least / in. wide. place the bottle on a level surface and pour in the amount desired to be measured. mark on each vertical line with a lead pencil and connect this mark or marks with lines, filed as shown at bb.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. mending a break in felt a good way to mend partially broken felt or a felt hat is to hold a lighted match under the break and smooth out the crevice with the hand. the shellac in the felt is melted by the heat and runs together, mending the felt in such a way that the break is hardly noticeable. this method may also be used to mend felt articles in the laboratory. imitating ebony on oak the wood is immersed for hours in a warm solution of alum and sprinkled several times with the following mixture: one part of logwood of the best quality is boiled with parts of water, then it is filtered through linen and the liquid evaporated at a low temperature until its volume is reduced by one-half. to every quart of this bath are added to drops of a saturate of soluble indigo entirely neutral in reaction. smaller pieces may be steeped for a time in this solution, then the wood is rubbed with a saturated and filtered solution of verdigris in warm, concentrated acetic acid, and this operation continued until a black color of the desired intensity is obtained. the oak wood dyed in this manner is very similar to real ebony. tongue holder for a boy's wagon to prevent any mishap when coasting in a boy's play wagon fasten the tongue with a coil spring so that it will be kept in a vertical position. the tongue is always out of the way when it is not used for drawing the wagon. the spring is only strong enough to hold the tongue, so that when this is used for pulling there is little or no tendency of the spring to draw the tongue upward. the coil spring is fastened with one screweye in the tongue and one in the front axle.--contributed by wm. f. benson, brockton, massachusetts. [illustration: holder for the wagon tongue to keep it in a vertical position when not in use] gluing small mitered frames the mechanic who attempts to fasten a mitered frame in the home workshop usually comes to grief. this is due to lack of proper facilities for holding the frame straight and out of wind, and for clamping or drawing the miter joint together after the glue has been applied. the little device shown in the sketch, if properly made and used, does away with the usual difficulties and annoyances. it consists of a triangular block of wood with raised strips on the two edges that make the right angle, and the clamping piece with the wood screw through the center on the long side. the raised strips are made somewhat thinner than the frame to be fastened, as the clamping piece should bear on the frame and not on the strips; the function of the strips being to hold the frame square. the triangular block should be large enough to take the corner of the frame and leave room enough for the wood screw that holds it in place on the block. four of these blocks will be necessary and they should be used in conjunction with pinch dogs. these dogs come in different sizes and may be purchased at supply stores or made as shown. the outside of the legs should be straight and parallel and the inside tapered so as to draw the joint together. [illustration: clamp for holding the corner of a frame while gluing and fastening the mitered joint] when a joint is ready to be glued, a piece of paper is placed on the block under the joint to keep it from sticking. apply the glue and push the two sides into the corner formed by the raised strips, the dog is then driven in lightly and the clamping piece screwed down tightly, and if the miter has been properly cut, a nice close-jointed and square corner will be the result.--contributed by j. shelly, brooklyn, new york. handle attachment for a sickle for cutting around flower beds or bushes and in close places i find that an extension handle for a sickle is quite an assistance. the auxiliary handle is bound to the sickle handle with wire at the ends and is further fastened with a screw in the center. the arrows show the directions in which the hands should be moved in working the sickle.--contributed by a. s. thomas, gordon, can. [illustration: the extension handle makes it much easier to control the sickle in cutting around obstacles] a clothesline for small goods handkerchiefs and small pieces included in the week's laundry are usually quite troublesome to hang with the larger pieces, and for this reason i constructed a special line for the small goods. a line was cut to fit between two porch posts and a hook made of galvanized wire tied to each end, staples being driven into the posts to receive them. three or four wire grips were formed and attached to the line. it was only necessary to draw the corner of a handkerchief into the grip as it was wrung out, placing several in each grip. the line with its load was then carried out and attached between the porch posts. this made it unnecessary to look through the clothes for the small articles. it also prevented chilling the fingers and no pins were needed.--contributed by r. d. livingston, hopkinton, iowa. [illustration: line and holders are always together and can be washed as the clothes] automatically controlled ice-box lights often the ice box is placed in a dark closet or some out-of-the-way place, and it is almost impossible to locate articles already in the box or put others away without considerable inconvenience on account of the lack of proper light. this difficulty can be easily overcome by mounting a small electric lamp in each of the different compartments of the box, which will be automatically lighted when the lid of the box is raised or the door opened. the circuit through the lamp is controlled by a special switch mounted in such a way that its contacts are open when the doors and lid of the box are closed. a diagram of the circuit is given in fig. , which shows three lamps, each controlled by a separate switch, connected in parallel to a battery of several dry cells. the lamps should be of low voltage and need not be very high in candlepower. the number of cells needed in the battery will depend upon the voltage of the lamps. the voltage of the battery and the rated voltage of the lamps should be approximately the same. [illustration: the lamps will be automatically lighted when the door of the ice box is opened (fig. )] a special switch that will serve the above purpose is shown in fig. . it consists of two pieces of spring brass, a and b, about / in. wide, bent into the forms shown. these pieces are mounted in a recess cut in the jamb of the door or lid in such a way that the free end of the piece a is held away from the piece b when the door or lid is closed. when the lid of the box or the door is open the two springs come in contact and the lamp lights; upon closing the lid or door the contact is broken and the lamp goes out. [illustration: (fig. )] a good quality of rubber-insulated copper wire should be used in making the connections, and all parts should be as well protected from moisture and the possibilities of mechanical abuse as possible. it would be best to tape the lamps in the sockets with a piece of friction tape so as to prevent moisture getting into the socket and, perhaps, shortening the lamp. a short piece of brass tubing can be mounted around the lamp to protect it mechanically. be sure to place the batteries where they will be kept dry. a bottle-cap lifter [illustration] to remove the crimped bottle cover so extensively used requires a special lifter, the corkscrew being of little use for this purpose. when a cap-cover remover is not at hand, prepare a pocketknife in the manner shown, and it makes an excellent substitute. it only requires a small notch filed in the heel of the blade, which does not interfere with the ordinary use of the knife in the least.--contributed by john v. loeffler, evansville, indiana. * * * * * ants may be effectively destroyed by placing a coop with a chicken in it over the hill. a mechanical bicycle horn the body of the horn a is made of metal, about in. in diameter, with a screw cover. the shaft b, to which is attached a driving pulley, c, and a ratchet wheel, d, is fitted in holes drilled through the diameter of the body. the diaphragm e is clamped, between the edge of the body and the cover, on a seat made of rubber rings, f, and carries a contact device, g, that is riveted to its center. the diaphragm should be set so that the contact will touch the ends of the ratchets. [illustration: the horn is sounded by making connections with the moving surface of the tire] a metal cone is fastened in an opening cut in the center of the cover, over the diaphragm. the back of the body is fitted with a bracket for attaching it to the front fork on a bicycle. the lever h carries an idler pulley which is forced against the bicycle tire and the pulley c by means of a cord, j. adjusting the diaphragm contact on the ratchet wheel will change the tone of the horn.--contributed by p. mertz, jamaica, l. i. retarder for plaster of paris when it is desired to lengthen the time of setting after preparing plaster of paris, dissolve oz. of citric acid in water used for mixing lb. of plaster, and it will retard the setting for about three hours. an inkwell stopper [illustration] a good way to keep an inkwell of the type shown in the sketch clean is to place a marble over the opening. the marble keeps out flies and dust, is easily rolled aside and is no obstacle to the pen entering the well.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pennsylvania. a grass rake this adaptation of an ordinary iron rake for use on a lawn was the outcome of not having a lawn rake at hand. two spools, each - / in. in diameter, were procured and one forced on each end tooth of the rake. the spools were forced on the teeth just far enough to allow the rake to slide on the ground and prevent the other teeth from digging out the grass. the end of the spools may be rounded and smoothed so that they will slide easily on the ground.--contributed by h. e. gray, montclair, n. j. [illustration: the spools prevent the teeth from injuring the grass roots as the rake passes over the ground] a staple puller [illustration] a very simple way to pull a staple is to use the claws of an ordinary carpenter's hammer and a nail, as shown in the sketch. the staple can be removed quickly without being bent, and no damage to the material into which it was driven will result. to remove acid stains from cloth apply pearlash directly to the stain, allowing it to set a minute or two, then boil the article in soap water for several minutes. the method is harmless and inexpensive, and can be used by anyone. repairing rocker on a chair [illustration] the tenons on the posts of a rocking chair being broken off so close to the rocker that it was impossible to make the ordinary repairs, four window-shade-roller brackets were used in the following manner: the metal was straightened so that it would lie flat and two brackets were used on the end of each post. this made a neat and strong repair.--contributed by chas. schmidt, baltimore, md. electric-lamp reflector for a target [illustration] an ordinary -lb. coffee can may be quickly fashioned into a most effective reflector for an electric bulb. the light is projected upon the target while the marksman's eyes are shielded. of course, this device can be used for other purposes. the can is shaped into a reflector by cutting it open along one side with a pair of snips, then following the circumference of the bottom halfway around on each side. bend the flaps outward as far as desired and cut a hole in the bottom just large enough to insert the bulb, as shown.--contributed by burke jenkins, port washington, l. i. * * * * * linoleum may be renewed by applying floor wax in liquid form. making small taps the owner of a private workshop has need for taps and occasionally wishes to make them, not because they are cheaper, but for the sake of experience or to get some special thread. in cutting the flutes, whether it be by hand or in a shaper, it is a good plan to give the flutes an angle, that is, to cut them, not parallel with the axis of the tap, but at an angle of to deg. with the center line. this makes the tap cut easier, giving it a wedge action instead of just simply pushing the metal off. the same method applies to counterbores and countersinks, which, when so made, take less power to drive. sink a substitute for a dishpan [illustration] on special occasions when company is entertained or in large families, it is almost impossible to wash all the dishes in an ordinary dishpan; in fact, the large platters will not go in at all, so i devised the following method as a substitute for a larger pan. a tin disk was cut from the top of a tomato can with a can opener so as to be as round as possible, then a piece of cheesecloth was folded into an even square, the disk placed in the center and all four corners of the cloth drawn over to the center of the disk. a nail was driven through the center of the disk, to make a hole, through which a string was drawn with the nail and tied to it to form a loop on the head. this is used to stop the sink drain. when this is put over the drain outlet the sink may be used as a dishpan. the same result could be obtained a little better with a piece of an old rubber boot or rubber coat, but usually this material is not at hand, and the cheesecloth will do almost as well.--contributed by hannah jennings, chicago. how to make small coil springs procure a nut, having a small thread that will admit the size of the wire to be used in making the spring. cut a small notch to the depth of the thread where the thread starts, and procure a smooth rod that will pass snugly through the threads of the nut. shape one end of the rod to fit a carpenter's brace, if there is no drill chuck at hand, and drill a hole in the other end to admit one end of the spring wire. [illustration: the threads in the nut will guide as well as coil the spring evenly] bend the wire at right angles and insert the end in the hole. place the end of the rod in the nut, which should be gripped in a vise, and turn the rod, at the same time seeing that the wire is guided into the notch cut at the start of the thread. the wire will follow the thread of the nut and make a perfect spring of an even opening throughout its length. closed or open coils can be made by using a nut having the proper number of threads.--contributed by a. spencer, kinston, n. c. a pruning-saw guard the double-edged pruning saw with coarse teeth on one side and fine on the other would be far more widely used, if it were not for the fact that the unused edge so often injures the bark of the trunk when the saw is being used. a very satisfactory guard may be quickly made of a brass curtain rod by prying it apart slightly at the seam and cutting a suitable length to fit over the edge, as shown in the sketch. this will cling to the saw blade by its own tension.--contributed by james h. brundage, katonah, n. y. [illustration: the teeth on the unused edge are covered with a piece of brass curtain rod] [illustration] home-made motion-picture camera and projector by charles frank in three parts--part i [illustration: (fig. )] motion pictures are made and reproduced by means of a camera and projector, each having a similar mechanism that would seem entirely too complicated for the average person to construct at home, yet a correspondent of the nickelodeon has devised a simple rotary cylinder shutter that can be substituted for the complicated parts. while this simple cylinder shutter is not claimed to be infringing on existing patents, yet, as it has no commercial value, there would be no objection on this score. the instruments described are nothing more than toys, and if the amateur photographer can secure a few dozen feet of animated photographs about the home that are dear to his heart, and reproduce them on a screen, it will have served its purpose. the camera and projector described uses standard film, - / in. wide, with perforations every / in. the camera the ordinary hand camera for making still pictures consists of a light-tight box with a lens at one end and a sensitized plate or film at the other. the motion-picture camera (fig. ) is nothing more than a hand camera with a mechanical device for stepping a long roll of film through a space in the focal plane of the lens at a speed of about pictures a second, and stopping the film long enough to make the requisite exposure on each division. the first thing to consider is the lens. a lens having ordinary speed for a hand camera, and one with about in. focal length will give satisfactory results. if one does not care to purchase a lens, a small - / in. or in. reading glass can be used, if it is stopped down, or a lens may be taken from a hand camera. the width of the camera from front to back (w, fig. ) must be determined by the focal length of the lens. the dimensions given in the drawing are only approximate, and they can be changed if the camera is to be used in making an extra long film negative. the roll of unexposed film (a, fig. ) is placed on a small shaft between u-shaped bearings, made of sheet metal and screwed to the top board of the camera. the lens b is set in the front board at a point in. below the top. if a large roll of film is to be used, this distance must be greater to allow room for the film roll in the top of the camera. the cylinder c, which acts as a shutter and intermittent movement, revolves directly behind and in the path of the light passing through the lens. partitions, dd, are set in grooves cut in the boards, forming the sides of the camera. these partitions are to keep the light, which may be diffused from the lens, from striking the film at either side of the shutter, and at the same time acting as guides for the film at the rear end of the camera. their edges at the back are covered with black velvet. the back of the box is a hinged door, rabbeted on all edges, and opening at the side to allow the insertion and removal of the film, and also acting as a guide for the film when closed. a strip of black velvet, e, a little wider than the film, is pasted to the inside surface of the door, so that it bears lightly against the back edges of the partitions dd. the film passes between the edges of the partitions and the velvet on the door with some friction, which keeps it from moving except when pulled through with the roller shutter. a wire-staple guide, f, is fastened in the lower partition, through which the end of the film is passed before closing the door. the film as it is run through drops in folds in the bottom of the box. [illustration: fig. --details of camera] the rotary cylinder shutter is the heart of the machine and should be made well and strictly according to the dimensions. the detail of this part is shown in fig. . a rectangular opening is mortised through one of its diameters to admit light on the film when in certain positions. the cylinder is of wood with a / in. steel rod inserted in the center of each end for axles. a small grooved pulley (g, fig. ), about in. in diameter, is fastened to the outer end of one of these rods. the cylinder is revolved by a round belt from a drive wheel, h, or - / in. in diameter and turned by the aid of a crankpin. owing to the backward rotation of the cylinder, the belt must be crossed between the drive wheel h, and the pulley g. the projections or sprockets, fig. , must be accurately set at a distance of / in. from the deg. point, using the center of the mortised hole as a base. these projections can be pins or small staples, but they must not be over / in. in size. the base of the sprockets must fit the hole in the film snugly, but the points should be slightly rounding, so that they will easily enter the perforations. when the upper sprocket, which is approaching the film, engages a perforation, just below the upper partition, it will carry the film downward until the sprocket disengages from the perforation at the lower partition. the distance of travel must be exactly / in., as that is the height of each picture. the cylinder requires some adjustment to meet this condition; therefore the axles are made to revolve in holes bored in two strips of wood, jj, which can be moved forward or backward to obtain the proper distance from the film. to allow for this movement, the axles pass through slots cut in the sides of the camera box instead of round holes. the strips jj are fastened temporarily and when the correct position for the cylinder is found, they are permanently fastened to the box. grooves, k, are cut through the black velvet and into the back of the door to allow a space for the sprockets to pass through freely. the inside of the box should be painted a dead black, and black paper pasted on all corners and joints. black velvet is pasted in the rabbet of the door to insure a light-tight joint when the door is closed. the cylinder shutter is also painted a dead black inside and out. [illustration: fig. --details of shutter] the cylinder in revolving exposes the film immediately behind it through the mortised hole. the sprockets or cylinder does not touch the film while the exposure is being made, but as the hole turns toward a perpendicular position, the sprockets catch the perforations of the film and it moves down / in. just as soon as the sprockets disengage the film, the shutter exposes the next section of film, and so on as rapidly as the cylinder is turned, but the average should be about pictures per second. a view finder must be supplied so the field covered by the lens can be determined. such a finder is made of two pieces of metal, l and m, bent l-shaped and fastened to the top of the camera box. one of the pieces (l) has a rectangular opening in. wide and / in. high, and the other (m) is drilled with a / in. drill, the distance between the two pieces being the focal length of the lens. one eye applied to the / in. hole in the piece m will see through the rectangular hole in the piece l about the same field as covered by the lens. the pieces should be accurately placed and fastened on the box when the camera is set, so that the lens will throw the same portion of the picture on the space where the film passes as will be seen through the finder. a swimming raft swimming is learned only by experience and to get this experience one must not be afraid to trust himself in the water. this is sometimes accomplished by the use of a swimming raft or water wings. as the water wings need to be inflated frequently, i made a swimming raft instead, in the following manner: two logs, about or ft. long and about in. in diameter, were fastened together with large nails, as shown in the illustration, and a piece of burlap or other strong material was nailed across the center with slack enough for it to be partially submerged. [illustration: plan of raft] the middle of the band, its depth, etc., can be adjusted to suit the user. be sure to remove all the roughness of the logs and boards with a rasp and sandpaper.--contributed by w. p. johnston, sumner, ill. removing finger marks on books dampen a piece of wash leather and use it to rub pumice on the spot to be cleaned. brush off the pumice and rub again with a piece of dry wash leather. tightening a tennis net anyone who has ever played tennis will readily see the advantage of the net-tightening device shown, in preference to the old method of pulling the net tight by hand. all that is necessary to make the device is ft. of ordinary gas or water pipe, or in. of / -in. iron bar, and two twenty-penny nails. the posts generally used are by in. about in. from the top of the post bore a -in. hole, parallel with the direction the rope is to run. on the inside surface of the post bore four / -in. holes. [illustration: tightener on post] drill a / -in. hole in. from one end of the pipe, and a / -in. hole in. from the other end. put the iron bar in the / -in. hole, tie the rope around the pipe and bar at a and wind. with the leverage of the iron bar one can readily pull the net to any desired tightness. after the net is drawn in position, put one of the nails through the / -in. hole in the pipe and the other in one of the / -in. holes in the post.--contributed by wm. s. looper, gainesville, ga. holding fishing-rod joints together the addition of two or three screweyes properly placed in a jointed fishing rod of the ordinary type will prove decidedly worth while, as the joints will often pull out easily when they should not and stick tightly when they should pull apart. assemble the rod and bore small holes through the brass sockets into the joints as shown in fig. and place some screweyes into the holes. mark the joints so that the holes in the joints and holes in the brass sockets will always be in the same position. [illustration: screweye in joint (fig. , fig. )] the screweyes prevent the joints from pulling out when an effort is made to free the line from some object in which it has become entangled. they also act as guides for the line. should the joints fit too tightly, scrape the ends until they slip easily into the sockets, as the screweyes will hold them properly, even if they fit a little loose after the scraping. roller skate on a bicycle wheel [illustration] when the front tire on a bicycle will not hold and needs to be taken to a repair shop, strap or tie a roller skate to the rim of the wheel, as shown, and no trouble will be experienced in wheeling or riding the bicycle to the shop.--contributed by k. chase winslow, elizabeth, n. j. rope oarlocks having considerable trouble because of breaking of oarlocks, i devised a successful way by which the difficulty was overcome. the device is extremely simple and is nothing more than a piece of rope fastened to the gunwale as shown in the sketch.--contributed by arthur l. chetlain, rogers park, illinois. [illustration: piece of rope in place] home-made motion-picture camera and projector in three parts--part ii developing after having exposed the film in the camera, the next steps are to develop and make a positive film from the negative. the developing and exposing of the film for the positive are the same as in ordinary photography for making negatives and lantern slides, the only difference being in the apparatus for handling the long films. one of the simplest ways of developing a long film is to use a large tray in connection with a cross arm having upright pins around which the film is wrapped in a continuous spiral. a film ft. long would require a tray by in., with pins set in the cross arm about / in. apart. this method of developing is shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. --cross arms with pins] a long film can be developed in a small tray by using two flanged wheels or spools mounted on a frame (fig. ) that holds them directly above the liquid in the tray. the spools have a wood core or center with metal sides of sufficient diameter to take in the length of film to be developed. one end of the undeveloped film is attached to one spool and then wound upon it, then the other end is passed through the guides, gelatine side down, and fastened to the other spool. the film is first run slowly through a water bath until it is thoroughly saturated, then it is passed through the developing solution again and again until the proper density is secured. the trays can be easily removed and others substituted for fixing, washing, hardening and soaking, the film being passed through each solution in the same manner. before developing either negative or positive film, small test strips should be run through the solution so that the proper timing and treating of the full-length strip will correspond to the test strip. [illustration: fig. --developing long films] a reel should be prepared for drying the film. this can be made of small slats placed around two disks to form a drum (fig. ) about - / ft. in diameter and - / ft. long. after the film has been passed through the various solutions and is ready for drying, it is wound spirally around on the slats with the gelatine side out, and the whole hung up to dry. [illustration: fig. --drying reel] printing the printing to make the transparency is accomplished by a very simple arrangement. the negative and positive films must be drawn through a space admitting light while their gelatine surfaces are in close contact. a box may be constructed in several ways, but the one shown in fig. illustrates the necessary parts and their relative positions. [illustration: fig. --printing machine] the sprocket a is placed directly back of the opening b which may be regulated to admit the proper light. the sprocket can be purchased from a moving-picture stock house cheaply, but if the builder so desires, one can be made from wood turned up about in. in diameter, or so that the circumference will receive sprockets at points / in. apart. the sprockets are made of metal pins driven into the wood. two rows of them are placed around the wood cylinder about - / in. apart. the cylinder is provided with a small metal shaft at each end which turns in round holes or bearings in the sides of the box. one of the shafts should project through the side of the box and have a grooved wheel, c, attached. the sprocket cylinder is driven by a smaller grooved wheel or pulley, d, to which a crank is attached for turning. the relative sizes of these wheels are determined by the speed of the exposure and the kind of light used. a -in. or -in. wheel on the cylinder sprocket shaft, driven by a pulley about in. in diameter, will be suitable under ordinary circumstances. the opening b may be adjusted by two metal slides which fit tightly in metal grooves fastened to the wood front. the metal grooves and slides can be made of tin and painted a dead black. the films after passing over the sprocket, fall into the bottom of the box, or, if very long films are to be made, the instrument can be used in the dark room and the light admitted only to the opening b, then the ends can be dropped into a basket or other receptacle at the bottom and the unprinted portions carried on reels above the box. the speed of the exposure and the width of the opening b can be determined by making test strips. this can be done by setting the opening b to a certain width and turning the crank for or seconds and counting the number of revolutions. the proper exposure can be easily attained by this method. an emergency clamp [illustration] while making an extra large guitar i did not have clamps large enough to hold the top and bottom onto the sides while gluing, so i fastened three pieces of wood together, each piece being about by in., as shown in the sketch. then i bored holes in both top and bottom pieces and inserted a piece of soft wire in the form of a loop, which, when twisted, drew the ends of the clamp together.--contributed by geo. e. walsh, buffalo, n. y. * * * * * while camping, remember a hot stone wrapped up makes an excellent substitute for a hot-water bag. home-made motion-picture camera and projector in three parts--part iii the projector the film positives are projected on a screen with the same kind of a lantern as is used for lantern slides, with the addition of the device for stepping the film through, one picture at a time, and flashing light on each picture as it remains stationary for an instant. the projector (fig. ) is composed of a lamp house, a condensing lens to make the beam of light converge upon the film for illuminating it evenly, a film-stepping device, and a projecting lens for throwing the enlarged picture of the illuminated film upon a screen. [illustration: fig. --projector complete] the lamp house is made of ordinary stovepipe metal and the dimensions given in the sketch are for a size suitable to use an acetylene or gas burner. the metal is laid out as shown by the pattern (fig. ) and bent on the dotted lines to form the sides and ends of the house. the joint may be riveted, or, if taken to a tinshop, lock-seamed. the cover is cut out as shown, the sides and ends having bent holes which are covered on the inside with perforated sheet metal, a. in order to deflect the light, a small angular strip, b, is riveted on so that its upper portion will cover the holes and allow a space for the heat to pass out. the cover may be hinged or set on like a cover on a can. the lamp house is attached to a sliding wood base for adjusting its position on the baseboard. [illustration: fig. --details of the lamp house] the condensing lenses are fixed into a metal barrel having a tapering end. this can be made of the same material as used in the lamp house. the parts can be rolled and a lock joint made at a local tinshop, or the pieces shaped over a wood form and riveted. small l-shaped pieces are riveted to the inner surfaces to hold each lens in place. a rim is turned up on the back end of the metal tube for attaching the lens barrel to the lamp house. [illustration: fig. --details of the lamp, stepping device and base] an ordinary mantle or acetylene burner is attached to a gas pipe that has for its base a drop elbow fastened to a sliding board similar to the slide of the lamp house on the baseboard. a good reflector should be attached to a standard just back of the burner. the standard is also fastened to the sliding board. the proper distance of the light from the condensing lens can be easily set by this adjusting device. this arrangement is shown in fig. in the diagram entitled "lamp parts." the device for stepping the film is a duplicate of the one used in the camera as described in part i, with the exception of the lens. the lens should be about in. in diameter with such a focal length that will give a picture of the required size, or a lens of -in. focus enlarging a -in. film to about ft. at a distance of ft. a regular lens fitted in a metal tube can be purchased from a moving-picture stock house at a reasonable price. the box is made up similar to the camera box, but with a metal back instead of the wood. the intense heat from the light would quickly burn the wood and for this reason the light should be kept from the film while it is not in motion. the projecting lens barrel should be fitted snugly, yet loose enough for focusing. the baseboard is cut as shown and the film-stepping device is firmly attached to the small end. the sides extend over the baseboard and are fastened with screws and braced with metal brackets. the slot in the small end of the baseboard is for the film to pass through. the film should have a tension the same as in the camera with velvet placed on the edges of the partitions. it is well to have a guide below the roller shutter to keep the film from encircling the roller as it turns. homemade graining tools desiring to do some fancy graining and having no tools at hand, i hastily made two of them from pieces of garden hose, as shown in the sketch. two pieces were cut from the hose, each in. long, and the first one made as follows: a small hole, about / in. in diameter, was cut through the outside layer of rubber with a sharp knife at two points on opposite sides of the hose and exactly in the center for length. around these holes rings of the rubber were cut out, or rather peeled off from the canvas part, the rings being / in. wide, and the grooves, or parts removed, also / in. wide. the hose will then appear as shown in the upper left-hand corner of the sketch. [illustration: tools cut from pieces of garden hose for making grains of wood in painted surfaces] to use this grainer, first paint the ground color, using a buff tint for imitation light oak, and allow it to dry, then put on a light coat of raw sienna, and while wet, take the prepared hose and draw it slowly over the length of wood, at the same time revolving the grainer slowly. the other piece of hose, at the other corner, is made to take the place of a steel graining comb. the rubber is cut away lengthwise, leaving four segments, about in. wide, on four sides of the hose. these segments are then notched out, like threads on a tap, each segment having a different number to the inch. these are used in the same manner as steel combs.--contributed by a. h. waychoff, koenig, colo. needle for repairing screens in attaching patches to window or door screens, the work requires a continual shifting from one side to the other, or two persons, one on each side, must be present to pass the threaded needle back and forth. the operation can be easily simplified by using a bent needle, which has been heated and suitably shaped. the point of this needle can always be made to return to the side from which it entered, thereby avoiding the need of an assistant or the tiresome shifting back and forth.--contributed by g. jaques, chicago, ill. an emergency tourniquet [illustration] a valuable addition to any shop medicine cabinet is the tourniquet. a device that will answer the purpose of the tourniquet can be made from an ordinary clothespin and a piece of binding tape, about / in. wide and in. long. to stop the bleeding from a wound on a limb, pass the tape around the injured member between the wound and the blood supply. pass the tape through the slot in the pin, wind the ends around the pin two or three times to prevent slipping, then turn the pin to draw up the tape tightly until the flow of blood is stopped. mechanical aid to singers procure a large cigar box, of the square variety, and three ordinary drinking glasses with very thin walls and of different sizes, and place them in the box, as follows: space them evenly, and drive three brads close to the circumference of each glass bottom, so that the glasses will have to be forced in between them. to prevent the glasses from touching the wood place a one-cent piece under each one. a fourth glass is used, but from this the bottom must be removed. this can be done by saturating a string, or piece of yarn, in kerosene oil, wrapping it once around the glass near the bottom, then lighting it and allowing the string to burn out. the glass is then quickly dropped into cold water, which will remove the bottom. a hole is cut in the cover of the box to receive the bottomless glass from the upper side, so that its lower edge will be flush with the under surface. cut a slot, in. long and / in. wide, in the cover near the back side. to use, close the cover and at a distance of about / in. from the glass in the cover, or mouthpiece, sing into it. the glasses will impart to the voice a peculiar tone delightful to hear.--contributed by j. b. murphy, plainfield, new jersey. model boat with aerial propeller procure or make a small model boat, or in. long, and place in the hold one or two cells of dry battery. make a small platform in the stern and mount on it a small battery motor with the shaft parallel with the length of the boat and in the center. directly above and parallel with the motor shaft run a shaft--a hatpin will do--in bearings fastened to the deck. attach a drive pulley directly over the pulley on the motor and belt it up with a cord or rubber band. purchase or make a propeller blade and attach it to the rear end of the shaft. a switch can be located on the deck for controlling the motor.--contributed by geo. b. riker, ft. wayne, ind. [illustration: the aerial propeller is driven by a small battery motor placed in the boat] lantern-slide binding machine the machine shown in the illustration is very simple to make and when complete is one of the greatest time savers that a photographer can possess. the base is made of a piece of board, in. long, in. wide, and / in. thick. the uprights support a small bar upon which the roll of binding revolves. an old ink bottle filled with water and with some cotton stuffed in the neck serves as a moistener for the binding. the use of this machine insures a neat job in a very short space of time. the slide is always in the center of the binding. the end of the slide should run a little over the end of the base so that the binding may be fixed to the edge with the fingers, using a downward motion. the slide is then turned over on the other edge with a rolling motion and the operation repeated.--contributed by alvin g. steier, union hill, n. y. [illustration: a machine that will help to bind lantern slides quickly and neatly] adjustable film-developing machine the simple homemade developing machine, shown in the illustration, can be easily made with three film spools, some strong wire, and odd pieces of wood. it consists of an open frame, having two side pieces provided with slots down the center, sufficiently wide to allow an ordinary wood screw, of suitable size, to slide up or down freely. the two end-connecting pieces act as supports for the developing tray and should be made of sufficient length so the tray can pass freely between the sliding upright frame, made to fit in between the side pieces of the base. this frame can be adjusted to suit the length of film and is clamped in place at the desired position by wood screws, fitting in the long notches and screwed into the uprights. the two bottom rollers consist of film spools which are fastened in place by being slipped over a suitable wire, bent so the spool can enter the developing tray and the wire pass over the sides. another bend at the outer end provides for the adjustment of the spools and for securing the wire in place by staples. the top spool is secured to a wire fitted with a crank at the outer end, so that in turning the wire, the spool will also turn, thereby driving the film. when placing the film on the machine, the sensitive side should face outward so it will not rub against the spools. the ends of the film may be connected with pins or ordinary paper fasteners.--contributed by h. r. f. richardson, ottawa, ont. [illustration: developing a roll film in a tray with a machine that drives the film around rollers and through the developing liquid by turning a crank] preventing loss of fish from covered baskets in the cover of fish baskets an opening is frequently made permitting the fish to be put in without lifting the cover. in traveling over rough places, or when the basket is full, some of the fish are likely to be shaken out, or may wiggle out of the basket. to guard against this, a leather flap can be provided covering the hole on the inside. at one end of the flap, four holes should be punched. it can then be placed in position and securely laced to the cover. the flap acts as a valve, allowing fish to be put into the basket, but preventing their escape.--contributed by a. w. cook, kamela, ore. repair for a broken lock keeper [illustration] having broken the recess half of a common cupboard lock, or latch, which was used to fasten a hinged storm window, i used a round-head wood screw as shown. the screw was easily placed, and it serves the purpose as well as the regular keeper.--contributed by r. f. pohle, lynn, mass. * * * * * when using glue contained in screw-stoppered vessels it is advisable to smear a little vaseline on the thread to prevent the stopper from adhering to the container. [illustration: throwing a spot light with the lantern on individuals of a home play, which can be given brilliant effects by the use of the tinted celluloid in the openings of the revolving wheel] lantern for spot and colored lights the school play in pantomime is not complete unless the different parts of the play are illuminated in different colors, especially if the performers are clad in glittering garments. a spot light is also a feature not to be forgotten in singling out the star player or the one singing a song. the cost of a light for this purpose is entirely out of the reach of the average schoolboy, but if he has any ingenuity and a little time, a lantern for throwing those colored lights can be made at home, and the necessary parts will not cost much. [illustration: pattern for cutting the metal to form the entire lantern, or lamp house, also the pattern for the top and the metal bracket that makes a bearing for the revolving wheel, having openings covered with tinted celluloid] the metal necessary can be the ordinary stovepipe material, but if it is desired to have a fine-appearing lantern, procure what is called russian iron. this metal has a gloss, and if used, it should be gone over from time to time with a rag soaked in oil, then wiped dry, to keep it from rusting. the pattern for the body of the lantern, or lamp house, is shown with dimensions. if metal, long enough for the whole length, cannot be procured, then make it in two pieces, being sure to allow / -in. end also on the second part, as shown on the first, for a riveted joint. the metal is bent on the dotted lines and cut out on the full ones. the distance between the lines a to be bent is equal to the radius b. the part a forms the sloping side of the top, and the -in. part at the top of the side extends vertically on the upper or vertical part, it being / in. narrower to provide an outlet for the heat. an opening is cut in the rear end, as shown, also a hole, in. in diameter, in the front end. the size of the round hole is optional, as it should be cut to suit the condensing lens provided. if a lens / in. in diameter is used, then a -in. hole should be cut. this is enough difference in size to hold the lens from dropping through, while clips riveted on the inside of the lamp-house end will hold it in place. the lens is set in the hole with the curved side outward from the inside of the lamp house. the top, or covering, is cut out of the same material as used in making the lamp house, the length being in., and the sides are cut to extend / in. on each side of the ventilator. the edges, being turned down on the dotted lines, provide a covering to prevent any great amount of light from passing out through the / -in. ventilating opening mentioned in connection with the side construction of the lantern. the -in. parts of the cover ends are turned down and riveted to the ends of the lamp house. the little extensions on the ends provide a means of riveting the side, to make a solid joint. the arm c is made of a piece of / or / -in. metal, shaped as shown, to fit on the corner of the lamp house, where it is riveted. this provides a support and a place for an axis for the large revolving wheel holding the colored-celluloid disks. [illustration: the base of the lantern is provided with a sliding part carrying the light for adjustment] the metal forming the lamp house is fastened on a baseboard, cut to snugly fit on the inside. the base has two cleats, nailed lengthwise to form a runway, in. wide, into which another board is fitted to carry the burner. while the illustration shows an acetylene burner, any kind of light may be used so long as it is of a high candlepower. if manufactured gas is at hand, a gas burner with a mantle can be fitted, or a large tungsten electric light will give good results. [illustration: pattern for the revolving wheel in which six holes are cut and covered with tinted celluloid] the wheel, carrying the colored disks, is made of the same kind of metal as used for the lamp house. the edges should be trimmed smooth, or, better still, turned over and hammered down to prevent injury to the hands while turning it. a washer should be used between this wheel and the arm c on a bolt used for the shaft, to make the wheel turn freely. the colored disks of celluloid are fastened to the outside of the wheel over the openings. a yoke to support the lantern and provide a way for throwing the light in any direction, is made as shown. a line along which the lantern balances is determined by placing it on something round, as a broom stick, and the upper ends of the yoke are fastened on this line with loosely fitted bolts for pivots. [illustration: yoke for supporting the lantern] the lantern is set in front of the stage at the back of the room and the light is directed on the players, the colors being changed by turning the wheel. sometimes good effects can be obtained by using the lantern in the wings, or for a fire dance, by placing it under the stage, throwing the light upward through grating or a heavy plate glass. homemade palette knife a corset steel makes a good substitute for a palette knife because of its flexibility. it gives better satisfaction if cut in the shape shown than if left straight. should a handle be desired, one can be easily made by gluing two pieces of thin wood on the sides.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. [illustration: a palette knife made of a corset steel and a wood handle attached] * * * * * to remove a white mark on wood having a wax surface, rub it lightly with a rag moistened in alcohol; then rub with a little raw linseed oil. self-closing gate this gate is suspended from a horizontal bar by chains, and swings freely about a -in. gas pipe, placed vertically in the center of the gate. the chains are of the same length, being fastened equidistant from the pipe, the upper ends farther out than the lower. the distance depends on the weight of the gate and the desired force with which it should close. any of the numerous styles of latches can be used, if desired.--contributed by kenneth osborn, loveland, colo. [illustration: the gate will swing in either direction and come to a rest where it closes the opening] a poultry shade if a poultry yard is in an open space where the sun's rays will strike it squarely, a shade can be put up as follows: a piece of old carpet, rug, or canvas, fastened to the wire mesh with clothespins, will produce a shade at any place desired.--contributed by walter l. kaufmann, santa ana, cal. reflector for viewing scenery from a car window construct a box of pasteboard or thin wood, about in. long, in. wide and in. thick, and fasten two pieces of mirror in the ends at an angle of deg., both sloping in the same direction with their reflecting surfaces toward each other. an opening as large as the mirror is cut, facing it, in the box at the end a, and a small hole bored through at the end b so that it will center the mirror. both of these apertures are covered with plain pieces of glass. [illustration: the reflecting device as it is used in a car window for viewing the scenery ahead] in use, the end a is placed outside of the car window and the user places an eye to the small hole b. it is impossible to be struck in the eye with a cinder or flying object.--contributed by mildred e. thomas, gordon, can. a muskrat trap it is difficult to catch muskrats in an ordinary steel trap, as a broken bone allows them to sever the flesh and escape. during the summer these rats build a shelter for the winter constructed of moss and sticks placed on the river or lake bed, the top extending above the water level and the entrance being through a hole in the bottom near one side, while the passage itself is under water. it, therefore, only remains for the trapper to make one of these houses over into a huge wire trap so that the animal may be caught alive. [illustration: a trap for catching muskrats alive in one of their mounds built of moss and sticks] the house a is prepared by removing the top and building the trap from heavy mesh wire which can be easily shaped, the joints being held together by binding the edges with wire. the passage is then fitted with a double trapdoor, the first, b, provided with sharp points on the swinging end, while the other is a falling cover. these two doors are placed in an entrance way, c, made of wire mesh and fastened over the passageway. the muskrat comes up through the passage, pushing a bunch of moss or sticks and does not notice passing the trapdoors. the upper door is to keep the animals caught from getting at the first door.--contributed by vance garrison, bemidji, minn. a casein glue casein glues are splendid in woodworking, making cardboard articles, and when the composition is varied somewhat, make excellent cements for china and metals. casein is made from the curd of soured milk after removal of the fat, and is put on the market in the form of a dry powder. to make the glue, soak the casein powder two hours in an equal weight of hot water. to this gummy mass add about one-seventh the weight of the casein in borax which has been dissolved in very little hot water. stir until all is dissolved after mixing borax and casein. this can be thinned with water to suit and is a good glue, but it can be made more adhesive by the addition of a little sodium arsenate. any alkali, such as soda or ammonia, could be substituted for the borax. to make a china cement, lime or water glass should be substituted for the borax. addition of burnt magnesia increases the speed of hardening. [illustration] the mile-o-view camera by t. b. lambert many have tried, but heretofore no one has succeeded in taking panoramic views from the side of fast-moving trains or street cars. motion pictures are easily obtained from the front or rear of moving trains, but none with the camera lens pointing at right angles, or nearly so, to the track. a complete apparatus for taking continuous and perfect panoramic pictures of any desired length as one travels through a country is too complicated to be described in detail within the limits of this article, but a simple arrangement, invented and constructed by the writer, will enable anyone to perform the experiment at practically no cost except for the film. [illustration: the board used instead of a tripod is placed across the backs of two car seats] some form of a roll-film camera is essential, and simply as a working basis, it will be assumed an ordinary camera is used, post-card camera in size, for which the following things will be required: a piece of thin black card, or hard rubber; a small board, and a piece of wire to be used as a crank. [illustration: these two articles constitute the only parts necessary to change a camera into a mile-o-view] prepare the paper, or hard rubber, by cutting it to a size that will exactly cover the rear camera opening when the back of the camera is removed, which, in the case of a post-card size, is in. long and - / in. wide; then cut a narrow slot, about / in. wide crosswise through the center of the material. this slot should extend to within about / in. of each edge, and the edges must be perfectly smooth and straight. if paper is used, glue it to the opening in the camera. if hard rubber is used, it can be made up as shown and set in the camera opening. this will bring the slot directly back of the lens center and at right angles to the direction in which the film moves when being rolled. [illustration: the two parts as they are applied to an ordinary roll-film camera] a board is prepared, about ft. long, in. wide and / in. thick. this is to take the place of a tripod, and it must have a small hole and suitable wing nut to attach the camera near the center. this length of board will reach from the back of one seat to another when it is placed to support the camera during the exposure. a wire, about / in. in diameter, is bent, as shown, with a short hook on one end, and the other turned up at right angles, to serve as a handle. this wire, when hooked into the wing nut, will enable one to wind up the film at a fairly uniform speed. this completes all the necessary apparatus. to take pictures with this panoramic outfit, load the camera in the usual way, but do not wind it up to exposure no. ; stop at a point where the beginning of the film will be nearly opposite the narrow slot in the black paper, or rubber. this would be to stop the turning at about the time the hand pointer appears in the small back window. attach the camera firmly to the board and brace up the lens end so that it will not easily shake with the movement of the car. place the board across the backs of two adjacent seats, so that the camera will point out of the window at exactly right angles to the car. when ready to expose, open the shutter wide, turn the crank that is hooked into the wing nut, and slowly wind up the film while the train is running. this will give a panoramic picture, continuous in character, and if the speed of turning is well judged, some very splendid views can be made. the speed of turning the crank will be governed by the focal length of the lens and the speed of the train. for an average lens, the crank should be given one turn per second when the car is traveling about miles an hour, or the average speed of a street car, a train traveling miles an hour will require two turns of the crank per second. a good method of trying this out is to use one film as a test and turn the crank a few times and note its speed by the second, then stop and begin again at another speed for a few turns and so on, until the entire film is exposed, always noting the turns and time for each change, also the speed of the train. when the film is developed the one that shows best will give the proper number of turns per second. the following points must be considered: the track should not be rough, and the camera must be perfectly steady and not twisted out of position by turning the crank, otherwise the resulting picture will be wavy. if the slot in the back board is not smooth and true, the picture will be streaked. turning the film too fast will make the picture elongated, and too slowly, condensed. should the camera be pointed otherwise than at right angles the picture will be distorted. this arrangement cannot be used to take moving objects except under special conditions. a picture of a passing train of cars can be made if the camera is stationary, but the wheels and drive rods will appear twisted out of shape. it is best for the experimenter to confine himself to scenery at the beginning, avoiding architectural objects, because a variation in speed of turning the crank to wind the film naturally distorts the architecture, which variation is not so noticeable in a scenic view. [illustration] a photographic worktable for small quarters by k. v. reed flat dwellers have no space at their disposal for a person to work at photography, and the bathroom must take the place of a dark room. as this was very inconvenient in my case, i constructed a table, that from all appearances was nothing more than a large-size kitchen worktable, and such a table can be used in case the builder does not care to construct it. the table is turned upside down and the top removed by taking out the screws. the top is made of several pieces glued together and will remain in one piece. it is then hinged at one side to the top edge of the rail, so that it can be turned back like a trunk, or box, cover. boards are then nailed to the under edge of the rails. if a very neat job is required, these boards should be set inside on strips nailed to the inside surfaces of the rails, at the proper place to make the boards come flush with the under edges of the rails. at the back side and in the center of the new bottom, a hole is cut, or in. square, and a box fastened beneath it, to form a bottom several inches below the main bottom. in this space bottles filled with solutions are kept. the main bottom should be painted with an acid-proof varnish. [illustration: an ordinary kitchen worktable fitted up as a handy workshop for the amateur photographer who has a limited space in a flat, and where a table can be used to advantage in a room] the space in the table is then divided, and partitions set up, which can be arranged to suit the builder. another attachment, which comes in exceedingly handy, is the ruby light. this consists of a box, large enough to receive a printing frame at the bottom. two holes are cut in the table top, at the right places to make a window for the light and a slit for the printing frame. when the table top is raised, the box with the light is fastened over the openings with hooks, the arrangement of which will depend on the size and shape of the box. in closing, the lamp box is removed, and pieces of board are set in the holes. this can be easily arranged, if the holes and blocks are cut on a slight slope, so that the latter when set in will not fall through the openings. back thrust prevented on skis to overcome the difficulty of skis slipping back when walking uphill either of the two devices shown is good, if the attachments are fastened to the rear end of the skis. [illustration: two methods of making an attachment to prevent the backward thrust of a ski] the first represents a piece of horse-hide, about in. square, tacked on the ski and with the hair slanting backward. this will not interfere with going forward, but will retard any movement backward. the other consists of a hinged portion that will enter the snow on a back thrust. as the ski end is thin, a block of wood must be attached to it on the upper side, and the projecting piece hinged to the block. the bevel at the end allows it to dig into the snow when the ski starts back. in going forward, it will swing out of the way freely. crystallization shown on a screen the formation of chemical crystals can be shown in an interesting manner as follows: spread a saturated solution of salt on a glass slide, or projection-lantern glass, and allow it to evaporate in the lantern's light or beneath a magnifying glass. the best substances to use are solutions of alum or sodium, alum being preferable. ordinary table salt gives brilliant crystals which reflect the light to a marked degree. for regular formation, where the shape of the crystal is being studied, use a solution of hyposulphite of soda. many startling facts may be learned from the study of crystals in this manner, and watching them "grow" is great sport even to the chemist.--contributed by l. t. ward, des moines, iowa. furniture polish for fine woods boiled olive oil, to which a few drops of vinegar has been added, makes an excellent furniture polish for very fine woods. it will be found to work nicely on highly polished surfaces, and also for automobile bodies. it is applied in moderate quantities, and rubbed to a luster with a flannel cloth. [illustration] enlarging photographs by a. e. swoyer when the photographer wishes to make an enlarged print from a small negative, he arranges a suitable light and condensers back of the negative and by means of a lens projects the resultant image upon a sheet of sensitive paper. owing to the comparative weakness of the light, however, it is necessary either to use bromide paper or some of the faster brands of developing-out paper. if a more artistic medium is desired, a glass positive must first be made and enlarged to produce a negative from which the final prints will be made by contact. this process is somewhat clumsy and expensive, for if any retouching or doctoring is to be done, it must be upon a glass surface, either that of the two negatives or of the intermediate positive. as all of this work is done by transmitted light, there is the loss of fine detail common to all enlargements. the difficulties incident to this process may be done away with by the use of a modification of the popular post-card projector; the alteration consisting simply in the substitution of a better lens for the cheap plate glass with which such instruments are usually fitted. a contact print, preferably on glossy paper, ferrotyped, is made from the original negative by contact in the usual way; this is then placed in the modified projector and the image thrown upon a sensitive plate of the desired size. after a brief exposure, development will show an enlarged negative having every quality of the original. the advantages of this process are obvious. in the first place, the comparative cheapness of the apparatus is a factor; in the second, the intermediate glass positive is eliminated, the print which is substituted for it providing a much better medium for retouching, faking or printing in. transparent water colors in the less actinic shades may be used upon this print to control the final result, and if spoiled, it may be replaced at a negligible cost. [illustration: an ordinary post-card projector used back of a camera to illuminate a photograph which is enlarged on a plate to make a negative instead of a print (fig. , fig. )] at first glance, it would appear as if this method were simply a form of photographic copying; it is, in fact, the reverse. for in copying any object with a camera, the sensitive medium is behind the lens and the object to be copied is in front, and the size of the copy is therefore limited both by that of the camera and by its bellows draw. in the reflection process, the object to be copied is back of the lens and the sensitive medium is in front; as large a copy can be made with a small camera as with an eight by ten. it is really more convenient to work with a short-focus lens and a camera of limited bellows extension; the nearer the lens is to the back of the camera the larger will be the projected image. the diagram (fig. ) shows that the size of the object to be enlarged does not depend upon the focal length of the lens used, as in ordinary enlarging, but simply upon the size of the opening in the front of the projector. the dotted lines are drawn from the edges of the card to be projected through the lens. figure is a sketch of a projector with the lens tube removed, so that it may be used with a camera as shown in fig. . [illustration: (fig. )] homemade screen-door spring [illustration] a screen or storm-door spring can be easily made of spring-steel wire. the wire is bent to the shape shown in the sketch and two turns given to the coil as shown at a. the ends of the wire are fastened to the casing and door with staples. two or three of these springs can be attached to one door where it is necessary to have more strength.--contributed by wm. rosenberg, watertown, mass. a surprise water bottle the performer produces a bottle and gives it with a glass to anyone in the audience, asking the person selected to take a drink of a very delicious concoction. when the person attempts to pour out the solution it is found to be frozen. to perform this trick, the fluid must be previously made with a saturated solution of sulphate of soda and hot water. fill a clean white bottle with the solution, taking care to cork the bottle while the liquid is hot. the liquid remains in a fluid state as long as the bottle is corked. when the bottle is shown, it appears to contain a liquid, and in handing it to a person the performer must be careful to take out the cork in time to allow it to solidify. in order to gain the proper time, pretend to be looking for a glass, make some remark about a sudden chill or feel the hand holding the bottle and say it is very cold. in the meantime, the air acting upon the solution has caused it to become fixed and immovable, and when the person attempts to pour it out, he finds it is impossible. a graduate holder a simple and easily constructed graduate holder in the form of a bracket placed in the corner of a dark room is shown in the sketch. the bracket not only holds the graduates securely, but allows them to drain perfectly and prevents dust settling on the inside, as they are suspended by the base. holes of different size are cut in the board to accommodate large, medium and small graduates. [illustration: the graduate holder is permanently fastened in a corner of the dark room] homemade enlarging camera the ordinary hand camera of the focusing type can be used to enlarge pictures from negatives of its own make. the requirement is a device to hold the negative rigid in a position in front of the camera lens, and at such a distance that the rays of light passing through the negative and lens will enter a box of sufficient size for the desired enlargement and focus plainly on a sheet of sensitive paper attached to the end of the box. the first thing to do is to find the distance that is required from the camera lens to the paper enlargement to make the proper size, and the distance from the lens to the negative. a correspondent of camera craft gives the following rule for finding these dimensions: to find the distance between the lens and paper enlargement, add to the number of times the picture is to be enlarged and multiply the result by the focus of the lens in inches. the example given is for a -in. focus lens. an example: a by -in. negative enlarged to by in. is a two-time enlargement (four times in area); + = , and � = , the distance in inches of the lens from the sensitive paper. to find the distance of the lens to the negative, divide the above result, in., by the number of times desired to enlarge, � = , the distance in inches from the lens to the negative. with these figures as a working basis, the box can be made in any size to use any focusing camera. the dimensions given in the drawing are for a by -in. camera having a -in. focus lens, and to enlarge the pictures from a by -in. negative to by in. in the first place make a box - / in. wide, - / in. deep and in. long, inside measurement, using / -in. material, as shown in the sectional drawing a. one end is left open and in the center of the other a hole is cut in. square. [illustration: details of construction and camera complete] the back end of the camera is placed over this hole as shown at b and / -in. strips nailed to the box end around the camera back to exclude all light. the camera must be centrally located. the next to be made is the end board or easel, consisting of two pieces of / -in. material, one - / by - / in., which should fit easily into the end of the box, and a larger one, by in., the outside dimensions of the box, as shown at c. nail the smaller piece to the center of the large one, crossing the grain of wood in so doing. the end board is the easel upon which the sensitive paper is fastened with push pins, and should be covered with a sheet of white paper, pasting it on the - / by - / -in. board with a thin coat of glue. the slide d is a piece of wood / in. thick, - / in. wide and in. long. this is fastened to the under side of the box with four screws, placing it exactly in the center and parallel with the sides of the box. be careful to have the slide parallel or the holder will not freely slide upon it. the negative holder e is made of a piece of / -in. board, in. wide and in. long. a hole - / by - / in. is cut in its center, leaving a margin of - / in. on all sides. this holder is set in a groove cut in a block of wood having a mortise cut / by - / in. to fit on the slide easily. a thumb screw is fitted in the center of the bottom of the block of wood. this is used for fastening the negative holder rigidly to the slide when the focus is secured. a -in. hole is bored in the upper corner of the box end, as shown, to serve as a peephole for seeing the image on the end board or easel. this is covered before putting the sensitive paper in the box. the end board is held in position with two flat brass hooks. the camera is held in place with two buttons placed on blocks of wood the height of the camera back, as shown at f. two pieces of clear glass, by in. in size, are held in place in the negative holder by means of buttons, the film negative being placed between them. all the joints in the box must be carefully puttied and the inside of the box blackened, which is done with a mixture of lampblack and alcohol, to which is added a small quantity of shellac to give it body. a darkroom is not essential, a bathroom with the window covered over with orange paper will do, or even a large room with the shades drawn and pinned close to the window casing. it is best to leave a space in one of the windows to be covered with orange paper, doing the developing about ft. from the source of light. to operate the camera place it on the enlarging box, hook the easel in place, put a negative in the holder with the film side toward the lens. take the outfit to a shady place outdoors, point the holder end at an unobstructed portion of the sky and look through the peephole. rack the lens in and out to focus the picture. the easel should have heavy black lines drawn upon it inclosing parallelograms from by in. to by in., so that one can readily see the size of the enlargement to be made. when the focus is obtained take the outfit into the darkroom, remove the easel and fasten the sensitive paper with push pins. replace the easel and take the outfit outdoors again, point it toward the clear sky and make the exposure, which should be at least seconds with a stop. it is best to make a trial exposure on a small strip of paper to find the proper time. directions for the use of bromide papers will be found in each package. an easy way to make a shelf procure an ordinary packing box and mark a line from corner to corner on both ends, as shown, from a to b in fig. . pull out all the nails from the corners that may cross the line. nail the top to the box and saw it on the lines marked and two shelves will be formed which may be used as shown in fig. . boxes dovetailed at the corners will make excellent shelves and look neat if painted. [illustration: two shelves made of one box (fig. , fig. )] [illustration] multiplying attachment for a camera by j. c. moore the hand camera suitable for this work is the kind commonly known as the reversible back, which is a detachable part that carries a ground glass for focusing and a place to insert the plate holders. when this part is removed, it will be seen that the back of the camera is mortised to prevent light from entering. construct a frame to take the place of the back, but make it about / in. larger all around, and make one surface to fit the mortise of the camera box. [illustration: the attachment as it is fitted to the camera and the reversible back in the frame] a back is now made and attached to the frame, to carry the ground-glass reversible back, so that it can be shifted over the center of focus for each small portion of the plate on which the picture is to be made. measure the outside of the plate holder and, doubling the dimensions both ways, lay out a diagram on a piece of paper. lay the plate holder on the paper and move it to the extreme left, then to the right, to see if the center of the plate will coincide with the center of the back. in the same manner locate the center in a vertical position. if the center lines do not coincide, increase the dimensions until this occurs. mark, in the exact center, an opening the size of the plate and cut out the wood. it is best to use a three-ply wood for making the back, but if this cannot be obtained, procure a dry piece of wood and mortise and glue strips to the ends to keep the wood from warping. glue the frame to this back, over the opening, and make attachments to hold it to the camera in the same manner as the reversible back was attached. [illustration: manner of laying out the pattern for the back and locating the exact center] if pictures of two or three different sizes are to be made, the opening in the new back should be fitted with as many new pieces as there are sizes of pictures, each to have an opening of corresponding size. for a by -in. plate, - / by - / -in. pictures is a good size, as there will be room for pictures on the plate with a small margin left for notes. the piece to fill the opening should be made of the same material as the back so that a smooth joint will result. as a board cannot be made smooth enough for a perfectly light-tight joint, the surface on the new back, over which the reversible back travels, must be covered with cloth--a piece of black velvet is suitable--to exclude all light as the plate holder is shifted over the back. a frame is now made to carry the reversible back of the camera, the size of which will depend on the size of the other parts, as well as on the size of the camera to be used. this frame consists of two horizontal strips joined at the ends with grooved pieces, fitting the edge of the new back, so that it may be slid up and down in the grooves. the crosspieces are also rabbeted to receive the reversible back and allow it to be moved back and forth horizontally. the rabbet in the horizontal strips should not be so deep as to permit the extending edge to overlap the ground-glass frame, thus preventing it from moving back as the plate holder is inserted. if the frame on the back and the reversible back fit tightly, they will remain in any position, but if they are loosely fitted, it will be necessary to provide some means to hold them. small springs with pins may be fitted to the vertically moving frame to hold it in the position for the horizontal rows of pictures. the ground glass should be marked for the size picture to be taken. the positions of the frame and plate carrier should also be marked so that the plate holder need not be taken out to find the location and focus for the next picture. connecting a pipe to sheet metal in the absence of a waste nut, an iron pipe can be easily fastened to sheet-metal work as shown in the sketch. the end of the pipe, fig. , is slotted with a hacksaw to form four projections, which are turned outward and their ends rounded as shown in fig. . the face of the projections are tinned and then riveted to the sheet-metal surface, as shown in fig. . after soldering the joint, it will be as good or better than if a waste nut had been used.--contributed by lorin a. brown, washington, d. c. [illustration: the end of the pipe as it is prepared to be riveted on the sheet metal (fig. , fig. , fig. )] an acid siphon when siphoning off acids or other disagreeable or poisonous liquids, it is very important that none of it touch the flesh or mouth. it is almost impossible to do this when starting the ordinary siphon. a siphon that does away with this inconvenience and danger can be made as follows: procure a good bunsen burner and two pieces of / in. glass tube, one ft. and the other in. long. heat the ft. length at a point in. from one end in the flame until it can be bent as shown at a. the other piece should be plugged at one end and then slowly and evenly heated at a point in. from one end. when the glass is soft, blow slowly and steadily into the open end, at the same time turning the tube around in the flame. this will form a bulb, b. the ends of the glass tube are heated and bent as shown, at c and d, and then fused onto the piece a, as shown at e. this can be accomplished by heating the piece a at a point in. from the unbent end. when the glass becomes soft, place one end of a short piece of tube in it and pull out into a thread. break this off as close to the tube as possible, to make a hole in the tube. heat the end of the tube d and also the glass around the hole, and when both become soft, they can be fused together. [illustration: when starting this siphon it is difficult for the liquid to touch the mouth or flesh] in use, close the end not in the liquid and, placing the mouth at f, exhaust the tube, thus filling it with the liquid. when the closed end is opened, the siphon will flow. the liquid collects in the bulb, and if a little care is used, none of it can reach the mouth.--contributed by o. f. tronnes, evanston, ill. bottle-opening trick a local junk dealer, who was also known as the "strongest man in town," used to mystify the folks by opening a bottle, apparently with a stroke of his index finger. his audience saw his index finger strike the stopper, but did not see the knuckle of his second finger strike the eccentric at the point a, as shown in the sketch, causing it to fly up while his index finger b assisted the stopper out of the bottle mouth. [illustration: in striking the bottle cork, the knuckle of the second finger loosens the wire lock] when trying the trick, it is best to select a bottle with a loose stopper, or else wear a glove, as the gentleman who demonstrated the trick had hands of the hard and horny type.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. setting colors in fabrics the colors of fabrics or other materials of any kind may be set by boiling the articles in the following solution: to gal. of soft water add oz. of ox gall. this solution should be boiling when the articles are dropped into it. a chemical reaction results and the colors are set or made nonfading. the process is harmless. colors in wood may be treated in the same manner. towel-roller brackets very serviceable brackets for a towel roller can be made by using ordinary wire clothes hooks, as shown in the illustration. the roller is made of wood and two nails with their heads cut off, one in each end, form bearings to turn in the ends of the hooks. when it is desired to remove the roller, the hooks are sprung apart enough to allow it to drop out.--contributed by hugh carmichael, west lorne, ont. [illustration: the roller brackets are easily adjusted in any location and serve the purpose admirably] a developing-tray rocker the tank method of photographic development is acknowledged as the best, yet there are many who, for various reasons, still use the old-style tray method. for those who use the tray, a splendid and simple method that combines the good qualities of both the tank and tray is the tray-rocking device shown in the illustration. [illustration: developing-tray rocker to keep the liquid in motion over the plate automatically] the rocker consists of a wood box, in. long, in. wide and - / in. deep, made of / -in. material, together with a similar box - / in. deep, that fits over the other as a light-proof cover. both are given a coat of black paint. at the center on the under side of the tray part, a right angle made of strap iron is fastened with screws. on the part projecting down, a hole is drilled to receive a sleeve made of a brass tube which is soldered in place. an ordinary shelf bracket is procured, one end of which is filed and fitted with a strip of metal having both ends turned up slightly. small-pointed pins are fastened in holes drilled near the turned-up part. the points of the pins serve as a knife-edge for the rocker. the extending end of the strap iron is fitted with a pendulum rod having a weight at the bottom. the rocker is attached to the wall in a convenient place in the dark room. the tray with the developer and plate is placed in the box, which is light-tight, and the pendulum is started swinging.--contributed by t. b. lambert, chicago. an adjustable bookholder a very satisfactory adjustable holder for books or letters can be constructed of ordinary materials. a board is used for the base, and two pieces, c, cut from the grooved edges of flooring boards, are fastened on top as shown. a permanent end, a, is fastened to one end of the base. a good-size holder is in. long, in. wide, made of material / in. thick. [illustration: the holder may be used for books or letters and papers as a file] the movable slide b has two pieces attached to its under side, which are cut from the tongued edges of flooring boards. the piece d answers the double purpose of a handle and brace. a lock, e, is made of a bolt, having a long thread and a square head. a hole is bored from the under side through the brace, and a portion of the wood is cut out to admit the nut. a square place is cut out to admit the square bolt head in the bottom pieces. to lock the slide, simply screw the nut upward so that it will push the bolt head against the base.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. an old-oak stain to make old oak of ash, elm, box alder, chestnut, maple, yew, and sycamore wood use a solution of copper acetate, or iron acetate. either of these can be made by allowing a strong acid to come in contact with copper or iron. acetic acid, or vinegar, will do for the acid. the chemical can be obtained from a local druggist if it is not desired to make the stain. by varying the strength of the solution, several shades may be obtained. a weak solution of iron acetate gives various brown hues. as the strength of the salt increases by concentration, the shades of brown darken. tablespoon end used as lemon squeezer in an emergency, the ordinary tablespoon can be used as a lemon squeezer by turning the lemon around the end of the spoon. this produces the same result as obtained with the regular squeezers, which act on the principle of extracting the juice by turning and crushing the lemon over a rough projection which approximately matches the shape of a half lemon.--contributed by l. e. turner, new york, n. y. [illustration: the shape of the spoon bowl produces the same effect as the lemon squeezer] a back stop for a workbench in planing small pieces on a bench, they usually have a tendency to tip up or slide around. this difficulty can be easily overcome by providing the bench with an extra back stop. for this purpose a discarded plane iron will do very well. its edge should be notched so that it will easily enter the wood. the edges of its central slot should be beveled off, if an ordinary wood screw is used to fasten it to the bench. a series of holes, several inches apart and in line with the regular back stop, should be bored in the bench so the screw and iron can be readily changed, to fit varying lengths.--contributed by c. s. rice, washington, d. c. [illustration: a plane bit fastened to the top of a bench to hold blocks while planing them] croquet mallets protected by metal rings [illustration] due to the severe service they are subjected to, croquet mallets very frequently split off at the ends, which spoils them for further use in accurate driving. to prevent this, metal bands may be placed around the ends of the mallets. thin sheet iron, or tin, can be used for this purpose. one end is bent up at right angles, the opposite end is provided with a loop to fit over the upright portion of the first end, and then the loop is closed up and hammered down to draw the metal tightly around the mallet. the ring is secured in place with several tacks, or short nails, driven through the seam.--contributed by h. e. stratmeyer, rockville, md. distance marker for printing photographs a convenient homemade printing device, or distance marker, for printing photographs by artificial light consists of a smooth board on which twelve -in. marks are drawn, as shown. a wall-base electric socket is attached on the first line and the others are numbered up to . a trial test of a negative marks the distance and time of exposure which should be recorded on the negative. such a device makes uniform prints possible and provides a means of recording time on negative-storage envelopes.--contributed by harold davis, altoona, pa. [illustration: the same distance with the same exposure will always produce uniform prints] mantel picture frames made in plaster procure a small oval or rectangular frame of a suitable size and use it as a pattern in making a mold. if it is not necessary to select an expensive frame, one that is straight without any floral designs is the best to use. ordinary molding made into a frame will do as well, or a pattern, whittled out of wood in oval shape, will produce good results. make a flask out of any small box, and fill it with clay instead of molding sand. make an impression of the frame in the clay, and the mold is ready for the plaster. procure four -oz. bottles, fill them with water, and tint the water in three of them red, green, and blue, with dyes. when purchasing the plaster of paris-- lb. will do--also get some brass filings from a machine shop, and mix it with the plaster while in a dry state; then divide the lot into four parts of / lb. each, or equal parts. use the tinted water to mix the plaster and pour it into the mold. this will give the combinations red, green, blue, and white. picture frames made in this manner will stand enough polishing to keep the brass filings on the surface bright and shining, which gives a pretty effect.--contributed by j. b. murphy, plainfield, n. j. a five-pointed star there are many ways of making a five-pointed star, but the one illustrated is new and easy to apply. a long strip of paper, which should be transparent, is tied into a knot. when the ends a and b are drawn tightly, the paper strip takes the position shown in c. the end a is folded forward, or in front of the knot; then the whole is turned over and it will take the position shown in d. hold the paper to a good light and a perfect five-pointed star will be seen.--contributed by j. j. kolar, maywood, ill. [illustration: holding the knot to the light a star will be seen, shown by the dotted lines] fastening portière pole in a doorway a pole can be fastened between two supports, posts, or in a door casing neatly and without fixtures in the following manner: the pole is cut / in. shorter than the space between the casings, and a / in. hole is drilled in each end, one to a depth of - / in. and the other / in. deep, a coil spring being placed in the deepest hole. screws are turned into the center of the location for the pole in the door jambs, allowing one screw head to project / in., and the other at least / inch. [illustration: no fixtures that will show are required with this fastening of a portière pole] to place the pole in position, put the end with the spring in the hole on the screw head projecting / in. and push the pole against the jamb, allowing the other end to pass over the other projecting screw head until it slips into the hole by pressure from the spring. the spring will keep the pole in position.--contributed by ernest f. dexter, hartford, conn. trick with knives and glasses an interesting trick may be performed with three tumblers and three table knives. place the tumblers in an equilateral triangle on a table so the knife ends, when the knives are laid between them, as shown in the plan sketch, are about in. away from the tumblers. the trick is to arrange the knives so that they are supported by the tops of the three tumblers and nothing else. most observers will say that it is impossible; some will try it and in most cases fail. it can be done, and the illustration shows how simply it may be accomplished.--contributed by r. neland, minneapolis, minn. [illustration: knives placed in such a manner as to be supported by the three glasses] a scraper handle in using the ordinary steel-plate scraper, much inconvenience and cramping of the hands is experienced unless some suitable handle is attached. if a piece of scrap wood is taken and cut to a convenient shape, with a groove tightly fitting the scraper steel, greater pressure can be exerted and more effective work produced, without cramping the hands or tiring out the operator as readily.--contributed by a. p. nevin, hancock, mich. [illustration: an ordinary piece of board shaped for a handle and notched for the scraper blade] photographic tray-rocking stand films develop better if the tray holding the solution is kept in motion or rocked. this is inconvenient and tiresome where a great many films are to be developed. the trouble may be overcome by the use of the rocking device shown in the sketch. it may be made of any light wood, the right size to suit the photographer's needs. [illustration: tray rocked automatically by a weight] the tray holder a is pivoted on the uprights c with pins ee. the uprights are fastened to a base, b. two braces, d, one on each side of the upright c, limits the tip of the tray holder a. the weight f works as a pendulum, which automatically rocks the tray when set in motion.--contributed by abner b. shaw, no. dartmouth, mass. kite-line traveler the amusement of kite flying can be broadened by adding the kite-line traveler shown in the sketch. the frame of the traveler is made of poplar, spruce or soft pine, / in. square. the horizontal piece is in. long and the piece to which the wings are fastened is in. long. this piece is cut so it will have a slight slant. the brace is a mitered piece, in. long. the frame is fastened together with small brads, giving it the appearance shown in fig. . [illustration: traveler details (fig. )] after the frame is finished, the traveler wheels are made and attached. they should be / in. thick, about - / in. in diameter, and have a groove cut / in. into their faces. the pattern for cutting the bearings is shown in fig. . these are bent at the places shown by the dotted lines and attached to the main frame stick as shown by bb in fig. . the end view of the bearing is shown in fig. . the metal is bent in as shown by aa, so that the wheel will rotate without much friction. [illustration: (fig. )] [illustration: (fig. , fig. , fig. )] in fig. is shown the method of attaching the wings to the slanting frame part. the wings are made of light cardboard and each fastened with tacks to a wood arm, cut as shown. the large end of each arm is made to hinge in a piece of tin with brads aa. [illustration: (fig. )] fasten a string to the ends of the arm pieces, as shown in fig. , and attach a wire loop to the middle of the string, as shown in fig. . the wire shown at l in fig. is bent and attached to the main frame so it will slide easily. the trip for dropping the wings, as shown in fig. , is a small block of wood about in. square and / in. thick with a / -in. hole in the center. slip the kite line through the hole before tying it to the kite. place the trip about ft. from the kite and wedge it to the string with a small piece of wood. the eyelets ss are necessary, as they make it impossible for the pulley to run off the string. the traveler is first put on the kite string with the end having the loop l (fig. ) up, then, after letting out ft. of string, the trip block is fastened in place and the kite tied to the end of the string. hook the wire loop on the string attached to the ends of the wings in place in the wire catch of l, and it is ready for the flight. when the traveler reaches the trip, the loop l is pushed back, thus causing the end of the wire to slip out of wire loop and the wings to fall back as shown in fig. , when the traveler descends ready to be set for another flight.--contributed by stanley c. funk, bellefontaine, ohio. a mouse trap [illustration] a simple mouse trap can be made of two lengths of steel wire. the spiral wire is / in. in diameter and the center wire is of larger size. the trap is set by pulling out the spring and catching the ends on the bends a and b. the bait is tied on at c. when the mouse puts his head through the coils and pulls the bait, the springs are released and his head is caught between the coils. how to make a small electric furnace the furnace consists of a large flower pot containing an ordinary clay crucible about in. in height, the space between the two being packed with fireclay. two / -in. holes are bored through the sides of the crucible about half way between the top and the bottom. holes corresponding to these holes are molded in the fireclay, which should extend several inches above the top of the flower pot. a smaller crucible is placed inside of the large one for use in melting such metals as copper, brass and aluminum. with metals that will melt at a low degree of heat, such as tin, lead or zinc, the large crucible can be used alone. each crucible should be provided with a cover to confine the heat and keep out the air. the electrodes are ordinary arc-light carbons. [illustration: electric connections to furnace] the furnace is run on an ordinary -volt lighting circuit and it is necessary to have a rheostat connected in series with it. a water rheostat as shown in the sketch will serve to regulate the current for this furnace. small quantities of brass or aluminum can be melted in about minutes in the furnace.--contributed by leonard stebbins, denver, colo. repairing a broken knife handle a piece was broken from the pearl handle of my knife and i repaired it in the following manner: after cleaning both the edges of the pearl and the brass beneath, i run in enough solder to fill the place of the piece of pearl broken out. the solder was then filed, sandpapered and polished. the broken part cannot be felt and it appears to be only an end decoration.--contributed by w. a. humphrey, columbus, o. [illustration: repairing with solder (fig. , fig. )] picture-frame and triangle clamp a picture frame or triangle is quite difficult to hold together when fitting the corners. it is still more difficult to hold them together while the glue dries. the clamp illustrated will be found quite satisfactory in solving this problem, and at the same time is very simple to construct and easy to manipulate. the material list for making the clamps and corner blocks is as follows: picture frame clamp: pieces, - / by - / by in. pieces, - / by - / by in. triangle clamp: pieces, - / by - / by in. piece, - / by - / by in. corner blocks: pieces, / by - / by - / in. pieces, / by by in. the pieces mentioned are of oak, s- -s. piece / -in. maple for dowels hardware: bolts, / by in. bolts, / by in. bolts, / by in. the picture-frame clamp consists of the four arms a, b, c and d, fig. . a / -in. hole is bored in one end of each piece, / in. from the end. a series of / -in. holes, in. apart, are bored along the center in each piece. the two short pieces, e and f, have two / -in. holes bored in their centers, / in. from each end. these pieces are bolted to the four arms with / -in. bolts as shown in the sketch. a / -in. hole is bored in the middle of each piece e and f for one of the -in. bolts k. [illustration: the corner blocks on both picture frame and triangle clamps are so constructed that they hold the molding together while fitting the corners and also hold them securely while the glue is hardening (fig. )] the four corner blocks g, h, i and j, fig. , have a / -in. hole bored in the center of each and a dowel glued into it with the end projecting - / in. on the under side and level with the surface on the upper side. each of the corner blocks is fitted with two pieces like x, fig. . each of these pieces has one end round or a semicircle, and in its center a / -in. hole is bored. the other end has a / -in. hole bored / in. from the end. [illustration: (fig. , fig. )] after making the small pieces, take the four corner blocks g, h, i and j and draw a line on the upper side in the center, with the grain of the wood, and mark the angles as follows, so that one-half the angle will be on each side of the center line: on one end of the pieces g and h mark a -deg. angle, on the other end a -deg. angle, on the piece i mark a -deg. and -deg. angle and on j mark a -deg. and -deg. angle. mark the number of degrees of each between the sides of the angle. place two of the pieces marked x, fig. , on each of the corner blocks, one piece on each side between the different angle lines, so their round ends will be toward the center and toward each other with a space of / in. between them. clamp the pieces to the corner blocks and bore the / -in. holes through them to secure perfect alinement. put the bolts in and turn the pieces first to one angle and then the other, and while in the respective positions, bore the / -in. holes / in. deep in the corner blocks. glue a dowel in each / -in. hole of the small pieces, allowing it to project / in. on the under side so it will fit in the / -in. hole in the corner block. be sure to countersink the holes for the heads of the bolts. all bolts should be fitted with wing nuts. all that is necessary to change from one angle to another is to loosen the nuts and swing the small pieces around so the dowel pins will drop into the other holes, then tighten the nuts. the triangle clamp is made in the same manner as the picture-frame clamp, except that the arms l and m, figs. and , are half-lapped into the crosspiece p. the bolt o is / in. and the head is cut off. drill a / -in. hole in the bolt, / in. from the end, and bore a / -in. hole in the end of the arm n. insert the headless bolt o in this hole and drive a nail through the side of the arm n, so it will pass through the hole drilled in the bolt. this keys the bolt in the end of the arm n. to clamp a picture frame, set the corner blocks g, h, i and j to the -deg. angles and adjust them on the arms a, b, c and d to accommodate the size frame to be made, as shown in fig. . tighten the thumbnut on the bolt k, and this will draw all four corners together with the same pressure. the corners can then be examined to see if they fit properly. if they do not, saw in the joints with a backsaw until they do fit. the triangles are clamped in the same way. the corner blocks are set to take the proper angles. the ends of the bolts should be slightly burred over so that the thumbnuts cannot be turned off.--contributed by chas. a. pettit, baltimore, md. exterior sliding fly screen the method shown for fitting fly screens on the outside of the upper and lower sash permits the screen to be raised and held at different heights. screweyes are turned into the outer strips, as shown in fig. . the sides of the screen frame are grooved, fig. , to allow it to slide up and down on the screweyes. [illustration: the heads of the screweyes in the window-frame stop slide in a groove cut in the screen frame (fig. , fig. , fig. )] the screen can be raised and two of the screweyes turned from the normal vertical position, a, fig. , to a horizontal position, b, to hold the frame at that point. by the use of a greater number of screweyes more places can be provided to support the screen at different heights.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. bushing a stovepipe in a chimney hole when a stovepipe is too small for the hole in the chimney, a bushing can be made of the kind of metal tobacco boxes that are curved to fit in a pocket. remove the tops and bottoms of the boxes and shove them in around the pipe. if such tobacco boxes are not at hand, tin cans of any kind can be used by melting off the tops and bottoms and bending the remaining cylindrical shells into proper shape.--contributed by elmer mcconaughy, dayton, o. a screweye driver [illustration] an ordinary wire nail, in. long, bent as shown and with its head filed square, makes a good tool for turning in screweyes. the square head is readily held in the chuck on most braces. the screweye can be turned in with greater speed than by the ordinary method.--contributed by robert t. johnston, buffalo, new york. copying stand for photographic enlarging and reducing a camera stand or table, which can be put to many uses, is easily made and, when made, will be of particular service, says work, london, for enlarging, reducing, copying, and, with a slight modification, for making lantern slides by reduction. copying with a camera on a tripod is always a more or less complicated job, because of the ease with which a picture, being focused, may be thrown out of focus, and even out of the field of view, the camera not being attached to the same support as the picture. with the stand shown in the illustration, the picture is attached to the same support as the camera. this makes it possible to place the apparatus on a table, out in the open, or in any other suitable position, where the light may be best for the work. when used for enlarging with artificial light it will also be found convenient, as it may be placed in any position in a darkened room. [illustration: camera stand for use in copying and enlarging, as well as for making lantern slides (fig. )] the size of the stand will depend on the sizes of pictures to be made, but it is better to have it too large than too small, as a small camera can be used on a large stand while a small stand would be of only limited use. the general appearance of the stand is shown in fig. . the material list is as follows: sides, / in. by - / in. by ft., s- -s. crosspieces, / in. by in. by ft. in., s- -s. guides, / in. by - / in. by ft. in., s- -s. bottom pieces, in. by in. by ft. in., s- -s. easel, / in. by ft. in. by ft., s- -s. cleats, / in. by - / in. by ft. in., s- -s. straight-grained soft pine or poplar is the best material to use. the side pieces should be narrowed at one end or to a point about halfway of their length. the extent of this narrowing will depend somewhat on circumstances. the guide pieces are then attached with screws, the two upper pieces so that they have their upper edges flush with the edges of the side boards. [illustration: (fig. , fig. )] the bottom piece, on which the camera is to be set, is made of the two pieces, cut as shown in fig. , and joined with cleats, as in fig. . the space left after part of one side of each board has been cut away, should be sufficient to make a slot which, when the boards are joined together, will admit the screw to hold the camera in place. a rod is run through holes bored in the sides, just below the two pairs of guides, and fitted with a wing nut for clamping the sliding bottom when a focus and the size of the picture is found. in copying, the camera is attached to the bottom board and the picture is tacked to the easel. the camera is then focused roughly by means of the rack and pinion, the final, fine focusing being done by moving the sliding bottom board. for enlarging, the lantern is placed on the sliding bottom and the bromide paper tacked to the easel. [illustration: (fig. )] for lantern-slide work, which is reducing, it is necessary to cut an aperture in the easel, after the manner shown in fig. . the edges of the opening have a rabbet to receive first a ground glass and then the negative, both being held in place with turn buttons. it is not necessary to have two easels, as this opening can be fitted with a piece to make a level surface when the apparatus is used for copying or enlarging. to make whitewash stick to surfaces coated in using whitewash much difficulty is experienced in making it stick to the substance covered. a good way to prevent the coating from cracking and peeling off is to add oz. of pure sodium chloride to every gal. of whitewash mixture. this is not expensive, but should be secured at a drug store because some salts of sodium are not pure and will darken the whitewash. the sodium chloride should be added after the whitewash solution is made up. when this mixture is used in buildings it will destroy all vermin which it touches. a mechanical camera [illustration] the young person who likes to draw will find the device illustrated of great assistance for outlining a portrait or a bit of scenery which can be filled in to make the picture. the camera consists of a box without a cover, about in. long, in. wide and in. deep. an oblong hole is cut in one end, a small hole bored in the other, and a piece cut out of the lower edge so that one eye can be placed close to the hole. the oblong hole, shown by the dotted lines, is covered with a fine perforated cardboard, the kind used for working in mottoes with yarn. supports are nailed in the corners of the box, their length being calculated to allow the operator to sit or stand, as desired. [illustration: outlining a portrait on the perforated paper placed over the oblong hole in the camera] the camera is used in the manner illustrated. if a portrait is to be drawn, then the one sitting for it must be quiet until the outlines are completed. the operator, looking through the hole, traces the lines on the cardboard between the perforations. when the outlines are drawn in this manner, the cardboard is removed and placed on the paper or cardboard used for the picture. the outline is then transferred by marking with a sharp-pointed pencil through the perforations on the outlines as drawn. after separating the two pieces, the markings can be connected with a continuous line and an exact outline will be obtained which can be filled in as desired. the outline picture is a sample of work done with the camera.--contributed by florence thomas, gordon, ont. gauge attachment for a pocket rule [illustration] the base of the gauge a is cut from a block of hard wood, about - / in. long, in. wide and / in. thick. a notch is cut in one side to admit the rule and the wedge b, which has a slot that slides on a pin in the base. a small metal clip keeps the wedge in place. the gauge can be readily set on the rule at any mark. plate hangers in hanging old china plates for decorative purposes use three large white dress hooks, placed at equal distances apart on the edge of the plate. the hanging wire or cord is run through them from the back side and drawn up tightly. these hooks are much better than the ordinary plate hanger, as they are small and will not show much on the plate. an electrically operated camera shutter [illustration: the electromagnet trips a spring plunger that forces a piston on the camera air bulb] it is often quite desirable to operate the shutter of a camera from a distance, especially in photographing birds and animals. the device shown in the accompanying sketch serves the above purpose very nicely, and its construction and operation are exceedingly simple. in brief, the operation is as follows: the switch a is mounted on the limb of a tree, in such a manner that it is not conspicuous, and connected in series with a magnet, b, and a battery by means of a piece of flexible conductor, such as lamp cord. the magnet b is energized when the switch is closed and attracts the iron armature c, which is mounted on an arm, pivoted at d. the lower end of this arm is in the form of a latch, which supports the rod e when it is raised to its upper position. the rod e when it is raised compresses the coiled spring f, which is held between the gauge g and the washer h mounted on the rod. a small coil spring holds the armature c away from the core of the magnet b. the lower end of the rod e is in the form of a piston operating in a wooden cylinder j. the rubber bulb at the end of the tube leading to the camera shutter is located in the lower end of the cylinder j. when the rod e is released by the latch k, it moves downward in the cylinder j, due to the action of the spring f, and compresses the bulb l, causing the shutter of the camera to be operated. a small handle, m, may be mounted on the rod to be used in raising it to the upper position. the component parts of this device may be mounted on a small wooden base by means of brass straps, and the terminals of the electric circuit connected to the binding posts n and o, as shown. the switch a may be dispensed with and a push button used in its place, as the operator may station himself several hundred feet away. it may be necessary to use a battery of more than one cell in such cases. electroplating without a tank electroplating without a plating tank is made possible with the following easily homemade apparatus described in a german scientific magazine. it consists of a rubber ball, a, fitted at one end with a glass tube, b, which carries at the opposite end a small sponge. a rod, d, passes through the rubber ball, which is tightly corked at both ends, into the glass tube b and carries at that end the anode e. a small glass tube, f, also connects the rubber ball with the larger tube b. the connections from the battery to the cathode, g, the object to be plated, and to the projecting end of the anode-carrying rod, d, are made as shown. the rubber ball is filled with the electrolyte, and is squeezed so as to force the fluid through the small tube f, into the larger tube, b, filling it and soaking the sponge c. the current is then turned on, and by moving the wet sponge over the cathode g, the latter will be plated. not only is this an interesting accessory for the amateur's laboratory, but it can be used in the industry where only parts of some object are to be plated, and where it is desired to remedy bad spots without putting the articles back into the bath. [illustration: a hand tool for applying a plate electrically to the surface of metal] a milk-bottle tray bottled milk is difficult to deliver without knocking the bottles together when carrying them or while in a wagon. there are several kinds of wire baskets for carrying the bottles, but they all have the disadvantage of allowing the bottles to strike one another. a carrier not having this fault can be made very cheaply as follows: procure a board in. thick, in. wide and ft. long, plane and make it smooth, and use ordinary tin fruit or vegetable cans for the bottle holders. cut each can off - / in. from the bottom and smooth off the jagged edges with a file. nail these in two rows on the board, starting in. from each end. attach a segment of a barrel hoop for a handle. the carrier can be painted as desired.--contributed by g. h. clemmons, storm lake, iowa. [illustration: parts of tin cans fastened to a board for holding milk bottles] a springboard select straight-grained hickory or ash for the springboards. these can be of any width to make up the board to in. wide. the frame part may be of any material of the dimensions given in the sketch. the butt ends of the springboard should be well fastened to the crosspiece with screws, or, better still, small carriage bolts with the nuts on the under side. [illustration: a springboard for use in connection with a vaulting pole or for turning acts] the crosspiece at the rear is cut on the angle of the springboard. the front crosspiece is mortised into the frame, and the one near the center is laid on top of the two side rails. the rear crosspiece is either fastened with large dowels or mortised into the sidepieces. this springboard will be of use in connection with a back-yard gymnasium for vaulting and doing turning acts. planing rough-grain boards the surface of a board having a grain that runs both ways is very hard to smooth with a plane. by sharpening the plane iron to a keen edge, then placing it in the plane with the cap reversed and set about / in. from the cutting edge, i find that with a light cut the plane will smooth regardless of the direction of the grain.--contributed by william rollins, wichita, kansas. braces for aeroplane frames in making model aeroplanes or gliders the brace shown will serve the purpose admirably. the size and strength of the metal used will depend on where it is to be used. the metal is bent into the shape shown with the use of a vise. the manner of attaching the braces is clearly shown.--contributed by francis chetlain, chicago. [illustration: the braces are cut from stake iron or sheet metal according to the size machine being built] a puzzle purse the puzzle purse is made of four pieces of chamois, two of the pieces being merely flaps, one on each side at the upper edge. one of the pieces forming one side of the purse extends upward for about twice the height of the purse part. the part above the purse has a number of slits cut in it to make the width of each strip / in. these slits should be accurately cut in order that the purse may be opened easily. the other half is only the size of the purse proper. the upper edge of the latter piece and the flap on that side are stitched together to the flap on the opposite side, the threads of the stitches running between the strips of the long piece. these stitches are made on the line ab and around the edge. [illustration: the strips of leather sliding through the stitches make the puzzle part of the purse] to open the purse, take hold of each side on the purse part and draw the pieces apart. in doing so, the strips are drawn through the stitches so that they may be separated and a coin taken from the purse. a pull on each end will close the purse.--contributed by chas. motton, toronto, ont. an emergency sandpapering machine while doing some work i had several small pieces to be finished with sandpaper. they were so small and of such a shape that it was impossible to do the work by hand. not having a sanding machine, i used a disk talking machine for the purpose. i placed a sheet of sandpaper over the disk and fastened it to the felt at the corners with pins. the machine was then set going at its highest rate of speed, and the articles were smoothed by holding them on the disk.--contributed by fred s. barnard, los angeles, cal. a developing machine the base of the developing machine consists of a wood tray with sloping ends and high sides, which is placed at the center and provides bearings for the wheel axle. the dimensions given in the sketch are for making a machine to develop a film about in. long. the disk, or wheel, is cut from a board, / in. thick, and the attached crosspieces are cut from / in. dowels to make them - / in. long. these are placed about in. apart on the circumference of the disk. an axle, fastened solidly in the wheel and adjusted in the bearings, is kept from slipping sideways by bushings made of a spool. a crank is attached to one end of the axle. hot paraffin is applied to the inside of the tank part, to make it liquid-tight. two pins or hooks are attached to one of the crosspieces to catch into the film end. if the wheel is the correct size, the same pins can be used for fastening the other end of the film. [illustration: the entire length of film is placed on the wheel where it is run through the developer] the film is first attached to the wheel; then, while turning slowly, the developer is poured into the tray. keep on turning the wheel until full development is obtained, then pour out the liquid and turn in fresh, clear water, and turn the wheel to wash out the developer. remove the film and place it in the hypo bath.--contributed by raymond m. bealer, baltimore, md. a stove-wood carrier a handy wood carrier, for bringing wood and kindling from the basement or yard to the wood box in the house, may be made from a grain sack, as shown in the sketch. use a complete sack and make rope handles at each end. when used, place only sufficient wood or kindling in it to permit the handles to come together over the top of the load. this will make a comfortable grip and it is no harder to carry than a medium-weight suitcase. when the wood is removed the carrier can be taken to the back yard and shaken out, thus doing away with the dirt that usually results from other methods of filling wood boxes.--contributed by walter nelson kidston, seattle, wash. [illustration: the ropes at the ends of the sack make a handle to carry it like a grip] a pencil sharpener a pencil sharpened with the device shown will have a better point and one that will not break easily while being sharpened. the lower arm a is made from a strip of sheet steel, / in. thick. an extension, / in. wide, is cut and bent in a circle to form the lower finger hold. the upper arm b forms the cutter, which is made from a piece of hacksaw blade. the teeth are ground off and the temper is drawn from the extension that forms the upper circle. a portion of the arm a is bent over, as shown at c, to form a support for the pencil point to rest upon. a hole, large enough for a pencil to turn in, is bored through a stick of hardwood, d, and tapered so that the center of the hole meets the inner edge of c. it is fastened to the lower arm with screws. a sharp cutting edge is ground on the blade which is then attached to the arm a with a rivet loosely enough to swing freely.--contributed by j. v. loeffler, evansville, ind. [illustration: a pencil sharpener that will make a point without breaking the lead] cleaning an oilstone use kerosene oil and a sprinkling of emery flour and proceed to sharpen tools. it is not necessary to clean a stone thus treated before placing the tool on it, as the emery and kerosene will make a good surface on the stone as well as assisting in producing a sharp edge on the tool.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. landing for small boats not having a landing for my small boat, i made a series of sectional platforms, rising ft. above the bottom, which served the purpose well and were inexpensive. each section is about ft. long, ft. wide, and ft. high. the frame is made of material in. thick and in. wide, and on top is a floor made of boards, while the bottom consists of by -in. crosspieces, nailed on in. apart. stones are laid on these crosspieces to moor it down in place. the whole landing is simple to make and it lasts a long time, as the sections can be drawn out and stored during the winter.--contributed by henry briggs, lexington, massachusetts. [illustration: the series of platforms make a good small-boat landing on a slanting beach] bearings for model work for experimental work i use hangers or bearings made of sheet brass or copper, bent at right angles for strength and capped with a box. the main part of the bearing a is shaped as shown, and the box b consists of a small piece cut from a brass rod and drilled for the size of the shaft. the box is soldered to the top end of a and the base c to the bottom end. when a large metal base is used for a certain model, the part a is attached directly to that base and the part c need not be used. [illustration: sheet-copper support with a base and a shaft bearing soldered to the ends] the bearings can be made in different heights, each of which will demand a corresponding size and thickness of the parts. sheet brass or copper, / in. thick, is about right for a bearing in. high.--contributed by w. e. day, pittsfield, mass. holding the tongue of a shoe in place the tongue in a shoe will often slip down or over to one side or the other and expose the hose. to overcome this and have the tongue fit snugly in the right place, fasten a common lace clasp or hook near the top of the tongue, as shown in the illustration, so that in lacing the shoe the laces are passed under the hook to hold the tongue in place. [illustration: the hook on the tongue of the shoe and manner of lacing to hold the tongue] a photo vignetter procure a piece of heavy wire, one that is fairly stiff, says camera craft, and a pair of pliers and bend the wire with the pliers as shown in the illustration. after the loop is made to fit around the lens barrel the wire is bent at right angles at a point in. below the circle. at a distance of in. on the extending part of the wire it is bent as shown to form a clip for holding a sheet of cardboard. [illustration: the arm for holding the vignette cardboard is made of a heavy piece of wire] the cardboard should be about in. wide and of dark color, with one edge cut semicircular and notched. the size of the wire and the other measurements will depend upon the size and focal length of the lens. if a heavy vignetting card is required, it may be necessary to make the portion that encircles the lens double in length, bending it back upon itself to secure a firmer hold. this is a cheap and efficient vignetter that anyone can make in a few moments of spare time. pocket for the inside of a book cover students or anyone wishing to retain notes on a subject will find it quite handy to have a large envelope pasted in the back of each textbook. instead of having notes all through the book, they can be arranged in order and slipped into the envelope. if the book is accidentally dropped, the notes will not be lost.--contributed by harold mynning, chicago, ill. cleaning steel of grease and stains grease and stains can be easily removed from steel with a mixture of unslaked lime and chalk powder, by rubbing it on the steel with a dry cloth. the best proportion for the mixture, which is easily prepared, is part of lime to part of chalk powder. the powder should be used dry. it is kept in cans for future use and can be used over and over again.--contributed by loren ward, des moines, iowa. an electrically ignited flash light for making photographs the results obtained in a great many cases in trying to take pictures by flash-light are exceedingly unsatisfactory, as the expression on the faces of the people in the picture usually is strained or unnatural, due to the suspense in waiting for the flash. the following simple device avoids this difficulty because the flash is set off by means of electricity, so that the operator can control the flash from a distant point and thus be able to take the picture quite unawares to his subjects. the construction of the device is as follows: obtain a piece of rather heavy sheet iron, about in. wide and in. long. bend this piece of iron into the form shown in the sketch, and fasten a wooden handle to it with a wood screw. obtain a sheet of / -in. sheet asbestos, the same size as the piece of sheet iron, and glue it to the inside surface of the curved piece of iron. it is best to fasten the four corners down by means of some small rivets with rather large washers under the heads next to the asbestos. now mount two pieces of sheet copper, / in. wide and in. long, parallel with each other on the surface of the asbestos and - / in. apart, so that their ends are even with the end of the piece of asbestos. these pieces of copper should be insulated from the piece of sheet iron, and there should be a small screw in one end of each and a small binding post mounted on the other end. [illustration: the asbestos-lined tray and the wiring connections for attaching to the electric-light wires] procure a piece of lamp cord, or ft. in length. fasten an ordinary plug to one end of this cord and the other end to the two binding posts. open one of the conductors in the cord at some point and introduce a single-pole switch, as shown in the sketch. close the gap between the two pieces of copper by means of a piece of no. gauge copper wire. place the flash-light powder in position, but do not cover up the wire or have it in actual contact with the powder, and close the circuit. the operator may include himself in the picture by having a sufficiently long piece of lamp cord and the switch properly arranged. a simple twine-ball holder [illustration] in looking for a place to put a twine ball i happened to see a tin funnel and it gave me the idea which i put into practice. i punched three holes at equal distances apart in its upper edge and attached three strings which were run to an apex and tied to a screweye in the ceiling. the end of the twine from the center of the ball was run through the funnel stem and allowed to hang as in an ordinary ball holder.--contributed by w. c. loy, rochester, ind. * * * * * a filler for birch, red gum and beech can be made of lb. of bleached shellac to each gallon of water. a toy popgun a toy popgun can be easily made of two blocks of hard wood, / in. thick; a joint of bamboo, about / in. in diameter and in. long; a small hinge, a piece of spring steel, / in. wide and in. long, and a piece of soft wood for the plunger. the plunger a is cut to fit snugly, yet so it will move easily in the piece of bamboo b. one of the blocks of hard wood, c, is bored to fit one end of the bamboo, the other block has a / -in. hole bored, to center the hole in the first block. the two blocks are hinged and the spring latch attached as shown in the sketch. the spring has a hole drilled so it can be fastened with a screw to the outer block, and a slot cut in the other end to slip over a staple driven into the block c. [illustration: detail of popgun, showing the parts assembled and position of the paper] a piece of paper, d, is placed in between the blocks while the plunger a is out at the end of the bamboo. a quick pressure on the plunger a will cause the paper d to break out through the small opening with a loud pop.--contributed by paul h. burkhart, blue island, ill. a non-rolling thread spool [illustration] a spool of thread may be kept from rolling by gluing squares of cardboard to the ends. the squares should be a little larger than the spool. this will save many a step and much bending over to pick up the spool. the spool, when it falls, will stop where it landed.--contributed by katharine d. morse, syracuse, n. y. shoe-shining stand to anyone who finds it tiresome to shine his shoes while putting the foot on the rim of a bathtub, on a cook-stove or chair with a newspaper on it, the stand here described will afford relief and at the same time he will always have the shining outfit ready for use. [illustration: dimensioned parts and completed stand which has a box to hold the shining outfit] the whole is of pine, the foot rest being made of a piece by in.; the legs, of by in., and the bottom of the box, of / by - / in. all other dimensions are given in the sketch. after the legs are attached and the bottom of the box in place, the sides are fitted and fastened with nails.--contributed by samuel hughs, berkeley, cal. cutter made of a wafer razor blade a useful instrument for seamstresses and makers of paper patterns and stencils can be made of a piece of steel or iron and a wafer razor blade. the end of the metal is flattened and two holes drilled to match the holes of the razor blade. small screw bolts are used to attach the blade to the handle. place a cork on one edge as a protection for the hand of the user.--contributed by maurice baudier, new orleans, la. [illustration: the wafer blade attached to the handle, the top edge being protected with a cork] [illustration] to hold a negative in a printing frame when printing postal cards and working fast, it always bothered me to hold the negative in the printing frame while removing the card. to overcome this trouble i decided to contrive some arrangement to hold the negative in the frame when the back was removed. the device i made consists of a thin, flat spring, about / in. wide and as long as the width of the frame opening. two lugs are formed and soldered to the ends, as shown in fig. , for holding the plate, and a central lug is soldered on to provide a means of fastening the spring in position. a groove, about / in. deep, was cut in the opposite end of the frame to receive one end of the negative. [illustration: the spring with its clips and manner of holding a negative in a printing frame (fig. , fig. )] in use, slide the plate into the frame and into the lugs on the spring, and push the spring upward until the plate can be slipped into the slot at the opposite end of the frame. the pressure of the spring, as shown in fig. , will hold the plate securely. the frame can be handled quite roughly and as fast as desired without any danger of the plate falling out.--contributed by thos. l. parker, wibaux, montana. * * * * * a number of bright tin disks tied to the limbs of a fruit tree will prove an efficient means of driving away infesting birds. how to make an electrolytic interrupter [illustration] obtain a glass jar or wide-mouth bottle about one-quart size. an ordinary round bottle will serve very nicely by having the top cut off, thus forming a glass jar. make a top for the jar from a piece of / -in. pine similar to the one shown in the illustration. the lower portion extends down inside the jar and serves to hold the top in place. cut a slot in this top, / in. wide and in. long. this slot should be cut at right angles to a diameter of the top and extend in. on either side of the diameter. it should be about / in. from the center of the top. directly opposite the center of the slot drill a / -in hole, / in. from the center of the top. drill a / -in. hole in the center of the top to give ventilation to the jar. boil the completed top in paraffin for a few minutes. obtain a piece of / -in. sheet lead, in. wide and about / in. longer than the depth of the jar. mount a small binding post on one end of this piece of lead and then support it in the slot in the wooden top by means of two metal pins. the lower end of the piece of lead should be at least / in. from the bottom of the jar. next get a piece of / -in. glass tube and fuse a piece of platinum wire into one end. make sure the inside end of the platinum wire is not covered with the glass, and that the outside end protrudes a short distance beyond the end of the glass tube. now bend about / in. of the end of the glass tube which has the platinum in it over at right angles to the remainder of the tube. the tube should then be placed in the opening on the wooden top provided for it and a rubber band placed around it to prevent it dropping through the opening. the lower end of the tube should be a little higher than the lower end of the sheet of lead. a small quantity of mercury should be placed in the tube and a bare copper wire run down inside. the mercury affords a connection between the piece of platinum in the end of the tube and the copper wire. connect the outside end of the copper wire under a binding post and the interrupter is complete with the exception of the solution. the solution for the interrupter is dilute sulphuric acid made by mixing about four parts of water and one part of acid. in preparing this mixture, be sure to pour the acid into the water, not the water into the acid. the jar should be about two-thirds filled. at least volts will be required for the satisfactory operation of the interrupter. the distance between the platinum point and the lead sheet may be adjusted by simply turning the glass tube. no condenser will be required in operating an inductor coil with an interrupter of this kind. the make-and-break interrupter, if there is one in circuit, should of course be made inoperative by screwing up the contact point against the spring. a homemade hand drill press the little use i had for a drill press did not make it advisable to purchase one, so i constructed a device for drilling iron and brass which answered all purposes. a broken carpenter's brace furnished the chuck, which was fastened to a / -in. shaft having a detachable crank. the shaft turns in a brass tube which is fitted tightly in a hole bored in the upright. the sliding part or table is forced up against the drill with a / -in. machine bolt. the bolt turns in a square nut fastened in the opposite post. the end of the screw bears on a plate fastened on the under side of the table to prevent wear. a crank could be attached to this bolt so that it may be turned more easily. [illustration: a very inexpensive drill press frame which answers the purpose admirably] the sliding or table part is made of a post similar to the end posts, but with guides attached so as to keep it in place. the holes for the chuck shaft and bolt should be bored on a line and exactly in the center of the posts.--contributed by l. r. kelley, philadelphia, pa. a hose nozzle the nozzle shown in the accompanying sketch was made from an empty tobacco can having an oval shape. i cut the can in two near the center and punched small holes in the bottom. i then cut a piece of / -in. board to fit tightly in the end of the can and turned the edges of the tin down to hold it in place. a hole was bored in the center of the wood and a / -in. hose coupling fitted in it. the water will swell the wood enough to make an absolutely watertight joint, but by using a little care in fitting it, the joint will be watertight without the swelling. [illustration: the oval form of the box makes it possible to sprinkle close up to walks] the holes being punched in straight lines, the nozzle throws a rectangular section of fine streams, which makes it possible to sprinkle close up to walks without wetting them. the friction is much less than in the ordinary hose nozzle, and consequently this nozzle delivers more water and also materially reduces the strain on the hose.--contributed by j. b. downer, seattle, washington. an electric water heater a simple electric water heater may be made as follows: procure two sheets of copper, each by in., and place pieces of wood or other insulating material at the corners to keep them about / in. apart. bind them with cords, or, if the wood pieces are large enough, use screws so that there will be no contact between the plates. attach wires to the plates with solder as shown, and make connections to a plug. pour water in an earthenware jar, place the plates in it and turn the plug in a lamp socket. do not use a metal vessel.--contributed by g. henry jones, sylacauga, ala. [illustration: an inexpensive electric water heater made of two copper plates] frosting glass procure a piece of flat iron similar to an iron hoop, bend it, as shown in the sketch, to make a piece in. long and - / in. wide and file one edge smooth. sprinkle some fine lake sand over the glass, dampen the sand and rub the smooth edge of the iron band over the glass. it requires only a short time of rubbing to produce a beautiful frosted surface on the glass.--contributed by m. e. duggan, kenosha, wis. [illustration: the filed edge on the coiled metal retains the sand particles as it is rubbed over the glass surface] long handle for a dustpan [illustration] the dustpan is a rather unhandy utensil to use, especially for stout persons. one porter overcame this difficulty by attaching a long handle to the pan as shown in the illustration. the handle was taken from a discarded broom and a yoke of heavy wire was attached to it, the ends being bent to enter holes punched in the upturned edge of the pan. a stout cord, fastened to the handle and tied into the ring of the dustpan handle, keeps the pan from turning backward, and it is thus possible to push it or carry it with the long handle. to fasten chair legs chair legs often become loose when chairs are handled roughly, so that the glue is broken up. a small device made from a piece of pointed metal, a, which is securely fastened to the end of the chair leg by means of a screw, will hold the legs more firmly than wire or glue. when the leg is driven into the hole, the points are pushed into the wood b as the metal flattens. [illustration: the metal on the end of the leg fastens it solidly in place] disk-throwing pistol a pistol for throwing small disks of paper or metal balls, can be easily made at almost no expense as shown in the sketch. two pieces of board, one of which is shaped to the form of a pistol, are hinged together and a fairly strong spiral spring is fastened at the front end of the movable piece and the middle of the other. a slot is sawed in the movable piece to hold the disk, or a small round depression may be formed in it to receive a bean, pea, or shot. the movable arm is folded back and held in position by means of a stirrup of wire fastened on the other part. when the movable part is disengaged by pulling the stirrup away with the finger, the disk will be thrown with considerable force, depending on the strength of the spring. [illustration: disks of paper or metal as well as shot may be thrown with this pistol] displaying dye colors a certain druggist utilized old electric bulbs for displaying dye colors. water was colored with a dye and the end of a bulb dipped into the liquid. then the tip end was broken off, and the bulb being a vacuum, the colored water was drawn into it, and filled the globe. the point was then sealed with paraffin. [illustration: globes filled with colored water, representing the different colors of dyes carried in stock] a ring-shaped piece, in. in diameter and - / in. wide, was cut from a piece of board, and -in. holes bored, - / in. apart, in one-half of the ring, the globes holding the colored water were set in these holes and a light with a round shade placed in the center. it proved to be an attractive display and a good method of showing the colors.--contributed by maurice baudier, new orleans, la. a homemade bench vise a serviceable and inexpensive bench vise can be made in the following manner: procure a piece of hard wood, in. thick, and shape it into an eccentric with an extending handle, as shown at a. the jaws b are made of material in. thick, and the drawbar c is a by -in. piece of hickory. the outer end of the bar is slotted to receive the eccentric handle, through which a bolt, d, passes to form a bearing. holes are bored into the opposite end of the bar, in. apart, into which a peg is inserted to come against the back side of the rear jaw. this provides an adjustment for a range of various thicknesses of material. another bar is located at the bottom of the jaws to provide a means of keeping the jaws parallel. this bar is made in a similar manner to the bar c. the rear jaw can be fastened to the side of a bench, post, or any support that may be handy.--contributed by wm. s. thompson, columbia, tenn. [illustration: a vise that can be quickly constructed where no bench vise is at hand] [illustration] timing photo printing having hundreds of postals of a single subject to print, i made a perfect timing apparatus for exposing the prints from an old metronome and an old gong magnet. a disk, b, in. in diameter, was made of heavy tin with two apertures, c c, each cut in. in diameter, on a line with the center of the disk, and in. from the edge. a large spool, f, was used to serve as a hub and also as a reel on which strong twine was wound, with a weight, e, attached to the free end. [illustration: details of timing apparatus] the disk was bolted to the partition p of the darkroom, the partition having a hole, g, to coincide with the holes in the disk as it revolved. four catch pins were fastened on the rim of the disk to engage a catch pin on the armature of the magnet. the gong and commutator were removed and the magnet placed in the position shown in the sketch. a strip of wood was fastened across the face of the metronome h, about in. above the pendulum shaft or axle. on the inside of the center of the strip a small piece of wood was projected, with copper wire on one side only, to form a contact with a piece of flexible copper on the pendulum. wiring was made as shown in the sketch and a switch used to stop the disk from revolving. an ordinary postal-card printing frame, d, with a hinged back was used and placed on the shelf a, as shown. a hinge was made from heavy elastic bands to allow for two dozen cards in the frame at one time. as each card was printed it was taken out and dropped into the developer. the reel and metronome should be wound up after printing two dozen cards. the stops can be varied for any length of time by regulating the weight on the metronome. the disk and all woodwork must be painted a dull black. the circuit is completed on the return stroke of the pendulum, causing the magnet to attract the armature, which releases the catch, allowing a quarter turn of the disk.--contributed by frank w. preston, paterson, n. j. pail hook for a pitcher pump [illustration] when pumping water from the ordinary pitcher pump, the bucket must either be held to the spout or placed on the ground. the accompanying sketch shows how i arranged a hook, fastened over the collar of the pump, to take the bail of the bucket. the hook is made of / -in. round iron.--contributed by laurence b. robbins, harwich, mass. shade roller attached to upper window sash free circulation of air cannot be obtained through a window when the shade is attached to the window casing, as it partly fills the opening caused by lowering the upper sash. if the shade roller is attached to the top of the upper sash, the shade can perform its function without obstructing the opening when the sash is lowered. it only requires a shorter roller and a narrower shade. the roller brackets are attached in the usual manner, but, in order to have the shade hang vertically, a block, as wide as the lower sash frame, must be fastened under each bracket. [illustration: when the upper sash is lowered the shade is out of the way of the opening] this arrangement also makes it much easier to put up a curtain, as the sash can be let down until the roller can be reached while standing on a chair.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. flashing hook [illustration] having occasion to do a large amount of counter-flashing in a new wall where the mortar was soft and the joint too large to use an ordinary nail or the regular flashing hook, i made hooks from no. gauge galvanized iron, having hooks of extra size and strength, as shown in the sketch. the size of the hook is - / by - / in. on each side edge, - / in. from one end, i cut teeth, a a, and clipped the corners of the opposite end at an angle. the end at b was turned down at right angles and the points a a bent in the opposite direction. i placed the counter-flashing in the usual manner, with the projection b hanging down and the pointed end of the hook in the joint, and drove or pushed it in tightly. the points a a will catch on the under side of the brick and hold solidly.--contributed by ralph m. chatham, orleans, indiana. a homemade dibble a dibble made of a round and sharp-pointed stick is the usual tool for making holes when setting tomato and other plants. i found by experience that a dibble made of a flat board would work much better and leave a cleaner hole if worked into the earth with a horizontal swinging motion. the hole produced is just right for the plant. the illustration shows its construction. [illustration: a dibble used for making holes in the soil to transplant tomato and other plants] liquid court-plaster a good liquid preparation for cuts and bruises that forms a covering like liquid court-plaster is made by mixing / oz. of flexible collodion with / oz. of ether. when this solution is applied to cuts it will not wash off. as the ether evaporates, add more to keep the mixture liquid. a substitute for candles one evening our electric light was cut off by a storm, and having no gas, candles, or oil lamps, a very good light was made in the following manner: a tablespoonful of lard was melted and poured in the top of a baking-powder can, and four strands of ordinary white wrapping twine were put into it, allowing one end to stand up for about / in. above the edge of the can. the end was lighted the same as a candle.--contributed by b. e. cole, eureka, california. a poultry coop [illustration] a barrel makes a good protection for a hen with a brood of chicks, if it is arranged as shown in the sketch. procure a good barrel with a bottom and cut off each alternate stave at both ends close up to the first hoop. the lower openings thus formed make entrances for the chickens and the upper ones admit air and light.--contributed by wm. r. konnan, neillsville, wis. preventing mildew on canvas to prevent mildew on canvas, soak it in bluestone water, or if the mildew is already present, coat the parts well with ordinary soap and rub on powdered chalk, or whiting. a solution of corrosive sublimate, well weakened with water, will also prevent mildew, but owing to its poisonous nature it is best to use the former method.--contributed by a. ashmund kelly, malvern, pa. * * * * * when the steel point of a compass is lost, a phonograph needle makes a good substitute. holder for books in a case very often it is found, after arranging the books in a case, that the rows are not complete and the books at the end are continually sliding down on the shelf. the sketch shows a very useful type of wire bracket to support the last book. [illustration: the shape of the wire makes it easily applicable to any open bookshelf] a brass wire, in. long and about / in. in diameter, is bent, with the use of a vise or pliers, to the shape and dimensions shown at a. when the wire is placed on the bookshelf, as shown at b, it prevents the end book from falling. its location can be changed as books are added to the shelf.--contributed by john y. dunlop, craighead, scotland. laying out a dovetail joint [illustration] with dividers and compass lay off the width of the board into twice as many parts as the dovetails wanted. draw a light line, ab, across the board as far from the end as half the thickness of the board. on this line step off the divisions with the dividers, beginning with a half space or division. with the bevel square, set to a bevel of in. in , draw lines through the division dots. this method will save much time and give accurate results.--contributed by joseph f. parks, wichita, kan. oiling bright parts of machinery it is my duty to go over the bright parts on the machinery in my father's shop and give them a coat of oil late in the afternoon to prevent any rust accumulating over night. as the work took considerable time from my playing i thought of a plan that not only reduced the amount of work but applied the grease much better than with a brush or rag. i procured a sprayer, as shown in the sketch, and sprayed the oil on the bright parts.--contributed by waller kaufman, santa ana, california. [illustration: a sprayer filled with oil makes a good device for coating the bright parts of machinery] window ventilator to prevent drafts the ventilator consists of a piece of wood, about in. wide, in. thick and as long as the window is wide. holes, - / in. in diameter, are bored at regular intervals into one edge and these are connected with openings from one side as shown. the piece is set under the lower sash with the long openings toward the outside. this will direct the incoming air currents upward into the room. [illustration: the ventilator prevents the air from entering a room in a straight line] a chisel rack turn two large screweyes into the under side of a shelf, as far apart as is necessary, and slip a rod into the eyes. the rod may be kept from slipping out by threading each end and turning on a nut after it is in place. hooks are made from heavy wire, in the shape of the letter "s," and placed on the rod. a screweye is turned into the end of each chisel handle and used for hanging the tool on an s-hook. as many hooks are provided as there are tools in use. this method of hanging tools is especially adapted for the wood turner.--contributed by wallace e. fisher, new york, n. y. [illustration: the chisels are kept close at hand and the right tool may be quickly found] homemade snap hooks [illustration] having had occasion to use several snap hooks of various sizes and being unable to find anything suitable for my purpose on the market, i procured several cotters of the desired sizes and by bending them over, as shown at a, and cutting them off, as at b, i had snap hooks which, besides answering my original purpose, have also found use as key rings and tool-chuck holders.--contributed by jos. j. kolar, maywood, ill. a dropper and cork for medicine bottles [illustration] a convenient way to accurately drop medicine and liquids without any other appliance than the cork is the following: simply burn or puncture a smooth hole in the cork as shown. pull the cork out slightly when the liquid is to be dropped, and when this is done, push the cork in and the bottle is sealed. repairing a broken oilstone a broken oilstone can be repaired and made as good as new in the following manner: warm the pieces by heating them on the top of a stove or gas heater, with a piece of heavy sheet metal placed on it so as to protect the stone from the direct heat of the flame. the heating should be done somewhat slowly or the stone will crack. when the stone is warm wipe off the oil which the heat has driven out and apply a couple of coats of shellac to the broken ends. when the shellac is thoroughly dry, warm the stone again to melt the shellac, and clamp the pieces together. after cooling, the pieces will be found firmly stuck together.--contributed by f. l. sylvester, reading, mass. homemade towel roller [illustration] the towel roller is made of a piece of broom handle, in. long, squared on both ends and a nail driven in the center of each end. procure two small pieces of tin--disks about in. in diameter will do--and drive a hole through the center of each with a wire nail. cut from one edge of the disk down to the hole taking out a narrow v-shaped section. fasten each disk to a block and nail these to any convenient wall at such a distance apart that the nail heads in the broomstick will slip down in the slots and rest in the holes in the centers of the disks, which form the bearings for the nail heads resting beyond the tin and next to the block. with a little care the tin can be made to bulge outwardly in the center making room for the nail heads.--contributed by l. alberta norrell, augusta, ga. clothesline reel the usual method of reeling up a clothesline and taking it in is quite a task and many times the lines are left out in the open from one wash day to another, due to neglect or forgetfulness. i made the arrangement shown in the sketch to take care of the line without any effort to the user. [illustration: reel in the basement] all that is necessary with this arrangement is to take the end of the line and run it over the hooks or sheaves on the posts and make it secure around an awning fastener. when loosed, the weight in the basement will wind up the line. a knot can be tied in the line near the reel to catch at a hole in the sill, which will prevent the strain on the reel. if the reel is made to wind up ft. of line to each revolution and the sash-cord shaft is / in. in diameter, about ft. of line can be taken up in a basement ft. high.--contributed by a. e. little, akron, o. * * * * * black-heart malleable iron derives its name from the fact that in annealing only the outer layers of carbon are oxidized, the carbon of the interior being simply changed to a black amorphous state. a candle-shade holder a holder for either round or square shades can be easily constructed from a piece of heavy copper wire to fit on a candlestick. one end of the wire is looped around the upper end of the candlestick, then bent so that the main part will be vertical. the top end is shaped into a circle in. in diameter or a square having sides in. long, as desired.--contributed by harry slosower, pittsburgh, pa. [illustration: two forms of shade holder made of copper wire for a candlestick] wire mesh used as a shelf in covering a window back of my lathe with wire mesh as a protection i also made a shelf for the tools between the window sill and the lathe bed of the same material. the mesh used was / -in. the shelf is always clean, as the shavings and dirt fall through, and the tools may be readily picked up.--contributed by j. h. sanford, pasadena, california. heel plates a good heel or toe plate can be made by driving ordinary thumb tacks into the leather of the shoe heel or sole. the shape can be varied by using tacks having different-sized heads.--contributed by james t. gaffney, chicago, ill. [illustration: the heads of the tacks form a wearing surface equal to an ordinary heel plate] a bright dip for metal articles of brass, copper and bronze may be given a bright luster by dipping them into a solution composed of oz. of nitric acid, oz. of sulphuric acid, liquid measure, and / oz. of soot and / oz. of salt, by weight. after the articles are dipped into the solution they are removed and thoroughly washed, then dried in sawdust to prevent streaks. an interesting vacuum experiment [illustration] a very interesting experiment may be performed with two drinking glasses, a small candle end and a piece of blotting paper, says the pathfinder. the glasses must be the same size and of the thin-glass kind. the candle end is lighted and set in one glass; the blotting paper is well dampened and placed on top of the glass, and the other glass inverted and its rim placed exactly over the lower one and pressed down tightly. the candle will burn up all the oxygen in the glass and go out. the air in the glass being heated will expand and some of it will be forced out from under the moist paper, and then, as the portion remaining cools, it will contract and draw the upper glass on the paper and make an air-tight joint. the upper glass can then be taken up and the lower one will cling to it. a sliver extractor if a clipper for the finger nails becomes dull do not throw it away, but keep it in the tool box in a handy place. it is very useful for extracting slivers from the flesh.--contributed by g. wokenfuss, mccook, neb. night croquet playing croquet playing became so interesting to us that we could not find time to do all our playing during the day. so at night we attach a candle to each of the wickets and also use one at each corner of the grounds. these light the grounds so that the game can be played nicely. the candles may be attached by wiring them to the wickets or by using small pasteboard boxes, similar to a pill box of sufficient size, and running a wire through the center or down the sides, which is hooked over the top to hold them upright on top of the ground. the latter way is the better as the candles may be pulled up in the day time and taken out of the way.--contributed by geo. goodbrod, union, ore. a nursing-bottle holder the ordinary nursing bottle with nipple necessitates holding the bottle in a certain position, and when the valve nipples are used, the bottle should be held far enough away to allow this valve free action. to accomplish this i constructed a very simple wire holder for the bottle as shown in the illustration. ordinary telephone wire will hold any bottle. the wire is bent to hook on the side of the crib, cradle or cab.--contributed by w. a. humphrey, columbus, o. [illustration: nursing bottle in holder] milk-ticket holder an ordinary spring mousetrap makes a good bread or milk-ticket holder. the wood part of the trap can be easily nailed or screwed to a door or window casing. the way the tickets are held is clearly shown in the sketch. [illustration: trap used as ticket holder] joint for cabinet work in making a cabinet containing drawers of various sizes, i used the method shown in the sketch for making the frame. the horizontal strips a should be all fastened together when sawing the notches to fit over the uprights. the uprights b should be sawn in the same manner. it is best to round the front of the rear uprights slightly and also any other places where the drawers might strike when pushing them into place. the length of the runners c should be - / in. less than the length of the drawer.--contributed by j. h. dickson, polk, pa. [illustration: details of joint construction] * * * * * do not expect accurate work unless you have accurate tools. starting a saw cut a fine piece of woodwork is often spoiled by the amateur craftsman when starting a cut with a saw. as the first stroke of the saw on the edge of the board is made, the teeth often break a splinter from the edge or the saw jumps to one side of the line, thereby making a rough and uneven cut. this can be avoided in a very simple way. [illustration: starting a saw on a knife cut will prevent roughing or splintering the edge] after marking the line, take a sharp knife and make a cut across the edge, as shown, and draw the knife down well over the corners of the board for about / in. place the saw on the cut and start it slowly. the saw blade will follow the cut of the knife blade. a substitute penholder one evening when my wife was using the only penholder in the house i desired to do some writing and being in a hurry, i hastily made a substitute holder of a pencil. two cuts were made in the butt end, as shown; the pen was then slipped in, the outside wound with a rubber band, and my penholder was complete.--contributed by h. a. sullwold, st. paul, minn. [illustration: the end of the pencil as it is prepared to receive the pen] protecting binding posts on wet batteries from corrosion when recharging the cells of a wet battery it is best to procure the best grade of sal ammoniac, the kind that is put up in boxes having a sufficient amount for one cell. then, before putting the solution into the cell, melt some paraffin used for preserving purposes and dip the upper end of the carbons, zinc, and the glass jar in it. this will apply a coat of insulating wax that will prevent any white deposit from working up on the parts and corroding the binding posts, or terminals. the cells are then filled in the ordinary manner, after which the carbons and zincs are raised just far enough to admit a layer of common machine oil, about / in. thick. the oil not only prevents evaporation but aids greatly to keep the uncovered parts from corrosion.--contributed by l. r. kelley, philadelphia, pa. a cork puller [illustration] a very simple and easy way to remove a stopper from a bottle, when a cork puller is not at hand, is to press two nails into the cork, as shown in the sketch, and, taking a firm hold on both nails, draw the cork out. brads may be used on smaller corks. large and tightly fitted corks may be drawn by gripping the nails with a pair of pliers.--contributed by w. a. jaquythe, richmond, cal. holder for a garden-hose nozzle [illustration] when sprinkling a lawn with an automatic spraying device on a hose nozzle it is necessary to have some kind of an arrangement to tilt the end at the proper angle. i find that a holder made of a heavy piece of galvanized wire bent in the shape shown can be used to set the nozzle at any angle. the wire is easily pushed into the earth and does no harm to the lawn.--contributed by t. j. ingram, jr., lynchburg, va. alarm to designate a filled storage battery when a storage battery is recharged, the completion of the recharging is marked by the development of gas in the cell. this fact is the basis of a simple electrical device which will ring a bell when the battery is fully charged. a glass tube bent as shown and having a small bulb near its upper end is inserted in the top of the cell, a small quantity of mercury being first introduced in the bend below the bulb. wires extend down the upper tubing to within a short distance of the mercury. these wires are connected with binding posts so mounted that they can rest on top of the tube, whereupon the bell circuit is completed as shown. small quantities of gas may develop during the charging of the cell, but if a small hole is pierced in the tube between the mercury and the cell, this gas will not exert pressure enough on the mercury to push it up and connect it with the wires, which will take place first when the development of gas becomes very active at the completion of the recharging. [illustration: the gas generated by a filled storage battery will make electric connections and sound an alarm] stretching poultry fencing the woven-wire poultry fencing is an unusually difficult thing to handle and fasten on posts so that it will be taut and evenly stretched. the best method i have ever seen for drawing this fencing and holding it for nailing to a post is the use of the device shown in the sketch. it consists of a board, as long as the fencing is wide, with screw hooks set far enough apart to catch into the meshes of the wire, and a crosspiece attached to the board by pieces of rope at the ends and provided with a pulling loop in the center.--contributed by joseph c. laackman, meadow brook, pa. [illustration: board fitted with screw hooks and a pulling device for stretching poultry fencing on posts] a centering gauge the centering gauge consists of a piece of celluloid on which several circles are drawn having different diameters, but all drawn from the same center. a small hole is made at the center to admit the point of a center punch. two sets of circles may be drawn on one piece as shown, but the lines should be spaced far enough apart to allow the metal to be clearly seen through the celluloid. the sheet is placed on the end of a shaft and adjusted so that a ring will match the circumference of the shaft, then the center punch is set in the center hole and struck with a hammer. the center punch for marking is shown in the sketch.--contributed by harry holst, san francisco, cal. [illustration: circles drawn on celluloid to adjust it on the end of a shaft in finding the center] homemade letters for marking bags [illustration] an initial marker for bags can be made of a beet or potato. cut off enough of the vegetable to provide a flat surface of sufficient size and then cut out the letter as shown in the sketch, and use shoe blacking as ink. in cutting, remember that most of the letters must be made reversed in order to print right. for example, in making a b, draw it out on paper and cut it out, then lay the face of the pattern on the flat surface of the vegetable and cut around it. to keep a crease in a soft hat the crease in a soft hat can be kept in proper shape with the aid of a paper clip. the clip is slipped over the fold inside of the hat which forms the bottom part of the crease.--contributed by jas. m. kane, doylestown, pennsylvania. [illustration: paper clip on the fold, holding it in the right shape for the outside crease] a shoe scraper [illustration] a good boot and shoe scraper for a step can be made of a worn-out and discarded broom. cut off the straws and strings as shown in the sketch, allowing one string to hold them together, and make the notch the width of the shoe. tie the extending ends together, and mount the whole on a suitable block, or, if desired, a hole can be bored in the step to receive the handle, and the scraper thus securely attached. this makes an effective scraper for the bottom as well as the sides of shoes of almost any size.--contributed by jno. v. loeffler, evansville, ind. a vegetable slicer [illustration] a tin bucket or can makes a good slicer for vegetables when no other slicer is at hand. a number of slots are cut across one side of the can, and the lower edge of each slot slightly turned out to form a cutting edge. the vegetable is placed against the top of the can and pushed down over the slots. each slot will cut off a slice which falls inside of the can. bench stop for planing thin boards [illustration] a bench stop for planing thin boards with a hand plane may be made in the following manner: procure a piece of strap iron about / in. thick, - / or in. wide, and about in. long. file or grind one edge sharp on top and drill a / -in. hole through the center. cut a slot in a board or in the workbench large enough to receive the stop a flat. place enough strips of rubber or fit two coil springs, b, to raise the sharp edge out of the slot. insert a screw in the hole of the stop and adjust it to the desired height by turning the screw up or down. * * * * * in a case of emergency, lemon juice may be used as soldering flux. a jardinière pedestal the pedestal may be made of any close-grained wood, such as basswood or maple, if the stain is to be walnut or mahogany, but it can also be constructed of quarter-sawed oak and finished in a waxed mission or varnished surface. the material required is as follows: top, by by / in., s- -s. caps, by by / in., s- -s. upright, by by in., s- -s. base, by by / in., s- -s. the top is centered and a circle, - / in. in diameter, is drawn upon it, and sawn out. the caps are also centered and circles drawn upon them, - / in. and - / in. in diameter. saw them out on the larger circles and center them in a wood lathe and turn out the wood in the smaller circles to a depth of / in. the upright is then centered in the lathe and turned to - / in. in diameter for its full length. [illustration: the pedestal can be made of a wood suitable for finishing to match other furniture] the base and foot pieces are cut out as shown, fitted together and fastened with screws from the under side. one of the caps is mounted in the center on the base and the other cap in the center on the under side of the top. the upright is then placed in the turned-out parts of the caps and either glued or fastened with screws. if light wood is used, the finish can be walnut or mahogany. a very pretty finish can be worked out in pyrography, if one is familiar with that work.--contributed by russell t. westbrook, dover, n. j. a lawn-tennis marker the liquid receptacle is a metal biscuit box, about in. square and mounted on a wheel with a handle, the whole being similar to a wheelbarrow. the wheel is in. in diameter and - / in. thick. the wheel and box are bolted between two pieces of strap iron in the manner shown, and the handle is attached back of the box. if the box is of very thin metal, boards should be placed within on the sides where it is fastened to the strap iron. a roller is pivoted in the box at the lower back corner and a canvas tape or band run over the roller and wheel in the manner of a belt. the tape should run through a slot cut in the front part of the box, about midway between the top and the bottom. the edges of the tin in the slot must be turned over and hammered down to make a smooth surface for the tape to run over.--contributed by george n. bertram, toronto, can. [illustration: a marker that will make a clear, white line on the ground for a tennis court] removing tannin stains from teacups a small portion of hyposulphite of soda mixed with vinegar will make a good cleaner for teacups having tannin stains. this process does not injure the finest china and is inexpensive. the same solution works quite well on clothes that are accidentally stained with tea. they should be washed out and dried quickly after its application in order to make this method most effective.--contributed by loren ward, des moines, iowa. [illustration: weaving the top of the stool by using a wet weaver of reed] woven-top stool the material necessary for this stool is as follows: legs, - / by - / by in. bottom rails, / by - / by in. top rails, / by by - / in. diagonal braces, / by - / by in. [illustration: construction of the frame and manner of laying the weavers for the top] the legs are mortised so the top rails come level. the upper rails are tenoned on the sides only and beveled at the ends. for the bottom rails, the mortises are made one above the other, the rails being tenoned on all sides. the braces are cut at on each end and glued into place. in weaving the top, proceed as follows: use a wet weaver and wrap one layer over the entire top, the strips being placed close together and tightly wound. start the second layer at right angles to the first by going under one strip, then over three strips, under three, and so on, by threes, until that strip is finished. start the second by going under two strips, then over three, under three, and so on, as before. the third strip should start by going under three, then over and under three, etc. start the fourth by going over one, then under three, and over three, as in the preceding; the fifth, start over two, then under and over three, repeatedly. the sixth, and last of the series, begin over three and then continue, by threes, as before. having finished one series, the remainder of the top should be completed in similar order. good white shellac makes the best finish for the seat; the stool itself may be finished to suit.--contributed by russel dodsworth, erie, pa. preserving shafting from rust and corrosion in a laboratory it was very difficult to keep the line shaft and countershafts bright and free from rust, owing to the fumes and gases issuing from the several fume closets within the same room. the following method was tried, and proved very satisfactory. the shafting was covered with two coats of flat white paint and allowed to dry, after which a coat of white enamel was applied, giving it a clean, glossy, and sanitary appearance. this eliminated all the trouble of cleaning it with emery cloth, and it also made it appear in harmony with the other furnishings of the laboratory.--contributed by geo. f. stark, norwich, n. y. [illustration: reed furniture by chas. m. miller] reed furniture by chas. m. miller a reed basket inasmuch as there is a great demand for reed furniture and since good weavers are comparatively few in number, it would be well to learn the process of reed weaving. the weaving operations can be learned much better through the construction of some small article, such as a basket or jardinière cover. the center is the most difficult part of the basket making, and it is best to begin with wood bottoms, as the whole basket can be kept in a much better form due to the stiffness furnished by such a bottom. it is also an approach to the reed furniture which is woven on framework. the objectionable feature of the wood bottoms is the unfinished appearance of the wood edge showing through, but this can be overcome by the use of the roll shown in the illustration. [illustration] while the wood bottoms have been used for this class of work for a number of years, the roll is new and is very popular with those who have seen and used it. the roll can be placed in many ways on different-shaped baskets, and other reed pieces, so that it is best to master this piece of work thoroughly before attempting the other, or larger, pieces that will be described later, in other articles. [illustration] the description is for a basket in. in diameter and in. high, as shown in the illustration. a disk of wood, / in. thick and in. in diameter, is required. basswood makes the best bottom, but pine, or cedar, will do. cut a board about in. square, and draw diagonal lines on it intersecting at the center, then draw a circle, in. in diameter, as shown in fig. ; also another circle, using the same center, - / in. in diameter. set compass points about / in. apart, and step off spaces on the inner circle to make points. this will have to be tried out more than once, to get the spaces to come out evenly and just have the right number of points. holes are bored with a / -in. bit, just inside of the inner circle, back of the places marked by the compass points, as shown in fig. . cut the board on the outside circle with a coping, or turn, saw, to make the circle, as in fig. . do not saw out the circle before boring the holes, as otherwise the disk might split out in places. [illustration: the bottom is cut from a piece of wood to give strength and to avoid the most difficult part of the weaving (fig. )] [illustration: (fig. )] [illustration: (fig. )] the reeds placed vertically are called spokes, and the horizontal ones are the weavers. for the spokes, what is called a no. reed is used. do not wet the spokes before putting them through the wood. allow the ends to project about - / in. below the bottom, as shown in fig. . place the bottom, with the spokes, in water, and soak them thoroughly, especially the part below the bottom. about minutes of soaking will be sufficient to make them pliable enough to bend over at right angles. it will not injure the wood bottom to soak it with the reeds. as shown at a, figs. and , each spoke below the wood bottom is bent, down and back of the two nearest spokes, b and c, then out between the third and fourth spokes, c and d, and so on. the last two spokes, y and z, fig. , are forced under the spokes a and b, respectively. in this illustration the spoke y is shown as it is being inserted under the spoke a. when this operation is completed, the bottom will have the appearance of a fireworks pinwheel. [illustration: (fig. )] [illustration: the reeds are attached to the bottom and their lower ends bent as shown (fig. )] [illustration: (fig. )] continue the bending of the spokes, in the same direction, up and across the thickness of the wood in front of three other spokes and behind the fourth, as shown in fig. . this would not cover the edge of the wood entirely, and, for this reason, other short spokes must be inserted in front of each of the first ones before it is brought up across the edge of the wood. these supplementary spokes should be about in. long. the manner of inserting these spokes before making the bend is shown at g and t, fig. . the double spokes must be pressed down flat, when brought up in place, without riding one on the other. if the ends are too long and interfere with the next pair, they can be cut off a little with a flat chisel, or knife, being careful not to make them too short, or the pieces will not stay in place. if there is still an open space, an extra, short spoke can be inserted to crowd the pieces together and fill up the space. [illustration: the lower ends of the spokes are turned to cover the edge of the bottom... (fig. )] [illustration: (fig. )] [illustration: (fig. )] when the roll is completed, insert three weavers, of no. reed that has been soaked about minutes, placing them between the spokes a and b, b and c, and c and d, as shown in fig. . pass weaver l in front of the spokes b and c, then back of d and out between d and e. weaver m is passed in front of c and d, back of e and out in front of e and f. these operations are clearly shown in fig. . the weaver n is placed in front of d and e, back of f and then in front of g and h. at this point the weaver l is used again. the weaver farthest behind each time is brought in front of the two spokes nearest to it, then behind the third and out in front of the next two spokes. do not try to use weavers longer than ft., which is about half the length of a reed. when a weaver is used up, press it back to the side a little, push in a new reed about - / in., and continue the weaving. this is clearly shown in fig. . this weaving is known as the triple weave, which cinches down well and holds tightly. the first round should be carefully worked, so as to get the ends of the roll properly pressed down flat in place. each throw of the weaver should be well pressed down. [illustration: (fig. )] [illustration: ...then the reeds are woven into the upright spokes to the right height, where they are broken down and woven into a top border (fig. )] [illustration: (fig. )] the break-down-tight border is used for the finish at the top. the first operation in making this border is shown in fig. . the spoke a is bent over back of spoke b and out between spokes b and c. the spoke b is bent over back of the spoke c and out between c and d, and so on, until the spoke e is turned down. then take the end of the spoke a, fig. , and lay it over b, c, d, and e, in front of f, back of g, and out between g and h. the end of spoke f is then brought down, also between g and h, but back of the end of a. the end of b takes a similar leap, passes behind h and out between h and j; then g is brought down behind the end of b, in the same manner as f was brought down back of a. the last four or five spokes are the most difficult to handle, as they must be forced through the first ones to correspond with those already in place. it is best not to pull the ends of a, b, c, and d down too tightly at first, keeping in mind that the last ones must be inserted under the first ones. the last standing spokes are represented by the full and shaded lines. if the roll illustrated in figs. and is too difficult, a simple break-down can be used, such as shown in fig. . to make this finish, spoke a is turned back of spoke b, in front of spoke c and back of spoke d, but not out again. spoke b is bent back of c, in front of d, and back of e. the others are turned down the same way. the manner in which the two last spokes are turned down and inserted is shown by the double dotted lines. [illustration: a simple break-down roll for the top... (fig. , fig. )] the remainder of the illustrations show the method of forming a roll between the first and second spokes, where only three spokes are turned down before the throwing-across process begins. the first three spokes turned down are shown in fig. , and the throwing over, in fig. . the second beginning is shown in fig. . the finishing of this top is shown in figs. and . the full, heavy lines represent the final insertions, and the reed must be in quite a sharp loop to make the end enter the right place. it is then drawn down and forced in front of the other reed that passes out between the same spokes. [illustration: ...also a method of forming a roll between the first and second spokes where only three spokes are turned down before the throwing-across process begins (fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. )] when the basket is dry, the long ends can be cut off close up with a knife, being careful not to cut a weaver. if there are hairy fibers sticking out they can be singed off over a gas, or other, flame that will not smut. if it requires bleaching, brush some chloride of lime, mixed in a little water, over the reeds and set in the sunlight for a short time. it is better to leave the finish a little dark rather than use too much bleaching, as the latter will give an objectionable whitish appearance that looks like a poor job of painting. in working the reeds, do not leave them in the water longer than necessary, as this will turn them dark. a bleached reed will stand the water much longer than in the natural state. dampen the reed frequently while weaving it, as the weavers pack down much closer when wet. the dampening process is also required to remedy the drying out caused by whisking the reeds through the air in weaving operations. a great variety of baskets can be made from this form, viz., low, tall, tapering vase forms, bowl shapes, etc., in plain or dark weaves. wireless-lighted lamp deception window displays of puzzling nature usually draw crowds. a lighted globe lying on its side in full view, yet apparently not connected to any source of electricity, could easily be arranged as a window display, deceiving the closest observer. a mirror, or window glass, backed with some opaque material, should be used for the foundation of the device. for the display lamp, it is best to use a or -watt tungsten, as these will lie flatter on the glass than the larger sizes, and the deception will not be as easily discovered. the place where the brass cap of the lamp touches the glass should be marked and a small hole drilled through to the wire connecting the tungsten filament to the plug on the top of the lamp. at any suitable place, a hole should be drilled in the glass plate, no larger than is necessary, to permit two small cotton-covered magnet wires to pass through. one of the wires should be looped, passed through the hole in the cap and hooked onto the bare wire connecting with the plug on top of lamp. the other wire should be fastened to the brass cap, near the drilled hole, after which the lamp may be placed in position and the two wires connected to a source of electricity. if proper care has been taken and no crosses occur, the lamp will light, and if the display is placed in the proper surroundings, it will prove very deceiving. to protect against a fuse blow-out from a short circuit, it is advisable to run another lamp in series with the display lamp, as shown.--contributed by clyde w. epps, mineola, tex. [illustration: an electric globe lighted on a piece of glass makes a good window attraction] live bait used in fishing with the simple device illustrated, no fisherman need worry over running short of bait or even regarding the usual repeated baiting of the hook. a small clear-glass bottle should be procured, and several hooks wired to it about the neck, or at each end, as desired or found best after several trials. after filling the bottle with water a live minnow is placed in it, and the bottle is sealed with a cork, which is notched around the edge to permit water to enter or leave the bottle without losing the bait. if live grasshoppers, or similar bait, is desired the cork can be used unnotched to form a watertight stopper. as illuminated bait for night fishing, several fireflies can be put in the bottle.--contributed by l. wahrer, tiffin, ohio. [illustration: the bait is kept alive and unharmed in a bottle surrounded with hooks] bookrack the material necessary for the illustrated bookrack is as follows: end pieces, / by - / by in. shelf / by - / by in. the shelf is cut rectangular, - / in. wide by - / in. long. its two ends should then be provided with tenons / in. thick by - / in. wide, and extending out / inch. [illustration: a bookrack that can be made in any wood to match other furniture] the end pieces, after being cut to the given dimensions, are marked off and cut out for mortises to fit the shelf tenons. in assembling the parts, they are glued in place, and clamped with hand screws until the glue has set. any of the good mission stains, properly applied, will give a finished appearance to the bookrack. a paper gas pipe when one fits up an attic or a back room as a workshop, it is seldom that a gas connection is available on about the same level as the workbench so that a bunsen burner and soldering apparatus may be operated. to install the standard gas pipe, it would be necessary either to alter the chandelier connection or to tear up some of the plaster, the former plan resulting in a rather conspicuous display of pipe and the latter in considerable expense. the following method permits the rolling of a pipe, about the size of a lead pencil, from paper that becomes so stiff that it is almost impossible to crush it between the thumb and fingers. this small inconspicuous pipe may be run directly from the side of the valve on the chandelier to the wall, as shown in the sketch, thence down some corner formed by a door jamb or window frame, which protects it and renders it almost unnoticeable. [illustration: the tube is run out horizontally from the chandelier to the wall where the drop is connected] a good grade of tough manila paper should be procured and cut into strips, about in. long and wide enough to build up a tube at least / in. in diameter. this will require from to in., according to the thickness of the paper. a piece of / -in. round iron or hard wood, in. long, is procured and carefully oiled or greased. apply a coat of strong fish glue to one of these pieces of paper, omitting a strip along one edge, about in. wide. using the outspread fingers of each hand, begin with the unglued edge and roll the paper around the wood. as it is impossible to get the paper uniformly tight with the fingers, select a smooth place on the table and then roll the newly formed tube forward by means of a piece of board, as shown in the illustration. on the return stroke lift the board. in this way it is possible to get a tight, smooth tube. immediately withdraw the core, twisting it slightly in a reverse direction if it tends to stick. before using the core again, make sure it is free from glue and regrease it. when a sufficient number of tubes have been made and hardened, neatly trim the ends off squarely, and then form an equal number of short tubes, about in. long, by winding a strip of glued paper on a large wire nail until a diameter is reached that will fit snugly into the pipes already made. the joints may then be set up with strong glue and finally wrapped with two thicknesses of paper on the outside. the construction of these joints is shown in the cross section. the connection with the chandelier can be made by means of a metal tube soldered in at a point where the regular valve will cut off all connection with the paper piping when it is not in use. this metal tube should be coated with thick shellac, and the paper tube slipped over it for in. or more, after which the joint should be given several additional coats on the outside. a small regulating gas cock can be attached to the lower end of the piping, and if this is rigidly fastened to the wall, or casing, the connecting and disconnecting of the rubber tubing will not disturb the piping in any way.--contributed by john d. adams. rubbing slats for a washing board in an emergency, and to substitute something for a broken glass rubbing plate on an ordinary washing board, i fitted a series of / -in. dowels horizontally across the board, closely together. this proved to be better than glass or zinc, as fabrics adhered to the wood dowels and caused them to revolve, making a more desirable rubbing surface and accomplishing the work of loosening the dirt in the fabric with far less effort than that necessary on the metal or glass board.--contributed by h. m. spamer, vineland, n. j. catching bugs attracted by light [illustration] bugs, moths, and insects attracted by lights on summer evenings can be caught by means of sticky fly paper, suspended as shades around the lamps. cuts in the shade allow the greater portion of the light to pass through and attract the bugs, which will surely be caught as they travel about the light onto the sticky paper. it is advisable to make two shades at the same time from a double sheet of the sticky paper, pasted, as when bought, with the sticky faces together so that the shades may be cut and handled easier.--contributed by john j. kolar, maywood, illinois. * * * * * oilcans should be marked to indicate the kind of oil in them. needle box for talking machines an empty cigarette box can be easily changed to a useful container for talking-machine needles, as shown in the sketch. take a fairly heavy card, trim it to the same length as the box, then bend and crease it, as shown at a, and glue the short, upright side to the inside of the box. cut another card to the shape b, so that the depth c equals the inside depth of the box, and the side d is as long as its width. the side e should equal the inclined length of the card a, and is glued upon it when b is in position. the three compartments may be suitably labeled as indicated.--contributed by v. a. rettich, new york, n. y. [illustration: three compartments are provided with sloping bottoms in a neat box for the needles] trick of taking dollar bill from apple a rather pleasing, yet puzzling, deception is to pass a dollar bill into the interior of an examined lemon or apple. this can be accomplished in several ways, either mechanically or purely by sleight of hand. the mechanical method, of course, is the easier and really just as effective. in performing, a plate with three apples is first exhibited, and the audience is given choice of any one for use in the experiment. the selected one is tossed out for examination and then returned to the performer, who places it in full view of the spectators while he makes the dollar bill vanish. taking the knife he cuts the apple into two pieces, requesting the audience to select one of them. squeezing this piece he extracts the dollar bill therefrom. the entire secret is in the unsuspected article--the table knife. [illustration: the dollar bill is hidden in the knife handle that cuts the apple] the knife is prepared by boring out the wooden handle to make it hollow. enough space must be made to hold a dollar bill. the knife lies on the plate with the fruit, the open end facing the performer. after the bill has been made to vanish and the examined apple returned to the entertainer, he takes it and cuts it in half. one of the halves is chosen, the performer impaling it on the end of the knife blade and holding it out to view. while still holding the knife he turns the blade downward and grasps the half apple and crushes it with a slight pass toward the knife-handle end where the bill is grasped along with the apple, which makes a perfect illusion of taking the bill out of the apple. as to the disappearance of the dollar bill, there are many ways in which this may be accomplished. perhaps the method requiring the least practice is to place the bill in the trousers pocket, and then show the audience that the latter is empty. this can be done by rolling the bill to small compass, and pushing it into the extreme upper corner of the pocket where it will remain undetected while the pocket is pulled out for inspection. other combinations can be arranged with the use of the knife, which is simple to make and very inexpensive. guide for making buttonholes it is almost impossible to make a perfect buttonhole in the ordinary manner by hand without a guide. the illustration shows a very simple guide that can be easily made by anyone. procure two pieces of tin, or sheet brass, cut them as shown, and drill holes in them large enough for a needle, so that it will be easy to fasten them to the cloth with basting thread. cut the buttonhole slot, then punch a hole at the end with an ordinary belt punch. such a punch can be purchased from a local hardware dealer in any size. in making the buttonhole stitch, keep the needle close against the metal edge of the guide, as shown.--contributed by a. l. kerbaugh, allentown, pa. [illustration: the form of the buttonhole is cut in the edges of the two pieces of metal] * * * * * an easy way to put varnish in the grooves of a tennis racket is to use a medicine dropper. [illustration] a child's playhouse the child's playhouse is an expensive luxury, if it is purchased ready to set up, but by following the instructions given herewith a large and inexpensive one may be constructed. [illustration: the covered framework can be used in or outdoors, as desired, and when set up and the wings swung back, it presents the appearance of a house] procure about ft. of - / by - / -in. boards, and saw out pieces, as shown. with the use of iron brackets instead of nails, it will be found much easier to construct than if the corners are mortised and nailed or glued. the frame will also be much stronger. [illustration: the entire framework is held together with brackets, and is hinged at the joints, so that it can be folded up and put into a small space, the sections being covered with colored burlap to make them appear solid... (fig. )] when the frame is completed, burlap is tacked on to make the covering. the burlap can be purchased cheaply, and the best color to use is either green, red or brown. this material should be fastened on the different sections before they are hinged together. to prevent the burlap from unraveling, turn the edges under before tacking them down. a piece of wire screen is used for the door. an old piece will do, if it is well coated with black or dark-green paint. it is then tacked on the inside of the door. fasten the different parts together with the hinges. the hinges are fastened on the inside of the side wings, and on the outside of the two front pieces. with the hinges placed in this manner, the house can be folded into a small space. for the one built by the writer, green burlap was used, and by trimming the door and window frames along the edges with white paint a very pretty effect was produced. [illustration: ...on the right is shown the awning-frame construction (fig. , fig. )] a small awning was made over the window, which improved the appearance very much. roller shades on the door and window and an electric door bell completed a very neat and practical playhouse. removing basketball from closed-bottom receptacle the closed-bottom basket used in the game of basketball is so high that it is difficult to remove the ball after a goal is made. generally a long stick is used for this purpose, but i desired to have a better way, and the device shown in the illustration was the outcome. a light iron rod was hinged to the edge of the basket and bent to its inner shape, the lower end resting at about the center of the basket. a rope was attached to the lower end and run up and over a sheave pulley attached to the basket support, then down so it could be easily grasped. when a goal is made, it is only necessary to give a pull on the rope for throwing the ball out of the basket.--contributed by annie b. currine, san diego, cal. [illustration: the iron rod in the basket throws the ball out when the rope is pulled] testing dry batteries for testing dry batteries or any low-voltage current, take an ordinary thermometer and wind around the mercury bulb enough wire to make about ohms resistance. this will make a good tester. a dry cell of about volts attached to the ends of the wire should generate enough heat to expand the mercury about four degrees in one-half minute. this tester is not as fast as a voltmeter, nor has it as wide a range, but it is reasonably accurate, and by using a battery of known voltage, the winding can be increased or diminished to allow the mercury to expand as many degrees as desired per volt.--contributed by e. h. kimbrough, bartlett, kan. a wall-paper cleaner to qt. of flour add about oz. of -per-cent ammonia and enough lukewarm water to make a dough. wipe the paper with this preparation while turning and kneading it as in making dough. this will take up the dirt and a clean side is always presented to the paper.--contributed by f. c. myer, tacoma, wash. [illustration] a trunk mystery doubtless every person has seen the trunk mystery, the effect of which is as follows: a trunk, mounted upon four legs, is brought out on the stage and proven to be empty by turning it all the way around to show that there is nothing on the back, whereupon pieces of plate glass are placed along the back, sides, and front, the trunk is closed and given a swift turn and then opened, when to the amazement of all, a lady steps out appearing to come from nowhere. the secret of this trick is very simple, and the trunk can be made up very cheaply. [illustration: a shelf and panel set at right angles to form a place at the back for the assistant to conceal herself, no matter which way the trunk is turned to face the audience] in the back of the trunk there is a movable panel with a shelf exactly the same size as the panel attached to its bottom, forming a right angle, the corner of which is hinged to the bottom of the trunk. the back panel can be turned in until it rests on the bottom of the trunk and, when this is done, the shelf part rises and takes its place, making the back of the trunk appear solid. [illustration] when the trunk is brought out upon the stage, the assistant is crouching on the shelf. the trunk can then be shown empty. this is all very simple until the trunk is turned around when it takes skill not to give the trick away. as soon as the performer starts to turn the trunk around, the assistant shifts her weight on the panel, thus causing it to fall inward and bring the shelf up to make the back appear solid. the assistant is now in the trunk, and the back can be shown clear of any apparatus. when the trunk is turned to the front again, the lady repeats the previous operation in the opposite direction, thus bringing her body to the back of the trunk again. to make the trick appear more difficult, glass plates are made to insert in the ends, front and back of the trunk. in making the trunk, have the back the same size as the bottom. fit the piece of glass for the back into a light frame, similar to a window frame. this frame is hinged to the bottom of the trunk and is / in. smaller all around than the back of the trunk, so that the two pieces of glass can be put in the ends and also allow the back frame and glass to fall flush in the bottom of the trunk. a few rubber bumpers are fastened in the bottom of the trunk to catch the glass without noise as it falls. the best way to work this is for the performer to let the frame down with his right hand while he is closing up the front with his left. as soon as the trunk is closed, the assistant again shifts her weight to cause the panel to fall in and then the trunk can be turned to show the back, or whirled around and turned to the front again, then opened up, whereupon the assistant steps out, bows to the audience, and leaves the stage. how to make a candy-floss machine every person is familiar with candy floss, made at stands on fair grounds, or carnivals, in an expensive whirling machine. it is not necessary to wait for a fair or a carnival to have a bunch of candy floss, as it can be made at home much quicker than making taffy candy. [illustration] the device for making the candy floss consists of ordinary things that can be had in any home, and usually a boy has a battery motor of some kind that will furnish the power. [illustration: the disk is driven by a small battery motor and melted sugar is spun out into floss] procure a tin pan, the shape of an ordinary dish pan and of medium size; cut a hole about one-half the diameter of the pan in the bottom and solder in a conical-shaped piece similar to a cake pan, allowing it to extend up inside about half the height of the pan. fasten supports to the pan so that a bunsen burner can be set under it where the flame will pass through the conical center opening. mount a small battery motor with its shaft vertical, pulley end up, and centering the conical hole, on a base, which supports the pan. procure a can cover, similar to that used on coffee cans, and fasten it with solder to the pulley on the motor shaft, being careful to locate it centrally so that it will run smoothly. close to the bottom and in the rim of the can cover, make a number of small holes with a prickpunch, or other sharp-pointed tool. wire the motor to the battery, and the candy-floss machine is ready for use. light the burner, start the motor, and pour a little granulated sugar in the revolving can cover. as the sugar is melted, it will be spun out in floss form through the small holes into the pan receiver.--contributed by herbert hahn, chicago, ill. enlarging pictures a very simple and sufficiently accurate way of enlarging pictures by means of a pencil holder and elastic is shown in the illustration. the picture to be enlarged is fastened to a table top or drawing board, and the paper on which it is to be drawn is placed directly below it. a small brad or tack is driven into the board at a, the location depending on the desired size of the enlarged picture, and the elastic is attached to it. the pencil holder b is fastened to the other end of the elastic over the drawing paper. a pointer, or a knot, is placed in the elastic at c. the pencil holder consists of a stick of wood turned into a handle with a hole bored centrally for a pencil. [illustration: the size of the enlarged picture depends on the length of the elastic and the spacing of pencil and pointer] in use, the pencil is moved over the drawing paper while the knot or pointer is watched, to keep it following the lines of the original drawing. the stretch of the elastic is sufficient to enlarge the parts equally, as well vertically as horizontally.--contributed by wm. weitzsacker, buffalo, n. y. distance chart for wireless stations the amateur wireless telegrapher may be troubled more or less regarding distances from other stations. the difficulty can be overcome by following a plan similar to that of a parcel-post map. a map should be selected covering the desired territory. with the home station as center, circles should be drawn to diameters corresponding in length to the scale used on the map. by measuring the distance other stations may be from any of these circles, their cross-country distance from the home station can be determined at a glance.--contributed by e. l. hartlett, wausau, wis. [illustration: circles on a map the same as for parcel post to designate wireless distances] a carrier for fishhooks hooks that are attached to gut or short strings are difficult to carry and to keep in good shape for use on a line. i made a carrier that overcame this trouble, from a block of wood. the block is / in. in thickness with brads driven into one end, for engaging the loops on the gut or string, while the hook is caught on the opposite end, the block being just long enough for the short line. the hooks will be held securely, and the block can be carried in the pocket.--contributed by victor e. carpenter, south bend, ind. [illustration: the string is drawn taut over the block, and the hooks are caught in the block end] a substitute for a pen recently i was hard pressed for a pen, and as none could be found and the hour was late it was necessary to find a substitute. i fashioned a pen from a piece of boxwood, and was agreeably surprised at the excellent results obtained with it. the wood was sharpened like a lead pencil at one end, and a groove was cut out of the tapered part to hold the ink.--contributed by richard f. pohle, lynn, massachusetts. [illustration: a notch cut in the tapered part of a wood stick forms a substitute pen] * * * * * a very convenient method of keeping shipping tags at hand is to slip them on a desk spindle. a bucket-ball game this is a new indoor game which follows out in principle the regular baseball play. it is an exciting and interesting pastime, and while a certain amount of skill is required to score runs, a person who cannot play the regular game can score as many runs, and as often, as the best players in the national leagues. [illustration: the frame is made up without a back, to hold the buckets at an angle that makes it difficult to toss the ball so that it will stay in any one of them (fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. )] anyone that is just a little handy with tools can make the necessary parts for this game. the tools required are a hammer and a saw, and the materials consist of some finishing nails; three strips of wood, ft. long, in. wide, and in. thick; two strips, in. long, in. wide, and in. thick; four strips, in. long, in. wide, and in. thick; two strips, in. long, in. wide, and in. thick; two blocks, in. square, and in. thick, and four wood buckets. a frame is built up as shown, ft. long, in. wide, and in. high, without a back. one of the long pieces is fastened to the bottoms of the buckets as shown, spacing the latter equally on the length of the piece. this piece is then set in notches cut in the blocks of wood at an angle of . these blocks are fastened to the upper crosspieces at the ends of the frame. the upper part of the buckets rest on the upper front piece of the frame. [illustration: the player must throw the ball so that it will enter and stay in one of the buckets, which designates the base hits by the number in its bottom] the rules for playing the game are as follows: three baseballs are used. the players stand about ft. distant and in front of the buckets. each player, or side, is only permitted to throw three balls an inning, irrespective of the number of runs scored. any kind of delivery is permitted, but an underhand throw will be found most successful. the buckets are numbered from to , and represent, respectively, one, two, and three-base hits, and home runs. the one in which the ball stays designates the run. plays are figured as in a regular ball game. for instance, if a ball should stay in bucket no. and the next in bucket no. , the first man would be forced home, counting one run, and leaving one man on third base. if the next ball stays in bucket no. , the man on third base is forced home, as well as the one who scored the home run, making three runs for that inning. the runs should be scored as made, to guard against confusion and argument.--contributed by walter talley, pottsville, pa. a staple puller [illustration] with nothing but ordinary tools the removing of staples is tedious and difficult work. if a suitable-sized wire nail is bent like a fishhook and the hook part driven under the staple, the latter can be easily pulled out by grasping and pulling the nail with a hammer in the usual way.--contributed by r. neland, minneapolis, minn. a dissolving coin trick this is a very simple and effective trick. the articles required to perform the trick are, a glass of water, a silver dollar, a handkerchief and a watch crystal, or round piece of glass, the size of a silver dollar. conceal the crystal in the palm of the hand and show the audience the dollar. hold the handkerchief in one hand and place the hand holding the silver dollar and crystal under it so that the crystal can be grasped by the hand holding the handkerchief. remove the dollar by holding it in the palm of the hand and slip it, unobserved, into a pocket. ask some one in the audience to hold the handkerchief with the inclosed crystal and ask him to let it drop into the glass of water as the handkerchief covers both. the falling glass can be heard, but upon removing the handkerchief nothing can be seen of the dollar or watch crystal. the circular glass disk cannot be seen in the water.--contributed by albert biery, spokane, wash. a fruit-jar opener the accompanying sketch shows a handy device for turning up and unscrewing the covers on glass fruit jars. the loop is slipped over the cover and the handle turned in the direction of the arrow. to unscrew the cover, the tool is turned over and the handle turned in the opposite direction. [illustration: the loop in the leather grips the cap tightly when the handle is turned as the arrow indicates] the loop should be just large enough to slip over the cover easily. it is made of leather and fastened to the wood handle with screws.--contributed by j. b. downer, seattle, wash. anti-tangle safety pin a small disk of rubber or leather, placed on a safety pin as shown in fig. , will prevent the fabric which is fastened by the pin from becoming tangled in the spring loop. the manner of using the pin is shown in fig. . [illustration: the small disk on the pin prevents the goods from becoming tangled in the coil] how to nickel or silverplate iron by friction the following methods of plating iron with nickel and silver appeared in a recent issue of a german paper. in nickelplating iron, a thin coating of copper is first produced on it by rubbing on a solution of parts sulphate of copper, parts sulphuric acid and parts of water. after the copper plate has been formed rub over it, with a rag, a solution of parts tin, parts nickel and part iron in parts of hydrochloric acid and parts of sulphuric acid. if finally the object is rubbed with a rag that has been dipped in finely pulverized zinc, a nickel deposit will be formed on the copper. the thickness of the deposit of nickel can be increased by repeating the two last operations. according to a recent patent, a silver coating can be produced by dissolving freshly precipitated chloride of silver in a solution of hyposulphite of soda, . parts to parts of water, and adding to this solution parts spirits of sal ammoniac and then stirring in parts of finely washed chalk. this mixture is applied and rubbed until it dries on the object being silvered, and the result is a brilliant deposit of pure silver. * * * * * a good filling for cracks in old furniture is made of shellac, either melted by heat or dissolved in alcohol to make a thick paste. a homemade cradle the cradle shown in the sketch can be made quickly and easily at home and will be found far more serviceable than, and possessing several advantages over, the ones purchased. it is made of a clothes basket, an iron rod and two ordinary chairs. it can be taken down and the parts used for other purposes. the upper portion of the rod prevents the chairs from slipping. a light cloth can be placed over the rod, in tent fashion, to keep flies out, while at the same time permitting air for ventilation.--contributed by bert verne, san diego, cal. [illustration: a clothes basket supported with a rod between two chairs makes a good cradle] a removable post [illustration] it is often desirable to have football and baseball grounds in public parks roped in during the game, but after the game the ropes and stakes must be removed. to drive in iron stakes and then remove them is hard work and requires considerable time. the sketch shows a much better way. a piece of -in. pipe, about in. long, is sunk level with the ground in the right location for a post. the post is made of - / -in. pipe of the length desired. this will just fit inside of the -in. pipe. a wood plug is fitted in the upper end of the pipe in the ground to keep out dirt when the post is removed.--contributed by abner b. shaw, n. dartmouth, mass. string-and-ball trick [illustration] the stopping of a ball on a string at any desired point is understood by almost every person, but to make one that can be worked only when the operator so desires is a mysterious trick. procure a wooden ball, about in. in diameter, and cut it into two equal parts. insert a small peg in the flat surface of one half, a little to one side of the center, as shown, and allow the end to project about / in. the flat surface of the other half is cut out concave, as shown, to make it / in. deep. the two halves are then glued together, and a hole is drilled centrally on the division line for a string to pass through. to do the trick, hold an end of the string in each hand tightly and draw it taut with the ball at the top, then slacken the string enough to allow the ball to slide down the string. to stop the ball at any point, pull the string taut. before handing the ball and string out for inspection, push the string from each side of the ball and turn it slightly to throw it off the peg. this will allow the string to pass freely through the ball, and it cannot be stopped at will. to replace the string reverse the operation.--contributed by wm. o. swett, chicago. wall-paper cleaner the following mixture i have used with the best results for years. thoroughly mix together pt. of wheat flour and pt. of powdered whiting, then add sufficient water to make a dough. to clean a dirty papered wall, take a piece of the dough that can be easily grasped in the hand, press it against the surface and make a long stroke downward. during the process of cleaning, keep kneading the dirt into the dough. the preparation can be mixed in any amount desired by using the proportions named.--contributed by c. w. bause, jr., e. troy, wis. revolving shaft without power the device illustrated seems paradoxical for it apparently works without any power being applied to it, making from two to three revolutions per hour, which, though slow, is nevertheless motion, requiring energy. [illustration: the expansion and contraction of the ropes keep the disk up and to one side of the center] the shaft a is supported on the edges, in the bearings b and c, of a tank, d. a disk, e, having a central hole larger in diameter than the shaft, is located at the middle of the latter. the disk is supported by or more cotton ropes, f. the tank is filled to the level g with water. the lower ropes, being immersed in the water, shrink and lift the disk slightly above the center in the position of an eccentric, as shown by the dotted lines in the sketch. the center of gravity of the disk in this position, being higher and slightly to one side of the shaft, the disk has a tendency to turn around. the motion drives the next rope into the water where it becomes soaked and shrinkage takes place again, lifting the disk to a higher position, while the rope coming out of the water dries out. the ropes emerging from the water but not yet thoroughly dry cause the upper part of the disk to be in an eccentric position laterally with reference to the center of the shaft, thus causing the center of gravity to be not only above but also slightly to one side.--contributed by charles roberts, brooklyn, n. y. a paper-bag holder [illustration] a holder, to accommodate the different-sized bags used in a store, can be easily made of a board, in. wide and in. long. one edge of the board is cut with notches similar to the teeth of a ripsaw and their back-sloping edges are drilled to admit a nail point. a sufficient quantity of bags is placed in a pile and a nail is driven through the edge near their upper ends, and the projecting point of the nail is stuck into one of the holes. proceed in the same manner with bags of other sizes. to remove a bag, take hold of the lower end of the outermost one and tear it from the nail. be sure to drive the nails through the bags close to the top.--contributed by abner b. shaw, n. dartmouth, mass. covering for chalk trays the chalk trays fitted at the lower edge of blackboards soon collect considerable chalk dust and the chalk sticks dropped into it are, therefore, disagreeable to handle. a simple way of keeping the sticks clean is to cover the trays with wire mesh which is shaped like a tray but not so deep as the chalk tray. thus the chalk dust will fall through this screen and be out of the way of the sticks. a curtain hanger a close-coiled spring, about / in. in diameter, makes a much better hanger for a short curtain than a small rod. the spring should be about in. shorter than the width of the window and fastened with screwhooks. the spring is preferable not only because it is less apt to tear the fabric, as it will give some if the curtain is pulled, but also for the reason that it is much easier to put it through the hem than the rod.--contributed by walter ramm, new york city. [illustration] joints for model aeroplane in constructing model or toy aeroplanes the strips used are so slender that it is difficult to join them at the ends with brads without splitting them. if glue is used, there is danger of breaking two or more ribs, should it be necessary to remove a broken or defective rib. [illustration: cartridge shells used for joints (fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. )] an empty -gauge long cartridge can be formed into an elbow that will connect the framework accurately, give more strength than glue or brads, and allow a broken section to be removed without spoiling the other part of the framework. file off the end a, fig. , so that the shell will form a straight tube, and file as shown in fig. with a three-cornered file. then bend the two sections into the form shown in fig. and solder the adjacent edges. file off the rough spots and drill small holes, as shown, for the insertion of pins to hold the wood strips. much time in the building of model aeroplanes can be saved by keeping a supply of these elbows on hand. * * * * * a deep rust on tools may be removed by soaking them in a strong, hot bath of potash and water for a half hour, then dipping them into a solution of part muriatic acid in parts cold water. an indoor baseball game an indoor game of baseball may be played on a board ft. long and ft. wide. a diamond is laid off at one end of the board and pins representing the hits are attached to the board so they will project above the surface. the locations of the players are designated by holes bored part way in the wood with an expansive bit. these holes should be large enough to receive the rings easily. the rings may be gaskets or they may be made of rope, and should have an inside diameter of about in. [illustration: baseball diamond on a board] only two persons can play at this game. the distance from the board to the thrower may be from to ft., according to the size of the room. this distance should be marked and each thrower stand at the same place. if the ring is thrown over one of the "base-hit" or "two-bagger" pegs, it shows the number of bases secured. throwing a ring over one of the "home-run" pegs means a score, of course. the "infield hit" secures a base. if the ring slips into a hole, that counts one out. a player must throw until he has three outs. the score is kept for the runs made.--contributed by francis p. hobart, willoughby, o. a lantern for the camp [illustration] a very desirable lantern for camp use is one that utilizes a candle instead of a lamp. such a lantern can be made of an ordinary oil-lantern globe, a block of wood, some galvanized wire, a few nails, a metal collar, and a hood of zinc or tin. the block of wood is cut octagonally and the metal collar is fastened to it as shown. four headless nails are driven into the center of the block, spaced so as to hold an ordinary candle securely. the wire is formed into a u-shape and the ends fastened into the block of wood outside of the candle socket, and within the globe circle. a conical piece of tin or zinc is formed to fit over the top of the globe as shown. as the candle does not require much draft there is no opening provided.--contributed by addison w. baird, m. d., new york city. electric lights controlled from two or more switches many times it is quite an advantage to have a lamp or group of lamps so connected that the current may be turned on or off by any one of a number of different switches. for example, the lights in a long hall or passage-way can be lighted or extinguished by operating a switch at either end of the hall; the lights in the upper and lower halls of a residence, turned on or off by operating a switch upstairs or downstairs as the case might demand; the lights in the garage, controlled by switches at both the inside and outside door, etc. [illustration: lamps controlled from two switches (fig. )] the method of connecting a number of lamps to a circuit so that they can be controlled from either of two switches is shown in fig. . the switches, as illustrated in this drawing, are in such a position that the lamps will burn. if either of the switches be thrown to its other position (there are two positions for each switch), the circuit will be opened. the operation then of either switch will again close the circuit. [illustration: lamps controlled by any number of switches (fig. )] the method of connecting a number of lamps to a circuit so that they can be controlled by any number of switches is shown in fig. . the switches are all in such a position that the lamps will burn. if any one of the switches be turned to its second position (all the switches have two positions), the circuit will be open. the dotted lines at switch c show the connections through switch c after it has been operated. operating switch d then will again close the circuit, by using the dotted lines in switches c and d. the wiring for the control of lamps, as just indicated, must comply with the underwriters' requirements, and also city requirements, if the work be done in a place having city regulations for electric wiring. * * * * * wire netting may be cut by laying it on the side edge of a spade and striking it with a hammer. [illustration] electric score board for indoor games a very satisfactory electric score board, for use in scoring basketball and other games played indoors, is shown in the illustration. it is constructed entirely of wood, but should be lined with asbestos board or sheathing. the dimensions are a matter of choice, but one ft. long, ft. wide and in. deep is a good size. the back of the box is provided with two cleats, each - / ft. long, fastened at each end. this allows a projection of in. at the top and bottom, for fastening the score board to the wall. the manner of construction is shown in fig. , and a cross section of the box, in fig. . [illustration: electric indoor score board, showing its construction and manner of cutting out the letters and numbers (fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. )] the front of the box should be fastened with screws so as to make its removal easy in case of repairs. this part of the box carries the frame for inserting the numbers and the words "home team" and "visitors," as shown in fig. . as the words are a permanent fixture, the cards carrying them are fastened to the front. at the end of these words a frame is constructed as shown in fig. , in which the cards having the numbers are inserted in slides. numerals and letters can be cut out of heavy cardboard or tin. the design of a letter having sharp angles and straight edges, as shown in fig. , is very easily cut out with a chisel. the method of cutting is shown in fig. . as portions of the letters and numerals, such as the center in an o, would fall out if cut entirely around, some way must be provided to hold the parts in place. the way to prepare stencils is to leave a portion uncut, which is known as a tie, and the letter will appear as shown in fig. . the best method for making these letters and figures is to cut out the letter entirely, then to paste thin paper over the back and replace the parts removed by the cutting in their original position.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. a mission frame for an alarm clock the old nickelplated alarm clock which usually adorns the kitchen mantel is, to say the least, not ornamental, and i improved the appearance of mine without lessening its usefulness by making a small case in mission style for it. [illustration: an alarm clock with a wood covering ornamented and finished in mission style] the sketch shows a design which is neat and easily made. accurate dimensions cannot be given as these will vary with the size of the clock. quarter-sawed oak, / in. thick, is the best material to use. the front and back can be cut on a jigsaw, the opening for the clock face being cut slightly smaller than the metal of the clock so that only the face shows. an opening in the back piece should be cut a little smaller than the one in front, to provide a free opening for winding the clock. fasten the parts together with small round-head brass brads or screws and finish to match the furniture. a small desk clock can be made in a similar manner, using a cheap watch instead of the alarm clock.--contributed by c. e. hamann, somerville, mass. mixing sulphuric acid one of the first lessons given a student in chemistry is how to mix sulphuric acid with water. this would naturally be supposed to be very easy, yet, if it is not done right, it will surely result in injury to the person doing the mixing. the specific gravity of sulphuric acid is . and, on account of its chemical attraction to water, great heat is set up or generated when the two are being mixed. if the acid is put into a jar and the water poured onto it, they will be temporarily separated, as the heavy acid will remain at the bottom, the chemical reaction taking place on the dividing line only. this soon generates heat which rapidly increases until steam is formed. then the water boils over and finally becomes a bubbling volcano which readily ejects the contents of the jar. as the mixture at this moment is very hot, bad burns will be the result, which are aggravated by the biting of the acid; and clothing or anything that it comes in contact with will be ruined or badly damaged. always remember this caution: add the acid to the water. the following is the proper way to proceed in mixing sulphuric acid as well as other acids of lighter weight. place the water in a jar and pour the acid in, a little at a time, stirring the mixture with a wooden stick. the mixing process will always heat the solution, which in many instances, must be allowed to cool before using. a chinese pagoda fold the end of a long and narrow strip of paper over several times as shown in fig. and roll the entire length over a stick, then remove the roll and crease, or make it flat, as shown in fig. . make two cuts with a sharp knife centrally so that they reach to the several folds first made on the inner end of the paper, then cut the fold in the paper between the cuts as shown in fig. , and bend the ends over to form the shape in fig. . insert the knife blade under the first fold and draw it out until the paper takes the form in fig. . [illustration: stages in making the strip of paper into the finished pagoda (fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. )] these pagodas can be made large or small, as desired, and also varied in several ways. large ones can be formed and used as small tree ornaments. all that is necessary to make them high is to roll up one strip of paper on another in the rolling process. in rolling up several strips, one on top of the other successively, various colored papers may be used and the appearance is greatly enhanced.--contributed by chas. c. bradley, w. toledo, o. a cuspidor carrier [illustration] the task of handling cuspidors under all conditions is anything but pleasant, but the carrier shown in the sketch makes quite an improvement over ordinary methods. the carrier consists of an iron rod, / in. in diameter and ft. long. one end is bent to fit around the neck of the cuspidor and the other is shaped into a handle. guide for grinding a plane iron when a plane iron has been sharpened a number of times, it often becomes so out of square that the edge cannot be made parallel with the bottom of the plane block, even by using the lateral adjustment. where this happens, the plane iron must be reground. if an emery wheel mounted in a polishing head or lathe is at hand, this can be easily accomplished. loosen the plane-iron cap and screw it down at right angles to the plane iron, also reverse the tool rest as shown in the sketch. in this way the work can be done better and more quickly than by the usual method.--contributed by l. s. uphoff, schenectady, n. y. [illustration: the plane-iron cap turned at right angles, provides a guide to grind the edge straight] to prevent torch lights from smoking in the shop or factory oil torches are sometimes used and much trouble is experienced by the excessive smoking of the flame. this occurs because too much carbon remains unburned, and can be remedied by first soaking the wick in a weak solution of acetic acid. a -per-cent solution can be purchased for a few cents at any drug store and will soak a great number of wicks. the acid is not poisonous unless taken internally. a lard and fruit presser a very simple but handy device for pressing out lard, juices for jelly, or fruit for marmalade, is made from two boards, each in. long, in. wide and / in. thick, formed into the shape of paddles and hinged together. the hinge is made by running a wire through holes bored in one end of the paddles and twisting the ends together as shown. this presser will save the hands from stains and other effects of the juices.--contributed by julia a. white, glenburg, pa. [illustration: two paddles hinged together with a piece of wire make a presser for lard and fruits] an electric-light bulb as barometer to use a discarded electric bulb as a fairly reliable barometer the point is broken off with a pair of pliers while holding the bulb under water. as the bulb is a vacuum, it completely fills with water. if the bulb is now suspended from a wire or thread fastened at the socket end, the water will not run out of it in fair weather when the atmospheric pressure is normal or high, but if the pressure falls, as happens when bad weather is approaching, the water will begin to bulge out of the small opening and sometimes a small drop may even fall off. when, with returning fair weather, the atmospheric pressure increases, the water can no longer bulge or drop out of the bulb. a swinging-pendulum trick to swing a pendulum, picked out from a number of them at random, without touching it is a very puzzling trick. the articles necessary are a medium-sized table and a number of pendulums, some of which are suspended from a rod with their lower weighted ends inside of water and wine glasses placed on the table, and others attached to corks so that they will hang inside of bottles. the spectators gather around the table which can be in full light. the performer sits at one side of the table with his hands flat on the top. a person may pick out any pendulum and ask him to swing it, which he will proceed to do without touching it, also making it strike the glass while it swings. another pendulum may be pointed out and he will start that one apparently by looking at it, while the other one stops. [illustration: any one pendulum can be made to swing at will by moving the table slightly] this may seem to be impossible, yet it is very easy. it will be seen that no two pendulums have the same length. a pendulum makes a certain number of swings in a given time, depending on its length. a long pendulum requires more time to complete its swing and will, therefore, make a less number of swings than a short one in the same time. it is only necessary to move the table slightly and watch the pendulum picked out until it begins to swing independently of the others, which soon happens. to make the longer pendulums swing, longer movements of the table top must be made. with a little practice anyone can become a skilled medium in pendulum swinging.--contributed by james a. hart, philadelphia, pa. applying a strap hinge an ordinary strap hinge can be applied to a door or box cover in such a way that only one wing will show. ordinarily the hinge opens as at a, and, on reversing it, the hinge will open to the limit as shown at b. if one wing is bent toward the other, as shown at c, the hinge may be applied, as shown at d. as this process reverses the hinge, the screw holes must be countersunk on the opposite side. [illustration: reversing a strap hinge so that when it is applied only one wing will show] tricks performed with thumbs tied together to have one's thumbs securely tied together by any person in an audience and examined by the spectators, then have some one throw a hoop or bicycle rim on one of the performer's arms as if the thumbs were not tied, seems impossible, yet this trick can be done, and its simplicity is its own protection, even though performed close to a committee selected from the audience. a stick can be held perpendicularly by anyone with one hand at each end and the performer can thrust his arms at the stick which passes between them with the thumbs apparently tied tightly together. the same effect is produced on the arm of any person, while the hands are tightly clasped, and before and after each movement the tied thumbs are examined by the committee. the two cords used for the trick are made as follows: the first should be about in. long, / in. in diameter at its center and tapering to points at the ends. the other cord is about in. long, / in. in diameter in the center and also tapering at the ends. they are constructed of chinese or japanese paper, which is a soft, but very tough, fibrous texture. cut the paper into strips, in. wide, taking care that the grain, or rather the fiber, runs lengthwise. beginning at one end, twist the paper on itself at an angle as in rolling the old-fashioned paper lamp lighter. each turn should lap over the former about half of its width. when within in. of the end of the first strip apply another by moistening the joining ends and continue the twisting. when the length given is reached, break off the strip and start back over the first in the opposite direction. lay on enough layers to secure the diameter given. when finished, the cords should be strong enough to resist the pressure applied by the hands. [illustration: manner of crossing the thumbs to receive the double tie of the cord] with all fingers pressed together spread both thumbs away from the hands, as shown at a. lay the right thumb across the left, as at b, the large knuckle bone of one lying directly over that of the other. the largest cord is laid over the crossing and both ends brought down, crossed under the thumbs, then up again, and tied in two knots on top of the right thumb, as at c. the trick in the tying is at this point. just as the tie is being made pull the left thumb until the smallest-diameter joints reach the cord and pull down with the left hand. push the right thumb so that the fleshy part enters as far as possible into the cords. insist on the tie being made tightly. [illustration: the cords as they are placed around the thumbs and tied in a double knot] the second and smaller cord is laid below the right thumb as shown at d, and on top of the left against the first cord, crossed, brought back and tied twice. when this is being done reverse the pushing and pulling as described, pushing the left thumb and pulling out on the right. secure all the slack on the left thumb, the right being pushed into the cords at its smallest diameter and the second cord being tied high up and as near the right thumb as possible, with knots tightly drawn. if this second knot is not tight it will give trouble in performing the trick. the release is made by bringing the tips of the fingers together and placing the thumbs into the palms. if the ties have been carefully made there will be no trouble to withdraw the left thumb as it is masked by the hands. the peculiar nature of the paper cord causes the loop from which the thumb was removed to remain open and rigid as a wire loop, and if the last tie was tightly drawn, the second cord will not slip down to close the loop. in approaching the hoop, stick, or arm, touch the thing to be passed with the finger tips and withdraw them, swaying backward a few times and, in the last swing before making the pass, remove the thumb from the loop. after passing, replace the thumb in the loop. in passing the object, open the finger tips, then close them and open the palms, and push the left thumb back into the loop, close the palms and apply a strain on both thumbs, then show the tie. be careful to press both thumbs closely into the palms in passing so that they will not strike the object. always exhibit the tie from the back of the hands with the palms spread out. if there is any difficulty in drawing out or replacing the thumb in the loop, it is because the ties have not been properly made or tied when the thumbs were in the right place. it requires some practice to do the trick quickly.--fayette. a way to keep home accounts an easy way to keep track of all the home expenses is by the popular card system. the index cards can be had at any stationery-supply house. place the cards in a box on end and have a good supply of blanks back of them ready for use. under, or back of, each letter place as many blanks as is necessary, and almost instantly any item of expense in the home may be found, such as the cost of coal for the year, drugs, meat, the cost of clothing for a child, and the account of the head of the family. the boy's account might read as follows under the letter j: johnnie jan. shoes $ . jan. book . jan. hair cut . feb. stockings . and so on through the year. the mother can see at a glance just when the last shoes were bought, and how much it cost for books and paper. everything pertaining to the home keeping can be so recorded and each year compared. once given a trial no other bookkeeping will be required in the home where time counts. children can be taught to keep account of their expenses in this way, and thus thrift and good business methods are encouraged.--contributed by harriette i. lockwood, philadelphia, pa. how to make a blowgun either a -in. length of a small curtain-rod tubing or a straight piece of small bamboo pole, cut off between the joints, can be used for the gun part of this simple device. if bamboo is used, see that it is cleaned out smoothly on the inside. the dart used in the gun is shown at a in the illustration. it is made by threading the eye of a darning needle full of yarn, clipping all the strands off to a uniform length of about / in., and then picking out the fibers into a brushlike mass above the needle's eye. another needle or pin can be used for fuzzing the threads. the point to observe is that the brush is of somewhat larger diameter than the bore of the gun, so that when the needle is pushed into the mouth end the brush will be compressed and make an air-tight plug. [illustration: the blowgun is made of a piece of tubing, and the dart of a darning needle] after thus inserting the dart, hold it as shown and give a quick, sharp blast of the breath into the gun. the dart will travel with great speed and accuracy for ft. or more, and stick wherever it strikes. the point being so small, it can be used in the house for shooting at a paper target pinned to the wall without injury to the plaster or woodwork.--contributed by c. c. fraser, saginaw, mich. a brush for applying soldering acid a good brush for applying acid to articles for soldering can be made of a piece of small copper pipe for the handle, and fine copper wire for the brush. to make the brush part, take a piece of cardboard, about - / in. wide, and wind several turns of no. gauge copper wire around it, then remove the coil, insert about / in. of it in the pipe, and flatten the latter to hold the wire. clip the ends of the wire, and a brush will be had that ordinary acids will not affect. if only a short piece of pipe is available, it can be used as a ferrule and a handle made of wire or wood.--contributed by a. r. cunning, w. new brighton, n. y. inkwell and penholder [illustration] an empty paste pot with a water well in the center makes an excellent inkwell and penholder. fill the exterior well a with cement or plaster of paris, push the number of penholders to be held into the cement before it sets, moving them about occasionally to prevent the cement from sticking to them and to make the hole a little larger than the holder. the part b is for the ink.--contributed by r. f. pinkney, lazareto del mariel, cuba. a homemade loose-leaf pocket memorandum the little memorandum illustrated herewith is very handy to carry in the coat or vest pocket for taking notes, etc. loose leaves may be supplied with very little trouble. it consists of a fold of paper, cut as shown and pasted at the ends. the pocket thus formed will easily hold doz. sheets and the slits cut on the outside will admit sheets.--contributed by c. b. hanson, fitchburg, mass. [illustration: the holder is made of heavy manila paper and will stand considerable wear] * * * * * an ideal cleaner for kid gloves is carbon tetrachloride. rubber-band-change trick the trick of changing a rubber band from the first and second fingers to the third and fourth, if done quickly, can be performed without detection by any one. the band on the first two fingers is shown to the spectator as in fig. , with the back of the hand up. the hand is then turned over and the band drawn out quickly, as shown in fig. , in a manner as to give the impression that the band is whole and on the two fingers. while doing this, quickly fold all the fingers so that their ends enter the band, and turn the hand over and let go the band, then show the back with the fingers doubled up. in reality the fingers will be in the band, as in fig. , and the back will still show the band on the first two fingers. quickly straighten out all the fingers, and the band will snap over the last two fingers, as shown in fig. .--contributed by e. k. marshall, oak park, ill. [illustration: transferring rubber band from the first two fingers to the last pair, like magic (fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. )] a swinging electric-light bracket the light bracket shown is both ornamental and useful and can be swung from one side of the room to the other in an instant, a feature that is of great value in a dimly lighted kitchen. it can be made of either brass or soft iron, but, for the sake of convenience, the description will be for one made of brass. procure four pieces of brass, in wide, / in. thick and in. long, and bend them to the shape shown at a. these are to form the ceiling bracket. a / -in. hole is drilled in the end of each piece to be against the ceiling. the other end is bent slightly concave and soldered to a brass collar, b, which is threaded on the inside. this collar must be of such a size that it will screw on the end of a brass pipe, c, in. in outside diameter. the length of this pipe should be or inches. the base d of the bracket is made of a brass bar, / in. thick, / in. wide and in. long, a scroll being turned on in. of its length at the globe end, and in. of the other end turned up at right angles and soldered to a ring made of / -in. brass that acts as a bearing around the pipe. [illustration: a bracket forming a pendant and swinging arm to change the location of the electric light] the upper brace e is made of / -in. brass, the same width as the base piece and about in. in length. each end is turned into a scroll and then riveted or soldered to the base d and to the upper brass ring. the space between the base d, the brace e, and the pipe c is filled with any style of scroll or other brace that may suit the taste of the maker, but the base d must be at right angles to the pipe c before the scroll is fastened in place. a cap, f, is screwed to the lower end of the pipe, to keep the bracket in place. ordinary flexible light cord is used to connect to the light which is swung to the scroll end of the base.--contributed by f. l. matter, portland, oregon. match safe to deliver one match at a time a match safe that will deliver only one match at a time is constructed of two parts, the box or holder and the base, with slider. the box is diamond-shaped and of the size shown by the dimensions. the base, with slider, consists of two pieces, the baseboard and a standard which runs through the box diagonally on the longest dimension in a vertical position. a thumbtack is inserted in the standard near the top to prevent the box from being lifted entirely from the base. [illustration: the box delivers only one match when it is raised and lowered on the standard] the matches are filled into the box on both sides of the standard. when a match is wanted, lift the box up and let it down again, and one match will be caught in the notch and raised out of the box. to prevent the box from tipping sideways when it is raised up, small pieces can be glued to the box ends on the inside and on both sides of the standard.--contributed by a. s. barrows, new britain, conn. cartridge shells used for electrical contacts in making small switchboards, rheostats, and other electrical devices, i found a good use for old center-fire cartridge shells as shown in the sketch. a hole a little smaller than the diameter of the shell is made in the board and the shell is forced in. the proper wires are then soldered to the metal on the inside, or the wire may be placed inside of the shell and held in contact by driving a wood plug in as indicated.--contributed by w. o. nettleton, washington, d. c. [illustration: the heads of the cartridge shells make good contacts for a switch lever] a dowel-turning tool the owner of a wood or metal lathe can easily construct a tool that will turn dowels of any size quickly. this tool, as described by a correspondent of work, london, consists of a block of wood, shaped as shown at a, and a plane bit, b, attached with a wood screw. the hole in the collet c must be of such size that it will admit the rough stock freely but also prevent it from wabbling as the stick turns. the stock is chucked in the ordinary manner and the tool is run on the outer end. [illustration: the tool is very similar to a plane and is used with a lathe for turning dowels] to tie a hammock [illustration] a method not generally known to quickly and securely hitch up a hammock between two trees, in camp or elsewhere, is shown in the sketch. each end rope is given one or more turns around a tree trunk and then tucked under, as shown. the pull on the rope will draw it tightly against the rough bark on the tree. the harder the pull, the tighter the rope binds against the tree trunk. in this manner a hammock can be put up in a few moments and it is as readily taken down.--contributed by bert morehouse, des moines, iowa. an inexpensive file envelopes make a very inexpensive as well as a neat file for papers and letters if they are arranged and fastened together so that they can be kept in one packet. in making such a file procure as many envelopes as there will be headings in the file, also a number of strips of gummed tape, about - / in. long. there must be twice as many of these strips as there are envelopes. [illustration: the file is built up of envelopes joined together with small strips of tape] bind the backs of two envelopes, a and b, together leaving a space of / in. between the envelopes. bind a third envelope, c, to b, and so on. the strips of tape from a to b and from b to c are on opposite sides of the envelope b. continue binding until the required number of envelopes have been joined together. assign a heading to each of the envelopes, and the file is ready for use. when completed it should appear as shown in d.--contributed by alfred rice, syracuse, n. y. window-shade guides the annoyance of a shade that will not run true on the roller and flops in the wind coming through an open window can be overcome by using guide wires as follows: [illustration: two parallel guide wires hold the stick of the shade in its proper place] the stick in the hem on the lower edge of the shade is supplied with a screweye, a, at each end. a wire is run through the screweye and fastened in a vertical position on the casing with screweyes as shown by b, b. a second wire is similarly attached on the other side of the shade, taking care to have both wires parallel and true with the ends of the roller.--contributed by george lue, san francisco, california. watering plants at the roots an effective way to water rose bushes, shrubs or plants is to place an old cowhorn in the earth so that the small end will be near the roots of the plant and the large end level with the surface of the ground, and fill the horn with water. the small end of the horn should be cut off at such a point that the hole will be about the size of a lead pencil.--contributed by chas. l. richards, philadelphia, pa. how to clean jewelry to cleanse articles of silver, gold, bronze and brass use a saturated solution of cyanide of potassium. to clean small articles, dip each one into the solution and rinse immediately in hot water; then dry and polish with a linen cloth. larger articles are cleaned by rubbing the surface with a small tuft of cotton saturated in the solution. as cyanide of potassium is a deadly poison, care must be taken not to have it touch any sore spot on the flesh.--contributed by g. a. koerbis, u. s. s. "vermont." runner for a go-cart as the wheels of a go-cart do not push through the snow very easily and the cart, therefore, does not run in a straight direction, and as i did not care to purchase a sled, i instead fitted the go-cart wheels with runners as shown in the sketch. i purchased a piece of machine steel of a diameter to fit the grooves in the wheels after the rubber tires were removed. this i cut and bent to the shape shown at a, making two runners, and applied one to each pair of wheels, front and rear, as shown at b. the runners kept the wheels immovable and caused the cart to glide over the snow as a sleigh. this runner will not interfere with the folding of a collapsible cart.--contributed by roy b. hanaford, detroit, mich. [illustration: the runners are easily applied to the wheels of a go-cart and hold them solidly] a ring-throwing game the board for this game is made of a cover from an old candy or lard pail, washed and painted black. when the paint is dry, place pegs on the surface as shown and number them with white paint or by fastening numbers cut from paper below them. the numbering of the pegs is not consecutive, but low and high numbers distributed with the object in view of making it difficult to secure a high score. each player has a set of five rings, which are nothing else but rubber fruit-jar rings. these can be purchased at a grocery store. the board is hung on a wall or post, and the player stands about or ft. away and throws the rings, one at a time, trying to ring pegs having the highest numbers. the sum of the numbers corresponding to the pegs ringed counts toward the final score. turns are taken by each player, and each time five rings are thrown. the score can be set at any amount, being about right.--contributed by francis p. hobart, willoughby, o. [illustration: the candy-pail cover with pegs numbered and a set of rings for each player] a pen and brush holder a sheet of corrugated paper is a handy thing to have on the writing desk, for the purpose of placing wet pens or brushes in its grooves. the paper absorbs the liquid, and the corrugations hold the pens or brushes in handy positions. a sheet of this paper is almost as useful a desk accessory as a blotter.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. [illustration: the depressions in the paper hold the pens or brushes and also absorb the excess fluid] supporter for a double clothesline [illustration] a double clothesline of any length should have a supporter in the center to keep the line from sagging when the clothes are hung on the lower one. the supporter shown in the sketch saves the wear from the strain on the lines. it also keeps the clothes in a higher current of air so that they dry quicker. the supporter is made of two nickelplated rings measuring in. in diameter. they are bound together as shown. the rings being nickelplated, the supporter will not rust the clothes. the clothes should be arranged on the lower line so that the supporter will rest in the center.--contributed by katharine d. morse, syracuse, new york. pincushion for the arm those that have trouble in keeping the pincushion within reach while sewing, can remedy the trouble by making one to fit the wrist or arm. an ordinary pincushion is attached to a piece of cardboard and an elastic sewed to the cardboard edges so that it will fit on the arm. the pincushion is not in the way and is readily worn so that the pins are easier to reach than if pinned to the dress.--contributed by frank sterrett, portland, o. electric test for fixtures a very useful device for testing out fixtures before they are connected up can be easily made as follows: two wires are run from a plug, a, one to a socket, b, and the other to terminate at c. the line from the other side of the socket b terminates at d. in testing a fixture, the plug a is turned into a socket of some source of current, and a lamp is turned into the socket b. the terminal c is held to the metal covering of the fixture, while the end d is held to one of the wires. if there is a leak of current, the lamp at b and those of the fixture will light up.--contributed by fred schumacher, brooklyn, n. y. [illustration: one line of the two connecting wires is broken and the ends used as terminals on the fixture] opening for steam in a utensil cover when cooking certain foods the ordinary cover on a vessel confines too much steam, while if no cover at all is used, too much will escape, hence a cover which is provided with a vent is very desirable. the cover attachment shown in the illustration is evidently well adapted for service on such occasions and can be easily made as follows: [illustration: the small triangular surface provided with holes for releasing surplus steam is covered with a cap] lay out a small triangle on some level part of the cover and punch several holes inside of the lines. cut a cap, a, from a piece of tin to cover the holes. a small projection on the edge of the cap serves to swing it one way or the other, as needed, and it is fastened loosely to the cover with a soft-copper rivet, so that it may be easily opened. drying seeds a good way to dry tomato, cantaloupe, and other seeds is to put them on blotters. they will quickly dry in this manner and will not become moldy, as the blotter soaks up the moisture.--contributed by theodore becker, kansas city, mo. cleaning clothes by boiling them when cleaning clothes by boiling them in a boiler over a fire, fit in a false bottom to keep the clothes from touching the bottom. the false bottom should be perforated with holes, / -in. in diameter and in. apart, over the entire piece. fasten four legs, each about in. long, to the under side to make a space between the bottoms. in washing, all that is necessary is to place the clothes in the boiler and boil them. the dirt will come loose and settle through the holes and on the boiler bottom. an emergency tack puller one day i had to pull some tacks but had no tack puller at hand. an idea came to me to use the kitchen spoon, and i found that it worked even better than a regular tack puller. the ordinary kitchen spoon usually has an edge sharp enough to get under any tack.--contributed by h. d. harkins, st. louis, mo. [illustration: the point of a spoon will easily pull a tack from soft wood] a puzzle with figures this puzzle is to arrange all the figures or digits, from to inclusively, in two rows, each containing all the digits, so that the sum in addition as well as the remainder in subtraction will have nine figures, in which all the digits are represented. there are several solutions to the puzzle, and the following is one of them: the sum of the foregoing numbers and the remainder, when the lower row is subtracted from the upper, will both have nine figures and include all the digits from to .--contributed by walter bennett, detroit, mich. to fasten loose table legs when legs of an ordinary table become loose and unsteady they may be easily repaired as shown in the sketch. nails do not hold well in such places and glue will not stand much washing. [illustration: a piece of wire bent around the leg of a table will make it rigid] the method of making the repair is to drill / -in. holes through the rails on each side of the leg and insert pieces of galvanized wire of a size to fit the holes. after the wire is inserted, the ends are bent over. the illustration clearly shows the repair.--contributed by edwin c. wright, newport, ky. washbasin holder [illustration] a piece of wire formed into the shape shown in the sketch makes a handy hook to hold a washbasin when it is not in use. this keeps it out of the way and out of the dirty water which might be thrown into the kitchen sink.--contributed by f. c. althen, anamosa, iowa. a cleaner for canvas shoes one of the most economical cleansers for canvas shoes is oxide of zinc. mix a small quantity of the powder with water, to the consistency of thin paste, and apply it to the canvas with an old toothbrush, rubbing it in thoroughly. then set the shoes aside to dry before wearing them.--contributed by katharine d. morse, syracuse, n. y. * * * * * a good substitute currycomb can be made of corncobs tied together tightly. ruling blank books a special ruling for a blank book can be drawn by using a thin piece of sheet metal or cardboard, cut as shown in fig. , for a template. the pencil is drawn along one edge of the cutout so that it will make lines as shown in fig. . [illustration: a template having slots cut for drawing special vertical and horizontal lines on pages (fig. , fig. )] if horizontal lines are required, cut notches on the edge for the location of each line as shown. when the vertical lines are drawn, these notches will mark the places for the horizontal lines. how to demagnetize a watch quite often the attendants or a visitor to an electric-light plant discovers after a few days that his watch is losing a half hour or more a day by having become magnetized by the dynamos. in stations where the old types of machines are still in use there is a great deal more danger from what is called "stray" magnetic fields than in those where modern machines are installed. the jeweler demagnetizes a watch in the following way: he has a piece of soft iron with an opening cut in its center of such shape and size as to receive the watch, and with a fine wire wound about it. after the watch has been placed in position, an alternating current, that is, one whose direction is changing at regular intervals, is sent through the winding, and thus a magnetic field is produced that also changes in direction as the current reverses. the current is gradually reduced in value and the magnetism originally possessed by the watch is removed. when an alternating current is not available, a direct current may be used, its direction being rapidly reversed by what is known as a "polarity changer." anyone can demagnetize his own watch, however, with very little trouble and no expense by a much simpler method. procure a piece of heavy linen thread about ft. long, attach one end of it to the ring of the watch, hold the other end and turn the watch around until the thread is twisted at least one hundred times. now allow the thread to unwind, and as the watch revolves, pass it back and forth near a powerful electromagnet. the field magnet of a good-sized generator or motor will answer. the machine should be in operation, or at least there should be a current in the windings about the fields, when you attempt to demagnetize the watch. while the thread is unwinding, and the watch moved in the magnetic field, gradually withdraw from the magnet so that when the watch ceases to revolve, it is just outside of the field. always be sure to keep the watch revolving while it is in the magnetic field, otherwise the results will be very unsatisfactory, and more harm than good may result. a pencil holder procure a piece of paper, in. long and in. wide, and roll it one time around a lead pencil, then coat the remaining surface of the paper with glue. roll this around the pencil and a tube is formed, which will hold a pencil or even pieces of pencil down to / in. in length.--contributed by w. d. brooks, paterson, n. j. [illustration: a stub of a pencil can be easily held in the tube for writing] a poultry-food chopper the illustration shows a handy device for cutting roots for food, and for chopping and mixing stale bread, potatoes, peelings, refuse fruit, etc., for poultry. any blacksmith can make the chopper at little cost. for the cutting blades use two pieces of steel a little heavier than oil-barrel hoops, each - / in. wide and in. long. procure a / -in. iron rod, about ft. long, bend one end in the shape of a spade handle and split the other end for a distance of about - / in. [illustration: the chopper consists of a rod handle to which blades are attached by riveting or welding] sharpen one edge of each blade and curve the metal slightly. lay the two blades together with the convex sides touching in the center and insert them in the slit in the handle end. they are riveted or welded in place. heat and bend the blades at right angles. many of the materials mentioned for poultry foods may be chopped in an ordinary pail having a strong bottom, but it is best to make a box, about - / ft. square and with a plank bottom, for use with the chopper. a small spring hinge box covers or small doors that are seldom used can be supplied with a small spring hinge as shown in the illustration. the hinge is made of a piece of spring wire which is formed similar to a staple with a coil or complete turn given to the wire in the center. it is attached by driving the points, one into the door and the other into the casing. [illustration: the shape of the hinge, and the manner of attaching it to a cover or door] shoestring end when the tips slip from shoelaces, new ones may be readily made of fine wire. the wire is run through the end of the lace, fig. , and the two ends are twisted tightly together as shown in fig. . this covers the end of the lace and makes, a tip that is easily passed through the eyelets. [illustration: the wire prevents the lace from raveling and makes a tip for easily entering the eyelets (fig. , fig. )] threads on wood shafts in model making it is quite necessary at times to have threads on a wood shaft. these can be made quite satisfactorily by coiling a wire around the shaft where the threads are wanted, and driving the ends into the wood. [illustration: the wire forms a thread that in many instances is quite serviceable for model making] a glass breaker after cutting glass, and especially where a small strip is to be removed, the part must be broken away in small pieces. the accompanying sketch shows a very useful tool for this purpose. the tool is made of a piece of metal having a bolt fastened to it at one end whose nut can be adjusted to the thickness of the glass. [illustration: the nut is set to the thickness of the glass and used to break pieces away] * * * * * old discarded blueprints can be made white and used for sketching by dipping them in a solution of soda and water, in the proportions of oz. of soda to each gallon of water. wood postal cards the card consists of three pieces, or three-ply, veneer. the grain of the outside veneer runs lengthwise, while that of the inside piece runs crosswise. this makes the card straight and keeps it from breaking. for the inner section, walnut, which may be had as thin as / in., or any thin straight-grained veneer may be used. two pieces of veneer, about - / in. wide and in. long; one piece, in. wide and - / in. long,--the length being with the grain of the wood--and two blocks of wood, known as cauls, of the same size or a little larger, and about / in. thick, are required. the veneer is laid flat on a board and cut with a sharp knife or fine saw along the edge of a ruler. the three pieces are glued together in the following manner. use ordinary hot glue, not too thin, but thin enough to run freely from the brush. the glue is applied evenly on both sides of the inner piece only, and this is then stood on edge until the glue chills. then the cauls are heated. this is best done on a stove, or on stove lids over a gas fire. while the blocks are being heated, put one veneer on either side of the middle piece, and a piece of thin paper on each side to keep the glue from the cauls. a hand screw or vise should be opened to almost the distance required. one of the cauls is now laid flat, the veneers upon it and the other caul on top. this should be done quickly. then clamp the whole firmly together. while the full pressure is only needed for about two hours, the pieces should be allowed to dry between the cauls for, say, a day or two, so that they will keep straight. the size of the finished card is - / in. by - / in. it is cut and planed to size while lying flat on a board, the plane being pushed along on its side on the bench top. to dress or clean, clamp one side to the bench. while a scraper blade may be used to advantage, it is not essential, as a block of wood and sandpaper will do. the thinner it is dressed the better. the sharp edges should be removed with sandpaper. the writing on a wood card is not done in the ordinary manner, as the ink would run. the surface must be prepared, which also gives a finish to the wood. melt some wax or paraffin in a suitable vessel and cover the surface of the wood, using a brush or rag. the lines for the address on one side are then drawn, and the writing is done with a hard lead pencil. when through writing on one side, cover it with some strong aniline stain. (aniline, dissolved in hot water, commonly known as water stain and used especially to stain mahogany, is the right kind.) do not remove the wax that was raised by the pencil point. brush the stain over until the whole side is covered. when dry, repeat on the other side. in about an hour the wax may be scraped off with a dull scraper or some other dull instrument. after every particle of wax has been removed, the card is given a good rubbing with a clean, soft rag. it is well to protect the hands as well as the table during the process.--contributed by chas. schapmeier, baltimore, md. fastening screws in tile and brick walls a simple way to fasten screws in tile or brick walls is to drill holes, not too large, for the screws, then tear up some paper, wet it and make a pulp. pack this pulp tightly in the hole and turn in the screws. the screws will stand a great deal of strain.--contributed by john thomas, brantford, ont. shoe pull made of an eyelet the pulling-on strap at the back of a shoe often comes loose, or pulls out, and even if it does not, the trousers will sometimes catch on it if the strap is not tucked inside of the shoe. a very simple way to overcome these troubles is to remove the straps and substitute eyelets. a buttonhook will then serve admirably in pulling the shoe onto the foot. holder for a set of sadirons a very attractive holder for a set of sadirons and their handle can be made as shown in the illustration, although the design may be changed if desired. the holder consists of a shield-shaped back, which is fastened to the wall in a convenient place and has a shelf with openings for the irons attached to it. the shelf is made in two pieces, the bottom part being covered with a heavy piece of tin while the upper is cut out to receive the irons. the irons are placed on the upper piece in such positions that they will be attractively displayed and evenly located, and then a lead-pencil mark is drawn around their base. openings are cut in the wood on these marks and the board fastened on top of the tin-covered shelf. an ordinary brass bracket is used in the center beneath the shelf, to keep it from sagging. [illustration: an ornamented bracket shelf for holding a complete set of sadirons and their handle] the shield is fastened to the wall with two screws, over which two brushed-brass, diamond-shaped pieces are fastened with large brass tacks, to cover the screw heads. the corners of the shield may be ornamented with brushed-brass designs, and the wood finished as desired. the irons can be set in the holder while hot without fear of burning any part, and they will present a very neat appearance.--contributed by g. e. martin, hastings, nebraska. a garden roller a garden roller for digging the earth and crushing clods is easily made of the following material: one round piece of wood, in. in diameter and in. long; two pieces of wood, each in. long, - / in. wide and - / in. thick; one piece, in. long, in. wide and in. thick; two / -in. lag screws, in. long, and a quantity of -penny nails. [illustration: a roller for crushing clods and digging the earth in garden making] the short piece of wood is fitted between the two long pieces with tenon-and-mortise joints to serve as a handle at one end and the roller is fastened between the side pieces at the opposite end to revolve on the lag screws. the nails are driven into the roller so that they project about in. a substitute for glaziers' points ordinary small staples make good substitutes for glaziers' tacks. the points of the staples should be drawn apart slightly, as shown at a, to give them a greater holding area and at the same time make them easier to drive. these points seem to hold the glass better than the regular glaziers' points, consequently the putty will not crack and loosen, and renewing is avoided.--contributed by edward sieja, chicago. [illustration: double-pointed tacks, or staples, with the points spread, used as substitutes for glaziers' points] water-heating coil in a furnace pipe [illustration] the accompanying sketch shows a plan i adopted for conserving the waste heat from my furnace. i found that i was able to put a coil into the smoke pipe, which was about in. in diameter, and thus heat water for domestic purposes. it will be seen that the coil is spiral in shape rather than cylindrical, as the latter would leave a free passage up the center and therefore would not bring enough gases into contact with the coil. in addition to this coil i have a gas heater near the tank which is used only in case the demand for hot water exceeds the capacity of the coil, which is naturally not as efficient per unit of length as one directly within the firepot would be. it has the advantage of not absorbing heat which should go to make steam, but only that which would otherwise be wasted. the heating surface of the coil is much greater than would be possible within the firepot, which in a measure compensates for its lower efficiency.--contributed by w. e. morey, chicago. a homemade marking gauge [illustration] a / -in. bushing is turned into the side outlet of a / -in. tee. the bushing is then tapped to receive a / -in. wing bolt. a tight-fitting wood plug is driven into the throughway of the tee and the ends ground off flush on the emery wheel. a slot, / -in. square, is then cut through the wood plug just under the bushing. two pieces of flat steel, each / in. wide by / in. thick and / in. longer than the tee, are fitted in the slot cut in the plug as shown in the sketch. the outer end of each piece is bent at right angles and sharpened. after the points have been drawn out to the right distance, the wing bolt is turned to hold them in that position.--contributed by c. molloy, philadelphia, pa. protecting brush handles from paint a very efficient method to prevent paint from running down on a paintbrush handle and on the hand is to cut a hollow rubber ball in half, fig. , make a hole in the center to fit the brush handle and attach it as shown in fig. . one ball will fit up two brushes. the cup shape catches the paint and prevents it from getting on the handle.--contributed by o. h. meyer, churdon, iowa. [illustration: the shape of the ball forms a cup to catch the paint from the brush (fig. , fig. )] a tie-pin holder [illustration] having lost several tie pins by theft or by their falling out i made a little device to securely hold the pin in the tie. this device makes it almost impossible to pull the pin out and it cannot be lost accidentally. the device is made of a small safety pin, bent as shown, with one arm, a, longer than the other, b. the arm a is put on the pin first or upward, and attached as shown at c. when pulling on the tie pin the arms of the holder tend to draw together and clamp it on the pin.--contributed by robert c. knox, colorado springs, colo. hulling walnuts when gathering my winter supply of walnuts, i found that they could not be hulled readily by hand. not knowing of any machine designed for the purpose, i tried running them through a corn sheller and found it to do the work nicely. the sheller not only hulled them, but separated the nuts from the hulls, the nuts being carried out through the cob opening and the hulls dropping through the grain spout.--contributed by irl r. hicks, hallsville, mo. how to make a small vise screw procure an ordinary lag screw, as shown in fig. , cut off the pointed end and file the threads into the shape shown in fig. . a hole is drilled through the head and a handle put in, as shown in fig. . this makes a good substitute screw when the original screw for a small vise is broken.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown. pa. [illustration: a vise screw formed of an ordinary lag screw, the threads being made square and a handle attached (fig. , fig. , fig. )] a medicine-spoon holder when a dropper is not at hand it is difficult to drop medicine in a spoon while holding it, and the shape of the spoon will not permit its being set down. a shoe horn used as shown in the sketch will hold the spoon right side up and in a position to hold the liquid.--contributed by maurice baudier, new orleans, la. [illustration: a shoe horn is the right shape to hold the spoon right side up and level] knife holder on a frying pan instead of laying a knife on the stove or carrying it to a table or elsewhere while frying anything in a pan, make a clip to fit the edge of the pan for holding the knife when it is not in use. the clip is easily made of brass wire and when attached to a frying pan it will save many steps.--contributed by john c. harlacker, jr., cumberland, b. c. [illustration: the shape of the clip and manner of attaching it to a frying pan] a broom for sweeping out corners in steps [illustration] sweeping the corners of steps is one of the greatest difficulties of the housewife, or others who have a number of stairs to sweep. i have made this task easy in a very simple manner. i secured a used broom, the longer and newer the better, and cut the straws off diagonally across the sweeping edge. the pointed part will easily clean out the corners in steps or in a room.--contributed by w. a. stamaman, berlin, ontario. removing a cork from a bottle a cork that has been pushed into a bottle accidentally or otherwise can be easily removed in the following manner: tie several knots in one end of a string to form a large cluster and drop it into the bottle, holding on to the other end of the string. turn the bottle over so that the cork will fall to the opening in the neck, then pull on the string. the cluster formed by the knots at the end of the string will easily draw out the cork.--contributed by frank hart, chicago, ill. filing flat surfaces anyone who has used a file knows what skill is required to produce flat surfaces. a fixture which is nothing more than a mirror properly placed enables the operator to sight along the file and see at all times just how the file is running.--contributed by a. f. stearns, madison, wis. [illustration: the file can be seen in the mirror and its direction controlled for filing flat surfaces] tacking a screen on a frame [illustration] screen wire is very difficult material to fasten on a frame so that it becomes taut. to make it taut and even drive the tacks as follows: first tack the screen on one side of the frame, taking care to leave no slack between the tacks, which should be about ft. apart. fasten the opposite side by stretching the screen with one hand and with the other place the tack through the meshes and push the point as far as possible toward the outer edge of the screen frame as shown in the sketch. drive the tack so that it will enter the wood straight, which will draw the screen taut. after having thus fastened the screen to two opposite sides of the frame with tacks ft. apart, other tacks are driven in midway between the first ones, stretching the screen and driving the tacks as before described, until a sufficient number of tacks are driven into either side. then both ends are attached in the same manner.--contributed by bertram s. barnes, santa barbara, cal. safety tips on chair rockers some rocking chairs are so constructed that when the person occupying it gives a hard tilt backward, the chair tips over or dangerously near it. a rubber-tipped screw turned into the under side of each rocker, near the rear end, will prevent the chair from tipping too far back. portable and folding bookcase or closet two packing boxes hinged as shown and fitted with casters make a very convenient portable closet. it can be folded flat against a wall or fitted into a corner. if furnished with shelves, it can be used as a bookcase or tool closet, and when fully opened, it makes a handy workbench. two projecting strips are fitted on the inside of one box so as to fit tightly against the inner top and bottom surfaces of the other box, to increase the rigidity of the box when closed. the addition of casters makes the opening, closing and pushing about very easy. an ornamental hasp or lock can be fitted if desired. [illustration: the two boxes are joined on one edge with hinges and with a hasp, if desired, on the other] a curtain stop a small screweye turned into the bottom part or wood strip inclosed in the lower end of the curtain will prevent this end from winding over the top roller when the curtain is quickly released and rolls to the top.--contributed by d. o. c. kersten, detroit, michigan. an alarm for a sleepwalker a little girl in our family would walk in her sleep and it caused us no little worry lest she might leave the house without our knowing it. i therefore rigged up an alarm device to ring a bell should she leave the room. the device consisted of a bell and battery in a circuit, and a switch which was attached to one door casing. a string was stretched across the doorway and attached to the switch lever in such a manner as to pull it closed when the string was pushed through the doorway opening.--contributed by j. woodburn, toronto, canada. a kraut and root grinder the grinder is intended mainly for chopping cabbage when making sauerkraut, but it is also of much service in grinding vegetables and roots to be cooked for poultry. [illustration: the grinder will easily reduce cabbage heads to bits suitable for sauerkraut] the base a is made of a plank, at least ft. wide and ft. long, with a - / by - / -in. hole cut in the center. the grinding part, or cylinder, is made of wood, in. in diameter and in. long, with -penny nails, spaced / in. apart, driven partly into it and then cut off so as to leave / in. projecting. the cylinder is turned by means of a crank attached to the end of the shaft. a hopper, b, is constructed, by - / in. inside measurement at the bottom, and as large as necessary at the top. a space is provided at the bottom as shown to receive the concave c, which consists of a -in. board, to in. wide and in. long, with nails driven in and cut off as described for the cylinder. the hopper is securely fastened on top of the baseboard and over the cylinder. the concave is slipped into place and held with wedges or by driving two nails in just far enough to fasten it temporarily. the concave can be adjusted for grinding the different vegetable products, or replaced at any time with a new one. the ends of the base are supported on boxes, or legs may be provided if desired. when grinding cabbage, cut the heads into quarters and remove the hearts. press the cabbage on the cylinder and turn the crank. fine bits of cabbage, suitable for sauerkraut, will be the result.--contributed by j. g. allshouse, avonmore, pa. opening for air at the top of a shade procure an extra long shade and cut two openings in the end to be used at the top. the openings may be cut square or ornamental as desired, leaving a strip at each side and one in the center. these strips are reinforced by gluing on some of the same material as the shade or pieces of tape. [illustration: when the shade is pulled down the openings coincide with the opening over the upper sash] a shade made in this manner permits the air to enter the room unhindered when the top sash is lowered and at the same time obstructs the view of passers-by.--contributed by warren e. crane, cleveland, o. hose attachment for watering window plants the window garden of the house has its watering difficulties which one owner overcame in a neat and handy manner. a hose on a weighted reel was attached to the joists in the basement under the floor near the window flower pots. the weight on the reel kept the hose wound on it and the nozzle end which projects through the floor is large enough to hold it from passing through the hole bored for the hose. a long stem valve was provided with the wheel attached above the floor for turning the water on and off. [illustration: the hose is automatically run on a reel by a weight beneath the floor] when the plants need a shower all that is necessary is to draw the hose nozzle up and turn on the water. the hole for the hose and the valve wheel can be located close to the wall under the flower tray where they will scarcely be seen. removing paint from glass paint may be easily cleaned from glass by using a -per-cent solution of acetic acid. the acid should be heated and applied with a cloth. the hot acid will not hurt the hands or fabrics, nor the glass, but should be kept from children who might drink of it. the solution is made of commercial acetic acid and heated by adding hot water. the acid is inexpensive and can be purchased at any local drug store. to prevent baking ovens from scorching a good method to prevent baking ovens from scorching or burning pastry is to sprinkle a mixture of sand and salt on the bottom where the pans are placed. this affords a way of radiating the heat evenly. the mixture also absorbs fruit juices, which may be spilled in the course of cooking. the covering is easily changed, which keeps the oven clean. the best proportion is half salt and half sand. horn candle sconce the person who cares for things unusual will find the candle sconce made of a cowhorn a suitable fixture for the den. a well shaped and not too large cowhorn is selected, and prepared by first partly filling it with paper, packed in tightly, then filling it to the top with plaster of paris, in which a candle socket is formed. the bracket is made of strips of metal, formed as shown and riveted together where they touch each other, the back piece being fastened with screws to a wall board. the metal may be brass or copper and finished in nickel, antique, bronze, or given a brush finish. the wooden wall piece can be finished in any style desired. [illustration: the cowhorn with bracket and wall board, making an unusual candle sconce for the den] * * * * * white spots on furniture can be removed by rubbing the wood with ammonia. how to make a copper stencil for marking laundry a stencil suitable for marking laundry may be easily made as follows: first procure a small sheet of "stencil sheet copper," about in. wide and in. long. dip this sheet of copper in a vessel containing some melted beeswax, so that both sides will be evenly covered with a thin coat of the wax when it cools. the design--name, monogram or figure--that is wanted in the stencil should now be drawn upon a piece of thin white paper, the reverse side of the paper blackened with graphite, and then laid on the stencil plate with the design in the center of the plate, whereupon the design is lightly traced with a blunt point on the thin wax coating. after the paper is removed, trace the design on the wax surface with a pointed instrument, but not completely, the lines being broken at more or less regular intervals, to form "holders" so that, after etching, the design cannot fall out. next lay the stencil in a small shallow dish and pour a small quantity of fresh nitric acid over it. keep the air bubbles removed from the surface by means of a piece of soft feather. the design will be eaten away in a very short time, where the wax has been removed, and this may be readily observed by holding the stencil plate up to the light. the acid should then be rinsed off with water, and the wax removed by heating and wiping it off with a cloth. the stencil may be given a final cleaning in a dish of benzine or gasoline, which will remove any remaining wax. a brass pin tray a novelty pin tray can be easily made of a piece of no. gauge sheet brass or copper, in. in diameter. the metal is annealed and polished with fine emery cloth, which is given a circular motion to produce a frosted effect. the necessary tools are a -in. hardwood board with a - / -in. hole bored in it, and a round piece of hard wood, - / or in. in diameter, with the ends sawn off square. [illustration: the former and method of using it to produce a wrinkled edge on the tray] place the sheet metal centrally over the hole in the board and set one end of the round stick in the center of the metal. drive the stick with a hammer until a recess about in. deep is made in the center. the edge of the metal will wrinkle up as shown in the sketch. it is scarcely possible to make two trays alike, as the edge almost invariably will buckle in a different manner.--contributed by f. van eps, plainfield, n. j. a homemade exerciser a weight machine for exercising the muscles of the arms is easily constructed by using two screw hooks, in. long, and two small pulleys, - / in. in diameter. an awning pulley can be used for this purpose. the hole at the top of the hanger will allow the pulley to freely turn at almost any angle. a paving brick or a piece of metal can be used as a weight for each rope.--contributed by sterling r. speirs, st. louis, mo. [illustration: the yoke of the pulley is so arranged as to make it move in all positions on the hook] a book covering new books can be quickly and neatly covered to keep them clean by cutting a paper large enough to cover the back and sides when the book is closed, allowing in. extra at each end to be turned over the front and back edges, then pasting on corners cut from used envelopes. the paper jacket can be slipped on or off easily when the book is opened, and it will keep a new cover clean while the book is being handled.--contributed by dr. john a. cohalan, philadelphia. [illustration: paper covering kept in place with corners cut from old envelopes and pasted on the paper] a tilting inkstand an ink-bottle stand, that can be tilted or adjusted so that the pen will always be filled with a sufficient quantity of ink even when little of it remains in the bottle, as shown in the sketch, can be easily made by the amateur. the base may consist of a square piece of sheet brass, which has soldered or riveted to its center two pieces of spring brass, placed crosswise and bent upward so as to form clips to hold the bottle firmly. the legs are made of two lengths of wire, of sufficient stiffness, and are shaped to form holders for lead pencils and penholders. one pair of the legs may be soldered to the brass plate and the opposite side of the latter rolled over the other pair so as to allow them either to stand upright or be depressed in order to tilt the stand, when the ink supply in the bottle gets low. [illustration: tilting stand for an ordinary ink bottle to give access for a small supply of ink] a ring trick the trick to be described is one of the simplest and at the same time one of the most effective, and but little "make-ready" is required to perform it. the magician, while sitting in a chair, allows his hands to be tied together behind the back of the chair. a ring is placed between his lips which he claims to be able to slip on his finger without untying his hands. this, to the audience, seems practically impossible, but it is easily accomplished. a screen is placed in front of the performer before the trick is started, so that the audience will not see how it is done. as soon as he is hidden from view, he tilts his head forward and drops the ring in his lap. he then allows the ring to drop to the seat of the chair between his legs. the chair is tilted backward slightly, and he raises himself to allow the ring to slip to the back part of the chair seat, where he catches it in his hands and slips it on the finger. any one finger may be mentioned, as he can slip the ring as readily on one as on another. use a leather-bottom chair, if possible, as the least noise will then be made when the ring is dropped.--contributed by abner b. shaw, n. dartmouth, massachusetts. removing old putty a very effective way to remove old putty from window panes or other articles is to apply a red-hot iron, as follows: the iron should be made of a broken file or cold chisel and the point heated quite hot. this is run over the surface of the putty, which will crack and fall off. be careful not to let the hot iron touch the glass, as the heat may cause the latter to break. [illustration] how to make a water wheel the materials used in the construction of this water wheel are such as the average amateur mechanic may pick up or secure from a junk pile. the drawings in fig. clearly show the way the wheel is built. the nozzle, fig. , is made of pipe and fittings and is adjustable to concentrate the stream so as to get the full efficiency of the weight and velocity of the water. the cap on the end of the nipple is drilled to receive the pin point filed on the end of the / -in. rod. the parts of this nozzle are a / -in. tee, connected to the source of water supply; a plug, drilled to snugly fit the / -in. rod, and fitted into one end of the straight part of the tee; and a / -in. nipple of sufficient length to make the dimension shown in the sketch. the nipple has a long thread to receive two / -in. locknuts, which clamp the nozzle to the sheet-metal covering, as shown in fig. . [illustration: details of the water wheel (fig. )] the buckets, fig. , are formed of some easily melted, but not too soft metal alloy which can be cast in plaster molds. they are attached with rivets to the circumference of / -in. thick sheet-metal disk of the diameter given in fig. . this disk is fastened to a / -in. shaft, in. long, with two collars, one on each side of the disk, both being riveted to the disk and pinned to the shaft. the bearings aa are made of / -in. pipe, each - / in. long. long threads are cut on these to turn through the two / -in. waste nuts bb, which provides a way to adjust the buckets centrally with the stream of water, and to take up any side motion. the pipe is babbitted and drilled for oil holes. the runner or wheel must be well balanced, as the speed will be from , to , revolutions per minute with ordinary city pressure. in balancing the wheel, instead of adding an extra weight, a part of the disk is filed out on one edge. the inclosing sides are made of wood--cypress preferred--having the dimensions given, and two / by - / -in. pieces are attached to the bottom outside surfaces for mounting the wheel. the curved part is covered with galvanized sheet metal. [illustration: (fig. , fig. )] the drawing shows a wheel of small diameter, but having considerable power. greater power may be obtained by increasing the size of the jet and the diameter of the wheel, but the use of too many buckets results in decrease of power. one bucket should be just entering the stream of water, when the working bucket is at a point at right angles to the stream. the water should divide equally exactly on the center of the bucket and get out of the way as soon as possible. any stagnant water in the case, or dead water in the bucket, is detrimental to the power. a free exit for the water is made at the bottom of the case, as shown. [illustration: metal casing instead of wood (fig. )] the construction of the case may be varied and, instead of wood, metal sides and frame may be used. where the builder cares to make a more substantial wheel and has access to a foundry, the metal parts can be made as shown in fig. . the parts are in this instance fastened together with machine screws. patterns are made and taken to a foundry for the castings, which are then machined to have close fitting joints.--contributed by r. h. franklin, unnatosa, wis. an interesting experiment take an ordinary board, or ft. long, such as a bread board, and place it on the table so that about one-third of its length will project over the edge. unfold a newspaper and lay it on the table over the board as shown in the sketch. anyone not familiar with the experiment would suppose the board could be knocked off by hitting it on the outer end. it would appear to be easy to do, but try it. unless you are prepared to break the board you will probably not be able to knock the board off. [illustration: striking the board] the reason is that when the board is struck it forces the other end up and the newspaper along with it. this causes a momentary vacuum to be formed under the paper, and the pressure of the air above, which is about lb. to the square inch, prevents the board from coming up. this is an entertaining trick to play at an evening party, and also makes a simple and interesting school experiment. ironing-board holder an ironing board that had been used on two chairs was cut off square on one end and a piece of heavy sheet metal cut and bent into the shape shown in fig. . the square end of the board was fitted into the socket formed by the sheet metal. after attaching the socket to the wall with screws the board was easily put in place as shown in fig. . the brace is hinged to the under side of the board.--contributed by l. g. swett, rochester, n. y. [illustration: socket and manner of holding board (fig. , fig. )] how to make a water motor by edward silja after making several different styles of water motors i found the one illustrated to be the most powerful as well as the simplest and most inexpensive to make. it can be constructed in the following manner: a disk, as shown in fig. , cut from sheet iron or brass, / in. thick and - / in. in diameter, constitutes the main part of the wheel. the circumference is divided into equal parts, and a depth line marked which is - / in. in diameter. notches are cut to the depth line, similar to the teeth of a rip saw, one edge being on a line with the center of the wheel and the other running from the top of one tooth to the base of the preceding tooth. [illustration: metal disk with a saw-tooth circumference that constitutes the main body of the wheel (fig. )] a / -in. hole is drilled in the center of the disk and the metal strengthened with a flange, placed on each side of the disk and fastened with screws or rivets. a / -in. steel rod is used for the shaft. the cups, or buckets, are shaped in a die which can be cast or built up of two pieces, as desired. both of these dies are shown in fig. . the one at a is made of two pieces riveted together. [illustration: two ways of making the dies to shape the sheet-metal water cups (fig. )] if a foundry is near, a pattern can be made for a casting, as shown at b. the die is used in the manner shown in fig. . a strip of galvanized metal is placed over the depressions in the die and a ball-peen hammer used to drive the metal into the die. cups, or buckets, are thus formed which are soldered to the edge of the teeth on a line with the center of the disk, as shown in fig. . as there are notches in the disk, cups will be necessary to fill them. [illustration: the sheet metal is placed on the die and then hammered into shape (fig. )] the cups are made in pairs or in two sections, which is a better construction than the single cup. the water from the nozzle first strikes the center between the cups, then divides and produces a double force. [illustration: the water cups are fastened to the teeth on the metal disk with solder (fig. )] when this part of the work is finished it is well to balance the wheel, which can be done by filing off some of the metal on the heavy side or adding a little solder to the light side. this will be necessary to provide an easy-running wheel that will not cause any unnecessary wear on the bearings. the housing for the wheel consists of two wood pieces, about / -in. thick and cut to the shape shown in fig. . grooves are cut in one surface of each piece, to receive the edges of a strip of galvanized metal, as shown at a. the grooves are cut with a specially constructed saw, shown in fig. . it consists of a piece of wood, in. long, - / in. wide and / in. thick, the end being cut on an arc of a circle whose diameter is in. a piece of a broken hacksaw blade is fastened with screws to the curved end. a nail is used as a center pivot, forming a -in. and a - / -in. radius to swing the saw on in cutting the groove. after inserting the strip of galvanized metal, a, fig. , the sides are clamped together with bolts about - / in. long. [illustration: the housing for the wheel with a connection to attach the motor on an ordinary faucet (fig. )] [illustration: construction of the saw for making the groove to receive the metal strip in the sides (fig. )] a piece of pipe, b, fig. , having an opening / -in. in diameter, is soldered onto the metal strip a. an ordinary garden-hose coupling, c, is soldered to the end of the pipe. a bearing, d, shaped as shown, is fastened to one of the wood sides with screws, the wheel shaft is run into it, and the parts assembled. a wheel, either grooved or flat, - / or in. in diameter, is placed on the shaft. the hose coupling makes it easy to connect the motor directly to the water faucet. an application for small wounds pure wintergreen oil makes a good local application for all small wounds, bites, scratches, abrasions, etc. there is no germ or microbe, animal or vegetable, dead or living, that can withstand this oil, and at the same time it is not injurious to living tissues. a few drops gently rubbed in where there is apt to be any infection is sufficient. an infection always follows the wound of a bullet or the scratch of a brass pin, with irritation extending up the limb or part threatening tetanus or lockjaw. these symptoms are manifested by spasmodic pains which shoot upward, but are quickly subdued, if the oil is applied along the track of the pain or infection. this oil is equally effective when locally applied to tendons or ligaments which have been unduly strained. an ounce of the pure oil does not cost much, and it should be kept in every shop and household. if or per cent of olive oil is added to it, the oil will have more body and will last longer.--contributed by dr. e. r. ellis, detroit, mich. cores for use in babbitt metal it is often necessary in making things of babbitt metal to core out some of the parts. a very good core is made of common salt and glue. mix just enough of the glue into the salt to make a stiff paste, which is then formed into the desired shape or molded in a core box and allowed to harden. this kind of a core can be removed from the casting by soaking it in warm water, which will dissolve the salt and leave the desired hole.--contributed by h. f. hopkins, n. girard, pa. how to build a wind vane with an electric indicator quite often it is practically impossible to ascertain the direction of the wind by observing an ordinary wind vane on account of the necessity of locating the vane at such a height that it may give a true indication. by means of the device shown in fig. , the position of the vane may be determined without actually looking at the vane itself and the indicating device may be located almost anywhere and independently of the position of the wind vane. [illustration: fig. --the diagram of a wheatstone bridge which shows the points of contact so placed that a balance is obtained] the principle upon which the device operates is that of the wheatstone bridge. the position of the moving contact a, fig. , is controlled by the wind vane. this contact is made to move over a specially constructed resistance r, fig. . a second movable contact, b, is controlled by the observer and moves over a second resistance, identical with that over which the contact a moves. these two resistances are connected so as to form the two main branches of a wheatstone bridge; the points a and b are connected to the current-detecting device, which may be a galvanometer or telephone receiver, and current is supplied by a number of dry cells. [illustration: fig. --the weather vane with resistance coil, and diagram of indicator which is identical with that of the vane] in order to obtain a balance--that is, no current through the receiver--the points a and b must occupy corresponding positions on their respective resistances. if the two resistances over which the points a and b move are mounted in the same position with respect to the cardinal points of the compass, then the points themselves will always be in the same position with respect to the cardinal points when a balance is obtained. the arrow head on the wind vane and the point a are made to occupy corresponding positions, and hence the position of the point b, when no current passes through the receiver, is an indication of the direction in which the wind vane is pointing. the principal parts in the construction of the device are shown in the illustration, and the following description of their construction may be of interest to those who contemplate building the indicator. procure two pieces of / -in. hard rubber, - / in. wide by in. long. clamp these, side by side, between two boards and smooth down their edges and ends, and then file small slots in the edges with the edge of a three-cornered file. these slots should all be equally spaced about / in. apart. have the pieces clamped together while filing the slots and mark one edge top and one end right so that the pieces may be mounted alike. now procure a small quantity of no. gauge bare manganin wire. fasten one end of this wire to one end of the pieces of rubber by winding it in and out through three or four small holes and then wind it around the piece, placing the various turns in the small slots that were filed in the edges. after completing the winding, fasten the end just as the starting end was attached. wind the second piece of rubber in a similar manner and make sure to have the length of the free ends in each case the same. obtain a cylinder of some kind, about in. in diameter, warm the pieces of rubber by dipping them in hot water, bend them around the cylinder and allow them to cool. a containing case, similar to that shown in cross section in the upper portion of fig. should now be constructed from a good quality of tin or copper. the inside diameter of this case should be about in. more than the outside diameter of the resistance ring r, and it should be about in. deep. the top c may be made curved as shown in the illustration, and should be fastened to the case proper by a number of small machine screws. the base of this case may be made so that the whole device can be mounted on the top of a pole. mount a piece of / -in. steel rod, about / in. long, with a conical hole in one end, in the center of the bottom of the case as shown by m. a number of supports, similar to the one shown, should be made from some / -in. hard rubber and fastened to the sides of the case, to support the resistance ring. the dimensions of these supports should be such that the ends of the piece of rubber, forming the ring, are against each other when it is in place. the upper edge of the ring should be about in. above the bottom of the case. next, mount a piece of brass tube, d, in the exact center of the top and perpendicular to it. a washer, e, may also be soldered to the top so as to aid in holding the tube. procure a piece of steel rod, f, that will fit in the tube d and turn freely. sharpen one end of this rod and mount a brass wind vane on the other end. a small metal cup, g, may be soldered to a washer, h, and the whole mounted on the steel rod f in an inverted position as shown, which will prevent water from getting down inside the case along the rod. the cup g may be soldered directly to the rod. make a small arm, j, of brass, and fasten a piece of light spring, k, to one side of it, near the outer end, then mount the arm on the steel rod so that it is parallel to the vane and its outer end points in the same direction as the arrow on the vane. the free end of the light spring on the arm j should be broad enough to bridge the gap between adjacent turns of wire on the resistance ring. four bindings should then be mounted on the inside of the case and all insulated from it with the exception of number . numbers and are connected to the ends of the winding and number is connected to number . a second outfit should now be constructed, identical with the one just described except that it should have a flat top with a circular scale mounted on it, and the arm l should be controlled by a small handle in the center of the scale. the position of the contact b may be indicated on the scale by a slender pointer, attached to the handle controlling the arm l. four leads of equal resistance should be used in connecting the two devices and the connections made as shown. an ordinary buzzer placed in the battery circuit will produce an interrupted current through the bridge circuit and a balance will be obtained by adjusting the contact point b until a minimum hum is heard in the telephone receiver. [illustration] planting seeds in egg shells when growing flower plants from seeds, start them in halves of shells from hard-boiled eggs. when the time comes to transplant them, they can be easily removed by allowing the dirt in the shell to become hard and then breaking off the shell, whereupon the plant is placed in the ground. a pasteboard box provided with holes large enough to support the egg shells can be used to hold them, unless egg crates are at hand. two large seeds such as nasturtiums and sweet peas can be planted in one shell, and four seeds of the smaller varieties.--contributed by katharine d. morse, syracuse, n. y. locating drip pan under a refrigerator in replacing the drip pan of an ice box or refrigerator it is often necessary to bend over in locating it under the drip pipe. this trouble may be done away with by fastening two strips of wood in a v-shape to the floor beneath the refrigerator. when the pan is shoved under, it will strike one strip and slide along until it strikes the other. then the pan is sure to be under the drip pipe.--contributed by lloyd a. phelan, beachmont, mass. [illustration: strips on floor under refrigerator] windmill for light power the windmill shown in the sketch is one that will always face the wind, and it never requires adjustment. it consists of a vertical shaft, a, provided with a number of arms, b, on which are hinged square sails, c. these sails are preferably made of wood frames covered with canvas. they are provided with hinges, d, attached to the ends of the arms in such a way that they offer resistance to the wind on one side of the wheel, while they move edgewise against the wind on the other side, as shown. the shaft of the mill can either be run in bearings set on an upright post, the lower end of the shaft turning on a conical bearing, or collars may be used on the bearings to keep it in position. the power can be transmitted with gears or by a flat belt over a pulley. [illustration: frames hinged to the arms] a wheel of this kind is not adapted for high speed, but direct-connected to a pump or other slow-working machinery will prove very efficient.--contributed by edward hanson, kane, pennsylvania. a small bunsen burner [illustration] an excellent bunsen burner for small work can be made as follows: draw a glass tube to the shape shown, to produce a fine hollow point. mark carefully with a file and break at a and then at b. bore or burn a hole in a cork to fit the tube. cut a v-shaped notch in the side of the cork extending to the hole. bend the lower tube at right angles and insert it in a wood block, previously slotted with a saw to make a snug fit. a little glue will hold the glass tubes, cork and base together. the air mixture can be adjusted by sliding the upper tube before the glue sets. the burner is especially adapted to continuous work, such as sealing packages, etc. the flame will not discolor the wax.--contributed by e. p. fert, spokane, wash. the hindoo sand trick this is one of the many tricks for which the hindoos are famous, and was long kept a secret by them. it consists of placing ordinary sand in a basin full of water, stirring the water and taking out the sand in handfuls perfectly dry. it need scarcely be said that without previous preparation, it is impossible to do so. take lb. of fine silver sand, place it in a frying pan and heat well over a clear fire. when the sand is thoroughly heated, place a small piece of grease or wax--the composition of a paraffin candle preferred--in the sand, stirring it well to get it thoroughly mixed, then allow the sand to cool. when this sand is placed in a basin of water, it will be apparently dry when taken out. it is very important that only a small portion of the adherent be used so that it cannot be detected when the sand is examined by the audience. the explanation is that the grease or wax coating on each sand particle repels the water.--contributed by mighty oaks, oshkosh, wis. a kite-line cutaway for toy parachutes the cutaway is made of a small piece of board, a cigar-box lid, an old yardstick or a piece of lath, which should be about in. long. common carpet wire staples are used to hold it on the string. the under side has a wire bent into such a shape as to form a loop at the forward end over the kite string, then running back through the two staples at the one side and through two staples at the other side. [illustration: wires attached to the traveler] the parachute should have a small wire ring fastened at the weight end so as to fasten in the carrier, and should be put between the two staples that are closest together on the under side of the carrier. a small nail or button--anything larger than the loop in the wire--should be attached to the kite string a few feet from the kite. when the parachute is carried up the kite string, the knob on the string will strike the loop of the wire on the carrier, which releases the parachute and allows it to drop. the carrier will return of its own weight to the lower end of the string.--contributed by i. o. lansing, lincoln, neb. a cherry pitter procure an ordinary quill feather and cut the tip off to form a small hole. do not remove so much of the end that the cherry stone can stick in it. the hole must be slightly smaller than the cherry stone. push the quill through the center of the cherry and the stone will come out easily.--contributed by harold wynning, chicago, ill. to hold a fish while removing the scales insert a screwdriver or ice pick in a fish as shown, and the scales can be removed much better and quicker than in any other way. the handle of the screwdriver affords an efficient grip so that the fish can be held firmly on the board and every scale can be removed. [illustration: holding fish for scaling] carrying stone jars the handholds on stone jars are usually not large enough to carry the jars safely when they are full. if the handles of an old galvanized tub are riveted to a leather strap long enough to reach under the bottom and almost to the top on each side, the jar can be handled without danger of being dropped. the fingers are placed in the handles to carry the weight, while the thumbs are used to keep the jar from tipping. by placing a buckle near one end, the strap may be used for carrying a jar of any size.--contributed by c. h. floyd, elwood, ind. vibrator for a spark coil if you do not have the time to make a vibrator or electrolytic interrupter for a spark coil, a common electric door-bell makes a good substitute. connect one of the primary wires to the binding-post of the bell that is not insulated from the frame, and the other primary wire to the adjusting screw on the make-and-break contact of the bell, as shown in the sketch. the connections are made from the batteries to the bell in the usual manner.--contributed by ralph tarshis, brooklyn, n. y. [illustration: bell used as vibrator] head rest for a chair while seated in a chair a person very often desires to lay the head back in resting. a support for the head is lacking in the low-back rockers and ordinary chairs. a detachable, padded support can be easily made at home for placing on any low-back chair and used as a head rest. [illustration: rest on chair back] the support standards can be made of wood or metal as desired. if metal is used, the rest will have some springiness, which combined with the pad will insure much greater comfort than the hard rigid back. a cloth or paper is placed over the back of the chair to prevent marring of the varnish or wood. lighting a lawn mower for use at night [illustration] those who desire to do so, or must, for lack of time during the day, may use their lawn mower at night and light the front of their machine with an ordinary bicycle lamp. the arm to hold the lamp can be attached with screws to the handle as shown in the sketch. it is easily made from a piece of hoop or bar iron.--contributed by samuel f. reid, minneapolis, minn. tying a rosette in a couch-cover corner in the accompanying illustration is shown a very simple method of tying a rosette in the corner of a couch cover. the use of the average couch cover as a throw-over leaves a large corner which drags upon the floor. to dispose of this extra length and at the same time make an artistic corner, the upholsterer suggests the following method: [illustration: different stages in tying the rosette (fig. , fig. )] spread the couch cover on the couch so that the surplus is evenly divided between the sides and ends, and pass a pin through the cover to show each corner as in fig. . measure the distance from each corner of the couch to the floor, fig. , and measuring from the point of the corner, mark the same distance by the insertion of another pin, repeating in all four corners. the distance between the two pins at each corner now defines the amount of surplus that is to be taken up. chalk a circle to include the portion between these two pins, as shown in fig. , and with a circular needle and stout stitching twine run a shirring thread around the circle, and when this is drawn tightly and tied, the surplus is formed into a rosette, while the corner may be draped into an artistic cascade, as shown in fig. . [illustration: (fig. , fig. )] driving screws [illustration] a wood screw having the threads hammered flat on two sides can be easily driven in with the flattened sides parallel to the grain of the wood. when the screw is turned a quarter turn the remaining threads cross the grain and hold as well as if they had been turned in all the way. this is an especial advantage where something is wanted which is easily inserted and will hold better than a nail.--contributed by p. d. merrill, chicago. [illustration] a power windmill the windmill shown is somewhat different from the ordinary kind. it is not a toy, nor does it approach in size the ordinary farm windmill, but is a compromise between the two, and in a good strong wind, will supply power enough to run a washing machine, a small dynamo, an emery wheel, or any other device used in the home workshop. the wheel is about ft. in diameter, with eight blades. the over-all length is about feet. the windmill is easily made and the cost is within the means of the average boy. there is not a part used in its construction that cannot be found about an ordinary manual-training shop. the most difficult parts of the construction will be described in detail. symmetry and smoothness of design should be preserved and the parts made as light as possible consistent with strength and durability. [illustration: the hub consists of two parts, each having four arms for holding the blades (fig. )] the wheel as shown in the drawings, the wheel has eight blades. ordinarily the use of eight blades makes it difficult to construct a hub of sufficient strength to carry them. where so many blades radiate from a common center it is almost impossible to provide an anchorage for each blade. to provide a maximum of strength coupled with simplicity of design, the plan of using two hubs of four arms each was adopted in the construction of this mill. the ordinary hub of four arms is simple to make and quite strong. four pieces of straight-grained oak, each in. long and - / in. square, are used in constructing the hubs. the manner of notching each pair of pieces together is shown in fig. . the slope for the blades is made to run in opposite directions on the ends of each crosspiece. the slope is formed by cutting out a triangular piece, as shown. [illustration: (fig. )] the two hubs, thus formed, are mounted on the shaft, one behind the other, in such positions that the arms will be evenly divided for space in the wheel circle. these details are shown in fig. . the blades, fig. , are made of thin basswood or hard maple, and each is fastened in its place by means of two / -in. bolts, in addition to which a few brads are driven in to prevent the thin blades from warping. [illustration: (fig. )] the gears this windmill was designed to transmit power by means of shafts and gear wheels, rather than with cranks and reciprocating pump rods, such as are used on ordinary farm mills. to obtain this result, an old sewing machine head was used. such a part can be obtained from a junk dealer or a sewing-machine agent. the head is stripped of its base plate with the shuttle gearing; likewise the needle rod, presser foot, etc., are taken from the front end of the head along with the faceplate. the horizontal shaft and gear wheel are taken out and the bearings reamed out for a / -in. shaft, which is substituted. the shaft should be ft. in length, and or in. of its outer end threaded for the clamping nuts which hold the two hubs in place, as shown at a and b, fig. . the gear wheel is also bored out and remounted on the new shaft. [illustration: the supporting standard holds the machine head with the wheel and the vane on an axis (fig. )] the supporting standard is constructed of oak, with mortise-and-tenon joints, as shown in fig. . the width of the pieces will depend on the kind of sewing-machine head used. it may be necessary also to slightly change the dimensions. the machine head is fastened on the support with bolts. a sleeve and thrust spring are mounted on the shaft, as shown. the sleeve is made of brass tubing, of a size to fit snugly on the shaft. a cotter will keep it in place. the sleeve serves as a collar for the thrust spring, which is placed between the sleeve and the standard. this arrangement acts as a buffer to take up the end thrust on the shaft caused by the varying pressure of the wind on the wheel. [illustration: (fig. )] the vane to keep the wheel facing the wind at all times, a vane must be provided. it is made of basswood or hard maple, as shown in fig. . it is not built up solid, air spaces being left between the slats to reduce the wind resistance. unless built in this manner, the vane is liable to twist off in a gale. the horizontal slats are / in. thick, and the upright and cross braces / in. thick, while the long arm connecting the vane to the supporting standard is / in. thick. the supporting standard, carrying the wheel and the vane, must revolve about a vertical axis with the changes in the wind, and this vertical axis is supplied in the form of a piece of gas pipe which runs through the supporting standard at the points marked c and d, fig. . ordinary pipe fittings, called flanges, are bolted to the frame at these points. the coupling in the gas pipe beneath the supporting standard serves as a stationary collar to support the weight of the whole mill. the vane should be placed correctly to balance the weight of the wheel. the shaft passes through the framework of the mill on the inside of the pipe, as shown at e. a / -in. soft-steel or wrought-iron rod is satisfactory for the shaft, as no weight is supported by it and only a twisting force is transmitted. the use of a larger rod makes the mill cumbersome and unwieldy. the upper end of the shaft is fastened to the shaft that projects from the under side of the machine head by means of a sleeve made of a piece of / -in. pipe. two cotters hold the shafts and sleeve together. [illustration: the lower end of the shaft has a horizontal shaft geared to it for the drive pulleys (fig. )] at the lower end of the shaft, inside the workshop, the device shown in fig. is installed. the purpose of this appliance is to provide a horizontal shaft upon which pulleys or driving gears may be mounted. the device is constructed of another sewing-machine head similar to the one already described. the head is cut in two and the separate parts mounted on suitable supports. the gap between the sawed portions permits a pulley to be fastened on the shaft to serve as the main drive. the wheel propelled by the treadle of the sewing machine will make a good drive wheel. the small handwheel, originally mounted on the machine-head shaft, is left intact. this arrangement gives two sizes of drive wheels. heavy sewing-machine belts will serve to transmit the power. the tower the tower can be built up in any manner to suit the conditions. ordinarily sticks, in. square, are suitable. these are well braced with wire and fastened securely to the roof of the shop. the arrangement of the tower with the mill is shown in fig. . [illustration: the manner of building the tower on which the supporting standard revolves (fig. )] telegraph code on typewriter keys a very simple and practical method of transcribing wireless time and other messages on the typewriter without having such perfect knowledge of the morse system as to be able to immediately translate it into the common alphabet is the following: the characters of the morse system are inscribed on small slips of paper--thus, three dots (...), for the letter s; two dashes (--), for the letter m, etc.--and these slips are pasted on the corresponding keys of the typewriter. the operator puts on his receiver, and the proper key is struck as he hears the corresponding morse letter. as there are no capitals, spacing between words, or even punctuation, the manipulation of the typewriter is much simplified, and it is easily learned to record the signals as fast as they are heard. an aid in sketching profiles the means usually employed by most beginners to obtain the correct outline of an object, such as tracing or a pantograph, make them dependent on mechanical help rather than train the eye to form and proportion a drawing correctly. the device shown not only greatly assists the beginner, but actually trains him toward a point where he can dispense with any such device and correctly sketch by free hand. it also has the effect of encouraging the beginner, because his first efforts will not be complete failures, as is usually the case. [illustration: the fine wire is bent as near as possible to the outline of the object] the device consists of a rather fine wire bent in the shape of a human profile and supported on a stand or base. the stand may be dispensed with, however, and the wire held in the hand. in use, it is placed near the model or person whose profile is to be drawn; then, after closing one eye, it is set at a position where it will correspond to the features of the model. this enables one to note the variations between the wire and the model's features. for instance, the forehead may recede from the wire at the top, or the nose may have a different slant or shape. the paper on which the drawing is to be made should have a faint outline drawn by laying the wire upon it and marking around it with a soft pencil. having noted the variations between the wire and the features, proceed to draw the profile, observing the same variations, and when the sketch is completed, erase the faint outlines. then compare the drawing with the model without using the wire, and make final corrections. the dotted line indicates the outline to be erased. the drawing may be made larger or smaller than the bent wire, but the outline on the paper must be kept in exactly the same proportion. it is not necessary that the wire be bent so that it represents perfect features. with the use of this device one forms a habit of comparing and proportioning, which applies to the correct sketching of all objects.--contributed by will l. burner, columbus, ohio. a small hydroelectric-power plant wherever a water pressure of over lb. is available a small hydroelectric-power plant will produce sufficient electric current for any light work, such as charging storage batteries, operating sewing and washing machines, toys, etc. the design is for a -in. hydraulic motor of the pelton type, which will operate well on almost all city-water pressures, and at lb. will drive a -watt generator to its full output. the castings may be procured from any foundry cheaply, so that these parts need not trouble the builder. the patterns can be constructed easily and are not so complicated that they will tear the molds when being removed. they are made from well seasoned white pine, / in. thick. fill in all sharp corners with small fillets. all the patterns should taper slightly from the parting line. [illustration: layout for the casing, cover and wheel for the construction of a hydraulic motor that will drive a small dynamo, to produce current for experimental purposes, to charge storage cells or to run electric toys (fig. )] the motor casing is shown in fig. . it is made with a wide flange so that the cover plate can be bolted to it. the lug a is to give additional strength and thickness to the side so that it may be drilled and tapped for the nozzle. the legs b and c are for bolting the case to a base or support. the outlet pipe is of lead, - / in. outside diameter, and the hole for it in the case can be either drilled or cored. solder the pipe flush with the inside of the casing. drill and tap the holes around the flange for , bolts. the shaft hole must be drilled very carefully. drill / -in. holes in the feet. the oil holes are / in. in diameter. file the surface of the flange smooth and also the inside shoulder of the bearing lug. drill and tap the nozzle hole for a / -in. pipe thread. [illustration: (fig. )] the cover plate is shown in fig. , this is bolted to the casing with , brass bolts, / in. long. the holes for them are drilled / in. in diameter. a shallow hole, for the end of the shaft to fit in, is drilled in the lug, as shown. it does not pass all the way through the plate. file the inside face of the lug smooth and also the edge of the plate where it joins the casing. [illustration: (fig. )] the wheel, with brackets attached, is shown in fig. . this style of wheel need not be followed out closely. bore the hub centrally for a / -in. shaft and fit in two setscrews. drill and tap the rim for the buckets with a / -in. standard tap. the buckets must be evenly spaced and bolted on to make the wheel balance. [illustration: the best shape of the buckets to take up the force of the water (fig. )] the buckets are shown in fig. . they may be cast from iron or babbitt. the sharp ridge in the center provides for a deviation of the water jet as it flows on the bucket. the ridge divides the bucket into two equal lobes which turn each division of the jet through almost deg., using all the kinetic energy in the jet. this is shown at d. the dividing ridge must lie in the plane of the revolution, so that each bucket will enter the center of the jet. the buckets being evenly spaced on the periphery of the wheel, only one at a time receives the force of the jet, the one in front and the one behind clearing the jet. [illustration: (fig. )] the nozzle is shown in fig. . it can be made of iron or brass. the inside gradually tapers from / to / in. it has a / -in. pipe thread and is screwed into the hole in the case from the inside and is secured with a lock nut. enough additional threaded portion is left protruding to allow the supply pipe to be connected. when assembling the motor, fasten the wheel to the shaft with the two setscrews, and place a metal washer, e, on each side of the wheel. place the wheel in the casing and screw the cover plate in place. a thin rubber gasket should be placed between the cover and the casing to provide a water-tight joint. [illustration: the motor as it is coupled to drive the dynamo, and the water connections (fig. )] the general arrangement of the plant is shown in fig. . the motor and dynamo are mounted on a heavy wood base, which in turn is firmly bolted to a concrete foundation. level up the two machines by the use of thin washers on the bolts between the base and machine. a heavy sleeve and setscrews are used to connect the two shafts. the connection to the water supply is made with / -in. pipe, with a globe valve in it to regulate the flow of water. any dynamo of about -watt output can be used. paper shades for electric-light globes the appearance of an electric-light globe can be very prettily improved by making a shade of crêpe paper of any desired color for each one. canary-colored crêpe produces a soft, mellow effect. pale blue, yellow, red and, in fact, all the colors can be used, making a very pleasing variety. [illustration: two pieces of crêpe paper stitched together and ruffled, to make a fancy electric-light shade] the body of the shade is made of a piece of paper about - / in. wide and - / ft. long. the width will vary with the length of the globe to be covered, and it is best to have it full, as the edge can be trimmed even with the lower end of the globe afterward. another piece of the same color is cut - / in. wide and of the same length. this piece makes the ruffle. the smaller piece is placed on the larger centrally, and both are stitched together with a running stitch, using a needle and cotton thread. a plain running stitch is also made / in. from one edge of the larger strip. the material is gathered along both threads. this operation makes the material shrink in length. wrap it around the globe, pulling the threads taut so that the ends of the paper will just meet. tie the threads and clip off the extending ends. if the paper extends beyond the end of the globe, trim it off with the shears. ruffle the two edges of the narrow strip and the lower edge of the larger one. this operation is simply stretching the edge of the crêpe to cause it to stand out.--contributed by jas. a. hart, philadelphia, pa. renewing the markings on graduates graduates that have been in use a long time, especially for measuring alkalies, become unreadable. the graduations are easily restored in the following manner: moisten a small piece of absorbent cotton with a solution of white shellac, cut in alcohol. rub this well into all the etched parts and allow to dry for about two minutes, then rub in a fine whiting or litharge with an old toothbrush. if red is desired, use rouge; if black is preferred, use lampblack or powdered graphite. when dry, wipe off the excess pigment with a cloth moistened in alcohol.--contributed by a. c. norris, rockford, ill. repairing a broken ball-clasp purse [illustration] having occasion to repair a purse of the ordinary ball-clasp kind where one of the stems was broken off and lost, i first had some trouble in finding a way to repair it. i started to take off the remaining stem in an attempt to replace the locking device with another kind, and in bending it down toward the opposite side, i happened to close the purse and found that it locked just as well as if there had been two balls on it. i have since repaired two other purses in the same manner and found that they worked well. the idea is to bend the remaining clasp over until it is low enough to come in contact with and to spring over the other side, thus giving the same snap and holding qualities as before.--contributed by w. c. loy, rochester, ind. automatic valve for a funnel [illustration] where liquid is run through a funnel into an opaque bottle or earthen jug, the filling cannot be watched, and if not watched constantly, the vessel will overflow. this can be obviated by applying the automatic valve to the funnel stem, as shown. a washer support is soldered or otherwise fastened in the upper end of the stem, or at the base of the sloping part, and a crossbar is fastened to its upper surface across the hole. the crossbar is centrally drilled to receive a small rod or wire, to which is attached a valve that will cover the hole in the washer. a cork is stuck on the lower end of the rod. the location of the cork on the rod should be at a point a little below the level to which the bottle or vessel is to be filled.--contributed by h. w. hilton, hopington, b. c. chisel holder for whetting to obtain the proper slope and apply a fine cutting edge, the plane iron or chisel must be held at the proper slope while grinding, and especially so when whetting. the illustration shows a holder to keep the iron or chisel at the proper slope. it consists of a block of wood with a sloping cut at the right angle to make two pieces. one of these pieces is permanently fastened to the strip at the back, while the other is held with a bolt passing through a notch in the strip for adjusting or clamping. the rear end of the back piece is fitted with a large screw hook or l-hook to provide a slide to keep the rear end of the holder at the right height. the iron or chisel is inserted between the sloping edges of the blocks and clamped in place, then the l-screw is adjusted for height to secure the proper angle on the stone. it is then only necessary to move the block and tool back and forth over the stone. [illustration: the tool edge is kept at the proper angle while it is run over the stone] a large hole in a small piece of paper it would seem impossible to cut a hole in a piece of paper, in. wide and in. long, large enough to allow a person's body to pass through it, but if carefully cut as shown by the lines in the sketch, one will find with surprise that the paper can be extended so that the feat is easily accomplished. make the cuts about / in. apart and these will allow the paper to expand several times its size.--contributed by h. martine warner, e. orange, n. j. [illustration: the slits cut in the paper allow it to expand several times the size of the original] homemade bunsen burner the amateur craftsman, at some time or other, needs a hot flame for certain kinds of work, and a bunsen or alcohol flame is brought into service. the gasoline and alcohol flames have their drawbacks, one of which is the starting of the burner and the waiting for the heat. they are also unhandy in directing the flame on parts of the work. as i desired a burner for quick work and one whose flame i could direct at any angle, for repoussé and chasing on copper and silversmith's work, i made the one shown in the sketch to attach to a hose and connected it with the gas pipe of the illuminating system in the house. it consists of a hose connection into which a piece of pipe, in. long, is fitted. the hose connection is also fitted with a small nozzle, a, for the gas, and the pipe has an opening through it at the end of the nozzle.--contributed by john koestner, brooklyn, n. y. [illustration: bunsen-burner attachment for use with illuminating gas taken from the house mains] cane-seat cleaner a rapid and practical method of removing stains and discolorations from the cane seats of chairs, wickerwork, etc., is to use oxalic acid and powdered pumice. dissolve oxalic-acid crystals in hot water and saturate a small stiff brush in it, then dip the brush in the powdered pumice and rub the discolored cane briskly with the brush.--contributed by w. f. jaquythe, richmond, california. shade-roller and curtain-pole bracket the main advantage of this shade bracket is that a person can lower it for adjusting the shade or in changing curtains while standing on the floor, thus eliminating the use of a step ladder and the danger possibly attending such use. [illustration: the brackets as they are attached to a window casing for lowering the curtain pole (fig. , fig. )] the front elevation of a window with bracket attachment in position is shown in fig. , and a cross section in fig. . the position of the curtain pole when the brackets are lowered is shown by the dotted lines. a detail sketch of the support end is given in fig. and one bracket is shown in fig. . [illustration: the attachments, supports and brackets for holding both curtain pole and shade roller (fig. , fig. )] the curtain pole a is fastened to the brackets b with / -in. dowel pins, c. these pins and the pole keep the brackets from spreading at the top, so that a shade roller, d, may have its attachments fastened to the inner sides of the brackets. a small pulley, e, is attached to the window casing above the right bracket and a double pulley is located above the left, cords being passed through them, down along the casing to a point within easy reach, and fastened in any manner desired. all that is necessary to change the curtains or fix a shade is to loosen the cord and allow the brackets to drop down until they may be easily reached.--contributed by james f. napier, montreal, can. planing arrow sticks while making some bows one day i discovered i had no suitable dowel sticks for the arrows, so i started to make them out of / -in. square stock. i found it rather difficult to plane these pieces until i hit upon the scheme shown in the sketch. i procured a piece of ordinary tongue-and-groove flooring and clamped it in the bench vise, then drove a nail in the groove to act as a stop, and in no time i had the sticks planed into arrows.--contributed by j. f. culverwell, washington, district of columbia. [illustration: planing the corners from square stock by placing them in the groove of a flooring board] to clean shellac from a brush put the brush in a strong, warm solution of borax and water, and then wash in clean, warm water. if the bristles have become hard, allow the brush to remain in the solution until soft, keeping the solution warm in the meantime; then wash it out in warm water.--contributed by n. j. shattuck, woburn, mass. lathe dogs in the absence of a full equipment of lathe dogs the amateur can make them cheaply from pieces of iron pipe. one of these is shown in the sketch. a section of pipe, - / in. to in. long, is partly cut away, as shown, leaving a projection of metal in. wide. one or more setscrews are fitted in the round part, and the dog is complete. [illustration: two forms of lathe dogs that are quickly and cheaply constructed] a dog, or driver, may also be made of two u-clamps and two bolts as shown. this is especially useful for large work, where the cost of a dog would be prohibitive. after these two clamps are bolted on the work to be turned a bolt is attached in the faceplate that bears against the clamp, thus turning the work. to remove a splinter from the flesh quite frequently small particles of steel, splinters, or thorns are run into the flesh and cannot be removed with the fingers. these can be readily removed in the following manner: press the eye of an ordinary needle over the protruding end, then turn the needle until the edges bind or clinch. while in this position, raise the needle and out comes the splinter. [illustration: the eye of a needle slipped over a thorn for removing it from the flesh] * * * * * a fine luster can be given to zinc by rubbing it with kerosene or a weak solution of sulphuric acid. holders for displaying magazines [illustration] papers and magazines often are sold in drug stores where the display space usually is limited, especially in the window. the method used by one druggist gave space for the magazines in the window without interfering with the other goods. the back of the window was arranged with rows of hooks, three hooks for each magazine, two at the top edges and one in the center at the bottom. the magazine is easily slipped into these holders, and the whole presents a tidy appearance. the hooks are the ordinary screwhooks that can be obtained from a hardware or furniture store.--contributed by t. f. monaghan, philadelphia, pa. waste-paper basket [illustration] the covering of a broken demijohn was used in the manner shown as a waste-paper basket. the glass was broken out and the covering soaked in water, after which the splints were turned down and tied with a cord. this i found to make a first-class waste-paper basket.--contributed by a. s. thomas, gordon, canada. lettering photographs amateur photographers often write, or print, the names of the subjects on the mounts, or in the albums, with white ink or scratch it on the negative so that it will print in the picture. a very good method is to take ordinary black ink and do the lettering on the sensitive paper before it is printed under the negative, being careful not to scratch the paper. after printing the paper to the proper shade the toning and fixing baths will wash away the ink and leave the lettering in white. the lettering is easily accomplished and a post card can be sent with any message desired on any negative, the inscription being printed on the paper so that the negative is unharmed for other printing.--contributed by henry j. marion, pontiac, mich. a stamp moistener [illustration] a handy stamp moistener and envelope sealer can be made by procuring a small medicine bottle or glass vial and inserting a piece of felt or other wicking material in the place of the stopper, and filling it with water. this moistener will be found handy for a small office where the mail is quite heavy, but not big enough to warrant the purchasing of a sealing machine. this moistener is sanitary and replaces the wet sponge.--contributed by theo. j. becker, kansas city, mo. a window lock [illustration] a very neat window lock can be made of sheet steel, / in. wide. one piece, shaped like a saw tooth, is fastened to the sash, and the other, which is bent to form a catch over the tooth projection and ends in a curved top for a finger hold, is attached to the window casing. the illustration clearly shows how the lock is attached.--contributed by lee b. green, cleveland, o. * * * * * georgia pine should be filled with white shellac. varnished candles burn longer the heated tallow or wax of a candle runs down the sides and this results in a considerable waste. this waste can be stopped by coating the new candles with white varnish and laying them aside for a few days to harden. the varnish will keep the melted tallow or wax from running away and it is used in the wick. guides for a mill file having a large number of wires to file true on the end i devised a way to do this with the use of some old worn-out and discarded files that had good cutting edges. a piece of sheet copper, about the same length as the files, was bent to fit over one edge and both sides of the file, allowing both edges to project about / in. this made a guide that prevented the edge of the file from slipping off the end of the wire. the guide was held in place on the file by cutting a slit in the projecting edges, about / in. from the end, and turning these separated parts back on the file. [illustration: guide for using the edge of worn-out files on small round or square stock] if such a guide is fitted tightly on a file, the edges of worn-out files can be used for such work, and the file cannot slip off and mar the sides of the work.--contributed by a. r. drury, hampton, ill. a simple motion-picture machine the drum a is a piece of wood, - / in. long and - / in. in diameter, supported on the end of a round stick, b, which can be made in one piece with the drum, if a wood lathe is at hand, but a piece cut from a curtain pole and a lead pencil inserted in a hole bored in the end will answer the purpose. be sure to have the diameter of the drum - / inches. [illustration: the parts for making the revolving drum for holding the strip of pictures] provide a base piece, c, / in. thick and in. square, and fasten a piece of cardboard having a slit e, as shown. the cardboard should be in. wide and - / in. high, the slit being cut / in. in width, / in. from the top and / in. from the bottom. a hole is bored in the center of the block to admit the standard b easily. the next step is to provide the picture and attach it to the drum. a picture of a boy pounding cobblestones is shown in the sketch, at f, which should be made on a strip of paper - / in. long. this is glued or attached with rubber bands to the drum. the drawing can be enlarged in pen and ink, or can be reproduced as it is, if a hand camera is at hand, and a print used on the drum. [illustration: the different positions of the picture will appear in action when turning with the drum] it is only necessary to put the parts together, grasp the base in one hand and turn the support b with the other, when, looking through the slot e, the boy is seen pounding the stones. various pictures can be made and the strips changed.--contributed by c. c. fraser, saginaw, mich. substitute for cleats on boards the necessity for using more than one cleat for fastening two boards together may be done away with by using the device shown in the sketch. the center cleat prevents the boards from buckling while the sides are tightly held by these simple flat fasteners. the fasteners are made of tin cut as indicated, slipped between the edges of the boards and the parts bent over and tacked. where the strain is not too great the holders may be used without a cleat, making an effective flat fastening.--contributed by w. o. nettleton, washington, d. c. [illustration: the metal clips hold the edges of the boards together closely and quite rigidly] attaching door knobs to locks when putting a lock on a door it is often difficult to press the two knobs together tightly enough to prevent them from rattling and still be able to insert the screw into the shank. by using a piece of board, in. thick, in. wide and ft. or more in length, with a v-shaped piece cut out of one side, the knobs can be easily forced and held together while the screw is inserted.--contributed by h. musgrave, sidney, british columbia. [illustration: the sloping edges in the notch forces the knobs together and holds them while inserting the screws] a finger-nail buffer the flywheel on a sewing machine is usually turned with a semicircular face and this makes a good base on which to apply a piece of chamois skin for use in buffing nails. a strip of the chamois is cut the length of the wheel's circumference and small holes pierced in its edges, through which strings are run to hold it to the rim of the wheel. the chamois can then be removed or left on the wheel as desired. run the machine and hold the nail on the buffer. when there is a free wheel on the machine this makes an excellent buffing device. [illustration: a strip of chamois skin attached to the flywheel of a sewing machine for a buffer] grinding chisel edges [illustration] a cold chisel ground with a rounding edge, as shown, will last twice as long and do better work than one that is ground straight, because it will not wedge, and the cutting edge, having a better support, will not chip off.--contributed by f. g. marbach, cleveland, o. reducing amperage of a fuse wire it is sometimes necessary to use an electrical fuse of smaller amperage than those at hand, and for experimental work this is often the case. a smaller amperage may be readily made from a larger-size wire by making a nick in it with the cutting edge of pliers, or with a knife. the illustration shows how to reduce the size of a -ampere fuse to make it five amperes.--contributed by louis litsky, brooklyn, n. y. [illustration: the amperes of a fuse reduced by making a nick in the lead wire] dip-plating process the various ways of doing dip plating are practically the same method, the coating fluid consisting of essentially the same materials. the tank or crucible, as it may be called, consists of a piece of -in. gas pipe, in. long, threaded at both ends, one end being fitted with a screw cap and the other with a pipe flange. this part is shown in fig. . a piece of sheet metal is cut in the shape shown in fig. and bent to form a cone, so that the smaller end will fit snugly around the pipe and the base be in. in diameter. the joined edges are riveted together. the assembled parts will appear as shown in fig. . the metal used for plating consists of bismuth, oz.; antimony, oz., and pure block tin, lb. place the antimony in the crucible and melt it, then add the tin and bismuth. a flame from an ordinary gasoline burner will be sufficient to heat the crucible. clean the article to be coated by rinsing it in strong caustic potash, which will remove all grime and grease, then dip it in a strong solution of sal ammoniac and water. dry it and then dip it in the melted metal, allowing it to remain there about minute, then remove and plunge it in a bath made of lb. of sal ammoniac and gal. of water. the article is then dried in sawdust. [illustration: the parts to make the crucible consist of pipe and fittings and a piece of sheet metal (fig. , fig. , fig. )] the coating put on in this manner is a nice, shiny plate that will stand a lot of wear. no polishing or grinding is necessary.--contributed by a. h. waychoff, lyons, colo. a model steam-turbine boat a piece of thin board, or shingle, is cut to the shape of a boat and two standards are fastened to it. the standards have notches cut in them to hold an ordinary baking-powder can which is used for the boiler. the lid of the can is soldered on, and a small hole punched in one side with an awl. two candles are used to heat the water. [illustration: model turbine boat using a baking-powder can for a boiler with candles as fuel] the turbine is constructed on an axle made of a hatpin which runs through the top of the standards for bearings. the paddles are made of cardboard, or better still, pieces of thin sheet tin, cut and bent as shown at a, and three of these are attached to a three-cornered block of wood fastened to the shaft, as shown at b. the manner of attaching the shaft for the propeller is shown at c. the propeller consists of a piece of tin, slightly twisted and attached to the shaft with solder. the pulleys are located as shown and connected with a string band. the hole made in the can should be pointed to one side of the turbine shaft so that the escaping steam will strike one side of the paddles on the turbine.--contributed by mckinley wood, ava, n. y. plant shelf for a window an ingenious and simple method of putting up window shelves for winter plants so that the window casing and facing are not marred is shown in the sketch. the materials required are one shelf, about in. wide, - / yd. of picture wire, two screweyes, two fence staples, and two strips of wood, to raise the shelf slightly from the window sill. the board for the shelf is cut to fit the window frame and casing. the picture wire, screweyes and staples are attached as shown. when cleaning the window the shelf can be drawn out of the way.--contributed by h. c. dixon, johnstown, pa. [illustration: the shelf is hung on wires attached to screweyes placed in the facing edge] a camera support a device which, in many instances, will take the place of a tripod, can be made of a brass wood screw and can be carried in the pocket as easily as a pencil. the screw should be or in. long and / in. in diameter. cut off the head and thread the end about / in. to fit the socket in the camera. drill a / -in. hole through the metal just below the threaded part and insert a short piece of / -in. wire. slip a washer over the end, down to the wire, and fasten it with solder. [illustration: substitute for a camera tripod that can be carried in the pocket like a pencil] the device can be turned into a tree, post or a stick thrust into the ground, and the camera screwed onto it and adjusted to any angle.--contributed by o. d. turner, seattle, wash. combination tool for amateur draftsmen a common -in. mill file can be converted into a very useful tool for an amateur draftsman. grind the end of the file as shown in the sketch and use it for prying out thumbtacks that are driven in too tightly. grind the base of the tang into a knife blade for sharpening pencils, shaving chalk, opening envelopes, etc. shape, by careful grinding, the part a for cutting and trimming sheets. grind one edge of the file round and polish it for smoothing and burnishing purposes. grind a sharp point on the tang for perforating sheets. a piece of rubber stuck on the tang end answers the double purpose of a protector and eraser. the file part is used for finishing points on pencils. [illustration: a tool made of a file combining several tools which are used by a draftsman] varnishing bases for electric apparatus it is quite difficult to keep from making finger marks on freshly varnished boards used as bases on electric devices. it is easily avoided, however, by procuring a large spool and fastening it to the bottom of the base with a wood screw. the spool will serve as a handle while the varnish is applied, and also makes a stand for the board while the varnish dries.--contributed by jacob laudan, louisville, ky. waterproof shoe dressing melt some tallow and, while it is hot, put in some scraps of rubber from old rubber shoes or boots. be careful to select rubber that is free from cloth. put in as much of the rubber as the tallow will absorb. stir freely while it is melting, and keep it away from any flames. allow it to cool and set away for future use. take enough for immediate use and warm it sufficiently so that it may be applied with a brush.--contributed by f. s. cummings, detroit, mich. an adjustable bench stop a simple adjustable bench stop for light work may be made from a piece of -in. broom handle and a piece of piano wire. plane a flat surface on the broom stick and drill two / -in. holes, about / in. deep, / in. from each end. bend the ends of the wire to enter the holes and have the wire of such length as to give it a slight curve between the ends when it is in place on the stick. [illustration: the spring wire will hold the stop at any desired position for height] bore a -in. hole through the bench top where it is desired to use the stop and cut several grooves, as shown, in the walls of the hole with a compass saw. the spring wire will slide into a groove and hold the stick wherever it is set. the position of the face can be changed by inserting the stick so that the wire will enter the right groove.--contributed by alan h. andrews, fall river, mass. a crochet hook in making some kinds of lace work different-sized hooks must be used as the work proceeds. considerable time will be lost in changing from one hook to another, if they are separate. the best way is to mount all the hooks necessary on one handle, as shown in the sketch. the handle part is made of a large wire or small rod, bent to the shape shown and with holes drilled through the ends for a small rivet. the ends of the hooks are drilled or bent to fit on the rivet. a small tin ferrule is made to slip over the handle and the hooks not in use. all hooks but the one in use are turned back into the handle and the ferrule slipped into place.--contributed by miss nita s. ingle, w. toledo, o. [illustration: a crochet-hook handle for holding several hooks that are required for some lace work] writing board for children a writing desk for a child can be easily made as shown in the sketch. the materials necessary are a board of suitable size, two screwhooks, four screweyes and a pair of rods for braces. the hooks are screwed into the back of a chair and the screweyes into the board, as shown. this desk is instantly attached or taken down when desired. if the chair is light and apt to tip over, make the rods long-enough to reach to the floor.--contributed by john v. loeffler, evansville, ind. [illustration: the writing board is easily attached to, or detached from, an ordinary chair back] geometric principle in line division when sketching a plan, if any one of the first few lines drawn is found to be the proper length, then this line can be made into a scale by the geometric rule for dividing a given line into equal parts. [illustration: a scale can be made for use on any sized sketch or drawing] suppose, for example, the line ab, which is to represent ft., is found to be ft. long. draw a line, ac, at any angle from the point a and step off on it equal parts, beginning at a. the last point, or the one at c, is connected to the end b, then eleven other lines are drawn parallel with cb. thus ab will make a scale of in. to each ft.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. repairing a broken whip procure a piece of thin tin--the metal taken from a discarded fruit can will do--and cut it about - / in. long and wide enough to encircle the break. notch the ends like saw teeth and remove any sharp edges with a file. place the tin on the break and tie temporarily. wind the whole from end to end with a waxed linen thread, such as used by harness makers. the threads lying alternately on the whip and on metal at the notched ends eliminate any possibility of the parts working loose. a break near the small and flexible end of a whip is repaired in the same manner, using a quill instead of the tin. in either case, do not let the edges of the splicing material meet, and it will clamp tightly on the whip.--contributed by w. s. kingsley, w. gouldsboro, me. [illustration: the repair on a whip made with a notched ferrule and a waxed thread] repairing a worn thimble silver thimbles are easily worn through at the end, and they can be quickly repaired by soldering from the inside. a very neat repair can be made with an alcohol lamp and a blowpipe by using a little silver solder. borax or resin is used as a flux. a small torch a small torch, that will give a very fine and hot smokeless flame, can be made from a piece of glass tube, about in. long, and ft. of rubber tubing. the glass tube is heated in the center until it is red, then the ends drawn apart so that the tube will have a small diameter. after the glass has cooled, make a small scratch with a file on the thin part and break it. one of the pointed ends is connected to a straight piece of glass tube with a short piece of the rubber tube, as shown in the sketch. a small hole is cut in the side of the piece of rubber to admit air to the gas. the torch is connected to an ordinary gas jet.--contributed by e. k. marshall, oak park, ill. [illustration: a torch made of glass and rubber tubing, to be used on an ordinary gas jet] fountain attachment for an ordinary pen a quite efficient fountain pen may be quickly made by bending an ordinary pen, as shown at a, and inserting it in the holder opposite to the regular pen, as shown at b. for best results, the point of the auxiliary pen should just touch the regular pen.--contributed by thos. l. parker, wibaux, mont. [illustration: the space between the pens forms the fountain, which is sufficient for considerable writing] * * * * * a little water added to oil paint will make a flat or lusterless finish and will do no harm to the paint, as the water evaporates in time. [illustration] homemade cut press the person who has a little ability in making wood cuts with a knife will find it very interesting to make the press shown in the sketch. a fair job of printing can be done with the press, using printer's ink spread on a piece of glass with a hand ink roller, such as can be purchased cheaply of any dealer in printing supplies. [illustration: a hand press for printing from cuts made of wood, using ordinary printer's ink] the press may have a base, a, of any size to suit, but one - / in. thick, in. wide, and in. long will be found to serve best for most purposes. it must be smooth and level. hard wood, such as maple, beech, or birch, is best for all parts. the post b is - / in. thick, in. wide, and in. long. before setting it, slot the upper end for the end of the lever. this is done by making a saw cut, - / in. deep, / in. from either side and cutting out the core to make a slot / in. wide. a / -in. hole is then bored through the prongs to receive a stove bolt that connects them with the lever. the post is fastened with screws and glue in a notch cut in the center of the base end. the lever c is made of a piece of wood / in. square and in. long. at the forward end the sides are pared away to form a tongue, or tenon, that will pass between the prongs of the upright, and a hole is bored through it to match those in the prongs. the entire upper surface of the lever is rounded and the under surface is rounded, beginning in. from the tenon end. glue to the under side of the lever a block, d, at the end of the under, flat surface. the block should be about - / in. square by - / in. long. if the under side of the base is crowning, either level it with a plane or nail cleats across the ends for feet. a washer is used with the stove bolt in connecting the lever and post. the cuts are made of small blocks of wood, about / in. thick and of a size to take the characters desired. these blocks must be level and the printing side made smooth with very fine sandpaper, or a scraper, before the characters are laid out. boxwood is best for cuts, but pearwood, applewood, birch, or maple will do very well. mark out the characters backward, using the pencil very lightly. then, with the small blade of a knife, made as sharp as possible, cut around the outlines, holding the knife slanting, and remove the adjacent wood by cutting in at a reverse angle to meet the boundary cut. gradually deepen the cuts around the characters until they stand in relief about / in., then score v-shaped grooves, checkerboard fashion, across the remaining high surface that is not a part of the design, and chip out the resulting small blocks to bring the entire secondary surface of the block to a uniform level with the portions adjoining the characters. a touch of glue to the back of the cut will set it securely enough to the bottom of the block d for printing, and allow its removal without injury when desired. to get a uniform impression in printing, place paper on the base, as at e, to the thickness required. for controlling the printing position on the stock paper, pins or tacks can be stuck into the base and each sheet to be printed laid against these guides.--contributed by chelsea curtis frazier, saginaw, mich. an electrical testing instrument for experimenters the amateur having an ordinary flash light can make an instrument that will serve for a variety of purposes. it is only necessary to solder a piece of lamp cord to the spring of the battery which comes in contact with the lamp, and pass the end through a hole drilled in the top of the case. the end can be fitted with a cord tip. [illustration: an instrument made of an electrical pocket flash light for testing circuits and instruments] to test batteries, take the flash light in the right hand and press the button, lighting the lamp, then place the bottom of the flash light on one binding post and the cord on the other. if the light burns brilliantly, the battery is dead, but if it burns dimly or goes out the battery is good. it may happen that the experimenter's telegraph line is out of order and the trouble cannot be found. the sounder may be tested out by disconnecting the wires from the instrument and placing the bottom of the flash light on one binding post and the cord on the other. if the light goes out, the trouble does not lie in the sounder, but in some other part of the line. the line may be tested in a similar manner if one end is short-circuited and the flash light connected to the other. a tester of this kind cannot be used on long lines, or on instruments of much resistance, as their resistance will overcome that of the light. keep in mind the fact that the lamp will always burn on an open circuit and go out on a closed circuit. softening the tone of a talking machine [illustration] an effective mute, for use on any disk talking machine, can be made by clamping an ordinary wood clothespin on the head of the setscrew that holds the needle. thus the tone will be softened a great deal more than by the use of a wood needle. the record of a stringed instrument, such as a violin, will be almost exactly reproduced. it will also eliminate almost all the scratching sound caused by a steel needle.--contributed by c. m. reeves, los angeles, cal. * * * * * an antenna should be made of wire larger than no. gauge. [illustration] a musical doorbell by h. marcelle in the construction of this doorbell it is best to purchase a small instrument known as the "tubaphone." it consists of a rack with several pieces of brass tubing cut to different lengths to give the proper tones as they are struck. such an instrument with eight tubes will play almost any tune, and can be purchased from cents up, depending on the size. brass tubes can be purchased, cut, and toned, but the time taken in doing this is worth more than the price of the instrument, and no changes are necessary in it to make the doorbell. [illustration: detail of the parts for the construction of a musical doorbell that will play the music on brass tubes with one touch of a push button] several strips of pine, in. wide and / in. thick, are procured for the framework. the tubes are placed on a table top, in. apart and with their lower ends on a line at right angles to their length. allow a space of in. outside the first and last tube, and cut a piece of the wood to this length, allowing sufficient additional material to fasten on the ends of two uprights, which are cut long enough to admit the longest tube and allow sufficient room for a large roller and space at the top to swing the tubes. a base is cut from a board, / in. thick and of sufficient size to admit the roller and tube rack, together with a small battery motor. the tube rack is fastened to the back of this base by making a tenon on the lower end of each upright, and a mortise in the baseboard to receive it. a roller is turned from a piece of soft pine, large enough to provide room on its surface for a number of horizontal lines equal to the number of notes in the composition to be played. these lines should not be too close together. supposing the music it is desired to play has notes in its composition, then horizontal lines must be spaced evenly on the surface of the roller. the length of the roller should be a free-working fit between the uprights. a / -in. steel rod is run through its center for a shaft, allowing sufficient ends for the bearings, and, in addition, at one end sufficient length for a pulley. the motor is lined up on the base, so that its pulley wheel will run a belt on the large wheel of the roller. the current is turned on after making belt and wiring connections, a lead pencil is held directly centering the place where each tube hangs, and a line is drawn on the circumference of the roller. a / -in. hole is drilled through each tube, near one end, and a piece of catgut string run into it to make a hanger. a piece of board, long enough to fit between the uprights when placed on the slope formed by the upper ends of the tubes after their lower ends are set straight on a line at right angles to their length, and wide enough to swing the tubes clear of the frame, is fastened in place, as shown. small screw eyes are turned into the under side of this board, at even spacings of in., and used to swing the tubes by the catgut strings. another piece of board, the same width as the former, is placed, perfectly horizontal, between the uprights a short distance above the lower ends of the hanging tubes. evenly spaced holes are bored in this crosspiece to admit the ends of the tubes. the holes should be of such size that when they are lined with a piece of felt, the tubes will have a little play without touching the sides at any point. the hammers are each made of a strip of sheet brass, having a length that will extend from the base to a short distance above the lower ends of the tubes. a hole is drilled in each end of the strip, the lower one being of a size to fasten it to the base crosspiece with a round-head wood screw. the hole in the upper end is used to fasten a small block of wood with a screw, for the hammer head. a small strip of felt is glued to the striking side of the block. another piece of brass, used for a trip, is fastened to the center part of each long piece with rivets, so that its upper end will be near the center of the roller for height, and strike the end of a small peg driven into the roller. the length of these pieces, in fact, of all pieces, will depend on the length of the tubes in the tubaphone and the size roller required for the music. the setting of the pegs in the roller requires some patience in order to get the tune correct, but one mistake will be of more value than an hour's description. the pegs can be procured from a shoemaker. if the roller is of pine, they can be driven into the wood of the roller with a hammer. [illustration: the appearance of the doorbell is that of a mission clock on a mantel] with ordinary connections to the push button and motor, the mechanism will only run while the push button is being pressed. a device that will cause the piece of music to be played through to the finish after the push button is pushed for a short time, consists of a turned piece of wood fastened to the outside surface of the driving wheel on the roller. this piece of wood should be carefully set, so that its outside surface will be true as it revolves. three brushes, made of copper strips, are fastened to the base. the length of these brushes will depend on the size of the roller and height of the block of wood. they should be evenly spaced and fastened, so that they will be insulated from each other. one strip of brass, or copper, is fastened around the turned piece of wood. this strip must be as wide as two brushes, except for a short distance to make a break in the electrical circuit. the notch in the strip, to make this break, should be on the outside edge where it will disconnect the center brush, and its location on the turned piece of wood should be on a line with the end and the beginning of the pegs for the music. another short strip is fastened to the turned piece of wood, where it will make a contact with the first brush when the second or middle brush is in the notch, or disconnected, and is connected to the other notched strip with a piece of wire run beneath the wood. the wiring shown will make it possible to start the motor with the push button which will turn the roll far enough to connect the center brush; then the roller will turn until the music is played, at which point it will stop and remain in rest until the push button again makes the contact. the entire mechanism can be made to set on the mantel or shelf, incased like a mission clock, and the wires running to it may be concealed. replacing buckle tongues [illustration] having several buckles without tongues i tried to repair them with pieces of wire, but could not get them to bend short enough to fasten around the buckle frame. some cotters were at hand and seeing them gave me the idea of using one leg, with the eye part, as a tongue. by using the proper-sized cotter, a substantial and quickly made repair will be the result.--contributed by everett hoar, bowmanville, ont. * * * * * bread crumbs thoroughly rubbed over a pencil drawing will remove most of the dirt and without disturbing the pencil lines. drying towels in photographer's dark room in doing a large amount of photographic work the towel becomes wet, and to dry the hands on it is impossible. to obviate this annoyance, i made a galvanized-iron pipe, about ft. long and in. in diameter, with a disk, or circular piece, of metal about in. in diameter soldered on each end to form flanges. one flange was fastened to the wall of the dark room in a convenient place to support the device. on the inside of the spool, or towel support, an ordinary incandescent electric globe was placed. the heat of the lamp would easily dry in. of the towel, and when the dry part was pulled down for use another wet portion was brought into position for drying. [illustration: an electric globe makes heat in the spool for drying a portion of the towel] those who have tried to handle gelatin dry plates with moist hands will readily appreciate the value of this simple contrivance. the lamp in the spool is connected on the switch with the ruby light, so that it is not forgotten, when leaving the room, to turn it out.--contributed by t. b. lambert, chicago. an electric chime clock by john e. mahlmeister [illustration: the alarm clock in its case and the location of the contact pins and contact lever (fig. )] in the construction of this clock one perfectly good and accurate alarm clock and the works of an old or discarded one are used. the clock for the accurate time is set into a frame, or casing, made of thin boards which have a circular opening cut in them to fit snugly on the outside casing of the clock. the back of the clock and casing are shown in fig. . a circular line is drawn on the casing, about in. larger in diameter than the clock, and brass machine screws with two nuts clamping on the wood back, as shown at a, are set at intervals so as to be opposite, or just back of, the hour marks , , , , , , , and . a contact spring, b, is shaped as shown and soldered to the knurled knob on the back of the clock used for setting the hands in a position where it will travel or be parallel with the minute hand. the end of the contact spring should be shaped so that it will slide over the points of the screws easily, but in good contact. the ends of the screws should be filed to a slightly rounding point. the wiring diagram for this part of the apparatus is clearly shown, and the terminals are connected to binding posts c and d. the binding post e is connected to the metal part of the clock. [illustration: location of the clock works, magnets, binding posts, gongs and strikers on the baseboard (fig. )] the chime part is made entirely separate and can be located at any reasonable distance from the clock. it is propelled by the works from an old clock, as shown at f, fig. . the old clock is prepared for use by removing the hands, balance wheel and escapement so that the wheels will turn freely. to prevent the works from running too fast, a piece of sheet brass, g, is soldered to the shaft running at the highest speed. the brass should be as large as the space will admit. it forms a fan to catch the air and retard the speed, and also provides a means of stopping the works by the electric mechanism. the parts for the gongs and electrical apparatus are supported on a baseboard, / in. thick, in. wide, and in. long. the automatic switch is located at one end of the base, and consists of two sets of magnets, h and j, with an armature, k, to which is attached a stiff contact wire, l. this wire is to make contact with the spring m when the armature is drawn by the magnets j, and with n when drawn by the magnets h. the springs m and n are made of thin sheet brass, bent as shown, and mounted on the base. a piece of wood, o, on which to mount the works of the old clock is mortised into the base. another standard, p, of the same height as o, is also mortised into the base to provide a bearing for the end of the shaft which carries the wood disk q, the opposite end of the shaft being connected by means of a ferrule and soldered to the end of the minute-hand shaft. the shaft should be well lined up, so that it will turn freely. the wood disk is / in. thick and about in. in diameter. [illustration: the pins are accurately set in four circular lines and on radial lines (fig. )] mark four circles on the face of the disk, near the outside edge and / in. apart. step off the outside circle into parts and draw a radial line from each mark across the four circular lines with the straight edge on the center of the disk. an arc of the disk is shown in fig. , where trip pins are driven in for making the electric contacts. this part of the arc shows the method of locating the pins for the hour from to o'clock, with the intermediate pins for the quarter, half, and three-quarter-hour contacts. the intermediate pins are arranged in the same manner for all hours, but the hour pins, on the second circle, run from pin to pins consecutively. ordinary pins, with the heads cut off, are used and should be driven in accurately on the division lines to secure proper results. the arrangement of the springs is shown in fig. . these springs, when pressed together, will close the circuit for ringing the gongs. they are made of thin sheet brass, bent as shown at r, and fastened to a piece, or block, of hard wood with screws, as shown at s. the springs numbered , , , and are the ones made as shown at r for sliding over the pins in the disk q, and their ends should clear the face of the disk about / in. the springs , , , , and are about / in. shorter and have their ends bent up at right angles so that they will almost touch the long ones. the spring should be a little shorter than . when fastening the springs to the block of wood, be sure that no two springs touch and that each one is separated from the other to form no contact until the pins in the wheel force them together. the block is then fastened to the base under and parallel with the shaft carrying the disk q, as shown. the starting and stopping of the clockwork f is accomplished by means of a set of bell magnets, arranged, as shown at t, fig. , with the wire attached to the armature bent to touch the brass wing of the fan g. the armature must not vibrate, but stay against the magnet cores while the current is flowing through them, thus allowing the clock wheels to turn, and as soon as the current is cut off, the armature will spring back and stop the wheels. [illustration: the parts constructing the chime are placed in the clock frame below the works] arrange four gongs, u, v, w, and x, as shown in fig. , and also three bell magnets with clappers , and . these gongs should be selected for tone as in a chime clock. the connections to the bell magnets , , and should be direct to the binding posts so that the armature will not vibrate, but give one stroke. for instance, bell magnet should produce one stroke on the gong u when the current is on, and one stroke on the gong v when the current breaks. the magnets should cause the clapper to strike once on the gong v when the current is on, and to make one stroke on the gong w when the current is broken. the magnets produce only one stroke on the gong x at a time, which is used to sound the hours. [illustration: the contact springs are operated by the pins on the disk wheel (fig. )] the parts are connected up electrically as shown in fig. . the lines between the clock, fig. , and the bell-ringing part, fig. , are connected from c to c, d to d, and e, fig. , to the zinc of a battery and from the carbon to e, fig. . two dry cells will be sufficient for the current. [illustration: the wiring diagram for the location of the wires on the under side of the base (fig. )] the working of the mechanism is as follows: suppose the time is minutes of o'clock and the contact spring on the back is near the pin. as soon as it touches the pin, the armature k of the switch will be drawn in contact with the spring n, then when the contact spring touches the pin, the current will flow into the magnets t and release the wheels of the clockwork f, which turns the disk q, and the three pins in the second row will pass over the spring and press it in contact with the spring three times, causing the gong x to toll out o'clock. as the contact spring b will be on the contact pin for about minute, the wheels of the clockwork f would continue to turn and the bells ring, if it were not for the stop pin located on the outside, or first, circle of the disk q, which pin is set in line with the last pin in the set of pins for the hour, or, in this instance, in line with the third pin. when the stop pin has passed the spring, the connection through the magnets t is broken and the clockwork f stops instantly. when the spring b strikes the o'clock pin, or minutes after o'clock, the armature k is drawn over to n, and at the pin, or minutes after o'clock, the bells u, v, and w will ring and then the stop pin will break the current, and so on, at every minutes of the hours. hinges used to substitute night bolt one of the safest devices for bolting, or locking, a door against intruders is to use two sets of hinges. the extra set is fastened to the door and frame in the same way but directly opposite the regular hinges. it may be necessary to file the extra hinges and pins in order to separate and bring the parts together easily. the usual door lock need not be used with this arrangement, as the hinges are exposed only on the inside of the room and cannot be tampered with from without. propellers for a hand sled desiring to propel my hand sled with power transmitted by cranks and wheels, i set about to procure the necessary materials. two medium-sized buggy wheels were found in the back yard of a blacksmith shop, which were procured for a nominal price. the fellies of these wheels were removed, the tenons cut from the spokes and nails substituted, which were driven in their ends so that about / in. of the body with the head projected. the heads were then removed and the nail ends sharpened. the hubs were plugged with pieces of wood, whittled to tightly fit the holes. a hole was then bored exactly central through each plug for a / -in. rod. this size rod was procured and bent to form a crank, the bearing end being threaded for a distance equal to the length of the hub. [illustration: sled propelled by revolving wheels turned by cranks, the pointed nails doing the pushing] two pieces or blocks of wood, in. square and in. long, were used as bearings. these were bored centrally through the long way, to receive the / -in. rod just loose enough to make a good bearing. these bearings were supported by a pair of braces made of strap iron, about / in. thick and / in. wide. the length of the iron will depend on the size of the wheels and the height of the sled runner. the braces were shaped as shown. the center of the bearing hole must be as high from the surface of the ground as the distance the spoke ends are from the center of the hub hole. the crank is then run through the bearing hole and a nut run on the threads and a washer placed against the nut. the wheel is then slipped on the axle, and another washer and nut run on tightly. both wheels, bearings, cranks, and brackets are made alike. the brackets are fastened with small bolts to the sled top.--contributed by justin stewart, wallingford, conn. a self-feeding match box with the addition of the simple device here illustrated, any match box can be converted into one of the self-feeding type. a piece of tin, or cardboard, is cut, as shown at a, the exact size depending on the match box used. the piece cut out is folded on the dotted lines, the cover on the match box is removed, and the part b pushed into the end of the box beneath the matches. the part b is twice as long as the depth of the box, therefore it enters the box as far as the line c. the flaps d rest against the outside of the box, and are held in place by the box cover. the matches feed into the box formed of the tin or cardboard as fast as used, while the burnt ones can be placed in the upper part e. [illustration: the attachment consists of a receptacle fitting into the end of a match box] corks-in-a-box trick procure a pill box and a clean cork. cut two disks from the cork to fit in the box, and fasten one of the pieces centrally to the inside bottom of the pill box with glue. to perform the trick, put the loose disk in with the one that is fast, and then open the box to show both corks. close the box and in doing so turn it over, then open and only one cork will be seen. be careful not to show the inside of the other part of the box with the cork that is fastened.--contributed by fred b. spoolstra, yonkers, n. y. a disk-armature motor one of the simplest motors to make is the disk motor, its construction requiring a wood base, a brass disk, a -in. horseshoe magnet, and some mercury. [illustration] the base is made of hard wood, in the proportions shown in the sketch. the leading-in wires are connected to the binding posts a and b, and from these connections are made, on the bottom of the base, from a to the groove c cut in the upper surface of the base for the mercury, and from b to one screw, d, of one bearing. the end of the former wire must be clean and project into the end of the groove, where it will be surrounded with mercury. [illustration: parts of the disk motor shown in detail, also the location of the horseshoe magnet on the base, ends of the poles being directly under the center of the shaft] the bearings consist of thin sheet brass, cut to the dimensions shown, the bearing part being made with a well-pointed center punch, as at e. the disk wheel is made of sheet brass, in. in diameter, and a needle, with the eye broken off and pointed, is used for the shaft. the needle shaft can be placed in position by springing the bearings apart at the top. when the current is applied, the disk will revolve in a direction relative to the position of the poles on the magnet. the reverse can be made by turning the magnet over.--contributed by joseph h. redshaw, homestead, pa. repairing marble with a little practice any mechanic can repair holes, cracks or chipped places on marble slabs, so that the patched place cannot be detected from the natural marble. use the following mixture as a base for the filler: water glass, parts; calcined magnesite, parts, and powdered marble, parts. these should be mixed thoroughly to a semifluid paste. fill the crack or hole and smooth off level, then with a camel's-hair brush and colors, made of aniline in alcohol, work out the veins, body colors, etc., as near to the natural marble as possible. it will depend on the application of the colors whether the repair can be seen or not. artificial-marble slabs can be formed from this mixture.--contributed by a. e. soderlund, new york city. the construction of a simple wireless telephone set by a. e. andrews in two parts--part i among the various methods for the transmission of speech electrically, without wire, from one point to another, the so-called "inductivity" system, which utilizes the principles of electromagnetic induction, is perhaps the simplest, because it requires no special apparatus. since this system is so simple in construction, and its operation can be easily understood by one whose knowledge of electricity is limited, a description will be given of how to construct and connect the necessary apparatus required at a station for both transmitting and receiving a message. [illustration: fig. --wire connected to galvanometer] before taking up the actual construction and proper connection of the various pieces of apparatus, it will be well to explain the electrical operation of the system. if a conductor be moved in a magnetic field in any direction other than parallel to the field, there will be an electrical pressure induced in the conductor, and this induced electrical pressure will produce a current in an electrical circuit of which the conductor is a part, provided the circuit be complete, or closed, just as the electrical pressure produced in the battery due to the chemical action in the battery will produce a current in a circuit connected to the terminals of the battery. a simple experiment to illustrate the fact that there is an induced electrical pressure set up in a conductor when it is moved in a magnetic field may be performed as follows: take a wire, ab, as shown in fig. , and connect its terminals to a galvanometer, g, as shown. if no galvanometer can be obtained, a simple one can be made by supporting a small compass needle inside a coil composed of about turns of small wire. the terminals of the winding on the coil of the galvanometer should be connected to the terminals of the conductor ab, as shown in fig. . if now the conductor ab be moved up and down past the end of the magnet n, there will be an electrical pressure induced in the conductor, and this electrical pressure will produce a current in the winding of the galvanometer g, which will cause the magnetic needle suspended in the center of the coil to be acted upon by a magnetic force tending to move it from its initial position, or position of rest. it will be found that this induced electrical pressure will exist only as long as the conductor ab is moving with respect to the magnetic field of the magnet n, as there will be no deflection of the galvanometer needle when the motion of the conductor ceases, indicating there is no current in the galvanometer winding, and hence no induced electrical pressure. it will also be found that the direction in which the magnetic needle of the galvanometer is deflected changes as the direction of motion of the conductor changes with respect to the magnet, indicating that there is a change in the direction of the current in the winding of the galvanometer, and since the direction of this current is dependent upon the direction in which the induced electrical pressure acts, there must have been a change in the direction of this pressure due to a change in the direction of motion of the conductor. the same results can be obtained by moving the magnet, allowing the conductor ab to remain stationary, the only requirement being a relative movement of the conductor and the magnetic field created by the magnet. [illustration: fig. --compass needle test] it is not necessary that the magnetic field be created by a permanent magnet. it can be produced by a current in a conductor. the fact that there is a magnetic field surrounding a conductor in which there is a current can be shown by a simple experiment, as illustrated in fig. . if a wire be placed above a compass needle and parallel to the direction of the compass needle and a current be sent through the wire in the direction indicated by the arrow i, there will be a force acting on the compass needle tending to turn the needle at right angles to the wire. the amount the needle is turned will depend upon the value of the current in the wire. there is a definite relation between the direction of the current in the wire and the direction of the magnetic field surrounding the wire, because a reversal of current in the conductor will result in a reversal in the direction in which the compass needle is deflected. remembering that the direction of a magnetic field can be determined by placing a magnetic needle in the field and noting the direction in which the n-pole of the needle points, this being taken as the positive direction, if one looks along a conductor in which there is a current and the current be from the observer, the direction of the magnetic field about the conductor will be clockwise. imagine a conductor carrying a current and that you are looking at a cross-section of this conductor (see fig. ), and the direction of the current in the conductor is from you (this being indicated in the figure by the cross inside the circle), then the lines of force of the magnetic field will be concentric circles about the conductor, they being nearer together near the conductor, indicating the strength of the field is greatest near the conductor. a compass needle placed above the conductor would place itself in such a position that the n-pole would point toward the right and the s-pole toward the left. if the needle be placed below the conductor, the n-pole would point to the left and the s-pole to the right, indicating that the direction of the magnetic field above the conductor is just the reverse of what it is below the conductor. [illustration: fig. --lines of force] [illustration: fig. --reversed lines of force] the strength of the magnetic field produced by a current in a conductor can be greatly increased by forming the conductor into a coil. figure shows the cross-section of a coil composed of a single turn of wire. the current in the upper cross-section is just the reverse of what it is in the lower cross-section, as indicated by the cross and dash inside the two circles. as a result of the direction of current in the two cross-sections being different, the direction of the magnetic field about these two cross-sections will be different, one being clockwise, and the other counter-clockwise. it will be observed, however, that all the lines of force pass through the center of the coil in the same direction, or the magnetic field inside the coil is due to the combined action of the various parts of the conductor forming the complete turn. this magnetic field can be increased in value, without increasing the current in the conductor, by adding more turns to the coil. [illustration: fig. --magnetic lines passing through center] a cross-section through a coil composed of eight turns placed side by side is shown in fig. . the greater part of the magnetic lines created by each turn pass through the remaining turns as shown in the figure, instead of passing around the conductor in which the current exists that creates them. this results in the total number of lines passing through the coil per unit of cross-sectional area being greater than it was for a single turn, although the value of the current in the conductor has remained constant, the only change being an increase in the number of turns forming the coil. if a conductor be moved by the end of a coil similar to that shown in fig. , when there is a current in the winding of the coil, there will be an electrical pressure induced in the conductor, just the same as though it were moved by the end of a permanent magnet. the polarity of the coil is marked in fig. . the magnetic lines pass from the s-pole to the n-pole through the coil and from the n-pole to the s-pole outside the coil, just as they do in a permanent magnet. how to lock a tenoned joint a tenon placed in a blind mortise can be permanently fastened, when putting the joints together, by two wedges driven in the end grain of the wood. in some cases, where the wood to be used is very dry and brittle, it is advisable to dip the tenon in warm water before applying the glue. the glue must be applied immediately after the tenon is removed from the water, and then inserted in the mortise. the sketch shows the application of the wedges. the bottom of the mortise drives the wedges as the tenon is forced in place. [illustration: wedges in tenon] fitting a large cork in a small bottle when necessary, a large cork may be made to fit a small bottle, if treated as shown in the sketch. two wedge-shaped sections are cut from the cork, at right angles to each other, as shown in fig. . the points are then squeezed together (fig. ) and the end inserted in the bottle (fig. ). wet the cork slightly and the operation will be easier.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. [illustration: reducing size of cork (fig. , fig. , fig. )] a homemade wet battery [illustration] procure a large water bottle and have a glass cutter cut the top off so that the lower portion will form a jar about - / in. high. next obtain two pieces of carbon, about in. long, in. wide and / in. thick. melt up some old scrap zinc and mold a piece having the same dimensions as the pieces of carbon. the mold for casting the zinc may be made by nailing some / -in. strips of wood on a piece of dry board, forming a shallow box, in. wide and in. long. remove all the impurities from the surface of the zinc when it is melted, with a metal spoon or piece of tin. before filling the mold with the metal, place a piece of no. gauge bare copper wire through a small hole in one of the end pieces forming the mold, and allow it to project several inches inside, and make sure the mold is perfectly level. the zinc will run around the end of the wire, which is to afford a means of connecting the zinc plate to one of the binding posts forming the terminals of the cell. cut from some hard wood four pieces a little longer than the outside diameter of the glass jar, two of them / by / in., and two, / by / in. drill a / -in. hole in each end of all four pieces, the holes being perpendicular to the / -in. dimension in each case, and about / in. from the end. boil all the pieces for several minutes in paraffin and stand them up on end to drain. procure two / -in. brass bolts, - / in. long, which are to be used in clamping the elements of the cell together. the two smaller pieces of wood should be placed on each side of one end of the zinc, then the carbon pieces and the larger pieces of wood outside the carbon pieces. the carbon plates should be connected together and then connected to a binding post which forms the positive terminal of the cell. if unable to obtain pieces of carbon of the required dimensions, a number of ordinary electric-light carbons may be used. get about ten / -in. carbons, without the copper coating, if possible; if not, file all the copper off. cut these carbons off, forming -in. lengths. file the top ends of the carbons flat and so that they all become equal in thickness, and clamp them in place by means of the brass bolts. if rods are used, they should all be connected together by means of a piece of copper wire and then to a binding post. the plates may now be hung in the jar, the wooden pieces resting on the top of the jar and acting as a support. the solution for this cell is made by dissolving / lb. of potassium bichromate in / gal. of water, and then adding very slowly / lb. of strong sulphuric acid. more or less solution may be made by using the proper proportion of each ingredient. this cell will have a voltage of two volts, a rather low internal resistance, and will be capable of delivering a large current. if it should begin to show signs of exhaustion, a little more acid may be added. a chemical action goes on in this cell regardless of whether it supplies current to an external circuit or not, and for this reason the elements should be removed from the solution and hung directly over the jar when the cell is not in use. a simple device for this purpose may be constructed as shown. a cord may be passed through the opening in the crossbar at the top and its lower end attached to the elements. when the elements are drawn out of the solution, the upper end of the cord may be fastened in some manner. this frame can, of course, be made longer, so it will accommodate a number of cells. the construction of a simple wireless telephone set by a. e. andrews in two parts--part ii if two coils of wire be placed parallel to each other as shown in fig. , and a current be passed through the winding of one of them, say a, a part of the magnetic lines of force created by this current will pass through the other coil b. these lines of magnetic force must cut across the turns of wire of the coil in which there is no current as the magnetic field is being created, and as a result there will be an electrical pressure produced in the winding of the coil carrying no current. when the current in coil a is discontinued, the magnetic field created by this current is destroyed or it contracts to zero, and the magnetic lines again cut the various turns composing the winding of coil b. the direction in which the magnetic lines of force and the winding of coil b move with respect to each other is just the reverse, when the current in the winding of coil a is increasing, to what it is when the current in the winding of the coil a is decreasing. any change in the value of the current in the winding of coil a will result in a change in the number of magnetic lines of force linked with the winding of the coil b, and as a result of this change in the number of lines linked with the winding of coil b there will be an induced electrical pressure set up in coil b. the direction of this induced electrical pressure will depend upon whether the current in the winding of coil a is increasing or decreasing in value. when the current in the winding of coil a is increasing in value, the electrical pressure induced in the winding of coil b will be in such a direction that the current produced by this induced electrical pressure will pass around the winding of coil b in the opposite direction to that in which the current passes around the winding of coil a. or the current produced by the induced electrical pressure tends to produce a magnetic field opposite in direction to the one created by the current in the winding of coil a. when the current in the winding of a is decreasing in value, the induced pressure in the winding of the coil b is just the reverse of what it was in the previous case and the current produced by this induced pressure passes around the winding of the coil b in the same direction as the current passes around the winding of coil a. the current produced by the induced electrical pressure aids the current in the winding of coil a in producing a magnetic field. in general the current resulting from the induced pressure always passes around the circuit in such a direction as to produce a magnetic effect which will oppose a change in the value of the magnetic field causing the induced electrical pressure. [illustration: fig. ] there will be an induced pressure in the winding of coil b, due to a change in the value of the current in the winding of coil a, as long as the coil b remains in the magnetic field of the coil a and its plane is not parallel to magnetic lines; or, in other words, coil b must always be in such a position that some of the magnetic lines created by the current in coil a will pass through the winding of coil b. if a telephone transmitter and a battery be connected in series with the winding of coil a, a fluctuating or varying current can be made to pass through the winding by causing the diaphragm of the transmitter to vibrate by speaking into the mouthpiece of the transmitter. this varying current will set up a varying magnetic field and there will be an induced electrical pressure set up in coil b, if it be properly placed with respect to coil a. a receiver connected in series with the winding of coil b will be subjected to the action of a varying current due to the induced electrical pressure in the winding of coil b and as a result, the diaphragm of the receiver will vibrate in unison with that of the transmitter, and speech can thus be transmitted. the connection just described should be somewhat modified and a little more equipment used in order to give the best results. [illustration: fig. --sending and receiving equipment] figure shows the complete sending and receiving equipment, a complete outfit of this kind being required for each station. the transmitter t and the receiver r may be an ordinary local battery transmitter and receiver, although a high-resistance receiver will give better results. the induction coil with the windings, marked p and s, may be any commercial type of induction coil as used in a magneto telephone instrument, but a coil with a high-wound secondary will give better results. the push button k is to be used in closing the transmitter circuit when the set is being used for transmitting, the key being depressed, and for shorting out the high resistance secondary winding when the set is used in receiving, the key being in the normal position. ten dry cells should be connected in series and used to supply current to the transmitter circuit, as shown by b in the figure. the receiver r, secondary winding of the induction coil s, and the winding of coil a used in transmitting and receiving the magnetic effects, are all connected in series. the winding of the coil a consists of two parts, d and e, as shown in the figure, with two of their ends connected together by means of a condenser, c, having a capacity of about micro-farads. each of these parts should consist of about turns of no. gauge silk-covered copper wire, wound on an ordinary bicycle rim. the inside end of one winding should be connected to the outside of the other by means of the condenser, the two coils being wound in the same direction. the condenser c can be procured at a small cost from almost any telephone company. to talk, two of the instruments are placed or ft. apart, and they may be placed in different rooms as walls and other ordinary obstructions that do not interfere with the production of the magnetic field about the transmitting coil, have no effect upon the operation. pressing the button k at the transmitting station, closes the transmitter circuit and removes the shunt from about the secondary winding of the induction. any vibration of the transmitter will cause a varying current to pass through the primary winding p, which in turn induces an electrical pressure in the secondary winding s, and this pressure causes a varying current to pass through the coil a. the varying current in the winding of the coil a produces a varying magnetic field which acts upon the receiving coil, inducing an electrical pressure in it and producing a current through the receiver at the receiving station. a filing coherer, adapted to close a local relay circuit and ring an ordinary bell, may be used with the sets just described for signaling between stations. [illustration] an electric incubator where electric current is available, it can be used to heat an incubator much better and cleanlier than the kerosene lamp. the materials are inexpensive and the cost should be no more than for the ordinary kind of heater. first of all the box part must be made of very dry wood, / in. thick. the material should be matched, as the cost of the operation depends upon the construction of the box. the proper size for an -egg incubator is ft. square and ft. high. if a larger one is desired, the dimensions may be varied to suit, but it is not necessary to make it any higher for a larger one. if it is desired to have a window in the door, care must be taken to make it a good fit. the top, as shown in the sketch, is made without hinges so that it can be readily set on and removed. this makes it handy in case of repairing the heater and cleaning the box. the inside of the box, with the exception of the bottom, should be covered with asbestos paper. [illustration: fig. --box details] after the box is finished, fit it with a tray, - / ft. by ft. - / in. a tray having these dimensions will slide easily in the box. this is an essential feature of the hatching. the frame of the tray d, fig. , consists of wood, / by / in., with a bottom made of wire mesh. the mesh should be firmly attached, so that it will not give away when full of eggs. runners for the tray are placed - / in. from the bottom of the box. when the tray is put in place, it will not touch the back. this small space is left for the chicks to fall into the nursery below. about in. below the tray four holes are bored, aa, / in. in diameter, one on each side of the box. these holes admit fresh air to the eggs. [illustration: fig. --heater details] the electric heater is just large enough to allow a space about / in. on all edges. this makes it in. square. a piece of / -in. asbestos of the above size should be secured, on which to place the heating wire. the amount of wire depends on the size and kind. as it is not necessary to heat the wire very hot, iron or steel wire may be used. the length of wire may be determined by the following method: wind the wire on a long stick, making sure that no one coil touches its neighbor. connect one wire of the current supply at one end of the coil and run the other end of the current supply along the coils, starting at the extreme opposite end and drawing toward the center until the iron wire gets too hot to hold with the bare hand. this will be the right length of wire to use. the length being known, a number of tacks are placed in the asbestos board to hold the wire, as shown in fig. . cover the wire with a sheet of asbestos and attach binding-posts, e and f, at each end. the asbestos inclosing the heating wires is covered with a thin piece of sheet iron, which is made to fit tightly over the bottom and sides. this will spread the heat evenly. be careful to have the binding-posts insulated from the sheet metal. in the cross section of the heater, fig. , a represents the / -in. asbestos board; b, the heater wire; c, the asbestos paper, and d the sheet-metal covering. the most important part of the incubator is the thermostat which regulates the current to maintain a steady heat. it is not advisable to make this instrument, as a good one can be purchased for less than $ . place the thermostat in the end of the box at b, fig. . a small door, e, is made in the box for easy adjustment of the thumbscrews. suspend the heater from the cover of the box with bolts - / in. long, as shown in fig. . a base receptacle, g, and a snap switch, h, are fastened on top of the cover and connected up to the thermostat b, the condenser c, the heater f, and lamp i, as shown. another snap switch, j, is used on the light only. the condenser c is to prevent sparking, thus saving the platinum points on the screws. do not use more than a -cp. lamp for lighting purposes, as a brighter light blinds the young chicks. the incubator should be run for a day or two so that the current may be well regulated before placing the eggs in the tray. the incubator is operated the same as with lamp heat.--contributed by m. miller, lansing, mich. a cover for magazines as soon as popular mechanics, or any other magazine of similar size, arrives and before any member of the family looks through it, strip off the front cover and carefully remove the narrow strip on the back as shown in fig. . strengthen the back with a piece of bookbinding tissue, a, fig. , and then paste a piece of heavy manila paper, b, over the covers and back. over this paste a piece of dark blue cambric, fig. , carefully turning the edges even with the book. the picture from the cover and the date added to the left corner of the picture are neatly pasted on, fig. , and the narrow strip is glued to the back. [illustration: removing the cover, and binding with heavy paper (fig. , fig. )] the book is put under a heavy weight for several hours. thus a neat, strong cover, which looks well in a bookcase, is secured at very little expense. the eager handling by every member of the family cannot soil or deface the cover.--contributed by katharine d. morse, syracuse, n. y. [illustration: cloth cover and paper cover attached (fig. , fig. )] an optical illusion a very deceiving illusion can be contrived with a bit of wire, a rubber band and a toothpick. an ordinary straight hairpin will serve instead of the wire. the hairpin or wire is bent as shown in the illustration, and the rubber band then placed on the inverted u-shaped part. a toothpick is inserted through the rubber band and a few turns taken by slipping the toothpick back and forth so it will pass the wire. [illustration: toothpick in rubber band (fig. , fig. )] hold the wire straight in front of the eyes, and, using the forefinger of the right hand, turn the end of the toothpick a, fig. , down until it almost reaches the opposite point a, fig. , and let the finger slip off. it will appear as if the toothpick passed through the wire.--contributed by h. h. windsor, jr. temperature alarm the falling temperature of a room during the night may result in a very bad cold for the occupant. this may be prevented by the use of an alarm to awaken the sleeper and warn him to close the window. an alarm can be made as follows: take a glass tube about in. long and / in. in diameter and close one end, used for the bottom, with sealing wax, in which the bare end of a no. gauge magnet wire is inserted. the tube is almost filled with mercury. on the mercury a float of wax is placed in which a bare piece of the same magnet wire is inserted and bent as shown in the sketch. the tube of mercury is fastened to a base with two clips of metal. at the upper end of this base the adjustable lever a is attached. the electric connections are made as shown in the sketch. [illustration: the alarm and wiring diagram] should the temperature fall during the night, the mercury will contract, the float descend and the circuit close, so that the bell will ring. the adjustable lever allows setting the alarm for various differences of temperature.--contributed by klyce fuzzelle, rogers, ark. paper smoother and penwiper [illustration] a convenient paper smoother and penwiper can be easily made as follows: procure a common celluloid harness ring, a, about - / in. in diameter and fasten a penwiper, b, to it. the wiper is made of arts-crafts leather, doubled and filled with pieces of chamois. they are held in place with a ribbon or cord tied as shown. the roughened paper caused by erasing can be easily smoothed with the ring.--contributed by g. h. holter, jasper, minn. stereoscopic pictures with an ordinary camera make a small table as wide as the camera is long and in. longer than the camera is wide. sink a screw nut in the center of the under side to engage the regular tripod screw. fasten a double or two-way spirit level on the front left-hand corner. nail strips on both ends and on the rear side, to form a shallow box with three sides. the illustration shows the construction quite plainly. this device was used by a correspondent of camera craft as follows: the table was fastened to the tripod and carefully leveled. the camera is placed at one side, bringing the back snugly into the corner on that side. make the exposure, change the film, slide the camera over to the other side and make another exposure. the table being in. longer than the camera is wide, the lens will be moved exactly in. when the camera is moved over to the other side. three inches is the separation of the lenses in stereoscopic cameras and the negatives made as above will be the same. [illustration: table on tripod for camera] as the negatives must be sized, it is necessary to use films. a camera using films - / by - / in. will make negatives that can be trimmed / in. on each side to make prints by - / in. each two negatives making a pair are fastened together, properly transposed, by folding a narrow strip of black paper like a long, v-shaped trough, pasting it, and putting one on the bottom of the two negatives, as they lie side by side, and one at the top; saddle fashion. this can be done still easier by using strips of passe-partout binding, or strips used for binding lantern slides. if so desired, the use of black paper can be carried farther by cutting the top strip of binding paper in such a way that it gives the round corners to the top of the prints. a narrow strip through the center and a binding of black paper along the two end edges make a mask unnecessary in printing. how to make a paper drinking cup every person should understand the simple method of making a paper drinking cup. it may be necessary at times to make quick use of medicine and with no cup or spoon convenient, the pyramid-shaped cup shown in the sketch is a useful emergency utensil. [illustration: folds in the paper (fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. )] the paper cup is made as follows: cut the paper into a square and crease it on the dotted lines, a g, f b, and c d e, as shown in fig. . fold the paper in half through the line c d e to form a rectangle, fig. . fold points c and e inward until they meet inside the triangle to form the shape shown in fig. . this makes four distinct corners, f, g, a and b. fold the paper over on the dotted line and bring the points a and b together as in fig. . the extreme edges meet in the central line indicated. reverse the paper and fold the points g and f in like manner. turn the points a b and f g inward and fold on the dotted line, and you will have a perfect pyramid-shaped cup as shown in fig. .--contributed by miss margaret s. humphreville, mt. pleasant, o. a hand corn sheller a very handy device for shelling corn, and especially popcorn, can be made of a -in. board on which is fastened a piece of metal lath. the edges of the metal lath are bound with a strip of wood nailed to the board.--contributed by ulysses flacy, long beach, california. [illustration: metal lath on a board] a shaft coupling in connecting a small / -hp. motor to a small air pump where both shafts were / in. in diameter, i quickly made a coupling that would save the wear on the machines, as follows. the coupling was made of a piece of / -in. brass rod with a / -in. hole drilled through its center. one end of the hole was enlarged to - in. for about / in. the end of the coupling having the small hole was slipped on the pump shaft and fastened with two setscrews. the other end was drilled to take a pin loosely, the pin fitting tightly in a hole drilled in the motor shaft. the pin was bent at one end so as to keep it from falling out and the other end fitted with two nuts. the motor shaft being a little loose in the coupling, gave it a chance to work free without binding.--contributed by leo j. werner, new york city. [illustration: coupling on the shafts] reading the date of a worn coin the date and denomination of a coin worn smooth can be determined in the following manner: take an ordinary coal shovel, or a piece of sheet metal, and place it in a hot fire. allow it to become red hot, then remove, and place the coin on the hot surface of the metal. any figures or letters can be readily seen when heated in this manner. this test seldom fails even when the inscriptions have been worn so smooth that they are invisible to the naked eye. making a knife an easy opener the large blade of my knife being so hard to open placed me in constant risk of breaking my thumbnail. to overcome this difficulty, i ground a notch in the handle as shown in the sketch. after smoothing it up with a round file and fine sandpaper, i had just as good a job as if the knife had been made that way, and it is very easy to open it, as it can be done with the thumb and forefinger. anyone can improve his knife in this way, but be careful not to cut the notch back of the point of the small blade.--contributed by c. m. mahood, warren, pa. [illustration: notch in the handle] construction of a small bell-ringing transformer by a. e. andrews part i--fundamental principles the transformer in its simplest form consists of two separate and electrically independent coils of wire, usually wound upon an iron core. [illustration: fig. --two coils on an iron ring] figure shows two coils, p and s, placed upon an iron ring, r. one of these coils is connected to some source of energy, such as an alternating-current generator, or an alternating-current lighting circuit, receiving its energy therefrom. the other coil is connected to a load to which it delivers alternating current. the coil of the transformer that is connected to the source of energy is called the primary coil, and the one that is connected to the load, the secondary coil. the electrical pressure (voltage) at which current is supplied by the secondary bears a definite relation to the electrical pressure at which current is supplied to the primary. this relation, as will be explained later, is practically the same as the relation between the number of turns in the secondary and primary coils. if there are a smaller number of turns in the secondary coil than there are in the primary, the secondary voltage is less than the primary, and the transformer is called a step-down transformer. if, on the other hand, there are a larger number of secondary turns than of primary, the secondary voltage is greater than the primary voltage, and the transformer is called a step-up transformer. the transfer of electrical energy from the primary coil to the secondary coil of a transformer is based upon the fundamental principles of electromagnetism and electromagnetic induction, and it will be necessary to investigate these principles before we can understand the operation of the transformer. a magnet is a body, which, when freely suspended, assumes approximately a north and south position. the end of the magnet that points north is called the north pole, while the end that points south is called the south pole. the region surrounding a magnet is called a magnetic field. in this field the magnetism is supposed to flow along a large number of imaginary lines, called lines of force, and these lines are all supposed to emanate from the north pole of the magnet, pass through the medium surrounding the magnet and enter the south pole. the magnetic field surrounding a bar magnet is shown in fig. . the strength of any magnetic field depends upon the number of these lines of force per unit area (square centimeter), the area being taken perpendicular to the direction of the lines. [illustration: fig. --magnetic field] in , oersted discovered that a compass needle, which is nothing but a permanent magnet freely suspended or supported, when placed near a conductor in which there was a direct current, was acted upon by a force that tended to bring the needle into a position at right angles to the conductor. this simple experiment proved to oersted that there was a magnetic field produced by the current in the conductor. he also found that there was a definite relation between the direction of the current in the conductor, and the direction in which the north pole of the compass needle pointed. if the compass needle is allowed to come to rest in the earth's magnetic field, and a conductor is placed above it, the conductor being parallel to the needle, and a current then sent through the conductor, the needle will be deflected from its position of rest. reversing the current in the conductor, reverses the direction in which the needle is deflected. if the needle be allowed to come to rest while there is a current in the conductor, and this current is then increased, it will be found that the deflection of the needle will be increased, but not in direct proportion to the increase in the current. hence the strength of this magnetic field surrounding the conductor depends upon the value of the current in the conductor, and the direction of the field depends upon the direction of the current. [illustration: fig. --magnetic field around conductor] if a conductor be passed through a piece of cardboard, as shown in fig. , and a current sent through it in the direction indicated by the arrow a, a compass needle, moved about the conductor in the path indicated by the dotted line, will always assume such a position that the north pole points around the conductor in a clockwise direction as you look down on the cardboard. if the current be reversed, the direction assumed by the compass needle will be reversed. looking along a conductor in the direction of the current, the magnetic field will consist of magnetic lines encircling the conductor. these lines will be concentric circles, as a general rule, except when they are distorted by the presence of other magnets or magnetic materials, and their direction will be clockwise. [illustration: fig. --magnetic field surrounding a conductor] [illustration: fig. --magnetic field about a coil] [illustration: fig. --a coil about a magnetic circuit through iron and air] the strength of the magnetic field at any point near this conductor will depend upon the value of the current in the conductor, and the distance the point is from the conductor. the magnetic field surrounding a conductor is shown in fig. . the plus sign indicates that the direction of the current is from you. the strength of a magnetic field due to a current in a conductor can be greatly increased by forming a coil of the conductor. each turn of the coil then produces a certain number of lines, and the greater part of these lines pass through the center of the coil, as shown in fig. . the field strength inside such a coil is dependent upon the number of turns in the coil, and the value of the current in these turns. increasing the number of turns in the coil increases the number of magnetic lines passing through the center of the coil, as shown in fig. . if the current be decreased in value, the field strength is decreased, and if the current be reversed in direction, the magnetic field is reversed in direction. the number of magnetic lines passing through the solenoid depends also upon the kind of material composing the core of the solenoid, in addition to the number of turns and the value of the current in these turns. the number of lines per unit area inside a solenoid with an air core can be multiplied several times by introducing a soft-iron core. if this core be extended as shown in fig. , the magnetic circuit (the path through which the magnetic lines pass) may be completed through it. the larger part of the total number of lines will pass through the iron, as it is a much better conductor of magnetism than air. [illustration: fig. --a coil about a magnetic circuit through iron] in , michael faraday discovered that there was an electrical pressure induced in an electrical conductor when it was moved in a magnetic field so that it cut some of the lines forming the field. if this conductor be made to form part of a closed electrical circuit, there will be a current produced in the circuit as a result of the induceds electrical pressure. the value of this induced electrical pressure depends upon the number of magnetic lines of force that the conductor cuts in one second. if , , lines are cut in one second, an electrical pressure of one volt is produced. the direction of the induced pressure depends upon the direction of the movement of the conductor and the direction of the lines of force in the magnetic field; reversing either the direction of the magnetic field or the motion of the conductor, reverses the direction of the induced pressure. if both the direction of the magnetic field, and the direction of the motion of the conductor be reversed, there is no change in the direction of the induced pressure, for there is then no change in the relative directions of the two. the same results can be obtained by moving the magnetic field with respect to the conductor in such a way that the lines of force of the field cut the conductor. [illustration: fig. --two coils about a magnetic circuit through iron] if a permanent magnet be thrust into a coil of wire, there will be an electrical pressure set up in the coil so long as the turns of wire forming the coil are cutting the lines of force that are produced by the magnet. when the magnet is withdrawn, the induced electrical pressure will be reversed in direction, since the direction of cutting is reversed. a magnetic field may be produced through a coil of wire by winding it on the magnetic circuit shown in fig. . now any change of current in the coil p will cause a change in the number of magnetic lines passing through s and hence there will be an induced electrical pressure set up in s so long as the number of lines passing through it is changing. the pressure induced in each of the turns comprising the coil s depends upon the change in the number of magnetic lines through it. let us now consider a condition of operation when there is no current in the secondary coil and the primary coil is connected to some source of electrical energy. when this is the case the current in the primary coil is not determined by ohm's law, which states that the current is equal to the electrical pressure divided by the resistance, but is considerably less in value, for the following reason. the magnetic lines of force produced by the current in the primary induces an electrical pressure in the primary winding itself, the direction of which is always opposite to the impressed pressure, or the one producing the current. as a result of this induced pressure being set up in the primary, the effective pressure acting in the circuit is decreased. at the same time there is an electrical pressure induced in the secondary winding in the same direction as that induced in the primary. if the secondary circuit be connected to a load, there will be a current in the secondary winding, which will pass around the magnetic circuit in the opposite direction to the primary current, and as a result will decrease the number of lines passing through the primary coil. this will in turn decrease the electrical pressure induced in the primary coil, and a larger current will exist in the primary winding than there was before any current was taken from the secondary coil. the decrease in induced pressure is small, but it is always ample to allow the required increase in primary current. there is, at the same time, a small decrease in the secondary pressure. when the transformer is operating on no load, with no current in the secondary coil, the induced pressure in the primary coil is practically equal to the impressed pressure and hence a very small current will be taken from the source of energy. it is apparent now that if the primary and secondary coils have the same number of turns, the induced electrical pressure in each of these coils will be the same, assuming, of course, that all the magnetic lines that pass through the primary also pass through the secondary coil, and vice versa, or the secondary pressure is practically the same as the pressure impressed on the primary. if the number of turns in the secondary coil is greater or less than the number of turns in the primary, the magnetic lines will be cut a greater or less number of times by the secondary coil, and hence the induced pressure will be greater or less, depending upon the relation of the number of turns in the two coils. spirit photographs print some photographs in the usual way on printing-out paper, then fix them in a solution of oz. hyposulphite of soda and oz. of water, and wash them thoroughly. while the prints are still wet, immerse them in a saturated solution of bichloride of mercury. be very careful to wash the hands and trays after using the mercury solution, as it is poisonous. when the print is placed in the mercury solution, the picture vanishes completely. leave the prints in this bath just long enough for the image to disappear, and then wash and dry them thoroughly. soak some clean blotting paper in the hyposulphite-of-soda solution and allow it to dry. you are now ready to perform the magic-photograph trick. to cause the spirit photograph to appear, cut a piece of blotting paper the same size as the prepared print and moisten it, then hold the apparently blank piece of paper in contact with it. the picture will come out clear and plain, and if thoroughly washed out it will remain permanently. * * * * * saturate a small piece of cotton batting in glue and wrap it around a nail, then place it in a hole previously made in a plaster wall. when the glue dries, the nail will remain permanently. construction of a small bell-ringing transformer by a. e. andrews part ii--construction transformers may be divided into two main groups, the classification being made according to the relation between the magnetic circuit of the transformer and the primary and secondary windings. when the two windings surround the magnetic circuit of a transformer, as indicated in fig. , the transformer is said to be of core type. if the magnetic circuit surrounds the windings, as indicated in fig. , the transformer is said to be of the shell type. the following instructions are for a shell-type transformer. [illustration: fig. --core-type transformer] any mass of magnetic material, such as a piece of soft iron, when placed in a magnetic field that is produced by an alternating current, will be rapidly magnetized and demagnetized, the rapidity of the change depending upon the frequency of the current producing the field. when a piece of iron is magnetized and demagnetized, as just stated, there will be a certain amount of heat generated in it and this heat represents energy that must come from the electrical circuit producing the magnetic field in which the iron is placed. [illustration: fig. --shell-type transformer] the heat that is generated in the iron is due to two causes: first, the hysteresis loss which is due to a property of the iron that causes the magnetism in the iron to lag behind the magnetizing influence, or the changes that are constantly taking place in the field strength due to the alternating current. this loss cannot be entirely eliminated, but it may be reduced to a very low value by using a soft grade of iron, or one having what is called a low hysteretic constant. second, the eddy-current loss which is due to the circulation of currents through the mass of metal. these currents are due to unequal electromotive forces set up in the different parts of the piece of metal when there is a change in the strength of the field in which the metal is placed. this loss cannot be entirely eliminated, but it can be greatly reduced by breaking the mass of metal up into parts and insulating these parts from each other, which results in the paths in which the eddy currents originally circulated being destroyed to a certain extent. the breaking up of the metal is usually made in such a way that the joints between the various parts are parallel to the direction of the magnetic field. when the joints are made in this way, they offer less opposition to the magnetizing force. this is one of the principal reasons why induction-coil cores are made up of a bundle of wires instead of a solid piece. these wires are annealed or softened to reduce the hysteresis loss that would occur. the combined hysteresis and eddy-current losses, which are spoken of as the iron losses, will of course be very small in the transformer you are going to construct, but the above discussion is given to show why the magnetic circuits of transformers are built up from sheets of soft iron, called laminations. the core is said to be laminated. the dimensions of the complete magnetic circuit, of the transformer you are going to construct, are given in fig. . the primary and secondary windings are both to be placed about the center portion c, and it is apparent that the winding of these coils would be very tedious if the wire had to be passed back and forth through the openings a and b. this procedure in winding can be prevented by first forming the part of the magnetic circuit upon which the windings are placed; then wind on the coils and, after they are completed, finish building up the magnetic circuit with pieces cut to the proper size and shape. [illustration: fig. --complete magnetic circuit] procure a small quantity of soft, thin sheet iron and cut out a sufficient number of rectangular pieces, in. by - / in., to make a pile / in. in height when firmly pressed together. now cut a rectangular notch in each of these pieces, in. wide and - / in. long. the sides of this notch can be cut with a pair of tinner's shears, and the end can be cut with a sharp cold-chisel. be careful not to bend either piece any more than you can help. the outside piece, or the one in which the notch is cut, should have dimensions corresponding to those given in fig. . when all of these pieces have been cut, as indicated above, the rectangular pieces, in. by - / in., that were cut out to form the notch in the larger pieces, should have two of their corners cut away, so as to form pieces whose dimensions correspond to those given in fig. . these last pieces are to form the core and part of the end of the transformer. now make sure that all the edges of the pieces are perfectly smooth and that they are all of the same size; then give each one a coat of very thin shellac. [illustration: fig. --outer portion of the magnetic circuit] [illustration: fig. --inner portion of the magnetic circuit] now cut from a piece of insulating fiber, that is about / in. thick, two pieces whose dimensions correspond to those given in fig. . when these pieces are completed, the core of the transformer can be assembled as follows: place the t-shaped pieces, whose dimensions correspond to those given in fig. , through the openings in the pieces of insulation, alternate pieces being put through the openings from opposite sides. the distance from outside to outside of the pieces of insulation should be exactly the same as the length of the vertical portion of the t-shaped pieces forming the core, or in. [illustration: fig. --insulating washer] cut from some soft wood four pieces having cross sections whose dimensions correspond to those given in fig. , and of such a length that they will just slip down between the two pieces of insulation. these pieces should now be placed on the four sides of the iron core and covered with several layers of heavy insulating cloth. each layer of the cloth should be shellacked as it is put on, which will increase the insulation and at the same time help in holding the wooden pieces in place. you are now ready to start winding the transformer. [illustration: fig. --wood filler] the secondary, which is the low-voltage side in this case, as you are using the transformer to reduce or step down the voltage, will have the smaller number of turns, and larger wire should be used in winding it than in the primary, as it will carry a larger current. on account of the secondary being of larger wire, it will be placed on the core first. for this winding you will need a small quantity of no. b. & s. gauge, single cotton-covered wire. drill a small hole through one of the insulating washers, down close to the cloth covering the core, being careful at the same time to keep the hole as far from the metal part of the core as possible. pass the end of a short piece of no. or b. & s. gauge, double cotton-covered wire through this opening and solder it to the end of the no. wire. insulate the joint with a piece of paraffin paper or cloth, and bind the piece of heavy wire to the core of the transformer with a piece of linen thread. now wind the no. wire on the core as evenly as possible, to within about / in. of the end of the spool. place over the first layer two layers of paraffin paper and wind on a second layer of wire. three layers should give you the required number of turns in the secondary winding and a resistance of approximately - / ohms. the end of the secondary winding should be terminated in the same way as the winding was started. outside of the completed secondary winding place at least six layers of paraffin paper, or several layers of insulating cloth. the paraffin paper used should be approximately five mills in thickness. you can make your own paraffin paper by taking a good quality of writing paper about two mills thick and dipping it into some hot paraffin, then hanging it up by one edge to drain. the primary winding is to be made from no. b. & s. gauge, single silk-covered copper wire. the inside end of this winding should be started in the same way as the secondary, but at the end opposite to the one where the secondary terminated. wind about turns on each layer and place one layer of paraffin paper between each layer of wire. the primary winding should have at least layers, and the outside end should be terminated as the inside end. outside of the completed windings, place several layers of insulating cloth to serve as an insulation, and at the same time provide a mechanical protection for the windings. [illustration: fig. .--upper clamping pieces] the outside part of the magnetic circuit can now be put in place. when the u-shaped pieces are all in place, the magnetic circuit will have the form and dimensions shown in fig. . a clamp should now be made for each end of the transformer, to hold the pieces forming the magnetic circuit together, and at the same time give an easy means of mounting the transformer. cut from a piece of sheet iron, about / in. in thickness, two pieces whose dimensions correspond to those given in fig. , and two pieces whose dimensions correspond to those given in fig. . drill the holes in these pieces as indicated, and bend the larger ones into the form shown in fig. . these pieces can now be clamped across the ends of the transformer with small bolts, as shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. --lower clamping pieces and mounting supports] a box should now be made from sheet iron to hold the transformer. the box should be of such dimensions that it will be at least / in. from the transformer at all points. this box should be provided with a cover that can be easily removed. [illustration: fig. --shape of support] now mount the transformer in the box by means of small bolts, that pass through the holes in the supports and holes in the bottom of the box. two binding-posts can now be mounted on one end of the box, and insulated from it, to serve as terminals for the secondary winding. two pieces of stranded no. b. & s. gauge, rubber-covered copper wire should now be soldered to the terminals of the primary circuit and passed out through insulating bushings mounted in holes cut in the end of the box opposite to the one upon which the binding-posts were mounted. these heavy wires should be firmly fastened to the iron part of the transformer inside the box, so that any outside strain placed upon them will not, in time, break them loose from the smaller wires. be sure to insulate all joints and wires well inside the box. [illustration: fig. --method of clamping transformer together] a circuit can now be run from a -volt lighting or power circuit, observing the same rules as though you were wiring for lights, and connected to the heavy wires, or primary circuit. the binding-posts, or secondary winding should be connected to the bell circuit and the transformer is complete and ready to operate. you may have to change the adjustment of the bells, but after a little adjustment they will operate quite satisfactorily. mirror hinged to window casing [illustration] a shaving mirror is usually placed on a window sash to avoid shadows as much as possible. this is very inconvenient and many times the mirror is broken by a fall. a good way to avoid shadows and have the mirror handy is to hinge it to the window casing. this can be done with screweyes, a, and screwhooks, b. the screweyes are turned into the frame of the mirror and the screwhooks into the window casing. two screwhooks can also be turned into the casing on the opposite side of the window, if desired, so that the mirror can be used on either side.--contributed by james d. mckenna, new britain, conn. a cleaning bath for silverware a good way to clean silverware of all coloring by eggs or other substances is to place the silver articles in a kettle of boiling water containing a few pieces of zinc. an electrolytic action is produced by the zinc, water and silver which decomposes the sulphides on the silver and leaves it well cleaned. no silver is taken away by this method.--contributed by loren ward, des moines, iowa. to prevent poultry water from freezing the method shown in the sketch is used by me in cold weather to keep the drinking water for the poultry from freezing. the device consists of a part of a barrel inverted and set over the fountain, and a tubular lantern. a small opening is cut in one side of the barrel through which the fowl can reach the water.--contributed by p. c. fish, kansas city, mo. [illustration: lantern and fountain in half barrel] how to make a letter scale [illustration] a reliable letter scale that can be easily made is shown in the sketch. it consists of a wide-neck bottle filled with water into which the weighing device is inserted. this latter part is made of a light piece of wood weighted on the lower end, to keep it in a stable, upright position, and a piece of cardboard is tacked to the other. the wood is placed in the water, and known weights are used on the cardboard while calibrating. the first line is marked at the water level when there is no weight on the cardboard, and then a known weight placed on the top and another mark made at the water level, and so on, until a sufficient number of / -oz. and ounce-divisions have been marked. the wood should be well coated with shellac varnish before it is placed in the water.--contributed by francis chetlain, chicago. summer dish washing a labor-saving method in dish washing for a summer day is as follows: construct a substantial wood frame and cover it with galvanized wire mesh. attach legs and put it in a convenient place on the back porch. wash the dishes on one end, and wipe the silverware dry. at the outer end spread a towel over the wire and place the dishes turned down upon it to dry, and cover them with another towel.--contributed by l. alberta norrell, tifton, ga. nozzle angle for lawn sprinkling [illustration] where there is no prop or water sprinkler at hand for tilting the nozzle of a hose, start to tie a knot in the hose, as shown in the sketch, but do not draw it up tightly. the hose nozzle can be tilted to any angle in this manner.--contributed by s. j. eddy, portland, oregon. simple methods of connecting call bells [illustration: wiring diagrams for a single bell (fig. , fig. , fig. )] the following diagrams will indicate a few of the various methods that may be employed in connecting up electric bells for different purposes, a, b and c representing the push buttons; d, the bells; e, the batteries, and g, the ground. the simplest possible connection is shown in fig. , the bell d, battery e, and push button a, are all connected in series. the operation of the bell is independent of the order in which the bell, battery, and push button are placed, so long as there is a complete circuit when the push button is pressed. one of the wires in this circuit may be done away with by completing the circuit through the ground, as shown in fig. . connecting a bell as shown in this diagram often results in quite a saving of wire. the proper connections for operating one bell from either of two push buttons, a or b, is shown in fig. . two bells, d, operated from a single push button, c, are connected as shown in fig. . the two bells, d, are shown connected in parallel, which requires more wire than if they were connected in series. if they be connected in series, one or the other should have its make-and-break contact closed. the bell whose circuit remains unchanged will intercept the current for the other bell in series with it. the operating of the bells is more satisfactory, however, when they are in parallel, and each taking current from the battery independent of the other. [illustration: wiring diagram for two or more bells (fig. , fig. , fig. )] the diagram, fig. , shows the proper connections for operating two bells from two independent push buttons, each push button operating a particular bell. any number of bells operated from any number of push buttons, all of the bells being rung from any one of the push buttons, are connected as shown in fig. . such a circuit can be used as a fire alarm or time call in a factory, the operation of the circuit being controlled from any one of a number of different points. [illustration: wiring diagrams for return-call bells (fig. , fig. , fig. )] the proper connections for what is called a return-call circuit is shown in fig. . the circuit is so arranged that the bell at one end is controlled by the push button at the other end. such a circuit can be used in transmitting signals in either direction. a ground return-call circuit is shown in fig. . in the circuits shown in figs. and , only one battery is needed. the connections of a two-wire metallic return-call circuit are shown in fig. . a special push button must be used in this circuit, and in this case two batteries are used instead of one, as in figs. and . this circuit may be changed to a ground return-call circuit by using the earth as a conductor instead of either wire. there are, of course, numerous other methods that may be used in connecting call bells, but the connections shown in the diagrams are perhaps the most common. refrigerator for dry and warm climates set a bowl containing butter, cream or fruit in a saucer and cover the bowl with a moistened napkin, allowing the edges to hang in a larger saucer filled with water, and place the whole in the air out of the sun's rays. the article to be kept cool may also be placed in a pan with an earthenware crock turned over it and covered with a small towel or cloth, the edges of which extend into another outer pan partly filled with water. the method can be applied on a larger scale by using a shallow galvanized pan which will contain many articles and more water. this manner of cooling is especially adapted to camping parties and will prevent sloppy butter, sour milk and spoiling fruit. the articles are also kept free from ants and flies.--contributed by c. b. hosford, swansea, ariz. pencil-sharpening guide [illustration] the sketch shows how a guide for making a true point on a lead pencil may be made of a block of wood. the hole, which should be large enough to allow the pencil to be turned easily, is bored at the proper angle to form the desired point on the pencil. the long side of the block serves as a guide for the knife blade, while the projection at the bottom acts as a stop. the guide insures an even point and is easily manipulated. it is held in the palm of the left hand and the pencil is turned with the thumb and forefinger, while the knife is held against the face of the block, cutting edge downward, and worked up and down with the right hand. homemade hinges [illustration] when making a chicken house recently i had forgotten to procure hinges. when searching the "junk" box i found some little metal brackets such as used for holding spring roller shades. attaching these as shown, i made a good substitute hinge. a pair of the brackets having no slots were selected. a - / -in. wire nail with a washer was placed in the hole and driven into the top of the door, in, from its back edge. the other bracket was placed on the bottom of the door in a similar manner. the door was placed in an open position and the prongs of the brackets were nailed to the door post. the bottom bracket may also be nailed to the floor and the top one to the lintel.--contributed by robert smith, e. burnaby, b. c. skimmer for bottled milk the cream that rises on the milk in an ordinary milk bottle cannot be removed easily. where a small family desires to use the cream for coffee, the skimmer shown in the sketch is very handy. [illustration] the cone is made of metal--tin, brass or copper--which can be nickelplated, the seam being soldered. the cone is in. deep with a diameter at the top of - / in. a handle can be made of a discarded sugar or teaspoon, which is soldered to the cone. insert the cone in the bottle far enough for the cream to flow into it and then withdraw. cream will gather about in. deep on rich milk. the milk can be used for cooking. a piece of wire can be used for a handle instead of the spoon.--contributed by victor labadie, dallas, texas. how to preserve putty having some putty left over after a job of glazing and wishing to keep it without its becoming dried up, i tried wrapping it in paraffin paper such as used to wrap butter. i found this method to be a decided success, the oil being prevented from drying out.--contributed by levi r. markwood, fairview, pa. [illustration] how to build a simple electric motor by a. g. mcclure an exceedingly simple and inexpensive motor that may be used in operating small toys can be constructed as follows: first procure a good permanent magnet, about in. long and about - / in. between the inside edges at the open end. this magnet should be at least / in. thick, and if it cannot be had in one piece, two or more may be placed side by side, like poles being placed together. the writer was unable to procure ready-made magnets, so one was formed and magnetized. obtain a piece of tungsten or some other good-grade steel, / in. by / in., and about in. long. bend this piece into the form of a u, with the inner edges - / in. apart. square off both ends and drill two small holes in the outside surface of each end, at aa, about / in. from the end. tap these holes for small machine screws. drill the hole b with a small drill, about / in., in the center of the lower portion of the u and ream it out. the piece should now be clamped with a good pair of blacksmith's tongs,--a block of iron being placed between the ends to keep the pressure of the tongs from drawing them together--heated to a cherry red and then plunged into a bath of oil. it can then be magnetized by placing it in contact with a permanent magnet. [illustration: detail of armature laminations, and completed parts assembled, but without armature windings] next obtain a piece of / -in. brass, about / in. wide and - / in. long. drill two holes in each end of the piece to match those drilled in the ends of the magnet, also one in the center, and tap it for a / -in. machine screw. now bend this piece into the form shown. provide a machine screw, s, for the hole c and drill a small tapered hole in the end of the screw. obtain a small quantity of soft sheet iron and cut a sufficient number of pieces similar to that shown at d to make a pile / in high. cut two pieces of the same size from some thin sheet brass. now place all of these pieces in a pile, the brass pieces being on the outside, and clamp them securely, then drill the two small holes, e and f. place two small copper rivets in these holes and rivet the heads down before removing the clamp. drill a / -in. hole, g, through this piece, the armature, for the shaft to pass through. procure a piece of / -in. steel rod, about in. long. sharpen one end so that it will enter the hole b, then cut the other end off and sharpen it so that it will enter the opening made in the end of the screw s. the armature may now be soldered to this shaft, its left-hand surface being flush with the ends of the magnet. a small commutator, h, should now be made as follows: obtain a piece of thin brass tubing about / in. in diameter. turn down a piece of hard rubber so that the tube will fit tightly on it. drill a hole in this piece of rubber of such a size that it will have to be forced on the steel shaft. saw two longitudinal slots in the brass tube diametrically opposite each other and then bind these two pieces in place on the piece of rubber with some heavy linen thread wrapped around each end. the armature is now ready to wind. get a small quantity of no. gauge cotton-covered wire, solder one end to one of the segments of the commutator, then wind one end of the armature full and cross over and wind the other end full, soldering the end of the wire to the second commutator segment. make sure to wind both ends of the armature in the same direction so the current in both parts of the winding produces magnetizing effects in the same direction. insulate the winding from the core and the different layers from each other with a good quality of thin writing paper. two small brushes should now be made from some thin spring brass and mounted on the brass piece as shown. these brushes should be insulated from the piece of brass and two small binding posts should be provided for making connections to them. the position of the commutator and brushes should be such that the brushes move from one segment to the other when the ends of the armature are directly in line with the ends of the permanent magnet. a small pulley should be mounted upon the shaft to be used in transmitting the power. the whole device may be mounted in a horizontal position on a wooden base as shown, and the motor is complete. how to make a humidity indicator a simple weather indicator that may be used in determining the condition of the atmosphere may be made as follows: dress a small figure, in the form of a doll, with a piece of cloth, previously dipped in the following solution: chloride of cobalt, parts by weight; sodium chloride, parts; gum arabic, - / parts; calcium chloride, - / parts, and water, parts. this cloth will change color as the amount of moisture in the atmosphere changes, the change being due to the cobalt salt, which, in dry air, is lavender blue. as the moisture in the atmosphere increases, the color changes first to bluish red, then light red and finally pink, according to the amount of moisture. with a decrease in moisture, the colors change in the reverse order to that given above, and the blue color returns when the air becomes dry. the "q" trick lay out the form of the capital letter q with coins on a table and ask someone in the audience to select a number and then ask that person to count up from one until the number is reached, beginning at a and stopping on the circle, for instance at b, then counting back again beginning with one, but, instead of counting on the tail, pass it and go around the circle, say, to c. the performer gives these instructions to the person doing the counting. the one selecting the number must not tell the performer what the number is, and the latter is to leave the room while the counting proceeds. the performer, before leaving the room, is to tell which coin will be the last one counted. [illustration] take, for example, the number . counting from a to b there are just coins and counting back the last number or will be at c. try for the number and the last one counted will also be c. the number of coins in the tail represents the number of coins in the circle from the intersection of the tail and circle to the last number counted. for instance, the sketch shows coins in the tail, therefore the last coin counted in the circle will be at c or the fourth coin from the intersection of the tail and circle. by slipping another coin in the tail the location of the last coin counted is changed, thereby eliminating any chance of exposing the trick by locating the same coin in the circle every time. this can be done secretly without being noticed. to keep ants away from food suspend a shelf, breadbox or rack with wire around which is tied a piece of cotton cloth, saturated with a mineral oil. the ants will not cross the oil-soaked cloth. some strong wire hooks attached to the rack or shelf answer well to hang small articles on, such as bacon, bags of sugar, syrup cans, etc.--contributed by c. b. hosford, swansea, ariz. vaulting-pole holder an adjusting device for a vaulting pole that can be easily fixed at any point on a round pole by using a wedge and ring, is shown in the sketch. the wedge carries a pin on which to place the cross pole. the manner of using this device as well as its construction is clearly indicated.--contributed by sterling r. speirs, st. louis, mo. [illustration: the ring on the upright, held in position by the wedge, which in turn carries the pole on the pin] flying model aeroplane for a display a novelty for a window display is made of a model aeroplane flying by its own power. to control the direction and make the model fly in a circle it is fastened to a long stick or beam which is pivoted in the center. the one shown was pivoted to a roller-skate wheel which in turn was fastened to a metal standard. the beam was attached to the skate wheel with two small bolts which were insulated and carried two brushes as commutator contacts. [illustration: detail of parts showing wire connections and model in flight around the central axis] the commutator rings were made of heavy brass strips, fastened to a round piece of wood which was attached to the metal standard. the wires from the current supply were connected to the commutator rings. from the brushes connecting wires were carried along the beam to the aeroplane motor which was a small battery motor with propeller. the opposite end of the beam was weighted to balance it. the first sketch shows the parts and the manner of making the connections. the aeroplane is driven in a circular path by its own power in a realistic manner. an electric time light although the modern alarm clock is a wonderfully effective piece of mechanism, it is, to say the least, very abrupt in its manner. it seldom confines its efforts to the chamber of its owner, but spreads its disturbance all over the building. it is very easy for a person to arise early in the summer and no greater difficulty should be experienced in winter, if the bedroom is brightly lighted at the proper hour. to do this simply and automatically became the problem. [illustration] the first thought was to obtain one of those clock-actuated electric-light switches, such as the stores use, but this would not do, because it meant some unsightly wiring around the room. it was then remembered how, in the course of some experiments, an ordinary incandescent light was operated through a piece of no. gauge wire without any sign of heating. if, then, a wire only / in. in diameter were of ample carrying capacity, surely a dollar watch would be sufficient to make the connection. such being the case, the whole mechanism could readily be attached to the drop cord of a lamp directly above the socket, thus obviating any additional wiring. this all proved to be true, and the whole was made and attached in the course of a couple of hours. while one might feel enthusiastic about this small and easily contrived affair, it is scarcely to be presumed that it would operate so effectively on one who had spent the larger part of the night tripping the "light fantastic," or in undue conviviality. an ordinary -cp. globe has thus far operated perfectly, and a -watt tungsten lamp would, if not too far away, surely awaken the hardest sleeper of sober habits. the base of the mechanism is a small piece of / -in. hard wood, upon which is fastened a small brass bracket, a, bent so as to hold the watch from slipping down. a small clip, b, was then arranged so as to grip the neck of the watch after its lower edge had been placed against a, and a small brad at either side prevented lateral movement. in this way the watch was held firmly, yet in a manner that would permit its being taken out instantly when necessary. the glass and minute hand were removed. the brass bolt from an exhausted dry cell was placed at c, so as to clamp a small copper washer to which was soldered a narrow strip of copper, d, about / in. wide and cut from a leaf of an old dynamo brush. this strip is arranged so as to wipe the hour hand as it travels past, but being so thin, it has no appreciable effect on the time keeping. as illustrated, the device is set for six o'clock, but by loosening the nut c an hour's adjustment either way may be had. it is a very simple matter, however, to arrange the device so it will operate at any hour. in connecting up, one end of the drop cord is removed from the socket and attached to a, which throws the current through the watch, thence along the hand and down d to c, from where it is carried by a short piece of wire to the socket again. as there are so many circuits through the watch, the small current required for one light does not affect it in any way. thus far, no trouble has been experienced in making this delicate connection with volts, but if any should develop, the contacts may be tipped with the small pieces of platinum taken from a burned-out globe. * * * * * the meat of a white english walnut may be easily removed by heating the nut in an oven or on top of a stove, then using a knife to pry the shell open. [illustration] a small shocking machine [illustration: the shocking coil as it is used for amusement, or in the manner a current is given a patient] an amusing as well as instructive shocking machine, usually called a medical coil, can be easily constructed from a discarded buzzer or electric bell, four binding posts, some pieces of insulated wire, two carbon rods, and a rheostat. [illustration: the base upon which the buzzer and rheostat are fastened, and the electrical connections (fig. , fig. )] [illustration: the rheostat that is used to regulate the flow of current in the carbon hand pieces (fig. )] a base for attaching the parts is made of a piece of poplar, in. long, in. wide, and / in. thick, which can be finished as desired, but a good method is to shape the edge like molding and give it a mahogany stain, and when dry apply a coat of white shellac, which should be allowed to dry a day, whereupon the surface is rubbed with prepared wax. when the base is ready, mount the buzzer at one end. this can be easily done by making an l-shaped piece of metal, a, which is fastened to the base with a screw, and to the yoke of the magnet coil with a small bolt. if the armature and its connections are also used from the buzzer, the height of the coils must be taken in consideration. these parts are fastened in position as shown, using an l-shaped piece of metal, b, for the spring end. the screw holding the armature spring to the base, as well as the vibrator screw, should be of such a length that it will enter the base far enough to permit a connection for a wire in a countersunk hole bored in the base from the under side. binding posts are placed in the corners of the base in holes countersunk from the under side for the screw heads. the rheostat is of the miniature-battery type, which has a round base and a coil of resistance wire with a lever passing over the coil. such a rheostat can be purchased from an electrical store, but if the person constructing the shocking machine desires to make one, it is not difficult if a lathe is at hand. to make the rheostat, turn up a disk, about in. in diameter, from a piece of hard wood, such as oak, maple, or walnut, and form a circular groove in the upper surface, about / in. inside of the circumference. the groove is to admit a circular coil of resistance wire, and in making it, be sure to have it the proper size to take the coil snugly. the coil can be of any size, and to make it, resistance wire is wound around a piece of wire used as a mandrel. if the coil is / in., or a trifle smaller, in diameter, it will make a good size. be sure that the depth of the groove is such that it will allow a part of the coils of the resistance wire to project above the surface of the wood disk. the coil of wire should be just long enough to fit in the groove and allow a -in. space between the ends, one of which is anchored to the base, at c, the other being attached to the binding post d. drill a hole through the center of the disk and fasten a lever, taken from a switch, or one made of a piece of sheet brass, that will extend from the center to the outside of the disk, or over the resistance-wire coil. a small handle is attached to the outer end. a connection is made from the center support of the lever to the binding post e. the connections for the buzzer and rheostat are made on the under side of the base, where grooves are cut to run the wires in, so that they will be below the surface of the wood. in the diagram, the binding post f is connected to the binding post d of the rheostat, which in turn is connected to the screw of the make-and-break point g. the other binding post h is connected to the bracket b supporting the armature spring. the binding post e of the rheostat is connected to the base binding post j. the magnet coils are connected, as shown, from k to l, and from m to b. the two pieces of carbon, which are used for the hand pieces, are connected with silk-insulated wire. these connections are made to the binding posts f and h. the other two binding posts, j and l, are connected to a battery. the carbons used may be purchased, or taken from an old battery. two or more dry cells are used for the current. the rheostat controls the amount of current passing through the hand pieces.--contributed by gilbert crossley, erie, pa. secret compartment in ordinary table drawer it is frequently desired to have some handy place for storing valuables where there is but little chance of discovering them. secret drawers in tables usually require special and expensive changes, but with only a few simple changes on a regular drawer of any ordinary table, a secret compartment can be made which is as secure as can ordinarily be figured on, outside of a steel safe. having chosen the desired table, a partition should be placed across the entire back part of the drawer, allowing for necessary space in the secret compartment. this partition should resemble the real back of the drawer as closely as it is possible to make it. the compartment must not be too wide, for the resulting small width of the front part of the drawer might then arouse suspicion. on the lower side of the secret compartment a strip of wood, a, should be attached with a screw, as shown in fig. , allowing sufficient looseness so the strip may be turned end for end when necessary. with the strip set as shown, it will strike the front side b of the table when the drawer is pulled out, leaving the secret compartment still hidden. in order to expose this, it will be necessary to turn the strip, as shown in fig. , when the drawer can be pulled out to its full length. [illustration: two positions of the strip for holding, or giving access to, the secret part, and a hinged strip (fig. , fig. , fig. )] it being necessary that the strip a be as long as the secret compartment is wide, to fully expose this, there may be cases where the drawer is not wide enough to allow the strip a to turn around. in that case the strip can be hinged to the back of the drawer as shown in fig. . when it is hanging down, as shown by the dotted outline, the drawer may be pulled out to its full extent. when it is desired to lock the secret compartment, the hinged strip must be swung up in position, and fastened. an ordinary thumbscrew or eye can be used which, by a turn or two, will either release it or fasten it in place.--contributed by paul durst, detroit, mich. inflating handballs when handballs become "dead," or no longer bounce freely, they may frequently be restored by inflating them with air. this can be done by means of a bulb attached to a hypodermic needle. the needle must be inserted through the soft plug which every inflated ball has, and which can be discovered by pressure. after the ball is inflated and the needle extracted, the soft rubber closes around the fine hole, preventing the escape of the air. if a leak is found, which allows the air to escape too rapidly, a repair can be made with a single-tube tire outfit.--contributed by a. b. wegener, camden. n. j. a garden-bed scarecrow a very neat and successful scarecrow for garden beds can be made as follows: a number of corks are procured, and a feather is stuck in each end of them, as shown. these are tied to a string, spacing them from to ft. apart, and the string is hung over the beds. the slightest breeze will keep them fluttering, and no bird will come to rest on the beds.--contributed by m. t. canary, chicago. [illustration: the fluttering feathers attached to the string with corks scare the birds away] measuring the length of wire wound on a spool when winding magnet spools on a lathe, the exact amount of wire used can be easily determined by means of the device shown in the illustration. the large reel from which the wire is obtained is conveniently placed on a loose mandrel, or rod, near the lathe, and in line with the spool which is to be wound. a grooved idler wheel, the exact diameter of which is known, is supported between the spool and wire reel so it may freely revolve; the number of its revolutions should be obtained, automatically, by a revolution counter. when using the device, the wire from the reel is placed once around the idler to insure the necessary grip to prevent it from sliding; then it is led to the spool. the exact diameter of the idler being known and the number of revolutions indicated, the true length of the wire wound on the spools can be easily determined by the following formula: length of wire on spool in feet equals circumference of idler in feet times number of revolutions of idler.--contributed by c. swayne, st. louis, mo. [illustration: measuring the length of wire on a spool with the use of an idler and counter] homemade lawn sprinkler with a short length of old hose, a serviceable lawn sprinkler can be quickly and easily made. one end is provided with a regular coupling for connecting it to the line of good hose. the other end is turned up for several inches, and securely wired to the main part, thereby shutting off any flow through it. several cuts are made into it, about halfway across and in. apart. if the water is forced in, the only means of escape will be through the slots, which will produce fine sprays, giving as good service as a manufactured sprinkler.--contributed by a. b. shaw, n. dartmouth, mass. [illustration: the slots cut in the hose will produce a very fine spray of water] homemade toy bank the little bank illustrated is not exactly burglar-proof, but once put together it cannot be opened except by the destruction of one of the units of which it is composed. it requires but little skill to make, and would be a good problem for manual training, as it offers an excellent opportunity for teaching certain rudiments of woodworking by the application method. [illustration: six pieces of wood as they are put together to form a toy bank] in its construction, six pieces of hard wood, of the dimensions shown in the sketch, are required. white wood will do if there is no hard wood at hand. the coin slot is / in. wide by - / in. long, and is cut in only one piece. no difficulty will be experienced in putting the first five pieces together, but the sixth, or top, piece, shown in the sketch, will not go in, because the bottom edge of the raised side will strike the inside of the piece to the right. by beveling this edge with a chisel from top to bottom between the dadoes, or grooves, it can be forced down quite a distance and sprung in place by placing a block of wood on the high side and striking it a sharp blow with a heavy hammer.--contributed by j. a. shelly, brooklyn, new york. an electric anemometer by wm. h. dettman the construction of this instrument is so simple that any amateur can make one and if accurate calibrations are desired, these can be marked by comparison with a standard anemometer, while both are placed in the wind. the indicator the case of the indicator is built of thin wood--the material of an old cigar box will do-- in. long, in. wide and - / in. deep. if cigar-box material is used, it must first be soaked in warm water to remove the paper. if a cover is to be used on the box, a slot, on an arc of a circle, must be cut through it to show the scale beneath. the arc is determined by the length of the needle from a center over the axis on which the needle swings. when the box is completed, smooth up the outside surface with fine sandpaper and give it a coat of stain. the core of the magnet is made by winding several layers of bond paper around a pencil of sufficient size to make an inside diameter of slightly over / in., and a tube in. long. each layer of the paper is glued to the preceding layer. two flanges or disks are attached to the tube to form a spool for the wire. the disks are cut from thin wood, - / in. square, and a hole bored through their centers so that each will fit on the tube tightly. one of them is glued to one end of the tube and the other fastened at a point / in. from the opposite end. the space between the disks is filled with seven layers of no. gauge insulated magnet wire, allowing sufficient ends of the wire to project for connections. the finished coil is located in the box, as shown at a, fig. . [illustration: the indicator box with coil, needle and scale, as it is used in connection with the anemometer (fig. )] the core for the coil is cut from a piece of / -in. iron rod, - / in. long, and a slot is cut in each end, / in. deep, into which brass strips are inserted and soldered, or otherwise fastened. the strips of brass are / in. wide, one - / in. long and the other / in. two / in. holes are drilled in the end of the long piece, and one / in. hole in the end of the short piece. the complete core with the brass ends is shown in fig. . [illustration: the metal core for the coil... (fig. )] [illustration: ...and the bearing block for the axis of the needle (fig. )] the needle b, fig. , is made of a copper or brass wire, about in. long, and is mounted on an axis at c. the detail of the bearing for the axis is shown in fig. . the axis d is a piece of wood fitted in the u-shaped piece of brass and made to turn on brads as bearings, the center being pierced to receive the end of the needle. after locating the bearing for the axis c, fig. , it is fastened in place so that the upper end or pointer of the needle will travel over the scale. the needle is then attached to the bearing after having been passed through the inner hole of the longer brass strip of the core, and the coil is fitted with the core in the manner shown at d. a light brass coil spring is attached to each end of the core, as shown at e and f, the latter being held with a string, g, whose end is tied to a brad on the outside of the box, for adjustment. a better device could be substituted by attaching the end of the spring f to a nut and using a knurled-head bolt passed through the box side. one of the wires from the coil is attached to a push button, h, to be used when a reading of the instrument is made. the connections for the instrument consist of one binding post and a push button. [illustration: the anemometer as it is mounted on a standard similar to a small windmill weather vane (fig. )] the anemometer the anemometer resembles a miniature windmill and is mounted on top of a building or support where it is fully exposed to the air currents. it differs from the windmill in that the revolving wheel is replaced by a cupped disk, a, fig. , fitted with a sliding metal shaft, b, which is supported on crosspieces, cc, between the main frame pieces dd. the latter pieces carry a vane at the opposite end. the frame pieces are / in. thick, - / in. wide and in. long, and the crosspieces have the same width and thickness and are in. long. [illustration: (fig. )] a variable-resistance coil, e, is made as follows and fastened in the main frame. the core of this coil is a piece of wood, in. square and in. long, and wound with no. gauge single-wound cotton-covered german-silver wire. the winding should begin / in. from one end of the core and finish / in. from the other, making the length of the coil - / in. the ends of the wire are secured by winding them around the heads of brads driven into the core. a small portion of the insulation is removed from the wire on one side of the coil. this may be done with a piece of emery cloth or sandpaper. a sliding spring contact, f, is attached to the sliding shaft b, the end of which is pressed firmly on the bared portion of the wire coil. one end of a coil spring, which is slipped on the shaft between the pieces cc, is attached to the end crosspiece, and the other end is fastened to the sliding shaft so as to keep the shaft and disk out, and the flange h against the second crosspiece, when there is no air current applied to the disk a. the insulation of the standard upon which the anemometer turns is shown in fig. . the standard j is made of a piece of / -in. pipe, suitably and rigidly attached to the building or support, and the upper end, around which the anemometer revolves to keep in the direction of the air currents, is fitted with a plug of wood to insulate the / -in. brass rod k. a bearing and electric-wire connection plate, l, is made of brass, / in. thick, in. wide and in. long. the bearing and connection plate m are made in a similar manner. the surface of the holes in these plates, bearing against the pipe j and the brass rod k, make the two connections for the wires from the variable-resistance coil e, fig. , located on the main frame, to the wire connections between the two instruments. these wires should be weather-proof, insulated, attached as shown, and running to and connecting the indicator with the anemometer at nn, fig. . two or more dry cells must be connected in the line, and when a reading is desired, the button h, fig. , is pushed, which causes the current to flow through the lines and draw the magnet core d in the coil, in proportion to the magnetic force induced by the amount of current passing through the resistance in the coils on e, fig. , from the contact into which the spring f is brought by the wind pressure on the disk a. how to make stick shellac it is often desired to use shellac in solid or stick form, and to get it into this shape by melting and molding requires considerable time. a much quicker method is to place the shellac in a shallow box, spread it out in a thin layer and play the flame from a bunsen burner upon it until the mass is melted and run together. allow it to stand a few seconds, then, with moistened fingers, fold it over and over and shape it with the fingers. it is possible to make a stick or in. long and / in. in diameter in about minutes.--contributed by j. h. beeber, rochester, n. y. substitute for a hose reel not having the room to spare for the ordinary hose reel, i used as a substitute a piece of wire bent into the shape of a letter s and with its aid coiled the hose in a manner to expel the water and leave it in shape for storing. [illustration: a hook for coiling a hose instead of turning it on a reel] the hook a is sprung around the hose about ft. from the connection joint and remains there permanently. the end of the hose with the connection c is then brought around in a circle and forced into the hook b. this forms the start for the coil and the hose is easily rolled up to the nozzle, the water being expelled during the operation.--contributed by f. h. aldrich, toledo, ohio. addressing a roll of papers when addressing rolled-up papers it is difficult to write on the curved surface. the papers also have a tendency to roll away. by placing the roll in the hollow on the front edge of a large book, as shown in the sketch, it will be found easy to write on the wrapper.--contributed by w. p. shaw, toronto, canada. [illustration: the roll of paper is placed in the curved edge of a book for addressing] repairing the bruised sides of a motorboat when the sides of a boat become scored or bruised scrape the parts clean and fill the depressions with wood cement. the wood cement or stick cement, as it is called, can be procured from a paint store. heat the cement with a blowtorch and apply it to the bruised parts. use a heated putty knife to smooth the cement and make the surface level. after sandpapering the fills and applying a coat of paint the boat sides will look as good as new. the cement will not chip or fall out.--contributed by henry beck, bronx, new york. how to make an electric lamp flasher procure two pieces of metal, one of brass and the other of sheet iron, in. long, / in. wide, and / in., or just a little more, in thickness. bend the brass strip into the form shown in fig. , then place the brass piece on top of the iron and drill the holes a and b indicated in fig. . after the brass piece has been bent, as shown in fig. , it will of course be shorter than the iron strip and the iron strip must be cut off, or a brass strip a little longer than in. can be secured and cut the same length as the iron strip after it is bent. the holes a and b should be / in. in diameter. the next thing to do will be to wind a heating coil about the brass strip. wrap a very thin layer of sheet asbestos about the brass strip, and wind on the strip ft. of no. gauge bare superior resistance wire. use a thread about . in. in diameter to separate the various turns. this thread can be removed after the winding is completed and the ends have been fastened. rivet the iron and brass pieces together with a small brass rivet in the hole a, fig. . after the two pieces are riveted together bend them into the form shown in fig. and then drill the two / -in. holes c and d, as shown in fig. . tap the hole b, fig. , to take a small machine screw. [illustration: dimensions of the brass strip and mounting base, showing the location of the holes and the shape of the brass strip to receive the coil of wire (fig. , fig. , fig. )] the base is constructed as follows: procure a piece of slate, - / in. long, - / in. wide, and / in. in thickness. drill the holes indicated in fig. . the four corner holes are for mounting the flasher in its containing case, and should be about / in. in diameter. the holes e, f, g, and h should be / in. in diameter and countersunk with a / -in. square-ended drill, on the under side, to a depth of / or / in. cut from some / -in. sheet brass a piece - / in. long, and / in. wide. drill two / -in. holes in this piece, / in. apart and equally spaced from the ends. procure four / -in. brass bolts, two / in. in length, and two in. in length. secure four small washers and two additional nuts. mount the combined iron and brass strip on the slate base, using a long and short bolt as shown in fig. . one terminal of the winding should be placed under the head of the bolt j. place a washer, k, between the head of the bolt and the wire. the brass strip l can now be mounted in a similar manner, as shown in fig. . place the other end of the winding under the head of the bolt m. [illustration: the assembled parts showing the complete flasher and electric connections with adjusting screw (fig. )] obtain a small screw, n, fig. , of such a length that its point will reach the brass strip l when the screw is placed in the hole b, fig. . a lock nut, o, should be provided for this screw so that it will remain in adjustment. the point of the screw and the point on the brass plate where the screw touches should be of platinum, as the brass will not withstand the high temperature of the arc formed when the circuit is broken. a metal box should now be provided to serve as a containing case and the flasher is complete. this box should be of such design and construction that it will comply with the requirements of the electrical inspection department having jurisdiction over the locality where the flasher is to be used. the flasher should be connected in series with the lamp, the wires being fastened under the nuts on the bolts p and r, fig. , and the screw n adjusted so that it lacks a small fraction of an inch of making contact with the brass plate when there is no current in the winding. when the switch is turned on there will be a current through the lamp and winding in series. the brass strip will be heated more than the iron and it will expand more, thus forcing the point of the screw n down upon the brass plate, which will result in the winding about the brass strip being shorted and the full voltage will be impressed upon the lamp, and it will burn at normal candlepower. when the coil is shorted there will of course be no current in its winding and the brass strip will cool down, the screw n will finally be drawn away from contact with the brass plate, and the winding again connected in series with the lamp. the lamp will apparently go out when the winding is in series with it, as the total resistance of the lamp and winding combined will not permit sufficient current to pass through the lamp to make its filament glow. the time the lamp is on and off may be varied to a certain extent by adjusting the screw n. timing photograph prints an amateur photographer insists that a timing clock in the darkroom is a needless luxury. in order to time printing exposures, which he does with a pendant tungsten light under a reflecting shade, he simply fastens the electric-light cord so that the lamp and shade will act like a pendulum bob which beats the seconds. of course he makes no effort to be exact, but if the distance between the lamp and the point of suspension of the cord be about or in., the beats will be very nearly seconds. when the light is turned on, it is started swinging, and the operator can thus easily count seconds with sufficient accuracy, and, besides, it readily furnishes a guide for duplicating printing results. the same principle can be applied to camera exposures, if so desired, by the following plan. select some suitable place on the under side of the tripod plate, as, for instance, the screw head, and fasten a small string, having a weight attached to it about in. from the point of support. like the swinging lamp, this device too, will beat seconds. for convenience, one of the tripod legs may be marked to indicate the length of string needed, so that the operator at any time can quickly fasten a string, measure off the right length on the tripod leg, attach a bunch of keys, a knife, or any other convenient weight, even a small stone, and have a second-beating pendulum for time exposures.--contributed by f. b. lambert, chicago. supports for camp-fire utensils the sketch shows how to make a standard or support to hold cooking utensils over a camp fire. the main part or stake is made of a piece of gas pipe, on one end of which is turned an ordinary coupling, fig. . this is used to furnish a strong head when the stake is driven into the ground. the rings and supports for the utensils are made of heavy wire bent into the shape required to hold the respective vessels. the sketch, fig. , shows the manner of shaping the wires. [illustration: a piece of gas pipe constitutes the standard with wires attached for holding the utensils (fig. , fig. )] a rotary tuning coil the rotary tuner shown in the sketch was designed by a correspondent of modern electrics. the circle is cut from / -in. stock, in. wide and well covered with insulating material. it is then wound with no. single cotton-covered copper wire so that the coils will lie flat. all the arms are of / -in. square brass. the supports are smaller in section. sliders are mounted on the ends of the long arms and are kept in place by setscrews. [illustration: tuning coil... (fig. )] [illustration: ...and wiring diagram (fig. )] the insulation on the wire is removed with a small piece of sandpaper pasted on a block of wood. this should be temporarily fastened to the revolving lever at the point where the contact is wanted, then the lever is turned until the insulation is removed. the wiring diagram shows the location of the tuning coil in the line. preparing sheet music for turning each page on sheet music having three or more pages should be cut / in. shorter than the preceding page, as shown by the dotted lines in the sketch. this will enable the player to quickly turn the pages one at a time.--contributed by chas. homewood, waterloo, ia. [illustration: leaves cut for turning] toy parachute cut-away for kite lines an interesting pastime while flying kites is to attach large toy parachutes to the lines and have some device to drop them when they are at a great height. in fig. is shown how the parachute is dropped by the burning of a piece of punk. another method is shown in fig. . it is only necessary to send a piece of paper or cardboard along the line and when it strikes the wire coil a (fig. ) the part b slides out of the loops c, the end d will then fall and disengage the loop g on the end of the parachute string. the wires e and f are twisted around the kite string.--contributed by thos. de loof, grand rapids, michigan. [illustration: two parachute drops (fig. , fig. )] how to make an electric furnace [illustration: the furnace consists of a flowerpot in which a crucible is set, and on either side the carbon holders are fastened to the base (fig. )] a small electric furnace that will be very serviceable in a laboratory may be made as follows: first procure a small clay flowerpot, about in. in diameter at the bottom, and also a small clay crucible, about in. in diameter at the bottom and at least in. less in height than the flowerpot, and having as nearly as possible the same slope to its sides as the pot. now obtain a small quantity of asbestos compound and pack it around the small crucible inside the flowerpot. make sure the crucible is in the exact center of the flowerpot and that their tops are even with each other. assuming that ordinary electric-light carbons are to be used, which are about / in. in diameter, drill two / -in. holes, exactly opposite each other, through the walls of the flowerpot and asbestos compound so that they enter the crucible about / in. above its bottom on the inside. a suitable lid for the furnace may be made from / -in. sheet asbestos and should be large enough to cover the top of the flowerpot. [illustration: details of the base, rod and handle for each carbon feed, which is attached to the large base on one side of the furnace (fig. , fig. )] [illustration: (fig. )] the feeds and supports for the carbon electrodes are constructed as follows: procure two pieces of / -in. brass, in. wide and in. long. cut a / -in. groove lengthwise in the center of these pieces to within - / in. of each end, as shown in fig. . drill four / -in. holes, aa, in each piece, a / -in. hole, b, in one end and a / -in. hole, c, in the other end. now bend the ends up at right angles to the remainder of the piece along the dotted lines shown at d and e. next obtain two / -in. rods, - / in. long. turn one end of each down to a / -in. diameter for a distance of / in. from that point thread the same end of the rods for a distance of in. drill a / -in. hole in each end of the rods a little less than / in. from the ends. the dimensions of the rods are given in fig. . two small rubber or wooden handles, similar to the one shown in fig. , should now be made and fastened to the large ends of the rods by means of / -in. steel pins. obtain two pieces of brass of approximately the following dimensions: in. by in. by in. drill four holes in each of these pieces as shown in fig. . the hole h should be just large enough to allow the carbon to enter, or about / in. in diameter. the hole g should be tapped to take a / -in. machine screw, the hole f should be threaded so that the threaded rods will enter, and a small binding post should be mounted on a lug fastened in the hole j. cut away one end of this piece as shown in fig. until it is a little less than / in. in thickness, or so it will enter the grooves cut in the brass strips. [illustration: (fig. )] the parts of the furnace are now ready to assemble, which may be done as follows: procure a piece of well seasoned board, hard wood if possible, about in. thick, in. wide and perhaps in. long. cover one side of this board and the edges with some / -in. sheet asbestos. now place the flowerpot in the exact center and then mount the grooved brass strips one on either side of it with the longest dimension parallel to the longest dimension of the board and the inside end about in. from the side of the pot. the end with the / -in. holes should be next to the pot. assemble the parts of the carbon feeds and then cut out some circular disks of asbestos to place under the flowerpot so as to raise it to such a position that the holes in its sides will be on a line with the carbon rods. three long screws should now be placed in the board, forming the base, in such a position as to hold the flowerpot always in place. this completes the furnace proper, which is shown in fig. . the furnace can now be put into operation provided there is a suitable current rheostat to connect in series with the carbon arc to prevent an excessive current being taken from the line. if such a rheostat is not available, a serviceable one may be made as follows: obtain two pieces of / -in. sheet iron, by in., that are to form the end plates. cut off the corners of one piece so as to form an octagon and drill a number of / -in. and / -in. holes in it, as shown in fig. . bend the corners of the other piece down along the dotted lines marked l, fig. , and then make a second bend in each corner along the dotted lines k, so that the outermost portion of the corner is parallel to the main portion of the piece. drill a number of / -in. holes in this piece as indicated. a -in. opening should be cut in the center of this piece to give access to the interior of the completed rheostat. now obtain eight / -in. iron rods, in. long. drill and tap each end of these rods to accommodate a / -in. machine screw. wrap several layers of thin sheet asbestos around each rod and tie it in place with some thread. these rods should now be fastened between the end plates by means of a number of iron machine screws. mount four back-connected binding posts on the plate shown in fig. , making sure they are insulated from the plate by means of suitable bushings and washers. [illustration: detail of the upper and lower end plates that are used in making a rheostat (fig. , fig. )] procure a small quantity of no. gauge iron wire. fasten one end of the wire under the head of the screw holding one of the binding posts in place and then wind it around the rods about times, making the distance between the turns equal to the diameter of the wire. after winding on the turns, attach a short piece of wire to the main wire and fasten the free end of the short piece to one of the other binding posts. wind on more turns, and make another connection to the third binding post, then complete the winding and attach the end to the remaining binding post. different amounts of this resistance can now be connected in series with the arc by changing the connections from one binding post to another. the rheostat may be located on a bracket fastened to the wall, but care must be taken not to place it in such a position that it will come into contact with inflammable material. as an extra precaution, the circuit should be properly fused. cleaning brass articles embossed or undercut brass work may be easily cleaned by boiling the pieces in a strong solution of caustic soda or lye, and then immersing them in a mixture of hydrochloric acid, parts; water, parts, and nitric acid, part, until they become covered with a dark deposit. take them from the solution and remove the black substance with a fine scratch brush. after cleaned in this manner, rinse in hot water and dry in hot sawdust. a fine orange-yellow tinge may be given to the brass by substituting an equivalent weight of powdered alum for the nitric acid in the solution.--contributed by mrs. richard f. pohle, e. lynn, mass. a whetting block a handy tool gauge for sharpening the various tools about the household is made of a block of wood with the sides of one end cut sloping in different degrees so that each will serve to secure the proper slant of the cutting edge on a certain tool. the block of wood with the corners cut is shown in fig. , and the manner of whetting a chisel is shown in fig. .--contributed by will parker, wibaux, mont. [illustration: the sloping edges on the block of wood and the manner of whetting a chisel (fig. , fig. )] * * * * * a cardboard cut the same size as a page and fastened with paper clips in the center of a magazine will prevent the pages from folding over when the magazine is placed in a bookcase. submarine photographs a photographer at a seashore resort, wishing to increase his sales of souvenir postal cards, rigged up a device for producing negatives to make "submarine" pictures. the device consisted of an aquarium, about in. long, in. high and in. wide. the aquarium was designed to stand on edge or the narrow way, and was equipped with rocks, living sea moss, kelp, and some fish, and the bottom was covered with sand and shells. [illustration: the camera set in front of the aquarium ready to make a submarine picture] a canvas was hung back of the aquarium and the camera set in front at such a distance as to make a negative of only the water and the prepared sea bottom. very fine views that will give the appearance of being made at the bottom of the sea can be produced. mending paper-pulp utensils pails, washtubs, and other receptacles made of paper pulp, when cut and worn, may be easily mended with adhesive tape. after this is applied to the place to be mended, give the mended part a coating of paint, and when the paint has dried, the surface is given another coat to match the color of the article mended. leaks may be entirely stopped in this way at a very reasonable cost.--contributed by katharine d. morse, syracuse, n. y. a homemade mailing tube a photograph or manuscript may be sent through the mail unmounted without the danger of being broken by placing it in a tube made as follows: for an by -in. photograph procure a piece of cardboard by in., plain mounting board preferred, and cut halfway through the card in three places as shown by the dotted lines in fig. . then fold it in a triangular shape as shown in fig. . it is easy to make such a tube to fit any photograph or manuscript to be mailed.--contributed by a. h. schaefer, buffalo, n. y. [illustration: the bends in the cardboard are made on lines equal distances apart to form a triangle (fig. , fig. )] cutter for lace leather [illustration] lace leather may be easily cut with an ordinary pocket knife having a u-shaped block fitted on the edge of the blade. the width of the opening should be exactly the same as the thickness of the leather and the width of the lace is determined by the distance between the blade and the depth of the notch. several places can be provided for the blade to cut different widths of lacing.--contributed by a. k. runkle, kinsman, o. refinishing chairs when refinishing chairs, a good way to get at the bottom part is to turn the chair upside down and place its seat on the seat of another chair. the legs and rungs can thus be easily cleaned and varnished.--contributed by a. mandeville, ware, mass. an electric gas lighter a very simple and inexpensive electric gas-lighting device is shown in the accompanying illustration. the gas is ignited by means of an electric spark which is produced between the two parts a and b of an electric circuit. this circuit is composed of a source of electrical energy, such as a number of dry cells, a kick coil, the connecting leads, and a special operating switch for opening and closing the circuit to produce the spark. the circuit is normally open, but as the lever controlling the gas valve is moved from one position to the other, by pulling the chains, the lever c is caused to move through a certain arc. now, as this lever c moves, its upper end passes the projecting point b, which is attached to the upper portion of the burner, and the electric circuit will be completed and broken. just as the point a leaves contact with the point b an arc will be produced. this arc is greatly intensified by the kick coil, which acts as a sort of reservoir in which energy is stored while the circuit is closed, and upon opening the circuit this stored energy is given out by the kick coil and increases the size of the arc. [illustration: the igniting points as they are attached to a gas burner to work automatically] the points a and b should both be made of platinum, as other metals will not withstand the extremely high temperature of the arc. pieces of platinum that will serve very nicely for the purpose may be obtained from an old incandescent lamp. the piece b is mounted on a brass collar, d, by means of a small screw, e. the brass collar d is held in place by the screw f, which draws the two ends together. this collar must be insulated from the stem or fixture by some thin sheets of mica. the upper end of the piece of platinum b should be just high enough to come within the lower edge of the gas flame. now mount an arm, c, on the valve stem so that it stands in a vertical position when the lever to which the chains are attached is in a horizontal position. bend this arm into the form shown in the figure and cut its upper end off so that it is about / in. below the outwardly projecting end of the piece of platinum b. drill a small hole in the upper end of c, and insert a piece of platinum and run some solder around it. then the complete burner and valve are mounted on the gas fixture, and from the collar d an insulated wire is run to the point where the battery and kick coil are to be located. the gas fixture itself is to form one side of the electric circuit, and one terminal of the battery should be connected to the gas pipe as shown in the figure. a kick coil may be made as follows: procure a small quantity of rather small soft-iron wire and cut a sufficient number of -in. lengths to make a bundle about / in. in diameter. from some good writing paper make a tube, in. long and / in. in outside diameter. use at least six layers of paper and glue the various layers together in forming this paper tube. after the tube has dried thoroughly, fill it with the pieces of iron wire until it is perfectly hard. cut from some / -in. hard wood, two pieces, in. square, and drill a / -in. hole in the center of each of these to a depth of / in. now glue these pieces to the completed core and the winding can begin as soon as the glue is dry. wind on this spool six layers of double cotton-covered no. gauge wire, insulating the various layers from each other with several thicknesses of good writing paper. this coil is then mounted on a wooden base and suitable terminals provided. at least four dry cells will be required to give satisfactory results. bear in mind that the gas must be escaping from the burner when the arc is formed. the adjustment of the arm a, as given above, may result in the gas valve being closed when the arc is formed, and the device will then fail to operate. if this is the case, the arm c should be loosened and moved back so that the circuit is broken at a later time while the valve is being moved from the "off" to "on" position. the circuit should be closed for some little time before it is opened so that some energy may be stored in the kick coil. if the wire a is made long enough to project a short distance above b, it will result in the circuit being closed for a longer time than it would if they just touched. stretching tight-fitting shoes a tight-fitting shoe can be stretched by filling it tightly with oats dampened in water and packing some old paper in the top. the grain will quickly swell and, as the leather will get softened by the dampness, the shoe will be rapidly stretched. allow time for the oats to dry out before removing them.--contributed by fred l. king, islip, new york. pad for a percolator [illustration] to prevent heating the bowl of a percolator and burning the handle, as often happens when it is placed on a stove, use an ordinary asbestos pad with a hole cut in the center as shown, just large enough to admit the foot of the percolator.--contributed by mrs. g. w. coplin, bay city, mich. * * * * * if a motorcycle engine is raced while on the stand, the cylinder will heat, often with the result that it is ruined. compass time chart a very instructive little instrument can be easily made for telling the time of any location on the globe. its construction is extremely simple. draw a circle, about - / in. in diameter, on a piece of paper and then draw a larger circle, about in. in diameter, around the first one. divide the circles into equal parts and draw lines from one circle to the other like the spokes in a wheel. these divisions will be deg., or minutes of time, apart. they should be numbered around the outside, commencing at a point marked and marking the numbers by tens each way until they meet at deg. [illustration: a time chart for telling the hour of the day at any place on the globe] using a map of the eastern and western hemispheres, write the names of the different cities on the globe in their respective degrees of longitude. the center, or inside, of the smaller circle is divided into divisions representing the hours of the day and night, and these are marked from to , the left side being forenoon, and the right, afternoon. the noon mark must be set on the line nearest to the location in which the instrument is to be used. for instance, if the instrument is to be used in chicago, it is set as shown in the sketch. the disk is mounted on a thin piece of board and a pin is driven through the center from the back side so as to make a projecting point on the upper side on which to place the magnetized needle of a compass. the needle may be taken from any cheap compass. all that is necessary to do, to tell what time it is in any other city or country, is to turn the instrument so that the name of that place points toward the sun, when the north end of the compass needle will point on the disk to the time it is in that city or locality.--contributed by henry j. marion, pontiac, mich. reversing switch for small motors a reversing switch made as follows will be found very serviceable in reversing the direction of the rotation of small motors, changing the polarity of electromagnets, etc. [illustration: diagram of the wiring to a small motor and the details of the switch] a diagram of the connections to the switch and on the switch base is given in the sketch, and in this particular case the switch is shown connected to a small toy motor. the field of the motor is represented by a, the armature by b; and c, d, e, and f are four binding posts mounted on the base of the switch; g, h, and i are three contacts; j and k are terminals of the switch blades, and l a single-pole switch. the two blades of the reversing switch have their lower ends fastened to the terminals j and k, and their upper ends, which are indicated by arrow heads, may be moved over the contacts g, h, and i. for the position of the reversing switch shown by the full lines, j is connected to g and k to h. when the switch is thrown to the right-hand position, as shown by the dotted lines, j is connected to h and k to i. it is obvious that the direction of the current through the armature b will be reversed when the reversing switch is thrown from one position to the other. the direction in which the armature rotates will change, due to the reversal in direction of the current through it. the same results could be obtained by reversing the current in the field winding a. but it must always be borne in mind that in order to reverse the direction of rotation, the current must be reversed in the armature only or in the field only, not in both. the above switch may be constructed as follows: first, procure a piece of well-seasoned hard wood, say maple, / in. thick, - / in. wide and in. long. round off the corners and the edges of this piece on one side and drill the holes indicated in the sketch. the four corner holes should be of such a size as to accommodate the screws used in mounting four small back-connected binding posts. the remaining holes should be / in. all these holes should be countersunk with a / -in. bit to a depth of / in. on the under side. cut from some / -in. sheet brass two pieces, - / in. long, / in. wide at one end and / in. at the other, and round their ends. drill a / -in. hole through the larger end of each of these pieces, / in. from the end, and also a hole through each, - / in. from the narrow end. the last two holes should be threaded for / -in. machine screws. obtain five / -in. brass bolts, / in. long. file the heads of three of these bolts down to a thickness of approximately / in. and mount them in the holes g, h and i. before mounting anything on the base the grooves indicated by the heavy dotted lines should be cut in the under side so that the various points may be properly connected by conductors placed in the grooves. now mount the two pieces of sheet brass upon the base by means of the remaining two bolts, which should pass through the holes j and k. a / -in. washer should be placed between the pieces of brass and the wooden base. procure a piece of / -in. fiber, - / in. long and / in. broad. drill two / -in. holes in this piece, one in each end, so that they are in. apart. drill a third / -in. hole in the center and fasten a small handle to the piece of fiber. now mount this piece upon the two pieces of brass that form the blades of the switch by means of two small / -in. brass machine screws. two small brads should be driven into the wooden base so as to prevent the possibility of the switch blades moving beyond their proper position. two pieces of / -in. fiber should be placed between the heads of the screws g and h, and h and i, to prevent the ends of the switch blades from dropping down on the wooden base. adjustable rod for potted plants procure a brass sash-curtain rod of the telescoping kind and stick the solid part into the soil close to the plant and tie it to the rod. as the plant grows move the tubular part of the rod upward to correspond with the height of the plant. this makes a good support and is not so unsightly as a stick.--contributed by gertrude m. bender, utica, n. y. wrench for different-size nuts a very handy wrench can be made from a piece of square bar, shaped as shown and fitted with a handle. the joint at a may be halved and riveted or a weld made as desired. the size of the bar and the space between the parts will depend on the size of nuts to be turned. [illustration: the sloping notch in the wrench permits its use on nuts of various size] a simple sextant a sextant for measuring the latitude of any place can be easily constructed as follows: while a board, in. thick, in. wide, and in. long is about right for the instrument, any dimensions can be used, providing the line ab is at perfect right angles to the level of the sights c and d. the sights are better to use, although the upper edge of the board, if it is perfectly straight, will do as well. if it is desired to use sights, a slight groove is cut in the upper edge; a v-shaped piece, cut from tin, is fastened at one end, and a small pointed nail is driven in at the other. in doing this, be sure to level the bottom of the v-notch and nail point so that in drawing the line ab it will be at perfect right angles to a line between the sights. a tack is driven into the side of the board at the upper edge, a line fastened to it and a weight tied to the lower end which should swing below the lower edge of the board. [illustration: the main part of the instrument consists of a board with a plumb attached] the instrument is placed in such a manner that the north star is sighted, as shown, and the point on the lower edge of the board is marked where the line e comes to rest. a line is then drawn from a to the point marked and the angle f is measured with a protractor. the number of degrees in this angle will be approximately equal to the number of degrees in the latitude of that place. [illustration: the two stars at the end of the great dipper are pointers to the north star] the north star is easily located by reason of its position relative to the great dipper, as shown by the diagram.--contributed by carlos harrison, anderson, ind. how to make a taper ferrule having occasion to make a taper ferrule of irregular form, a pattern from which to cut the material was made as follows: a mandrel of the desired shape was made, a piece of writing paper, soaked in water, wrapped around the mandrel, and a piece of twine wound over it, coil after coil like the thread on a spool. this was allowed to dry thoroughly, using a little heat. the string was then removed and a longitudinal cut made in the paper while on the mandrel. when opened this paper formed the pattern. a piece of metal was cut from the pattern and the edges were brought together and brazed with spelter. the point of the mandrel was driven through a piece of block tin, about / in. thick. the mandrel was then removed, the ferrule was placed on it, and both then started in the hole made in the tin and driven through it. as the mandrel with the ferrule passed through the tin, the metal was shaped exactly to the mandrel. it is best to oil the hole in the tin slightly. tin is preferable as it is harder.--contributed by james h. beebee, rochester, n. y. how to make a continuously ringing bell the bell shown in the accompanying diagram is known as the continuously ringing type, and has quite a field of usefulness in connection with burglar alarms, door-bell signals, telephone signals, etc. the operation of the bell proper is identical with that of the ordinary vibrating bell and, in addition, there is a circuit controlled by the armature of the bell, which is normally open, but becomes closed as soon as the armature is drawn over. the closing of this circuit by the operation of the armature amounts to keeping the push button in the bell circuit depressed, and the bell will continue to ring until the latch a is restored by pulling the cord b. [illustration: an ordinary vibrating bell used as a continuously ringing bell, and the wiring diagram] any ordinary vibrating bell may be converted into a continuously ringing bell as follows: in the armature, c, mount a short metal pin, d, and round off its under side slightly. a latch, a, should now be constructed similar to the one shown in the sketch and mounted in such a position that its left end will rest on the outer end of the pin d when the armature, c, of the bell is in its extreme outer position. the length of the latch should be such that its left end will drop off the end of the pin d, due to the action of the spring e, when the armature c is drawn over by the electromagnets f, thus allowing it to come into contact with a spring g, which is electrically connected to the terminal of the bell marked h. the latch a is connected to one side of the line, as shown in the sketch, so as to include the bell winding and battery in a local circuit that is formed by the latch coming in contact with the spring g. the end of the latch should not interfere with the free operation of the armature when it is resting on the spring g. a cord, b, attached to the outer end of the latch, is used in restoring it, and at the same time stopping the bell from ringing. the tension in the spring e should be so adjusted that the operation of the latch is sure and firm, yet not too stiff. a mission-style inkstand having a couple of good-sized ink bottles of the ordinary type lying around, i fashioned a mission-style stand for them out of a piece of yellow pine, in. wide and in. long, set on another piece of pine large enough to project all around on all four sides of the block, for a base. the wells were cut out with a wood chisel, and the parts fastened together with screws. the supports were four brass-head or upholsterer's tacks. the finish was flat black.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. [illustration: two pieces of pine shaped to receive the inkwells and finished in mission style] raising dents in wood the imprint of a hammer on finely finished wood caused by a glancing blow, or otherwise, may be removed in the following manner: pour enough wood alcohol on the dented spot to cover it, then light the alcohol and allow it to burn out. the heat will expand the wood and raise it enough so that the spot can be planed and smoothed in the usual manner.--contributed by w. f. elwell, waltham, massachusetts. carrying two pails in one hand when it is necessary to carry two small filled pails in one hand and a package in the other it will be found a very difficult job, if the contents are liquid. procure a stick of sufficient size to carry the weight of the pails and cut a small notch in each end to admit the bail. place a pail on each end of the stick and take hold in the center, or, if the pails are not equally filled, a little to one side of the center. [illustration: two filled pails can be readily carried by placing the bails on the ends of a stick] preserving paint in open cans to keep paint from drying out in an open can it is necessary to exclude the air from the oil. this can be done by procuring an air-tight paper sack, which is tested by blowing into it. set the can into the sack and tie it tightly with a cord. mixed paint will be kept in a working state in this manner. jelly-straining stand [illustration] procure a board, / in. thick and in. square, and cut a hole, about ft. diameter, in the center. fasten posts, ft. long, to each corner. screw hooks are located around the edge of the hole to catch into the cloth used for holding the fruit. the stand is high enough to be convenient and admit a vessel beneath to catch the juice. renewing dry batteries it is a well-known fact that dry cells commence to deteriorate from the time they are manufactured, and it is a matter of considerable uncertainty in purchasing cells to know whether they will continue to be efficient for their supposed natural life under the existing conditions of service, or for only a small part of this period. when the voltage of a dry cell falls below a certain value it is usually discarded and replaced by a new one, which often means quite an expense. the following simple suggestion will enable one to renew the prematurely exhausted cell with very little trouble and slight expense, so that its period of usefulness will be extended for a length of time, at least equal to that for which it could be used if put into service immediately after its manufacture. [illustration] the procedure in renewing the cell is as follows: a casing is placed outside of the zinc-containing case, having inside dimensions a little greater than the zinc cup. the space between the zinc cup and case is filled with a dry electrolyte, which, upon the addition of moisture, sets up a chemical action with the exterior surface of the zinc, and the latter having been perforated, causes electrical action to be again produced. the casing, or cup, to be used outside the zinc cup should be made of a waterproof material. the electrolyte instead of being placed between this cup and the zinc in a powdered form, as might be expected, should be held by several layers of blotting paper, formed into a cylinder of the proper diameter to fit snugly on the outside of the zinc cup. this porous cup should be impregnated with a solution containing the following materials in the approximate amounts given: muriate of ammonia, parts; bichromate of potash, parts, and chloride of sodium, parts. after the porous cup has thoroughly soaked in the above solution it should be dried by passing a roller over its external surface when it is mounted on a wooden cylinder of proper diameter. the moisture-proof cup may be formed outside the porous cup by covering the latter with several coats of waterproofing paste and winding on several thicknesses of common manila paper, each layer of paper being treated with the paste. a disk of cardboard, properly treated, should be placed in the end of the cylinder to form the bottom, and the edge of the manila paper folded in over it and pasted in place. the pasteboard covering surrounding the zinc cup of the cell should be removed and the surface of the zinc thoroughly cleaned. the coal tar in the top of the zinc cup should be removed by tapping around the edge with a hammer, and a large number of small holes should be made in the walls of the cup with a sharp instrument. then put the cell within the porous cup and fill the top with clear water, preferably rain water. a chemical reaction will immediately take place between the outer surface of the zinc and the chemicals contained in the material forming the porous cup, and the terminal voltage of the cell will be practically the same as it was when the cell was new. the water, of course, must be replenished from time to time on account of evaporation, and the useful life of the cell can be prolonged for a considerable time. a part cross section of a cell treated as described above is shown in the accompanying sketch. workbench equipment for a table top the average home mechanic with a few tools seldom has a place to work and is usually without a workbench. as this was my case, i constructed a bench equipment that i could easily clamp to the kitchen or other table and thus have the necessary tools at hand for work. a plank, in. thick, in. wide and in. long, was planed and smoothed up on all sides, and a vise and a bench pin were fastened on one edge. [illustration: the bench top can be quickly attached to any table top without harming it] to the under side of the same edge two blocks were securely fastened, as shown, and to these blocks two other pieces were fastened with hinges. with a bolt, running through from the top, and a thumb nut used underneath, these pieces are used as clamps for holding the bench to the table top. the top can be removed and set away in a closet when not in use.--contributed by wm. h. hathaway, nutley, n. j. a nonsticking drawer guide [illustration] the guide shown is nonbinding and has been found thoroughly practical after several years' use on furniture. the guide a consists of a piece of wood, about - / in. square, with a concave cut in its upper edge, the width being about / in. and the depth such as not to cut through the extending end projecting over the crossbar b. the drawer sides have a half-round edge on the bottom edge to run in the groove in the guide. the difference in width between the groove in the guide and the rounding edge on the drawer side causes the drawer always to ride snugly without binding as the wood expands or contracts with changes in the weather.--contributed by herman hermann, portland, ind. a milk stool the stool is made of three pieces of board and a piece of round, or stake, iron. the appearance and manner of construction are clearly shown in the illustration. the seat board is sawed out to fit the circumference of the bucket to be used, and the iron is also bent to this curve and fastened to the board as shown. the little shelf on the front support holds the bucket at the right height, and keeps it clean and out of the way of the cow's foot while milking. [illustration: a milk stool having a place to keep the bucket clean and at the right height] sounder for wireless-telegraph messages the owner of an amateur wireless outfit often has reason to regret that he cannot let some of his friends listen to a message at the same time as he himself. the magnifier described in the following permits all those present in the room to hear the message, provided, of course, they are able to interpret the morse alphabet by sound. [illustration: the phonograph horn as it is connected to a detector for transmitting the messages] a very simple means, making the message audible at a distance of about ft., is to attach a phonograph horn, or a horn of cardboard or metal, to the telephone receiver, but a much better arrangement can be made as shown in the diagram, in which a represents the antenna or aerial; b, the detector, and c, the receiver. procure a small microphone, d, placing its mouthpiece closely against the receiver--for the sake of clearness the two are separated in the diagram--and connect the former with a battery, f, of two or three dry cells, in series with the microphone of an ordinary telephone transmitter provided with a large horn. the effect obtained by this simple means will be surprising. joint for mission furniture the mortise for this joint is made in the usual manner, the only requirements being that the mortise is run through the piece, and the tenon is cut / in. shorter than the depth of the mortise or the width of the piece it is entering. the end of the tenon and the mortise is then covered with a piece of metal, fastened with screws as shown. the metal can be of any desired material and beveled on the edges. this makes a very good knock-down joint for mission furniture.--contributed by h. r. allen, cheyenne, wyoming. [illustration: metal covering and holder for a tenon and mortise joint on mission furniture] a towel roller a substantial, convenient and nonrusting towel roller can be made from or of the familiar wood handles on bundle carriers and a length of brass curtain rod. the bracket ends can be shaped from any piece of wood of suitable dimensions. the rollers and ends can be finished as desired.--contributed by f. e. s., e. lynn, mass. an electric shaving mug the general use of electricity in the home has opened up a new field in the way of heating and cooking utensils. while these utensils are sold by electric-supply houses, some of them can be easily made at home and answer the purpose just as nicely. one of these is the electric shaving mug. [illustration: detail of the parts for the construction of an electric shaving mug. the heating of sufficient water for a shave can be accomplished at a nominal cost (fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. )] a mug that will stand heat is the first thing required, and an aluminum cup of standard shape and design, which can be bought in almost every town, will do perfectly well. these cups are spun from a flat sheet and have no seams to open and leak, and it is necessary that no holes be drilled in the cup as it is impossible to make such a hole watertight. the heating element must be fastened to the mug with a clamp. the clamp will also allow the heating coil to be removed for repairs without injury to the mug. the bottoms of these mugs have a flange which makes a recessed part and in this the heating element is placed. the legs of the mug are made of sheet brass as shown in fig. , one of the three having an enlargement near its center with a hole for an insulating button (fig. ), of "transite" or some other material, to hold the supply cord in place. the clamp for holding the heating coil in place is shown in fig. . this clamp has a screw in the center to tighten it in place. the legs and clamp may be nickelplated if desired. the heating coil is shown in fig. which is a coil of flat "nichrome" wire, or ribbon as it is called, ft. long, / in. wide and / in. thick. this is equal in cross section to a no. gauge wire. to wind this coil, procure a block of wood, / in. thick and about in. square, with a / -in. hole in the center for an axis or pivot. clamp a / -in. rod in a vise so that the block can be rotated about it. begin at the center and fasten one end of the ribbon to the block, leaving about in. projecting for a connection, then proceed to wind the ribbon in a spiral coil, separating each turn from the preceding one with a strand of asbestos cord. a small section of the coil is shown in fig. , in which a, or the light part, represents the asbestos insulation, and b, or the black lines, the heating element. the insulation may be obtained by untwisting some / -in. round asbestos packing and using one of the strands. this cord insulates each turn of the ribbon from the other and the current must travel through the whole coil without jumping across from one turn to the other. the whole coil must be closely wound to get it into the limited space at the bottom of the mug. before taking the coil from the block, rub into its surface a little asbestos retort cement, or a cement composed of a mixture of silicate of soda and silica, or glass sand. this mixture, when dry, will tend to hold the coil together and the current may be passed through the coil to test it as well as to bake it in its coiled shape. [illustration: (fig. , fig. )] the support for the heating coil is made of a piece of / -in. asbestos wood or transite. cut it to fit into the recessed bottom of the mug, then with a chisel remove the material in the top to form a depression / in. deep to receive the coil with its top flush. the leads of the coil are run through the disk. the surface of the coil is then plastered evenly with retort cement. the legs are fastened to a second piece of insulating material with round-head brass machine screws, / in. long, with nuts. the heads of these screws are shown in fig. , the nuts being above the brass and between the two insulating pieces. the ends of the heating ribbon are brought through the lower insulating disk and attached to binding posts as shown. the leads may be covered with tape to prevent any short circuit. the mug uses - / amperes at volts, either direct or alternating current, and it will cost about cents an hour to operate it. care should be taken to use a separable attachment for connecting, as an ordinary lamp socket may be burned out by turning off the current, it being adapted only to a small capacity. in assembling the parts, several pieces of mica should be placed between the coil and the metal of the mug to insulate the coil from the mug. a handbag lock [illustration] the pickpocket finds it easy to unsnap a handbag and remove some of the contents, especially in crowded places. to make it less easy for the pickpocket, i fixed my mother's handbag as shown in the sketch. i used a chain which had served its day holding a small coin purse--any small chain will do--by passing it through the links that hold the handle and winding it once or twice around the snap fasteners to hold them securely closed. the chain may be either shortened enough to make it convenient to hold with the handle of the handbag, or may be left long and used over the shoulder under the coat, thus making it possible to have both hands free for shopping while the handbag hangs by the side. this leaves a person free from the worry of taking care that the bag is not laid down somewhere and lost. the bag may be easily opened by unwinding the chain after loosening it by raising the bag slightly.--contributed by wm. waterhouse, aurora, ill. an emery-cloth holder emery cloth in sheets is very easily spoiled around a workbench. oil or other fluids used on work are apt to drop on it and when wet for a short time the abrasive is useless. the illustration shows a tin holder, a, that can be placed on the under side of the bench where space is not required for drawer room. [illustration: a receptacle for emery cloth made of sheet metal or tin and fastened to a bench] the portion cut out of the bottom of the holder b is to enable the workman to easily grasp the sheets of emery cloth. as the holder is on the under side of the bench, there is little danger of any liquid or other substance spoiling the sheets. the sheets are also within easy reach.--contributed by f. w. bently, huron, s. d. the operation of the compass after trying to tell a few small boys what a compass is, they wanted a practical illustration--something they could see. not having a compass or knowing where to locate one handily, i used a piece of cork with needles and a needle for a pivot and found it very satisfactory. the method used is shown in the sketch. it is best not to magnetize both needles unless care is exercised in maintaining pole relationship, or they will oppose each other and not point to the north. the extreme ends or the heads of the needles must be opposites, the head of one negative and the head of the other positive. [illustration: two large needles in a cork balanced on a central needle to make them revolve easily] if a good compass is brought carelessly in contact with a magnet, the poles may become reversed and the north end will no longer point to the north but to the south until the current has been reversed again by bringing the opposite pole of the magnet in contact with the compass.--contributed by w. h. albright, bellevue, o. thawing out frozen pipes when the water pipes connecting a range boiler become frozen, get a plumber and avoid an explosion of the water back. if, however, the frozen pipe is a cold-water pipe in no way connected with the hot-water boiler, it can be thawed out as follows: [illustration: the faucet is turned upwards and opened and alcohol poured in on the ice] procure some grain alcohol--not denatured or wood alcohol--and after turning the spigot upward or upside down, as shown, open it and pour in the alcohol. when the water begins to flow turn it to its proper position.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. a wire clothespin [illustration] the pin is made of galvanized wire, a, or in. long, wound spirally, b, on a round surface, such as a broom handle, to make the holding part. the ends are fastened together as shown. the space between the spiral turns makes the cloth-holding part.--contributed by wesley h. freeman, palestine, tex. vent for pouring heavy liquids a tube placed in a jug or bottle as shown in the sketch will assist greatly in removing molasses or heavy liquids. the tube can be placed in the receptacle without getting the liquid inside by holding a finger over the outer end. the air can easily enter without disturbing the flow of the liquid.--contributed by homer payear, owensboro, ky. [illustration: the vacuum caused by the flow of heavy liquids is easily overcome by the air tube] a hat hanger [illustration] procure a piece of / -in. wire, about ft. long, bend it into the shape shown in the sketch, and sharpen the projecting end. drive this into the wall above a coat hanger. this provides a better hat hanger than the ordinary hook.--contributed by john d. watt, roxbury, mass. repairing a broken tenon on a chair post [illustration] instead of cutting off the four posts to make new tenons where one tenon was broken i used a metal piece made from a short length of bicycle tubing, as shown. the tube was slotted two ways to make four parts which were turned out and flattened. the remaining end of the tube was slipped over the broken post and the four parts were fastened with screws to the under side of the chair seat.--contributed by chas. h. roberts, calumet, mich. substitute for an iron-holder knob [illustration] the wood knob on the holder for my irons became charred from the heat and finally broke away from the pin. the pin would get so hot in continued use that it could not be moved without burning my fingers. i remedied the difficulty by attaching a short string to the handle and the pin. a pull on the string with the forefinger readily released the iron. i have found this better than the knob, as it is handier to use.--contributed by mrs. h. c. dixon, johnstown, pa. an egg-frying pan the frying of eggs in an ordinary frying pan is accompanied with some difficulty in removing them when they are cooked without breaking the yolk. then, sometimes, the pan is too hot and the egg sticks to the pan and the top remains uncooked. a much better way is to shape a piece of sheet metal or tin as shown in the sketch to place the egg in and use it in the ordinary pan. it will not burn the egg, and the egg can be lifted out of the pan and easily slipped on a plate or toast when it is cooked.--contributed by w. a. jaquythe, san diego, cal. [illustration: a metal plate for use in an ordinary frying pan to cook eggs without scorching them] a sander mandrel for the lathe a cylindrical sander for use in the lathe can be easily made of two pieces of wood, turned to a diameter that will take the stock size of sandpaper, and clamped together with pinch dogs at the ends. one edge of the sandpaper is clamped between the pieces and then it is wrapped around the wood, the opposite edge being glued to the starting edge, as shown at a. the dimensions given are for a by -in. sheet of sandpaper. the sander is easily placed in the lathe centers when needed, and the sandpaper may be replaced at any time.--contributed by james t. gaffney, chicago. [illustration: a wood mandrel for attaching regular sheets of sandpaper to make a lathe sander] how to construct a simple galvanometer a galvanometer is an instrument used to detect the presence of an electrical current in a circuit or to measure the value of the current in amperes. the operation of practically all galvanometers is based upon the same principle, and they differ chiefly in mechanical construction and the relative arrangement of their different parts. a very simple galvanometer, that will give quite satisfactory results, under favorable conditions, may be constructed as follows: turn from a piece of hard wood a ring having dimensions corresponding to those given in the cross section, fig. . fill the groove in this ring to within / in. of the top with no. gauge double-cotton-covered copper wire, insulating the different layers from each other by means of a layer of good bond paper. the winding may be started by drilling a small hole through the side of the groove, as close to the bottom as possible, and allowing about in. of the wire to protrude through it. the outside end may be terminated in a similar manner, and the two ends should be on the same side of the ring, or as near each other as possible. a protecting covering of bookbinder's paper is placed over the winding and the completed ring given a coat of shellac. the electric current to be detected or measured is to pass around the winding of this coil and produce an effect upon a compass needle mounted in its center. in order that the current may produce a maximum effect upon the needle, the coil should be mounted in a vertical position. [illustration: the wood ring for the coil and its holding stirrup (fig. , fig. )] the base upon which the ring is to be mounted may be cut from some / -in. hard wood. it should be circular in form and about in. in diameter, and have its upper edge rounded off and shellacked to improve its appearance. the ring is mounted in a vertical position on this base, which may be done as follows: cut a flat surface on each of the flanges of the ring so that it will stand in a vertical position and the terminals of the winding will be as near as possible to the surface upon which the ring rests. then form a stirrup from some thin sheet brass, similar to that shown in fig. , so that it will fit tightly over the ring and its outwardly projecting ends will rest upon the base of the instrument. small wood screws are used in fastening the stirrup to the base. the fastening may be made more secure by cutting a groove across the inside of the ring for the stirrup to fit in, fig. , thus preventing the possibility of the ring moving through the stirrup. two holes should be drilled in the base for the terminals of the winding to pass through, and it would be best to cut two grooves in the side of the ring for these wires so as to prevent their coming into contact with the metal stirrup. two back-connected binding posts, a and b, fig. , are mounted on the base and the ends of the winding attached to them. the wires should be placed in grooves cut in the under side of the base, and the screws used in fastening the binding posts should be countersunk. [illustration: galvanometer as it is used to detect the presence of an electrical current (fig. )] a short compass needle is then mounted on a suitable supporting pivot in the center of the coil. this compass needle will always come to rest in an approximate north and south position when it is acted upon by the earth's magnetic field alone. if now the plane of the coil be placed in such a position that it is parallel to the direction of the compass needle (no current in the coil), the magnetic field that will be produced when a current is sent through the winding will be perpendicular to the magnetic field of the earth and there will be a force, due to this particular current, tending to turn the compass needle around perpendicularly to its original position. there will be a deflection of the needle for all values of current in the coil, and this deflection will vary in value as the current in the coil varies. the mere fact that the compass needle is deflected due to a current in the coil gives a means of detecting a current in any circuit of which the coil is a part, and the degree of this deflection affords a means of measuring the current, the value of the different deflections in terms of the current in the coil having been experimentally determined by sending a known current through the coil and noting the positions of the compass needle for each value of current used. in order to determine the deflection of the needle, a scale, c, fig. , must be mounted directly under the compass needle and a pointer, d, attached to the compass needle so that any movement of the needle results in an equal angular displacement of the pointer. the compass needle, e, should be short and quite heavy, say, / in. in length, / in. in thickness and / in. in width at its center, and tapering to a point at its ends. it should be made of a good grade of steel, tempered and then magnetized by means of a powerful electromagnet. the reason for making the compass needle short is that it will then operate in practically a uniform magnetic field, which exists only at the center of the coil. on account of the needle being so short and in view of the fact that it comes to rest parallel to the coil for its zero position, it is best to use a pointer attached to the needle to determine its deflection, as this pointer can be made much longer than the needle, and any movement of the needle may be more easily detected, as the end of the pointer moves through a much larger distance than the end of the needle, and since it may be attached to the needle, at right angles to the needle's axis, the end of the pointer will be off to one side of the coil and its movement may be easily observed. the pointer should be made of some nonmagnetic material, such as aluminum or brass, and it should be as long as it may be conveniently made. a suitable box with a glass cover may be provided in which the needle, pointer and scale may be housed. the construction of this box will be left entirely to the ingenuity of the one making the instrument. [illustration: the electric circuit, showing connections for finding the value of a current in calibrating (fig. )] in order to use this instrument as an ammeter, it will be necessary to calibrate it, which consists in determining the position of the pointer for various values of current through the coil. it will be necessary to obtain the use of a direct-current ammeter for this purpose. the winding of the galvanometer, ammeter, battery and a variable resistance of some kind should all be connected in series as shown in the diagram, fig. . allow the compass needle to come to rest under the influence of the earth's magnetic field and then turn the coil into such a position that it is as nearly parallel with the needle as possible. this corresponds to the zero position, and the instrument must always be in this position when it is used. the position of the ends of the pointer is now marked on the scale for different values of current, first with the current in one direction and then in the opposite direction. the deflection of the needle will, of course, reverse when the current is reversed. the effect produced by any current upon the compass needle can be changed by changing the number of turns in the coil. in measuring a large current, a few turns of large wire would be required, and in measuring a small current, a large number of turns of small wire could be used. in other words, the size of the wire will depend upon the current it is to carry and the number of turns in the coil will depend upon the magnetic effect the current is to produce, which is proportional to the product of the number of turns and the current, called the ampere-turns. experiments with camphor place a few scrapings from gum camphor in a tumbler of water and watch the phenomenon. the scrapings will go through all kinds of rapid motions as if they were alive. a drop of turpentine, or any oil, will stop their maneuvers. this experiment will show how quickly oil spreads over the surface of water. boiling cracked eggs eggs with the shells cracked can be boiled in the ordinary manner without danger of the white boiling out, if they are first wrapped in tissue paper. as soon as the paper becomes wet it will cling so tightly to the shell that the cracks are effectively closed. a trousers hanger a very serviceable hanger can be easily made of two clothespins of the clip type and about ft. of large wire. [illustration: clothesline clips joined together with a wire and used as a trousers hanger] the wire should be bent into the shape shown at a with a loop about in. in diameter as a hanger. the ends of the wire are slipped under the hooks on the sides of the clothespins, which are fastened to the trousers as shown in b.--contributed by olaf tronnes, evanston, ill. removing tight-fitting can covers [illustration] tight-fitting covers on lard and similar pails can be readily removed by tying a stout cord loosely below the cover, then placing an ordinary nail under the cord and twisting it. this will tighten the cord around the can evenly, which will loosen the cover. a skimming spoon a handy skimming spoon can be made very quickly of an ordinary spoon of any size desired. slits are sawn across the bowl in the manner shown, using a hacksaw. the illustration is self-explanatory.--contributed by g. h. holter, jasper, minn. [illustration: the straight cuts sawn across the bottom of the bowl provide openings to drain out the liquid] how to make falling blocks procure a thin board large enough to cut six blocks, in. wide and in. long; also yd. of cotton tape, / in. wide, and some very small tacks. cut the board into pieces of the size mentioned, and number two of them on both surfaces, , , , and . cut off three pieces of tape, - / in. long, and on the side of block tack one piece of tape in the center at one end, and the other two pieces at each edge on the opposite end, all being on one side of the block as shown. take the other block and lay the side numbered up, then draw the two strips of tape on the edges of block under it and back to the end of the surface on block , and tack them on this surface at the edges as shown. the center tape is passed under block and turned over the opposite end and tacked. this is clearly shown in the sketch. thus the second block will hang from either end of block by simply folding them together and separating the ends. [illustration: set of blocks joined with tape so that they appear to fall from the top] mark the sides of the third block and , and place it with the two others so that the sides numbered , , and will be up. cut off three more pieces of tape, - / in. long, and tack them on as shown, being careful not to tack through any of the first three pieces. put on the fourth block in the same manner as the third block was attached to the second, and so on, until all the blocks are attached. take hold of the first block on the edges and tip it as shown by the arrow. the second block will then fall as shown by the second arrow, and the third block falls away in the same manner, and so on, down to the end.--contributed by wayne nutting, minneapolis, minn. writing name reversed on paper placed on forehead the following is an entertaining experiment in a party of young people. one of those present is asked if he can write his name, and will, of course, answer "yes." he is then subjected to the following test: he is asked to sit down in a chair, a paper, folded several times, is placed on his forehead, a lead pencil is handed him and he is asked to write his name on the paper. as little time as possible to reflect should be left him; if he hesitates, he should be told to just go ahead, and in most cases it will be found that he starts writing his name at the left temple and, to the amusement of the others present, writes it in the way of many left-handed persons, that is, so that it is legible only when held in front of a mirror, unless one is practiced in reading reversed writing. use for an old table an old table of the extension type, that may have a post broken, can be used against the wall in a kitchen as a work table. if there is a damaged part, that side is removed by sawing the crosspieces of the table in two and attaching it to the wall against the leaf which is turned in a reverse position.--contributed by a. s. thomas, gordon, can. [illustration: one half of the table is removed and the remaining part fastened to the wall] how to make a small rheostat in operating small motors there is as a rule no means provided for regulating their speed, and this often is quite a disadvantage, especially in the case of toy motors such as used on miniature electric locomotives. the speed, of course, can be regulated by changing the number of cells of battery by means of a special switch, but then all the cells are not used the same amount and some of them may be completely exhausted before the others show any appreciable depreciation. if a small transformer is used with a number of taps taken off the secondary winding, the voltage impressed upon the motor, and consequently the speed, can be changed by varying the amount of the secondary winding across which the motor is connected. [illustration: diagram showing the connections for a small motor where a rheostat is in the line (fig. )] but in both these cases there is no means of varying the speed gradually. this can, however, be accomplished by means of a small rheostat placed in series with the motor. the rheostat acts in an electrical circuit in just the same way a valve does in a hydraulic circuit. it consists of a resistance, which can be easily varied in value, placed in the circuit connecting the motor with the source of electrical energy. a diagram of the rheostat is shown in fig. , in which a represents the armature of the motor; b, the field; c, the rheostat, and d, the source of electrical energy. when the handle e is in such a position that the maximum amount of resistance is in circuit there will be a minimum current through the field and armature of the motor, and its speed will be a minimum. as the resistance of the rheostat is decreased, the current increases and the motor speeds up, reaching a maximum value when the resistance of the rheostat has been reduced to zero value. such a rheostat may be used in combination with a special switch f., as shown in. fig. . the switch gives a means of varying the voltage and the rheostat takes care of the desired changes in speed occurring between those produced by the variations in voltage. [illustration: diagram of a small motor where a rheostat and switch are in the line (fig. )] a very simple and inexpensive rheostat may be constructed as follows: procure a piece of thin fiber, about / in. thick, / in. wide and approximately in. long. wind on this piece of fiber, after the edges have all been smoothed down, a piece of no. gauge cotton-covered resistance wire, starting about / in. from one end and winding the various turns fairly close together to within / in. of the other end. the ends of the wire may be secured by passing them through several small holes drilled in the piece of fiber, and should protrude or in. for connecting to binding posts that will be mounted upon the base of the rheostat. now form this piece of fiber into a complete ring by bending it around some round object, the flat side being toward the object. determine as accurately as possible the diameter of the ring thus formed and also its thickness. obtain a piece of well seasoned hard wood, / in. thick and - / in. square. round off the corners and upper edges of this block and mark out on it two circles whose diameters correspond to the inside and outside diameters of the fiber ring. the centers of these circles should be in the center of the block. carefully saw out the two circles so that the space between the inside and outside portions will just accommodate the fiber ring. obtain a second piece of hard wood, / in. thick and - / in. square, round off its corners and upper edges and mount the other pieces upon it by means of several small wood screws, which should pass up from the under side and be well countersunk. place the fiber ring in the groove, but, before doing so, drill a hole in the base proper for one end of the wire to pass through. two small back-connected binding posts should be mounted in the corners. one of these should be connected to the end of the winding and the other to a small bolt in the center of the base that serves to hold the handle or movable arm of the rheostat in place. these connecting leads should all be placed in grooves cut in the under side of the base. [illustration: a cross section of the rheostat, showing the connections through the resistance (fig. )] the movable arm of the rheostat may be made from a piece of / -in. sheet brass, and should have the following approximate dimensions: length, in.; breadth / in. at one end, and / in. at the other. obtain a / -in. brass bolt, about in. long, also several washers. drill a hole in the larger end of the piece of brass to accommodate the bolt and also in the center of the wooden base. countersink the hole in the base on the under side with a / -in. bit to a depth of / in. on the under side of the piece of brass, and near its narrow end, solder a piece of thin spring brass so that its free end will rest upon the upper edge of the fiber ring. a small handle may be mounted upon the upper side of the movable arm. now mount the arm on the base by means of the bolt, placing several washers between it and the upper surface of the base, so that its outer end will be raised above the edge of the fiber ring. solder a short piece of thin brass to the nut that is to be placed on the lower end of the bolt, and cut a recess in the countersunk portion of the hole in the base to accommodate it. when the bolt has been screwed down sufficiently tight a locknut may be put on, or the first nut soldered to the end of the bolt. if possible, it would be best to use a spring washer, or two, between the arm and base. the insulation should now be removed from the wire on the upper edge of the fiber ring with a piece of fine sandpaper, so that the spring on the under side of the movable arm may make contact with the winding. the rheostat is now complete with the exception of a coat of shellac. a cross-sectional view of the completed rheostat is shown in fig. . folding arms for clothesline posts the inconvenience of using a number of clothesline posts and the limited space available resulted in the making of a clothesline post as shown in the sketch. the entire line is supported on two posts, which should be about in. square and are set in concrete. the upper ends of the posts are equipped with two arms, hinged to the sides of the posts in such a manner that the inside ends of the arms will meet on top of the post when they are in a horizontal position. each arm is provided with three wood pins, equally spaced for the line. the arms are supported in a horizontal position by two bars of metal at the center, as shown. holes are bored into the sides of the posts to receive the pins when the arms are at rest. [illustration: a post that provides a way to hold six lines taut without the use of props] a small box is fastened to one post, to provide a place for the clothesline and the clothespins. the line, when put up, gives space for an entire washing without the use of a prop, as the line can be drawn taut enough to hold the garments.--contributed by olaf tronnes, evanston, ill. a folding bookrack having need of a bookrack which i could pack away in my trunk and still have room for my clothes, i made one as follows: i procured a piece of pine, / in. thick, in. wide and in. long, and laid out the plan on one side. holes were drilled in the edges, / in. from the ends, to receive - / -in. round-head brass screws. the design for the ends was sawn out with a scroll saw and the edges smoothed up with fine sandpaper, whereupon the surfaces were stained and given a coat of wax. the screws were put in place to make the ends turn on them as on a bearing. in use the ends were turned up.--contributed by spencer hall, baltimore, maryland. [illustration: the ends of the rack turn down, making a straight board] a simple balance having use for a balance in a laboratory and being unable to procure any scales at the time, i hastily rigged up a device that served the purpose as well, as the work did not require very great precision. an elastic band and a short piece of string was procured and the band cut open. the string was then fastened around the beaker as shown, and the whole suspended from a shelf. [illustration: a graduate scale used in connection with an elastic band to make a simple balance] into the beaker was then poured cubic centimeters of water and the stretch of the elastic band noted by the displacement of a knot in the string in respect to the scale on a graduate, placed beside the beaker. the length of the elastic was then changed until the knot was exactly opposite the -division mark on the graduate scale. then, since the elongation of the elastic band follows hook's law, the extension of the band to the amount of one scale division means an added weight of one gram in the beaker.--contributed by l. horle, newark, new jersey. an ink eraser a good knife eraser for ink can be made from a discarded or broken ruling pen. one of the parts, or nibs, is cut off close to the handle and the remaining one sharpened on both edges at the point. this instrument is better than a knife or the regular scratcher, because the cutting edge will shave the surface of the paper or tracing cloth and not roughen or cut it. erasing done with this knife will readily take ink without further preparation of the surface.--contributed by warren e. crane, cleveland, o. [illustration: one of the nibs on the ruling pen sharpened and used as an eraser] gate fasteners [illustration] buttons on gates or small doors are apt to become loose and then drop down, thereby allowing the gate or door to become unfastened. the ordinary button is shown at a where it is loose and turned by its own weight. if the button is cut as shown at b, it will remain fastened, even if it is loose on the screw or nail.--contributed by a. s. thomas, amherstburg, ont. a compensating siphon the homemade siphon shown in the sketch consists of two rubber corks and a glass tube with a rubber hose connected to it. the cork a is used as a bearing and support on the edge of the tank. the position of the cork b on the tube determines the distance that the mouth of the tube will be under the surface of the liquid, also to some extent the sensitiveness of the apparatus. however, the principle of the device is the buoyant effect of the water and the lever action of the rubber tube which is attached. [illustration: the end of the pipe is kept just under the surface of the liquid at all times] the one that i made had a tube in. long, and the cork b was - / in. in diameter, in. thick, and weighed about / of a pound. the practical application of this siphon will be found in sieve tests where it is necessary to collect the residue on the bottom of the tank while drawing off the liquid at the surface, also in oil-storage tanks where it is not wished to disturb the dirt or other residue which collects on the bottom of the tank.--contributed by james hemphill, jr., duquesne, pennsylvania. a polarity indicator lines in a cable or the ends of connections at a distance from the battery must be tested to determine the polarity. where a large amount of this work is to be done, as in automobile and motorboat repairing, it is necessary to have an indicator to save time. a cheap indicator for this purpose can be made of a -in. test tube having its ends sealed and inclosing a saturated solution of ammonium chloride (sal ammoniac) and water. the sealed ends are made by inserting a piece of wire through a cork and, after forcing this tightly into the end of the test tube, covering it with sealing wax. [illustration: a simple pocket indicator for finding the negative wire in battery cable lines] to use, connect the terminals to the battery lines, and the end of the wire in the solution giving off bubbles is the negative wire.--contributed by h. s. parker, brooklyn, n. y. small steam-engine cylinders made from seamless brass tubing in making a small steam engine it was desired to use seamless brass tubing for the cylinders. to have them exactly alike a piece of tubing of the right size and of sufficient length for both cylinders was fitted on a wood mandrel, a, and the ends trued up in a lathe. as these cylinders were to fit into holes bored in a steel bedplate, it was necessary to have a flange at one end. a groove was turned in the tubing b in the center, and as a final operation a parting tool was used on the line cd. this resulted in a pair of cylinders flanged to fit the bedplate.--contributed by harry f. lowe, washington, d. c. [illustration: a wood mandrel used to face the ends and turn flanges on tubing for cylinders] a pocket direct-current voltmeter the assembled drawings of a very simple voltmeter are shown in fig. , and its operation is as follows: the moving portion consists of a pointer, or needle, a; a small permanent magnet, or armature, b, and a counterweight, c, mounted upon a small steel shaft, d. the ends of this steel shaft are pointed and rest in bearings provided in the u-shaped piece of brass e, which is rigidly fastened to the fiber base f, by means of two screws. the permanent magnet b, carried on the shaft d, is at all times under the magnetic influence of the permanent horseshoe magnet, g, which is fastened, by means of thin brass straps, h h, and small screws, to the base f, so that the ends of the armature b are directly above the poles of the horseshoe magnet. the armature b will assume the position shown in the sketch when it is acted upon by the permanent magnet g alone and the moving system is perfectly balanced. a solenoid, j, is mounted in the position shown. when there is a current in its winding its soft-iron core will become magnetized and the magnetic pole produced at the lower end will produce a magnetic force upon the armature b, with the result that the armature will be rotated either in a clockwise or counter-clockwise direction, depending upon its polarity and the polarity of the end of the core adjacent to it. thus, if the left end of the armature has north polarity, the right end south polarity, and the lower end of the core is magnetized to a south polarity the armature will be rotated clockwise, for the left end, or north pole, will be attracted by the lower end of the iron core, which is a south pole, and the right end will be repelled. this is in accordance with one of the fundamental laws of magnetism which states that magnetic poles of unlike polarity attract each other and those of like polarity repel each other. the amount the armature b is rotated will depend upon the relative effects of the pole of the solenoid and the permanent magnet g. the strength of the pole of the solenoid will depend upon the current in its winding and the number of times the current passes around the core, or the number of turns in the winding. in other words, the strength of the pole of the solenoid varies as the product of the current and the number of turns, which is called the ampere-turns. the same magnetic effect can be produced by a large current passing through a few turns or a small current passing through a relatively large number of turns. this simple relation of current and turns gives a means of adjusting the current capacity of the instrument so that a full-scale deflection of the needle will correspond to any desired maximum current. the instrument may be used as either a voltmeter or as an ammeter, and its operation will be identical in each case. the resistance of the voltmeter, however, will be many times the resistance of the ammeter, as it will be connected directly across the line, while the ammeter will always be in series in the circuit in which it is desired to measure the current. the following description and suggestion as to how to proceed in the construction of this instrument may be useful to those who undertake to build one. all the minor details and some of the dimensions will be omitted in the description, but these can be easily supplied. [illustration: the parts as they are assembled to make a pocket voltmeter for direct currents (fig. )] procure a piece of hard rubber or fiber, about / in. in thickness and of sufficient size to cut from it a disk, - / in. in diameter. make a small horseshoe magnet from a piece of the very best steel obtainable, and magnetize it to as high a strength as possible. this magnet is made of a piece of steel, / in. thick, about / in. in breadth, and of such length that the overall lengthwise dimension of the completed magnet will be about - / in. and the distance between the inside edges of the ends a little greater than / in. fasten the completed magnet to the base f by means of two or three straps, made from some thin brass, and small machine or wood screws. then cut from some / -in. sheet brass a piece having the general appearance and dimensions shown at a, fig. . bend the ends of this piece over at right angles to the center portion along the dotted lines. drill the hole at the upper end and thread it for a / -in. machine screw. by means of a pointed drill, make a small recess at the lower end directly opposite the first hole. this small recess is to form the lower bearing for the shaft supporting the moving system, while a small recess cut centrally in the end of a screw, mounted in the upper hole, will form the upper bearing. the screw placed in the upper hole need be only about / in. long. the holes in the two wings are for mounting this piece upon the fiber base, as shown in fig. . the shaft for supporting the moving system is made of a piece of a hatpin. it is about / in. long and its ends are pointed so that they will turn freely in the bearings provided for them. the armature is cut from a piece of / -in. sheet steel. it is made about / in. long, / in. wide at the center, tapering to / in. at the ends. a hole is drilled in its center so that it may be forced onto the shaft. it is mounted so that its lower surface comes about / in. from the lower end of the shaft. then cut from some very thin brass a piece, that is to form the needle, / in. wide at one end and tapered to a point at the other, the total length being about in. drill a hole in the large end of this piece, the same size as the shaft and / in. from the end. this piece is not fastened to the shaft until some of the other parts are completed. [illustration: details of the supports for the coil and for the needle, or pointer, shaft (fig. )] the spool upon which the winding is to be placed is made as follows: procure a piece of very soft wrought iron, - / in. long and / in. in diameter, to form the core. the ends of the spool are made of thin brass and are dimensioned as shown in fig. , at b and c. the piece shown at b is to form the lower end of the spool, and is bent at right angles along the dotted line. the two holes at the lower edge are for attaching the end of the spool to the fiber base. the piece shown at c forms the upper end of the spool and at the same time a back upon which the scale of the instrument is mounted. the holes in the lower edge are threaded for small machine screws, as it will be necessary to fasten this piece to the base by means of screws that pass through the base from the under side, as shown in fig. . bend the upper and lower portion of the piece over at right angles to the center portion along the dotted lines. make sure that the large hole in the center of each end piece is of such size that it will fit very tight on the end of the wrought-iron core. force the end pieces onto the ends of the core a short distance, say, / in., and hammer down the edges of the core so that the end pieces cannot be easily removed. in fastening the ends to the core be sure that the parts that are to rest upon the base are parallel with each other and extend in opposite directions; also that the ends are at right angles to the core. then insulate the inner portions of the completed spool with several thicknesses of onion-skin paper, or any good-quality, thin writing paper, and shellac. the winding will be described later. mount the spool and support for the bearings upon the base so that they occupy the positions, relative to each other, indicated in fig. . a paper scale is then mounted upon the brass base provided for it by means of some thin shellac. the upper and lower lines for the scale can now be drawn upon the paper, using the center of the screw at the lower end of the needle as a center. these lines are best placed about / in. apart and not nearer the edge of the base than / inches. the needle is bent over at right angles / in. from the center of the shaft. another right-angle bend in the needle is then made so that the pointed end will be about / in. above the surface of the scale when the large end of the needle is fastened to the shaft / in. from the upper end of the latter. turn the needle on the shaft so that the pointer is at the left end of the scale when the moving system is at rest. the shaft must be exactly vertical when this adjustment is made. cut the end of the needle down until its end is midway between the two scale lines. solder the needle to the shaft, and then place a sufficient quantity of solder on the broad end to balance the system perfectly and allow it to come to rest in any position when the armature b is not influenced by any magnetic field. a containing case for the instrument may be made as follows: make a cylinder from some thin sheet brass, having exactly the same inside diameter as the base, and a height a little greater than the vertical distance from the lower surface of the base to the upper surface of the needle. also a disk from some thin sheet brass, having a diameter / in. greater than the outside diameter of the cylinder. round off the edges of this disk and cut a curved slot in it directly over the scale, about / in. wide and of the same length and form as the scale. solder the disk to one end of the cylinder, placing the solder all on the inside. to prevent moisture from entering the case, fasten a piece of thin glass on the under side of the slot in the disk by means of some shellac and several pieces of brass soldered to the disk and bent down onto the glass. the case can now be fastened to the base by means of several screws, passing through its lower end into the edge of the base. two small binding posts are mounted on the outside of the case, about deg. apart and well insulated from each other and from the case, to serve as terminals for the instrument. the instrument is now complete with the exception of the winding. since this is to be a voltmeter and it is always desirable that a voltmeter take as small a current as possible, the winding must consist of a relatively large number of turns of small wire, each turn carrying a small current. the difference in the construction of different instruments necessitates that their winding contain a different number of turns in order that a given voltage may produce a full-scale deflection. a little experimenting with different windings is the easiest means of determining the proper size of wire and number of turns to meet individual requirements. after adjusting the winding so that the maximum voltage it is desired to measure produces a full-scale deflection, the scale is calibrated by marking the positions of the needle in accordance with those of the needle of a standard instrument connected in parallel with it. in marking the scale of an ammeter, connect the instruments in series. remember that if the instrument is to be used as an ammeter, it must have as low a resistance as possible and that to prevent undue heating, the wire must have ample cross section. if difficulty is experienced due to the continuous vibration of the needle, although the current be practically constant, this trouble can be greatly reduced by mounting a paper wind vane on the moving system, which will tend to dampen its movement. falling leaves in a nature scene use an ordinary pasteboard box, a shoe box or larger, and cut out one end. fasten the box to the ceiling by means of pasteboard strips. one end of these strips is pasted on the bottom of the box and the other ends tacked to the ceiling. fit a piece of board, / in. thick, into the open end of the box so that it will slide easily back and forth on the inside. place this slide in the back of the box, attach a string to it and run this through double tacks placed in the ceiling and to the side wings. [illustration: the box as it is prepared to fasten on the ceiling for dropping the leaves] have the box almost full of autumn leaves, and when the slide is pulled slowly by the operator, they will be pushed, one or two at a time, out of the open end, and will drift down to the stage as naturally as if falling from trees, making quite a realistic scene.--contributed by miss s. e. jocelyn, new haven, conn. home or traveling utility bed pocket the pocket is made of cretonne with wire hooks attached on the upper edge. the compartments are arranged as needs may require. it can be hooked on the head, foot or side rail of the bed or used, as shown, in a sleeping car. it provides a place to keep the slippers, gown and other necessities, and can be rolled up and put in a bag.--contributed by harriette i. lockwood, philadelphia, pa. [illustration: various pockets for the change garments for use at home or in traveling] a paper perforator in an emergency an ordinary hacksaw blade may be made to serve very acceptably as a paper perforator. the toothed edge is applied to the paper and the reverse edge tapped with a mallet or hammer. a considerable number of sheets may be perforated at one time, depending of course on the thickness and softness of the paper. turning brass rings [illustration] occasionally an amateur has need of brass rings of round cross section, and if their construction is not understood, the task is a difficult one. if a piece of brass tubing, an old bushing or a cored piece is at hand, a part of the work is already done. if not, a piece of stock with large enough outside diameter should be chucked in the lathe and drilled out with the right size of drill. a tin or pasteboard template should be prepared the size of the ring section--a half circle is best, and it is easiest made by drilling a hole in the tin and cutting it in two. an inside boring tool and a turning tool are necessary. it is preferable to shape the inside first, cutting it out roughly and checking up with the template. the amount of inside cutting is shown in the drawing. a hard scraper and emery cloth may be used for smoothing and polishing. turn and polish the outside and finally turn as far down on the inner quarter as can be done without cutting off the finish, then polish and cut it off. it only requires a little filing to smooth up the rim of rough metal left. [illustration: the electric globes, as they light beneath the spray, illuminate the top, and the light follows the streams of water so that they appear like streams of light] an electric fountain by walter p. butler to make the grounds as attractive as possible for a lawn party given one night, i constructed an electric fountain which at first appeared to be an expensive proposition, but when completed the desired effect was produced without any expense whatever, as i had the things used in its construction on hand. [illustration: details of the different parts to construct the electric fountain (fig. )] a light frame, in. square, was made, of / -in. material, as shown in fig. , and a grooved pulley was attached exactly in the center on the under side of the crosspiece. a turned stick, a, in. in diameter and - / in. long, was fastened to the face of the pulley so that it turned true as the pulley and frame revolved. a hole was then bored centrally through the three parts, the frame crosspiece, the pulley, and the turned stick, of a size to fit a spindle about / in. in diameter. a box was procured, large enough for the frame to turn in freely, and a block of wood was fastened centrally in its bottom, which had a / -in. pin set in a hole bored in the center. the pin may be of hard wood, but it is better to use metal. a bolt, or piece of rod, will answer the purpose of a pin very well. a small battery motor--i had one on hand and did not need to purchase one--was fastened to one side of the box so that its pulley was in line with the pulley on the lower surface of the frame. the batteries to run the motor were placed in the corner of the box, where the revolving frame would not touch them. the motor may be of larger current capacity, however, and run direct on the current used for the lamps. [illustration: (fig. )] about / in. from the lower end of the turned piece a, a brass strip was fastened around it. this work should be neatly done, and the joint soldered and smoothed, so that the outer surface will not catch on the brush used to make the contact. this ring can be better made by cutting the width from a piece of brass tubing of a size to fit on the turned stick a. about - / in. from the lower end four segments of a circle were fastened so as to make a space of about / in. between their ends. this construction is clearly shown in fig. . a cross section, showing the wire connections from the brass ring and segments to the lamps and where they lead out on top, is shown at b. the contact brushes consist of brass strips fastened with bolts to an upright, c, made of wood and attached to one edge of the block in the bottom of the box. two nuts are used on each bolt, between which are fastened the lead wires from a source of current. [illustration: (fig. )] the wiring diagram is shown in fig. . the wire d from the ring is run to the brass base of each lamp, of which there are four. the wires e, from each segment, are connected with solder to each screw ferrule of the lamps, and the ends are left bare and open, as shown, between the lamps. [illustration: (fig. )] a lamp is fastened to each corner of the frame on top, as shown in fig. , with a piece of wire wrapped once around the screw ferrule and the extending ends held with staples. the wire used should be heavily insulated or, if it is of iron, a rubber tube slipped over it. a piece of tin, or bright metal, is placed beneath each globe for a reflector. [illustration: (fig. )] a glass plate was used to cover the box, and a lawn spray of the fountain type was placed on the glass. the globes, as they light beneath the spray, illuminate the top and the light follows the streams of water so that they appear like streams of light. each light is turned on in succession as the frame revolves within the box, and by using globes of different colors, an exceedingly beautiful effect is obtained. if the bared ends of the wires are twisted together between the globes, these will all glow at once. a mystery coin box the effect of this trick is as follows: a small metal box, just large enough to hold a half dollar and about / in. high, with a cover that fits snugly over the top, is passed out to be examined, and when handed back to the performer he places it on the finger ends of his left hand, and a half dollar is dropped into it and the cover put on. the box is then shaken to prove that the coin is still there. the performer then taps the box with his fingers and picks it up with the other hand and the coin will appear to have fallen through the bottom. both the coin and box are then handed out for examination. this seemingly impossible effect is made when the performer places the cover on the box. the box is resting on the fingers of the left hand and the cover is held between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, but just before placing the cover on, the box is turned over with the right thumb, and the cover is placed on the bottom instead of the top. the trick can be done within a foot of the spectators without their seeing the deception. it is a good plan to hide the box with the right hand when placing the cover, although this is not necessary. how to make a small series motor the motor here described has been constructed and found to give very good results. it is simple to build and the materials required can be easily obtained. the armature core and field, or frame, are made of laminated iron, instead of being cast as is often done by the manufacturers, which is a decided advantage, as certain losses are thereby reduced, and its operation will be improved by this type of construction especially if used on an alternating-current circuit. the machine will be divided into three main parts, the construction of each of which will be taken up in turn and the method of procedure discussed in detail. these parts are the completed armature, the field and bearings, and the brushes together with suitable terminals and connections. the armature core is constructed from a number of pieces, having dimensions that correspond to those given in a, fig. . these pieces are cut from thin annealed sheet iron, in sufficient number to make a pile, / in. high, when placed on top of each other and firmly clamped. it would, no doubt, be best to first lay out one of these pieces very carefully and then cut it out and mark out the other pieces with the first one as a pattern, being careful to file off all the rough edges on each piece. [illustration: details of the armature laminations and the commutator segments, and the method of mounting armature core and commutator (fig. )] now obtain a piece of / -in. iron or brass rod, - / in. long, that is to serve as a shaft upon which to mount the armature and commutator. this rod is threaded for a distance of / in. on one end and - / in. on the other. procure five brass nuts, / in. thickness, to fit the threads on the rod. if possible have the ends of the rod centered before the threads are cut, for reasons to be given later. place one of the nuts on that end of the shaft that is threaded for / in., and in such a position that its inner surface is / in. from the end of the rod. solder this nut to the rod when it is in the proper place and remove all extra solder. drill a / -in. hole in each of the armature stampings and place them on the shaft, clamping them together with three small clamps, one on each extension or pole. then place a second nut on the shaft and draw it up tight against the last stamping placed in position, and solder it to the shaft. next wind two or three layers of good strong tape around each of the rectangular portions of the armature and then remove the clamps. make sure that all the edges of the different laminations are perfectly even before applying the tape. the shaft is then placed between two centers to determine whether the core is approximately balanced and runs true. if the armature core is unbalanced or not true, the trouble should be corrected before proceeding with the remainder of the armature construction. the armature winding is not to be put on the core until the commutator has been constructed and mounted on the shaft. the commutator consists of three pieces of thin sheet brass similar to that shown at b, fig. , mounted on the surface of a cylinder of insulating material, / in. long and / in. in diameter. a / -in. hole is drilled lengthwise through the cylinder of insulating material. bend the pieces of brass around the outside of the cylinder, and turn all the lugs, except the center one, marked c, over at right angles and put a small nail or screw through the holes in the ends of the lugs into the cylinder. these pieces of brass are equally spaced around the cylinder so that all the lugs, not turned down, project in the same direction. now place a nut on the end of the shaft that extends the greatest distance through the armature, so that its outside surface is / in. from the surface of the end of the armature core next to it, and solder the nut to the shaft. place the commutator on the shaft so that the projections on the pieces of brass are toward the armature core and the spaces between the ends of the pieces occupy the position relative to the cores, shown at a, fig. . another nut is then placed on the shaft and drawn up tight against the cylinder. the proper spacing of the various parts on the shaft of the machine is shown at d, fig. . another small nut is placed on the end of the shaft, away from the commutator, so that its outside surface is / in. from the surface of the end of the armature core. [illustration: diagram of the winding on the armature and detail of the field laminations (fig. )] the threads on that part of the shaft extending beyond the last nut on each end are now filed off, which can be easily done by placing the shaft between the centers of a lathe and revolving it quite rapidly, the file being applied to the parts that are to be cut down. obtain a small quantity of no. gauge single-cotton-covered copper wire and wind four layers on each of the three legs, or poles, of the armature core, insulating the layers from each other and the entire winding from the core by means of paper and shellac. the three coils are wound in the same direction about their respective cores and each winding is started at the center of the armature with or in. of wire extending out toward the commutator. the outside end of each winding will terminate at the end of the coil toward the center of the armature, if an even number of layers is wound on, and is securely fastened by means of two or three turns of heavy thread. the inside end of one coil is then connected to the outside end of the next one, and so on. these connections can be easily made, and at the same time the proper connections made to the commutator, by cutting the inside end of one coil and the outside end of the next so that they will reach the lug on the nearest segment of the commutator, with about / in. to spare, then removing the insulation from each for about / in. and soldering them both to the same lug. the arrangement of the winding is shown at a, fig. . connect all of the coils and segments in this manner, and the armature of the motor is complete. the field or frame of the machine is made from a number of laminations whose dimensions correspond to those given in b, fig. . as many laminations are used in the construction of the frame as the number of pieces in the armature, if iron of the same thickness is used. four of the laminations have extensions at their lower corners to correspond to the parts shown by the dotted lines in b, fig. . place all of these laminations in a pile and clamp them rigidly together, then drill the four holes, indicated by the letters c, d, e and f, with a / -in. drill. two of the pieces with the extensions on them are placed in the bottom of the pile and the other two on top. place a / -in. bolt through each of the lower holes and draw up the nuts on them tight. procure two pieces of / -in. rod, - / in. long, and thread each end for a distance of / in. get nuts for these rods, about / in. thick and / in. across the face, if possible. both sides of these nuts are filed down flat. put the threaded rods through the two upper holes in the field frame and place a nut on each end and draw them tight, leaving an equal length of rod protruding from each side. obtain two pieces of / -in. brass, / in. wide, one - / in. long and the other - / in. long. bend these pieces into the forms shown at a, fig. . drill a / -in. hole in each end of both pieces so that they may be mounted upon the ends of the rods protruding from the field frame. the exact center of the space the armature is to occupy is then marked on each of these pieces, and a hole is drilled in each, having the same diameter as the ends of the armature shaft. [illustration: detail of the armature supports and the brushes, and the manner of mounting the brushes (fig. )] the extensions on the outside laminations are bent over at right angles to the main portion of the frame, thus forming a base upon which the motor may rest. holes may be drilled in the extensions after they are bent over to be used in mounting the frame upon a wooden base. procure about / lb. of no. gauge single-cotton-covered copper wire and wind it on the lower center portion of the frame until the depth of the winding is about / in. be careful to insulate the winding well and, to insure mechanical protection, place a layer of adhesive tape outside. about or in. of wire is allowed at each end for making connections. it is best to have these ends terminate on the commutator side of the frame. the brushes for the machine are made from some thin sheet copper or brass, and are shaped and dimensioned approximately as shown at b, fig. . two pieces of hard rubber, or fiber, / in. square and / in. long, serve as mountings for the brushes. these pieces of insulation are mounted in the corners of the armature support, at the commutator end, by means of two small screws in each. mount the brushes on these pieces so that their free ends bear on the commutator exactly opposite each other. one brush is mounted on the upper end of its support and the other brush on the lower end of its support. this is shown at c, fig. . two small binding posts are mounted at the same time as the brushes, and are electrically connected to the brushes, thus affording an easy means of making a connection to the armature. the brushes are so mounted as to bear firmly upon the commutator. to operate the motor, connect the armature and field windings in series, and the combination to a source of electromotive force of several volts. if it is desired to reverse the direction of rotation, reverse the connections of either the armature or field windings, but not both. the motor may be mounted on a neat wooden base and the connections all brought down to a reversing switch, which may also be mounted on the same base as the motor. the speed can be varied by changing the impressed voltage, or by connecting a variable resistance in the armature circuit, such as a wire rheostat. a small pulley may be made and attached to the armature shaft so that the motor may be used in driving various kinds of toys. cooler for milk and butter [illustration] an earthen jar or crock, with a cover, set in a box containing moist sand will keep butter and milk in hot weather better than a refrigerator. the sand must be kept moist at all times.--edwin j. bachman, jr., fullerton, pa. rubber bumper on a water faucet sometimes a dish is broken by striking it on the faucet. this is easily remedied by cutting a rubber washer from a rubber-boot heel with a sharp chisel and a hammer. the washer is pushed into place on the end of the faucet, and the dishes may strike the rubber without being broken.--contributed by harriette i. lockwood, philadelphia, pa. boring a clean-edged hole [illustration] when boring a hole in wood, withdraw the bit as soon as the worm shows, then start the worm in the hole on the opposite side and finish boring the hole. it will then have clean edges on both sides of the wood. often the bit pushes splinters of wood ahead of it, when passing through, but by using the method described this is avoided. drilling thin metal [illustration] in drilling very thin stock the drill, if not properly ground, will tear the metal and leave a ragged edge. to cut a hole through neatly the drill should be ground as illustrated. the center a should extend about / in. beyond the points b. the point a locates the center and the sharp points b cut out the disk of metal. holes have been neatly and quickly made with this drill grinding in metal measuring . in. thickness.--contributed by joseph j. kolar, maywood, ill. * * * * * a pencil may be kept from falling out of the pocket by wrapping a couple of turns of tape around it or by wrapping it with a small rubber band. flexible-cord adjuster for an electrical flatiron [illustration] when using an electrical flatiron the flexible cord frequently gets under the iron, causing much trouble for the user, and mussing up the clothing. the cord can be kept out of the way by fastening a pulley to the ironing board and attaching a coil spring to the electric cord between the pulley and the electric-fixture socket. a coil spring that will draw out about ft. should be used.--contributed by herbert blandford, elmira, n. y. a wood clothes peg [illustration] if clothes that are slightly damp are hung on a nail or metal peg, a rust stain that is almost impossible to remove will be the result. to prevent this, drive a nail with the head removed into the wall or cleat, and place a wood peg over it. the peg may be turned up or whittled out with a pocket knife and the hole bored with a hand drill.--contributed by wm. a. robinson, waynesboro, pa. to make scratch pads of old labels [illustration] labels and blank paper of uniform size, that would otherwise be cast aside, can be turned into handy scratch pads by placing them between blocks of wood, secured by a wood clamp, and applying paste on two edges, then pressing a strip of paper on the pasted portions. the edges to be pasted should project a trifle beyond the edges of the blocks. how to make an electric heater the electric heater described in this article is very simple to construct, its operation exceedingly satisfactory, and the necessary material easily procured at a small cost at most electrical-supply stores. the few tools needed are usually found about every home, and the heater may be constructed by any ingenious person. procure porcelain tubes, in. long and approximately / in. in diameter. on each of these tubes wind ft. of bare no. gauge "climax" resistance wire. the various turns should be uniformly distributed along the tubes and not allowed to come into contact with each other, which can be prevented by placing a thin, narrow coat of plaster of paris along the side of each of the tubes immediately after the winding has been put on. several inches of free wire should be allowed at each end, for making connections, and the first and last turns on each tube should be securely fastened to the tube by several turns of binding wire. it would be best not to extend the winding nearer the ends of the tubes than / in. cut from some heavy tin, or other thin sheet metal, two disks, in. in diameter, and punch six / -in. holes in each of the disks at equal distances and within / in. of the outer edge. punch two / -in. holes in one of these disks, to be used in mounting a porcelain socket, and also one / -in. hole through which the wires may be led to the socket, as shown in fig. . in the other disk punch four / -in. holes, for mounting two porcelain single-pole snap switches, and two / -in. holes, for leading the wires through to the switches, as shown in fig. . [illustration: detail of the two ends on the heater giving dimensions and the location of parts (fig. , fig. )] cut off six lengths of / -in. iron rod, in. long, and thread both ends of each piece for a length of - / in. fasten the porcelain tubes between the metal disks, by placing one of the rods through each of the tubes and allowing the ends to extend through the / -in. holes in the outer edge of the disks. a nut should be placed on each end of all the rods and drawn up so that the length of rod protruding at each end is the same. obtain two single-pole snap switches and a porcelain socket, and mount them on the ends by means of some small stove bolts. the windings on the porcelain tubes should be connected as follows: let the windings be designated by the letters a, b, c, d, e, and f, and their position be that indicated in figs. and . the primes indicate the ends of the windings at the socket end, and the letters without the primes indicate the ends of the windings at the switch end of the heater. the ends a and d should be connected directly together. the ends b and c to the clips of the right-band snap switch, and e and f, to the clips of the left-hand snap switch. the ends f, a, and b should be connected to one terminal of the socket, and c, d, and e to the other terminal of the socket. electrical connection is made to the winding by means of a plug and piece of lamp cord. it is obvious that the windings a and d will be connected as soon as the plug is screwed into the socket, if the circuit is closed at all other points, and the windings b and c, and e and f are controlled by the right and left-hand snap switches, respectively. make sure all the connections are properly insulated, and that there is little chance of a short circuit occurring. after the socket and snap switches have been connected to the windings, two more thin disks, the same diameter as the first, may be fitted over the ends and held in place by two units on the end of each rod, a nut being placed on each side of the disks. a better way of mounting these disks would be by small machine screws that enter threaded holes in the ends of the rods. these last disks are not absolutely necessary, but they will add some to the appearance of the completed heater. four small ears, about / in. square, should be cut on the outer edge of the outside or inside disks and bent over at right angles to the main portion, to be used in mounting the outside case of the heater. cut from a sheet of / -in. asbestos a piece just long enough to fit between the inside disks and wide enough to cover the three lower windings c, d, and e. the object of this piece of asbestos is to protect the surface upon which the heater will stand from excessive heat, since it is to rest in a horizontal position. obtain a piece of perforated, thin sheet metal, - / in. wide and long enough to reach from one outside disk to the other. bend this into a cylinder and fasten it to the lugs on the disks by means of small screws or bolts. [illustration: (fig. )] the legs may be made of / -in. strap iron, / in. wide, bent into the form shown in fig. . these pieces may be attached to the perforated cylinder, before it is mounted on the heater proper, by means of several small bolts. the piece of asbestos should be wired to the cylinder after the heater is all assembled, so that it will always remain in the lower part of the cylinder and serve the purpose for which it is intended. the heater, as described above, is constructed for a -volt circuit, which is the voltage commonly used in electric lighting. the total consumption of the heater will be approximately watts, each part consuming about / of the total, or watts. if it is desired to wind the heater for a -volt circuit, ft. of no. gauge "climax" resistance wire should be used on each tube. a molding-sawing block used on a bench having occasion to saw some short pieces of molding, i experienced considerable trouble in holding them without a vise until i made a block, as shown in the sketch. this answered the purpose as well as a vise. the block is not fastened in any manner, but is simply pushed against the edge of the bench or table and held with the hand. it should be about in. wide and ft. long, with strips in. thick at each edge.--contributed by w. f. brodnax, jr., bethlehem, pa. [illustration: a block for holding molding, or strips of wood, while sawing small pieces from them] pipe caps used as castings for engine pistons desiring to make a small piston for a model engine and not caring to make a pattern and send it away to have a casting made, i thought of using ordinary pipe caps, these being both inexpensive and of a quality adapted to machining. the cylinder bore was - / in. in diameter, so i secured a standard pipe cap for - / -in. pipe which gave an outside diameter of about - / in. the cap, not having sufficient depth for holding in a chuck, was screwed on a short piece of pipe and then trued in the lathe chuck. the outside surface was turned to a diameter of - / in., then removed from the pipe, reversed and chucked again, and the threads bored out to reduce the walls to / in. this made an excellent piston for a single-acting engine.--contributed by harry f. lowe, washington, d. c. an electric horn a simple electric horn for use on a bicycle, automobile, or for other purposes, can be constructed as shown in fig. . the size will of course depend somewhat on the use for which it is intended, but one with the diaphragm - / in. in diameter and the horn in. long and in. in diameter, at the large end, will be sufficient for most purposes. this will make the instrument - / or in. in over-all length. [illustration: an electric horn operated in a manner similar to an electric bell on a battery circuit (fig. )] the horn proper, a, fig. , is constructed first. this can be formed from sheet brass. to lay out the metal to the desired size draw a cross section, as abcd, fig. , then project the lines ac and bd until they meet at e. strike two arcs of circles on the brass sheet, using ec as radius for the inner one and ea for the outer. measure off fg and hj equal to - / times dc and ab, respectively, and cut out fgjh. roll and lap / in. at the edges and solder the joint neatly. [illustration: (fig. )] after smoothing the edges on the ends, solder a very thin disk of ferrotype metal, b, fig. , to the small end of the horn. this is used for the diaphragm. cut out a ring, c, from / -in. hard fiber and bevel it on the inside edge to fit the horn. also make a disk of fiber, d, having the same outside diameter as the ring c. these parts form the ends for a brass cylinder e, which is made in two parts or halves joined on the lines shown in fig. . fasten one of the halves, f, fig. , to the fiber ring c and disk d, fig. , with small screws, the other half to be put in place after the instrument is completed and adjusted. [illustration: (fig. )] a small support, g, is cut from fiber and fastened in as shown. a pair of magnets of about ohms are mounted on this support. the parts from an old bell or buzzer may be used, which consist of a soft-iron armature, h, fig. , having a strap of spring brass, j, attached by soldering and pivoted at k, with an adjusting screw, l, to set the tension. another u-shaped spring-brass strip, m, constitutes the current breaker, which has an adjusting screw, n. the points of contact on the current breaker should be tipped with platinum. a piece of brass wire, o, is soldered to the diaphragm disk b and the soft-iron armature h, to connect them solidly. the tone of the horn can be adjusted with the screws l and n. the faster the armature vibrates, the higher the tone, and vice versa. the connections are the same as for an electric bell.--contributed by james p. lewis, golden, colo. combination meat saw and knife a very handy combination knife and meat saw can be made of an old discarded saw blade. the blade is cut on a line parallel with the toothed edge, allowing enough material to make a good-sized blade, then the straight part is ground to a knife edge and a wood handle attached at one end. the handle is made in halves, placed one on each side of the blade, and riveted together, then the projecting metal is ground off to the shape of the handle.--contributed by a. c. westby, porter, minn. [illustration: the blade of the knife is cut from the toothed side of a discarded saw blade] clamp used as a vise a carpenter's wood clamp fastened to the edge of a bench, as shown in the sketch, makes a good substitute for a vise for many kinds of light work. if the clamp is located over or in front of the bench post, holes must be bored in the latter to admit the ends of the clamp screws. a hole is bored through the shoulder screw and a handle attached as shown.--contributed by h. w. j. langletz, harrisburg, pa. [illustration: the clamp attached to a bench top will serve the purpose of a vise in many instances] wire expansion meter when there is a current of electricity in an electrical conductor a certain amount of heat is generated due to the opposition or resistance of the conductor to the free passage of the electricity through it. the heat thus generated causes a change in the temperature of the conductor and as a result there will be a change in its length, it contracting with a decrease in temperature and expanding with an increase in temperature. the temperature of the conductor will change when the current in it changes, and hence its length will change, and it will reach a constant temperature or a constant length when the current in it is constant in value and the rate at which it is giving off heat is exactly equal to the rate at which heat is being generated in it. the fact that there is an actual change in the length of the conductor due to a change in current in it constitutes the fundamental principle of the following simple instrument. [illustration: meter for measuring the expansion of metal wires which are heated by electricity] the parts needed in its construction are as follows: an old safety-razor blade; one -in. hatpin; two medium-size nails; a short piece of german-silver wire; a small piece of sealing wax; a / -in. board for the base, approximately - / in. by in., and a small piece of thin sheet brass. remove the head from the hatpin and fasten the blunt end in the center of the safety-razor blade a with a piece of sealing wax so that the pin b is perpendicular to the blade as shown. now drive the two nails into the board c, so that they are about / in. from the edges and - / in. from the end. fasten the piece of german-silver wire d to these nails as shown. the size of this wire will depend upon the value of the current to be measured. make a small hook, e, from a short piece of rather stiff wire and fasten it to the hatpin about in. from the razor blade. the length of this hook should be such that the pointed end of the hatpin will be at the top of the scale f when there is no current in the wire, d. the scale f is made by bending the piece of sheet brass so as to form a right angle and fastening it to the base. a piece of thin cardboard can be mounted upon the surface of the vertical portion of the piece of brass and a suitable scale inked upon it. the instrument is now complete with the exception of two binding posts, not shown in the sketch, that may be mounted at convenient points on the base and connected to the ends of the german-silver wire, thus serving as terminals for the instrument. the completed instrument can be calibrated by connecting it in series with another instrument whose calibration is known and marking the position of the pointer on the scale for different values of current. how to make a fire and burglar alarm a very serviceable fire and burglar alarm may be installed by anyone who can work with carpenters' tools and who has an elementary knowledge of electricity. fire and burglar alarms are divided into two general types, called "open circuit" and "closed circuit," respectively. in the open-circuit type of alarm all the windows, doors, and places to be protected are equipped with electrical alarm springs which are in circuit with an ordinary vibrating bell and battery, and these alarm springs are all normally open. when a window or door is disturbed or moved more than a predetermined amount, the bell circuit is closed and the alarm sounded. the arrangement of such an alarm is shown in fig. . a switch, a, is placed in circuit so that the alarm may be disconnected during the day and the opening and closing of doors and windows will not operate the bell. it is best not to place a switch in the fire-alarm circuit as this circuit should be in an operating condition at all times. [illustration: connections and wiring diagram showing an open-circuit fire and burglar alarm (fig. )] the alarm switch controlled by the window consists of a narrow metal plate, b, and a spring, c, mounted in a recess cut in the side of the window frame. the spring c is bent into such a form that its upper end is forced into contact with the plate b, when the window is raised past the outwardly projecting part of the spring c, and the bell circuit is thus closed. the position of the alarm switch can be adjusted so that the window may be opened a sufficient distance to permit the necessary ventilation but not allow a burglar to enter. the alarm switch controlled by the door is arranged in a different manner. in this case the free end of the spring d is held away from contact with the spring e by the edge of the door, which forces the spring d back into the recess cut in the door jamb. when the door is opened the spring e is permitted to move out and come into contact with the spring or plate e, and the alarm circuit is thus closed. the form of the spring d can be so adjusted that the door may be opened some distance, but not enough to allow a person to enter, before the alarm is sounded. an alarm switch, identical with that just described for the door, should be mounted in the upper part of the window frame to take care of the upper sash. this alarm switch may be located low enough to permit the window to be lowered for the purpose of ventilation without sounding the alarm. the wires for these various alarm switches should be run as near completely concealed as possible to prevent them being tampered with by curious parties, who may unintentionally break one of the conductors and thus make some part of the system inoperative. it might be best to test the system occasionally, to make sure all switches are in operating condition. the fire-alarm switch consists of two springs that are held from contact with each other by means of a thin cord. this switch is placed in the location to be protected, or wherever a fire is most likely to break out, such as over the furnace, in the coal bin, etc. when the cord is destroyed the springs make contact and the alarm is sounded. a metal having a very low melting temperature may be used instead of the cord, and the alarm will be sounded when the temperature exceeds a certain amount and the actual occurrence of a fire thus prevented. in some cases, the fire-alarm switch may be completely destroyed and the alarm circuit will then be opened and the bell will cease ringing. to prevent this trouble a small electric drop may be placed in the circuit, the arrangement being similar to that shown in fig. . when the shutter of the drop falls, due to the closing of the alarm circuit, there is a second circuit closed, and this second circuit remains closed until the shutter is restored to its vertical or normal position, or the switch, a, is thrown to the open point. the addition of the drop in the burglar-alarm circuit may prove to be an advantage, as a burglar cannot stop the alarm, after he has once closed any of the alarm switches and operated the drop, by simply restoring the window or door to its original position. [illustration: circuit equipped with drop to ring the bell in case the switch is destroyed (fig. )] in the closed-circuit type, the alarm switches are all normally closed and the alarm is sounded by opening the circuit at some point. the arrangement of such an alarm is shown in fig. . the alarm switches are all connected in series in this case and in circuit with a closed-circuit battery and relay or drop. the drop or relay controls a local circuit composed of an open-circuit battery and an ordinary vibrating bell. [illustration: wiring diagram showing connections for a closed-circuit burglar and fire alarm (fig. )] the operation of a drop on a closed circuit is a little different from its operation on a normally open circuit. the drop for the closed circuit must be so constructed that its latch holds the shutter in a vertical position when there is a current in the drop winding, but allows it to fall as soon as the drop circuit is opened. an ordinary telegraph relay may be used in connection with the closed-circuit alarm. the connections to the relay are such that the bell circuit is normally open and remains so until the armature of the relay is released, which does not occur until the circuit of which its winding is a part is opened at one of the alarm springs. a special switch, a, and resistance, b, are shown connected in circuit in fig. , the object of which is as follows: when it is desired to disconnect the alarm springs or make them inoperative they must be replaced by another circuit which will permit a sufficient current to pass through the relay winding at all times, to prevent its armature from being released and sounding the alarm. the switch a is so constructed that either the alarm switches or the resistance b is in series with the battery and relay winding at all times, there being no open-circuit position for the switch. the fire-alarm switch for this type of signal may be made from a narrow piece of tin foil, or some metal having a low melting temperature, mounted between two insulated clips that are connected in the alarm circuit. strips of gold or silver foil may be placed on windows and connected in the alarm circuit, which will give a protection from theft by breaking the glass. two or three gravity cells will serve very nicely for the closed-circuit battery, while several dry cells will do for the open-circuit or bell battery. all types of alarm switches can be purchased at any up-to-date electrical supply house, but their construction and operation is so simple that they may be easily made by almost anyone. a detailed description of the construction of the various parts of the above circuits will not be given here, but such details can be safely left to the ingenuity of the person installing the system. it is easily seen from the above description that a burglar who might discover that a house was wired for alarm would be greatly perplexed to know what to do, for the very thing that would prevent one kind of alarm from ringing would cause the other to ring. removing a rear bicycle sprocket if a bicycle rider desires to remove the rear sprocket for changing the gear, or for any other reason, and there is no large pipe wrench at hand, a piece of tube or pipe, as shown in the sketch, can be used as a lever. fasten one end of the chain in one end of the pipe with a wedge and place the other end of the pipe on a sprocket. the chain is then placed over the sprockets and a leverage equal to any pipe wrench is secured.--contributed by jno. v. loeffler, evansville, ind. [illustration: the piece of pipe gives a leverage equal to that of a large pipe wrench] hand propeller-wheel attachment for a rowboat the rear fork of an old bicycle frame, with the crank hanger attached, and the rear hub constitute the main parts of the propelling device. one of the cranks is cut from the hanger and a bracket attached to the frame, as shown, for making it fast to the stern of the boat. two propeller blades are bolted to the rear hub. a rudder is fastened to the rear tube of the frame with hooks and eyes so that it can be turned with a handle at the top, or with ropes run to a wheel. the illustration shows the connection of the device to a boat.--contributed by berge lion, fresno, cal. [illustration: the rear fork of a bicycle with its parts constitutes the main propeller attachment] an attached back for a photographic printing frame in using the ordinary photographic printing frame with a spring-pressure back, the back must be entirely removed from the frame to put in the paper, and as this operation is carried on in a dim light, the back is often mislaid, causing no little inconvenience and delay. to do away with this annoyance, i placed at one end of the frame, as shown in the sketch, a second hinge made of cloth or any pliable material. when the pressure springs are released, the back swings down on this auxiliary hinge, and after changing the papers, it is instantly closed by a slight movement of the hand, making it very rapid and easy to use.--contributed by thos. l. parker, wibaux, mont. [illustration: the back, being hinged to the frame, prevents it from being mislaid] repairing a worn stop cock the plug of a worn stop cock, or one that has been reground, of the type shown in the illustration will project beyond the bottom so that the ring, or washer, and screw will not draw it tightly into place. [illustration: removing a portion of the plug and shortening the screw allows the parts to be drawn tightly together] to remedy this trouble, file off a portion of the plug on the line aa and also file off a sufficient amount of the screw on the line bb. when the plug is replaced and the washer and screw drawn up, the stop cock will be as good as a new one.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. tool holders made of brass clips hangers to grip tool handles can be easily formed of sheet metal in any desired material. the clips are shaped as shown at a in the sketch. any number of the clips may be fastened with screws to a wood crosspiece or a wall in such a manner as to make openings into which the handles of the tools are pressed. before fastening the clips they should be spaced for the widths of the handles.--contributed by f. h. tillotson, sycamore, ill. [illustration: the clips can be set so that they will grip any size tool handle] removing perspiration stains from delicate cloth lay the stain in the cloth over some blotting paper, and sponge the cloth with a grain-alcohol and ether solution, which should be made by mixing equal portions of each. the sponging should be quite vigorous and kept up until the cloth is dry, then the spot should be touched lightly with ammonia water, which can be purchased at any drug store. this will leave a slight blur, which can be removed by rubbing with french chalk on the wrong side. the chalk is cheap and can be procured with the ammonia water. do not forget the blotting paper, as it keeps the solution from forming a ring around the spot. buttonhole cutter if the buttonhole scissors are mislaid or there are none at hand, the holes may be cut in the manner shown in the sketch. place a piece of wood, having a width equal to the length of the buttonhole, on the table and lay the cloth over it in the line where the holes are required, then draw a sharp knife across the cloth on the wood where the holes are marked. this will cut the cloth neatly and accurately.--contributed by a. s. thomas, gordon, can. [illustration: sharp knife drawn across the cloth laid over a piece of wood cuts the holes] filing small rods in a lathe reducing the diameter of a small rod by filing while it is turning in a lathe is a difficult thing to do, as the pressure of the file on one side bends the rod. the filing may be easily accomplished by using two files, as shown in the sketch. in this manner almost any amount of pressure can be applied by squeezing the files together without danger of bending the rod.--contributed by j.f. tholl, detroit, mich. [illustration: the pressure of one file against the other prevents the rod from bending] * * * * * young sleepwalkers may be cured if watched and given a good switching until they are wide awake. a d'arsonval galvanometer a galvanometer in which the moving part of the instrument is a permanent magnet controlled by the action of the earth's magnetic field and the magnetic effect of a current in a coil of wire, that usually surrounds the magnet, has the great disadvantage of having its indications changed, although the current itself may remain constant, due to a change in the strength of the magnetic field in which the instrument operates. the operation of instruments of the above type is satisfactory only in localities where there is a practically constant magnetic field for them to operate in, which it is almost impossible to have, due to the presence of permanent and electric magnets and magnetic materials such as iron and steel. an instrument constructed as follows will not have the above disadvantage and its operation will be a great deal more satisfactory, as its indications will be practically independent of outside disturbances. in this instrument, the moving part is the coil carrying the current, and it moves in a permanent magnetic field so strong that other disturbing magnetic effects can be neglected. the coil is hung by means of a fine wire and the twist in this wire is the only force acting to bring the coil back to its zero position, after it has been deflected, and maintain it there. [illustration: the permanent magnet and its brass support, and their position on the base (fig. , fig. , fig. )] the construction of the magnet and containing case for the instrument will be taken up first. obtain a piece of norway iron, / in. square and about in. long. bend this piece into the form shown in fig. , and file off the inner edges until they are parallel and about / in. apart. drill four / -in. holes in the ends of this piece, two in each end, as indicated. this piece of iron is first tempered and then magnetized by placing it in contact with a powerful electromagnet. cut a second piece from some soft iron with dimensions corresponding to those given in fig. . drill two / -in. holes, a and b, in this piece as shown in the sketch. this second piece is mounted between the poles of the magnet, as follows: cut from some / -in. sheet brass a piece similar to the one shown in fig. . drill the holes indicated and thread those designated by a, b, c, d, e, and f to take a / -in. machine screw. bend the upper end of the piece over at the point indicated by the dotted line until it is perpendicular to the lower part. the center of the hole in the projecting part k, when it is bent over, should be about / in. from the outer surface of the main part of the piece. the small piece of iron is then fastened to the piece of brass with two round-headed screws that pass through the two holes in it and into the holes a and b in the brass piece. the magnet is mounted, also with small brass screws, so that the main part of the magnet and the piece of brass extend in opposite directions, as shown in fig. . the assembled parts are then mounted on a wooden board, whose dimensions are given in fig. , with three brass screws that pass through the holes g, h, and j, as shown. [illustration: upper and lower connections to the coil and supports, and the supports for suspension (fig. , fig. , fig. , fig. )] the moving coil of the galvanometer is constructed as follows: cut from some / -in. pine a piece - / in. long and / in. wide. cut two other pieces whose dimensions, except their thickness, are / in. larger than the first piece. then fasten these two pieces to the sides of the first, with three or four small screws through each of them, thus forming a small spool. saw about slots with a very fine saw in the edges of the projecting pieces and a short way into the edge of the center piece. wind on this spool about turns of no. gauge silk-covered copper wire. start with the terminal of the wire in the center of one end of the spool, with a few inches of free wire for making connections, and end up with the terminal in the center of the opposite end of the spool. a small thread is then passed through the slots under the coil and tied, thus serving to hold the various turns of wire together when the coil is removed from the form. the coil should be given a coat of shellac as soon as it is removed from the form. two pieces must now be attached to the top and bottom of the coil to be used in making electrical connections and suspending the coil. cut from some very thin sheet brass two pieces whose dimensions correspond to those given in figs. and . drill a small hole in the center of each of these pieces. bend the lower part of each piece over at the dotted lines l until it is perpendicular to the main portion of the piece. the bent-over portions of these two pieces are then fastened to the ends of the coil with some fine thread, making sure that they are in the center of the ends before they are fastened. the terminals of the coil are now soldered to these pieces. it would be best to place a sheet or two of thin paper between the brass pieces and the coil, to prevent any part of the coil, except the ends, from coming into contact with the brass pieces. obtain a small piece of thin mirror and mount it with some glue, as shown by the dotted lines in fig. . the upper support for the suspension is shown in fig. and consists of a / -in. threaded screw, a, that passes through the hole in the part k, fig. , and is provided with two lock nuts, b. the lower end of this screw should be slotted a short distance, and a small screw put through it, perpendicular to the slot, so that a wire can be easily clamped in the slot by turning up the screw. next, take a piece of / -in. brass, as shown in fig. , and bend it at the dotted line a until it forms a right angle. the hole b should be threaded to take a / -in. screw. the holes c and d are for mounting the piece on the back of the instrument. slot the end of a / -in. screw, about / in. long, and put a screw through the end as for the upper support for the suspension. this piece is mounted below the position the coil is to occupy, as shown by m, fig. . [illustration: (fig. )] a case should be made for the galvanometer whose inside dimensions correspond to those of the piece n, fig. , and whose depth is about / in. more than the thickness of that piece. four pieces of wood can be fastened in the corners that will allow the case to slip just far enough on the piece n to make the edge of the case and the back surface of the piece n flush. cut an opening in the front of this case, about in. long and in. wide, in such a place that the center of the opening is about level with the ends of the magnet. fasten, back of this opening, a piece of thin glass with four small screws whose heads rest upon the edge of the glass. the interior of this case and all the parts should be given a coat of lampblack mixed with a little vinegar. two small binding posts, o and p, are mounted on the upper end of the piece n and connected to the upper and lower supports for the suspension of the coil. this galvanometer will work best, of course, when it is in an exactly vertical position and the following simple device, when attached to it, will allow it to assume this position independent of the level of the surface its base may rest upon. cut from some - / -in. brass two pieces, / in. wide and - / in. long. drill a / -in. hole in the center of each end of them, / in. from the end, and a / -in. hole through the center of each. bend these pieces to a / -in. radius. cut from some / -in. hard wood a block, - / in. square. fasten the two pieces of brass to the wooden block with / -in. screws, as shown in fig. . one of these pieces is fastened to the upper end of the piece n, fig. , so that the galvanometer will hang vertically. the other piece is fastened to a bracket from which the galvanometer is suspended. a suitable bracket for this purpose can be easily made. when the galvanometer is hung in this way, two binding posts are mounted on the bracket, and connected to the two on the galvanometer. in this way the galvanometer will not be disturbed when making connections. the suspension is made as follows: take a piece of small copper wire and roll it out flat. solder one end of a piece of this wire in the hole in the piece of brass, with the mirror mounted on it. fasten a piece of the same wire to the lower brass piece, attached to the coil. the upper piece of wire is then clamped in the end of the screw a, fig. , so that the coil hangs perfectly free about the iron core. the lower piece of wire is bent around a small rod several times and its end fastened in the slot in the lower screw. the deflection of the instrument is read by causing a beam of light from a lamp or candle to be reflected from the mirror to a scale located in front of the instrument. if the light from the lamp is allowed to shine through a small slit in a piece of dark paper, there will be a streak of light reflected upon the scale, instead of a spot. to use this instrument in measuring larger currents than it will safely carry, connect it in parallel with another resistance which will carry the larger part of the total current. the galvanometer can be calibrated with this resistance, which is known as a shunt. how to make advertising lantern slides procure some old discarded photographic films and remove the gelatin coating by soaking them in hot water. when dry, write the desired words on the thin celluloid and place it between two pieces of glass, lantern-slide size, and bind them as in making a lantern slide. with the use of a carbon paper a very nice slide can be made by writing the words on a typewriter, and it will serve the purpose of an expensive announcement slide.--contributed by f. p. dickover, atkinson, neb. utilizing old brush handles [illustration] the handle cut from an old dusting brush, fitted with the brass end of a shotgun shell, makes a first-class tool handle. the handle is cut off at a and the wood cut down to fit tightly into the brass shell.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. * * * * * tincture-of-iodine stains may be removed from clothing or the skin by using strong ammonia water. preserving paints and pastes white lead, thick shellac, and pastes that are used occasionally may be preserved by laying a piece of leather over the exposed surface. when these materials are kept in cans, cut a piece of leather from the upper of a heavy boot of such a size that it will drop freely into the container. form a handle on the leather disk by driving a nail through its center from the under side. press the disk down smoothly over the surface of the contents and a thin film of oil will soon form over the disk, effectually excluding the air. a loose cover is placed over the container, to keep out dust.--contributed by luther mcknight, colorado city, col. a burner for soldering small work [illustration] as it was necessary for me to solder the joints of fine wires on electrical instruments, and other small work, i found myself in need of a blowpipe that gave a small but very hot and easily directed flame, was automatic in its operation and required no blast. i tried an ordinary acetylene burner on coal or city gas, and found it gave an intensely hot, nonluminous flame, due to the forced draft of air through the small holes. this flame will melt silver, copper and, also, silver solder. its great advantage lies in the fact that it may be used for sweating together small articles rapidly and with great neatness. i always keep this blowpipe burning, as the gas it consumes is very small, and the burner is kept within easy reach by using a hanger, as shown in the illustration. a single jet of flame is obtained by stopping up one of the tips, which is very useful in many ways. this flame may contain a small luminous spot on some city gas, but it does not interfere with the heat.--contributed by arthur worischek, new york city. a safety-match-box holder a holder, as well as a tray, for safety matches can be made from any ordinary tobacco can. the metal on one side is cut as shown and the pieces bent up to form standards for holding the match box in an upright position. the openings left where the metal was raised are used for dropping the burned matches into the box. the hinged cover is used for emptying the tray.--contributed by david b. lutz, e. st. louis, ill. [illustration: the match box is held upright between standards formed from the tin of the tobacco box] removing ink stains from book leaves when the leaves of a book are accidentally stained with ink it can be removed quite readily by the following process: after removing as much of the ink as possible with a camel's-hair brush dipped in water, soak the stained parts in a solution of oxalate of potash, or better still, oxalic acid. this will remove all the ink. treat again with water, as before, so that when it dries out no salt will appear on the paper. this process does not affect printer's ink.--contributed by s. g. thompson, owensboro, ky. a needle-spray nozzle [illustration] to make a needle-spray nozzle, either insert a -caliber cartridge in a small tube, or place a -caliber shell over the end of the tube and solder it in place. the end is perforated to make one or more small holes, as desired. [illustration] how to make an electrotype stamp the method described in the following produces a very good metal stamp for any name, initial, drawing, etc. procure a smooth and perfectly level sheet of brass about / in. thick and about by in. in size. nickelplate the brass so that the copper deposit will not stick to it. if a small plating outfit is not at hand the piece may be plated at a local plating works for a nominal price. dip the plate in melted paraffin until the coating is about / in. thick and see that no metal is exposed. drill a hole in one corner and attach a wire. draw the letters or sketch desired, using a metal stylus having a sharp point, taking care to make the lines scratched in the wax clean and open to the surface of the metal (fig. ). [illustration: making the copper shell (fig. )] a large open-mouthed bottle or glass tank will be required for the plating solution, which is made by dissolving copper sulphate in water until the solution is saturated with the sulphate and then adding a few drops of sulphuric acid. immerse the plate in the solution as shown in fig. and connect with the zinc pole of the battery. put a piece of pure copper in on the opposite side of the jar and connect with the carbon pole of the battery, using care in each case to keep the connection of the wire and the upper part of the plate above the surface. one or two dry cells will be sufficient. if the current is right, the deposit on the waxed plate will be a flesh pink; if too strong, it will be a dirty brick color and the plate will have to be washed and the current reduced. when the desired thickness of metal is deposited, remove the plate and pour boiling water on the back. this will remove the thin copper shell and the nickeled plate may be laid away for future use. [illustration: (fig. )] procure a flat pan and after placing the shell in it, face down, sprinkle a little resin or soldering flux on the back. lay three or four sheets of the lead from tea packages on the back of the shell and heat it over a spirit lamp or on the stove until the lead melts and runs into the crevices on the back of the copper, thus making it solid and suitable for mounting. mount as shown in fig. with small brass screws and after polishing the surface to remove dirt, etc., the stamp is ready for use. [illustration: (fig. )] an ordinary stamp pad will do for inking, but the best ink to use is printer's slightly thinned, as the ordinary rubber stamp ink is not suitable for a metal stamp.--contributed by s. v. cooke, hamilton, ont. a cover for a bottle if a glass medicine bottle is to be carried constantly in the pocket, it is best to cover it with leather or rubber. the sketch shows how to cut the pattern so that it will fit a square bottle. the bottle is placed on the leather, or a piece of paper as a pattern, and the outlines marked upon it. the leather or paper is then folded over four times and cut out as shown. this cover will prevent the glass from being scattered in the pocket should the bottle be accidentally broken. it always provides a means of distinguishing it from other bottles of the same type and size.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. [illustration: pattern for making a bottle cover of leather or rubber for bottles carried in the pocket] boring a long hole [illustration] the usual method of boring a hole through a piece of wood longer than the bit is to bore from each end. to make the hole straight by this method, split the wood or saw it in halves, then make a knife kerf in both pieces on a center line of the hole and glue the pieces together. the spur of the bit will follow the kerf from either end, and the result will be a meeting of the holes, almost perfectly in the center.--contributed by ernest j. dickert, niagara falls, n. y. covering for a gas-stove top while frying or cooking on a gas stove the grease will spatter over the top and make the cleaning rather difficult, especially where there are many crevices. a simple method of avoiding this trouble is to place a paper over the top of the stove, with round holes cut out for each burner a little larger than the pots and pans used in the cooking. this will keep the stove very clean with a minimum of bother. a paper cut to fit the under pan will keep that part clean.--contributed by s. f. warner, east orange, n. j. homemade skis not having a bent board suitable for a pair of skis, i proceeded to make the skis in the following manner: a cheese box was procured and two pieces cut out of the side, each in. long and in. wide. these were used for the upturned ends and two boards, ft. long and in. wide, served as the runners. a notch, in. long and / in. deep, was cut in one end of each board to receive one end of the thin curved pieces cut from the cheese box, which were fastened with screws. the upper end of each thin piece was cut to a point. [illustration: the curved part of the runner is made from pieces cut out of a round cheese box] a piece for the foot, in. long and in. wide, with a notch in. wide and / in. deep, was fastened in the center of the runner. a strap is run through the notch for holding the ski to the foot--contributed by henry meuse, reading, mass. * * * * * to remove iron rust or ink stains from cloth, use a warm solution of oxalic acid with a few crystals of citric acid added. repeat the washings until the stain is removed. how to make a dry cell the containing vessel for the cell should be made from sheet zinc. it should be cylindrical in form, approximately - / in. in diameter and in. long. this vessel is to form the negative terminal of the cell and a suitable connecting device, similar to the one shown in the sketch, should be provided and securely fastened to the upper edge of the vessel. the vessel should be lined with some heavy blotting paper, both sides and bottom. [illustration: cross section through the cell, showing the construction and location of the parts] place into a glass jar a small quantity of chloride-of-zinc crystals, and pour over them / pt. of distilled water. allow the crystals to dissolve at least one-half hour. if the crystals all dissolve, add more until some remain in the bottom of the jar, or until the liquid is saturated. pour off the solution and dilute it by adding an equal part of distilled water. add to this solution sal ammoniac, in the proportion of lb. of sal ammoniac to every qt. of liquid. fill the dry-cell vessel with this solution and allow it to remain until the blotting paper is completely saturated. obtain a good size electric-light carbon, about / in. in diameter, and file one end down as shown. drill a hole through the carbon and mount a terminal. make a mixture of equal parts of finely powdered carbon and manganese dioxide of sufficient amount to almost fill the vessel. add to this mixture some of the solution and thoroughly mix them. continue adding solution until a thick paste is formed. pour the solution out of the vessel and allow the latter to drain for a few minutes in an inverted position. place the carbon rod in the center of the vessel and pack the paste down around it, being careful not to move the carbon rod from its central position. the vessel should be filled with the paste to within about / in. of the top. the lower end of the carbon rod should not be nearer the bottom of the vessel than / in. over the top of the paste place a mixture of equal parts sand and fine sawdust and then, over this, a layer of pitch, which acts as a seal for the cell. a layer of blotting paper should be placed between the sand-sawdust mixture and the carbon-manganese mixture. the side lining of the vessel should be turned in before the sand-sawdust mixture is placed in the top of the cell. the outside of the cell should be covered with some heavy pasteboard, which will serve to insulate the negative terminal from the surface upon which the cell rests. a hose-nozzle handle a handle for a garden-hose nozzle is easily made of a piece of wire and the wooden part of a package carrier. the wire is bent to receive the hose at a, and, after the handle is slipped on, the other end is formed to fit tightly over the brass nozzle at b. the hose nozzle can be easily carried with the handle, which will keep the hand dry.--contributed by f. g. marbach, cleveland, o. [illustration: the handle is made of a piece of wire and a package grip] guide for cutting mortises [illustration] after spending considerable time in cutting one mortise in a piece to make the settee described in a recent issue of popular mechanics magazine, i devised the plan shown in the sketch which enabled me to cut all the mortises required in the time that i cut one in the ordinary manner. two metal plates, one of which is shown in the sketch, having a perfectly straight edge, are clamped on the piece with the straight edge on the line of the mortise. a hacksaw is applied through holes bored at the ends and a cut sawed along against the metal edges.--contributed by george gluck, pittsburgh, pennsylvania. insect-proof poultry roost [illustration] to protect the poultry from mites and other insects while roosting, i constructed a roost hanger, as shown, with oil cups made of empty shoe-polish cans. the cover of the box was nailed to the roost and the bottom, for holding the oil, on top of the roost support. a large nail was driven through the support from the under side and through the center of the can bottom, so that about - / in. projected above the latter. the can cover was perforated in the center and a hole, about / in. deep, was drilled in the roost so that the end of the nail would easily slip into it. the bottom of the can was filled with a mixture of kerosene, vaseline and carbolic acid and the roost set in place. both ends of each roost are fixed in the same way. this makes it impossible for any insects to get on the roost.--contributed by rudolph netzeband, st. louis, mo. to prevent shade rollers from unwinding obtain a stick for the hem on the lower end of the shade that is in. longer than the shade is wide. place two small wood screws in the window casing below the shade roller in such a position that they will catch the ends of the stick when the shade is raised to the top.--contributed by harry e. kay, ossining, n. y. a screen and storm-door cushion [illustration] a good cushion that will prevent a spring door from slamming can be made out of material cut from an old rubber boot or, better still, from an old hollow rubber ball. three strips of heavy rubber, - / in. long and / in. wide, are cut and each fastened with two tacks so that the center will make a hump, as shown in the sketch. one cushion is fastened near the top, one near the bottom, and one in the center, in the rabbet of the door frame.--contributed by d. andrew mccomb, toledo, o. repairing a coaster brake [illustration] anyone having a bicycle coaster brake that is apparently useless because it will not brake, can easily repair it in the following manner: remove the inner hub by unscrewing the cones and insert a piece of clock spring, about the same width as the brake shell and almost as long as its inside periphery. replace the parts and the repair will render the brake quite as efficient as a new one. the spring serves as a braking surface for the expanding steel shoes of the brake.--contributed by heber h. clewett, pomona, cal. flypaper holder the ordinary method of using sticky flypaper is quite annoying, as it cannot be easily removed from anything that may come in contact with its sticky surface. the best way to avoid this trouble is to make a holder for the paper, and one can be constructed of a piece of wire and a metal cover taken from a jelly glass. the wire is threaded at one end on which the cover is clamped between two nuts. the upper end of the wire is shaped into a hook for hanging it wherever desired. the paper is rolled with the sticky side out and tied with strings, then slipped over the wire and set into the inverted cover. the cover prevents any of the sticky substance from dripping onto the floor and the wire holds it from being blown about the room.--contributed by percy de romtra, cape may point, n. j. [illustration: the paper, held in an upright position, will catch more flies than if placed flat] a fish rake the fish rake can be made in any size, for minnows or salmon, but it is especially adapted for fish that run in schools, like smelt, herring and minnows. procure a piece of wood, ft. long, in. wide and / in. thick, and make a handle ft. long on one end. dress the other end to an edge, rip off a -in. strip and drill holes to receive nails or pieces of wire from the back, through the edge, and projecting about in. the strip is then replaced and fastened with screws. the handle can be cut from the blade and jointed by using tubing. this makes it handy to take apart and pack.--contributed by l. w. pedrose, seattle, wash. [illustration: the rake is so constructed that it can be taken apart for packing] to harden small blocks of wood small blocks of wood can be hardened so that they will not split so easily when small screws are inserted by boiling them in olive oil for about minutes. the olive oil can be kept for future use. if it is desired to waterproof the blocks after hardening them, they should be placed in melted paraffin and allowed to cool in the solution. this gives the block of wood a good appearance and makes it nonabrasive and waterproof. homemade clothesline reel [illustration] it is much better to make a small reel, like the one shown, for a clothesline than to wind the line on the arm, the usual method of getting it into shape for putting away. the reel consists of two strips of wood, in. long, in. wide and / in. thick. these are joined together with two pieces of broom handle, allowing a space of in. between the sides and an extending handle of in. on opposite sides, as shown.--contributed by bert longabaugh, davenport, iowa. gear-cutting machine perhaps the last thing that would be thought within range of the amateur who lacks a full equipment of machinery is the cutting of gear wheels. the device shown in the sketch is very practical, and, with the most ordinary assortment of iron-working tools, will serve to turn out an accurate gear. [illustration: details of gear-cutting machine (fig. )] no system of supports is shown, as they are easily supplied. a flat, square board, b, as large as can be obtained-- ft. on a side being the safest minimum--is used for a dial. a sheet of paper is pasted over the entire board and a large circle drawn on it. this circle is divided into as many parts as there are to be teeth in the gear. a depression is made with a prick punch at each division. a shaft, c, is run through the center, to which an arm, a, is firmly attached. a nail, n, is placed at the end of the arm so that the point can enter each of the punch marks on the periphery or circumference of the circle. a blank wheel, w, is attached to the shaft c, in the position shown, and resting on the iron plate or strap f. a cutting tool, d, works up and down in a slot in f. this cutter is held away from the blank wheel by the spring s, and moved up to it by the screw g, acting through the sliding member h. a stove bolt may be used for g, with the nut firmly fastened to the strap f. the cutter is actuated with a handle e, whose motion is limited by the pegs as shown. in fig. is shown a top view of the strap e, with a cross section of the cutter and the slot in which it works. [illustration: (fig. )] the operation of the mechanism is as follows: with the blank wheel in place set the nail n in one of the punch marks and move the handle e downward. this will make a slight cut on the wheel. then give the screw g a turn or two, which will make the cutter take a deeper bite, and push the handle down again. this operation is repeated, screwing g constantly deeper, until it is stopped by the locknut j, which regulates the depth of the cut. move the nail n to the next punch mark and repeat. the operations are very quickly performed and the circle will be closed almost before you know it. there are several points to be observed. the accuracy depends upon three things. first, the slot through which the cutter passes must be tight-fitting, even at the expense of working hard. second, the shaft c must fit tightly in the holes made for it through b and f, also the arm a must be firmly attached, the shaft being filed flat at the point of attachment. the blank wheel should be keyed on the shaft or securely fastened with a setscrew. third, the nail n must enter the punch marks accurately. as the grinding circle is so much larger than the blank, any error here is greatly reduced in the finished wheel. once in a punch mark the nail must not be allowed to slip until the tooth has been cut. in practice, it will be found better, after each stroke of the handle, to give a quarter turn outward to the screw g, thus avoiding the scraping of the tool on the up stroke. the cutter can be made of any suitable steel with the cutting point ground to give whatever shape is desired for the tooth. the best shape for any particular purpose can be found by reference to a book on gears. this cutter is adapted, of course, only to the softer metals. for experimental purposes a blank cast in type metal is excellent and will last as long probably as required. the mechanism here described will cut brass perfectly well and a gear made of this more durable metal will answer for a finished construction. type-metal blanks commend themselves because they are so easily cast, any flame which will melt solder being sufficient, and the molds, of wood, plaster of paris or any easily worked material, being quickly constructed.--contributed by c. w. nieman, new york city. a potato peeler the guard is made of a piece of wire about in. shorter than the blade of an ordinary table knife. the ends of the wire are turned into a coil to resemble a coil spring with coils close together. allow enough wire to project on one end to be flattened and pointed for an eye extractor. [illustration: guard made of wire] when this device is placed on the knife, the contrivance works on the same principle as a spokeshave. the first setting peels the potato without any appreciable waste, the other setting may be as desired for cutting slices.--contributed by h. w. ravens, seattle, washington. an easy way to develop roll film this is simply a different motion to the tiresome seesaw one usually employs when films are being developed. in wetting them down previous to immersion in the developer, do not keep them in the water long enough to become limp, but remove them after a few quick dips, says camera craft, they will then retain some of their curling tendency, so that by taking one end in one hand and gradually lowering the film into the dish of developer and then raising it out of the dish, it will be found that the film will roll and unroll quite readily, much as one would let out or wind in a reel. this method will result in quicker development, because the roll is nearly always immersed in developer. the method necessitates using only one hand, making it possible to develop a second strip at the same time with the other. the illustration shows quite clearly just how the film will behave. [illustration: developing film] a shoe hanger an inexpensive shoe hanger can be made of a strip of tin, about / in. wide and as long as the space will permit. cut notches along one edge and bend the tin and tack or screw it on a strip of board or to the inside of the closet door. the shoes are hung up by the heels with the toes down.--contributed by c. r. poole, los angeles, cal. [illustration: notched metal hanger] how to make a small vertical drill [illustration] a small hand drill with a three-jaw chuck that will take the smallest drill can be purchased very reasonably. for ordinary work these drills do very well, but for comparatively deep holes, or when using long, slender drills, some sort of a stand should be made, if for no other reason, to avoid breaking the drills, which is almost invariably due to the side motion of the hand. there are other reasons, however, for making such a stand, and these lie in the fact that it is impossible to drill by hand at right angles with the surface of the metal, or to hold such a drill sufficiently steady to avoid widening the hole around the top. as each make of hand drill will require a somewhat different form of stand, no detailed description need be given of the one illustrated. the principal point is to have the base and standard securely set at right angles to each other, and then provide a smoothly sliding piece to which the hand drill may be clamped. the edges on this slide and the corresponding guides should be planed off to an angle of deg. one of the guides should be adjustable, which may be arranged by elongating the screw holes and placing small washers under the heads of the screws that hold this guide to the main standard. a neat little hand drill, arranged in this manner and firmly secured to the bench, may also be used for finishing the ends of small shafts, either flat or pointed, for polishing screw heads, etc., to all of which it gives that workmanlike appearance that can only be had when things are polished with a true rotary motion.--contributed by john d. adams, phoenix, ariz. decorating candles candles can be easily decorated by the following method: the designs can be selected from paper prints which are tightly wrapped around the candle with the design in contact with the wax. strike a match and play the flame over the back of the paper. allow time enough for the melted wax to harden and then remove the paper. the print will be transferred to the wax. select designs that are not larger than the circumference of the candle. a good impression of ink on thin paper works best.--contributed by j. j. kolar, maywood, ill. homemade hacksaw frame a home workshop not having a complete set of tools may be supplied in many ways with tools made by the owner. the hacksaw frame illustrated is one of these. the frame is made of hard wood. the saw end is inserted in a slot sawed in the handle end, and a screw or small bolt holds it in place. the other end is equipped with a bolt having a sheet-metal head, as shown at a. the blade is kept from turning by a projection of the sheet metal which fits in a saw cut made in the frame.--contributed by w. a. henry, galesburg, ill. [illustration: hacksaw frame, cut from hard wood, with fittings attached to draw the blade taut] [illustration] drill press on an ordinary brace as the greater part of the energy required for drilling metal by hand is used for feeding the drill, i made what i term a drill box in which the brace is held perfectly true and pressure is applied by a weight. the feed can be changed for the different metals and sizes of drills, also for drilling the hard outside of castings and relieving the drill for the softer body. the constant feed will cause the drill to turn out a long chip, and a number of holes may be drilled to a uniform depth by using the same feed and counting the turns of the brace handle. [illustration: the weights apply a constant pressure to the drill, which can be easily turned (fig. )] to build the box, first find the dimensions of the brace, as shown in fig. : the diameter of the head a, the clearance b from the top of the head to / in. above the top of the handle c, and the over-all length d when the longest drill is in the brace. make a box having an inside length equal to the dimension d, plus whatever additional height may be necessary for the work. make the inside width twice the distance c, plus in. for clearance; and the inside depth the length c, plus one-half of the dimension a, plus in. use material / in. thick and nail the parts together to form a rectangular frame. cut a piece of broomstick as long as the dimension b, and two pieces of wood as long as the inside width of the box and as wide as the dimension b. cut two pieces / in. longer than the dimension a and as wide as the length b. nail these latter pieces together as shown in fig. , leaving a square space in the center. this frame is to be nailed inside of the top of the box flush with the front, but before doing so lay it on top of the box to determine where the center of the square space will come, and bore a hole, large enough for the round stick cut from the broom handle to slip through easily, then nail the frame on the under side of the top piece. [illustration: (fig. )] procure a tough piece of wood, - / in. square and long enough to project in. over the right and in. over the left side of the box top, and when in this position, locate the hole bored for the round stick and bore a hole in the square stick, / in. deep, to coincide with it. place the head of the brace in the guide and push it up until it touches the top of the box and block it up in this position, then drop the round stick through the hole and rest it on the head of the brace. place the socket in the lever over the top of the round stick. make a loop, in. long, of heavy wire and hang it over the right end of the lever and mark the box at the lower end of the loop. turn in a large screw / in. below this mark allowing it to project enough to hook the loop under it. remove the round stick and put a screw at the point the bottom of the loop reaches when the lever is flat on the top of the box. another screw turned in between these two will be sufficient to hold the lever in position. different-sized weights, of from to lb., are used on the lever, but for small drills the weight of the brace alone is sufficient.--contributed by maurice coleman, w. roxbury, mass. homemade picture-frame miter box any person wishing to make a picture frame, or to cut down an old one, requires a miter box for that purpose, so that the molding may be properly held while sawing it, and also for nailing the corners together. i made a miter box, as shown, and found it to be just the thing for this purpose. it is built on a base similar to an overturned box, the saw guides being held on the ends of a piece, constructed as shown at a. holes are cut in the top, as shown at b, for one of the guides and for the two wedges. two pieces, c, are fastened with their outer edges at perfectly right angles on the top. [illustration: homemade miter box for sawing frame molding and to hold the parts for fastening together] the frame parts are clamped against the pieces on top with the wedges driven in between the frame parts and the brackets dd. after cutting the frame parts they are tightly held in place while fastening them, in any manner desired.--contributed by a. s. thomas, amherstburg, can. tank-development methods used in tray development if there are a number of plates to be developed, place a rubber band, about / in. wide, around the ends of each plate and put them together in a tray. the bands keep the plates apart. the developer is made up as for a tank and poured over the plates, then another tray, or dark covering, is placed over the top. allow this to stand, rocking the tray from time to time, the same length of time as is required for tank development.--contributed by earl r. hastings, corinth, vermont. a pushmobile racer for ice the pushmobile shown in the illustration takes the place of the one with rollers that is now so popular with the boys. the materials required, usually found about any home, consist of a foot board, in. thick, - / in. wide and ft. long; two pieces of wood, each / in. thick, - / in. wide and in. long; one steering post, in. thick, - / in. wide and in. long; one handle, in. long; one small hinge; one carriage bolt, / in. in diameter and - / in. long; two / -in. washers; a few screws, and a pair of discarded ice skates. [illustration: homemade pushmobile, constructed the same as the wheeled kind, with runners for snow and ice] one of the / -in. thick pieces is fastened solidly to one end of the foot board with the ends flush. the other piece is swiveled with the bolt at the opposite or front end of the foot board so that at least one-half of the piece projects beyond the end. the steering post is hinged to the projecting end. the skates are fastened to the / -in. pieces for runners. the manner of propelling the racer is the same as for the pushmobile.--contributed by w. e. crane, cleveland, o. homemade ellipsograph by chelsea curtis fraser an efficient ellipsograph is the only device that will make true ellipses of various sizes quickly, and such a machine is in demand on some classes of work in a drafting room. its cost, however, is prohibitive where only few ellipses are to be drawn, but a person handy with tools can make an apparatus that will do the work as well as the most expensive instrument. [illustration: practically any size or proportion of ellipse, from - / to in. maximum diameter, can be drawn with an instrument of this size, and larger instruments will work equally well (fig. )] the completed ellipsograph, herein described, will appear as shown in fig. . it consists of two main parts, the base and the arm. the former is a hardwood piece, a, fig. , to the side center of which is attached another hardwood piece, b. this latter piece may be dovetailed into a, but an ordinary butt joint will suffice, as a one-piece base, c, also of hard wood, is glued to the bottom surfaces of the pieces a and b, thus securely holding them together. before gluing, however, care must be taken to see that the piece b is exactly at right angles with the piece a. this can be done with a try-square. dimensions are given in fig. . the same letters are used throughout for the same parts. [illustration: (fig. )] a / -in. groove, h, is cut out at the juncture of a and b, to admit the flange of the minor-axis swivel head. another groove, j, is made along the longitudinal center of the piece b, to receive the spine of the major-axis swivel head. sheet brass plates, d and e, are cut from / -in. stock and attached to the top of the piece a with screws. the plates f and g are of the same material and fastened in a like manner to the upper surface of the piece b. all plates project slightly where they touch the groove borders, as shown. this is to provide a bearing for the projections on the sliding parts against metal instead of wood. a piece of thin celluloid or brass plate, k, is inserted in the bottom side of the base c so that the point will be exactly in line with the center groove j, and extend outward / in. this point indicates the center of all ellipses to be drawn. in the bottom of the base c, at each end, drive an ordinary pin and cut it off so that a part of it will project beyond the surface of the wood. these extending ends are pointed with a file, and serve to keep the instrument from slipping when in use. [illustration: (fig. )] the arm l is shown in fig. . it is made of either maple or birch. follow the dimensions given, cutting a slot through it longitudinally, as shown at m, narrower on the upper side than on the lower, the upper being / in. wide. an octagon-shaped piece of wood, n, / in. thick, is glued to the end, to give a good seating for the sleeve o, which is a piece of / -in. solid-brass rod, in. long, drilled to receive closely the pencil sheath. the latter, p, can be made from a section of brass tubing such as is used in a bicycle-pump valve. the upper end is notched to receive a rubber band, and an ordinary pencil can be cut down to fit closely into the other end. the piece o fits tightly in a hole bored through n and l. [illustration: (fig. )] the detail of the minor-axis swivel head is shown in fig. . this swivel head consists of two pieces of brass, one, marked q, being / in. square by / in. long and the other, r, / in. square by / in. long, with a notch cut out as shown. these parts, as well as the somewhat similar ones for the major-axis swivel head, can be cast cheaply, or block brass may be cut with a hacksaw and filed to the right shape. a shortened dry-cell screw, s, with washer, to fit a tapped hole drilled in the piece q, serves to bind the head where desired on the arm. the flange t is a piece of / -in. brass driven into a slot cut in the piece r. the piece r is pivoted to the piece q, as shown, by means of a piece of wire nail which engages q, by friction, the lower end being fitted with a washer and riveted loosely so that the parts will turn freely. [illustration: fig. ] the major-axis swivel-head detail is shown in fig. . the piece u is the same size as q, fig. , with its screw set a little farther forward to make room for the pivot v, which loosely joins u and w together. the pivot is made of a wire nail, riveted on both ends. the piece w is of brass, / in. thick, / in. wide and / in. long. the spine x is made just thick enough to pass freely in the groove j, fig. . a screw taken from a discarded dry-battery cell is used to bind the head to the arm. to operate the ellipsograph, draw a line, y, fig. , on the paper, which is to mark the major axis of the ellipse. about midway of its length make a point to represent the center. on the latter set the point k, fig. , and adjust the bottom forward edge of the base c parallel with the line y. set the minor-axis swivel head at such a point on the arm l that, when the latter is directly on top of the piece b, the pencil will touch the paper at a distance from the center, marked by k, equal to half the minor axis of the proposed ellipse. to secure the major axis swing the arm until it is parallel with the piece a, leaving the major-axis swivel head unset, and set it when the pencil point has been adjusted to the proper major radius. grasp the arm with the right hand between the swivel heads and bearing down, swing the pencil end from right to left. the rubber band will keep it constantly on the paper with even pressure. when half of the ellipse is completed detach the rubber band and reverse the instrument to the opposite side of the longitudinal line y and draw the other half in the same manner. protector cap for a chisel handle [illustration] the ordinary chisel handle will soon split and break under the continuous blows of a mallet. a very good and inexpensive method of preventing this is to procure an ordinary patent bottle cap and place it on the end of the handle. it is advisable to shape the end of the handle like a bottle top in order to firmly hold the cap in place.--contributed by bert verne, san diego, cal. sweeping compound a good sweeping compound may be made as follows: mix / pt. of warm paraffin oil with oz. of melted paraffin wax and add oz. of artificial oil of sassafras. then pour the mixture into lb. of sawdust and work the whole thoroughly together. add to this mixture lb. of clean sand and / lb. of coarse salt. each article mentioned is comparatively cheap, and the compound can be kept in an open container.--contributed by loren ward, des moines, iowa. [illustration] freezing a basin to a chair fill a basin or pot half full of snow, and secretly put a handful of table salt in it and place the vessel on a chair or table, wetting the space where it is to be set. after holding the basin in place for about two minutes, continually stirring the contents, it will freeze to the chair so solidly that when the basin is lifted the chair will come along with it. this experiment is quite interesting to an audience and can be performed at any assemblage with success. if the instructions are carried out closely, the trick will always succeed and the audience will consider it magic. even if performed in a warm room, the combination of snow and salt will reduce the temperature below the freezing point where the bottom of the vessel comes in contact with the chair seat.--contributed by harry slosower, pittsburgh, pa. an envelope and stamp moistener [illustration] a moistener for postage stamps or envelopes can be easily made from a screw-top jar. a strip of felt cut as wide as the jar is deep and made into a roll large enough to fit the neck of the jar serves as a wick. the metal top is perforated, and, after filling the jar with water, it is screwed into place. this makes a very inexpensive moistener for the library desk. a homemade drill press an ordinary breast drill is used in the construction of this drill press, it being rigidly secured to a piece of oak, a, in. square and in. long, which is a sliding member on the pipe b. in attaching the breast drill to the wood, a bolt, having a hook on the head end, was used at the top, at c, and a stud at the bottom d. pipe clips, ee, were attached on one side of the block to fit loosely over the pipe b. the vertical part of the pipe is supported by two horizontal pieces, ff, which are fastened to a post. a feed lever, g, is pivoted at the top of the vertical piece of oak a and fulcrumed on the post with a bolt through a slot, the extending end carrying a weight as a counterbalance. the illustration clearly shows the construction of this very useful drill press.--contributed by w. a. ready, boston, mass. [illustration: the breast drill as it is attached to an upright, to make a drill press] * * * * * a pair of bicycle trousers guards makes excellent sleeve bands when the cuffs are turned back and rolled above the elbows. arts-crafts leather work by mary c. scovel part i leather work is one of the most interesting of the crafts, first, because the material is so pliable that anyone can work it, and secondly, because any ordinary article can be made by simply following the directions carefully, although each of the various kinds of leather demands a different process. the equipment necessary is simple, consisting of two special tools costing cents each, one with a narrow edge for lining patterns, and one with broad ends for tooling; and a piece of tin, plate glass, or very smooth hard wood, which should not be smaller than by in. a soft sponge, a triangle, a rule, tracing paper and a hard pencil are also needed. the first attempt should be made on a piece of russian calfskin. this may be purchased at any leather store or craft shop and costs about cents a square foot, if cut to measure. whole skins contain from to sq. ft. and cost about cents a square foot. calfskin may be had in almost any color. [illustration: coin purse--back] [illustration: coin purse--front] the coin purse will be the first article described. the size, pattern and design must first be determined. it consists of three parts, the front, back and flap, as shown in the sketch. this purse will require a piece of leather by in., in order to allow an extra / in. outside of the pattern to pin the leather on the board while transferring the design. the upper flap c folds over the front of the purse d. the design must be divided, the part belonging to c placed on the flap, and the part belonging to the front d, on the lower part of the front. [illustration: pattern for purse] take a piece of paper and fold it in accordance with the desired proportions of the purse, taking care that the design for the front d is on the same side of the paper as that of the flap c. the space f under the flap is without any design. the design for the front d is on the lower part of the upper division of the pattern. fold the part f behind h, and then the part c behind h and f. turn the pattern over for the proper position of the purse. draw the entire design on tracing or tough tissue paper. wet the leather on the wrong or unfinished side with a soft sponge. pat the leather and endeavor to moisten, but not soak it, with water. on some leather the water, if it comes through, leaves a stain. when the leather is too wet it is very hard to tool, as the tool sticks and makes an uneven background. pin the design firmly down against the leather and fasten the leather with thumb tacks on the outer margin. with a hard pencil go over every line of the design with a firm, even pressure. if the leather is properly moistened, this will leave a clear outline of the design when the tracing paper is removed. then with a lining tool--the tool with the narrow edge--go over the lines on the leather with a strong, firm stroke. should a line design only be desired, this operation finishes the decoration. [illustration: stamp-case pattern] two other methods may be used: tooling or stamping. the design shown does not go to the edge of the pattern. a margin of at least / in. between the edge of the pattern and design must be left for tooling and stamping. for tooling, after lining the pattern, use the broad end of the tool and make even, long strokes to press down the background. if the background is not easily pressed down, the leather is too dry. take it off the board and moisten the back again, move the tool back and forth and around until the background is comparatively smooth. keep the edges very sharp between parts pressed down and those that remain raised. the depth of pressing down the background is a matter of taste, but it should be tooled down enough to make the design stand out plainly. fold the parts together and line with silk to match the leather and then stitch up the front and back parts of the purse close to the edge. this can be done on any sewing machine, or by a shoemaker. the circle m in the pattern is the catch or button which can be furnished and put on by a shoemaker, or at a trunk store. any ordinary article of leather can be stitched on a sewing machine in the home. to do this successfully the stitch must be long and the needle of a large rather than a small size. try the stitch on a scrap of leather before sewing the article. if the foot or feed of the machine mars the leather, place tissue paper or a plain piece of paper over the leather and stitch through both. after making the stitch the paper can be pulled away. use as heavy a silk as the needle will take. the card case, coin purse, stamp case and bags can all be stitched on an ordinary machine, if the above directions are followed. in stitching any soft leather, such as ooze cow or ooze calf, if paper is not put between the leather and the machine, the stitching will stretch the leather. in making bags, instead of stitching on a machine one can punch holes close together with a small punch, and then with strips of leather sew the sides together over and over, or in any manner desired. if no machine is at hand, nor a shoemaker's shop nearby, a large pin or awl may be used to prick holes in the leather, and then the parts sewed together with needle and silk. use a running or over-and-over stitch. an over-and-over stitch from one end of the seam to the other and back to the beginning of the seam, makes an x-shaped stitch which gives a very good finish. the second method after tooling is stamping. line the pattern as described. purchase a common carpenter's nail set, with the head not too large. the smaller sets fit the patterns better and make smaller circles. moisten the leather as described. use a wooden mallet to strike the tool in stamping the background. this may be done either along circular lines or in a more irregular manner, but avoid striking the tool too hard, as too much pressure cuts through the leather. other stamping tools of good patterns may be purchased at hardware stores or crafts shops. a needle book or stamp case is another handy article to make in leather. the sketch shows the design. a piece of russian calf, - / by - / in., is necessary. this allows / in. on each side and end for pinning down the pattern. fold a piece of paper into three parts as a, b and c, the front being a; the back, b, which is folded underneath the part a. the flap c folds up with b and then over a toward the front. when the pattern is open, the design for all parts must be on the same side of the paper. the design for the back b is put on the leather upside down. when the pattern is folded this makes the design upright. the parts a, b and c are equal in length and width. the part c may be cut in any shape desired, but keep the tongue d long and narrow. make two horizontal cuts in the front a about / in. apart. these cuts must be at the same distance from the bottom of the front as the narrowest part of the tongue is from the end. the tongue will then fit the cuts. make the horizontal cuts a little wider than the tongue. the design is put on the leather in the same manner. it can be worked out in line, tooling or stamping. the parts a and b are sewed together. [illustration: a mat] the mat illustrated is another useful article and easy to make. any size may be used, and the method of lining or tooling the design, or both, gives a very beautiful effect. how to make a wood lathe a strong, substantial lathe in which wood and light metal articles may be turned can be made by carefully following the description below and the detailed drawings of the parts. [illustration: detail of wood lathe (fig. )] the bed is made of two pieces of straight-grained, smooth, by -in. hard wood, ft. long. they are held apart at each end by blocks of wood in. wide. the bed can, of course, be made longer or shorter if desired, but the above dimensions are very satisfactory. the frame of the headstock, figs. and , is made of hard wood. the two end pieces have the dimensions and shape shown. these are fastened with screws to the base. [illustration: (fig. )] the base has a slider, a strip of wood in. thick and in. long, wide enough to slide smoothly between the bed pieces, nailed to its bottom, in. from the rear end. two / -in. holes are bored through the baseboard and slide. two / -in. bolts are run through these holes and through another slide and board which runs on the under side of the bed. when the nuts on these bolts are tightened, the headstock is firmly clamped to the bed. a half-round, wedge-shaped piece is fastened with screws in the frame against the front end, to serve as a brace against any strain, and will also add to its appearance. the spindle is of tool steel or steel tubing, / in. in diameter and in. long. threads are cut on one end. a hardened steel collar, / by - / in., is riveted on the spindle so it may turn against another collar of the same size on the headstock. another collar is fastened with screws to the rear end piece, and a collar with a removable pin is fixed on the spindle. these should be fitted so as to revolve easily against each other and yet have no end play. the bearings are of brass tubing drilled for a spindle. these are inserted and wedged in the headstock, in. from the bed. care should be taken to see that they are in line. small holes are drilled from the top for oil. the pulleys are in. wide with the diameters given in the drawing. they are fastened to the spindle with a removable pin. [illustration: (fig. )] a good chuck for this lathe is made, as shown in fig. , of a piece of shafting - / in. in diameter and - / in. long. a / -in. hole is drilled through its center and one end reamed out and threaded to fit the threads on the end of the spindle. a setscrew is fitted over the / -in. hole. a center for turning wood is also shown. many centers, drills, etc., can be made of / -in. tool steel. [illustration: (fig. )] [illustration: (fig. )] the tailstock, figs. and , is built up of three pieces of hard wood, in. thick, and one piece, in. thick, shaped as shown. these are held together with four bolts, - / in. long. it has sliders and is clamped to the bed in the same manner as the headstock, but only one bolt is used. a handle is welded to the nut. this will make the clamping easy. [illustration: section through fig. (fig. )] a piece of tubing, in. long, is drilled for a / -in. dead center and inserted for - / in. between the two upper pieces, as shown in fig. . a hole for a / -in. bolt is bored through the sections so as to allow the bolt to slide freely in the tubing. the top section is taken off and a place chiseled out just back of the tube for a / -in. nut. a bolt, in. long and threaded for in. of its length, is turned into the nut and tubing. a handle or wheel is riveted on the end of the bolt. the center is made of tool steel, / in. in diameter, with a tapering point. other centers can be made of / -in, tool steel. [illustration: (fig. )] the tool rest, figs. , and , has a slide, / by by in., with a slot / by in. the base of the rest is bolted on this slide so it can be adjusted. the rest is fastened on this base with screws. the height of the rest can be varied. it can be raised or lowered by inserting wedges between the slide and the rest base. the tool rest is clamped to the base the same as the tailstock. [illustration: (fig. )] the power for this lathe can be supplied by means of a countershaft, although a foot-power arrangement may be attached.--contributed by e. e. hulgan, marion, ind. [illustration: (fig. )] to reduce the gasoline consumption of an automobile quite recently i tried out a method of reducing the consumption of gasoline in my automobile, and, as a result, have higher efficiency without resorting to any of the numerous and exceedingly costly devices on the market. i procured a piece of wire screen, cut it in the shape of the gasket between the carburetor and the intake manifold, but leaving it blind, that is, with the screen across the inlet. i put this between two gaskets and fastened the whole back in place. the result was an increase of miles per gallon of fuel.--contributed by w. j. weber, new york city. cutting a tin ball from a child's finger a three-year-old child found a globe of tin with a hole cut through the center, and--it is hardly necessary to state--immediately thrust his finger into the hole. but he could not get it out again, and the mother, accompanied by several other small children, brought the screaming child to my office. i found the hole had been punched, which caused three harpoon-like fragments to be carried into the center of the globe. the mother in her attempt to remove it had caused the sharp points to enter the flesh of the finger in two or three places. any attempt to pull the ball off, drove the points of the harpoons deeper into the finger, and it was therefore a question of cutting the tin or the finger. but what kind of an instrument could i use on this tin globe? i had nothing in my case that would cut it. my years of medical experience gave me no help. the tin was as hard and smooth as a glass marble. yet, it would have been ridiculous to be thus conquered by a tin whistle, so after some meditation i called to mind that i had a pair of heavy tinner's snips in the basement. by using the utmost care i succeeded in cutting a small incision in the round ball, and then with the points of the shears i cut the metal away from the finger. such an accident may come under the observation of any parent, and if so, he can use the same method to relieve the child where medical assistance is not near at hand.--contributed by r. w. battles, m. d., erie, pa. child's seat for theaters as children must hold tickets for theaters the same as adults, but the ordinary chair is too low to permit a child to see the performance, an auxiliary seat such as shown in the sketch would sometimes be desirable as it elevates the child so its head will be on a level with those of other spectators. the seat is made of a strip of canvas with eyelets for wire hooks that fit over the arms of the ordinary theater chair. it is necessary to have extra eyelets at one end of the canvas to adjust it to varying widths of seats.--contributed by w. a. jaquythe, richmond, cal. [illustration: seat in a theater chair] holding spoon on a hot dish after repeatedly burning my fingers in the attempt to prevent the spoon from sliding into the hot dish, i decided to do a little inventing on my own hook. taking a clean, straight hairpin i bent it to the shape shown in fig. , and after hooking it over the edge of the dish, i placed the spoon in it as shown in fig. , and my troubles were at an end.--contributed by miss genevieve warner, kalamazoo, mich. [illustration: spoon holder on a dish (fig. , fig. )] locating gas and electric fixtures in the dark a gas or electric fixture in the center of a room is quite hard to locate in the dark; more so if it is a single-light pendant. the location may be easily found if the fixture is marked as follows: coat small pieces of cardboard on both sides with phosphorus and suspend them from the fixtures with small wires. no matter how dark the room may be, the phosphorus on the cardboard can be readily seen. the phosphorus is the same as used on matches and can be obtained from any druggist. the phosphorus, being poisonous, should be handled as little as possible, and, after using, should be returned to the water-filled jar in which it was received when bought. if left in the open, it may cause fire.--contributed by katharine d. morse, syracuse, n. y. a pea-shooting gun the gun consists of only two parts. the barrel may be either a piece of bamboo fishing pole or a section of sweet alder. the spring is a piece of corset steel, such as can be usually found about the home. [illustration: a pea-shooting gun made of a piece of alder and a corset string] sweet alder can be found in the summer growing along the fences in the country almost anywhere. find a stalk, about in. in diameter, which is good and straight, and cut it off to a length of or in. make a ram rod of wood and use it to punch out the pith of the alder, rendering the bore as smooth as possible. an old bamboo pole of like dimensions may be used instead. cut out a section of the wood, - / in. long, beginning - / in. from one end of the tube. the depth of this cut should be almost halfway through the piece. the corset steel is then inserted into the short end of the tube and bent over so that its other end will touch the bottom of the open part of the bore. a nick is made with a knife across the bottom of the bore at this point, to let the spring catch a little. the ammunition is placed before the caught end of the spring, as shown, and discharged by hooking the forefinger over the spring at the point a and pulling backward as when pulling the trigger of a gun. it is necessary to keep the muzzle elevated a little after the ammunition is placed in position, otherwise the pea will roll out before the spring has a chance to strike it. coloring electric-light globes often it is desired to produce certain effects in lighting which demand a different-colored light than that given by the modern tungsten lamp. as an example, a soft, mellow light is sometimes desired similar to that given by the old carbon-filament lamp. in such cases it is a great mistake to install the carbon lamps on account of their exceedingly poor efficiency. the ordinary tungsten lamp has an average efficiency of about . watts per candlepower, while the carbon-filament lamp requires about watts per candlepower. therefore, it is much more economical to color the globe of the tungsten lamp so as to produce the required color than to use the carbon lamp. of course, both lamps must be colored when any color other than a soft, yellow light is desired. a cheap coloring solution may be made as follows: soak a small amount of gelatin in cold water for several hours, then boil it and strain it through a piece of fine cloth. while the solution is still hot, add a small quantity of aniline dye of the desired color that has been previously mixed in a small quantity of cold water. the lamps are dipped in the solution and then allowed to cool in a vertical position so that the coating will be more uniform. a more satisfactory coloring solution may be made from celluloid. obtain quite a number of old photographic films and remove all the gelatin by washing them in hot water. then dissolve them in a solution of equal parts of ether and alcohol. add the coloring solution and dip the lamps. the coating produced by this method is impervious to water. support for an open book [illustration] when a book is laid on a table for reading the pages at the beginning or end, it will not stay open flat on account of the difference in the thickness of the open parts. one person, doing a great deal of reading, uses a small card, with the corner cut out, which is placed under the side of the book having the smallest number of leaves, as shown. [illustration: some conventional designs for cardcases] arts-crafts leather work by mary c. scovel part ii when laying out designs for leather work, avoid making them too small and intricate. bold, simple designs are the best. the relation between the shapes of the background and of the design should be well balanced. the design should not be so small that the large background shapes overbalance it. one good way is to let the design partly follow or repeat the contour of the object. if the article be rectangular in shape, let some of the lines of the design follow rectangular lines; and if circular, follow the curves of the circle. [illustration: pattern for a cardcase] the first piece of leather work considered, will be an artistic cardcase. the foundation of a cardcase is a rectangle. take a piece of paper by - / in. and fold it in the middle, making each side in., then fold in in. on each outside edge toward the center. this last fold makes the pocket of the case. if a deeper pocket is desired, a longer piece of paper must be used, and the fold more than in. cut out the leather according to the paper pattern and allow at least / in. for the margin. this gives enough extra material for fastening the leather on a board outside of the pattern. moisten the leather on the rough or unfinished side. remember that, as previously stated, russian calfskin is the best for tooling. place the folded paper on the right side of the leather, then with a ruler, triangle and lining tool draw the vertical lines where the paper is folded. if the leather is moistened enough, the tool will make a deep line. make these lines where the leather is to be folded in the center, and for each pocket. line all around the pattern on four sides to indicate the outside border of the pattern. note that there are four vertical panels or rectangles, two wide ones and two narrow ones, as the leather lies flat on the board. select either of the wider rectangles for the front of the cardcase. transfer the design onto this side. place the paper on the moistened leather and go over all the lines of the design with a hard pencil. when this is done, take the paper away and deepen the lines of the design with the lining tool. if tooling is desired, use the broad-end tool and press down the background with firm even strokes. keep the background and edges of the design sharp. if stamping is desired, make rows of small circles, regular or irregular, by using the nail set and a wood mallet. the inside or lining is made of skiver leather or silk. the two center rectangles are the only parts lined. cut out the piece of silk or leather about / in. less at the top and bottom of the rectangles and / in. wider on each side. if leather is used, apply library paste on its back, then place carefully on the inside, smooth it down firmly and put it under a heavy weight to dry. if silk is used, apply the paste around the edges for a width of about / in., and put it under the weight. the case is then folded and sewed at top and bottom. cut off the surplus leather about / in. from the stitches. [illustration: cover designs for cardcases] [illustration: back of magazine cover ] [illustration: silk lining of magazine cover] the next article is the useful magazine cover, which anyone should delight in making. it requires a piece of leather by in. allow enough margin to fasten it to the board. fold the narrow edges together. the design can be placed on either side. a border design bounded by rectangular lines is very suitable. the margin allowed around the design shown in the illustration is in. from the front edge, - / in. from the top edge, and - / in. from the bottom edge. the design is - / in. wide. it is placed on the moistened leather and lined, tooled or stamped as described for the cardcase. the inside of this cover is lined with heavy silk. allow a / -in. margin to turn in on all four sides. two strips made of the lining material, - / in. wide and in. long, are placed - / in. from each side, over the lining on the inside. the lining, strips and the leather are stitched together about / in. from the edge on all four sides. the strips are to hold the magazine in place as the cover of the book is slipped between the cover and the strip. [illustration: stampcase] other kinds of leather, such as ooze cow and ooze calf, may be used, but these only allow the method of cutting out the design, as shown in the bag and stampcase. the design is traced on the wrong or smooth side of the leather. do not moisten the ooze leather. fasten the leather firmly on the board and cut out the design with a sharp knife. a soft silk is best for the lining. apply the paste on the leather near the edge of the design and after laying the silk in place, put it under a weight to dry. [illustration: handbags] the stampcase and handbags are laid out, and the designs made in the same manner as for the cardcase and magazine cover, but instead of stitching the edges on the handbags, they are joined with thongs run through holes cut in the edges of the leather. the stampcase edges are sewed together. bear in mind that russian calf is used for tooling and stamping, and ooze cow or calf for perforated designs. furnace electrodes of lead pencils furnace electrodes frequently consist of carbon rods, and if there is a short gap between them, forming a break in the circuit, the current jumps across that gap, forming an "arc." the intense heat of the arc is used in fusing and melting metals. as large electrodes are necessary for use in furnaces where great masses of metal are melted, so small electrodes are adapted to finer or more delicate work, says popular electricity. [illustration: pencil electrodes which furnish intense heat] as the lead or graphite in a lead pencil is a form of carbon, it will make an excellent electrode for small work. two ordinary lead pencils, costing only one cent each, may be used. they are first sharpened as if they were to be used for the usual purpose of writing. then a small notch is cut in one side of each pencil, laying the lead bare at a point about in. from the sharpened end. a small copper wire is wound around the pencil and into this notch, thereby making contact with the exposed lead or graphite. by means of these small wires the pencils are connected to larger wires, which in turn are connected to a switchboard or source of electric-current supply. at some place in the circuit there should be a resistance to prevent short-circuiting and also to control the strength of the current. as the wood sheath on the pencils offers sufficient insulation, they may be picked up, one in either hand, and no electrical effect will be felt by the person so doing. if the pointed tips are touched together, a fine little arc, not much larger than the tips of the pencils, will be formed. the temperature of this arc, however, is such that fine wires or small quantities of metal may be melted readily. these little lead-pencil arcs may be used to fuse very small gold or silver wires, or platinum thermometers, or wires for tungsten or tantalum lamps. the bead or globule of molten metal formed on the end of a fine wire need be no longer than a small-sized grain of sand. coat and trousers hangers the hanger is simple in construction and can be easily made by following the dimensions given in the drawing, and the directions given below. [illustration: details of hangers] the back is first marked off on a soft-pine board and cut out. the curved edge should be rounded off so as to prevent injury to the coat. the two end pieces are then made, and fastened to the back with screws as shown. the wedge is ripped diagonally from stock and the smaller edge made slightly round. the wedge slides in between the two end pieces, and after the trousers have been put in place, is pushed down until it holds them securely. the hanger is a screw hook turned into the wood, or it may be made of a piece of heavy wire run through a hole in the back and bent over on the bottom edge. the wood may be stained any desired color and then given two coats of shellac.--contributed by olaf tronnes, wilmette, illinois. mending broken fountain-pen barrels broken fountain-pen barrels may be mended by the use of melted shellac. this can be done by heating some dry shellac and applying it to the fracture. do not scrape off the surplus shellac, but shape it with a heated iron. a pen with such a repair has been in use for two years.--contributed by g. d. whitney, pittsburg, pa. jig-saw blades the ordinary form of jig-saw blade has a tendency to pull the fiber of the wood in one direction, thereby producing a jagged cut. to overcome this i made several blades with teeth as shown in the sketch. after the downstroke is completed, the teeth a will cut on the upstroke, the teeth b cutting on the downstroke, etc. the upstroke teeth should be a trifle longer than the others and from to in number.--contributed by phillip caflish, buffalo, n. y. [illustration: teeth cut in opposite direction] leaded-glass panels for furniture certain kinds of furniture may be greatly improved in appearance by the use of simple glazed panels in the door frames. it would be inappropriate to have anything elaborate in a small cabinet for the reception of china as it distracts the attention from the contents, but a simple leaded diapering or pattern of small design, such as shown in figs. and , would be quite in place and have a good effect. for other purposes more elaborate effects can be worked out in deep shades, says work, london. [illustration: simple leaded diapering of small design for a small china closet or cabinet (fig. , fig. )] a hanging cabinet with leaded panels is shown in fig. . these panels for the doors are in the design shown in fig. . panels of this design can be used either for furniture or for small windows. the process of making these panels is not difficult and the ordinary workman can form them, the only difficult part being the soldering of the joints. [illustration: a small hanging cabinet with doors having the leaded-glass design shown in fig. (fig. )] the beginner should confine himself to plain glazing, the design being formed by piecing together glass of different shades. the method of procedure is to first make a small sketch in color to a scale of about in. to the foot, carefully arranging the parts and colors. a full-sized panel can be drawn from this sketch. the effect of plain glazing depends entirely on the arrangement of the lead lines and the art glass. in the full-sized drawing the shapes are arranged so that they may be easily cut, all long forms being either avoided in the design, or divided by a cross-lead to guard against breakage in the cutting. [illustration: only a part of the top of each window is highly decorated so that the maximum light may gain access (fig. , fig. , fig. )] two simple forms of glazing are shown in figs. and . the one shown in fig. is somewhat different, the top of the panel being decorated with simple curves. this general design is considerably elaborated in figs. , and . it is desirable to decorate only a part of a window so that the maximum of light may gain access. [illustration: two windows placed together may have their tops leaded to produce a combined effect (fig. )] two simple treatments of a sailing craft are shown in figs. and . the effect of the introduction of this design in one of the panels of a small cabinet is shown in fig. . [illustration: two designs for the tops of windows, showing treatments of sailing craft (fig. , fig. )] an example of plain glazing is shown in fig. . this is a piece of simple leading and yet very effective, involving no difficulty of construction. [illustration: example of plain glazing with cross section of glass and lead strip, also showing joint (fig. )] for this lead glazing a quantity of strip lead, the section of which is shown in fig. , will be required. this can be purchased from dealers in art-glass supplies. the lead is sold on spools and it must be straightened before it can be worked. this is most easily done by fastening one end and pulling on the other. the glass for this work must be reasonably thin as no advantage is gained by the use of thick material, and it is difficult to cut. a piece of art glass has a right and a wrong side, the side on which the spots and streaks appear is the right side, and it is cut on this side. the tools required are a glass cutter, a heavy knife and soldering appliances. [illustration: (fig. )] sketch out the lines of the design full size on paper, drawing in only one side of a symmetrical pattern and tracing the other. after the design has been prepared, the next step is to make a cutting pattern. to do this, take a piece of tracing cloth and lay it on the drawing. trace the lines and go over them with a brush dipped in black, making the lines exactly the same thickness as the core of the lead, or the thickness of the distance the glasses are separated from one another, as shown in fig. . each division is marked for the color it is to be and the paper is then cut into sections on each side of the broad line. these pieces form the patterns for cutting similar shapes from heavy cardboard which serve as templates for cutting the glass. proceed to cut the glass by laying a pattern on the right side and scoring around with the cutter guided by the pattern. little difficulty will be experienced in this work if the general design does not have very irregular shapes. [illustration: (fig. )] when the various pieces of glass have been successfully cut and are ready for leading up, arrange them in position on the preliminary sketch, and then measure the outside leads and cut one piece for each side, the lead being cut to fit against the core of the other at the joint, as shown in figs. and . proceed to cut the lead for the long curves obtaining the length by bending the strips along the lines of the design. as each is cut it will be found convenient to tack it in position on the working table by means of small brads, so as to simplify the measuring and cutting of the other parts. continue until the panel is complete, when, after truing up, it is ready for soldering. this is done in the usual way but requires extraordinary care to avoid the possibility of melting the lead. the overlapping parts of the leads are pressed well against the glass in each division to keep it from rattling. [illustration: the lead frame is first made, the long lines are put in and then the short, horizontal ones (fig. )] in making up the squares and rectangles such as appear in figs. , , , and , lead the long lines first, adding the shorter, horizontal pieces last. the sketch, fig. , will clearly illustrate this part of the work. the sketch shows the starting of the panel, fig. . [illustration: (fig. )] raising cucumbers on a trellis a novelty in cucumber culture, tried recently with great success, is as follows: as soon as the vines are about in. long, stretch wire mesh in. wide on poles alongside the row of plants and train the vines on the wire. the cucumbers will grow larger and the plants will require less care than when they are on the ground. a barrel boat a boat that any handy boy can easily make is constructed of a barrel which is kept with the opening cut in one side up by two by -in. timbers and two tie pieces, by in. the lengths of these pieces will depend on the size of the barrel. a good watertight barrel should be selected and an opening cut in the center between the hoops, of such a size as to allow the body of the occupant room for handling an oar. the timbers are attached to the barrel with iron straps--pieces of old hoops will do. the two tie pieces are put across the timbers at the ends of the barrel and spiked in place. [illustration: boat made of a barrel which is kept from capsizing by timbers attached] the boat is to be propelled with a single, double-end paddle. there is no danger of the boat capsizing or the water splashing into the barrel. homemade wing nuts a handle taken from a worn-out faucet, drilled out and threaded for a bolt, makes a good wing nut. a discarded gas-bracket key, cut off on the line aa and with the part within the dotted lines filed out, then drilled and threaded, also makes a good wing nut. [illustration: wing nuts made of discarded parts taken from a faucet or a gas bracket] a spool-and-ball puzzle procure an empty basting-thread spool and make a hole in its side, at a, just large enough to receive a / -in. steel ball. a piece of celluloid, b, is wrapped around the flanges, as shown, and fastened with small brads. an old negative film, well cleaned, is suitable for the celluloid. be sure to put the steel ball in before fastening the celluloid in place. the difficulty of the puzzle is to get the ball into the hole.--contributed by r. c. knox, waycross, ga. [illustration: the steel ball is not so easily run into the hole as it appears] to start the ink flowing from a drawing pen in order to keep the ink flowing readily from a drawing pen it must be kept clean and not allowed to stand with the ink in the nibs. a good plan is to have a small piece of velvet fastened to the drawing board or upon a small block, conveniently located where the pen may be drawn across it as in making a line. the tuft of the velvet will clean out the partly dried ink between the nibs.--contributed by h. l. woodward, washington, d. c. a pencil-sharpener stick do not discard the sandpaper stick or pencil sharpener used by a draftsman just because all the abrasive sheets have been removed. make use of it indefinitely by fitting a wedge in one edge, as shown in the illustration, to hold fresh sheets of sand or emery paper. the wedge should fit tightly so that the ends of the abrasive sheet, when wound around the block, will be held tightly. worn sheets can thus be removed and new ones applied when necessary.--contributed by chas. j. la prelle, flushing, l. i. [illustration: a wedge attachment for a pencil-sharpener stick for changing the sheets of abrasive] splice for round belts sash cords or round belts are easily spliced with a coil spring, and for belts this joint will run smooth and noiseless. the coil should be a close fit on the belt, and after turning one end halfway into the spring, the belt itself is twisted in the reverse direction as many times as there are coils remaining in the spring, before the other end is turned into it to meet the first.--contributed by f. s. cummings, detroit, michigan. [illustration: a coil spring used for splicing sash cords or small round belts] * * * * * when painting wireless instruments use black asphaltum, as it has high insulating qualities. [illustration: the main ambition of a boy mechanic is to own a lathe] amateur mechanic's combination lathe by joe v. romig the thing most desired by a young mechanic is a lathe, but the cost of these machines is usually too high to be considered by the average boy, and consequently he is hampered in executing more difficult work. the combination lathe shown in the illustration comes as near filling the wants of most boy mechanics as could be wished, the attachments making it more than a lathe so that various kinds of work other than turning may be accomplished. the materials necessary are few, and, outside of a few parts, it can be constructed by the average boy at home with ordinary tools. the material used for the construction of the frame consists of either well seasoned oak or maple, - / in. wide and - / in. thick. these timbers can be purchased surfaced on all sides, and they must be straight and true to size. the lengths to cut the pieces are given on the general drawing. the end standard at the headstock is cut to the full length so that the upper end is used as a bearing for the headstock spindle. a vise jaw, about - / ft. long and of the same kind and dimension material as the frame, is attached with screws made of bolts on the standard, at the tailstock end of the lathe. the feet are made of two boards for each standard, and are of the same material as the frame and / in. thick. after cutting the pieces to the right length, making sure that the ends are square, and boring the holes to receive the bolts snugly, they are put together, the horizontal pieces for the ways and feet at perfect right angles to the uprights. this will insure the parts running freely in the finished machine. all bolts should be supplied with a washer under both head and nut, and the nuts drawn up tightly. the headstock extends in. above the upper surface of the ways, thus making a swing of in. one of the standards of the headstock is the extension of the lathe standard, as previously mentioned; the other standard being cut - / in. long and attached with bolts between the ways in the same manner as the lathe standards are fastened. a block, in. long, is fastened between these standards to aid in holding them rigid. the bearings for the spindle, which is a piece of steel, / in. in diameter and about in. long, are made in the upper ends of the standards in the following manner: a - / in. square is laid out on the upper end of each standard, with its center exactly over the center for the shaft, and the wood is cut out to make a square hole, which should be slightly tapering one way or the other toward the center of the standard, to hold the babbitt metal used for the bearing. a / -in. hole is bored, vertically down from the upper end of each standard and in the center, to meet the square hole. this is used as a gate for pouring the melted metal in and later to make an oil hole. prepare pieces of cardboard to hold the melted metal in the square holes while it cools, by cutting them about in. square and making a hole in the center of each, / in. in diameter. two of these pieces are held between the two standards while the shaft is run through them and the square holes. paint the parts of the shaft used in the bearing with thick white lead, or wrap it with one thickness of writing paper, then line it up perfectly parallel with the ways in both directions and tack the cardboard pieces to the standards. place the remaining two cardboard disks on the ends of the shaft and tack them to the standards also. place putty over all the edges and pour melted babbitt metal into the hole at the top. when the metal is cool, remove the cardboard disks and turn the shaft, first in one direction and then in the other, until it can be taken from the bearings. a / -in. hole is then drilled through the metal in the top for an oil hole. the ends of the shaft should be threaded by a machinist, and nuts fitted to it and faced up true. the threads should be cut just long enough to allow the back of each nut to turn freely against a washer placed on the shaft against the standard. a split or solid pulley may be used, as desired, on the shaft between the standards. if a solid pulley is used, it must be slipped on the shaft as the latter is run into the bearings. [illustration: detail of the plain lathe, showing the construction of the clamp devices for the tailstock and rest slide, and the manner of attaching a vise jaw on the end of the lathe bed] the pulley is fastened to the shaft with a pin run through a hole drilled in them. if a small flywheel is attached to the outer end of the spindle it will aid in keeping a steady motion. the same procedure is carried out in the construction of the tailstock bearings. the standards for this part are about in. long and are bolted at right angles to and between two pieces that rest on top of the ways. the shaft is threaded full length, which should be done in a lathe by a machinist to get a true thread, and the melted metal run on it to make an internal thread in the bearing. a nut is run on the threads of the shaft between the standards, and provided with a small handle for use in locking the shaft when it is set on work between centers. a small handwheel is attached to the back end of the shaft, into the rim of which a handle is set to make the turning easy. the faceplate consists of a disk of metal, in. in diameter and / in. thick, attached with / -in. machine screws to a / -in. nut. the disk is drilled in various places to receive ordinary wood screws. the faceplate should be made by a machinist so that the surface of the face can be turned true. the spur center is made of a / -in. nut, drilled in opposite corners for / -in. pins, - / in. long. [illustration: detail of the various attachments for use in connection with the lathe for sawing, planing and sanding, and the shape of the tools used in turning, together with the faceplate and spur construction] the drive wheel for this lathe was taken from an old discarded washing machine. such a wheel is a very common part of various kinds of machinery and usually one that will answer the purpose can be found in a junk pile. one from to in. in diameter will be about right. a / -in. bolt is used for the shaft, which is run through the standard at the headstock end of the lathe from the outside, the threads being previously cut long enough to introduce a nut between the wheel and the standard for clamping the bolt in place. the extending threaded end of the bolt is then supplied with two nuts, one on each side of the wheel hub, and a short piece of pipe is slipped on, to make a bearing over the threads. one of the spokes is drilled and a pin inserted and fastened to receive the upper end of the pitman from the treadle. the wheel is adjusted on the shaft with the nuts on each side of the hub so that its face runs true with the pulley on the headstock. the wheels are connected with a -in. leather belt. the treadle consists of a frame built up of boards and swung in the centers at both ends on / -in. steel rods, for bearing pins, the bearings being made of wood standards with / -in. holes bored in them to receive the pins. the pitman is made of wood, its length being determined by measurement of the distance between the crank pin and the treadle-arm end when both are at their lowest point. the slide for the rest consists of a -in. square steel bar, about in. long, having a hole drilled in one end and threads cut with a / -in. tap. the rest used in this hole is made of a / -in. rod, threaded on one end and bent at right angles on the other. the clamping device for the slide is made of two bars, in. by / in., fastened to the square bar and extending down between the ways with sufficient ends beneath to attach a wooden clamp block and cam with a handle. this construction is clearly shown in the drawing. if only a lathe is required, the machine would be complete as now described, but the other attachments illustrated will greatly add to its usefulness and the owner will be well repaid by making them. attachments one table is used for the circular saw, planer head, sander, and jig saw, and it is attached on top of the headstock and tailstock standards with bolts, run through the back edge of the board and the ends of two brackets which are screwed to the back edge of the inner standards. thumb nuts are used on the bolts to aid in making the change quickly. more than one hole is provided in the back edge of the board, so that the tailstock bracket can occupy the right position for the sander or planer head, as the case may be. the holes in the bracket ends should be somewhat larger than the bolt, to allow tilting of the table. an adjusting screw is substituted for the rest, so that the table can be raised or lowered to suit the work in hand. the circular saw is in. in diameter and should have fine teeth. it is placed on the spindle threads against the nut, and held there with another nut and washer on the end of the spindle. the table is attached over the saw, and the spindle is driven at a high speed. the planer head is made of a wood block, in. long and - / in. square. a / -in. hole is bored through one way near each end, as shown in the drawing, and two steel knives, with / -in. holes coinciding with the / -in. holes in the wood, are made and attached with their edges opposite or projecting diagonally from the corners. the holes in the knives being larger than the bolts, makes the knives adjustable for setting the cutting edges. these knives may be made from an old saw blade, ground to size and one edge beveled and sharpened. a brass plate, with holes to fit the spur center, is fastened in the center of the block, on one end, and the other is centered for the cup of the tailstock screw. the adjusting screw for the table is used to regulate the cut. the sander is constructed of a wood piece, in. long and - / in. in diameter. a groove is cut in one side of the rounding surface to admit the ends of the abrasive which may be fastened there with tacks. an emery wheel can be used on the spindle in the same manner as the circular saw. procure a wheel, in. in diameter with a / -in. face and having a lead center. the hole should be bored out and tapped to fit the threads on the lathe spindle, and to have the grinding surface run true, this work should be done in a lathe by a machinist. the drawings show the construction of the jig-saw attachment. the standard on which the arms are pivoted is made of a / -in. bolt, threaded for its entire length and with a groove cut in the head and nut to receive the arm pivots. a locknut is used beneath the notched nut to hold the adjustment. two nuts and washers are used near the center of the bolt for clamping the attachment to the table. the pivots are made of sheet metal, bent and drilled as shown. the small projection at each end of the edge is raised slightly by hammering the corner of the metal. these projections prevent the arms from sliding sideways. the clamps for holding the ends of the saw blades are easily made of thin sheet steel, or brass, with a / -in. bolt and washer at the end for the clamp. the tension of the blade is secured by a piece of wire, an eyebolt and a thumb nut, connecting the rear ends of the arms as shown. the frame is driven by the spur center. the pins are removed from the center and a / -in. pin is inserted in one of the holes so that it will project / in. the pin runs in a slot cut in a brass plate that is attached to the lower arm. very serviceable tools can be made of discarded files by grinding them to shape on the emery wheel. always use a fine whetstone to finish the edge on a woodworking tool. hanging a clothesline taut the line is equipped with rings, one at each end, used for convenience in quickly hanging the line, which is then drawn taut with a lever. a screwhook is fastened in one end post and at the other end a screwhook is attached to a lever which is pivoted to the post. the lever should be about ft. long, in. thick, in. wide at one end, and - / in. wide at the other, or handle, end. a large wood screw is used to attach it to the post. a pin is placed in the post to hold the lever when the line is drawn taut.--contributed by warren e. crane, cleveland, ohio. [illustration: a lever attached on one end post makes it easy to draw the line taut] a double latch for a door [illustration] this latch is suitable for outbuildings, small shops and sheds, as it can be opened from both sides of the door and is easily applied. it consists of a rod of suitable size which is bent in the shape shown in the sketch after the rod is inserted through a hole bored near the edge of the door. the spring of the metal will hold the catch in place. maulstick used as a ruler procure a cork having the same diameter as the knob on the maulstick and make a hole in the center so that it will slide on the stick. this is very handy for using the stick as a ruler, as it forms a sliding rest. [illustration: the sliding cork and knob raises the stick so that it may be used as a ruler] hinge with a wide swing in constructing a box i needed a hinge that would carry the cover farther away from the top than the ordinary double-leaf hinge. i found that two pieces of / by / -in. wrought iron, attached in the manner shown, answered the purpose. by using round-head screws it was unnecessary to countersink the metal.--contributed by james m. kane, doylestown, pa. [illustration: the two bars provide a way to carry the cover away from the box] a detachable clamp for stairway handrails the sketch shows a handrail clamp, or holding device, which is detachable, for use on stone stairways in the winter when there is ice or snow on the steps. the clamps are made of / -in strap iron, of any desired width, conforming to the shape of the balustrade and provided with a hook at either end. to the inside end of the band an upright is riveted and to this upright is riveted an ordinary handrail holder to take the handrail. a heavy thumb screw allows the clamp to be fastened firmly to the balustrade at the outside. this is a simple and inexpensive device which affords protection against falls.--contributed by john de la mater, chicago, ill. [illustration: a detachable handrail for use on stone or concrete stairways during winter] a homemade leather punch an empty bottle-neck rifle cartridge can be easily made into a leather punch by grinding the edge of the opening sharp and cutting a hole near the top in one side. the hole is for removing the leather slugs and should be just a little larger in diameter than the inside diameter of the shell. the cartridges can be had in various sizes and almost any size of punch can be made.--contributed by merhyle f. spotts, shelby, ohio. a wood-scraper handle in using a plain scraper on the surface of wood the task grew exceedingly tiresome and i lightened the tedious work to some extent by making a handle for the scraper. the handle consisted of a piece of wood, in. thick, in. wide, and in. long. a cut was made in the edge of the wood the width of the scraper blade and about in. deep, and a bolt run through a hole bored centrally in the side, about - / in. from the lower edge. the blade was clamped in place with the bolt.--contributed by j. d. keiley, yonkers, new york. [illustration: a handle attached to a plain scraper blade makes the work much easier] polishing gunstocks the fine polish applied to gunstocks and wood parts of tools will not wear well, and if one cares for a fine finish, a much better and more durable polish can be applied as follows: soak the wood in linseed oil for a week and then rub the surface with an oil-soaked cloth for a short time every day, for a couple of weeks. a prick-punch center gauge a simple instrument for finding and marking the center of shafting, etc., can be easily made of three pieces of sheet brass and a small prick punch. [illustration: the point of the punch is quickly adjusted to the center of the work] take two pieces of stiff sheet brass, - / by in. in size, and cut two corners, / in. square, out at one end of each piece as shown in the sketch. bend the metal on the dotted line a, until it stands at an angle of deg. the part b should be bent up in the same direction, but at right angles to the plate, while the part c should be bent out only slightly. a hole should be drilled near each corner for rivets. be sure that the two plates are bent in opposite directions, then rivet them firmly together. roll one end of a strip of sheet brass, / in. wide and - / in. long, into a tube large enough to firmly hold a small steel prick punch. place the opposite end of the brass strip in between the two ends c. these ends should spring together slightly in order to hold the punch d at any height it may be placed. if accurately made, the point of the punch will be exactly in the center of the v-shaped trough. in use, to find and mark the center of a round bar, it is placed in the trough with the end just touching the point of the punch. the brass holding the punch is raised between the parts c until the point of the punch is brought as near to the center of the shaft as can be judged. press the point of the punch against the end of the shaft and turn the latter in the trough. if the punch marks a circle the center has not been found. this is corrected by slowly moving the punch up or down until the point ceases to make a circle, then the punch is tapped with a hammer to mark the exact center. a whirligig clapper a good noise maker for halloween or any other occasion, can be made by carefully following the directions here given. the box is the first thing to make. it is constructed of wood pieces, / in. thick, and consists of two ends and two sides. the ends are each - / in. square and the sides - / in. wide and in. long. these parts are nailed together with the ends lapping the sides. the ratchet wheel a is a disk of hard wood, - / in. in diameter. its rim is divided into eight equal parts, and notched with a knife as shown. it is placed in the forward end of the box on a wood axle of / -in. diameter to which it is glued. one end of this axle is squared and projects in. beyond the side of the box. the squared end passes through a square hole in the end of the crank c, which is a piece of wood / in. thick, in. wide and in. long, and is fastened with brads and glue. at the other end of the crank, a similar hole connects with a handle whittled to the shape shown at b. [illustration: detail of the parts and how they are assembled to make the clapper] a flat piece of steel spring, / in. wide and long enough to reach from the rear end of the box to the teeth of the ratchet wheel, is shaped as shown at d. the spring may be made from a stiff piece of corset steel or bicycle trousers guard. the spring is fastened with a nail through the end and box sides and a second nail passes through the sides over the spring, about in. forward from the first nail. this is to give the spring tension on the teeth. to operate the clapper, it is allowed to hang straight down, while the right hand grasps the handle and whirls the box in a circle around to the left.--contributed by c. c. fraser. box partitions as i needed a box with a number of narrow partitions and it was impossible to cut grooves for the sections without removing the bottom, i spaced off the places for the partitions with pieces of thin wood and fastened these in place with small nails clinched on the outside of the box. this method was much more rapid and satisfactory than sawing the grooves and cutting them out with a wood chisel.--contributed by james m. kane. [illustration: grooves for the partitions made with the use of small, thin strips of wood] safety catch for a flour bin a flour bin, counterbalanced to swing closed at all times, is liable to catch the arm of the one taking out flour. to make it safe, i applied the device shown in the sketch. the bin, at rest, is shown in fig. . the safety catch consists of a stick of wood, a, notched at one end, and is pivoted at b on a small bolt. two stops, c and d, are located on the side of the box to prevent the catch from being thrown out of position when the bin is quickly pulled out. these stops are nails driven into the box side. when the bin is pulled out the catch takes the position shown in fig. . the catch stick should be a little shorter than the distance the bin is pulled out, so that it may be raised to release the bin for its return.--contributed by o. f. fouche, erie, pa. [illustration: automatically operated catch to hold a flour bin out while taking flour from it (fig. , fig. )] a homemade whistle procure two empty no. gauge brass cartridge shells. cut one shell / in. shorter than the other, then flatten and bend them as shown in the sketch. the mouthpiece should be at an angle of deg. file a slot, / in. in width, about / in. from the end. file off the flange on the shorter shell so that it will fit snugly against the side of the other and solder them together. a ring may be soldered on the end of the long shell to fasten it on a chain or string. to give the whistle a shrill sound place a large shot in each shell before flattening them.--contributed by peter veneman, paterson, new jersey. [illustration: the tapering end of a cartridge shell is flattened and bent to make a whistle] how to emboss stationery a person's monogram or any special lettering embossed on stationery is quite expensive. the engraving of the dies by experts commanding high salaries, and the subsequent presswork necessary to give relief to the design upon the paper cause an expense which the economical person hesitates to accept, much as the refinement and individuality of the embossed work may be admired. but there is a way by which almost anyone may emboss stationery at home with one's own design at no expense whatever. the work is easy and the results pleasing, and monograms or lettering thus done will compare very favorably with the printer's work, especially if there is a good design to follow and the work is done with care. a little artistic ability will, of course, aid one in preparing a design, but is not essential, for the letters required may be cut from printed matter and used as a guide for tracing. there is no limit to the varieties of work possible by this process. single letters, monograms, words or designs are suitable for reproduction in raised characters. all the materials required for embossing the stationery are the envelope or paper on which the design is to appear, a stylus and a blotter. the paper should be of fair quality. if it is too thin the stylus point is likely to push through it. the linen-finished papers of medium weight and tough texture give excellent results, although almost any grade of good writing paper can be used successfully. as embossing by this process can be done well only through one thickness of paper, in working on envelopes it is best to put the design on the central portion of the flap, or turn it up and make the design in the left-hand corner of the envelope. the stylus may be any kind of a pencil-like instrument, easy to grip between the fingers, with a hard, smooth point, rounded slightly so that it will not cut the paper. the ordinary bone stiletto, used in embroidering, makes an ideal tool for this purpose. if this is not to be had, a substitute is easily whittled from a piece of hard wood. even a wire nail, with its point smoothed with a file, may be used, the upper portion being wound with string to afford a better grip. the blotter should be white, perfectly clean, and of good weight. a thin, hard blotter will not produce a good raised letter as a softer one will. when the surface of a blotter has become covered with creases from repeated use, it should be discarded and a new one substituted. [illustration: manner of holding the stylus when tracing the design on the back side of the paper] as it is best to adopt a distinctive form of monogram or design for stationery and to use it without deviation, it should be selected or worked up with care until something is outlined that will suit. with the design settled upon and drawn on a piece of paper, go over it with a soft pencil to deposit sufficient graphite for an impression. lay the pattern, face down, upon the back of the paper to be embossed, and directly opposite the spot on the other side where the raised characters are to appear. with the handle of a knife or scissors rub over the back of the pattern till the graphite has left the tracing of the design reversed on the writing paper. the pattern is now laid aside until required for transferring the design to another sheet of writing paper. lay the blotter on some smooth, hard surface, such as a desk leaf or table top and lay the writing paper on the blotter, reversed design uppermost. hold the stylus firmly at an angle as shown in the illustration and keep the blotter and paper from moving with the other hand. carefully trace the design, using considerable pressure to insure a good relief upon the opposite side of the paper. a soft eraser should be used to remove the guide marks on the back of the sheet when the relief is finished. after a little practice with a certain design, if it is not too intricate, the operator will find that it can be reproduced quite faithfully freehand, without the use of the pattern, but, of course, the use of the pattern will be the only guarantee of exact duplicates. a homemade hydrometer [illustration] the hydrometer is an instrument used in determining the specific gravity of a liquid, such as acids, etc. the specific gravity of any material is the ratio of the weights of equal volumes of the material and water. thus if a pint of acid weighs . times a pint of water, its specific gravity is said to be . . a very simple and inexpensive hydrometer, similar to the one shown in the sketch, may be easily constructed, and will give quite satisfactory results, if the scale on the instrument is carefully marked when it is calibrated. purchase from the local druggist or doctor two test tubes, one large enough to contain the other, as shown. the smaller tube is to form the hydrometer proper, while the larger one is to serve as a containing vessel in which the liquid to be tested is placed. the large tube should be mounted in a vertical position, by placing it in a hole bored in a small block of wood, or a suitable metal or wooden frame may be made that will accommodate one or more tubes. the small tube is loaded at the lower end with a quantity of shot, or other heavy metal, in such a way that it will stand in a vertical position when it is placed in a vessel of water. the amount of the loading will depend upon whether the hydrometer is to be used in determining the specific gravity of liquids heavier or lighter than water. if the liquids are heavier than water, the loading should be such that the tube is almost entirely immersed when placed in water; if lighter, only sufficient loading should be used to make the tube stand upright in water. after the amount of loading has been determined it should be fastened in place by means of a small quantity of calcined plaster. a small cork should now be placed in the open end of the tube, and the tube sealed by coating the end with shellac, or melting a small quantity of resin or sealing wax over the top of the cork with a hot soldering iron. now place in the large tube a quantity of as pure water as can be obtained--fresh rain water will answer very well and distilled water still better. immerse the small tube in the water in the large tube and allow it to come to rest. make a small mark on the small tube with a file, level with the surface of the water in the large tube. if the hydrometer is placed in a liquid lighter than water and allowed to float, the mark made on the tube will always be below the surface of the liquid in which the instrument is placed, and the mark will be above the surface of the liquid when the liquid is heavier than water. the hydrometer may be calibrated by making use of a hydrometer borrowed from the druggist or doctor. the two hydrometers should be immersed in the same liquid and the tube of the newly made instrument marked to correspond with the markings on the borrowed instrument. if the liquid is heavier than water to start with, its specific gravity can be reduced by adding water, and as the water is added the hydrometers will both rise. a stirring stick the stirring, or mixing, stick shown in the sketch deserves its name, as it will stir evenly all the way around. it consists of two flat sticks, one two-thirds the width of the other, which are nailed together as shown. the narrow one is only long enough to enter the depth of the liquid.--contributed by frank j. rempe, oakland, california. [illustration: a flat surface strikes the liquid no matter which way the stick is moved] [illustration] a telescoping support for a hinged shelf [illustration: when the shelf is lowered the support telescopes and is out of the way] the supporting arm of the hinged shelf is constructed of a piece of gas pipe and a length of iron rod which slides snugly into the pipe. a spring catch is set in the pipe at the proper height to engage the end of the iron rod when the shelf is up. this spring must be of good size, as it holds the entire weight of the shelf. a large clock spring is suitable. one end of the spring is bent outward and upward to form a releasing handle. the other end is drilled for the two machine screws which hold it to the pipe. the spring works in a rectangular slot, cut lengthwise of the pipe. the pipe must extend or in. beyond the spring. the ends of the rod and of the pipe are pivoted with screws or rivets on angle pieces screwed to the shelf and wall.--contributed by donald a. price, wilmington, del. a bug powder to secure a nonpoisonous roach and bug powder mix dry lb. plaster of paris with lb. of sugar, then add oz. of pulverized aniseed. the addition of a little corn meal will help to draw the pests.--contributed by loren ward, des moines, iowa. how the capacity of an incubator may be doubled about days after setting the incubator one may easily start another hatch by placing more eggs on top of the incubator in the following manner: make a pad about in. thick of any cotton material and place it on top of the incubator. cut four pieces of boards, by in., and fit them around the top of the incubator. nail them together as in making the sides and ends of a box. pad the inside of this frame about in. thick and tack it on top of the incubator, being careful that none of the material comes too close to the lamp. place the eggs inside of this tray and cover them with a pad about in. thick. turn the eggs the same as those on the inside. when the first hatch comes out, place the eggs kept on top in the incubator after having cleaned it with a solution of carbolic acid.--contributed by hattie j. day. homemade rivet set desiring to rivet some pieces of leather together and having no rivet set, i hastily made one from a strip of heavy sheet tin, / in. wide. this was rolled at one end, as shown in the sketch, and the other end notched to fit over the rivet end. the rolled end formed the part for setting the washer and the slotted end held the washer down while the first blows of the hammer were struck. [illustration: a strip of tin shaped to take the place of a rivet set] wash bottle for laboratory use [illustration] a large-mouth bottle neck is provided with a stopper, having three brass or glass tubes as shown, the tube a being fitted with a thick piece of rubber tubing, b, stoppered at its lower end. a slit is cut at c, and allows the air blown in through the tube a to pass into the bottle, but will close automatically and hold the pressure within the bottle. if the relief tube d is closed with the thumb the water is forced out in a steady stream through the nozzle e. the water will continue to run for some time after the lips are removed from the air tube, but the removal of the thumb from the tube d will stop the flow of water instantly.--contributed by w. schilling, san francisco, cal. typewriting on card stock anyone having tried to typewrite on cards or heavy stock has doubtless experienced much trouble in getting the card to feed properly. if at all heavy, it will resist the curving so strongly that it will not be carried around the platen, and the edge of the card is very apt to catch on the pressure rolls and cause the platen to slip. the remedy is very simple and consists in running a sheet of paper through ahead of the card until an edge of about / in. remains, then inserting the edge of the card inside of the projecting edge of the paper and turning the platen. the paper overlapping the card prevents the edge of the latter from catching on the pressure rolls and keeps it in close contact with the platen so that it will pass through without trouble.--contributed by thos. l. parker, st. paul, minn. a furniture polish a homemade furniture polish that will compare with any known polish, is composed of the following chemicals and oils. mix oz. of turpentine very gradually with oz. of linseed oil, then add oz. of grain alcohol, oz. of -per-cent acetic acid, and / oz. of butter of antimony. apply with a cloth and use a good friction. as the substance might prove harmful to children if taken internally, see that it is kept out of their reach.--contributed by loren ward, des moines, iowa. pointed end on a hoe [illustration] the rounding end on the ordinary hoe is useless in many instances for getting under growing plants, to cut out the weeds and to loosen up the earth. i find that shaping the hoe ends as shown in the sketch is very effective in getting up close to a plant and under spreading vines.--contributed by r. f. pohle, e lynn, mass. starting a siphon [illustration] roll up a soft rubber hose tightly so that it will be flattened to force out all the air and drop one end into the liquid, then let the coil unwind as it falls down on the outside. the uncoiling causes a slight vacuum in the hose and the liquid follows it up and starts the flow instantly.--contributed by l. j. monahan, oshkosh, wis. * * * * * paint spots on window glass can be readily removed with a penny. a homemade blowtorch [illustration] the torch shown in the sketch requires no air pump. instead of forcing a small stream of gasoline into a heated burner it converts the gasoline into gas in the chamber and blows a small jet of it through a very small hole into the combustion chamber. a medium-sized and strong oilcan is used for the reservoir, the spout being cut off close to the screw part and a steel or brass tube, about / in. in diameter, soldered to the stub end. the tube is bent as shown. a piece of wicking is drawn into the tube so that the upper end is within / in. of the tube end. the end of the tube is then fitted with a piece of brass rod with a very small hole in the center. the hole is made in the following manner: before the piece is cut from the rod, it is held in a vise and the sharp end of a scriber is carefully driven into the center. a little oil placed on the scriber point will keep it from sticking in the metal. measure the depth of the hole and cut the rod off just above the point. file the end of the piece cut off with a fine file until the point of the hole is reached. this hole must be so small that light can be barely seen through it. the combustion chamber is made of a piece of brass tubing driven over the end of the smaller tube on the spout. about / in. from the back end of the larger tube four or more holes are drilled to admit air to the gas. fill the can about three-fourths full of gasoline and allow time for the wick to become saturated to the upper end. hold a lighted match to the rear of the burner, and the heat will convert the gasoline into gas which will then burn with a nice white flame about in. long. the success of the torch depends altogether on the fineness of the hole in the end of the tube and the tight soldering of all the joints. a rule gauge the method of using the thumb as a gauge on a rule in scribing long boards is not always satisfactory, especially if the board has a rough edge. it is always best to have a regular gauge, but in the absence of one, an attachment for an ordinary carpenter's rule can be quickly made from a piece of tin, although one made of sheet brass is better, in appearance as well as for service. cut out the metal, as shown by the dimensions, and roll the two sides up, stopping at the dotted lines. the ends a and b are turned out slightly so that they will slide easily along the edge of the board. the gauge will snap on a rule easily and will stay where it is placed.--contributed by h. j. blacklidge, san rafael, cal. [illustration: gauge made of sheet metal which will easily snap on a carpenter's rule] a match holder [illustration] the holder consists of a small box, the same size as a match box, with a sloping spring bottom and spring wires covering the lower part of the front side. one end of the match box is removed and the contents dumped into the holder. the matches fall to the lower sloping edge, where one match at a time can be easily removed.--contributed by bert verne, san diego, cal. trick bottles and glasses by george w. catlin [illustration: under each cover used is a bottle and glass, and by pinching the cover the bottle is made to rise with it, thus leaving the glass in view] the performer presents to his audience two pasteboard covers, one bottle and one glass. saying that he wishes to secure the safety of the bottle and glass, he places covers over them, cautioning the audience to note carefully which cover incloses the glass and which the bottle. then he says that, to prevent any misunderstanding as to their positions, it is desired the audience designate which cover holds the glass. the response will be unanimous, "the left" or "the right" as the case may be, but on raising that cover the bottle is exposed. covering the bottle again, and asking the audience if they were quite sure that their eyes did not deceive them, he states that the glass is really under the cover just lifted and returned to its place. to prove it, the cover is lifted again, to show the glass this time. the changing can be done as often as desired, or will amuse the crowd. the secret of the trick consists in the use of two covers, two bottles and two glasses, and the manner of performing it is as follows: the bottles are bottomless and of such size as to admit the glass without sticking. a round hole is cut in one side of each bottle, about - / in. above the bottom. this can be accomplished in a drill press by using a round copper tube, with fine emery applied to its end, as a drill. the hole should be so placed that a finger will strike the top of the glass when both bottle and glass are set on the same surface. if dark-colored bottles are used, a false bottom can be made and fitted in each bottle above the upper edge of the glass. this bottom can be cemented in place and made liquid-tight, so that some wine may be placed in the bottle and poured into the opposite glass to show that it holds liquid. in doing this part of the trick, make no more changes with the wine in one glass. under each cover is a bottle and tumbler, and by pinching the cover, the bottle is made to rise with it, thus leaving the tumbler in view. when it is necessary to show the bottle, just raise the cover, and the bottle covers the glass. when the bottle is lifted from the table, the thumb is inserted in the hole to press the tumbler against the opposite side, where it is held and raised with the bottle. be sure to keep the side of the bottles with the hole back and away from the audience. it will be seen that it matters not which cover is mentioned; the performer can show just the article he desires. contents accounts, home, way to keep, acid siphon, acid stains, removing from cloth, addressing a roll of papers, advertising lantern slides, how to make, aerial propeller, model boat with, aeroplane, flying model, for display, aeroplane frames, braces for, aeroplane kite, aeroplane, model, joints for, air pencil to make embossed letters, air pressure, relieving, when closing record boxes, alarm clock, mission frame for, alarm, doorbell, drip-pan, fire and burglar, how to make, for sleepwalker, temperature, to designate filled storage battery, amateur mechanic's combination lathe, amperage of fuse wire, reducing, anchor posts for lawn swing, anemometer, electric, angling, , , , anti-tangle safety pin, ants, to keep away from food, application for small wounds, arbor, grape, built of poles, arm, pincushion for, armatures for small motors, armatures, small, holding for winding, 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cover, pocket for inside of, book covering, book leaves, removing ink stains from, book, support for open, bookcase or closet, portable and folding, bookholder, adjustable, bookrack, folding, books in case, holder for, books, removing finger marks from, boring a clean-edged hole, boring a long hole, bottle, cover for, glass, cutting, removing cork from, bottle-cap lifter, bottle-opening trick, bottle necks, to prevent corks sticking in bottles and glasses, trick, bottles, medicine, time indicator for, poison, simple way to mark, box, camp provision, box partitions, boxes, homemade hinges for, boy surveyor: camera surveying, plane-table surveying, plotting a camera survey, brace, drill press on ordinary, wrist, braces for aeroplane frames, bracket, shade-roller and curtain-pole, bracket, swinging electric-light, brackets, towel-roller, brake, prony, for testing small motors, brass, cleaner for, frosting, brass articles, cleaning, brass clips, tool holders made of, brass rings, turning, brass tubing, seamless, small steam-engine cylinders made from, bread, baking in hot sand, bread, toasting over an open fire, breaker, glass, broom for sweeping out corners in steps, broom holder, another, broom, old, shaping, brown stain for wood, brush for applying soldering acid, brush handles, protecting, from paint, utilizing old, brush hanger for dark room, brush, homemade, for cleaning upholstered furniture, to clean shellac from, buckle tongues, replacing, bucket, ear repair on, bucket-ball game, buffer, finger-nail, bug powder, bugs attracted by light, catching, bumper, rubber, on water faucet, bunsen burner, homemade, small, burglar alarm, fire and, how to make, burlap, needle for sewing, burner for soldering small work, homemade bunsen, small bunsen, bushing a stovepipe in a chimney hole, buttonhole cutter, buttonholes, guide for making, cabinet, bedroom, cabinet doors, homemade ball catch for, cabinet, shaving, mounted on adjustable pedestal, cabinet work, joint for, calcium deposits on glass, removing, calculation trick, lightning, caliper gauge, vise used as, camera, hand, telephoto attachment for, homemade, enlarging, mechanical, mile-o-view, multiplying, attachment for, ordinary, stereoscopic pictures with camera shutter, electrically operated, camera support, camera survey, plotting a, camera surveying, cameras, dull black for, homemade direct-view finder for camp, bed for, hanger for, lantern for, camp furnishings, camp loom, camp provision box, camp stoves, camp-fire utensils, supports for, camphor, experiments with, camps, cams, small, how to make, can covers, tight-fitting, removing, candle sconce, horn, candle-shade holder, candle, to automatically extinguish, candles, decorating, motor made of, substitute for, varnished, burn longer, candy-floss machine, how to make, cane-seat cleaner, canned foods, heated, relieving pressure for opening, canoe stove, canoe, to repair leak in, canvas, preventing mildew on, canvas shoes, cleaner for, carbon paper, renewing, card, changing pip on, magic change, card stock, typewriting on, card-and-coin trick, cards, mind-reading effect with, carrier, for fishhooks, for suitcase, milk-bottle, stove-wood, carrying stone jars, carrying two pails in one hand, cartridge belt, how to make, cartridge shells used for electrical contacts case, holder for books in, casein glue, casting rod, one-piece, castings for engine pistons, pipe caps used as, catamaran, ice boat and, catapult, catch, ball, for cabinet doors, safety, for flour bin, to hold two joining doors open, caterpillars on grapevines, destroying, cellar-door holder, cement floors, footstool for, cement, shellac, center gauge, prick-punch, centering gauge, chain, novelty, chair, bottoms, reinforcing, freezing basin to, head rest for, legs, to fasten, post, repairing broken tenon on, repairing rocker on, rocker, stop on, for baby, rockers, safety tips on, chair swing, chairs, refinishing, chalk trays, covering for, chart, compass time, cherry pitter, chickens, tin can used for watering, child's finger, cutting tin ball from, child's playhouse, child's seat for theaters, chime clock, electric, chinese pagoda, chisel edges, grinding, chisel handle, protector cap for, chisel holder for whetting, chisel rack, chopper, poultry-food, chopping block, stick holder for, clamp, detachable, for stairway handrails emergency, picture-frame and triangle, used as vise, clapper, whirligig, cleaner, cane-seat, for brass, for canvas shoes, lamp-chimney, wall-paper, , cleaning an oilstone, jewelry, how to, brass articles, clothes by boiling them, dirt from tufts in upholstering, gold and platinum, painted or frescoed walls, pearl articles, steel of grease and stains, cleaning bath for silverware, cleats on boards, substitute for, clips to hold magazine pages together, clock, electric chime, repairing worn escapement wheel of closet, bookcase or, portable and folding, closet holders for linen, cloth, delicate, removing, perspiration stains from, removing acid stains from, clothes, cleaning by boiling, clothes peg, cork-covered, wood, clothes rack, clothesline, double, supporter for, for small goods, hanging taut, clothesline posts, folding arms for, clothesline reel, clothesline reel, homemade, clothespin bag, clothespin, wire, clothing, to remove grease from, to remove rust stains from, coaster brake, repairing, coaster, homemade roller, coasting bobsled, four-passenger, coat and trousers hangers, coil springs, small, how to make, coil, water-heating, in furnace pipe, coils, induction, testing out, coin box, mystery, coin, worn, reading date of, coins, display holder for, cold-chisel guide, collar fasteners, collar holder, combination tie rack and, coloring electric-light globes, colors, setting, in fabrics, comb cleaner, compass, operation of, pencil, emergency, compass time chart, condenser, variable, connecting call bells, simple methods of, construction of simple wireless telephone set: part i, part ii, construction of small bell-ringing transformer: part i--fundamental principles, part ii--construction, cooking food in paper, cooler for milk and butter, cooling tube for laboratory still, coop, poultry, copying stand for photographic enlarging and reducing, cord, flexible, adjuster for electric flatiron, cores for use in babbitt metal, cork, large, fitting in small bottle, removing, from bottle, cork puller, , cork-covered clothes peg, corks-in-a-box trick, corks, to prevent sticking in bottle necks, corn sheller, hand, homemade, corner cleaner attached to scrubbing brush corner joints, picture-frame, corners in steps, broom for sweeping out, corrosion, protecting binding posts on wet batteries from, costumer, how to make, couch-cover corner, tying rosette in, countersink for wood, homemade, coupling, shaft, court-plaster, liquid, cover, detachable hinged, for kettles, for bottle, for magazines, slide-opening, for plate holder, cover strainer, covering for chalk trays, covering for gas-stove top, cradle, combination settee rocker and, homemade, crease in soft hat, to keep, crochet hook, croquet arches, white rubber on, croquet mallets protected by metal rings, croquet playing, night, crystallization shown on screen, cucumbers, raising on trellis, cup, paper drinking, paper drinking, how to make, curling-iron heater, curtain hanger, curtain stop, curtain, stretching, without frame, cushion, screen and storm-door, cuspidor carrier, cut press, homemade, cut, starting saw, cutter, buttonhole, cutter for lace leather, cutter made of wafer razor blade, cyclemobile, cylinders, small steam-engine, made from seamless brass tubing, dampness, keeping out, dark, locating droplight in, dark room, brush hanger for, photographer's, drying towels in, d'arsonval galvanometer, date of worn coin, reading, decorating candles, decoration, forcing fruit blossoms for, decorative wood panels, demagnetize a watch, how to, demagnetizer, watch, how to make, dents in wood, raising, desk, sloping, telephone stand for, develop roll film, easy way to, developing machine, developing tray made of tin can, developing-tray rocker, dibble, homemade, die-and-box trick, dip, bright, for metal, dip-plating process, dish or floor mop, endless, dish washing, summer, dishpan, sink a substitute for, disk-armature motor, disk-throwing pistol, display, flying model aeroplane for, display holder for coins, displaying dye colors, displaying magazines, holders for, dissolving coin trick, distance chart for wireless stations, distance marker for printing photographs, distilling apparatus for water, dog, chained, exerciser for, dogs, lathe, door, double latch for, door fastener, door hinges, locking screws in, door knobs, attaching to locks, door stop, doorbell alarm, doorbell, musical, doors, two joining, catch to hold open, doorway, fastening portière pole in, dory rudder, holder for, dovetail joint, laying out, dowel-turning tool, drafts, window ventilator to prevent, draftsmen, amateur, combination tool for, drawer, automatically closing, combination lock for, ordinary table; secret compartment in, drawer guide, nonsticking, drawers, several, locking with one lock, drawing instruments, substitutes for, drawing pen, to start ink flowing from, dressing, shoe, waterproof, drill press, homemade, homemade hand, on ordinary brace, drill, small vertical, how to make, to prevent from catching as it passes through metal, drilling thin metal, drinking cup, paper, paper, how to make, drinking glasses, separating, drinking tube, drip-pan alarm, drip pan, locating under refrigerator, driver, screweye, driving screws, droplight, locating in dark, dropper and cork for medicine bottles, dry and warm climates, refrigerator for, dry batteries, preserving, renewing, testing, dry cell, how to make, drying seeds, drying small laundered articles, drying towels in photographer's dark room, dustpan, long handle for, dye colors, displaying, ear repair on a bucket, ebony, imitating on oak, edging flower beds, egg boiler, egg-frying pan, egg separator, homemade, eggs, cracked, boiling, lifter for removing from hot water electric anemometer, electric apparatus, varnishing bases for, electric bed warmer, homemade, electric chime clock, electric display for show window, electric fishing signal, how to make, electric fixtures, curved, pulling wire through, electric flatiron, flexible-cord adjuster for, electric fountain, electric furnace, how to make, small, how to make, electric gas lighter, electric heater, how to make, electric horn, electric incubator, electric indicator, wind vane with, how to build, electric lamp flasher, how to make, electric lamp reflector for target, electric light, bicycle oil lamp changed to electric light bracket, swinging, electric light bulb as barometer, electric light globes, coloring, electric light globes, paper shades for, electric light mystery, electric lights controlled from two or more switches, electric motor, simple, how to build, electric score board for indoor games, electric shaving mug, electric stirring-machine, electric switch for exposing photographic printing-papers, electric test for fixtures, electric time light, electric water heater, , electrical apparatus-- alarm to designate filled storage battery, armatures for small motors, bed warmer, homemade, bell, continuously ringing, how to make, bell-ringing transformer, construction of small, , disk-armature motor, doorbell alarm, door lock, combination electrically operated, dry cell, how to make a, electric display for show window, electric fishing signal, electric stirring machine, electric water heater, electrotype stamp, how to make an, galvanometer, d'arsonval, galvanometer, simple, how to construct a, fire and burglar alarm, how to make a, holding small armatures for winding, musical doorbell, pocket direct-current voltmeter, quickly made rheostat, reversing switch for small motors, rheostat, how to make a small, rotary tuning coil, series motor, how to make a small, simple methods of connecting call bells, small shocking machine, telegraph sounder, homemade, temperature alarm, variable condenser, vibrator for spark coil, wet battery, homemade, wire expansion meter, wireless telephone set, construction of simple, , electrical contacts, cartridge shells used for, electrical testing instrument for experimenters, electrically ignited flash light for making photographs, electrically operated camera shutter, electrically operated door lock, combination, electrodes, furnace, of lead pencils, electrolytic interrupter, how to make, electroplating, inlaying-metals by, electroplating without a tank, electrotype stamp, how to make, ellipsograph, homemade, emboss stationery, how to, embossed letters, air pencil to make, emery-cloth holder, engine, homemade steam-turbine, engine pistons, pipe caps used as castings for, engine, thermo, atmospheric, enlarging camera, homemade, enlarging photographs, enlarging pictures, envelope and stamp moistener, envelope, special, to make, eraser holder, eraser, ink, escapement wheel of clock, repairing worn exerciser for a chained dog, exerciser, homemade, expansion meter, wire, experiment, interesting, interesting vacuum, experimenters, electrical testing instrument for, experiments with camphor, exterior sliding fly screen, extracting a broken screw, extractor, sliver, eye shield for microscope, fabrics, setting colors in, falling-blocks, how to make, fastener, door, bed-cover, collar, fastening loose table legs, fastening screws in tile and brick walls, faucet, water, rubber bumper on, feeding-table, turn, for birds, felt, mending break in, fencing, poultry, stretching, ferris wheel, playground, ferrule, taper, how to make, figures, puzzle with, file, inexpensive, filing flat surfaces, filing soft metals, film-developing machine, adjustable, film, roll, easy way to develop, filter, automatic, force, laboratory, in a pump spout, water, finder for cameras, homemade direct-view, finger marks, removing from books, finger nail buffer, finger protection on laboratory vessels, finger-ring trick, fire and burglar alarm, how to make, fireflies, theatrical night scene with appearance of, fish, game, attractor for, preventing loss of, from covered baskets, to hold while removing scales, fish rake, fish-scaling knife, fish stringer, fishhooks, carrier for, carrying in, cane pole, fishing, live bait used in, fishing-rod joints, holding together, fishing-rod making and angling: part i--a one-piece casting rod, part ii--various two and three-piece rods, part iii--trout fishing with fly and bait part iv--trout fishing with fly and bait fishing signal, electric, how to make, fishing, trout, with fly and bait, , fitting large cork in small bottle, five-pointed star, fixtures, electric test for, gas and electric, locating in dark flash light, electrically ignited, for making photographs, flash light telegraph on kite line, flasher, electric lamp, how to make, sunlight, for garden, flashing hook, flat surfaces, filing, flatiron, electric, flexible-cord adjuster for, flatiron holder, ornamental metal, floor or dish mop, endless, floor polisher, homemade, floor push button, flour bin, safety catch for, flower beds, edging, flower trellis, umbrella used as, flowers, preserving, in color and form, flutter ring, how to make, flying model aeroplane for display, flymobile, how to make, flypaper holder, folding arms for clothesline posts, folding bookrack, food, cooking, in paper, food, to keep ants away from, foot boats, how to make, footstool for cement floors, form, stocking-stretcher, fortune teller, mystic, fountain attachment for ordinary pen, fountain, electric, fountain for ordinary pen, fountain-pen barrels, mending broken, fountain pen, homemade, frame for printing post cards from negatives, frames, small mitered, gluing, freezing basin to chair, freezing, to prevent poultry water from, frosting brass, frosting glass, fruit blossoms for decoration, forcing, fruit-jar opener, fruit jars, screw-top, opening, fruit presser, fruit stemmer, funnel, automatic valve for, furnace, electric, how to make, furnace electrodes of lead pencils, furnace pipe, water-heating coil in, furnace, small electric, how to make, furnishings, camp, furniture-- bedroom cabinet, bookrack, chair swing, combination settee rocker and cradle, costumer, how to make, double top for table, folding bookrack, footstool for cement floors, jardinière pedestal, leaded-glass panels for, mission, joint for, reed--a reed basket, shaving cabinet, woven-top stool, furniture polish, , for fine woods, fuse wire, reducing amperage of, galvanometer, d'arsonval, simple, how to construct, game, bucket-ball, indoor baseball, played on ice, ring-throwing, indoor, electric score board for, garden-bed scarecrow, garden roller, garden, sunlight flasher for, gas and electric fixtures, locating in dark, gas generator, laboratory, gas lighter, electric, gas pipe, paper, gas stove top, covering for, gasoline consumption of automobile, to reduce, gate, double-swing, with common hinge, gate fasteners, gate, self-closing, gauge, attachment for pocket rule, centering, homemade marking, prick-punch center, rule, gear-cutting machine, generator, gas, laboratory, geometric principle in line division, glass bottle, cutting, glass breaker, glass, frosting, removing calcium deposits on, removing paint from, glasses, drinking, separating, trick bottles and, glaziers' points, substitute for, glider, ice, monoplane, how to make, paper, that loops the loop, tandem monoplane, glue, casein, glue-spreader holder, gluing small mitered frames, go-cart, runner for, gold and platinum, cleaning, graduate holder, graduate, homemade, graduates, renewing markings on, graining tools, homemade, grape arbor built of poles, grapevines, destroying caterpillars on, grass rake, grease, removing from paint, to remove from clothing, green-corn holder, grinder, kraut and root, grinding a plane iron, guide for, grinding chisel edges, grinding scissors, grindstone, scraping surplus water off on, guard, pruning-saw, guide, cold-chisel, for grinding a plane iron, for making buttonholes, for mill file, guide ropes on bobsled, guides, window-shade, gun, pea-shooting, gunstocks, polishing, hacksaw frame, adjustable, homemade, hairpin, fancy, lock for, hammer, double-claw, for pulling nails straight, hammock, to tie, hand drill press, homemade, hand hoe, handbag lock, handballs, inflating, handle, attachment for sickle, long, for dustpan, new pail-cover, scraper, hunting-knife, handrails, stairway, detachable clamp for, hanger, curtain, for the camp, kitchen utensil, hangers, coat and trousers, for barn tools, hanging vase, hat hanger, hat sweatband, reducing size of, head rest for chair, heater, curling iron, electric, how to make, electric water, heel plates, heliograph, how to make, hindoo sand trick, hinge, small spring, strap, applying, with wide swing, hinges, door, locking screws in, for boxes, homemade, homemade, used to substitute night bolt, hoe, hand, pointed end on, holder, broom, another, candle-shade, cellar-door, for books in a case, for garden-hose nozzle, for loose window glass, for milk card, for set of sadirons, for skates while sharpening, green-corn, milk-ticket, nursing-bottle, paper-bag, pen and brush, pencil, umbrella, for display purposes, washbasin, holders for displaying magazines, hole, boring-clean-edged, long, boring, home accounts, way to keep, hook, crochet, flashing, key-holder, hooks, homemade snap, horn candle sconce, horn, electric, mechanical bicycle, hose attachment for watering window plants, hose nozzle, hose-nozzle handle, hose reel, substitute for, hot dish, holding spoon on, houses made of poles, hulling walnuts, , humidity indicator, how to make, humidor, how to make, hunting-knife handles, hurdle, how to make, hydroelectric-power plant, small, hydrometer, homemade, ice boat and catamaran, ice-box lights, automatically controlled, ice boxes, to remove odors from, ice, creeper for shoe heels, game played on, glider, pushmobile racer for, illuminating-an outside thermometer, illusion, optical, imitating ebony on oak, incubator, electric, to double capacity of, indicator, humidity, how to make, polarity, indoor games, baseball game, bucket-ball game, electric score board for, ring-throwing game, induction coils, testing out, inexpensive file, inflating handballs, inflating toy balloons, ink bottle, pen rack on, ink eraser, ink stains, removing from book leaves, ink, to start flowing from drawing-pen, inkstand, mission style, tilting, inkwell and penholder, inkwell stopper, inlaying metals by electroplating, insect-proof poultry roost, iodine stains, removing, iron holder knob, substitute for, iron, how to nickel or silverplate by friction, ironing-board holder, ivory, bleaching, jardinière pedestal, jelly-straining stand, jewelry, how to clean, jig-saw blades, joints, for cabinet work, for mission furniture, for model aeroplane, tenoned, how to lock, kettle-handle support, kettle handle, to protect from heat, kettles, detachable hinged cover for, key-holder hook, keyhole, light in, kitchen utensil-- baking-pan shoes, adjustable, bottle-cap lifter, broom holder, cherry pitter, cork puller, , cover for a bottle, cover strainer, egg boiler egg-frying pan, egg separator, homemade fish-scaling knife, fruit jar opener, fruit stemmer, grinder, kraut and root hanger for, kettle handle, protecting from heat, kettle-handle support, kettles, detachable hinged cover for, knife holder on frying pan, lamp-chimney cleaner, lard and fruit presser, lifter for removing eggs from hot water, nutcracker, adjustable, opening screw-top fruit jars, pail-cover handle, new, potato peeler, scraper for, scrubbing brush, corner cleaner attached to, skimmer for bottled milk, skimming-spoon, soap shake, steam, opening for, in utensil cover, strainer for milk pail, tablespoon end used as lemon squeezer, vegetable slicer, kite, aeroplane, kite line, cutaway for toy parachutes, flash-light telegraph on, traveler, toy parachute cut-away for, kite, war, how to make, knife, fish-scaling, knife handle, broken, repairing, knife holder on a frying pan, knife, homemade palette, knife, to make open easily, knives and glasses, trick with, kraut and root grinder, labels, old, to make scratch pads of, laboratory force filter, laboratory gas generator, laboratory still, cooling tube for, laboratory vessels, finger protection on, laboratory, wash bottle for use in, lamp, bicycle oil, changed to electric light lamp chimney cleaner, lamp deception, wireless-lighted, lamp flasher, electric, how to make, landing for small boats, lantern for camp, lantern for spot and colored lights, lantern slide binding machine, lantern slides, advertising, how to make, lard and fruit presser, large hole in small piece of paper, latch, double, for door, lathe, amateur mechanics' combination, bench, dogs, filing small rods in, sander mandrel for, wood, how to make, laundered articles, drying small, laundry, how to make copper stencil for marking, lawn mower, lighting, for use at night, lawn sprinkler, homemade, lawn sprinkling, nozzle angle for, lawn swing, anchor posts for, lawn-tennis marker, laying out a dovetail joint, lead pencils, furnace electrodes of, lead pipe, painting, leaded-glass panels for furniture, leak in a canoe, to repair, leather, lace, cutter for, leather punch, homemade, leather punch, pipe used as, leather, tan, to color black, leather work, arts-crafts, , leaves, falling, in nature scene, lemon squeezer, tablespoon end used as, letter scale, how to make, lettering photographs, letters, embossed, air pencil to make, letters for marking bags, homemade, level of liquids, in vessels, to maintain constant, lifter for removing eggs from hot water, light, bathroom, to operate automatically catching bugs attracted by, electric time, in a keyhole, ice-box, automatically controlled, spot and colored, lantern for, lighting a basement light, lighting a lawn mower for use at night, lighting a room for making photographs, line division, geometric principle in, linen, closet holders for, liquid court-plaster, liquids, heavy, vent for pouring, liquids in vessels, to maintain constant level of, lock, common, making less pickable, door, combination electrically operated, for a drawer, combination, for fancy hairpin, handbag, window, lock keeper, broken, repair for, locking extension table, window catch used for, locking screws in door hinges, locking several drawers with one lock, locks, attaching door knobs to, loom, camp, loose-leaf pocket memorandum, homemade, loss of fish from covered baskets, preventing, machine for sketching pictures, machine screws, small, how to start, machinery, oiling bright parts of, magazine pages, clips for holding together, magazines, binding, cover for, holders for displaying, magic change card, magic string, magnetic-suspension pendulum, mailing tube, homemade, securing papers in, mandrel, sander, for lathe, mantel picture frames made in plaster, marble, repairing, marker, lawn-tennis, marking bags, homemade letters for, marking gauge, homemade, markings on graduates, renewing, marks from basting threads on wool, preventing, match-box holder, safety, match box, self-feeding, match holder, match safe to deliver one match at a time, maulstick used as ruler, measuring length of wire wound on spool, meat saw and knife, combination, mechanical aid to singers, mechanical bicycle horn, mechanical camera, medicine bottles, dropper and cork for, time indicator for, medicine-spoon holder, mending a break in felt, merry-go-round pole, merry-go-round, skating, metal, bright dip for, metal polish, metal rings, croquet mallets protected by, metal, thin, drilling, metals, inlaying, by electroplating, metals, soft, filing, meter, water, homemade, meter, wire expansion, microscope, eye shield for, mildew on canvas, preventing, mile-o-view camera, milk and butter, cooler for, milk-bottle carrier, milk-bottle tray, milk, bottled, skimmer for, milk card, holder for, milk pail, strainer for, milk stool, milk-ticket holder, mill file, guides for, mind-reading effect with cards, mirror an aid in rowing a boat, mirror hinged to window casing, mission frame for an alarm clock, mission furniture, joint for, mission-style inkstand, miter box, picture-frame, homemade, mixing sulphuric acid, model aeroplane, flying, for display, joints for, model boat, with aerial propeller, steam-turbine model work, bearings for, moistener, envelope and stamp, stamp, molding-sawing block used on bench, moles, to prevent from damaging growing seeds, monorail sled, how to make, mop, endless dish or floor, mop wringer, how to make, mortises, guide for cutting, mosquitoes, trapping, motion-picture, camera, and, projector, homemade: part i, part ii, part iii, motion-picture machine, simple, motor, disk-armature, made of candles, simple electric, how to build, small series, how to make, water, how to make, motorboat, repairing bruised sides of, motors, prony brake for testing small, small, armatures for, small, reversing switch for, mouse trap, , multiplying attachment for camera, musical doorbell, muskrat trap, mysteries, tricks, illusions, etc.-- bottle-opening trick, card and coin trick, changing pip on a card, corks-in-a-box trick, die-and-box trick, dissolving-coin trick, electric-light mystery, finger-ring trick, flutter ring, hindoo sand trick, lightning-calculation trick, magic-change card, magic string, mysterious revolving wheel, mystic fortune teller, optical illusion, mysteries, tricks, illusions, etc.--"q" trick, ring trick, rubber-band-change trick, string-and-ball trick, surprise water bottle, swinging-pendulum trick, trick bottles and glasses, trick of taking dollar bill from apple, trick with knives and glasses, tricks performed with thumbs tied together, mystery coin box, mystery, trunk, mystic fortune teller, nail, finishing, to clinch, name, writing reversed on paper placed on forehead, nature scene, falling leaves in, needle and thread tray, combination, needle box for talking machines, needle for repairing screens, needle for sewing burlap, needle-spray nozzle, negative, to hold in printing frame, newspaper holder, clothespin, nickel or silverplate iron by friction, how to, night bolt, hinges used to substitute, night croquet playing, nonsticking drawer guide, nozzle angle for lawn sprinkling, nozzle, garden-hose, holder for, hose, needle-spray, novelty chain, nursing-bottle holder, nutcracker, adjustable, nuts, different-size, wrench for, homemade wing, wing, how to make, oak, imitating ebony on, oar holder, oarlocks, rope, odors, to remove from ice boxes, oil burner for cook stove, oilcloth, to prevent from cracking, oiling bright parts of machinery, oilstone, cleaning, repairing broken, old-oak stain, opener, fruit-jar, opening for air at top of shade, opening for steam in utensil cover, operation of compass, optical illusion, pad for percolator, paddle-wheel boat, how to build, pagoda, chinese, pail cover handle, new, pail hook for pitcher pump, pail, live-bait, pails, carrying two in one hand, paint brushes, care of, paint, preserving in open cans, protecting brush handles from, removing from glass, removing grease from, painted or frescoed walls, to clean, painting lead pipe, paints and pastes, preserving, palette knife, homemade, pan, egg-frying, panels, decorative wood, leaded-glass, for furniture, pantograph, homemade, paper, carbon, renewing, paper drinking cup, paper drinking cup, how to make, paper gas pipe, paper glider that loops the loop, paper, large hole in small piece of, paper perforator, paper shades for electric-light globes, paper smoother and penwiper, paper transparent, to make, paper-bag holder, paper-pulp utensils, mending, papers, addressing roll of, papers in mailing tube, securing, parachute cut-away for kite lines, toy, partitions, box, pearl articles, cleaning, pea-shooting gun, pedestal, jardinière, peeler, potato, pen and brush holder, pen, ordinary, fountain attachment for, ordinary, fountain for, substitute for, pen rack on an ink bottle, pencil compass, emergency, pencil holder, pencil rack, pencil sharpener, pencil sharpener stick, pencil sharpening guide, pencil stubs, use for, pendulum, magnetic-suspension, penholder, inkwell and, substitute, penwiper, paper smoother and, percolator, pad for, perforator, paper, perspiration stains, removing from delicate cloth, photo printing, timing, photo vignetter, photograph prints, timing, photograph, radium, how to make, photographer's dark room, drying towels in, photographic appliances and processes-- brush hanger for dark room, camera support, developing machine, developing tray made of tin can, developing tray rocker, dull black for cameras, easy way to develop roll film, electric stirring machine, electrically operated camera shutter, film-developing machine, adjustable, frame for printing post cards from negatives, holding prints in a liquid-filled tray, homemade enlarging camera, homemade motion-picture camera and projector, , , lighting a room for making photographs, mile-o-view camera, multiplying attachment for camera, photographic print washer, slide-opening cover for plate holder, stereoscopic pictures with, ordinary camera, tank development methods used in tray development, telephoto attachment for hand camera, to hold negative in printing frame, trimming photographs, view finder, direct, for cameras, washing photographic prints, , photographic, enlarging, and, reducing, copying stand for, printing, frame,, attached back for, printing, papers,, electric switch for exposing, print washer, simple, prints, washing, tray-rocking stand, worktable for small quarters, photographs, distance marker for printing, electrically, ignited, flash light for making, enlarging, lettering, lighting room for making, spirit, submarine, trimming, picture frame and triangle clamp, picture-frame corner joints, picture-frame miter box, homemade, picture frames, mantel, made in plaster, pictures, enlarging, machine for sketching, magazine, transferring, stereoscopic, with ordinary camera, pin tray, brass, pincushion for the arm, pip, changing, on card, pipe caps used as castings for engine pistons pipe, connecting to sheet metal, pipe used as leather punch, pipes, frozen, thawing out, pistol, disk-throwing, pitter, cherry, plane iron, guide for grinding, plane, rabbet, how to make, plane-table surveying, planing, arrow sticks, rough-grain boards, thin boards, bench stop for, plant shelf for window, planting seeds in egg shells, plants, watering at roots, window, hose attachment for watering, plaster, mantel picture frames, made in, plaster of paris, retarder of, plate hangers, plates, heel, platinum, gold and, cleaning, playground ferris wheel, playhouse, child's, plots, to enlarge or reduce, pocket for inside of book cover, pocket memorandum, homemade loose-leaf, pocket rule, gauge attachment for, pocket, utility bed, home or traveling, pointed end on hoe, poison bottles, simple way to mark, polarity indicator, pole, bamboo, uses for, pole, merry-go-round, poles, houses made of, polish, furniture, , furniture, for fine woods, metal, polisher, floor, homemade, polishing gunstocks, pop-corn popper, popgun, toy, porch swing, springs on chains of, portable and folding bookcase or closet, portière pole, fastening in doorway, post cards, frame for printing from negatives, post, removable, postal cards, wood, potato peeler, potted plants, adjustable rod for, poultry coop, poultry fencing, stretching, poultry-food chopper, poultry roost, insect-proof, poultry shade, poultry water, to prevent from freezing, poultry yards, automatic watering system for, powder, bug, power, light, windmill for, power plant, small hydroelectric, power, revolving shaft without, power windmill, preserving flowers in color and form, preserving paint in open cans, preserving paints and pastes, press, homemade cut, presser, lard and fruit, pressure, relieving,, on heated canned foods for opening, prick-punch center gauge, printing frame, to hold negative in, prints, holding in liquid-filled tray, photographic, timing, photographic, washing, , profiles, aid in sketching, projecting protractor readings, prony brake for testing small motors, propeller wheel attachment, hand, for rowboat, propellers for hand sled, protection, finger, on laboratory vessels, protector cap for chisel handle, protractor readings, projecting, provision box, camp, pruning-saw guard, puller, staple, , pulling nails straight, double-claw hammer for, pulling wire through curved electric fixtures, pulse beats, reading, with sun's rays, pump, pitcher, pail hook for, pump spout, filter in, punch, homemade leather, purse, puzzle, push button, floor, pushmobile race, pushmobile racer for ice, putty, how to preserve, removing old, puzzle, purse, spool-and-ball, with figures, "q" trick, rabbet plane, how to make, race, pushmobile, rack, chisel, clothes, pencil, radium photograph, how to make, raft, swimming, rake, fish, grass, razor blade, wafer, cutter made of, razor blades, discarded wafer, use for, reading date of worn coin, reducing amperage of fuse wire, reed furniture--a reed basket, reel, clothesline, homemade clothesline, hose, substitute for, refinishing chairs, reflector, electric lamp, for target, reflector for viewing scenery from car window, refrigerator for dry and warm climates, refrigerator, locating drip pan under, reinforcing chair bottoms, removable post, removing basketball from closed-bottom receptacle, removing tight-fitting can covers, renewing dry batteries, repairing, broken lock keeper, broken ball-clasp purse, broken knife handle, coaster brake, worn stop cock, broken oilstone, broken tenon on chair post, broken whip, rocker on chair, worn, escapement wheel of clock, worn thimble, resistance-wire connections, small, welding, retarder for plaster of paris, reversing switch for small motors, revolving shaft without power, revolving wheel, mysterious, rheostat, quickly made, small, how to make, ring, flutter, how to make, ring-throwing game, ring trick, rings, brass, turning, rivet set, homemade, riveting, soldering and, robe, automobile, how to make, rocker, developing-tray, rocker on chair, repairing, rod, adjustable, for potted plants, rod, casting, one-piece, rods, small, filing in lathe, rods, various two and three-piece, roll of papers, addressing, roller coaster, homemade, roller, garden, roller, homemade towel, roller skate on bicycle wheel, roller skating, beginner's helper for, rope oarlocks, rosette, tying, in couch-cover corner, rotary tuning coil, rowboat, hand propeller-wheel attachment for, rowing a boat, mirror an aid in, rubber-band-change trick, rubber stamp, substitute for, rubber, white, on croquet arches, rubbing slats for washing board, rudder, dory, holder for, rule gauge, ruler, maulstick used as, ruling blank books, runner for go-cart, rust and corrosion, preserving shafting from, rust stains, to remove from clothing, sack holder, sadirons, holder for set of, safety catch for flour bin, safety pin, anti-tangle, safety tips on chair rockers, safety match-box holder, sail for a boy's wagon, sander mandrel for lathe, sandpapering machine, emergency, saw and knife, combination meat, saw cut, starting, sawbuck, holding wood in, scale, letter, how to make, scales, to hold fish while removing, scarecrow, garden-bed, scene, theatrical night, with appearance of fireflies, scenery, reflector for viewing from car window, scissors, grinding, scissors sharpener, sconce, horn candle, scorching, to prevent baking ovens from, score board, electric, for indoor games, scraper, handle, kitchen-utensil, shoe, scratch pads of old labels, to make, screen and storm-door cushion, screen, crystallization shown on, screen-door spring, homemade, screen, fly, exterior sliding, screen, tacking on frame, screens, needle for repairing, screw, broken, extracting, screw, small vise, how to make, screweye driver, screws, driving, in tile and brick walls, fastening locking, in door hinges, small machine, how to start, scrubbing brush, corner cleaner attachment for, secret compartment in ordinary table drawer, seed receptacle for bird cages, seeds, drying, growing, to prevent moles from damaging, in egg shells, planting, self-feeding match box, settee rocker and cradle, combination, setting colors in fabrics, sewing-box, window-seat, sewing burlap, needle for, sextant, simple, shade and awning, combined, shade, opening for air at top of, paper, for electric-light globes, poultry, shade roller, and curtain-pole bracket, attached to upper window sash, to prevent from unwinding shaft coupling, shaft, revolving, without power, shafting, preserving from rust and corrosion, sharpener, pencil, sharpener, scissors, shaving cabinet mounted on adjustable pedestal, shaving-mug, electric, sheet metal, connecting pipe to, sheet music, preparing for turning, shelf, cupboard-door spice-box, easy way to make, hinged, telescoping support for, wire mesh used as, shellac cement, shellac, stick, how to make, shellac, to clean from brush, shocking machine, small, shoe dressing, waterproof, shoe hanger, shoe heels, ice creeper for, shoe pull made of eyelet, shoe scraper, shoes, cleaning and polishing, shoes, stretching tight-fitting, shoe-shining stand, shoestring end, show-window attraction, novel, show window, electric display for, sickle, handle attachment for, signal, electric fishing, how to make, silverware, cleaning bath for, singers, mechanical aid to, sink a substitute for dishpan, siphon, acid, compensating, starting, to start, skates, holder for while sharpening, skates made of wood, skating merry-go-round, sketching pictures, machine for, sketching profiles, aid in, ski staff, how to make, skiff, how to build, skimmer for bottled milk, skimming spoon, skis, back thrust prevented on, homemade, sled, hand, propellers for, monorail, how to make, steering, sleepwalker, alarm for, slicer, vegetable, slide-opening cover for plate holder, sliver extractor, smoking, to prevent torch lights from, snap hooks, homemade, snowball maker, snowball thrower, snowshoes, how to make and use them: part i--shapes of snowshoes, part ii--making the shoe, snowshoes, shapes of, soap shake, soft hat, to keep crease in, softening tone of talking machine, soldering acid, brush for applying, soldering and riveting, soldering small work, burner for, sounder for wireless-telegraph messages, sounder, telegraph, homemade, spark coil, vibrator for, spice-box shelf, cupboard-door, spirit photographs, splice for round belts, splinter, to remove from flesh, spool and ball puzzle, spool, non-rolling, thread, non-rolling, twine, wire wound on, measuring length of, holding on hot dish, skimming, spot and colored lights, lantern for, spring hinge, small, spring, homemade screen-door, springboard, springs on chains of porch swing, springs, small coil, how to make, sprinkler, homemade lawn, sprocket, rear bicycle, removing, squaring wood stock, stain, brown, for wood, old-oak, stains, acid, removing from cloth, iodine, removing, rust, to remove from clothing, vegetable, removing, stairway handrails, detachable clamp for, stamp, electrotype, how to make, stamp moistener, stand, shoe-shining, telephone, for sloping desk, washtub, staple puller, , star, five-pointed, start small machine screws, how to, stationery, how to emboss, steam-engine cylinders, small, made from seamless brass tubing, steam-turbine boat, model, steam-turbine engine, homemade, steel, cleaning of grease and stains, steering sled, a, stemmer, fruit, stencil, copper, for marking laundry, how to make, stereoscopic pictures with an ordinary camera, stick for lowering top sash of window, stick holder for chopping block, stick shellac, how to make, still, laboratory, cooling tube for, stilts, adjustable, stirring machine, electric, stirring stick, stocking-stretcher form, stone jars, carrying, stool, milk, stool, woven-top, stop cock, worn, repairing, stop, curtain, stop, door, stop on chair rocker for baby, stopper, inkwell, storage battery, filled, alarm to designate stove, camp, canoe, cook, oil burner for, stovepipe, bushing in chimney hole, stove-wood carrier, strainer, cover, strainer for milk pail, strap hinge, applying, straw hat, to hold on head, strawberries, clean, growing, stretching a curtain without a frame, stretching poultry fencing, stretching tight-fitting shoes, string and ball trick, string, magic, stringer, fish, submarine photographs, substitute for, a hose reel, a rubber stamp, broken bench-vise nut, candles, cleats on boards, glaziers' points, iron-holder knob, pen, penholder, drawing instruments, suitcase, carrier for, sulphuric acid, mixing, summer dish washing, sunlight flasher for garden, support, kettle-handle, support, telescoping, for hinged shelf, supporter for double clothesline, supports for camp-fire utensils, surprise water bottle, survey, camera, plotting a, surveying, camera, surveying, plane-table, surveyor, boy, , , surveyor's transit, how to make, sweatband, hat, reducing size of, sweeping compound, swimming raft, swimming--springboard, swing, chair, swinging-pendulum trick, switches, electric lights controlled from two or more, table, double top for, table legs, loose, fastening, table, old, use for, table top, workbench equipment for, tablespoon end used as lemon squeezer, tack puller, emergency, tack puller, homemade, tacking a screen on frame, talking machine, needle box for, remodeling, softening tone of, tan leather, to color black, tank-development methods used in tray development, tannin stains, removing from teacups, taper ferrule, how to make, taps, small, making, target, electric-lamp reflector for, teacups, removing tannin stains from, telegraph code on typewriter keys, telegraph, flash-light, on kite line, telegraph sounder, homemade, telephone stand for sloping desk, telephoto attachment for hand camera, temperature alarm, tennis net, tightening, tenon on chair post, repairing broken, tenoned joint, how to lock, tent, wall pockets in, testing dry batteries, testing instrument, electrical, for experimenters, thawing out frozen pipes, theaters, child's seat for, theatrical night scene with appearance of fireflies, thermo engine, atmospheric, thermometer, outside, illuminating, thimble, repairing worn, thread spool, non-rolling, threads on wood shafts, tie a hammock, to, tie rack and collar holder, combination, tie-pin holder, tightening a tennis net, tilting inkstand, time chart, compass, time indicator for medicine bottles, time light, electric, timing photo printing, timing photograph prints, tin ball, cutting from child's finger, tin can used for watering chickens, toasting bread over an open fire, tone of talking machine, softening, tongue holder for boy's wagon, tongue of a shoe, holding in place, tongues, buckle, replacing, tool for amateur draftsmen, combination, tool holders made of brass clips, tools, homemade graining, top, double, for table, torch lights, to prevent from smoking, torch, small, tourniquet, emergency, towel roller, towel roller brackets, towel roller, homemade, towels, drying, in photographer's dark room, toy balloons, inflating, toy bank, homemade, toy parachute cut-away for kite lines, toy parachutes, kite-line cutaway for, toy popgun, transferring magazine pictures, transformer, small bell-ringing, construction of, , transit, surveyor's, how to make, transparent paper, to make, trap, mouse, , muskrat, traveler, kite-line, tray, brass pin, combination needle and thread, developing, made of tin can, holding prints in liquid-filled, milk-bottle, tray development, tank-development methods used in, tray-rocking stand, photographic, trellis, flower, umbrella used as, trellis, raising cucumbers on, trick, bottle-opening, bottles and glasses, card-and-coin, corks-in-a-box, die-and-box, dissolving-coin, finger-ring, hindoo sand, lightning-calculation, taking dollar bill from apple, "q", ring, rubber-band-change, string-and-ball, swinging-pendulum, trick with knives and glasses, tricks performed with thumbs tied together, trousers hanger, trout fishing with fly and bait, , trunk mystery, tube, drinking, tuning coil, rotary, turning brass rings, twine ball holder, simple, twine cutter for use at wrapping counter, twine spool, typewriter keys, telegraph code on, typewriting on card stock, umbrella holder for display purposes, umbrella used as flower trellis, upholstered furniture, homemade brush for cleaning, upholstering, cleaning dirt from tufts in, utensil cover, opening for steam in, utensils, camp-fire, supports for, paper-pulp, mending, vacuum experiment, interesting, valve, automatic, for funnel, vane, wind, varnish, removing, varnished candles burn longer, varnishing bases for electric apparatus, vase, hanging, vaulting-pole attachments, vaulting-pole holder, vegetable slicer, vegetable stains, removing, vent for pouring heavy liquids, ventilator, window, to prevent drafts, vessels, laboratory, finger protection on, vibrator for spark coil, vignetter, photo vise, bench, homemade, clamp used as, homemade bench, attaching to bench, vise screw, small, how to make, vise used as caliper gauge, voltmeter, pocket direct-current, wagon, boy's, sail for, tongue holder for, wall pockets in tent, wall-paper cleaner, , walls, painted or frescoed, to clean, tile and brick, fastening screws in, walnuts, hulling, , war kite, how to make, wash bottle for laboratory use, washbasin bottom, to prevent from wearing out, washbasin holder, washboard, to prevent from slipping in tub, washer, simple photographic-print, washing board, rubbing slats for, washing photographic prints, washtub stand, wastebasket, wire, rim of wrapped with felt, waste-paper basket, watch demagnetizer, how to make, watch, how to demagnetize, water bottle, surprise, water, distilling apparatus for, water filter, water heater, electric, , water heating coil in furnace pipe, water meter, homemade, water motor, how to make, water, surplus, scraping off on grindstone, water wheel, how to make, watering plants at roots, watering system, automatic, for poultry yards, watering window plants, hose attachment for, waterproof shoe dressing, welding small resistance-wire connections, wet batteries, protecting binding posts on from corrosion, wet battery, homemade, wheel, mysterious revolving, whetting block, whetting, chisel holder for, whip, repairing broken, whirligig clapper, whistle, whistle, homemade, whitewash, to make stick to surfaces coated, wind vane, wind vane with electric indicator, how to build, winding, holding small armatures for, windmill for light power, windmill, power, window casing, mirror hinged to, window catch used for locking extension table, window glass, loose, holder for, window lock, window, plant shelf for, window sash, to prevent from freezing to sill, window sash, upper, shade roller attached to, window-seat sewing box, window-shade guides, window, stick for lowering top sash of, window ventilator to prevent drafts, wing nut, how to make, wing nuts, homemade, winter sports, devices for-- bobsled, coasting, four-passenger, bobsled, guide ropes on, bobsled, inexpensive, game played on ice, ice boat and catamaran, ice glider, monorail sled, propellers for hand sled, pushmobile racer for ice, skates made of wood, skating merry-go-round, ski staff, skis, back thrust prevented on, skis, homemade, snowball maker, snowball thrower, snowshoes, how to make and use them, , steering sled, wire clothespin, wire expansion meter, wire mesh used as shelf, wire, pulling through curved electric fixtures, wire wound on spool, measuring length of, wireless-lighted lamp deception, wireless stations, distance chart for, wireless telegraph messages, sounder for, wireless telephone set, simple, construction of, , wood, brown stain for, wood clothes peg, wood, holding in sawbuck, wood, homemade countersink for, wood lathe, how to make, wood panels, decorative, wood postal cards, wood, raising dents in, wood scraper handle, wood shafts, threads on, wood, skates made of, wood stock, squaring, wood, to harden small blocks of, wood turning, artistic, woods, fine, furniture polish for, workbench, back stop for, workbench equipment for table top, worktable, photographic, for small quarters, wounds, small, application for, woven-top stool, wrench for different-size nuts, wringer, mop, how to make, wrist brace, writing board for children, writing name reversed on paper placed on forehead, [illustration: colophon] do you know a boy who is waiting for this book? [illustration] he may have the few tools and materials to be found in every household, or he may possess his own complete chest of tools and well-equipped workshop, but something is lacking--he needs ideas--suggestions of things to make or do. he is tired of all the things that he and his companions have been able to think of. now there are hundreds of other boys scattered all over this big country who have many new and interesting ideas he has never thought of, but how can this one boy ever get in touch with all these others? in just one way--through the pages of book i the boy mechanic the great book of things for boys to do these original, practical suggestions have been furnished by hundreds of boys who have actually built and experimented with the devices they are now telling other boys how to build. in no other way could a book containing such a wide and interesting variety of contents have been prepared, for no one author or staff of writers, for that matter, could have possibly gleaned such a wealth of ideas from their own observation and experience. a few practical features: a large number of the things described may be made from old cast-off articles which the average boy has at his disposal. many articles involving the purchase of only a few cents worth of material will be found fully as serviceable as similar ones costing several dollars. scores of handy things the family can use in the home are described. finally, this book will develop and interest the boy along mechanical lines and educate him at his play. book i--the boy mechanic represents the best accomplishments of the mechanical genius of young america for the material used in the book is a careful selection of only those articles which are new, practical and of more than ordinary interest; the selection having been made by mechanical experts who still have active recollections of their boyhood interests. it gives complete directions for making all the things boys love to build and experiment with in the fields of electricity, mechanics, sports, arts and crafts work, magic, etc., such as electrical appliances--steam and gas engines--turbines--motors--wireless and morse telegraph--self-propelled vehicles--toboggans--ice boats--canoes--paddle boats--punts--camping outfits--tents--fishing tackle--magic lanterns--searchlights--cameras--telescopes--gliders, kites and balloons--electric furnaces--lathes--pottery kilns. a boy would be an old man before he could make half the things described in this wonderful book. it is entirely different from any other published and has [illustration: "wish i knew what to make"] articles-- pages-- illustrations ( x ) price $ . postpaid it is clearly printed on high-grade book paper and durably bound in cloth. the cover is of an attractive design in four colors showing a boy building a small boat. there are ten solid pages of index alone. neither care nor expense have been spared to make this the greatest boys' book published, and to enable as many boys as possible to have one, the price has been made absolutely as low as possible. it would be difficult to think of a way of investing $ . that would benefit a boy as much as through the purchase of one of these books. popular mechanics book department north michigan ave. chicago transcriber's note. in the section sand wheel--plate , third paragraph, the word "on" was added as the most likely word to correct a typographical omission and "drawn" changed to "draw". otherwise only a very few minor typographical errors have been corrected. [illustration: testing the kite-string sailboat] manual training toys _for_ the boy's workshop _by_ harris w. moore supervisor of manual training watertown, massachusetts [illustration] the manual arts press peoria, illinois dedicated to the boy who likes to tinker 'round copyright, harris w. moore contents. frontispiece testing the kite-string sailboat introduction-- page. bench, marking tools saws planes, bits, nails screws, glue sandpaper, dowels, drills, sharpening holding work directions for planing dart spool dart dart for whip-bow buzzer flying top (plate ) flying top (plate ) top tom-tom drum pop-gun whistle arrow bow sword magic box pencil-box telephone happy jack windmill gloucester "happy jack" windmill paddling indian windmill kite tailless kite box kite kite-string sailboat the hygroscope or weather cottage electrophorus waterwheel water motor sand wheel running wheel rattle cart cannon automobile bow pistol elastic gun rattle-bang gun boat pile-driver windmill kite-string reel string machine windmill force-pump introduction. the wise man learns from the experience of others. that is the reason for this introduction--to tell the boy who wants to make the toys described in this book some of the "tricks of the trade." it is supposed, however, that he has had some instruction in the use of tools. this book is written after long experience in teaching boys, and because of that experience, the author desires to urge upon his younger readers two bits of advice: first, study the drawing carefully,--every line has a meaning; second, printed directions become clearer by actually taking the tool in hand and beginning to do the work described. bench. if he buys the vise-screw, an ambitious boy can make a bench that will answer his needs, provided, also, that he can fasten it to floor or wall. it should be rigid. a beginner will find a hard wood board, "× "× / ", fastened to the forward end of the bench, a more convenient stop than the ordinary bench-dog. if he has a nicely finished bench, he should learn to work without injuring the bench. a _cutting board_ should always be at hand to chisel and pound upon and to save the bench-top from all ill use. the _bench-hook_ should have one side for sawing and one for planing, the former having a block shorter than the width of the board so that the teeth of the saw, when they come thru the work, will strike the bench-hook rather than the bench-top. marking tools. to measure accurately, hold the _ruler_ on its edge so that the divisions on the scale come close to the thing measured. let the pencil or knife point make a dash on the thing measured which would exactly continue the division line on the ruler. if it can be avoided, never use the end of the ruler; learn to measure from some figure on the ruler. the spur of the _gage_ should be filed like a knife point. it seldom stands at zero of the scale, hence, when setting the gage for accurate work, measure from the block to the spur with a ruler. the gage is a rather difficult tool for a boy to use but it will pay to master it. it may be used wherever square edges are to be made, but chamfers and bevels should be marked with a pencil. in laying out work, the beam (the thick part) of the _trysquare_ should always be kept on either the working-face or the working-edge. (see page , directions for planing.) let the blade rest flat on any surface. hold the trysquare snugly to the work with the fingers and thumb acting much like a bird's claw. for accurate work (e. g. joints), lines should be drawn (scored) with the sharp point of a small _knife_ blade, held nearly straight up from the edge of the trysquare blade. circles are located by two lines crossing at the center. saws. the teeth of a _rip-saw_ are like so many little chisels set in a row; they pare the wood away. the teeth of a _crosscut-saw_ are like knife points, they score two lines, and the wood breaks off between them. large sawing should be done on a saw-horse so that the worker is over his work. if it is necessary to hold work in the vise to rip it, hold it slanting, so that the handle of the saw leads the line, as it naturally does when the work is on a saw-horse. the _back-saw_, tho a crosscut-saw, may be used in any direction of the grain. any saw should be in motion when it touches the wood it is to cut. to guide it to the right place, a workman lets his thumb touch the saw just above the teeth, the hand resting firmly on the wood. a little notch, cut in the edge right to the line where the saw is to cut, will help a beginner to start accurately. saws are rapid tools, and it pays to go slowly enough with them to do accurate work. plan the work so as to make as few cuts as possible. _turning-saws_ are best used so that the cutting is done on the pull stroke, keeping the two hands near together. when one handle is turned, the other must be turned equally. planes. generally being in a hurry to get work done, boys are apt to take big shavings with a plane. this results in rough work. fine shavings are better. if the plane is allowed to rest level on the work, it will find the high places without continual adjusting. the first two inches of a stroke are the hardest to plane; to plane these, press harder on the forward end of the plane. start the plane level. usually it is best to keep the plane straight, or nearly so, in the direction of the push. the _block-plane_ is properly used to plane the end of wood. (see page on holding work.) on other small surfaces, however, it is often more convenient than a large plane. bits. _auger-bits_ are numbered by the number of sixteenths in the diameter of the hole they bore, e. g. no. bores a / " hole. _gimlet-bits_ are numbered by thirty-seconds. whenever boring with an auger-bit, stop as soon as the spur pricks thru the other side, turn the work over, start the spur in the little hole it made, and finish boring. it will always split the wood, if the bit is allowed to go way thru. it is difficult to bore a hole straight thru a piece of wood, because to tell whether the bit is held straight when starting the hole, one must look at it from two directions. if someone else can stand a quarter circle away from the worker and watch the bit, that is the best help; otherwise, the worker himself must hold the brace steady while he walks around a quarter circle and judges whether the bit is straight. care should be taken to hold the work level in the vise. nails. the words, "nail," "brad," and "nailing" are used somewhat interchangeably in this book; "nailing" may mean driving a brad. brads have smaller, thicker heads, nails have larger, flat heads. to drive a nail straight, start it straight. the hole cannot be straightened by bending the nail so that it looks straight after it is partly driven. many gentle blows with the _hammer_ will often drive a nail where heavy blows would fail. the fingers pinching the nail often prevent its bending. if possible, keep nails away from the corners of boards. several nails joining two boards hold them stronger if the nails are driven at different angles. nails are usually "set," that is, the heads are driven with a _nail-set_ below the surface. they must always be set below surfaces which are to be planed. it is often wise not to drive the first nail or two way in until the work is examined. in withdrawing nails, a block under the hammer will often aid greatly, and also protect the surface of the work. screws. screws usually need holes properly bored to receive them; a large hole first, the size of the screw above the threads, a small hole next, the size at the roots of the threads (in hard wood somewhat larger), and a place for the head made with a _countersink_. usually the screw should slip easily thru the first piece of wood and be tight in the second. the _screwdriver_ should always be held in the line that the screw is going, and it ought fairly to fit the slot in the head. in hard wood, one must be careful not to twist screws off, especially brass screws, which are easily broken. glue. a beginner often wonders why things stick to his fingers instead of to their proper places; it is because he has a little glue on his fingers and usually a lot on the article; therefore, don't use too much glue. it is best, especially in holes and their pegs, to put glue on both surfaces of contact. good glue will hold two surfaces, making good contact, stronger than the wood. wipe off excess glue as soon as possible, using hot water for hot glue. much labor is thus saved. allow glue plenty of time to become dry. the moisture has to work its way thru the wood itself, and this takes hours; six to ten hours is not too long. sandpaper. sandpaper varies in coarseness from no. to no. , every sheet being stamped. it should not be used on a given piece until all work with edge tools is finished. the particles of sand left in the surface would quickly dull an edge tool. when using sandpaper on flat surfaces, wrap it closely about a rectangular block of wood. try to keep all corners as sharp as they are left by the edge tools so that there will be a crispness of appearance which always marks good workmanship. often the same care in holding work while sandpapering it must be taken as was taken when shaping it. always sandpaper with, or lengthwise the grain. dowels. sticks that are planed nearly to size can be made round and smooth by driving them thru a hole in a block of hard wood or iron; such sticks are called dowels. two holes may be used if the second is only a little smaller than the first. drive gently with a _mallet_ rather than with a hammer. in many of the models in this book such dowels are used. dowels (made by a different process, however,) can often be bought at hardware stores. drills. for ease in making small holes, a _hand-drill_ is essential. for some holes a headless nail will answer. to make better drills, break a needle, a knitting-needle, umbrella rib, or other piece of hard wire to suitable length; on a grindstone, flatten it near the point on two sides; then, putting it in the chuck of the hand-drill, try to hold it on the grindstone at the proper angle to form the two cutting edges; or it may be held against the edge of the bench and sharpened with an oilstone resting on top of the bench. very convenient long drills can be thus made of knitting-needles. sharpening. to work with dull tools is altogether unsatisfactory. a boy should learn to sharpen his own edge tools. to grind a good bevel on a tool like a chisel, it must rest upon something steady. the reflection of light on the newly ground surface will indicate whether the surface is flat or not. this process of grinding makes what is called a feather-edge, or wire-edge, and the tool must be whetted on an oilstone to remove this wire-edge. the flat side _must be kept flat_ on the stone; the bevel may be lifted just a trifle. when whetting the bevel, try to avoid a rocking motion, for this would round the edge. after the wire-edge is completely removed, a still keener edge can be obtained by stropping the tool on a piece of leather, much as a razor is stropped. a piece of leather glued to a wooden mount and sprinkled occasionally with the finest emery powder will help much in keeping the edge tools keen. holding work. the way work is held in the vise often makes the difference between success and failure. small surfaces are easily planed true if held almost flush with the jaws of the vise so that the top of the bench serves to guide the plane; for example, the wheel-center, page , or the crank, plate , are easily planed in this manner. sometimes articles, like spools, can be held endwise with safety when they might be crushed if squeezed sidewise. a good way to hold the paddles of the sand wheel, plate , fig. , to saw the lines a b is to put the paddles about half-way down the end of the vise so that the back-saw can be held near the end of the vise jaws. the _bench-hook_ is the best device for holding a great deal of small work for sawing and for planing sides, corners, and ends. when planing ends, to avoid splitting the far corner, another piece of equal thickness may be put behind the first. the better way, however, is never to plane over the far corner, but turn the work and plane always towards the center; in other words, plane half way from each edge. where a corner can be whittled off to form a buttress, there is practically no danger of splitting that corner. for planing thin boards, see page . directions for planing. . plane one broad surface. test it _crosswise_, _lengthwise_, and _cornerwise_. this surface is called the _working-face_, and should be marked with a pencil line near the edge to be planed next. on a short board the cornerwise test can be made with a straight-edge; on a long board winding-sticks are needed. these are straight sticks with parallel edges. near the ends of the board, stand them on edge across the board. with the eye some distance away, sight from one stick to the other, if one end of the farther stick seems elevated, that corner of the board must be planed more. . plane one edge. test it _crosswise_ with the trysquare on the working-face, and _lengthwise_ with a straight-edge. this is called the _working-edge_. mark it with two pencil lines, drawn near the line on the working-face. these two surfaces are of great importance. from them all measurements are made and all tests applied. the trysquare and the gage should always be kept on one of these two surfaces. . square the ends. with the trysquare, test them from both the working-face and the working-edge. . gage the width from the working-edge. plane to the line. with the trysquare on the working-face, test this edge. . gage the thickness from the working-face. plane to the line. sometimes, of course, the above order needs to be changed. it is well to think out the best order of work. problems plates and working directions dart--plate . a dart like the first one shown on plate will stick into a soft wooden target. two or more boys, each with three darts, might have a contest in making the highest score. number three rings of a target , , and , and the bull's eye . the dart consists of two parts, a round stick and a paper rudder. to make the round stick, " long / " diameter, it will be well to start with a stick about " long so as to be able to hold it easily while planing it round. first plane the stick _square_, / ", and straight. to plane such a small stick straight, it should be laid on the top of the bench. while planing it, test it frequently by looking at it endwise. when it is the right size, grasp one end with the left hand, lay it on the bench with the forefinger touching the bench, and, with a small plane, plane away the corners so as to make a true octagonal (eight sided) stick. next make it sixteen sided, taking very fine shavings, then sandpaper it well. saw off the extra length, leaving the best part of the stick " long. bind one end with fine (screen) wire. to bind it well, make a square corner " from one end of the wire and lay this " lengthwise the stick. hold it firmly with the left thumb while winding the long part of the wire smoothly around the stick and wire. twist the two ends together, and cut off what is not needed. gently pound down smooth the end of the wire that is left. in this end of the stick, drill a hole for a " brad. file the head entirely off, and drive the brad in backwards, leaving / " out; then file the point real sharp. carefully split the other end of the stick ". to do this, stand it upright in the vise, place a knife on the end, and tap the knife with a hammer. into this split, insert the paper rudder bent as shown in plate . the rudder should be cut the shape and size shown in the working drawing and then bent into shape. [illustration: dart spool dart dart for whip-bow plate ] spool dart--plate . an easier dart to throw can be made of a spool as shown on plate . three feathers which curve the same way will give the dart a whirling motion when it is thrown. make a stick about " long to fit tightly into the hole of a spool about " in diameter at its end. (see dowels, page , also glue, page .) a stick like this can be forced into a hole quite far by screwing it around, but if it is driven much with a hammer the spool will split easily. after the stick is glued into the spool, hold the spool upright on the jaws of the vise, and squeeze the stick extending below; then with the back-saw make four slanting cuts to sharpen the spool. file a - / " nail square off, " long; drive it backwards into a suitable hole drilled for it in the center of the spool; and sharpen it well with a file. one-half inch from the other end of the spool saw the stick off, and drill three holes in the spool end, into which glue three feathers about " long. dart for whip-bow--plate . this dart is best made of a shingle. lacking that, plane a / " board thin[ ] at one end to / ". draw the center line lengthwise and lay out the shape of the dart with the broad part at the thin end. saw crosswise from each edge of the shingle to the place where the curve begins, then lengthwise to that point. holding the thin end in the vise, pare the curves with a knife, spokeshave, or draw-knife. make the point at each end with a plane. to plane to slanting lines such as these, it is very important to place the work in the vise at such a slant that the line is parallel with the top of the bench and quite close to the jaws of the vise. find the point where the dart balances by testing it on the finger, and make the little notch for the string, using a back-saw first, then a knife. a whip-bow consists of a string " long tied to the end of a stick " long. a knot is tied at the free end of the string. to throw the dart, catch the string in the notch, hold the wide end of the dart in the left hand and the stick in the right, throw the right hand forward, and let the dart fly from the string. [footnote : to hold a board while planing it very thin, fasten it to another flat board with four wooden pegs. for several of the models in this book, a flat board about " × " × / " with a cleat nailed to one end and extending / " above its upper surface will be found most convenient for holding thin boards while planing. if the cleat is a little wider than the height of the block on the bench-hook, the bench-hook serves well to hold it.] buzzer--plate . the buzzer consists of a wheel and two handles, connected with string. to make the wheel draw a " circle on a piece of wood / " thick. draw a line thru the center the way the grain goes and another at right angles to it, thus dividing the circle into quarters, fig. . notice, now, that to avoid splitting the circle, the four quarters must each be cut in a different direction. lay the model flat on the bench-hook and saw off the corners of the square. now, holding it in the vise with one quarter up, with the spokeshave, pare the corners in the direction of the arrow in this quarter until the circle is reached. be careful not to pare away any part of the line. it will be observed that paring can be done safely on the end grain beyond the arrow-head in this quarter, but this is not at all possible on the side grain where the arrow begins. the spokeshave should be held rather lightly so as to allow it to follow the curve. observing carefully the direction of the arrows, proceed with the other quarters in this same manner. the last few chips should be very fine ones. drill two small holes for the string / " each side of the center. sandpaper the model nicely. (see sandpaper, page .) [illustration: fig. ] the two handles can be planed best if held in the bench-hook and the plane turned with its side on the top of the bench. after the corners are planed in this way, the ends can be planed without danger of splitting. drill the holes for the string. the edges and ends of the handles will look better not sandpapered. string the model by passing one end of a ft. string thru a hole in one handle, then in the wheel, then in the other handle, then back thru the other holes, tying it to the other end of the string. to make it go, take one handle in each hand, swing the wheel over and over, and gently pull the handles apart for an instant. a little practice may be necessary to make it go well. to make it buzz louder, bore two / " holes on opposite parts of the wheel / " from the rim. (see bits, page .) to avoid splitting, bore _backwards_ till the bit marks a deep circle in the wood. [illustration: buzzer plate ] flying top--plate . like anything that flies, this top should be made as light as possible. bass, cotton-wood, or soft pine are good woods to use. after the wood for the top is planed to size, a / " hole should be bored straight thru the center. (see bits, page .) make the drawing on the top and whittle to line. considerable care must be taken in whittling not to whittle away the two corners which should be saved; this is especially true if the grain is not straight. see page for suggestions about making the handle. glue the handle in the top. to make it fly, hold it between the two hands, and push the right one quickly. (see plate .) [illustration: flying top plate ] flying top--plate . this form of flying top requires accurate work to make a good joint. (see directions for planing, page .) after planing the two vanes to size, the joint must be laid out with knife and gage lines and cut out with back-saw and chisel. two important facts should be learned: the _length_ of one notch equals the _width_ of the other piece; the lines marking the depth of the notches must be gaged from the working-face of each piece. after the joint is laid out, hold the work in the bench-hook while sawing the depth of the notch, and be sure to saw _in the notch_, not outside the line. with a chisel held flat side down, pare between the saw cuts from each side of the wood towards the middle. when the joint is fitted, lay out the curves on each arm of the wheel, remembering that it is always the front corner of the right-hand arm, as the wheel turns around, that is to be whittled away. when all these curves are drawn, take the joint apart, and whittle to the lines. glue the joint next, and bore a / " hole straight thru its center. make the axle of hard wood. (see page and dowels, page .) perhaps a skewer can be used. after the handle is planed to size, draw pencil lines / " from each edge for the chamfers. the curve of the chamfer may be drawn freehand. it should end - / " from one end of the handle. a good chamfer is flat crosswise. if the grain of the wood is straight, the chamfers can be whittled easily; if it is crooked watch that it does not split over the line. after the chamfers are made, pare another one / " wide around the end of the handle. after the two blocks are planed, bore a / " hole / " from one end. glue and nail them " on the handle. [illustration: flying top plate ] top--plate . a variety of sizes, shapes and colors of tops, spinning on a plate, is a lively sight. the one suggested is perhaps as large as it should be made for such sport. smaller ones are easily made of spools without making a disk, or wheel, for them. the more slender the spindle is, the faster one can spin the top. first make a stick about " long to fit the hole in the spool. plane " of it tapering as small as / ", then glue the spool on - / " below this small end. now hold the spool in the vise endwise, and make, with the back-saw, a saw cut half thru the spool on the same slant as the slanting part of the spool; then saw straight down to the end of this slanting cut. turn the spool nearly over and repeat this operation; then saw it completely off, and whittle the spool to a good point. draw a " circle on a piece of wood / " thick. draw other circles just as desired for coloring. observe the directions on page for making a wheel. when the wheel is round, bore a / " hole in its center, sandpaper it, and glue it in place on the spool and spindle. it can be colored with crayons or water colors. [illustration: top plate ] tom-tom drum--plate . as in a violin, the sounding qualities of this drum depend upon the quality of the wood used and the thickness of the sounding-board. spruce is a good wood to use, though the drumstick may well be harder. a good way to make two pieces the same length and thickness is to plane _one_ piece, which is wider than the two pieces combined, to the right length and thickness, and then saw it in two lengthwise; so, to make the top and between pieces it will be best to start with one piece about " × / " × / ". if no wood / " thick for the sounding-boards is at hand, plane a thicker piece nicely on all surfaces " × " × / ". then gage a line / " from each broad surface all around the piece and saw between these lines. to plane these two pieces, lay them on the board described in the foot-note on page . glue and nail the parts together with very small brads, or pins cut off / ". allow the glue to dry six to ten hours before twisting the drumstick in the strings. cut a small notch near the ends of the top pieces in which to wind two or three strands of string. twist the drumstick in the opposite way from which it should strike the sounding-board. to play it, hold it in the left hand, and let the fingers of the right hand slide over the end of the drumstick, thus making the drumstick strike the sounding-board. [illustration: tom-tom drum plate ] pop-gun--plate . the part of this model difficult to make is a nice, smooth hole. the surest way is to start with a thick piece of wood for the barrel, " × - / " × - / ". draw a / " circle on one end; then bore the / " hole as straight as possible, starting at the center of the circle. stop boring as soon as the spur of the bit pricks thru the other end, and draw another / " circle, setting the needle-point of the compass in the tiny hole made by the spur; then finish boring. next plane the piece round the size of the circles. the ramrod should be made as directed on page . the hole should now be sandpapered by wrapping a long, narrow piece of sandpaper snugly about the ramrod, and tying it securely at each end with string. make the handle, being careful to bore the hole straight " deep, and glue the ramrod into it. cut off / " of that part of a cork which fits tightly in the barrel. drive a slender nail or brad thru a piece of hard leather (or zinc or copper) and trim it round / " diameter. drill a small hole exactly in the center of the end of the ramrod, then drive the nail thru the center of the cork and into the ramrod. to make the hole in the barrel still better, let a few drippings from a candle fall into it and quickly insert the ramrod and push it back and forth rapidly. a sudden push of the ramrod will blow the other cork out with a loud pop. to keep this cork, tie one end of a string around it and the other end around the barrel. [illustration: pop gun whistle plate ] whistle--plate . the size of the chamber, of the notch, of the inlet for air, the force with which air is blown in,--these are some of the conditions which affect the tone of a whistle. plane a piece of close-grained wood " × / " × / ". this length is suggested so that two trials at boring can be made. bore a / " hole - / " deep. to help in boring this straight, clamp a straight-edge (the ruler may do) in the vise together with the square stick. have one edge of the straight-edge on the center of one side of the stick. after boring a straight hole, draw pencil lines / " from the long edges on all four sides. a good way to draw such lines is to rest the middle finger-nail on a side of the stick as a guide and hold the pencil closely over this nail while sliding it along. the hand must be held rather rigid. practice will enable one to draw lines quite accurately this way. place the stick in the vise so that one edge is straight up, and plane the corner off to the line. plane all four corners so as to make a good octagonal stick. make a dowel (see page ) about - / " long to fit nicely in the hole. do not crowd it so hard as to split the whistle. it might well be fitted first in a / " hole bored in a waste piece of wood. plane off a side of this dowel till a flat place is made / " wide. push the dowel into the whistle and saw the straight end of the notch about / " deep. pare the rest of the notch with knife or chisel, testing the whistle by blowing it occasionally as the paring proceeds. when it sounds best, glue the dowel in place and allow it to dry before sawing it off and cutting the slanting part. when this is done saw the whistle to a length of - / ". if a rolling sound is desired, put in a pea before gluing the dowel in place. arrow--plate . the old saying, "straight as an arrow," suggests an arrow's most important quality: it must be straight. saw a strip " × / " from the edge of a straight-grained spruce board and plane it according to directions on page . to make the notch for the bowstring, first file a notch in the smaller end, then saw it / " deep, and smooth it with the folded edge of a piece of sandpaper. bind the larger end tightly with rather small, soft wire. (see page .) pigeon feathers are easiest to use because the quills are soft and straight. turkey and goose feathers are good, and hen feathers will do if they are nearly straight. the quill should be split with the point of a small, sharp knife, the feather being held on a cutting board. about " of quill are needed. with scissors, trim the feather about / " wide; then glue and pin it in place - / " from the smaller end of the arrow. indians use three feathers, but two will do for a boy. when the feathers are in place, the ends of the quills must be bound very smoothly and tightly with thread. notice the position of the feathers in plate : the _bottom_ feather on the arrow having three feathers is called the cock-feather and should be of a different color from the other two. it is always placed on the bowstring _away_ from the bow. bow--plate . almost any tough stick that will bend to a good curve will answer for a bow, but white ash such as is used in hoe- and rake-handles is probably best and easiest to get. a brittle wood like hemlock can be used, if used with great care; indeed, some eskimos, who can get only dry, brittle driftwood, still make a splendid bow by wrapping it completely with sinew. the bow should be shorter than the archer. plane each end tapering, first on the bottom, then on the two edges. leave " in the middle straight for a handle. notice the shape, plate , of the three steps in the planing of the bow. be especially careful to get the second step right, then the third will come easily. file notches near each end somewhat the shape of the loop on the bowstring. before the bow can be finished, it must be strung and pulled a little to test it,--to see if both ends bend the same good curve,--not the curve of a circle, but that of the broad side of an ellipse. the ends should curve more than the middle. when it bends true, smooth it well with a coarse file, or glass, and sandpaper. do not be tempted to pull the bow too far and so break it; one that bends easily is less apt to break than one that is too strong. when the bow is strung, the center of it and of the bowstring should be marked with thread or color. a piece of strong fish-line makes a good bowstring. a good one can be made of linen thread on the string machine shown on plate . tie knots as shown in fig. . the timber-hitch should be kept in place on the bow, and the bowline-knot slipped back on the bow when it is unstrung. the best way to string a bow is to place the end having the timber-hitch on the ground against one's left foot, then to pull the middle of the bow with the left hand, and to push the upper part with the right hand, allowing this hand to slide upward so as to shove the bowline-knot into the upper notch. when finished the bow can be improved by rubbing it well with grease. [illustration: fig. timber-hitch knot and bowline-knot] [illustration: arrow bow plate ] sword--plate . plane the blade to size, then draw a center line on each side, and lay out the curves for the point and handle. shape these ends with the draw-knife, spokeshave, or block-plane. now measure " for the handle, and draw a line along the center of each edge to mark the cutting edges of the sword. a workman would do this with his pencil resting over his finger-nail as mentioned on page . use the spokeshave to pare off the four corners (to sharpen the sword), and finish them with a plane. try to take broad, flat chips so as to make the blade a good diamond shape. where the blade and handle meet a good square shoulder must be made. a boy can do this best, perhaps, with a wide, flat file, though a workman would use a back-saw and chisel. saw out the guard " × " × / "; then draw the diamond - / " long and / " wide. it is not easy for a boy to cut this out, so be careful and guard against splitting the board. first drill small holes at each end of the diamond, then bore other holes as large as will go within the diamond, plate . with a thin chisel pare straight thru the board onto a cutting board. when the diamond will fit the blade, draw the shape of the guard freehand and pare the edges as explained for the buzzer on page . sandpaper both parts of the sword, and fasten the guard with glue and two " brads, driven from each edge of the guard in holes drilled for the purpose. [illustration: sword plate ] magic box--plate . this is truly a magic box to those who do not understand how it works. who would ever think that these little bits of people would hop up and down inside their house just because their window was rubbed with a piece of leather? try it and see how excited they get. if the worker can cut glass, make the box first, otherwise he must get a piece of glass - / " × " and build the box to fit it. it requires careful work to make a good box, so be sure that all ends and edges are square and that corresponding parts are the same size before nailing it together. plane all such small boards in the bench-hook. make the ends first " wide and as _long_ as the glass is _wide_. make the sides the same width and as long as the glass, _plus_ the thickness of the two ends. glue and nail these to the ends, keeping the bottom edges flush. set all nails with a nail-set. one edge and one end only of the bottom should now be planed square, the other edge and end being left to plane after the bottom is nailed in place. cut a piece of tin / " smaller than the glass, or glue some tinfoil on the inside of the bottom. if tinfoil is to be used, smooth it on a piece of paper carefully with the fingers; then spread some glue thinly over the bottom, and lay the tinfoil on it. the squared edge and end of the bottom are to be nailed first, having them fit nicely; then the other edge and end. never drive a nail too near the corner of the bottom lest it strike the nails driven thru the sides of the box. now plane the end and then the side of the bottom to fit. if tin is used instead of tinfoil put it inside the box after the bottom has been nailed in place. make the two supports fit inside the box lengthwise and just wide enough to hold the top of the glass flush with the top edges of the box. to hold the supports, drive nails thru the ends of the box into them. [illustration: magic box pencil box plate ] everything about electrical apparatus should be clean and dry, so, as this is really an electric box, have the glass and tin clean before using it. put some bits of charcoal, paper, straw, or sawdust into the box, have it warm and dry, rub the glass with a piece of leather (glove, shoe), and then see how the little people jump! the explanation is as follows: rubbing glass with leather, fur, woolen, or silk _generates_ electricity; this electricity _attracts_ non-electrified bodies, thus lifting the little people to the glass; as soon as they become _charged_ with the electricity on the glass, they are _repelled_ and thrown down to the tin; the tin _conducts_ their charge of electricity away, and they are ready to begin their circus over again. pencil-box--plate . to make this box, saw out one long piece for the sides and ends, " × - / " × / ", or two shorter pieces, " × - / " × / ". the reason for having them so long is because it is difficult to make the groove nicely to the end of the board; and they are wide enough to try twice to make the groove. [illustration: fig. ] file a nail (about / " in diameter) sharp like a chisel, and drive it tightly into a small hole, drilled in a block of wood which has one corner rabbeted, that is, sawed away as shown in fig. . the outside of the nail, measured from the shoulder of the rabbet, must be exactly / " away, so that the lower edge of the groove will be / " from the top of the box. practice with this tool till a good groove can be made in waste lumber, then make the groove along one edge of the board. when well done, plane the board - / " wide, and saw it to the proper lengths for sides and ends. in the front end there is no groove, so plane it away from one piece just sawed. sandpaper the flat sides before gluing and nailing them together. prepare the bottom as directed for the magic box, page , then sandpaper, glue and nail it in place. set all nails. plane the bottom to fit. prepare the cover somewhat too long but exactly the width between the grooves. as in making the whistle, page , so here draw pencil lines for the bevel / " wide on the cover. practice planing a bevel on waste wood first. the bevel at the further end of the cover can be planed by holding the cover upright in the vise. when it slides smoothly in the grooves, saw it the right length. for the notch, make a deep cut with a gouge, and cut the chip straight across with knife point or small chisel. hold it in the bench-hook while doing this. telephone--plate . in these days when even boys are using wireless telegraphy, this may seem a humble telephone, but it is a surprisingly good one, and it is very easily made and operated. the drum should be hard and tight, the string should be a small, hard cord (tho the common pink cord thoroly waxed with paraffin will do), and the cord should be supported by nothing but the drums when the telephone is being used. after preparing the eight sides, observe in plate , the method of nailing four boards of equal width together to form a square,--each one is nailed to another one. the ends of the boxes should be well rounded with sandpaper before the drum is stretched over them. the best material for the drum is rawhide,--the dried skin of an animal. the skin of a small animal like the cat, rabbit, or woodchuck is best. country boys will not have much difficulty in securing such rawhide, but city boys may. to remove the hair, or fur, from a skin, slack a lump of lime as large as a hen's egg in a basin of water and soak the skin in it until the hair can be pulled off readily (usually a few minutes); then thoroly wash the skin, stretch it over one end of a box, and tack it every / " with oz. tacks. when thoroly dry it will be "tight as a drum" and ready to use. a good drum can also be made of an old (dressed) kid glove or shoe. soak a piece " sq. in water a few minutes then stretch it while still wet, tightly over the box. when dry, coat it on both sides with melted paraffin. fasten the cord to the drum simply by a knot on the inside. if common pink cord is used, drive the paraffin in with a hot flat-iron. to use the telephone, a boy at each end of the line holds his box so that the string will not touch anything, then one talks into his box while the other listens in his. the telephone may be stretched from one house to another if the houses are within several hundred feet of each other and have a free space between. if two telephones were provided, a person could talk and listen at the same time. [illustration: telephone plate ] happy jack windmill--plate . on a windy day "happy jack" will be a whole circus out on the clothes-line post. if he can be painted in bright colors so much the better, otherwise he should be decorated with colored pencils. the body is drawn on a board, " × " × / ", by measuring all the figures from the hat down, and at these points drawing lines square across the board; also, draw a center-line from head to heel. the toes and hat rim split easily, so be careful of these parts. if no scroll-saw is at hand, saw every / " with the back-saw straight across from the edge of the board to the outline of the body; then pare these little pieces away with a knife or chisel. the curves at the neck are best made with a no. bit before sawing. the curves may be finished with half-round file or sandpaper. take great care in boring the hole up the legs and across the shoulders; if a hole is started crooked, glue in a dowel of the same wood (see dowels, page ), let it dry, and then try again. use a straight-edge as a guide, as for the whistle, page . a no. bit is used thru the shoulders, and a no. bit up the legs. to make the arms, use a / " hard wood dowel " long. bore / " holes for the vanes / " each side the center of the dowel and file the wrists, before sawing it in two. round the ends some with sandpaper. flatten the " wire which goes thru the shoulders enough to keep it from turning in the arms. drill holes in the arms to hold the wire firmly. to plane the vanes thin at the broad end, use the board mentioned at the bottom of page . when gluing and nailing the vanes in the arms, remember that one lies flat and the other nearly edgewise; also remember to make them balance. bore a / " hole in the center of the base and glue the dowel into it. before trying to fasten "happy jack" to a post, drill holes in the base for nails or screws. [illustration: happy jack windmill plate ] gloucester "happy jack" windmill--plate . this "happy jack" is the kind which is common along the coast of new england. he is often painted with blue and white uniform and black shoes, while the paddles are left unpainted. the drawing is made on squares so that it may be enlarged easily to any size. keep the same _number_ of squares but make them any size desired; / " is a good size. the hat, being made separate from the body, should not be drawn on the same board. to make the hat without a lathe, make two wheels of soft wood, round one edge of the larger, and glue and nail the smaller one on it. saw the head slanting to make a flat place for the hat, as shown in side view of hat, plate . the space between the legs should be cut out with a turning or key-hole saw, tho it can be worked out as the diamond in the sword guard, plate . the "happy jack" should be mounted on a large wire rod. [illustration: gloucester happy jack windmill plate ] paddling indian windmill--plate . make this windmill any dimension desired, using the same number of squares in drawing to keep the proportions. the stern of the canoe should be planed thin enough so that the completed windmill will nearly or quite balance on the upright wire rod. the arms should be made like those on the "happy jack," and as long as from the center of the shoulder to the topmost feather. if the canoe is not too wide, the indian can be nailed in place by two nails as shown in plate , otherwise drive smaller ones slanting thru the back into the canoe; drill holes in either case. after the hole is bored thru the shoulders, use a trysquare to tell where to start the hole up thru the canoe so that it shall come in front of the former. [illustration: paddling indian windmill plate ] kite--plate . kite flying is such fascinating sport that the three typical kites here given will make one want to build others, larger and of different shapes.[ ] kites have been made large enough to carry a man high in the air. the adjustments of a kite are so subtle that much patience is sometimes needed to make it fly. that is why the rather elaborate bridle is suggested for the paper covered kite with tail. it will require a little longer stay in the workshop, but it will save time outdoors. [footnote : many suggestions are found in "the construction and flying of kites" by charles m. miller, price cents, manual arts press, peoria, ill.] to make the spine and crosspiece, saw a / " strip from the edge of a / " straight-grained spruce board ft. long; then saw this strip again lengthwise, and plane the two pieces ft. × / " × / ". mark the center of the crosspiece and a point " from the top of the spine, and plane each end tapering thinner to / ". in each end saw a slot / " deep, plate . glue and bind securely the middle of the crosspiece to the " point on the spine. notice that the last few strands go _around_ the others. test the sticks to see that they are square with each other. this can be done by measuring from one end of the spine to each end of the crosspiece. put a cord that will not stretch around the ends of the sticks, in the slots, and tie it tightly. bind this cord into each slot in such a manner that it will not slip, and at the same time wind the sticks so that they will not split beyond the slot. while doing this, one must measure again from each end of the spine to the ends of the crosspiece so that the two halves of the kite will be equal. cover the kite with strong, light paper. glue the paper to the sticks, and fold it over the string / ". try to have the string lay in the crease of the fold. strengthen the corners with another piece of paper, " wide. [illustration: kite tailless kite box kite plate ] to make an adjustable bridle, wind a cord twice around the spine near its top and tie it tightly on the front side, keeping the knot in the middle. little holes will, of course, have to be made in the paper. cut the cord about " long and tie bowline-knot, fig. , p. . measure on the crosspiece " from the center, and down the spine " from the crosspiece, and tie three more such knots. double two cords, about " long, and tie them in one big knot, called the flying-knot, to make a loop about " long to which to fasten the anchor line. mark a point on the spine " below the crosspiece. hold the flying-knot here, and fasten two cords to the loops on the crosspiece with two or three half-hitches, plate . now bring the flying-knot " above the crosspiece and out from the kite far enough to make these two cords taut. fasten another cord to the loop at the upper part of the spine. adjust the remaining cord as taut as the others. a flat kite like this always needs a tail, and the most bothersome tail ever made is that familiar kind made of paper and string. to make a convenient, serviceable, and easily-made tail use strips, " wide, of bunting, cheese-cloth, or any soft, light cloth. in a high wind a longer tail is needed than in a light wind. if the kite seems too unsteady, pull it down, and try to adjust the bridle or the tail, before an accident occurs. if the kite dives, let go the string just before the kite reaches the ground so that it will not strike the ground with force enough to smash the kite. when letting out string rapidly, always protect the hand with a cloth or glove lest the string cut thru the skin. if in doubt about the strength of the anchor-line, two boys can very quickly test it ft. or so at a time as it is being let out; one does not want the string to break when the kite is high in the air. tailless kite--plate . if one has to fly a kite amid many obstructions of trees, wires, and houses, one will appreciate the advantage of a tailless kite. such a kite has to be more accurately made, however, and should be covered with cloth. when making the bow, file notches near the slot at each end in the same manner as for the bow, plate , in which the twisting string will be fastened later. lash the middle of the bow to a point " from the top of the spine. in the slots, put the cord which goes around the kite, measuring carefully to keep the two sides the same size. sew a piece of colored cambric over the kite. tie the middle of a strong cord - / feet long to the filed notch at one end of the bow with three half-hitches, as shown in plate . pass one part of this cord around the other notch, and fasten it in the same manner; then tie the two ends together with a square knot. make the dowel for twisting the two cords on the back of the bow so as to bend the bow as desired. into one end of the dowel drive a small brad and file it sharp. how much to bend the bow can be determined only by trying the kite. as the bow bends, the cloth becomes looser, and it is this looseness of the cloth which so holds the wind that the kite will fly without a tail. after twisting the cords enough, slip them towards the end of the dowel away from the spur, and rest the spur in the back of the spine. tie a string around both the top and the bottom ends of the spine for the bridle. the flying-knot should come as far as the end of the bow; or, some tie the lower end of the bridle about " from the lower end of the spine, and make the flying-knot about " in front and " above the bow. box kite--plate . in a gale too strong for other kites, a box kite will fly safely. the bridle is very easy to adjust, and the kite, tho somewhat more elaborate than the others, is not difficult to make. thin sticks like these can be sawed from the edge of a straight-grained board. an easy way to make the notches in the ends of the braces is to clamp them all in the vise at once, flat surfaces together, and then saw them out with a back-saw. this method presupposes that the uprights are all planed the same thickness. if they are unequal in thickness, saw the notches as wide as the thinnest upright and pare the others each to fit its proper upright. in any construction like this, which has a number of parts fitting together, it is well to number the adjacent parts so that they may be put together again, each in its place. little nicks are cut with a knife on the four edges of the braces where the lashing is to be wound. when all the sticks are fitted together, glue the braces to the uprights - / " from the ends; two frames are thus made just alike. the lashing is done with large thread. start it with two turns around the brace, then once around the upright, then once around the brace, then again around the upright, and so continue. the last few turns should be around the brace. see that the thread goes from the brace to the upright in the way most favorable for holding. when all the lashing is done, measure the center of each brace. put one frame thru the other, and drive a pin thru the two centers. now the frames must be brought to a - / " square by means of strong thread. near the top of one upright tie a ft. thread, leaving a short end. simply wind the long end twice around each upright, and tie the end with a bow-knot until all sides of the square can be measured and adjusted. when all sides are equal, make the bow-knot into a square knot. wind some thread around each upright, except the first, in such a manner as to hold the long thread securely. now adjust the other end of the kite in the same way. measure - / " from the ends of each upright and put other threads around the square. these can be fastened at each upright after the first by three half-hitches. the kite may be covered either with cloth or paper. if cloth is used, the edges should be hemmed. if paper, lay it on the floor, put glue on each upright, then press the paper to one upright. wrap the paper around the kite and wind string around it several times to hold it while adjusting and pressing each corner. glue the ends of the paper next, pulling them as tight as possible. two flat-irons will hold the ends while drying. after the paper is on, its edges should be strengthened with a narrow ribbon of cloth glued to it. tie the bridle strings just above and below the upper cell and have the flying-knot " in front of the end of the brace. kite-string sailboat--plate . to send messages up to his kite, many a boy has made a hole in a piece of paper and watched that go sailing up his anchor line. this sailboat will do that, and other things too, and come spinning down again to take another message. a parachute, made of a paper napkin, having a " thread running to each corner and a nail for ballast tied where the four threads are knotted together, can be sent up by this messenger, released, and allowed to float down from a great height. paper gliders sent up this way will do many "stunts" before they reach ground. fold a flimsy paper napkin in such a way as to hold a bunch of confetti with a pin thru only three or four thicknesses of the napkin. this can be tied to the keel and the pin withdrawn by the release and fall of a nail, and, behold, a shower of confetti! be sure the falling nail will do no injury where it strikes. a light, frail model like this will require considerable time and patience to make and adjust so that it will work. make the hull and posts from a stick about " long. bore the / " holes for the mast and keel, the former a little to the left (port, a sailor would say) of the center and - / " from the bow, the latter in the center " from the stern. make the wheels of the ends of spools by sawing them off just where the straight portion begins, and glueing them together on a hard dowel. very accurately find their centers and drill holes for " brads which form their axles. drive these into the post so that the wheels run very freely. do not nail the posts to the hull till the wire parts have been put in place. make three staples of pins and drive them in the bottom of the hull so that a fine wire will just slide thru them easily. three are used so that the wire will always be held straight. next make the two eyes which hold the kite-string under the wheels. coiled around once and a half, the coils must be separated enough to allow the string to slip between. the safety of the model, swinging violently high in the air, depends upon these eyes. they can be driven thru small, tight holes and bent on the under side to make them secure. they must be just high enough to allow the string to run free. the forward one is elongated because the kite-string slants upward so much. bend the " wire trigger three times around a brad driven in a piece of wood for convenience. to handle wire readily for such work as this, two pliers will be found useful. saw a notch in the bow just wide enough for this coil. now glue and nail the posts in position. [illustration: kite-string sailboat plate ] make the mast, all the spars, in fact, smaller at the outer end. rig it completely before gluing the mast in place. be sure that the booms will swing _over_ the forward wheel, so as not to interfere with its easy running. the sails should be of light cloth. the booms and the gaffs (see plate for names of parts) must swing freely on the mast, so as to fold together when the trigger is released. for the main-sheets, use thread tied with a long loop to slip over the fine wire part of the trigger. a cork - / " in diameter, slit to the center, can be put on the kite-string far enough from the kite to be safe from any entangling. on the keel, fasten ballast enough (about oz.) to make the sailboat ride upright. the hygroscope or weather cottage--plate . this model serves to indicate the humidity (dampness) of the air. it consists of the house, turntable, and figures, the turntable being suspended on a violin string. the violin string absorbs moisture from the air and untwists, thus causing the man to come out; when the air become dry the string twists tighter, thus causing the woman to come out. the model should be placed out doors but not exposed to rain or sun. the arches of the doorways may be made with a big bit ( - / ") or a scroll saw. if a bit is used, bore a hole for the spur first, lest it split the board. while boring hold the board vertically in the vise. the portion cut off between the doorways can be sawed with the tip of the back-saw if the board is laid flat on the bench-hook. the slanting lines at the top, also, can be sawed while held down on the bench-hook. after the front, back and sides are made, nail the back to the sides, but screw the front. when this is done, put the house in the vise in an upright position and plane the tops of the sides slanting. notice that one roof is wider than the other. nail the narrower one first, with the grain running from front to back. do not drive nails into the front but nail it securely at the back and side. letting the plane rest on the other side of the house, plane the upper edge of this roof slanting, so that the other roof will fit. nail this in place; set all nails; and plane the upper edge of this roof slanting, letting the plane rest on the first roof. two brads may now be driven near the center of the ridge-pole to hold the roofs together. after making the floor, place the house in position on it ( / " from back, / " from ends) and draw a line around the house. remove the house; drive three brads straight down thru the floor; pull them out and start them from the under side in the same holes; then put the house in place again and drive the brads home. put in more brads to hold the house securely. to make the chimney, saw a notch / " deep in the end of a / " square stick. if it fits on the roof, bore a / " hole thru its center, and saw the chimney off / " long. glue it / " from the front end of the roof. when dry, bore the hole thru the roof. the chimney top with the dowel attached to it below is made to revolve so that the hygroscope may be adjusted. to make the chimney top, bore a / " hole into the end of a / " dowel; then saw it off / " and glue in the upper dowel. make the turntable somewhat round at each end. in the center of it, glue and nail the lower dowel. next, paint the house if desired. the violin string is glued and wedged into holes in the upper and lower dowels so that the turntable will swing / " above the floor. the man and woman may be made of cardboard, wood, clay, chalk or plaster of paris; or they can be bought at a toy store. painted in bright colors and shellacked, or varnished, they look well. they can be made to balance on the turntable by adding a piece of lead. of course, neither they nor the turntable should touch any part of the house as they swing around. [illustration: hygroscope or weather cottage plate ] electrophorus--plate . the electrophorus consists of two parts, a pan filled with a resinous mixture, and a cover which has been completely covered with tinfoil. under favorable conditions, a spark of electricity / " long can be obtained from this electrophorus. the favorable conditions are these: the air should be dry; both parts of the electrophorus should be warm, dry, and clean; and the tinfoil and rosin should be perfectly flat, so as to come in close contact with each other. make the pan and its sides as shown in plate . glue and nail the sides in place and round their upper edges well with sandpaper. to make the resinous mixture, melt a half teacup of rosin with two teaspoons of turpentine and about the same of paraffin in a rather deep dish, and pour the mixture into the pan. as all these materials are inflammable, perhaps the safest place to melt them is in the oven. after the pan is cold, test the surface of the rosin to see that it is flat every way. if it is not flat, sandpaper the high parts slowly with coarse sandpaper. when making the cover, observe the directions on page , then round the edge to a good half-circle. test the cover also to see that it is flat, especially on its under side, for to get good sparks, the tinfoil and rosin must come just as close together as possible. cut two circles of tinfoil - / " in diameter. smooth them carefully on a piece of paper, spread glue thinly on the cover, lay the tinfoil on the glue, and smooth it with the fingers. press the edges as smooth as possible because electricity escapes easily from sharp corners. cover the larger open spaces with bits of tinfoil. hard rubber (ebonite), being a non-conductor of electricity, makes the best handle. a piece of an old rubber comb or a fountain pen can be used for this purpose. to get a spark of electricity, rub the rosin with soft leather, fur, or woolen; place the cover on it; touch the top of the cover with the finger (to remove the negative electricity); lift the cover by the top of the handle; bring the edge of the cover near a finger, or other conductor, and a spark will fly off with a snap. it is a miniature flash of lightning. some books on electricity describe many other experiments which can be tried. [illustration: electrophorus plate ] waterwheel--plate . this waterwheel is designed to be placed in a flowing stream. a longer trough might well lead the water into this one so as to get greater speed. make the trough first, being careful to make a good fit where the sides nail to the bottom. nail the top " from the end where the wheel is placed. the upper corners of the axle blocks are to be cut off ". the center of the / " hole for the axle is / " from the lower edge. when nailing the axle blocks in place, put a dowel or lead pencil thru the holes to help in nailing the blocks exactly opposite each other. after sawing a board for the wheel - / " square, draw the diagonals and diameters (cornerwise and crosswise, that means) to divide it into eight parts. draw a " circle for the wheel and a - / " circle to mark the depth of the notches for the paddles. shape the wheel. (see page for directions.) test it with the trysquare to keep the edge square with the flat surface. bore a / " hole in the center with the greatest care, or the wheel will wobble sidewise. the notches are cut with the back-saw alone. one-eighth of an inch to one side of the eight lines across the circle, saw straight down to the inner circle. be careful to hold the saw square with the wheel. after this saw cut is made, measure the width of the notch by holding the edge of a paddle so as just to cover the saw cut, and, with a knife point make a dot at the other side of the paddle. holding the trysquare against one side of the wheel and the inner edge of its blade over the dot, score a knife line across the edge of the wheel. then saw straight down again _inside_ this knife line. saw cornerwise a few times and the wood will be removed sufficiently. the notches may better be too small than too large, for the paddles can be planed thinner to fit. clean the wheel with the plane before nailing the paddles. all these paddles except one can be nailed with the wheel held in a corner of the vise. to nail that one, put a thin board upright in the vise and rest the wheel on its top. all nails should be started in the paddles, not in the wheel. [illustration: waterwheel plate ] make the axle of hard wood. push it thru the axle blocks and wheel, and lock it to the wheel with a brad, plate . the axle is made long so that a pulley (spool) can be put on and a belt (string) run from this to other pulleys. a leather washer outside each axle block keeps the wheel in the center. if the work has been carefully done, the paddles will not strike; if they do strike, they must be pared off. water motor--plate . this motor is a waterwheel designed for an ordinary hose faucet. under a stream of water no bigger than a large needle, it will fairly buzz. if the wheel does not run exactly true on the axle, the motor will need legs screwed on the outside of the box. make the wheel of soft wood just as true as possible. (see page .) for the axle a small brass rod or a large knitting needle may be used. in the center of the wheel, drill a hole smaller than the axle so as to make a tight fit. be very careful to bore this hole straight. force the axle thru the wheel, and if the wheel wobbles only slightly drive wooden wedges beside the axle to force it square with the wheel. if it wobbles too much, plug the hole and try boring again. resting the axle on the jaws of the vise, revolve the wheel rapidly to see where it is out of true, and patiently pare it down. the flat side of the wheel which wobbles only a little can be planed off. the strip of screen wire netting should now be tacked on the wheel. it is long enough to go twice around the wheel, and should be tacked on with a dozen small tacks. for suggestions about the pulley see page . prepare a block of soft wood for the coupling. from its bottom, gage a line marking the height of the dovetails in which the blocks c and d fit / " on each side. saw these dovetails / " deep, and pare them slanting with a chisel. in the center of the top, bore a " hole, / " deep; continue the hole thru the block with a / " bit. bore holes / " from the top, / " from the ends for the two - / " screws which are shown in the small drawing, plate . gage and saw out the left-hand half of the block (as shown in the plate) as deep as the " hole. the purpose of this is to permit a squeezing fit on the threads of the faucet. when first trying it on the faucet, squeeze it hard with a hand-screw to jamb the threads into the wood; after that, the screws can be put in and the coupling attached at pleasure. a / " hole is bored in the / " dowel, which serves as a nozzle, until the spur just shows. without allowing the bit to bore any farther, turn it around enough so that the spur will wear the wood and thus make a tapering hole as shown in the sectional drawings. prepare the sides, ends, and top of the box, the three blocks, the key wedge, and the two stops. the wedge should be / " wider at one end than the other and should fit the dovetail. block c should fit the other. in the top piece, bore a / " hole in the middle - / " from the end. this hole is larger than the nozzle to allow for adjustments. all these parts must now be thoroly soaked with paraffin. melt the paraffin, apply it with a brush to all surfaces, and drive it in with heat. during the process, the nozzle can be made fast in the coupling, using plenty of paraffin to make it water tight. see that the tiny outlet occupies the best position for directing the water onto the wheel. after the nozzle is cold again, the outlet should be carefully worked out again with the warm point of a big hat-pin or wire, filed to a good point. put the parts together as follows: nail one side (the right in the plate) to the ends; screw the other side to ends; nail top to ends and first side only; nail block b to a; then a to the top. unscrew the side and bore holes in the center of the sides for the axle. make them fit nicely, then soak them with paraffin. put the wheel, the side, the pulley, and the stops in place. put the coupling in such position that the nozzle comes over the rim of the wheel and nail block c. after putting two or three soft leather washers in the coupling screw it to the faucet, lock it to the motor, and the motor is ready. better bearings for the axle can be made of two pieces of solder screwed to the inside of the sides. if these are made, the holes in the sides should be large enough not to touch the axle. the wheel and pulley can be locked to a brass axle by boring a hole thru the axle with a drill made of a needle. (see drills, page .) [illustration: water motor plate ] sand wheel--plate . fine sand will make a wheel like this spin around lively. most of the parts are easily made, the wheel offering the most difficulties. as shown in the drawing it consists of two boxes, uprights connecting the two, and a wheel with paddles swung on an axle between the uprights. [illustration: fig. ] to make the curves on the uprights, lay them edge to edge in the vise and start the spur of a large bit in the crack, - / " from each end. if a big spool cannot be obtained for the wheel, plane out an octagonal block - / " long, " in diameter. the slanting part of the spool must be whittled away. divide one end into eight equal parts and draw lines lengthwise on the spool at each division. on these lines, measure very carefully / " from one end. then, holding the spool level in the vise bore / " holes half thru the spool at each of these dots. the easiest way to lay out the paddles is in one long piece as shown in fig. . if lines a and b are sawed carefully (see page ) they will fit the spool well enough to glue. the stems of the paddles go into the holes bored in the spool. they are easily made round by paring the corners a little, and then screwing them around in a / " hole in a piece of hard wood. the ends of the paddles where the sand strikes are bevelled on the under side. the holes in the uprights, thru which - / " brads are pushed into the center of the spool, must be exactly opposite each other, - / " from the bottom. little leather washers should be put between the spool and the uprights. [illustration: sand wheel plate ] now make the boxes. to nail the boxes to the upright follow the suggestions on page for nailing the floor of the weather cottage. keep the brads near the center of the uprights lest they split the curves. a / " hole for the sand is bored in the upper box in such a position that the sand will strike near the middle of the ends of the paddles. the peg is tapered to fit this hole. running wheel--plate . it is fine fun for several boys to race down the street with running wheels. each boy can have a different kind of wheel by following the suggestions on plate . [illustration: fig. ] the wheel may be made any convenient size. saw a board off square and plane it flat. to be sure that it is flat, it must be tested with a straight-edge from corner to corner, crosswise, and lengthwise. draw the circle with a string pinned to the center, if a large compass is not at hand. saw it with a turning saw and finish it as suggested on page . bore and countersink a hole in the center for a - / " flat-head screw. make the handle and drill a small hole in it where the wheel is to be screwed on. round off the upper end and edges of the handle so that it feels good to the hand grasping it. the screws used in the connecting rod should slip easily thru the holes at each end. altho one arm will do, two look better. to draw the boy, draw as many / " squares on the board as there are in fig. , then sketch the outline one square at a time. to cut it out, a scroll-saw or turning-saw is almost surely needed, tho a patient boy can do it with auger-bits, back-saw, knife, and file--the bits to be used first at all the inside angles. on the handle, must be put a block on which to screw the boy. to fasten the two arms loosely at the shoulders, the screw should be loose in the shoulder and first arm, and tight in the second arm. the same is true of the hands and flagpole. in the top of the flagpole, bore a hole to fit a small flag. paint of bright colors makes the model look much more pleasing. an easy way to make the sliding part of the lower right-hand running wheel, plate , is to cut out with bit and chisel a narrow slot thru the handle, wide enough for two screws, with washers on them, which screw into the block holding the flag. [illustration: running wheel plate ] rattle--plate . this is a noisy toy and will make a safe substitute for fire-crackers on the fourth of july. some of the dimensions may be changed to suit such a spool as can be obtained. it should be a rather deep spool, that is, one that held a lot of thread. the noise is made by the spring snapping off the slats in the spool as the head of the rattle is swung round and round. draw lines across one end of the spool to divide it into eight equal parts. place the spool endwise in the vise and, with the back-saw, cut eight notches a little more than / " wide straight towards the opposite side of the spool. by sawing twice at each notch, the wood which remains can easily be removed with the saw held slanting. there are several ways of making the eight little slats which fit into these notches; the easiest, perhaps, is to split them from a block ( - / " × - / " × / ") of a straight-grained wood, and plane them on the jig described at the foot of page . glue them in the notches. plane the back and the spring this same way. square both ends of the back but do not plane it quite to width until it is glued and nailed in place. in the two sides, bore a / " hole for the dowel, / " from the end and a little over / " from the back edge. (holes are always located by their centers.) this dowel must fit tightly in the handle and spool, and loosely in the two sides. plane the spring thinner at the narrow end. it should be narrow enough and its corners cut off enough so as not to touch the spool when it snaps. the handle might well be octagonal rather than round. the parts may now be put together as follows: glue and nail the sides first to the thick end, second to the thin end. the distance between the ends inside is - / ". keep these four parts flush on the back edges so that the back will fit. glue and nail the back. glue the dowel in the handle. put glue inside the spool and on the middle portion of the dowel, then, with the spool between the two sides, push the dowel thru all three holes. glue and nail the spring in place. it should be as far towards the spool as it will go without snapping the next slat when it snaps off one slat. [illustration: rattle plate ] cart--plate . the important features of a cart are the wheels and axle and the tongue; if these are strong and the tongue securely fastened, almost any box will do for the body. two tongues, nailed or screwed to the sides of the body, probably make the strongest handle, but they are not so good looking as the one shown in plate . if this one is screwed to the box with six " screws, two in the tongue and two in each block, it will be strong enough. some of the nicer boxes to be secured of a grocer will do for a body, tho it is better to make one one's self. four wheels of / " hard wood should be made (see page ) and then each two of the four glued and nailed together very securely with the grain crosswise. for this purpose, - / " clout, or clinch nails are best. do not drive them too near the center nor the rim. to clinch nails, they should be driven onto a piece of iron. after this is done, a / " hole (or larger if you can get a larger stick for the axle) is bored straight thru the center. to cut the cylindrical ends of the axle, first draw a / " circle at the center of each end, then lay out and saw out two rectangular pieces, one on each side of the circles so as to leave a / " square pin, - / " long. proceed to make these pins; first, eight sided; then, sixteen sided; then, round; using knife or chisel and a coarse flat file. make the hole in the washers before cutting off each corner / ". these washers are to be fastened to the axle when held rather snugly against the wheel with two " screws put crosswise the grain. before putting the wheels on the last time, rub the axles and holes well with hard soap to make them run easier. draw a line across the bottom of the body " from the back end, and bore four screw holes thru the bottom; countersink them well on the inside of the body, and put " screws thru into the flat side of the axle. the axle is planned so that the wheels run within / " of the body. [illustration: cart plate ] with a curved lower edge, the tongue is - / " wide at one end and - / " at the other. to get the correct slant at the wide end, block up the cart level, have some one (or the vise) hold the tongue in the position wanted when finished, then with a strip of wood about " wide placed upright against the front of the body, draw a line on the tongue. from the lowest corner of the tongue, draw another line parallel to the first, and saw off. after making the two blocks and fastening them securely to the tongue, saw the lower ends flush with the curve of the tongue. place the tongue in position, draw a line around it on the body, then bore holes where screws will go best into the tongue and blocks. six " screws well countersunk will hold the tongue securely. since the tongue is fastened to the _front_, the sides and bottom must be well nailed to _it_; or, the corners may be strengthened with a piece of tin inside and outside each corner, tacked or riveted together. each piece of tin should be about " square. a piece of old bicycle frame forced tightly into the hole of a wheel, makes it very durable. such a hole would doubtless have to be bored with an expansive bit. a bicycle frame is easily filed in two at some distance from the reinforced joints. such a piece should be longer than the thickness of the wheel to allow filing it flush after it is driven in. to force it in, use a strong vise, or, after protecting it with hard wood, drive it slowly with a heavy hammer. small carts can be made with wheels made of spools like those of the cannon. (see plate .) cannon--plate . this cannon will shoot small marbles very well. the force of it depends, of course, on the strength of the rubber bands. because the ramrod and handle are rather heavy, a strong dowel is put thru the handle and ramrod. the rubber washer absorbs some of the shock. for the barrel draw a - / " circle on one end of a stick - / " × - / " × - / ". from the center of this circle, bore a / " hole straight thru the stick endwise, stopping as soon as the spur comes thru. set the needle of the compass in this spur hole and draw a " circle and, if possible, a - / " circle; then finish boring. plane the stick round to the - / " circle. to hold the stick while doing this, put a rod thru the hole, open the vise - / " and let the barrel rest endwise in the vise. two and one-half inches from the breech end of the barrel, draw a line around it to limit the taper of the muzzle end. plane the muzzle to the " circle. two inches from the breech, bore a / " hole straight thru the barrel; and into this hole glue the axle. after the glue is dry, bore out the barrel again, and sandpaper the hole well. make the ramrod fit loosely in the barrel. (see directions for dart, page .) make the handle in the same manner as the barrel was made, except that, after drawing the - / " circle at the end where the spur just appears, the hole is _not_ bored further. glue the ramrod in place, and fasten it with the / " dowel. the curved notch into which the rubber bands are tied, can be worked out patiently with a round file, first cutting a v-shaped notch with a knife. pare the corners and sandpaper all parts well. the rubber washer can be made of an old rubber heel. to bore a hole in it, squeeze it between two boards and bore thru both together. at least one of the uprights must be screwed to the base. the first one may be nailed. glue and nail this one / " from the edge of the base. hold the other in place and draw a line around it. bore holes for the screws, put the screws in the holes, and press the upright on them to mark where to bore in the upright. after boring in the uprights, put the cannon and upright in place, and tighten the screws. the wheels can be made of the ends of large spools, well countersunk for a short, large screw. [illustration: cannon plate ] [illustration: automobile plate ] automobile--plate . tho the motor (an elastic band) which makes this automobile go is a short-winded affair, still, if the wheels are easy running, it will go alone for a short distance on a wooden floor. a stronger elastic can be used if the automobile carries a load. if the parts are painted with bright colors before they are entirely put together, the automobile will look very well. first, make the body, then - / " from the front end and / " from the right side, bore a / " hole in the body for the steering post. this should fit tightly so as to hold the wheels in any position desired. leather washers are nailed to the post close to the body. the steering post must be put in place before any other parts are fastened to the body. the ends of the rails which are later fastened to the bottom of the body, slant / ". the center of the holes for the axles is / " beyond this slanting line and / " above the lower edge of the rails. when boring these / " holes, the rails should be clamped together so that the holes will be exactly opposite each other. the forward holes are made long to allow the axles to swing back and forth. to make this hole, two / " holes are bored side by side and the top and bottom smoothed with a / " chisel. when nailing the body to the rails, put the rear axle thru the holes to aid in keeping them opposite each other. the forward axle is made in one piece and kept so until after the steering "rope" is in place. the axle must be held carefully in place while the brad holes are bored / " from the outer edge of the rails and straight thru the center of the axle. a tight fitting brad is driven into this hole. the steering rope must not stretch; large, hard thread is suitable. wind a piece about " long tightly around the axle about / " from one rail and tie it. pass one end thru the small screw-eyes shown in the lower drawing, and wind it around the axle near the other rail leaving no slack in the screw-eyes; then wind six to eight turns smoothly around the steering post, and fasten the end to the beginning with several half-hitches. (see plate .) a separate thread should be tied around the axle and steering rope at the second place. should there be any slack, it can be taken up by laying a v-shaped thread over the steering rope near the axle and passing the two ends over the upper side of the axle, and tying them across the steering rope on the other side of the axle. this tends to pull the steering rope together on top of the axle. the wheels can be sawed from short lengths of curtain poles, obtained at a furniture store. the / " holes for the axle, must be bored exactly at the center. the wheels must turn freely on the front axle, but be glued to the rear axle, which must itself turn freely in the rails. after the wheels are in place, the front axle can be sawed in two with a back-saw, using very short strokes, and sawing two cuts nearly thru before either is sawed completely. nail the wind-shield to the engine, then glue both to the body. nail the seat-back to the seat so that the top of the seat will be / " above the body, then nail the two sides to the end and to the seat-back and seat. glue the whole to the body. nails can be driven up thru the body into the engine, the seat back, and the end, if care is used in locating them. one end of the elastic band (motor) is tied with a bit of string to a brad driven in the forward end of the body of the automobile. on the other end of the elastic band is tied a piece of string about " long. this is put just under the body and above the steering rope and wound two or three times tightly around the rear axle and tied. the string and elastic band should be simply straight, the elastic neither stretched nor loose. to wind up the motor, move the automobile backwards on the floor and hold the rear wheels until ready to let the automobile go. bow pistol--plate . for target shooting in the house, this is a fine toy. with nicely made arrows and a good bow, it will shoot very well. make a good bow of rattan, or other tough wood. an old spoke of a carriage wheel could doubtless be obtained of a blacksmith or wheelwright, and such a hickory spoke would make a good bow. make the bow much like that shown on plate , except that it should be round at the center to fit the / " hole in the pistol. the bowstring should be a hard cord so that it will slip easily from the notches in the barrel when the trigger is pulled. [illustration: fig. ] before shaping the pistol, make the groove in the center of one edge of the board. this should be made with a / " round plane. it can be made, however, with the tool shown in fig. , a gouge, and a round file. this tool is much like the one described on page tho a larger nail is used. make the groove / " deep; gage a line / " from each side of the board; then use the gouge inside these lines and as deep as the groove. when the gouging is well done, smooth the groove with a round file or coarse sandpaper wrapped around a pencil. draw and shape the pistol. make the lower edge of the barrel half round. sandpaper it well. make the trigger of hard wood and screw it on the pistol. the shape of the notch next to the trigger is very important but the shape of the other one is not so. both notches, however, must be so smooth and well rounded as not to injure the bowstring. they should be not deeper than one-half the depth of the groove. arrows are quickly made by sawing long strips of straight-grained wood, / " square, planing the corners, and sandpapering; then cutting them " long, splitting the ends (see page ), inserting a paper " × / " and tying the end with thread. [illustration: bow pistol plate ] elastic gun--plate . if cash carrier elastic cord about / " in diameter and " long is used on this gun, it will shoot buckshot, peas, small arrows, etc., with considerable force; in fact, if the cord is fastened far enough forward, it will require all a boy's strength to pull the rider back to the hook. the gun may be made of pine, whitewood or clear spruce. [illustration: fig. ] to lay out the gun (see fig. ) first draw a b, then a c, then measure b d and draw c d; next measure the width of the barrel and draw e f; add / " below this for the gun-stock, and finally draw the curves freehand. to saw it out, first rip it along e f, then cross cut it at h f, then rip it as far the curve along c d, and then along the lower side of the gun-stock to meet c d, finally along a b. of course, none of this sawing should quite touch the lines. plane to these lines wherever possible, then use the spokeshave. the curve and corner at f should be pared with a chisel. the lower edge of the gun-stock and barrel is made half-round, but the upper edge, especially where the spring is screwed, is only slightly round. the curve at the butt of the gun-stock should be cut out with the turning-saw, and rounded with a half-round file. the groove can be made as in the bow pistol. (see page .) all parts of the gun should be well sandpapered, especially where the elastic will rub on the barrel. make the trigger of tough wood. [illustration: elastic gun plate ] bore a / " hole for the trigger post about / " from the back end of the groove, making it slant forward about / ". make this hole smooth as possible. where the hole comes thru the gun-stock, start the mortise in which the trigger belongs. this should be / " deep and an easy fit for the trigger. put the trigger in place, and drill a small hole straight thru the gun-stock and trigger. consider carefully where to bore this hole so that it will not come too near the edge of the trigger. insert a good-fitting brad and see if the trigger post will move up and down about / ". do not make the mortise so long that the trigger post will slip by the trigger. now make the spring of hard wood. pare the curve from each end with a chisel, holding the spring endwise in the bench-hook. the holes for the screw and the hook must be large enough so that the spring will not be split, and yet the hook must be screwed in strongly to hold the elastic. the hook must be filed off enough, and slanting, so that the screw-eye in the rider will slide under it and be caught. the rider is the hardest part to make because it is small and must be of hard wood; also, the block must be nicely fitted into the long piece. make the lower edge of the long piece round so as to slide well in the groove. bore a / " hole thru the block _endwise_ the grain, countersink the ends, and smooth them so that they cannot injure the elastic. next lay out, saw, and chisel a notch / " deep in the long piece in which the block will fit snugly. glue it and nail it from the under side, or put in a / " screw. holes will have to be bored carefully for either brads or screw. bore a hole, and put the screw-eye in such a position that it will slide under the hook with a snap. be careful not to twist the eye off in this hard wood. the back end of the eye might well be filed somewhat slanting so as to slip under the hook better. put the elastic thru the rider, snap the rider on the hook, and pull the ends of the elastic as far as seems best,--don't have it too strong! where the ends of the elastic are pulled, bore two / " holes thru the barrel one above the other. bind the elastic securely between these holes; to make it doubly secure, wind a string between the elastic and the barrel to pull the first strings closer together. now saw off the ends of a spool about / " and screw them to the barrel in such a place that they will hold the elastic, without stretching, against the sides of the barrel. these spools should turn easily. they cannot be placed exactly opposite because the screws will interfere. snap the rider to the hook, pull the trigger, and notice that the rider goes up with the trigger post. to hold it down, put a slender / " screw on each side of the groove in such a place that the screw heads will come over the outside of the screw-eye; or, " brads may be bent over the screw-eye. when everything is in working order, drive a " brad on each side of the spring to keep the hook always in place. rattle-bang gun--plate . for boys who want to play soldier, here is a gun which will make a big noise but will not hurt anybody. first, make the rattle of maple. the slot in it can be made with the rip-saw. the solid end must be nicely squared to fit the forward end of the pocket cut out of the gun-stock. here it must be held firmly in place by glue and two screws. one screw is put slanting from the top of the gun-stock; the other is put straight from the bottom. that the rattle may sound the loudest, it must not touch anywhere else than this solid end. when putting the knocker and trigger in place, see that they also do not touch the rattle. the gun-stock is made like that of the elastic gun (plate ) except that it has to be - / " wide in that portion which holds the rattle. the pocket is - / " from the forward end and - / " deep where the solid part of the rattle fits. to put the slanting screw in nicely, a place must be cut out with a small chisel for its head, / " deep and / " away from the pocket. clamp the rattle in position, bore a hole for the screw, then glue and screw the rattle in place. before the glue is dry, see that the rattle is straight, then put the lower screw into it. make the knocker of maple. the reason for the triangular notch in its bottom edge will be evident when the trigger is turned around. the stiffer the spring is, the harder, of course, it will strike the rattle, and also, the harder the trigger will turn; / " will be thick enough for the thinnest place. the trigger should also be of maple. join it with a cross-lap joint. (see page .) then, holding each end successively upright in the vise, draw the slanting lines and saw for / " lengthwise in such a way as to leave / " flat on each of the two adjacent surfaces. after sawing endwise, saw the little corner pieces off crosswise. the trigger has to withstand considerable pulling, so it should fit nicely, yet easily, a " screw in its center. before screwing either the knocker or the trigger in place, lay both on the gun-stock so that they will engage properly; then mark the place for the screws, drill holes, and screw them on. if the knocker touches the rattle, take it off and plane a slanting chip or two where it is screwed to the gun-stock. a thin leather washer / " in diameter will prevent the trigger touching. a little soap will make the trigger turn easier. [illustration: rattle-bang gun plate ] the barrel may well be made of a broomstick. to make it fit on the top of the gun-stock, saw it down the middle and cut off the lower half. before fastening it in place, be sure that it will not touch the sounding part of the rattle. [illustration: fig. ] a still louder and more difficult rattle to make is shown in fig. . most boys would find it impossible to bore a " hole endwise in maple. the knocker and trigger would both have to be set out from the gun-stock. boat--plate . this boat is designed rather heavy to insure good service. it has ballast and beam enough to right itself even tho the sails do get wet. if a better looking boat is desired, draw the deck more slender; hollow the hull with bit and gouge; pare the gunwales with the spokeshave to give it some sheer; and nail on a thin deck. soft pine is the best wood for the hull and spruce for the spars. to lay out the hull, draw a center-line lengthwise on top, bottom, and ends of the block of wood. make all the measurements given on the deck; (top of the hull, plate ) first lengthwise, then crosswise. square with the deck, the curve should be worked out with rip-saw and spokeshave. the stem should next be undercut with the saws (rip and crosscut) so as to make place for the rudder. on the bottom leave a flat place - / " × / " for the keel to fit; then round the hull as suggested by the sectional drawings at ab and cd. make the keel and nail it securely in place. from the under side of the boat and slanting the same as the keel and undercut, bore a / " hole for the stem of the rudder. make the rudder and tiller of / " wood. the little mortise in the tiller can be cut with a small chisel after a / " hole is bored at its center. for the wheel, make a dowel about " long and into one end of it bore a hole about " deep for a - / " screw. saw a piece from this end / " long and screw it to the deck about - / " in front of the hole bored for the rudder. the wheel should turn rather hard so as to stay in any position desired. to make the spars, (mast, boom, etc.,) follow the directions on page . use large screw-eyes in the gaff and boom (or see plate , "method of swinging booms to mast") and a very small one at the top of the mast. to nail the bowsprit securely, place it " back of the prow, drive a " brad thru it near the prow, and one on each side of it / " back. bend these latter over the bowsprit before they are driven in their full length. an upward slant is given to the bowsprit by planing its larger end slanting to fit the deck. the rudder is hung on two staples made of pins. two headless pins are driven into the rudder and bent down at right angles to slip into these staples. in order that the stem of the rudder may turn enough, the rudder must be hung close to the hull. each "rope" of the rigging should have its own screw-eye (or staple) and cleat on the deck. the cleat (a device for fastening a "rope" in any position, by winding it back and forth) is simply two slender brads driven slanting. the mainsail should be " on the mast and " at its outer edge. it should be hemmed and properly fastened to the spars. on the mast, fine wire rings or loops of thread may be used. the jib should extend " up the stay (the "rope" from the end of the bowsprit to the top of the mast) and be either sewed to it or made to slide on it with small rings of wire. ballast can be cut (with tin-shears or saw) from lead pipe and nailed to the keel. to drive brads thru lead, pinch them between the thumb and finger, and drive them gently. for convenience in holding the boat when it is out of the water, make a dry dock as shown in the drawing. [illustration: boat plate ] pile-driver--plate . in wet, soft soil, wherever any building operations are to be undertaken, long, straight logs called piles have first to be driven to support the foundation. in wet soil they never rot; those driven for the building of venice centuries ago are still solid. if holes are bored in the weight of this toy pile-driver, it is made more effective. this is not a difficult model if each part is well made. it is important, however, to nail it in the following order: runs to uprights, uprights to sides, sides to base, top to uprights, braces to uprights, then to base. the ends of the braces are mitered, that is, sawed, like the corner of a picture-frame, on the diagonal of a square. the axle of the little spool is made by two " brads, and it rests in notches as near the end of the top blocks as is convenient to file them. it is held in place by little brads, or pins crossed over it, or by a staple made of a pin. a crank for the big spool (called the drum) is made of a " piece of stiff wire. it should be flattened enough not to turn in the drum. fasten the string to the drum thru a little hole drilled thru its rim. if the string comes off the upper spool, put a large screw-eye into the top piece and pass the string thru it. [illustration: pile driver plate ] windmill--plate . on a hilltop, exposed to every wind that blows, one of these windmills made by a boy has been spinning around for four years. the windmill in this form serves also as a weathervane. pine is the best wood for this model. to withstand the weather, the model should be painted. after planing the post to size, lay out the chamfers (see page ) with a pencil on all four sides. the curve should be cut with a knife; the upper part may be planed if the square part is not squeezed in the vise. plane the two pieces for the vanes as accurately as possible so as to be able to make a good joint. lay out and cut this joint as directed on page . after it is well fitted, draw the curves where the edges are to be whittled away. there are sixteen of them. open the compass / " and place the needle point always on the _front right-hand_ edge as the wheel turns around. the curve begins / " from the joint and ends / " from the back edge (one also goes towards the lower edge). from this point draw a straight line to the end of the vane. draw such lines as explained on page . take the joint apart and whittle the edges away to these curves. on the beam, make chamfers - / " long. at the rear end, on the top and bottom, draw a center-line and two lines on each side of the center-line / " apart. between the first two, nearest the center-line, make the v-shaped groove in which the rudder fits. the sides of the beam are to be pared away to the other two lines, leaving this end / " wide. the curves at the rear end of the rudder can be sawed best with a scroll saw. lacking that, proceed as follows: first, bore a / " hole near the short straight line in the middle. resting the rudder on a cutting board, pare to this line with a chisel. next, saw straight from the end of the rudder to this straight line; then saw the corners, and pare to the curves. the width of the notch at the front end of the rudder is equal to the space left between the roots of the v-shaped notches in the beam. measure this space, lay out the notch, saw, and chisel it; then pare the corners so as to fit the v-shaped notches in the beam. beware of crowding the rudder, for it will split easily. when fitted, glue and nail it in place, slanting a " brad thru the curve into the beam. [illustration: windmill plate ] put the wheel on the beam with two washers and a large screw ( " no. round head is a good one). for this screw bore a / " hole thru the center of the wheel, and a smaller hole in the beam. now balance the windmill on the top of the post, and put the beam and post together with washers and screw in the same manner. kite-string reel--plate . a boy who flies kites will appreciate this reel for hauling in his kite quickly and keeping the string in order. the axle is made long for the purpose of putting on a brake when letting out a kite. the brake is simply a strong cord, fastened to a screw in the lower part of the further upright, (as viewed in plate ) wound several times around the axle, and the other end held in the hand. a " hole is bored in the base so that the reel can be anchored to the ground with a stake. with a loop of string fastened to the upright below the crank, the crank can be kept from turning, if one does not wish to let out all of the kite-string. make the base first, then the uprights. in the uprights, it is more convenient to bore the / " holes before the sides are planed slanting. after the wheel pieces are joined in the manner explained on page , lay out the slanting lines on each arm while the joint is still together; then take it apart and plane to the slanting lines. hold each piece securely slantwise in the vise, because one pair especially is apt to split from the notch outward. when this planing is finished, glue the joint and bore a / " hole straight thru the center. if convenient, make the cross pieces in one long piece, ", planing off one corner flat (see sectional drawing, plate ) within / " of the two adjacent corners. being careful to drive no brad into the / " hole, glue and nail these four cross pieces to one wheel. then glue them to the other wheel and wind some string around tightly enough to hold this wheel while adjusting and nailing it. it will require care to get the cross pieces square with the first wheel, and the second wheel parallel with the first. after the string is wound around to hold the second wheel, measure the distance from wheel to wheel at the ends of all the arms. the nailing can be done while one arm of the wheels is held in the vise. the axle and handle should be glued and nailed to the crank. now put the reel together, not forgetting the washers inside the uprights, and lock the wheels to the axle by drilling a hole for a " nail thru cross piece, wheel, and axle. [illustration: kite string reel plate ] [illustration: string machine plate ] string machine--plate . on a machine like this, one can twist bowstrings, topstrings, fish-lines, silk cord for fancy work, and any similar cord. tho designed to be held on the floor or table with flat-irons, clamps, of course, will hold it better. make the tail piece first. in the cross pieces of the tail piece are two screws / " from the ends; be careful to bore the holes large enough so the screws will not split them. the edges of the lower cross piece must be sandpapered enough not to cut the elastic bands. in order that the belt shall run on the center of the wheels in the head piece, it is important to have the three axles parallel. to make them so, the two uprights must be clamped together while boring the / " holes for the axles. lest the spur of the bit split the uprights, drill small holes at each center first. do not nail the longer upright to the base until the belt runs well in both directions. on a lathe, the wheels and axles could easily be made of one piece; lacking a lathe, a big spool or curtain pole must be used. plug the hole of the spool with a dowel, then very accurately find its center and bore a / " hole thru it. saw it into three / " pieces for the wheels. glue these to the axles so that " extends thru the taller upright. a belt runs better on a wheel that is "crowned," that is, slightly larger in the middle; so the edges of these wheels must be pared / ", making a gentle curve. put the washers each side of the wheels, then put the wheels in place in the taller upright, and nail this to the triangular block. pull a / " leather belt tightly around the three wheels and sew the ends so that they butt together. clamp the shorter upright in position and turn the upper axle to see if the belt runs well in both directions. it will run true when all three axles are parallel, so keep knocking the shorter upright from side to side or up and down until the belt does run true; then bore holes for three screws to hold it to the triangular block. make the crank and lock it to the upper axle with a / " screw. to twist a string, set the two parts of the machine somewhat farther apart than the finished length desired, put on as many threads, from hooks on the tail piece to corresponding hooks on the head piece, as will make the finished string the desired size. observe how these separate threads were twisted, and start the machine in the _opposite_ way. twist until the three strands kink readily when the head piece is brought nearer the tail piece. the tighter these are twisted, the harder the string will be. (soap rubbed on the inside of the belt may make the belt carry more power). when these three strands are twisted enough, remove the two lower ones from their _hooks on the head piece_ to the upper hook. twist in the _opposite_ direction until the string kinks again, and it is made. if the three strands are waxed, a stronger string will be made. windmill force-pump--plate . if this pump is properly connected with an air chamber, as explained later, it will send a small stream of water some ten feet. in a gale, the windmill is strong enough, in fact, to force the valves from the glass tubes. like any model of considerable mechanism, this will require patience to get it in working order. the post is made short for stability. if it can be held in place firmly, a trestlework tower like a real windmill might be built of stock / " × / " for the corner posts and / " × / " for the braces. the post is slanting on two sides to fit the journals at the top. it is fastened to the base with two " screws. make the wheel center - / " square, and thru its center bore a / " hole. if it does not revolve true, make another block and try again. make the block octagonal by cutting off each corner / ". on each of the eight faces saw notches / " wide and / " deep into which the vanes will fit. (see page on cutting notches.) make and glue the vanes in place and lay the wheel flat to dry. procure three pieces of water-gage glass " long, / " to / " inside diameter. glass tubes can be broken apart by filing a slight notch, grasping the tube firmly each side of the notch, and pulling and bending the tube away from the notch. if the file starts a little break, this will be comparatively easy, if it does not, file some more. into two tubes little valves must be cemented. these can be made of a firm piece of leather. sole leather that is not too hard is best. with knife or chisel, pare two pieces on the cutting board to fit in the tubes. the cement will make them water tight later. push the sharp point of a penknife into the smooth side of the leather disk and make a circular cut, as one would remove a speck from an apple, but do not cut the flap completely out, because it must be left hinged to the disk. turn this flap up straight out of the way so as to be able to work a / " hole thru the disk. this can be punched, drilled, or cut out with a / " chisel, and finished with a penknife. of course, the edges of the flap should cover this hole completely. the valve in the lowest tube should be cemented about / " from the lower end with the flap up, that in the horizontal tube about / " from the outer end with the flap out. [illustration: windmill force-pump plate ] to make sealing-wax sticky enough to cement these valves in the tubes, melt one teaspoon of wax with one-half teaspoon of turpentine in a large spoon, and allow it to cool. break it in pieces small enough to go in the tubes. put the valve in the tube a little to one side of its final position; put in some of the wax mixture; heat the tube in an alcohol flame, rolling the tube till the wax begins to melt; remove from the flame; and when the wax is all melted, push the valve to its final position with a pencil. while it is cooling, see that the wax does not flow into the valve. all three tubes must have a piece of rubber tubing on the outside to serve as packing in the wooden block. with an expansive bit, holes can be bored in the block so that the rubber tubing will fit tightly. lacking that, bore a smaller hole and enlarge it with a round file. the center of the vertical hole is somewhat to the left (as viewed in plate ) of the center of the block to allow the horizontal tube more support. this will require the notch in the upright also to be to the left of the center. after the holes are bored, the pores of the wood must be filled with paraffin. in a little dish, melt some paraffin and put it into the holes with a rag tied to a stick. when the holes are well covered, drive the wax into the wood with an alcohol or candle flame held in the hole till the wood is fairly hot. the outside of the block might well be treated in like manner. it will be best to cement these tubes in their places. melt a tablespoon of sealing wax with about as much turpentine. with this, not too hot, build up a good fillet over the rubber tubing / ", perhaps, on the glass tubes. make a good fitting piston for the upper tube; it must not slide hard (oil it) and yet it must be air tight. to make the piston file two grooves / " apart around and near the end of the piston rod. wind a hummock of yarn between these grooves till it almost fills the tube, then wrap a piece of soft cloth (knitted underwear) smoothly over the hummock, tying it in each groove with thread. lock the crank to the axle with a / " screw. adjust the axle and keep it in position with two leather washers locked to the axle just outside the journals. clamp the block to the base, adjust it in line with the crank, and fasten it with two - / " screws up thru the base. the last connection to make is between the crank and connecting-rod. to make this, raise the piston to its highest position, and turn the crank to its lowest; choose what seems the best point for the screw, marking the point on crank and connecting-rod; now lower the piston and raise the crank; if the two points do not come together, the screw should be placed half way between them. this screw should be tight in the crank. the wheel can now be glued to the axle or locked with a brad slanting from the front of the wheel center. before they will work, the valves must be made limber with water, and to start the pump, water may have to be put on each side of the valves. water may be pumped to any height by fastening a pipe to the horizontal tube. to obtain a steady stream, like a fire-engine, connect the horizontal tube with an air-tight bottle. the pipe which goes into this bottle should reach just below the stopper. the outlet pipe should nearly reach the bottom of the bottle, and it should have a nozzle smaller than any other opening in the whole apparatus. the bottle should be partly full of water. quarter-inch glass tubing can be melted and shaped in an alcohol flame, and, if some rubber tubing is used as a connection, the nozzle can be played anywhere. books _for_ boys especially helpful for the use of boys in their home shops beginning woodwork, at home and in school. _by clinton s. vandeusen._ a full and clear description in detail of the fundamental processes of elementary benchwork in wood. this description is given thru directions for making a few simple, useful articles, suitable either for school or home problems. the book contains more than one hundred original sketches and ten working drawings. price, $ . . manual training toys, for the boys' workshop. _by harris w. moore._ this book contains a collection of working drawings illustrating forty-two projects, overflowing with "boy" interest. it is a popular boys' book that is truly educational. the projects are all new in the manual training shop. the text gives instructions for making each project and treats of tools and tool processes. price, $ . . _the_ construction _and_ flying _of_ kites. _by charles m. miller._ a book of unusual interest to the boy. it contains seven full-page plates of drawings of kites and fifteen figures--over forty kites shown. details of construction are given and a kite tournament is described. full of interesting suggestions. price, cents. essentials _of_ woodworking. _by ira s. griffith._ a textbook written especially for the use of grammar and high school students. a clear and comprehensive treatment of woodworking tools, materials, and processes, to supplement, but not to take the place of the instruction given by the teacher. the book does not contain a course of models; it may be used with any course. it is illustrated with photographs and numerous pen drawings. price, $ . . the manual arts press peoria, illinois books _for_ boys the "problems series" of working drawings, good for either home or school use projects _for_ beginning woodwork _and_ mechanical drawing. _by ira s. griffith._ a work book for the use of students in grammar grade classes. it consists of working drawings and working directions. the projects are such as have proven of exceptional service where woodworking and mechanical drawing are taught in a thoro, systematic manner in the seventh and eighth grades. the aim has been to provide successful rather than unique problems. the fifty projects in the book have been selected and organized with the constant aim of securing the highest educational results. the book is especially suited for use in connection with "essentials of woodworking" by the same author. price, cents. problems _in_ woodworking. _by m. w. murray._ a convenient collection of good problems consisting of forty plates bound in heavy paper covers with brass fasteners. each plate is a working drawing, or problem in benchwork that has been successfully worked out by boys in one of the grades from seven to nine inclusive. price, cents. board covers, cents. advanced projects _in_ woodwork. _by ira s. griffith._ this book is similar to "projects for beginning woodwork and mechanical drawing," but is suited to high school needs. it consists of fifty plates of problems and accompanying notes. it is essentially a collection of problems in furniture making selected or designed with reference to school use. on the plate with each working drawing is a good perspective sketch of the completed object. in draftsmanship and refinement of design these problems are of superior quality. it is in every respect an excellent collection. price, $ . . the manual arts press peoria, illinois books _for_ boys the "problems series" of working drawings good for either home or school use problems _in_ furniture making. _by fred d. crawshaw._ this book, revised and enlarged, consists of full-page plates of working drawings suitable for use in grammar and high schools and pages of text, including chapters on design, construction and finishes, and notes on the problems. each project is shown in its completed form by a perspective sketch. loose leaf, bound in board covers with brass fasteners. price, $ . . problems _in_ wood-turning. _by fred d. crawshaw._ in the first place this is a book of problems-- plates covering spindle, faceplate, and chuck turning. in the second place it is a textbook on the science and art of wood-turning illustrated by fifty pen sketches. it gives the mathematical basis for the cuts used in turning. in the third place it is a helpful discussion of the principles of design as applied to objects turned in wood. it is a clear, practical and suggestive book on wood-turning. price, cents. board covers, $ . . problems _in_ mechanical drawing. _by charles a. bennett._ with drawings made by fred d. crawshaw. this book consists of plates and a few explanatory notes, and is bound in heavy paper covers with brass fasteners. its purpose is to furnish teachers of classes beginning mechanical drawing with a large number of simple, practical problems. these have been selected with reference to the formation of good habits in technique, the interest of the pupils, and the subjects generally included in a grammar and first-year high school course. each problem given is unsolved and therefore in proper form to hand to the pupil for solution. price, $ . . board covers, $ . . the manual arts press peoria, illinois books _for_ boys some choice books for home or school libraries handwork _in_ wood. _by william noyes._ a handbook for teachers and a textbook for normal school and college students. a comprehensive and scholarly treatise, covering logging, sawmilling, seasoning and measuring, hand tools, wood fastenings, equipment and care of the shop, the common joints, types of wood structures, principles of joinery, and wood finishing. illustrations--excellent pen drawings and many photographs. price, $ . . wood _and_ forest. _by william noyes._ a companion volume to "handwork in wood," by the same author. especially adapted as a reference book for teachers of woodworking. not too difficult for use as a textbook for normal school and college students. treats of wood, distribution of american forests, life of the forest, enemies of the forest, destruction, conservation and uses of the forest, with a key to the common woods by filibert roth. describes principal species of wood with maps of the habitat, leaf drawings, life size photographs and microphotographs of sections. contains a general bibliography of books and articles on wood and forest. profusely illustrated with photographs from the united states forest service and with pen and ink drawings by anna gausmann noyes and photographs by the author. pages. price, $ . . books _on the_ manual arts. a catalog listing and describing books on the manual arts, including all the standard and the best of the recent publications. it is an up-to-date bibliography and a valuable reference book for teachers, librarians and all interested in manual, industrial, and vocational education. mailed free on request. the manual arts press peoria, illinois transcriber's notes: italic text is marked _thus_; bold text is shown =thus=. apparent typographical errors have been corrected and hyphenation standardised. unusual punctuation and original spelling have been retained. fig. numbers do not follow in strict numerical order. [illustration: front cover.] the boy craftsman handicraft books by a. neely hall _ vo. cloth. illustrated with hundreds of photographs and working drawings by the author and norman p. hall_ the boy craftsman handicraft for handy boys (_revised edition_) the handy boy (_revised edition_) home-made toys for girls and boys handicraft for handy girls carpentry and mechanics for boys home-made games and game equipment (_revised edition_) outdoor boy craftsmen big book of boys' hobbies lothrop, lee & shepard company boston new york [illustration: a boy's workshop.] the boy craftsman practical and profitable ideas for a boy's leisure hours by a. neely hall with more than four hundred illustrations by the author and norman p. hall [illustration: page decoration.] boston lothrop, lee & shepard co. copyright, , by lothrop, lee & shepard company. published, august, . _all rights reserved._ the boy craftsman. norwood press j. s. cushing & co.--berwick & smith co. norwood, mass., u.s.a. work hard--play hard. --theodore roosevelt. note to the reader the boy of to-day is ever on the lookout for new ideas which can be adopted for his work and recreation, schemes which are practical and which are thoroughly up-to-date. they must be helpful in suggesting ways of earning money, as well as entertaining, for what boy of the present day does not feel the need of such suggestions to aid him in raising the funds necessary to carry on his work? in none of the books published on boy's handicraft has the question entered into consideration as to how he is to obtain the means with which to buy such materials and apparatus as the work requires. a boy should not expect to draw upon his father's purse for everything his fancy desires. it is important that he learn to earn his spending money, for in doing so he becomes independent and more careful as to how he invests it. having had the experience of working, the average boy learns to so appreciate the value of hard-earned money that it is pretty certain he will spend it only for something with which he can earn more or which will prove useful to him in his work and play. "the boy craftsman" has been undertaken with a view of helping boys with their problems of earning money, as well as furnishing recreative and entertaining work, and to this end the first portion has been devoted to suggestions for the carrying on of a number of small business enterprises, and the second and third parts to outdoor and indoor pastimes for all seasons of the year. in "profitable pastimes" a boy will find work that will make easy the matter of earning money with which to buy such materials as he needs to carry out the suggestions offered in the book, while the practical knowledge acquired and the handiness developed in pursuing the several lines of work is certain to be helpful to him in later years. the tools and apparatus used are such as a boy of average ability can procure with a little hustling, and can be purchased singly, or two or three at a time, as his money permits. the materials at hand can be used in thousands of different ways, and in preparing the chapters this has been taken into consideration, these odds and ends being utilized whenever it has been possible to do so. carpenter work is something with which every boy must familiarize himself to a certain extent in order to do anything in the line of construction, so the fitting up of a workshop and the proper handling of tools have been described in the first two chapters, in view of making it a simple matter to perform the work embodied in the rest of the book. technical terms and phrases have been eliminated from the text as far as possible, and where it has been deemed necessary to include them, to describe certain operations for which a boy should know the proper terms or expressions, they have generally been explained in the first chapter in which they occur. to simplify the matter of referring to the definitions of these, they have been arranged alphabetically in chapter xxix. some of the material contained in this book was originally written by the author in the form of magazine articles for _the american boy_ and _the boys' world_, and thanks are due the publishers, the sprague publishing company and the david c. cook publishing company, for permission to reprint it. this material has been revised and enlarged upon, and is presented with new and additional illustrations. the author is always glad to hear from his young readers, and to be of assistance to them in answering any questions they wish to ask regarding their work. a. n. h. chicago, illinois, may , . contents [illustration: boy 'fixing' clock with a hammer.] part i _profitable pastimes_ chapter i page a boy's workshop value of a knowledge of carpenter work--location of shop--a solid work-bench--the vise--bench-stops--carpenter's horses--a bench-hook--a mitre-box--a sand-paper block--a strop--a plumb-- purchasing tools--tool-cabinets--racks for tools--a carpenter's carrying-box--a nail-box--receptacles for supplies--workshop clothes--care of oily rags and waste. chapter ii the proper handling of tools care of tools--the cross-cut saw and rip-saw--sawing--the back-saw, compass-saw, and gig-saw--kerfs--the jack-plane, fore-plane, and smoothing-plane--planing--testing work--the firmer-chisel--paring--the framing-chisel-chamfering and bevelling --the gouge--the draw-knife--boring--an automatic-drill-- hatchet and hammer--driving nails--withdrawing nails--toe-nailing --blind-nailing--clinching--the nail-set--nails--screw-driver for bit-stock--screws--the countersink. sharpening tools grinding chisels, gouges, draw-knives, knives and hatchets--the washita oil-stone--whetting--stropping--sharpening saws. laying out work use of the try-square--gauging with rule and pencil--a marking-gauge --a mitred try-square--the bevel--to divide a board. chapter iii the boy about the house opportunities for work--outfit for jobbing--the hinge-lock-- clothes-line reel--a broom and dust-pan rack--the fly-killer--an ash-sifter--a bread-board--a plate-rack chapter iv suggestions for a boy's room simple and inexpensive furnishings--what the room should contain--a cosey-corner--pennants--small posters--picture-frames--a writing-desk--another style of desk--an ink-stand and pen-tray--a couch--a window-seat--a curio-cabinet--book-shelves--a blacking-case--a towel-rack. chapter v how to make a doll-house store doll-houses--profit from making doll-houses--the materials required--the base--the floors--partitions and walls--stairways --balustrades--front and rear steps--the gambrel roof--the gable-ends--the doors and windows--outside trimmings--casters-- the chimneys--a mantel and fire-place--andirons--the interior woodwork--painting the house. chapter vi another doll-house and a stable packing-cases and other material--the floor plans--the partitions and walls--the elevator-shaft--the windows--the roof--the chimney--an elevator--the gable-ends--the stairway--a balustrade --other details. how to make the stable dimensions of stable--the first story--the roof--the gable-ends-- the stall partitions and feed-troughs--windows--ladder to hay-loft --feed-hoist--the drop-front--a stable door--painting. chapter vii furnishing the doll-house the walls and ceiling--hardwood floors--carpets and rugs-- window-shades and curtains--portieres--pictures--a cosey-corner-- buying furnishings. chapter viii doll-furniture metal furniture--miniature mission furniture--material--drawing the patterns--the chairs--the settee--tables--a side-board--a mirror--the grandfather's clock--kitchen furniture--the beds-- the dresser--a wash-stand--finishing. other cigar-box furniture a folding-bed--the dresser--a wardrobe. chapter ix a boy's printing-shop location of printing-shop--equipment--selection of type-- type-cases--a rack for type-cases--a composing-stick--a composing-rule--justifying--a home-made galley--"pieing"--proofs --the imposing-stone--the chase--furniture--locking-up a form-- distribution--the tympan--overlaying--underlaying--gauge-pins-- inking the press--care of rollers--neatness--receptacles for materials--care of waste paper and oily rags. chapter x amateur journalism a collection of amateur papers--amateur press associations--some methods of printing papers--examples of amateur papers--the character of a paper--naming--the frequency of publication--the size of page--a stereotyped heading--the choice of type--a cover --binding--advertisements--the advertisers' dummy--second-class matter. chapter xi a boy's dark-room profit in photography--the necessary equipment--the bedroom as a dark-room--the bath-room as a dark-room--another scheme for a dark-room--a work-table--running water--a water-tank--a sink-- a washing-box--a drying-rack--another scheme for a drying-rack--a cabinet--a ruby-light--a home-made lantern--a plate-lifter-- classifying and preserving negatives--manila envelopes--a negative-case. chapter xii a winter enterprise an opportunity for making money--a snow plough--a scraper--a snow shovel. part ii _outdoor pastimes_ chapter xiii a back-yard club-house how some boys built a club-house--a mysterious letter--drawing the plan of a club-house--the material--fishing studs--staking out the building--the studs--boarding up the sides--the roof--the floor --a window-sash--a batten door--wooden latch--calking up cracks. chapter xiv how to build a log-cabin the pioneer cabin--the cabin of to-day--selection of a site-- design and size--the material--staking out the cabin--the lock-joint--the sills--construction of roof--ridge boards--a log chimney and fire-place--calking--a mud floor--the windows--the cabin door--wooden hinges--wooden latch--the latch-string--a mantel-shelf--provision cupboard--rustic seats--bunks--a camp-table--a few pointers about camping--utensils--other necessities--provisions. chapter xv how to build a canvas canoe canoeing as a sport--popularity of canvas canoes--materials--the bow and stern pieces--the keelson--the mould--putting the framework together--the gunwales--the ribbands--the deck beams-- the ridge pieces--the deck braces--the cockpit--the canvas covering--the deck--painting--the cockpit coaming--the keel-- the bilge-keels--outside gunwales--a seat--how to mend punctures --a single paddle. chapter xvi home-made traps trapping as a pastime--the city boy and his country cousin--the figure-four trap--a box trap--the dead fall--the sieve trap--the coop trap--a rabbit snare--a twitch-up--the professional trapper --wolves and coyotes--story of a trapped indian. chapter xvii toy guns, targets, and bows and arrows ancient war engines--new idea for a cross-bow--shingle arrows--a toy pistol--cardboard bullets--a shot-gun--an elastic sling--a boy's barrel-hoop target--a simpler target--how points are scored-- the bow and arrow--length of bow--the bow-string--the arrow-shafts --preparing arrow-heads--feathering--a quiver--proper position for shooting with bow--the indian's bow--how his arrows were made and feathered--the preparation of his arrow-heads. chapter xviii an outdoor gymnasium location for gymnasium--a horizontal bar--tumbling mat--parallel bars--the punching-bag platform--a pair of jump standards--a vaulting pole--a spring-board--hurdles--a running track--method of starting for short sprints--mark for broad jumping--an athletic club--athletic meets. chapter xix a back-yard circus the ancient roman circus--the circus of to-day--how several boys gave a circus--preparing the yard for a circus--making the ring-- good circus seats--a tent--decorating the tent--a ticket office-- a turnstile--the side show--cages for side show--animated animals --the elephant--the giraffe--the two-legged wild horse--the wild man of borneo--a monkey's make-up--the ring master--the clown's suit--the attendants--ideas for a performance--a slapper-- looping the hoop on a giraffe--a chariot--parades--the advertising signs. chapter xx suggestions for fourth of july the first fourth of july celebration--pyrotechnics costly and dangerous to make--the making of harmless and inexpensive fireworks--a fire-cracker cannon--to fire the cannon--a fire-cracker mortar--mimic battles with paper soldiers--another toy cannon--to fire the cannon--firing fireworks from kites--firing a pack of fire-crackers from a kite--shooting nigger-chasers--japanese lanterns hung from kite-strings--a shooting-torch--a final set-piece. chapter xxi halloween ancient superstitions and origin of halloween--a magazine bean-blower--a new style of tick-tack--a clockwork tick-tack-- the goblin-man--the disappearing rope. chapter xxii a back-yard toboggan-slide one advantage of a small slide--location--length--the platform-- framework--railing around platform--a ladder--making a swift slide--a home-made sled--the runners--reënforcing the runners. part iii _indoor pastimes_ chapter xxiii a miniature theatre an interesting entertainment--a picture-frame proscenium--the stage framework--the gridiron--the stage floor--the drop-curtain-- lighting the theatre--the footlights--floodlights--colored lights --spotlights--admission tickets and programmes. chapter xxiv scenery, properties, and mechanical effects materials for scenery--an ocean scene--additional waves--frames for drops--a mid-ocean scene--a seashore scene--a field scene-- the trees--a blockhouse scene--pine boughs for trees and shrubbery --moss for mounds and hills--rustic bridges--a pond or lake--a street scene--an interior--a war drama--paper soldiers--scheme for marching soldiers--separate standards--a jointed figure--stage properties--tents--an indian teepee--battleships--trains and wagons--mechanical effects--thunder--rain--wind--lightning-- the roar of cannon. chapter xxv making a toy railway the trolley-line--supports for trolley-line--power for operating railway--tracks--the cars--a gondola car--a street car--other cars--operation of railway--a station. chapter xxvi clockwork automobiles procuring a set of clockworks--an automobile touring-car--the frame--preparation of clockworks--the belt--testing the machine-- the cardboard sides--wheels--mud-guards--lamps--the steering-wheel --a horn--the brake--the chauffeur--painting the machine--an automobile delivery wagon--the cardboard sides--the wheels--other portions--painting the wagon--a clockwork railway. chapter xxvii work to do with a knife how boots were marked in a penitentiary--a home-made fountain pen-- the magic pin-wheel--to operate the pin-wheel--a wooden chain and rattle--the chain--the rattle--finishing the chain and rattle. chapter xxviii cork toys materials required--cork animals--a pig--a horse--the elephant --the giraffe--a porcupine--other animals--the korka-bird--a duck--canoes--small sail-boats--cork furniture--a chair--the sofa--a small tabouret--a toy log-cabin. chapter xxix definitions of terms and phrases index list of half-tone illustrations (in addition to more than four hundred text illustrations.) part i a boy's workshop _frontispiece_ opposite page treatment of a boy's room fig. .--a colonial doll-house fig. .--another style of doll-house} fig. .--interior view of doll-house} an amateur's outfit a group of amateur papers fig. .--a handy dark-room} fig. .--a washing-box and drying-rack} part ii in camp for the summer a boys' log-cabin two simple cabins caught at last the back-yard circus part iii a miniature theatre fig. .--a field scene } fig. .--a blockhouse scene} fig. .--a street scene fig. .--the car completed} fig. .--the framework } [illustration: boys at the bank.] [illustration: page decoration.] part i profitable pastimes chapter i a boy's workshop [illustration: boy with box-kite and boy at work-bench.] carpenter work should be encouraged in a boy from the time he first becomes interested in it, for besides being something with which to keep him busy, the experience gained by its practice will be useful to him all his life, no matter what branch of industry he may follow later on. when a boy has learned the proper care and use of tools, and is able to turn out neatly executed work, he will find the occupation a profitable one, there being an unlimited number of things he can make in his shop. doll-houses for girl relatives, toys for brothers and cousins, and articles for the household, such as are described in following chapters, are a few of the many things he can construct. many of these are salable articles, besides being suitable for birthday and christmas gifts, and should bring a neat sum of money to the young carpenter. a knowledge of carpenter work also develops in a boy a handiness for devising and putting together articles and apparatus for his own use. a boy should really have a shop where he can keep his tools and unfinished work with no danger of them being disturbed, and where he need not be afraid of littering the floor with shavings or of making too much noise. =the workshop= may be fitted up by the boy himself, and a suitable place can probably be found in the basement, barn, or woodshed. here a corner large enough to contain a work-bench, carpenter's horses, and tool-cabinets, besides plenty of room to work in, should be partitioned off, and a window that will admit a good supply of light made in one side of the room, if one has not already been provided. [illustration: fig. .--end view of work-bench.] =a solid work-bench=, six feet long, thirty inches wide, and thirty-two inches high, should be constructed beneath the window. it is a good idea to build this on to the wall if possible, as it is easier to make a solid bench by doing so, and the firmer it is, the better. first cut a two-by-four four feet long, and spike it to the wall below the window, twenty-eight inches above the floor. then saw two pieces of two-by-four, twenty-eight inches long, for the legs, and two pieces, thirty inches long, for crosspieces. spike the crosspieces on to the legs and on to the piece nailed to the wall, as shown in fig. . cut three ten-inch planks, six feet long, and spike them to the crosspieces so that they project twelve inches over the ends, but are flush with the framework in front. then cut a ten-inch board, six feet long, for an apron, and, after cutting the ends as shown in fig. , nail it across the front of the bench. [illustration: fig. .--iron bench-screw.] [illustration: fig. .--wooden bench-screw.] for fifty cents a fifteen-inch iron or wooden bench-screw, similar to those in figs. and , can be purchased at a hardware store, and the rest of =the vise= is simple to make. figures , , and show the details for this. take a board thirty inches long by six inches wide for the jaw, and bore a hole a little larger than the screw, six inches from one end. bore another hole the same size through the apron and table-leg, six inches below the bench-top (see _a_ in figs. and ). the portion of the iron screw marked _b_ in fig. should be set into the hole bored in the bench-leg and screwed at _e_ (fig. ), while the portion _d_ is to be screwed to the jaw. if a wooden screw is used, the portion _c_ in the drawing (fig. ) is nailed to the inside of the bench-leg. [illustration: fig. . fig. . details of bench-vise.] in order to guide the bottom of the jaw, an arrangement similar to _f_ in fig. should be made. make a mortise two inches long by one inch wide near the bottom of the bench-leg and cut a strip of wood fifteen inches long to fit loosely in it. then shut the vise and mark upon the inside of the jaw the place where the mortise comes in the leg. nail one end of the fifteen-inch strip to the jaw at this point, being careful to get it in such a position that the other end will slide into the mortise. bore several holes in the strip and cut a peg to fit in them. the jaw can now be kept parallel with the side of the bench by adjusting the peg, which is very necessary in order to have the vise grip a piece of work squarely. when you have a long board to work upon, it cannot be held steady by the vise alone. one end should be placed in the vise and the other rested upon a peg stuck in a hole bored in the side of the bench. for boards of different lengths, several holes should be bored, as shown in the illustration of the finished bench (see frontispiece), and a movable peg cut to fit in them. =a bench-stop= of some sort fastened to the top of the bench will be found useful to push work against while planing it, when it is not convenient to use the vise. figures , , and show the forms of stops most commonly used by carpenters. of these the metal stop shown in fig. is the most satisfactory, as it can be adjusted to different heights. it costs but little and is easily put in place. a mortise is made in the top of the bench to receive the lower portion of the stop, and the plate _a_ is set flush with the bench-top and held in place with screws driven into the holes in the corners. the centre of this plate (_b_) is detached from the rest and mounted upon a small post, which can be adjusted to the desired height by giving the screw at _c_ a few turns with the screw-driver. the teeth in the edge of _b_ help to hold the work in position. [illustration: fig. . fig. . fig. . some forms of bench-stops.] one of the simplest forms of stops is shown in fig. . it consists of two screws placed in the top of the bench, which can be raised or lowered with the screw-driver to the height you desire. the stop shown in fig. is made out of a block of wood with a "bird's mouth" cut in one side. it should be nailed to one end of the bench in such a position that the end of the work can be placed in the "bird's mouth." while most of your work will be done on the bench, and a good portion of sawing done with the wood in the vise, large pieces, especially long boards, are generally sawn while placed across horses. =two carpenter's horses= will be required. a good scheme for these is shown in fig. . the top is made out of a piece of two-by-four with bevelled mortises cut in two sides of each end as in fig. . these mortises are made to receive the legs, and the angle of the bevel will of course determine the angle at which the legs will spread. cut the legs out of four-inch boards, and bevel the lower ends to make them set solidly upon the floor. nail the legs firmly in place and brace them with two boards cut and fitted in place, as in the illustration. when the pieces have been nailed together, plane off the tops of the legs to make them flush with the top of the horse, and trim the lower ends if they require it until the horse is solid. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] boring, paring, and nailing on the bench will soon make the surface uneven, unless something is placed beneath the work during such operations. you should therefore make and use =a bench-hook=, such as shown in fig. . a good size is ten by twelve inches, but it may be made larger or smaller if desired. nail a strip along one edge of the under face and another strip along the opposite edge of the upper face. the latter strip should have three kerfs cut in it as shown in the drawing, one at right angles and the other two at forty-five degrees. these may be laid off with a try-square, as shown in figs. and (chapter ii), or with the bevel, as shown in fig. . be careful to keep the saw on the line and in a perfectly perpendicular position in making these kerfs. the upper strip on the bench-hook serves the purpose of a stop, and the kerfs make it possible to use the bench-hook for mitring with the back-saw. further description of the uses of this handy article will be found in the following chapter. [illustration: fig. .--a bench-hook.] [illustration: fig. .--a mitre-box.] you will need =a mitre-box= for cutting mitres in large work, and this may be made as shown in fig. . cut two pieces of seven-eighths inch maple, or other hard wood, twenty inches long by six inches wide, and one piece twenty inches long by four inches wide. nail the six-inch pieces to the edges of the four-inch piece as shown in the drawing, after which you are ready to cut the mitres. these should be laid out similar to those on the bench-hook, by means of the mitred try-square or the bevel. with the blade of the try-square or bevel extending across the top edges of the side-pieces, mark off forty-five degree lines at _a_ and _b_, and a ninety degree line at _c_, after which square the lines down both inner and outer face of the side-pieces. when the lines have been accurately drawn, it is a simple matter to make the kerfs, if you have had any practice in sawing and can keep to a line. no matter how skilful a carpenter is with his tools, he generally depends upon his mitre-box in making mitres, for not only accuracy is obtained by its use, but time is also saved. in using one be careful not to let the saw cut into the sides of the kerfs, or the box will soon be rendered useless for making accurate mitres. [illustration: fig. .--sand-paper block.] before putting the finish upon a piece of work, the wood should be thoroughly sand-papered. in many cases certain portions cannot be reached by the hand, and so =a sand-paper block= similar to fig. should be made. cut a block of wood five inches long, two and one-half inches wide, and seven-eighths of an inch thick. then place it in the vise, and bevel one end and round the other as shown in the drawing. an inch and one-half from each end cut "rabbets" one inch wide across the block, and make two blocks to fit them. when this has been done, cut a strip of sand-paper two and one-half inches wide and stretch it around the block, holding it in place by driving the small blocks into the rabbets. you will find this sand-paper block very handy, as some portion of it can be got into almost every corner you will ever have occasion to sand-paper. the paper may be quickly replaced with a fresh piece when worn out. =a strop= for putting keen edges on tools may be made out of a block of wood, with a piece of shoe-leather, or section of an old razor-strop, glued to one side of it. =a plumb=, similar to fig. , is a handy article to have for outdoor work, such as erecting posts in perpendicular positions. you will have need of it in putting up such buildings as the back-yard club-house, the log-cabin, and the erection of apparatus for the outdoor gymnasium, the construction of which will be found in following chapters. it consists of a stick, the sides of which have been planed up true and parallel, with a notch in one end and a cord with a weight attached fastened to the other end. the notch should be cut in the exact centre of the end of the stick, and the nail placed in the other end directly in line with the centre of the notch. an iron nut, or some such weight, should be attached to the lower end of the cord. by placing this stick at the side of an object, you can determine whether or not it is plumb by the position of the string, which should hang in the centre of the notch when the object is plumb. the length of the stick may be made to suit the size of the work it is to be used upon. four or five feet is a good length for ordinary outside work. [illustration: fig. .] =in purchasing tools= for your workshop it is not advisable to buy them in chests, for they are almost always made of cheap material, and poor tools are of no use to the boy who intends to do good work. it is a much better plan to buy a few tools at a time, getting a good quality of steel, and to gradually increase your outfit as your money permits. then if you really want a chest you can make it yourself. a hatchet, hammer, saw, plane, chisel, jack-knife, bit and bit-stock, screw-driver, and square are the principal tools you will require, and need be all you have to start out with. others may be got as you have need of them, and may be selected from the following list, which includes probably all the tools a boy would ever have occasion to use. =list of tools from which to make your selections= -inch jack-plane. -inch fore-plane. -inch smoothing-plane. -inch rip-saw. -inch cross-cut saw. -inch back-saw. -inch compass-saw. gig-or bracket-saw. ratchet brace. auger-bits, / -inch, / -inch, / -inch, / -inch, and -inch. expansive-bit. several gimlet bits. screw-driver bit. countersink. brad-awl. hand gimlets. automatic-drill. chisels, / -inch, / -inch, / -inch, and -inch. gouges, / -inch and / -inch. draw-knife. jack-knife. hatchet. hammer. tack hammer. mallet. nail-sets (large and small). hand screw-driver. wood rasp. metal file. pair cutting nippers. pair pincers. grind-stone. oil-stone and oil-can. strop. -foot folding rule. large steel square. -inch try-square. bevel. marking-gauge. compass. the proper care and handling of these tools is fully described and illustrated in the following chapter. these directions should be carefully read before you attempt to use the tools, especially the edge tools. =a cabinet= will be found much better for an outfit of tools than a tool-chest, as it can be more easily got at than a chest, where it is necessary to lift several trays before you can reach a tool which has been put in the bottom. [illustration: fig. .--tool-cabinet.] the cabinet shown in fig. is made out of a box about three feet long, two feet wide, and nine inches deep. make a door from the box-cover, fastening the boards together by means of two battens placed at the top and bottom (see illustration). nail a cleat on each side of the cabinet six inches from the bottom, and make a shelf to fit upon them. =racks for bits and chisels= should be made similar to fig. , and fastened side by side to the inside of the cabinet. cut a strip of wood about the size of the battens, and make two slots in it, one for the end of the saw to fit in and the other for the blade of the try-square (see fig. ). this strip is fastened to the cabinet door a few inches above the bottom batten. [illustration: fig. .--bit and chisel racks.] hang up the other tools on brass hooks. after completing the cabinet, paint it inside and out, and fasten either a hook or lock to the door. when this cabinet becomes too small for your increase in tools, you can keep those you use the most in it, and make =another cabinet= for the special and less used tools. either screw the cabinets to the wall or support them upon brackets. =racks= may be made for any tools you wish to hang on the wall. a piece of grooved siding nailed above the bench will do nicely for the large square. when you do outside work you will want something in which to carry such tools as will be required to complete the job. [illustration: fig. .--a carpenter's carrying-box.] =a carpenter's carrying-box= should be made. such a box is shown in fig. . the box should be about twenty-seven inches long to accommodate the saws, and it would be well to make the width eight inches and the height sixteen inches. first prepare the end-pieces, making them six by sixteen inches and rounding the tops with the compass-saw, as shown in the illustration. then cut a board twenty-five inches long by six inches wide for the bottom and nail the end-pieces to the ends of it. make the side-pieces twenty-seven by eight inches, and nail them to the end-pieces and to the edges of the bottom board. the handle consists of a broom-stick fitted into holes bored near the tops of the end-pieces. this box should be used for tools only, and not have nails, screws, and bolts mixed up with them, for these supplies should be kept in a special =nail-box=, with compartments for the different sizes of nails, screws, hooks, screw-eyes, hinges, etc. one of the best kinds of boxes for this purpose is a knife-box such as can be bought for ten or fifteen cents. this is divided in two and has a handle attached (see fig. ). the two compartments should be sub-divided into smaller boxes, either with pieces of cigar-boxes, or with pieces of tin bent at the ends and fastened to the sides of the box, as shown in the illustration. [illustration: fig. .--nail-box.] =supplies= of nails, brads, etc., should be kept in cans and cigar-boxes of different sizes, and it is a good idea to letter these receptacles that you may be able to put your hands upon what you want without having to hunt for it. =shelves= will be handy to keep paint-cans and these boxes on. =workshop clothes=.--old clothes should be worn in the shop, as carpenter work is rather hard upon them, especially the trousers. better than these is a pair of overalls and perhaps a jumper. they are easy to work in and wear better than anything else. =a few hooks= should be placed on the wall for hats and coats, and for your working clothes, if you change them in the shop before and after work. to prevent your tools from being carried off, and your work from being disturbed, it is advisable to have a lock upon the door and keep your shop locked up when you are away. to avoid danger of fire, keep combustible articles, such as oily waste and rags, in covered tin cans, and do not allow shavings and rubbish to accumulate. chapter ii the proper handling of tools [illustration: boy at grind-stone and boy with bit-stock.] before using a tool be sure you understand the proper handling of it, for there is probably nothing more easily injured than an edge tool in a sharpened condition. an inexperienced person is very apt to dull or nick a tool by striking its edge against nails or by using it for purposes other than what it was made for. for this reason a carpenter is very apt to refuse a boy, or any amateur for that matter, the use of his tools, and he is right in doing so. just imagine the amount of work it makes for him to put the tools in shape after they have been returned in all sorts of conditions. a little rubbing on the oil-stone, with an occasional grinding, is all his tools require when he is using them, but to remove nicks made by his young friends wastes too much of his valuable time. a good rule to observe, boys, is never to lend tools to any of your friends, for though they may be as careful in handling them as you are, the chances are they will not be. you had better be a little "grouchy" in this respect, than to have tools which are unfit to do good work with. the following directions, together with the illustrations, should make the handling of your tools perfectly clear, and you will find among these a number of hints as to the care of tools that should be carefully adhered to in order that you may keep them in good condition. =saws.=--a boy can get along with two saws, a cross-cut saw for general use and a compass-saw for finer work, such as circular sawing, and cutting thin wood where a large saw would be too coarse and apt to split the work. but you will often have need of a rip-saw, back-saw, and bracket-saw. they were therefore included in the list of tools on page , and you can add them to your outfit as your money permits. =the cross-cut saw= is, of course, intended for cutting across the grain, while the rip-saw is for cutting with the grain, or ripping. the former saw can be used for rip-sawing, but the operation is much slower, and when you have much of it to do, as in ripping a six-foot board, for instance, you will find the work tedious. =the rip-saw= is not fit for cross-cutting, as it leaves the cut fibres in a very rough condition. the difference in these two saws lies in the shape of their teeth. this can be seen by picking them up and examining their cutting edges. you will find the teeth are bent out of line, the first to the right side and the next to the left. this is known as the "set" of the teeth, and the quality of your work will depend largely upon the care with which the teeth have been sharpened and set. at first you may confuse these two saws, but if you will notice that the teeth of the cross-cut saw come to sharp points and are bevelled on the sides, while those of the rip-saw are not sharpened on the sides, and instead of being pointed on the ends are chisel-shaped (see figs. and ), you will have little trouble in distinguishing them. [illustration: fig. .--teeth of cross-cut saw.] [illustration: fig. .--teeth of rip saw.] [illustration: fig. .--position for sawing. fig. .] =sawing.=--small pieces may be sawn while held in the vise, but, as a rule, large work is placed across a couple of horses. it is generally the most convenient way. grasp the saw in the right hand, and take the position shown in fig. , with the left knee upon the work to hold it in place, and the left hand at the edge of the board. the thumb should be pressed against the saw-blade to guide it until the cut has been well started, as shown in fig. . without the aid of the thumb the saw is liable to slip off the mark and make an ugly cut in the wood. first use a few short strokes until the saw has started to cut. then use a long, steady stroke, putting all of the pressure upon the down stroke. be careful to keep the saw to the line and in a perpendicular position, so that the cut will be square on all sides. if it starts to run away from the line, a slight twist of the blade will return it. when a board has been sawn nearly in two, remove the weight of your knee from it, and hold the board with the left hand to prevent it from splitting off. [illustration: fig. .--position for using the back-saw.] fig. shows the correct position for using =the back-saw=, which is intended for more delicate work than the larger saw, such as can be sawn on the bench-hook or in the mitre-box. it makes a finer cut, its teeth being smaller and more closely set. the blades of =the compass-and gig-saws= are small and narrow, the former being used for circular cutting, as the name would imply, while the latter is employed in cutting very thin wood and in making delicate curves. the blades of these saws, especially the latter, are easily broken, and must be handled with care. the teeth are arranged so as to cut with and against the grain. the slot made by removing the fibre of the wood in sawing is known as =a kerf=. the term is used a good deal in carpenter work, so it is well to know its meaning. the carpenter of to-day is generally supplied with all manner of planes,--rabbeting-planes, beading-planes, circular-planes, ploughs, etc.,--besides the more commonly used jack-plane, fore-plane, and smoothing-plane. each of these planes has a special form of work to do, but ordinarily a boy will have occasion to use but the last three named, and many get along with but a jack-and a smoothing-plane. =the jack-plane= is the plane you will first need to remove the rough surface of undressed lumber, and also to reduce quickly the thickness of wood. the cutting edge of the blade is ground so as to gouge the wood, removing thick shavings, but leaving ridges and hollows which must afterward be removed by a fore-plane or smoothing-plane. there is one trouble in using the smoothing-plane for this operation, however, and that lies in the danger of it following the hollows formed by the jack-plane, making a smooth but uneven surface. =the fore-plane=, on the other hand, has a long enough stock to prevent the blade from cutting the lower portions until the high portions have been removed. although a fore-plane can be used alone for smoothing large work, it is more convenient to finish up with =the smoothing-plane=. the stanley iron plane, shown in fig. , is a great improvement over the old-style wooden ones, and is the most popular plane used to-day. it is more easily handled, as its iron is quickly put in place and adjusted. the illustration gives the names of the various parts. the cap (_b_) is screwed to the plane-iron (_a_), and both are held in the stock (_f_) by means of the clamp on the end of the wedge (_c_). the thumb-screw (_d_) regulates the degrees of fineness of the plane-iron, while the lever (_e_), which moves from side to side, straightens the position of the iron. the base of the stock is known as the sole, or face. [illustration: fig. .--stanley iron plane. _a._ plane-iron. _b._ plane-iron cap. _c._ wedge or clamp. _d._ adjusting screw. _e._ adjusting lever. _f._ stock.] the bailey plane is somewhat similar to the stanley, the upper portion being of iron with screw adjustment, but the base being of wood. its cost is much less than that of the entire iron plane, and you will probably find it as satisfactory if you do not care to spend the additional amount for the stanley plane. =for planing=, take the position shown in fig. , with the left foot a little in advance of the right, the right hand grasping the handle of the plane and the left holding the knob on the fore part of the stock. use a long, steady sweep, and bear with equal pressure from the beginning of a stroke to the end, to avoid the hollows that are so easily made by taking shavings of different thicknesses. do not drag the plane-iron over the work in returning it for another stroke, as it will dull its edge. you will often come across wood with a crooked grain, which runs diagonally through the piece, terminating at the surface. there is a right way and a wrong way in planing this, just as there are two ways of stroking a cat's back, one smoothing the surface, while the other roughens it. when you find a piece of wood with this kind of uncertain grain, you will probably have to change the direction of your planing a number of times before finishing the surface, in order to plane with the grain. [illustration: fig. .--take this position for planing.] in planing end-wood, you will have trouble in preventing the corners of the piece from splitting off unless it is placed in the vise in front of another block of wood, the planing being done toward the block. or one corner may be chamfered with the chisel, as shown in fig. . =testing work.=--it is necessary to test work frequently while planing, in order to locate the high places and avoid taking off too much on the low places. this may be done by squinting one eye and holding the board on a level with the other eye, so that you can look down the length of it as in sighting a gun. the uneven places show up very plainly in this way. work is also tested by means of the try-square. place the handle of the square against the edge of the work with the blade of the square extending across the planed surface, and move it the length of the board. any irregularities in the surface will show themselves as the blade passes over them. in planing up a block of wood, plane up one side and, after proving it to be true, use it for the "tried edge," testing the other sides with the handle of the square pressed against its surface. there are a number of forms of =chisels=, but the only two classes you will probably ever be in need of are the firmer-and framing-chisels. the former are intended for hand use only, while the latter are used for heavier work, such as mortising, where it becomes necessary to use the mallet. =in using a firmer-chisel=, the work should be placed in the vise or be otherwise held in position, that both hands may be kept upon the tool, the right hand grasping the upper end of the handle and doing the pushing, while the left hand holds the lower part of the handle and acts as a guide in working it. =paring= with the chisel consists in trimming a piece of wood to a given line. it is an operation very often resorted to in finishing the end of a piece of work instead of planing, and in trimming up a curved edge such as is shown in fig. . here the line _ab_ represents the line of the finished end of a piece of work. the board is first placed in a vise and the wood removed to about one-quarter inch of _ab_ with a compass-saw, following the curve of the line as nearly as possible. then lay the piece upon the bench-hook (fig. , chap. i), and pare to the line with the chisel, as shown in fig. . [illustration: figs. and .--paring.] the chisel is often used to pare down the surface of a piece of work to a given line, as shown in fig. . =the framing-chisel= should be held in the left hand, and the blows dealt upon the handle with the mallet in the right hand. in handling the framing-chisel the bevel of the blade should be toward the work, which is just the opposite from that shown in figs. and . unless this is done the chisel will not cut down squarely but will cut in under, as it cannot be guided as easily as the firmer-chisel can, with both hands to hold it. =chamfering and bevelling= are somewhat similar operations. they consist in cutting the edges of a piece of wood, as shown in figs. and . [illustration: fig. .--bevel.] [illustration: fig. .--chamfering.] the corner of a block of wood is very often chamfered, when planing end-wood, to prevent the wood from splintering. it can only be done, of course, before the adjoining side has been planed up, that a square corner can be obtained again when the work is finished. =the gouge= is a chisel with a curved section, its use being for cutting grooves and curvatures in a piece of work where the chisel cannot be employed. =a draw-knife= is very handy for quickly reducing the size of material and in rounding sticks. the blade is drawn toward you instead of being pushed as in the case of a plane or chisel. =boring.=--probably the only trouble you will have with the bit and bit-stock will be in holding the brace in a perfectly vertical position so as to bore a straight hole. the centre of the hole should first be located upon the work. then, after selecting the right size of bit and securing it in the clutches of the bit-stock, grasp the handle of the stock with the right hand and place the left hand on the top knob. set the point of the bit against the work and bore steadily until the point appears upon the opposite side. the bit should then be withdrawn and the rest of the hole bored from the other side. this prevents the fibre around the hole from splintering off, as it is likely to do when a hole is bored all the way through from one side. to bore a hole in a piece of work held in the vise, clamp a waste piece of wood in the vise with it, and bore straight through the work into the waste piece. when boring hard wood or using large bits increased pressure is necessary to operate the brace and at the same time steady the bit. this can be obtained by allowing the chest to bear upon the top knob. holes two inches or more in diameter do not require a bit that size, for smaller holes can be bored and these trimmed to the required opening with a chisel or with the keyhole-saw. whatever style of bit-stock you buy, get one with a fair length of arm, as a good leverage cannot be obtained with a short one. =an automatic-drill= is a handy tool to have in the shop, although not a necessity. you have probably seen carpenters use it in drilling holes in hard wood, before driving in finishing nails or screws. it beats the awl and gimlet for speed, and is a tool which can be used in places where neither of these could be operated. the handle of the tool contains a number of sizes of drills. this tool must be used with care, as the drills snap off very easily when the tool is handled roughly or twisted from side to side while boring a hole. =the hatchet= is an indispensable tool, for it can be used for a good deal of your rough work, such as splitting and paring. it requires practice to handle one successfully, however. a misplaced blow will sometimes ruin your work, either by cutting into it or striking grain which runs off into the portion to be finished. with straight grained wood it is not so difficult to pare to a line with the hatchet. the wood should be removed to within less than an eighth of an inch of the line, as the work must be dressed up afterward with the plane. it is well to have =a hammer= with a fairly heavy head for large work, and a lighter one with which to drive small nails. =driving nails.=--the nail should first be held in position with the thumb and first two fingers, and given a few light raps with the hammer to start it. then remove the fingers, and drive the nail home with steady blows, being careful to hit the head squarely so it will not bend. although a bent nail can be driven home with the proper stroke, it is generally easier and quicker to withdraw it and either hammer it out straight or use another. a pair of pincers are handy for =withdrawing nails=, especially nails whose heads are too small to be gripped with a claw hammer; but for removing large nails a stronger leverage is necessary. this can be obtained as shown in fig. . the head of the nail is gripped in the claw of the hammer and a block of wood placed beneath the head. the handle of the hammer is then pulled toward you, as shown in the illustration. the block, besides increasing the leverage, prevents the hammer-head from injuring the surface of your work, and makes it possible to withdraw the nail in a fairly straight condition. [illustration: fig. .--withdrawing nails.] [illustration: fig. .--toe-nailing.] =toe-nailing= consists in driving nails diagonally into a piece of wood. it is used in fastening the ends of uprights, as shown in fig. , where the nails cannot be driven in any other way, and also where there is danger of a board springing. you will often find it convenient to use this form of nailing when the nails are too long to be driven straight into the work. =blind-nailing= is a form of toe-nailing used on tongue and grooved boards in which the heads of the nails are concealed below the surface, as shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. .--blind-nailing.] =clinching.=--when nails come through a piece of wood their ends should be clinched. this is done by having some one hold a hard surface, such as the head or blade of a hatchet, against the under side of the work, or by laying the hatchet down and resting the work upon it, while you drive the nail. the point of the nail will bend over when it strikes the hard surface and sink into the wood. this is the best method to use in fastening boards together with battens, in rough work, as the clinched nails act as rivets, preventing any possibility of the boards pulling apart. do not drive the head of a nail into a finished surface with the hammer, as you are likely to mar the wood in doing so. leave this--the "setting" of the nails--until the piece of work has been put together. then go over it and drive the heads below the surface with =the nail-set=, holding the tool as shown in fig. . the holes made by the heads should be filled up with putty before the finish is put upon the wood. before driving nails into hard wood, holes should be made with the brad-awl or drill, to prevent them from splitting the wood, and to make it easier to drive them in without bending. the holes should be a trifle smaller than the nails. always drill a hole before driving a nail into thin wood or near the edge of a piece. a nail can be driven more easily if its point is rubbed over a piece of soap. this is something you should remember to do when nailing hard wood. =nails.=--iron, galvanized-iron, wire, and copper nails are manufactured, but of these the wire nail is the most commonly used for all kinds of work, it being more easily handled, not so liable to snap off, and there being less danger of splitting your work with it than with the iron nails. [illustration: fig. .--setting nails.] you will notice the iron nails have two smooth sides and two rough ones. in using these it is necessary to drive them with the smooth sides parallel with the grain, otherwise they are sure to split the work. nails are classified according to their shape and gauge. the only kinds you will probably ever have occasion to use are the common, or nail for all ordinary work; the finishing-nail, with the small head used on finish work; and the brad, or small-sized finishing-nail. you can buy these by calling for the length you require, but it is more businesslike to use the standard terms by which all carpenters know them. the following table gives these terms, together with the length in inches:-- -penny nails ( inch long). " " ( - / inches long). " " ( - / " " ). " " ( - / " " ). " " ( " " ). " " ( - / " " ). " " ( - / " " ). " " ( - / " " ). " " ( " " ). " " ( - / " " ). " " ( - / " " ). " " ( " " ). " " ( - / " " ). " " ( " " ). " " ( - / " " ). " " ( " " ). all nails longer than three and a half inches ( d to d inclusive) are known as spikes. it is desirable to have =a screw-driver= which will set in the clutches of your bit-stock, besides the ordinary kind, for it is more quickly operated, and screws can be driven in hard wood easier on account of the greater amount of leverage you get with it. holes should be drilled in hard wood before driving screws into it. =screws= are made with round and flat heads. the round-headed screw is a finishing screw, and its head is left exposed on the surface of the wood; but the flat-headed screw should be countersunk, that is, sunk below the surface. to do this you must drill a hole before driving in the screw with =the countersink=, which is a drill made to fit in the bit-stock, and bores a hole the shape and depth of the screw-head. sharpening tools be sure you understand the process of sharpening tools before you undertake to use the oil-and grind-stones. all tools are not sharpened alike, and you will need to know the different ways in order to get their cutting edges the right shape to serve their different purposes. =grinding= is the most difficult part of the work, and most boys have trouble with it. one fault lies in using the grind-stone too frequently, grinding the edge of a tool when it requires only a little rubbing upon the oil-stone to put it in shape, and thus wearing down the tool unnecessarily. again, by not keeping the stone sufficiently wet, the heat produced by the friction takes the temper out of the steel, making it soft and useless until retempered. if you have a stone with a crank arrangement, it will be necessary to have some one turn it while you control the tool. the stone should be turned toward the grinder and the tools held upward so the stone grinds against the edge instead of from it. move the tools sideways across the stone so as to wear it down evenly and help prevent the formation of ridges in the stone, which are very easily produced. [illustration: fig. .--grinding the chisel.] figure shows the position to take in grinding =chisels=. hold the handle of the tool in the right hand and rest the palm of the left hand upon its blade. then lower the edge upon the stone until the bevel strikes it flatly, and bear down upon the blade with your left hand. continue the grinding until the bright line of the dull edge has disappeared and an invisible edge has been obtained. stop when this point is reached or the edge will become feathery and break off, necessitating regrinding. grind upon the bevelled edge only, and hold the tool in the same relative position, to prevent the bevel from becoming rounded. the angle of the bevel should be about twenty-five degrees. to keep this angle the same, it is desirable to have a rest, consisting of a board nailed to the frame of the stone, upon which to support the handle of the chisel. =gouges and draw-knives= are ground similarly, the former being rocked from side to side, in order to grind the curved bevel uniformly. =plane-irons= are held with both hands, as shown in fig. , and ground the same, except that the corners of the smoothing-and fore-plane irons are slightly rounded, while the edge of the jack-plane iron is a little higher at the corners than in the centre, to give it the qualities for removing thick shavings. it is more difficult to keep the line between the bevel and upper part of the iron straight than in grinding chisels, on account of the wider blade. [illustration: fig. .--grinding the plane-iron.] =knives and hatchets= are ground upon both sides of the blade. of course, the edge of a tool is left in a very rough condition by the grind-stone, and must be rubbed up on an oil-stone before it is fit to cut with. there are many makes of whetstones, many good ones and many worthless ones. above all things, don't buy a cheap one, for it will be impossible to obtain keen edges upon it. one of the best stones upon the market is =the washita oil-stone=, a kansas stone of medium hardness, free from grit and lumps, and of good quality through and through. [illustration: fig. .--whetting a plane-iron. fig. .] in rubbing up a plane-iron, grasp the end between the thumb and fingers of the right hand and place the palm of the left hand across the iron to bring the necessary pressure upon it (see fig. ). instead of holding the blade on the stone at the angle of the bevel, tip it to an angle of about thirty-five degrees, or ten degrees more than that of the bevel. with it held in this position, rub it back and forth upon the stone with a rotary motion, making a second narrow bevel along the edge of the tool (see fig. ). be careful to keep the blade in the same position, to prevent the bevels from becoming rounded. by exerting a steady upward pressure against the end of the tool with the right hand, and an equal downward pressure in the centre of the blade with the left hand, this is easily accomplished. the rough edge which appears on the back of the blade is removed by rubbing the flat side of the iron over the stone a few times. care must be taken to keep the iron perfectly flat or a bevel will be formed. =a strop=, consisting of a piece of leather fastened to a block of wood as described in the foregoing chapter, should be used after the oil-stone, to put a fine edge upon the tool. the tool is stropped in the same way as a razor is done. =saws= require sharpening but once in a great while if proper care is taken of them. when they do become dull, or need to be set, it is advisable for you to pay an experienced person to do the work rather than attempt it yourself. laying out work a two-foot carpenter's folding rule should generally be used in laying off measurements and a sharp-pointed pencil or brad-awl to locate the points. to connect the points it is necessary to have a straight-edge--a steel framing-square (fig. ) for large boards and a small try-square (fig. ) for smaller pieces--and a pencil or knife. [illustration: figs. - .] a pencil may be used in connecting points upon rough work, but for greater accuracy a knife should be used, as it makes a thinner and cleaner-cut line. in making knife lines, the square must be held very firmly, to prevent it from slipping and allowing the knife to run out of its course. to draw lines across a board at right angles to one edge (which should be the straight or "tried edge" of the board) with the steel-square, place one arm of the square parallel with the tried edge and mark along the other arm. to perform the same operation with the try-square, place the handle against the tried edge, as shown in fig. . oftentimes it becomes necessary to draw a line parallel to the tried edge. this may be done roughly with the rule and pencil, as shown in fig. . grasp the rule in the left hand, with the first finger touching the tried edge of the board, and hold the pencil point against the end of the rule with the right hand. keeping this position, with a steady hold on the rule and pencil, move your hands along the board. the result will be a line parallel to the tried edge. [illustration: fig. .--gauging with rule and pencil.] at first you may have trouble in making a straight line, but with practice you will be able to hold the rule and pencil steadily. for particular work, where it is necessary to get a perfectly straight and parallel line, =a marking-gauge= should be used. this is nothing more than the above principles combined in a tool. it consists of a graduated shaft, or rule, with a small needle or spur in one end, which slides through a mortise made in a block of wood known as the head. [illustration: fig. .--using the marking-gauge.] to operate the gauge, set the adjustable head at the required division on the shaft, and then grasp the head and shaft with the fingers of the right hand, as shown in fig. . place the outer face of the head against the tried edge of your work, and then, pressing the spur into the wood, move the gauge along the board, at the same time keeping the face of the head firmly against the edge of the board. the gauge is much more convenient than the other method of drawing parallel lines, for you can repeat the measurement as often as you wish, having once adjusted the head, without having to lay it off again. =a try-square= with a mitred handle costs but little more than the ordinary make, and is much handier, inasmuch as it can be employed in making mitres, by placing the bevelled end against the side of the work instead of the straight side (see figs. and ). [illustration: fig. .] =the bevel= is in reality a try-square which can be adjusted to any desired angle. to set it at an angle of forty-five degrees, place it on the steel-square, as shown in fig. , with the handle against the inner edge of one arm of the square and the blade resting on both arms. move the blade until it strikes equal distances on the arms (this is shown at four inches in the drawing) and tighten the screw while it is in this position. other angles may be drawn out upon a piece of wood and the bevel adjusted to them so these angles can be laid off upon other pieces. you will find the bevel handy for reproducing angles. however, if you are supplied with a mitred try-square you can easily dispense with it for ordinary work. there will be times when you wish =to divide a board= into a number of equal parts, which may be found to be fractions of an inch that cannot be easily laid off with the rule in the ordinary way. it can be accomplished with a pair of compasses, but until you become practised in their use, it will take some little time in setting them, dividing, resetting, and redividing, until the exact divisor is obtained. a much quicker method is that performed with the rule, as shown in fig. . suppose you wish to divide a board four and three-quarters inches long into five equal parts. place your rule across the board, as shown in the illustration, one end at one edge and the "five-inch" division at the opposite edge. mark off the five divisions and then square the lines across the board at these points with the try-square. this will give you the required five equal parts. [illustration: fig. .--dividing a board equally.] in the same way longer boards may be divided up by using two-and three-inch divisions on the rule instead of one-inch, and smaller pieces by using half-and quarter-inch divisions. chapter iii the boy about the house [illustration: boy with carrying-box, mother in kitchen.] there are generally repairs of some kind to be made about the house--such as mending screens, renewing window-ropes, repairing wooden walks, patching fences, etc.--which a boy can do, besides many ingenious articles for the house which he can make in his workshop. ideas for labor-saving devices which cannot be bought upon the market present themselves now and then, and if there is a boy in the neighborhood to carry them out, the housekeeper will be only too glad to pay him for doing the work. for general jobbing you will require a carpenter's carrying-box (fig. , chap. i) in which to carry your tools, and a nail-box (fig. ) for nails, screws, hinges, and such hardware as you will need upon the job. with these you will have a complete outfit. a few suggestions as to what you can do and what you can make are described and illustrated in this chapter, and should give you plenty of material to work upon when you open up your carpenter-shop. besides these ideas, you will find most of the articles in the following chapter suitable for the house and pieces of furniture for which it will be easy to secure orders. =the hinge-lock=, in fig. , is one of the most serviceable window-locks that can be had, for it can be so placed as to allow the window to be opened a few inches for ventilation, and at the same time prevent further opening. the hinge is screwed to the upper sash-frame several inches above the centre sash-bar, according to the distance the window is to be opened (see illustration). it will be seen that when the hinge is opened, as in the drawing, neither sash can be opened past the hinge; but when the hinge is folded flat it will not interfere with the opening of either sash. [illustration: fig. .--the hinge window lock.] this lock would probably be more extensively used if people knew how simple and satisfactory it is. as the hinges cost but a few cents a pair, and are put on very quickly, a boy should realize a fair sum of money in a short time supplying these locks. =a clothes-line reel=, such as shown in fig. , is an article no housekeeper should be without. its use does away with twisted, tangled, and knotted clothes-lines. as they require but little material, and the cost of that amounts to almost nothing, the manufacture of these time-saving devices, for the neighbors, should prove profitable. [illustration: fig. .--a clothes-line reel.] the reel consists of two strips of wood sixteen inches long by three inches wide for the sides, and two pieces of broom-handles sixteen inches long for the horizontal rods (see fig. ). five inches from each end of the side-pieces, bore a hole the size of the broom-handle. with the pieces thus prepared it is a simple matter to fit them together, as in the illustration, placing the broom-handles in the holes bored for them, and fastening them so the side-pieces are nine inches apart and a handle five inches long projects on either side. it is probably needless to say that the ends of the broom-sticks are held in the hands when operating the reel. [illustration: fig. .--broom and dust-pan rack.] =a broom and dust-pan rack= is a handy article for the kitchen or broom-closet, and can be made as shown in fig. . a rack to hold a large and small broom, dust-pan, and brush, should measure three feet long, three inches wide, and be made out of a seven-eighths-inch board. bevel the edges and place four brass hooks in the front, as shown in the drawing, from which to hang the broom, dust-pan, etc. brooms should always be dampened and put away, handle down, according to the advice of an old broom-maker, who claims that by so doing the straws are kept from becoming brittle and the broom lasts much longer. the brooms should therefore have screw-eyes placed in the handle, just above the tin binding, to hang upon the hooks, as shown in the illustration. the rack should be screwed to the wall. [illustration: fig. .--a fly-killer.] fly-papers and poisons are deadly enemies to the house-fly, but none are as effectual or as quick acting as =the fly-killer=, shown in fig. . this simple device consists of a piece of screen-wire, about four by five inches, stuck into a slot made in the end of a stick, and fastened in place with tacks driven through the end of the handle and clinched upon the under side. if possible, cut the wire with a selvage along the front edge, and trim the roughness from the other edges to prevent scratching. the fly-killer is hung up by a screw-eye placed in the end of the handle. [illustration: fig. .--an ash-sifter.] with the fly-killer a person can strike at a fly with almost a certainty of killing it. as the screen-wire is not easily seen by the fly, and the mesh allows the air to pass through, there is nothing to alarm him. these little things are quickly made, and when you show your customer how effective they are, you will find no trouble in disposing of them. =an ash-sifter= that is dust-proof and very satisfactory is shown in fig. . it is made out of a packing-case about three feet long, eighteen inches wide, and twenty-four inches deep. set the box upon two-by-four stilts in the shed or yard (braced as shown in the illustration), in such a position that the bottom of the box will be on a level with the top of the alley ash-box. then cut an opening through the shed wall and end of the box, as shown at _ab_, for the removal of ashes. two strips are nailed to the sides of the box (seven inches below the top) for tracks for the sifter to run upon, and below this, at _c_, a board slide is placed to dump the ashes, which shake through the sifter, out of the opening in the end of the box into the ash-box. nail one half of the cover to the top of the box and hinge the other half to it. [illustration: fig. .--the sifter.] make the sifter eighteen inches square by six inches deep, using six-inch boards for the frame and one-third or one-half inch wire-mesh for the bottom (see fig. ) fasten four trunk-casters, such as are shown in fig. , to the bottom of the frame, and fit a broom-stick in one side for a handle. a slot must be cut in the end of the box for the handle to fit in. [illustration: fig. . trunk-caster.] =a bread-board= may be made out of a seven-eighths inch maple board about ten by eighteen inches, with the surface planed perfectly smooth and the edges bevelled or rounded. a hole should be bored near one edge, so it may be hung up in the pantry. the dining-room is not complete without =a plate-rack= for the display of pretty pieces of china. figures and show the details for the construction of a rack of three shelves, and in size three feet long and two feet ten inches high. although the design is very simple in outline, it is such as will make a pleasing piece of furniture when neatly carried out. [illustration: fig. .--a plate-rack.] prepare the two side-pieces the shape and size shown in fig. , and cut the shelves two feet ten inches long by the widths given in the drawing (fig. ). one groove should be made in shelf _a_ and two in shelves _b_ and _c_, for the edges of plates to stand in. these grooves are cut with a chisel, and should be made v-shaped as shown. narrow strips of wood may be nailed along the shelves as substitutes for the grooves if you wish, but the work required to plane up the strips will amount to about as much, and they do not present as neat an appearance. [illustration: fig. .] having cut out the shelves and side-pieces, you are ready to put the rack together. for this purpose you should use finishing-nails so their heads will not make very large holes in the surface of the wood. fasten the bottom shelf (_c_) between the side-pieces seven inches above the bottom, the middle shelf (_b_) ten inches above that, and the top shelf (_a_) nine inches above the middle shelf. the inner edges of the shelves should be fastened flush with the edges of the sides. in the bottom shelf place a row of brass hooks for cups to hang upon. it is necessary to fasten three strips two inches wide between the sides in the back of the rack (as shown in the drawing) for the tops of the plates to rest against. two holes should be bored in the top strip, by which to hang the rack on nails or hooks fastened in the wall. after completing the carpenter-work, finish the rack with a stain which will harmonize with the color scheme of the room in which it is to hang. chapter iv suggestions for a boy's room [illustration: boy reading, boy writing.] it is far better for a boy to spend his evenings in the house than out upon the street. he need not be without his friends there, for if he has an attractive room, with books to read, games to play, and puzzles to solve, the boys of the neighborhood will soon find it out and be only too glad to have a chance to visit him, knowing they will be sure of finding plenty of things to interest them. the simpler the furnishings of a boy's room are the better. plain and substantial furniture which will stand perhaps a little rougher usage than that in other rooms of the house, and handy places for storing away his traps, are what are needed. the room should be his den where he can keep what he pleases, and arrange the fittings to suit his individual tastes. shelves for his books and magazines, a cabinet for various collections, boxes for miscellaneous articles, and a desk at which he can study and keep his accounts, are a few of the things the room should contain. these pieces can easily be constructed in the workshop, by following the directions given in this chapter. on the opposite page is shown a scheme for a boy's room suggestive of his sports, games, and handicraft, and while everything is simple and inexpensive in the furnishings, it makes a room that will strike the fancy of the average boy. nothing appears more attractive than =a cosey-corner=, such as shown in the illustration, and it is a simple matter to fit one up. a home-made couch, box, or seat of some sort should be constructed to set in the corner, a shelf fastened to one wall a foot or more above it, and several shelves hung on the adjoining wall, as shown in the drawing. purchase several yards of a dark shade of green denim, and enclose the corner with three strips (see illustration). the upper strip is stretched across the corner at the ceiling, and the other two attached to its ends and allowed to hang to the floor. it is a good idea to make also a dado of the same material within the corner from the baseboard to the under side of the shelves. =pennants= representative of the various colleges can be made out of cheese-cloth, and a string of these hung across the corner at the ceiling will produce a pretty effect. the walls of the room may be brightened with =small posters=, which it is an easy matter to obtain nowadays, and small pictures mounted upon colored mats and fastened behind glass by means of passe-partout paper are always attractive. [illustration: treatment of a boy's room.] =picture-frames= can be made out of narrow moulding, the corners of which have been mitred in the mitre-box to make them join neatly. a frame which has proven satisfactory for small posters and pictures not requiring glass is one made out of common laths. the ends of the laths are not mitred as is usually the case in making frames, but are fastened together with what is known as a "butt-joint"; that is, the ends of each piece are set against the ends of the adjoining pieces. the simplest way of fastening them together is by means of small strips of wood nailed across the corners on the back of the frame. although this frame might be expected to have a clumsy appearance, it has not, and when thoroughly sand-papered and finished with a dull green stain is very pretty. [illustration: fig. .--a writing-desk.] =the writing-desk= shown in fig. is constructed out of a box, and makes a pretty piece of furniture when completed. procure a box as free from defects as possible, and with fairly wide boards, so there will be but few cracks. the cover should be in not more than two pieces, as it forms the drop-front of the desk, and it would be difficult to fasten more together. the boards must be fastened with "dowels" and cleats on the edges, as shown in fig. , as cleats upon the inside of the drop would be in the way. [illustration: fig. .] dowelling consists in boring holes along the edge of each board and fitting pegs in them. of course the holes must be bored in exactly the same relative positions in each piece so that the end and sides of the boards will be flush with each other when the pegs have been put in place. to get the holes correctly bored, place the boards together in the vise with two edges flush and uppermost, and square lines six inches apart across the edges, after which locate the centres of the holes on these lines. be careful to bore the holes straight, and make them a little longer than the pegs. cut the pegs out of hard wood and make them large enough to fit tightly in the holes. the pegs as well as the two edges of the boards should be smeared with glue before being put together. then, after driving in the dowels, clamp the pieces together and lay them aside until the glue has thoroughly dried. in order to make a neat joint between the two boards, it is very necessary to have the two edges planed perfectly true and square. while the boards of the drop-front are drying, you can prepare the inside of the box. a boy's desk should be supplied with plenty of pigeon-holes and drawers. they are as necessary as pockets are in his clothes. split-up cigar-boxes may be used for these divisions, and, by making the upper ones of the right size, cigar-boxes may be fitted in them for drawers. the paper should be removed from the boxes as described in chapter viii. fasten small silk-spools to the front of the drawers for knobs. when the dowelled pieces have dried, nail a small moulding around the two end edges and one side edge, mitring the ends so as to fit together as shown at _a_ (fig. ). the drop-front should be hinged to the box with two hinges placed on the inside, as shown in fig. , and brass chains attached to screw-eyes screwed into it and the inside of the box. for the top of the box, purchase a moulding a little larger than that used around the edges of the drop-front and mitre it at the corners, as shown in the illustration. before putting any finish upon the desk, sand-paper the wood, set the nails with a nail-set, and fill all holes and cracks with putty. a couple of coats of white enamel applied to the outside will produce a very pretty effect, and the inside may be finished with linseed oil, which makes a beautiful finish for the cigar-boxes. the desk should be supported on two iron brackets (enamelled to match the desk), screwed to the wall and under side of the desk. in fig. will be found =another style of desk=, which, though not as simple to make, may be preferred to the first design. [illustration: fig. .--another style of desk.] cut two boards fifteen inches long by twelve inches wide for the sides, and taper each from twelve inches at one end to eight inches at the other end. cut a board twelve by thirty inches for the bottom and another eight by thirty for the top, and nail them to the end pieces, after which saw the boards for the back and drop-front. dowel and glue the drop-front boards together, nail a moulding around three edges, and hinge the piece to the desk, as in the case of the other design. partition off the inside of the desk as shown in the illustration, and nail a moulding around the top. finish the wood in the manner described for the other desk. =an ink-stand and pen-tray=, suitable for your desk, can be made out of a cigar-box, as shown in fig. . slope the edges with your jack-knife and cut several notches in them for pens and pencils to fit in. the wood should then be sand-papered and oiled. [illustration: fig. .--ink-stand and pen-tray.] =a couch= for the cosey-corner of your room can be made out of two boxes about three feet long, two feet wide, and eighteen inches deep. [illustration: fig. .--a couch.] remove one side of each box and nail the covers on, after which place the two boxes end to end and fasten them together with strips nailed across them at _a_, _b_, and _c_ (fig. ). an incline about eighteen inches long should be fastened to one end, as shown in the drawing. the inside of the boxes may be partitioned off and used for storing away magazines and pamphlets. [illustration: fig. .--a window-seat.] for the covering of the couch procure several yards of cretonne, some cotton batting or an old quilt to pad the top, a box of upholstering-tacks, and several dozen brass-headed tacks. after spreading the padding over the couch, cut a piece of cretonne large enough to cover it and tack it to the edge of the boxes, using the upholstering-tacks for the purpose. make a valance of the same material, gathering the cretonne so as to form a heading at the top, and tack it around the box. then place the brass tacks along the top of the valance about two inches apart. if a couch is too large for your room you can make =a window-seat=, such as is shown in fig. . cut the arms the shape shown in the illustration and fasten them to the ends of the box. batten the boards forming the box-cover on the under side. then tack cretonne on to the cover, arms, and outside of the box, placing padding underneath the cretonne to make it soft, and line the inside of the box with some dainty colored goods. when this has been done, hinge the cover to the box with large fancy brass hinges. the appearance of the seat will be greatly improved by placing brass tacks along the edges of the arms and seat, about two inches apart. the inside of the box will make a handy receptacle for clothes and linen. [illustration: fig. .--a curio-cabinet.] for those interested in making collections of stamps, coins, stones, insects, etc., =a curio-cabinet=, similar to fig. , will make it possible to keep all specimens arranged in order, each set of curios occupying a shelf by itself. such a cabinet should be made of bass or whitewood, as these can generally be obtained in greater widths, are cheaper, and less defective than other material. if you make your cabinet five feet high, two feet wide (inside measurement), and twelve inches deep, purchase twelve-inch boards, as these make it possible to have the sides in one piece and the back in two, a great advantage, as there will then be but one crack, and that up through the centre of the back. after cutting the side-pieces the correct length, finish their edges as in the drawing. then cut nine boards two feet long for the shelves, which are to be placed six inches apart. commencing at the top of each side-piece, lay off the thickness of a shelf, which will be about seven-eighths of an inch, and square the lines across the boards; then lay off the next shelf six inches below, and so on down to the bottom. cut along these lines to a depth of three-eighths of an inch with a saw, and remove the wood between with a chisel. when all the grooves have been cut, slip the shelves into them one by one, and nail them to the side-pieces. after fastening the shelves, cut the two twelve-inch boards for the back and nail them in place. while it is customary to put sash-doors on cabinets, this will be too difficult a job for you to attempt. a very pretty and inexpensive door may be made as in the illustration. make a frame out of two-inch strips to fit the opening, and stretch some green denim over it, tacking it to the inside of the frame. the ends of the strips forming the frame should be mitred and either nailed together or fastened with dowels and glue, as described in the construction of the desk (see fig. ). hinge the frame to the cabinet. to finish the cabinet, rub it down with sand-paper, set the nails with a nail-set, and putty up all holes, after which stain the wood green, a shade darker than the denim panel in the front. although the shelves may be simply stained, they will be much nicer for holding curios if covered with felt. it might be well to suggest that you number each curio, and make a catalogue of these, together with the names and any data you have concerning them. the catalogue may be hung on a hook upon the inside of the door, where it can always be found. a pretty set of =book-shelves= to hang upon the wall can be made with three boards twenty-four inches long by eight inches wide, four dozen spools all of the same size, and two pieces of rope about four feet long and small enough to fit in the holes of the spools. by saving the empty spools from your mother's work-basket, and having your friends save their spools for you, it will not be very long until you have the required number. spools upon which number thirty-six cotton thread comes are of the best length. bore holes in the four corners of each board. then, beginning with the board which is to form the bottom shelf, pass the ropes down through the holes on one side, across under the shelf, and up through the holes on the opposite side. string six spools on each rope and put the ropes through the holes in the next shelf; then string six more spools on each rope and run the ropes through the next or top shelf. tie the ropes together about a foot above the top shelf, fringing the ends to form tassels. figure shows the shelves completed. [illustration: fig. .--spool book-shelves.] =a blacking-case= made similar to fig. is a handy article for a boy to have in his room. as the friction from a rag rubbed over the shoe produces a finer polish than a brush when polishing paste is used, the box is provided with an arrangement by which a rag can be rubbed over the shoe without much effort (see illustration). [illustration: fig. .--a blacking-case.] procure a box about the size of a soap or cracker-box, and fasten a board in it for a foot-rest, as shown at _a_ in the drawing. on each side of this place a piece of a broom-handle a little shorter than the inside width of the box, and pivot them at the ends with wire nails driven through the sides of the box, as shown in the illustration. gimlet holes should be made in the sides of the box so the nails will fit loosely in them. procure a strip of canton-flannel twenty-four inches long by six inches wide, and, after sewing two brass rings to each end, pass the cloth under the rollers and over the foot-rest, as shown in the illustration. the lower part of the box will hold your boxes of blacking and the brushes. to have access to this, a board should be removed from the side of the box and hinged as at _b_ and _c_ in the illustration. place a button-catch just above it to keep it shut. fasten together the boards forming the box-cover with battens, and hinge them to the end of the box. the outside of the case will be improved greatly if covered with denim. after applying the paste to the shoe, the foot should be slipped under the cloth which passes over the foot-rest. two fingers of each hand should then be placed in the rings and the cloth pulled back and forth over the rollers until the shoe is polished. [illustration: fig. .--a towel-rack.] =a towel-rack=, such as is shown in fig. , is made in four pieces,--a board about eighteen inches long for the back, two arms six inches long, and a piece of broom-handle eighteen inches long. after cutting out the arms the shape shown in fig. , bore a hole large enough for a broom-handle to fit in each. bevel the edges of the eighteen-inch board, and then nail it to the arms, driving the nails through this piece into the arms. fit the piece of broom-handle into the holes bored for them, and trim off the ends so that about one inch projects beyond the face of each arm. [illustration: fig. .] sand-paper the wood, and either paint or varnish it. attach screw-eyes to the top of the back board and hang the rack by these to hooks placed in the wall. chapter v how to make a doll-house [illustration: boy presenting doll-house to his sisters] the average store doll-house is made of thin wood, which is full of defects and likely to warp, besides being put together in such a flimsy manner as to soon fall apart. the majority of these are imported houses, designed and planned in foreign styles, the exteriors being covered with clumsy ornament and gaudily painted, while the interiors are very poorly planned and proportioned. americanized doll-houses are seldom seen in the market, and the few there are will generally be found very expensive. there is probably nothing more interesting for a boy to make than a doll-house. it is like building your own house on a small scale, the details and proportions having to be just as carefully worked out to make a good-appearing house. try the construction of a house for one of your girl relatives and see how much she will appreciate it. then having completed one and learned the many little tricks there are in doing this work, you will find it quicker and easier to turn out others to sell. neatly made houses are always salable, and it should be an easy matter for you to make arrangements with a toy dealer in your town, to place some of your work in his store to sell on commission. the doll-house designed and detailed in this chapter is easily constructed and =the materials required= do not amount to very much. boards ten inches wide and one-half inch thick are preferable for the general construction, with a few four-inch boards one inch thick for the base and a few other details. basswood probably will be found the easiest wood to work with, as it is soft, straight-grained, and free from knots. packing-cases may be used to advantage when they are of the right size, but they are generally made of a cheap grade of pine, full of knots and other defects that make it difficult to do a good job. cigar-boxes make the nicest material for the interior finish, and a number of all sizes should be procured for this purpose. prepare the boxes for use as described in chapter viii. fourpenny nails should be purchased for the rough carpenter work, and brads and glue for attaching finishing-strips and all light wood. paints and other material are specified as required. as shown on the plans (figs. , , and ), the house described in this chapter is of three floors, containing nine rooms, and is in size, thirty inches wide, twenty inches deep, and three feet high. [illustration: figs. - .--plans of doll-house and patterns for the partitions.] =the base=, or false basement, should be made first. it consists of two four-by-one inch boards thirty inches long and two twenty inches long, with the ends mitred and fastened together in the form of a frame. upon this =lay the first floor=, allowing but one-half inch of the boards to bear on the frame on all sides. then lay off the first-floor plan (fig. ) upon this floor with a pencil and square, locating the partitions by means of the dimensions given on the plan. =make the partitions= _a_, _b_, and _c_, the shape and size shown in fig. , and nail them to the places marked out for them on the floor. =the stairs= from first to second floors (fig. ) should now be constructed as described later under the head of "stairways," as it would be difficult to set them in place after the walls are up. =make the front and rear walls= twenty-nine inches wide and twenty inches high, and nail them to the edges of the floor. the outside surface of the walls should now be in line with the base. leave the cutting of the windows until the rest of the house has been put together. the walls may be prevented from spreading by means of temporary braces nailed across the tops. =lay the second floor=, cutting a three by ten inch stair opening in the place indicated on the plan (fig. ), and fasten the boards to the front and rear walls. draw upon this the second-floor plan, and =cut out partitions= _d_, _e_, _f_, and _g_, as shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. .--details of inside stairs.] after nailing these partitions to the places marked out for them, and building in the stairs, =lay the third floor= (fig. ), cutting a three by seven inch stair opening, and fastening the boards in place as you did those of the second floor. =stairways.=--while each stairway should be built before the floor above is laid, in order that the work can more easily be done, they have been left for description here, that they might be spoken of in a general way. in figs. , , , , and will be found complete details for these. the first things to prepare are =the stair stringers=, or supports for the steps (treads and risers). cut from a piece of cardboard what is known as =the pitch-board=, the pattern by which to lay out the steps (fig. ). then draw a line lengthwise upon a thin strip of wood (_ab_ in fig. ), and lay off the pitch-board on this as shown in fig. --sixteen times for the first to second story stairs and fifteen times for the second to third story stairs. draw the line _de_ parallel to _ab_, and the lines _cd_ and _ef_ as shown. then cut out the stringer along the lines _cdef_, being careful in doing so not to split off the corners. prepare two stringers for each flight of stairs. =the treads and risers= should be cut as shown in fig. , and the =newel-posts and hand-rails= as shown in fig. . make a small groove in the bottom of the hand-rail as shown in the drawing. toothpicks are of just the right size for [illustration: figs. - .--details of inside stairs.] =the balusters.=--as brads are likely to split the thin cigar-box wood, the staircases should be put together with glue. first fasten the stringers in place, cutting a slot in the edge of the floors for the tops to set in, as shown in fig. . then glue on the treads and risers, and cut the bottom of the newel-post to fit over the second step. the lower end of the toothpick balusters are set into slits cut with a knife in the treads, and the upper ends fit in the groove cut in the hand-rail. =the balustrades= around the stair openings on the second and third floors are made in the same way (see fig. ). as finished floors are to be laid in the halls, as described later, it will be well at this point to fasten a strip from a cigar-box around the stair openings, upon which to fasten the newels and in which to stick the ends of the balusters. the drawings give every detail and measurement necessary for the making of these stairs, and everything will work out correctly if the directions are closely followed. [illustration: fig. .--the front steps.] [illustration: fig. . a colonial doll-house.] =the front steps= are made as shown in fig. . cut out two balustrades the shape and size shown in the drawing. then prepare two stringers of five steps, cutting them exactly the same as for the other stairs, and glue them to the inner faces of the balustrades. the treads and risers are the same as for the other stairs, except that they are four inches in length. cut the top platform two and one-half inches wide. =the rear steps= may be built similar to the front, or may be made simpler by leaving off the risers and balustrade. =the ends of the house= should measure twenty inches square. fasten the boards together with battens at top and bottom, and hinge them to the rear wall (see plans and fig. ). small hooks on the ends of the house will make it possible to fasten them shut. [illustration: fig. .--make gable-ends like this.] the roof is what is known as =the gambrel or octagonal roof=, and consists of two eight and two nine inch boards thirty-four inches long. before fastening these in place, it will be necessary to make =the gable-ends=, which are cut out as shown in fig. . make the partition between the nursery and ball-room (_h_) in the same way, with a door cut in it, as shown in fig. . fasten the partition and gable-ends in place, after which nail the roof boards _b_ and _c_ (fig. ) to the top, allowing them to project over each gable. the lower boards _a_ and _d_ should be hinged to these, so they may be raised to get at the upper story. the edges of the boards must be bevelled in order to make perfect joints. when the work has proceeded thus far, cut =the door and window openings= in the places indicated upon the plans and fig. , first boring holes in the four corners of each window and door space; and then connecting them with a compass-saw. with the exception of the front and rear door, and the windows in the basement and gable-ends, make all openings three by five inches, and two inches above the floor. the casement window openings in the gable-ends are to be four by five inches and extend to the floor. cut three-by-seven-inch openings for the doors, and make the basement window openings two by three inches. figs. , , , , and show the construction of [illustration: figs. - .--details of dormer windows.] =the dormer windows.= these are made from cigar-boxes. for the three dormers, you will require six pieces the shape of _a_ for the sides, three of _b_ for the gable-ends, and six of _c_ for the roof (see figs. , , and ). with the different parts cut out, it is a simple matter to fasten them together on the roof, by means of glue and small brads. the glass is bound to the ends of the side-pieces at _d_ and _e_ with strips of linen, as shown in figs. and , and the gable-end sets on the top edge. the dormers should be placed directly over the lower windows and in line with the front wall (see fig. ). old four-by-five camera plates may be used for =the window glass=, by cutting them down to the required dimensions--three by five inches for the first and second stories, and two by three inches for the dormer and basement windows. four-by-five plates are the right size for the casement windows. as the basement is to represent stone, there will be no finish around the openings, and the glass will have to be held in place with cigar-box strips on the inside and putty on the outside, as shown in figs. and . the glass should be fastened in the first and second story windows by means of putty and strips of cigar-boxes (see figs. , , and ). we will make the inside and outside trim the same to simplify matters; so cut two sets of strips for each window, making them the shape and size shown in figs. and . fasten the outside strips in place first, then slip the ends of the glass into the centre of the wall and nail on the inside strips. fill in the spaces between the glass and strips with putty to hold the glass firmly in place. =the casement windows= (fig. ) are made similarly, with the addition of a quarter of an inch strip of a cigar-box glued up the centre of the glass, to give the appearance of double windows hinged to swing in. [illustration: figs. - .--details of windows.] narrow strips of paper glued to the glass, as shown in figs. , , , and , will produce the effect of =divided glass= and upper and lower sash. =the door trim= (figs. , , and ) is put in place the same as the window trim, but instead of placing the door in the centre of the wall, it should be set flush with the inside trim (see _k_, _l_, and _m_ in plan, fig. ), and is hinged by means of a linen strip glued to the edge of the door _m_ and strip _l_. the door-jambs are cased with strips _i_ and _j_. the rear door may be made simpler than this by using a plain strip for a cap. =make the door= out of a piece of cigar-box. the drawings give all the necessary measurements for door and window strips, and you will find it a simple matter to cut them out with a sharp knife. after putting the trim upon all of the windows and the doors, cut a number of strips of wood an eighth of an inch thick and half an inch wide for =outside trimmings=, and nail them to each corner of the house, around the edges of each gable-end, and around the top of the basement. purchase some narrow moulding for the cornice and nail it to the edges of the roof boards, being careful to make neat mitres at the corners. the house can more easily be moved about if mounted upon =casters.= to put these on, cut four pieces of two-by-four about three inches long, fasten a caster to each, and nail one block inside each corner of the foundation frame. [illustration: fig. .--construction of chimneys.] the exterior of the house is now complete with the exception of =the chimneys.= these should be made up of four pieces, two of which should have bird's-mouth cuts made in the end, as shown in fig. , to make the chimney fit over the top ridge of the roof. the side edges of the pieces should be mitred and fitted together. nail a strip of wood, half an inch wide, around the tops of the chimneys for caps. you will find it easier to =paint the chimneys= before fastening them to the roof. make the brickwork red and the caps white, and with a small brush and ruler stripe off the mortar joints. when the paint has thoroughly dried, nail the chimneys on to the ridge of the roof in line with the front windows (see illustration of completed house). you will want =a mantel and fire-place= in the living-room of the house, and it had better be built in at this point. figure shows about the simplest form of mantel you can make, and one that presents a very neat appearance. it is made out of cigar-box strips painted to represent brick, with stone hearth and mantel-shelf. it measures seven inches wide, four and five-eighths inches from the base to the top of the shelf, and has a fire-place opening four inches wide and two and one-half inches high. [illustration: fig. .--the living-room mantel.] [illustration: fig. .--construction of mantel.] figure shows the patterns for the cutting of the various pieces required to make up the mantel. _a_, the front piece, has an opening cut in it for the fire-place, as shown in the drawing. cut two strips similar to _b_ for the ends of the mantel, one the size of _c_ for the back of the fire-place, two of _d_ for the sides of the fire-place, and one of _e_ for the mantel-shelf. these pieces, with the exception of _e_, should be painted red, and striped off, when dry, with white paint to represent brick. it will be much easier to do the painting before fastening the pieces in their proper places. first divide the length and breadth of the pieces into about the number of spaces shown in fig. with a lead pencil. then with a small brush, and straight-edge for a guide, trace over the pencil lines with white lead. be careful in striping the brick to get the courses the same upon each piece so they will correspond when the pieces are put together. =the hearth= is made out of a strip seven inches long by two inches wide. upon this the mantel should be put together with the pieces prepared. figure shows the location of each piece, and with the aid of glue and some small brads it will be a simple matter to complete the mantel. the edges of the strips had best be mitred to make neat joints. paint the hearth and mantel-shelf white. the mantel should be fastened to the centre of partition _b_ in the living-room (see plan, fig. ). =andirons= should, of course, accompany the fire-place. these may be made as shown in fig. . they consist of two pieces of cigar-boxes cut the shape of _a_ and _b_ (_a_ an inch and one-half by an inch and one-quarter, and _b_ an inch and one-half long), with the end of _b_ glued in a slot cut in the lower part of _a_. the feet and the top of _a_ and the foot of _b_ are small brass-headed upholstering-tacks driven into the wood, which give the andirons a trim appearance. paint the strips black. set the andirons upon the hearth with the ends projecting into the fire-place, and pile several nicely shaped twigs upon them for logs. =the interior woodwork= remains to be put on. cigar-boxes make excellent imitation hardwood floors, for the halls, the ball-room, and nursery. select as large pieces as possible, and fit them on the floors with close joints. nail them down with small brads. [illustration: fig. .--andiron.] make the door casings from the same material, cutting the strips the shape and size of those used for the outside doors (fig. ). it is not advisable to hang inside doors, as they are easily broken off, and seldom work satisfactorily. a chair-rail should be made in the dining-room of quarter-inch strips fastened to the walls three inches above the floor. make baseboards in each room out of three-quarter inch strips, and picture mouldings out of strips an eighth of an inch wide. after completing the carpenter work of the house =set all nail-heads= with your nail-set, putty these holes and all others resulting from cracks and defects, and sand-paper the rough surfaces. if the woodwork is to be finished in its natural color, by varnishing or oiling its surface, color the putty to match the wood. =paint the house= a cream color, with white trimmings and a green roof, using yellow-ochre and white lead (mixed) for the walls; white lead for the trimmings, balustrade of front steps, chimney-caps, and striping of brickwork; dark olive green for the roof, and treads and risers of the front steps; and lamp-black for striping the stonework of the basement. the painting of the chimneys and fire-place has been described. paint the front door on both sides with white enamel or white lead, with the exception of a panel in the centre, which should be oiled as shown in fig. . this will give the appearance of a white enamelled door with a mahogany panel set in it. [illustration: fig. . another style of doll-house.] [illustration: fig. . interior view of doll-house.] chapter vi another doll-house and a stable [illustration: boys making doll-house.] photographs of another style of doll-house are shown in figs. and . this house was built by the author for a little relative some ten years ago, and is still in perfect condition, as the photographs show. =packing-cases= were used for its construction, with cut-up cigar-boxes for window-casings, door-jambs, finished floors, etc., and small mouldings for the outside trimmings. the inside arrangement and the general construction of the house is so nearly like the design in the preceding chapter, that most of the details and the mode of construction may be followed in building it. if boxes are used, the dimensions will have to be figured out to suit, unless the boxes are pulled apart and the boards cut to the sizes shown in the illustrations of this chapter. =the floor plans=, which will be found in figs. , , and , give the sizes of the rooms, and the patterns for the making of =the partitions= are shown in figs. and . in cutting out the second-floor partitions (fig. ), mitre one edge of _e_ and _f_ to allow for the bedroom door opening, shown upon the plan, and mitre the edges of _g_ to fit between them above the door. the mitring is shown in the drawings (fig. ). besides cutting a stair opening in the second floor, make an opening three by five inches in the second and third floors for =the elevator-shaft=. care must be taken to have these openings exactly over one another. make the opening in the second floor six by eight inches in the place indicated upon the plan. this will allow for the elevator shaft and stairway. no stairway has been built to the third story, as the elevator serves the purpose, and one would take up too much of the ball-room space. =the side walls= should measure nineteen inches wide by twenty-four inches high, and the other two walls thirty inches wide by twenty-four inches high. that portion of =the rear wall= enclosing the kitchen and bath-room is hinged to open (see fig. ), and =the front wall= is made in two sections, each hinged to a strip of wood an inch and one-half wide nailed to the two edges of the house, as shown in fig. . =the windows= are four by five inches, so four-by-five camera plates can be used for the glass. [illustration: figs. - .--plans of doll-house and patterns for partitions.] =the roof= had best be made in two sections, each measuring twenty-eight inches long by twenty-four inches wide. fasten the boards together with battens on the under side and, after mitring the upper edge of each, nail them to the house so that the ridge is fifteen inches above the third floor. then nail a board nineteen inches long by ten inches wide in the peak of the roof (_d_ in fig. ), and a narrow strip three inches from each side wall (_k_ and _l_ in fig. ). these cut off the triangular shape of the ball-room and give it a better appearance. =the chimney= is made the same as those for the other house, with the exception of the cap, which is built up of strips of cigar-boxes to represent corbelled brick (see fig. ). these strips should be three-sixteenths of an inch wide, and fastened in place by means of small brads. [illustration: fig. .] =an elevator= is something which is found in but few doll-houses. it was built in this house, thinking it might please the young mistress, and proved such a success that the scheme has been worked out carefully in figs. , , , , and , that you may include it in the house you build. [illustration: figs. - .--details of the elevator.] the cutting of the elevator-shaft has already been described. for material, procure two small pulleys, such as are shown in fig. , four feet of brass chain, six feet of no. wire, half a dozen double-pointed tacks or very small screw-eyes, a short piece of lead pipe, and a cigar-box. make =the car= out of the cigar-box, cutting it down to two and one-quarter inches wide, three and three-quarters inches deep, and seven inches high (see fig. ). place two of the double-pointed tacks or screw-eyes in each side of the car for the guide-wires to run through and another in the centre of the top from which to attach the brass chain. =the guide-wires= are made of very heavy wire that will not easily bend. cut two of a length to reach from the first floor to the ball-room ceiling, and after running them through the tacks in the sides of the car, stick their ends into small holes bored at _e_, _f_, _g_, and _h_ (fig. ). the upper holes should be bored through the ball-room ceiling, while the lower ones need be bored but part way through the first floor. care must be taken to have these holes in the correct position, so the elevator will run up and down upon the wires without striking the sides of the shaft. the easiest way of fastening the wires in place is to run the upper ends through the holes, until the lower ends can be set into their sockets, and then drive two double-pointed tacks over the top of each wire, as shown at _e_ and _f_ in fig. . now run the elevator up to the top of the shaft, and mark upon the ceiling where the screw-eye in the top of the car strikes. at this point bore a hole through the ceiling and two inches back of it bore another hole, through which to run the weight-chain. when this has been done, cut a short block of wood to fit the peak of the roof and =screw the pulleys= to it two inches apart (fig. ). fit the block in the peak of the roof, centring the front pulley over the top of the car as nearly as possible, and drive a couple of nails through the roof boards into it to hold it in place temporarily. then =attach the chain= to the tack in the top of the car, slip a piece of lead pipe about an inch long over the chain, allowing it to set on the top of the car to make the latter heavier (fig. ), and run the chain up through the first hole in the ceiling, over the pulleys, and down through the second hole. to the end of the chain attach a piece of lead pipe for =the elevator-weight= (see fig. ).--this should be just heavy enough to make a perfect balance between it and the car, which can be obtained by whittling off the end of the pipe until the weight of the two is the same. make the chain of sufficient length so the weight will rest upon the first floor when the car is at the third floor. you can now tell whether or not the pulleys are in the right positions. when they have been adjusted properly, nail the block firmly in place. =the gable-ends.=--the front gable-end consists of four pieces (_a_, _b_, _c_, and _d_, in fig. ), the dimensions for the cutting of which are given in the illustration. after preparing these, nail _a_, _b_, and _c_ in their proper positions in the gable of the roof, and trim the edges of _d_, if they need be, to fit between. to prevent the movable section from pushing in too far, it will be necessary to nail a narrow strip of wood to the roof and third floor just inside of it. the rear gable is made in one piece, and is fastened in place permanently. [illustration: fig. .--the front gable-end.] the movable gable and all hinged portions should have =spring-catches= with which to shut up and lock the house (see the illustrations). =the stairway= is shown in fig. , and the details for its construction will be found in figs. , , , . this stairway is made in two parts, with a platform between. cut a block of wood the shape and size shown in fig. for the platform, with notches at _a_ and _b_ for the tops of the lower stringers to fit in. then =prepare two stringers= of thirteen risers similar to fig. and two stringers of five risers similar to fig. , laying them off as described in the preceding chapter by means of a pitch-board similar to fig. . after cutting out these pieces, fasten the tops of the lower stringers in the notches _a_ and _b_ in the platform, and nail the platform in its proper position in the corner of the hall. when this has been done, nail the bottoms of the upper stringers (_e_ in fig. ) to the sides of the platform at _c_ and _d_, and set the tops in notches cut in the edge of the second floor. [illustration: figs. - .--details of stairs.] =the treads and risers= are made the same as in fig. (chap. v), except that the depth of the risers is increased to five-eighths of an inch. cut another platform from a cigar-box to fit over the rough one. =build a balustrade= up the side of the stairs and around the elevator enclosures, using the scheme shown in chapter v (figs. and ). =all other details= not mentioned here will be the same as described in chapter v, including the painting and finishing of the house. how to make the stable [illustration: fig. .--exterior of stable.] the stable shown in figs. and , and in the background of fig. , will go nicely with the house described in this or the preceding chapter. its construction is very simple. the dimensions are twenty-four inches wide, twelve inches deep, and twenty-two inches high, and the barn contains five stalls on the ground floor and a hay-loft above. [illustration: fig. .--interior of stable.] to build the stable according to the drawings, a box ten by twelve by twenty-four inches should be procured for =the first story=.--if you have a box of different proportions it will be a simple matter to make such alterations in the details as it will require. =the roof= is made in two sections, each fifteen by eighteen inches, and is fastened to the top of the box so that the peak is twenty-two inches above the bottom. =the gable-end= is made in four pieces, as shown in fig. , _a_, _b_, and _c_, to be nailed in place, and _d_ to be movable as in the case of the doll-house. make a three-by-five-inch window in the centre of _d_, and fasten the glass in place with strips cut as described in chapter v. strips should be nailed to the roof just inside of the movable section to prevent the latter from setting in too far, and a spring catch fastened to _c_ and _d_ as shown, to hold the movable section in place. [illustration: fig. .--front gable-end.] [illustration: fig. .--stall partitions.] figure gives the patterns and measurements for =the stall partitions=, four of which should be cut out and fastened to the floor of the stable four inches apart, or so they will divide the inside width into five equal stalls. =the feed-troughs= are made out of two strips of cigar-boxes fitted between the stalls, as shown in figs. and , and are fastened in place by means of brads and glue. above the stalls cut =small windows= an inch and one-half square in the rear wall. these are the ventilating windows for the stalls, and may be left open. [illustration: fig. .--ladder to hay-loft.] figure shows the construction of =a ladder= to the hay-loft. this is made out of two sticks twelve inches long, with strips of cigar-boxes two inches long glued to them half an inch apart, as shown in the drawing. cut away a section of the hay-loft floor two inches square and stick the end of the ladder up through the opening, fastening the uprights to the edge of the floor (see fig. ). a stick about three inches long, with a very small pulley attached near the end, should be fastened in the peak of the roof for a =feed-hoist= (see fig. ). the first story has =a drop-front=, as shown in figs. and . this is made from the box-cover. fasten the boards together with battens placed upon the inside, and hinge it to the bottom of the stable. nail two cleats to the under side of the floor (see fig. ) to lift it off the ground, just enough to allow the front to drop without springing its hinges. when the front is down it forms an incline upon which to run the horses into the stable. for this reason it is not advisable to cut an opening in it, but merely =represent a stable door= on the outside (see fig. ). this is done with paint and a fine brush. first paint a green panel in the centre of the front, and then mark off a couple of panels within this space with black paint, and stripe them diagonally to represent beaded-boards. with strips of wood half an inch wide make =a simple trim= around the door, the sides of the stable, and around the gable, as shown in the illustration. when the carpenter work has been finished, =paint the inside= of the stable white, and the outside the same colors as used for the doll-houses (see description on page , chap. v). chapter vii furnishing the doll-house [illustration: boy presenting doll-house to his sisters.] with the carpenter work of a doll-house completed, the finishing of the inside,--wall papering and painting,--and the selection of furniture for the various rooms, remain to be done. this requires as much care as the building of the house, and while any boy can do the work, the help of a sister will perhaps simplify matters and give to the rooms a daintier appearance. =the walls and ceiling= of the kitchen and bath-room should be painted with white lead or white enamel. for the other rooms select paper having a small design, such as is to be found on most ceiling papers. if you have ever watched the paper-hanger at work, you have noticed he puts on the ceiling first, allowing the paper to run down the walls a little way all around instead of trimming it off. then he hangs the wall paper, and if there is no border to cover the joints of the ceiling and wall papers he carries the wall paper up to the ceiling. use flour paste to stick on the paper, and a cloth or photograph-print roller to smooth out the wrinkles. the dining-room should have a wainscot of dark paper below the chair-rail, and a paper with little or no figure upon it above. =all hardwood floors=, the stairs, door and window casings, baseboards, and picture mouldings should be varnished thoroughly or given several coats of boiled linseed-oil. all floors, with the exception of the kitchen, bath-room, and hardwood floors, should be fitted with =carpets.=--if you do not happen to have suitable scraps on hand, they can be procured at almost any furnishing store where they make up carpets. select pieces with as small patterns as possible. the floors of the bath-room and kitchen should be covered with oilcloth. =rugs= for the hardwood floors may be made out of scraps of carpet. =window-shades= may be made for each window out of linen, and tacked to the top casing so that the bottom of the curtain reaches just above the centre of the opening. each window should also have =lace curtains= made out of scraps of lace. they should either be tacked above the windows or hung upon poles made out of no. wire, cut in lengths to fit the windows. screw small brass hooks into the top window-casings for the poles to hang upon. =handsome portieres= for the doorways can be made with beads and with the small hollow straws sold for use in kindergartens. for the =bead portieres=, cut threads as long as the height of the door and string the beads upon them, alternating the colors in such a way as to produce patterns. then tie the strings together to a piece of wire the width of the doorway, and fasten the wire in the opening. the =straw portieres= are made similarly. from magazine illustrations you can select =suitable pictures= for each room, but if you are handy with brush and pencil you may prefer to make the pictures yourself. these may be mounted upon cardboard and have their edges bound with passe-partout paper to give the effect of frames, or frames may be cut out of cardboard and pasted to them. hang the pictures to the picture moulding with thread. =a cosey-corner= may be fitted up in the ball-room by fastening a strip of a cigar-box in one corner an inch and one-half above the floor for the seat, and hanging draperies on each side of it. pillows may be made for it out of scraps of silk stuffed with cotton. a doll-house properly proportioned in every detail, including the selection of its furniture, is pleasing to look at, and is to be desired much more than some of the specimens to be found in the stores. these very often have parlor chairs larger than the mantel, beds that either fill two-thirds of the bedroom space or are so small they are hidden from view by the chairs, and other furniture accordingly, all having been selected without any thought as to size or fitness. care must be taken, in buying the furniture, to have the pieces suitable to the rooms. it will no doubt require more time than to purchase the first sets you come across, but when you have completed the selections, the result will be a much better appearing doll-house. by carefully searching the toy-shops you are almost certain of finding what you want for the various rooms, as about everything imaginable in furniture has been manufactured. porcelain bath-tubs, wash-basins with real faucets and running water, gilt furniture, chandeliers, and such articles are tempting to buy. but it is rather expensive to fit up a house in this way, for, though each piece may not amount to very much, they count up very quickly. the suggestions for the making of cigar-box furniture in the following chapter, and the cork furniture in chapter xxviii, should give you plenty of material for furniture and save you the expense of buying this part of the furnishings for your house. chapter viii doll-furniture [illustration] the metal furniture which you can buy is very pretty when it is new, but this new appearance does not last long after it has come into a youngster's possession, for the pieces are very slender and delicate, and thus easily broken. wooden furniture is the most durable kind, and plain and simple pieces will generally outlast the fancy ones. the designs illustrated in this chapter make very substantial pieces, as there are no spindle legs or fancy arms to break off. they follow the lines of the mission furniture, that simple style used in the early american mission schools, and which is to-day being extensively made in handsome pieces for the furnishings of modern homes. you will find the =miniature mission furniture=, illustrated and described in this chapter, simple to make and something which is easy to sell, for there is nothing like it at present upon the market. cigar-boxes furnish the nicest material for making this furniture, and the various parts can be cut to the right shape and size with =a gig-or scroll-saw.= procure small brads and glue with which to fasten the pieces together. =to prepare the cigar-boxes= for use, place them in a tub of boiling water and let them remain there until the paper labels readily pull off. do not use a knife in removing the paper, as it is liable to roughen the wood. the paper will come off by allowing it to soak long enough. when the boxes are clean, set them in the sun to dry, after binding the covers to the backs to prevent them from warping. pull the boxes apart when they are thoroughly dry, and throw out such pieces as have printing upon them, for these would spoil the appearance of the furniture if used. [illustration: figs. - .--patterns for furniture.] in order to simplify the matter of cutting the parts that make the furniture, the curved pieces have been drawn out carefully on page , so they can be laid off upon the strips of cigar-boxes without any trouble, by the process of =enlarging by squares.=--these drawings are shown one-quarter of their full size (half their width and half their height). to enlarge them procure a piece of cardboard nine by thirteen inches, or a little larger than twice the size of the drawing each way, and divide it into squares just twice the size of those on page . that will make sixteen squares in the width of the cardboard and twenty-four in the length, each half an inch square. in order to get the squares spaced equally, it is best to lay off the points first with a ruler along the top, bottom, and two sides of the sheet of cardboard, and then connect the points with the ruler and a sharp lead-pencil. then number the squares as in the illustration, using the figures along the sides and letters across the top and bottom of the sheet. with the sheet of cardboard thus prepared it is a simple matter to =reproduce the drawings= of figs. to by locating the points of the curves and corners of the pieces, as shown in the illustrations, in corresponding positions in the squares on your cardboard sheet. the curves may be drawn in by eye, after locating them with reference to their surrounding squares, but the surest way of enlarging them accurately is by laying off the points where the curve strikes each horizontal and vertical line in the illustration, upon the enlarged drawing. these points can then be connected with a curved line. make all of the lines heavy so they can be distinguished from your guide lines, and after carefully going over the drawing, comparing it with that on page to see that no mistake has been made in locating the points in enlarging, cut the various pieces apart. these give you =the patterns= with which to mark out the pieces on the wood. we will first note the construction of =the chairs= shown in figs. and . these are four and one-half inches high, two inches wide, and an inch and one-half deep. cut the back for the chair in fig. four and three-eighths inches high and an inch and three-quarters wide, the sides by the pattern in fig. , and the seat an inch and one-quarter by an inch and three-quarters. with the pieces cut out, fasten them together with brads and glue, placing the seat between the arms and back so that it is an inch and one-half above the base. [illustration: fig. . fig. . chairs.] cut the back for the other chair (fig. ) four and one-half inches high by two inches wide, the seat an inch and a quarter by an inch and three-quarters, and the sides an inch and three-eighths wide by two and one-half high. to get the curve in the bottom edge of the side-pieces, use the pattern in fig. . [illustration: fig. .--a settee.] =the settee= (fig. ) should have its sides cut by the pattern of fig. . make the back-piece three and three-quarters inches wide and three and one-quarter inches high, and the seat three and three-quarters inches by an inch and one-half. fasten the seat against the back an inch and one-half above the base. [illustration: fig. .--a table.] =tables= for the living-room, dining-room, bedroom, ball-room, and nursery of a doll-house may be patterned after the designs of figs. and . these should be two and one-half inches high to be of proper proportion for the chairs. the pieces necessary to make fig. are a top two inches square, two sides an inch and one-half wide by two and one-half inches high, and a shelf an inch and one-quarter square. fasten the pieces together as in the illustration, placing the shelf between the side-pieces an inch from the bottom. [illustration: fig. .--another design.] the other design (fig. ) will do nicely for =a dining-room table=, or table for the centre of the living-room. the top of this should be five inches long and three inches wide. cut the side-pieces by the pattern in fig. and, after fastening them to the under side of the table-top four inches apart, brace them with a strip three and three-quarters inches long by half an inch wide, as shown in fig. . =a side-board= similar to fig. should be made for the dining-room. the pattern for the side pieces is shown in fig. . after sawing these out, cut a piece seven inches long by three inches wide for the back and fasten the side-pieces to the edges of it. the location of the shelves can be obtained best by referring to fig. and the pattern in fig. . cut the bottom shelf (_a_ in fig. ) three inches long by an inch and one-quarter wide and fasten it to the side-pieces half an inch above the base (line on pattern, fig. ). make shelf _b_ three by one inches and place it at line . _c_ should be three and three-quarters inches long by an inch and one-half wide, with a small notch cut near each end with your knife, to make it fit over the side-pieces (see illustration). cut shelf _d_ three inches long by half an inch wide, fastening it in place at line no. , _e_ three inches long by seven-sixteenths of an inch wide, fastening it at line no. , and _f_ three inches long by three-eighths of an inch wide, fastening it at line no. . the top shelf (_g_) is three and three-quarters inches long and half an inch wide and is fastened to the tops of the side-pieces as shown in the drawing. [illustration: fig. .--a side-board.] the lower portion of the side-board is enclosed with two doors two inches high by an inch and one-half wide. small pieces of cloth may be used for hinges, but it is better to use pins, running them through the shelf above and below (_a_ and _c_, fig. ) into the doors. stick the pins near the edge of the doors and see that they are straight, so the doors will open easily. a small mirror attached to the back between shelves _c_ and _d_ will complete this piece of furniture. [illustration: fig. .--a mirror.] =a mirror= in a frame should be made for the living-room of the doll-house. a neat and suitable design for one of these will be seen in fig. . for its construction cut two sides by means of the pattern in fig. , a piece five inches long by three inches wide for the back, and a strip three inches long by three-eighths of an inch wide for a shelf. fasten the sides to the edges of the back-piece, and the shelf between the sides about three-quarters of an inch above the base. now procure a mirror such as you can buy in a toy-shop for five or ten cents (or a piece of a broken mirror cut down to the right size will do very nicely), and attach it to the centre of the back. =the grandfather's clock= (fig. ) makes an effective piece of furniture for the hall or living-room, and is easily made. figure shows the pattern for the front of this clock. the back is made the same, with the omission of the square opening cut in the front frame for the clock-face. cut a block of wood two by two by three-quarters inches to fit between the frames at the top. after nailing the pieces together, procure a face from a toy watch, and fasten it in the opening made for it in the front frame. a button suspended by means of a piece of thread from a tack placed in the bottom of the block forms the pendulum. [illustration: fig. . a grandfather's clock.] it will be unnecessary to give any suggestions for =kitchen furniture=, such as chairs and tables, for these can also be made out of cigar-box wood along the same schemes illustrated in this chapter, with perhaps a few modifications which will make them simpler. [illustration: fig. .--a bed.] [illustration: fig. .--another design.] now for the making of some pieces of bedroom furniture. you will find in figs. and two designs that are easily carried out, one or both of which may be used for =the beds= of a doll-house. to make fig. , cut the head and foot by means of the pattern in fig. , and cut the two sides by means of the pattern in fig. . after preparing these pieces and fastening them together as shown in the illustration (fig. ), cut a few strips a quarter of an inch wide for slats and fasten them between the sides of the bed. it is advisable to fasten these in place to prevent them from being lost. the side-pieces for the other bed (fig. ) are cut out with the same pattern (fig. ). make the head-and foot-pieces three by four and one-half inches, cutting a piece two by an inch and one-quarter out of the top of each as shown in the drawing (fig. ), and using the pattern of the other bed for cutting the curve in the bottom edge. nail the pieces together in their proper places, after which cut some slats and fasten them in the bottom. [illustration: fig. .--a dresser.] =the dresser= (fig. ) is made somewhat similar to the side-board. cut the sides by the same pattern (fig. ) and fasten them to the edges of the back-piece, which should be six and one-half inches high by three inches wide. cut shelf _a_ three by one and one-quarter inches, _b_ and _c_ three by one and one-eighth, _d_ three by one and three-sixteenths, and _e_ and _f_ one-half by one and one-quarter inches. fasten shelf _a_ between the sides at line no. (see fig. ), _b_ at line no. , _c_ at line no. , _d_ at line no. , and notch the ends of _e_ and _f_ to fit over the side-pieces at line no. . drawers to fit the lower shelves of the dresser may be made out of small strips of cigar-boxes or pieces of cardboard, glued together. a small mirror fastened in the position shown in the drawing will complete the work upon this piece of furniture. [illustration: fig. .--a wash-stand.] =a wash-stand= can be made for the bath-room and each of the bedrooms similar to fig. . the sides for this should be five inches high by an inch and one-quarter wide, and the shelves one by three inches. fasten the lower shelf three-quarters of an inch above the base, and the top shelf at a height of two and one-half inches. when the stand has been put together, fit a round stick, about an eighth of an inch in diameter, in holes made in the sides with a gimlet (see illustration). this forms the towel-rack. hang a small drapery over the lower portion of the stand. =finishing.=--when the pieces of furniture have been completed, they should be rubbed down with emery-paper to remove the rough edges, and also any rough places that may have been caused by soaking the boxes in water. then give the wood several coats of linseed oil. this makes a beautiful finish for this kind of wood. if desired, the bedroom furniture may be painted with white enamel. the little hearts may be painted upon the pieces as shown in the illustration, with a small brush and red paint, or may be cut out of red paper and glued to the wood. other cigar-box furniture [illustration: fig. .--a doll's folding-bed.] in figs. and will be found some pieces of furniture that are simpler to make than that just described, and although they may not be so pretty, they present a very good appearance when neatly made. the author constructed many pieces of this furniture when a boy, and found them suitable as presents, besides being something that was always easy to sell. the cost of making a set amounts to but a few cents, cigar-boxes being the principal material. they are also very quickly made, as the boxes require but little cutting. [illustration: fig. .--foot.] [illustration: fig. .--folding-bed (open).] for the construction of =a folding-bed=, such as is shown in figs. and , select two cigar-boxes, one of which will fit inside the other. the smaller box should be a little shorter than the inside opening of the larger box. after removing the paper from each, place the smaller box inside the larger one, as shown in fig. , so that the bottom of the inner box is flush with the edge of the outer box. then drive a brad through both boxes on each side, about three-quarters of an inch from the end as shown at _a_ (fig. ). these brads should run through the outer box into the bottom of the inner box, and should be driven in carefully so as not to split the wood. the inner box should now fold down as shown in fig. , moving upon the brad pivots. purchase a five or ten cent mirror and fasten it to the front of the bed, after which cut two wooden feet similar to fig. and glue the pegs on the ends of these in gimlet holes made above the mirror. finish the wood the same as described for the other cigar-box furniture. [illustration: fig. .--dresser completed.] =the dresser= shown in fig. is made out of a box the same size as the larger one used for the folding-bed. saw the sides of the box in half, crosswise, and remove the upper half and the end-piece. then nail the end across the tops of the remaining halves of the sides. when this has been done, divide up the lower portion of the box into compartments as shown in the drawing (fig. ). this should have a small drapery hung over it. the upper portion of the dresser should have a mirror attached to it, and some lace draped over the top and sides will add greatly to its appearance. [illustration: fig. .--a doll's dresser.] all you will have to do in making =a wardrobe= will be to fasten some small hooks inside of a cigar-box, attach the cover with a strip of linen--the same way it was attached before you soaked it off--and hang a mirror on the front. these pieces of furniture were designed for separate sets, and would not do for doll-houses the size of those in the preceding chapters, unless the boxes were cut down to smaller proportions. chapter ix a boy's printing-shop [illustration: boys working at the presses.] since the manufacture of printing-presses in small sizes, printing has become so popular among boys that it is now hard to find a neighborhood in which there is not a press. printing is one of the best methods of mastering spelling and punctuation, and is thus a great help to a boy in his studies, besides being a pleasant occupation at which he can earn money. if you cannot afford a large press, be satisfied with a small one for the time being at least. get to work, learn to print neatly and accurately, and when your friends find your work is of good quality, they will gladly patronize you. your profits should soon net you enough with which to buy a larger press and increase your equipment. after securing a press, it will be necessary to find a place in which to keep and use it, where there will be a good light to work by and where things are not likely to be disturbed. if you have a workshop, you may be able to make room in it for your outfit. [illustration: fig. .--a boy's printing-shop.] when the author became the proud owner of a machine, he found it convenient to keep it in his room with his type-cases and material beneath the press-stand. but in the course of several years the printing-shop required more space than the room afforded, and a new office had to be secured. this was found in the woodshed, where a corner was partitioned off, a double sashed window placed in the wall, and the interior fitted up with a case-rack, imposing-table, stock-stand, and all the necessities for an enlargement of business. figure shows the arrangement of our shop a few years later, when it again became necessary to increase our floor space by adding a "mezzanine" story above, extending to the roof of the shed. this half-story was reached by means of a ladder, as shown in the drawing. the principal equipment of a boy's shop should consist of a number of cases in which to keep the fonts of type; a rack in which these cases can be kept and at which the typesetting can be done; a work-bench, one end of which may be used for an imposing-table and the other for the press to stand upon; and two cabinets, one for stock and the other for ink, tools, and general supplies. the other materials required are: a composing-stick, composing-rule, pair of tweezers, galley, leads, rules, furniture, mitre-box, imposing-stone, quoins, shooting-stick, mallet, planer, hand-roller, and gauge-pins, besides a can of ink, an oil-can, a bottle of machine-oil for washing rollers, benzine for cleaning type, and a good supply of rags. [illustration: an amateur's outfit.] small presses are usually accompanied by a few fonts of type, which are sufficient for printing small business-cards, etc., but are of so few letters as to make an ordinary job of printing impossible. with an increase of capital, =type= should be the first addition to your outfit. in making selections bear in mind the amount of money you have to spend, and buy only styles which will go together nicely and which can be used for the greatest variety of work. if possible, secure the advice of a printer in purchasing, as by his experience he can tell what you will most require better than you. you can probably obtain a specimen type-book from the type foundry in your city from which to make your selections. =type-cases= divided into small compartments for the various letters and characters, which can be bought for seventy-five cents or a dollar, provide the only satisfactory means of keeping fonts. it is advisable to spend the money for these neatly made boxes rather than attempt to make them, for the work will amount to more than what you can buy them for. figures and show the upper and lower news-cases with the systems of "laying" generally employed in printing establishments. it will be seen that by this method the principal letters are grouped in the central portions of the case where they are easily reached, while the less important letters are scattered around the sides. the central boxes of the lower case are also made larger than the others, "e" being allotted the largest box as it is used more than any other letter in the alphabet. [illustration: scheme for laying cases. fig. .--lower case. fig. .--upper case.] as the lettering of the spaces and quads in fig. may be confusing to the beginner, it is perhaps well to explain that these are based upon the "m" quads which present a square end, the " m" and " m" quads being two and three "m" quads in width, and an "n" quad one-half an "m." likewise spaces are known by the fraction they represent of an "m" quad, viz. " m," " m," " m," and " m" (more commonly known as hair-space). [illustration: fig. .--the yankee job-case.] the upper and lower cases provide for about every character included in a complete font of type. for smaller fonts you will find the yankee job-case very convenient, the letters being arranged the same in the lower portion, and the capitals being placed in the upper boxes (see fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--a type-case rack.] it will be unnecessary to have =a rack for the type-cases= until you have added several styles of type to your outfit. then you will find a rack such as is shown in fig. one of the best methods of keeping the type away from the dust and at the same time in an accessible place. this rack should be four feet in height, the width of a type-case, and twenty-eight inches deep, which is large enough for twelve cases. it is best made out of four-inch boards. [illustration: fig. .] cut the uprights _a_ and _e_ three feet six inches long, and _b_ and _f_ four feet long. the top-pieces _c_ and _g_ should be cut similar to fig. . first lay out these pieces on four-inch boards, using the dimensions given on the drawing and being careful to get both pieces the same. having properly marked the pieces, they remain to be cut out with the rip and cross-cut saws. cut the bottom-pieces _d_ and _h_ twenty-eight inches long, and prepare twenty-two inch-strips of the same length for cleats. one of the most particular points to be looked after in making a rack of this kind is the attaching of the cleats, for unless they are perfectly horizontal and those on one side are on a level with those on the other side, the cases will not slide in satisfactorily and will be continually causing trouble. plenty of space should also be left between the cleats to prevent the cases from sticking by the cleats swelling or warping. [illustration: fig. .] in order to get the cleats in the right position, the heights should be laid off on the uprights as shown in fig. and lines squared across them. you will then have the same heights on each upright. having prepared the pieces above described, we are ready to put them together. lay uprights _a_ and _b_ upon the ground, twenty inches apart, and with the lower ends on a line with one another. then fasten board _d_ to them as shown in fig. , the upper edge being even with the first divisions on the upright. drive but one nail in each end of _d_ until the other end of the frame is fastened together. strip _c_ should be placed as shown in fig. , so that the upper edge of one end is even with the top of upright _a_, and the upper edge of the other end three inches above the top of upright _b_. this gives the proper pitch to the top of the rack. then, after measuring the distance between uprights _a_ and _b_ to see that it is no more or less than twenty inches, nail _c_ firmly to them, after which drive several more nails into the ends of _d_. [illustration: fig. .] when this has been done, fasten the cleats in place, so that the top of each is even with the line squared across the uprights. this completes the frame. the opposite frame is made similarly. when both frames have been made, they should be fastened together by means of the crosspieces shown in fig. . measure the width of your cases, which varies somewhat with different makes, and set the frames about half an inch farther apart than this width. then cut the boards _i_, _j_, _k_, and _l_ the correct length and nail them to the places shown upon the drawing. strips _m_ and _n_ should be fitted between _c_ and _g_ to help support the top. the top of the rack is made to hold two cases at a time, the lower case on the front part and the upper case back of it. cases should be kept out of the dust as much as possible, as dirt accumulates in the boxes very quickly, and is hard to clean out. it is therefore a good plan to tack cloth or heavy wrapping-paper to the back, sides, and below the top of the rack, and provide a curtain to hang over the front when the cases are not in use. when the boxes do become dirty, the dust should be removed by means of a pair of bellows. [illustration: fig. .--how to hold the composing-stick.] in composing, or setting type, =a composing-stick= is necessary. this should be held in the left hand, as shown in fig. , while the right hand picks up the type one by one and drops them into the stick, where the left thumb shoves them into place. it will be seen by looking at the illustration that the type are set upside down and read from left to right. this may seem awkward at first, but with practice you will soon become accustomed to reading the letters in this position. =a composing-rule=, similar to fig. , should be cut out of a piece of brass rule. in typesetting, the rule is first placed in the stick, and the type then placed against it. [illustration: fig. .--a composing-rule.] when a line has been set and there still remains a space too small for another word, it is necessary to either place wider spaces between the words to fill out the line, or reduce the space sufficiently to make it possible to add the word. this operation, which is known as =justifying=, should be performed after each line has been set. then place a lead against the type, lift out the composing-rule from behind the first line, and place it in front of the lead preparatory to setting a new line. [illustration: fig. .--a home-made galley.] after composing a stick full of type, it should be emptied into =a galley.= figure shows a galley made of half-inch stuff. cut the pieces as shown, and fasten them together so the bottom-piece is tilted sufficient to keep the lines from "=pieing="--or falling out of line--without tying them together. emptying a stick may prove difficult at first, but if the lines have been properly justified and are gripped at the ends with the thumb and first finger of each hand, there is but little danger of making pie. the beginner will, however, doubtless pie his type a number of times, until by experience he learns the proper handling of it. =proofs= are struck while the type is in the galley, by running an ink-roller over the matter, then placing a damp sheet of paper on the type and running a dry hand-roller over the paper. the print thus obtained is known as the "first proof." it should be fully corrected by means of proof-reader's marks, which can be found in the appendix of any dictionary, after which the corrections should be made in the type and a second proof struck off. when the matter has been fully corrected, it should be placed upon =the imposing-stone=--a piece of marble or other flat stone set upon the work table. after properly leading the type, =the chase=--an iron frame cast to hold the type for printing--should be placed over it. the space between the type and chase should then be filled out with =furniture=.--metal furniture consists of hollow metal blocks of various sizes, while wooden furniture comes in strips of different widths, which may be cut up into the lengths required. use a mitre-box similar to the one described in chapter i in cutting the wooden furniture. =locking-up a form.=--the type is locked-up by means of iron wedges known as "quoins." there are two forms of these, those driven together by means of a "shooting-stick" and mallet, as shown in fig. , and those locked by means of an iron key, such as is shown in fig. . the latter kind is probably the most commonly used to-day. before locking the form, the type should be levelled with a planer, which is nothing more than a block of hardwood with a smooth, even surface. the planer should be set upon the type and given a few light raps on the top with the hammer, until the face of the type is even. then lock the form securely, being careful to have as equal pressure as possible on all sides, to prevent the type from springing. the form is then ready for the press. [illustration: fig. .--locking-up a form.] [illustration: fig. .--key and quoins.] =distribution= consists in replacing the types in their respective boxes after the form has been printed, and is no longer desired. the matter should first be thoroughly washed, then unlocked. the distributer lifts out several lines of the type, holding them in his left hand, with the nicks uppermost and the letters facing him. one or more words are picked from the top line with the right hand, and each letter is dropped into its box, after which several more words are picked up and similarly distributed. a few pointers in regard to presswork may be helpful to the beginner. =the tympan=, or metal bed upon which the paper to be printed is placed, should be padded well with paper to make a firm impression, the number of sheets required depending upon the character of the form. these sheets are held in place by means of the iron clamps which slip over the ends of the tympan (see fig. ). the first print struck off probably will be imperfect, that is, some portions will be lighter than others, due to uneven impression. this is overcome by what is known as =overlaying= the form. make several impressions, including one on the top tympan-sheet. then cut out the light portions of a print and paste them directly over the corresponding printing on the tympan-sheet (see fig. ). thin tissue-paper will be found good for building up portions requiring but little increase in pressure. =underlaying= consists in pasting strips of paper to the back of type or cuts which print unevenly, to make the low portions higher. when the form prints satisfactorily, you must prepare the marginal lines before running off the job. the margins can easily be marked off upon the tympan-sheet, as you have the impression upon it for a guide (see fig. ). when this has been done, =gauge-pins= of some sort should be stuck into the tympan-sheet along the marginal lines as guides for placing the paper in the press for printing. two forms of these pins, which can be bought for twenty-five or thirty cents a pair, are shown in fig. . these pins must be so placed that there will be no danger of them mashing the type. [illustration: fig. .--two forms of gauge-pins.] [illustration: figs. - .--home-made gauges.] there are several forms of home-made gauges which may be used, three of which are shown in figs. , , and . the first (fig. ) consists of an ordinary pin bent into the shape shown. the second (fig. ) is made out of a strip of cardboard scored and bent as in the drawing. it must be pasted in place and held in position until dry, to prevent it from slipping (see fig. ). the third form of home-made gauge-pin consists of a quad (fig. ), or thin piece of furniture, pasted to the tympan-sheet. =in inking the press= be careful to spread the ink evenly over the disk, and apply just enough to make a clear, clean copy. too much ink will clog the type and produce a smeared print. ink should not be left upon the form after the latter has been removed from the press, but should be washed off immediately with benzine. the disk and rollers should also be washed after use, as the ink will not be good when hard and will become dirty. =the life of a roller= is greatly increased by using machine-oil rather than benzine for washing it. benzine is too drying for the composition of a roller (which is glue and molasses) and takes the elasticity out of it, causing it to crack. keep the rollers in a cool place in the summer and not in too cold a place in the winter, for extremes in temperature also affect the composition. =neatness= is absolutely necessary in printing, and to secure this you must keep your hands clean so as not to finger-mark your prints. care must be taken in throwing off printed sheets to see that they do not fall upon freshly printed ones if these are wet enough to mark them. =materials= should be put away in their proper places after use. do not throw type, leads, and furniture carelessly about, as they are likely to be lost or broken by doing so. cigar-boxes make handy receptacles for pied type, until you have an opportunity to sort out and distribute it. these are useful also for keeping leads, furniture, and rules in, and a cabinet similar to that described in chapter i (fig. ), or the curio-cabinet described in chapter iv (fig. ), should be made to hold them. the young printer should see to it that =proofs and scraps of paper= are thrown into a waste basket and not scattered about, as they accumulate rapidly, and not only make a shop look very untidy, but increase the danger of fire. =oily rags= should be kept in a covered tin can, for they are liable to ignite spontaneously when exposed to the air; and of course oils, gasoline, and benzine should be handled away from fire and corked up after use. chapter x amateur journalism [illustration: boy journalists.] amateur journalism is by no means a new pastime, but probably at no time in its long history has it been thought as much of as at present. it would be a difficult matter to even roughly estimate the number of papers which have been issued in the amateur world. mr. edwin hadley smith of new york city has the largest collection now in existence. this at present consists of , amateur papers, amateur books, photographs of amateur journalists, professional clippings, and , miscellaneous printed relics dating as far back as . the collection, which is the result of many years' work, is sorted and catalogued, and will soon be placed in one of our large libraries, where the public may inspect the work that has been turned out by amateurs for the past half century. [illustration: a group of amateur papers.] it is said benjamin franklin published an amateur paper in , when a lad of seventeen years; and in tracing the history of amateur journalism down to the present time, a person would be surprised to find what a large number of the most successful statesmen, writers, and scientific men this country has had were amateur journalists in their younger days. there are at present in the neighborhood of two hundred amateur papers published in the united states. a few of these papers, representative of amateurs from all parts of the country, have been grouped together and reproduced opposite page , and several others are shown in figs. , , , , and . it is to be regretted that lack of space forbids a larger display of these papers, many of which are quite unique and reflect credit upon their publishers. [illustration: fig. .--a school paper. pages. size - / " × - / ".] during the centennial at philadelphia in , the national amateur press association was formed for the purpose of spreading amateur journalism and bringing amateurs into closer relations with one another. the united amateur press association was formed in , and, while it is a younger organization than the national amateur press association, has a large membership of amateurs. every boy aspirant to the field of journalism should join one of these associations as soon as he has the proper credential--a copy of his own paper, or an original article of his published in an amateur paper. by becoming a member and getting acquainted with other amateurs through exchange of papers, a boy is greatly benefited. he has a chance to see what other amateurs are doing, finds out through the other papers what the members think of his work, and learns through these friendly criticisms wherein he can improve his publication. he also has a chance to enter his writings for the prizes awarded annually by the associations for the best poems, sketches, essays, histories, and editorials. a great number of the members of these two associations are interested in smaller organizations, among which are the interstate association--consisting of the members of the east--and the western. again, a large number of amateurs have formed state organizations, and in large cities, where there are enough members to do so, local clubs have been formed. the city clubs hold frequent meetings, at which it is customary for the members to take part in literary programmes. the state and other organizations generally hold semi-annual meetings, and the national amateur press association and the united amateur press association meet annually in some city chosen the preceding year, and at this convention elect their officers, make awards of prizes for the year, and have a general good time. the boy who is owner of a printing-press is almost certain to get the publishing fever and commence the publishing of a small paper. if his press is too small for such an undertaking, it will of course be necessary for him to do such job printing as he can get to do until he has earned sufficient money to buy a larger press and such materials as he will need in publishing a paper. but it is not always the boy who has had a taste of printing who becomes interested in amateur journalism. there are few boys nowadays who pass through their school life without devoting some of their time to this interesting and instructive work. a paper started by one boy is generally followed by several more, and in this way the number of amateur papers sent out in a town very rapidly increases. nothing daunts the ambitious boy. if he has not a press, and there are no prospects of him earning one for some time, he will not allow this to interfere with his plans. it only means he must devise some other way of printing. many boys have already proven that a press is not an absolute necessity, by issuing papers printed with rubber type, written by pen and on typewriters, and printed by the mimeograph and such duplicating machines. these are all more or less tiresome operations, but ways in which the boy determined to publish a paper may start. a few examples of papers printed by these methods are shown in figs. , , and . it might be interesting to know a little something about how these papers were run. the one shown in fig. was lettered by hand, and while only one copy of an issue was made, and that passed about in the school at which the publishers attended, there was a good deal of work required to get it up. [illustration: fig. .--another school paper.] the paper shown in fig. is also a school paper, published at the lake high school, chicago. the copy for this was first written off on a wax sheet by means of a typewriter, and this sheet placed on the cylinder of a machine known as a "neostyle," the cylinder then being revolved and the papers printed from the wax sheet. [illustration: fig. .--printed with rubber type.] the paper shown in fig. was the writer's first attempt in the publishing line, and was indeed a sorry specimen of typography. a box of rubber type, a four line holder, and ink-pad constituted the printing outfit. the paper was a twelve-paged two-column affair, requiring six impressions of four lines each to the column. the column ruling was done with a pen, and, after printing the copies, each had to be gone over and retouched with pen and ink. it was a long and tedious job, and so wearing upon the type that they were practically useless by the time the second issue had been printed. but by this time the publishers became owners of a press with which they were able to turn out more satisfactory work. the first thing for a boy to consider is =the character= of his paper--whether it shall contain news of the athletic field, the school, or the neighborhood, entirely, or be devoted to amateur journalism entirely, or be made up of a little of each. the schoolroom presents so much of interest to those in and out of it, that papers managed and edited by several pupils, with the articles written by the different classes, are generally successful. athletic news is always interesting to boys, and to have at least a portion of your paper given up to this subject might be a good plan. [illustration: fig. .] the paper shown in fig. is an example of a small paper, the size of the sheet being three by four and one-half inches. it was published a few years ago by six boys living in lexington, kentucky. the staff, the oldest of whom was but ten years of age, consisted of the editor-in-chief, who attended to the general management, editing, and printing of the paper, and five other boys, known as the associate editors, who gathered the news and did the hustling. this paper contained mostly neighborhood news, and had a large local circulation. the paper shown in fig. consists of twelve pages printed upon a press with a form capacity four by six inches, and is given up entirely to the publication of original stories and poems. [illustration: fig. .] some boys who do not own presses have the printing done by professionals, but simply to edit a paper gives them but half the pleasure and experience derived from executing all the work themselves,--editing, printing, binding, mailing, etc. =in naming= a paper be sure to select a suitable title for it, a name with a meaning, such as will denote the character of the publication, being desirable. =the frequency of publication= will depend largely upon the size of sheet, number of pages, the amount of time that can be devoted to the work, and the facilities for printing. whether weekly, monthly, semi-monthly--twice a month, bi-monthly--once in two months, or quarterly, try to place each issue in the hands of subscribers as nearly on time as possible. =the size of page= will depend largely upon your press. however, a small sheet is most desirable for an amateur paper. the first page should be headed with the name of the paper set up in rather large type. you will find =a stereotyped heading= cheaper to buy than a font of large type, and easier to handle on account of its being in a solid block. below the heading should appear the volume number, date, and number of issue, on one line, followed by the title of the article and body of type. =the choice of type= may be made by examining the sheets shown opposite page and in figs. and , many of which are good specimens of typography. these should also help you to formulate your ideas as to the style of your paper. the second page should be headed with the page number and name of paper--or title of story--in small caps, this line to be separated from the body of type by means of a pica brass rule. great care should be used in publishing a paper to have the proof thoroughly corrected before the form is printed, for typographical errors spoil the appearance of the paper and are always disgusting to the reader. also see to it that the marginal lines correspond on each sheet, and try to get uniform impressions throughout the paper. =a cover= is desirable for a small paper, as it adds to its appearance and size. if you have one, set it up in somewhat the same style as those shown opposite page . the cover sheets should be cut a little larger than the inside sheets, so they will cover the latter when they are bound together. with the printing of an issue completed, the sheets are ready for =binding=.--they may be fastened together by means of wire staples, paste, or thread. figure shows a scheme of stitching much employed in printing-offices and which is simple for an amateur to do. the sheets are first folded inside one another, as in the drawing. then, starting at _a_ with a needle and thread, run the needle through the sheets; carry the thread underneath the sheets from _a_ to _b_, from _b_ to _c_ above, from _c_ to _a_ beneath, and up through the sheets at _a_. then tie the two ends of _d_ and _e_ in a hard knot, with the portion of the thread marked _f_ between them. [illustration: fig. .] the cover may be bound with the rest of the sheets, or pasted to them after the sheets have been stitched. few amateurs bother with =advertisements=, probably because it is hard to find merchants who have confidence in results from magazines with small circulations; but with cheap rates you should be able to secure enough ads. to more than defray the expenses of publishing a paper. before soliciting these, cut a sheet of paper the size of a page and divide it into small spaces with a pencil and ruler, making what is known as =the advertisers' dummy=.--show this to your prospective advertisers and let them pick out the space they wish, charging so much per inch, the rate varying according to the position the ad. will occupy. with at least four regular issues a year, and not less than fifty per cent of the circulation paid subscriptions, you will be able to enter your paper in the post-office of your city as =second-class matter=, which makes it possible for you to mail your papers to out-of-town subscribers at the rate of one cent per pound. to secure these privileges write to the third assistant postmaster-general of your city for an entry blank, together with full particulars concerning second-class matter. return the application with a copy of your paper; and when it has been passed upon, the postmaster will issue you a certificate entitling you to these rates and authorizing you to print upon your paper "entered at the post-office at (name of town) as second-class matter." chapter xi a boy's dark-room [illustration: a boy photographing his dog.] there is no reason why an industrious boy cannot do a profitable business with a camera, when he has learned to operate it successfully, does careful and neat work, and charges a reasonable price for his pictures. the many monthly photographic competitions in the magazines should be a great help in showing where his faults lie, and when he has overcome these he should be able to make considerable money from the cash prizes offered. an amateur should master as much of the work as possible. one of the most interesting parts is missed if you pay a professional to develop your plates, and you never know where your faults have been made in taking the pictures, by not seeing the manner in which the image appears on the negative during the development. even though you spoil one or two plates in your first attempts at developing, your results on the whole will probably be as good as those obtained by a professional, who is very often careless with amateurs' work. no discussion of photography has been included in this book, as a complete treatise would be too lengthy, and a condensed description impractical. there are a number of excellent publications which describe the subject in detail, making it so clear that a boy cannot help but understand the principles with a little study. few of these books, however, dwell upon the equipment of the dark-room, and none give a fellow any ideas for the making of his apparatus, generally an important item to a boy. =the necessary equipment= for a dark-room is not large, about all you require besides your chemicals being a ruby lantern, printing frame, three trays,--one for developing, another for fixing, and a third for toning,--a two-inch camel's-hair brush for dusting plates, a drying-rack, glass graduate, funnel, set of scales, bottles for solutions, and a cabinet in which to keep your apparatus and supplies. =a dark-room= is not a necessity, although it is a great convenience, especially if you are doing much work. with the shades pulled down, you will find that your bedroom serves the purpose very well in the evening, and many boys do their work in this way. [illustration: fig. . a handy dark-room.] [illustration: fig. . a washing box and drying rack.] figure illustrates how developing is carried on in a bedroom of an old-style house, where the wash-stands are set in recesses in the wall. here a shelf made up of several boards fastened together with battens is set upon the marble slabs around the basin. in this shelf an opening four by six inches is made as shown in fig. , the edges of the opening being rabbeted to receive a five-by-seven camera plate. this arrangement is very complete, for the developing is performed on the shelf, the fixing on the stand below, and the washing in the basin, while light from the lantern is projected through the glass in the shelf, making it light underneath. this scheme can be used for any wash-stand, by nailing the shelf to two pieces of board twelve inches long by the width of the shelf, these pieces being set firmly upon the wash-stand. some boys use =the bath-room= for their dark-room, darkening the window and shutting out any rays of light that may come through the key-hole and cracks about the door. this works splendidly, there being running water at hand and the tub in which to wash the negatives. the work-table is made out of several boards battened together, and should be set across the edges of the tub. figure shows =another scheme=--a dark-room fitted up in a closet, or by partitioning off a corner of the attic or cellar. in the latter case the inside of the partition should be covered with black paper or cloth to prevent light from entering cracks in the boards. the room should be provided with =a work-table= about three feet high. this should be built against the wall and strongly braced, as shown in the sketch (fig. ). fasten a shelf to the wall about nine inches below the table, and under this make a rack with three divisions in it for trays. the rack should be fastened to the braces, as shown in the drawing. =running water= is a great convenience in a dark-room, as it saves the bother of having to carry water in pails, or transferring your plates to a tub or wash-basin for the final bath after development. if it is impossible to locate your dark-room where it will be supplied with running water, the best scheme is =a water-tank= with hose attachment. this is shown in fig. . to carry it out, procure from your grocer a "half-barrel," such as is used for the shipment of salt mackerel, etc., and, after thoroughly cleaning it, bore a hole in the side about two inches from the bottom. buy at a drug-store several feet of rubber tubing, a rubber stopper with a hole cut in the centre, two pinch-stops, a six-inch piece of glass tubing bent at right angles, and a small glass funnel. slip one end of the bent piece of glass tubing into the rubber stopper, and stick the latter in the hole made in the barrel. then slip a short piece of the rubber tubing over the glass tubing, and place one of the pinch-stops on it to be used in regulating the supply of water from the tank (see fig. ). set the barrel on one end of the table, and run the rubber tubing through a hole cut for it in the work-table. [illustration: fig. . fig. . fig. .--a well-equipped dark-room.] it is advisable to filter the water used from the barrel, that you may be sure it is free from dirt, so an arrangement similar to that shown in fig. should be fastened below the work-table. it consists of a glass funnel set in a hole bored in a block of wood (see _a_ in fig. ), which is suspended from the bottom of the work-table by means of a stick (_b_), one end of which is nailed to block _a_ and the other end to the work-table. keep a piece of filter-paper in the funnel. the rubber tubing should be cut just long enough to reach the funnel, and the bottom of this filter should come within an inch or two of the sink, which will be set in the shelf below. you will find an iron drip-pan about as cheap =a sink= as can be had, considering that one twelve by seventeen inches will cost you just fifty cents--twenty-five cents for the pan and an equal amount to pay a tinsmith for soldering a three-eighths inch pipe in a hole cut in the bottom for a drain. either fasten the sink on the shelf, boring a hole for the pipe to fit in, or set it in an opening cut in the shelf, as shown in the drawing, supporting it by the rim around its top. slip a piece of rubber tubing over the lower end of the drain pipe and to this attach the second pinch-stop as a regulator for emptying the sink (see fig. ). as the water supply would be insufficient to wash the plates thoroughly after taking them from the hypo bath, it should be used for rinsing only, and =a washing-box=, after the scheme of fig. , made to hold the negatives while washing them. this box will stand on the shelf beside the sink until you are through developing. the rack is made up of strips of wood fastened together with wire brads. figure clearly shows its construction. strips _a_, _b_, _c_, and _d_ should be placed three and three-quarters inches apart for four-by-five plates, and kerfs should be cut in their edges as shown. _a_ and _d_ are mounted upon short stilts, and _b_ and _c_ are nailed to the uprights supporting the handle. the plates rest upon strips nailed across the bottom pieces. [illustration: fig. .--a washing-rack.] this tray was made to hold two dozen plates, but may be made smaller if you wish. the box should be just large enough for the tray to fit in. fill all the cracks and joints with white-lead and give the box several coats of paint to make it perfectly water tight. then make a hole in the side near the bottom to let the water out, and procure a cork to fit it (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--the washing-box.] before developing, cork up the washing-box, fill it with water, and set it in one end of the sink where the plates can be set in it after being taken from the fixing bath. when you are through developing, place the box and plates in the wash-basin or the bath-tub; remove the cork from the box and allow the water to run in at the top and out through the hole near the bottom. when the negatives have been thoroughly washed, the tray can be removed from the washing-box and used as =a drying-rack=. another scheme for a drying-rack easily made is shown in fig. . for the construction, two pieces of wood twelve inches long by four inches wide will be needed (_a_ and _b_ in fig. ), also two blocks (_c_ and _d_) four inches square. mitre one edge of _a_ and _b_, and cut a right-angled bird's-mouth in _c_ and _d_ to receive _a_ and _b_. with the pieces prepared, fasten them together as in the illustration. then procure some corrugated straw-board, such as is used for packing glass-ware, etc., cut two pieces four by twelve inches, and tack them to _a_ and _b_ in such a way that the corrugations on one strip coincide with those on the other. for a simple rack this cannot be surpassed. [illustration: fig. .--a negative-rack.] for chemicals, supplies, and apparatus, make =a cabinet= similar to the one described for tools in chapter i, or the curio-cabinet in chapter v. this makes it possible to keep everything in order and in places where they can easily be reached. such a cabinet is shown on the wall in fig. . the best scheme for a dark-room =ruby-light= is shown in fig. . this is practicable, however, only when you build the dark-room itself and can cut a window in the partition. it makes it possible to have your source of light outside of the room, and does away with the heat caused by having a lamp within, where you are working. first, cut a ten-by-twelve-inch window opening in the partition on a level with the top of the work-table. then make a frame a little larger than this opening and either set a piece of ruby or orange glass in it, or paste a sheet of ruby or orange paper over it. build a track above and below the opening for the frame to slide in, doing the work neatly, so there will be no possibility of light leaking through. the light, which may be a candle or lamp, should stand upon a shelf supported upon a bracket outside of the window. it is convenient to have the window slide, as it enables you to open it and have white light to work by when a ruby light is not necessary. this window furnishes light for developing, which will be done upon the table, but none for the shelf below, where the sink is located and where the fixing tray should be kept (that there will be no danger of getting hypo into the developer). in order to have light for this shelf, you had better follow the scheme shown in fig. . cut an opening four by six inches in the work-table directly in front of the window, and make a half-inch rabbet around its upper edge to receive a five-by-seven camera plate (see fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--a home-made dark-room lantern.] if it is not possible to have outside light for the dark room, =a home-made lantern=, such as is illustrated in fig. , will be found very satisfactory. it is made out of a wooden box about ten by ten by twelve inches. cut two openings six inches square in two sides of the box and cover one with one sheet and the other with two sheets of orange or red paper, spreading paste over the entire surface of the paper to make it stretch tightly over the openings as it dries. the orange and red wrappers of some makes of printing papers and developing powders can be used for the covering of these openings. for a chimney, procure a long slender baking-powder can, remove the cover and bottom, and insert it in a hole cut for it in the top of the box. then an arrangement must be made, as shown in fig. , to prevent light from emitting from the top of the can. this consists of a tomato-can placed over the baking-powder can, bottom side up, with its edge fastened in kerfs cut in the ends of four wooden stilts (see illustration). drive the stilts firmly into holes bored for them in the top of the box. the edge of the tomato-can should now be about an inch and one-half above the box, and its bottom an inch or more above the baking-powder can. [illustration: fig. .] below the chimney attach a wooden stilt to the bottom of the lantern, and tack a can cover to the top of it, as shown in the drawing. this forms a cup holder for the candle, which not only catches the drippings, but also makes the lantern fire-proof should the candle burn down to the end before you notice it. bore a number of holes in the bottom of the box, and nail two strips to the under side, as shown. the lamp is now completed with the exception of the door, which should be made in three pieces, with the edges cut and bevelled as shown in figs. and . nail strips _a_ and _c_ to the back of the box, and slip _b_ between them. a screw-eye near the bottom of _b_ will serve as a lift in opening the lantern. as the edges of the strips are cut on a slant and bevelled, a joint which cannot possibly leak light is obtained when _b_ is slipped into place. all cracks in the box should be carefully filled with white lead. in offering this lamp to his boy readers, the writer knows they will find it most satisfactory and a solution to the problem of making a perfect dark-lantern. the air admitted through the holes in the bottom of the box carries the heat and smoke straight into the chimney, and out through the space between the tin cans, making it impossible for the flame to ignite the wood. if you use =a plate-lifter= you will find an old tooth-brush handle tapered at the end by means of a file one of the best that can be had. it is well to have some scheme for =classifying and preserving negatives=.--to keep them in their original boxes is not a good idea, as there is always danger of scratching them and no satisfactory way of keeping track of their description, date of exposure, etc. =manila envelopes=, with a printed form to be filled out, on the outside, are invaluable holders, as they not only make it possible to file away negatives in alphabetical order, but preserve them from dust, scratches, etc. [illustration: fig. .--a negative-case.] the four-by-five size can be bought for about twenty-five cents a hundred from a dealer in photograph supplies; but you can get them much cheaper by going to a paper house and asking for their four-by-five coin-cut manila envelope, which sells in half-thousand lots at about one dollar per thousand. if the quantity is more than you will need, you can probably dispose of a portion of them to your boy friends. with a printing-press or rubber type, the following form should be printed upon the outside, with a rule or space to the right in which to place the descriptions:-- no. description date remarks =a wooden case= to hold the envelopes is desirable, and such a one may be made similar to fig. . for four-by-five negatives the inside of the box should measure twelve inches long, five and one-quarter inches wide, and three inches deep. it will hold about six dozen negatives. very light wood, about three-eighths of an inch thick, should be used for the construction of this case. cut two pieces twelve and three-quarters by three and three-eighths inches for the sides, two pieces six by three and three-eighths for the ends, and one piece twelve by five and one-quarter for the bottom. in cutting the side-and end-pieces, mitre the edges of each so they will make neat corners. the mitre-box should be used for this purpose. nail the pieces together with small finishing nails, after which fasten the bottom-piece between them, driving the nails through the side-pieces into it. the cover is made of a board twelve and three-quarters inches long by six inches wide, with a rim made of four inch-and-one-quarter strips nailed around its edge, as shown in the illustration. two of the strips should be twelve and three-quarters inches long, and the other two six inches long. their ends should be mitred and fitted together as the sides of the box were done, and the top should be nailed to their top edges. this cover fits over the plates, which project an inch above the sides. hinge it to the back of the box, and attach a hook to the front. if you do not keep your plates in envelopes, the sides of the box should be lined with corrugated straw-board to separate them. this may be tacked or glued to the wood. by rubbing down the outside with emery-paper, oiling, shellacking, or varnishing the wood, a very pretty case will be obtained. you will find it a simple matter to pick out a negative by having them filed in the order of their exposure, and catalogued alphabetically in a note-book. chapter xii a winter enterprise [illustration: boys with snow shovel and broom.] boys who keep their eyes open for opportunities to make money are not long in finding that the coming of snow means money in their pockets if they are willing to do a little hustling. a number of years ago a few boys undertook the job of keeping the walks of their neighborhood free from snow, and constructed =a snow plough= with which to do their work. the plough proved so satisfactory that others were made, and before long every boy in the neighborhood had enlisted in the company. by several boys joining forces in this way, and making contracts with property owners to keep their walks and steps free from snow, a good deal of ground can be covered in a short space of time, and a neat sum of money realized during the season. the work can be done before and after school, and be so divided that while several are ploughing the walks the others are cleaning the steps. a plough such as is illustrated in fig. is made in two sections, four feet long by two feet wide. after battening the boards together at _a_ and _b_, as shown in the drawing, fasten the sections in place, with two ends together and the other two ends two feet apart. nail them firmly together at the angle and brace them at the open end with strips, as shown at _c_ and _d_ in the illustration. [illustration: fig. .--a snow plough.] the bottom edge of the plough should be covered with tin, to prevent it from wearing or becoming broken. bore a hole an inch in diameter in each section at _e_, and fasten a broom-handle in them from which to attach the rope tugs. this being done the plough is ready for use. =a scraper= is about the best appliance that can be had for cleaning snow from the steps, especially when the snow has turned to slush. for the making of one of these, prepare a seven-eighths inch board sixteen inches long by four inches wide. bevel the lower edge and nail a two inch strip below the top, as at _a_ in fig. . bore a hole through both thicknesses of wood at _b_ and fit a broom-handle in it, bracing the handle with a piece of wire run from a small hole bored in the handle at _c_ to the ends of the scraper. [illustration: fig. .--a scraper.] figure shows a scheme for =a snow shovel= that is easy to make, and one which will stand a good deal of wear. for this, secure two barrel staves, cut them in two, and plane up the curved edges until they are straight. then taking three of these pieces, lay them side by side and nail a two-by-two inch strip across the top edges, as shown at _a_, to bind them together. the bevelled ends of the staves should be placed at the lower end of the shovel and bound in place by a strip of galvanized iron bent over the edges and tacked to the staves (see _b_ in drawing). another iron strip should be nailed across the staves at _c_, to fasten them more securely together. clinch the nails upon the under side of the shovel and drive their ends well into the wood. procure a broom-stick for the handle and place it in a bevelled slot cut at _d_ (fig. ), fastening down the end with iron pipe-straps, as shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .--an easily made snow shovel.] with the addition of brooms to the plough, scrapers, and shovels, your outfit will be complete and ready for business. [illustration: two boys with fishing pole.] part ii outdoor pastimes [illustration: in camp for the summer.] chapter xiii a back-yard club-house [illustration: boys in discussion, boys work on the club-house.] for many years there stood in a city back-yard a shanty in which the boys of the neighborhood gathered after school and during vacation, to hold their club-meetings. many a pleasant hour was spent within the walls of this little building, and it had to be enlarged year after year to hold the ever-increasing number of members. if, during the week of school preceding the summer vacation, the boys were seen making plans and talking seriously about something evidently in connection with the house, it might well be imagined that the annual alterations were about to begin. at the close of school the neighbors were made aware of it by the appearance of half a dozen boys upon the roof of the shanty, who, with hammers and hatchets in their hands, were easily recognized as the wrecking crew. perhaps the roof was to be raised a foot or given a different pitch, a window changed here or a door placed there, a side extended or a partition built through the centre; but no matter whether the alterations bettered the building or not, they gave the owners a chance to use their ingenuity in working out their schemes, and practice in carpenter work. the boys' greatest difficulty was found in obtaining large enough material with which to build. the woodshed was the lumber-yard, and as this contained only a few old boards, several packing-cases, and kindling-wood, a great deal of splicing was required and many pounds of nails were necessary to fasten the many small pieces in place. after remodelling the club-house one year, the members in way of a joke placed a "for rent" sign upon the door, and were greatly surprised to receive the following mysterious letter:-- mister agent: i sea u hev a house fur rent what u want furit im a wider with children six pigs chickens a mule three dogs cats and ten ducks i hop the house is big enuff it dont matter bout the children but i wont crowd the pigs. i soppose will paint outside an in and put awnins at the frunt winders i'd like terry cotty shades and a stun sidewalk if u'll put a piassie on and reduce the rent till after wurlds fair i'll take it what you want furit please let me know soon if u dont find me hum im like to be at mis whatnots if u dont know the way to her house just ask mis jones next door but one to me she'll tell u good by. mary jane johnstone. the letter was answered immediately and sent to the general delivery but was returned from the dead letter office, and no trace of the large family could be found. [illustration: the back-yard club-house.] knowing that many boys who would like to build themselves a club-house have not the money in their treasury with which to buy new lumber, this chapter will describe the manner in which a rough-and-ready house may be built. it will not be attempted to show the correct methods of putting up a framework, such as would be built if the right-sized lumber were obtainable, but the simplest way in which boys can make use of the material at hand. =draw the plan= of the building upon a piece of paper, and before commencing work figure out exactly what material will be required. if you haven't enough lumber you will find it a great deal easier to alter the plans at first than when the work is half completed. it is best first to place in one pile all =the material= you can find; then, after drawing the plans, sort out the boards according to their lengths. use the short boards whenever possible, so that the long pieces may be kept for places requiring long boards. several two-by-fours should be secured for the framework. if you do not happen to have these, you can easily get what you want at some alteration job or where some frame structure is being torn down. short two-by-fours may be spliced, or, more correctly speaking, "fished." this is very often resorted to in building when studding of a sufficient length cannot be procured. figure shows the method of =fishing studs=.--two fish-plates, _a_ and _b_, are nailed to the sides of the studs, covering the joints, while the face _od_ remains on a level to receive the siding. by building the club-house in a corner of the yard, against the fence, house, or barn, it is necessary to build but two walls. less material is required, and a much firmer structure obtained by doing this. [illustration: fig. .] =stake out= the length and width of the house upon the ground, and sink a stone or a couple of bricks at the corner to support the corner post. then cut two two-by-fours the length of the greatest inside height of the house. set one upon the corner stone, bracing it temporarily with boards run from it to the fence, and spike the other to the fence on a line with the corner post (see _a_ and _b_ in fig. ). cut the end-plate _c_ the correct length and spike it to _a_ and _b_, after which cut a two-by-four the length of the shortest inside height, and spike it to the fence rails at _d_. nail the boards _e_, _f_, _g_, _h_, and _i_ to the places shown in fig. . =the studs= should be placed from two to three feet apart, according to the length of boards used for siding, and additional studding should be set in where it is necessary. fasten the ends of the studs to the boards _e_, _f_, _g_, _h_, and _i_. studding should be placed around the window and door openings, as shown in the illustration. [illustration: fig. .--framework of club-house.] after completing the framework, =board up the sides=, fitting the boards around openings and corners as neatly as possible. =the roof= is a very important factor in a building of any kind, and care should be taken to make it of water-proof material, for a leaky roof will not only ruin the interior but make it damp and thus unhealthy. tar-paper will be found a good roofing material, inexpensive, and easily put on. first cover the roof with boards placed about one inch apart. then cut the tar-paper into lengths equal to the width of the roof. commencing at the lower edge of the roof tack one strip in place. lap a second strip two inches over the first, a third two inches over the second, and so on until the entire roof is covered. figure shows a tin cap and nail made especially for this kind of work. the cap is punched to fit over the nail, and prevents water from running into the hole made by the latter. it will be unnecessary to coat the paper with tar, as there is sufficient in its preparation to keep it water proof a long time--probably longer than the house itself will be allowed to stand. [illustration: fig. .] =the floor= should not be laid directly upon the ground, but be supported upon four-inch sleepers set as shown in fig. , with cinders rammed in between them. the bed of cinders should not be more than three inches thick, so there will be an inch of air space between them and the floor. this will help to keep the floor free from dampness. four-inch boards stood on edge will do very well for the sleepers. [illustration: fig. .--construction of floor.] you can probably make a bargain with a carpenter for =a window-sash.=--they very often have a number taken from old buildings, which they will gladly sell for a small sum. there are two ways in which you can easily fasten the sash in place, either with hinges so it will swing in, as shown in figs. and , or in tracks, to slide as described for the dark-room window in chapter xi and illustrated in fig. . if the window is made in the front of the building, as shown in the sketch of the finished club-house, the sash will necessarily have to be hinged, as there would not be room for it to slide sideways. we will therefore hinge it to swing in as shown in figs. and . the studding which was placed around the window opening when you erected the framework of the house forms a frame for the sash to set in. the window-sill is made out of a seven-eighths-inch board cut the width of the opening, and should be nailed to the bottom piece of the frame so it pitches slightly outwards and its edges project a little beyond the wall inside and out (see fig. ). the pitch of the sill can be obtained by blocking the inner edge with a very thin strip of wood, as shown in the section drawing. the sash should fit the frame with but enough space around it to allow it to open freely. place the sash in the opening with its inside surface on a line with the inside face of the two-by-four frame, as shown in fig. , and nail a seven-eighths-inch window-stop around the frame outside of the sash to keep the rain and wind from entering. [illustration: fig. .--section through window.] [illustration: fig. .--inside of window.] by hinging the sash to the top of the frame as shown in the illustration, it can be swung up out of the way when opened. a spring-catch should be screwed to the bottom rail of the sash with the latch-pocket counter sunk in the window-sill, and from the knob of the catch a cord should be attached and run through a screw-eye placed in the wall near the ceiling. the sash can now be opened by pulling the cord, and may be held open by looping the end of the cord over a nail. wooden buttons should be screwed to the inside edge of the jambs for additional locks (see fig. ). a sill should be set in the bottom of the door frame, and a seven-eighths inch stop nailed to the top and to the jambs in the same way as you finished the window opening. [illustration: fig. .--a batten door.] =make a batten door=, fastening the boards together on the inside with battens as shown in fig. , with the nails driven through from the outside face and clinched upon the battens. hinge the door to the inside face of the jamb with strap-hinges, and either buy an iron latch for it or make the old-fashioned =wooden latch= described and illustrated in the following chapter. with the carpenter work of the house completed, =calk up the cracks=, of which there will doubtless be a great number, unless matched boards have been used for the walls. this may be done by rolling pieces of newspapers into wads and wedging them into the cracks with a pointed stick. several thicknesses of wrapping-paper tacked over the inside walls will help to prevent the wind from entering, and will also make a good foundation for wall-paper should it be placed upon the walls. earth should be banked up around the outside of the house to keep away the water. vines trained over the outside will help to hide the roughness of the boards. the club-house interior may be fitted up with furniture such as is described in chapter iv, "suggestions for a boy's room." chapter xiv how to build a log-cabin [illustration: boy cleaning dishes and boy cooking outside the cabin.] the log-cabin marks what might be called the beginning of american architecture, for it was the first form of building built by white men upon american soil. the introduction of saw-mills was very slow, and lumber so scarce that cabins were the best shelter the colonists could build to withstand the cold winters and the merciless attacks of indians. with the building of saw-mills, the cabin gradually gave way to the frame building, which could be more quickly built, and which was, of course, a more comfortable lodging. but this change first took place up and down the large rivers, where the mills were located, and did not extend into the interior until some time later, owing to the difficulty of hauling lumber to great distances from the mills. to-day the log-cabin is still to be found in the timber regions and among the mountains, but mostly for temporary residences, such as summer homes, camps, and play-houses. [illustration: fig. .--plan for a boy's cabin.] you boys who spend the summer in the woods should not miss the opportunity of building yourselves a small cabin. several boys can join forces, and in this way make the work easier and quicker to perform. =select a site= on high ground, as near to your source of timber as possible, and then decide upon =the design and size to build it=, which will be determined largely by the size and amount of timber you can procure. a plan for a cabin simple in construction is shown in fig. , and while the details have been carefully worked out in this chapter for a cabin of this size, you will find it a simple matter to make such alterations as you wish. for the building of more pretentious cabins, the writer would refer his readers to "log cabins and cottages" as the most practical book published upon this subject. in this volume its author, mr. william s. wicks, has not only written upon the construction and treatment of cabins, but also brought together a number of sketches showing a great variety of clever designs that have been built in different sections of the country. in carrying out the details of construction for the cabin described in this chapter, the writer has made use of a number of ideas from this book, through the courtesy of mr. wicks and his publishers. of course the most of =the material= for the cabin will be secured near at hand, but for a good roof, and the finishing of the door and window openings, a few boards should be taken along, together with several pounds of nails. [illustration: a boys' log cabin.] while it is customary to lay up the walls of a cabin and then cut the door and window openings, you will find it a very much simpler matter to leave the spaces for them when laying up the logs, as it greatly decreases the number of long logs required to build the cabin. as the inside dimensions of the cabin shown in the plan of fig. are ten by twelve feet, the full-length logs--that is, those above and below the window and door openings--should be thirteen feet long for the ends of the cabin and fifteen feet for the front and rear walls. =to start the cabin=, stake out its length and breadth upon the ground, clear the space of all trees and brush, and make the ground as nearly level as possible. you will find it unnecessary to have a foundation for a cabin of this size, as it will not settle to amount to anything. [illustration: fig. .--the lock-joint.] probably the most simple way of joining the logs together is what is known as =the lock-joint.=--as shown in fig. , a notch is cut in the logs twelve inches from each end, so the surfaces of the logs will be brought together when the ends are fitted over one another, as shown in the drawing. select two fifteen-foot logs for =the sills=, and set them an inch or so into the ground, parallel to each other and ten feet apart. then after cutting the notches in two thirteen-foot logs, fit them over the sills twelve inches from the ends. the opening for the fire-place must be left in one end of the cabin, so mark out upon the end log the width of this opening, which should be five feet, and cut out this section of it. then cut two boards three feet long, the height of the fire-place opening, and nail them to the ends of the log just cut. these boards form the jambs of the opening. locate a three-foot door opening in the centre of the front sill-log, and saw along these lines to within two inches of the ground, cutting out the piece between. the remaining two-inch piece will form the door-sill. two pieces of board six feet six inches long, the height of the door opening, should now be cut for the door-jambs and nailed to the ends of the sill-log in the door opening. after testing the jambs with a plumb, such as is shown in fig. , chapter i, to see that they are perpendicular, continue laying the side and end logs alternately. fit the logs between the jambs and nail the latter to their ends, being careful not to get them out of plumb in doing so. above the fire-place the logs will, of course, be of full length, and at a height of four feet four inches the windows will start. locate the window openings twenty-six inches wide upon the logs laid at this height, the one opposite the fire-place in the centre of the wall, and the others twelve inches from the corners. cut the jambs twenty-six inches long, and, after setting them in place, continue laying up the logs, fitting the shorter lengths between the jambs as before. [illustration: fig. .--interior of cabin.] when the desired height of the walls has been reached, which need not be more than seven feet, you will be ready =to construct the roof.=--there are several ways of doing this, but as simple as any is that shown in fig. , and in the illustration of the finished cabin. in laying this form of roof the end logs are placed one above the other, but each tier of front and rear logs is set in a little farther than the preceding pair, until they finally meet at the peak of the roof. the roofs of cabins are generally thatched or covered with bark, shingles, or boards. the thatched roof is the most artistic, and will last from ten to fifteen years when properly made; but unless the straw is put on very thickly and closely woven, it is likely to leak. if you use shingles and expose each four and one-half inches to the weather, you will require about seven quarter-thousand bunches for a roof of this size. boards will make the most simple and inexpensive covering. they should be put on as shown in the drawing of the completed cabin, and in fig. . a layer of boards is first nailed across the roof-supports four inches apart, and other boards then lapped over these spaces and nailed in place. the roof boards should project a few inches over the side walls and gable-ends of the cabin. when all of the boards have been put in place, it will be necessary to finish off the ridge with =ridge boards=, to prevent water from leaking through the roof at that point. as shown in fig. , these consist of two boards nailed along the ridge, and the edge of one nailed to the edge of the other. it is not advisable to build =a log chimney and fire-place= with the intention of using it, for unless the work is very carefully done and kept in repair, there is always danger of setting fire to the cabin. but, nevertheless, it should be built, as it belongs to a cabin and adds greatly to its picturesque appearance. with large logs build up the chimney to a height of five feet, or two feet above the fire-place opening, in the same manner as you did the cabin walls, fitting the ends against the logs of the main structure. when this has been done sink a number of stones in front of the fire-place for a hearth, as shown in figs. and , and also line the bottom of the fire-place with them. then mix up some clay and line the back, sides, and jambs of the fire-place with it from ten to twelve inches thick, packing the clay until it becomes solid. the upper part of the chimney should be made of smaller logs and sticks, and the inside of the flue lined with clay as the work proceeds. the exterior of the chimney will be seen in the illustration of the finished cabin. when the construction of the cabin has been completed, =calk all the spaces= between the logs with clay and moss, to keep out the weather, using a pointed stick for this operation; and grade the ground up to a point just below the line of the door-sill all around the cabin, so that no surface-water will run within. the finishing of the interior of the cabin now remains to be done. by omitting a wooden floor the cost of material will be reduced considerably, and there is really nothing objectionable to =a mud floor= if it has been properly prepared. the earth should be thoroughly dried out and packed down until hard and compact, and slightly banked up around the walls. the sills and heads of =the window openings= and the head of the door opening should be cased with boards the width of the jambs. if you can secure sash for the windows, hinge them to the inside edges of the jambs as shown in fig. , and nail a seven-eighths-inch window-stop around the jambs outside of them, to prevent the wind and rain from getting in around the sash (see fig. ). if sash cannot be obtained, wooden shutters made to fit the opening will do very well, as they can be used at night and whenever you wish to close up the cabin, and when you are within the cabin in the summer you will want the windows open. [illustration: fig. .] after cutting boards of the proper length for =the cabin door=, fasten them together with battens placed at the top, bottom, and centre (see fig. ). then hinge the door to the inside of the jamb with either iron strap-hinges or =wooden hinges= such as are shown in fig. . to make a set of wooden hinges, first cut three blocks of wood four or five inches long and nail them to the cabin wall on a line with the three door battens (see _a_, _b_, and _c_ in fig. ). then prepare three pieces of wood eighteen inches long and two inches wide, and bore a small hole through one end of each, as shown at _d_ in fig. . when these have been made, nail them to the door above the battens so that when the door is put in place their ends will rest on blocks _a_, _b_, and _c_. locate the holes in the eighteen-inch strips upon _a_, _b_, and _c_, and bore holes through the blocks at these points, after which set the door in place and fasten the arms of the hinges to the blocks, either with bolts, as shown in fig. , or with hardwood pegs cut to fit the holes. [illustration: fig. .--the cabin door.] [illustration: figs. - .--details of cabin door.] you will find the old-fashioned =wooden latch= and latch-string a very good and serviceable fastening for a cabin door, the details for the making of which are shown in figs. , , , , and . it consists of three pieces of wood,--a strip two feet long and two inches wide for the latch, with the ends rounded and a hole bored through it at _e_ and another at _f_, as shown in fig. ; a guard cut similar to fig. , with a slot in it about three and one-half inches long and one inch deep; and a catch similar to fig. , with its upper edge rounded so the latch will easily slide into the slot. with the pieces thus prepared you will find it an easy matter to fasten them in the places shown in fig. . the catch is set into the jamb of the door as shown in fig. , the latch is screwed to the door at _e_, and the guard is fastened over the latch in the position shown in fig. . =the latch-string= is fastened to the latch at _f_, and run through a hole bored in the door above the top batten. to the outside end of the latch-string attach a weight of some kind to keep it from pulling through the hole (see fig. ). to lock the door from the inside, you will find a wooden button screwed to the door at _g_ (fig. ) very good, as it prevents the latch from being lifted, when turned against it as shown in the illustration. as in the case of the windows, a seven-eighths-inch stop should be nailed to the door head and jambs outside of the door, for the door to swing against, and to keep out the rain and wind (see fig. ). you will have need of but few pieces of furniture within the cabin, and those can be made very simple, out of material at hand. =a mantel-shelf= out of a board five feet long should be fastened above the fire-place by means of three triangular brackets, and it is a good idea to make your =provision cupboard= to sit upon this, as shown in the drawing of the cabin interior (fig. ). use a couple of the boxes in which you bring your camping outfit for this. set them side by side, as in the illustration, place a shelf or two within them, and, after battening the cover boards together, attach them to the ends of the boxes with hinges cut out of leather. on each side of the fire-place a comfortable =rustic seat= should be built in as shown in figs. and . the drawings clearly show the construction of this. the two legs are driven well into the ground, and a crosspiece is nailed to their tops to support the sticks forming the seat. make the top of the seat about eighteen inches above the ground. while a very comfortable bed may be made upon the ground out of pine boughs, it is well to have at least =two bunks= for guests, who are almost certain to pay you a visit to see what kind of a time you are having, and perhaps test your cooking. these bunks may be double-decked and placed in the corner where they will be pretty well out of the way (see figs. and ). two six-foot poles should be driven into the ground about thirty inches from the wall, and two cross poles notched and fitted on to them as shown in fig. , one six inches above the ground and the other three feet above that. cut a number of sound sticks about three feet long and drive one end of each between the logs of the wall and fasten the other end to the crosspiece opposite. these sticks should be placed about three inches apart. in putting up this framework make everything very strong and solid, to prevent any mishaps to the occupants. the bunks should now be covered with pine boughs, cut into small pieces and spread over the sticks evenly and to a depth of two inches. when these have been properly placed, spread a doubled quilt or blanket over them, and the bunks will be completed. [illustration: two simple cabins.] as we decided not to use our fire-place for fires, owing to the danger of setting fire to the cabin through some defects in the workmanship, or the cracking of the clay lining, build your camp fire-place outside of the cabin. you will find it more enjoyable to also eat in the open when the weather permits, so build =a camp-table= between the trees for this purpose. it may be made out of two eight-inch boards fastened together on the under side with battens, and supported at one end on a cleat nailed across the trunk of a tree and at the other on two poles driven into the ground. the height of this table will be determined by the height of the boxes, stools, or whatever you use for seats. it is a simple matter to make a long rustic seat on each side of the table, and if this is done make them eighteen inches high and the table twelve inches higher. those of you who have camped have probably had enough experience to know what utensils and provisions are required, but =a few pointers= may be profitable to the boy who has never been initiated into camp life. =utensils= of the commonest kind should be taken along. an old frying-pan, a coffee-pot, two water pails, a tin pan and wash-basin, tin plates and drinking cups, some old spoons, knives, and forks, a can-opener, and a jack-knife are about all you will be in need of. among =other necessities= are blankets, towels, dish-cloths, rags, soap, rope, and string, matches, a lantern, and an axe, a saw, and nails. =for provisions=, take as much canned food as possible, as it requires but little preparation, is easily carried, and not likely to spoil. bacon and eggs are, of course, to be included in your list, as they belong to a camper's bill o' fare, are very satisfying to a fellow's appetite when he has returned to camp hungry after a day's tramp through the woods, and a boy will have but little trouble in cooking them. be sure you know how to prepare whatever food you take along to cook, before starting for camp, and don't experiment upon dishes you have never attempted, or you will probably make a mess of your materials, as is generally the case, the result of which will not be fit to eat. should there be fishing near the site of your camp, learn the proper preparation of fish for your table. chapter xv how to build a canvas canoe [illustration: boys canoeing.] canoeing is a most delightful outdoor sport, and one of the healthiest in which a boy can indulge during his vacation days. its popularity can plainly be seen by visiting any lake or stream, and noting what a large percentage of the small craft dotting its surface are canoes of various shapes and sizes, paddled by boys of all ages. for speed and the ease with which it can be carried about, the birch-bark canoe has no equal, but very few boys own them, as they are expensive, and their construction is more difficult than those of other material which will satisfy a boy fully as well. the canvas canoe is more widely used at the present time than any other form, which is no doubt due to the fact that it is very simple to make and keep in repair, and the cost of its material is small. in building a canvas canoe there are two important things to consider,--its weight and strength. these depend upon the material used. the framework must be made stiff enough to hold its shape, as the canvas adds but little to its strength, and at the same time the wood should be as light as possible. there are a great variety of =materials= from which to choose for building the framework, among which basswood, ash, spruce, and pine may be classed. the canoe described and illustrated in this chapter may have its ribs, ribbands, and gunwales made out of lattice-strips and barrel-hoops, which will save the cost of having them cut to the right size at a mill. pine or fir lattice-strips of good sound stuff are generally easy to obtain in all locations. sizes of strips and pieces required piece of -inch by -inch plank feet long for bow and stern pieces. -inch by / -inch lattice strips feet long for ribbands, gunwales, keel, and bilge-keels. barrel-hoops for ribs and deck braces. strip feet long, inches wide, and inch thick for keelson. strips feet long, inches wide, and / -inch thick for deck ridge pieces. strips feet long, inches wide, and / -inch thick for cockpit frame and coaming. several -inch and -inch boards from which to cut deck beams, patterns, etc. copper nails and brass screws should be purchased for fastening the framework together, and copper tacks for putting on the canvas. iron nails will rust and break off, and therefore should not be used in any part of the canoe's construction. use nails only where their ends can be clinched, and screws in all cases where this cannot be done. for covering the framework, three and one-half yards of canvas forty inches wide will be required for the lower portion, and the same amount thirty inches wide will be required for the deck. boiled linseed-oil should be purchased for filling the canvas and the best grade of mixed paint for painting it. a drab, or cream color and white trimmings, are both suitable for a canoe. if the latter is used, buy white paint, and, after pouring out enough to cover the finishing strips, mix the rest with enough yellow ochre to make a pretty shade of cream. below will be found a bill of the material required to build a canoe such as this chapter describes, and although the prices of canvas and a few of the fittings are likely to fluctuate somewhat, the price of the canoe should not exceed this amount, and there are locations where it may be less. bill of material - / yards no. duck, inches wide, cents $ . - / yards no. duck, inches wide, cents . - / pounds -inch copper nails, cents . pounds / -inch copper tacks, cents . dozen / -inch brass screws (flat heads), cents . dozen / -inch brass screws (flat heads), cents . dozen / -inch brass screws (round heads), cents . / gallon boiled linseed-oil . / gallon best quality mixed paint . lattice-strips, feet long . piece of -inch by -inch plank feet long . miscellaneous strips and pieces (see page ) . ---- total cost $ . [illustration: fig. .--bow and stern pieces.] [illustration: fig. .] having procured the necessary material for the canoe, the first things to make are =the bow and stern pieces= (see fig. ).--the proper way of laying these out on the eight-inch plank is shown in fig. . first cut the plank in half, and then place these two pieces side by side upon the floor or work-bench as shown in the drawing one piece upon which to draw the pattern, and the other upon which to locate the centre for drawing the curves. then square the line _ab_ across the planks, and locate the points _d_ and _e_ on either side of it, by means of the measurements given upon the drawing. the most satisfactory scheme for =drawing the curves= is with a piece of cord, to one end of which a pencil has been tied (see fig. ). with this as your compass, hold the end of the cord at _d_ for a centre, and with a radius of ten and one-quarter inches strike an arc cutting the line _ab_ as at _c_. _c_ is now the required centre for drawing the curves. drive a small nail into the plank at _c_, and wind the end of the compass cord around it until the correct length of radius is obtained (see drawing). describe the arc _de_ with a radius equal to _cd_, or ten and one-quarter inches. then with a ruler lay off along the line _ab_ the distances for the other arcs, as shown in the drawing. _fg_ will be two inches from _de_, _hi_ an inch and one-half from _fg_, and _jk_ an inch and one-quarter from _hi_. having located these points and described the arcs, draw the lines _cd_ and _ce_, extending them so as to cut off the arcs, as in the drawing. at the upper end of the pattern draw the line _lm_ one inch from and parallel to _fd_. with a radius of an inch and three-quarters and the centre _n_ describe an arc as shown in the drawing. at the lower end of the pattern draw the line _op_ two inches from and parallel to _gk_, and the line _qr_ one inch from and parallel to _pk_. having carefully drawn out this pattern, turn over the plank and draw the same thing upon it, locating the points exactly opposite one another, by squaring lines across the sides and edge. prepare the other piece of plank similarly. to cut out the patterns, place them in the vise of your work-bench, one at a time, and rabbet the surfaces between _de_ and _fg_, and _fg_ and _hi_, as shown in the section drawing, fig. . this done reverse the piece and do the same to that side. when these surfaces have been trued up carefully, remove the piece from the vise and saw the pattern from it. in doing this, first saw along the lines _dj_ and _ek_, and cut out the corners _flmd_ and _pqrk_. then follow roughly the curves of lines _de_ and _jp_, after which place the work in the vise and trim them off nicely with a draw-knife, rounding the outer curve as shown in fig. . the portion _oqrg_ should be cut down to a plain surface as shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. .--section through bow and stern pieces.] with the bow and stern pieces completed, the most difficult part of your work has been accomplished. now pick out the eight-foot strip procured for =the keelson=.--square off the ends so that it is exactly eight feet long, and then, commencing six inches from one end, lay off mortises for the ribs (see fig. ). these mortises should be cut half an inch deep and the width of the barrel-hoops, and their centres should be spaced twelve inches apart. [illustration: fig. .--the keelson.] in order to give the correct shape to the canoe in putting the framework together, it will be necessary to make =a mould= similar to fig. . fasten together two boards about two feet long with battens, as shown in the drawing, and with a piece of cord to which a pencil has been attached describe a semicircle upon it, using a radius of eleven and one-half inches. saw out the mould carefully, and in the centre of the bottom cut a mortise two inches by one-half for the keelson to fit in. [illustration: fig. .--the mould.] everything should now be in readiness =to put the framework together=.--in order to give the keelson the proper slope of one inch between its centre and ends, nail two blocks of wood one inch thick to the work-bench eight feet apart, and rest the ends of the keelson upon them. then fasten the ends of the keelson in the mortises cut in the bottom of the bow and stern pieces. set the mould which you have prepared over the exact centre of the keelson, and fasten it in place temporarily. when this has been done take two lattice-strips for =the gunwales=, and after locating the exact centre of each, screw them at this point to the ends of the mould just below the top. drive these screws but part way in, as the mould is to be removed later on. commencing at the bow end of the canoe, draw the end of one gunwale to the bow piece, and, after marking it the correct length cut it off so it will fit nicely in the rabbet cut in the side of the bow piece. then screw the other end to the stern piece, after which attach the gunwale on the opposite side in the same way (see figs. , , and ). now take the barrel-hoops which are to be used for ribs, and fasten them in the mortises cut for them in the keelson, bending their ends until they come inside of the gunwales. then fasten them to the gunwales and trim their ends so as to be even with the top of the canoe (see figs. and ). [illustration: fig. .--top view of canoe, showing gunwales, ribs, and ribbands in place.] [illustration: fig. .--side view of canoe, showing framework completed.] [illustration: fig. .--top view of canoe, showing framework completed.] after fastening the ribs in place, =the ribbands= should be put on. pick out eight of the soundest lattice-strips you have, and fasten these at their centre to the sides of the mould, placing four on each side of the keelson and spacing them at equal distances. as the mould is only temporary, do not fasten the ribbands to it securely, but drive in the nails part way. then, beginning at the bow, draw the ends of the ribbands to the bow piece one at a time, and cut them off so they will fit neatly into the rabbet. screw them in place, being careful to space them as equally as possible, after which attach the stern ends in the same way. figure shows the top view of the canoe at this stage of its construction. [illustration: figs. - .--details of deck beam and ridge.] =the deck beams= should now be made and put in place, one each side of the cockpit, or fourteen inches from the centre of the canoe (see fig. ). at this point measure the exact distance between the gunwales, and lay it off upon a four-inch board (see fig. ). the top of this piece should be curved as shown in the drawing, and a mortise two inches wide by five-eighths of an inch deep should be cut in the edge for the deck ridge pieces to fit in. as a means of preventing the gunwales from spreading, it is best to dovetail the ends of the deck beams into them (see fig. ). cut a tongue half an inch long and half an inch thick on each end of the beams, as shown in fig. , undercutting it slightly, as in the drawing, to make it wedge-shaped. then, having prepared the ends, place the beams in the positions they will occupy in the framework, and mark upon the top of the gunwales the shape of the tongues. mortise the gunwales at these points (fig. ), so the tongues can be slipped into them and fastened in place. by examining the corners of a drawer you will see clearly how the dovetail joint is made. =the ridge pieces= are strips running from the deck beams to the bow and stern pieces (see figs. and ). for this canoe, they should be made out of a strip two inches wide by five-eighths of an inch thick. cut them of correct length to reach from the mortises in the tops of the deck beams to the mortises cut in the tops of the bow and stern pieces. mortises two inches wide and a quarter inch deep should be cut along the top of these ridges, as shown in fig. , to receive the deck braces. securely screw the ridges in place. then cut twelve pieces of barrel-hoops for =the deck braces=, and fit them in the mortises made in the ridge pieces. screw these in place and bend their ends until they can be fastened to the inside face of the gunwales. the curve of these braces should be the same as that of the deck beams, so it will be possible to put on the deck canvas neatly (see figs. and ). the space between the deck beams is left for =the cockpit=, the frame for which we are now ready to prepare. first remove the mould, being careful that the framework does not spread in doing so. then cut two two-inch strips to fit between the deck beams, and fasten one on each side of the cockpit two inches from the gunwale (see fig. ). when this has been done take the strip eight feet long, four inches wide, and one-quarter inch thick, procured for the cockpit frame, and bend it around the opening, fastening it to the sides of the deck beams and the side strips. the top edge of the frame should now be shaved off with a draw-knife, so that it will be on a line with the deck braces at every point (see fig. ). this is necessary in order to make the curve of the deck around the cockpit the same as elsewhere. the framework of the canoe is now completed, and should be painted and left to dry before you go on with the rest of the work. it is no easy matter to stretch =the canvas covering= over the framework without having it wrinkle, but with the help of a boy friend it can be stretched fairly even, and with care and patience may be made to look neat. turn the framework bottom side up and, after finding the centre of the forty-inch strip of canvas, lay it along the keelson from bow to stern. smooth it over the surface with your hands, and start a few tacks along the keelson to hold it in place. as a means of keeping the canvas stretched over the bottom of the framework while working upon it, attach several weights to the edges; then, with your helper on the side opposite you, commence at the middle rib and stretch the canvas down that rib to the gunwales, starting a couple of tacks in the gunwales to hold it in place. then work along each rib from the centre of the framework toward the bow, and then from the centre toward the stern, stretching the canvas as tightly as possible, and driving tacks along the gunwales not farther than one inch apart. you will find that the only way to get the canvas on smoothly is by removing the tacks wherever any wrinkles appear and, after restretching it, replacing the tacks. as the tacks will probably have to be removed a number of times during the operation, it is advisable to drive them in but a little way at first. it is most difficult to make a neat job at the bow and stern, and a few wrinkles will probably remain, no matter how much pains are taken in fitting the canvas, on account of the narrowing of the canoe at these points. fill the outer mortise made in the bow and stern pieces with paint, and, after folding the edges of the canvas, tack it in these mortises. place the tacks as close as their heads will permit, which, together with the paint, will make a joint that water cannot penetrate. now examine the canoe carefully, and, if you have smoothed out the wrinkles as much as possible, drive home the tacks and trim the canvas close to the gunwales. =the deck= is much easier to cover. spread the piece of thirty-inch canvas over it from bow to stern, with the centre of the canvas running along the centre of the deck, and place a tack in it at the bow and another at the stern. stretch the canvas in the same manner as when covering the bottom of the framework, and lap it over the gunwales, tacking it along the outer edge. cut through the canvas at the cockpit, and trim it off so there will be just enough to lap around the cockpit frame. trim the canvas along the gunwales so that it does not project more than an inch. after the deck has been covered, the canoe is ready for =painting=.--a coat of linseed-oil should first be applied to the canvas, to fill the pores and make a good foundation for the paint. then allow the canvas to dry thoroughly, after which give it a coat of paint,--cream, or whatever color you have selected. when this has dried, rub it down with pumice-stone or fine emery-paper, and apply a second coat. all that now remains to complete the canoe is the attachment of the cockpit coaming, the keel, bilge-keels, and the outside gunwales. take the strip eight feet long, four inches wide, and one-quarter inch thick, which you procured for =the cockpit coaming=, bend it around the frame of the pit, and cut off the ends so they will join neatly. then fasten it to the cockpit frame, allowing two inches to project above the deck, and shave off the top edge the same as you did the cockpit frame, so it will be two inches above the deck at every point. for a small canoe built for paddling only, it is unnecessary to have anything more than a strip fastened to the bottom for =the keel=.--so cut a lattice-strip eight feet in length, and screw it along the bottom of the keelson (see fig. ). =the bilge-keels= are lattice-strips fastened along the sides of the canoe as a protection to the canvas, and should be attached directly over the ribbands. one of these on the centre ribband of each side will be sufficient (see fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--the canvas canoe completed.] for a finish to the upper edge of the canoe, =outside gunwales= should be attached outside of the present ones. these will cover the joint between the canvas of the deck and the lower portion of the framework. all of these outside strips should be fastened in place with the round-headed screws, after which they should be painted. figure shows the canoe completed. =a seat= is desirable for the bottom of the canoe, for comfort as well as to prevent your feet from wearing out the canvas. this seat should be movable, so it may be taken out to drain the water from the bottom of the canoe, and may be made as shown in fig. . batten together two six-inch boards upon their under face and notch the two side edges to fit over the ribs of the framework (see fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--seat.] in order to keep your canoe in good condition, do not allow it to remain in the water for any length of time when not using it, as the canvas would soon rot by doing so. after a spin, pull it out of the water, and turn it upside down to dry; then put it away under cover to remain until again wanted for use. with the greatest of care a boy will puncture his canoe once in a while, so it is a good idea for him to know =how to mend punctures=.--there are several ways of doing this, but the best is by either sewing a piece of canvas over the puncture and then painting it with white lead, or daubing the canvas around the hole with varnish, and then laying a canvas patch over it and varnishing it. the making of a well-shaped paddle is no easy matter for an amateur to accomplish, so it is advisable for a boy to procure =a hand-made single paddle=, such as can be bought for a dollar and a half. this is generally made of selected spruce, with a copper-tipped end, and is nicely finished. the length of the paddle will depend upon the size of the boy who is going to use it, but should be between four feet six inches and five feet. it may be well to warn those who build canvas canoes about the ease with which they are overturned. as long as the boy remains seated he is perfectly safe, but the moment he attempts to change his position, he need not be surprised if he receives a ducking. upsets are common in canoe-racing, and especially in a close finish, where one paddler after another overbalances himself in his efforts to beat out his companions. but these only add to the fun of such a race, and no harm is done if the canoeist prepares for them beforehand by putting on his bathing suit. chapter xvi home-made traps [illustration: boys trapping.] trapping and trap-making is, and probably always will be, a pastime which every boy enjoys. if he lives in the country or near the woods he is sure to grow fond of the wild creatures around him, and spend some time in following their tracks and watching their ways and habits. if he is a city boy he may not have these advantages, but is probably just as much interested in the study of birds and animals as his country cousin is, and when the opportunity presents itself will slip off to the nearest woods to spend the day with his little friends, and perhaps carry one or two back home to share city life with him. when boys wish to trap animals for pets, or for eating while camping, or when they have become so numerous in a locality as to be a nuisance, it can be considered clean sport; but as soon as they begin to trap and kill them just for the fun of it, without deriving any good whatever from the act, they are guilty of a great cruelty. the various forms and schemes for home-made traps that have been devised, and which are to be found in use by boys all over the country, are countless, but there are of course a number of these which are more effective than others, and some which have gained more favor among boys. several years ago the author wrote an article upon traps, and has since been more than pleased to note the success boys have had in making and using them. with a few additions, the same schemes have been embodied in this chapter, and it is hoped that the several kinds of snares and traps will prove as satisfying to the majority of boy trappers. they are all simple to make, require but the material ordinarily at hand, and are effective for most of the smaller species of animals, and many varieties of birds. [illustration: fig. .--stick for the figure-four trap.] [illustration: fig. .--the figure-four.] [illustration: fig. .--the figure-four trap set.] one of the oldest forms of traps, and one of which every boy should understand the construction, is =the figure-four trap=.--it is about the simplest example, and its principle will be found in the schemes of a great many of the more complicated traps. for this the preparation of three sticks, such as are shown in fig. , will be necessary. these sticks may be made of any length you wish, but their proportion should be about as shown in the drawings. the illustrations show clearly how the sticks should be notched, and how one end of the trigger should be tapered for the bait. fig. will explain the manner in which these sticks are placed together in the form of a figure-four. the rest of the trap consists of a soap-or cracker-box with the cover hinged to it. to set the trap, place the box upon the ground, cover down, and rest its upper edge upon the top of the figure-four, as shown in fig. . when putting the figure-four together, it is necessary to hold the sticks until the box is set upon them, as the weight is required to hold them in position. for squirrels and rabbits, for which this trap is very good, bait the trigger with a carrot, piece of apple, or cabbage leaf. it is easy to see that the slightest nibble at the bait will disarrange the sticks, and cause the box to drop over the game. [illustration: figs. - .--a box trap.] in fig. is shown an invention of the writer's, a simplified form of the much-used =box trap=, having the principle of the figure-four involved in its trigger. this trap has proven exceptionally good for rabbits and squirrels. a small box about the size of a cracker-or soap-box should be procured for the making of this trap. remove one end, and, after nailing it to the cover boards, hinge the latter to the end of the box, as shown in the illustrations (figs. and ). with no hinges at hand, the writer has found several nails driven through the ends of the cover boards sufficient to hold the cover while opening and closing it. bore two holes, one over the other, in the back of the box, and cut out the space between. this makes a rectangular slot (see _d_ in fig. ). when this has been done, take a stick about eighteen inches long, and, after tapering one end, nail it to the box cover, allowing the tapered end to project about nine inches. then prepare a trigger twelve inches long, similar to fig. . the trap is now ready to set, which is done by slipping the trigger into the slot at _d_ and, after baiting it at _c_, catching the notch _b_ on to the box at the top of the slot, at the same time fitting stick _e_ into the notch at _a_ (see cross section, fig. ). the weight of the cover will now hold the trigger in place until "bunny," or some one of his neighbors, attacks the inviting bait. then the trigger will loosen its hold at _b_, and cause the cover to fall over the intruder. a few holes may be bored in the side of the box for ventilation, but these, as well as the slot in the back, should be protected with tin, to prevent your captive from gnawing the openings large enough to escape. =the dead fall= is a trap commonly used for skunks, minks, muskrats, and coons, and probably cannot be excelled as a means of killing off destructive and annoying animals. figure shows a form of this trap which has been successfully employed. first make a pen out of stakes driven well into the ground in the form of a wigwam. this is a guard for the bait, and should be open on one side only, as shown in the illustration. place a short log in front of the opening, and at both ends of this drive a stake against the outer face of the log, as shown in the drawing. then procure a log of the same diameter, and about six feet long, and slip it between these stakes and the wigwam, so it falls upon the first log. cut a forked stick about twelve inches long for the bait-stick, notching one end and tapering the other, as shown in fig. , and cut another stick twenty-four inches long and flatten it at both ends. [illustration: fig. .--the bait-stick. fig. .--the dead fall.] to set the dead fall, raise an end of the upper log and slip one end of the flattened stick under it, resting it upon the top of the stake outside of the log. place the bait-stick, point downward, inside of the pen upon a chip of wood, and set the other end of the flattened stick in the notch (see illustration). the bait-stick should now be in such a position that the log above it will fall when the bait is tackled, and strike its victim on the head or neck with sufficient force to kill it. for baiting this trap, use some food of which the animal is particularly fond. [illustration: fig. .--the coop trap.] =the sieve trap.=--this is a most simple form of trap, consisting of a sieve and a short stick with which to prop up one side of it. fasten a long cord to the stick, and, after scattering grain beneath the sieve, carry the end of the cord to a place of concealment to await the appearance of some birds. as soon as these are attracted by the grain, and begin feeding under the sieve, pull the cord and they will be your prisoners. =the coop trap=, shown in fig. , can be used for trapping the larger variety of birds. this is well known as an effective trap for wild turkeys. it consists of a number of sticks piled up in the form of a pyramid and tied together as shown in fig. . dig away enough of the ground under one side of the coop to allow a bird to enter, and then scatter some grain inside and a little in the entrance to attract the birds. [illustration: fig. . fig. . fig. . fig. . a rabbit snare and twitch-up.] it may seem strange to the reader, but it is nevertheless a fact, that, after entering the coop, a bird will try to fly out of the top, and will remain there until starved to death, if not released, without attempting to escape by the way it entered. =a rabbit snare.=--this can be used to the best advantage after the first snowfall, for the footprints of a rabbit are then easy to follow. bunny can be counted upon keeping in the same path to and from his burrow, and a snare set in the centre of his path is pretty certain to catch him before very long. the snare should be made of a piece of soft wire about two feet long. make a noose in one end about four inches in diameter, and fasten the other end to a branch projecting over the path (see fig. ). this noose is commonly attached to what is known as =a twitch-up=, or a sapling bent down and held as shown in fig. . one of a number of schemes employed for holding the sapling in position is here shown. select a spot a few feet from a sapling, and there make an enclosure about twelve inches in diameter. this should be made of twelve-inch sticks driven into the ground in a circle, leaving an opening of about six inches on one side. drive a stake into the ground on both sides of the entrance, and cut a notch in the outer face of each about six inches above the ground (see fig. ). find a twig somewhat similar to the one in fig. , and, after slipping it into the notches and baiting the prong, fasten the noose and sapling to it. with the trap thus set, a slight pull on the bait dislodges the crosspiece, and the sapling springs up, jerking the animal into the air, and causing its death almost instantly. [illustration: caught at last.] ranchers of the western plains and mountains are continually experiencing severe losses from the attacks of wolves and coyotes upon their live-stock, and to rid themselves from the nightly raids of these animals requires unceasing warfare against them with traps. but the wolf and coyote are very crafty fellows, and extremely keen-scented, so that even professional trappers have trouble in capturing them, often resorting to every scheme they can devise without success. steel traps are generally employed by the professional, as they are less cumbersome and quicker to set than the home-made affairs. the traps are handled with gloves, as the touch of the bare hands would be instantly detected by the wary animals, and, after being placed in a circle around the bait, are covered over with leaves and brush. in order not to leave human footprints behind him, the trapper often sets them while mounted upon horseback. not long ago, a trapper was hired by a rancher in new mexico to capture some loboe wolves which had been making serious raids upon the cattle, and one of his experiences while working there was somewhat laughable, though probably not seen in that way by all the parties concerned. using a dead calf for bait, the trapper dragged it to a selected spot, and there surrounded it by eight or ten traps, which he chained fast to stakes, and carefully hid from view. setting out to visit the traps as usual, on the following morning, he mounted a knoll from which he could see the location of the bait, and there plainly made out that a number of his traps had been sprung and were occupied. but upon reaching the spot, his surprise and disgust can be imagined when he found a dog in one trap and a bad-tempered indian held fast by the clutches of three others. after releasing the captives, the trapper gathered from the indian's half-broken english that he had been riding by on the previous night, and his dog had wandered from the trail and sprung a trap. he had then dismounted to release the animal, but had not taken more than half a dozen steps before his foot became clutched in a trap, the force of which threw him forward, and, in trying to break his fall with his outstretched hands, each became securely clutched in traps. fortunately no wolves made their appearance, and the couple were unharmed; but the indian no doubt spent a sleepless and uncomfortable night in the position he was forced to occupy. chapter xvii toy guns, targets, and bows and arrows [illustration: boys at target practise] [illustration: figs. - .--examples of ancient guns.] some of the old war engines used in europe before the introduction of gunpowder were most ingeniously contrived, and were wonderfully effective, considering that their projective force was obtained by means of springs and levers. it is hard to find many good examples, as authorities have badly confused them, but the writer has been fortunate in securing drawings of what he believes to be pure types of the most commonly used guns. these are reproduced on page , believing that the average boy will be interested to see the kind of weapons that were employed in warfare centuries ago. with a little study, the working of these guns will be clearly understood without further explanation than what is given upon the drawings. the catapult (fig. ) and the trebuchet (fig. ) were used for storming fortifications, and each hurled large stones. the trebuchet was a much later invented machine than the catapult, and, being built on a much larger scale, was more powerful. it is claimed that trebuchets were often built large enough to hurl carcasses of horses into an enemy's fortifications. the ballista (fig. ) was in reality a large cross-bow, built to shoot long, heavy bolts or arrows. the illustration shows a form mounted upon wheels for field service. the cross-bow (fig. ) was a weapon used by the foot-soldiers of a number of european countries. it was in use in england for some time, but, on account of the terrible wounds inflicted by its short barbed arrows, was finally forbidden and superseded by the long-bow. [illustration: figs. - .--a cross-bow.] some ideas for the making of toy shot-guns and pistols, worked by springs and levers much the same as the ancient guns, will be appreciated by the boy who is denied the use of firearms. the schemes illustrated and described on the following pages will be found easy to carry out, and such as will furnish enjoyment for many a day in the woods or back-yard. figure shows a new idea for =a cross-bow.=--the stock for this should be cut out of a tongued-and-grooved board, with the groove running along the top, and a mortise should be made at _a_ in which to set the trigger. this mortise should be about two inches long and as wide as the thickness of the board will permit, and is made by boring a couple of holes through the stock at this point, and cutting out the wood between with a chisel. select a strong barrel-hoop for the bow, and fasten it at its centre in a hole cut for it at _b_, driving a nail into it at _c_. the trigger should be made similar to _d_ in fig. . cut block _e_ out of a piece of tongued board, leaving the tongue to fit the groove in the gunstock. notch the bottom to fit over _d_ (see fig. ). place a tack in each side of the block, and run cords from them to the end of the bow. these cords must be of such a length that the bow will bend almost to its limit when block _e_ is placed over the trigger. a heavy rubber band should be attached to the lower end of the trigger, and to a tack at _f_. this must be strong enough to cock the trigger. the cross-bow will shoot either pebbles or arrows, but the latter are the most satisfactory. [illustration: fig. .--shingle arrows for cross-bow.] =shingle arrows= are very good, as they shoot straight, and are so quickly made as to be easily replaced by a fresh lot when lost or broken. mark them out as shown in fig. , with the head at the thick edge of the shingle and the tail at the thin edge, and cut them out with your jack-knife. the head and tail are made flat on one side, so as to lie flat in the groove of the gun. =a toy pistol= can also be made out of a tongued-and-grooved board. some such shape as shown in fig. should first be drawn upon the board, with the groove extending along the top. cut this out with your jack-knife, and make a mortise for the trigger. cut the trigger similar to fig. , fastening it in place with a brad driven through it at _a_. it will be noticed that the trigger is notched at both ends. these notches are for a rubber band, which should be stretched from the upper notch of the trigger, over the muzzle, and around to the lower notch, as shown in the drawing. the rubber band lies in the groove in the top of the pistol. [illustration: figs. - .--a toy pistol.] =the bullets= for this pistol consist of pieces of cardboard cut into small squares. to load the pistol, slip one of the squares through the rubber band as shown in fig. , so that it rests on top of the groove, as shown in fig. . upon pulling the trigger the bullet will shoot out of its position, and though naturally one might think the loop of the rubber band would catch the card, it is not the case. the card frees itself and travels in a straight line in the direction in which the pistol is aimed. it is advisable to keep this pistol out of range of your companions' faces. =a shot-gun= can be made on the same scheme as the pistol, by cutting a stock the size of that used for the cross-bow (fig. ), and fastening several rubber bands together to extend around the added length. [illustration: fig. .] =an elastic sling= made with a wire framework, as shown in fig. , is an improvement over the one made out of a tree crotch, as it is not easily broken. about no. wire, which is the thickness of eight-penny nails, should be bought for this. with a pair of pincers, bend it into the shape shown in the drawing, with loops at _a_ and _b_. wrap the handle with cord, and attach strong rubber bands to _a_ and _b_, with a piece of shoe leather or kid glove set in between, at _c_. [illustration: fig. .--a barrel-hoop target.] a most satisfactory scheme for =a boy's target= is shown in fig. . it consists of a barrel-hoop, fastened by means of staples to a wooden platform, as shown in the illustration. pack the inside of the hoop with earth which has been moistened sufficiently to make it hold together, and place a piece of paper over it, pasting it to the edges of the hoop. the paper will be stretched as tight as a drumhead when dry. five rings should then be painted upon it, as shown in the illustration. fasten screw-eyes in the top of the platform, and hang the target by these wherever you wish to use it. by preparing several sheets of paper, a fresh piece may be pasted over the hoop after one has been filled with holes. the earth will prevent the paper from splitting, and will be soft enough for the end of an arrow to stick into. should the earth become too dry, it may be moistened each time a new paper is put in place. [illustration: fig. .--a simpler target.] =a simpler target=, and a scheme which will answer a boy's purpose, if he does not care to go to the trouble of making the hoop target, is shown in fig. . a circular piece of cardboard, with five rings painted upon it, is tacked to the end of a broom-handle, and this is stuck into the ground. =points are scored= in target shooting as follows: bull's-eye points; second ring, points; third ring, points; fourth ring, points; fifth, or outside ring, point. =the bow and arrow= is always popular with boys who are forbidden the use of guns. authorities claim that the best materials from which to make bows are mulberry, sassafras, southern cedar, black locust, black walnut, apple, and slippery elm, in the order named; but if a boy selects what appears to be a good sound piece of wood, with straight grain, he has something which will suit the purpose. [illustration: fig. .--a boy's bow.] =the length of the bow= should be about the height of the person using it. figure shows a five-foot bow, with the other proportions such as are on makes to be found in the stores. cut your piece of wood five feet long, and, after placing it in the bench-vise, shape it down with a draw-knife or plane until it is one inch wide by one-half inch thick at the handle and three-quarters of an inch wide by one-quarter inch thick at the ends. the bow can be made round on the inside or face toward the archer, and flat on the outside or face away from the archer, or the two faces may be made round. cut a notch in the bow two inches from each end, as shown in the illustration, from which to attach =the bow-string.=--a cord with as little elasticity as possible should be used for this. if you care to spend the money for it, a good cotton string can be purchased from a dealer in archery goods for twenty-five cents. with a home-made bow-string, a loop should be made in one end and bound with thread, as shown in fig. . slip the loop over the upper notch, bend the bow until the centre of the string is about five inches away from the handle, and attach the loose end to the lower notch by means of a slip-knot similar to that shown in fig. . the bow should be sand-papered until smooth, and thoroughly oiled with linseed-oil. a piece of velvet about three inches wide should be glued about the centre for a handle. [illustration: fig. . bow-string ends. fig. .] for a five-foot bow, cut =the arrow-shafts= twenty-four inches long and one-quarter inch thick. whittle them out of straight-grained strips of wood, round them nicely, and cut a notch in the ends large enough to fit over the bow-strings. it is not supposed that boys would care =to prepare arrow-heads= of stone or bone as the indians did, for there are other schemes that are simpler to carry out. if the wood is reasonably hard, the heads can be cut on the ends of the shaft, as shown in fig. . for target practice, a wire nail driven into the end of the shaft, as shown in fig. , with the head of the nail filed off and pointed, has proven very good, and a thick piece of zinc or lead, cut the shape of _a_ (fig. ) and set into a slot cut in the end of the shaft, with cord bound around the shaft to hold the metal in place, makes another excellent head. the metal points should be used only for target practice, and then with proper care, to prevent injury to yourself or companions. [illustration: figs. - .--schemes for arrow-heads.] =feathering= is the next operation. turkey or goose feathers are generally used, but the former is considered the better of the two. strip off the broader side of the vane of three feathers, and glue them to the shaft one and one-quarter inches from the notch, spacing them equidistant from one another. one feather should be placed at right angles to the notch. this is known as the cock-feather, and should always point away from the bow when the arrow is shot. =a quiver= of some sort should be provided, large enough to carry a dozen or more arrows, and this should be three inches shorter than the arrows, so that their ends will project above the top. it may be made out of any thick cloth, as shown in fig. . a circular piece of cardboard is placed in the bottom to which the cloth is sewed, and a piece of heavy wire, bent into a circle, fits in the top to keep the bag open. the quiver should hang on your right side, being suspended by means of a cloth strap long enough to pass over the left shoulder. [illustration: fig. .--a quiver.] =to shoot= with the bow, take the position shown in fig. , with both feet flat upon the ground, and the heels in line with the target. hold the handle of the bow in the left hand and place an arrow on the left side of the bow, slipping the bow-string into the notch and letting the head of the arrow rest upon your left hand. catch the bow-string with the first three fingers of your right hand, so that the end of the arrow comes between the first and second fingers, and draw the string until the head of the arrow rests upon the left hand; then aim quickly and let go of the arrow. by always taking the same hold upon your bow and arrow, you will soon be able to know just where the arrow is going to strike. the boy who has had the hobby of collecting indian arrow-heads has no doubt often wondered how they were made, and also how the bows and arrows were prepared. the ways in which all uncivilized people do things is interesting, and especially when it is remembered that they had but raw materials with which to work and only such tools as they could make out of stone. [illustration: fig. .--correct position for shooting.] =the indian's bow= was made of different woods, and, though it varied in shape and size, was generally about forty inches in length, so as to be conveniently carried and handled on horseback. the bow-string consisted generally of a deer sinew or a strand of deer-skin rolled or twisted, and this was strung very tightly from a notch cut on one end of the bow to a notch on the opposite end. now, while an indian generally made the greater part of his weapons, there was always a warrior in the tribe who was skilled in the art of arrow-making, and, as the preparation required far more care than the bow, he was intrusted with this work. the arrow-shaft was made of various woods, reeds being often used, as they were straight and required but little cutting. their lengths depended largely upon that of the bows. for the feathering of the shafts, wild turkey feathers were considered best and used when they could be had, and these were attached to the shaft with deer sinews. [illustration: fig. .--some specimens of indian arrow-heads.] a great variety of materials were used for arrow-heads, among which flint, obsidian, horn of deer, claws of eagles, and the spurs of wild turkey-cocks may be mentioned. many of these are being picked up annually in the mountains and on the plains, which were once the battle-fields and hunting-grounds of the redmen, and in excavating for building purposes they are frequently found. a few specimens of stone heads showing a variety of the shapes and sizes used will be found in fig. . the preparation of these heads was usually left to the old men who were unfit for any other work. in making the flint head, the indian made a loop in a piece of buckskin which had been thoroughly wet in cold water, and then taking a piece of flint, heated it, and with the strip of buckskin chipped off what was not wanted until the head was of the correct shape and size. as hornstone is more brittle than quartz, the heads made from that material were broken and shaped by striking them against the latter. the stone heads were attached to the shaft by means of sinews, generally from deer. for hunting small birds, the indians often made wooden arrow-heads, hardening the wood by fire after shaping it. chapter xviii an outdoor gymnasium [illustration: boys pole vaulting and shot putting.] with a little work, and a small outlay of money chiefly for two-by-fours, and such boards as are specified in this chapter, a boy, or club of boys, can construct and set up all the necessary apparatus for an outdoor gymnasium. it is true a great many city back-yards are much too small to accommodate all of the apparatus; but there is generally a vacant lot in the neighborhood which you can obtain permission to use. those of you boys who are fortunate enough to spend the summer months in the country have splendid opportunities for making a complete gym and should not miss the chance to fit one up. =a horizontal bar.=--a well-made horizontal bar requires a firm standard which will not sway when swung upon. this is best attained by fastening at least one upright to the side of the barn, the fence, or some other stationary object. it is also very important to secure a strong bar free from knots and cracks. curtain-poles are frequently used by boys, but at great risk, as there may be a dangerous knot lurking beneath the highly polished surface that will break at a critical moment and cause them serious injuries. a four-foot hickory or ash bar can be bought from a dealer in sporting goods for about a dollar and a half, but it will cost much less to have a bar turned to the right shape and size at a planing mill. the diameter of the pole should be an inch and one-half, and the ends should be two inches square (see fig. ). for the uprights procure two two-by-sixes nine feet long. mark off a square equal in size to the end of the bar, six inches from one end of each, and cut out the wood with an auger. with a chisel trim the holes square and large enough for the bar to slip through. [illustration: figs. - .--the horizontal bar.] sink the lower ends of the uprights twelve inches into the ground, _a_ against the stationary object, whatever it may be, and _b_ directly in front, at a distance equal to the length of the bar. spike _a_ to the abutting surface, and brace the base of _b_ with two two-by-fours to make it solid (see fig. ). the tops of the braces should be mitred against _b_, and the bottoms spiked to stakes driven into the ground, as shown at _c_. to make it possible to adjust the bar to different heights, holes may be cut in the uprights every foot or so, in which case be careful to locate the holes exactly opposite one another. it is well to have an old mattress beneath the horizontal bar as a guard against injury in case of a fall. this also makes a splendid =tumbling mat= for practising rolls, hand-springs, and wrestling. if a mattress cannot be obtained, a few potato sacks stuffed with shavings or excelsior will answer the purpose. the most satisfactory scheme for making a pair of =parallel bars= is shown in fig. . to acquire the necessary firmness without putting in bracing that would interfere with the performer, the base of the apparatus should be set underground, as indicated by the dotted lines in the illustration. in height the parallel bars should be about four feet six inches, in length seven feet six inches, and in width twenty inches between the bars. this makes the uprights _a_, _b_, _c_, and _d_ six feet long, allowing eighteen inches to project into the ground. prepare one end of each as shown in fig. , notching it for the bar to fit in and cutting off the corner. [illustration: fig. .--the parallel bars.] when this has been done, cut four two-by-fours twenty-eight inches long. then lay the uprights _a_ and _b_ on the ground twenty inches apart, and spike two of the two-by-fours to them at _g_ and _h_ (see fig. ). uprights _c_ and _d_ should be similarly fastened together with the other two-by-fours at _i_ and _j_ (see fig. ). when these frames have been made, set them upon their bases six feet apart, and spike the two-by-fours _k_ and _l_ to the uprights in the places shown in fig. , with braces set between them and the pieces _h_ and _j_, at _m_, _n_, _o_, _p_ (see figs. and ). [illustration: fig. .--section of bar. fig. .--dress ends of uprights like this. fig. . fig. .--corner bracing. figs. - .--details of parallel bars.] the bars should be seven feet six inches in length, and cut out of georgia pine two-by-fours. figures and show how these should be dressed, the tops rounded to fit the hands and the ends curved. first roughly shape them with the draw-knife, then smooth up with the plane, and finally scrape and rub them down with sand-paper until perfectly smooth. when the bars have been prepared, slip them into the notches cut in the uprights, and spike them in place. with the constructive work done, it is only necessary to bury the base to complete the apparatus. excavate a trench eighteen inches deep, and level off the bottom. then lower the framework and, after determining that the bars are level, fill in the earth, packing it well against the uprights and braces. boards _e_ and _f_ should be laid across the top of _g_ and _i_, and spiked in place. =the punching-bag platform=, illustrated by fig. , should be made thirty inches square and suspended from the shed or a wall. nail a thirty-inch piece of two-by-four to the wall, two feet above the height at which the platform is to be placed, as at _a_ in the drawing, and nail another on a level with the top of the platform, as shown at _b_. fasten the platform boards together with battens, using nails long enough to clinch on top of the upper face, and nail the two boards _c_ and _d_ to the edges, mitring the edges as in the figure. then lift the platform to the desired height, and fasten the ends of _c_ and _d_ to the ends of _a_. also nail the bottom of the platform to the under side of _b_. a swivel such as shown in fig. can be bought for forty or fifty cents, and one of these should be screwed to the bottom of the platform, from which to suspend the punching-bag. [illustration: fig. .--a punching-bag platform.] =a pair of jump standards= are made out of two two-by-fours about eight feet long. after planing them smooth on all sides, measure off two feet from one end of each, and mark off the remaining six feet in inches, as shown in fig. . after squaring these divisions across the poles with your try-square, bore holes three-eighths of an inch in diameter through the poles at each division. then, with a small brush and black paint, mark off each foot with a band extending around the pole, each half foot with a narrower band, and each inch with a short line, as shown in the drawings. letter the foot divisions , , , , etc. [illustration: fig. . fig. . fig. . fig. .--the jump standards completed. figs. - .--details of jump standards.] when both standards have been finished, bury them in the ground to a depth of thirteen inches, eight feet apart. cut two wooden pegs similar to fig. to fit the holes, and procure a nine-foot pine or hickory pole one inch thick for a cross-bar (see fig. ). when the bar is placed upon the pegs, the distance from its top to the ground should correspond with the figure on the upright. if not the same, raise or lower the uprights until the error is corrected. with a pair of these standards there is no danger of injury by tripping over the bar, as the latter will fall off with the slightest knock. there is one disadvantage in using a stick, however, it being easily broken if jumped upon. because of this, a rope with a weight attached to each end, as shown in fig. is often substituted. the ends of the rope are hung over the pegs in such a way that it will slip off the pegs when struck. the weights should be just heavy enough to prevent the rope from sagging in the centre. =a vaulting pole= should be made of a strong wood, free from knots and other defects. the regulation pole is made of selected spruce, its length varying from eight to fourteen feet. if you make your own pole, be careful to plane off all splinters and irregularities, making it round and smooth, and point one end so it will stick into the ground and prevent slipping. although seldom used in an outdoor gymnasium, =a spring-board= is excellent for practising the high and broad jumps, and is a piece of apparatus with which a great deal of fun may be had. figure shows a scheme for a spring-board that is easy to make. first cut three pieces of two-by-four two feet long, lay them on the ground parallel to each other eighteen inches apart, and construct a platform four feet long by two feet wide on top of them. [illustration: fig. .--a spring-board.] [illustration: fig. .] cut another two-by-four two feet long, taper it as shown in fig. , making it two inches thick on one edge and an inch and a quarter on the other, and nail it to one end of the platform. secure a log two feet long (a cedar fence post will do very nicely), and fasten it across the centre of the platform parallel to the two-by-fours. the upper portion of the spring-board should be made of elastic boards, preferably ash. construct a second platform six inches longer than the first, leaving about one-half inch between the boards, and battening the pieces together at _a_ and _b_ (see fig. ). nail the battens securely in place, using nails of sufficient length to allow clinching on the under face of the battens. the clinching will prevent the boards from springing apart. this platform should be fastened to the first, with the end which has not been battened secured to the two-by-four at _c_. the best method of fastening the ends of these boards is with bolts long enough to extend through the two platforms and project an inch or more below the bottom two-by-four (see illustration). large washers should be placed under the heads of the bolts to prevent the latter from cutting through the boards. the upper platform should not be nailed to the log, but merely held to it by straps passed diagonally around the outside boards and log, as shown in the illustration. set the spring-board upon the spot you wish to use it, and bank up the earth behind it until a gradual slope is made from the ground to the top. if any difficulty is experienced in keeping the spring-board in place, it may be overcome by driving stakes into the ground around the sides of the lower platform. after setting up your gymnasium apparatus, oil the bars of the horizontal bar and parallel bars with boiled linseed-oil, and paint all the rest of the wood to keep it in good condition. =hurdles= should be lightly constructed, so as to be easily knocked over should a hurdler trip upon them. they are made similar to carpenter horses, directions for the making of which are given in chapter i. their height will depend upon the skill of the hurdler. if the field is large enough, =a running track= can be made around it, by levelling off the ground, removing all stones and irregularities in its path, and banking up the corners to enable the runner to turn the curves readily. [illustration: fig. .] =for short sprints= the most common method of starting is upon all fours, as illustrated in fig. . make a depression in the ground for the toe of the rear foot to press against in starting off. =for broad jumping=, a block of wood two feet long should be sunk into the ground, as a mark from which to leap. it is a good plan to organize =an athletic club= among the boys of the neighborhood with which to raise money necessary to buy the material for apparatus, and =athletic meets= may be held among the members and with other clubs. chapter xix a back-yard circus [illustration: the boy's circus.] shortly after the founding of rome, a large building was built within which to hold commemorations of roman victories and anniversaries, with chariot races, bull-fights, gladiatorial contests, and athletic games; and from this building, which was called the "circus," this class of entertainment derived its name. to keep up with the times, the circus has had to profit by every scientific discovery, adding continuously to its line of attractions, until now it is necessary for a show to produce a new, sensational, and hair-raising feat each season in order to keep in the favor of the public and compete with others in the field. the tight-rope walkers, bare-back riders, and trapeze performers were not long ago the main attractions of a circus, but these do not seem nearly as remarkable now when compared with such daring feats as looping-the-loop or looping-the-gap on a bicycle, riding down an incline on a single wheel, or diving from the peak of the tent into a small tank not more than six feet square, to be seen at the present day. when a circus came to town, it seemed but natural for the boys of our neighborhood to club together and arrange a performance on a small scale, but as nearly like that of the professionals as possible. a back-yard was transformed into training quarters, and here we worked hard for several days before the show, imitating as best we could the stunts of the circus performers. because one fellow could walk on his hands, and turn hand-springs, besides being the owner of a pair of tights, he naturally became the chief attraction; another had a pair of riding boots, so he was chosen ring master; a third made a bargain with his sister to cut him out a cheese-cloth costume, and was chosen to take the part of a clown,--and in this way each boy helped along the performance by contributing his best efforts. the most successful shows were those in which a week or more was spent in rehearsing the performance and getting things in shape. tickets and programmes were neatly printed by one of the members who owned a press, and the former were distributed among the boys and their friends to sell. the first thing to do in preparing a yard for a circus, is to =mark out a ring= in the centre, with a diameter as large as the yard will permit. this circle may be drawn on the same principle as that shown in fig. , chapter xv, using a rope at either end of which a stake has been attached. after describing the circle, secure several six-inch boards sufficiently limber to enable you to bend them around the circle, and fasten them in place by means of stakes driven into the ground outside of the boards. the enclosed space should then be filled in with several inches of shavings, which you can procure from a carpenter if you have not enough in your own workshop. =good circus seats= can be made out of boxes eighteen or twenty inches high, with planks laid across their tops. to give the back-yard a real circus appearance, we always thought it necessary not only to have a ring but also a tent over it and the grandstand, so we gathered together all the old awnings, tents, and carriage covers we could scrape up, and fastening these together with pins or heavy thread made =a large tent.=--a ten-foot pole was sunk into the ground in the centre of the ring, and ropes were run from the top of this to the fence, after which the tent was fastened to the ropes and propped with poles wherever any sagging occurred. bright colored cheese-cloth was used =in decorating the tent=, and for evening performances japanese lanterns were hung about the yard. [illustration: fig. .--halving. fig. .--ticket office and turnstile.] =a ticket office= should be built at the entrance to the yard. this can be made out of two boxes, one set on top of the other, as shown in fig. . cut an opening fifteen inches square in the front for a window, round the top, and make a guard of wooden strips to fit it. cut a slot in the counter, fastening a box beneath it in which to drop tickets, and for a cash drawer fasten strips to the under side of the counter, as shown in fig. , so that a cigar-box will slide upon them. to the top of the ticket office fasten a board cut the shape shown in the illustration, and print the word "tickets" upon it. these letters may be illuminated for an evening performance by boring holes through them and placing candles behind (see fig. ). =a turnstile= should be made in front of the ticket office, so that all are obliged to pay their admission fee and pass through the turnstile before entering the tent (see fig. ; also illustration opposite page ). the stile is made with two sticks about forty inches long fastened together at their centres, as shown in fig. . this joint, known as =halving=, consists in cutting away one-half the thickness and the width of each piece so that the remaining portions fit together flush. after nailing the pieces together, bore a quarter-inch hole through the centre, and screw the crosspiece at this point to the top of a piece of two-by-four driven into the ground in front of the ticket office. the crosspiece should now revolve with the screw as an axis. the turnstile should, of course, have a lock, and an arrangement similar to that shown in fig. answers the purpose. cut a slot in the front of the lower box on a level with the top of the stile for the arms to run through (see illustration), and then prepare four blocks, such as _a_, _b_, _c_, and _d_ in fig. . screw one end of _b_ and _c_ to the ends of _a_ and fasten block _d_ between the other ends of _b_ and _c_, after which nail block _a_ to the under side of the counter in the position shown in fig. . prepare a lever such as is shown in fig. , cut a mortise in the top of the counter for it to fit in (see fig. ), and pivot it to the side of the upper box. place a screw-eye in the end of the lever and another in _d_, and connect the two with a piece of cord. figure shows an arm of the turnstile held by the lock, which is released by pushing back the lever. a railing should be built in front of the turnstile to block the passage on that side. [illustration: fig. .--lock.] [illustration: fig. .--lever.] =the side show= should be placed in one corner of the yard. the cages can be made out of boxes with either slats or wire-mesh fastened over the front, and the top or side hinged in place for a door. the animal performers of the circus should occupy these cages before the show commences, and to make the menagerie as large as possible, a few cages may be filled with pets borrowed for the occasion. several closed boxes should be placed alongside of the cages, and lettered "lion," "tiger," or the names of some such ferocious animals as these, and the public should be informed that for their safety the management thought it best not to place these specimens on exhibition. =animated animals= generally have a place in every circus, and help out the clowns in their end of the performance. the animals are not difficult for handy boys to make, so several should be manufactured for your show. if you can get your mother or sister to do the necessary sewing, it would be well to secure her help. =the elephant= is one of the oldest forms of animated animals, and is at the same time one of the most popular. four or five yards of gray cambric should be purchased for its covering. [illustration: figs. - .--the elephant.] the cloth should be cut out like the pattern shown in fig. , the correct measurements being secured from two boys who have taken the position shown in fig. . fold the cloth along the centre and then sew the dotted lines _aa_ and _bb_ together. paper cornucopiæ form the tusks, and the ears are made of gray cambric cut the shape shown in fig. , and lined with heavy wrapping-paper to make them stiff. two boys are required for the elephant. these must bend forward, as shown in fig. . the rear boy places one hand upon the front boy's back and wags the tail with the other, while the front boy runs one hand through the elephant's trunk and keeps it in motion. fasten potato sacks on to your legs to make them as large as possible. =the giraffe= is one of the rarest of animals, and very few are to be found in captivity. in fact, a large circus claims there is only one specimen in this country, outside of a herd in their possession. so if you make a giraffe, which is not difficult to do, you will have a feature in your show that none but the very largest combines can afford. the animal's head should be drawn the shape of fig. on a board, and then cut out with the aid of a saw and draw-knife. the jaw, ears, and horns should be cut out separately, the shape of figs. , , and . bore two holes in the head at _a_, slanting them toward one another, and fit in them the pegs cut for the horns. the jaw should be pivoted with a small nail at _b_ on one side of the head, and an ear should be likewise fastened at _c_ on each side of the head. when these portions of the giraffe's anatomy have been put in place, stretch a rubber band from a tack driven in the top of the jaw to another tack driven into the neck (see fig. ), and attach another rubber band similarly to each of the ears. these rubber bands will act as springs, causing the ears to wag and the jaw to open and close when the giraffe moves his head. [illustration: figs. - .--details of giraffe.] paint the head, making the features as nearly like those of a giraffe as possible, and, when the paint is dry, mount the head on the end of a six-foot pole. [illustration: fig. .--the giraffe's tail.] the covering for the body is made out of a large piece of tan cloth with brown spots marked upon it, as shown in fig. . it is not necessary to give a pattern for this, as the illustration clearly shows how it should fit over the two boys who form the body, and hang from the headpiece. the neck should be stuffed out with excelsior. a short and a long stick should be nailed together, as shown in fig. , and cloth should be sewed to the end of the short stick for the animal's tail. stuff the tail with excelsior and fasten unravelled rope to the end, as shown in the drawings. the long stick should be held by the boy who forms the rear of the animal, so that by means of it he can manipulate the tail (see fig. ). as shown by the dotted lines in fig. , the boy in the front portion of the animal holds the end of the pole supporting the animal's head. [illustration: fig. .--the wild man and the wild horse.] [illustration: fig. .--framework of wild horse.] [illustration: figs. - .] an animated animal very often brought into a circus ring is the two-legged =wild horse=, owned by the wild man of borneo. this breed of horse is shown in fig. . a framework is necessary for the body, and this is best made as shown in fig. . cut two four-foot strips for the side-pieces, fasten them two feet apart, with a barrel-hoop at either end and arch barrel-hoops over the back, as shown in the drawing. the head (fig. ) is made in the same manner as that of the giraffe, the jaws and the ears (figs. and ) being cut out separately and pivoted in place similarly to those of the giraffe. paint the face, marking the eyes and nostrils, and make a mane and tail of unravelled rope. having finished the head, mount it upon a short stick and fasten this to a crosspiece set in the framework, as shown in fig. , bracing it with an upright fastened to another crosspiece. in fastening the various pieces of the framework together, it is well not only to use long enough nails to clinch, but also to bind each joint with wire or cord to make it stiff. purchase brown or black cambric for covering the framework. tack it to the wooden strips, leaving an opening in the top for the rider to stand in, and allow it to hang to the ground as shown in the illustration, so as to conceal the feet of the rider. [illustration: fig. .--"jocko."] =the wild man= should wear an old slouch hat and a hunting jacket, and should have a pair of false legs fastened to him, so that while his own are inside the framework, as shown by the dotted lines in fig. , they appear to be astride. to make the false legs, cut off the legs of an old pair of long trousers, stuff them with excelsior, and fasten a pair of shoes to the ends. these legs should be fastened to the hips of the rider. the framework should be held to the rider by means of ropes tied to the side strips, as shown in fig. . these should be long enough to cross the boy's shoulders in the same way as a pair of suspenders. [illustration: fig. .--jocko's hat.] =a monkey's make-up= is shown in fig. . the boy who is most apt at making a monkey of himself should be selected to take the part of this animal. in the first place he requires a red suit, which may be made quickly by sewing red cloth over an old coat and a pair of trousers. cover the legs with a pair of tan stockings, and slip the feet into a pair of large gloves. the face and hands should be colored, and for this purpose buy some brown grease paint. in rubbing the paint over the face, leave a circle of white around the eyes and mouth, and make a brown mark each side of the mouth to give it a broadened effect. a tight-fitting cap should be made of cloth as nearly the shade of the brown paint as possible, to hide the hair. figure shows the monkey's hat, consisting of a tomato-can covered with red cloth, which is fastened around the monkey's chin by means of an elastic cord. a piece of rope can be fastened beneath the coat for a tail. =the ring master= should wear a high silk hat, a stand-up collar, and a pair of boots, besides being supplied with a long whip. =the clown's suit= is best made out of red and yellow cheese-cloth, this material being about as cheap as can be bought for the purpose. the suit consists of a pair of baggy trousers or bloomers, with elastic around the waist and ankles, a loose coat with large buttons, a collar, a skullcap, and a hat. make the buttons out of red cheese-cloth and stuff them with cotton. the coat may be made of red and the trousers of yellow cheese-cloth, or both may be made of yellow with red polka dots sewed on to them, as shown in the illustration of his costume (fig. ). the collar is made of white cloth, lined with paper to make it stiff, and should be pleated around the neck to form a ruffle. a skull cap should be made out of white cloth to hide the hair. make a peaked hat of stiff paper, and cover it with red cheese-cloth. [illustration: fig. .--the clown's make-up.] [illustration: the back-yard circus.] when making up for a performance, the clown should powder his face, neck, and hands with magnesia, and draw expression marks upon his face with burnt cork, as shown in fig. . =the attendants= for the elephant and giraffe should wear old bath robes or gowns, and have turbans made by twisting a piece of red cheese-cloth about the head. by visiting any circus and closely watching how things are managed, it ought to be a simple matter to get enough =ideas for a performance= that can be carried out with the animals and performers described in this chapter. the clown should, of course, have his usual supply of jokes, which he can get out of the comic papers, and should do his best to annoy the other performers. he should make himself =a slapper=, consisting of two sticks with a block slipped between at one end. this will produce a great deal of laughter among the audience, for when the slapper is struck against a performer the ends of the sticks strike together, making a loud, cracking noise, and one would hardly believe that a stinging blow had not been dealt. the clown attempts the tricks of the other performers, but always fails or gets them very badly mixed. a startling feat to be announced upon the programme will be =looping the hoop on a giraffe.=--this stunt is performed by the elephant, who is given a number of barrel-hoops, which he tosses by means of his trunk over the giraffe's outstretched neck. the elephant and giraffe should always be entered in a race, which will prove exciting, inasmuch as your specimens will be evenly matched. the monkey may do almost anything and be amusing. swinging upon a turning-pole, teasing the animals, boxing with the clown, and climbing a rope, are all his specialties. then he should have =a chariot= within which to ride around the ring. this can be made out of a soap-box, as shown in fig. . cut down the sides, as in the illustration, attach two shafts to the bottom, and mount it upon a couple of small wagon wheels. when this has been done paint the wood a bright red, and cut stars of different sizes out of gilt paper and glue them all over the outside. [illustration: fig. .--jocko's chariot.] the ring master acts as manager of the performance, and should use his whip unsparingly upon the animals, to force them into obedience. if a boy can turn upon a turning-pole, an apparatus such as is described in chapter xviii may be set up outside of the ring. before performances, the entire circus--animals, acrobats, and showmen--should parade about the neighborhood in circus attire. we always made the =parades= a feature of our circuses, and found them not only great sport, but the best kind of advertising. the animal cages should be placed upon wagons decorated with flags. head the procession with a couple of drummers, and have two boys march in the rear carrying signs advertising the show. =the advertising signs= may be painted with bluing upon large pieces of manila wrapping-paper, and should be tacked on wooden stretchers mounted on poles. [illustration: circus parade.] chapter xx suggestions for fourth of july [illustration: boy startled by fire-cracker and lanterns on kite-string.] as most boys probably know, the first fourth of july celebration took place in , following the signing of the declaration of independence in independence hall, philadelphia. when the old bell rang forth the result of the meeting of the continental congress, citizens gathered in the streets and displayed their great joy by shouting, beating drums, and firing muskets. the news spread very rapidly, and great rejoicing reigned everywhere. it soon became a custom to celebrate annually this famous event, and it should be every boy's privilege to have a rollicking good time upon this day, making as much noise as he pleases. when the average boy has bought a few sky-rockets, roman-candles, and cannon-crackers, for the fourth, he generally finds, to his sorrow, that he has run out of pocket money. it is then that he is very apt to want to try his hand at making pyrotechnics. there are many publications which describe how amateurs may manufacture roman-candles, sky-rockets, nigger-chasers, and such pieces, but it is hoped that no boy will venture to carry out any such experiments, for, with the greatest of care, unforeseen accidents will occur which may result disastrously to him. at the same time, there is no economy in it, for the apparatus and materials will generally cost him more than to buy the fireworks ready made. this is also true of colored lights, for which there are many simple formulæ, but none of which can be made up as cheaply as the powders can be bought already prepared. there are, however, many things a boy can make for the fourth that are perfectly harmless, such as fire-cracker cannons and home-made set-pieces, besides different schemes for firing crackers and fireworks that he can carry out. the suggestions offered on the following pages will be found interesting, and they will probably suggest other ideas to the inventive boy. the store toy cannon and cap-pistol are exceedingly dangerous for boys to use, and were all cities to pass laws forbidding their sale, as in the case of a great many of the larger cities, thousands of young lives would be saved from the terrible accidents resulting annually from celebrating with these toys. in fig. is shown =a fire-cracker cannon= with which a boy can have a great deal of fun and at the same time with no danger of injury. cut the two gun-stocks similar in shape to fig. , and the two wheels four inches in diameter (fig. ), after which bore holes in the gun-stocks at _a_, and in the centres of the wheels, through which to run the axle. procure a baking-powder can and make a couple of holes in the sides for the axle to run through (fig. ), and one in the bottom of the can the size of a fire-cracker fuse. cut a conical piece of wood about two inches long and nail it to the outside of the can cover as shown in fig. . [illustration: figs. - .--a fire-cracker cannon.] when the various pieces have been thus prepared, place them together as shown in fig. , and slip a piece of heavy wire through the holes made in them, and bend over the ends of the wire to hold the wheels in place. =to fire the cannon=, place a cracker in the can with the fuse projecting through the hole in the bottom, and fit the cover over the can. then light the fuse. the exploding cracker will force off the cover, which is the projectile, and hurl it a considerable distance in the direction the cannon has been pointed. =a toy mortar= may be made similarly, with the exception of the carriage or mortar-bed. figures and show the details for this, which is different from a regular mortar, one end being enclosed for an ammunition box. make a cover for the ammunition box to prevent sparks from igniting the packages of crackers, using pieces of leather for hinges. as shown in the section drawing (fig. ), the mortar-bed is mounted upon a small board, being held in place by means of a short screw, which makes it possible to swing the mortar around in any position desired. [illustration: figs. - .--a fire-cracker mortar.] these cannons and mortars will furnish sport not only for the fourth, but for any other day of the year, as they can be used by a crowd of boys in =mimic battles=, with paper soldiers. the boys should divide into armies, and construct their fortifications about twenty feet apart, planting the guns upon the works and placing the paper soldiers behind. all paper soldiers knocked over are out of the game, and the side first completely killing the enemy's garrison is, of course, the winner of the day. these battles are always very exciting, especially toward the end, when there are but a few warriors remaining. in order that the projectiles may fit all the cans, it is necessary to have them all of the same size. [illustration: fig. .--another toy cannon.] =another toy cannon= that is simple to make is shown in fig. . for this, buy a short piece of glass tubing at a drug-store and have the druggist seal one end of it. then secure a good-sized cork and cut a hole through the side large enough for the tube to run through (see _a_ in fig. ). cut out a pair of wooden wheels about three inches in diameter, and fasten them to the ends of the cork with a pin or small nail. make the cannon shafts four inches long, point one end of each and stick them into the cork at _b_ and _c_. the open end of the tube should be at _d_ and the sealed end at _e_. =to fire the cannon=, slip a match into the open end of the tube with the head toward _e_, and hold a lighted match at the closed end. as soon as the heat ignites the phosphorus, the match will shoot out of the open end of the tube. =firing fireworks from kites= presents a novel feature for a fourth of july celebration, the aërial display making a very pretty spectacle, and the boy who sets off his fireworks in this manner will have something different from the rest of the neighborhood. [illustration: fig. .] figure shows the manner in which a roman-candle can be attached to a kite-string. a piece of punk about an inch and one-half long should be bound to the fuse of the candle, and as the fuse is rather short it is necessary to cut through the paper bound around it, and set the punk into the end of the candle, as shown in the drawing. attach a piece of twine two feet long to the other end of the candle, and then, after getting your kite up, attach the end of this string to the kite-string and light the punk, being very careful in doing so not to ignite the fuse of the roman-candle. after attaching the candle and lighting the punk, let out the kite-string as rapidly as possible, so that by the time the punk has burned down to the fuse end, the roman-candle will be well up in the air. as soon as the candle begins to explode, shake the kite-string so as to make the balls shoot into the sky in different directions. =a pack of fire-crackers= with a piece of punk attached to the fuses may also be suspended from a kite-string and fired in mid-air. [illustration: fig. . fig. . schemes for attaching lanterns to kite-strings.] other fireworks may be set off similarly, and colored lights produce a fine effect. =nigger-chasers= shot into the air by means of a cross-bow, such as is described in chapter xvii, present another novelty. =japanese lanterns= hung from kite-strings are also a pretty sight, and, while they give somewhat the same appearance as fire-balloons, they are lasting and can be saved for another year. after procuring a number of lanterns of different shapes and sizes, fasten candles securely in them so that there is no possibility of them igniting the paper. figures and show two ways in which the lanterns may be attached one below the other. the first method (fig. ) consists of pins stuck through the bottoms of the lanterns and bent over into hooks, while in the second (fig. ) a small hole is made in the bottom of one lantern and the wire handle of another is slipped through this hole and looped over a burnt match. before sending up the kite with these lanterns, make a number of small loops in the kite-string where you wish to hang the lanterns, and provide the handle of each series of lanterns with a pin-hook, as shown in fig. . then, when everything is in readiness, have one of your friends hook the lanterns to the loops while you attend to letting out the kite-string. of course the smaller the lanterns are the greater number you can hitch in place, and if you use a team of kites you will find that they will carry a number of strings of lanterns. [illustration: fig. .--a shooting-torch.] =a shooting-torch=, such as is shown in fig. , is a scheme that is simple to carry out. it consists of a stick about eighteen inches long, with fire-crackers bound around it with wire, and the fuses twisted together, as shown in the illustration. it is fired in the same way as a roman-candle. after firing all of your fireworks, you should have =a final set-piece= with which to close the exhibition. a good scheme for such a piece is shown in fig. . mark out the letters upon a board, and, with a quarter-inch bit, bore holes about one half-inch apart along the outlines of each letter. then cut enough sticks of punk two inches long to fit all of the holes, and put them to soak in kerosene. the oil makes the punk burn much brighter than it would in its dry state. when the punk is thoroughly soaked, stick the pieces in the holes. a candle will be found most convenient for lighting the punk. nail the board to a tree or post, and place several cannon-crackers in holes bored near the bottom of the board. after allowing the punk to burn for a short time, light the cannon-crackers and blow up the set-piece as a grand finish. [illustration: fig. .--a final set-piece.] chapter xxi halloween [illustration: witch riding broomstick and halloween prankster] halloween, or the eve of all saints' day, has been observed since the beginning of the christian era. in very early times, ghosts, demons, and spirits were believed to rule the universe on this evening, and any one who ventured upon the streets after dark was doing so at the risk of his life. for companionship, as well as protection, it was customary for large numbers of friends to spend the evening together; and these gathered around the fire-place, and passed away the time drinking cider, cracking nuts, eating apples, and telling ghost stories. while the superstitious fears of halloween have almost entirely disappeared, the evening is generally celebrated in the same manner as in the past. this is the only evening on which a boy can feel free to play pranks outdoors without danger of being "pinched," and it is his delight to scare passing pedestrians, ring door-bells, and carry off the neighbors' gates (after seeing that his own is unhinged and safely placed in the barn). even if he is suspected, and the next day made to remove the rubbish barricading the doors, lug back the stone carriage step, and climb a tree for the front gate, the punishment is nothing compared with the sport the pranks have furnished him. there is, of course, such a thing as boys going too far with their halloween fun and getting into malicious mischief, but the cautious boy is not likely to cause any serious trouble by his actions. [illustration: fig. . fig .--a section through the bean-blower. a magazine bean-blower.] every boy who has used a bean-blower knows that the beans swell when held in the mouth, often to such an extent that they will not go through the opening, and clog the tube. figure shows a scheme for a =magazine bean-blower=, which does away with this difficulty, inasmuch as with it the beans are not put in the mouth. the drawing shows a section taken through the centre of one the writer has before him, which works admirably. this bean-blower will cost you just two cents, the price of two of the regular nineteen-inch tin tubes sold in the stores. to these add a large ribbon-spool, which can be had for the asking at almost any dry goods store, some glue, and a sheet of writing paper. place the spool in your bench-vise, and bore a quarter-inch hole in the centre of the side of it (see _a_, fig. ). this hole should be on a slant, and extend only into the hollow part of the spool, as shown in the drawing. when this has been done, take one of the tin tubes and cut off two sections of it, one four inches long and the other three and one-half inches long. this is easily done by filing through the tin on one side with a small file, and then bending the tube back and forth until it breaks. place the end of the four-inch tube in the hole bored in the spool at _a_, gluing a strip of paper around it to make it fit tightly (see _b_ in fig. ). a piece of paper smeared with glue should be wrapped around the other end of this tube in the form of a funnel, as shown in fig. . press the paper around the end of the tube, as shown in the section drawing, fig. , and use plenty of glue upon it to make it stiff. glue a strip of paper around the short tube, and stick it in one end of the spool, as shown at _c_, fig. . the little wooden mouthpiece that is furnished with bean-blowers nowadays should be slipped over the other end of the tube, as shown in the drawing. now take the second bean-blower, and glue it in the other end of the spool, as shown at _d_. the bean-blower is now complete. to operate it, hold the spool in one hand, and, after dropping a number of beans or peas into the magazine, place the palm of the other hand over the top of the paper funnel, and blow until the tube is emptied. it is necessary to close the opening in the top of the magazine, or the beans will blow out of it instead of from the end of tube _d_. dried peas always work better than beans in a bean-blower, as they are round and never clog the tube. [illustration: fig. .--a new style of tick-tack.] [illustration: fig. . fig. . details of crank for tick-tack.] the loud drumming noise of a tick-tack rattled upon a window is enough to give any one the cold shivers, and if the guests of a halloween party are gathered about the fire-place, telling weird ghost stories, this unearthly noise is sufficient to give even the bravest heart a conviction that the house is haunted by supernatural beings. the writer and his friends used to make =a new style of tick-tack=, such as illustrated in fig. , which claims several advantages over the ordinary kind. in the first place it has a crank arrangement which does away with the long string that is everlastingly becoming entangled, and only one boy is necessary to operate it where two are required with the old-style affair. again, by having the tick-tack upon the end of a long pole, second-story windows can easily be reached with it. for the making of this tick-tack, procure two large spools, some heavy cord, and a long pole (perhaps you can borrow your mother's clothes-pole for the occasion). with a knife cut notches in the flanges of one spool, and fasten it to one end of the pole, driving a large nail through the hole in the centre of the spool into the pole (see fig. ). place the other spool in your bench-vise and saw it in two pieces, as shown in figs. and , so that _a_ is one-half the size of _b_, or one-third of the length of the spool. cut a strip of wood about six inches long, bore a hole near one end a little larger than a sixteen-penny nail, and nail the strip to the end of spool _a_ so that the hole comes exactly over the one in the spool (see fig. ). attach spool _b_ to the other end of _c_ by means of a nail driven through the hole into the strip. the crank is now completed, and should be fastened to the lower end of the pole by means of a nail driven through the hole in _a_. it will be seen that this tick-tack is a simple piece of apparatus. the crank at the lower end of the pole is turned and revolves the notched spool at the upper end. to keep the cord from slipping on the pole, a little resin should be rubbed upon it, and it might be well also to rub a little upon the spools. [illustration: fig. . the clockwork tick-tack.] =a clockwork tick-tack=, such as is illustrated in fig. , is another good idea, and one that can be carried out with a few minutes' work. remove the works from an old alarm clock, and fasten them with wire or cord to the end of a pole, as shown. attach a cord to the striker, and make it long enough to reach to the other end of the pole. make a loop in the end of the cord, and drive a nail into the pole over which to loop the cord to keep the striker in check. this tick-tack is worked by placing the end of the pole close to the window-glass, with the striker toward the glass, and slipping the cord off its nail. the striker is controlled entirely by the cord. =the goblin-man= (fig. ) is easily made out of such material as you can most generally find about the house. the framework for the body of this ghostly creature is shown in fig. , and consists of a pole about four feet long with the centre of an eighteen-inch crosspiece nailed across it. in order to fasten these pieces firmly together, they should be halved as shown in fig. , chapter xix. the arms consist of two sticks (_a_ and _b_ in fig. ) fastened together at right angles with small iron braces, and screwed in place near the ends of the crosspiece, as shown in the illustration. holes should be bored through the arm pieces in order that they may work freely on the screws. place a small screw-eye in each arm at _b_, and attach a short string to it. a short stick should be nailed to the four-foot pole about eighteen inches from the lower end, so that the boy who carries the framework can rest it upon his shoulder. [illustration: fig. .--the goblin-man.] [illustration: fig. .--framework of the goblin-man.] the head of the goblin is a jack-o'-lantern made out of a piece of cardboard, bent as shown in fig. , and held in this shape by means of broom-wire laced back and forth across the top. cut a hole the shape of an ear in each side, and paste a piece of red tissue-paper over the opening. for the face, take a piece of white paper a little larger than the face is going to be, mark out eyes, nose, and mouth upon it, and cut the openings for them. paste red tissue-paper over the openings for the eyes, and mark a large black pupil in the corner of each (fig. ). for the mouth, paste a piece of white tissue-paper over the opening, and mark out the teeth in black (fig. ). a piece of red tissue-paper should be pasted over the opening for the nose. after finishing the face, paste it on to the cardboard head. the goblin's countenance is lighted up from within, by means of a candle fastened in a baking-powder can. cut down one side of the can with a pair of tin-shears or a can-opener, and tack it to the framework about six inches above the crosspiece, as shown in fig. . this can must not be put in place, however, until the head is fastened to the framework, which is done by punching a hole in the cardboard large enough to admit the end of the pole. get an old derby for a hat, and, after punching a few holes in the top for the heat and smoke of the candle to escape, sew it to the cardboard head. cover the back of the head with black cloth in such a way that it may be opened to light the candle. to save the goblin-man the embarrassment of losing his head, drive a nail through the crown of the derby-hat into the end of the pole. for a neck, button a cuff around the pole between the crosspiece and head. [illustration: fig. . fig. . figs. - .--the goblin's head.] a white suit of clothes is, of course, the correct style for the goblin to wear. this can be found in an old nightshirt, lengthened with white cloth, if necessary, to make it reach the ground when it is placed upon him. the shoulders should be padded out to hide the framework. when the goblin-man is finished, strap the shoulder-stick of the frame to your shoulder, and fasten the end of the pole to your waist with a belt. your hands are then free to manipulate the arms, by means of the cords attached to their ends. before starting out upon the street, have some one light the candle in the head. as this weird-looking creature passes along the streets, with glaring eyes and other features equally brilliant, people will have to stop to reassure themselves that they are not face to face with some unearthly demon. a trick that will furnish amusement for at least a portion of the evening is =the disappearing rope=, which is not an entirely new idea, but one which is always popular. procure a number of rubber bands and tie them together, end to end. then attach one end of these to a front fence, and to the other end fasten several yards of string. after doing this, cross over the sidewalk with the string, pulling it tightly so the rubber bands will stretch, and hang a sign with the word "danger" printed upon it in large letters over the string where it crosses the sidewalk. it is only natural that the person who sees this sign will make a grab for it, thinking you are blocking the sidewalk to make him walk around it. this is your opportunity to act quickly and let go of the string, which will snap back to the fence upon the contraction of the rubber bands, and disappear from view, leaving your much-astonished friend to pass on, knowing that the joke is upon him. chapter xxii a back-yard toboggan-slide [illustration: children on the toboggan-slide.] it is the misfortune of a great many boys to be deprived of one of winter's greatest sports, by living in a flat country where there are no hills upon which to coast. these boys have little use for sleds aside from "hitching," unless they can make an artificial slide. in a number of large cities, toboggan-slides on a large scale are erected in the parks each year, and thrown open to the use of the public. although this coasting cannot equal that to be had on natural hills, it affords a great pastime to thousands of boys and girls, and is a luxurious treat to many who have never seen hills larger than the artificial park variety. the construction of a toboggan-slide is not difficult for a boy or several boys, and though it must be limited in size, a small slide has an advantage in that there is not a long walk from the end of the run back to the starting-point. [illustration: fig. .--a back-yard toboggan-slide.] it is a good idea to locate the toboggan-slide in a back-yard or an enclosed lot, so that the outside fellows cannot monopolize it; and it is well to have some firm object to which the framework can be fastened, as it saves a great deal of bracing, and materially lessens the amount of lumber needed. the work should be done in the early part of the fall, before the cold weather sets in. figure shows a slide built in the corner of a yard against the fence. =the length= will be determined by the size of the yard. if the yard is short, the slide should be proportioned accordingly, to allow the sled its full run before reaching the end of the lot. =a platform= should be built in the corner, six feet square, and about seven feet above the ground. for this, cut four two-by-fours six feet nine inches long, fasten one in the angle formed by the two fences, and another five feet four inches to the right of it (_a_ and _b_ in fig. ). the third upright (_c_) should be nailed to the fence five feet eight inches from _a_, and the fourth (_d_) should be fastened at an equal distance from _b_. then cut two pieces of two-by-four each six feet long, and nail them across the tops of _a_ and _c_, and _b_ and _d_, respectively, as shown at _e_ and _f_ in fig. . the uprights should now be braced with horizontal and diagonal bracing, as shown in fig. , to give the platform the necessary stiffness. [illustration: figs. - .--framework of toboggan-slide.] after deciding upon the length of the slide, lay off the distance upon the ground from the bottom of upright _b_, and drive a stake into the ground at the farther end. then attach a cord to the stake and run it along the fence to a nail driven into the top of upright _b_. this cord, shown in fig. , marks the pitch of the slide, and will give you a guide-line by which to work. when this has been done, cut three pieces of two-by-four about two feet long, and spike them to the fence just below the guide-line (see _g_, _h_, and _i_, fig. ), spacing them about six feet apart on centres. when these have been fastened in place, take a piece of two-by-four and mark off upon it the distance from the ground to the top of block _i_. then square a line across the two-by-four at this point, at an angle corresponding to that at which block _i_ is nailed to the fence (see fig. ). saw the two-by-four on this line, and then stand it upright in front of block _i_, thirty or thirty-two inches from the fence (according to whether eight-or ten-inch boards are used upon the slide), and spike a piece of two-by-four to the top of it and to the top of block _i_, as shown in fig. . cut and set up a similar upright and crosspiece at _g_ and at _h_, after which brace all as shown in the illustration (fig. ). if you are going to buy boards with which to cover the platform and slide, get twelve-foot lengths, eight or ten inches wide. by using these you will have no waste, and but little cutting to do. if, however, you have material of other dimensions on hand which you can use, the supports of the slide should be so spaced that the boards will reach from one to another. the boards should run lengthwise upon the slide, and be nailed to the framework, leaving as small cracks as possible between them. in order to prevent sleds from running off the slide, a guide should be nailed to the edge farthest from the fence, from the top to the bottom, and on the opposite side where it extends above the fence top (see fig. ). after nailing the platform boards in place, =build a railing= out of boards around three sides of it, to prevent any one from slipping off (see fig. ). =a ladder=, made out of two two-by-fours, with two-inch strips nailed across them, should be set against the front of the platform and spiked in place, as shown in the illustration of the completed slide (fig. ). this will make it easier to reach the platform than by the way of the icy slide, and also prevents those coasting from colliding with those who are returning. any ingenious boy will know how to make a swift slide by turning the hose upon it, and allowing the water to run over the surface until every portion is well covered. a toboggan-sled is out of proportion for a slide of this size, and will not be found as satisfactory as a sled with runners, as the steepness of the slide will not be sufficient to make it go. =a home-made sled=, such as that shown in fig. , requires but little material, and if carefully made will prove stronger than the variety commonly sold in the shops. [illustration: fig. .--a home-made sled.] [illustration: fig. .--pattern for runners.] figure shows the pattern for the runners, which should be cut out of four-inch boards, seven-eighths of an inch thick. round the top edges, and cut the front and rear ends as shown in the drawing. make a slot in the place indicated for a handle, and bore a hole near the front end for the crosspiece to run through. the seat consists of a board cut twenty-two inches long and nine inches wide. this will not be nailed to the runners but to cleats, as shown in fig. . cut three cleats nine and one-quarter inches long, two inches wide, and seven-eighths of an inch thick, and fasten these between the runners, five-eighths of an inch from their tops, placing one near the end of the seat, one at the centre, and one at the front. four two-inch iron braces should be procured, and two of these screwed to the under side of the front and rear cleats, and to the sides of the runners, as shown in fig. . the seat can then be nailed in place, and a broom-handle fastened in the hole bored near the ends of the runners. =the best kind of iron runners= for a home-made sled are those that a boy can put on without the aid of a blacksmith, and such a pair of runners is shown in the drawing of this sled. they consist of what are known as half-oval iron strips, and can be had usually at a hardware store or blacksmith shop. a pair forty inches long and three-quarters of an inch wide, with five holes for countersunk screws drilled in each, can be bought for fifty cents. when they have been procured, screw them to the bottom of the runners, using one inch or one and one-quarter inch screws for the purpose. [illustration: fig. .--a section through the sled.] although these runners are plenty heavy enough for light coasting, they would probably prove weak for coasting upon hills of any great size. to withstand the strain brought to bear upon the runners when hill coasting, boys generally find it necessary to make them out of two-inch stuff. this, however, makes the sled heavy and clumsy, and can be done away with by following a scheme which a friend of the writer's invented and found very satisfactory. it consisted of =reënforcing the runners= with steel bars driven into holes bored vertically in them. the holes were bored while the runners were held in a vise, and the steel bars were a little larger than the holes, so that they would fit them tightly. this scheme allows the use of seven-eighths inch stuff for the runners, and sixty-penny wire nails can be filed off to the proper length and substituted for steel bars if the latter cannot be obtained. when the sled has been completed, it should be given a good coat of paint. [illustration: boys discuss the project.] part iii indoor pastimes [illustration: a miniature theatre.] chapter xxiii a miniature theatre [illustration: children at the theatre.] probably nothing can be found which will make a more interesting entertainment for a winter evening, than a miniature theatre patterned as nearly as possible after a large playhouse. the construction of the stage, and preparation of miniature scenery, properties, and mechanical effects, furnish good work for disagreeable weather when it becomes necessary to remain indoors, and there is plenty of it, and of great enough variety, to occupy the attention of a number of boys. very little material is necessary, outside of what generally can be found in the attic, cellar, and woodshed, so that the expense incurred by making the theatre amounts to almost nothing. a gilt picture-frame makes =an excellent proscenium= for the front of the stage, and, as it will not be marred in the least, you can probably borrow one for the occasion. [illustration: fig. .--the stage framework.] on the opposite page is shown a miniature theatre completed, and in fig. will be seen the proper construction of =the stage framework=, which is made of narrow boards and built upon two horses the width of the picture-frame. make the horses as shown in fig. , one two feet six inches high and the other two feet nine inches high, using two-by-fours for the tops and narrow boards for the legs and braces. after constructing the horses, cut four boards seven feet long and nail two to the ends of each (_a_ and _b_, fig. ), after which cut two pieces to reach across the tops and nail them in place as shown at _c_. then set the horses five feet apart, with the lower one in front, and screw three boards to the tops as shown at _d_, _e_, and _f_, and three narrow strips to the top of the framework as shown at _g_, _h_, and _i_. strips _g_, _h_, and _i_ form what is known as =the gridiron=, or supports from which the scenery drops are suspended, and should have a row of tacks driven into each edge, as shown in fig. , upon which to hang the drops. by fastening the framework together with screws, it may be taken apart after a performance and packed away for another time. =the stage floor= rests upon boards _d_, _e_, and _f_, and is made of laths laid close together, parallel to the front of the stage. the laths should not be nailed in place, as it is necessary to have the stage floor movable. when the work has proceeded thus far, set the picture-frame between the uprights of the front frame so that the opening comes on a level with the stage floor, and fasten it to _a_ and _b_ with nails driven through screw-eyes placed in the back of the picture-frame. =the drop-curtain= should be made of white muslin, and measure in width several inches wider than the opening in the picture-frame. hem the two side edges of the cloth, and sew brass rings on to them two inches apart. then tack the top and bottom to strips of wood. a scene may be painted upon this curtain, but you will find the result probably more successful if you paste a picture of some sort upon the cloth, as suggested in the illustration of the completed theatre. [illustration: fig. .--view of curtain from stage.] in fig. we have a view from the stage of the arrangement by which the curtain is raised and lowered. two heavy wires should be slipped through the rings on the curtain, and their ends fastened to four screw-eyes placed in the uprights at _j_, _k_, _l_, and _m_. these form the curtain guides. bore two holes in uprights _a_ and _b_ above the picture-frame, and run a broom-stick through them for a roller, after which make a crank similar to that shown in fig. and fasten it to one end. place two screw-eyes in the crosspiece at _n_ and _o_ (fig. ) and slip two cords through them, tying one end of each to the top of the curtain and the other end to the roller. by turning the crank the string will now wind around the roller and raise the curtain. it will be necessary to screw a button on to upright _a_ at _p_, as shown in fig. , to lock the crank when the curtain is raised. we often had two and three drop-curtains upon our miniature theatres, which made it necessary to have additional rollers and guide-wires. [illustration: fig. .--crank for curtain pole.] [illustration: fig. .--the footlights.] the greatest precautions should be taken =in lighting the theatre=, to have all wood surrounding lights covered with tin, and not to use candles or matches around inflammable substances. figure shows a satisfactory arrangement of =the footlights.=--a piece of tin the length of the picture-frame and ten inches wide should be procured for these and bent into the shape shown in the illustration. drive tacks through the bottom of the tin about two inches apart, and stick a short candle upon each. then fasten the tin below the picture-frame as shown in the drawing of the completed theatre, and paint it black upon the outside. [illustration: fig. . fig. . fig. . fig. . details of floodlights.] =floodlights=, which are used to throw light from the wings on to the stage, may be made as shown in figs. , , , and . the case for the light is made in the same manner as the dark-room lantern, described in chapter xi, and illustrated by figs. and , except that the door is placed in the side instead of the back and no glass or paper is fastened over the front opening (see figs. and ). make the opening four by five inches, and fasten two grooves, formed by nailing two strips of wood together, as shown in fig. , above and below it, in which to slide glass plates for the purpose of throwing =colored lights= upon a scene. the slides consist of old four-by-five camera plates with colored tissue-paper pasted upon them, and are operated in the same manner as magic-lantern slides. the light should be mounted upon a standard, such as is shown in fig. , consisting of a seven-foot pole fastened at the lower end to a board and braced with triangular blocks, as shown in the illustration. it should be so attached to the pole that it can be adjusted to any desired height, and to attain this two pipe-straps should be fastened to the back of the box, as shown in fig. . first nail two vertical strips in place as at _a_ and _b_ in the drawing, and to these screw the two iron pipe-straps. when the straps have been attached, slip the end of the pole through them, and place a screw-eye in the box, another in the pole near its upper end, and a nail in the side of the box. then attach a cord to the screw-eye in the box, and, after running it through the screw-eye near the top of the pole, twist it several times around the nail in the side of the box, which will hold the box in that position. one of these lights should be made for each side of the stage. in addition to them, you may have occasion to use =spotlights= to throw more light upon one portion of a scene than another. bicycle lamps will be found handy for this purpose. if your house is wired for electricity, several miniature incandescent lamps can be procured for the footlights, while larger lamps can be used for all the other necessary lighting. as the work of making scenery, properties, and mechanical effects is not in the same line as the construction of the stage and its framework, it has been treated in the following chapter. before setting up the theatre for a performance, it is well to spread a large cloth over the carpet, to catch anything that may drop from the stage. then, with all the framework fastened together, hang draperies on each side and above and below the proscenium arch, as shown in chapter heading. this will conceal everything but the proscenium opening. =admission tickets= and programmes should, of course, be printed with a printing-press if you have one; otherwise with rubber stamps. chapter xxiv scenery, properties, and mechanical effects [illustration: working on drops.] scenery for a miniature theatre will be made in much the same manner as the small drops and wings a scenic artist prepares of each scene of a play, before he commences work upon the large canvasses. any handy boy will find it an easy matter to prepare his scenery, as it does not require a knowledge of drawing so much as it does the knack of copying scenes from pictures, and the proper placing of the various wings and drops. several simple suggestions for water, field, street, and interior scenes, with sketches of the drops and wings necessary to complete them, have been placed on the following pages of this chapter with a view to helping you with your first attempts at making scenery. by the time you have made some of these you will have had enough practice in the work to devise other designs and work up the details more elaborately. with a little shifting of drops and wings, or substituting one for another, the appearance of the scene can be sufficiently changed to make it as good as an entirely new setting. several examples of this will be found among the illustrations. =for materials=, you will require some large pieces of paper, several sheets of cardboard, a box of colored chalks, a pair of shears, and a pot of paste--add to this a bunch of laths with which to make the frames, and some nails, screws, and tacks for fastenings. the back of wall-paper presents an excellent surface for chalks, and several rolls will cost you but a few cents, as you can purchase old-style patterns. suit and shoe boxes will furnish the necessary cardboard. [illustration: fig. .--drop for ocean scene.] [illustration: fig. .--drop (_d_ in ocean scene).] the size and proportion of the scenery will depend entirely upon those of the proscenium, and as these are governed by the size of the picture frame you procure, no attempt will be made to give you the dimensions of wings and drops; but you will get a good idea as to their proper proportion from the illustrations shown of the scenes set up, as the line of the proscenium opening is dotted upon them. in the full-page illustration of the completed theatre preceding chapter xxiii is shown =an ocean scene= in which the entire depth of the stage is used for the setting. here you will notice the drops have been made to extend beyond the sides and top of the proscenium opening, a thing which is necessary in order that those of your audience sitting close to the front of the theatre, or to one side of the centre of the stage, will not be able to see through the openings between the drops and wings. figure shows how the four drops necessary for this scene should be made. first sketch drop _a_, shading the clouds and waves with colored chalks as shown in the drawing of the completed theatre. then cut out the opening in its centre, carefully following the outlines of the clouds. lay this sheet upon another and mark out drop _b_, with a smaller opening in its centre, and then, after coloring and cutting it out in the same manner as you did drop _a_, lay it upon a third sheet and mark out drop _c_, with a still smaller opening in its centre (see fig. ). drop _d_ forms the background of the scene, and should be made as shown in fig. , with a horizontal line separating the sky and water. with the exception of a few white caps in the foreground, no waves should be shown upon this drop. if wall-paper is used for the scenery, several widths will have to be pasted together for each drop. [illustration: fig. .--waves for ocean scene.] =additional waves= should be made out of strips of paper and fastened together as shown in fig. , with the crests of the waves of each strip extending a little above those of the strip in front. prepare three sets of the waves, and, after pasting one to the bottom of each drop, bend out the crests so as to leave a little space between each strip. these drops should now be tacked to frames made out of laths similar to fig. , with the corners nailed and braced with diagonal strips. place a couple of tacks in the top of these frames, and to these attach cords. the drops should now be hung by means of the cords to the tacks in the top strips of the stage framework. space them about as shown in the illustration of the completed theatre, and so adjust the lengths of the cords that, from a point equal to where the centre of your audience will be located, the horizon lines of your drops will appear on a line with one another. then having found the proper lengths of the cords, make loops in them so the drops can be quickly hung in place without further adjustment. [illustration: fig. .--frames for drops.] [illustration: fig. .--rocks for a seashore scene.] in the foreground of the ocean scene a stone wall has been shown, which should be made upon a strip of cardboard, with the joints of the stones marked off with gray paint. this strip should be set against the bottom of the front drop. to change this setting into =a mid-ocean scene=, it is only necessary to substitute a strip of waves similar to fig. in place of the stone wall; and =a seashore scene= can be had by making a strip of rocks similar to fig. to set against the front drop, and covering the foreground with sand to form the beach. [illustration: fig. .--drop (_g_ in field and blockhouse scene).] [illustration: fig. .--drop (_h_ in field, blockhouse, and street scene).] [illustration: fig. . a field scene.] [illustration: fig. . a blockhouse scene.] [illustration: fig. .--wing. fence and foliage (_i_ in field scene).] [illustration: fig. .--wing (_j_ in field and blockhouse scene).] [illustration: fig. .--wing (_k_ in street and blockhouse scene).] [illustration: fig. .--standard for trees.] =a field scene= should be set up as shown in fig. . make the background drop _g_ similar to fig. , tacking it to a frame as you did the drops of the ocean scene, and prepare the foreground drop _h_ similar to fig. , tacking its upper edge to a single lath from which it can be hung in position. draw the leaves upon drop _h_ about as shown in the illustration, and in cutting out the strip make a few openings between the leaves as shown in the drawing. wings _i_ and _j_ are shown in figs. and . these should be drawn upon cardboard, and then cut out with a sharp knife, with openings made in places between the leaves and branches. tack the bottom of =the trees= to small blocks of wood for standards (see fig. ), and drive brads through the blocks so they will stick into the stage floor and prevent the trees from toppling over. in setting up this scene, as in the case of all others, you will have to shift the pieces until all entrances and exits are hidden by the wings. the places can then be marked upon the stage floor. this scene will occupy but the front part of the stage. if a greater depth is desired, it will be necessary to prepare additional wings, which can be made similar to figs. and , with possibly a few changes in the form of the branches and leaves. figure shows a tree that can be used for the centre of a scene. a little earth scattered over the stage floor will give the appearance of ground. [illustration: fig. .--blockhouse (_l_ in blockhouse scene).] by using the same background drop, _g_, and the foreground drop, _h_ (figs. and ), trees, _j_ and _k_ (figs. and ), and making a blockhouse and stockade similar to _l_ (fig. ), you will have the proper setting for =a blockhouse scene=, such as is shown in fig . the blockhouse should be fastened to a strip of wood in the same manner as you fastened the ends of the trees (see fig. ). for outdoor scenery, and especially forest scenes, the writer remembers using =pine boughs= for trees and shrubbery. these were cut into pieces of the right length for trees, with their ends pointed so they would stick into gimlet holes made in the laths of the stage floor; and loose pieces were thrown in between for shrubbery. mounds and hills were made with moss. this saved the work of making so many drops, and, of course, looked a little more realistic than paper scenery, but was not as handy to set up, and caused longer delays between the scenes. [illustration: fig. .--drop (_m_ in street scene).] =rustic bridges= can easily be constructed with a few twigs, as can also rustic seats and fences. a very realistic =pond or lake= can be represented by placing a piece of a mirror upon the stage floor, and banking sand or moss around its edge. [illustration: fig. . a street scene.] [illustration: fig. .--wing (_o_ in street scene).] [illustration: fig. .--wing (_n_ in street scene).] figure shows a simple setting for =a street scene=.--the background will be made similar to fig. , and the wings _n_ and _o_ as shown in figs. and , while drop _h_ and wing _k_ are the same as used for the other scenes (see figs. and ). wing _o_, the house upon the right of the stage, will be made in one piece, with window openings cut in it and covered with tissue-paper ruled to represent the window-sash (see fig. ). show the trim around the openings and also the siding upon the building. then fasten the back of the wing to a standard such as used for the trees (see fig. ). wing _n_, or building upon the left of the stage, will require a number of pieces of cardboard to show its perspective correctly. make the front of the building as shown in fig. . then fasten a piece of cardboard to edge _a_ for the side, three pieces at _b_, _c_, and _d_ for the roof, and a strip across the front at _e_ for the porch roof. the pieces can be fastened together best with strips of linen glued to their inside surfaces. the porch roof will be supported upon four posts made out of strips of cardboard as shown in fig. . this building will be the village post-office, grocery, and hardware store combined, and should have a number of signs to this effect painted upon the front. [illustration: fig. .--a simple interior scene.] [illustration: fig. .--pattern for walls of interior scene.] to the several outdoor scenes already described, you should add a setting of =an interior=, as you will probably have occasion to use one in any play you produce in your miniature theatre. figure shows a simple interior, the size of which will, of course, depend upon that of the stage. however, it should not be very deep. figure shows the pattern by which to cut the five pieces of cardboard, of which the walls are made. the edges of these pieces should be glued together with strips of linen. cut the door openings at _f_, _g_, and _h_, two window openings at _i_ and _j_, and slots in the tops of _b_ and _d_ at _k_, _l_, _m_, _n_, _o_, and _p_, as shown in the drawing. make the doors out of pieces of cardboard, hinging them to the openings with linen strips, and draw the window-sash and their divisions upon tissue-paper and paste them over the openings _i_ and _j_. oil the paper if it is not very transparent, so the audience can see the villain when he passes by the windows. make a wainscoting around the walls to the height of the window-sills, ruling the boards with a lead pencil, and draw a line across wall _c_ a little below the bottom of slots _m_ and _n_ in walls _b_ and _d_, as shown. if you have used white cardboard for the walls, and not injured its calendered surface when cutting the openings, it will have a good plaster appearance. otherwise, cover the cardboard with white or tinted paper. paint the wainscoting and the door and window trimmings brown. to set up the room, bend the walls into the shape shown in fig. . then cut three strips of cardboard several inches longer than the width of the room and slip them into the slots you have cut in the tops of the walls _b_ and _d_ (see _q_, _r_, and _s_, fig. ). _t_ is a drop like _s_, but is suspended in front from the gridiron. these strips form the ceiling of the room, and generally have beams or mouldings painted across their bottom edges, but it will simplify matters to leave them plain, as shown in the illustration. the line which you have drawn across the rear wall corresponds with these strips. cut a number of illustrations from a magazine for pictures, and either hang them upon the walls or paste them to the cardboard. doll furnishings can be used to complete the scene. there are a great variety of subjects upon which a boy can base his plays, but what probably will make the most interesting programme and one of the simplest to prepare is =a war drama=.--in this you can picture a number of battles after the descriptions you have read in your history, or dramatize one of your favorite war stories, bringing its young heroes before the footlights. this class of plays will give you an opportunity to use =paper soldiers= for actors. probably you have a supply of these, but if not, you can get them at any toy store. they come upon printed sheets ready to be cut out, and as they cost only a penny a sheet it pays to buy rather than make them. cavalry and infantry of about every nationality, indians in various positions upon horseback and on foot, and a large assortment of american soldiers in marching order and fighting array are now to be found in these sheets. for =marching soldiers= across the stage, tack their feet to a lath as shown in fig. , and then slide the lath across the stage, at the same time pushing out one of the laths forming the floor. the moving of the laths scarcely will be noticeable from the position of your audience. [illustration: fig. .--scheme for marching soldiers.] =separate standards= for soldiers you wish to set about the stage should have small strips of cardboard glued to their backs and bent out in the same manner as easel-backs are made. at least four or five of the soldiers should be jointed so they can walk about the stage and appear perhaps a little more graceful in their actions than their stiff-jointed comrades who are fastened to laths. figure shows =a jointed figure= made out of a paper soldier. suppose you have a soldier in some such position as shown in fig. . first cut off the legs along the dotted lines shown in the illustration, each leg in two pieces (see _a_, _b_, _c_, and _d_, figs. and ). remove also the hand projecting beyond the body at _e_. a small piece of cardboard of the same thickness as that upon which the soldiers are printed should be glued to the back of _c_ and _d_ where those pieces were cut into in cutting off the legs (see _f_, _g_, and _h_, fig. ). when this has been done, pivot _a_ and _b_ to _c_ and _d_ at _f_ and _g_, and then pivot the ends of _c_ and _d_ at _h_ and _i_ to the hips of the soldier (see fig. ). thread should be used for pivoting these pieces together, with knots tied on either end. new arms will have to be made, as those printed upon the body cannot be cut out. these are made in two pieces similar to _j_ and _k_ in fig. . you will find it a simple thing to make them and paint the hands flesh color and the sleeves to match the rest of the clothes. pivot _j_ to _k_ at _l_ and the end of _k_ to the shoulder at _m_. the arm printed upon the side of the figure should now be painted so as to blend with the color of the coat. the white cardboard glued to the joints should also be painted to correspond with the rest of the body. you will find this method of making a jointed soldier much easier than to attempt to draw, paint, and cut out one of your own design. figures in other positions can, of course, be jointed in the same manner. [illustration: figs. - . scheme for making a jointed figure.] the movements of a jointed figure are controlled with pieces of silk-thread attached to the hands, feet, and head, as shown in fig. . these threads should be carried through the top of the stage framework and loops made in their ends should slip over the fingers of your hands, in which position they can be operated. it will take a little practice beforehand to enable you to work the threads successfully, so you will not be responsible for such laughable performances as making him dance while delivering a farewell address, or leave the scene through the top of the stage during an exciting portion of the play. in an interior scene, such as fig. , the jointed figures will have to make their entrées and exits through the passages between the front walls and the proscenium, as the operating cords would interfere with them going through the other openings. the figures which pass through the doors will have to be tacked to the floor laths and shoved across the stage. all the small movable furnishings of a scene are known as =stage properties=.--these include such pieces as furniture, boats, carts, and trains. [illustration: fig. . fig. . a tent.] =tents= will be necessary properties for an encampment scene. these should be cut out of white paper the pattern of fig. , then folded along the dotted lines, and edge _b_ pasted over the flap _a_. the front flaps will be left open. figure shows the tent set up. =an indian teepee= will also be required for indian warfare. follow the pattern shown in fig. , marking it off as though it were made up of a number of skins, and place a few figures of decoration upon it. then cut three or four short sticks and, after crossing their ends as shown in fig. , fasten the paper covering over them, bending flap _a_ along the dotted line, and pasting _b_ over it. [illustration: fig. . fig. . a teepee.] the field scene (fig. ) and the blockhouse scene (fig. ) will be used for the settings of your battle-fields. for your miniature sea-fights, the mid-ocean scene will be used. =battleships= should be made out of cardboard as shown in fig. , with the masts reënforced at the back with strips of wood, and the rigging made with heavy thread. it will be well to have a number of pictures from which to work in drawing and painting the various ships of your fleet. the hull of each ship should be curved as shown in the illustration, and mounted upon a cardboard rocker. make a number of slashes along the curved edge of the hull, and bend out the little flaps alternately, first to one side and then to the other (see _a_ in drawing), after which glue them to the rocker. attach a cord at _b_, with which to pull the ship across the stage, and another cord at _c_, with which to guide the stern. the hull will, of course, run between the strips of waves, so as to be half concealed by them. a person cannot imagine how realistic these little battleships appear when tossing about upon the toy waves, without having seen them in operation. [illustration: fig. .--a battleship.] =trains and wagons= can be cut out of cardboard and moved across the stage by means of laths to which they have been attached in the same manner as the paper soldiers shown in fig. . toy wagons, carriages, and an automobile such as described in chapter xxvi, may also be used in some scenes. rain, wind, thunder, and such stage sounds, a moon or sun-rise, and lightning, as produced on the stage, are known as =mechanical effects=.--most of these can easily be adapted to your theatre, though the apparatus need not be as elaborate as that used by professionals. =thunder= can be produced by means of a large piece of heavy cardboard held by one corner, as shown in the chapter heading, and vibrated back and forth. the beating of =rain= upon the outside of a house is imitated with a small quantity of dried peas or beans dropped upon the head of a drum or into a cardboard box. every time the door is opened during such a storm, the audience should hear the whistling of the =wind=, which is imitated by a few low drawn-out whistles. the stage must, of course, be dark for producing =lightning=, in order to get the best effects. the flashes can be made by igniting a small amount of flash-light powder, placed in a tin can cover. =the roar of cannon= and firing of smaller guns can be imitated to good effect upon a drum. chapter xxv making a toy railway [illustration: bicycle powered railway.] it is often thought that a toy railway is beyond a boy's ingenuity to construct, whereas, in reality, it is one of the simplest toys he can make. this applies to the tracks, stations, and cars of every description, all of which can be made with a few strips of wood, some spools, nails, cardboard, and a bottle of glue, for materials. if you have passed the age of caring for such toys as this, you will, no doubt, enjoy the making of one for your younger brother, or for one of your boy relatives. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .--the toy railway in operation.] [illustration: fig. .--support for trolley-line.] figure shows a railway set up and in running order. as shown in the illustration, =the trolley-line=, or overhead cable, runs around the wheels of two supports, one at either end of the track. prepare four pieces of wood the shape and size of that shown in fig. for the uprights of these supports, and make two wheels three inches in diameter. the wheels may be marked out with a piece of string and pencil as shown in fig. , chapter xv, if you haven't a compass. when the wheels have been cut out, place them in your bench-vise, one at a time, and with a rasp make a groove around the edge as shown at _c_, fig. . bore a three-eighths inch hole through each upright at _f_, fig. , and another through the centre of each wheel. now fasten two of the uprights six inches apart upon a block of wood, as shown at _a_ and _b_, fig. . whittle a shaft to fit loosely in the holes of the uprights, and, after slipping it into them, fasten one of the wheels upon one end and a small spool upon the other (see _c_ and _d_ in fig. ). a weight of some sort should be fastened to the base, as shown at _e_. the uprights for the other support should be similarly mounted upon another block of wood. fasten the remaining wheel to an axle run through the holes in the uprights, and, as it is unnecessary to have a spool upon the other end of the axle, cut it off short and drive a nail through it to prevent it from slipping through the holes. having thus prepared the supports, place them as far apart as you wish to extend the railway, and run a cord around the two wheels and tie it. then set the supports a little farther apart, if necessary, to tighten the cord. run another cord from spool _d_ to =a water-motor=, steam engine, or whatever power you can get with which to operate the railway. a bicycle inverted with the tire removed from its rear wheel has been used satisfactorily, as has also a sewing-machine with the belt slipped off and the cord from the spool put in its place. [illustration: fig. .--the tracks.] a good substitute for the tin tracks ordinarily sold in shops for toy railways will be found in those shown in fig. . these =tracks= consist of quarter-inch strips mounted upon pieces of cardboard. make a small gimlet-hole in one end of each stick, and drive a short finishing nail in the opposite end (see fig. ). cut the cardboard strips the length of the sticks, and tack them to the sticks as shown in the illustration. if inch and one-half spools are used for the car wheels, the inside gauge of the tracks should be an inch and three-quarters. by lapping the cardboard strips over the ends of the sticks, and the sticks over the ends of the cardboard strips, and placing the nail dowels in the ends of the sticks as in the drawing, a strong track is formed when the pieces are fitted together. this may be extended to any desired length by adding more sections to it. [illustration: fig. .--a top view of car truck.] [illustration: fig. .--spool wheels.] [illustration: fig. . fig. .] =the cars= for this railway will have their trucks constructed alike, and it is a simple matter to transform a car from one style into another. figure shows a top view of a truck. for the bed of this cut a three-eighths-inch board twelve inches long by two and one-quarter inches wide, and, after rounding the ends as shown in the drawing, cut a mortise at _a_ and _b_ two and three-eighths inches from either end. procure two one and one-half inch spools for wheels, and drive a wooden peg through the hole in each, cutting off the ends so they project a little beyond the hole, as shown in fig. . then bore four holes in the edges of the truck-bed with a gimlet at _c_, _d_, _e_, and _f_ (see drawing), and, after setting the spools in mortises _a_ and _b_, pivot them in place with small finishing nails driven into the wooden pegs. these nails should fit loosely in the gimlet holes. in order to drive them into the exact centres of the spools, it is best to locate these points upon the ends of the pegs before placing the spools in the frame. a quarter-inch hole should be bored in the top of the truck-bed at _g_ and _h_ (fig. ) in which to fasten the two uprights _i_ and _j_ (see fig. ). make the uprights four inches long and whittle a peg upon the lower ends to fit holes _g_ and _h_ (see fig. ). bore a hole with a gimlet in the top of each and run a piece of heavy wire from one to the other, bending it as shown in fig. . fasten _k_ between _i_ and _j_, as shown. place a small brass ring upon the wire before you fasten it in place. a small hook should be screwed into one end of the truck and a screw-eye into the other end for couplings, should you wish to hitch two or more cars together. =a gondola car=, such as shown in fig. , should have its truck made similar to fig. , with the exception that it should be two inches shorter, in order that cigar-box strips can be used for the side-pieces. cut the strips an inch and one-half high and fasten them to the bed of the car with brads. this car may be used as a trailer. [illustration: fig. .--a gondola car.] [illustration: fig. .--side view.] [illustration: fig. .--end view.] [illustration: figs. - .--details of toy street car.] the car shown in fig. is a rather crude affair, but with a little more work may be transformed into a better-looking car-- =a street car= such as is shown in figs. and being an example of what can be made. the sides, ends, and roof of this car are made of cardboard, the patterns for the cutting of which are shown on page . figure shows a cross section taken through the centre of the car. the two side-pieces _a_ should be first prepared as shown in fig. . with a ruler and lead-pencil draw in the windows about as shown in the drawing, using double lines to indicate the sash. then, with a sharp knife, cut out the centre of each just inside of the inner line. these windows may be left open or may be covered on the inside with tissue-paper. if tissue-paper is used oil it to make it more transparent. when the two sides have been prepared, bend each along the dotted lines (see fig. ) and tack one to each side of your car truck as shown in fig. . when properly bent, the distance between the upper part of the sides should be two and three-quarters inches. cut the two inner ends of the car the shape of fig. , using a compass with a radius of two and one-half inches with which to describe the curve at the top. draw in the panels and sash lines as you did those upon the side-pieces, being careful to get them on the same level, and cut out the door and window openings. fasten these end-pieces between the sides with glue, and also tack them to the uprights of the car (_i_ and _j_, fig. ), which will come just inside of them. the roof is made in two sections (_b_ and _c_, fig. ). for _b_ cut a piece of cardboard twelve and one-quarter by three and three-quarter inches (fig. ), draw the curved end with a compass, using the radius shown on the drawing, and slit the corners as indicated by the dotted lines. when this piece has thus been prepared, remove the wire from the top of the truck (see fig. ). bend the cardboard over the sides and ends of the car, and lap corners _d_ and _e_ over _f_ and _g_, and _h_ and _i_ over _j_ and _k_, tacking them with thread to hold them in place. to fasten this part of the roof to the top of the car, cut a number of small strips of linen, and glue them to the under side of the roof and to the inside face of the sides and ends of the car (see fig. ). the upper portion of the roof _c_ should be made out of a piece of cardboard bent into the shape of fig. and cut at the ends so the upper portion of _c_ projects a little beyond its sides. draw the ventilation lights upon the sides of _c_ as shown on the drawings, and then fasten the piece upon the top of _b_ with strips of linen in the same manner as you fastened _b_ in place. _c_ should now have the same curve to its top as _b_. cut and glue a piece of cardboard in each end of _c_ to complete the roof. the shape of this piece is shown in fig. . the outer ends of the car should be made as shown in fig. and tacked around the ends of the wooden truck platform, and also fastened to the under side of the roof with strips of linen. the window openings may be cut in the ends, but it will make a stronger car if they are simply drawn upon it. cut four cardboard steps similar to fig. and tack them to the sides of the front and rear platforms. when the car has been put together, replace the wire in the tops of uprights _i_ and _j_ (fig. ), running the ends through the roof (see fig. ). paint the sides and ends of the car yellow with brown trimmings, and paint the roof a light gray. water colors can be used for the purpose. letter the name of your car-line upon the sides and the number of the car upon each end and side. the route should be lettered upon strips of cardboard with pins run through them as shown in fig. , these strips to stick in the roof of the car (see figs. and ). having seen how the car is made, you will find it a simple matter to make designs for =other cars=, using the same scheme for the trucks, and altering the patterns for the sides, ends, and roof, to suit the design. nothing has, as yet, been said about the =operation of the railway=, and though fig. probably shows sufficiently clearly how it is run, a few words may be helpful. the car or cars are placed between the wooden tracks, and the trolley (or cord attached to the ring on top of the car) is tied to the trolley-line as in the illustration. upon starting your engine, water-motor, or whatever motive-power you have, the car will run from one end of the track to the other. when it has reached the support of the trolley-line, it will stop long enough for the cord trolley to pass around the wooden wheel, and then run in the opposite direction until the other support is reached. it will thus be seen that the trolley hangs to the upper part of the cable, or trolley-line, in running one way, and to the lower part on the return run. in changing the direction of the run, the ring to which the trolley is attached slides to the other end of the car. [illustration: fig. .--the railway depot.] =a station= such as is illustrated in fig. is made out of cardboard and mounted upon a seven-eighths-inch board large enough to form a railway platform. after cutting out the side-and end-pieces, with door and window openings placed as shown in the illustration, fasten them together with strips of linen glued in the corners. make the roof low and extend it over the platform upon each side and over the gable-ends, as shown in the illustration. paint the sides of the depot the regulation depot red, and the roof a shingle or slate color. paint the door and window-sash black, letter the name of the station upon the gable-ends, and with a ruler and lead-pencil rule off the boards upon the sides, and the slate or shingles upon the roof. as this is a typical railway station, two may be made of the same pattern, one for either end of your car line. chapter xxvi clockwork automobiles [illustration: children play with toy automobiles.] it is generally easy for a boy to get hold of a set of old clockworks, for a discarded clock of some sort is almost certain to be found in the household storeroom. if the main-spring is intact, it is highly probable that a little tinkering and cleaning will be sufficient to put the mechanism in working order, at least so that it can be used for running small engines, automobiles, and other mechanical toys that most interest boys. before taking a set of works apart, it is well to examine it carefully and note the positions of the various springs and wheels, so it will be possible to put them together again properly should you wish to do so. without taking notice of this, you are likely to have a handful of wheels as a result, with which you can do nothing except perhaps convert them into tops. [illustration: fig. .--top view of wooden frame.] [illustration: fig. . the car completed.] [illustration: fig. . the framework.] the adaption of a set of works to =an automobile touring-car= is shown in figs. and , the former showing the little machine completed and the latter its frame with the clockworks fastened in place. the same scheme as that used for the cars of the toy railway described in the preceding chapter will be followed in making =the frame= of the automobile, as that is about the simplest way, and makes a light, easy-running vehicle. the bed will be cut of a different pattern, however, as will be seen in fig. . lay out the piece to the dimensions shown upon this drawing, and then cut it out, making a mortise in each end for the wheels to fit in. the spool wheels should be mounted in the same manner as those of the railway cars, for which see fig. , chapter xxv, and the directions upon page . one end of spool _a_ should be pivoted with a longer finishing nail than those used for the other pivots, so that when driven in place about half an inch will project beyond the frame. a small silk spool should be fastened upon this for a belt-wheel (see _b_, fig. ). the hole in one of these spools is about three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter, so, in order to make it fit tightly upon the nail, it is necessary to fill in around the nail with sealing-wax. to do this, turn the wooden frame upon its edge and place the spool over the nail, being careful to get the nail in the exact centre of the hole. then hold a stick of sealing-wax over the spool, and with a lighted match melt the end and allow it to drip into the hole. when the hole has been partially filled, allow the wax to harden a little, and then press it down around the nail with the end of a match, being careful not to throw the spool out of centre by doing so. the hole should then be filled to the top. we are now ready to prepare the clockworks for mounting upon the wooden frame. the works shown in fig. are from an alarm clock, but if you have a striking clock, or one with works a little different from those shown in the illustration, it does not make a bit of difference in the scheme for attaching the works. the three parts shown in the foreground of fig. must first be removed from the works. these will be recognized readily in any clock, as they are pivoted close together, and regulate the speed of the other wheels. when they have been removed, the main-spring will unwind rapidly. the frame of the works shown in the illustration is held together with nuts, so that in removing the wheels it was necessary to unscrew two of them, spring the frame open enough to let the wheels drop out, and then replace the nuts again in their former positions. if the frame of your clockworks is riveted together, the wheels will have to be broken out. a small silk spool, such as _b_ (fig. ), should be fastened upon the small pivot which originally operated the clock's hands, for a belt-wheel. lay the works upon a table with the face-side down, and, after centring the hole of the spool upon the pivot, fasten it in place with sealing-wax in the same manner as you attached spool _b_. the works should now be attached to the wooden frame. place them with the striker uppermost, near the edge of the frame, so that the small belt-wheels are in line with one another. then bore a number of gimlet holes in the wooden frame and run copper wire through them, passing it around the posts of the clock-frame and twisting its ends until the works are firmly fastened in place. a rubber band about an eighth of an inch wide and long enough to reach from one belt-wheel to the other should be procured for =the belt.=--this should stretch just enough to cling upon the spools, as more than that would cause too much friction. [illustration: figs. - .--patterns for the automobile touring-car.] before going any further with the construction of the automobile =test the machine=, to be sure that it is in perfect running order. wind up the main-spring, pressing a finger against one of the wheels to hold it in check until you are ready to start the machine. when properly made, the clockwork automobile should run a distance of from twenty to twenty-five feet upon a wooden floor, while about three-quarters of that distance should be covered upon a floor with a fairly smooth carpet. =the cardboard sides= and other details of the automobile should now be made. the pattern for these have been so shown in figs. - that they can easily be laid out to the proper shape and size by means of the process of enlarging by squares described on page , chapter viii. white cardboard should be used upon which to draw these pieces, and the thinner it is the easier you will find it to work with. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .--cardboard side of automobile.] first prepare the two sides, cutting them out by the pattern of fig. . then glue the bottom edge of each side to the edge of the wooden frame, cutting holes in the left side for the belt-wheels and projecting posts to run through (see fig. and _a_, _b_, _c_, _d_, and _e_, fig. ). the top to the front of the car should now be cut as shown in fig. , the distance between the sides being measured to get the piece of proper dimensions. bend the edges as in fig. , and glue them to the inner surfaces of the side-pieces as shown by the dotted lines in fig. . in the same way cut and glue a piece of cardboard between the side-pieces at _g_ and _h_ (fig. ) for the seat-backs. the bent edges of these pieces are shown by dotted lines in the illustration. draw four =wheels= as shown in fig. , using a compass with which to describe the circles, and cut them out with a sharp knife. you can cut out between the spokes, if you wish, or leave them solid. glue the wheels to the cardboard, placing their centres about as located at _i_ and _j_, fig. . four =mud-guards= should be cut like fig. , with flaps made along one edge. then bend these guards around the tops of the wheels, and, after applying glue to the flaps, press them against the cardboard side, holding your fingers upon the flaps until the glue has dried (see fig. ). the guards should be placed a little above the tops of the wheels. cut four =lamps= like fig. , and glue end _k_ of two upon the front of the automobile at _l_ (fig. ) and one of the other two upon each side at _m_. these lamps are shown in position in the illustration of the completed automobile (fig. ). draw and cut =the steering-wheel= similarly to fig. , and, after pivoting it to the end of a strip of cardboard with a pin, as shown in fig. , bend the lower end and glue it to the under side of the cardboard top _f_ at _n_ (see fig. , also fig. ). make a =horn= like fig. , and glue it to the steering-wheel as shown in fig. . a strip of cardboard about the size of that used for the upright of the steering-wheel should be cut for =the brake=, and glued to the inside surface of the right side of the car at _o_ (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .--the steering-wheel.] =the chauffeur= should now be made. cut his head and body the shape and size of fig. , drawing the face upon each side with goggles over the eyes. cut the arms in two pieces the shape of _p_ and _q_ (fig. ), and then pivot _p_ to _q_ at _r_ and the end of _q_ to the shoulder of the body at _s_, using thread for fastening the pieces together. paint the hat, coat, sleeves, and gloves a leather color, and the face flesh color. the body should then be fastened to the hammer of the clockworks with sealing-wax, as shown in fig. , while the left hand should be glued to the edge of the steering-wheel and the right to the end of the brake (see fig. ). by thus attaching the body to the end of the hammer, and winding up the small spring, the chauffeur will shake violently when the auto runs across the floor, showing the vibrations of the machine in a greatly exaggerated and amusing manner. it is now only necessary to =paint the machine= to complete it. the photograph (fig. ) indicates the different colors used. the lamps, and top, ends, and sides of the front portion of the car should be painted the color of brass, and the rest of the sides, with the exception of a strip along the bottom and the edge of the arms, should be painted vermilion. paint the inside of the car and the edges of the seat-arms tan color, to represent leather upholstering. with black paint, or ink, stripe off the door and trimmings upon the sides and top of the machine, as shown in figs. , , and . blacken the brake and steering-wheel and the spokes and rims of the wheels. along the bottom of each side roughly indicate some machinery with black paint, about as it is drawn in fig. . when you have tired of your touring-car, you can easily convert it into =an automobile delivery wagon=, such as illustrated in fig. . to make this you will require the same frame as that used for the touring-car, with the clockworks and belt-wheels attached in the same manner. if you have made the touring-car, remove the cardboard sides from its wooden frame, separating the cardboard from the wood carefully, so you can put the machine together again when you wish. if you haven't made this automobile, you will find the details for the construction of the frame in figs. and , and the manner of performing the work described on pages to . [illustration: fig. .--an automobile delivery wagon.] =the cardboard sides= are much easier to prepare than those for the touring-car, as they are straight and require but little cutting. the outline for these is shown in fig. , surrounding the drawing of the completed wagon. lay out one side upon a piece of cardboard, using the dimensions given upon the drawing, and then place it upon a board and cut it out with your knife. using this as a pattern, place it upon another piece of cardboard and run a pencil around its edges, thus marking out the second side. in cutting out the latter piece, run your knife a little inside of the line in order to allow for the increase in size caused by marking it out with the first cardboard side. having prepared the two sides, draw panels upon them in some such form as shown in the illustration, separating them with three lines. draw a small window, with its top slightly arched, near the front edge of each side, and cut an opening for it (see illustration). glue the sides to the edges of the truck in the same manner as those of the touring-car were done, piercing holes for the posts of the clockworks to fit in, and openings for the belt-wheels to project through, in the left side. cut a piece of cardboard for the back of the wagon, fit it between the sides, and fasten it in place by gluing a number of linen strips to it and the sides upon the inner or unexposed surfaces. then cut a piece of cardboard for the roof, making it about two inches longer than the sides, to give it the proper projection over the front of the wagon. fasten this piece in position in the same manner as you fastened the back of the wagon. make the floor and footboard for the wagon out of a piece of cardboard bent as shown in fig. , and fasten it across the top edges of the projecting portions of the sides with linen strips. cut a strip for a seat, and fit it between the sides an inch and one-half above the floor. =the wheels= of an automobile wagon contain fourteen spokes, but as you have the pattern for the touring-car wheels of twelve spokes, you can just as well use it in making the wagon wheels. they should be mounted upon the sides of the wagon, a trifle above the bottoms of the spool wheels, as shown in the illustration, so they will not touch the carpet when the machine is operated. =all other portions= of the wagon should be made of the same patterns given for the touring-car, viz. the chauffeur (figs. and ), the steering-wheel (figs. and ), the brake (fig. ), and the lamps (fig. ). as the legs of the chauffeur will show, it will be necessary to cut a pair out of cardboard (the drawing shows the shape clearly enough to work by) and fasten them to his body. fasten the chauffeur upon the seat and glue his left hand to the steering-wheel, placing the latter in front of him, as shown in the drawing. stick the lower end of the cardboard upright of the steering-wheel upon a pin run through the wagon floor from the under side. glue the upper end of the brake to the chauffeur's hand and the lower end to the side of the wagon. =paint the wagon= with water colors, making the sides, end, and roof olive green, the steering-wheel, brake, and spokes of wheels black, and the lamps yellow or the color of brass. in painting the sides show the battery compartments upon them below what would properly be the bottom of the wagon (see illustration). leave the cardboard white below this box, as it represents no portion of the machine, but is necessarily brought down so far to conceal the wooden frame. it will give the machine a more finished appearance if, after painting, you go over it with black paint and a fine brush and stripe the panels upon the sides, following the lines which you drew upon them with a pencil. letter the word "delivery" upon the centre panel of each side, and the firm name in the small panel between the lamp and window. by attaching a set of clockworks in the same manner as described for the automobiles, you can make =a clockwork railway=, constructing the cars similarly to the street car shown in fig. , chapter xxv, and using the schemes in the same chapter for the tracks and depots. chapter xxvii work to do with a knife [illustration: boy sharpening knife.] a number of years ago a friend of the writer paid a visit to a large penitentiary where the prisoners were engaged in the manufacture of boots and shoes. among the workers he became particularly interested in a small german boy who was industriously marking the backs of boots with the lot numbers always to be found upon these goods. the boy didn't have an ink bottle near him, and yet, with what appeared to be a wooden stick, was marking the numbers in ink. a closer inspection disclosed the fact that the pointed stick held by the lad was nothing more or less than =a home-made fountain pen.=--upon seeing that the visitor was struck with the novelty of the affair, the superintendent presented him with one of the pens and told him of its origin. the pen was the invention of a forger who was placed in this department of the prison, and when its good qualities were seen it was very quickly adopted by all of the prisoners in place of the pointed stick and ink-bottle they had been using. the pen is shown in fig. . it is made out of a piece of elderberry wood about five inches long, a small glass vial, and a piece of sponge. first push out the pith of the piece of elderberry wood (this you will find easily removed), and then point one end pen-shape, as shown in the illustration, and split it back from the point about an inch in the same manner as a writing pen is made. whittle the other end of the stick so it will fit tightly in the neck of the glass vial. this bottle, or reservoir, should be filled with ink, and a small piece of the sponge you have procured should be pushed into the hollow of the pen above the point (see illustration), as a means of preventing the ink from flowing too freely upon the point. [illustration: fig. .--a home-made fountain pen.] although the pen was originally made with a coarse point for marking heavy figures, you will find that it can be made to write to a reasonable degree of fineness by whittling a fine point upon it. [illustration: fig. .--the magic pin-wheel.] =the magic pin-wheel= represented by fig. can be made with a few minutes' work, and is something entirely new in the line of magic toys. there are probably few persons who will understand this simple yet mysterious toy when they see it properly operated, until the secret is disclosed to them. as you will see by looking at the drawing, the pin-wheel consists of nothing more than a stick notched along one edge, and a thin piece of wood about an inch in length fastened through its centre to the end of the stick by means of a pin. in cutting the notches it is important to make them of the same length and depth. locate the exact centre of the chip of wood before pivoting it to the end of the stick, and with your knife make a small hole for the pin to run through at this point. be careful to drive the pin in straight. [illustration: fig. .--how to operate the pin-wheel.] =to operate= the pin-wheel, hold the stick in the left hand as illustrated in fig. , and then, taking a coin in the right hand, rub it vigorously across the notches. the vibration produced by rubbing the stick causes the small pin-wheel to revolve about its pin axis. the funny part of the performance is the fact that you can have perfect control over the wheel, and change the direction of its course at will, if you but master one little trick performed with the first and second fingers of the right hand. in holding the coin between the thumb and first finger of the right hand, allow the end of the first finger to extend over the top of the stick and bring the second finger close to the side of it, as shown in the illustration (fig. ). to make the wheel revolve from left to right, allow the end of the first finger to rub along the top edge of the notches; then, to reverse the direction, relieve the pressure of this finger, and press the second finger against the other edge of the notches. at first you may not be able to make the wheel obey your commands, but with a little practice you will find it a simple matter to make it change its direction without any one noticing how you perform the magical trick. =a brass tack= driven into the stick a little below the notches, about the point where the thumb of your left hand will strike, will add to the mystic appearance of the pin-wheel. a person invariably notices this the first thing when he sees you operate the wheel (you can make it a point to press your left thumb against the tack), and thinks he has solved the trick. but when you let him have the toy, he will soon find out that all his pressing and pulling upon the tack will have no effect upon the wheel, and beg you to "put him on" to the trick. =a wooden chain and rattle= has long been one of the most interesting pieces of work a boy can make with his jack-knife, and, inasmuch as the making of one requires careful cutting, the exercise is a good test of a boy's skill with this handy tool. [illustration: fig. . fig. . fig. . details of a wooden chain and rattle.] in making the first chain and rattle, you had better use a pine block, as hard wood is not so easy for a beginner to handle. therefore, for a first attempt, select a piece of sound pine free from blemishes, and plane it down to the dimensions, seventeen inches long, two inches wide, and two inches thick. with a lead-pencil mark off ten divisions one inch apart, running the lines around the four sides of the block (see fig. ). then draw two lines lengthwise on each side of the block, as shown at _ab_ and =cd=, making them one-half inch apart and three-quarters of an inch from each edge. with a chisel, cut out the four corners of the block down to the tenth line, as represented by the shading in fig. . =the chain= is to be cut out of the remaining core, one link out of every two divisions. commencing at the top of the block, remove the shaded portions _t_ and _u_ (fig. ), as those would form only half links; then notch out the shaded corners marked _x_ in the drawing, and gradually cut the core into circular links. having finished this operation, draw a circle inside of each link, and cut out the wood inside of it. round the edges of the links as shown in the drawing of the finished chain (fig. ). your success in making a good chain will depend largely upon a good, sharp knife and careful cutting. with a dull knife you are almost certain to split the links when separating one from another. =the rattle= is to be made from the lower portion of the block. this part of the figure is more difficult to cut than the chain. first draw the two lines marked _hi_ and _jk_ in fig. one-half inch from the edges; then draw the cross lines _lm_, _no_, _pq_, and _rs_, as shown in the illustration. these lines should be similarly drawn upon the other three sides of the block. remove the wood from the spaces shaded in the drawing, and you will then have left a centre solid block from which to cut the ball. gently round the corners of this, and then gradually separate it from the surrounding framework. when this has been accomplished, the centre block will slip up and down. now continue cutting the block until it is a perfect round ball, but be careful not to make it small enough to fall out of the frame, for that would spoil the entire piece of work. after completing the cutting, sand-paper the links and rattle until they are perfectly smooth. then oil the wood or give it a coat of varnish. chapter xxviii cork toys [illustration: materials needed and finished articles.] it is surprising the number of small toys that can be made out of corks of different shapes and sizes with the aid of glue, pins, burnt matches, worsted, and cardboard. even though a boy has passed the kindergarten age, he will find this work entertaining for days when the weather is disagreeable without; and though he may not care to play with them himself, his work will not have been wasted, for a younger brother will surely be glad to have some cork animals and birds to add to his menagerie, and a sister no less delighted with a small log-cabin and set of cork furniture. flat and tapered corks can probably be found about the house on old jars and bottles, while the straight variety can be procured at any drug-store. in buying the latter ask for no. , inch and one-half, straight, common corks, half a gross of which will cost about twenty-five cents. [illustration: fig. .--the pig.] =cork animals= are peculiar-looking beasts of abnormal proportions, but all sorts of magical feats are performed by toy makers, and such wonders as =a pig= that can boast of a body as large as that of an elephant is commonly found among the so-called noah's ark animals. to make a pig, first draw its head, as in the drawing of fig. , upon a piece of cardboard, and then, after cutting it out, select a straight cork and make a slit in one end of it in which to stick the head. a little glue applied to the cardboard will hold the head in place. the pig's feet consist of four pieces of burnt matches pointed at the ends and stuck into the cork as shown in fig. , while the tail is formed of a piece of copper wire curled at one end and stuck into the cork. when the pig has been made, paint its head and feet to match its body. [illustration: fig. .--the horse.] =a horse= requires a cork of the same shape as that used for the pig. cut the head out of cardboard and glue it in a slit made in the end of the cork (see fig. ). dip the ends of four burnt matches in glue and stick them in the cork for legs, and fasten a few pieces of worsted in a hole made in the end of the cork for the tail. a piece of thread should be fastened about the animal's neck for reins. after making the horse, take another straight cork for =the elephant=, and cut the head, trunk, ears, and tusks out of a piece of cardboard as shown in the illustration (fig. ). cut the tail out of another piece of cardboard, and glue it in a slit made in the end of the cork. the legs are, of course, larger around than those of the horse, and, as matches will be too slender, whittle four short wooden pegs for them. point these pegs at one end, and, after dipping them in glue, stick them into the cork. [illustration: fig. .--the elephant.] [illustration: fig. .--the giraffe.] =the giraffe= is just as simple to make as any of the animals, for he is put together in the same manner, except that a tapered cork is used for the body. the head and neck are made in one piece of cardboard (see illustration), and a piece of worsted forms the tail. when you have painted the head and neck a tan color to match the cork, and marked a number of brown spots upon the body, this tall and most graceful of animals will appear very life-like. [illustration: fig. .--the korka-bird.] =a porcupine= is simple to make out of a long, straight cork with toothpicks cut into small pieces for quills, and stuck into the cork as close as you can place them. the head and other portions of this animal can easily be made with the aid of a natural history, and it will be a simple matter to devise =other animals= upon the same schemes as those just described, by consulting the pictures in one of these books. it is not necessary to always copy a real animal. use your ingenuity and see what queer-looking creatures you can make. figure gives a suggestion for one of these, which we will call =the korka-bird.=--you will see by looking at the drawing that the two legs are made of matches, the lower ends of which are stuck into a piece of cork for a standard; and the neck consists of a burnt match stuck into the end of the cork with its upper end split to receive the cardboard head. a small chicken-feather stuck into the top of the head (the cardboard being split enough to receive it), two others in the back, and a fourth in the end of the cork compose all the plumage this wonderful bird can boast of, but this lack of feathers is more than made up by a beautiful head, neck, body, and legs, which are gilded. [illustration: fig. .--the duck.] as a suggestion of what can be made in the way of water toys, =a duck= is shown in fig. . the body for this consists of a cork split in half, the head is cut out of a piece of cigar-box, and a small tin keel is fastened to the centre of the under side of the body. a few chicken feathers will form the tail. glue, of course, cannot be used upon the duck, as it would soften in water, so the pieces composing it will have to be fastened together by means of pins. other water toys, such as =canoes=, consisting of a cork split in half, lengthwise, with the inside scooped out by means of your knife, are made with a few minutes' work, and these can be transformed into =small sail-boats= by sticking a toothpick in the bow for a mast and rigging a tiny sail upon it. =cork furniture= is not a new idea for toys, but, inasmuch as many have never heard of them, a few examples of what can be made in this line have been introduced in this chapter. for =a chair=, such as shown in fig. , find a flat cork, and stick four pins in one side for legs, and five pins fairly close together in the other side for the chair-back (see illustration). when the pins have been properly placed, take some worsted and wind it around each of the four legs, crossing from one to another as shown in the drawing, thus forming the chair-rounds. also weave the worsted in and out around the pins forming the chair-back as in the drawing, so that all but the heads of the pins are covered when the operation is completed. [illustration: fig. .--chair.] =the sofa=, illustrated in fig. , is made after the same manner. split a straight cork lengthwise for the seat, placing it flat-side up, and stick pins around three edges of it upon which to wind the worsted. [illustration: fig. .--sofa.] =a small tabouret= is shown in fig. . select a straight cork for the base of this, and, after seeing that a good sharp edge is upon your knife, slice the cork lengthwise, making it hexagonal in shape. then stick six pins in the cork near the upper edge, placing one in each of the six edges (see illustration). when this has been done, weave worsted upon the pins in the same manner as the chair-back was formed. [illustration: fig. . tabouret.] [illustration: fig. .--a cork log-cabin.] =a toy log-cabin=, or slab-hut, as it would properly be called, as the building is first put up and then covered with corks split in half for slabs, is illustrated in fig. . a cardboard box should be procured out of which to make this little building, the proportion of which will determine the shape and size. turn the box bottom side up, and on it construct a gable-roof. cut two pieces of cardboard large enough to make a good projection over the ends of the building, and fasten them to the bottom of the box as shown in the drawing, gluing a number of linen strips to the pieces to hold them securely in place. two pieces of cardboard should be cut to fit the gable-ends, and glued in place with linen strips. cut windows in each side of the box and a door in each end. having completed the little cardboard cabin, split enough straight corks in half lengthwise to cover the walls. sharpen your knife well before commencing this work, so the corks will cut evenly and without breaking. begin gluing these half corks along the bottom of the walls, fitting them end to end as shown in the drawing, and placing one row above another. fit them neatly around the windows and door openings, and if they do not space out as evenly as shown in the illustration, cut some shorter pieces to fill in. the corks will quickly adhere to the cardboard if you press your finger against each for a second or two after placing it in position. the roof may be painted to represent boards or shingles, and a cork stuck in it as shown in the illustration will form the chimney. cover the window openings with paper. tissue-paper will admit more light than ordinary writing-paper, so probably will be the better material. hinge a piece of cardboard to the jamb of each door opening, using small pieces of linen for hinges. rule a few vertical lines upon the doors to represent the boards. all that now remains to be done to complete the cabin is the mounting, for which a seven-eighths-inch board should be procured. use linen strips to fasten the cabin upon this board, placing them upon the inside surfaces of the walls, which can be reached by running your hand through the door openings. chapter xxix definitions of terms and phrases [illustration: selection of books.] the terms and phrases used in describing the work included in this book have been arranged alphabetically in this chapter, together with their definitions. this has been done for the purpose of furnishing a boy with a handy reference, with definitions in a clear and simple form, covering only such points as apply to his particular kind of work. =abbreviations= =d= stands for "penny." e. g. d stands for sixteen-penny nails (see page ). =i.e.= or =i.e.= stands for "that is." =e. g.= or =e.g.= stands for "for example." =viz.= or =viz.= stands for "namely, to wit." ="= stands for "inch" or "inches." e. g. " means two inches. ='= stands for "foot" or "feet." e. g. ' means two feet. =etc.= stands for "and so forth." =abutting surface.=--next or adjoining. =animated animals.=--animals (such as those used in the back-yard circus) which are constructed and then given life. in the case of the circus animals, the boys who enclose themselves in the bodies furnish the animals with life. =bait-stick.=--a stick in a trap, upon which the bait is placed. it is also known as the trigger. =baluster.= see balustrade. =balustrade.=--a series of small spindles or posts (balusters), to the tops of which a bar (hand rail) is attached, placed along the sides of stairs and around stair openings. the hand rail is supported at either end by a post (newel post). e. g. see figs. and . also applied to a solid wall built up the sides of a stairway and around the stair openings. =batten door.=--a door formed by joining the boards together with battens. =battens.=--strips of wood, or cleats, fastened across two or more boards to hold them together, as in making a cover or door. e. g. see figs. , , and . =bevel.=--formed by cutting off the sharp edge of a board or any piece of work. e. g. see fig. . a tool used for laying out bevels =bird's mouth.=--a notch, v-shaped, or the form of a bird's mouth, cut in a piece of work. e. g. see fig. . =blind-nailing.= see page . =brace.=--a strip, board, or heavier piece fastened across two or more pieces to strengthen and steady them; a diagonal strip. =bracket.=--a support, generally triangular in shape, screwed or nailed to a wall or object to hold up such things as shelves and cabinets. =broom-wire.=--the fine wire which is bound around brooms to hold the straw to the end of the broom-stick. =bull's-eye.=--the centre ring of a target. =butt-joint.=--when the square end of one piece of wood butts or sets against another piece, the joint formed is known as a butt-joint. the pieces are not cut into as in the case of making other joints. =casings.=--the finishing strips placed around door and window openings. e. g. see figs. , , and . they are also known as trim. =chair rail.=--a narrow board fastened around the walls of a room at a height equal to that of an ordinary chair-back. =chamfer.=--formed by cutting off the sharp edge of a board. it is much the same as a bevel (see fig. ), but the term is more often applied to cases where the bevel is stopped, instead of running the entire length of the edge, and its ends rounded up to meet the square edge of the board. this form of chamfer is used for ornamental purposes, and is known as a stop chamfer. figure shows a form of chamfer used in planing end-wood. =cleats.=--strips of wood fastened to others to strengthen them; or strips secured to an object for the purpose of supporting a shelf or drawers. e. g. see figs. and ; also descriptions relating to same. =clinching nails.= see page . =corbelled brick.=--several courses (layers) of brick so laid that each projects a little beyond, or comes a little within, the course below. e. g. see corbelled chimney for doll-house, fig. , chapter vi. =corner stone.=--a stone placed in the corner of a foundation. =cornucopiæ.=--the plural for cornucopia; made by rolling paper or other material into the shape of cones or funnels. =countersunk.= see screws on page . =cross-piece.=--a piece that crosses another; a piece fastened in a horizontal or oblique position, and extended from one piece to another. =cross section.= see section. =details.=--the parts of which a thing consists; a detailed drawing is usually a working drawing, showing all the parts of a piece of work, with dimensions marked upon them. =diagonal.=--a strip, board, or heavier piece fastened in an oblique, or slanted, position--used in bracing (see bracing of toboggan platform framework, fig. ); also a line drawn obliquely to another line, several lines, or an object. =diagonally.=--in a diagonal direction. =diameter.=--the distance equal to a straight line passing through the centre of a circle or a circular object, terminated at both ends by the circumference, or the curved surface. =door frame.=--the wooden frame built in a door opening for the door to swing in. for definition of jambs, sill, and head, see window frame. =door-stops.=--wooden strips nailed around the jambs and head of a door frame, for the door to swing against, and to make a tight joint between the door and frame. =dovetail-joint.=--a tongue, undercut so as to make it wedge-shaped (somewhat the shape of a dove's tail), is prepared upon one piece, and a mortise, the shape and size of this tongue, is cut in the other piece for it to set into. e. g. see figs. and , and text on page , chapter xv. =dowelling.=--a process of securing together two edges or faces of a piece of work with pins of wood or metal. holes are bored in the edges or faces of the pieces, and wooden pegs are cut to fit them. these pegs are coated with glue and then driven into place. the edges or faces of the pieces are also covered with glue, and if the pieces have been properly planed so as to fit together perfectly, a tight joint will be obtained when the glue has dried. the work should be clamped until the glue has dried. e. g. see fig. . for nails used as dowels, see fig. . =dowels.=--the pegs or pins used in dowelling. =dressed.=--after lumber has been planed at a mill, it is known as "dressed stuff." a board may be dressed to the proper dimensions, that is, prepared either by sawing, planing, paring, or scraping. =driving home a nail.=--the act of applying the finishing strokes of a hammer upon the head of a nail in driving it into wood (see driving nails, page ). =drop.=--a piece of scenery hung from the gridiron above the stage. e. g. see figs. , , and . =elevation.=--a straight side or end view of an object. e. g. see fig. . =em.=--a square type. used as a unit in measuring type. the letter "m" in type originally had a square end. =en.=--a type half an "em" in width. =end-plate.=--a timber, such as a two-by-four or two-by-six, placed across the tops of the studs in the end of a framework, for the roof rafters or the floor joists above to rest upon. e. g. see fig. . when placed across the studs in the side of a framework it is known as a side-plate. =end-wood.=--wood which has been cut across the grain and shows the ends of the grain upon its surface. e. g. the end of a stick. =equidistant.=--equally distant. =finishing nail.=--a nail with a small head used on surfaces to be exposed, where it is desirable to make as small nail holes as possible. the finishing nail is very handy for all kinds of small work. =fishing.=--an operation where two or more pieces are joined together, end to end, by means of strips (known as fish-plates) nailed or screwed across the joints. it is also known as a fish-joint, and is a common form of splice. e. g. see fig. . =flange.=--a projecting rim such as the edge of a spool. =flush.=--a surface of a board is said to be flush with the surface of another when those boards are so placed together that the two surfaces are even, or extend along the same line or plane. =font.=--an assortment of type of one size and style, including a certain number of each letter in the alphabet (large and small), punctuation marks, and such characters as are necessary in printing. spaces and quads are sold separately. =foundation.=--the base upon which a building rests. usually made of stone, brick, or posts, and placed below the surface of the ground. =gable-end.=--that portion of a wall which extends into the angle formed by a gable or gambrel roof. e. g. see figs. , , , and . =gauge of tracks.=--the distance between the tracks. =grease paint.=--a paint for the purpose of making-up the face in preparation for a circus or entertainment of some sort. prepared of a composition easily removed, and free from injurious substances. =gridiron.=--the framework above the stage from which the scenery drops are suspended. the framework consists of a series of parallel bars resembling a gridiron. =groove.=--a channel or hollow cut in a piece of wood. in a tongued-and-grooved board it is the hollow in which the tongue fits. =halving.= see fig. ; also description on page . this joint is also known as a halved-joint. =hand rail.= see balustrade. =hem.=--the edge of a piece of cloth doubled over and sewed, to strengthen it and prevent the threads from ravelling. =hexagonal.=--six-sided. =horizontal.=--parallel to the horizon. =hornstone.=--a variety of quartz having the appearance of flint, but more brittle. =kerf.=--the opening, or narrow slot, made in sawing. =latch-pocket.= see spring-catch. =lath.=--a strip approximately one and one-half inches wide, three-eighths of an inch thick, and four feet long. nailed across the walls and ceiling of a room upon which to place plaster. =locking-up.=--the process of tightening a form of type so as to hold it together (see description, page ). =longitudinal section.= see section. =making-up.=--painting the face as a disguise or to show expression marks. =mitre.=--the end of a board is mitred when cut off at an angle of forty-five degrees. although applied to other angles, the term mitre is understood to mean a forty-five degree cut, unless otherwise stated (see bench-hook, fig. , and mitre-box, fig. , chapter i; also descriptions of their use). =mitred try-square.=--used for laying off mitres (see figs. and , chapter ii). =mortise.=--a slot or cavity made in a piece of wood to receive the end of another piece. e. g. see figs. , , , chapter xv. bevelled mortise.--a mortise with its bottom or sides bevelled. e. g. see fig. , chapter i. =mould.=--something which serves to give the proper form to an object. e. g. the mould for shaping a canvas canoe, fig. , chapter xv. =newel post.= see balustrade. =notch.=--a hollow cut in anything; a nick; an indentation. to notch.--to cut in small hollows, as to notch a stick. e. g. see fig. , chapter xiv, and fig. , chapter xxvii. =obsidian.=--a form of lava. =on centres.=--in spacing studs or strips of any kind, they are spoken of as being placed a certain number of inches on centres. e. g. twelve inches on centres means that the distance from the centre of one piece to the centre of another is twelve inches. =out of plumb.=--not vertical; not perpendicular to the horizon. =out of square.=--askew; oblique; not true. =parallel.=--lines or objects are parallel to one another when they have the same direction, and all corresponding points are equidistant from one another. =perpendicular.=--vertical; plumb; in an upright position. =perspective.=--a perspective is a drawing showing an object in the form in which it appears to the eye. the lines converge, or approach nearer together, as they go away from the eye, until they finally meet at a point on the horizon, or a line drawn to represent the horizon. e. g. in looking down a railway track the telegraph poles and tracks appear to run together on the line of the horizon. =pica.=--the standard of measurement in printing. a name given to a size of type which measures one-sixth of an inch high (measured from the nicked side to the side opposite); and seventy-two ems (see em) measure one foot. =pie.=--a mixed assortment of type. see page , chapter ix. =pieing type or making pie.=--spilling or mixing up type. =pipe-straps.=--iron straps used mostly by pipe-fitters to fasten gas-piping in place. e. g. see figs. and . =pitch.=--the pitch of a board is the degree to which it has been tilted. =plan.=--a drawing showing a view of an object, looking down upon it, either on top of it (e. g. see figs. and ), or with the upper portion sliced off (e. g. see fig. . this shows a plan of the log-cabin at a level of the door and windows, with the upper portion removed). =plank.=--lumber two inches or more in thickness is known as planks or planking. anything of less thickness is known as boards. =plumb.=--perpendicular; vertical; true. an instrument for determining whether or not an object is plumb (see fig. , chapter i). =proscenium.=--the front portion of a stage. the proscenium arch is the arch or frame extending around the front of the stage of a theatre. =pumice stone.=--a porous rock, of extreme lightness, used for polishing metals; for smoothing the surface of wood; and for smoothing the surface of a coat of paint before applying a second coat (see painting of canvas canoe, page ). =pyrotechnics.=--the art of making fireworks; fireworks; the composition and use of fireworks. =quad.=--an abbreviation for quadrat. a block of type-metal lower than the type, used for filling out lines, and for spacing between lines. a -em quad is two "ems" in width, and a -em quad three "ems" in width. =quartz.=--glassy crystals, having the form of a six-sided prism, terminated at each end by a pyramid. it is colorless, or transparent, when pure, and more or less opaque and in various colors when impure. =quoins.=--the wedges used to tighten or lock-up a form of type. e. g. see figs. and . =rabbet.=--a groove or hollow cut in a piece of work, generally for the purpose of joining it with some other material. e. g. the sides of the bow and stern pieces of the canvas canoe described in chapter xv are rabbeted so the ribbands and the edge of the canvas will fit in them (see figs. and , chapter xv). =radius.=--the distance from the centre of a circle to any point upon its circumference. it equals one-half of the length of the diameter. =rasp.=--a file with coarse teeth, used for working upon wood. =recess.=--a niche in a wall; a space or opening formed by the wall setting in a little way. =reënforce.=--to strengthen; to supply additional strength with strips or braces. =ridge.=--an edge of a roof formed by the meeting of two sloping surfaces. the top edge of a peaked roof. e. g. see fig. , chapter xiv. =ridge-boards.=--the boards fastened along the ridge of a roof to cover the joint. e. g. see fig. , chapter xiv. =right angle.=--an angle of ninety degrees. at right angles.--so as to form a right angle. =rubbing down.=--bringing to a smooth surface by rubbing with sand-paper, emery-paper, or pumice stone. =rustic.=--made of limbs of trees in their natural form. =sagging.=--the bending of a body by its own weight, or by a load placed upon it. =sapling.=--a young tree. =sash.=--the frame which holds the glass of a window. also applied to the frame with the glass in place. =scraping.=--a piece of glass or the blade removed from a plane is used for scraping a piece of work to give it a smoother surface than can be obtained by using a plane upon it. =section.=--a part. =section drawing.=--a drawing made of an object, showing it as it would look if you were to cut it open or split it in two. the portions which would have to be cut through, in such an operation, are shaded in a drawing of this kind. e. g. see fig. , chapter xv; fig. , chapter xxi; and fig. , chapter xxii. a cross section is a section taken through the short way of an object. a longitudinal section is a section taken through the long way of an object. =selvage.=--the selvage of cloth or wire-mesh is the edge which has been so woven as to prevent ravelling. =semicircle.=--half a circle. =set of a saw's teeth.= see page , chapter ii. =setting nails.= see page , chapter ii. =shape it down.=--a term used to imply that the board or piece of work shall be gradually cut down until it approaches its finished form and size. =shooting stick.=--an iron or wooden tool with a head on one end, used to lock-up the quoins in a form of type. e. g. see fig. , chapter ix. =sills.=--the lowest horizontal timbers in a building of any kind on which the structure rests. see also window frame. =sleepers.=--the timbers supporting the lower floor of a building, distinguished from joists by being filled in between with cinders or concrete. e. g. see fig. , chapter xiii. =slip-knot.=--a noose which slips along the line or rope around which it is tied. e. g. see fig. , chapter xvii. =slot.=--a mortise, or hole, with sides square or nearly so. made by boring several holes, and then connecting and squaring them up with a chisel. =space.=--a thin piece of type-metal, lower than the type, used between words, and for spacing out lines. a -em space is a third of an "em" in width, a -em a quarter of an "em" in width, a -em a fifth of an "em," and an -em (known as a hair space) is an eighth of an "em." =spike.=--a twentypenny nail (four inches long) and all lengths greater. see list of sizes on page , chapter ii. to spike a board in place is to fasten it with spikes. =spliced.=--two pieces are spliced when joined together, generally end to end, in such a way that they are held together and act as one piece. e. g. see fig. , chapter xiii, and fishing. =spring-catch.=--a small lock, such as shown in figs. , , and . the latch is operated by a small knob, and is thrown into position by a small spring. the metal socket which is screwed in place for the latch to spring into is known as the latch-pocket. =sprint.=--a short race run at full speed. =squaring lines.=--by squaring lines across a board is meant the operation of drawing lines across a board with a try-square, the head of the try-square being placed against the tried-edge of the board so those lines will be at right angles to that tried-edge. e. g. see fig. , chapter ii. =staple.=--a u-shaped piece of metal, with two sharp points which are driven into wood in the same way as a nail. =stock.=--material; supplies. the brace which holds the bit for boring; the block which holds the blade of a plane (see fig. , chapter ii); the portion of a gun which contains the barrel and trigger. =stops.= see door-stops and window-stops. =strap-hinge.=--a hinge with long arms, or flaps, which extend over a larger area than those of an ordinary hinge, and give it the power of withstanding greater strains. =studs.=--the smaller pieces of timber used in the framework of a building, to which the siding is attached, or to which the laths are nailed. known also as studding. =stuff.=--in carpenter work this term is applied to the different sizes of lumber. e. g. seven-eighths-inch stuff means boards seven-eighths of an inch thick; two-inch-stuff is lumber two inches thick. =stunt.=--originally a slang word used to denote a trick or feat of some sort. it is now generally recognized as a legitimate word. =swivel.=--a fastening with a pivot which allows the object attached to it to revolve without twisting the cord, wire, or chain, by which that object is suspended. e. g. see fig. , chapter xviii; and page . =taper.=--to make gradually smaller in diameter toward one end; to gradually diminish toward a point. =temper.=--steel and iron tools are given their necessary degree of hardness by a process of heating and cooling, known as tempering. too much friction obtained while grinding a tool will destroy this temper, making it necessary to re-temper it. =toe-nailing.= see page . =tongue.=--the projecting edge of a tongued-and-grooved board. a projecting pin cut on a piece of wood to fit a mortise of the same shape cut in another piece of wood. used in making dovetail-joints. e. g. see figs. and , chapter xv. =tongued-and-grooved boards.=--boards with a groove along one edge and a tongue along the opposite edge, so that the tongue of one board will fit in the groove of another, thus forming a fairly tight joint. these boards are known also as matched boards. =trench.=--a ditch; a long channel. =tried-edge of work.= see testing work, page . =trim.=--the wooden casings placed around door and window openings (see figs. , , and , chapter v). to dress a piece of work; to cut; to make smooth. =turnstile.=--a post upon the top of which four horizontal arms are pivoted to revolve, so as to allow but one person to pass at a time (see fig. , chapter xix, and description of construction on page ). =two-by-four.=--a piece two inches thick by four inches wide used for supports and the construction of frameworks. pieces of other dimensions are also known and spoken of by their sizes in inches. e. g. two-by-sixes, two-by-eights, and two-by-tens. =typographical.=--relating or pertaining to typography. =typography.=--the art of setting type. =undercutting.=--as the term implies, the wood is undercut, or cut under, thus making it wedge-or v-shaped. e. g. see fig. , chapter xv; also text on page . =upright.=--an upright is a piece of timber which is perpendicular when in place. =valance.=--a drapery for a couch or bed. e. g. see couch in illustration of a boy's room, chapter v. =vertical.=--perpendicular to the horizon; upright; plumb; straight up and down. =wainscot.=--a lining placed upon the inside walls of a building. it was originally made of oak timbers, known as wainscot, but the term is now applied to any kind of wood, burlap, tapestry, or other material applied in the same manner. as a rule, it extends but part way up a wall, starting at the floor line. =warped.=--twisted out of shape. =washer.=--a ring placed beneath the head of a bolt to give it a broader bearing surface, and thus prevent it from cutting into the surface of the piece of work. it is also placed under a nut to prevent it from working loose. =wedge-shaped.=--v-shaped. =window frame.=--the wooden frame built in the window opening for the sash to fit into. the jambs are the sides of this frame, the sill the bottom piece upon which the jambs rest, and the head the top piece of the frame. e. g. see figs. and , chapter xiii, and fig. , chapter xiv. =window-stops.=--wooden strips nailed around the jambs, head, and sill of a window frame to prevent rain and wind from entering between the sash and its frame. =wing.=--a piece of scenery placed at the side of the stage. e. g. see figs. , , , , and , chapter xxiv. index a advertisements for amateur paper, ; dummy for, . advertisers' dummy, . advertising signs for circus, . amateur journalism, . amateur papers, methods of printing, ; specimens of, , , , , , and group opposite ; character of, ; naming of, ; frequency of publication of, ; size of page of, ; heading for, ; choice of type for, ; cover for, ; binding, ; advertisements for, ; second-class rates for, . andirons for doll-house fire-place, . animals, animated, ; cork, _see_ cork animals. animated animals, . archery, scoring of points in, ; position for shooting in, . arrow-heads, ; indian, . arrow-shafts, ; feathering of, ; indian, . arrows, shingle, . ash-sifter, an, . athletic club, organizing an, . athletic meets, . attendants, circus, . automatic-drill, use of an, . automobiles, clockwork, ; touring-car, ; delivery-wagon, . b back-saw, use of the, . back-yard circus, a, _see_ circus. back-yard club-house, a, _see_ club-house. back-yard toboggan-slide, _see_ toboggan-slide. bailey plane, the, . ballista, the ancient, . balustrades, doll-house, , . barrel-hoop target, . bath-room as a dark-room, a, . batten door, a, for club-house, . battles, mimic, with paper soldiers, . battleships, cardboard, . beams, deck, for canvas canoe, . bean-blower, a magazine, . bedroom as a dark-room, a, . beds, doll-house, ; pine-bough, . bench-hook, how to make a, ; use of a, , . bench-screw, iron and wooden, . bench-stops, . bench-vise, how to make the, . bevel, how to use the, . bevelling, . bilge-keels for canvas canoe, . binding of amateur papers, . "bird's mouth" cut, . bits, a rack for, ; use of, . bit-stock, use of, ; selection of, . blacking-case, a, . blind-nailing, . blockhouse scene, a, . book-shelves, . boring, . bow and arrow, the, . bow, length of, ; the indian's, . bow piece for canvas canoe, . bow-string, the, . box trap, the, . boy about the house, the, . boy's dark-room, a, . boy's printing-shop, a, . boy's room, suggestions for a, ; suitable furnishings for a, . boy's workshop, a, . braces, deck, for canvas canoe, . bread-board, how to make a, . broom and dust-pan rack, a handy, . bullets, cardboard, . bunks for log-cabin, . butt-joint, a, . button-locks for club-house, . c cabinet, a tool-, ; a special tool-, ; a curio-, . cabin, log-, _see_ log-cabin. cages for side show, . calking cracks, . camera, profitable work with a, . camping, pointers for, ; utensils for, ; other necessary articles for, ; provisions for, . camp-table, a, . cannon, danger of store, ; a fire-cracker, ; another toy, . canoe, how to build a canvas, ; materials for, ; putting together framework of, ; canvas covering for framework of, ; painting of, . canvas canoe, _see_ canoe. canvas covering for canoe, . car for toy railway, a simple, ; a gondola, ; a street, ; other cars, . carpenter's carrying-box, a, . carpenter's horses, . carpenter work, advantages of understanding, . carpets for doll-house, . carrying-box, a carpenter's, . case, a blacking-, ; upper and lower type-, ; scheme for laying type-, ; the yankee job-, ; a negative-, . casters for doll-house, . catapult, the ancient, . catch, spring-, for doll-house, ; for stable, ; for club-house, . chain and rattle, a wooden, . chairs, miniature mission, . chamfering, . chariot, a circus, . chase, the type, . _chemistry news_, the, , . chimney, doll-house, , ; log-cabin, . chisels, racks for, ; forms of, ; how to use the firmer-, ; framing-, ; paring with, ; grinding of, . cigar-boxes, preparation of, . cigar-box furniture, _see_ furniture. circus, a back-yard, ; the ancient roman, ; the modern, ; how several boys gave a, ; preparing a back-yard for a, ; ideas for performance of, ; parades, . classifying negatives, ; manila envelopes for, . clinching nails, . clock, a miniature grandfather's, . clockwork automobiles, . clockwork railway, . clockwork tick-tack, a, . clothes, workshop, ; hooks for workshop, . clothes-line reel, a handy, . clown, suit for, ; stunts for, ; slapper for the, . club, organizing an athletic, . club-house, a back-yard, ; drawing plan of, ; staking out, ; material for, . coaming for cockpit, . cockpit, ; coaming for, . colored lights for miniature theatre, . compass-saw, use of the, . composing-rule, a, ; how to use a, . composing-stick, how to use the, . composing type, . coop trap, the, . cork animals, ; a pig, ; a horse, ; the elephant, ; the giraffe, ; a porcupine, ; other animals, . cork toys, ; animals, ; the korka-bird, ; a duck, ; boats, ; furniture, ; a toy log-cabin, . corner, how to fit up a cosey-, . cosey-corner, how to fit up a, ; a doll-house, . couch, a, ; covering of, . countersink, use of the, . cracks, calking, . cross-bar for jump standards, . cross-bow, the ancient, ; new idea for a, . cross-cut saw, use of the, . cupboard, provision, . curio-cabinet, a, ; finishing of, ; catalogue for, . curtain, drop-, . curtains for doll-house, . curves, drawing, . d dark-lantern, a home-made, . dark-room, a boy's, ; a bedroom as a, ; a bath-room as a, ; another scheme for a, . dead fall trap, the, . deck beams for canvas canoe, . deck braces for canvas canoe, . definitions of terms and phrases, . delivery-wagon, a clockwork automobile, ; frame for, ; cardboard sides for, ; the wheels, ; other portions of, ; painting, . desk, how to make a writing-, ; another style of, ; finishing of, . disappearing rope, the, . distribution of type, . divide a board, to, . doll furniture, . doll-house, how to make a, ; the store, ; painting the, ; another style of, ; furnishing the, . door, batten, for club-house, ; log-cabin, . doors, doll-house, , ; trim for, ; stable, . dowelling, . drawing, parallel lines, ; enlarging by squares, ; curves, . draw-knife, use of a, ; how to grind the, . dresser, a doll's, ; a cigar-box, . drill, an automatic-, . driving nails, . drop-curtain, . drops for miniature theatre, , . drying-rack, a, ; another scheme for a, . duck, a cork, . dummy, the advertisers', . dust-pan and broom rack, a handy, . e elastic sling, an, . elephant, a circus, ; tricks for the, ; a cork, . elevator, a doll-house, ; shaft for, ; car of, ; guide-wires for, ; pulleys, chain, and weight for, . enlarging by squares, . enterprise, a winter, . equipment of workshop, ; of printing-shop, ; of dark-room, . f feathering arrow-shafts, . feed-hoist for stable, . feed-troughs for stable, . field scene, a, . figure-four trap, the, . filter for dark-room tank, . fire-cracker cannon, a, . fire-cracker mortar, a, . fire-crackers, firing, from kites, . fire-place, doll-house, ; log-cabin, , . fireworks, danger and cost of making, ; harmless and inexpensive, . firing roman-candles from kites, ; fire-crackers from kites, ; nigger-chasers with cross-bow, . firmer-chisels, use of, . fishing studs, . fish-plates, . floodlights, . floor, back-yard club-house, ; mud, for log-cabin, . floors, doll-house, , , ; finishing of hardwood, . fly-killer, a simple, ; use of the, . folding-bed, a cigar-box, . footlights, . fore-plane, use of the, . form, locking up a, ; overlaying the, ; underlaying the, . fountain pen, a home-made, . fourth of july, suggestions for, ; the first, . frames for scenery drops, . frames, picture-, for a boy's room, . framing-chisels, use of, . franklin, benjamin, . furniture, cork, ; a chair, ; the sofa, ; a tabouret, . furniture, mission, ; chairs, ; settee, ; tables, ; another design for tables, ; side-board, ; a mirror, ; grandfather's clock, ; kitchen furniture, ; beds, ; dresser, ; wash-stand, ; finishing of, . furniture, suitable for a boy's room, ; selection of doll-house, ; doll-, ; metal, ; other cigar-box, ; printer's metal and wooden, . g gable-ends, the doll-house, , ; the stable, . gable roof for doll-house, ; for stable, . galley, a home-made, . gambrel roof for doll-house, . gauge-pins, . gauging with rule and pencil, ; with the marking-gauge, . gig-saw, use of the, . giraffe, a circus, ; looping the hoop on a, ; tricks for the, ; a cork, . goblin-man, the, . gondola car, a, . gouge, use of the, ; how to grind the, . grandfather's clock, a miniature, . _gratz park news_, the, . grinding, the proper method of, . grind-stone, use of the, . gun, a shot-, . guns, ancient, . gunwales for canvas canoe, ; outside, . gymnasium, an outdoor, ; location of, . h halloween, ; ancient superstitions of, ; origin of, . halving, . hammer, selection of, . handling of tools, the proper, . hatchet, paring with a, ; how to grind a, . hinge-lock, the, . hinges, strap-, ; wooden, . hook, how to make a bench-, . hooks, hat and coat, . hoop, looping the, on a giraffe, . horizontal bar, a, . horse, the circus wild, ; the cork, . horses, carpenter's, . house, the boy about the, ; how to make a doll-, ; another doll-, ; a back-yard club-, _see_ club-house. hurdles, . i ideas for a circus performance, . imposing-stone, the, . indian, story of a trapped, . inking the press, . ink-stand and pen-tray, an, . interior scene, an, . j jack-plane, use of the, . japanese lanterns, for decorating circus tent, ; hung from kite-string, . jobbing, ; outfit for, . jocko, . johnstone, mary jane, . jointed figures, ; operation of, . journalism, amateur, . jump standards, a pair of, . justifying, . k keel for canvas canoe, ; bilge-, . keelson for canvas canoe, . kerf, definition of, . kitchen furniture for doll-house, . kites, firing fireworks from, . knife, work to do with a, . knives, how to grind, . korka-bird, the, . l ladder, stable hay-loft, ; toboggan-slide, . _lake high school daily_, the, . lantern, a home-made dark-, . lanterns, japanese, for circus tent, ; hung from kite-string, . latch, wooden, for club-house, ; for log-cabin, . laying out work, ; tools for, . _ledger, the_, . letter, a mysterious, . lightning, how to imitate, . lock, workshop door, ; a hinge-, ; spring-catch for doll-house, ; spring-catch for stable, ; club-house, ; button for club-house, ; for turnstile, . locking up a form, ; quoins, shooting-stick, and key for, . lock-joint, the, . log-cabin, how to build a, ; the pioneer, ; the modern, ; site for, ; design and size of, ; material for, ; staking out, ; furnishings for, ; a toy, . looping the hoop on a giraffe, . m magazine bean-blower, a, . magic pin-wheel, the, . mantel and fire-place, a doll-house, . mantel-shelf for log-cabin, . mark for broad jumping, . marking-gauge, a, ; how to operate a, . materials, receptacles for printing, ; cabinet for dark-room, . mechanical effects for miniature theatre, . mid-ocean scene, a, . mimic battles with paper soldiers, . miniature theatre, a, _see_ theatre. _mirror, the_, , . mirror for doll-house, . mission furniture, doll, _see_ furniture. mitre-box, how to make a, . monkey, make-up for, ; tricks for, ; chariot for, . mortar, a fire-cracker, . mould for canvas canoe, . mysterious letter, a, . n nail-box, how to make a, . nailing, toe-, ; blind-, . nails, driving, ; withdrawing, ; clinching, ; forms of, ; sizes of, . nail-set, the, . negative-case, ; finishing of, . nigger-chasers, firing, with cross-bow, . o ocean scene, an, . office, ticket, . oil-stone, selection of, ; the washita, . oily rags and waste, care of, , . outdoor gymnasium, an, . overlaying a form, . p packing-cases for doll-house, , . paddle, a single, . papering the doll-house, . papers, amateur, _see_ amateur papers. parades, circus, . parallel bars, . parallel lines, to draw, . paring, . partitions, doll-house, , ; stable stall, . pen, a home-made fountain, . penants, college, for cosey-corner, . pen-tray, an ink-stand and, . picture-frame, a proscenium, . picture-frames for a boy's room, . pictures, suitable, for a doll-house, . "pieing," . pig, a cork, . pin-wheel, the magic, . pistol, a toy, ; cardboard bullets for, . plan, drawing, for club-house, . plane, use of the jack-, the fore-, and the smoothing-, ; the stanley, ; the bailey, ; printer's, . plane-iron, how to grind a, ; how to whet a, . planes, choice of, . planing, position for, ; wood with crooked grain, ; end-wood, . plate-lifter, a, . plate-rack, a, ; staining of, . platform for punching-bag, . platform for toboggan-slide, . plough, a snow, . plumb, how to make a, ; how to use a, . points, scoring of, in archery, . pole, a vaulting, . pond, for miniature theatre, . porcupine, a cork, . portieres for doll-house, . posters for a boy's room, . preserving negatives, ; manila envelopes for, . press association, the national amateur, ; the united amateur, ; the interstate amateur, ; the western amateur, ; local amateur, ; advantages of membership in a, . presswork, pointers for, . printing, ; neatness in, . printing-press, starting with a small, ; inking the, . printing-shop, a boy's, ; location of, ; the author's, ; equipment of, . proofs, striking, ; correcting, ; disposing of waste, . proper handling of tools, the, . properties for miniature theatre, . proscenium, a picture-frame, . provision cupboard, . provisions for camping, . punching-bag platform, . punctures in a canvas canoe, to mend, . purchasing tools, advice about, . q quiver, . quoins, . r rabbit snare, . rack, steel-square, ; a broom and dust-pan, ; a plate-, ; a towel-, ; type-case, ; a washing-, ; a drying-, ; another scheme for a drying-, . racks, bit and chisel, ; other tool, . railing for toboggan-slide, . railway, making a toy, ; materials for, ; trolley-line for, ; power for operating, ; tracks for, ; cars for, ; operation of, ; station for, ; a clockwork, . rain, how to imitate, . reel, a clothes-line, . reënforcing runners of sled, . ribbands for canvas canoe, . ridge boards, . ridge pieces for canvas canoe, . ring for a back-yard circus, . ring master, costume for, ; duties of the, . rip-saw, use of the, . roar of cannon, how to imitate, . rocks for seashore scene, . rollers, the proper care of printing, . roman candles, firing, from kites, . roman circus, the, . roof, the gambrel, ; the gable, , ; tar-paper for back-yard club-house, ; log-cabin, ; covering of cabin, . room, suggestions for a boy's, ; suitable furnishings for a boy's, . rope, the disappearing, . rope bar for jump standards, . ruby lantern for dark-room, a home-made, . ruby-light, a, . rule, a composing, . runners for sled, ; reënforcing, . running track, a, . running water for dark-room, . rustic bridges for miniature theatre, . rustic seats, , . s sail-boats, toy cork, . sand-paper block, a, . sash for workshop, ; for back-yard club-house, ; for log-cabin, . saw, use of cross-cut, ; use of rip-, ; difference in teeth of cross-cut and rip-, ; the back-, ; the compass-and gig-, . sawing, the proper manner of, . saws, choice of, ; sharpening of, . scene, an ocean, ; a mid-ocean, ; a seashore, ; a field, ; a blockhouse, ; a street, ; an interior, . scenery, material for, ; frames for, ; drops, , ; wings, , , , ; trees, , ; rustic bridges, ; pond or lake, . scenery, properties, and mechanical effects, . scoring of points in archery, . scraper, a snow, . screw, iron and wooden bench-, . screw-driver, a desirable, . screws, forms of, . seashore scene, a, . seat, a window-, ; rustic, , ; canvas canoe, . seats for a back-yard circus, . second-class matter, . set-piece, a final, . settee, a miniature mission, . sharpening tools, . shelves, workshop, ; book-, . shingle arrows, . shingles for log-cabin, . shooting in archery, position for, . shooting-stick, a printer's, . shooting-torch, a, . shot-gun, a, . shovel, a snow, . side-board, a miniature mission, . side show, the circus, . sieve trap, the, . sifter for ashes, . signs, advertising, for circus, . sink for dark-room, . slapper, the clown's, . sled, a home-made, ; iron runners for, ; reënforcing runners of, . sling, an elastic, . smith, collection of mr. e. h., . smoothing-plane, use of the, . snare, a rabbit, . snow plough, a, . snow scraper, a, . snow shovel, a, . soldiers for miniature theatre, ; standards for, , ; jointed, . specimens of amateur papers, , , , , , and group opposite . spotlights, . spring-board, a, . spring-catch, _see_ catch. sprints, method of starting, . stable, how to build a, ; painting the, . stage, construction of, _see_ theatre. stairways, doll-house, , . stall partitions for stable, . standards, a pair of jump, . stanley plane, the, . station for toy railway, . steel-square, rack for, ; laying out work with the, . steps, front, ; rear, . stern piece for canvas canoe, . stick, composing-, ; the shooting-, . stops, bench-, . street car, a, . street scene, a, . strop, how to make a, ; how to use a, . stropping, . studs, fishing, ; placing of, for club-house, . supplies, receptacles for workshop, ; cabinet for dark-room, . swivel for punching-bag, a, . t table, a miniature mission, ; another design of, ; a camp-, . tank, water, for dark-room, . target, a barrel-hoop, ; a simpler, . tar-paper for club-house roof, . teepee, a paper, . tent for back-yard circus, ; decorating, . tents, paper, . testing work, ways of, . theatre, a miniature, ; framework for, ; the gridiron, ; the stage floor, ; drop-curtain, ; setting up, ; tickets for, ; a war drama for, . thunder, how to imitate, . ticket office, . tickets for circus, ; for miniature theatre, . tick-tack, a new style of, ; a clockwork, . toboggan-slide, a back-yard, ; location of, ; length of, ; material for, . toe-nailing, . tool-cabinet, a, ; for special tools, . tools, purchasing of, ; list from which to select, ; proper handling of, ; lending, ; sharpening, . torch, a shooting-, . touring-car, a clockwork automobile, ; frame for, ; belt for, ; testing the machine, ; cardboard sides of, ; wheels for, ; mud-guards for, ; lamps for, ; steering-wheel for, ; brake for, ; chauffeur for, ; painting, . towel-rack, a, . toy guns, targets, and bows and arrows, . toy railway, making a, _see_ railway. toys, cork, . track, a running, . tracks for toy railway, . trains, cardboard, . trap, the figure-four, ; the box, ; the dead fall, ; the sieve, ; the coop, ; a rabbit snare, ; a twitch-up, . traps, home-made, . trebuchets, ancient, . trees, , ; standards for, ; pine boughs for, . tried-edge, the, . trimmings, of doll-house, outside, ; interior, ; stable, . trolley-line for toy railway, . try-square, testing work with the, ; laying out work with the, ; a mitred-handle, . tumbling-mat, a, . turnstile, a, ; lock for, . twitch-up, a, . tympan, the printing-press, . tympan-sheets, . type, selection of, ; composition of, ; pieing, ; distribution of, ; washing, . type-cases, upper and lower, ; scheme for laying, ; the yankee job, ; rack for, . typesetting, . u underlaying a form, . utensils for camping, . v vaulting, pole for, . vise, how to make a, . w wagons, cardboard, . walls, doll-house, , , ; stable, , ; club-house, . wardrobe, cigar-box, . washing-box, a, ; rack of, ; box of, ; how to use the, . wash-stand, a doll's, . waste and oily rags, care of, , . water, running, for dark-room, ; filter for, . water-tank for dark-room, . waves for ocean scene, . weapons, ancient, . whetstone, selection of, ; the washita, . whetting, the proper way of, . wicks, book by mr. w. s., . wild horse, the circus, . wild man of borneo, the, , . wind, how to imitate, . window, for workshop, ; for back-yard club-house, . windows, doll-house, , ; dormer, ; glass for, ; casement, ; divided glass for, ; stable, ; log-cabin, , . window-seat, a, . wings for miniature theatre, , , , . winter enterprise, a, ; contracting work for, . withdrawing nails, . wooden chain and rattle, . work, laying out, . work to do with a knife, . work-bench, a solid, . workshop, a boy's, ; location of, ; clothes for, . work-table for dark-room, . writing-desk, how to make a, ; another style of, ; finishing of, . y yankee job-case, the, . [transcriber's note emphasis notation for italic is _text_ and bold is =text=. whole and fractional parts of numbers is displayed as - / . exponents are prefaced by a carat (^) as e^ .] rustic carpentry _with numerous engravings and diagrams_ edited by paul n. hasluck editor of "work" and "building world" author of "handybooks for handicrafts," etc. etc. [illustration] cassell and company, limited _london, paris, new york & melbourne. mcmvii_ all rights reserved preface. this handbook contains, in a form convenient for everyday use, a number of articles on rustic carpentry contributed by various authors to work--one of the journals it is my fortune to edit. readers who may desire additional information respecting special details of the matters dealt with in this handbook, or instructions on kindred subjects, should address a question to the editor of work, la belle sauvage, london, ec., so that it may be answered in the columns of that journal. p. n. hasluck. _la belle sauvage, london._ _april, ._ contents. chapter page i.--light rustic work ii.--flower stands, vases, etc. iii.--tables iv.--chairs and seats v.--gates and fences vi.--rosery walk vii.--porches viii.--canopy for swing ix.--aviary x.--foot-bridges xi.--verandahs xii.--tool houses, garden shelters, etc. xiii.--summer houses index list of illustrations. fig. page .--photograph frame and wall bracket combined .--section of bracket .--small easel .--attaching support to easel .--mitred joint .--mortise and tenon joint , .--flower holder , - .--rustic hall stand , .--plant stool - .--window box , .--flower-pot stand .--bending saplings .--fixing rails, etc., to posts .--vase on tripod stand .--joint of hexagon sides of vase .--securing sides and legs of vase to base .--section of twigs at angles of vase , .--flower-pot stand .--joining rails to uprights .--supporting end shelves of flower-pot stand .--fixing centre shelves of stand .--large square vase .--large hexagonal vase .--vase with claw foot .--foot of rustic table .--garden plant tub , .--mouldings .--plant vase .--rectangular garden plant stand - .--rustic pedestal .--flower-pot stand .--square table .--hexagon table , .--top of hexagon table , .--armchair .--fixing seat rails to leg of armchair .--plan of armchair seat frame , .--garden seat , .--joints of rails and posts .--arm-rest for garden seat .--part plan of seat , .--garden seat , .--front rail, cross rail, and battens .--part plan of seat - .--garden seat with canopy - .--plan of canopy , .--canopy panels .--plan of seat - .--garden gate , - .--joints in gate frame , .--fixing ends of twigs .--closing stile - .--rustic gates , - .--fences , , .--rustic trellis with seats and gate .--vertical section of trellis .--end post and trellis .--back of seat for trellis .--alternative design for gate .--hanging and latching gate .--catch for gate , .--rustic carriage entrance , .--rosery walk .--roof of rosery walk .--entrance to rosery walk , .--porch , .--seat and floor of cottage porch .--porch at gable .--porch at eaves .--roof for porch .--gable for porch , .--rustic canopy for swing , .--fixing middle post of canopy to sill .--joints of rails, struts, and posts for canopy .--securing cross rails to plates and posts of canopy , .--hook and thimble for canopy , .--fenced seat for canopy .--fixing rope to eyelet , .--aviary , , .--joint of rails and uprights for aviary .--sectional plan of aviary .--cross section of aviary .--half under view of bottom of aviary .--door wires for aviary .--part longitudinal section of aviary .--half plan of aviary roof , .--rustic foot-bridge , .--girders for foot-bridge , .--joint of post and girder .--middle rail and post of foot-bridge , .--joint of strut to post of foot-bridge .--twig hollowed to fit rail .--elevated bridge .--girder and post bolted to sleeper .--elevated foot-bridge at lower step (fig. ) , .--verandah , .--bottom of post for glazed verandah .--top of post for glazed verandah , .--rustic tool house , .--common method of using slabs .--ground plan of rustic tool house .--cap of tool house pilaster .--garden snuggery .--ground framework of garden snuggery .--back framework for garden snuggery .--snuggery porch .--window-board , .--sections of snuggery walls - .--garden retreat - .--seat of garden retreat .--joint of garden retreat at c (fig. ) .--detail of front joints (see c, fig. ) .--alternative method of joining rails to posts .--section of middle rail at a (fig. ) .--detail of middle rail at b (fig. ) - .--lean-to summer house - - .--shelter for tennis lawn , .--connecting plates to corner post .--fixing sleeper to posts .--section of flooring .--finial .--garden shelter at front eaves .--section of seat .--strapping cushion to seat - .--octagonal summer house , .--collar posts and ends of wall plates .--timbers over entrance of octagonal summer house .--window side of octagonal summer house , .--table for octagonal summer house .--seat side of octagonal summer house .--mosaic seats - .--octagonal summer house with three gables - , .--roof for octagonal summer house .--securing glass to rustic casement , .--door for octagonal summer house .--part plan of octagonal summer house .--horizontal section through door posts .--part section of side panel .--fixing plate to posts .--finial rustic carpentry. chapter i. light rustic work. rustic carpentry does not demand great skill in woodworking, but it does require a large amount of artistic perception. the tools needed are but few, and the materials employed are comparatively cheap, although in many districts they are becoming dearer every year. it may be said that any articles made from the now popular bamboo may be made quite as effectively in light rustic work. for light rustic work, sticks of hazel, cherry, yew, blackthorn, birch, larch, fir, and the prunings of many varieties of shrubs may be used; but it is necessary that the material should be cut at the proper season, and thoroughly dried before being worked up. the sticks should be cut in mid-winter, as at that time the sap is at rest; if cut in the summer time the bark will peel off. if peeled sticks are required, they should be cut in the spring, when the sap is rising, as at that time the rind will come off easily. in some districts the copses are cleared of undergrowth periodically, and the sticks (generally hazel) sold to hurdle and spar makers. a selection of these sticks would be very suitable for the purpose here described. the sticks should be stacked in an open shed in an upright position if possible, and in such a manner that the air can freely circulate around them. when they are required for fishing rods or walking sticks they are hung up to season--this keeps them straighter; but the hanging of them up is not necessary for the work about to be dealt with. when the sticks have been put away for from six to twelve months, according to size, they will be ready for use, after being rubbed with a cloth or brushed to clean off the dust and bring up the colour of the bark. fir cones may often be worked into a design, and bits of rough bark and the warts and burrs found on old elm trees may be collected by the rustic worker and put by for future use. [illustration: fig. .--photograph frame and wall bracket combined.] one method of treatment for designs in light rustic work is to split the sticks and use them to overlay the work with a swiss pattern, as shown by fig. ; another method is to work the sticks up after the manner that canes are used in bamboo furniture (see figs. and , pp. and ). [illustration: fig. .--section of bracket, showing fixing of glass.] fig. represents a wall bracket with a photograph or mirror in the frame. to make this, the piece forming the back is first cut out of / -in. deal. the shelf, of / -in. deal, is then nailed to the bottom edge. some straight hazel, fir, or other sticks are next selected and split; these are nailed round the edges of the back, and round the opening at the centre. the pieces round the opening overlap the edges about / in., to form a rebate for the glass. the bare spaces at the sides and top may be covered in the following manner: take a piece of brown elm bark and run a saw into it. catch the sawdust, and, after warming the wood, cover it with thin glue. [illustration: fig. .--small easel in rustic work.] sprinkle the brown sawdust on the glued surface, and sufficient will adhere to cover the deal and give the frame a rustic appearance. cork-dust or filings may be used instead of sawdust. bunches of fir or larch cones are nailed to the corners, as illustrated; these should be pared at the back with knife or chisel to a flat surface. the outer edge of the shelf is finished with an edging of short lengths of split stick nailed on. the general construction of the bracket, and the method of fixing the glass, will be clear from fig. , which is a section through the centre. [illustration: fig. .--method of attaching support to easel.] a small easel for photographs, or, if constructed larger, for a fire-screen, is shown by fig. . it is made entirely of round sticks. fig. illustrates the method of attaching the back support--namely, by means of a couple of staples, which may be made out of a hairpin. in jointing round sticks together, the joints may be mitred by notching a =v=-shaped piece out of one stick and cutting the other to fit (fig. ); or a mortise and tenon, as represented by fig. , may be used. [illustration: fig. --mitred joint.] in making the easel (fig. ), the top and bottom bars are mitred to the sides, and the central upright to the top and bottom bars. the joints are secured by either brads or panel pins. care must be taken to bore for the nails with a bradawl, as nothing looks worse than splits in the work. the upright piece in the centre of the top bar may be secured by driving a long panel pin into the lower upright through the top bar, filing the head to a point to form a dowel, and driving the top piece on with a hammer. [illustration: fig. .--mortise and tenon joint.] [illustration: fig. .--rustic flower holder for table decoration.] where a small stick is joined to a larger one, as in the case of the filling-in pieces, a flat may be made with a knife or chisel on the larger stick, and the smaller one cut to fit and nailed on. in making a small easel, only a single stick attached to the centre upright will be required to form a back support, but for a larger one it will be preferable to frame it as shown by fig. . [illustration: fig. .--rustic flower holder complete, with cocoanut vase in position.] the finished articles may be either stained and varnished or left plain. cherry sticks look well if the bark is left the natural colour, and the ends, where exposed, cleaned off and varnished without being stained. some sticks improve in colour if rubbed over with a rag moistened with linseed oil. if a stain is required, one that is sold in bottles would be suitable, but a little vandyke brown, ground in water, and applied with a sponge, answers the purpose. sometimes, as in the case of the table top (see fig. , p. ), it is a good plan to stain the wood before nailing on the pattern work, or there will be danger, if the sticks are dark in colour, of the lighter wood showing through. if the rustic work is intended to be placed out of doors, it should be given two or three coats of hard outside varnish. the rustic flower-holder for table decoration, shown by fig. , consists simply of a gipsy tripod formed with six rustic sticks, put together in the form shown, and tied with a length of bass. there is no attempt made at finish, but the sticks must be firmly tied together at the joints, and the ends of the bass can be left, either hanging loose or tied in a bow. the holder for the flowers is a cocoanut shell, which has been sawn in two, so as to leave one part a sort of cup or egg shape; three holes are bored with a bradawl at equal distances round the edge, and it is suspended from the tripod with three more pieces of the bass, which completes the arrangement. of course, any small receptacle can be used in place of the cocoanut shell, but that, perhaps, carries out the rustic appearance the best, and is very easily obtained. fig. is an attempt to show the tripod when decorated. the rustic hall-stand shown by figs. to was made actually from branches and twigs of an old apple tree. the uprights and principal cross-pieces are / in. thick, and the criss-cross pieces are / in. thick. the bottom is made of four pieces - / in. thick. the longer ones measure ft. in., and the shorter ones ft. in.; they are nailed together in such a manner that the ends at the two front corners each cross and project - / in. the front uprights are ft. high, the back ones ft. in.; the longer cross-pieces are ft. in., the shorter in. the ends intersect and project in. at each of the front corners; only the longest piece projects in. at the back corners, the shorter pieces being cut off flush with the frame to allow of the stand fitting close to a wall. [illustration: figs. and .--front and side elevations of rustic hall stand.] [illustration: fig. .--plan of rustic hall stand, showing umbrella pan.] these cross-pieces are nailed to the uprights to allow the top ends of the latter to project in. above them, this bringing the measurement of the oblong inner framework to ft. in. by ft. in. the thin pieces are nailed on as shown in fig. , being interlaced as much as possible. the back of the stand is treated in a similar manner. the whole of the wood is used as rough as possible, the bark being retained, with the knots, etc.; the ends are, however, pared off smooth with a chisel. two coats of varnish finish the stand, save for the addition of a receptacle to catch the drainings from umbrellas, and for this the stand illustrated has a painted baking-tin a (fig. ). [illustration: figs. and .--elevation and plan of plant stool.] the rustic stool (figs. and ) is intended to be made in pairs, and placed one on each side of the umbrella-stand above described, each supporting a plant, such as a fern or palm. the top of each stool is cut from in. square -in. wood (wood from an old box answers well), and is sawn into an octagonal shape. a double row of pieces of apple, maple, or some other wood with good bark, is nailed around the edges, thicker pieces being used at the bottom than at the top to give a graduated appearance. the entire top is then covered with straight pieces of stick, selected for the beauty of their bark. all pieces are nailed on with cut brads. the four legs are formed of -in. apple-wood in. long. they are bevelled at the top to fit a square block of wood, in. thick and in. long, which is firmly secured to the top by two screws. this piece of wood should be fastened to the top before the rustic rods are placed in position. two - / -in. wire nails through each of the legs hold them quite securely to the central block. portions of rustic wood, from / in. to / in. in diameter, are then nailed across the legs, as shown in fig. , the ends being allowed to cross each other and project about in. all ways. the whole stool, when finished, stands - / in. high, and is so strong that it will support a heavy man with safety. the block of wood to which the legs are attached should be stained to match the rustic wood; permanganate of potash solution will effect this. finally, two coats of clear varnish give a good finish to the work. [illustration: fig. .--window box.] window boxes are illustrated by figs. to . that shown by fig. is made from a raisin box obtained from a grocer. such boxes are not costly, and to buy and knock these up for rough uses is often more economical than buying new material. [illustration: fig. .--more elaborate window box.] [illustration: fig. .--cross section of window box in position.] take care that the boards are stout enough to hold the brads firmly. the box measures about in. by in. by in., and is wholly covered with mosaic of dark and light strips in panels. strips are also nailed on the upper edges. the more elaborate window box (figs. and ) can be made of a size to fit the window for which it is intended. a few holes should be bored in the bottom for drainage, and the front board is cut to the shape shown and the rustic ornament is nailed to the box and forms no part of the construction. in fig. wedge pieces are shown fitted to the stone sill to bring the box level; it is kept in position by two metal angle-pieces screwed both to the wood sill and to the back of the box. chapter ii. flower stands, vases, etc. the rustic-work flower stand (fig. ) may be ft. high by ft. in. long by in. wide. for the legs, select four curved saplings ft. in. long by - / in. in diameter; and as some difficulty may be experienced in obtaining them with the natural curves sufficiently alike, artificial methods of bending must be resorted to. therefore get the saplings from ft. to ft. longer than the finished length, and bend them to shape by means of the spanish windlass as shown in fig. . flexible six-strand fixing wire or stout hemp cord can be used; or a straining screw and link, as employed for tightening fencing wire, will answer equally well; keep the tension on till the wood is curved permanently, the time varying with the nature and condition of the wood, and the strain being applied gradually at intervals. the rails are tenoned to fit mortises in the legs, and battens are nailed to the lower long rails, to support the flower pots (see fig. ). the rustic work is then fixed diagonally to the rails. the ends that abut against the legs and centre-piece are pared away so as to make a neat joint, and angle boards are fitted to the under side of the lower rails to support the rustic work where it curves downwards. [illustration: fig. .--flower-pot stand.] the vase shown by fig. is hexagonal in shape, with vandyked sides fixed to a base supported upon tripod legs, and stands about ft. in. high. elm boards are suitable for the sides and bottom; they are ft. in. high by in. wide at the top end, and - / in. wide at the bottom by in. thick. shoot the edges of the boards to a bevel of °, and fix them with nails driven as shown at fig. . when the six sides are completed, prepare the hexagon baseboard to suit. bore holes in it for drainage, and also bore three equidistant holes, - / in. in diameter, at an angle of about °, for the tenons of the legs to enter (see fig. ). next screw the base to the sides, and fix on the barked rustic work. the twigs for this should be seasoned at least one year before using. they are sawn in halves, straight twigs being selected for the purpose. if necessary, shoot the edges slightly, so as to obtain a closer fit when fixing them in parallel. begin by attaching the lower border to the hexagonal base, then the upright pieces over the angles, hollowed as shown at fig. ; next fix the top sloping pieces, and finally the horizontal twigs. the legs are nailed at the base of the vase (see fig. ); and at the centre, where they cross, they are further secured with twigs, which do the duty of rungs, as shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. .--method of bending saplings.] [illustration: fig. .--fixing rails, etc., to posts.] [illustration: fig. .--vase on tripod stand.] [illustration: fig. .--joint of hexagon sides of vase.] [illustration: fig. .--securing sides and legs of vase to base.] [illustration: fig. .--section of twigs at angles of vase.] [illustration: figs. and .--side and end elevations of flower-pot stand.] [illustration: fig. .--joining rails of flower-pot stand to uprights.] [illustration: fig. .--method of supporting end shelves of flower-pot stand at a and b (fig. ).] [illustration: fig. .--fixing centre shelves of flower-pot stand.] the flower stand shown in front and end view by figs. and has accommodation for sixteen pots. the two uprights are ft. in. high by about - / in. in diameter. the three rails are ft. in. long, and are tenoned to the posts as shown by fig. ; the posts are also tenoned and nailed to the sills (bottom rails), and strutted, as shown in fig. . the method of fixing the shelves a and b (fig. ) is shown in fig. , which is an under-side view; struts are also fitted, as shown in fig. . the method of fixing the centre shelves is indicated at fig. . the shelf, and also the struts c, d, e, and e^ (figs. and ), are fixed to the centre rail; then the top diagonal braces are nailed to both the shelf and the top rail, thus keeping the whole secure. the remainder of the work calls for no special instructions. split twigs are used for the fencing around the shelves. [illustration: fig. .--large square vase.] [illustration: fig. .--large hexagonal vase.] fig. shows a square vase constructed from elm boards - / in. thick. a fair size for the sides will be ft. in. at the top and ft. in. at the base by ft. high, including the - / -in. plinth. the split twigs forming the decoration are - / in. wide, and spaced about in. apart edge to edge. [illustration: fig. .--large plant vase with claw foot.] the vase shown by fig. is hexagonal in shape, the sides being ft. in. high by ft. in. wide at the top edge, and ft. - / in. at the base. the sides and bottom of both vases are connected as in figs. and . five -in. holes are bored for drainage. the short feet having been secured with screws driven from the inside, the split rustic work is bradded on in the same order as that described for fig. . the stands and vases should be given two coats of oil varnish, allowing the first coat to dry before applying the second. [illustration: fig. .--foot of rustic table.] a big plant vase made from half a paraffin cask is illustrated by fig. . an ordinary -gal. cask stands, roughly, some ft. high, has a diameter of some ft., and is made of good stout oak. sawn through the middle, the paraffin barrel makes two admirable tubs. one such half is shown in fig. . this it is proposed to render suitable for some large bushy plant, so it will have to be mounted on legs. the legs shown are simply so many pieces cut from rough branches. from a heap of stuff one can generally choose pieces sufficiently adapted to the purpose, though their exact contours will, of course, vary. oak branches, technically known as "bangles," from which the bark has been taken to make tan, will do well; or if the bark is liked, apple-tree or elm boughs will be suitable. that these sticks should be rough and gnarled and knotted adds to their effect. as the tub will be only partly covered with rustic mosaic work, it will be well before nailing anything upon it to paint it. a good dark brown or chocolate will go well with the natural bark. the rustic pieces will have to be cut through with the saw, the lengths being too great to be safely split with the hatchet--that is, with the exception of those round the lip, which are of thicker rod than the zig-zags; say, - / in. as compared with in. in the zig-zags the light central strip is supposed to be of peeled withy, the darker ones on each side having the bark on, and being probably of hazel. generally speaking, wrought brads are to be recommended for fixing rustic mosaic, but where, as in the present case, the strips have to be bent over a curved surface, small wire nails will be found more secure. groups of fir cones, as shown, will prettily ornament the triangular spaces. a style of foot suitable for a one-leg flower stand or table is illustrated in plan and part section by fig. . [illustration: fig. .--garden plant tub.] fig. shows the other half of the cask arranged for, say, a dwarf shrub, an orange-tree, or the like. in small town or suburban premises, such tubs are specially useful where there is a back court into which anything green cannot otherwise be introduced. in this, it will be seen that by way of variety the tops of the staves have been sawn to a zig-zag line, which is followed a little below by a moulding of split rods. alternative styles of moulding are shown by figs. and . half-way between this and the bottom a band of mosaic is arranged in light and dark strips of withy and hazel. the bits filling the diamond-shaped centres of this pattern are cut from thicker stuff than the rest, so that they may project as bosses beyond the general level. over the unavoidable iron hoop at bottom, from which place short strips would, if nailed, be often detached, a rough "dry-cask" wooden hoop has been fixed. at the sides two pieces of rough branch stuff have been placed to serve as handles, and to resist strain these should be secured from within by strong screws. [illustration: figs. and .--alternative mouldings.] [illustration: fig. .--ornamental plant vase.] the vase shown by fig. is intended for a somewhat low-growing flowering plant--say, a large bushy geranium. in its original character it is an american lard pail. as in the last tub, the staves have been sawn to a more ornamental outline, and they have also been perforated. the ornamental strips of split rod have been arranged in straight vertical lines, to avoid the difficulty of bending and keeping them in place if bent round so small a vessel. the bottom of the pail is screwed down to an octagonal slab of wood, to the under side of which four short bits of rough bough are nailed as feet. as neither this nor the last tub is wholly covered with mosaic, they should, of course, first be painted. the slab at bottom will look very well rough, as shown, but if painted it will be improved by strips of split rod nailed round its edges. [illustration: fig. .--rectangular garden plant stand.] a garden plant stand, made from a soap box and mounted on legs is shown by fig. . the easiest way to fix one of these legs on is to saw the piece of stuff in half to a distance from the top equal to the depth of the box, and then to cross-cut and remove one half. the corner of the box will be brought to the middle of the cross-cut, and the leg nailed on to the side of the box. the piece which has been sawn off will then be cut through (quartered), and the proper quarter replaced and nailed to the end of the box. frets, such as those shown in these two examples, are patterns of a kind well adapted to be worked out in rustic mosaic. [illustration: figs. to .--elevation, section, and horizontal section of rustic pedestal.] a pedestal for a sundial or flower vase is shown by figs. to . it is a box of -in. elm boards, the top being a -in. thick slab. suitable dimensions are ft. in. high, and ft. square, the top being in. square. [illustration: fig. .--rustic flower-pot stand in imitation of bamboo.] a design for a rustic flower-pot stand in imitation of bamboo is represented by fig. . the height should be about ft. in. to the top, and the length from ft. to ft. in. the box at the top may be about in. wide and in. deep. care must be taken when putting the work together to get the frames true and square. slovenliness in construction will completely spoil the appearance of the finished article. the box at the top is made to fit inside, and should be lined with a zinc tray. the outside may be covered with glue and brown sawdust. chapter iii. tables. [illustration: fig. .--square table.] a small rustic table which may, if desired, be used as a flower-pot stand, is illustrated by fig. . the top may be made of / -in. stuff, and should have two ledges nailed underneath to prevent twisting. the table may be ft. in. high, with the top in. square, or, if a larger size is required, ft. in. high, with the top in. square. the design is not suitable for tables of a larger size. [illustration: fig. .--hexagonal table.] the legs may be secured to the top by boring holes in the ledges and driving them in. the cross bars must be firmly secured to the legs, and, for the joints, the mortise and tenon shown at fig. (see p. ) would be suitable. if the sticks used to form the legs are rather small, it will be better if the cross bars are kept a little higher on two of the sides, so that the mortises do not meet each other. the top is covered with a swiss overlay pattern, made of split sticks. the design may be set out by drawing lines from corner to corner on the top, and across the top in the centre of each side. a smaller square is then drawn in the centre of the top, with diagonals at right angles to the sides of the top. lines drawn from the corners of the small square to the corners of the top will form a four-pointed star. the pattern should be clearly outlined with a pencil. in nailing on the sticks, those round the outer edge of the top should be put on first and mitred at the corners. next the outside sticks of the small square should be nailed on, then the eight pieces from the corners of the small square to the corners of the top. [illustration: fig. .--part vertical section of top of hexagonal table.] in working up patterns of the above description, always nail on the sticks that follow the outline of the design first. the filling-in pieces may be put on afterwards. variety may be given to the patterns by using sticks of different colours; for instance, the design may be outlined in hazel or blackthorn, and filled in with hawthorn or peeled willow. the edges of the table top are concealed by nailing on an edging of short sticks or cones. [illustration: fig. .--half plans of top of hexagonal table.] fig. shows a small hexagon-top table for use in a summer-house or on the lawn. the following dimensions are suitable: height ft. in., and diameter of circle for the hexagon top ft. in. the top is made from two or three / -in. boards cramped together to the required width and fixed underneath with two battens - / in. wide by in. thick. the four legs are dowelled and nailed to these battens and further stiffened by the rungs and the diagonal braces which are nailed to the legs. a corona is fixed around the edges of the table top, and the method of securing the board is shown in fig. . in fig. the half plans show two ways of ornamenting the top. the twigs should be sawn so that in section they are less than a semicircle, and it will be an advantage to shoot their edges slightly, as then they will fit closer and cover the rough boards that form the table top. chapter iv. chairs and seats. [illustration: fig. .--armchair.] for the armchair (fig. ) select four slightly curved legs about in. in diameter; the front pair are ft. high and the back pair are ft. in. high. the front seat rail is ft. in. long by - / in. in diameter, the back rail is ft. long, and the side rails are ft. in. long, their ends being trimmed to fit the legs, and fixed with inserted ash or elm dowels / in. in diameter; see fig. . the height from the ground line to the seat top is ft. - / in. the battens forming the seat rest on the side rails, and cleats are fixed to the inner sides of the four legs (see fig. ) to support the extreme back and front battens. the arms and back are made in three parts, the scarfed joints coming immediately over the back legs. the trellis work is then added, and finally the struts and dentils are fixed around the seat. the chair can be made from unbarked wood without any dressing, or the bark may be removed and the wood, when dry, can be finished in stain and outside varnish. [illustration: fig. .--fixing seat rails to leg of armchair.] [illustration: fig. .--plan of armchair seat frame.] the garden-seats about to be described will look very effective if made of oak that has had the bark removed and the small twigs trimmed off clean; they should be finished in stain and varnish. in construction they are fairly simple. [illustration: fig. .--general view of garden seat.] for making the seat shown by fig. , first select the three back posts, with their natural curves as much alike as possible. in diameter they should be from - / in. to in. select also two arm-posts and one centre leg for the front. next cut two seat rails for the back and one rail for the front, ft. or ft. long as desired, and cut two side rails (see fig. ) and one centre rail, each ft. in. long. work the ends of the rails to the shape of the posts as shown by figs. and , so that they make a fairly good joint, and bore the posts and rails with a / -in. bit - / in. deep, to receive dowels made of ash or elm. these are preferable to tenons formed on the rails themselves. now try the whole together temporarily, and make good any defects. [illustration: fig. .--end elevation of garden seat.] [illustration: fig. .--joints of rails and posts for garden seat.] then take the pieces apart, and coat the joints with a thick priming consisting of two parts of white-lead (ground in oil) and one part of red-lead thinned with boiled linseed oil. drive the joints home and fix them with nails or screws and wipe off the surplus paint. [illustration: fig. .--arm-rest for garden seat.] [illustration: fig. .--part plan of seat.] [illustration: fig. .--another garden seat.] the top back rail and the arm-rest can next be fitted. the ends of the back rail are worked bird's mouth, to fit the posts. the arm-rests are treated in the same way at the back; they fit in vees cut in the front posts, and are fixed with nails. [illustration: fig. .--vertical section, showing front rail, cross rail, and battens.] [illustration: fig. .--cross section of garden seat.] measure off and mark equal spaces for the struts, the ends of which are trimmed to fit the rails and posts. secure them with two nails at each end. the seat (fig. ) is made up of split saplings laid as shown, with the ends pared to fit the rails and bradded on. finally, fit the struts between the seat rails and the lower part of the posts. the framework for the chair shown by figs. and is on the same principle as that already described. the segmental battens forming the seat run longitudinally, and their ends are shaped to fit the outer rails. the battens rest on a flat worked on the centre cross rail (see figs. , , and ). fig. also gives a part cross section near the centre leg, and shows the front rail placed out of centre and the cross rail resting on the leg, to which it is firmly nailed. when the seat is more than ft. in length the battens require intermediate supports, which can be cut from split saplings. the panelling on the back is fixed to the top and bottom rails and supported in the centre by a wide longitudinal rail and two vertical rails at the mitres of the diamond centres. these are fitted in and secured, and then the vertical split twigs are fixed partly on them and also on the rails. finally, struts are fixed to the seat rails and legs and covered with short twigs, with their lower ends running in a regular curve. [illustration: fig. .--part plan of seat.] a rustic garden seat with canopy is illustrated by fig. . where shade is required, the back and canopy offer facilities for securing it, as they can be covered with climbers. fig. is not drawn to scale, but the explanatory diagrams (figs. to ) are / in. to the foot. [illustration: fig. .--garden seat with canopy.] the upright posts and all the more important pieces will best be formed of somewhat small larch stuff; the smaller straight sticks may be hazel, birch, or withy. the last named, stripped of its bark, and used in some parts only, will form a pretty contrast with the darker rods. in filling spaces in back and canopy, a few pieces of crooked stuff are used; these will probably be of apple-tree. [illustration: fig. .--front elevation of garden seat.] [illustration: fig. .--end elevation of garden seat.] [illustration: fig. .--plan of canopy for garden seat.] [illustration: figs. and .--back and side views of canopy panels.] [illustration: fig. .--plan of seat.] the two posts a, on which almost the entire weight is sustained, should be let into the ground not less than ft. they rise ft. above the ground-line. they are set at a distance, measuring from centre to centre, of ft. apart. the smaller posts (marked b), which support the seat, stand in. in advance of those last named, and should be let into the earth ft. the broad seat thus given is essential to comfort when the back of the chair is upright, as it must be in this instance. two principal cross-pieces are nailed against the main posts. the lower one, of halved stuff, is in. from the ground, and carries the back of the seat. the other is close to the top of the posts, and carries the back of the canopy. the canopy is chiefly supported on the three wall-plates, c (fig. ), which rest at one end on the heads of the posts, and towards the other on the struts, d (fig. ). fig. shows in plan the arrangement of the principal pieces forming the canopy: e e are the rafters of the gables, the lower ends of which rest on the wall-plates, and the upper against the pinnacle, f (fig. ). the back rafters are marked g g, and these rest their lower ends on the cross-piece and their upper against the pinnacle. fig. shows the filling-in of the two back panels of canopy; fig. that of the four side panels. the filling-in of the back of the seat is clearly shown in fig. . in fig. the seat proper appears in plan. its front and ends are of halved stuff, nailed to the posts. the spars forming the seat are placed with spaces between them, that they may not hold moisture; for the same reason, it is advised that they should be of peeled withy. chapter v. gates and fences. [illustration: figs. and .--front view and plan of solid garden gate.] in many gardens there is a space devoted to the tool-house, potting shed, refuse head, etc. shrubberies of course hide the unsightly appearance of this particular spot to a certain extent, but it may be found desirable to close the entrance to this part of the garden from the remainder, and the gate illustrated in front elevation by fig. is, from its semi-rustic nature, particularly suitable. fig. shows a plan and fig. is a part back view. the gate is quite simple in construction, and should be of sufficient height to obstruct the view from each side. [illustration: fig. .--part back view of frame for solid garden gate.] local circumstances will of course determine the width of the gate, but the one illustrated by fig. is constructed on a framework ft. square, the total height being ft. the timber for the frame need not be planed. [illustration: figs. to .--joints in frame of solid garden gate.] [illustration: figs. and .--fixing ends of twigs.] [illustration: fig .--detail of closing stile.] cut the closing and hingeing stiles ft. long out of stuff in. wide by - / in. thick. the three rails are of the same dimensions, and can be halved and dovetailed to the stiles or, better, mortised, tenoned, and wedged and braced, as shown in figs. , , and . separate pieces of stuff are fixed up the centre to form a muntin for supporting the rustic work; the necessity is obvious from fig. , where it will be noticed the twigs are outlined on the frame. each twig has a bearing on the frame, and can thus be nailed individually. [illustration: figs. and .--designs for rustic gates.] two stout gate hinges and hooks are required, and they can be bolted on with / -in. whitworth bolts and nuts, or secured from the back with square-headed coach screws. now commence fixing on the unbarked twigs; they should be as straight as possible and used in their natural shape, without being split in halves. the terminations of the joints for circular stuff are slightly different from the ends of the half-round stuff; see figs. and . start by fixing the outside square, then the two inner squares, and finally the diagonal filling. the posts are in. or in. in diameter by ft. long, ft. being underground. cut three mortises in the posts to receive the rails for the side fencing. these rails are nailed flush to the secondary posts, nails also being driven through each mortise in the gate posts. next dig the holes for the posts, these being kept at correct distances apart by nailing battens to the top and at the ground line while ramming in the posts. two parts of old brickwork and one part of portland cement will make a good concrete for the posts. a week or more should elapse before the gate is hung to the posts. this may then be propped up fair between the two posts, and the positions should be marked for the staple of the latch, and hooks for the hinges. a rebate is formed for the gate on the posts by nailing on split sapling; see figs. and . finally, a short post can be driven in the ground and fitted with a hook for retaining the gate when open wide. [illustration: figs. and .--designs for rustic gates.] suitable designs for small rustic gates are given by figs. to . the wood for making gates to the two designs (figs. and ) should have the bark removed. the chief rails and posts are about in. thick, filled in with - / -in. or -in. pieces, halved and nailed together where they cross. the joints may be hidden by bosses of planed wood (see fig. ). if the gate is to be removable, fix a hook on the hanging stile to engage with a staple in the joint, and a pin in the bottom to turn round in a socket. the gate is then easily taken out of its hangings. varnish the wood on completion. [illustration: figs. and .--designs for fences.] rustic fences can be constructed as shown in figs. to . the garden trellis illustrated at fig. will form an attractive addition to the grounds of a suburban or country villa residence. in the case of new houses, the existence of such a trellis, with creepers ready planted, will often prove a deciding factor in effecting a quick sale or letting. the structure extends to a length of about ft., but the dimensions may readily be altered to suit requirements. the material may be fir or other straight unbarked saplings and twigs. the posts are ft. long; the four for the arch being in. in diameter, and the others in. or - / in. the rails are - / in. in diameter, and the twigs for the trellis, etc., - / in. or in. the bay seat with canopy is ft. long by ft. in. wide. [illustration: fig. .--design for fence.] the position of the seats and posts and of the shores a, b, and c is clearly shown in the plan (fig. ). the arrangement of the double posts adds materially to the stiffness of the framework, making long shores unnecessary. the shores are placed ft. in. above the ground line, and are inclined at an angle of °. the posts are sunk into the ground a distance of ft., and well rammed in; rubble stones being mixed with the earth, as shown in the vertical section (fig. ). [illustration: figs. and .--general view and ground plan of rustic trellis with seats and gate.] [illustration: fig. .--vertical section of trellis.] [illustration: fig. .--section through end post and trellis.] [illustration: fig. .--detail of back of seat for trellis.] [illustration: fig. .--alternative design for gate.] the arch may with advantage be entirely fitted together before being put in position, as a better job can thus be made of the joints of the short rails and struts. the joints in the remainder of the work, with the exception of the gate, are of the simplest description. the rail ends are bevelled and notched to the posts, and secured with nails as shown in the sectional view of the trellis at fig. . having erected the framework in position, next sink and well ram the shores deep into the ground, and splay and nail the top ends to the uprights. also fix the shorter posts for the seats, letting them into the ground about ft. in. the end seat bearers are fixed to the end posts, and the centre bearers to the front and back central posts. the seat battens are saplings split in two, the flat portion being laid downwards and nailed to the bearers (see fig. ). fig. is an enlarged section through the seat back, showing the method of securing the smaller twigs to the rails. the fixing of the vertical pieces in the lower part, and the inclined lengths above, will complete this portion of the screen. the gate, shown enlarged at fig. , which gives an alternative design, is ft. in. wide by ft. in. high. the stiles are ft. in. long and about - / in. in diameter, and should be as straight as possible, with the twigs neatly trimmed on; the rails should be at least - / in. in diameter, trimmed to fit the stiles, and secured with inserted hardwood dowels in. in diameter, as shown at fig. , p. . the diagonal struts in the top panel should be fitted and in place before the rails and stiles are finally secured; the vertical twigs in the lower panel should be similarly fitted and nailed before the rails are secured to the stiles. ordinary forged hooks and eyes are used for hanging the gate; these are secured to the stile and post with nuts and washers, as shown in the enlarged horizontal section (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--method of hanging and latching gate.] a mortice is cut in the closing stile to receive the latch, the catch for the latter being a simple forging (see fig. ) with a pointed tang for driving into the post. a rustic carriage entrance is shown by fig. . the intention is, of course, that the rustic archway above the gates shall be more or less clothed with climbing plants. it is for roses that the structure will be best adapted, though clematis or honeysuckle will look well upon it. ivy would look too heavy, and, if neglected, might even prove too heavy in other respects. light as the arch may appear, the four posts grouped to form the turret on either side are so tied and braced together as to be, to all intents and purposes, a solid pillar, in. square, and fully equal to resisting any outward thrust of the rafters. in the elevation (fig. ), to avoid confusion, no indication is given of the work forming the farther side of the arch, though something of it would necessarily be seen from the front; the two sides will be alike. figs. and are drawn to a scale of / in. to the foot. [illustration: fig. .--catch for gate.] the posts, and at least all the more important straight pieces, should be of larch. the wood chosen for filling-in should have picturesque forks and contortions. small oak bangles will, perhaps, be most appropriate. in the ground plan of the left-hand turret (fig. ) it will be seen that the posts used--four at each end--are some in. or in. in diameter, and that the largest is selected as hanging-post for the gate. from centre to centre they are set ft. in. apart. they are ft. long--that is, ft. in. above ground and ft. in. below. the rafters of the arch spring from them ft. from the ground, and at this point each post is surrounded by a cap, formed of four pieces of quartered stuff nailed upon it. the rafters are not mortised into the post, but if, instead of being merely nailed, they are attached by a bolt and nut, a stronger joint will be made. [illustration: fig .--elevation of rustic carriage entrance.] the upper rafters, back and front, are connected by five straight cross-pieces, whose ends show in fig. . the spaces between these are filled up very much at random with crooked stuff. the four posts of each turret are bound together close beneath their tops by cross-pieces nailed outside them, whilst from their tops, and nailed down to them, slant four short rafters, which meet pyramid-wise in the centre. the filling up of the upper parts of the turrets, as well as of the front and back of the arch, is with a mixture of straight and crooked stuff, the arrangement of which is clearly shown in the elevation (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--plan of left side of carriage entrance.] the lower parts of the turrets and the gates must be constructed in such a way as to exclude animals; the palings are so arranged as not to leave a space between them wider than in. the rails of the gates should, of course, be mortised into the heads and hinge-trees. chapter vi. rosery walk. the rustic construction here illustrated is intended primarily as a trellis over which to train roses, and to form a shady and fragrant walk, and generally to contribute to the adornment of the flower garden. it can readily be adapted so as to form a roofed-in track from a door to the public roadway; and the means of so adapting it will be explained later. the materials will be entirely rough wood in its natural bark. for the posts fir poles of some kind should be chosen, and larch is especially to be preferred both as regards durability and appearance. all the smaller pieces which show as straight stuff may well be of the same kind of wood as the posts, though hazel is best for the finer rods. it will be seen that in the mere filling-in much crooked stuff is used, and for this apple branches, or indeed almost anything that comes to hand, will answer. the rosery walk (fig. ) is ft. wide, and the rustic erection is carried on two rows of pillars or collar-posts ranged at intervals of ft. these posts should be let into the ground ft., and well rammed in. they should have an average diameter of in. or - / in., except in the case of each third one, as that which in fig. is seen standing in the middle of the portion with the lower roof; such pillars may be smaller as having little weight to bear, and will look better than they would do if equal in size to the others. resting on the line of posts lies the wall-plate (a a, fig. ), the top of which is ft. in. from the ground line. [illustration: fig. .--elevation of rosery walk.] [illustration: fig. .--plan of roof of rosery walk.] from each group of four large collar-posts rise four rafters (b, b, fig. ), meeting at top pyramid-wise. they rise to a height from the ground of ft. in., and have, therefore, to be ft. in. long. half-way up them--that is, ft. in. from the ground line--the purlins (c, c, fig. ) are nailed upon them. figs. and alike show how the space between wall-plate and purlin is filled in, and fig. shows how the space, ft. in. long, stretching from one pyramidal portion to the next, is covered with a flat roof of open rustic work lying upon the purlins. this space, it will be observed, is chiefly filled in with crooked stuff. fig. shows how the upper part of the rosery would appear at one of its ends, and explains how the roof would be in section--the shaded parts give the form of the roof in its lower portions; whilst if the cross-piece, d (which is on a level with the purlins), is supposed to be removed, there is presented with the dotted lines, b, b, a section through the middle of one of the higher pyramidal portions. [illustration: fig. .--entrance to rosery walk.] over the middle of the entrance is a rough knot or a piece of root. the filling-in of the sides of the rosery is plainly shown in the elevation, fig. . for its better preservation from damp, this work is kept in. from the ground. supposing that, as was suggested above, the design is to be utilised for a dry path with a covering of metal or other light material, it will be well to keep the whole roof to the level of the pyramidal portions--a ridge-piece will have to be used--and the rafters, instead of following the present arrangement, will meet in pairs opposite to the pillars. instead of round stuff, also, use halved stuff for the rafters and purlins, the sawn side being uppermost. the space between ridge-piece and purlin can then be filled in the same manner as that between purlin and wall-plate. chapter vii. porches. the rustic porch shown in front elevation by fig. and in vertical section by fig. is constructed from straight, well-seasoned saplings and twigs, from which, in each case, the bark has been removed. the design is eminently suitable for a farmhouse or a country cottage. the porch is of large dimensions, and is provided with seating accommodation on each side. the seats do not appear in the elevations, but one side is shown in the part plan (fig. ). the seats are ft. in. high by ft. in. wide. the battens are - / in. wide by - / in. thick, and are supported on cross-pieces fixed to the front posts and wall; a centre batten being fixed to the centre panel, and supported by a diagonal bracket running from the front down to the sill-piece. the floor space is ft. wide, and stands out ft. from the walls. the posts are ft. in. long by in. in diameter. the front posts are preferably dropped over metal dowels leaded into the stone floor, at ft. in. centres, while the side posts are at - / in. centres, and of smaller section--say about in. in diameter. one post, in. in diameter, sawn longitudinally through the centre, does duty for the two wall-posts, the flat portion being, of course, scribed to the wall, the latter having been previously plugged for the reception of the fixing nails. the rails are tenoned to the posts, and - / in. diameter holes are bored in the posts, and also in the ends of the rails, for the reception of the inserted tenons. the ends of the rails are also hollowed to fit roughly the posts (see fig. ). the lower rail is in. up from the floor, while the centre rail is ft. in. up. the rail immediately below (fig. ) is in. below the centre rail. [illustration: fig. .--front elevation of cottage porch.] [illustration: fig. .--vertical section of cottage porch.] the top ends of the front posts are hollowed, and fitted with inserted dowels for the reception of the front rail. the six side-posts are finished off square, and have tenons which fit into the plates. the front ends of the plates are notched to the front top rail. the rafters are ft. in. long by in. deep and in. wide, wrought and chamfered and birdsmouthed to the plates as shown at fig. . the ridge piece, in. deep by - / in. thick, projects ft. in. from the wall. on the front end of the ridge is fixed the finial, which is in. square. the rafters are covered with -in. v-jointed, wrought, grooved and tongued boarding, cut in -ft. -in. lengths, and laid horizontally or at right angles to the rafters. [illustration: fig. .--part plan of seat and floor of cottage porch.] [illustration: fig. .--section of cottage porch at gable.] the roof may be covered with slates, with broseley tiles, with wood shingles, or with thatch. a part plan of the roof is shown in fig. . an enlarged section of the front angle of the gable is given in fig. . two boards, each ft. in. wide by - / in. thick, are fixed to the outer rafters and run parallel with them; the heels of the two boards abutting on the front top rail, to which they are nailed. the split-twig herringbone ornament is also nailed to these boards. on the inner edges of the boards are secured twigs of about - / -in. in diameter, which are rebated to fit to the edges as shown in fig. . the front projecting ends of the roofing boards are concealed by split twigs of about - / -in. or -in. diameter, which do duty as bargeboards. the method is shown at a (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--enlarged detail of cottage porch at eaves.] [illustration: fig. .--part plan of roof for cottage porch.] the panels have now to be filled with stuff ranging from - / in. to - / in. in diameter. the vertically placed twigs between the posts and rails should be fitted in place before the rails are finally jointed up to the posts. the ends are roughly hollowed, and are secured with cut nails. alternatively, the vertical members could be fitted so that their inner edges coincided with the centre of the rails. the major portion of the twigs being on the outer side, the smaller diameter of the twigs will thus bring their front edges flush with the larger diameter edges of the rails. the herringbone and the diagonally placed twigs are quite easy to fit, the ends being simply pared off till they are sufficiently shortened to assume their correct position in the panels. [illustration: fig. .--section of gable for cottage porch.] the decorative effect of the porch will be greatly improved by the addition of a suitable door, as shown in the front elevation (fig. ). the cost of manufacture of such a door is but slightly more than that of an ordinary six-panel door. the bottle ends in the top glazed panel form a quaint and pleasing feature of the general scheme. chapter viii. canopy for a swing. [illustration: fig. .--general view of rustic canopy for swing.] fig. is a general view of the canopy and swing, and fig. a side elevation slightly more elaborate in design than fig. , the chief members, however, being exactly the same. the material used is stripped fir saplings. six of these are required for the uprights. [illustration: fig. .--side elevation of canopy for swing (alternative design).] the middle posts are slightly larger in section, as they have to carry the cross rail supporting the swing; a good size for these is -in. diameter at the base by ft. or ft. high. the outer posts may be - / -in. to -in. diameter at the base. the posts are sub-tenoned (see fig. ) to elm sills ft. in. long by in. diameter. tenons are formed on both ends of the posts, and seatings and mortices at -ft. centres are made in both the sills (bottom rails) and plates (top rails) to receive them. [illustration: fig. .--fixing middle post of canopy to sill.] [illustration: fig. .--details of joints of rails, struts, and posts for canopy.] [illustration: fig. .--securing cross rails to plates and posts of canopy.] the short rails are in. in diameter by ft. in. long, and are stub-tenoned and pinned to the posts at a height of ft. in. from the ground line. the struts also are tenoned and pinned to the middle posts and sills, as shown in fig. , where, it will be noticed, the struts are in one piece and the braces in two, the latter being hollowed to fit in the angles and over the struts. [illustration: figs. and .--hook and thimble for canopy.] when all the members are ready for the final drive home, the tenons of the rails should be just entered to the posts; the struts and braces are next placed in position and driven up, then the sill and plate are entered and driven home, and finally the several joints are secured with oak pins. this operation will be carried out better with the work in a horizontal position. when the two sides are so far completed, they may be erected in position and fixed with temporary battens, at a distance apart of ft. in. centres, while the top cross rails are being fitted. [illustration: fig. .--front view of fenced seat for canopy.] [illustration: fig. .--end view of fenced seat for canopy.] [illustration: fig. .--fixing rope to eyelet.] the middle cross rail which carries the swing is in. in diameter and ft. in. long. a seating is formed on the plates, and a shallow one upon the rails, which are secured with long / -in. diameter bolts and nuts; the latter are let into the posts at a distance of in. from the top, as shown in fig. , which is a cross section through the plate near the middle rail. short struts may also be fixed between the posts and cross rail, as in fig. ; they are not shown in fig. . a floor is formed of saplings, connected to the sills, thus preventing them from spreading. the trellis-work, both on the roof and sides, is now fixed. this is composed of - / -in. and -in. twigs. the swing hooks (fig. ) pass right through the rails, and are secured with nuts and washers. collars should be forged on the shanks to prevent the hooks being drawn too far into the wood when screwing up the nuts. the shank is screwed / -in. whitworth pitch thread, and the hook is - / in. in diameter at the thickest part. the hemp rope is spliced around galvanised iron thimbles (see fig. ), which take the wear on the hooks. the rope is usually secured to the seat by simply knotting the ends. should the swing be used for very young children, a seat provided with a fence will be necessary, as shown at figs. and , which are front and end views respectively. the back rail and the two side rails are fixed to the seat with the balusters; but the front rail is tenoned to open-ended mortices in the side rails, and thus made to hinge, to facilitate the lifting of the children on and off the seat, the rail being secured in its closed position with a brass pin and retaining chain. the suspending rope in this case is passed through the end rails and knotted to the seat. fig. shows the rope passed around and whipped to an eyelet. chapter ix. aviary. the outside dimensions of the rustic aviary shown by figs. and are--length, ft. in.; width, ft. in.; height, ft. in. hazel sticks, with the bark on, should be used, the straightest obtainable being best for the frame; if at all crooked or bent, the sticks can be straightened by steaming, or, if not too dry, by the heat of a spirit lamp. four uprights, ft. - / in. by / in., are first cut; then six rails, / in. thick, are made, with the ends shaped as shown in fig. , to fit the uprights, measuring ft. in. inside the hollow ends when finished. four of these should be laid on the bench side by side, and marked with a pair of compasses for the wires, which are / in. apart. they are then drilled, the holes being bored right through the two sticks for the top rails, but only half through the bottom rails. if the stuff is not too hard, the holes may be pierced with a well-sharpened brad awl. the uprights are now secured to the rails with -in. wire nails, driven so as to avoid the holes (see fig. ), and glue is applied at the joints. the bottom rail is flush with the lower ends, the next one being placed - / in. above it; the third is / in. from the top ends. these form the front and back frames, and should be quite square and out of winding. the rails for the ends, also six in number, measure ft. in., and are bored and fixed to the uprights to correspond with the others in exactly the same way. [illustration: fig. .--front elevation of aviary.] the two rails supporting the tree perches are placed about in. from the ends. before they are fixed, however, the tree perches must be arranged. these should be cut from the limb of a leafless tree, in winter, in order to retain the bark. suitable pieces may be prepared by cutting off badly placed twigs and fixing them where required. they are then put on the perch rails, employing the same joint as the rails and upright, but securing with a strong screw. [illustration: fig. .--end elevation of aviary.] [illustration: figs. and .--details of joint of rails and uprights for aviary.] when all is ready, the perches are fixed in the framework (see figs. and ), and narrow strips of / -in. board are fitted between the lower rails of the back and ends, to be faced with split stuff, put on diagonally as shown in figs. and . the best plan would be to take a sufficient quantity of material to the nearest sawmill to be divided by a circular or band saw; the material must be free from grit, or objections will be raised against cutting it. a stain, made by thinning down brunswick black with turps, should be at hand to stain the wood before fixing on the split stuff, which is secured with fine panel pins. [illustration: fig. .--part sectional plan of aviary.] the wood bottom is ft. - / in. by ft. - / in. by / in.; it is planed both sides, and secured in place with screws. the top side is treated round the margin, as shown in fig. , and the under side as shown in fig. . the centre of the design of the under side, covering a space of ft. in. by in., is worked first; it is worked from the centre outwards, each strip being mitred as shown. the marginal strips are pieces of split cut slanting at the ends where they fit other pieces, and flush with the edge of the wood bottom, which is surrounded with the same stuff. [illustration: fig. .--cross section of aviary.] [illustration: fig. .--half under view of bottom of aviary.] [illustration: fig. .--construction of door wires for aviary.] the wiring is all straightforward work. the wires are passed through the top rails to those below and clipped off level at the top. six feeding-holes are required, one in the centre at each end, and two at the back and front close to the perches. the top ends of these wires are pushed up through the rails; the circular ends are slightly sunk and fixed with small staples. six wires are omitted from the middle of the front to allow for the door. the cross-wires, which should be of a stronger gauge, are then put in. in the back and ends it is immaterial whether they are put inside or out, but at the front they must be inside. the six wires above the door are inserted in twos, being returned in the same manner as the lower ends of the door wires (see fig. ), and soldered to the cross-wire, which is afterwards bound to the others with thin pliable coil wire. in making the sliding door, the returned ends of the wires are soldered to the base wire inside, so that the ends may fit round the wires of the doorway; the top ends fit round those above the cross-wire, and when the door is in place a scroll-piece is soldered on outside (see fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--part longitudinal section of aviary.] eight corner-pieces of the split stuff are put on close against the wires, being secured to the uprights and rails with pins. two pieces of / -in. board are next got out for the top, measuring ft. in. long, in. across the centre, and slanting at the upper edge to / in. at the ends. the design is worked on these in split, the boards being kept in place with pins driven through the top rails, and the back and front connected at the top point by a length of wood of -in. by -in. section (see fig. ). the roof-pieces, ft. - / in. by ft. - / in. by / in., are nailed on and covered with split stuff, as shown by fig. . [illustration: fig. .--half plan of aviary roof.] a sliding bottom or tray is required for cleaning purposes; this is of / -in. board, and is nailed to the strip that fits between the rails in front; other strips about in. wide are nailed on the upper side at the extreme ends and back edge to form a tray for the sand, runners being put in against the lower end rails. the front strip is treated with the split, and to draw out the tray, the door may be slightly raised to admit the fingers to push it forward from the inside. two additional perches put across from the wires, and fixed with staples, give strength to the front and back. the aviary is now gone over with fine glass-paper, all white places being touched up with the stain and nicely varnished, with the exception of the perches. the aviary will stand on a table, but may be hung from the ceiling if desired. for hanging purposes, four screw-eyes are put in the top, two on the ridge, about in. from the front and back, and one towards each end, placed midway to catch the rails. the four ceiling hooks should screw into the joists, the aviary being suspended with chains. chapter x. foot-bridges. very pleasing effects may be produced in public or private recreation grounds by the constructional use of rustic work of good design. [illustration: fig. .--rustic foot-bridge.] [illustration: fig. .--cross section of foot-bridge.] [illustration: fig. .--enlarged section of girders for foot-bridge.] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: figs. and .--parts of joint of post and girder.] [illustration: fig. .--detail of middle rail and post of foot-bridge.] [illustration: figs. and .--joint of strut to post of foot-bridge.] [illustration: fig. .--twig hollowed to fit rail of foot-bridge.] fig. is a perspective view of a rustic foot-bridge suitable for a span of ft. or ft. the banks of the stream to be bridged are excavated to allow of the building of a low rubble wall, on which the sleepers rest, as shown in fig. . the girders are formed of spruce or larch spars. in the present instance, four are used; and they may be in. or in. in diameter, according to the length of the span. they are roughly adzed down to sit on the sleepers, and each girder is also worked down tolerably flat on the inner sides. the girders are then bolted together in pairs with six / -in. diameter coach bolts, as shown by fig. . the posts are tenoned and wedged to fit mortices in the girders. figs. and show the mortice and tenon joint. [illustration: fig. .--elevated foot-bridge.] the posts and top rails are - / in. or - / in. in diameter, and the intermediate rails in. in diameter. fig. indicates the method of jointing the rails to the posts. the girder spars, with posts and rails fitted, having been placed in position on the sleepers, and plumbed up and stayed, the floor battens, in. by - / in., are fixed and the struts are fitted and pinned or spiked to the posts and sleepers. the joint for the struts is shown by figs. and . [illustration: fig. .--girder and post of elevated foot-bridge bolted to sleeper.] [illustration: fig. .--cross section of elevated foot-bridge at lower step (fig. ).] if the bridge happens to be in a locality that is subject to periodical flooding, it should be anchored to prevent its being unseated by flood water. the anchoring can be best effected by driving four short piles into the soil on the inside of both girders and near their ends. the girders can be fastened to the piles with coach bolts. the tops of the piles will be concealed by the end floor battens. the smaller twigs forming the ornamentation are now fixed, and fig. shows the vertical piece hollowed to fit the rails. fig. gives a part view, in longitudinal section, of an elevated bridge, suitable for a span of ft. to ft., and raised on piles to enable small boats and canoes to pass under. elm logs are suitable for the pile foundation. an iron ring must be fitted over the tops of the logs while they are being driven, and it will be necessary to use a pile-driver. the logs, having been sufficiently driven, are cut off to the required height from the ground line. three piles on each side are required to carry the sleepers. the bridge is ft. in. wide, and the spars for girders are in. in diameter. the sleepers are bolted to the piles, and the girders are also bolted to the sleepers as shown by fig. . a row of smaller piles is now driven, and a plank, in. by in., is housed to the top ends of these piles, and also connected to the projecting ends of the girders. the treads of the steps rest upon the tops of the smaller piles, and the outer side of the piles and planks is covered with split saplings (see fig. , and the cross-section, fig. ). the handrails and balustrades are fixed in similar manner to those in fig. . chapter xi. verandahs. the front elevation of a rustic verandah is presented by fig. , which shows a part only, which may be extended to any required length at either end. as to the width, that indicated is - / ft. from the wall to the middle of the collar-posts, the eaves having a further projection of in. for a cottage verandah the width given is a satisfactory one. it gives sufficient room for seats on a hot day, or for a promenade on a wet one. the width, as also the height, can easily be increased to suit a larger house. the verandah is supposed to be built on a raised platform of brick or stone. all parts of the actual framework are of straight natural wood, preferably larch; whilst the mere filling-in of rustic open-work is of small crooked stuff--probably oak or apple tree. the roof, as illustrated, is of tiles. it will be seen that the posts which support the verandah are arranged in pairs, so that in. or - / in. poles will suffice for them. their bases are supposed to be dowelled to the masonry of the platform on which they stand; they are ft. in. high. except at the entrances, a sill of half-stuff runs from post to post on the platform. at a height of ft. in. they are connected by a round bar of smaller material, and, again, by a second cross-bar of similar size to the last, at in. from their upper ends. on the tops of the posts rests a lintel of half-stuff of larger diameter--say in. the upper and lower cross-bars come opposite to the middles of the posts, but need not be mortised into them, for if their ends are cut v-shaped, so as to clip the posts, they can be nailed quite firmly. [illustration: fig. .--front elevation of verandah.] the lower cross-rail is placed at a convenient height for leaning upon. at a height of ft. in. caps are formed by simply nailing four pieces of quartered stuff round each post. the diagonal braces which start from above the capitals pass in front of the upper cross-bars, to which and to the lintel they are nailed. fig. sufficiently shows how the panels between the pairs of posts and the frieze between the upper cross-bar and lintel are filled with open-work of small crooked branches, which contrasts in a pleasing manner with the straight pieces of the framework. this open-work may be made available for, and will be found useful as, a support for climbing plants. in so narrow a structure the rafters alone will suffice to keep all in place, without anything of the nature of a tie-beam being called for. these rafters will be of half-stuff, and for the given width a length of ft. will be enough; this will allow of such a projection beyond the lintel as will give the eaves a width of in.; the pitch will be rather less than a true pitch, but amply steep for the purpose. a piece of half-stuff nailed to the wall will support the upper ends of the rafters. in forming the roof it is proposed to board over the whole space upon the rafters, and to nail the tiles or other covering upon the boards. the inside may be lined beneath the boarding with rush matting. this is an inexpensive material; its brownish-green hue is pleasing to the eye, and it is so inartificial in appearance as to harmonise well with the natural wood. after fixing the rafters, the matting is to be stretched tightly across them before the boards are nailed down. it is probable that the rafters will be arranged with intervals of about a foot between them, and to hold the matting more closely to the boards a strip of split rod may be nailed up the middle of each space, or strips may be nailed so as to form a simple ornamental pattern; an intricate one will not be desirable, as fixing it will be overhead work. [illustration: fig. .--front elevation of glazed verandah for grape culture.] a neat, but less characteristic, ceiling may be formed by painting the boards a suitable colour and slightly ornamenting them with split strips of rod. in this case the boards should be planed. none will be better for this purpose than / -in. flooring boards, and these are commonly sold planed on one side. other ways of lining the roofs of rustic buildings are discussed in chapter xiii. for summer-houses thatch makes a good-looking roof, but a thatched verandah would scarcely be desirable unless attached to a thatched cottage. practically the choice lies between shingles, metal, and tile or slate. a metal roof is, undoubtedly, that most easily fixed by the beginner; black sheet iron looks better than galvanised, and must be kept painted. as a matter of taste, metal looks thin and poor, but it becomes less objectionable when painted; a deep, dull red would be the colour to be preferred. perhaps, of all available coverings, nothing will look better than tiles, as drawn. red or buff tiles will in themselves look best, but the choice must, to an extent, be influenced by the general covering of the house. it may be, if that is of slate, that small slates will come in most appropriately; but whichever of these coverings is used, the best finish against the wall will be with a "flashing" of metal, as shown. it has been asserted by some who consider themselves authorities in matters of taste that nothing of the nature of a greenhouse ever harmonises with natural surroundings, or is otherwise than an eyesore in a garden in other respects beautiful. the hard, straight lines of wood or metal, and wide surfaces of shining glass, are not pleasing, and are too suggestive of the shop and factory to accord well with natural objects. it has been suggested that the difficulty might be overcome by combining rustic work with glass. this, at the first glance, looks fairly easy; but, on consideration, it will be seen to be otherwise. rustic carpentry is in its nature irregular, and cannot be brought to those level planes and straight lines essential to glass-work; whilst for interiors, and especially those of houses intended for vines, rough bark-coloured surfaces afford too much shelter to insect pests--so that, in reality, rustic-work can only be made applicable to a very limited extent. in the grape-growing verandah shown by fig. , therefore, only a limited amount of rustic-work has been introduced, and that on the outside. [illustration: fig. .--side view of bottom of post for glazed verandah.] [illustration: fig. .--side view of top of post for glazed verandah.] such of the materials as are of a rustic kind are, for the parapet and uprights, some rather small larch poles or other tolerably straight, round stuff, and for the panels, some of those "slabs," or rough outside planks. as to the posts, and such parts as are not rustic, they are supposed to be of good deal. the sash-bars, which carry the glass both in roof and walls, are to be bought struck by steam at a lower price than they can be worked by hand, or sashes may be bought ready glazed. for glazing work of this kind, -oz., or sometimes -oz., glass is used. as in the design for an open rustic verandah (see fig. ) it is intended that the collar-posts should be set upon and dowelled into a raised platform of masonry. the present structure is, of course, intended for the warmer sides of a house, south or west. the width, to meet particular cases, can be varied, but is, according to the drawings, - / ft. the posts are ft. high and - / in. square. they are set with spaces between them alternately of ft. and - / ft. on their tops rests a wall-plate of the same width as themselves, and - / in. deep. the rafters, which are sash-bars rebated to carry the glass, rest on this wall-plate, and against a second vertical one fixed to the house wall. fig. is a front elevation of a portion of the verandah, whilst fig. gives a side view of the lower half of one of the collar-posts. at _a_, in fig. , is seen the section of the upper cross-rail, which has its top - / ft. from the ground; at _b_ is the lower cross-rail, or sill. both are of quartered rough stuff, and are mortised to the post / in. from its inner edge, so that when the / -in. boarding, _c_, is nailed against them, it will come flush with the inner side of the post. at _d_ is indicated the sash-frame, with its rebate for glass, which occupies the upper part of the opening; and at _e_ is a metal flashing between rail and sash to throw off rain. it is proposed that the sashes in the narrower openings only should be made to push outwards at bottom for ventilation. at _f_ is a piece of halved rough stuff nailed to the front of the post. the panels, which occupy the lower part of the space between the collar-posts, are filled with pieces of rough plank or "slab," as shown in fig. . these pieces should wear their natural bark as far as possible; they are nailed to the inner boarding. in fig. the upper part of a post is in like manner shown in profile: _g_ is the wall-plate in section, and _h_ is the lower end of a rafter. at _i_ will be observed a strip of quartered stuff nailed across the post (with a fir-cone bradded beneath it), which gives a starting-point to the upright _k_, by which the openwork rustic parapet is supported. these uprights are of small round stuff, slightly flattened on the side towards the post. the openwork parapet is too plainly figured to need description; it is intended to break to a certain extent the straight lines, and partially to conceal the glass-work of the roof, without seriously interfering with sunshine. so much of the planed wood-work as shows outside should be painted of a good brown, to assimilate with the rustic-work. chapter xii. tool houses, garden shelters, etc. [illustration: fig. .--end elevation of rustic tool house.] [illustration: fig. .--side elevation of rustic tool house.] for the small rustic tool house shown by figs. and the materials used are what are known as "slabs" or "rough planks." these are cheap, and have, when judiciously handled, a good picturesque effect. these slabs are the outside slices cut from logs of rough timber. these slabs generally retain their bark (except in the case of oak), and in most districts they will commonly be of elm. their thickness and outlines are necessarily irregular: one end will frequently be narrower than the other; and this will account for the arrangement seen in the walls and door of the tool house. they are to be bought at saw-mills, and often sold at a fire-wood price. where their cost is not sensibly increased by carriage, no other material comes so cheaply for building rough sheds. the ordinary country way of using them is as in the horizontal section, fig. . this plan, however, is not suitable for the present purpose. in so small a structure, rough planks on the inner side would take up too much space it is, therefore, proposed to straighten the edges, either by sawing or by chopping with the axe, according to circumstances, and lining their inner sides with thin board. if the cost be not objected to, / -in. match-boarding will be neatest for this purpose; if economy is an object, the boards of packing-boxes, bought from the grocer, might suffice. there are, it will be seen, three sides only to be lined. among a lot of rough planks, it is likely that stuff may be found sufficient for the posts and other scantling. as to the six pilasters, which are added for appearance merely, it is possible that stuff might be found which would, when sawn to width, do for them; in the illustration they are supposed to be fir poles or elm saplings; four sticks only are needed to supply the six halves and four quarters used. [illustration: fig. .--common method of using slabs.] at the corners are four main posts, in. square (see _a_, fig. ). these enclose a space of ft. by ft. (outside measurement). they are let into the ground ft., and rise ft. in. above the ground line. on their tops, and coming flush with their outer edges, rest the wall-plates, which are in. deep; these are needed at the back and sides only, and not at the front. on the same three sides will also be cross-rails, in. to in. thick, the ends of which will be let flush into the posts about a foot from the ground. to the wall-plates and these rails the slabs are nailed. in the side elevation, fig. , the nails driven into the cross-rails appear, but not those driven into the wallplate, a piece of rough stuff being there shown as fixed over the latter to support the eaves of the thatch. [illustration: fig. .--ground plan of rustic tool house.] to the front are to be seen the two door-posts, _b_, _b_, fig. , which are ft. in. apart, and should be about in. square. as their tops are nailed to the front pair of rafters, they rise to a height of ft. in. the space between door-post and corner-post is filled up by a single slab nailed to the two-- ft. in. long by in. broad. above these, instead of a wall-plate, comes the piece of strong slab, shown in fig. as having an opening cut in it for the head of the door. this is nailed against the door-posts, rafters, etc. the pilasters are only a matter of ornament. as drawn, they are of halved stuff; the corner ones are so placed that their middles come opposite to the corners of the posts, on the other faces of which pieces of quartered stuff are nailed to meet them. the simple arrangement of the caps of these pilasters, with their decorations of fir cones, is shown on a larger scale in fig. . the horizontal piece beneath the eaves, nailed over the slabs, has the effect of resting on the caps. beneath the thatch at front and back corresponding pieces are fixed, those at the front being ornamented with fir cones nailed upon them. the roof is shown in the elevations as thatched. no other covering will look so well, or be so thoroughly in keeping with other parts. the non-professional builder finds it easy to prepare for thatch, any rough stuff serving as rafters and laths, and inequalities being of no account. the rafters for thatch should be arranged about ft., the laths about in. apart. should there, however, be reasons for not employing thatch, the building may be more quickly and easily, if not more cheaply, roofed with galvanised iron; only the gables will then best be made sharp instead of blunt, as at present. regarding the door, its outer slabs, which appear in fig. , are simply nailed to three ledgers of the same. being of such rough materials, it will open better if hung on hooks and thimbles than on butt hinges. the dotted line at _c_, fig. , marks the projection of a set of shelves, about five in number, which fill the whole of the left-hand side. of these, the lower will be for flower-pots, the upper for lines, setting-pins, trowels, etc. at _d_ is shown a strip of wood fixed across the floor to hold the wheel of the barrow from running back when that useful vehicle is tilted up against the end wall, which will be the place assigned for it. in the gable and upper part of this end will be hooks or pegs on which to hang the riddle, watering-cans, and such matters. at _e_ is an upright let into the ground, which, at the height of ft., supports rails running to side and back; these form a kind of stand for spades, forks, and tools of that description. above, against the wall-plate, may be more hooks or pegs. [illustration: fig. .--enlarged cap of tool house pilaster.] it is suggested that at _f_ a seat might be fixed to fold down like the leaf of a table when not wanted. as this building would form a snug shelter in a shower, such a seat would be a convenience; but the more important use of this space is that slightly below the level of the eaves it will be fitted with a rack for hoes, rakes, and similar implements. such a rack is best made by boring / -in. holes in a strip of wood at intervals of in., and driving pegs into them in. or in. long. this has to be nailed so that the pegs will slope upwards, at an angle of about °. rakes, etc., hung in a rack so made cannot fall. figs. and are / in. to the foot; fig. is / in. to the foot; but figs. and are not drawn to scale. [illustration: fig. .--garden snuggery.] the garden snuggery, of which a general view is shown at fig. , and a ground plan at fig. , is built chiefly of wood, and measures ft. by ft. in. inside, not including the porch, which is ft. wide; it may serve as a summer-house. a building as small as this needs but little foundation. if the ground is level, it is only necessary to lay four large flat stones on the surface, a a (fig. ), to carry the timbers, the floor being thus raised enough to keep it dry. [illustration: fig. .--plan of ground framework of garden snuggery.] [illustration: fig. .--back framework for garden snuggery.] the two side sills b (fig. ) are each ft. in. long, in. wide, and in. thick, and rest on the stones; on them lie the end sills c c, which are ft. in. long. these sills are halved together at the ends, and a hole is bored through them where the middle of the collar-post will rest. this hole should be bored a couple of inches into the stone, and an iron pin or dowel in. long driven in; the pin will thus stand a couple of inches above the face of the sill, and will fit into a hole in the collar post. [illustration: fig. .--front elevation of snuggery porch.] the joists d (fig. ) for supporting the floor are five in number, each being ft. long, - / in. wide, and in. deep. they are halved for a distance of in. at each end to fit into slots, - / in. deep, made for them in the sills, and are nailed in place. when fixed their upper surfaces are level with the sills. the four collar-posts e (figs. and ) are each ft. in. long and in. square, and, when set up, their outer sides come flush with the sills. the uprights f (figs. and ) are in. square, and need to be in. longer than the collar-posts, as their lower ends are halved for this distance to fit slots in the outer sides of the sills. there are four of such uprights at each side, three at the back and two at the front, the latter serving also as door cheeks. they are nailed in place with their outer sides flush with those of the collar-posts and sills. [illustration: fig. .--side elevation of window-board.] for the rustic pillars of the portico g (fig. ) nothing will be more suitable than larch poles about - / in. in diameter at the base; failing larch, fairly straight pieces of any rough, round wood could be used. the pillars are shown in figs. and standing upon and dowelled to pieces of stone. when in position, their tops will be level with the collar-posts and uprights, their centres being ft. in. in advance of the front sill. on the collar-posts, uprights, and pillars are placed the wall plates h (fig. ), of which there are four belonging to the snuggery proper, each in. wide and in. thick. the side plates are ft. in. long, and are halved where they rest on the collar-posts and pillars, to receive the ends of the cross-plates, which are ft. in. long and halved to a distance of in. from their ends. the wall-plates come flush with the collar-posts and uprights on which they rest, and to which they are nailed. there is also a fifth wall-plate which lies along the tops of the pillars in the front. the best material to use for this would be half of a pole like those used for the pillars, the flat side resting on the pillar tops. it will be observed that the front ends of the side wall-plates project about in. beyond this piece. ten rafters, k (fig. ), will be required for the roof, each ft. long and in. square. the two outer pairs come flush with the outer sides of the sills and wall-plates. a sixth pair of rafters to stand over the pillars and their wall-plates are made from a round pole cut in half, with the sawn side laid uppermost. the tops of the rafters butt against a ridge-piece l (fig. ), made of -in. board in. deep and ft. in. long. as shown in fig. , continuations of the uprights are in the back carried from the wall-plate to the roof, the front being treated in a similar manner. the lintel of the doorway is ft. above the sill, the door opening being ft. - / in. by ft. in. after the floor has been laid. the window shown in fig. is ft. above the sill, and is ft. high; including the two mullions, it is ft. in. wide. the board shown nailed in front of the window sill is sloped a little downwards to throw off the rain, whilst above there is a board in. wide, nailed at a steeper slope upon brackets, as seen in fig. , to shelter the window. the / -in. flooring boards which are used for the floor should be bought ready planed on one side, and must be well seasoned, and cramped tightly together in laying, or there will be chinks between them. similar boards may be used for the outside of the snuggery, being nailed to the uprights at the back and sides, as shown in fig. . at the sides this weather-boarding will extend as far forward as the rustic pillars, thus enclosing the sides of the porch. for the inside of the snuggery use / -in. matchboarding, as shown in fig. . this may be carried up beneath the rafters to the ridge-piece. the porch may be also matchboarded throughout if desired, although this is not essential. [illustration: figs. and .--sections of snuggery walls.] there are several methods of making the wooden walls non-conductors of heat, the most thorough being to pack the space between the inner and outer casings with sawdust. shavings or similar materials could also be used, but less effectually. another plan is to tack felt over the inner side of the weather-boarding before nailing up the interior casing. but even without any packing, two thicknesses of board with an air space between make a reasonably good non-conductor. felt is fastened over the matchboard lining of the roof before the iron is put on. [illustration: fig. .--front view of garden retreat.] to reduce the cost, the snuggery can be cased with wood obtained from packing cases. boards thus obtained will, of course, be in short lengths, and will involve more labour; but the design is so arranged that it will be quite practicable to carry it out with them. [illustration: fig. .--plan of garden retreat.] the short lengths can be made to fit between the uprights instead of lying upon them, and the house will thus look as shown in fig. , the section of the wall being as shown in fig. , instead of as in fig. . a strip of lath--that sold for tiling-- in. wide and / in. thick, is nailed to the sides of the uprights, as shown, and to this the weather-boarding and internal casing are fastened; the effect being that the walls both inside and out appear to be divided into long panels. the effect may be heightened by painting the framework a darker colour than the boarding. in boarding the roof with this material, the easiest plan will be to nail the pieces on the upper sides of the rafters, to cover them with felt, and upon that to screw the iron. the space between the two casings of the walls, although much narrower than before, can be packed with sawdust, etc. on reference to fig. it will be seen that the caps to the rustic pillars of the porch are formed by nailing round each pillar four short pieces of rough wood quartered, the two sawn sides being placed upwards and inwards. four rough sticks crossing each other fill the space between wall-plate and the rafters. the bargeboards m m are sawn from / -in. board, in. wide, and are nailed to the ends of the side wall-plates and ridge-piece. they thus project some inches beyond the line of the pillars. they are shown ornamented with fir cones bradded on them; virgin cork might be used instead. the porch may also have its interior decorated with virgin cork or with rustic mosaic work. at each side of the doorway there is a seat in. high and in. wide. the door is made by merely nailing the boards to four cross-ledgers. the window lights in fig. are shown filled with fancy lead work, which is the most suitable way of treating them for a building of this kind. a strip of lath is nailed around the window opening, as in fig. , and the leaded light fastened in the rebate thus formed with small wire nails, a little putty being used to make the joints waterproof. it will, of course, be much cheaper to glaze each light with a single sheet of glass puttied in the rebate, but the effect will not be so good. for the roof, fourteen -ft. sheets of corrugated galvanised iron and a -ft. run of ridge capping will be needed. [illustration: fig. .--side elevation of garden retreat.] the iron should be screwed, not nailed, to the rafters, and should not cost more than s., including - / gross of galvanised screws and washers. the dotted lines at n n (fig. ) indicate the area covered. its low cost, the ease with which it is fixed, and the few timbers required to carry it, make an iron roof very suitable for a building erected by an amateur workman. it, however, has drawbacks, the chief of which are that it conducts heat too freely, and has not a very artistic appearance. some precautions against the first defect have already been suggested, and if the snuggery is erected where it will be shaded by trees during the hotter part of the day, this disadvantage will be somewhat overcome. its inartistic appearance is greatly due to its colour, and some improvement may be made by painting. if surrounded by trees, an iron roof looks very well when painted a reddish-brown colour, while in other situations a buff, or a dull sage green, might be suitable. the paint needs renewing often. another method is to cover the roof with trellis work raised a few inches above the iron, and upon this to train ivy or other climbing plants. [illustration: fig. .--detail of seat of garden retreat.] it will be better to paint the inside of the snuggery than to paper it, as paper would crack on the boards. should the second and cheaper plan of boarding be adopted, the rafters, which are left exposed, might be coloured dark brown, and the intermediate spaces of the ceiling painted a buff colour, whilst on the walls a dark sage green might be used for the framework and a lighter sage green for the panels. if the whole interior is lined with matchboarding, according to the first method, the simplest and perhaps best finish would be to use a varnish that had raw or burnt umber ground into it. no fireplace has been provided, but in ordinary winter weather an oil stove would suffice to warm so small a room; if more warmth is wanted, a coal stove might easily be provided, a hole for its pipe being cut through the roof. in either case a ventilator, which can be opened or closed at pleasure, should be arranged near the ridge at each end of the building. [illustration: fig. .--joint of garden retreat at c (fig. ).] the garden retreat shown in front view by fig. , and in plan and side elevation by figs. and , is constructed from straight unbarked fir saplings, the small twigs of which should be carefully trimmed off. as the bark is to be left on, it should not be cut or bruised; then no artificial finish will be necessary, the bark in itself being sufficient protection against climatic conditions, and presenting the desired rustic appearance. a new feature in the design is the introduction of a roof or canopy, which may be covered with a sun blind as shown in fig. ; or a creeping plant may be trained over it. the two front posts are in. in diameter at the base by ft. high, and the back posts in. in diameter by ft. in. high; the middle back post is ft. in. high, and the front leg ft. in. the seat rails are - / in. in diameter. the front rail is ft. long; the back is in two parts, dowelled to the middle post, which comes between. the side rails are ft. in. long; it is advisable to allow a fair margin for hollowing the ends to fit the posts-- in. on the length would probably be sufficient. after the ends of the rails have been shaped roughly to fit the posts, they are bored for the reception of - / -in. oak or elm dowels; these are driven into the rails, and should also be a good fit in the posts. the dowel joint is shown in the top corner of fig. . [illustration: fig. .--detail of front joints (see c. fig. ).] [illustration: fig. .--alternative method of joining rails to posts.] the lower rungs, arm-rests, and back rails are jointed to the posts by tapering their ends slightly, and then tapering the dowel holes to suit with a gouge, so that the rails will just drive up nicely; this joint is shown in the bottom corner of fig. . the rails, etc., are finally driven home, and secured with nails or screws inserted at suitable angles. the back and the side panels are filled with twigs about - / in. in diameter, the ends of the twigs being trimmed to fit the rails, and afterwards nailed in position. the seat battens are half-round in section, and are cut from -in. saplings, the flat part being placed downwards. the method of fixing them is shown in figs. , , and . the seat having been fitted, the struts under the seat rails are next cut and fixed in position. [illustration: fig .--section of middle rail at a (fig. ).] [illustration: fig .--detail of middle rail at b (fig. ).] the canopy must now be put together. the tops of the posts are first hollowed to form a seating for - / -in. saplings, ft. in. long; these act as principal rafters. before nailing or screwing them to the posts, it is advisable to sight across them to see if they are in the same plane; any alteration that may be required to bring them to lie in the same angle can be effected at the seating on the top of the posts. the halved joint at each end of the principals should also be cut (before fixing up) for receiving the purlins; the principals are further steadied with struts, screwed or nailed to the posts. the purlins are about in. in diameter by ft. in. long, and are fixed to the halved joint previously made on the principal rafters. smaller twigs, which act as common rafters, are in turn fixed to the purlins. fig. shows the method of jointing at the back of the canopy at c (fig. ), and fig. is the detail of the front joints. fig. (p. ) is the top of the post hollowed to receive the principal rafter, fig. is an alternative method of joining the rails to the posts, fig. is a section near the middle rail at a (fig. ), while fig. is a detail of middle rail at b (fig. ). chapter xiii. summer-houses. the lean-to summer-house shown by fig. is intended for a small garden. perhaps in no better way can a dead wall or the back of some unsightly outhouse be better utilised than as the background for such a building. the dimensions of the structure are: length, ft.; breadth, ft. in.; height, ft. [illustration: fig. .--lean-to summer-house.] [illustration: fig. .--ground plan of lean-to summer-house.] its general arrangement is seen in the ground plan (fig. ). four pillars, a, b, b, a, occupy the front. these are poles - / in. or in. in diameter. any rough and tolerably straight wood will do, but larch is to be preferred. these rise ft. above ground, and should not have less than ft. below the surface. the dwarf pillars c supporting the seat are of similar stuff, but rather smaller. they show in. above, and should be buried about in. below ground. the pilasters d are of rather larger stuff sawn in half. these are only ft. long, as they need not enter into the ground, being fixed only by strong nails to the wall. [illustration: fig .--elevation of inside of end of lean-to summer-house.] the ends of the summer-house (the space from a to d) are of smaller half-stuff, ranged side by side (as seen at e, e), and nailed to the cross-pieces, f and g, which appear in fig. . in this last-named figure also appears one of the wall-plates, resting on and nailed to the tops of the pillars (h, at fig. ), and at i is seen where one of the front wall-plates meets it. there are two of these front wall-plates, each resting on the two pillars to right and left of the entrance, and their inner ends appear in fig. , where the ends of the purlins which form the small gable rest upon them. the wall-plates are of large half-stuff, with the flat side above. in fig. will be seen how the short cross-piece which carries the sloping end of the roof is supported; and fig. , which is a section through the centre of the building, explains how the ridge-piece of the small gable, e, rests at its inner end on a crosspiece m from rafter to rafter, seen in section only, whilst n shows the point at which the purlins meet and support the ridge-piece towards its outer end. the intersection of the diagonal braces in the gable is indicated at o, and p shows the course of one of the rafters, and how its upper end rests against the wall, and upon a ridge-piece of half-stuff, q, strongly nailed to the masonry. the elevation (fig. ) explains pretty clearly the ornamental details of the front. they are not elaborate. it will be seen that the top of each pillar has a small cap, formed of four pieces of quartered stuff, mitred at the corners, and that across the opening on each side of the entrance, near the top, is a "transom" of straight wood, with a little arrangement of crooked bangles round it. over the entrance are diagonal braces crossing, and also a little filling-in with bangles. the entrance is ft. in. high. in order that an ornamental and appropriate lining may be given to the back of our summer-house, it is recommended to plug the wall, and nail over it a level covering of thin boards--say, / -in. matchboarding. upon this the decorative work can be bradded. the back of the seat is shown in fig. to be of rustic mosaic. above this, as well as under the seats, a covering of bark has been introduced. british-grown bark, such as elm, can be made to lie flat, but as in any but rural districts this may be difficult to get, virgin cork may be made to take its place. fig. gives an inside view of one of the ends, and from this it will be seen that the ornamentation of those parts varies little from that of the back. the lower band, however, answering to the strip under the seats, is not bark, which, in this place, would be liable to be kicked and destroyed by the feet, but of smaller half-stuff, so arranged as to break joint with the outside pieces. this will be seen by referring to the ground plan. any chinks in the ends should be neatly tucked with moss, so as to make them wind-proof. the roof is of wooden shingles--things which any rough hand at carpentry can prepare and put on for himself. as will be seen from fig. , it is easy to give an ornamental character to these. they will have a rustic look, which will go well with other parts of the structure, and, if clumsily made, the effect will be none the worse. for the present purpose, suppose the shingles to be in. by in. the lower ends may be sawn to a variety of ornamental shapes. if this covering is used, instead of nailing laths across the rafters, it is proposed to cover the whole roof with similar boarding to the back, and upon this it is a simple thing to nail the shingles, placing them just as tiles might be placed. whilst nailing them on, it will be necessary to have some person within to hold a heavy hammer against the place, otherwise the vibration will jar off the shingles as fast as they are fixed. a / -in. board, rather wider than half the length of the shingles, should first be nailed along the eaves to make up the required thickness. [illustration: fig. .--section through centre of lean-to summer-house.] it will be noticed that the ends of the rafters are made to project so as to give a good breadth of eaves--a desirable feature in so narrow a building, alike for shade, shelter, and the appearance of cosiness. if, however, the roof should be thatched, the projecting rafters will be unnecessary, as the thatch alone will form sufficient eaves. down the "valleys" at the juncture of the main roof and the entrance gable a strip of zinc will, of course, be nailed before the shingles are put on, whilst along the ridges a strip of zinc will be nailed upon the shingles; and this latter will need painting to match the colour of the wood. various suggestions may be given for finishing the inside of the roof. supposing that round or half-round larch stuff has been used for the rafters (the latter is to be preferred for shingles, as giving a level surface to board upon), the space between the rafters may be covered with bark--virgin cork or otherwise--the chinks being stuffed with moss. but if this is done it will be well to fix the bark with screws, as the vibration caused by driving nails would displace or loosen the shingles. a second plan under the like circumstances would be before nailing the boards upon the rafters to stretch matting across the latter--either ordinary garden bast matting or, better, the more substantial rush matting, both of which are very inexpensive. these have a pleasant natural colour (the last-named especially, of a greenish hue), and are so unartificial in their structure as to appear in no way out of place among rustic work. or it may so happen that suitable larch stuff is not to hand, and that ordinary sawn scantling has to be used for the rafters. if so, the whole roof may be hung with ling; or the rush matting may be stretched across the lower side of the rafters and tacked there, being afterwards more completely secured and finished by nailing a split hazel or other rod down the middle of each rafter. this last plan makes a neat and pleasing roof. [illustration: figs. and .--front and side elevations of shelter for tennis lawn.] [illustration: fig. .--part roof, seat, and floor plans for tennis lawn shelter.] it scarcely needs to be said that to make such a summer-house look its best the wall on each side ought to be covered with ivy or other creepers; and it will also be obvious that, if the height of the wall permits the floor of the summer-house to be raised a step or two above the surrounding level, the structure will gain thereby both in effectiveness of appearance and in pleasantness as a place in which to sit. [illustration: fig. .--connecting plates to corner post.] [illustration: fig. .--fixing sleeper to posts.] [illustration: fig .--section of flooring.] [illustration: fig. .--finial.] [illustration: fig. .--detail of garden shelter at front eaves.] [illustration: fig .--section of seat.] the rustic summer-house or tennis lawn shelter illustrated in front and side elevations by figs. and is constructed from straight saplings and twigs that have had their bark removed, and have been subjected to a reasonable period of seasoning. a new feature in the design is the accommodation under the seats for the reception of the croquet or tennis gear, and also the extended eaves and floor (see fig. ) and the open front, giving at once an uninterrupted view of the game and shelter from the direct rays of the sun. the shelter is ft. long by ft. in. wide, the height from the floor to the eaves being ft. in., and from the floor to the ridge ft. the four posts are ft. in. long by in. in diameter. the middle and lower end and the back rails are tenoned to the posts, a flat being formed on the post by the mortise and a corresponding shoulder on the rails. the remaining portion is worked to fit roughly the contour of the post. the plates are in. by in. in section, and are secured to the posts with long galvanised bolts and nuts and a - / -in. square washer under the heads of the bolts. when halving the front plate, allow it to house into the side plates - / in.; by this method it will have a bearing on both posts. in fig. the left-hand plate represents the front. the front posts are connected at the floor line by a scantling, in. by in., which also forms a sleeper for the floor joists; see figs. and . the structure rests on a low plinth of bricks, spaces being left for the circulation of air under the floor. the extended floor also rests on bricks placed immediately below the joists; see fig. , which is a section on c d (fig. ). the twig plinth nailed around the front will effectually conceal the sleeper and brick foundation. the rafters are - / in. by in., and the ridge and hip rafters in. by in., the finials (see fig. ) being nailed between the angles of the hips. the eaves in front project ft. beyond the posts, and fig. shows the method by which the additional width is obtained. [illustration: fig. .--strapping cushion to seat.] [illustration: fig. .--front elevation of octagonal summer-house.] the sides are filled with / -in. vee-grooved and tongued boarding, to which is attached the rustic work. the stained glass windows are fixed, and on the outer side of the back are diagonal braces made from split saplings, while in the centre a vertical post runs from sill to plate. the braces and post are shown in the plan (fig. ). the seats are constructed to form lockers (see fig. , which is a section at a b, fig. ), their height being ft. in., which, with the addition of a -in. cushion, will form comfortable sitting accommodation. the cushions are retained in place by straps passing through slots and fastening over suitable studs on the under side; see fig. . this method provides a means of easily removing and quickly replacing the cushions when required for use. a space of in., or a distance equal to the thickness of the cushions, must be left at the sloping back, to allow the seat to open properly. the nature of the locker is partly concealed by the rustic work of split twigs that is nailed to the front. next fix the lattice work between the finials and under the front plate. the short struts on the front posts are more for effect than for any real support. the roof is boarded on the inside, the work being carried on the rafters as far as the collar ties, and continued flat on these. moulding is fixed in the angles formed between the rafters and ties, and a cornice is fixed at the plates. the heels of the rafters and plates are also boarded around, as shown in fig. . the roof may be covered with thatch of wheat, straw, reeds, broom, or heather, and the whole of the woodwork visible should be varnished. the summer-house illustrated by fig. is suited to a garden of moderate size, one in which space is not so restricted as to necessitate crowding the building close against a wall. this octagonal summer-house has a continuous seat some ft. long. from side to side each way it measures ft. fig. is an elevation of the front of the house. [illustration: fig. .--ground plan of octagonal summer house.] [illustration: fig. .--section of octagonal summer-house at y z (fig. ), showing framework.] its framework and the main part of it are of larch poles; other woods are, however, used for minor purposes. the roof is of thatch. in the arrangement of this building there is a certain resemblance to a tent. it has a central pillar, a, not unlike a tent pole, which sustains much of the weight of the roof. being of first importance, this pillar is somewhat larger than any of the other timbers--say in. in diameter near its bottom, and tapering as little as may be. a rod of iron or wood rises from its top to form the centre of the straw pinnacle seen crowning the roof in fig. . this pillar shows a height of ft. in. above ground, and it should be let ft. or more into the soil; for it will need to be firmly fixed, or it may be forced out of the perpendicular during the erection of the roof; when the roof timbers are once fixed in place, it will have little further chance of moving. the diagram fig. is a ground plan, and fig. is a section showing the timbers from the interior; both are drawn on a scale of / in. to the foot. the eight collar-posts (b, figs. and ) at the corners of the octagon are of somewhat smaller stuff--say in. they show ft. above ground, and should have ft. below. it will be well to gas-tar all the underground work. the ground plan of a building in this shape is readily laid out. the space being levelled, a string is taken which has a loop at each end, and is ft. in. long. with a stake driven through the loop at one end as a centre, and with a stick passed through the loop at the other to serve as the travelling leg of the compasses, a circle is struck ft. in. in diameter, and into this pegs are driven at equal intervals ( ft. apart) to mark the centres of the eight collar-posts. whilst digging the holes for the posts, these points are kept by drawing two straight lines on the ground which intersect at the peg. the cross-pieces which rest on the collar-posts, and which serve as wall-plates, are a trifle smaller stuff than the posts--say in. fig. shows how they are cut to fit the tops of the posts, and nailed there. in this building there are no mortise and tenon joints. on these ends above the posts rest the lower ends of the eight main rafters, d, the upper ends of which rest against and are nailed to the central pillar. the eight intermediate rafters, e, rest at the bottom on the middles of the side plates, and at top are cut to fit upon and between the tops of the main rafters. [illustration: fig. .--collar posts and ends of wall plates.] [illustration: fig. .--timbers over entrance of octagonal summer-house.] the laths used are in this case in no way particular--any sticks will do; they will not be seen, and under thatch there is no necessity that a level surface should be formed by them, as for slates or tiles. they are nailed in. or in. apart. the gable over the entrance is arranged as in fig. . the laths, when nailed on, will have to run over the little ridge formed by f, instead of keeping the level, as on the other sides. this will cause no special difficulties in the thatching. the walls are of larch poles sawn in half. to split a number of heavy poles with the handsaw is tedious work, and it is better to get them run through by the nearest steam saw. the quantity of half-stuff required may be easily calculated; one of these sides will take about five and a half -ft. lengths of -in. stuff. the tops of these wall-pieces are sawn obliquely to fit against the round wall-plates to which they are nailed. in their lower parts they are nailed to the lower cross-pieces, g, g, g, fig. . these latter will best be made of rather large stuff quartered, since their upper sides on which the seat-boards rest should be level, as well as their backs, which go against the wall-pieces. the middle cross-pieces are of smaller half-stuff, and should be nailed to the wall-pieces rather than that the wall-pieces should be nailed to them; for they are in a conspicuous place, and nails driven through them and clenched would be unsightly. the front supports of the seats are let into the ground some in., and rise - / in. above the ground line. the seats should be cut from -in. board, and should be about - / in. wide. in the two window sides of the octagon (see figs. and ), the space below the windows is filled with whole poles, their bottoms resting on a sill let in level with the ground, and their tops nailed into through a cross-piece of half-stuff (k, fig. ). the mullions and transoms of the windows--mere sticks--are of small straight larch stuff, but the ornamental filling in above is of crooked branches--oak bangles by preference, though apple-wood would do very well. it often happens that an old apple-tree is cut down, and at once condemned as firewood; yet its stem may have grotesque knots, and its branches picturesque contortions which would make it valuable for rustic work. whenever rustic building is contemplated, it is well that such wood should be laid by; a single tree would supply all the small quantity of crooked stuff that is required in the present instance. even the interlaced stems of ivy, when an old growth has covered a wall, have sometimes been utilised to excellent effect. [illustration: fig. .--window side of octagonal summer-house.] it may be observed that any chinks between the pieces beneath the windows, as well as in the walls generally, are most readily and appropriately rendered wind-proof by neatly stuffing with moss. fig. gives a full front elevation of one of the window sides (they being only seen obliquely in fig. ), and it is on the / -in. scale. four stout crooked pieces are used as struts to support the table (drawn to in. scale in figs. and ); / -in. board will suffice for the top of this table, and it will probably be cut from two widths. to give proper strength to the ornamental border (seen in fig. ), a second thickness of the board is attached below each corner, extending or in. to each side, so as to allow each of the longer bits of split rod to be fixed, as shown, with two brads. a really satisfactory material in which to finish the top of a rustic table is not easily found; it must give a level surface, and at the same time be in harmony with its surroundings. board, planed or painted, oilcloth, or any manufactured material, is felt to be out of place; marble or slate looks cold and hard. nothing that is absolutely level satisfies the requirements; the best alternative is rustic mosaic. by this is meant split rods of wood so bradded down as to form patterns. for the present purpose, however, the mosaic must be kept more neat and smooth than usual. fig. shows the top of the table thus treated. the rods most in favour for rustic mosaic are those of the hazel. they are to be bought cheaply and abundantly when the undergrowth of woods is cut. they have a smooth and pretty bark, and the useful size is from / in. to - / in. sticks of other kinds of the same size can also be used: birch and wild cherry may be named among those with smooth bark, and wych elm and maple among those with rough; willow or withy, again, is of most common growth, and exceedingly useful. in river-side neighbourhoods it is often the cheapest and most plentiful of all woods. for mosaic work, it is always peeled, for its bark is unattractive, and its light colour when stripped makes it tell well in contrast to the dark bark of other woods. if used, as it often is, for outdoor purposes in garden carpentry, it should always be peeled. country carpenters have a saying that withy lasts twice as long without its bark as with it; and in this there is much truth, for the loose bark holds the wet to the wood and causes it to rot. to make it peel freely, it should be cut just as the young leaves make their appearance. the like holds good with other woods; but if it is desired that the bark should hold firmly, the wood should be cut down in dead of winter, when all the sap is down. [illustration: figs. and .--plan and elevation of table for octagonal summer-house.] the top of the table is supposed to be mainly composed of peeled withy. the pattern contains only the double dark line bounding the star and the single strip round the edge in hazel. so much white will not look amiss in this place, and withy is easily worked. hazel and most woods twist so much in the grain that it is rarely safe to split them except with the saw, but withy--in short lengths like these, at least--can be split with a hatchet. in rough carpentry there is no more pretty or interesting work than these mosaics. the backs of the seats (fig. ), and the seats themselves (fig. ), are decorated in this way. on the seats themselves, as on the table top, hazel and withy are contrasted, and form a design in alternate triangles; the separating bands, it may be noticed, have a light strip against the dark, and a dark strip against the light, triangle. along the edge of the seats one or two strips merely are nailed lengthwise. in such a situation an ornamental edging like that round the table would be too liable to be broken. it is recommended that the back of the seats should be in dark bark-covered woods only, for the mosaic in that position will look better without any mixture of the light-coloured withy. the upper compartments of the sides with which the backs of those sitting down will not come in contact may be more quickly and yet pleasingly covered with sheets of bark. elm bark is good for the purpose. it may be peeled in large sheets from the trunks of trees felled in spring, when the sap is rising; and whilst it is drying should have bricks or stones laid on it to press it flat. when dried, it is nailed to the walls, and any cracks which appear can be neatly filled with moss. the space beneath the seats is also shown as roughly covered with bark. [illustration: fig. .--seat side of octagonal summer-house.] the almost conical roof is thatched. no other covering is so pleasing as thatch for a rustic building. its colour and rough texture harmonise well with the natural wood, and all its associations are of a rustic character; no other covering so effectually excludes the summer heat, and nowhere can one find a retreat so suggestive of coolness, quiet, and repose, as under the low eaves of a thatched building. thatch has, it must be admitted, certain practical disadvantages--birds and winds are apt to scatter fragments from it, and it needs renewing at comparatively short intervals. the common saying is that a thatched roof needs re-coating every ten years. often, no doubt, this is near the truth, yet really good work will frequently stand for almost twenty years. the materials in use in this country are reeds, straw, and stubble. reeds make a strong thatch, but are not easily to be procured, except in fenny districts. stubble, which is the lower and stronger part of the wheat stem, stands better than straw, which is its upper and weaker portion; to last properly, however, stubble should be cut immediately after harvest, and should not be left standing, as it frequently is, till the spring, for then the winter rains, collecting in its hollow stems, cause it to rot before it is cut. on small buildings like summer-houses especially, stubble makes a much more compact and sightly roof than straw. thatching is not costly or difficult work. in agricultural districts a load of stubble--sufficient to thatch three such buildings as the one illustrated--costs s., and a thatcher expects the wages of a first-class labourer only, not those of a mechanic. he needs an assistant, whose business it is to straighten the material into convenient bundles (called "yelvens"), and to supply him as he requires them. if he is re-thatching an old building, he merely thrusts the ends of his new material into the old thatch with a wooden spud; but if he is covering a new roof he sews down his "yelvens" to the laths and rafters with a huge needle and stout tarred string. he begins at the eaves, laying as wide a breadth as he can conveniently reach on one side of his ladder, this breadth being called a "stelch." he works upwards, each new layer covering the tar-cord which secures that beneath it; and thus he goes on till he has reached the ridge. in his second "stelch" he is careful to blend together its edge and the edge of that already laid, so that no rain may find its way between them; and in doing this completely lies much of the superiority of good over bad thatching. when laid, the thatch is smoothed down and straightened with a gigantic comb, like the head of a large rake, one end being without teeth, and serving as a handle. in the present instance, the tops of all the stelches meeting in a point are finished and capped by the little bundle of thatching material forming the pinnacle, which is tightly bound round the rod of wood or iron in its centre. [illustration: fig. .--mosaic seats for octagonal summer-house.] it is usual to bind thatching down with at least two belts of buckles and runners. in the summer-house (fig. ) two double belts are shown. the buckles have some resemblance to ladies' hair-pins on a colossal scale. they are made of slips of withy, twisted and doubled in their middles and pointed at their ends; the runners are long straight slips of the same. these latter are laid across the thatch, and the buckles, being placed over them, are pushed tightly into it--their points being driven upwards, that wet may not be let into the roof by them. the short diagonal runners seen in the illustration crossing each other between the horizontal lines are used in ornamental thatching only, and are rather for appearance than for use. lastly, the eaves are cut to shape, and trimmed with paring-knife and shears. the roof looks most pretty and cosy within if lined with ling. the ling is fixed in a way somewhat akin to thatching. a layer is placed along the bottom opposite to the eaves, and secured by a strip of wood nailed from rafter to rafter; the layer next above hides this strip, and so the work is carried on to the apex, where a knot cut from an apple-tree trunk, a bunch of fir-cones fastened together, or some such matter, finishes the whole. in districts where ling is not to be had, gorse or furze in short pieces may serve instead, but stout gloves are required to handle it; or the ends of fir branches may do, if nothing better offers. it is not always easy to decide on the best way of forming a floor. boards may look out of place. a pitching of pebbles is more in character: it is dry and cleanly, and especially if some variety of colour is obtainable, and the stones are arranged in some geometrical design, it may add to the ornamental effect. pebbles are not, however, pleasing to the feet of those who wear thin shoes. gravel, where it is always dry, is apt to become dusty, and to disagree with ladies' dresses. if, however, gravel should be used, perhaps the best plan to prevent the rising of damp, and to obviate dust as far as possible, is to asphalt it: on the foundation of broken stones and a layer of coarse gravel to put a course of asphalt or of ordinary gas tar, and on this to sift enough fine _washed_ gravel to hide it. yet a wood pavement of small larch poles, cut into -or -in. billets, and pitched with some attention to geometrical arrangement, will make the most dry and comfortable of floors, and one which will not harmonise badly with any of the decorative work of our summer-house. the octagonal house illustrated by fig. is made up of varnished rustic work. the saplings and twigs should be as straight and as regular as possible, and divested of their bark. [illustration: fig. .--octagonal summer-house with three gables.] [illustration: fig. .--vertical section of octagonal summer-house through lower part of door and sill.] [illustration: fig. .--vertical section of octagonal summer-house through side casement.] [illustration: figs. and .--elevation and plan of roof for octagonal summer-house.] the eight posts are in. in diameter by ft. in. long. the short sill pieces are also in. in diameter, while the middle rails are - / in. in diameter, and the plate is in. by - / in. the floor and roof are constructed from ordinary scantlings. the posts form a circle ft. in. in diameter. they are spaced about ft. in. apart, except the door-posts, which are ft. in. centres. flats may be worked on the posts for the better fitting of the door, panels, and casements, and the top edge of the sill is also planed flat to receive the floorboards, and a rebate is formed for the / -in. matchboard (see fig. ). the sill and middle rails are scribed and stub-tenoned to the posts. the plate is halved, dowelled, and nailed to the posts. the joists are in. by in., and are notched to the sills (fig. ) and covered with -in. floorboards. [illustration: fig. .--securing glass to rustic casement.] the roof is formed with three gables, four being deemed unnecessary, as a summer-house is generally fixed with its back to a shrubbery. eight hip rafters are required, and by fixing the heels of each pair of rafters on the sides of the plate marked , , , and (see fig. ) more space is acquired for the gables. the ridges and valley-pieces of the gables are attached to a wide batten screwed to the under side of the hip rafters (see figs. and ). some of the small battens are omitted from fig. to give a better view of the gables, etc. [illustration: fig. .--half front and half back view of door for octagonal summer-house.] [illustration: fig. .--section of door for octagonal summer-house.] the roof-covering is generally wheat straw, with a top dressing of either broom or heather. the dark colour of the two latter materials harmonises much better with a varnished house than does a covering wholly of straw. the four lower panels are filled in with matchboarding, which is carried right up to the plate in the three back divisions. the rustic work, excepting the back panels, is then fitted and nailed. [illustration: fig. .--part plan of octagonal summer-house.] there are four casement windows, which open outward. a section of casement and frame enlarged is shown in fig. . a shallow rebate is formed to receive the leaded lights, which are retained in position with split bamboo fixed with round-headed brass screws. [illustration: fig. .--horizontal section through door posts.] the door (figs. and ) is ft. in. by ft. in. the rustic work is overlaid on the frame of the door. the centre of the diamond-shaped panel is filled with cork. the top panel is glazed with stained glass. three butts and a rim lock are fitted on the inside of the door, and the lower panel is filled with matchboarding. [illustration: fig. .--part section of side panel.] some further illustrations may be noted. fig. is a part plan of the octagonal summer-house; fig. , horizontal section through door-posts; fig. , part section of a side panel; fig. , method of fixing plate to posts; and fig. , finial. [illustration: fig. .--fixing plate to posts.] [illustration: fig. .--finial.] a seat in. wide, supported on wide battens, which in turn rest on shaped brackets, is fixed at each angle. a sloping back (see fig. ) is fitted, which adds to the general comfort. the decoration of the inside should now receive attention. the floor may be covered with linoleum, the seats carpeted or cushioned. the sloping backs of the seats and the walls will look well if covered with indian matting or japanese leather paper. split cane or bamboo may be used with good effect at the joints or angles. the under side of the roof or ceiling should be first covered by stretching canvas across the rafters, and to this is attached the decorative material. the summer-house stands on stone slabs raised about in. above the ground. the lower ends of the posts are dressed with pitch, or are stood on sheet lead. the triangular spaces in the gables can be made to open inwards if desired, and used for ventilation. index. anchoring foot-bridges, armchair, , aviary, - ----, bottom, ----, perches for, , ----, sliding tray for, ----, wiring for, , ----, wood for, "bangles," bending wood with spanish windlass, boxes, window, - bracket for wall, , canopied garden seat, - canopy for garden retreat, , ---- for swing, - carriage entrance, - chair, arm, , chairs and seats, - collar-posts, , , cottage porch, door of tool house, easel, mitred joint for, ----, for photographs, - ----, stain for, , elevated foot-bridges, entrance, carriage, - fenced seat for swing, fences, fire-screen, flower-holder, tripod, flower-pot stand, , , foot-bridges, ----, anchoring, ----, elevated, ----, girders for, , gables to octagonal summer-house, , - garden gate, - , ---- plant tub, , ---- retreat, - ---- seat with canopy, - ---- seats, - ---- snuggery, - ---- ----, collar-posts for, ---- ----, door for, , ---- ----, joists for, ---- ----, pillars, caps for, ---- ----, rafters for, ---- ----, roof, boarding, ---- ---- ----, coverings for, , ---- ----, rustic pillars of, , ---- ----, walls, non-conducting, garden, tool house for (see tool house) ---- trellis with seats and gate, - gates and fences, - girders for rustic footbridges, , grape culture, glazed verandah for, hall stand, - hazel rods for rustic mosaic work, hexagonal table, , ---- vase, , house, tool, door for, ----, ----, doorposts for, ----, ----, folding seat for, , ----, ----, pilaster for, ----, ----, plan of, , ----, ----, "rough planks" for, joint, mitred, joists for garden snuggery, lean-to summer-house, - ---- ---- ----, lining for walls of, ---- ---- ----, mosaic work for walls of, ---- ---- ----, roof of, lining roof with ling, ---- summer-house walls, mitred joint, mosaic work, - ---- ----, hazel rods for, ---- ----, withy for, ---- ----, for summer-house walls, octagonal summer-house, - ---- ---- ----, collar-posts for, ---- ---- ----, gable for, ---- ---- ----, ground plan of, ---- ---- ----, roof for, ---- ---- ----, table for, ---- ---- ----, thatched, - ---- ---- ----, three-gabled, - ---- ---- ----, walls for, pedestal for sundial, pilaster for tool house, pillars of garden snuggery, , plant stand, rectangular, ---- tub for garden, , ---- vase, large, , ---- ----, ornamental, , porches, - rectangular garden plant stand, retreat, garden, - roof for garden snuggery, - ---- for lean-to summerhouse, ----, materials for, ---- for tennis lawn shelter, ---- of tool house, ---- for verandah, rosery walk, - "rough planks" for tool house, seats and chairs, - shelter for tennis lawn, "slabs," fixing, , snuggery, garden, - ----, ----, collar-posts for , ----, ----, door for, , ----, ----, joists for, ----, ----, pillars for, ----, ----, rafters for, ----, ----, roof for, - ----, ----, ---- coverings for, , ----, ----, rustic pillars of, ----, ----, walls of, spanish windlass for bending wood, stain for easel, , stand, flower, , ----, flower-pot, in imitation of bamboo, ----, hall, - ----, rectangular plant, "stelch" for thatching, stool, , summer-house, lean-to, - ---- ----, ----, lining for walls, ---- ----, ----, mosaic work for walls of, ---- ----, ----, roof of, ---- ----, octagonal, - ---- ----, ----, collar-posts for, ---- ----, ----, floor for, ---- ----, ----, gable for, ---- ----, ----, ground plan of, ---- ----, ----, roof for, summer-house, octagonal, table for, , - ---- ----, ----, thatched roof of, ---- ----, ----, with three gables, - ---- ----, ----, walls for, ---- ----, ----, windows for, ---- ----, thatched octagonal, - swing, canopy for, - ----, fenced seat for, table for octagonal summer-house, - ----, hexagon, , ----, square, - tables, - tennis lawn shelter, - ---- ---- ----, roof for, thatched octagonal summer-house, - thatching, cost of, ----, "stelch," ----, roof of octagonal summer-house, - ----, "yelvens," tool house, - ---- ----, door, ---- ----, doorposts, , ---- ----, folding seat for, , ---- ----, pilaster, ---- ----, roof, ---- ----, "rough planks" for, trellis, garden, with seats and gate, - vase, hexagonal, , ----, plant, , , , ----, square, , ----, on tripod stand, - verandahs, - ----, for grape culture, ----, open, ----, posts supporting, , ----, rafters for, ----, roof for, ----, ---- materials for, walk, rosery, - wall bracket, , windlass, spanish, window boxes, - wiring aviary, , withy for rustic mosaic work, wood bending with spanish windlass, ---- for rustic work, "yelvens" in thatching, printed by cassell and company, ltd., ludgate hill, london, e.c. practical graining with description of colors employed and tools used illustrated by forty-seven colored plates representing the various woods used in interior finishing by william e. wall grainer to the trade. philadelphia: house painting and decorating publishing co. eighteen-ninety-one. entered according to act of congress in the year by the house painting and decorating publishing co. in the office of the librarian of congress at washington, d. c. all rights reserved. contents. page. chapter i. groundworks for graining; graining compared with plain painted work; removing old paint; mixing ground colors chapter ii. the graining color; imitating simple woods; graining color for light oak; mixing graining color; applying the color; representing champs or lights of oak chapter iii. quartered oak; overgraining; heart of oak; use of the check roller chapter iv. graining oak in distemper; the light veins in oak; graining ash; putting in heart work; over-graining ash; ash in distemper; matching white ash chapter v. hungarian ash; burl ash in water color and in oil chapter vi. chestnut; colors for graining chestnut; wiping the hearts and blending; chestnut in water color; bird's-eye maple; putting in lights and shades; putting in the eyes; curly or rock maple; silver maple chapter vii. satinwood; groundwork for satinwood; putting in the mottling chapter viii. pollard oak; cherry; cherry in distemper; glue size for distemper binder chapter ix. black walnut in oil; black walnut in distemper chapter x. french walnut burl in distemper chapter xi. mahogany; honduras feathered mahogany; stippling in mahogany; feathered mahogany chapter xii. rosewood; the use of the bamboo brush; imitating rosewood in water color; cypress wood chapter xiii. hard pine; white wood chapter xiv. varnishing over grained work; cracking of varnish on inside work chapter xv. graining considered as a fine art; graining sometimes condemned; the artistic merit of graining chapter xvi. the tools used by grainers; combs; overgrainers; badger blenders; castellated overgrainers; mottlers; cutters; stipplers; check roller; fresco bristle liners chapter xvii. patent graining machines; patent roller process; the mason pad; objections to machine graining; stencil plates; gransorbian transfer process; transfer paper chapter xviii. the imitation of carved work, mouldings, etc. list of colored illustrations. . grounds for graining hungarian ash, maple, light ash and light oak. . grounds for graining chestnut, dark or pollard oak, black or french walnut, stained cherry, mahogany and rosewood. . plain or wainscot oak, light. . flaked oak, light. . flaked oak, light. . heart growth oak, light. . heart growth oak, pencilled. . flaked oak, light, shaded. . heart of oak, checked and shaded. . flaked oak, light shaded. . flaked or quartered dark oak, shaded. . heart of light ash, wiped out. . heart of light ash wiped out and shaded. . heart of ash, dark, pencilled. . hungarian ash, wiped out and pencilled. . burl ash in water colors. . dark ash, pencilled and combed. . hungarian ash, wiped out. . bird's-eye maple, overgrained. . chestnut. . bird's-eye maple, mottled ready for the eyes. . bird's-eye maple with the eyes. . chestnut. . satinwood mottled. . satinwood mottled and overgrained. . curly maple mottled to overgrain. . curly maple overgrained. . pollard oak. . pollard oak. . cherry mottled in oil before being overgrained. . cherry mottled and pencilled in oil. . cherry mottled and pencilled in oil. . cherry mottled and pencilled in oil as finished. . cherry wiped out and pencilled in oil. . walnut stipple. . black walnut pencilled. . walnut wiped out and pencilled. . curly walnut. . french walnut burl. . mahogany straight. . mahogany mottled. . mahogany feathered. . rosewood as outlined to overgrain. . rosewood as finished. . cypress in oil. . hard pine. . whitewood in oil. [illustration: maple or satin wood. light ash. light oak. hungarian ash. grounds for graining.--in illustration of article by wm. e. wall] practical graining. chapter i. ground-works for graining the following remarks, while not claiming to be anything new or startling, will perhaps be of interest to those who seek to improve themselves in the modern style of imitating the grain of wood. the ideas set forth in these pages are founded on the observation and every-day experience of a grainer to the trade who does not claim to be the best in the world, but who offers his suggestions for the good of the craft. graining is often overlooked in the rage for stained white wood or olive greens in interior work, but it will always find favor with those who have experienced its wearing qualities as compared with plain painted work; for should the varnish be of good quality and not crack, the work, if properly done, will stand for years and will not fade in the manner that paint does, and where the work is properly done on new wood it cannot be chipped off unless the wood is taken off with it. it can be scoured off, but will not come off otherwise. where graining is done over old paint or over work that has been previously grained the case is different, as, if knocked or bruised, it will chip off to the coat beneath, and where the work has formerly been white the effect is very bad and is hard to remedy; but if care is taken when grounding the work, it may to a great extent be prevented. in preparing old work for graining one of the first things requisite is to have the surface made as smooth as possible; this may be done with sand-paper or--what is better--lump pumice stone. in case the graining is done over old paint that has cracked the best thing to do is to remove the old varnish or paint by the application of a strong solution of washing soda or a weak solution of potash. some painters use spirits of ammonia or burn off with a burning-lamp. after thoroughly softening or removing the old paint or varnish with either soda or potash, the work should be washed off with a weak solution of vinegar (about a pint of vinegar to a pailful of water), in order to remove all traces of the alkali and prevent its future action on the paint. some painters think that this is too much trouble and assert that they cannot get paid for doing work in this way, but in the end it will prove to be the best way, as it will greatly add to the appearance and durability of any job so to prepare it. in any case the work should be thoroughly sand-papered and made as smooth as possible before receiving the first coat; this, of course, is for old work. the ground-color should be thinned with about half spirits of turpentine and half oil, with the addition of sufficient drier for old work, and oil, with an extra quantity of drier, for first coat on new work, using some spirits for the second and third coats. the writer has found by experience that on the cheapest jobs (of two-coat work) where the wood is sappy and the work has been rendered rough by the painter using a large quantity of drier in his priming coat, a much better surface is made to grain over by this method. it will not spot or look cloudy when rubbed in to grain, as two-coat work often does on new wood. a little "elbow-grease" and sand-paper between coats make a vast difference in the looks of a job when finished, and the ground-work should always be lightly sand-papered before it is rubbed in by the grainer. [illustration: chestnut. dark or pollard oak. black or french walnut. stained cherry. mahogany. rosewood. grounds for graining.--in illustration of article by wm. e. wall] in mixing the ground-color for graining never use dry colors where it can be avoided, as the work will be more or less gritty, and there is really no saving in their use. a pound of color ground in oil will go much further than one of dry color, is more easily applied and is much better to grain over. of course much depends on the purity of the colors employed, and the painter will find that the best colors are none too good for his use, as they go further and work better than do the cheaper grades. it is a good plan always to strain the color before thinning, whether the colors used be dry or ground. the foregoing may seem superfluous to the good workman, as he himself has probably found out more than this; but it may put some beginner on the right track, and none of us are expert enough to miss learning a point if we can. mixing of the ground colors. the ground-work for oak is made by adding yellow ochre to lead till the color is deep enough. in matching the real wood a _little_ raw umber will help to bring it to the desired color, but is better without the umber for light work. in matching very light oak chrome yellow may be substituted for ochre. for dark oak use the same colors as for light and add venetian red and burnt umber; the same color will do for pollard oak. for green oak (_á la furniture_) do the same as for ordinary work, and when grained shade it over with a thin wash of chrome green or add a little black to the ground color. for ash use the same color as for light oak, but do not get it quite so yellow; a little raw umber will counteract this. a little chrome yellow may be added for hungarian ash. for chestnut use a similar color to that for ash, but deeper and with a little red. for maple the ground-work should be very light. to an ordinary pot two-thirds full of lead well broken up add about a teaspoonful of chrome yellow and about half that amount of burnt sienna; some grainers prefer a _very little_ venetian red instead of the burnt sienna. in matching the wood get the ground-work as near the lightest color on the wood as possible, and you cannot go astray. for satin-wood the ground-work is similar to maple, but deeper in color. for burl ash use the same color as for ash, or slightly deeper. the ground-work for cherry is probably mixed differently by every painter--at least, that is my experience--and it is hard work to make any workman believe that his is not the right way. in different parts of the country the popular idea of what "cherry color" is, varies greatly. in the majority of cases what has been called "the color of the fruit" is wanted, so we must make the ground-work to suit the demand. cherry in its natural color is but little darker than ash, and the ground-work may be made in the same way or by adding raw sienna to the lead instead of yellow ochre and umber. the cherry that grainers have to match is often finished by furniture-makers, and is as dark as mahogany; in such cases the ground-work must be made with yellow ochre for the basis of the color and darkened by venetian red. it will want little if any lead for the darker kinds of stained cherry, but will stand some for the lighter shades. in priming new work add considerable lead for first coat, as it gives more body. three thin coats are none too many for new work, and they should be applied without leaving brush-marks. there is nothing more aggravating to the grainer than to find that a job is full of streaks of thick paint, as it is almost impossible to do a good job on such a ground-work. the foregoing remarks apply to priming coats on new wood for graining any kind of wood. the ground-work for walnut is made by taking yellow ochre for the base of the color and adding a small quantity of venetian red and a little burnt umber; for very light work a little lead may be added. the same ground will do for french walnut. for mahogany the ground-work is made of yellow ochre, venetian red and red lead. for rosewood chrome yellow, red lead and a small quantity of venetian red. the foregoing are about all the woods that a grainer in new england is called upon to imitate; and if i mistake not, it is so elsewhere. of course all painters or grainers may not agree with me in using the colors named for preparing the ground-work, but good work can be done on such grounds. one thing i wish to say is, never use indian red in a ground-color, as it is not transparent and makes the work look muddy. in grounding work for cherry or walnut, where the old paint is not removed, it is well to add some red lead to the color, which should be frequently stirred, or the red lead will deposit on the bottom of the pot. chapter ii. the graining color. in mixing the graining-color for any wood just as much difference of opinion exists among grainers as to the proper way of mixing the color as there is among painters as to the proper way of mixing the ground-color, and although different grainers have their own method of preparing and mixing their graining-color, and often use different materials and colors, still, good workmen will often obtain the same effects, but by a different process. such being the case, it is impossible to lay down any cast-iron rule for the materials to be used in the representation of any wood or for the _proper_ way to imitate any wood. in imitating the color of certain woods the colors used are quite simple, while for other woods considerable pains must be taken and a number of colors used if the color of the wood is to be matched. i think the most common fault of graining is that the color is made darker than it should be; still, the grainer is not always to blame for this, as such a fault cannot be laid to his charge if the painters insist on keeping the ground-color itself as dark as or darker than the work should be when grained. many a time in the experience of grainers is this the case, and i have on more than one occasion mixed a proper ground-color to match wood after being called upon by some alleged painter (who thought the ground-color he had put on was correct) to grain the job, but in most cases it is said, "do the best you can with it and let it go, as the folks want to move in," or, "i want to get my money," etc., and so grainers do the job if the color is not too far off from what it should be. let us suppose that we are going to grain a job of light oak in oil. first lightly sand-paper the ground-work with a piece of fine or an old piece of sand-paper, and dust off. the ground-color should be quite hard, and not tacky, before the graining-color is applied, and two or three days is none too long a time to stand before being grained. where a good job is to be done and finished at one impression, as we might call it, the manner of working can be reversed--that is, the work can be shaded or over-grained, as it were, on the ground-color in distemper before being rubbed in oil. the check roller can be used to good advantage, and the panels and stiles of doors streaked or mottled. the distemper color must not be diluted with much water, or it will rub off when the oil-color is being applied over it. this way of working is an advantage in matching stained oak, as all that remains to be done after it is grained is to stain it to the desired depth or color. on ordinary work this shading is done on the graining-color when dry. the colors necessary for graining oak will be raw sienna and burnt umber, with a _very little_ black to be added in case it is needed. it is impossible to specify the exact amount of each color to be used, and the judgment of the workman must be exercised in all cases. the ordinary way is to mix about two-thirds raw sienna and one-third burnt umber, adding the black if necessity should require to match wood. do not get the color too yellow, but rather on the gray shade, as that is most frequently the color of the wood. the color should be thoroughly mixed in a clean pot, and, if in oil, thinned with the following mixture, or sufficient of it to bring the color to the desired shade: half a gallon of spirits of turpentine; two and a half pints of linseed oil (boiled is to be preferred); half a pint japan drier. it is better not to use too much drier, and, as the drying qualities of each maker's japans, etc., vary greatly, the workman's judgment must guide him as to the exact amount to be used. it is a matter of doubt as to what is the best article with which to thicken the color without altering the shade; a little bolted whiting is very good. some grainers prefer melted beeswax or soap dissolved in hot water and added to the color while hot, or even cold water stirred into the color. as a rule, the less of these added to the color, the better. after thinning to the desired consistency, a good brush is the next requisite for applying the color. do not use stubby brushes, as in so doing you lose more time than you gain by making them last longer. by general consent the flat brush has superseded the round brush in the eastern states of america for grainers' use, as it requires no binding and is a much better blender, when used as such, than any round brush, and it is more quickly broken in for use. it is better to use a medium size rather than one too large; one about three and a half inches across the butt will be found the most serviceable. an oval or a flat sash tool and a no. flat fresco bristle liner, to be used as a fitch tool in putting in hearts, etc., will be all the brushes required. a set of steel combs, or even two, a coarse and a fine steel comb and one or two of good rubber, are all the tools that are required. the rubber combs should be coarse and fine--that is, the spaces between the teeth of the fine rubber comb should measure from one-sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch and the coarse one from one-eighth to one-quarter of an inch. sometimes a rubber comb with the teeth cut graduated looks well introduced among the other work. where the work is to be shaded or over-grained it is better to cover the teeth of the rubber combs with a thin cotton rag before using, taking a clean place on the rag for every time the comb is used, but on cheap work this may be omitted. when a piece of work is rubbed in, if it is desired to represent "champs," or "lights of oak"--better known as quartered oak--the rubber combs are first used and carefully drawn through the color--not necessarily in a straight line--and the coarse or finer, or both the steel combs, are drawn lightly over the track of the rubber comb; the work is then blended lengthwise with the flat brush, which has previously been rubbed out clean, and the champs or veins are put in across the grains previously made by the rubber and steel combs. the other implements necessary are a piece of soft rag and the thumb-nail. many substitutes have been invented for the thumb-nail, but it is as yet unsurpassed for this particular purpose, as it is more sensitive than are the bone or horn substitutes sometimes used. [illustration: plate . plain or wainscot oak, light.] [illustration: plate . flaked oak, light.] chapter iii. quartered oak. in imitating quartered oak, or any other wood, it should always be borne in mind that it is the _wood_ that we wish to imitate, and not somebody's idea of what it should be--for if we copy others, we become, as byron says, "degenerate copyists of copies"--and the best thing that any beginner can do is to procure pieces of the real wood, study the various changes of grain and get the general character of the grains of each wood impressed upon his mind, then endeavor to reproduce them in his work; for the work will be judged by its general appearance, and not by the looks of any particular piece of work. after the champs or veins are wiped out with the rag, the spaces of combed work between the champs must be softened by a piece of rag folded three or four times and drawn over the combed spaces and toward the edges of the work previously wiped out with the rag. the edges of the champs may first be sharpened up by drawing the second joint of the forefinger against them. a fine comb is then waved over the spaces of open work and the whole panel blended lightly crosswise with the flat brush. quartered oak can be imitated by combing the same as has been described, and letting the work dry before taking out the champs. when the work is dry, mix a weak solution of washing soda, and add a little dry umber to show where you touch the work, put on the champs with a fitch tool, let it stand a few minutes to soften the color, and then rub off with a soft rag, and it will be found that the graining-color is taken off to the ground-work, giving the same effect as if wiped out while the color was wet, only that the work looks cleaner. work done in this way should be over-grained. the champs may also be put in in dark color over the dry combed work, and left so, as some veins of oak appear dark in certain lights. these dark veins may be imitated by combing the work the same as if going to use the rag to wipe out. do not blend, but put in the veins with a small fitch tool or fresco liner dipped in some color from the bottom of your pot--not too dark--and immediately blend one way, lifting the edge of the color; after practice it will be found that a very good imitation of dark champs or veins is the result. heart-work may be done in the same manner, but the combing should be done with a steel comb, the color for putting in the grains being but little darker than that with which the work is rubbed in. it is sometimes necessary to go over the whole with a fine steel comb. an occasional dark piece introduced among wiped work tends to relieve the sameness and looks more like the hardwoods; it also gives a better opportunity (where a job is not to be overgrained) to make distinct mitres and joints. this is very important and should never be forgotten. be sure and have all joints cleanly cut, as nothing so much offends the eye as wavy or crooked joints. it is always better to make a distinction between the long stiles of a door and the adjoining cross rails. a common fault of the amateur grainer is his inability to make clean-cut divisions. [illustration: plate . flaked oak, light.] [illustration: plate . heart growth oak, light.] the heart of oak--or, as it is sometimes called, "slash oak"--is usually done in the wet color, and is not combed previous to being wiped out with a rag. the outline of the work is first wiped out and the inner edges are softened with the rag. the edges of the work toward the side of the panel should be filled out either by hand or with a small rubber or leather comb covered with a thin piece of rag, being careful to follow close to the last line done by hand. this is an operation which if not carefully done will spoil the appearance of any job. when the panel or piece of work is grained, a coarse steel comb may judiciously be used, drawing it lightly over the heart-work and softening the whole lengthwise with the dry brush and toward all knotty places or turns in the wood. in case the work is to be overgrained, care must be taken not to soften the edges too much, as it will present too sunken an appearance. the plain grains are made with the comb; and if this part of the work is properly done, the effect is better than if it were full of strong grains. when the work is to be overgrained (and good work cannot be done without), it may be overgrained when dry, in either oil or water color. if in oil (as we finish most outside doors, etc., in this vicinity instead of varnishing them), the same color may be used as for graining, or with the addition of a little more oil and drier, and darkened with umber if necessary. the check roller may first be used in water color, the work having previously been dampened, and, when the checks are dry, the whole gone over in oil. or the checks may be put in in oil color after first overgraining in water color; this will necessitate oiling or varnishing when dry. the check roller is used to good advantage on hearts of oak, and the work should then be lightly blended lengthwise. in shading the champs the brush may be drawn through the shading-color, leaving the work streaked; then wipe off where the color covers the champs too deep. a similar effect is obtained by using a medium fine comb covered with a rag, the color being taken off in this way; this is for oil color. the blender drawn through water color, or a common oak overgrainer, gives the same effect for water color. it is better to go all over the work with a thin coat of color, as it looks raw without, and shading it in this way gives the depth that is otherwise unobtainable. shadows are put in around knarly places, and touches added where needed, and the job is finished. chapter iv. graining oak. oak may be overgrained by using a very thin coating of asphaltum for the shading color; thin with oil and spirits. oak may be grained in distemper--that is, using beer or alcohol for a vehicle with the color, instead of oil. good work can be done in this way, but not so quickly as in oil. a little sugar added to the beer makes it dry slower and work better than without it. if a tablespoonful of alcohol be added to a pint of beer, the work can be combed while wet almost as well as if in oil. first dampen the ground with a sponge wrung out in clean water, and then rub on the color the same as in oil; comb while wet (or use an overgrainer when dry) and blend lightly with a badger blender; then wipe out the veins or champs with a wet rag before the color dries, or afterward, as desired. a similar effect for light veins is obtained by using the fitch tool to put on the veins or champs and lifting off the color with the blender, thus leaving the champs light. for dark veins the work is put on with a fitch and left as put on. the heart-work may be done in the same manner, both for light and for dark pieces, but it cannot be done so successfully as if done in oil. of all the woods we have to imitate, i think oak is the most difficult, hence i have tried to explain the different ways in ordinary use of imitating it; and in closing i would say, do not overdo your work. most grainers put in more work--that is, showy grains--than would appear in the natural wood unless it were all selected. and remember that a nice piece of combed work is just as good a representation of oak as the majority of the heart-work often seen. [illustration: plate . heart growth oak, pencilled.] [illustration: plate . flaked oak, light, shaded.] [illustration: plate . heart of oak, checked and shaded.] [illustration: plate . flaked oak, light, shaded.] ash. in graining ash in oil the colors necessary will be raw umber and raw sienna and a little vandyke brown or black. mix the color much the same as for oak, and the same tools can be used. after the color is rubbed in comb the places intended to be plain, and with the fitch tool or sash tool add lines, streaks, etc., if desired, using some color darkened with vandyke brown or black, and blend lightly lengthwise with the dry brush. the heart-work or growth is represented by wiping out the color with a soft rag, the same way as for the heart of oak, but in ash the hearts are less complicated, and the points of the growth will be found to run more regular, and generally with a rounding edge instead of being serrated, as are the majority of oak-growths. the hearts of ash are also more narrow in proportion to the width of the board than are those of oak, and their imitation is much less difficult. lightly stipple all wiped-out hearts with the dry brush. i think ash is one of the easiest of woods to imitate, as oak is one of the most difficult. a very good imitation of a dark piece of heart-work may be done with a small fitch tool when the color is partially set. sometimes the work is outlined roughly by lightly wiping off some of the color with a folded rag and describing the general direction of the grain to be followed by the fitch. the work is then put in with the fitch tool, and the edge of the color so put in is lifted with the blender, showing one edge light, and if carefully done, it looks well. the fitch tool is also employed to brighten the effects of the wiped-out hearts and to blend slightly. where both means are used--that is, the fitch tool and the rag--in doing hearts of ash, the work presents a very woody appearance, and looks much better, if carefully done, than either method of doing heart-work does without the other. ash is greatly improved by being overgrained, but a great many of the dark streaks can be put in while the color is wet. allowance can be made when it is intended to overgrain the work, and the dark places can be done more successfully when the color is dry by overgraining. the same color used to grain the work will do for overgraining it, or by adding a little black and thinning with spirits of turpentine and japan for inside work, and japan and oil for outside work where it is not to be varnished. ash may be grained in distemper by using stale beer or vinegar for thinners and the colors dry or ground in distemper. the effect of combing may be obtained by using an overgrainer. where hearts are to be introduced, the work should be lightly stippled with a badger blender; and when dry, the wet rag or sponge may be used to wipe out the color preparatory to putting in the hearts with the fitch tool; this makes a fair job, and is the way followed by many in representing ash. the work looks fully as well, and i think cleaner, if the hearts are put in on the stippling without using a rag or sponge; do not stipple the work too heavily. in matching western ash a little blue sometimes helps to counteract the redness of the umber, and will be found to match the dull-gray shade often seen better than black, but ash is of so many varieties and colors as to allow the use of a wide range of colors. in matching ash the filling of wood has to be taken into consideration. the filling used by the average painter is often anything but what it should be, and the beauty of many an ash door has been destroyed by the miserable attempts at filling often perpetrated by some ignorant painter. this is applicable also to other woods; but particularly to ash. [illustration: plate . flaked or quartered dark oak, shaded.] [illustration: plate . heart of light ash, wiped out.] [illustration: plate . heart of light ash, wiped out, shaded.] [illustration: plate . heart of ash, dark, pencilled.] chapter v. hungarian ash. this wood may be imitated in oil or water color, but the imitation is commonly done in oil. the colors used are raw sienna and raw and burnt umber; a little burnt sienna may be added to the shading color. in oil color the outline of the work is wiped out with a soft cotton rag and softened lightly, or even stippled with the dry brush, and after the color is nearly dry the lines between those wiped out with the rag are gone over with the fitch tool, the color being darkened with umber. the idea is to bring the wiped work into sharper relief. when dry, the shadows may be put in by using either oil or water color and blending softly. a little vandyke brown will deepen the color, or thin asphaltum may be used in shading or overgraining. where circumstances require the work to be finished without overgraining, the work may be mottled or shaded in water color on the ground-work before the oil color is applied, and in that case the work must be put in to suit the shadows and the lights that appear through the oil color. hungarian ash varies from very bold to very fine grains, and the finer varieties may successfully be done in oil color, using the fitch tool to put in the grains and wiping out simply the lights and the shadows with the rag. the work looks better when lightly stippled in water color with the blender. in doing the work wholly in water colors, the lights and the shadows are first put in, and after these are dry the grains are introduced with the small fitch tool, lifting the edge of the color lightly with the blender. an ash door with the panels done in hungarian ash make a very neat job if nicely performed. burl ash. burl ash, or root of ash, is often used in panels, and can be imitated in either oil color or water color, but water color will be found the best. the colors used are raw sienna, burnt umber and vandyke brown; a sponge with rather small holes is requisite for use in representing the minute clusters of knots. after the work is rubbed in, the sponge (which has previously been faced square on one side) is dipped in some of the darker color and lightly pressed against the work. it is better to use the color a little darker than that with which the work has been rubbed in, and to put it where you wish the darker portions of the wood to appear. after this is dry go over the whole panel with the sponge and some of the darkest color, lightly pressing the sponge against the work wherever you desire the knots to appear. a little growth is sometimes put in by the use of the fitch tool, and tends to relieve the sameness of the work; it must be done carefully and on a small scale. when the work is dry, carefully pass the hand over it and remove the superfluous color which adheres, and the job is then ready to be varnished. it is sometimes shaded after having one coat of varnish, in which case it is necessary to revarnish it; it will require little or no stippling. in imitating this wood in oil color, the work is first rubbed in and but little color is put on--merely enough to cover the ground-work with a very thin coat; a sponge may then be used to apply the darker color. the sponge should first be thoroughly wet in clean water and wrung out dry before the oil color is applied by it. have some of the dark color in a shallow vessel and use the sponge as directed in water color, dipping the faced side of the sponge in the color and representing the clusters of knots in this manner. when dry, it may be overgrained or not, according to the shade desired or to the wood to be matched. [illustration: plate . hungarian ash, wiped out and pencilled.] [illustration: plate . burl ash, in water color.] [illustration: plate . dark ash, pencilled and combed.] [illustration: plate . hungarian ash, wiped out.] chapter vi. chestnut. this wood is not frequently used as an interior finish, but sixteen years ago it was almost the only hardwood used for interior finish in the new england states; and any grainer who succeeded in matching it was considered very skilful. it is a highly-porous wood, and on that account is undesirable, as, if not entirely protected from the changes in temperature by being thoroughly filled, it will warp or swell; and i have seen doors concave or convex as much as three inches in a two foot eight inch door. it also turns very dark with age, and its hearts or prominent grains are very coarse. i have seen specimens which measured eighteen inches from point to point at the heart. the colors used are raw sienna, burnt umber, vandyke brown and a little burnt sienna. there is some resemblance to ash in the finer growth of chestnut, but its general characteristics are more angular--that is, the hearts run more to points than those of ash--and in most of the hearts a faint outline appears between the points. the combing also is much coarser than that meant for ash. chestnut can be done in either oil or water color. i think it can be done best in oil, using the rag to wipe out the color and combing in the edges of the hearts with a rubber comb covered with a thin piece of rag. this comb should not be over two inches in width, and the teeth should be about five to the inch. when the hearts are wiped out and lightly-blended, the fine outline may be put in between the points in the hearts by using a sharp-pointed stick or the round corner of a steel comb. the work, when dry, may be lightly stippled in distemper, or a thin glaze of color without stippling may be applied to bring the work to the desired depth of color; this shading-color may be mixed in oil or water color. in imitating this wood in water color the work should first be stippled in very fine and allowed to dry; then put in the growths with the small fitch tool, and use the overgrainer for the same purpose as that for which the comb is used in oil color to follow the edges of the hearts, and to produce the "combed" work; a piped bristle over-grainer will be found useful for this purpose. bird's-eye maple. to my mind, this is the most beautiful of our native woods, and it is a shame that it is often cut down for firewood; however, it seems to be growing in favor among the furniture-makers, and is far more generally used in the interior of horse-cars and railway-cars than it was ten years ago. the colors used in representing maple are raw sienna, raw umber, a little vandyke brown or ivory black and a little burnt sienna, to be added to the color when over-graining or putting in the pencil-work and the eyes. [illustration: plate . bird's-eye maple, overgrained.] [illustration: plate . chestnut.] [illustration: plate . bird's-eye maple, mottled, ready for the eyes.] this wood is almost invariably imitated in water color, as oil is too slow in drying to be used with any success. stale beer is the best vehicle with which to apply the color. the implements needed are a good sponge, a piece of soft cotton rag or chamois leather, a brush to apply the color, a large and a small mottler or cut tool, a badger blender, an overgrainer and fitch tool, and a camel's-hair pencil. first dampen the ground-work over with the sponge, which has been wrung out of clean water, or of beer and water; then rub in the color, doing a panel or a small piece at a time, and while wet wipe out the high lights and put in the shadows with the sponge or the mottler or the backs of the fingers, or draw the color up into small bunches or clusters with the blender or mottler and blend lightly crosswise. when the lights and the shadows are dry, the eyes are put in. by observing the real wood it will be found that the eyes invariably appear in the darker portions of the grain, and that the shadows seem to slope away from them. very often the shadows all slant one way and the eyes in the same way; this must be taken into consideration in imitating maple. do not have all the eyes and all the shadows slanting the same way in different panels, as is often seen in the interior of cars, but reverse the style, bringing the opposite panels to balance with each other. the best manner of imitating the eyes is a matter of doubt among practical workmen. the amateur grainer will tell you that he can put them in by striking the ends of his fingers against the color while wet; this is the way the wood is most frequently misrepresented, and such work looks feeble compared with that done by either of the following methods: after the lights and shadows are dry take some of the dark color from the bottom of your pot and add to it a little burnt sienna; the color should be put in a shallow vessel, such as a saucer. thin the color, so that it works freely; then take a medium sized camel's-hair pencil which has been "docked" by cutting off the hair about one-quarter of an inch from the quill with a sharp knife, leaving the ends of the hair perfectly square. then burn out the centre of the brush with a red-hot wire, leaving the hair round the circumference with which to represent the "eyes." the pencil is then dipped in the darker color, and the eyes are put in where desired. another way is to cut a piece from a block of soft rubber, make a hole through it and with a sharp knife trim the edges of the rubber till it can be used to take up the dark color. make the eyes in the same manner as with the pencil brush. the eyes can be put in with a small pencil by describing circles, but care must be taken to have them of uniform size, or nearly so. another--and probably the best--way is to take a thin piece of chamois leather or a soft piece of cotton rag and wet it in the graining-color; then take a piece of wood four or five inches long and not over half an inch thick; whittle it round and taper it to a point at one end; then wrap the rag or the leather around the stick, keeping a folded edge at the sharp end of the stick; and when the cloth or leather has made one circuit around the stick at the sharp end, wind it farther up the stick, so that only one circle of the folded rag or leather is at the sharp end of the stick. some of the thick color may then be placed in about the middle of the rag, and by keeping the rag or the leather well wet above the thick color and squeezing the rag as often as necessary, so that the color descends toward the point of the stick, the eyes may be rapidly and accurately put in by striking the end of the folded rag or leather against the work; and a pair of panels may easily be done by once filling the rag with color. this method has the advantage of making any sized "eye," from the largest to the smallest, by simply altering the thickness of the folds; or the eyes may be made in any shape desired, from a circle to an oval. after the eyes are put in the work is over-grained, the color mostly being burnt sienna. the heart grains are put in with a camel's-hair pencil. some grainers use a crayon pencil for this purpose, which should be soaked in beer or vinegar and used moist; the various over-grainers are also used in putting in the heart grains. the "eyes" should always be noticed--that is, the over-grainer should describe some part of a circle in passing the "eyes," so as to have them in harmony with the general features of the wood. all water-color work should be lightly gone over when dry with the hand, to remove any roughness in the graining-color. some grainers prefer to touch up the high lights around the "eyes" with some of the ground color after the graining is dry, but it must be done very carefully or it shows badly. [illustration: plate . bird's-eye maple with the eyes.] [illustration: plate . chestnut.] curly or rock maple. this wood somewhat resembles bird's-eye maple, and is often used in the same piece of furniture. it differs from bird's-eye in having but few, if any, "eyes" in it, and is mostly mottled and over-grained. a five-inch mottler that will cover the stiles of an ordinary door is a very necessary tool, as one that is not wide enough necessitates going over the work twice, and then it will not look so well as if done with a brush of sufficient width to cover the whole stile. the colors used for bird's-eye maple will answer for this wood, but the general tone is darker. silver maple. this wood is represented by using ivory black for the graining-color; the groundwork should be almost white. the work is mostly mottled and very lightly over-grained. eyes are sometimes put in, and the effect of the work is very showy when carefully done. chapter vii. satinwood. this is a very delicate wood, of the maple family; it probably derives its name from its resemblance to folds of satin. it is seldom represented in america, but is frequently imitated in england, being used in connection with maple in some of the principal rooms, such as drawing-rooms, parlors, etc. the panels of the room are done as satinwood, the stiles as maple, and sometimes the mouldings as a darker wood, such as dark oak, walnut or rosewood. [illustration: plate . satinwood mottled.] [illustration: plate . satinwood mottled and overgrained.] [illustration: plate . curly maple mottled to overgrain.] [illustration: plate . curly maple overgrained.] [illustration: plate . pollard oak.] [illustration: plate . pollard oak.] the same groundwork and the same graining-colors may be used as in representing maple, but a little ivory black may be added. the tools are similar, but a piece of buckskin or chamois leather is substituted for the bristle mottlers used for maple. a roll of oil-putty is sometimes used to take off the color in making the high lights; the putty should be rolled along the panel lengthwise of the grain, and then the panel blended crosswise. care should be taken to have the graining-color light, as the effect is lost if the color be too dark. the lights are quite prominent, and it requires no little skill successfully to imitate them. when the mottling or lights and shadows are dry, they may be very lightly over-grained with a fine bristle overgrainer, the bristles being separated by a comb and the color used very thin. the over-graining should not be blended, as it will look too prominent and spoil the effect of the lights and the shadows. a piece of soft cotton rag will answer the same purpose as the buckskin or chamois leather. when using either of them with the intention of making the mottled effect of the wood, first wet them in clean water or in beer and wring them out nearly dry; then, after the color is rubbed on the work, roll them over them over the surface as directed. the result will be that the leather or the rag will take off the patches of the wet graining-color. then blend softly, and when dry overgrain. chapter viii. pollard oak. this wood is a great favorite with british grainers, and is often splendidly imitated by them. the wood itself is from old gnarled trees or stumps and has a variety of grain almost equal to french walnut. it may be represented in either oil or water color, or may be done partially in both distemper and oil, which i think is the better way; the best job i have ever seen was executed in this manner. it is first done in oil; the colors necessary are raw and burnt sienna, burnt umber, vandyke brown, and sometimes a little ivory black or ultramarine blue. the wood varies from pieces comparatively free from knots to others almost filled with them, like the root of walnut, etc. the grains are first done in oil, the knots, etc., being somewhat subdued; and when this is dry, the whole is gone over in water color and left in the color it is intended to have it remain. the knots and shadows are touched up, etc. after the water color is dry the fine champs may be put in by using a slice of raw potato in the same manner as that in which the thumb-nail is used on larger work. a camel's-hair pencil is needed properly to finish the work. a great deal of time may be spent in representing this wood, and yet but few may succeed in faithfully imitating it. since the fashion has changed in boston and its vicinity from walnut and cherry front-doors to oak doors, we begin to see panels of pollard oak; sometimes whole doors are veneered with it, and the effect is superb. cherry. this wood is naturally but little darker than ash, yet the popular idea of what its hue should be is of a color nearly as dark as that of mahogany. cherry is frequently misrepresented by staining whitewood or pine with burnt sienna, etc., but, it being impossible to conceal the _grain_ of the whitewood or the pine, the deception is easily discoverable by any one at all familiar with the grains of different woods. for this reason a much better imitation can be obtained by graining to imitate cherry (or any other wood), rather than by staining, as the grainer, if competent, can represent both the color and the grain of the desired wood. cherry may be imitated in either oil color or water color, and an excellent job can be done either way. my preference is for oil color. the natural wood may be matched by employing raw and burnt sienna and raw umber, but the stained cherry requires the use of burnt sienna, burnt umber and vandyke brown for the very dark veins, also, in some cases, crimson lake, to be used as a glazing or shading-color. the tools needed for oil color are the flat brush, combs, fitch tool or fresco-liner, sash tool and a piped bristle overgrainer. when a piece of work is rubbed in, it may lightly be stippled with the dry brush (or the stippling may first be done in distemper before the oil color is applied). it may be mottled by wiping off the color with a rag, or by applying a little color with the sash tool and lifting the color with the flat brush. the growth may then be put in with the fitch tool, the flat brush being used as a blender. the growths are put in across the mottled work previously done. the growths or hearts can also be wiped out with the rag in the same manner as in imitating ash, and the fitch used to interline the points of the hearts; but the growth of cherry is seldom as bold as that of ash, and, to my mind, it can best be imitated by the use of the fitch tool. where the hearts have been wiped out with the rag they should always be gone over with the fitch tool and blended, as the effect is decidedly better than if they are left without pencilling. [illustration: plate . cherry mottled in oil before being overgrained.] [illustration: plate . cherry mottled and pencilled in oil.] [illustration: plate . cherry mottled and pencilled in oil.] [illustration: plate . cherry mottled and pencilled in oil as finished.] some grainers prefer to imitate cherry wholly in distemper, in which case the tools used are much the same as those for oil, substituting the badger blender for the flat brush in finishing the work. first dampen the work with a sponge and rub in the color with a flat brush; the mottled parts may be done light, with the sponge, or dark by using the mottler or the sash tool. the hearts are put in with the fitch after the mottling is dry, the overgrainer being used in same manner as that in which the combs are used in oil color. the best vehicle for the distemper color is stale beer; it may be diluted with one-half water, and in cold weather a little alcohol may be added. the work may be shaded or overgrained when dry, whether the graining has been done in oil or in distemper. if done in oil, the shading color may be applied in either oil or distemper; but if the work has been grained in distemper, the shading color (if applied immediately to the work before varnishing) must be in oil. in some cases the distemper color is varnished before being overgrained; this, of course, necessitates revarnishing. the grains of cherry are apparently simple, but they will stand a large amount of study, and good work is seldom done without taking pains to represent the various characteristics of this at present fashionable wood. sometimes glue size is used in the color for a distemper binder, but, being of animal matter, it is seldom used by grainers. with the addition of alcohol enough to make it smell strong, it passes for white shellac among some cheap painters, and is used for first coats or stain work. it will be found that the mottlings of cherry invariably run across the grain, and this is the chief reason that stained whitewood makes such a poor imitation, the reverse being the rule for whitewood. one thing i wish to impress upon beginners: that is to keep the color as nearly as possible like that of the natural wood, and to cater as little as possible to the prevailing fashion of making the color of cherry as dark as that of mahogany. if people want a mahogany color, try and induce them to have also a mahogany grain. i know that frequently some article of furniture made of stained cherry has to be matched in color in graining a room, and in such cases there is no resource but to imitate it. i once went to grain a chamber in imitation of cherry, and the lady of the house requested me to observe the color of her mahogany chamber-set, which color she desired to have on the woodwork of the room. i found the "mahogany" to be cherry and whitewood stained very deep, and so informed her. it was a perfectly new set, and had been sold to her for mahogany by a respectable firm. i should judge it to be worth one hundred dollars, so there is evidently "cheating in all trades but ours." the piped overgrainer for use in oil color will be found an excellent help, both for continuing the lines of the pencilled work, and for doing the straight or mottled combing so often observed in the natural wood. [illustration: plate . cherry wiped out and pencilled in oil.] [illustration: plate . walnut stipple.] [illustration: plate . black walnut pencilled.] [illustration: plate . walnut wiped out and pencilled.] chapter ix. black walnut. this wood was very fashionable as an interior finish not very long ago, but its place is now largely occupied by cherry, mahogany and oak, and i think the change is for the better; for unless a room is well lighted, the effect of the deep color of walnut is rather sombre and the grains have less light and shade and less variety than those of oak or cherry. it can be imitated in either oil or distemper. the same tools are used as for ash. the piped bristle overgrainer is an excellent help for both oil and water color. the graining color is composed mostly of burnt umber, vandyke brown being added for the darker portions of the work. in my opinion, the best way to imitate walnut is first to stipple it with a thin mixture of vandyke brown in distemper, using nothing but beer for thinner. when this is dry, rub in the oil color and wipe out the hearts with the rag in the same way as for oak and ash. care must be taken not to add much water to the stippling color, or the stippling will be wiped off when the rag is used over it. when the hearts have been wiped out, the fitch tool may be used to sharpen up the edges of the growths and the whole lightly blended with the dry flat brush. the hearts can also be put in by using the fitch tool, or by mottling or wiping off the color slightly with the rag and then using the fitch tool as directed, the edges of the color being slightly lifted with the dry flat brush. some grainers prefer to use water color rather than oil, and do their work wholly in distemper. the same kit of tools is used as for cherry in distemper--viz., sponge, flat brush, sash tool, fitch tool, blender and overgrainer, either piped or plain. first stipple in the work slightly darker than if it were to be gone over in oil, and then put in the grains with a fitch tool and the overgrainer. care must be taken in blending the hearts after pencilling, or the graining-color will lift off and show the ground-color. oil color is sometimes used to pencil in the hearts, as it will not lift the stippling, no matter how much it is blended. a camel's-hair pencil is sometimes used to finish the points of the hearts. care should be taken to have all the mitres and joints cleanly cut, and slightly to vary the color of the different portions of the work, so as to avoid sameness. the work may be shaded or overgrained after it is dry, but it is generally finished at once. for a quick job, done wholly in oil, rub in the work rather dry and stipple with the flat brush; then put in the hearts with the fitch tool and blend. use the bristle piped overgrainer for portions of the work. by using the finer steel combs covered with cotton rag and stippling the work, when combed, with the dry brush, a very fair imitation is obtained. chapter x. french walnut burl. this variety of walnut comes from france, although fair burls come from spain and italy. a large portion of the alleged french walnut is merely the root of the american walnut, but the best specimens of burl come from france and have not as yet been grown in this country. the finest burl is cut from the excrescences or bunches which appear on the trunk of the tree, and is quite expensive. it is most frequently used for small panels on furniture, and is not generally used for house-work. gunstocks are sometimes made from it, and such are very beautiful. [illustration: plate . curly walnut.] [illustration: plate . french walnut burl.] french walnut is probably imitated in a different manner in every state in the union; hence the manner herein described may appear wholly wrong to some grainers. but if we succeed in matching the wood, the manner of doing the work is seldom called in question. there are several "patent" processes for imitating this wood, exclusive of the transfer roller. i was informed some years ago by an agent who possessed the secret of the _best_ way in which to grain french walnut that after two lessons in his process anybody could perfectly match the wood; he did not succeed in selling me the great (?) secret. yet there are processes other than the ones here given which for certain kinds of work are excellent, but they are seldom used by grainers to the trade. in england the burl is seldom imitated, english imitations being mostly confined to the curly or wavy portions of the grain. french walnut may be represented in either oil or distemper by being partially done in oil and finished in distemper, or _vice versâ_. the tools are the same as those used for black walnut, as are also the colors--burnt umber and vandyke brown. for the very light portions a little burnt sienna may be added to the color. when the work is to be done in oil, rub in the color rather dry, and with the sash tool dipped in some dark color cover such portions of the work as you wish to appear dark; then take a piece of soft cotton rag and remove the color where the light places are to appear, and work up the dark places with the rag until the desired effect is obtained; then blend lightly with the dry brush, and with the fitch tool add lines and curves, or knots if desired, constantly keeping the grain of the wood in mind and striving to represent it. blend lightly with the dry brush and stipple the light places with the flat brush (or the stippling may be done in distemper on the ground-work before the oil color is applied). when the oil color is dry, the work may be shaded or overgrained in either oil or water color. the other method in ordinary use among grainers is to do the work wholly in distemper, and for work that is not too complicated this method is undoubtedly the best. the mode of procedure is much the same as for oil color, using the sponge to make the lighter parts, and darkening the work with the sash tool, making the settled places preparatory to overgraining. if done in this manner, the work will be gone over two or three times in an hour, which is quite an advantage, as, if the work is first done in oil, it must be allowed time to dry before being shaded; but for intricate work the grain may be done equally well in oil color if it is overgrained when dry. this wood is not of sufficient size to be used on large surfaces without being jointed; hence it is not in good taste to imitate it on a very large scale. its use is more properly confined to small panels and to interior rather than to exterior work. it is a very rare occurrence to find a specimen of the real wood exposed to the weather as, being but a thin veneer, it would be quickly affected by the extreme changes of temperature to which it would be subjected. in conclusion, the only way to become expert in imitating french walnut is to strive to copy the grains of the real wood; and no wood is more often misrepresented than is french walnut. [illustration: plate . mahogany straight.] [illustration: plate . mahogany mottled.] chapter xi. mahogany. this wood was a great favorite with the grainers of the last generation, and it is at present coming back to old-time popularity. the old honduras "feathered" mahogany is rarely seen except in old furniture, and this kind of graining is seldom called for nowadays. the modern mahogany is more straight-grained, and is generally much lighter in color, but the furniture manufacturers do not hesitate to stain the wood to any depth of color, and thus they set the pattern which the grainer must follow as regards the color. it is represented in both oil and water color, or by being partly done both ways, as in the case of walnut. the colors used are burnt sienna, burnt umber and vandyke brown, with crimson lake for overgraining on particularly bright work. the tools used are the same as those for walnut. no better way to imitate it will be found than first to stipple it with a thin wash of vandyke brown in beer, much the same as for walnut, but using the flat side of the stippler or blender more than the tip, as the pores of the wood are generally longer than those of walnut. after the stippling is dry rub in the oil color, which is composed of about three-fourths burnt sienna to one-fourth burnt umber, or a little vandyke brown may be added to the color. the dark veins are put in with the sash tool dipped in a little clear vandyke brown, which should be mixed in a separate vessel and thinned mostly with driers, as vandyke brown is a very slow drier. the work is then gone over with a soft cotton rag, and the color is removed where the lighter grains are to appear; the rag is also used to soften the edges of the darker streaks and to blend them into the lighter grains. the lights and shadows are made, and the whole is then lightly blended crosswise. the bristle overgrainer of the fitch tool is used to put in the finer grains, or this may be done when the oil color is dry. this is the manner in which the modern straight mahogany is most frequently imitated, but it can wholly be done in water color, using the sponge for the same purpose as the rag is used in oil. the "feather" mahogany is best represented in water color. the centre of the feather is darkened with vandyke brown, and the mottler or sponge is used to make the darker curves which radiate from the centre of the "feather;" then with a thin piece of stick or a piece of cardboard make the bright blaze marks that are usually seen through the centre of the feather. a small mottler or cut tool may be used for this purpose. the markings radiate from the centre outward in a curved line and across the darker veins; allow this to dry, and then lightly overgrain to bring out the effect, touching up the parts that are to appear very dark. after this is dry the hand should lightly be passed over the work to remove any surplus color, as one coat of varnish sometimes fails to lay out on water-color work where the graining-color has freely been used. this applies to walnut and rosewood in distemper as well as to mahogany. the wood is sometimes represented in oil without first stippling, but it never looks so well. of course the stippling may be done after the work is dry, but it makes a better appearance if done before the rubbing with oil. if it is desired to overgrain, the work, if done in oil, should be shaded in distemper, and _vice versâ_. for depth and brightness, add crimson lake with a little vandyke brown. [illustration: plate . mahogany feathered.] [illustration: plate . rosewood as outlined to overgrain.] chapter xii. rosewood. this wood is seldom imitated in this country except on piano-legs and caskets or coffins, and then it is done in stain on the wood without first being painted. whitewood is given two coats of logwood stain, and after that is dry the grains are put in with a bamboo brush, which is made by beating the pulp out of the ends of short strips of bamboo, leaving the harder portions of the wood, which act as bristles for applying the graining-color. four or five strips of bamboo an inch or more wide are fastened together with wire, so that their edges interlock at the point of the brush; the brush is then dipped in the graining color, which consists of iron-filings dissolved in vinegar. the surplus color is shaken out of the brush, and the grains are put in in the same manner as that in which an overgrainer is used in water-color. the darker veins are added with a sponge after the finer grains are put in, and the work after being grained is generally filled with rose-pink. this process can be used only on new surfaces, and is of little value to the grainer to the trade. the ordinary way of imitating rosewood is to do it in water color, although it may be done in oil. i prefer to do it in distemper, as the work can more quickly be finished in this way. the colors used are vandyke brown, ivory black and rose pink. the basis of the color is vandyke brown and a little black added to it. the ivory black and the rose pink are mixed separately, and applied to the work as desired while the color is wet, carefully blending where necessary. the rose-pink is first streaked through the color and blended; then the sponge is used to remove the color and make the lighter shades. the black veins are then put in, and after the whole is dry the overgrainer and the fitch tool are used to put in the fine grains. last of all, the edges of the dark veins are sharpened with the fitch tool, using thin black for this purpose; this final application of black may be done in oil. care must be taken not to take too much black, or the effect will be too sombre. the natural wood is almost invariably darkened by being stained as we see it on pianos, and its beauties are obscured by so doing. when the water color is finished and dry, the hand should be lightly passed across the work to remove any surplus color that may not thoroughly adhere, as, if not removed, it works up into the varnish, or the varnish strikes in where the graining-color is thick; and for this reason two coats of varnish are better than one coat on any dark wood that has been done wholly in water color. in operating entirely with oil the tools are much the same as those used for water color; the bristle piped overgrainer is best for oil color. the work is done in much the same manner as with water color, using the rag where the color is to be lightened, with a little more spirits of turpentine and japan in the color than ordinarily. the grains of rosewood are not easily copied. the wood exhibits a variety of grain second only to oak, and i think that, after oak, it is the most difficult wood to imitate, as to do it justice requires the free treatment which can be given only by a trained hand and a correct eye. the average veins are free and graceful without being set or constrained, and the grains are constantly interlocking and branching off from the main hearts. cypress-wood has but recently appeared in this country as an interior finish. it is a very soft and porous wood, and is a good kind to keep out of a house, owing to its liability to shrink and swell, but occasionally we find rooms finished with it, with the exception of the doors, which the grainer is called upon to match. i am informed that cypress trees have to be girdled in the spring and killed, so that they contain but little sap when cut in the fall, as, if cut green, they would sink in the water before they could be floated to the mill. this shows how ill suited this wood is for an interior finish. [illustration: plate . rosewood as finished.] [illustration: plate . cypress in oil.] the grain of cypress somewhat resembles that of hard pine, but is broader in the heart and finer-grained; it also presents more contrast between the light and dark portions of the growth. the ground is slightly darker and more yellow than that used for oak. the graining-color is made of raw and burnt sienna and burnt umber, and is mixed in oil. when the color is rubbed in, the hearts are wiped out in the usual manner. a rubber comb can be used to make portions of the heart by occasionally using it in the finer portions of the wiped-out hearts, taking care that the lines made by the comb closely follow those made by hand, and that they are equally distinct, or the places where the comb has been used can readily be distinguished from the rest of the work, and they look very bad. there is but little use for the fitch tool in matching cypress; the combing is mostly fine and rather straight. the steel combs should never be used over the lines made by the rubber comb. the work may be shaded with some of the graining-color to which some black has been added, and the whole thinned with spirits. it needs but a very thin glaze, and is ordinarily finished without shading. chapter xiii. hard pine. this wood is seldom imitated, and, although its grains are simple, they cannot be matched without taking pains. the grain of hard pine is in some respects different from that of any other wood; the growths are generally quite narrow, and are not complicated, without having many knots, and are decidedly straight, as is also the combed work. the groundwork is much the same as that for oak, being slightly more yellow. the graining-color--which is mixed in oil--is composed of raw and burnt sienna, and a little burnt umber is added. the grains are put in by first using the rag to wipe out the hearts and then pencilling in the grain, or for the lighter parts of the grain the pencilling may be omitted. the combing is done with moderately fine combs. never go over the same place twice, as the grains of pine are always straight and never interlock, like those of oak. the work should lightly be blended lengthwise. the color used to pencil in the growths should be darker than that with which the work is rubbed in, and the blending should always be done toward the outside edge of the grain. when the work is dry it may lightly be shaded to give it depth, or slightly mottled. some pieces of hard pine are profusely mottled, and i have seen specimens that had the appearance of fine hungarian ash. [illustration: plate . hard pine.] whitewood. it is seldom necessary to imitate whitewood, as the original is so cheap, and because there is as much difficulty in matching the color of the wood as that of the grains. the ground-color is about the same as that for light ash, and the graining-color can be mixed with raw sienna and raw umber, adding black or blue; or yellow ochre can be used for the basis of the color, adding raw umber and a little black for the dark streaks. the work is then put in with a fitch tool and blended softly, or a piece of pointed wood like a pencil may be used, the point being covered with a thin cotton rag, and the heart grains put in with this, taking care to have the grains subdued and not appearing prominent. the grains of whitewood generally appear sunken; they are simply outlined, and not softened with the rag. [illustration: plate . whitewood in oil.] whitewood sometimes assumes a blistered appearance peculiar to itself and somewhat like the grain of hungarian ash. this kind of whitewood is very difficult to imitate, as the high lights are so strong and brilliant as to require touching up with the ground-color after the work is dry. this kind is seldom imitated. chapter xiv. varnishing over grained work. when a job of graining is finished; if it is deemed necessary to varnish it, the question arises, "what kind of varnish shall be used?" and this is a subject on which widely different opinions prevail. almost every master painter has his favorite kind of varnish and is slow to accept anything contrary to his own idea of what should be used; and right here i will say that if you have something that, like the joke of the clown in the circus, has withstood the test of time, do not look farther, but "hold fast to that which is good." there are many kinds of varnishes and finishes made especially for application to exposed work, outside doors, etc., but my experience with many of them has been anything but satisfactory. there may be some particular kind of varnish that will stand exposure in this climate without cracking or turning white, but i have never seen any such. i would like to find some article that will withstand the changes of temperature to which it would be subjected in the new england climate--say one hundred and twenty to one hundred and thirty degrees annually--and i do not expect ever to find any such, as, when the varnish has been applied to exposed work and the gum has become thoroughly hardened, cracking will of necessity ensue, for the reason that heat causes the expansion of the material to which the varnish is applied, and, the varnish being thoroughly hardened, so that it cannot expand, it must crack in obedience to the law of nature that heat expands. cracking may result from inability to contract after having expanded from heat. this is allowing for no internal complications in the varnish, and what is written above wholly applies to varnish that is exposed to the weather, and is based on what seems to be practical experience. i am living in a house that is grained in oil on the outside; the clapboards and trimmings on the southwest side were chosen for testing the varnish. to prevent any misunderstanding, i will state the manner in which the work was done. the clapboards are no. spruce, the trimmings are pine and cypress. the carpentry work was done in july, , and stood three days before being primed. the priming color was mixed as follows:--one hundred pounds of white lead, to which were added about twenty-five pounds of yellow ochre, a small quantity of japan drier, and thinned with best raw linseed oil. after being primed for two weeks, the work was grounded, using the priming color that was left, with enough lead added to make a groundwork for oak. the trimmings are done in cherry. the work was not grained until october, , and neither wax nor anything else was used for megilp. the varnishes were nearly all applied on the tenth day after the work was grained; the day was warm and bright, and each varnish was put on just as it came from the factory, without thinners of any kind. each was poured into a clean vessel and a new brush was used, so as to give each kind of varnish an even chance; and the result is below stated. seventeen kinds of varnishes, hardwood finishes, spar composition, etc., were applied as stated, and the result was highly disastrous, as, with two exceptions, they all cracked in less than twelve months. the two exceptions were, first, a mixture of linseed oil two parts to japan drier one part; second, a preparation said to contain ninety per cent. of linseed oil. this is the only thing on the side of the house to-day (february , ) that has any gloss; all the others except the oil and the drier are in various stages of imitation of alligator skin, or they have cracked so minutely as wholly to destroy the gloss. some of the hardwood finishes cracked in twenty-eight days after being applied, and their makers claimed that they could be used on outside work without danger of cracking. the longest time that any varnish stood without cracking was slightly over eleven months, and that kind cost five dollars per gallon, and was sold for wearing body varnish.[a] i have some of these varnishes and finishes applied to inside work, and at present they show no signs of cracking, but i am afraid that it will be only a question of time when they too will crack. for interior work i am in favor of using shellac over grained work in preference to varnish, and i have shellac applied to the doors of my rooms, the casings, etc., being finished with first-quality varnish; so that i will have an opportunity of observing their respective merits and durability. shellac finish is less glaring than varnish, and has the advantage of drying quickly; so that it escapes the dust which is invariably present in new buildings. it can be rubbed down, if necessary, in the same manner as hardwood, and where graining is done to match wood finished in shellac it makes the work look uniform. i have yet to see a job of new work that has cracked after being shellacked if properly grounded. there are some of the old-fashioned varnishes that stand without cracking on inside work. one case i remember where an office had been grained and varnished when the factory was built, and, so far as known, had been revarnished but once for thirty-two years afterward. there was no sign of cracks in the varnish, and those people who profess that the cause of cracking is due to wax in the graining color would be surprised to see that the graining color in this case appeared to contain plenty of wax. varnish may stand for a long time on inside work without cracking; but the reverse is the rule in my experience; for varnish that has been bought from the factory expressly for inside work, and for which a good price has been paid, has cracked in less than six months after being applied, and this was on new wood; so that there was apparently nothing to hasten its early decay. some seven years ago i varnished a table-top which had been grained. i chose what a master carriage painter called one of the best makes of rubbing varnish, and applied three coats to the table, rubbing it on the third day after each coat. it looked nicely when finished, but in less than four months it had cracked. the cracks finally became so deep that they were faced up with putty; and this was a solid walnut table-top which had been thoroughly planed off and shellacked before being painted and grained. this is but one of many instances which have led me altogether to discard varnish for any work i wish to preserve; and where interior work is not too much exposed to wear i prefer to leave it as grained in oil or to shellac it, and for exterior work to give it an occasional coat of oil and drier rather than to varnish it. i have not mentioned the names of the makers of the varnishes, but they were some of the representative makers of the country, and most of the labels expressly stated that the contents of the packages would not crack, blister or turn white. i hope that the experience of others has been more favorable than has mine, but we must speak of things as we find them. footnotes: [footnote a: october, .--the preparation containing per cent. linseed oil cracked badly in fourteen months: the oil and dryer cracked soon after, due, i presume, to gum in the japan.] chapter xv. graining considered as a fine art. graining--that is painting in imitation of wood or of marble--is generally looked upon as a business branch of the house-painting which any competent painter is, or should be, able to do, but in reality we find that only about four or five men in each large city do all the best work in this line, and make a business of it, doing nothing else--"graining for the trade," as it is called. one grainer will do the work of twenty or more paint-shops, and if he is a first-class workman, he will earn more than double the wages of an ordinary painter, and will find employment all the year round. now, any large city can boast of twenty to thirty artists--landscape, marine, portrait, etc.--whose work is praised and is accepted at art-galleries, and in some cases brings enormous prices at sales; but why is it that their work is lauded to the skies; when at best it is but an imitation of nature, and when an equally good imitation in another form is (as a rule) condemned by architects and critics as unworthy a place in artistic residences or in the more prominent rooms of such houses? any person of ordinary intelligence can at a glance discover that an oil painting is a mere copy or representation of nature, but the grain of wood or of marble can be so closely imitated that it is impossible even for an expert to detect at a glance that it is counterfeit, and a close examination sometimes fails to reveal whether it is genuine or not. some people think that successfully to imitate the color and the grain of any wood or any marble is as much of an art as is the representation of a landscape, for, while there are dozens of artists who can faithfully reproduce a landscape on canvas, there are few who can make a pine door look like the oak or cherry jamb and casing that surround it, as first-class grainers often have to do, and do so well that not one person in a thousand could tell the real wood from the imitation. and not only is the wood imitated by such men, but mouldings, cornices, panels, etc., are so faithfully represented as to pass for such except on close inspection. it is said that in order to become an artist one must be born with certain qualifications or he will fail to be successful: this is equally true in the case of the grainer; and some people think that in order to become a first-class grainer more gifts are required at birth than if the person were destined to become an artist, as the artist generally has before him models or the original of his picture, while the grainer is supposed to imitate whatever kind of wood or marble is called for--in most cases, without any of the original before him and doing the work from recollection of the grain of the particular wood or marble he is imitating. while it is very true that the average imitation of wood or marble is poorly done, still the whole business should not be condemned, and any large city can furnish illustrations of the fact that graining is so well done as to deceive workers in wood; and they ought to be competent judges. the idea of representing wood by painting is as old as any branch of the business, and, though excellent work has been done in days gone by, the efforts of the foremost grainers of the present time will favorably compare with those of any age, as, with new inventions to aid them, they have taken rapid strides toward perfection. chapter xvi. the tools used by grainers. steel combs (fig. ) are four or five inches wide, with teeth of three regular sizes--course, medium and fine. they may be used for all woods where the grain is strongly marked, whether the work is done in oil or in distemper; there is also a four-inch steel comb with teeth graduated from coarse to fine (fig. ) that is often useful; a few one- or two-inch steel combs are handy for use on mouldings or on odd corners. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] leather combs (fig. ) can be purchased from most of the large dealers in painters' materials, but they are inferior to combs cut from the best sheet rubber. in making the latter choose a piece of rubber measuring about two by four inches and not over a quarter of an inch. cut the teeth on each of the four inch sides, making those on one side coarse and those on the other side fine, thus you have two combs in one, and by turning over the comb different lines can be made; do not cut the notches of the comb too deep, and leave considerable space for the face of the teeth. a rubber comb can be often used, especially on rough work, without covering the teeth with a rag, as being soft it conforms to the inequalities of the surface, and leaves a more distinct pattern than does a leather comb. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] in representing the grain of oak, the tracks of the steel comb should cross or interlock so as to make a series of disconnected lines similar to the pores of the wood; for ash and other straight-grained woods, the grains should never interlock but appear clean and sharp in regular order from the side of the hearts to the edges of the board. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] the piped bristle or fitch hair overgrainer (fig. ) may be used in oil or in distemper for representing ash, walnut, cherry, mahogany, etc.; for maple it may be used as an overgrainer. for overgraining any wood in distemper there is no better tool than the plain bristle overgrainer (fig. ) the bristles being separated into clusters with a bone comb after charging the brush with color. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] the badger blender (fig. ) is used for all graining done in distemper and is sometimes used for oil work, a similar brush made of bristles is sometimes used for marbling. the flat bristle brush used for applying the graining color is the only blender necessary for oil work. the castellated or knotted overgrainer (figs. , and ) is used for graining in distemper work, which has previously been grained in oil. the plain overgrainer (figs. , and ) may be used for shading in distemper or for graining maple. mottlers or cutters made of bristles (figs. , , , , ) are for use for distemper color in graining maple, mahogany, etc. the angular cutter (fig. ) is used for taking out the high lights in mahogany. the waved mottler (fig. ) is used for representing maple, mahogany or satinwood in distemper. camel's-hair mottlers or cutters (figs. and ) are used for very fine work on maple, etc., but the bristle brushes answer all practical purposes. the serrated mottler or marbler (fig. ) is used for maple or satinwood in distemper or for marbling. for applying distemper color a tin bound bristle graining brush (fig. ) is excellent, it should be about / an inch thick. the bristle stippler (fig. ) is used for walnut or for mahogany in distemper. the fitch or sable piped overgrainer (fig. ) is used in distemper for maple, satinwood or other delicate work. the check roller is used for putting in the pores of oak and the dark streaks or lines in the hearts, and is used to best advantage in distemper. a well charged mottler supplies the color. the mottler is laid against the edges of the wheels, and by revolving the roller the color is transferred to the work. a guard of tin may be soldered to the mottler so that it fits the handle of the roller, being held in place by the thumb. one or two flat fresco bristle liners (figs. and ) no. and for putting in hearts, veins, etc., and one or two tin bound sash tools complete the list of all tools necessary for use, and any wood that grows may be represented by using the tools mentioned. chapter xvii. patent graining machines. various devices other than those usually employed--brushes, combs, etc.--have been invented for representing the grains of wood, and some of these machines are excellent, and are so constructed that by properly using them a very good imitation of wood may be obtained. the majority of them, however, seem to have been invented for the express purpose of being sold to gullible painters. the work done by such machines bears but little resemblance to the grain of any wood, and the only merit they possess is their boasted "ease of manipulation." it would seem that the majority of the patent pads, rollers, etc., now in use were designed by persons totally unfamiliar with the various woods which they claim their machines can represent; they bear the same relation to good handwork as the schoolboy's drawing of a house bears to that of an architect. the quality of the work seems to be immaterial if it can rapidly be executed; and if there are plenty of knots in the pattern, so much the better. it is of no consequence what wood it is supposed to represent, so long as it pleases the eye of the painter, and he will often purchase at an exorbitant price that which is practically useless for ordinary housework. i have before me a circular containing some photographic illustrations of the work done by a patent roller process; and if any wood ever grew that bears a resemblance to the illustrations, i am ignorant of its name. aniline colors are the means employed to represent the grains, and the process is designed to obviate the necessity of first painting the work, as the color is directly applied by the roller, without the wood being prepared in any way. it is claimed that any shadows or grains existing in the wood will only add to the beauty of the finished work. this will be news to the intelligent workman. the circular says nothing about how to use the rollers on painted work, so i presume it is worthless except for new work, and nearly so for that; for the painter who attempts to represent wood in the manner described will find that in the end it costs as much as though he had employed a skilful workman; and when the job is finished, he will have but a poor imitation of wood. so far as i am aware, the oldest machine for representing the graining of wood is the mason pad, which consists of a convex pad with handles at either end. the face of the pad is made of a rubber composition, on which are engraved the grains, the pad being about two feet in length. the graining-color is applied to the work, and while wet the pad is pressed against it, thus removing sufficient color to show the grain. this process is now seldom used; the composition of which the face of the pad is made hardens in cold weather and in hot weather it is inclined to run together, and great care must be taken to avoid defacing the pad. the objection common to all roller processes or machines is that they do the same work over and over again, which is contrary to what we find in nature, as the grains are always different from one another, so that it would require an endless variety of patterns to do such work as is done by any first-class grainer. another method for the rapid imitation of wood is found in stencil-plates, which consist of thin sheets of brass so constructed that when laid against the panel to be grained they leave no mark until a cloth is passed over the plate, when the graining-color exposed by the stencil is rubbed off, thus making the grains. this sort of work looks much better than that done by any of the pads or rollers, but is open to the same objection--viz., repetition. another process is operated by having rolls with leather or composition surface, with the grains cut thereon; after the graining-color has been applied to the work, the rollers are passed over it, thus removing the color wherever the roller touches. as a rule, the work done by this process is not very distinct, nor is it particularly clean. very large rollers have to be used in order to grain a panel four feet long, as the work will seldom join without showing the joints; and while a door was being grained in this manner (with joints in the panels), a skilful workman could do one by hand and in a much better manner. the best work that i have ever seen, not done by hand, was by means of a composition roller with a smooth surface; it can be used only for the imitation of porous woods, as chestnut, ash and walnut, and is useless for oak, cherry or any of the close-grained woods. the work can first be stippled in distemper, and when dry rubbed in lightly in oil; or the roller can be applied directly to the stippled work or to the groundwork, and afterwards stippled if necessary. it is requisite to procure several pieces of the wood to be imitated, smoothed carefully with the pores open; then directly apply the graining-color and with the composition roller go over the wood, taking the color from the pores and applying it directly to the work by transfer. if carefully done, you have an exact duplicate of the grain of the real wood, and no man can do better work than this; but, in order to grain a room or a house in this manner, it is necessary to have a great variety of pieces of porous wood, and to use each piece only for imitating the wood of which it is composed. the gransorbian is another transfer process, by which the grains are produced as follows: the graining-color is applied in the usual manner, and heavy absorptive paper on which the grain of the wood to be imitated is impressed is laid against the wet color; a roller with a smooth surface is passed over the paper, using considerable force, so that the color is absorbed into the paper wherever it is pressed against the work by the roller. the paper can be used several times before it becomes useless through becoming saturated with color, but, being cheap, it is an inexpensive manner of doing fair to good work. all depends on the man who makes the patterns, as, if they are not true to nature, the effect is very bad, and some of the samples that i have seen are very poor imitations of the grain of any wood. i should judge that the paper is produced by applying the pulp to a block of wood on which the pattern to be produced is engraved, using considerable pressure to force the pulp into the carved work. the plain work is done with combs in the usual manner. another transfer process is the transfer paper. the grain is printed on paper similar to the best wall-paper, and is transferred to the groundwork by pressure after first wetting the back of the paper and allowing time for the water thoroughly to soften the printed color. the surface of the groundwork must first be damped in order to receive the moist color from the paper. two or three impressions may be obtained from each wetting of the paper. some of the work done by this process is excellent, and approaches very near the work done by the smooth transfer roller, but the majority of the paper is printed from blocks or cylinders, designed not by nature, but by man, and are unworthy of comparison with those printed from nature. there are various processes other than handwork, but the above are the principal methods employed. the first-class grainer has nothing to fear from any of the foregoing processes, for while some were being used the work could be done in the old way, and equally well, provided the workmen were at all skilful. i have never seen any work that can excel fine handwork, as there is more grace and variety in such work than there is in any done by any other methods. when the services of a grainer cannot be obtained, machine processes may answer for ordinary work or for small work, such as ice-chests, pails, etc., but the chief objection i have to them is that they claim too much, and the average painter who buys the process is deceived, because he is told that any wood can be imitated by this or that machine, when such is not the case. chapter xviii. imitations of carved work, mouldings, etc., by graining. in imitating carved work, mouldings, etc. in graining color, more than ordinary ability is required in order to succeed in deceiving people; and this kind of work should not be attempted unless there is ample time for its proper execution, nor should its use be contemplated for too exposed positions, as if not thoroughly done it is an eyesore to the intelligent beholder, but if done in a recessed doorway or other suitable place, inside or outside, it enhances the value of the work if it agrees with the general style of the architecture or of the surroundings. mouldings or raised panels are often imitated on front doors where the real article would never be placed by an intelligent carpenter, owing to the shape of the door; hence it would be displaying poor judgment to place the imitation where the real article ought to find no place. it is wonderful how a thorough grainer can transform a plastered wall into one apparently sheathed or wainscoted, and i have seen doors so perfectly imitated that persons would grasp at the knob in attempting to open a door that was grained on a plastered wall. imitations of carved figures, scrolls and game-birds are favored by some workmen, and are very effective if well done; as a rule such work should be seen in a subdued light to render the deception more complete. [illustration] index. a. alcohol, use of, in distemper, . ammonia, spirits of, for removing old paint, . angular cutter, , . aniline colors used in graining, . ash, burl, . burl, ground colors for, . graining, . ground colors for, . hungarian, . hungarian, ground colors for, . western, to match, . asphaltum for shading color of oak, . b. badger blender, , . bamboo brush, use of, in graining rosewood, . best colors should be used for graining, . bird's-eye maple, . maple in water color, . black walnut, . blending groundwork, . quartered oak, . blistered appearance of whitewood, . bristle graining brush, , . liners, fresco, , . mottlers or cutters, , . stippler, . brush, bamboo, use of, in graining rosewood, . should not be stubby, . burl ash, . ash, ground colors for, . ash in oil color, . burning off paint, . c. camel's-hair mottler or cutter, , . castellated or knotted overgrainer, , , . champs, to put in, . champs, shading, . cheap jobs, . check roller, , . cherry, . ground work for, . in oil color, preference for, . natural wood, to match, . chestnut, . clean cut divisions in graining, . clearly cut joints in graining, . graining in water colors, . ground colors for, . resemblance to ash, . coats, which to be avoided, . thin preferable, . color for graining, . for graining burl ash, . of wood, to imitate, . preparation of in graining oak, . straining before thinning, . to mix, . usually dark, . combs, leather, , . rubber, . steel, . composition roller, graining by, . copyists of copies, . covering teeth of graining combs, . cracking of varnish, . curly, or rock maple, . cutter, angular, , . cutters or mottlers , . cypress wood, . d. dark oak, . ground color for, . veins in rosewood, . veins in mahogany, . veins in quartered oak, . degenerate copyists of copies, . distemper, graining ash in, . graining oak in, . divisions should be clean cut in graining, . "docked" pencil in bird's eye maple, . driers in graining color, . dry colors should never be used for grounds, . e. edges of panel, how finished, . experience in varnish cracking, . eyes and shadows in bird's eye maple, . in bird's eye maple, how to accentuate, . f. feathered mahogany, . fine art, graining considered as a, . champs in pollard oak, to put in, . fitch hair overgrainer, , . or piped overgrainer, , . tool, use of in graining ash, . tool, use of in graining cypress, . flat brush used in graining in preference to round, . fresco bristle liners, , . french walnut, burl, . walnut burl, graining in distemper, , . walnut burl, pieces should be small, . french walnut, ground work for, . fresco bristle liners, , . g. glue size for distemper binder, . graduated teeth in graining combs, . grainers' combs, . tools, . graining ash, . ash in distemper, . by patent roller, . by stencil plates, . by transfer paper, . can be scoured off, . cannot be chipped, . chestnut, . color, . color, to mix, . considered as a fine art, . cypress, . for the trade, . light oak in oil, . oak, , . over old paint, . over old work, preparation for, . will not fade, . gransorbian transfer graining process, . grained work, varnishing over, . ground color, . color, indian red should never be used, for . for burl ash, . for chestnut, . for cypress graining, . for satin wood, . colors of ash, . growth of ash, heart, . of cherry, . growth for white wood, . ground work for cherry, . for french walnut, . for graining, . for mahogany, . for oak, . for rosewood, . for satin wood, . for walnut, . when old paint is not removed, . h. heart grains in bird's eye maple, . growth of ash, . of oak, . work in quartered oak, . hearts, imitating in black walnut, . hard pine, . hard wood varnishes, . high lights in whitewood, . honduras feathered mahogany, . hungarian ash, . ground colors for, . i. imitation of carved work, mouldings, etc., . m. mahogany, . ground work for, . maple bird's eye, . ground colors for, . marbler or mottler, the serrated, , . mason pad, . matching stained oak, . mitres and joints in graining, . mixing color, . graining color, . ground colors, . modern panels and styles of doors, . mottler, the waved, , . mottlers or cutters, , . camel's hair, , . o. oak, dark, . graining, . graining, all colors for, . graining in distemper, . groundwork for, . heart of, . light, . light in oil, to grain, . pollard, . quartered, . slashed, . to grain, . objection to roller process of graining, . old paint, graining over, . old varnish, to remove, . overgrainer, castellated or knotted, , , . for satinwood, . overgraining oak, . overgrainer, plain, , . plain bristle, , , . piped bristle, , . p. paint, to remove, . panel edges, how finished, . panels and styles of doors, . panels in satinwood, . plain bristle overgrainer, , . overgrainer, , . patent roller process of graining, . preparing old work for graining, . piped bristle overgrainer, , . bristle overgrainer, use of, in graining black walnut, . piped overgrainer, . overgrainer, use of, . pollard oak, . priming coats, . partly in distemper and oil, . proportions of colors in graining color, . r. removing old paint, . old varnish, . rock or curly maple, . roller, the check, . root of ash, . rosewood, . groundwork for, . in water color, . round brush not used in graining, . rubber combs, . combs with graduated teeth, . rubbing in graining, . varnish, experiments with, . s. sable piped overgrainer, . sandpapering, . satin wood, . second coat work, . serrated mottler or marbler, , . shadows around knarled places, . shades in burl ash, . shading champs, . color of oak, . silver maple, . slashed oak, . smooth surface for graining, . solution for touching quartered oak work, . solution to remove varnish or paint, . spar composition, etc., . spirits of ammonia for removing old paint, . stained cherry, to match, . oak, to match, . white oak in preference to graining, . wood, ground colors for, . steel combs, . combs, (illustrated) . comb, use of, in quartered oak, . stencil plates, graining by, . stippling for graining in mahogany, . for hungarian ash, . in distemper for black walnut, . straining colors before thinning, . stubby brush should not be used, . substitutes for thumb nail in graining, . t. the angular cutter, , . check roller, . fitch or sable piped overgrainer, , . graining color, . mason pad, . patent graining machines, . serrated mottler or marbler, , . stubborn bristle, , . waved mottler, , . thick coats should be avoided, . thinning graining color, . tools for putting bird's eyes in maple, . for use in graining cherry, . used by grainers, . tools, use in graining mahogany, . use in graining rosewood, . touching quartered oak with solution, . transfer graining, . paper, graining by, . thumb nail, substitutes for, in graining, . v. varnish for exposed work, . in graining, . varnishing over grained work, . veins, dark, in quartered oak, . in oak, . vinegar, use in removing old paint, . w. walnut, black, . french, burl, . french, groundwork for, . groundwork for, . water colors, use of, in graining black walnut, . waved mottler, the, , . western ash, matching, . white wood, . wood, blistered appearance, . woods, color of, to imitate, . index to colored plates. a. ash, burl, in water color, . dark, penciled and combed, . hungarian, ground for, . hungarian, wiped out, . light, ground for, . light, heart of, wiped out and shaded, . light, wiped out, . b. bird's eye maple overgrained, . ready for the eyes, . with the eyes, . black or french walnut, ground for, . walnut penciled, . burl ash in water color, . walnut, french, . c. cherry mottled in oil, . mottled and penciled in oil, . mottled and penciled in oil as finished, . stained, ground for, . wiped out and penciled in oil, . chestnut, . ground for, . curly maple overgrained, . mottled to overgrain, . curly walnut, . cypress in oil, . d. dark ash penciled and combed, . heart of ash penciled, . or pollard oak, ground for, . f. feathered mahogany, . finished cherry, mottled and penciled, . rosewood, . flaked oak, light, . oak light, shaded, , . oak light, ground for, . or quartered dark oak, shaded, . french walnut burl, . g. grounds for graining, , . h. hard pine, . heart growth oak, light, . growth oak penciled, . of ash, dark, penciled, . of oak checked and shaded, . of light ash wiped out, . wiped out and shaded, . hungarian ash, ground for, . wiped out, . wiped out and penciled, . l. light ash, ground for, . ash heart of, wiped out, . ash heart of, wiped out and shaded, . flaked oak, . grained or wainscoted oak, . heart growth oak, . oak, ground for, . shaded flaked oak, , . m. mahogany, feathered, . ground for, . mottled, . straight, . maple, bird's-eye, mottled ready for the eyes, . bird's-eye, overgrained, . bird's-eye, with the eyes, . mottled and penciled cherry in oil, , . and penciled cherry in oil as finished, . bird's-eye maple ready for the eyes, . mottled cherry, . curly maple to overgrain, . mahogany, . mouldings, imitation of satinwood, . o. oak, dark or pollard, ground for, . flaked or quartered, . heart growth, pencilled, . heart of, checked and shaded, . light, flaked, , . light, flaked, shaded, . light, ground for, . light, heart growth, . flaked, light, shaded, . overgrained and mottled satinwood, . bird's-eye maple, . curly maple, . p. penciled and combed dark ash, . and wiped out hungarian ash, . and wiped out walnut, . black walnut, . dark heart of ash, . penciled heart growth, . pine, hard, . plain or wainscoted oak, light, . pollard oak, , . oak, ground for, . q. quartered dark oak shaded, . r. rosewood as finished, . rosewood as outlined to overgrain, . ground for, . s. satinwood, mottled, . mottled and overgrained, . stained cherry, ground for, . stippled walnut, . straight mahogany, . w. wainscoted or plain oak, light, . walnut, black or french, ground for, . curly, . french, burl, . stippled, . wiped out and pencilled, . water colors, burl ash in, . white wood in oil, . wiped out and pencilled hungarian ash, . out and pencilled walnut, . out and shaded heart of light ash, . out cherry pencilled in oil, . out heart of light ash, . out hungarian ash, . chicago varnish co. [illustration] offers to the trade at reasonable prices the undermentioned varnishes which have earned for themselves a high reputation for durability, uniformity and beauty of finish. durable oak for painted or grained surfaces. inside oak for same use, but cheaper. shipoleum for natural woods, thoroughly water-proof. supremis floor finish, unequalled in its line. crystalite finish, a very pale polishing varnish. hyperion finish, a pale rubbing varnish. architectural coach, an excellent article of medium price. [illustration] ivory enamelite for white interiors; can be rubbed. oil finish, hard, light & extra light all of these are made of hard gums, and contain no rosin or acids. chicago, boston, san francisco. established . g. b. sibley's patent brush binder is worthy of the attention of every practical painter; it being the only perfect binder ever made and one of the best improvements in the painters' outfit. they are durable and easily adjusted. circulars and price list furnished on application to g. b. sibley, manufacturer, bennington, vt. * * * * * chicago wood finishing co. manufacturers of wood fillers and elston ave., chicago. correspondence solicited. * * * * * graining largest assortment in patterns of nearly all woods. transfer graining paper perfectly natural, copies times, quick and cheap. rolls, " × ', c. sheets, " × ', c. postage, c. per roll. samples, " × " c. mailed c. excellent for study. to grainers sheets mailed for $ . fresco stencils, medallions bronzes, crayons, etc. stencil co. of n. y., e. th st. new york. graining [illustration] william e. wall grainer, morgan street, somerville, mass. give three days notice of work if possible. orders by mail promptly attended to somerville, september , messrs harrison bro's & co. i desire to place myself on record as thoroughly favoring the colors put up by you for grainers use. after eight years experience with your colors, i find them always uniform in shade, thoroughly ground, and of great strength. while in philadelphia last month i visited the factory, and was particularly impressed with the method employed to keep the color uniform in tone and strength, by blending the different varieties which occur in the crude material, and keeping up to the high standard of purity of color adopted by you. yours respectfully, william e. wall painting and decorating is a monthly magazine devoted to the interests of grainers, sign-, fresco-, and carriage-painters, and treating also of wall-paper and decoration. the subscription price is $ . per annum, payable in advance; single copies cents. in each number will be found one or more colored plates representing such subjects as graining panels, signs, suggestions for interior decoration, color combinations for exterior work, etc. practical articles of interest to painters by some of the best writers in the country are a constant feature, and the minor departments are replete with information written for the express purpose of not only interesting the practical man and of teaching the beginner, but proving of use and interest to all in the fraternity. sample copies may be had free of charge on application. address house painting & decorating publishing co., south th. street, philadelphia, pa. * * * * * transcriber's note: illustrations were moved to paragraph breaks. minor corrections were made in punctuation. the following changes were made: page : changed represently to representing. orig: for use in represently the minute clusters of knots. page : changed overgainer to overgrainer. orig: fitch tool, and use the overgainer page : changed stipping to stippling. orig: the stipping may be done in distemper on the ground-work index page iii: changed cyress wood to cypress wood. index pages x and xiii: changed curley walnut to curly walnut. index page xi: changed mapel to maple. corrected numbers on list of colored illustrations: switched and , and , and , and . corrected these and other numbers in index and index to colored plates to reference the correct pages and plates, as far as could be determined. all other inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation have been retained from the original publication. [illustration: chafing dish.] copper work a text book for teachers and students in the manual arts fully illustrated by augustus f. rose providence technical high school and rhode island school of design the davis press worcester, massachusetts copyrighted, by augustus f. rose table of contents. page chapter i.--introduction, equipment, materials chapter ii.--problems, escutcheons and hinge tail chapter iii.--drawer and door pull and hinge chapter iv.--finger plates, pad corners, box corners, stamp box and match box chapter v.--sconce, picture frame, soldering, repousse or embossing chapter vi.--raised forms chapter vii.--porringer, trays or plates chapter viii.--ink pot, sealing wax set and watch fobs chapter ix.--spoons, sugar tongs and tea scoops, rivets, drawing wire and tubing, polishing, stamping work, coloring chapter x.--enameling preface. in this book the subject of copper work, as it may be introduced into the public schools, is treated to the extent of specifying an equipment and suggesting some of the possibilities of a course. not only will there be found an abundance of illustrative material on this subject, consisting of drawings and photographs of various objects executed by upper grammar and high school pupils, but also a detailed description of the processes necessary for the execution of many of the designs. it is not expected that the problems as given will be slavishly copied, but rather that they will make clear the methods and processes that may be applied in the working out of similar problems. it is hoped that this volume will be especially helpful to teachers in the manual arts who are trying to introduce metal work into the regular school course. the author is indebted to charles j. martin and antonio cirino, for valuable assistance in making some of the illustrations. augustus f. rose. list of illustrations. plates. plate page . anvils . hammers . shears and plyers . escutcheons . escutcheons. photograph . escutcheons . escutcheons . escutcheons . drawer and door pulls . drawer and door pulls . drawer and door pulls . drawer and door pulls. photograph . hinges . hinges . hinges . hinges . hinges . finger plates . finger plates. photographs . pad corners . box corners . box corners . stamp boxes . stamp boxes . stamp boxes. cover designs . stamp boxes. photograph . match boxes . match boxes. cover designs . sconce a a. sconce a. pattern . desk set. photograph . sconce b . picture frame . picture frame designs . raised forms . raised forms. photograph . pitchers . tea set . pupils at work. photograph . porringer . porringer handles . porringer. photograph . ink pot . ink pot. photograph . ink pot . sealing wax set . watch fobs . watch fobs. photograph . spoons . sugar tongs and tea scoops . rivets figures. figure page . annealing tray . sawdust box . saw frame . sand bag or engraver's pad . chasing tools . engraving tools . dapping tools and die . sawing a. sawing. photograph . draw pulls . draw pulls . draw pulls . draw pulls . draw pulls . draw pulls a. draw pulls b. draw pulls c, d, draw pulls e. draw pulls a. draw pulls b. draw pulls c. draw pulls d. draw pulls e. draw pulls . stamp box . stamp box . stamp box . chasing. photograph . chasing hammer . hammering. photograph . raised bowl, first step . surface plate. photograph . snarling iron . snarling iron in use. photograph . soldering porringer . dapping tools in use . drawing tubing . drawing tubing . drawing wire. photograph . stamp . engraving. photograph . engraving chapter i. introduction. during the past few years many experiments have been tried in the development of manual training courses and much time has been spent in discussing of what lines of work they should consist. wood and iron were the first materials used and are yet indispensable, but experience has led those who are developing this work to believe that there are other materials as well adapted to manual training work in all its various forms. clay, used not only for modeling but for ceramic work as well, leather, brass and copper are materials that have also been put to the test and found satisfactory in many ways. in ancient times copper was known as a useful metal, and down through the ages it not only held its own but increased in usefulness. among its valuable properties may be mentioned toughness and ductility; its toughness enables it to be beaten into thin strong sheets, while its ductility enables it to be drawn out into fine wire. copper readily forms important alloys, such as brass from copper and zinc. work in sheet copper and brass has been introduced into the public school course with gratifying results. it has proved itself to be a valuable departure from other branches of manual training work and gives promise of being permanent. sheet, copper and brass offer possibilities for various kinds of treatment, either in the flat work which includes saw piercing, embossing and enameling, or in the raised work. there is something about this work that appeals to pupils and holds their interest. the nature of the material, hard enough to offer some resistance and yet pliable enough to allow its being wrought into many forms, the durability of the object when completed, and the variety of colors that may be obtained, especially with copper, all tend to make the subject not only interesting but fascinating. all exercises in sheet metal should be of some real value to the pupil; no time should be spent on work done simply for practice, but the various steps should be learned in the making of useful objects of artistic worth. in this, as in other work, it seems best to give each member of the class the same work for a while until he has become acquainted with the different tools and learned the limitations of the material. when this has been accomplished, each pupil may be allowed to work out his own designs. in this the educational value is very greatly increased. the pupil conceives the idea and makes several sketches of it, carrying it through repeated changes until it is brought to the perfected design appropriate in every way to the idea. some may not be fortunate enough to get a full equipment so that all of the various kinds of metal work may be done, but such may be able to make a beginning by doing light work in saw piercing, which requires a very limited equipment. equipment. the equipment necessary for a start in copper work need cost but little if the teacher is somewhat ingenious, for the patterns of the various anvils may be made by him; from these patterns the castings can be made at any foundry for three or four cents per pound. it is better to begin with a few anvils and tools and to add one or two at a time as the need is felt for a more varied supply. if the work can be done in a room already fitted with benches and vises, it will reduce the first cost considerably. any home-made bench will do if a regulation one is not to be had. one that has given satisfaction was made of " × " studding with plank tops in lengths of feet, giving space for four vises at each bench. a swivel vise that may be turned at any angle will be found satisfactory. [illustration: figure .] an annealing tray made of a piece of sheet iron in the shape of a box about " square and " deep, with the corners lapped and riveted and filled with slag, answers very well, but one similar to the illustration, figure , is better. in this the top is circular and rotary, which is an advantage. a pair of light long nose-tongs are needed to handle the work. any ordinary foot bellows and blow-pipe will do. [illustration: figure .] [illustration: plate . anvils] a box, figure , large enough to hold two -gallon stone jars and about half a bushel of sawdust, is needed. one of the jars is for water in which the object is cooled after being annealed; the other is for pickle which is used to clean the work. the sawdust is used to dry the object after it has been dipped in the water. [illustration: figure .] [illustration: figure . sand bag or engravers pad.] plate illustrates forms of anvils that have been found most useful. plate shows a variety of hammers needed. plate shears and plyers. the following tools are also necessary: cutting shears--straight and curved. steel square ". jeweler's saw frame. figure . piercing saws. breast drill and assortment of drills. [illustration: plate . hammers] [illustration: plate . shears and plyers] [illustration: figure . chasing tools and punches for embossing.] [illustration: figure . engraving tools.] [illustration: figure .] compasses. calipers. surface gauge. surface plate. assortment of files. sand bag or engraver's pad. figure . pitch block. a set of chasing tools and punches. figure . a set of engraving tools. figure . a set of dapping tools and dapping die. figure . plyers--flat nose, round nose, and pointed. cloth and felt buffs. borax slate. two -gallon stone crocks. mortar and pestle (porcelain.) mouth blow-pipe. bench pins. materials. copper is the material best suited for the work outlined in this book, although the processes as described may be applied to brass or silver. brass may be used successfully in the flat work, but for raised work copper is the best material for the beginner. copper is obtainable in different thicknesses and in various grades but the best grade should be used. for most of the work from to gauge is used, while metal from to gauge is used occasionally. copper wire is used in several sizes for making rivets. no. and iron wire is indispensable for binding when soldering. easy running silver solder may be made by the user, but as a small piece will solder many joints, and as it is not practical to make it in small quantities, it is better to buy it ready made as desired. powdered or lump borax is used as a flux in soldering. charcoal or asbestos blocks are used when soldering small work. cut-quick and rouge are used for polishing. nitric and sulphuric acids are used to clean work. pickle. pickle is a trade name given to solutions used in cleaning work. different proportions of acids are used according to the work to be cleaned. for copper and silver a dilute bath of sulphuric acid is used of part acid to parts of water. the solution may be used cold but when used hot it becomes much more effective. when used hot a copper dish is necessary. the object being placed in the dish with enough pickle to cover it, it is then placed over a gas plate and allowed to come to boiling heat. the pickle is then poured off and the object rinsed in clean water. a dilute solution of nitric acid is used for brass. gauge. gauge, as referred to in this book, is a term used to denote the thickness of sheet metal. the standard wire gauge is divided in gauge numbers from to ; and is used for measuring the thickness of wire and sheet metal. it is usually a plate of steel having round its edge a series of notches of standard openings. [illustration] chapter ii. problems. escutcheons. escutcheons may be made of any metal; but copper, brass, and iron are most used. the size and shape of the escutcheon are determined by the size of the lock and the space at our disposal. the outline may be circular, square or rectangular, or it may be modified somewhat, care being taken to keep it in harmony with its surroundings. [illustration: figure .] [illustration: plate . escutcheons] [illustration: plate .] first make a careful drawing of the design. take a piece of metal a little larger than the drawing calls for, and of the desired gauge, from to gauge is all right for such an exercise. the design is then transferred to the metal by the use of carbon paper, or a tracing is made on rice paper from the drawing and pasted on the metal. then take a metal saw (no. or ) and saw about the design figure , a. to saw the key hole, a hole must be drilled through which the saw can be placed to follow the line. before drilling use a center punch, making a slight depression as a start for the drill. after the sawing is completed, a file is used to true up the outline and to smooth the edges. the holes for the nails are next drilled. after using a little emery paper about the edges, it is ready to finish. [illustration: figure a.] the metal, as it comes from the rolling mill, is perfectly smooth. if, in this piece of work, it is desired to make the surface a little more interesting, it may be done by taking any hammer with a smooth domed face and going over the surface. this, however, should be done before sawing. as the hammering stretches the metal somewhat, if it is left till after the sawing is done, it means more filing to get the design into shape. for a beginning this exercise has proved very satisfactory, as it gives the pupil an acquaintance with the metal and uses but a small piece of material. hinge tails. these plates represent suggestive designs for hinges and may be given among first exercises in sawing; when so used, they should be treated like the escutcheon already described. [illustration: plate . hinge tails] [illustration: plate . hinge tails] [illustration: plate . hinge tails] chapter iii. drawer and door pulls. [illustration: figure .] [illustration: figure .] [illustration: figure .] pulls generally consist of two parts, the handle and the plate to which the handle is fastened. some pulls are stationary as in figures , , while in others the handle swings from either one or two points, figures , , . in this case the handle may be made by taking a rod as great in diameter as the thickest part of the handle, and either drawing it out by hammering or filing it down to the required taper. after it is tapered to the required size as at figure , it is then bent into shape according to the design. if the handle is to swing from one or two points, it should be fastened by any one of the following methods. [illustration: plate . draw pulls] [illustration: plate . draw pulls] [illustration: plate . draw pulls] [illustration: plate .] [illustration: figure .] [illustration: figure .] [illustration: figure .] method . if it is possible to have the handle support go through the drawer or door, the support may be made from a piece of square rod of the length desired, a hole being drilled through one end, the size needed, as at figure , a. a shoulder is then made by filing the rod down to the size of the hole in the plate. in making the shoulder the remainder of the rod which is to go through the drawer front may be left square or filed round; as the hole is round that is drilled to receive it, this last is the better way. it is also easier to fasten it on the inside of the drawer when it is made in this way, for it may be simply headed up as in making a rivet, figure b, or a thread may be cut and a nut used, figure c, d. the latter method is better where taps and dies are at hand. when it is fastened by riveting, a circular or square piece of metal called a washer, figure e, a little larger in diameter than the bolt, with a hole the size of the bolt, is placed next to the drawer front on the inside; this makes the riveting more secure. [illustration: figure .] method . another method for fastening this style of a handle is to cut a slot through the plate about / inch wide and length called for by the design, figure a. then take a strip of copper in length times the diameter of the handle end and as wide as the slot in the plate is long, figure b. this is then bent circular a little larger in diameter than the end of handle as at figure c, and placed in the slot as at figure d, and clinched on the back of the plate as at figure e. the plate is in this case fastened to the drawer or door by nailing or riveting. [illustration: figure .] method . when it is desirable to make the plate and handle support all in one piece, it may be done in any one of three ways. first. by allowing enough metal in the center of the plate to form the handle support as at figure . second. by allowing metal at the top of the plate to bend over handle as at figure . third. by allowing metal at the sides to be turned up at right angles to the plate to form the support as at figure . in this case holes are drilled in the side pieces and a rivet is put through from one side to the other to hold the handle. for this one the handle must be either bent around the rivet or drilled to receive the rivet. in all three of these cases the plate is fastened to the door or drawer by nailing or riveting. hinges. plate , various outlines of the same hinge. plate , hinges of same outline with interior variations. plates , , , butt and strap hinges. in a hinge, the joint is the important feature. the size of the hinge, the strength required, and the decoration must also receive attention. after these have been determined, a drawing should be made giving a development of the joint. whatever the size of the hinge, the following principle in regard to the joint must be kept in mind. there must be alternating projections left on the inner ends of each leaf of the hinge to fit into one another so that the pin may pass through them and allow the hinge to swing. the method of making these projections is determined by the size of the hinge. in hinges of any considerable size, the projections are left attached to the hinge proper; in allowing for them there will be an even number on one leaf and an odd number on the other. to obtain the strength desired, the width of the projections on one leaf should equal the width of the projections on the other leaf. this applies to any number of projections. their length should be determined by the diameter of the joint, three times the diameter is the approximate length. in making small hinges the projections may be bent into position by the use of the round nose plyers. in larger work the projection is fastened in the vise and beginning at the end is bent around the pin a little at a time using the raw-hide mallet to work it into shape. for small joints or hinges, such as would be used on a match box, stamp box, bon-bon box, or ink pot, the joint should be made of small tubing as described on page . this tubing is sawed into the required lengths and soldered to the leaves to be hinged. the parts to receive the joint are sometimes filed out. [illustration: plate . hinges] [illustration: plate . hinges] [illustration: plate . hinges] [illustration: plate . hinges] [illustration: plate . hinges] chapter iv. finger plates. the finger plate used on the edge of a door to receive the wear of the hand serves as an excellent exercise in sawing and filing. the design is transferred to the metal by use of carbon paper. the sawing is done as in the escutcheon. the surface may be left smooth or it may be gone over with a hammer having a face somewhat rounded. if the design calls for any repousse work, it is done as described on page . [illustration] [illustration: plate . finger plate] [illustration: plate .] pad corners. desk pad corners while not difficult to make, are very useful as well as ornamental. the design may be carried out in any one of three ways: pierced, embossed or enameled. in making the pattern for the pad corner, an allowance must be made for the thickness of the pad, as at a, and also for laps as at b, that are to go under the pad to hold the corners in place. the corner may be riveted to the pad at the back or the laps may be bent in such a way as to clamp them to the pad, and permit of their removal at any time. when the design has been pierced or embossed, the laps can be bent over a piece of metal equal in thickness to that of the pad. if the design is to be carried out in enamel, all bending must be done before enameling as any expansion or contraction of the metal will crack the enamel. [illustration: plate . pad corners] box corners. box corners serve primarily to protect the corners of the box and to increase its strength, but they can be so made that they give character to the box. the corner should be designed to suit the particular box or chest to which it is to be applied. the method of making a box corner is slightly different from those previously described. after the design has been drawn, a pattern made from it in heavy paper will be found helpful, for this pattern may be used to mark out the design on the metal. in this way irregularities in the design are less likely to occur than when the design is transferred with the carbon paper directly to the metal. the decoration may be pierced or embossed, according to one's choice. after the sawing or embossing has been done, it should be filed carefully and smoothed up with fine emery cloth to do away with crude and sharp edges. the holes for the rivets are then drilled and the burr that is made by drilling is removed with a larger drill. the two edges, a a. plate , that are to come together when in place on the box should be beveled a little so that they will form a better corner. after this is done, the sides are bent down over a block of wood or metal placed in the vise. a rawhide hammer should be used to avoid marks on the face of the corner. in this as in other work, if it is desired that the metal have a hammered surface, the effect must be given before the design is cut out. suitable rivets are next made as described on page and illustrated on page . after being colored or polished the corner is ready to be applied to the box. [illustration: plate . box corners] [illustration: plate . box corners] stamp boxes. stamp boxes may be made in various ways, three of which are described below: box no. and , plate . on a piece of gauge metal, lay out or draw the pattern as shown on the plate; first with pencil, then with a scratch awl to insure permanency, going over the lines lightly on the metal. by the use of a saw frame and a no. saw the corners of the square are cut out. [illustration: figure .] the edges that form the corners are next filed up, keeping all edges straight and at right angles; after this, the edges are beveled a little, forming a mitre which, when soldered, makes a better joint than otherwise. the sides are next bent up over an iron block placed in the vise as at figure . the corners should be brought well together, using a rawhide hammer, no. , plate . [illustration: plate . stamp box] a piece of iron wire about no. is then placed around the box and twisted tight enough to hold the corners in place while being soldered, figure . borax and solder are next applied and the soldering done as described on page . in this case, however, all of the corners should be prepared at the same time for soldering. if but one corner is prepared and soldered, the heat necessary for soldering causes the copper oxides to come to the surface at the other corners which must be removed before they can be soldered. this is remedied by coating with borax and placing the solder at all corners before applying any heat. [illustration: figure .] [illustration: figure .] after the soldering is done the box is pickled. surplus solder is next removed by filing. the box is again placed over the iron block which is held in the vise; the corners and bottom edges are squared up, using the round end of hammer shown at no. , plate , and the top is filed off level. this completes the body part of the box. the cover is made in the same way as the box. much care must be taken to have the pattern carefully and accurately drawn so that when the cover is finished it will fit closely to the body. the design, if there is any, whether it is embossed or enamelled, must be carried out before cutting it to size. box no. , although of different proportion, is made in the same way as no. . box no. , plate . [illustration: plate . stamp box] [illustration: plate . stamp box cover designs] take a strip of metal as wide as the required depth of the box and as long as the sum of the four sides. the length of each side is measured off on this strip and a line scratched at right angles to the edge. the strip is then placed over a block of metal and, with a rawhide hammer bent at right angles at scratched lines, making three corners, leaving the ends to meet at the fourth corner where they are to be soldered. these ends should be mitered as in box , before soldering. after the corner has been soldered and the box pickled, it is again placed over a block and trued up square. having decided which is to be the top and which the bottom of the box, file the bottom edges level and at right angles to the sides. a piece of metal is then cut for the bottom large enough to allow about / " to project on all four sides. it is then prepared for soldering and bound together with iron wire, figure . the solder should be cut in small pieces and placed about the inside edges. in soldering the bottom, care must be taken not to unsolder the corner. this may be avoided by keeping the flame away from the soldered corner until the rest of the solder has run, applying it to the corner at the last and only for a fraction of a minute. after the soldering, the box is pickled and the edges of the bottom filed square. the / " that was allowed to project may be filed flush with the sides of the box or left to project a little. the cover is made by taking a strip of metal about / " wide and long enough to fit around the inside of the box. the length of the sides (inside measurement) is laid out and then bent over a block as previously described. the corner is soldered and the upper edges are filed off level and soldered to a piece of metal, forming the top. this strip on the inside keeps the cover in place. if the design on the cover is to be carried out in enamel it should be done after the cover is completed. if the design is to be embossed, it should be done before the strip which holds the cover in place is soldered on. [illustration: plate .] box no. , plate . the body of this box may be made like either no. or no. . an addition is shown on this one which allows the stamp to be taken from the box more easily. a strip of gauge metal / " wide is soldered on the inside next to the top edge extending from one end to the other as shown in the section at d. another piece of the same gauge metal is cut, in length equal to the inside length of the box and about / " wider than the box. this is placed inside the box and sprung into place as shown at c in the section. this device may be applied to either of the other boxes. the cover of this box is made of but one piece and hinged with a strap hinge, which also forms the cover decoration. to give the surface of the metal of this box a bold hammered surface adds much to its attractiveness. match box. the match box may be made in the same way as the stamp box with the exception of the cover. it seems better to have the cover of the match box hinged. the hinge may be made so as to form a part of the decoration of the cover by making it a strap hinge as shown at plates , , . the hinge may also be made of tubing and extend across the back of the box. this method leaves the cover to be decorated in some other way, either by embossing or by enameling or by both. [illustration] [illustration: plate . match box] [illustration: plate . match box cover designs] chapter v. sconce a. the pattern for this sconce as shown at plate a is transferred to the metal which is then cut out. the part which serves as a reflector is raised by placing the metal face down on a sand bag, or on pitch and with the pein end of a chaser's hammer or with a pointed horn hammer, driving the center down to the required depth. if the face is somewhat irregular, it can be trued up by placing it on a block of wood and going over it with a rawhide hammer. the shelf on which the candle socket rests is formed by bending the lower part of the sconce at right angles as shown by the dotted line. the projections at , , , plate a, when bent into shape as shown on plate form the supports for the candle socket. the projection at plate a when bent into shape serves as a bracket to support the shelf. the candle socket is made from a strip of metal bent into cylindrical shape with the ends riveted together. when the socket has been riveted and holes drilled as indicated, the sconce is finished according to taste and mounted on a back of wood stained to harmonize with the color of the metal. [illustration] [illustration: plate . sconce a.] [illustration: plate a. sconce a.] [illustration: plate .] sconce b. a rectangular piece of metal is cut out about / inch larger on all sides than the design calls for and given a hammered surface with the pein end of a large hammer. after the design has been transferred to the back of the metal, it is then placed on pitch face down, and with a suitable tool the lines are sunk at a and b, plate , about / ", as shown in the section at c. it is then removed from the pitch and, after cleaning, is put over a sand bag face up, and with a rawhide hammer, the part that is to serve as a reflector is concaved a little. the candle socket is made like the pattern as shown at d. it is bent cylindrical in shape and the ends are riveted together, then the laps on either side are bent nearly at right angles and serve to hold the socket in place. the cup is made from a circular piece of metal hammered into a slightly conical shape, e. a rod the length required is bent at right angles with a shoulder left at each end. the bracket is made next like the pattern f and bent into shape as at g. when all the parts are finished, they are put together. place the rod in a vise with the short end up. the cup is put over the pin at h, and also the socket, so that the pin passes through the holes in both laps. the pin is then headed up, holding all securely in place. the bracket is next riveted to the back at k, through which the rod is put, the pin passing through the back is headed up at l. after finishing, the sconce may be mounted on a wood back. [illustration] [illustration: plate . sconce b.] picture frame. this object is made as follows: take a piece of metal quite a little larger than the outline of the frame that is to be made. draw on this piece of metal the outline of the frame and also the extensions which are folded back to give the thickness necessary for the reception of the picture, glass, and back, as shown at b. have the side opposite to that on which the drawing is done free from scratches as it is to serve later as the front. any decoration that is used must be of the simplest sort. this decoration may be pierced or in repousse. the frame here illustrated and the plate of designs were intended for repousse as more satisfactory results have been obtained by this process. after the design for the decoration of the front of the frame has been transferred to the same side of the metal as the outline, it must be prepared for the repousse process. this is done by placing it on a pitch pot. the pitch is softened enough so that the metal will stick to it. after placing the metal on the pitch, work a little of the pitch over the edges as this will hold it more securely. it is then allowed to cool or harden before working. with a suitable tool and hammer, after the pitch is hard, follow the lines which make up the design or decorative part of the frame. the lines should be gone over lightly, slowly, and carefully at first until the design is fairly well started; then they may be gone over again, sinking them a little deeper each time until they have been carried deep enough to give the design the required relief on the face of the frame. for this part of the work the tool should not be used as a punch, driving the metal down in one place and then moving it to another and so on, but it should be kept moving all the time and should at the same time receive a repeated number of light blows from the hammer. by so doing the face of the work will be smooth, otherwise each blow from the hammer will show. [illustration: plate . picture frame] if there is doubt as to the depth to which the lines should be carried, the work may be taken off the pitch occasionally, so that the face may be seen. it is not an easy thing to reduce relief in this work, therefore it is better to go carefully working it up slowly. after the repousse part of the frame is done, clean it with kerosene and pickle. the corners may then be cut out as at b, filed up square, and beveled as in the box. the sides are then bent back over a block of wood or metal, bringing the corners well together. they are then soldered. a metal saw is used to make the opening, a, the edges of which are then filed up square. the back for this frame is made in the same way as the front except that it is left perfectly plain. this should be made to fit inside of the frame tight enough so that no fastening will be needed to hold it in place. a frame of this size and kind may be made to hang or to stand. if it is to hang, a small ring may be made and fastened to the back as shown at c. if it is to stand, a support of some kind such as is shown at d is needed. this is made of the same thickness metal as the frame and may be made in many outlines. this support may be made stationary by riveting it to the back, or hinged, which is much better, as is shown at e and f. the hinge is made by taking a piece of about / " tubing and cutting three pieces, making one of the pieces equal in width to the other two and having the three equal in width to the top of the support. the two short pieces are soldered to the back and the long piece to the support. a piece of wire equal in diameter to the hole in the tube is then cut and put in place which hinges the back and support together. the method of making the tubing used for the above is described on page . [illustration: plate . picture frame designs] soldering. a piece of silver solder, a slate slab such as is ordinarily used for grinding ink, powdered or lump borax, and a soft hair brush of some sort are all that is necessary for the process of soldering in addition to what we already have. the pieces of metal that are to be soldered must be absolutely free from all foreign matter. to insure this the joint is scraped bright with some sharpe-edged tool. care must be taken to keep the fingers away from the joint as any moisture or greasy substance will prevent the solder from running. the best results are obtained only by being extremely careful as to cleanliness throughout the process. being sure that the slab is perfectly clean, a little water is put in it and the lump of borax is ground around until the water becomes like thin cream. if powdered borax is used a block of wood will answer as a pestle to grind the borax to the right consistency. the solder may be obtained any gauge, but about answers for most purposes. after cutting the solder into pieces about / of an inch long and about the same width, drop them into the borax that has been ground to give them a coating of borax and to remove any grease that may have adhered to them. coat the surfaces that are to be soldered with the borax being careful to get no more borax about than is necessary. put the parts together and bind them with no. iron wire, not too tightly. the pieces of solder are then lifted with the brush used for the borax or with a pair of tweezers and placed next to the edge that is to be soldered, about one inch apart. the object is then placed on the annealing tray, which answers for soldering as well, and with the blow-pipe it is heated, very slowly at first until the water has evaporated and the borax crystallized and dissolved, the flame may then be applied more directly and the object brought to a soldering heat. if the heat is applied too quickly, it will throw off the solder; and if heated hotter than necessary it is liable to melt or burn the parts being soldered, so the process demands the closest attention from the start. the object is then pickled, washed in clear water and dried in the sawdust. if the above directions are carefully followed good results may be expected. repousse or embossing. repousse or embossing involves practically the same principle as modeling in clay or wax, the only difference being that metal is used as the material and that different tools are employed. in this, as in clay or wax work, it is desirable to bring certain parts of a design into relief; to do this with metal the work must be placed on a substance which will give some resistance and yet allow each blow of the hammer or tool to make an impression. the substance commonly used for this purpose has the following composition, in the proportions given: black pitch lb. tallow teaspoonfuls. plaster of paris / cup. the pitch is put in some kind of dish (agate is good), placed over a gas plate, and melted. the tallow is then added and the plaster sprinkled and stirred in, the whole being well mixed. it is then poured into the pitch pot, or whatever it is to be used in. when used in hot weather more plaster must be used. a pot, hemispherical in shape, figure , made of cast iron about / inch thick is generally used. this, when placed on a chaser's pad or ring, figure , may be turned at any angle, and is found to be a great convenience. an ordinary " × " baking pan of iron serves the purpose, or a box may be made of wood, but of course this is not so durable. after allowing the composition to cool partly, yet while soft enough to stick, the piece of work that is to be embossed is placed on it, the right side next to the pitch. it is then allowed to cool still more; when quite hard or when it is difficult to make an impression on it with the thumb nail, it is ready to work on. the design is next drawn or transferred to the metal by the use of carbon paper and then scratched on with a scratch awl to make the drawing more permanent, as in going over the piece of work the pencil or carbon lines are easily erased. the tools necessary for this work may be made as needed according to each individual design. there are a few general ones that are always found useful, such as those shown at figure . figure shows a hammer generally used for this work. [illustration] [illustration: figure .] [illustration: figure .] chapter vi. raised forms. the first exercise in raising should be a form quite simple in outline, plate a. a drawing or blue print should be used showing the shape and dimensions and this should be worked to as closely as possible. next select a piece of copper suitable in thickness for an object of this size, in this case gauge. the metal for raising must be circular in shape and the diameter of the piece needed for this bowl determined in the following way: take a piece of string, place it on the drawing or blue print, starting in the center of the base, and follow the curve as indicated at a, on plate . this will give the radius needed for describing the circle, which is - / ". the circle is then cut out with the shears, after which another circle is described on the metal for the base. all lines made on the metal should be made quite lightly. as a rule the copper comes from the rolling mill somewhat hardened so the next thing to do is to soften it by a process called annealing. place upon the annealing tray, figure , the circular piece of metal already cut, and apply the flame from the blow-pipe upon it until it becomes red hot. it is either allowed to cool off gradually or dipped in cold water and then dried in the sawdust. select an anvil the shape of which conforms somewhat to the outline of the bowl and also to the curve of the base. it is often necessary to use several anvils to complete an object, but a little experience will help to decide which should be used first. the no. anvil on plate seems to be about what is needed for this particular piece of work. [illustration: plate . raised forms] [illustration: figure .] [illustration: figure .] the anvil is placed in the vise and the metal held in the left hand against the anvil so that the end of the anvil comes directly under the circle which represents the base, as shown at figure . with a raising hammer, no. on plate , begin hammering with light blows at first, following the circle closely the first time around until the base is well started. this operation is continued at each turn striking a little above the previous blows until the top is reached when it will take the shape as shown at figure . sometimes a horn or box-wood mallet is used to start a piece of work. as the hammering hardens the metal it is necessary to anneal it each time after going over the surface. after this is done, we proceed as at first until the required form is obtained as called for by the drawing. care must be taken not to stretch the metal any more than can be helped as the more it is stretched the thinner it becomes. the surface and outline of the bowl left by the raising hammer is quite irregular and needs to be trued up by a process called planishing; for this a no. or hammer, plate , with a polished face and somewhat broader than the raising hammer is used. by going over the surface with this hammer all irregularities are removed leaving a refined curve and a finished surface. if the bottom gets a little out of shape during the operation of raising, it can be easily brought back again by using a no. stake, plate , and a no. hammer, plate . during the raising process the top edge has also become very irregular and must now be trimmed off level. place the bowl on some level surface (a surface plate will give the best results) and with the point in the surface gauge describe a line about the top making it the desired height, figure . a small pair of shears is then used to trim off the top to the line, after which a file is used to finish the edge, leaving it perfectly smooth. a piece of fine emery cloth may be used at the last. [illustration: plate .] the principle of raising as here described applies to forms of all sorts with few variations. where a form is to be raised with the top edge turned in as at b, plate , an anvil similar to the outline must be used. in raising a form like c, plate , the sides are carried up as shown by the dotted lines and then the form is reversed and the neck part drawn in. a deep form is raised more quickly if, at the start, the metal is placed on a crinkling block and the edge crinkled. [illustration: figure .] in all raised work after one becomes acquainted with the material, it will be found that the metal can be forced in any direction, giving thickness at the bottom, at the sides, or at the rim, as is necessary. [illustration: plate . pitchers] after raising a form like c, plate , it may be desired to increase the diameter a little at o-o, where an anvil cannot be used; or, if the form is satisfactory it may be necessary to raise certain parts of it to carry out the decoration called for by the design. this is done by the use of the snarling-iron, made as illustrated at figure , which shows the general outline only, as the ends vary in form according to the work they are to do. one arm of the iron is held in the vise as at figure . the form is then placed over the end and held with the left hand while, with a hammer in the right hand, the iron is struck quite near the end in the vise which causes the other end to rebound. this serves the same purpose as a direct blow from a hammer, except that it works much more slowly. [illustration: figure .] [illustration] [illustration: figure .] [illustration] [illustration: plate .] [illustration: plate .] chapter vii. porringer. the making of a porringer serves as a very interesting exercise; and it is so simple in form that it can be raised after very little experience. a suitable handle must also be designed, sawed out and soldered to the body. after the bowl has been raised into shape according to the design, the top is cut and filed off level. when the handle has been sawed out and the edges trued up, it is fitted to the bowl part. mark on the edge of the bowl the place where the handle is to be fitted and fit it at that place. the edge of the bowl where the handle is to be soldered should be filed or scraped bright before the soldering process is begun. [illustration: figure .] invert bowl and handle and lay them upon a level block of charcoal, as shown at figure . four or five wire nails or pieces of iron wire forced into the charcoal keep the handle and bowl together. the borax is applied and sufficient solder to make a good joint. use no more solder than is necessary, as it will have to be removed by filing and the less filing that is done about such a joint the better the work will be. after the exercise has cooled, it may be pickled, washed and dried. [illustration: plate . porringer] [illustration: plate . porringer handles] while the heat is being applied for soldering, the bowl is at the same time annealed and becomes so soft that it is easily bent out of shape. the bowl of course must be hardened again; this is done by placing it on an anvil that conforms to the outline of the bowl and hammered lightly over the surface. the handle is also treated in the same way. any necessary filing or finishing is now done and the porringer is ready to be polished. if we choose, the handle may be riveted on, or it may be made of the same piece as the bowl by allowing enough metal where the handle is to be, to be bent back when the bowl is raised into shape. [illustration] [illustration: plate .] trays or plates. trays or plates may be made by working the bowl part over an anvil or by driving it into a sand bag until the required depth is obtained, or a form may be turned out of a block of wood and the metal driven into it. after the bowl part has been shaped it may be placed on the pitch block and the outline trued up with a chasing tool. the edge of the tray or plate may be decorated either by piercing, embossing, etching, or enameling. [illustration] chapter viii. ink pot. this exercise is carried out as follows: a form is first raised like the lower part of the pot inverted, which is nothing more than a bowl so far. a hole with a diameter a little less than the diameter of the ink well is then sawed with a piercing saw in the bottom of this bowl, as at a. after this a circular piece of metal is cut equal in diameter to the top of this bowl plus / of an inch, and soldered on g. by making this piece / inch greater than the diameter of the bowl, the soldering process becomes much easier. after the soldering is finished, the projecting edges may be filed off to the edge of the bowl. the bowl is then inverted so that it rests on its greatest diameter h, and it becomes an ink pot. [illustration: figure . dapping tools in use.] the cover, j, is made by taking a circular piece of metal and raising the sides in the same way as in the bowl except that the design calls for the sides at right angles to the base. the curve is obtained by placing it on a sand bag and driving it out from the inside to the required height. from a strip of copper gauge and / inch wide, c, make a ring, d, equal in diameter to the inside of the cover. solder the ends of the ring together and, after shaping it over a circular stake, fit and solder it to the base, as shown in the section at e. [illustration: plate . ink pot] [illustration: plate .] this keeps the cover in place. the knob, k, on the cover is made of two hemispheres, l, by use of the dapping block and tools, figures and . the two pieces are soldered together, filed or finished about the joint, and soldered to the cover, f. after dipping the different parts in the pickle, then washing them in clean water, and doing a little filing here and there about the joints to remove surplus solder, the ink pot is ready for finishing. this may be done by polishing, bronzing, or oxidizing. the ink well proper should be made so that it may be removed. it should be of glass or some other material easily cleansed. [illustration] [illustration: plate . ink pot] sealing wax set. the wax pot. the wax pot is raised into shape as described in chapter vi on raised forms. instead of cutting the top off level, a nose is formed as shown at a, plate , which will pour well. a handle is designed, sawed out, and riveted on at the position indicated at b. the lamp. the body of the lamp is made by raising a bowl to conform with the design; after cutting a hole in the bottom it is inverted, c, and the bottom is soldered on at d. a shallow cup is raised, e, a hole cut in the bottom to allow for the lamp proper, and soldered to the body. legs as shown at f, and held together by a strip, h, are riveted to the side of the body at g; on these the wax pot rests. the lamp proper or alcohol well, which is filled with asbestos, is raised with the edges turned out, as at n, which hold it in place as shown in the section at j. the part at k serves as a burner and is placed loosely in the cup, e, allowing its removal at any time. seal. a monogram, letter or design of some sort must first be decided on. when this has been done, the design is transferred and scratched on a piece of or gauge copper. if the design has a right and wrong to it, the reverse should be transferred to the metal so that, when stamped, the right side will appear. the copper is then placed on the pitch and when cool enough to work upon, the lines are followed with a chasing tool, sinking them to the required depth. care must be taken to avoid sharp edges or any undercutting, if the seal is to free itself easily from the wax. a handle for the seal may be made of wood as shown on the plate; the seal is cut and attached as shown at section on l. m. [illustration: plate . sealing wax set] watch fob. there are many ways of making watch fobs. a very simple one is made as follows: first make a drawing of the fob with some suitable pendant as at a, plate . the pendant design is next transferred to a piece of gauge copper, then sawed out and filed into shape. this must be done with perhaps more care than on larger work as it is to be more closely scrutinized. the parts of the fob must be made to conform with the width of the ribbon that is to be used. a bar must be made for the top, wide enough for the ribbon to be passed through and fastened. this bar is made by cutting a slot in a piece of metal of the same gauge as the pendant, or by bending a piece of wire around a piece of metal about / of an inch thick and the width of the ribbon, making the ends meet in the centre of one of the long sides. if more than one of these pieces is needed, the wire is wound around the metal as many times as there are pieces required and sawed apart. the ends are then bent to come in line with each other and soldered. the piece is again placed over the metal and, with a rawhide hammer, worked into shape. the links that connect the bar and the swivel are made as all links are made. take a piece of iron or steel wire the size required and also a piece of copper; place one end of the steel wire and one end of the copper wire in a vise so that the steel wire stands vertical. then wind the copper wire around the steel wire spirally with as many turns as there are links required. now take it out of the vise and slip it off the steel wire, which leaves it in the shape of a spring. hold it with the thumb and forefinger of the left hand and, resting it against the bench pin, saw the links off with a fine saw one at a time until there are as many as needed. [illustration] [illustration: plate . watch fobs] [illustration: plate .] [illustration] one of these links is soldered to the bar that holds the ribbon and one to the top of the pendant; the others are linked together to form the short chain at the top. to connect the pendant to the ribbon, two larger links are needed which are made in the same way as the small ones. all the links may be soldered or not. the links that are soldered to the bar and to the pendant should be filed flat a little to make the point of contact greater. this insures a more secure joint. when soldering such small pieces the charcoal block is indispensable, for depressions are easily made in it where necessary. the parts are placed on the block in position and a small mouth blow-pipe is used; with this the flame can be more delicately applied. [illustration] when the different parts are completed, they are pickled, rinsed, dried, and polished, and then put together with the ribbon. fobs are sometimes made entirely of metal as b, plate . in this slots are sawed in three or more bars of metal which are linked together with links made from the same thickness metal as the bars. the pendant and the swivel are also connected with the same kind of links. [illustration] chapter ix. spoons, sugar tongs and tea scoops. these exercises are easily carried out after a little experience. no steps are taken that have not already been described, except in the case of forming the bowl of the spoon. this is done by taking a piece of lead and making a depression in it the size and shape of the bowl required. a piece of hard wood is shaped on the end grain to fit the depression made in the lead. the metal is placed over the depression and the wood shape placed on top of the metal; it is then driven into the form by using a hammer. this will give the general shape of the bowl which may be trued up later by sawing and filing. [illustration] [illustration: plate . spoons] [illustration: plate . sugar tongs and tea scoops] rivets. the making of rivets is quite important as it is impossible to find in the market the variety in size and shape of head that each piece of work demands. where rivets with a wire / " or less are needed, they may be made as follows: take a piece of iron or steel a, plate , thicker than the desired length of the rivet and drill a hole through it having its diameter a little greater than the wire of the rivet. take a piece of copper wire of the required diameter and about / " longer than the thickness of the iron. place the wire in the hole and the iron on some smooth metal surface, b. with a hammer make a burr of the wire that projects above the iron. then reverse the iron and drive out the rivets. this gives what is shown at d. the rivet is then cut off the required length, placed in position and headed up. the head may be made conical, i, hemispherical, j, pyramidal, k, or square, l, in shape. it may be headed up simply with the hammer, or with a rivet header, m. when necessary, the process may be reversed and the head made first; but when made in this way, a rivet block is needed to rest the head in while making the burr. the rivet may be made more of a decorative feature by sawing out of sheet metal some suitable design as shown at p, q, r. drill a hole in the center the size of the rivet and then use any ordinary rivet head. nails may be made by the same process, headed and pointed as at s and o. [illustration: plate . rivets] to draw wire and small tubing. [illustration: figure .] [illustration: figure .] cut a piece of copper the length required, having the width about three times the diameter of the tube that is to be made. the edges must first be made parallel by filing. in a block of maple or some hard wood, with a wood file, make a groove as shown at figure . place the strip of metal over the groove and, with a somewhat pointed hammer, drive the metal into it until it takes the shape of a v. figure a. then place it on the flat part of the block and strike on the edges with the hammer, turning them in until they meet, as at b and c. [illustration: figure .] a draw plate is then placed in the vise, figure . after pointing the tube a little, the end is placed in one of the larger holes and drawn through. this will bring it somewhat into shape. repeat this operation by drawing the tube through the hole the next smaller in size and so on till the tube is of the diameter required. wire may be drawn in the same way. rectangular, triangular and square drawplates may be obtained as well as circular ones. polishing. to polish work, a cloth or felt buff is placed on a lathe or a polishing head. with a little cut-quick and rouge objects may be brightened by holding them against the wheel. stamping work. [illustration: stamp figure .] the marking of work so that it will be known to whom it belongs and doing it in a neat and workmanlike manner is sometimes a problem. using a gummed label with the name written on it has been tried, but the labels frequently come off. the name has been scratched with a sharp-pointed tool, but it is not an easy thing to do and certainly does not look well. the way described below however has proved very satisfactory. have each pupil design a little trade mark of his own, and work it out on the end of a piece of tool steel, / inch or / inch square, round or hexagonal. this can be done by a little filing, perhaps the use of a drill if the design should call for it, and a little emery paper to take off all sharp edges. this serves as a stamp with which he may mark all of his work. the instructor has a book with the names of the pupils, and after each name he may stamp this mark and thereby register it so that he may tell at any time to whom work belongs. figure shows a stamp and a few suitable designs. coloring. the most satisfactory color that can be given copper is a bronze which comes naturally if left to come in contact with varying atmospheres. if the object has a good polished surface in the first place the color seems to become richer as time goes on. a color that is satisfactory in many cases is obtained in the following way: place in a porcelain dish and bring to a boiling heat, liver of sulphur, oz., and water, qt. dip the object to be colored in this solution while hot and then rinse in clean water. this gives the object a very dark color. take a little powdered pumice stone on a piece of cloth and rub over the surface lightly bringing the copper color to the surface where desired. a greenish color is given copper by submitting the object to the fumes of spirits of ammonia. beautiful colors are obtained by heating the object to different degrees, over a gas plate, but these results are not permanent. chapter x. enameling. enamel may be applied to metal objects and add a great deal to their value and attractiveness if used sparingly. the enamels most used are transparent and opaque; the transparent reflects the color of the metal adding a great deal of life to the work, the opaque gives color on the surface only. the process, as described in this chapter, touches but the elementary stages of the art that are within the possibilities of high school work and possibly the upper grammar grades. enamel may be applied by any of the following methods: first: by covering the entire surface of the object with enamel. second: by using a flat wire which is bent into sections the shape of the design and soldered to the object; the wire forms partitions to receive the enamel. third: by cutting away the design by the use of engraving tools, making channels about / of an inch deep to receive the enamel. fourth: by using a chasing tool either from the front or from the back of the work, forming raised or sunken partitions to receive the enamel. the first and second methods are difficult ones, requiring a great deal of experience in handling metal and enamel to obtain satisfactory results. the third and fourth methods are comparatively simple and are within the possibilities of those for whom this book is intended. in the third method the design is first transferred to the object by the use of carbon paper and then made more permanent with a scratcher. the design is cut out with the engraving tools, figures , and , about / of an inch deep. all edges should be kept as smooth as possible and the channels should be uniform in depth. for convenience in holding, if the work is small, it may be fastened to a little pitch or wax spread on a block, or it may be placed on the pitch block as described under embossing on page . the handle of the tool is held in the palm of the hand, and the thumb, placed within an inch of the point, serves as a guide while cutting, figures and . by wriggling the tool a little from one side to the other, greater progress is possible. [illustration: figure .] in the fourth method the design is transferred to either side of the object. after placing it on a pitch block, depressions may be made from the face or lines raised from the under side. after the partitions have been formed, the object must be thoroughly cleaned and brightened by dipping in a bath of nitric acid. after dipping, which should be done quickly on account of the rapid action of the acid on the metal, it should be rinsed thoroughly in clean water. this process removes all dirt and leaves the metal bright. after this cleaning, the fingers should not touch any part of the object that is to receive the enamel. to prepare the enamel for application it must be ground. first break it into small pieces with a hammer. to keep it from flying about, it is well to roll it up in a piece of heavy wrapping paper. it is then placed in a porcelain mortar and, with a little water and a pestle, it is ground about as fine as fine sand. the water is poured off and the enamel rinsed several times in clean water until the milky substance disappears. unsatisfactory results often come from lack of care in washing the enamel. after washing it is removed from the mortar to a small saucer by the use of a palette knife. while still wet, which allows its being spread more easily, the enamel is applied to the object with a soft hair brush. all of the enameling suggested in this book may be done with an ordinary blow-pipe or a bunsen burner, but more satisfactory results are obtained with a kiln. [illustration: figure .] to apply the process to a definite piece of work, the steps necessary in enameling the stamp box cover on plate , no. , will be taken up. it will be assumed that the box is made, ready for the application of the design as shown on the plate. the design is first transferred to the cover and then cut away. it is cleaned with kerosene and dipped in nitric acid as before explained. after being thoroughly washed, it is ready for the enamel. in applying the enamel care must be taken not to get particles outside of the channels. after the moisture has evaporated and the enamel has been fired it settles considerably so that this must be allowed for by rounding it above the surface. after the enamel has been applied, the strip that is soldered to the under side of the cover must be protected from the heat before firing, as the temperature required for fusing the enamel is several times greater than that required for soldering. the soldering is protected by placing a paste made of yellow ochre and water about the soldered joint both inside and outside of the strip. the more of this clay we bank about the joint the more protection there is. when the above has been done, the object must be left in some warm place until the moisture from both the enamel and the clay is thoroughly evaporated. it is then ready for firing. if the blow-pipe or the bunsen burner is used, take a tripod and place a piece of heavy iron netting over the top and place the object on top of the netting. the flame should always be applied to the under side. watch the enamel as the firing goes on and when it settles and glazes the heat should be withdrawn. the object should be allowed to cool very slowly. hurrying at this point only increases chances for accidents. if, when cool, it is found that the channels in places are not full of enamel, the object is again cleaned in the nitric acid, more enamel applied, and fired as at first. the cover is now ready to finish. the enamel may be stoned down level with the top with an emery stone, or it may be left just as it comes from the fire in the first place. if stoned down, it is necessary to fire it again just enough to give it a glazed surface. the directions as given apply to either transparent or opaque enamel; but, in addition to the above, when transparent enamel is used, the surface to be enameled must first receive a coating of flux to retain the transparency. the flux is treated and applied just the same as the enamel already described. the upper half of plate shows boxes treated with enamel. +--------------------------------------------------------------+ | | | note: | | | | tags that surround words =materials required:= indicate | | bold. tags that surround the words _a hurdle race_ indicate | | italics. | | | +--------------------------------------------------------------+ the child's rainy day book _other books by mary white_ how to make pottery how to do beadwork how to make baskets more baskets and how to make them [illustration: building a piece of pottery with coils of clay--as the indians do] the child's rainy day book by mary white illustrated by the author [illustration] new york doubleday, page & company copyright, , by doubleday, page & company published, october, _all rights reserved, including that of translation into foreign languages including the scandinavian._ to my sister anna white sherman and her children roger, herbert, elizabeth, rosamond and anna contents chapter page i. a foreword to mothers ii. simple home-made toys and games iii. basket weaving iv. knots with raffia and cord v. what a child can do with beads vi. clay working vii. indoor gardening viii. gifts and how to make them ix. paper flowers and toys x. games for two or three to play list of illustrations building a piece of pottery with coils of clay--as the indians do _frontispiece_ facing page playing the bean bag game planning a book house basket weaving knots with raffia and cord: . the beginning of a ping pong net. . a turk's-head knot. . raffia work bag. . doll's hammock. . a rattan napkin ring a little garden for a little girl making a chrysanthemum a ball-and-fan race list of figures figure page rattan ring a b c l a leather tag case a foreword to mothers child's rainy day book chapter i a foreword to mothers how shall we answer the ever recurring rainy day question, "what shall i do?" we hear it wherever children are kept indoors--from whatever cause. all of us are concerned with the answer--mothers, fathers, teachers, big brothers and sisters--even maiden aunts. we all know what is coming when jack turns from the rain-splashed window with a listless face and dorothy, none too gently, thrusts her favourite doll into the corner with its face to the wall. one might suppose that, with the hosts of mechanical toys, of costly french dolls, each with a wardrobe as much in keeping with fashion as that of a society woman, the small sons and daughters would be content for a year of rainy days. but that proves how little one knows about it. such toys are too perfect, too complete, and very soon they are pushed into the background. the boy's real treasures are the willow whistle that uncle tom taught him to make last summer, the boat that he is building and the game he invented--a favourite one with all the children. bedtime and getting-up time for the french doll may come and go, while she lies forgotten in the corner, for is there not a dress to be made for the clothespin doll? we need only to look back about twenty years to realise how natural all this is. what do we remember? not the toys that were brought us when father and mother went on a journey. they are very hazy--these visions of a doll in silk and lace, and a donkey with real hair and a nodding head. what became of them afterward? we forget. but the games we "made up," the paper dolls we cut from fashion papers, the target we laboured to make of coiled straw--these are as fresh in our memories as if we had played with them yesterday. shall we not answer the question by giving the children something to do, not by entertaining them but by helping them to entertain themselves. simple home made toys and games chapter ii simple home made toys and games _a bean bag game_ =materials required:= / yard each of blue, red, yellow and green gingham, quarts of small white beans, a length of no. rattan, a bunch of red raffia, a tapestry needle, screw eyes, / yards of strong twine, a spool of no. white cotton, a needle, scissors. very many good games can be played with bean bags. the following is a simple one to prepare. cut from blue gingham three pieces, each five inches wide by twelve long. other pieces of the same size are cut from red, yellow and green gingham--three of each colour. these pieces are made up into bags by doubling them and stitching up the sides with strong thread; leaving one end of each open. this will give a small girl something to do for more than one rainy day. when they have all been stitched, fill each bag half full of small, white beans, turn in the edges of the open end and sew it up, over and over, with strong thread. be very careful to sew the seams securely, for if you do you will have a good, durable bag instead of one from which the beans are always dropping. the other part of the game is a large ring of rattan ten inches across, which is made as follows: soak a piece of no. rattan in water for a few minutes. while you are waiting for it to get pliable thread a tapestry or darning needle with red raffia. whittle an end of the rattan into a long point. next coil the rattan into a ring, ten inches across; lay the end of your raffia, with its tip turned to the right, on the rattan ring and bring the needle, threaded with raffia, around and over the ring. the raffia is then brought under the long end of rattan, around it and down under the ring, binding the second coil of rattan to the first with what is called a "figure eight" stitch (see fig. ). hold the ring firmly in your left hand while you sew with the right. first under and around the lower coil, then up, under and around the upper one. it is pretty work, besides making such a firm, light ring. [illustration: playing the bean-bag game] [illustration: fig. ] when you have bound the second coil to the first almost all the way round the ring, cut the rattan so that it will overlap the beginning of the ring about an inch, and whittle it to a long, flat point. continue the figure eight stitch as far as you can, then bind the raffia round and round the ring, and sew back and forth through the raffia covering till it is secure. you can then cut it close to the ring. [illustration: rattan ring] fasten a screw eye at the top of the frame of the playroom door and one on each side of the doorway, on the edge of the frame, four feet and a half from the floor. tie a piece of strong twine, about a yard long, at the top of the ring and another, three-quarters of a yard, on each side. fasten the upper string to the screw eye above the doorway so that the ring will hang with its lower edge about four feet from the floor. tie the other strings through the screw eyes to right and left of the doorway. the game is now complete. from two to four children can play it. each has three bean bags of one colour and takes his turn at throwing them through the ring, standing on a mark eight feet from the doorway. one player keeps the score, and whenever a bean bag is sent through the ring the child who threw it is credited with five points. the one who first succeeds in making fifty points is the winner. _a book house for paper dolls_ =materials required:= a large blank book with a stiff cover, and preferably with unruled pages, a number of old magazines, some pieces of wall paper the size of the book's pages, several pieces of lace or other fancy paper, a tube of paste, scissors. any little girl who is looking for a home for a family of paper dolls will find a book the very best kind of a house for them. and then such fun as it will be to furnish it! first comes the house hunting. a large new blank book with unruled pages would be best of all, and that is what we want if we can get it, but of course all doll families cannot live in such luxury. an old account book with most of its pages unused will make an excellent house. i have even known a family of dolls to be cheerful and happy in an old city directory. it will be easy to find furniture in the advertising pages of magazines, rugs can be cut from pictures in the same magazines and bits of wall paper are used for the walls of the book house. tissue paper of different colours and papers with a lace edge make charming window curtains, while thicker fancy papers may be used for portieres. on the cover of the book a picture of the house, or just the doorway, may be pasted. the first two pages are of course the hall. for this you will need a broad staircase, hall seat, hardwood floor and rugs, with perhaps an open fireplace or a cushioned window seat to make it look hospitable. try to find furniture all about the same size, or if you cannot do this put the smaller pieces at the back of the room and the larger ones toward the front. next there will be the drawing room to furnish, then the library, the dining room and pantry, not forgetting the kitchen and laundry. use two pages for each room, leaving several between the different rooms, so that the book shall not be too full at the front and empty at the back. if it does not close easily remove some of the blank pages. cut out the different pieces of furniture as carefully as possible, paste them in as neatly as you can, and you will have a book house to be proud of. flowered papers will be the best for the bedrooms, or plain wall papers in light colours; and with brass bedsteads, pretty little dressing tables and curtains made of thin white tissue paper (which looks so like white muslin), they will be as dainty as can be. now and then through the book it is interesting to have a page with just a bay window and a broad window seat with cushions and pillows--as if it were a part of a long hall. hang curtains of coloured or figured paper in front of it so that they will have to be lifted if anyone wants to peep in. when you have finished the bathroom, playroom, maids' rooms and attic there will still be the piazza, the garden, the stables and the golf course (covering several pages), to arrange. if you have a paint box and can colour tastefully you will be able to make your book house even more attractive than it is already. [illustration: planning a book house] _united states mail_ =materials required:= a pasteboard box, about by inches, some old white pasteboard boxes with a glossy finish, a box of paints, unused postal cards, a tube of paste, pen and ink, scissors. this is a fine game for rainy days. any boy can make it and if he likes to use pencil and paint brush he will find it as interesting to make as to play with. get a small pasteboard box about six inches long by three wide and an inch deep--such as spools of cotton come in. cover it with white paper, pasting it neatly and securely. then draw and colour on the lid a mail bag, which should almost cover it--either a brown leather sack or a white canvas one with "united states mail" on it in large blue letters. do not forget to draw the holes at the top of the bag and the rope which passes through them to close it. you have now something to hold the counters for the game. these are made to look like letters and postal cards. to make the letters, rule a set of lines three-quarters of an inch apart, across a box or cover of shiny white cardboard. then another set, crossing the others at right angles. these should be an inch and a quarter apart. the postal cards are ruled in the same way (on real, unused postal cards), so as to make oblong spaces. cut these out with a sharp pair of scissors. there should be thirty cardboard pieces and at least twenty-five of the postal cards. now draw on the cards, with a fine pen and black ink, marks like those on a postal card--the stamp in the corner, the lettering and the address. make pen lines on all of the pasteboard letters like fig. and paint a tiny red dot on each to look like sealing-wax. on the reverse side of one write something to look like an address, and paint in large letters "d.l.o.," (to stand for dead letter office) in the corner. six other letters are also addressed in the same way, but have instead of "d.l.o." a red stamp and a blue one, the latter wider than it is high, to represent a special delivery stamp. nine pieces should also be cut from brown cardboard in the shape shown in fig. to represent packages. paint three red stamps in the corner of each of these. [illustration: fig. ] _rules for playing united states mail_ [illustration: fig. ] two or more persons can play this game. when the pieces are equally divided among the players, the one on the right of the dealer throws a piece on the table, saying as he does so, "i send a letter to b----," for example, and then counts five, not running the numbers in together, but as deliberately as a clock ticks. before he has stopped counting, the player on his right must name a city or town beginning with b. if he succeeds in doing this he wins the piece, otherwise it goes to the player who threw it. when all the pieces have been played each player counts his score. the value of the pieces is as follows: each postal card counts one, each letter two, each package six. the special delivery letters are worth ten points each, and the person who is so unfortunate as to have the letter with "d.l.o." upon it loses ten points from his score. _flying rings_ =materials required:= a flour-barrel top, / yard of yellow cheesecloth, large wire nails, lengths of no. rattan, a bunch of red raffia, a bunch of green raffia, a bunch of yellow raffia, a tapestry needle, some small tacks, a hammer, a tube of glue, a sheet of note paper. boys and girls will enjoy this game, and both can help in making it. the materials are simple and easily obtained, which is also an advantage. first of all we shall need a flour-barrel top. this should be covered with yellow cheesecloth drawn smooth and tight and tacked in place along the outer edge. measure with a rule to find the exact centre and make a pencil mark on the cheesecloth at that point. another mark is made above this one, half way between it and the edge. a third mark is placed at the right of the middle one and half way between it and the edge, as well as one to the left and one below it at the same distance from the centre. a large nail is driven into the barrel top at each of the five marks (see fig. ). two screw eyes are then put in at the top, about a foot apart, so that it can be easily hung. next draw on note paper that is not too stiff the figures , , , and . make them about an inch high and quite thick and go over them with ink. with a small pair of scissors cut out these numbers and paste each under a nail, as shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] next there are the rings to be made. follow the directions given on pages and , using no. rattan instead of no. , and these rings should only be two and a half inches across. make three rings of each colour, green, red and yellow, and the game is complete. _to play it_: hang the barrel top on the wall or against a screen and see who can throw the most rings on the nails standing six feet away. each player has three rings of a different colour, and each in turn throws his rings at the mark. when he succeeds in tossing a ring on one of the nails he scores as many points as the number under the nail indicates. _how to make a cork castle_ =materials required:= a number of old corks, the larger the better, a tube of glue, a penknife, a piece of pasteboard a foot square, a sheet of dull green tissue paper. [illustration: fig. ] such fascinating castles can be made from old corks--or if you live near a cork factory you can get plenty of odds and ends of cork bark that will be even better for the purpose. with a penknife cut small bricks, half an inch long by quarter of an inch wide and an eighth of an inch thick. if you are planning a round tower, such as is shown in fig. , make the bricks in the wedge shape shown in fig. . cut them as nearly alike as possible, but it will do no harm if they are not perfectly regular; the castle will only look more ancient and interesting. it is wonderful how much the bits of cork look like stone. when you have a good supply of bricks ready you may begin to build. use glue to stick the blocks together; the kind that comes in a tube is the easiest and cleanest to handle. leave spaces for doors and windows, and for the roof use a large flat cork from a preserve jar. mark it off into battlements such as are shown in fig. , and cut them out carefully. then glue the roof securely on the walls of the castle. [illustration: fig. ] where shall we place it now that it is made? a green mountain side is a good location for a castle, and it can be made quite easily. bend a piece of pasteboard about a foot square (an old box cover will do) into dents that will almost break it, these look quite like hills and valleys and sharp crags, especially when they have been covered with green tissue paper. to do this spread a layer of paste or glue all over the pasteboard and then press the paper upon it. if it wrinkles, so much the better, for it will look more like grass and growing things. _a doll's shaker bonnet_ =materials required:= a piece of fine straw about x inches, some scraps of plain-coloured china silk, / yard of straw-coloured ribbon, / of an inch wide, / yard of narrow ribbon the colour of the china silk, a spool of straw-coloured sewing silk. [illustration: fig. ] the daintiest little shaker bonnet may be easily made by a little girl to fit one of her dolls. from the brim of an old leghorn, or other fine straw hat, cut two pieces, the shapes shown in figs. and . for a doll six or eight inches long the front piece will need to be about five inches long by an inch and a half wide. bind the curved edge of the front piece with the straw-coloured ribbon, sewing it through and through with small stitches, using straw-coloured sewing silk. sew one edge of a piece of the straw-coloured ribbon close to the curved edge of the back piece from a to aa (see fig. ). mark, with a pencil, a dot at the middle of the curved edge of the back portion and one at the middle of the straight edge of the front part. pin the two parts together at these dots and sew the edges together. in doing this you will have to turn back the ribbon which edges the back portion. next bring the ribbon forward to cover the rough edges of the straw where the two parts join and sew its loose edge along on the front portion. cut a piece of china silk seven and three-quarters inches long by an inch and three-quarters wide. make a narrow hem all around it. a tiny pencil mark is then made on the lower edge of the back piece and another at the middle of the silk strip. gather the silk just below the hem on the upper edge and sew it to the lower edge of the bonnet at the back. stitch a piece of narrow ribbon eight inches long at each side of the front, for strings, and the bonnet is done. [illustration: fig. ] _leather and string puzzle_ =materials required:= a strip of thick leather, inches long by wide, a piece of heavy linen string a foot long, a knife. [illustration: fig. ] with a sharp knife, a small strip of leather and a bit of strong string any boy can make this simple puzzle. it is easier to make, however, than it is to do, as the boy's friends will discover. fig. will show how it is made. a strip of leather five and a half inches long, an inch and a quarter wide at one end and five-eighths of an inch at the other, is first cut. then, starting at about five-eighths of an inch from the narrow end, cut with a sharp knife two slits down the middle of the piece three-eighths of an inch apart and three inches long. at three-eighths of an inch from the wide end a small piece, one-quarter of an inch square, is cut out of the middle of the strip (see fig. ). from the scraps of leather remaining cut two pieces, each one inch long by five-eighths of an inch wide. make a hole in the middle of each. then pass a piece of stout linen cord eleven inches long back of the long, open strip in the large piece of leather, leaving the ends of equal length. pass both ends down through the square hole and tie each of them securely through the hole in the middle of one of the small pieces of leather. this completes it. [illustration: fig. ] the object is to try to get the string, with the small piece of leather at either end, off the large piece of leather without cutting or untying it. the only way to do this is shown in fig. . holding both ends of the string, close to where it passes back of the narrow strip in the middle of the large piece of leather, pull the strip out through the small square hole. one of the small pieces of leather can then be slipped through the loop thus formed, releasing the string. _a bed for a little doll_ =materials required:= an oblong pasteboard box an inch or more longer than the doll it is to hold, / yard of flowered or striped muslin, / yard of blue and white seersucker or other cotton, some cotton or wool wadding, / yard of thin white cotton cloth, / yard of outing flannel, / yard of white piqué. almost any little girl who chooses to do so can make this dainty bed for one of her small dolls. she will only need an oblong pasteboard box with a cover, and large enough to hold the doll comfortably. if mamma will let her have some pieces of cotton, flowered, striped and plain and a little cotton or wool wadding, she will have all the materials she needs. first cut from blue and white striped cotton a bag the length and width of the box. stitch it neatly together around three sides, turn it right side out and fill it with cotton or wool wadding. turn in the edges on the fourth side and sew them together over and over. with a darning needle threaded with blue cotton or silk the mattress can be tufted here and there. the needle is first run through to the under side, then one little stitch is taken, bringing the thread back again to the right side, where the two ends are tied tightly together and cut close to the knot. if these tufts are made at equal distances, say one inch apart, all over the mattress it will make it look very "real." [illustration: fig. ] the pillow is made in the same way as the mattress, except that it is not tufted. cut the sheets and pillowcase from thin white cotton, allowing enough for hems. make the pillowcase a quarter of an inch wider and about an inch and a quarter longer than the pillow. stitch it around both sides and on one end and hem the other end. tiny blankets may be cut from outing flannel, and a spread made from a piece of white piqué or other thick white wash material. the bed can now be made up, but it will look very plain. a fluffy canopy and valance (or flounce) of flowered or striped white muslin will improve it wonderfully. the cover is set on end and the head of the bedstead is pressed into it (see fig. ), making a frame for the canopy. measure from the front corner of this frame to the middle of the front and cut a piece of muslin half again as wide as this measurement and long enough to reach from the top of the frame to the bottom of the bed. another piece the same size is cut, and then both are turned in and gathered at the top, hemmed on the other edges and sewed into place on the top edge of the canopy frame, so that the two will meet in the middle. they are both looped back against the front edge of the frame, see fig. , and sewed there securely. the valance or flounce around the lower part of the bed is cut wide enough to allow for hemming at the bottom and to turn in at the top. it should be long enough to reach once and a half around the bed. turn in the upper edge of the valance, gather it to fit the bed and pin it in position. then sew it with a strong needle and coarse thread on to the box through and through. this makes as comfortable and pretty a bed as dolly could wish. _floor baseball_ =materials required:= a piece of white chalk, a piece of sheet lead, by inches, and as thick as a fifty-cent piece, or strands of scarlet raffia, a tapestry needle, a gimlet. this is a delightful game for a rainy day, and the preparations for it are very simple. in fact, when you have fashioned the disk of lead with a raffia covering, there is nothing to provide but a piece of chalk. you can buy, from almost any plumber or tinsmith, for a few cents, a scrap of sheet lead two or three inches square and about as thick as a half dollar. upon this piece of lead lay a half dollar, draw around it with a pencil and cut out the circle with a sharp, strong pair of scissors. it cuts as easily as cardboard of the same thickness. bore a hole one-quarter of an inch across through the centre of the disk with a gimlet or sharp-pointed awl. it is possible to use the disk just as it is, but it makes less noise if it is covered with raffia. to do this, thread a worsted (or tapestry) needle with raffia--the grass-like material that you have seen used for making baskets. tie the other end of the raffia through the disk, as shown in fig. a, put the needle down through the hole in the centre, up through the loop in the raffia (see fig. b) and pull your strand up close to the edge. this will make a stitch like that shown in fig. c--what sailors call a half hitch and mothers a buttonhole stitch. make more of these stitches around the disk, until finally it is entirely covered (see fig. ). if the strand of raffia gives out before the disk is covered sew the short end through the last two or three stitches on the edge of the disk and start a new piece by bringing the end through the last stitch on the edge. the short ends of both strands should be covered with the buttonhole stitches as you go on. [illustration: fig. a] [illustration: fig. b] [illustration: fig. c] [illustration: fig. ] now mark the diagram shown in fig. on the playroom floor with chalk, making the diamond two feet long by a foot and a half wide. in the centre of it is a circle, four inches across, which is home. each player takes his turn at throwing the disk, standing on a line eight feet away. if he throws the disk into the space marked he counts that he has a man on first base; if on , that he has one on second; and if on h, a home run is counted. if by chance with his first and second throws he puts the disk into and and with the third throw sends it into h he will have three runs to his credit. should he throw the disk into f he loses one point from his score, and when he has thrown the disk outside the diamond three times he is out. [illustration: fig. ] _a rug for the doll's house_ =materials required:= a small wooden frame, a piece of cream-coloured canvas, a ball of dull green worsted, a ball of cream white worsted, a steel crochet needle, no. . hooked rugs such as our grandmothers used to make are great fun to do. why should not a little girl make one of finer materials for the floor of her doll's house? either an empty slate frame or a wooden frame such as is sold by dealers in kindergarten supplies for chair caning will do very well to hold the canvas of which the rug is made. instead of strips of woolen we shall use worsted of various colours, and a strong steel crochet needle will be needed for "hooking." when you have decided upon the size of the rug you wish to make cut a piece of canvas an inch wider and longer than it is to be, and make a hem a quarter of an inch wide all around it. with a needleful of white linen thread sew the rug into the frame, taking the stitches through the edge of the canvas and around the frame until it is securely fastened in. suppose a green rug is planned, with a group of white stripes at each end. it will be well to mark on the canvas where the stripes are to run before beginning the work. the worsted should be wound into balls. starting with an end of the green worsted, at the lower right side of the frame, hold it under the rug and hook it up through the canvas with the crochet needle. draw up a long enough end so that it can be cut off when the rug is finished and leave a thick texture. do not make all the loops the same height, for if now and then one is left too low to cut with the others it will make the rug wear better. one after another of these loops is drawn through the canvas, leaving two threads of canvas between every two loops, in a straight line across the rug. when the edge of the rug is reached a row is made above the one just finished, bringing the worsted from left to right. so it goes on till the rug is finished, only changing the ball of green worsted for a white one when it is time to make the stripes. after the hooking is done, the tops of the longer loops are cut off with a sharp pair of scissors, so as to make a smooth, soft rug. it will wear better if it is lined. when you have completed this rug you may want to make others with patterns woven into them. draw the pattern on the canvas with a soft lead pencil and it will be quite easy to work. basket weaving chapter iii basket weaving the rattan of which the baby's go-cart and mother's armchair are woven came from a far-away forest in india. troops of monkeys may have swung upon the very pieces on which your baby brother is bouncing, for the rattan hung from tree to tree in long festoons. one day some brown natives cut it down and stripped it of its leaves. it was then packed in bundles and sent to this country. the hard, shiny bark cut into strips has been woven into cane seats for chairs, and the inner part or core of the rattan was cut by a machine into the round strands that you see in wicker furniture. it takes a man's strong hands to weave great armchairs and baby carriages, but boys and girls can make charming little mats and baskets as well as tiny chairs and tables for the doll's house, and other interesting things. dealers in kindergarten supplies sell the rattan in different sizes, from no. , which is as fine as cord, to no. or no. , which is almost as thick as rope. you will only need the medium sizes, nos. , and , for your weaving, with some raffia--the soft but strong fibre that the gardener uses for tying up his plants. this you will also find at the kindergarten-supply store. a pair of shears, a yardstick and an awl are the only tools you will need. [illustration: fig. . twist of rattan] rattan comes in long skeins or twists (see fig. ). always draw it out from the loop end, so that it will not get tangled and break. two sizes of rattan are generally used in making a basket, the thicker for the spokes or ribs and the fine for the weavers. both must be soaked in warm water to make them soft and pliable. as many spokes as are needed are first cut the required length and tied together with a piece of raffia. the weavers are then coiled into rings, so that they also can be soaked. this is done as follows: starting near one end of a length of rattan, coil it into a ring. twist the short end around this ring once or twice to hold it (see fig. ). coil the rest of the strand into rings, one above the other, and twist the other end of the rattan around them all until they are held securely. have ready a basin or pail of warm water--not hot--and let the spokes and weaver soak in it for ten or fifteen minutes. [illustration: fig. ] suppose we begin with a mat, which is started, just as the baskets are, at the centre. _a mat or stand for a teapot_ =materials required:= -inch spokes of no. rattan, -inch spoke of no. rattan, weaver of no. rattan. feel the ends of your weavers and you will find that some are stiff while others are almost as soft and pliable as cord. choose a soft one to start the mat. the four spokes arranged in pairs are crossed in the centre, the vertical ones being above the others, or nearer to you. place the short spoke, seven inches long, between the upper parts of these vertical spokes. they are held in position by the left hand, which is, as always, the one that holds, while the right is the weaving hand. an end of the weaver (which has first been unwound) is placed along the horizontal spokes, back of the vertical ones, with its tip toward the right. the forefinger of the right hand now presses the weaver across the vertical spokes and down behind the horizontal ones on the right (thus binding the end of the weaver securely), next over the lower vertical spokes and behind the horizontal ones on the left (see fig. ). this is repeated, and then, starting with the upper vertical spokes, the spokes are separated and the weaving begins (see fig. ). if you want to do close, even work, do not pull the rattan as you weave, but _press_ it with the forefinger, under and over the spokes as close to the work as possible. the spokes should be very evenly separated, for upon this much of the beauty and strength of your baskets will depend. think of the regular spaces between the spokes of a wheel and how much trouble one badly placed spoke would make. when there is just enough weaver left to go around once, the edge is bound off. this is very much like overcasting. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] after going under one spoke and over another, the weaver is passed under the last row of weaving just before it reaches the next spoke. it then goes behind that spoke, in front of the next and under the last row of weaving before the next spoke. when a row of this binding has been made around the edge the mat is finished with the following border: cut the spokes all the same length, not straight across but slanting, so as to make a point that can easily be pushed down between the weaving. then hold them in water for a few minutes. when they are quite pliable the first spoke (any one you choose to begin with) is pushed down between the rows of weaving beside the one to the left of it or spoke no. . no. is pushed down beside the next one to the left, no. , and so on all the way around the mat. take care that at least an inch of each spoke is pressed below the edge of the mat. _small candy basket_ =materials required:= -inch spokes of no. rattan, inch spoke of no. rattan, weavers of no. rattan. this little basket may be woven of rattan in the natural colour and afterward dyed or gilded, or one can buy the rattan already coloured. weave a bottom like the beginning of the mat, and when it measures two inches in diameter (that is, from side to side, across the centre), wet the spokes and turn them up. the spokes should be turned up away from you, for the side toward the person weaving is always the outside of the basket and the weaving should go from left to right--as you read. bend them over the middle finger so that the sides of the basket will be curved. [illustration: basket weaving] place the bottom of the basket on your knee, with the side which in starting was toward you turned down and the spokes bent upward, and do the weaving of the sides in that position. in joining a new weaver lay it across the end of the old one, back of a spoke (see fig. ). [illustration: fig. . joining weavers] the weaver at first should not be drawn too tight, but allowed to go easily, though it must be pressed closely down upon the row beneath it. when about three-quarters of an inch has been woven up the sides, the spokes are drawn gradually closer together by a slight tightening of the weaver, and this should be continued until an inch more has been woven. bind off and finish with this border. the spokes for the border should measure at least four inches from the last row of weaving to the end of the spoke. cut and soak as described in the directions for making a mat. spoke no. crosses the next one on the left, or no. , and is pushed down beside the next spoke, no. . no. crosses no. and is pushed down beside no. , and so on around the basket. _doll's table of rattan_ =materials required:= -inch spokes of no. rattan, -inch spoke of no. rattan, weaver of no. rattan, a piece of fine wire, or inches long, several strands of raffia, an awl. perhaps you did not think it was as interesting to make a mat as to weave baskets, but you will be glad you know how to do it when you see some of the things that can be made with mats. for example, this dear little wicker table, just the size for a doll's house and the shape for an afternoon tea. two groups of spokes, one of three and the other of three and a half, are crossed in the centre. the short spoke should be put between two others, never on the outside of a group. the mat is woven like the other mat and basket until it is three and a half inches in diameter, when the edge is bound off. bring each spoke across the next one and press it down beside the next, as in the border of the basket, except that the long end is not cut off, but brought out between the fourth and fifth rows of weaving on the under side of the mat. the loops of the border are drawn in so that they will not be more than a quarter of an inch beyond the weaving. the long ends of the spokes (which are to form the legs of the table) are brought together and bound with a piece of fine wire just under the centre. separate them into three groups of four spokes each. the odd spoke is either cut off or whittled very thin and bound in with one of the three groups. a strand of raffia is now doubled around two or three spokes, above the wire binding, and wound tightly around one of the groups until it has covered two inches, from the binding down. at the end a half hitch or one buttonhole stitch is made, to keep the raffia from slipping. it is then wound up again to the top. the raffia is brought down the second leg as far as the first one was wound; here it is turned with a half hitch and brought up again in the same way. the third leg is also wound down and up again, with a half hitch at the bottom to hold it. after this third leg has been covered the raffia is brought in and out between the legs, where they separate, in order to spread them more. it is then tied and the ends are cut close. finally the spokes at the end of each leg are cut slanting so that the table will stand firmly. _doll's chair of rattan_ =materials required:= -inch spokes of no. rattan, -inch spoke of no. rattan, -inch spokes of no. rattan, piece of no. rattan about inches long, weavers of no. rattan, several strands of raffia, an awl. would you like to make a tiny high-backed chair to use with the tea table in the doll's house? it is only a trifle more difficult to make than the table. two groups of twenty-inch spokes of no. rattan, one having three and the other three and a half spokes in it, are crossed at the centre, bound around twice with a weaver of no. rattan and woven into a mat three inches in diameter. after binding off the edge the following border is made: each spoke is brought down beside the next one, as in the border of the mat, except that the long end is drawn out between the second and third rows of weaving on the under side of the mat. when all the spokes have been brought out in this way underneath the mat, or seat, the four groups of three spokes each which are to form the legs are so divided that the vertical spokes in the centre of the chair seat shall run toward the front and back of the seat. the thirteenth spoke is whittled to a thin point and bound in with one of the other groups, which are wound with raffia down to the end, turned with a half hitch and brought up again. a neat way to start the raffia is to thread it across a row of weaving in the chair seat, just above the group it is to bind. a piece of no. rattan about nine inches long is coiled into a ring and held within the space enclosed by the legs, about half way down, where it is wound around with a strand of raffia and bound securely to each leg. the back of the chair is formed by inserting four spokes of no. rattan, ten inches long, beside those in the seat, at that part of the seat which has been chosen for the back. to do this push a sharp pointed awl in between the weaving, beside a spoke, draw it out and you will have made room for the new spoke to run in. bend the spokes up and weave back and forth upon them with a no. weaver, turning on the outside spokes. needless to say, the weaver must be very soft and pliable in order to make these sharp turns. you will find that you can make almost any kind of a back you choose. if you decide to make an oval-shaped back, then when you have woven it high enough, bring each of the outside spokes over and down beside the other one, running it in between the weaving. the inner spokes are crossed at the centre and run down beside the outer spokes. to make an armchair insert six spokes instead of four at the back of the seat and weave the outer spokes in with the others for a few rows. they are then bent over and forward to form the arms. each is cut to the desired length and run in beside one of the side spokes in the seat. _a bird's nest_ =materials required:= -inch spokes of no. rattan, -inch spoke of no. rattan, / weavers of no. rattan, a bunch of raffia a tapestry needle, no. . at the bird market in paris charming little nests are sold, woven of rushes on spokes of brown twigs, in the shape of an indian tepee. they are intended for caged birds, who cannot build their own nests of sticks and grass and horsehair from the fields and wayside. some free birds like them, too--wrens, for example. a boy or girl who has made the mat and basket and doll's furniture will have no difficulty in weaving one of these nests. then there will be the delight of hanging it in a tree (not too near the house) and watching to see what bird will choose it when nesting time comes. [illustration: fig. ] let us weave a nest that shall be light and yet firm. spokes of rattan will give it strength and weavers of raffia will make it soft and comfortable. two groups of spokes, one of four and the other of four and a half, are crossed at the centre, bound three times with a strand of raffia and woven into a bottom an inch and a half across. another weaver is then added and an inch of pairing is made. pairing, or _bam tush_, as the indians call it, is a simple stitch. two weavers are started, each one behind a spoke (see fig. ). the one on the left is brought over the first spoke, under the next and down in front. it is now the turn of the second weaver, which also passes over the first spoke on its right, under the next and outside, where it is held down in front while the other weaver repeats the process. so it goes on around the nest. the spokes are then wet so that the bottom may be formed into a bowl shape, with sides rounding up from the very centre. a row of pairing in no. rattan is next woven to hold the slippery raffia in place. this is followed by five-eighths of an inch of raffia woven in pairing, the sides still being flared. two rows of pairing in no. rattan are then woven, drawing the spokes in very slightly. at this point, which is the widest, the nest should measure eleven inches around the top. a row of under and over weaving is started, and at the place which has been chosen for the doorway the weaver is doubled back on a spoke and woven from right to left until it comes to the second spoke to the right of the one it first doubled around. it is brought around this spoke, thus making the beginning of a doorway, which has an unused spoke in the centre of it. the weaver then returns to the spoke it first doubled around, where it doubles back again. this is repeated until the doorway is an inch and a quarter high. two rows of pairing in no. rattan are then woven all the way around, forming a firm top for the doorway, where they cross it. the spokes are drawn in closer and closer with rows of pairing in raffia, until, when an inch and a half has been woven, they meet at the top. the ends of the spokes are left uneven lengths and bound around with a strand of raffia threaded through a tapestry needle. a loop to hang it by is made of two strands of raffia, five and a half inches long, covered close with buttonhole stitch in raffia. the spoke in the centre of the doorway should be cut at the lower part of the opening, just above the weaving, and after it has been wet until quite pliable it is bent and pressed up between the weaving beside the upper part of the same spoke. knots with raffia and cord chapter iv knots with raffia and cord sailors' knots are of course fascinating to boys, but why should not girls enjoy making them, too? think of the dolls' hammocks, the work bags and twine ball nets one can make, and think of being able to tie a good, square knot--one that will hold--instead of the "granny knots" that brothers and boy cousins laugh at! [illustration: fig. ] of course you know how to tie the simplest knot of all--the one shown in fig. . let us call it the loop knot, for it is made by tying the ends of a strand together to form a loop. you have used it often for that purpose, i am sure, and sometimes to tie two pieces of string together. you can make a pretty and useful sponge bag of raffia in the natural colour with this knot. the wet sponge will not hurt the raffia, and in such an open bag the air soon dries it. _knotted sponge bag_ =materials required:= strands of raffia, a length of no. rattan, a tapestry needle. [illustration: fig. ] roll a length of no. rattan into a ring, as described on page , so that it can be soaked in warm water till it is pliable. cut it into three pieces, each forty-seven inches long. tie an end of one of these pieces into a ring seven inches in diameter and twist the long end in and out once around this (see fig. ). at the end of this row the ends, where they meet, should overlap an inch. if they are longer, cut them off with a slanting cut and tie them tightly together with a piece of raffia. two more rings, the same size as the first one, are made with the other pieces of rattan. hang one of the rings where you can reach it easily, on a low bedpost, for example. double a strand of raffia and tie it through the ring as shown in fig. , drawing the knot up quite close. twenty-two strands are knotted on in this way. space them along the ring about an inch apart, and, beginning with any pair of strands, tie the right-hand one with the nearest strand of the next pair on the right, making an even mesh at an inch from the first row of knots. continue this all around the ring, when you will have made one row. ten more rows are knotted in this way. then bring the ends of all the strands straight down together and tie them below the centre of the ring with a piece of raffia. the ends are cut off evenly at about two inches and a half from where they were tied, to form a tassel. the two other rings are used for the handles of the bag. lay one of them against the ring at the top of the bag so that the places where the rings are tied will come together. thread a tapestry needle with raffia and bind the rings together with buttonhole stitch for an inch. then sew through and through the binding to make it secure and cut the end close to the ring. the other ring handle is bound to the opposite side of the top ring in the same way. _a doll's hammock_ =materials required:= strands of raffia, a tapestry needle. even simpler to make than the sponge bag is a doll's hammock of raffia. it is knotted in just the same way. [illustration: fig. ] lay twelve strands of raffia evenly together. bend them to find the middle, or "middle them," as the sailors say. lay the short end of another piece of raffia on the middle of the twelve strands, with its tip turning toward the left, and wind the long end round and round from right to left, binding them together for two and three-quarter inches. bring the two ends of this binding together to form a loop, wind a strand of raffia tightly around them (see fig. ), and tie the ends securely. you will then have twenty-four ends to knot together, two and two, as the knots in the bag were made. pin the loop on the cushion of a chair or tie it to a low hook or to the doorknob, so that you can pull the strands taut. the first row of knots is tied about two inches from the loop and after that the rows are only an inch apart. the finishing of the edge of the hammock is of course different from the bag. [illustration: fig. ] it is done in this way: in starting the second row of knots the left strand in the first pair is of course left untied, and, after knotting the row across, the right strand of the last pair is also left free. when the third row is started the loose strand on the left side of the hammock is knotted in with the left one in the first pair of strands in this row (see fig. ). in other words, the strands which are left untied at each side of the hammock when the second, fourth, sixth and all the even numbered rows have been knotted, are tied in with the outside strands in the next uneven numbered row. to make a hammock for a little doll thirteen rows of knotting will be enough. when the last row has been tied bring the ends of the strands together, start a new strand at two inches from the last row of knots, and bind the ends together tightly for two and three-quarter inches to make a loop like the one at the other end. after the loop is finished cut the ends close to the binding, and with a tapestry needle threaded in the end of the binding strand sew it through and through, to secure it, and cut its end close to the binding. _how to tie a square or reef knot_ [illustration: fig. ] once upon a time a little girl was carrying a bundle of cookies by the string, when suddenly the knot slipped and the cookies rolled in every direction, over the sidewalk and into the street. if the baker's wife had known how to tie a square knot instead of that useless "granny," the accident would never have happened. i wonder if you have ever had an experience of this kind. if so, i am sure you will like to learn how to tie the ends of a piece of string together so that they cannot slip. [illustration: fig. ] take the ends of a piece of string, one in each hand. cross them and bring the upper end down under the long end of the other piece (see fig. ). now turn it back in the opposite direction above the first part of the knot, to make a loop, and pass the other end down through it (see fig. ). in this way each end of the string will come out beside its own beginning. _two hitches_ there is no simple knot that you will find more useful than the half hitch. it is described in the directions for making the game of floor baseball in chapter ii. two of these half hitches, side by side, are called by sailors a "clove hitch." in making nets this clove hitch is used to attach the first row of meshes to the top line or head rope, as it is called. [illustration: fig. ] another use for the half hitch is in the process that sailors call "kackling" (see fig. ). this is used to prevent two ropes from rubbing against one another, or chafing. a beautiful handle for a basket or bag may be made with this knot. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] take two pieces of rope and some light cord, or, if it is to be the handle of a basket, two pieces of heavy rattan, no. , and some no. rattan with which to do the knotting. if you use the rattan be sure to soak it for ten minutes in warm water and choose a soft piece of the fine rattan for knotting. hold the heavy pieces of rattan side by side, lay an end of the fine rattan upon them at the middle (see fig. ), with its tip turning toward the left, and hold it there with the left hand, while with the right you bring the long end up and around both of the large pieces of rattan up and under the short end of the fine piece. it is then brought down and around the two large pieces of rattan and the end is passed down through the loop made in starting the hitch (see fig. ). draw the tying strand up tight and bring the long end up and around the large pieces of rattan and up under the loop it left in starting (see fig. ). take care to keep the fine rattan wet so that it will be very pliable; if it dries it will surely crack as you tie it. _net making_ if you would like to make a ping-pong net or a net for crabbing, you will find it quite easy to do and very interesting. after you have made these small nets you may feel like trying a tennis net if you have plenty of time and patience. [illustration: fig. ] at a hardware store you can buy tightly twisted cord of the size you wish to use in making your net. it is generally sold by weight. if you are planning to make a ping-pong or tennis net you will also need a heavy piece of cord for the head rope. a crab net would of course be netted on to an iron ring attached to a long wooden handle. a needle such as is shown in fig. may be made quite easily by any boy who can whittle. [illustration: fig. ] when you have wound your cord on the needle, stretch the head rope taut between two convenient points, the backs of two chairs, for example, and begin at the left by tying one end of the cord to it. make a loop the size you wish the mesh to be and fasten the cord to the head rope with a clove hitch, or two half hitches (see fig. ). when you have worked as far as you wish, get on the other side of the net and work back again. this row of meshes and all that follow after are made by fastening them to the upper row with a sheet bend (see fig. ). after the second row is finished come around to the other side again and knot the third row. when the net is wide enough knot it to a piece of rope the size of the head rope with a row of clove hitches. _the weaver's knot_ [illustration: fig. ] in weaving bead chains on a loom, and in doing other things, you will often need to tie a new piece of thread or cord to a very short end. the weavers have a knot they use for this purpose, and as it is a simple one perhaps you would like to learn it. hold the old end in a vertical position (that is, as if it were standing up), lay the new piece back of it, its short end turning toward the left and reaching an inch or more beyond the vertical thread. bring the long end around in front of the vertical thread, up back of its own short end on the left and across in front of the vertical thread (see fig. ). all these threads are held in position by the fingers and thumbs of the left hand, while the right hand brings the thread around. the vertical or old end is now turned down through the loop in front of it and there held by the thumb, while with the fingers of both hands the long and short ends of the new thread are pulled up tight. _turk's head_ there is a beautiful knot called by sailors a "turk's head." girls will find that they can make the prettiest buttons imaginable with it, using silk cord of any colour, and both boys and girls will enjoy making napkin rings of rattan with a more open arrangement of the same knot. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] to make a button take a yard of cord, and at about four inches from one end bend it into a loop (like the one shown in fig. ), about half an inch across. the long end should come above the short one. next make a second loop lying above and to the left of the first one (see fig. ), bringing the long end under the short one left in starting. the long end is then brought over the left side of the second loop, under the left side of the first loop, over the right side of the second loop, under the right side of the first and around to the beginning, inside of the short end (see fig. ). this makes one row, or the beginning of the button. if you have a bodkin with a large eye, the long end of the cord can be threaded into it and this will make the work easier. the next row follows the first one exactly--close to it and always on the inside. when the cord has followed in this way four times, to complete four rows (keeping the button form always in mind and moulding the cord into that shape), a firm little button will have been made. [illustration: fig. ] _napkin ring_ =material required:= length of no. rattan. [illustration: at the top of the plate is the beginning of a ping-pong net. below it at the right is the turk's-head knot. still lower the knotted raffia work bag hangs. on the left is swung a doll's hammock of knotted raffia and above it a rattan napkin ring, made with the turk's-head knot] with a piece of rattan in the natural colour or a length of coloured rattan you can make a useful and very pretty napkin ring by following the directions just given, with only one change. in beginning the second row (shown in fig. ), the long end is brought to the left or outside of the short end and continues around on that side. five rows may be made instead of four. keep the ring form in mind all the time, have the rattan wet and pliable and mould it into the shape of a ring, keeping the top and bottom as nearly the same size as possible. _green raffia work bag_ =materials required:= a bunch of green raffia, a length of no. green rattan, a tapestry needle. _a tapestry needle_ when your mother was a little girl her mother used to make with linen twine a kind of coarse, heavy lace called macramé. one of the knots she used was called "solomon's knot," and that is the one you will use if you decide to make this work bag. a length of no. rattan and a bunch of raffia, both in a soft shade of green, will be needed. these you can buy of a dealer in basket materials for a few cents. twist three rings like those for the upper edge and handles of the sponge bag described in the first part of this chapter. hang one of these rings on a low bedpost or on a hook placed so that you can reach it easily when seated. take two strands of raffia, double them around the ring, and with the four ends thus made tie a solomon's knot as follows: hold the two upper strands straight and taut. bend the under strand on the left across them to the right (see fig. ), and bring the under strand on the right over the end of the left strand, back of the middle strands and through the loop made by the left strand in starting. another pair of strands is knotted on in the same way, and another, until there are twenty-two groups around the ring. starting anywhere on the ring, the two strands on the right of a group are brought beside the two on the left of the next group to the right. the middle pair of these four strands are held straight down, while the strands on the right and left are tied upon them in a solomon's knot. this knot should be half an inch from those in the first row. make a double knot this time as follows: after tying the knot (shown in fig. ), take the end which is on the right after the first knot has tied, bring it over to the left, above the middle strands, and bring the one on the left down over the end of the strand which was on the right, back of the two middle strands and up through the loop left in starting the right strand (see fig. ). the whole row is made in this way. ten rows are knotted, each one about half an inch from the row above. the bag is finished in the same way as the sponge bag, with a tassel and two handles. if you choose you can line it with silk of the same colour as the raffia, or, if it is to be used for a duster bag or to hold grandmother's knitting, it will not need a lining. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] what a child can do with beads chapter v what a child can do with beads long, long ago when the world was young, the child who wished for a gay and pretty necklace for her little brown throat strung berries and seeds or pieces of shell and bone that her father ground smooth by hand and pierced for stringing. for thread there were grasses and fibres of plants or sinews of deer. indian children sometimes used beads of clay, and so did the little egyptians, for the fine clay by the river nile made beautiful beads, as well as pottery. the children of the north--the little esquimaux--had beads of amber, and the indian tribes farther south strung shells that look so much like the teeth of animals one can hardly believe they are anything else. look for them at the natural history museum and you will see that this is so. nowadays there are of course many more kinds of beads--beads of glass, china, gold and silver, and even of semi-precious stones. after all, though, the child who lives in the country or by the sea can gather the most interesting kind of all--such as were strung by those children who lived so long ago--seeds, berries, shells and seaweed. gather them on a sunshiny day and store them away for use in the dull hours when you are obliged to be indoors. the seeds of muskmelons are soft enough to pierce; watermelon seeds will take more effort and a stronger needle. then there are the orange berries of bittersweet and the red ones of holly. haws or hawthorn berries are a beautiful red, too, and perhaps you will find in a neighbour's garden a bush of job's tears--gray, white or brown. the grape-like seaweed which bursts with a pop when you step on it makes very pretty beads. cut each one close to the bulb, yet far enough to leave a short piece of the stem on each side of the bead. pierce the bulbs while they are still wet, and after they have dried for a few days they will be ready to string. apple and flax seeds, beans and peas before they have dried, make excellent beads. a few of the small glass beads which come in bunches may be used with these natural beads, and will set them off wonderfully. although they are usually sold in bunches, eight skeins to a bunch, the skeins can sometimes be bought separately. olive-green crystal beads of the size that dealers call no. - are beautiful with red berries, and what could be prettier to string with brown seeds or job's tears than gold-lined crystal beads? let us use them in making a chain for a muff or fan. _muff chain in brown and gold_ =materials required:= brown seeds or job's tears, a bunch of gold-lined crystal beads, no. - , a spool of no. white linen thread, a no. needle. have you ever seen any job's tears--the interesting tear-shaped seeds of an east indian grass? it grows very well in this climate, and you may like to raise it yourself. think of being able to pick beads from a plant of your own! be careful to boil these beads before stringing, for a little grub sometimes lives in them, and he may appear when you least expect him or may even make a meal of the thread on which the beads are strung. if you have not the job's tears, apple seeds will look almost as well, or you can buy at the grocer's whole allspice. use a no. needle and a piece of no. white linen thread four inches longer than you wish the chain to be when it is finished; two yards and a quarter is a good length. string a seed and draw it down to the middle of the thread, then string some of the gold-lined crystal beads for about three-quarters of an inch. a seed is next threaded on, and then quarter of an inch of gold-lined beads. keep on in this way, first threading a seed and then quarter of an inch of gold-lined beads, until there are only two inches of the thread left. tie this end through a bead to keep the others from slipping off. thread your needle with the other end of the strand and start by stringing three-quarters of an inch of the gold-lined beads, then a seed and quarter of an inch of gold-lined beads. when this end of the strand has been strung--just as the other was--to within two inches of the tip, tie the two ends together and the chain is finished. _raffia and bead chain_ =materials required:= strands of rose-pink raffia, a bunch of large rose-pink crystal beads, fine darning needles. [illustration: fig. a] another pretty and simple chain is made of large rose-pink crystal beads strung on pink raffia; or you can use seeds or berries instead of the crystal beads, in which case the raffia will have to be split. tie the strands of raffia together at one end, and on each of the other ends thread a fine darning needle. string one bead, then pass both needles through a single bead and through another and another (see fig. a). two beads are then slipped on each strand (see fig. a). next both needles pass through three beads, and so on to the end of the chain. tie the ends securely. _double chain of seeds and beads_ =materials required:= a bunch of crystal beads, letter e, large beads of a deeper shade or the same number of seeds or berries, a spool of no. white linen thread, a no. needle. [illustration: fig. ] a double chain like the one shown in fig may be made of crystal e beads strung with seeds or larger beads of a deeper shade. measure off a piece of white linen thread, no. , double the length you wish the chain to be. three yards twenty-two inches will make a chain sixty-five inches long, which is a good size. in one end of it thread a no. needle and string one large bead, or seed, which should be pushed down to the middle of the strand. here it may be tied, to hold it in place. next string two inches and a half of e beads, then another large bead, or seed, and so on to the end of the strand, where the tip is tied through the last bead. the other end of the strand is then threaded and two inches and a half of the e beads are strung, the needle passes through the next large bead on the end first strung (see fig ), and two and a half inches more of the e beads are threaded. so it goes on to the end of the chain--the needle always passing through the next large bead on the strand already strung, after two inches and a half of e beads have been threaded. _braided raffia chain_ =materials required:= strands of pale green raffia, darker green crystal beads, no. . [illustration: fig .] a braided raffia chain with a cluster of three crystal beads every few inches is so simple that any little girl can make it. choose pale green raffia and beads of a deeper shade, and it will look like clover leaves on their stems. string twenty-two of the green crystal beads, no. size, on a strand of split raffia. on two other strands thread the same number of beads. tie the thin end of each piece around the last bead, so that it cannot slip off. the other ends are all tied together. now pin the knot securely to a cushion, or tie it to a hook at a convenient height and braid the three strands together closely and evenly for about two inches. then slip a bead from each piece up close to the work and braid it in as shown in fig. . this will make a clover leaf. after braiding two inches more slip another bead on each strand up close to the work and make another leaf. when it is finished tie the ends together securely. _a daisy chain_ =materials required:= half a bunch of olive green opaque beads, no. - , half a bunch of milk white beads, no. , skein yellow crystal e beads, a spool of no. white linen thread, a no. needle. [illustration: fig. ] next best to making a daisy chain out-of-doors is to string one of beads. and this rainy-day chain will last as many months as the real chain would hours. first string sixteen green beads, then eight white ones. run the needle down through the first white bead and string a yellow one. next pass the needle through the fifth white bead (see fig. ) and draw the thread up tightly. this makes a daisy. string another stem of sixteen green beads and make a daisy as you did the first one. the whole chain is strung in this way. _chain of watermelon seeds strung with beads_ =materials required:= fresh watermelon seeds, a bunch of pink crystal e beads, a spool of no. white linen thread, a no. needle. a chain that is very pretty and effective may be made with watermelon seeds and pink crystal e beads, the colour of the inside of a watermelon. the seeds can be pierced quite easily with a no. needle. take two pieces of white linen thread, well waxed, the length you wish the chain to be, and two needles. tie an e bead on the end of each piece of thread. lay them side by side and string four more e beads on the strand at the right. pass the needle on the left up through the three middle beads of the five on the right strand (see fig. ), and string one more e bead. next thread a seed on each strand and string the e beads in the same way. so it goes on for the whole length of the chain. [illustration: fig. ] if you are fond of playing indian and have no indian costume, you ought to be happy. that seems a strange thing to say, but the reason is this: you can have all the fun of making a costume yourself, you can learn how to do it in the indian way, and after it is finished it will be far more like the dress worn by western indians than those that are sold ready made. suppose we begin with the belt. it is woven on a loom--not an indian loom, which, as perhaps you know, was a bow strung with several strings which served as the warp threads for the belt or chain. possibly you have a loom of your own and know how to use it; but if not you can either buy one for twenty-five or fifty cents, or, what is still better, make one yourself. a simple, good loom may be made from a cigar box. _a home made bead loom_ =materials required:= an oblong cigar box, about / inches deep, small sticks of wood / inches long and / -inch square, / -inch screws, small screw eyes, tacks, a sharp knife, a screw driver, a hammer, sand paper. choose a good strong cigar box, one that is quite shallow, and remove the cover. rule a line one inch from the bottom of the box on each long side and draw a sharp knife across the line several times until the upper part separates easily from the lower without injuring it. smooth the tops of the sides with sandpaper. fasten each of the small sticks of wood inside a corner of the box, to strengthen it. this is how it is done. drive one of the half-inch screws up from the bottom into the end of the stick, another into it through the side, and two, one near the top and one lower down through the end of the box, into the stick. on the outside of the box at one end six round-headed tacks are driven in a row an inch and a half from the top and about three-quarters of an inch apart. drive six screw eyes in the same position on the opposite side. cut a row of notches on the top of each end of the loom, about one-sixteenth of an inch apart, and deep enough to hold a thread. the loom is then ready for weaving. chalk-white beads are much used by the bead-weaving indians like the sioux and winnebagos, especially for the ground-work of their belts. let us choose them for the background of the belt and weave the design in indian red and blue. _indian bead belt_ =materials required:= bunch chalk white beads, no. - , skeins each indian red and dark blue beads, no. - , spool no. white linen thread, spool no. white linen thread, a no. needle, a piece of wax. [illustration: fig. ] cut twenty-two pieces of no. linen thread about six inches longer than you wish your belt to be. tie a loop at one end of each piece and slip it over the round-headed tacks at one end of the loom. bring the long ends one at a time through twenty-two of the notches at the top of the loom and stretch them across to the notches in the opposite end. draw them taut and tie them through the screw eyes. these make the warp threads for the belt. as you will see by the pattern, the belt is twenty-one beads wide and you have twenty-two threads. this is so that there will be a thread on each side of every bead. thread the needle with no. white linen thread. tie one end of it to the warp thread on the left (as you hold the loom with the end on which are the screw eyes toward you). bring the needle out to the right below the warp strands, string twenty-one white beads and press them up between the warp strands, so that one bead will come between every two threads. run the needle back from right to left through the beads, making sure that it goes _above_ the warp threads. this makes one row. the whole belt is woven in the same way, except that when the figure begins the beads should be strung according to the pattern. for example, in making the first row of the pattern shown in fig. , you will string nine white beads, three indian-red ones and nine more of the white. the next two rows will be the same, and then you will string six white beads, three indian-red, three blue, three indian-red, and six white. wax the thread you weave with, so that the sharp-edged beads will not cut it. in joining new needlefuls use the weaver's knot shown on p. . armlets are woven in the same way, but much wider--about forty beads wide and long enough to go around the upper part of the arm. tie them together with strips of chamois, knotted in with the ends of the warp strands. head bands, bracelets and chains are also woven in this way. _bead wrought indian shirt_ =materials required:= large chamois skin, smaller chamois skins, spool white linen thread, no. , a no. needle, / bunch dark blue beads, no. - , / bunch indian red beads, no. - , / bunch white opaque beads, no. - , large indian red opaque beads. [illustration: fig. ] although this shirt and the moccasins and leggings that go with it are so simple to make, you are almost sure to need the help of your mother or governess in planning and cutting them. the shirt is the size for a child of seven or eight, but it can easily be enlarged so as to fit a boy of twelve or fourteen. it is made by the pattern shown in fig. , which is drawn on the scale of one inch to a foot. one large chamois skin and two of medium size will be needed. double the large skin lengthwise to cut the upper part of the shirt. this should be ten inches deep and a yard wide. cut at the centre a slit about nine inches long for the neck. the ends form the sleeves. lay the two smaller skins together and cut from them the lower portion of the shirt. the back and front are alike, each measuring nineteen inches wide at the top, twenty-two inches at the bottom, and fifteen inches deep. make a pencil mark at the centre of each lower edge of the upper part and one at the middle of the top of both of the lower pieces. turn up an inch at each lower edge of the upper part of the shirt and baste the doubled edge of one side against the top of one of the lower parts, keeping the pencil marks at the middle of each together. sew the edges together over and over with no. white linen thread. join the other side in the same way. the overlapping edges of the upper part of the shirt should be kept on the right side. sew the sides of the shirt together with a row of backstitching, four inches from the edge. the edges are cut into a fringe four and a half inches deep at the ends of the sleeves and three inches on the sides and bottom of the shirt. the edges of the upper part which hangs over the lower are also cut into a short fringe. work two narrow bands of bead embroidery round the neck, and if you like you can also work a band half way down the lower part of the shirt and one near the lower edge just above the fringe. they are made in this way: thread a no. needle with white linen thread and make a knot at the other end. start at the right of the neck close to the edge. bring the needle through to the outside of the shirt. string four beads, press them down close to the shirt and bring the needle through to the inside. this makes a stitch which runs up and down at right angles with the neck opening. bring the needle out again on a line with the place where it went in and close beside it, string four more beads, bring it up and run it in again just at the left of where the work began (see fig. ). this simple stitch is the one that is most used by the indians in embroidering their buckskin shirts, leggings and moccasins. string different colours, according to the pattern. several designs for this work are shown in figs. , and . if you wish to decorate the shirt still more, cut strips of chamois about a quarter of an inch wide and five inches long, pierce a row of holes, two together, at intervals of an inch and three-quarters across the shirt (see fig. ), bring the strips of chamois through them and tie them once. string a large indian-red bead on each end and tie a knot to keep it from falling off. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] _indian leggings_ =materials required:= small chamois skins, / bunch dark blue beads, no. - , / bunch indian red beads, no. - , / bunch white opaque beads, no. - , a spool of no. white linen thread, a no. needle. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] nothing could be easier to make than indian leggings, and you can put as much work or as little as you choose into the embroidery. cut from two small chamois skins two pieces in the shape shown in fig. . they should each be eight and three-quarters inches at the lower edge, twelve inches at the top and twelve high. the design shown in fig. will be simple and effective, and narrow bands like those in fig. may be worked along the edge that laps over and across the bottom. six strands of chamois about eight inches long are brought through the leggings on each side at an inch from the edge. these form the fastenings. [illustration: fig. ] _beaded moccasins_ =materials required:= medium-sized chamois skin, / bunch dark blue beads, no. - , / bunch indian red beads, no. - , / bunch white opaque beads, no. - , spool no. white linen thread, a no. needle, spool no. white linen thread, a no. needle. to make the pattern for these moccasins you need only stand on a sheet of brown paper and draw with a pencil around your bare foot so as to get its exact size and natural form. cut the pattern out and take it to a shoemaker, who will cut from it a pair of leather soles. the uppers you can cut from a paper pattern copied from the shape shown in fig. . it will not be difficult to plan them to fit the soles, for you have only to measure the distance around the outer edge of the soles and make the uppers measure about an inch more along the outer edge, to allow for the seam at the back and for a little fulness across the toe. work them in some simple design, like the one shown in fig. . a pretty beaded edge is made with a stitch which is very like the one used in working the bands. thread a needle with no. white linen thread and bring it through the top of the moccasin close to the edge. fasten the end by taking two or three small stitches. string six beads of a colour used in working the bands and bring the needle through the edge from the inside of the moccasin out, about a quarter of an inch from the beginning, making the stitch shown in fig. . before starting the next stitch pass the needle under the first one. work the whole upper edge of the moccasin in this way, then stitch it together up the back, making a seam a quarter of an inch wide. it should be stitched on the inside and then turned right side out. the uppers are stitched on to the soles with a no. needle and a well-waxed piece of white linen thread, no. . should this prove too hard work for small fingers the moccasins may be taken to a shoemaker to finish. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] _bead wrought silk bag_ =materials required:= a piece of silk or ribbon, inches wide by / inches long, bunch of crystal beads, no. - , the same colour as the silk, skein of no. - beads of a contrasting colour, a spool of letter a sewing silk of the same colour as the silk, a no. needle, a yard of inch-wide ribbon the colour of the silk. [illustration: fig. ] the daintiest little silk bag may be made by any small daughter for mamma or a dearly-loved aunt to carry a bit of lace work or some other treasure. a piece of soft ribbon five inches wide and seven and three-quarters inches long in a pale shade of lavender makes a charming bag. a network of lavender crystal beads of the same shade, with a pearl or gold-lined crystal bead at the point of each diamond-shaped mesh, gives the finishing touch of daintiness (see fig. ). start by threading a fine needle with a piece of sewing silk the colour of the bag. fasten the end by taking one or two small stitches near the left side of the strip of silk at about two inches from the lower edge. string six lavender beads, one pearl and seven lavender beads, and take a stitch a quarter of an inch from the beginning and on a line with it. now run the needle down through the last bead strung (see fig. ), and string six more lavender beads, one pearl and seven lavender. another stitch is made a quarter of an inch from the last one, the needle is run down through the last bead, and it goes on in this way until a row has been made across the piece of silk. the bag is then stitched up the sides and around the bottom on the wrong side and turned right side out. bring the needle attached to the beadwork down through the six lavender beads and one pearl one, at the left side of the first half diamond made, and string six lavender, one pearl and six lavender beads. pass the needle through the next pearl bead on the right in the row above and string another six lavender, one pearl and six lavender beads to make another half diamond. so it goes on around the bag. this row and all the other ones are only attached to the row above, not to the silk. the last row of netting should reach a little below the bottom of the bag. a twisted fringe is then made as follows: run the needle down through the beads on the left side of the first mesh in the row just finished, through the pearl bead at the point, and also pass it through the pearl bead on the back of the bag which lies just beneath it. string thirty lavender beads and pass the needle up through the beads on the right side of the first mesh and down again through those on the left side of the second mesh. it runs through the pearl bead at the point of the mesh and the one under it at the back of the bag. string thirty more beads and twist the thread on which they are strung once around the right side of the loop just made. the next loop is made in the same way--passing the needle up through the beads in the right side of the second mesh, down through those in the left side of the third one, and through the pearl bead at the point of the mesh at the front and the one below it at the back. thirty more beads are then strung. when you have made this fringe all across the bottom of the bag, fasten the end of the silk by sewing it two or three times through the bottom of the bag. finish the top of the bag with drawing strings as follows: turn in a hem three-quarters of an inch wide at the top of the bag and baste it. hem it around neatly with the lavender sewing silk and make a casing for the drawing strings to run through, by putting a row of backstitching a little over a quarter of an inch above the bottom of the hem. there should be two little holes made on each side of the bag on the outside of the hem between the stitched seam and the bottom of the hem. they are put there so that the ribbon drawing strings can run into the casing. you can make them with an ivory or metal piercer called a stiletto, or any other tool that has a sharp round point. the neatest way to finish these holes is to sew the edges over and over with a needleful of sewing silk. half a yard of narrow ribbon should be allowed for each drawing string. thread it in a bodkin, or ribbon needle, which is run into one of the holes at the side of the bag, through the casing at the lower part of the hem, all around the bag and out of the hole beside the one where it went in. now tie the ends of this drawing string together, thread the other one through the bodkin and run it into a hole on the opposite side of the bag, through the casing all around the bag and out of the little hole beside the one where it went in. the ends of this piece are also tied, and then the bag is done. [illustration: fig. ] clay working chapter vi clay working have you ever noticed how, when it rains, one road will dry at once, and on another your footprints will hold the water like a cup for hours? do you know the reason for it? the first road is sandy, and so the water filters through the coarse particles and soon disappears. the other is mostly of clay, which is close and fine, and after your foot made that little hollow it was doubtless half baked by the sun so that it became like natural pottery. you probably know all this, and have felt with your own fingers the difference between the sand, in which you have built forts and dug with your shovel in the summer and played with on the kindergarten sand table in winter, and the soft, smooth clay that you have formed into bird's nests, eggs and other things in kindergarten. years and years ago, before our great-great-great-grandfathers were even thought of, some man noticed the same thing that you do--that one part of the earth held water for hours, while it disappeared so quickly from other parts--and it set him thinking. why not make a bowl in which he could carry water when he was travelling or hunting in dry places? this is the way, some wise men think, the making of pottery began. cups and small vessels could easily be moulded from small lumps of clay, but large pieces--great bowls and jars--it was soon found would have to be formed in a mould. shallow baskets, pieces of gourd or fruit rind, were the moulds in which these large pots were started. in beginning the bottom, either a small piece of clay was patted flat into a form like a cookie and fitted into the bottom of the mould, or else a strip of clay was coiled round and round into a mat shape, working the coils together with the fingers. the sides were almost always built up with coils of clay, then, with the fingers and some rude tools--smooth stones, bits of shell or pieces of gourd--they were smoothed and polished. soon the potters began to decorate their vessels with patterns cut or pressed into the damp clay and even painted them with coloured clay, ground fine and mixed with a liquid. the clay objects you enjoyed making in kindergarten were not very strong. a bowl or cup that is moulded from such clay will not hold water for very long either. it will soon soften and fall to pieces. that is what happened to the first clay bowls and cups. if clay is baked in the sun it becomes a little harder and more useful--but not much--so the first clay workers found that they must bake their clay pots more thoroughly if they were to be really strong. some of the old potters--like the catawba indians--baked their vessels before the fire, and as the clay they used was very good they found it made them hard enough. in other tribes the potters made a bed of bark, set fire to it and baked the pot until when it came out it was red hot. at first the clay workers used the clay just as they found it, but when they began to make large pots and cauldrons to cook in they found that powdered shell or sand mixed with the clay made them stronger and less liable to crack in baking. [illustration: fig. ] the cooking vessels had almost always rounded bottoms, because in those days the floors of houses were of sand or soft earth into which the rounded bottoms would set and hold the pots upright. these pots were set directly over the fire and kept in position by stones or sticks of wood. some that had handles or flaring rims could be hung over the fire by cords or vines. [illustration: fig. ] the indians moulded all sorts of things out of clay besides these utensils. drums were made by stretching buckskin over the tops of earthen pots. then there were whistles and rattles, trowels, modelling tools, figures of men and animals, and many toys like those shown in figs. , and . beads were also made of clay, and so were tobacco pipes in many shapes. one would have the face of a man on the bowl, another a goat with open mouth, or a bird with its neck outstretched and bill parted, and on another the bowl would be formed by a natural-looking snake coiled up for a spring. [illustration: fig. ] in time men learned more about clays and how to mix and form and bake them, until now, as you know, pottery that is beautiful and serviceable is made all over the world, and in great factories china and porcelain made of the finest clays are moulded, decorated and fired for our use. it will be interesting to you sometime to see one of the factories where such ware is made, but although it is so fine and smooth and perfect and so useful to us, i doubt if the workmen who make it have half the pleasure in their task that the first potters had in moulding their rough cooking utensils and clay pipes. so i am glad to think that although you may never be able to make china, you can work in clay as the indians used to do, for that you will enjoy far more. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] of course you would like to make something that you can use, something that will not crumble and break like the things you modelled in kindergarten. to do this you will need to get a clay which can be baked--or fired, as potters express it--and you must have a clay that is so mixed or arranged as to bake well in the kiln (or pottery oven) to which you are going to send it. if you live near a pottery where flower pots or gray stoneware are made you can probably arrange to buy your clay there, and after your pottery is finished have it baked at the same place. the clay that is used at a stoneware pottery is arranged so as to fire at a much greater heat than the flower-pot clay, and so the ware is stronger, but the flower-pot ware will be strong enough for the things you will make. although this clay is gray before it is baked, it comes from the kiln a beautiful indian red. [illustration: fig. ] you will not need many tools beside your own fingers and thumbs. one boxwood modelling tool the shape shown in fig. , and another with more flattened and rounded ends (see fig. ) will be enough to begin with. these you can buy at a kindergarten-supply store. later you may need the sheet-steel tools shown in figs. and . dealers in hardware sell the sheet steel, and these tools can easily be cut from it--doubtless the dealer will do it for you. [illustration: fig. ] buy fifteen or twenty pounds of clay at a time, ready mixed if possible. if it comes to you in the dry state--in rock-like pieces--you must first pound it to a powder. this you can do out of doors by spreading the lumps of clay on a paper laid on flat stone and pounding them with a smaller stone, or, if it must be done in the house, spread the clay on a strong bench or table and pound it with an old flatiron. it is now ready for soaking. put a little water in an earthen crock and add the powdered clay to it, mixing it with your hand and adding clay until it is the right consistency to mould. if you find you have too much water, pour off some after the clay is well mixed, and if it is still too moist, spread it on a board in the air until it has dried out sufficiently. keep the clay in an earthen crock with a cover. pour a little water into it first, just enough to moisten the bottom of the crock, and then put in the clay. when it is to be left over night or a longer time, make deep holes in the clay with your thumb and pour water into them. lay a damp cloth over it and cover with the earthen top. if at any time it dries out so that it cannot be easily moulded, let it dry entirely, pound it to powder again and mix as already described. if you live in the country the place to work with clay will be in an outbuilding, a woodshed, barn or workshop where there is a good strong table or bench. the best place for a city child to work is a playroom where there is a wooden floor, an old table and nothing valuable to be harmed with clay or water; or a light, dry cellar. a girl should wear a long-sleeved apron and a boy a pair of overalls. in such a workshop and costume you need not give a thought to clothes or carpets. have a pitcher of water and a small bowl for the "slip"--or clay thinned with water until it is about as thick as cream--which is almost as important as the clay itself. when you are ready to begin work, take a lump of clay about as large as a grape fruit; pound and knead it on the table. next draw a strong wire through it, dividing it into halves. press the two outer surfaces together and knead out the air-holes which you will see on the inner surfaces. repeat this process several times, and all these air bubbles will finally be expelled. suppose you begin with something simple--some tiny red building bricks which will delight your small brother--perhaps even you may not feel to old to enjoy playing with such a "real" toy. _building bricks_ =materials required:= about pounds of clay, level boards, by inches, / yard of white cheesecloth, a rolling pin, a foot rule, a strong, sharp knife. the clay of which these bricks are made should be well kneaded, and it should also have a great deal of what potters call "grog" mixed through it. "grog" is baked clay pounded into small pieces--an old flower pot will do if you are using flower-pot clay. mixed with the unbaked clay it tempers it, that is, it makes it less likely to shrink and crack in baking. cover a level board with a piece of wet white cheesecloth and tack it securely upon it. mould the lump of clay into a square, by hand, lay it on the board and pound it with the thick part of your hand into an irregular square cake, then roll it with a rolling pin till it is about three-eighths of an inch thick. have ready another board the same size and covered with wet cheesecloth, lay it on top of the clay sheet and reverse it so that the clay shall be transferred to this second board. roll it again till quite smooth and set it away overnight. the next day take a foot rule and a sharp pencil and mark the clay sheet into bricks, two inches long by an inch wide. cut them out with a strong, sharp knife, but do not lift them until they are thoroughly dry, which will be in three or four days. they should then be carefully packed and sent to the pottery to be fired. _a clay whistle_ =materials required:= a piece of clay about the size of a lemon, the wooden modelling tools, a bowl of slip, a pen knife. [illustration: fig. ] the mexicans mould tiny whistles of clay, which are as simple as possible to make and very fascinating to own. if you would like to make some for yourself and your friends this is the way to do it: mould a small piece of clay into a cup shape about an inch across and three-eighths of an inch high. put it in the air to dry for ten minutes. now roll a piece of clay, about the same size, on the table with the palms of both hands (near the base of the thumb), lightly, yet so as to make the clay roll entirely around with each push. if the roll flattens from too hard pressure, pat it till it is round again and roll it until it is of even thickness--about quarter of an inch in diameter. it is then flattened evenly by patting it with the fingers, one end is cut into a long point and the coil is started on edge with the narrow side up on the top of the cup of clay, whose rim must first be wet with slip. bend the upper edge of the roll of clay in quite a little, to follow the shape shown in fig. . hold the long end of the clay strip with the left hand, while, with the thumb and middle finger of the right hand held on each side of the coil to support it, the forefinger presses it down firmly on the top of the little cup. when the coil has gone all the way around cut the end into a flat point, which will fit evenly in with the one at the beginning, and press the edges together with the flat part of the nail of your forefinger. do this where the edges of the coil come against the rim of the cup. make quick and firm yet short strokes of the nail up and down, inside the cup and out. then let it dry for a short time, about ten or fifteen minutes. roll another coil in the same way and attach it, after brushing the top edge of the clay cup with slip, bending the top edge of the coil in very decidedly so as to leave only a small opening at the top. the third coil is made in the same way, but put on so as to make the sides go straight up like the neck of a bottle or vase. one more straight coil completes the neck, and a piece of clay is then put across the top, closing it. after the whistle has dried for an hour or more a triangular hole is cut with a knife in the lower part (see fig. ), and a slit in the top. a hole is also made in the bottom. it should then be thoroughly dried for several days before sending it to be fired. not every one of these whistles makes a good clear sound, but they are so easy to mould that you will not mind one or two unsuccessful attempts when you finally make one that blows clear and shrill. [illustration: fig. ] _clay rattle_ =materials required:= a piece of clay about the size of an orange, a bowl of slip, the modelling tools. the indians used to make clay rattles like the one shown in fig. . it is formed like the whistle except that the cup-shaped piece which is made in starting should be an inch and three-quarters across and three-eighths of an inch high. roll the strips of clay as already described and brush the edge of the cup-shaped piece with slip before attaching each coil. the handle should be about three inches long. before closing the end of it drop in four or five clay pellets, about the size of small peas, which have been well dried in the sun. then seal it with a piece of clay, let it dry for several days and send it to the pottery to be fired. [illustration: fig. ] _birds' drinking dish_ =materials required:= about / pounds of clay, the wooden modelling tools, the oval tools of sheet steel, a bowl of slip, a low wide bowl, a small sponge, a knife, a ground glass slab about a foot square, a cloth in which some ground flint is tied. one of the best ways to attract the birds is to have a drinking dish, wide and generous, always ready for them on the lawn. this is of course taking for granted that you live at least a part of the year in the country. isn't it delightful to think that you can make such a dish with your own hands? it is a little more difficult than the other things you have made, but what of that--it will be worth the trouble if you can give a lawn party to the birds every day! as this is to be quite a large dish, you will need to have a mould to form it in, or at least to support the sides in starting. choose some low, wide bowl or dish, one about two inches high and ten inches across the top. have ready some powdered flint tied up in a piece of cotton cloth--you can buy it of dealers in potters' supplies or possibly at the pottery where your clay work is fired. this is to dust over the inside of the mould to prevent the clay from sticking to it. take a lump of clay, about two and a half pounds, knead and pound it until all the air bubbles are worked out. a small piece of the clay is then patted out with the hands on a table or board and rolled smooth with a rolling pin until it is three-eighths of an inch thick and about two inches wider than the bottom of the bowl you have chosen. lay it in the bottom of the mould, which has first been dusted with ground flint. press the clay lightly but carefully against the bottom and sides, making sure that it fits close against them. then cut the top edge even with one of the wooden modelling tools. with the same tool cut crisscross strokes in this upper edge and wet it with slip, to prepare it for the first coil of clay, which is made and attached like those used in forming the whistle. these coils should, however, be larger--about an inch wide and long enough to go all around the bowl once. join every coil in the same way, taking care to press each one against the sides of the mould as well as upon the coil beneath, and to smooth the inside of the bowl with your fingers and the modelling tools. after attaching a coil, let the bowl dry for ten or fifteen minutes--in the air, unless it is a cold day. be careful never to let your clay work freeze or it will be spoiled. when the bowl is about two inches and a half high set it away overnight to dry. in the morning it will have shrunk so that it will slip easily out of the mould. turn it bottom up on a table and wet the cracks between the coils with slip, then fill them in carefully with clay of the same stiffness as that of which the bowl is made. never put water or wet clay on a piece of clay work that is almost dry, or it will crack. after it has been set away for a few hours to harden, make it smooth and even as follows: first take the oval tool of sheet steel with rough edges, hold it in your right hand, not straight but bent to fit the curves of the outside of the bowl; with it scrape the large humps away from the sides of the bowl, making quick, light and short strokes in every direction--up, down, across and diagonally. when the largest humps have been removed, go over the bowl in the same way with the smooth-edged oval tool. then take a damp sponge, one from which the water has all been squeezed, and pass it lightly over the bowl, smoothing it with the fingers. make it as even and perfect as you can. next the bottom is to be finished. draw with a pencil a circle on the bottom of the bowl, about an inch in from the edge all around, and scrape, with the sharpest wooden tool, a layer of clay out of the bottom within the circle, so that the outside ring shall form a ridge about one-sixteenth of an inch above it. now cut the top edge of the bowl as even as you can by eye, using a knife. then make it perfectly even in this way: pour a little water on the ground-glass slab, hold the bowl bottom up and move it firmly yet quickly round and round on the wet surface and then quickly slide it off at the edge of the slab, before it has a chance to cling to the glass. if the bowl seems too heavy for you to hold securely in moving it about so quickly, it will be wise to let an older person do this for you. then there will be nothing more to do but let it dry for a few days and send it to the pottery to be fired. indoor gardening chapter vii indoor gardening _a rainy day in october_ all summer long the out-of-door gardens kept us busy, planting, weeding and watering. when we had had a week or two of sunshiny weather we began to wish a cloud would sail over the blue sky and bring the rain our thirsty flowers needed. we could see the reason for rainy days in summer-time. now, however, it is different; a rainy day in autumn is so cold and disagreeable. it settles down to work in a business-like way--not like a summer shower, which has, all through, a hint of the sun behind the clouds. no, an autumn rain is chilly and gray and lasting, and the best way to forget it is to find something interesting to do indoors. suppose we plan an indoor garden. there are the plants that were brought in from the garden the other day--geraniums, heliotropes, lobelias and begonias--all need our care and attention. a boy with a taste for woodworking can make a shelf and put up brackets in a window where the sun will reach them. even a plant table may not prove too difficult for him. there is one particularly interesting thing that both boys and girls can do, and that is to plan christmas gifts of budded or blossoming plants for their family and friends. how is it to be done? why, by planting bulbs in october. you have seen bulbs, of course, at the florists; they are mostly dingy brown or yellow and look like onions. if anyone in the family had a garden last summer there will be sure to be catalogues of seeds and bulbs in the house, and you can begin by making a list of the bulbs you wish to send for. such a number as you have to choose from--tulips, crocuses, lilies, hyacinths, narcissus, daffodils, and plenty more. they are not costly either. hyacinths can be bought for from six to fifteen cents each; these are the ordinary ones. roman hyacinths, which have beautiful white flowers, cost only four or five cents. chinese lily bulbs are more expensive; one can be bought for ten cents or three for twenty-five cents, but they are large and the blossoms are so fragrant and beautiful that they are well worth it. these are grown among pebbles in a dish of water. they will look well in a glass dish or in a shallow pottery bowl--such as you can buy for ten or fifteen cents at a japanese store. for hyacinths, tall, slender glasses are to be had at the florist's for fifteen cents. they come in several colours, but the dark green is best--and that reminds me that there is a case you can make of rattan and raffia around one of these glasses to enable you to hang it beside a window. this you can do some other rainy day. the chinese lily bulbs are put into a dishful of tepid water which has a few small pieces of charcoal in it. a number of small stones are fitted around the bulbs to keep them upright and steady, and then they are put near a window where the sun comes. hyacinths may be grown in the glasses or in flower pots, just as one chooses. a mixture of good soil from the garden and sand is best if they are to be grown in pots. be careful in taking the garden soil to sift it through your fingers, making sure that no worms are lurking in it, to trouble the bulbs later on. put stones for drainage and some pieces of charcoal at the bottom of each pot. the bulb is planted so that about one-third of it is left above the earth. if it is to be grown in water, use rain water and fill the glass so that the base of the bulb will just touch it. however they are planted, in pots or in glasses, they should be left in a dark, cool place like an airy cellar, until they are rooted. this will take about two weeks for those in glasses and six for the potted hyacinths. if it is possible, bury the pots in the open ground about six inches deep, or cover them with soil, for about five weeks. they can then be put into the window garden. consult the bulb catalogues for suggestions as to the care of your plants. _basket case for a hyacinth glass_ =materials required:= a dark green hyacinth glass, weavers of no. rattan, weavers of no. black rattan, a bunch of copper red raffia, a tapestry needle, no. . after you have bought your hyacinth glasses, and before the bulbs are put into them, you may like to make for each a simple case of basket work by which it can be hung against the window frame. it is made of rattan rings bound together with raffia of some colour that will look well with the hyacinth blossoms. a dark green glass with a covering of black and the natural-coloured rattan bound with copper-coloured raffia is a good combination, if the hyacinth is to be white. make two rings of black rattan like those described in the directions for making a sponge bag (see chapter iv). one should be large enough to slip over the glass, down to about half an inch from the bottom of it, the other to three inches from the bottom. this second ring must be made on the glass, as the flaring top will not allow so small a ring to slip over it. this will not be difficult to do. tie the rattan around the glass just below where you wish it to be placed (about two and three-quarters inches from the bottom), then slip it up where the glass is narrower and twist the ends around this foundation ring twice, as shown in fig. . this makes a ring of three circuits, the foundation ring counting as one. make four rings of the natural-coloured rattan, each measuring two inches and a quarter in diameter on the inside. these are made with two circuits; that is, after tying the foundation ring the ends are twisted all the way around it once, instead of twice as the black ones were, and are cut just so that they will lap. bind these four rings together in a hollow square with bindings five-eighths of an inch long of raffia in buttonhole stitch (see fig. ). fasten the ends of the rings by making the binding come over them. slip this square over the top of the glass and down between the two black rattan rings. here each of the four light rings is bound with raffia in buttonhole stitch to the black ring above it, as well as to the one below. to make a loop to hang it by, tie a ring of black rattan around the neck of the glass, twist its ends twice around it, and then without cutting the ends tie them into another ring an inch and a quarter in diameter, inside measurement, which stands out from the glass and forms a loop. this ring is made with two circuits. [illustration: fig. ] _growing plants in fibre_ later on, in november and december, there may come days when you are kept indoors, and then perhaps you will like to do some more gardening with bulbs. shall we begin with the spring bulbs--tulips, crocuses and daffodils? it is wonderful, isn't it, to think of being able to plant them when out of doors the earth is covered thick with snow? this is how it is done: buy from a florist or seedsman a fibre mixture which they sell for this purpose. take a large tub or pail and put some fibre into it, add plenty of water and stir the fibre thoroughly with a stick. let it remain in the water for two days, stirring it from time to time so that it shall get water soaked. it will then be ready for use. if you plan to give the plants away when they are in bud they should be started in jars or bowls that can be included in the gift. japanese or spanish pottery bowls can be bought for from ten to twenty-five cents each, and one of these with a daffodil or narcissus growing in it will make a delightful birthday gift for someone you love. if you are not planning to give them away, of course you will be able to collect about the house enough bowls and jars of china and pottery to hold them. put a few pieces of charcoal at the bottom of each dish--these are to keep the water pure and the fibre wet. put into each bowl some of the wetted fibre until it is about two or three inches deep, depending on the depth of the bowl. place the bulbs on the fibre so that they just touch and fill all in with the wet fibre. put more fibre over them and press it gently down and around them--not too hard. fill the dish in until it is nearly solid. now put the bowls away in a cellar or any dark but airy room where they will not get frostbitten and watch them day by day to see that the fibre does not get dry; it must be kept moist but not soaking wet. be especially careful that the bulbs do not get dry. when they are all rooted and have grown perhaps an inch, bring the bulbs into a lighter room and let them have plenty of air. put them on the window sill or even in the garden in the middle of the day, if it is not too cold, and as they begin to show some buds water regularly and often. _planting indoors in february_ as early as february you can begin to plan your out-of-door flower garden and start some seeds indoors. tuberous begonias, canterbury bells, verbenas, single dahlias, scarlet sage or salvia, tufted pansies and cosmos can all be started now. first of all you will need some flats or low wooden boxes--they should be about three inches deep and not too large to handle. if it is possible to get such shallow boxes at your grocer's so much the better, otherwise you can have a soap box or two sawed down to the required height. if they have no cracks or holes for drainage, bore some and partly cover them with pieces of an old flower pot, rounded side up. put pebbles or other rough material in the bottom of the box. now you are ready for the soil. get good, rich loam from the garden and sift it into the boxes. you can then begin planting. the large seeds should be planted about half an inch deep, medium sized ones as deep as four times their own width; the very small ones are just pressed into the earth, and the smallest should have a piece of glass placed over the box so that they will not dry out entirely. wet the soil until it is quite moist and press it with a level board after planting. set the boxes in a sunny window, one that faces south or southeast, and keep them moist, but not wet, with a bulb sprinkler (see fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] _march planting_ this blustery month of bad weather out of doors you can have a delightful time with your indoor garden. the bulbs you started in fibre should be in bloom by this time, and while you are enjoying them you can start some flower seeds for your out-of-door garden. this is the time to plant what are called annuals--that is, plants that live just a year--like batchelor's-buttons, sweet peas, nasturtiums, four-o'clocks, marigolds and zinnias. use flats or shallow wooden boxes, like those already described, to plant in. choose good garden soil and, before filling the boxes, heat it in the oven, very hot--this will kill the weed seeds. sow the seeds in rows an inch and a half apart and three-quarters of an inch apart in the row. when all the seeds are up, thin the little plants out so that they will be an inch and a half apart in the row. put them in a sunny window as close to the glass as possible and keep the shades rolled high. if you do not give them enough sun they will become thin and spindly--like children who never go out. turn the boxes now and then so that all sides will get the sunlight. you will need to put some labels into each box, bearing the names of the seeds that are planted there. the best ones are made from the covers of old grape baskets. cut them into strips, write on each the name of the seed and the date, and stick it into the earth. [illustration: a little garden for a little girl] gradually as the weather gets warmer you can give the little plants more air by opening the windows, and later by putting them out of doors in some sheltered but sunny spot. when there is no longer any danger from frost, the boxes can be set out of doors day and night, only taking them in in case of a severe storm. the seedlings may need to be separated and transplanted indoors before it is warm enough to set them in the out-of-door garden. common grape baskets do very well for this purpose and hold about a dozen little plants--flats may also be used. allow as much space between the seedlings as possible, for if they are too close the roots will twine about each other and make it very hard to transplant them later on. when they are large enough to be transplanted put them into a basin of lukewarm water and plant them in their new box one at a time. do not put them in the sun for a few days, but keep them shaded until they have taken root. _starting gourd vines in the indoor garden_ of course you have seen gourds, perhaps not growing, but surely you know how they look when dried. hard, smooth-shelled things of a beautiful golden brown colour, they grow in the strangest shapes. some are round or oval with a queer twisted stem (see fig. ). they have many uses--to hold the stockings open and smooth (so that grandma can darn them easily), as bird houses, match holders, and even for drinking cups. [illustration: fig. ] they are the fruit of a vine which would be charming to train on a trellis or arbour in your out-of-door garden, and then when harvest time came you would have the interesting gourds to dry and use as you chose. if you would like to raise them, sow the seeds in shallow wooden boxes indoors in march. plant them a quarter of an inch deep, and when the little plants crowd one another and are strong enough to transplant remove them to larger boxes and plant them six inches apart. when planting the vines out of doors in may or june put plenty of manure about them and give them ample space. if the vines bear many gourds, and all small ones, pinch off some and the others will develop better. do not pick the gourds until they are quite ripe; that is, when they begin to look slightly yellow. they need plenty of hot sun in order to come to perfection. leave them as long as possible on the vines, only being careful that they are not touched with frost. in the south they are sometimes left on the vines all winter. after picking them, hang them in an airy place in the house or out of doors. leave a little of the vine on each one and they can then be hung by strings tied to these handles. if you follow these few rules your gourds should dry smooth and hard. _how to start lavender indoors_ do you know the smell of lavender--that sweet, refreshing perfume that clings to some of grandmother's treasures of linen and embroidery? one catches a whiff of it in old gardens sometimes, and it is always welcome. you can buy the seed from a florist or seedsman--_lavandula vera_ is what the true english lavender is called, and that is best. if it cannot be had, _lavandula spica_ is next best. it takes time to raise either, but it will be such an addition to your out-of-door garden that you will not regret the time spent. about the first of march the lavender seed should be sown, in window boxes or flats. make shallow drills with your finger, drop the seed in and cover lightly. sprinkle them every day with your bulb sprinkler until they come up. when the little plants each have four leaves they may be transplanted. before starting to transplant them they should be thoroughly wet. set them five inches apart. in the winter protect the plants with litter--leaves, straw, etc.--six inches deep. the next year, in march, they should be set in rows three feet apart. when the plants are in full bloom the sprigs are cut, and then dried in a cool, darkened room or closet. lay them on paper so as to save all the blossoms. the lavender flowers may be made into the daintiest of sachets by filling with them sheer linen bags or pale lavender silk ones. the sprigs that are left after the blossoms have fallen may be used like chinese incense to sweeten a room, by lighting the blossom end of a single piece and letting it burn in a vase or incense holder. gifts and how to make them chapter viii gifts and how to make them it is wonderful what your head and hands can do when you begin to plan gifts for family and friends at christmas, birthdays and the in-between times when "un-birthday presents"--as "alice in wonderland" called them--are so welcome. but i am sure you know the breathless feeling of having to make or buy a long list of christmas presents with only two weeks or so in which to accomplish it. why not keep a gift box or drawer, where you can pack away the pretty things you take such pleasure in making on dull days all the year round? there are ever so many things--games, toys, baskets and beadwork--which you will find in other chapters--that will help to fill this gift box, and i am going to tell you about some others. there are several things to think of in planning a gift. it should be something that will be within your means, something that is worth giving, however small--not "trash"; but what is most important of all is that it shall really please the one who receives it. if it can be a lasting pleasure so much the better. suppose you try keeping a notebook; begin it now, and write down the little things that you hear the family wish for during the year--tiny things, maybe, but just what they want. for instance, aunt helen, who writes, never has enough pencils--her nieces and nephews know why. father is unable to find an express tag when he wants one, because he has no case to hang close beside his desk. joe says he wishes someone would make him a chamois cover for his new knife--it is getting scratched already; and mamma cannot find that recipe for potted pigeons that she cut from the paper saturday evening. what a number of entries you will be able to make in your gift book! see how it reads: aunt helen: one dozen pencils. father: leather tag case and tags. mother: a blank book with her newspaper recipes pasted in. joe: a chamois knife case. and this is just a beginning. when you visit your friends you will soon see or hear what little things will please them. then you can begin collecting the materials for your gift box, and when a rainy day comes what pleasant hours you will spend. let us begin with the _beaded knife case_ =materials required:= some scraps of chamois skin in the natural or another colour, skein no. - beads in a colour that will harmonise with the leather, e bead of the same colour, a spool of letter a sewing silk the colour of the leather, a no. needle. one of the simplest and prettiest gifts you can make is this beaded knife case. if you have made the indian costume described in chapter v. you will have plenty of scraps of chamois left. otherwise you can buy a small chamois skin in the natural colour, or, if you prefer another colour, skins of beautiful tints may be bought. red is very effective and not as costly as some others. in buying a skin, choose a colour that you will not tire of, for you will be able to make so many small things of it that it will be well to have a colour you will always like; either red or green or a soft brown that is not too light will be a good choice. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] from a piece of cardboard cut the patterns shown in figs. and . if the case is for a penknife, the larger one (fig. ) should measure one inch wide by four and one-eighth inches long, and the other should be the same width but two and three-quarters inches long. cut two pieces of chamois from these patterns, lay the smaller one against the larger, with the rounded ends of both together and the edges of the sides fitted evenly, and baste them so. now start at the top left-hand edge of the smaller piece, where it comes against the edge of the larger one, and sew the edges together with the stitch shown in fig. . this is how it is done: thread a no. needle with sewing silk the colour of the chamois. fasten the end by sewing through and through the edges of the case. string three beads and make one over-and-over stitch through both edges of the case, bringing the needle out at about one-eighth of an inch from where it started. run the needle up through the third bead, string two more, make another stitch, run the needle up through the last bead strung, and so on. when you have gone all the way around the double edge, continue the stitch across the top of the smaller piece and around the rounded top of the larger. next a loop must be made to fasten the case. hold a small pencil at the top of the larger piece of chamois close to the rounded edge, and, starting about an eighth of an inch from the centre of this end, fasten an end of a needleful of sewing silk; take a stitch around the pencil and in at one-eighth of an inch the other side of the centre. take six or eight stitches back and forth in this way. this will make a loop, which should be covered with buttonhole stitches. now slip the knife into the case, turn the flap (the rounded edge of the larger piece) down and mark the place to sew the large bead over which the loop is to fit, in order to fasten it. sew an e bead the colour of the smaller beads at this place, bring the loop over it, and the case is complete. [illustration: fig. ] _needle book of flowered silk_ =materials required:= a piece of flowered silk or ribbon inches long by / inches wide, a piece of plain-coloured ribbon the same size, a piece of white flannel inches long by inches wide, / yard of narrow ribbon the colour of the silk, a spool of sewing silk the same colour, a piece of bristol board by inches. the shakers make needle books of fine straw cloth, that are so dainty and yet simple that they are well worth copying. fig. shows the shape in which the cover of the book is cut. it may be made of two pieces of bristol board; one covered with flowered silk or ribbon, the other with plain silk that will harmonise with the flowered. the two are then basted together and sewed over and over. two pieces of flannel are cut the same shape, but about half an inch smaller all the way around. these are laid inside the cover, which is then bent exactly at its centre so that both ends will come evenly together. a hole is punched through both sides of the cover and the flannel at about half an inch in from the edge and quarter of an inch from the doubled middle of the cover. another hole is made on the other side of it and a narrow ribbon threaded in a bodkin, or ribbon needle, is brought in through one hole, across the back and out through the other. the ends are then tied in a pretty bow (see fig. ), which finishes it. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] _sweet clover bags_ =materials required:= all the white sweet clover that a little child can gather, some pretty cotton cloth, a needle and thread, scissors. did you know that the white sweet clover that grows in long spike-shaped sprays on low bushes along the wayside is even more fragrant when it is dried? gather some this summer, and spread it where it will dry in the sun, turning it often. strip the blossoms from the stems, and when a rainy day comes you can make with them some gifts that will be welcome wherever they go. keep the flowers in a covered box till you are ready to use them, then make linen, or even pretty white cotton, bags about ten inches long by six wide. fill them with the dried clover, sew up the ends securely, and they will be ready to send to grandmothers, aunts and cousins, to make their linen closets fragrant. a little pillow of white cotton filled with these flowers, with a pretty outer case of fine linen, makes a delightful gift for an invalid friend. _eyeglass cleaner_ =materials required:= several sheets of soft white tissue paper, a piece of green or brown leather inches wide by / inches long, a strip of leather inches long by / of an inch wide, skein no. - beads, large beads of the same colour, an awl or punch. one of your friends who wears eyeglasses was told by a wise person that the best thing with which to clear her glasses was--what do you think? not a handkerchief or a piece of chamois, but soft tissue paper. "that is simple enough, i'm sure," said she; but it wasn't, for whenever she wanted a piece of tissue paper it didn't happen to be near, so she used a handkerchief or chamois most of the time. she found the tissue paper was much better, however, and wondered why children who don't know what to give to friends who wear eyeglasses or spectacles, don't give them a pad of tissue paper to hang by the dressing table or some such convenient place. true, its use would have to be explained, for not many people know that tissue paper is such a good cleaner of glasses; but when they have tried it they will be really grateful for the helpful little gift. cut soft white tissue paper in sheets four inches wide by six and one-half long, and make a cover of green or brown leather the same size. punch two holes at the top of the cover, each about half an inch down from the top and one inch in from the side. lay the cover on the pile of tissue paper sheets and run an awl or punch through the holes in the cover, making holes in the same places through the tissue paper. cut a strip of leather about one-quarter of an inch wide and fifteen inches long, thread it in a bodkin, run it through the hole on the right of the cover, through the sheets of tissue paper and out of the hole on the left of the cover. here it is tied in a bow, leaving a long loop at the back to hang it by. a large bead of a colour that will look well with the leather may be strung on each end of the bow and a knot tied to keep it from falling off. if you choose, the edges of the cover may be worked with the bead stitch shown in fig. . _a german wonder ball_ =materials required:= hank of single zephyr worsted of some pretty colour, several tiny gifts. one of the most delightful of gifts can be planned by a little girl of boy for a friend who is learning to knit. this is the wonder ball. it is one of the many good ideas that come to us from germany--the land of knitting. buy a hank of worsted of some pretty colour and a number of tiny gifts--a thimble, a wee package of chocolate, the smallest of baskets and any other little things you can think of. start winding the worsted around the very choicest gift--so that it shall be at the centre--then by degrees, as you wind, lay the other gifts on the ball and cover them with the worsted. your little friend should be told to knit till all the presents are found. _pin case for travelling_ =materials required:= a piece of flowered silk or ribbon inches long by inches wide, a piece of plain-coloured silk inches long by / inches wide, a piece of cotton wadding / inches long by / inches wide, / yard of ribbon / inch wide, the colour of the silk, a spool of sewing silk the same colour. the friend who travels will be glad to have a case in which to keep her pins. it is very simple to make. cut from any pretty piece of silk or velvet a strip five inches wide by eight long, or a piece of five-inch flowered ribbon the same length will do even better. another strip of thin silk--white or some colour that will look well with the first piece--should be cut the same size, if the flowered piece is of silk; if it is of ribbon, cut the lining silk half an inch wider. a piece of the cotton wadding that comes in sheets is cut half an inch smaller in length and width than the others. half a yard of narrow ribbon to match the silk, and a spool of sewing silk will also be needed, and if you like you can give a still more festive touch to the case by filling it with fancy pins, those with pearl or gun-metal heads. [illustration: fig. ] first baste the strip of cotton wadding on the lining silk through the centre, then turn quarter of an inch of the edge of the silk up over the wadding and baste it securely around all four sides. now baste the flowered silk cover against the other side of the wadding, turning in all rough edges, and making sure that the edges of the lining and cover are quite even, one above the other. sew them together over and over, as neatly as possible, with the coloured sewing silk, and stitch the ribbon at its centre to the middle of one end of the case to form strings (see fig. ). after it is filled with the pretty pins and rolled up, bring the ribbons around it and tie them in a dainty little bow. _a case for tape_ =materials required:= a piece of flowered or figured cotton inches long by / inches wide, a piece of plain-coloured cotton the same size, / yard of / -inch ribbon the colour of the cotton, a package of india tape, a bodkin, a spool of cotton. a case that is made in very much the same way as the one for pins is used for holding pieces of tape of various widths. it is something that almost any aunt would be delighted to have for her work basket. [illustration: fig. ] packages of what is called india tape are sold at many of the dry goods shops for five or ten cents. they contain bunches of tape of different widths, a yard or two in each bunch. pieces of pretty cotton, one figured or flowered, the other plain, will do quite as well as silk to make the case. then you will need a simple metal or bone bodkin and three-quarters of a yard of narrow ribbon or silk braid. that is all except a spool of cotton, needle and scissors. cut a piece of plain-coloured cotton eight inches long by four and a half wide, and lay the bunches of tape all along it, about an inch apart. now lay a piece of half-inch wide ribbon or silk braid along above the bunches of tape and exactly at the middle of the strip of cotton, as shown in fig. . pin the ribbon to the cotton lining at each side of every piece of tape, making a loop that is large enough for each bunch to slip through without pulling the cotton lining. a little loop should also be made just large enough to hold the bodkin. now take out the bunches of tape and stitch the ribbon to the lining where it is pinned. cut a piece of flowered cotton the same size as the lining, and, turning in the edges of both pieces for a quarter of an inch all the way round, lay them together with the raw edges in and baste them evenly one above the other. next sew them together over and over all around. stitch the middle of a piece of ribbon sixteen inches long to the middle of the right end of the case, slip the bunches of tape and the bodkin through their loops, roll the case and tie the ribbon strings around it. it will then be ready to pop into your gift box. _a braided raffia lamp mat_ =materials required:= a bunch of raffia, a bunch of coloured raffia, a tapestry needle, no. . [illustration: fig. ] a lamp mat will be a welcome gift to mamma or even to your big brother for his room at college. the simplest one to make is of braided raffia. take six pieces of raffia and tie them together at one end. fasten this end to a nail or chair back, at a convenient height. if the raffia is dampened a little it will work more smoothly. now braid it into a three-stranded plait, using two pieces for each strand. when a new piece is needed lay it above the end of the old one and continue. the ends are cut close after the braid is finished. you will need a great deal of this braided raffia--about ten yards of the natural colour and two or three of the coloured--but do a little at a time and you will find it pleasant work. when you have enough prepared, thread a no. tapestry needle with a split strand of raffia and bind the end of it tightly around the end of the natural-coloured braid, taking a stitch or two through it to secure the binding. now cut off the knot (which tied all six pieces together in starting) close to the binding and coil the braid into a tiny round centre. run the needle through this centre back and forth, then start coiling the second row, bringing the long end of the braid around with its edge under the outer edge of the centre. the needle is run in slanting from right to left (see fig. ), then out from right to left, so that the stitches form a v within the coil. the whole mat is coiled and sewed in this way, except that when the last row of natural-coloured braid is stitched on, the end is bound as it was at the beginning and brought gradually in under the mat, where it is sewed securely. be sure that you have finished a row before you end it off. this you can tell by counting the rows, from the centre out, on all sides of the mat. an end of the coloured braid (which is to form the border of the mat) is also bound with a split strand of coloured raffia and sewed against the under side of the mat. it is then sewed around like the rest of the mat, except that in the first row you will have to take great care to run the stitches through the natural-coloured braid so that they will not show. be sure to finish the border at the part of the mat where it was started. _sewed raffia lamp mat_ =materials required:= or yards of cotton clothesline or window cord, a bunch of raffia, a bunch of coloured raffia, a no. tapestry needle. a soft, thick lamp mat that is beautiful to look at and very useful is quite simply made as follows: [illustration: fig. ] buy twelve or fourteen yards of cotton clothesline. it is white and smooth, and twisted like the fibre clothesline. or there is a soft cotton window cord that is even better, because it is smoother. thread a no. tapestry needle with a strand of raffia, putting the thick, or root, end through the needle. lay the other end of the raffia on the rope, with its tip turning toward the long end. starting at the very end of the rope, wind the long end of raffia around it (and its own short end) for an inch or more. then coil it into the smallest ring you possibly can, bring the long end of the raffia around, up through the centre of the ring and around again, taking in two coils--the one of which the ring was made and a second one made by bringing the long end of the rope around the ring (see fig. ). the first and second coils are covered in this way with a simple over-and-over stitch, which binds them together, passing around both and up through the centre. with the third coil the real stitch begins. it is an indian one called the figure eight stitch. the needle passes under the third coil (that is, the long end of rope which you are coiling around), around, over it, under the coil below, around, over it and up again, under and around the third coil--drawing the coils close together. the whole mat is sewed in this way. if you choose, you can work a design of coloured rings as a border or a solid border of the coloured raffia. fig. shows how the new pieces of raffia are added. cross the old and new ends on the rope, bring the needle threaded with the new strand under the lower coil, out in front, over the lower coil, under and around the upper one, and so on. [illustration: fig. ] _doll's hat of raffia_ =materials required:= a bunch of raffia, a tapestry needle, no. . how would you like to make a doll's raffia hat, as a birthday gift for one of your special friends--one that will fit her favourite doll? of course it is to be a surprise, but you will have plenty of opportunities to measure the dolly's head. the raffia comes in so many colours that you will be able to choose one to match a special gown. when you are ready to begin, make five yards or more of braided raffia as described in the directions for the braided raffia lamp mat, and start the hat in the same way as the mat was begun, except that an oval instead of a round centre is formed. when you have made a large enough top for the crown, bring the coil of braid around, with its upper edge a little above the middle of the row just finished, drawing it quite tight, and in sewing make the stitches run like the twists in the braid--so that they will show as little as possible. the next row is sewed in the same way, and the next, until the crown is the height you wish. in starting the brim flatten the braid and bring it around more loosely. be sure that each row of braid is sewed half way under the row to which you are stitching it. make the whole brim in this way, keeping the braid always flat and loose so that it shall not pucker. when it is as large as you wish, you can make the edge roll slightly by drawing the last two rows quite tight as you sew them on. fasten the end of the braid at the back of the hat by binding it with the raffia in your needle and stitching it firmly on the under side of the brim. _leather tag case_ =materials required:= a piece of heavy leather / inches wide by / inches long, a piece of leather / inches wide by / inches long, some strips of leather / inch wide, several kindergarten beads of a colour to match or harmonise with the leather, a punch to make round holes, dozen baggage tags, scissors, a bodkin. [illustration: leather tag case] one of the best presents a child can give to his father, or a man friend, is a leather case full of tags. things made of leather are so handsome and durable that you cannot do better, in buying material for your gift box, than to invest in a skin of heavy leather in the natural colour, red or green. another useful thing for your gift work will be a punch with which to make round holes in leather or cardboard. you will then only need a pair of scissors, a pencil and a few beads in order to be equipped not only to make this tag case but several other charming gifts. measure and mark with pencil on the leather two pieces, one six inches and one-quarter long by three inches and one-half wide, the other four and one-half inches long by three and one-half inches wide, and cut them out carefully. also cut a number of strips of leather a quarter of an inch wide and as long as the skin will allow. on each corner of the smaller piece of leather mark a dot three-sixteenths of an inch in from the edge. then make three more dots the same distance from the edge and about an inch apart on each side, and two near the bottom, the same distance from the edge and each other. now with your punch make holes through these dots. lay this piece of leather on the larger one, with the lower edges and sides together, and with a pencil mark through the holes on the piece below. dots are also made three-sixteenths of an inch in from the edge at each of the upper corners of the larger piece of leather, two about an inch apart at the middle of the top edge, and one more on either side, half way between the dots at the upper corners and the upper ones of those already marked from the smaller piece of leather. all these dots have holes punched through them. now lay the pieces together, the smaller one on top, with its lower edge and sides fitting exactly with the bottom and sides of the larger piece. starting at the upper right-hand corner of the smaller piece, bring a bodkin threaded with a long strip of leather up through the holes in both pieces, then up through the next hole below in both pieces, lacing them together all the way around to the other side. here the bodkin is slipped off and the end is knotted with another strip of leather. on this new strip the bodkin is threaded and brought up through each hole in succession along the left side, the top and down the right side of the large piece of leather. it stops where the lacing began, and the ends are there tied together. a large bead is slipped on each of these ends and one on each of the two ends on the opposite side, and a knot is made at the tip to keep the bead from falling off. to make a loop to hang it by, thread the bodkin with a short strip of leather, run it down through the left of the two middle holes at the top of the case and out again through the right one. cut it the length you wish the loop to be and thread a bead on each end, making a knot at the tip to keep the bead on. _beaded leather pen wiper_ =materials required:= two circular pieces of leather about / inches in diameter, circular pieces of natural-coloured chamois about inches in diameter, a strip of leather / inch wide and / yard long, skein of beads, no. - , skein of beads, no. - , of another colour. [illustration: fig. ] a pen wiper is such a usual present that you may think no one would care for it, but look around and you will surely find a big brother or sister, or perhaps a friend, who hasn't one. and this is such an interesting pen wiper to make. it is very simple, just two round pieces of leather and three of chamois. the top piece of leather has the design shown in fig. worked on it in beads of a colour that will look well with the leather you have chosen. black and crystal beads will harmonise with red leather or dark-green crystal and opaque white. if the leather is not so bright a colour, the beads may be more gay. work the design with the stitch described in the directions for making an indian beaded shirt in chapter v., bringing the strings of beads farther apart at the outer edge of the circle than on the inside. when the beadwork is done, put the pieces of leather together with the chamois ones between, mark two dots a quarter of an inch apart at the centre of the top, punch holes through the dots and then through the other pieces of chamois and leather. a bodkin threaded with a strip of leather is then run down through one hole, up through the other, and the ends are knotted together and cut quite short. _baby's worsted ball_ =materials required:= a piece of thin cardboard a foot square, odds and ends of worsted, a worsted needle, a piece of string, scissors. we have not made any plans, as yet, for a gift for the baby. suppose we make him a great, fluffy worsted ball. among your mother's odds and ends of worsted you will find plenty of gay colours that will be exactly what you want. then you will need some thin cardboard, or bristol board. on this mark two circles, five inches in diameter, and at the centre of each of these, two smaller circles an inch and a quarter in diameter. cut out the two large circles and the small holes within them. you will then have two circular pieces of cardboard with a round hole in the centre of each, making it look like a cookie. take a strong but slender piece of string about a foot long and lay it around the hole in the centre of one of the pieces of cardboard, with the ends coming together below the outer edge (see fig. ). lay the other piece of cardboard directly over the first one and hold them firmly together (see fig. ) while with a needle threaded with worsted you sew around and around the cardboard rings, bringing the needle each time through the hole in the centre and around the outer edge of both rings. when a needleful of worsted is finished leave the end hanging and start another. keep on until the hole in the middle is quite filled up and the whole thing looks like a puffy cushion. now take a sharp pair of scissors and cut the layers of worsted at the outer edge of the pasteboard rings all the way around. do this carefully but quickly, and be sure not to cut the two ends of string, for now is the time to use them. they are tied together just as tightly as possible, and as close to the centre. the cardboard rings are then slipped out, leaving a soft, fluffy ball of many colours. clip off the uneven ends of worsted here and there, and the ball will be complete. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] raffia sewed in the same way over tiny cardboard rings, then tied and cut, makes fascinating little pompons for a doll's hat. paper flowers and toys chapter ix paper flowers and toys [illustration: fig. ] it sometimes seems, on a rainy day, as if there was nothing to do because you have not the materials that are needed for certain occupations--but there is always paper. you may not, of course, have all the things that are used in making tissue-paper flowers, unless you have been so thrifty as to buy them, looking forward to just such a time as this. but if you cannot make the flowers at once, you can decide which ones you wish to do and plan a list of the materials you will need. then there are numbers of things that you can fashion from watercolour paper, or even heavy note paper and cardboard; so let us get out pencil and paper, paste and scissors, and begin. =materials required:= large sheets of linen writing paper sheet of deep-yellow tissue paper, sheet of olive-green tissue paper, a little cotton batting, a long wire stem, a tube of paste, pen and ink, scissors. [illustration: fig. ] how would you like to make a game of your very own with which you and your brothers and sisters or some of your friends can play? it is quite simple--just a great paper daisy with a slip of paper pasted on the under side of each petal. upon each slip is written a sort of conundrum, the answer to which is the name of a plant or flower. if you can get a real daisy for a model, so much the better. fold a large sheet of linen writing paper diagonally so that you will have a square eight by eight inches. bend it over again diagonally, and then again and again, so that it will have been folded four times in all. now draw the outline of a daisy petal upon the folded paper (see fig. ), and cut it out through all the thicknesses. this will give you a sixteen-petaled daisy. the centre has next to be made. cut from deep-yellow tissue paper eight circles three inches across, six circles two inches, and six an inch across. this is easily done by folding the paper into as many thicknesses as you wish circles of each size, so that you can cut through them all at once. before separating the circles cut the edges into a fine fringe about three-eighths of an inch deep. fold a piece of olive-green tissue paper in the same way as the white paper for the petals was folded, but once more, and cut it like fig. . this is for the calyx. next cut some slips of paper just large enough to be pasted on the underside of the petals and write on each a number and a conundrum from the following list: . a public building in philadelphia. . a plant that rhymes with pansy. . a foolish wild animal. . a wise man. . fit for a king. . a girl's name. . a plant for sundays. . for thirsty folk. . several droves of sheep. . part of a pet. . two girls' names. . something that we know flies, though no one has ever seen it. . a rosy athlete. . a necessary article of food and a piece of china. . a girl's name and a metal. . an animal and a covering for the hand. the following key, or answers to the conundrums, you will of course keep hidden until after the game has been played: . mint . tay . dandelion. . sage. . goldenrod. . sumach (sue mack). . jack-in-the-pulpit. . pitcher-plant. . phlox (flocks). . cattail. . rosemary. . thyme. . scarlet runner. . buttercup. . marigold. . foxglove. when the slips have each been pasted on a petal the daisy is put together in this way: take a long, stout piece of wire, such as is sold for paper-flower stems; put the yellow circles all together, the larger ones at the bottom, then the medium ones and the smallest on top. bend one end of the wire into a tiny ring and run the other end down through the centre of the yellow circles, then through the middle of the white circle with the petals on its edge, putting a touch of paste between the centre and the petals. now paste a thin layer of cotton batting to the lower side of the petal-edged piece, at the centre, and run the wire stem through the middle of the green calyx, pasting the paper lightly to the cotton. wind the stem with olive-green tissue paper cut in strips two inches wide, and cut from the same paper some leaves as much as possible like the little leaves of a daisy plant. the directions for playing this game are given in chapter x. _how to make a country girl_ =materials required:= a sheet of brown paper, a sheet of heavy watercolour paper, by inches, a pencil, a box of watercolour paints, scissors. [illustration: fig. ] little country girls are almost always useful, and though this one is only made of paper she can be useful too. she will serve as a dinner card or a penwiper, or even carry courtplaster to those who need it. if you do not care for any of these things you can play with her, for she makes a charming paper doll. fig. shows one side of the little girl, the other is just the same. she is made as follows: cut from brown paper the pattern shown in fig. , making it six and a half inches high by four and three-eighths inches broad--at the widest point. take care to mark the dotted lines exactly where they are in the picture. it will be better to draw the apron, sunbonnet and little shoes on the pattern, for then you can copy directly from it instead of from the smaller one in the book. lay the pattern on a piece of heavy watercolour paper and draw around it with a sharp-pointed pencil, marking the dotted lines exactly. next the little girl must be cut out. do this carefully with a pair of small, sharp scissors. bend the paper on the dotted lines so that it will look like fig. . on all the lines except the one down the front a (see fig. ) and the two marked b the paper is bent forward, on these two it turns back and the flaps on the bottom of the shoes are turned back. now for the finishing touches. for these you will need pen and ink and a box of watercolour paints. the dress, where it peeps out beyond the white apron, the bands on the sleeves and the dots and edge of the sunbonnet, should all be painted some pretty colour--pink, red, blue, green or yellow--whatever you choose. the shoes should be black, and the outlines of the apron and pockets, the gathers of the sleeves and sunbonnet are all drawn in black ink. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the little girl is now complete unless you wish to have her stand by herself, in which case cut a circular piece of cardboard and glue her upon it by the flaps on her shoes. if you would like to make her useful, you can attach two or three tiny sheets of courtplaster between her skirts or several leaves of flannel, so that she can serve as a penwiper. [illustration: fig. ] _a paper santa claus_ =materials required:= the same as for the country girl. [illustration: fig. ] another delightful little paper person made on the plan of the country girl is the santa claus shown in fig. . he makes a charming christmas card to carry greetings or a gift. the pattern (see fig. ) is made five and one-eighth inches high by five and a quarter inches wide, of brown paper, in the same way as the pattern of the country girl. santa claus is also cut from watercolour paper and bent according to the dotted lines. the colouring should be red and white, of course, with a green holly wreath. it would not do to forget the saint's pack, which is cut from the pattern shown in fig. . it is painted brown, with gaily coloured toys--dolls, drums and noah's arks--peeping out at the top. paste it between the two sides of santa claus near his shoulders. _a seashore boy_ =materials required:= the same as for the country girl. [illustration: fig. ] as a companion for the country girl you can make, if you like, a seashore boy (see fig. ) in just the same way. the pattern given in fig. shows where the paper is to be folded. from all the folds the paper should bend backward except on the lines marked a, from these it bends forward. the colouring should be mostly blue and white. the great sun hat will be straw coloured, of course, with a blue band. his short socks are of white, with brown legs showing above them, and his suit should be blue, or a white one with a blue tie. the pail may be painted red. _a valentine favour_ =materials required:= a piece of watercolour paper a foot square, a box of watercolour paints, a strip of scarlet china silk inches wide by / yard long, a yard of scarlet baby ribbon, a spool of scarlet sewing silk, a bodkin, a tube of paste, scissors. a boy or girl with deft fingers can make the most attractive little valentine favour imaginable in a short time and at very slight expense. it is a double heart of watercolour paper, painted scarlet and with a silk puff of the same colour drawn up at the top, making a bag for bonbons. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the heart is perhaps the most difficult part, but a child who has learned in kindergarten to weave with paper will be able to do it without much trouble. cut from watercolour paper two pieces in the shape shown in fig. . the paper should be doubled and the fold laid against the straight edge at the bottom of the pattern. the size does not matter very much, though if the heart is to hold anything the pieces should measure four inches and a quarter from the doubled edge to the top of the rounded end and two and five-eighths inches across. rule with pencil a light line across each piece at two and five-eighths inches from the straight end. five lines are also ruled in the other direction, the first one seven-sixteenths of an inch from one side of each piece of paper and the others the same distance apart (see fig. ). cut along these lines with sharp, strong scissors from the double straight edge to the ruled line near the top of each piece. the lower part of both pieces will thus be cut into doubled strips. now take a piece in each hand, rounded end down, and weave the lower strip of the piece in your right hand through the strips in the left-hand piece. as the strips are double, the weaving must be done rather differently than with single strips of paper. the strip with which you are weaving goes around the first strip in the left-hand piece, through the next one, around the next, and so on (see fig. ). when it comes to the end it is pushed down a little way and the next strip on the right is woven above it, only that this one passes through the strips that the first one passed around, and around those that the first one passed through. weave one after another until all six of the strips in the right-hand piece are woven in with those on the left--when it should open to form a heart-shaped bag, as shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] colour the heart on both sides with vermilion watercolour paint and it will then be ready for the silk top. cut from scarlet china silk a strip five inches wide by half a yard long. sew the ends together, hem the top and make a casing for the ribbon drawstring, as described in the directions for the beaded silk bag in chapter v. the lower edge is gathered to fit the inside of the top of the heart and pasted into it on a straight line, running just below the openings, around both sides of the heart. if the paste is not very sticky you may need to take a tiny stitch here and there with scarlet sewing silk, tacking the silk top more securely to the heart. it will then be ready to line with a lace paper doily or some waxed paper, and fill with bonbons. _a frog jumping jack_ =materials required:= a small sheet of -ply bristol board, a box of watercolour paints, a ball of fine white string, pen and ink, a pair of sharp scissors, a large, sharp-pointed worsted needle. there is a funny frog jumping jack that you can make if you like some cheerless, rainy day. he brings smiles wherever he goes. take a sheet of heavy four-ply bristol board and draw upon it the pieces shown in figs. , , and --the frog's head and body, legs and one arm. make them as large as you can. the head and body together should measure eight inches high by seven wide, from the right side to the end of the mandolin on the left. the legs should be about six and a half inches long and the right arm should of course be the size of the left, which is drawn on the same piece as the body. colour the body, throat and legs pale yellow with watercolour paint; the upper part of the head, the arms and the outer edges of the body and legs are first painted light green and then marked with irregular spots and dashes of medium and dark bluish green. a red ribbon with a maltese cross of the same colour is painted around his neck, and the mandolin he holds is white above and black underneath. the eyes should be dark green with very large whites, and the smiling mouth red, of course. the strings of the mandolin are drawn with pen and ink, as are the outlines of the whites of the eyes, the hands and feet. now mr. frog must be put together. tie a knot in a piece of fine white string and thread the other end through a large worsted needle. run the needle through the frog's body at the lower right side (where you see the dot on fig. ), leaving the knot in front, pass it through the right leg about half an inch from the top and fasten it with a knot at the back. the other leg is attached in the same way, and the right arm is placed in position and fastened to the body as the legs were. a knot is then made in a piece of white cord and the end is brought through the right arm (leaving the knot in front) about three-quarters of an inch below where it is fastened to the body, and near the outer edge of the arm. the end of the string is brought down at the back of the frog, quite loosely, to the upper part of the right leg, where it passes through and is tied to the part of the string that comes from the arm (see fig. ). it is then brought across to the top of the left leg, where it is tied. a separate string fifteen inches long is attached to the centre of the piece, which passes from one leg to the other (this is the one that is pulled to make him jump), and a short loop of string is fastened at the top of his head by which to hold him. when the long string is pulled mr. frog will dance and play the mandolin. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] _paper flowers_ have you ever made paper flowers? if not, you have probably seen them made by the cardboard patterns which dealers in tissue paper sell. how about making the patterns yourself--for the poppies, daisies and tulips and all the other flowers. it will be an interesting thing to do and not difficult. catch one of the poppy petals as it floats off from the flower, blown by a summer breeze. notice that there are only four petals (if it is a single poppy), the two smaller ones setting across the larger pair below. poppies are charming and much simpler than other flowers to copy in paper. you may have noticed that the petals of the real ones look almost exactly like silky, crinkled paper. draw an outline of the petal a little larger than life on heavy brown paper. fold the paper back at the base of the petal and cut it out in the two thicknesses so that it will look like fig. . the two lower petals will be cut in the same way but larger. you now have a pattern for as many poppies as you choose. they can be made in various colours--white, red, pink, pink and white and yellow. you can buy poppy centres ready to use, or if you prefer you can make them yourself in this way: for a poppy four and a half inches across, cut a circle of yellow paper an inch and a quarter in diameter. fringe the edge about half an inch. next take a wire stem, bend the end into a small circle, cover it with a tiny ball of cotton batting and over this a piece of olive-green tissue paper, forming it to look as much as possible like the real poppy centre (see fig. ). wind the edges of the paper close around the wire stem. now run the other end of the stem down through the yellow circle, brushing it with paste to attach it to the green part of the centre. slip the smaller pair of petals on the stem, then the larger pair (with a little paste between), so that the smaller pair will set directly across the larger. this completes the poppy. the stem is wound with strips of olive-green tissue paper, and the leaves are cut from the same paper by a pattern which you can easily make by laying a poppy leaf on a sheet of cardboard and drawing around it with a sharp-pointed pencil. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] _ox-eyed daisies_ =materials required:= or more sheets of deep-yellow tissue paper, a sheet of olive-green tissue paper, a ball of dark-brown worsted, several wire stems, a tube of paste, scissors. ox-eyed daisies are easily fashioned and look so like the real ones that they are as satisfactory as any paper flowers you can make. take four thicknesses of deep-yellow tissue paper. bend the corner over diagonally and cut a square four by four inches. next fold the paper in the same way as for the petals described in the daisy game in this chapter. mark on the top of the last fold a petal, as shown in fig. , and cut it out through all the thicknesses. after it is unfolded you may have to cut some of the petals up nearer to the centre. wind some brown worsted around your thumb about twenty times, take it off and run through it the end of a wire stem which has been bent into a tiny crook. tie the worsted centre just above the wire with a short piece of worsted, or bind it with fine wire, and cut the loops at the top. now run the other end of the stem down through the centre of the petals. make a green calyx like the one for the white daisy but much smaller, not over an inch across. wind the stem with strips of olive-green tissue paper, laying in every now and then a daisy leaf cut from the same dark-green paper. other single flowers can be as easily made as this, and you will find that the patterns will not be difficult to make if you take the natural flowers for your models. _a curled chrysanthemum_ =materials required:= several sheets of pink or yellow tissue paper in a light and medium shade, several sheets of olive-green tissue paper, a small piece of cardboard, some wire stems, a tube of paste, scissors. [illustration: fig. ] chrysanthemums are among the most natural of paper flowers, and fascinating to make. white ones are pretty, and those that are made of shades of pink or yellow are even more attractive. cut the pattern shown in fig. from cardboard and lay it on three thicknesses of medium yellow tissue paper, seven and a half inches square, which have been folded diagonally three times. hold the pattern firmly upon it and cut it out carefully. then in the same way cut two thicknesses of light-yellow paper into petals. a piece of olive-green tissue paper is folded into a smaller square and cut in the same way, to make a calyx. to curl the petals, put a small sofa cushion on your knee, lay a petal upon it, and, taking a common hatpin with a smooth, round head, press it upon the end of each petal up to the centre. this will curl it as if by magic. do another and another till the whole piece is finished. then curl a second piece and a third in the same way. when they are all done bend a long wire stem at one end and run the other end through the centre of the petal-edged pieces, which should be laid one above the other, the darker ones on top. put a touch of paste between them, slip on the green calyx, wind the stem with strips of green tissue paper, laying in a chrysanthemum leaf from time to time, and the flower is complete. [illustration: making a chrysanthemum] games for two or three to play chapter x games for two or three to play on stormy days the children of a family are likely to be alone--unless they are so fortunate as to have a little visitor in the house, or a friend who lives near wraps up and comes to play with them. a child who is alone can read, or find in the other chapters of this book some absorbing occupation; for a party of children there are always plenty of games, but it is sometimes difficult to think of a game that two or three will enjoy. the following are a few suggestions for such an emergency: _picture puzzles_ =materials required:= as many pieces of cardboard about by inches as there are children, as many pairs of scissors as there are children, one or more tubes of paste, several old magazines. there is such a fascination about cutting and pasting that a game like this is one of the best you can choose for a dull day. each child has an old magazine, a piece of cardboard and a pair of scissors, while tubes of paste lie conveniently near. when the children are seated around a table the game begins. it is played in this way: each player cuts from his magazine a picture (which must be smaller than his card), pastes it upon his piece of cardboard, and when it is dry and firm cuts it in pieces with six straight cuts of the scissors, so as to make a puzzle. he then mixes the pieces and passes them to his neighbour on the right. at a given signal each child tries to put the puzzle which he has received together as quickly as possible. the one who finishes first calls out that he is through, and he is of course the winner. as a sequel the children will enjoy colouring the puzzles. if they are pretty and neatly made they may be given to a child's hospital, to amuse some other little children in the long days of convalescence. _how to play the daisy game_ this is a good guessing game for two or more children to play, and if you will follow the directions given in chapter ix. you will find that it can be made quite easily. none of the players should have seen the key, or answers to the conundrum, but if you find that they have seen it, you can write on the slips of paper, instead of the conundrums, the names of flowers with the letters mixed for example, sapyn, for pansy. each child in turn pulls a petal from the daisy and tries to guess the name of the flower, which is the answer to the conundrum written on the under side of the petal. five minutes is the time allowed, and if the player has not guessed the flower in that time he must pass the petal to the child on his left, who also has five minutes in which to guess it. if he guesses correctly the petal belongs to him, and at the end of the game the player having the most petals has won. _horses in the stable_ =materials required:= a pasteboard shoe box, some marbles, pen and ink, scissors. although this game is played with marbles, girls as well as boys will enjoy it, and it is so easily prepared that it can be played at short notice. take a long pasteboard box--a shoe box is about the right size. remove the cover and turn it upside down. now, starting at the lower edge, draw five doorways, like those shown in fig. . the one in the centre should be an inch across and an inch and a half high, the two on each side of it an inch and a half wide and two inches high, and the outer ones each two inches wide and two and a half inches high. cut out these doorways with a sharp, strong pair of scissors and mark over the middle one in pen and ink the number . the two on either side of it have marked above them , and the other two each have . stand the box, or stable, thus prepared, against the wall and place a mark four feet from it. each player has three marbles, and in turn tries to roll or shoot them from the mark through the little doors into the box. if he succeeds in putting one through the smallest door he makes twenty-five; if through either of the other doors his score is increased by the number marked above it. there should be a time limit for the game--half an hour, for example. the score of each player, which is kept on a sheet of paper, is added at the end of that time and the one having the most points has won the game. [illustration: fig. ] _plants and flowers_ =materials required:= as many pencils and sheets of paper as players, a large sheet of cardboard, some seed catalogues, pen and ink, a tube of paste, scissors. although a number of children can play this game, two or three will enjoy it quite as well. any boy or girl can make it. you will need first of all a number of seed catalogues. cut from these eighteen or twenty pictures of flowers and plants, taking care not to leave the names on them. write in pencil, on the back of each, a number (any one from to ) and the name--this is for your own guidance later on. now make a list of the flowers and plants, each with its number before it. this is the key, to be put away till after the game is played. take a large sheet of cardboard, about twenty by twenty-four inches, and paste upon it the flowers and plants in the order of their numbers, marking the number of each clearly in pen and ink underneath it. if you like you can colour the pictures--this will make the game more attractive, of course, and as you can use it many times it is worth while. a loop of string, by which to hang it, should be run through the top of the card at the centre. when you are ready to play the game hang the cardboard sheet where all can see it; give each player a pencil and a piece of paper, on the left side of which numbers from to have been marked. each child tries in the time allowed--about twenty minutes--to guess the names of the flowers and plants on the sheet or cardboard, and write each opposite its number on his piece of paper. the correct names are then read from the key and the players check off their guesses. the one who has guessed the greatest number correctly is of course the winner. _a ball-and-fan race_ =materials required:= japanese paper balls, palmleaf fans. [illustration: a ball and fan race] two children will find this race an interesting one for a rainy day. the best place in which to play it is a large room with very little furniture in it--a playroom for example. each player stands at a corner of the room diagonally opposite the other, three feet out from the corner, and each has a japanese paper ball in front of him and a large fan in his hand. they must face different ways and both count together "one, two, three, and away!" as they finish counting, the children begin to fan their balls around the room, close to the wall. there will be some lively skirmishing when they meet, as they are likely to do when half way around the room. then each tries to send his opponent's ball back and his own forward. when each finally gets his ball back to the corner where he started, he must try to send it as quickly as possible to the middle of the room, where a chair is placed. the ball must be fanned through the legs of this chair and to the goal of his opponent. the player who first accomplishes this is the winner. _fun with popcorn_ =materials required:= an open fire, a corn popper, several ears of popcorn, a prize, if desired. if the open fire burns brightly in your playroom, no matter how gray and bleak the day may be outside, you and your brothers and sisters can keep warm and cheerful over this delightful game. you may provide a prize for the winner, if you like, but the only things that are absolutely necessary are the fire, some popcorn and a popper. when the players are seated in a semicircle around the fire they may all help in shelling the corn. after this is done, divide the popcorn evenly between them, so that each shall have a small quantity. the player on the left side of the fireplace now takes the corn popper and pops his corn. when it is done, the kernels that are fully popped are counted, also the unpopped ones, and a record is made of each. the next player pops his corn and counts the result, and so on until all have finished. the child having the largest number of fully popped kernels is the winner, and may receive a prize. afterward the winner and the defeated players will equally enjoy eating the fluffy popcorn, or if the cook is particularly amiable they may be allowed to flock to the kitchen and make popcorn balls. _express_ =materials required:= or articles, large and small, light and heavy. this is a lively game that needs little preparation. all you will have to provide is a number of articles, toys, pieces of china (not valuable ones), a glass of water, some very small things and one or more large ones, something heavy like a dumb-bell or flatiron and something light--a palmleaf fan, for example. when you have them all collected, on a table or stand on one side of the room where the game is to be played, place another table or stand across the room. then you must have a clock or a watch, and that is all--except the players. each child in turn takes one thing at a time, from the stand where the various articles are piled, and carries it to the table at the opposite side of the room. it is done as quickly as possible, for the object is to move everything from one place to the other in the least possible time. each player is timed and his record kept on a piece of paper. if a player drops anything he must carry it back to the starting point and make another trip with it. the next player begins at the table to which the first one took the baggage and carries it, in the same way, back to the first table. so it goes on until everyone has played expressman. the player who succeeds in transferring the baggage in the shortest time is, of course, the winner. _a hurdle race_ =materials required:= a box of tiddledywinks, a sheet of white cardboard, a box of watercolour paints, a pencil, scissors, a ball of white string, some pins. the next time you are kept indoors by the weather, you and a brother or sister may enjoy a hurdle race. it is played with tiddledywink chips and pasteboard hurdles on a large table or on the floor. you can make the hurdles yourself. they should be cut from cardboard, eight inches wide and four inches high. paint some of them with wooden bars and others green--like high hedges. in making the hurdles, cut the cardboard so that a strip two inches deep by an inch across will extend below each lower corner (see fig. ). one of these is bent sharply forward at the place marked by the dotted lines, the other is turned back, forming stands to keep the hurdles upright. the racecourse will have to be laid out on a covered table or carpeted floor, as the tiddledywinks can only be used on a soft, cushiony surface. you can make the boundaries with white string, held in place here and there with pins. an oval course, though more difficult to mark is rather more exciting than a straight one, but either will do. have the course eight inches wide and as long as you please. the hurdles may be placed where-ever you choose, but be sure to have plenty of them. [illustration: fig. ] when you are ready to begin, each player takes a large tiddledywink chip and a small one of the same colour--but different from his opponent's--and at a signal given by a third person, who acts as umpire, the race begins. snap the tiddledywink chip just as you do in playing the game, only taking great care not to send it out of the course, for if it goes outside the lines you must set it back three inches. the umpire follows the race, of course, and settles all disputed questions. _pictures from fairy tales_ =materials required:= a number of old magazines, twice as many sheets of cardboard or heavy brown paper, by inches, as there are children, as many pairs of scissors as there are children, a tube of paste for each child. two or three children who know and love the old fairy tales can spend a delightful hour playing this game. each one should have several old magazines and a sheet of cardboard, as well as scissors and a tube of paste. the leader, who may be one of the children or an older person, explains the game as follows: each child is expected to make a picture on his sheet of cardboard to illustrate some fairy tale. it is not necessary to draw it; he can cut from the magazines people and properties and scenery and paste them upon the card. he must be sure not to tell anyone the story he has chosen. at the end of half an hour the pictures should be finished. a bell is rung for everyone to stop work and the pictures are placed where all can see them. the leader now holds one up before the children and asks them what story they suppose it illustrates, and what particular part of the story. the child who answers first wins the picture. the other pictures are held up, one at a time, and the children try to see who can guess them first. if they are ready for another round of the game after this one is finished, they may find it amusing to vary it by making pictures from "mother goose." +--------------------------------------------------------------+ | | | transcriber's notes: | | | | p. . 'aesily' perhaps a typo for 'easily', changed. | | obvious punctuation errors repaired. | | | | | +--------------------------------------------------------------+ produced from images generously made available by the internet archive.) shaving made easy what the man who shaves ought to know illustrated published by the th century correspondence school new york copyright, by the th century correspondence school this book is dedicated to those men who have difficulties in shaving, in hope that its contents will be of assistance in remedying their troubles. preface. the object of this little book is to furnish clear and full information about the art of shaving. there are few men who do not experience more or less difficulty in shaving themselves, and many who, after a few unsuccessful attempts, give it up in dispair and go to the barber shop. we believe most of these would much prefer to shave themselves if only they could do as well as a barber. the advantages, indeed, seem to be wholly with the man who shaves himself. in the first place the shaving is done in the privacy of his own room. he has his own razor, cup, soap, brush and towels, which can be kept scrupulously clean and sanitary, thus avoiding the constant danger of infection. there is no long wait for the call of "next." after the first cost of the outfit there is nothing to pay, either for services or "tips." thus in point of time, money and health, the man who shaves himself is a decided gainer. there are few things in life that are really difficult to perform when one thoroughly knows how to do them. shaving is no exception. the art of shaving can be easily acquired if one only has the will, and the necessary practical information. this book, which, as far as we are aware, is the only one treating the subject at all completely, endeavors to supply such information; as well for the improvement of men accustomed to shave themselves, as for the instruction of beginners. we believe that any man who will carefully read and follow the instructions here given, will, with some little practice, soon be able to shave himself easily and even better than the barber can do it for him. contents. i. the shaving outfit ii. the razor iii. care of the razor iv. the safety razor v. the hone vi. how to use the hone vii. the strop viii. how to strop the razor ix. the brush x. the cup xi. the soap xii. the lather xiii. instructions to beginners xiv. the right way to shave xv. care of the face after shaving xvi. irritation of the skin--its cause and prevention shaving made easy what the man who shaves ought to know i. the shaving outfit. first-class tools are necessary at the very outset. no matter how skillfully one may handle inferior tools, they will invariably produce poor results. probably as many failures have resulted from the use of poor razors, strops, or soap as from the lack of knowledge how to use them. in order that the best possible results may be attained, _good tools_ and _skill in using them_ should go hand in hand. the shaving outfit should consist of one or two good razors, a first-class strop, a mirror, a cup, a brush, a cake of shaving soap, and a bottle of either bay rum, witch hazel, or some other good face lotion. these constitute what may be considered the _necessary_ articles, and to these may be added a number of others, such as a good hone, magnesia or talcum powder, astringent or styptic pencils, antiseptic lotions, etc. which, while not absolutely requisite, will nevertheless add much to the convenience, comfort and luxury of the shave. ii. the razor. the most important article of the shaving outfit is of course the razor, and upon its selection your success or failure in self-shaving will largely depend. never purchase a razor because it happens to be cheap; a poor razor is dear at any price. you want not the cheapest, but the best. [illustration: an ideal razor.] a _good_ razor if rightly used, will last for years, and will be a source of continual pleasure when used, whereas a _poor_ razor will do inferior work, irritate the skin and make the face sore, and be a continual source of trouble and annoyance. if you have such a razor, the sooner you throw it aside and substitute a good one, the better. the principal point to be considered in selecting a razor is the quality of the steel. by "quality" is meant its _temper_ or degree of solidity, and its consequent capability of receiving, even after a series of years, a firm and fine edge. this is undoubtedly the first point to which the purchaser should give attention. by what means though, can he judge of the temper of a razor without using it? the unassisted eye is not sufficient. its power extends no further than to the discovery of defects the most striking and injurious. the irregularities in a razor's edge, which arise from improper tempering and lack of skill in working, are usually so minute, that they may remain undistinguished until the razor is used. they will nevertheless very sensibly add to the friction the razor produces on the skin and particularly if it happens to be thin and tender. there are two ways of judging of the temper of a razor; one of these is practically infallible--viz:--the examination of the blade and its edge by means of a microscope. it will be readily admitted that the real excellence of a razor is in direct proportion to the firmness and unbroken regularity of its edge. when a razor is too brittle, in consequence of having been either to much heated in the process of hardening, or not sufficiently cooled in that of tempering, it cannot possibly take a good cutting edge, no matter how much skill may be employed in honing and stropping it. such defects are quickly detected by the use of a microscope in the hands of an experienced and attentive observer. the other method of testing the temper, while not infallible, will nevertheless be of assistance even to the most inexperienced. it consists of catching the point of the blade under the thumb nail, and then letting the nail slip off quickly. if the blade gives a good clear ring, you may conclude that it is well tempered, but if it does _not_ ring full and clear it is an indication that the blade is tempered unevenly. the concave blade. the thinnest edge is always the sharpest. a blade ought therefore to be as thin as the strength of the metal composing it will permit. nearly all razors are now made "hollow-ground" or "concave"--a great improvement over the old style of thick blade. the edge of the hollow-ground razor is thinner and therefore cuts better, and is much easier to keep sharp. almost any desired make of razor may be had in either half, three-quarters, or full concave. the full concave blade is of course the thinnest. in view of the fact that the thinner the edge the sharper the instrument, most purchasers of a razor quite naturally conclude that the full concave blade is the best. our impression is that this is a mistake; that the full concave blade is not so good for shaving most beards as the three-quarters concave. in a very deeply hollow ground razor, the blade is ground extremely thin, back to a line some distance from the edge. when such an edge--almost as thin as paper--comes in contact with a stiff beard, unless the blade is held very flat upon the face, it is quite likely to bend and spring, and a cut will be the result. width of the blade. the width of the blade is another point that should receive attention. as a rule we believe the beginner selects too wide a blade. a comparatively narrow one, in the size known as the - is the best for most purposes, as it does not spring on the face so readily as the wide blade, yet it follows the contours of the face more closely, and in general is managed more easily. [illustration: showing different widths of blades.] point of the blade. the point of the razor ought to be slightly rounded as shown in the illustration. while this is seemingly a small matter, yet a sharp point has probably occasioned more cuts than almost any other cause. if you have a razor with a sharp point, you can round it off, on the _edge_ of the hone. you should not use the top surface of the hone for this purpose, for if you do you are quite likely to scratch the hone and spoil it. use water freely otherwise the blade will become heated and that would quickly spoil its temper. [illustration: a.--the round pointed blade.] [illustration: b.--the sharp pointed blade.] iii. care of the razor. take good care of your razor. many a fine razor has been spoiled by carelessness and neglect on the part of the user. the life of a razor will depend entirely on the care given it. never put it away until it has first been wiped thoroughly dry, using a piece of chamois skin for this purpose. even this will not remove all the moisture, so the blade should be drawn across the strop a few times, or else left exposed to the air for a few moments until the little particles of moisture not removed by the cloth have evaporated. then you may replace the razor in its case with the expectation of finding it in good condition when you next use it. rusting must be prevented, especially upon the edge, which seems to rust more quickly than any other part of the blade. a tiny rust spot on this delicate line, by causing the metal to soften and crumble at that point, will soon end the usefulness of the razor, unless the edge is ground back past the rust spot. in such a case there is always the liability of not getting a good edge. in wiping the lather off the blade never use a glazed or coarse paper. tissue paper is the best. many overlook this point and by drawing the blade straight across a glazed or hard finished paper, turn the edge, and then wonder why the razor has lost its keenness. draw the blade over the paper obliquely, away from the edge, in the same direction as when stropping it. iv. the safety razor. of recent years a great number of safety razors have been invented and placed on the market, the manufacturers of each claiming that theirs are superior to all others and that they have at last produced a razor that is destined to revolutionize shaving. one thing may be said of safety razors in general--that if a man uses one he is less likely to cut himself, but this is all that can reasonably be said in their favor. of course, if it were impossible to shave with the ordinary razor _without_ cutting one's self, then the safety razor would become a necessity. the truth is, however, that anyone who has a good keen smooth-cutting razor, lathers the face thoroughly, and will learn--if he does not already know--how to handle the razor properly, will run almost no danger. such a man will seldom cut himself. on the other hand, most of the safety razors are difficult to keep clean and dry, and therefore free from rust; and owing to the difficulty of stropping them, it is almost, if not quite impossible to keep them sharp. it is also difficult to make the correct stroke with them. probably a hundred thousand safety razors have been sold in the united states within the past few years and it is extremely doubtful if ten per cent. of them are now in use. v. the hone. the edge of a razor, when viewed under a powerful microscope, presents an appearance very different from that seen by the unaided eye. unmagnified, the edge appears to be a continuous unbroken line. such actually is not the case, for the microscope reveals the fact that, instead of being straight and unbroken, the edge is in reality composed of a great number of minute points much resembling the teeth of a saw. these points or teeth follow each other throughout the entire length of the blade, and by their extreme minuteness and unbroken regularity give the edge its exceeding keenness. now if the razor becomes dull, these teeth will be less even and regular and their edges will be rounded and worn away. to sharpen the razor, therefore, it is necessary--by making the edge as thin as possible--to restore these little teeth to their original condition. this cannot be done by stropping, but is accomplished only by the process known as honing. [illustration: edge of the razor as it appears under the microscope.] it has been asserted by some, that when once the razor has been ground and set, the strop alone without further honing or grinding is sufficient to keep it in order. this opinion has eminated from certain makers of razor-strops, who wish to induce the public to purchase their goods. they represent their strops as having been "metalized," or otherwise treated with some kind of preparation that makes honing unnecessary. as a rule, we would advise the reader to beware of these "wonder-working-strops." such preparations _may_, and sometimes _do_, improve the strop, just as lather when applied to a strop will improve it, but that they will do more than this, we deny. when the special offices of the hone and of the strop are fully understood, it will at once become apparent that no strop can possibly take the place of a hone. the object of honing a razor is to make its edge as _thin_ and _flat_ as a proper attention to the degree of firmness required will permit. this is accomplished by the hard fine grit of the hone cutting and wearing away the steel. the strop cannot do this. on the contrary, stropping a razor, instead of giving it a thin and flat edge, always has a tendency to produce a rounded one. this results from the very nature of the strop, which always "gives" or sags more or less during the process of stropping, and the more the strop is permitted to sag, the sooner will such an edge be produced, and in proportion as the edge assumes this rounded form, it losses its keenness. the flattest and thinnest edge is always the sharpest, and the only way to impart such an edge to a razor is by means of the hone. before explaining the process of honing, it may be well to say a word about the different kinds of hones, so that should the reader wish to purchase one, he may do it intelligently. there are two distinct classes of hones in general use,--one known as the rock hone, on account of its being cut from the natural rock, and the other manufactured. a great number of hones are produced in different parts of the united states, but few that are really suitable for sharpening razors. a razor hone must be of the very finest quality. the natural stones are usually composed principally of silica, which is one of the sharpest cutting minerals known. it easily cuts the hardest steel and the fine grit imparts a very smooth edge to a razor. the "arkansas," found near the famous hot springs, is one of this variety, but owing to the difficulty of obtaining this stone, and the great waste in cutting it, the supply is limited and the price high. [illustration: the hone.] most of the razor hones used in the united states are imported. the most noted are the german water hones, the oil hones from belgium, and the swaty hones from austria. the last named are very reasonable in price and quite a favorite among barbers. they are a manufactured hone, and in some respects the manufactured hones are superior to the natural stones, in that they are free from seams and uneven spots and perfectly uniform in texture. most men have the idea that honing is a difficult operation and should be undertaken only by expert cutlers or barbers. very few seem to think that they can hone there own razors. how this impression became current, it is difficult to say. we venture to assert, however, that honing a razor is at least as easy as stropping it. in this case as in many others, the difficulty arises from supposing there is a difficulty. how to use the hone vi. how to use the hone. the hone being the only means of sharpening a dull razor, its use becomes at once of the utmost importance to those who wish to keep their razors in perfect order. hones are seldom used dry, but are usually covered with either water, lather or oil: first--to prevent heating the blade which would quickly spoil its temper; second--to keep the particles of steel that are ground off the blade from entering the pores of the stone, which would soon fill up and result in what is known as a glazed surface; and third--to make the surface of the hone as smooth as possible. before commencing the operation, wipe the hone clean, then put on a few drops of oil or else cover it with water or lather. this will float the little particles of steel ground off the razor, thus preventing them from remaining directly on the hone to impede its full and equal effect. with most hones you may use either water, lather or oil; but do not change from one to the other; whichever you begin with, use that exclusively. it requires a longer time to produce a keen edge when oil is used but the edge is somewhat smoother. most barbers use lather and we should advise the beginner to do so. directions for honing. the hone, with its fine surface up, should be placed perfectly flat on a table or other solid foundation. (the rough surface is intended merely as a support and not for use.) after covering the hone with lather, place the razor flat upon it as shown in fig. a. with the thumb and fore finger, grasp the razor back of the heel, so as to have firm hold of both the blade and the handle. draw the blade from heel to point, forward against the edge, and with a moderate degree of pressure, until it comes into the position shown in fig. b. now, without lifting the blade from the stone, turn the edge up, so that the razor rests on the back of the blade. slide it forward on its back from point to heel and let it fall into the position indicated in fig. c. push the blade from heel to point against the edge, finishing the stroke as in fig. d. turn the blade on its back, slide from point to heel and let it fall into the first position, as shown in fig. a. continue honing until the blade is sufficiently keen and free from nicks and inequalities. this may be known by drawing the edge, very lightly, across the moistened thumb nail. if it sticks to the nail slightly, it is an indication that the honing has developed the little teeth which constitute the perfect razor edge, and that the razor is now ready for stropping. [illustration: how to hone the razor.] if the honing be carried too far, a "wire edge" will be produced, and this must be removed. to do this, draw the edge with a steady hand across the moistened thumb nail in the manner indicated above. the blade should then be drawn once or twice across the hone as before, in order to unite all parts of the edge and cause a perfect equality of keenness from one end of the blade to the other. with this done, the operation is in general performed, and the wondrous difficulty of honing the razor vanishes. special directions. the following directions should be specially observed. first--the blade should be held perfectly flat on the hone, so that the back, as well as the edge, touches the stone. if the back is raised from the stone so that only the edge touches, the bevel will be short and the edge blunt. second--in drawing the blade across the hone diagonally against the edge, the heel should be about one and a half inches in advance of the point, and care should be taken to maintain the same angle when the stroke is reversed and throughout the entire operation. this sets the teeth at the proper angle, that is, slightly inclined toward the heel. we have likened the edge of a razor to that of a saw, but there is this difference: saw teeth incline away from the handle and toward the point, while the razor teeth incline away from the point and toward the heel. this is correct in principle, for the saw in use is pushed away from the handle toward the point, while the razor is usually drawn away from the point toward the heel. third--press with equal force on all parts of the edge. with a good hone, very little pressure will be required. the time required to hone a razor depends much on the condition of the razor and the hardness of the steel composing it. when the edge is in the usual condition--that is when it is free from nicks and has merely become thick in consequence of the injudicious use of the razor strop--it will need very little honing; eight or ten strokes in each direction will be quite sufficient. when, however, the edge has nicks: though so small as to be scarcely perceptible, the operation will require more time and attention. should the nicks be large, it will be better to send the razor to a cutler to be ground. if the razor is well cared for and properly stropped, it will not require very frequent honing, probably not oftener than once in from six to eight weeks. when it is required you will become aware of it, from the fact that stropping will not sharpen it. vii. the strop. the object of honing the razor, as has been explained, is to abraid and wear away the edge of the blade so that it becomes as thin as possible. but when this is done, the process of sharpening the razor is still incomplete, for the edge, when taken from the hone, is left rough and unfit to put on the face. another process is necessary, and that is stropping. the object of stropping is not to make the blade thinner, but to _smooth the edge_, taking off the rough surface of the little teeth which have been developed, and setting them all in perfect alignment. this gives the razor its exceeding keenness. you should have a first-class strop. it little matters how good your razor may be if your strop is a poor one, for it is absolutely impossible to keep a razor in good condition if the strop is of poor quality or rough and haggled. many a razor has been blamed when the fault lie entirely with the strop and the manner of using it. so called sharpening preparations, sometimes applied to the surface of strops, as a substitute for the hone, should be avoided. most of them contain acid or emery, which is likely to gradually spoil the temper of the razor. there are many kinds of strops manufactured and placed on the market, some good and some bad. the most common is the swing strop, made of leather or horse hide on one side and canvas or hose on the other. some of the cheaper grades have a very _coarse canvas_, and unless you wish to ruin your razor, you should never put it on such a strop. in our opinion _a good leather or horse hide strop is the best_, and meets every requirement; but if a combination strop is used, the linen or hose side should be of the finest quality. the strop should be not less than twenty inches long and two inches wide. its surface should be very soft and smooth--not glazed--and you can tell whether it is so, by rubbing the hand over it. do not fold the strop when putting it away, for if you do you are likely to crack or roughen the surface, and this will injure the edge of the blade when it is drawn across it. care of the strop. after the strop has been put to a great deal of use, it will sometimes be found that it will not "take hold" on the razor--that is it will allow the blade to slip over it with little or no resistance and thus fail to impart a keen, smooth-cutting edge. the reason is that the strop has become dry and porous. do not attempt to remedy the matter by applying oil or razor paste; these will only make matters worse. hang the strop on a hook, and with the left hand stretch as tightly as possible. apply a good thick lather to the surface and rub it in with the palm of the hand. barbers sometimes nail the strop to a board and rub the lather in with a smooth bottle; but the hand will do quite as well, and indeed, we think it preferable. what the strop requires is to have the pores filled with the lather; so put on and work in coat after coat, until the leather will take up no more. then leave the strop to dry. this simple treatment will completely change the action of the strop, and the next time you use it, you will be surprised and delighted to note its improved effect on the razor. it will have that "cling" and "resistance" which barbers so much desire in a strop, and which, indeed, is quite essential to its efficiency. viii. how to strop the razor. place a hook in a door or a window casing about four or five feet from the floor. put the ring of the strop over the hook, and hold the handle firmly in the left hand as shown in the accompanying illustration. the strop should be pulled tight--not allowed to hang loosely--otherwise the edge of the razor will become rounded and require frequent honing. open the razor, so that the handle is in line with the blade. grasp it firmly with the right hand, the first two fingers and thumb holding the razor just back of the heel, so that perfect control is had of both the blade and handle. with the razor held in this manner it is an easy matter to turn the razor back and forth from one side to the other. [illustration: how to strop the razor.] lay the blade flat on the further end of the strop, as shown in fig. e, with the edge away from you. draw the blade toward you, always keeping the heel of the razor in advance of the point. when at the end of the strop, rotate the razor on its back till the unstroped side of the blade comes in contact with the strop, as shown in fig. f. then, with the heel in advance, push the razor away from you, until it reaches the further end of the strop. again rotate, and continue the stropping until the razor is sharp. always hold the blade at the same angle, and perfectly flat on the strop. you will observe that the stroke is exactly opposite to that used in honing. in honing, the edge is in advance; in stropping, the back. during the operation _the back of the razor should never be taken from the strop_. by observing this, and always turning the blade on its back, instead of on the edge, you will avoid cutting the strop. beginners should not attempt to make a quick stroke. let the stroke be slow and even, developing speed gradually until a complete mastery of the movement is acquired. if the razor is in good condition and not in need of honing, fifteen or twenty strokes in each direction will be sufficient. if, however, the razor should require honing, no amount of stropping will put a keen edge on it. it will usually be necessary to strop the razor each time you shave, and with stiff beards more than once may be required. ix. the brush. purchase a good brush. the cheap ones are usually the most expensive in the end, and nearly always prove unsatisfactory. it should be remembered that the vital part of a brush is in the _setting_, and particular attention should therefore be paid to that part of it. cheap brushes are commonly set with glue, rosin or cement, which soon cracks and becomes unadhesive; whereupon the bristles fall out. we recommend a brush made of bristles or badger hair and set in hard vulcanized rubber. a brush so constructed, with wood, bone or ivory handle, and hard rubber ferule, will not shed the bristles or crack open, and with proper care will last for years. [illustration: sectional view of the brush showing internal construction.] [illustration: the brush.] do not leave the lather to dry in the brush, but after shaving rinse it out thoroughly and dry the brush with a towel, before putting away. the cup and brush should be kept clean and away from dust. once a week they should be washed with hot water. x. the cup. the shaving cup should be of earthen ware or china, and large enough to accommodate the ordinary round cake of shaving soap. some cups are made with two compartments, one for soap and the other for water, but this arrangement is unnecessary, and in fact, not so convenient as the ordinary cup, for it leaves too little room for making the lather. if possible, the cake of soap should entirely fill the bottom of the cup so that no space is left between the soap and the sides: otherwise water will get in and keep the bottom of the cake continually soaked. if it is found that the cake does not quite fill the space, take the soap out and warm it until it becomes somewhat soft, then put it back in the cup, and with the hand press down the sides all around, thus flattening out the cake until it quite fills the intervening space. if at any time the soap should cleave away from the sides of the cup, it should be pressed back as at first. this will be found the most convenient way of using the soap. great care should be taken to keep the cup scrupulously clean, rinsing it out thoroughly each time after shaving, in order to remove any lather that may have been left unused. keep the cup away from dust. some use the sticks of shaving soap and make the lather on the face. while this is permissable, we think the better way is to make the lather in the cup and put it on with the brush. xi. the soap. next to the razor, the most important article of the shaving outfit is the soap. in its proper use lies the real secret of easy shaving. the razor may be ever so good, but unless the beard is properly lathered with a good soap, shaving will be anything but a pleasure. use only a regular recognized standard make of shaving soap, not, under any circumstances, a toilet soap. the latter is not intended for shaving, and is likely to produce irritations of the skin and leave the face rough and sore. a wrong idea prevails regarding the use of the soap. the popular impression is that the soap is used for the purpose of _softening_ the beard, in which condition it is supposed to be most easily cut. this is a mistake. the soap is used, _not to soften the beard_, but to produce exactly the opposite effect--namely, _to make the hair stiff and brittle_, so that they will present a firm and resisting surface to the razor. a hair, as is well known, is a tube composed of a hard fibrous substance, growing from a bulb or root, which secretes an oily matter. this oil works its way up through the hair, and by permeating all parts, renders the hair soft and pliable. now in this natural oily condition, it is very difficult to cut the hair with a razor, and it becomes even more difficult if the beard be made still softer by the application of hot water. many do this, and it is no wonder they find shaving difficult. when this is done, the hairs become soft and limp, and the razor will either slip over them entirely, or else cut partly into them, bend them back and slice them lengthwise, all the while pulling and straining them at the roots, and making the process of shaving most painful. now soap has the opposite effect. it contains either alkali, potash or soda, which when applied to the beard in the form of lather, unites with the oil of the hair, neutralizing it and removing it, and renders the hairs hard stiff and brittle--in which condition they may be easily and readily cut. for the sake of cleanliness, the face should, of course, be washed previous to shaving in order to remove any dirt or grit from the beard, which might dull the razor; but before applying the lather, the face should be well dried with a towel. xii. the lather. to make the lather, see that the soap is placed in the cup according to previous directions. fill the cup with water, allowing it to stand for a few seconds, then pour the water out. usually sufficient water to make the lather will adhere to the cup, soap and brush. now with the brush, mix thoroughly, using a combined stirring and churning motion, until a good thick lather appears. the more the brush is rubbed over the soap the thicker the lather becomes. a great deal depends upon having the lather just right. if it is thin and watery, you will have poor success in shaving. the more creamy it is, the better will be the effect of the alkali in stiffening the beard. some of the poorer qualities of soap produce lather very quickly, sometimes half filling the cup, but it will be found thin and without lasting qualities, so that by the time one side of the face has been shaved, the lather is all gone from the other. a good soap will produce a thick creamy lather that will last throughout the entire process of shaving. applying the lather. put the lather on with the brush, covering every part of the face that you intend to shave. then with the fingers _rub it thoroughly into the beard_ until the lather has had sufficient time to stiffen the hairs. next to having the razor in perfect condition, this is the most important thing to do; for it is impossible to shave easily unless the face is well lathered and the lather thoroughly worked into the beard. go over the face once more with the brush, in order to spread the lather evenly, and then _begin shaving at once_, before the lather has time to dry. should it dry while you are shaving, wet the brush slightly and apply fresh lather. if you prepare your face in accordance with these instructions, a keen razor will slip over the face so easily that shaving will become a real pleasure. xiii. instructions to beginners. if you are a young man, just beginning to shave, it is important that you commence right. it is quite as easy to learn the _right_ way as the _wrong_ way. do not entertain the idea that it is a difficult matter for one to shave himself--for there is nothing difficult about it when you know how. you may have previously tried and failed, but if you will now follow the instructions contained in this book, there is no reason why shaving may not be performed without further difficulties. [illustration: the right way to hold the razor.] the accompanying illustration shows the position in which the razor should be held. it will be observed that the handle is thrown well back past the heel. the first three fingers rest on the back of the blade, with the little finger over the crook at the end, and the thumb on the side of the blade, near the middle. in this position, with the handle acting as a balance, the razor will be under perfect control, and there will be little danger of cutting oneself. this position can be maintained throughout most of the process of shaving, although it may be necessary to change it slightly while shaving certain parts, as for instance the neck, under the jaw. but whatever the position, endeavor to have the razor at all times under perfect control. the position here indicated, is the one we should certainly advise the beginner to adopt, but if a man, from long continued use has formed the habit of holding the razor in a different way, any change will prove difficult and may not be advisable. the stroke. owing no doubt largely to individual temperament, there is considerable variation in the manner of using the razor, with different persons. some find a long slow stroke best, while others make it short and quick. each man must suit the stroke to his own convenience. but certain principles are applicable to everybody. in the first place you should begin with a slow even stroke, gradually increasing it as you gain better control of the razor. speed will develop naturally with practice. hold the razor quite flat upon the face. do not pull the razor directly down against the beard, but hold it obliquely to the direction of movement. in general shave in the direction of the growth of the beard, like this: [illustration] shaving against the growth pulls the hairs and thus irritates the skin, and if the beard is heavy and wiry the edge of the blade is quite liable to catch in the hairs and be deflected inward and cut the face. position of the mirror. the mirror should hang between two windows if possible, so that when you look into it the light will fall directly upon both sides of your face. you will then be able to get a good reflection of either side. remove the collar. to prevent soiling the shirt, place a towel around the neck in an easy, comfortable manner, pinning it at the side. xiv. the right way to shave [illustration: to shave the right side of the face.] to shave the right side of the face. reach over the head with the left hand and with the fingers draw the skin upward, thus making a smooth shaving surface. the illustration shows the proper position. shave downward until about half of the right cheek is shaved, then slide the left hand still further over until the fingers rest in the middle of the cheek and again pull the skin upward. now continue to shave downward until the entire right side of the face is shaved clean, as far as the middle of the chin and well under the jaw. [illustration: to shave the right side of the face under the jaw.] to shave the right side of the face under the jaw. hold the head over toward the left side with the chin slightly elevated. with the fingers of the left hand, draw the skin tight under the jaw. shave downward if the beard grows in that direction; if not reverse the stroke. you should never shave against the growth when going over the face the first time, if it can be avoided. keep the skin as tightly drawn as possible, for a better shaving surface is thus presented to the razor, and there is less liability of cutting yourself. [illustration: to shave the left side of the face.] to shave the left side of the face. place the fingers of the left hand in front of and just above the ear and press upward so as to draw the skin smooth on the upper left cheek. with the razor in the right hand, toe pointing upward, reach across the face as shown above, and shave downward. in shaving the lower part of the cheek and chin, follow downward with the left hand, keeping the skin tightly drawn. [illustration: to shave the left side of the face under the jaw.] to shave the left side of the face under the jaw. for many, this is the most difficult part of the face to shave as the skin is very tender, and unless treated gently will soon become irritated and sore. to shave easily, raise the chin, incline the head toward the right, and draw the skin as tight as possible with the left hand. shave downward unless, as sometimes happens, the beard grows in the opposite direction, in which case you will, of course, reverse the stroke. to shave the upper lip, draw the lip down as much as possible, to tighten the skin. owing to the strong muscle in the lip, you will hardly need to use the left hand for this purpose. [illustration: to shave under the chin.] to shave under the chin. throw the head backward and elevate the chin. hold the razor in the right hand, and with the fingers of the left hand draw the skin downward. you should always endeavor to keep the skin drawn as smooth as possible, for by so doing you will greatly lessen the liability of cutting yourself and will be able to shave much more easily. [illustration: to shave upward against the growth of the beard.] shaving over the second time. if you desire a really clean shave, you must go over the face the second time. strop the razor a few times before beginning. lather the face as before, though it is unnecessary to rub the lather in with the fingers. simply put it on with the brush. in shaving over the face the second time, some reverse the stroke. that is, they shave upward against the growth of the beard, instead of downward, as during the first time over. this gives an exceedingly close shave and if the beard is stiff and heavy and the skin thin and tender, it may make the face sore, and cause the hairs to grow inward, under the skin. perhaps the best way will be to shave _lightly_ over the face the second time, in the same direction as at first. each man should decide this point according to his own experience. xv. care of the face after shaving. most men who shave themselves seem to think that when they have removed the beard, they have nothing further to do. this is a great mistake. they undervalue the importance of a proper treatment of the face. a quick and easy way of caring for the face after shaving, is to remove the lather by a thorough washing, then to apply either witch hazel, bay rum or some other good face lotion, and to follow this with a small quantity of talcum powder, evenly applied. this is probably about all that the average man will usually find time to do. in order, however, to keep the skin in a healthful condition, a little more elaborate treatment should occasionally be given. we recommend the following: wash the face thoroughly to free it from the lather, and then apply a steaming hot towel, as hot as can be borne. the heat and moisture draw the blood to the face, open the pores, and set up a healthful action of the skin. next apply witch hazel, and finally give the face a thorough massage. there is no other treatment so beneficial to the skin. with many persons the flow of blood to the face and scalp is very sluggish, because of enfeebled or slow heart action; and in consequence, the many small arteries and capillaries become clogged. massage stimulates the circulation, and brings the blood from the inner centers to the surface, filling the many minute capillaries just underneath the skin, thus producing a tonic effect, which gives the skin renewed vigor and health. what to do for a cut. if a man cuts himself while shaving, it is usually due to certain causes that are easily avoidable. the principal causes are six in number: first--attempting to shave with a dull razor. second--using a sharp pointed razor. third--shaving with a razor that is too hollow ground, so that the edge springs and bends on the face. fourth--holding the razor improperly. fifth--shaving upward against the growth of the beard. sixth--shaving in too great a hurry. if you will avoid these mistakes and exercise proper care, you will seldom cut yourself. but when you do, it will be well to know how to treat the wound. if it be slight, the bleeding may sometimes be checked by using pressure. covering the fingers with a towel, simply press the cut together. if this does not stop the flow, use an astringent. the styptis pencils, made especially for this purpose, are the best, and may be obtained at any store where barbers' supplies are kept. in case you should not have the pencils, alum may be used. in any event do not be discouraged, for such accidents sometimes happen to the best barbers. [illustration] xvi. irritation of the skin--its cause and prevention. some men almost always experience burning and irritation of the skin after shaving. to such, we wish to offer some suggestions, which we hope will greatly benefit, if not entirely prevent the trouble. the most common cause of irritation is undoubtedly a dull razor. if the razor is keen and sharp, the hairs will yield readily to the blade and no irritation will be produced. but if the blade is dull, instead of cutting the hairs easily, it passes over some, slices other lengthwise, and pulls and strains at the roots of all. this necessitates scraping the face over and over again, in order to get a clean shave, and the result is an irritation that perhaps continues until you are ready to shave again. thus the tender parts of the skin are kept in a state of continual irritation. the remedy is of course, to see that the razor is always keen and sharp. another cause that may be mentioned, is chafing of the neck by the collar. if the edge of the collar is worn and rough, and comes in contact with the tender skin, it is sure to make it sore. too close shaving is a frequent cause, and those who are troubled in this way will do well to shave over the face but once. some of the cheap toilet waters are adulterated, and contain ingredients which undoubtedly produce a bad effect on the skin. in using bay rum or other face lotions, use only the best. if much trouble is experienced, we should advise the use of pure distilled witch hazel, which may be obtained at any drug store. this is soothing to the face and allays the burning. sometimes the trouble is due to an excess of alkali or potash in the soap. the best shaving soaps are especially prepared and have antiseptic and demulcent properties, which render them practically non-irritating. after shaving, take care to remove all the soap from the face; for during the process, the lather has been worked into the pores of the skin, and only by means of a thorough washing can it all be removed. irritations resulting from constitutional disease, or impurity of the blood, should, of course, be treated by a physician. some men are more subject to irritation of the skin than others. those who have a thin and tender skin and a heavy and stiff beard, are especially liable, but with care, even these may prevent most of the trouble. ------------------------------------------------------------- [transcriber's note: lead-paint warning! do not use the ground-lead paint ingredients mentioned in the "coloring the toys" chapter. see transcriber's notes at end of document for more details.] ------------------------------------------------------------- educational toys consisting chiefly of coping-saw problems for children in the school and the home by louis c. petersen, b. sc. director of manual arts, state normal university, carbondale, illinois [illustration] published by the manual arts press peoria, illinois copyright louis c. petersen contents _page_ introduction tools and supplies bow drill transferring designs woods laying out work sawing fastening bases fastenings coloring toys working drawings and directions the buzzer the shark puzzle duck goose wild duck hen deer cow weasel tiger rocking rhino minstrels squirrel pig kangaroo camel giraffe swan rocker balancing peacock toy dog teddy bear parrot doll's hobby horse stern wheeler the weather-cock arm-chair and rocking-chair doll's cradle doll's bed doll's table kites wood choppers the bucking goats pecking hens acrobat climbing sailor the jumping jack balancing barrister the dancing rastus the spanking esquimaux wabbler falling teeter-totter tumbling tommie the busy pup the dinkey bird pelican sewing stand whirligig the cart the wagon flying goose the dodo bird rocking-horse and rider animated elephant the bucking mule fox-and-goose game nine men's mill disc puzzle ball puzzle appendix knots and braids introduction the purpose in sending out this collection of toys is to promote among children a love for educational occupation. this book is intended to be of real service to parents and teachers who are intrusted with the arduous responsibility of child-training. it is with this object in view that the directions, drawings and photographs have been prepared. the experience of almost twenty years as a teacher has convinced the author that only when the child approaches subject-matter with interest and enthusiasm can the best results be obtained. giving a child an opportunity to make things, arouses his interest; therefore, learning by doing is a most effective method in gaining educational ends. toy-making incorporates this method, with several vital elements added. it takes into account the child's view-point, his proclivities and his emotions. it is a form of activity that appeals strongly to his fancy, has a direct relation to his environments, and is within the range of his mental grasp and constructive ability. his wonderful imagination endows the creatures of his handiwork with life, individuality and cunning. the toy problem is in harmony with the child's resourcefulness, his powers and his interests. the problems contained in this book have been selected from those worked out in the normal model school. they have been tested under ordinary class-room conditions. to survive the weeding-out process, a toy has had to meet the following requirements: . it must be within the child's power. . it must excite and sustain interest. . it must possess educational value. . it must be adaptable to light-wood construction. . it must conform in size and complexity to the limited space and equipment of class-room conditions. in his early years, the child begins tinkering with what materials and tools he can find, making something. the wise parent and teacher will turn that healthful, happy, creative instinct into good, useful channels. he will encourage and guide the child, in these early attempts, by surrounding him with congenial conditions, by furnishing him suggestions, pictures, drawings and such other aids as will direct him to occupational problems of educational value, and by providing him with a place to work, the tools, wood, nails, wire and other necessary equipment. one advantage in connection with the kind of educational hand work presented in this book is that it can be carried on with a very small and inexpensive equipment. moreover, it is light, clean and agreeable in every respect. the tools are safe for a child to handle. the material is substantial and durable. the articles made are firm, strong and of lasting quality. they become an excellent means for providing an abundance of entertainment, and constitute most acceptable gifts, promoting as much genuine happiness for the industrious donor as for the fortunate receiver. toy-making may readily be adapted to class-room conditions and a period be devoted to it each day. members of the class may be appointed to distribute the tools and material at the beginning of the period, and collect them at the end. while at work, each pupil should stay at his desk and keep it neat and orderly. when not in use, the equipment should be locked up in a box having suitable compartments for the tools and materials. the teacher who is to conduct the class should be thoroly familiar with the work and should have made each model before taking it up as a class problem. the work as a whole should be conducted in a systematic and quiet manner; concise planning, prompt action, and accuracy in details should be insisted upon. the cheerful spirit, the formation of correct habits, and the proper regard for everything and everybody should be cultivated along with skill in constructing and good taste in coloring the toys. if for any valid reason this work can not be carried on in the school, the teacher should encourage the pupils to do it as home work. the child can buy his own scroll saw and colors, and furnish his own wood. the work can be done outside of school, but still be under the supervision and guidance of the teacher. the training that comes thru reading and interpreting directions and drawings, and carrying out the instruction in every detail, is of value to every child, no matter what his future career may be. the child should, therefore, have a book of his own, giving directions and drawings. furthermore, the teacher should give the proper amount of credit for the home work. l. c. petersen. tools and supplies the equipment listed below is suggestive for ordinary class-room conditions. the number of pupils should not exceed twenty-four. _tools for each pupil_: " rule. coping-saw. saw-bracket, fig. . a working drawing of the saw-bracket is shown in fig. . a water-color brush. [illustration: fig. ] _tools for every four pupils_: scissors. compass. water-color pan. - / " round-nose pliers, fig. . " side-cutting pliers. oz. claw hammer. " half-round mill file. bow-drill, see fig. . [illustration: fig. ] _general class equipment and supplies_: a box for locking up equipment and work. breast drills. iron block to serve as anvil. quires of no. / sand-paper. le page's glue in two one-pint cans. gross coping-saw blades. lb. each of / ", / " and " brads. lbs. each of / " no. , " no. , - / " no. , - / " no. , and - / " no. flat-headed nails. lb. each of / ", / " and / " brass escutcheon pins. ft. of no. copper-coated steel wire. a few nails of various sizes for making drills. turpentine. alcohol. borax. brushes of various sizes. paint--red, yellow, green, blue, black and white of the paints to be used. several good enamel paints, ready for use, are on the market. "calcimo" is cheaper, but not so convenient, as it must be prepared. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] bow drill the bow drill is useful for drilling small holes in wood, and may easily be made by a child. first, procure an ordinary thread spool. push a round stick six inches long thru the hole with a tight fit. shape the top of the stick to a point (fig. ). drive a nail into the other end of the stick. cut the head off the nail, hammer it flat at the end, and sharpen it with a file. in this way a drill of any size needed for the work can be made. the bow is made from a slender, flexible stick, about twenty inches long. a notch is cut at each end where the ends of a strong string are securely tied. slip the bow string once around the spool and spin it. the top end of the spindle is guided in a shallow hole in a piece of wood as shown at h in fig. . this block of wood is held in the left hand while the right moves the bow back and forth, spinning the spindle and drilling the hole. transferring designs the shapes of people, animals and birds on the plates that follow are drawn full size. they are intended to be made of wood, and may be transferred by any one of the following methods: (_a_) place a piece of transparent paper, known as tracing paper, over the drawing in the book, and with a soft, sharp lead pencil, trace all the lines on the drawing. cut out the traced shape with a pair of scissors. place it on the wood, and with pencil trace along the edge of the paper pattern. (_b_) make a tracing and paste it on the wood. (_c_) place a piece of carbon paper on the wood, carbon side down. on this, place the tracing in position and fasten it down with two thumb tacks. with a hard pencil, or a stylus, go over all the lines of tracing. pressure should be applied as the lines are being traced so that they may show plainly on the wood. (_d_) rub the back of the tracing with graphite (the lead of the pencil). place it on the wood, and with a hard pencil, or a stylus, trace the lines. (_e_) when a permanent pattern is desired for class use, place the tracing on a piece of cardboard, and transfer the outline by method _c_ or _d_, indicated above. with a sharp, pointed knife or shears cut the cardboard accurately to line. place this template on the wood, and with a sharp pencil, held vertically, draw lines around the edge of the template. this method serves well for class work. woods save the thin-wood boxes found at home. ask the store-keeper to save boxes instead of burning them. a rich supply of wood for toy-making may be secured in this way. for class work, it will be necessary to buy wood prepared and surfaced to dimensions. the thicknesses most convenient for school work are / ", / ", / ", / ", / ". while three-ply wood is best for the thin stock, the single-ply answers the purpose when due care is given to the direction of the wood fibers--the grain. such woods as maple, elm, birch, cherry and bay wood are very durable, but rather hard to work. bass wood, poplar and sugar pine are easy to work, are preferable in school, and give satisfactory results. laying out work it is important to have the patterns placed correctly on the wood so that the desired result may be reached. one of the things sought is the greatest possible strength in the parts sawed out. the grain of the wood should, therefore, run lengthwise of the wood where the parts are narrow. another thing desired is the economical use of material. the patterns should, therefore, be so arranged on the wood that the outlines will match closely together and thus use up as nearly as possible all surface space on the board. generally, it is advisable to place the larger patterns first, beginning near a corner of the board, and then fit in the smaller patterns on the intermediate spaces. where the drawings are not full size, the dimensions are shown in inches or fractions of an inch. guided by the figures, the outlines of the object may be laid out directly on the wood by ruler, pencil and compasses. in laying out the different shapes on the wood, attention should be given to the direction of the grain of the wood, to have it run lengthwise the object, not crosswise. sawing after the different shapes have been properly laid out on the wood, the next thing to do is to saw them out with a coping-saw. the wood is placed flat on a saw-bracket, pattern side up. this saw-bracket is fastened to the edge of a desk or a table top and should be adjusted in height so the top of it is about " below the child's chin. the child may stand or sit, when at work, whichever is most comfortable, but a standing position gives more freedom of movement. the wood is held and guided on the saw-bracket with the left hand, while the right hand operates the coping-saw with an up-and-down motion in the v-shaped opening in the bracket. the coping-saw is the principal tool needed for this work, and may be purchased with extra blades for about cents. the frame is made of spring steel and holds the blade in tension. by pressing the frame against the edge of a table, it may readily be sprung enough to allow the blade to be put into the slots in the ends of the frame. there is a pair of end slots and a pair of side slots in the frame. the blade may be inserted into these slots with either the teeth edge or the smooth edge of the blade towards the frame. _the points of the teeth should always point towards the handle of the frame._ the frame is held with the handle down. the saw does the cutting as it is pulled downward. in working the saw, the blade must be kept perpendicular to the face of the wood. the blade should never be forced against the wood, as that will cause the wood to tear, and leave a ragged edge. saw right to the line. keep the saw going up and down to insure freedom and plenty of room for the blade, especially in turning corners. when removing it from the work, do not attempt to twist the blade or let the frame hang on it, as the blades are brittle and break easily. when an opening is to be sawed out, bore a hole in the middle of the part to be cut out, remove the blade from the upper part of the frame, while holding it in place in the lower part with the thumb of the right hand. slip the blade thru the hole from below, and replace it in the slot while pressing the upper part of the frame against the edge of the desk. when the opening has been cut, the saw may be removed by reversing the operation. in all cases, saw the edge of the wood to a finish as far as possible. rough or fuzzy edges should be removed by filing and sand-papering. fastening to bases where toys have bases, they should be made of two or more thicknesses, one overlapping the other. the lower piece should be thicker than the upper, extending a distance equal to the thickness of the upper part. when both the toy and the base parts are ready to fasten together, hold the toy in a vise, with its feet up, and drive nails thru the upper part of the base into the feet. then fasten the top to the lower part with escutcheon pins. space the pins accurately. fastenings several methods are employed in fastening parts together in toy-making. where parts are joined together permanently, a thin coat of liquid glue should be rubbed on the joining surfaces with a small paddle, and then fastened with several brads. where possible, these brads should reach thru the parts just enough to be clenched on the other side (a, fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] a movable joint is secured by one flat-headed nail which acts as a pivot, on which one or more of the parts turn. the nail must reach thru the wood far enough to allow the end to be bent back like a staple and be driven into the wood. a loose joint is required in some toys so that the parts may swing without friction. a flat-headed nail is used as a pivot, and holes, a little bigger than the nail, are bored thru all but one of the parts to be joined together. the part that will be nearest to the point of the nail has no hole bored in it, for it should fit tight. the nail must reach thru the joint far enough so that it may be bent back, staple-like, and when the point is driven back into the wood, the joint should swing freely. the nail may be bent with round-nose pliers (b, fig. ). coloring the toys the possibilities that may be achieved in beautifying these wooden toys are almost limitless. they may be treated as design problems, thereby serving as a means of training the taste and imagination as well as developing an appreciation of space relations and color harmonies. the work is fascinating to children and presents an excellent opportunity for acquiring knowledge and skill in mixing and applying colors. several methods are given here. the choice of method should be guided by the child's ability and experience in doing work of this kind. the employment of striking and brilliant colors will enhance the charm and increase the artistic effect. the methods of coloring are arranged in the order of their difficulty in manipulation: _method no. ._ water colors may be used to color the wood, but only a little water should be used so as to prevent the tendency to spread. when the toy is dry, a coat of shellac may be applied over the water color. this protects the wood and gives the toy a crisp and bright appearance. _method no. ._ of the calcimine paints, the one known as "calcimo" may be used successfully by children. it is procured in powder form and costs from to cents a pound according to color. it is mixed with water that contains a binder to prevent the colors from rubbing off in handling the toys. the binder may be either glue or mucilage mixed with the water. the proportion is about a tablespoonful of glue to a quart of water. in preparing the colors, put a teaspoonful of powder in a water-color pan and add water, while stirring and rubbing out the lumps, till the mixture comes to a consistency of thick cream. it may then be applied with a no. water-color brush. [tr note: ------------------------------------------------- lead warning! do not use the white lead or ground lead ingredients mentioned in methods and . -------------------------------------------------end of tr note] _method no. ._ when handled correctly, oil paint and enamel paint give excellent results, producing a smooth, brilliant gloss. first, give the toy a coat of white lead or flat white tone. apply it with a flat sash brush about an inch wide. allow the toy to dry four or five days and then sand-paper it smoothly with no. / sand-paper. finally, give it a coat of enamel paint of the colors desired. if colored enamel is not at hand, use white enamel and add colors ground in oil. the enamel paint is put on a surface with a large camel-hair brush. use no. artist's flat brush for features. natural details and life-like effects should be avoided. the features should be conventionalized. eyes, ears, nose and mouth may be dotted in with a tooth-pick. _method no. ._ for a second coat, instead of using enamel for coloring, white lead ground in oil may be used, mixed with colors ground in oil. this produces a mat or dull finish that is quite pleasing. however, if a gloss finish is desired, a coat of varnish may be applied over the dull color. dry colors may be mixed with shellac varnish until it is heavy enough to cover the wood. if this mixture becomes too thick to spread smoothly, it may be thinned with alcohol. the brush that has been used in varnish may be cleaned by washing in borax water. when the joints are movable, it is advisable to paint each part separately before putting them together. where glue has been used to form joints, it should be thoroly dry before the toy is painted. [illustration] [illustration] working drawings and directions in beginning the construction of these toys, read the directions carefully so as to understand the process of construction. study how you can best arrive at the desired results. by thinking ahead, as you proceed, many mistakes may be prevented. be careful in making your drawings. keep your pencil sharp. be precise in making measurements. handle the tools with care. finish one job before starting another. have a place for your tools. keep your glue and wood-finishes well covered to prevent drying. keep your brushes in kerosene to prevent them from getting stiff. be clean in handling colors. let one color get dry before joining on another. let the colors join on sharp and definite lines. pick up only a small amount of color with the brush. lay the color on in a thin coat. clean your brushes before putting them away. give your work that clean, crisp, snappy appearance which is the mark of superior craftsmanship. [illustration] the buzzer this toy is made from / " stock. two / " holes are located on a straight line passing thru the center, one on each side of the center and / " from it. the circle is drawn with compass, and then sawed to the line. the circumference is stepped off into lengths equal to the radius, and every second point connected by line with the center. this divides the surface into three equal spaces called sectors. color each sector with one of the primary colors--red, blue and yellow. a strong cord is slipped thru the two holes, and the ends tied together in a square knot, leaving a loop on each side of the wheel. to operate the buzzer, insert a finger of each hand in the loops and swing the disk around in a circular motion till the strands of the cord are twisted together. then pull hard on the cord so that the disk will be set into a spinning motion as the cord is being unwound. at this instant slacken the cord so that the disk may continue turning, and rewind the string. then pull on the cord again, and the disk will spin in the opposite direction. by whirling the disks rapidly in this way, the colors will blend and show a new color produced by the three primary colors. the other side of the wheel may have half of it colored yellow and half colored blue. this will blend into green when spun. by pasting paper sectors of different colors on the wheel, an infinite number of tests in color-blending may be made. the shark puzzle the shark is sawed out as shown in the drawing and three holes bored. to make one of the rings, draw two concentric circles--one / " radius and the other / " radius. first, saw out the inner circle and then the outer. take a piece of cord a foot long, double it and slip the loop thru the middle hole in the shark. next, put the two ends of the cord thru the loop. slip a ring on each end of the cord, and tie with a slip knot into the end hole in the shark. puzzle: transfer a ring from one end to the other. [illustration: buzzer shark puzzle] duck the parts for this fowl are sawed out of / " stock. the edges should be sawed square and to line, and may be made smooth and slightly rounded by filing and sand-papering. the two feet should be made alike and held together when the hole for the nail is drilled thru them. the bottom of the feet will then be on the same level, and the duck will stand upright. put a fine " nail thru one foot, drive it thru the body, at the proper place, and press it thru the other foot. with round-nose pliers, bend the end of the nail around so the end will point toward the wood (fig. ). place the head of the nail against a block of iron, and with the hammer drive the point of the nail into the foot. the joint should be firm and movable so the duck will stand at different postures. color the body brown, with black outlines and streaks on the wings, the bill yellow, the head green, and the feet red. [illustration: fig. . platform bases.] goose this project may be made of / " stock and fastened to a platform base (fig. ). the platform is made of two rectangular pieces one on top of the other. the upper is - / " by - / "; the lower, - / " by ". the grain in the two pieces should cross to prevent warping. to fasten the goose to the platform, outline on the upper piece of the platform the position for the foot. hold the goose with foot up. drive - / " brads thru the upper piece of the platform into the foot. on the upper side of this upper piece of the platform, locate points at each corner, / " from the outer edges, and drive / " escutcheon pins thru it into the lower piece of the platform. smooth all parts, and color the body white with black trimmings. make the bill yellow, the feet red and the platform green. [illustration: duck goose] wild duck the body may be cut from / " stock, or from heavier material if so desired. it may be whittled to natural shape with a pocket knife before fastening it onto the platform. the bill, eye and feet are colored yellow, throat, breast and tail red, head and wings dark green, and platform blue. hen the construction of this problem is similar to that of the goose. her feet and comb are colored red, body white with black trimming, beak and platform yellow. [illustration] [illustration: wild duck hen] deer the stock is / " thick, the grain running vertical. it should be mounted on a wheel base / " by " by - / " (fig. ). the deer is colored reddish brown, but nearly white under the body and on the lower parts of the legs. color the base black and the wheels red. [illustration: fig. . wheel base.] [illustration: deer] cow the stock is / " thick. the grain of the wood should run vertical. the cow should be mounted on a wheel base / " by " by - / ". wheels are / " thick, - / " diameter. this is a jersey cow, and should be colored accordingly. the base may be colored green, and the wheels red. [illustration] [illustration: cow] weasel this little creature is wary and swift as lightning in its movements. the stock should be / " thick, the grain running lengthwise of the body. it may be mounted on rocker base / " by - / " by " (fig. . see text on "minstrels," page ). it is reddish brown with under part of body light. [illustration: fig. . rocker bases.] [illustration: weasel] tiger this may be treated in the same way as the weasel except the coloring. examine a tiger in the zoo, or look up some colored pictures of tigers so you will know just how to draw his stripes and just what color to make them. [illustration] [illustration: tiger] rocking rhino the rhinoceros should be cut out and colored and mounted on a platform which has rockers fastened to its edges (fig. ). hold the animal in the vise, head down, and nail thru the platform into the feet. [illustration] [illustration: rocking rhino] minstrels the stock for the two minstrels, the platform and the rockers is / " thick, with the grain of the wood running lengthwise in each object. the bottom of the feet of the figures should fit squarely onto the platform. the rockers are laid off with the compass. the center of the arc is on a separate piece of wood of the same thickness as the rocker. when the rockers are accurately finished and nailed to the platform, a center line is drawn along the under side of the platform, and points located to match the position of the feet of the figures. use / " brads and drive them thru the platform. hold the figures, heads down, in the vise, or in clamps, and, in turn, drive the brads thru the feet and into the legs so that the figures will stand in an upright position. they are then colored in such brilliant attire as is becoming two gay minstrels. [illustration] [illustration: minstrels] squirrel the squirrel is generally regarded as being wary and wild. still, by wise and kind treatment, its timidity can be overcome, and it may become quite tame. all parts of the squirrel may be made from / " stock. saw out the body, two fore, two hind legs and a nut. hold each pair of legs together in boring holes thru them. smooth the parts and assemble them by firm movable joints. color throat and breast light gray, and the remainder brown. [illustration: squirrel] pig this problem is worked out similar to the squirrel. it may be colored red, black or white, with large spots. [illustration] [illustration: pig] kangaroo this animal has its home in australia, where the birds are songless and the trees give no shade. it has a very powerful tail which serves with the two long hind legs as its support and for making enormous bounds. the fore legs, much like arms, are used with surprising dexterity by this strange animal. the nose, throat and breast are very light, the rest of the body is reddish brown. [illustration: kangaroo] camel it is with significance that this beast is called the ship of the desert. like a ship crossing a wide ocean of water, the camel travels across a great expanse of sand carrying heavy loads of freight. it has a wonderful endurance and can go for a week without drinking, subsisting on the coarse grass of that waste region, and the water stored up in its humps. its dreamy eyes, sullen nature, angular figure and neutral grey-brown color--all seem to resemble the rocky desert itself. [illustration] [illustration: camel] giraffe this creature (fig. ) is, unquestionably, the tallest of all the beasts of the forests of africa. it does not stoop to obtain its living from the ground, but browses on the tops of trees. it is also called the camelopard, suggesting a resemblance in shape to the camel and in color to the leopard. it is cream-colored with a shower of dark-brown spots on its back and sides. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: giraffe] swan rocker all the parts may be made from / " stock. the two sides are made like the pattern. the seat is - / " wide, the back - / ". both are " long, and serve to unite the two sides. when the parts are finished and ready for assembling, mark on the sides the exact location of seat and back; also the position of each nail on all parts. hold the two sides together and make small holes thru them where the nails are to be driven. nail, in turn, the seat and back to the first side, and then to the second side. color white and decorate appropriately. [illustration] [illustration: swan rocker] balancing peacock saw out the shape of the fowl as outlined in the drawing. there is good chance for display of fine color in dark-green and blue. the breast should be colored brown. make a small stick about " long for a perch. drive a small nail into each end of the stick, and tie the ends of a fine cord to each nail. press a brad thru the middle of the stick up into the foot of the peacock. it may then be hung up by the long loop of the string and swung freely. [illustration] [illustration: peacock] toy dog this dog may be made of / " or / " stock. when put together, the two pieces for the body are separated by the head, tail and two circular pieces. the legs are fastened to the outside of the body by two long nails that reach thru the five thicknesses. the ends of the nails are bent back. smooth the parts and color white, with large black spots on head, back, tail and legs. [illustration] [illustration: toy dog] teddy bear this animal has two pieces for the body. the head and two circular pieces hold these two pieces apart. the head and legs move on tight joints so that the bear will stay in the desired position. [illustration] [illustration: teddy bear] parrot this may be made of / " stock. the base has two holes bored thru it for the uprights with fit tight into the holes (fig. ). the perch is " long and has a brad in each end to swing on. these brads fit loose thru the uprights near the top ends. the parrot is sawed out, and a / " brad driven up thru the foot which also fits into the hole in the middle of the perch. the parrot may be colored white with black trimmings, yellow beak and eyes, red crest, tail and foot. the wings are green. the stand should have a green base, red uprights, and yellow perch. the bird should balance well and swing freely. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: parrot] doll's hobby horse the two body pieces of the horse with rocker are sawed from / " wood. the seat and back are made alike, as are also the shelf and foot-rest. the ends of these four pieces should be at right angles to the sides, and the edges should be slightly rounded. mark carefully on both side pieces where the cross-pieces are to be fastened. hold the two together and make fine holes thru the two thicknesses where the nails are to go thru. by driving the brads thru these holes, fasten all the cross pieces to one side, and watch that the brads go straight. then fasten the other side in a similar way. color the horses white, rockers red, and seat blue. [illustration: doll's hobby horse] stern wheeler this boat is sawed out according to the drawing, and notches cut on the arms at the stern as a place for the rubber band which serves both as axle and motive power. the paddles are sawed out to fit together to form a stern wheel with four paddles. the elastic is made in a double loop of four thicknesses, one of which is placed in each of the four angles of the paddle. by twisting the elastic band, power is stored up sufficient for the boat to attain a fair rate of speed. a spool serves as smoke-stack. paint the boat white and smoke-stack red. [illustration] the weather-cock this fowl may be made of / " stock; a shingle will do. let the grain run vertically. the perch may be made of similar stock, triple thickness, with the middle piece short to allow room for the foot of the rooster. the pieces are securely fastened together with nails, and a hole bored in the other end of the perch for a metal pivot, on which it should swing to tell the way the wind blows. give it two coats of paint, using brilliant colors. [illustration: stern wheeler weather cock] arm-chair and rocking-chair these two doll's chairs are similar in construction. make them from / " wood. saw out two sides, a back and a seat for each chair. have edges finished accurately. the seats are alike for the two chairs. the backs, also, are alike, except that the one for the rocker is / " longer than the other. assemble as shown in dotted lines, and fasten with " brads. the chairs may be colored white or mahogany. with due care and skill, this furniture may be made very attractive and valuable. [illustration: rocking chair arm chair] doll's cradle every little girl loves to own a cradle for her doll. here is one that is strong and pretty, and can easily be made from thin wood about / " thick. saw out the two ends after tracing the outline from the full-sized drawing. the two sides and bottom have their dimensions given. when properly shaped and smooth, the bottom is fastened with " brads between the ends. one-inch brads are driven thru the sides into the edges of the ends. be careful when driving the brads that the sides do not split and that the brads go straight. paint the cradle white on the outside and violet or pink inside. [illustration] [illustration: doll's cradle] doll's bed this is a problem that will appeal to the little girl. it is also needed to complete the set of doll's house furniture. it is made of / " wood and fastened with " brads. the grain should be run from top to bottom in the ends of the bed and lengthwise in sides and bottom. the parts should be cut out of paper full size and placed on the wood as patterns. in cutting out the ends, fold the paper on the vertical center line so as to cut the two halves at the same time. when all parts are sawed out, fasten the bottom to the two ends, and then put the sides in place. the bed is colored like the rest of the furniture. doll's table this table, being part of the furniture set, may be made from / " stock. the four pieces comprising the legs are made from two paper patterns that are laid out to measure, folded on the vertical center line, cut out symmetrically, then traced on the wood, sawed out, smoothed and fastened together with / " brads. the top is drawn directly on the wood with compass and fastened with / " brads, centrally on the legs. it is colored white, brown, mahogany or some other shade to harmonize with the general color scheme of the doll's house and its furnishings. [illustration] [illustration: doll's bed doll's table] kites kite-flying is known the world over. every boy wants to make and fly a kite. it is a sport that is almost limitless in its possibilities. kites may be made any size, of almost any shape and with all sorts of decorations. the two models here presented are types of practical fliers and are easily made. one needs a tail to steady it in its flight, the other is tailless, but has the cross rod sprung by means of a string into the shape of a bow. the wind is caught against the convex surface and renders it steady. in the making of kites, it is essential that a few things be observed: if the size be changed, the same proportions should be maintained. make the wooden stays as light as possible consistent with strength. be sure to preserve balance both in distance and weight of the various parts. make the cross-lap joint secure by driving a light nail thru the several thicknesses and bending down the end; then tie them together with strong twine. cut a notch in the outer ends of the stays and in stringing the twine taut prevent it from slipping by tying a knot around the stick and thru the notch. the paper should be very light and strong. it is doubled over the string and pasted together. the guy-strings are fastened to the ends of the wooden stays and the anchor line securely tied to them with several knots directly opposite where the stays cross. a few adjustments in point of balance and of the weight of the tail may be necessary in starting to fly the kite, but after they are made, it should rise to a great height and maintain a steady flight. [illustration] [illustration: kites] wood choppers the stock required is / " thick. two bodies, two arms with axes, and two bars are needed for this toy. the upper bar has a place / " from its center which is widened to resemble a tree stump an inch high. the pairs of parts are held together while holes are being bored thru them. the shoulders of the men and arms should have small holes to make a fixed joint while the men's legs and the bars should have holes closely fitting " nails. both bars are located on the side of the men on which the arms are fastened. color the coats, hats and sleeves blue, boots and axes black, arms, fingers, faces pink, and trousers red, bars green, and stump brown. [illustration: wood choppers] the bucking goats from / " stock, saw out two bodies, as shown in the full-size drawing, and two bars shown in the dimensioned drawing. place the two bodies together and bore holes in the hind legs, as shown, for " nails. do likewise with the two bars. color the goats white, with large brown spots on their backs, necks and legs. color the horns and hoofs black, and the bars gray or brown. fasten with movable joints, one bar on each side of the goats, having them cross as indicated in the assembled drawing. [illustration] [illustration: bucking goats] pecking hens saw out two bodies and four legs for the two hens. hold two legs together and bore five fine holes thru them as shown in the drawing. then place one of these with each of the unbored legs and bore these, using the first pair as template for boring the second. also bore holes in the two bodies together, saw out the two bars and bore the holes thru the two together. saw out the upright and the tilting pans; bore holes, and fasten together with a loose joint. enlarge the two lower holes in legs of the hens to the size of a " nail. fasten two legs to each hen with three / " brads, and clench. finish the parts in appropriate contrasting colors. place the two bars between the legs of the hens and insert thru the holes " nails, bending their ends back to form a loose joint. take the upright and the pans, and fasten the lower end of the upright to the middle of the upper bar so that each pan will tilt when the hens peck. [illustration: pecking hen] acrobat the body, arms and legs are made of / " wood. after the acrobat is sawed out and holes are bored, paint the parts in gay colors. assemble with loose joints. the two upright sticks are fastened to the cross piece by two " brads at each end, after the two holes are bored in the upper ends for the cord. it is colored green or black. insert a strong double cord thru the frame and the hands of the acrobat. there is a twist in the cord when the legs are down, but it is straight when the arms point down. [illustration: acrobat] climbing sailor this nimble tar climbs a rope according to a style that is all his own. pull on the string, and the friction on the two nails between his legs being greater than that between his hands, his hands glide upward. let go, and the elastic band between his legs and arms pulls his legs up, and he thus gets a fresh grip. saw out of / " stock one body, two arms and two legs. the arms are fastened to the body with three / " brads and clenched. the legs have a loose hip joint on a " nail with the end bent back. the rubber band is held between arms and legs by two nails. the string is held between two thicknesses of felt or cardboard that are fastened between the hands with two brads to produce the required friction. bore holes to avoid splitting. the string passes down between the two legs around two nails that pass thru both legs but do not pull them together. color the cap white and suit blue. [illustration] [illustration: climbing sailor] the jumping jack the wood should be / " thick. two of each pattern is required, except the head, which may be made of slightly thicker stock. bore the holes as shown to form loose joints. color the cap and body blue, thighs and upper arms yellow, calves and fore arms pink, and shoes brown. insert small nails into edge of arms and thighs at the points where the strings are to be attached. take two pieces of string, two feet long; tie the ends of one to nails in the arms, the ends of the other to the nails in the thighs. insert " nails thru one of the body pieces; drive / " brads thru it and the neck; place arms and legs in position; adjust the strings to proper lengths, and tie a knot on them. place the other body piece in position. bend back the ends of the nails, making loose joints, and drive the brads thru the neck into the second body piece, and clench. fasten the legs together with loose joints, and all should work freely. [illustration: jumping jack] balancing barrister the body may be sawed from / " stock as outlined in the drawing. find its center of gravity by balancing it on a knife edge, crosswise, and then lengthwise. draw lines along the knife edge where it balances. where these intersect is the center of gravity. bore a hole at this point of intersection perpendicular to the body, and so as to fit tight on a / " dowel rod. make two discs " diameter, / " thick, with a hole to fit tight on the dowel on each side of the man. color his shirt red, hat and trousers blue, arms and stockings white, and dowel, shoes and parallel bars black. the frame on which the man should balance (fig. ), with his head just a little the lighter, is made of seven pieces. the base, / " x " x "; the four uprights, / " x " x - / ", and the two bars, / " x / " x ", are firmly fastened together so that the two bars will be parallel and horizontal. when the man is properly balanced, which may be accomplished by whittling off a little stock where needed, he should roll from end to end of the bars by giving the dowel a twist between two fingers. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: balancing barrister] the dancing rastus all parts of the body are of / " stock. when sawed out, the parts are colored separately and assembled. all joints should swing without friction. therefore, bore all holes larger than the nail, thru all thicknesses, except the one nearest to the point of the nail. at elbows and knees have the heads of the nails on the inside. at the shoulders place a small wheel between the arms and body, and use a - / " nail for pivot, with plenty of play. the platform (fig. ) is of thin, springy wood, - / " wide and " long. the upright post is of / " stock about " long and securely nailed to the platform and braced with a small block. holes are bored into rastus' back and the post so as to fit tight on no. spring brass wire, " long. put a weight on the rear end of the platform, let the front end project out over the edge of a table and set it vibrating. this should cause rastus to swing legs and arms in a merry fashion. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration] [illustration: dancing rastus] the spanking esquimaux the stock for all parts is / " thick except for the oar and broom which should be / " thick. saw out the two figures, wheels and bars. hold the two wheels together and bore two holes for the pivot nails. do similarly to the bars. assemble wheels and bars temporarily to mark places on the wheels where the feet of the figures will be fastened. saw out the oar and broom. color all the parts separately in bright contrasting values to bring out the outlines of the arms and other parts of the figures. fasten the wheels to the feet, the bars to the wheels in loose joint, and the oar and broom to the man and woman in positions indicated by the dotted lines. when properly put together, the figures should swing when the bars are moved back and forth, and the oar and broom go flying and strike with a rattling bang. [illustration] [illustration: spanking esquimaux] wabbler this toy is made so that the wabbler can go or glide down the ladder on his elbows. the ladder is made from soft wood / " to / " thick, - / " wide, and " long. the openings are cut as shown, and nails located and driven in exactly as indicated in the drawing. the ladder is then securely fastened to the base which is made of / " wood, - / " square. the wabbler is sawed out of / " wood. a full-sized drawing is shown. this is all one piece without openings. features and parts of the body are to be worked out by using paints of different colors. [illustration] [illustration: wabbler] falling teeter-totter the stock for the upright piece and end supports is / " thick; that for the two boys and teeter-totter is / " thick. the upright is made " wide and " long. on the center line lay off points - / " apart. with these as centers, draw semi-circles of " radius alternately on both sides of center line. from each center draw lines tangent to the circles, as shown in the drawing. saw to these lines and curves, and finish the edges so that they are smooth. saw out two boys and the teeter-totter board (b, fig. ), cutting out the center opening accurately. slip this board onto the upright, and watch it fall from top to bottom in a see-saw motion. if it fails to travel smoothly, see where the rub is and remove the obstacle. fasten the two pairs of cross pieces to each end of the upright so that it will stand vertically on either end. give it a thin coat of paint. color the boys and fasten them with a nail thru the body of each boy, fitting loosely, and driven into the ends of the board. when the see-saw is turned up-end down, the boys will swing on the nails and keep heads up. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration] [illustration: falling teeter totter] tumbling tommie this problem is rather unique in its principle of operation and offers at once material for study and investigation. like that of a circus performer, the combinations must be exactly right or the little fellow may fall on his head. in making the man, first bore the holes thru the block and take care to make them parallel. the openings into the holes from the ends must be in the same plane and made to slide over the rounds of the ladder without friction. the tumbler may be shaped and colored to look like a man. a base may be attached to each end, but on opposite sides of the ladder, so that tommie may tumble in both directions. [illustration] [illustration: tumbling tommie] the busy pup all parts of this article are made of / " wood except the ears which should be / " thick. saw out one body, a pair each of fore legs, hind legs, ears and tail, and the push-rod and guide. the guide is made of four pieces and fastened together with glue and brads, as shown in the drawing. the two pairs of legs are fastened to the body by loose joints. holes are bored thru one end of the push-rod and the forefeet; also thru the projecting end of the guide and hind feet. fasten that end of the guide between the hind feet with loose joint (fig. ). insert the push-rod thru the hole in the guide, which should slide easily, and fasten between the fore feet. by holding the guide in the left hand and working the push-rod back and forth, the dog should work freely and without a hitch in all the varied positions that it is possible for it to assume. with fine brad fasten the tail. bore holes thru head and ears, and pivot them on a loose joint so that they will swing when the pup is busy scratching. the pup may be colored white with black spots on neck, body and legs. the push-rod and guide may be finished in a dark color or black. the stunts that this pup can perform are greater in number than one would suspect. furthermore, they increase also in variety as the child acquires skill in manipulation. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration] [illustration: busy pup] the dinkey bird when properly made up, this bird can bob its head and tail up and down. a swinging pendulum supplies the motive power. the parts are shown in the drawing full size, except the clamp that holds the dinkey in upright position (fig. ). the head, tail and body pieces, one with and one without the leg, are sawed from / ", the back (e) from / ", the wedge from / ", and the clamp from / " stock. finish all edges. drill / " holes at a and b. put the two body pieces together so they coincide, and drive fine " nails thru both of them at c and d. then separate them enough to let the back (e) into place between them. fasten the three pieces together with five " brads, and clench. fasten clamp (f) securely to the foot at h. color the different parts in gay tints, and let dry. take ft. of strong twine and with small nails fasten one end to the head and the other to the tail. pull out the nails at c and d enough to let the head and the tail slip into their places between the body pieces. then reinsert the nails. the head and tail should swing freely, and the back (e) act as a stop in their up-and-down motion. put the clamp onto the edge of a table top and fix with the wedge. pull down on the loop of the string, grasp it about " from the top, and there tie a simple knot. fasten a stone or a piece of metal to the loop. set it swinging and watch the bobbing performance according to dinkey fashion. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: dinkey bird] pelican sewing stand whether or not this article may be within the toy class, one thing is certain: it is useful as well as ornamental. the pelican is made of three thicknesses. the middle piece is / " and the two outside ones / " thick. the middle piece has parts cut away to give room for the pin-cushion, and in the head, an opening is left to give place for scissors, which, in turn, serve as the bird's beak. the cushion is stuffed with cotton or some other suitable material, and covered with a double thickness of thin cloth, and fastened in place securely by nails piercing from one side to the other. the platform is six-sided in shape (fig. ), of double / " thickness, with grain at right angles in the two pieces, and has four pins extending - / " above the surface for holding spools. the pelican is fastened to the platform by placing the upper thickness against the foot, and driving - / " brads thru and up into the foot. bore holes and drive the pins for the spools thru the upper thickness. lastly, the bottom board of the platform, which extends / " beyond the upper, is fastened by driving / " brads thru the bottom piece into the upper. the pelican may be colored with white enamel and black trimmings, while the platform may be light green or blue. besides the places for scissors and spools, other attachments may be arranged to suit the convenience of the happy possessor. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration] [illustration: pelican sewing stand] whirligig this little device might also be called a child's aeroplane, for it soars up into the air over houses and trees, and makes everybody around crane his neck in wonder. the parts consist of the flyer, a spool and the handle. first, get an ordinary thread spool, bore two holes in one end and drive in two six-penny nails. cut off the heads / " from the end of the spool and file the ends round and smooth. take a piece of strong wood (yellow pine will do) about " long and / " square. whittle down one end for a distance / " longer than the length of the spool and so it will make a running fit. for a flyer, get a piece of soft wood / " x - / " x ". bore three holes at the center to fit onto the two pins on the spool and the top end of the handle. whittle both faces down to a slant like a windmill so the blades will be less than / " thick. put the parts together. wind about a yard of string around the spool in the proper direction, and then set the flyer spinning by pulling the string quickly off the spool. if all parts are properly balanced and adjusted, the flyer should go "way up high." [illustration: whirligig] the cart this practical project is of heavier stock than most toys. however, dimensions and sizes of stock may be modified to suit the convenience and wishes of the maker. the box may be of / " stock, the axle and tongue of / ", and the wheels of / " or / ". [illustration] heavy round-headed screws with washers under the heads, fitting thru holes bored in the wheels and screwed securely into the ends of the axle, form the bearings. take care to bore the holes thru the wheels and into the ends of the axle the proper size, and central and true. the box is fastened by driving - / " nails thru the bottom into the axle. the tongue is shaped to fit on the axle, and is securely fastened by nails to the axle and wagon bottom. a handle of a loop of brass wire may be inserted thru the tongue near the small end, and the ends bent. the box is painted green and wheels and tongue red. [illustration: cart] the wagon the stock required for the box of the wagon is / " thick, for the wheels / ", for the tongue / ", and for the axles / ". the axles are - / " long; the rear one is " wide; the front one is / " wide, as shown in the drawing. the holes for the screws in the ends of the axles are bored / " from the lower side. the screws are heavy, - / " round-headed, with metal washers under the heads. the holes in the wheels are bored true, and so that they will just slip over the screws. the tongue is connected with the front axle by a piece of tin, cut from a tin can after the pattern shown on the drawing. the cross piece between the wagon box and the front axle, called the bolster, is - / " wide, " long and / " thick. it tapers from " in length at the top to - / " at the bottom, where it rests on and turns on the tin that is nailed to the top side of the axle. always bore holes of the proper sizes before inserting screws. the front axle is connected to the bolster by a " round-headed screw on which it turns. in making the wagon box, the sides are nailed to the bottom, the ends fastened in position, and the back nailed onto the edge of the seat. the box is painted green outside and red inside. the two wings of the tin plate are bent down to fit tight onto the sides of the tongue, and nails are driven thru the tin into the tongue. the whole running gear is painted red. the box is nailed to the bolster and to the rear axle. the seat is nailed into position, the wheels fitted on, and the front axle screwed onto the bolster. this wagon is strong and should last a long time and afford much wholesome pleasure. [illustration] [illustration: wagon] flying goose the body, platform and wheels (fig. ) are of / " stock. the wings are a little thinner. saw out one body and two wings and bore holes for cords, as shown in the drawing. saw out the platform and four wheels, and finish them carefully. the front wheels turn on " flat-headed nails that are driven into the edge of the platform / " from the end. the rear wheels are driven onto a wire axle which turns in two wire staples that are driven into the bottom of the platform, / " from the end and / " from each edge. in driving these staples, take thought to avoid splitting the platform. also, when boring holes thru the center of the four wheels, take care to secure proper direction and sizes of holes for a running fit in the front wheels and a press fit onto the axle in the rear wheels. hold the body with foot up, and nail the platform onto it. with round-nose pliers make the connecting rods from no. wire with the eyes neatly shaped and at right angles to each other. attach the rods to the wings by staples so the joints will work freely without too much play. attach the other ends of the rods to the outer faces of the rear wheels by means of short flat-headed nails. the nails pass thru the eyes of the rods and are driven into the wheels / " from the outer rims. the nails in the two wheels must be in line with each other, as they act as cranks to actuate the wings. after the rear axle is assembled and fastened in place, the wings are fastened to the body. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: flying goose] the parts of the wings that touch the body must have been rounded off, as shown in section on the drawing. the edges are removed from the holes so as not to wear the cord. a heavy strong twine may be used for hinging the wings to the body. each of the two hinges is formed by slipping the end of the cord up thru the wing, then thru the body, then down thru the second wing, and back thru the body; then tie the ends in a square knot under the first wing. adjust all parts accurately so they are not too loose and yet work without friction. this goose may be painted white with gray stripes on the wings, red beak, foot and wheels, and green platform. attach a string or slender stick to the end of the platform to roll it on the floor. watch the flying goose and see if she can rise by flapping her wings. the dodo bird until recently this bird has been considered extinct, but is here revived to show what it may have appeared like. in this case it has chosen to perambulate on four wheels and maintain a bobbing motion of the head and body by means of a connecting rod between the breast and a crank on the front axle. [illustration] the body swings on a pivot between two uprights which we will call the wings. these wings are held apart by a piece between the feet, which is slightly thicker than the body to give the body freedom of motion. the two base pieces are fastened onto the outside of the feet by three - / " brads driven in from each side. the front end of the base is held together by a piece / " square and / " thick, which is also the thickness of the base pieces and wheels. the body and wings are of / " stock. make saw cuts / " deep across the bottom of the base pieces to form bearings for the two wire axles, one / " from the rear, and the other - / " from the front end of the base. the axles should turn freely in these cuts, and nails bent over them will secure them in their places. the parts are colored in gay contrasting colors before assembling. the body is pivoted between the wings and the piece between the feet is fastened. then the base is assembled and fastened to the outside of the feet of the dodo. before inserting the axles into the wheels, the ends should be hammered a little flat to prevent them from turning in the wheels. it should be a tight fit. next, put the axles into the cuts, and fasten. slip a fine nail thru the hole in the upper end of the connecting rod, and drive it thru the breast of the bird, and bend the end. then put the lower, or forked, end of the connecting rod over the crank on the front axle and secure it by a brad. when rolling along on the floor, the dodo should bob its head in a most polite manner in recognition of being well put together. [illustration: dodo bird] rocking-horse and rider the body of the horse is shown full size and may be sawed from / " wood. all the other parts should be made of / " wood and have the grain run lengthwise. [illustration] two fore and two hind legs are required. the upper end of each leg is tapered off on the side that fits against the body so that the feet will be far enough apart to be fastened on the inside of the rockers (see end view b). each pair of legs should be fastened to the body with a nail thru the three thicknesses at the place marked. saw out two rockers and finish to true and smooth curves. with fine brad fasten the feet on the inside of the rocker at the places marked, but take care that the wood does not split. saw out three rails " long and / " wide to be fastened onto the top of the rockers with two fine brads, one at each end of the rocker and one in the middle, as indicated on the drawing by the letter r. the upper ends of the legs may now be secured to the body by two or three brads. give the whole a general touching up to assure strength and smoothness. give it a priming coat of paint. let dry four days. paint saddle, bridle, cross rails and rocker red, and the body and legs white. outline eyes, nose, hoofs and other features in black, and the rocking horse is complete. the body of the rider is / ", arms and legs / " stock. [illustration: rocking horse and rider] [illustration: rider for rocking horse] animated elephant the body is composed of three thicknesses. the two on the outside are / " thick, the one in between is / " thick, and reaches only to the dotted line (fig. ), to allow room for the head which is / " thick and moves between the two outside pieces with - / " nail as pivot. this is a loose joint. [illustration: fig. .] saw out the platform and wheels to dimensions. the connecting rod should be of wood / " thick and / " wide. a hole is bored near the end that is pivoted to the throat of the elephant; in the other end is a fork to fit over the axle crank with a fine hole bored at right angle thru the connecting rod for a brad to prevent the crank from slipping out. the two axles are made from no. steel wire. one is straight, the other has a crank in the middle. flat places are hammered near each end of the axles so that they may be pressed into holes in the wheels and not turn. each axle is held to the platform by two staples which may be made from long brads by cutting off the heads. color the elephant gray, the blanket red and yellow, the platform and connecting rod red, and the wheels yellow. fasten the platform to the elephant by driving nails thru it into the feet. press the wheels onto the axles and fasten the axles under the platform so they move freely. fit head and rod in places so all connections are strong and move without friction. attach a string to the front end of the platform, and when pulled on the floor, the elephant will swing his trunk up and down in a vicious manner. [illustration] [illustration: animated elephant] the bucking mule saw out of / " stock the bodies of the mule and rider (fig. ). all legs and arms are of / " stock. two circles to be placed between the man's arms and shoulders are of / " wood. the connecting rod, marked z, z (fig. ), shown full size and of / " stock, is to connect the fore legs of the mule and the crank on the axle. fasten the legs to the mule and arms and legs to the rider with loose joints. then take rod z, z, and make the fork-like cut in the wide end and drill a small hole thru it at right angles to that cut. this is for the nail that holds the crank in place. fasten the rod securely between the fore legs of the mule at the position indicated. the tail is then fastened with two / " brads. paint the mule and rider in contrasting colors. [illustration] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: bucking mule] next, make the frame and wheels as follows: saw out two " wheels and bore the center holes to fit tight on the wire axle and to run true. the frame, the handle, the sides and end are shaped from / " stock. the two upright pieces are made of / " stock and securely fastened on the inner faces of the sides. then the sides are nailed to the end piece and the handle. cuts are sawed into the lower edge of the sides, " from the end to form a bearing for the axle. paint wheels red and frame green. the axle is best made by holding the wire in a vise. first, make bends / " on each side of the middle point. then make the second pair of bends - / " from the middle. near each end of the axle, flattened places are hammered so that, when driven into the wheels, they will not turn. drive the wheels onto the axle. put the axle in place, drive nails into the sides, and bend them over the axle to hold it in place. take the mule, put the projection from the body between the two uprights on the frame, insert a - / " nail thru the three holes, and bend the end back. join the connecting rod to the crank. stride the rider on the mule and insert a nail thru his thighs and the back of the mule. with a neat cord connect the hands to the mouth of the mule, for a bridle. take hold of the handle and watch the mule gallop when you push him along. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: rider for bucking mule] fox-and-goose game this game is played by two people on a board with holes, as shown in the drawing. the board may be made either square or octagonal. the octagon is made from a square by placing one point of the compass at a corner and the other point at the center of the board. with each corner in turn as a center, draw arcs intersecting the edges of the board. connect these points of intersection across the corners of the board; saw off the four triangles. smooth the edges and chamfer. lay out and bore the holes. make pegs to fit loose. leave white for the geese and color red for the foxes. in playing the game, all the pegs are put in their places. the foxes at nos. and ; the geese at , , , , and consecutively up to . the foxes and geese can move on the lines only, in any direction from one hole to the next. a fox can also jump over a goose and take it, provided the hole just beyond it is vacant. in fact, the fox can jump and take several geese in various directions if conditions permit. the geese can not jump, but they can move so as to hem in the foxes and make it impossible for them to move. this means that the foxes have lost the game. in starting the game, the player having the foxes gets the first move. his aim is to jump and capture all the geese and win the game. each player takes turn in moving. when crowding a goose in on a fox, the player always has another goose behind it so that the fox can not jump it. this game is one of the kind that requires foresight and study. it is highly interesting and entertaining, and by experience, players may become quite expert at the game. _solitaire_--this same board may also be used for the solitaire game. however, that requires pegs. they are put in all the holes except no. . the object is to jump and take all the pegs but one, and it must land in hole . unaided, this is difficult to do, and it would take a long time for a person to discover a solution. for this reason, the reader is presented with the following "key": jumps to and takes , to and takes , etc.; to , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - . [illustration: fox-and-geese game] nine men's mill this is a game that is played by two persons and is as fascinating as it is old. the upper part of the board is / " thick and has holes bored thru it, as shown in the drawing. the lower board is - / " square and / " thick, and extends / " beyond the top board on all sides. the grain in the two boards should run at right angles when fastened together. the pegs are / " in diameter and " long. each player has a set of pegs, the sets being differently colored. in starting a game, each player takes his turn in putting a peg into a hole till all the pegs are put down. then they take turns in moving the pegs. a peg may be moved from one hole to the next and only along rows parallel with the edges of the board, not along the rows that run from corners of the board to its center. that is, along rows , , or , , , but not along rows , , . the object of a player in putting down pegs and in moving is to get a mill; that is, get pegs in a row parallel with the edges of the board. for example: pegs in holes , , or , , makes a mill, but not , , . when a player gets a mill, he can take one of his opponent's pegs that is not in a mill. another aim of a player is to place his pegs so that he prevents his opponent from getting a mill. when the pegs of one of the players have all been taken except , then he is allowed to jump anywhere on the board. when the pegs are all gone but two, then the game is lost. when a player can get pegs into holes situated as , , and , , then he has a double mill by moving from to and from to , etc., and pick one of his opponent's pegs for each move. [illustration] [illustration: nine men's mill] disk puzzle this problem consists of a base, three spindles and seven disks of different diameters. the spindles are fitted tight into holes in the base and rounded at the top so the disks will slide over freely. the seven disks are laid out on the wood with compass, and to prevent splitting the holes are all bored before the sawing is done. the parts may receive a finish of stain and two or three coats of shellac. polish with no. / sand-paper between each coat. _puzzle_--place all disks on one spindle, decreasing in sizes upward. the object is to transfer the disks to one of the other spindles and to be in the same order. in doing this, never have more than one disk at a time removed from the spindles, and never place a larger disk on top of a smaller one. [illustration: disk puzzle] ball puzzle at first it is not evident why this is called a ball puzzle, but, when let into the secret, most people see at once a good reason for naming it so. the wooden ball or marble is hidden from sight inside of the wood and may be shifted in position from the middle to the upper piece of the puzzle and vice versa (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .] the problem is to slide the middle piece off of the pin that projects up from the lower piece and swing it around its pivot. this pivot is a - / " round-headed screw, fitting loosely in the upper two and fixed in the lower piece. a / " hole is bored thru the middle and / " deep in the upper piece to hold the / " ball. this hole is bored so it touches the hole for the screw. in the middle piece, the screw can slide into it. in order to make the ball leave its position in the middle piece, the puzzle must be held upside down. the drawings show the puzzle both closed and open, and supply directions for constructing this interesting problem. finish with stain and two coats of shellac. this puzzle may be a source of much genuine amusement when a circle of friends come together and all want a hand at opening it, each having his advice to give how to solve this mysterious problem. [illustration: ball puzzle] [illustration] appendix knots and braids most of us are called upon, in the course of our daily duties, whether afloat or ashore, in camp or at home, to hitch up pack animals, do up packages, equipments and outfits, and make fastenings on sails, tents, scaffolding and play apparatus. this involves the tying of a great number of knots and in many cases life and limb depend upon the correct tying of those knots. the seamen, textile workers and civil engineers are pastmasters of the art. our scouts, sailors and soldiers are taught knot-tying as an essential factor in their training. would it not seem a part of wisdom, for the sake of safety and economy in time and good nature, for everybody to master these knot problems? it would, at least, be a very practical part of the training for children in the schools. they should be taught knot-tying and its application in an intelligent and thoro manner, and have frequent practice-drill therein, till it becomes second nature to them. when a knot is tied, it must be pulled together tight, so as to stay. otherwise, especially if the cord is stiff, the loops will slide apart or flop out of position, and the knot will come loose. a knot derives its strength and reliability from the friction between its different parts. when tension is applied on a knot, the two parts which lie alongside of each other should move in the reverse directions and produce a maximum amount of friction, as the ropes tend to slip. one may readily learn to tie the different knots by carefully following the accompanying drawings. procure a slender, flexible rope, bend it into the shape shown in the drawing, and go over and under, as indicated, so that the parts will be in the correct relative positions. begin by making the simple knots, and, later, tackle the more complex ones. also learn their names. names of knots and braids . overhand knot--to prevent unraveling of rope, starting of a square knot; also a stop knot. . figure-eight knot--used for a stop knot. . boat knot--used on sails and rigging. . slip knot--used to fasten rope end to a post. . flemish loop--stays tight, will jam. . stevedore knot--will not jam. . sheet bend or weaver's knot--for joining two ends. . square or reef knot--for joining two cords--very useful, is non-slipping. . granny knot--most people confuse it with the square knot. it will slip. . thief knot--will slip. . carrick bend--used on top of gin pole or mast to hold it erect; the four ends are fastened to the ground. . carrick bend--used to join two ropes. . bowline--a very useful non-slipping loop. . clove hitch--an effective means for fastening rope to a post or ring. . timber hitch--used for pulling logs. . handcuff hitch--used to convey prisoners. . sheepshank--to decrease the length of a rope. . bowknot--is tied like the square knot, but with ends doubled back in tying the latter half--used on neckties and ribbons. . spanish bowline--used as boatswain's chair. . wall knot--used by electricians as a stop on drop-cord. . wall knot crowned--a neat rope-end finish, to prevent unraveling. . three-strand flat braid. . four-strand flat braid, begun. . four-strand flat braid, continued--the right strand goes over, the left one goes under, and then is passed to the right, in front of the middle strand. . six-strand flat braid, begun. . six-strand flat braid, continued--note that each strand goes from one side clear to the other, before turning around and goes over and under, alternately, in crossing the other strands. . chain knot--is begun like a slip knot. . chain knotting, continued--each loop is pulled taut. . double chain knotting--is started like the single chain knot, but the second loop is formed from the free end, and slipped thru from the same side as the first. both ends are used, alternately, and the loops are pulled taut. it makes a beautiful cord, triangular in shape. . genoese braid, begun--two cords are used, one end of each is used as a core, tho a thicker core may be used, and with the other two ends, in turn, loops are drawn around the core. . genoese braid, continued--makes a handsome flat braid. . watch fob--may be made of three or more strings or ribbons. four strings are used in this case. take two shoe strings and double them. tie thread around them, about two inches from the loops. hold the loops in the left hand, with the ends up. name them a, b, c, d, as is shown in the drawing. first, bend a to the right; bend d over a, and away from you; bend c over d, and to the left; bend b over c, and toward you, and slip the end under the loop of a. second, take string a and double it back to the left; bend b over a, and away from you; bend c over b, and to the right; bend d over c, and toward you, and slip the end under loop at a. the third step is like the first, and the fourth like the second. when finished, slip the loops thru your watch-ring, open the two loops and slip the watch fob thru them. the charm is neatly fastened to the finishing ends. . banister bar--is made by tying the overhand knot over a core of any desired thickness. . banister bar, continued--the process of tying this knot is as follows: hold the left strand horizontally behind the core; reach under it at the right of the core and take the right strand, bring it forward and to the left across the front of the core, and then back at the left of the core, thru the loop formed by the left strand. continue by repeating this process. . solomon's knot--this is started like the banister bar, but, instead of tying all the knots alike, the tying is done, in turn, first with the right-hand strand, then with the left. each strand will thus remain on the same side of the core as at the start. the strand in front of the core is used continually for tying the knot by the left and right hand, alternately, as the strand moves from side to side. it is a series of left and right overhand knots over a core. . four-strand round braid--is very pretty, and well repays any difficulty in mastering it. it is not as easy to illustrate, by drawing, the process of making a round braid as a flat one; however, by carefully following the movement of each strand in the illustration, while manipulating the four strings, one will soon gain success and also much satisfaction. first, hold the four strands in the left hand, as in the beginning of the flat braid, but, instead of taking the right strand, reach in, just in the left of the right strand, and, from behind, take the left strand, bring it forward and across in front from right to left. second, exchange the places of the words, right and left, and repeat the above-described process. referring to the drawing, reach in at b, and from behind at the right, below x , take c; bring it forward and across b, at x . next, hold the braid in the left hand and, with the right, reach in at d and take a from behind, and bring it forward and across c, at e, as is shown by dotted lines. braiding with three strands, or as many more as desired, may be done with ropes, strings of beads, rich-colored cords and ribbons, or basketry materials, for making many useful and beautiful articles, such as chains, belts, hangings, bags, portieres and wicker work for baskets, lamp shades and chairs. [illustration] toy patterns _by_ michael c. dank a collection of full-size toy patterns. toys which make a strong appeal to the child. each pattern sheet presents a particular class of toys including jointed animals, animal rocker toys, wheeled platform toys, lever toys, string toys, freak toys, novelties, etc. while intended to be worked out in wood many are equally well adapted for cardboard. toy-making at home from these patterns is a fine hobby for the boy from six to twelve years of age, and in the school is a fascinating manual training activity. these patterns are based upon the author's long experience in the teaching of toy-making in public and private schools and summer camps. they are well presented on sheets size - / x inches and are enclosed in a portfolio with an attractive design in color. _price, cents._ manual training toys _for the_ boys workshop _by_ harris w. moore.--a popular boys' book illustrating projects overflowing with "boy" interest. the drawings are full-page and show each project complete and in detail. a descriptive text accompanies giving full information as to materials needed and how to proceed with the simple tools required. _price, $ . ._ coping saw work _by_ ben w. johnson.--presents drawings and suggestions for a course of work in thin wood that is full of fun for the children, and affording ample means for training in form study, construction, invention and careful work. a helpful guide for the teacher of the fourth grade. _price, cents._ kitecraft _and_ kite tournaments _by_ charles m. miller.--an authoritative and comprehensive treatment of kitecraft. the book deals with the construction and flying of all kinds of kites, and the making and using of kite accessories. also aeroplanes, gliders, propellers, motors, etc. four chapters are devoted to presenting a detailed description of kite flying tournaments. abundantly illustrated and attractively bound. _price, $ . ._ bird houses boys can build _by_ albert f. siepert.--a book of rare interest to boys. it is written in the boy spirit and combines the charm of nature with the allurements of continuation work in wood. it illustrates hundreds of bird houses and shows working drawings of various designs, also feeders, shelters, sparrow traps, and other bird accessories. the common house nesting birds are pictured and described with information regarding houses, foods, etc., suitable for each. a pleasing and practical book for wide-awake boys. _price, cents._ _send for descriptive catalog._ the manual arts press peoria, illinois transcriber's notes reminder: lead-paint warning! do not use the ground-lead paint ingredients mentioned in the "coloring the toys" chapter. this book was published before the harmful effects of lead paint to children were known. also, when working with enamel paint that contains a high quantity of solvents, make sure the area is as well-ventilated as possible. if still in doubt, wear a respirator mask to prevent the toxic effects of solvent inhalation. paper masks do not block solvent fumes. some of the diagrams have been moved from their original positions to the sections describing their constructions. pages , : retained original spelling of "thoroly." page : changed "craftmanship" to "craftsmanship." page : changed "minsrels" to "minstrels." wood-working for beginners a manual for amateurs by charles g. wheeler, b.s. "know what thou canst work at and work at it like a hercules." carlyle. with over illustrations g.p. putnam's sons new york and london the knickerbocker press copyright, by charles g. wheeler the knickerbocker press, new york to the youthful founders of "totlet town" without whose inspiration this book would not have been undertaken preface the aim of this book is to suggest to amateurs of all ages many things which they can profitably make of wood, and to start them in the way to work successfully. it is hoped that, in the case of boys, it may show them pleasant and useful ways to work off some of their surplus energy, and at the same time contribute toward their harmonious all-round development. it is not an attempt to teach the arts of architecture, carpentry, cabinet-making, or boat-building. although not intended primarily to impart skill in the use of tools (something which can only be acquired from experience and observation and cannot be taught by any book), still no one can go through the processes indicated without gaining at least some slight degree of manual skill as well as a fund of practical information and experience. many books which give directions for mechanical work (particularly those addressed to boys) have several serious faults, and can be grouped in three classes. some seem to be written by practical workmen, who, however well fitted to do the work themselves, lack the pedagogical training or the psychological insight necessary to lay out such work with due regard to the mental and physical capacity, experience, and development of youth, or to the amateur's lack of experience in the rudiments of the subject. others are written by teachers or amateurs who lack the trained mechanic's practical and varied knowledge and experience in serious work. others (and this last class is, perhaps, the worst of the three) seem to be made by compilers who have apparently been satisfied to sweep together, without requisite knowledge or sufficient moral purpose, whatever they may have found that would be interesting or attractive, without due regard to its real value. all these writers are constantly falling into errors and making omissions harmful alike to the moral and the manual progress of the readers.[ ] effort has been made in the preparation of this book to avoid these evils, to keep in line with the advanced educational ideas of the time, and to look at the subject from the standpoints of the _teacher_, the _mechanic_, the _boy_, and the _amateur workman_. the treatment is neither general nor superficial, but _elementary_, and no claim is made that it will carry anyone very far in the various subjects; but it aims to be thorough and specific as far as it goes and to teach nothing which will have to be unlearned. great care (based upon an extended experience with boys and amateurs) has been taken to include only what can be profitably done by an intelligent boy of from ten to eighteen or by the average untrained worker of more mature years. it is hoped that from the variety of subjects treated he may find much of the information for which he may seek--if not in the exact form desired, perhaps in some typical form or something sufficiently similar to suggest to him what he needs to know. it is hoped and confidently believed that a work so comprehensive in scope and giving such a variety of designs, with detailed and practical directions for their execution, will be not merely novel, but may serve as a _vade-mecum_ and ready-reference book for the amateur of constructive tastes. charles g. wheeler. boston, june, . footnote: [ ] these criticisms are meant to apply to the class of manuals, compendiums, and so-called "boys' books" and "amateurs' books," in the _popular_ sense of the word, and not to the many admirable works on sloyd, manual training, and the various special branches of wood-working. contents _part i--a workshop for amateurs_ chapter page i--introductory ii--tools iii--wood iv--working drawings, laying out the work, and estimating v--the workshop _part ii--articles to be made in the workshop_ vi--introductory vii--a few toys viii--houses for animals ix--implements for outdoor sports and athletics x--furniture xi--a few miscellaneous operations _part iii--house-building for beginners_ xii--some elementary principles xiii--simple summer cottages xiv--a few simple structures _part iv--boat-building for beginners_ xv--a few simple boats _part v--tools and operations_ xvi--the common hand-tools, and some every-day operations, alphabetically arranged for ready reference appendix--matters relating to wood, suggestions about working drawings, etc. index introductory note it has seemed best to address parts of this book particularly to boys, because the majority of beginners are boys, because boys need more suggestions than men, and because a man can easily pick what he needs from a talk to boys (and perhaps be interested also), while it is usually unprofitable to expect a boy to take hold of a technical subject in the right spirit if it is treated in a style much in advance of his degree of maturity. it is hoped, however, that the older reader also will find enough of those fundamental principles of successful work (many of which do not readily occur to the untrained amateur except as the result of much costly experience) to be a material help to him. "it is not strength, but art obtains the prize, and to be swift is less than to be wise; 'tis more by art, than force of numerous strokes." homer, _iliad_. wood-working for beginners part i _a workshop for amateurs_ chapter i introductory when one has made up his mind to make something, he usually wants to begin work at once; so, as i wish you to read this chapter, i will make it quite short. there is a great deal in getting started right, and there are some things to bear in mind if you wish to do good work, as of course you do. one thing is not to be in too much of a hurry to begin the actual sawing and pounding. the old latin phrase, "_festina lente_" (make haste slowly), is a capital motto for the beginner. do not wait until your enthusiasm has oozed away, of course, but do stop long enough to think how you are going to make a thing before you begin to saw. the workman who thinks first and acts afterwards is the one who usually turns out good work, while the one who begins to work without any reflection (as boys, and even men, have been known to do) is apt to spend much of his time in undoing his work, and usually does not get through till after the one who laid it out properly in the first place.[ ] if homer, in the quotation at the head of this chapter, had been writing about the way boys' work is sometimes done, he might, perhaps, have reversed the positions of some of the words and made "swiftness" and "numerous strokes" the subjects of his emphasis. he has expressed well enough, however, the way that your work should be done, and it is one aim of this book to give you useful hints to that end. do not spend your time in working out a lot of set exercises, like joints and odd pieces that do not belong to anything in particular, merely for practice. you will be much more apt to put the right spirit into your work when you make complete and useful articles, and you will get the same practice and experience in the end. there is no need, however, to go through a deal of toilsome experience just to learn a number of simple little things that you might just as well be told in the first place. begin the process of learning by experience after you have learned what you can from the experience of others. begin, so far as you can, where others have left off. before you begin work it may be interesting to look for a moment at the way boys did their work from fifty to one hundred years ago. have you read the books by elijah kellogg? the reason for speaking of these old-fashioned books is because of the picture they give of the time, not so very long ago, when boys and their elders made all sorts of things which they buy to-day, and also because of the good idea they give of how boys got along generally when they had to shift more for themselves than they do nowadays. the majority of the boys of that time, not merely on casco bay, where mr. kellogg places the scenes of his stories, but in hundreds of other places, had to make many things themselves or go without. of course there was a smaller number in the cities and larger towns who had no good opportunity to make things and were obliged to buy what they could afford (out of what we should call a quite limited variety), or to get the carpenter or other mechanic to make what they needed. but the majority of the boys of that time made things well and had a good time making them. the life they led made them capital "all-round" boys. they could turn their hands, and their heads too, to almost any kind of work, and do it pretty well. boys did a good deal of whittling then. this habit, as you doubtless know, still clung to them after they grew up, and opening a jack-knife and beginning to whittle was a common diversion whenever the men rested, whether at the country-store or in the barn or dooryard or at their own firesides. you can see the same habit to-day in some places. the boys whittled splint-brooms of birch in colonial days in almost every household.[ ] among some of the minor articles made by boys and young men were axe-helves and handles of all sorts, wooden rakes, wooden troughs for bread and for pigs, trays, trenchers, flails, rounds for ladders, bobbins, reels, cheese-boxes, butter-spats or -paddles, wooden traps, and dozens of other articles, not to speak of their handiwork in other materials than wood. for that matter much of the same life can be found to-day in the remoter regions, and i have known young men brought up to this kind of life, who (within my recollection) have, as a matter of course, done all the farm work of good-sized cultivated farms with live stock, cut and hauled wood from their wood-lots, done a good deal of sea-fishing and salting down and drying of fish, tended and mended their fish-nets, weirs, and lobster-traps, and sailed or rowed twenty-five miles to market with their produce and back again with their supplies. they also built their sheds, barns, and houses, and part of their furniture, their dories, big scows, and capital sailboats; made their own oars and rigged their boats; made many of their farm tools and implements; built their waggons and "ironed" them, their ox-sleds and small sleds, and shod them; made some of their tools; did their own blacksmithing, mason-work, brick-laying, and painting; made their own shoes, and did i do not know how many other odd jobs--all with but a limited supply of common hand-tools. this work did not interfere with their going to school through the winter months until they were twenty-one years old, and they still found time for the usual recreations of the period. now a young man must have been pretty well developed after going through all that, even if he did not know much about greek or calculus or was lacking in superficial polish. and it is only the truth to say that quite a number used to tackle the higher branches of study too, with success made all the more assured by their development in other ways, and many, in addition to all this, paid their way through college by teaching or other work. how did they do so much? partly, i suppose, because their life was so much simpler and less complex than ours. they did not have so many wants and there were not so many interests to distract their minds. partly because when they wanted something they knew they must make it or go without. they did not draw so much as we do now, but they did a great deal of observing. they examined things like what they were to make and asked questions, and, knowing that where they had so much to do they could not afford to keep trying things again and again, they learned from their relatives and neighbours what was considered the best way to do their work, and having thought it out carefully they went at it with great energy. to-day we have only to go to a large factory to see a man standing before some machine and doing some simple piece of work, requiring but little thought--the same thing over and over again, hour after hour, day after day, year after year, until he seems to become almost a part of the machine itself, and is not fitted for doing much else. that is the other extreme. of course we get things cheaper (even if they do not last so long) because of the factory; but how about the workman? which of these two types is the better-developed man? first you want to be well-developed all-round boys, so that you will not become machines or badly one-sided men. after that--each to his special bent, of course. now because we no longer cut down trees ourselves, haul them to the mill to be sawed, or rive or saw or hew them ourselves, leave the wood to season, and then laboriously work it up into whatever we have to make--because we no longer do that, but go instead to a lumber-yard and a mill and have a large part of the work done for us--it is a good thing for us to pause a moment before we begin our work to take in the fact that _all_ the advantage is not with us now, and to think what a capital gymnasium that former life was for strengthening a boy's muscle and mind, not to speak of his morals. you could not go back to those days now if you wished to, of course (except, perhaps, when you go to some of the remoter regions in vacation), and you are doubtless better off for all the advantages you have now and for all our time-saving contrivances, but the advantage depends partly on _how you use_ the time saved from their laborious tasks, does it not? you can, however, get inspiration from the example of those older boys and from some of their methods, and can put their self-reliant, manly zeal, grit, and perseverance into your work, and have a capital time making the things and more sport and satisfaction afterwards for having made them. this book does not try to show you a royal road or a short cut to proficiency in architecture, carpentry, cabinet-making, boat-building, toy-making, or any other art or science. it does not aim to cram you with facts, but merely to start you in the right way. it is for those of you who want to take off your coats, roll up your sleeves, and really make things, rather than sit down in the house and be amused and perhaps deluded by reading enthusiastic accounts of all the wonders you can easily do--or which somebody thinks you would like to be told that you can do. it is for those of you who do not wish to have your ardour dampened by finding that things will not come out as the book said they would, or that the very things you do not know and cannot be expected to know are left out. it does not aim to stir up your enthusiasm at first and then perhaps leave you in the lurch at the most important points. i take it for granted that if you have any mechanical bent or interest in making things, as most boys have, and are any kind of a real live boy, you have the enthusiasm to start with without stirring up. in fact, i have even known boys, and possibly you may have, who, strange as it may seem, have had so much enthusiasm to make something or other that they have actually had to be held back lest they should spoil all the lumber within reach in the effort to get started! what you want is to be told how to go to work in the right way--how to make things successfully and like a workman--is it not? then, if you mean business, as i feel sure you do, and really want to make things, read the whole book through carefully, even if it is not bristling with interesting yarns and paragraphs of no practical application to your work. you will not find everything in it, but you cannot help learning something, and i hope you will find that it attends strictly to the business in hand and will give you a start in the right direction,--which is half the battle. "man is a tool-using animal.... he can use tools, can devise tools; with these the granite mountain melts into light dust before him; he kneads glowing iron as if it were soft paste; seas are his smooth highway, winds and fire his unwearying steeds. nowhere do you find him without tools; without tools he is nothing--with tools he is all."--carlyle, _sartor resartus_. footnotes: [ ] an old gentleman whose help, on account of his accurate workmanship, i once frequently obtained when "rushed," was an extreme example of this systematic way of doing work. i would give him perhaps three hours' work, which he would agree to have done at the end of that time. looking in after an hour or so i would find the work apparently untouched, which was a little provoking, of course, as the average workman would have had it perhaps one third done. but instead, this old gentleman would be apparently only "puttering around," touching up his saws, fixing his planes, whetting his chisels, looking over the wood, and not getting ahead a bit. going off in disgust (until i got acquainted with his ways, i mean), i would return at the end of the three hours, to find that the work had been ready some time and done to perfection. while he was at first apparently accomplishing nothing he was really getting everything in perfect shape to do the work and laying out in his mind every detail of the whole process, so that when he began the actual work it almost did itself, and he forged right ahead of the average workman, who would either have been behind time or slighted the work in order to get it done, and in most cases have made some mistake to be corrected in some part of the process. i never knew that man to make a mistake. why? not because his ability was extraordinary, but because he concentrated his mind on the work and thought it out clear through before he began. now i know the average boy too well to expect him to have the patience to do just as this workman did. it would be unreasonable. but it is the true way to do good work, so try to think it all out as far as you can and to get ready before you begin. the work will go ever so much more quickly and easily. [ ] "it has been said that the snow-shoe and canoe as made by the indians could never be improved. to these might be added the split birch broom, or splinter broom, also the invention of the indians, but made in every country household in new england in colonial days. the branch of a large birch tree was cut eight feet long. an inch-wide band of the bark was left about eighteen inches from one end, and the shorter and lower end was cut in fine pliable slivers up to the restraining bark band. a row of slivers was cut from the upper end downward, turned down over the band, and tied firmly down. then the remainder of the stick was smoothed into a handle. these brooms were pliable, cleanly, and enduring, and as broom-corn was not grown here until the latter part of the past century, they were, in fact, the only brooms of those days. they were made by boys on new england farms for six cents apiece, and bought by the country storekeepers in large numbers for the cities' use."--_the chautauquan._ chapter ii tools you can do a great deal with very few tools. the bearing of this observation lies in "the application on it," as jack bunsby would say. look at the complicated and ingenious curiosities whittled with a jack-knife by sailors, prisoners, and other people who have time to kill in that way! have you ever seen the chinese artisans turning out their wonderful work with only a few of the most primitive tools? but of course we cannot spend time so lavishly on our work as they do, even if we had their machine-like patience and deftness acquired through so many generations. we cannot hold work with our feet and draw saws towards us or do turning out on the lawn with a few sticks and a bit of rope for a lathe; carve a set of wonderful open-work hollow spheres, each within the other, out of one solid ball of ivory; and the rest of the queer things the orientals do: but it is merely a matter of national individuality--the training of hundreds of generations. we could learn to do such things after a long time doubtless, but with no such wonderful adaptability as the japanese, for instance, are showing, in learning our ways in one generation. examine some of the exquisite work which the orientals sell so cheaply and think whether you know anyone with skill enough to do it if he had a whole hardware-shop full of tools, and then see with what few simple and rude tools (like those shown in the following illustrations, or the simple drill, fig. , still in use) the work has been done. mr. holtzapffel describes the primitive apparatus in use among the natives of india as follows[ ]: [illustration fig. .] "when any portion of household furniture has to be turned, the wood-turner is sent for; he comes with all his outfit and establishes himself for the occasion at the very door of his employer. he commences by digging two holes in the ground at a distance suitable to the length of the work, and in these he fixes two short wooden posts, securing them as strongly as he can by ramming the earth and driving in wedges and stones around them. the centres, scarcely more than round nails or spikes, are driven through the posts at about eight inches from the ground, and a wooden rod, for the support of the tools, is either nailed to the posts or tied to them by a piece of coir or cocoanut rope. the bar, if long, is additionally supported, as represented, by being tied to one or two vertical sticks driven into the ground. during most of his mechanical operations the indian workman is seated on the ground, hence the small elevation of the axes of his lathe. the boy who gives motion to the work sits or kneels on the other side of it, holding the ends of the cord wrapped around it in his hands, pulling them alternately; the cutting being restricted to one half of the motion, that of the work towards the tool. the turning tools of the indian are almost confined to the chisel and gouge, and their handles are long enough to suit his distant position, while he guides their cutting edges by his toes. he grasps the bar or tool-rest with the smaller toes and places the tool between the large toe and its neighbour, generally out of contact with the bar. the indian and all other turners using the eastern method attain a high degree of prehensile power with the toes, and when seated at their work not only always use them to guide the tool, but will select indifferently the hand or the foot, whichever may happen to be the nearer, to pick up or replace any small tool or other object. the limited supply of tools the indian uses for working in wood is also remarkable; they are of the most simple kind and hardly exceed those represented in fig. ; the most essential in constructing and setting up his lathe being the small, single-handed adze, the bassoolah. with this he shapes his posts and digs the holes; it serves on all occasions as a hammer and also as an anvil when the edge is for a time fixed in a block of wood. the outer side of the cutting edge is perfectly flat, and with it the workman will square or face a beam or board with almost as much precision as if it had been planed; in using the bassoolah for this latter purpose the work is generally placed in the forked stem of a tree, driven into the ground as shown in the illustration." [illustration fig. .] if we are inclined to feel proud of the kind of wood-work turned out by the average wood-worker of this country or england with his great variety of tools and appliances and facilities, we might compare his work with that done by the orientals without our appliances. read what professor morse tells us of the japanese carpenter[ ]: "his trade, as well as other trades, has been perpetuated through generations of families. the little children have been brought up amidst the odour of fragrant shavings,--have with childish hands performed the duties of an adjustable vise or clamp; and with the same tools which when children they have handed to their fathers, they have in later days earned their daily rice. when i see one of our carpenters' ponderous tool-chests, made of polished woods, inlaid with brass decorations, and filled to repletion with several hundred dollars' worth of highly polished and elaborate machine-made implements, and contemplate the work often done with them,--with everything binding that should go loose, and everything rattling that should be tight, and much work that has to be done twice over, with an indication everywhere of a poverty of ideas,--and then recall the japanese carpenter with his ridiculously light and flimsy tool-box containing a meagre assortment of rude and primitive tools,--considering the carpentry of the two people, i am forced to the conviction that civilisation and modern appliances count as nothing unless accompanied with a moiety of brains and some little taste and wit.... after having seen the good and serviceable carpentry, the perfect joints and complex mortises, done by good japanese workmen, one is astonished to find that they do their work without the aid of certain appliances considered indispensable by similar craftsmen in our country. they have no bench, no vise, no spirit-level, and no bit-stock; and as for labour-saving machinery, they have absolutely nothing. with many places which could be utilised for water-power, the old country sawmill has not occurred to them. their tools appear to be roughly made and of primitive design, though evidently of the best-tempered steel. the only substitute for the carpenter's bench is a plank on the floor, or on two horses; a square, firm, upright post is the nearest approach to a bench and vise, for to this beam a block of wood to be sawed into pieces is firmly held (fig. ). a big wooden wedge is bound firmly to the post with a stout rope, and this driven down with vigorous blows till it pinches the block which is to be cut into the desired proportions. [illustration fig. .--a japanese carpenter's vise. from morse's _japanese homes_.] [illustration fig. .--carpenters' tools in common use. from morse's _japanese homes_.] "in using many of the tools, the japanese carpenter handles them quite differently from our workman; for instance, he draws the plane towards him instead of pushing it from him. the planes are very rude-looking implements. their bodies, instead of being thick blocks of wood, are quite wide and thin (fig. , d, e), and the blades are inclined at a greater angle than the blade in our plane. in some planes, however, the blade stands vertical; this is used in lieu of the steel scrapers in giving wood a smooth finish, and might be used with advantage by our carpenters as a substitute for the piece of glass or thin plate of steel with which they usually scrape the surface of the wood. a huge plane is often seen, five or six feet long. this plane, however, is fixed in an inclined position, upside down; that is, with the blade uppermost. the board, or piece to be planed, is moved back and forth upon it. draw-shaves are in common use. the saws are of various kinds, with teeth much longer than those of our saws, and cut in different ways.... some saws have teeth on the back as well as on the front, one edge being used as a cross-cut saw (fig. , b, c). the hand-saw, instead of having the curious loop-shaped handle made to accommodate only one hand, as with us, has a simple straight cylindrical handle as long as the saw itself, and sometimes longer. our carpenters engage one hand in holding the stick to be sawed while driving the saw with the other hand; the japanese carpenter, on the contrary, holds the piece with his foot, and stooping over, with his two hands drives the saw by quick and rapid cuts through the wood. this style of working and doing many other things could never be adopted in this country without an importation of japanese backs.... the adze is provided with a rough handle bending considerably at the lower end, not unlike a hockey-stick (fig. , a).... for drilling holes a very long-handled awl is used. the carpenter seizing the handle at the end, between the palms of his hands, and moving his hands rapidly back and forth, pushing down at the same time, the awl is made rapidly to rotate back and forth; as his hands gradually slip down on the handle he quickly seizes it at the upper end again, continuing the motion as before. one is astonished to see how rapidly holes are drilled in this simple yet effective way. for large holes, augers similar to ours are used." when you are obliged to work some day with few and insufficient tools (as most workmen are at times), you will quickly realise how much you can do with very few in case of necessity, and will more fully appreciate the skill of those eastern people who do so much with so little. we do not need so many hand-tools for wood-work as our grandfathers and our great-grandfathers, although we make a greater variety of things, because machinery now does so much of the work for us. wood-workers of fifty years ago had, for instance, dozens of planes for cutting all sorts of grooves, mouldings, and the like, which are now worked by machine at the nearest mill. =suggestions about buying.=--do not start in by buying a chest of tools, certainly not one of the small cheap sets. they are not necessarily poor, but are very apt to be. get a few tools at a time as you need them. in that way you will get all you need in the most satisfactory way. besides the fact that you _can_ do good work with few tools there are various reasons which make it _better_ to begin with but few. you will probably take better care of a few than of many. if you have thirty chisels on the rack before you and you make a nick in the end of the one you are using, there is a strong chance that instead of stopping to sharpen it you will lay it aside and take one of the remaining twenty-nine that will answer your purpose, and before you realise it have a whole rack full of dull tools. if you have but few chisels, you will be _compelled_ to sharpen them, and so get into the habit of taking proper care of them--not to speak of the time which is often wasted in putting away one tool and selecting another unnecessarily. the longer you work the more you will get to _rely_ on a small number of tools only, however many you may have at hand for occasional use. after you have worked for some time you will be very likely to have your favourite tools, and find that certain tools do better work in your hands than certain others which perhaps someone else would use for the purpose, and you will naturally favour the use of those particular implements, which is another less important reason for not starting in with too great a variety. i do not mean that you will imagine you can do better with one tool than another, but that you really can do so. that is where individuality comes in--the "personal equation." watch a skilful carver at a piece of ordinary work. see how few tools he spreads before him, and how much he does with the one in his hand before he lays it down for another. you would think it would take twenty-five tools, perhaps, to cut such a design, but the carver may have only about half a dozen before him. he gets right into the _spirit_ of what he is doing, and somehow or other he does ever so many things with the tool in his hand in less time and carries out his idea better than if he kept breaking off to select others. this shows that confidence in the use of a tool goes a long way toward the execution of good work, which is one reason for learning to use a few tools well and making them serve for all the uses to which they can advantageously be put. in short, if you have but few tools at first you get the most you can out of each tool and in the way best for yourself. now i do not mean by all this that it is not a good thing to have a large kit of tools, or that you should not have the proper tools for the various operations, and use them. i mean that you should get your tools gradually as you find that you need them to do your work as it should be done, and not get a lot in advance of needing them just because they seem to be fine things to have, or because some carpenter has them in his chest. do not place too much reliance on the lists of tools which you find in books and magazines--the "tools necessary for beginners," "a list of tools for boys," etc. such lists are necessarily arbitrary. to make a short list that would be thoroughly satisfactory for such varied work as a boy or amateur may turn his hand to is about as impracticable as the attempts you sometimes see to name the twenty-five greatest or best men or the one hundred best books. when you can find half a dozen independent lists which agree it will be time enough to begin to pin your faith to them. the most experienced or learned people cannot agree exactly in such matters. it depends somewhat, for one thing, on what kind of work you begin with, and, of course, somewhat upon yourself also. now while, as we have seen, most wonderful work can be done with the most primitive tools, the fact remains that you are neither chinese nor japanese, but americans and english, and you cannot work to the best advantage without certain tools. "well, what are they? why don't you give us a list to begin with? that's what we are looking for." simply because a quite varied experience has taught me to think it better to give you suggestions to help you make the selection for yourselves. just as the great majority of boys would agree upon _robinson crusoe_, for instance, as belonging in the front rank of boys' books, but would make very different selections of second-rate or third-rate books, so there are a few "universal" tools, upon the importance of which all agree, such as the saw, hammer, hatchet or axe, and a few others; but beyond these few you can have as many "lists" as you can find people to make them, up to the point of including all you are likely to want. so let your list make itself as you go along, according to your own needs. it is safe to say, however, that if your work is to be at all varied, such as is given in this book, for instance, you cannot get along to good advantage for any length of time without a _rule_, a _try-square_, a _straight-edge_, a _knife_, two or three _chisels_, a _hatchet_, a _gouge_, a _smoothing-plane_, a _spoke-shave_, a _panel-saw_, a _hammer_ and _nail-set_, a _bit-brace_ and three or four _bits_ (_twist-drills_ are good for the smaller sizes), a _countersink_, a few _bradawls_ and _gimlets_, a _screw-driver_, a _rasp_ and _half-round file_ for wood, a _three-cornered file_ for metal, an _oil-stone_, a _glue-pot_. an excellent and cheap combination tool for such work as you will do can be bought almost anywhere under the name of "_odd jobs_." of course you will need nails, screws, sandpaper, glue, oil, and such supplies, which you can buy as you need them. a section ( inches or inches high) from the trunk of a tree is very useful for a chopping-block, or any big junk of timber can be used. you will, however, quickly feel the need of a few more tools to do your work to better advantage, and according to the kind of work you are doing you will add some of the following: a _fore-plane_, a _splitting-saw_, a _mallet_, a _back-saw_, _compasses_, one or more _firmer chisels_, one or more _framing-chisels_, a _block-plane_, _pincers_, a _gauge_ or two, one or more _gouges_, a _steel square_, a _draw-knife_, a large _screw-driver_, a _scraper_, a few _hand-screws_ (or _iron clamps_), a few more _bits_, _gimlets_, _bradawls_, or _drills_, _cutting-pliers_ or _nippers_, a _bevel_, a _jointer_ (plane), a _wrench_. an iron _mitre-box_ is useful but rather expensive, and you can get along with the wooden one described further on. a _grindstone_ is, of course, essential when you get to the point of sharpening your tools yourself, but you can have your tools ground or get the use of a stone without having to buy one for a long time. the following list makes a fair outfit for nearly and sometimes all the work the average amateur is likely to do, excepting the bench appliances and such contrivances as you will make yourselves and the occasional addition of a bit or chisel or gouge or file, etc., of some other size or shape when needed. this is not a list to start with, of course, unless you can afford it, for you can get along for a good while with only a part, nor is it a complete list, but merely one with which a great amount of useful work can be done to good advantage. you can always add to it for special purposes. for further remarks about these tools and others and their uses, see part v., where they will be found alphabetically arranged. two-foot rule. try-square (metal-bound). pair of wing compasses. marking-gauge. mortise-gauge. steel square (carpenter's framing-square). bevel. "odd jobs." chalk-line and chalk. knife. firmer chisels ( / ", / ", / ", / ", - / "). framing-or mortising-chisels ( ", - / "). gouges ( / ", / ", "). iron spoke-shave (adjustable). draw-knife. hatchet. block-plane. smoothing-plane. long fore-plane (or a jointer). jack-plane. rabbet-plane ( / " or / " square). cutting-off saw (panel-saw, "). splitting-saw ( "). back-saw ( "). turning-saw ( "). compass and keyhole saw (combined). bit-brace. auger-bits ( / ", / ", "). twist-drills ( / ", / ", / "). a few bradawls and gimlets. screw-driver for bit-brace. countersink. hammer and nail-sets. screw-drivers (different sizes). files of several kinds (flat, three-cornered, and round for metal, and half-round and round for wood). large half-round rasp. cabinet scraper and burnisher. mallet. pair cutting-pliers. pair of pincers. wrench. oil-stone and oiler. or oil-stone slips (different shapes). glue-pot. or more iron clamps. or more wooden hand-screws. or more cabinet clamps ( ' to '). an adjustable iron mitre-box will be a valuable addition to this list, and a grindstone is of use even when you get most of your grinding done. a few carver's tools are also convenient at times if you can afford them, as a skew-chisel ( / "), a parting-tool ( / "), and a small veining-tool. general supplies, such as nails, screws, glue, etc., specified in part v., will of course be required. * * * * * there are still more tools than those given above, as you doubtless know, but by the time you have become workman enough to need more you will know what you need. ploughs, matching-planes, and all such implements are omitted, because it is better and usually as cheap to get such work as they do done by machine at a mill. i also assume that all your heavy sawing and planing will be done at some mill. it is not worth while for the amateur to undertake the sawing and planing of large pieces, the hewing and splitting of the rougher branches of wood-work, for such work can be done almost anywhere by machine at very slight expense, and stock can be bought already got out and planed for but a trifle more than the cost of the wood alone.[ ] be sure to get good tools. there is a saying that a good workman is known by his tools, and another that a poor workman is always complaining of his tools, that is, excusing his own incompetence by throwing the blame upon his tools. there is also another saying to the effect that a good workman can work with poor tools; but it is simply because he is a skilled and ingenious workman that he can if necessary often do good work _in spite_ of inferior tools, and of course he could do the same work more easily and quickly, if not better, with good ones. so do not think that because you sometimes see a skilled workman making shift with poor tools that you are justified in beginning in that way, for a beginner should use only good tools and in good condition or he may never become a good workman at all, so make your tools and their care a matter of pride. if your tools are of good quality, and proper care is taken of them, they will last a lifetime and longer; so good tools prove the cheapest in the end.[ ] there are some cases, however, in which it is as well not to buy the most expensive tools at first, as a cheap rule will do as well as an expensive one, considering how likely you are to break or lose it, and a cheap gauge will answer quite well for a good while; but this does not affect the truth of the general statement that you should get only the best tools. there are also quite a number of tools, appliances, and makeshifts which you can make for yourselves, some of which will be described. i advise you not to pick up tools at second-hand shops, auctions, or junk shops, except with the assistance of some competent workman. =care of tools.=--keep your tools in good order. you cannot do nice, fine, clean work with a dull tool. a sharp tool will make a clean cut, but a dull edge will tear or crush the fibres and not leave a clean-cut surface. you can work so much more easily and quickly as well as satisfactorily with sharp tools that the time it takes to keep them in order is much less than you lose in working with dull ones, not to speak of the waste of strength and temper. i assume that you will not attempt to sharpen your tools yourselves until you have had considerable experience in using them; for sharpening tools (particularly saws and planes) is very hard for boys and amateurs, and not easy to learn from a book. so, until then, be sure to have them sharpened whenever they become dull. the expense is but slight, and it is much better to have fewer tools kept sharp than to spend the money for more tools and have them dull. when you get to the point of sharpening your tools, one lesson from a practical workman or even a little time spent in watching the operations (which you can do easily) will help you more than reading many pages from any book. so i advise you to get instruction in sharpening from some practical workman,--not at first, but after you have got quite handy with the tools. you can easily do this at little or no expense. for further points, see _sharpening_, in part v. it is a good plan to soak tool handles, mallets, and wooden planes, when new, for a week or so in raw linseed oil and then rub them with a soft rag every day or two for a while. if you use wooden planes give them a good soaking. they will absorb much oil and work more freely and smoothly. you can save tool handles from being split by pounding, by sawing the ends off square and fastening on two round disks of sole-leather in the way adopted by shoe-makers. if there is any tendency to dampness in your shop the steel and iron parts of the tools should be greased with a little fat,--tallow, lard, wax, vaseline,--or some anti-rust preparation. =use of tools.=--it is very important to get started right in using tools. if your first idea of what the tool is for and how it should be used is correct you will get along nicely afterwards, but if you start with a wrong impression you will have to unlearn, which is always hard, and start afresh. if you can go to a good wood-working school you will of course learn much, and if you know a good-natured carpenter or cabinet-maker or any wood-worker of the _old-fashioned_ kind, cultivate his acquaintance. if he is willing to let you watch his work and to answer your questions you can add much to your knowledge of the uses of the different tools. in fact, so far as instruction goes that is about all the teaching the average apprentice gets. he learns by observing and by practice. do not be afraid or ashamed to ask questions. very few men will refuse to answer an amateur's questions unless they are unreasonably frequent. there will be problems enough to exercise all the ingenuity you have after you have learned what you can from others. but the day for the all-round workman seems to be rapidly passing away and the tendency nowadays is for each workman, instead of spending years in learning the various branches and details of his trade, to be expert in only one very limited branch--or, as sometimes happens, a general botch in all the branches; so unless you find a real mechanic for a friend (such as an old or middle-aged village carpenter, or cabinet-maker, or wheelwright, or boat-builder, or carver), be a little guarded about believing all he tells or shows you; and beware of relying implicitly on the teachings of the man who "knows it all" and whom a season's work at nailing up studding and boarding has turned into a full-fledged "carpenter." if you can learn to use your tools with either hand you will often find it a decided advantage, as in getting out crooked work, or particularly in carving, where you have such an endless variety of cuts to be made in almost every possible direction, but "that is another story." a bad habit and one to guard against is that of carrying with you the tool you may be using whenever you leave your work temporarily, instead of laying it down where you are working. edge-tools are dangerous things to carry around in the hand and there is also much chance of their being mislaid. for directions for using the different tools see part v. =edge-tools.=--bear in mind that all cutting tools work more or less on the principle of the wedge. so far as the mere cutting is concerned a keen edge is all that is required and your knife or other cutting tool might be as thin as a sheet of paper. but of course such a tool would break, so it must be made thicker for strength and wedge-shaped so that it may be pushed through the wood as easily as possible. you know that you can safely use a very thin knife to cut butter because the butter yields so easily that there is not much strain on the blade, but that when you cut wood the blade must be thicker to stand the strain of being pushed through. soft wood cuts more easily than hard, because it is more easily pushed aside or compressed by the wedge-shaped tool, and it does not matter how keen the edge may be if the resistance of the wood is so great that you cannot force the thicker part of the tool through it. you will understand from all this that the more acute the angle of the cutting edge the more easily it will do its work, provided always that the angle is obtuse or blunt enough to give the proper strength to the end of the tool; and also that as the end of the tool encounters more resistance in hard than soft wood, the angle should be more obtuse or blunter for the former than for the latter. theoretically, therefore, the angle of the cutting edge, to obtain the greatest possible advantage, would need to be changed with every piece of wood and every kind of cut, but practically all that can be done is to have a longer bevel on the tools for soft wood than for hard. experience and observation will teach these angles. see _sharpening_ in part v. when you cut off a stout stick, as the branch of a tree, you do not try to force your knife straight across with one cut. you cut a small notch and then widen and deepen it by cutting first on one side and then on the other (fig. ). the wood yields easily to the wedge on the side towards the notch, so that the edge can easily cut deeper, and thus the notch is gradually cut through the stick. the same principle is seen in cutting down a tree with an axe. you have only to look at the structure of a piece of wood when magnified, as roughly indicated in fig. , to see why it is easier to cut with the grain than across it. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] you can often cut better with a _draw-stroke_, _i.e._, not merely pushing the tool straight ahead, but drawing it across sideways at the same time (fig. ). you can press the sharp edge of a knife or razor against your hand without cutting, but draw the edge across and you will be cut at once. even a blade of grass will cut if you draw the edge quickly through your hand, as you doubtless know. if you try to push a saw down into a piece of wood, as you push a knife down through a lump of butter, or as in chopping with a hatchet, that is, without pushing and pulling the saw back and forth, it will not enter the wood to any extent, but when you begin to work it back and forth it cuts (or tears) its way into the wood at once. you know how much better you can cut a slice of fresh bread when you saw the knife back and forth than when you merely push it straight down through the loaf. you may have noticed (and you may not) how much better your knife will cut, and that the cut will be cleaner, in doing some kinds of whittling, when you _draw it through the wood from handle to point_ (fig. ), instead of pushing it straight through in the common way, and you will discover, if you try cutting various substances, that as a general rule the softer the material the greater the advantage in the draw-stroke. now put the sharpest edge-tool you can find under a powerful microscope, and you will see that the edge, instead of being so very smooth, is really quite ragged,--a sort of saw-like edge. then look at the structure of a piece of wood as roughly indicated in fig. , and you will understand at once just what we do when we cut wood with an edge-tool. you see the microscopically small sticks or tubes or bundles of woody fibre of which the big stick is composed, and you also see the microscopically fine saw to cut them. now if the edge of the tool is fine you can often do the work satisfactorily by simply pushing the tool straight through the wood, but do you not see that if you can draw or slide the tool either back or forth the edge, being saw-like, will do its work better? this stroke cannot be used of course in chopping with the axe or hatchet, splitting kindling-wood, or splitting a stick _with_ the grain with a knife or chisel. in these operations the main principle is that of the wedge, pure and simple, driven through by force, the keen edge merely starting the cut, after which the wedge does the rest of the work by bearing so hard against the wood at the sides of the cut that it forces it to split _in advance_ of the cutting edge, as in riving a log by the use first of an axe, then of an iron wedge, and finally a large wooden wedge (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] practical directions and suggestions about the different _tools and their uses_ and the various _operations_ will be found alphabetically arranged in part v. footnotes: [ ] quoted, by kind permission, from _turning and mechanical manipulation_. [ ] quoted, by kind permission, from the valuable and entertaining work on _japanese homes and their surroundings_ (copyright. ), by edward s. morse. [ ] if you are so situated, as possibly a few of you may be, that you cannot get the benefit of modern methods, but must do all the rough work that your grandfathers did, you will require a few additional tools, but these you can readily select from the descriptions given farther on. [ ] there are many reliable makers of tools. among them the following can be named, and their tools can be obtained almost anywhere: saws--henry disston. chisels and gouges--moulson bros.; buck bros. planes--stanley; moulson bros. (plane-irons); wm. butcher (do.); buck bros. (do.) files--p. s. stubs. rules and squares, levels, gauges, spoke-shaves, etc.--stanley rule & level co. braces--barber. bits--jennings. knives (sloid)--taylor. carving tools--addis; buck; taylor. chapter iii wood before you can make anything successfully, you must have not merely wood, but the _right kind_ of wood for the purpose. there are, also, "choice cuts" in lumber, as the butcher says of meat, and judicious selection of the stock often makes all the difference between a good job and a poor one; so let us examine a log and follow it through the sawmill. you have, of course, seen the rings, or circular lines, on the ends of pieces of wood (fig. ). these are called the _annual rings_,[ ] and each ring marks a new layer of wood added to the tree, for, as perhaps you may have learned, the trees we use for wood-working grow by adding new layers of wood on the outside. examine the ends of pieces of wood of various kinds. in some pieces these rings will be very plain. in others they will be quite indistinct. [illustration fig. .] notice that the wood nearest the bark, known as the _sapwood_, usually looks different from the inner wood, which is called the _heart_ (fig. ). in some trees you will see rays, or lines, radiating from the centre, and known as the _medullary rays_ (figs. and ), because they spring from the pith (latin _medulla_). sometimes these lines are too fine to be noticed. you will see from fig. that the layers of wood are also shown in the lines of what we call the "grain" on the surface of a piece of wood cut lengthways, and that the lines of the grain are continuations of the annual rings. you will also notice at the ends of timber, after the seasoning has begun, cracks radiating from the centre, showing the natural lines of cleavage or separation. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] the way the log is sawed is important, though you might naturally think that the only thing is to saw it any way that will give pieces of the required size and shape. why is green wood heavier and softer than dry wood, and the sapwood of green timber softer than the heart? because of the sap or water contained. the amount of water is sometimes even as much as fifty per cent. of the weight of the wood, but the quantity depends upon the kind of tree, the season, etc. now the more water the green log contains, the more it will shrink. it begins to dry and shrink as soon as the tree has been cut down. the sapwood shrinks more than the heart because it contains more water, and faster because, being on the outside, it is more exposed. the log shrinks most in the line of the annual rings, that is, _around_ the tree. it shrinks much less in the line of the medullary rays, that is, _across_ the tree. shrinkage lengthways is too slight to be considered[ ] (fig. ). the result of all this unequal shrinking is that the log tends to split, or crack open, at the circumference (fig. ), the cracks running in toward the centre, in the line of the medullary rays. if the log is halved or quartered, so that the inner parts are exposed, the drying goes on more uniformly throughout, the cracking is not so bad, and the parts of the log will shrink somewhat as shown in figs. and . [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] the beams, joists, planks, or boards cut from a log have the same tendency to shrink unevenly that is found in the log itself. this causes them to be irregular in shape and to curl or warp more or less, according to the part of the log from which they are taken. a piece cut from the centre of a log will thus hold its shape better than if cut from one side (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] when a log is sawed into boards or planks (fig. ) the middle board shrinks but little in width and in thickness at the centre, but becomes thinner towards the edges. it does not curl, because it is cut through the centre of the log and has no more tendency to curl one way than the other. the outside board shrinks least in thickness and most in width, and all, except the middle one, shrink differently on one side from the other. they become convex toward the pith, or heart, and concave toward the outside. different kinds of wood shrink and warp to different degrees. you can learn something about these matters by examining the stock in any lumber-yard. now to come to the practical application of our brief study of the log and the sawing process: if you merely wish to get the most that you can from a log in the form of boards or plank, have the pieces sliced off in the simple way just shown (fig. ). this is the usual way of sawing for ordinary purposes. boarding for the outside of a house, for instance, cut in this way answers every purpose. by this process the central boards will be good and the outer ones inferior,[ ] as just shown (fig. ), but for common work all can generally be used. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] if you wish the highly figured grain[ ] often seen in oak, ash, chestnut, etc., you can get it by sawing the log as just shown in fig. . the figure of the grain will be most marked in the outer boards (fig. ), because the annual rings are cut more obliquely in them than in the boards at or near the centre. these boards (fig. ) will tend to change their shape, as just shown (fig. ), but if they are to be firmly fastened in some way, or confined (as in a panel), handsome grain effects can be obtained. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] if you wish the beautiful figure formed when the medullary rays show on the surface of the board, as in "quartered" oak, the log should be cut in the direction of the radii, that is, along the lines of the medullary rays (fig. ). the more exactly the side of a board is cut on the radial line the more richly the figure of the medullary rays will be shown, as in fig. . this method of sawing is more expensive than the first way, of course, as it requires more labour and wastes more of the wood. the wide board shown in fig. and either of those in fig. are examples. if you wish boards that will shrink the least in width and remain as true as possible, then the log should be sawed on the radial lines as just shown, so that all the boards will be from the middle of the log. wood shrinks but little in the direction of the radii, as just shown, and middle boards will be alike on both sides as regards heart- and sapwood, etc., and, therefore, have the least tendency to change of shape. the middle board by the method of fig. will be a good board in these respects. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] various methods of radial sawing, or in which part of the boards are so cut, are shown in figs. and , figs. , , , and showing the log quartered and various ways of sawing into boards. thus we see that the middle boards, those passing through or near the centre, are the best for most purposes. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] split or rift stock is stronger than sawed. if you wish a piece especially tough and durable, as for an axe handle or a stout pin, it should be split out rather than sawed, unless the wood is very straight-grained, because the splitting is sure to be in the line of the fibres, thus avoiding "cross-grain," which cannot well be entirely prevented in sawing. if the grain is straight, there may be no practical difference in the result between sawing and splitting, as in the so-called rift flooring, which is really sawed, but with crooked-grained pieces the difference is marked in such cases as the block shown in fig. , from which four pins can be sawed, while but one can be split out. that one will be straight-grained, however, and stronger than the sawed ones, which will be cross-grained. try your best to get well-seasoned wood for your nice work. if it is not dry before you use it, it must of course dry afterwards, which is likely to cause cracks, warping, opened joints, and often the entire ruin of the article you have made. you will have to trust the dealer, or some friend, until you have had enough experience to judge for yourself, for it is no easy matter for an amateur to decide, except in case of very green stock, which is of course wet and soggy. there are two ways of drying wood in common use. one is the old-fashioned way (commonly known as _seasoning_, _weather-drying_, or _air-drying_) in which the wood is gradually seasoned by the natural process of exposure to the air (but protected from the weather), that is, letting it dry of itself. * * * * * do not believe the statements so common in books that it "takes lumber" some definite time, as one year or two years, "to season." it all depends on the kind of wood, its shape and size, the condition of the atmosphere, and various circumstances. for some rough work (a pig-pen, for instance) there is no advantage in seasoning at all, because the stock can just as well dry after the work is done as before. for many kinds of common work one or two years is sufficient for some kinds and sizes of wood; for a nicer grade of work two or three years is none too much, while for very nice indoor work four years or more is not too long for the stock to season. there is very little danger of its being kept too long. it never will get perfectly dry (see appendix). whether it is dry _enough_ or not depends on what you want it for. * * * * * to save time and money the artificial way (known as _kiln-drying_) of shutting it up in a room and drying it quickly by steam or other heat is now used, and, so far as drying the wood is concerned, this process can do the work well and much more quickly than the old way--sometimes too quickly. it is no exaggeration to say that in factories where cheap furniture and other common articles are made nowadays, a standing tree is felled on monday, the log rolled into one end of the factory, and before saturday night the finished articles made from it, all varnished and complete, are sent out from the other end of the shop--and some articles are turned out even quicker. in the natural process of air-drying the moisture gradually and slowly works out to the surface and evaporates, until the wood is _seasoned_, though never absolutely dry, and the stock is firmer, more elastic, and less affected by heat and cold, moisture and dryness, than if kiln-dried. the latter process tends to dry the outside and ends of the lumber too fast for the inside. it certainly lessens the elasticity of the wood and weakens it. making it so unnaturally dry (as if baked), as is often done, only makes it more susceptible to the atmosphere when taken from the kiln, and, unless it is at once protected from the air in some way, it will reabsorb moisture until it gets into a more natural condition; but that will not fully restore the loss of elasticity (see appendix). the deterioration in the quality of the wood can be plainly seen by any wood-worker, and is often a subject of remark in regard to oak. the kiln-drying "takes the life out of the wood," as workmen express it, but just why this is so is not easy to explain, for the structure and properties of wood are very complex. i have seen too many illustrations in my own experience and that of others to have any doubt of the fact, however, and lumber left for years to season naturally, "stands," as the expression is, better than if kiln-dried--a fact which is, i think, generally conceded by wood-workers who have had experience with both kinds. the gain by kiln-drying, in time and money, is, therefore, more or less offset by impairment of the quality of the wood, so if you can find stock that you know has been seasoning for years by the natural process, buy it by all means for your nice work, even if you have to pay more, regardless of what the dealers in kiln-dried stock or the makers of articles for sale may tell you about the advantages of kiln-dried wood. on the other hand, if a dealer brags of his new patent "chain-lightning" dryer that will make green wood "dry as a bone" in two or three days, go elsewhere to buy your stock, for wood dried in a few days is not the kind to use for good work. you will probably have to use kiln-dried stock for most, or, perhaps, all of your work, but get it from a slow-drying kiln and keep it for further seasoning as long as you can. even if wood has been well seasoned, it is best, before putting it into nice work, to cut it up and dress it approximately to shape and leave it in a dry place for some time for a final seasoning, particularly in the case of thick stock. do this with kiln-dried stock fresh from the dry-house. let it have a little time to get into harmony with the atmosphere. whenever wood has been exposed to damp air, as in a wet shed or cellar, let it stand in the warm shop a while before using it for nice work. the stock is arranged for seasoning so as to allow the air to circulate around and between the pieces. a common way is simply to arrange them in piles, each piece being separated from those above and below by strips or sticks laid across (fig. ). these sticks should be placed directly over one another, and so that the lumber will lie straight, else the weight of the pile, which should tend to make the pieces dry straight, will have the opposite effect and make them permanently crooked. there are other ways of arranging wood for drying, but this method is common and illustrates the most important principles. stock is sometimes stacked upright, and small pieces are occasionally hung up for such nice work as billiard cues and bows. [illustration fig. .] seasoned wood is lighter in weight than green, dryer to the touch, usually has a different odour, cuts differently when you whittle it (and the piece you whittle off breaks differently), and it shows a difference when you saw it. it is impossible to define these differences and you will have to learn them by actual work. it is not always easy even for an experienced person to tell with certainty about some pieces until he has "worked" them, so much do the characteristics of different pieces vary. one test is to rap the boards sharply with a hammer. a green board and a dry one of the same kind will "rap" differently,--that is, will have a different vibration and give out a different sound. of course this cannot be described, but you can judge quite well in this way. it is one of the many things you can learn only by experience. you can ascertain much about the character and condition of lumber by sawing or planing or whittling a piece. this is a good test for dryness, toughness, and elasticity (which you can tell about by breaking the shavings). weather-dried timber is usually somewhat darkened from exposure, but kiln-drying lightens the colour of some woods. stock with a bright lustrous appearance and of dark hue is generally superior to that of a lighter colour and duller appearance, but such characteristics depend much upon the kind of wood. green wood is tougher than seasoned wood, but the latter is more elastic. to subject seasoned wood to moisture and heat brings it back, to a certain extent, to its original condition, and renders it for the time being tougher, hence the process of bending wood by the application of steam or hot water (see _bending_ in part v.). reject "wany" lumber, or that of which the edges or corners have not been squared (fig. ), and also boards and planks which have not been sawed to a uniform thickness. it is not uncommon for a board to be considerably thinner than it should be in some part of its length, due to irregularity in sawing. for plain work avoid "cross-grained" stock, as well as that having knots (which are sometimes "tight" and sometimes "loose"), as it is harder to work and to smooth, is not as strong, and does not hold its shape as well, as a rule. sometimes it is desirable, however, on account of the beautiful figure of the grain shown in many crooked-grained pieces, as in mahogany for furniture (see appendix). bear in mind that when especial strength is required rift stock is best. reject wood which smells musty, or has rusty-looking spots, which are signs of decay, or of the attack of fungi, which may spread and under favourable conditions attack other pieces which are sound (see appendix). [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] reject crooked stock. the worst form is _winding_ or twisting. of course no one would take such an extreme case as fig. , unless for some very rough work, but even a _very slight_ winding may make much trouble in your nice work. so look particularly for this defect, which you can often detect at once by the eye, but if your eye is not well trained use winding-sticks (see part v.). _warped_ or curled stock, with the surface rounded or hollowed (fig. ), is also bad, but you will need no instructions to detect this defect by the eye or any straight stick. when boards are rounding on one side and hollowing on the other, it is due either to the way the log was sawed, as we have seen, or to one side having been more exposed and so having dried faster and shrunk faster than the other, causing that side to be concave, while the other became convex. stock is sometimes crooked lengthways,--either a simple bending in a curve or at an angle, or wavy (fig. ), or both,--often due to careless "sticking" (fig. ) while the wood was green. sighting lengthways will of course show these defects. reject stock badly checked at the ends, or cracked. there is apt to be more or less of this in most lumber. in seasoning, the pieces dry faster on the outside than in the middle, which causes checks or cracks, usually worse at the ends of the pieces, where the drying takes place most rapidly. the ends of valuable boards and planks are sometimes painted or cleated, which in a measure prevents this result. occasionally, when the cleat is removed a crack will suddenly extend and even split the board. do not take a cracked or partly split board, thinking that you can use the sound end from the point where the crack _appears_ to stop. possibly you can, but oftentimes and in some kinds of wood it is impossible to tell before the stock is cut where the cracks end. in mahogany, for example, they sometimes are found to extend, or develop, several feet beyond where they appear to stop. sometimes you can buy wood with such defects at a discount. unless you are _sure_, however, that there is enough sound, clear wood outside of the cracks or knots, and unless the discount is pretty large, it will usually be better to buy clear, sound stock for nice work, as the waste is very apt to offset the saving, not to speak of the extra time and labour it takes to work up such material. (see _shakes_ in appendix.) reject sapwood as far as possible, because it is usually inferior to the heartwood. * * * * * in the case of elm and young ash the sapwood is, however, superior to the heart. the heartwood is usually harder and more durable than the sapwood, heavier, of better texture, and commonly of better colour. "the sapwood is, as a rule, darker in the whitewood class than the heartwood, whether seasoned or unseasoned, but is paler in colour in most hardwood trees which have had time to season. in some of the white, or softer woods, when fresh cut, the difference is scarcely perceptible; but exposure to the air quickly gives to the outer layers a greenish tinge, due to a species of mould fungi which attack them."--laslett and ward. (see also appendix.) * * * * * when buying, do not take boards just as they happen to come from the pile. select them yourself. most good-natured dealers will let you do this if you do not expect them to unstack a whole pile just for one or two boards. it is better to do this for nice work even if a slight charge should be made for the privilege. when you come to pick out boards you will see the application of what has been said about the ways of cutting the log, and you can tell by the annual rings at the ends of the boards, by the sapwood (when visible), the grain, etc., from what part of the log the pieces were sawed. use good, clear stock for everything but rough work. of course in rough or temporary work you can save expense by using wood from packing-cases, boxes, old fence-rails, or anything that will serve the purpose, but as a rule avoid trying to make nice, new things of wood taken from old work or boxes. the quality of the wood used for boxes nowadays is apt to be poor and hard to work. the wood taken from old cabinet-work is, however, often better than you are likely to buy, but you need to be very cautious about working over old material, for the dirt which has been ground into it is apt to dull your tools, and, moreover, the presence of concealed nails, etc. (which it is sometimes almost impossible to detect), will often injure your tools so much as to more than offset what you save in expense. do not buy thick stock with the idea of sawing it into thinner pieces (unless necessary). of course it can be sawed into thinner or smaller pieces, but you cannot always be sure that these will be as true as the original stock. suddenly exposing the middle of a piece of wood to the air in this way sometimes plays queer pranks with the shape of the pieces (see appendix). if you want to use boards for good work buy those which have seasoned as boards, instead of splitting up thicker lumber; and always try to treat both sides of a board alike so far as you can. bear this in mind: if you take an inch board to the mill to be planed down to three eighths of an inch, for instance, have it planed equally, as nearly as may be, from both sides. ignorant hands often simply smooth off, or "surface," one side, and then plane the board down on the other side, when it will sometimes warp badly at once and be useless, perhaps, for the purpose intended. if you carefully pile and "stick" the stock you have bought (fig. ), it will tend to keep the pieces straight and true. never lay good boards down flat directly upon one another unless they are _thoroughly_ seasoned. it is the best of all ways, however, to _keep_ a pile of thoroughly seasoned stock, but not the way to season it. the top board will warp. never lay a single board of nice stock flat on its side. keep short pieces of nice stock standing on end where they will be equally exposed on both sides to heat and cold, moisture and dryness. the best way to learn about any kind of wood is from the wood itself. it is a capital idea to make a collection of specimens of as many kinds as you can.[ ] you will be surprised to see how varied, interesting, and handsome a collection you can make at little or no expense. (see appendix.) the kinds of wood which you are likely to use are commonly known as either _hard_ or _soft_, the former class from trees with broad leaves, as the oak, the latter from the coniferous or needle-leaved trees, as the white pine. this distinction between hard and soft wood you may find somewhat puzzling at first, for the common whitewood of the hardwood class you will find softer and easier to work than hard pine of the softwood class, but the distinction is based on botanical reasons. the hard woods are usually more durable as well as stronger than the soft. for various woods see appendix. * * * * * _timber._--the word timber is applied in a general way to the log and to the material itself, and to the standing trees. it is also applied more specifically to the larger squared pieces, or "dimension" stock, such as sills, beams, etc. _lumber._--as the term is used in the united states, lumber consists, according to webster, of "timber sawed or split for use, as beams, joists, boards, planks, staves, hoops, and the like." * * * * * lumber may be either _undressed_ or _dressed_, that is, rough (as it comes from the saw) or planed. it is usually sawed in regular thicknesses, and for stock which is in steady demand, such as joists, floor timbers, etc., in regular widths, as " x ", " x ", etc. it is commonly sold in lengths varying from feet to feet. twelve feet is a common length for boards. planing (by machine) rough or undressed boards on both sides will usually reduce the thickness of an inch board to about seven eighths of an inch. other thicknesses will of course be reduced correspondingly. bear this in mind. the terms " board, " plank, etc., apply, as a rule, to the stock in the rough state as it comes from the saw. when you buy planed or dressed lumber it will be thinner--that is, the "inch board" that you wish to get for a shelf will not be one inch thick (unless you get it unplaned), but seven eighths of an inch. * * * * * you must make allowance for this when you figure on _dressed_ lumber. if for example the board must be one inch thick when planed, you will have to get a thin plank and have it planed down, or pull over the pile until you find a board which happens to be sawed as thick as one inch and one eighth. you can sometimes find boards planed one inch thick, but as a rule you will find the thickness seven eighths of an inch. a similar statement will apply to the various thicknesses of planks also. the sawing is often very irregular, however, and frequently some boards or planks will run thick enough in sawing to give the required thickness when planed, so it is well to look for such when you need pieces a little thicker than planed stock usually runs. [illustration fig. .] * * * * * for such work as you are likely to do you will chiefly need boards, planks, and joists. other forms will be referred to farther on. * * * * * _boards._--these are one inch thick or less. _matched-boards_, or "sheathing," have a groove on one edge and a corresponding tongue on the other (fig. .) any number of boards can thus be joined to make a wide surface. the edges of these boards were formerly tongued and grooved by hand with "matching-planes," but now this is done by machine, usually with some form of bead or moulding at one edge (and sometimes in the middle) to render the joint less noticeable. _planks._--these are _thick_ boards,--more than one inch in thickness. both planks and boards can be of any width or length, the distinction being merely in thickness. _joists._--these are the same as narrow planks, but of some fixed width, as " by ", which is the same as a " strip sawed from the edge of a " plank. * * * * * [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] most of the lumber you will require is sold by the square foot, at so much an m ( feet), or so much a foot. the square foot has an area of square inches and is one inch thick, or contains cubic inches, regardless of the shape or size of the piece. that is, figs. , , and each equal one square foot by board measure. [illustration fig. .] * * * * * thus a board ' long, " wide, and " thick, contains feet, board measure. a board ' long, " wide, and " thick, contains feet. a plank ' long, " wide, and " thick, contains feet. a plank ' long, " wide, and " thick, contains feet, or the same as the board first mentioned. you can bear in mind that in case of boards ' long the contents in feet is indicated by the width in inches, as you will see from the examples just given. a board ' long and " wide contains square feet. so all you have to do to measure ' stock is to find the width in inches. if the board tapers in width, measure at the middle. the same is true of planks, only the width in inches must be multiplied by the thickness of the plank. a plank ' long, " wide, and " thick, contains square feet. of course this principle can be quickly applied to pieces whose length is any convenient multiple or fraction of twelve. thus a board ' long, " wide, and " thick, contains - / times as many square feet as one ' long, or feet. a plank ' long, " wide, and " thick, contains / as many square feet as if ' long, or square feet. * * * * * boards less than one inch thick are usually sold by the square foot of surface, regardless of thickness--the price varying according to the thickness, except in cases where an inch board is planed down, when, of course, inch thickness is charged for. there is no distinction made in _measuring_ between a rough board " thick and a planed board / " as, of course, they represent the same amount of lumber. the cost by the foot of the planed board is greater because of the expense of planing. in cities, and sometimes in the larger towns, you can find thin boards ( / ", / ", / ", / " thick) already planed, and even scraped, for nice work. * * * * * some of the rarer and less commonly used woods are often sold by the pound, as ebony, leopard wood, tulip wood, etc. pieces turned out in quantities for special uses, as strips, mouldings, etc., are often sold by the "running foot," meaning simply the length, the price varying according to the amount of lumber and labour required. certain regular sizes and shapes of lumber are sold by the hundred or by the piece. shingles, clapboards, laths, and the like, are sold in bunches or bundles. * * * * * for other matters relating to wood, see appendix. footnotes: [ ] so called because in the common trees of temperate climes one layer is added each year. [ ] although the shrinkage lengthways is not usually noticeable as affecting the length of a board, it shows slightly by its effect in causing the pieces to spring, or become bowed lengthwise, as you will see in many boards which have been left free to spring while seasoning. [ ] in addition to the curling, the outer boards will be poorer because they contain a greater proportion of sapwood, which is usually inferior to the heartwood. [ ] by this is not meant the figure or flashes shown by the medullary rays, or "silver grain," seen in _quartered_ oak and some other woods, but the figure of the grain without the medullary rays, as seen in _plain_ oak, etc. [ ] the forests of north america, exclusive of mexico, are now believed, according to sargent, to contain four hundred and twenty-two species of plants, besides numerous varieties, which can fairly be considered trees. chapter iv working drawings, laying out the work, and estimating =working drawings.=--a simple drawing will often give you a better idea of an object than you can get from any description in words, for drawing is not only a very ancient form of language but one readily understood by people of all countries and all times. it is one of the chief tools of a workman in these days, so of course the quicker you become familiar with it the better, for the day for "rule-of-thumb" work and feeling one's way along step by step is fast giving way to the guidance of the working drawing, which shows one not only exactly what is to be made but exactly how to make it. when you wish to make some particular thing, you should begin by making rough sketches to express your idea, and from them an accurate working drawing in which every detail and measurement is clearly given. make all your working drawings carefully to scale (see appendix), and whenever you can, make them _full size_. do not guess at the height, width, and length, but measure, and measure very carefully. never mind if it takes time. learn first to do it right, and practice will soon teach you to do it more quickly. the time to make changes in your plans is when you are making the drawings--particularly the rough preparatory sketches. making the drawings will, if you make them complete and accurate, show you what you know and what you do not know about the subject. _the working drawing should be complete and final._ begin the making of sketches and detailed drawings with the first article you make, no matter how simple it may be. you can go about the work with confidence, which goes a long way toward success, when you know that you have thought it out to the end and have it all done on paper. for practical suggestions about working drawings, see appendix. =laying out the work.=--try to get the measurements and lines exact, and do not be satisfied with coming within an eighth of an inch. you cannot do good work unless it is laid out right, and cutting exactly to a line will do no good if the line is in the wrong place. it makes no difference how accurately you saw off a board if you have marked it half an inch too short, nor how nicely you make the two parts of a joint if you have laid them out so that they can not fit together. the work is spoiled in either case. go over all your measurements a second time. it is a good plan to check them by measuring back in the opposite direction, just as you prove your addition of a column of figures downward by adding again upward. nothing is easier than to make mistakes in measuring. no amount of experience will prevent the chance of it. it takes but little time to measure twice, much less time than to correct mistakes--as you will discover when you cut off a mahogany board five inches too short and have to go half a mile to the mill and pay a dollar or two for a new piece. in getting out stock for nice work it is best to make plenty of allowance for the pranks which expansion and contraction may play with the pieces (see appendix). how to arrange the various parts of your work with regard to this swelling and shrinking, warping and winding, is a matter of practical importance, for a piece of wood can no more keep still than an active boy can, and, although its movements do not cause so widespread havoc as the motions of some boys, you will have to keep a careful eye on its actions if you wish to turn out good work. this applies not merely to the way green wood shrinks, as we have already seen, but particularly to the way _seasoned_ wood acts. many people think it is only green wood that causes trouble with wood-work, but there is much difficulty with dry wood--that is, what we _call_ dry wood. it never is really absolutely dry, except when it is baked, and kept baked (see appendix). the moment you take it out of the kiln or oven, it begins to take up some of the moisture from the air, as we have seen, and swells. if the air becomes more damp, the wood sucks in more moisture and swells more. if the air becomes dryer, it sucks some moisture from the wood, and the wood becomes dryer and shrinks. it is thus continually swelling and shrinking, except in situations where the amount of moisture in the air does not change, or when the wood is completely water-logged. "what does such a little thing as that swelling and shrinking amount to? use more nails or screws or glue and hold it so tight it cannot move." well, it amounts to a good deal sometimes when you cannot open the drawer where your ball is, or a door or a window, without breaking something. * * * * * in the days of high-backed church pews with tall doors to every pew, each pew door would swell in damp weather, of course, and in continued dampness the doors of a certain church fitted quite snugly. there was usually no special trouble, however, for, many of the doors being open, the pew frames would give way a little so that the closed doors would open with a slight pull; but if all the doors were shut the whole line would be so tightly pressed together that it would take the utmost strength of a man to start a door. some boys one day catching on to this idea (though they were not studying wood-work), got into the church one sunday morning before service and by using their combined strength succeeded in closing every door. they then climbed over the top into their own pew, where they awaited developments, as one after another sedate churchgoer, after a protracted struggle, finally burst open his pew door with a ripping squeak or a bang. you will understand that those boys always remembered the expanding power of wood. i feel sure that i am not putting any boys up to improper mischief in telling this story, because pews are not so often made in that way now, and there is slight danger of their having any chance to try it. * * * * * did you ever see stone-workers split big rocks by drilling a row of holes and driving dry wedges into them and then wetting the wedges, when the stone will split?[ ] do you think nails or screws or glue will stop a force which will do that? you cannot prevent the swelling and the shrinking any more than you can repress a boy's animal spirits. you may be able to crush the wood, but so long as it remains a sound, natural board it must swell and shrink. what shall you do then? why just the same as with the boy; give it a reasonable amount of play, and a proper amount of guidance, and there will be no trouble. you must put your work together so as to allow for the expansion and contraction which you cannot prevent. you will find abundant examples, in almost every house, of work which has split or come apart or warped because proper allowance was not made for this swelling and shrinking. so try to avoid these errors so common even among workmen who should know better. [illustration fig. .] for instance, if you were to put cleats on one side of a drawing-board three feet wide, and were to firmly glue the cleats for their whole length (fig. ),--you sometimes see such things done,--you would probably not have to wait many weeks before you would hear a report like a toy pistol, and the cleats would be loosened for at least part of their length, because of the expansion or contraction of the board. similar cases are continually occurring. in such cases the cleats should be screwed, the screws having play enough in their holes to allow for the changes in the board (see appendix). you must also make plenty of allowance for planing down edges and surfaces and for the wood wasted by sawing. no rule can be set for these allowances. if you do not leave enough spare wood, the pieces will finally come out too small. if you leave too much you will increase the amount of planing or shaping to be done, but of the two extremes it is better to err on the side of allowing too much. a rod (any straight stick), say six feet long, and another ten or twelve feet long, with feet and inches marked, are very handy to have when laying out work roughly, or for measuring outdoor work approximately. lay out your work from only one edge or one surface of a piece of lumber unless you are _sure_ the edges or surfaces are exactly parallel. having selected the best edge for a "working edge" and the best surface for the "face," mark them with an x or other mark to avoid mistakes (fig. ). this is quite important in laying out a number of pieces, as before the stock is accurately worked into shape you cannot usually rely on the edges being parallel. one mark like a v as shown in fig. will indicate both the working edge and the face. [illustration fig. .] =estimating.=--you must, of course, learn to make your estimates yourself, often a very important preliminary. prices vary, and you cannot always rely on other people's estimates for your own work. it is a matter of simple arithmetic and of making correct allowance for waste and incidentals. you can always get the prices easily. figure the amount of wood required, the number of square feet (see page ) of each kind, or running feet, as the case may be, and multiply by the price a foot; but after this comes the allowance for waste, etc., which cannot usually be figured exactly, but must be estimated. * * * * * for instance, if you wish to make a double-runner, with a seat ten feet long, the board from which to make it will very likely be twelve feet long, in which case you must, of course, buy the whole board. perhaps you can use the two feet left over somewhere else on the sled, perhaps part may be checked or injured. there is almost always some defective wood (worthless, except for fuel); some pieces are too short or small to be of use; and very often some quite good-sized pieces are left over, which, so far as the particular job is concerned, are waste,--that is, you must buy them in order to get enough. such pieces can be used on other work, and are not really wasted in the end. just how much to add to the number of feet to cover waste varies, of course, with every job. some people add a fixed per cent. to their measurements or calculations, which, although not exactly correct for any one job, strikes an average for a good many. it would not be easy to state any such per cent. for the varied work you will do, but the main thing to bear in mind is that you must make a liberal allowance. just so with the other materials. remember to allow for waste and for unforeseen extras. even with experienced people things are very apt to cost more than the estimate. make a neat schedule to take to the lumber-yard or mill, specifying the kinds and dimensions of the stock required. footnotes: [ ] the peculiarity of the wood is that the water is not simply drawn in to fill up what we call the pores, as in chalk or any ordinary porous inorganic substance, but enters into the very fibre of the body, forcing apart the minute solid particles with an extraordinary force which does not seem to be fully understood. chapter v the workshop if you have a place where you can build a workshop you will find one described in part iii. if not, try to find a well-lighted shop, both on account of your eyes and your work; one that is dry, or your tools will rust and your work be injured; and one that can be heated, for there will be no time you will wish to use it more than on cold, stormy days. as a rule, an outbuilding is better than a basement or attic, other things being equal, because a basement is liable to be damp and dark, and an attic is bad about carrying materials and finished work up- and down-stairs. noise in the top story of a house is usually more disturbing to the occupants than noise in the basement; but all these conditions vary in different places. have a lock on the door of your workshop, partly to keep small children from getting cut if they should come in without leave, and partly to prevent your work being interfered with in your absence and the edge-tools used for various domestic purposes by your feminine relatives, who might, in their innocence, mistake your best gouge for a tack-puller or the quarter-inch chisel for a screw-driver. of course you will have overalls and jumper or a work-man's apron made of denim, ticking, or some strong cloth. if you use an apron, have a pocket in it. a small slip of a pocket on the outside seam of your overalls above the right knee is also useful for holding a rule. when you have a long job of dirty work before you, a good way is to change your clothes for any "old duds" that you may have. this saves your clothes, and in warm weather is more comfortable and healthful than to wear overalls. [illustration fig. .] your shop can be all fitted up for you by a carpenter, but it will be better, and better fun, to do it yourself. after the workshop itself is ready the first important thing is the work-bench. =the work-bench.=--a very simple one (fig. ) will answer your purpose for a long time. when you become a pretty good workman and feel the need of something better (for a first-class bench with the best attachments is really a great help toward doing good work), you will still find this first simple affair very useful in some part of your shop.[ ] there is no need of a bench being made of stock of exactly the dimensions given, so if you have a pile of boards and joists to draw from without buying, you can, of course, substitute other-sized pieces, provided you use stock heavy enough to make a firm bench. heavier legs and top (front board) would be better, and in fact _there is little danger of making a bench too solid_. * * * * * before beginning to work read carefully _marking_, _square_, _rule_, _saw_, in part v., and look up any other references. the design is for a small bench, ' " long, ' wide, and ' " high. a larger one can be made on the same principle.[ ] you will require for stock: piece of " x " joist ' long. board, / " thick, planed, " wide, ' long. " " " " " " ' " " " " " " " ' " plank, - / " or " thick, planed, " or " wide, ' " long. strip, / " to / " thick, " or " wide, " long. pine is good, and almost any cheap wood can be used. hemlock is not very suitable, unless for the legs. spruce is cheaper than pine or whitewood, and can be used for economy, but is prone to warp and twist and should be thoroughly nailed. first make the legs and fasten them together. to do this, take the joist and lay it on two boxes or old chairs (fig. ), which you can use temporarily for horses, until you make a pair. see whether either end is cut off squarely. if neither is, mark a line by the square a short distance (perhaps half an inch, according to the condition of the end of the joist) from one end, on one side of the joist. carry this line around the joist by applying the square to each side successively, and saw off the waste end with the cross-cutting saw. having one end square, measure from that end ' " and mark a line around the joist as before. saw this piece off, and using it as a measure (but not as a square), mark and saw off three more pieces. these are for the legs. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] next, from the short " board, mark and cut off two pieces ' - / " long in the same manner (fig. ), seeing first that the end from which you begin to measure is square. you do not need to mark the under side of the boards, but only the top and the edges. now square a line " from each end of each of these short boards, and start three nails on each of the lines by driving them nearly through the board (fig. ). (see _nailing_.) next, place the end of one of these boards on the narrow side of one of the legs, and, holding it firmly in position, nail it securely to the leg. you must take pains to keep the leg and the cross-piece "square." nail only one nail first and then adjust, testing with the try-square before driving the other nails (fig. ). then nail the other end to another leg, and repeat the process with the other board and the remaining legs. this will give two frames like fig. . [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] next, fasten the sides to the legs. take the " board and mark and saw off two pieces ' " long in the same way as before (fig. ). at distances of " and " from each end of each board, mark lines across the side with the square and start nails between these lines (fig. ). then, fitting these lines at the outside edges of the legs, nail the sides securely to the legs, as shown in fig. . but drive only one nail through into each leg at first, until you are sure that the frame is coming together square and true throughout. test the angles with the square. stand the frame on as level a surface as you can find and sight across the top endways and crossways to see if either corner sticks up or down. if the top is not true, twist the frame enough to make it so, which you can easily do if you have but one nail in each corner. when the top is true and the legs at right angles, drive in the rest of the nails (fig. ). be sure to test the top for winding, as just said (see part v.), rather than to trust to the way the legs stand on the floor. floors are often uneven, and the legs may not be cut exactly the same length. make the top true and the legs can easily be made to fit the floor afterwards. the piece of " board left over you can fit to slip in between the sides, as in fig. . if you nail through the sides and top into this piece, it will stiffen the bench. in making a long bench after this pattern, it is well to insert a few pieces of plank or joist between the sides in this manner. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] next, put on the top. cut two lengths of ' " from the " board. lay them in position, square lines across as guides for the nails (as before), and nail them down to the legs and cross-boards. also drive carefully a few nails at the edge down into the sides of the bench. sink all the nail-heads well below the surface (as much as / ") with the nail-set (see _nail-set_). * * * * * a better bench can be made by using a plank (say a " plank, planed) for the front of the top (figs. , , ). this bench with plank front is much better than the common carpenter's bench just described, and the difference in expense is but slight. it is easier to do good work on, as it is stiffer, steadier, and much better to pound on. * * * * * of course a thicker plank can be used if available. hard wood is best. maple is excellent for a bench-top. take particular care to select a good sound plank, from the centre of the tree if you can (see chapter iii.), as straight and free from winding as possible, and have it planed so as to be straight and true. this can easily be done at any properly equipped planing-mill. to make this bench with a plank in front, you can proceed exactly as with the bench just described, except that the front legs should be as much shorter than those at the back as the plank you have is thicker than the / " board used for the top of the bench just described. that is, if your plank is - / " thick the front legs should be " shorter than the back ones. pieces must be cut out of the cross-boards in order that the top may be even (fig. ). the simplest way, however, is to make the bench just like the preceding one until you come to the top. then, after putting on the front plank, raise the back top-board to be flush with the plank, instead of lowering the plank to be flush with the board. you can do this by putting small pieces of board of the required thickness under the back part of the top (fig. ). some workmen prefer having the back board of the bench top lower than the front by an inch or so, with a strip fastened on the back, and sometimes at each end, so as to be level with the top of the front plank, thus forming a sort of tray (fig. ) where tools, nails, small bits of work, etc., can remain when in use, keeping the front plank clear for the actual operations. the work, if large, can be rested on the back strip as well as the front part, both being on a level. the bench can be all filled up underneath with shelves, drawers, cupboards, compartments, or in any way that you wish, but at first, and for a simple bench like this, it is as well to have only one shelf, as shown in the frontispiece. you can easily put this shelf in after the bench is put together. you can tell better whether you want drawers and compartments after you have worked for some time and wish to make a more complete bench. * * * * * a nice bench should, of course, be built independently of the shop,--that is, be complete in itself, so that it can be readily moved. but a common bench can sometimes be best built against the wall, using the side of the building to support the back. sometimes one or both of the ends of the bench can be advantageously carried to the walls of the room, thus requiring legs only in the middle or at one end. but such arrangements are not to be advised if you are likely to wish to move the bench before you have used it enough to pay for making it. [illustration fig. .] * * * * * figure is merely suggestive. the process of construction is the same as already shown, except that you omit some of the legs and the back side-board, a saving sufficient to allow you to use a plank for the front of the top. as the floor is likely to be uneven, you can first saw the posts a little too long, stand them in line, stretch a cord or a chalk-line (see _chalk-line_) along the line of the front edge of the bench at the proper height for the tops of the posts, cut the posts off where this line crosses them, nail on one end of the cross-boards at right angles, and then fasten the other end to the wall-studding, sighting and testing to have the top straight and true, as in the case of the bench already described. if instead of vertical studding the joists of the wall run horizontally (as is often the case), you can easily nail cleats on the wall if there is no horizontal timber at the right height to nail to. * * * * * [illustration fig. .] =bench-vise.=--the kinds shown in figs. , , , though not as good as some more improved forms, are in common use by carpenters, and will answer your purpose very well for ordinary work--until you get to the point of building a first-class bench. * * * * * at a distance of about " from the end of the bench and in the middle of the side board mark the point _a_ (fig. ). bore a hole at this point (see _boring_) if you have a bit a trifle larger than the screw of the vise. if not, using this point as a centre, describe a circle (see _compasses_) with a diameter a trifle greater than that of the vise screw, and remove the wood within the circle (see _boring_ and _paring_.) now take the piece of - / " or " plank which is to make the movable jaw of the vise, and mark a line lengthways along the centre of each side (fig. ). at a distance of about " from one end mark a point upon this centre line and make a hole for the vise screw as before. the nut for the screw must now be fastened in position on the inner side of the bench, the vise screw passed through the movable jaw and the side board, and the handle plate fastened upon the face of the jaw. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] you can now open and close the vise by the screw, but the movable jaw needs to be made steady and the end projects above the top of the bench. screw the vise tight together and slide the movable jaw around until it is in the position shown in fig. , when the centre line on the back side of the jaw will cross the edge of the leg a few inches from the floor, according to the width of the jaw and the degree of slant given it. when the jaw is in this position, mark from the back side the lines indicated in fig. , and saw off the projecting ends of the jaw by these lines, which will give the shape shown in figs. and . next take the small strip, and marking points upon its side as shown in fig. , bore holes with a / " or / " bit. screw the end of the strip to the edge of the movable jaw (being careful to get it at right angles with the vertical edge of the jaw), as shown in figs. and (see _screws_). just above and below where this strip crosses the post of the bench nail small blocks (a trifle thicker than the strip) so that it will pass easily between them. cover these with a longer piece, making a slot, as shown in fig. , through which the strip can slide freely. if the two blocks are no thicker than the strip, you can put pieces of paste-board between them and the post to make the slot wide enough to let the strip slide through freely. fit a pin or piece of dowel to the holes in the strip. the use of these holes and the pin is to keep the face of the jaw approximately parallel to the side of the bench. contrivances for this purpose can be bought. after the jaw is all fitted, bevel or round the edge on the face side at the top (see _bevelling_), and you can also bevel or round all the front edges if you wish. the vise is now in working order.[ ] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. . right.] [illustration fig. . wrong.] [illustration fig. .] the important point with this vise (and in fact with any vise) is to have the inside surface of the jaw parallel with the surface of the side of the bench, so that the wood will be pressed equally at all points, else it will slip just when you wish it to be securely held. be sure that the vise is not open more at the top than at the bottom (see figs. and ). [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] the holes bored in the side of the bench are to support the end of a long board (fig. ). if you cannot afford to buy a vise, or have to work where there is none, there are a number of makeshifts with which you can get along quite well, though not as rapidly or conveniently. carpenters often nail a piece on the side of the bench (fig. ), which holds boards for planing fairly well, for common work, but tends to bruise the ends of the boards a little against the cleat, and requires a knife, or something, driven in at the other end of the boards to hold them with any degree of security. another cheap substitute is shown in fig. . this holds boards of regular sizes quite well. thin pieces can be held tighter by wedging, as shown. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] another simple contrivance, and more of a vise, is easily made by boring a couple of holes in a board, say " wide and " long, and screwing it loosely to the side of the bench (fig. ), making the holes in the board larger than the diameter of the screws so that it will be free to play. by inserting the piece to be held in the end and double wedging the opposite end (fig. ) the piece will be held fairly well (see _wedges_). for thin boards, blocks can be inserted to make the jaw parallel with the side of the bench. an upright vise made on this principle is often used to hold saws for filing. if you can find an old wooden hand-screw, you can use one jaw (sawing off the ends if necessary) for the nut to go inside of the bench, leaving the other for the movable jaw, using one screw to tighten or loosen the vise and the other to keep the jaw parallel with the side of the bench. you will require no description to contrive something of this sort. vises on somewhat this principle can be bought, attachable and detachable at will. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] the jaw in fig. can be hinged upon the strip at the bottom and the latter fastened to the side of the bench. the jaw can then be tightened or loosened by the screw. this gives a square grip only when the jaw is vertical (fig. ). you can put in blocks, however. the longer the jaw the less objectionable the slanting grip becomes, of course. always try to devise some such expedients, which you can think up for yourself, when you are without the regular appliances, for even a poor vise is better than to hold pieces in the hand or to push them against chairs or tables or the wall. * * * * * for nice work by far the _best vise of moderate cost_ is that shown in fig. , which has been in use for a long time by wood-workers of the better class. * * * * * there are a number of excellent iron vises (some with jaws of wood, and also with an "instantaneous grip"). some of them are admirable, but quite costly compared with the common screw. you can work quite well with a good-sized common iron vise by fitting wooden blocks or leather or rubber to the inside of the jaws, to save marring your wood-work, though a regular vise for wood is much to be preferred. * * * * * bear in mind when doing work that requires to be held at unusual angles, or in fashioning odd-shaped pieces, that you can usually get the angle or position required by a combination of hand-screws or clamps with the bench-vise as suggested in figs. and . [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] =bench-stop.=--you must have something on the forward end of the bench-top to push your work against for planing and other operations. a simple and good way is to use one or two stout screws (fig. ). these can be screwed in so as to project about a quarter of an inch, which will answer for the greater part of your work, and the height can be changed when necessary with the screw-driver. the heads of the screws will be sharp enough to hold the work, and a stop of this kind will answer your purpose very well for common work. the wooden stop (fig. ) has the advantage of not making any nicks in the end of the wood, which is important in nice work, such as furniture, but for common work screws are just as good, except that, as they are left permanently sticking from the bench, you may dull your tools against them or scar your work. this applies to a common bench. of course for a really nice bench with a tail-screw the regular stops should be used (fig. ). * * * * * carpenters sometimes nail a small piece of board, with a v-shaped notch at one end, to the top of the bench to hold boards or joist for planing on the edge (fig. ). simply nailing a strip across the end of the bench (fig. ), and setting the nails well in, will do to push boards against for planing for common work. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] iron contrivances (which can be raised or lowered) can be bought for a small sum and are convenient for common work, especially for thin pieces. sink them deeply enough in the bench-top so that when lowered nothing will project to injure the tools or the work. the old-fashioned bench-stop shown in fig. consists merely of a square stick of hard wood, one or two inches square, fitted quite tightly to a hole in the top of the bench, so that it will slide up or down by a blow from the mallet or hammer. this stop will not damage the work or the tools. to make the mortise for this bench-stop, see _mortising_. take care to keep within the lines, so as not to make the hole too big. you can easily make it larger if too small. the stop should fit tightly and should be set with a very slight slant toward the work (fig. ),--that is, the mortise should be cut slightly slanting. the stop should be of hard wood, such as maple. if the top of the bench is only of board thickness, screw cleats of hard wood on the under side to give more bearing surface (fig. ), or the continued pushing against the stop will be liable to get the hole out of shape so that the stop will slant the wrong way, when the work will be apt to slip or, in case of a thin board, jump over the stop (fig. ). if the stop wears loose in the hole, a saw kerf is sometimes made lengthways in one side and a bent piece of springy wire inserted, or a flat spring fastened on the side (fig. ). a loose stop can easily be wedged (preferably from underneath), and it is sometimes made loose on purpose, the wedging tightening the stop and at the same time giving the required slant (fig. ). an iron plate with teeth can be screwed on top of a wooden stop (fig. ), or a screw can be inserted (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] two strips, like fig. , can be nailed or screwed on the top of the bench so as to separate v-fashion (fig. ). two wedges, like fig. , can then be made of such a taper that when fitted between the strips their inner faces will be parallel. by tapping in the wedges on each side of the work to be held (fig. ), it will be securely fastened without injury. if the inside edges of the strips and the outside edges of the wedges are slightly bevelled, which you can do with a plane or a knife, the wedges cannot jump out of place. the best way to fit this contrivance is to make the wedges first, place them in position on the bench with the square sides inside (facing each other), and then fasten the fixed strips outside of them. pushing the work tends to tighten this vise. this is much better for permanent use than the notched board shown in fig. . if you have a good vise you will not often have occasion to use such contrivances, but they are sometimes useful as makeshifts. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] * * * * * the top of a good bench should be as true and as smooth as possible (see _plane_ and _scraper_). rub it with linseed oil, wipe it off with a rag, and after a few days give it a couple of coats of shellac (see _finishing_). [illustration fig. .] you should place your bench so that when you stand at it you will face the light and not have it come from behind you. if it can come from the forward end of the bench and also from behind the bench, as shown in the frontispiece, it will be best, for a cross-light is often very useful, not merely that you may have light enough, but also that when testing your work with the try-square, straight-edge, and the like, any inaccuracy may be detected by the light passing through the crack between the testing tool and the work, and also when sighting by the eye alone. fasten the bench firmly to the floor (and wall if you can) with screws, cleats, or l irons.[ ] avoid chopping on the bench top or whittling it or boring holes or marring it by saw-cuts or chisel-marks. do not use paint, varnish, or glue at the bench if you can help it. if necessary to do so, clean the bench-top carefully when you get through. lumps of hardened glue will hinder you and deface your work. [illustration fig. .] =filing-bench.=--you cannot do much of such varied wood-work as you will undertake without having to do a good deal of metal work. it is a poor plan to do such work at the vise you use for your wood-work, or even at the same bench. it scars and defaces the wooden vise and the bench, and the particles of metal are bad for your wood-work and for the tools. it is much better to have another bench--if nothing more than a wide shelf or a box--for such work (fig. ). you will find suggestions in the illustrations. an _iron_ vise is the proper thing for holding metal. there are many different kinds at various prices, but one of the simple patterns will probably answer every purpose. if you have room for only one bench this vise can be put at the back part of one end. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] a small vise can be made of a hand-screw, the hand-screw itself being held in any desired position in the large bench-vise, but metal jaws are better for working on metal. you can make a rough sort of vise for metal-work with a piece of stout board or plank (fig. ). find a couple of pieces of iron with screw holes, as you can probably do in a pile of waste iron junk, and screw them on the board and the bench to form metal jaws. the vise can be tightened or loosened by means of a big screw or bolt; or the board can be loosely fastened in the middle and tightened by wedging below (fig. ). a screw with a handle to turn it by and a nut for the thread is better, of course. another form, such as you will find in use by leather-workers, can be easily made (fig. ), and works with the foot, the connection between the jaw and the treadle being made by a strap or rope. you can make a vise in some of these ways that will answer quite well for most of the metal-work you will have to do for some time, although such contrivances are less reliable and less convenient than a regular iron vise. an _anvil_ is often useful and is sometimes combined with a vise. it should have a flat steel surface and also a tapering rounded (conical) point. an old flat-iron does quite well. you can easily find some way to keep it in position on the filing-bench. you should have some sort of anvil, even if nothing better than a junk of old iron (which you can of course find somewhere), for you will be continually wanting to straighten nails, bend wire, and pound pieces of metal. try to find a flat plate of thick sheet iron-- / " thick if you can--to fasten on the top of the filing-bench (fig. ). it is very handy for many anvil uses, straightening metal and nails, and for much pounding. =finishing-bench.=--have also a finishing-bench (fig. ) if possible,--if nothing more than a shelf or box,--to keep the regular work-bench neat and clean for its proper uses, for even a skilful workman can hardly avoid making a mess when it comes to using paint and varnish. * * * * * now, while there are many of you who can afford either singly or by two or three clubbing together to fix up a shop in first-rate style, there are also many who cannot afford even so cheap a bench as that just described. what can you do in such a case? only one thing--patch up a bench out of whatever old stuff you can find. patched-up makeshifts are not to be recommended, except in case of necessity, but when it comes to the pinch, and a matter of having a bench made of whatever old materials you can find or having no bench at all, by all means make one of boxes and anything that can be worked in. for of course the boats, skis, squirrel-houses, and so on, _must_ be made! but, whatever you patch up, make it solid and strong. do not try to work at a rickety, shackly apology for a bench that shakes and jumps and sidles all over the room every time you saw or pound or plane. you can probably get all you need in the way of boxes, packing-cases, and such material, at very little or no expense. the illustrations (figs. and ) are merely suggestions, for you must use your own ingenuity, according to the materials you can find. most experienced workmen have often been obliged to work at much worse benches than these, frequently with no bench at all. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] * * * * * those of the boxes which you do not use whole you should take apart carefully (see _withdrawing nails_). this will add to your supply of nails. use nails freely in fastening the boxes and boards together and to the wall or floor wherever allowable. a few screws will add much strength. the bench shown in fig. calls for one good board for the front of the top. * * * * * some of you live in the crowded parts of the city, in flats or small houses where there is no possible chance for a shop of any kind. whatever wood-work you can do must be carried on in the kitchen, or some other living-room, where even a small bench may be out of the question. still you would like to make such small work--model boats, for instance--as can be carried on in such limited quarters. if you are forced to use the kitchen table for a bench, try, for the first thing, to brace or block or screw it to make it steady, for unsteadiness is the greatest hindrance to doing good work at such a bench. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] * * * * * you can fit a good board to the table-top with cleats, and a stop to hold the work (fig. ). if you can now get a common iron vise, you can get along quite well for small work, and the board and attachments can be quickly taken off and put away when the table is needed for domestic purposes. you can easily contrive some way to attach wooden pieces or leather or rubber to the inside of the jaws of the vise, to save marring your wood-work. a fairly good bench can often be made from an old table (as a kitchen table) by screwing a plank on top and a board on the front side, and bracing the legs (fig. ). the plank should be screwed on from underneath. if you can get hold of an old bureau or chest of drawers you can arrange a serviceable and compact little "parlour shop" for small work. if you cannot fasten permanent attachments to the bureau, you can fit a removable board (fig. ), and you will be equipped for such work as can be suitably done under such circumstances--and that includes quite a long list of small things. the drawers can be fitted with compartments and trays, according to what you have to keep in them and your own ingenuity, but make the arrangement _simple_. figs. and are merely suggestions. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] * * * * * the best way to arrange your tools and supplies depends somewhat upon the circumstances, but the main point is to have the _most convenient_ place for each thing and always to _keep_ it in that place when not in use. the first part of this proposition is almost as important as the last. it is nearly as bad as being disorderly to keep the glue-pot in one corner of the shop, the glue in another corner, the glue-brush in the third corner, and the water in the fourth,--which is no exaggeration of the way some very orderly people stow away things, and is about equal to the arrangement of the person, of whom you may have heard, who always kept everything in its place and that place the floor! the workshop interior shown in the frontispiece and in figs. and , and the various other illustrations, furnish suggestions which may help you in the arrangement of your shop. [illustration fig. .] have everything where you can lay your hand on it in the least possible time, the tools used the most the nearest to you, tools that go together, as bit-brace and bits, kept near together. have all the common tools right within reach, and not put away in chests and out-of-the-way drawers, just because you have seen somebody pack away his tools in a highly polished chest, inlaid with forty kinds of wood, and containing ninety-three separate compartments and trays and seven secret drawers, the whole cornered and strapped and decorated with shining nickel plate! do not be dazzled by that sort of thing, which is not an evidence of true system and orderliness, but merely shows poor taste and a great lack of appreciation of the value and importance of time. time may not be exactly money in your case, but it may be even more valuable, and can be spent much better than in running around after tools and supplies, and making ingenious tool-chests. to be practical, five minutes a day saved by having things convenient and in place means about _twenty-five hours_ in a year--which means a boat, a sled, or a lot of christmas presents. so study out the best arrangement for your particular shop and then keep things in order. when working keep only the tools in actual use lying around on the bench. as soon as you are done with a tool for the operations actually in hand, put it back in place, and so avoid the confused litter seen in so many shops. [illustration fig. .] hang _saws_ against the wall on pegs, or nails, or at the end of the bench. hang all tools which you put on the wall well above the bench, to be out of the way. lay _planes_ on their sides or ends, for obvious reasons, or arrange a little block to raise one end of the plane slightly from the surface of the bench or shelf. the last way is usually more convenient than to lay the plane on its side or end. keep planes either at the back of the bench or against the wall, or on a shelf under the front of the bench. such tools as _squares_, _bit-braces_, and the like are usually most accessible on the wall, in some such arrangement as shown in the frontispiece. a convenient way to arrange such tools as _chisels_, _gouges_, and the like, is to keep them in racks either against the wall or fastened to the back edge of the bench, according to circumstances. keep each tool in a particular place in the rack and you will soon learn to reach for it instinctively without any waste of time. [illustration fig. .] _bits_ can be kept in a drawer or box, care being taken to arrange them in racks or between partitions, or they can be stuck on end in the racks at the back of the bench. a good way is to stick each bit point downwards in a hole bored by itself. various forms of _tool-racks_, which you can easily arrange for yourself, are suggested in fig. . [illustration fig. .] * * * * * fig. shows a rack to fit on the back of the bench, an excellent way, in common use with movable benches. get a board, say " or " wide and the length of the bench, a strip from / " to / " thick, perhaps " wide, and the length of the bench, and a strip / " thick, perhaps " wide, and perhaps two thirds of the length of the bench. saw from this last strip a number of blocks from " to " long. arrange these along the top edge of the board, according to the kinds and sizes of the tools, as shown in fig. . then lay the long strip on them (fig. ) and nail it through each block with wire nails long enough to reach perhaps two thirds through the large strip. you can put this rack together by first nailing at each end. then all the intermediate blocks can easily be fitted in place and nailed one at a time. the whole can then be screwed to the back of the bench so that the tools will be at the back (fig. ). you can make part of this rack solid and bore small holes of various sizes for bits, gimlets, nail-sets, and such tools, which would drop through the larger spaces. good metal tool-racks and holders can be bought, but the home-made ones answer every purpose. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] * * * * * the large _steel square_ can be hung very well with nails or small blocks of wood bevelled toward the wall (fig. ). for the _try-square_ nail a rectangular block against the wall (fig. ). a smaller block nailed in front will hold another smaller square. slanting saw-kerfs in another block will hold _scrapers_ (fig. ). always keep your _oil-stones_ in shallow boxes for protection from dirt. you can easily make one, or cut a depression in a block to fit the stone, with another for a cover. fasten one end of your _strop_ to a strip of thin board (fig. ) with a hole by which to hang it. you can then use the strop lying flat on the board or loose in your hand for curved edges. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] do not keep _nails_ and _screws_ after the usual domestic fashion,--all sizes, shapes, and kinds mixed up promiscuously with a lot of metal rubbish and carpet tacks in some old box or pail. you will waste twice as much time trying to find what you want as it takes to keep them in separate boxes, or trays with divisions. a good way is to use either small open boxes or flat open boxes with divisions, so that they can be reached as conveniently as possible. tin boxes or canisters or pails (of various sizes), such as cocoa, coffee, lard, and such substances come in, are good. put labels on them and arrange them neatly in some accessible place, as on a shelf over or at the end of your bench, or in a cupboard or a drawer. keep scrap boxes for old pieces of metal (iron, brass, etc., in separate boxes), so that you will know just where to look for what you want. keep a brush for cleaning off the bench and the work, a broom for the floor, and a box for shavings, sawdust, and chips. any workman is liable to cut or pound his fingers, so have a small box in a handy place with some neatly rolled bandages of cloth, some surgeon's plaster, and a bottle of witch-hazel (_hamamelis_) or some other preparation for cuts or bruises. in case of a bruise, or if you pound your nail, put your finger at once in as hot water as you can bear. do not, as is often done, put glue on a cut, because of danger of infection, for the glue is made, as you know, from animal refuse and is not always in a pure state. do not leave oily rags lying around in your shop to get wadded into a pile in some corner and catch fire by spontaneous combustion. either put them in the stove at once, or, if you want to keep a few, put them in a stone jar or covered tin box. matches should always be kept in a covered metal box in a wood-working shop. lay in a supply of strips, waste junks, and odd pieces of wood, which you can usually get at any shop at little or no expense. they will be very useful until you accumulate a stock from your own work. =chopping-block.=--a good solid chopping-block is a great convenience, so watch for a chance to get a section of a tree, which you can often do when one is felled. =straight-edge.=--you should have at least one; two are very useful--one two or three feet long and another five or six feet long. making them is simply a matter of skill in planing. when you can plane well enough make some yourself of well seasoned, straight-grained white pine or mahogany, or other wood which holds its shape well. until you can do it _accurately_, however, get some good workman to make one, for a straight-edge that cannot be relied on is really worse than none at all. (see _straight-edge._) =bench-hook.=--the bench-hook (fig. ) is very useful to hold work firmly for sawing, planing, etc., and also saves some marring of the bench-top. before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, and _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] take a board, say " long x " wide, of some good wood like white pine, making both ends square. the surface should be planed true (see _truing surfaces_). with the square mark the line _a b_ (fig. ) accurately, say " (or the width of any blocks you may already have for the end cleats) from each end, but on opposite sides. the cleats _c_ (fig. ) must be true and the edges square. bore the holes in the cleats with a bit a little _larger_ than the screws (see _boring_). hold the cleats exactly in place at the cross-line _a b_ and start holes in the board with a gimlet or bit a little _smaller_ than the screws. countersink the holes (see _countersink_). use screws long enough to get a good hold on the board but not long enough to go through it. if board and cleat are each / " thick, - / " screws will be suitable. screw _one_ of the middle screws in each cleat firmly to a bearing (see _screws_), keeping the cleat as nearly on the line as possible. adjust each cleat exactly in place, in case it has slipped, hold it firmly, and drive the remaining screws. before screwing on one of the cleats mark a line around it in the middle with the square, as shown in fig. , marking first across the edge _o_ (against which the work is to be pressed), from that line squaring across the top, and then across the outer edge. after this cleat is screwed on, carefully saw it in two exactly on the line. by letting the saw run in the kerf thus made, you can cut pieces off square. sometimes one cleat is made shorter, so that you can saw clear through a piece without damage to the bench (fig. ). see _mitre-board_, page . two bench-hooks are useful for long work. [illustration fig. .] * * * * * =horses or trestles.=--these are to lay stock on for marking and sawing, to put large work together on, and are convenient for various uses (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, and _saw_, in part v., and look up any other references. the proper height for your horses, as for the bench, depends somewhat on your own height, and may be anywhere from " to ' ". experiment with boxes to find the most convenient height. if too low, you will have to stoop over too much. if too high, it will be awkward to rest your knee on a board, to saw, and to fit work together. [illustration fig. .] if you have a piece of fairly good joist, from - / " Ã� " to " Ã� ", you can use it for the tops of your horses. saw off two pieces from ' to ' long. mark the best sides for the top. mark each end like fig. (showing top and bottom) with the pencil, measuring carefully so that the bevel or slant will be the same for both legs (see _bevel_). holding the work in the vise, with saw alone or saw and chisel remove the pieces marked, so that the end will have the shape shown in fig. . if you use the chisel, look out for the direction of the grain at each corner and cut well outside of the line, until you find which way to push the tool in each case (see _paring_, etc.). trim these cuts as accurately to the lines as you can. get out eight pieces for legs, of such a length that the horses will be of the height decided on. first make them all of a width, then saw one piece off the right length and mark the others by it--not each new piece by the one last marked. nail or screw these legs in place with " nails or - / " screws, keeping the inner edges of the tops of the legs even with the tops of the horses (fig. ). see _nailing_ and _screws_, and look out for splitting. get out the cross-braces of board and saw the ends at a bevel to correspond with the slant intended for the legs. see that the ends of these cross-braces are cut at the same bevel. use the bevel if you have one. if not, first square each end with the square and pencil, and then measure carefully equal distances on one edge before drawing the slanting lines (fig. ). nail or screw these on (fig. ), adjusting the legs to the bevels just cut. saw or plane off the projecting ends of the legs on top. if you plane, do so both ways to avoid splintering (see _plane_). [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] now stand the horses on their legs (fig. ). if they _should_ happen to stand firmly and evenly, see first if it is not due to unevenness of the floor. if the floor is true, and they stand steadily in different positions, you can throw up your caps, for you will have beaten the average workman. to make them stand evenly, see _scribing_, _winding-sticks_, etc., in part v. make the tops of the horses as smooth as you can. scrape them and _keep_ them scraped (see _scraper_), for you will be continually dropping glue or varnish on them, to harden and deface your nice, smooth work. wipe them off as carefully as the bench-top. these easily made horses will answer your purpose for a long time.[ ] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] * * * * * =mitre-box.=--great care is necessary to make an accurate wooden mitre-box (fig. ), although the process is simple. do not make it of spruce or any wood liable to warp or twist. pine or mahogany is good. use stock from a middle board if you can (see chapter iii.). a mitre-box can be of any desired size. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, and _plane_, and look up any other references. a good size is from ' to ' long and from " to " square (inside), according to the work for which it is to be used, and of stock / " thick. the pieces must be prepared with care, so that the edges shall be square and the surfaces true, particularly on the inside, for when the box is put together the sides must be parallel and square throughout with the bottom, on the _inside_. test each piece with the square. use care in screwing the sides to the bottom to keep them exactly in place (see _screws_). nails can be used, but screws are better. lay out the lines for the sawing from the _inside_, with the steel square if you have one, or with the end of the tongue of the try-square. mark the line _a_ on the inside of the side _x_ (fig. ), squaring from the bottom. mark the point _b_ at a distance from _a_ just equal to the distance between the sides. square a line at this point from the bottom, on the inside as before. carry this line across to the side _y_, squaring from the inner surface of the side _x_, and mark the point _c_ on the inner side of the side _y_. also from the point _c_ draw a vertical line on the inside of _y_ corresponding to the line _a_. carefully mark the line _g h_, which will give the mitre. the lines should be laid out from the inside, because it is against the inside surfaces that the pieces to be cut in the mitre-box will bear. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] another way is to square a line _m n_ (fig. ) across the top side of the bottom piece, before putting together, and to lay off from one end of this line a point _o_ on the edge, at a distance equal to the width of the bottom, thus fixing the points _m_, _n_, and _o_. next fasten on the sides, square upright lines on the inside of one side from the point _m_ and on the inside of the other side from the point _o_. the diagonal line _pq_ (fig. ) will represent the mitre. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] the cuts for the saw to run in should be made with a back-saw or a panel-saw. in a similar manner square on the inside two upright lines opposite each other, draw a line across the tops of the sides to meet these lines (squaring from the inside as before), and make a saw-cut, as shown by the middle line in fig. . this will be very useful to saw strips squarely across. you can put buttons on the outside near the lower edge to catch against the front edge of the bench-top if you wish, or use the mitre-box on the bench-hooks when necessary to hold it firmly. [illustration fig. .] a very useful _mitre-board_ for sawing strips, mouldings, and the like, can be made with two short boards, one wider than the other, being sure that the surfaces and edges are true and square (fig. ). this can be of any size. a good size is from ' to ' long, " wide (in all), and of stock / " thick, but it is better to make the narrow piece thicker, perhaps - / " or - / ". mark the lines first on the bottom of the narrow piece, then on the edges, and lastly on the top, as with the mitre-box just shown, to ensure the lines being at the correct angles with the surfaces against which the wood to be sawed will rest. an excellent plan is to make saw-kerfs for mitres in the cleat of a bench-hook (fig. ), in the way just shown. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] * * * * * =shooting-board.=--this is useful for squaring edges and small surfaces and ends with the plane, and for jointing edges, the plane being pushed forward on its side (see _shooting-board_, in part v.). it can be of any wood which holds its shape well. clear white pine or mahogany is good. if carelessly made it will be of but little use. the stock must be planed free from winding. several forms are shown in figs. , , and . * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. the construction is plain (fig. ). approximate dimensions are given, fig. being made of / " stock, fig. of / " and / " stock, and fig. of / " stock. screw the pieces together from the under side (see _screws_). see that the stop or cleat _a_ is put on at right angles to the edge _b_. mark the lines for this accurately with knife or chisel. a groove is sometimes cut for this stop, but this is a refinement that is not at all necessary if you do your work well. this board must have a rabbet or groove cut out of the upper piece, as shown, to give room for shavings. in fig. the top board overlaps the ends of the cleats a trifle, which (with the spaces between the cleats) allows the escape of the shavings. arrange some way to hold the board firmly on the bench. care is necessary in using the shooting-board not to plane slices from your left hand. guides, to attach to the plane to ensure square edges, can be bought and used instead of the shooting-board. some of them are serviceable, particularly those adjustable at various angles. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] a _mitre shooting-board_ (fig. ) is also useful. it requires to be made with even more care than the board just given, but on the same principle. the angular stop or stops must be fitted to make the angles exactly °. a sawed mitre holds glue better than a planed mitre, but sawed mitres often require trimming with the plane to get a perfect fit. =form for rounding sticks.=--you will be continually wanting to make sticks eight-sided or round. a form to hold the pieces for planing is a great convenience. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _gauge_, _plane_, and _nailing_, in part v., and look up any other references. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] take two strips and plane off (or even chisel or whittle) one corner of each, first gauging lines equidistant from the corner for a guide. then nail the two strips together, with the bevels facing each other, to make a trough as shown in fig. . put a screw in one end to push the work against, push the form against the bench-stop or screw it in the vise, put the piece to be "cornered" or rounded in the v-shaped trough, and it will be firmly held with the angle upward. two or three of these for larger and smaller pieces will be very useful. they are quickly made of waste strips. if you think ' the right length for one of these forms, for instance, make it a foot or so longer, and after it is made saw off the extra length in one or two pieces, which will serve as an extension for holding a long stick (fig. ). if your bench has wooden bench-stops you can make some stops with notches in the top (fig. ) for this purpose. for making pieces tapering, as well as eight-sided or rounding, you have only to modify this idea by planing off the corners in a tapering way (fig. ). see _rounding sticks_. =level and plumb.=--before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _gauge_, _saw_, and _plane_, in part v. to make a plumb like fig. , take a piece of straight wood from " to " wide and ' or ' long with the edges straight and parallel. gauge a line down the middle of the side, exactly parallel to the edges, and cut the notch shown at the bottom. make a saw-kerf at the upper end of the line and another beside it in which to catch the end of the line, or fasten the line around a nail. (see _plumb_.) [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] to make the level shown in fig. , it is essential that the bottom board _c d_ be straight on the lower edge. the two braces _a c_ and _a d_ should be of the same length. the strut _a b_ should be nailed across at the middle of _c d_ and at right angles to it. the essential thing is to have the line _a b_ exactly at right angles to _c d_, the object of the braces _a c_ and _a d_ being to stiffen the board _c d_, and to keep the lines _a b_ and _c d_ at right angles to each other. the plumb-line is hung and used as in the case just given, the board _c d_ being used for horizontal work. (see _level_.) =cabinets, etc., for tools and supplies.=--a tool-chest, though a very convenient (and in fact necessary) thing for a workman who is moving around from place to place or who needs a safe receptacle in which to lock his tools in a factory, is not at all necessary in a private shop, nor half as convenient as to have the tools where they can be more readily reached. it is quite a piece of work to make a good one, and it will be better to defer such a job until you feel the need. an old case of drawers, or bureau, or cupboard, or some such receptacle, if you can find one, will be useful in your shop. a bureau, in fact, makes a good tool-cabinet or substitute for a tool-chest, but if you keep tools in drawers make compartments, trays, or divisions, else the edge-tools may be damaged, not to speak of the inevitable confusion. you do not need a tool-cabinet for half a dozen tools, but when they begin to accumulate it is a good thing to have and a good thing to make, if there is occasion to keep your tools locked up or if you have limited room. otherwise it is just as well to keep the common tools as already shown. a cabinet is fully as useful for miscellaneous articles like brads, hinges, etc., as for tools. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, and _screws_, and look up any other references. [illustration fig. .] perhaps you can find a good box, wide and shallow, all made, or if deep you can saw off part to make it shallow (fig. ). this will answer perfectly for a shop. for the house you would of course make a cupboard of new wood. the size must depend on circumstances. get two boards for doors that will just cover the open side of the box, unless the box cover will do, which is unlikely. if the edges are not good you must allow extra width for jointing. lay these boards in position and mark the lengths (on the side next the box) by the box itself, not with the square, for the box may not be square. from the lines just made mark the edges with the square, and, with the straight-edge, connect these edge marks by lines on the face sides. saw off by these lines. mark the box and each door in some way (fig. ), as "top," and "r" (for right) and "l" (for left), or by marks, as x, o, #, etc., to prevent finally putting them on wrong side out or wrong end up, as is very likely to happen if you neglect to mark them. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] now for hinges. the best thing, on account of the weight to be hung on the doors and the poor quality of the wood generally used for boxes, will be iron strap-hinges made for work of this sort, screwed on the outside (fig. ). two will do for each door. next to this come the common iron hinges. if the sides of the box are thick and firm, three of the common long and narrow kind (fig. ) will do for each door. if the sides are thin and flimsy, nail or screw a strip inside of each edge and use wider and shorter hinges (fig. ). to fit the hinges, see _hinges_. the doors being hung, take them off while fitting up the case. gauge a pencil line around the outer edge and each end of the inside surface of each door, where it fits against the edge of the box, as a limit beyond which racks or tools must not project or the door will not shut (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] the fitting up of the cupboard must depend on its size and what and how many tools or supplies are to be kept in it. shelves you can simply make of the right size and nail into place from the outside, using the rule and square to get them in the right positions. the illustrations are merely suggestions which you can alter or improve upon to suit your particular case. fig. shows another form, and fig. a small cabinet with one door, with suggestions for the arrangement of the tools, but the matter of fitting up you must, of course, contrive for yourselves, according to the circumstances. do not attempt to put full-width drawers into these wide, shallow cabinets, as is often done. it takes an expert to fit drawers that are wide and short (from front to back) and they are not always satisfactory even then. if you wish drawers, either put in a row of narrow ones, or use the simple device described below (figs. and ), and shown in fig. . (see _drawers_ in part v.) [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] to fasten the doors you can hook one on the inside and put a button (which you can whittle out) on the outside to hold the other. if you wish to lock, hook one door inside and lock the other to it (see _locks_). a padlock with staples and iron strap is easier to put on. to make a cupboard of boards instead of using a box, you simply make a box yourself (see _box-making_ in part ii.) and then proceed as above. [illustration fig. .] fig. shows a good form of cabinet. make a tight box, perhaps ' Ã� ' Ã� " to ", the sides and ends of / " stock, and the top and bottom (_i.e._, the front and back of the cabinet) of / " stock. saw it open carefully on the line _a b c_ about " or " from the top or face, according to the thickness of the box, first marking the ends or the sides so that you can finally put them together again in the same positions. when nailing the box together omit all nails which could interfere with the sawing. they can easily be put in afterwards. (see _box-making_, in part ii.) carefully smooth the edges after the saw. reckless and hasty planing will spoil the joint. fit two strap-hinges, or three of the common kind. fit up inside as you wish, and fasten with hasp, padlock, or a lock working on the principle of a chest lock. all these cabinets must be firmly fastened to the wall, for they will be very heavy when filled. do not trust to a couple of nails or screws, the way amateurs so often put up shelves and cabinets in the house. a ledge of some sort below is a great help (fig. ) to relieve the screws or nails of the weight. if the back is not very strong, do not trust wholly to it, but add cleats outside or inside. if in the house, stout screw-eyes of heavy wire in the sides of the cabinet, through which you can screw to the wall, are good (fig. ). good shelves can be made by arranging empty boxes one on top of another, or by taking a wide, thin (flat) box and fitting shelves across it, like a bookcase, and then fastening the whole to the wall. a small drawer can be fixed under a shelf, anywhere in your shop, on the principle often used in sewing-machine tables and the like, by taking a small box of suitable shape, strengthening one corner if necessary (fig. ), and pivoting it with a screw at that corner (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] * * * * * =first-class bench.=--you can do all the work you will be equal to for a long time on such a bench as has been shown, but some day you will want a first-class bench, such as fig. . do not attempt anything of the sort at first, however, though if you can afford it, such a bench is good to begin with. a few details are given in the appendix. [illustration fig. .] =other appliances.=--a number of other appliances and contrivances will be found, under their respective headings, in part v. a few essentials to successful work _do one thing at a time. finish one job before you start two or three others._ _first learn to work well, then ability to work quickly will come of itself._ _plan your work to the end before beginning to use your tools._ _make drawings carefully to scale before beginning any but the simplest work._ _lay out the work carefully on the wood with sharp, accurate lines, according to the drawings, measuring everything with exactness at least twice._ _cut the work accurately with sharp tools to the lines you have laid out._ _keep testing the accuracy of the work with the square, straight-edge, rule, level, or plumb._ _keep your tools sharp and in good order._ _have the most convenient place for each tool and always keep it in that place when not in use._ _do your work thoroughly and strongly. do not half make it. do not half fasten it together. the only time you will regret thorough work is when you have to take it apart again._ footnotes: [ ] if you can afford to buy one ready made, you cannot do better than to begin with such as are sold for sloyd or manual-training schools, but do not get a very small one unless you are only going to do very small work. get one as large as you can afford. a second-hand bench can often be bought for a small sum, but be sure that it is firm and steady. [ ] the reason for making this bench ' " long, instead of cutting a ' board into two lengths of ' each, is that it is hard to get boards sound and square at the ends, and so it is best to allow a few inches for waste. of course your bench can be of any desired length. six or eight feet is suitable for ordinary work, but there is no objection to making it as much longer as your space and material will admit. the height should bear a proper relation to the height of the workman. no definite height can be given. try moving a plane back and forth. if your right elbow, when holding the plane, is slightly bent and your back about straight, the height will be not far from right. do a little simple work at a table, trying different heights, and you can soon tell what will be satisfactory. if the bench is too low, you cannot manage your work well and your back will get tired from bending over, not to speak of becoming round-shouldered. if the bench is too high, it will be hard to manage your work, you cannot plane well, and your arms will be tired from holding them up unnaturally high. a bench for heavy work like carpentry is usually rather lower than one for cabinet- or pattern-making, while a carver's bench is usually higher. [ ] this vise is fitted slanting, so that the slide at the bottom comes on the outside of the leg and at the same time in the centre line of the movable jaw in line with the screw. a common form has the movable jaw upright, the sliding bar being mortised into it and sliding through a mortise cut in the leg, as shown in figs. and . if you wish to make this kind, study _mortising_, in part v., and lay out and cut the mortise in the leg before nailing the cross-board to it (figs. and ). this is the most difficult part of the bench to make nicely, and you can spend a good deal of pains upon it. if you have not yet the proper tools to make this mortise you can mark it out and have it cut for a very small sum at a wood-working mill or shop. when nailing the cross-board upon the legs, bear in mind to put this leg in the right place. fig. shows a simple arrangement with an additional post, or two posts can be put together and one half the notching done in each (fig. ). [ ] in case your bench is in the house and you wish to deaden the sound and vibration from your work you can put rubber cushions under the legs. [ ] fig. shows a nicer pair of horses. take two pieces of pine, or any wood not likely to warp, " Ã� " (or ") Ã� - / ' or ', mark with rule, square, and gauge (see _gauge_), and cut with saw and chisel the shallow gains (fig. ) for the legs. make them the same depth at the top as at the bottom (fig. ), and clean them out as accurately to the lines as you can. get out eight legs, and regulate their length as before. saw the upper ends on a bevel (fig. ) corresponding to the slant they are to have. nail or screw them in place. you can glue the joints for additional strength. fit on cross-pieces and finish the work as described above. if you ever need horses for very heavy work you can make the legs of plank or joist with the tops cut like fig. . "the labor is small, the pastime is great."--goethe. part ii chapter vi articles to be made in the workshop even if you are able to use tools quite well, you may still not know how to go to work to make some particular thing, so it is quite important to know how to lay out, put together, and finish different kinds of work. the number of things you _can_ make is legion. the number it is _worth while_ for you to make is much smaller. amateurs often say that the work they do themselves costs more (even counting their own labour as nothing) than to hire the work done, and it is one aim of this book to prevent that undesirable result, in some cases at least. the number of things which you can make more cheaply than you can buy grows smaller every year. many things can now be bought ready-made for less than you would have to pay for the materials. it is foolish to take the time and money to make many of the games and toys, for instance, sold so cheaply nowadays. a wheelbarrow is in itself a good thing to make, but it can be bought so cheaply that it is hardly worth while to make one. it is true that some of these things you can make _better_, although not cheaper, than you can easily buy (a sled perhaps); but, as a rule, your time can be better spent than upon this class of objects, and you will find but few such given here. things like whistles, pea-shooters, and clappers, which are so familiar to every boy and require no more instruction to make than is handed down and around from boy to boy, are not given here, as a rule. a few other things which you might perhaps look for, such as tennis rackets and snow-shoes, are omitted, because they require more special knowledge and skill than most beginners can be expected to have. it is easy enough to see how to make a tennis racket, for instance, so far as the general idea is concerned; but simply bending a loop, fastening it to a stick, and lacing the loop, does not make a tennis racket. the holes for the stringing must be made in a particular way, the stringing must be done properly, and the whole affair must balance or "hang" right, or be of little use. it is better to buy such things. you boys, and many of your elders, like to try all the new-fangled ideas as fast as they come out, and it is well that you do, but you (as a class) accept them "for keeps" only after they have stood the test of many trials. a large book could be filled with descriptions of the novelties which have appeared within my remembrance, but out of this number i can count on my fingers all that have come to stay. you will find all the novelties you can attend to (and more) in the magazines, etc., so i have been rather conservative in my selection, knowing that you will permanently accept but the best of the new ideas and come back in the end, year after year, to the same old things, with only such additions as have stood the test of actual use. the objects included embrace a sufficient variety of types to form a basis of experience and practice, in different kinds of work and in various details, from which you can launch out into any of these new plans, or any experiments of your own which you may wish to try, and thus supply for yourselves the information lacking in many of the popular descriptions. before you make anything bulky measure your shop door or window to see that you can get it out after you have made it. this may seem a superfluous caution, but there have been many cases where people have spent much time in making things which could not be taken from the room in which they were made without tearing out the door or window casing. even robinson crusoe, you know, built a boat so far from the water that he could not launch her. do not be deceived by all the complicated, new-fangled variations of familiar things which abound in the popular publications. try to make everything as _simple_ as you can. look askance on contrivances that are all tangled up with springs, and levers, and complicated mechanism, and study them well before you begin to make them. first figure the cost of the object you intend to make. this book is not to do your work for you, but to put you on the right track to do it yourselves, so read _estimating_, page , and the whole of part i had best be read before you begin to make the things described hereafter. chapter vii a few toys [illustration fig. .] =wooden swords, knives, and daggers.=--before beginning work, read _marking_, _knife_, _whittling_, _paring_, _rounding sticks_, _rasp_, _file_, and _sandpaper_, and look upany other references. the construction of those shown in fig. is too obvious to require special description. first cut the general outline as shown, then round or pare or shave to the thickness required. if you have a bow-saw or scroll-saw, it will save much time in shaping the outlines, or you can have them sawed at the mill. if you stain these weapons with various colours, as red, black, yellow, etc., and in various patterns, and shellac them neatly (see _finishing_), you can turn out quite a formidable array of awe-inspiring weapons. they should be made of some straight-grained and easily whittled wood. nothing is better than white pine. * * * * * [illustration fig. .] to make a sword like that shown in fig. , first select a piece of straight-grained wood (ash or any strong wood) about - / ' in length, / " thick, and " wide. about " from one end make a mark. from this mark taper the edges to the other end. do not taper the stick too gradually. then draw a line along the centre of each side and taper from this centre line to the edges, leaving the edges about / " thick. next get out two pieces of wood / " thick and " long (some dark-coloured wood can be used for contrast). nail one of these pieces with brads on each side of the " space left for the handle. next get a piece " long, / " thick, and / " wide (see fig. ). mark it as shown, making the marks for the holes ( / ") so the outside edge of one will be just " from the outside edge of the other. then bore these holes carefully (see _boring_) and cut out the wood between them with a knife or chisel (being careful about splitting) and shape the outside as marked. slip the blade through the hole in the guard you have just made up to the handle and nail the guard to the blade. * * * * * =wooden snake.=--this imitation reptile (fig. ) if well made will (when grasped at the middle) by a slight movement of the hand undulate and writhe in a very lifelike manner, as you may know, so do not be eager to terrify your feminine relatives, or those of other boys, too much. [illustration fig. .] * * * * * [illustration fig. .] before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _knife_, _saw_, and _rounding sticks_. the snake can be of any size--say from ' to ' long and from " to " in diam. select a piece of straight-grained wood,--white pine or any wood easy to work. first see that the stick is square, then make it hexagonal (six-sided), then taper it to the general shape of the snake, and finally round and smooth it (fig. ). remember not to use sandpaper in the smoothing, as the grit will dull the tools yet to be used. the head you must whittle or carve according to your ingenuity and skill. the mouth can be cut with a fine saw. the snake having been shaped, mark pencil lines lengthways along the middle of the top and bottom (except at the head), and cut with a knife a little slit or groove merely wide enough to hold a fine cord (like fish-line). this can be done with a fine saw (as a back-saw), using the teeth only at one end of the saw blade, but much care is required and the stick must be firmly clamped or held in the vise. you will probably do it more easily with the knife. mark equal spaces (fig. ) of / " to ", according to the diameter of the snake, from the neck to within a short distance of the end of the tail. if you make these marks as near together as / ", the snake will look more natural, as the notches will not have to be so wide, but you will have to cut more of them. number these sections so that you can finally put them together again in the right order. with the knife or chisel notch in to the centre from each side at each of the marks, or use the saw and knife or chisel, until the body of the snake is cut into sections (fig. ). put the sections together again by sinking a fine strong cord in the longitudinal grooves in the top and bottom. set the cord in place with glue (see _gluing_), and fasten with little staples (which you can make of bent pins), or something of the sort, at the end of each section. [illustration fig. .] set beads in the head for eyes. sandpaper the whole with fine sandpaper (see _sandpaper_). paint in imitation of whatever kind of snake you prefer (see _painting_), using red for the inside of the mouth. * * * * * =windmills.=--these are made in a great variety of forms. a few patterns which can be readily constructed of wood are given below. bear in mind to make them strong, as they are under very great strain in a violent wind, and, also, that the larger they are the stronger they must be; for little models, you know, are much stronger in proportion than large structures made after the same designs. dimensions are given merely to help illustrate the principles of construction. the windmills will work just as well if made larger or smaller, within any reasonable limits. they should be made of _straight-grained_ white pine, whitewood, or some wood easy to work.[ ] * * * * * [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _knife_, and _paring_, and look up any other references. in case of using heavy stock, see also _draw-knife_, _spokeshave_, and _plane_. to make a very simple form (fig. ), take two sticks, say " x " x ", and halve or notch (see _halving_) each piece at the centre (fig. ), so that when put together they will form a cross with arms of equal length. bore a hole through both pieces at the centre to loosely fit the pin upon which the vanes are to turn (see _boring_). upon the ends of each stick mark diagonal lines (fig. ) slanting in opposite directions, or so that, if you revolve the cross edgeways and look in turn upon each of the four ends, the lines will all slant the same way. this is essential, for the next operation is to shave each of the sticks down towards these lines until perhaps / " thick (fig. ), and you can readily see that if these vanes are not turned the same way the windmill will not revolve. when this shaping is done fasten the sticks together with brads (see _nailing_). the remaining part is very simple (fig. ), perhaps ' long and / " thick, with the broad vane made thin, as the only object of this is to act as a weather-vane to keep the windmill headed toward the wind, and if made thick and heavy the whole affair will not balance well. [illustration fig. .] the revolving cross you can now fasten with a nail or screw upon the end of the part last made (fig. ) so that it will revolve freely. find the point at which the whole windmill will balance over your finger or a stick, and bore a vertical hole through the horizontal stick at this point. through this hole loosely screw or nail the windmill on the end of a stick, slightly rounded to prevent friction (fig. ). sandpaper the whole with rather fine sandpaper (see _sandpaper_). you can paint in one or more colours, if you wish (see _painting_). the vanes can be painted in light and dark bands crossways, causing an appearance, when revolving, of concentric rings (like a target). by having two axles or spindles (fig. ) two sets of vanes can revolve at once, and, by slanting the vanes of the two sets in opposite ways, the two will revolve in contrary directions. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] the weather-vane can be made of two pieces (fig. ). a more elaborate affair (fig. ) is made on similar principles, but requires more care. the construction is obvious. before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _knife_, _spokeshave_, _drawshave_, _rounding sticks_, and look up any other references. the general dimensions of the one illustrated are: length of main frame (in which spindle turns) ", height of one end - / ", height of the other end - / "; length of weather-vane (from main frame) ", width at end - / "; length of revolving fans ', width at ends ". the spindle is held in the main frame on a slant (fig. ) to lessen any tendency to slip out, so the hole through which it passes should have a corresponding slant (see _boring_). the revolving fans or vanes are reduced to round pins at the small ends and fitted tightly into holes bored in the head of the spindle, all the vanes being turned to have the same slant. care will be required to bore these holes so that the vanes will be equidistant and revolve in the same line. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] the weather-vane is set in a slanting groove cut in the bottom of the main frame (fig. ), and fastened with a couple of nails or screws. you can cut this groove by making two saw-kerfs and paring out the wood between with a chisel. the bent nail or wire shown on the top of the spindle in fig. is to keep the latter from jumping out of the frame from a sudden change of wind. the vanes should all be shaved down until they are quite thin at the ends. set up and finish this windmill like the one just described. [illustration fig. .] a form which is good practice in whittling, and upon which you can also exercise your artistic faculties, is the "happy jack" shown in fig. . before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _knife_, _rasp_, and _file_, and look up any other references. fourteen inches is a good height for the figure itself. the outline of body and head can be sawed from a / " board and the edges trimmed and rounded and the details cut with a knife, or rasp and file can be used for the edges. the arms are made of separate pieces. bore holes in the outer ends of the arms to hold the paddles (see _boring_). also bore holes lengthways into the arms, from the ends next the body, and into these holes tightly drive the ends of a stiff metal rod long enough to also pass through the body at the shoulders (fig. ). before actually driving this rod into both arms you must bore the hole through the body. the holes in the arms should be smaller than the rod, so that it may drive in tightly without danger of getting loose, but the hole in the body must be larger than the rod, that the latter may revolve easily in it. bore in from the centre of each shoulder as carefully as you can, until the holes meet, rather than attempt to bore clear through from one side. put in the rod and drive on the arms, but not quite up to the shoulders. in driving on the arms be sure to keep the holes for the paddles in the right positions, so that the paddles will be in line as shown--that is, so that when one points directly upwards the other will point directly downwards. also bore a hole upwards between the legs for the rod upon which the figure turns, and screw or nail a piece of metal (fig. ), with a hole for this rod, on the bottom of the legs (fig. ). fig. shows a way to put on the hat. the paddles can be made from a shingle, which will save the labour of tapering the thickness towards the ends. the paddles must be set obliquely, or turned part way around, as in the case of any windmill. when set at the proper angles the man will spin around while the paddles are revolving. sandpaper the whole (see _sandpaper_), and paint in various colours (see _painting_). [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] a set of boats to sail around in a circle is not hard to make (fig. ). before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, and look up any other references. take two sticks from ' to ' in length, and from / " to - / " square, of any fairly strong wood. halve these sticks at the middle (see _halving_) and fasten them together in the form of a cross, strengthening the joint (weakened by the halving) by nailing or screwing on a piece of board above or below, as shown in fig. . [illustration fig. .] the boats can be whittled from a piece of board on edge and fastened to the ends of the sticks by halving (fig. ), as well as nails or screws, or they can simply be flat pieces of board shaped as in fig. and screwed or nailed on top of the sticks. in the first case the halving had best be done before the sticks are fastened together. one mast with a simple leg-of-mutton sail will answer for each boat. a little experimenting will show you how much to haul in the sheet. each boat must, of course, "come about" and "jibe" once in every rotation of the apparatus. sandpaper with rather fine sandpaper (see _sandpaper_), and paint as you wish (see _painting_). the whole affair is balanced and pivoted on top of a pole in the same manner as the windmills just described, which see. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] a steamer with screw propeller can be made from a piece of board on edge, shaped as shown in fig. , a small windmill with short and broad fans (fig. ), serving for the screw. before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _knife_, _spokeshave_, and look up any other references. this boat must be made of a board so as to give a thin section (fig. ), in order that the screw may not be shielded from the wind, for this vessel must always head to windward or the screw will not revolve. to ensure this the fore and aft sail must always be kept set and the sheet close-hauled. this sail answers the purpose of the weather-vanes of the windmills just described. it can be made of tin or any sheet metal, or even of thin wood. the rest of the rigging and the smokestack you can arrange as you wish. the bottom of the rudder can be supported by a little strip extending aft from the keel. for the other details of the work, see the windmills already described. * * * * * =water-wheels.=--an undershot wheel, turned by the water passing beneath (fig. ), can be easily made. it can be of any desired size, and of any wood readily worked. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, and look up any other references. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] one like fig. can be made by simply nailing a set of small boards or paddles in a radial arrangement between two disks of wood. a dowel or broomstick will do for the shaft and should be fitted tightly in the hole bored through the wheel (see _boring_), but should turn freely in the bearings at the side. it will make a rather neater job to shape the paddles as in fig. , so that when put together the wheel will look like fig. , but this is not at all necessary, and it will work just as well to make plain rectangular paddles and simply nail the disks on the outside edges (see _nailing_). if you have no saw with which to get out the disks you can have them sawed at the mill, or you can work them out by describing the required circles and sawing a hexagon outside of the line with a common saw, when the circle can be finished with shave, hatchet, chisel, or knife (see _paring_). divide the circumference of each disk into as many parts as there are paddles and draw lines on the side to the centre, by which to nail the paddles in the right position. start the nails on these lines and drive them nearly through before placing the paddles in position. then nail one disk to the paddles, turn the wheel over and nail on the other disk. it is essential to a neat job that the paddles should all be of the same width. first make one edge straight. from this edge gauge the desired width on all the pieces (see _gauge_) and saw or plane or trim, with knife, chisel, or shave, exactly to the line. if you make the paddles as shown in the cut, first square lines across at equal distances from one end (fig. ), and with a gauge set at a point equal to the thickness of the disks make lines parallel to each edge, and with the saw or saw and chisel, or even a knife, remove the pieces marked (see _paring_). [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] * * * * * the overshot wheel (fig. ) is harder to make, but is a livelier wheel. it is put together upon the same principle as the wheel just shown, except that the paddles, which do not project beyond the circumference of the disks, are not placed radially, but so that, with the addition of another set inserted to connect them, they form buckets. * * * * * to lay off the lines for the buckets, divide the circumference of each disk as before, and from the centre describe a small circle, as shown in fig. . from the points on the circumference draw lines tangent to the small circle. these lines will give the positions for the bottoms of the buckets. to complete the buckets mark from the circumference equal distances on these lines, and from these last points draw lines as _ab_ to the next points on the circumference. first, nail together with only the bottoms of the buckets (on the lines _ca_). then fit in the other pieces, to complete the buckets, on the lines _ab_. the ends of these last pieces should properly be bevelled (see _bevelling_) to make a fairly tight joint. the rest of the work is the same as for the undershot wheel. a larger form (but harder to make) is suggested in fig. . see note under _windmills_, above. [illustration fig. .] * * * * * [illustration totlet town.] =play village.=--it is capital fun for several young people to design and build a miniature village, and it is certainly an instructive and quite inexpensive pastime. such a village, planned and made recently by a family group of half a dozen youngsters, and facetiously named "totlet town," was constructed entirely of old boxes and packing-cases of all sizes up to three feet long, waste pieces of board, shingles, etc.; but when painted and arranged in a corner of the lawn, with dirt roads, and paths, small evergreen shade trees and hedges, well-sweeps, miniature fences, and other accessories, it made so pretty a picture as to be the admiration of all who saw it. if you have as good a time in making such a village as these young people did, the experiment will be a success. you can easily think up many additions to the suggestions here given. [illustration fig. .] the buildings were made by selecting boxes of the desired proportions, sawing out spaces for the doors, adding the roofs and any other alterations. the chimneys were made of blocks painted red. the doors were made of pieces of board and hinged with leather. bay-windows and the like were made of blocks of the required shape nailed to the boxes. the windows and blinds were represented by painting. some of the roofs were shingled with pieces of shingles. a suggestion for a light-house is shown in fig. . considerable care in the use of the tools is called for to make these buildings neatly. much of the effect depends, also, upon the care with which the painting is done (see _painting_), and the taste used in the selection of the colours. brighter colours are suitable for a little village of this sort than would be in good taste for real houses. white with green blinds is good, of course; or yellow can be used. the roofs should be painted. red roofs are very effective. before beginning work, read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _withdrawing nails_, etc. [illustration fig. .] =dolls' house.=--the house shown in fig. is quite easily made, and a shallow affair like this has the advantage of being more convenient than a deep one about arranging the contents. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, and look up any other references. pine and whitewood are suitable, or any wood can be used that is not hard to work. it can be made of any desired size. three or four feet wide and a little higher in the middle will probably be suitable for ordinary cases, and twelve or fifteen inches will be a good depth (from front to back). the construction is plain. the roof and sides are to be cut from dressed stock of uniform width, and from / " to / " in thickness. carefully true one edge, if it is not already true, and get out the bottom board, then the upright sides, and then the roof. the bevels at the highest point of the roof and where the roof joins the sides you must mark with the bevel (taking the slant from your drawing), or you can find it by arranging two strips to cross at the desired angle and marking the bevel by them (see _bevelling_). to saw these bevels requires much care. draw lines by the square on both sides, as well as the angle on the edge, and putting each board in the vise saw carefully and steadily. the three floors should be narrower than the outside of the house by just the thickness of the stock to be used for the back, and rectangular openings must be sawed from one of the back corners at the head of the stairs to allow the dolls to pass from one story to another. if the sides of the house are " wide, make these floors - / " wide, and use / " or / " stock for the back. also mark and saw out the windows. to do this, first bore a series of holes inside of the line (see _boring_) and cut out whatever wood may be necessary until you make a slot in which to start the saw. any roughness left from the holes can be trimmed with knife, chisel, or file (see _paring_). nail these parts together, just as in making a box, carefully sighting across the face to see that the front and back do not wind, or use _winding-sticks_ (_q. v._). also test with the square to see that the sides are at right angles with the bottom. get out stock for the back carefully (with the boards running up and down) so that the boards will be square at the bottom, and when these pieces are fitted in place to form the back they will ensure the house being square. the slant by which to cut the top of the back can be laid off by measurement from your working drawing or the back can be put in place and the lines marked directly from the under side of the roof. when fitted, nail the back securely in place, first cutting the windows as before. then fit in the upright partitions, first cutting the doorways. the staircase can be made easily if you have, or can saw from the corner of a larger piece, a triangular strip which can be cut in short sections to use for the steps. nail these to a thin strip of board (from the under side) and fasten the whole in position (fig. ). the chimney can be made of a block with a notch sawed to fit the roof, or it can be made of four pieces, box-fashion. glass for the windows can be held in place by gluing strips of cloth or paper around the edges, or thin strips can be nailed around with fine brads. thin strips can be nailed around the window openings on the outside, if you wish. [illustration fig. .] all the pieces should be neatly planed and scraped before putting together, and, when entirely put together, the whole should be carefully sandpapered with fine sandpaper. the parts coming on the inside had best be sandpapered before putting together, however, but be sure not to do this until all cutting with the tools has been done. set all the nails carefully (see _nail-set_). the whole can be painted in one or more colours (see _painting_), and portieres, window drapery, etc., can be added according to your taste and the materials at command. the inside can be papered, if preferred. a more thoroughly workmanlike way is to groove the bottom into the sides, the upright partitions into the floor boards, and to cut rabbets around on the back edge of the sides, roof, and bottom, into which to set the backboards. this involves a good deal more work and care in laying out the work (see _grooving_). if you have the pieces got out at a mill it can be easily done, however. [illustration fig. .] it may be a convenience to screw castors on the bottom. a door (with a door-bell or knocker) can be added to the front of the hall, if thought best. a house which can be closed is shown in fig. . the construction is quite similar to the preceding. a strip must be fastened above and below the large doors, as shown, that they may open without striking either the roof or the floor on which the house stands. the little door, representing the entrance to the house when closed and shown in the closed half, can be made to open independently and can have a bell or knocker. if this house is made quite deep (from front to back) it can easily be divided lengthways by a partition and made into a double house, the back side being made to open in the same way as the side here shown. footnotes: [ ] you can attach your windmill to a building or set it up on a pole, or you can easily make a small trestle-work tower, built of small sticks, on the top of which you can place the windmill, with a small keg (to represent a hogshead or tank), and thus have a very good imitation of the large mills used for pumping water. small windmills, if you wish to go further into the subject than comes within the scope of this book, can be used to do any light or "play" work by having them turn a bent shaft (or any eccentric movement), connecting with a piston-rod or revolving drum; or various other attachments can be applied, according to your ingenuity. chapter viii houses for animals the sizes and shapes of these houses and cages will depend upon the animals for which they are built and the places you have to put them. frequently they can be built to advantage against the side of a building, or a fence, or in a corner, and boxes can be utilised in various ways. make the houses, cages, and runways as large as you can afford, for there is much more danger of the pets being cramped and crowded than of their having too much room. wire netting or wire cloth (held in place by staples) should be freely used, as ventilation is very important for the health and comfort of the animals. special openings should always be made for cleaning the houses or cages in case all parts cannot be conveniently reached from the doors, for cleanliness is of the utmost importance in all such structures. the floors of the larger houses should always slant or have holes provided for drainage. covering the floors with sheets of zinc will promote cleanliness. in the smaller cages removable pans or trays can often be used (fig. ). houses and cages with wooden floors should always be raised from the ground on posts, blocks, or stones, to avoid dampness. clean sand scattered over the floor and frequently renewed will contribute much to the cleanliness of the cages. the bedding should also be changed frequently. in the case of those animals which use their teeth for gnawing, the corners and angles can be protected by tacking on strips of wire cloth, tin, or zinc, but there is no need to do this over the flat surfaces. in the case of cages or houses (and the runways) which have the ground for the floor and are to be inhabited by animals that will burrow or dig their way out, the wire netting should be continued underground to a considerable depth, or it can be carried down a little way and then bent to lie horizontally, forming a sort of wire floor, over which the dirt can be replaced, and the animals will be unable to tunnel their way out; but in all such cases care must be taken to proportion the mesh of the netting and the size of the wire to the strength and escaping powers of the animals. houses for animals often look pretty when made in imitation of real houses, but when you do this choose simple types of good proportions, and do not try to copy all the little details of the large houses. avoid "gingerbread" work, and do not cover your houses with meaningless jig-sawed scroll work and rows of towers and pinnacles, and do not use all the colours of the rainbow in painting them. for houses, hutches, boxes, cages, etc., which are to be kept out of doors or in some outbuilding, ordinary machine-planed stock of fair quality is sufficiently good, and planing and smoothing by hand is usually a waste of labour; but if you wish to make a small cage or box to be kept in the house, and to be nicely finished or painted, good clear stock should be used, and the final smoothing done by hand. in case you wish to make several cages or boxes of the same pattern, as, for example, like fig. , it is much less work to go through the process with two or more at a time than to make each separately. a house for pets should not be built, as is sometimes done, on a platform or base projecting beyond the base of the house, as this tends to collect and retain moisture and dampness, but should be clear of any platform, like an ordinary dwelling-house, so that the rain will be shed directly upon the ground. when two or more boards are required for each side of the roof it is usually better to lay them up and down, as in fig. , rather than horizontally or lengthways, because a roof laid in this way is better about shedding the water, which tends to collect in the cracks if the boards are laid horizontally. for the rougher structures the hinges can be screwed flat upon the outside (as shown in fig. ), but for nice work they should be fitted in the usual way. (see _hinges_.) * * * * * before beginning work upon these cages and houses, read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, and look up any other references. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] cheap and serviceable cages and houses can be built by simply driving posts or stakes into the ground and fastening wire cloth or netting to them, much as you would build a fence. this wire-fenced enclosure can be covered with a wooden roof if desired. a runway and playground can easily be made in this way. a more portable arrangement can be made by putting together wooden frames covered with wire. very simple forms are shown in fig. . by putting together four or more of such frames a cage can readily be made which can be covered with a wooden roof or with wire (fig. ). if these frames are fastened with screws or screw-eyes and hooks, the whole can quickly be taken apart if desired. a very simple cage can be easily made, on the principle of the common chicken coop, with a few boards or slats and a little wire netting (fig. ), but a house of this sort is not especially desirable except for economy of materials and labour. the construction is too simple to require description. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] a much better form is that with upright sides, or with one slanting side. figs. and show an excellent arrangement, easily made. it can be made any desired size or proportions and is suitable for quite a variety of animals. if small, / " stock will be thick enough, but if large, / " stock should be used. the construction is similar to that of a common box (see _box-making_, page ). one corner of each end should be sawed off slantingly (fig. ), and a rectangular piece cut from the opposite corner, as shown, before the box is nailed together. the bevelling of the edges of the top and front boards can be done after the box is put together (see _bevelling_). for making the door, see _doors_, in part v. the hinged board at the bottom gives access for cleaning. if for indoors, and to be finished or painted, clear stock should be selected and the outside carefully smoothed. (see _plane_, _scraper_, _sandpaper_, _finishing_, and _painting_.) [illustration fig. .] for something more like a house, the design shown in fig. is good and of simple construction. this can be made of any size from that of a small box to a small house. for the latter, see _part iii. (house-building for beginners)_. to make a little house of this pattern first get out the bottom of the required dimensions, and then the ends, which are alike and to be nailed to the ends of the bottom. take pains to be accurate in getting out the pieces, or the house will be askew when put together. the construction of the sides is plain. the door can be made as in fig. (see _doors_), or the sides can be entirely of wire and the door placed at the end (fig. ). the roof is simply nailed down in place, one side being got out as much wider than the other as the thickness of the stock, so that one will lap over the edge of the other at the ridge. if the angle formed at the top is not a right angle, however, the edge of the narrower roof-board must be bevelled according to the angle (see _bevelling_). [illustration fig. .] a house of this sort can be made with one end closed, while the other remains open (fig. ). this is a good arrangement for many animals. first get out the floor, then the pieces for the closed end, cutting out the doorway and a window, if one is desired. these openings can be cut as shown on page . next get out the framework for the open end and fasten it in position. a door can be fitted wherever desired and the roof put on, as just shown. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] a house or cage, chiefly open-work, with two sleeping-boxes or nests (fig. ) is similar in general construction. this is suitable for indoors (as in an outbuilding). if to be left exposed to the weather, a solid roof can be added, or it can be covered with canvas or something of the sort when necessary. the construction is similar to that of those already described. this cage can be used for pigeons and other pets, and can be made of any size, according to circumstances. for the door, see _doors_ and _hinges_, in part v. the box attachments can best be made at the same time, just alike (see _box-making_, page ), and fastened to the sides of the house, the doorways having been cut in the sides before the house was put together. if these boxes or nests cannot be readily reached for cleaning, they should be hinged to the main house, or have special openings with lids or doors, so that they can be kept clean. the ridge-pole is simply a strip of board placed horizontally between the upper ends of the rafters. * * * * * =rabbit hutch.=--a simple rabbit-house, or hutch, can be made by putting together a good-sized box, partitioning off one end, to be closed by a door, and leaving the rest open, except for the necessary wire sides (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] * * * * * this is made just like a box (see _box-making_, page ), the other details being similar to those already shown. a sliding-door (fig. ) can be inserted, if desired, to cover the hole between the closed and open parts. the hutch should be raised from the ground to avoid dampness, and proper arrangements for cleanliness made, as referred to above. [illustration fig. .] * * * * * a more elaborate hutch (fig. ) can be constructed in a similar manner to the houses already shown. access to the open part can be had by means of the doors or lids on top. for the doors, see _doors_ and _hinges_. the slides for the door at the end can be made by cutting a rabbet at the edge of a square stick, as shown, or the rabbet can be formed by using strips of different widths, letting the wider lap over the narrower so as to form the rabbet. both doors can be made to swing in the usual way, of course, if preferred. where the two sides of the roof meet at the top, the edges must be bevelled (see _bevelling_). [illustration fig. .] * * * * * =kennel.=--there are many kinds of dog-houses, and the style and size must, of course, depend upon the dog and the situation. * * * * * [illustration fig. .] a good kennel (fig. ) for a small dog can be made very much as you would make a box (see _box-making_, page ). if for a very small dog the ends, sides, floor, and sides of the roof can each be made of one piece, but ordinarily these parts will each be made of two or more pieces. matched boards are suitable. first get out the bottom, then the sides and ends. if you use boards with square edges you must of course use pieces of different widths, so that the cracks between them will not meet at the corners, or put posts at the corners. this is the best way to do with matched boards, if the house is at all large. nail these parts together. it will be easiest to cut the slant at the top of each end--the gable--so that the sides of the roof will meet in a right angle. this looks well and saves the need of bevelling the edges of the roof-boards. an opening for the doorway should be cut in one of the ends before the roof is nailed on. if you do not use matched boards, a strip should be nailed on the inside at each side of the doorway, to keep the boards together. the roof-boards for one side should be as much longer than those for the other as the thickness of the stock. the same applies to the width of the saddle-boards which cover the extreme top. if the roof is not made of matched boards, battens should be nailed over the cracks as shown in part iii. * * * * * for a large dog a kennel should be built more like a real +house+ and not so much like a box. a structure with a frame (fig. ) can be built of any size suitable for a kennel, and will be more durable than the preceding form. [illustration fig. .] * * * * * for the frame, small joists, or strips of plank of any size from - / " Ã� " to " Ã� " can be used. first get out the sills or bottom pieces of the framework, nailing them together at the corners to form a rectangular frame, as shown in fig. . then get out the corner posts and fasten them in place, and on top of them fasten the plates (a second horizontal frame like that at the bottom); and see that all this framework is rectangular and free from winding. the sills and plates can be halved at the corners (see _halving_), but this is not really necessary in so small a house, as the boarding adds strength to the joints. the frame can be temporarily held in place until the boarding is put on by nailing on as many diagonal strips (fig. ) as may be required. two rafters at each end should next be put in place, their ends having been cut at an angle of ° (see _mitreing_) and the upper ends being nailed to a strip of board which serves for a ridge-pole. an intermediate rafter on each side will add stiffness to the roof. the floor should next be laid, as it will be inconvenient in so small a house to do this after the sides are put on. the sides and ends should be boarded with sheathing or matched boards laid vertically, cutting out the doorway and a small window in the back gable for ventilation. the roof can next be laid with the boards running horizontally, or lengthwise, as this house is to be shingled. the shingles can be dipped in creosote stain or paint to good advantage before laying. after the roof has been shingled the saddle-boards can be put on and the house will be ready for painting (see _painting_). another form of doorway is shown in fig. _a_. for the various details of a framed structure of this sort, see _part iii. (house-building for beginners)_. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. _a_.] * * * * * the author of _house and pet dogs_ gives the following suggestion: "the best device is an ordinary single kennel forty-eight inches by thirty-three inches, with an a roof, but with a detached bottom of the same size as the outside ground measurement of the kennel. this bottom is hinged by two stout strap-iron hinges to the side of the kennel, and is provided with two wooden axles, to which are fitted four wooden wheels, say four inches in diameter. when closed it looks like any other kennel on wheels. it can be easily moved by one person from damp spots, etc.; and by turning the kennel back upon its hinges the bedding can be daily sunned and aired and the kennel washed and purified without trouble. the wheels also serve to keep the bottom clear of the ground, and allow of a free circulation of air beneath." =squirrel house.=--the small squirrel house, or cage, shown in fig. , is made like a box (see _box-making_, page ), with the exception of the roof. the construction is similar to that of the houses already described. [illustration fig. .] * * * * * it can be made of / " or / " stock. the dimensions of the bottom can be made to agree with those of any baking-pan you may have, as shown. the slide in the roof can be made of zinc or tin. that in the side can be of either zinc or wood. after the wire cloth has been nailed on a strip of wood can be nailed around the front edge as a moulding. the little sleeping-box in the upper corner can be readily reached from the slide in the roof and connects with the floor of the house by a little door and a flight of steps (fig. ). the latter can be made as shown in fig. . the most difficult part of this house to make nicely is the joining of the roof-boards. these must be bevelled at the ridge and the tops of the ends must also be bevelled where they join the roof (see _bevelling_). for other details, see the houses already described. [illustration fig. .] * * * * * a more +elaborate+ affair, shown below, can be made quite large and will give room for a whole family of squirrels. this house is, however, considerably more difficult to make than the others shown in this chapter, and if you have not already acquired some skill as a workman you had best be content with a simpler design. * * * * * four or five feet by about three feet will not be too large for the ground dimensions of the main part of the house. regular sills can first be nailed together for the bottom of the main house and ell in the way shown in fig. . these sills can be from - / " Ã� " to " Ã� ". perhaps an easier way is that shown in fig. , in which three cross cleats or sills are laid and the floor nailed directly to these. when the lengthways boards shown in fig. are nailed to the floor boards and the sills the bottom will be sufficiently stiff for a squirrel house. the sides and ends of the ell can be made of boards nailed together like a box, the openings for the doors, windows, etc., being first cut out; but the main part of the house should have posts at the corners to which the boarding at the ends is to be nailed. rafters should also be put in at each gable. plain sheathing will look better for the outside of this house than that with beads. after the outside has been boarded and the upper floors put in, the roofs and the cupola can be added. if the cupola is too difficult it can be omitted, as it is a luxury to which the average squirrel is unaccustomed. [illustration fig. .] the stairs, the openings in the floors, the doorways, the sleeping-box, the revolving wire cage, the tree, and the swing in the cupola, are shown in fig. . the stairs can be made as shown in fig. ; strips nailed vertically at the outside corners of the house, as in a real house, will give a more finished appearance. the window casings can be made by nailing strips on the outside. the glass can be held in place by strips, or small rabbets can be cut as in a window sash. for the shingling of the roof, see _part iii_. (_house-building for beginners_). each door can be made of a single piece of board, cleated (see _doors_). for any other details, see the houses just described and also _part iii_. (_house-building for beginners_), and _painting_. * * * * * [illustration fig. .] several cages of various sizes can readily be built together, as shown in fig. , which is merely a suggestion, for, of course, the shape, size, arrangement, and number of compartments must depend on the number and kinds of animals and the situation. various combinations will suggest themselves as occasion calls for them. if you have such creatures as frogs, turtles, lizards, etc., a water-tank should be provided. this can easily be made by taking a tightly made flat box and caulking the cracks, or pouring hot tar or pitch into them and also tarring or painting the whole surface of the outside. a board can be fitted slantingly from the bottom to the edge, at one or both ends, to form an incline by which the users of this miniature pond can crawl in and out of the water. the box must, of course, be sunk in the ground inside of the cage. for larger houses, as for hens, etc., see, also, the principles of construction of somewhat larger structures in part iii. (_house-building for beginners_). * * * * * =travelling cage.=--a small box (fig. ) in which to carry a kitten, a squirrel, a bird, or any small animal, when travelling, is often very useful and much better than the bags and baskets so often used for the purpose. [illustration fig. .] * * * * * all that is necessary is to make a small box of / " stock (see _box-making_, page ), with one side open (to be covered with wire cloth or netting), and the opposite side made in two parts, the upper of which is hinged to serve as a door or lid. strips of moulding can be nailed on with brads along the edges where the wire is fastened, the door can be fastened with hook and screw-eye or catch, and a handle fastened upon the top. it is a good plan to round the edges of a box which is to be carried around. if this box is neatly got out and put together and carefully smoothed and finished it will look well and serve for many years. chapter ix implements for outdoor sports and athletics =stilts.=--there is very little to say about the manufacture of stilts. the construction is obvious (figs. and ), the size and arrangement depending on your own size and skill. the handles can either be long, or reach up as high as the hand, or short and strapped to the legs. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] =tilt or see-saw.=--one of small size is shown in fig. . the exact proportions given are not necessary, provided you make it strong and so that it will not tip over. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _nailing_, in part v., and look up any other references. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] first make the standard (fig. ) of any sound plank - / " to " thick and " or more in width. get out the pieces to the dimensions before beginning to put together, the ends of the braces h being cut at a mitre (see _mitring_). square the line ef across the plank b at the middle (fig. ). drive three or four stout wire nails ( " to " long, according to the thickness of the plank) nearly through the plank on this line. stand the piece a on end under these nails and drive them through firmly into it (fig. ), keeping the two boards at right angles. bore holes with a / " bit (see _boring_) in each end of the pieces h, as shown, taking pains not to get them too near the edge. screw these braces in place with screws from - / " to - / " long (according to the thickness of the plank), keeping the piece a at right angles with the plank b (see _screws_). screw this frame on the cross-pieces c and d, as shown. nails can be used throughout, but screws are better. with plane, draw-knife, or spoke-shave (see _part v._ for these tools), round the top edge of a. [illustration fig. .] the tilting-plank should be of spruce, ash, hard pine, or any strong wood, and had best be from - / " to " thick, according to the length, which can be ' or '. it should of course be planed. next get out a few cleats / " square, or thicker, and screw them on the under side of the tilting-plank at the middle (fig. , which shows the under side of the plank), so that the spaces between them will be a little wider than the thickness of the upright piece a--just enough to allow the plank to tilt freely. nail strips on the edge, to keep the plank from slipping off sideways, shaving a little from the edges of a at the top if necessary. finally run over the edges with a plane (see _plane_), and sandpaper the plank to prevent slivers. simply paint or oil and varnish (see _painting_ or _finishing_). a larger and more elaborate affair, adjustable to different heights, is shown in fig. . [illustration fig. .] * * * * * first get out the main pieces to the dimensions (figs. , , ). the upright pieces should be mortised into the planks on which they rest (fig. ) (see _mortising_). gauge a line lengthways along the centre of each side of the uprights (see _gauge_) and mark points (say " apart) on these lines for holes for the iron rod on which the tilting-plank rests, taking pains to place them alike on the two uprights. then bore / " or / " holes (see _boring_), according to the size of rod you can get. next fit the cross bar at the top. this can simply be nailed down or fitted between the uprights (fig. ), or made with a shoulder (fig. ), which will add to the stiffness of the frame. the rest of the construction of the standard is plain, and similar to that just described. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] iron rods can be used for braces, if you wish (fig. ). the tilting-plank should be ' or ' long, and of " plank. a thread with nut on one end of the iron rod on which the plank rests will keep the rod from slipping out of place. the plank can be fastened to the rod by iron straps or even staples, or a box-like bearing can be quickly made (fig. ). washers can be placed between the plank and the uprights if necessary. smooth the edges with a plane (see _plane_) and sandpaper the plank. simply paint or oil and varnish (see _painting_ and _finishing_). [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] * * * * * =skis.=--to make as perfect skis as possible they should be of rift stock, that is, split out instead of sawed; but this may seldom be practicable for you and is not really necessary. good straight-grained sawed stock will answer, but be sure that you get clear, strong stock--_air-dried_ if possible. always avoid kiln-dried stock for anything which is to be put to sudden and violent strain, if you can get that which has been naturally seasoned (see chapter iii.). ash is very good (white ash the best); spruce, light and strong; oak, strong but heavy. any strong and elastic wood will do, if not too heavy. if you can get stock which is naturally sprung in a good curve upward and is satisfactory in other respects, take it, for a convex curve upward underneath the foot gives spring and elasticity and helps prevent the skis from becoming hollowed too much by the weight of the body. this curve is not necessary, but the better ones are purposely so made. skis are sometimes used in very rude forms--as two strips of wood with the front ends shaved down and bent up at an angle. small ones can even be made of staves from barrels, but these are very unsatisfactory. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _draw-knife_, _plane_, _spokeshave_, in part v., and look up any other references. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] first get out the pieces of the required size. the length for a man is usually about ' and the width about ", though they are used even as long as ' or '. from ' to ' long and from - / " to " wide will probably be right for you, but the dimensions depend on your size, of course. next taper the forward ends, as shown in fig. . you can mark both edges alike by drawing the curve free-hand or with a spline (see _spline_) on a piece of stiff paper, from which you can cut out a pattern for drawing the curve on the wood. next make the pieces thinner towards the ends (fig. ), noticing that the forward end is thinner than the after end and is shaved down more quickly so that the stock may be thin where the toe bends up. this requires great care unless the grain is very straight, for a little hasty slashing will make too deep a cut (see _paring_, etc.). good forms are shown in figs. and , the former showing sections at the middle and the latter nearer the ends, but as the toe is approached the top should become flat for ease in bending. this shaping can best be done by the draw-knife, spoke-shave, or plane. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] bend the points of the toes upwards about " above the horizontal line to ensure their riding clear of obstructions, but there is no gain in curling them up a foot. for the process of bending, see _bending wood_. then turning the skis over, gauge (see _gauge_) parallel lines for the grooves on the bottom. work the grooves out with the gouge or with the saw and chisel (see _gouge_ and _grooving_) unless you chance to have the plane designed for this purpose.[ ] make these grooves shallower as they approach the toe, leaving no groove where the toe bends up. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] balance the skis lengthways on a stick or your finger and put stout leather straps just forward of the balancing point. these can be riveted or even screwed to the edges of the skis (fig. ), but a better way is to put them through slots cut in the wood (fig. ). gauge accurately for the slots, marking on both edges, and bore in from both sides (see _boring_). the slots must then be cleaned out with chisel and file (see _mortising_). an easier way and fully as strong is to cut grooves (fig. ) with saw and chisel and cover them with thin strips securely screwed on (fig. ). some use a second lighter strap to go above the heel. this can be screwed to the edges if you use it. strips screwed across under the instep (figs. and ), or behind the heel (fig. ), to prevent the foot sliding back are sometimes used.[ ] for racing the norwegian skis are turned up at the rear end also. [illustration fig. .] the pole, like the skis, must be of light, strong stuff, and can be round or eight-sided (see _rounding sticks_). to shape the tapering end make the stick uniformly eight-sided for the whole length first and then plane each side down at the end to get the taper. the hole in the disk must not be quite so large as the diameter of the pole, so that it cannot slip up farther than the tapering part (fig. ). many dispense with the disk. finally smooth skis and pole with scraper (see _scraper_) or glass, and sandpaper (see _sandpaper_), and finish with plenty of raw linseed oil or with oil, shellac, and varnish, in successive coats (see _finishing_). if open-grained wood is used it can be filled to good advantage with a coat of good wood-filler well rubbed in (see _finishing_), and the bottoms can also be rubbed with wax or tallow, if you wish. * * * * * =toboggan.=--this is now commonly made of narrow strips, in principle much like several skis placed side by side--an easier form to make than the older pattern, formed of one or two wide pieces, as originally made by the indians. white oak and hickory are probably the best woods. ash, maple, birch, basswood, or any hard wood which can be bent and has elasticity can be used. as in the case of the ski, to make the best possible the pieces should be rift, or split out, rather than sawed, to ensure straight grain; but, as this may be out of the question for you, be sure to select the straightest-grained clear stock you can find, for, besides the bending of the ends, there is great strain put upon it in coasting. for the same reason use air-dried stock and avoid kiln-dried if possible. probably the best and most scientific way to fasten the parts of a toboggan together is the old way adopted by the indians of binding or lashing with thongs. this gives great elasticity and allows the toboggan to adjust itself to the inequalities of the surface to a greater degree than is possible with the tightly fastened joints now in use. you can try this way instead of that given below, if you prefer, but be sure to cut little grooves in the bottom for the thongs or cords to fit in, or they will be quickly worn through. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. [illustration fig. .] the size can vary from ' long by ' wide to ' or ' long by " to " wide; ' long by " or " wide is good for a single toboggan; ' long by " is a good size for three or more persons. you will probably find the stock most readily in the form of ' boards. one-half inch in the rough will be thick enough, though you may have to take inch (rough) or / " (planed) boards. let us make an ' toboggan (fig. ). have the stock planed and sawed in strips about ' long, - / " wide, and not less than / " nor more than / " in thickness. if they are tapered a little in thickness for " or " at the forward end they can be bent more easily, but do not shave them down too much (see _plane_ and _drawshave_). smooth the bottom surfaces of the strips with plane and scraper (see _scraper_). it is hardly necessary to plane the upper surfaces by hand, as the planer will leave them fairly smooth, though they will look a little nicer smoothed by hand. plane the edges. next get out eight cross-bars or cleats " long Ã� / " thick and from - / " to " wide. if wide they can be tapered at the edges, and if narrow, the edges should be rounded (fig. ). get out also two or three cleats " long, / " thick, and - / " wide, and one piece " long and about / " Ã� / " (half of a hardwood broomstick will do). [illustration fig. .] the long strips must now be bent at the forward end (see _bending wood_). after they are bent take the eight cleats and, laying one across the strips as it is to go, mark points for three holes at each strip (fig. ). bore / " or / " holes in the cross strips and countersink them very carefully (see _boring_ and _countersink_), so that the heads of the screws will be very slightly lower than the surface--sunk barely enough to prevent any corners or edges from sticking above the surface. take great care not to countersink too deeply, for the long strips are so thin that the screws may come through on the under side. mark and bore the other seven cleats by this first one. now take one cleat, to be put on at the rear end ' from the beginning of the curve. screw one end of this cleat in place (see _screws_), test with the square, and screw the other end. then put in the intermediate screws, driving them all firmly home, and saw off the ends of the long strips just beyond this cleat. square lines across every foot to the curve at the front, and screw on the other cleats. the length of the screws (which can be quite stout) should be such that they will almost, but not quite, go through to the under side of the toboggan. be careful about this or the points will have to be filed off. then screw the smaller cleats on the inside of the curve. screw the remaining (stouter) cleat on the outside of the curve at the place where the curve is to end, and then saw off the projecting ends of the strips by this cleat. by thongs, belt-lacing, or strong cord at the ends of the cleat last put on fasten the curve (which will naturally tend to straighten somewhat) in the required position to the cleat beneath (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] side hand-rails can be fastened at each side on top of the cross-cleats (fig. ). a common way is to make every other cross-cleat thicker (say / ") and fasten the side bars to these with large and stout screw-eyes, or notches can be cut on the under side of these thicker cleats before they are screwed on, and by passing thongs or cord through these notches the side-bars can be lashed in place. the side bars you can plane round or eight-sided (see _rounding sticks_) out of strips of any strong wood. sandpaper the bottom and finish with plenty of raw linseed oil, or with oil, shellac, and varnish, in successive coats (see _finishing_). if open-grained wood is used it can be filled to good advantage with a coat of good wood-filler well rubbed in (see _finishing_), and the bottom can be waxed or rubbed with tallow, if you wish. [illustration fig. .] if you are willing to put in the labour you can bevel or slope off one side of each of the long strips (except the two outer ones) so as to leave the strip thickest in the middle (fig. ). unless you are willing to take pains enough to do it nicely (which will take some time), it will be best not to attempt it at all, or to have it done at a mill. if you have a good hill you can go well enough with the flat strips and it is not important to round them unless you are scoring fractions of a second against time. another way is to curve the cross-cleats slightly (fig. ), leaving the long strips flat. some toboggans are made with low runners about an inch high. [illustration fig. .] you can, as you may know, patch up a sort of toboggan of barrel-staves, with which, though not a very workmanlike arrangement, you can have a lot of fun at no expense. you can get a high speed with this simple contrivance (fig. ) on a _steep_ hill. it is not good, however, unless the pitch is steep. you can even get a good deal of sport from this apparatus in the summer on a _very steep_ grassy knoll. =wooden guns and pistols.=--a gun on the principle of that shown in fig. , the projectile power being furnished by elastic (rubber) cord, is easily made. [illustration fig. .] * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square,_, _saw_, _spokeshave_, _knife_, in part v., and look up any other references. first saw the outline of the gun from a straight-grained pine or whitewood board. this can be quickly and cheaply done at any wood-working mill. the gun can then be finally shaped with the spoke-shave and knife. the rasp and file can be used (see _rasp_ and _file_.). much of the shaping can be done with the draw-knife (see _draw-knife_), and, in fact, the whole can be whittled out with a knife if other tools are wanting. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] the most difficult parts of the work are the groove for the arrow and the arrangement of the trigger. much care is needed to cut an accurate groove with a gouge (see _gouge_), and, unless you are skilled, you can get a truer result by having this done by a carpenter or at a mill. a mortise (see _mortising_) must be cut for the trigger long enough to allow it sufficient play (fig. ). the arrangement of the trigger is shown in fig. . the elastic underneath the barrel (at the lower end of the trigger) must be sufficiently powerful (combined with its additional leverage) to balance the elastic which propels the arrow, so that the trigger will remain in position and hold the upper elastic drawn, until the pressure of the finger on the trigger releases it. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] the barrel of the gun is sometimes built of three pieces (fig. , showing section) of thinner stock, which obviates the grooving but makes more work otherwise. the groove can be left open on top (fig. ) or covered with a thin strip (figs. and ). in the latter case a depression must be made in the barrel, so that when the strip is put on there will be a long slot in which the string can play back and forth (fig. ). with this arrangement you can make a notch (fig. ) to hold the cord when drawn. the trigger can be of wood or wire, pivoted on a screw or nail, so that when pulled the string will be pushed up and released (fig. ). a tube is sometimes fastened to the barrel, as in a real gun, and a plunger is sometimes fitted to the tube to start the arrows, or bullets in case they are used (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] the ends of the elastic cord can be fastened to screw-eyes at the muzzle. a piece of leather thong or cord inserted at the middle of the upper elastic cord will wear better than the rubber at that point. another form of trigger is shown in fig. , which can also be made of stiff wire (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] to finish the gun nicely, it should be scraped (see _scraper_) and sandpapered with fine sandpaper (see _sandpaper_). it can then be finished with oil and shellac or varnish (see _shellac_, _varnish_, _finishing_). these same methods of construction can, of course, be applied to a pistol. [illustration fig. .] a bow-gun or crossbow (fig. ) can be made on the same principle, using a bow instead of the elastic, and inserting it in a hole made through an enlargement of the under side of the barrel (fig. ). =sleds.=--common sleds can be bought so cheaply that it is hardly worth while, as a rule, to make them. many are so poorly made, however, and will stand so little rough usage, that a few suggestions may be of value if you should wish to make a really serviceable one yourself. take the dimensions from any sled which suits you. avoid making your sled too high, however, as one ten or twelve inches high will coast no better than a low sled, and requires much more bracing to be strong. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, in part v., and look up any other references. [illustration fig. .] the runners and cross-pieces should be of straight-grained oak, maple, ash, or other strong wood; / " stock will do. mark the runners carefully on the wood, according to your working-drawing (fig. ), and before sawing them out bore the holes for the rope (see _boring_). saw out the runners, or have them sawed by machine, and see that the curves are the same on each. [illustration fig. .] get out three cross-pieces (fig. ) about " wide, and from / " to - / " thick, with a shoulder at each end as shown. mark and cut the mortises (see _mortising_) in the runners (fig. ). put these parts together, forming the frame of the sled (fig. ), driving a pin through each mortise and tenon and adding the l irons shown in figs. and . the seat may be thinner than the runners, and is to be fitted between them and to be screwed to the cross-pieces (see _screws_). the thickness of the stock for the seat must be borne in mind when laying out the mortises in the runners. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] machine-planed stock is, of course, as smooth as is necessary for a sled, but smoothing by hand (see _plane_, _scraper_, and _sandpaper_) will give a nicer surface. the runners can be shod at the blacksmith's with half-round irons, or round steel can be used with iron at the ends. in case of steel spring irons the runners can be slightly grooved on the edge, so far as may be necessary to keep the irons in place. the irons can be / " to / " in diameter. finish with paint (see _painting_) or with oil, shellac, and varnish (see _finishing_). * * * * * a "double-runner," "bob," or "traverse" sled can be built to good advantage. the sleds can be made as just described, or ready-made ones can be used. see that they are well put together, of the same width, and securely braced, as the strain upon them is great. the length of the double-runner is a matter of choice, of course. as to the height and width, however, if the coasting is straight, smooth, and comparatively safe there is no objection to a high seat, with a comfortable foot-board on each side for the passengers' feet, if you wish. but if you are going to coast on long, rough hills, with sudden curves and pitches to be taken in uncertainty and at whirlwind speed--the kind of coasting for real fun and exhilaration--avoid the luxurious top-heavy double-runners frequently seen. make the sleds rather broad ( " is not too wide for the "track" of a ' sled; which is a very long sled, however), and keep the height of the top-board down to about " or less. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, in part v., and look up any other references. [illustration fig. .] the seat-board can be from ' to ' long, and about " to " wide. board thickness is sufficient for a short seat, but if long a - / " plank should be used. if you have in mind to make a very long sled you should consider, before beginning, that you must either use a quite thick plank to get the necessary stiffness, which will add to the weight of the double-runner, or the plank must be stiffened or "trussed" with rods beneath like a bridge, which will add to the expense and labour. it should be of strong, elastic, straight-grained wood, free from bad knots or defects, as the strain upon it is great. it should not be too yielding and springy, however, or it may sag inconveniently. clear hard southern pine or ash is good. a plank of stiff spruce of good quality will do. the rear end can be rounded, as shown (fig. ). machine-planing is sufficient for the sides of the seat-plank, but the edges should be planed carefully (see _plane_), and the angles slightly rounded off with the plane, spoke-shave, or rasp and file (see _spokeshave_, _rasp_, and _file_) to prevent splinters. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] to enable the front sled to turn properly, get out two pieces of " plank, as shown in fig. , about " wide and as long as the width of the sled, one being tapered toward the ends on the under side. the tapering is important, as it diminishes the friction when the front sled is turned. screw one of these pieces firmly across the top of the front sled and the other across the lower side of the seat-board (see _screws_), a hole being bored through the centre of each cross-piece (as well as through the seat-board and the top of the front sled) for the king-bolt upon which the front sled turns. find these centres accurately and bore carefully with a bit / " larger than the king-bolt (see _boring_). the front sled should turn very freely and easily, and have plenty of play, but the bolt should not fit loosely enough to make the double-runner rickety. a washer can be inserted between the cross-pieces. sometimes a thick rubber washer is used to lessen the shock (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] to give the ends of the rear sled freedom to play up and down (without turning sideways) in passing over the inequities of the surface the arrangement shown in fig. (and enlarged in fig. ) is good. do not make this of / " stock. pieces of plank should be used, the dimensions being so arranged that the seat-board will be equally raised from the front and rear sleds. the pins at the ends of the cross-piece should be not less than " in diameter ( - / " is better) and should be carefully cut (see _paring_ and _rounding sticks_). the best way is to have them turned to fit the holes in the rocker-shaped pieces. the latter should be long enough (about ') to prevent danger of the wood breaking apart near the hole and to allow for screwing firmly to the seat-board. [illustration fig. .] another way, sometimes adopted, is to use two cross-cleats with two bolts (queen-bolts) and thick rubber washers (fig. ), the bolts being loose enough in the holes to allow the necessary amount of play. ropes or chain can be fastened from the rear sled to the seat-board, to prevent too much dropping of the former. [illustration fig. .] many arrangements for steering have been invented. a cleat at the forward end of the seat-board to brace the feet against, the sled being guided by the ropes held in the hand (fig. ), is a simple way, though requiring more strength and steadiness of arm, when the coast is rough or dangerous, than is possessed by many steersmen. the brace for the feet should be bolted to the seat-board or strongly screwed from above and beneath. another equally simple way is to screw the brace for the feet upon the forward sled (fig. ), cutting a shallow gain in the tops of the runners to hold it more securely. in this way of steering the arms can reinforce the legs, or the steering can be done by the legs alone. it is a very effective method, which gives a high degree of control of the forward sled without cumbersome tackle and leaves the seat-board free of obstructions.[ ] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] in case of a high double-runner, running foot-boards along each side can be added. a simple way to fasten these is by means of pieces of strap-iron bent as shown in fig. and screwed to the under side of the seat-board, with the foot-boards fastened to the projecting arms (fig. ). the dimensions to which the irons should be bent depend upon the height and size of the double-runner, but you should take pains that the space between the edge of the seat-board and the foot-board is such that the feet cannot become caught. the problem of contriving a perfectly successful brake for a double-runner has not yet been solved. like all other apparatus for emergencies it should be as simple as possible. unless it is _sure_ to work it will be worse than not to have one, as you will come to rely on it. the steersman is usually the one who first realises the need of braking, and when practicable he is the one upon whom it naturally devolves. if he steers with the hands he can brake with the foot against a lever as shown below, but if he steers with the feet it is pretty risky business trying to brake also with the foot and, unless you can contrive some way by which he can safely and quickly brake by hand (not an easy thing to do), the brake had best be worked by the rider at the rear. this has some obvious disadvantages. a few ideas are given below, but are not recommended as thoroughly satisfactory. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] the simple and primitive way, so often used in the country by drivers of heavily loaded sleds, of dropping a chain under the runner is an effective method of braking, provided you have some sure method of dropping the chain under the runners. fig. shows a method which can be worked from either the forward or rear end of the double-runner. in the plan, or top view (fig. ), the details of the arrangement (being beneath the seat) would ordinarily be represented by dotted lines, but in this case, on account of the small size of the drawing, they are shown by full lines, as they would look if the seat-board were transparent. a way of holding up the middle of the chain is shown in fig. . a small block _a_, perhaps " long, is screwed to the under side of the seat and the chain is held against it by the pivoted bar _b_ (which is pivoted to the seat-board by a bolt and is kept in position by the spring), and on the under side of which a piece of metal is screwed at one end, which prevents the chain from dropping. the end of the bar _b_ is connected by a wire with the lever in front. when the lever is pushed by the steersman's foot the bar _b_ is pulled away from the block _a_ and the chain falls by its own weight under the runners of the rear sled, which quickly brings the double-runner to a standstill. fig. shows the bar held in position by the spring. fig. shows the position of the bar after the lever has been pressed, with the open space which allows the chain to drop. the same apparatus can be worked from the rear end of the double-runner by simply having the wire to be pulled led back (fig. ), where it can be worked directly by the hand or you can contrive a lever to be raised. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] a method of braking sometimes used is by means of a crooked lever formed from an iron rod, one end of which is pulled up by the hand while the lower part has one or more prongs which dig into the surface and stop the sled. fig. shows a form sometimes used, and fig. a top view showing position of the handle and prongs when not in use. any blacksmith can arrange this apparatus, which is attached to the rear sled. a similar arrangement can be contrived to work by the steersman's foot if desired. one prong, attached to the under side of the seat-board, can be arranged as suggested (side view) in fig. a. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] the double-runner should be thoroughly oiled, and a coat of shellac, followed after a day or two by a coat of varnish, will add much to its durability as well as to its appearance. lubricate the working parts with soap or tallow. if you have a gong, it should be worked by someone other than the steersman. the rear sled is sometimes arranged to swivel like the front sled and to be steered by a second steersman, somewhat after the fashion of a long hook-and-ladder truck. this gives good command of the double-runner on curves. [illustration fig. a.] * * * * * =gymnastic apparatus.=--it will, in most cases, be out of the question for you to attempt to put up any building roomy enough for a "gym," but sometimes a number of you can club together and get the use of some vacant room in which satisfactory apparatus can be fitted at moderate expense. some of it may be rather primitive compared with the mechanism of a modern college gymnasium, but will answer the purpose so far as getting up muscle is concerned. most of you can find a place for one or more pieces of apparatus, either indoors or out. much outdoor apparatus can be supported on posts driven into the ground, or even by fastening to trees. the outdoor apparatus is usually easier and cheaper to make, but has the obvious disadvantages of not being usable in bad weather or winter, to any great extent, and will not last so long on account of exposure to the weather. if, however, you fix things the right way and take the movable parts indoors during the bad weather, such a "gym" will last until it is outgrown, or until the next generation grows up to build a new one. if indoors have the room well ventilated. often the second story of a barn makes a capital gymnasium. the few simple pieces of apparatus given here will be treated independently, as it is of course impossible to tell how you will be obliged to arrange them. you can vary the designs or proportions to suit the circumstances. white ash, hickory, oak, hard pine, and for some purposes fir, spruce, and white pine, are suitable for gymnastic apparatus. for everything which is to stand violent strain or wrenching, as the horizontal bars, vaulting poles, and such things, use _air_-dried stock, if possible, avoiding kiln-dried, as the latter is more brittle and inelastic, and often utterly unfit for such uses (see chapter iii.). of course for such parts only the toughest woods should be used, as white ash, hickory, oak, spruce. * * * * * =parallel bars.=--a useful form (and not beyond the skill of an amateur) is shown in fig. . the height must, of course, depend upon the gymnast, and can range from ' " to ' ", the width inside (between the bars) from " to ", and the length from ' to '. [illustration fig. .] before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. the base of the apparatus can be simply made of " Ã� " planks, as shown in fig. , and fastened by screws (see _screws_), or, as shown in fig. , the pieces can be halved at their intersections (see _halving_), in which case thicker stock may be used. for a small pair of bars the planks for the base can be somewhat lighter. [illustration fig. .] the upright posts should be of strong wood not less than " Ã� " (unless for a very small pair of bars) and should be mortised at top and bottom, as shown in figs. and (see _mortising_). these joints should be pinned. the bars themselves should be of the best white ash (hickory, oak, hard pine can be used), not less than " Ã� " (unless for a small pair of bars). the arrangement and object of the iron braces is plain. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] after the apparatus is all fitted together, take off the bars and carefully round the top edges for the entire length (see _rounding sticks_). the ends which project beyond the posts can also be rounded on the under side (_i.e._, made elliptical in section, as shown), if desired. machine-planing is sufficient for this apparatus, except for the bars themselves, which should be carefully smoothed by hand (see _plane_, _scraper_, _sandpaper_), although, of course, the whole will appear more nicely finished if smoothed by hand. the square edges should be "broken" (_i.e._, slightly bevelled or rounded) so as not to be too sharp in case of contact with them. the whole apparatus can be simply oiled thoroughly, or can be given in addition one or more coats of shellac or varnish (see _finishing_), but a coat of oil is sufficient for the bars themselves, as they will be polished by use. this arrangement has the advantage of being portable, but of course the base can be omitted, if desired, and the posts fastened directly to the floor. if mortises cannot be cut in the floor, blocks can be screwed to the floor around the base of each post so as to form a socket into which the post will fit. parallel bars can be readily made for outdoor use by simply setting four upright posts (not less than " Ã� ") firmly in the ground, at the same distances apart as specified for the movable bars described above, and fastening the bars to the tops of the posts by mortise and tenon, as already shown (fig. ). the posts should reach ' or more below ground, both on account of the frost and to give increased steadiness, and the earth should be thoroughly tamped down around them with a sharp-pointed bar or stick. this apparatus should be thoroughly oiled and can be varnished (see _finishing_). the posts should be of good thickness at the ground, but can be tapered toward the top, on the outside, to the thickness of the bars. * * * * * =horizontal bar.=--a design suitable for the =amateur= wood-worker is shown in fig. . * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. first make the upright posts or guides. these are somewhat like a trough in shape, side boards about " wide being screwed (see _screws_) on the sides of a " Ã� " joist. fig. shows sections in the middle and at each end, blocks being inserted at the ends for strength. the joist can be of any strong wood. the side boards, which serve as guides for the bar, had best be of hard wood. hard pine, oak, maple, ash, or any strong wood can be used. you will require two of the joists and four side boards, all sawed squarely off the exact height of the room.[ ] the usual way would be to get out the pieces a little too long and, after they are fastened together, to saw off the ends so as to give the required length. gauge lines on each side of the upright pieces (see _gauge_) and intersect these lines at regular distances by others squared across and around three sides of the uprights, thus determining the places for the holes for the pins which hold the bar in position. these can be bored from each side with a / " bit (see _boring_). [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] another way sometimes adopted when you have one or two stout timbers on hand or already in position for the posts is to screw two upright cleats of plank to the inner side of each timber, thus forming the groove for the bar, as shown in section in fig. . [illustration fig. .] the uprights can now be fastened in place, taking care to have them exactly vertical and in line with each other. the distance apart will depend on the length of the bar. the uprights can of course be mortised into the floor, or the wood-work above, if the conditions admit, but it will usually answer every purpose to hold each end in place by four cleats firmly screwed to the floor or ceiling. it is usually simpler to have these uprights extend to the ceiling, but this is not necessary, and in some cases it may be advisable to brace them to the floor only, by wooden or iron braces, in some of the ways already shown, or they can be guyed with wire rope and turnbuckles. the bar you had best have made or buy already made, in which case you can arrange the dimensions and position of the uprights to fit the bar. it can be from ' in length to perhaps ' " ( ' is a good length), and should be not less than - / " in diameter, +nor over+ ". it should be of the best clear, straight-grained white ash or hickory (air-dried, not kiln-dried). one having a steel rod for a core is the best. the ends can be left square and bound with a square ferrule or band of iron of the right size to slip easily up and down in the grooves of the upright guides (fig. ). any blacksmith can arrange this, as well as the pins to hold the bar. this apparatus can be finished in the same way as the parallel bars just described. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] a suggestion for a post for outdoor apparatus is given in fig. . the post should be set in the ground at least ' and the earth well tamped down around it with a pointed bar or stick. the lower ends of the braces can themselves be set in the ground or abut against heavier posts set in the ground. this apparatus should be protected from the weather as in the cases described above. =vaulting apparatus.=--you can buy iron standards or bases, and of course the whole apparatus, for high jumping and pole vaulting, but it is a simple matter to make a pair of uprights that will answer the purpose satisfactorily (fig. ). * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. take two straight sticks ' or ' long and about - / " square. taper each piece with the plane until about - / " square at one end. make each base of two pieces of board about " wide and perhaps ' long, as shown in fig. , or halve two pieces of plank (see _halving_). mortise the larger ends of the posts into these bases as shown in fig. (see _mortising_). [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] before fastening the posts to the standards, mark a line along the middle of one side of each post. on this line lay off feet and inches from the bottom and carefully bore a quarter-inch hole through the posts at each of these points (except, of course, those near the ground) for the pins which are to support the cross-bar or cord (see _boring_). then fit the posts in the mortises and brace them by three braces each. the ends of the braces can be cut at a mitre and screwed in place, or the blacksmith will make iron braces for a small sum (fig. ). finish like the other apparatus already described. vaulting poles should be round, very straight-grained, from air-dried (not kiln-dried) stock of light, strong wood, as spruce, free from knots or any cross-grained, weak spots. the thickness should of course depend on the length, but should not be less than - / " for an ' pole (which is quite short), and the pole should taper toward each end (see _rounding sticks_). * * * * * =spring-board.=--a form not difficult to make is shown in fig. . the framework can be made of any strong wood, but the spring-board itself should be of the best quality of clear, straight-grained white ash. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. first make the base or framework. get out two pieces of " Ã� " plank for the outside pieces (to stand on edge) and +screw blocks+ of the same plank at each end to raise the pieces from the ground as shown. place these pieces so that they spread apart slightly at the forward end (fig. ), being about " apart at the rear end. fit a cross-tie to connect these stringers at about ' from the forward end. [illustration fig. .] another cross-bar, resting on the stringers, is placed nearer the rear end, and about ' from the rear end a piece of " Ã� " joist is fitted between the stringers and held in place by a bolt passed through it and the stringers. this should be loose enough to allow the block to turn. the spring-board can be made of five strips of / " stock, " wide and ' long, screwed to a cleat at the forward end, and securely bolted to the block at the rear end. this apparatus can be finished as in the cases described above. * * * * * =vaulting-horse.=--a simple affair (fig. ) can be easily arranged by making a box, perhaps ' long and " or " square, which can be supported by flaring legs of joist as shown in the illustrations. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] first make the box (see _box-making_, in part ii.). the corners and edges should be rounded (fig. ), and the whole padded and covered with such materials as you may have at hand or can afford for the purpose. laying out and sawing the bevels for the tops of the legs is the hardest part of the job. transfer the bevels carefully from your working drawing to the wood, and saw as exactly to the lines as you can. see also _scribing_. unless you have had much experience some paring will probably be required to make all the legs fit. to make the horse stand evenly see _scribing_, _winding-sticks_, etc. the other general directions given for the apparatus described above will suffice for this horse. [illustration fig. .] a horse for outdoors (fig. ) can be simply made of a log, perhaps ' in diameter, smoothed and with the ends rounded, and mounted (by mortising) upon posts set in the ground (see _mortising_). the top can be covered with rubber, as indicated in the illustration. the posts should be set at least ' in the ground, and the earth well tamped around them with a pointed bar or stick. the apparatus can be finished as in the cases given above. * * * * * =giant swing.=--this piece of apparatus is excellent for outdoors, and affords considerable sport (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] you must have a pole or mast from ' to ' long and from " to " in diameter at the lower end. at the smaller end there should be an iron ring or ferrule. this can be heated and driven on, when it will shrink so as to fit tightly and save the end from splitting. the upper end of the pole should first be squarely sawed off (see _saw_). the swing ropes, of which you can have two or four (as you wish), can be fastened by hooks to a pivot set into the top of the post (see _boring_), the latter being firmly set up in the ground. the blacksmith can quickly fix a pivot with hooks or pins and with a washer, to which you can fasten the ropes (fig. ). the lower ends of the ropes can be fastened at the proper height to sticks for handles. loops can also be made in which to rest one leg if you wish. of course you must have plenty of room for swinging around. in setting up the pole dig a hole ' or ' deep and after placing the pole tamp the earth compactly down around it with a pointed bar or stick. a cheaper way, but hardly as good, is to drive a " or / " rod in the top of the pole, and get out a stout piece of hard wood, " or " square and - / ' or ' long, with a hole in the middle to fit the rod, and smaller holes near each end for fastening the ropes by a knot (fig. ). a washer can be put under the wooden bar, or the top of the pole may be slightly rounded. * * * * * =other apparatus.=--there are, of course, other useful forms of apparatus involving more or less wood-work, such as hanging poles, fixed upright and slanting poles or bars, and various contrivances which you can readily arrange without more special instruction than has been given. * * * * * ladders are of course good, but it is usually as well for the amateur to buy these. a suggestion for a framework for hanging rings, trapeze, poles, rope ladders, and the like, with fixed ladders and horizontal bar, is given in fig. . [illustration fig. .] do not make such framework too light. fasten the joints with bolts rather than screws or nails, and suspend the hanging apparatus from eye-bolts passing through the timber and with washers under the nuts. the dimensions for such framework must depend upon the circumstances. the suggestions about the construction of the other pieces of apparatus given above will assist you in designing and constructing something to suit the circumstances. footnotes: [ ] all of this work can be done cheaply at any mill, leaving the rounding or bevelling of the edges and the bending of the ends for you to do yourself, and for that matter the rounding or bevelling can be done by machine. [ ] mrs. alec tweedie says of the way skis are worn in norway: "the toes are fastened by a leather strap. another strap goes round the heel in a sort of loop fashion, securing the foot, but at the same time giving the heel full play. a special ski boot is worn over enormously thick horsehair stockings. this boot has no hard sole at all, and, instead of being sewn at the sides, the large piece of thick leather which goes under the foot is brought well over the top and secured to what might ordinarily be called a leather tongue. at the back of the boot is a small strap, which is used to fasten the ski securely to the boot. once fixed on the ski, the boot is so secure no fall can loosen it, and the only way to extricate the foot is to undo the three straps." [ ] various contrivances for steering with a wheel or cross-bar are sometimes used. these work well if properly attached, and for reasonably safe coasting can be recommended, but where a "spill" is likely to occur, it may be well to consider the chance of being injured by these obstructions in front of the steersman. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] fig. shows the king-post squared at the lower end (and tapering) to be fitted to a tapering mortise in the cross-cleat of the forward sled and held down by the screw and nut at the extreme end. a wheel is attached to the upper end. any blacksmith can make an arrangement like this, or the bottom of the king-post can be split (fig. ) and screwed to the front sled, and the top can be made with a bar instead of a wheel (fig. ). [ ] you can get this height by taking two sticks whose combined length is somewhat greater than the height of the room. by letting the ends lap over one another in the middle, the sticks can be slipped along on each other until they just reach from floor to ceiling. hold them tightly together (or fasten them with a clamp) when in this position and you will have the exact length required. chapter x furniture some article of furniture is frequently one of the first objects upon which the beginner (particularly the amateur of mature years) tries his hand; and boys, as well as their elders, sometimes confidently undertake pieces of cabinet-work which would tax to the utmost the skill of an experienced cabinet-maker, only to be discouraged by the unsatisfactory result. do not be beguiled by the captivating sketches and descriptions in the popular magazines and papers which tell you how someone, at an expense of perhaps only $ . , easily made a roomful of desirable furniture out of packing-cases, old bedsteads, barrels, soap-boxes, broomsticks, and the like, with only the household hammer, saw, and screw-driver, and a liberal supply of putty, coloured varnish, and the occasional help of the "village carpenter." that sort of work does very well for your feminine relatives if they wish to amuse themselves in such ways or to contrive makeshifts to save the expense of furniture made in the usual way. you can very well help them in such work, or do it for them, and some very neat, cheap, and serviceable things can be made of such materials (particularly with the use of cloth)--but that is not the way for _you_ to begin your cabinet-making. learn to do good, plain, simple, useful work in the simplest, most straightforward, practical, _workmanlike_ way. when you can do that, if you wish to exercise your ingenuity in patching up useful articles from discarded ones you will know how to do it properly. be sure to begin with simple articles, avoiding attempts at elaborate decoration. do not spend your time in making a useless object merely because you think it is pretty. think first whether your design is suited for the purpose intended. if you start to make a case for your books, select or make your design accordingly, and do not be misled, by the multitude of overelaborated articles with which the market is flooded, into making a parlour bric-à-brac cabinet, all built up of turning, and jig-sawing, and machine-made carvings, too complicated and fragile for practical use, with the result that the books continue to be stored on a closet shelf or on the floor. next look to the block-form or general proportions of the object. the importance of this is often wholly overlooked by the average amateur,--sometimes because he is too engrossed in trying to make the details pretty,--but it is essential in making a handsome piece of furniture. no amount of exquisite carving, inlaying, or decoration of any kind (however beautiful in itself) will make an ill-shaped, badly proportioned article a thing of beauty; while a well-shaped and well-proportioned object will be pleasing to the eye even if free from decoration of any kind. of course, no rule can be given for designing a handsome piece of furniture any more than for painting a beautiful picture, but when you have sketched out the general shape and proportions and think you have done as well as you can, there is one thing it is well to bear in mind--that the average amateur is much more likely to spoil the appearance of his work by adding too much so-called ornamentation than by leaving the work too plain. when you become proficient enough to add carving, or other form of decoration, to your work, by all means use any skill you may have in such ways, but even then remember not to use such ornamentation too freely. avoid "gingerbread" work, meaningless jig-sawed decorations, and machine-made carvings, turned out by the gross. look at some of your great-grandmother's furniture (if you are fortunate enough to be able to do so) and think how long it has lasted, and compare it with the cheap modern furniture after the latter has been in use for a few years. how much of the latter would be in existence now if it had been made when the ancestral articles were? the durability of the old things is partly due to the quality of the wood and its seasoning. the use of whole pieces (instead of scraps of all kinds of stuff glued up with cheap glue), the way the articles were put together, and the generally honest work put into them had much to do with it. bear in mind in undertaking a piece of cabinet-work that you must hold yourself to a higher standard in the matter of accuracy of detail, in order to produce a really satisfactory result, than is necessary for much of the other work often done by amateurs. many slight inaccuracies, which are of little consequence in the rougher kinds of work, become such gaping and conspicuous defects in cabinet-work as to detract much from the satisfaction that should be taken in home-made articles. remember, then, that while it is easy to make your furniture strong, it is by no means easy to produce close, accurate joints, smooth, true surfaces, square, clean-cut edges, and a good, smooth finish. choose, therefore, simple forms, easily put together, for your early attempts; for it is much better to make a modest and unpretentious article well than to make an elaborate one badly. first and foremost, when you come to the actual work, use thoroughly seasoned wood. this is essential to making permanently satisfactory furniture, as you will learn after you have spent much time in making an article out of half-seasoned stock, only to see the ruin of your carefully executed work begin as soon as the finish is dry, or even before. although it is very easy to tell you to use nothing but properly seasoned stock, you will doubtless sometimes be deceived, however, as it is by no means an easy matter for the beginner to determine; but you can at least try your best to get wood in suitable condition, for it will be time well spent. (read the remarks on seasoning in chapter iii.) be content with the more easily worked woods in your early attempts. do not buy highly figured, heavy, and hard san domingo mahogany (no matter how beautiful) for your first table or bookcase--nor even quartered oak, nor mottled walnut burl, nor wavy maple--but begin with plain, straight-grained material, easy to work. white pine is often considered rather cheap and common in appearance, but it is suitable for many things in the way of furniture. it is one of the best woods to "stand," or hold its shape, and if not desired of the natural colour (which, is, however, suitable and attractive for some objects) it can be painted. it can also be stained, but is not to be compared with whitewood in this respect. whitewood is, like pine, easy to work, durable, can be obtained in wide boards, can be painted, and takes a stain exceedingly well. black walnut is good to work and is well suited for furniture, though its sombre hue is not always desirable. cherry, when soft and straight-grained, is easy to work and is often (when highly figured or wavy) one of the most beautiful woods. it is easy to finish. mahogany is a wood of great beauty and durability, and holds its shape exceedingly well, but the beginner should confine himself at first to the lighter, softer, straight-grained varieties, which can be easily obtained. you can then try the more highly figured and harder kinds, which will tax your skill in smoothing them. oak in its softer, straight-grained forms is well suited to the work of the beginner. it is durable, and an article made of oak will stand more abuse without serious defacement than most of the other woods used for furniture. when quarter-sawed it is more difficult to smooth than plain, straight-grained oak, but as you acquire skill you will find quartered oak one of the most satisfactory woods. oak can be stained if desired. many other kinds of wood are sometimes used, as sycamore, ash, birch, beech, maple, rosewood, butternut, ebony, etc., but these woods you can try for yourself, if you wish, as you progress in skill, and thus learn their peculiar characteristics. an important point, not always realised by the amateur, is that the stock for good furniture should be planed true, that is, free from winding. buy stock that is as true as you can find (see chapter iii.) and have it planed to be as true as possible. have as much of this truing done by machine as you can afford, for it is not worth while to spend an hour in working down a surface by hand (see _truing surfaces_, in part v.) when a machine will do it in five minutes. there are, of course, cases in which this accuracy is not essential,--and judgment must be used, as in all intelligent work,--but, as a rule, it is highly important that the surfaces should be reasonably true if you wish to do your work as it should be done. the pieces, when fitted, should come together easily and naturally, and not require to be sprung or twisted or bent in order to be able to put the article together. your furniture should always be hand-planed and scraped, for, though the slight hollows and ridges left by the planing-machine may not be noticeable while the wood is in its natural state, as soon as the surface is finished and begins to have a lustre these inequalities become conspicuous. this applies to any small irregularities of the surface. you cannot get the surface too smooth. you will be surprised at first to see how noticeable slight defects in the surface become in the finished work. curved edges occur often in furniture. many of these curves can be cut with a turning-saw or a keyhole- and compass-saw, but the easiest way (and the most accurate, until you have acquired considerable skill with the saw) is to have them cut at a mill by a jig-saw or band-saw at but slight expense. have a piece of waste wood put on the under side to prevent the burr, or ragged edge, left by the sawing. these curves can be smoothed with the spoke-shave alone, or spoke-shave and file, or file alone, according to the conditions, as you will soon learn by experience, the final finishing of the surface being given with fine sandpaper. put the different parts of your article of furniture completely together once (without glue or nails) to see that everything fits right, that the joints close properly, and that the whole job is as it should be, before putting together permanently. this often seems to the amateur a needless precaution (and it occasionally is), but, although it takes some time, it is the practice with skilled workmen and therefore a precaution which should not be neglected by the beginner. you will discover the importance of this when you carelessly assume that all the parts of a writing-desk, for instance, will come together properly, or that you can easily correct errors as you go along, only to find, when you have the work nearly put together that something is wrong. in the effort to mend the trouble you will be apt to loosen the parts already fastened, or will have to take the whole apart, which, when glue or nails are used, is particularly discouraging, and apt to damage the quality of the work. be particular to clamp the parts of your work together thoroughly when using glue and to allow time enough before removing the clamps (see _clamps_ and _gluing_). care should be taken in putting your work together to get it "square," that is, to prove the accuracy of the right angles. in some cases this is of course essential to having the work come together at all. in others, the appearance will be much injured if the article tips to one side or is slanting or twisted. in all cases it is essential to the proper closing up of the joints. it will not do to assume, as the beginner often naturally does, that because the parts of the work seem to be accurately made that the whole, when put together, will, therefore, be square. it must be tested. you will be surprised to see how much "out of square" and how winding the result of your most careful work will sometimes be if you do not test it as you put the parts together. in addition to the obvious way of applying the square (see _square_) to the angles, using the large steel square when you can: there are many cases in which measuring diagonals is a good test, altering the angles of the work until the two opposite diagonals are equal, when the work will, of course, be rectangular. this is a good way for large "case" work, using a stick, or fitting two adjustable sticks, after the manner described on page , between the angles, when the latter can be altered until the diagonals are equal. at the same time that you are testing for squareness you must also look out for winding, by sighting across the front or back, using winding-sticks, if necessary. when your work has a back fitted in, as in the case of a bookcase or cabinet, this will help you much in the final adjustment. do not attempt to put your case work together in an upright position, but upon horses horizontally, or flat upon its back or face. it is well to use corner-blocks in the angles of your furniture, in places where they will not show (see _corner-blocks_, in part v.). after you begin to acquire some proficiency in your work, a little beading or chamfering can sometimes be used to good advantage, but it is well not to be too lavish with this kind of ornamentation. wall-cabinets and other articles to be hung on the wall can be neatly attached to the wall by brass mirror-plates screwed upon the back. these should usually be sunk into the wood so that the back will be smooth. your furniture can be finished with oil or wax alone, or with shellac or varnish, as described in part v. in the case of articles to be hung against wall-paper or where any delicate fabric will be exposed, it is well to avoid finishing with oil alone unless the greatest care is used, for a very slight surplus of oil will quickly soil the paper. for the work of the amateur nothing is better than shellac. when your work is made of parts which can be readily separated, such parts as are joined without glue or nails, it is best to take the work apart before finishing. unhinge doors and take off locks, escutcheons, mirror-plates, handles, and the like. take out removable shelves, backs, and all detachable parts. finish all these parts separately and then put the work together again. you can finish the separate parts better and more easily, but of course this can only be done with such parts as are readily separable. in some cases it is desirable to stain your furniture, but as a rule you cannot improve on the natural colouring, which deepens and mellows with age. if you wish mahogany-coloured furniture, use mahogany, or, if you cannot afford that, simply paint or stain some cheaper wood of the desired colour, but do not try to imitate the grain of the mahogany. there are two objections to these attempts at imitation. first, they are not honest; and, in the second place, the deception is usually a failure. finally, be simple and honest in all your designing, your construction (which above all things should be strong and durable), and your finishing. do not put in your room an object which appears at a distance of ten feet to be a mahogany or black walnut centre-table, but which on closer examination turns out to be a pine washstand in disguise. there are, as you know, hundreds of articles of household utility, other than those here given, which are suitable for the amateur to make, but it is hoped that the suggestions about those which are included in this chapter will be of service in the construction of other objects. * * * * * [illustration fig. .] =book-rack.=--a simple rack for books (fig. ) can be of any length desired, about six inches wide, and of half-inch +stock+ (or slightly thinner), but the dimensions can be varied according to circumstances. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. be sure that the bottoms of the ends are accurately cut. the other edges can be rounded if you wish (see _spokeshave_ and _file_). the hinges should be sunk in the wood, so that they will not injure the books (see _hinges_). see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * =desk-rack.=--an easily made arrangement to put on the back of a table or desk is shown in fig. , and can be made of stock of from / " to / " thickness, according to the size of the rack. [illustration fig. .] * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. first make the two boxes (see _box-making_, page ), and then the shelf above them. this can be fastened to the tops of the boxes by screws from underneath. the edge can be slightly rounded. the rail or guard at the back and ends of the shelf should be made independently. the back and ends can be joined as shown in fig. , and the whole then fastened to the shelf by screws (see _boring_ and _screws_) from underneath before fastening the shelf to the boxes, or it can be dowelled on, as shown in fig. a (see _dowelling_). [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. a.] partitions can be fitted in the boxes, forming pigeon-holes or compartments, if desired. these partitions can be nailed in place or, to be more workmanlike, can be fitted in grooves (see _grooving_ and _shelves_). see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * =hanging book-shelf.=--a wall-shelf (fig. ) is useful and good practice for the amateur. it should not be made too deep (from front to back). half-inch stock is heavy enough, if the shelf is not more than two feet long. [illustration fig. .] * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. this shelf can be simply put together by nailing, setting the nails carefully (see _nailing_ and _nail-set_). carefully mark lines (using the square) by which to nail the pieces in their proper places. it is not worth while to use glue if the parts are put together in this way. a stronger and more workmanlike way is to groove the lower shelf into the sides and the sides into the upper shelf (see _grooving_). in this case glue should be used and the work tightly clamped (see _gluing_ and _clamps_). it will be much stronger to fit a back between the two shelves and the sides. this should properly be set in a rabbet cut around the space, as shown in fig. (see _rabbet_). [illustration fig. .] see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * =wall-cabinet.=--an open cabinet or hanging case for books, magazines, or other small articles (fig. ) can be of any desired proportions, but should not be very large. half-inch stock is sufficiently thick. [illustration fig. .] * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. this case should have a back. rabbets should be cut to receive the back, as in the case of the wall-shelf just shown (see _rabbet_), the top and middle shelves being narrower than the lower shelf by the thickness of the back. this case can simply be nailed together (see _nailing_ and _nail-set_), but it will be better to groove the shelves into the sides (see _grooving_). see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * =hanging bookcase.=--a simple and useful case for the wall (fig. ) can be made on much the same principle as the small case just shown. it is well not to make such cases very large, and, unless quite small, stock from / " to / " in thickness will be suitable. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. instead of a back, strips can be screwed on vertically (fig. ), being sunk so as to be flush with the back of the case (fig. ). * * * * * [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * =wall-shelves.=--an easily made arrangement is suggested in fig. . the design can easily be varied if you wish. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. the construction is extremely simple, the shelves being merely screwed on from the back. [illustration fig. .] get out the back and the shelves, and smooth them. mark lines across the face of the former at the places for the shelves, bore holes through the back from the face for the screws (see _boring_), and countersink the holes on the back (see _countersink_). screw the shelves in place (see _screws_) to see that everything is right, then take apart and finish. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * =pipe-rack.=--a modification of the shelf arrangement just described makes a good rack for pipes and other articles for smoking (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. this differs from the article just described only in the shape of the shelves, which have openings in the edge for holding pipes. these openings can be made either with a fine saw or by boring holes and cutting in to them from the edge (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * =wall-shelves.=--a quite simple form is shown in fig. , having a small box with lid. a combination of this form with the design for a pipe-rack can easily be made if desired. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. the construction is plain from the cases already described. the hinges should be sunk in the edge of the lid (see _hinges_). see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. [illustration fig. .] * * * * * =wall-cabinet.=--the cabinet shown in fig. should be rather small, for if large it will look clumsy. it can be made of half-inch stock. [illustration fig. .] before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. the construction is quite similar to the preceding cases. if you have no board wide enough for the back, two can be joined (see _jointing_ and _gluing_). the cupboard is simply a box without front or back (see _box-making_, page ) screwed to the back from behind (see _boring_ and _screws_). the shelves at the sides of the cupboard and the bracket underneath it can be screwed from the back and from the inside of the cabinet, as in the preceding cases. the door (see _doors_) can be fitted and hung (see _hinges_) after the whole has been put together. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * =corner-shelves or cabinets.=--a simple form of hanging corner-shelves is shown in fig. . this can be of any size, of course, but such articles look clumsy if made very large. half-inch stock is heavy enough unless the case is quite large, when / " or / " thickness can be used. [illustration fig. .] * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. [illustration fig. .] one of the sides can be made wider than the other by the thickness of the stock, so as to lap over and secure a tight and strong joint at the back. the top board (with rounding front) can simply be nailed down on the sides (see _nailing_ and _nail-set_), or, to be more workmanlike, a rabbet (fig. ) can be cut around the edge of the top on the under side into which to fit the sides, which can be screwed in place (see _rabbet_, _boring_, _countersink_, and _screws_). this rabbet should not come quite to the front edge of the top. the shelves can be screwed in place from the back (see _screws_), carefully marking lines with the square, for boring the holes, before putting the case together, and countersinking +the holes+ upon the back. this case (being fastened by screws) can be taken apart for finishing. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * [illustration fig. .] a standing cabinet like fig. can be made in the same manner as the hanging cabinet just shown, but can, of course, be larger. stock from / " to / " in thickness can be used. the rail at the top can be made and put on as directed for the desk-rack shown in figs. and . * * * * * =medicine-cabinet.=--any small cabinet can be used for medicines by simply arranging the shelves in any convenient manner. a simple way is to have a series of horizontal grooves on the inside of each side, into which the shelves can be slipped at any desired distance apart. a design for an easily constructed medicine-cabinet for the wall is shown in figs. and . [illustration fig. .] * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. a good size for a small cabinet is to have the main box-part, the cabinet proper, about " wide, " high, and " deep. it can be made of / " stock. the construction is like that of the other cases already shown. the joints should properly be grooved (see _grooving_ and _gluing_), but the whole case can be nailed together, although the result will be inferior (see _nailing_ and _nail-set_). the back should be set in a rabbet as in the cases already shown. the arrangement of the hinges is shown in the illustration (see _hinges_). the partitions can be of thin stock ( / " or / "). the doors can have thick cleats, shaped as shown in fig. (enlarged in fig. a), with holes bored down from the top for homoeopathic phials. care must be taken not to bore the holes through (see _boring_). stop boring before the spur comes through and clean out the bottoms of the holes with a gouge. a small drawer can be fitted to one of the small compartments, as in fig. (see _drawers_). if the edges of the doors are made to lap slightly where they come together, rabbets being cut on opposite sides of the edges (fig. ), the joint will be tighter, but a little space must be allowed or the doors may bind. the rest of the details are like those of the cases already described. [illustration fig. .] see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part. v. [illustration fig. a.] [illustration fig. .] * * * * * =bookcases.=--a plain case (fig. ) can be made of any desired size. if quite small / " stock can be used, but ordinarily / " thickness will be best. the method of construction is practically the same as in the cases already described. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. the shelves can all be fastened in, if desired, but a good way is to groove the top and bottom shelves into the sides and make those between movable (see _shelves_, in part v.). [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] the back can be fitted by simply cutting a rabbet on the back edge of each side for the entire length (see _rabbet_), and making the shelves of such a width that they will not project beyond the rabbet. a narrow piece can be screwed from the back lengthways, above the upper shelf, as shown in fig. . the rest of the back can then be screwed in place (see _boring_ and _screws_). the back, being too wide to be made of one board, can very well (for a plain case of this sort) be of matched boards or sheathing.[ ] do not force the back too tightly into place,--that is, crossways of the boards. allow a little play for the expansion and contraction. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * a "knock-down" method of putting together with tenons and wooden pins (fig. ) is not very difficult, but requires care and accuracy. in the case of the bookcase just shown, the upper and lower shelves can be pinned through the sides, which will hold the case firmly, and the other shelves can be movable (see _shelves_). a case fastened in this way can be readily taken apart. this method can be applied to other designs for bookcases and cabinets. [illustration fig. .] * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. the general principle is that of the mortise and tenon (see _mortising_). if you cut the mortises for the pins before cutting the tenons on the ends of the shelves you will avoid the liability of splitting the tenons. the pins should taper and the angles of the pins and tenons be very slightly bevelled, that is, the sharp edge taken off. the ends of these shelves can be slightly "cut under" or bevelled inwards (see fig. , which is exaggerated), on the same principle that the ends of floor boards and the like are sometimes slightly bevelled, to ensure a closely fitting joint. [illustration fig. .] see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * a good form for an open bookcase suitable for the beginner to make is shown in fig. . this design is suitable for a low, or dwarf, bookcase of whatever length may be desired. if of quite small size it can be made of / " stock throughout, but in most cases a thin plank (perhaps - / " to - / " thick) had best be used for the ends. a curtain can be added if desired. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. the curves of the ends can be sawed by hand (see _turning-saw_ and _keyhole and compass saw_), or better by band-saw and jig-saw at a mill, and smoothed with spoke-shave and file (see _spokeshave_ and _file_). the shelves (at least the upper and lower ones) should be grooved into the sides and glued (see _grooving_ and _gluing_), although, as in the other cases already described, nails can be used, but the result will be inferior (see _nailing_ and _nail-set_). the plainness of the upright edges of the ends can be relieved by a little beading (fig. ), which you can do yourself or have moulded at the mill (see _beading_). [illustration fig. .] little brackets, screwed under the lower shelf at each end, as shown in fig. , add to the stiffness of the case. a back can be fitted into rabbets as described above, but in this case it had best not come above the top shelf, a rabbet being cut on the under edge of the latter as well as in the sides. the bottom shelf can simply be made narrower and without a rabbet. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * the bookcase shown in fig. can be of any desired size and proportions. it can be of / " stock, although the upright ends can well be of thin plank. [illustration fig. .] * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. this case can simply be nailed together (see _nailing_ and _nail-set_), but the more workmanlike way is to groove the sides into the top and the bottom shelf into the sides (see _grooving_). the second shelf from the top can be grooved into the sides, and the upright partition forming the cupboard can also be grooved in place. this process involves careful laying out and accurate cutting. the other shelves can be removable. the base-board can be bevelled or curved on the top edge (or moulded by machine) and can be mitred at the corners. it can be fastened with fine nails (see _nailing_ and _nail-set_). the front piece can be glued as well as the mitred joints. a moulding can be nailed around the top as shown, being mitred at the corners.[ ] the other details of construction do not differ from those of the cases just given, except in the matter of making and fitting the door, for which see _doors_ in part v. a common way of making the sides of such cases is to make the side itself of board thickness, and to face the front edge with a strip (which can be glued on) from - / " to " wide, according to the size of the case, in the way shown in fig. (see _gluing_). this gives a wider edge to the side and the shelves can fit behind the facing strip. beading can be worked on this strip, as shown (see _beading_). [illustration fig. .] see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * =desk and bookcase.=--various combinations of book-shelves with a desk can be arranged. a useful form for a small one is shown in fig. . the height is of course regulated by the necessary position of the desk-lid when dropped. the general principles of the construction are the same as those of the cases already shown. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. the wing, or attachment at the side, can be grooved into the side of the main part. [illustration fig. .] the back should reach across from one part to the other, which will give stiffness to the whole. the desk-lid, which should be set in perhaps / " from the front edge of the case, can be prevented from dropping too far by chains fastened inside to the lid and the sides of the case. various other arrangements can be bought for holding a desk-lid in the proper place. the inside of the lid must of course be smooth. if panelled as in fig. the panel must be thick enough to be flush with the frame on the inside (see _doors_). there will be more or less of a crack around this panel, but this is unavoidable. lids of this sort are sometimes made with a smooth surface (without frame or panelling), but this requires some form of cleating to prevent warping (see _cleats_). the small brackets under the lower shelf will help to stiffen the case. a few shelves can easily be arranged in the desk compartment. if you wish a number of pigeon-holes and compartments, a good way for the amateur to fit these is to make an independent case of pigeon-holes and compartments, without front or back, of thin wood (perhaps / "), and of such outside dimensions that it will just slip into the desk-space. this open box-like arrangement can be nailed together with fine brads. the best way to make it is by fitting all the divisions into grooves, but to do this by hand requires more work and care than can be expected of the ordinary amateur. the grooving can be done by machine. a convenient arrangement is to have rows of parallel grooves into which the division boards can at any time be slipped to form compartments of any desired size. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * =music-case.=--the construction of the form shown in fig. is like that of the examples already shown. the sides, top, and bottom should be of / " or / " stock, but the shelves can be thinner. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. this case can be simply nailed together (see _nailing_ and _nail-set_), but the more workmanlike way is to groove the bottom shelf into the sides and the sides into the top, as in the cases already shown (see _grooving_). a moulding at the top can be made as in the bookcase shown in fig. . for various ways of putting in the shelves, see _shelves_, in part v. the back can be thinner ( / ") and should be fitted in a rabbet cut around, as already shown in the illustrations. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. [illustration fig. .] * * * * * =plant-stands.=--the form shown in fig. is of quite simple construction and is useful to hold a large flower-pot. it should be made of / " stock. the top can be from " to " square. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. [illustration fig. .] simply make a box (see _box-making_, page ), without top and bottom, with the grain of the four sides running up and down. before putting together saw the curves at the bottom. as the grain of the four pieces all runs up and down, these sides can be glued together without nailing (see _gluing_). screw four cleats around the inside of the top (fig. ) with holes bored in them for screws with which to fasten on the top from underneath (see _boring_ and _screws_). round the top edge as shown (see _spokeshave_ and _file_), and smooth the surfaces. then, having shaped the edge of the top as shown in fig. , fasten it in place and the stand is ready to finish. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. [illustration fig. .] the form shown in fig. is made upon a similar principle, and can be of a larger size than would be satisfactory for the first pattern. * * * * * much care must be taken to so lay out and cut the slanting edges of the sides that the pieces will come together accurately. after the top has been fastened on, a little piece of moulding can be put around beneath the edge of the top as shown, provided you have the skill to do it neatly. the corners must be mitred, and the moulding fastened on with fine brads, which must be set (see _nailing_ and _nail-set_).[ ] [illustration fig. .] see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. =tables.=--a plain table, which although not especially ornamental is serviceable for many purposes, is shown in fig. . it can be made of any size and proportions and the details can easily be varied. [illustration fig. .] * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. the construction is too simple to require special description. the legs and the cleats at the top should be of plank thickness, the rest of / " stock. the legs can be halved where they cross (see _halving_), or for a rough job can be simply nailed (see _nailing_). the cleats at the top of the legs should be nailed or screwed to the legs, and will act as cleats to the top, which is fastened to them. the boards forming the top can be simply laid with the edges touching, for a rough job; but where a good surface is required the joints should be glued (see _jointing_ and _gluing_) and the surface smoothed afterwards. extra cleats can be put under the top if needed for stiffness, and additional lengthways stretchers can be added to connect the upper part of the legs. the whole should be planed and sandpapered and can be shellaced or painted. the remaining details do not differ from those of the subjects already shown. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * a table of simple construction and neat appearance (fig. ) can be of any desired size and proportions. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. [illustration fig. .] the legs can be from - / " to - / " square, according to the size of the table. after being squared and cut to a length they should be tapered toward the bottom by planing down two opposite sides and then the other two. the tapering, however, should not extend to the tops of the legs, but to a point a little below the bottom of the rails, or cross-bars, which connect the legs. on the two inner sides of the legs mortises must be cut to receive tenons on the ends of the rails which connect the legs, as shown in fig. (see _mortising_). these rails can be of / " stock, the curves on the lower edge being cut with the turning-saw or compass and keyhole saw, and finished with spoke-shave and chisel or file. the curves can be omitted, of course, if preferred. [illustration fig. .] do not try to put this table all together permanently at one operation. first put together two legs and the connecting piece, then the other two legs and the connecting piece, and finally join these two sides by the remaining rails. glue the joints (see _gluing_) and the parts should be securely clamped (see _clamps_) until dry. corner-blocks can be put in at the angles (see _corner-blocks_). holes must be bored in the rails by which to fasten the top. if the rails are not too deep, vertical holes can be bored, countersinking deeply if necessary. deep countersinking can be done by first boring a hole large enough to admit the head of the screw to the depth required, when the hole can be continued with a smaller bit. if the depth of the rail is too great for this process, the hole can be made by a species of counterboring, making first a larger hole in the side of the rail (on the inside), an inch or so from the top, and boring down into this hole from the top. a slanting cut can be made from below with the gouge to allow the screw to be slipped into the hole (fig. ). another way is to screw cleats on the inside of the rail with a vertical hole through which the top can be screwed on (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] the top, if too wide for one board, should be glued up before being dressed off (see _jointing_ and _gluing_), and the edge shaped and smoothed. then, laying the top face downward on the horses or bench, place the frame upside down upon the top. when in the exact position mark a line around the inside of the frame, continue the holes in the frame a little way into the top, using a bit a trifle smaller than the screws, and then screw the frame securely to the top (see _boring_ and _screws_), measuring carefully to see that you use screws which will not protrude through the top of the table. depend entirely on the screws to hold the top on. do not fasten a table-top on with glue (see _laying out the work_, in chapter iv.). if the table does not stand even, see _scribing_ and _winding-sticks_. the final scraping (see _scraper_) of the top can well be left until the table is put together, when the whole, after being scraped, can be carefully sandpapered with fine sandpaper (see _sandpaper_). the remaining details do not differ from those of the articles already shown. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * an excellent centre-table for the amateur to make (fig. ) is useful for many purposes. about three feet square on top is a convenient size. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v. and look up any other references. [illustration fig. .] get out four legs, from - / " to " in diameter, according to the size of the table. they can be tapered slightly, as in the preceding case. groove one side of each leg to receive the end of the cross-partition shown in the cut (see _grooving_). these partitions can be / " to / " thick. one of them can extend across (diagonally) from post to post. the other can be in two parts, reaching to the centre; or the partitions can be in four parts, meeting in the centre. this framework of legs and cross-partitions can be bound together at the top by cleats screwed on top (fig. ), holes being made in the cleats by which they can in turn be screwed to the top of the table. the lower shelf, or shelves (being made in four parts), can be fastened up from underneath, cleats, also, being used if necessary. the shelves can be of / " stock. the upper shelves can be fitted after the rest is put together and can rest upon cleats underneath, to which they can be fastened. the shape of the top is shown in fig. a. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. a.] the remaining details do not differ from those in the preceding cases. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * =small stand.=--a simple arrangement shown in fig. involves more difficulties than many of the other articles shown, but is not beyond the skill of the careful amateur. a good size is about " or " across the top and " or " high. such a stand is useful to hold a flower-pot. [illustration fig. .] * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v. and look up any other references. the top can be of / " or / " stock and the legs of / " stock, the lower part tapering in thickness to / " at the bottom. the curves can all be sawed at a mill for a small sum, and smoothed with spoke-shave and file (see _spokeshave_ and _file_). the underside of the top can be bevelled at the edge (fig. ). this can be done with the spoke-shave. the file can be used to good advantage in the rounding of the extreme edge, finishing with sandpaper, but not until after the top surface has been finally smoothed (see _spokeshave_, _file_, and _sandpaper_). [illustration fig. .] the curved frame under the top and connecting the legs is to be made in four pieces, the legs being fitted between them (fig. ). these curved pieces should be got out a little too long and the ends carefully sawed to make a tight joint with the legs. be sure that all these parts fit accurately before you finally put them together. screw them together, toeing screws into the legs. use glue at the joints of the curved frame and the legs, but do not glue the frame to the top. [illustration fig. .] the remaining details do not differ from those in the preceding cases. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * =small table.=--fig. shows a good form for a small stand suitable for various purposes, which, although not as easy to make as it looks, is not too hard for the amateur who has acquired some familiarity with his tools. it can be made of any desired height or proportions. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. get out the top as in the small stand last shown. the thickness can vary from / " to / " according to the size of the table. the legs should not be fastened directly to the top, but to a cleat framework to be screwed to the top (fig. ). this helps prevent the top from warping. the legs can be round or six-sided and should be tapered (see _rounding-sticks_). a tenon or dowel should be made at the upper end of each leg to fit into a hole in the cleat framework. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] the hexagonal shelf at the bottom can be of / " stock and should be notched or grooved into the legs, the extreme angles of the shelf being cut off (fig. ). a fine screw toed from underneath through the shelf into the leg (fig. ) will strengthen the joint, and after the whole is fastened together, little brackets can be screwed with fine screws in the angle between the lower shelf and the leg. all the joints should be glued except where the cleats are fastened to the top, in which case screws alone should be used. much care is required to make all these joints accurately, and to put the whole table together properly. [illustration fig. .] the remaining details do not differ from those in the preceding cases. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * =footstool or cricket.=--a common low seat or cricket (fig. ) can be made of / " or / " stock and of any desired size. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. [illustration fig. .] the hardest part of this job is to cut the bevels where the sides meet the top and at the ends of the stretcher between the sides (see _bevelling_). you will probably find it easier to lay out and cut the ends of the sides before they are tapered. the edges of the top can be slightly rounded. after the parts are nailed together (see _nailing_) set the nails (see _nail-set_). the remaining details do not differ from those of the cases already described. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * =out-door seat.=--the construction of the plain chair shown in fig. is too obvious to require special description. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. this seat can be made of thin plank. the most difficult part is the bevelling of the joints (see _bevelling_). [illustration fig. .] the remaining details do not differ from those in the preceding cases. for the painting see _painting_, in part v. =bookcase and lounge.=--"combination" articles of furniture are, as a rule, frequently undesirable on the ground of taste, and often are not as convenient as to have the parts made separately. but the amateur may sometimes find it desirable to join two or more different pieces to fit some particular spot or for some special reason. examples are given in the bookcase and desk (fig. ), in the combination for a corner (fig. ), and in fig. . these are given as suggestive of the kind of combinations that can be suitably undertaken by the amateur, and many simple arrangements can readily be contrived when desired. [illustration fig. .] * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. the new principles involved in this design are merely in the combination. the bookcase and the cupboard (which can be open if desired) are similar to those already shown, and the lounge is simply a shelf or box-like arrangement connecting the two. the back of the lounge is merely a board fastened by screws. the appearance of the article depends much upon the upholstering. this should not be done until after the finishing of the wood-work. the remaining details are not different from those of the articles already shown. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. [illustration fig. .] another combination, suitable for a corner, is shown in fig. . the principles involved are the same as for the other articles already described and the construction is obvious. * * * * * =table and settle, or chair-table.=--this is an excellent form of table for the amateur to make and is useful for many purposes (figs. and ). if of moderate size, it can be made of / " stock, but if large, and to be subjected to rough usage, thin plank will be more suitable for the ends and top. another good form of chair-table can be made on the same principle by making a narrower seat, or a heavy chair, and attaching a circular top by hinges to the back of the arms of the seat. before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. the framing of the lower part is similar to that of a box. get out the upright ends and the front and back of the box part and fit them together as shown in fig. , a rabbet (see _rabbet_) or groove being cut to receive the bottom. the lid, which forms the seat, can be arranged as shown (see _hinges_). the top, made like any table-top and fastened by screws to the deep cleats shown (see _screws_), is pivoted to either side of the upright ends by pins when a seat is desired. when you wish to use the table and the top is lowered, it can be held in place by inserting pins in the other two holes also. the pins should not be less than / " or / " in diameter. care must be used in laying off the points for making these holes (see _boring_). [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] the remaining details are not different from those of the articles already shown. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. [illustration fig. .] =cabinet for guns, fishing-rods, etc.=--a convenient form is shown in fig. . the construction is similar to that of the bookcases and cabinets already shown. the stock for the case itself can be / " in thickness, for the larger divisions / ", and for the small partitions / ". [illustration fig. .] before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. if you make the doors with glass panels, as shown, these can be set in rabbets cut on the inside of the door frames and held in place by strips of "quarter-round" moulding. the doors can be fitted between the sides or can lap over the edges of the sides, as you prefer (see _doors_). the drawers can be omitted if too difficult to make well (see _drawers_), and small boxes of various sizes stored upon the shelves can be used as a substitute. the remaining details are not different from those of the articles already shown. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. * * * * * =picture frames.=--these are often undertaken by the amateur, but making them well is much more difficult than it seems to the beginner. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. if you buy the prepared mouldings so much in use, they will, in most cases, have to be mitred at the corners, which is an operation by no means easy for the beginner, particularly when the moulding is sprung or twisted, as is often the case. those joints which do not close properly must be trimmed with the plane, for which purpose the mitre shooting-board is useful (see page ), and all four joints should fit accurately before finally putting together, so that none will have to be sprung or twisted in order to close up. at the same time you must guard against winding by sighting across the face, and the angles must be tested with the square. the clamping together is important in such work. this can be done by laying the frame flat, nailing strips a short distance outside of each of the four corners, and driving in wedges between these strips and the frame until the joints are firmly held (fig. ). this can also be done by putting blocks at the corners and passing a doubled cord around, which, by inserting a stick, can be twisted until the frame is held tightly. but making mitred frames of moulding is not suitable work for the beginner and should be deferred until you have had some experience (see _mitring_). [illustration fig. .] for a plain frame nothing is better than a joint with mortise and tenon (fig. ), the rabbet (see _rabbet_) at the back being cut through to the ends of the shorter pieces (those having the tenons), but being stopped before reaching the ends of the longer pieces (those having the mortises), as shown. the latter should be got out too long, so as to overlap a little at the ends (fig. ). this enables you to take the frame apart more readily when fitting, and with less danger of injury to the work. the projecting ends can be sawed off after the frame has been glued together (see _mortising_, _gluing_, and _clamps_). the final planing and smoothing of the front surface and the edges should be done after the frame is glued together, careful attention being paid to the direction of the grain (see _plane_, _scraper_, and _sandpaper_). [illustration fig. .] after a frame of this kind is all done, an inner moulding with a row of beads, or some other simple form, can easily be fitted to the rabbet, if desired. see end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. see also _finishing_, in part v. footnotes: [ ] this method of putting in a back answers very well for the beginner, and is often used in cheap work, but, unless quite small, the really workmanlike way is to make a panelled frame, which is screwed in place as one piece. the degree to which the panelling is carried depends upon the size and shape of the back. when you become able to make your work more neatly and accurately than can be expected of the beginner, you will do well to construct the backs in this way, but it involves much more labour and is hardly worth while for such simple work as you will do at first. [ ] a more workmanlike way is to work all such mouldings on the edge of the top, making it as much thicker as may be required, thus avoiding putting on the moulding across the grain of the piece to which it is fastened, which is not a scientific form of construction; and for that matter it is a more thoroughly workmanlike way to work all mouldings on the solid wood. the top can be made of two thicknesses, the moulding being worked on the edge of the under piece before the two are glued together. various forms of moulding can be worked on the edge by a moulding machine at almost any wood-working mill. [ ] see footnote on page . chapter xi a few miscellaneous operations =wooden chain.=--white pine or any other easily whittled, straight-grained wood can be used. take a stick of any length and from " to " square. if very small the whittling is more difficult. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _knife_, in part v. [illustration fig. .] mark as shown (fig. ), and remove the wood at the corners, forming four rabbets, giving a section of the piece the shape of a greek cross (fig. ). next lay out the links, alternating as shown in fig. , and allowing space enough so that they can have some play when cut. by notching in from the outside and finally cutting away the wood within the links, they can be separated. the whittling must be done carefully, of course, and wholly by _cutting_ with a _sharp_ knife. if you try to do it by prying or twisting with the blade, you will be likely to split the wood. finally, round and smooth the links (fig. ), doing as much of this as you can before the links are separated. use fine sandpaper (see _sandpaper_). leave the chain in the natural wood or oil and shellac (see _finishing_). * * * * * =ball and block.=--white pine or any other easily whittled, straight-grained wood will do for this whittling exercise (fig. ). * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _knife_, in part v. first get out a cubical block, each edge of which may be, perhaps, - / " or " long. gauge a line around each side parallel to the edge and about / " from it (see _gauge_). cut straight in on these lines and then make slanting cuts to meet those first made. remove the wood on the same general principle as in cutting a notch, gradually shaping the middle part into spherical form; while the cuts which are parallel with the sides finally meet and form four posts between the top and bottom. the wood must be removed by cuts, not by prying. trim the ball to be as nearly spherical as you can. if you wish to make the ring or handle shown on top, additional length must be allowed in getting out the original block. the whole can be sandpapered with fine sandpaper (see _sandpaper_) and finished with oil or shellac (see _finishing_). [illustration fig. .] * * * * * =box-making.=--in laying out common boxes, bear in mind that the sides, top, and bottom usually lap over the ends,--the sides over the ends, and the top and bottom over the sides and ends (fig. ). sometimes, however, to avoid joints showing on the front, the front and back are made to lap over the top (fig. ), occasionally the ends lap over the back (fig. ), and other arrangements are sometimes made. do not rely on glue for these common square joints in box-work, but place your dependence on nails or screws. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] either lid or bottom or both can sometimes project slightly to good advantage (fig. ). in nice work, however, the bottom is more often set in so as not to show, either simply fitting in between the sides and ends or into a rabbet (see _rabbet_) cut in the lower edge (fig. , showing box bottom up). [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] the lid or cover can be hinged to the top edge of the back of the box, or a narrower lid can be used and hinged to a strip fastened at the back of the box (fig. ). plain lids of this sort, for everything but rough or temporary work, should be cleated, either by end cleats, by framing, or simply by cleats on the under side (see _cleats_ and _doors_). [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] remember that the joints will be held more tightly (for a permanent box) if you "toe" the nails (see _nailing_). mitring is a common way of making box-joints. it is, however, one of the poorest of all ways in point of strength, and unless done with much skill,--more skill than the average amateur usually acquires,--the joints are very liable to come apart, or at least gape open, and be weaker and look worse than the common, squarely fitted joint first shown. * * * * * glue can be used and is a help. mitred joints can, however, be strengthened by splines or keys or pieces let into saw-kerfs (see _mitring_). a mitred box is hard for an amateur to put together, particularly when it is to be glued. the whole process should be rehearsed before gluing. everything must fit exactly before you begin to finally put the box together. if you get one corner out of place, all four will probably be thrown out of position before you get through puttering with them, and the glue become cold and the operation be spoiled. only a skilful amateur can make a box with nicely fitted mitred joints that will hold permanently. * * * * * there are various other ways of making joints by machine (see _joints_). the rabbeted joint shown in fig. can be made by hand very well, but so much quicker with a circular saw that you will save much time by having it done at a mill. it is a good, strong, neat joint and shows less wood at the end than the common way. when it is allowable to round what little end wood there is (fig. ) it makes the joint quite inconspicuous. glue can also be used to advantage with this joint on account of the shoulder. dowelling the corners is a method sometimes used. it is easier than mitring, but by no means a strong joint, unless skilfully made. the principal advantage of dowelling is in cases where it is objectionable to have nails show. but, as a rule, there is not much gain in trying to _conceal_ joints. certainly not unless you can do the work in the best of style. [illustration fig. .] learn first to make the common, plain joints accurately, and you can then attempt the more difficult ones with some chance of success. the joints can sometimes be reinforced to good advantage by triangular corner-pieces or posts, glued and screwed in place. there is no better or more workmanlike way of putting boxes together than by some form of dovetailing (see _dovetailing_), but this process is hardly one for the beginner to undertake, and should be postponed until he has acquired considerable skill, for, though the principle of laying out and cutting dovetails is easy to understand, much exactness is required in the execution. where the box does not open at the top but lower down, as in fig. , the best way is not to make the two parts separately, but simply to put together a tight box and then saw it apart wherever you wish to have it open. be careful to gauge accurately the line by which to saw it open (see _gauge_), and not to drive any nails too near this line. any which you omit can easily be added after the sawing. saw the box open very carefully on the line. smooth the edges after the saw, but take pains not to plane away the wood too hastily, for a very little carelessness will spoil the joint and necessitate a general truing of the edges. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] a good form for a plain chest is shown in fig. . the construction is the same as in the other cases. the bottom can be fitted to a groove cut around on the inside and can be inserted when the box is put together, or for a rougher job can be simply nailed in place. a simple form of tool-chest is shown in fig. . this can be made of any size desired and of any wood. it is usually as well to make a good-sized chest, for the cost is but little more than to make a small one. hard wood will be much more durable than soft. stock from / " to / " in thickness will be suitable. * * * * * unless you have had considerable experience you had best be content with the simpler joints rather than to attempt dovetailing the corners, as shown in the cut. it is not necessary to cut a rabbet for the bottom, because of the base-board or moulding which is to be nailed around the bottom, and the latter can be nailed or screwed directly to the edge, before the moulding is put around. the rest of the construction of the chest is obvious and like the cases already shown. if the moulding around the lid is to be arranged as shown, it will be best to fit the lock first, as it will be easier to attach the hasp of the lock before the moulding has been added (see _locks_ and _hinges_). [illustration fig. .] at about two or three inches from the top, fasten a ledge on the inside of the front and back. this can be about / " thick by / " deep and is for the sliding-tray, shown in the cut, to rest upon. this tray can be of soft wood, from / " to / " in thickness, and can be divided as you wish. it will often be advantageous to arrange the lid and the top tray so that tools can be fastened on the inside of the lid. saws and various flat tools are often thus disposed of, being held in place by straps, blocks, and buttons. you can also arrange a rack around the inside of your chest for such tools as chisels, gouges, etc. when kept in trays, such tools should be separated by divisions. the various details of making such a chest do not differ from those of the articles just described in the preceding chapter on furniture. * * * * * in nailing together rough boxes for packing or some temporary purpose, you do not need to devote much thought to the arrangement of the pieces with reference to the direction of the grain, so long as you put them together in a way that your common-sense tells you will be strong. examination of a few packing-cases will show you all you need to know for such work. but when you make a better grade of box, to be glued, regard must be paid to the direction of the grain and the matter of expansion and contraction. in the majority of boxes and chests the grain of the sides and ends should run in the same way--horizontally or around the box, as shown in the illustrations. * * * * * this gives a strong edge all around at the top of the box and permits the use of glue (with some joints) where the sides and ends meet, as the parts glued will thus naturally tend to expand and contract alike. when the grain goes in opposite directions (_i.e._, at right angles), such joints, unless short, should not be glued. where the top board is fastened to the sides and ends of the box, as in fig. , it should not be glued, except in the case of a small box, and the grain should run lengthways, so that there will be as little change as possible due to the expansion and contraction (see chapter iv. on laying out the work, and appendix). when several boards are required to cover the top or bottom of a box, if you wish to have as few cracks as possible and to avoid the swelling and shrinking across the grain as much as you can, lay the boards lengthways of the box, but if you merely wish for strength, lay them crossways. * * * * * care must be taken about testing the angles with the square, and guarding against winding (see _winding-sticks_), in making nice boxes, as with all framed work. if the bottom and top are got out accurately they will, of course, assist in the matter of getting the box square, and for common work carefully fitting the bottom (or bottom and top) in place will be all the "squaring" required. in nice work where the joints are glued, waste pieces should be placed over the joints (across the grain of the sides) before applying the clamps, not merely to prevent the work being marred by the clamps, but also to distribute the pressure and ensure as close a joint as possible (see _clamps_). the final smoothing of the outside of a box should be done after it is permanently put together, allowing plenty of time, if glue is used in the joints, for it to dry before dressing off the surfaces. the inside must, of course, be smoothed before putting together. the variety of forms in which boxes are made is too great for all to be specified, but the same general principles apply to nearly all forms of box-work. in the case of chests or large boxes, you will often see them with the sides and ends panelled, but this is rather an elaborate form for the beginner to attempt and had best be avoided by the inexperienced worker. a form which is not too hard for the amateur is shown, however, in fig. , the sides and ends being fitted to grooves or rabbets cut in posts at each corner. [illustration fig. .] the work of getting out the stock for boxes and making the joints can be done so quickly and accurately (and usually cheaply) by a circular saw or other machine that much time is saved, when making nice boxes, by having the parts sawed at a mill. the remarks made at the end of the introduction to chapter x. (on furniture), in regard to getting out your work, putting together, smoothing, and finishing, apply equally to making the better class of boxes and chests, and the general details of the work do not differ from those of the articles shown in that chapter. see also, _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _nail-set_, _screws_, _hinges_, _locks_, _scraper_, _sandpaper_, and _finishing_, in part v. =toy boats.=--a few suggestions about the wood-work of the hulls of toy boats may be useful to the beginner. the details of rigging and discussion of the merits of the various types and designs are matters which do not come within the scope of this book, and you can easily find information upon these points. making your boats yourself is half the fun, of course, and capital practice with tools as well as a valuable introduction to the building of model yachts, which you may undertake later, and to the general subject of boat-building and sailing. making different types and sailing them is both interesting and instructive. you will quite often see little boats fitted up as exact copies in miniature of real vessels, with all the complexity of fittings, rigging, and minor details found in the larger boats. these models are often interesting specimens of skill,--as pieces of handiwork,--but the time can usually be spent to better advantage in some other way. if you wish actually to sail your boats, leave out everything which is not essential to successful sailing. very little skill, and no instruction, is required to make the simpler forms of toy boats familiar to the small boy who lives near the water. almost any scrap of shingle or piece of wood upon which a little mast can be raised will sail, as the small boy well knows. the difficulties begin when something more like a boat is attempted, and the first and greatest of all difficulties is that of the design, as you will discover later if you attempt scientific model yacht-building. but advanced model yacht-work requires much skill--more than can be expected of a beginner. at first, in beginning to make toy boats, copy any successful boat as nearly as you can. after you get beyond making boats of shingles and scraps of board, you may very likely make something like fig. , which is too simple to require special description; but when you begin to build regular boats you will find enough to tax your wood-working skill to the utmost. you had best begin with simple forms and not make your first attempts too large. [illustration fig. .] one way of making the hull (as of course you know) is to cut it from a solid block of wood of the required size. another way is to build it up of layers of board laid on one another horizontally (fig. ).[ ] [illustration fig. .] the greatest care must be taken in the selection of the wood. it should be free from knots, checks, and bad grain, and above all things must be thoroughly seasoned. nothing is better than the best quality of clear white pine. mahogany is excellent, but is more costly and harder to work. * * * * * take a simple model of the fin-keel type (fig. ). first you must have the design or drawing giving the different plans or views. if the drawing is smaller than the actual size you wish to make the boat, it must, of course, be enlarged and a full-sized working drawing made.[ ] [illustration fig. .] before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _chisel_, _gouge_, _spokeshave_, _paring_, etc., and look up any other references. [illustration fig. .] to cut the hull from a solid block, first prepare the block of the right dimensions, and plane it, making sure that the sides are true and square with one another. the sheer plan must now be transferred to the sides of the block, either by copying it on the wood by the use of transfer paper placed between the drawing and the wood, by cutting out a pattern, or by fastening the drawing itself on one side of the wood and a reversed duplicate on the other side. in the same way transfer the half-breadth plan twice to the top of the block, on each side of a line drawn along the centre, reversing the pattern for one side, of course. also continue the centre line down each end and along the bottom. if the top and side outlines can be sawed to the lines marked with a band-saw or jig-saw, the expense will be but slight and considerable labour will be saved. saw down on the lines -- , -- , -- , etc. (fig. ), nearly to the sheer line shown in fig. . in your first attempts at making small boats it may be well to omit the deck sheer, leaving the top flat (fig. ), as this simplifies matters in the beginning. also, saw off the superfluous wood shown by the shaded parts of fig. . now clamp or wedge the block, bottom up, firmly on the bench, in case you have no vise arrangement by which it can be properly held, and rough it out approximately to shape with a wide chisel (see _paring_) or the draw-knife (see _draw-knife_). [illustration fig. .] the operation of shaping and hollowing out is slow work and requires much care. a little haste may spoil the work of hours. as the bottom begins to approach the desired shape you must have something more than the eye by which to gauge your cutting, for a very little deviation from the true curve may spoil your boat. it is very important to get both sides of the boat alike. on card-board or stiff paper, mark a series of patterns of the different sections shown on the body plan. cut out each of these patterns so as to save the part which is the reverse of the shape of the section of the boat, thus forming a series of templates, which you can apply to the hull at each section to test your cutting, until the templates just fit the wood at their respective sections, when the shape of the hull will, of course, agree with the plan. the spoke-shave, and sometimes the plane, can be used to good advantage in the final shaping (see _spokeshave_). especial care is required not to slice off too much, and you will, of course, work, as a rule, from the centre (or amidships) towards the ends. the block can be held in the lap or between the knees for this shaping, but it is better for all kinds of crooked work to have the material firmly held by a vise or some other contrivance, so that not merely the hands of the worker are free, but the whole body as well. [illustration fig. .] this form of hull is simple to make, in that the curves of the outside are all convex. there are no concave surfaces and reversed curves. the surface can be finally shaped by the use of the rasp, followed by a file, and finally smoothed with scraper or glass (see _scraper_). do not use sandpaper until the hull is finished. the inside must next be hollowed. gauge a line around the upper side, / " from the edge, except at the bow and stern, where a greater distance should be allowed (fig. ). the hull must now be held firmly in some way. if you cannot contrive to clamp it firmly without bruising the outside, you should arrange some blocks (padding them with cloth or leather) in such a way that it can be held securely. it is better to spend an hour in fastening the block firmly than to attempt to steady it with one hand and to cut with the other. in all the shaping of the boat, both hands should be free if possible. grasp the blade of the tool with the left hand, or lay the hand across it, so as to exert a back-pressure on the tool. this gives great control of the tool (see _paring_). bore one or more holes (according to the size of the boat) downward from the top (fig. ), being very careful not to bore too deeply, but to leave at least half an inch of wood below the hole (see _boring_). now run a groove with the gouge around the deck, inside of the line marked, and hollow out the inside with the gouge, cutting towards the middle. the holes bored will help in this process. cut down straight from the line marked on the upper side until the thickness of the sides of the hull is reduced to perhaps / of an inch (fig. ). the object of the increased thickness at the gunwale is to stiffen the sides and give a better bearing for nailing down the deck. below this point make the thickness as uniform as you can, except for a narrow space at the very bottom where the keel is to be fastened, where it is often well to leave a thicker ridge (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] extreme care is required in hollowing the inside. it is best not to attempt to make the sides thinner than one fourth of an inch, unless you are a pretty good workman with a fair degree of patience, for it is hard to repair the damage if you cut too deeply. templates can be made for the inside. you can tell quite well whether you are making the thickness uniform by the sense of feeling, gauging the thickness between the thumb and finger. do not try to cut away too much at the bow and stern, as it will weaken the boat, but leave a sufficient body of solid wood. smooth the inside neatly with a flatter gouge (if you have it) than that with which you removed the bulk of the wood. next, with a thin strip or batten, mark the line for the sheer of the deck by the saw-kerfs already made and remove the wood carefully to this sheer line. the outside can now be thoroughly sandpapered, first with, perhaps, no. - / , and finally with no. . get the surface as smooth as possible (see _sandpaper_). next paint the outside and inside with two coats of white lead and oil (see _painting_). it is a good plan to apply a coat of hot oil first. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] now to make this same simple model by the method of layers you will readily see that if you take a piece of board of a thickness equal to the distance between the water lines in the sheer plan (fig. ), and cut from it pieces of the shape of the water lines as shown in the half-breadth plan (fig. ), and also cut out the centres of the two upper pieces as shown in figs. , , , and then fasten these pieces one upon another as shown in fig. --you will see that you have built up the general form of the boat, and saved much of the labour of shaping and hollowing. before cutting out these layers, a centre line must be accurately marked along both sides and at the rounded ends, so that the layers can be put together in the correct positions. also, for the same reason, mark the midship lines across each side and on the edges, as shown. in drawing the inside lines (for the part to be cut out), care must be taken to leave sufficient thickness at the sides to allow for the final shaping. the sawing of the layers had best be done at a mill with a band-saw and jig- or scroll-saw, but can be done by hand, of course. the boards or planks must be accurately dressed so as to make as perfect joints as possible when put together. if not convenient to make the thickness of the boards agree with the water lines of the plan, you can easily draw in new water lines to agree with the thickness of the board you may have--say, / " or / " apart. glue must now be applied to the joints, and the pieces firmly clamped together between boards, or laid flat (bottom side upwards) and weights applied. it is best not to cut out and glue up more than two or three layers at a time, lest they become bent or sprung. care must be used in applying the pressure to make it uniform and not cause the somewhat flexible sides to be sprung or twisted out of shape (see _gluing_ and _clamps_). do not delay this building-up operation needlessly. do not leave the pieces lying around for a fortnight. keep them all clamped up in the proper position, or under pressure, if you can, until the whole form is glued together, as such pieces spring out of shape very easily. after the glue is thoroughly dry, complete the shaping of the outside and inside as in the case of the solid block, care being taken to pare off the projecting angles on the outside gradually, so as not to cut within the curve marked on the plan. the fin (when flaring at the top and not too thin) can also be made of wood, glued and screwed on, the lead being screwed to the bottom with brass screws.[ ] be sure that the fin is in line with the centre line of the boat. unless the boat is quite small it is best to fit in two or three deck beams to connect the sides and support the deck (fig. ). these should be of thin stuff (perhaps / " thick and / " wide), set on edge and very slightly arched, the ends being fitted into gains cut in the sides, and nailed with fine brads. they can also be glued. the deck should be of thin stuff (perhaps / " planed). mark carefully on the piece the deck outline and cut it approximately to shape, but well outside of the line. fasten small blocks of wood to the under side of the deck wherever any attachments for the rigging are to be fastened. paint the lower side, and when dry bore a row of holes with a very small brad-awl (see _awl_) all around the edge, / " inside of the line. smear the top edge of the hull with thick white lead, or white lead putty, and nail the deck in place with very fine wire brads, perhaps / " in length. care must be used not to split the deck or drive the nails through the sides of the hull. fine brass screws can be used if necessary. the overhanging edge of the deck can be trimmed down carefully with chisel, plane, or knife. the outside of the deck can now be painted. the rudder can be fixed in a brass tube, the ends of which can be set in lead. the mast can also be stepped in a brass tube, or simply pass through the deck to the bottom, where it can be stepped in a smaller hole, which must be bored with care lest it go through. when you come to making models of less simple form--those having hollows and reversed curves in their outside form, as the majority of boats do--the difficulty of shaping accurately is much increased and more care is required, but the principle of construction remains the same. [illustration fig. .] suppose, for example, you are ambitious enough to undertake such forms as those which compete for the _america's_ cup, for instance, you will find it difficult to carry the process of building by horizontal layers below a certain point (fig. ) but the keel and lower part can be added by gluing (or gluing and screwing) a piece of board or plank on edge (or two pieces, if necessary) to the bottom. the lead can, in turn, be fastened to the lower edge of the keel by screws. models of such yachts are not always the best forms for toy boats, however desirous you may be to reproduce in miniature these famous boats. footnotes: [ ] still another way sometimes used for model yachts is to build the hull much in the same way that a real vessel is built--making a framework or skeleton and covering it with little planks, but this method (though a good one in some respects) requires more skill than can be expected of the average amateur, and this mode of construction should not be attempted until you become a skilful workman and accomplished in the building of regular model yachts. if your boat is quite small it will probably be easier and better in most cases to cut the hull from a solid block; but if much more than two feet in length it is usually better to build it in layers. either of these methods can be used in any case, but for a small boat the building in layers is more difficult, while for a large one it is hard to find a block that will be sufficiently free from defects. [ ] in making the plans for a boat, three views are usually drawn, known as the sheer plan, the body plan, and the half-breadth plan. these correspond to the "front or side elevation," "end elevation," and "plan" in ordinary drawings, and give side, end, and top views of the boat,--or of one-half of it, which is all that is needed, as the sides are of course alike. several equidistant horizontal lines are drawn across the plans. one of these represents the line of the water when the boat has its proper load. it is called the load water-line. the other lines being parallel to it represent other imaginary levels, at equal distances apart--like the lines which would be made by the water if the boat sunk deeper or floated higher. other lines are also added to show vertical and horizontal, longitudinal and cross-sections, at regular intervals, and also other longitudinal sections, but these details you will find fully described in works on yacht-(and model yacht-) building. [ ] the fin can be cut from sheet metal (brass or sheet-iron) and inserted in a thin saw-kerf cut exactly in the centre of the bottom, being set in thick white lead, or it can be riveted to thin plates screwed to the bottom of the boat, or lips can be bent over alternately on either side of the upper edge of the fin and screwed to the bottom. the amount of lead required for the bulb at the bottom of the fin can be determined by loading the hull with weights until it is sunk to the water line. the weights will, of course, represent the weight of lead required. this can be cast in a mould and riveted to the bottom of the fin. part iii _house-building for beginners_ chapter xii house-building in its simple forms, and on a small scale, is very suitable work for the beginner in wood-working. one of the most important things to bear in mind is not to be too ambitious in your early attempts. content yourself with the simplest forms until you have attained sufficient skill to undertake more difficult buildings. all the work of such structures as are here shown can, in case of necessity, be done by one person alone; but--unless, perhaps, in the case of the smallest and simplest houses--it is much better for two or more persons to join forces, as much time will thereby be saved, for the lumber can be handled much more easily and quickly by two than by one. this will be the best way if the building is to be done by boys, in which case by all means have some system for carrying on the work. you know men usually work under the direction of a head man, or foreman, and, when there is no head man, they defer as a matter of course to the one of their number who is the best fitted to take charge of the work. choose one boy master-builder, foreman, or boss, letting him assign to each his part of the work and leaving to him the decision of questions that arise in regard to the details. if one of you is clearly more of a mechanic than the others, choose him foreman; otherwise it will be a good plan to have the office filled by each in turn for perhaps one day apiece. let the foreman divide the work as fairly as possible. that is, instead of having one boy saw off all the boards while another drives all the nails, arrange regular "shifts" at short intervals, letting the two change places and work perhaps every hour. this plan will prevent much confusion and perhaps disagreement, which might even cause the work to be given up--an unfortunate result which sometimes happens to boys' undertakings. it is not simply starting in with an understanding that you are to take turns when one may think he is tired of what he happens to be doing, but it is the regular rotation of work and responsibility at fixed intervals that will ensure harmony and a successful completion of the work. the situation is a very important matter which will be spoken of in treating of the larger structures farther on, but there is one thing which should be borne in mind for even the smallest play-house in the back yard of a town lot, and that is not to build it in a hollow where the water will collect to make it damp or uninhabitable. a flat roof should also be avoided, as it is much harder to keep tight than one which has sufficient pitch to shed the water freely. you can determine the kind of a house to build and its general dimensions according to the requirements of the case, but you will, of course, wish it to be attractive in appearance, however small it may be; and therefore, in making the drawings, it is essential to have in view the block-form, or general shape and proportions. if these are not pleasing and agreeable to the eye, your house will be unattractive, for nothing you can do in the way of ornamentation or elaborate details will make up for poor shape and proportions. to design a building (however small) with a pleasing and attractive exterior is, however, no easy task. if you can make a perspective sketch of your proposed house with reasonable accuracy, it will be a great help, as the regular working drawings (the plan, elevations, etc.), however well made, often fail to give one a clear mental picture of how the structure _as a whole_ will look. a little model will be of the greatest service in determining whether the shape and proportions of your house are good. a model is easily made of paste-board with sufficient accuracy for this purpose. it is quite remarkable how different many objects appear when actually made, from the way one thinks they will appear, in spite of the most careful drawings; therefore do not despise this simple precaution of making a model in cases where attractive appearance is an element, for it may save you from putting up a structure which will be a continual eyesore. the amateur (like many professional builders) is much more liable to make his work too elaborate and with too many attempts at ornamentation than to make it too plain. so give your first attention to the block-form, and then to the details. do not cover your house with an embroidery of jig-sawing, fanciful turning, superfluous brackets, and the like, in the effort to make it pretty or to imitate the vulgar details of inferior summer cottages. the amateur is also liable in the case of very small buildings to make them too tall in proportion to their ground dimensions. a tall, narrow house is seldom homelike or attractive, whether it be six feet square or sixty. finally, be simple and modest in your designing, avoid meaningless "gingerbread" work, do not set your house up on stilts, as it were, but hospitably near to the ground; have generous doors and windows, avoid flashy and gaudy colours in painting, cultivate plants and vines to run over the outside, and keep the surroundings neat and tidy. the variety of small structures from which to select for your early attempts is almost endless. you can find many ideas for your designing and the construction in every town and in various publications. only simple types will be treated here, involving merely such principles of construction as you can readily apply to such other designs as you may wish to carry out. as it is impracticable to repeat all the suggestions and details under each structure treated here, the prospective builder who should begin with any of the later examples had best read these chapters through from the beginning before starting on the actual work. one of the simplest and most easily built small structures that you can make is that with a single-pitched or shed or "lean-to" roof; that is, with the roof slanting only one way. this style of construction, though commonly applied to a rather humble class of buildings, is by no means to be despised, the ease with which it can be built by boys or amateurs being one of its marked advantages. you will find this simple form of building capitally suited to many purposes, and a good type with which to begin. =a play-house or play-store.=--you know that an ordinary wooden building has a framework of timbers,--a kind of skeleton upon which the boarding is nailed. this will be shown in the following chapters, but a very small house or cabin, like that shown in fig. , suitable for a play-house for boys and girls, can be built very well in a simpler way by making the four sides separately and then nailing them together as you would do if making a box. there is no floor (except the ground), and the roof is to be nailed down on top of the four sides as you would nail the cover on the box. [illustration fig. . a little house, with trees a-row, and, like its master, very low!--_pope._] * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _nailing_, in part v., and look up any other references. fig. shows one of the sides (inside view). it is made of boards running horizontally, with an upright cleat at each edge, and another cleat at the top. fig. shows the back (inside view), made in the same way as the sides, except that each cleat is set back from the edge - / ", thus forming a rabbet in which to fit either side when the house is put together. the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth boards from the top are not nailed to the cleats, but are omitted, to leave space for a large open window. [illustration fig. . elevation. side elevation. plan. rear elevation.] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] fig. shows the front (inside view), four upright cleats being used and a large opening left for the doorway. [illustration fig. .] first estimate the stock you will require (see chapter iv.),[ ] and try to get dry wood without too many large knots. you can get along very well for such work as this on the floor, or even the ground, with a couple of boxes for horses, but a bench and horses are a great convenience. make the sides first, disregarding the slant for the roof. take a matched-board and square off one end of it, if it is not already square. then measure ' "[ ] from that end, mark across by the square, and saw the piece off. use this piece ( ' " long) as a measure to mark the lengths of enough pieces to make the two sides. if you saw them off as you measure them, one by one, be sure to mark all the lengths by the first piece, and not by the one last sawed, or they will probably, vary in length. when you put the boards together to form the sides, be sure that the ends are in line. use the edge of a straight board for a straight-edge to get them in line, or drive them against the side of the room, if that is straight, or temporarily nail a straight-edged board to the floor and keep them driven up squarely against it. make sure, also, by testing with the square or by measuring, that each side of the house when made is a rectangle and not a rhomboid, or the whole house will be askew when put together. when you fit the matched edges be sure to make the joints as tight as you can, but do not pound directly on the tongued and grooved edges with the hammer. take a short piece of waste boarding, fit it to the tongue or groove wherever you wish to strike, and hit this waste piece with the hammer. you will see that there is no need of sawing out a square hole for the window, as you can put in short pieces at each side of the window-space. nail the upright cleats at the edges with - / " nails, driving two into each board in the way shown in the cut, bearing in mind that the cleats must all be on the inside of the house, and also to have the tongues of the boards uppermost when the house is put together. mark the front edge of each side in some way to prevent any mistake. the reason for putting the tongues upward and the grooves downward is because the joints will shed the water better, as otherwise each groove would be a little trough into which the rain could soak. measure ' " from the bottom on the front edge of each side and ' " on the back edge. draw a straight line on the outside between these points and it will give the slant for the roof. saw the boards and cleats by this line and then fit and nail the top cleats as in fig. , or nail the top cleats first and saw the boards off by them. next make the back in the same way, setting the cleats - / " away from the edges. leave out the boards at the window-space. make the shutter, and trim off its tongued and grooved edges (see _paring_, etc.) before nailing the back of the house together, as you can thus determine more easily the space to be left open. also trim off the tongued edge of the board coming next below the shutter. leave the open space a little wider than the shutter (say / " wider) to allow for possible swelling of the boards. when you nail the cleats on the drop-shutter, be sure to use nails long enough to clinch (see _nailing_), or use screws (see _screws_). the front is to be made in the same way, the width of the door-space being - / ", and of the boarding at each side, - / ". have the two inner cleats project about an inch inside the edge of the doorway for the door to hit against when shut (fig. ), and "toe" or clinch the nails for these cleats, or use a few screws, so that the slamming of the door will not loosen them. now the four sides are ready to put together. find a spot as nearly level as you can for your house. do not, however, put it in a hollow where the floor will be flooded with water when it rains. hold up the front and one side in the right position, press them closely together at the corner, and drive in a couple of nails to hold them until you can get the other parts in place. then fit on the other side and the back in the same way. try the four corners with the steel square, and when you have them right nail all the corners strongly with - / " nails. if you have no large square, measure the diagonals with a stick, altering the angles at the corners until the diagonals are equal. toe the nails at the corners, and, in fact, if you can do it neatly, it will be stronger to toe the nails throughout the work. now get out boards ' long for the roof, to run from side to side. when you nail them on have them project " all around. cover the roof with roofing- or sheathing-paper. lay it in strips from side to side, beginning at the back and letting the second strip overlap the first, as shingles are laid. three strips will cover the roof once. of course you can cover it with as many layers as you wish to pay for. fasten the paper with roofing nails or tacks. drive them close together, but only where the strips lap and at the edges of the roof. you can bend the edges of the paper down over the edge of the roof to cover the joint underneath and nail neat strips of wood outside to cover the edges of the paper, or you can simply nail the paper around the edge of the roof. in making the door (fig. ) clinch the nails which fasten the cleats, or use screws, and trim off the tongued and grooved edges, as with the drop-shutter. now hang the door and drop-shutter with two strap-hinges each. place the door and shutter exactly in position (shut), and tack them temporarily in place with a few nails, or wedge them. then carefully placing each hinge so that the pin on which it turns is just in line with the crack between the door and the door-frame, mark points for the screws. bore holes for the screws and fasten the hinges in place (see _screws_). put a latch, a catch, or a hasp and padlock on the door, and a hasp or screw-eye and hook on the inside for the shutter. also fix a brace to hold the shutter when lifted, or you can arrange a rope to pass up from the outside of the shutter and around a pulley to the inside of the house, where it can hang down and be used to hold the shutter up by fastening it round a cleat or a couple of nails. [illustration fig. .] you can fix a shelf inside under the open window at the back (fig. , plan), resting on cleats nailed to the sides of the house, and also put in a seat at one or both sides, supporting the middle by a short post or a short piece of board on edge. a few strips will serve to hold the lights of window-glass in place. the house is now ready to occupy. of course you can save a good deal of labour (and lose some experience) at slight expense by having the boards sawed off squarely of the given lengths at a mill,--often where you buy the wood. in this case, remember to make a list of the number of boards of each length to take to the mill. if you would like to be able to move your house or to take it apart and store it during the winter, you can fasten the four sides and roof together with screws, or hook them together on the inside with stout screw-eyes and hooks. you will find this way in very common use by builders and contractors in the little portable tool-houses, offices, and shops which they take apart and move from place to place. [illustration fig. .] =play-store or booth.=--a good form for a simple play-store or booth (fig. ) can, if small, be constructed on the same box-like principle as the little building just shown, and the details of construction are so similar that special directions for this design are unnecessary. if large, it should, however, have a frame, which you can readily pattern after that shown in fig. . * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _screws_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. by using heavier cleats, as " Ã� " or " Ã� ", on the ends, those on the front and back can be omitted, and the boards nailed directly to the sides. an arrangement for one end (that with the door) is suggested in fig. , " Ã� " or " Ã� " joist being used. [illustration fig. .] a shelf or counter can be fitted inside the drop-window for the display of your wares. * * * * * this general shape can often be advantageously used for a quite good-sized building--a little cottage, for instance--and when an addition to a larger structure is desired, it is sometimes the best form for the purpose, for its shape renders it more easily attached than any other form of ell (fig. ). a building of this style, however suitable as an attachment to a larger structure, will not be an attractive object in some situations. it will not stand alone, regardless of the surroundings, as well as some other forms. therefore it is well to consider, before deciding to build anything of this kind larger than the play-houses and stores just shown, whether your house will have a building, a fence, or a wall for a background; or a steep bluff or ledge under which it will nestle, or trees or shrubbery behind or around it. in such cases it will often be attractive in appearance. if, however, it is to be put in a prominent place where it can be viewed from all positions, it may be better to select some other type. =frame for larger building with lean-to roof.=--while the simple box-like arrangement described above is suitable for a very small structure, it must be discarded for a frame of some sort when you undertake a larger and more permanent building. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _screws_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. this frame can be put together as shown for the framed structures described farther on, the only difference being at the top. a simple method of framing is shown in fig. . fig. shows a simple way of fitting boards around the edge of the roof where it overhangs, and other arrangements for this detail can be found in the various illustrations. it is not necessary to have roofs overhang, even for a large building, but it is usually desirable on the ground of appearance and for shedding the water away from the walls. [illustration fig. .] for matters relating to the foundation, see pages - . =play-house or cabin.=--the house shown in fig. can be put together in the way already shown. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _screws_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. the ground dimensions can be ' or ' Ã� ' or '. the ends must be made higher than the sides, as shown, to allow for the slant of the roof. mark lines, using a straight-edge, to give the slant for both sides of the roof, and saw the boards off by these lines. a short cleat can be added at the top in the middle to stiffen these top boards. after the sides and ends are put together, get out two boards, of the shape shown in fig. , to rest in four rectangular notches cut in the front and back sides of the house. these pieces are to support the roof-boards, and their upper edges are to be cut at the same angle as the top of either end of the house. nail these pieces firmly in place at each end (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] now get out boards for the roof, to run from end to end and about " longer than the house. begin to nail them on at the top, and have the roof overhang the sides and ends " all around. you can easily put in the window-sash, either by hinging it so as to swing open, or by having it slide to the right or left on strips nailed above and below it, as shown in fig. . [illustration fig. .] the roof-boards can also be laid the other way by putting in a ridge-piece in the form of a piece of studding or joist of any size not less than " Ã� " (fig. ), or even a board on edge, to which the upper ends of the roof-boards can be nailed. [illustration fig. .] another form of roof, but arranged in the same way, is shown in fig. . you will require a compass-saw for the curves, or you can have them sawed by a band-saw, or the wood can be trimmed to the line with the hatchet and draw-knife or chisel (see _paring_). another way to put any such little structure as this together is to have the sheathing run up and down and the cleats horizontally. this makes a neater structure than the way just given. the general principle of the construction is the same, the four sides being made separately and then fastened together. [illustration fig. .] =play-house, store, or cabin.=--the design shown in fig. can be carried out in the manner already described. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _screws_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. the ground dimensions can be ' or ' Ã� ' or '. in making the ends where they are cut off at the top to give the slant for the roof, inside cleats should be used. mark lines, using a straight-edge, for the slant for both sides of the roof, and saw the boards off by these lines. it will be convenient and will look well to make the angle at the top a right angle. at the top saw out a notch in which to rest the ridge-pole, as shown in fig. . [illustration fig. .] after the sides and ends are fastened together, nail the ridge-pole in place and get out short boards for the roof. cut these for one side of the roof so as to be about " longer than the slant of the end of the house, and make those for the other side of the roof as much longer as the thickness of the boards, so that they will lap over at the top, as shown in fig. . nail them on, beginning at one end, so that the roof will overlap the ends and sides " all around. nailing upright strips at the corners, as is commonly done on wooden houses, and as is shown in the picture, will give the house a more finished appearance. the other details are similar to those already shown. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] this house can have a floor, which can be made of " Ã� " studding simply nailed together and floored over (fig. ), forming a sort of platform to which the sides and ends can be nailed when the house is put together; and the best way to make the whole structure is that shown in fig. , the boards running vertically and cleats horizontally. in case of using a platform floor with this last method of construction, the lower cleats can be raised from the bottom so as to rest on the floor, as shown in fig. . this makes the putting together of the house quite simple, as the fitting of the sides and ends and floor in their proper places obviates the need of testing with square or measuring diagonals. the lower cleats on the sides and ends are not really necessary, however, except for convenience in putting together and taking apart, as the vertical sheathing can be nailed directly to the floor-frame or sills, as shown in fig. . [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] the whole can then be levelled (see _level_ and _plumb_), being blocked up underneath as may be required. the design is also suitable for a larger structure, in which case a frame should be made as shown in fig. . * * * * * another very, similar design is shown in fig. , and can be put together according to the principles already shown. the boarding runs vertically and the cleats horizontally, as shown in fig. . [illustration fig. .] figs. and show other simple arrangements, the ground dimensions of which can be, perhaps, ' Ã� ', and which can be put together in the same way as the preceding cases, with or without a floor, and with the boarding running vertically or horizontally. * * * * * [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] if a stove is to be used, the smoke-pipe can be arranged to pass through the side of the house, as in figs. , , etc. if to pass through the roof, it should be soldered or riveted to a sheet of metal, as galvanized iron, the upper edge of the latter being slipped under the roof covering while the lower edge laps over it (fig. ), on just the same principle that shingles are laid, the idea being, of course, that the water will run down over the metal without leaking through, just as it runs down over the shingles. this simple principle must always be observed whenever metal is used to prevent joints leaking. with such small houses as these it is usually easier and safer about leakage to have the pipe run through the side of the house. if to go through the roof (particularly when there is no special roof covering but boards), it is a good plan to have the pipe pass through the roof near the ridge, so that the upper edges of the metal sheet can be slipped under one of the saddle-boards (fig. ). in any case, an air space must be allowed between the smoke-pipe and the wood, and it is always well to have a collar an inch or two outside of the pipe. any tinsmith or metal-worker can arrange these details. round drain-pipe set in cement is often used for a cheap pipe or chimney, and answers the purpose very well. fig. also shows the way to lay sheathing- or roofing-paper in case you wish to use it for a temporary structure. it also gives a suggestion for a window-shutter to be raised by a cord passing through to the inside, where it can be fastened to a cleat. =a workshop.=--a small building, like that shown in fig. , from ' to ' wide by ' to ' long, will be suitable for a workshop or for various other purposes. [illustration fig. .] while it will do for a little play-house without a floor, like those described at first, to rest directly upon the ground, a better structure like this should have some sort of underpinning. * * * * * it is not customary to lay a stone or brick and cement foundation for such a structure as this, because the building is not usually worth it. it can very well be rested upon stones at the corners and middle of the sides or upon posts set in the ground. if the soil is sandy and large stones abundant, it can be rested upon piers of stones. so far as supporting the building for one season is concerned, simply resting it upon stones laid on top of the ground is sufficient, but the action of the frost will move the stones and heave the building more or less out of place, which will require it to be occasionally levelled and blocked up. a hole can be dug to a depth of about three feet, so as to be below the action of the frost, and a pier of flat stones built up. if the soil is of clear, well-packed sand, a pier of this sort will last for some time before being thrown out of shape by the frost, although, of course, if laid in cement (or if bricks laid in cement are used), it will be much more permanent. if the soil is clayey, the foundation, of whatever kind, should be carried to a depth of three feet or more and cemented, and even then it will be liable to be heaved by the action of the frost. this involves considerable labour and perhaps expense, and for such a small building it will usually be better to rest it upon flat stones laid on the surface, or to block it up in some way so as to be clear of the ground, and then level it whenever necessary, which is not difficult with so small a structure.[ ] * * * * * while brick piers built upon a foundation of stone laid in cement and carried to a depth of three feet or more is doubtless the best underpinning you can have (next to a regular foundation wall), it is not always advisable to incur the necessary expense and labour, and a common and usually satisfactory way for a building of this sort is to rest it upon posts set in the ground. but before placing the posts the exact position of the building must be determined. * * * * * having fixed upon the position of the building, proceed to stake it out. first measure off with the tape, or rod, or even a string, the length of one of the sides of the building, and drive a stake at each end of the line. stretch a line between these stakes and measure off the length of the end of the building from each stake, as nearly as possible at right angles with the first line. you can do this approximately with the help of a "mason's square," or large triangle, which you can make yourself of thin strips of wood nailed together in the form of a right-angled triangle with sides ', ', and ' long, or the sides can be ', ', and ' long.[ ] whatever method you use, be sure that the figure is rectangular, and move one or two of the stakes, if necessary, until the diagonals are of equal length. if the ground is uneven, keep the tape horizontal when measuring, and to determine the points required drop a plumb-line from the end of the tape which is raised from the ground. having in this way accurately fixed upon the lines for the four sides of the house, continue these lines a few feet (perhaps or feet) beyond the corners to the points marked e (fig. ), and drive a stake at each of these points. you can easily get these eight stakes in line by sighting from the four first driven. next drive in one of these outside stakes (the one where the ground is the highest in case the surface is uneven) until it sticks out of the ground a few inches, and then drive the other seven until their tops are level with the top of the first. this you can determine by applying the level to a line stretched taut from the top of one post to the top of another. drive a nail into the top of each stake to hold the string, or cut a notch for the same purpose. now if strings are tightly stretched between these stakes, they will intersect over the four stakes first driven at the corners of the house. these four stakes you can now remove when you dig the holes for the posts, and the exact position of each post and its height above the surface will be determined by the intersection of the strings from the outside stakes. the strings can be taken off while you are digging and replaced when you are getting the posts in position. [illustration fig. .] next dig a hole at one corner, about " in diameter and about - / ' or ' in depth. in this hole set a post about " in diameter, sawed off squarely at the upper end, and of such a length that when pounded down to a firm and upright bearing the top of it will reach the string stretched between the levelling stakes. when you fill up the hole put in only a little earth at a time, "tamping" each layer compactly around the post with an iron bar or stick before adding more earth. contrary to what one might naturally think, the earth can be tamped more compactly with a bar or stick than with a heavy joist. set another post in the same way at the next corner, fixing it accurately in position by means of the strings, as in the case of the first post, and seeing that the distance from the outside of this post to the outside of the first one is that required by the plan. set the other corner-posts in the same way, testing all the distances (including the diagonals) as before. you can try the height of each post now and then as you dig, and thus avoid making too deep a hole. if you prefer, you can set all the posts in the right positions at first, but without trying to level the tops, merely seeing that the tops all stick up above the line. you can then strike a horizontal line all around with a cord, and saw all the posts off by this line--a process which you very likely have seen when watching the work on a pile-bridge or wharf. sawing off the posts squarely will be much easier, however, before they are set in the ground. * * * * * the posts may be of locust, cedar, cypress, or chestnut. locust is considered very durable, but is the most expensive. cedar is excellent, and will be perfectly satisfactory. chestnut will do very well for a house of this sort, and is comparatively cheap. if you do not mind the slight increase in cost, cedar is better. if you wish to be as economical as possible, chestnut will answer.[ ] the reason for selecting wood of greater natural durability for the posts than for the rest of the house is to withstand the greater exposure of the posts to alternate moisture and dryness. timber will last for centuries if placed in a sheltered position and exposed to a free circulation of air. it will also last for a long period when immersed in fresh water or sunk underground, so as to be beyond the influence of atmospheric changes. but the alternate exposure to dryness and moisture, as in the case of posts partly above and partly below ground, or piles for a wharf or bridge, causes decay in a comparatively short time (see appendix). if your site is too rocky for posts, you will be saved some digging, but must provide a level and stable foundation in some other way. it rarely happens that the surface will be quite level, and you must use stone or timbers for underpinning. if there are one or two corners that must be raised, owing to inequality of the surface, and you cannot find large stones that will be sure to stay in place, you can rest the raised parts of the house upon posts securely braced. rock is not the most desirable foundation for a building with a regular underpinning and cellar--the biblical parable to the contrary notwithstanding--and there is no foundation superior to sand or gravel (only the sand or gravel must be confined and not free to slide or move). but as your house merely rests on the surface, and has no cellar to be dug or drained, there is no disadvantage in putting it on a rock, provided you support it properly. do not rest one end of it on a pile of loose cobble-stones, five feet high, only to have the stones slip some wet, stormy night and let the building down. having the foundation set, the next thing is the frame, which for a small building of this kind can be made of almost any kind of wood which you can readily obtain, provided, of course, that it is dry enough and not weakened by large knots or other defects. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _screws_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. [illustration fig. .] the sills, or the lower timbers of the frame which rest upon the foundation, should be got out first, and can be of " Ã� " stock, and halved at the ends (see _halving_) (fig. ). upon these sills is to be set up a " Ã� " post of the desired length at each corner.[ ] on top of these are placed the plates, which can be of " Ã� " studding laid flat and halved at the ends. be sure to get out these pieces before beginning to put them together. toe-nail the posts to the sills and nail the plates directly down on top of the posts, keeping the latter in a vertical position by temporarily nailing on strips of board diagonally, adjusting these until the posts are vertical and at right angles to the sills (see _plumb_ and _square_). next put in vertical studding ( " Ã� ") at each side of the door-space, and at the sides of the window-spaces, allowing a little more space than the exact widths of the door and window-frames. in the same way horizontal studding should be fitted in above the door-space and above and below the window-spaces, and in any places where it will be a help in stiffening the frame or for nailing on the boarding. another way is to first fit in pieces of joist horizontally, either midway between the sills and plates (except at the window and door-spaces), or running the entire length above and below the windows. just where and how many of these pieces are to be put in depends upon the arrangement of the doors and windows, and pieces of vertical studding can be fitted in at each side of the door and window-spaces and wherever advisable. short braces, with their ends sawed at an angle of °, can also be fitted at the corners, where the corner-posts meet the sills and plates, and be nailed in place to help stiffen the frame. it will be a convenience in working to lay the floor next. for this you will require a number of floor-joists. if the building is only ' or ' wide, " Ã� " studding will do; but if the width is as great as ', " Ã� " will be better. these are to be placed on edge on top of the sills, as shown. place one at each end against the corner-posts (to which it can be nailed), sawing off each end so that it will be flush with the outside of the sill. distribute these floor-joists so that they will be about " apart, and hold them in position by "toeing" a nail through them at each end into the sill beneath, or nailing them to the studding when practicable. before laying any of these floor-joists trim them off on the under edge, which will rest upon the sills, if necessary to ensure a level surface on top for the floor. do not neglect this, as such joists frequently vary in width. now measure the diagonals again, before laying the floor-boards, to be sure that the base of the house is rectangular. if one diagonal is longer than the other, push those corners towards each other until the diagonals are of equal length. next lay the floor-boards, lengthways of the building, driving them together tightly by pounding on a waste piece, and nailing them firmly to each floor-joist with two nails. if your floor-boards are not long enough to reach the entire length of the house, you will take pains, of course, to saw them of such a length that the ends of the boards will meet over the middle of one of the floor-joists, arranging the joints so that they will alternate or come at different points of the floor. saw off neatly all projecting ends of the floor-boards. you will frequently wish to use more force in driving the floor-boards to a tight joint at the edges than you can easily apply with the hammer. you can easily apply all the pressure required by using two short boards on the principle of the toggle-joint. arrange these as shown in fig. , one end resting against a temporary cleat or any firm object and the other against the edge of the floor-board. by stepping upon this toggle-joint at its apex, the floor-board will be forced into place. a common way is to pry the board into place with a chisel driven down at the edge. [illustration fig. .] if the building is to be used in cold weather, by all means lay double flooring. the under floor can be of cheaper stock and laid less carefully. between the two lay sheathing- or roofing-paper, and you will have accomplished much towards keeping the room warm. the frame is now ready for the roof-timbers. these can be of " Ã� " studding, except the ridge-board, which can be any common board about " wide. to obtain the length of the rafters and the angle at which the ends are to be cut, you can easily make a full-sized pattern on the floor by simply laying off a right-angled triangle of the required height and base, which will give the length of the rafters and the angle at each end, after cutting off a little piece at the upper end to represent one half the thickness of the ridge-board; or two pieces of the rafter stock can simply be laid on the floor in the right relative positions for the roof, when their points of crossing can be marked on each edge and the bevel marked on the sides of the pieces. the bevel at the lower end can be found in a similar manner. take off enough at the upper end to allow for one half the thickness of the ridge-board, and saw off one rafter as marked. this will serve for a pattern by which to mark the others. the end rafters and the ridge-board (which should first be sawed the length of the house) can easily be nailed in position by two persons, one at each end, being temporarily stayed in place by a board nailed outside (fig. ). the roof-boards can be nailed either lengthways, or up and down. if the former way, the rafters must be put quite near together to give sufficient support to the boards. if the latter, purlins, or lengthways stringers, should be added between the ridge-board and the side-plates, as shown. if the roof is to be shingled, the boards can as well be laid lengthways--otherwise they should be laid up and down. if not to be covered in any way, matched-boards (or battened joints) should be used. if well painted, such a roof will last for some time, but shingling is much better. saddle-boards should be put along the ridge, as they add much to the tightness and durability of the roof. the sides require to be sheathed before covering the roof, leaving open spaces for the door and windows. shorter pieces can be used above and below these spaces. the boarding can be put on vertically and battens (narrow boards " or " wide, or strips of "half-round" moulding) nailed over the cracks, as shown in fig. , or, of course, the sides can be clapboarded or shingled if preferred, in which case the boarding can be put on horizontally. the door can be made of boards, cleated, as already shown, or one can be bought ready-made. a casing should be nailed around the door-space, previously putting at the bottom a threshold upon which the lower ends of the casing can fit. this you will at once understand by examining the arrangement of these details in almost any dwelling-house. the arrangement of the windows (which you can buy ready-made of almost any desired shape and size) does not differ from the cases already shown. the smoke-pipe can be arranged as shown on page . a few floor-beams put across on top of the plates and wholly or partly floored over will provide a loft useful for storage. if the building is for a shop, this will be a good place to keep lumber. the roof can be covered according to the methods already shown, but shingling will be much better. if a building is worth shingling at all, it is usually best to use a good quality of shingles. the cheapest ones are apt to be unsatisfactory for a permanent building, but, on the other hand, for such structures as these it is not necessary to get an extra quality, for some knots or defects at the thin ends where they will be covered by two or three layers may do no harm. cedar shingles are better than spruce. it is a good plan to lay roofing-paper over the roof before shingling. begin the shingling at the eaves and work upward. lay a row the length of the roof, letting the butts slightly overhang the edge. directly on top of this row lay another, breaking joints with those underneath; that is, lay the first row double, taking pains that the spaces between the shingles of the lower layer are covered by the shingles of the upper layer. leave a slight space (perhaps / " to / ") between the shingles in laying them. this gives room for swelling, and allows the water to run off freely. if the edges are close together at the lower end, the tendency is to dam up these water-courses and retain the moisture, which is injurious. some people pare off the edges to make the butt-ends narrower, in order to obviate this; but simply laying the shingles slightly apart answers the purpose. fasten each shingle with two shingle nails (one near each edge, within perhaps "), far enough up from the butt to be covered by the next row of shingles. common shingles can be laid about - / " to the weather, that is, with that portion of the length exposed at the butt. if shingles of extra length are used this distance can be varied accordingly. lay the butts of each row by a chalk-line or against the edge of a narrow board, which can be adjusted and temporarily held in place by two strips nailed to the board and to the ridge of the roof. the upper ends of the top row of shingles can be trimmed off and saddle-boards can be put on at the top, letting the edge of one overlap the other. it is doubtful economy to paint shingles after they are laid. the paint tends to clog the spaces between them. it is better to dip them in paint before laying. a much better way is to dip them in some one of the prepared "creosote stains," which can be had in a great variety of colours. these are excellent, although, except to obtain some desired colour effect, it is hardly worth while to use any preparation on the roofs of such buildings as these. cut nails are considered better than wire nails for shingling, on the ground of durability. take pains to keep the lines of the rows straight and at equal distances apart. for the painting, see _painting_, in part v. if this building is for a workshop, various suggestions about the interior arrangement will be found in part i. footnotes: [ ] to find the number of square feet in the cleats, first find the number of "running" feet, that is, the total length of the cleats if they were stretched out in a long line, like one of the rails of a railroad track. then, as the cleats are " wide (or one fourth of a foot), it will take four running feet to make one square foot. therefore divide the number of running feet by four and the quotient will be the number of square feet. [ ] boards twelve feet long will be the best to buy for this house, because you can get two lengths from each board without waste. you could not be sure, however, of getting two lengths of exactly six feet from each twelve-foot board, because the ends are frequently checked or damaged in some way; so it will be safest to make the length ' ", as given above. [ ] if you have only small stones or blocks upon which to rest it, the building can be put together directly upon the ground, the sills being rested temporarily upon any material at hand, and then the supports adjusted underneath. [ ] you can mark a point on one string ' from one stake and a point on the other string ' from the same stake, and then increase or decrease the angle made by the two strings until another string exactly ' long will just reach from the marked point on one string to that on the other. this process is based on the principle of mathematics that if the two sides of a right-angled triangle are respectively units and units in length, the length of the hypothenuse will be units. another way, if you are fond of mathematics, is to find the length of the diagonals of the plan of the house by extracting the square root of the sum of the squares of the two sides. (the square described on the hypothenuse of a right-angled triangle is equal to the sum of the squares described on the other two sides.) you can measure the diagonal directly from a plan if you understand mechanical drawing well enough to make an accurate plan on a scale of perhaps / " or " to a foot. then take one tape, or string, measuring the width of the building, with one end held on the stake c (fig. ), and another tape measuring the length of the diagonal, with the end held on the stake d. drive the stake a at the point where the two tapes meet when brought together. reversing the positions of the tapes will give in the same way the fourth corner b. the distance a b should equal c d. [illustration fig. .] [ ] the part of the post which is embedded in the ground is sometimes charred or painted to preserve it from decay. this can be easily done, but the process is advisable only with thoroughly seasoned wood. it is highly injurious to green timber, as by closing the pores and obstructing evaporation from the surface it prevents the seasoning of the wood and causes fermentation and decay within (see appendix). [ ] these posts, and even the sills, can be built up if necessary of " Ã� " studding, two pieces being placed side by side and nailed together, but this is not so desirable as regards strength, its only advantage consisting in the readiness with which the joints can be made by simply cutting one of the two pieces shorter than the other. "the cottage is one of the embellishments of natural scenery which deserves attentive consideration. it is beautiful always, and everywhere; whether looking out of the woody dingle with its eye-like window, and sending up the motion of azure smoke between the silver trunks of aged trees; or grouped among the bright cornfields of the fruitful plain; or forming grey clusters along the slope of the mountain side, the cottage always gives the idea of a thing to be beloved: a quiet life-giving voice, that is as peaceful as silence itself."--ruskin, _the poetry of architecture_. chapter xiii simple summer cottages "=cottage row.="--the little houses shown in the accompanying illustrations[ ] afford excellent examples of what can be done by the beginner. these were built by boys, and form, with others, a most interesting little village or street, known as "cottage row." they are small, but have many of the details of larger houses. they are shingled and clapboarded, have regular doors and windows, and are very attractively fitted up inside with curtains, cupboards, shelves, tables, chairs, lounges, bookcases, and other articles of furniture. the walls are hung or covered with prettily figured cretonne or calico. these little structures are good models for boys' first attempts at house-building, in that they are simple, modest, and unpretentious, and have a homelike air which does not pertain to many more elaborate and pretentious houses. the visitor is attracted by their neat, trim, inviting appearance, and wishes to enter. houses of this character can easily be made by two or more boys working together; and by the united forces of a number of boys a very attractive little village can be built (and much simple carpentry be learned at the same time), in which many pleasant hours can be spent. such houses as these can be framed and put together without difficulty by the methods already shown. it will not add very much to the expense to have the parts of the frame which show on the inside of the house planed by machine, and this will much improve the appearance of the interior. shingling the roofs, putting casing around the windows and doors and at the corners of the houses, and clapboarding or shingling the sides, adds much to the attractiveness of such small structures, as you can see from the illustrations. [illustration] the windows and casings you can buy ready-made, or the latter you can make yourself. the doors and casings you can also buy, or make. the door-casings and window-casings should be nailed in place before the sides are clapboarded. the tops of these casings should always be protected by strips of sheet lead, the upper edges of which are slipped up under the clapboarding (fig. a), thus covering the crack where the casing joins the side of the building and shedding the water--on the same principle as shown in figs. and . this is important, as the rain will drive through such cracks, even though they seem very tight. tonguing and grooving can be used in such cases, but flashing with lead is a simpler process. the same precaution should always be taken where roofs or attachments join a building in such a way as to expose a crack through which the water can leak. zinc, or even tin, can be used, but are inferior to lead. the corner-boards and the water-table (the horizontal board at the bottom of the house) should also be nailed in place. the latter should have the top edge slightly bevelled, to shed the water. all these pieces having been carefully nailed in place, the clapboarding or shingling of the sides can be done. [illustration a.] it will cost but little to sheath the outside with sheathing-paper, and the house will be much tighter and dryer. this should be put on under the casings, corner-boards, etc., so as to avoid a crack where these boards and the clapboards or shingles meet. * * * * * laying clapboards, unlike shingling, is begun at the top. lay the upper row by a line, as in shingling, keeping the clapboards in place by a few nails in the upper part only. then slip the clapboards for the next row up from underneath under the first row until only the desired amount of the clapboards is exposed. the first row can then be firmly nailed near the lower edge with clapboard nails. this will hold the next row in position while the third row is put in place, and so on. the thin edge of the upper row can be finally covered with a strip of board or moulding. the clapboarding can be continued to the very bottom of the house. if, however, a water-table is used at the bottom, the lower edge of the bottom row of clapboards should be slightly bevelled to fit closely down on the slanting upper edge of the water-table. be careful to lay the clapboards in line and at equal distances apart, as variations in the alignment are quite noticeable. examine the clapboards of any house on which they are used. in arranging them break joints at the ends, that is, do not have the joints of one row directly under, or very near, those of the rows above and below. do not saw the ends by eye. mark them accurately with the try-square and knife and saw them carefully with a fine saw, trying to make as close joints as possible. [illustration] a fair quality of clapboards should be used, but a few defects near the thin edges which are to be covered may do no serious harm for such structures as these. when you begin to attempt more ambitious structures, such as modest summer cottages for camping in vacations, for hunting- or fishing-lodges, or for family use,--such houses as are often undertaken by older boys or men with a taste for amateur carpentry,--there are a number of things to be considered before beginning to do any actual work. [illustration] do not begin a house you cannot pay for. if you find that the more elaborate plans suggested will exceed your means, do not let them tempt you to run in debt, but content yourself with the simplest plan.[ ] you will find it perfectly comfortable, and whenever you can afford the expense you can easily add to it and improve it. that is the best principle to go on, morally as well as financially. in addition to points already spoken of in the preceding pages, bear in mind, in making your plans, to use only simple forms for your first efforts. avoid dormer windows and complicated roofs (especially combinations producing "valleys") and bay-windows, and the like, at first. such arrangements add many difficulties for the beginner. when you can make a plain, simple building, with everything snug and tight, and can lay a plain roof that will not leak, you can then attempt such variations of form with a fair chance of success, but do not be too ambitious in your first attempts. a simple piazza can often be added to good advantage, if desired. [illustration] it is well to ascertain the sizes of the ready-made doors and windows which you can buy in the place where your house is to be built, before drawing your plans. if there is a choice of situations in which to place your house, a few suggestions about the selection of a site may be of value. * * * * * if you are going to build in the mountains, or the pine woods, or on rocky islands or promontories in the ocean,--in places where there are almost no unsanitary conditions, where the climate is so invigourating, the air so purifying,--there is no need to think of many precautions important in a cleared and settled country. as much sunlight and circulation of air as you can get, pure drinking water, and the simple precaution of not building in a hollow or on the edge of a swamp, are about all the sanitary points you need consider in such places. in selecting a site in any ordinary country or seashore region, first make sure above all things of _dryness_, _sunlight_, _pure air_, and _pure water_. avoid building a cottage for regular occupancy in a dense thicket, not merely on account of the mosquitoes and other insects, but because the thicket shuts out the sun and cuts off the free circulation of air which there should always be in summer around and through a house. of course, for shooting or fishing, a lodge, camp, or cabin must be built wherever required by the circumstances. sunshine is very important in securing dryness and in purifying the air. you will naturally reject wet land. avoid also soil that retains moisture,[ ] even though it may not be actually wet to step upon, for land saturated with moisture may be the unsuspected source of serious diseases. there is air in the ground, which may be the means of spreading dampness and foul gases. do not place your house in a depression or in the bottom of a valley where dampness is likely to settle. at the seashore there will, of course, be fogs from the ocean at certain times and places, but they are not harmful, except to navigation; and at the mountains more or less dampness at night is very common. do not try to find a place where there is no dampness at all, but except at the seashore or mountains reject situations where there are mists at night, avoiding particularly the vicinity of wet marshes and swamps, stagnant pools of fresh water, boggy ponds, sluggish rivers and brooks, on account of the malarious vapours which are liable to hang over them. do not try to keep cool by hiding your house where the sun will not shine upon it. the southern or south-eastern slope of a hill usually affords a most desirable site as regards both coolness and sunlight. if you can also find a site on the top of a little mound or knoll, so as to secure the free drainage of the water in every direction, it will be advantageous. the main points in regard to water are to have it pure and to have plenty of it. in regard to pure water, and pure air also, if you are planning to build in a little settlement or near other cottages the question of drainage (sewerage) from the neighbouring houses becomes of the utmost importance. a breeze from the sea, the mountains, or the pine woods is pure in itself and to a certain degree a scavenger, but do not throw upon it the work of purifying a naturally unhealthful situation. this matter of drainage you can arrange for yourself on your own land, but the arrangements of your neighbours you will have to take as you find them; therefore guard carefully against contamination of your drinking water and of the air through proximity to the cesspools, privies, or sink drains of the neighbouring cottages. exactly how far a well or spring should be from such sources of pollution it is impossible to state without knowledge of the particular spot, for it depends upon the slope of the ground, the kind of soil, the direction of the underlying strata, and other circumstances. in some cases a distance of twenty feet might be perfectly safe, while in others two hundred would be highly dangerous. one hundred feet or more is near enough under ordinary conditions. there is no greater danger than that from defective sewerage, and the danger usually begins before the senses are aware that there is any trouble. this subject is better understood now than formerly, but still, until the subject forces itself upon their attention, the majority of people pay but little regard to it. it is a fact well established among medical men that some of the worst forms of sickness are nothing but filth diseases, to which the dwellers in summer cottages are sometimes even more exposed than those in town houses. remember that air as well as water is an active agent for spreading the germs of disease. as to the position in which to place the house itself after the spot has been chosen much will depend on circumstances. consider the sun, the prevailing winds, and the views in relation to the rooms, the windows, and the piazza. an unsheltered piazza facing the west is apt to be very hot at the time of day you are likely to use it the most, though, of course, the wind or other considerations may make such a position desirable. * * * * * the subject of the necessary underpinning for such simple structures as are here shown has been already treated in the preceding chapter. in most cases you will find posts set in the ground, as there described, an excellent way (except, of course, upon rocky ground), but brick or stone piers are almost always more desirable, if you can afford the cost of the materials (which can be obtained almost anywhere), and the work of laying piers for such a purpose is not very difficult; but whether to use posts or piers should, of course, depend upon the character and permanence of the building. having fixed upon the position of the building, proceed to stake it out (including the piazza if there is to be one), as shown in the chapter immediately preceding. the foundation being ready, the frame is next to be considered. you have probably noticed in the old houses built by our forefathers their massive construction,--the great size of the timbers and the way in which they are heavily braced and mortised and pinned together. with the modern facilities for cutting wood into small pieces by machinery has sprung up a style of building of which you will see examples on every hand, and which when carried to its extreme in the cheapest houses makes a structure so flimsy that it is literally held together by nothing but nails. a scientific modification (adapted to modern conditions) of the old-fashioned "braced" structure, retaining its advantages and remedying its defects, is undoubtedly superior (_expense being no object_) to a "balloon" frame that will only hold together by having the outside boarding nailed on to it as fast as it is put up. if the more cheaply built "balloon" structures of to-day had been put up in the days of our pilgrim or puritan ancestors not a stick of them would now be standing. a lighter arrangement than the old-fashioned frame and one more easily built is, however, in our day probably better adapted for the construction of a large class of buildings of moderate size and moderate cost. this is said about braced and framed structures that you may not be led to think that the light construction advocated here for you would be the best for _all_ wooden structures. your house will be so small, and the construction of a braced and mortised frame is so difficult for amateurs, that a lighter and easier arrangement will be best for you to use, however ill-suited it might be for a large mansion or ware-house. this system of construction will be perfectly satisfactory and sufficiently durable for a little summer cottage. a little house well suited for summer use, or for a winter camp, is shown in fig. . * * * * * [illustration fig. .] before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _screws_, _hinges_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. the main house (which contains the general living-room) can be framed as shown in fig. . the "lean-to" addition (which contains the kitchen) can be framed as shown in fig. . if both parts are built at one time, only four sills should be used for the entire structure, and the corner-posts and upright studding of the "lean-to" on the side next the main house should be omitted. the sides of this house are battened, _i.e._, the joints of the vertical sheathing are covered with strips nailed over them--in this case with strips of "half-round" moulding. this is an easy and quite inexpensive way to finish the outside, and while hardly equal to clapboarding or shingling in some respects is a very good way for structures of this kind. as you will see from the illustration, the rafters of both the house and the ell project or overhang at the eaves. this is not really a necessity for any structure, and you will sometimes see quite large buildings without any overhang of the roof whatever, but, as a rule, it improves the appearance of the house, and is a help in shedding the water farther from the walls. it is only necessary to let the rafters project at their lower ends, making all project equally, and to nail a board to their ends, as shown. the overhang at the ends of the house can be arranged in the same way, short pieces of studding being nailed in the outside angle of the roof and ends, with strips nailed upon these. if the ground slopes, as in this case, lattice-work is good to cover the space below the sills. the remaining details have been treated in the preceding cases. * * * * * the simple structure shown in fig. is suitable for various uses, and can be constructed in the way already described. * * * * * the piazza is, however, a new problem, but not a very difficult one after the processes already described. a simple way, suited for rustic structures or rough cabins, is to set the piazza posts in the ground to a depth of two or three feet, sawing the tops off at the height of the piazza roof, and simply nailing a system of floor-timbers for the piazza floor to these posts and the side of the house and flooring it with boards, while the roof of the piazza is supported on the tops of the posts. this is not a good way, however, for a carefully built house. [illustration fig. .] a strip of joist or plank can be spiked to the side of the house at the proper height, and to this can be nailed a system of floor-timbers for the piazza floor (see page ), the outer corners and middle resting upon stones or posts in the same way as the rest of the building. this is then floored crossways, the whole having a slight slant outwards to shed the water. upon this platform are raised the piazza posts, and at the top of these is nailed a roof system, which is covered with boards in the same way as the floor beneath. enough slant should be given the roof to enable it to shed the water freely. the other details do not differ from those already described. before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _screws_, _hinges_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. * * * * * an excellent form for a small structure is that shown in fig. . this has a hip-roof, which is the only essential difference between it and the types already shown. [illustration fig. .] before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _screws_, _hinges_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. [illustration fig. a.] this roof is somewhat more difficult to make well than the simple kinds, but is not beyond the skill of the amateur. up to the plates the construction is the same as that already shown. in this roof, however, the ridge-board is short and the end rafters (called hip-rafters) incline towards it (fig. a). laying out the upper bevels of these rafters will require careful planning. after you have succeeded in laying them out, cutting the bevels at the ends, and fitting them in place, the shorter jack rafters can readily be put in place. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] the shingling is more difficult at the corners than in the other roofs shown, as the shingles must be cut. it is well to cover each hip with a line of shingles, laid parallel to the hip and along each side of it. boards can be used to cover the hips, as shown in one of the illustrations of "cottage row." another form, embodying the same roof construction, but larger and correspondingly more difficult, is shown in fig. . * * * * * a small cottage for summer use (fig. ) is not more difficult than the cases already shown, except in the matter of size. [illustration fig. . end elevation.] * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _screws_, _hinges_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. the process of staking out and setting the foundation has been already described under _a workshop_, pages - . the frame can be built upon the same general principle as shown in fig. , the dimensions of the stock depending upon the size of the house; but the directions given in these chapters are intended only for small structures. the sills should be " Ã� " or " Ã� ", the corner-posts can be " Ã� " or " Ã� ," the floor-timbers and rafters " Ã� ", although, if the house is quite small, " Ã� " will do for the rafters, which can be braced by "collar beams," or simply horizontal pieces of board nailed across in the upper part of the roof. arrange the studding according to the doors and windows. as this house is not to be lathed and plastered, it is not essential that the studding should be at any exact distance apart. the essential difference between the frame of this house and that shown in fig. consists in the projection of the second-story floor-timbers over the piazza, the ends resting upon an outer plate on top of the piazza posts (fig. ). the arrangement of the attic floor-beams, the rafters, and the side-plates is shown in fig. . [illustration fig. .] the frame for the piazza floor can be arranged as follows: fasten a strip of " Ã� " joist along the side, spiking it through into the sill. on this fasten an arrangement of floor-timbers, such as is shown in fig. , the inner cross-beam and lengthways stringers resting in gains, as shown in fig. . the details of the arrangement can be varied according to the height you wish the piazza floor to be relatively to the floor inside. for a quite small structure, or for a temporary one, it will answer to make this piazza-floor system of " Ã� " stock simply sawed square and spiked together, on the principle shown in fig. , but for a good house which you wish to be permanent, it is better to put a little more labour into the piazza. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] another way is to have the main sills extend under the piazza as well as under the house proper. this is a more thorough way as regards stiffness, but extra pains must be taken to prevent the water working down on the sills where the house and piazza join, as this will tend to rot this portion of the sills. with this arrangement of sills an extra sill, or cross-sill, should be added under the juncture of the body of the house and the piazza. the ends of this sill can rest in gains cut in the end-sills, and the middle can be supported by one or more posts. for the stairs, which can be put wherever you wish, take two pieces of plank, " Ã� " or ", and of sufficient length. having determined the points for the top and the bottom of the stairs (by laying off on the floor in the same way as for the rafters, page ), lay one of the planks on the floor in the proper position and mark the notches for the steps and the bevels for the ends. after these "notch-boards" or string pieces have been cut and put in place, you can easily get out and nail on the "risers" and "treads." examination of any common stairs will show you how to arrange these details without difficulty. you can mark on a stick the height from the top of the lower floor to the top of the upper. divide this distance, on the stick, into as many parts as you wish to have steps, and you can use the stick as a gauge by which to determine the points for sawing the notches for the steps.[ ] it is best to have the treads not less than " wide, and " is better, while - / " or " will do for the risers. a "header," or cross-piece, must be securely fastened between the second-story floor-beams where they are cut off to make the opening at the head of the stairs. the partitions inside require no directions, being simply made of studding to which sheathing is nailed. the remaining details do not differ from those of the preceding cases, and the interior fittings you can arrange without further instructions. a regular brick chimney will, of course, be a desirable feature if you can afford it. * * * * * by the slight modification of having the roof overhang on each side, two piazzas will be provided and space given for larger chambers (fig. ). * * * * * the construction differs from that of the design just shown only in the arrangement of the framing for the second story. [illustration fig. .] the floor-beams of the second story will overlap at each end and the rafters be correspondingly longer, and the end-plates can be omitted and the end-studding continued up to the rafters, except where interrupted by the window-spaces. this house, like the others, can be clapboarded, shingled, battened, or sheathed, as you may prefer. footnotes: [ ] obtained through the courtesy of mr. charles h. bradley, superintendent of the admirable farm school on thompson's island, in boston harbour, where this little village was built. [ ] if that is too expensive, some of those given in the preceding pages will probably answer your purpose. [ ] "soils which are naturally porous, from which rain rapidly disappears, are known to be the healthiest for the sites of houses. in this the action of the soil oxidizes all organic impurities, the resulting product is washed away by the rain, and the soil remains sweet and wholesome."--latham. [ ] to find the number of steps for a given situation, find the height, as just shown, from floor to floor, " for example. assume, for trial, a satisfactory height for each step, as ". divide by , which gives - / for the number of steps. to make the number even, call it , and you have only to divide by to get the exact height of each step. chapter xiv a few simple structures =summer-houses.=--a form which is quite easy to build, and which is attractive when overrun with vines, is shown in front elevation (fig. ) and in side elevation (fig. ). * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. the construction is simple. the frame can be of " Ã� " stock (planed), except the sills, which had best not be smaller than " Ã� " (on edge). cross floor-beams can be inserted, as in the floors of the little houses first shown. the upright members can, however, rest upon posts set in the ground and the floor be dispensed with. where the parts of the frame cross they can be halved (see _halving_). the square joints can be nailed together. the roof can be solid or made of slats several inches apart, resting upon rafters. [illustration fig. .] the strips for the lattice-work can be about / " thick, and from / " to - / " wide. these can be got out at any mill in long or short strips, which you can cut off as you put them on. do not lay them too closely together. put one strip on at the desired angle. then cut off one or more short pieces by which to gauge the distance for laying the next strip, or get out a piece of light thin boarding of the width of the space between the lattice strips and hold it beside each strip as a guide by which to lay the next one. this lattice-work, although each strip is so slight, will give the frame great stiffness and strength. [illustration fig. .] the joints of such framework as this should properly be painted before being put together (see _painting_), and it also is a more thorough and neater way to lay the lattice-work strips on supports of some kind and paint them before putting on. they will then only require touching up with paint after the house is done. * * * * * the rustic summer-house, or arbour, made of sticks in their natural form, shown in fig. , is in some respects more difficult to build than the preceding, because the ends of so many of the pieces have to be cut at an oblique angle. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _screws_, _hinges_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. first make a platform, as for the other floors, or the upright posts can rest upon posts set in the ground and the floor be dispensed with. plates can be placed on top of the posts, and rafters extend from the plates at the top of each post to the apex of the roof. these plates and rafters will make a framework on which to nail the sticks which form the roof covering. the remaining details are apparent. much care is required, however, to put this house together properly, not merely in cutting the angles at the joints, but in sighting, measuring, and testing to ensure its coming together without twisting or winding. [illustration fig. .] * * * * * instead of making this house six-sided, it can, if desired, be made rectangular like the preceding one, but keeping the same arrangement of the details. this makes a very pretty design, and in respect to joining the pieces is much easier to make. another pretty plan is to build a hexagonal, octagonal, or circular house of this sort around a tree trunk. if the roof is fitted too snugly to the tree trunk, the growth of the latter may split the roof apart before the rest of the house is past its usefulness, so you should arrange this part to allow for the growth of the tree. =bath-house.=--a plain bath-house (fig. ) can well be made with a lean-to roof and put together on the same simple principles already shown; so that additional instructions for this design are unnecessary. a good way for such a building is to sheath it vertically as shown, but any of the other methods can, of course, be adopted. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] =boat-houses.=--by using the same simple system of framework shown in fig. you can make an inexpensive boat-house (fig. ). * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _screws_, _hinges_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. the inclined slip or platform upon which you haul the boats up from the water requires simply two or three timbers for stringers, running down towards the water, with " planks nailed across, as shown. the simplest way to square the ends of these planks is to nail them in place, allowing a little extra length, and then saw the ends all off at once by a line. [illustration fig. .] a house of this kind can be built to extend over the water (for boats which are to be kept in the water) by arranging a foundation of stone or piles in the water, or by digging a little dock into the shore under the house. in these cases there must, of course, be an additional door of the ordinary kind for entrance on the shore end of the house, and it will be convenient, if the house is long enough, to floor over this end. a narrow floor or platform can also be extended along one or both sides to facilitate handling the boats and getting in or out of them. the sill at the water end will have to be omitted, of course, a piece of studding being fitted in at each side of the door-space, but these details you will have no difficulty in arranging if you have studied the preceding examples. * * * * * a larger and more elaborate boat-house, or club-house (fig. ), having a loft for storage as well as a balcony, can be constructed on the same general principles already explained. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _screws_, _hinges_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. [illustration fig. .] the end-plate for the end shown in the illustration cannot run across from side to side, because of the doorway opening on the balcony, but can be made in two parts to extend from the sides to upright studs at each side of the doorway. a simple way of arranging the frame at the floor of the second story is shown in fig. . unless this building is very small (in which case it can only be used for the storage of oars, rigging, etc.), the sills should be of " Ã� " (on edge) or " Ã� " stock, and the floor-beams of " Ã� " stock. " Ã� " or " Ã� " will do for the corner-posts, and " Ã� " for the studding and rafters for such a small structure as is advisable for the beginner to attempt. if you should, however, build anything large, the posts, the lower floor-beams, if unsupported in the middle, the plates, and the rafters should be heavier. if your house is to be used by many people and heavy boats are to be hauled in and out, it is much better to err on the side of having these timbers too heavy rather than too light. but these designs are only intended for comparatively small structures. the outer floor-timbers for the balcony had best be mortised into the posts (see _mortising_). the top rail around the balcony can be of " Ã� " studding, laid flatways, and with the upper angles bevelled (see _bevelling_). the balusters can be simply square pieces nailed into place. the rail and balusters can, however, be obtained in a great variety of forms at a wood-working mill, if you prefer to buy them. the braces under the balcony can be of " Ã� " stock. all these outside parts should be planed by machine. the remaining details do not differ from those of the houses already described. part iv _boat-building for beginners_ chapter xv boat-building, like many other kinds of work, can be done (even in its simplest stages) more quickly, more easily, and, of course, more cheaply, by two persons than by one, so it will be economy of money, time, and labour to find someone to join forces with you. do not, however, give up your plans for lack of a fellow-workman, for nothing is given here which cannot be done by one person with, perhaps, a little help once in a while about holding or lifting something. if these boats seem rather simple compared with many which you have seen, and you fail to find here some form you have in mind to build, it is to be remembered that boat-building is by no means easy, and that many an attractive design would prove too difficult for the average beginner to finish successfully. the experience gained in building such boats as these will help you in more difficult boat-building. these simple models are not offered as being in themselves the best there are, nor are the ways shown for building them in every case such as would always be used by a regular boat-builder; but boat-building involves a variety of difficulties, not merely in the designing, but also in the execution. it takes a good workman to turn out a really successful round-bottomed boat (except by the use of canvas), therefore a few simple types of flat-bottomed boats are all that are treated here. when you have become skilful enough to attempt the more advanced forms, you can easily find a number of excellent books on boat-building from which to gain the needed information. the intention here is to show wood-working processes which you can use in making these simple craft, but not to go into the details of designing or of rigging, subjects which are far too complex to be satisfactorily treated, even for the beginner, in a hand-book on wood-working. while it is practicable to make a good punt, or flat-bottomed rowboat, entirely by rule of thumb, or "cutting and trying" as you go along, still you should accustom yourself, even in the simplest forms, to lay the work out on paper correctly first, as this is really essential, in order to work to good advantage when you come to the more advanced forms. =scows and punts.=--a flat-bottomed boat, if made with care, may be not merely good-looking, but light, strong, and useful, and sometimes superior for some purposes to a round-bottomed boat. boats of this class are easily and cheaply built and by no means to be despised. they are safe, capacious, and comfortable, and the flat bottom permits much freedom of movement by the occupants, making them good boats for fishing and general use on ponds and rivers, as well as for transporting loads. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. the process is to first get out the sides, then the ends, next to fasten the sides and ends together as in making a box, then to nail on the bottom, and finally to put in the seats and any other fittings. almost any kind of soft wood can be used for a boat of this kind. pine is excellent. care should be taken to select clear, straight-grained stock, free from knots, checks, and other defects, and thoroughly dry. [illustration fig. .] for the sides, take two boards, for example, ' long, " wide, and / " thick, planed on both sides. both edges should be "jointed" and the ends squared and sawed accurately. mark, saw, and plane the slant at each end of these boards as shown in fig. . the ends must next be got out. in this case they can be ' long and - / " wide. nail together the sides and ends just as in making a flat box. use three nails ( " or - / " long) at each corner. it is safest to bore holes for the nails (see _boring_). copper nails are best for boats, but galvanized iron answers very well for common boats of this kind. next place this frame, bottom up, on horses or boxes or a flat floor and plane down the projecting edges of the end pieces to agree with the slant of the sides. pieces for the bottom are now to be sawed from boards about " to " wide. mark and saw one piece and use it for a pattern by which to mark the lengths of the remaining pieces. you can take the length directly from either end, allowing a trifle (say / ") to spare, for planing the ends after they are nailed. having sawed the required number of pieces, which will depend on the width of the boards, nail them on carefully. before nailing, thoroughly paint the bottom edge to which they are to be nailed with thick white-lead paint. see that the edges of each board are straight, paint the edges as you lay them, and nail thoroughly with - / " nails. do not put the nails so close to the edge as to cause splitting. the edges of the pieces which come together at the angles of the bottom must be fitted carefully with the plane (see _bevelling_), to make as tight joints as possible. the boards should be pressed closely together as they are nailed. they will assist in keeping the sides and ends of the boat at right angles, but it would be well to test the angles with the large square, or by measuring the diagonals, when you nail on the first two boards. a quicker way is to nail on all the boards (not sawing them accurately to a length) and then to saw the ends all off by a line. a good way is to use, for the bottom, plain sheathing or matched boards, if obtainable without the bead or moulding commonly worked on the surface, which would be apt to cause leakage. the sheathing can be planed down on both sides to a thickness of / ", which will remove the moulding, but this is rather thin for the bottom of a boat as large as this, though an excellent way for a narrower boat. when the bottom is all nailed on, turn the boat on each side and plane off any irregularity in the ends of the bottom boards, so that they will be flush with the sides. a cleat from " to " wide should be laid along the middle of the bottom to stiffen it, as shown. the nails should be driven through the boards and clinched. wrought nails, or some kind that will bend over and not break, must of course be used for this. this cleat is often nailed on the outside instead of the inside. nail a seat at each end directly on top of the sides and ends as shown. from " to " in width will do. the seat for rowing (about " or " wide) can rest on cleats, as shown. next screw a cleat, about " deep, / " thick, and " long, to the insides of the gunwales at the places for the rowlocks (see _screws_). common iron rowlocks can be bought almost anywhere, and the way to put them on is obvious (see _boring_). a substitute for them can be arranged easily by simply boring two holes, - / " apart, for the insertion of round thole pins of hard wood. another simple way (fig. ) is to make two mortises or slots, - / " apart and - / " long Ã� / " wide, to hold thole pins (fig. ). the cutting can be done wholly in the cleats by sawing and paring. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] insert a ring-bolt at the end by which to fasten the boat, or a staple can be driven in, or a hole bored at the end of the seat. if care has been taken to make close joints, the wood will swell on being put in the water and in a short time the boat should be tight. unless made for some temporary purpose, however, a boat that is worth making at all is worth painting. it should be painted carefully with lead paint, both inside and out, two or three coats, being careful to work the paint well into the wood and the cracks (see _painting_). instead of laying the bottom boards tightly together, as directed above, they can be laid slightly apart, so that the cracks between them will be about / " wide. these can then be caulked with oakum, cotton-batting, or wicking, or something of that nature. roll or twist the material into a loose cord, unless already in that form, and force it into the cracks with a putty-knife, screw-driver, case-knife, or anything of the sort. a regular caulking-iron is not at all necessary for a small boat. a piece of hard wood will do. be sure to fill the seams thoroughly and tightly with the oakum or other caulking material. then apply white lead plentifully to the caulked seams. but the method first given is usually satisfactory if you do your work with care. pitch or tar can be used in making the bottom of a boat of this kind tight. * * * * * a form which is a decided improvement on the preceding is shown in fig. . the process of making this punt will be first to get out the cross-board which goes in the middle, and next the sides and ends. these pieces having been put together, the bottom is nailed on, and finally the seats and other fittings are added. [illustration fig. .] the one here described is small, but large enough for two good-sized boys. the dimensions are given merely to help illustrate the process. as much larger boat as may be desired can, of course, be made upon the same principles. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. care should always be taken to select clear, straight-grained stock, free from knots, checks, and other defects, and thoroughly dry. pine is excellent, but almost any good wood can be used for a boat of this sort. first get out carefully a board, perhaps ' long, or the width of the boat (at the middle), and of the shape shown in fig. , removing a small piece at each lower corner, to allow for the passage of any water which may leak in. get out each side of the boat, ' " long, of / " stock, carefully squaring the ends. after these are cut, mark a distance of ' from each end towards the centre on the edge of one of the boards and a distance of " on the ends, measuring from the other edge, and mark the curves shown in fig. , which should sweep easily from the edge of the board without any abrupt turn. if you cannot draw a good curve free-hand, take a spline or thin strip of wood, bend it on the side of the board towards one end till you get a good curve, hold it in position, and using it as a ruler mark the line with a pencil. you can cut this curve and use it for a pattern by which to mark the other curves. these curves can be band-sawed or cut with the draw-knife or hatchet and plane (see _paring_). whatever method you adopt, the curves should finally be run over with the plane to remove irregularities, and care must be taken to keep as accurately to the line marked as possible. the top edges must also be jointed, although it is not material that they should be absolutely straight. mark a line with the square across each board at the centre. next get out the end pieces, ' long, - / " wide, and of / " stock (fig. ). bevel the ends of these pieces at the same angle as the centre board already sawed, from which you can mark the angle. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] an easy way to put this boat together will be to put the sides and ends together, and then, by spreading the sides apart, to put the middle board in its proper place. bore holes for - / " screws at each end of the sides (see _boring_) and screw the sides and ends together loosely (see _screws_), not driving the screws home, but leaving their heads sticking beyond the sides perhaps an eighth of an inch. now lay the boat (so far as made) bottom side up on the horses or boxes, or even with one end on the floor and the other raised by a box, and, spreading the sides in the middle as much as may be necessary, push the middle board up into place, getting it exactly opposite centre lines previously marked on the sides and so that the bottom edge of the board is just even with the _inner_ edge of the bottom of the sides. this piece can now be nailed in place by three nails at each end. now, on looking at the ends where the sides are screwed, you will see that spreading the sides has caused the joints (purposely left loose) to open slightly at the inside, and that the ends require to be slightly bevelled or trimmed to make a close joint. unscrew one end, do the necessary trimming with the plane, replace the piece, and screw it into position again, driving the screws home and adding one or two nails. do the same with the other end and the boat will be ready for the bottom. but before the bottom is nailed on, the lower edges of the sides must be bevelled with the plane, owing to the sides flaring outwards. the degree of bevelling required can be determined by laying a board across (fig. ). at first it will only touch the outer angles of the edges, and the planing must be continued until it bears flat on the entire edge. [illustration fig. .] now get out of / " stock the bottom boards, the edges of which should be carefully jointed to fit together as tightly as possible. these boards should be thoroughly nailed to the sides of the boat with - / " or - / " nails, care being taken not to nail too near the edges of the boards, lest they split. as the sides are only / " thick you will have to be careful in driving the nails or they will split the sides. before you finish nailing the first bottom boards, test the symmetry of the frame by measuring the diagonals. these should be equal. if not, you can easily make them so with your hands, and tack a couple of strips diagonally across the gunwales to keep the frame in position until the bottom is nailed on. also sight across the gunwales to see that the frame is true. if it winds, correct the error by blocking it up where needed. sheathing can well be used for the bottom of this boat, as for the one just described, if you can get it without the moulding. the bottom can also be caulked (see page ), but if you cannot get the sheathing the way first described will answer every purpose. after the bottom is nailed on, turn the boat on each edge and plane off any irregularities at the ends of the bottom boards, so that they will be flush with the sides. next nail a strip, about " or " wide and / " thick, lengthways on the middle of the bottom, on the inside. fasten this to each board with a couple of nails driven through and clinched on the outside. this will serve to stiffen the bottom. next deck over each end with a seat " wide nailed directly on top of the sides. put in a seat, or thwart, " wide and / " thick, next to the middle brace, as shown. cleats can be nailed to the sides under this seat. this should be a fixed seat, nailed to the cross brace and to the sides of the boat, which will assist in stiffening the sides. you can nail a gunwale strip, " wide by / " or / " thick, on top of the sides and reaching from one end seat to the other, or you can put a somewhat smaller strip around the outer edge of the gunwale, which is quite as good a way. it is not really necessary to put any gunwale strip on so small a boat, but if omitted a cleat must be screwed on for the rowlocks (fig. ). if you put the gunwale strip on top, it will make a more workmanlike job to first plane the edges of the gunwale so that they will be horizontal across the boat, in the same way that you planed the bottom edges to receive the bottom boards. put the centre of the rowlocks about " aft of the centre of the boat, raising them an inch or so above the gunwale by means of a cleat (fig. ), as shown. [illustration fig. .] at a distance of about " from the bow, you can, if desired, put in a " thwart between the gunwales or a little lower, and in the middle of this thwart bore a hole for a small mast, putting below and slightly forward upon the floor a block with a smaller hole. sailing does not amount to very much in a boat of this sort, but a small sail is often very useful when going before the wind and adds to the fun. this makes a very useful and safe boat for a couple of boys for river or pond work. if you wish to make a larger one you will have no difficulty after studying the process given above. the only difference need be in the dimensions. for one ' long you could make the beam at the gunwale (outside) ' " and at the bottom ' ", the beam at the bottom of the ends (outside) ' " (same as amidships)--the ends to flare upward at the same angle as at the centre, the boards for the sides being " wide. for one ' long, you could make the beam ' at the gunwale, ' " at the bottom, the same at the ends, and the sides could be made of boards " wide. stock / " thick is sufficiently heavy for the sides of a boat ' long. the seats for a larger boat than that described can be arranged to rest as shown in fig. , and an extra mould or cross-board not far from each end can be used, as shown. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] a piece of keel or skag can be added at the stern end, if desired, as shown in fig. . this will assist in rowing straight. fit a piece of / " board to the curve of the bottom, keeping the straight edge parallel with the top. square off the end in line with the stern, nail the skag firmly to the bottom, and nail a stern-post, / " Ã� - / " or - / ", securely to the stern and the skag. a rudder can be hung to the stern-post if desired. a centre-board is sometimes added to a punt, being arranged in the way shown on page . a lee-board is often used on punts and scows. it is merely a centre-board lowered outside of the boat instead of in the centre. [illustration fig. .] =small rowboat.=--a simple form of skiff, or common flat-bottomed rowboat (fig. ), called by various names, is similar to the punt at the stern, and the mode of construction is similar. the boards for the sides are not cut away on the bottom at the bow, as in the punt, but are left full width and drawn together to form a sharp bow. the ends are usually, but not always, cut off with a slight slant at the bow, which gives a rake to the stem (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. care should be taken to select clear, straight-grained stock, free from knots, checks, and other defects, and thoroughly dry. pine is excellent. any good wood can, however, be used. make a middle mould (fig. ), as in the case of the punt just described, and proceed with the construction in a similar manner, until you come to the bow. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] screw the sides to the stern-piece (fig. ) without driving the screws completely in, but leaving a little play to the joint (see _screws_). next put the middle mould in place by lines previously squared across each side. nail the middle mould in position. then, letting someone draw the bow ends of the sides together (or if you are alone, binding them together temporarily), release the stern-piece and plane its ends to make close joints with the side pieces, as in the case of the punt already described. when these joints are fitted, paint them with white lead and screw or nail the sides securely (and permanently) to the stern board. draw the fore-ends together and fit a piece of hard wood in the angle at the bow as shown in fig. . you can cut this piece approximately to shape with a hatchet and then plane the surface down until you get an accurate fit. when you have made it fit, paint it and also the sides where they bear against it. afterward screw or nail the sides firmly to this stem-piece, letting each end of the stem project a little. screws are best (brass screws if for salt water), but nails can be used. do not drive them all in line, but add a second row farther from the edge and alternately arranged. if a piece of hard wood is not available, a block of soft wood can be used, but it should be somewhat larger. [illustration fig. .] another pattern of stem-piece can be used (fig. ). much pains should be taken in making this post. the rabbets on each side should be cut with care, trying to get the sides alike and to cut accurately to the lines marked. when the cutting is nearly done, put the piece in place and you can then note any changes which may be required to make tight joints. when you finally have a good fit, paint and fasten in place as described above. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] still another form of stem-piece is shown in fig. . one side of the boat must be got out longer than the other to allow for the lapping over at the bow, the stem-post being first fastened to the shorter side and then trimmed if necessary, until the side which laps over fits accurately. when the boat is fastened together to this extent, it will frequently be found that the bottom has too much curvature lengthways, according to the degree to which the sides flare outward and bend up at the ends. this you can remedy by trimming off the sides in the middle, first carefully marking the desired line. measure accurately, in doing this, to be sure that the two sides will be alike. in removing the superfluous wood do not attack it hastily with hatchet or draw-knife, for wood often splits in a way surprisingly different from the direction in which the grain appears to run (see _paring_). it is sometimes best to remove the wood with the splitting-saw, but stop all such processes some distance outside of the line, and rely upon the plane for the final shaping. the lower edges must be bevelled off accurately, ready for the bottom boards, the same as in the case of the punt (fig. ). next nail on the bottom, using common boarding or sheathing as in the case of the punt just described, and put in the stiffening strip of board along the middle of the floor. if the middle mould comes in such a position that it will be in the way if left in place permanently, you can simply tack it into position with a couple of nails at each end, leaving the heads protruding enough to draw them out easily. when you have put in the seats and any other braces necessary to ensure the sides keeping their position, you can draw the nails and take out the centre mould. fit seats at bow and stern, putting them two or three inches below the gunwale and resting them on cleats. in case you use the stem-piece shown in fig. , saw or plane off the projecting ends of the sides at the bow smoothly and screw (or nail) on a cutwater made of some hard wood and with a sharp edge. fasten strips along the gunwale,--"wale strips,"--as already shown. a skag can be put on at the stern, if desired, as described on page . such a boat can be sailed by adding a centre-board (see page ) or by bolting on a keel several inches in depth. a small sail-boat can be made in this way by making the stern narrower, proportionately, the sides higher, and decking over the bow and stern. the decking can extend over all the top, if desired, except a well-hole around which can be fitted a coaming or wash board. the keel can be of plank fitted carefully to the shape of the bottom, its lower edge being horizontal towards the after part, which will make it quite deep at the stern. a rudder should be added for sailing. * * * * * [illustration fig. .] =skiff or flat-bottomed canoe.=--a double-ended skiff, batteau, or flat-bottomed canoe (fig. ), known by various names, can be easily made by simply carrying the process already described a little further, and drawing the sides together at the stern as well as at the bow, thus forming a boat sharp at both ends. this is an excellent type for the amateur, whether in the form of a small canoe or a quite good-sized boat for rowing, or even light sailing. such a boat is light, easily propelled, buoyant, does not pound the waves when meeting them so much as the punt, and the sharp stern is good when running before a sea. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. care must be taken to select clear, straight-grained stock, free from knots, checks, and other defects, and thoroughly dry. pine is excellent, but almost any good wood can be used for a boat of this sort. the sides can be bent into place around a mould in the middle and brought together at _both_ ends and two end-posts fitted. in other respects the process differs so little from the preceding that complete description is needless. the two stem-pieces, which you can fit in the manner already shown, will, theoretically, be alike. practically, there should not be more than a very trifling difference required in their shape. having found the shape for one, get the other out just like it. if it does not fit perfectly, it can be trimmed until it does fit; but if the first one fits right and the second fails to do so by more than a trifling degree, you had best look the boat over and verify your work, and you may find that you have cut something too long or too short or got something in the wrong place. paint the ends of these sides where they will be in contact with the stem and stern with white lead. the sides and ends can be put together as follows: take either side, screw it securely to the stem-pieces at each end. dip the screw points in white-lead paint. next screw either end of the other side to the corresponding stem-piece, which will leave the sides separated at an acute angle, with one end of one side not yet fastened to its corresponding bow- or stern-post. the ends being alike it does not matter which is called the bow or stern. to fasten this remaining joint, it will be necessary to spring or bend the sides. if you have someone to help you, you can easily put the midship frame into position and bend the sides around it until the unfastened end comes into the correct position against the stem-piece, to which it can be held and screwed firmly. if you can get no help, you can hold the sides in position by using a rope doubled and inserting sticks at top and bottom by which the rope can be twisted and shortened (see _clamps_). another way is to put a box or joist, perhaps a couple of feet long, between the sides, to prevent making too much strain on the end fastenings, and, having secured the unfastened end, the frames can then be laid flat, the sides drawn farther apart, and the midship frame forced into position. the latter will be in position when it agrees with the lines previously drawn on the sides and when the bottom is flush with the inner corners of the lower edges of the sides. nail the sides to it with - / " or " nails, or it can finally be removed if not needed for stiffness. the remaining details do not differ from those previously described. the rowlocks can be placed wherever desired in the way already described, but if the boat should be too narrow for this arrangement, they can be fastened to outriggers, which the blacksmith can easily contrive. * * * * * a flat-bottomed canoe can be made on this same principle, the only difference being to have less beam and to use a paddle or paddles instead of oars. * * * * * a very successful small canoe, suitable for quiet waters, can be made of quite thin wood (perhaps / " to / " in thickness), the outside being covered with canvas. in case of building so light a craft as this, however, it is best to insert regular ribs at distances of about a foot to give the necessary stiffness, and to lay the bottom boards lengthways. the ribs can be bought in any large town on the water, or you can fashion them yourself. natural bends are always preferable, but you can make knees (on the general principle shown in fig. ) of straight-grained stock, which, though clumsier and not so strong, will serve the purpose. care must be taken in fastening on the bottom not to split either the bottom or the sides. but the canvas will be the main reliance in keeping the boat tight. the canvas can be put on in three pieces, first the sides, and then the bottom. cover the sides down to the bottom and let the bottom piece lap up over the sides two or three inches and the edges be turned under. stiffen the gunwale by a strip. a light, removable board, or grating of slats, should be laid inside along the bottom, on the cross-frames. if well made and kept well painted so as to protect the canvas from wear at the exposed points, a light canoe of this sort will last many years and be a very useful boat. it must be kept out of the water and under cover when not in use. [illustration fig. .] * * * * * a simple and cheap flat-bottomed canoe (figs. and ), but not canvas-covered, is not difficult to make by the process already described. first make the frames and the stem- and stern-posts, then get out the sides. these parts are put together and then the bottom is put on, the well-hole coaming fitted, the boat decked, and finally the minor fittings added. [illustration fig. .] * * * * * first make the centre frame like fig. , the bottom strip being of / " stock, - / " deep, and the side pieces of / " board. screw the pieces together with two screws at each angle. care must be taken to make this frame symmetrical or the boat will be one-sided. you can draw the outline of the frame carefully on a piece of stiff brown paper, drawing a vertical centre line and measuring both ways for accuracy. lay this pattern on the bench top, or on a smooth floor, and place the pieces for the frame on the drawing so that the outer edges just coincide with the outline of the drawing. hold them firmly in position and screw the angles securely together. tack a waste piece across near the top to help keep the frame in shape until in position. next get out two frames like fig. , taking the dimensions from your plan, two more like fig. , and two like fig. . to make the stem- and stern-posts, take two pieces of joist, about " Ã� " and of sufficient length, and with the chisel and saw cut a rabbet on each side of each piece, on the principle shown in fig. . give these rabbets a good coat of white-lead paint. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] the sides are got out in the way already shown. on them mark the position for the centre mould. insert and nail into place the two next largest frames, at the proper places, and so on until all are in position. all, except the centre one, will require to have their edges slightly bevelled with the plane to fit the sides. you can do this best as you put them in place. paint the edges of the frames with white lead before nailing them in position. next fit pieces of / " board to form the coaming around the well-hole, and fasten them to the three middle frames. the details of this you can easily arrange for yourself. the general idea is expressed in figs. and . before proceeding further with the deck, thoroughly paint the whole of the inside of the boat with white lead, working it well into all the joints and cracks. after giving it a few days to dry, look the inside over carefully for any holes or defects to be stopped. after filling any there may be, give the entire inside another coat, working it well into all crevices as before. do not neglect this part of the work, as it will not be easy to get at the inside (except in the middle) after the deck is put on. on the middle of the deck stretch strips of / " wood about " wide from the coaming of the well to the stem- and stern-posts, tapering the pieces as they approach the ends and resting them on the tops of the frames, to which they should be firmly nailed. if you wish to sail, a stiff brace or thwart can be put in for the mast, with a block for a step. one or more strips, " Ã� / ", can now be placed longitudinally on each side of the deck and nailed to the frames. additional deck-beams, running from gunwale to gunwale, and having the requisite arch or convexity, can be put in if needed. a few brackets can also be put under the deck, reaching from the sides to the coaming, if needed. a keel about one inch square, or deeper at the centre, if desired, can be fitted along the entire length of the bottom. it had best be fastened on with screws. if your boat is to be used in deep water only, you can make the keel " or " deep in the middle, rockering it up towards the ends, and the boat can be sailed without a centre-board. cover the deck with canvas, fastened with small tacks to the coaming and to the sides. the edges of the canvas can be drawn down over the gunwale for about half an inch, the edge being finally covered by a gunwale strip screwed from stem- to stern-post. a piece of half-round / " moulding is good, although any small strip will do. dampen the canvas and then give it at least two coats of paint. a wooden deck can be put on if preferred. * * * * * =canvas-covered canoes.=--to make a really good canoe wholly of wood requires a degree of skill much greater than can be expected of the beginner, or than is attained by the average amateur. any boy or amateur can, however, with the help of canvas and with a very few tools and at slight expense, make some simple varieties which will serve the purpose satisfactorily. the canoe is sharp at both ends, requires only a paddle, and is light enough to be easily handled ashore. if carefully made, a canvas canoe will be strong, durable, and not difficult to mend, though repairs are seldom necessary if proper care is taken. if canvas of good quality is used, it will not be easily punctured or torn as one might think, but will stand an amount of banging around, running into snags, dragging over obstacles, and abuse generally, that would badly injure any but the best of wooden canoes. the variety of designs for canoes which has developed or been evolved from the more primitive forms is in these days almost endless, and the number of types from which to choose is confusing. the purpose for which the canoe is to be used will help you somewhat in selecting the type--whether for paddling only, or sailing, or for cruising and general use, and whether for a river or small pond, or for the deep and rough water of a lake or bay. all these matters must be considered in determining the beam, depth, shape of the midship section, the draught, degree of sheer, whether to have keel, centre-board, or neither, and other points. this is too complex a subject to be treated in a hand-book on wood-working, and you can easily obtain the desired information, as well as detailed instructions for drawing the plans, from some good book on the subject. a caution against making the framework too light and without sufficient stiffness may not be out of place. one frequently sees canoes, made by young boys, of such flimsy pieces and covered with such weak cloth that one is surprised that they can live in the quietest mill-pond, which is really testimony to the tenacious strength of a canvas-covered boat when properly made. a certain degree of flexibility is one of the desirable features of these boats, but they should always have sufficient stiffness to maintain their general shape in all weathers and in all waters to which a canoe is suited; therefore be sure to make a frame which will keep its shape of itself without relying upon the canvas to hold it together. it is quite common to see these boats which (otherwise well built) lack stiffness lengthways--that is, in the longitudinal vertical section. such boats after a little use become bent up in the middle, or "hog-backed." this is entirely unnecessary. be sure, before putting on the canvas, that your frame is stiff enough lengthways to keep its shape permanently. if by any fault in your planning you find that it is not so, be sure to add extra stiffening braces inside before putting on the canvas, or your boat will probably be a failure.[ ] canvas-covered boats should always be kept out of the water and under cover when not in use, as long-continued exposure to the water will be injurious. an easily constructed paddling canoe, ' or ' long, and with beam about ", will first be described. it should be understood by the novice that this first form of construction here given is not that adopted by the professional boat-builder. it is given simply as a process by which one untrained in the more regular methods of construction can turn out a cheap and serviceable canoe, and at the same time acquire experience which will be of use if he should later attempt the more scientific, but also more difficult, details of construction used by regular boat-builders. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, _painting_, in part v., and look up any other references. * * * * * care should be taken to select clear, straight-grained stock, free from knots, checks, and other defects, and thoroughly dry. [illustration fig. .] having made your working drawings for a canoe of the size and proportions which you may think best to adopt, begin the actual work by getting out moulds (fig. ) upon exactly the same principle as in the case of the flat-bottomed canoe just described, except that they will be of curved outline, as this is to be a round-bottomed boat. get out also a bottom strip or keelson with stem- and stern-pieces, which can be alike. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] the arrangement and method of fitting these parts is evident from the illustrations. the keelson can be laid along the edge of a plank or some flat surface and blocked up towards the ends to give the desired degree of curvature or rocker. first fit in place the centre mould and then the two at the ends of the well-hole (fig. ), with the stem- and stern-posts (fig. ). these can be temporarily tacked or stayed in place until you are sure the positions are right. the coaming frame or wash board around the well-hole can now be put on, which will hold the three middle frames securely, and the two deck-strips running lengthways from the well-coaming to the tops of the stem- and stern-posts can be attached (fig. ). next fit the two gunwale-strips, putting in also the remaining moulds or frames. after this the lengthways ribbands are to be fitted around the moulds from bow to stern (figs. and a, showing section at end of well). this will complete the shape of the boat. great care must be taken with all this adjusting of the framework, measuring, sighting, and testing in every way you can think of, to see that all the curves are "fair," without sharp or irregular turns, and also to see that both sides of the boat are alike. this is very important. the pieces may be all of the correct lengths, but still the boat may be one-sided, or twisted, or have a list. [illustration fig. a.] [illustration fig. .] a glance at fig. will show (as an exaggerated example) that pieces of the right dimensions can easily be put together in such a way that the boat may be ill-shaped,--an unfortunate result which is sometimes seen in home-made boats, due to lack of care in testing the angles and curves when putting the work together. the ends of these strips will be more securely fastened to the stem- and stern-posts if depressions or "gains" are cut in the posts to receive them (fig. ), but this is not absolutely necessary if the ends are properly bevelled and carefully screwed to the stem- and stern-posts. [illustration fig. .] for additional stiffness, insert a series of ribs (fig. ), from " to " apart, according to their size and stiffness, from bow to stern. barrel-hooping can be used and if sound is excellent, or strips of ash, oak, or elm, about / " Ã� / ", can be used. it will not be necessary to bend these around a form. those near the middle can be at once bent into place. as the ends of the boat are approached, the ribs will require to be rendered more pliable before being put in place (see _bending wood_). the ribs can be nailed or screwed to the keel and finally be fastened to the ribbands, at their intersection, with copper nails clinched or riveted. cheaper fastenings can be used, however, but copper is the best. to hold such pieces in place temporarily, clamps can be easily made which will be sufficiently strong for the purpose (see fig. ). when all these parts are fastened together, the frame will be complete. to make a first-class job, the entire frame should be thoroughly painted, or at least given a soaking coat of oil, or it can be varnished. for the canvas, get firm, closely-woven duck or sail-cloth of good quality and of sufficient width to reach from gunwale to gunwale. it is not necessary or advantageous to get the heaviest-weight grade, but beware of covering your boat with light drilling or the like, which, although you can make it water-tight, will not be sufficiently durable for anything but a boat for temporary use. find the middle of the canvas, lengthways, and stretch it on this line directly along the keel, the frame of the boat being placed bottom up. tack at each end, and then, starting at the middle, strain the canvas around the boat, working along a little way at a time towards each end alternately and tacking to the top or inside of the gunwale as you proceed. do not try to cover the top with the same piece as the bottom. if you can get a large needle and some stout cord, you can pull the canvas into place by lacing the edges across the top or deck of the boat, working from the middle towards the ends. in lieu of a needle use an awl or a nail. by lacing in this way and by manipulating the canvas with the hands you can, if you are careful, stretch it to fit the frame so that it will be smooth to a point considerably above the water-line. at the upper part, as you approach the deck line or gunwale, you may be unable to prevent some fulness, which you can dispose of by pleating if necessary. at the ends some little folding under may also be required, but you need have no great difficulty in adjusting the canvas neatly and so as to make tight joints. it is a good plan to cut a shallow rabbet on each side of the stem- and stern-posts, just deep enough so that when the edge of the canvas is folded under and tacked, the surface of the canvas will be flush with the side of the post (fig. ). small tacks should be used--not large carpet-tacks. copper are best, but galvanized ones can be used. in all parts where leakage could occur, the tacks should be driven closely together, so that their heads touch, seeing that a good coat of lead is laid on the wood underneath. after the bottom of the canoe has been covered, the deck can be treated in the same way. when the canvas is all on, dampen it slightly and paint thoroughly, painting, also, the coaming around the well-hole and the exposed parts of the stem- and stern-posts (see _painting_). the dampening is supposed to cause the first coat of paint to penetrate the canvas more thoroughly than if the canvas is quite dry. oil is sometimes applied before painting. after it has dried thoroughly, apply another coat. do not spare the paint, for though the canvas absorbs a great deal, which adds to the weight of the boat as well as to the cost, it is really essential in making a good canvas-covered boat that it be well painted. a light removable flooring, or grating of slats, should be placed on the bottom of the well, resting on the frames. * * * * * to make a canvas canoe with a keel, you have only to make the keel of a piece of - / " or - / " stock (with a depth of, perhaps, - / " or - / "), thinning it somewhat towards the ends so that it will join smoothly with the stem- and stern-posts. it can be fitted to these posts as shown in fig. , and screwed directly to the keelson. [illustration fig. .] particular care must be taken that the keel be got out straight and that it be fitted exactly on the centre line. in this case the canvas may be put on in two parts, being nailed to the keelson on each side of the keel; or the canoe can be made as previously described and the keel simply screwed on outside of the canvas, the latter being first thoroughly painted. oak is excellent for a keel, but is rather heavy for a light canoe. ash will do. pine can be used. the keel will wear better if got out so that the concentric rings (annual rings) of the wood will be horizontal or parallel with the bottom of the boat and at right angles to the screws with which the keel is fastened on. if these layers incline slightly upward at the bow the keel will wear better. * * * * * [illustration fig. .] a more advanced form of construction, and one more in line with the methods of a regular boat-builder, is shown in fig. , the essential difference between this and the form previously described being that regular bent ribs are substituted for the frames made of board, and the latter, after serving as moulds around which to build the boat, are taken out, the bent ribs being sufficiently stout to ensure strength and stiffness. if you attempt this method the ribs must be carefully bent (see _bending wood_). oak, ash, or elm is suitable for ribs. if a cooper's shop is within reach you can get the material there. it must, of course, be of good grain and free from flaws. * * * * * the process of construction is similar to that already shown. a suggestion for the arrangement of deck timbers (which can be of oak, ash, spruce, or any strong wood) is shown in figs. and , and for putting in a curved wash board or coaming in fig. . for the latter a thin piece of straight-grained oak, elm, or ash can be used. * * * * * [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] an excellent way to make a canvas-covered canoe is shown in fig. . the essential principle of this consists in having a stiff gunwale, stiff keelson (inside the ribs), and ribs stout and numerous enough to ensure a permanently strong and stiff framework without the assistance of the lengthways ribbands. the outside is then sheathed with very thin strips of basswood, pine, or any reasonably strong and light wood (perhaps / " thick and " or " wide), fitting them carefully to the shape, but without any attempt to make water-tight joints. if this boat, which is complete in all respects except that of being water-tight, is then covered with canvas as already described, the result will be a strong, smooth boat, without the irregularities of surface which are a necessary feature of the unsheathed form. this method is adopted in making canvas-covered canoes after the model of the birch-bark canoe, and the result is an admirable boat, which, while perhaps hardly equal to a genuine "birch" of indian manufacture, is certainly the next thing to it for an open paddling canoe. of course, if you can work up your design after the model of a real birch, you will have accomplished as much as you could wish in this line--but to design and construct a good canoe upon the birch model is not an easy thing for the beginner to do, and had best not be attempted until after considerable experience in simpler and less graceful forms. this mode of construction can well be applied, however, to a canoe of almost any type. the sheathing can be painted and the canvas laid on the fresh paint. another form of construction is to omit the keelson and fasten the frames and ribs directly to the top of the keel, having previously cut a rabbet for the canvas (as in case of the stem- and stern-posts) on each side of the keel at the top; the canvas by this arrangement being put on in two parts, one on each side of the keel. it is, of course, possible to construct a canoe with nothing but two gunwale-strips, stem- and stern-posts, a strip for a keelson, and a number of barrel-hoops for ribs; and such affairs are quite often put together by boys, but they are apt to be of light and flimsy construction and to lack sufficient stiffness to keep their shape after being used for a while. a certain degree of flexibility and lack of rigidity is desirable in a canvas-covered boat, and, in fact, it is to this quality that it owes much of its merit; but it should have enough stiffness to hold its general shape permanently. an extremely simple method is to omit the stem-pieces and simply bend the keelson up at each end to meet the gunwales at bow and stern, where all the lengthways pieces can be fastened to a block, canvas being stretched over the whole as already described. a canoe which turns up so excessively on the bottom at bow and stern has some disadvantages, but still a useful and cheap boat can readily be made in this way. it should have a quite flat cross-section in the middle. most canoes can be sailed on the wind, often very successfully, by having a deep keel--which can be rockered or increased in depth towards the middle--or by adding a centre-board. but the latter is quite a nice operation, particularly so in case of making your first boat (see page ). * * * * * the holes and the steps for the masts should be arranged before the canvas is put on, fitting extra thwarts across if needed, and it is a good plan to fit tubes for the masts. in case of sailing, the steering can be done with the paddle, or a rudder can be used (in which case a straight stern-post should be put in, for which a knee is good) and lines be led forward to the well-hole from a yoke at the top of the rudder. many arrangements have been devised for steering sailing-canoes, but these details, as well as those for the rigging, can be found in any good book on the subject. if you are a novice, begin with a simple leg-of-mutton sail (fig. ). * * * * * it is better to buy oars than to try to make them. you may, however, have occasion to make a paddle. a good shape is shown in fig. , but you can choose from a variety of forms. [illustration fig. .] * * * * * the length can readily be determined from some paddle which suits you or you can experiment with a strip of wood. five inches is a good width, and ' to - / ' a good length, but these are matters of individual preference. spruce is a good wood for your first attempt at paddle-making. it makes a good paddle and is easier to work than birch, beech, or maple, or any of the harder woods. pine can be used. use a centre line in making your pattern. after the pattern is marked on the wood have the outline sawed at a mill or do it yourself with the turning-saw, or make a series of saw-kerfs to the line with the hand-saw and remove the superfluous wood with the draw-knife, spoke-shave, or chisel (see _paring_). having the outline correct, mark a line along the middle of the edge of the blade, and gradually and carefully shave the surfaces down towards this middle line, also tapering the thickness towards the ends. the draw-knife, spoke-shave, plane, rasp, file, scraper, and sandpaper can be used (see all of these tools in part v. and also _paring_ and _rounding sticks_). great care is needed to trim a paddle nicely to shape. a little hasty cutting may ruin the work. [illustration fig. .] the double-bladed paddle can be made of a single piece, or two pieces can be joined by a ferrule (fig. ). the double-bladed paddle can be from about ' to ' or ' long and the blades are made broader and shorter than that of the single paddle. a couple of round rubber rings on each end of the handle will stop some of the dripping of water from the blades as they are raised. =small sail-boat.=--the boat shown in fig. is a good form for the amateur to attempt, and makes a serviceable craft for sheltered waters. from twelve to sixteen feet is a good length, and the beam should be wide, as shown. the depth can be from twelve to sixteen inches. * * * * * before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, in part v., and look up any other references. care should be taken to select clear, straight-grained stock, free from knots, checks, and other defects, and thoroughly dry. pine is excellent. [illustration fig. .] the general principle of construction does not differ from that of the flat-bottomed boats already described, and detailed directions are therefore omitted. the sides should each be of one / " or / " board. the arrangement of the details is obvious. knees can be used to good advantage. the deck should be of wood, the boards ( / ") resting on cross-beams or carlins, reaching from gunwale to gunwale (as already shown) and slightly arched. around the well-hole, brackets can be used (fig. ). the deck can be covered with canvas. [illustration fig. .] this boat, as shown in the illustration, is planked across the bottom like the other flat-bottomed boats already described, but the bottom boards can run lengthways instead, if preferred. in this case knees should be inserted, or cross-frames of some kind, to reach across the bottom and to which the bottom boards can be nailed. the bottom boards should be not less than / " thick and the edges must be carefully jointed (see _jointing_). they can be laid slightly apart and the seams caulked (see page ). strips of flannel laid in thick white-lead paint can be placed between the edges of the sides and stern and the bottom boards, or the edges can simply be painted. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] the construction of the case or trunk for the centre-board can be understood from figs. and . by either method of construction the trunk consists of two upright posts, or "headledges," cut with shoulders at the lower end, and sides of board screwed to these posts. a slot is sawed through the bottom of the boat of sufficient width and length to give the centre-board free passage--that is, of the dimensions of the opening at the bottom of the trunk. to cut this slot several holes can be bored close together until an opening is made sufficiently large to start the saw. by the arrangement shown in fig. , a plank is taken and a slot is cut in it enough longer than that in the bottom of the boat to include the lower ends of the headledges, which should fit snugly. the sides of the trunk are screwed to this plank from underneath, and the plank is in turn screwed to the bottom of the boat. the headledges can be additionally fastened from the edge of the plank, horizontally. unless the bottom of the boat is straight, the plank must be accurately fitted to the curve on the under side,--not an easy task (see _scribing_ and _paring_). all the joints should be laid in thick white-lead paint, and at the bottom flannel can be laid in the seam, with lead, or caulking can be resorted to. by the method shown in fig. , the headledges and sides are fitted to a board on the bottom, or to the keelson, and, after being put in place, strips of plank are fitted lengthways on each side at the bottom and bolted or screwed to the bottom and to the sides of the trunk. the lower edges of these strips must be fitted to the curve of the bottom and the whole made tight, as just shown. much care must be taken with this work to make tight joints. the inside of the trunk should be painted before putting together, and holes be bored carefully for all the screws (see _boring_ and _screws_). the centre-board itself can be of wood or of galvanized plate iron and is pivoted at the forward lower corner, and can be raised and lowered by a rod attached to the after corner. remember to paint the inside of the boat carefully with at least two coats before putting on the deck, and also that copper nails and brass fittings are better than those of galvanized iron (particularly for salt water) if you can afford them. the coaming or wash board can be of / " oak, ash, or elm. the deck can first be laid, lapping slightly over the space to be left open. the line for the coaming can then be marked on the deck, and the projecting wood sawed or trimmed to the line, when the coaming can be bent into place and fastened. the gunwale-strip, like the stern-post, the rudder, and the tiller, should be of hard wood, as oak. hackmatack is good for the stem. the mast should be of spruce. a strong thwart, with a hole in it, can be fitted across between the sides, just under the deck, and a block with another hole fastened to the bottom. the place at which to step the mast must depend upon the style of rig you adopt. one who is used to sailing a boat will not seek for information on this subject in a manual on wood-working, but for the novice it may be well to state that a leg-of-mutton sail (fig. ) is undoubtedly the simplest, easiest, and safest rig for the beginner, and it will be wise to learn to manage this rig first. the spritsail (fig. ), with or without the boom, is an easily managed sail, which works well with this boat. either of these rigs can be unshipped in a moment, the mast, sail and all being lifted out when desired. for other styles of rigging you should consult someone used to sailing or some book on the subject. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] for the painting, see _painting_, in part v. =small ice-boat.=--the main framework of even the most elaborate ice-boat consists merely of a lengthways centre timber or "backbone" and a cross-piece or "runner-board" (fig. ), the whole resting on three runners, one of which acts as a rudder. before beginning work read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, in part v., and look up any other references. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] a small boat can be made as shown in fig. . the dimensions can easily be altered. the particular rig given is merely for illustration, for this is not a book on sailing, and you can find all the facts you need about rigging in any good book on the subject. if you are a novice you had best be content with a simple leg-of-mutton sail (fig. ), which is, for the beginner, the safest and most easily managed. a spritsail (fig. ) or some other simple form can be used if desired. if you know how to sail a boat, you can adopt such rig as you think best. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] first get out the backbone. get a piece of clear spruce, or pine, perhaps ' Ã� " Ã� ". a round spar may be used. be careful to select good lumber, as great strain is put upon it. a piece which has naturally sprung lengthways should be placed with the convex edge upwards. next get out the runner-board, perhaps - / ' Ã� " Ã� ", of spruce. pine is also good, or any strong wood will do. choose a clear, sound plank. if naturally sprung in a bow-like curve, put the convex side upwards. smooth the pieces sufficiently to avoid splinters and roughness. thin the runner-plank on top each way from the centre down to about an inch in thickness at each end, if you can have it sawed at the mill. it is hardly worth while to do this by hand. fasten the runner-board, at exactly the middle of its length, across the backbone, at a point perhaps - / ' from the stern end, with a strap-hanger (fig. ) screwed up with nuts and broad washers on the under side. if you cannot afford this, put a bolt through both pieces (see _boring_), tightening underneath with nut and washer, and putting cleats on the runner-board (fig. ). be sure that one edge of the runner-board is straight and at right angles to the backbone. nail a piece of board, " long and " wide, across the stern end of the centre timber. add the two side pieces _a b_ and _c d_ (fig. ), of " spruce joist, nailing them firmly in place, thus forming the sides of an irregular box (see _nailing_). turn the frame over and nail a bottom on this box, laying the boards crosswise and nailing to the backbone as well as to the sides and end. next, to make the runners, get out six pieces of oak, or other hard, strong wood, " Ã� " Ã� ". mark with the square from the straightened edge of the runner-board the positions for the inner blocks, equally distant from the backbone, screwing them in place (fig. ), with one screw in each. measure across with a stick from one to the other at each end to see that they are just parallel, and also test their being at right angles to the runner-plank, which in turn must be at right angles to the backbone, in order that the runners may be parallel and not slewed sideways. having tightly screwed these inner blocks, brace them with angle blocks, as shown. the outer blocks can next be fitted, leaving just space enough for the runners to play freely, but not loosely, between the blocks. the holes for the pins for the runners can be bored in the outer pieces before they are screwed on. then, using these holes as a guide, those in the inner blocks can be bored in line. the runners themselves should be carefully made and fitted, for they are a very vital part of the boat. on the large boats they have usually been made of oak, with a shoe of cast iron at the bottom attached by bolts, but this is quite a piece of work for a small boat and you can get the blacksmith to work out the whole runner, with a hole bored for the pin-bolt. make a pattern about " or " long, rocking _very_ slightly in the middle and more quickly near the ends. the hole for the pin should be back of the middle, so that more of the shoe will be in front of than behind the pin. this is to lessen the shock when the runner strikes an obstruction. the cutting edge may have an angle of about ° for trial (fig. ). if too blunt or too sharp you can alter it. it will take considerable filing to get the edge true, straight, and uniform (see _filing_). finish with an oil-stone. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] the rudder-runner can be a little shorter. screw a piece of " oak plank on top of the rudder-blocks and on top of this fasten a plate or socket to which is attached a piece of gas-pipe about a foot long, for a rudder-post. at the top of the rudder-post screw an elbow and a short piece of pipe for a tiller (fig. ). if suitable gas-pipe cannot be found, the blacksmith can fix an arrangement that will answer, but it must be strongly fastened to the rudder-blocks, and there should be some kind of metal bearing between the wooden top of the rudder and the under side of the backbone, if nothing more than a washer. the two surfaces of wood should not rub against each other. wind the handle of the tiller with cord, cloth, or bicycle tape. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] stay the bowsprit (or forward end of the backbone) by stout wires to the runner-plank. these can best be of wire rope passed through eye-bolts or attached to iron straps and tightened with turnbuckles, but to save that expense strong wire can be used. notches can be cut at the edges of the runner-plank and the backbone, and wire be wound around to hold rings to which the wire guys can be fastened, but it is hard to make such an arrangement taut and to keep it so. next fasten a mast step with square hole to the backbone (fig. ), forward of the front edge of the runner-plank. put in eye-bolts at ends of the runner-plank and at the bow for shrouds and a few inches from the stern of the backbone for the main sheet. wire rope is best for the shrouds, but common wire or rope can be used. for the mast and spars use natural sticks of spruce. the sides of the box can be built up higher at the stern with boards, if you wish, to prevent being thrown off by the sudden movements of the boat. a rubber washer under the backbone where the rudder-post passes through is sometimes used to lessen the jar when passing over obstructions. a curved piece of wood fastened on the under side of the backbone just in front of the rudder will act as a fender for the rudder, in case of slight obstructions. the whole boat can be oiled, painted, or varnished if desired (see _finishing_ and _painting_). if you use a cat-rig, spritsail, or other rig without any head-sail before the mast, it would be well to place the runner-plank further forward. [illustration fig. .] the latest and best way to brace the frame of an ice-boat is to strain guys of wire rope (fig. ), tightened with turnbuckles, omitting the side pieces, and fastening a car or box to the backbone, but this arrangement, though lighter and more elastic, is more expensive and not so easy to make for a small boat as the one just described. a somewhat simpler way to arrange the framework is shown in figs. , , and . in place of the runners already described a cheaper arrangement can be made by the blacksmith of / " bar iron, steeled, and bent up at the ends, as shown in fig. . a much smaller affair can be made by simply arranging two pieces of joist or plank in the form of a cross (bracing them so far as may be necessary), putting cleats under each end of the shorter cross-piece or runner-board and fastening common skates to the cleats, using another pivoted skate at the stern for a rudder. the runners of the skates should be ground, or filed, as shown above. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] the details of such a small ice-boat you can work out for yourself by modifying and simplifying according to your ingenuity the suggestions for a larger boat given above. the hardest part to fix is the rudder-post and tiller. some iron arrangement is best, but something can be contrived in the following manner, which is not, however, recommended as very satisfactory. fasten the rudder skate upon a piece of board in which is cut a mortise. into this mortise a short piece of hard wood, like a large broomstick with squared end, is fitted for a rudder-post. the upper end of the rudder-post, squared just like the lower end, is fitted into a mortise cut in the tiller piece. a washer should be placed between the skate-block and the backbone, and the rudder-post should turn freely in the hole in the backbone, but not loosely enough to wobble around. cut the mortise in the tiller and fit to the post before cutting off and shaping the tiller, to avoid danger of splitting. an extra block may have to be put under the backbone at the rudder to level the boat so that the skates will bear properly on the ice, for if the stern is much lower, so that they drag by the heels, the boat will not sail properly. wooden arrangements of this sort are, however, only justifiable as makeshifts, and require good workmanship to be strong and effective. [illustration] =house-boat.=--a house-boat consists of two parts, one of which (the boat) is essentially like the scow or flat boat already described, and the other (the house) is usually much the same as some of the little structures described in part iii. (_house-building for beginners_), however expensively and elaborately it may be arranged and fitted up. the advantages of the house-boat for camping, shooting, fishing, and for some kinds of excursions are too well known to require explanation. it is an excellent thing for two or more to build together. it may not be out of place to suggest that, in the desire to have the house sufficiently large and convenient, you should not be misled into making plans which will necessitate building a large boat. dimensions (on paper) for such things are quite deceptive, and to build a large boat, even of such a simple type as the scow or flatboat, is quite a serious undertaking for the beginner--as regards both labour and expense. * * * * * if you can find a scow or flatboat already built, of suitable dimensions and which is sufficiently tight, or can be made so by caulking, you have only to proceed to build the house upon it. if, however, the boat as well as the house is to be built, you can proceed to build the boat in the way already described (page ). additional suggestions may be found in figs. and . before beginning read carefully _marking_, _rule_, _square_, _saw_, _plane_, _nailing_, in part v., and look up any other references. [illustration fig. .] two-inch plank should be used for these boats, which are intended to be from ' to ' long. after putting together the sides, ends, and bottom, as already described, " Ã� " joists can be laid lengthways on the bottom, as shown, which will afford an underpinning for the house, will distribute the weight over the bottom, keep the floor raised above the water which may leak in or collect from the rain, and also stiffen the structure of the boat. before laying these joists, notches should be cut on the under edges with the saw or hatchet, in several places, to allow the water to pass through, as in the case of the boats already described. [illustration fig. .] the illustrations show a general system of construction for the house, which can be followed, or you can make such alterations as you think desirable. in addition to the suggestions in the accompanying illustrations, further details and suggestions will be found in part iii. (_house-building for beginners_). most of the details are matters of personal preference, and can readily be arranged without more detailed description. the roof had best be covered with canvas, put on as one piece (being sewed previously if necessary). if laid in paint and then given two or three coats of paint, much as in the case of the canvas-sheathed canoes already described, a tight and durable roof will be the result. after the edges of the canvas are tacked under the edge of the roof, strips of moulding can be nailed around under the edge. an even simpler way to make the roof is to have it flat, but slanting slightly towards either bow or stern. an inclination of " is enough, with tight canvas roof, to shed the water. the remaining details of the construction of the house have already been treated. the interior arrangements you can contrive as desired. either, or both, of the ends can be decked over, or the whole can first be decked over and the house built on the deck. in this case, access to the hull, for stowage, can be had by hatches, or trap-doors inside the house. if both the ends are to be decked, the hull can very well have one or two lengthways divisions of plank, for stiffness and strength,--that is, insert between the ends one or two pieces of the size and shape of the sides, in which case the lengthways joist already spoken of will be omitted. this is a good way. in case of decking, nail a strip of moulding on the outside along the juncture of the house and the deck, so as to make a tight joint, which should be well painted. if one or both ends are undecked, a removable grating of slats (a part of which is shown in fig. ) will be useful. it is well to have at least one window at the bow end of the house, for the boat will of course lie with bow towards the wind and it will be a good thing when housed in a storm to be able to see to windward, as you cannot well keep the door at that end open, while the after door will usually be sufficiently sheltered to be left open. many modifications of these simple plans can be made. the roof can be extended over either end, which is easily done without altering the system of construction. this is very convenient under some circumstances, and will add but little to the expense. the frame can even be covered with canvas, but this will be inferior to wood, except in point of lightness. a solid roof is best, however, in any case. sweeps must, of course, be provided for rowing, sculling, or steering, and a mast can easily be added, on which sufficient sail can be hoisted to be quite a help in going before the wind. if a mast is used, the door at the bow end of the house can be at one side of the end so that the mast can be close to the house, to which it can be fastened. a rudder can be added, if desired, with a skag. the whole craft should be thoroughly painted (see _painting_). houses are sometimes built on rafts. this will do very well if the raft is a good one, like a float. a float can be easily made, if you have the materials, by laying a thick flooring on logs or heavy timbers and providing greater buoyancy than such a platform naturally has by fastening under it, between the timbers, as many empty and sealed barrels or casks (oil-barrels are good) as may be necessary. when the float is stationary and under ordinary circumstances, there is, of course, no need to fasten the casks in any way except to fence them around so that they cannot roll or slide out, as their buoyancy will prevent their escaping, but it is easy to fasten them by chains or otherwise if needed. this makes an excellent foundation on which to build a house, and has some advantages over a boat for a stationary arrangement, but is obviously not as well suited for moving around as a scow or flatboat. footnotes: [ ] unless too heavily loaded, a canvas-covered canoe will float in case of a capsize, but some form of air-chambers is desirable and a safe precaution in any small boat. it is hardly safe to rely upon your ability to build water-tight compartments in the ends of canvas (or wooden) boats, as is sometimes recommended--that is, as a part of the regular construction of the boat. it is not easy for an amateur to do this. it is better to have the air-tight compartments made separately and independent of the boat itself. copper boxes or air-tanks fitted to the space at the ends are the best and the only really reliable expedient, but they are expensive. light wooden boxes covered with canvas and thoroughly painted can be used, as well as galvanised boxes or even varnish cans sealed and painted. any such contrivance can be made tight at first, but is always liable to become leaky (except by the use of copper tanks), particularly as it is usually concealed from examination. part v _common tools and their use, with some every-day operations_ chapter xvi =anvil.=--an anvil is often useful and is sometimes combined with a vise. it should have a flat steel surface and also a tapering, rounded (conical) point. an old flat-iron does quite well. =auger-bit.=--see _bits_. [illustration fig. .] =awl.=--the _brad-awl_ is the simplest boring tool you will use. unlike gimlets and bits, it does not take out any wood, but merely presses it aside out of the way, which is good for nail and screw holes, because the elasticity of the woody fibres tends to make them spring back and close around the nail or screw, thus helping to keep it in place. the awl should always be a trifle smaller than the nail. bore with the cutting edge across the grain of the wood, on the same principle as in driving nails (fig. ), lest the wedge shape of the tool cause the wood to split (see _nailing_). press the awl straight down in this position until the point is well into the wood, when you can twist it a little, at the same time pushing it further into the wood. there is always risk of splitting thin wood near an edge, unless you use great care. the brad-awl can be sharpened easily. see _sharpening_ and also _boring_. do not buy combination awls with "tool-chest handles," filled with an assortment of awls and little chisels, gouges, screw-drivers, saws, etc. such affairs are sometimes useful, but the loose tools are apt to become lost or broken, and the money can be used to better advantage in other ways. it is well to have a variety of sizes of awls, fitted into _hardwood_ handles. an awl handle into which awls of various sizes can be fitted, somewhat as a brace holds bits, answers very well, if you have to carry your tools from place to place, but for shop-work it is more convenient to have each awl in a separate handle. the _marking-awl_ or _scratch-awl_ is simply an awl with a round, sharp point used for marking in carpentry, but for very close work a knife or chisel is better. see _marking_. =axe.=--this is such a common tool that it needs no description, and is, moreover, seldom required for amateur work. =back-saw.=--see _saw_. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] =beading.=--a tool for scraping beading, reeds, and the like, can be made by filing the reverse of the shape required on the edge of a piece of saw-blade steel, taken from a broken saw or scraper, and inserting this blade in a kerf sawed in the end of a piece of wood (fig. ). to change the position of the blade, one or both of the screws can be loosened and then tightened after the blade has been adjusted. this tool is pushed forward with both hands, much like a scraper, the shoulder of the block bearing against the edge of the board as in using the gauge (fig. ). tools for this purpose can be bought. it usually produces the best effect not to carry this beading to the extreme ends of an edge, but to stop a short distance from the ends and with a chisel cut the beads to a square and abrupt end (fig. ). see _plane_. =bending wood.=--to bend a piece (without steaming or boiling) which is to be fastened so that but one side will show, make a series of saw-cuts of equal depth (fig. ) across the piece, and partly through it, on the back side (the side which will not show), first running a gauge line along the edge (see _gauge_), that the cuts may be of equal depth. this will practically, so far as bending is concerned, make the piece thinner, and it can readily be bent and fastened in position. the nearer together and the deeper the cuts are the more the piece can be bent--that is, up to the breaking-point. hot water can be used on the face side. such curves can sometimes be strengthened by driving wedges, with glue, into the saw-kerfs after the piece is bent to the desired curve (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] to make a small piece of wood pliable, so that it will bend to any reasonable extent (which, however, depends much upon the kind of wood), soak it for some time in boiling water, when it can usually be bent into the desired shape. it must be securely held in position until the moisture has entirely left it, or it will spring back to (or towards) its original shape. this drying will take from several hours to several days, according to the size of the piece and the condition of the atmosphere. there is almost always a tendency to spring back a little towards the original shape, so it is well to bend a piece a little more than you wish it to remain, except where it is to be fastened so that it cannot spring back. wood which naturally bends easily (particularly thin pieces) can often be made pliable enough by simply soaking in cold water, but hot water is usually more effective. anything which you cannot manage with the hot water you can take to a mill or a ship-yard and have steamed in a regular steam-chest, which is really nothing, in principle, but a big wooden or iron box, with a steam-pipe running into it, in which the pieces are kept until the steam has made them pliable. wood is now bent for many purposes by "end pressure," but this is impracticable for the amateur. to bend the ends of pieces like skis, hockies, etc., a big kettle or common wash-boiler full of boiling water can be used. an apparatus for long sticks, as ribs for a canoe, can be made with a piece of iron pipe of suitable size. plug one end tightly and stick it firmly in the ground, so that the pipe is fixed in a slanting direction. put water in the pipe, build a fire underneath, put the sticks in the pipe, stuff a rag loosely in the upper end and the apparatus will be in working order (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] you must often have some sort of form or mould for bending the piece and for holding it while drying. for some kinds of bending, where there is no occasion to be accurate, you can often bend a piece around some corner or common object, as a barrel, log, etc., and tie it in place until dry, or fasten it with cleats, but for nice work you should make a form or mould. if you wish to bend ribs, for instance, which should be accurate in shape, you can cut a piece of board or plank to fit the concave side of the desired curve. fasten this piece upon any flat surface, as an old plank, and bore holes for wooden pins around the curve at such a distance from the pattern piece or mould that the piece to be bent can be firmly wedged against it, as shown in fig. ; or you can attach blocks instead of pins--any arrangement by which the bent piece can be wedged in place. a strap of hoop iron or other metal or even a thin piece of wood can be placed outside of the stick to be bent, to prevent the wood splitting or splintering on the outside, as it is liable to do if bent much, unless of good quality and straight grain, but there is no need of doing this in many cases. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] another way is to have the mould or form in two parts, as the two parts of a board or plank through which the curve has been sawed (fig. ). the piece to be bent is put between the two forms, which are then pressed together by clamps, wedges, or a lever. this is a good way for short pieces which cannot easily be bent, or which do not readily cling to the required curve. another form of bending-mould is shown (an inverted view) in fig. . in this case the pieces to be bent are held in place by easily made clamps. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] a simple way to make a form for bending strips is to cut the curve out of a piece of plank, or boards nailed together (fig. ). the end of the strip is then caught against the cleat and the piece bent around the curve. if it tends to spring off the curve, you must contrive some way to clamp, wedge, or even tie it in place. as a piece must be left on the form until dry and set, if you have a number to bend, it may be better to make a form wide enough to bend them all at once. take any boards, or build a curved addition on the end of a box, and contrive a wider form on the same principle (fig. ). for ribs, and the like, the stock should be got out so that the annual layers will be at right angles to the direction of the nails with which the pieces are to be fastened, or parallel with the curved sides of the pieces. [illustration fig. .] =bevel.=--this is similar to the square, but with a movable blade which can be set at any angle. when permanently fixed at an angle of °, it is called a _mitre-square_. the bevel is useful, not merely to mark any desired angle, but to repeat some angle already formed, to which you apply it, moving the blade until it fits the angle, when the tool can be applied to another piece and the angle repeated. the directions about holding the head of the square close to the edge apply also to the use of the bevel (see _square_). [illustration fig. .] to obtain an angle of ° with the bevel, place it against the inside edge of the large steel square (fig. ), setting the blade at such an angle that it will intercept equal distances on both arms of the square. on this same principle, for other angles, observe the figures intercepted by the blade, as shown in fig. . note that for this angle the figures are and , and you can get the angle again at any time by setting the bevel at those figures. you can also set the bevel by laying off the required angle with compasses on a straight-edged board, to which the bevel can be applied. the angle should be so laid out on the board that it will not be necessary to try to set the point of the compasses exactly at the edge, which is of course impossible. see _bevelling_. [illustration fig. .] =bevelling.=--to bevel the edge of a piece with the chisel, draw-knife, spoke-shave, plane, or even knife, first mark parallel lines to work to with a pencil-gauge (see _gauge_) rather than a spur-gauge, so as not to leave a scratch to disfigure the work after the bevel or chamfer is cut (figs. and ). then pare the edge down gradually to these lines, or prepare the way by first scoring the wood with cuts (fig. ), being sure to trim off in the direction of the grain; but in bevelling both end and side, as in fig. , first cut the end, because of possible chipping at the corner, and in cutting the end you can work from each corner towards the centre. in paring a bevel across the grain, push the chisel as shown in fig. , as it is the easiest and cleanest way to cut, and prevents splintering. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration right. wrong. fig. .] a simple bevel (figs. and ) is usually best made with the plane, whenever there is room to use it. plane bevels in end wood from both edges and you can often slant the plane to good advantage like the chisel in fig. . see also _chamfering_. =bit-brace or bit-stock.=--this tool requires no description. the _ratchet_ brace is useful for boring in awkward places where it is difficult to use a common bit-stock. there is also a contrivance for extending the bit-brace to bore in places which cannot be reached by the common brace alone, but this you will seldom require. an angular bit-stock, with a "universal angle" adjustment, is useful. by this the bit can be pointed in different directions, while the bit-stock is turned continuously in the ordinary way, thus enabling a hole to be conveniently bored in an out-of-the-way corner. see _boring_. =bits.=--the _auger-bit_ (the sizes of which are arranged by sixteenths of an inch) so commonly used with the bit-brace, consists, at the cutting end, of a spur, two scoring-nibs, and two cutting-lips. you will see from fig. that the spur _a_, acting like a gimlet point or a screw (which it is), starts the bit by drawing it into the wood so that the scoring-nibs _b_ make a circular cut around the circumference. as this cut deepens, the cutting-lips _c_ slice away the wood to be removed in the form of shavings, which are brought to the surface as the boring proceeds. this bit can be sharpened with a file, the scoring-nibs being sharpened from the inside, lest they be made to score a circle too small for the rest of the bit, while the cutting-lips are filed from the under side. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] the _centre-bit_ is a useful tool, particularly for very thin stock. the spear-like point _a_ (fig. ), acting as a centre, the point _b_ cuts a deep ring, and the edge _c_, which is bent so as to form a flat chisel, scoops out the pieces of wood, and so a round and smooth hole is made. this bit does not cut very well with the grain. it can be sharpened with a small oil-stone. it is well to bore a trial hole with this bit in a piece of waste wood when exactness is required, because the spur is not exactly in the centre, so that the hole cut is a trifle wider than the diameter of the bit. the _expansion-bit_ has an adjustable contrivance that enables it to bore holes of various sizes, but such tools are hardly necessary for beginners, though very convenient and often used by carpenters. the _gimlet-bit_ is a common form, but is easily dulled and bent and is likely to split delicate work. the _quill-bit_ is excellent, except for end grain. _shell-bit_, _gouge-bit_, _pod-bit_, _spoon-bit_, _duck's-bill-bit_, etc., are names applied to simple tools good for boring small holes. they are easily sharpened with a stone, work quickly and leave a smooth hole, but do not cut so well in end grain. they are not as much in use as formerly, the twist-drill taking their place for many purposes. _reamers_, or tapering bits (half-round, square, octagonal, conical), are useful to enlarge holes and occasionally to make them conical. reamers for metal are also useful. for other forms of boring implements, see _awls_ and _twist-drill_. see also _boring_ and _countersink_. =block-plane.=--see _plane_. =boards or planks, laying exposed.=--in laying boards or planks to be exposed to the weather, place them (unless they are from the middle of the tree) so as to have the outer side exposed--that is, the side farthest from the heart should be put outside or uppermost. if put the other way the action of the atmosphere, water, etc., will tend to separate and loosen the layers and fibres (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] =boring.=--in boring with the bit-brace, after the bit has gone a short distance into the wood, stop and, keeping the brace in position, test carefully from in front and from one side to see whether the bit is at right angles to the surface. repeat this test and alter the position of the brace as many times as may be necessary until you are sure that the bit is going through at the right angle. a common way to do this is to stand squarely in front of the work and judge by the eye whether the bit is at right angles with the work, and then to stand at either side at right angles to the first position and judge of the angle again. the direction of the bit can be tested more accurately by applying the square. few people can bore accurately without some such test. [illustration fig. .] some workmen rest the chin on the left hand on top of the handle of the brace, to steady it (fig. ), and to increase the pressure, and sometimes the shoulder is applied. to remove a bit from the wood, give the brace a turn or two backward, which will loosen the spur, and then either pull the bit straight out, if it can be done easily without turning the brace, or, as you pull it out, keep turning the brace as if boring, thus bringing out the chips, which, if you remove the bit by turning the brace backward, will be left in the hole. in boring through a board or timber, watch to see when the spur of the bit begins to come through on the other side; when it does, turn the piece over and bore in from that side, or clamp a piece of waste wood on the other side and bore right through into it. either way will prevent splintering or a ragged or "burred" edge, where the bit leaves the wood. in boring a hole of any depth with the grain, _i.e._, in the end of a piece of wood, withdraw the bit, after it has entered the wood a short distance, to clear the chips from the hole, reinsert, bore, and withdraw again, and continue in this way until you reach the required depth. this will save injuring the bit, and will make the boring easier. in boring with small bits, particularly when there is danger of splitting, as with the gimlet-bit, draw out the bit and chips once in a while. when the position of a hole must be exact on both sides of the wood it is well to mark the position accurately on each side and bore from each side until the holes meet. frequently holes must not be bored through a piece, but must stop at a certain depth. suppose you have to make a dozen holes " deep. take a wooden tube if you have one, or bore a hole through a block of wood of such length that when pressed against the jaws of the brace two inches of the end of the bit will project beyond the tube or block (fig. ). then bore until the end of the tube touches the surface of the wood, when the hole will, of course, be " deep. metal attachments can be bought for this purpose. see _awl_, _bits_, _twist-drill_. [illustration fig. .] to cut a hole larger than any bit you have, bore a series of smaller holes just within the circumference of the desired circle, and trim to the line with the gouge or finish with keyhole or compass-saw. =bow-saw.=--see _saw_. =brad-awl.=--see _awl_. =bruises, to take out.=--small bruises in wood can be taken out by wetting the place with warm water, or even with cold water, and rubbing down the grain with sandpaper if necessary. if that is not sufficient, a hot iron, as a flat-iron, held near the bruise, the latter being covered with wet blotting paper or several thicknesses of brown paper, will often remove a quite large dent. the operation can be repeated until it has no further effect. =brushes.=--it is well to have a brush of some sort for cleaning off work, the bench, etc. a sash brush is good. for most of your painting, shellacing, etc., you will usually get along better with small flat brushes than with large round ones, except for very coarse work. those with flattened handles are convenient. from one to two inches in diameter will usually be large enough, unless for such work as painting the outside of a house, when something larger will save time. for painting small or narrow surfaces, the brushes used for "drawing" sashes are good, and for drawing lines "pencil" brushes will be required. a good brush for glue can be made by soaking one end of a piece of rattan in hot water and then pounding the softened part, when the fibres will separate, making a stiff brush. =bull-nosed plane=--see _plane_. =calipers.=--calipers, which are "inside" or "outside," according to whether they are to find the diameter of a hole or the outside diameter of an object, are very important in some work, as turning, but, though very useful at times, are not nearly as important for the work of the beginner as compasses. =carving-chisel.=--see _carving tools_. =carving tools.=--a few carving tools are often very useful for general wood-work. it is convenient to have these carving tools fitted in handles of a different pattern from your other tools. an octagonal shape is good. a _carving-chisel_ is very useful in working on odd-shaped pieces, because the cutting edge is bevelled on both sides. a carver's _skew_ chisel will be, perhaps, more generally useful for your work than one ground squarely across. a _parting-tool_, sometimes called a "v tool," is occasionally convenient, though hardly a necessity for most plain work. a small _veining-tool_ (like a very small gouge) is often useful. =centre-bit.=--see _bits_. =chalk-line.=--see _marking_. =chamfering.=--a chamfer is the surface formed by cutting away the angle made by two faces of a piece of wood. [illustration fig. .] in cutting the _ends_ of a stop-chamfer (fig. ), take care not to cut quite down to the line at first, as you will be very apt to cut a little too deep and leave a tool mark which cannot be removed. in the case of long stop-chamfers, use the plane whenever you can, so far as it can be used without hitting the wood at the ends. the draw-knife can often be used to remove the wood, being followed by the plane. the plane can be used slantingly, so as to cut nearer the ends, and a bull-nosed plane will cut nearer still, but the extreme ends will have to be trimmed to shape with the chisel or other tool. see also _bevelling_ and _paring_. =chisel.=--the _firmer-chisel_ is meant for light hand-work, for paring off wood and trimming to shape, and can be used for light mortising, though the mortise-chisel is intended for that purpose. it is often an advantage to have the long edges of such a chisel bevelled on the same side as the cutting basil, as it can be used more conveniently in some places. taking off the corner of the basil when grinding, often answers the purpose. the _framing-chisel_ is stouter than the firmer, has a stronger handle to stand heavy blows of the mallet, and is meant, as the name indicates, for framing, mortising, and other heavy work.[ ] see _mortising_. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] the _straight-bent chisel_ is shaped as shown in fig. , and is very useful for cleaning out corners, grooves, and other places where the common firmer-chisel cannot be used to advantage. a _skew-chisel_ is simply ground slanting, instead of squarely across, and is useful for corners and odd work. see _carving tools_. there are other forms, seldom needed by the amateur, as the _corner-chisel_, which is used for cutting or paring angles and corners. those chisels and gouges which have the handles fitted into sockets at the upper end of the iron, instead of the iron being stuck into the handle, and with ferrules at the upper end where they are struck by the mallet are, of course, the strongest for heavy work, although the lighter handles are just as good for light work. do not let your left hand get in front of the edge of the chisel while working, for the tool may slip and give you a bad cut, and in most cases the left hand should be kept on the lower part of the chisel to help control it, which is not easily done with one hand. in some cases, as in paring the edge of a piece directly downward towards the bench, it may be proper to hold the work with the left hand and use the chisel with the right; but as a rule, particularly for beginners, first see that the work is securely fastened or held from slipping by vise, clamp, or other expedient, and then keep the left hand on the chisel, which will steady and guide the tool, and, incidentally, prevent the hand from being cut. see _paring_ and _sharpening_. =circular-plane.=--see _plane_. =clamps.=--long clamps (cabinet-clamps), shown in the accompanying illustrations, are extremely useful in making glued joints and in various clamping operations. many, of different lengths, are to be found in wood-working shops. although much work can be accomplished without them, if you can afford a pair or more of medium length, or longer, they will be very useful. wooden clamps will answer every purpose, although steel ones are better, but more expensive. [illustration fig. .] to clamp two or more flat pieces together, as in making a "glue-joint," or in clamping framework, as a door or picture-frame, lay the work across the horses, which should be so placed that their tops will be as nearly level, or in the same plane, as possible, and apply the clamps as shown in fig. , always putting pieces of waste wood between the edges of the work and the clamps. place the clamps so that either the flat side of the bar or the corner, as shown, will lie against the surface of the work, thus keeping it from bending towards the bar when the screw is tightened. the number of clamps to be used must depend on the size of the work, but there is not usually much danger of an amateur's work being clamped too securely.[ ] if you have to glue a flexible strip, put a stiff piece outside between it and the clamp to distribute the pressure. you will often find by sighting across the surface of the work as you tighten the clamps, particularly in the case of door-frames, picture-frames, and the like, that the surface is winding. when this happens, move one or more corners of the work up or down, as the case may be, in the clamps, and thus take out the winding. a little experimenting will show how to do this. in the case of framed work, such as doors or picture-frames, test the angles with the square as soon as the joints are brought to a bearing. if the angles are not right, as will often be the case, move one end of either one or both of the clamps to the right or left, as the case may be, and you can easily change the angle until the square shows it to be right, when the screws can be tightened and the joints should close accurately. in clamping nearly all kinds of "case" work, such as bookcases, cabinets, boxes, and the like, these directions about moving the clamps until the angles are correct and the work free from winding are applicable. in such cases as that shown in fig. , waste no time in trying to get the surfaces _exactly_ flush with each other at the joint before partially tightening the clamps, lest the glue become set. any slight alteration can best then be made by tapping with the hammer near the joint, whenever either piece needs to be raised or lowered, putting a block under the hammer if the dent will not be removed by planing (see _gluing_). the clamps can then be screwed tighter. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] in such cases as gluing the joints of a box, put stout blocks or cleats over the joints before tightening the clamps (fig. ), to distribute the pressure. this applies to all cases of clamping where the pieces to be glued are not heavy enough to resist the change of shape from the pressure of the clamps, and pieces of waste wood are almost always required in any case to prevent bruising of the work. you can contrive home-made clamps out of any strong pieces of wood of suitable length, by nailing or screwing a block at each end (fig. ), when the work can be tightly wedged to a close bearing by driving home the double wedge shown, using, if necessary, one or more blocks, b, when you use the clamp for smaller work than that for which it was made. by keeping such clamps for future use, you will soon have enough to answer very well until you can afford to buy the regular cabinet-clamps. on the same principle, a simple clamp, derived from the orient, can be made by boring a series of holes in two stout strips--just as the holes are bored in the sides of a ladder, but nearer together. the work to be glued is laid on one of these strips in the same way as shown in fig. . the other strip is then placed directly above and stout pins put through corresponding holes outside of the work, which can then be wedged against the pins in the way just shown. another way, which can be applied to many cases, is to put a stout cord, doubled, around the work, and inserting a stick between the two parts of the string, turn it around until, the doubled cord thus becoming shortened, the parts of the work are drawn together. this can only be done where there is room to swing the stick around, as, for example, to tighten the rounds of a chair by drawing the legs together (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] you can often apply pressure, when no more convenient means are at hand, by making use of the elasticity of a board or pole. suppose, for example, you need to press two blocks tightly together, as shown in fig. . place them on the bench or floor and spring in a board or pole between the top of the upper block and a beam of the floor above, as shown. of course this board must be a little longer than merely to reach between the two points, as it must be sprung into place bent, when in the effort to straighten itself out again it will cause pressure on the blocks. pieces should be placed outside the blocks when scarring of the surface is to be avoided. the pressure can be applied in any direction, always supposing that you have something firm to press against. pressure can often be obtained by a lever, and many applications of the wedge will suggest themselves in your work. even if you have a shopful of clamps and hand-screws and vises, these applications of the simple mechanical powers often come into play (see fig. ). see also page . adjustable wood-carver's clamps can be bought for holding pieces in position on the bench, and are useful, but by no means necessary, as common clamps, or various devices, can be used. the small iron clamps which can be used in place of hand-screws are very useful. for other suggestions about clamping, see _hand-screws_. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] =cleating.=--a simple way to join two or more pieces of board or plank to make a wider piece is to cleat them. if short, they can be cleated across the ends. this can also be done to keep a single board from warping (fig. ). such a cleat should not be glued unless the width is very slight, on account of the expansion and contraction across the board being so much greater than that lengthways of the cleat (see pages - ). screws (which are best), nails, or dowels should be used, as they will give some play to the pieces. a groove can also be made in the cleat, into which a tongue on the end of the board is fitted. grooves can be cut in both cleat and board and a tongue or spline inserted (fig. ). these are operations best done by machinery. this end-cleating does very well on small work and where the tendency to warp is not too great. for heavier work, as doors, cleats on the side are better, but they are sometimes in the way, and not always desirable on the ground of looks. this is a strong way. side cleats should be fastened with screws (see _screws_) or clinched nails (see _nailing_), but not with glue, for the same reason as in the case of end cleats. if the cleat is wide enough, do not put the screws in a straight line, but "alternate" them (fig. ). see _jointing_ and _doors and panels_. =clinching-nails.=--see _nailing_. =compasses.=--wing compasses, or those with arc and set-screw, are easy to adjust accurately and will not slip, but, whatever kind you get, be sure that the points stay where you put them and do not spring away or wobble around. the chief uses of this tool are to strike circles, to lay off angles and arcs, to take off measurements from a rule or some object, to lay off measurements, and to "scribe" in places where a gauge can not be used (see _scribing_). in using compasses, particularly those which are not set by a screw, hold them and swing them around by the top at the hinged joint, rather than grasp them near the points, which may cause them to move or slip. [illustration fig. .] circles or circular arcs can be struck roughly, as you doubtless know, with a string and a nail at the centre, the string being loose around the nail. this method is not very accurate, for obvious reasons, and is only suitable for rough work. a more accurate way is to drive two nails through a strip of wood at a distance apart just equal to the radius of the required circle, one nail being driven into the wood to act as the centre, the other doing the marking (fig. ). instead of the marking nail a hole can be bored for a pencil. you can use a stick of this sort repeatedly by changing the position of the centre nail, or of the marking point. the same can be done with a brad or stout pin and a pencil, using stiff paper, card-board, or zinc instead of a stick. by such expedients you can do a great deal of work without buying compasses. =compass-saw.=--see _saw_. [illustration fig. .] =corner-blocks.=--these are merely small pieces of pine, or other wood which holds glue well, with two adjacent surfaces at right angles. hot glue is applied to them and they are rubbed into interior angles of cabinet-work, to strengthen and stiffen the work (fig. ), and are very useful for this purpose. they are got out in short pieces, lengthways of the grain, and can be freely used in places where they will not show, as inside of the base-board in fig. . the shape can be varied according to the conditions of the joint. apply hot glue plentifully, place the block where it is to go, and rub it back and forth several times, when it can be left for the glue to dry. =corner-chisel.=--see _chisel_. =countersink.=--this tool, to be used with the bit-brace, for enlarging the outer part of a hole, thus forming a cavity or depression for receiving the head of a screw (fig. ), is quite important, as being much more convenient than to use gouge, chisel, or knife for the purpose. see page . [illustration fig. .] the rose form of countersink is common and good. the clark double-cut countersink (for wood only) cuts smoothly and is easily sharpened. a countersink for metal is useful. =cracks, to stop.=--see _holes_, _to stop_. =cross-cut saw.=--see _saw_. =cutting-pliers.=--a pair of these will often be useful in connection with wood-working operations. =dents, to take out.=--see _bruises_. =dividers.=--see _compasses_. =doors and panels.=--it is important to have some understanding of the theory of framing panels, doors, and the like. the simplest form of door is, of course, a piece of board. this will do for some cases, but it is liable to warp or wind,--if a large door, sometimes to such a degree as to be useless. it is also, if large, liable to swell or shrink so as to be either too loose or too tight, and to break. cleating can be resorted to (see _cleating_), but will not prevent the swelling and shrinking, nor is a cleated door especially ornamental. besides, there are limits to the width of ordinary boards. several boards can, however, be joined, edge to edge, and cleated on one side, in which way a large door can be made (fig. ), and, if the boards are not fitted too closely together, there may be no trouble caused by the swelling and shrinking. another way to make a very _strong_ door is to make it of two thicknesses, or layers, one running up and down and the other crossways, or diagonally, the two thicknesses being firmly nailed or screwed together. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] all such arrangements are, however, suited for the rougher class of work. when we come to nicer work we must have something more scientific, that will swell and shrink as little as possible and that will look better. so, instead of using a broad flat surface with the boards all running one way, we try to overcome the faults of the flat door by framing the pieces together. suppose, for a theoretical case, that you make a door like fig. . it will not warp or curl because of the cleats at the top and bottom, but it will swell and shrink in width because there is such a wide surface of board to be affected by the atmosphere, etc., and it may become winding. to lessen these objections the middle part of the board can be removed--all but a strip at each edge (fig. ). it will not now swell and shrink much in width because most of the board has been removed. this frame will hold its shape quite well, but it is only a frame, not a door. how can you fill up this open frame to make a door, so as to avoid the trouble about warping, winding, swelling, and shrinking? first, however, as this frame is considerably taller than it is wide, you will readily see that it will be a better arrangement to make it as shown in fig. , with the cross-pieces between the uprights, according to the usual custom in such cases. suppose, now, that you fill up the open space with a _thin_ board, fastened on one side (fig. ), instead of the thick wood which occupied the space at first. the thin board will tend to warp and twist, but, being thin, it will not exert force enough to change the shape of the thick frame. that will prevent the warping and winding from doing much harm. if the screw-holes in this thin piece are reasonably loose, they will allow play enough for the board to expand and contract without putting any strain on the frame. this arrangement does not, however, look very nice on the side to which the board is screwed, though it can be used in some situations. suppose, finally, that you cut a groove around the inside edge of the frame of the door (fig. ) into which this thin board can be fitted loosely, making the groove deep enough to give the board room to shrink and swell in width without dropping out or pushing against the frame. you now have a complete door (fig. ), and the warping, winding, swelling, and shrinking will do as little harm as possible. that is all there is to the theory of framing doors, panels, and the like. [illustration right. wrong. fig. .] the panel should fit closely into the groove, but at the same time be loose enough to slide in and out as it expands and contracts, and should not be wide enough to reach to the bottom of the grooves, but room be left for all possible change in width, as shown in fig. , which shows sections on the line ab. all this is important and has many applications to other things than doors. it is not very uncommon for amateurs, ignorant of these simple principles, to make a door-frame properly, but in fitting the panel to make it the full width of the space from the bottom of one groove to the bottom of the opposite, and also to make it such a snug fit in the groove as to be stuck tight, all with the idea of making such a good fit as to prevent any of the gaping cracks so often seen, but really taking the very course to ruin the work. so important is it that the panel should have play, that it is quite common in nice work to rub wax or tallow around the edge of the panel, lest some of the glue from the joints of the frame should cause it to stick when the frame is glued up. if the panel is badly fitted or stuck, it may buckle or split, or the frame be split or forced apart at the joints. there are many more elaborate ways of arranging the details of door-framing and panelling (too numerous to be described here, as they will not often be required by the beginner); but if you understand the general principles upon which this simple door is put together, you will understand the principles upon which all panelling is based; and, though you may never do much of it, it is quite important to have a clear understanding of the theory, which is really quite simple--for it has many applications which may save you much trouble, labour, and expense. the best way to fasten the frame of a door together is by mortise and tenon (see _mortising_). this method is almost invariably adopted for house doors. dowelling is often used for smaller doors, but is inferior to the mortise and tenon. a common way nowadays to make light doors, and such as are not to be subjected to much strain, is to run the grooves in the stiles through to the ends and cut tongues or short tenons on the ends of the rails to fit these grooves, as shown in figs. and . the whole door, panel and all, can thus be quickly got out and fitted accurately with a circular saw at any wood-working mill, without any hand-work being required, except the smoothing of the pieces and the putting together. in this way you can have a door made for a small sum, smoothing and putting it together yourself. such a door is not fitted, however, to stand great strain. a house door made in that way would last but a short time. any heavy door, or one to have much strain, or liable to be slammed, should be framed with mortise and tenon. you can have grooving for a door-frame done at the mill very cheaply and do the mortising yourself, or you can have the mortising done by machine at slight expense. sometimes the grooving and mortising are combined,--an excellent way (fig. ). in using any of these methods mark distinctly one side of each piece for the "face" and lay out all the work from that side only. if the job is to be taken to a mill, see that the work is all gauged from the face side. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] in laying out such work never cut off the stiles (fig. ) to length at first. leave them too long (fig. ). the projecting ends will be useful when you knock the frame apart for gluing, after first putting it together to see if everything fits. besides, the extra length makes the ends stronger for the mortising and less likely to split out. the rails in door-framing and panelling are usually wider than the stiles. in laying out a door or panelled frame, place the stiles together, with the inside edges uppermost, and square lines across the edges to mark the positions for the rails (fig. ). carry these lines across the faces of the stiles, and mark the rails and stiles with some symbols to indicate the way they are to be fitted together (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] the whole should be put together once to see that everything is right before beginning to glue. before putting together permanently, the panel and the inside edges of the frame (the edges which come next the panel) must first be planed and smoothed, as this cannot well be done afterwards. then fit the panel in the grooves of the rails (fig. ), glue the tenons of one end of the rails and the grooves or mortises of the corresponding stile (see _gluing_), taking care not to put any glue where it may cause the panel to stick, and fit these parts into place (fig. ). drive the rails home. then glue and fit the other side of the frame in the same way (fig. )--all being done as quickly as possible. finally clamp the frame securely (see _clamps_). the tongued and grooved joint represented in the accompanying illustrations is not as good as a mortise and tenon, as already stated, but is shown as a simple way for making a light door. leave the work to dry, and when dry remove the clamps. saw off the ends of the stiles, and dress off the surface of the frame with the plane (see _plane_), after which you can smooth with scraper (see _scraper_) and sandpaper (see _sandpaper_), and the door or panel will be done. when there is objection to the end of a tenon showing on the outside edge of the stile, and a blind mortise is not desired (see _mortising_), the end of the tenon can be cut a little short and the mortise-hole on the edge plugged with a piece of wood, with the grain running the same way as that of the stile. fit the piece with a very trifling bevel on the edges, glue, drive tightly into place, and when dry smooth off (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] it is hardly worth while to work out the grooving or grooved and tongued joints by hand in these days when it can be so cheaply done by machinery. if obliged to do it by hand, you should have the proper plane for the purpose, as it will be very difficult and slow work otherwise. a panel is sometimes made flush with either side of the frame, by having a deep rabbet on that side, as in the case of a desk lid, for instance, but this is a form which can well be avoided by the beginner. =dovetailing.=--this is an operation requiring considerable skill to do well and, with the exception of an occasional single dovetail, is not frequently required in the work of the beginner. it is, however, a valuable, workmanlike accomplishment and a thoroughly scientific method, of which the amateur should have some understanding, even if he should never use it. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] the _common_ form, such as is used in joining the sides of a box (fig. ), can be done as follows: mark the lines _ab_ (fig. ) completely around each piece, at a distance from the end equal to the thickness of the stock. lay off the lines _cd_ on the end of the piece a. lay off the oblique lines _ec_ on both sides of the piece. with the back-saw cut by these oblique lines (_ec_) to the lines _ab_. fasten the piece in the vise, end upward, for the sawing. with the chisel, cut out the parts to be removed (marked _m_), as in cutting a mortise (see _mortising_), undercutting very slightly at the end (fig. ). when this cutting has been cleanly done, lay the piece a on the end of the piece b in the way it is finally to go, so that the pins just cut will rest exactly in position across the end of the piece b. mark around the pins, forming the oblique lines _fg_, from the ends of which square the lines _gh_ on both sides of the piece. remove the wood as before, taking care not to cut on the wrong sides of the lines which mark the pins, or the dovetailing may come together too loosely. when exactly fitted, apply glue, fit together, and when dry smooth off with plane, scraper, and sandpaper, as may be required. [illustration fig. .] _lap_ or _drawer_ dovetailing (fig. ) is similar to the preceding form, but the ends of the pins or dovetails on the piece forming the side of the drawer are shortened, and the recesses in the front piece which are to receive them are not cut through. first the side piece a (fig. ) is marked and cut on the principle just shown, the pins being shorter; then the piece b is marked and cut to fit. practised workmen in dovetailing usually (unless symmetry of the pins is required) determine the bevels for the pins of the first piece by eye, but the beginner would best not attempt to lay off angles or saw by eye. [illustration fig. .] _mitre_ dovetailing (_blind_ or _secret_ dovetailing) is used in cases where it is desired to conceal the dovetails, the result looking like an ordinary mitred joint, but this is difficult work for the beginner. =dovetail saw.=--see _saw_ (_back-saw_). =dowelling.=--dowels are merely round sticks of different diameters and usually of hard wood. they can be bought ready made and can be used instead of nails or screws, or instead of mortising, dovetailing, etc. they can be used simply as pins or in many cases can be split and wedged, though the holes must be tapered with a gouge if wedges of much thickness are to be used (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] a common use of dowels is to fasten the frames of tables, chairs, bedsteads, and various domestic articles. the use of dowels for such purposes is not to be recommended, however, although very common in cheap work and in much work which is not cheap in price. the mortise and tenon is usually much to be preferred. dowelling, to be really good, has to be skilfully done, while it is a very common way to stick the work together in any manner that will look right on the outside. a dowelled joint is not, as a rule, as scientific a form of construction as a well-planned mortise and tenon,--a statement which you can easily prove for yourself by comparing some article of your grandmother's or great-grandmother's time, and which is still strong, with some modern dowelled chair, which is in so many cases all to pieces and thrown on the woodpile after a short term of service. the gaping joints and dropping apart of modern dowelled work can be seen on every hand. there are some cases, however, where the use of dowels is scientific and just what is required. for example, split dowels, wedged dovetail fashion like wedged tenons, are often very useful (see _mortising_). [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] to find the centres for boring, so that the holes bored in the two pieces shall be in line, you can cut off the heads of some small wire brads so that they will be pointed at both ends. stick the brads into one piece where the centres of the holes should be. then press this piece against the other in the position it is to take when the work is done and the brads will of course prick holes in the second piece exactly corresponding to those in the first piece (fig. ). instead of brads, small shot can be used in a similar manner. it is well to take a round-pointed awl, or some such tool, and carefully prick a small hole with it at each of the points marked. this is to start the spur of the bit exactly at the point, as the spur sometimes has a way of working off to one side, so that the hole may not be in exactly the right place. the hardest part, however, is to bore the holes exactly at right angles to the surface, as a slight deviation in either or both may make a bad angle where the two holes meet. you can sometimes lay the pieces flat on the bench and arrange boards or blocks so as to guide the bit straight. the dowels must be thoroughly dry. it is better to have them a trifle too large, rather than too small, for you can easily trim them down to a snug fit. scratch them lengthways with the toothed-plane, or with the edge of a file. countersink a little hollow around the opening of each hole (see _countersink_), to catch the surplus glue which would otherwise form a rim around the dowel (fig. ). before gluing you should fit the work together once, as it is very awkward to make changes after the gluing is begun. when the parts fit accurately, take the joint apart for gluing. brush a little glue around the inside of one of the holes, dip one end of a dowel in the glue and drive into place. wipe off the superfluous glue and repeat the process with each of the dowels in that half of the joint. leave this to dry a day, or more if you can. then clean any hardened glue from the dowels and glue them, as before, into the other piece, this time putting glue on the flat surfaces which are to come together. the whole should be firmly clamped and left to dry (see _gluing_ and _clamps_). dowels are sometimes used in joining the edges of pieces, as in fig. , and in many other joints too numerous to be specified (see _joints_ and _jointing_). dowelling looks very easy, but it is usually hard for the beginner to bore the holes straight and to make the pieces fit accurately. =dowel-plate.=--a steel plate with various holes of such sizes that pins made by driving blocks of wood through them will drive snugly into the holes made by the corresponding bits. this is useful in fitting dowels. =drawers.=--the making of well-fitting and smoothly running drawers is an operation requiring much skill--more skill than can be expected of the beginner, or, in fact, than is attained by the average workman. the beginner should, however, have some understanding of the work, even if he does not attain a high degree of skill in its execution. bear in mind that it is much easier to make a drawer which is narrow and long (from front to back) run smoothly than one which is wide across the front, but shallow from front to back. the more accurately the case which holds the drawers is made, the easier it is to make smoothly running drawers. in good work having more than one drawer, a horizontal frame is fitted beneath each drawer for it to run on. these frames, as well as the whole case, should be free from winding, and it is also important that the stock for the drawers should be true. the front and sides of a drawer should be got out to fit very snugly in their places. the piece for the back is narrower than the front piece, to allow for the bottom (fig. ), and is often cut off at the top also. the front, sides, and back can be put together with any suitable form of joint. dovetailing is by far the best way, but it is difficult for the beginner (see _dovetailing_). the joints shown in fig. can very well be used for ordinary work. these can be quickly made by machinery (see _joints_). see also _gluing_ and _clamps_. [illustration fig. .] a groove for the bottom must be cut on the inside of the front and of the sides (fig. ). the insides of the pieces must be smoothed before putting the drawer together. when these parts are fitted, slip the bottom (previously fitted) into place. it should be got out with the grain running across the drawer, or parallel with the front (fig. ), and should be glued at the front edge _only_, the rest being free to swell and shrink, which saves the drawer from injury. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] be sure that the drawer is rectangular (putting in the bottom will assist in this) and free from winding. when put together and dry, carefully smooth the front and the sides. a little trimming with the plane may be required to make the drawer run freely, but care should be taken not to plane away too much. a drawer which is a trifle larger at the back than at the front will run better than if larger in front, as it will be less likely to bind or catch. small slides, between which the drawer runs, are fastened at each side outside the drawer, at the bottom, and must be adjusted carefully. thin blocks or "stops" can be fastened on the cross-frame so that the inside of the drawer front will strike against them when the drawer has been pushed in as far as it should go, or the drawer can be stopped at the back. a simple way to attach a drawer under a shelf, bench, or table is shown in fig. . the contrivance shown in figs. and can sometimes be used in place of small drawers. bayberry tallow is excellent to rub on the sides of drawers. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] =draw-knife= or =draw-shave=.--the draw-knife or draw-shave is very useful for slicing off large pieces and for trimming wood into odd shapes. it can be obtained with folding handles, adjustable at different angles, for use in places which can not be reached by the blade of the old-fashioned draw-knife; but the latter is good enough for all ordinary purposes. choose a medium-sized or large one. it is in principle simply a knife or very wide and short-bladed chisel with a handle at each end, and can be used with the flat side or the bevel against the wood as the character of the work may require. having but a short bearing surface to guide its course, it is very prone to follow the grain and cut deeper than you wish, so you must take special pains to cut with the grain, stopping and cutting the other way, whenever necessary. attachments can be bought for guiding the draw-knife in chamfering and such cases. the draw-knife can often be best used with an oblique stroke--either drawing it sideways across the work at the same time that you pull it towards you (fig. ), or holding it obliquely across the work and pulling it straight towards you (fig. ). it is one of the most dangerous tools if carelessly left lying around, and should be kept hung up out of reach of all small children. see _paring_, _bevelling_, and _chamfering_. =draw-shave.=--see _draw-knife_. =drill.=--drills for metal only are often useful to the wood-worker, but the one most important for the amateur is the twist-drill. see _twist-drill_. =drill-stock.=--there are various patterns of drill-stocks, some of them automatic, for holding drills of different sizes for small holes. _hand drills_ with revolving handle, like an egg-beater, can be used for small drills. see _bit-brace_. =duck's-bill-bit.=--see _bits_. =expansion-bit.=--see _bits_. =file.=--the file is a piece of hard steel with rows of ridges or teeth cut obliquely on the surface. when cut in one direction only it is called _single_-cut, but when there are two oblique rows of teeth crossing each other it is called _double_-cut. these ridges incline towards the end or point of the tool, so that the file, like the saw, plane, and scraper, cuts when pushed forward. files for wood have wider teeth than those for metal, so do not use a wood file on metal or a metal file for wood. the slab-sided shape (fig. ) is perhaps the most useful, if you can have but one file. a round "rat-tailed" file is also useful, and various other shapes if you can have a variety. for metal, the triangular, flat, the half-round, shown in fig. , and the rat-tail are best. files are very important for smoothing or rounding edges and curving surfaces. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] before beginning to file, be sure that the wood is firmly secured so that it will not slip and so that you can use the file with both hands. hold the tool with the right hand, thumb uppermost, and steady the end with the left hand, thumb uppermost (fig. ), or with the fingers or palm. to file squarely across, push the tool steadily and evenly straight forward, without rocking up and down, and pressing only on the forward stroke. [illustration fig. .] in filing rounded surfaces, a rocking motion is often helpful and the way and direction in which to file in such cases must depend upon the shape of the work and the grain of the wood, as you will quickly learn. see _rounding-sticks_. press lightly the first time you use a new file, until the fine edges of the teeth have been worn a little, as a violent filing on the first strokes may damage the cutting edges of the teeth. when a file becomes clogged with wood-dust or other substances, soak it in hot water a little while and then brush with a stiff brush. a _file-card_ is useful. a piece of dog-fish skin, if you can obtain it, cuts somewhat like a file or coarse sandpaper, and is useful for curved surfaces where you wish to use the tools after smoothing. =filing.=--see _file_. =filing (of saws).=--see _sharpening_. =finishing.=--to acquire a high degree of proficiency in finishing indoor wood-work requires long training and practice, but the simpler processes can be undertaken to good advantage by the beginner. there are a number of ways from which to choose. simply rubbing thoroughly with linseed oil gives a good, soft, permanent finish, which some prefer to anything else, but you should be sure that all superfluous oil is rubbed off. do not hang a recently oiled book-shelf or cabinet against the wall-paper of the room, for fear of defacing it. an oil finish, unless rubbed a good deal, has the disadvantage of getting soiled and collecting dust and dirt, but it is easily sandpapered and renewed and is certainly in better taste than a coarse, shiny, cheap varnish. an old-fashioned way is simply to apply a mixture of turpentine and beeswax, rubbing it as long as your strength and patience will allow. melt some beeswax in a can or saucepan and, when melted and taken from the stove, pour in enough turpentine to make it the consistency of paste. then apply with a brush or cloth and rub in and clean off the excess with a stiff brush or cloth, scrubbing the work as you would a stove. this makes a beautiful finish, soft and lustrous. it shows spots, however, and, though it is so easily applied, it requires continual renewing and rubbing to be kept in good condition. to make a hard and durable coating on the surface of the wood some kind of varnish is required. there is nothing better than shellac for the purpose of the amateur. it is not very hard to use, and there is certainly nothing which gives a finish of nicer quality. the surface dries quickly and the coat hardens more rapidly than most kinds of varnish. for some cases, as a boat, it is well to shellac first and finish with good varnish.[ ] shellac is cut (dissolved) in alcohol, and can be bought prepared, but it is better to cut it yourself, to diminish the chance of adulteration with cheaper substances. orange shellac will do for most of your work. into an open-mouthed bottle put some of the shellac (which comes in flakes and looks somewhat like glue) and pour over it enough grain alcohol ( per cent. grade) to somewhat more than cover the shellac. cork the bottle and leave in a warm place until the shellac is cut. shaking will hasten the process. wood alcohol can be used and is cheaper, but work done with it is not so good. it is a deadly poison taken internally and on account of the fumes it is best not to use it for a long time in a close room. if the tawny tint of the orange shellac is objectionable, white (bleached) shellac can be used, but this it is well to buy already prepared. it is a little harder to use than the coloured kind. use a flat bristle-brush and not a soft camel's-hair brush, unless for the last coat. one from one inch to two inches wide will be probably suitable for most of your work. for large surfaces, however, a larger brush is better. after using, always clean the brush thoroughly with alcohol. always shellac in a warm, dry place, free from dust--never where it is cold and damp; but on the other hand do not leave the work close to a hot stove or it may blister. the shellac should be quite thin. it should flow very freely from the brush. of the two extremes, it is better to have it too thin rather than too thick. three or four thin coats give a much better result than two coats of thick, gummy shellac. never try to thin it with anything but alcohol. keep the bottle corked to prevent evaporation of the alcohol and to keep out the dust. before beginning to shellac, see that the work is free from dust. pour a small quantity of the shellac into a small dish of glass or earthenware, not of tin. before applying to the wood, wipe the surplus shellac from the brush on the edge of the dish, so that it will not drip, and then lay on the coat as evenly and smoothly as possible, working from the top or from one end or side, and with the grain, so far as possible.[ ] do not apply the brush at first exactly at the edge of the surface, lest the shellac collect too thickly at the edge, but apply the brush first a little way on the surface and _then_ work from the edge. work quickly and lightly. begin and end the strokes of the brush gradually--lighten them at the end--so as to avoid a "lap" when the strokes begin again. do not work over the coat after it has begun to set or try to patch up spots. simply lay it on as well as you can and let it go at that. if it is not right you will know how to do better next time. give each coat plenty of time to harden before applying another--twenty-four hours is none too long. do not put on five or six coats in a day as is sometimes done. the outer coat hinders the drying of the shellac underneath, by keeping the air from it,--just as with paints,--and the way to do durable work is not to put on a fresh coat until the previous one is thoroughly dry and hard. shellac dries very quickly so that you can touch it, but does not get really hard throughout for some time, so do not be in haste to put on a second coat.[ ] if there are holes, cracks, or defects of any kind to be filled up, this is the time to do it--after the first coat is hard. one way to do this is to hold a hot iron close to a piece of shellac directly over the hole, which will be filled with the melted shellac. the surplus can be carefully pared off after it is hard. another way is to use wax coloured to match the wood. the wax can easily be coloured by melting and adding a small quantity of whatever dry colour--burnt umber, for instance--may be required. do not use putty in such cases. when the first coat is hard, skim over the surface with very fine sandpaper ( ), to remove any roughnesses, and apply the second coat. this is sometimes sufficient. if not, sandpaper and shellac again, and a fourth time if necessary. when you have a sufficient "body" of shellac on the wood, you can much improve the quality of the surface by rubbing it down with powdered pumice-stone and oil, which will remove the "shiny" effect and leave a softer and finer surface. to do this, take a bit of felt or haircloth, and wet it with thin oil (kerosene will do, or petroleum, or linseed oil thinned with turpentine or benzine, but the latter is dangerous to have around), take up a little of the pumice, and carefully and evenly rub over the surface, with the grain, renewing the oil and pumice as may be needed, or they can be sprinkled on the work. but be careful to rub evenly and not too long on any one spot, for it will be hard to repair the damage if you should rub through to the wood. wipe the whole off thoroughly with soft cloth. this process will be sufficient for most amateur work. for some work simply rubbing down with the finest sandpaper wet with oil is enough. in using sandpaper for rubbing down nice work, split it--that is, remove the outer layer of paper, which will leave the sanded layer thin and pliable and less likely to scratch or rub through the finish. a handful of tightly squeezed curled hair can be used. if varnish is to be used over the shellac as in case of a boat, simply sandpaper the shellac and do not rub with pumice and oil. with fine-grained wood, such as cherry, the process given above is all that will be required, but with coarse, open-grained wood, like oak, a good many coats will be needed to fill the pores and give a smooth surface. therefore a "filler" is often used to fill the pores of the grain. this is cheap and can be bought in the form of paste (either light or dark), which you can apply according to the directions on the can. rub it into the wood thoroughly, let it stand until it begins to set, or stiffen, then rub it off with a bit of burlap or any coarse material, _across the grain_ (lest you wipe it out of the pores). after it has become hard enough, sandpaper, and clean off any that may remain on the surface. then shellac as described. the filler can have the shade of the wood, or sometimes, as in oak, the figure of the grain can be brought out finely by using a filler somewhat darker than the hue of the wood. be sure to clean off the filler thoroughly, using a tool to clean out the angles and corners, or the finished surface will have a cloudy or muddy appearance. the general directions given for shellacing apply also to the use of varnish, but varnishing is in some respects harder for the amateur to do well. consult the dealer about the kind of varnish and the brush best suited to the particular piece of work you have in hand. the final coat of varnish can be rubbed down with pumice or tripoli and water. rotten-stone used with oil (petroleum is good) is excellent for giving a soft polish. french polishing is often attempted by the amateur, but it should be learned by taking a lesson from a practical polisher, and not from a book. the general idea of the process is as follows: a wad or pad of wool is made and on this is poured thin shellac, adding whatever alcohol may be necessary. this wet pad is then covered with a piece of clean linen, a drop of oil put on the outside to prevent the shellac from sticking, and the pad is then quickly passed over the surface with a circular motion, or with longer strokes in the form of the figure , or in some cases simply back and forth. after doing this for a while a very thin coat will have been deposited. this is allowed to dry for a short time, when the process is repeated, again and again, until a sufficient body of the polished finish has been formed. the details of the process vary with different finishers. it is quite easy to polish a small flat surface or such an object as the arm of a chair, but it is much harder for an amateur to successfully polish a large flat surface, like a table-top, except after much practice. a first coating of shellac applied with the brush and skimmed over with sandpaper will save labour in the polishing process. before refinishing old work it should, if the surface is in bad condition, be scraped down to the wood, using the scraper and finishing with sandpaper. a chisel (used like the scraper) is sometimes convenient to remove a thick body of old varnish. if the surface does not need scraping, it should be cleaned, either by washing with soapsuds or it can be scrubbed clean with the finest sandpaper, split, using oil or water as the case may be, but seeing that the work is wiped off perfectly dry before applying a new coat. pumice can be used, as already described, and a stiff brush, like a nail-or tooth-brush, is excellent for cleaning out corners and carved work. for simply brightening and cleaning furniture, a mixture of equal parts of linseed oil and turpentine with a minute quantity of japan is excellent. it should be well rubbed and carefully cleaned off. this will make scratches and bruises less conspicuous, and will make the article look fresher for a time, but it is only a cleaner and not a substitute for refinishing. =firmer-chisel.=--see _chisel_. =fore-plane.=--see _plane_. =framing-chisel.=--see _chisel_. =gauge.=--there are many kinds of gauges in the market, but they all depend on the same principle, having a block, head, stock, or fence, to slide along against the edge of the wood, and a bar, beam, or stem, which slides through the block, can be set to project from it at any required distance, and which has near its end a spur or marking point (fig. ). the stem has the divisions of a rule marked upon it, so that the spur can be readily set at the required distance. in some gauges the spur or marking point is sharpened to an edge parallel with the head, rather than to a point, as it is more certain to make a clear, sharp line, and is best when slightly convex on the side toward the head (fig. ). this gives the spur a tendency to run the line _away_ from and not toward the edge where the head is, thus helping to keep the head close up to the edge. sometimes a round point is used, and occasionally a knife point or blade for cutting thin stock into strips; and sometimes a wheel with sharpened edge. a form of gauge adapted for gauging from curved as well as straight edges is also made. do not trust the accuracy of the scale marked on a common gauge, for if the spur is at all out of place, as is sometimes the case, you cannot rely upon the scale. test by measuring from the head to the spur with the rule. [illustration fig. .] the _mortise-gauge_ has two spurs, one of which is movable and can be set at any required distance from the other, so that two lines can be marked at once, as for a mortise. this is a time-saving tool, and very convenient, but not a necessity for amateur work. there are gauges with long beams or stems and with long heads for gauging across wide spaces, but when you need anything of the sort you can easily make it and use with it either pencil, awl, or knife, as may best suit the case in hand. if you wish to draw a line two inches from the edge of a board, for example, you can mark off two or more points at the required distance and with a rule and pencil draw the line through these points. if you were to make the points so near together as to touch, you would have the line without needing the ruler. this is what the gauge does. it makes a continuous measurement and a continuous mark, which is of course the line required. the only gauge you need for rough work is a rule (or even a stick) and a pencil. to draw a line, for example, two inches from the edge of a board, take the rule in one hand, and lay the end flat on the surface of the board so that it laps over two inches from the edge (fig. ). place the forefinger underneath, against the edge, so that the end of the rule will remain two inches from the edge, and simply slide rule and finger along the edge, holding a pencil at the end of the rule with the other hand to make the mark. the finger must be kept evenly pressed against the edge. this is only suited for rough work, or for getting out stock approximately to shape, and of course cannot be depended upon for accurate measurement. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] something more accurate, with which you cannot get splinters in your finger, can easily be made, when needed, in this way. to run a line two inches from an edge, for example, and parallel to it, simply take any short stick and cut a piece out of it at one end so that the distance from the shoulder to the end will be just two inches, as shown in fig. . apply this to the edge of the piece and slide it along on the same principle as the rule and finger, being careful to keep the shoulder pressed up to the edge and the pencil or knife held firmly against the end. instead of cutting out a piece you can nail one piece on another (fig. ). the latter is better for straight work because the head or fence is longer and so can be more securely pressed against the edge. an objection to this gauge is the need of making a new one for every measurement, but where there is occasion to keep repeating a measurement it is particularly convenient and quickly made. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] for another home-made gauge (fig. ) cut a recess in one side of a block just wide enough to hold the rule and just deep enough so that the flat side of the rule will project a trifle above the surface of the block. on this side of the block fasten a small strip, with a screw, so that when the two pieces are seized in the hand the rule will be held fast at the point to which it is adjusted. this is more accurate than to use the hand alone. you can readily contrive such arrangements, which will be quite accurate if carefully used, but it is not worth while to spend much time over such makeshifts (except in case of necessity), for a fairly good gauge can be bought for a small sum. [illustration fig. .] the gauge is usually an awkward tool for the beginner to use. he finds it hard to keep the stock firmly against the edge while sliding it along, and lets the spur dig or plough deeply into the wood--the spur tends to follow the grain of the wood and when the grain runs toward the edge the result is often as shown in fig. , the stock being pushed from the edge. the stock is then pushed back and the wobbly process continued. to avoid these errors, the gauge, held well in front of you in one hand, should be tipped or inclined from you so that the spur will be drawn along the surface (fig. ) and will make but a slight scratch. then, keeping the stock or head _firmly pressed_ against the edge, push the gauge steadily from you, watching carefully to see ( st) that the spur does not begin to dig into the wood instead of lightly scratching it, and ( d) that the head does not slip away from the edge. this will prevent the point catching or jumping and will insure a good mark, which can easily be deepened by going over the line a second time if necessary. it is easier to mark a line when the spur is near the head of the gauge than when it is run out to some distance. the guiding power of the fence or head is greater over a point near to it than over a point at a distance, from which you can readily see that, conversely, the longer the head or fence, the easier the gauging becomes--that is, for _straight_ lines, which is much the most common use of the gauge. in gauging from a curved edge, a long fence, unless curved, would be impracticable. where it will injure the work to have the gauge marks show (as when the work is to be finished with shellac or varnish), be careful not to carry them farther than necessary, as very slight scratches show plainly after finishing. otherwise, in cases where the marks will not show or do no harm, as in rough framing, it is as well to run them past the required points, as it is quicker to do so and the juncture of lines which cross is more distinct. gauge from the same side of the wood in laying out mortises or any lines intended to be in the middle of a piece of wood, or at a fixed distance from one edge, else if the edges are not exactly parallel (as is often the case) the markings will differ. see also _scribing_. =gimlet.=--the gimlet is useful, cheap, and good for boring where the hole does not come near the edge, but near the edge or in thin wood great care must be taken to prevent splitting. if necessary to use it in such a case, keep turning it backwards for every turn ahead and do not try to force it through the wood. it is better, however, to use some other tool if you can (see _bits_ and _twist-drill_), for the tapering form of the gimlet gives it a wedge-like, prying action upon the woody fibres. =gimlet-bit.=--see _bits_. =glazing.=--an old chisel can be used to clean off old putty before setting glass. on new work, see that the rabbet or shoulder where the putty is to go is primed with lead paint before putting on the putty (see _painting_). you can buy glazier's points, to hold the glass in position under the putty, for a trifle, or very small brads can be used. no special directions are necessary for using the putty. to set common glass in furniture, as in bookcase doors, it is better to fasten it in place with small strips, not pressed too tightly against it. strips of plain moulding are good. to set plate glass in furniture, the same means can be used for small pieces, but large plates, as for a mirror, should be held in place by little strips of soft pine, one or two inches long, bevelled on one side. the other side being glued, these strips can be lightly pressed into the crack around the glass. these short pieces, glued to the frame on one side and with the bevelled side wedging the glass into place, hold the latter securely, but, owing to the softness of the wood, not too rigidly. =glue.=--see _gluing_. =gluing.=--glue is made from refuse animal matter, and also from parts of fishes, the latter being known as fish glue. it comes in sheets or cakes or flakes, to be dissolved and used hot, or already prepared in liquid form. the majority of practical mechanics prefer the former (_i.e._, "hot" glue) for nice work, although the use of liquid glue has increased much of late years. hot glue is probably preferable if all the conditions are just as they should be, but if not so, liquid or "cold" glue may be better. buy the best grade. it is the cheapest for good work, and you will not use enough to make the price much of an obstacle. the only _sure_ test by which to buy glue is to get a little and see how it holds. a good way to prove the quality of your glue is to soak it over night, or as long as may be necessary, in whatever quantity of water you think it will absorb. the more it will swell without dissolving, the better the quality. _poor_ glue will dissolve. you cannot positively tell good glue by the colour, for there are many kinds (and for more than one purpose) and many makers, but whatever the colour, the glue should be clear looking and not cloudy or muddy. do not use glue that has a mouldy or otherwise disagreeable or offensive smell or a bad taste. to prepare hot glue, break the glue into small pieces, and soak it in all the cold water it will absorb for perhaps twelve hours, when it will have become swollen and softened and will look and feel somewhat like jelly. then put it in the inner glue-pot (see _glue-pot)_ and cause the water in the outer vessel to boil for several hours. it is quicker to dissolve the glue at once without soaking, but the result does not seem to be quite as good as by the former method. the glue to be right for use must be thin enough to drip from the brush in a thread or stream, without collecting in drops like water, and you can tell something about its being in condition to use by testing it between your fingers. do not weaken its strength, however, by diluting with more water than is necessary. it is important to keep the glue and the glue-pot clean, and if the odour from your glue becomes offensive at any time clean out the glue-pot and make fresh. glue loses strength by repeated meltings, so do not dissolve too much at a time, and after heating it over two or three times throw away any that is left in the glue-pot, cleaning the latter thoroughly. on work which you are very particular about mix fresh glue each time.[ ] you can make a good glue-brush of a stick of rattan. soften the end in hot water and pound it with the hammer until the fibres separate. for corners, cracks, holes, and the like use sticks, which you can whittle to any required shape. although apparently too simple an operation to need much explanation, and often ignored in books on wood-work, as if anyone could of course glue two pieces together, the operation, to be really successful, calls for more knowledge of the principles involved than beginners or amateurs usually possess. do not daub a thick layer of lukewarm glue on the pieces, and then slap them together as you would make a sandwich, after the usual domestic fashion. done in this way the pieces often stick for a while, but there is nothing certain about it. we have seen that wood is full of little holes (pores, as they are commonly called), or spaces between the fibres (see fig. ). the glue becomes worked into these little pores and that is what gives it such a firm hold on the wood, somewhat as plastering is forced (purposely) into the cracks between the laths. so you must have the glue thin, that it may fill these little cavities and get a "grip" on the wood; you must have it hot, that it may the more easily penetrate these open spaces before it becomes chilled; you must have the wood warm, that the glue may not be chilled and begin to set before it has a chance to penetrate the interstices of the wood; and you must press the pieces together so hard as to expel the body of glue from between them, forcing it into the pores and squeezing outside what will not go in, to be wiped or scraped off afterward. for what you want is not to have the two pieces held together by a layer of glue between them, lightly sticking to each surface and separating the two in proportion to the thickness of the layer; but to have the two surfaces as close together as possible, held so by the tenacity of the glue reaching from the cavities of one surface to those of the other. the closer the surfaces are forced together the better, as the glue will be less exposed to the atmosphere. you will see from all this that gluing should be done in a warm room of an even temperature. while with hot glue it will not do to change the relative positions of the pieces after putting together, you can have considerable time to get them in position if the liquid or cold glue is used. where several places in the same piece of work have to be glued together at the same time, it is frequently very hard to get around with the hot glue before that first applied has begun to set, unless you have help. in such cases, cold glue is a great convenience. if your shop is not warm or if you cannot have your glue hot, you had better use the liquid glue. it takes much longer to set than the other. in cold weather it should be slightly warmed. it can be thinned with vinegar or acetic acid, or what you wish to use at once may be thinned with water. do not pour water into the can of glue, as it will not keep so well. you will also readily see that it is much easier to make good glued joints in soft wood than in hard, for the former is more readily squeezed to a fit by the clamping, while with the latter it is quite essential that the pieces should fit with extreme accuracy before clamping (see note under _clamps_). before beginning to glue have everything laid out, fit the pieces together, clamp them up just as if you had put on the glue, and see that everything comes together right--_i.e._, rehearse the gluing process before using the glue itself. this is a very important point, particularly when there are several pieces to be glued, for you will have no time to waste after you have begun to use the glue. do not spread the glue on too thick. take the dirt off both pieces, then, while putting the glue on one, have the other warming slightly at the fire. the moment the glue on the brush leaves the glue-pot it begins to cool. if it fairly begins to set before you get the two pieces together, your joint will not be good. you will have to take it apart, scrape off all the old glue, and begin over again. so you will see there is no time to be lost when once you begin and it will be too late then to correct any mistakes in the fitting of the wood-work. good workmen always put the work together and take it apart again before gluing. do not wipe off the glue which squeezes out from a glued joint (unless for some special reason) nor wash it off with water. let it harden, and clean it off after the joint has set. it helps protect the joint. do not be in haste to unclamp your work. when to release it depends on the kind of wood, the kind of work, and the circumstances under which the gluing is done, and no exact time can be set. if for some temporary and unimportant purpose and in soft pine, for instance, you can unclamp in a few hours or even less, but for important work, which is to hold permanently, twelve hours is scarcely time enough even for soft wood and hot glue, and twenty-four hours is none too long, for though the glue dries quickly to the touch, it takes considerable time to get thoroughly hard. it is safer to allow more time for hard wood. the thickness of the stock makes a difference also. large junks and blocks and boards glued flatways require more time than / " stock, thin strips, or little splinters. you can tell something by the condition of the glue that is squeezed from the joint. liquid glue sets much more slowly, and twenty-four hours is soon enough to release the work under average conditions. the warmth and dryness of the air make a good deal of difference. under unfavourable conditions more than forty-eight hours may be required. if for any reason you cannot clamp a joint, after applying the glue rub one piece back and forth upon the other a few times. rub wax, soap, or tallow on any part which must not be stuck by surplus glue which may exude from a joint, as in the case of a panel which may become stuck by the glue used in fastening the frame (see _doors and panels_). to glue two pieces where the surface is to be planed or trimmed at the joint, do not glue them together after they are planed or trimmed, but glue them first, and plane or trim them afterwards, taking care to have the grain of the pieces run in the same direction (see _jointing_). to glue pieces end to end, or as in a mitre,--that is, "end wood,"--first size with thin glue to stop the pores, else the glue will be quickly soaked up. then, after allowing this coat to stand, glue in the ordinary way. but glued joints in end wood are seldom good and are to be avoided. a great deal of glued work comes apart, and a great many mistakes in putting work together are caused by not understanding, or not bearing in mind, the way wood expands and contracts and warps and winds from heat and cold, dryness and moisture. this is an important matter if you wish to do good gluing. do not think that all that is necessary is to have your wood dry and that then you can glue the pieces together in any relative positions. veneers or thin pieces are sometimes successfully glued with the grain of the pieces running at right angles, as seen in chair seats, but as a rule avoid gluing wide pieces together with the grain running at right angles. see _laying out the work_, in chapter iv.; also _jointing_. =glue-pot.=--this can be bought of copper, iron, or tin. a medium-sized one is more useful than a very small one. have a cover to keep out dust and loose particles. if obliged to make shift without a proper glue-pot, always use two dishes like a regular glue-pot, with water in the outer one, on the principle of the double boiler used for cooking, else the glue will be sure to burn and be spoiled. two cans, such as are used for tomatoes or other vegetables, can be used on a pinch, one being larger than the other and fastened in place with wire or in some way to keep the smaller can from moving around too much; but a regular glue-pot is much better. see _gluing_. =gouge.=--this tool is similar to the chisel, except for the curvature across the blade. the common gouge has the bevel on the convex or outer side and is known as an "outside" gouge. this is the more useful for ordinary work. the "inside" gouge has the bevel on the inner or concave side. although very useful for many purposes, it is less important for general work and is harder to sharpen. gouges are of various degrees of curvature, fig. showing a "flat" and a "quick" curve. those of moderate depth and curvature will be more useful for your work than very deep or very flat ones. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] in using the common or "outside" gouge, light, short strokes should usually be made, for only the bevel of the tool bears on the wood, which makes this gouge quite hard to control. you can often apply the principle of the sliding or sideways cut in using the gouge, as with the chisel, to good advantage. you can roll the gouge around with your hand from side to side so as to make it cut slantingly. this is particularly useful to give a clean cut when gouging across the grain (fig. ). in some cases, in working out a moulding, for instance, you can hold the tool at an angle with the work and get a better result than to push it straight forward lengthways (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] be careful not to scoop out little hollows below the required depth of the cut, and keep the direction of the grain in mind the same as with the chisel. the little inequalities left by the gouge can be reduced easily by the file, curved scraper, or glass and sandpaper. see _sharpening_. =gouge-bit.=--see _bits_. =grindstone.=--when you get to the point of having a grindstone, get one which is somewhat soft and fine, for if too coarse it will produce a rougher edge than is desirable for your tools. do not allow your grindstone to become softened in spots by being left partially immersed in a trough of water, as it will wear away irregularly. with the best of care a stone will, however, become untrue after continued use, not merely in its circular outline, but the face will become hollowed and uneven. it must then be trued, either by some one of the contrivances now made for the purpose, or by simply turning the stone into the correct shape by holding the _end_ of a piece of soft iron, as a piece of pipe, against the surface, without water, moving the iron as occasion requires, until the stone becomes true. =grooving.=--grooves of different dimensions are often required for various purposes in wood-working. by far the best way, as a practical matter, is to take the work to a mill and have the grooving done by machine, which is not expensive. it can be done by hand with the planes devised for the purpose (as the plough), but though these are valuable tools, they are largely superseded, or becoming so, by machine-work, and it is usually fully as well for the amateur to take such work to the mill as to buy the tools. in some cases the sides of the groove can be sawed by the hand-saws and the material removed by the chisel, but this is not easy if the groove is long. pieces are sometimes clamped beside the line to guide the saw and sometimes even attached to the saw itself, or to a piece of saw-blade. the lines for the groove can be scored with the knife or chisel and the wood between removed by the chisel, much as in cutting a mortise. in nice work, as fitting a shelf in a bookcase, it makes a better joint not to fit the entire end of the shelf into a groove, but to cut a tongue or wide tenon on the end of the shelf, with a shoulder at each side and the front edge, to fit into a corresponding groove, as shown in fig. . =half-round file.=--see _file_. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] =halving.=--this joint shown in fig. is a common, simple, and good way of joining two sticks when they cross at right angles or obliquely. place the sticks in position and mark the width of each upon the surface of the other, using a knife or chisel for scribing. with small sticks the wood can be removed with the knife, first cutting a notch at each side and then paring off the wood between (fig. ). with large pieces the lines should be marked by the square, the depth (one-half the thickness of either piece) by the gauge. the lines at the outside of the space can then be sawed down to the gauge line, taking care to keep just on the inside edge of the line. the wood between can be pared out with the chisel down to the gauge lines. when the halving is at the ends of the pieces or at the end of one piece (fig. ), the process is the same, except that the wood can be entirely removed by the saw. other forms involving bevelling and dovetailing are shown in figs. , , and . this principle of the lap joint is often carried a little further and we have the open mortise and tenon (fig. ), which can successfully be applied to a mitred joint and can also be dovetailed, and boxes are now made by machine with the corners entirely made up of a continuous series of these joints (fig. ). see _joints_. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] =hammer.=--the hammer is made in many forms, but the common kind used by carpenters will usually answer your purpose, and is too familiar to require description. for general use select one of medium size and weight. remember that the face of the hammer-head, although harder than the nails it is meant to drive, is not intended to pound every piece of hardened steel you may run across, nor to break up boulders when you are after minerals. for the use of the hammer see _nailing_. =hand-screws.=--hand-screws are of great use in clamping work that has been glued and for holding pieces in any required position. wooden hand-screws are probably the most generally useful, but a couple (or more) of the simple iron clamps will be of great service at times, as they can be used more advantageously than the wooden ones in some kinds of work. get medium-sized hand-screws rather than small ones if you can, as they will be generally more serviceable. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] to open or close a hand-screw, hold it at arm's-length in front of you with a handle in each hand, and with a twirling motion revolve it toward or from you, as may be required, to increase or decrease the opening between the jaws. the screws should be greased or rubbed over with black-lead, soap, or bayberry tallow. to hold two pieces together with uniform pressure is of course necessary for gluing and various other operations, but a little practice will show you how to adjust the hand-screws so that the jaws will bear on the wood evenly. the main point to remember is to keep the jaws parallel. the final tightening is given entirely by the outer screw, so, in adjusting the screws, leave the jaws open a little at the tip as in fig. , that when the final pressure is put upon the outer screw the jaws will bear on the wood with an even pressure (fig. ). if the jaws were adjusted to bear evenly before tightening the outer screw, the final result would be as shown in fig. . [illustration fig. .] in clamping together finished work or pieces which could be injured by the pressure, always put pieces of waste wood between the work and the hand-screws. in case of delicate work, like carving or mouldings, a piece of _soft pine_ placed between the surface and the hand-screws or clamps will enable considerable pressure to be applied without injury to the work. a simple home-made clamp, suitable for such work as temporarily holding in place parts of the frame of a boat, for instance, is shown in fig. . see _clamps_ and also figs. and . =hatchet.=--the hatchet is too familiar to need description. a common, medium-sized hatchet, that can easily be swung with one hand, is all that the beginner will ordinarily require, although there is quite a variety of hatchets and axes for various purposes. the main thing in the use of the hatchet, besides keeping your fingers out of the way, is to look sharply after the direction of the grain of the wood, as it is not easy to stop a blow in the wrong place, for the hatchet is not so easily controlled as some other tools. experience is the best teacher in the use of a hatchet. for removing superfluous wood with the hatchet, see _paring_. =hinges.=--there are many varieties of hinges for various purposes. the common kind, like that shown in fig. , had best, for neatness' sake, on moderately heavy work, be narrower than the thickness of the stock, so as not to extend across the edge. the hinge should be sunk in the wood of one or both of the parts to be hinged--in the case of many boxes, for instance, one half of the hinge when shut is usually sunk in each part, but in some kinds of work the whole thickness may be sunk in one part. the hinge can be held in position on the edge (in the case of the box) so that the centre of the pin on which it turns is in line with the back of the box, or sometimes a little outside. marks can be made with the knife or chisel at the ends of the hinge, and the recess in which it is to fit marked with the square and gauge. this wood should be removed with the chisel, first making cross cuts to break up the grain, as in fig. . fit the other hinge or hinges in the same way. next lay the lid exactly in position on top of the hinges and mark by them and cut the recesses in the top in the same way. hold the hinges in place with two or three screws each and see whether the cover opens and shuts as it should. make any needed alterations, and finally screw the hinges firmly in place. another way is to place the lid exactly in position (shut) and mark directly from the hinges, on both box and cover at the same time, the points from which to lay out the recesses. it will be well to look at a properly fitted hinge for a similar purpose before beginning your work, since one rule cannot be laid down for all cases. for strap-hinges, t-hinges, and the like, see page . =holes and cracks, to fill.=--the simplest way to stop holes, cracks, checks, and the like, in painted work, is with putty, always applying it _after_ the first coat of paint and never before (see _painting_), but this method should not be used for other than painted work, and the nicer the work, the less desirable the use of putty becomes. for nice work, as furniture, which has not been finished, small holes or cracks are often stopped by putting a daub of hot glue on the smooth end of a piece of wood of the same kind as the article, and with a sharp chisel, held nearly at right angles with the surface, scraping off fine wood-dust, which, mixing with the glue, forms a paste with which the crack can be more than filled. when hard, the surplus can be pared and scraped off. plaster of paris (calcined plaster), mixed with very thin hot glue, is excellent for stopping cracks and holes of considerable size. it can be mixed with water only, but this is not as good. [illustration fig. .] fitting in a plug of wood is a good way when the hole is of such shape that you can do so, making the grain of the plug run the same way as that of the piece to be plugged. taper the plug slightly, so that when driven in it will fit tightly and not be flush with the surface, but project above it (fig. ). dip in hot glue, and drive well in. when dry smooth off. if the hole is irregular, trim to some shape to which you can fit a plug. in nice work take pains to have the plug a good match for the rest of the wood. slight cracks at the end of a piece can often be plugged and at the same time secured against further splitting by sawing directly down the crack, so as to remove it and substitute a straight saw-kerf. in this kerf a slip of wood can be fitted and glued. wax, and also melted shellac, can be used to stop holes and cracks in finished work. for this, see under _finishing_. =jack-plane.=--see _plane_. =jointer.=--see _plane_. [illustration fig. .] =jointing.=--this term is applied to the act of straightening and making true the edges of two boards or planks which are to be joined to make a tight joint, with glue or otherwise. it is, also, popularly applied to straightening the edge of one piece only, as to "joint" the edge of a board. this you will often have to do, and for jointing two edges which are to be glued particular care will be required. assuming that the edges have been got out nearly straight, the only plane you will require is the fore-plane,--or better, the jointer, or even the "long" jointer if the piece is long and you are fortunate enough to have these tools,--and it should be set fine, although if the edge is very crooked and you have to work off much superfluous stock, the iron can be set to make a coarse shaving at first. in shooting or jointing edges it is customary to hold the finger under the sole of the plane as a guide (fig. ). this helps in regard to the common fault of tipping the plane sideways so as to plane off more on one side than on the other (fig. ). this trouble may be aggravated by a wrong position of the left hand on the fore part of the plane in case you use a wooden plane (see fig. for correct position). keep testing across the edge with the square (fig. ). the shooting-board can be used to advantage for short pieces (see _shooting-board_), and attachable guides can also be obtained. [illustration fig. .] the jointing should be done with long, deliberate, steady strokes. any hasty, hit-or-miss slashing away with the plane will be sure to result in a bad joint, and you can easily get the edge into such shape by three or four careless strokes that it will take you a good while to get it straight. try also to avoid planing the edge rounding, from end to end (see _plane_, figs. - ). sight along the edge. also test with straight-edge, looking toward the light. if any shines through, the edge is not yet accurate and the process must be resumed. if you are jointing two edges, as for a "glue-joint," first examine the pieces to see which edges will best go together, according to the purpose for which they are intended. look at the end grain so as to arrange it in different ways if you are building up a piece of selected parts (fig. ). if merely joining two or more boards to make a wider one, notice the way the grain runs lengthways, and the way it crops up to the surface, for you will have, for everything but the roughest work, to plane the surface over after the joint is glued, and if the grain runs in two or three different ways it will be harder to make the surface smooth. there are cases, however, in handsomely figured wood, as quartered oak or mahogany, where you will arrange the grain in the way that will look the best, but in such cases you expect to go through extra labour for the sake of having the article as handsome as possible. with soft, straight-grained white pine or whitewood, these matters are of less importance. when you have the pieces laid together in the best way, mark on the surface right across the joints (fig. ) so that you will know how to put the pieces together, for you will forget how they were arranged after you have moved them around a few times. [illustration fig. .] [illustration wrong. right. fig. .] joint each edge separately. for nice work it is well to joint the edges of the successive pieces alternately from opposite sides,--that is, if in planing the edge of the first piece the marked (or face) side of the board is _towards_ you, plane the edge of the next piece with the face side of the board against the bench, or _away_ from you. this helps to counteract the result of any tendency to tip the plane to one side or any inaccuracy in setting the plane-iron. see _shooting-board_. then, putting one piece in the vice with the jointed edge upwards, lay the other edge upon it in the proper position and see if the two edges touch throughout. if not, one or both must be planed with thin, careful strokes until they do fit, for the joint will not be good unless the edges coincide. remember, however, that it takes more than merely touching to make a good joint. the _surfaces_ of the boards must be in line (in the same plane). of course this really depends upon the edges being square. test by holding a straight-edge, the square, the edge of the plane, or anything straight, against the surface of the boards (fig. ).[ ] do not be misled by the directions you may see in "amateur" books and magazine articles which tell you, for cases like this,--when you wish to glue up the lid of a desk, for instance,--to plane and sandpaper your boards carefully on the sides and then fit the edges together, after which you "have only to glue the edges and the job is done." that is not the right way to make a glued joint, as you will find out for yourself after you have planed a few dozen boards the second time. the skilled workman seldom attempts to do this except in repairing or some case where the surface of the pieces must be preserved. the practical work-man's way (which is the way for you), is to glue first and plane afterwards. the best way, practically, is to glue up the rough boards before they have been planed at all, and then have the whole planed down as one piece by machine to the required thickness. of course you should get the surfaces as nearly in line as you can, to avoid needless planing afterwards, but give your special attention to making the joint hold (see note under _clamps_). sometimes the edges of boards to be glued are purposely planed, hollowing lengthways, so that the two pieces touch at the ends, but do not quite come together in the middle, the idea being that a clamp at the middle will force the joint together for its whole length and will give a stronger result than to attempt to make both edges exactly straight. if there is to be any open place in the joint before gluing, it is better to have it at the middle than at the ends, but there is a difference of opinion as to whether there is any advantage in springing boards to fit in this way. before gluing hardwood edges, it is well to tooth them over with the toothed-plane, if you have one. (see _plane_.) see _plane_, _gluing_, _joints_, _cleating_, _dowelling_, etc. =joints and splices.=--there are many kinds of splices and joints used in the different branches of wood-work, a few of which are here given. [illustration fig. .] the common square butt-joint (fig. ) is the simplest way to join two pieces at right angles, as in making a box or frame, and is used for all common work. glue is of but little use with this joint. rely wholly on nails or screws. [illustration fig. .] to make a better joint, cut a rabbet at the end of one piece and you have a joint (fig. ) which shows less end wood, and can be helped a good deal by gluing, on account of the shoulder. [illustration fig. .] another way is shown in fig. . some strength and stiffness is gained by the tongue and groove, but a groove near the end introduces an element of weakness. [illustration fig. .] a much stronger way and a tighter joint (fig. ) is often used for cisterns, water-tanks, and horse troughs, but the projecting ends are objectionable for most purposes. see _halving_, _mitring_, _dovetailing_, and also _box-making_, page . in nailing any such joints as those just shown, remember to always bore holes for the nails wherever there is danger of splitting. see _awl_, _bits_, _boring_, _nailing_. there are many ways, besides those just mentioned, for joining sticks and timbers at right angles, which is something you will often have to do, whether for a kite or some small framework or for the timbers of a building. to join two or more boards or planks to make a wider surface, several methods can be used. cleating, though strong and suitable for all such work as drawing-boards, rough doors, and the like, is often undesirable, both on account of the looks and because the cleats may be in the way (see _cleating_). the simplest way, without cleats, is to glue the jointed edges (see _jointing_ and _gluing_). dowels can be used with this joint (see _dowelling_), or grooves can be cut and a strip or spline or tongue inserted (fig. ). this last way can be done at the mill quicker and better than by hand. the edges can also be halved, or a rabbet cut in each edge from opposite sides. the boards can also be "matched" (see page ), in which case it is not usual to glue them. all of these joints can best be made by machine. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] to avoid the warping and change of shape to which wide pieces are subject, particularly when they are not middle boards (see chapter iii), they are often built up of selected narrower pieces (fig. ). this is done for many things,--the frames of machines, the tops of sewing-tables, drawing-boards, chopping-blocks, etc. masts, bows, fishing-rods, and the like are sometimes built up of selected pieces, the idea being that a better result can be obtained by combining selected smaller pieces, that flaws and defects (which are apt to occur in larger pieces) can be avoided, and that sometimes the grain can be arranged to better advantage. this is doubtless true, but there is always the objection that glued joints may give way. if you can get a piece which is practically perfect, it is probably in most cases better than a glued-up combination, for it is not easy to improve on nature when you can get her best specimens; but unless you can get _first-class_ stock of the dimensions required, it is better to "build up" with smaller pieces of selected stock. where the ends of two pieces come together and you wish to make a close joint, you will, of course, saw the pieces off as squarely as possible, using the square or perhaps the mitre-box. if you mark and saw them with exactness, and if everything about their arrangement is straight and square and true, the ends will come together exactly and make a close joint, but as a practical matter this frequently will not happen, however careful you may be. for nice work, the workmanlike way in such cases is to plane or pare the ends until they fit, but for rougher work the expedient of sawing the ends to fit can be resorted to. to do this, put the ends together as they are to go (fig. ), keep them from moving, and saw straight down through the joint. as the saw will leave a kerf of uniform thickness, the pieces can now be pushed together and the ends will fit, unless the joint was very much open, in which case you have only to saw again, and if necessary repeat the operation until the ends fit. this is a very useful expedient in case of need, but should not be relied on as a regular way to make joints, lest it engender a careless and inaccurate method of work. this applies also to joints which meet at any angle. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] in some cases, where only one side of each piece shows, as in laying floor-boards, it is usual to undercut the ends slightly--that is, to make the joint a little open at the bottom, which gives a tight and neat joint on the side which shows (fig. , which is exaggerated). another way to make an end joint is by bevelled scarfing or splaying (fig. ). you will see the ends of the clapboards on old houses joined in this way, and it doubtless makes a better joint in many cases than the common square or butt-joint, but it is more work. strips of moulding are often cut in this way. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] there are many ways of splicing two or more pieces so as to get greater length, many of them, such as are used in bridge-building and roof-framing, being quite complicated. you will rarely, however, in such work as you will do at first, have occasion to do more than nail strips (fish-plates) on the sides of the pieces or make a halved splice or scarfed joint (fig. ). the latter is often made longer than that shown and fastened in various ways. a joint for a brace is shown in fig. . see _cleats_, _doors_, _dovetailing_, _dowelling_, _gluing_, _halving_, _mitring_, _mortising_, _nailing_, etc. =keyhole saw.=--see _saw_. =knife.=--an excellent knife for shop work is a sloyd knife. a good shoe-knife will do very well. this is better for shop work than a jack-knife. it will not close on your fingers for one thing. for general purposes, however, a pocket-knife is the best thing, as you cannot carry a sloyd knife around with you. in buying it get a good plain knife with not more than two or three blades and of the best steel you can afford. do not waste money in trying to get your whole kit of tools into the compass of one jack-knife handle. in selecting a knife, open the blades and sight along the back to see that each blade is accurately in line with the handle, as they are sometimes fastened at a slight angle, which weakens the knife. an immense variety of work can be done with a common pocket- or jack-knife, which is the best _emergency_ tool for either the beginner or the skilled workman. one great thing about whittling is that you cannot rely on squares, rules, or compasses to get your work right, but must be independent, think quickly, look sharply, and rely on your own faculties. a knife is so easy to sharpen that there is not much excuse for using a dull one. see _sharpening_. in cutting, always keep your left hand _behind_ the blade, and as a general rule cut _from_ you, for the tool may slip and cut you instead of the wood. there are cases where you have to cut towards you, but there is never any need of getting your left hand in front of the cutting-edge. =level.=--a spirit-level is important for some work, but not often necessary for the beginner, as a substitute can easily be made. a horizontal or level line being at right angles with a vertical line, a home-made level can be made by using the principle of the plumb-line, as shown on page . when the plumb-line hangs freely on the line _ab_, which is at right angles to _cd_, the latter line (_cd_) must of course be level. the frame should be several feet long for levelling large work, as it can be adjusted more accurately than if small. =linseed oil.=--see _finishing_ and _painting_. =locks.=--use locks of good quality or none at all. never put very cheap locks on good work. there are many varieties of locks, some to be screwed on the outside of the wood, others to be sunk in recesses cut in the side of the wood, others still to be let into mortises--chest-locks, door-locks, cupboard-locks, drawer-locks, etc. to fit a chest- or box-lock (not a mortise-lock), place the lock in the right position, mark around the part required to be sunk in the wood, which can be cut away with gouge and chisel, the keyhole having been bored quite through the wood and trimmed to a neat outline which will conform to the shape of the key. when the lock has been screwed in its recess, put the "hasp," or part which is to be on the lid, into its place in the lock, just where it will be when the chest is locked. then close the lid, and by slightly pressing you can make a mark on it to show where to put the hasp. sometimes you can mark the place with a pencil, or by putting transfer-paper between the hasp and the wood, or by rubbing blackened grease on the plate of the hasp. the plate of the hasp should be sunk in the lid to be flush with the surface, and may then be screwed on, bearing in mind the thickness of the lid when selecting the screws. a mortise-lock is fitted in a similar way, but let into a mortise (see _mortising_). to fit a common drawer-lock, determine the place for the keyhole and place the lock in position on the inside as before. with a pencil mark the outline of the box-part of the lock, which bears against the wood. cut away the wood within this line, making a recess slightly deeper than the thickness of the box-part of the lock. the hole must be bored for the key, as before. put the lock into place and mark the outline of the outer plate, not merely on the inside of the drawer front but also on the top edge. cut away the wood with the chisel to let the plate sink flush with the wood. when the keyhole is shaped, try the lock and if it works, screw it on. close the drawer and turn the key hard to raise the bolts (the tops of which have been previously rubbed with blackened grease, such as can be scraped from an oil-stone, or using transfer paper), which, pressing against the wood, will mark the places for the mortises into which they are to slide. cut these mortises and the drawer can be locked. the variety of locks and their arrangement in regard to fitting is so great that it will be best for you to examine a well-fitted lock for the same purpose that the lock you have to fit is intended, for one rule cannot be given for all cases. =mallet.=--the mallet, which is merely a hammer with a wooden head, is made in various forms and sizes, from the big beetle of the wood-chopper to the ladies' carving mallet. it is used to strike the wooden tool-handles. for heavy work a mallet with the handle put through the head from the outside, like the handle of a pickaxe, is good because the head cannot come off. a rounded head with the handle on the end (like a potato-masher) saves having to notice how you hold it, as it is equally effective in any position. a mallet of this type can be turned all in one piece. hickory or lignum-vitæ or any dense, hard wood is good for a mallet. you do not gain force by using the mallet instead of the hammer, but the softer and more yielding blow of the mallet saves the tool-handle. =marking.=--for all rough work the ordinary carpenter's pencil, sharpened flatways, like a screw-driver, is the most convenient and durable instrument. for nicer work, where you need more accurate lines, the common round pencil (medium hard or rather soft) is all you need, but for nice, close work (such as marking accurate joints), a knife, the corner of a chisel, a marking-awl, or a scriber of some sort is necessary. there is no need to buy any tool for this, although they are to be had--nothing is better than a common pocket-knife or a chisel. keep your pencils sharp by rubbing them on a piece of fine sandpaper, or an old file. [illustration fig. .] in scribing with the chisel, the edge is drawn along with one corner slightly raised and the flat side next the straight-edge, holding the tool either like a pencil or for deeper scoring as in fig. . in all marking and scribing, whether with pencil, awl, knife, chisel, or other tool, be sure that the marking edge is kept close up to the rule, straight-edge, or square, as it will often tend to follow the grain of the wood and run off the line, and will sometimes force the straight-edge or square out of position if the latter is not held firmly. do not try to stop lines which meet at a given point, but let them cross one another when they will not show in the finished work, as it is quicker to do so and the crossing of two lines marks a point more accurately than a dot. for work to be finished, however, scoring the surface with lines should be avoided wherever they will show, as they will become conspicuous after the work is finished. [illustration thin rule--fine work. fig. .] [illustration thick rule--rough work. fig. .] in marking lines with a _straight-edge_ or ruler you must be careful that it does not slip. if it is long you can put weights on it. to mark a line _accurately_ through given points, the ruler should not quite touch the points, but be pushed almost up to them and equally distant from each (fig. ). this will give you a clear view of both points so that you can be sure that the pencil or whatever you mark with will go as nearly as possible through the centre of each. bearing the pencil against the edge of the ruler, you can slant it a trifle till the pencil-point will just coincide with the given point on the wood, and, keeping the same inclination, move the pencil along the ruler, and it should also go through the second given point. this applies to a regular ruler with a comparatively thin edge, and to fine work only. in marking by a thick edge, or where extreme nicety is not required, you will of course put the straight-edge right up to the points and run the pencil-point along in the angle (fig. ). besides marking lines, the straight-edge (in some form), is used to determine whether a surface is true. see _straight-edge_. for rough, off-hand marking, particularly on undressed stock, chalk is often best. sticks, shaped like school-crayons, of graphite or some black composition, are good for rough marking. the _chalk-line_ is used for distances too great to be covered conveniently by a straight-edge and in places where the latter could not so well be used. the chalk-line is a chalked cord drawn taut between the two points to be connected. it is better to use a small cord than a large one, and blue chalk is often preferred to white. fasten one end of the cord with a loop around an awl or nail at one end of the desired line, and from this point chalk the cord, holding it between the thumb and the chalk so that the cord will bear on the flat side of the chalk in such a way as to wear it away evenly without cutting it in two. then draw the chalked cord tight to the other end of the desired line and, holding the end down with one hand, lift the cord from as near the middle as practicable with the thumb and forefinger of the other hand and let it snap back on to the surface. the cord should be raised squarely from the work and not pulled slantingly to one side or the line will not be straight. =marking-awl.=--see _awl_. =marking-gauge.=--see _gauge_. =matching-plane.=--see _plane_. =measurements and measuring.=--for various suggestions, see _rule_, and also pages , , , (footnote), , and . =mirror-plates.=--a good way to fasten such articles as mirrors, cabinets, etc., to the wall is by mirror-plates, which you can buy or make yourself of brass. these should be sunk in the wood so as to be flush with the back side of the shelves. after being fitted, they should be taken off during the process of finishing the work. =mitre.=--see _mitring_. =mitre-board.=--see _mitring_ and also page . =mitre-box.=--if you can afford it, an iron mitre-box which will cut at various angles will be very useful. you can make one yourself of wood. you can get a carpenter to make you one for a small sum, but the iron ones are better. see page . =mitre shooting-board.=--see page . =mitring.=--a common joint is the mitre (fig. ). its only advantage is that it shows nothing but a line at the angle and the "end wood" is entirely concealed. it is a weak joint at best, even when made by a skilled workman, and is particularly hard for an amateur to make well. the slightest variation in one of the corners of a frame or box throws the whole structure out of shape and in attempting to correct the error the other joints are apt to be opened, and if the whole is finally got together in a fashion it is often after bother enough to have accomplished much good work in some other way. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] the mitre is particularly unscientific for wide pieces used flatways (fig. ), as the inevitable expansion and contraction of the pieces is very apt to cause an open joint. if the wood is not quite dry, so that it shrinks, the joint may open permanently toward the inside corner, for when the wood shrinks in width the pieces will become narrower and so separate at the joint, leaving a crack, tapering from the inner to the outer corner. even if the wood is thoroughly seasoned it will expand and contract more or less. when it expands, the joint will tend to open at the outer corner (fig. ). when it contracts it will tend to open, as just shown (fig. ), at the inner corner. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] of course there are some cases, as in making a picture frame of prepared "mouldings," when mitring is the only way in which the frame can be put together, and there are some other cases in which it is the most proper and suitable joint, but as a general rule, for amateur work, particularly in framing where strength is a consideration, avoid the mitre. other and better forms for anything like a box are shown in figs. , , , . the mitre is sometimes strengthened for box work and the like by fitting a spline or tongue with the grain running across and not lengthways of the joint (fig. .) this, properly glued under pressure, makes a good joint and one much superior to the plain mitre. but, though easy to do with machinery, it is a slow and careful job to make such a joint by hand, and if a case arises where you wish it done you had best take the work to a factory, where a circular saw is all that is needed. the principle of halving shown in figs. and , can also be applied to a mitred joint. saw-kerfs are often made (figs. and ) into which small strips are tightly fitted and glued. this is a good way and easily done, once having got the mitre properly put together. a combination of the mitre with the joint shown in fig. is shown in fig. . see also _dovetailing_ and _joints_. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] to lay off a mitre, or the lines by which to cut the intersection of any two pieces at any angle, a simple way is that shown in fig. . the pieces are laid one above the other at the desired angle. then the points of intersection are marked on each edge. lines connecting these points will give the desired angles for sawing. the square can be used to help in determining the points accurately and to project them to the upper side of the top piece. =mortise and tenon.=--see _mortising_. =mortise-chisel.=--see _chisel_. =mortise-gauge.=--see _gauge_. =mortising (mortise and tenon).=--if you can get out two pieces and fit them together accurately with a mortise-and-tenon joint, and do the work well, you will be competent to handle a great many of the difficulties of ordinary wood-work. you will often have occasion to use this joint. the mortise is the hole in one of the two pieces to be joined. the tenon is the pin or projection in the other piece, shaped to fit the mortise. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] to lay out a mortise and tenon (fig. ), select and mark the working faces for each piece. first take the piece in which the mortise is to be cut (fig. ). square two lines, _ab_ and _cd_, across the face and the same distance apart as the width of the piece on which the tenon is to be cut. carry these lines across the side x (_ae_ and _cf_) and also across the side opposite to x (that is, the side where the tenon will come through). next take the tenon-piece (fig. ) and measure from the end a distance a little greater than the width of the face of the mortise-piece, and at this point square a line, _gh_, across the face of the tenon-piece. continue this line, _gi_, around the piece, with the square. now take the gauge and, setting it at the distance from the face settled upon for the mortise, scribe the line _jk_ on the side x and also on the side opposite x. also from the face of the tenon-piece, without changing the gauge, mark the line _lm_ on the side x, on the opposite side, and on the end. set the gauge to measure from the face to the other side of the mortise,--that is, add the width of the mortise to the figure at which the gauge was set,--and scribe another set of lines, _op_ and _rs_, in the same manner as before, remembering to gauge all the time from the same face. in the coarser kinds of work, where marks on the surface do no harm, the gauge marks can be run across the other lines, as being easier and more distinct, but in fine work, especially that which is to be finished, care should be taken not to make scratches that will be seen when the work is finished. the parts to be cut away are indicated by cross marks (fig. ) and it will be seen at once that the tenon and mortise are laid out correctly. [illustration fig. .] to cut, take first the mortise-piece and fasten it securely by vise or clamp in a convenient position. the simplest way to remove the wood is to bore a series of holes with a bit of a diameter as nearly the width of the mortise as you have (fig. ), but a trifle smaller. this removes a large part of the wood with but slight danger of splitting. the rest can easily be trimmed away to the lines with the chisel, taking care not to jam the chisel down lengthways of the mortise when the latter is blocked with chips or firm wood, or the wood may split off at the side of the mortise. to cut out the wood with the chisel only (or to trim the ends of the mortise after using the bit), bear in mind the way the chisel acts when you drive it into the wood. if both sides of the chisel were bevelled (as is the case with carving chisels), it would tend to go straight down into the wood, and if held vertically would make a vertical cut (fig. ), but the chisels you use for mortising are flat on one side and bevelled on the other. being one-sided in this way, the edge of the tool is forced by the inclined bevel to slide off, so to speak, more or less, in the direction of the side which is flat. you can prove this easily by holding a chisel across the grain of a board and driving it in. if you hold the tool lightly, you will see that as you drive it in it will incline to cut under, always on the side which is flat (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] this shows how to go to work to cut a mortise so as to keep the sides square and true. if you put the chisel at the end, flat side outward, the cut will tend to run under and make the hole too large below the surface. if you turn the tool the other way, it tends to slip in towards the middle of the mortise. so, to cut out the wood, take a chisel just a trifle less in width than the mortise, and, beginning near the middle of the mortise, hold the chisel as in fig. and make successive cuts, working toward the end, first in one direction and then in the other, giving the chisel handle a slight pull toward the centre of the mortise each time you move it, to loosen the chips (fig. ). you can thus work safely toward the ends, which will be left slanting (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] after cutting about half through the piece in this way, turn it over and repeat the process from the other side, the result being a hole like that shown in fig. . now turn the chisel around with the flat side toward either end of the hole, and you can pare down the ends to the line without danger of undercutting (fig. ). care must be taken not to jam the chisel down lengthways of the grain until the hole is practically cleared of wood, or the side of the mortise may be split off. use the chisel lengthways of the grain only at the end of the process, to pare the sides of the mortise evenly, with light strokes, down to the line. in all the use of the chisel, take pains to hold it vertically as regards the _sides_ of the mortise--that is, do not tip it over sideways, or the mortise will be slanting or too wide at the bottom. the common firmer- or paring-chisel can be used for all light mortising, but for heavy work the regular mortising-chisel should be used (see _chisel_). to cut the tenon, simply saw carefully on the line _gh_ and its opposite (fig. ) and then on the lines _lm_ and _rs_. be careful not to cut beyond the line, so as to make the tenon too small. it is easy to trim it a little with the chisel if it is too large. cut a little bevel around the end of the tenon, so that it will drive through smoothly without catching and tearing the sides or ends of the mortise. when it goes through properly and the tenon and shoulder fit snugly, the projecting end of the tenon can be sawed off after the whole job is done. the tenon should be just large enough to drive through with a slight pressure and fit snugly without any wobbling around. it should not be so tight as to require much force to drive it home, or there will be danger of splitting out the sides of the mortise. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] there is no absolute rule as to how wide to make the mortise and tenon in proportion to the width of the pieces. it depends on the kind of work, the kinds of wood, the kind of strain to be put on the joint, and various circumstances too complex to be gone into here. if the tenon is very thin it will be weaker than the sides of the mortise (fig. ). if very thick, the sides of the mortise will be too thin and will be weaker than the tenon (fig. ). one third of the width is as thin as a tenon is often made. it will then sometimes be weaker than the sides of the mortise, as you can see from fig. . but it all depends on what the joint is for. if it is to stand violent wrenching, the tenon in this case might break before the mortise-cheeks, and had best be made a little thicker, with the sides of the mortise a little thinner; but, on the other hand, if the joint is merely to hold the tenon-piece in position, as in case of a post resting on a sill, one third is plenty wide enough for the tenon, as it will be best not to weaken the sill by cutting any larger mortise than is necessary. sometimes the tenon-piece is simply let in to the other piece for its full width. this is called housing (fig. ). two thirds of the width of the piece is thicker than you will be likely to have occasion to make a tenon, as this leaves the cheeks of the mortise very thin. it is wholly a matter of judgment (between, say, one third and two thirds of the width), according to the conditions of each job. [illustration fig. .] the length to which a mortise can safely be cut is also a matter of judgment according to circumstances. if the tenon is thin, the mortise can be longer than if the tenon is thick, as the cheeks will be thicker and stronger, but, as a rule, avoid trying to make very long mortises, unless the tenon is very thin and the wood very strong, as there will not be strength enough left in the cheeks of the mortise (fig. ). six times as long as it is wide is about as long as it is well to make a mortise under ordinary circumstances, though, as just said, it all depends on the conditions of the particular piece of work. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] when a wide piece is to be mortised into another piece, two or more tenons are sometimes cut, thus avoiding too long a mortise, but this will not do for very wide pieces, unless some of the tenons are fitted loosely, for the expansion and contraction of the wide piece may cause it to buckle or split if all the mortises fit snugly (fig. ). in such cases as a door-frame or when the end of a board is to be fitted into the side of a post, a tongue and groove is often used in addition to the tenon, and this (known as "relishing") is a good way to do (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] the mortise and tenon given above is a very simple form. sometimes the tenon is short and does not go through (fig. ). this is a common form, and is used a great deal in the best work. it is sometimes called blind mortising, the tenon being known as a "stub" tenon. mortise and tenon joints are sometimes merely fitted together, but can also be glued (see _gluing_), pinned, wedged, or dovetailed and fastened with a key. to pin a mortise and tenon, simply mark a point with square and gauge upon each side of the piece containing the mortise (fig. ), fit the tenon in place, and bore in from each side (or in rough work bore right through from one side until the spur appears on the opposite surface) (see _boring_). then drive through a snugly fitting pin and trim off the projecting ends. the pin should be slightly pointed before driving, on the same principle that the end of the tenon is bevelled. it is not necessary to round the pin. an eight-sided one is just as good. do not use too large pins. in ship-building, bridge-building, and old-fashioned house-framing pins and treenails from " to - / " or more in diameter, are used. dowels of various sizes will usually answer for such framing as you may have to do (though a rift-pin is stronger). for such work as pinning a joint in a chair, you will not need anything larger than a / " hardwood pin. you must use judgment as to how near the edge to place the pin. if you put it too far from the edge, its hold on the tenon will be weak and the end of the tenon may break out (shear). if you put it too near the edge, the sides of the mortise may tear or split out. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] sometimes, particularly in timber work, to insure a snug fit at the joint, "draw-boring" is resorted to (fig. ). the hole for the pin is not bored through the tenon as just shown, but is bored a trifle nearer the shoulder of the tenon than the other holes (in the mortise-piece). the result is that when the pin is driven through it draws the tenon-piece down to a snug fit at the shoulder. but this has to be done with judgment. if the hole in the tenon is too much out of line, driving the pin through tends to split (strictly speaking to _shear_) the end of the tenon, and too much strain is put on the pin. in the mortising just shown, there are only two shoulders where the tenon begins--that is, the tenon is made by only four cuts. this is good for all common or rough work. in nice work a shoulder is also cut at each edge of the tenon (fig. ). this makes a neater-looking joint, as these shoulders cover the ends of the mortise completely. when the joint comes at the end of the mortise-piece, the tenon can extend to the edge on the outside and the mortise be cut clear out to the end, forming an open mortise-and-tenon joint (fig. ), or a wide shoulder can be left on the outside of the tenon--the tenon itself being made narrower (fig. ). this course is adopted in doors and frames of various kinds (see fig. ). [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] a good way to fasten tenons is to wedge them. this can be done whether the tenon goes through the mortise-piece or only part way, as in a blind joint. the wedges can be driven between the tenon and the ends of the mortise (fig. ), or, as is often better, driven into cuts made in the tenon itself, thus spreading the tenon toward the end, dovetail fashion, making it extremely difficult, or impossible, to pull it out of the mortise. before wedging, the mortise should be cut under or enlarged toward the side on which the tenon comes through (fig. ). the wedges can then be dipped in glue and driven as in fig. . to spread the tenons themselves, one or two or even three saw-cuts should be made in the tenon, lengthways and farther than the wedges will extend (fig. ). the tenon and mortise having been properly glued, the tenon is fitted in place, and the wedges, previously prepared of some strong wood and tapering quite gradually, are dipped in the glue and driven down into the saw-cuts, thus spreading the end of the tenon into a dovetail until it fills the mortise (fig. ). it is often best to drive the outer wedges nearer the edge of the tenon than is shown in fig. , lest the tenon-piece be split. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] the process is much the same when the tenon does not go through the mortise-piece (fig. ). the mortise is undercut as before, and saw-cuts are made in the end of the tenon. the wedges are carefully planned and cut so that, when the tenon is finally in place, they will be of the right size to spread it so as to fit the mortise. the wedges must not be too long, so as to interfere with the tenon being driven home or to break off. when you are sure the whole will go into place and fit snugly, glue everything, start the wedges in the cracks, and drive the tenon quickly to place. this will of course drive in the wedges, which will spread the tenon at the end and fix it firmly. in fact, if well done, you cannot get it out again. there are other forms of mortise and tenon, but they will be seldom required by the amateur. see _joints_. =nailing.=--to drive nails, hold the hammer near the end of the handle. do not, as is often done by boys and amateurs, grasp it close to the head. the nearer the end of the handle you take hold, the harder blow you can strike, just as the longer the handle, the harder the blow. use light strokes--mere taps--in starting the nail. after you are sure it is going straight you can then use more force to drive it home. do not try to sink the nail-head quite flush with the wood. leave that for the nail-set. you may think that any slight depression you may make if the hammer strikes the wood will be too slight to be seen, but that is not so, as the slightest dent or depression will probably show in finished work. the head of the hammer should be swung back and forth through an arc of a circle of which the wrist is the centre. do this carefully and steadily and you will send the nail in quicker and straighter than when you flourish the hammer wildly around in the air and bring it down with a ferocious bang somewhere in the vicinity of the nail, as boys of all ages have been known to do. now, remembering that the hammer-head will (and should) swing around in an arc of which your wrist is the centre, you must see that your wrist is in such a position that the hammer-head can strike the nail squarely--that is, the hammer-handle, when the head rests squarely on the nail-head, must be in a line parallel with the flat surface of the top of the nail (fig. ). if the wrist is much above or below this line, the nail will be struck slantingly, and either be driven crooked or bent (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] first place the hammer in the correct driving position, and then swing it back and forth as nearly in the same curve as you can. practise this motion a little on a soft piece of board to see how squarely you can dent the board and how nearly you can hit the same dent with successive strokes. frequently a nail does not drive straight, but becomes bent and goes in the wrong direction. if you withdraw it do not, as a rule, try to drive another in the same hole, but start it in another place. sometimes a nail will be bent because the face of the hammer-head has glue or grease on it. in such a case rub it on a piece of fine sandpaper or in the ashes or the ground. holes should always be bored when there is any chance of splitting, or when _slender_ nails are driven into _hard_ wood (lest they bend), but remember that the hole, particularly in the inner piece, should not be quite as large as the nail. with nails having large heads it does not matter in hard wood if the holes in the outer piece are about as large as the nails, provided the latter drive tightly into the inner piece. [illustration right. wrong. fig. .] the hole made by a brad-awl is better, when it does not split the wood, than one made by a bit or drill, because it does not remove the wood but merely presses it aside, so that when the nail is driven the fibres tend to spring back to their original position and close in around the nail, helping to hold it in place. in driving the old-fashioned nails, which have two sides parallel, while the other two incline toward the point or taper, they should be used on the same principle on which you use the brad-awl. if placed the other way, the wedge shape of the nail will tend to separate the fibres and split the wood (fig. ). with nails having two sides smooth and two rough, as you pick them up you can tell by the fingers which way to hold them, the rough sides going across the grain and the smooth sides with it. nails will drive into hard wood easier if you touch the points to grease, tallow, lard, or soap. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] _"toe" nailing._--if you wish nails to hold as much as possible, toe them--that is, slant them (fig. ). you can see at a glance that the board will be held much tighter than if the nails were driven straight up and down. of course you cannot always drive nails this way, and there are many cases in which you would gain nothing, but it takes only a moment longer to toe nails, and it is often very useful where you wish to be sure that the work will hold together. there are many cases where you cannot nail any other way, as when you fasten a stud to the top of a sill (fig. ), and you can see at once that it is advantageous. of course this is not a good method for work which you may wish to take apart again. slanting the nails helps to draw one piece tightly up to another, as is often desirable for a tight box or a floor (fig. ). you can increase this effect, after you have driven the nail part way in, by drawing the hammer towards you as you strike, or in the direction towards which the nail points, thus bending the upper part of it toward the other piece, which tends to make a tight joint. _clinching nails._--the way to clinch nails is simply to drive them through against a heavy hammer, or any solid metal object, held on the other side. as the point comes through it is gradually turned over or hooked around into the wood and when the head is driven home the point will be firmly embedded in the wood. another way is to simply strike the projecting ends with light, slanting blows. this will gradually bend or curl the point over to one side, and as it bends over you can pound more directly downward until the hooked end of the nail is buried in the wood. clinching is very useful for many purposes, as in nailing cleats on a shed door. it is usually best to bend the nails over in the direction of the grain, rather than across it. whether to clinch or toe the nails must depend on the work. clinching is better for anything that is to be slammed or subjected to violent treatment, while in many cases toeing is better, and frequently you cannot reach the points of the nails to clinch them. _blind nailing_ is resorted to in order to have a clear, smooth surface, as in floors laid with matched-boards. each board is nailed just above the tongue, with the nails slanting through the solid part of the board (fig. ). this holds the board down and tends to force it closer to the adjoining board. the grooved edge of the next board entirely conceals the nailing and leaves an unbroken surface. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] another form of concealed nailing, known as "_sliver_" nailing, is sometimes practised in inside work (sometimes in putting up "inside finish"). a little shaving is raised with the gouge (an _inside_ gouge is best) or a narrow chisel, where the nail is to go, and curled away sufficiently to drive and set the nail (fig. ). hot glue is then dabbed into the groove, the shaving (which is only raised at one end and not detached from the wood) is pressed back into place, and the spot rubbed with sandpaper drawn around a flat block until the shaving is firmly glued where it belongs. this takes but a moment or two, and when the work is finally smoothed and finished the place cannot be detected, if the operation has been properly done. this is convenient to know in case you have to drive a nail where there is objection to its being seen. see _withdrawing nails_. =nails.=--there are many kinds of nails, many more than is worth while to specify here, as you will probably use those of wire for most of your work. when another kind would be preferable (as is the case for some purposes) it will be specified. the nails in common use before the introduction of those of wire were known as "cut," being stamped from a sheet of metal, and "wrought," the latter kind being much older and originally forged by hand into shape, one by one (hence the name), but now commonly made by machine. the expressions three-penny, eight-penny, ten-penny, etc., indicate the length, and come from an old custom of so designating the lengths, but you need only to call for them by the length, as inch or - / inch, in order to get what you want, and you can easily select whatever degree of stoutness you need. copper or galvanised nails and tacks will be needed for your boat-building, copper being preferable, particularly for salt water. [illustration fig. .] =nail-set, or punch.=--the nail-set, for sinking nail-heads below the surface, is quite important, and it is well to have a large one and a fine one. the end of the set or punch must not be allowed to become rounding or it will be all the time slipping off the nail-head and punching holes in the surrounding wood. a slight conical depression in the end of the set is good. do not use a file for a nail-set, for the end is too hard and will dent the face of the hammer-head. when setting nails, hold the nail-set firmly against the little finger, placing the latter on the wood close to the head of the nail, as shown in fig. . this will keep the set from slipping off the nail-head and damaging the work. =nippers.=--a pair of these will often be of use in wood-working operations. =odd-jobs.=--a very simple combined tool known as "odd-jobs" can be used as a marking-gauge, mortise-gauge, scratch-awl, try-square, t-square, depth-gauge, mitre-square, spirit-level and plumb, inside-square, and beam-compass. it is well suited to much amateur work, and is cheap. =oil.=--sperm oil is good to use with your oil-stones. kerosene is good. lard oil can be used. all thick and gummy oils should be avoided. never use linseed oil or any similar vegetable oil, as it is not a good lubricator, and gums the stone. glycerine thinned with turpentine or alcohol is sometimes used, and even turpentine alone. for oil for finishing and painting, see _finishing_ and _painting_. =oil-stone.=--it is very essential to have a good oil-stone. they can be found of many degrees of fineness. those of very fine and hard grain, which give a keen edge but cut very slowly, will not be found so well adapted to your use as those of moderate coarseness and softness, which cut faster. the stone known as red washita is good to use for wood-working tools, as it cuts rapidly. it should be free from hard spots. the arkansas stone produces a very fine edge, but is of so fine texture that it is not so well adapted for your tools as a coarser stone, unless you happen to find a quick-cutting one. the turkey stone will produce a keen edge, but is not so good for your use. some stones (and excellent ones) cut best with water. when first trying a new stone use water, and if the surface does not become at all glazed or polished it will not be necessary for you to use oil. the stone should always be kept covered when not in use, to protect it from the dust and dirt. set it in a block with a cover or make a box for it. always wipe it clean after using, to remove the paste of ground stone, steel, and oil left on the surface. when an oil-stone becomes unevenly worn, it can be trued by rubbing it around on a sheet of sandpaper fastened on a flat surface, like the side of a board. water can be used in this operation. in addition to the ordinary flat oil-stone, slips of stone of various shapes are useful, a common and useful form being that shown in fig. , wedge-shaped on one edge and convex on the other. if you have v-tools, carving gouges, or other tools sharpened on the inside, you must have slips of stone of various shapes with which to sharpen them. see _oil_ and _sharpening_. [illustration fig. .] =painting.=--you can paint your work very satisfactorily--perhaps not quite as well or quickly as a skilled painter by trade, but well enough for all practical purposes if you observe carefully a few simple principles. if you disregard them and think, like many amateurs, that anyone can paint right off the first time without any knowledge or thought, your painting will be botch-work. keep your work well painted. it is cheaper in the end to paint frequently and keep the work protected from the decay and damage due to exposure--not to speak of the better appearance. do not use cheap paint, unless, of course, for some cheap or temporary purpose, and it is most important that the first or "priming" coat should be of good quality. if you are obliged to use inferior paint at all, use the best for the first coat and the poorer quality outside rather than the reverse, but it is economy of money and time to use good paint throughout. prepared liquid paints are the simplest, handiest, and cleanest for amateur work, and (if you do not try to economise on the quality) the best for you to use for many purposes, but for outside work (work exposed to the weather) you can probably do no better than to use the best quality of white lead and oil,[ ] coloured if desired, which costs less, is more durable, and which you can easily mix yourself, or buy already mixed of a painter. if you need but a little, you can get a pot of paint with suitable brush at a paint shop, returning what you do not use and paying by weight. but if you have much painting to do, it is better and cheaper to have your own brushes and paint. the prepared paints of any colour you can also buy in the form of paste, to be thinned when used, which is usually cheaper than the prepared paint in liquid form. the white lead you can buy by the pound, ground and already thinned with oil, or, what is perhaps more reliable, ground in the form of paste ready to be thinned with oil or, if for inside work, with turpentine. white lead, which is also the basis or an ingredient of the prepared paints, is a poisonous and unhealthful substance. there is, however, but slight danger (practically none) from such painting as you will do. but it is well to wear old clothes when you paint, and carefully wash the hands and face as soon as the work is done, and in case of continued indoor painting to see that the room is well ventilated. the mere odour from a can of paint is enough to make some people feel ill, as you may know, while it can be used for a long time by others apparently without harm. in regard to coloured paints, the simplest way is to buy your colours ready mixed in oil, to be thinned for use, or in liquid form of any desired colour, prepared to use upon opening the can. you can, however, colour or tint your paint yourself with various dry colours, which you can buy in the form of powder at the paint shops for a few cents. it takes but very little of most colours. do not stir these dry colours directly into your paint, but first mix them with oil or turpentine. it requires considerable knowledge of colours and their combinations to know how to mix different colours or shades to produce some particular shade, or to match some tint, but when the exact shade makes no difference you will have no great difficulty in producing the colour you wish. test the shade of your paint on a piece of wood. the way it looks in the paint-pot is often very deceptive. in making a shade darker, especially when tinting white paint, be careful to add but a very little of the darker pigment at first and be sure that it is thoroughly mixed, or you will be likely to find after you have begun to paint that you have a much darker shade than you intended. it is surprising how small a quantity is sometimes needed to tint a whole canful of white paint--the merest dab of chrome yellow will tint a quart of white paint to a good cream shade. remember that it is much easier to add a little more colour if the result is not dark enough than to lighten the shade if too dark. linseed oil (either raw or boiled) is required with which to mix the lead and thin it to the proper consistency. raw oil is best for outside work that is exposed to the weather, as it is more penetrating and more adhesive, although slower in drying than boiled oil. boiled oil does very well for inside work where it is not exposed to the weather. there is some difference of opinion, however, in regard to the use of the two kinds. turpentine is also used for thinning paint. it makes the paint flow easily and is freely used for that reason, but it probably detracts from the durability of all paint if used lavishly and should never be used for outside work. it is commonly used for inside work and causes the paint to work more freely and smoothly from the brush and to dry more quickly. it gives the paint that dull, soft, or "dead" appearance often desired in inside work, instead of the shiny surface which is produced when mixed with linseed oil alone. it is usual to add to the paint something else, known as a "dryer," to cause it to dry more quickly. japan is one of the best of these preparations, but be careful to use very little of any form of dryer, as it is undoubtedly injurious to the durability of the paint and liable to cause cracking and checking. avoid all kinds of "chain-lightning" dryers. do not add a dryer to the colour until just before you use the paint and only to the amount you are to use at one time. another ingredient, which is not injurious to use, is zinc, but zinc paints are considered inferior. red lead is commonly used to paint iron and is considered very durable for that purpose. black japan varnish is often used. iron must always be dry and it will be better to have it warm also. be sure that your work is thoroughly dry before beginning to paint, else the wood will be liable to decay, or the paint to peel, or both. do not paint wood before it is thoroughly seasoned. look the work over carefully and see that it is ready in all respects, before applying the paint. see that the surface is free from dust. look over the work for any knots or streaks of resinous or pitchy matter and wash them with a coat or two of shellac, to "kill" the turpentine and prevent its oozing through and spoiling the paint. try to mix enough, and only enough, paint for the coat you are about to put on, but do not mix a great quantity in advance with the idea of keeping it on hand. the first coat should be thin rather than thick--with plenty of oil to saturate the wood. the oil will be quickly drawn into the wood, and you can readily see that the first coat should be thin to properly soak into the surface. if thick, the paint will not be sufficiently absorbed, but the oil will soak in quickly, leaving too much residue of the pigment on the outside. work this first coat well into the wood. take up but little paint, and draw the brush carefully over the edge of the pail,[ ] or over a wire stretched across the top, to remove any superfluity of paint, and begin the painting at the highest part of the work, or the part farthest from you, to prevent spattering or dripping paint over the freshly covered surface. begin, also, at one end or side of the surface, working toward the other end or side, drawing the brush back and forth both ways to distribute the paint as evenly and smoothly as possible, and try not to leave any part of a surface untouched until another time, or it will be likely to show a "lap" where you end and begin--that is, if you cannot cover the work entirely at one time, leave off where there is some natural line or break in the work. finish the side or the end and do not leave off right in the middle of a flat surface. this does not matter quite so much in the priming, but will show plainly in the later coats. after this coat has had time to dry thoroughly, carefully putty the holes and cracks. remember never to use the putty until after at least one coat of paint has been applied and dried. the reason for this is that the fresh wood will quickly absorb the oil from the putty, leaving it dry and crumbly, while if a coat of paint has been put on first and dried, the wood will be already charged, so to speak; the pores will be more or less choked up and the bulk of the oil will remain in the putty. paint with the grain of the wood, or the long way of the work, using a large brush for large surfaces and finishing all corners, mouldings, and edges with a small brush. in doors or panel-work first paint the panels, then the rails, then the styles (see fig. ). you will thus follow the construction of the work and the grain of the wood, and where you daub the paint beyond the part you are painting (as you will have to do), the daub will be wiped out neatly when you paint the next part. paint joints in outside work, tenons and mortises, shoulders, etc., before putting together, with good white lead. it is not always customary to paint the hidden parts of joints before putting together, particularly in cheap work, but it is well to do so in all work which you wish to have endure, in all framework exposed to water and the weather, and in boat-building. exposed work quickly decays at the joints and seams because the water and dampness collect in such places and do not run off or evaporate as readily as from a smooth surface, so the more you can protect these hidden parts with paint, the better, and the labour is but slight. when you have paint left in the paint-pot which you wish to keep for use another time, pour just enough raw linseed oil over the top to cover it completely. this thin layer of oil will exclude the air and keep the paint from hardening. when you wish to use it again, pour off the oil or stir it into the paint, according to whether the latter requires more oil or not. when you get through painting, if you are going to do more in a short time, it will do to leave the brush in the paint, but do not leave it standing or resting on the bottom of the can, as that tends to bend the ends of the bristles and get the brush out of shape. rig a wire hook on the handle and hang the brush so that the bristles will be covered by the paint, but without touching the bottom. if you are not going to use the brush again for some time, it should be cleaned and put away. turpentine is often used, but kerosene answers every purpose. be careful to wash out all the paint, however, as a very little left between the bristles will stick them together so as sometimes to ruin the brush. another way to keep brushes which are in use is to hang them from the handles in a can partially filled with oil, the whole being kept covered. water can be used instead of oil. arrange it so that the hairs will be just covered. the first coat especially should be given plenty of time to dry, for it is the _foundation_ and _basis_ of the whole operation and the firmness and durability of the painting depends much upon it. each succeeding coat should have plenty of time to dry before applying another, bearing in mind that applying a second coat, before the first is fully hard, excludes the air from the under layer of paint and causes it to dry much more slowly than if left exposed as it should be. in such cases, the outside surface may often seem to be dry and hard while the paint underneath remains comparatively soft. when the first layer finally does dry, the tendency is to crack the surface of the outside, which has dried first. you can find an extreme illustration of this point in some old paint and varnish shop where some convenient place on the wall has been taken against which to slap and work brushes. you can find daubs of old paint and varnish, sometimes an inch thick, made up in this way of hundreds of layers slapped on before the previous ones were dry, the inside remaining soft in some cases after twenty years. paint dries, as a rule, more quickly in a warm temperature than where it is cold, and more quickly where it is dry than where it is damp. so, if you are obliged to paint where it is cold or damp, you will be justified in using more dryer than where it is warm and dry. sandpaper _nice_ inside work after the first coat and between each two successive coats. pumice can be used for old inside work to be repainted. steel wool can also be used. keep a rag with you, when painting, to wipe off the spattering which you will be sure to make. it is not easy to get daubs of paint off after they are hard. turpentine will take the paint from your hands, but common kerosene will clean them satisfactorily when the paint is fresh, and is probably better for the hands. =panels.=--see _doors_ and _panels_. =panel-saw.=--see _saw_. =paring.=--in paring or trimming a piece of wood to a line, if there is much surplus wood to be removed, you can sometimes chop pretty boldly with the hatchet until you get near the line, provided you watch the direction of the grain carefully to see that the split cannot run up to the line; sometimes you can chop safely in one direction but not in the opposite (fig. ), but as a rule keep well away from the line for the first cut. even wood that appears to be quite straight-grained will often split differently from the way you expect. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] to trim a piece of wood, like the edge of a board, down to a line, with a hatchet, for instance, you can first score the piece with a series of short cuts, stopping short of the line, to break up the grain of the wood, and then trim these loosened chips off down to the line with the plane, chisel, draw-knife, or whatever tool may be suitable. the main point is to cut in such a direction that the grain will not cause the cuts to extend farther than the line or to run into the main piece of wood (fig. ). the same principle can be applied often in trimming and removing superfluous wood with a chisel, a draw-knife, or a knife. the cuts can often be made with the saw to better advantage (fig. ). it takes a little more time to make these cross-cuts with hatchet, knife, chisel, or saw than to whack away furiously lengthways, as if you were chopping kindling, but after you have spoiled a few pieces by splitting beyond the line you will conclude that the former is the more workmanlike and reliable way. this same principle is applicable to making chamfers or bevels with a chisel or knife (fig. ). you will find frequent occasion to apply this principle of breaking the grain into small pieces before making the final cuts in many kinds of work. it is in constant use in "roughing out" carving. [illustration fig. .] to trim to a curve as shown in fig. , begin at the edge just _outside_ of the end of the curve and work _with_ the grain from _a_ to _b_. it is often a help in such cases to first remove part of the wood with the saw, as on the lines _bc_ and then _ef._ finally trim the curve smoothly close to the line. frequently this can be done to better advantage with the work held in the vise instead of lying horizontally on the bench. [illustration fig. . right. wrong.] paring off superfluous wood down to a given line or trimming off an irregular edge with the chisel is very easily done provided the grain of the wood is straight, or runs in the same direction, even if slanting, as in fig. , because you can then cut with the grain. it is often better, however, to cut across the grain, or diagonally, with the chisel, as the wood is less likely to be split by the tool. when the grain runs in several directions, and keeps cropping up to the surface and dipping down again as shown in fig. , it becomes more difficult to pare the surface smoothly with the chisel. in such a case remember the sliding or drawing stroke and traverse the surface with a diagonal crossways motion (fig. ) that will trim off the fibres with a slanting stroke without causing them to be torn up. slant the cut so that if the wood should tend to split, it will be in the direction of the part cut away and not towards the piece to be kept--_i.e._, so that the chips will split and not the body of the wood. reverse the chisel and cut in the opposite direction when a change in the direction of the grain requires it. some pieces are, however, so extremely irregular that you cannot do this, but must slice away the best that you can and leave the rest to other tools. in cutting off a corner or rounding or bevelling an edge you can use the slanting cut (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] in using the chisel for paring, let the left hand, which is nearer the cutting-edge than the right, act as a brake or countercheck or drag to check the progress of the tool. it is largely by the varying balance of these two forces--the pushing forward of the tool with the right hand and the checking and controlling with the left--that correct and effective control of the tool is gained. the left hand should in many cases rest upon or grasp the wood as well as the blade. see _chisel_. =paring-chisel.=--see _chisel_. =parting-tool.=--see _carving tools_. =pencil.=--see _marking_. =pincers.=--there are various kinds of _pincers_, _pliers_, and _nippers_. a pair of common pliers and also cutting nippers will be very useful. =plane.=--a plane is in principle (roughly speaking), as you will readily see, nothing but a chisel stuck through a block of wood or iron. small or narrow surfaces may be smoothed to a certain degree by the chisel, the knife, or even the hatchet, but for large surfaces something is needed which can be more exactly controlled than the knife, ax, or chisel, held in the hands. so, to hold the chisel firmly in one position and to apply force to it more advantageously, it is firmly fixed in a block of convenient size and shape and becomes a plane. a very short block will prevent the chisel cutting deeper at one point than another, but the tool will follow the irregularities of the surface and, though it may make the surface smooth, it will not make it level, or flat; so the block is made longer, that it may not go down into all the little hollows, but plane off only the higher parts. the two essential parts of a plane are the _iron_ and the _stock_. the bottom surface of the stock is called the _sole_ or _face_ (_ab_ in fig. ), the wedge-shaped hole where the iron goes is called the _throat_ (_c_), and the slot at the bottom through which the edge of the iron projects is called the _mouth_ (_d_). [illustration fig. .] bear in mind that the shape of the cut made by the plane will be a reversed copy of the shape of the cutting-edge. if the edge is rounding, the cut will be hollowing. if the edge is hollowing, the cut will be rounding. if the edge is straight, the cut will be straight. if the edge is nicked, ridges will be left on the wood. if buying new, you will do best, as a rule, to get iron planes, though very good ones can be had with wooden stocks, but with the convenient appliances of the iron planes. some workmen still prefer the old wooden planes, but it is better to buy iron ones. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] the _jack-plane_ is used for coarse work and to rough off the surface with large shavings, ready for the other planes. fourteen or fifteen inches is a good length. the edge of the iron is not ground squarely across, like the chisel, but is rounded slightly so as to cut deeper in the middle (fig. ). heavy shavings can be cut and the rough outside of a piece of wood taken off quicker and easier than with a more squarely ground iron, but it does not leave the surface smooth, as the strokes of the jack-plane form a series of hollows and ridges (fig. , exaggerated). after taking off the rough surface with the iron projecting considerably, you can of course set the iron finer, and by going over the work several times you can take off the worst of the ridges, but without a great deal of labour you can never get a really smooth surface with a plane that cuts hollows. a common use of the jack-plane is for "traversing," or planing across the grain, which is often the quickest and easiest way to reduce a surface to the desired shape, and for cleaning off where pieces have been glued together. if you should use a jack-plane to do the work of a fore-plane, have it ground more squarely across like the fore-plane. if you use an old-fashioned wooden plane, take the handle in your right hand, laying your left over the top and side, just a little in front of the iron, with the thumb towards you and the fingers on the farther side, as shown in fig. . this position allows you to bear weight on the fore part of the plane when necessary and to control the tool to the best advantage. this applies to the old-fashioned wooden planes. if your plane is iron, there is a handle or knob for the left hand which you simply grasp in a natural way. push the jack-plane forward steadily an arm's-length. then stop and start afresh for another arm's-length stroke. when drawing the plane back tip it on the farther edge. the cap or break-iron can be set quite far back from the edge for rough work, about one eighth inch, but much nearer for finer work. [illustration fig. .] in these days when almost everything is planed by machinery with greater or less smoothness, you will probably not have much use for a jack-plane unless you find you have a good deal of rough planing to do yourself. [illustration fig. .] the _fore-plane_ or _trying-plane_ is longer and larger than the jack-plane. eighteen to twenty-two inches is a good length. it is used to straighten and level the surface after the worst roughness has been taken off. the surface having been roughed off by the jack-plane, the fore-plane is not required to take off such heavy shavings and the iron is therefore ground squarely across like a chisel, but very slightly rounded at the corners (fig. ). it is held in the same way as the jack-plane, but the stroke should be long and steady, for the fore-plane, which is long, will straighten the surface, and smooth it also. the iron can project more for soft and loose-grained woods than for hard, and the cap or break-iron should be nearer the edge for hard woods. the _jointer_ ( " to " in length) or _long jointer_ (from " to "), is still longer than the fore-plane and correspondingly more accurate for making a surface level and true, or for shooting the edges of boards. twenty-four inches is a good length. it is very useful for making joints to be glued, and is used in the same way as the fore-plane, the stroke being continued steadily the whole length of the piece if possible. the _smoothing-plane_ is used, as its name indicates, for the final smoothing of the surface, so far as it can be done with a plane. it is from five to ten inches long. it is an invaluable plane to the amateur, and the beginner can get along very well for a great deal of work with no other, for stock can be bought ready planed and can easily be trued and jointed, when necessary, at any wood-working mill or shop at slight expense. [illustration fig. .] a plane with a short stock, as the smoothing-plane, will make your work smooth, but it is hard to make it straight and level or true with such a tool, because, being short, it will follow the larger irregularities of the surface and will only plane off the smaller inequalities. it will go up and down over the hills and valleys of the wood, so to speak, while a longer plane cannot do this, but will cut off the tops of the hills until the surface is made level, as shown in fig. . the smoothing-plane is therefore merely to _smooth_ the surface after it has been straightened by a longer plane, or in cases where smoothness only is essential and it is not required that the surface should be true. small pieces can, of course, be straightened and trued by the smoothing-plane alone. a wooden smoothing-plane can be held as shown in fig. . an iron plane can be used by laying the hand naturally over the knob for the purpose. [illustration fig. .] the _block-plane_ is small and is meant chiefly for planing across the ends of pieces (for planing "end-grain"), but it is also frequently useful in other directions. the iron is usually set at a more acute angle with the face of the stock than in the other planes and with the bevel upwards, and the width of the mouth is often adjustable, which is a convenience. a block-plane is made which can, by means of a detachable side, be used as a rabbet-plane. the block-plane makes a quite good substitute for a smoothing-plane for amateur work and is a very useful little tool. the _toothed-plane_ is about the size of the smoothing-plane, but the iron is corrugated or scored with grooves lengthwise, so that one side of the cutting-edge of the iron, instead of being smooth, is notched into little teeth somewhat like a fine saw or the edge of a file, and the iron is inserted in the body of the plane almost vertically. this plane makes scratches all along its course instead of taking off shavings. it is used in veneering and in gluing other surfaces. it can frequently be used to good advantage to break up the grain where two edges or surfaces are to be glued together, so that the glue may hold the two rough surfaces together more strongly, upon somewhat the same principle that the plastering on a lathed wall holds its place tightly through the hold it gets on the cracks between the laths, intentionally left for the purpose. the toothed-plane is used for this purpose in veneering. the idea upon which this tool is based originated with the orientals, who have for ages scratched or toothed the joints of their wood-work. it can also be used to subdue a refractory piece of crooked grain which you wish to get smooth, but which may crop to the surface in such a way that you cannot plane it without chipping the grain. by scratching the surface thoroughly in all directions with the toothed-plane set very fine, the obstinate fibres can be broken so that the surface can be smoothed with the scraper, not using the smoothing-plane. as a matter of fact, however, if you cannot smooth a piece of wood, the trouble is _usually_ with the edge of the plane-iron or its adjustment, or with your manner of planing, for a _very keen_ edge is supposed to be able to cut the most obstinate grain, unless, of course, the wood is extraordinarily hard. the _bull-nosed-plane_ has the iron close to the fore end of the stock, to work into corners and awkward places which cannot be reached by the smoothing- or block-planes. the iron is reversed. a very small plane (perhaps four inches long) of this kind is useful. the _circular-plane_ is used for planing curved surfaces, the sole being now made of a thin, flexible metal plate and adjustable so that either concave or convex surfaces can be smoothed. it is very useful at times, but is not essential for an amateur. the _rabbet-plane_, which is used to cut rabbets, as the name indicates, is a useful tool, but in most cases you can dispense with it by having rabbets cut at a mill. a _router_, for cleaning out and smoothing the bottoms of grooves and depressions, is very useful at times. there is a variety of other planes for special purposes, as the _plough_, _matching-planes_, _hollow_ and _round planes_, _beading-planes_, etc., as well as various _combination_ and "_universal_" _planes_. many of these are excellent, but, as a rule, are not important for the amateur in these days, as the work they do can be so easily and cheaply done at a mill. you will seldom feel the need of buying any of them, unless you live where you cannot reach a factory. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] you will find it important to bear in mind the purpose of the cap or dull iron screwed upon one side of the cutting-iron, in what are called "double-ironed" planes. a plane with a single iron, like a chisel, will cut satisfactorily and easily for straight-grained, soft wood, and for hard wood when planing with the grain, but many pieces of stock are difficult to plane, because the grain does not run in the same way, but turns and twists, cropping up to the surface and dipping down again in all sorts of curious and perplexing ways. in planing them the wood is likely to be continually chipping or tearing and breaking off below the surface, instead of planing smoothly like a piece of straight-grained pine, leaving dents and rough hollows over the surface. the natural tendency of the plane-iron is to split the wood in front of the iron in such cases (fig. ). to remedy this the plane has a double iron. an iron or cap with a dull edge is screwed on to the face of the cutting-iron (fig. ) so as to help bend and break off the shavings before the split gets fairly started (fig. ), when the iron can cut it smoothly off. the thickness of the shavings is greatly exaggerated in the cuts for the sake of illustration. [illustration fig. .] the cutting edge is said to have "lead" in proportion to the distance it is in advance of the cap-iron. the cap can be set some little distance from the edge for the jack-plane, as far as an eighth of an inch, but with the fore-plane and smoothing-plane it must be set quite close to the edge, the distance varying according to the character of the wood. the more crooked or cross-grained the wood, the nearer the dull iron is brought down towards the edge of the sharp one. the nearer the edge, the smoother the result, but the harder to work the plane. [illustration fig. .] something more than the break-iron is required, however, to insure breaking the shavings. there must be an angle, against which they can be broken, close in front of the cutting edge and above the shaving. this angle is the forward edge of the mouth or slot in the sole through which the iron projects (fig. ). thus the width of the mouth makes a difference in the smoothness of the surface, for a narrow mouth is necessary to ensure the shaving being readily broken by the cap. with a wide mouth, the shaving will not be broken by the cap in time, because there is no corner against which to break it. with straight-grained wood this does not make so much difference, but with crooked and broken grain narrowness of mouth is quite essential to a smooth surface, provided that the opening is wide enough to allow the shaving to pass through freely. rough and knotty wood requires the mouth very narrow and the iron set very fine (_i.e._, projecting but very little from the sole) and the cap quite near the edge. the modern iron planes have simple appliances for setting or adjusting the projection of the iron from the sole and thus regulating the thickness of the shaving. if, however, you are obliged to use the old-fashioned wooden planes, you raise the iron in the same way that you loosen it for removal, by lightly tapping on the top of the fore end of the stock, keeping hold of the plane with the left hand so as to prevent the iron falling through if loosened too much. when the iron is raised enough, fix it in place by tapping on top of the "chip" (fig. , _e_) or wedge which holds it in place. to lower the cutting edge, loosen as before and, checking the edge with the finger, let it project the required distance, which you can tell about by looking along the sole (fig. ), and fix in place by tapping the "chip" as before. this is the process used in removing the iron for sharpening and replacing it, the chip being removed as well as the iron. any carpenter will show you the operation. always hold the plane in the left hand in all these adjusting operations. do not strike or tap any part of it while it rests on the bench or on anything solid. to smooth a rough piece of wood, use first the jack-plane, to remove the rough surface and superfluous wood, and then the fore-plane, to straighten and smooth the surface. if there is no need to have the surface true, but only smooth, you can omit using the fore-plane and follow the jack-plane at once by the smoothing-plane. with ordinary machine-planed stock you do not usually need the jack-plane, though it is sometimes useful in reducing a piece of wood to a given shape. before beginning to plane, see that all dirt or grit which might dull the tool is brushed from the surface. turn the plane over and sight along the sole (fig. ), not merely to see that the iron projects to the required degree, but also to see that it projects equally, lest one side or corner of the iron should cut more deeply than the other, and thus make a groove or scratch on the wood (fig. ). the latest iron planes have appliances to adjust any inequality of this sort, but if your plane is not so arranged a little tapping on one side of the upper end of the iron will correct the trouble. try the plane on a waste piece before beginning on nice work. [illustration fig. .] plane with the grain, as a rule, and the fibres will be cut off cleanly where they crop up to the surface and your work will be left smooth. if you plane against the grain, some of the fibres will tend to splinter or chip off just below the surface before they are cut off (fig. ). stand behind the work with the plane before you. plane with the arms (and from the shoulder), not with the whole body. try to shove the plane straight ahead, also to plane as equally and evenly as possible over the surface; for while it is comparatively easy to get a surface smooth it is quite another thing to keep it true or to make it true if warped or winding. [illustration fig. .] the natural tendency, and a common fault, is to begin and end the stroke as shown in fig. . rolling the body back and forth, instead of pushing steadily with the arms from the shoulder, aggravates this trouble. the result of this way (which is unconscious at first) is that the surface after planing is apt to be as shown in fig. . to prevent this, press down with the _left_ hand on the _forward_ part of the plane during the _first_ part of the stroke, and with the _right_ hand on the _rear_ part of the plane during the _last_ part of the stroke (fig. ). [illustration right. wrong. fig. .] in planing wood which is dirty or rough, it is best to lift the plane from the work when drawing it back for a fresh stroke, or to draw it back so that only the point touches the board, or to draw it back on edge, but in planing small surfaces of clean wood it is not usually worth while to take this precaution. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] in planing pieces with crooked grain, turn the piece when practicable, so as to plane as much of it with the grain as you can. but many pieces are so crooked in grain that you cannot do this. so at times it is well to turn your plane sideways to get a slicing cut and cross the grain at an angle (fig. ); but as a rule the plane should be pushed straight forward. a few drops of oil rubbed over the face of the plane will make it run more smoothly, particularly on hard wood. [illustration fig. .] test the accuracy of your planing of broad surfaces with a straight-edge, the blade of a square, or the edge of the plane itself (if straight). by applying such a straight-edge across the surface or lengthways or diagonally you can tell whether your work is straight and true (fig. ). also "sight" with your eye. if the surface is large or long, winding-sticks can be used (see _winding-sticks_). in planing edges test lengthways with the eye and straight-edge of some sort, and crossways by applying the try-square (fig. ). (see _jointing_.) [illustration fig. .] it is, of course, harder to plane a broad surface, as the side of a board, than a narrow one, as the edge. when planing a flat surface, as a board, be careful not to plane off more at the edges than elsewhere (fig. ), as you will be quite likely to do if you allow the plane to tip sideways over the edge instead of keeping the sole parallel with the flat surface. [illustration fig. .] when planing across end-grain with the block-plane or smoothing-plane, either secure a waste piece of wood at the side where the planing ends, to prevent the edge chipping off, as shown in fig. , or plane from both edges toward the middle (fig. ). the use of the straight-edge will give the necessary clue to the process of making warped surfaces true. (see _truing surfaces_.) [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] whenever you make nice articles from wood planed by an ordinary cylinder planer, the wood will seem quite smooth just as it is, but do not neglect to smooth it carefully so as to take out all the "planer-marks" or those little corrugations across the grain left by the machine will often show clear across the room as soon as the work is finished. see pages , , and , and also _sharpening_. [illustration fig. .] =planing.=--see _plane_, _jointing_, _truing surfaces_. =plank, laying.=--see _boards_, _laying_. =plough.=--see _plane_. =plumb.=--you can make a plumb-line by merely hanging any weight at the end of a cord, when the cord will of course be vertical as soon as it stops swinging (fig. ). for convenience in using hang the cord on a board as shown in fig. . when the cord hangs exactly on the line or at the apex of the notch the edge of the board will be vertical. a long board will give a more accurate test than a short one in most cases, just as a long plane will make a straighter edge than a short plane, for the long board will bridge over the irregularities of the surface to be plumbed. for example, to take an exaggerated case, the post plumbed as at _a_ (fig. ) is vertical, taken as a whole; while the same post plumbed as at _b_ leans over, because the short board happens to be placed where the surface of the post is not straight. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] when the plumb-line is used to determine a point exactly over or under another point, as in surveying, the bob is shaped with a point like a top (fig. ). for making the plumb, see page . (see also _level_.) =pod-bit.=--see _bits_. =punch= (=for nails=).--see _nail-set_. =putty.=--common putty is (or should be) a mixture of linseed oil and whiting of about the consistency of dough. a mixture of white lead worked in with the whiting is, however, superior for some purposes, and is better when but one coat of paint is to be put on after the puttying. to colour putty, stir the colouring matter in a little oil and then work and knead it into the putty until the whole is coloured. keep putty under water. do not leave it wrapped in the paper in which you may take it from the painter's, for the oil will be absorbed by the paper and the putty will quickly become dry and hard. use a square-bladed putty-knife for flat surfaces, and do not use your fingers. see also _holes, to stop_. =putty-knife.=--an old case-knife can be used (better if reshaped squarely across or to an obtuse angle), or, in fact, any knife, but a regular putty-knife is best. =quill-bit.=--see _bits_. =rabbet.=--a rabbet is a recess or rectangular groove cut lengthways in the edge of a piece of board, plank, or other timber (fig. ). it is usually better for the amateur to get such work done at a mill, when practicable, rather than to do it by hand. the rabbet-plane is, however, a very useful tool to have. in some cases, as at the end of a piece, the saw can be used, the lines for the rabbet having been carefully marked with a knife or chisel. the chisel can also be used to make a rabbet, much as in cutting a mortise, taking pains when driving the chisel down next the line not to cut under or jam the wood beyond the line. in the final trimming to the line, the chisel should be held with the flat side toward the line. in removing the wood with the chisel, it is often best to pare across the grain rather than with it (see _paring_). a strip of wood can be clamped across the piece exactly on the line as a guide for the saw and the sawing be done with the heel or rear corner of the saw, keeping the latter close up to the gauge stick, and pieces are sometimes even clamped to the saw itself to guide it, but such arrangements, though useful expedients under some circumstances, are hardly the most workmanlike methods. =rabbet-plane.=--see _plane_. =rasp.=--the rasp--only used for wood--is a sort of coarse file, but instead of ridge-like teeth it is studded with projecting points, which tear off the wood more quickly, but also more roughly, than the file. it is extremely useful to remove surplus wood and to get curved objects roughly into shape. one good-sized half-round (or "slab-sided") rasp will be a great help. see _file_. =rasping.=--see _filing_. =reamers.=--see _bits_. =repairing furniture.=--to repair thoroughly--to make things as strong as when new and to leave no sign of the mending--often requires more skill and ingenuity and more general knowledge of wood-working than to make new articles. skill in repairing comes not merely from general knowledge of wood-working, but from experience and ingenuity in applying your knowledge to new problems. you will rarely have two jobs of repairing just alike, even if of the same kind, and the variety is almost endless. it is, therefore, impossible to give rules to cover all the different cases. in fact, to attempt to give complete directions for repairing would be to describe the majority of operations used in wood-working, and the reader is referred to other parts of the book for whatever information it may contain. suggestions on one or two points may, however, be of use. suppose the arm of a chair comes off, after having been stuck on with glue perhaps a dozen times. how is it usually mended each time it comes off? the family glue-pot, containing the dregs of all the glue used since it was bought, is put on the stove, a little water poured in, and as soon as the glue gets warmed into a thick paste a lot of it is daubed on to the joints, on top of the thick coating they already have, and the arm pushed as nearly into place as it will go. it is then usually left for a few hours and sometimes even tied on with a string while the glue dries. of course it sticks for a while and then the usual result follows. now how should you go to work to do this properly? first clean off all the old glue. this is important. you want to put the fresh glue on the wood, not on top of the old glue; but do not scrape away the wood in getting off the glue so that the parts will no longer fit. next, see whether the pieces will fit together as they should. if they will, then contrive some way to clamp them in place while the glue is drying. sometimes hand-screws will do this, sometimes clamps, sometimes a rope twisted, and often it will take all your ingenuity to contrive any arrangement, but clamped they must be if you wish to be sure of a good job. [illustration fig. .] the pieces often make an angle with one another, or are curved, so that the clamps or hand-screws will not hold, but slip as fast as you tighten them. in such a case the method shown in fig. can often be used. screw a hand-screw firmly on each side of the joint, rubbing chalk on the insides of the jaws to help prevent slipping, and putting on the hand-screws so that the jaws will be parallel. then, by using two other hand-screws, those first put on can be drawn towards one another and the joint firmly closed. then proceed to glue the parts as with new work. for the way to do this see _gluing_. in patching old work with new wood, pains should be taken to have the wood match as well as possible, and, as a rule, pare or trim the new pieces after they are glued in place rather than before. staining to match the older parts is often required (see _staining_). see also _holes, to stop_. the repaired joint may never be quite as strong as a new one, therefore it is well to reinforce it with a block glued and screwed on the under or inner side, in cases where this can be done without injuring the appearance, as inside of the frame under a chair, sofa, or table. it is not uncommon, particularly in work which has come apart several times, for the tenons to be too small. if you can glue on thin pieces to make the tenon larger, trimming them afterwards to fit, it will be the best way; but if the conditions do not admit of this, a little muslin, laid in glue, can sometimes be wrapped around the tenon as the latter is fitted to place. the same can sometimes be done with round pins or dowels. the expedient of splitting and wedging tenons and dowels can often be applied in repairing (see _mortising_ and _dowels_). sometimes you may find it necessary to use screws in places where the heads will show. in such cases first make, when possible, a neat round or square hole with bit or chisel of sufficient diameter to admit the head of the screw and deep enough to allow a shallow plug to be inserted after the screw has been set (see _holes, to stop_). the hardest part in finished work is to make the patch match the rest of the work. see also _gluing_, _clamps_, and whatever other operations may be required. =ripping-saw.=--see _saw_. =rivets.=--in heading rivets hold another hammer or piece of metal, or have someone else do so, against the head of the rivet while upsetting the other end. =rounding sticks.=--it is often required to round sticks for poles, masts, spars, arrows, and a great many other purposes. first plane the piece until it is as nearly _square_, in section, as you can make it. then use the form shown on page , which will hold the squared stick firmly while you plane off the corners, making it _eight-sided_. be careful not to plane the corners off too much, for the eight sides of the stick should be as nearly alike as possible. next, if the stick is large enough, plane off each of the eight corners so that it will be _sixteen-sided_. this is about as far as you can go in this way, unless the stick is very large. set the plane quite fine for taking off these corners or you may plane off too much before you know it. the rest of the rounding you must do with light, fine strokes, testing by eye and by passing your hand over the work (for you can judge a great deal by the sense of touch). the rasp and file can often be used to good advantage. the spoke-shave is good for the final smoothing, followed by the scraper or glass (both of which can be curved) and sandpaper. the latter can be used crosswise as well as lengthwise. cut it in strips and pull it back and forth around the stick, much as bootblacks put the final polish on shoes with a strip of cloth (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] to hold large sticks for this final shaping and smoothing you can put them in the vise, but if there are several, and large, it is better to contrive some way to hold them after the fashion of the centres of a lathe. for one centre, drive a nail or screw through a block or stick of wood and screw the block in the vise (fig. ). make the other centre in the same way and fasten it at such a distance from the first centre that the stick will just fit in between the two. just how to fasten this second centre will depend on the length of the stick to be rounded and the arrangements of your shop, but you can easily contrive some way to hold it. the stick held between these centres will be clear of everything and can be turned around without trouble. the middle can be supported, if necessary, by a piece of board or a strip lightly nailed to the bench-top. masts and spars should be "natural sticks," if possible, and the final shaping and smoothing will be all they will require, for which some such apparatus as that just described will save time and trouble. [illustration fig. .] to round small sticks, as spars for model boats, arrows, etc., the same process should be followed so far as the small size of the sticks will allow, as you can of course shave more accurately with the plane, on account of the long guiding sole, for the same degree of effort, than with any "free-hand" tool like the knife. but when the stick is quite small it is hard to hold it firmly, and it is also too much covered by the plane. in such cases turn japanese. fasten the plane bottom-up in the vise (or even hold it in your lap if you have no vise) and pull the stick along the sole of the plane instead of pushing the plane over the stick. but _look out for your fingers_ when you do this, for a plane-iron in this position has a great appetite for finger-tips. in filing a short, round stick, one end can often be rested on the bench and the stick turned around towards you as you file. a good way to finish the shaping of such small sticks is to hold your knife with the edge downward close against the side of your leg just above the knee. then pull the stick up steadily between your leg and the knife. the leg acts as a sort of gauge to steady both the stick and the knife and with care you can cut a very even shaving in this way. one very important thing to bear in mind in _all_ these rounding operations is that you will rarely find wood with absolutely straight grain, except in "rift" stock or natural sticks (and in these there are often seemingly unaccountable twists and crooked streaks); so you need to _keep constant watch_ of the direction of the grain, for even a slight turn of the stick will often bring the grain wrong with relation to your tool, and one false cut running in too deep, or even across the stick, will spoil the work. =router.=--see _plane_. =rule.=--a rule with which to lay out your work and measure your stock is one of the first tools of which you can make use. a two-foot rule, folding once, is the most convenient for shop-work, but the more common kind, folding to six inches in length, is more convenient to carry around away from the shop. one brass-bound (with brass edges) is more durable, but hardly as convenient to use as the common cheap kind, which will answer every purpose until it breaks. [illustration fig. .] to mark distances with the rule for accurate work, lay the rule on edge so that the divisions marked on it will touch the wood and not be an eighth of an inch above it, as they are when the rule lies flat (fig. ). you can thus mark the points more accurately. =sandpaper.=--the fineness of sandpaper is indicated by numbers-- (the finest), , / , , - / , , - / and (the coarsest). you will use the fine and medium numbers more than the very coarse ones, and will seldom require coarser than - / . test sandpaper, when buying, by rubbing the sand a little with your hand to see if it is securely stuck on, and tear the paper a little to see if it is strong. never use sandpaper until all the cutting with the tools is done. sandpaper _with_ the grain, except for work which is to be painted. the proper use of sandpaper, as a rule, for such work as you will do, is merely to give a little extra smoothness, to take out little scratches, to round edges, and the like, but _not_ to cut away the wood and scrub it into the shape you wish. to use it much, except to skim over your work, is apt to get you into a slovenly style of working, and the result will lack the sharp accuracy of good work. do not rely on the sandpaper to remove the defects in your work. do the work right and you will need but little sandpaper, except in a few operations which will be specified when there is occasion. [illustration fig. .] for flat surfaces it is well to fold the sandpaper over a flat block of cork or wood (fig. ), the edges of which have been slightly rounded. if the surface is curved, the block should be curved correspondingly. a piece of thick rubber or leather which can be bent to fit the surface is excellent. care should be taken not to round the corners and edges of the work when sandpapering. in sandpapering any very delicate piece of work, when the edge might get rounded or the surface scratched by the stiffness of even the finest sandpaper, as in rubbing down finished work, split the paper, which you can easily do by removing the outer layer of paper from the back, when the remaining part to which the sand adheres will be much softer and more flexible. =saw.=--saws are used for cutting across the grain and with the grain and there are various kinds for special purposes. the _cross-cutting saw_ is used, as the name indicates, for cutting across the grain of wood and for ordinary work. the blade is usually thicker at the teeth than at the back, to stiffen it and to enable it to pass through the wood more freely. from " to " is a good length for a cross-cutting saw (or more commonly called _panel_-saw) for your work, with about eight to ten teeth to the inch. examine the teeth (fig. ) and you will see that they are pointed and sharp, somewhat like the point of your knife, and that they cut across the fibres much the same as your knife does when you hold it upright and draw it across a board. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] you will notice, also, that the teeth are alternately bent outwards,--one tooth being bent out to one side, the next to the other side,--this spreading of the teeth (which is called the "set") making the saw wider at the points of the teeth than elsewhere. you will also notice that the sharp cutting edge of each tooth is on the outside. this set, and the way the teeth are sharpened, makes the cut wider than the thickness of the blade, thus giving the saw "clearance" and enabling it to slip back and forth easily and without "binding" (fig. ). as a practical matter of fact, however, it is nothing uncommon for a saw to bind in the cut, either from not sawing straight or from the wood closing on the saw (see fig. ). the teeth not only cut or break off the fibres in parallel lines at the points of the teeth, but also tear off and remove the bits of wood (_i.e._, the sawdust) between these parallel cuts. the degree to which the teeth are set and the number of teeth to the inch depend upon the use to which the saw is to be put and the kind of wood to be used. of course the finer the teeth the smoother the cut. cross-cut saws are usually sharpened differently for soft and for hard wood, but little set being required for the latter, while the former needs a wider set to give the blade clearance, because the fibres of the looser-textured soft wood are bent aside by the tearing action of the saw teeth and are not so cleanly cut off as in the hard wood. we have examined the teeth of the cross-cut saw and have seen that they cut across the grain of the wood very much as the point and edge of a knife, and that the fibres, being cut or broken or torn off in fine pieces, are removed from the kerf by the teeth. now to saw in the direction of the grain, instead of across it, we use a saw based on a different principle. as we used little knives to cut across the grain, so we use little chisels to cut with the grain. look at the teeth of the _ripping-saw_ and you will see that they are little chisels sharp only at the end (fig. ), though not as acute as chisels for obvious reasons. these sharp ends, which are square (fig. , showing set) or may be oblique, cut or tear off the fibres, and the front edges of the teeth push the pieces out of the cut. the teeth of the cross-cut saw are filed so that the front cutting-edge is _drawn_ across the wood in the most effective way, much as you would draw the knife-point across, while the teeth of the ripping-saw are pointed forward at a more acute angle so that the cutting-edge is _pushed_ through the wood, somewhat as you push a chisel. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] the ripping-saw cuts only on the down stroke. it is not suitable for use directly across the grain, as it tears the fibres when pushed across them much more than the cross-cut saw. the ripping-saw usually has larger teeth than the cross-cut saw. from - / to points to the inch will do for your work. the ripping-saw usually cuts best when held slanting rather than at right angles with the board (fig. ), as you can easily understand when you think how a chisel works best in paring at the end of a board. if the cut closes up after the saw so as to "bind" it, drive a wedge (or even a screw-driver or chisel) into the crack so as to open it enough for the saw to work freely. binding of the saw from this cause is very common in making long cuts. when you come to a hard knot in splitting you can sometimes gain by taking the cross-cut saw to cut through it. you will probably get most of your splitting done at a mill and will not have to depend on hand ripping-saws so much as your grandfathers did. the _back-saw_ should have, for your use, from to teeth to the inch and be perhaps inches long. the blade is very thin to insure a finer and more accurate cut than can be made with the common saw, and therefore requires care in using. it has a back (whence the name) made of a thin piece of brass or iron put on so as to give the blade the necessary firmness. this is an exceedingly useful tool, with which and a common panel saw you can do a great deal of work without any other. the back-saw must be used with care, for the blade is so thin that a little wrenching will spring it out of shape in spite of the strengthening back. in the _compass-saw_ the blade is very narrow, being about one inch at the broadest part and diminishing gradually to about a quarter of an inch at the other end. it is about fifteen inches long and is employed in cutting curved forms. as the blade is narrow and tapers towards the back and the teeth have a wide set it will cut a small circle. notice that the teeth of the compass-saw are a sort of a compromise between those of the ripping and cross-cut saws, which enables them to cut freely either way of the grain, as is of course necessary in sawing curves. the _turning-_ or _bow-saw_ is much better for any work with which the bow will not interfere, and is a very useful tool at times. get one with handles which turn so that the blade can be turned to saw at an angle with the frame. you will need a few extra blades of different widths. the main thing to be borne in mind is to make the cut square with the surface. it is easier to follow the line than to secure a cut at right angles to the surface. the _keyhole-saw_, which is even smaller than the compass-saw, is used for cutting quicker curves, as for a keyhole. it has a handle like that of a chisel, with a slot cut through from end to end. there is a screw on one side, so that the blade may be fixed at any length, according to the size of the hole to be cut. a good kind, which can be used for both compass- and keyhole-saws, has a handle into which various blades can be fitted. [illustration fig. .] compass- and keyhole-saws are difficult for beginners to use without bending, twisting, or breaking their thin and narrow blades. most of your curved sawing can be done better with a turning-saw or at a mill by a band- or jig-saw. if done at the mill, have a piece of waste wood put on the under side to prevent the burr, or ragged edge, left by the sawing. a common way to test saws, when buying, is to take the handle in one hand and bend the point of the saw around in a curve sideways and then let the blade spring back, which it should do without being permanently bent or sprung. [illustration fig. .] do not saw from one side of the line. have your eyes above the line so that you can look on both sides of the saw (fig. ). this will help you to keep the saw-blade at right angles with the surface of the wood. hold the saw firmly with the forefinger pressed against the side of the handle to help guide and steady it (fig. ). having placed the saw just at the outside edge of the line and on the farther side of the piece, seize the wood with the left hand and hold the thumb against the blade (_above_ the teeth) to help start the cut in the right place (fig. ). aside from the danger of the saw jumping and damaging the wood unless guided by the thumb, it is liable to cut your left hand. you can make a little notch with the knife or chisel on the outside of the line, to help start the saw, in the case of nice work, if you wish. cut straight in just on the line and then make a sloping cut to meet this from outside the line (fig. ). first draw the saw gently backwards, guiding it by the thumb, with as little pressure on the wood as possible until you see that the cut is started right, then push it gently forward, and after a few easy strokes in this way to get the cut started right, keep on with long, steady strokes, but not long enough so that the end of the saw enters the kerf, lest it catch and the saw buckle. the saw should cut most on the downward motion, not on the up stroke. [illustration fig. .] with a sharp saw, there is nothing gained by bearing down heavily on the teeth, which may spring the saw and make crooked work. rather let the saw run of itself with an easy, _light_ stroke, guiding it carefully, and not letting it press on the wood on the up stroke. the more hastily and furiously you saw the poorer the result will probably be. when you _begin_ to run off the line, as you will be pretty sure to do, twist the saw a little with the wrist as you go on, which will bring it back to the line, because of the kerf being wider than the thickness of the saw-blade. [illustration fig. .] beginners are apt to bend the saw over to one side. you can tell whether it is cutting at right angles with the face of the board by testing with the try-square as shown in fig. . such a test as this is, however, too inconvenient for ordinary practical work and you should learn as quickly as you can to hold the saw-blade correctly. at the end of the cut, as at the beginning, saw gently with quick, light strokes, and hold the piece which is being cut off with the left hand, lest it break off and splinter one of the two pieces. if the saw "binds" or does not work easily, you can for your _rougher_ work put a little tallow, butter, lard, or lubricating oil on the blade, but beware of doing this for your _nice_ work, or it will deface it when done. if the binding is caused by the springing together of the wood (fig. ) the crack should be wedged open. do not get into the habit of sawing a little way outside of the line and then trimming off the superfluous wood with your knife or a chisel. that is not a good way to learn to saw by a line. try your best to make the cut where it should be (even if you do make mistakes for a good while) and thus get into the habit of doing it right without having to rely on any other tool than the saw. many pieces of wood can better be screwed in the vise for sawing instead of being laid on the horses, and this position is often preferable. in this case you grasp the wood with the left hand and use the saw as already described. (see _sharpening_). =saw-filing.=--see _sharpening_. =sawing.=--see _saw_. =saw-set.=--various contrivances can be bought for setting saw teeth. when you get to the point of needing one you can easily find a variety from which to select. =scraper.=--the scraper is made of saw-blade steel (frequently from an old saw) and may be of any shape or size to suit the work required of it. a common form for scraping flat surfaces is rectangular like a postal-card, and a good size is from " Ã� " to " Ã� ". a piece of glass makes a good scraper for almost every purpose except where a flat, true surface is required. it is good to smooth the handle of a paddle, for instance, but not good for scraping the top of a nice table. for many rounded surfaces glass is fully as good as a steel scraper, but for general use the latter is much better. the following directions may be of use when you wish to break glass to use for a scraper: "take the back of a knife, or the smooth, straight edge of any piece of iron fixed with tolerable firmness for a moment, then, taking the piece of glass in both hands, rest its edge midway between them on the edge of the iron; let the upper edge of the glass lean from you, and push it gently along the iron, so as slightly to indent the edge of the glass; then, reversing its position so as to make it lean towards you, draw it smartly along the iron, and you will find it separated by a clean fracture directly across, forming a line more or less curved, and leaving one edge of the glass much sharper than the other. by a little practice, and by pressing a little more with one hand than the other, almost any curvature that the work to be done may require may be achieved" (lord and baines, _shifts and expedients of camp life_). the edge of the scraper is turned over so as to form a sort of hooked edge or angle (fig. ), which when pushed over the surface scrapes off thin shavings. to smooth a flat surface the scraper can be held with both hands, between the fingers and thumb (fig. ), and pushed along in the direction towards which it is inclined. sometimes one end of the scraper is held between the thumb and fingers of the left hand and the palm of the right hand applied below to push the tool along. as a rule scrape with the grain, and it is often advantageous to hold the scraper obliquely to the grain when pushing it forward. in case of some crooked and twisted grain you will find it best to scrape in any and in all directions. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] you can make scrapers yourself by filing and grinding pieces of old saw-blades. it is very convenient to have a number of them with edges of various degrees of curvature (both convex and concave), but these you can make as you need them. a scraper is sometimes set in a stock and guided by handles like those of a spoke-shave, and sometimes set in a stock like a plane and used in the same manner. a scraper of the latter sort is often useful to assist in keeping the surface true when scraping, as its flat sole prevents its following all the undulations of the surface as readily as the hand-scraper, with which one is apt to make depressions by scraping too much in some particular spot. but so far as smoothing the surface goes there is nothing better than the common hand-scraper or so easily taken care of. for sharpening the scraper, see _sharpening_. in many large places you can get your wood for nice work scraped to a satin-like finish by a machine made for the purpose, but this is hardly worth while for ordinary work. you can also have it smoothed very nicely by sandpapering machines, but this is not advisable if there is to be any cutting of the wood afterwards, as the grit left in the pores of the wood will quickly take the keen edge from your tools. the best test for smoothness alone is to run the fingers over the surface with a light touch. great acuteness of touch can be acquired in this way. any experienced wood-worker can at once detect inequalities with his fingers that he could not possibly see. irregularities in curves can be detected in the same way. _bead cutters_ or _scrapers_ and _reed scrapers_ and _fluters_ can be bought of various patterns. you will hardly need to buy anything of the sort for some time, as you can make one when required. see _beading_. =scratch-awl.=--see _awl_. =screw-driver.=--the screw-driver is too familiar to need description, but in buying one see that the end is shaped like either of those shown in fig. and not as shown in fig. . cheap screw-drivers are often made in the latter way. if ground with a short bevel (fig. ) it will bear only on the top of the slot in the screw and will be all the time slipping out, on the principle of the inclined plane, while if the sides are parallel or concaved slightly the end will remain at the bottom of the nick of the screw. this is also a help in extracting screws, as it saves the need of pressing against the screw so hard to keep the screw-driver from slipping out of the slot. it is well to have screw-drivers of different sizes, as it is difficult and often impossible to use a screw-driver with an edge much too large or too small. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] remember that a long screw-driver is always preferable to a short one, except where lack of space makes a short one necessary. the reason for this is in the fact that in using the screw-driver you do not, as a practical matter, keep it exactly in the line of the screw, but keep wobbling it round more or less, which gives a leverage in the form of a crank-like action as you turn the handle. the longer the screw-driver the larger the circle or wobbling curve you describe with your hand and the greater the leverage (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] a screw-driver to be turned by the bit-brace is very useful for driving screws rapidly and with force, on account of the greater leverage gained by using the brace instead of the common handle. this is particularly useful where they need to be driven in very hard or when tight screws have to be loosened. it also saves much time when many screws are to be used. it is not advisable to buy automatic screw-drivers. they work satisfactorily for light work, but are not suitable for such wrenching and straining as your screw-drivers are liable to be subjected to. you want screw-drivers to which you can apply all your strength. see _screws_. =screws.=--there are many kinds of screws. you will use the common wood-screws for most of your work. these are either flat-headed or round-headed, and of steel (either bright or blue or bronzed or nickled) or of brass. when others are required they will be mentioned. it is doubtful economy to buy second-hand or waste screws, but a pound or two of "mixed" screws, which you can get at any hardware store, will be very useful when you want some odd screw for some special purpose. many of the screws in the "mixed" lots, which are sold very cheap, are defective, but you can often find among them just the peculiar screw you need, and so save time and money. nails are often used where it would be better to use screws, which will, as a rule, hold the pieces more securely. when work becomes loose, screws can be tightened, while nails usually have to be redriven. to make a screw drive easily, rub the point on a piece of common soap. oil is objectionable for nice work on account of the spot made by it. if screws are to be used in places where they may rust, it is a good plan to warm them slightly and then dip them in melted tallow or lard. they can also be inserted and removed more easily for this treatment. try to keep the screw-driver from slipping from the slot of the screw (see _screw-driver_). [illustration fig. .] in boring holes for screws, considerable discretion must be used. the hole in the outer piece (the one nearer the head of the screw) should be large enough to allow the screw to slip through freely--that is, you should not screw it into both pieces, but only the inner one, the screw acting somewhat in the nature of a clamp to bind the outer piece to the inner by pinching it tight between the screw-head and the inner piece (fig. ). how much of a hole to bore in the piece into which the point of the screw enters depends on circumstances. the stouter the screw the less hole required. the softer and larger the piece and the farther from the edge the less hole required. if the piece is small or liable to split, the hole must be carefully made--the more carefully in proportion to the slenderness of the screw, as a slim screw is liable to twist off in hard wood unless a sufficient hole is provided. brass screws are very apt to do this, and much care must be used, particularly with slender ones in hard wood. if the hole is a bit too large, they will not hold. if a trifle too small, they will twist off, which is very annoying, especially in such cases as hinge-screws, for instance, where the place for the screws cannot well be changed. the hole should be somewhat smaller than the diameter of the screw. in good-sized pieces of soft wood there is frequently no need of any hole. in rough work, especially in soft wood, the screws may be pounded part way with the hammer, driving them home with the screw-driver. some theoretical workman will be quite sure to tell you never to do such a thing as that, so be sure to understand what is meant. theoretically there may be some loss of holding power by that process, but practically the screws will hold just as well for the cases in which you are advised to do that way. judgment must be used about all such things and theories are only of value when used by the light of common-sense. for example, if you are screwing the top on a mahogany table or framing a nice boat _never_ think of using a hammer to start your screws, but if you are putting cleats on an old shed door or screwing up a packing-case do not spend an hour and a lot of strength driving screws all the way with a screw-driver when you can do the work in half an hour by driving the screws three quarters of the way in with the hammer. good practical workmen are just as certain to use the hammer in such cases as they are careful _not_ to use it for nice work or where the full holding power of the screw is needed. flat-headed screws almost always should be countersunk (see _countersink_), for neatness if for no other reason, and in hard wood you should cut the depression for the head of the screw with the regular countersink made for the purpose. this should be done for nice work in soft wood where a good surface is required, but for _common_ work in soft wood there is no need, as a rule, for the head of the screw will sink itself easily until flush with the surface. if a screw hole requires to be moved a little, but not far enough so that a new hole can be bored without the bit slipping into the old hole, plug the old hole with a wooden pin dipped in glue, and when dry bore the new hole where required. see _screw-driver_. =scribing.=--compasses are often used for scribing a line parallel to another line or surface, whether regular or irregular, in places where the gauge cannot be used. suppose, for instance, you wish to cut the edge of a board to fit the undulating surface shown in fig. . run the compasses along with one point on the surface and the other making a mark on the board, and the line on the board will be parallel with the surface. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] another example is that of making a table, bench, chair, horse, or any four-legged object stand evenly. if it stands on three legs, which is a common fault and likely to occur in your first attempts, do not hastily saw one leg shorter by guess, and, making it too short, saw another and so on until it stands firmly, when the top will probably be all out of level. if there is any true surface on which you can stand the article (right side up), you can level the top by wedging under the legs until the corners of the top are equally distant from the surface on which the object stands. then setting the compasses at a distance equal to that at which the end of the shortest leg is raised (fig. ), scribe around the other legs, which can then be cut off.[ ] see also _winding-sticks_ and _marking_. =setting saws.=--see _sharpening_. =sharpening.=--before attempting to sharpen your tools yourself it would be well to read the advice given on page under _care of tools_. the general process of sharpening edged tools is first to grind them to as keen an edge as possible on the grindstone, or the emery-wheel, then to smooth down the coarse edge left by the grindstone by rubbing on a fine stone with oil or water, and finally stropping on leather. the grindstone must be kept wet while grinding or the heat caused by the friction of the tool on the dry stone will ruin the temper of the steel. besides, the water carries off the waste particles of stone and steel. stand on the side towards which the top of the stone turns. the tool can be ground with the stone turning from you, and, in fact, this usually seems the natural way to a novice, but it is usually more difficult to grind uniformly in that way and too thin an edge (a "wire-edge," ragged but not sharp) is apt to be produced, the removal of which is difficult without further damaging the edge and delaying the final sharpening. to grind the point of a knife, it can be moved back and forth lengthways with a curving motion, while resting flat on the grindstone, and to grind the straight part of the blade, it can be allowed to bear very slightly harder near the edge of the stone than elsewhere, as it is passed back and forth. to grind a chisel, grasp the handle with the right hand, hold the blade in the left hand with the fingers uppermost and near the cutting-edge. the arms and wrists should be kept as rigid as possible, the former at the sides of the body, so that the tool may be held firmly against the motion of the stone. lay the chisel with slight pressure quite flatly on the stone and then raise the handle until the bevel touches the stone. as you grind keep moving the tool slowly back and forth across the stone, which helps keep the edge of the tool straight and prevents the stone being worn away too much in one place. use plenty of water. the common way of holding the tool on the stone is the one just described, but it can also be held at right angles to this position, so that, in the case of a chisel, for instance, the grinding action of the stone instead of being from the edge toward the handle is from side to side of the blade. the tool is ground quicker and easier by this means, and it is a good way to reduce the edge to shape, finishing the grinding by the regular method. you will see that the curvature of the stone will tend to give the bevel a slight curve, in whatever position the tool is held, which is advantageous in the common way of grinding. when held so that the stone grinds from side to side of the blade the tool must be continually turned a little in the hand so that each part of the edge will bear in turn on the stone, as, the tool edge being flat, and the surface of the stone rounding, the tool would otherwise be ground hollowing. it is harder to hold the tool in this way, however, without its slipping or making nicks or grooves in the stone, and you had best learn to grind in the ordinary manner. try to grind squarely across the chisel--that is, to have the cutting-edge at right angles to the lengthways edge of the tool. apply the square at intervals to test the accuracy of the grinding. the angle for grinding the bevel of such tools as the chisel is about twenty-five degrees, but when used for very hard wood the angle should be slightly greater, or the edge may be broken. do all the grinding on the bevel. do not apply the flat side of the tool to the grindstone. any slight burr or turning over of the edge on the flat side should be taken off by the oil-stone. if the edge is badly nicked or broken, you can first straighten or grind it down roughly on the side of the stone or by holding it nearly at right angles to the stone--but with the latter turning the other way--before grinding in the regular way. to tell when the tool is ground sufficiently, hold the edge in front of you toward the light. if the edge can be seen as a bright shining line it is a sign that the tool is dull. it will not be sharp until this bright line has been removed, and the edge has become invisible, for a really keen edge cannot be seen by the naked eye. bear this in mind, as it is the final test and the simplest way to tell when to stop grinding. in grinding on a grindstone and in rubbing on an oil-stone, the great difficulty is to keep the same angle between the tool and the stone, as the natural tendency in moving the tool is to rock it back and forth and thus alter the angle between the blade and the stone. an arrangement can be bought which preserves the desired angle without effort on the part of the grinder. a little ingenuity will enable you to rig up a guide or gauge with a piece of board which will enable you to replace the tool on the grindstone at the same angle. the plane-iron is sharpened in the same way as the chisel, only, being wider than most of the chisels you are likely to use, it requires more care to sharpen. the plane-irons can be ground to a somewhat more acute angle than the chisels, although the jack-plane, which is used for rough work, may require more strength at the edge. in rubbing the edge upon the _oil-stone_, do not attempt to smooth down the whole bevel made by the grindstone, but first lay the tool lightly on the stone as shown in fig. _a_, then raise the handle until the upper part of the bevel is very slightly raised,--barely enough to clear the stone (fig. _b_),--and then proceed with the whetting, thus making a second or little bevel at the edge (fig. ). the tool must be moved back and forth very steadily or instead of a second bevel the whole edge will be rounded (fig. ) and will not have the requisite keenness. the angle of this second bevel is usually about ten degrees greater than the long bevel, or thirty-five degrees, although the angles of sharpening should be varied slightly according to the hardness of the wood and the kind of work to be done; but where you have only few tools and must use them for all kinds of work you cannot always, as a practical matter, pay much regard to such variations, as of course you cannot keep regrinding your tools every time you begin on a new piece of wood. just how acute to make the edge you must learn by experience, according to the conditions of your work. an edge suitable for delicate work in white-pine would be immediately ruined if used upon lignum-vitæ. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] any little wire edge which is produced on the flat side by the process of rubbing on the oil-stone can be removed by drawing the flat side of the iron over the stone once, but be sure that you do not raise the handle at all, as the slightest bevel on the flat side of the edge will spoil it. after the tool has been sharpened a good many times on the oil-stone this smaller bevel (the oil-stone bevel, so to speak) will become so wide that it is a waste of time and strength to rub it down. the chisel must then be reground and a new bevel made on the oil-stone. it is a good plan to have a separate stone or "slip" for the outside bevel of gouges, because it is so hard to avoid rubbing hollows in the stone, which injures it for the other tools. care must be taken also with very narrow or pointed tools lest the stone be grooved or nicked. gouges can be rubbed at right angles with the stone, rolling the tool with the left hand, or by the use of a slip they can be rubbed as described below. for rubbing gouges on the inside, _i.e._, on the concave surface, rounded pieces of stone, called "slips," are used. these can be bought of various sizes and shapes to fit the various curves. do not think, however, that you must try to find a slip that will fit each gouge as exactly as if it had been shaped by the gouge itself. the curve of the slip may be a little "quicker" or sharper than that of the tool, but must not be flatter or of course it cannot be made to bear on all parts of the curve. in rubbing with the slip, hold the tool upright in the hand and rub the slip up and down, moving the slip and not the tool. if you rest the tool against the bench, it will steady it and also avoid any probability of your finger slipping on to the edge. the more common "outside" gouges are not rubbed on the inside, except the merest touch of the slip to remove any wire edge or burr. the draw-knife is also rubbed with a flat slip, in the same manner, resting it on the bench. in rubbing the knife on the oil-stone give it a circular motion rather than simply back and forth, particularly for the point. the straight part can be allowed to bear a little more heavily near the edge of the stone as it is passed back and forth. it is much the best way to sharpen tools frequently, as soon as they begin to get dull, when they will require but little rubbing on the stone, rather than to let them get into such condition that it is a long and hard job to whet them; and of course the more careful you are to _keep_ them sharp, the better work you will do. to test the sharpness of your tools, cut across the grain of a piece of soft pine wood. if the cut is clean and smooth, the tools are sharp, but if the cut is rough or the wood torn, further sharpening is needed. the reason for using soft wood, which at first thought might not seem to require as keen an edge as hard wood, is because the fibrous structure of the soft wood, being more yielding, offers less resistance to the tool and so is torn or crushed apart except by a very keen edge, while the firmer structure of the hard wood can be cut smoothly by a tool which would tear the soft wood. the difference is somewhat like that between cutting a fresh loaf of bread or cake and a stale one. the edge left by the oil-stone can be improved by _stropping_ on a piece of leather on which a little paste of lard and emery or some similar composition has been spread. this is better than to strop knives and other tools on your boots. any piece of leather such as barbers use, or even a piece from an old boot, will answer. for flat edges see that the strop rests on a flat surface, so as not to tend to round the edge, as it may do if held carelessly in the hand. see _oil-stone_ and _strop_. _saw filing_ is particularly hard for boys and amateurs to do satisfactorily and you are advised not to undertake it until you have become quite familiar with the use of tools, for it does not need to be done very often, costs but little, and there are very few places where you cannot get it done. it is not difficult to understand the _theory_ of setting and filing saw teeth, but to fix a saw in really good shape is hard for an amateur,--and for that matter you will find but a small proportion of good workmen who are experts in saw filing. even in very small villages there is almost always some mechanic who has the knack of putting saws in order better than anyone else and who therefore makes quite a business of such work and people bring their saws to him from all the country round, even though they may be able to fix them tolerably well themselves, so great is the advantage in the quality of the work and the saving of time in having a saw in perfect condition. you had best do the same, and have your saws fixed whenever they get dull. the expense is but slight, and there is nothing that will conduce more to good work, and to your own success and satisfaction, than to have your tools in first-rate working order. when you get to the point of filing and setting your saws you are advised to take a lesson from a good saw-filer. there are few persons so situated that they cannot do this, or at least watch someone go through the process, and thus learn much more readily than by reading about the process in a book. in fact, it is one of those things that it is so hard to learn from a book that merely a few remarks on the subject are given here. the saw is firmly fastened in a saw-clamp, expressly for the purpose, so that it will not shake or rattle. the teeth are "jointed," or reduced to the same level, by lightly passing the flat side of a file over their points, lengthways of the saw. the saw can also be jointed along the sides after filing, but this is frequently omitted. for a cross-cutting saw the file (a triangular saw-file) is held at an angle with the blade depending upon the particular form of tooth adopted, as you will see by examination. the handle being grasped in the right hand, the point of the file should be held between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand (fig. ). the file must be pushed across with an even, straight stroke, without any rocking or up and down motion, pressure being applied only on the forward or pushing stroke, the tool being drawn back very lightly or lifted entirely on the back stroke. the filing is begun at one end of the saw, filing only the teeth which bend away from you (_i.e._, every alternate tooth), carefully keeping the file at the proper angle, pressing only on the tooth you are filing, but keeping the tool lightly touching the adjacent tooth, and making allowance for the fact that when you file the alternate set the passing file will take off a little from the teeth first filed. the saw is then turned around and the process repeated with the other teeth. if you look lengthways along the edge of a panel-saw that has been properly filed and set, an angular trough or groove will be seen along the whole length, so that you can slide a needle along in it from one end of the saw to the other. the ripping-saw is usually filed squarely across the saw (at right-angles to the blade), as you will see at once on examination of the teeth (figs. and ), but sometimes at a more acute angle. the teeth are set by bending every other tooth outward, first setting those on one side and then those on the other. you should do this with some one of the various adjustable tooth-setting contrivances sold for the purpose, as it requires a skilled workman to set teeth in any other way, and any attempt on your part to do so without some instrument adjusted to the purpose will probably result in damaging the saw. for soft and loose-fibred wood more set is needed than for hard wood, because the fibres, which are quite cleanly cut or broken in the hard wood, in the more yielding soft wood are bent aside by the teeth to close in upon the blade with considerable binding force; and less set is required by fine work than for coarse. the angles and points of saw teeth can be more acute for soft than for hard wood. to sharpen the scraper you must have a sharpener or burnisher. the edge of a chisel or any piece of very hard steel can be used after a fashion, but it is better to have a regular tool for the purpose, which can be made easily from an old three-cornered file, such as is used for filing saws, by grinding off the teeth and slightly rounding the angles on the grindstone until the whole tool is smooth. two opposite edges of the scraper are ground or filed and the edge then turned over by the burnisher. some workmen grind the edges with an obtuse bevel and use only one angle of each edge. others grind the edges square and use both angles of each edge. the bevel gives a slightly keener scraping edge than to grind the steel square, but it requires more frequent sharpening and the squared edge turned over on both sides is likely to be more satisfactory. [illustration fig. .] first grind or file the two opposite edges squarely across and slightly round each corner to prevent scratching the wood. if there is a burr at the edge it can be removed by rubbing the scraper lightly on the oil-stone, but this is advisable only for final scraping of very fine work. having thus got the edge at right angles and smooth, lay the scraper flat on its side near the edge of the bench and rub the burnisher back and forth a few times in the position shown in fig. , which is almost flat on the scraper. this rubbing bends a little of the steel over the edge. do this on each opposite edge of the two sides, giving four edges thus curled over. next, holding the scraper as shown in fig. , draw the burnisher with a firm, even stroke, once or twice, lengthways of the edge, as shown. the scraper can be laid flat on the bench, if preferred, slightly projecting over the edge. notice that the tool should be drawn with a slightly end to end motion, as shown, which helps turn the edge. this turns a fine scraping edge, which will take off shavings. all four edges are treated in the same way. after one edge gets dull, use another. when all four are dull, resharpen with the burnisher as before, without grinding or filing the edge. this can be done a few times, but soon the edges will get worn off and rounded, and the scraper then needs refiling. [illustration fig. .] =shellac.=--see _finishing_. =shell-bit=.--see _bits_. =shelves.=--examples of shelves fitted permanently into place are given in chapter x. (on furniture). removable shelves can most easily be fitted to rest on cleats screwed to the sides of the space, but this arrangement does not always look very well and the position of the shelves cannot be changed so readily as by using screw-eyes driven into the sides under the shelves (fig. ), recesses of the right shape being cut on the under side of the shelves so that the screw-eyes will be sunk and not be conspicuous. the position of the shelves can quickly be changed by screwing the supports higher or lower as may be required. pins and other contrivances to fit in a series of holes can be bought for this purpose. a common way to adjust shelves is shown in fig. . the construction is obvious. the vertical strips can be laid on edge side by side, clamped together, and the notches laid out and cut as if there were but one piece. where a circular saw is available the notches are cut on the side of a narrow piece of board which is then sawed into the desired strips or "ratchets." [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] =shooting-board.=--the shooting-board is very useful for jointing edges, particularly for short, thin stock. the carpenter or cabinet-maker will make you one for a moderate price, or you can make one yourself as soon as you become a good enough workman (see page ). [illustration fig. .] to use it, the board to be jointed is laid flat on the raised part of the shooting-board, where it is firmly held with the left hand, with the end of the board pressing against the stop of the shooting-board, and the edge to be jointed lapping over the edge of the raised part. the planing is done with the plane lying on its side on the lower part of the shooting-board (fig. ). the cutting-edge of the plane thus being at right angles with the surface of the board, the edge will be planed squarely across. the shooting-board should be fastened on the bench in some way, to prevent it from slipping around. attachments to keep the sole of the plane at right angles to the surface of the piece can be had at any hardware store, and serve the same purpose as a shooting-board for thick stock, but not equally well for thin pieces. you can reverse the sides of two pieces to be jointed for gluing, as described on page , giving a joint like that shown in fig. (which is exaggerated). the iron of the plane is sometimes purposely set to project unevenly beyond the sole. [illustration fig. .] if you have many joints to make, you can have the edges jointed at slight expense at any wood-working mill on a planer made for the purpose. see _jointing_. =smoothing-plane.=--see _plane_. =smoothing surfaces.=--see _plane_, _scraper_, _sandpaper_. =splices.=--see _joints and splices_. =spline.=--a flexible strip, used as a ruler, for drawing curves. see _marking_. =splitting-saw.=--see _saw_. =splitting wood.=--we have seen how a log in drying cracks along the radial lines (page ), thus showing the natural lines of cleavage or separation in the direction of the medullary rays, that is, radiating from the centre. from this we see that the wood will, of course, split most easily and smoothly on the radial lines. like all wood-choppers you can often make practical use of this fact in splitting wood with a knife or chisel, or in splitting fuel with an axe. the next easiest way to split wood is as nearly as may be on the line of the annual rings, or tangential to the line of the medullary rays, in the same direction as when the layers separate in forming "cup shakes" (see appendix). this way is sometimes easier than to rive a stout log through the centre. =spokeshave.=--the spoke-shave is very useful for smoothing small curved and irregular surfaces. metal spoke-shaves of various patterns can be bought with various adjustments for different curves, etc. also a "universal" spoke-shave can be had, with movable handles and detachable bottoms which can be adapted for curved or straight work, and a width gauge by means of which it can be used for rabbeting. the spoke-shave is a very useful tool and works upon the same general principle as the plane, but lacking the long flat sole of the plane is used only for irregular surfaces, which its short and sometimes curved face enables it to smooth with great ease. it also acts on the same principle as a draw-knife with the addition of a guiding stock. it bears somewhat the same relation to the draw-knife that the plane does to the chisel. [illustration fig. .] grasp the tool firmly, bearing downward with both hands and pressing forward with the thumbs, pushing the tool from you so as to cut like a plane (fig. ). of course it can also be drawn towards you when the circumstances of the work render it advisable. see _paring_ and _sharpening_. =spoon-bit.=--see _bits_. =square.=--this tool is one of the most useful in the list, for the importance of having your work "square" can hardly be over-estimated. the _try-square_ should have a metal strip on the inside edge of the wooden arm, head, or beam, or the handle can be wholly of metal. get a medium-sized try-square ( - or -inch blade is good) rather than a very small one, as it is much more useful; and a graduated scale, like a rule, on the blade is sometimes serviceable. [illustration fig. .] the primary use of this tool is to test or "try" the accuracy of right-angled work--hence the name. the one special point to bear in mind in using it for this purpose is to be sure that the head or beam is pressed _firmly_ against the edge or side to which it is applied, determining the accuracy of the angle by the position of the blade (fig. ). you will also use the try-square continually for marking straight lines across boards or timbers at right angles to one side or one edge (fig. ). in using it for this purpose be sure not merely to press the head of the square firmly against the edge of the board, but to _keep_ it securely in the same position. when the blade is placed correctly on the given point do the marking as by any straight-edge. another way is to place the point of the pencil or knife directly on the given point and slide the square along until it bears on the pencil or knife. then, keeping the head of the square firmly against the edge, the line can be drawn along the blade. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] the try-square sometimes is made with the end of the head or beam next the blade cut on a bevel. by placing this bevel against the edge a try-square of this construction can also be used as a mitre-square (fig. ). if you buy a second-hand square, or if a square has been wrenched, you can test its accuracy by marking a line with it across a surface from a straight edge, then turning the square over and repeating the operation; the two lines should coincide. but the edge from which you rule must be perfectly straight, or the test will be of no value. if, however, you buy new squares made by the best makers they will be as accurate as any test you can apply to them. beginners, particularly young beginners, are very apt to be so engrossed in making the line along the blade that they forget to keep the head in position, or let it slip, when the blade will of course cease to be at right angles with the edge or side (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] the _framing-square_, "_steel-square_," or large two-foot carpenter's square, is a very useful and important tool; not merely for framing and large, heavy work but also for small work, and it is of great value in many mechanical operations. even an iron square is very useful, but a nickel-plated steel-square is the best, as the figures are more distinct and it is less likely to rust. the long arm makes a good straight-edge. see also page . =staining.=--when you stain wood, do it for the sake of the colour, preserving the beauty of the grain, and not to try to imitate a more expensive wood. it is better, as a rule, to use good wood of a handsome colour and leave it as it is to mellow with age than to stain or colour it, but there are times when you will wish to stain wood. the main point to bear in mind for successful staining is to colour the wood itself, not to put on a superficial coat of coloured varnish. for instance, the fumes of ammonia (or the liquid itself) will give oak in a very short time the same dark colour which the ammonia in the air will produce after years of exposure. this is a natural process--merely anticipating the change caused by time. there are a number of ways of staining dependent upon such chemical processes carried on in the wood itself. these ways are the best, as you can readily see. having got the right colour, the wood can be oiled, shellacked, varnished, or waxed in the usual way. by this method the natural grain of the wood is not obscured. in fact, the figure of the grain is sometimes made more conspicuous. another way is to wash the wood with some thin stain of the desired colour, after which you can finish in the usual way. this is a good method, for the wood itself is coloured to some distance below the surface, and after it is finished it will take considerable bruising to expose its original colour. this method also sometimes enhances the beauty of the grain. the poorest way to stain, but a very common one with amateurs and in cheap work, is, instead of staining the wood itself, to cover the surface with coloured varnish or shellac. this is often the cheapest and quickest way of getting a desired colour, but it is decidedly the poorest way. of course, no coating of colour put on outside can be as durable as colour imbedded in the substance of the wood itself, and scarring or injury to the coating exposes the original colour beneath. besides this, the grain and character of the wood are necessarily obscured by a coloured coating. wood finished in this way almost always has a cheap, artificial look, and you can usually detect the fraud at a glance. there are many cheap "varnish stains" or coloured varnishes, but you will do well to avoid them, unless for the cheapest and poorest work. there are two things you will wish to do in staining. one is simply to darken or enrich the natural colour of the wood, so as to give it at once the rich, deep, mellow tone produced by age. this is always the best way to do when it will give the colour you want. but if you want to change the colour entirely--to make pine wood red or green, or cherry black, you must use some chemical process that will develop a new colour in the wood, or must apply a regular stain. raw linseed oil alone, well rubbed in and allowed to stand before applying shellac or varnish, will deepen and bring out the natural colouring in time as well as anything else, but it takes a good while. repeated applications, each thoroughly rubbed in and the excess rubbed off, and after standing some days or weeks, given a light rubbing down with fine sandpaper, then another oiling, and so on, will in time give a surface of beautiful colour, as well as a soft and attractive lustre. but to carry out this process may take months, so that you will not be very likely to practise it; but you see the result sometimes on old wooden tool-handles and plane-stocks which have been so treated. if you do not care about deepening the colour greatly, one or two applications, allowed to stand a week or two before finishing, will often be sufficient and will make a great difference in the looks of your work, and take off that raw, fresh look peculiar to recently cut wood. if your work is such that you can defer the shellacing for a year or so, as in the case of some pretty piece of furniture to remain in the house, there is no way you can develop the richness of the wood better than to oil it and let it stand to mellow, with occasional applications of oil and rubbing down. then finally rub down with fine sandpaper and shellac in the usual way. to hasten the process we must apply something stronger than oil. if the work is of oak, shut it up in a box or _tight_ closet, with a dish of _strong_ ammonia on the floor. do not stay in the box or closet yourself, as it is dangerous. a simpler way is to wash the work with the ammonia, more than once if necessary. have the room well ventilated when you do this, and do not inhale more of the fumes than necessary. wetting the wood is sometimes a disadvantage, however, in glued-up work, and it "raises the grain," which must be rubbed down with fine sandpaper before finishing. to deepen the colour of mahogany or cherry, simply wash it with lime-water (a simple solution of common lime in water) as many times as may be necessary, which is cheap and effective. after this process, thoroughly clean out all cracks and corners before sandpapering, for particles of the lime which may be deposited will spoil the appearance of the work when finished. this process preserves the natural appearance of the wood. the only drawback is the necessity of getting the work so wet. some days should be allowed for the water to evaporate before shellacking. to get a darker shade, apply in the same way a solution of bichromate of potash in water. whitewood takes stains finely--much better than pine. oak will stain almost any colour, but the individuality of the wood--the character of its grain and structure--is so strongly marked that it is poor taste to attempt to stain it to imitate other woods. if you stain it, stain it just as you would paint it, simply for the colour. a good way for indoor work, such as a piece of furniture or anything of the sort you may wish to colour, is to mix dry pigments with japan and then thin the mixture with turpentine, or turpentine alone can be used. after the work is coloured in this way put on a couple of coats of varnish. for outside work you can use oil. this is a cheap way and wears well. it applies only to the cheaper woods which you do not care to leave of the natural colour. for black inside work you can use ivory-black, ground in japan and thinned with turpentine. ivory-black or bone-black are superior to lampblack, but the latter will do very well for most purposes. dragon's blood in alcohol is used to give a colour similar to mahogany. alkanet root in raw linseed oil will give a warm and mellow hue to mahogany or cherry. there is an almost endless number of recipes for staining, but such others as you need you can learn from some finisher or painter, for the limits of this book do not allow fuller treatment of so extensive a subject. =steel-square.=--see _square_. =steel-wool.=--long, fine steel shavings done up in bundles can be used instead of sandpaper for some purposes. there are various degrees of fineness. this is good for cleaning off paint and for smoothing curved surfaces, but should not be used until all work with the edge-tools is done, because of the particles of the metal. it can be used for "rubbing down" in finishing. =straight-bent chisel.=--see _chisel_. =straight-edge.=--there are no definite dimensions for a straight-edge. any piece of wood that is straight and convenient to use can be so called; the size and the length depending on the work for which it is to be used, from a common ruler to a long board. the edge of a large carpenter's square is handy for short work. clear white pine or straight-grained mahogany is good for straight-edges, but a straight-edge is not the easiest thing for a beginner to make, and you will do well to find something straight to use for a while until you acquire the skill to make one--or get the carpenter to make you one, which he will do for a very small sum or for nothing. [illustration fig. .] to test a straight-edge, mark a line by it, then turn the straight-edge over and see if it still coincides with the line, or mark another line and see if it coincides with the first one. try your straight-edges by this test once in a while, as they are liable to become crooked. in turning the edge over, however, do not reverse the ends, as in case of an undulating curvature the curves may agree and give you the impression that the edge is straight when it is not. in the first case shown in fig. (exaggerated) this would not happen, but in the second case (also exaggerated) it might. see _marking_. =strop.=--a piece of hard, smooth leather on which to strop your tools you can easily procure. it can be fastened on a piece of wood (see page ). spread on it a paste of sweet oil and emery, lard oil and crocus powder, or some similar preparation. a pine board on which "air-dust" has accumulated can even be used. see remarks under _sharpening_. =tacks.=--tacks are sold as one-ounce, two-ounce, and so on according to size. do not use tacks for fastening wood to wood, but only for fastening leather or cloth or the like to wood. the pointed wedge-shape of the tack tends to split thin wood, and is not at all suitable to fasten two pieces of wood together, particularly in thin wood or near the edge. possibly you may have seen some disastrous results from the attempt to tack pieces of wood together. =tape-measure.=--this article (preferably of steel) is often useful, though not nearly as important for an amateur to buy as many other things. =tenon.=--see _mortising_. =tenon-saw.=--see _saw_ (_back-saw_). =tool-racks.=--see page . =toothed-plane.=--see _plane_. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] =truing surfaces.=--to true a curved or warped surface, as of a board, lay it on the bench with the rounded side down and wedge it firmly underneath to make it as nearly level as possible. then scribe a line with the compasses across each end of the board at the height of the lowest point of the surface (fig. ). cut a depression or kind of rabbet at each end down to this line (fig. ). next, by the use of winding-sticks placed on each of these rabbets you can easily see whether they are in line (see _winding-sticks_). alter the rabbets if necessary to get them in line. draw lines on each edge connecting the bottoms of the rabbets, and plane away the superfluous wood down to these lines. when this is done the top of the board will be true or in the same plane. test it by placing the straight-edges in different positions on the surface and sighting as before, correcting any errors. one side of the board being made true in this way, the other can be made parallel by gauging a line all around the edge, measuring by the thinnest point of the board, and planing off the superfluous wood in the same manner as the first side. you can sometimes facilitate the process of planing off the superfluous wood by making cuts with the saw and removing part of it with the chisel, or by planing across the grain (the jack-plane is good for this purpose), or paring across the grain with the chisel, or any such method, always being careful not to cut quite as deep as the intended surface, so that all the marks and cuts can be removed by the final planing. see _plane_, and also page . =try-square.=--see _square_. =turning-saw.=--see _saw_. =turpentine.=--see _finishing_ and _painting_. =twist-drill.=--the twist-drill is much better than the gimlet-bit. it makes a good hole, bores easily, is not easily dulled, can be used upon metal, and one kind in common use can be easily kept in order by simply sharpening the ends. there are various patterns. a little care is necessary, however, particularly in hard wood, as they are liable to be snapped by bending. see _bits_. =varnish.=--see _finishing_. =veining-tool.=--see _carving-tools_. =vise.=--see page . for vise for metal-work, see page . =warping, to remove.=--of course the simplest way to straighten a warped board is to put a weight on it, but the difficulty here is that it usually will stay straight only while the weight is on it, unless you leave it longer than the patience of the average amateur lasts. to do this (or to warp a straight board either) with some chance of success, ( ) heat one side, or ( ) wet one side, or ( ) wet one side and heat the other, or ( ) wet both sides and expose one to the fire (fig. ). but do not be too sure that the result will be lasting. sometimes it will and sometimes not. another way is to thoroughly soak the board, press it into shape between clamps or under a weight, and leave it until dry; a week or more is none too long, and boiling water is better than cold. simply laying a board down on a flat surface will often cause it to warp, because the two sides of the board will be unequally exposed to the action of the atmosphere. planing off one side only, or planing one side more than the other, often produces the same effect. see pages - and appendix. [illustration fig. .] =wedges.=--wedges are in constant use for lifting or separating heavy bodies, as doubtless you know, and the principle of the wedge comes in in using the axe, hatchet, chisel, knife, and the other edge-tools (see page ). besides this use of the wedge you will often find it valuable to tighten or clamp objects of various kinds, or to hold them firmly in place. if you wish to split objects or tear them apart, use a _single_ wedge, for the increasing thickness of the wedge applied at one point tears or splits the wood apart. but if you merely wish to squeeze, or press, or hold firmly, or move, _without damaging the shape of the wood_, use _double_ wedges,--that is, two wedges having the same inclination or taper and pointing opposite ways. you will see that the sides of the double wedge (that is, the outsides of the wedges) will be parallel no matter how hard you drive the separate wedges, so that the pressure will be exerted without injuring or jamming the surfaces against which the wedge bears (see fig. ). short, flaring wedges do the work more quickly, but require harder blows to drive, and are more liable to slip. long, tapering wedges work more slowly, more easily, and are not liable to slip. you will also use wedging to secure tenons and dowels (see _mortising_, etc.). =whittling.=--see _knife_. =winding-sticks.=--two straight-edges, each of equal width throughout, can be laid on edge, one across each end of the surface to be tested. stand back a little and look across the top edge of one to the top edge of the other, and if these edges agree you may know at once that there is no winding where you have placed the straight-edges (fig. ). by putting them in different positions you can finally determine whether the whole surface is true or not. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] it is more accurate to use winding-sticks considerably longer than the width of the piece to be tested, as then any warping or winding will be exaggerated and more easily seen (fig. ). if the upper edges of the sticks are thin, or "feather-edged," it is easier to tell exactly when they are in line, but this does not ordinarily matter, except in work requiring extreme accuracy. to find, for example, when the legs of a table, chair, or the like are cut so that the article will stand evenly, turn it over with the legs sticking up, put straight-edges on the ends of the legs, sight across these (fig. ), and trim one or two legs until the edges are in line. see _scribing_ for other methods. [illustration fig. .] warping or winding of short pieces can be detected by simply laying one straight-edge diagonally from corner to corner (fig. ). this will show at once which parts require to be planed to make the surface true. [illustration fig. .] =withdrawing nails.=--when withdrawing nails place a block under the hammer-head as shown (fig. ), using more blocks, if necessary, as the nail is withdrawn. to draw the nails from boxes, pry up a board, together with the nails, a short distance--perhaps / "--and then with a _sharp_, _quick_ blow of the hammer pound the board back into place, not striking the nails but the board between them. this will usually leave the nail-heads projecting a little above the surface, so that you can draw them as shown in fig. , and thus save splitting or defacing the boards and bending the nails, as usually results from smashing or wrenching boxes apart. the quick blow drives the board back before the motion has time to communicate itself to the nails, on somewhat the same principle that a bullet makes a round hole in a window pane without smashing the glass. [illustration fig. .] =wood-filler.=--see _finishing_. =wrench.=--a strong wrench is often very serviceable in wood-working operations. footnotes: [ ] _mortise-chisels_ with great thickness of blade (fig. ) are not likely to break, and the width of the sides bearing against the sides of the mortise tends to make the cutting more accurate. [ ] you may be told that perfect joints do not require much clamping, but a perfect joint is impossible, and as a practical matter, only the skilled workman or the most accurate machinery can make even a _good_ joint of much length, so great is the difficulty of avoiding little inaccuracies. besides this, there is always the liability to more or less springing or change of shape on the part of the pieces. the joint which was good when you stopped planing may not be as good by the time the glue has set, particularly if the gluing does not immediately follow the jointing. in addition to this, the pressure from clamping at only one or two points, or at points too far apart, may force the joint to open elsewhere. do not infer from this that even the beginner should be content with a poor joint, with the idea that it can be squeezed and jammed to a sufficiently good fit by applying muscle to the clamps. of course this jamming or mashing of the fibres to fit occurs, to a microscopic degree, in even the best joint, and it can sometimes be done to a perceptible extent with soft wood, but to do this intentionally is very unworkmanlike, and the greatest care should be taken to make as good a joint as possible before gluing and applying the clamps. do not, however, flatter yourself that you can make so accurate a joint that you can afford to neglect proper clamping, unless, in such cases as that shown in fig. , you adopt the old-fashioned way of rubbing the two edges together and then leaving the rest to the glue, but this is not so good a process for the beginner, except with small pieces, such as corner-blocks (see _corner-blocks_). see _jointing_. [ ] shellac is, strictly speaking, a kind of varnish, but it is so different from many kinds of varnish in common use that it is quite commonly spoken of as shellac, in contradistinction from what is popularly known as varnish, and the term is so used here. [ ] in shellacing doors or panel work, first shellac the panels, then the rails, and finally the styles (see fig. ), because daubs or runs can be wiped off and covered better when you thus follow the construction of the work. [ ] as an extreme illustration, it may be interesting to note the way the best lacquer work (which is so durable) is made by the japanese, an article being given, as professor morse tells us, one coat a year, the finest work having twenty-one coats and the artist rowing out to sea for miles each time to make sure that all dust is avoided. [ ] two pieces properly glued are often stronger than one solid piece--that is, the glued joint is stronger than the wood itself, as you will probably discover some day when you have occasion to break apart a piece of good gluing; but after a long time the glue is apt to deteriorate in adhesive or cohesive force, particularly if the joint has not been protected by paint or varnish, so do the best work you can if you wish it to last. nevertheless, in important work it is usually safest to take a whole piece when you can, rather than glue up two or more pieces, except in cases, perhaps, where the matter of warping, etc., is concerned, when it may be better to build up the desired shape of pieces selected for the purpose. [ ] it may be useful to know, although not suitable work for the beginner, that there is no better way to joint edges (to make glued joints, as in fig. ) than with a first-class circular saw, run by one who knows how to use it. the minute roughnesses left by the saw assist the glue to hold, and as inconspicuous and strong joints as possible can be quickly produced in this way by a good workman with a first-class saw, but do not expect a satisfactory result except under these conditions. [ ] this seems to be the common opinion among experienced men. there are, however, many painters of experience who prefer the prepared liquid paint for outside work, and it certainly saves trouble. [ ] it is not a good plan to wipe brushes on the sharp edge of a tin can, as it injures the bristles. [ ] another method of doing this is to find a true surface to stand the legs on and measure the distance the free leg rises from the surface-- " for example. do nothing to that leg, of course, or to the one _diagonally_ opposite, but saw / " from each of the two other legs. suppose, for example, the legs _a_, _b_, and _c_ touch (fig. ), and _d_ rises / " from the floor. make _a_ and _c_ each / " shorter. of course you cannot hit it exactly by this method, but a few strokes of a tool will finish the work. appendix =collection of specimens of wood.=--waste pieces of all the common woods can easily be obtained at the wood working shops. have some system about the size and shape of the specimens. some kinds you may be able to get only in pieces of such shape as you can find among the odds and ends of the shops, and many rare foreign and tropical woods you can obtain only in quite small pieces, but even these will show the character of the wood and add value to the collection. waste scraps of veneers of rare woods can be glued on blocks of pine. the specimens will be most valuable if you can get them out so as to show a longitudinal section along the medullary rays (or through the heart), a longitudinal section at right angles to the medullary rays (or tangential to the annual rings), and a cross section (fig. ). it will be an advantage also to show not only the heartwood but the sapwood and bark. if you cannot get such large pieces of even the common woods, a collection of small flat blocks will be well worth making. [illustration fig. .] the specimens will show to best advantage if polished (one half of each side can be polished) or finished with a dull lustre, and they will be good objects on which to practise finishing (see _finishing_ in part v.). all the information you can pick up about the strength, durability, toughness, elasticity, and uses of the various woods will be sure to come in play sooner or later. the gradations of hardness, density, weight, toughness, elasticity, etc., are almost endless. notice, therefore, the weight, colour, hardness, density, and characteristic odour of the specimens; the proportion of heart to sapwood, and the colour of each; the size and condition of the pith; the character of the grain, whether coarse or fine, close or open and porous; the number, arrangement, size, and colour of the medullary rays (when visible); the width and character of the annual rings (when visible), whether wide or narrow, with many or few ducts or resin canals. you will find many things to notice in some woods. use a magnifying-glass if you can. notice also about the bark. hunt up all the woody stems you can, compare the bark of the different specimens, noting its colour, taste, odour, surface, thickness, and the different ways it cracks and is cast off; and notice how easily you can learn to tell the common trees by the bark alone. sections of small stems or branches will often show the character of the wood well. note what you can about the character and habits of the trees themselves; the height, diameter, age, and the shape and peculiarities of the leaves. in this connection, a collection of leaves will also be interesting to make. you can soon learn to tell the common trees by their leaves. notice how, in some trees, as the pines, spruces, firs, the stem grows right straight up to the top, forming a spire-shaped tree. this is called an _excurrent_ trunk (lat., _excurrere_, to run out). notice how, in other trees, like the elm, oak, etc., the stem branches again and again until it is lost in the branches. this is called a _deliquescent_ stem (lat., _deliquescere_, to melt away). study the shape and arrangement of the different kinds of trees as shown in outline against the sky; best, perhaps, when the leaves are off. you can learn to tell the common trees by their outline. do they look stout, firm, strong, and rugged, or delicate, yielding, and graceful? to a certain extent you can thus form an idea of the character of the wood, as in comparing the pine, with its comparatively light top and slender leaves, with the heavy growth which the trunk of the oak has to sustain in wind and snow. =preservation of forests.=--forests are of great value from their effect upon the climate, making it more equable. they tend to cause abundant and needed rainfall and to preserve the moisture when fallen, releasing it to the rivers gradually, and thus preventing abnormal freshets and extreme droughts. by absorbing and parting with heat slowly they cause the changes of temperature to be less sudden than in the open country. they temper the heat, and they serve as a protection, or "wind-break," to adjacent land. trees, with other vegetation, are essential to the purification of the air. all this is in addition to the obvious uses of supplying fuel and wood for an almost endless variety of purposes, not to speak of the value of trees for shade and as features of the landscape. the reckless rate at which the forests of the united states are being destroyed is becoming a serious matter, not merely because of depriving wood-workers of the materials with which to work, but because of the influence of the forests upon the climate, the soil, etc., upon which so much of the welfare of mankind depends. at the present rate of destruction many generations cannot pass before the supply of wood will be practically exhausted. it is every year becoming more difficult to obtain native lumber of the best quality and large size. one of the most serious aspects of the matter, however, is in regard to the washing away of the soil, which owes not merely its origin but its preservation to the forest and other vegetable growths. professor shaler tells us that "it is in this action of the rain upon the bared surface of the ground that we find the principal danger which menaces man in his use of the earth." the individual wood-worker may not have control of any forest or wood-lot, but he can at least use his influence indirectly, when opportunity offers, toward needed legislation to restrict, or at least regulate, the improvident waste now going on, and he can in many cases take advantage of arbor day to plant at least one tree toward preserving the balance required by nature. =common woods and some of their characteristics.=--there are many things to be considered by the beginner when choosing his wood. many of these points have been treated in chapter iii. (to which the reader is referred), but a few additional remarks about the various kinds may be of use. one important thing, however, to be borne in mind before beginning, is to select straight-grained, plain, rather soft, and easily worked stock. with this and with _sharp_ tools you will have every chance of success, while with hard, crooked-grained wood and with _dull_ tools you will be well started on the road to discouragement and failure. it may be remarked, incidentally, that beginning with soft woods, such as white pine, calls for even keener-edged tools than can be got along with for harder woods, like oak. this, however, though it may seem a disadvantage, is really a good thing, for it _compels_ one to keep his tools sharp. you will soon find that it is impossible to do even passable work in the softer woods without sharp tools, while with harder wood you may succeed by brute force in mauling the work into tolerable shape without being sufficiently impressed by the fact that your tools are dull and require sharpening. besides the familiar fact that the heartwood is usually better than the sapwood,[ ] it may be useful to remember that, as a rule, the wood from a young tree is tougher than that from an old one; the best, hardest, and strongest in the young tree usually being nearest the heart, while in an old tree the heart, having begun to deteriorate, is softer and not as good as the more recently formed growths nearer the sapwood. if the tree is in its prime the wood is more uniformly hard throughout. the sapwood, as a rule, is tougher than the heartwood, though usually inferior in other respects; and timber light in weight is sometimes tougher than heavy wood, though the latter is often stronger and more durable and preferable for some purposes. the application of these statements varies much according to the kind of wood and different circumstances, for the growth and structure of trees is a very complex matter, and the diversities almost infinite. it may be well to bear in mind, considering the great variety of purposes for which the amateur uses wood, the distinction between the _elasticity_ needed for such purposes as a bow or horizontal bar, and the _toughness_ required for the ribs of a canoe, or the wattles of a basket. in the former case the material must not merely bend without breaking, but must spring back (or nearly so) to its former shape when released, as with lancewood or white ash; while in the latter case it must bend without breaking, but is not required to spring back to its original form when released, as with many green sticks which can be easily bent, but have not much resilience. these two qualities are found combined in endlessly varying degrees in all woods. elastic wood must necessarily have toughness up to the breaking-point, but tough wood may have but little elasticity. earliest of all trees, historically, come the pines--the conifers--and then the broad-leaved trees. the conifers, or needle-leaved trees, include the pines, firs, spruces, cypresses, larches, and cedars. as a rule they contain turpentine, have a comparatively straight and regular fibre and simple structure, are usually light, flexible, and elastic, and the wood is more easily split or torn apart than that from the broad-leaved trees, and is easily worked. the wood of the broad-leaved trees is more complex in structure than that of the conifers and, as a rule, harder, and for many purposes stronger and more durable. besides the woods in general use there are many which have merely a local value where they grow, and a long list could be made of the woods which have but very limited uses, as well as of those which, from their scarcity, hardness, small size, or other peculiarities are practically out of the question for the beginner or the amateur, except on rare occasions. the following list makes no claim to completeness, but may be of some use to the beginner. =apple.=--this wood is used for turning, such as handles, etc., and for other small work. it is handsome, fine-grained, and somewhat hard. =ash.=--this is a valuable wood, of which there are a number of varieties. it is used for agricultural implements, carriage-building, floors, interior finish, cabinet-work, etc. ash is flexible, tough, and elastic. it is good to stand a quick and violent strain, as that put on a horizontal bar in the gymnasium, although in time it becomes brittle. _white ash_ is the variety best suited for such purposes. it is good for oars and the like. ash is of a rather coarse and usually straight-grained texture, and most varieties are not difficult to work. =basswood.=--the wood of the american linden, or basswood, is soft and light in substance, white or light brown in colour, is easily bent but not easily split, free from knots but prone to warp, and is used for cabinet-work, carriage-work, and for various minor articles. it can be obtained in boards of considerable width. =beech.=--this close-grained wood, hard, firm, strong, and taking a good polish, is extensively used for machine-frames, handles, plane-stocks, some kinds of furniture, and a variety of minor articles, but will not often be needed by the amateur. the medullary rays are noticeable. =birch.=--the birch, of which there are many species, is widely distributed in north america, and furnishes an important wood, which is used for a great variety of purposes,--for furniture, floors, interior finish, turning, and a long list of minor articles. it is close-grained, and most varieties are hard and strong, but not difficult to work, and are susceptible of being given a smooth satiny surface and a fine finish. the uses of the bark of the canoe birch are familiar to all. this tree is good not merely for canoes, but its wood is used for paddles, skis, and the like. the _black birch_ is especially esteemed for furniture and interior work. it is of a beautiful reddish- or yellowish-brown colour, and much of it is beautifully figured with wavy and curly grain. it is frequently stained in imitation of mahogany, a deception much assisted by the resemblance in grain, and not easily detected if skilfully done. =black walnut.=--large black-walnut trees are practically almost as thoroughly exterminated in america as the bisons of the western prairies. the wood can be obtained, however, though it is not abundant in very wide boards. it is durable, usually straight-grained, moderately strong and hard, not difficult to work, holds glue well, and can be given a fine finish. it holds its shape well, and is an excellent wood for many purposes in interior finishing, cabinet-work, and for various minor articles. it has been very extensively used for gun-stocks. its sombre colour is not always admired, but it is an excellent wood for amateur work. when mottled or in the form of burl it is, of course, harder to smooth. the english and italian varieties of walnut have long been used. =boxwood.=--this wood is distinguished for its extremely compact and even grain. it is hard and heavy, is used in turning, wood-engraving, and the like, but is not likely to be required by the amateur. =butternut.=--this wood, found in north america, has a rather coarsely marked grain, is soft, light, of a yellowish-brown colour, and when finished makes a handsome wood for furniture and interior work. it is easily worked, but is not the easiest material for the amateur to smooth satisfactorily, because of the peculiar texture of the wood, which tends to "rough up" unless the tools are very keen. =buttonwood.=--see _sycamore_. =cedar.=--this tree, found quite abundantly in the united states, furnishes a wood which is exceedingly durable, particularly where exposed to the alternations of moisture and dryness, as when inserted in the ground or in situations near the ground, and is very valuable for fence-posts, foundation-posts for buildings, railroad ties, shingles, pails, and the like. some varieties of cedar are used for building purposes and interior fittings. the varieties of _white cedar_ are light, of good grain and easy to work, soft, and not particularly strong, but durable and admirably adapted to such purposes as boat-building, for which it is largely used. _red cedar_, which is in many respects similar to the other varieties, is distinguished by its colour and by its strong fragrance, which, being obnoxious to insects, makes it excellent for chests and closets. it is used for pencils. =cherry.=--this is a valuable wood for the amateur. it is found extensively in the united states. it is fine-grained, of moderate hardness, not difficult to work, and of a beautiful reddish-brown or yellowish-brown colour. it has a satin-like surface when smoothed, and can be given a beautiful finish. the _black cherry_ is especially esteemed. it can be obtained, so far as it has not been exterminated, in quite wide boards. cherry mellows and grows richer in colour with age. the varieties having a wavy texture are especially beautiful. it is much used for cabinet-work, interior finish, and for many purposes. the beginner should select only the softer and straight-grained varieties, as some of the harder and denser kinds are exceedingly hard to smooth. =chestnut.=--the value of this wood to the amateur lies chiefly in its durability. it lasts well in or near the ground or exposed to the weather. it can be used for framing, for posts for a fence or to support a building, and for similar purposes. it is soft, coarse-grained, not very strong, but is not difficult to work. =cottonwood.=--this is a soft, light, close-grained wood, used for woodenware, boxes, pulp, etc. =cypress.=--this wood is found in north america, mexico, parts of asia and europe. it is a valuable material, yellowish or yellowish-brown in colour, very durable when exposed to the weather or in contact with the soil, light, soft, easily worked, and is used for general lumber purposes for which pine is used, but to which it is superior for withstanding exposure. it is used for interior finish, doors, clapboards, shingles, cabinet-work, boat-building, posts, and a great variety of purposes. it takes a fine finish. the cypress of the southern united states is of large size, and the wood is of beautiful figure and colouring. valuable varieties are found upon the pacific coast. =deal.=--see _pine_ and _spruce_. =ebony.=--the excessive hardness of ebony renders it unsuited for amateur work. it is also expensive. it is very hard and solid, with black heartwood and white sapwood, and is used for furniture, turning, and small articles. =elm.=--this useful wood, strong, tough, and durable, usually flexible, heavy and hard, is extensively used in some of its varieties for boat-building, the frames of agricultural implements, yokes, wheel-hubs, chairs, cooperage, and many other purposes. some species are very good for continued exposure to wet. the _rock elm_ is a valuable variety, esteemed for flexibility and toughness as well as durability and strength. =fir.=--see _pine_ and _spruce_. =hemlock.=--this wood, valuable for its bark, is cheap, coarse-grained and subject to shakes, brittle and easily split, and somewhat soft, but not easy to work. it is unfit for nice work, but can be used for rough framing and rough boarding, for which its holding nails well renders it suitable. =hickory.=--this wood, found in the eastern parts of north america, is highly esteemed for its strength and great elasticity. it is hard, tough, heavy, and close-grained. it is largely used for carriage-work, agricultural implements, hoops, axe-helves, and the like. it is hard to work. the _shagbark_ is especially valued for timber. =holly.=--this wood is quite hard, close-grained, and very white, though it does not retain the purity of its colour. it is used for small articles of cabinet-work and for turning. =lancewood.=--the use of this wood for bows, fishing-rods, and such purposes has been extensive. it is distinguished for its elasticity. =lignum vitæ.=--the extreme hardness, solidity, and durability of lignum vitæ make it of great value for pulley-sheaves, balls for bowling, mallets, small handles, and turned objects. it is too excessively hard for the beginner to use. =locust.=--the wood of the locust of north america is hard, strong, heavy, exceedingly durable, and of yellowish or brownish colour. it is a valuable wood, and is used extensively for posts for fences and for the support of buildings, for ship-building, and for other work to be subjected to exposure or to contact with the ground. it is used in turning, but not extensively for interior work. =mahogany.=--this highly valuable wood, which did not come into general use until the eighteenth century, is found in the west indies, mexico, central america, and some other regions. it is very durable. the colour is found in a great variety of shades from golden-brown to deep reddish-brown. some varieties are light and quite soft, even spongy, while others (the best) are very hard and heavy, close-grained, and strong. in some kinds the grain is quite straight, in others curved and twisted into an endless variety of crooked shapes, the latter being the most beautiful for ornamental work, but more liable to change of shape than the straight-grained varieties. the straight-grained varieties change their shape but little,--less than most woods,--and are therefore excellently suited for the framework or structural parts of cabinet-work, for pattern-making, and the like. the so-called _baywood_ holds its shape well and is easily worked, but is not especially beautiful. the better grades of mahogany grow darker and richer in colour with age, but some varieties become bleached and lustreless with exposure. it is of the greatest value for interior finishing, for furniture, and for cabinet-work generally, and is also used for many other purposes. the term mahogany is used in commerce in a rather comprehensive way. mahogany from san domingo has long been highly esteemed, but is now difficult or impossible to obtain. the light-coloured variety known as _white mahogany_ is much valued for its beauty. mahogany is excellent for holding glue. it can be obtained in wide pieces, thus often saving the necessity of gluing. it can be given a beautiful dull finish or a high polish, as may be desired. the beginner should only attempt the plain, softer, straight-grained kinds of mahogany at first. the other varieties require much skill to smooth and, in case of the harder pieces, even to work at all; and these, however beautiful they may be, should be deferred until considerable proficiency has been attained. =maple.=--the maple grows freely in the united states, and is much used for a great variety of purposes, the _sugar_ or _rock maple_ being especially esteemed. it is close-grained, hard, strong, heavy, and of a light yellowish-, reddish-, or brownish-white colour (sometimes almost white, though found in varying shades), and can be smoothed to a satin-like surface and be given a good finish. it can be stained satisfactorily. the curly or wavy varieties furnish wood of much beauty, the peculiar contortion of the grain known as "bird's-eye" being much admired. maple is extensively used for cabinet-work and interior finishing, floors, machine-frames, work-benches, turning, and a great variety of miscellaneous articles. there are a number of varieties of the maple. the beginner should confine himself at first to the softer and straight-grained specimens, as the other kinds are hard to work and to smooth. =oak.=--of all the broad-leaved trees the oak is probably the most valuable, and has for ages stood as a type of strength. it is widely scattered in various parts of the world, and nearly three hundred varieties have been noted. oak is distinguished for its combination of useful qualities. it is hard, tough, elastic, heavy, durable, stiff (except after steaming, when it readily bends), and durable when exposed to the weather or to the soil. oak is more or less subject to checking. it is strongly impregnated with tannic acid, which tends to destroy iron fastenings. _american white oak._ this important variety is found in north america, and from it is obtained most excellent timber. it is used for a variety of purposes too great to be specified, from the construction of buildings and ships to furniture and agricultural implements, carriages, etc. it is an invaluable wood. _british oak_ has long been held in the highest regard for its combination of valuable qualities, and has been used for more purposes than can be here mentioned. the _live oak_, found in southern parts of north america, may be mentioned as a valuable wood, very strong, tough, and durable, which, before the introduction of iron and steel in ship-building, was extensively used in that business; but it is excessively hard and unsuited to amateur work. varieties of _red oak_ are extensively used, but, though valuable, are of inferior quality to the white oak. other varieties largely used in england and on the continent are seldom marketed in the united states. =pear.=--the wood of the pear tree is somewhat like that of the apple tree. it can be readily carved. =pine.=--first and foremost among the needle-leaved trees comes the pine, of which about seventy species are known. the _white pine_, known in england as yellow pine and also as weymouth pine, is widely distributed in america, and is, or has been, our most valuable timber tree, but seems to be doomed to rapid extinction, at least so far as the wide, clear boards and planks of old-growth timber are concerned, which are now exceedingly hard to obtain. there is no better wood for the beginner than clear white pine for all purposes to which it is suited. it is light, stiff, straight-grained and of close fibre, easily worked, can be easily nailed, and takes a good finish. when allowed to grow it has reached a large size (as in the so-called "pumpkin" pine), furnishing very wide, clear boards, of beautiful texture and with a fine, satiny surface. it is of a light yellowish-brown colour, growing darker with time. it is soft, resinous, and of moderate strength. pine is cut into lumber of many forms, and is used for inside finishing of houses, for many purposes of carpentry and cabinet-making, for masts and spars, for clapboards, shingles, and laths, doors, sashes, blinds, patterns for castings, and a long list of different purposes. it holds glue exceedingly well and takes paint well. other varieties, as the _sugar pine_, the _canadian red pine_, the _yellow pine_, etc., grow in america. white pine is also found in europe. the _scotch pine_ or _norway pine_, known also as _red_, _scotch_, or _yellow fir_, and as _yellow deal_ and _red deal_,[ ] is the common pine of the north of europe, hence its name, _pinus sylvestris_, pine of the forest. it is hard, strong, not very resinous, and is extensively used. _southern or hard pine._ this very important timber is found on the southern atlantic and gulf coasts of the united states. it is very hard, heavy, and resinous, with coarse and strongly marked grain. it is durable, strong, and not easily worked by the beginner, and is hard to nail after seasoning. it is extensively used for girders, floor-timbers, joists, and many kinds of heavy timber work, including trestles, bridges, and roofs, for masts and spars, for general carpentry, floors, decks, and interior finish, railway cars, railway ties, and many other purposes, and, in addition, for the manufacture of turpentine. other varieties of hard pine are sold and used successfully for the same purposes, all under the common name of hard pine, southern pine, georgia pine, yellow hard pine, etc. another variety of hard "pitch" pine (_pinus rigida_), often confused with the southern pine, is heavy, resinous, and durable, but not suited for the better class of work. =plum.=--this is a fine-grained, hard wood, used for turning, engraving, etc. =redwood.=--the two varieties of the giant _sequoia_ of the pacific coast are the _sequoia sempervirens_ and the _sequoia gigantea_ or _wellingtonia_. the former, the most important tree of the pacific coast, is of immense size (supposed to reach a height of even four hundred feet), red in colour, rather soft, light, and moderately strong, easily worked and finished, and very durable when exposed to the soil. it is used for general lumber purposes, carpentry, interior finish, posts, tanks, shingles, and a great variety of uses. the _s. gigantea_ or _wellingtonia_, which has the largest trunk in the world, is also red in colour, coarse-grained, rather weak, soft and light in texture, and of great durability when exposed to the soil. it is used for lumber and general building purposes, posts, shingles, etc. these are the "big trees," thought in some instances to be even five thousand years old, and of which the familiar stories are told about a stage-coach having been driven through a hollow tree, and about twenty-five people having danced at one time upon a stump. =rosewood.=--this wood, of handsome grain and colouring, has been much admired and extensively used for veneering. it is hard and heavy and of a peculiar texture, which seems oily to the touch. it is not well suited to amateur work, and is expensive. =satinwood.=--this handsome yellowish-brown wood is hardly to be considered by the amateur except for the occasional use of a small piece. =spruce.=--the wood of the spruce, of which there are a number of varieties, is quite abundant, is light and straight-grained, and comparatively free from large knots. it is largely used for many of the same purposes as white pine, to which it is inferior for interior finish and fine work, but superior in strength, hardness, and toughness. both white and black spruce are extensively used for carpentry, interior finish, flooring, fencing, and inferior wood-work generally. it has the great disadvantage of curling and twisting and springing badly, and is not as nice to work as white pine. spruce of good quality makes good paddles, spars, and the like, and is valuable for such work. the wood of the norway spruce is known in england as _white deal_. =sycamore.=--this handsome wood, found in various parts of the world, and of a light yellowish or reddish-brown colour, is esteemed for interior work. the medullary rays are noticeable. it is rather hard, but not very difficult to work. it is not durable for outside work exposed to the weather. known also as _buttonwood_. =walnut.=--see _black walnut_. =whitewood.=--like white pine, whitewood is an excellent wood for the early attempts of the beginner. whitewood, which is by no means white, but greenish- or brownish-yellow, is the name applied to the wood of the tulip tree. this tree attains a large size, thus furnishing wide boards, which are of such straight and even grain and so free from knots as to be of great use for many purposes. it is brittle and soft, but light and very easily worked. it is not, for most purposes, as reliable a wood as white pine, but is extensively used in the wood-working arts. it is more liable to warp and twist than pine. it takes a stain exceedingly well. =willow.=--an important use of this wood is for baskets. it will not often be required by the beginner, except for whistles. =yew.=--this wood, like lancewood, is distinguished for its elasticity, and is highly esteemed for bows and the like. * * * * * many other woods can be alluded to, as catalpa (for posts and the like), elder (for various small articles), dogwood (for turning and the like), gum (for various common articles), hornbeam or ironwood (for mallets, handles, wheel-cogs, etc.), poplar (for pulp), sassafras (for posts, hoops, etc.), teak (from the east, strong and valuable), tupelo (hubs of wheels, etc.), and a great variety of others which cannot be specified, as they are but seldom required by the amateur and never needed by the beginner. =felling and seasoning.=--a tree should usually be cut for timber at or near its maturity, as a young tree has too much sapwood and will not be as strong and dense or durable, while an old one is likely to get brittle and inelastic and the centre of the heartwood is liable to decay, being the oldest portion. a young tree, though softer and not so durable, furnishes a tougher and more elastic wood, and sometimes has a finer grain. trees differ so much, and the uses to which the wood is to be put are so various, that no exact ages can be set for cutting--probably from fifty to one hundred years for good timber, to make a rough statement. some trees furnish excellent timber at a much greater age than one hundred years. pine is thought to be ripe for cutting at about seventy-five or one hundred years of age, oak at from sixty to one hundred years or more, and the various other woods mature at different ages. midwinter, or the dry season in tropical regions, is usually preferred for felling, because the sap is quiet. decay sets in more rapidly in the sapwood and between the wood and the bark during the period of active growth, because of the perishable nature of the substances involved in the growth. midsummer is considered equally good by some. the various methods of cutting the log into the lumber of commerce have been treated in chapter iii., to which the reader is referred. in this connection it will be noticed that, although boards cut through or near the middle are, as a rule, the best, when they contain the pith they are sometimes valueless in the centre, as well as when, in the case of an old tree, decay has begun at that point. as the water evaporates gradually from green wood exposed to the air but protected from the weather, one might infer that in time it would evaporate entirely, leaving the wood absolutely dry, just as the water will entirely disappear from a tumbler or a tea-kettle. this is not so, however. the drying goes on until there is only about ten to twenty per cent. of moisture left, but no amount of open-air seasoning will entirely remove this small per cent. of moisture, the amount varying with the temperature and the humidity of the atmosphere. it can be got rid of only by applying heat, kiln-drying, baking, currents of hot air, vacuum process, or some artificial method of seasoning. after having completely dried the wood by any of these methods, if it is again exposed to the atmosphere, it absorbs moisture quite rapidly until it has taken up perhaps fifteen per cent., more or less, of its own weight. so you see that, though you may by artificial means make wood entirely dry, it will not stay in this unnatural condition unless in some way entirely protected from the atmosphere _at once_, but will reabsorb the moisture it has lost until it reaches a condition in harmony with the atmosphere. recent investigations show that the very fibre or substance of the wood itself imbibes and holds moisture tenaciously, this being additional to the water popularly understood to be contained in the pores or cavities of the wood. there are various other methods besides kiln-drying (referred to in chapter iii.) of seasoning and of hastening the drying process. wood is sometimes soaked in water before being seasoned. this assists in removing the soluble elements of the sap, but it is doubtful whether the process improves the quality of the wood. smoking and steaming are also resorted to. small pieces can readily be smoked, which hardens the wood and adds to its durability,--a method which has been known for centuries,--but care must be taken not to burn, scorch, or crack the wood. =decay and preservation.=--timber decays fastest when alternately wet and dry, as in the piles of a wharf, fence-posts, and the like, or when subjected to a hot, moist, close atmosphere, as the sills and floor-timbers situated over some damp and unventilated cellar. fig. shows the decay caused by alternate wetness and dryness, while the parts above and below are still sound. [illustration fig. .] wood lasts the best when kept dry and well ventilated. when kept constantly wet it is somewhat softened, and will not resist so much, but it does not decay. recently, upon cutting a slab from the outside of a large log taken from the bed of a river, where it had lain for one hundred years or more, the interior proved as sound and clear as could be found in any lumber-yard. undoubtedly, however, such long submersion lessens the elastic strength of timber after it is dried. that is not, however, an extreme example of durability. wood has been taken from bogs and ancient lake-dwellings after being preserved for ages. piles were taken from the old london bridge after about years of service. piles placed in the rhine about years ago have been found quite sound during the present century; and piles are now regularly used, as you doubtless know, for the support of the most massive stone buildings and piers, but only where they are driven deep in the ground or below the low-water line. many examples of the durability of wood kept dry are found in european structures. timbers put into the roof of westminster abbey in the reign of richard ii. are still in place, and the roof-timbers of some of the older italian churches remain in good condition. thorough seasoning, protection from the sun and rain, and the free circulation of air are the essentials to the preservation of timber. many preparations and chemical processes have been tried for the _preservation of wood_. creosote is one of the best preservatives known. insects and fungi are repelled by its odour. the modern so-called "creosote stains" are excellent, not very expensive, and easily applied. they are only suitable for outside work, however, on account of the odour. coal-tar and wood-tar or pitch, applied hot in thin coats, are also good and cheap preservatives for exposed wood-work. charring the ends of fence-posts by holding them for a short time over a fire and forming a protecting coating of charcoal is another method which has been extensively used. oil paint will protect wood from moisture from without, and is the method most commonly in use. in the case of any external coating, however, which interferes with the process of evaporation, as tar or paint, the wood must be _thoroughly dry_ when it is applied, or the moisture within will be unable to escape, and will cause decay. lumber as well as the living tree has enemies in the form of insects and worms, but the conditions best for the preservation of the wood, as referred to above, are also the least favourable for the attacks of animal life and of fungi. as soon as the tree has been felled and dies, decomposition begins, as in all organic bodies, and sooner or later will totally destroy the wood. the woody fibre itself will last for ages, but some of the substances involved in the growth soon decay. the sap is liable to fermentation, shown by a bluish tint, and decay sets in. fungi are liable to fasten upon the wood. worms and insects also attack it, preferring that which is richest in sap. thus we see that the danger of decay originates chiefly in the decomposition of the sap (although in living trees past their prime decay begins in the heartwood while the sapwood is sound), so the more the sap can be got rid of the better. there are, however, some substances found in various trees, aside from those elements especially required for their growth, which render the wood more durable, like tannic acid, which abounds in oak and a number of trees, particularly in the bark. there is no advantage in getting rid of the turpentine and other volatile oils and the resinous deposits found in needle-leaved trees, particularly in the case of those woods in which they abound. care should be taken, however, not to use a piece of pine badly streaked or spotted with resinous deposits in a place where it will be exposed, as the turpentine or resinous matter will be apt to ooze out and blister the paint. _wet rot_ is a decay of the unseasoned wood, which may also be caused in seasoned wood by moisture with a temperate degree of warmth. it occurs in wood alternately exposed to dryness and moisture. _dry rot_, which is due to fungi, does not attack _dry_ wood, but is found where there is dampness and lack of free circulation of air, as in warm, damp, and unventilated situations, like cellars and the more confined parts of ships, and in time results in the entire crumbling away of the wood. there are several forms of dry rot. one of the most common and worst of dry-rot fungi attacks pine and fir. fungi also attack oak. creosote is used as a preventive, to the extent to which it saturates the wood. =effects of expansion and contraction.=--cracks, curling, warping, winding, or twisting are due to nothing but irregular and uneven swelling and shrinking. some kinds of wood shrink much in drying, others but little. some, after seasoning, swell or shrink and curl and warp to a marked degree with every change in temperature and dryness. others, once thoroughly air-seasoned, alter much less in shape or size under ordinary circumstances. we have already seen that the heart side of a board tends to become convex in seasoning, owing to the shrinkage of the other side, and that if one part swells much more than another the wood becomes out of shape,--warped, curled, or twisted. if one part shrinks much faster than another, cracks usually result in the quicker shrinking portion. if you stick one end of a green board into the hot oven of the kitchen stove, the heated end will crack and split before the rest of the board has fairly begun to dry. we have seen illustrations of this in the seasoning process, as shown in chapter iii. exposure of one side of a seasoned piece to either dampness or heat will thus cause the piece to curl. the dampness swells the side affected or the heat shrinks it so that the convexity will be on the dampened side, or the concavity on the heated side, as the case may be. if lumber were of perfectly uniform texture, hung up where it would be entirely unconfined and free to swell or shrink in all directions, and equally exposed all over the surface to exactly the same degrees and changes of heat and cold, dryness and moisture, it would simply grow larger or smaller without changing its form or shape. there would then be no curling, warping or winding. as a matter of fact, however, wood is not uniform in texture, but exceedingly varied, some pieces being extremely complex in structure; neither is it always free to expand and contract in every direction, nor equally exposed on all sides to the alternations of heat and cold, moisture and dryness. to come to the practical application of these facts, we have seen (in chapter iii.) that boards for nice work should be planed down equally, as nearly as may be, from both sides; that the mere dressing off of the surface by hand will sometimes cause a board to warp badly; and that it is better to buy stock of as nearly the required thickness as possible, than to plane it down or split it. it should also be noted that when a board is being sawed in two or split lengthwise with a saw it sometimes springs together behind the saw with so much force that the crack has to be wedged open in order to continue sawing (fig. ). sometimes the crack opens wider instead of closing (fig. ). you see from this that you cannot always be sure when you split a board that the parts will retain the shape they had in the original board. in working up large pieces into smaller ones, unexpected twists and crooks will often be found in the smaller pieces which did not exist in the original stock. sometimes mahogany, for instance, will act in this way very markedly. strips sawed off from a board, for example, will sometimes immediately spring into very crooked forms, as shown in fig. (which would not be exaggerated if the pieces were drawn of greater proportionate length). [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] in splitting stock flatwise, _i.e._, making two thinner boards out of a thick board or plank, a similar result often follows. the latent power set free, so to speak, by suddenly exposing the middle of a board, plank, or other timber to the atmosphere sometimes causes curious developments. it being necessary one day to split for a picture frame a large mahogany board, " thick by ' square, with a circular hole already sawed from the centre, the pieces warped and twisted as the sawing went on (fig. ), until, just as they were nearly separated, the whole thing "went off" with a report like a toy pistol, breaking into a dozen pieces and scattering them around the shop. in very crooked-grained wood you will frequently find uneven and undulating forms of warping and twisting that you do not find in straight-grained pieces, but such wood is often of the most beautiful figure for indoor work. where the grain is crooked, cropping up to the surface as in fig. , the cut-off ends of the fibrous structure, so to speak, are exposed in places to the atmosphere. these open ends, "end wood," thus brought to the surface are more susceptible to moisture and dryness than the sides of the bundles of fibrous tissue, which tends to produce unequal swelling, shrinking, and warping. you will see if you look at the ends of logs and stumps that the heart is frequently not in the centre, in some cases taking such a devious course throughout the stem as to make the grain so crooked that no method of sawing will remove the tendency to warp or twist, just shown. such trees may show a beautiful grain. even in straight trees the pith is not usually quite straight, and is apt to take a somewhat zigzag course, due to the crooked way the tree grew when young (fig. ). [illustration fig. .] imagine, for an exaggerated illustration, that you could see with x-rays the pith as crooked as fig. . that shown in fig. . imagine that from this tree you could saw out the board indicated, keeping with it the whole pith or heart as if it were a wire rope woven in and out of the board, so that the appearance would be somewhat like that shown in fig. . bear in mind that the annual rings are layers of wood, so to speak, which may vary in thickness, growing around the heart. you will see that these layers, or rings, as they dip below or rise above the surface of the board, will cause the grain to form various patterns, perhaps somewhat as shown in fig. , which makes no claim to accurately showing the grain in this case. in fact, all such variations of grain in lumber are due to the surface of the piece being at an angle with the layers. [illustration fig. .] [illustration fig. .] in addition, the knots caused by branches, the twisting of the stems screw-fashion (as is seen in cedar), wounds, and other causes, often produce very crooked and tangled grain, and the wood of many broad-leaved trees is sometimes extremely complicated in texture, especially when all these irregularities occur in the same piece. it is the nature of some kinds of mahogany, from whatever cause, to have the fibres strangely interlaced or running in very different directions in layers which are quite near each other. the warping, twisting, and cracking is obviated in many cases where it is objectionable (as in the wooden frames of machines, the tops of benches) by building up with a number of smaller pieces, of which you will often see illustrations. to do this to the best advantage, the pieces should be selected and put together so that, though the grain will run in the same direction lengthways, the annual rings at the ends will not run together as in a whole beam, but will be reversed or arranged in various combinations, so that the tendencies of the different parts to warp or twist will counteract each other. instead of a single board, which would naturally become warped in one large curve, a number of strips can be glued up with the grain of the strips arranged in alternate fashion (fig. ), so that in place of one large curve the warping will merely result in a slightly wavy line. where but one side of a board is seen or used and where the full strength is not needed, warping and twisting can be largely prevented by lengthways saw-cuts on the back or under surface, as in a drawing-board, the crossways strength required being secured by the cleats. doors and most forms of panelled work also illustrate these matters of swelling and shrinking (see _doors and panels_). _shakes._--_heart-shakes_ are cracks radiating from the centre in the line of the medullary rays, widest at the pith and narrowing toward the outside, and supposed to be chiefly caused by the shrinkage of the older wood due to the beginning of decay while the tree is standing (fig. ). slight heart-shakes are common, but if large and numerous or twisting in the length of the log, they injure the timber seriously for cutting up. [illustration fig. .] _star-shakes_ are also radiating cracks, but, unlike the heart-shakes, the cracks are widest at the outside, narrowing toward the centre (fig. ), and are often caused by the shrinkage of the outer part due to the outside of the tree drying faster than the inside, as it naturally does from being more exposed after being felled; but they are sometimes owing to the beginning of decay and other causes. [illustration fig. .] _cup-shakes_ are cracks between some of the annual rings, separating the layers more or less (fig. ), sometimes reaching entirely around, separating the centre from the outer portion, and are supposed to be caused by the swaying of the tree in the wind (hence sometimes known as _wind-shakes_), or to some shock or extreme changes of temperature, or other causes. [illustration fig. .] combinations of the various shakes may be found in the same log. =a few suggestions about working-drawings.=--drawing is far too extensive a subject to be even briefly treated in a manual on wood-working, but a few general remarks on matters connected with working-drawings may be of help to some. while an ordinary picture gives a correct idea of how an object looks, we cannot take accurate measurements from it. when we need dimensions, as in practical work, we must have some drawings which will show us at once the exact shapes, sizes, and positions of the various parts. in addition to the picture to give us the general idea, we have for working purposes what are called _elevations_, _plans_, _sections_, etc. in such a case as that of the little house shown on page , the picture (fig. ) shows us the appearance of the building, but for purposes of construction, working-drawings should also be made. the view of what you would see if you stood directly in front of this house, with only the front visible, is shown in fig. , and is called the _front elevation_. stand opposite either side or end, and the view seen is represented in fig. as the _side elevation_. in the same manner the _rear elevation_ is given. next imagine yourself in the air directly above the house. this view is called the _plan_.[ ] in this case, as the view of the interior is desired, the view is shown as if the roof were removed. if the sides or ends are not alike, as is sometimes the case, two side or end views may be needed. in the case illustrated, inside elevations are also given, to show the construction. elevations, whether one or several, must always be taken at right angles to the plan. although commonly, in simple work, confined to representations of each side or end, they can be taken from any point of view that may be at right angles to the plan. they may be taken from the corners or at any angles that may best show any complicated details of the object. if the object is quite simple, one elevation and the plan, or two elevations without the plan, may be quite sufficient, as the elevation or plan omitted can in such cases be understood at once. always make your drawings full-sized when the object to be made is not too large. you are much less likely to make mistakes in taking your dimensions and measurements from a drawing the actual size of the object than where you have to take them from a smaller drawing, and you also can get a better idea from a full-sized drawing just how the object will look. it is a safe-guard, with a drawing which is symmetrical, to lay it out from a centre line, measuring to the right and left. if you make a drawing of which each line is one half the length of the same line in the real object, it is called a "half-size" drawing, and is said to be drawn on a scale of " to the foot. if "one fourth size," the scale is " to the foot. the scale is often expressed as an equation, viz.: in. = ft., or / " = '. if the drawing is not made with accuracy, it is necessary to put the dimensions upon it, and this is often done for convenience and quickness of execution in the case of drawings which are accurate. details inside of an object, that is, such parts as cannot be seen or properly shown in the elevations or plan, are often shown by dotted lines, as in fig. . sometimes dotted lines are used in the same way to show the back of an object, to save making extra drawings. too many dotted lines, however, are confusing, so if the parts that do not show on the surface are not quite simple and cannot be clearly shown by dotted lines on the plan and elevations, it is usual to make another kind of drawing especially to show such details. this is called a "section" (lat., _sectio_, from _secare_, to cut), and represents what would be shown if the object were cut apart or sawed through at the place where the view of the details is wanted. the surface supposed to be cut is usually indicated by parallel lines crossing the surface, independent parts, as those of different pieces, frequently being shown by changing the direction of the parallel lines, as in fig. . when both sides of an object are alike, labour and space are often saved by making a drawing of one side or one half only, from a centre line. the same way is sometimes adopted in making sections, and an elevation and section can sometimes be combined in this way in one drawing. as soon as you become used to plans and elevations, you can by combining the plan and elevations in your mind quickly imagine the form of the object represented, and often, unless it is complicated, get fully as good a conception of it as from a picture, and a more accurate knowledge of its proportions and details, so that in many cases there is no need of having a picture at all in order to construct the object. it is often a convenience to have a picture, however, and frequently an assistance in forming a correct idea of something you have never seen. where the appearance of the object is of consequence, as in the case of a house or bookcase, for instance, the picture is of the first consequence, for you must have a correct representation of the general appearance of the object before you begin to make the working-drawings. you will soon find that merely having an idea in your mind is not always sufficient from which to make working-drawings, although the first step in the process. you will often find that when the idea in your mind is put into the form of a picture, it does not look at all as you thought it would, and that if you had started at once on the working-drawings without first making a sketch or picture, the result would have been unsatisfactory and sometimes entirely impracticable. even making a sketch or picture that just expresses your idea will not always result in the completed object being just what you wish. strange though it may seem, it is a fact, practically, that the completed object often looks quite different from what the sketch leads you to expect. that result, however, is something which cannot be helped, so you need not give it any attention, only do not be surprised if once in a while you find that what you have made is not just what you thought it would be. first make the best design you can, then accurate working-drawings, then work carefully by the drawings, and if the result is not always exactly what you expected, you can console yourself with the thought that your experience is only that of architects, designers, carpenters, and workmen in all lines, and that no one can foresee _all_ the conditions by which a piece of projected work will be affected. oblique or parallel projections are often used, from which measurements can be made. such projections are not true representations of the objects as they appear to the eye, but they are often used because readily understood and easily drawn. they often answer every purpose from a practical point of view. figs. and are examples. another way of representing objects for practical purposes is that shown in figs. and , and known as "isometric[ ] projection" or "isometric perspective." this method is incorrect so far as giving an accurate picture is concerned, for the object is always represented as being too large in the farther parts, because the inclined lines are drawn parallel instead of converging; but it is often very useful from a practical point of view, because by it all that is required can frequently be expressed in one drawing. isometric perspective will not readily give the correct dimensions except in the lines which are vertical or which slant either way at an angle of ° with the horizontal,--_i.e._, you cannot take the other dimensions right off with a rule as from a plan, and therefore, so far as obtaining correct dimensions is concerned, it is practically not useful for other than rectangular objects; but so far as merely showing the general shape or conveying the idea of the form it can often be advantageously used in representing many objects containing curved lines. isometric projection has the advantage of being easy of execution, and of being so pictorial that it is almost always easy to see what is meant. =a first-class bench.=--the construction of the bench shown on page is not difficult to understand, but considerable skill is required to make a really good one. the arrangement of the vise is shown in fig. , which is an inverted view (as if looking up from underneath). the vise is kept parallel by the stout bars of hard wood, parallel to the screw, which slide through mortises cut in the front of the bench-top, and are further guided by the cleats screwed to the under side of the top, where it is thinner than at the front edge. in case of using such a vise where the bench-top is not so thick in front, the thickness can easily be made sufficient by screwing a stout cleat on the under side where the vise comes. in this cleat can be cut the mortises for the slide-bars. the end-vise or "tail-screw" shown in fig. involves rather more work, but slides upon a similar principle. perhaps the best way for the amateur is to make the end-vise in the same way as the main vise, adding the movable stop. [illustration fig. .] there is no better way to make the front of this bench-top than to build it up of narrow boards on edge, planed true, and thoroughly glued and bolted together. the planing and truing can best be done by machine, however. if well put together, such a bench-top will defy changes of weather and will stand a great deal of hard usage. the back part of the top can be thinner, but can very well be built up if desired. an excellent way to fasten the frame of such a bench together is with bolts, by which the parts can be drawn to a firm bearing. it is impossible to make such a bench too rigid. if so stiffly framed that it cannot change its shape, and if the top is carefully trued, you will have something which will be a great help to good work. footnotes: [ ] in elm, ash, and hickory the sapwood is sometimes considered better than the heart. [ ] the term deal, though often loosely applied to the wood of the pine and fir, properly refers to planks of these woods cut more than " wide and ' long--usually " thick and " wide. the term is common in great britain but not in the united states. [ ] this definition of elevations and plan as being representations of what you would see if you stood opposite the sides or above the top of the object, is merely a rough explanation of the general meaning of the terms. as a matter of scientific accuracy the elevation is, strictly speaking, not the way the side would appear if you looked at it from one position, but the way it would appear if you could look at it from directly opposite every point of it--as if you could have an infinite number of eyes, one being opposite every point of the object. the elevation shows the front or side or end as it really is, not as it looks, either in the form of an exact copy if the object is small, or of a small copy made in the same proportion if the object is too large to be represented full size. [ ] gr., equal measure. index adze, indian, -- japanese, air-chambers, , (footnote) -- dried stock, . see _seasoning_. -- drying, - , - -- pure, - -- tanks, , (footnote) alkanet root, ammonia (for staining), , angle-blocks. see _corner-blocks_, angles, determining, with bevel, angular bit-brace, animals, houses for, - annual rings, anvil, , apparatus, athletic and gymnastic. see _gymnastic apparatus_ and _implements for outdoor sports_. apple (wood), apron, arbours, - arcs, describing circular, , arkansas stone, ash, -- sapwood, , auger-bit, awl, japanese, awls, , axe, backbone, ice-boat, back-saw, backs for case work, balcony, , ball and block, balloon frame, bar, horizontal, - , bars, parallel, - bassoolah, , basswood, bath-house, , batteau, - battening, bayberry tallow, baywood. see _mahogany_. beading, , , -- -planes, bead-scraper, , beams. see _collar-beams_, _beams_, etc. beech, bench, filing-, - -- finishing-, -- hook, - -- stop, - -- top, , , , -- vise, - , , , -- work-, - , , , bending wood, , - bevel, , bevelling, , , -- edges of sides of boat, big trees, birch, , -- model (canoe), , bird-houses. see _houses for animals_. bird's-eye maple, bit-brace, , -- angular, -- maker, -- use of, - (_boring_) -- where to keep, bits, , -- arrangement, -- maker, bit-stock. see _bit-brace_. black birch, , -- bone-, -- cherry, -- ivory-, black, lamp-, -- walnut, blind dovetailing, -- nailing, block-form, , -- -plane, board, sprung, for pressure, -- -measure, , boarding, outside, boards, definition of, -- matched-, , -- or planks, laying exposed, -- splitting, - boat-building, - -- house-, - -- -houses, - -- ice-, - boats, toy, hulls of, - -- (windmill), , bob-sled, - body plan, , (footnote) boiled oil, (_painting_) bone-black, bookcase and lounge, -- dwarf, -- low, -- pinned ("knock-down"), -- wall, or hanging, , -- with cupboard, -- with desk, - bookcases, - book-rack, , -- -shelf, hanging, booths, play, - boring, - -- japanese, bow-gun, -- -saw, , boxes, , box-making, - boxwood, brace for bits. see _bit-brace_. -- -joint, braced frame, braces, corner, for house frames, brad-awl, , -- holes made by, brake for sleds, - british oak, broad-leaved trees, bruises and cuts, bruises in wood, to take out, brushes, -- care of, buck. see _vaulting-horse_. "built-up" stock, , , , bull-nosed-plane, burnisher for scraper, butternut, butt-joint, buttonwood. see _sycamore_. buying lumber, suggestions about, - . see also _seasoning_. -- tools, suggestions about, - cabinet-clamps. see _clamps_. -- corner-, , -- for guns, fishing-rods, etc., , -- for tools and supplies, - -- medicine, , -- music, , -- wall, or hanging, , , -- -work. see _furniture_. cabins, - cages for animals, - calcined plaster, calipers, camping-houses. see _house-building for beginners_. canoe, "birch" model, , -- canvas-covered, - -- flat-bottomed, - -- " " (canvas-covered), , canvas-covered canoe (flat-bottomed), , -- canoes, - canvas, covering canoe with, , -- deck, -- painting, cap (plane-iron), , care of stock, -- of tools, , carlins, , carpentry, japanese, - carving-tools, , -- makers of, case, centre-board, , -- music, , casing for doors, -- for doors and windows, catalpa, caulking, , , cedar, , centre-bit, -- -board, , -- -board trunk, , -- -table, , chain, wooden, , chair, outdoor, -- -table, - chalk, -- -line, chamfering, , , charring wood, , , checking of lumber, , , cherry, chestnut, chests, - chimney. see _smoke-pipe_. chip (of plane), chisels, - -- arrangement of, -- makers of, -- sharpening. see _sharpening_. -- use of, , , - , - chopping-block, -- wood. see _splitting wood_. circles and arcs, describing, , circular-plane, clamping, , - (_clamps_), , clamps, , - , , . see also _hand-screws_. clapboarding, , clapboards, , cleaner for furniture, etc., cleating, , , cleats. see _cleating_. -- for rowlocks, , , clinching nails, club-house, , coal-tar, coaming, , , , collar-beams, collection of specimens of wood, , , colour of lumber, "combination" articles (furniture), - , - "combination" planes, compartments (pigeon-holes), -- water-tight, , (footnote) compasses, , . see also _scribing_. compass-plane. see _circular-plane_. -- -saw, , concealed nailing. see _blind-_ and _sliver-nailing_, conifers, coop, cord, twisted, for pressure, corner-blocks, -- book-shelves and seat, -- -braces for house frame, -- -chisel, -- -posts, , -- -seat and shelves, -- -shelves or cabinets, , "cottage row," - cottages, simple summer, - cottonwood, couch with bookcase, etc., countersink, , cracking of lumber, , , cracks and holes, to fill, , , -- flashing, creosote, -- -stains, , cricket, or footstool, crooked grain, , crossbow, cross-cutting-saw, , -- -grained stock, , , , cupboard. see _cabinet_. cup-shakes, curling of lumber, - , , , , - curves, sawing, -- trimming or paring, cut-nails, -- best for shingling, cuts and bruises, cutting the log, - -- the tree. see _felling_. cutting-edges, - . see also _sharpening_. -- -pliers, cutwater, - cypress, , daggers, wooden, , deal, , decay and preservation, , - deck, -- canvas, -- for toy boats, -- timbers, , deliquescent stem, designing, - , - , , , desk and bookcase, - -- -rack, , dimension stock, dividers. see _compasses_. dog-fish skin, dog-houses, - dogwood, dolls' house, - door, -- and window frames, space for, -- -casings, , doors and panels, - -- and windows, sizes of, -- sliding, , double-bladed paddle, -- -ironed planes, -- -runner, - dovetailing, , dowelling, - dowel-plate, dowels, dragon's blood, drainage, , drawboring, drawer, or lap, dovetailing, drawers, , - drawing nails, , drawings, working, , , - draw-knife or draw-shave, , -- use of, - draw-stroke, - , , , , , , drill, primitive, -- -stock, drills, driving nails. see _nailing_. dry rot, -- situation, dryer, (_painting_) drying lumber, methods of, - , , duck's-bill-bit, dwarf bookcase, ebony, , edges, cutting, - . see also _sharpening_. elasticity, , -- loss of, , elder, elevations, - elm, -- sapwood, , end-grain, -- planing, essentials to successful work, estimating, , excurrent trunk, expansion and contraction, - , - , , - -- bit, face (of plane), -- (of stock), facing edges of case work, farm school, felling and seasoning, - . see also _seasoning_. figured stock. see _grain of wood_. file-card, files, - -- maker of, filing, - -- -bench, - -- saw-, - (_sharpening_) filler, wood, (_finishing_) finishing, , , - -- -bench, fin-keel type, - fir. see _pine_ and _spruce_. firmer-chisel, , fishing-lodges. see _house-building for beginners_. fish-plates, flashing, , , , flatboat, - flat-bottomed boats, - floor-beams, , , , , , , flooring for canoe, -- rift-, floors, , , - , , , flower-pot stands, , , footstool or cricket, fore-plane, , forests, preservation of, forms for bending. see _moulds_. foundation, , , - , frame for buildings, , , , - , , , , , , . see also _houses for animals_. -- balloon, -- braced and mortised, -- for boat. see _moulds_ and _boat-building for beginners_. frames, door and window, sizes of, ; spaces for, -- picture-, , framing-chisels, framing (doors and panels). see _doors and panels_. -- (house). see _frame for buildings_. -- -square, french polishing, , frogs, turtles, lizards, etc., tank for, , front elevation, fungi, , , and _decay and preservation_, - furniture, - -- repairing, - gain, (fig. ) gauge, - -- for bevels and chamfers, -- makers, gauging. see _gauge_. georgia pine, giant swing, , gimlet, -- -bit, glass for scraper, , -- setting, glazing, glue. see _gluing_. glued-joints, (footnote), , (footnote). see also _gluing_, _clamps_, _hand-screws_, and _repairing furniture_. -- clamping, - -- rubbing, (_corner-blocks_) glue-pot, gluing, - . see also _clamps_, _hand-screws_, and _repairing furniture_. -- old work. see _repairing furniture_. glycerine, gouge, - -- -bit, gouges, arrangement of, -- makers of, grain of wood, , - , -- crooked or cross-grained, , , , , grinding. see _sharpening_. grindstone, -- use of, - grooving, , , gum (wood), gun-cabinet, etc., , guns and pistols (wooden), - gunwale strip, , , gymnastic apparatus, - half-breadth plan, , half-round file, halving (halved-joints), , hammer, -- use of. see _nailing_, - , and also , handles, etc., oiling, hand-screws, - -- use of, , - , hanging bookcase, , -- book-shelf, "happy jack," - hard pine, , -- wood, hatchet, -- use of, , headledges, , heart, crooked, , -- shakes, -- wood, , , , hemlock, hen-houses. see _houses for animals_ and _house-building for beginners_. hickory, -- sapwood, hinges, , , hip-rafters, hip-roof, - holes and cracks, to fill, , , hollow and round planes, holly, horizontal bar, - , hornbeam, horse, vaulting-, - horses, or trestles, - house, bath-, , -- -boats, - -- -building for beginners, - -- designing, - -- situation, . see also _houses_. housed joint, and fig. houses, boat-, - -- club-, , -- dolls', - -- for animals, - -- play-, - -- portable, , -- summer-, - . see also _house_. housing (housed joint). and fig. hunting-lodges. see _house-building for beginners_. hutch, rabbit, , ice-boat, small, - indian turning, , inside calipers, iron (of plane), -- painting, ironwood, isometric projection or perspective, ivory black, jack-knife. see _knife_, , -- -plane, , -- -rafter, japan, (_painting_) -- varnish, japanese carpenter's vise, -- carpentry, - -- lacquer, (footnote) -- tools, , jointer, jointing, (footnote), - , (_shooting-board_) joints, , joints and splices, - -- for gluing, , , (footnote). see _glued-joints_. -- housed, and fig. -- in exposed work, painting, , -- mitred. see _mitring_. -- relished, joists, definition, keel, , , , -- built up, -- (skag), keelson, kennel, - kerfing. see _bending wood_, keyhole-saw, kiln-drying, - . see _seasoning_. king-bolt, knees, knife, , -- makers, -- putty, -- sharpening, , -- use of, - knives, wooden, , "knock-down" construction, lacquer, japanese, (footnote) ladders (gymnastic), lampblack, lancewood, lap or drawer dovetailing, lard oil, lathe, primitive indian, , laths, lattice-work, , , laying out the work, - lead (of plane-iron), -- over door- and window-casings, , -- red, (_painting_) -- white. see _painting_. lean-to, - -- addition, , -- roof, frame for, ledger-board, leg-of-mutton sail, leopard wood, level, , -- makers, levelling tables, horses, chairs, etc., , , lighthouse, lignum-vitæ, lime-water, , linden. see _basswood_. linseed oil. see _finishing_, _painting_ ( ), and _staining_. lizards, frogs, turtles, etc., tank for, , live oak, load water-line, (footnote) location of house, - locks, , locust, log, cutting the, - long jointer, lounge with bookcase, etc., lumber, characteristics. see chapter iii. (_wood_), and - -- charring, , , -- checking and cracking, , , -- colour of, -- cross-grained, , , , -- curling and warping, - , , , , - -- definition, -- dressed, , -- rift, , -- sawing, - . see also _expansion and contraction_. -- seasoning, - , , , , , - -- selection of, - -- stacking, -- swelling and shrinking, - , - , , - -- undressed, -- wany, -- warped, . see _warping_. -- winding, . see _winding_. m, mahogany, -- cracks in, mallet, maple, marking, - -- -awl. see _awl_ and _marking_. -- distances. see _rule_, -- -gauge. see _gauge_. mason's square, masts, matched-boards, , -- striking, matching-planes, , , maxims, measurements. see _rule_, and also , , , , (footnote), , measuring. see _measurements_. measuring-rod, medicine-cabinet, , medullary rays, , middle-boards, , , mirror-plates, mirrors, setting, mitre. see _mitring_. -- -board, , -- -box, - -- dovetailing, -- shooting-board, -- -square, mitring, , - models, mortise and tenon. see _mortising_. mortise-chisels, -- -gauge, -- open, mortised frame, mortising, - mouldings, , , (footnote) moulds (for bending), , -- (for boat), , , , , , , , mouth (of plane), , , music-case, , nailing, - nails, -- copper and galvanised, -- for shingling, -- how to keep, -- use of, - (_nailing_) -- withdrawing, , nail-set, , needle-leaved trees, nippers, , norway pine, -- spruce, notch-boards, oak, , oak, quartered, oblique projections, odd-jobs, oil, -- -finish, -- linseed, see _finishing_, _painting_, and _staining_. oiling handles, etc., oil-stone, , -- box for, -- use of, see _sharpening_. open mortise and tenon, operations, some every-day, - outdoor seat, outside calipers, overshot water-wheels, , packing-cases, paddles, , paint, see _painting_. painting, - -- canvas, -- shingles, panels, - (_doors and panels_) panel-saw, parallel bars, - -- projection, paring, - -- -chisel, see _chisel_ , parting tool, see _carving tools_. patterns for bending, see _moulds_. pear (wood), pencil, see _marking_, perspective, isometric, piazza, , - picture-frames, , pigeon-holes, -- -houses. see _houses for animals_. piers, , , piles, pincers, pine, - pinning mortise and tenon, pins for mortise and tenon, pipe-rack, , pistols and guns (wooden), - pitch, -- pine, pith, crooked, , plan, - -- (boat), , plane, - -- how to hold, , -- -iron, adjusting, , -- sharpening, see _sharpening_. -- wooden jack- or fore-, holding, see _planes_. planer-marks, planes, japanese, , -- makers, -- where to keep, -- wooden, oiling, . see _plane_. planing down stock, planks, definition, -- laying, see _boards, laying_. -- splitting, see _boards, splitting_. plans, see _working drawings_. plant-stands, , , plaster of paris, plates, play-houses, -booths, or -stores, - -- "cottage row," , -- -village, - , , pliers, -- cutting-, plough, , . see _plane_. plum (wood), plumb, , pod-bit, pole, sprung, for pressure, -- for skis, poles (for gymnastics), polishing, , poplar, posts, corner-, , -- foundation, - -- setting, , potash, bichromate of, poultry-houses, see _house-building for beginners_ and _houses for animals_. preservation of wood, decay and, - -- of forests, pressure, means of applying, see _clamps_ and _hand-screws_. projections, oblique or parallel, and isometric, proportions of structures, , punch (for nails), see _nail-set_, , punts and scows, - purlins, putty, -- -knife, -- use of, , quartered oak, , queen-bolts, quill-bit, rabbet, , , -- -hutch, , -- -plane. see _plane_ , rack, for books, , -- for pipes, , -- for table or desk, , -- for tools, , rafters, -- arrangement of, -- hip-, -- jack-, -- laying out, rails (of door or panel work), -- (of table), rasp, rasping. see _filing_. ratchet-brace, ratchets (for shelves), rat-tailed file, raw oil. see _painting_, rays, medullary, , reamers, rear elevation, red cedar, -- deal, -- fir, -- lead, (_painting_) -- oak, -- pine, canadian, redwood, relishing (relished joint), repairing furniture, - ribbands, ribs, , , , -- bending. see _bending wood_. ridge-board, rift-flooring, -- stock, , rings, annual, -- swinging (gymnastic), ripping-saw, , (_saw_) risers, rivets, rock elm, -- maple, rod, measuring, roof-boards, -- -timbers, -- durability of, roofing-paper, , roofs, , - -- for house-boat, , -- hip-, - -- lean-to, shed, or single-pitched, , -- overhang of, rope twisted for pressure, rosewood, rot, wet and dry, rounding sticks, - -- form for, , router, see _plane_, rowboat, small, - rowboats, - rowlocks, , , rubbing down, rule, -- makers, ruler, marking by, runner-board, ice-boat, runners, ice-boat, - running foot, , runway for animals, , rust, preventing, rustic summer houses and arbours, , saddle-boards, sail-boat, small, , - sail, leg-of-mutton, -- sprit-, san domingo mahogany, sandpaper, , -- block, sandpapering. see _sandpaper_. sanitary precautions, - sap, sapwood, , , , sassafras, satinwood, saw, - -- -filing, - (_sharpening_) saw-set, sawing. see _saw_. -- curves, -- joints to fit, -- log, ways of, - -- lumber, - saws, japanese, , -- makers, -- where to keep, scale (for drawings), scarfing, bevelled, or splaying, , schedule of materials, scoring with cuts. see _paring_. scotch fir, -- pine, scows and punts, - scrap-boxes, scraper, , -- for beading, , -- japanese, , -- sharpening, , (_sharpening_) -- where to keep, scraping. see _scraper_. scratch-awl, (_awl_) screw-drivers, , -- for bit-brace, -- long and short, screws, and their use, - -- how to keep, scriber. see _marking_, scribing. see _marking_, - and , seams of boat. see _caulking_. seasoned stock, , , -- tests for, , . see _seasoning lumber_. seasoning lumber, - , , , , , - seat for corner, with shelves, -- outdoor, second story, framing at, , secret dovetailing, -- nailing. see _blind-_ and _sliver-nailing_, section, , see-saw, tilt or, - _sequoia_, set (for nails), , -- (of saw), setting glass, setting mirrors, -- nails, , -- posts, , -- saws. see _sharpening_. settle, corner, with shelves, -- with table, - sewerage, , shacks, - shagbark (hickory), shakes, sharpening tools, , , , , - sharpie (sail-boat), - shave. see _draw-knife_ and _spokeshave_. sheathing, , , , -- for canvas canoe, , -- outside of house with paper, -- -paper, -- striking, shed-roof. see _lean-to_. sheer plan, , shelf for books, hanging, shellac. see _finishing_. shell-bit, (_bits_) shelves, corner, , -- ends of, -- for pipes, etc., , -- for wall, - -- movable, -- or pigeon-holes, shingles, , shingling, , -- hips, , shooting-board, , -- use of, , shrinkage, - -- effects of swelling and shrinking, - . see _expansion and contraction_. shutter, , side elevation, -- -plates, sills, silver-grain or rays. see _medullary rays_ and _quartered oak_. single-pitched roof. see _lean-to_. site, selection of, - sizing of floor-beams, skag, skew-chisel, , skiffs, - skis, - slab-sided file, sleds, - slips, , sliver nailing, sloid knife. see _knife_, , -- work-bench, smoke-pipe, - smoking wood, smoothing, , , , , , . see _plane_, _scraper_, _sandpaper_. -- -plane, , snake, wooden, , sofa with bookcase, etc., soft wood, sole (of plane), southern pine, , specimens of wood, , , sperm oil, splaying (splice), , splices. see _joints and splices_. spline, split stock. see _rift_. splitting stock, , - -- wood, , spokeshave, , -- makers, spoon-bit, sporting-cabinet, , spring-board, spritsail, spruce, square, - -- -foot, , (note) -- makers, -- mitre, -- where to keep, , , and _frontispiece_ squaring work, -- with clamps, , squirrel-house, - stacking lumber, , -- result of careless, staining, - -- shingles, stains, creosote-, , stairs, -- (for little houses), staking out, - stands, for plants, , , stands, small, , - star-shakes, steam-chest, steaming wood, (_bending_) steel square, -- -wool, , steering (sleds), , , stem-posts, , , - steps, stern-post, . see _stem-posts_. "sticking" lumber. see _stacking_. stile (of door or panel work), stilts, stock (of plane), -- "built up," , , , -- care of, -- cross- or crooked-grained, , , , -- planing down, -- splitting, - -- rift or split, , . see _lumber_. stop, bench-, - -- -chamfer, -- for drawers, stove-pipe. see _smoke-pipe_. stores or houses, play-, - straight-bent chisel, straight-edge, , -- marking by, -- to detect warping or winding. see _winding-sticks_. striking circles and arcs, , stringers or strings (stairs), strop, , , stropping, studding, , -- second-story, sugar maple, -- pine, summer cottages, simple, - -- -houses, - sunlight, , swelling and shrinking, - , - , , - swing, giant, , swords, wooden, , sycamore, table, and settle, or chair, - -- -top, putting on, , , , tables, - tacks, -- for canvas canoes, tallow, bayberry, tamping, tank, water-, for frogs, etc., , tannic acid, tape, tar, coal- and wood-, teak, templates, tennis rackets, tenon. see _mortising_. -- -saw. see _saw_ (_back-saw_). tenons (in repairing), thole-pins, thompson's island, three-cornered file. see _file_. throat (of plane), tilt, or see-saw, - timber, definition, -- durability of. see _lumber_. toboggan, - toe-nailing, , toggle-joint, application of, tool-cabinets, - -- -chest, , , , -- -handles, oiling, -- -rack, , tools, - -- and supplies, arrangement, - , -- cabinet for, - -- care of, , -- common, and their use, - -- edge-, - -- japanese, , -- lists of, - -- makers, -- primitive, - -- sharpening, , , , , - -- "universal," -- use of, - toothed-plane, , toothing, , totlet town, - toughness, , toy boats, hulls of, - -- village, - toys, - trapeze, travelling-cage, traverse (sled), - traversing, treads, trees. see _felling and seasoning_ and _preservation of forests_. -- big, -- broad-leaved, -- conifers or needle-leaved, trestles, - triangular file, trigger, trimming. see _paring_. truing, grindstone, -- oil-stone, -- stock (surfaces), , , trunk for centre-board, , trying-plane, , (_plane_) try-square. see _square_ ( ). tulip wood, tupelo, turning, indian, , -- -saw, , turpentine. see _finishing_ and _painting_, , , , turtles, frogs, lizards, etc., tank for, , twist-drill, "twister" (rope), twisting. see _winding_. two-foot square, undercutting, , underpinning, , , - , undershot water-wheel, , "universal" planes, -- tools, varnish. see _finishing_. -- japan, -- -stains, vaulting apparatus, -- board, -- -horse, , veining-tool. see _carving-tools_. village, play, "cottage row," - -- totlet town, - vise, bench-, - , -- for metal, , vise, japanese carpenter's, -- parallelism of jaws, , v tool, wale-strips. see _gunwale strips_. wall-cabinet, , , -- -shelves, - walnut. see _black walnut_, warping of lumber, - , , , , - washboard. see _coaming_. washita stone, water-line, (footnote) -- pure, - -- -table, -- -tank for frogs, turtles, etc., , -- -tight compartments, , (footnote) -- -wheels, - wax finish, weather-drying, , . see _seasoning_. weather-vane (steamboat), . see _windmills_. wedge for splitting, wedges, , wedging. see _wedges_. -- tenons, , wet rot, weymouth pine. see _pine_. wheel, steering- (for sled), whetstone. see _oil-stone_. whetting. see _sharpening_. white ash, -- cedar, -- deal, -- lead. see _painting_. -- mahogany, -- oak, -- pine, , whitewood, whittling, , , . see _knife_. willow, winding, , , - -- -sticks, , windmills, - window-casings, -- -shutter, -- sliding, windows and doors, sizes of, wind-shakes, wing compasses, wire-edge, withdrawing nails, , wood, - (chapter iii.), - . see _lumber_. -- charring, , , -- checking and cracking, , , -- collection of specimens, , , -- colour of, -- cross-grained, , , , -- curling and warping, - , , , , - -- durability of. see _decay and preservation_. -- -filler, -- hard, -- methods of drying, - , - -- quality of, - , , , -- seasoning of, - , , , , , - -- selection of, - , , , -- shrinkage and swelling, - , - , , - -- soft, -- -tar, -- warped, . see _warping_. -- winding, . see _winding_. wooden chain, , -- guns and pistols, - woods and some of their characteristics, - work-bench, - -- first-class, , , -- makeshifts, - -- position and care of, , -- sloid, -- top, , working drawings, , , - -- edge or surface, workshop, - , - wrench, wrought nails, yellow deal, (_pine_) -- fir, -- pine, yew, zinc, (_painting_) the boy with an idea series. =i. the young mechanic.= practical carpentry. containing directions for the use of all kinds of tools, and for the construction of steam-engines and mechanical models, including the art of turning in wood and metal. by the author of "the lathe and its uses," etc. authorized reprint from english edition, with corrections, etc. illustrated, small to, cloth extra $ "a valuable book, eminently useful to beginners, and suggestive even to the experienced and skilful."--_albany journal._ =ii. amongst machines.= by the author of "the young mechanic." embracing descriptions of the various mechanical appliances used in the manufacture of wood, metal, and other substances. profusely illustrated. vo, cloth $ "a book of wondrous fascination, written in a clear, bright, pointed style. a volume to be commended above a dozen stories."--_boston traveler._ =iii. the boy engineers.= what they did and how they did it. by the author of "the young mechanic." vo, with plates, cloth extra $ "an eminently useful and timely book. we heartily commend this volume."--_national journal of education._ "a book of a class that can only be praised; the style is simple and easy, but manly and thoughtful."--_literary world._ =iv. the boy with an idea.= by mrs. eiloart. a vivid narration of the feats and freaks of a boy of an active turn of mind, who "wanted to know," and not content with knowing, wanted always to do. vo, cloth extra, illustrated $ "an exceptionally attractive and wholesome book, that will fascinate all the bright boys, and stir up the dull ones."--_boston journal._ =v. learning to draw=; or, the story of a young designer. by viollet le duc. translated by virginia champlin. vo, with illustrations $ a work full of practical suggestions, not only for the student of art or of decorative designing, but for students and teachers in other departments. the author's theories of the art of teaching are both original and practical. g. p. putnam's sons, publishers, new york. books for the country =our insect friends and foes.= how to collect, preserve and study them. by belle s. cragin. with over illustrations. ^o, $ . miss cragin sets forth the pleasure to be derived from a systematic study of the habits of insects, and gives many points which will be of practical value to the beginner. she gives comprehensive descriptions of all the more important species to be found in the united states, together with illustrations of the same. =among the moths and butterflies.= by julia p. ballard. illustrated. ^o, $ . . "the book, which is handsomely illustrated, is designed for young readers, relating some of the most curious facts of natural history in a singularly pleasant and instructive manner."--_n. y. tribune_ =bird studies.= an account of the land birds of eastern north america. by william e. d. scott. with illustrations from original photographs. quarto, leather back, gilt top, in a box, _net_, $ . . "a book of first class importance.... mr. scott has been a field naturalist for upwards of thirty years, and few persons have a more intimate acquaintance than he with bird life. his work will take high rank for scientific accuracy and we trust it may prove successful."--_london speaker._ =wild flowers of the northeastern states.= drawn and carefully described from life, without undue use of scientific nomenclature, by ellen miller and margaret c. whiting. with illustrations the size of life. ^o, _net_, $ . . "anybody who can read english can use the work and make his identifications, and, in the case of some of the flowers, the drawings alone furnish all that is necessary.... the descriptions are as good of their kind as the drawings are of theirs."--_n. y. times._ =the shrubs of northeastern america.= by charles s. newhall. fully illustrated. ^o, $ . . "this volume is beautifully printed on beautiful paper, and has a list of illustrations calculated to explain the text. it has a mine of precious information, such as is seldom gathered within the covers of such a volume."--_baltimore farmer._ =the vines of northeastern america.= by charles s. newhall. fully illustrated. ^o, $ . . "the work is that of the true scientist, artistically presented in a popular form to an appreciative class of readers."--_the churchman._ =the trees of northeastern america.= by charles s. newhall. with illustrations made from tracings of the leaves of the various trees. ^o, $ . . "we believe this is the most complete and handsome volume of its kind, and on account of its completeness and the readiness with which it imparts information that everybody needs and few possess, it is invaluable."--_binghamton republican._ g. p. putnam's sons, & west d st., new york * * * * * transcriber's notes obvious punctuation and spelling errors and inconsistent hyphenation have been corrected. in ambiguous cases, the text has been left as it appears in the original. in this text version, italic text is denoted by _underscores_, bold text by =equal signs=, and spaced (gesperrt) text by +plus signs+. superscripts are represented with the caret character, e.g. ^o. the word "bassoolah" is written without the diacritical marks used in the original. every attempt has been made to replicate the original as printed. some typographical errors have been corrected; a list follows the text. some illustrations have been moved from mid-paragraph for ease of reading. (etext transcriber's note) graining and marbling a series of practical treatises on material, tools and appliances used; general operations; preparing oil graining colors; mixing; rubbing; applying distemper colors; wiping out; penciling; the use of crayons; review of woods; the graining of oak, ash, cherry, satinwood, mahogany, maple, bird's eye maple, sycamore, walnut, etc.; marbling in all shades. each treatise is followed with test questions for the student by f. maire author of "modern painter's cyclopedia" "exterior painting," "interior painting" and "colors." illustrated [illustration: colophon] chicago frederick j. drake & company publishers copyright by frederick j. drake preface. this is the th volume of the red series manuals. it covers a field which usually is or rather was made a separate branch of the painting business. it has become of less importance however since the white pine finishing of interiors has been replaced by that of hardwood. it is used to a great extent nevertheless and while there is less demand for the skill displayed by masters of the art of graining as existed in the past, a good general workman is incomplete that cannot do a fair to good job of graining today and all such should be able to do that much. a journeyman who is able to turn his hand at graining or marbling will usually be kept on the pay roll of the shop much longer than the man who can do nothing but ordinary brushwork. marbling has been associated with graining because there is some few things that are in common between the two; the grainer is better equipped for the doing of marbling properly than painters who are not grainers--to say the least. graining lesson i. preliminaries. . it has been the custom of the author in the past to give a synopsis as it were of the manner in which the subject matter is to be treated at the beginning of each of the volumes of the red series and as he sees no reason in departing from the rule and on the contrary, very many good ones for a continuation of the custom, below will be found a few outlines of how the subject matter will be handled. _first._ the tools and material required for the prosecution of the work of graining and marbling. neither the tools nor the materials needed are very numerous, complicated nor costly. _second._ the preparing of various surfaces for graining in oil or water colors. _third._ the preparing of material for the graining of various woods in oil and water colors and the painting of the ground. _fourth._ the graining of the various woods in oil and water colors, which includes the over-graining, stippling or glazing required to bring the work to completion ready for varnishing. _fifth._ the varnishing and other methods required for the protection of the graining. _sixth._ the above outlines will also suffice for the marbling section of the manual. unlike general directions which can be given as to the painting of surfaces of wood, iron or brick, each of the various woods will have to be treated separately. these are a few operations which are common to all kinds of grainings--these will be given in full before proceeding to their special applications, suited to the various woods, as then the student will be more familiar with what is meant by this preliminary study of the methods used in doing "wiping" for instance or "veining" in heart growths with a brush, etc. _seventh._ the varnishing is an important part of graining, which can be done in various ways to suit the kind of graining done. in this regard general directions will be given, but the kind of varnish to be used must be such as will best agree with the character of the material used in doing the graining so as to get good results from it. lesson ii. the material used in graining. . the material used in graining is not numerous. the principal, as may well be supposed, is white lead to be used as a base upon which to prepare the ground tints upon which to grain. . the necessary colors to produce the tints required, which are: venetian red; french ochre; raw and burnt umber; raw and burnt siennas and lamp black--all ground in oil. . for the preparing of graining colors all the above colors ground in oil are used with the exception of ochre, venetian red and lamp black, and the following additional ones which are more transparent: ivory black and vandyke brown. of course this applies to the preparation of colors for "graining in oil." to the above should be added ground whiting in oil, but this can be prepared from dry whiting in the shop as it is not usually sold in that shape. . for graining in water colors, all the above named colors are used, but ground in water or distemper and all grainers should have a supply of raw and burnt umber and siennas, vandyke brown and ivory black ground in that medium. some few grainers prefer to buy the dry ground colors and to use them from the dry state. . beeswax is also used in preparing graining colors used in oil graining. rotten stone is useful in preparing the oil graining colors, and while not indispensable, it will be well to use it as it helps to make the "_megilp_"--the technical name which is given by the old english grainers to such oil graining combinations--work better and comb smoothly. . for thinners: raw linseed oil, boiled linseed oil, turpentine, drying japan. stale beer or vinegar for thinning distemper colors. glycerine to be used with the above in order to retard the drying of the color too quickly at times. . all the colors named above are also used in marbling, with a few additional ones such as indian reds, prussian blue, chrome yellows. in fact any others which may come near to imitating some particular tone in any marble specimen one may wish to imitate. . in giving out the above lists, no description is given of the several colors mentioned for the reason that the student will find all these colors sufficiently well described in vol. iii of the red series, which he should procure; "colors, what they are and what to expect from them," as it is entitled, will give him the necessary information more fully than would be possible in this manual. questions on lesson ii. . what is said about the material used in graining and of the base? . what colors ground in oil are required for preparing of tints for grounds? . what other colors ground in oil are required for preparing "graining colors in oil?" . what are the colors that are needed in graining in water colors? . what other material is useful in grainings? . what are the thinners used in graining in oil or distemper? . what additional material is useful for marbling? . what is said about obtaining fuller descriptions of material? lessons iii. and iv. tools used in graining and marbling. . _brushes._ the brushes required for the laying on of the "ground colors" are the same as would be used for similar work in interior painting. a good oval - varnish makes a fine tool for the purpose. some prefer the flat brush for laying on color; any good -inch flat brush that will lay color smoothly. . for "_rubbing_" in the graining colors in oil some use half worn-out, flat brushes--others again prefer the round or oval, and again some rubbers-in use a brush that has been well broke in but not worn much. it is largely a question of habit. if the "megilp" is just right, the rubber-in can take almost any kind of a brush and rub out well with it, but the advice of using an old worn-out brush which is seen in some of the old-time books on graining should not be followed too implicitly. a half-worn brush will probably suit more "rubbers-in" than any other extremes. none of the above need illustrating as these brushes are in constant use in all paint shops. besides a number of kinds are shown in vols. i and ii of the red series. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] . _walnut stipplers._ this tool is a thin, flat, long bristle brush and fig. shows it to perfection. they run in width from ½ inches up to inches. they are indispensable in graining such woods as black walnut and others which show up a large number of coarse pores. it is also known under the name of _flogger_, the latter seemingly the more appropriate of the two. . the "badger blender" is an indispensable tool used in _all_ distemper graining to a greater or lesser extent. it is also used in marbling. fig. shows it. this is the best shape for it; it is set in glue and has a bone head; the old form of it is also shown in a of fig. . [illustration: fig. ] . the "_fan overgrainer_" is a brush that cannot be dispensed with. every kit should have several sizes of them. fig. illustrates it well. they run in sizes from inch wide by half inches upward to ½ inches. some grainers prefer to make them themselves, but little is gained thereby. they usually have to have some of their bristles cut away to suit the different purposes they are needed for. they can be clipped off with scissors much quicker than the making of one out and out. they are so cheap that one's time cannot be profitably employed in making a fan overgrainer. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] . in fig are shown a few mottlers and in fig , also under letters b, c, e, k, h and m, each varying in forms so as to meet the various uses to which mottlers are adapted and to suit the various ideas of the operators. . a few camel pencils of various sizes, flat and sharp pointed for veining completes the list of brushes specially used for graining and marbling, to which must be added also the varnish brushes to put on the finishing varnish coats. these may be any of the numerous bristle varnish brushes fully described in vols. i and ii. it is a matter of choice and convenience, no special shape or build being necessary for these. questions on lessons iii. and iv. . what kind of brushes are required for the laying on of ground colors? . what brushes are used for "rubbing in" graining colors in oil? . what is a stippler or flogger? . what are the badger hair blenders used for? . what are fan overgrainers? . what are mottlers? . what other brushes are useful in graining and marbling? lesson v. tools used in graining and marbling--continued. . the mechanical aids to graining are quite numerous and some are valuable. for the graining of many kinds of woods the devices which are shown below will finish the work completely, and in the graining of others will partially do the work, which may afterward be improved by hand work in the finishing. it is _not claimed_ for these tools that they will do as good work nor as varied _as can be done_ by hand, but that in the hands of one who is used to the proper handling of them they will do _better work_ than the average hurried up hand work that is usually seen, and which has probably had no small share in disgusting people with graining. [illustration: fig. ] . fig. shows the three davis rollers made of rubber. one is used in the wiping out of heart growths; another for the wiping out of champs in quartered oak and other woods, which when quartered present the same peculiarities. the last has three graded sets of indentations and are used as combs for any kind of combing where rubber combs are used. in this lesson it is not the purpose to explain the use of the tools enumerated; this will come under its proper heading when the _modus operandi_ of graining, both by hand and by the use of other helping tools will be fully detailed. [illustration: fig. ] . fig. shows another rubber device, patented by the ridgely trimmer co. the corrugations, as will be seen, are in halves and are made so that by proper pressure upon the handles curves them, enabling the operator to follow indentations, and which also produces many variations upon plain surfaces. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] . figs. and are handled corrugated quarter-round rubber grainers. these are especially handy in graining floors, also in getting into corners where the others cannot readily be made to fit up to the jointing of the two corners. these are also made by the above-named firm; as well as the following: [illustration: fig. ] . fig. shows a rubber graining comb with graduated sized teeth, which is frequently desirable as the work shows a more natural lessening of the width of the veining from the heart outward. . fig. shows graduated widths steel combs in three sizes of teeth, fine, medium and coarse. these are used in plain oak combings, etc. [illustration: fig. ] _a_. an artificial rubber thumb made from a piece of rubber about ½ an inch wide at the end, which is then bevelled to a sharp edge, and is frequently used by men who have never been able to use their natural thumb in wiping out. _b_. the check roller shown in fig. is a series of notched metal disks which are joined together. the projecting parts of the disks are brushed over with distemper color and the roller revolved over such parts of the work where the operator desires to show weather checks, which are so often seen in oak. [illustration: fig. ] . last but not least, an abundant supply of soft cotton rags to use in connection with wiping out and in cleaning up tools. questions on lesson v. . general remarks on tools used in graining. . what are rubber graining rollers used for in graining? . what is represented by fig. ? . what is represented by fig. ? . what do figs. and represent? . what is represented by fig. ? _a_. what is said of the steel combs, fig. ? _b_. what is the check roller used for, fig. ? . what is an artificial rubber thumb? . what is said about the use of rags? lesson vi. general operations used in graining. . graining, as it has been hinted at already, has many operations which are common to the many kinds of wood imitated, the variations being the result of the difference in their application. therefore it is well to give a general description of these, so that there will be no need of repeating them each time that the particular graining of different woods is presented. all that will be necessary will be to refer to the general directions given here. . the first operation for all kinds of graining is the painting of the _grounds_. in order that the superstructure should be lasting, the foundation must be good and appropriate to the character of the work being done or else trouble in the shape of cracking will be pretty sure to follow. if the woodwork is new and has not been painted before, it will be easy enough to lay this foundation rightly. . the wood should be well primed with raw linseed oil and white lead after the covering over with shellac varnish of all resinous and sappy parts in order to stop their coming through the paint coats. the second coat should be made from white lead colored up to something near the color of the finishing tint desired for the ground. this should be thinned with half raw linseed oil and half turpentine; it should be put on middling heavy after having first gone over the nail holes, cracks, loose joints, etc., with putty. the last coat should be put on stout, but well rubbed out and should be mixed from white lead tinted to the exact shade wanted for the graining ground. it should be thinned with one-fourth raw linseed oil and three-fourths turpentine. in cold weather or damp, non-drying weather it may be well to add just a trifle of drying japan, in order to insure the good drying of the several coats of paint, and it will be hardly needed to add that no coat of paint shall be placed upon the other until the former one has completed its drying. three coats usually suffice to give a good, solid ground for graining. . as much of the graining done is over old painted work, there is always an element of uncertainty as to the results. if the woodwork has been painted only a few times, it will be easy enough to bring it to a good finish by the application of two good coats of ground color, where turpentine predominates, so that it will not be too glossy. if the woodwork has been painted a great number of times it will be useless to try to paint grounds over it, as then it will be apt to blister. it will be better to burn it off or get it off by using some of the paint removers, after which the painting of the ground may proceed as directed for new woodwork. . it also happens that graining is resorted to in order to hide the dark effect produced on cheap varnishes by age in the natural finish used over yellow pine, etc. it will be much safer to remove it with varnish remover, if many coats have been applied over it, which is usually the case. if it has only had three or four coats, the woodwork should be gone over thoroughly to remove as much of it as possible with steel wool, and afterward two good coats of ground color given it. the first one should be a trifle thinner than would be given over old painted work. . there is a rule for the proper tinting of ground which will always give good results if followed up carefully. it is this: no matter what wood one tries to imitate, either in its natural finish tone or in an imitation of one which has been stained to an unnatural color, always have the ground tint: _as light as the lightest part of the wood which shows through_. this will be the right tint for the graining of that wood. . it is refreshing sometimes to hear the discussions that take place among grainers as to the proper ground tints for various woods. no cut and dried rule can be given. the one given in paragraph is as good or better than any. there is so much variation in the natural specimens themselves that no one nor two near-by tints would fill the bill. for this reason no ground tints will be shown in this manual. under the several woods will be given the general tone of the ground by name only, as, for instance, the general ground tone for graining oak is a light buff, varying from a cream to a decided buff, according to the finished effect wanted. questions on lesson vi. . what is said of the general operations by which graining is done? . what preparations are necessary for the painting of grounds? . how is new wood to be grounded? . how is old painted work to be grounded? . how is old varnished work to be treated for grounding? . what is the general rule to be followed in preparing the ground work for any given wood? . what else is said regarding tinting the ground colors? lesson vii. preparing oil graining colors. . again here is another one of the many operations necessary for graining upon which grainers are very far from being unanimous as to the proper way that it should be done. it will be best to note what is expected of a graining color, and afterwards to prepare them according to these requirements, irrespective of any cut and dried formulas, as when these requirements are complied with it does not matter so very much about the material that is used in doing so. it will be well to say that these graining colors are best known to old time english grainers under the name of "_megilp_," in order that there may be no misunderstanding as to the kind of graining color that is meant. . a good "megilp," or graining color, should possess the following qualities: st. it should be clear toned without muddiness. d. it should be very transparent. d. it should be heavy enough to brush out well, so that it may be combed and its edges remain clean cut without running. . the first requisite of "clearness and richness" in the umbers, siennas, ivory blacks and vandyke browns ground in oil, which are used to prepare the megilp, is not so very difficult to obtain when the goods of well-known color firms are employed, but the second requisite, while it belongs to a stronger or lesser degree to all the colors enumerated, is far short of that which is required in a graining color. . to obtain the proper degree of thinness required, all the above colors would have to be thinned with linseed oil and turpentine far beyond that consistency which it is required to carry in order that it may be wiped and combed with well defined edges which do not run or blur. therefore some perfectly transparent material must be added to it in order to give it this consistency. the material used for this may be rotten stone or whiting, or both, or china clay, or better, silicate earths--any transparent earth with no coloring of its own. some grainers use putty thinned down with oil, but that is not so good as whiting, as the putty may be made of anything and the oil used in preparing it may be injurious to the durability of the graining. . some of the old-time grainers used to prepare what may be called "stock megilp," a portion of which they added to the oil colors as needed. wm. e. wall says of it "that the formula is this: take ounces of sugar of lead and ounces of rotten stone, grind them together as stiffly as possible in linseed oil; then take ounces of white beeswax, melt it gradually in an earthen pitkin, and when it is fluid pour in ounces of spirits of turpentine; mix this well with the wax, and then pour the contents of the pitkin on the grinding stone to get cold. when cold grind the rotten stone and sugar of lead with the wax and turpentine and it will form an excellent megilp, which if kept in a jar with a mouth wide enough to admit a palette knife and secured from dust will keep almost any length of time." this is well and good for professionals, but it will hardly appeal to the ordinary grainer. he can grind up a little whiting and rotten stone and melted beeswax in turpentine and add enough to his color to answer his purpose. with the present system of buying all colors as near ready for use as possible, color manufacturers prepare special oil graining colors ready for use by simply thinning. they come ready for all sorts of woods, and where the color is not just the shade wanted, the operator can easily add the one that is lacking to bring it to the right tone. questions on lesson vii. . what is said in a general way about preparing graining colors, or megilp? . what are the requisites necessary to make a good graining color in oil? . what is said about the transparency of the colors used in preparing graining colors? . what substances may be added to colors to produce more transparency? . how may stock megilp be prepared for future use? lesson viii. mixing graining colors in distemper, rubbing in, etc. . when the colors have been properly ground in water or in distemper, as they are usually called, it is but little trouble to thin them out for use with stale beer or vinegar. many grainers prefer to use dry colors when they have been finely dry ground, and they work as well as the distemper colors. they are much more economical to use, and for that reason will always be preferred if for no other. some, however, are hard to mix up dry and it is preferable to buy these ground in distemper, as, for instance, vandyke brown and ivory black. . it frequently happens during warm weather that the color dries so fast that the operator cannot possibly finish his work while the color is in a right condition, so he must resort to some means to prevent this hasty drying. the addition of glycerine will retard it for a good while, as glycerine is a good absorbent of water. . to prevent this rapid drying of graining colors in distemper many means are used, some too complicated and really no better than the one named in the preceding paragraph; wetting the wood with water into which a little sugar has been dissolved is another means to the same end. afterward use the regular distemper mixture over it. rubbing in. . this is the name that is given to the operation of laying on the oil megilped color previous to the graining. the professional grainer usually has a helper who works ahead of him and "rubs in" the color, while he follows him up with the wiping or combing. when the color is mixed and thinned just right there is no difficulty in its application. the brush should be any good, partly worn, or at least well broke in oval, or flat paint brush. in the flat the -inch size will be found the most convenient. . it was said in the preceding paragraph that the application of the rubbing-in coat presented no difficulties, but the proviso inserted relative to the color being properly mixed means what it says, for if it is not, trouble will surely follow. if the color is too thin and oily the operator will find it hard work to smooth it evenly. if it has been made more transparent by the proper megilping, the color will brush out evenly, and a full brush of color can be carried to the work. the operator should run over the mouldings of the upper panels, and if he has enough color on his brush, also the lower ones, then he should brush out the panels themselves, helping himself to the surplus color on the mouldings; then the short middle stiles, then the lock rail, upper and lower rails, then the end stiles, finishing up with the door edges last. . what a "rubber in" should not do is to try to _skin_ his color on. many are afraid to carry more than half an inch of color from the pot to the work, seemingly afraid they can't manage it with a full brush, but that is a very poor way and if pains are taken to distribute the color along the panel mouldings first, its distribution will be much more even than if put on by _skinning_. it will take only about two dippings to do the side of an ordinary door, and it will be in just the shape that the grainer wants it. on the other hand again, he must not put it on too heavy, as the edges will not wipe clean, and if too oily will even run and show up ragged at the edges. questions on lesson viii. . how should graining colors be mixed for distemper work? . what may be added to the thinner to prevent the color drying too quick? . what else is useful in retarding the drying of the distemper graining color? . what is meant by the operation of rubbing in? . how is the graining color applied? . what is it that the "rubber in" should not attempt to do? lesson ix. general description of graining operations--continued. applying the distemper colors. . a good-sized brush may be used for the laying of the distemper colors, but they are not absolutely necessary. a sponge is even more frequently used, especially when the character of the wood is to be shaped by the use of the sponge as the color is being laid on. it is hardly worth while to say that the man who does the graining must be his own "rubber in" in distemper work. the name itself is dropped for this class of work; the person applying it must be able to do the shaping as he goes along, excepting for "stippled" woods, when it may be well to have some one to help, especially if the color dries fast; he can then follow the helper closely and then there will be no trouble from that cause. . the color itself may be thickly or thinly thinned--it will all depend upon the kind of surface one is working upon, and also upon the kind of graining being done. some grainers must have stale beer for a thinner, but others will do as good work who never use any, and such use vinegar somewhat diluted for that purpose. the proper thing is to have the color of the right working condition for the particular job. the kind of thinner does not matter so much so that it has tack enough to hold the color, so the colors will not run together when brushed over in the varnishing afterward. . the use of the _check roller_ usually is the first operation done in graining woods which show weather checks. the proper way to use them is to fill a -inch fan overgrainer with the distemper color which comes nearest to the ideas of the grainer in showing up what he desires to produce. this fan overgrainer is laid upon the face of the check roller flat, and a few turns are given in order to spread, when it is ready to do its duty. checks while they look all right in some oak work, are usually rather scarce in nature, and it is an easy thing to overdo them in the imitation. a few in well-chosen locations will look infinitely better than an oversupply. as overdoing nature is a fault which applies in all the other operations used in graining, it will be well to guard the student against this defect right at the beginning. let him bear in mind that all graining will look better _underdone_ than _overdone_, no matter what wood one tries to imitate. . _stippling_ is another operation which is used chiefly upon open grained woods or woods which show fine or coarse pores all over their surfaces, such, for instance, as black walnut in the dark woods and chestnut in the lighter ones. some pretty effects are also made by partial very fine stipplings over certain parts of woods. as the particular graining of each wood will be related these effects will be noticed under their proper headings. the application of the distemper color (the only proper one) has already been noted. the operator doing the stippling must hurry his work with the flogger or stippler (see fig. ) before the color commences to dry, or the stippling will not be uniform. he at no time must let the brush rest upon the work, but must hit the surface and let it rebound back, and be ready to strike again, being careful that the stippling proceeds evenly, and that the porousness indicated be as near equal all over as possible. it is not a very difficult operation, but one minute of actual work with the flogger will teach more to the student as to how it should be done than an hour of description will. questions on lesson ix. . how should the distemper colors be put on? . what is said of the thinners used in distemper work? . how should the check roller be used? . how is the stippling done? lesson x. wiping out in graining. . _wiping out_ is the name given to the operation in graining whereby some of the color is removed, as in champs or flakes in quartered oak, for instance, or else where the veining in heart growth is also removed and the remaining dark color not removed forms the veining. this operation is mainly used in graining oak in oil, but is not confined to that alone by any means, nor to oil graining alone, either. many grainers who know "how" wipe out water or distemper work and it looks well, too. . to do the "wiping" the operator takes some soft cotton rags, folding a couple of thicknesses together, and using the thumb inside of it he draws it gently wherever he desires to remove any of the color; by drawing gently on the cloth it will wipe out the color cleanly, and always present a clean face to the fresh color. under no consideration should the grainer permit himself to keep on using a soiled part of the cloth, as it is sure to show up streaky and dirty. many persons for good reasons sometimes cannot use their thumbs in wiping, and such resort to the artificial one described in paragraph . while this has not the sensitiveness of the natural organ, by practice one can use it to do very good work. . _combing._ the operation known as "combing" may be performed by the use of combs of various material, such as steel combs; leather combs, which are simply sole leather upon the ends of which have been cut out with a knife square teeth of such size as is desired; rubber combs, which are somewhat upon the same order and which can be bought ready made, each fitted into a wooden handle as shown in fig . this, however, shows one with graduated teeth which is very useful for many purposes. any of the above are better adapted for certain kinds of work than are any of the others. practice will soon show the grainers which ones to use. . the combing proper requires more care than skill, but the latter always counts in this as well as any of the other operations in graining. the operator should be provided with clean, soft cotton rags to wipe the combs every time that they are used. never be tempted to draw it over the work a second time. "get the habit" and it will stay with you so it will become _automatic_. many an otherwise good job of graining has been ruined in looks by the slovenly habit of using dirty combs. clean cut edges count many points in good graining. when nearing joints it is a good plan to cover an already grained or combed part with a small sheet of tin, which will prevent the comb from trespassing over into forbidden ground. do not hold the tin flat over the grained or combed work, as it might mar it, but let it touch just at the joint, the hand holding it at an angle off the face of it. . combing is not confined to oil work only, although by far most of the combing done is in that medium, but it is frequently resorted to in distemper work. the steel combs are seldom used for this kind of work, the rubber ones being infinitely superior. it is more difficult, however, and it must be done very quickly, as the color will otherwise be dry, when it will be impossible to do anything with it, and the part being combed will have to be washed off and another application of distemper color given it. quickness, therefore, is an important consideration in combing distemper colors; cleanliness is just as essential as was stated in the preceding paragraph for oil combing, only a little more so if possible. the operator should make up his mind as to what he is going to do before he touches a tool and then stick to it to the end, giving all his thoughts to his work. questions on lesson x. . describe what is meant by "wiping out"? . what is needed for this operation and how done? . what are the tools needed in "combing"? . how is the combing done in oil graining? . how is combing done in distemper work? lesson xi. pencilling in the veining, etc. . in water color work the heart growth of veins, some of the flaking, knots, burls, etc., are done by pencilling the same with a camel's hair brush. some is left just as the outlines made by the brush leaves it, but only in such outlinings as those of knots or in the imitating of defects and in some burls. . the "_pencilling_" requires a steady hand with a perfect control of the freedom of movement of the hand doing the work. to insure this it will be found much the best way is to use a mahl stick for a rest. it will insure against unsteadiness and will enable the operator to do his work just as he wants it and where he wants it. it will enable him to give the heaviest part of the stroke at the center of the heart growth, where it ought to be, and to gradually lessen its width toward the sides, where it is not so full nor heavy. . the operator should be careful while executing his veining that the blender is used while the color of the veining put on is _still wet_, as otherwise it will not blend and the chances are that the work will be spoiled, or at least greatly inferior in quality. (fig. shows the blender.) the blending itself is the drawing of the soft hair over the wet color, which softens it and divides its stiff outlines in serrated, uneven, pore-like, outlines. while the operation is not a difficult one, good blending requires an intimate knowledge of what will be the effects produced by the use of the tool, as the blending can be overdone as well as underdone. a little practical experience will soon teach the operator its proper use. . _fan overgrainers_, as shown in fig. , come in various widths. it was said in paragraph describing them, that many grainers preferred to make them themselves. this no doubt is due to the reason that in preparing them themselves they are able to arrange the hair so that they can get various effects from them, such as graduated lines, and again thick or thin lines, etc. but one can easily obtain the same results by buying a dozen or two of the ready made ones. they usually are made with a surplus of hair, and with a pair of sharp scissors the operator can easily cut out all the superfluous hair from the parts desired. with a good supply of overgrainers thus prepared before hand, he will be prepared to do an endless variety of veinings in lines equidistant, or graduated to suit. . the fan overgrainers are used for many purposes, not only in _overgraining_, as their name would seem to indicate, but also in laying out the veining adjacent to heart growths wherever a succession of fine lines are required, and which in water color work corresponds to combing in oil work. the brush is dipped into the distemper color, then it is run through the teeth of a coarse horn comb such as is used in hair combing. this will separate the hairs into lines, when the operator can use it on his work by drawing it along the outer edge of his pencilled out heart growth, and continue it to the outer edge of the panel. in overgraining proper it is used in many other ways, and by the proper motion of the hand many forms and variations suitable to the character of the woods being imitated can be done. in this proper use of the overgrainer the skill of the operator will be shown. it will be well to say that these lines made by the overgrainer are to be blended for most woods, and the student is referred to what was said regarding how it should be done in paragraph . questions on lesson xi. . what is said of the "pencilling in" of veins, etc., in distemper graining? . how are the veins pencilled in? . how is the "blending" done? . what is said of the fan overgrainers? . how are the fan overgrainers used? lesson xii. the use of graining rollers, etc. . as stated in paragraphs to , describing figs. , , and , corrugated rubber tools of various forms are used in graining. some kinds of woods can be done complete with these tools, and again their main character laid out with them, which is afterward improved by hand work. they are great time savers and to the man who knows how to use them well, which can be easily learned by following the directions given which accompany the boxes the tools are packed in, anyone can quickly learn their use, and will find it of great help in doing their work _quickly_, which is an important item, especially where the graining has to be done cheap. they will be able to turn out very much better work than could be done by hand for the same money. that fact alone if for no other reason (and there are other reasons also) entitles them to a welcome in the kit of progressive grainers who are not held in "awe" by precedents established when "grainers" were _getting something_ for good work done by hand exclusively. . while we are in the way of describing other methods of graining than that of graining done by hand, it is only right and proper that the transfer graining papers should be noticed. the graining upon many of these is very good. it has one disadvantage in that on large jobs there will be more repetition than is desirable; there is also an automatic indescribable look belonging to it, that grates upon an artistic taste, so that while the graining may be really much better than much hand work, yet hand or even that done with corrugated rubber tools will please the average man better than the more perfect automatic work done with the graining paper. . in graining with transfer paper, the paper to be used in the panels, stiles and rails should be cut into strips a trifle wider than desired for the actual space to be grained. the ground coat should be an appropriate one for the kind of wood to be imitated. the process of the transferring is similar to that used for all transfers; the paper is applied to its proper place, which it must cover fully, then the operator proceeds to wet the back of the transfer paper with a sponge which has been dipped in clean water. in a few moments after the wetting the paper can be pulled loose from the surface over which it is applied, laid aside flat to dry, and an exact replica of the graining printed upon the face of the paper will be left upon it. these transfer paper strips can be utilized several times before the design is dimmed too much for use. after the completion of the work it must be varnished in order to hold it on, as any other distemper work must be. . there is another form of graining paper which has just been patented in germany, which is not a transfer paper really and which _does_ excellent work. by some patent process the paper is made upon the face of the woods they represent; every pore and detail of the wood is perfectly represented. the ground color is covered over with oil graining color the same as for hand wiping. then the graining paper, cut into proper sized strips, are placed over the surface and the back of the paper is rubbed over with a specially made brush all over, taking care that the hands do not touch it any where except upon the edge, which should extend over sufficiently for this purpose; then the paper is lifted off and can immediately be used again. it leaves the job as if it had been "wiped out," but much better of course than out of men could possibly do it by hand. it is somewhat costly and outside of the samples which were given the author for testing he has never seen any. so far it has not been imported in this country in a regular way, but there is no doubt but that it will soon be. questions on lesson xii. . what is said of the use of corrugated rubber graining tools? . what is said of "transfer graining paper"? . how is transfer graining done? . what is said of a new "wiping out" paper? lesson xiii. crayons for making fine veins. . in such woods as maple, cherry, etc., the veining consists of very fine lines which show no blending in the natural woods. they are so fine that it would be very difficult to put them in with a camel's hair brush or pencil. heretofore it has been the practice of grainers to take colors such as they wished, and by mixing with china clay and gum arabic mucilage compound these into a mass which they rolled out and cut into strips in order to make crayons out of them. the process is not very difficult, but the proper blending and sizing must be carefully done or the crayon may be so hard that it will not mark on the wood, or so soft that the varnish will rub up the color. these crayons in wood may be bought in many of the supply stores. one fault with most of them is that they are not sufficiently sized to hold on the color while the varnish is applied. this the manufacturers must supply or their goods will be forced out of the market, in so far at least as the use that is made of them by the graining trade is concerned. . the crayons are sharpened to a point, and the veinings, knotting and burls are outlined by their means. they are used only where fine lines are required that are sharp and unblended. they are used in the same manner as ordinary graphite pencils are. their use offers no difficulty even to a beginner other than the skill shown in making the right markings in the right place, which is a matter of study before using them. . _mottling_ is an operation which greatly enhances the value of graining in many woods. this mottling may be done by means of the so-called mottling brushes, of which many are shown in fig. , in either oil or distemper graining. in the preceding sentence the words "may be done" are used, because many very good grainers never use them, but depend upon their rubbing in brushes, etc. again the sponge in distemper work is used and by the proper use of the badger blender beautiful mottlings are made without the use of any brush at all. . the sponge is held in the hand and by pressure and release of the same in going over the surface the color is unevenly distributed, which, when properly blended, will form mottlings coarse or fine, long or short, as wanted. it will require some practice in order to obtain a good control of the sponge. . the sponge is an invaluable aid to the grainer in distemper work, and the student should spare no pains in learning to master its use. with it not only mottlings may be made, but the main features and character of all the burled growths of walnut, oak roots, pollard oak, bird's eye maple, sycamore, mahogany, etc., may be laid out; most of it to be blended, and when dry overgrained and finished with either crayon pencils, camel hair knottings and linings done with various distemper colors or with the fan overgrainers, or by combinations of all the above. . the above comprises all the operations done in graining woods that can be given a general description of. each kind of wood will require some of their use. not all, however, must be given in the same manner, but must be adapted to suit the particular woods one may be trying to imitate. as occasion may require reference will be made to some of the paragraphs giving the proper information as to "how to do it." questions on lesson xiii. . how are graining crayons made? . what is said about graining crayons? . how is graining done with sponges? . what is said of the use of sponges in burled graining? . what is said concerning the special use to be made of the various operations in graining described in the previous lessons? lesson xiv. general review of woods. . woods may be divided into two general classes: st. those that are close grained and which when sawed into boards show very fine pores, or perhaps very little if any perceptible to the naked eye, as "holly," for instance, and in a lesser degree in "satinwood." d. those that are composed of long, coarse ligaments, which when sawed into boards show a great number of pores, especially when the growth is comparatively regular, as in chestnut, walnut, etc.; with a great number which lie between the two extremes. . there might be added a third division for those woods which have a jerky, crosswise fashion of growing, which to the unwary look as if there was no system in their growth, as in sycamore, rosewood, etc., but which they have as regular as any other just the same, as a kinky haired american of african extraction could truthfully claim for his tangled up specimen as against the rigid growth of that of the american indian. as with hair, it will be found that most of the woods which grow in a tangled way are composed of very fine fibres, which grow closely together and therefore can be classed in class . . before commencing the descriptions of the graining of the various woods it was thought best to examine some few general characteristics which belong to each class, and the student will then be able to tell at sight almost what may be the best manner in which the graining shall proceed, either in oil or in distemper. woods of class one, as a rule being close grained, need no stippling, as few pores show up separately as such, and it was shown that this is the main object of stippling. on the other hand, nearly all woods that are classed in class two, but more especially those which are on the extreme side of that class should be stippled by all means, and the others are greatly helped by a partial stippling at least. included in as stippling must be added the check roller work, as this may be done in such a way as to replace the stippling done with the flogger for certain woods, in the graining of some peculiar specimen of quartered oak especially. . before attempting to do any graining, the student is earnestly advised to procure a number of small pieces of veneers of the various woods; to glue them over smooth boards, fill them with a good hardwood filler if open grained; if not shellac them over with two coats of shellac, which he should also give to the open wood sample after having filled them and smoothed them properly. then give them one or two coats of good varnish, when he will have object lessons which will prove invaluable to him. let him not confine himself to one, two or three specimens of the same wood, but let him pick out as many as he can afford to do, in order that he may study their variations and different modes of growth, or he may get stuck into ruts and routine in his style of graining which he must try to avoid as much as possible. there is nor cannot be any better teacher than these samples will be. they need not cost much either. frequently they can be obtained for a song at some of the furniture factories from ends that are too short for use in their regular work. . as it is a matter of indifference at least in practicing studies as to the colors that are used in doing graining, the student can paint a ground color upon any convenient board or old door and practice upon it. he had better have several; at least, he should have two--one for practicing graining in oil and another for graining in distemper. with plenty of rags and turpentine or benzine he can wipe out his work as easily as upon a blackboard, and he can recommence it again and again until he is ready to quit and then he can wipe it off, and it will be ready for the next time. this advice is good, for it will not do for the beginner to try his hand upon actual work until he is sufficiently sure of his skill that he will not make a botch of it. he can try all the various general operations mentioned above, and apply them as nearly as he can to the particular needs of the wood he wishes to imitate, referring first to the special details that are given under each of the woods in subsequent chapters. [illustration: grained door] questions on lesson xiv. . how may all the various woods be classed? . what is said of woods of gnarled growths? . when do the wood imitations need stippling? . what is said regarding the preparation of various samples of veneers for study? . what advice is given about preparing practice boards for graining study? lesson xv. graining oak. . oak graining has always been in the lead in the quantity of it that is done, and it is no wonder. it offers so many variations, and in either in its heart growths or in its quarter sawed condition an endless number of forms can be indulged in which are all pleasing to look at. it can be grained in oil or in distemper in both of its forms and in combinations of the two. heart growth in oil. . _the ground_ for all oaks is _buff_. light oak requires a cream tone of it which can be deepened for the darker shades. for red and black oak a trifle of red can be added to the buff, which is made from some good ocher added to white lead. (see paragraphs to about preparing grounds under various conditions.) . _the graining colors_ proper are prepared to suit the shade of wood desired from raw sienna, raw umber and for very dark antique oak with a little ivory black added. the color should be megilped in order to make it comb and wipe clean. (see paragraphs to .) the wiping should be done as advised in paragraphs and . then combed as stated in paragraphs to . . the graining will be improved if the same is overgrained after the wiping out and combing coat has become hardened. this must not be overdone to look well. it consists simply in using some of the graining color used before, and in touching up a few places on the grained work. this darkens them some and these variations of color enriches it. the student will notice it upon natural wood usually where the veining makes a turn, etc. study nature, but do not _overdo it_. . when the overgraining is dry the job is ready for varnishing. in varnishing use an elastic varnish as much as possible, as both the ground coats and the graining colors contain oil and a hard, quick-drying varnish will not be so likely to give and accommodate itself to these as an elastic one will. as the varnishing coats which follow graining of all kinds are about the same for all woods it will not be necessary to repeat each time what is said here. . in varnishing over distempered work a quicker and harder varnish can be used than that named above. as many prefer a wax finish to varnishing, this can be applied over the work. the ready prepared wax finishes are best to use; they are easily applied with a brush or even a rag and afterward polished over with a cloth or a hand polishing glove made of lamb skin with the wool left on. it will soon polish up into a soft-toned subdued gloss which is pleasing and imitates "rubbed work" in hardwood finishing. graining oak heart growth in distemper. . it will be well not to have the ground coats too oily for graining in distemper, as it may be difficult to spread the distemper color over it, especially in cool weather. on the other hand again, it must not be too flat, as then the colors will sink into it and if from any cause one desires to wash them off they will be indelibly marked out upon the ground, and will at the least look dirty. the check roller can be used to good advantage in putting in a few checks here and there, and a little fine stippling on the side away from where the main heart growth is to be pencilled in with the camel's hair brush will help the looks of it. when dry proceed to put in the heart growth, using the overgrainer wherever possible in doing the fine line work over the stippling. it goes without the saying that all the veining, both heart growth and fine lines, must be well blended with the badger hair brush. questions on lesson xv. . what is said of oak graining in general? . how are oak ground tints to be made? . how are the colors to be applied? . how is the graining overgrained? . how is the varnishing to be done? . how is wax polish finish applied? lesson xvi. oak graining--continued. quartered oak graining in oil. . there are a great number of ways of graining quartered oak and when one says that it is imitated in oil graining, but very little more information is conveyed than that the work is executed in that medium instead of in distemper color. the manner of doing it may vary greatly, as well as the growth itself, which is infinite almost. it is, therefore, a matter upon which little more information can be given without the actual showing than the rehearsing over of general principles. if the student has provided himself with a number of samples of quartered oak veneers and has practiced their reproduction in oil and in distemper, he will have gained an experience that type and printing ink cannot possibly teach him. . the grounds are to be the same as described in the heart growth graining of oak. the graining color should be "rubbed in" very evenly, but neither too thick nor too thin. in most of the work, and that is naturally _that_ which one tries to describe in giving general directions in graining a certain wood, the surface should be combed over with rubber combs and afterward split up with a fine steel comb to break up the vein lines. some skill may be shown in this, for if done properly and at the right angle the lines will appear as thickly studded pores, but if not, anything but that. . the method of "wiping out" is described in paragraphs and . remove all the flakes of the larger sorts first, which usually are to be found in the center of the wood samples, keeping in mind a definite idea of what the work is to represent; this lays out the general character of the wood. . the subsequent wiping out is to be done in accordance with the main flaking, gradually lessening the size of the secondary flakings to the outer edge, where usually they are found much more numerous. . the graining may be much improved by softening the edges by using a very soft clean cotton cloth very lightly upon their lower edge. the proper doing of this requires some skill and usually is shunned by the cheap fellow, as it takes some little time as well as skill. . overgraining quartered oak may be the means of greatly improving its looks, especially where a gnarly and knotty specimen is attempted. as stated before, this is done by the application of the color in oil used in the "rubbed in" coat to such parts which it is desired should look darker than the rest. . sometimes the graining is finished up in water colors. the graining must, of course, be thoroughly dry in order that the distemper colors may take hold over it. most beautiful effects can be obtained by this dual method of graining quartered oak. it requires skill in the operator, but good judgment and experience the more, as it is an easy matter to overdo it, when instead of a thing of beauty it becomes an eye sore. . varnishing is the final operation in all kinds of graining, but the graining may also be waxed polished as noted in the preceding lesson. much more could be written as to the many various methods that are being used in the graining of oak, especially of quartered oak, but the space limit of this manual is too confined to attempt it. the directions given will suffice to indicate to the student how to proceed and as he progresses along, the variations in the manner of doing the work will suggest themselves to him and he will grow into them naturally. questions on lesson xvi. . what is said in a general way on the graining of quarter sawed oak? . what is said of the rubbing in coat and combing? . how are the flakes and champs put in? . what is said of the wiping out? . how are the edges to be softened? . how is the overgraining done? . what is said of combination oil and distemper work? . how is the work finished? lesson xvii. graining quartered oak in distemper. . there is a great deal of quartered oak graining that is done in distemper in certain localities, especially where the grainers have come into the knack of it. when it is well done it is fully as good as when done in oil. the quality of the work is what counts, and it is just as easy to produce an eye sore in the one as it is in the other. [illustration: grained door] . it is true that the operator has no time to take a nap and hardly to bat his eyes, and that no doubt is the reason why so few grainers attempt quartered oak in distemper. the colors do dry very quickly, so the graining must be done without hesitation or waste of time. if it has been practiced on the lesson boards mentioned in paragraph no one who has succeeded on them need be afraid of tackling it on door panels, etc. . everything in the way of colors, sponges, rags, overgrainers, blenders and tools being ready and within reach, the woodwork to be grained should be washed over with water into which vinegar has been poured. when it has become nearly but not quite dry, proceed to lay on the color in streaks with the overgrainers, then with the rubber or fine steel combs run through the lines in order to break them up and to serrate them, and immediately proceed with the rag and thumb or the rubber substitute for it to wipe out the champs and flakes in the way and manner described in the wiping out of oak in oil graining; soften the edges by using the soft cotton rag in the same way also. it is needless to say that one panel at a time is all that should be colored up, and even this will be found too much by many, but it can be done and it is not so difficult as it looks to be; only, as said before, there is no time to think of the "girl you left behind you" or anything else but doing the work. . for a change dark flakings and other flaked veinings may be put in instead of light ones. in this sort of quartered oak graining the whole thing is reversed. the color is applied evenly but solidly over the panel and immediately combed with rubber combs and split as related in the preceding paragraph; then with the camel hair pencil brush proceed to pencil on the flakes and champs as desired, slightly blending them with the badger blender. this is not so difficult to execute as by wiping out, because it does not matter about hurrying. . in either method the use of the check roller can be resorted to to improve the looks of the graining, it is best to delay it until the graining has been completed, as then it can be put only in such parts as really require it, while if put on beforehand it may be that they may be placed where they should not. they are not essential and, as stated before, really a detriment when not used rightly. the expert who knows where to use them, however, obtains a more natural finish by their use. . the overgraining ought to be done in oil colors and put on very thinly, then with clean cotton rags wipe it off from such parts that are required to be light, which will give the shading as if it had been done in oil over oil graining with the difference that in shading the latter the overgraining color is applied only where it is wanted and requires no wiping out. . where distemper graining is overgrained with oil colors it practically becomes the same as oil graining and that alone will usually protect it against accidents caused by water washing it off, but as the finish does not look even, that must be supplied as in the previous graining described, by either waxing or varnishing, or a combination of the two as related in paragraph . questions on lesson xvii. . what is said of quartered oak graining in distemper? . why are some grainers afraid to undertake graining it in distemper? . how is the wiping out done? . how is dark flake graining done? . how may the check roller be used? . how should distemper graining be overgrained? . how is distemper graining to be finished? lesson xviii. graining ash. . ash graining is very similar to oak graining, and but that the growth is somewhat coarser than that of oak, and that it is usually more evenly veined, at least in the american species, the student would find no need of further directions. it is somewhat more open, too, showing considerable porousness in some of its growth, so much so that some grainers stipple it as for walnut, but flog it finer and the color used being more subdued these pores do not show up so prominently. this, of course, relates to the graining it in water colors mainly, although it works nicely in oil for wiping out also, especially when the color used is for dark ash. . the ground should be very nearly that required for oak graining, just a trifle darker than is required for light oak. this, as in oak, is variable, and one must be guided by what finish is intended to be given. even the natural specimens vary greatly, and with the present fashion of staining woods into all sorts of outlandish hues one must take the cue as to what the ground shall be from the color used on the finish as stated before. if it is finished in the natural color belonging to ash, the color of the ground can be made from ochre added to white lead as the base color, using more or less of it as a lighter or darker shade is desired. . the graining of ash in oil is done in much the same manner as that which is related for oil grain of oak in paragraphs and . as the growth in the american varieties is straighter grained than that of oak, there will be no difficulty in wiping it out, only that the coarser growth must be reproduced as naturally as possible. the colors and megilp will be also about the same as for oak in the natural tone, and such other coloring matter must be added as found necessary to produce any of the stained effects wanted in others. if the ground is stippled before the wiping out, it should be done with raw umber and raw sienna in distemper; it will be well to reduce their strength by the addition of whiting in order that the stippling may not appear too prominent. . the graining of ash in distemper is very easily acquired and presents but little difficulty to one who has his mind imbued with the main characteristics of its growth. the graining may be done with or without stippling, but if the stippling is well done it will improve it. the veining is done with the camel's hair brush, and the blending should follow it up quickly so as to divide up the veining before it has had time to set. this will enable the washing up of the stippling by the pressure of the blender, and will leave a paler base for the veining, which by the stronger contrast will appear more natural. . ash is overgrained for the same purpose as related of oak. it shows up the darker parts, or if they may be so called, the nerves of the wood. this should not be overdone, however, as it will defeat the very purpose for which it is done at all. it is better not to overgrain at all than to overgrain too much, and the student had much better do too little of it than to err upon the opposite side. the color used for overgraining is oil colors, as related for oak graining in paragraph . . hungarian ash is so very much different from the american species in its growth that it might be well to cut it loose altogether from the ash group and to give it a place by itself. it resembles somewhat the growth sometimes seen in some yellow pine specimens. it is very wavy and the saw cutting across them the veins appear contorted into all kinds of circling growths, but with all this widening out suddenly of two lines which nearly meet together, there is a system in it and none ever cross over each other. the student must study a natural specimen of it in order to understand this spiral and twisting system of growths, and when he sees through it he will find no difficulty in reproducing it in water colors, which is the only manner hungarian ash is ever grained. it is possible to grain it in oil, but the time required to wipe it out will prevent grainers from ever attempting it the second time. questions on lesson xviii. . what is said about the graining of ash? . what is a proper ground for the graining of ash? . how is ash grained in oil? . how is ash grained in water colors? . how should ash be overgrained? . how is hungarian ash grained? lesson xix. graining chestnut and maple. . the graining of chestnut presents no difficulty either to one who has a good knowledge of the handling of graining tools. its general character is much the same as that of oak and ash. it differs from either, however, and has a growth entirely its own. its principal points are: coarseness of veining; its fibres being thick and when cut across by the saw present numerous coarse pores which must be represented by stippling coarsely and somewhat irregularly flogged on, as it shows only a few in parts where the saw has not cut the fibres across either squarely or slanting. . the graining of chestnut may be done in either oil by wiping or in distemper. by either method it will be best to stipple it in the manner stated in the previous paragraph--rather coarsely. the ground is a light buff, just about such as described for oak or ash, and may vary to suit the graining and grainer. it can be wiped out easily in oil, but much the best way is to grain it in distemper, as it is easier and more quickly done. the veining is put on with a camel's hair brush and blended with the badger hair blender before the color sets. the veining being coarse is easily put on. its growth is not nearly as regular as that of ash and presents much variation in its forms. the color used for the stippling should be the same as given for ash stippling, but should have but little whiting added to it, as the pores must appear coarse and prominent. the colors used in either oil or distemper graining are raw sienna deepened with raw and burnt umber to suit. maple. . the graining of maple differs materially from that of the woods described heretofore. in color it is on the same order, however, of a light buff tone. it should be given a ground color just off the white by the addition of a trifle of ochre to the white lead base. there is considerable variation in this and if one is required to match or imitate some aged maple the general tone will need to be much deeper, and may require a ground as deep toned as that of oak or ash, as maple darkens considerably by age. . again as fashion has decreed that maple should be stained a light gray one has to grain it in imitation of that and the ground must then be made by the addition of lamp black to the white base sufficiently to make a faint pearl gray. the veining proper is not very prominent in maple. this consists of very fine lines with little if any feathering. maple is a very close wood and shows but little if any porousness, therefore should never be stippled. the chief beauty of ordinary maple lays in its mottlings and not in its veinings. plain maple being what is now under consideration, curled and bird's eye maple will be taken up in a separate lesson. . plain maple is never grained in oil as it would be too tedious to imitate it by wiping. therefore its graining by distemper work is the only method worth the while to describe. to be able to grain it well the student must have its character well made out--in his head at least. the color if the wood is grained in its natural color is made from raw sienna weakened down to suit by the addition of whiting. the character of the wood is best produced by the application of the color with a sponge. this should be blended at once and if the color has been properly applied with the sponge, the mottlings produced by the blending of the color will usually suffice and a few more of a deeper tone may be added in the overgraining. as soon as dry, which requires but a few minutes, the veining proper may be put in with the same color with a camel's hair pencil, but should not be blended. this should be done with a fine pointed brush as it should not be prominent. the better way to vein maple is to use a light raw sienna toned crayon pencil and to draw them out where desired. these produce an even stroked vein much easier to obtain by their use than with a brush. . the overgraining of plain maple is done in oil and consists of a few darker mottles made with a brush specially made for this purpose, but which in reality is little better than a plain double thick varnish flat brush, and the latter will be found good enough for this purpose. if the color happens to be too thickly put on, it can be wiped out with a clean rag and left only where it is desired. it should be made of raw sienna darkened with raw and burnt umber and thinned with raw linseed oil and turpentine, half and half. it has been supposed all along that the maple graining was done in its natural color. if gray maple is to be imitated the distemper color should be made from ivory black toned down with whiting and the overgraining color from ivory black thinned sufficiently to produce the tint wanted. questions on lesson xix. . what is said in general of chestnut graining? . how should chestnut be grained? . what is said of maple graining in general? . how should gray maple ground be prepared? . how should plain maple be grained? . how should maple be overgrained? lesson xx. graining bird's eye maple. . this is the most elegant form of wood known and good specimens of the wood are a sight that well repay for the trouble of looking them up, as they will make a glad heart to the man who loves beautiful forms. to imitate it well by graining requires some practice and a good knowledge of what is required to produce the innumerable variations seen in it. when its growth is well understood it is not so difficult to imitate it. it may as well be stated here at the beginning that more bird's eye maple graining is spoiled by overdoing than by not doing enough work upon it. the beginner had better confine his efforts to but a very few of the "_bird's eyes_" at first. the few will look well and modestly nestled among their surrounding mottlings, but when this is overdone, which at the beginning especially is a synonym for badly done--whew! better wash it off and try it over, with less of it next time, and the chances are that it will bear looking at it. . the graining of bird's eye maple is always done in distemper, for the same reasons that were given in describing the graining of plain maple, and for a few additional ones of its own besides, so that all that will be said in connection with it must be understood as appertaining to distemper work. . the ground when the graining is done in imitation of the natural color of the wood must be of a very light tone of cream color, or the finished work will be too yellow. if it is to be finished in imitation of the gray stained variety the ground must be made to correspond to that shade and a faint pearl-gray ground must be put on as noted in paragraph . the ground should not be too glossy, nor too flat, either, for the distemper colors will not work at their best on either extremes, but one should strive for an egg-shell gloss as near as possible. . the graining proper proceeds very much as was described for the imitation of plain maple. the same colors being used in either the natural color imitation or the gray tone with a somewhat different manner of laying on the color with the sponge, in order to produce longer ridges of mottlings than is usually necessary in plain maple. these mottlings must be running in one direction mainly, but in a haphazard sort of way, and not uniformly as in ladder rungs. it requires some experience and an intimate knowledge of bird's eye maple growth to do this preliminary laying out of the work. it is not difficult, but it must be done in the right manner in order to produce natural looking results. . the putting in of the bird's eyes is done in various ways--some ways being better than others. one of the ways used by many is to use the points of the fingers upon the still wet distemper color and to peck it on usually upon the apex of the ridge of the mottles. it is far from being the best way, but it is the quickest. in the natural wood the eyes are very seldom found upon the darker mottles, but more frequently upon secondary ridges between them, or even upon the valleys laying between them. as there is not enough color left there to produce them by peeking them on with the fingers, the operators by that method have to confine their work to the aforesaid ridges, where they really do not belong. much better and more natural ones can be put on with a fine pointed artist's sable brush, and when one has become habituated to their use they are very quickly made. again they may be put in with colored pencils of a tone deep enough to suit the rest of the work. this is more quickly done than with the sable brush, but the strokes cannot be varied as with that, and the more artistic graining requires their use. there are a number of other more or less mechanical processes used in producing the bird's eyes, but none surpass the one's described. the veining is done with colored pencils as related in paragraph and overgrained as described in paragraph . in all cases where graining is done in distemper it is to be understood that the graining is to be varnished or receive a protecting coat of some kind or another, and as this is required in all cases of distemper graining it will not be repeated hereafter. questions on lesson xx. . what is said regarding the graining of bird's eye maple? . in what medium is bird's eye maple usually grained? . how are the grounds to be prepared? . how would you proceed to put on the mottling lay out? . how are the bird's eyes put on? lesson xxi. graining sycamore, cherry and satinwood. . sycamore is another wood which, like maple, shows but little pores. its growth, unlike maple, is an indescribable interlacing and twining of its ligaments which when sawed produce an infinity of variations with short, jerky, snappish terminations, and an infinity of short mottlings. this very infinity at last produces a uniformity on account of their smallness, as the eye cannot catch all their variations. were it possible to greatly increase these of such a size as those of maple, sycamore would be one of the richest of our woods. . it is passably well imitated in distemper work and grained quickly. the ground should be deeper than that of any of the woods previously described, of a decided buff tone. the graining color should be made from raw sienna and burnt umber in distemper. the graining should be done with the sponge and immediately well blended. if the sponge is pecked on to the surface to be grained, the blending will produce the small mottles, and another pecking done in such places as needed and blended will usually produce a very fair representation of the wood. another way is to put on the color evenly with either a sponge or a brush and to rotate the rotary cylinder rubber roller graining tool upon it and blend quickly. this gives a very fair imitation if well done. cherry. . cherry graining presents no great difficulty, as it is a wood of very plain growth, so much so that it looks rather tame and for that reason it is very seldom imitated by graining. there are some of the rooms in the old-time houses where the woodwork is cherry, and it sometimes happens that repairs are done to it, and which have to be grained in order to match the old work. . the ground color is made by tinting white lead with ochre, venetian red and burnt umber. a very fine stipple of burnt umber much reduced with whiting may be given it and the veining should be put in with a pencil of the proper color, which should in no wise be very prominent as in the natural wood it does not show much darker than the fine pores or stipple work. of course all of the work is done in water colors. satinwood. . satinwood, with the one exception of holly, is one of the easiest of all woods to imitate. there is but few markings upon it and next to nothing in veining. mottlings of no great prominence by their depths of coloring are the only markings. the wood varies somewhat in the depth of its tone from a light to a medium tone of buff. . the ground will vary from a very light buff to a darker shade of the same. as said before the graining consists of mottlings which are not very prominent, therefore the graining color, which is made up from raw sienna and burnt umber in distemper reduced to less intensity by whiting, should be put on thinly with a sponge and blended so as to show no feathering. questions on lesson xxi. . relate what are the main characteristics of sycamore? . how is sycamore grained? . what is said of cherry graining? . how is cherry grained? . what is said regarding the characteristics of satinwood. . how is satinwood grained? lesson xxii. graining of light and dark mahogany. . mahogany is one of the most beautifully formed woods that nature produces. in its plain form or in its most intricate featherings, it is always pleasing to look at and its most profuse variations of form do not cause any nausea nor does one become confused or tired of them. it is found in many variations of color. new mahogany is very light toned and seldom darker than a medium buff tone. it acquires a reddish tone by age, which becomes a rich dark red in time. this redness is usually artificially supplied in the natural wood by staining. in graining it is the most usual to reproduce the rich red darker variety, and that of the light varieties is only resorted to in order to match some parts added to a room which has been finished in the light natural wood. [illustration: grained door] . the ground for light mahogany should be a buff more or less dark, according to the character of the finish wanted. a medium oak ground made by the addition of ochre to white lead is the most usual for light mahogany. for the darker mahogany imitations the ground should be rather reddish and much darker in tone. to the white lead base should be added yellow ochre and venetian red. for some specimens a trifle of burnt umber should be added in order to darken it, but never sufficiently to kill the red yellow tone. . the graining color for light mahogany is prepared by mixing raw sienna and burnt umber in distemper; that used for graining dark mahogany is made from burnt sienna and burnt umber, the manner of doing the graining in either coloring being the same. mahogany seldom shows any regular veining, but soft tones of mottlings, rather coarse and lengthy, but these usually are not numerous in what is known as plain mahogany. the whole character can be put on in one operation and with the sponge, which by the proper pressure will make out the broad veinings, which when blended out to bring out the feathering usually suffice to give the right character to the wood. the proper use of the sponge should be practiced in order to make the color lay strong in parts where it is wanted dark, and to wipe it out thin where but little coloring is desired to show over the ground. [illustration: grained door] in some specimens of plain mahogany many fine pores appear, and it may be well to flog a few of the lines made by the sponge lightly before blending. this must be quickly done, as otherwise it would become too dry for blending. there will be enough porousness show after the blending to make a more natural appearance than if the stippling had not been resorted to. . crotch and feathered mahogany should be well studied out in order to reproduce it rightly. it is not very difficult to do the work, but as said before the operator must have a good idea of what he is going to do and should have the space to be grained all pictured out in his mind's eye. the feathering is brought out by the proper use of the sponge and the blending of it properly afterward has much to do in the making it look natural, for if it is not done right it will make an otherwise good piece of work look ridiculous. in the natural wood these fine markings are very scarce, and never seen outside of veneers and are costly, therefore hardly ever seen except upon high priced furniture, but in the grained imitation the operator can indulge his wildest fancies in reproducing the choicest specimens of the wood at a small outlay. . in the crotch mahogany veneers one will frequently notice a fine set of veins which cross the mottlings or featherings in an opposite direction. they are not nearly as prominent as these, but seem to be a succession of fine paint lines. these when put in as they should be help out the graining very much, and the putting of these in is the chief object of overgraining. the coloring should be the same as that used for the graining, only thinned a trifle more and sometimes just darkened a bit more by the addition of a little ivory black in distemper. the fine lines are put in with the fan overgraining brushes from which the hair has been well thinned out, so they will separate by running through a comb into a number of parallel fine lines. questions on lesson xxii. . what is said regarding the graining of mahogany? . how are the grounds of light and dark mahogany prepared? . how should plain mahogany be grained? . how is crotched and fancy feathered mahogany to be grained? . how is mahogany overgrained? lesson xxiii. graining walnut. . at one time when graining was at its height, walnut graining was next to oak, the main wood which grainers had to imitate, and some of them attained to such skill as entitled their work to be called _art_. it is not used just now to near the same extent that it used to be, but as the prevailing sorts of woods that are grained are subject to changes caused by fashion, there is no telling how soon walnut graining may take the lead among the dark wood imitations. the color of the various specimens of walnut vary greatly. the general tone of american black walnut is darker than that of the european species variously known as english, italian, etc., they all being the same. but aside of the fact that american black walnut is darker, the degree of darkness varies considerably in various specimens. walnut, especially black walnut, is a rather coarse, open-pored wood, with a heart growth which is well defined and of pleasing forms. the veneers which are sawed from walnut roots and forks of limbs, as in the crotch walnut, are very intricate and beautiful when all the details are well brought out by polishing. . the ground for walnut graining, as may be well supposed, will vary greatly, according to the desired finish. the average european walnut ground is made from ochre, burnt umber and a trifle of venetian red added to a white lead base, and will be deeper or lighter according to the finish desired. it will be more yellow in tone than the ground that is used for the darker american species. for the latter the same colors are used in preparing the ground, only that it is made deeper on the average, and that it should not be quite as yellow toned as the ground used for the european variety. . the openness of the wood represented by the pores is easily reproduced by the stippling it should receive before the heart growth is either wiped out in oil graining or pencilled on in distemper. some grainers dispense with it in oil work, but the finished work suffers from it. the stippling color is best made from some good vandyke brown, and it may also be made from burnt umber in distemper. it should be flogged on evenly and rather coarse, as it will not look good if flogged too fine. . after the stippling the graining may be done in oil by wiping out. the color used for graining may be either vandyke brown, which has been made more drying by the addition of an extra quantity of good drying japan, or from burnt umber, to either of which enough megilp has been added to keep them from running when sufficiently thinned out for wiping. the easiest way of graining plain growth walnut of either the european or american varieties is in distemper, and while it may not be as good in the estimation of some, it is much more quickly performed, and when well done will look fairly good and natural. for the graining of it in distemper the same colors should be used in that medium as noted for oil work, and the veining pencilled on the stippled surface and well blended out while still wet. . the overgraining of plain walnut graining will add much to its naturalness of looks. this consists mainly of the darkening of some of the parts. it should be done with the oil color used in graining it in oil for either oil or distemper work. in the latter case the color should be sufficiently thinned and well rubbed out as to give it a coat all over and afterward it should be wiped out from all parts where it is not wanted with soft cotton rags. questions on lesson xxiii. . what are the principal characteristics of walnut? . how are the grounds for european and american black walnut prepared? . how should walnut be stippled? . how is walnut grained in oil and distemper? . how is walnut overgrained? lesson xxiv. graining walnut--continued; burled walnut. . the natural plain growth of walnut usually presents no riotousness and is rather staid and well behaved, but with a sufficiency in variation to suit the most fastidious. not so with burled walnut or root walnut of either the european or the american varieties. one would hardly recognize them as relations of the former but by that they carry some of the colors of the plain, besides many shades more and variations of them of their own. the european varieties are usually lighter toned than the american sort, and the contorted course of the veining is somewhat more regular in appearance, otherwise the burling and knots are very much the same. the same design executed in either european or american walnut would look well if properly done. there is considerable system in the seemingly wild growth of walnut burls. their representation requires considerable study in order to represent them naturally, not that it is very hard to do, but in order rather that it be not overdone. there is nothing that has a more vulgar look than an overdone imitation of burled walnut. . the student should familiarize himself with the growth of many specimens and besides he should carry an imprint in his mind of all the various natural specimens he may come across. in these studies he will no doubt have noted that the ground color or the lighter parts in the natural wood does not run uniform as in the plain wood. some parts will require a much lighter ground than others, and good grainers take advantage of that knowledge and prepare the grounds in various shades in order to produce the effects desired. some try to obtain these by overgraining, but while that improves the graining it will not produce the realistic effects possible by the varied colored grounds. this demands good judgment and a full knowledge of the intended work so that a boy cannot be sent ahead to do the grounding, but the grainer himself must do it according to his own conception of the intended work. . the graining is always done in distemper. the colors used are raw and burnt sienna, raw and burnt umber and ivory black. to these may be added vandyke brown. the lay out is first laid out with a sponge. a different sponge should be used in each color. after all the principal features have been put on and blended properly, the work proper of putting in the details commences and is done with camel's hair pencils, fan overgrainers, etc. it is presumed that the student has practiced these before, as he will hardly care to expose his ignorance upon a door panel where it would be very likely to put him to shame. nothing but practice makes one perfect at this work. yet many who have practiced it for years fail to do as good work sometimes as a novice would, because they have a false conception of it and keep on in the old rut, which was wrong from the beginning. it is not difficult of execution, but cannot be done right in a haphazard manner any more than by making lines and curves and expect to produce a good sign if not put in their proper places. . as hinted in paragraph , some grainers expect to do too much with the overgraining. they try to correct a faulty ground work and to put in many details which properly belong to the graining proper. it is possible, of course, to help very much in the correction of many faults, especially in those of bettering the mottlings, but if the graining has not been laid out nor grained pretty near right, no amount of overgraining will make it right, and more work that would have been passable is rendered worthless by overdone overgraining than from any other one cause. questions on lesson xxiv. . what is said of burled and root walnut graining? . how should the grounds be prepared for it? . how is burled walnut grained? . how is burled walnut overgrained? lesson xxv. graining rosewood, etc. . rosewood has never been very extensively used in interior finishing. its dark, somber tone unfits it for most situations and its great cost unfits most people from even thinking about its usage. therefore, while the last reason has not been a factor in discouraging its graining, the first one given has sufficed to confine its use to that of a few fancy articles of bric-a-brac or fancy pieces of furniture, and in the latter it has been mainly in the stained form that it is seen. as, however, it sometimes happens that a grainer is called upon to produce it upon a fancy box or something else, he should know how to do it. . the ground for rosewood should be compounded from venetian red brightened up with vermillion and lightened with white lead, but not too much. it should be of a decided red, and while but little of it usually shows through the dark superstructure of veins, and that little in the natural wood is always of a decided red tone, some grainers add ochre to the red, but that only serves to muddy up the red tone and should never be resorted to. . the main character of the wood should be put on with a sponge with distemper color consisting chiefly of ivory black, to which a trifle of umber may be added, but which is not necessary really. the main character of the wood is laid out in long, wide stripes, which should consist chiefly of a number of fine lines or veinings. the first laying out should be put on rather thin and allowed to dry, when the fine line work can be put on with the fan overgrainer, and the parts of the ground which have not been covered with the first wide stripe lay out mentioned should be gone over with the fan brush and a number of fine lines made running into the dark straight ones. it is between these that a little of the ground will show here and there only. the character of the wood should be well understood in order to make a fair imitation, and no one will attain that by being told "how it looks," for that is impossible, rosewood being so unlike any other wood. there is usually no overgraining necessary if the work has been properly done. nor should the fine line work done with the fan overgrainer be blended, as the veining stands out sharp. as sometimes the beginner will be apt to have it show too much of the red ground, it may be well to give a glazing coat of ivory black in oil over the whole surface and to wipe up a few of the parts where the red ground is desired to show through. this will act as a protection to the work, too, and when dry a coat of varnish can be given it which will usually suffice then. . many more woods could be given, but of all the rest yellow pine is the only one which is ever likely to be imitated, and very little of that excepting in the matching of some repair work. there is no reason for giving it a special description, as that given in paragraphs to , and especially in , will come as near to it as it would be possible to make it. questions on lesson xxv. . what are the principal characteristics of rosewood? . how are the grounds for rosewood to be prepared? . how is rosewood grained? . what else is said regarding the graining of yellow pine and other woods. lesson xxvi. marbling. . the imitation of marbles and other stones of a variegated character is much older than that of the imitation of woods by graining. this is no doubt due to the universal custom of public buildings in the roman empire being finished in stonework, marbles, jaspers, onyx and other variegated stones. the patricians vied with each other in the lavish decoration of their palaces, which were, of course, the real thing, but many of the merchants and plebeians who could not afford these expensive finishes, had recourse to an artificial representation of them, in their principal chambers at least. the marble imitations found so far do not speak very highly for the skill of the marblers of that period, and it must take a rank far below that of other mural decorations done at the same time presumably by a higher grade of artists. . the enormous use of marble and onyx in various decoration in this country, which has been developed within the latter part of the past fifty years, has been educating the people to the use of something better than the miserable paper imitations which have paraded as marble, or rather been a parody upon it. such as these paper imitations have been, it is no wonder that people of taste have tabooed them from their homes, preferring a plain wall or washable varnished tile paper to those ludicrous misrepresentations. . for many purposes marble imitations are beginning to be used much more extensively than they were and good imitations always captivate the attention of people of taste, with the consequence that when once introduced in a neighborhood it soon happens that the man who is able to do a good job is soon overrun with that kind of work. that it has not become general is because, sad to say, it has almost become a lost art from long disuse. the many cheaper halls, restaurants, etc., in public and semi-public buildings where the real stone is too expensive; the many private vestibules, halls and bathrooms, where their use is almost imperatively demanded by good taste as the only permissible embellishment to relieve the monotony of the walls, by at least a dado imitation of good marble done _in oil_ and _washable_. an endless variation in variously formed panels and cornices and surrounding stiles, where contrasting colored varieties of marbles and onyxes can be used, or their use in plain slabs as desired, will enable the artist who does the marbling to produce an individuality of work on every job. the good marbler is entitled to be called an artist, for it is only an artist who can vary this infinity of forms properly. not that the execution of the work demands great ability in reproducing it--the artist's skill is developed and shown in the proper arrangement and use of coloring, and also in the proper tracing out of the work itself, but that without the other will surely disappoint. . many marbles resemble each other very closely excepting in their coloring, and even in marbles of the same quarry there will be found such variations in the forms of their veinings, agglomerations in those of conglomerate form that really no well defined description can be given of any of them. the general characteristics is all that can be said of any of them and some general directions given under each which will help the student to do his work upon right lines. . marbles may be divided up into two great divisions, and even these are somewhat interchangeable, and it will depend upon the angle that the slabs have been sawed as to whether they should be placed in one or the other division. these two divisions are the striated marbles, which includes the veined and serpentine marbles, and the conglomerate, which includes most of the onyxes and marbles which show but little veining. as stated before this arbitrary division is sometimes misleading, as a striated marble will show up in chunky formation if sawed in a certain way, and again considerable veining will show in a conglomerate if sawed at the right angle. the placing them in one or the other of the two divisions applies only when they are sawed in the natural and customary way--squarely through the block where they show their character more fully. in some varieties, however, as in some of the onyxes, there is little regularity of formation and serpentine forms will be found bordered with large chunks of conglomerates, and the latter with more or less of well defined serpentine formation intermingled with it. this really is what makes the chief beauty of the onyxes. the students should study the forms taken by marbles thoroughly as possible in order to store up in their memory the innumerable variations of forms of all the several sorts of marbles which they come across. questions on lesson xxvi. . what is said relative to the imitation of marbles by ancient civilizations? . what uses of marble imitations are made of today? . to what parts of interior decoration are they best adapted to? . what is said of the irregularity of form in marbles? . in how many divisions can marbles be placed in? lesson xxvii. general directions for marbling. . under the name of marble are included all variegated stones, and therefore the term "marbling," like that of "gilding," which is applied to gold, silver and all metal leaves means considerably more than it should. truthfully speaking marbles are of lime formation, while granites and jaspers and many others are not. the coloring of the veinings are due to various causes; various substances being deposited and enveloped in the lime formation, some by infiltration of metallic ore beds above the lime formation, which found their way through some of the softer fissures of the imperfectly formed limestone and deposited there. again, as in honeycomb limestone, substances which deposited along with the lime, but which being more soluble have been washed out of it, leaving the lime full of small holes, as the name indicates. these being subsequently filled up with colored deposits. . general directions will be given in this and subsequent lessons as to "how" the various operations used for imitating marbles are performed, and the student will be referred to them when the special description of the various well-known marbles and other stones are given. the same operations being used in nearly all of them, being varied to suit the peculiar needs of each as required. [illustration: grained door] . there is no need of special brushes or tools for any of the operations about to be described, and the ones described as useful for the imitation of wood by graining will more than suffice as but few brushes are needed. for laying the grounds, some of the larger flat ones and some smaller flat ones to lay in colors in smaller groups, and dry ones to blend them. some fitches or small bristle artists' brushes and some camel's hair pencils with a few wing and tail feathers for putting in some of the finer veins, and badger blenders are about all the tools needed. . as to material, white lead and zinc white will form the bulk of it, as it is used either as a base or by itself in all the marbles that will be described, with, of course, the exception of the black marbles. as there are so many colors used in imitating marbles, the whole list may be of use at some time or other, and it will not be necessary to name them all over at this time, as under each marble will be given the ones needed. light varnishes are required in order to give the finished marble a uniform appearance and as a protection. this is the hardest part of all to procure, as the stronger ones are not fit to use over white or even upon some of the darker ones having white veins, turning them yellowish. damar varnish is forced upon the marbler, so there is little wonder if many prefer to leave the work as it is without varnishing. all the above applies to oil color marbling only as work done in distemper is never varnished. the colors needed in water color marbling are the same as for oil work, only they must of course be in the dry state. . the walls of halls are sometimes done in imitation of marble slabs, and one is then required to scaffold for it in order to reach them. as directions were given how to reach the walls and ceilings in vol. ii, or "interior painting," the student is referred to that for fuller details. for most work good step ladders will be found best, as they permit the work to be done with more comfort, the operator climbing up or down as needed without having to reach up or bend down too much. questions on lesson xxvii. . what is said regarding marble formation? . what of the general operation used in imitating marbles? . what are the tools needed in marbling? . what material is used in marbling? . what appliances are needed in wall work in order to reach their surfaces? lesson xxviii. the operations of marbling. . the laying on of the proper colors for the ground is the first operation in the order in which they occur in marbling, and it is a very important one, too. it will be well to state here that the descriptions which are given is for marbling in oil, as that is by far the best way of imitating marble, therefore the proper allowance must be made for water color work of quicker drying, and therefore it will require considerable speed in conducting the marbling operations, giving the operator but little time to do his work in he cannot possibly produce as good work as he can in oil. only rather plain figured marbles should be attempted by the students in distemper work. the ground is usually put on all over alike in oil, and usually it is put on with white lead. while that is fresh, if a parti-colored ground is desired, a little of the proper color is worked over it and blended more or less to suit. . if the imitation is striated, veined or serpentine marble, while the ground is still wet the main body of color and veining should be put in and blended. the blending in marbling constitutes a most important part, as by means of it veins and lines are made to disappear as it were into the ground gradually, which gives it transparency, and it will look as if it came from the interior and gradually becoming stronger toned as it reached the surface. these effects are all produced by proper blending. if the imitation is a conglomerate marble the chunks should be put on with dabs of color suitable and of the right size, depending upon the blender to soften them into a gradual disappearance into the ground. . while the ground is still wet in veined or striated marble the deeper toned veins, or rather that portion of the veins which it is desired should appear as having reached the surface by a gradual ascent from below, should be touched with a little of the fresh color and left unblended. this is done with camel's hair pointed pencils or with the tip end of feathers for some of the finer lined ones. in the conglomerate imitation the chunks can be touched with fresh color left unblended at what is desired should show as their surface point, so that the chunks will show as if they were gradually sinking away from sight to the interior of the stone. [illustration: double panelled grained door] . it will be best after having formed all the character of the veining and having touched up the bright parts to let the work dry before attempting to put in the white veining and what may be called the "high lights," or the lightest parts of the colored veins or chunks in the conglomerates. if this was attempted upon the wet color and one should; undertake to finish the whole work at the one time, he will find that he cannot produce good white veins and that they mix up so much with the others as to become anything but _white_. where it is desired to produce the impression of white veins disappearing into the rest of the work, however, it will be well to put in some and to blend them in to produce that effect, while the first color is still wet and when it has dried to go over them at what is intended for their surface points with some fresh color, which will greatly enhance their transparent effect. now the light veins are put in without fear of their tones being destroyed by mingling with the wet ground colors, and all the finishing touches should be put in. defects, if any, can be corrected and when the work is dry it may or may not be varnished. . the directions given above will suffice to give the student the manner of producing any kind of marble or onyx desired. the spots usually seen in granites are produced by striking a brush upon a stick at some distance from the surface which it is intended should be covered, the size of the dots being governed by this distance, and also by the kind of brush used. a fine spraying with turpentine afterward will cause them to spread sufficiently to run together at the edges and to look more natural than if left without this operation. questions on lesson xxviii. . how should the grounds be put on in marbling? . how is the veining and blending done in marbling? . how is the veining made to appear as if coming up to the surface from the interior? . how are the finishing touches put on? . what is further said of marbles and how are granites imitated? lesson xxix. the various marbles. agate. . agate is a variegated stone, a conglomerate, and according as it is cut will sometimes show a number of veins usually circling around some center. the ground is white lead, and the various colors may be put in and blended over. this is followed up with touching certain parts with fresh color, which is left unblended to give a sharp edge. the colors vary very much in various specimens of agate, some being rather light and others very dark, so the student has a good range to choose from, from crimson lake, prussian blue and chrome yellow or ochre. brocatello. . the ground for brocatello is made from ochre and white lead, or it may be put on with white lead and ochre brushed into it, leaving it darker in patches than in others. then put on a thin glaze over it when dry made of raw and burnt sienna with enough whiting to make it rather transparent. when the color has set sprinkle it over with turpentine by striking a small brush over a stick it will cause it to spread the color and to show the yellow ground through. then shade the larger blotches with a light yellow ochre to show the angular fragments and give it depth. then vein with color made of vermillion and prussian blue, being careful not to put in the dark lines through the blotches. black and gold marble. . as the name indicates this marble's chief tone is black with blotches of yellow. it is a conglomerate marble. the ground should be put on with black paint and lightened up in parts by working in a little white in spots, as it should not be uniform in tone, but the lightest parts should be as dark as a dark slate. dab on the yellow spots where they belong and connect a few of them by veins, then blend to produce transparency; then touch up with some of the light color, which should not be blended. let dry and put on a very few high lights on some of the yellow and with ivory black used as a glaze correct any glaring mistakes by covering them over which will then appear as belonging to the under parts. dove marble. . this marble is one of the easiest to imitate on the whole list. it is a veined marble and chiefly a warm gray with white veining. the ground should be made from white lead, lamp black and warmed up with a little vermillion. put in the white veins and blend; after blending touch up parts of veins you will wish to show as coming to the surface, but do not blend. when dry emphasize such parts as desired with white. egyptian green marble. . this is a conglomerate marble which presents many varied forms according as it has been cut. under certain cuttings it presents a mass of crystalline matter of great beauty, and somewhat more difficult of execution than the more ordinary forms of it do. by a little practice, though, the student will find no great difficulty in representing it correctly. it is a marble which presents in any of its forms a beautiful appearance, and one which the operator is pretty sure to be called upon to reproduce, therefore he should spare no pains to study it well and to practice what he has learned in order to be ready for any emergency. the ground is an invisible green made of black with a trifle of yellow added. when dry put on a suitable green glaze, dabbing on here and there the black masses and put in the green network of veining with a feather, touching them up with a camel's hair pencil with the same color to give it character and transparency. it will be noticed that according as it is cut a mass of crystalline bodies seem to show through the semi-transparent stone, and this will test the skill of the marbler to reproduce naturally. questions on lesson xxix. . give a description of the marbling of agate? . how is brocatello marble imitated? . describe how black and gold marble is imitated? . give a description of how dove marble is done. . how is egyptian green marble imitated? lesson xxx. description of the various marbles--continued. italian pink marble and scarlet marble. . really this marble and the italian scarlet marble are only variations of sienna marble, and as the variation consists altogether in the coloring of the marble and not at all in its veining and other forms, there will be no need of telling "how" it should be done, as that is related under the heading of sienna marble in the following paragraph. for color venetian red lightened up to a pink with white lead is used instead of that described, and in the scarlet variety vermillion toned down with venetian red. sienna marble. . this marble is more extensively imitated than any of the others, with the exception of white marble black veined, and there is no wonder that it is so with its wealth of forms. no matter what one may fancy or do it is pretty sure to look like some specimen of it has done before if the same character is kept up to the end. it is true some forms are more pleasant than are others, and that is true really in all marbles, so that the student should not spend much time in trying to do something which is considered an inferiority in the sienna marble itself. the most pleasing forms are clumps of darker color overrun with veinings and intervals of lighter tone also veined, but usually with much lighter toned veins than the set occupying the darker clumps. but some of the light as well as the darker ones usually trespass some upon each other's ground, and in some specimens clumps of very fine dots extend over some of the light areas instead of veins. the ground should be put in with white and the larger clumps put in with raw sienna and blended. then some of the intervals may be connected with lighter toned and smaller clumps, also made with the raw sienna upon the still wet ground. proceed afterward to put in darker broad veins with the artist's bristle brushes and blending them. after the blending, put in the white veining, which, of course, will mix with the still wet ground, but that will give it the transparent effect if when the work has dried they are touched up here and there with flake white to give them their character. the darker veinings should also be touched up in order to emphasize them and make them look transparent. variations galore will suggest themselves to the student who has made a study of these marbles from natural specimens. florence marble. . the ground for this marble is a neutral tone of red made with white lead and indian red. the veining should be put in with burnt umber and a second set with burnt sienna, a few of each running in every direction without any regularity. this veining must be done while the ground is still wet in order that the ends may blend in with it and seem to disappear into it. sometimes the veining runs out of clumps and seems to break forth, leaving some parts nearly free of veinings, and then suddenly to spring up into a network as intricate as seen upon a nutmeg melon. tennessee marble. . this is an american marble. it is usually of a mauve or bluish violet tone, and of a medium between dark and light, some specimens being rather dark. as it is plentiful and cheap much of it does not show up at its best, but there are some specimens which are very beautifully marked. as all other marbles, it has an infinity of showings. its general character is an all-over veining. some specimens, however, showing a few patches of plain white of considerable extent, and in all the better ones some large thick white veins with a number of smaller ones running in a wild way radiating from them, but with a distinct tendency to run in the same direction as the large white veins spoken of. then there is another set of smaller veining of the same tone as the ground, but much deeper scattered nearly all over it. the ground should be put on with white paint and color made from indian red deepened with prussian blue, dabbed on nearly all over it and blended into the white, leaving a few patches of white and the larger fissure veins where desired, although these can be put on after the ground has become dry. much of the smaller veining should be put on before the ground is dry in order to mix with it and give the transparent effect so much desired. afterward the stronger high light effects in the large white veins and in some of the parts of the smaller ones should be touched up with flake white, and the darker veins should be touched up here and there also with the darkest color. questions on lesson xxx. . describe how italian pink and italian scarlet marbles are imitated? . how is sienna marble imitated? . how is florentine marble reproduced? . what is said concerning the imitation of tennessee marble? lesson xxxi. description of various marbles, granites and porphyries--continued. serpentine marble. . this marble is probably but a variation of the verd antique, which it closely resembles in all its colorings. it contains more veinings than the other, although it, too, shows up clumps of conglomerate very much the same in formation; as a full description of verd antique is given in the subsequent paragraph, the student can vary from the directions given in so far as to introduce the veinings mentioned which the other has but few of. verd antique. . verd antique marble is really a modified egyptian, being somewhat more blotchy than its cousin the egyptian green marble. the ground should be made from prussian blue and yellow ochre to make a brownish green, then dab some of each of the separate colors blue and yellow where the blotches are desired; then connect them by veinings and blend, touching up afterwards with fresh color parts which should show prominently, but be careful not to overdo this, as but little of the full tone of the yellow should show or it will make it look unnatural. white veined marble. black veined white marble. . these two marbles are bracketed together, as with the exception of the ground color and the reversing of the color used in the veining they are so much alike that the same description will do for each of them. they are veined marbles, and many specimens show fissures which for the sake of naturalness and variety may be imitated but very sparingly, as really it is a defect. the ground for these marbles should be white lead; for the white veined proceed to dab on patches of black with a small tool and blend the black with the white all over, but have the ground darker in parts than in others, varying from a gray to nearly true black, but of the latter sparingly. a few white blotches and main white coarse veins are left, and the white veins are put in with flake white, which will blend into the ground and serve to give the proper transparency. when dry the pure white veins must be touched in order to bring them out. for the black-veined variety the white lead ground is gone over here and there, but not too much of it, with a touch of black which must be vigorously worked into the white to produce a few blotches of light, faint gray not prominent at all. the veining is gray of a trifle darker tone, which is called black by courtesy and as a contrast to the white of the ground. . the above comprise about all the leading varieties of marbles. there are many other varieties, chiefly of those described, and differing from them chiefly in their coloring, their imitation being the same excepting that. onyxes. . onyxes differ from those stones which are known as marbles chiefly in that they are more transparent. the clumps or blotches of variously colored component parts of the conglomerate are much more diversified than can usually be seen in marbles and according to the angle at which they are cut present an endless variation. sometimes whole slabs show the conglomeration cut across; again in others considerable blank space is found in close proximity and again serpentine waves of veins looking very transparent run around the clumps, etc. nothing but a close study of the natural stone can give one a perfect idea of their vagaries of form. the general directions given in paragraphs to cover all that could be said here as to the manner of imitating them and the student who has carefully followed the descriptions which are specially given under each marble will find no great difficulty in imitating the variously colored onyxes. granites, porphyries and jaspers. . all the above are closely related and may be bracketed together in describing their imitation. according to their predominating colors they are known as red, gray, white, etc., and have usually the name of the countries from which they come given them in addition. the ground color should consist of the leading or predominating color, and the rest of the spots are put in by sprinkling or striking the brush against a stick. when the colors have commenced to set, but before they have dried and while still partly wet, turpentine should be sparingly sprinkled upon the work, which will cause the spots to spread and run into each other, but it must not be overdone or a mess will be the result. a little fine flaked mica may be sprinkled upon the work after it is finished, also before drying has been completed; this will give more naturalness to the granite imitations; the porphyry and jasper do not need it. questions on lesson xxxi. . describe the character of serpentine marble? . how is verd antique marble imitated? . how are white-veined black marble and black-veined white marble imitated? . what is said of other varieties of marbles? . how are onyxes imitated? . what is said regarding the imitation of granites, porphyries and jaspers? finis. index agate marbling--how done applying the rubbing in colors in graining ash graining--general remarks on ash graining--how grounds are made for ash graining--how grained in distemper ash graining--how grained in oil ash graining--how overgrained ash graining--hungarian--how grained badger haired blenders--their uses bird's-eye maple--how grained black and gold marble--how imitated black veined white marble--how imitated blending distemper graining brocatello marble--how imitated brushes used for laying grounds brushes used rubbing-in color burled growth of woods burled walnut--how to grain burled walnut--how to overgrain camel's hair pencils used in graining and marbling champs--how wiped in quartered oak graining check rollers--how to use chestnut graining--general remarks on chestnut graining--how to grain it cherry graining--how to prepare grounds for cherry graining--how to grain it colored crayons--used in fine veinings colors used in preparing grounds in graining colors used in graining in distemper colors used in graining in oil combination oil and distemper work in oak graining curled maple--how grained davis rubber rollers used in graining description of material used in graining dove marble--how imitated egyptian green marble--how done fan overgrainers--their uses flakes--how wiped in quartered oak graining florence marble--how imitated general remarks on ash graining general remarks on bird's-eye maple graining general remarks on chestnut graining general remarks on cherry graining general remarks on burled walnut graining general remarks on graining operations general remarks on preparing grounds general remarks on preparing megilps general remarks on preparing graining grounds general remarks on preparing graining colors general remarks on mahogany imitation general remarks on maple (plain) imitation general remarks on marbles, imitation general remarks on oak graining general remarks on quartered oak graining general remarks on rosewood graining general remarks on satinwood graining general remarks on sycamore graining general remarks on making tints general remarks on tools used in graining glycerine--to retard drying of distemper colors graining colors for oak granites--how imitated how to do the combing in distemper how to do the combing in oil how to blend distemper work how to do the wiping with rags how to grain ash how to grain ash (hungarian) how to grain bird's-eye maple how to grain curled maple how to grain cherry how to grain chestnut how to grain mahogany how to grain maple (plain) how to grain rosewood how to grain walnut how to grain walnut (curled) how to grain satinwood how to grain sycamore how to marble egyptian green marble how to marble florentine marble how to marble italian pink marble how to marble italian scarlet marble how to marble sienna marble how to marble serpentine marble how to marble tennessee marble how to marble verd antique marble how to marble white veined and black veined marbles how to imitate onyxes how to imitate granites how to imitate jaspers how to imitate porphyries how to use the davis graining rollers how to use the ridgely graining tools how to use the colored crayons how to use the wax in finishing italian pink marble--how imitated italian scarlet marble--how imitated jasper--how imitated mahogany--how to prepare ground for mahogany--how to grain mahogany--how to make the featherings maple, plain--how to prepare the ground maple, plain--how to grain maple, bird's-eye--how to grain maple, bird's-eye--how to put in the eyes marbling--general remarks on marbling--imitation of agate marbling--imitation of black and gold marble marbling--imitation of brocatello marble marbling--imitation of dove marble marbling--imitation of egyptian green marble marbling--imitation of florence marble marbling--imitation of italian pink marble marbling--imitation of italian scarlet marble marbling--imitation of serpentine marble marbling--imitation of tennessee marble marbling--imitation of verd antique marble marbling--imitation of white and black veined marble marbling--imitation of onyxes marbling--imitation of granites marbling--imitation of porphyries marbling--imitation of jaspers material used in graining mottlers--their uses mottling--how done in distemper oak graining--general remarks on oak graining--how to grain oak graining--how overgrained onyxes--how to imitate old varnished work--how to treat it for graining old woodwork--how to treat for graining overgraining--the use made of it overgraining--how to use the four overgrainers pencilling the veining in distemper pencilling the veining--how done porphyries--how imitated practice boards--to study graining upon quarter-sawed oak--general remarks on quarter-sawed oak--grained in distemper quarter-sawed oak--how the dark flakes are put on quarter-sawed oak--how the checkroller is used quarter-sawed oak--how overgrained quarter-sawed oak--how wiped out quarter-sawed oak--how finished rags--their use in graining ridgely rubber graining tools rosewood graining--general remarks on rosewood graining--how to make the grounds rosewood graining--how to grain it rosewood graining--how to overgrain it rubber graining rollers (davis) rubber graining combs rubbing in color in oil in graining rubbing in color--how applied satinwood--how grained serpentine marble--how imitated sienna marble--how imitated stippler--its use in graining stippling--for walnut--how done stippling--general rules for - sponges--their use in distemper steel graining combs varnish brushes used in graining varnishing--how it should be done - verd antique marble--how imitated walnut graining--general remarks on walnut graining--grounds for walnut graining--how to stipple for walnut graining--how grained in oil and distemper walnut graining--how overgrained wax used in preparing megilp wax polish--how applied whiting--its uses in preparing megilps white veined marble--how imitated wiping out--what it means wiping out--how done woods--how classed * * * * * typographical errors corrected by the etext transcriber: bevelled to a sharpe edge=> bevelled to a sharp edge {pg } are two short for use=> are too short for use {pg } no dofficulty=> no difficulty {pg } is a synonim=> is a synonym {pg } most fastiduous=> most fastidious {pg } has sufficied to confine=> has sufficed to confine {pg } prefering a plain wall=> preferring a plain wall {pg } should be attemped=> should be attempted {pg } general remarks on preparing meglips.... => general remarks on preparing megilps.... {pg iv} marbling--imitation of brocatella marble.... => marbling--imitation of brocatello marble.... {pg vi} transcriber's note: text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). [sqrt] represents the square root symbol. carpentry and woodwork * * * * * * the children's library of work and play carpentry and woodwork by edwin w. foster electricity and its everyday uses by john f. woodhull, ph.d. gardening and farming by ellen eddy shaw home decoration by charles franklin warner, sc.d. housekeeping by elizabeth hale gilman mechanics, indoors and out by fred t. hodgson needlecraft by effie archer archer outdoor sports, and games by claude h. miller, ph.b. outdoor work by mary rogers miller working in metals by charles conrad sleffel * * * * * * [illustration: photograph by helen w. cooke. the shop--the most interesting place in the world on a stormy day] the library of work and play carpentry and woodwork by edwin w. foster [illustration] garden city new york doubleday, page & company all rights reserved, including that of translation into foreign languages, including the scandinavian copyright, , by doubleday, page & company preface there is a period in a boy's life, roughly speaking between the ages of ten and sixteen, when his interests and energy turn in the direction of making things. it may be called the creative period, and with many of us it ends nearer sixty than sixteen. at one time it will take the form of a mania for building boats; again it may be automobiles or aeroplanes. the boy is very susceptible to suggestion. a great automobile race occurs, and for weeks the building and racing of toy automobiles goes on apace. the papers are filled with accounts of an aero meet. immediately the boy's energy turns to the study and manufacture of aeroplanes. this abounding interest in the real things of life is perfectly normal and should be encouraged rather than discouraged; but the boy needs guidance, if this energy is to be properly directed. he needs strengthening in his weak points, otherwise he may become superficial and "scattering" in his work, and fail to stick to a thing until, overcoming all obstacles, he succeeds in doing the one thing he set out to do. he may acquire the bad habit of never finishing anything, though continually starting new schemes. the ability of the average boy is far beyond the general estimate, but intelligent supervision is needed. the pocket knife is his natural tool, yet not one boy out of a thousand realizes its possibilities. an attempt has been made in this volume to suggest some of these, especially for boys living in the city, where a little work shop for himself, unfortunately, is too often a luxury. the two boys here depicted form a composite picture of several thousand american boys whom it has been the pleasure of the author to guide. the ability to design new things, and to adapt general rules to personal requirements, is to be encouraged at all times, and this idea has been exemplified in the following pages. contents chapter page i. introductory ii. the knife and its possibilities--first experiments iii. mechanical drawing iv. mechanical drawing (continued) v. toys vi. moving toys vii. designing moving toys viii. the model aeroplane ix. the monoplane x. kites xi. chip carving and knife work xii. chip carving (continued) xiii. chip carving (continued) xiv. the shop xv. the equipment for a shop xvi. building a lumber rack xvii. mills and weather vanes xviii. tools--saws xix. tools--planes xx. squaring up stock xxi. boring tools xxii. miscellaneous tools xxiii. making nail boxes xxiv. bird houses xxv. simple articles for household use xxvi. the mitre box and picture frame xxvii. making toilet boxes xxviii. brackets and book racks xxix. construction xxx. the use of the gouge xxxi. coat hanger and towel rollers xxxii. clock cases xxxiii. foot stools xxxiv. the tabourette xxxv. the dovetail joint xxxvi. inlaying xxxvii. the checkerboard xxxviii. tool cases and chests xxxix. book cases and magazine racks xl. the medicine cabinet xli. mission furniture xlii. the chest xliii. the drawing outfit xliv. woodwork for outdoor sports--the tennis court, tennis court accessories xlv. the pergola xlvi. poultry houses xlvii. housing of outdoor pets xlviii. outdoor carpentry xlix. staining, polishing, and finishing l. durability: decay and preservation of wood li. mathematics of woodwork lii. lumber no. liii. lumber no. liv. lumber no. lv. lumber no. lvi. broad-leaved trees lvii. trees with simple leaves illustrations the shop--the most interesting place in the world on a stormy day _frontispiece_ facing page the boy and his jack knife using the veining tool using the jack plane learning to use the crosscut saw tools of the seventeenth century the correct way to hold the chisel assembling and finishing staining and polishing carpentry and woodwork i introductory two boys sat on a log whittling. conversation had ceased and they both seemed absorbed in their work. presently the younger one became aware of the silence and glanced at the older boy. he gave an exclamation and jumped to his feet. "why," he cried, "you are making a knife out of wood. isn't it a beauty! is it a dagger?" "no" replied the other, "it is a paper-knife for opening letters and cutting the pages of magazines. it is for father's desk, for his birthday." "it's a dandy!" continued the youngster. "how can you make such fine things? why can't i do that kind of work?" "you can do it," replied ralph, "but just now there are several reasons why you don't." "what are they?" "well, in the first place you start to whittle without having any clear idea of what you are at work on. it's for all the world like setting out to walk without knowing where you are going. if you start that way, the probabilities are that you will get nowhere, and when you get back and father asks where you have been, you say, 'oh, nowhere; just took a walk.' that's the way with your knife work. you just whittle and make a lot of chips, and when you get through you have nothing to show for your time and labour. if you want to know a secret--i never start to cut without first making a careful sketch of just what i want to make, with all the important dimensions on it. "another reason you don't get any results is that you don't know how to hold your knife, and still another is that you work with a dull tool. why, that knife of yours is hardly sharp enough to cut butter." "will you show me how to do that kind of work?" asked the youngster humbly. "yes; on certain conditions." "what are they?" "that you will do just as i tell you." "will you show me how to make a paper-cutter now?" "there you go, right off the handle! you are like a young man learning carpentry; you want to start right in to build a house instead of first learning how to use your tools. why, it has taken me two years in the manual training school to learn how to do this work. no, indeed, if you want to learn how to do woodwork like this you must begin on something simple, learn how to handle wood, and how to keep your tools sharp." "all right," sighed the younger boy; "i am willing to take lessons and begin at the beginning. what shall we do first?" "the first thing to do is to throw away your folding penknife. that kind is of very little use. the steel is so poor it won't hold a cutting edge for any time at all, and the knife has a treacherous habit of closing up on your fingers. i will give you a good swedish whittling knife like mine, and we will start by putting a good cutting edge on it." so the boys began the first lesson. the fun they had and the things they made, their many experiences, the patience required, and the great skill developed with tools are described in the following pages. what they accomplished, any other boy may do if he will but apply himself with all his energy. ii first experiments--the knife and its possibilities the older boy, after a search through his treasure chest, selected a knife with a blade about two and a half inches long. incidentally, the smaller boy caught a glimpse of the inside of that chest and it made his eyes bulge--but that is another story. [illustration: fig. . the whittling knife] "this knife," explained ralph, "is one i used for over a year in school and it's the most perfectly shaped tool for whittling that i have ever seen. of course knives come in hundreds of shapes for different purposes, and later on, when you have become skilled in using this one, we will try some others, but our first motto must be 'one thing at a time.' a knife with either blade or handle too long or too short is awkward, but this one seems to fit my hand, and undoubtedly will fit yours. try it." harry took it and went through the motions of whittling an imaginary stick. "now," said ralph, "we will go out to the wood pile and see what we can find. white pine makes the best wood to start on, because it is usually straight grained, soft, and free from sap; but it is getting scarce and expensive, so we must be economical, as it is a very easy matter to waste lots of lumber." after some searching, they found part of a pine board, about a foot long and an inch thick. ralph chopped out a piece with a hatchet and deftly split it to about an inch and a half wide. his skill was a revelation to harry, who saw that even a hatchet could be used with precision. "now," said ralph, "i want you to cut this piece of rough pine to a smooth, straight piece, just an inch square." "oh, that's easy," replied harry eagerly. "just watch me." "take care," said ralph. "i said an inch square; anything less than an inch will be wrong. just imagine that this is a problem in arithmetic and you are trying to find the answer. if you succeed in making it just an inch square the answer will be correct; anything larger or smaller than the exact size will be wrong. in the first place, hold your knife so that it makes a slant or oblique angle with the wood, like this (fig. )," he said, taking the wood in his left hand and the knife in his right. "that gives what we call a paring action, and is much easier (fig. ) than the stiff way you were holding it, at right angles with the stick." [illustration: fig. . correct way to hold the knife] [illustration: fig. . incorrect method of holding knife] [illustration: photograph by helen w. cooke. the boy and his jack knife] "now remember that the trouble with beginners is that they usually take off too much material. make light, easy cuts and try to get one side of the wood perfectly straight first." [illustration: fig. . testing with the try square] this was a harder job than harry had expected, but after much testing and sighting (fig. ) ralph said it would do for the first attempt. "now," he said, "you may consider this first side the foundation of your house. make a pencil mark on it near one of the edges, what the woodworker would call his witness mark. it means that this side or face is finished and the edge nearest the pencil mark is to be trued up next." this proved even a harder job than the first, because after whittling and testing until he had the second side straight and true, ralph tested it with a square and found that the second edge was not at right angles with the first, or working face. it was finally straightened, however, to stand the try square test fairly well. an inch was next marked off at each end on face number one, and a sharp pencil line drawn from end to end. harry then whittled this third side down to the line, and tested again with the try square. it seemed easier to do now, and the thickness was obtained in the same way. it looked as if they never would get that piece of pine exactly square, and even when ralph said it would do, they measured it with a rule and found it an eighth of an inch too small each way. harry was disgusted. "the answer is wrong after all," he exclaimed, "but i'll learn to do that if it takes me a month." "that's the right sporting spirit," said ralph. "keep at it till you get it. it's the hardest thing you will ever have to do with a knife, and it's unfortunate that you have to tackle it the first thing; but it's like learning to play the piano, you must learn the notes and scales and how to use your fingers before you can play a real piece. every time you try this, you are gaining skill and the control of your hands. after a while you will be able to do it easily and think nothing of it." several days later harry brought in a piece that he had been working on and ralph tested it carefully with rule and try square. he gave harry a pat on the back. "good for you, boy; you are coming along splendidly," he said. "how many of these have you tried?" "twenty," said harry meekly. [illustration: fig. . the notched trophy stick] "well, now, i'll show you how the indians used to record their exploits. we'll put a notch on this stick for every one you've tried to make, and you can keep it as a souvenir of your first attempts at whittling." so with great care they measured off six two-inch spaces on each edge, carefully drew notches with a pencil and rule, and as carefully cut each notch to the line. (fig. .) harry was delighted with the result. they then hunted up a small screw eye, found the exact centre of the end of the stick by drawing two diagonals, fastened the screw eye in the centre and tied to it a piece of red, white and blue ribbon. a quarter-inch bevel was made around each end as a finishing touch. this piece of white pine, with its twenty notches, hangs to-day in harry's room, and every once in awhile he counts the notches to make sure they are all there, and recalls the trial that each one represents. harry was so much pleased with his notched trophy stick that he wanted to begin something else at once, and he was immediately started on a key rack. "too many homes," said ralph, sagely, "have no definite place to keep keys. those that have no tags are always a nuisance. every key or bunch of keys should have a tag attached and should be hung on a certain hook where it can be found without searching. now we'll make a sketch of a key rack before doing anything else, to find out just how large a piece of stick we shall need." the drawing they produced is shown in fig. and called for a piece of wood seven inches long, an inch wide, and half an inch thick. as the key rack was to be a permanent household article, they decided on gum wood as more suitable than pine, it being easy to work and having a satisfactory appearance. [illustration: fig. . the various steps in making a key rack] the different stages in the process of cutting out are shown in fig. . at _a_ is shown the stock squared up with the knife to the extreme outside dimensions. the ends were then whittled down to the form shown at _b_ and the blank piece was ready for notching. the notches were carefully drawn with a sharp hard pencil and cut as shown at _c_. the ends were bevelled by whittling to the lines, and the inner edges of the notches in the centre were whittled back to the middle of each edge. then the knife work was finished. three brass screw hooks were placed in the centre of the large blank spaces, and two small screw eyes fastened into the upper edge for hanging the key rack on the wall. each stage of the work had been worked out so carefully that the boys hardly realized what a satisfactory result they were getting. when it was finally hung in the boys' room, of course some keys must be put on it, and as they had no tags, the making of some followed as a matter of course. a search through their small stock of woods disclosed a few little pieces of holly, the remains of fret saw work, about an eighth of an inch thick. this proved to be ideal material, and half a dozen key tags were made of the size and shape shown in fig. . the holes were made with a brad awl, the tags fastened to the rings by small pieces of wire, and the names of the keys printed on the different tags with black drawing ink. [illustration: fig. . the key tag] the boys, from this time on, seemed possessed with a mania for making articles to be used about the house. one thing to be manufactured without delay was a winder for their fishing lines. the form they finally decided on is shown in fig. . ralph insisted on the design being carefully drawn on a piece of thin wood, a quarter of an inch thick. harry found whittling to curved lines somewhat harder than notching, but he produced a fairly satisfactory result. ralph was a very exacting teacher, always having in mind his own training in school. he showed harry how to cut out the curves at the ends without cutting his thumb (fig. .) and gave him much advice about whittling away from himself, whenever possible. [illustration: fig. . fish line winder] when the knife work was finished, ralph explained that where curved edges were cut it was allowable to smooth with a piece of fine sand-paper, although as a rule it was to be avoided. [illustration: fig. . cutting concave curves] harry wanted to know why, and ralph explained that, generally speaking, sand-paper was the hallmark of a poor workman, one who could not do good work with his tools. sand-paper leaves a scratched surface, for the grit becomes embedded in the wood to a certain extent, and it will immediately ruin the cutting edge of a sharp tool in case one has to be used after the sand-papering. "so," he summed up, "keep your sand-paper and knife as far apart as possible." about this time the ladies of the household thought that a winder for worsted would come in very handy, and the boys evolved a new form, shown in fig. . this was made only an eighth of an inch thick, and proved so easy of construction that each of the boys made two and "allowed" that "they ought to satisfy the sewing department for some time to come." [illustration: fig. . the worsted winder] "do you know," exclaimed harry one day, "we could make lots of things for christmas and birthday presents!" "why, certainly," said ralph, "and people appreciate things that you have made yourself much more than things you buy. anybody can go to the store and buy ready-made presents, but those you make yourself mean more." "in what way?" said harry. "why, they represent much more of your time and labour, and thought; and, by the way, if we are going to make many christmas presents, we must start right away, because we only have a few weeks and you know how little time we have outside of school hours after getting our lessons." the result of this talk was that the little building in the yard which they called their "shop" became a perfect beehive of industry for several weeks. with what money they had saved they purchased a supply of lumber and a few tools the use of which ralph said he would explain later. he suggested that harry begin by making some calendar backs, as suitable new year's presents, because they were easy; and the more complicated articles could be made after harry had developed a little more skill with the knife. [illustration: fig. . first calendar back] the drawing he made is shown in fig. . this called for a small calendar about two inches long, an inch and three quarters high, and a space this size was drawn on the centre of the calendar back, while the calendar was glued to the wood. [illustration: fig. . second calendar back] after two or three of these had been made, harry decided that they were too small to suit him, and a new design somewhat larger was worked out on paper. it was a little more difficult to follow, because the outline had two reversed curves, but the boys were too busy and interested to be daunted by a trifle like that. (fig. .) ralph suggested simple picture frames, and this brought the new problem of cutting out an opening for the picture. the first design they tried is shown in fig. . ralph had to show harry how to make the ellipse with compasses by first constructing two squares or rectangles touching, and with both diagonal lines in each square. by taking for a centre the point where the squares touch, as _a_ and _b_, and using the length of a diagonal line as a radius, two arcs were drawn at _x_ and _y_. the ellipse was finished by taking _c_ as a centre, and the distance _c d_ as a radius, to draw arc _z_, and the other end was finished in the same way. [illustration: fig. . picture frame with elliptical opening] ralph explained that this was not a perfect ellipse, but would answer for a small picture frame. the drawing was easy compared to the question of how to cut out the wood to this curved line. [illustration: fig. . using the coping saw] one of the new tools was brought out, and harry was introduced to the mysteries of the coping saw. (fig. ). a thin saw blade was produced and fastened in one end of the frame, the other end being left free. a hole was made inside of the ellipse with a brad awl, the free end of the blade passed through the opening and fastened in the frame of the saw. resting the picture frame on the edge of a bench, the ellipse was sawed out roughly about / of an inch inside of the drawing. this remaining sixteenth of an inch was then whittled to the line with a knife and finished with sand-paper. harry found some difficulty in getting this elliptical opening smooth enough to suit him, so they tried designing for half an hour, and produced a new form (fig. ). [illustration: fig. . picture frame in straight lines] this was easier, as there were no curved lines, and it could be sawed close to the outside as well as the inside lines, to save time in whittling. while harry was finishing this frame, ralph was busy on a new design and finally passed over the drawing shown in fig. . "do you know there is as much fun in getting up new designs as there is in making them in wood?" said ralph. "yes, but you have to know how to draw," replied the younger boy. "can't you teach me?" "yes. i first make a rough sketch of my idea, and then a careful drawing of its actual size, with the drawing instruments." [illustration: fig. . third picture frame] "that's the part that i want to learn: how to use the instruments." a lesson in mechanical drawing followed, and as it is a very important subject to young woodworkers, it will be given in full in the next chapter. iii mechanical drawing "in taking up mechanical drawing," said ralph, "always remember that accurate and neat work, containing all necessary dimensions, is half the battle. you will probably feel, as i did at first, that it is a waste of time, but you can always consider that when your drawing is finished the work is half done. you can judge from it the number of pieces of stock required, and their over-all dimensions this saves much time at the wood pile, and tells at a glance to just what size you must square up each piece of stock. [illustration: fig. . the outfit for mechanical drawing] "the drawing board is an absolute necessity. it need not be perfectly square, but the surface must be flat and true, and at least one of the edges absolutely straight. (fig. .) the t square must have a thin blade--about / of an inch, and be made of hard wood. it should form a right angle with the head, which slides along the left-hand edge of the drawing board, and that must be the straight edge. "the t square is used as a guide for the pencil in drawing horizontal lines, and it should always be kept on the same side of the drawing board. when drawing a vertical line, one of the wooden triangles should be placed on the t square and the line drawn along the left-hand edge of the triangle. circles or arcs of circles are drawn with the compasses held at the extreme top." with this introduction, the boys proceeded to fasten with four thumb-tacks a piece of drawing paper to the upper part of the drawing board. "why don't you put the paper in the centre?" asked harry. "because, if one worked on the lower part of the drawing board, the t square head would extend below the edge of the board, and touch the table. you would have to watch it constantly. the head of the t square should always be tight against the board, for when you slide it too far down, it sometimes strikes the table without your knowing it, and you find your horizontal lines are _not_ horizontal; so i always like to have the drawing paper as high up on the board as possible." [illustration: fig. . blocking out the crosses of st. andrew and st. george] the boys agreed that while the younger was learning to make drawings, each one should represent something to be made later in wood. drawing number one was a square, inches on a side. ralph showed how this was made with only two measurements. drawing one horizontal and one vertical line, inches were marked off on each, the other two lines drawn through these new points, and the square was finished. ralph insisted that all lines be very light, as they could be darkened up later, if necessary, and were easy to erase in case of a mistake. (fig. .) harry was then told to divide the upper and left-hand sides into even inches, and to draw across the square vertical and horizontal lines from the four points obtained. thus the large square was subdivided into nine -inch squares, and by darkening the lines shown in the figure at _a_ the cross of st. george was produced. another -inch square was drawn, and marked off, as shown at _b_. the points were connected by oblique lines by means of the -degree triangle, and by darkening the lines shown at _c_ the cross of st. andrew was formed. after explaining that the british flag was a combination of these two figures ralph said, "while we are drawing crosses, we may as well make a maltese one." starting with a -inch square again, it was measured off as shown in fig. . the lines were connected and darkened, as shown at _b_. "now," said ralph, "you can cut that out of wood, tie a ribbon on it and wear it as a medal." "huh," grunted harry. "pretty big medal--three inches across!" "well, make it any size, an inch or even less." "that's not a bad idea. i'll make it out of white holly, and put a red, white, and blue bow on it." "and print on it 'american order of junior woodworkers'." "not a bad idea either; we can find lots of boys who would be glad to join and come here saturdays to work in the shop." "there would be no trouble to get candidates; the trouble would be to take care of them. they would fill the yard and overflow into the street," said ralph. "but why couldn't we----" "come now, let's do one thing at a time; you are supposed to be learning mechanical drawing. we'll leave the organization of the a. o. j. w. till another time. i'm going to show you how to use the compasses." [illustration: fig. . the maltese cross] while they were drawing the circle, quarterfoil, heart, and oval, shown in fig. , ralph reviewed his pupil on the meaning of diameter, radius, circumference, etc. "if you want to cut hearts out of paper or wood, i would advise you to wait until st. valentine's day, and reserve the oval or egg until easter. "the circle is a wonderful figure. by marking the radius off on the circumference, with the compasses, we find that the former divides the latter into exactly six equal parts, and by connecting the points, we have a perfect hexagon. by connecting the alternate points we obtain a perfect equilateral triangle, and by connecting the remaining points we get another triangle of the same size. the two triangles form a six-pointed star. (fig. .) [illustration: fig. ] "now," said ralph, "i am going to give you a problem by dictation; all you have to do is to obey orders. first draw a circle - / inches in diameter." "what's the radius?" asked harry. "that's for you to find out." harry thought a moment, divided three and a half by two, and setting his compasses at - / , drew the circle. "now divide the circumference into three equal parts." [illustration: fig. . triangle, hexagon and star] the boy puzzled over this for a moment, then marked off the radius, cutting the circumference into six parts, as if for a hexagon, and erased every other point, leaving three. "draw radial lines from these points to the centre." "easy," remarked harry, and drew a line from each point to the centre with the edge of one of his triangles. "find the centre of each of those lines." "easy again," said the boy, as he set his compasses at / of an inch, and from the centre of the circle cut each of the straight lines with an arc. (fig. .) "draw a semicircle from each of these points with a radius of / of an inch." "easier still," quoth harry, as he drew the semicircles. the drawing then looked like _a_ (fig. ). [illustration: fig. . pulley design] "now," said the teacher, "let me show you something." he made a few strokes with the compasses, and the drawing as shown at _b_ was finished. "that is enough for to-day. the compasses are about the easiest of all instruments to use, provided you keep in mind that the pencil point needs to be sharpened to a chisel, or flat shape, the same as any other drawing pencil. the number of designs which may be made with it are simply endless, as you will learn later on." iv mechanical drawing: continued the next day, as they were about to resume their study, ralph said: "there is so much to drawing that i hardly know where to begin, or what to leave out; but in shop drawing, a picture will not do; imagine an architect trying to build a skyscraper from a picture. the shop drawing must tell the mechanic everything he needs to know about the object he is making. he cannot keep running to the office asking questions; the drawing must answer them all. that is the reason why the draughting-room is such an important part of every manufacturing plant. drawing is the language the designer uses to tell the workmen what he wants made. it is doubly important when the designer is hundreds or thousands of miles away from the workman. "a battle-ship can be designed in australia and built in england, so this language of the shop has grown to be a very interesting and important art. every one who works with tools must learn it sooner or later, the sooner the better. "usually it is necessary to represent even the simplest object by at least two views. for example, suppose i hand you this sketch _a_ (fig. ), and tell you to make two out of wood. you wouldn't know what to do because no thickness is shown, but if i give you this sketch _b_, you would see immediately that it has practically no thickness and might be a sheet of paper. you learn that from the top view looking down on it. [illustration: fig. . front and top views] [illustration: fig. . showing necessity for top view] "the first view is called the front view. now, suppose i change the top view to this _c_; thickness is shown here, and if i say, make two of these out of white pine, you would know all that would be necessary to go ahead. "again, suppose i give you this sketch _a_ (fig. ), and ask you to make two out of gum wood. you would be completely at sea, because that front view might have any one of these top views shown at _b_, _c_, _d_, _e_ (fig. ). in other words, it might be a triangle without thickness, a wedge, cone, or pyramid. "so you see, two views are absolutely necessary, and very often a third, taken from the right or left side. the three views of a book would look like fig. . the side view is not necessary in this case, but that is the way it would be drawn if a third were needed. you will have plenty of opportunities for practising this as we get along with our tool work, because in order to understand drawings you must be able to make them. suppose you try your hand now, by drawing the two views of a cylinder, two inches in diameter and three inches high." [illustration: fig. . three views of a book] ralph rolled a sheet of paper up until the ends met, to illustrate a cylinder, and the drawing produced by harry looked like _a_. (fig. .) [illustration: fig. . mechanical drawings of cylinder and cone] "now," said ralph, "no shop drawing is complete unless it shows all the necessary dimensions; so i will put them on to show you how it is done, but after this you must dimension every drawing you make." the finished drawing of the cylinder is shown at _b_. harry was told to make the mechanical drawing of a cone, inches in diameter, and inches high. while he was working at this problem, ralph disappeared, and when he returned harry asked where he had been. [illustration: fig. . making a tip cat] "never mind. let me see your drawing," _c_ (fig. ). "all right." then he laid a little wooden object on the table. "why, it's a cat," said harry. "yes, a tip cat, and as soon as you make a working drawing of it, you are going to manufacture one with your knife. please notice that the tip cat is a cylinder with a cone at each end, and two views will show everything about it." the drawing took longer to make than harry imagined it would; or it seemed longer because he was so impatient to get to work with his knife. his finished drawing is shown at _a_ (fig. ). the different stages in the making of the tip cat are shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. . second tip cat] first came the squaring up, shown at _a_. then the two ends were whittled down to wedges as shown at _b_, and these two ends reduced to square pyramids, as at _c_. lines a quarter of an inch from each edge were drawn on the four sides of the square part and continued out to the points of the pyramids, as at _d_. cutting to this line changed the square to an octagon, and the square pyramids to octagonal ones. the edges were again whittled off until there were no more to be seen; the cat was smoothed with sand-paper, and called finished. harry was delighted, but ralph said: "that is not the best form for a tip cat, because it will roll. we will make a bat for it now, and after we have played with it awhile, we'll make a better one; just the same except that the centre part will be left square and only the ends rounded." (fig. , _b_.) the bat they made is shown in fig. . its handle was cut out with the coping saw and whittled to the lines. ralph explained that anything to be held should be rounded, or it would be hard on the hand, so all the edges were curved with the knife and finished with sand-paper. [illustration: fig. . bat for tip cat] they had so much fun with the cat and bat that woodwork was forgotten for two afternoons. the third day it rained, so the boys were glad to get at work again in the shop. ralph suggested that, as they were doing so much drawing, it might be well to make a pencil sharpener. the drawing they produced is shown in fig. . this was easily worked out in / -inch wood with a piece of sand-paper glued in the oblong space. [illustration: fig. . pencil sharpener] the sand-paper suggested match scratchers, and as they are useful articles, several designs were worked up for christmas gifts. three of these are shown in fig. , but after a good deal of discussion it was decided that for scratching matches a longer space for sand-paper was necessary, and three other designs (fig. ) were the result of several hours' work. [illustration: fig. . first match scratchers] "i'm getting tired of match scratchers," exclaimed harry; "let's make some toys!" [illustration: fig. . later designs in match scratchers] "very well, we'll get ready for santa claus, and provide a stock of things for our numerous young cousins," replied ralph. "this will give us a chance to use our coping saw, and i have been wanting to do that for a long time." v toys "in making presents for little children," said ralph, "we must always remember that the toys will be played with and receive a great deal of rough handling. so to begin with, they must be strong and of simple construction. the youngsters don't care so much for finely finished articles as older people do, and they tire very quickly of things that are so complicated that they get out of order easily. suppose we first make some neat boxes. they can be filled with candy, and after that is gone they will be used for a long time to keep treasures in." fig. shows the drawing of the first box the boys made. the two oblong pieces form the top and bottom. the latter was nailed on with / -inch brads. the two cleats were nailed to the under side of the top to hold it in place, while the sides and ends were fastened with a little glue, and one brad in the centre. this made a very serviceable box, the material being basswood / of an inch thick. [illustration: fig. . toy box] the sled shown in fig. came next, made of the same material as the box. ralph was delighted with its strength and graceful lines. two cleats were glued into the grooves in the sides, and the top nailed on with / -inch brads. [illustration: fig. . the toy sled] in each case the drawing was made directly on the wood, which was sawed close to the lines with the coping saw, and finished to the lines with the knife. the dog house (fig. ) brought out some new features of construction. the opening in front was cut out with the saw and finished as usual. sides and ends were then put together with glue. the two pieces forming the roof were nailed together with / -inch brads, to make a right angle and were then placed in position and nailed to the front and back pieces. ralph explained that it was a saving of time and trouble to draw a light pencil line to mark the location of the brads. if this is not done, the brads are apt to come out in the wrong place and will then have to be withdrawn and placed again. this is a waste of time and it very often spoils the looks of the work, so that the drawing of the pencil lines really saves time in the end, and the lines can be erased. [illustration: fig. . the dog house] "we can make any amount of this dolls' furniture," said ralph. "in fact we could build a doll's house and equip it with chairs, tables, and beds, but what the youngsters really like best is something that works, something that moves, so i move--no pun intended--that we design a toy that has some life to it. we can cut it out with the coping saw and there need not be a great deal of knife work to it. suppose we make an indian paddling a canoe!" this was more of a problem than they had bargained for, as it was necessary to look through an encyclopædia to find pictures of canoes, indians, tomahawks, etc. harry traced the figure of an indian chief, transferred it to the surface of a piece of / -inch basswood, and on sawing it out found that he had a very good silhouette of an indian, but it did not move (fig. ). the problem was still unsolved, and experiments along that line used up several afternoons. [illustration: fig. . indian chief] [illustration: fig. . indian paddlers] [illustration: fig. . indian paddlers. separate parts cut out and assembled] what was finally worked out is shown in fig. . the arms were made separate from the body, and were fastened to both the paddles and the bodies by brads, which acted as pivots. the bodies were then fastened to the canoe in the same way, but a little glue was used as well as brads, as they were to be immovable. how to make the paddlers move in unison was a hard problem, finally solved by fastening a narrow strip of wood to the lower part of each paddle. it was found that by moving this strip back and forth the two figures moved with the precision of a machine. in each case where a pivot was required it seemed only necessary to drive in a / -inch brad. (fig. .) the success of this moving toy was so great that the boys went rushing into the house to show it to the family. soon they came rushing back again, determined to try their skill on something else. ralph had to remind harry that the indian paddlers were not yet finished, as the toy would not stand up, so the standards shown at _b_ were sawed out, smoothed with the knife, and one fastened at each end, as a support, by means of brads and glue. [illustration: fig. . the fencers] after much boyish arguing, it was decided next to try two swordsmen fencing. this called for some posing, and looking in books to get the correct position of a man fencing. the drawing shown in fig. was finally copied from a book on athletic sports. the different parts of the figures are shown clearly in the illustration. it was found, by experimenting with paper figures, that by making one leg of each figure in two parts, the body, arms, and other leg could be sawed out of one piece. the work of cutting out and assembling this combination, seemed much easier now that the boys had gotten into the swing of it, and they were so anxious to see it work that they almost spoiled it in their haste. the swords, or foils, were made of two pieces of soft iron wire. ralph insisted on filing these out flat near the ends to make them look realistic, and they were fastened by drilling a hole in each hand, passing the wire through and clinching it with a pair of pliers. it was much safer to drill these holes, as a brad awl sometimes splits wood that is very thin. this combination worked to perfection, and while they were trying it harry caught a glimpse of its shadow on the table. the silhouette in black looked even more realistic than the toy itself, and it gave the boys an idea. (fig. .) these toys could be used for moving shadow pictures, and immediately their imagination began to conjure up the programme of a show. "our first selection, ladies and gentlemen, will be a shadow picture, entitled 'before the coming of the white men'," exclaimed harry, moving the indian paddlers. [illustration: fig. . the fencers. pieces assembled] "and our next will be entitled 'the duel'," said ralph. "not a very good historical show," said harry. "we ought to have the 'landing of the _mayflower_'." "not a bad idea, either," said ralph. "i think we could rig up a ship in a storm. let's try that next." vi moving toys the problem of making a ship roll proved somewhat of a strain on the engineering corner of ralph's brain, and after awhile harry grew restless. "can't you give me something to do while you are designing that ocean?" he said. ralph, pausing a moment, replied, "yes, try two men sawing a log." harry began to draw, but found that he knew very little about saws, so had to go out and look at one, measured it, and after awhile produced the sketch shown in fig. . ralph criticised it rather severely, suggesting the addition of a log and saw buck, and advised that the arms of the men and saw be cut out of one piece. the drawing shows the separated pieces, two bodies, four legs, a saw and arms in one piece, two straight pieces for the saw buck, the log, and a little triangular piece to go between log and saw buck. the object of this triangle is to leave a space between the log and saw buck for the passage of the saw back and forth, as shown in the sectional view. the two pieces forming the buck were halved together, and the log, triangle, and buck are fastened with glue and two brads. [illustration: fig. . the sawyers] after all the pieces had been cut out, the men were first put together by fastening both legs to the body with one / -inch brad. the feet were next fastened to the straight piece, inches long, representing the ground, by one brad through each foot, the bodies standing upright, and the feet two inches apart. the arms came next, with one brad through each man's shoulder, and lastly, the saw buck, with the log already fastened rigidly to it, was nailed on the back of the ground piece with the log in front of the saw. to make this toy stand up, two standards were fastened to the ends of the ground piece, the same size as those attached to the fencers in fig. . it took harry two hours to make this figure in wood, after he had the drawing finished. in the meantime ralph had worked out a scheme for giving a boat a rolling motion. "we'll be mechanical engineers by the time we finish this," he told harry. "this piece of mechanism calls for a crank, a shaft, two bearings, and a cam, not to mention a ship, an ocean, and a few miscellaneous articles too trivial to mention." [illustration: fig. . boat in storm] the various parts of "the ship in a heavy sea" are shown in fig. . at _a_ is the cam, at _b_ the crank and handle, and at _c_ the shaft. the boat was sketched free hand and cut out with the coping saw in one piece by sawing exactly on the lines. the ocean was represented by two pieces corresponding to the ground piece in the sawyers, and the wavy outline was not made until everything had been cut out and the combination was ready for assembling. the most difficult part--the shaft--was made first, and entirely with the knife: a piece of basswood was cut exactly a quarter of an inch square, a section was marked in the centre of this / inch wide, and notches were made on each corner. the two ends were then whittled to an octagonal shape and rounded. the square section in the centre was reduced to / inch wide and the rounded ends sand-papered smooth. next, the cam was cut out, and the square hole made. this was accomplished, after spoiling one, by drilling a quarter of an inch hole in the square and cutting the opening square with the point of the knife. the object of the square opening was to prevent the cam from slipping when in operation. the cam was then placed over the round part of the shaft and glued to the square section, over which it fitted snugly. next came the crank. this was made the same shape as the cam, but the / inch hole drilled in one end was left round, while the other was cut square as in the cam. the shaft fitted into the round hole and was glued in after the assembling. for the handle on the crank, a piece / inch square was fitted into the square hole, and the rest of it whittled round and sand-papered. two cleats, inch Ã� / Ã� / inch, were cut out with the saw and everything was ready for assembling. the two sides of the ocean were held together and the / -inch hole at _d_ drilled through both pieces at once. the two notches at _e_ were cut after the assembling was finished. after the holes were drilled, the wavy line was sawed, and the two ends of the shaft inserted in the holes with the cam inside. the two cleats were inserted in the ends of the ocean and fastened with brads and glue. next, the boat was slipped in between the two sides, with the sloping stern just touching the cam, and a / -inch brad was driven through the three thicknesses, sides and boat. the crank was next slipped over the shaft and glued in position. the crank handle was inserted into the square hole and fastened with glue, and lastly a light rubber band was slipped over the notch on the stern of the boat and the two corresponding notches on the bottom of the ocean. this was to hold the boat against the cam, which gives the motion. to make this toy more realistic, the boys got out a box of water colors, painted the body of the boat black, the ocean green, and left the basswood sails their natural color--white. [illustration: fig. . turkey and executioner] "there," said ralph when it was finished, "the youngsters can raise a storm at any time they like by simply turning the crank. this toy ought to be very serviceable, as it can't very well get out of order and is almost unbreakable." the subject of moving toys is almost endless, being limited only by the imagination of the designer. thanksgiving suggested the turkey and the axe, and in the toy these boys worked out the turkey evades the axe every time. the parts are shown in fig. . the legs of the turkey are stuck rigidly to the body by brads and a little glue, and they are fastened to the ground piece by one brad, which acts as a pivot. the axeman's body and right leg are in one piece, the left leg being in two pieces. the arms adhere rigidly to the body, and the axe to the hands, by means of brads. the operating strip is / inch wide and inches long. it is fastened between the legs of the turkey, and to the rigid leg of the man, by one brad for pivot in each case. the stump is nailed to the ground strip from the front. vii designing moving toys the boys found this making of toys so fascinating that one was barely finished before another was suggested. so absorbed did they become that even meals were forgotten, and they regarded it as a hardship to be called in to supper, while to be told that it was bedtime was absolute cruelty. they found that it saved time to be systematic, and the usual method of procedure was about as follows: [illustration: fig. . the boxers] first, to decide on the practicability of the idea. second, to sketch out a skeleton figure, as in _a_ (fig. ), the boxers. when the proper action was secured in these skeleton figures, the bodies were sketched roughly around them as shown at _b_. third, the movement of the figures was thought out, and separate drawings traced from the assembled drawing on tracing paper. fourth, these separate pieces were traced on / -inch basswood with the grain of the wood running the long way of the piece, wherever it was possible. fifth, the pieces were sawed out, and the edges smoothed with knife and sand-paper. very often, through anxiety to see how it worked, the smoothing of the edges was neglected. sixth, the parts were put together with brads, and where the points came through they were bent over or "clinched" on the further side. seventh, after experiments to discover the best position for it, the moving strip was fastened to the legs by / -inch brads, and last of all the feet were pivoted to the ground piece in the same way. [illustration: fig. . the boxers assembled] the boys learned many things not to do: for example, all the finer details of the face and hands must be omitted, as they are very apt to be broken off in sawing. it was found best to make the feet nearly round or the brads would split the wood. for that reason wherever a brad has to be driven through, the arm or leg should be made larger than the proportionate size. [illustration: fig. . the racing automobile] the most surprising feature about the figures was the fact that the shadow they cast on a white wall or sheet was more realistic than the figures themselves, and our boys never tired of exercising these toys in order to watch the shadow pictures. of all combinations, perhaps the design and construction of a racing automobile, that would actually go, gave them the greatest amount of amusement as well as the largest number of problems to solve. the history of trials and failures need not be given, but the machine, as finished, is shown in fig. . the body and hood are comparatively simple. the principal trouble, as with larger machines, was with the motive power, and the boys finally compromised by using a rubber band. the four wheels were sawed out of / -inch basswood, and smoothed with sand-paper, the two driving wheels for the rear having a / -inch hole drilled to receive the ends of the axle. the rear axle was / inch square at the centre for half an inch, and the rest of it / inch in diameter, rounded with the knife and sand-paper. the total length of the axle was four inches, and the wheel base seven and one-half inches. for the driving gear, three disks shown at _a_ (fig. ) were sawed out, the two large ones, - / inches in diameter, from / -inch basswood. the edges of these two were rounded with knife and sand-paper. the small disk, / inch in diameter, was cut from / -inch wood or two / -inch pieces placed together and glued. [illustration: fig. . pieces of racing automobile] a square hole was cut through the centre of each of these disks with a knife, and they were then put together with glue and brads, making a very serviceable grooved pulley, which was slipped over the shaft and fitted over the square part in the centre. as it was a snug fit no glue was necessary, and the square part prevented the pulley from slipping on the shaft. the forward axle was made - / inches long, / of an inch square, except at the ends, where for a distance of / inch it was rounded, / inch in diameter. this completed the wheels, axles, and transmission pulley. the chassis, or frame, which supports the body, consists of two pieces of / -inch basswood inches long and / inch wide, with a / -inch hole drilled / inch from each end. the floor of the auto, on which the body rests, is / -inch basswood Ã� - / inches, and it binds the whole machine together, giving it strength and rigidity, but it must not be fastened in place until the structure is ready for assembling. the hood is simply a box - / inches long, - / inches wide, and - / inches high without a bottom. the top piece may be left unfastened, if desired, with two cleats on the under side to hold it in position. the hood then becomes an available place to keep small articles, tools, etc. the body of the automobile is composed of five pieces: the two sides of the shape shown at _b_, the dash-board, to which they are fastened with brads, the seat, and the back. this body can be taken off and replaced by other bodies, made to represent roadsters, touring cars, limousines, etc. a block of / -inch basswood / inch square is fastened to the dash-board. this block has a / -inch hole drilled through it at an angle of forty-five degrees, and into this hole is glued the steering-gear, consisting of a basswood stick, whittled to / inch diameter, with a / -inch wheel - / inches in diameter fastened at the top, _d_. the method of assembling is important. first, insert the front and rear axles through the holes or bearings in the chassis, or frame; then nail the floor to the frame with / -inch brads. this gives a rigid structure to work on, the front edge of the floor being even with the forward ends of the frame. now screw into the under side of the floor, - / inches from the front end, a / -inch screw eye or screw hook, or even a flat-head nail. this is to hold one end of the rubber band which is to supply the motive power. the hood may now be put together and fastened even with the front of the machine by nailing it from the bottom with brads. the body is put on by nailing the two sides to the dash-board, and the dash-board to the hood. the seat and seat-back are afterward put in place with brads and the steering-gear glued in position against the dash-board. the wheels should be put on last of all. before placing them in position, slip two or three new rubber bands over the screw hook under the car, and tie the free end to the driving pulley so tightly that the cord will not slip on the pulley. the front wheels are fastened to the axles by / -inch flat-head wire nails, and worked until they revolve freely on these pivots; the flat head holds the wheel on. the rear wheels are the drivers, and must be fastened rigidly to the axle by glue. when the glue has hardened--this takes several hours--the machine may be sent across the room on the floor by winding the rear axle backward as much as the rubber bands will permit without breaking, and setting the machine on the floor. the first time the boys tried it, the rubber band uncoiled so quickly that the auto shot across the room and nearly wrecked itself against the wall. this was too realistic, especially as it broke one of the forward wheels, and a new one had to be made. when such an automobile is to be presented to little children who want to draw it around with a string, it is necessary to remove the rubber band; otherwise the rear wheels will drag. when our boys had finished their machine, the question came up to whom it should be given for christmas, and harry blurted out, "i want it myself." this was the greatest of all their difficulties. when they had finished a piece of work they hated to part with it, but ralph was older, and he knew that as harry became interested in new things he would gradually lose interest in the old ones. so they played with this machine, made another with a roadster body, and auto races became the rage for awhile. after several afternoons of racing, they decided, just as their elders had done before them, that what their machines needed was improved motive power. the accomplishment of this would take them out of the realm of woodwork, so ralph suggested that they stick to their motto of "one thing at a time." "and our business just now is woodwork." viii the model aeroplane the automobile experiment naturally suggested the aeroplane, and after much reading of magazines and animated discussions as to the relative advantages of biplanes, monoplanes, gliders, etc., the boys decided to try their skill on a biplane of their own design, a combination of the features and proportions of the curtiss and wright machines. the automobile was child's play compared with the problems confronting the young aviators in designing and working out a flying machine, and, as in the former case, the question of motive power was the most difficult. we might add it has not yet been satisfactorily solved. fig. shows the general appearance of the boys' model, which was eighteen inches long from front to back, and the planes, made of light card-board, were inches long and - / inches wide. the frame, braces, rudder, and tilting plane were made of / -inch basswood, put together with / -inch brads clinched wherever the points came through. the parts composing the frame were made first, and all small details, such as rudder, propeller, tilting plane, etc., cut out later. the separate parts are shown in the drawing. four straight pieces like _a_ were required to support the tilting plane in front, and two pieces each _b_ and _c_ for the rudder in the rear. two pieces _a_, one of _b_ and _c_ were fastened together by means of two uprights _d_, forming one complete side of the machine. this was completed, and the second side made identical with it. these two sides were then fastened parallel with each other, rigidly, by means of the two rudder posts _e e_ and the cross pieces _f f_, by brads. the rudder posts bound the two sides rigidly at the rear, the cross pieces at the centre, and at the forward end the tilting plane was held in position by the brads, which also acted as pivots. this made a remarkably light and yet strong framework. the card-board planes were not placed in position until everything else was finished, as they could be attached easily and quickly, but were very much in the way when experiments were being made on the propelling apparatus. of course there had to be a propeller, and the problem of making it required some practice. ralph introduced the subject by showing harry how to make an old-fashioned toy, shown in the detail drawing, of two pieces, one the propeller, the other a balancing stick. the propeller was made of a piece of / -inch basswood, inches long and / inch wide. a / -inch hole was first drilled at the exact centre. the two ends were then whittled down to the shape shown at _k_. the balancing stick was next whittled down until one end fitted tightly into the hole drilled in the propeller, and the rest of the stick then rounded until it was of uniform diameter. this stick was glued into the hole, and allowed to dry. there was plenty of work to do while the glue was hardening, as the cross pieces _g g_ had to be fastened to the frame to prepare for the installation of the power plant. when the glue was dry, ralph took the balancing stick between the palms of his hands, drew his right hand toward him with a quick motion, at the same time releasing the stick. to harry's amazement, the whole thing flew up and struck the ceiling, and for a few minutes aeroplanes were forgotten while the two played with this interesting but ancient toy. [illustration: fig. . the toy biplane] ralph explained that the propeller was simply part of a screw thread, and had actually worked its way through the air just as a screw works its way into a piece of wood. its lifting power had been shown by the way it carried the balancing stick with it up to the ceiling. "now," he continued, "when we place a propeller horizontal it will worm its way forward through the air in the same way and carry the aeroplane with it, for the simple reason that it is so placed in the frame it can't get out. as the free space it has to revolve in is only inches, we shall have to cut the blades down to about - / inches to give it clearance." they whittled out a shaft - / inches long and fastened the two notched pieces _h h_ to it after placing the propeller in position between the two cross pieces _g g_ which had been previously drilled with / -inch holes to act as bearings. new rubber bands were then passed over the notches, stretched out to the front and rear of the frame, and tied to cross pieces. by winding up the propeller, these bands were twisted tightly, and when the propeller was released, the bands unwound, causing it to revolve rapidly. the rudder was now pivoted in position by brads, and the two planes fastened by the same method. the power derived from the bands was not sufficient to propel the aeroplane fast enough to support it in the air, so it was necessary to experiment with strong thread until the centre of gravity was found. it proved to be near the centre of the planes. small holes were made with an awl at this point, the thread passed through them and tied. by suspending the aeroplane from a chandelier it took up a horizontal position. then the forward tilting plane was elevated slightly and the propeller wound up. on being released the aeroplane slowly and majestically sailed through the air in a great circle, limited by the length of the suspending thread. the boys never tired of this toy and all it lacked was the ability to fly in the open air, which would require a more powerful motor. this would more than double the weight of the machine, and therefore call for larger planes to support it. there you have the great problem of the aviator. ralph wisely suggested that as they had not yet reached the stage of designing gasolene motors they had better leave the aeroplane as it was, or it would be necessary to abandon their woodwork, which neither of them had any intention of doing. ix the monoplane a very satisfactory monoplane can be made from the plans shown in fig. . the material for the frame should be quarter-inch white pine or spruce. the six long strips are inches in length, and for fastening, holes should be drilled and the connection made by passing fine soft wire through them and binding fast. the top frame, formed of four of these long strips, should be made first, with particular attention to the measurements, so that both sides shall be exactly the same size and weight. at the rear end the two long strips may be wired together temporarily. the propeller shown in the drawing can be made at any time from a piece of white pine / inch thick and inches long by - / inches wide. it is a good piece of whittling work. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. (a). the toy monoplane.] the / -inch hole for the shaft should be bored first, and the propeller blades reduced to a thickness of / inch at the centre of the blade, and / inch or less at the edges. the shaft needs to be strong, and should be made of a piece of / -inch dowel rod. make a saw cut with back saw in the end, which is to be fastened in the propeller. when ready to assemble, push this end into the / -inch hole in the propeller, drive in a soft pine wedge with a little glue, and a rigid fastening will result. the groove in the rear end of the shaft is to take the thrust of the propeller, and hold it in the machine. this groove may be readily cut out with the knife, and smoothed with sand-paper. two bearings are necessary to hold the shaft in alignment. the forward one is a strip of pine / by / , with a / -inch hole bored at the centre. this hole should be sand-papered until the shaft turns in it freely. the rear bearing is a strip / by / inch, laid out as shown at _a_. the quarter-inch hole must be bored first. next, drill two small holes with a fine drill on either side of the hole for the wires which are to hold the two pieces together. next saw on the pencil line shown, removing the small piece _x_. test the bearing by placing the small grooved section of the shaft in the quarter-inch hole to see if it turns freely. when this has been accomplished, the propeller and its bearings are ready for the monoplane. looking at the front view, the two uprights are Ã� / Ã� / inches. at the top ends they are rabbeted as shown, and wired to the top frame. at the bottom they are wired to the long strips which form the long sides of the bottom frame. before putting these uprights on, a / -inch hole should be drilled - / inches from the bottom of each. these are to receive the / -inch dowel rod which acts as the axle for the spool _s_. this rod should be inches or more in length, so that brads or wire may be passed through the ends outside the uprights to keep the axle in place. the small spool which acts as a pulley must be perfectly free to turn on this rod, and be kept in place by two brads driven through drilled holes on either side of it. the front and lower parts of the frame are now ready to be assembled. the four long strips constituting the body of the frame are all wired together at the back, temporarily. to finish the forward part, saw out a strip / Ã� / inch, and form on each end a rounded bearing, as in the automobile, for two wheels - / inches in diameter. saw the wheels out of / -inch basswood, drill a hole at each centre, place on the bearing, and fasten in place with a flat-head wire nail and a small washer next to the wheel. sand-paper the wheels smooth, and see that they turn freely. tack the strip, or wire it to the uprights, as low down as possible. the rear end of the monoplane is a nice little problem. cut out a block of pine from inch to - / inches square. in the side facing the front place a screw eye for fastening the spring or rubber bands. the rudder is shown in the drawing. drill two holes, as shown, and drive in brads or flat-head wire nails, as large as the hole, so that the rudder may be turned by hand, but not free enough to turn with the wind. next drill a hole clear through the block for the axle of the tilting planes. it is not necessary that the axle be at the exact centre of the cube. it should extend quite through both planes as well as the cube, and be bent around the edges, so as to make them rigid. they should be snug enough to turn by hand, but not loose enough for the wind to shift. the four sides of the frame are now whittled down to fit the block, and wired to it. last comes the question of motive power. this is _the_ great problem. the writer is opposed to encouraging boys to believe that these toy aeroplanes can be made to fly great distances. the propeller would have to be made to revolve at high speed for several minutes in order to accomplish this, and the tension of rubber bands is not equal to it. the machines can be made to fly short distances only. the problem of aviation is now a question of motors, and the smallest gasolene motor, with its tank, etc., requires a fairly large aeroplane to lift it. no doubt, the problem will be solved within a short time, but it has not been done at the time of writing. for this size of toy monoplane several large rubber bands may be tied together, fastened at the screw eye on one end and to a piece of strong linen kite cord at the other. pass this cord forward under the spool and up to the propeller shaft. drill a small hole in the shaft, draw the cord taut, and fasten it through this hole. while the model has no planes as yet, it is wise to get the propeller working before putting them on, as the space for working is freer. wind up the propeller until the bands have been stretched to their limit, then let go. it may be necessary to place wheels at the rear, the same as in front. on a smooth floor, the machine should be drawn forward several feet by the action of the propeller. it is entirely practicable, on a plane of this size, to use the works of an ordinary alarm clock in place of rubber bands. remove the outer casing of an old clock; loosen the four brass nuts that hold the frame together, and take out all the wheels, except the axle on which the mainspring is fastened. put the frame together again with the four nuts. the axle for the mainspring extends outside of the frame, and is threaded to receive the handle for winding. take this handle off. drill a hole in the end of the propeller shaft, slightly smaller than the mainspring axle, and screw the latter into the propeller shaft. you now have the clock-works on the end of your shaft, and it is necessary to fasten a strip of pine / in. by / in. to the upper sticks of the frame in order to wire the works fast, as they must not be allowed to turn. by turning the propeller you wind up the clock, and as soon as you release it, as there is no escapement now to regulate the spring, it tries to unwind at once, and the propeller starts at terrific speed. look out for your hands, as the propeller blades have no conscience. this action, although strenuous, is short lived, but much more powerful than rubber bands. the spring of an ordinary alarm clock is powerful enough to drive a wooden two-bladed propeller inches in diameter with blades two inches wide at the outside. it will draw a monoplane of this size along the floor several feet. having finally decided the question of power, it remains to attach the planes. the remaining long strip is wired to the top pieces, inches from the front, and the plane, made of silk, oiled paper, or very thin card-board, attached. in many toy aeroplanes the bands of rubber are not stretched, but twisted. the shaft in this case is a wire which, after being fastened to the propeller, passes through a glass bead and then the frame, ending in a hook to which the rubber bands are attached. there must be a perfectly clear space from front to back of the frame. the glass bead between the propeller and frame is to relieve the friction. x kites making and experimenting with aeroplanes calls for much patience and often ends in disappointment--the lot of inventors generally. this is no reason why work should stop, as all progress is made by attempting the supposedly impossible, but it will be restful after a while to turn to the ancient and gentle art of kite making. incidentally, something may be learned about the effect of wind on plane surfaces that will prove helpful in aeroplane work. the aeroplane kite shown in fig. is simple and effective. it may be given the appearance of a blériot monoplane by modifying some of its features, as shown at _b_, the planes having a slight upward slant. the arrangement of the frames is clearly shown in the drawing. spruce or white pine may be used, as lightness is an essential. the method of fastening the sticks is important. it is not wise to halve them, as their strength will be reduced below the safety point, and nails are likely to split them. bind them securely with strong linen kite cord or fine soft wire. kite _a_ is open to criticism on account of the single stick connecting front and back. the second form is better, and the two long sticks may be correspondingly lighter without reducing the ultimate strength of the frame. the method of joining three sticks, as at the forward end, is shown in detail in fig. . wherever a butt joint occurs, join the two pieces by means of small strips of tin cut to size with a pair of tinsmith snips. drill holes through tin and sticks, pass fine soft wire through the hole, and twist tightly with a pair of pliers. the planes or sails may be of light, strong paper, or some light fabric, such as lawn or cheap silk. the fabric should be cut to size, allowing two inches each way for the hem. pieces of cord are fastened to the hem, and tied to the ends of the sticks through small holes drilled for the purpose, or tied to notches cut with the knife. the advantage of this method is that the sails, or planes, may be drawn tightly or removed without loss of time. in this way a number of fabrics can be used for experimental purposes. paper, on the other hand, must be lapped over sticks and wires, and glued. propellers may be fastened to front, rear, or both, to create the appearance of a real aeroplane. the restraining action of the cord holding one of these kites up against the wind brings into action the same force that supports the glider or aeroplane, and the sails, especially fabrics, assume the curve of a boat sail, when close-hauled and sailing into the wind. the forms that are possible are infinite, and limited only by the imagination of the designer. it is well to begin with one of the standard types, and leave experimental forms until some experience has been gained. the americanized malay, eddy, or parakite is shown in fig. . the two sticks are of equal length, bound together with twine or soft wire. distance _c e_ should be from to per cent. of the total length _c d_. the vertical stick remains straight, but cross stick _a b_ is bent back like a bow, the distance _e f_ being per cent. of the total length of either stick, and maintained by a string from _a_ to _b_. the four points _a c b d_ are joined by a cord drawn taut, to make sure that the sticks are at right angles. [illustration: fig. .] the material should be cut as shown, the amount lapped being uniform all around. this is important, as a slight difference in weight between the two sides would result in erratic flying. for eddy kites up to three feet in height a light-weight wrapping paper will answer very well. larger sizes require nainsook, lawn, or china silk. like all the kites described here, this is a tailless one, and the method of fastening the bridle is shown. make a small hole in the covering, pass a cord through, and tie it to cross the stick at its centre. fasten the other end about half an inch from lower end of upright, and make a loop at _o_ for attaching the line. the kite line should be the light and strong linen twine made especially for this purpose, and sold by toy and sporting goods dealers. a ball containing yards of cord, strong enough to hold any three-foot kite, will cost about fifty cents. for larger sizes, it pays to make a reel, to save time drawing in and to avoid bad tangles. a simple form of reel is shown in fig. . the frame has a generous-sized hole bored as shown at _h_. cut a small branch in the form shown, _i_, and use this as a stake. drive it into the ground through _h_, and use it as a pivot to shift the reel as the wind changes. with this arrangement the kite cannot drag the reel, and it is possible to leave the apparatus with the kite in the air. the writer was driven to using this device after seeing his reel go tearing across the fields until stopped by a four-foot fence. the pull exerted at the reel by a train of three or four kites is sometimes sufficient to give a boy all he can do to hold it. the height to which a kite will go is illustrated by the diagram. _s_ is the starting point, and _s t_ the direction of the string at the start, when but little cord has been played out. the position of the kite at various times is indicated by letters _a b c d e_, the actual path being shown by dotted line. the solid, curved lines from _s_ to these points show the position of the cord as it is played out. this is a mathematical curve resulting from the weight of cord and kite, wind pressure on cord, and lifting power of the plane. it will be seen that the kite finally moves along horizontally, no matter how much cord is played out. this occurs when the lifting power equals the force of gravity and wind pressure. in other words, the kite can do no more without an increase of wind. to make it go higher, we must raise point _s_ by tandem flying, attaching another kite and cord to the first one, as shown at _x_. three or four eddy kites may be flown in this way, the lines of equal or unequal length joined at a common point to the main line; and, strange as it may seem, if they are well balanced kites they will not interfere with each other. in fact, there seems to be an electrical repulsion among the lines, so that they spread out like a broom. this is one of the most interesting discoveries in kite flying, though badly upset in actual practice, when one member of the team becomes erratic and proceeds to make a braid of the four cords by diving under and over the others to bring about a general demoralization. for this reason, it is wise to test each kite separately, first, to discover any possible tendency to freakishness. a weird experience may be enjoyed by leaving the tandem out after dark. run the main line down by slipping it under your arm, and walk out until you reach the junction of the four lines, where a light-weight lantern can be attached. let go, and see the lantern apparently drawn up into the air by noiseless, invisible hands. flags and other devices may be attached as indicated in the drawing; a light stick at _a b_ will keep the flag from blowing up into a heap, and loops at _a_ and _c_ are tied in the main line to avoid sliding. the box kite [illustration: fig. . kite details] the cellular kite is made in several forms. the rectangular box variety is perhaps the most common, and with the bridle attached is shown in fig. . the standard dimensions are: length _a b_ inches, width _a c_ inches, depth of cell _c d_ inches, and width of cloth covering _c e_ inches. a very convenient size is obtained by dividing approximately by two, making length and width inches each, and depth inches. mr. h. h. clayton, of the blue hill observatory, has patented one form of this kite known as the "blue hill naval box kite," so the amateur must confine his use of it to experimenting. other forms of cells which have been used are shown at . these all possess the advantage--that each plane is a lifting surface, whereas in the rectangular form the vertical planes have only a rudder action, tending to hold the kite parallel with the wind. when launching a box kite, the assistant stands in front of and under it, while with the malay he stands behind it and lets go at a given word. about a hundred yards of line should be run out before launching, and only a few steps backward by the boy at the string should be necessary. running is only required when the line out is insufficient. [illustration: fig. . the tetrahedral kite] the tetrahedral form invented by dr. graham bell is unique and interesting. based on the geometrical figure, it has a remarkable strength of frame, and possesses a surprising lifting power. the principal difficulty in the construction is in fastening the sticks, as three of them meet at every point. the frame consists of six pieces of equal length. drill a / -inch hole in each end of all the pieces, about / inch from the end. place the pieces on the floor as shown at . pass a piece of soft iron or brass wire through the three holes at _a_ and bind lightly. do the same at angles _b_ and _c_. now raise loose ends _d e f_ until they meet over the centre, as at . join with wire and tighten all the joints with a pair of pliers. (fig. .) each face of the frame is an equilateral triangle, and the covering is to be on only two sides, as shown at . the shape of the piece to be cut is shown at . this forms a single cell, and the large sizes are broken up into many small tetrahedral cells. the line may be tied at _c_ or _d_. the designing of fancy figure kites is a fascinating occupation, but unless certain fixed principles are kept in mind may end in much experimenting and many disappointments. the question of steadiness or stability seems to be summed up in the mathematical expression--"dihedral angle." a kite having a stiff, flat surface presented to the wind will often cut up queer antics, while the same frame covered with a more flexible covering will fly beautifully. the reason is that the flexible covering will be bowed back by the wind, forming an approximate "dihedral angle." in the triangular box and tetrahedral kites this bowing back is not so necessary, because the dihedral angle is provided in the construction. in these kites, when a sudden gust of wind presses harder on one side than on the other, the first side is pressed back, reducing the resistance, and the other side is brought forward until both sides receive equal pressure, or the kite is in equilibrium, facing the wind; and the shifting of the breeze is constantly provided for. the bowing back of the covering of an eddy kite takes care of sudden changes in the same way. double malay kites or two tetrahedral kites, fastened together, tandem fashion, will be found stable, especially if the rear one be slightly smaller than the forward one. (fig. .) [illustration: fig. . double kites] geometrical forms like the hexagon, six-pointed star, and even the circle are used, but these generally require a tail. a butterfly design may be used, provided the body is designed as a keel and the two wings are tilted backward to provide the required angle. in some of the chinese kites, in the form of insects, the wings have split bamboo frames, flexible enough to bend backward and provide the necessary stability. a flexible lower end on the frame also has a good balancing effect. xi chip carving and knife work "making moving toys is a form of dissipation," said ralph. "it is very fascinating and interesting, but the making of many toys will never make one an expert woodworker. the accuracy and skill required can be developed only by actual constructive work. i suggest that we take up a form of decoration which can be done with the knife. "there are two ways of making an article in wood pleasing to the eye. one is by varying the outline, as we did in our match scratchers, and the other is by some kind of surface ornamentation. there are many ways of decorating surfaces--carving, pyrography, staining, polishing, etc., and very often several of these methods are combined. "as we have started to learn the possibilities of knife work, i propose to teach you a form of carving which can be done with the knife alone. very elaborate work is done with the regular carving tools. this requires a great deal of time and skill, but with the knife alone a wonderful variety of beautiful work can be done even by small boys. "it is very important to approach it properly, so i am going to give you a few simple exercises and the elaborate designs will come along naturally. "the work is not new, and evidently grew out of the still older art of notching. primitive peoples probably saw in it a way to improve the appearance of their various wooden implements. not only could the edges be notched, but the cutting could be done on flat surfaces as well." [illustration: fig. . first cuts in carving] fig. at _a_ shows one of the earliest designs. it is simply a border of triangular cuts, and while this may be done with the whittling knife, fig. shows two knives which are better fitted to do accurate work. [illustration: fig. . two good types of knife for carving] the positions for carving are shown in fig. . hold the knife in an upright position, with the cutting edge away from you, and the point on the apex of the triangle. press the knife down and then away from you along one of the sides of the triangle. place it in position again, and repeat the motion along the other side of the triangle, always directly on the line. this brings the deep part of the cut at the apex of the triangle, and it remains to take out the triangular chip. this can be done in either of the two ways shown in fig. , by cutting away from you or toward you. it is well to practise both ways, as in complicated designs the direction of the grain makes it necessary to cut sometimes in one direction, sometimes in another. the rest of this border is a repetition of the same stroke, and the more elaborate designs are simply different arrangements of triangular cuts. in fig , _b_ shows two rows of these same shaped cuts, one row inverted, to produce a diamond-shaped border; _c_ shows a border in which the drawing is similar to _b_, but vertical triangles are cut instead of horizontal ones, as this gives a cut across the grain of the wood instead of parallel to it, and is a trifle harder. [illustration: fig. . positions for holding carving knife] our boys practised on these simple borders for awhile, using knife _a_ and / -inch basswood. the work proved fully as fascinating to harry as the making of toys, and it was decided that from that time onward the outlines of their woodwork should be simpler, and the decoration should be in the form of chip carving. [illustration: fig. . a simple picture frame with carving] while harry was practising on these simple borders ralph made the basswood photograph frame shown in fig. , and drew the carving design, as shown, with an h pencil. to carve this was simply to repeat border _b_. this was so satisfactory that ralph decided to try his pupil on finer work, and the design shown in fig. was tried. in each case harry found that he was making triangular cuts, and removing triangular chips, just as in the first border, only the triangles were in different positions. ralph suggested that they begin to decorate some of the things they had already made, and the little basswood box shown in fig. was brought out, and the design shown in fig. drawn and carved upon it. [illustration: fig. . a more elaborate picture frame] there followed a number of "backs," which ralph explained could be used as thermometer backs, match scratchers, calendars, key racks, and in other ways. in each case, the design was drawn carefully on paper, and thence transferred to the surface of the wood with the same care that it had been done on paper. the designing required considerable thought. [illustration: figs. and . designs for box covers] where a border continued around four sides, the corner became the most difficult and interesting part of the design, and was worked out first. (fig. .) [illustration: fig. . straight line designs for thermometer backs] very soon the boys found that it was necessary to draw only half the design on paper, and in many cases a corner or quarter sufficed. the next step was to initiate harry into the mysteries of curved cutting, a departure from triangular cutting. he was informed that the cuts were still three-sided, one or two of the sides being but slightly curved. [illustration: fig. . curved cuts.] fig. , used as an enrichment of a "back" in / -inch gum wood, was harry's first effort in curved chip carving. the edges of the blank piece were bevelled with a plane and ralph showed his pupil how to do this by holding the blank against a bench hook. the long sides were bevelled first, the ends last, to avoid breaking off the corners. [illustration: fig. . key rack] the key rack (fig. ) gave an opportunity to use centre pieces inside a border, diamonds of the flat surface being left uncarved for the placing of the screw hooks. a pencil box for school followed, the various pieces being shown in fig. . the two sides and ends were made in one strip - / inches wide, and afterward cut to length. to secure this strip of uniform width, the shooting board shown in fig. was used, the plane being laid on its side, giving the / -inch piece of gum wood a perfectly square edge. [illustration: fig. . the pencil box] ralph was having his own troubles as a teacher about this time, for he wanted to reserve harry's education in the use of bench tools until later on, when he should have exhausted the possibilities of the knife; but this method of using the plane was necessary if harry was to produce blank forms fit for decoration. the six pieces being squared up, a / -inch margin was left on all sides of the pieces to be carved--the top, front, and two ends. this / -inch space was for the brads. [illustration: fig. . use of shooting board] the assembling was not done until the carving had been finished, and it consisted of fastening the long sides to the ends with / -inch brads, with a little glue on the end grain of the end pieces. the bottom was put on with brads, and the top hinged to the back by two small nickel-plated hinges. a little hook and eye from the hardware store were put at the front to hold the cover on, and two small cleats were glued to the under side of the cover to keep it from warping. the time spent on this pencil box was several hours, but the result was a box the like of which could not be bought. [illustration: fig. . carving designs for pencil box] pencil boxes became the rage with our boys, and although they made several of the same size, in each case the design was different. (fig. .) xii chip carving: continued among the many useful articles which can be made with the knife in thin wood, with carving as enrichment, are the numerous desk accessories, such as envelope holders, letter racks, stamp and pen boxes, pen trays, blotting pads, etc. the boys, after exhausting the subject of pencil boxes for school use, took up the design and construction of letter racks. these, they decided, should be in two compartments for answered and unanswered letters. this called for three uprights, or partitions, and a base. they decided to make them of about uniform dimensions, as shown in the blank form (fig. ). the problem of the outline was somewhat affected by the fact that the front was to be carved. this called for a simpler outline than would have been the case had they expected to leave the surface plain. some of the designs they worked out are shown in fig. . the form marked _a_ was selected as a beginning, the three partitions cut out exactly alike, and the front piece carved as shown in fig. . the middle partition and back piece were left with plain surfaces. [illustration: fig. . parts of letter rack] the cutting of the grooves in the base was a new problem, and harry was allowed to try his skill with a chisel. the method used was first to make the drawing shown at _a_, fig. . the long side lines of each groove were scored with the point of the knife, going over each line several times, to make the cut as deep as possible. an under cut was then made, as shown in the figure. [illustration: fig. . boys' designs for letter racks] the wood in the centre was removed with a / -inch chisel, and the process continued until a uniform depth of / inch was reached. after all three grooves had been cut, the edges of the base were bevelled with the plane. this bevelling could have been done readily with the knife, but much time was saved by using the plane, always doing the long sides first. in all the letter racks shown in the illustrations the construction was the same. first, the three blank partitions were made, then finished in their outlines with knife and sand-paper. the carving was always drawn carefully on the surface of the front piece. third, came the making of the base, and last, the gluing of the partitions into the grooves. to increase the strength of a letter rack, / -inch brads can be driven from the bottom into the partitions, but where this is done it is safer to draw pencil lines on the bottom directly under the centre of each partition. place the point of the brad exactly on the line before hammering. [illustration: fig. . form "a"] although the forms of the letter rack are endless, the one which our boys found most interesting was based on the ellipse. it called forth a very instructive drawing lesson. ralph showed harry first how the figure could be drawn by a string, with two pins to represent the foci of the ellipse. the figure has two dimensions called the major axis and minor axis. (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .] the combined length of the two lines drawn from any point on the ellipse to the two foci must always be the same and equal to the length of the major axis. this is readily seen with the two pins and string. (fig. .) [illustration: fig. . drawing the ellipse with string and pins] the pencil point as it traverses the ellipse represents any point, and the string remains the same length. where it is required to draw an ellipse of definite size, say two by three, it becomes necessary to find the foci before the string can be used, and as it requires considerable skill to get the string the exact length, ralph showed the boy another way, called the trammel method. (fig. .) suppose the problem is to construct an ellipse inches Ã� - / inches. first draw the two lines _a b_ and _c d_ at right angles, intersecting at the exact centre. take a straight piece of paper, lay it along _a b_ with one end at _a_. make a dot on the edge of the paper where the lines cross, and mark it _x_. next, lay the same strip of paper along _c d_, with the original end at _c_, and again mark a point where the lines cross. mark this point _y_. at any position of this strip of paper when the points _x_ and _y_ touch the two axes _a b_ and _c d_, the end of the paper strip will be on the ellipse. by shifting this paper trammel and keeping the two points on the axes a series of points may be made at the end of the paper. connecting this by a pencil line will complete the ellipse. this is a very simple method and a very accurate one. [illustration: fig. . the trammel method] [illustration: fig. . the ellipse used in carving designs] our boys drew this figure, Ã� - / inches, with a trammel and then worked out the design from it shown in fig. . it made a very satisfactory form for the letter rack, and gave an elliptical space for carving, a new problem in chip carving design. [illustration: fig. .] two more of these elliptical designs are shown in fig. . another feature of this rack was a change in the middle partition; the form is shown at fig. . the making of the base and gluing into the grooves were similar to the earlier designs. the next design was characterized by an outline composed largely of straight lines. the middle partition was lower than the front and back pieces, as shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. . a neat design for a letter rack] the boys found a great deal of pleasure in working out a decorative scheme for the carving. having discovered how easy it is to carve the long flowing curves, they introduced them wherever possible. the general shape of the carved section must of course conform to the outline of the wood, but while filling in these flowing curves they soon learned to sketch them in free-hand. [illustration: fig. . a letter rack decorated with the veining tool] to a person who has not tried this work or who has not begun with simple cuts it appears very difficult, but when it is remembered that only one cut can be made at a time and that each chip is a triangle, even if its sides are slightly curved, it actually proves very easy, and within the power of any normal boy to accomplish. [illustration: fig. . the pen-holder] harry was introduced at this time to the use of the veining tool, a fine gouge with a cross section almost v-shaped. this was used to emphasize the outlines of the designs by simply pushing ahead directly on the lines. when veining straight lines, it may be guided by a ruler or other straight edge, but for curves, a free-hand movement is necessary. a very good practice piece is the design shown at fig. . this may be applied to the front of the letter rack design. (fig. .) the pen-holder shown at fig. is one of a large number which were made by the boys. the pieces were cut out with a knife to the blank forms shown. on all pieces like these, afterward to be assembled, the edges were made straight and square on the shooting board, and the carving done before assembling. this pen-holder was put together with / -inch brads with the exception of the front, which was glued, as it was thought best not to have nails showing on this important side. (fig. .) [illustration: fig. . pieces composing pen-holder] [illustration: photograph by arthur g. eldredge. using the veining tool] xiii chip carving and knife work (see , ) "i like this new work better than anything we have ever done," said harry one day when he and ralph were up to their ears in carving, whittling, and designing. ralph smiled as he remembered harry's intense interest in making moving toys. "as i told you once before," he replied, "this is not new but old. the people of northern europe have done it for centuries, and the reason is not hard to find. in norway during the long winter it gets dark very early, in some places at three o'clock in the afternoon, and does not become light again until nine o'clock in the morning. the result is very, very long evenings, when it is much more comfortable to work indoors. "at an early era the people developed this beautiful art of carving, and spent their long evenings in working at it. they became very skilful and as most of the household utensils were of wood, it was not at all unusual to see the household furniture, even to their bread boards, beautifully carved." "by the way," said harry, "can't i make a paper knife now? you know you said i could after i had learned to use the knife!" "yes, i think you might try your skill on something of that character now. it will be quite a change from this flat work we have been doing. it will require a harder wood, however, than you have been using, as a paper knife must be thin and strong at the same time. "the swedish carvers use apple wood a great deal for their paper knives, but as this is rare with us, suppose we try rock maple. it is white in colour, close grained, and hard." as usual, they worked up their design on paper first and sketched in the carving shown in fig. . a piece of rock or sugar maple was first squared up and laid out in pencil as shown at _b_. in order to get the outline to conform exactly to the drawing, the form was cut out of paper and traced on the face of the wood. the blank form was then whittled out to the pencil line, and sand-papered smooth as shown at _c_. maple proved to be a hard wood to whittle. notches were cut at _d d_ after drawing the edge view on front and back edges. the blade and handle were then whittled down to lines _e_ and _f_. [illustration: fig. . two designs for paper knives] "whew!" exclaimed harry, "don't ever give me any maple to whittle again." "well, you wanted to make a paper knife, didn't you? a paper knife that would break when it fell on the floor wouldn't be of much use, and you are not through yet. the blade must be cut down to a fairly sharp edge on both sides now." this was done by bevelling the edges as shown in _h_ and the bevel gradually cut back to the centre line, as shown at _i_ and _j_. harry concluded that this was the hardest work that he had ever done. [illustration: fig. . key rack designs] "now you understand," said ralph, "why i couldn't allow you to make a knife at first. all the training i have given you was necessary before you had the requisite skill and control of your hands. the carving will be easy for you because of all this practice. skill is something which comes that way. why, if i should give you the problem of making that first key rack over again, you would do it in about one third of the time, and very much better than at your first attempt. you have been gaining skill without knowing it. "just to show you how much you have advanced, i will give you one or two key rack designs to be decorated with chip carving. when they are finished, take them into the house and compare them with the first you made. i think you will be amused at the difference. that original piece of which you were so proud will seem a very crude affair now." "all right," said harry, "but i should like to make one more paper knife first if you don't mind." "very well; make up a new design, because no artist ever duplicates his work," said ralph with a mischievous smile. the smile was premature, however. the boy had not been designing woodwork for nothing. the design is shown at no. , fig. , and even ralph, severe critic though he was, had to admit that it was "pretty fair." "looks like a table knife," he said seriously. "however, it is your own design, so go ahead and make it. try a piece of cherry this time. it makes a good wood for carving, and is not quite so hard to whittle as maple." the different steps in the process of cutting this out were the same as in no. , fig. . [illustration: fig. . the blotter pad] the key rack shown in fig. was comparatively easy after making paper knives. the bevelling of the curves at the ends was the only new feature of the knife work. [illustration: fig. . method of using the spokeshave] the making of presents went rapidly onward from this time. the next article to engage our woodworkers' attention was the blotting pad, made of two pieces of black walnut fastened together with the screw handle. (fig. .) the blotter is bent around the curved face of the lower part, and the ends gripped between the two parts by tightening the screw. these handles with screw attached are of brass, and can be obtained at any hardware store. the upper piece was bevelled, and a circular space in the centre left plain to provide for the handle, the rest of the space being carved. the making of the curved face on the bottom was too difficult for the knife, so the boy worked it out with the plane and spokeshave shown in (fig. ). when these blotter pads are finished with the brass handle, coloured blotter and hand-carved top, they are very attractive, and make acceptable presents. toilet boxes were next in order, and there seemed no end to them; glove boxes, collar boxes, handkerchief boxes, boxes for storing away photographs, etc. those for collars were square, viewed from the top, while glove boxes were made long and narrow. the construction of these called for the use of carpenters' tools, and ralph was not ready to start his pupil on this branch of woodwork yet, for several reasons. in the first place, it meant a halt in the fascinating work of carving, and they had not yet exhausted the possibilities of knife work. so they tried the plan of buying ready-made boxes from the stores. this was not entirely satisfactory, as most of them were of basswood, soft, and easily carved, but so white that it became soiled too readily. this difficulty finally led to a unique scheme. they stained the wood a dull ebony, and found that the design showed very clearly in gray pencil lines, easily carved. the carving came out white on a black background, and proved quite satisfactory for the coarser designs. the finer work, however, did not show to advantage, and the method was adopted of leaving certain portions of the surface plain. one of the glove box designs is shown in fig. . the lines made in this black and white carving by the veining tool are very effective. [illustration: fig. . design for glove box] the boys had just gotten nicely at work one afternoon when harry remarked very seriously: "on what subject shall our lecture be this afternoon, professor?" a block of white pine hurtled across the shop, but harry ducked and no one was hurt. "no," said ralph, "you can't start a discussion to-day. i've been thinking that you will have to take up the use of bench tools pretty soon, because you are really doing this work backward." "what do you mean?" "why, you should never decorate anything which you haven't actually made." "well, haven't i made everything we have carved so far?" [illustration: fig. . double photo frame] "all except the boxes. when we bought those boxes, that was a signal that it was time for you to begin constructive work. it has been a big problem to give you carving to do on articles in the flat that you could make with the knife. we will make a few picture frames, carve them, and then leave our carving until you can construct anything in wood. you will always be able now to design carved work for any given space; one of these picture frames, however, is going to be a rather severe test of your skill." fig. shows the first photograph frame they took up, a simple design in one piece. the openings for the pictures were cut out with coping saw and knife and bevelled. the bevels on the outer edges of the frame were planed. [illustration: fig. . carved picture frame] fig. shows a problem in designing for irregular spaces, and the design is a typical swedish form. in both of these frames it was necessary to provide a method of holding the photo on the back. this was accomplished by tacking on two strips of / -inch basswood on each side, and the bottom as shown in fig. , the narrow strip being / inch wide, and the top one / inch wide, making a groove / inch deep to receive the picture. if it is designed to have glass in front of the photo, the narrow strip must be / inch thick in place of / inch. the problem of polishing carved work is rather a difficult one. ordinary varnish or shellac cannot be used to advantage, as on flat surfaces, because it fills up the spaces and ruins the effect. perhaps the best method is to dissolve a small quantity of beeswax in turpentine, and rub in with an old tooth or nail brush, which is comparatively soft. this will not injure the carving, and will protect it from dampness and dust, as the wax hardens. it should be put on when about the consistency of soft putty. [illustration: fig. . palette photograph frame] the photo frame shown (fig. ) was the last form our boys attempted in the flat. it has the advantage of simplicity, only one kind of cut being used; but the long flowing lines, which must be first drawn on the wood free-hand, require all the patience and skill one can command. the form in outline is the artist's palette, and the opening for the picture an ellipse. all the lines in the carving converge to a point to the left of the centre of the opening. xiv the shop the man who is most successful is the one who is best prepared for his work. in beginning to learn how to use woodworking tools, the average boy is very often hampered by the lack of facilities. the place he is to use for his shop should at least have good light. many of the lines he uses are knife lines, which are harder to see than pencil lines, so that light at least is an essential. the tools should be as good as he can obtain. this does not mean that it is necessary to have elaborate sets of chisels, gouges, etc., but the cutting tools should be of well tempered steel. it is far better to have a few very good tools than an elaborate equipment of poor ones, such as the boy's ready-made tool chest often contains. a good workman is one who can do a large variety of good work with a few well-selected tools. one reason for our having given so much space to knife work was to illustrate this very fact. very often the carved pieces described in previous chapters are salable at good figures, and from the money thus obtained a supply of bench or carpenters' tools can be bought. next to a well lighted place in which to work, a fairly good bench is essential. this can be made by the boy himself, if he cannot secure one already built, but as the construction of a bench presupposes some previous practice with tools, we will assume that our readers receive their first tool practice on a bench already built, just as harry did. several forms of benches on the market are shown in fig. . the bench to be of any use must have a vise of some description, as very often both hands are required to guide the tool, and the wood must be held rigid. the old-fashioned screw vise is cheap, and a cheap vise may be made at a cost of half a dollar, by purchasing the screw and nut and making the jaw and guides by hand, but this again calls for the use of a bench. so taken all in all it will pay the young woodworker to save his money and buy a good vise even if the bench is home-made. this is just where our boys had their first argument; harry wanted to begin by building a work bench. [illustration: fig. . types of work bench] "that is where you are wrong," said ralph. "perhaps you remember that you wanted to begin knife work by making a paper cutter, and as a matter of fact it was very nearly the last thing i gave you to do. it required all your skill and previous practice to accomplish it. it will be just the same with the bench and vise. you will be able to construct them, but only after considerable experience with tools. you might as well insist on making all your tools before starting to use them or you might insist on going into the woods, cutting down trees and ripping out your own planks for stock. just wait a minute." he went into the house and came out with a pamphlet on lumbering, which he opened at the picture shown in fig . it represents the old style of sawing out planks by hand before the coming of the saw-mill. the man in the pit is called a pit man, the one on the log, the sawyer. this method of cutting lumber was in vogue up to about fifty years ago. "this," said ralph, "is what your line of reasoning would lead us back to, so if i am to be your instructor you must leave these things to my judgment, and my advice is to start work with a good bench having on it a good vise." [illustration: fig. . the old way of getting out lumber] to let you into a family secret, the boys' work in carving had been admired by several friends and they had worked up quite a trade in making and selling their carvings. from the money they had saved they purchased the bench shown in fig. . it was very well built, having a heavy top of -inch maple and a modern quick action vise. the seven drawers underneath were not really necessary, but the boys found them very handy for storing tools, nails, screws, unfinished work, etc. [illustration: fig. . bench with quick action vise] the space under a bench is very apt to become a catch-all and a nuisance, so as time went on they concluded that the extra cost of this bench was justified, although at the time the price seemed very high. some of the cheaper benches they looked at are shown in fig. . the quick action vise was a great time saver, as it could be pulled wide open or pushed back without turning the handle, as in the old screw vises. a dozen of these quick action vises are on the market, and may be had at hardware stores for from four dollars upward. this flat topped bench had no tool rack, and could consequently be worked on from any side. at first, the owners kept most of their tools in the large drawer at the top, but later on they made a good sized tool cabinet, which was fastened to the wall and will be described later. the iron bench stop also proved a valuable feature, as it could be fastened at any desired height by a set screw, or dropped down out of the way below the level of the bench top. when planing thin wood, one end of the board is braced against the bench stop. ralph found that starting with a new bench had another advantage. it helped his pupil to take good care of the bench. harry was very careful not to saw or cut it as he might have done with an old bench, and to foster this spirit of carefulness, ralph gave him for his first problem the making of a bench hook. (fig. .) the tools used in its construction were: -inch rip saw brace and / -inch bit -inch cross cut saw countersink bit marking gauge - / -inch flat head screws try square inches piece of maple, planed to / -inch -inch jack-plane thick, inches long, inches wide [illustration: fig. . the bench hook] the maple board was first laid out as shown at _a_, a pencil line being drawn inches from one edge. the piece was placed in the vise horizontally, and both long edges planed straight and true and tested with the try square. the block was then placed upright in the vise, and the ends planed square with the block plane. this required much explaining and practise, as the block plane has a bad habit of breaking off the farther corner. ralph showed harry how to use this tool safely by planing only part way across the end and then finishing from the other side. both ends were tested with the try square. the piece was now sawed in two by using a rip saw on the pencil line, the wood being held in the vise in an upright position. this made two pieces of stock inches long, one inches wide, the other inches nearly, as the saw cut had removed some of the wood. the -inch piece was laid out as shown at _b_. the marking gauge was set at - / inches and from the joint edge--that already planed--a line was gauged on each flat face, and the sawed edge planed to these lines as at _b_. it was then laid out as shown at _c_, two knife lines being squared around the four sides / inch apart. the piece was then sawed apart carefully between these two knife lines, and the ends block planed and tested. [illustration: fig. . method of using the bench hook and back saw] two / -inch holes were bored, as shown at _d_, in each piece, and countersunk with the countersink bit. this makes a place for the screw heads, so they will be below the surface where they cannot be in the way of tools or scratch the bench. the wide piece was next planed on its sawed edge, and the blocks screwed on. that the bench hook might always be handy and have a definite place of its own, a half-inch hole was bored as shown in the illustration, and it was hung on a nail, set in the end of the bench. the bench hook is designed to protect the bench from saw marks and the cuts of chisels, gouges, etc. the method of using it with the saw is shown in fig. . wherever possible, it should be made of hard wood. xv the equipment for a shop nothing is so necessary to the saving of time and energy as an orderly shop. our boys had bought a quantity of white pine to begin operations and it was lying in a pile on the floor where it was always in the way. to cut a piece of stock from one of these -foot boards it was necessary to use two kitchen chairs for trestles, so it was decided to construct two saw horses, and as soon as they were finished, to build a lumber rack against the wall where their little supply could be stored out of the way. "we will carry out our regular practice by first making a drawing," said ralph. "we know from experience that it saves time." fig. shows the proportions of the trestle at _a_, and the mechanical drawing with all dimensions at _b_. the body of the trestle was built up of four pieces, two long and two short ones. the open space in the centre, ralph explained, would make a convenient tool rack where hammers, chisels, etc., could be placed while they were working, especially at outdoor work, instead of being dropped on the ground. the body then called for two pieces feet long by inches wide, and two pieces inches long by wide. these were sawed from a rough plank with the rip saw by using the chairs as trestles. a pencil line was laid out - / inches from one edge, and the saw cut made directly on the line, feet long. the cross cut saw was used to cut the strip off and this strip was then sawed with the same saw into four pieces of equal length for the legs. another strip - / inches wide, feet inches long, was ripped out and taken off with the cross cut saw, for the body, and divided into two pieces feet inches long, for convenience in planing. harry now had his first real experience in planing. all the pieces were of -inch rough lumber, with sawed edges, and had to be planed down to / inch in thickness. to plane six pieces of stock straight and true, with squared edges and of definite size, was no easy task. "how do you like manual labour?" asked ralph, mischievously. "i like it all right," replied the perspiring boy, "but we won't need any gymnasium work for exercise while we are doing this." [illustration: fig. . the trestle or saw horse. by permission of _carpentry and building_] "wouldn't you like to make a bench in hard wood right away?" asked ralph. "no, i guess you were right after all." ralph showed him the proper way to stand, and how to hold the jack-plane so as to get the best results. he promised to show him how to sharpen and adjust the plane as soon as the lumber was stored away on the lumber rack. harry's business was to dress down one of the flat faces of each piece till it was smooth, straight and true both with the grain and across it. he tested it by his eye and the edge of his plane and when he thought it was about right, passed it over to ralph for criticism. ralph was a very exacting instructor, but made allowance for the boy's inexperience. he was making the second trestle at the same time and it was exasperating to harry to see the ease with which he turned out his work. "never mind," said ralph, "you can do as good carving now as i, and in a few weeks you will be able to do just as good joinery or carpentry. the first day is always the hardest. you are all impatience and want to get through right away. after a while you will learn by experience that you can only do one thing at a time, and will not rush so." [illustration: photograph by helen w. cooke. using the jack plane] finally, one face on each of the six pieces was pronounced finished, and the next step was to "joint" or "dress down" one edge straight, smooth and square with the working face--the first planed surface. this seemed easier after the experience of making the bench hook, and harry knew how to test for squareness with the try square. working on the two long pieces for the body, both edges of each were squared up, a -inch piece was marked off on one end of each with pencil and try square, and sawed off with cross cut saw. it was decided to leave the inner faces rough, as they would be inside the trestle, and out of sight. these four pieces forming the body were now nailed together with - / -inch wire nails, as shown in _a_. the four pieces for the legs were dressed on all four sides, and it only remained to cut the angle at top and bottom. this brought into use a new tool, the bevel. the angle _x_ was found by laying the bevel on the mechanical drawing, and fixing it at the angle by tightening the set screw provided for the purpose. the line was carried across the face by means of the try square, and the bevel used on the farther edge. when this laying out was finished, the piece looked like _c_, the triangular piece _y_ being removed by sawing directly on the pencil lines. after the four legs were laid out in this manner and cut, they were nailed to the body with -inch wire nails. the saw horse was now complete with the exception of the two braces, and the final truing up. the braces were made by holding a piece of stock inches Ã� / inch in position and marking the slope with a pencil, sawing to pencil lines and nailing in position _d_. the final process of truing up was an interesting one to harry, and he used it many times afterward in finishing pieces of furniture, such as tables, tabourettes, etc. the horse was placed on the bench, and a pair of dividers set as shown at _e_. a line was scribed on each leg wherever the compasses point touched it, holding the latter upright and going around all four sides of each leg. by sawing to the lines made in this way, the trestle was found to stand on the floor perfectly true. this is a method much used in truing up articles that rest on three or more legs, and it overcomes any inaccuracies that may have arisen in the process of assembling; but it is very important that the surface on which this truing up is done shall itself be perfectly true. the bench used in this case was new and had not yet warped at all, but an old bench might not have been suitable. this can be ascertained by testing the surface in several directions with a long straight edge. the facts of warping and shrinkage in wood must always be taken into consideration. the saw horse is an important part of every shop equipment, and the boys now relegated the clumsy chairs to the kitchen, where they belonged, and were prepared to saw out stock from their longest boards. xvi building a lumber rack ralph had painted two signs and fastened them in prominent places on the wall. one read: "one thing at a time"; the other, "a place for everything, and everything in its place." "those are very old-fashioned," he said, "but they are none the less absolutely true. many boys fail to accomplish anything in tool work because they do not heed the first, and more time is wasted than we ever realize, particularly among mechanics, by failing to observe the second. it often seems a waste of time to put a tool or piece of stock away in a definite place, but, on the other hand, one often spends ten times as many minutes in looking for a thing as he would putting it in its place where it could be found instantly." "what's the answer?" said harry absent-mindedly. "the answer is that we will make a rack for our lumber before we do anything else. "it need not be very fine work, but it will make our shop much neater, if the surfaces of the wood are planed instead of being left rough, and to give you practice in planing and to develop your muscles, i am going to let you do most of the planing, while i lay out the work." the rack as finally constructed is shown in fig. . the shop was not sheathed on the inside, the framework or studding being exposed. the short cross pieces were nailed to the studding with ten-penny wire nails, but where they joined the uprights they were let into the latter to a depth of / inch before being nailed. harry wanted to know what this was for, and ralph explained that if the cross pieces were simply nailed to the uprights, all the weight would be carried by the nails. by letting or "gaining" them part way into the uprights, the weight was carried by the latter without so much strain on the nails. "then why don't you let them into the wall studs too?" asked harry. "because the studs are in position and we couldn't saw them out without breaking through the outside of the building; therefore we are obliged simply to nail them on." [illustration: fig. . the lumber rack] four of the uprights were spaced three feet apart, and held in place at top and bottom by blocks nailed to the ceiling and floor. a carpenter would have simply "toe-nailed" them by driving nails at an angle through the ends of the uprights into the floor, but the boys were not yet skilled in carpenters' methods. an ideal lumber rack is made of galvanized iron pipe. it is indestructible, fire-proof, rather expensive, and the joints are regular pipe fitter's joints, elbows, tees, crosses, and floor plates. this was beyond our boys' pocket-book, as it would have required the services of a pipe fitter. one of the uprights laid out and partly cut is shown at _a_, the openings having been taken out with cross cut saw and chisel. on one of the upper tiers the cross pieces were made eight inches longer than the others, and where they extended beyond the front of the rack pieces of pine Ã� Ã� / inches were nailed to the ends, making a convenient hook for hanging hand screws, which are always in the way on the floor. it also made a very convenient shelf for storing narrow waste strips of lumber, which should not be destroyed, as one can never tell when they will be needed. in the case of a rack made of iron pipe, the ends of these long cross pieces need be only ordinary pipe elbows. the labour of building a lumber rack was much heavier than anything the boys had done before, but it brought the larger muscles into play, seemed like real carpenter work, and was an excellent preparation for the finer tool work to follow. a boy who has never carried out a piece of large work successfully cannot realize the satisfaction of looking at a really good piece of construction and being able to say, "i made that all myself!" [illustration: fig. . first wind vane] ralph suggested that one or two things more were needed to make their equipment ship-shape--one was a tool cabinet, and another was some arrangement for storing small pieces of stock; but as both of these required considerable tool practice, they were recorded in a notebook as among the things to be done later on. it was agreed that the shop needed a vane to show the direction of the wind, and the boys' design for this is shown at fig. . it included a weather vane and windmill. the whole combination required five pieces of wood. the two short pieces, inches long by inch square, were first dressed to size, cut out and halved together as shown. they were then taken apart and cut to the lines shown, with a knife, making propeller blades similar to those made for the aeroplane. when both were finished, they were again put together, and a hole drilled through the centre a trifle larger than a flat-head wire nail - / inches long. this nail is to hold the mill to the horizontal piece. the nail is to be tight in this horizontal piece, but the windmill must revolve freely about the nail. it is for this reason that the hole in the mill must be slightly larger than the diameter of the nail. the horizontal piece is bevelled on one end with the knife and has a / -inch slot sawed out at the other. the slot is to receive the wind vane. the vane was sawed out of / -inch wood, fitted into the slot and nailed with brads. when all these parts were assembled, it was necessary to find the centre of gravity of the whole combination, as it is important that it be perfectly balanced. to find the correct point, a light string was slipped under the horizontal piece and moved back and forth until the vane hung horizontally. the spot where the string touched the wood was marked with a pencil and a / -inch hole drilled at this point for the pivot. a corresponding hole was drilled inches deep into the bevelled end of the standard. a piece of / -inch maple dowel was used as a pivot, the upper end being sand-papered until the vane swung freely. the boys found that by placing a metal washer between the vane and its standard, much of the friction was removed. a wire nail driven into the standard through a hole drilled in the horizontal piece would have answered the same purpose as the dowel. when the centre of gravity is not found for the pivot, the vane is apt to tilt forward or backward and not only look badly, but bring considerable friction on one end, so that it will not revolve freely with the wind. xvii mills and weather vanes the subject of windmills and weather vanes opened up a field that seemed inexhaustible, and for a while there was a perfect furore of designing and experimenting. as usual, harry wanted to try great schemes that ralph knew were impracticable, and it required all his diplomacy to keep the boy down to earth, on something simple and within his power to do successfully. one of his earliest attempts was a scheme to make a windmill on the principle of a water-wheel, placed horizontally to catch the wind. ralph knew that it would not work, but after arguing for some time, he decided to let the youngster learn by experience. while harry was working at his project, ralph sketched out and made a vane which he considered an improvement on the first one. it is shown in fig. ; and it was made without a mill and composed of four pieces. the horizontal piece had an arrow head at the forward end. at the rear end, two pieces of / -inch pine were fastened with two small bolts. from the point where they were bolted they curved outward as shown in the top view, and were held in that position by two small strips nailed on with brads, one on the upper and one on the lower side. the centre of gravity was found as before, and the vane pivoted to its standard. [illustration: fig. . second wind vane] in the meantime, harry had found out to his own satisfaction that his water-wheel windmill would not work. "what have you curved those ends out for?" he exclaimed on catching a sight of ralph's vane. "why, to make it more sensitive to the slightest breeze. those curves catch the wind quicker than flat surfaces; have you never noticed that on the weather bureau vanes they are always curved out like that?" "no," said harry. "by the way, do you know why my mill doesn't work?" "i have told you about six times that a water-wheel receives the water on one side only, while your mill receives the same pressure on both sides of the centre. the two forces balance, so your mill can't very well turn. if you could cut off the wind from one side, it would go all right." "well, why can't i box in one side?" "you can, but then you will have to shift it every time the wind changes. you could construct a combination mill and vane, and arrange it so that the box would be shifted by the vane, but honestly, i don't think it worth the trouble. it would be clumsy, top-heavy, and hard to balance. i have a scheme for a horizontal mill, but we will take it up later. in the meantime, let's make a happy jack windmill!" "happy jack?" "that's what they call them, but we will try to be original and i propose an indian with war clubs." "whew! that sounds interesting!" ralph's sketch of the indian is shown in fig. . the figure was sawed out of / -inch pine, a / -inch hole bored for the arms, and a / -inch hole bored for the dowel pivot at the feet. the arms were made of a piece of dowel, six inches long, with / -inch holes bored near the ends to receive the "clubs." these were whittled out of pine, each club being a propeller blade. when fastened into the dowel they formed a complete two-bladed propeller, but this was not done until the dowel had been inserted through the indian's shoulders, and a brad driven through on each side of the body to keep the arms in place. [illustration: fig. . happy jack] harry was so anxious to see it work that he came near spoiling it, and had to be restrained by the older boy, as in making these toys a well balanced figure is very important. when it was finally finished, and placed out in the wind, the antics of the indian made harry laugh till the tears ran down his cheeks. "that's the finest thing we ever made," he said. ralph smiled. it seemed that he had heard something like that several times before. an athlete was suggested, and a bold figure with outstretched arms was sketched, as shown in fig. . the indian clubs he is supposed to be swinging were propeller blades, and to give them more uniform motion than in the case of the indian, the hands were drilled and a piece of / -inch dowel inserted. at each end of the dowel was fastened a blade which had been drilled to fit. brads were driven through the dowel on each side of the hand to keep the clubs swinging freely. [illustration: fig. . an athletic happy jack] the body and arms were cut from a piece of / -inch pine and halved together across the chest, and after the joint was made the form of the body and the arms whittled out with a knife. the two parts were then fastened together with brads. it was important that this figure face the wind, so into the space between the ankles was fitted the small end of a wind vane and the figure securely fastened to it with brads. the centre of gravity was then found and the whole combination pivoted on a generous piece of / -inch dowel. [illustration: fig. . the anemometer] this athletic weather vane is painted in bright colours, the clubs being gilded to make them realistic indian clubs. "what was that scheme of yours for a horizontal windmill?" asked harry after he had watched the athletic club swinger until he was satisfied. "why, to make one on the principle of the anemometer," replied ralph. "how do you spell it?" "never mind the spelling, it's like this," and ralph rapidly sketched out fig. . "this is the wind gauge of the weather bureau," he explained, "and i figure we can use ordinary tin cups for the buckets. you go down to the hardware store and buy four small round bottomed tin cups while i start the woodwork." having secured the cups for five cents each, they cut the handles with a pair of tinners' "snips." the cut was made next to the cup at the lowest point and the handle straightened out even with the top of the cup. two pieces of pine, inches long, / -inch wide, and / -inch thick, were halved together at the centre, where a / -inch hole was bored straight through the joint. a block of wood cut to the shape _a_ was fitted over the joint, and fastened to the four arms with -inch brads. the / -inch hole was now continued almost through this cap to give a long bearing for the pivot--a ten-penny wire nail with the head filed off. two / -inch holes were drilled through the handle of each cup and corresponding holes through the wooden arms. the cups were made fast by passing / -inch bolts through cup handles and arms and tightening the nuts. this made a very strong and rigid construction and on testing it by holding the pivot in the hand out in the breeze the instrument revolved rapidly. altogether it was one of the most substantial and satisfactory things that they had made, but ralph was not yet satisfied. "we might as well have a coney island of our own as not," he said. "you whittle out four propellers, inches long and / inch across, and i'll show you something," he said. while harry was doing this, ralph sawed out four wooden dirigibles shown at _b_, inches long, inches across at the widest part, and / inch thick. a hole was drilled through the centre of each propeller and another in the flat stern of each air-ship. the pivots for the propellers were flat-head wire nails small enough for the blades to revolve freely, but driven securely into the air-ships. these were now fastened at the ends of the arms of the anemometer by attaching two strips of basswood to each ship by wires. the strips were to hold the ships in the proper position facing in the direction of motion, which was always the same, no matter in which direction the wind was blowing. the upper ends of these strips were brought together, and securely fastened under one of the bolts by wires. as the anemometer revolved, centrifugal force sent the air-ships out as far as the basswood strips would allow. [illustration: fig. . the zeppelin wind vane] it was a very interesting fair weather toy, but the first gale, while having no effect on the anemometer other than to make it spin around at terrific speed, nearly wrecked the ships by slamming them against the standard. so the boys always took the ships off at night, and put them on again when they wanted to give an exhibition. the propellers were gilded and the ships painted in bright colours. a very simple vane may be made to represent a zeppelin air-ship (fig. ) by cutting out a piece of white pine feet long and - / inches wide with the ends pointed to the shape of a gothic arch. the hole for the pivot should be bored inches deep and be placed well forward of the centre. to make the vane balance, the rear portion from the pivot to the stern should be planed thin and rounded with the spokeshave. [illustration: fig. . a six-bladed mill] at the stern should be a small two-bladed propeller, pivoted on a flat-head wire nail. if the stern is still too heavy, the balance can be restored by driving into the forward point a round-headed screw, or by attaching another small propeller. in fact, if the hole in this propeller is made large enough, the screw can be used as the pivot; in any event, the vane must be balanced by adding some kind of weight at the bow. these typical forms of wind vanes will suggest others and the young woodworker should try to be original, to design new forms, ships, submarines, air-ships, etc. one form which the boys made was especially substantial and reliable. a six-bladed mill was constructed as follows: first: a piece of / -inch pine was cut to the form of a hexagon inches across the points. second: a / -inch hole was bored in the centre of each of the six edges and a / -inch hole through the centre of the hexagon. (fig. .) third: six blades were formed from / -inch pine inches long, inches wide, tapering down to inch at one end. fourth: in the small end a / -inch hole was bored at the centre, about an inch deep. fifth: the blades were tapered in thickness from / -inch at the small end to / -inch at the wide end, the tapering being done on one side only, that away from the wind, the side facing the wind being perfectly flat. sixth: dowel pins were glued securely into the holes in the hexagonal block and into the blades, the latter being turned on the dowels at an angle of about degrees-- / a right angle--from the front face. seventh: after the glue had hardened over night, the whole mill was painted, special attention being given to covering the joint where the glue held, to prevent the rain from loosening it. eighth: two pieces of / -inch white wood were cut out to the form shown at _b_. these were fastened to the square piece _c_ by two small bolts. the wide ends of the vanes were spread and fastened by two small strips of white wood, by brads as shown. ninth: last came the locating of the centre of gravity, after the mill had been attached by a ten-penny flat-head wire nail. the pivot was made of a similar nail into the standard, as on previous wind vanes. xviii tools: saws the boys now took up the systematic study of tools, as ralph suggested that they had spent time enough on toys and curiosities. a cutting tool must be constructed with reference to the material it is to cut. in the machine shop, we find the angle of the cutting edge large--often degrees--while a razor has a cutting edge of about degrees. all cutting tools are wedges, whether saws, chisels, planes, axes, or knives, and the angle depends on the hardness of the material in which it is to work. the action of the tool may be a chisel action, a knife action, or both. in the rip saw, the teeth are really a series of chisel edges cut in one piece of steel, while in a cross cut saw we have a knife action for cutting the fibres, followed by a chisel action for removing the wood. the side view of a rip saw is shown at _a_ (fig. ), the end view at _b_. the chisel-like edges are bent outward to right and left alternately. this is called the "set" of the teeth and its purpose is to make the cut wider than the body of the saw, to prevent friction. as the saw teeth pass through the wood, the fibres spring back against the saw blade or body, and the friction makes the work almost impossible without "set" to the teeth. all woodworking saws must be set, and special tools called "saw sets" are sold for the purpose of bending out the teeth. [illustration: fig. . teeth of rip saw] the rip or slitting saw should only be used for cutting with the grain. when used across the grain, the action is exactly like that of a narrow chisel, and it will tear the fibres instead of cutting them. the teeth of a cross cut saw are shown in fig. . at _a_ is the side view, and at _b_ the end view. the teeth are set and filed to a knife edge. this gives two parallel lines of knife-like teeth which cut the fibres in two parallel lines, while the body of the tooth cuts out the wood in the form of sawdust. all woodworking saws belong to one of these two classes, and the cutting angles of the teeth are shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. . teeth of cross cut saw] [illustration: photograph by helen w. cooke. learning to use the cross cut saw] [illustration: fig. ] we are very apt to regard the saw not only as a very commonplace article, but as a fixed quantity which has always been the same and always will be. as a matter of fact, the saw has gone through a process of evolution the same as the electric motor, automobile, and aeroplane. new methods of its manufacture are constantly being invented and improvements made in its construction. some of the steps in the process of making a hand saw are: rolling the steel plate of which the body is made, hardening, tempering, hammering or smithing, grinding, polishing, filing, setting, etching, handling, and blocking. [illustration: fig. ] the handling refers to the placing of the wooden handle and some idea of what it means is illustrated in fig. , showing two methods of attaching the apple wood handle. some idea of what the grinding means is shown by the tapers, or difference in the thickness of the steel, as shown at fig. , the thickness in one thousandths of an inch being given at the different points. it will be noticed that not only does the blade decrease in width from the handle out to the end of the saw, but the thickness decreases from the teeth to the top and also from the handle out to the end. this represents ideal saw construction, and it is found only in the good makes. [illustration: fig. . thickness of saw blade] [illustration: fig. . the back saw] the back saw, being strengthened by a heavy piece of steel along the top, is made of thinner material, and the tapers are not necessary, for the back piece gives rigidity. it removes less wood, but is limited in its action by the back. it is used chiefly by pattern makers, and for finer bench work, such as cabinet making, but should be part of every boy's outfit. the compass-saw shown at fig. is used for general purposes, but is not so necessary as the back saw. it is useful for cutting out small openings, though it is not as valuable for this purpose as the turning saw. [illustration: fig. . the compass saw] one end of the turning saw can be released from the frame by removing a pin, passed through a small hole. this is fastened in the frame again and made to follow a curved line like a fret or coping saw. [illustration: fig. . the turning saw] the number of teeth to the inch varies, and saws are rated as four-point, five-point, etc., according to the number of points or spaces to the inch. for very hard woods, a saw with small teeth, _i. e._, with more points than ordinary to the inch, should be used; but a boy who possesses one saw of each kind--a rip, a cross cut, a back saw, and a turning saw--has all that will be required for ordinary woodwork. [illustration: fig. . using the rip saw and trestles] in working with the board on trestles, the saw should be held at an angle of about degrees to the surface. when sawing a board held in the bench vise, this is not so easily done, but the cut should at least be started with the tool in the correct position. (fig. ). the hack saw is used for cutting metal, and while not essential for woodwork, is often valuable for cutting pieces of pipe, rivets, bolts, screws, and nails and should be added to the outfit when the finances will allow. (fig. ). [illustration: fig. . the hack saw for cutting metal] in fact, there is no such thing as a set of tools. good tools only should be bought, and the outfit at first should be simple; new ones can be added from time to time, as they are needed. in this way one learns the possibilities of his kit much better than by starting with an elaborate collection. xix tools: planes a boy buying his tool outfit is often bewildered by the array in the hardware store. he is further confused by the advice of the salesman, and his own little store of money. in selecting planes, only three are really necessary for ordinary work, and this number may even be reduced to two. wooden planes are still the favourite tools of some woodworkers, but iron planes have largely superseded them. a -inch iron jack plane, a -inch smoothing plane, and a block plane make a very good combination for a beginning. special planes can be added later, as the finances will allow. the iron plane with its various parts is shown in fig. . these refer to either the jack or the smooth plane. in the block plane there is no cap iron, the cutter or plane iron being placed with the bevelled side up. there is frequently found on this tool an adjustment for changing the amount of opening in the mouth for hard or soft woods. the plane iron and cap are fastened together with a set screw, and the cap is removed when it is being ground or sharpened on an oilstone. this set screw, which is loosened with a screw-driver, or the edge of the clamp used as a screw-driver, also allows the distance from the cutting edge to the cap to be changed for soft or hard woods. these two irons are fastened into the throat of the plane by the clamp. [illustration: fig. . the smoothing plane] the lever ( ) is for straightening the plane iron, and the screw _s_ is for adjusting the depth of the cut. the difference between the jack and smooth planes, aside from the size, is in the shape of the "cutter" or "bit." in the jack plane, the bit is ground with a slightly curved cutting edge. this enables the tool to remove coarse shavings, but leaves a slightly corrugated surface which must be smoothed with the smoothing plane. the jack plane also tends to straighten the work, owing to its greater length. the greater the length, the more does it straighten. the old-fashioned jointers were made several feet long for this very purpose. if a boy can afford only one plane, it should be a jack plane, but the cutter should be ground straight to act as a smooth plane. the block plane can be dispensed with better than any of the others, because the smooth plane can be used on a shooting board for truing up end grain, the original purpose of the block plane. the latter plane has no cap, as it works on the ends of the wood fibres with a shearing or paring action. this is helped by holding the tool at an angle with the wood, a position not advisable with the other two tools. [illustration: by the courtesy of the metropolitan museum of art. tools of the seventeenth century showing how little progress has been made in tool construction. in this collection is a jointer plane, a smooth plane, rabbit plane, straight edge, dividers or compasses, a bench vise, hand vise, wrench, hacksaw and combination tool.] the proper position for planing is with the right side to the bench, the plane held flat on the work. each stroke should, wherever possible, be the full length of the board, unless one part is higher than the rest of the surface. this may be ascertained by using the edge of the plane as a straight edge. high spots should be marked with a pencil, and then planed off, till the full length strokes can be made, and the edge planed straight and true. in surface planing, if the surface be warped, the amount of wind may be determined by placing two "winding" sticks--two straight pieces of the same size at the two ends--and sighting with the eye along their top edges. to take out wind, it may be necessary to plane diagonally across the grain from corner to corner. this defect is common in lumber not properly piled or seasoned, and is more noticeable in such woods as gum or chestnut. the sharpening of plane irons is a very important part of one's knowledge of tool work, and of course applies to chisels, gouges, and all cutting tools. remember that the cutting edge or bevel is a wedge, the angle of a plane-iron bevel being from to degrees, the smaller angle for soft wood, the larger for hard. this angle is not measured by the woodworker often, but is a matter of experience. if the young mechanic will keep his tools ground to the same angle as he finds them at the time of purchase, he will not go far astray. [illustration: fig. . the cutting angle] this angle should be a clean-cut one, however. fig. shows some correct and some incorrect ways of grinding. at _a_ is shown the right way, _b_ is not an angle at all, and _c_ is a waste of time and material. at _d_ is shown the worst fault of all--a "back bevel." this occurs when the tool is carelessly turned over and ground on both sides, which renders it useless until all the steel in front of the dotted line has been removed; in other words, until the tool is reground. this mistake is sometimes made in using the oilstone, by rubbing the tool on both sides instead of on one only. all the grinding and sharpening must be done on the bevelled side. as the plane iron is only a thin chisel, the sharpening of the latter tool is performed as in the case of the plane iron, and the same care should be taken to keep the bevel clean cut. a good grindstone is a shop necessity, and, one might add, a household necessity, because every household uses knives, and the dull knife is an altogether too common nuisance. our boys hung up another sign at this stage, and it read, "keep your tools sharp." this ought to go without saying, but it is a fact that many people make failures of their work and become disgusted with it because they do not keep their tools in order. the satisfaction of using fine, sharp tools cannot be explained; it must be experienced. like other things about the shop, there are many kinds of grindstones on the market. the old-fashioned stone with a wooden frame (fig. ) worked by hand or a treadle may be good--it depends on the stone--and the new one with a small stone, iron, or pressed steel frame is handy. the last stone is provided with a bicycle seat, and is worked by both feet, so that the hands are free to hold the tool. this stone has ball bearings, is noiseless, and occupies less space than the other. a stone that is soft and gritty, rather than one that is hard like a piece of granite, should be selected. in holding the tool against the stone, some common sense is necessary. the harder one presses, the quicker the grinding, but if there is not plenty of water on the stone, the tool may be "burned." when a black place appears, you have destroyed the temper, showing that there has been too much pressure, or too little water, or both. [illustration: fig. . two types of grindstone] the tool may be moved back and forth across the stone to keep its face true, but never up and down. this up and down motion is careless and gives the defective edge shown at _b_ (fig. )--very bad grinding. it is an easy matter to test your grinding by occasionally placing the blade of a try square on the bevel. if it is not straight, your grinding needs more care. too much stress cannot be laid on the importance of this subject of grinding. it is the key-note of success. if you are careless in this particular, your work at the bench cannot be a success. "a good workman is known by his tools." [illustration: fig. . the oilstone] a teacher of drawing once said, "i don't care to see your drawing; all i want is to see your pencil. i can tell just what kind of work you are doing by observing the care you give your pencil." this is peculiarly true of the worker with tools. find a man very particular about them, and you may be sure he is a careful workman. after grinding comes sharpening. this is done by rubbing the bevelled side back and forth a few times on an oilstone, lubricated with a few drops of sperm or light machine oil. [illustration: fig. . the action of the cap iron] the stone should be wiped off, afterward, and should never be saturated with the oil. if this is allowed to happen, the surface becomes gummed (fig. ) and loses its cutting edge. this rubbing will sometimes turn over a thin wire edge, which is removed by laying the tool with the flat side on the oilstone and drawing it toward you. the wire edge can be further removed if necessary by stropping on a piece of leather. before replacing the cutter in the plane, the cap iron is fastened on the flat side about / -inch from the cutting edge; but this distance may be varied for different woods. the object of the cap iron is to prevent a splitting action by bending the shaving forward, as shown in fig. . at _a_ is shown the effect when there is no cap, and at _b_ the splinter bent over giving a shaving. xx squaring up stock having prepared harry for the serious work to come by his explanation of the plane and its operation, ralph prepared to start his pupil on the most important and difficult problem in shopwork--squaring up stock. "anybody," he said "can hack away at a piece of wood with tools, and get some kind of result, but if this work is worth doing at all, it is worth doing well, and to be able to square up stock is perhaps the most important operation you will ever do. it is like mathematics, the answer is either right or wrong. when you finish, the stock is either square or not square. "to square up stock means to reduce it to three definite dimensions, length, breadth, and thickness, with all adjoining edges or surfaces at right angles. it sounds easy. "suppose we want a piece inches Ã� inches Ã� / inch. first, saw out your stock about - / inches Ã� - / inches Ã� inch. this allows something each way for the tools to remove in the process--for sawdust and shavings. it is considerably more than necessary, but on the first trial you waste more than later, when you have become skilled in this work. "second. dress down one of the flat faces with the jack plane; follow with the smoothing plane and test, with straight edge, with the grain, across it, and diagonally across corners. when this face is finished it constitutes the foundation of the process, and is called the 'working face.' "third. make a pencil mark on the working face near one of the edges. this is called a witness mark, and it indicates that the edge it touches is to be the next face dressed. "fourth. dress down the edge, making it square with the working face, and testing its whole length with the try square. this is the 'joint edge' (fig. ). "fifth. set the marking gauge, as shown in fig. , holding it in the left hand and the rule in the right, to two inches, the width of the finished piece. the reason for this is that the scale on the gauge stick is sometimes inaccurate. "with the gauge block against the joint edge, gauge a line the entire length of the working face. in doing this, the gauge may be used in either hand, and in fact it is well to practise so as to be able to use either at will. the tool should always be pushed from you, and at the same time tilted from you, until the steel point makes only a fine line. if it is held upright, the point will try to follow the grain, which is very seldom parallel with the edge. [illustration: fig. . steps in the process of squaring up stock] "you have now laid out on the working face your first dimension--the width. "sixth. plane down the edge opposite to the joint edge, almost to the gauge line just drawn. remember that the tendency is always to take off too much, and when a piece is too small there is no way of making it larger, but if it is left a little too large, it is a simple matter to take off one more shaving. in other words, always be on the safe side, and take off too little rather than too much. test this edge to see that it is square with working face before reaching the gauge line. get into the habit of marking all high spots with a pencil, and planing out the marks. [illustration: fig. . "setting" the marking gauge] "seventh. set the gauge at the required thickness, in this case / inch--and with gauge block against working face, make a line full length on both of the squared edges. "eighth. dress down the remaining rough face to or near both gauge lines just drawn, and test with straight edge, as in the working face. the stock is now to the second dimension--thickness. "ninth. secure the last dimension--length. as near one end as possible make a line across the working face with a knife and try square, and continue it around the four sides back to the starting place. if it does not come out exactly at this point, the stock is not square. "from this knife line, measure off the length on the working face, and square a knife line on the four sides, as on the first end. block-plane both ends to the knife lines, and test. "if these nine successive steps are carried out accurately, the answer is correct," as ralph remarked after harry had worked faithfully throughout the whole explanation. the boys realized that they needed a shooting board as a necessary part of their equipment, and after ralph had worked out the drawing shown in fig. , harry was told to square up the four pieces of stock to be used in its construction. [illustration: fig. . the shooting board] "now let me show you a new trick," said ralph. "it is always a good plan after making a drawing to write out a bill of material something like this: pc. pine Ã� Ã� / pc. pine Ã� Ã� / pc. maple Ã� Ã� / - / -inch f. h. screws pc. pine Ã� - / Ã� / / -inch f. h. screws "there you have in a nutshell all the items needed for the shooting board, and you can proceed to square all your pieces to these dimensions without consulting the drawing until you are ready to assemble the parts. the five / -inch screws are for fastening the maple pieces to the flat piece of pine, and the - / screws to fasten the cleats. all the holes for screws are to be bored and countersunk." "what's countersunk?" asked harry. this led to a talk on screws and boring tools, and as it is valuable to the young worker in wood, we will give it as fully as possible. [illustration: fig. . the use of screws] "there are several kinds of screws," began ralph, "but the two most commonly used are flat heads and round heads. (fig. ). flat-head screws are those we generally think of, but unless the hole which has been bored or drilled is reamed out at the top, countersunk as we call it, the screw head will stand out from the surface ready to tear your clothes and to scratch anything it may come in contact with, so you can readily see the importance of sinking them below the surface. "on the other hand, there are often cases where we have no desire to hide the screw. the round heads are used for such cases, and because of their shape they do not catch hold of things. these screws are usually blued--treated with acid to give them a dull, more artistic colour. screws treated in this way do not rust as readily as the bright ones. you can buy brass screws in both flat and round head forms; in fact you can get tinned, japanned, lacquered, bronzed, copper, nickel, and even silver plated screws--if you have the money. "in buying them, you must always give two numbers--the length, in inches, and the diameter. this is the diameter of the wire forming the body and runs from to , number being about / inch. "a one-inch screw no. would be fatter or larger in diameter than a one-inch no. , which is of comparatively slight or thin proportions. they are sold in boxes containing a gross. "in fastening two pieces of wood together, they should be prepared as shown at _a_ (fig. ) for a flat head and as at _b_ for a round head. the screw slips through the first board, and the screw threads engage only in the second in each case." xxi boring tools "boring tools are very interesting," said ralph. the brace and bit for soft woods have practically taken the place of the old fashioned augers, gimlets, etc. the reason is not hard to find. an auger or gimlet could bore but one size of hole, while with a brace and set of bits almost any diameter can be secured. a little later on, i'll tell you about a yankee invention along this line. "the brace is a sort of universal tool holder, and any tool designed to fit into it is known as a bit, as for example a countersink bit, or a screw driver bit, and several varieties of drills. "the shank, or part that fits into the brace, is usually square and tapering, and the part of the brace which engages this shank is called the 'chuck.' (fig. .) "the centre bit, an old-fashioned form, had all the necessary features of a good boring tool but one. it had a sharp centre for accurately locating the hole, a knife edge for cutting the fibres, and a chisel for removing the wood, but it lacked the spiral screw thread of the modern tool, and had to be forced through the wood by main strength. on a modern auger bit, this spiral screw relieves the worker of a large part of the labour; all he has to do is to turn the brace and keep it straight, supposing of course that the bit is sharp. (fig. .) [illustration: fig. . gimlet bit and centre bit] "the auger bit is most commonly used by woodworkers. it has two knife edges and two chisels besides the spiral spur in the centre. a short form of this tool, called the dowel bit, has the advantage of bending less readily than the ordinary auger bit. the size in sixteenths of an inch is stamped into the metal shank, but if this number is not distinct or for any reason is missing, the diameter may be measured by holding the rule across the knife edges." [illustration: fig. . the auger bit] "what's the yankee invention you were going to tell me about?" interrupted harry. "well, suppose you wanted to bore a large hole, say - / inches in diameter, the probabilities are that you wouldn't have a bit that size. in fact, to have a full set of bits from / inch up to inches would mean a very expensive lot of tools. this difficulty has been overcome by a very clever invention called the extension or expansive bit. (fig. ). on this tool the knife edge and chisel are part of a moving lip, which may be fastened at any desired point by means of a set screw. "besides being adjustable in diameter, the lip of the bit has a scale, and the body a single line engraved on it. by bringing this line to the various measurements on the scale, you can set it to a definite size without the trouble of measuring it. "the tool has certain limitations, of course. it is made in two sizes; one will bore holes of any size from / inch up to - / inches, and the other any size from / inch to inches, while extra lips or cutters are made to bore as large as inches, but if you ever try to bore a hole of this size you will want all your muscle." [illustration: fig. . the expansive bit] the screw-driver bit is simply a screw-driver with a bit shank instead of a wood handle, and the countersink has a cone-shaped end with enough grooves cut in it to give one or more cutting edges. its use was illustrated in making the bench hook and shooting board. [illustration: fig. . the forstner bit] the gimlet bit may be used for boring holes for screws. it is made from / inch up to / inch, and is valuable for preparing articles for the smaller-sized screws where the auger bit would be too large. we find for sale drill bits for electricians, warranted to go through a nail if necessary, and dozens of special bits. in working with thin wood, the auger bit is very apt to split it, especially brittle woods, like red gum. even this contingency is provided for in the forstner bit, which will bore a hole in a sheet of paper (fig. ), and is therefore very valuable for work in veneering or other very thin material. the brace is represented by several styles and makers, but the beginner must look for the same qualities in the brace as he would in any other tool--good workmanship and material, simplicity and durability. the old-fashioned spofford brace was strong, simple, and reliable. for working in corners or any place where a full revolution of the tool is not possible, a ratchet attachment is necessary. this is found on most of the modern tools, and may be obtained at any hardware store. (fig. ). [illustration: fig. . common types of the brace] the hand drill (fig. ) is one of the most useful tools any one can have about the shop or the house. to be able to make holes in soft or hard wood, tin, zinc, brass, copper, or iron is certainly a great advantage, and some form of the tool should be in every establishment. our boys found it useful in making moving toys, wind vanes, anemometers, and dozens of other pieces, and never regretted its cost. it may be bought for fifty cents and upward, a very good one costing about $ . . the drills designed to be used with this tool vary by / inch, beginning with / inch up to / inch. above this a larger chuck is required. they have round shanks instead of the ordinary square bit shank. [illustration: fig. . the hand drill] xxii miscellaneous tools the screw-driver the need of a screw-driver is too obvious to require special mention. they are made with blades from two inches up to thirty inches long, and have round, flat, or corrugated handles. the best grip is obtained on either a flat or corrugated one, and two sizes are desirable, a small one with about a three-inch blade, the other with an eight or ten. (fig. .) some of the magazine brad awls containing a dozen awls and screw-driver are very convenient, but the combinations supposed to contain a whole tool outfit, including saws, are poor investments. ratchet screw-drivers, from which the hand is not removed during the operation of driving or withdrawing a screw, are on the market, but they are luxuries rather than necessities. pliers with wire-cutting attachments are convenient, and should be added to the kit when possible; some of them are powerful enough to cut a heavy wire nail. (fig. .) _the mallet._ this simple tool is made in a dozen different forms for various trades. the round-headed kind is perhaps the cheapest. it is made of hickory or lignum vitæ. (fig. .) the best form for woodwork has an oblong or square head of lignum vitæ. the handle should pass clear through the head and be fastened with a wedge. a blow from this tool does not shatter the tool handle as would a blow from a hammer. a comparison of the two blows might be likened to the action of gun powder and dynamite. the slow burning powder represents the action of the mallet. the hammer should never be used on a chisel or gouge. [illustration: fig. . screw-drivers] [illustration: fig. . pliers] hand screws for holding glued-up work together, sometimes for holding special work on the bench top, are made of wood, with either wood or metal spindles. for ordinary work, the jaws should be parallel, but special forms are on the market which will hold irregular forms, as shown in fig. . they are made in several sizes, from little ones with -inch jaws up to -inch jaws. for large and heavy work, clamps of wood or metal may be had as large as eight feet in length. they are useful in the making of drawing boards, doors, etc., but are not a real necessity for boys' ordinary woodwork. clamps in the form of trestles for specially important large work are made as large as twelve feet in length. [illustration: fig. . the mallet] for ordinary purposes, a pair of -inch and a pair of or inch wood hand screws will answer. the ingenuity of the young woodworker will suggest other ways of holding glued-up work in the absence of hand screws, such as winding with heavy twine or rope, and twisting a stick through the strands, after the old method of tightening a buck saw or turning saw. in building up a drawing board and gluing the strips together, the requisite pressure may be obtained by laying it on the floor between blocks temporarily nailed there, and wedges driven in, after the method described for picture frames. [illustration: fig. . clamp and hand screws] a large part of the value derived from woodwork is in the exercise of ingenuity required to meet unexpected contingencies. just so the owner of an automobile learns more about mechanics and the construction of his machine by being obliged to make repairs on the road, miles from any repair shop, and with a limited number of tools and appliances. the hammer this common tool is made in at least thirty different forms, and some styles in nine or ten different weights. for woodwork, the adze-eye claw hammer, weight sixteen ounces, will answer all requirements. for use with brads as small as / inch, a brad hammer of three or four ounces is desirable. both of these forms are provided with claws for withdrawing nails. (fig. .) [illustration: fig. . hammers] claw hammers are comparatively modern inventions, and there are men now living who, when serving their apprenticeship, were obliged to withdraw their nails with a pair of pinchers. at that period all nails were wrought by hand, and houses are standing to-day on which the clapboards are still held in place by nails forged on an anvil by hand. the file a volume might be written about the various shapes, sizes, and methods of cutting of this tool. its place in woodwork is limited, and it should never be used where another tool will do the work. like sand-paper, it has a tendency to lead to bad habits and slovenly work. on certain pieces of curved work in hard wood it may be used to remove the sharp edges left by chisel or gouge, especially the latter, but its action even there is apt to tear away the fibres. an eight-inch, half-round, cabinet wood file and an eight-inch, round, slim no. cut swiss pattern file are sufficient. for sharpening bits, a special auger bit file is made, and this may be used for sharpening the marking gauge point and such small work. for sharpening saw teeth, triangular saw files are sold at all hardware stores. the spirit level this is necessary on outdoor structures which are to be placed on foundations, in securing level or horizontal timbers, and in plumbing the uprights. the human eye is not equal to the task. masons and builders make use of wooden plumb rods, but as the level is necessary to secure the horizontals, it will be at hand for the uprights, the two glass tubes being at right angles. (fig. .) [illustration: fig. . the spirit level] rule a two-foot, four-fold, boxwood rule, graduated to eighths outside and sixteenths inside, will answer all ordinary requirements. (fig. .) the steel square [illustration: fig. . steel square and rule] this simple but valuable tool, about which volumes have been written, is necessary for building construction, but is not needed in the making of furniture or cabinet work. xxiii making nail boxes the boys now became very busy completing their shop equipment, and the first project was a box for holding different sizes of nails. this was to be kept on the bench where it could be reached conveniently, and it is shown in fig. . after studying the sketch, harry made out the bill of material: pcs. pine Ã� - / Ã� / pcs. pine Ã� - / Ã� / pcs. pine - / Ã� - / Ã� / [illustration: fig. . the nail box] these six pieces were squared up, and the joints for the two partitions laid out by placing them edge to edge in the vise. pencil lines were drawn across the faces at random, _a_. ralph explained that by fitting these pencil lines they could at any time bring the two pieces together in the original position. the four knife lines representing the edges of the grooves were next drawn, and squared half-way down on each edge, using the face with the pencil lines as a working face. the bottom of the groove was laid off with the marking gauge set at / inch. the wood inside the lines was removed by making a saw cut just inside the knife lines, and cutting out with a / -inch chisel. [illustration: fig. . socket chisels] this led to a talk on chisels. ralph explained that for fine work a "firmer" chisel was used, having a comparatively thin body. there are two kinds of handles, known as "socket" and "tang." the chisels having "tangs" should never be hammered, as the tang acts as a wedge and splits the handle. where blows are to be struck with the mallet, a socket handle should be used. (fig. .) for heavy work, where hard blows are to be struck, as in house-framing, and out-of-door work generally, the heavy framing tool should be used. the handle of this chisel has a heavy iron ring near the top to keep it from going to pieces. our boys' equipment at this time consisted of one half-inch and a one-inch firmer chisel with tang handles, a / -inch and / -inch socket firmer, and one / -inch framing chisel. later on they added a / -inch firmer with tang handle. the grooves for the nail box were cut with the / -inch chisel without the aid of the mallet. ralph showed how, by inclining the tool at a slight angle, a paring action could be obtained, and by working from both ends of the groove no corners were destroyed. when the four grooves were finished, the box was ready for assembling. this called for hammer and nails. wire nails are so cheap now that the old-fashioned cut nails have been largely driven from the market. the nails used on the box were one-inch brads. the holding power of flat-head nails is of course much greater than bung head, but in this case the box was to be squared up after nailing, exactly as if it were a solid block of wood. this meant planing the sides and ends, and as the nails would ruin the plane iron, they were all sunk below the surface with a nail set or punch. (fig. ). this is a useful tool, but not absolutely necessary, as for light work a wire nail, with the point ground flat on the grindstone, will answer the same purpose. a carpenter frequently uses the edge of a flat-head nail instead of the punch. [illustration: photograph by arthur g. eldredge. the correct way to hold the chisel] the box was assembled by nailing together the sides and ends. the bottom was next put on, holding the try square along one side and end to make sure everything was square, and last of all the two partitions were pushed down into their grooves, and tied in place by one brad from each side. next, all nails were set, and the outside tested with the try square and trued up with the plane. [illustration: fig. . wire nails and nail sets] the cabinet of drawers shown in fig was next designed to keep the assortment of screws and nails, which the boys knew would soon accumulate. as far as possible, they were kept in their original paper boxes, on which the sizes were plainly printed. the twelve drawers were simply boxes without covers or partitions, and ralph suggested that it was not necessary to make them all at once, but that they could often fill in spare time that way, and gradually complete the dozen. [illustration: fig. . cabinet for nails and screws] after making the nail box with partitions, this was a simple job, it being only important that they all be of the same size. the construction of the cabinet, however, brought new problems. the shelves, being short, did not require any vertical support except at the ends, where they were gained into the sides, and to give harry practice the top and bottom were to be "rabbeted" into the sides. the sides then were the most important parts. all six pieces were first squared up to the dimensions called for in the drawing. the list of material was as follows: pcs. - / Ã� Ã� / shelves pcs. Ã� Ã� / ends pcs. - / Ã� Ã� / back "the grain must run the long way," said ralph, "so the grooves will be across the grain." the four grooves were laid out with knife and try square, and the lines scored as deeply with the knife as possible. then another cut was made with the knife inside of the first, and with the knife held at about degrees, cutting out a v-shaped groove, as shown at _a_. in each of these grooves a cut with the buck saw was made down to the line, and the wood removed with the / -inch chisel. there are special planes, called rabbet planes, and plows for doing this kind of work, but it is good practice for beginners to use the chisel. the grooves finished, the cabinet was put together with - / -inch brads, except the back. this being of thin material, and having no special strain on it, was nailed on with -inch brads. the total width of the drawers in each tier was / inch less than the space. this gave clearance, so that they could be moved in or out easily. later, when all twelve drawers were finished, the boys bought a dozen simple drawer pulls, and screwed one in the centre of each box. the centre was found by drawing the diagonals in light pencil lines. the front and ends were sand-papered, and given two coats of dark-green stain, and the cabinet was placed on a shelf against the wall. xxiv bird houses the boys felt that they were ready for business, and ralph suggested that they had provided enough weather vanes and windmills, but had made no provisions for the birds. the cat, that arch enemy of the native birds, had driven the robins, martins, and wrens all away. each year some of these brave little birds started homes in the trees near the house only to have their families devoured as soon as they were hatched. a bird house to be attractive need not be very pretentious, but it must absolutely be cat-proof, or the birds will inspect it carefully from all points of view and leave it severely alone. a nest well hidden in the tree foliage or shrubbery is not nearly so conspicuous as a brightly painted house fastened to the limbs of a tree. the side of a barn or outhouse, far enough down from the roof so that the cat cannot reach it, or a tall pole covered on the upper part with tin, so that the feline bird hunter cannot gain a foothold, are about the only safe places for a house which the birds will actually adopt. the first house our woodworkers manufactured is shown in fig. . this was a single or one-family house, and its construction was very simple. the list of material follows: one pc. / -inch pine or white wood Ã� - / ins. two pcs. / -inch pine or white wood - / Ã� ins. one pc. / -inch pine or white wood - / Ã� ins. one pc. / -inch pine or white wood - / Ã� - / ins. two pcs. / -inch pine or white wood - / Ã� - / ins. the first piece, Ã� - / inches, was simply squared up for the bottom. the two pieces for the sides, - / Ã� inches, were squared up, and one edge of each planed to a -degree bevel, to engage with the roof boards. the latter were squared up, and nailed together at right angles with - / -inch brads. the two ends, - / Ã� - / inches, were carefully laid out as shown in the drawing, sawed, and planed to the lines with square edges. in the end which was to contain the circular door a hole - / inches in diameter was bored with its centre two inches from the bottom line. this required the services of the extension bit, and, to avoid splitting the wood, as soon as the spur of the bit showed on the further side, the wood was turned about, and the hole finished from the other side. the house was next turned upside down, and fastened in the bench vise. holes were drilled along the sides of the bottom piece / inch in from the edge--three on each side--countersunk, and the piece fastened to the sides with -inch no. screws. the top pieces already nailed together were now nailed in position on the sides and ends with -inch brads. [illustration: fig. . one family bird house, and house for high-hole] the pole they used was feet long and about inches in diameter at the small end. it was rounded at this end by using a draw knife. (fig. ). a block of / -inch pine was bored out, and fitted snugly over the end of the pole. this block was then removed, and four holes bored through it for screws. [illustration: fig. . the draw knife] before replacing the block on the top of the pole a cut was made across the end of the pole about two inches deep, by means of the rip saw. the block was replaced, and wooden wedges driven into the saw cut. this fastened the block securely on the end of the pole, and after making sure that it was level, the bird house was fastened to the block by four - / -inch screws from the under side. a piece of sheet tin was wound around just under the house to discourage pussy, and the pole set into the ground about three feet, bringing the under side of the house ten feet above the ground. a double or two-family house of similar proportions was built next, as shown in fig. . the list of material called for: one pc. / -inch wood - / Ã� - / (bottom) one pc. / -inch wood - / Ã� - / (roof) one pc. / -inch wood - / Ã� - / (roof) two pcs. / -inch wood - / Ã� (sides) three pcs. / -inch wood - / Ã� - / (ends and partition) the construction was the same as before, each end having a door, and the partition of course being solid. the block for supporting the house on the pole was larger, being Ã� Ã� - / inches, and called for six - / -inch no. screws, to secure it to the under side of the floor. harry wanted to make it more complete by adding a small wind vane, but ralph said it might frighten the birds, so it was omitted. of course larger and more ornamental houses may be built, but where there are too many families in such close proximity there is apt to be trouble, while houses that are too conspicuous do not appeal to the beautiful american wild birds that we want to attract. with the english sparrow it does not matter so much. for these birds, a tenement house against the side of a barn may be built easily, in the form shown in fig. . this may be made any length, each door leading to a compartment separated from the others by partitions. make as many pieces plus one as there are to be compartments, apartments, or flats; have the bottom project as shown in side view for a perch and walk, and have the roof also project to shed rain. if not fastened from the inside of the barn by stout screws, this house must be secured to a shelf, or by brackets. [illustration: fig. . two family house and tenement] the side view shows a simple shelf made of a back piece secured to the side of the barn by screws or nails, a plain shelf nailed to this back piece, and two wooden brackets. if iron brackets are used, both the shelf and back piece may be omitted, the brackets being fastened to the under side of the bird house and to the siding of the barn by screws. for birds like the high-hole, or flicker, a piece of hollow log, or an elongated box fastened securely to the side of a pole, made cat proof, is very acceptable. this should not be painted, but should be provided with a door on the side and a perch. (fig. .) the opening should be about three inches for these large birds, and the location should be as secluded as possible. any number of devices will suggest themselves, but always remember the cat, and study the location from the bird point of view. the martins and swallows are especially to be encouraged, as they are wonderful destroyers of insects. [illustration: fig. . the bird bath] one device, especially grateful to these feathered friends in hot weather, is a pan of water, in a place where they can drink and bathe without being eternally on the watch for that crouching enemy, who is always stalking them--tabby. a pedestal with a platform about four feet above the ground will do nicely, and it can be placed so close to the house that you can watch them, and enjoy their ablutions almost as much as they do. (fig. .) the construction is too simple to require an explanation. xxv simple articles for household use the boys thought it was about time to pay some attention to the wants of the family, who had been clamouring for weeks to have this article or that for the kitchen, dining room, and in fact for every part of the house. ralph was a wise teacher, however. he knew that the cause of ninety out of every hundred failures was due to the young mechanic's trying some problem too far advanced. it seems strange that people cannot learn this lesson. we have seen hundreds of boys led along, say in carving, from one simple lesson to another, until at the end of five or six carefully graded exercises, these boys could carve beautifully any design given them. on the other hand, we have seen boys start in on their own hook, without any direction from older people, and ruining everything they tried, simply because they wanted to do the most difficult thing first, before they had developed any skill. ralph was determined that his boy should be an expert and successful user of tools, so he paid no attention to the clamours of the family, and allowed harry to make only those things which were within his power to do well. each time a piece of work was finished, and inspected by the family, the universal chorus was something like this: "well, if he can make such a fine bird house, i don't see why he can't make half a dozen picture frames for these water colors," or, "if he can make such a fine pen tray, i don't see why he can't make a new stool for the piano!" in vain ralph explained that these things could be made in due time, that a picture frame required much more skill than a bird house, etc. their household articles commenced with a bread board for the kitchen. (fig. ). this gave harry his first experience in planing a broad surface. he used jack and smoothing planes for the working face, and squared the rest of the board as he had smaller pieces. this required some time. the wood about the semi-circular top was removed with saw and chisel, the board held for the chiselling flat on the bench hook. after getting this curve as true as possible with the chisel, it was finished with a sand-paper block. a / -inch hole was bored at the centre of the semi-circle to hang it up by, and the two lower corners were rounded with chisel and sand-paper. no sand-paper was used on the flat surface, as ralph explained this was a board for cutting bread, and the grit from the sand-paper would become more or less embedded in the wood, and it would spoil the bread knife. sand-paper is made of ground quartz, and it soon dulls the edge of a cutting tool. [illustration: fig. . the bread board] the knife and fork box (fig. ) brought new problems. the list of material was: pc. - / Ã� - / x / pcs. Ã� - / Ã� / pcs. Ã� - / Ã� / pc. Ã� - / Ã� / it was made of white wood, and, after being assembled, was stained a rich brown by receiving two coats of bichromate of potash. this is a chemical, which may be bought at a paint or drug store in the form of crystals. these are dissolved in water, until the solution looks like pink lemonade. it can be applied with a brush, but each coat must be allowed to dry completely before the whole is sand-papered smooth with no. sand-paper. a deeper brown can be obtained by adding one or two extra coats of stain. [illustration: fig. . method of using hand screws in the construction of a knife box] the middle partition containing the handle was made first. the drawing was laid out on the wood after it had been squared up, and two holes inch in diameter were bored out at _a a_. the wood between was taken out with a key-hole saw, and finished to the line with chisel and knife. a turning saw can be used to advantage on this handle, but it is not absolutely necessary. spaces _b b_ were removed in the same way, but a knife was used in the concave part of the curve. if it is handy, a small spokeshave can be employed on the whole upper line of this handle. anything in the nature of a handle should be rounded to fit the hand. edges _c c_ were therefore rounded with the knife, and finished with coarse, followed by fine, sand-paper. the two sides were laid out together as in the nail box, and the groove cut with back saw and / -inch chisel. the end pieces were made in a similar manner, and the bottom piece squared to / -inch of finished size. the assembling consisted of first gluing together the sides and ends. two hand screws were used to hold them. this was harry's first attempt at using hand screws, and ralph showed him the importance of keeping the jaws parallel. the box remained in the hand screws over night, and the next day it was found to be securely fastened. the most convenient kind of glue for boys is the liquid sold in cans. it is always ready for use, and very handy where only a moderate quantity is needed. dry glue in the form of flakes, or granulated, must be soaked over night, and then heated in a pot having a double bottom with water in the lower part. it should be put on hot with a brush or a small flat stick. the best glue is none too good, yet a good quality has wonderful holding power and should last indefinitely. after removing the hand screws, the unfinished box was placed in the vise, tested with the edge of the plane, and made perfectly true, top and bottom. the / -inch bottom piece was now put on with one-inch brads, the sides and ends made square, the handle partition slipped into the grooves, and fastened with two brads at each end. [illustration: fig. . tool box] this knife box was so satisfactory that our young carpenters resolved to have a large one for tools. whenever they had a job to do in the house, they were constantly running out to the shop for something, so that a tool box became a necessity. the construction was similar to the knife box; but this was larger and heavier, and the dado joints at the ends were replaced by a butt joint fastened with flat-head screws. (fig. ). the bottom and partition were also put on with screws, on account of the weight to be carried. [illustration: fig. . another tool box] these tool boxes are frequently made in the shape shown in fig. , with sloping sides and ends called the hopper joint; but aside from the tool practice it affords, it is doubtful if the shape has advantage enough over the other form to warrant the extra time it takes. man is an imitative creature, however, and what one carpenter has, the others copy. the principal features about this useful article should be size and strength, especially in the handle, which should be of about / or / inch stock. xxvi the mitre box and picture frames it seemed to harry that the shop was fairly well equipped, but ralph insisted that they must have a mitre box before making anything else for the house. the mitre box is, or should be, an instrument of precision, and although simple in construction, must be perfectly accurate, or it is useless. (fig. .) the illustration shows the common form, but elaborate affairs of iron and wood can be bought ready made. every boy should make his own, for the practice, if for nothing else. the sides should be made of oak / inch thick, inches long, and - / inches high, the bottom of / -inch pine or other soft wood, the same size. when squared up, the two sides must be tested by standing them side by side; then reverse one end for end, to see if they are alike. if not, find where the trouble is, and correct it. it is especially important that the edges of the bottom piece be square and the sides perfectly parallel. this test can be made with the marking gauge. sides are fastened on by boring and countersinking for three screws on each. after assembling, the whole thing must be tested as if it were a solid block. top edges must be true and parallel. [illustration: fig. . the ° mitre box and test pieces] near one end--about two inches in--lay out across the top with try square a line degrees with the sides. carry the line down each side, square with the top edges. for -degree angles, lay out a square by drawing two pencil lines across the top, as far apart as the finished mitre box is wide. draw the two diagonals and square lines from their ends down both sides, taking care that their position is not over the screw in the bottom; because as the saw cuts deeper it may reach this screw and ruin its teeth. make the three saw cuts directly on the lines laid out with a cross cut or back saw, with the utmost care. if this is not done accurately, all the labour of preparation is wasted. the blank end of the mitre box may have an additional -degree cut, or be left for new cuts in the future, as a mitre box of this description wears out and becomes inaccurate. other angles may be used, as degrees or degrees, but it is better to have these on another box as they are used less, and for special purposes. (fig. .) the mitre box is not ready to use until it has been thoroughly tested. prepare a strip of soft wood--pine or white wood-- - / inches wide and / inch thick. cut four pieces from it on the mitre box, using the back saw as shown at _a_, with only one of the slits. place these four triangular pieces together to form a square. all the four mitre joints of this square must fit perfectly. if they do not, mark the slit "n. g.," and test the other slit in the same way. if all right, mark "o. k." it often happens that one may be perfect and the other inaccurate. if they are both o. k., the box is ready for use. if one slit is useless, lay out and cut another on the blank end of the mitre box in the same direction, and test again. [illustration: fig. . - - mitre box] in testing a -degree cut three pieces of the strip should be sawed out, and when placed together they should form a perfect equilateral triangle, while from a -degree cut, six pieces are needed to form a hexagon. these angles are valuable in inlaid work, and for getting out geometrical designs. the -degree cut is indispensable in making the mitred corners of picture frames and in cabinet work. in making picture frames of simple cross section, it is first necessary to cut the rabbet (fig. ) with a rabbet plane. if this moulding is made by hand, the size of the picture should be measured, the length of all four sides added, and a liberal allowance made for waste. [illustration: fig. . making picture frames] in the figure, the triangles _a a_ are waste, the rabbet being indicated by the dotted line. after the four pieces have been sawed out on the mitre box, they should be placed together on a flat surface, such as the bench top or floor, to see if the mitres fit perfectly. if they do not, one of them can be block planed to make a perfect fit, and the other three laid close together, as shown in the illustration. the assembling is the hardest part of the operation, and many devices have been tried and some patented to hold the parts together while the glue is drying. perhaps the surest way is to drill a hole in one piece of each joint large enough for the passage of a wire bung-head nail. the undrilled piece is placed vertically in the vise. the drilled piece, after receiving a thin coat of glue, is brought into position horizontally, and the nail driven home. theoretically, the nail should catch at the first blow, but the horizontal piece will sometimes slip, even with the best of care. it is wiser to place this piece about / inch above its final position, to allow for this slip. a method sometimes used is to glue near the ends of each piece a triangular block of wood, as shown at _d_. these must be left over night to harden. the next day the whole four pieces can be glued and held together by four hand screws, as shown, until the glue is thoroughly hard. this method, of course, can only be used with plain moulding or that which is square on the outside. our boys tried another way that is commonly practised. they nailed oblong blocks to an old drawing board, as shown at _e e_, and then placed the picture frame in the centre, after gluing the joints, and driving wedges in between the blocks and the frame. paper placed under each joint prevented the frame from being stuck to the drawing board by the glue forced out by the pressure. this paper plan was learned by experience, as the first frame the boys tried had to be pried up from the board, and in so doing they broke it at two of the joints, so that it had to be made again. it is well to remember in gluing mitre joints that end grain absorbs more glue than a flat surface. a priming coat should be applied first, and allowed to remain a few moments to fill up the pores. the second coat should hold fast and make a strong joint, but an excess of glue should always be avoided, as it must be removed after hardening, and glue soon takes the edge from the best of tools. very fancy frames should be avoided. a bevel on the outside or inside, or both, is about all the young woodworker should attempt in the way of ornamentation. depend on the natural beauty of the wood, as a fancy frame draws the attention from the picture, which after all is the main thing. we should admire the man, not his clothes, the picture not its frame, although the latter should be neat and well made. the finishing and polishing of frames is taken up in chapter xlix. xxvii making toilet boxes to make a wooden box sounds like a simple proposition; but in making the drawing, the questions of size, proportion, joints, hinges, etc., immediately come up. the size of course depends on the purpose of the box. if it is for ladies' gloves, it should be long and narrow; if for collars or handkerchiefs, square or nearly so. the height is nearly always made too great. in fact, the whole question of proportion is one which can hardly be taught; it must be felt, and different people have different ideas as to what constitutes good proportion. some hints, however, may be given: a box perfectly square does not look well. again, dimensions that are multiples do not look well. a box Ã� Ã� inches would not be nearly so pleasing as one Ã� - / Ã� inches. the proportions are also affected by the constructive details. is the box to be flat on the sides and ends or is the top to project? etc. our boys argued and sketched and finally drew the design shown at fig. . this was to hold ties. the top was to project and have a bevel, or chamfer, also the bottom. no hinges were to be used, but the cover was to have cleats fastened on the under side to keep it in place, and to prevent warping. [illustration: fig. . dado joint used in box design] the next question was the manner of fastening the sides and ends. on unimportant work, a butt joint with glue and brads can be used, but for a toilet article, the holes made by the brads, even if they are filled with putty, are not satisfactory. so it was decided to use the dado joint as shown at _a_. this meant more fine work, but, as ralph suggested, it was to last a lifetime, and should be made right. sides and ends were squared up, and the grooves on the side pieces laid out as in the nail box. the rabbets on the end pieces were cut out with the back saw and chisel. after the joints had been carefully fitted, the four pieces were glued together and placed in hand screws over night. while the glue was hardening, the two pieces for the top and bottom were squared up and bevelled with the smoothing plane on the long sides, the block plane on the ends. the cleats for the top were next made, drilled and countersunk for the screws as at _b_. a careful full-sized drawing of half of the top was made, and a chip carving design drawn for it. the cleats were not put on until the carving was finished and short screws had to be used so they would not come through and spoil the surface. the next day the body of the box was removed from the hand screws and squared with a smoothing plane. the top and bottom were put on with -inch brads. these were "set" with a nail punch to prevent any possible scratching and the whole box was rubbed down with wax dissolved in turpentine. for fine cabinet work, the dovetail joint makes the most satisfactory method of fastening, but harry was not yet skilled enough to do the fine work it demanded. the second box was for handkerchiefs, dimensions Ã� Ã� inches outside, and no overhang at either top or bottom. the construction brought in several new features. sides and ends were dadoed together as in the first box. the top and bottom, after being squared, were rabbeted on all four sides until they fitted snugly into the opening top and bottom. they were glued in these positions and placed in hand screws over night. (fig. .) "how are you going to get into that box?" asked harry. "you've closed it up solid and glued the top on." "wait and see," was all the satisfaction he got. [illustration: fig. . the handkerchief box] the next day the hand screws were removed and the box squared up exactly as if it had been a solid piece of wood. ralph then made two gauge lines around the four sides, / inch from the top and / inch apart. then he cut the box in two between these two lines with a rip saw, after slightly rounding all corners except the bottom ones with a plane and sand-paper. by this method, the box and cover must be exactly alike in outline, and by planing to the gauge lines, they will fit perfectly. it only remained to hinge the two parts together, but this operation proved to be no slight task. the body was placed in the vise and the cover laid upside down on the bench top. the two parts were brought together as shown at _c_, and the four knife lines laid out as shown with knife and try square. the distance between the lines at _a_ and _b_ must be equal to the width of the hinge, and the wood between these lines removed to a depth equal to half the thickness of the hinge at its joint when closed. if too much is removed, the box will be "hinge bound" and will not close in front. if too little is taken out, it will close in front and have an open joint at the back. in the former case, a thickness or two of paper placed under the hinge will often be enough to make it close in front. in the latter case, of course more material must be cut out. it is a delicate operation, as the depth of these cuts for -inch hinges is only about / inch. it is a question of accuracy, pure and simple. holes for the screws can be made with a brad awl. the boys made several boxes of various sizes and styles, some plain, some decorated with carving. pyrography, or burnt work, is frequently used for decoration, and the best wood for this purpose is basswood, because of its white color, softness, and freedom from pitch. other woods may be burnt, but pine, which has veins of pitchy sap, is not suitable. [illustration: fig. . a box for drawing instruments] a box for drawing instruments is shown in fig. . its outside dimensions are Ã� - / Ã� - / inches. our boys made theirs of gum wood because of the beauty of its colouring and its suitability for carving. the joints used and the method of construction were the same as in the handkerchief box, but it was provided with a tray for the instruments. this was one inch deep over all, and rested on two thin strips fastened to the ends inside. these strips were - / Ã� Ã� / inches, and, by raising the tray one inch from the bottom, left a space convenient for holding triangles, protractors, pencils, etc. the cover was decorated with a border and centre piece in chip carving. the making of dovetailed boxes is taken up in chapter xxxv. xxviii brackets and book racks brackets are often required about the house for many purposes, and their size, shape, and decoration are infinite. there is even more fun in designing them than in making them. tastes differ in this respect, as in everything else, and, given the problem, no two people will bring out the same design unless they simply copy something they have seen, which is not designing. when our boys started to make brackets in response to urgent demands from the family, ralph blocked out the sketch shown in fig. at _a_. "there is a bracket," he said; "it consists of three pieces, and properly put together it will hold what it is designed to hold. it is not a thing of beauty, and we must improve it. how? by changing its outline without impairing its strength. in other words, we must '_design_' a bracket constructed of three pieces of wood put together at right angles. there's your problem; now take paper and pencil and let us see what you can do." [illustration: fig. . designs for wall brackets] "what size?" asked harry. "oh, in this case, i'll leave it to your judgment." for fully an hour, no sound was heard in the shop but that of two lead pencils. harry was getting experience. "let me give you a pointer," said ralph. "don't try to draw both sides alike, as it is very difficult where you have free-hand lines. draw a vertical line representing the centre. sketch one half of the design, and when you have it about right, fold the paper on this centre line and trace the other half." harry went to work again and at the end of another hour produced the sketches shown in fig. . ralph criticised them all rather severely, and as harry was tired, this treatment made him sulky. "don't get mad," said ralph kindly; "you know designing is hard work and the only way you can learn is to have me help you by pointing out your weak spots. artists are obliged to pay for criticism; you know i'm not finding fault." "all right," said harry, brightening up, "which one shall i make?" "i think the one marked _x_ is the best. work it up more carefully, design the shelf and bracket and put on all the dimensions." "the bracket? why, what is this i have drawn?" "that's the back piece that goes against the wall; the bracket piece supports the shelf, and remember when you make it in wood, the grain must always run the long way of each piece." "why?" "i'll show you," said ralph. he cut out two pieces of wood about Ã� Ã� / inches, one with the grain running lengthwise and on the other the grain running the one-inch way. handing the first piece to harry, he said, "let me see you break it with your hands." the boy tried and failed. handing him the second piece he said, "now try this." it broke so readily that harry was astonished. "that's why," said ralph, "and that's all." the three pieces as finally drawn are shown in fig. at _x_. they were all cut out of gum wood with a coping saw, finished to the lines with chisel, spokeshave and sand-paper block, and put together with / -inch brads. the nails were driven through the back into the bracket, the latter piece being held in the vise in a horizontal position. it was then shifted to a vertical position with the back piece to the left of the vise and the shelf nailed to the bracket. two brads were also driven through the back into the shelf. brackets may be ornamented in many ways; by chip carving, pyrography, or by staining, but the decoration should be put on before assembling. another form is shown at _b_ in which the back piece is not carried above the shelf, the latter piece resting on the top of the back. from a constructive standpoint this is a stronger form than the other, as part of the weight is carried by the back instead of by the brads alone. corner brackets are sometimes used and may be made in the form shown at _c_. here we have two wall pieces and a v-shaped shelf, the v being a right angle. again, the form may be so long as to require two brackets and it may then be considered a shelf. in fastening any of these forms to a plastered wall, considerable care must be taken in placing the nails or screws so that they will engage in a stud instead of just in the plaster. the location of the studs can be found by tapping on the wall with the knuckle or lightly with a hammer. a surer way, however, is to find the nails in the picture moulding or base board and plumb from either of these places with a small weight--such as a nail--on a string. the designing and making of book racks offer an almost endless field for the imagination. the rack may have a fixed length or be adjustable and either of these forms may have fixed or folding ends, and again the shapes of the ends may be varied in form and decorated in several ways. [illustration: fig. . types of book racks] perhaps one of the simplest forms of folding book rack is shown in fig. , at _a_. the ends are sawed out of the bottom piece, pivoted with two / -inch dowels and when stood upright the lower part strikes against a cleat, which acts as a rest for the rack and a stop for the end piece. the weakness of most book racks lies in the gradual weakening of the ends at the joint so that the weight of the books makes them lean outward. this should be considered carefully in working up the design. one of the weakest forms perhaps is shown at _b_. theoretically, this is all right, but in practice the ends soon bend or lean out. a skeleton form, making use of the halved joint, is shown at _c_. the two long sides and two short ends are squared up and halved as shown. all the ends are bevelled. holes are bored for the pivots-- / -inch dowels--a distance from the cross pieces equal to half the thickness of the folding ends. this is to insure the ends standing perfectly upright against cross pieces. if this distance is greater than half the thickness, the ends will lean out, and if less than half, the ends cannot be gotten in place. the bottom of the ends must be rounded, or they will not fold over. the construction is very simple, and requires little material. another very ordinary method is shown at _d_. it is as common and simple as it is weak and unsatisfactory. the ends are placed on the bottom piece and hinged. if a cheap and quick method is desired, it would be better to place the hinges as shown at _e_, because then the tendency to tilt out is prevented by the pressure against the bottom piece as long as the screws hold. a far better method is to mortise the shelf through the end pieces and fasten it with a good, healthy pin or wedge, as shown at _f_; and a still better plan is to have two mortises and two wedges, as shown at _g_. in constructive design, nothing is lost by honesty. the ends in this case are held in place by pins, so instead of hiding the fact, emphasize it by making these pins big and strong enough to do their work. the rack may be further strengthened by adding corner brackets at _h_. having decided on the construction, the form of the ends may be taken up. this is affected somewhat by the construction, but some of the outlines tried by our boys and suggestive to other boys are shown at , , . they used two distinct kinds. one was characterized by straight lines. these they decorated with chip carving. the other style was distinguished by curved outlines, and decorated by outlines made with the veining tool, and by staining the figures in various colours. the stains they used were oil colours thinned with turpentine so as to bring out the grain of the wood, rather than to hide it, as in painting, and care was taken to tone down these colours to dull reds, browns, greens, and grays. for staining and polishing, turn to chapter xlix. xxix construction the study of construction includes many items such as strength, proportion, joints, etc. if we look at the roof timbers shown in outline at _a_ (fig. ), the interesting parts of the construction are the three spaces enclosed by circles. the straight lines between these circles do not interest us very much, but the parts enclosed do. immediately the question arises, how are the timbers fastened at these places? in other words, what kind of joint is used? the joint then is the critical part, or we might say the cream of the construction. [illustration: fig. ] a very large number of joints are in use, but many of them are rare. our grandfathers, who built their houses and barns from oak timbers hewn out with the axe, commonly used the mortise and tenon, fastened with a generous hard wood pin, and many of them are still standing after a century or two of hard usage. the fact that the beams were rough hewn, instead of sawed, did not in any way affect their strength, because they made good, strong joints. some of the more common joints are shown in the accompanying illustrations, and may be used for reference. no. . a butt joint in which the two pieces are fastened together, end to end, by means of glue and dowels. it should be used only in cases where there is little strain in the direction of the two pieces. no. . a dowel joint joining two pieces at right angles. one form of it is shown at no. applied to the leg of a table. no. . shows two pieces fastened edge to edge by dowels. this joint is often made without the dowels; the two strips, after jointing or fitting, being glued and rubbed together--sometimes called a rubbed joint. no. . a butt joint fastened by nails, brads, or screws, common in box construction. no. . a butt joint where the pieces are not at right angles, owing to the slant. this is called the hopper joint and it is fastened with nails or brads. no. . end lap. a joint much used in house framing. [illustration: fig. . joints used in construction] [illustration: fig. . joints used in construction (continued)] no. . shows the lap joint used for splicing two pieces lengthwise. it needs to be nailed or bolted to prevent pulling apart. no. . a middle lap joint. no. . dovetail lap or lap dovetail. this form resists pulling apart and is a combination of lap and dovetail joints. no. . shows a modification of the same, only one side being dovetailed. no. . halved joint. both pieces are cut out to half their thickness, and a width equal to that of the other piece. the pieces may be at right angles or some other angle, as shown at no. . no. . halved joint at degrees. no. . lock joint. this is a form of lap joint rarely used. it resists pulling apart, but should be glued on account of shrinkage. no. . notched joint; used where two pieces cross, and where full halving is not desirable, as in the sketch of pergola. no. . rabbeted or gained joint. no. . dado joint. no. . gained or housed joint. no. . through mortise and tenon, used in furniture construction and building. note-- , , are often confused, and are named differently by mechanics. they are used in boxes, and cabinet work. no. . blind mortise and tenon, same as no. , except that the tenon does not go through and is invisible. these two joints may be fastened with glue, and are often strengthened by passing a dowel through at right angles to the tenon. another method is to make two or more saw cuts in the tenon, and drive wedges into the cuts. in door construction, where the rails meet the stiles, the tenon is often divided, as shown by the dotted line. the two parts fitted into separate mortises give the appearance of two distinct tenons on the edge of the door. no. . relished mortise and tenon or door joint, a form used at the corners of doors. no. . end mortise and tenon. the tenon is seen on two sides. used for frames of various kinds. no. . the mitre joint, used in picture frames, picture moulding, interior finish of houses, etc. no. . lap mitre joint; a combination of end lap and mitre; rarely used. no. . stretcher joint; a combination of end lap, mitre, and end mortise and tenon; used by artists for frames on which their canvas is fastened. the stretching is done by driving wedges from the inside. no. . dovetail; used as a splice. no. . single open dovetail for two pieces at right angles. when two or more are cut in the same place, we have the open or box dovetail. no. . box dovetail; used in cabinet work and boxes. no. . half-blind dovetail. the dovetails are seen from only one side; used in cabinet work, especially in drawer construction. no. . blind dovetail. when the two pieces are together, the dovetails are invisible. this joint calls for very accurate work. it is used in special cases, where strength is required, and yet it is desirable to hide the form of construction. no. . trick dovetail; not used in construction, and only of interest as a curiosity. the four sides of this trick combination are apparently exactly alike. it seems impossible for them to have been put together, and to bring out the effect it is well to have one piece in light-coloured wood, the other dark. the method of laying out and cutting is shown in the illustration. the dovetails that appear on the surface are only oblique sections of dovetailed-shaped tongues and grooves running diagonally from face to face. no. . another trick. this at first sight appears like a lap dovetail, but the end view shows another dovetail, making it apparently impossible to put together. the construction is shown clearly in the drawing. it is of no value in constructive work. no. . splice or scarf joint; used in framing, occasionally; of little value to boys. no. . tongue and groove joint; used in flooring and for sheathing. scores of other joints might be shown, but they are seldom used, and are of no value to amateur mechanics. xxx the use of the gouge "there is one tool you have not learned to use," said ralph, one day, "and i think that it is about time you tried it." "what tool is that?" asked harry. [illustration: fig. . the gouge] "the gouge ground or bevelled on the outside." (fig. .) "what is it used for?" "for cutting concave curves, especially those below the surface. suppose you practise on a piece of white wood." a piece of white wood was squared up, a foot long and - / inches square. the lines shown in the figure were laid out with the pencil. the marking gauge is not suitable for this work, as it makes a sharp cut in the surface just where the edge is to come, so that after the gouge work is finished, it would show this edge split by the gauge mark. (fig. .) the two grooves from end to end were first cut, removing a quarter circle, the curve being drawn on the ends by a pair of compasses or dividers. this gave excellent practice in freehand work, calling for good control over the hands, and a constant watching of the grain to prevent splitting. [illustration: fig. . practise cuts with the gouge] the other two grooves or coves were next tried. extra care had to be exercised here to prevent taking off the ends. to give the boy further practice, the simple pen tray shown in fig. was sketched out, and the stock squared up. [illustration: fig. . an example of gouge work] the gouge work in this exercise was entirely beneath the surface, and to make the tool work true to the drawing, a depth gauge was made as shown at _a_. this was simply a straight piece of waste wood with a brad driven into it, carefully, until the head was the same distance above the surface as the depth of the groove called for in the drawing. by inverting the gauge and running the brad head along the bottom of the groove, the depth could be gauged accurately. the wooden strip must rest on the surface at both sides of the groove, and the brad head just touches the bottom at the same time. after the gouge work had been carried as far as possible, the groove was finished by sand-papering, first with no. - / and then with no. sand-paper. in laying out bevelled edges on a piece of this character, the same objection to the marking gauge holds as for gouged grooves. ralph showed the boy a simple method of making a gauge for pencil lines to overcome this difficulty. he cut out a piece of white pine shaped as shown at _b_. the distance from the shoulder to the point of the v was equal to the width of the desired bevel or chamfer. the stock must be held in the vise, as both hands are required in the drawing of the lines. to make the width of the bevel greater, simply cut the shoulder further back with a knife, and to reduce the size, cut the v further in toward the shoulder. this is a very convenient and inexpensive device, quickly made. a more pretentious project was tried next (fig. , _a_), which provides for a round ink bottle, and demands some nice chisel work. in the first pen tray the bevels had been all planed. on this second one, only three could be cut that way, as the one on the back had to be chiselled. the successive steps in the construction were as follows: . square up stock. . lay out the drawing on the wood. . bore the hole for ink well half way through the wood with extension bit. . smooth the bottom of the hole with chisel, holding it bevel down. . gouge out the groove and gauge the depth. . sand-paper the groove. . cut out the outline of the back with the back saw and chisel. . cut all the bevels, doing the back part--the most difficult--first. . draw chip carving design. . do the carving. . rub down with wax dissolved in turpentine. . insert ink well. design no. , shown at _b_ (fig. ), called for molded edges, places for two square ink wells, and a simple carved design in the flat space between them. the process in this case was as follows: . square up. . lay out the work from drawing. . cut out squares / inch deep with socket chisel and mallet. . gouge groove. . make moulded edges by first gouging the quarter circle shown in detail drawing, and doing the long sides with the grain first. next remove the rest of the wood outside the curved outline with smoothing plane on long sides, block plane on ends. sand-paper the groove and moulded edges. . lay out and execute carving. . rub down with wax or raw linseed oil. . insert ink wells. [illustration: fig. . pen and ink trays] in place of carving this inkstand, an inlaid design could have been used, and the whole piece highly polished, but our boy had not yet had any practice in inlaying or polishing, so he used sweet gum wood and a chip carving design. later on he made others out of black walnut and mahogany, and gave them a high polish. see chapter xxxv for inlaying and xlix for polishing. a very nice little problem in gouge work is shown in fig. , a pen tray pure and simple, with no provision for ink wells. the only new feature is the under cutting of the outside. the steps for this are: . square up. . lay out from a centre line, drawn completely around the block lengthwise, and draw with compasses and rule both top and bottom. . gouge groove. . plane the long sides to outline of top and bottom lines. . cut ends with back saw and chisel to semicircles on top and bottom. . round upper edge with spokeshave, chisel and knife. . sand-paper with coarse, followed by fine, sand-paper. . polish or wax finish. [illustration: fig. . the pen trap] perhaps the most severe test for gouge work is the pin tray shown at fig. . this is something which could be made more cheaply and in less time from metal, but a skilful and careful boy can do it successfully in a hard wood, such as maple. the process is similar to the pen tray. the drawing is laid out on the squared stock, and the bowl cut out with the gouge. the outside is best executed with a template, or better, two--one for the lengthwise section and one for the width. a template is a form cut out of thin wood or metal; in this case / -inch wood should be used. by frequently holding these templates to the work, it may be quickly seen where the material is to be removed. [illustration: fig. . the pin tray. a fine test of gouge work] when the outside of the tray fits the templates, it is ready for sand-papering, and not before. to make the tray perfect, an inside template can be used. this template method is used in forming boat models. xxxi coat hanger and towel rollers the coat hanger is a convenient thing in every household, and also a good example of spokeshave work. a soft wood, like pine, or white wood, is suitable, and after squaring up two faces and one edge, the design may be drawn on one or both of the faces with a sharp pencil. cut close to the lines with a turning saw, and finish to lines with spokeshave. [illustration: fig. . the coat hanger] the upper edge is next rounded with the spokeshave (fig. ), and finished with sand-paper to the cross section shown in the drawing. bore a hole for the hook with a gimlet bit, and make the hook from strong brass wire, shaped by bending with a pair of pliers. for finishing, two coats of shellac can be used. the first coat after hardening is sand-papered flat with no. sand-paper; the second may be treated in the same way, or rubbed down with ground pumice stone and linseed oil. (see polishing chapter.) for the kitchen, the towel roller is still used to some extent, especially in the country and suburbs. it consists of four pieces, a back, two brackets, and the roller. these essential parts are shown in fig. and the back and brackets may be modified and improved as shown at _b_ and _c_. carving can be used in a simple form on the ends, as shown at _c_. the back and ends are cut out with the usual tools, but it is wise, in cutting the outline of the ends, to glue them together with a piece of paper between, cutting both at the same time. this insures their being exactly alike, and when finished they may be easily separated by inserting the blade of a knife between them. the paper will split, half coming off on each piece. after the paper and glue have been planed off, a hole is bored half way through each end from the inside. on one end it is necessary to cut a groove of the same width and depth as the hole, clear up to the top, so that the roller can be inserted after assembling, and a towel be put over it. the ends are fastened with two flat-head screws each, by boring through the back, and countersinking. two holes should also be bored through the back for fastening it to the wall. the roller may be turned on a lathe or made at the bench by the following method: . square up the stock to the diameter of the roller called for in the drawing. . find the exact centre of each end by drawing the diagonals with a pencil. . draw a circle on each end from these centres of full diameter. . bore a hole at each of these centres / -inch diameter, and about an inch deep. . plane off the four corners down to the circle to produce an octagonal form. . plane off the eight corners, using as a stop a small piece of wood fastened in the vise. hold the roller against this stop, and allow the stock to rest over the open space in the vise. continue to plane off the edges as long as they are large enough to see or feel. . sand-paper with coarse, followed by fine, sand-paper. . glue into the holes in the ends pieces of dowel long enough to project out about half an inch. . allow the glue to harden over night, and saw off the dowels next day to the proper length. cut a slight bevel on the end of each dowel with the knife. if any carving is to be done on the ends, it must be cut before they are screwed to the back piece. [illustration: fig. . the towel roller] this method of producing a cylinder without a turning lathe can be used in a number of ways. for example, boys living in the city, where a pull-up bar has to be located in the house, can easily make one in this way, and fasten it between the door jambs at a convenient height. the blocks for supporting it can be made, as shown in fig. , three inches each way and / inch thick. oak is the best wood for this purpose. it is strong enough, and can be stained to match the door frame. bore and countersink four holes for - / -inch flat-head screws. [illustration: fig. . the pull-up bar] to prevent the bar turning, after it has been planed round and about / inch shorter than the space between the jambs, lay out a one-inch square on each end. cut out with a back saw, and chisel until it just fits the square opening in the blocks. this bar can be taken out and stored in a closet, when not in use, and the blocks will never be in the way. if the bar is so loose in the blocks that it has a tendency to spring out when you jump for it, a flat piece of oak can be screwed across the top, as shown in the illustration. [illustration: fig. . the hatchet handle. an example of spokeshave work] this is an excellent, if limited, gymnasium for those who get little exercise and whose time and space are limited. every boy ought to be able to "chin the bar" at least six or seven times without letting go. round objects with a taper, such as pointers and musicians' batons, can be made by this method, always getting the taper in the square form first, then planing off corners, etc. it is really work for a turning lathe, but one must work with such tools as he can afford to purchase. [illustration: fig. . the hammer handle] many useful articles of oval or elliptical cross section can be made at a bench which could not be made on an ordinary lathe. the hatchet handle shown in fig. is a good example. the wood used should be strong and tough, such as hickory or maple. after squaring up the stock to the over all dimensions, the outline is drawn on both flat faces, and sawed close to the lines with turning saw, finished with drawing knife and spokeshave. the oval or elliptical forms are then drawn on the ends, the corners rounded with spokeshave to these curves, and the whole finished with sand-paper. the hammer handle (fig. ) is made in the same manner. [illustration: fig. . sugar scoop] the woodworkers of northern europe make many household utensils in this way. the sugar scoop and the wooden ladle, shown in figs. and _a_, are familiar examples. in these two cases, the bowl is work for the gouge, while in rounding, some of the surfaces are done with the file. on general principles, it is not wise to get into the habit of using a file on wood, except in rare cases where the material is very hard, such as maple, beech, and similar woods. [illustration: fig. _a_. wooden ladle] the towel rack shown in fig. is suitable for the bath or bed room, and can readily be made by any boy. [illustration: fig. . the towel rack] the back piece is made with plane and chisel. the straight bevels are cut with the smoothing plane, and the curves with the chisel. the two openings or mortises should be laid out and cut before the ends are rounded. the wood is removed by boring several small holes within the lines, and finishing to line with a chisel and mallet. the two supports, or brackets, involve nothing new, and after being finished are glued into mortises. the towel sticks may be ten inches or more in length, squared up to / inch Ã� / inch. the taper begins two inches from the bored end, and from this point is planed in a straight line to / inch square at the small end. the rounding is done in the same manner as in the towel roller, the tips rounded with a knife, and the whole piece sand-papered smooth. the three sticks are held between the two supports and a / -inch dowel passed through the five holes, which should of course be in line. the ends of this dowel can be split before they are placed, and then in the final position small thin wedges can be driven in with a little glue. xxxii clock cases among small articles for household use the clock case is a popular model, and the designs range from the mission style, characterized by straight lines and plain surfaces, up to elaborate attempts at imitating in miniature the old-fashioned tall "grandfather's clock." while an ordinary alarm clock may be used for the clock proper, the small size nickeled clock, - / inches outside diameter, is more satisfactory and very reliable. it costs about seventy-five cents. in designing the frame, or case, structural items must be considered first. the clock needs a platform to stand on, there must be a circular opening just large enough for the face to fit, and the structure requires an opening in the back, so that the clock may be wound or removed. with these facts as a basis, the form can be sketched out. fig. shows, perhaps, the simplest style, on the mission order. the design of the front becomes a matter of proportion, and the dimensions given are only suggestions which the young designer can modify to meet his own ideas, keeping in mind that on horizontal members, if there is any difference in size, the upper ones should be the smaller. simple as this design appears, if put together by mortise and tenon, with provision made for the panelled front and sides, it will call for fine work. as there is no great question of strength involved, the following method will do for making this case. it will be called heretical by expert woodworkers, but is practicable and easy from the boy's point of view. square up a piece of / -inch stock inches wide and inches long. saw out two pieces for the panels - / inches long. clamp the front piece to a strip of scrap wood as a backing, and bore a hole for the clock face with an expansive bit. fasten the front to the end pieces by / -inch brads, as shown in _a_. in the same manner nail the top and bottom pieces to the front and ends, making a box of / -inch wood, with the back open. the legs, made / inch square with a / -inch rabbet cut out as shown at _a_, may now be glued on and fastened with two -inch brads driven in from the ends. the horizontal rails are cut and fitted to the front and ends and glued in position. [illustration: fig. . mission style clock case] if brads are used, they must be set, and the holes filled with putty, coloured to correspond with the wood used. if the legs of the clock are too short to rest on the bottom, add a shelf, or glue on a block of pine thick enough to bring the clock to the proper level. if the case is made of hard wood, polish it to a dead flat finish. this design, however, gives a splendid opportunity to ornament ends and front with chip carving, for which gum wood will be suitable. a clock case which can be easily upset is to be avoided, and therefore these long low designs are to be recommended, when the clock is to stand on a mantel, shelf, or bureau. if the clock is to hang on the wall the designs immediately change. the cuckoo clock is a familiar example. our boys wrestled with the problem of a wall clock, and their efforts to create something new brought forth considerable mental perspiration. it is always an easy matter to copy something one has seen, but that is not designing. the result of harry's efforts is shown in fig. . after drawing the circles with a pair of compasses, the rest of the figure was sketched out free-hand about a centre line. when it was fairly satisfactory, the two sides of the lower half were equalized and traced for the upper half. it was then measured, and the main dimensions added to the drawing. this drawing represented only the front. the back, or wall piece, had to be a duplicate of it as far as outline was concerned, and a plain box of / -inch wood, to hold the clock, joined these two parts, as in previous models. this is the order of construction: saw out stock for front and back pieces Ã� - / Ã� / inches. draw two centre lines, one the -inch way, the other the -inch way. at the point where they cross, bore the hole for the clock face, after drawing all the circles with the compasses. [illustration: fig. . the boys' first design for a clock case] draw outline, or trace it from original drawing, upon the surface of the wood. saw out close to outside lines, and finish to lines with spokeshave, chisel and sand-paper block. bevel the clock opening / inch with knife, and smooth with sand-paper. the curved lines inside of the outer edge are worked out with a veining tool. the back piece is made in the same way, but the central opening is bored larger than the front one, to allow the clock to be withdrawn or wound. the square box, joined to these two main pieces by means of cleats, completes the structure. on account of the long overhang of the front beyond the box, two cylindrical supports of the same material as the case can be glued between front and back, to add strength. [illustration: fig. . pendulum form of clock case] owing to the symmetry of the design, this case can be hung horizontally or vertically according to the wall space it is to occupy. the method of fastening should be a screw eye at the top of the case and screw hook or nail in the wall, as it will be necessary to remove the clock each time it is wound. if placed horizontally two hooks and eyes will be needed, one at each end. fig. shows another wall design in which the clock forms the centre of the pendulum and rests in a box of hexagon shape. this is made from a strip two inches wide, the pieces cut on a -degree mitre box with back saw, each piece - / inches long on the short side. it will just hold a clock - / inches in its largest diameter. when the face of this clock frame is bored, and the outline finished in the usual way, it is fastened to the hexagonal box by cleats. in order to do this accurately, turn the face upside down on the bench, place the box in position, and mark with a pencil all around the hexagon. the cleats must be fastened on the back, close up to the pencil line, with glue and brads, so carefully that the brads shall not be long enough to come through to the surface in front. when dry, insert the box between the cleats, and make fast with glue and brads. the long part of the pendulum can be either carved or polished plain. the / -inch hole bored in the upper part fits over a screw hook, which should project at least an inch from the wall. to have the clock hang perfectly plumb, this hook should project - / inches. another form of mantel clock is suggested in fig. . it is radically different from the others, and is characterized by a long, low, and massive base cut from a solid piece of wood - / inches thick or built up of two / -inch pieces of red gum, black walnut, or mahogany. the outline having been drawn on the planed surface, one must saw as close to the line as possible, and finish the line with chisel, gouge, file, and sand-paper. the circular piece, which is to enclose the clock, is cut from a block of the same material, two inches thick. draw the two circles, and bore the inner one with an extension bit, unless a turning lathe is available. in that case the circular block can be turned with great accuracy. the outline can be cut with the chisel after being sawed close to the line, and finished in the same way as the base. [illustration: fig. . mantel clock] glue this block in position, resting it in the semicircular opening provided in the base, and making it project / or / of an inch beyond the front surface of the base. polish to a dead, flat finish. as the clock is to fit snugly into the opening, the legs, and the handle at the top, must be removed. the grandfathers' clock one of the most interesting problems in clock case designing is a miniature of the tall clock of colonial times, commonly known as the grandfathers' clock. it is a simple and satisfactory form, but it is very important to have good proportions. the dimensions used by our boys are given in the drawing. (fig. ). as in all the other designs, it is based or built up around the ordinary nickel-plated clock, whose outside diameter is - / inches. with a circle of this diameter as a starter, the other sizes work out as given in the drawing. about the only fault likely to be found with this form is top heaviness, as the clock is some fifteen inches above its base. this can be counteracted by boring a hole in the back, two or three inches above the bottom, and pouring in about a pound of shot or other heavy material. the method of construction is as follows: all the material is / inch thick, except the base and mouldings, which require / -inch wood. red gum is very satisfactory, but more expensive woods, such as mahogany, can be used, especially if the front panel, which in full-sized clocks is a door, is to be inlaid. if gum wood is used, this panel can be decorated with chip carving or simply outlined with a veining tool. if an especially elaborate result is desired, it can be accomplished by a raised panel with moulded edges made of / -inch wood, fastened to the front with glue and small brads. bill of material: base - / Ã� Ã� / moulding Ã� / Ã� / box sides - / Ã� - / Ã� / face - / Ã� Ã� / front - / Ã� Ã� / sides of top, pcs. back - / Ã� - / Ã� / - / Ã� - / Ã� / partitions -- - / Ã� - / Ã� / -- - / Ã� - / Ã� / after getting out the material construct the long box which makes the body of the design. this will be - / inches long, inches wide by inches deep, and the method of putting together is shown at _a_. this allows only one joint to show on each side, and the back piece may be of cheap material, such as white wood. the smallest partition, - / Ã� - / Ã� / , of white wood, is inserted in the bottom, pushed up / inch, and fastened with / -inch brads from the outside. this size of brad will not split / -inch gum wood, unless driven in nearer the edge than / inch. [illustration: fig. . grandfathers' clock] one of the remaining partitions is placed in the upper end, as in a box, one edge flush with the back. the entire back of the case must be in a straight line. the end just inserted will project out in front a quarter of an inch. place the remaining partition - / inches down from the extreme top of the box. this will bring it to rest against the front, which is only - / inches high. the compartment for holding the clock is now complete, open front and back. the base may next be prepared, taking care to have the grain running up and down. the front piece of the base is Ã� Ã� / inches. side pieces of base are Ã� Ã� / . these three pieces are to be put together with a butt joint, as shown in the bottom view, and fastened with one-inch brads and a little glue. four / -inch brads can be used on each of the three sides to hold the base to the box. it is very important that the bottom be perfectly square. it should be tested and, if necessary, squared with a block plane. the cove moulding for upper and lower parts may now be prepared. square up one piece of stock inches or Ã� / inches square. draw a quarter circle with a radius of / -inch on each end, and remove the wood in this space with a gouge. finish with sand-paper. this moulding is fitted around the three sides at top of base with a back saw and mitre box. put it in place with / -inch brads and glue, and carefully remove any trace of glue that may appear, before it hardens. the moulding for the upper part cannot be placed until the top is finished. after squaring up the face, draw the outline directly on the wood. the curves at the top should be first laid out carefully on stiff paper, cut out with scissors, and traced on the wood. the opening for the clock, - / inches diameter, must be bored first. either a sharp centre bit or an extension bit should be used. if the latter, an / -inch hole must be bored at the centre, otherwise the tapering spur of the extension bit will surely split the thin wood. this is the most delicate operation in the whole process, and the circular opening will need smoothing with a sand-paper block. having succeeded in getting a satisfactory opening, the outline is sawed close to the lines with a coping saw and finished with sand-paper. the supplementary pieces _s s_, - / Ã� - / Ã� / inches, are next fastened to the sides at the top. they are flush with the top of the box and with the bottom of the face piece just described. it is to these that the front is mainly fastened. test the bottom edges of these pieces across both the front and back with a try square. fasten the front to these and to the top of the box with brads, and add the moulding, as shown in drawing. if the front panel is to be carved, that should be done before either the base or the top is put on; and if it is to be inlaid, the front should be increased in thickness to / inches, reducing the sides to - / inches in place of - / inches. after the assembling is finished, set all the brads, and fill the holes with putty, coloured to match the wood. either an oil or wax finish can be used, but a high polish is not advisable. all lines on the front, which are not edges, can be cut with a veining tool. several modifications of this method can be adopted. the front panel may be made a real door, put on with small ornamental hinges. this will increase the work, make it more realistic, but result in little real gain. the door in large clocks was necessary for getting at the weights and pendulum, but as these parts are missing in our model, the door is not necessary, except possibly for hiding things from burglars. it is the last spot they would be likely to think of as a hiding place for treasures. as in previous designs, the ring at the top of the clock can be removed, if it prevents fitting into the opening provided. the drawing shows a curve in the front of the base. it is not essential, but may be cut at any convenient stage of the construction with the coping saw, and sand-papered. by comparing this design with some real old six-foot clocks, the young designer will see that we have taken some liberties for the purpose of simplifying the work. highly ornamental tops were sometimes used, with metal and carved ornaments. it is never difficult to make elaborate designs, and the young woodworker can go as far as he likes in that direction. it is, however, sometimes difficult to simplify designs, and this we believe is at present highly desirable. xxxiii footstools the making of household furniture is a fascinating employment, and as there are varying styles and fashions in nearly all things which pertain to our homes, it will always be an interesting study. the savage knows nothing of furniture, for the ground is his chair, bed, and table. as we go up in the scale of civilization, we find the characteristics of a people reflected in the details of their home life. in japan, the house and its equipment are characterized by directness, simplicity, and subtle beauty. in america, we find a bewildering display of ever-changing devices, styles, forms, and schemes of decoration, in keeping with our rapidly changing and, we believe, rapidly improving taste in the intimate things of life. this condition is reflected in our furniture as much as in our clothes and in the pictures we buy. the black walnut furniture, with its hard horsehair upholstering, has been followed by antique oak, fumed oak, golden oak, forest green oak, mahogany, bird's-eye maple, french walnut, etc., and in a very few years we shall probably be using some of the beautiful but almost unknown woods of the philippines, because fashions in woods are very materially affected by the lumber supply. gilt chairs--not made to sit on--have been followed by the more sensible mission style, bringing a much needed simplicity, directness, and strength, together with an unfortunate addition of weight for the housewife to move around when cleaning. there seems to be no great gain without some loss. modern office furniture, with its simple and strong chairs, tables, and desks, can hardly be improved upon, and it is almost a pity that some of these excellencies cannot be introduced into the home, which is often overloaded, overdecorated, and encumbered with unnecessary articles. miss louise brigham gives us a fragrant breath of fresh air along this line in her interesting book on furniture made from boxes. what is needed is clear thinking. never design nor make a piece of furniture without asking, "what is this to be used for? what will be required of it?" etc. this is the gist of what ralph said to harry one day when they were about to launch out into the making of footstools, tabourettes and other small pieces of furniture. harry would have liked very much to start with a dining-room table, but ralph suggested diplomatically that it might be a good scheme to try several smaller pieces first. they decided on a footstool, and this is the catechism ralph put harry through as they worked out their drawing: "what is a footstool for?" "to rest your feet on." "is that all?" "what else could it be used for?" "never answer a question by asking another! i should say that a footstool might have to stand hard usage. for instance, suppose you wanted to reach a shelf high up in a closet. if the stool was handy, you would probably stand on it. others would do the same, and it is easily possible that somebody weighing over two hundred pounds might some day stand on it. so i should say, that the first requisite of a footstool was strength, and the second that it should not be easily upset. "when designing furniture, just ask yourself such questions, and you will find that your designs will be affected by them. now i believe that most footstools are too high and too easily upset." [illustration: fig. . first foot stool] the first design tried is shown in fig. . the material used was / -inch chestnut. after squaring up the top, the two grooves were cut to receive the upper ends of the legs. for grooves of this character, after cutting the lines as deep as possible with the knife, followed by the chisel, the router may be used. the cutter can be adjusted by means of the set screw, and a more uniform depth secured than with the chisel. there was considerable work on the legs because of the mortise for the shelf, and the two openings above. these were cut out close to the line with the turning saw after a hole had been bored in each space, as in scroll saw work. the outline of the legs was obtained with the same tool, and finished with the gouge, spokeshave, and sand-paper. where hard wood, such as oak, is used, the wood file may be applied to curved edges. to overcome the tendency to spread, the legs were made rigid by cutting the tenons shown on the drawing of the shelf. in each tenon was cut the square hole for the wedges. this shelf, when securely wedged, bound the whole structure rigidly. when the question of securing the legs to the top came up, the boys were inclined to use round-head blue screws from the top, but after considering that they would be in end grain, it looked as if this would be the weakest part of the stool. the solution was an heroic one. four angle irons were made out of strap iron taken from a packing case, and cut with a cold chisel into pieces - / inches long. each had two holes drilled in it to receive the screws, and was then bent into shape in an iron vise. a monkey wrench can be used as a vise for work as light as this. the screws used were / inch long, one fastened in the top, the other in the leg, for each of the four angle irons. [illustration: fig. . second design for footstool] chestnut has a very open grain, and takes a stain very well. our boys bought a small can of paste filler, coloured it with burnt umber, thinned it with turpentine to the consistency of cream, and put it on with a brush. the surfaces were rubbed down with cotton waste, and then it was left over night, to be ready for polishing in the morning. [illustration: fig. . third footstool design] after this stool was finished, the boys looked it over critically, and decided that it could be improved on, that it was too high and not heavy enough. footstool number two is shown in fig. . in this design, the shelf is dispensed with, and two stretchers or side pieces substituted; stock / and / inch thick took the place of / inch. the two ends were glued together with paper between, cut out as one piece, afterward separated, and the paper and glue planed off. the curved outline was drawn on paper, traced on the wood, sawed out with turning saw, and finished to line as in previous work. [illustration: fig. . fourth footstool design] the joint for fastening the side piece to the legs is shown in the drawing. it makes a strong and rigid combination, calling for a good fit. in putting on the top piece, angle irons can be used, but the boys tried a new method. after gluing the joint, they bored holes and countersunk them through the sides, forcing flat-head screws - / inches long up into the top. being below the level of the eye, these were invisible, and they saved the time and labour of making angle irons. two screws on each side are enough to make a solid piece of work. the material was quartered oak with antique finish. to produce this effect, lampblack dissolved in turpentine was added to the filler, and after drying was polished to a dead flat finish. (see polishing chapter.) design number three is shown in fig. . the legs run the long way of the stool; joints the same as number two; top fastened by screws through cross piece. the height, being much less than in the first designs, gives it a very massive and substantial appearance. all eight edges of the top have been slightly rounded with plane and sand-paper. this stool is non-upsetable in the direction of its length. stand on the extreme end of the top and lean backward; the stool will not tilt up in the slightest degree. harry tried this several times, but it remained on the floor with all four feet. this does not apply to the width, so the boys designed number four (fig. ), which would not upset from the side, where the feet are usually placed. it is even lower than number three, and as the other dimensions are practically the same, it appears even more massive. the construction is similar to number three, but the legs are again at the ends, and the whole being made of oak, or ash, it is practically indestructible. a very beautiful golden-brown finish may be given these stools by first coating them with bichromate of potash. this chemical comes in crystals, which readily dissolve in water. put it on with a one-inch varnish brush and, when dry, sand-paper down flat with no. sand-paper. two or three coats of shellac, each allowed to harden and dry thoroughly before being rubbed down with sand-paper, will give a satisfactory polish. finish by a rub down with raw linseed oil, and wipe dry. xxxiv the tabourette this is a favourite problem in woodwork for boys, because the tabourette can be put to many uses. it may hold books or magazines, serve as a pedestal for a jardinière, for vases of flowers, for smokers' sets, etc. its forms are many, and the methods of finishing and decorating infinite. the five styles shown in figs. and are perhaps the most common ones, and they are arranged according to the difficulty of construction. no. . has a circular top supported by square legs, bound to a lower shelf. no . has an octagonal top supported by flat legs, which are held together by two strips halved together at the centre, and mortised through the legs. it is stronger than no. . no . is the familiar hexagonal form, with only three legs, made rigid by fastening to an hexagonal shelf. no. . is the standard square form in mission style, mortised together. no . one of the simplest in appearance, is the most difficult to construct, because of the six long joints mitred at degrees, the well-known moorish style. as it is easily possible for any boy to make any of these tabourettes with ordinary tools and ordinary patience, they will be taken up in detail. tabourette number one _stock._--four pieces for the legs, - / inches square. the height varies, usually being between fourteen and eighteen inches. it is purely a matter of proportion. sixteen has been adopted in the drawing as a good average. the top, a circle thirteen inches in diameter, is cut from a piece thirteen inches square and / inch thick. the shelf may be an exact duplicate of the top, but it appears much better, as shown in the drawing, as a square with corners cut off to fit against the legs. the method of getting this form is shown by dotted lines on the circular top. the method of construction is very simple. the top piece being laid out, is cut close to the line with turning saw, and finished to line with chisel and spokeshave. the square openings for legs are sawed out and the wood removed with a chisel. [illustration: fig. . three styles of tabourettes] all chisel work should be done on a bench hook or on a piece of scrap board, as a cutting block. in preparing to assemble, lay the four legs side by side on the bench top or fasten in the vise. make sure they are equal in length. four and a half inches from one end draw a pencil line with try square across all four. half an inch from the other end draw a similar line; this end is to be the top. these pencil lines are for locating the holes for the screws, so that they will all be on the same level. bore a hole on each line with a bit or drill, large enough so that the body of a round-head blue screw either - / or - / inches long will just slide through. before assembling, bevel or round the top of each leg about / inch. fasten the four legs to the top with the screws, slip the shelf into position, and make fast in the same manner. stand the tabourette on a level surface, and if it needs levelling, proceed as explained in the making of saw horse. tabourette number two tabourette number two may be modified by designing legs with slight curves. before cutting these, lay out the four mortises just as the centres for screw holes were located in previous model so that all four will be equally distant from the floor. cut out mortises by boring several holes within the space to be cut and finish to line with chisel. these mortises should be laid out on both sides of the leg by squaring lines around the four sides. the top needs no description, as it is just a plain octagon. the principal work in this model is on the cross pieces. they should be laid out carefully, side by side, to make sure that the distance across from shoulder to shoulder is exactly alike on both. the tenon may have two shoulders, as shown at _b_, or only one, as at _a_, but in either case the mortises cut in the legs must exactly fit the tenon. the halved joint in the centre must also be carefully fitted. when all the parts are ready to assemble, drill two holes near the top of each leg for the round-head screws. insert all the tenons into their mortises and fasten the legs to the top. a little glue may be used in the mortise and tenon joints and one brad should then be driven from the side or edge of each leg through the tenon. sink the brad below the surface with nail set. tabourette number three see chapter on mechanical drawing for laying out hexagon. this form will appear crude unless the legs are modified, and two or three suggestions for this are shown. the construction consists in fastening to the under side of the top piece a hexagon of / -inch pine eight inches in diameter, making sides four inches long. every alternate side of this under piece should be made with a sloping edge to conform to the slant of the legs, of which there are only three. drill or bore four holes in each leg, two / inch from the upper edge, and two to hold the hexagonal shelf. the top edge of the legs should be bevelled with a block plane to fit snugly against the under side of the top. three sides of the shelf--every alternate one--should be bevelled in the same way to fit against the inside of the legs. when ready to assemble, fasten pine hexagon to the under side of the top with six - / -inch screws. attach the legs to the three sloping edges of this under hexagon lightly with round-head screws. leave the screw heads projecting about / inch until the shelf has been fastened in position, then drive them home with the screw-driver. this is one of the simplest of tabourettes to make, but it is open to criticism. the sloping legs give it a wide base so that it is less easily upset than the other forms; but the pressure from above tends to spread them and pull the structure apart. this tendency must be counteracted by a tie piece, which in this case is only a shelf held by screws, some of which are in end grain. [illustration: fig. . two styles of tabourettes] of course any form may be criticised. the most beautiful of all, the turkish or moorish, on account of its overhanging top and small base, is the most easily upset, and in designing new forms all these points must be considered. tabourette number four this is an ideal example of the mission type taken from mr. fred d. cranshaw's book, "problems in furniture making." it calls for forty mortise and tenon joints, and as it is usually made in oak, it requires considerable time for laying out as well as for cutting. twenty-four of these joints can be dispensed with by panelling the sides in place of the lattice work. by hinging the top and putting in a bottom, the tabourette becomes a ladies' work box, a shoe box, etc. in a project of this kind it is absolutely necessary to work systematically. letter or number each part. mark the legs _a_ _b_ _c_ _d_, and proceed to work in pairs. after squaring up all the pieces, take side _a b_. lay out the four joints on _a_ and _b_ which are to face each other, finish these ready for assembling, lay aside _a_, and lay out _b c_, etc. when you have finished all four sides around to the starting point, stand the four legs up in the position they are to occupy and check up the work to see if any mistake has been made. treat the cross bars in the same way, marking the tenons _a _, _a _, _b _, _b _, etc. when you have gotten around the second time, assemble the whole thing and look again for errors. take apart and lay out mortises in cross pieces by pairs. fasten and together in the vise with the edges which are to face each other up as shown in fig. . square the lines across both pieces, remove from vise and gauge the horizontal edges of mortises with marking gauge. to avoid confusion and for change of work, cut out these mortises before laying out the next set, and so for the third time work around to the starting point. a fourth trip around, making and fitting the upright slats, and the tabourette is ready to assemble. by using liquid glue, which hardens slowly, the whole structure can be put together, fastened with large hand screws or clamps, and left over night to dry. while the glue is setting, measure carefully for the top, to see if there is any variation from dimensions on drawing, and cut out the top piece. by this time, the amateur woodworker will have more respect for the mission style than ever, and will appreciate the difficulty of reaching simplicity. the best method of securing the top is with small angle irons fastened to it and cross pieces on the inside. invert the tabourette, after screwing the angles to the cross pieces, and with the top on the floor, drive home the last four screws. no; it is not finished! there remains the polishing. see chapter xlix. tabourette number five this is so radically different in construction from the previous forms that it requires special consideration. twelve edges must be planed to a -degree mitre throughout their entire length and the fit must be perfect. to accomplish this, first cut out two hexagons from / -inch pine, inches in diameter, and exactly alike. construct a special shooting board, at least three inches longer than the legs. plane a strip of white pine to the shape of a wedge whose angle is degrees. nail it to the top of shooting board, as shown in fig. at _a_. by laying the piece to be mitred on this, the edge can be planed to degrees. lay this on the two pine hexagons as shown at _b_, and with the knife make a mark at the angle _a_ on both ends. connect these two points by a sharp line drawn with a straight edge. plane this edge on the shooting board to point _a_, giving angle _a c_. tack this leg by brads to the two hexagons, at each extreme end, driving brads only partly in, so that they can be easily withdrawn. fit the second leg to the first, and so on around to the starting point. number or letter the legs, and the corresponding faces of the hexagons, so that they may be easily replaced. next take off the legs, lay out and cut the openings with the usual tools. these may be plain gothic arches or simple modifications. when the legs are finished, make the hexagonal top and prepare to assemble. use the best glue. fasten the first leg in its original position on the pine hexagons, using - / -inch brads at the top, driving them all the way into the original holes. put a coating of glue on one edge throughout its whole length, and rub the next leg up close into position. the brads in the lower hexagon must be driven in only part way, as they are to be removed again. put all six legs into position in this manner. to bind the legs together while the glue is drying, heavy cord should be wound around them, using strips of wood to prevent marring the angles. let the whole stand over night. next day, plane off any glue that may show, removing the two brads at the bottom, dressing down one side at a time until you have reached the last leg. the pine hexagon at the bottom may be taken out, if it doesn't fall out. sand-paper the sides with no. sand-paper, wrapped around a block. the top only remains to be adjusted. drill six holes in the pine hexagon at the top, and pass six / or / inch screws through from the under side into the top piece by inverting, with top on the floor. there is so much careful work on this tabourette that it is worthy of good material. mahogany is very suitable, the light coloured bay wood being the cheapest variety; but of course other woods will do. in case bay wood is used, it can be given the appearance of old mahogany by first coating it with a wash of potassium bichromate. polish. xxxv the dovetail joint while most mission furniture is put together with the mortise and tenon joint, cabinet work calls for the dovetail. all the skill and accuracy possible are needed in dovetailing, and when well put together with this style of joinery, a piece of furniture should last indefinitely. [illustration: fig. ] the making of joints just for practice may not be very interesting, but in the case of the dovetail it is decidedly advisable. this is what ralph decided in harry's case, and he was required to make first a single open joint as shown in fig. . the piece marked _a_ was laid out first, after squaring up the stock, and the shaded portion removed with back saw and chisel, sawing so close to the oblique lines that no chiselling was required on these two sides. piece _b_ was next fastened upright in the vise, piece _a_ being laid over _b_ in a horizontal position, and the form of the dovetail scribed with a knife point. in other words, the first piece cut out was used as a template for laying out the second. the form of the dovetail appeared in knife lines on the end of piece _b_. the laying out of _b_ was then completed as shown at _d_. the darkened portions were removed with back saw and chisel, and the two parts carefully fitted and glued together. [illustration: fig. ] this method of laying out dovetails is much surer than that of laying out each piece separately according to the dimensions, as any variation from the figures is duplicated on the second piece, so that they must fit. this single dovetail was followed by a box dovetail joint comprising three dovetails on one piece, as shown in fig. . the method was the same as before, the three spaces being laid out, sawed, and chiselled. after testing to see that the bottoms of the cuts were square, piece _f_ was laid out, cut, and fitted. seven-eighths pine is good for this practice work, but white wood gives better practice, in that it is harder, and the dovetails cannot be forced together without breaking, unless the fit is good. the harder the stock used, of course the more true this is. after successfully making these two practice joints, the boy was ready to try his skill at cabinet work. he began with a toilet box in black walnut, to be inlaid later and polished. the over-all dimensions were Ã� Ã� - / inches, the height, exclusive of top and bottom pieces, being three inches. the bill of material read: pcs. walnut Ã� Ã� / pcs. walnut Ã� Ã� / pcs. walnut Ã� Ã� / [illustration: fig. . the dovetail joint used in box design] the process was as follows: sides squared up and tested. ends squared up and tested. sides and ends compared to see if all were exactly the same height. dovetail joints laid out on side pieces. (the two sides can be glued together with paper between, and cut at the same time, but on this first box the boys laid out each side separately.) joints cut and chiselled to line and lettered _a b c d_. this was to avoid confusion in laying out the ends from the sides. ends laid out from sides with knife. ends cut and fitted to sides. this short description meant the fitting of four box dovetails, or twelve individual dovetail joints, and it took considerable time. the four pieces were glued and fastened in hand screws over night. particular care was taken to see that the pressure was evenly distributed, so as not to throw the box out of square. while the glue was hardening, the top and bottom were squared up half an inch shorter and half an inch narrower than the finished box was to be. a quarter-inch rabbet was cut on the four edges of both top and bottom. when the box was taken out of the hand screws next day the rabbet allowed top and bottom to fit sides and ends as shown in _g_ (fig. ). they were glued into position, and again placed in hand screws. this construction left a quarter-inch rabbet all around the top and bottom of the box. this space was to be filled with square pieces of white holly as an ornamental feature. while the glue was hardening a second time, these little square strips were prepared. the boys found that it would not be necessary to square up the four sides, for if one corner were made perfectly square, the other sides could be planed off after the strips were glued on. when the hand screws were removed again, all traces of glue in the rabbet were carefully taken off with a sharp chisel. the strips of holly were sawed in the mitre box, and fitted around the four sides of top and bottom. the construction at this stage is shown at _h_, with the holly strips projecting beyond the walnut sides, ends and top. the strips were fitted and glued in position, and then held in place during the drying process by winding the box in all directions with stout twine. when thoroughly hard and dry, the whole thing was squared up, as if it were a solid block, and scraped with a steel scraper. gauge lines were then made for the cover, as described in the chapter on toilet boxes, sawed, fitted, hinged, and polished. when a box like this is to be inlaid, the inlaying should be done after the squaring up, but before the cover is sawed off. the method of ornamenting the edges by strips of different coloured woods may be omitted, and the work considerably simplified by gluing the top and bottom on, as shown in fig. at _i_, and if this seems too crude, a bevel / inch on the sides and ends and / inch on the top can be made with the plane. still another method is to round the edges as shown at _j_. where the top is to be inlaid, either _j_ or _k_ is preferable, as ornamented corners combined with a decorated top is rather too much ornamentation for good taste. xxxvi inlaying in our search for the simple life with its mission furniture, etc., inlaying has become almost a lost art, but it is so easily done, and if used in moderation so pleasing to the eye, that every boy ought to try it at least. if simple designs are adhered to, the results are bound to be satisfactory. the materials required are a few pieces of veneering of different thicknesses and two or more kinds of wood. veneering can be obtained from / inch thick down to / inch, but for ordinary work the thickness should be / inch, / inch, and / inch, and the woods, ebony, holly, walnut, mahogany. a good collection for simple designs is: / -inch ebony, holly, mahogany / -inch holly, rosewood, walnut / -inch holly, mahogany the tools required are a mitre box, back saw, socket chisel, and mallet. the process consists of building up the design, cutting out the opening, gluing the design in the opening, and dressing down. building up the design it pays to make a full-sized drawing of the design, as the relation of the inlaid work to the space it is to occupy is important. for a box proportioned like the one just described, Ã� inches, the inlaid design should be in about the same general proportion. a square centre piece in such an oblong space would not look well; it should be about one and a half times as long as the width. the best plan is to draw the box top full size and then carefully work up the design. this sort of designing will be a new experience, as the veneering is all cut in a mitre box, no tool but a saw being used, and this fact limits the designs. several pieces of the veneer are glued together and placed in hand screws over night. [illustration: fig. . inlaid designs cut in a -degree mitre box] suppose the combination shown at fig. is used. five thicknesses composed of two / -inch walnut, next two of / -inch holly, and in the centre one / -inch ebony, will make a strong combination / inch thick. the dimensions should be about inches long by inches wide. these five pieces when glued together make a solid piece Ã� Ã� / inches. this built up board is sawed into strips / inch thick, and these strips / Ã� / inch form the basis of the design. in drawing the centre piece, border, or whatever form the inlay is to take, it must be constantly kept in mind that / inch is the width of the pieces. fig. shows the shapes possible on a -degree mitre box. four pieces like _a_ make a square. to make an oblong design from this shape, ten pieces will give _b_. four pieces like _d_ will give a hollow square, in which may be fitted a piece of fancy wood such as rosewood, snake wood, satinwood, or some other south american wood. the greek cross is a favourite figure, and it is composed of twelve pieces, eight like _f_, and four like _a_. some of its variations are shown in _c c_. this design can be elaborated as shown at _e_. some of the most pleasing combinations are extremely simple. an oblong piece of beautiful wood such as bird's-eye maple, with a simple mitred frame, is far more satisfying than the more complicated figures. the swastika is a favourite among boys, and it is shown at fig. applied to an oblong box design. in such a figure the border strips are not put on until all the pieces for the swastika are cut out, fitted, and glued. in many of these designs two, three, and sometimes four gluings are necessary. the pieces, having been cut and fitted, are all brought together on a piece of paper and glued with liquid glue. the hot glue dries too quickly. the paper holding the design is laid on a piece of pine / inch thick, and wire brads driven into the pine up close to the inlay to hold the design together while it dries. two nails should be used against each piece of the outside border. these nails may be used to exert pressure by bending them with the fingers over the design to force the pieces together. [illustration: fig. . the swastika used as an inlay] when each piece has been pressed into place, allow it to stand over night. next day bend the nails back, and lift the design, paper and all, out of its nail fence, tear off the paper and cut away any glue that projects beyond the edges with a knife or chisel. you now have a solid inlaid design / inch thick ready for use. find by measurement the exact place where you want this figure, lay it on the surface and with a sharp knife scribe a line around the design. place the inlay to one side, and cut out to a depth of / inch the whole space inside the knife lines. this can be done with socket chisel and mallet, or with a router. the final cut should be made with the chisel, bevel side in and straight down. you now have a space cut in the surface the exact size of the design, except possibly the depth. coat the bottom of this space with glue, press the design down into the space and hammer it tight with the mallet and block of soft wood. allow the glue to harden thoroughly, plane the design down to the surface, scrape, and sand-paper. this is one of the things much more easily done than described on paper. instead of the solid designs just described, an inlaid border is sometimes preferable. fig. at _g_ gives a good idea of a very neat one. in this case, the groove to receive the inlay is drawn directly on the surface of the box, and cut out to the usual depth, / inch. the pieces of inlay are sawed out in the mitre box and fitted into the groove individually, but not glued until the entire border has been fitted. they are done all at one time, and then a piece of board is laid over the whole top, and it is placed in hand screws over night. [illustration: fig. . built up borders for inlaying] the number of combinations which can be obtained from three or four veneers of different thicknesses is astonishing, but perhaps the most interesting form is called built up work. fig. shows several forms of built up borders. the method of making _a_ is as follows: ebony and holly / inch thick are required and two separate combinations are glued up, one containing two pieces of holly with one ebony, and the second two of ebony with one holly. when dry, saw out of each combination a strip an inch or an inch and a quarter wide. from strip no. saw a dozen or more pieces an inch or so long. to make these pieces exactly alike, drive a nail into the bottom of the mitre box an inch from the -degree saw cut. by pushing the strip up to this nail each time a cut is made the pieces must be the same length. for combination no. , shift the nail to / inch from the saw cut, and saw out an equal number of pieces as from no. . by gluing these pieces together alternately, border _a_ will result. it is necessary on these built up combinations to add an outside retaining strip of thin veneer to hold the pieces rigidly together. [illustration: fig. . method of making an inlaid checker-board] when the final gluing has dried, the usual / -inch strip should be sawed out. this is best done on a power, band, or circular saw, but it can be done by hand if the rip saw is good and sharp. other built up combinations may be handled in the same way. for square spaces, the checker-board is a great favourite. it calls for a dark and light veneer of / inch thickness. glue up four light and four dark pieces in alternation as shown in fig. . when hard, saw out eight strips as wide as the veneer is thick. glue these eight strips together, reversing four of them, so that the black and white squares come together. the result will be a solid piece one inch square, and by sawing off / -inch slices, each slice will be a checker-board composed of / -inch cubes. the very best glue obtainable is needed for this work, especially if the woods are ebony and holly, as these are so hard that the glue cannot penetrate. when a - - -degree mitre box is used to cut the strips, an entirely different class of designs is obtained. fig. shows some of the endless possibilities of these combinations. they are suitable for the top and shelf of an hexagonal tabourette, and the oblong figures are suitable for the top of an oblong box or the space between the wells of an inkstand. some of the simplest yet most effective forms give the impression of overlapping shown at _a_, fig. , this being an oblong piece of fancy wood with a narrow mitred frame around the four sides; _b b_ are pieces of the same kind of wood but different from _a_, with a narrow frame on three sides; _a_ appears to be laid over _b_, and _c c_, still another kind of wood, both cut from the same piece. it looks more uniform and harmonious if the frames of the five pieces representing three distinct kinds of wood are the same. it is important in choosing these borders to see that the outside veneer be in marked contrast to the surface into which the design is to be set. a very simple centre piece may be made interesting by surrounding a plain oblong or rectangle of rare wood with an interlaced border. inlaying of curved designs means some difficulty in accurately cutting out the opening to fit the design; but this is overcome by reverting to the ancient art called marquetry work. three or more veneers / inch thick are glued together at the corners and the design drawn or glued on the top layer. suppose the figure is that of a butterfly. assume that the veneers are holly, mahogany, and rosewood. with a fine fret saw cut or saw directly on the lines. the three thicknesses being sawed at one time, the pieces must exactly fit. the rosewood may be used for the outer edge of the wings, the holly for the main part of the wings, and the mahogany for the body. as all these parts fit accurately, they may be glued to a / -inch backing piece and dried under the pressure of hand screws. flowers, birds, etc., in infinite variety, and even landscapes, can be cut out and used in this way. veneers coloured green are on the market and may be used for leaves or foliage effects. [illustration: fig. . designs cut on - - -degree mitre box] a great deal might be written about this old style of ornamental woodwork, but it would deal almost entirely with questions of design, as the method would be practically the same in every case. one form of this interesting art is called buhl work, in which sheet brass, german silver, or even the precious metals are used. brass and ebony were a favourite combination at one time, the two layers being glued together with paper between. the design was sawed out, and then a sharp knife blade inserted into the joint to separate the brass from the ebony. that gave two distinct designs. in one case it was a brass background with ebony inlay. in the other, an ebony background with brass inlay. there will always be as many resulting combinations as there are original layers of material. a backing of cheap material is always necessary to support the finished work to which it must be securely glued. in polishing the finished surface, a steel scraper must first be used, followed by fine sand-paper; then polish. some of the newer forms of decoration, while lacking the richness of inlaid work, admit of greater freedom. pyrography, for example, is closely akin to drawing, and in the hands of a careful worker may be made to produce very artistic effects. like all arts, it also has its limitations. in woods of the pine family, it will not do at all, on account of the pitchy sap. in dark-coloured or very hard woods, it is equally unsatisfactory, so that it is used almost exclusively on basswood, because of the white colour, softness, even grain, and freedom from pitch. outfits for pyrography may be purchased quite reasonably. they consist of a glass bottle containing benzine; the vapour from this is forced through a rubber tube by means of a bulb held in the left hand out to a platinum point. this point is first heated in the flame of an alcohol lamp sufficiently to ignite the benzine vapour as it comes out through openings in the point. while the left hand keeps pumping the vapour, the right hand guides the point along the lines of the design, which has been drawn or traced on the wood. many articles made and stamped with designs are to be had at the art stores; but the joy and satisfaction in achievement come from making the articles and originating the designs. basswood is very easily soiled by handling and a coat of white shellac should be applied after the burning is finished. sometimes staining is used on certain parts of the design, as for flowers or fruit, and in that case the staining must be done before the shellac is applied. xxxvii the checker-board a favourite project among young woodworkers is the checker-board. while it is closely akin to inlaying, the method of making it to avoid unnecessary labour is here suggested. as the checker-board consists of sixty-four squares of equal size and divided equally between two kinds of wood, one dark and the other light, some way must be devised to insure their being exactly alike to make the board a success. considerable care should be used in the selection of the woods, for while they must present a strong contrast in colour, they should be as nearly as possible of the same degree of hardness, to make the working uniform. if soft woods are used, red gum and basswood make an agreeable contrast in colour. basswood is not a very satisfactory wood to polish in its natural colour, however. among the hard woods, a combination of black walnut and rock maple, or mahogany and maple, or even cherry and maple, can be used. any one of these combinations will be more satisfactory in the finished work than the soft woods mentioned. the work will be harder of course, but in woodwork as in other things, nothing really good is obtained without effort. assuming that the woods have been selected, four strips of dark and the same number in light coloured wood should be squared up to a width of - / or - / inches according to the size of the squares to be made. [illustration: fig. . method of making a checker-board] as in other woodworking problems, have a full-sized or half-sized mechanical drawing ready before using a tool. a checker-board built up of - / -inch squares will be ten inches square without the frame. (see fig. .) with - / -inch squares, it will be twelve inches on each side. this is amply large and a satisfactory working size. the material should be either / inch or / inch thick. plane the strips about sixteen inches long by one inch and a half wide. lay the four strips of dark wood on edge on the bench top and carefully fasten the four in the vise. remove a light shaving to insure their width being all alike. treat the light strips the same way. next place all eight strips together and examine for inequalities. too much care cannot be exercised at this point, as the success of the problem depends on it. to make doubly sure, reverse every alternate strip end for end, and if inequalities appear place all eight strips in the vise and remove a light shaving. one of the best methods for making these strips of equal size and with perfectly square edges is to construct a shooting board, or arrange one already made, as shown at _a_. the strip _s_ is set to a gauge line made - / inches from the edge. the strips are laid in this space and planed in the usual way, until the plane touches the stop. this makes the width of all pieces the same and gives true edges. these eight strips placed alternately light and dark are now glued upon a backing of soft wood, / inch or less in thickness. gluing must be done thoroughly, each strip being rubbed back and forth until a good joint is made with its neighbour. a piece of newspaper is spread over the top, heavy pieces of flat stock placed top and bottom, and the pressure from several hand screws applied while the glue is drying. the best liquid glue obtainable should be used, and the paper on top prevents the hand screws being glued to the wood. this combination must stand until the glue is thoroughly hard, if it takes forty-eight hours, which it does sometimes in damp weather. when dry, remove hand screws and tear off paper. square outside edges if backing projects or glue adheres. with a large try square or steel square lay out parallel lines across the combination - / inches apart. saw on the lines with cross cut saw, unless a mill is handy, when it can be done more accurately with a circular or band saw. the new strips will be - / inches wide, less the amount removed by the saw. dress them down to a width of - / inches on the shooting board. this should bring the eight pieces on each strip to squares - / inches on a side. eight of these strips make the checker-board. the original pieces, being sixteen inches long, allow for two or three extra strips in case any are spoiled in sawing or planing. these finished strips are now to be glued together on the permanent backing, which should be / or / inch in thickness, of the same material as the frame is to be and about eight inches each way longer and wider than the checker-board proper. this should be placed carefully in the centre of the backing, joints rubbed and fastened by cleats Ã� / inch tacked to the backing on all four sides. while this is drying under pressure of the hand screws as in the first gluing, square up the moulding which is to act as a frame: _d_ shows two styles. in both mouldings, a rabbet / inch or so wide and / inch deep should be made with rabbet plane. the outer edges may be square, rounded, or bevelled. when the checker-board is removed from its final gluing, this moulding is to be mitred and fitted about it as in making a picture frame. before doing this, remove all glue from edges with a chisel so that the frame will fit snugly to the checker-board. the frame is to be glued to both backing and checker-board and again placed in hand screws. while this is drying, an inlaid border strip as wide as the rabbet, either plain or built up, should be prepared. [illustration: fig. . checker-board tables] this strip, as well as the rabbet, may be omitted entirely, but should the frame be of the same material as one of the woods used in the checker-board it is necessary, and in any case it adds a finish to the work that is very pleasing. inlaid designs may be set into the frame and a very elaborate result obtained, if desired. after this last gluing, set in the inlay, and when dry, plane, scrape, and sand-paper the whole surface flat, and square the edges of the frame. this makes a very substantial and heavy board, worthy of any woodworker and worthy of being used as a table top. such a table may be constructed as shown in fig. . it calls for mortise and tenon joints cut at an angle, and if this style of work is considered too difficult vertical legs can be used. this under structure should be of the same kind of wood as the frame of the checker-board, and if oak is used the stain should be applied before placing the inlaid border. bay wood is preferable to oak for inlaying but is more expensive. on a small table of this size, where vertical legs are used, the base is so small that the structure is top-heavy and easily upset, so that the problem becomes a very interesting study in design. when the entire table has been put together, polish it. if mahogany, finish in natural colour; if oak, any of the styles described in the chapter on staining may be used, with care taken to keep the checker-board itself in the natural colours. xxxviii tool cases and chests after our boys had made several dovetailed and inlaid boxes, ralph announced that his pupil was ready to attack the construction of a tool cabinet. it was to be fastened to the wall over the bench, designed to hold most of the small tools, and to be in such a position that it could be reached from the front of the bench. the cabinet designed was really a dovetailed box Ã� Ã� inches over all. it was made of / -inch quartered oak except the back, which was / -inch pine. the bill of material was: piece pine Ã� Ã� / piece oak Ã� Ã� / pieces oak Ã� - / pieces oak Ã� - / the front and back, each x inches, were made of two pieces x inches, jointed and glued, placed in clamps over night and the joints planed down to take off the excess glue which had oozed out under pressure of the clamps. while these two parts were gluing, the sides and ends were dovetailed as in previous boxes. [illustration: fig. . a tool cabinet] when the front and back pieces were glued in place on the box, they were further fastened by -inch brads, set below the surface, and the holes filled with putty, coloured to correspond with the stain. the colour of the finish was a dark, handsome green. the box was sawed in two along a line - / inches from the front. this divided the cabinet into two parts, the door or front section having a clear depth of inches, and the back or wall section a depth of inches. after hinging the door section in position, the cabinet was stained inside and out, the outside polished and a hook for fastening the door shut was placed in position. the cabinet was fastened to the studding of the shop by four strong screws - / inches long. the various nails, hooks, and tool racks were next added and the cabinet was ready to use. patent racks for holding chisels, gouges, etc., are sold in hardware stores, but our boys preferred to make their own. their chisel rack is shown in fig. . after squaring up and cutting out the recesses at the ends, holes were bored, the opening from the front cut with back saw, and the sharp edges rounded with chisel and sand-paper. holes for the screws at the ends were bored and countersunk. in locating a tool cabinet of this kind, while it should be very easily reached, and is usually open during work hours, it should be placed high enough so as to be easily opened or closed without striking tools and work on the bench. in other words, it should not be necessary to clear the bench top in order to open the cabinet. about inches between under side of tool cabinet and bench top is about right. an old-fashioned tool chest, suitable for shipping a whole kit of tools any distance, is shown in fig. . these chests were usually fitted with trays divided into compartments for small tools and hardware. such a chest may be made of either hard or soft wood and its construction is as follows: after making out a list of material, square up sides and ends exactly as in making any box. lay out, cut and fit the dovetails. the bottom, on account of its width, will have to be made of two pieces. these may be jointed, glued and placed in clamps or put together with a tongue and groove joint. the latter plan calls for a special plane. having prepared the bottom by either of these methods, bore and countersink holes about inches apart in the bottom and secure rigidly to sides and ends by - / or - / inch flat-head screws. for the top, make a frame from / to / inch thick and or inches wide, putting the ends together with end lap or mortise and tenon joints. secure this frame to top of box by screws. these may be round-heads, or if it is desirable to hide them, the method shown in fig. can be used. this is accomplished by boring a / -inch hole through the top frame. at the same centre a / -inch hole is bored partly through. the screw is driven home and a round wooden plug glued into the / -inch hole. when dry, this plug is sawed off and planed smooth. the top frame having been secured, two gauge lines are made for sawing the cover, as in previous boxes, and the two parts dressed to gauge lines, ready for hinging. [illustration: fig. . the old-fashioned tool chest] before putting on the hinges, the top is to be finished with a raised panel. square up a piece of stock two inches longer and wider than the open space in the top frame. round upper edges, and secure to frame by flat-head screws from the under side through holes bored and countersunk. next put on hinges, which should be large and strong, the variety known as strap hinges. cut out space for lock, and fit. the holes for key are bored with a gimlet bit and cut out enough to allow the key to enter freely; or hasp, staple and padlock may be used. [illustration: fig. . suit case tool chest] the bevelled base is mitred at corners, and brass corner plates to protect these lower corners are added. the strip at the top corresponding to the base may be mitred and protected with corner plates, or the ordinary butt joint can be used. the bevel on this strip may be omitted. a chest of this variety, made of pine and painted, will stand a great deal of rough usage. iron or brass handles at the ends are recommended for convenience in carrying. our boys were not satisfied with this form of tool chest, as it required two people to carry it, and after some experimenting they evolved one in the form of a dress suit case, long, narrow, and high, that could be easily carried. it is shown in fig. . they first made a solid box Ã� Ã� inches over all. it was put together with butt joints securely nailed, using / -inch white wood. one quarter of the box was sawed out, as shown on the end view, and hinged to the body by ornamental brass hinges. this quarter was fitted for two saws by making two blocks as shown in the drawing. the rip and cross cut saws were fitted into the saw kerfs cut in these two blocks, placed securely in the cover, and were held in place by a small piece of leather strap taken from a school book strap and nailed to inside of cover. a tray for small tools was made of / -inch stock the full length and width of the inside of the chest - / inches deep and made to rest flush with the top of lower section on little corner strips glued in the four corners. for handle, two pieces of leather strap were secured, one to each top section, by screws. when the box was closed, these two straps came together and made a good handle. the objection to a solid handle is that it must be entirely on one section and that takes it out of the centre, so that the weight is not evenly distributed. this is one of the most satisfactory styles of tool carrier devised. it will hold practically the whole kit and may be picked up like a dress suit case and transported just as readily. a hook and eye or hasp, staple and padlock should be used to hold the case securely closed. for carrying bits of various kinds and sizes, a roll of ticking or denim divided into separate spaces is very desirable. these rolls with straps are sold in tool houses, but may be made at home by the sewing department. besides protecting the cutting edges, they help to keep out dampness and rust. xxxix bookcases and magazine racks the wall rack in the modern home, the orderly arrangement of books and magazines calls for ample shelf space and the book shelf becomes a favourite piece of furniture among amateur woodworkers. the book rack for the books of the day has been taken up in chapter xxvii. the book shelf for hanging on the wall is blocked out in fig. . the questions to be considered in the design are: no. . methods of fastening shelves to ends. no. . the design of the ends. no. . the back: is it necessary, and if so shall it be solid? outline of back. no. . method of fastening to wall. no. . the method of bringing shelves and ends together with plain butt joint and fastening with a round-head screw from the outside is the easiest and poorest. the whole weight on the shelves is carried by the screws. this method is shown at _a_. at _b_, a better method is indicated, the shelf being gained into the end and held in position by the screws. the weight in this case is carried by the ends. to hide the joint, the shelf may be slightly narrower than the end piece as shown in the top view at _c_, or the two parts may be of the same width as at _d_, the gained joint stopping half an inch or so short of the full width. these details apply to bookcases that stand on the floor as well as to smaller ones. [illustration: fig. . the problem of designing a wall book rack] no. . the design of the ends is largely a matter of artistic taste, and where curves are used, the lower part is usually formed in such a way as to suggest a bracket. no. . a back is only necessary to give the rack rigidity and to protect the wall. if made solid--_i. e._, to cover the whole space between ends--it uses a good deal of wood and adds considerable weight. _e_ shows a method of using only top and bottom strips. they will make the rack sufficiently rigid and the strip should be gained into the ends, bringing them flush with the back of end pieces. no. . find the location of wall studs by dropping a line with weight on it (plumb) from the nails on picture moulding, or by bringing the weight in front of nails on base board. make fine pencil marks on the wall where the studs have been located. find the horizontal distance between the marks and at this distance drill holes in back of book rack and secure to the studs by screws. this brings all the strain on the back strips. if the rack has no back, square up two hard wood strips about / inch square and as long as the shelves. drill screw holes in these strips and fasten to studs. drill vertical holes at the back of each shelf / inch in from edge, fit the shelves over cleats and screw down into them from upper side of shelves. the cleats should be finished in the same colour as the book rack. this method makes a very solid and permanent fastening. the length of a wall rack should be limited ordinarily to three feet, as the weight of three feet of books will give considerable sag to the shelves, and a greater length will call for a vertical partition and corresponding bracket underneath for its support. the bookcase this piece of furniture is seen in so many forms that a volume would be necessary simply to catalogue them. the essential features are strong ends or sides, usually a solid back, a base, shelves, often adjustable as to spacing, a top more or less ornamental, and often glass doors. perhaps the most important point in the construction is strength. a wobbly bookcase is an abomination, and the weight to be carried is frequently enormous. a typical case without doors will be taken up and this may be modified, used as a unit and doubled or trebled at the will of the young carpenter. (fig. .) if it is made to occupy a certain space in a permanent home, it may be built in and made solid with the wall, but this is not often desirable, particularly in america, where people move frequently. as a general rule, two small bookcases are better than one large one. they may be easily shifted, changed from room to room, and are more apt to fit between windows. [illustration: fig. . the bookcase] the uprights feet inches long, inches wide and / inch thick, are rabbeted at the back so that the joint will not show from the side. the back is to be of / -inch white wood stained the same colour as the sides. the under top piece and bottom are gained into the sides, both joints being hidden by the later construction. the -inch bevelled base is mitred at the corners and cut off square at the back, covering only three sides, as the back is to be flush from top to bottom. the top is to have a moulded edge on three sides, and to be fastened to under top piece by flat-head screws from the under side through countersunk holes. the four solid shelves are made adjustable in their spacing by the old-fashioned method of sawtoothed strips in each corner. strips / Ã� / inch are made to fit in the toothed spaces, and the shelves rest on these strips, of which two must be provided for each shelf. the four toothed strips should be laid out and cut together to insure the shelves being level. the dimensions for all these pieces are given in the detailed drawings. the front edges are covered by / -inch strips, beaded if desired, mitred at the top and cut to fit the bevelled base below. nailed on with brads, these are set and the holes filled with putty, coloured to match the finish. in the mission style, the shelves are frequently mortised through the sides and secured by pins or wedges. in this type of bookcase, a solid back is rarely used, and base and top are omitted. in a design of this kind, the top shelf becomes a book rack with ornamental ends. often only the upper and lower shelves are mortised, the others being gained into the sides as described under wall racks. the lower part of the side is frequently modified to give a wider base and to make the case more stable. one objection to this is the amount of material wasted in cutting out, as the stock for the sides must be the full width of the base. xl the medicine cabinet the wall cabinet for drugs and toilet articles, where the various household remedies may be found quickly, is illustrated in fig. . it calls for a panelled door, the construction and details of which are given in the drawing. after squaring up the four pieces for styles and rails, plough a / -inch groove / of an inch deep on the inner edge of all the pieces. this groove is to receive the panel which is planed down to fit. the two uprights are to be mortised at each end, as shown by dotted lines and edge view. the tenons on the ends of the rails are cut with a shoulder. this closes the space made by the plough on the uprights, as shown in the top view. the panel is squared up / inch larger each way than the open space between rails and styles and a long bevel is planed on each of the four sides, leaving the thickness of the edges just great enough to fit the bottom of the grooves of rails and styles. another method of making a panel is to use thin wood which will just fit the grooves, and to fill the joints with a simple moulding mitred at the corners. the raised panel is not difficult to make, however, and there is little difference in the time consumed by the two methods. when the five parts are ready for assembling, the mortise joints are glued, the panel slipped into place and left free to shrink in the grooves. the door is placed in hand screws or clamps over night. as it is to fit a definite space, always make a door slightly larger than its finished dimensions, to allow for planing off and fitting. while it is drying, proceed with the building of the cabinet. the back inner edges of the sides are to be rabbeted to receive the back, which may be made of / or / inch white wood. material for the cabinet proper may be any hard wood, or even white wood. the shelves may be / inch thick. heavier material is not necessary, on account of the short span. they are to be gained into the sides to the depth of / or / inch. the spacing of the shelves should be adapted to the sizes of bottles to be accommodated, and the dimensions given in the drawing are merely suggestive. the overhanging top may be made either with moulded edges on front and sides or be left square. it is secured by screws from the under side of the false top. [illustration: fig. . the medicine cabinet] the sides are shown modified at the bottom to give a pleasing effect, and the back piece may either be brought down and cut to a curved outline, as indicated in the drawing, or stopped at the first shelf. in assembling, first put the false top in place and nail it to the sides; next put the top on with screws, slip the shelves into their respective grooves, and glue. put on the back, nailing securely to sides and shelves. to make the cabinet more rigid, drive -inch brads into the shelves from the outside set and fill the holes. last of all, fit the door, and fasten it with hinges and a catch. a lock may be used, but that is hardly advisable, as in case of an emergency the key may be lost at the critical moment. stain and polish. the method of fastening is by screws through the back into the wall studs. cabinets for various purposes can be designed along the lines just described, but in each case the method of construction is similar. a stronger cabinet would result if the top and bottom shelves were mortised through the sides in the mission style. the only objection to this is that if the horizontal space be limited, the projecting tenon may be in the way. [illustration: fig. . a filing cabinet] the filing cabinet for papers shown in fig. is of radically different construction. as it is designed to stand on a desk, or independent shelf, the base may be very simple or omitted entirely, as in the drawing. it is divided into twelve compartments, with a clear space in each of - / Ã� - / Ã� - / inches, these being the outside dimensions of the drawers. it is important in building up these compartments to use lumber that is well seasoned and free from warp. gain the shelves into outside uprights, stopping the groove half an inch from the front. before sliding the shelves into the grooves, lay out on the four pieces the grooves for the three vertical partitions. it will be much easier to cut these grooves clear through from front to back, but a better appearance from the front can be obtained by stopping the grooves half an inch back, as on the sides. each vertical partition will then consist of three separate pieces slipped in from the back. a cross section of the cabinet will appear, as _a_. the quarter-inch back is to be gained into the sides as shown in the top view. the construction of the drawer is shown at _c_, the sides being cut away toward the back. otherwise the drawer is simply an open box made of / -inch pine or white wood, with / -inch bottom put together with brads. the false front, made of the same material as top and sides, gives a suitable finish, and practically covers all joints; it is secured by flat-head screws from the inside. in assembling the drawer, it should be made about / inch smaller than the compartment it is to fit, to prevent binding in damp weather. bay wood, a light-coloured mahogany, is very appropriate for this piece of office furniture, the edges of partitions being stained to match. a brass drawer-pull, with a space left for a printed label, is to be put on after the polishing is done. filing cabinets made by this method may, of course, be made with drawers of different proportions and with any number of compartments, but this size is designed to hold long envelopes, letters, bills, etc. xli mission furniture the library table (fig. ) is a good example of solid and permanent furniture construction. it represents the main principles of the mission style--solidity, strength, simplicity, straight lines, mortise and tenon joints, etc. to a boy who has worked carefully up to this point it is entirely possible. as the top is the only part to be glued up, this should be done first. three boards of / -inch quartered oak inches wide, or an equivalent that will aggregate a trifle over inches, and feet long, should be jointed and prepared for dowelling. the method of doing this is shown at _a_, where two jointed pieces are clamped together. the distance between dowels lengthwise should be measured, and lines squared across the edges with knife and try square. two pencil lines, as at _b_, should be made across the joint. set the marking gauge at / inch. remove the boards from vise or clamp, and from the faces touched by pencil lines, gauge lines cutting across the three knife lines on each edge. [illustration: fig. . a mission library table] where these lines cross, bore / -inch holes with a dowel bit to the depth of at least inch. lay out the other dowelled joint in the same manner. saw six pieces of / -inch dowel inches long, and glue ends of each dowel in the holes prepared in the middle board, as shown at _c_. put a thin layer of glue on the joints with a brush and clamp the three pieces together. while the glue is hardening, proceed with the frame. this consists of four legs, four top rails, the lower cross rails, a shelf, and four wedges. the sizes are as follows: top rails Ã� Ã� / top rails Ã� Ã� / cross rails - / Ã� Ã� / shelf - / Ã� Ã� / or / wedges - / Ã� / Ã� / the construction of the top rails is shown at _d_ in the detail drawing. the only point calling for special attention is to see that the tenons are flush with outside of rail, being cut on only three sides, and the mitre at the end of each. the necessity for this mitre is shown in the drawing of the top of leg at _e_, where the two tenons are shown meeting in the blind mortises. the short rails are identical with those shown at _d_, except in length. the detailed drawing of the legs is shown at _f_, and to make sure that the four are uniform, they should be laid out in pairs, the two at one end together, then the second pair; and finally the two pairs must be compared to discover any possible inaccuracies. the cutting of the mortises may be hastened by boring several holes inside the lines from each side. [illustration: fig. . a mission library table (_continued_)] the drawing at _g_ shows the layout of the lower rails, with tenons at the ends, and mortises on flat sides to receive the tenons on ends of the shelf. as in previous cases, these two pieces should be laid out together. the most difficult work up to this point is the cutting of the two blind mortises at the top of each leg to receive the mitred tenons. this operation could be simplified, by replacing the mortise and tenon at that point by a dowel joint, but it would no longer be genuine mission furniture, and a much weaker form of construction. the drawing of the long shelf explains itself, two tenons being cut at each end and a rectangular hole cut through each tenon for the wedge. the tenons are shown with a slight bevel, which is cut with a chisel when all other work is finished. before proceeding further, it will be wise to try and fit all the joints. number or letter the two parts of each joint, as it is finished, to assist in the final assembling. this process of fitting should take some time, for it cannot be hurried safely. when it is finished, the way to fasten the top to the frame should be considered. several methods are in use, and two are shown at _h_ and _i_. at _h_ a hole is bored at an angle in the rail. as it goes only part way through, it provides a shoulder for the screw head, and the screw is driven through a hole drilled for the purpose into the solid top. if this method is used, at least ten screws would be needed for a table of this size, three on each side and two on each end. the method shown at _i_ is probably the better of the two. blocks of wood of the shape and size given in the drawing are made and fitted into a groove ploughed in the rails. this groove may be ploughed the full length of rail, or cut out for an inch or two with a chisel. the tongue and groove should fit snugly, and the block be securely fastened to the top with screws. two blocks on each side and one on each end will be sufficient. a simple method is to fasten top and frame by angle irons inches long, on the inside. this question having been decided, take the glued-up top from clamps and dress down to size. the under side should be trued up enough to fit neatly over tops of legs and rails, and the upper side should be planed, scraped, and sand-papered. the final assembling should be done in this order: assemble the two ends separately. each end consists of two legs, a top and a bottom rail. the mortise and tenon joints should be glued, and a clamp used at top and bottom. test for squareness. when dry, remove clamps, insert shelf tenons and those of top rails in their mortises, and clamp lengthwise. drive a wire brad through each tenon, from the side of leg least conspicuous, and set with nail punch. put on the top, and level bottom of legs where necessary. remove all traces of glue, and fill brad holes with putty, coloured same as stain to be used. place wedges in mortises provided, and fasten each one with a small brad driven through the side of shelf tenons. stain and polish. the tea table this table is made low purposely, the legs being exactly two feet in length. the construction consists of four legs, two sets of cross rails, and a circular top two feet in diameter. as this top is too wide to be cut from one board, joint two pieces of / -inch stock, glue together, and place in clamp. the joint may be strengthened with dowels, as in previous cases. (fig. .) [illustration: fig. . a mission tea table] by proceeding in this order--gluing up first--no time need be lost in waiting. square up the four legs and lay out the eight mortises, placing the four pieces in a vise or clamp to insure uniformity. cut the mortises and lay the legs one side. the two sets of cross rails are to be halved at the centre, and may be straight or slightly curved, as shown. the curve improves the appearance without reducing the strength seriously, but if this form is decided on, the curve must be cut before laying out the halved joint. after finishing the joint, the two rails of each set are clamped together and tenons laid out. remove from clamp or vise and cut tenons. test each set to make sure the halved joint at centre is satisfactory, and insert tenons in the mortises. draw bore and fasten with round pins of the same material as the legs. before fastening the top rails in position, drill and countersink two holes in each piece for the screws, in the position shown in drawing. the bevels on end of tenons should be cut with the chisel before the final fastening. the two boards composing the top when removed from clamps should be dressed flat on both sides, tested with a straight edge, and circle laid out with steel dividers set at a radius of twelve inches. saw close to this line with turning saw, chisel to line, and smooth with spokeshave and sand-paper block--a piece of pine Ã� Ã� / inches, with the sand-paper tacked on the / -inch edge. scrape and sand-paper top. to fasten this top to the frame, lay the top upside down on the floor, and set the frame, inverted, on it. measure carefully to locate the frame in proper position, and fasten with four - / or - / inch flat head screws. assuming that all parts of the frame have been scraped and sand-papered before assembling, the table is ready for polishing. oak is the wood commonly used for this piece of furniture, but if well seasoned, chestnut is lighter in weight and just as satisfactory as to grain and finish. (see staining and polishing.) sometimes in mission furniture the legs of the table are allowed to come up through the top. this design is shown at fig. . the diameter of the top is inches, but the height is increased, as this is designed as a centre or reading table. on account of the support furnished by the shoulder at the top of legs, the top set of rails is omitted, and the fastening made by four angle irons securely screwed to the top and legs. this table, on account of the greater span between the legs, is as stable as the previous design. the cross rails are halved, and may be straight or curved on under side. if desired, a commodious shelf may be had by fastening a circular piece inches or less in diameter to the top of cross rails. this will need to be glued up and cut like top piece. [illustration: fig. . a mission style centre table] the square tenon at the top of legs is shown in the detailed drawing, and care should be taken in laying out to insure the distance from the shoulder to bottom of leg being alike on all four, if the top is to be level. [illustration: fig. . mission plant stand] after gluing up and dressing down the top, lay out circle and two-inch square openings for the tenons. test these squares carefully before cutting, to make sure they are equally spaced, saw out circle, and finish as in previous table. saw out the squares close to line and finish with chisel. in putting on angle irons, screw them to the top first and press it tightly down on the shoulders before fastening to legs. a strong cleat or inches long fastened to under side of top across the grain with four or five screws will help to prevent warping, but is not absolutely necessary. if the circular shelf is added, it is to be fastened to cross rails by screws from the under side through drilled holes. designing mission furniture boys who have followed the preceding instructions will be able to plan and construct the following designs without detailed explanations. the two drawings for plant stands are in the nature of suggestions, and although taken from pieces actually made they show the great difference in form that is possible in meeting the same conditions. [illustration: fig. . design for a plant stand] fig. is thoroughly representative of the so-called mission style with its mortise and tenon joints and straight square legs. the shelf for holding the jardinière is indicated by dotted lines, and it is held by cleats fastened to the sides by flat-head screws. a dark finish, antique or rich brown, is appropriate for either design. fig. shows a radically different form. the shelf is octagonal or square with the corners cut at degrees to fit the legs. the detail view shows the arrangement of lower rails meeting the legs at the same angle. the ends of rails are mitred and secured by wire nails set below the surface and holes filled. the fastening between upper shelf and legs may be either round-head blue screws or dowel pins of the same material as the legs, with the outer ends slightly rounded. the shape of the legs makes this design weaker than fig. , but their spread results in a more stable base and makes this stand less liable to upset. the foot rest (fig. ) is to be provided with a cushion covered with leather nailed on with large-head craftsman nails. [illustration: fig. . foot rest] [illustration: fig. . footstool in mission style] the cushion may be filled with hair, excelsior, or even fine shavings, securely sewed in a cover of ticking and held in place by the leather cover. the leather must be brought down and nailed to the lower edge of the cross rails. fasten the top to cleats screwed on inside of ends. [illustration: photograph by helen w. cooke. assembling and finishing] fig. shows the same problem worked out in straight lines, the leather being nailed to all four top rails. [illustration: figs. and . mission desks. a study in design] each of these pieces of furniture suggests a new one, and chairs, settees, umbrella stands, writing desks, etc., may be made along the same general lines. the plant stand (fig. ) suggests the umbrella rack. the shelf is simply shifted from the top to bottom and provided with a brass tray to catch the water. valuable suggestions for such furniture may be obtained by consulting catalogues of furniture, and by constant observations of well-made pieces. these designs should never be copied, but used only as aids to the working out of original ideas. the typical writing desk shown at fig. illustrates this point. while fairly well proportioned, the legs could well be heavier. the drawer is also faulty. its position makes it necessary to move away from the desk in order to open it. the lower cross rail will be a nuisance when sitting close enough to write and other features might be criticised. whether your design will be a success or not depends on the clearness with which all these details are thought out. fig. shows several of the above defects corrected. xlii the chest this is one of the most convenient and substantial pieces of furniture about the house. for the storage of linen, furs, or clothing it is invaluable. it may be placed in a corner, and with a liberal supply of sofa cushions makes an ideal cosey corner and seat. the construction is purposely strong and heavy, and calls for good material like quartered oak, chestnut, walnut, or cedar. the latter wood, especially _red_ cedar, is light in weight, but attractive in colour, and has the further advantage of being moth proof. fig. _a_ shows a well-proportioned chest of quartered oak. the horizontal rails are mortised into the heavy legs, and the panels may be arranged as shown in the detail. a rabbet is cut on the inner edge of the rails, and a corresponding groove ploughed in the legs. the panel may be of one piece, set into the rabbet and grooves. its large expanse may be carved, raised, or simply polished plain, allowing the natural grain to furnish the ornamentation. [illustration: fig. . the linen chest] the legs may be plain, as shown, or curved slightly at the bottom, as suggested in the detail. the top is too large to be made in one piece, and it should be built up like a table top, and hinged to upper back rail by strong iron or brass ornamental hinges. if finished in a dark colour with dull surface, the metal corner plates and escutcheon will greatly enhance its appearance. these may be made out of sheet brass. first lay out the design on paper. cut out to the outline, and trace upon the surface of the sheet metal. a metal-cutting saw blade obtained from the hardware store can be fitted into the frame of the coping saw. with this tool, saw on the lines exactly as in thin wood, and file the edges smooth. the holes for the heavy nails are drilled. if suitable big-headed nails cannot be found, brass screws may be used, and when in position, the heads filed to any desired shape. an ancient green effect can be produced on such brass ornaments by painting with ammonia. the cover of a large chest like this will need to be reinforced by strong cleats on the under side across the grain. they should be Ã� / inches, just long enough to allow the cover to close readily, and should be secured by five or six screws on each cleat. the bottom may be pine or white wood, secured by nails or screws to / -inch square cleats screwed on the inside of ends and sides. a chest of better proportion, but slightly more complicated in construction, is shown at _b_. here the front is broken up into three panels, and a better space arrangement secured. the whole front in this case may be put together with mortise and tenon joints, as in panel door construction, or the simpler method just described may be used. the mortise and tenon form is the better way, and as usual takes more time. carved panels suggest a very rich and valuable piece of furniture, but they are not necessary, as a good flat polish showing the natural grain of the wood is very satisfactory. xliii the drawing outfit an equipment for mechanical drawing, except the instruments, can be easily made in the shop by any boy who has had some practice with tools. the drawing board is the first thing needed, and several makes are in use, the object of all of them being to insure a true flat surface by overcoming the natural tendency of wood to warp. shrinkage will take place in spite of all precautions, but this is not a serious matter, and does not affect the usefulness of the board. all boards, it is conceded, should be "built up," rather than consist of one piece. the idea is that the warping of one piece is somewhat counteracted by that of the adjoining pieces in other directions. fig. shows three forms in common use. at _a_ the ends are united to wide cleats by a tongue and groove joint. in shrinking and expanding with weather changes, the board is free to slide along the joint, being glued only at the centre. [illustration: fig. . the drawing board] at _b_ two dovetail-shaped strips are inserted on the under side across the grain. this is more difficult cult to make on account of the shape of the groove, but it is otherwise satisfactory. at _c_ two strong cleats are fastened across the under side by screws. this is the easiest and least satisfactory method, as the cleats are often in the way, making the board clumsy, and furthermore it does not allow for shrinkage, unless the screws are secured in grooves instead of in plain holes. a good proportion for a small board is Ã� inches. if the first method of construction is decided on, glue up four or five strips of well seasoned white pine, / inch thick, of the width desired, and four inches shorter than the final length of board. place in clamps for twenty-four hours, and when dry dress down perfectly true to a thickness of / inch. test for warp and wind, and square the ends. square up two pieces of stock - / inches wide, with a length equal to width of board. for the tongue and groove joint, a set of tongue and grooving planes will be necessary. two cutters for this purpose come with the modern universal plane, and if available this may be used. in either case, set the depth gauge at half an inch, and plow a groove on one edge of each strip / inch wide to the full depth, as shown at _d_. on both ends of the board, plane the tongue same size as groove at _e_. coat the tongue at each end of board with glue for a distance of six or eight inches at the centre, fit the end strips in position, and place in clamps over night. when dry, give the surface a final truing up, and also the ends, as the clamps may have made a slight change. go all over the surface with a sand-paper block, using sand-paper, and shellac the board all over. when dry rub flat with the sand-paper block. make a final test for any possible inaccuracy, and the board is ready for use. t square and triangles may be made, but as rubber or celluloid triangles are better in some ways than wood, the former are recommended. the t square is a very pretty little problem in woodwork, and may be made as follows: [illustration: fig. . t square and triangles] the design for the head may be either _a_ or _b_ (fig. ), a being simply a rectangular piece of hard wood, with two rounded corners; _b_ is laid out as shown, sawed near the line and curved side finished with spokeshave. the straight side should be _perfectly_ straight, as any variation will give horizontal lines out of parallel. the blade may be of one piece, or built up. a very satisfactory combination is to make the head of black walnut, and the blade of hard maple, with black walnut edges. it will pay to make a special shooting board for this work, and to make several t squares at the same time. this shooting board should be slightly longer than the blade. (see fig. .) gauge a line at a distance _x_ from the edge, equal to the width of inches, and tack a straight strip of wood up to this line as a guide. when the blade has been planed to its thickness of / inch, it is to be placed in space _x_ and planed to width. to plane a piece of hard wood down to an eighth of an inch, tack it to a pine board with three -inch brads. the location of these brads can be such that only one hole will be left in the blade to be filled up afterward. one should be in the position of the central screw over the head, the second at the point where hole _h_ is to be bored, the third at about the centre of the blade. set these brads slightly below the surface, and dress down smooth. when tested and found true, lift the blade by inserting a knife blade under it, again fasten to the board with unfinished side up, and again dress down. before removing from the board, lay out the curved end to correspond with the curve of the head, and cut to line with a chisel. remove from board, finish curved end with sand-paper block. bore hole _h_ for hanging up, locate holes for screws, and drill just large enough to allow / -inch round-head brass or blued screws to pass through. in attaching the head, make sure that the two parts are at right angles, and use thin copper burrs or washers under the screw heads. if the blade is to have edges of a different colour, joint the maple on shooting board, and glue the strips to it, before planing to thickness. this should be done on a flat board, with paper between it and the blade. glue the three pieces together, and drive - / -inch brads up close to and touching the outside strips, at intervals of four inches. by bending these slightly over the blade, considerable pressure will be obtained, tending to keep the pieces together while glue is hardening. then proceed to dress down, and true up as before. when the process is once learned, considerable pin money may be made by disposing of the squares, and that will help to buy material for other things. triangles made from single pieces of wood are absolutely unreliable. referring to fig. , the -degree triangle shows the grain running up and down. as shrinkage takes place _m_ will not change, but _n_ will, and this will alter the angles; and besides a piece of thin wood this size will warp and make the triangle useless for mechanical drawing. the - triangle illustrates the usual method of constructing a wooden triangle. aside from bisecting the , , and degree angles to get the mitres, these joints, if simply glued, will be too weak for practical use. the edge view and dotted lines indicate a thin feather of wood glued into a saw cut made through the edge of each corner, the usual method of strengthening. it is a delicate operation, and is only recommended to boys who are fond of fine work. a very serviceable section liner may be made from a wooden triangle by carefully cutting out of one side a rectangular opening, as shown in the detail. make a piece of thin wood to fit this space, but / -inch shorter, and fitted so as to move freely. by moving this block and the triangle, alternately, vertical or oblique lines can be drawn for sectioning, and they will be equally spaced. other blocks varying in length will give a variety of spacings. it is possibly one of the cheapest section liners, and the most satisfactory within the means of any one. irregular or french curves may be made in thin wood. they should be drawn on the surface, sawed out with the coping saw, and sand-papered smooth. as their thickness should be but a trifle over / inch, they are very frail and easily broken. these curves can be easily made in sheet aluminum, and they will be much more satisfactory. this metal is handled similarly to thin wood, except that the saw must be a metal cutting blade. triangles may be made of the same material. lay out the form with a sharp steel point or scriber, saw as close to lines as possible, and with a fine file finish to line. then smooth the curves with fine emery paper wrapped around a lead pencil. to make straight edges, as on triangles, lay a sheet of emery cloth on bench, and rub triangle back and forth. the pantagraph for copying designs, for reducing or enlarging, this old-fashioned instrument may be easily constructed. fig. shows it made of four strips of thin wood of equal length. either pine or white wood will answer. the pieces have to be squared, twenty-five inches long, three quarters of an inch wide, and a quarter inch thick. bore or drill through the four pieces held in a vise, and space the holes shown in drawing three inches apart, / inch in size. [illustration: fig. . the pantagraph] when put together, _a_, _b_ and _c_ should be in line. point _a_ is to remain fixed, the pantagraph being free to move around it as a pivot. to accomplish this, cut out a block, as shown at _x_, with a hole drilled at the centre for pivot, and two others for screwing to the drawing table or board. the pin for this pivot may be a thick flat-head wire nail, screw, or even a screw eye. the joints _d_, _e_, and _f_ are also pivots moving with the pantagraph. they may consist of thumb screws, and nuts, or screw eyes, and must move freely, yet without play. points _b_ and _c_ are to be interchangeable, one having a tracing point, the other a pencil. the tracing point may be a wire nail, rivet, or screw, with the point filed sharp, and then slightly rounded. the pencil point should be a piece of lead pencil, whittled down to such a size as to pass through the hole at _b_ and _c_, and make a snug fit. to enlarge a design, place tracing point at _b_, and fasten original design under it to drawing board with thumb tacks. under _c_ fasten a sheet of drawing paper. with the right hand at _b_, trace the design by carefully sliding tracing point along the lines. at the same time, with the left hand keep pencil point at _c_ sufficiently in contact with the paper to make a clear line. to reduce a drawing, reverse _b_ and _c_, bringing pencil point and paper to _b_, and original to _c_. pass tracer over design at _c_, and the reduced design will be traced at _b_. different proportions between original and reproduction may be obtained by shifting the position of pivots _e_ and _f_. fig. shows pivot e shifted to position _h_. as distance _c e_ should always equal distance _d f_, it now becomes necessary to move pivot _f_ to point _g_. by remembering this rule, and placing pivots in various positions, a wide range of proportions is possible. the drawing table a table to hold the drawing board should be not less than feet inches high, as much of the work is performed standing up. a stool with revolving seat should be provided for the draughtsman to sit on occasionally. the table top may be made slanting, but it is better practice to have a heavy flat top of pine, which may be used as a large drawing board itself, and to provide for the slant by using a triangular block under the farther end of drawing board. two or three blocks may be made, about two feet long and of different sizes, to give different degrees of slant. tables for this purpose are often made with tops, which may be adjusted at different angles, and the young designer may try his inventive talent in this large field, but any arrangement which will bring an element of instability is to be studiously avoided. the drawing table should be as solid and rigid as possible. the design in fig. was made by our boys, and has proved very satisfactory. it has much of the mission style about it, with its square legs and mortised joints. [illustration: fig. . drawer for table and table for mechanical drawing] after the description of mission furniture construction in previous chapters, only a few points in the construction need be mentioned. the board _a_, used as a foot rest, is necessary when sitting at the table on account of its height, and it also ties the frame together in the front. the cross rail _b_ acts in the same capacity at the back. the heavy pine top is "built up" like a drawing board of several pieces, and supported by two cleats Ã� / inches across the grain underneath. it may be attached to the frame by any one of the methods described under mission furniture, and its left-hand edge should be as true as that of the drawing board. if an especially accurate edge is desired, a piece of iron Ã� / inch, planed straight by a machinist, may be let into this edge, as shown in the drawing, and secured by flat-head screws through holes drilled and countersunk. this arrangement is seldom seen, but it is well worth the added cost. the table shown is provided with a generous-sized drawer. this may be omitted, but is a great convenience for keeping plans and sketches. its construction is shown in detail. the sides and front have a / -inch groove, ploughed to receive the bottom, and at the back end a vertical groove is cut to hold the back piece which is dadoed to fit. at the top of each side is nailed a strip / inch square. these cleats are to retain the strips _s_. make these strips _s_ of hard wood, preferably ash, and about / inch longer than the width of drawer, measured inside. by placing the strips on top of drawings obliquely, and then straightening them across the drawer, they bind against the sides, and keep drawings down flat. the cleats at top of drawer prevent them from escaping at the top, especially when it becomes nearly full. the extra front on the drawer with rounded edges covers up the joints around front of box, and is a purely ornamental feature. if this is used, secure to real front by flat-head screws from the inside. the box which holds the drawers is to be secured to the legs by screws countersunk. many modifications of this table will occur to the woodworker, such as additional drawers, but it must be kept in mind that comfortable knee room is essential, and the space on under side of the top is largely to be reserved for this important purpose. a box for holding instruments has been described in another chapter, and triangles, rules, etc., may be kept in it. the t square should be hung on a hook at either end of table, to overcome any tendency the thin blade may have to twist or warp, the weight of the head helping to draw it out straight. [illustration: fig. . a filing cabinet] all drawings should have a neat title, and a number. to work out a system of numbering so that any drawing may be found quickly is a good job for a rainy day. a good filing cabinet for plans is suggested in fig. . dimensions are not given, as they will depend on the size of drawing paper used. a uniform-sized sheet should be adopted at the start, and the drawings scaled to accommodate this size of paper. the shelves should be / inch thick, and gained into sides as shown. a clear space of - / inches between the shelves will be ample, and a semicircular curve should be cut in the front. the depth of cabinet should not be over half an inch more than the width of the sheets. a top and mitred base are shown, and the space between should be closed by a panelled door to keep out dust. a cabinet of this style should not be less than thirty inches high, and if the whole space is not required for drawings, the lower part may be changed and fitted with drawers for models, specimens, and other treasures. for boys who are interested in collecting, whether minerals, butterflies, or other things, such a cabinet may be made entirely of drawers, and the panelled door omitted. [illustration: fig. ] for the safe keeping of butterflies, moths, and other insects, an eminent scientist has recommended a drawer construction as shown at fig. . this detail shows a section at the front, with the bottom piece gained into a groove. the bottom of the drawer is covered with a layer of sheet cork, and over it oiled paper. the upper part of box is not fastened, but is slipped down inside strips _s_, which have rounded tops, and extend around the four sides. the upper half is grooved to receive a sheet of glass, which is held in place by a small cleat. by this method the drawer is covered while the specimens are visible, and dampness is kept out. the cork bottom is to receive the pins, and the specimens may be reached by simply taking out the top. the dimensions recommended for the drawer are Ã� Ã� inches, outside measurements, and if a number are to be used, the spaces between the shelves of the cabinet should correspond with these figures. a quaint conceit sometimes used by enthusiastic collectors is to make their boxes in the form of books, as shown at _a_ (fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] the outside has the shape of a book, the two halves being fitted by tongue and groove joint. this keeps out moisture, the great enemy of dried specimens, and when a number of these boxes, properly coloured and labelled, are piled on a shelf, they have the appearance of so many large volumes. this unique idea may be used in other ways. a very pretty illustration is a stamp box for the writing desk, made up in the form of a book, which apparently has a silk ribbon for a book mark. this ribbon is the handle of a little drawer, which pulls out, disclosing the contents. the arrangement is shown at _b_. the idea may be carried still farther by having half a dozen of these small volumes in a book rack, the labels reading--"rubber bands," "pens," "stamps," etc. all should be stained a uniform colour, and the illusion may be carried still farther by gilding the parts which represent the edges of the leaves. xliv woodwork for outdoor sports the tennis court the young woodworker is especially well fitted for the preparation of a tennis court. he has learned the value of accurate measurements, and is accustomed to make a neat and finished job. while the making of a court seems a simple proposition, it may be a very expensive one, if help has to be hired, and all the equipment bought ready for use. the first step is to select the exact location, which should either be level or practically so. any discussion as to the merits of dirt or sod courts must be left to the reader. the court proper is Ã� feet, the posts for the tennis net being three feet outside on either side, and the space at the ends between the court and stop nets fifteen to twenty feet more, making a total length of feet. the following method of laying out the court is recommended: make sure that the long way is exactly north and south, and drive in the ground a wooden stake at northeast corner a (fig. ). at b, directly west, drive stake feet from a. a steel tape measure is by far the best thing to use for laying out, as cord stretches and leads to inaccuracies, and two tapes are better than one. at the centre of each stake drive a strong nail. from b measure feet south, and place a temporary stake. to insure the angle being degrees, apply this test: from b along the line laid out last, measure feet: slip the ring of the tape measure over the nail at a, and measure to this new point. if the angle is degrees, this diagonal measurement should be feet. if this measurement does not come right, shift the stake c, until this oblique line is exactly feet, then lines a-b and b-c are at right angles. having fixed this angle, again measure from b to c, and drive stake c at feet from b. locate stake d feet from a, and feet from c. a final test should now be made by measuring the diagonals b-d and a-c. they should be exactly alike. these corner stakes may now be driven in flush with the surface, and they should be allowed to remain, to avoid the necessity of doing the work all over again later in the season when the lines become obscure. measure in from each stake - / feet for the alleys and drive stakes in flush. [illustration: fig. . the tennis court] next measure from stakes _a_, _b_, _c_, _d_ feet along outside lines, and again drive in stakes _a_, _b_, _c_, _d_. by passing a cord from _a_ to _b_, and from _c_ to _d_, the service lines are laid out, omitting alleys. find centre of service lines, and connect points _e_ and _f_. the net crosses the centre of court from east to west, extending three feet beyond on each side. at these two points _x_ and _y_, set the posts in the ground. by this method, the only stakes left in the ground are on the outside lines, and they must be driven in so that under no circumstances will a player stumble over them. they can always be found after a rain storm, and new lines laid out. the posts for the net should be seven feet long and four inches square. plane them off smooth, and coat the end which is to be in the ground with creosote or coal tar. this coating should extend three feet six inches from the bottom, and as the post is to be three feet in the ground, this coating will extend six inches above. decay takes place at the point of contact with the ground, and the creosote will prolong the life of the posts for many years, if the wood is well seasoned. many posts for tennis nets are not sunk fully three feet in the ground, and consequently require guy ropes or wires to keep them upright. the time spent in digging the holes and tamping the dirt around posts is well spent, as the pull on them is severe, and they must stand upright. six inches from the top, bore a hole / inch in diameter, east and west. the net must be three feet high at its centre, and three feet six inches at the posts. pass the rope through these holes, and make fast to a cleat. these cleats may be of iron or wood, a sketch of a wooden cleat being shown at fig. . they should be of oak or other hard wood, put on with two strong screws through holes which have been bored and countersunk. on the side of post toward the net, three strong screw eyes should be put about a foot apart, the lower one six inches from the ground. the net is to be fastened to these screw eyes to keep it in position. when everything is ready, paint the posts two coats of dark or bronze green. the position of the tall poles for the back stop are shown in fig. . fifteen feet is none too far from the court for the stop net, and twenty would be better. purchase twelve foot four by fours, and plane smooth, or have them dressed at the mill when ordering. this will reduce them to - / Ã� - / inches. the method of enclosing the whole court by wire netting is seldom resorted to, unless the space available is very limited. the method here suggested of bringing the ends about at an angle of degrees has been found very satisfactory in stopping swift service. locate the post holes feet apart, and dig them three feet deep. after treating the lower ends of posts for three and a half feet with creosote or tar, place in the ground, plumb each one while filling in, and tamp the earth about them firmly. strips Ã� inches and feet long must be used to join the posts at the top, else the pull necessary to straighten the wire will bring them out of plumb. these strips are to be nailed at the extreme top by eight-penny wire nails. when the structure is finished, except for the wire, paint with two coats of the same colour as the net posts. the wire netting is chicken wire, inch and a half mesh, and three feet wide. three of these strips will cover the space from the ground to the top. it is put on with staples nailed to the posts, stretched taut, and the joints where the strips touch wired together at intervals of three feet with soft iron wire. if arranged as shown in the drawing, it will take six strips sixty feet long by three wide for the back stop, or square feet, and will cost $ or $ . cheap cotton back stops are sold, but they are not very satisfactory, as they tighten in damp and sag in dry weather. for a permanent court belonging to a club the galvanized wire is well worth the difference in cost. the size of the mesh is important, because although a tennis ball is - / inches in diameter, when driven hard it frequently goes through two-inch mesh. there are many opportunities about the tennis court for the young woodworker to show his skill. camp stools, settees, benches either plain or rustic, a chest to keep racquets and balls, fitted with a strong padlock, shelters for the spectators or club members, and even a small club house are among the possibilities. permanent structures, such as shelters and heavy benches, should generally be on the west side of the court, as spectators are usually present after the sun has passed the meridian, and it will then be at their back. tennis court accessories the camp-stool use hard wood such as maple, ash, or oak. the stock required for each stool will be four pieces - / Ã� - / Ã� inches, two pieces Ã� - / Ã� - / inches, and two pieces - / Ã� / Ã� / inches. [illustration: fig. . the camp-stool] the four legs are made as shown at _a_ (fig. ). the small end is to be rounded to a diameter of / inch; - / inches from this end a / -inch hole is bored for the rivet or bolt, which is to hold the legs together. seven inches from the lower or foot end a / -inch hole is bored / or / inch deep. this is to receive the cross rod or dowel. the two top pieces Ã� - / Ã� - / inches are rounded on two of their edges as shown at _b_. on the flat side of one of these bore two holes / inch diameter and / inch deep, inches apart, to receive the small end of the leg. on the other top piece, the holes are eleven inches apart. the two cross pieces may be rounded, or pieces of / -inch maple dowel used. in either case, the ends must be pared down to a diameter of / inch to fit the holes of this size. one is to be sawed nine inches long, the other eleven. the camp-stool is composed of two frames pivoted together. put together the inner frame, first gluing the legs into holes bored in top pieces, and at the same time gluing in the cross piece. these joints may be fastened by driving a brad through from the outside, or by wedges, as described in previous chapters. the outer frame is now put together, and the two pivoted. this is usually done with a rivet, a thin washer having been placed between the two sets of legs to relieve the friction. a small bolt and nut may be used, but as the nut is liable to come off, the bolt end should be riveted over the nut with the hammer. canvas or even a piece of carpet may be used for the seat. the size required is by , the ends being tacked to the lower side of the top pieces. when canvas is used, it is usually turned under an inch on each side, and hemmed. in this case, its width must be at least fourteen inches. all articles which are to be handled much should have the edges slightly rounded; this rule applies to the camp-stool. benches folding settees for outdoor use are on the market at very cheap prices, but they are neither comfortable nor substantial. fixed benches can be made of heavy but simple construction, as well as movable ones. fig. shows the simplest possible form. posts of locust, chestnut, or cedar are set in the ground to a depth of two feet or more. the diameter should be at least four inches. a space one inch by three should be sawed out of each, as a rest for the cross pieces. these should be two by four stock, ten inches long, and must be securely nailed to the posts by eight or ten penny nails. the seat should be inches or inches above the ground, made of heavy plank at least two inches thick and inches wide. bore quarter-inch holes, countersink and fasten the top to cross pieces by three-inch flat-head screws. the span between cross pieces should not be over five feet, four would be better, so that a bench twelve feet long would call for six posts and three cross pieces, besides the top. space the posts five feet apart between centres. this will allow an overhang of one foot at each end. the seat should be planed smooth, edges slightly rounded, and then two coats of boiled linseed oil applied. painting seats is not advised, and varnish for outside work is seldom satisfactory. the wood for the top should be of some kind that is free from pitch, as the sun will draw it out, and a sticky seat result. oak or maple will be very satisfactory. [illustration: fig. . a simple bench] [illustration: fig. . settee for tennis court] a movable settee of heavy construction is suggested in fig. . the main dimensions for the standards supporting the seat and back strips are given, but the form may be modified to suit the young designer. there is considerable waste in making standards of this sort, and it is important to have the grain run in the direction indicated in the drawing. the two strips for the back, as well as the seat, should be put on with screws. the horizontal pieces on this settee will not give the necessary rigidity lengthwise, and it will be important to add braces under the seat. these may be in the form of heavy angle irons or square blocks, as shown at _a_. these blocks should be two inches square, and fastened with three-inch screws to both seat and standard. everything about this settee is heavy and substantial, as all outdoor work should be. the camp-stool furnishes all the light furniture necessary. the standards should never be more than four feet apart, so that a settee in this style, eight feet long, would require three standards. this design can be changed to a simple bench by omitting the back and sawing the standard on its back edge to the same outline as the front, as suggested by the dotted line. the trefoil opening is made by boring three holes with a large bit at the points of a triangle. the covered seat shown at fig. is one that may be constructed as shown, or modified in size, proportions, etc. small as it is, it will tax the skill of the young worker, and give him many of the problems of outdoor construction to figure out. it includes the setting and levelling of posts, framing, roofing, flooring, etc. the material necessary should be first carefully estimated, with allowance made for waste. this is an item often forgotten by the amateur, and one especially to be provided for in framing. if the dimensions are to vary from those shown in our sketch, it would be wise to make a careful drawing first. in all outdoor structures, wind, rain, snow, and the effect of strong sunlight must be considered. [illustration: fig. . a covered seat] as this shelter is primarily for a tennis court, the timbers for the frame should be planed by hand or dressed at the mill, when purchased. the Ã� uprights should be bought feet long, as this is a standard size, and set into the ground deep enough to bring the top nine feet above ground. the temptation to place posts only a little way in the ground must be overcome. the roof should be counted on to withstand a wind pressure of sixty miles an hour, and three feet in the ground is necessary in this case, as there are no braces to help support it. having cut the mortises for the horizontal tie piece _a_, place the first post in the hole dug for it, tamp the earth around it, and plumb with "level and plumb." another method would be to lay both uprights on the ground, place the tie piece in position, fasten with wooden pins driven through holes bored through the mortise and tenon joints, and nail the Ã� plate on top of both posts. then raise the structure, and place both posts in their respective holes at the same time. [illustration: fig. _a_. a covered seat (_continued_)] in any work of this character, two boys should work together, and two trestles or saw horses will be a necessary part of their equipment. in mortise and tenon joints of this character a method called draw boring is frequently used. (see _b_, fig. _b_.) the hole for the pin or dowel is first bored across the centre of the mortise. the tenon is inserted snugly, and the bit again inserted until it makes a mark on the tenon. the tenon is withdrawn, and the centre of bit placed / inch nearer the shoulder than the mark made, and the hole bored. this brings the distance _y_ slightly less than _x_. the three holes through which the pin is to pass are not in line when the tenon is again placed in mortise. the result is to draw the tenon tight, when the pin is driven home, and to make the joint a very snug one, as it should be. [illustration: fig. _b_. draw boring a joint and method of levelling posts] if this method of constructing the frame on the ground is not used, the tie piece must be placed in position before the second post is set. fasten the joints with the pins, and level the tie piece. if the two posts have been laid out together on the trestles, their tops must now come level and true. this first step in making the structure is extremely important, as the success of the following work depends on it. [illustration: fig. . details of roof construction and forms of rafters] after tamping the uprights solidly, the corner posts for supporting the floor may be set in the ground. they should be of locust, cedar, or chestnut, and at least four inches in diameter. set them in the ground not less than thirty inches, and flush with the ground line. it will be better to dig out three or four inches of top soil from the whole area, and afterward fill in with gravel, as this does not hold the moisture. this precaution will help to prevent decay, and, wherever possible, all the parts in contact with the earth should be painted with creosote. the outside of posts should be five feet one way and four feet eight inches the other. their tops should be sawed off level. this may be done after setting. saw one post at the desired height. to level the others with it, rest a straight board on first post, and while one boy holds the level on its upper edge, let the other make a pencil mark on the next post along under side of the board. saw to this line, and level the remaining posts in the same manner. (fig. _b_.) the sill or frame for flooring must now be prepared. use either Ã� or Ã� inch spruce. cut two pieces five feet long, and two pieces four feet eight inches. lay out half lap joints at the ends, and saw to the lines. spike this frame to the locust posts, and as it touches the outside of the uprights, nail to the latter, with ten-penny wire nails. as additional support will be needed for the flooring, cut two Ã� , and fasten them across the frame either by half lap joint or spikes. if this frame is planed on the outside, no finishing strip will be needed, but if it is rough sawed stock, a facing strip of Ã� inch material should be placed on the outside, flush with the top of the frame. the flooring may now be laid, using tongue and groove stock, and allowing it to project an inch beyond the frame on all four sides. the edges of this projection should be rounded with the plane. the flooring should be neatly fitted around the uprights, so that the latter may appear to come up through a solid floor feet inches by feet inches. the roof should be made next, leaving the construction of the seat to the last. the roof timbers consist of six rafters four feet long, and six braces two feet one and a half inches long. two methods are shown, and several combinations may be used. the rafters may have square ends, or some simple curved design may be sawed out, as suggested in the detailed drawing. (fig. .) the braces may meet the rafters in a plain butt joint, and be nailed, or they may be gained into the rafters, as shown in side view. this latter method makes a neat job, but it is not necessary, as far as strength is concerned. nails are used in either case. the straight rafter is of course the simpler and easier way, but the japanese effect produced by a slight curve at the ends on the upper side is worth the little additional labour that it requires. to secure this curve, saw out a template in white pine about fifteen inches long and - / inches wide, at one end, as shown in detail. the curve may be first drawn in pencil, and then sawed on the line. from this template lay out six pieces of scrap, Ã� , and saw them all out the same size and shape. nail them to the lower ends of the rafters on their top side. the upper ends of the rafters are to be mitred, and the v-shaped notch cut as shown in detail drawing. (fig. .) the braces are square at one end, and mitred at the other. nail two rafters together at their mitred ends, using ten or twelve penny wire nails. place in position over plate, and nail to it. nail mitred end of braces to the upright, and then to rafter. the method of fastening two joints at right angles is called toe-nailing--nailing obliquely--as shown in detail. the braces for middle rafters are fastened to the tie piece, and will need to be somewhat longer than the four fastened to the uprights. their exact length should be determined by measurement, after the end rafters are secured. the end sawed off should be the square end, measurements being made from the extreme point of the mitred corner. the roof is to be shingled. for this purpose, shingle lath, a standard commercial article, is to be nailed to the rafters at intervals of - / or inches. for a steep roof like this, inches will answer. this lath is to project beyond the outside rafters inches or foot. there must be a shingle lath at the top of each rafter, no matter how near the next one may come, and sometimes the whole roof is covered with boards as a support for the shingles, instead of lath. begin shingling at the lower end of the rafters, allowing the first course to project an inch beyond the first lath. to insure the end of the roof being straight, it is best to saw the lath after it is nailed to rafters. the first course of shingles should be double--_i. e._, one over the other, joints broken. on good and permanent roofs, where the pitch is not as great as in this case, the method shown at _a_ (fig. ) is frequently used. after the first course is laid, the second is begun with a third of a shingle, the next with two thirds, the next with a whole one. it makes a tighter roof than that in which each joint comes over the centre of the one below. the carpenter marks the courses after the first with a chalk line. measure up six inches from the lower edge, at each end of the roof. take a piece of mason's line or strong cord, rub it with a piece of chalk, hold it taut at the two pencil marks, pull it up in the centre, and allow it to snap back to the roof. it will leave a straight chalk line from end to end, and the lower edge of the next course of shingles is laid to this line. two shingle nails are to be used on each shingle, driven into the shingle lath high enough up to be covered by the next course. on very fine work, the edges of shingles where they touch are first planed, but for ordinary purposes this is not necessary. shingle one side of the roof clear up to the ridge, allowing the last course to present six inches or so to the weather. saw off carefully all that part which projects, close to the ridge. this will allow the shingles from the second side to project over those of the first, and when the second side is finished it is to be sawed off at the ridge as before. to protect the ridge from leaks, saddle boards are sometimes added. these are strips of pine lapped over the top and nailed, as shown in detailed drawing. if the curved rafters are used, the pull of the nails will make the shingles conform to the curve, unless it is excessive. many methods are used by carpenters in finishing roofs, and considerable time and material are used in constructing cornices. in this simple structure, if the timbers have been planed as suggested, it will be well to leave it as it is, with the rafters exposed, especially if the ornamental curves have been sawed before erection. if the roof has been made with boards, instead of shingle laths, the whole construction is honestly and frankly visible. the old-fashioned method of putting on "gingerbread" work, ornaments sawed on a hand or jig-saw, is to be condemned. let all your construction be strong, simple, and straightforward. shingles are sometimes stained or painted. staining is by far the better treatment, but the shingles should be dipped into the stain and dried before they are put on. the stains sold by most paint stores come in a variety of colours. some shade of green, red, or brown should be selected, according to the colour of the body of the structure. a red roof on a white structure looks well, as it is usually seen against a background of blue sky and green foliage. a light gray building with white trimmings and red roof makes a pleasing combination. it only remains to construct the seat. this is made double, with a back between the uprights, and the seat cover is hinged to make a chest below for racquets, etc. this double seat is designed to give the greatest possible seating accommodation for this size of shelter. it has the disadvantage of one seat facing the wrong way, and if the structure is made longer it is suggested that the back seat be omitted. construct a box without top or bottom inches by feet inches. the material may be the same as the floor, but in any case it must be tongue and groove matched boards. this box will just slip in between the uprights and must be securely nailed to them. to fasten to the floor, nail cleats to the latter just inside the box, and nail the sides and ends of the box to these cleats. further to strengthen the box, square cleats should be nailed upright in each corner of the inside. [illustration] the backbone of the box is a piece of Ã� spruce. its length will be the distance between the uprights or the length of the box. saw down through the box ends exactly inches, with the saw against the uprights, and remove the piece Ã� from each end. into these two spaces slip the Ã� and toenail to uprights. nail to the top of this Ã� along its centre a piece of Ã� pine, the same length as the Ã� . the box covers are to be hinged to this pine strip and will rest on the edge of the Ã� which will carry the weight. seat covers are to be the same length as the box, with just enough clearance to let them move freely between the uprights. as they are inches wide, it is doubtful whether a single board that width will be available. they may be made of tongue and groove boards, with cleats Ã� / inches screwed on the under side, just long enough to allow the cover to close. outside edges should be rounded and three strong hinges used on each cover. as it has a bearing surface on front and ends of the box, no extra support will be needed. if a support for the back is desired, two strips Ã� - / with rounded edges may be fastened to the uprights, and as the pressure may be both ways, they should be nailed between two upright cleats at each end. the cleats / Ã� - / are nailed to uprights, or the strips may be mortised through. the sharp edges of the uprights may be bevelled or chamfered where people are likely to come in contact with them. the structure is now ready for painting. set all nails with nail punch, and give the first or priming coat to the whole structure, shingles excepted. this should be done when the wood is dry, not directly after a rain. when this coat is dry, fill all nail holes with putty and give second coat of paint. if the priming coat was thin a third coat may be necessary to give the desired result. use a little drier in the paint and when necessary to thin it use boiled linseed oil. as white would not be suitable for the seats and floor, a light gray for the seats and a darker shade for the floor may be used. xlv the pergola among the many structures used to beautify the grounds of a suburban or country place, the pergola is seen less than it should be. it is a luxury, but so is a couch hammock, and many other details of our modern life might be placed under the same heading. as an arbour for the training of the vines, the pergola adds more dignity to a place than any other structure, always assuming that it is well built and in good proportion. its length must of course depend on the local circumstances. it should lead somewhere, as from the house to the flower garden, or from house to stable. it should, in other words, not be placed on the grounds simply as an ornament. its purpose should be to give a certain amount of privacy to a walk. the oldest recognized style of architecture is known as post and beam construction, as suggested in fig. , where two vertical members support a horizontal one. this style was used by the egyptians and greeks, and was a large factor in deciding the form of the old greek temples. the pergola consists of two parallel rows of columns connected by longitudinal beams and cross beams. a very artistic one may be built by two boys with the assistance of a third person in the heavy work of lifting and placing the columns. if a small-sized structure with -inch columns is built, two boys can handle the whole construction alone. this small size is not recommended, however, as one of the first requisites of the pergola is a massive appearance of solidity and permanence. the proportions for two sizes are given in the drawing, and they may be modified to suit the size of the ground, buildings, etc. (fig. .) wooden columns in many styles, sizes, and proportions are on the market and may be bought from any lumber dealer. the bases and caps are separate and should be ordered to fit the columns. the construction of the pergola brings the young carpenter in contact with several new problems. the first is the subject of foundations. these may be in the form of concrete, which is permanent and solid, and will not decay, as any form of wooden post will do in time. the ground should be as nearly level as possible, and should be staked out with eight stakes, as shown in the drawing. (fig. .) [illustration: fig. . the pergola] the stakes are three feet from the centre of the columns in each case, and angle _a c d_ should be made square at the beginning. measure distance _a b_ equal to _c d_. from _a_ measure along a line stretched from _a_ to _b_ three feet, and then three spaces of twelve feet each. measure the same distance from _c_ along _c d_, and place stakes at each point. a line stretched from _e_ to _f_ should pass over the centre of the stakes marking the centre of each column, as these latter stakes will be dug out in the process of excavating for the foundation, while stakes _e_ and _f_ are necessary for the proper location of the holes. after digging the first two holes, test their accuracy by again stretching a cord or masons' line from _e_ to _f_. proceed with the next set of holes in the same way, placing new stakes three feet out from centres to correspond with _e_ and _f_. when the eight holes have been dug, the arrangement will appear as shown at _g_, twelve stakes being left in the ground. should the pergola be longer or narrower, the same method would be used, the dimensions only being altered. the size of the holes will depend on the following considerations: [illustration: fig. . the pergola] assuming that we are building the large pergola with eight-inch columns, the base will be about twelve inches square. measure the base and add two inches to it, making, say, a fourteen-inch square, the size of the foundation. a box in the form shown at _a_, inches square inside, must be made. no nails are used on the box. it is held together by cleats _c c_. they must be made to fit snugly, and are to be knocked off when the cement has hardened--_i. e._, about four days after making. these boxes may be full depth of the hole, three feet, or, as is sometimes done, the hole is made just the right size and the box, about eighteen inches in length, wedged into the top as shown at _i_. this method calls for considerable care in levelling the top of the box and securing the proper projection above ground, as well as in pouring in the cement without dislodging it, but the box is removed more easily than is the case with a full-length one. the decision about this point determines the size of the hole. in case the short box is used, the hole must be fifteen inches square and just enough shaved from the sides at top to receive the box. if the full length box is used, the hole should be about twenty inches square, to allow the cleats to be knocked off and boards withdrawn. [illustration: fig. . details of pergola construction] this weighty question having been decided, prepare to mix concrete. make a mixing board about five or six feet square of flooring boards fastened to heavy cleats on the under side. it should have two or three sides nailed on, as shown at _k_. also prepare eight wooden blocks, as shown in drawing. these may be fifteen to eighteen inches long, sawed from Ã� timber, planed smooth and with a slight taper toward the lower end. the purpose of these blocks will be apparent later on. the concrete is composed of four parts clean gravel to one of portland cement, and the best is always the cheapest in the long run. use a pail for mixing and place four pailfuls of gravel on the mixing board. pour over this one pailful of dry cement and mix thoroughly, turning the whole mass several times. when thoroughly mixed, pour on water, half a pailful at a time, and turn again with the shovel until the whole mass is wet. shovel this into the first box. it will probably take two such mixings to fill it. now place in the top of the concrete one of the tapering blocks, allowing it to project about three or four inches above the surface of the concrete. the block should be rubbed with grease or oil before insertion to make it withdraw easily. as soon as the block is placed, pass the line from stakes _e_ to _f_ and make sure that the block is exactly at the centre. in every case it is to be withdrawn in about an hour, or as soon as the concrete has set, but before it has gripped the block too tightly; otherwise withdrawal will be a difficult matter. the object of this performance is to leave in the centre of the foundation a hole about a foot deep and four inches across. level the top of concrete with a trowel and test with the level. all the foundations are made alike and no effort should be spared to see that the boxes are level and in line with each other. test from end stakes _a b c d_ and from across stakes with the masons' line. this work will be easier if the four end foundations are made first. to do the work thoroughly, two boys may count on the process, from the staking out to the finishing of foundations, occupying about three days. it is the most important and laborious part of the work and when finished represents about one third of the labour on the pergola. the concrete should stand at least four days before it is touched again, and during that time the timber may be prepared. besides the eight columns, there will be needed: pcs. Ã� ins.-- ft. long pcs. Ã� ins.-- ft. long ft. (running) Ã� ins. pcs. of / -in. round iron the iron should be inches longer than the total height of the wooden columns, including base and cap. this should be determined by actual measurement. the rods can be obtained from a blacksmith. have him cut a thread at each end and provide two nuts for each rod. they are to extend clear through each column from the bottom of the hole in the foundation, through the longitudinal timbers that rest on the cap, to bolt the whole structure together securely. columns come either built up or solid. the solid ones have a core bored out through the centre, so that in either case the rod can easily pass through from top to bottom. a hole should be bored / inch diameter through the centre of both cap and base to allow the bolt to pass easily. in ordering timbers, have them dressed on all sides at the mill. have the fifteen Ã� inch pieces sawed on both ends as shown at _l_, and have one end on four of the Ã� inch pieces sawed the same shape. the two remaining Ã� inch pieces are to be square on the ends. a week after making the concrete foundations, the boxes having been removed and the holes filled in with earth well tamped down, the openings in the top may be cut out with a long cold chisel, as shown at _m_. this need not be a very particular job. the object is to dovetail the cement, to be used in filling up the opening to the foundation, and it can be done roughly. the setting of the columns on their foundations is performed as follows: nail base and cap to each column and slip a long bolt clear through. at the bottom the bolt will be allowed to project. at the top pass it through a piece of wood inches high, a / -inch hole being bored for the purpose. fill the opening in the foundation with clear cement mixed with enough water to bring it to the consistency of paint. set the column on its foundation, with the end of the bolt and its nut and a large washer immersed in the cement. this will harden quickly, making a strong bond with the foundation and holding the bolt rigid. plumb the column, and if it shows a tendency to lean, place thin wedges under it until it stands true when tested by the plumb and level on all sides. treat all the posts alike and when one row has been set, run the masons' line along the bolts on top and see that they are in line. everything should be ready before starting this job, as clear cement hardens quickly and any moving of the columns that may be necessary in lining them up must be done before it sets. a good method is to place the end posts first, tie the masons' line to the bolts and line the other two posts as they are set. when they are all on their foundations at last you will begin to realize for the first time the value and beauty of the task you have undertaken. our boys were so excited that every member of the family, and some of the neighbours, were dragged out as spectators. it did not seem possible that two boys could handle such a large proposition, but there it stood as if it were intended to stand for a century. harry was for putting on the superstructure at once, but ralph had to warn him not to touch it until the cement had thoroughly hardened. they allowed it to stand two days before they removed the -inch blocks from the bolts at the top and began the work of placing the long Ã� inch timbers. these members were lapped as shown in the drawing, / -inch holes being bored to receive the bolts. when all the timbers on one side were in place, the nuts were screwed down snug on each bolt with a monkey wrench. the work, with the cutting, fitting, and boring, consumed a whole day, and a second day was used up on the second row. it was not necessary to call the family out again. the boys had all the help that could be desired in lifting, and were also blessed with a continuous audience. the cross timbers were gained out to a depth of - / inches, and fitted over the long Ã� inch pieces, as shown at _n_. there was one over the centre of each column, and an additional piece was removed to provide for the nut, which was thereby entirely concealed. the remaining cross pieces were spaced three feet apart on centres, and all spiked securely to the Ã� 's. it was found advisable to bore / -inch holes for the spikes, and to sink their heads below the surface with a nail set. it only remained to nail on to the cross pieces five rows of Ã� in the position shown. all nail holes and cracks were puttied, and the entire structure down to the cement foundation was given three coats of white paint. built in this manner, the pergola will stand for many years, and already the boys have planted wistaria, honeysuckles, crimson rambler, trumpet, and other vines to cover it. the columns themselves may be easily made of concrete. the form may be made of six or eight inch iron pipe. when this is bought, have it split in half lengthwise at a machine shop. six-inch pipe cut in this way will cost about a dollar a foot, but it will last a lifetime if protected from rust, and very often the concrete posts may be sold, so that the form will soon pay for itself. have a blacksmith make two iron bands, as shown at _o_. have a / -inch hole drilled at _a_ through both ends. these bands are used to hold the two halves of the iron form together, and are tightened by a bolt and nut at _a_. dig a pit for the form to stand in, so that the cement may be easily poured in. this pit may be about three feet deep by two feet square, and the sides supported by a box without a bottom. to make a column, clamp the two bands about the form, and place in the bottom end a circular piece of wood, with a hole in the centre to insure the iron rod being in the middle. place the form upright in the pit, and secure it firmly by nailing strips of wood across the top of the box. place the iron rod in the centre, passing it through the hole in the bottom. pour in the cement quite wet, and tamp it down occasionally until full. it will settle a little, and will need to be filled to the top. a circular piece of wood, similar to the one at the bottom, may be used to centre the rod at the top. this must be done as soon as the form is filled, before the concrete has had a chance to set. use four parts of fine, clean sifted gravel to one of cement. allow the form to stand four days. remove the clamps, and draw the form out on the ground. tap it gently, and remove one half of the iron pipe. roll it over upon two pieces of board, and remove the other half. the concrete will be very heavy, and the assistance of a full-grown man may be needed to draw the form out of the pit. the inside of the form should be cleaned and thoroughly oiled. this should always be done before making a column to insure its coming out easily, as concrete forms a strong bond with iron, and otherwise the column may be broken in trying to get it out. the result will be a perfectly round but not perfectly smooth column. it should be coated with a wash of clear cement and water, using a wide brush. the colour may be made white by adding a lump of lime to the cement and water, and two coats of this solution about the consistency of milk will be necessary. the last coat may be put on after the columns are on their foundations. the placing of the posts on the square foundations is heavy work and the help of a labourer should be secured. these plain posts are not as ornamental as wooden columns, with their bases and capitals, but they make a very substantial structure that cannot decay and will last a century. xlvi poultry houses there are a hundred ways of raising chickens, and ninety of them are wrong. this is not a treatise on poultry raising, for there are many elements which enter into the problem--incubation, brooding, feeding, etc. but assuming that one of the main points aimed at is the production of eggs in winter, when they are scarce and expensive, the _housing_ of chickens is admitted by poultry raisers to be one of the first considerations. the house should be sixteen feet deep, should face south, and no glass should be used in its construction. a window nine or ten feet long by two and a half feet high placed four feet above the ground is recommended, and it should be covered with netting or chicken wire on the outside, but left open all day, even in zero weather. it is closed at night, by a screen of canvas or duck fastened to a light wooden frame. the frame is hinged at the top, and hooked up to the ceiling during the day. the following description is taken from the experience of several poultry men who have been successful, and have made money by selling eggs. the principle of this construction is that ventilation is a prime necessity, and that dampness is the one thing to be avoided. with these objects attained, chickens will stand almost any amount of cold, and with proper feeding and the strictest cleanliness, egg production will continue throughout the winter. some successful men insist on a wooden floor, others recommend one of gravel ten inches deep. the construction given here calls for the gravel floor on the ground level. many recommend a litter of straw ten inches or more deep on the gravel. the morning meal is thrown on this litter so that the chickens are forced to scratch for their breakfast, getting the blood in circulation by this early morning exercise. as the method of building this house is typical of many outdoor structures, it will be taken up in detail. it would make an excellent work shop or cabin, with a few modifications, such as a floor of boards, and the addition of a few windows. before it is finished the builders will probably regret, as our boys did, that it was to be used by their chickens instead of for themselves. (see fig. .) [illustration: fig. . the poultry house] set eight locust or chestnut posts in the ground and saw off six inches above the lowest point. level in the same manner as for the sheltered seat described for the tennis court, and see that the outsides of posts measure feet inches over all measurements. square the corners by the - - method, laying the Ã� inch sill pieces on top of posts while doing this. the sill is put together with halved joint, and spiked to the posts with twelve-penny wire nails. the corner posts are Ã� inch spruce, with square ends toenailed to the sill. plumb these posts, and tie in position by temporary braces, using for this purpose shingle lath or strips of boards. the plates along front and back are Ã� inches, nailed to posts from the top. the frame may now be finished by placing the Ã� -inch studding, toenailing to sill and plates on the ends, and sill and rafters on the sides. the frames for door and window are shown in the illustration. the rafters spaced three feet apart are Ã� or Ã� inches. this large size is due to the long span of sixteen feet, with no middle support from underneath. the ends of rafters are cut to fit snugly over the plates, as shown, and sawed straight up and down to correspond with vertical walls front and back. no overhang is provided for the roof, as commercial roofing paper is to cover the whole outside of the house. in case it is to be used for other purposes than poultry raising, this feature should be modified, and the rafters allowed to project both front and back. with the rafters nailed in position, permanent braces may be put in at the corners, as shown in the drawing, and temporary braces removed. if the building is to be used as a shop, a second door directly opposite the one shown is recommended. for this purpose the position of the work bench would be on the front directly under the long window, and the two doors would then be in the proper place to permit the planing of long boards. when the frame is finished, the question of siding must be taken up. if the original purpose of the building is to be carried out, poultry experts claim that a double wall is very desirable as a barrier against dampness, which arises primarily from the exhalations of the birds. if the walls are cold, this dampness will condense on them, while with a double wall this does not take place, as the dampness escapes with the air. the outside casing may be of ship-lap boards or tongued and grooved material. for a cabin or shop, novelty siding, clapboards or even shingles may be used. bring the square ends of the boards flush with the openings for door and window, and nail to corner posts and studding with eight or ten penny wire nails. finish the two sides, sawing off the sheathing along the top of rafters. cover front and back clear up to top of rafters, and bring ends of boards flush with outside of the side sheathing. several methods of finishing corners of frame buildings are shown in fig. . at _a_ is shown the corner of this chicken house. no corner boards are used over the outer sheathing, as the whole structure is to be covered with roofing paper. [illustration: fig. . details of poultry house] at _b_ is shown the finish for a stable or cheap cottage, with outside trim nailed over the sheathing. this is the cheapest, easiest, and poorest method of corner finish for ordinary outhouses. at _c_ a better method is shown, with trim nailed to the posts, and clapboards fitted up close to it and nailed to corner posts. a still better finish is shown at _d_, where the trim is nailed to posts but not lapped. the angles between corner trim filled with a quarter round moulding make a good joint and a neat finish. if the double wall is to be used, a second boarding is made on the inside of studding and under side of rafters, first covering the space with building paper tacked to the inside of studding, and nailing the boards--either ship-lap or tongue and groove--to the frame work. door and window sills are made with an outward slant to provide a water table. a cross section of window sill is shown in the detail drawing at _e_. as there is no window in this building except the canvas screen, the construction of a window frame is not necessary. if the double wall is made, a double door, one opening in and the other out, will be in order. the outside door, flush with outer sheathing, and the same arrangement inside are shown at _f_. a door sill will not be necessary, and the construction of the doors is shown at _g_. the material is tongue and groove boards fitted to the opening, so as to close easily, yet to provide for expansion in wet weather, and held together by heavy cleats Ã� / inches on the inside, as shown. the inner door is fastened by a hook and eye, and the outer one with hasp, staple, and padlock. as the window opening is covered with wire, the only way a thief can get in is by cutting the wire and canvas or by drawing the staple. the latter method can be prevented by the use of special staples, with threads cut on each end, and fastened on the inside by nuts, as shown at _h_. these staples are sold at all hardware stores. the construction of the frame for the canvas screen is shown in fig. . the lap joint is used throughout, and the outside dimensions are two inches greater than the window opening. tack the canvas or duck to the side of the frame next the window, and provide two hooks and eyes to fasten it down at night. strong iron butt hinges should be used on this frame, and heavy t or strap hinges on the doors. the outside of the house is finished, except for a water-shed over the window, and the cover for the entire outside of strong roofing paper. this is sold usually with a special cement for making tight joints and with tin washers for the nails. the water table is simply a board projecting at an angle and fastened to triangular brackets, as shown at _a_ (fig. ). the roofing paper brought down over this board, and tacked to the under side or edge, makes a watertight joint. the inside woodwork consists of roosts, dropping platform, and nests. the dropping platform is a floor of tongue and groove boards, placed three feet from the ground on posts, and extending the full length of the house. the roosts are fastened to a strong frame, as shown in drawing, and the frame--in sections--is hinged at the back. each morning this frame is raised, hooked to the ceiling, and the dropping platform cleaned. the construction of the nests is a subject on which poultry experts differ widely, but whatever form is adopted, the material may usually be obtained from old boxes or packing cases. the outdoor runs for summer consist of wire netting fastened to chestnut, cedar, or locust posts. if other woods are used, the lower parts should be coated with creosote. this is also a good disinfectant, to be used for cleaning the roosts occasionally. many accessories for the poultry house may be made of wood, but opinions of specialists are so antagonistic that it is hardly safe to advocate any one type. a feed trough is shown at _i_ (fig. ). it may be made from box material, and consists of two boards nailed together at right angles, supported at the ends by two horizontal pieces nailed on. brooder houses, feed, and incubator houses, and the many other details of poultry raising are well within the power of any careful boy, and the designs should be selected from the expert whose system he has decided to follow. xlvii housing of outdoor pets the care of rabbits, guinea pigs, and other pets becomes of absorbing interest to every boy at some time, and he is fortunate indeed if he has room outdoors to engage in this pastime properly. the comfort of the little animals, and their protection from their natural enemies, the cat, dog, weasel, etc., should be well looked after. fig. shows a very simple and convenient house for animals which do not gnaw through wood, as the rabbit and guinea pig. these two animals will usually live together peaceably, except when breeding. the mothers become sensitive and jealous of all strangers when raising a family. the house proper has a sloping roof, which is hinged to provide a convenient method of reaching any part of the inside. the large space covered on all sides by wire netting is the yard, or runway. the front of the house should face south, and be covered with netting, except the door, which slides up in the grooves provided, as shown in the detail. the northern end of yard is boarded clear up to the top. this shuts off the cold north winds, and in that kind of a house rabbits will live the year round. [illustration: fig. . rabbit house] guinea pigs will thrive in such a structure until the thermometer reaches zero. these interesting and harmless creatures come from brazil, and when the temperature reaches that point, it is better to take them indoors, as they catch cold and die of pneumonia, like human beings. the runway is covered at the top with two-inch wire netting to keep out cats, who seem to take delight in killing both pigs and rabbits. the upright corner posts should be set at least two feet in the ground, braced along the top by strips, to which the netting is fastened with staples, or double-pointed tacks. a hemlock board should be set in the ground all around the yard, with a projection of an inch or two for securing the netting at the ground line. hemlock is cheap and will last longer in the ground than spruce. if the rabbits start to burrow, they become discouraged by finding this board in the way on every side. these planks or boards may be rough-sawed lumber. the inside of the house should be coated with creosote and painted outside a bronze green. a dark-coloured house is warmer than a white one, as may be easily proved by placing a thermometer, first under a black hat, then under a white one. this is probably the reason why people in the tropics wear white clothing. a door the full height of the yard should be provided at the far end, as it is sometimes necessary to get in for cleaning or other purposes. the hinged roof should be made water tight by covering with some form of commercial roofing paper, or by using tongue and grooved boards well painted. [illustration: fig. . traps] the door sliding in grooves, as shown, has a long handle, which projects up through the top of the runway, so that it may be opened or closed from the outside. it can be made from box material. a number of these houses may be placed in a row and allowed to open into a large yard, or there may be individual runs. the latter method is more satisfactory, as a large run can easily be obtained by providing doors between the yards. in the country, where weasels, mink or other wild enemies bother the rabbits, they can be caught in traps. the ordinary box trap at _a_, fig. , is designed to catch the animals alive. its construction is clearly shown in the drawing, one end covered with wire netting, or made solid, and the other provided with a door, arranged to drop easily in the groove when the trigger has been disturbed. the simple construction of the trigger is shown in the detail, while the bait is attached to a string. as soon as this is disturbed the door drops. a typical dead-fall trap is shown at _b_. the weights placed on the sloping board should be heavy, as this trap is designed to kill its victim. for this reason it should never be used where there is any possibility of a pet cat or dog being caught. the trigger is very sensitive, and the slightest pull at the bait is sufficient to bring the weight down on the unfortunate animal. the uprights should be mortised through the base board, and the cross piece at top halved to the uprights. the sloping board with weights fastened to it has a generous-sized hole fitted loosely over a dowel at the right-hand end of bottom board. a groove cut in the latter allows the weighted board to fit tightly when it falls, the dowel with bait dropping into the groove. fig. at _c_ shows a snare frequently used. it should be placed in front of a hollow log, box, or barrel, so that the animal must put his head through the loop of wire in order to reach the bait. the first pull at the end of the trigger releases the spindle, and the bent sapling does the rest. the loop of wire should be held open and in position by twigs conveniently placed. the killing of our few remaining wild creatures, however, should never be done for sport. it is excusable only when they become destructive or troublesome. squirrels, rabbits, and chipmunks are much more interesting as friends than as caged or killed victims. xlviii outdoor carpentry outdoor construction or carpentry, as distinguished from the indoor work of the cabinet maker, calls for a general acquaintance with tools, some mathematics, an elementary knowledge of the strength of materials, and a good supply of common sense. it demands also some knowledge of the effects of frost on foundations, and requires judgment in providing for the elements, wind, rain, snow, and sun. every building may be resolved into certain parts, such as foundations, framing, roof, door, and window frames, outside covering or siding, flooring, partitions, doors and windows, wall covering or ceiling, interior finish, hardware, etc. these will be taken up in their order. foundations these, like all details, depend on the size and purpose of the building. the method of setting a small building on posts has been explained under poultry house, and sheltered seat for tennis court. it should be used only for small structures, such as camp buildings, sea-shore cottages, and out-buildings. brick, stone, and concrete all have their advantages, but for young builders, concrete is perhaps the best and easiest to handle. the woodwork necessary for concrete work is extremely important, and its possibilities have hardly been touched, even to-day. the box or form should present the smooth side of the boards to the concrete, and should be so constructed that the form may be readily removed after the concrete has hardened. this sounds like a simple matter, but it becomes complicated in many cases. the method of fastening the wooden frame to a concrete foundation is suggested in the chapter on the making of a pergola. in some houses the frame is simply laid on the concrete, and the weight of the building is trusted to keep it in place. in the case of small structures this would not be sufficient, and a better way would be to imbed bolts in the cement before it hardens. pass these bolts through holes bored in the sill, and fasten them with nut and washer on top, after the concrete has hardened. any foundation should be sunk at least three feet in the ground, otherwise it will be "heaved" by the frost. where a cellar is to be built, the foundation should be of sufficient depth to leave at least feet inches in the clear between floor of cellar and under side of floor beams, and seven feet would be better. if the foundation extends two feet above the ground, its bottom would be feet inches below the ground level. the thickness of the concrete wall must depend on the size and weight of the building, and for a small cottage it should not be less than ten inches. the columns described for the pergola make an excellent foundation for a small building to be placed on posts, as they do not decay and are permanent. they may be used to advantage for porches in place of wooden posts. after a building is completed, some of the top soil removed in digging the cellar should be graded up to the foundation at a slight slope, to shed the rain and carry it away from the building. the box for a concrete wall should be well supported and braced, as the weight is sufficient to force the boards out of position. the method shown at fig. is frequently used, the / or inch plank being supported by Ã� inch studs, which in turn are braced as shown. on cheap work the outside boarding is omitted, the earth being shaved with the shovel as near the position of outer casing as possible. of course, this earth wall is only useful within a foot or so from the surface. at this point the outer boarding must commence, and be continued to top of foundation. in order to have the foundation level on top, it is best to level the wooden form all around the four sides. if the concrete is brought exactly to the top, and a straight edge is run along the edges of the form, the resulting wall must be level, provided the box has been made so. concrete does not flow enough to level itself. [illustration: fig. . concrete foundations] framing this is a subject on which volumes have been written. the general arrangement with the names and sizes of the various members is shown in the drawing, a design for a small cottage, or bungalow. (fig. .) the heavy timbers forming the sill are cut to the outside dimensions of foundation and halved at the corners. fasten the joints with ten or twelve penny nails. cut all corner posts exactly the same length, toenail at corners to sill, and hold in position by temporary braces. plumb the posts as the braces are nailed. two boys must work at this job, one holding the plumb and the other nailing the braces. cut and halve the ends of plate the same length as sill, and nail to corner posts. cut Ã� studs same length as posts, then nail to sill and plate inches apart on centres. the openings to be left for doors and windows will break up the even spacing of the studs, but it should be made as uniform as possible. the spaces for door and window frames are to be enclosed with double studs to give the necessary strength. corner braces are very desirable and in the old-fashioned braced frame were mortised into plate and post, and sill and post. (fig. _a_.) for a simple structure the necessary bracing may be obtained by "letting into" the studding Ã� inch strips, as shown in drawing. to do this hold the brace in the position it is to occupy, and make a pencil mark on both sides of it on each timber, sawing on the inside of these lines to a depth equal to thickness of brace. remove the wood between saw cuts with a chisel. test to see that brace comes flush with outside of studs, and nail securely in position. when the frame is finished up to the roof the putting on of the siding may begin at any time. [illustration: fig. . corner framing] [illustration: fig. _a_. frame of bungalow] siding the outside of the building, siding or weather boarding, is an important item, as it is designed to protect the interior from sun, cold, and storms. it should be watertight, and may be made of various materials, put on in several ways. in a house to be used in winter, the first layer should be of wide ship-lap boards. if put on diagonally it will act as a permanent bracing, and while this is the better way, it takes more time than horizontal siding. in either case nail to every stud and timber the board touches. begin at the bottom of sill, break joints as the work progresses upward, and saw ends even with outside of posts. at all door and window openings bring edges of siding flush with openings. this inner siding is to be covered with building paper, door and window frames set, tin flashing nailed over doors and windows, and outer covering put on. [illustration: fig. . plan and elevation of a bungalow] before proceeding with outside sheathing, however, the roof should be framed and covered. roofing it is a difficult matter to say that one part of a house is more important than another, as all parts are important, but a building with an unstable or leaky roof is an abomination. the framing of the roof must be strong enough to withstand gales, blizzards, drenching rains, and the weight of tons of wet snow. as the method of shingling has been described under tennis court shelter, it is only necessary to take up the subject of the frame. boys will do well to confine their early efforts to plain sloping, or possibly hipped roofs. these two styles are illustrated in fig. . [illustration: fig. . roof framing] the hip roof is the more pleasing and the more difficult to make. it reduces the attic space, if that is a consideration, and is harder to cover, or rather it consumes more time, as the question of whether a piece of work is difficult or not is really a question of whether or not you know how to do it. the method of fitting the rafters is shown at fig. . to find length of rafters, make a drawing to scale, in which _a-b_ is the height above plate level and _c-b_ half the width of the building measured on the plate or sill. the angle for cutting the mitre at the ridge may be obtained from the drawing, also the angles where the fit occurs at the plate. the length should be distance _a-c_ plus about two feet for the overhang. a ridge board is usually inserted between the top ends of the rafters, and if made from a / -inch board, half an inch should be deducted from the length of rafters to allow for the difference. the shape of lower end of rafters will depend on the kind of finish or cornice to be used. two kinds are shown, the first and simpler being suitable for a barn or rough building. on account of the high price of lumber, most boys will be obliged to use the most inexpensive style of finish. cut all the rafters the same size, and in erecting space them as nearly two feet apart as possible. [illustration: fig. . building details] the first pair should be flush with the edge of plate and temporarily held in position by braces of shingle lath. it will be necessary in erecting the roof to place timbers and floor boards across the top of plate as a temporary floor to work on. nail rafters to ridge board, and plate with ten-penny wire nails. two boys must work together on this job, as every part of the work must be plumb. when all the rafters are in place, cut and fit the short studs between plate and rafters, being careful to leave the openings for windows in the places called for on the plan. the ship-lap siding may now be continued up to top edge of rafters, and sawed off even with upper edge. if novelty siding is used without any under sheathing, it may be treated in the same way. shingling may now be done as described under tennis court accessories. window and door frames these may be bought at the mill ready made. very few carpenters make their own, as they are staple articles coming in standard sizes. second-hand sashes and frames may often be bought at very reasonable rates, and it never pays to make either. set the frames in the openings left for them, and nail to studs. to make sure that the fit between frames and openings shall be right, it is best to take the plans to the mill, and explain to the mill man just what is desired. flooring the floor beams may be set at any time after the frame has been erected up to the plate. as it will be necessary to work around inside more or less, the sooner they are in position the better. as these beams, supposed to be Ã� inches, often vary in width, the floor is liable to be uneven, unless they are cut to fit the sill. the amount cut out need not be very much, but a certain distance, say nine inches, should be marked from the top edge, and the lower corner cut out as shown at _d_ (fig. ). this will bring all the top edges level, when they are in position. the span of the floor beams--the distance from the sill to the next support--is important, as a floor is called upon sometimes to support great weight, as when a number of people are present, or a heavy piece of furniture such as a piano rests on it. for floor beams Ã� , a span of not over twelve feet should be allowed; for Ã� a slightly greater span may be used; but in either case the supporting beam in the centre of the floor should be halved into the sill with upper edge flush, and should be supported at intervals of ten feet by posts set in the floor of cellar, or to a depth of three feet in the ground in case there is no cellar. this supporting beam should be placed when the sill is set on foundation. nail floor beams to sill, and where the two beams from opposite sides of the building lap or pass each other over the beam in centre, nail them to each other and to the beam. the flooring of tongue and groove stuff may now be laid, cutting ends square and fitting them up close to studding, or, what is still better, clear out to the sheathing. the outside weather boards may now be put on, after deciding on one of the corner finishes described under poultry house. a flashing of tin--painted--must be placed over door and window frames, before the clapboarding or siding reaches these points. this siding is sawed off square, and makes a butt joint with the outer casing of door and window frames. some form of building paper is nailed to the first siding in good buildings, and pays for itself in the long run, by reducing the amount of fuel necessary to heat the building in winter. if the house is a sea-shore cottage or camp only to be used in summer, both the paper and inner sheathing may be omitted, and the expense account materially reduced. the finishing of the interior may be left to the last, or done on stormy days. in the meanwhile, several important questions must be settled. one is the style of flue or chimney to be provided for the stove. if the building is to be permanent, a brick chimney should be built by a mason. the danger of fire originating from defective bricklaying makes it advisable to have this work done by a tradesman. for summer cottages or camp buildings a simple stove pipe can be used, but in any event it should be put up before the final roof covering is on, and "flashed," that is protected by tin laid over the roof timbers, and made watertight. this does away with leaks around the chimney, and the tin should be put on in such a way as to prevent the shingles from coming in direct contact with the hot chimney. in these days of oil stoves, which are often used for summer cooking, the chimney may be omitted entirely. at the same time it must be remembered that there are cold, damp nights, when a stove is very comfortable at the shore or in the woods. in regard to interior finish, if the walls are to be plastered, three coats will need to be put on by a skilled plasterer. thin yellow pine ceiling stuff, often used for camp buildings, is easily put on, and quite satisfactory. laid on diagonally it is very pleasing, but the beads catch more dust than the vertical strips do. the latter method calls for horizontal strips laid between the studs for nailing, while a simple quarter round moulding laid in all corners gives the finish. a common practice in camps is to have no interior wall covering, but to leave the timbers exposed. for a dwelling, the frame should be of dressed lumber, which may be stained to conform with the general colour scheme. the inside trim around doors and windows may now be put on. three methods of finishing around windows are shown at _e_, _f_, _g_ (fig. ), and one of these types should be adopted before ordering the trim from the mill. this work should be simplified as much as possible, not only to save time, but because decoration may well be left to pictures, artistic metal work, trophies, and things which are of interest from their history or association. doors and windows if second-hand material is not used it is advisable to purchase these staple articles from a mill where they are made in standard sizes. when ordered for certain size spaces they come a little too large. this allowance is for material to be removed in fitting. inside doors are usually the last things to be hung. the windows should be hung as soon as the construction will allow it, in order to keep out rain. secure the pulleys for upper and lower sash into the window frame on both sides of parting strip about four inches from top of window frame. attach the sash cord and find its proper length by experiment. tie securely to sash weights. see that the two sashes make a good, tight joint where they meet, and tack the window stop to frame with brads. the stop is to be ordered with the trim, and mitred at the top. the construction at the sill is shown at _a_ (fig. ). the arrangement of door frames is shown at _b_. after mitring the door stop, nail to door frame at a distance from its edge equal to thickness of door. fit the door by planing to the space inside frame. the hinges are put on as shown, being sunk flush with edge of both door and door frame. when hanging the door, it is a good plan to place small wedges under it, to allow for the sag which will result as soon as its weight is thrown on the hinges. saddles are usually placed under doors to allow them to swing clear of carpet and rugs. to allow for the thickness of these saddles, / inch should be allowed between floor and bottom of door. the saddles are to be fitted around edges of door frame, making a neat finish. for plastered walls a six-inch base board is necessary. this may be put on with butt joints and nailed to studding with small head finishing nails, as for all trim. the base is usually topped by a base moulding mitred in the corners. this style of construction is for a permanent house. for rough or temporary buildings, many modifications may be adopted. batten doors, as described for the poultry house, may be cheaply and readily made. batten blinds made by the same method are very desirable for buildings like summer camps, which are to be vacant for long periods. this does away with the temptation some people find to break windows in unoccupied houses. the siding for a small building may be of tongue and groove boards put on vertically, and now that lumber is so expensive these items are all important. the lumber from packing cases may be used for making very many of the pieces of furniture in a camp, such as stools, benches, tables, shelves, cupboards, bookcases, etc. many of these useful articles can be made without tearing the boxes apart. a very useful chest and seat combined may be made by fitting a box with a strong cover, strengthened by cleats on its under side and hinged with strap hinges to the back. a cushion of burlap filled with shavings, straw, seaweed, or sweet grass will make this a very satisfactory settee, and the storage space inside will always be available. the outside of the box should be smoothed, all nail holes filled with putty, and the whole thing stained. very interesting panelling effects may be obtained by tacking on strips of the same thickness as the outside cleats. where the supply of wood is limited, many similar articles will suggest themselves to the young carpenter. the chair shown at fig. _a_ can all be made of wood from packing boxes, except the square legs. these may be obtained by sawing Ã� inch spruce in half and planing smooth. the rails can be put on with mortise and tenon, or they may be gained into the legs and fastened with nails or screws. the seat is built up of several pieces fastened to cleats on under side, with front edges rounded. to make this hard bottomed chair more comfortable, have a thin cushion of canvas or burlap fastened by a canvas cover and tacked to edges. the wide strip across the back may be treated in the same way. one coat of stain, or two of japalac or some similarly prepared varnish will make a very serviceable finish for camp purposes. [illustration: fig. . chest made from packing case] the proportions of a porch settee of the same general character are given at fig. _b_. the legs may be cut out of pieces of spruce studding, and all but the long rails obtained from box material. these long pieces may be cut from / -inch siding left over when putting up the cabin. floor boards with tongue and groove planed off will answer very well. [illustration: fig. _a_. chair] the long back strip will be more rigid if mortised into the ends, and the upright strips will be needed to give it the necessary strength. [illustration: fig. _b_. settee made from box material] one of the most comfortable articles for a camp in the woods is the couch hammock. the materials required are: a cot. four yards of strong canvas a yard wide. forty feet of clothesline. two chains or strong pieces of rope about or feet long. a grommet set and some grommets. remove the legs from the cot. they are usually attached by bolts or rivets. if the latter, cut with a cold chisel. lay the canvas in one piece on the floor and place the cot at its centre. make pencil marks at the ends to indicate where the fold begins as at b b (fig. ). lap the canvas as shown and sew securely, leaving a space at the fold for the clothesline to pass through. the square ends are to be hemmed and folded over pieces of broomstick. with the grommet punch make holes through the canvas just below the broomstick and secure with the grommets. make these holes about inches apart. they are to hold the line which is to pass from iron fitting c through first grommet hole and back until it has passed once through each grommet. [illustration: fig. . couch hammock made from a cot] the fitting is found on all hammocks and can be taken from an old one, or an iron ring may be substituted. before beginning to weave the rope through the grommets, pass its end down to b and make fast to a stout screw eye fastened to under side of frame of cot. this brings the weight on the rope instead of on the canvas, an important item when five or six people sit on the couch at one time. treat both ends alike. the canvas will be wide enough to fold up and entirely cover the edges of cot. when everything has been adjusted, fasten the chains or heavy rope to the iron rings, and secure to the trees or veranda columns by heavy hooks. a light mattress covered with blankets, or a specially made cushion to cover the whole cot, and several sofa pillows will add the finishing touches to a very serviceable and satisfactory article. the cost will be about one third of those on sale, and this may be reduced per cent. if a grommet set can be borrowed, as this is the chief item of expense, assuming that an old cot is used. this hammock should not be left out in the rain, as its steel springs will rust. xlix staining, polishing, and finishing this branch of woodwork is a trade by itself and under modern methods of specialization the men who do this work do nothing else. the methods of finishing are legion and every polisher has a few little "kinks" of his own which he regards as trade secrets. the personal equation enters very largely into the work, and if twenty boys have a given method explained to them and they all polish, say, a box of the same size and material, there will result twenty different kinds of polished surfaces. this is due to difference in temperament. some boys are patient and painstaking. others are nervously anxious to get through and see how it looks. it is a fact particularly true of finishing that it cannot be hurried without endangering the result. every coat must be thoroughly dry and hard before the next one is put on. different woods require different treatment, and the elements of good taste, colour, and harmony all enter into the problem. these statements are not made to discourage the young woodworker, because finishing can be done well by any boy who will use reasonable care, but to emphasize the fact that it is poor policy to make a fine piece of woodwork and then spoil it at the last moment by hurry. staining is something on which opinions differ greatly. some artists claim that only the natural colour of the wood should be used, but a great deal of staining is done, and we must leave artistic arguments to others. the extent to which staining is carried may be illustrated by the following finishes used on one kind of wood--oak: golden oak antwerp oak rotterdam english oak ox blood antique forest green weathered oak cathedral oak austrian flemish brown flemish green silver gray sumatra brown filipino mission oak malachite fumed oak bog oak the writer believes that staining to make imitations is wrong, such as staining cherry or birch to give the impression of mahogany. the list of materials for staining is very bewildering, and it is advisable to reduce the list to a few reliable ones and learn to use them well. they may be divided roughly into three classes: oil stains, water stains, and stains produced from drugs or chemicals. oil stains are dry colours ground in oil such as chrome yellow, prussian blue, burnt umber, burnt sienna, etc. when preparing one of these for use, thin with turpentine and linseed oil and apply with a brush. after it has stood for a few moments rub off with a piece of cotton waste or rag. water stains are colours dissolved in water. after applying this kind allow it to dry. sand-paper the surface flat and apply a second coat of half the strength. stains produced from drugs and chemicals include such materials as logwood, bichromate of potash, ammonia, iron sulphate, acetate of iron, etc. the preparation of the surfaces to be finished is very important and means the removing of any defects, such as scratches, by means of plane, scraper, and fine sand-paper. these defects always show much more prominently after polishing than before, so that too great pains cannot be taken in preparation. assuming that the surface is ready, the first question to be considered is whether the wood is open or close grained. if an open grained wood, a coat of filler may be used; if close grained this may be dispensed with. the following list will enable the beginner to decide: open grained woods requiring filler: oak, ash, chestnut, mahogany, walnut, butternut. close grained woods; no filler required: white wood, pine, cherry, birch, beech, gum, sycamore or buttonball; maple, cedar, cypress, red wood. filler may be made at home, but it is a staple article to be found in paint stores and it is advisable to buy it ready made. it comes in paste and liquid forms, and the paste is recommended. it must be thinned with turpentine to the consistency of cream and applied with a brush. as soon as it begins to dry, rub off the excess across the grain with a handful of excelsior, waste, burlap, or rags and allow it to stand over night to dry. when the wood is to be stained the colour is frequently mixed with the filler. the object of all this is to fill up the pores of the wood to give a flat, solid surface for the polishing. sometimes even on open grained woods filler is omitted entirely. suppose that the work in hand is a footstool or tabourette made of oak and we wish to give it a forest green finish. the process would be as follows: [illustration: photograph by helen w. cooke. staining and polishing] prepare the stain by mixing a small quantity of chrome yellow and prussian blue on a piece of wood. mix thoroughly with a putty knife or old chisel and thin with boiled linseed oil and turpentine; add blue or yellow until a beautiful dark green is obtained. add this to the filler, using turpentine for thinning, until the whole mass of liquid is the desired colour and as thick as cream. paint the footstool all over with this filler. as soon as it starts to dry, rub off as explained. the next day sand-paper smooth and give a coat of shellac. when hard, sand-paper flat and give a second coat of shellac. from this point on the process depends on whether a glossy polish is desired or a dead flat surface. for an article of furniture like a footstool a highly polished surface would be a mistake, as it would soon be scratched, and while furniture is not to be abused, it is to be used, and shoe nails make scratches. a dead flat surface may be obtained by rubbing down the third coat of shellac with fine ground pumice stone or rotten stone and water. if too flat, rub the surface with raw linseed oil and wipe dry. some boys will obtain a better finish with two coats of shellac than others will with four. after the first coat of shellac, varnish is often used for the remaining coats, but it takes much longer to harden and requires careful handling. shellac is a product obtained from certain trees in the orient. it may be bought in the dry state at paint stores and dissolved in alcohol. grain alcohol is the best and most expensive, but wood alcohol is cheaper and will answer all ordinary purposes. the shellac may be bought in cans all ready for use, and there are two distinct kinds--orange and white. white shellac is the more expensive, but should be used on light-coloured woods, such as maple, to avoid spoiling the colour. varnish comes in so many grades and kinds that it is best to go to a reliable dealer and tell him just for what purpose you expect to use it. there are outside varnishes, rubbing varnishes, light flowing varnishes, etc. when by exposure it becomes thick so that the brush drags, it should be thinned with a little turpentine. there is a great difference in the methods of using shellac and varnish. the former being dissolved in alcohol evaporates quickly, so that it must be put on thinly and as rapidly as possible. varnish, on the other hand, may take forty-eight hours or more to dry, so that the brush can be drawn over the surface several times to remove air bubbles. it is not possible to do this with shellac. the brush used in shellac should never be laid on the top of the jar or can, as it will harden in a very short time. the care of brushes is an important item. varnish brushes should be cleaned with turpentine, shellac brushes with alcohol, and when cleaned it is better to keep all brushes in a pail of water than to allow them to become dry. the jar or wide mouthed bottle used for shellac should be kept covered else a great deal will be lost by evaporation. a jam jar makes a convenient receptacle for this, as it has an opening wide enough to allow the use of a flat brush. evaporation may be prevented by inverting another jar of the same size over it. the shellac on the rim will hold them together practically airtight with the brush inside. relative advantages of oil and water stains the merits of these two classes of stains may be stated briefly. water stains enter more deeply into the pores of the wood because of their lighter body. the hard parts of the surface hold practically none of the stain and constitute the high lights of the finished surface. but water stains raise the grain and make sand-papering necessary to bring the surface flat again. for this reason, some polishers first give a coat of water to raise the grain and when dry sand-paper flat before staining. oil stains do not raise the grain, but owing to their heavier body do not penetrate so deeply and more of the stain is lost in rubbing off. oil has a tendency to darken wood, so that wood stained with oil colours has a tendency to become clouded or muddy with age. for staining old work, oil stains should be used rather than water stains. old work has the pores already filled and water has little chance to penetrate. some chemicals and aniline dyes are very satisfactory. bismarck brown, which may be bought at the chemist's as a powder, is soluble in alcohol and gives a rich reddish brown. it is very powerful and a very small quantity is necessary. bichromate of potash comes in the form of lumps and crystals. it is soluble in water. put half a dozen crystals in a quart milk bottle of water and allow it to stand over night. warm or hot water will dissolve the crystals more quickly. it is to be put on with a brush and gives rich brown tints, the shade depending on its strength, the kind of wood and the number of coats. it gives excellent results on oak and chestnut, and is used to "age" bay wood to a dark mahogany, while several coats of it will bring white wood to the colour of natural black walnut. each coat must be allowed to dry and then be rubbed flat with fine sand-paper. this treatment may be followed by two or three coats of orange shellac, rubbed down. for "antique" finish on oak or chestnut, dissolve lampblack in turpentine, mix with filler and proceed with polishing as explained. a decoction of logwood is often used to produce dark and even black effects. the logwood extract is cheap and comes in the form of gum or resin. several lumps of this are boiled in a gallon of water and applied as any water stain. acetate of iron, made from iron filings and vinegar, is used for dark browns occasionally. the filings should be allowed to stand for several days in the vinegar. the acid present is acetic. it unites with the iron forming the acetate of iron. polishing the method given above is for a substantial solid finish, but sometimes a boy will have some difficulty in obtaining the desired finish through lack of patience or some other cause. a french polish may help to give the finishing touch. for this a piece of cheese cloth about inches square, a piece of cotton waste about the size of a walnut, a little shellac and raw linseed oil are necessary. dip the waste lightly in shellac; fold the cheese cloth around it, making a soft pad, dip the pad in the oil and rub quickly and constantly in circles, gradually covering the whole surface. as the shellac hardens or sticks, use a little more oil and squeeze the pad slightly to bring the shellac through the cheese cloth. the oil prevents the shellac from sticking and a little experience will give the right balance between the two. when the polish becomes so bright that it shows the slightest finger mark, wipe dry with a piece of soft flannel. wax polish this is used where a dull or flat finish is required. it can be applied directly after staining or filling. dissolve beeswax in turpentine to the consistency of filler. heat hastens this part of the process, but is not necessary unless time is a consideration. the wax is applied with a soft rag or waste and rubbed and rubbed. the turpentine evaporates, leaving the wax. several rubbings at intervals of a week will give the desired effect, and the surface may be brightened at any time by an additional application. it should be remembered in all forms of polishing that dust is the great enemy. wherever possible a piece of furniture after receiving a coat of shellac or varnish should be placed in a room or closet where no dust can settle on it. it should also be kept out of the sun to avoid blistering. the action of some stains like bichromate of potash is affected by the sun and should be either kept out of direct sunlight entirely or so placed that all parts receive the same amount, else the parts in shadow will be of a different shade from the rest of the surface. l durability, decay, and preservation of wood it is now known that decay in wood is caused by fungi or low forms of plant life which cannot live without a certain amount of water, food, heat and air. a fence post decays first at the place where it enters the ground, because at that point the conditions are most favourable. if wood can be kept entirely under water, one item--air--is lacking, so the fungous growths cannot exist and the wood will last indefinitely. this has been proved in many instances. one of the old viking ships was raised from the bottom of the christiania fjord, norway, after having been under water for a thousand years and it was found to be in a perfect state of preservation. even the rudder oar or steerboard and wooden shields were intact. as soon as it was brought into the air the process of decay began, and it became necessary to coat it with preservative. it stands to-day, feet long, in the museum at christiania. many other instances of under-water preservation might be mentioned. the other extreme is also true. wood which is kept perfectly dry will last indefinitely, as in the case of woodwork taken from the pyramids of egypt, , years old, which is found to be perfectly preserved. [illustration: fig. . a pile] but when wood is alternately wet and dry it decays rapidly. a pile driven into the bottom of a tidal river is a good illustration. if such a pile be divided into four sections (see fig. ), _a_ is always in the ground, _b_ is always in the water, _c_ is alternately in air and water, _d_ is always in the air. sections _a_ and _b_ may be considered to be under the same conditions and should last the longest; _c_ should decay first: _d_ would last indefinitely if the atmosphere were always perfectly dry; but humidity and rain, air and heat combined finally bring about decay, and although this part of the pile will last longer than _c_ it will in time decay. section _c_ should be coated with a preservative. various woods under the same conditions act very differently and according to no well understood law. for example, in contact with the soil black locust is our most durable wood. it is very hard, and its life under these conditions is estimated at from ninety to a hundred years. red cedar comes next, though it is soft wood. oak decays in a few years; chestnut, much softer, lasts two or three times as long. our approaching timber famine has induced a study of this subject, since the preservation of wood is becoming an absolute necessity. it has been found that certain materials put on the wood before it is placed in the ground prolong its life. coal tar, wood tar, paint, and creosote all help, but creosote has so far proved to be the best. it is one of the by-products of coal tar and is being used extensively by the railroad companies for prolonging the life of ties. experiments with creosote have brought out some very interesting facts. it has been found that after being treated with the hot creosote all woods resist decay alike, regardless of their hardness or softness. consequently, a treated cheap wood will last as long as an originally valuable one. this is a great gain, as it allows us to make use of wood like the poplar which would otherwise be practically of no value. the various coatings we put on wood, such as paint, varnish, oil, etc., are intended not only to beautify but to preserve it, which they do by filling up the pores and excluding moisture, preventing fungous growths, etc. all of these coatings should be put only on dry wood, else they prevent evaporation of the sap and may hasten decay. [illustration: fig. ] drying lumber increases its strength, as it has been found by experiment, even as much as per cent. if no checking occurs. when this happens it counteracts much of the gain, and if the wood absorbs moisture once more the strength will decrease. the strength of the various timbers varies greatly, and sap wood is usually weaker than heart wood. the strains that may be brought to bear on timbers are illustrated in fig. , the arrows indicating the directions in which the forces operate. at _a_ the wood is under tension, the forces at work on it tending to pull it apart. at _b_ the piece is under compression, the forces tending to reduce its length by forcing its fibres together. a pillar supporting a weight is under compression. at _c_ the weight tends to bend the beam. the upper part is under tension, the lower part under compression. this is known as beam action, and depends on whether the beam is supported at one end, as shown, or on both ends. also it is important to know whether the beam has a uniformly distributed load or whether the weight is at one point only. the problems relative to beam action are largely of an engineering character and involve considerable mathematics. shearing is the sliding of one part of the timber along the grain. if a piece of wood is cut to the form shown at _d_ and a weight applied at _e_, the tendency will be for this upper part to slide down as shown at _f_. when this occurs, shearing has taken place. the strength of wood differs in resisting these various strains, the tensile strength being greater than the crushing or compressive strength. ash, for example, has a tensile strength of , pounds to the square inch, but its crushing strength is only for the same size. the tensile strength of dry white pine is , pounds, its crushing strength pounds, and its shearing strength varies from pounds to pounds, showing that its weakest point is along the grain. if the young woodworker becomes ambitious enough to think of designing a bridge or large building he can find these figures in any engineers' hand-book. there are so many important factors to be considered that the amateur will do well to go ahead with great caution. knots and other defects reduce the proportionate strength of large beams greatly, so that it would not be safe to assume that a beam inches square would be times as strong as a piece inch square. in upright posts of considerable length, not alone the crushing strength must be considered, but a bending action enters into the problem. wherever the question of danger to life enters, as in a bridge or a house, it is wise to leave a large margin for safety. we realize this fully when we read of a grand stand holding hundreds or thousands of people collapsing under the weight. the architect has also to reckon with still other elements, such as wind pressure and vibration. li mathematics of woodwork the woodworker soon discovers that arithmetic is a very practical and necessary subject. he will meet many problems both in drawing and in actual construction which test his ability and call for some knowledge even of elementary geometry. it is important to be able to estimate from his drawing just how much lumber will be needed. he will soon discover through intercourse with dealers in lumber that there are certain standard sizes, and he should make his designs as far as possible conform at least to standard thicknesses. common boards are sawed inch thick. when dressed on two sides the thickness is reduced to / . in planning some part of a structure to be inch thick it is better to make the dimension / inch, else it will be necessary to have heavier material planed to inch and the cost will be that of the heavier lumber, plus the expense of planing. in buying / -inch dressed lumber, very often inch boards are dressed down to the required thickness, and the purchaser pays for -inch wood, in addition to the dressing. the boy is surprised to find that it costs more for / -inch than for inch material. standard lengths are , , , , etc., feet. widths vary, and as wood shrinks only across the grain--with one or two exceptions--this dimension cannot be depended on, as the amount of shrinkage depends somewhat on the age after cutting. whenever possible, it is wise to go to the lumber yard and select your own material, choosing boards that are free from knots, shakes, etc. clear lumber--free from knots--costs more, but is worth the difference. measurements a measurement is a comparison. we measure the length of a lot by comparing it with the standard of length, the yard or foot. we measure a farm by comparing its area with the standard unit of surface measure, the acre, square rod, or square yard. in every measurement we must first have an accepted standard unit. the history of units of measurement is a very interesting one, and its difficulty arises from the fact that no two things in nature are the same. one of the ancient units of length was the cubit, supposed to be the length of a man's forearm, from the elbow to the end of the middle finger. this, like other natural units, varied and was therefore unreliable. as civilization progressed it became necessary for the various governments to take up the question of units of measurements and to define just what they should be. our own standards are copied from those of great britain, and although congress is empowered to prescribe what shall be our units, little has been changed, so that with few exceptions we are still using english measurements. the almost hopeless confusion and unnecessary complication of figures is shown in the following tables as compared with the metric system: inches = foot . = millimetre feet = yard (standard) . = centimetre - / yards } . = decimetre or } = rod - / feet } . = metre rods } . = dekametre or } yards } = mile . = hectometre or } feet } . = kilometre the original english definition of an inch was "three barley corns" with rounded ends. the meter is / , , (one ten-millionth) of a quadrant of the earth's circumference, _i. e._, the distance from the pole to the equator measured along one of the meridians of longitude. the length of three barley corns might be different from the next three, so here was the original difficulty again. the designers of the metric system went back to the earth itself as the only unchangeable thing--and--are we sure there is no change in the earth's circumference? the great advantage of the metric is that it is a decimal system and includes weights as well as surfaces and solids. our weights are even more distracting than our long measure. we have in fact two kinds of weight measure--troy and avoirdupois. troy avoirdupois metric gr. = pwt. oz. = lb. . milligram pwt. = oz. lb. = cwt. . centigram oz. = lb. cwt. = ton . decigram gr. = lb. lb. = long ton . gram lb. = short ton . dekigram lb. = short cwt. . hectogram gr. = lb. . kilogram in surface measurements, the same differences are seen: american or english metric sq. ft. = sq. yd. . sq. centimetre - / sq. yds. = sq. rod . sq. decimetre sq. rods } . sq. metre sq. yds. } = acre . are acres = sq. mile , . hectare , , . sq. kilometre in measures of volumes we are as badly off: dry liquid metric pints = quart pints = quart . millilitre quarts = peck qts. = gallon . centilitre pecks = bushel gal. = cu. ins. . decilitre quarts = . cu. ins. . litre or cu. decim. heaped bushel = - / . dekalitre struck bushels. . hectolitre the cone in a heaped . cu. metre or bushel must be not kilolitre less than ins. high. as if this were not enough, when we go to sea we use another system. the depth of water is measured in fathoms ( feet = fathom), the mile is . feet long = . land miles, and sea miles = league. in our cubic measure: cubic inches = cubic foot cubic feet = cubic yard a cord of wood is ft. Ã� ft. Ã� ft. = cubic feet. a perch of masonry is - / Ã� - / Ã� = . cubic feet isn't it about time we used the metric system? the reader will not mind one more standard unit. lumber is measured by the board foot. its dimensions are Ã� Ã� inches; it contains cubic inches and is / of a cubic foot. a board feet long, foot wide and inch thick contains board feet. one of the same length and width but only / inch thick contains board feet. the contents of any piece of timber reduced to cubic inches can be found in board feet by dividing by , or from cubic feet by multiplying by . as simple examples: how many board feet in a piece of lumber containing , cubic inches? / = board feet. how much wood in a joist feet long, inches wide and inches thick? Ã� Ã� / = cubic feet: Ã� = board feet. a simpler method may be used in most cases. how much wood in a beam inches x inches, feet long? imagine this timber built up of -inch boards. as there are nine of them, and each ft. Ã� / foot Ã� inch and contains board feet (fig. ), Ã� = board feet. again, how much wood in a timber inches Ã� inches, feet long? this is equivalent to boards inch thick and inches or / foot wide. each board is Ã� / Ã� = board feet, and Ã� = , answer. (see _b_, fig. ). to take a theoretical case: how much wood in a solid circular log of uniform diameter, inches in diameter, feet and inches long? find the area of a -inch circle in square inches, multiply by length in inches and divide by . Ã� Ã� . = ft. in. = inches ( Ã� )/ = - / board feet it is not likely that a boy would often need to figure such an example, but if the approximate weight of such a timber were desired, this method could be used, reducing the answer to cubic feet and multiplying by the weight per cubic foot. a knowledge of square root is often of great value to the woodworker for estimating diagonals or squaring foundations. the latter is usually based on the known relation of an hypothenuse to its base and altitude. it is the carpenters' - - rule. the square of the base added to the square of the altitude = square of the hypothenuse. ² = , ² = ; + = . the square root of is . (see fig. ). to square the corner of his foundation the carpenter measures feet one way and the other. if his -foot pole just touches the two marks, the corner is square. ² = , ² = ; + = . [sqrt] = . this method was used in laying out the tennis court, the figures being , , -- , , and multiplied by . to take a more practical case, suppose we are called upon to estimate exactly, without any allowance for waste, the amount of lumber in a packing case built of one-inch stock, whose outside dimensions are feet inches Ã� feet inches Ã� feet inches. referring to the drawing (fig. , _d_), we draw up the following bill of material: pieces (top and bottom) ft. in. Ã� ft. in. " (sides) ft. in. Ã� ft. in. " (ends) ft. in. Ã� ft. in. the top and bottom, extending full length and width, are the full dimensions of the box, while the sides, although full length, are not the full height, on account of the thickness of the top and bottom pieces--hence the dimensions, feet inches. from the ends must be deducted two inches from each dimension, for the same reason. in multiplying, simplify as much as possible. there are four pieces feet inches wide; as their combined length is feet inches, we have - / feet Ã� - / feet = - / square feet. the combined length of top and bottom is feet inches = - / Ã� - / = - / , and - / + - / = - / or board feet, ignoring such a small amount as / of a foot. this is close figuring, too close for practical work, but it is better to figure the exact amount, and then make allowances for waste, than to depend on loose methods of figuring, such as dropping fractions, to take care of the waste. [illustration: fig. . a packing case] as a good example of estimation, take the hexagonal tabourette shown in fig. ; the five pieces, aside from the hexagon under and supporting the top, which may be made from scrap lumber, are shown laid out in fig. . the board must be at least twelve inches wide in order to get out of it the large hexagon. the legs may be laid out as shown with space left between for sawing, yet even by this method considerable waste will result, and it should be kept constantly in mind that as far as possible waste is to be reduced to a minimum. "wood butcher" is the common shop name for the workman who spoils more material than he uses. the great advantage of making out a bill of material before starting is that it not only makes you study your drawing, but causes you to consider the best method of laying out the blank pieces. [illustration: fig. . laying out the pieces for a tabourette] it is often necessary to find the areas of figures other than the square or parallelogram. assume that we are to floor a room in an octagonal tower or summer house. if the distance across the flat sides of the octagon is sixteen feet, leaving out the item of waste, how many square feet will be required? the octagon may be drawn in a square and its area will be that of the square, less the four triangles in the corners. (fig. ). so the problem resolves itself into finding the area of one of these triangles. if we knew the length of one of the sides of the octagon, the solution would be simple, but we only know that the eight sides are equal. the following method may be worked out: find the diagonal of the sixteen foot square. it is . +. deduct the distance across the flats, , leaving . feet equally divided between _a_ and _b_; _a_ = . and it may be proved that _c_ = _a_ = _d_. so in each corner we have a triangle whose base is . Ã� . . the area of a triangle equals half its base by the altitude. therefore the area of each triangle is . Ã� . and . Ã� . Ã� equals . square feet, the combined area of the four corners. this deducted from the area of the square leaves the area of the octagon, or - . = . square feet. [illustration: fig. . finding the area of an octagon] [illustration: fig. . problem of the hexagon] assume that our problem is to find the narrowest board we can use to cut out a hexagon whose diameter is fourteen inches. as shown in chapter iv, the hexagon is drawn in a circle. one of the sides is equal to the radius or half the diameter. this gives us the arrangement shown in fig. , in which our problem is confined to the right-angled triangle whose base is seven and hypothenuse fourteen. from our knowledge of triangles, we deduct the square of seven ( ) from the square of ( ), leaving - = , which is the square of the altitude. then [sqrt] = . , which is the narrowest board from which we can obtain a hexagon inches in diameter. these examples are given to show the close connection between woodwork and arithmetic. lii lumber: no. it is hardly possible for a boy to select and purchase wood for his various purposes without some knowledge of the different woods and their peculiar characteristics. no two are exactly alike, and in fact two trees of the same kind growing in different parts of the country under different conditions will produce timber of very different qualities. this is specially noticeable in the tulip or white wood, for example. a tree of this species, growing in a swamp in the south, will yield a very different wood from one grown on high ground in the north. again, the same wood is known in different localities by different names, so in order to have a sound knowledge of lumber, it is really necessary to know something about the trees. white wood, just mentioned, is called, in many localities, yellow poplar. as a matter of fact, it is not a poplar, nor is it related to the poplars, being a member of the magnolia family. the following pages, devoted to this subject, are the cream of many talks between our boys, boiled down to the important facts and arranged in some order. it was a hobby of ralph's, and harry became so enthusiastic over it that they frequently laid aside their work and took long walks through the country studying trees. harry started a small nursery in the garden and is raising young trees from seeds and cuttings. as he remarked to ralph one day: "it's astonishing how little people know about trees! why they are the most interesting things that grow. just think how many things we get from them besides wood; maple sugar, rubber, turpentine, wood alcohol, tannin for making leather, shellac, canada balsam, spruce gum, and nuts! all of our nuts except peanuts come from trees--hickory, walnuts, butternuts, beechnuts, chestnuts, pecans, almonds, etc." ralph noticed that as harry's interest in the trees grew he became less wasteful of his wood in the shop. the fact that a tree had to be cut, and in most cases killed, in order to furnish him with lumber, seemed to worry him. one day when he was thoughtfully at work in the shop, he blurted out, "it's a shame that so many trees have to be cut down for lumber!" "yes," said ralph, "it seems so; yet if no lumber was wasted, it would not be so bad. it is estimated that per cent. of the wood cut down is wasted." "how?" asked the boy. "well, in the first place, many lumbermen after cutting the tree down, take just the log or lower part and leave the top to decay. it often happens that they leave the tops and branches as a great mass of litter, which soon becomes as dry as tinder, an invitation to the smallest spark to start a fire, and more woodland is destroyed by fire each year than i care to tell you." "how much?" asked harry. "every year, between twelve and fifteen million acres, and some years three times as much." "how much is a million acres?" "you can get some idea from this: long island, n. y., is a hundred miles long and about twenty across in the widest part. it contains about a million acres. imagine this covered by solid woods, multiply by fifteen and you would have a good idea of the amount of woodland burned over every year." "gracious!" exclaimed the boy. "i should think every tree would have been burned years ago." "well, this is a big country," said ralph. "i figured it out once. the united states is large enough to make six hundred states the size of connecticut, and have room for twenty-five or thirty more. the state of texas alone could be cut up into a hundred pieces as large as connecticut. "the forest fire is one of our worst enemies. it is far worse than the lumberman, because when he cuts down trees it gives hundreds of young seedlings which are struggling to live in the shade a chance to grow and cover the ground with a new forest; but the fire kills these young seedlings and even burns the seeds that are lying in the leaves waiting to grow. that is one of the worst things to be said against the forest fire." "does it kill every tree?" "oh, no! trees like the oak sprout from the old roots, but most evergreen trees are killed outright." "what happens then?" "why, it depends. if the forest is mixed, hard woods and conifers, the hard woods, or some of them, will in time send up sprouts, and where you formerly had a mixed stand, you will in a few years have only hard woods, unless some of the evergreens were not touched. in that case, their seeds will in time replace the old evergreens." "how long does it take?" "from forty to a hundred years to have a large forest. some evergreens, like the spruce, increase in diameter very slowly." "what happens when the forest that is burned is all evergreens, and they are all killed?" asked the irrepressible boy. "the process of reforesting in that case is very slow. trees of little value, like the poplar or birch, appear first, because their seeds are light and are carried a considerable distance by the wind. if fires pass over the same area every few years, the forest will never come back unless seeds are planted. there are large areas in this country thus denuded, and instead of a forest we have a scrubby growth of bushes that are of little value to anybody. "huckleberries grow in burned-over land luxuriantly, and in some sections it is suspected that the people who make money by gathering the berries burn the brush purposely. "the forest cover is valuable for other things besides timber. the snow melts slowly in an evergreen forest, because the rays of the sun cannot penetrate with full strength. this allows the water to sink into the ground slowly, and to come out lower down in the form of springs. "where there is no forest the snow melts much more quickly, the water rushes down the hills in streams, carrying with it the top soil, which is of so much value to the farmer, cutting the hillsides into gullies, causing floods in the valleys, and filling up the rivers with silt or mud. "this spoils the streams, ruins the land, and causes millions of dollars' worth of damage to property. if you doubt it, read the newspaper accounts of floods in the valleys of the ohio, missouri, and mississippi every spring." "but i should think by this time all the soil would be washed away." "it will be in time. there are large areas in china where the soil is washed away to the bare rock. the population has been obliged to emigrate because when the soil goes, the population can no longer live." "well, what are we going to do about it?" asked harry in amazement. "wait a minute," said ralph, warming up to his subject. "the mississippi carries into the gulf of mexico every year seven and a half billion cubic feet of soil; enough to cover long island two inches deep every year." "what are we going to do?" repeated the boy. "we can do one of two things," said ralph sagely, "we can follow in the footsteps of china and let the land go to ruin; or we can follow the example of germany, take care of our forests--or what is left of them--and plant new ones. it is one of the greatest questions in this country to-day, and you are going to hear a lot about it before you are twenty-one." liii lumber: no. the lumber business ranks fourth in the great industries of the united states. the department of forestry at washington estimates that we are using three times as much wood yearly as the annual growth of the forest. a grand total of , , , board feet of lumber for all purposes, including firewood, is the estimated amount, a figure the mind can hardly grasp. the railroads of our country rest on , , , ties. the average life of a tie is about ten years, so that we must replace one tenth, or , , , each year. as the average forest produces two hundred ties to the acre, this item alone calls for half a million acres of woods every year. the tie is only one item in the great business of railroading, immense quantities of lumber being required for trestles, platforms, stations, bridges, etc., so that a full million of acres must be cut annually to keep our railroads operating. place this item against the fifteen million burned, and the statement may be made that we burn enough each year to supply the railroads for fifteen years. to offset this loss several railroad companies are now planting trees for a future supply, as the many attempts to supplant the wooden tie with a manufactured one have not been very successful. the six thousand mines of various kinds within our border use up , , , board feet every year, and so on through the list of wood-consuming industries. as our population doubles, the consumption of lumber quadruples. to-day, five hundred feet of wood is used annually for every man, woman, and child, as compared with the sixty feet used in europe. already our many industries are beginning to feel the shortage, and prices constantly go up. turpentine, which is made from the southern yellow pine, requires a new "orchard" of , acres yearly to keep up the demand; and when we realize that one third of the lumber cut is yellow pine, it is little wonder that the price of turpentine and other naval stores keeps moving upward. where and when will it stop? we read a great deal about the transformation of water power into electrical energy, but the flow of streams is dependent on forests, and the spring floods are followed by drought. while the ohio river rises forty feet in the spring, it is possible to walk over the river bed almost dry shod the following summer. we hear much about irrigation, but irrigation is dependent largely on mountain forests. so a burning question has arisen in these united states, called conservation, or the husbanding of the great resources that have made our country what it is. the forest resources are different from those of the mines. there is a definite end to the supply of coal, iron, gold, and silver, but by proper care the forest may be made to yield a continuous crop of lumber. forestry does not mean the fencing in of the woods, but the handling of them in such a way that no more is cut than the annual growth. this has been practised in germany on scientific principles with such success that the production has been increased per cent., and where seventy-five years ago they obtained twenty cubic feet from each acre a year, they now cut sixty, and the forest continues to grow luxuriantly. what germany has done we can do, and millions of acres now useless can be made to yield large quantities of wood while continually clothed with growing forests. the cutting of lumber is usually done when the sap is dormant, preferably in the winter. the logs are gotten to the mill by the cheapest method, which usually consists in floating them down a stream or river; but now that most of the remaining forest is remote, it is quite common to have portable mills transported into the woods where the trees are cut and sawed into planks or the larger sizes of timber and from there loaded on the cars. the old-fashioned method was more picturesque, and the "drive" started with the breaking up of the ice in the spring. thousands and hundreds of thousands of logs were guided down stream, pulled off shore when they became stranded, and the jams were broken up until the smooth water below made sorting possible. as several companies might be driving down the same stream, each log was marked by an axe with the private mark of the one to which it belonged. after many vicissitudes, the drive would reach the sorting boom, where the lumber of the various companies would be separated and made up into rafts. a boom is a chain of logs fastened together by iron chains, and extending into the river. it may reach clear across, or one end can be anchored in the stream to allow a passage for boats. in that case the river end has to be anchored up stream to catch the logs. one of the most serious things encountered on a drive is the log jam. it may be caused in many ways but usually by some obstruction, as a shoal, rocks, a narrowing of the river, etc. the lumberman has a vocabulary of his own, and he recognizes several kinds of jams, such as wing jams, solid jams, etc. no matter how caused, it is the business of the lumber jack to break up the jam, and sometimes before it can be done a late freeze will occur and the whole mass become solid ice and logs. it is sometimes necessary to use dynamite to break it up. the breaking up is a dangerous time for the driver, who must sometimes run for his life across the moving mass of logs to the shore. after they are made into rafts, steamers are used to tow the logs to the various mills. it is slow work, but when the destination is reached, the real process of converting the tree into lumber begins. often the rafts stay in the water for months before being broken up, and the logs guided to the endless chain which drags them up into the mill. from this time on the action is very rapid. the modern mill is a mass of rapidly moving machinery, guided and controlled by comparatively few men. three distinct classes of saws are used--circular, band, and gang saws, and different mills in the same neighborhood use different methods. band saws are continuous bands of steel, often feet long, and as wide as inches, which pass over two large wheels like a belt. gang saws are straight and move up and down rapidly. a number of them are fastened to horizontal pieces, the distance apart being adjustable to the thickness of timber desired. before passing through the gang saw, the logs are usually edged, _i. e._, a slab is cut from two opposite sides. the log is then turned over on one of these flat sides, so that as it passes through the gang saw the planks are all the same width. the slabs or edgings are passed through other saws and cut to the width and length of a lath, all the waste possible being made into lath or other by-products. as we use four billions of lath a year, this is an important item. the process varies with the kind of lumber and its future purpose, but a great deal is wasted in many mills. the refuse is used for fuel, and in some cases burned in stacks built specially for the purpose of getting rid of it. this is one of the forms of waste which will undoubtedly be done away with in the future, and already many lumbermen are at work on the problem. the sawdust is conveyed directly to the furnaces under the boiler and used in the generation of steam. liv lumber: no. having finally reached the commercial stage, the lumber is shipped away from the mill either by water or by rail to the lumber yards of the country. here it should be seasoned. in the past this process consisted of piling the planks in the open air in such a way that air could circulate freely through the pile, allowing the sap to evaporate and the wood to dry evenly. this was a sure but slow process, and in the hurry of modern life quicker methods have been tried. one of these is known as kiln drying, by which the time is reduced to a few weeks. it consists of piling the wood in a room like a kiln and drying it by artificial heat. the result is not so satisfactory as the natural method, because the sap near the surface hardens and prevents the inner moisture from escaping, so that kiln-dried lumber while dry at the surface is "green" inside. when planed till part of the surface is removed the green wood is brought near to the air again, and warping is liable to occur. other methods have been tried, such as steaming to vaporize the sap, and soaking in hot water for the same purpose. of course these processes all add to the cost of lumber, yet so valuable is time that it is difficult to obtain good old-fashioned seasoned wood unless it has lain for some time in a local yard. in order to understand the phenomena of warping, shrinkage, checking, shakes, etc., it is necessary to know something of how the tree grows. like all living organisms, it is made up of minute cells. the new cells are formed on the outside of the tree under the bark, and here the sap is most active. the cause of the flow of sap is not very clearly understood, but it corresponds to blood in the human body, in that it carries the nourishment that forms the cells. as a new mass or layer of soft new cells forms each season, the layers may be distinctly seen and counted, but the line of separation is not a sharply drawn one, as we find by examining a cross section of wood with the microscope. however, the layers or annual rings are distinct enough to be counted, so that the age of the tree at the time it was cut down may be readily discovered. the new or sap wood, then, is further from the centre each year, and while the old cells may not be dead, they contain less and less sap, are therefore drier, and after a few years change colour, becoming darker. there is often a very great contrast between the colour of the heart wood and that of the sap wood, although the latter may be represented by several years of growth. these annual rings are not actually circular, but very irregular, and often wider in some parts than in others. the study of these rings is very interesting, and it shows that the tree usually increases in diameter more rapidly during the first few years than later. very often, after growing slowly for several years, the tree will apparently grow rapidly again. the cause of this cannot be determined without a knowledge of the tree's history. it has been proved by experiment that thinning the forest increases the growth of the remaining trees per cent., and these peculiarities in the rings may have been due to some like cause. the bearing of this fact on the peculiarities of warping and shrinkage is that when cut down the log is drier at the heart and more sappy at the outside, so that evaporation occurs near the surface. [illustration: fig. . warping, wind, and shrinkage.] the effect of it is shown in fig. . the outside drawing together has opened the wood, or "checked" it, most at the outside, diminishing toward the centre. the evaporation would have occurred just the same had the log been cut into planks, causing them to curl as shown at _a_. this is known as warping, and it is one of the troubles of the woodworker. in construction it must be constantly guarded against, and overcome as far as possible. it cannot be entirely prevented, but if the wood has been well seasoned before it is used a large part of the warp will be taken out in the planing mill, or in the squaring up. twisting, winding, and warping are also caused by the two sides of a board having been subjected to different degrees of heat, moisture, etc. if a plank is laid on the floor, the upper part is more exposed to the air and to changes of temperature and humidity; therefore it curls. if a board is stood on end or placed in a rack where there is a free circulation of air, the curling will be much less. even in a rack, if several boards are piled one on another, the top one will have different conditions from the others and be apt to curl or wind. shrinkage is a term applied to the decrease in diameter of the tree, due to sap evaporation. in the case of the board it means a decrease in width, and it varies greatly in different trees and their woods. as shrinkage is always across the grain, its effect on a common joint may be illustrated in fig. . at _a_ is shown a middle lap joint just put together. if the wood is not well seasoned, shrinkage will in time change it to the form shown at _b_, which is exaggerated to make the meaning clear. [illustration: fig. . effect of shrinkage on lumber] a square piece of timber, one corner of which is the centre of the tree, will change from _c_ to _d_. shrinkage as well as warping must be taken into consideration in construction. [illustration: fig. . the development of the panelled door] the development of the panelled door is a good illustration. suppose we wish to close a space with a door, knowing little about shrinkage. let us construct it by the simplest method, say four vertical boards. if the width of these boards equals the opening when the door is built (fig. ) there will soon be an opening wide enough for the fingers to enter and lift up a latch on the inside. the door is very much of a failure. we notice, however, that there is no opening at top or bottom. an idea! we construct a door with planks placed horizontally. now although we find after a while no opening at the sides we do find openings at top and bottom. the panelled door is not constructed solely for beauty but to overcome shrinkage as far as possible. fig. shows the various parts. the rails maintain the width, the only shrinkage being in the cross grain of the stiles, and they preserve the height except for the small amount in the rails. the remaining spaces are panelled, the construction being shown at _a_. both stiles and rails have a groove plowed out to receive the edges of the panel. this should be free to shrink in the grooves, where it is invisible, but if the mistake is made of fastening the panel edges rigidly in these grooves the panel will shrink anyway and frequently split from top to bottom. many other forms of construction which we have seen daily as long as we can remember have equally sound reasons for their form. no piece of woodwork should be designed without considering how it will be affected by shrinkage and warping. in selecting lumber always look out for "shakes." this is a defect caused by the separation of the annual rings. a tree may be considered as a series of irregular cylinders of diminishing diameters. the forest-grown tree is much more spindling, tall, and straight than the low-crowned, heavy-branched specimen grown in the open, where there is no crowding. the swaying of the forest tree in the wind, especially when its neighbours have been cut down, is sometimes sufficient to make the rings separate and slide one within the other. this is more noticeable in some species than others and it gives the wood a serious fault. (fig. ). "winding" is the result when the ends and sides are no longer parallel. like all peculiar characteristics of wood, this varies greatly in lumber of various kinds, and may be largely avoided by exposing both sides to the same conditions, or keeping equally distributed weight on it until used. when winding becomes excessive, the board is useless for any kind of work. lv lumber: no. the woods of the united states are classified roughly as hard and soft; and trees as broad-leaved or deciduous, and evergreen or coniferous. in a general way, the trees which drop their leaves in the fall--the broad-leaved--produce hard woods and the evergreens soft woods. there are so many exceptions, however, that the rule is a very rough guide. several of the coniferous trees drop their leaves or needles in the fall, like the larch or tamarack, and some woods from evergreens are harder than some woods from broad-leaved trees. yellow pine is harder than basswood, which, according to the rule, should be a hard wood. as a matter of fact, it is softer than the majority of woods cut from evergreens. the only way to gain a comprehensive knowledge of this interesting subject is by experience and study. making a collection of woods, leaves, and seeds is one of the most fascinating studies a boy can take up. he will soon discover that not only is every wood different from every other wood in grain, colour, odour, and hardness, but some woods are strong and elastic, others strong and brittle, weak, etc., and that every tree has a different leaf, bark, flower, and seed from its neighbour. he will find groups or families, such as the oaks, the maples, the pines, spruces, cedars, etc., with several members of each group, all different, yet having family characteristics. he will be surprised at the endless extent of the subject; the willow for instance has a hundred and fifty known varieties. he will find himself, like our boys, dipping into botany and geology to discover perhaps, as harry did, that the oak was once an evergreen, and that it still holds a good proportion of its leaves all winter. he will learn that there are broad-leaved evergreens like the laurel and rhododendron; that some trees are evergreen in the south, and lose their leaves in the north; that some shrubs of the northern states become trees farther south. he may even wrestle with the problem "what is a tree?" or, "where does the shrub leave off and the tree begin?" the study of the many methods nature has devised for distributing seeds has evolved whole volumes; so has the question of how the buds on the trees are protected in winter. there are definite ways in which the tiny leaves are folded up in these winter buds, all ready to unfold in a certain way in the spring. perhaps the reader wonders what all this has to do with woodwork, but to a boy who once begins to collect specimens, it will follow as a matter of course. knowing something about woods he naturally begins to study trees, and gradually observes the wonderful phenomena of growth, flower, and seed. planting seeds to see how they grow is the next step, and before long he has a young nursery in the yard; while the reading of the work of such men as luther burbank will induce him to try his hand at grafting and budding. the man who makes two apples grow where one grew before is as valuable a citizen as the man who makes two blades of grass grow in the place of one. when mr. burbank converts the prickly cactus into a thornless cactus, valuable as a forage plant, he is conferring a great benefit on the whole race by making millions of acres of desert land available for stock raising. incidentally, these wonders performed by the wizard of california will not die with mr. burbank, but will constitute the beginning of a new profession which, combined with forestry, will offer a tempting field for the rising generation. common timber trees and their wood evergreens or coniferous trees _white pine._--one of our most beautiful evergreens. growing throughout the north-eastern and lake states, and formerly forming dense forests from the bay of fundy to minnesota. needles grow in groups of five of a light bluish green from three to four inches long. seeds are "winged" and grow in cones five or six inches long protected by the scales. cones mature at end of second season. wood soft, light coloured, free from sap, easily worked and used in many trades, for pattern making, various parts of houses, toys, crates, boxes, etc. becoming very scarce, owing to the destruction of the great forests. on the pacific coast its place in construction is taken by the sugar pine and other woods. _yellow and georgia pine._--two trees whose wood is frequently confounded by the woodworker. georgia pine is a tree with very long needles, from twelve to fifteen inches, and in groups of three. cones from six to ten inches. a southern tree found from texas to virginia. the tops of the young trees, like green fountains, are used in many places as christmas decorations. wood hard and resinous, used for flooring, interior finish, and decks. _yellow pine._--a southern tree with needles in groups of two, sometimes three, about three inches long. cones small, about two inches. wood hard and used for the same purposes as georgia pine. _red pine, norway pine, canadian pine._--three names for the same tree. grows throughout the north, from nova scotia to western minnesota. cut principally in canada. needles, two in a group, about five inches long. cones about two inches long, mature the second season. wood reddish in colour, hard, and used for piles, spars, bridges, etc. _pitch pine._--a name locally given to several different trees. the wood is soft, brittle, resinous, and is used for fuel and for making charcoal, rarely for rough building. needles in groups of three and three to five inches long. sometimes called scrub pine, although it often reaches a height of fifty to sixty feet. the cones, two or three inches long, often remain on the tree for years. it is the tree found along the atlantic coast from maine to georgia, growing in sand, in swamps, and among rocks. to be recommended for its persistence in living under the most trying conditions, even if its wood is not very valuable. in the construction of a frame house several kinds of wood are needed. first, the framework of rough-sawed spruce. second, a better wood, like white pine, for door and window frames. third, the outside covering. this may be clapboards, for which nothing has ever approached white pine, although it is necessary now to find substitutes. the roof, if shingled, may be of cedar, or cypress--some spruce is used to-day. for interior work, floors may be spruce, white pine, cypress, yellow pine, or hard woods. for finish or trim, many woods are used such as white wood, oak, yellow pine, cypress, cherry, and bay wood. _spruce._--this wood has been used almost exclusively in the past for framing, but great inroads have been made in the supply, especially by the manufacturers of paper pulp. consequently the cost is increasing rapidly. three varieties are recognized, white, black, and red. white spruce is a distinctly northern tree, delighting in the cold climate of canada, but dipping down along the maine coast. it is a beautiful, straight, and tall specimen, frequently found as high as a hundred and fifty feet. the needles are only three quarters of an inch, or less, in length and clothe the twigs in an entire circle. cones two inches long, bearing under their scales tiny winged seeds. it is used often as an ornamental evergreen for lawns, and for this purpose probably has no equal, as, unlike the norway spruce, it holds its foliage, dense and green, close to the ground. the wood is weak, knotty, and soft, but suitable for rough framing. _black spruce._--another northern tree, rarely found in forests below the canadian border, except around the great lakes. leaves about same size as in white spruce, but cones smaller, more oval in form, and one inch and a half long. spruce gum is obtained from this tree, which has a more pleasant odour than white spruce. wood used for pulp making, framing, and, quartered, for sounding-boards of musical instruments. _red spruce._--a close relative of the black and sometimes confused with it, but it is a distinct tree, reaching its best development several hundred miles south of the black spruce, in the appalachian mountains, and extending as far south as north carolina; while the black variety barely crosses the borders of canada into maine. needles about half an inch long. cones small, sometimes barely an inch and a half. they fall the first winter, while those of the black remain on the tree often for years. wood is similar to black spruce but lighter in weight. used for pulp, framing, and sounding-boards. _hemlock._--the most dainty of the eastern evergreens, with little cones about three quarters of an inch long, and needles half an inch. found throughout the country east of the mississippi and in some sections used for christmas decorations. a slow growing tree with wood of little value, being brittle, light, and difficult to work, as it has a crooked grain and is liable to splinter. the tree makes up in beauty what it lacks as a timber producer and its bark is rich in tannin. _larch, tamarack or hackmatack._--local names for the same tree. drops all its needles in the fall, like a broad-leaved tree, but the beauty of the brilliant new green needles in the spring is a sight worth going miles to see. found from the lake states north to the arctic circle. needles an inch long. cones from one half to three quarters. wood is heavy, hard and strong. used in ship building, for telegraph poles, posts, and ties. _fir, balsam fir, balsam._--on all firs the cones stand upright on the branches, while on spruces they hang down. as these two trees are often intermingled, this is an easy way to distinguish them. the needles of the firs are also blunt, while those of the spruces are sharply pointed. this is the so-called christmas tree and balsam pillows are made from its needles. needles about three quarters of an inch long, cones almost black in colour, from two to four inches long. wood of little value, being soft and weak. the sap in the form of gum called canada balsam is used in medicine, and is obtained from blisters on the bark or by cutting the bark. _southern cypress, bald cypress, deciduous cypress._--found growing naturally in the swamps of the south, but will grow in drier soil, if planted in the north. several fine specimens in the parks of philadelphia, new york, and brooklyn. the lower part broadens out near the ground into a conical base and in its native swamps the roots send up peculiar formations known as cypress knees. leaves very delicate and feathery, not often over half an inch long, cones round and an inch in diameter. drops its needles like the larch each fall. wood very durable in damp situations, valuable for flooring and interior finish. _red cedar._--the common cedar of the united states, found in all sections where trees can grow at all, in sand, swamp, rocky hillside, and abandoned farm. reaches its greatest height in the south. wood of beautiful colour and grain, soft and not strong, easily worked, but inclined to brittleness. used in many trades; it furnished in the past the only wood for lead pencils. owing to its scarcity, substitutes are now being tried. very durable in contact with water and soil. used extensively for posts, small boats, cooperage, ties, chests, and interior finish. foliage difficult to describe, being sharp and awl-shaped in the young trees, changing in later years to a flat scale shape. very often both forms are found on the same tree. seeds are the common cedar berry, pale green in colour, about a quarter of an inch long, each berry containing two or three seeds. these are liked by the birds and they are dropped along fences frequently, so that in a few years the fences become lined with young cedar trees. _white cedar._--found in swamps along the atlantic and gulf coasts. has a more delicate foliage than red cedar, and, growing in dense thickets, is apt to be taller and straighter. the wood is light brown in colour, soft, weak, and, like red cedar, durable in moist situations. used for making shingles, for boat-building, and for the same general work as the red variety. _arbor vitæ_--called in many sections white cedar. it is an entirely different tree from the real white cedar, having decidedly flattened and very aromatic foliage. used a great deal for hedges before the days of the california privet. seed borne in a tiny cone half an inch long. large quantities are cut in the maritime provinces of canada to be made into shingles. grows sixty feet high and two feet or more in diameter. _arbor vitæ_ means tree of life, and as the bark and young twigs were at one time used medicinally, that may have been the origin of the name. wood is light, soft, coarse-grained, but, like the cedars, durable. used for ties, posts, and shingles. lvi broad-leaved trees the broad-leaved trees are more numerous as to varieties than the evergreens, and from the standpoint of leaf forms may be divided into three groups: . trees bearing simple leaves. . trees bearing compound leaves. . trees bearing doubly compound leaves. the first group is the largest, including as it does such large families as the maples, oaks, willows, poplars. the second group comes next with the well-known walnuts, hickories, ashes, and buckeyes. the third group is very small, there being but three well-known trees bearing doubly compound leaves: the honey locust, kentucky coffee tree, and hercules club. the three forms are shown at fig. . the leaf ends at the bud growing at the end of the leaf stem. all above this bud constitutes the leaf, no matter what its shape or size, and falls in the autumn, with a few exceptions. the small leaflets on the compound leaf are simply parts of a leaf, not separate leaves, as there are no buds at the point where they join the stem. the arrangement of these leaflets varies. in the buckeye and horse chestnut they radiate from a common point, while in the locust they are in parallel rows on opposite sides of the stem. [illustration: fig. . three types of leaves] in doubly compound leaves the leaflets are themselves compound, making the whole leaf very large, those of the kentucky coffee tree being three feet in length. the maples probably the best known and most common trees, especially in towns and cities. most of them grow quickly and therefore become valuable as shade trees. they do not make the most permanent trees, however, and should be planted in alternation with oaks, or other long-lived trees, for permanent shade. the seeds of all maples are winged, which helps their distribution over large areas, in the same manner as the seeds of evergreens. _sugar or rock maple._--the most valuable timber tree of the group, its wood being heavy, hard, strong, and close-grained. very light in colour and valuable for flooring and interior finish, furniture, tool handles, and bench tops. it grows throughout the eastern states, but not in all soils. very rapid in growth, so much so that in the dense forest stands, when a portion of the woods has been cut down, the young saplings cannot always withstand the wind pressure and are blown down. reaches a height in the forest of a hundred and twenty feet, but in the open is broader and more symmetrical. too much cannot be said in praise of this tree. its shade is dense and its autumn colouring superb. the sap yields maple syrup and sugar, and, finally, after it has done its work and is cut down, its wood yields lumber of the highest value, while the limbs make excellent firewood. the process of making maple sugar was learned, historians tell us, from the indians. this is probably why the process was for two or three centuries very crude. holes are bored in the tree in the late winter, as soon as the sap is brought to life by the sun, usually in march, but the time depends upon the weather. spigots are placed in the holes and pails hung under them to catch the sap. when full, they are emptied into large kettles or boilers over a fire, and the sap simply boiled down to the proper consistency. as the lumberman is making heavy inroads into the maple groves or forests, the price of maple sugar is likely to continue going up, until real maple sugar will be only a memory, unless we wake up from our dream of unlimited resources to the real facts and do something. _silver maple, white maple, soft maple._--a very common shade tree in our towns and cities. its natural section is along the mississippi, where it becomes a great tree, often a hundred feet high; but it is so easily adaptable to new conditions, grows so quickly from seed, and will stand so much hard usage that it has been very popular. there are many better trees, but this is cheap and quick growing, and in our hurried american life we build very often for the immediate future and forget the next generation. its foliage, when not blackened and spoiled by the smoke of the city, is a beautiful dark green above, and light silvery green below. the winged seeds ripen in june, may be planted before july st, and will produce young trees nearly a foot high before frost of the same season. wood not as hard as rock maple, but strong, close-grained and brittle. used to some extent in cabinet work. the winter buds are very precocious and start into life at the first sign of spring. _red or swamp maple._--found in wet places naturally, but it makes a large and satisfactory shade tree in heavy upland soil. the leaf form is somewhat like that of the silver maple, but smaller. seeds ripen before summer. the flowers are red, the leaf stems are red, and the foliage is not only the most brilliant red of all our autumn colours, but it is the first to give notice by its change of the approach of winter. it is easy to see where it got its name. wood is light in colour, similar to that of the silver maple, hard, strong, and brittle. _sycamore maple._--although frequently planted in this country as a shade tree it is, like the norway, imported from europe. _moosewood, mountain maple, and box elder_ are three small american maples which can hardly be placed among timber trees, except possibly the last. box elder or ash-leaved maple has the distinction of having a compound leaf. its wood is soft and of more value to the pulp maker than the lumberman. it is very hardy and has been used on the western prairies, where more particular trees do not thrive. the oaks perhaps as a family this group of trees is more uniformly valuable than any other found in north america. they represent all that is the best among trees, being strong, hardy, long-lived, and valuable as timber. there are oaks in europe a thousand years old, but of course we have no records that go back so far. it is a difficult tree to kill, because, when cut down or burned, a large number of healthy shoots grow from the stump or roots, and make a rapid second growth. the bark of all oaks contains tannin, and in the past our principal supply came from these trees. the old-fashioned method was to fell the tree, strip off the bark and leave the wood on the ground to decay. oak lumber is now so valuable that this waste has been largely stopped. _white oak group._--the oaks all bear simple leaves which vary greatly. they may be divided into two groups. the white oak group all bear leaves with rounded lobes, no bristles, and ripen their acorns the first fall after blossoming. they rarely bear acorns before the age of twenty years. the second group has pointed lobes, each lobe ending in a bristle and do not ripen their acorns until the end of the second season. among the first group are the white oak proper, post or iron oak, mossy cup, chestnut oak, and swamp white oak. in the second group are the red, pin, scarlet and black oak, black jack, shingle, willow, and spanish oaks. _white oak._--one of the most common and best known members of the family, slow growing, sturdy, hardy, and beautiful. acorns sweet compared with others. leaves six to eight inches long, turning to beautiful shades of red in the fall, finally to a brown, and a large proportion remaining on all winter. this tree is little affected by temporary weather changes. in the latitude of new york spring may have come and the maples be in full leaf, but the white oak shows no sign. lawns are mowed, and finally, about june st, out come the oak leaves, steadily growing without regard to late cold snaps or hot days. during the summer a prolonged drought occurs. the leaves of the maple turn yellow and fall. not so the oak; it goes right on about its business of growing green leaves and acorns, until the appointed time in the fall. the maple leaves have all fallen and the trees are ready for winter. the oak goes right on, as steadily as a clock, doing its work, apparently oblivious to such insignificant things as weather changes. this is the character of the tree throughout--steady, reliable, and strong. the wood is hard, durable, and valued in many trades. the best barrels for tight cooperage are made of it. floors and interior trim, furniture, cabinet work, ship building, and the making of farming implements and wagons are all more or less dependent on it. the mission style of furniture is made almost exclusively from it; so is office furniture. quartered oak is a form of lumber obtained by a special method of cutting. in most trees when cut into lumber may be seen a series of lines radiating from the centre, and running in almost straight lines to the outside. they are called medullary rays, and are much more in evidence in some woods than others. they are particularly noticeable in oak. these rays are plates of flattened cells, and are usually much harder than the rest of the wood. the object of quartering oak is to bring these rays to the surface of the board at as small an angle as possible, so that they will spread over the surface and give an added beauty to the grain. this is accomplished in one way by cutting the boards radially as shown in fig. (_a_). there is much waste in this method, and other methods less wasteful, but not as satisfactory, from the beauty standpoint, are shown at _b_, _c_ and _d_. [illustration: fig. . four methods of quartering] _mossy cup or bur oak._--so called from the form of the cup of the acorns. it ends in a heavy fringe which nearly covers the acorn proper--hence the name mossy cup. the leaf somewhat resembles the white oak, having rounded lobes but a different outline. wood is hard, heavy, and strong, and is used for the same purposes as white oak. found throughout the country east of the rocky mountains, but reaches its greatest development in the ohio valley. _chestnut oak._--found from maine to alabama and west to kentucky and tennessee. wood heavy, hard, strong, tough, close-grained and durable in contact with the soil. bark is strong with tannic acid. acorn, long and oval, sweet and a favourite with the squirrels. two or three varieties of this tree are recognized. _post or iron oak._--along with the black and black jack oaks found on bleak and sandy plains, especially in texas, but extends as far north as massachusetts. leaves thick, leathery, and much darker in colour than the white oak. wood used for ties, fencing and fuel. _swamp white oak._--eastern united states. favours wet localities and swamps, and reaches a height of a hundred feet. wood about as heavy as white oak, but inclined to check in seasoning. used for same general purposes as white oak. acorns sweet and white, about an inch long. _the red oak group: red oak._--tree reaches a height of a hundred and forty feet. found from maine to georgia and as far west as kansas. grows more rapidly than white oak and has smoother bark. acorns large with a shallow cup and very bitter. wood darker than white oak, of a reddish brown colour, heavy, hard, and strong. used for furniture and interior finish. has a tendency to check in drying. _scarlet oak._--leaf more deeply indented than red oak. a very tall and beautiful tree with wood slightly heavier than red oak, strong and hard. acorns, like all of this group, remain on the tree the first winter, ripening the second fall. they are smaller than those of the red oak and the cup is not as shallow. it encloses a third or more of the nut, whose kernel is white. the name is taken from the brilliant colouring of the fall foliage. _pin oak._--leaf form similar to scarlet oak and often mistaken for it by the beginner, but is smaller, and other features of the tree distinguish it. the acorns are small, about half an inch long, with a broad flat base, light brown and striped. the branching habit of the tree gives it the name. the great number of small slender branches, especially in winter, is very noticeable. sometimes called swamp spanish oak because of its fondness for wet places. wood brown, hard, strong, and heavier than red and scarlet oaks. it is being planted largely now as a permanent shade tree and grows rapidly during its earlier years. _black oak, yellow oak._--name derived from the bark, which is very dark. yellow is the colour of the inner bark, hence the second name. foliage varies, is thick, leathery and shiny, of a dark green colour. acorn is smaller than the red oak and often striped. has yellow and bitter kernel. wood as heavy as pin oak, forty-four pounds to the cubic foot, strong and hard. used for fuel and for a yellow dye made from the inner bark. _black jack or barren oak._--often found in company with the black oak on wind-swept, barren plains. leaf very coarse and crude in both form and texture, having three lobes and a tapering base. these two trees frequently mix or hybridize, and, while not always things of beauty, they grow where other trees cannot live and should be recommended for their hardiness. wood even heavier than black oak, but, as the tree is small, it is used chiefly for firewood and the making of charcoal. _willow oak._--foliage resembles the weeping willow. a southern tree, but will grow as far north as new york. acorns ripen at end of second season, are small, with flat, wide base and shallow cup. kernel yellow and bitter. wood reddish brown, heavy, and strong. tree is popular in the south as an interesting shade tree. _laurel oak._--name derived from the leaves, which are in shape similar to the mountain laurel, but lack its shiny lustre. a tree of the middle west or ohio valley. acorns, small and half enclosed by the cup; ripen second season. wood heavy and hard, checks in drying. used for shingles and rough construction. sometimes called shingle oak. lvii trees with simple leaves beech is a beautiful tree with light gray bark, handsome foliage and valuable hard wood. the seed is buckwheat-shaped, small and sweet. one of our most handsome shade trees, and although only one species is native to the united states, nurserymen have developed special varieties known as weeping beech and purple or copper beech. the european beech is also frequently planted on lawns and in parks. its foliage is darker and has indentations so shallow that the leaf apparently has only a wavy outline. wood is hard, tough, fine-grained and takes a high polish. used for the stocks of planes, handles, farming implements, and for some kinds of furniture. the beech tree is supposed to be impervious to lightning, and recent experiments show that it offers considerable resistance to an electric current. _birch._--the indentations of the beech are shallow and concave, while the birch leaf is known as double serrate, or double toothed, the teeth being themselves toothed. five varieties are known in the eastern states, black, red, yellow, white, and gray. _black birch, sweet birch._--the tree familiar to boys because of its aromatic bark, which contains salicylic acid used in treating cases of rheumatism. a large forest tree with handsome foliage, a very fine-winged seed and valuable wood. heavy, hard, fine-grained, and takes a high polish. used for wheel hubs, and the manufacture of furniture. _red birch._--found in swamps and along rivers, especially in the south. leaves smaller than black birch and wood much lighter in weight, but close-grained and strong. used for furniture and wooden ware. _yellow birch._--a northern tree, growing a hundred feet high in northern new york and canada. leaves similar to black birch, but its bark is very different. the bark of the black birch is very dark, while that of yellow birch is of a silvery, yellowish gray, characteristic birch bark. wood heavy, hard, and similar to black birch. used for the same general purposes. _white birch, canoe birch, or paper birch._--noted for its remarkable bark. white on the young trees, darker on old ones. comes off in several distinct paper-like layers. well known to ancient writers and used by them for paper. it contains a resinous oil which accounts for its water-resisting qualities so well known in the indian birch-bark canoe. the inner bark contains starch and in the extreme north it is sometimes mixed with other foods. the sap may be used for making sugar. wood is light brown and light weight but hard, strong, and close-grained. used for shoe-lasts, fuel, and spools. _gray birch, aspen-leaved birch._--sometimes called white birch. the bark is white but patched with black and does not come off in layers as readily nor separate so easily from the wood as white birch. a smaller tree with foliage that moves as freely in the wind as the aspen. leaf form very peculiar; a long thin stem, broad flat base, and long tapering outline, double serrate. a persistent little tree, very hardy and difficult to kill. wood is light and soft, close-grained but weak. used for pulp, fuel, spools, and hoops. _hop hornbeam, ironwood._--a little tree with delicate birch-like foliage and wood of great hardness. the name hop is derived from the fruit cluster bearing the seeds, which resembles the hop. the bark is in remarkable contrast to the foliage, being deeply furrowed and smooth, as if a smooth skin were drawn over powerful muscles. the wood weighs over fifty pounds to the cubic foot, is tough, close-grained, hard and will take a high polish. used for mallets, tool handles, and levers. _hornbeam or blue birch._--a small tree with dark gray or bluish bark. leaves similar to ironwood, but narrower. wood weighs forty-five pounds to the cubic foot, hard and strong, similar to ironwood and used for the same purposes. _elm, white or american._--the well-known shade tree of the north. leaf is lop-sided, one side being considerably larger than the other, double serrate. aside from being a beautiful shade tree, the wood is very valuable in several trades, being heavy, hard, strong, and tough. it does not split easily and is valued for such critical places as wheel hubs and saddles. used in cooperage, and supply nearly exhausted. _red elm, slippery elm._--red from the dark brown colour of its wood and slippery from the character of the inner bark. the slippery elm of commerce is made from this, which sufficiently explains its character. leaves are larger, coarser, and rougher than white elm and wood is heavy, hard, close-grained and tough. used for ties, fence posts, and agricultural implements. _rock elm, cork elm._--rock from the nature of the soil it is particularly fond of--rocky cliffs or hills--cork from the corky ridges which appear on the branches. a valuable timber tree but found in limited quantities. the wood is unlike the red and white elms in that it will take a high polish. hard and tough, close-grained but easily worked. used for cabinet work, farming implements, ties, and to some extent for bridge timbers. _basswood, linden._--a large timber tree of the northern states and canada. its flowers are very sweet and attract the bees to such an extent that it is sometimes called the "bee tree." it has several varieties, as the small-leaved linden of the south, the silver linden, weeping silver linden, etc. leaves are heart-shaped, serrate, and lop-sided. a valuable shade tree. wood is soft, weak, even-grained, does not split easily. the favourite wood for pyrography because of its white colour, freedom from pitch, etc. used for boxes of wagons, wooden ware, and to some extent for furniture making. _holly._--a broad-leaved evergreen. leaves and berries used as christmas decorations. a southern tree found as far north as long island. wood very light in colour, but hard and close-grained. takes a high polish. used in cabinet work and engraving. _cherry, wild or black._--the cabinet wood in common use is from this tree, although several varieties are known to botanists. the wild cherry of the roadside in the east, but a large forest tree west of the mississippi, especially from kansas to texas. wood a beautiful reddish brown, close-grained, strong, and will take a high polish. used in cabinet work, interior of houses, and for car finish. _tulip, white wood, yellow poplar._--the last name is incorrect, as the tree is not a poplar. white wood is also inaccurate, as the only part of the wood that is white is the sap wood. a member of the magnolia family found throughout the east but rare in new england. has a peculiar leaf with four points, smooth, shiny, and distinctive. flowers the size and colour of a yellow or orange-coloured tulip. wood greenish yellow, light, soft, brittle, free from knots, and inclined to warp more than white pine, for which it is now being substituted. used for many purposes, including cabinet work, interior finish, panels, etc. _sweet gum, red gum, liquid amber._--like the tulip, a large, handsome tree found throughout the east. leaves have five fingers resembling a starfish, seeds produced in seed balls about an inch in diameter. the seed itself is very small. wood a beautiful reddish brown with handsome grain, heavy but soft, brittle, weak, warps and winds badly. used to some extent in interior finish and in wood turning. _chestnut._--the well-known tree of the east. wood light and open-grained, soft, but very durable in contact with the soil, hence its use for ties and fence posts. has beautiful grain and takes a good polish. used for furniture. a fungous disease is rapidly destroying this tree in the east. _sycamore, buttonball, buttonwood._--sycamore is incorrect. this is the american plane, a near relative of the european plane tree. buttonball is derived from the shape of the seed pods, which are round, an inch or more in diameter, and stay on the tree during the winter. this is the tree which sheds part of its bark each year, giving the trunk a mottled appearance. wood is hard and heavy, has an interesting grain and takes a good polish. used for interior finish of houses. _poplar._--a large family of trees of which nine members are recognized in north america. all have light and soft woods of little value except for making boxes, packing cases and wood pulp. their value lies in hardiness, quick growth and ability to cover burned areas so as to give a forest cover in localities where other trees will not grow. the balsam poplar, or balm of gilead, formerly planted extensively as a shade tree, reaches well up into alaska, and in the yukon territory reaches a height of a hundred feet. immense forests cover hundreds of square miles. as a shade tree it possesses one or two good qualities, quick growth and an indifference to the smoke and grime of cities. it is otherwise not very desirable. _dogwood._--a small tree with brilliant flowers in the spring and bright red berries in the fall. wood heavy, hard, tough, and close-grained. used for hubs of wheels, tool handles, and mallets. broad-leaved trees with compound leaves _black walnut._--found throughout the east, most abundantly in the mississippi valley. leaves bear from fifteen to twenty-three leaflets. nut is enclosed in a green husk rich in tannic acid. wood a beautiful dark brown, sapwood light. heavy, hard, strong. takes a high polish. used in cabinet work, for furniture, inside finish, and for gunstocks. getting very scarce. _white walnut or butternut._--a smaller tree than the black walnut, the nuts being more elongated and pointed. both nuts and leaves have an odour distinctive and different from the black walnut. wood also lighter in colour, softer but takes a good polish. used for interior finish and furniture. _hickory._--nine species found in the united states. the pecan is a hickory, also the pignut, shellbark, etc. all have wood noted for its elasticity, toughness and strength. it is heavy, hard and close-grained. used for agricultural implements, wagons, carriages, axe handles, cooperage, and automobile spokes. the nuts of the various species vary greatly, from the bitter pignut to the popular pecan. _ash._--several american species, all bearing wood which is hard, strong, and elastic. coarser in grain and lighter in weight than hickory, hence more valuable for oars and baskets. the ash is a tall, clean-cut tree with beautiful foliage and bears a winged seed. the wood is valuable for carriage work, farming implements, furniture and is used for interior finish. _buckeye._--the american relative of the horse chestnut, which is a european tree. native to the mississippi valley. leaf has five or seven leaflets radiating from the end of the stem. nuts are similar to the horse chestnut in colour, but not so regular in form. wood is light in colour and weight, used in making wooden ware, pulp, wooden limbs, and occasionally for buildings. _locust._--a tree belonging to the same botanical family as the bean and pea. this is seen in its flowers, which resemble the sweet pea and are fragrant. seeds are beans borne in pods, varying in size and shape from the delicate light brown little seed of the honey locust, to the coal-black, stonelike seed of the kentucky coffee tree. _black locust, yellow locust._--found from new york south to northern georgia and west to arkansas. seed pods three or four inches long. wood yellow, heavy, hard and close-grained. the most durable wood we have in contact with the soil, used extensively for posts. _honey locust._--native to the mississippi valley, but hardy when transplanted. doubly compound leaves of great delicacy. tree has many thorns growing often in great clusters and sometimes six inches long. seeds borne in long, dark brown pods often twisted. wood reddish brown, hard, strong, coarse-grained and durable. used for wheel hubs. _kentucky coffee tree._--named from the fact that the pioneers made a coffee substitute from its black beans. a southern tree, occasionally found as far north as new york. leaves doubly compound. seeds borne in large pods shaped like a lima bean about ten inches long. wood light brown, heavy, strong and coarse-grained. checks considerably in drying, but durable and takes a good polish. the country life press, garden city, n. y. * * * * * * transcriber's note: the punctuation of illustration captions was made consistent throughout. obvious typographical errors were corrected without comment. ambiguous spellings (e.g., colour and color--both in use) and other uk-us spellings were not changed. some inconsistent hyphenation (e.g., toenail/toe-nail) was left as in the original. chapter xiv in the table of contents was wrongly shown as page , and this was changed to . likewise chapter xlv in the table of contents was wrongly shown as page , and this was changed to . book was produced from images made available by the hathitrust digital library.) the library of work and play carpentry and woodwork by edwin w. foster electricity and its everyday uses by john f. woodhull, ph.d. gardening and farming by ellen eddy shaw home decoration by charles franklin warner, sc.d. housekeeping by elizabeth hale gilman mechanics, indoors and out by fred t. hodgson needlecraft by effie archer archer outdoor sports, and games by claude h. miller, ph.b. outdoor work by mary rogers miller working in metals by charles conrad sleffel. [illustration: copyright , by underwood & underwood even a boy can learn how to make a horseshoe] working in metals by charles conrad sleffel _wide experience in practical shop work and for years instructor in metal work at the horace mann school, teachers' college, new york_ [illustration] garden city new york doubleday, page & company all rights reserved, including that of translation into foreign languages, including the scandinavian copyright, , by doubleday, page & company acknowledgment the publishers wish to acknowledge their indebtedness to the teachers college of columbia university for their courtesy in permitting certain of the photographs to be taken for this volume. contents chapter page i. introductory ii. tools work in copper iii. how to make a copper bowl iv. copper trays v. paper cutter and nut set vi. hard and soft soldering vii. candlestick, sconce, rose jar, and chalice viii. how to make a hat pin ix. how to rivet x. lamp (for electricity), with shade xi. hinges in copper or silver xii. jewel box and desk set brass work xiii. finger bowl, crumb tray, tea caddy, vase, bell and bracket, drawer pulls, etc. silver work xiv. finger rings and scarf pins xv. necklaces, brooches, bracelets xvi. spoons and picture frame xvii. watch fobs xviii. napkin rings, silver comb, belt buckles xix. enamelling the blacksmith's shop xx. blacksmithing and tools xxi. first problems in forging xxii. welding xxiii. mild steel or soft steel xxiv. hardening and tempering. tool making xxv. how to harden, soften and stretch steel xxvi. forging hand hammers xxvii. some general forging problems ornamental iron work xxviii. processes, andirons, fire tools xxix. candlesticks, hinges, iron brackets xxx. lamps, lanterns, iron kettle stand, umbrella stand xxxi. door knockers, plates, handles, etc. illustrations even a boy can learn how to make a horseshoe _frontispiece_ facing page a boy's workshop a group of boys at copper work some problems in copper and brass work made by boys boys from eleven to fourteen years of age doing metal work in the country splitting and shaping the iron in the making of andirons finishing of an ornamental window grill, and levelling up of an old dutch candlestick making an iron lamp ornamental work and the straightening and finishing of an umbrella stand working in metals i introductory "what a pretty copper box, john. where did you get it?" "i made it." "you made it?" "yes, out of sheet copper in my room last night. that's the way i spend my evenings. and such fun as it is! i enjoy every minute of the time. mother says i'd work all night if she didn't stop me. "i'd like to do something like that. do you think i could learn to do it?" "i'm sure you could. do you know the blacksmith around the corner? he taught me how to do this work, and ever so much more. he got me the tools, too. he says every boy can learn to work with metals, so i thought i'd try it. i'll take you around to see him sometime. come up to my room and i'll show my workshop and all the tools i use." "it would be mighty nice to know how to do something else besides running an elevator all day. i get so tired of that. how long would it take me to make a box like this one?" "not very long if you begin in the right way. i've worked at it only since i left school. the manual training i got there helped me to know how to handle the tools. you had that training, too, and i know it will help you. here we are, this is my workshop and bedroom. let's work here together and i'll teach you all i know: how to use the tools and just what to do." so began two boys to do work that one had done--metal work which any boy can do if he will but take the trouble to get the tools and have the patience to learn the way step by step. "you don't need a large room for your workshop, you see," said john. "the table here is my work bench and all the tools can be put into a box out of the way when you are not using them. "here are my sketches of the tools one needs to make almost anything out of copper, brass, or silver. the blacksmith made the drawings for me and taught me how to make some of the tools myself. he says every boy should learn to make his own tools and i shan't be satisfied until i can make them all. then i can make them as i need them and only those that fit the work best. but i had to buy most of them to start with. here they are." ii tools these are my shears. they are sometimes called jewellers' snips. i use them for cutting copper, wire, and my designs. you can buy them at any hardware store. but be sure to get a good pair, as they are needed for so many things. [illustration] i do all my measuring with a steel square. you see it takes the place of a two-foot rule. it's useful for squaring up, too. see, it has the / , / , / , / , and -in. spaces. my dividers are my compasses. i draw circles, mark pieces, and find centres with them. the pliers are used to twist the binding wire and to hold the metal when it is to be heated, or soldered, etc. [illustration] [illustration] you can get a wooden block like this anywhere. hard wood is best. this block is × × ins. you see, i cut out a hollow bowl-shaped place in the top. when i want to work a flat piece of copper into a rough bowl shape, i hammer it into the depression. the opposite end of the block, which is flat, is useful in many ways, too. [illustration: bench vise] i couldn't get along without my bench vise. here it is; made of metal. it can be fastened to a table as well as to a bench. it holds any tool used for shaping and also the metal when i wish to file it. [illustration] this piece of / -in. hexagonal steel, in. long, tapered at one end down to / -in., is a punch for making or pressing holes in copper or silver. the size of the hole depends upon the length you drive the punch into the metal. [illustration] the centre-punch is made like this one, but the end is ground to a point. [illustration: raising hammer] here are my hammers. i have three and a wooden mallet. the raising hammer is used for many things which you will learn as you get on. you see one end is somewhat rounded. you can pound away on the copper with this hammer and have no fear of driving holes into the metal. it's the first hammer i use to shape up the metal bowl with. the shaping or driving hammer is flat at one end and rounded at the other. its bent head is shaped so that you can use it in places where a straight headed hammer won't go. it's the only hammer to use when you work on the outside of boxes or bowls to shape them up. [illustration: shaping hammer] sometimes lumps are left on the surface of the copper after the raising hammer has been used. these are smoothed away with the planishing hammer. its broad end flattens these rough places and makes the surface perfectly level before going on with the work. [illustration: planishing hammer] [illustration: wooden mallet] a wooden mallet is often used in place of the heavier hammer. if a light stroke is needed it can be used without danger of marring the metal, as wood is so much softer than the metal itself. you'll need some files to reduce the metal to certain sizes. i have four: a bastard, -in.; a mill cut, -in.; a half round mill cut, and one round / -in. mill cut. then i have one half dozen jewellers' files of different sizes. supply houses will always tell you the best kind to buy. [illustration: cold chisel] the cold chisel is used in many places for cutting off material, especially for metals that are too heavy for the shears. [illustration: gouge] a carpenter's gouge chisel will be found useful for cutting impressions in wooden blocks. [illustration: drill press] the drill press is used to bore holes into the copper or silver when you wish to rivet or saw. you will need a half dozen drills for your work. the / -in. drills are the size i like best. with a jewellers' saw frame like this you can cut any design out of copper or silver. the fine saws are very cheap and one will last you a long time if you take care of it. [illustration: jewellers' saw frame] [illustration: round stake] [illustration: round stake anvil] here are the tools i use to finish shaping my bowls on. this round top stake is put into my bench vise, where it is held tight. then i put my bowl on it after i have shaped it as much as i can on the hard wood block. i can then go on shaping it as i choose, but if the bowl is very deep you must use the anvil stake instead of the round top stake. [illustration: combination stake] here is a tool which is a combination of anvil stake and riveting tool. i use it for drawing out pieces of copper into different shapes; flattening round pieces, rounding up flat ones, and for riveting pieces of metal together, as you must do when you make a piece of work like my box. [illustration] here is a little fire screen i made myself. you need one, you know, to put your metal in, at times, for annealing and soldering. it's a safe way to prevent the blaze burning the table or setting fire to anything. i take two pieces of board, each × × / ins. (any kind of lumber will do). nail the two -in. edges of the boards together, at right angles to each other. nail this to a base and line the whole inside with asbestos. you can place any piece of metal you wish to heat in this corner and direct a flame upon it with perfect safety. all the heat i need comes from a gas burner. here i have a bunsen burner, and for such work as i do on rings, scarf pins, hat pins, etc., or for any work that doesn't need lots of heating in the process, the bunsen burner will do. but for annealing, which you have to do when you make bowls, or for soldering, when you make boxes, you must have a stronger flame. then i use the gas range in the kitchen or the bellows blower and blow pipe. if you happen to be where you can't get a gas flame, an alcohol lamp with a mouth blow pipe can be used. [illustration: bunsen burner] [illustration: bellows] [illustration: blow pipe] fill the alcohol lamp with denatured alcohol (bought at any drug store). light it. with the large end of the blow pipe in your mouth and the small end about / in. above and a little to the right of the flame, blow gently. this little blue flame will give you heat enough to solder small pieces. even a small wood fire would give you heat enough to anneal any size pieces you wish. "must i learn to make all these tools before beginning?" "oh, no, you'd better buy your tools; they don't cost very much. then we can start to make something right away. the first thing you must do is to design the piece of work you are going to make. i made a bowl first." "but i can't design." "neither could i when i began. you won't find it hard after you have once made a start." "let's begin now, john, i want to make something." [illustration] "i know you do," said john. "that's the way i felt. now, i'm the teacher and you must do as i tell you until you can plan for yourself. here are pictures of a lot of things we can choose from: bowls, boxes, trays, etc. if a boy can make all these models he can go on and make nearly anything in copper, or even silver, he would like to make. here are the bowl designs i have drawn. of course there are bowls of different shapes, and some have covers to them. but we will try to get the shape that's most pleasing. let's take this wrapping paper and draw a number of shapes on it, keeping the diameter and depth of each bowl the same. this model is ins. in diameter and - / ins. deep. let's make all our drawings of bowls that size." [illustration: bowls] "which do you like best?" "i like the first one." "now that we've decided on the size and shape of the bowl, i must tell you something about the copper to be used. all sheet copper is sold by number, the higher the number the thinner the metal. number is a good size to use for most bowls and boxes. i use size for mine. if you want a bowl to be lighter, use size or . you can buy the sheet copper at any hardware store." [illustration: this boy has a well equipped shop--he is just finishing a copper bowl. you see his vise, shears, mallet, hammers.] "now you know how to make your design and you know something, too, about the tools and copper in general. we are ready now to begin the bowl." work in copper iii how to make a copper bowl here are the tools and the material that we need to make our first piece of work: _material:_ sheet of copper, gauge. powdered pumice stone. _tools:_ hard wood block, dividers, shears, round headed hammer, planishing hammer, round top stake, mallet, files. [illustration] _directions:_ take the sheet of copper, and with the dividers mark on the copper a circle having a diameter a little longer than the contour of your bowl design. cut this circle out with your shears. with the round headed hammer, using the rounded end, beat the metal disc into the hollow of the wooden block until it takes on a fairly even bowl shape. keep turning the metal with the left hand while you hammer it with the right. [illustration: wood block] you soon have a rough shaped bowl full of bumps and wrinkles around the outer edge. [illustration: the long even buckles are easily hammered out; the short, sharp ones are the kind that cause the cracks] [illustration] these wrinkles must come because the circumference of the metal disc decreases as it takes on the bowl shape. so long as these wrinkles are long regular curves, they will work out all right. if they should take short, sharp shapes there is danger of the metal splitting. in order to avoid this be sure to keep the wrinkles hammered out flat as you work along. [illustration: smoothing surface of bowl with the planishing hammer] if you went on hammering too long after your bowl is shaped, the bowl would crack or perhaps break, for hammering leaves copper hard and springy. so you must soften it before you can safely hammer any more. to do this i hold the bowl over a gas range until it is red all over, then i plunge it into cold water. this heating to soften up the copper is called annealing. repeat the hammering until the bowl takes on the shape of the design. [illustration] [illustration: in this way one can get the shape desired] now take your round top stake and put it into the vise. place the bowl over the round top stake, and with the planishing hammer, beat the surface until it is perfectly smooth, driving the metal just hard enough to flatten the bumps made by the hammering in the wooden block. if carefully done the surface will be true and bright and covered over with brilliant facets. a skillful hammer-man can really drive the metal in any direction he may wish. in this way you make a bowl out of one piece of copper. the top of the bowl will be ragged. cut this rough edge with a pair of shears. file the top with a smooth file until it is perfectly true. a good test to make sure of this is to lay the bowl down on a plate of glass, or hold it up against the window pane. if there are still any tiny openings left in the edge the light will be easily seen through them. more filing must be done until no light comes through from the smallest space. this done, take a piece of emery cloth and rub the edge of the bowl until the file marks disappear. if you lap the cloth over the edge your rubbing will leave a rounded edge, which is just the finish it should have. [illustration: trimming off the top of the bowl] [illustration: marking the edge of the bowl] _to flatten the bottom of a bowl:_ turn the bowl upside down on a bench. with a pair of dividers find the centre of the bottom of the bowl. this is done by placing one leg of the dividers against the side of the bowl and with the other making a light scratch as near the centre as you can. change the position of the dividers to the opposite side and do the same, but be careful that the scratch is light. repeat this until you have done it on the four sides. where these lines cross is the centre. with one leg of the dividers on the centre draw a circle having a diameter of about two inches. take a wooden mallet and strike down on the centre of the circle. this will flatten the bottom. work from both sides of the circle and keep the rounding edge just touching the circle made by the dividers. if the strokes are too heavy the bottom will bend in like the dotted lines in the sketch. [illustration: flatten the bottom] in that case, turn the bowl up and hammer from the inside. the bowl is now ready for polishing. mix some powdered pumice stone with water. with a woollen cloth that has been wet and then dipped into the mixture, rub the bowl. this both cleans and polishes and at the same time gives a beautiful lustre to the surface of the metal. iv copper trays how to make copper trays (used for pins, hair pins, cards, etc.). ( ) round. ( ) square or oblong. [illustration: round tray] _material:_ piece of copper about ins. square, no. gauge. a hard wood block, × × ins. thick. _tools:_ carpenters' gouge chisel, dividers, steel punch, shears, round peg of wood, ins. long and in. in diameter. [illustration] _design:_ take a large sheet of plain paper. draw on it a -in. circle. using the same centre, draw a -in. circle. this gives you the plan or top view of the tray. below this view on the same sheet, draw the elevation, or edge view of the tray. you can make the tray as deep in the centre as you wish. let's make this one / in. deep, that's a good proportion. [illustration: hard wood peg] this is what we call a working drawing. if you are pleased with the design, you can go right on with the work, if not, you can change it to suit. you can see by the design that the tray is made by driving the centre of this square plate of copper down into a depression. in order to do this we must make a mould the exact size and shape of the tray centre. this is what the square hard wood block is used for. [illustration] [illustration] take your hard wood block. draw diagonal lines across one face. where these lines intersect is the centre. with your dividers, using this centre, draw a -in. circle. place the carpenters' chisel anywhere on the circle and strike with a hammer, driving the chisel down into the wood about / in. do this all around the circle. gouge out the loose wood until you have cleaned out the whole depression, being careful not to go below / in. in depth (the depth of your design). smooth this up nicely with sand-paper. the mould is now ready for the metal plate. with the steel punch, make holes in each corner of the copper plate about / in. from the edge and just large enough to fit the wire nails. place this plate over the mould so that the centre of the plate comes right over the centre of the mould. fasten the four corners down with the wire nails. to drive the metal into the depression we must use something softer than a steel hammer. a hard wood peg has been found to do this best. cut a piece about in. long from the end of a broom handle. round one end up, using a file or a carpenters' chisel to do so. [illustration] place the rounded end of the peg on the circle of the copper plate and, with a hammer, drive the copper into the depression below it. as constant hammering hardens copper so that it ceases to respond to the blows, it is necessary to soften up the metal by annealing as the work goes on. take the sheet off the block. to do this, place the point of the chisel under the copper sheet close to the nail head and pry the nails out, lifting both copper and nail up at the same time. after annealing, nail the copper plate in the same place as before. with the wooden peg continue driving until you fill the depression, at the same time flattening all parts of the metal that may push up. be careful not to mar the copper at any time. when everything is perfectly flat and smooth take it off as before. we are now ready to draw the -in. circle on the copper. the centre for this circle is the centre of the depression; and that is found with the dividers in the same way as you found the centre for the bottom of the bowl. make the circle on the copper. with the shears cut along a little on the outside of this line. smooth up and round the edges of the tray with a mill file. rub out file marks with a little piece of emery cloth. if the hammering has been uneven some parts of the copper will have stretched more than other parts and the tray will not lie flat when placed on a table. to level this up, place the tray top side down upon a bench or table and strike gently with a mallet on the surface. holding the mallet near the head one can control the blows and be able to strike gently. but if it is held toward the end of the handle the blows will not be uniform. this applies to all hammers, whether of wood or steel. you will notice as you do your hammering the high spots will settle down and gradually flatten. the tray is now ready for cleaning and polishing. this is done in the same way as you treated the bowl. _decoration:_ round trays may be decorated in many simple ways by drilling holes in the rim, and then sawing out designs to suit one's fancy, or they may be notched at intervals. nothing is more decorative though, than the embossed or repoussé design, made by beating from the back and raising the metal on the face above the level. one of the designs given here shows the embossed, and the other shows a combination of the embossed and sawed out work. _the value of the mould:_ it may seem to you like a lot of work to make a mould just for this round tray, but it can be used many times for making this kind of tray and also for trays of similar shape, like bowl covers, etc. most of the jewellery nowadays is made in moulds, wood, steel, or lead. copper, silver, and gold medals, pins, rings, tea and dinner sets are all made by the mould or die method. this mould you have just made is only a simple one; however, complex ones are made in the same way. the skill all lies in making a very good design first and then in making a very smooth mould to fit the design. after one or two trials it comes easy enough. the chapter at the end of the book will explain die and mould making in modern copper, silver, and goldsmith shops. square tray _material:_ copper, - / × - / ins. no. gauge. _tools:_ shears, square, bench vise, round hard wood peg; dividers, copper vise jaws. _design:_ determine first whether the tray is to be oblong or square. this material makes a tray - / × - / in. draw this size oblong on a sheet of paper. the rim of the tray should be / in. wide. draw an inner line all around, / in. from the outside. below this draw your elevation, or edge view, showing the depth of the tray. in this design it is / in. deep. [illustration] first see that your - / × - / -in. piece of copper is squared. now draw your inner rectangle on the metal. to do this, set the dividers / in., and with one leg against the edge of the copper, draw all around the four sides, marking the lines on the metal. you now have a flat sheet marked ready for bending. place the sheet of copper between the vise jaws, the inner line even and on a line with the vise. [illustration] the hard wood peg should be cut to a flat tapered end. this flat end of the peg is held at an angle of about ° against the copper plate, just above the vise jaw and against the line of the rectangle. with the mallet drive gently. by doing this the body of the tray is pushed in, but the rim is kept straight in the vise. repeat this all around. you'll have a tray like the sketch. if the body of the tray is not deep enough put it into the vise again and keep driving it until you get the depth you want. the inner corners will be found to be rounded, as they should be. round off the outside corners to match. file the edges round and finish with an emery cloth, clean and polish as explained before. v paper cutter and nut set let's make a paper cutter like this sketch. we can draw the design on paper first and then cut it out. here is what we need to make it. [illustration] paper cutter _material:_ heavy copper, no. gauge, inches long by - / inches wide. _tools:_ drill press and drills, jewellers' saw frame, cold chisel, files, vise, emery cloth, few wire nails ( / in.) two blocks of hard wood, one, × - / × - / ins., and the other, × × / ins. [illustration] cut out the design and paste it on the copper plate. if our shears could cut copper as heavy as this we would have little trouble to cut our design out. but the shears can't do this work, so we have to put the copper into the vise and cut the design out with a cold chisel and hammer. place the copper into the vise with the line of design to be cut flush with the top of the vise. with hammer and chisel, cut along this line. the back part of the vise will act as a shear and help in the cutting and will prevent the copper breaking away and leaving the edge rough. when this is done, place the paper knife in the vise and file all the edges smooth. now that it's cut out and smoothed up we are ready to saw out the design in the handle. to do this drill holes in the design as a starting point for the sawing. take the drill press and put a / -in. drill into the chuck. drill a hole in any part of the design. take the jewellers' saw frame and fasten one end of the small saw into one of the legs of the frame; push the loose end through the hole made by the drill. fasten the loose end to the other leg of the saw frame so the saw is fairly tight. in order to saw properly, we must have something to support the piece while we are working on it. this is best done by taking a block of wood × × / ins. and cutting out a v-shaped notch in one end. place this in the vise, or nail one end of it to a bench so that the v-shaped end will extend over the bench or vise to be free to work upon. put the handle to be sawed out on this block so that it will be supported on both sides of the parts to be sawed out (see sketch of work in vise). the saw will play freely up and down in the notch. all sawed work is done in the same way. [illustration] [illustration: block for sawing metal] _to file the edges sharp:_ take your hard wood block, × - / × - / ins.; fasten the cutter down tight by driving two short wire nails half their length into the wood at each end of the cutter. place the cutter between these nails, bend the ends over, and fasten down (see sketch). place all into the vise jaw and tighten it up. with a rough flat file, file the edges down, working from the centre line both ways. when one side is filed about half the thickness of the copper, bend the nails, take off the cutter. reverse it, put it back, and file as before. do this until the edges become sharp. [illustration: file the edges sharp] to finish this piece of work as it should be done, we must do some draw filing. the draw filing is done in this way: take hold of both ends of the flat file, the handle in one hand and the end of the file in the other. stand lengthwise of the piece. place the file flat down on the blade with the teeth of the file pointing in the same direction as the blade. push it from you and pull it toward you, at the same time pressing down on the blade. this is draw filing and it is the only way to make a piece of metal true, and free from the marks of the cross filing which was done in the beginning. repeat this on the other side until the whole paper cutter including the handle is smooth. wrap a piece of emery cloth around a block and rub all over the surface. polish and finish as before described. nut set: bowl, plates, and spoon [illustration] a very beautiful nut set consisting of a bowl, four plates, and a nut spoon or a shovel, can be made out of copper. one uses the same tools to make this set as were used for the copper bowl, and the work of making it is done in much the same way. _material:_ -in. disc of no. copper (bowl). four -in. discs (for plates). piece of copper × ins. (no. ). [illustration: flat-iron] take the -in. disc and hammer it into the desired bowl shape, on the hard wood block. the plate should be hammered up in the same way, keeping the depression in the centre of the plates about / in. deep. a very beautiful finish can be made on these bowls and plates by the use of the round end of the raising hammer and a flat-iron. place the handle of the iron between your knees, face up. put the bowl or plate, face up on the flat-iron and go over every part with the rounded end of the hammer. this produces a surface covered with oval facets, giving a mottled effect. the edges of the bowl and plates may be left straight or they may be rounded, according to the design. nut spoon [illustration] draw the design on paper. cut the design out and paste it on the copper. this piece of no. copper is too heavy to be cut with the shears, so it must be placed in the vise. see that the outline is even with the top of the vise jaws. with the cold chisel and hammer cut along the top of the vise as you did when making the paper knife. now you have a shovel-shaped metal of the same thickness all over. where the handle joins the bowl the metal should be left thicker than in any other place, otherwise the spoon will bend in the using. to thin out the metal of the bowl, hammer it. begin where the handle joins the bowl and thin out to the edge. the handle is shaped by working from the bowl out toward the handle end, constantly widening and flattening it. cut off the surplus metal, keeping to the original design. the handle may be left plain or some simple sawed out design may be put on. file up, rounding the edges off so that the spoon feels smooth and is comfortable to handle. place the whole on a hard wood block and beat the bowl and handle into shape. many nut spoons have designs sawed out in the bowl to lighten the weight. [illustration] vi hard and soft soldering soldering is a process of joining two metals together. it is not hard to learn to do. if you are careful when you do the work to have the materials to be used perfectly clean, you may be sure of success, for, after all, it's one of the easiest and simplest of all the operations done with metals. hard soldering _material:_ . borax: bought in lumps, wrapped in tin foil, or pulverized. [illustration] . borax slate: a square piece of slate with a small depression in one side. any piece of clean slate will do. this is used to grind the lump borax, or to mix the pulverized borax to a pasty condition on. . solder: silver solder, sometimes called hard solder. it can be bought by the sheet in large or small quantities. bunsen burner, or either one of the following: blowpipe and foot bellows with gas flame, a blacksmiths' fire with coke or charcoal. _directions:_ the parts of the metals to be joined should, first of all, be scraped or filed bright. this prepares them best for the solder. take a lump of borax, grind it up and mix with a little water, on the slate, until it is like a paste. take a sheet of silver solder, cut a number of slits lengthwise down the sheet and then cut them crosswise. you will have a number of pieces about / in. square. these bits are dropped into the borax solution until they are completely covered with the paste. with a camels' hair brush, wash the edges of the metal to be joined, with the solution of the borax. tie the pieces together with an iron binding wire, taking care to have the edges to be joined close together and in the proper position. if you don't, the solder will not fill up all the openings and cracks, and parts will be left unsoldered. now, wash all around the joint with the borax solution. place bits of solder at intervals along the joint, fairly close. warm the work gently in the flame. this drives off the water in the borax solution. when the borax is quite dry in the joint direct a stronger flame over the whole work. heat it gradually, but be careful that no part of the metal, except that around the joint, becomes red-hot, and that both sides of the joint get red-hot at the same time. if you don't guard this, the solder will climb to the hotter side and leave the other, and the edges will not unite. cool it off in water and file the joint perfectly smooth. soft soldering for mending teakettles, tin cans, tin cups, or anything made of tin, galvanized iron, or lead. _material:_ lead solder, comes in small bars. flux ( .) resin and sweet oil. ( .) muriatic acid. ( .) tallow candle. _tool:_ soldering iron (can be made out of a piece of half-inch round copper.) _how to solder:_ soft solder is a mixture of tin and lead in even proportions. this solder melts at a very low temperature. that is why we can do the work with the soldering iron. i find i can solder many things at home with the soft solder, and i'm going to tell you how i mended a leak in the teakettle the other day. first, i took a pocket knife and cleaned all around the hole or leak, scraping the dirt off both inside and out. then i mashed a little resin up fine and mixed a little sweet oil with it. then i washed inside and outside of this leak with the mixture. after heating my soldering iron in a stove (any kind of fire will do) i took a bar of solder, held it over the leak, and melted off a bit with the hot iron. you can make the solder flow over the leak by pressing the iron right on the hole. you see, the heat of the iron melts the solder and at the same time it heats the tin hot enough to make the solder cling to it. before the part got cold i rubbed off the oil and resin with a woollen cloth. this left the work nicely cleaned. you can mend any leak in anything made of tin, in this way. galvanized iron utensils are soldered in exactly the same way, but you must use muriatic acid in place of the resin and sweet oil. but if you wish to solder anything made of lead or pewter a tallow candle is rubbed over the place to be mended, instead of resin and sweet oil or muriatic acid. in every other way the work is just the same. but lead, you know, melts at a very low temperature, so you must be careful when working on it that your soldering iron is just hot enough to melt the solder and not hot enough to melt the lead. and now i am going to tell you how you can make your own soldering iron out of copper. how to make a small soldering iron _material:_ a piece of / -in. round copper, ins. long, a piece of no. wire, ins. long, or a piece of light telephone or telegraph wire will do. some soft solder. resin and sweet oil. small piece of clean tin. manufactured fluid for soldering (used sometimes in place of muriatic acid). _tools:_ punch, vise, file, hammer. [illustration: soldering iron] place the end of the copper rod in the fire and heat it red-hot. take it out of the fire and punch a hole about / in. from the end of the rod, large enough to allow the no. wire to go through. push the wire through this hole until half is on one side and half is on the other. bend the wire close up to the sides to form the handle. in order to make this rigid, place the rod into the jaws of the vise and pinch the wire into the copper rod. this prevents any swinging motion. take hold of both ends of the wire with the pincers and twist them close to the copper rod. this makes a good handle. heat the copper end of the rod red-hot, and with a hammer flatten it to a four-sided tapering end about one inch long and ending in a blunt point. (see picture.) cool off in water and file the end of soldering iron smooth. now it must be tinned. on your piece of tin place some soft solder, oil, and resin. heat the soldering iron hot enough to melt the solder, rubbing it up and down on the tin, mixing all together. do this on all four sides, and in a little while you'll find the solder has covered the end of the soldering iron. when this is done the iron is ready to be used. vii candlestick, sconce, rose jar, and chalice there are many forms of candle holders. perhaps the one we are all most familiar with is the candlestick. before the days of lamps and electricity the candle was everywhere. many different designs of candlesticks have come down to us. some were large, some small, some plain, while others were highly decorated. but however much the designs vary, there are many points that all have in common. there is the base, large or small, and a cylindrical shaft which rises from the centre of the base. this holds the candle. the drip pan is fastened to this shaft close to the top. it catches the wax as the candle melts. handles are sometimes soldered on, and sometimes the candlestick is made without one. they are attached to the rim or to the shaft. candlestick _material:_ disc of copper, no. , ins. in diameter. one piece × - / ins., no. , (for stem). disc, ins. in diameter (drip pan). one piece, / × ins. long, no. , (for handle). [illustration] _tools:_ hard wood block, raising hammer, smooth file, dividers, saw, round wood peg, / × ins. _directions:_ beat the copper disc into a saucer shape, for the base. take the sheet of copper for the stem, fold it around the wooden peg till the edges come together. scrape and solder the joint with silver solder. [illustration] _drip pan:_ take the small disc; with the raising hammer, curve it slightly to make a drip pan. with the dividers, describe a circle / in. in diameter in the centre of the drip pan. cut out this centre circle and make it fit tightly on the stem. push it down about one inch, scrape the stem, and solder the drip pan to it. [illustration: shaping the base] [illustration] _handle:_ a strip of copper / × in. long. cut a tapering slip off each side so that one end will measure / in. and the other / in. shape with the fingers over the round peg (place the peg in the vise to do this) until you have the shape you wish (see design). the wide end of the handle should fit down on the outside of the rounding part of the base, and the other end against the stem under the drip pan. bore a hole in each end and rivet the handle in place. if a round handle is desired, take a strip of copper / in. wide and - / ins. long, shape round with the fingers. scrape and solder at the joints, and then solder on the edge of the base. place and finish up each part as described. this candle design can be greatly varied. it can be made taller, shorter, with various kinds of handles, or with no handle at all. designs for night candle holder [illustration] this kind of candle holder, or night light, is made to hold a short, thick candle about ins. in diameter, which will burn from to hours. a round base supports the candle, and a shade with a handle on the back is fastened to the base. it can be adjusted so that the candle burns freely all night, while the shade protects the eyes from the light. nothing is more convenient than one of these holders, for summer homes or for camping. _material:_ brass, no. , - / × ins. for reflector. - / × / ins. for cylinder. -in. disc for base. no. , × / ins. for handle. _directions:_ picture shows a small night candle made of brass. cut out a -in. disc. bend the - / × / -in. strip to fit it. solder the two ends of the ring and make it perfectly round. be careful when rounding it up not to stretch it larger than the disc. push disc into the ring flush with the bottom. solder the bottom into the ring. draw the outline of the reflector on the - / × -in. piece and cut away the corners. bend it to fit the holder. it should cover about one half of the circle. solder the reflector on. soft solder is strong enough for this work. now bend the handle piece according to the sketch. rivet or solder it to the back of the reflector. polish and finish. night candle holder the ordinary tallow or wax candle is used in this night candle holder. you will notice from the sketch that the general style is much like that of the small holder. however, in this design, a small cup or stand to fit the candle is soldered on to the base, a little toward the front. _material:_ no. brass--a -in. disc. × / ins., for band to go around the disc. reflector, × ins. cup, / × - / ins., and handle piece, × / in. [illustration] the reflectors are sometimes left plain, though the facets made by a flat placed hammer reflect the light when the candles are lighted and soften the light by day. the greater the reflecting power of the surface, the better is the effect. if each part is carefully filed and finished before they are all put together there will be nothing but the polishing needed. sconce (with one candle) [illustration] the sconce is a candle holder made to fasten upon any wall. it is both useful and decorative. some are made to hold but one candle; they can be made, however, for two, three, or four candles. all sconces should have a reflector, a bowl, shaft, and drip pan. but the designs vary to suit the individual taste and surroundings. the design given here is a very simple one and one that works out well in copper or brass. _material:_ one piece of no. copper, × - / ins., for the reflector. one piece of no. , - / × in., for candle socket. one piece of no. copper, - / -in. disc. one piece of / -in. round copper ins. long. _directions:_ make a drawing like sketch shown here. place this drawing upon the × - / -in. sheet of copper and cut the metal to fit the outline. mark on this sheet of metal the embossed line shown in the sketch. place the sheet of the copper on the hard wood block and with a chasing tool placed on the line, strike with the planishing hammer on the end of the chasing tool. this, in turn, will drive the metal into the wood. repeat this till the outline stands out above the face of the reflector about / in. if this is done carefully the raised part will be a true smooth line. the same tool will widen the line any width desired. cut into a wood block a form like the impression you see back of the candle. place the sconce over this impression and with a wooden peg drive the metal into it. the dotted line on the sketch will show how deep this should be. drive out any buckles that may have formed during the working of the metal. this is done by placing the sconce face down on the bench and striking down on the raised parts until it lies flat. _candle holder:_ bend the stock for the holder around a / -in. mandrel or wood peg till the two ends meet. clean and solder these ends. cut a / -in. disc to fit the inside of this and solder in. place this on the - / -in. disc and drill a hole through the centre of both. _bracket for candle:_ take the / -in. round stock. put it in the vise with one end projecting above, about / in. drive down on this end, at the same time bend it as shown in the drawing. file the end flat. cut a piece of no. copper / in. × / in. and solder it on the end just filed. this plate is drilled with two / -in. holes, and filed around. bend the shape as shown in the drawing and on the other end file a shoulder and / -in. pin. this is now placed through the hole of the disc and the candle holder, and both riveted to the bracket. the bracket now is placed on the bottom of the sconce (see drawing), and riveted on. the whole sconce may now be nailed with round head nails to a flat / -in. board to give weight, or there may be riveted to the back, angles made of no. metal, / in. wide and bent / in. one way and / in. the other way. these angle pieces are riveted on the sides and on the two ends. rivets add much to the decoration of the work if they are placed at intervals and properly spaced. they make a nice finish. a hole can be drilled at the top of the reflector, to hang it upon the wall. how to make a vase, or rose jar (with lid) [illustration] _material:_ one piece of copper, no. , × ins. one piece × ins. (for lid). one piece / in. wide and long enough to go around the opening of the vase or jar. _tools:_ round stake, anvil stake, driving and planishing hammers, dividers, and shears. _design:_ vase, having a base - / ins. in diameter, height ins., - / -in. opening at the top, and lid to fit. the full height of the vase is - / ins. [illustration: first operation] [illustration: second operation] [illustration: third operation] _directions:_ take the × -in. piece of copper and draw a -in. circle. with the dividers set - / in., using the same centre, describe a circle. this outlines the - / -in. circle for the base. drive up this disc as you did the one for the copper bowl on the wood block, making it as deep as possible. in the same way as you flattened the bottom of the copper bowl, flatten the bottom of this piece of work. place the bowl over the round head stake. with your hammer drive on the outside. this driving with the hammer on the outside decreases the diameter and increases the length. you will remember that the copper bowl was driven up almost entirely by the use of the raising hammer on the _inside_ and finished by work on the outside with the planishing hammer. this vase or jar calls for the shaping hammer. the vase is placed over the round stake and driven into shape by work on the _outside_ with the shaping hammer. when the rough bowl shape is on the round head stake, drive the sides straight, beginning the strokes at the line of the base circle. repeat till the sides begin to straighten and take the shape of the design. take it off the round stake and place it on the anvil stake. when the sides are symmetrical, mark with lead-pencil a line / of an inch from the top. work the copper above this line, over toward the centre, until the opening of the vase is about - / ins. in diameter. smooth the work up with a planishing hammer. if the hammer marks made by driving the bowl into shape are carefully done they leave a very beautiful mottled surface of themselves. [illustration: rim] [illustration: binding the flange to rim to solder] _to make the rim for the lid to rest upon:_ take the / -in. strip of metal. bend it into a circle small enough to fit on the opening left at the top of the vase. be careful to have this just to fit, otherwise much filing will have to be done, and in this position filing is almost impossible. cut it the right length, scrape both ends, and solder. make it perfectly level so that it lies flat when placed upon the bench. test it by placing it upon the top of the vase. file the top flat, bind the rim in place. wash, then place bits of solder all around it and heat it until the solder runs. cool off in water, file off all rough edges left by the solder, clean and polish. [illustration: bending flange on the lid] _lid:_ take the × -in. piece. cut a -in. circle. place the bowl upside down upon this disc, draw with a pencil all around the rim on this copper plate. this marks the diameter of the rim on the plate, also the line where the copper should be bent to form the lid to fit the rim. with the anvil stake in the vise, place the disc against the sharp end of the stake, with the line on the edge. drive with the raising hammer against the part projecting above the stake. turn the disc, keeping the circle line on the sharp edge of the stake. repeat this till the sides are at right angles to the top. place the lid upside down on a wooden block, drive on the inside, shaping it like the drawing. make it fit the rim, trim off the rough edges, file up smooth, and polish. do not forget constant annealing, for you know hammering always makes the metal hard. chalice [illustration] _material:_ pieces of copper, × ins., no. . one piece of round rod copper, in. long. one piece of copper, × / ins. (for rim). solder. _tools:_ hard wood block, round head and anvil stakes, combination stake, shears, dividers, planishing hammer, raising hammer, and shaping hammer, files, emery cloth. _parts:_ bowl, stem, base, lid, ornamental top of the lid. _directions:_ make a working drawing (full size) on drawing paper, plan and elevation. _bowl:_ take the × -in. piece of copper. cut out a -in. disc. drive the bowl up as you did the copper bowl. it should be the same shape as the copper bowl. do not flatten the bottom. the drawing shows that the bottom should be rounding, to fit the stem. [illustration: lid] [illustration: bowl] [illustration: stem] _stem and base:_ take another piece of × -in. copper. cut -in. disc. with the dividers make a -in. circle in the centre of the disc. this inner circle must be beaten up until it becomes the stem. to do this place the disc on the round top stake, with the marked circle touching the edge of the round top. strike with the raising hammer just above the circle line, turning the disc each time. when you have made one turn of the disc, repeat this twice, hammering just above the part driven up before. keep repeating this until you have reached within an inch and a half of the outer edge of the disc. [illustration] the drawings numbered , , , , show the steps in the working up of the copper disc into the stem. [illustration] [illustration] you now have a bell-shaped piece. anneal the metal and repeat the hammering, beginning at the same place and working up to the same place as before. anneal whenever the metal seems springy and keep working until the stem is tapered about / in. at the small end, gradually widening into the vase. place the bell-like stem on the table and flatten it so that it lies perfectly smooth, with the stem perpendicular to the base. find the centre of the bowl, describe a / -in. circle. scrape both the circle and the small end of the stem. turn the bowl upside down, place the stem end of the base on the bowl, and solder in the usual way. _to make the lid:_ take the × -in. piece. cut a -in. disc. find the centre. drive the centre down by using the small end of the planishing hammer. this makes a cone-shaped centre, with the sides gradually widening to the edge of the lid. the highest point of the cone is one inch above the level of the lid. place the lid on the table and tap gently on the outside until it lies flat. take the small / -in. piece of round rod, file a small shaped ornament (to taste) on one end of the rod and a shoulder on the other end. drill a hole in the cone-shaped part of the lid, push the rod / in. through this hole and rivet it on the inside. [illustration: russian coffee pot in copper] _rim:_ strip of copper, × / ins. bend it into a circle just to fit the outside of the lid. cut off the proper length and solder. make it perfectly round and perfectly flat. place the lid on the chalice bowl so that it overlaps a little all around, evenly. draw a pencil line all around the edge of the bowl on the under side of the lid. this is where the rim is to go. before soldering, test, by placing the rim on the face of the lid. any openings seen must be closed by pressing the rim down to the lid. bind tightly with binding wire, scrape, and solder. file and finish. viii how to make a hat pin by this time you will have many pieces of scrap copper on hand. these should be kept in a small box and used whenever suitable. [illustration] [illustration] _material:_ a piece no. gauge, - / × / ins., is enough to make the head of a hat pin. the pin part must be of steel, copper is too soft. buy any cheap hat pin in a dry goods store. (a cent apiece.) break the glass top or black top and use the pin for the copper head. _tools:_ one chasing tool, half moon; shears, dividers, planishing hammer. [illustration] [illustration: designs for hat pin heads] _design:_ hat pin with hexagonal top ( sides) - / ins. across. with your dividers draw a circle on the piece of copper, having a diameter of - / in. with the radius of the circle, mark off the circumference into equal parts. draw lead-pencil lines from one point to another, just touching the circle at these points. with your shears cut along these straight lines. now you have a -sided piece of copper - / ins. across. place this piece of copper on the flat end of the hard wood block (the grain end of the wood), and make impressions on it with the half moon tool like your designs. this tool you can make yourself. take a piece of steel, / in. square or round, heat one end to a red heat and flatten it, like the flat end of a chisel. file the end just flattened blunt and rounding. this end should be hardened to prevent it from wearing rough. to do this heat it to a dark red heat and plunge it into cold water. place your tool on the upper sides of this plate and drive it with a hammer into the copper, being careful not to drive it through into the wood. if you drive the tool through you will spoil the design and have rough edges. this makes a simple raised or embossed design and is quite easily done. [illustration: hat pin. driving the design] when this pattern has been stamped in, curve the piece of copper any shape you wish by placing it in the depression in the hard wood block. place the embossed side down, and with the round end of the planishing hammer, drive with light blows so as not to flatten the design. in this way, you can shape it as you wish. the top could now be soldered right on to the pin itself, but that would not make a strong hat pin. it would be weak and too easily broken from the head. in order to have a strong hat pin we make a little mushroom shaped pin holder which is fastened on the under part of the head of the hat pin and in which the pin itself fits. [illustration: a group of boys at copper work their shop is a barn, and tree stumps furnish the hard wood blocks.] how to make the pin holder _material:_ copper, no. , / in. square to make the flat disc. copper no. , / in. length and about / in. wide to make the cylinder. [illustration] with a pair of dividers draw a circle / in. in diameter. cut out the circle. place this little disc on the flat end of the hard wood block and with a punch make a hole / in. in diameter in the middle of the disc. on the same end of the block, file (using round file) a groove right across the corner, about / in. deep. place the small piece of copper ( / × / ins.), over the groove. take the steel wire belonging to the hat pin and place it on top of the copper and over the groove. with the hammer, strike so as to drive the pin, and at the same time the copper, into the depression. the copper sinks into the groove and the two sides lap up on each side of the pin. drive the two sides down until they lap around the wire, the edges meeting. this makes a copper cylinder which fits exactly around the wire of the pin. take the cylinder off, fit it into the holes of the small disc. wash the two pieces with a borax solution, place a little solder on, and solder the disc to the cylinder. after cooling the piece in water, shape the disc so that it fits the under side of the hat pin top. polish the end of the wire pin with an emery cloth, also the top of the pin holder and the inside of the hat pin top. push the wire into the little cylinder so that it comes flush with the disc. [illustration: bending the cylinder] now the pin is all ready to solder to the head, but there is great difficulty in getting it in straight. in order to do this i make a little device out of copper, which helps me in getting things on straight. take a piece of copper in. wide and ins. long. bend each end, one ins. and the other / in., both in the same direction at right angles. with the shears cut a v-shaped piece in the short end. this little stand is good for soldering any upright piece to a flat piece, when they should be at right angles to each other. place the top of the pin on the long leg of the stand and, with the pin in the slot, place in proper position and solder. hat pin holder [illustration: holder] here is a good design for a hat pin holder, a welcome addition to any dresser. the design is very simple and the holder is easily made if one follows out the directions carefully. _material:_ disc - / ins. of no. gauge, for the base. one piece of / -in. copper tubing, ins. long for the body. solder. _tools:_ iron rod, / -in. round, ins. long. hard wood block. planishing hammer. [illustration] _directions:_ bore a / -in. hole one inch deep in the wooden block. place the - / -in. disc over this hole and, with the round end of the planishing hammer, drive the centre of the disc into the hole / in. be careful not to drive a hole through the copper disc. turn the piece upside down. place the iron rod in the vise. put the bossed end of the disc on the end of the iron rod and flatten the boss down. shape the base by rounding the edge down all around. see that it lies flat on the table, without rocking. [illustration: shaping base for stem] _stem:_ all copper tubing should be annealed before any work is done on it. after annealing, place the / -in. rod through the hole of the tube and with the wooden mallet drive down on the tubing, beginning two inches from the end and using the hard wood block for an anvil. this constant driving and turning reduces the copper to any size required. we must make the end of this tubing fit the / -in. rod. the tube must widen toward the other end, which is beaten out. place it on the small end of the anvil stake. drive with the raising hammer, turning it all the time. in this way you constantly increase the diameter, making the cup-shaped top like the design. now the stem and base are ready for soldering. file the ends perfectly smooth and level. bind in places and solder, as before. the filing, finishing, and polishing must be done as with other copper pieces. hat pin holders are usually filled with some soft material. the hat pins are pushed down into this, which helps to keep them in place. some are covered on the top with a metal disc which has five or six holes bored through, a little larger than the bar of the hat pin. these holes are drilled into the disc and then the disc is soldered on to the top of the holder. the pins cannot fall out with such an arrangement, and they are not likely to gather on one side and tip the holder over. ix how to rivet riveting is one of the processes of joining two pieces of metal together without the use of solder. to rivet, you must first punch or bore holes into the metals along the edges to be joined. place a rivet through these holes, and either with the hand hammer or rivet set, flatten down the projecting end of the rivet, forming a head similar to the head of the rivet itself. be careful to have the rivet holes just large enough to let the rivet slip in and leave no extra space. if the holes are too large the rivet will bend instead of flattening. [illustration: punching metal] _use of the rivet set:_ a rivet set is a piece of steel ins. long, / in. wide and / in. thick, tapering a little toward the top end. in the large end of this tool, and to one side, is a / -in. hole drilled about / in. deep; on the other side is a counter-sunk hole about / in. in diameter and / in. deep. this hole is used for drawing the rivet up through and closing the openings between the parts to be riveted, previous to flattening the end. (see picture of stove pipe.) the counter-sunk hole is made to shape the head after it is flattened. tinners use it often for punching holes in thin metal, such as tin and galvanized iron, and it's one of the methods used for punching holes when making or mending stove pipes, and similar shaped pieces. [illustration] [illustration: rivet set. punching holes in a stove pipe and riveting] _to rivet a stove pipe:_ place the rivet on the stake and put the iron pipe over the rivet about where the hole should be. tip the pipe so it will rest on the rivet. tap lightly over the rivet. this will mark the spot where the rivet is to go. drive down the rivet set over this mark and the rivet will be forced through the pipes into the hole of the rivet set. the hole is made and the rivet placed at the same time. flatten the projecting end, put the counter-sunk hole on the top of this flattened end, and you can shape it up like a round button. large serving tray with riveted handles a tray as large as this one is most useful in the home for serving tea, ice cream, etc. [illustration] _material:_ no. copper, × ins. four pieces of copper, - / × ins. silver wire for rivets × / in. in diameter. _directions:_ perhaps the easiest and simplest way to make this tray is to get a large block of wood, like the end of a building joist, a little longer and wider than the × -in. copper sheet. out of it make a mould the shape of the body of the tray, by cutting the wood away. this mould is made similar to the one you made when making the round tray. if the mould is made carefully and according to the pattern it is a simple matter to nail the sheet of copper over the depression, and drive it in with a wooden peg and mallet, making it fit every part of the mould. before this is done it may be necessary to anneal the metal two or three times. do so as often as you need to, it doesn't matter how often it must be done. when the surface is smooth to the touch, take the metal off the mould, and turn up the edges like the design. file off the outer edges perfectly smooth and rub them down with emery cloth. if your wooden peg has made small dents or flat places, leave them as a finish unless they seem too high or too low. the marks made by any wooden tool usually make a beautiful finish. _handles:_ the handles are hollow. they are made by taking one piece of the - / × -in. and drawing on this the outline of the handle. repeat this on the four pieces. this makes four halves. with a pair of shears cut along the sides. cut the rest out with a chisel. snip the corners. put four pieces together and place between the jaws of the vise. file into shape. this makes each piece a duplicate of the others. place each piece of copper on a hard wood block and with the round end of the raising hammer drive into the block, hollowing it out. make them in pairs so that when the two parts are put together they make the handles hollow on the inside and oval on the outside. file the edges of the handle so that they meet close. bind, solder, and file and round them up. _fastening handles on the tray:_ saw the two ends along the soldered joints about / in. open these out so that they fit over the edge of the tray. finish the ends off either rounding or square. now drill a hole through the handle about / in. from the end. place them again on the tray just where they should be and mark for the hole to be drilled through the tray. _rivets:_ take a piece of silver wire the size of the hole. place one end of it on the vise so it will stick up about / in. above the surface. with the planishing hammer, hammer a small rounded head on the end of the wire. cut it off / in. from the head in length. this makes a rivet. you will need four. place these rivets with the head toward the front part of the tray and fasten the handle on. polish and finish as you did other pieces of work. dutch bowl (made in silver or copper) this dutch bowl looks well made of either silver or copper. it is worked up in the same way as the other bowls described here, the little sawed out handle on the side being an addition which gives to the bowl its dutch characteristic. [illustration: dutch bowls] _to make the handles:_ if the bowl is made of copper select a piece of metal thicker than the copper used for the bowl. this piece is × ins. long. shape it as shown in the sketch. mark the design and saw it out. now bend it at right angles about / in. from the end. before the corners are squared up, round the handle to fit the shape of the bowl. this is best done on a round iron stake. file into shape, drill three holes, and rivet the handles in place. a soldered handle if desired makes a neater piece of work than one riveted in place. material used is a piece of × ins. the design is sawed out and shaped as before. however, in place of bending the end down we file the circle to fit the bowl. clean the parts to be soldered, bind the handle in place, wash with borax. place bits of solder about the joint, heat, and finish. if this soldering makes the bowl very soft stiffen it by hammering it lightly all over the surface. [illustration] [illustration: a smokers' set] a smokers' set makes a very useful birthday gift or christmas present and is not hard to make. all the principles involved in the making have been worked out in other problems that have been given. the set consists of five pieces: a large tray, a tobacco jar, match safe, cigar box, and ash tray. [illustration] [illustration: tray] _large tray (copper or brass) oblong:_ this design shows a large oblong tray with handles sawed out of the sheet metal, not riveted as the handles were on the large serving tray. draw the design for this tray on a sheet of paper. mark out the handles like those in the picture. place the pattern on the copper or brass sheet, and cut out the outline according to the drawing. the handles are not sawed out until the tray has been shaped up and finished. this tray is made out of a piece of no. copper or brass, and is × ins. with the dividers make a half-inch line on the four sides of the sheet as shown by the dotted lines in the sketch. place this sheet in the vise, the dotted line even with the jaws of the vise. with the wooden peg, drive the sides up as you did the small square tray. drill the holes in the slot and saw out for the hand-holds. file all around and finish. match safe this design shows a very simple arrangement of a match safe holding a match box and a tray to catch the burnt matches. _material:_ copper or brass--no. , × ins., for the tray. no. , - / × ins., for the holder. no. , / × ins., for the centre piece. no. , / × - / ins., for the bar. no. , - / × ins., for the stem. this little holder is made up of five parts: base, stem, holder, band, and centre piece for pushing up the matches when the box is pushed down into it. the base is made by bending all four sides up / in.; corners are made rounding. the stem piece is bent into a cylinder tapered by wrapping it around a / -in. tapered stick. solder the edges, when this is done. [illustration] the holder itself is made by taking the - / × -in. strip and bending it up like the shape of a letter u, so that it is a little longer than the match box itself. the band holds the sides in place. all is soldered together, the stem in the base first, then the holder on the stem, etc. hard solder is used. the little centre piece is bent, placed in position, and soldered with soft solder. polish and finish. tobacco jar this straight-sided jar is made in three pieces. a disc ins. in diameter is needed for the bottom, a cylinder, ins. deep, to fit the disc, and a lid made from a -in. disc turned over to fit the outside. [illustration] the disc for the bottom is bent up like the base of the tea caddy. fit the cylindrical piece around this base and solder where the edges meet. _the lid:_ cut a disc out of no. copper, ins. in diameter. find the centre. with the small end of the planishing hammer drive a boss into a hollow wooden block, about / in. in diameter and / in. deep. out of this boss the knob is made in the following way: take a piece of / -in. square iron and draw about ins. of the end tapered to a / -in. round. bend this up about / in. as shown in the sketch. this is the tool that the knob must be shaped upon. place this tool in the vise and place the hollow of the lid on this tool. with the thin end of the driving hammer work the knob in shape from the outside. (see sketch.) during the working of this metal it should be annealed three or four times so that it will yield to the extreme tension required to make the knob. [illustration] the lid is rounded in the same way as the bottom piece was. there is some shaping to be done on the top of the lid. the picture here shows that plainly. on the inside of the lid are two wires soldered crosswise to hold a damp sponge in place. this sponge keeps the tobacco moist. finish and polish. cigar box any wooden cigar box may be decorated very effectively. this picture shows an ordinary cigar box with copper (or brass) trimmings. corners are sawed out and riveted hinges are placed on the top. boxes decorated in this way make splendid christmas gifts. a heavy sheet of brass or copper can take the place of the wooden lid. ash tray [illustration] ash trays are of various shapes and sizes. some are merely a square tray, some are round, while others are half-bowl shaped. sometimes two or three half-round tube-shaped pieces for holding the cigar are soldered on to the rim of the tray. all ash trays of this style are driven up in the same way as you drive up a square tray or a round one, or a copper bowl. to make the cigar holders, cut a piece of thin copper or brass × ins. rounding on the ends. place them on a block and round them up in a depression cut out of the wood with a gouge chisel. these are soldered on to the rim of the bowl or tray with soft solder. polish and finish. loving cup with two or three handles [illustration] _material:_ for bowl, copper - / × ins., no. . for base, copper - / × - / ins., no. . for handles, pieces or pieces of copper × in., no. . solder. _tools:_ combination stake, anvil stake, shears, drill press, drills, rivets, shaping hammer. _directions--bowl:_ bend the - / × -in. piece of copper into a cylinder over the combination stake. the two edges should just meet, and fit perfectly along the line. scrape inside and outside the joint. wash with borax, bind with binding wire, and solder. be careful to heat it all over the fire till the solder runs freely and fills every part of the joint. cool off, then round it up again in the stake, filing off the surplus silver solder inside and outside. hammer the joint down till flat and true. if carefully done this will show a thin even line of silver. _base:_ - / × - / ins. cut a - / -in. disc. place the cylinder just made on the disc, allowing the surplus to extend out evenly all around. draw with a pencil the outline of the cylinder on the disc. the rim must be turned up at right angles to the circle so that it fits exactly over the cylinder. to do this, place the edge of the disc on the sharp edge of the anvil stake, driving the edge over. anneal and repeat until the sides are at right angles to the base. file off the top perfectly even, rounding out the edges. this makes a finish and border to the base. push the cylinder into the bottom. prepare, as usual, for soldering. be careful to put bits of solder both around the edge of the turned up flange, and on the inside bottom edge. heat and finish. _handles:_ copper pieces, × in. cut a tapered slip off each side of the handle pieces, until the large end is one inch wide and the small end / in. with dividers draw / -in. line parallel to those sides. bend each side back on this line. shape the handle (see design) over the combination stake, using the fingers or mallet to do so. the top of the handles should fit up close against the top of the cylinder and should extend down about / of the depth of the bowl. the ends may be rounded off nicely with the shears, and filed. a / -in. hole must now be drilled in each side. place the handle in the proper position on the bowl. mark the holes and drill them where the marks are made. place rivets and rivet the handles on. a touch of soft solder will help keep these handles in place and at the same time will prevent any possible chance for leakage through rivet holes, for where you have rivets you are apt to have a leak. clean, polish, and finish. copper belt buckle buckles may be made of copper, silver, or brass, and the process of making them is very simple. this design shows a buckle for a man or a boy. _material:_ copper (or brass or silver) / in. square × ins. long for the frame of the belt. one piece / -in. round rod × - / in. long for the cross piece. one piece / -in. square × in. long (pin). borax and solder. [illustration] _tools:_ mallet, file, pliers, combination stake, and vise. [illustration] _directions:_ take the / × -in. piece of copper. put it into the vise and bend it into a rectangular frame like the design. be careful to make rounding corners and the sides parallel to each other. cut off the surplus metal. make the joint in one corner. solder and file the corner the same shape as the other three. [illustration] _cross bar:_ take the piece of copper, - / × / in. bend the two ends down / in. in the same direction. (see picture.) [illustration: cross piece] solder this piece to the under side of the frame. the projections throw the cross bar down low enough below the level of the frame to allow the leather strap to come flush with the buckle top. _pin or tongue:_ take the metal set aside for making the pin. flatten one end of this out to / of an inch thick and long enough to go around the cross bar. (see design.) [illustration: tongue] flattening the end piece hardens it so that it must be annealed. with the round pliers, bend this end so it will loop over the cross bar. shape over the whole buckle according to the design. file, finish, and polish. these buckles may be made very attractive by giving them a smooth finish, or a mottled surface, or by making a sawed out design around the frame. x lamp (for electricity) with shade [illustration] _material:_ piece of copper, no. , ins. square (base). piece of copper, no. , × ins. (post). piece of copper, no. , - / × - / ins. (cap). pieces of / -in. round copper, ins. long (for shade holder). solder. borax. _tools:_ raising hammer, hard wood block, anvil stake, drill press, piece of discarded broom handle, dividers. _directions:_ make a - / -in. circle in the centre of the -in. square plate. drive this centre up about / in. above the level, tapering on the top to about - / in. in diameter. to do this, place the centre over a hole in the wooden block - / in. in diameter and drive the metal into the hole to the required depth. (see design.) draw a line with the dividers / in. all around the edge. be sure the line is an equal distance from the centre. bend the sides down / in. all along this line at almost right angles to the surface. this bending is done in the vise. measure off / in. in either direction from each corner for the feet, file out a section / in. deep and ins. long, as was done in making the feet for the square box. [illustration: base of lamp] [illustration: base] [illustration] _centre post:_ take the × -in. piece and bend it around the piece of broom handle (or any other piece of round wood the size you wish). the two edges must meet. scrape and solder, being careful that the solder runs into the joint. file it off flush with the top of the metal and make the column perfectly round. place the column on the raised part of the base and mark around the column on the base with a pencil. saw out a hole along the marked line. push the end of the column in so that it is perpendicular to the base and perfectly true all around. tie it in place for soldering, with the binding wire, by fastening the wire on the extreme top of the column, and carrying it to the four corners of the base. this centres the column ready for soldering. wash the joint well, place pieces of silver around the base and column, and heat. the base should be crowned from the centre to the outer edge. to do this, place the centre on any round top wood block. strike on the outer edges with the wooden mallet until the desired crown is formed. see that it stands plumb and does not rock. if it does rock, tap the base gently on the outer edges with the mallet until it stands firm. file and polish until the surface is perfectly smooth and free from marks of all kinds. the beautiful colours that form on the surface of copper depend much upon the finish. the body of the lamp is now ready for the cap and arms that hold the shade. [illustration] _cap:_ take a - / -in. disc. draw a circle in the centre of this disc, having a diameter equal to the diameter of the top of the column. place this disc on the edge of an anvil stake and drive the edges of the metal over, forming a cap as described in the making of the lid of the rose jar. divide this flange equally into three parts, drilling a / -in. hole in each one of the three divisions. take the three pieces of / -in. round copper. file the ends of each one, making a shoulder on the end / in. and / in. in diameter to fit the holes in the flange. put the end of these rods into the vise with the shoulder close to the top of the vise. put the cap on the projecting pin, and rivet. repeat this for all three rods. wash the rivet joints with borax, and solder. file off any projecting parts so that the inside is flush, as this cap must fit over the column. place the cap over the column and between the projecting arms drill a small hole through both the cap and the column, and rivet as before. [illustration] _shade, -sided or -sided:_ this design is for sides. that gives a good proportion. _dimensions of each side:_ side (on a slant) ins., top, - / ins. bottom, ins. (see drawing.) cut out a pattern for one side. use stiff card board. lay this design on a piece of copper large enough to cut out the whole lamp shade. mark around the pattern. lay the same pattern against one side of the marked design. make it fit exactly along the margin line. repeat until you have done six sides. you have now a fan shaped pattern with six divisions. cut this along the top and bottom lines. [illustration] if folded up along these division lines it would shape up into a lamp shade. all lamp shades have glass for light. we provide for the glass by cutting out a section of each of the six faces. take your card board pattern. mark a line all around from / in. and parallel to the sides, in. from the top and in. from the bottom. cut out the inner section made by these lines. place the pattern on the copper and mark each section. cut it out with the cold chisel on the wooden block. file up the rough places left, make the edges square and smooth. bend up each section along the centre line in the following way: get two pieces of wood, × / × ins. place the two pieces in a vise and slip the copper between the pieces down to the line where it should be bent. tighten up on the vise, press the copper over with the hands and tap gently along the lines with the mallet, keeping the angles about °. do this on each of the six sides. if carefully done the shade will have a hexagonal shape. the open parts should come together, one side overlapping about / in. hammer down the overlapping part and rivet. [illustration] _glass:_ cut a piece of card board / in. larger all around than the opening in the sections for the glass. take this to a glazier. tell the dealer just what is wanted and he will make suggestions as to colour, kinds of glass, etc. cathedral or opalescent glass is very decorative. [illustration] _to set the glass:_ place one of the panes of glass on the inside of the section, over the open space. mark all around it. take pieces of copper ( / × / in.) and bend them in a double angle. these are to be soldered or riveted on the rim. one is placed on either side, one at the top and one at the bottom. this glass rests in these brackets and keeps it in place. repeat for the six sections. push the brackets down against the glass after it is in place. they hold it firm against the side of the shade. the design for this shade lends itself to many variations. it may be square, five-sided, six-sided. the edges can be escalloped both top and bottom, and a sawed out design may be made to fit over the glass. xi hinges in copper or silver tube drawing and wire drawing _material:_ copper or silver. _tools:_ hardwood block, × × in. draw plate, tongs, sharp peen hammer, saw frame and saw, round file, shears, small piece of soap. [illustration: stamp box, or jewel box with tube hinge] _directions:_ to make a good hinge for jewel boxes or jewellery requires some knowledge of how to make wire and tubes out of sheet metal. in order to do this you must have a draw plate and that you can make yourself, in the following way: take a piece of iron / × - / × ins. or ins. long. drill a number of graduated holes through the piece along the centre. the smallest hole should be about / in. in diameter and the largest, about / in. take your steel punch and file the end down, tapering so that the point will go into the smallest hole. drive the punch into the hole until it just goes through. these holes take the shape of the tapered punch. repeat this in each hole until the draw plate is made up of a number of graduated tapering holes. your draw plate is used for reducing wires from a large size to any size you have holes for and for making hollow tubing for hinges. _to reduce wire:_ you can always buy the wire any thickness you wish, but many times a small piece of wire is needed quickly and can be made with little trouble. if you should wish to reduce a piece of wire / in. thick to any size smaller than / in., file the end of the piece so it just goes through the hole far enough to grasp with the tongs. rub a little soap over the surface of the wire, draw it through the hole. it is reduced to the size of the hole it goes through. after the first or second operation the wire must be annealed, as pulling it through the draw plate hardens it. _tubing for hinges:_ cut a strip of no. , copper (or silver) any length. cut the width of it three times the diameter of the tube you wish to make, and cut the end of this piece to a point. place your × × -in. block in the vise. with a round file, file a groove across the block. [illustration: shaping tube before drawing in plate] place the strip of copper or silver over the groove and, using the hammer, drive the metal into the groove, forming a gutter. repeat this until you have driven the copper into a cylindrical shape. put the pointed end through the largest hole in the draw plate. rub well with soap. clasp the end sticking through with the tongs and pull it through. repeat as you did when drawing wire through. anneal when necessary. continue to put the tube in one reducing hole after another until the tube is the size you wish. this tube with a small hole through the entire length is used for fine hinges. [illustration: draw plate and tongs with tube going through] [illustration: sawing off pieces of tubing for hinges] _fine hinges:_ to make a hinge for a box, bracelet, or any small dainty article that requires hinges, take a piece of the tube made as described. after you have decided just how long the hinge must be to fit the article you are making, saw the tube into three pieces, or five pieces, of equal length by placing the tube in a vise. if it is to be a three-piece hinge, two will be soldered on the one side and one on the other, the two just far enough apart so that the one is in position to fit exactly in between them. when the three pieces are in place, a wire is pushed through the hole, and the hinge is made. [illustration: filing half round groove in hinge, for tube] _to make the wings of the hinge:_ take a piece of silver or copper, no. , the length and width to be determined by the size of the hinge. place this copper plate in the vise, file a groove through the centre, just large enough for the copper or silver tube to fit in about half its depth. saw the piece through the middle of the groove. [illustration: bind in place with binding wire, and solder] take two of the three short tube pieces, bind them on the groove ends of one wing. bind the third piece of tubing in the middle of the groove end of the other wing. place the two wings together and see that they fit closely. do this with the greatest care, as there is no possible chance for filing after the tubes are soldered on the wings. wash with borax, put some silver solder on the joints, and solder as before explained. when binding the tubes for soldering do not put the binding wire through the holes of the tubes. this wire makes a good conductor for the solder which is apt to fill up the small holes in the tubes. all binding should be done on the outside. the wings of the hinges should be filed to a taper, or any shape that will add to the appearance of the hinge. the hinge lends itself very well for decorative purposes and can always be made so that it adds to the attractiveness of the piece of work. lock plates can be made by the same method. they, too, can be finished up to add to the ornamental side of the article. _cabinet hinges:_ cabinet hinges are made either of brass or copper. the hinge must be made in proportion to the design, thus adding to the decoration. [illustration] _material:_ strip of copper, no. . cut out according to the design. the two ends of one are turned over a wire nail / in. in diameter. the one end of the other is treated in the same way. test if they are true by placing a wire through the three tubes. cabinet hinges may be finished by using the round head hammer and driving down a number of hammer marks, going all over the surface of the hinge. or they may be embossed from the under side. the spacing of screws and rivets plays an important part in the design of the hinge. xii jewel box and desk set how to make a copper jewel box (rectangular) _materials:_ a narrow piece of no. copper, ins. long × - / ins. wide: this is used for the sides. one piece of no. copper, - / × - / ins. for the lid. one piece of no. copper, - / × - / ins. for the bottom. two pieces of copper no. , × / in., for the hinges. copper nails / in. in diameter, for rivets. _tools:_ vise, shears, mallet, hard solder, borax, rivet set (steel tool), dividers, and centre punch. [illustration: top view] [illustration: front] [illustration: sheet developed for sides and ends. bend on division lines] [illustration] _directions:_ make a working drawing of a box, × × / ins., (inside measurements). the box is to have feet, and a lid with hinges is to be fastened to it. take the strip of copper, × - / ins., measure it off into sections of ins. and ins. alternately. beginning on one end mark a point / in. from the end. (point g.) draw a line (e g) / in. long, perpendicular to the base line. with the dividers set / in. apart, and one leg placed against the base line, draw a line - / ins. long paralleled to the base. (line e f). draw f h. in the section d c m s, mark the point o / of an inch from d. draw k o equal to / of an inch. with the dividers set at / in., draw a line - / ins. long (k l). join l and n. repeat this in the other two sections. with the shears, cut along lines g, g e, e f, f h, h o, o k, k l, l n, etc. the projections left form the four feet for the box to rest upon. to bend the corners, mark with lead-pencil c d, m s, r t. place these division lines, in turn, between the jaws of the vise, and bend down at right angles. you now have a rectangular box like the picture, with one corner open. [illustration] to close the side, solder the open end. clean thoroughly the parts to be joined. place the parts in their proper positions and bind the corner with binding wire. wash the joint with borax. place some small pieces of silver solder on the inside corner. hold it over a fire and heat until the solder runs into the joint. cool off in water and take off the binding wire. if the solder should run through and fasten the wire to the side of the box, the wire can be peeled off and the solder filed down to the copper. but care must be taken not to let the binding wire sink into the copper. file up the corners smooth and square up the box with a steel square. _to make the bottom of the box:_ take the piece of no. copper, - / × - / ins. set the dividers / in. wide. with one leg on the edge of this plate, draw lines on the four sides. [illustration] [illustration] cut out the small square made in each corner by the crossing lines. put the plate into the vise and bend the four sides up along these lines. try it, to see if it just fits the inside of the box. it is the bottom and must be exactly right or the box will be out of square. now take it out for drilling and riveting. with the centre-punch prick points one inch apart and midway between the edge and the base. holes are bored through these punch marks, with the drill press and a / -in. drill. the bottom is now ready to slip into the box and to place for riveting. put it in, the bent edge turned down and flush with the lower edge of the box. it is necessary first to fix the bottom securely in place before all the rivets can be put in. to do this we put one rivet on each side. take a sharp-pointed instrument, stick it into the centre hole on each of the four sides, whirl it round, and mark the place where the hole should be drilled through. take the bottom out and prick punch these holes. drill the four holes, place the bottom back, and push the copper nails through from the outside in, leaving the head on the outside as decoration. if the head should seem too large, reduce it by filing before riveting. cut the nail off, leaving about / in. of it projecting. with the hammer strike on this projecting end, flatten it down until it covers up the holes. this is called riveting. now the bottom is made firm so that any amount of drilling can be done without throwing it out of place. drill all the rest of the holes and put a rivet in each one of them. the heads of these nails add to the decoration if they are put in carefully and at regular intervals. _to make the lid:_ if you look at your design you will see that the lid is raised a little in the centre and that the edges extend / in. over the four sides of the box. take the - / × - / in. piece of copper. with lead pencil mark the / -in. lap over all around the lid. place the lid on the end of the square block. with the round end of the raising hammer drive down lightly all around the inside of the lead-pencil mark, increasing the blows toward the centre. this will make an oval-topped shape. the hammering is bound to distort the edge of the copper. turn the lid upside down on the bench; with the mallet strike down on the top of the raised part until the edges flatten down on the bench. if any kinks should come from the hammering flatten them by driving directly over them. the lid should rest on the box without rocking. [illustration] _to make the hinges:_ take the two pieces of copper × / in. (no. ). lay a piece of no. wire lengthwise in the piece of copper, and, using your fingers, bend the copper up on each side of the wire, keeping the two edges the same length. place this between the vise jaws, pressing the two open sides together, forming a hinge right on the wire. fix both pieces of copper this way. draw the wire out. you have two cylindrical pieces of copper ins. long with wings attached. divide one of the pieces into six one-inch sections. put this between the vise jaws down to the rounding part. with your jewellers' saw, saw close to the vise and along the division lines, cutting out sections , , . [illustration: the copper is to be pressed together along dotted line] [illustration: the copper cylinder must be sawn out in sections, as where the arrow points] [illustration: section of hinge] [illustration: this sketch shows the method of riveting the hinge to the jewel box] file up all open parts so that the joints will be at right angles to the hinge. do this carefully or else they will not swing true when hinged together. use the cut hinge to measure off the sections on the other hinge. cut out sections , , on the second hinge, allowing a little on each section for filing. fit the two parts together and fasten by pushing a wire through. try the hinge to see that it works true and snug. select one of the sides as the back of the box, put the lid on, with the hinge in place. you will notice that the thickness of the hinge prevents the lid from fitting down on the box. file the side of the box down so the hinge sets flush with the top, and file the wings of the hinge down to a taper. the wings are to be riveted, one flat to the under side of the lid, and the other to the back, after bending it down on the inside of the box. see section view. hinges are sometimes soldered in place. to do this, wash the joints with a little soft-solder fluid. heat the box in the bunsen flame hot enough to make the solder run in between the joints. file any rough edges off, smooth down carefully, and polish. cedar chest (with brass trimmings) a plain cedar chest is much improved by the addition of copper or brass trimmings. they add strength, too, to the box. [illustration] the design shows a cedar chest with hinges, corner plates, handles, and lock plate. the screws can be bought with pyramid-shaped heads, which resemble hand-made rivets. they add very much to the general effect of the whole. one must be guided by the size of the box in selecting the appropriate screw decorations. this box is × × ins. the lid is ins. deep. _hinges:_ the hinges should be made of no. copper or brass, ins. wide, and should extend two-thirds of the way across the top and half way down the back. this tends to keep the lid straight and support the back of the box. _lock plate:_ the plate is made of a piece of × in. metal, the same thickness as the material used in the hinges. the design should correspond to the design of the hinges. the key way is in the lock plate, toward the top. _handles and handle plate:_ the handles are made of / -in. round copper or brass, large in the middle, tapering toward the ends. these ends are turned up, fitted into eye bolts and riveted into the handles. the handles should be × ins., with the design of the hinges and the lock plate carried out. _corner plates:_ these plates go on the four corners of the chest. they are made of no. metal. perhaps the simplest way to make them is to take a piece of no. metal and cut a -in. square. draw the diagonals. cut out one of the four triangles from this square. now bend the piece along the diagonal lines and you make a corner to fit on the box. solder this open corner to the box. in making corners for the lid, make the same pattern and trim it down to suit the depth of the lid. the trimmings on the box can be left smooth or they can be treated with the peen of the hammer and a facet surface put on, which is done quickly and is very decorative in effect. the hinge part of the hinge is made as explained in the article on hinge making. the metal used here would be quite strong enough just to turn over in the pin without soldering it first to the body of the hinge piece. put the lock on the chest before the lock plate is placed. this fixes the place for the key-hole; otherwise one might get the key way too close to the opening and find no lock that would fit it. the handles are put in by means of screws, but a much stronger one is made by using bolts and screws. the bolts that hold the handle on the plate are carried through the box, and a nut and washer fasten them tight on the inside. desk set in copper ink well holder and pen tray. book rack. corners for desk pad. letter file. bill file. stamp box. paper cutter, letter opener, and book mark. ink well holder and pen tray _material:_ no. copper, - / × - / ins., for the tray. no. copper, - / × ins., for the box. no. copper, ins. square, for lid. [illustration] _directions:_ tray: you will notice, in the design of the tray given, a / -in. ledge all around. the inside of the tray is lowered / in. except a square place in the centre toward the back large enough for the box to set upon. the depression in the tray is made in the same way as described before in making the small square tray. you put it into the vise and with a round wooden peg drive it in according to the design. the ledge must remain parallel to the bottom of the tray. round it off by placing the tray on the anvil stake and driving the proper curve in it with the wooden mallet. [illustration] _box or holder--sides:_ take the copper piece, × - / ins. and divide it into -in. spaces. bend these at right angles to form a square box, the open ends meeting at one side. solder with hard solder. _lid:_ take the -in. square piece. over a square block the exact size of the inside of the box drive the piece for the lid. the corners must be driven down even so that the lid will fit on the top of the box; otherwise the ink will evaporate. the hinge on the lid is made with a drawn tube in the same way as was described in the article on the making of hinges. the box is now ready to be put on the tray. file the surface of the projecting square flat, so that the box will set level. bind it down with binding wire, and solder in the usual way. _ring and ring post fastened to the box:_ the post is made of a piece of / -in. square copper. at a distance of / in. from the end a shoulder is filed on it, with the stem long enough to go through the thickness of the lid. a hole, too, is drilled through one end of this post large enough for a / -in. copper ring to be pushed through. this copper ring is made by turning a piece of copper wire around a / -in. round rod in a spiral shape. cut off the ring or rings as you need them. this ring is opened out, pushed into the hole, and squeezed together. it acts as a little handle to lift up the lid. a piece of blotting paper the exact size of the lid is pushed into the inside of it. this helps to keep the ink from evaporating. if the piece of work has been carefully done there will be little finishing and filing to do. you can readily see that the beauty of metal work depends as much upon the finish as upon the design. book-rack [illustration] book-racks are most useful for holding choice books on one's desk. they are made of heavy copper. this design is made so that one can place any number of books between them, by pushing the side pieces out. all book-racks are made in the same way. the design on the side pieces can be sawed out (or pierced) or embossed, or the facets left by the hammer will make a beautiful decoration. any design work, however, must be done while the copper is in a straight piece, otherwise the bending is apt to spoil the work. _material:_ two pieces of copper, no. , × ins. _directions:_ in the design shown here the edge of the upright ends are rounded. some have just the corners rounded off. decide upon the design you wish. cut it out, and file the copper sheet accordingly. make the edges of the whole rack perfectly smooth and rounded. mark off ins. from one end. bend this at the -in. line at right angles to the -in. piece. it is well to do the bending over a wooden block in the vise, using a mallet so as not to mar the metal. polish and finish as before. metal corners for a desk pad [illustration] metal corners made of brass, copper, or silver are found very useful for protecting the corners of blotters upon desks. they keep the corners from curling up and add much to the general appearance of any desk. the designs are many, but for all practical purposes the plain corners seem best, as they are more sanitary. [illustration] _material:_ the pieces of metal × - / ins. no. . [illustration: fold on dotted lines. corners for blotter] _directions:_ mark your copper sheet off like this pattern. now get a piece of wood, iron, or copper about / in. thick and just the shape of one of these corner designs. this / in. thickness will be about equal to the thickness of your blotter and the thickness of the card-board. take your copper sheet and bend the ends along the lines marked on the pattern, over the iron or wood form, driving them down to fit the shape well. you now have a triangular piece with an opening on one side. this piece would slide over the corner of a card-board pad usually cut about × ins. solder the edges together. it is necessary to rivet these corners to the card-board to prevent their slipping off easily. to do this drill a small hole down through the under side close to the edge, slip these corners on the card-board, push the iron form in, and drive the rivet through the hole, through the card-board against the iron plate, thus riveting the corners to the card-board. take out the iron plate and repeat on the four corners. if designs are to be made on metal, they must be sawed out or pierced while the metal is in the straight piece. polish free from all roughness. a piece of soft flannel or woollen cloth is glued on the under side of these corners, so that the metal cannot scratch the desk, or any polished surface it rests upon. bill file this is a useful article for filing notes or memoranda of things that need immediate attention. there is very little variety in design. the base can be made square, circular, six-sided, etc., and decorated in many ways. it looks well either in copper or brass. only heavy copper should be used, in order to give weight to the base. [illustration] _material:_ a - / -in. square of no. copper. rod of sharpened steel. _directions:_ take a piece of iron / × - / × - / ins. go to any scrap heap for this. place the copper sheet over this block of iron, letting the surplus metal extend evenly all around. put it into the vise with the corner vertical. tighten it up and drive the metal over the corner till it touches the sides of the iron. do this on all the corners. make the outside of the metal fit tightly over this iron, acting as a shape or form. if the metal should feel springy before driving it up close, anneal it. notice that in driving these corners down they are longer than the four sides, and they suggest feet. if filed flat and smoothed up you have a square box with a foot on each corner. take it off the iron form and make the top rounding by driving it over the hollow block. now drill a / -in. hole through the middle. place the copper rod in the hole and solder with hard solder. paper cutter, letter opener, book mark [illustration] _paper cutter:_ no article on a desk is more useful than a good paper cutter. it may be one with a plain flat blade, no marked handle and without decoration aside from that of the metal itself with its hammer marks left upon it. again we may have one with blade and handle, the blade either pointed (sharp edged or blunt), the handle plain or with sawed-out design. those with pointed blades are serviceable as letter openers too. then some designs have handles made long enough to turn the end over, forming a raised handle. _material:_ piece of no. copper, / × ins. [illustration: paper knife. cut on dotted lines] _directions:_ if the blade is to be pointed, take your strip of copper and draw a line right through the centre. mark a point / in. on the end, either side of the centre line. draw lines from these points to the extreme ends of the other side. see dotted lines in the sketch. file up the edges rounding, and polish the whole. select a piece of copper free from scratches and marks of any kind for this work. this paper cutter can be left smooth, or it can be decorated by the marks left by the planishing hammer. these marks give a good finish and look well. paper cutter with turned handle _material:_ piece of no. copper, / × ins. [illustration] _directions:_ mark off lines on the copper strip as you did to make the plain paper cutter. carry the tapering lines back ins. cut off these side pieces with shears. file the edges for the whole length smooth. if any decorating is to be done, do it while the copper is in the straight piece, as it can't be done easily after the handle is turned. all filing, too, must be done before the handle is turned. when filed and smoothed up or decorated as you wish, bend half the remaining inches of the copper over and on to the blade, in this way forming the handle. the size of the handle will depend upon one's feeling of comfort or discomfort about it. if the edges still feel a little rough a piece of emery cloth will smooth them down. letter openers letter openers are really small paper cutters and are made in exactly the same way. they are shorter and narrower than the paper cutter, but almost always have a sharp pointed blade. many scraps of copper left over after the making of large pieces can be used to make letter openers. book mark [illustration] book marks are very handy to have on one's desk. they are easily made and if very light copper is used need not be heavy or clumsy. they should be made very smooth, for they must slip easily into place in the book. _material:_ no. copper, × / in. _directions:_ this drawing can be used as the guide. make it the required size and work just as you did when making the paper cutter. the little tongue on the inside is sawed out. it should swing easily to and fro, as it must be pushed open to catch the pages of a book and clamp them down. file and finish very smooth. if it is left the least bit rough it would tear the paper as it is pushed in. brass work xiii finger bowl, crumb tray, tea caddy, vase, bell and bracket, drawer pulls, etc. _brass:_ brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. the zinc colours the copper and gives it the yellowish or brassy look, depending upon the amount of zinc melted with it. while the operations are the same whether you are working with brass, copper, or silver, the presence of the zinc in brass makes it less pliable than the pure metals. that is why brass hardens so quickly under hammering, making it necessary to anneal the metal very often in order to work it. but zinc and copper combined melt at a lower temperature than copper or silver pure, so that great care must be taken when preparing the metal for soldering or annealing that you do not heat it over a dull red heat before plunging it into water. to make a brass finger bowl finger bowls of brass are very ornamental and useful and can be made of the simplest designs. a half dozen are a welcome addition to any table. design the bowl and proceed exactly as you did with the copper bowl, working the sheet of brass up into a rough bowl shape on the hard wood block. using the same tools, finish the bowl on the round stake. the surface of the bowl may be left mottled, or it can be smoothed up, as one wishes. [illustration] [illustration] these sketches suggest a number of articles that can be made out of brass. crumb tray and scraper _material:_ one piece of brass, × ins., no. . one piece of brass, × ins., no. . [illustration] _tools:_ anvil stake, mallet, shears, dividers. _directions:_ with the dividers set at ins., one leg of the dividers tangent with the top of the brass plate and the other in the centre lengthwise of the piece, draw a circle. cut around the circle with the shears. beat over / in. of the centre part of the circle, tapering along the circle line toward each end. round up this edge and curve it a little inward on wood block so that when grasped by the fingers it will be comfortable. smooth off edge and make the flat part perfectly straight, so that when placed on the table to receive the crumbs it will lie perfectly flat. crumb scraper a very simple design is given here. mark out the dimensions on a sheet of paper and lay the design on a sheet of brass. cut the brass out to fit the design. using the mallet, drive up the rounding part on the anvil stake to match the rounding part on the tray. [illustration] _handle of scraper:_ place the handle part on a hard wood block and with the small end of the raising hammer drive down on the handle, embossing it from the outside toward the front. give it a half hollow shape. if the edge of the handle is smoothed off with a file and made rounding, it makes a good handle for the scraper. flatten the scraping edge so that it lies flat on the table and picks up all the crumbs on its way to the tray. polish and finish as you did the tray. [illustration] tea caddy _material:_ one piece -gauge soft brass (yellow), × - / ins. (for body). disc - / ins. in diameter (for bottom). square: - / ins. for lid. two strips, × / ins., one for rim of lid and one for rim of body. _tools:_ block used to make round tray (copper), drilling hammer, mallet, wooden peg, iron stake, silver solder, steel stippling tool. [illustration] _directions:_ take the piece of brass × - / ins. bend it till the edges meet to make a cylinder. bind it round with a piece of binding wire. see that the edges come together tight. wash with borax. use silver solder and proceed as before with soldering. cool in water, clean off the joint both inside and outside till the surplus silver is filed off smooth. this leaves a fine joint line which will take on the colour of brass in time and will scarcely be noticed. round the cylinder up by placing it on a round stake or on a round wood block. tap gently with your mallet to do this. _bottom:_ take the - / -in. disc. draw a circle on it equal to the bottom of the cylinder. put the anvil stake into the vise. with the edge of the circle on the square end of the stake, drive the metal with the driving hammer, so that the upturned rim is at right angles to the disc. test this to see that the rim stands up all round and fits the outside of the cylinder close. file the top edge of this smooth and a little rounding. shape up and solder as you would a copper piece, keeping in mind the low melting point of brass. the heating of the bottom for soldering must heat the body of the caddy to a red heat and there is danger of unsoldering the part done. to prevent this melting, the soldered joint should be painted both inside and outside with rouge or ordinary clay wash. mix a little clay in a saucer to a liquid and rub it over the joint. if the soldering is carefully done there will be little filing to do afterward. _rim (for the body):_ take your × / -in. piece. bend it into a circle to fit the inside of the body. cut it off the right length, bind and solder the two ends together. clean off, round up on the stake, and make it just large enough to drive it into the top, pushing it down until about / in. extends above the cylinder. this supports the rim of the lid. if it is driven down tight it will hold of itself in place. if not, use a little soft solder to make it secure. _lid:_ one square piece, - / ins. take the mould used for your round tray. punch holes in each corner of the brass plate, and nail it right over the depression as you did when you made the round tray. with your round peg drive the metal into the depression. when the metal is perfectly smooth and fits the impression take it out. place the body of the caddy over the top of this lid piece and mark around it. make a second circle / in. beyond the one just made. cut out along the outer circle. now draw a circle on the inside of the lid equal to the body of the tea caddy. place the lid on the anvil stake and turn it up as you did the bottom piece. this should be made the same size as the bottom, as it must fit over the same diameter. make the rim for the lid in the same way as you did the rim for the body. round it up. be careful that the rim of the lid fits over the rim of the body and that the diameter of the rim on the lid equals the diameter of the body of the caddy. place the rim on the lid and soft solder it. _to decorate:_ with the steel stippling tool mark any little design on the surface of the lid or body, or both, pricking up the design. finish the work by polishing the same way as copper is polished. you can prevent its tarnishing by the use of lacquer. this lacquer can be bought at any paint shop. it is put on with a brush and left to dry. the lacquer being transparent does not cover up any of the design. vase (in brass) _material:_ yellow brass, no. . one piece, - / × ins. (for the body). one piece, -in. disc (for base). handles, pieces, - / × / ins. square. [illustration] _tools:_ hard wood block, shears, anvil stake, files, raising hammer, carpenters' gouge, chisel. _design:_ vase, - / ins. high, with a diameter at the top of - / in. the body tapers toward the base. two handles, one on each side, to be designed according to taste. the base is to be weighted in order to insure safety when in use for flowers, etc. _directions:_ make a pattern for the vase in the following way: draw a - / -in. circle. using the same centre, draw a -in. circle inside the - / -in. [illustration] through the centre of these circles draw a line ins. long; / in. below the outer circle, over this centre line draw a line in. long, / in. on one side and / in. on the other. seven inches below this -in. line draw a - / -in. line, - / in. on one side and - / in. on the other. connect the inside points of each line with the top line (see design), drawing lines between the two points. if the pattern is carefully developed from the drawing the metal will fold up in the right way for a vase. to do this, continue the tapering lines beyond the circle until the two lines intersect. with the point of the compass on the point of intersection, and the pencil point where the sides meet the -in. line, draw an arc of a circle any length. using the same centre, open the compass until the pencil reaches the base lines. draw an arc of a circle any length. use your ° and ° angle and divide the half of the circle into equal parts. take one of these divisions with your compass, and step off their distance on the large circle times. you now have the exact circumference for the top of the vase. draw lines from these points to the point of intersection. this marks off the small circle or base. connect the -in. point on the top and bottom with solid lines. cut this pattern out and lay it on the metal. cut out the metal and fold up. it should fit the drawing. the edges should meet close. clean, bind, and solder as you did with the copper work. _base:_ use the hard wood block and drive up the -in. disc over the depression. shape it as nearly as you can like the design, using the same method as you did with the copper bowl. keep annealing this brass whenever it feels springy. place it on the anvil stake. use the driving hammer and shape it. [illustration: some problems in copper and brass work made by boys] repeat the annealing and hammering until the desired shape is gotten. notice in the design that the neck is a little smaller than the bottom of the vase. place this small end on the point of the anvil stake and swell it out, forming a little rounding collar so that the end of the vase will slip in and fit tight. when the end of the vase is in position, wash the joint with a little soft-soldering fluid, place a little soft solder in the joint and heat until it melts. be careful that the solder does not run over the collar. it is so hard to file off the brass. [illustration: drawn to scale / inch = inch] _to weigh down the base:_ turn the base upside down. melt enough soft lead to fill up the opening level with the bottom. a circular piece of brass is made to fit over the lead to hide it. lap the edges of the base over the piece just enough to hold this and the lead in place. _handles:_ handles are a matter of individual taste. the vase can be left without handles if desired. [illustration: suggestions for drawer pulls to be worked out in copper, brass, wrought iron, or soft steel] take two pieces of × / ins. square; file into shape according to the design. bind the handles on the body of the vase. place a little silver solder wherever the handles touch. be careful to guard the joint made by soldering the body of the vase with clay or rouge, as was done when making the tea caddy. now you are ready to solder the body of the vase and the base together. push it in place, see that it is perfectly straight, bind and solder. if not well soldered it will not hold water. file off the surplus solder, polish and lacquer as you did the tea caddy. bell and bracket for a wall decoration this stationary bell is very useful for any purpose that a small bell serves. it has the advantage of being always in one place. _material:_ no. brass, used for both the bowl and bracket. the size of the design determines the amount of material used. [illustration] _directions:_ make the bowl in the same way as you did the copper bowl, raising hammer, wood block, etc. the last work done on this bell should be of such a nature as to harden the metal so that the ring is clear. this clearness of the sound depends upon the hardness of the metal. the harder you can get the metal without splitting it, the better the bell's tone. [illustration] _bracket:_ the bracket is made of two pieces, the plate and the hanger. the plate can be made of any design or shape suitable--square, oblong, oval, or round. decide upon your design, mark this on the plate, and cut out. drill small hole for the nails to fasten it, either to the wall or to a small piece of hard wood / in. thick for a backing. _hanger:_ the hanger can be made of flat, square, or round material. this picture shows a design made of no. brass. it is cut tapering and shaped over a round wood block in the vise. the slots are sawed out as shown. the bell is fastened to the hanger by means of two or three links formed together in a chain, one large enough to hook over the hanger, and connected to the bell with a little eye bolt made of brass, which is pushed through the bell and riveted on the inside. the ringing of the bell is done by a small brass rod fastened to the hanger with a small chain. the work is finished up by the use of pumice stone. silver work xiv finger rings, scarf pins _silver:_ there is very little difference in the handling and working of silver from that of brass and copper. the same operations are carried out and the same tools are used. silver is more pliable than either one of the other metals, though copper is softer. however, silver melts at a lower temperature than copper or brass, and for that reason greater care must be taken during the process of annealing, soldering, and enamelling. silver, of course, is the most precious metal you have worked with. so then the cost of the material limits one to the working out of comparatively small problems. when buying silver, always buy sterling. the sterling silver is made especially for silversmiths and is used in all silver work, pure silver being too soft to stand the wear that is required. while copper is sold by the pound, silver is sold by the ounce, and rolled out to any thickness you wish. but the gauge is the same as that of copper, a no. in silver being the same as no. in copper. if the problems given here are carefully worked out, enough practice in the handicraft of silver will be given to enable you to work out much larger problems in the metal. _selecting stones for rings, pins, brooches, or bracelets:_ choose the stones that are round or oval in shape, and pick those that have a fairly level bed and are well bevelled. this is necessary so that the bezel will hold tight when rubbed against the stone. semi-precious and precious stones can be bought at any dealer in stones, and one has his choice out of many to pick from. finger rings bands for finger rings are all made, practically, in the same way. but there is a great difference in the way stones are set in these bands. perhaps the three ways most generally used are: setting by means of a bezel, or small band; prong setting, and setting the stone down in a cavity cut in the metal, just large enough to hold the stone. _finger ring, stone set with a bezel:_ _material:_ one piece of silver, - / × / ins., no. , for ring. one piece of silver, / × - / ins., no. , for bezel. stone. silver solder. borax. _tools:_ ring mandrel (you can make one yourself), small wood mallet, drill press and / in. drill, saw frame and saw, centre-punch, small swiss files. [illustration] [illustration] [illustration] _directions--pattern:_ to make a ring of this kind first cut a piece of paper / in. wide and long enough to go around the finger which the ring is to fit. straighten this piece of paper out. this gives the length of the piece of silver needed for a ring. cut another piece of paper / in. wide to this length. draw with ink the pattern of the ring on this second paper. cut the design out and paste it on the piece of silver. with the centre-punch mark the centre of each spot. drill holes into each one. saw out the design. with a pair of shears cut off the surplus metal. be careful to save all the scraps. they can all be returned and exchanged for silver plate. file close to the design. you now have the band ready for bending. [illustration] _to bend the ring:_ a ring mandrel is needed. this is merely a tapering rod. one can buy steel mandrels which are graduated for all sizes of rings. a small tapered square punch which you can make yourself, will be found helpful. take a piece of / -in. round or square steel. file the end, tapering to a square point, in. long. harden it the same as you did the half moon punch used to make the hat pin. this punch is used for design work. round holes can be squared by driving the square punch into the hole to any depth. this saves filing. place the ring mandrel in the vise. using a wooden mallet, bend the ring in a circular shape over this mandrel till the two ends meet. try the ring on the finger. snip off the ends so that the ring fits rather tightly. this will allow for stretching the ring after it is soldered. _to put on the bezel:_ bend a piece of no. silver, / × - / ins., around the stone. this can be done with the thumb and finger. make the silver fit around the largest part of the stone. snip off the ends. bind the two ends with binding wire, wash with borax, put a little piece of silver on the inside and heat over the bunsen burner; which is hot enough for this kind of work. cool off in water, remove the binding wire. each end of this bezel must be filed to fit the circle of the ring. [illustration: bezel for ring] [illustration] [illustration] when this is done bind the bezel on, and at the same time bind the lower part of the ring so that the open ends fit tightly together. solder the bezel and the open part of the ring at the same time. wash all the joints. place silver solder on the inside of the bezel, say one half-dozen pieces (small), round on the inside, and also one or two small pieces on the joint of the ring itself. place the whole ring in the bunsen flame. it will all heat up about the same time. watch the solder carefully. see that it runs all around between the bezel and the body of the ring. cool off. take off all the binding wire. file the inside and outside of the bottom part of the ring. place the ring on the mandrel and go over it gently with a steel hammer, shaping it around and making it to fit the finger. file the edges around smoothly. go over it all with a small square file and file out all imperfections in the slots. place a piece of fine emery cloth on a tapered round wood peg. by revolving it around this you polish and trim up the inside of the ring. using the same emery cloth twisted around a flat stake or file, go over the outside until the ring is free from scratches. _stone:_ if the bezel has been carefully made the stone should drop right into place. if by chance some of the solder should have filled up the bezel space and made it smaller, take a sharp tool like a pocket knife blade and scrape the inside of the bezel till the stone fits. place the stone. with a smooth piece of steel or very hard wood press the bezel against the stone. the bezel is thin enough to yield to this pressing process. it will cling to the sides of the stone and prevent its falling out. polish the ring by rubbing it with pumice stone and a piece of cloth. this finishes the work. _finger rings, silver cut away to set stone in:_ _material:_ for this class of work we require much heavier silver than for the other rings. [illustration] one piece of silver, no. , / × - / ins. solder. borax. _tools:_ same as were used for the bezel setting. in addition we shall need one or two small chisels, which you can make yourself. chasing tool. _directions:_ make the pattern of your ring as you did before. paste it on the silver piece, and cut out. bend the silver around the ring mandrel so that it will fit the finger it is intended for, and solder. place the stone in its proper position and mark the outline of it on the silver. now you will need a small chisel to chip away the silver and make the space for the stone. _to make chisel:_ take two pieces of / -in. round steel ins. long. one piece is to make a flat chisel and the other for an oval chisel. file the ends to a chisel shape. [illustration] this steel must be tempered before it can be used. to do this place the ends just filed into the fire. heat about in. of the end red hot. cool / in. of this hot end in the water till quite cold. take it out and rub the end with a piece of emery cloth till it shines. the colour will begin to flow toward the end. when the blue colour reaches the end plunge the whole piece into water. the oval chisel is used for outlining the depression. the flat chisel is used for levelling the bed to receive the stone. with this chisel cut away the material inside the marked outline, keeping a little inside the border line. cut away the silver to about the depth of / in. you will find the opening a little smaller than the stone. with your chasing tool drive around the inside of the oval, undercutting until the stone fits in. this undercutting drives up a little silver rim, which does the work of a bezel on the stone. when this rim is forced against the stone, the stone is held in place. the ring is now ready for the stone, but the thickness of silver makes it large and clumsy. before putting the stone in, the ring should be filed down to the proper dimensions. this requires a great deal of filing. use a rough file at first and finish with a fine one. when the ring is shaped as you wish polish up the inside and outside. _to place the stone:_ with the ring mandrel on the vise, put the stone in place and put the ring on the mandrel. tap gently on the silver rim, driving it against the stone. do not drive it too hard or else you may crack the stone. finish up and polish as explained before. _finger ring, stone set with prongs:_ _material:_ one piece of silver, no. , width and length the same as the others. stone--in the design, square. [illustration] _tools:_ same as used in making the other rings. _directions:_ draw design, cut pattern, place it on the silver, and cut out as before. bend the ring to fit the finger, and solder. after the silver band has been cooled off and the wire has been removed, put the band back on the mandrel. with the planishing hammer strike down, flattening the top. this reduces the thickness of the ring and gives us a flat surface, to which the prongs are soldered. _to make the prongs:_ place the stone on a no. piece of silver. draw the outline of the stone on it. the square piece of silver should be / in. larger all round than the size of the stone. a stone may be set with prongs, or or , according to one's taste. in this setting we have the prongs. mark the outline of the prongs on the square piece of silver according to this picture. [illustration: drawings showing prongs, unfinished, and soldered on ring at point marked by arrow.] saw out on the dotted lines. cut a piece of copper the exact size of the stone. place the copper on the silver and bend up the prongs at right angles to the silver plate. take away the copper, and file the under part of the silver piece flat, and prepare the upper part of the ring in the same way. bind the flat part of the prong piece to the flattened part of the ring, and solder. if the flattening in the first place has made the ring too large for the finger, cut a piece out along the soldered joint. fit it to the finger and resolder. file all joints perfectly smooth. the prongs should be filed carefully and made perfectly even and of the exact size and shape. place the stone in and push the prongs against it. rub each separate prong down until it fits close against the stone. this prevents their catching on anything like cloth, etc. polish and finish as explained before. _finger ring, made of twisted silver wire:_ [illustration] _material:_ no. fine silver wire; length depends upon the design of the ring. _tools:_ same as those used in making the other rings described. [illustration] _directions:_ cut off a piece of no. wire about ins. long. bend it in the middle, place the two ends in the vise and, with a pair of pliers, grasp the other end. twist the wire into an even twist. select the stone. the round stones are best for this wire setting. in making this wire ring it is best to make the setting for the stone first. cut a piece of wood the exact shape of the largest part of the stone. bend a piece of no. silver / in. wide around the wood peg, till the two ends just meet. coil around this the twisted wire, one strand upon the other, until you have about three coils. wash with a little borax; place a little silver solder upon the under side of this coil. heat and solder the strands together; at the same time solder the band on the inside. place it on the ring mandrel, and curve it to fit the shape of the finger. either press it with your fingers or use a mallet. _the setting is now ready for the ring:_ the ring can be made either by twisting a piece of wire to fit the finger or by using just the plain wire itself for the ring band. in either case, the piece of silver used for the band, plus the size of the setting, must equal the size of the finger. solder the two ends of the ring band to the sides of the setting. file the inside opening of the setting to a level; place the stone in as you did the others. clean and polish up as usual. scarf pin [illustration] _material:_ a piece of no. silver for the body of the pin; the size is determined by the size of the stone to be set. a piece of no. for the bezel. a piece of no. silver wire for the pin. the pin piece can be bought at any jewellery store, if you do not wish to make your own. they are better, too, than those you make yourself. solder and borax. _tools:_ shears, files, draw plate. _directions:_ cut a piece of silver, no. , the size of any one of the above designs. cut a piece of no. , / in. wide and long enough to go around the stone, to make a bezel. be sure that this bezel fits close and tight around the stone. bind the bezel, and solder. after soldering, fit the bezel again to the stone, for the soldering is apt to change the shape. file the bottom off perfectly flat; clean the surface of that part to be used for the back of the pin. bind the bezel on this piece, wash with borax, and solder it in place. [illustration] [illustration] [illustration] _pin:_ this can be bought at any jewellery store. however, if you wish to make your own, you can do so in the following manner: place a piece of no. wire in the draw plate and reduce it a little. this drawing through the plate stiffens the wire, and this is just what is needed in a pin; otherwise it would bend when pushing it into the scarf. when you think it is stiff enough, file the end to a long needle point. cut it off about ins. long. bend the blunt end down at right angles / in. place this end against the back of the pin in such a way that the bent end will be against the plate and a little above the centre. bind it in place and solder it on tight. be careful to heat just as little of this pin as possible, for you remember that heating a piece of silver red hot softens it, and you must heat it red hot to solder. so confine the heating to as small a space as possible. sometimes i soak a piece of cloth in water and wrap it around the pin, covering up all except the part to be soldered. this prevents it from softening. [illustration] _to place the stone:_ the stone is put in and the bezel is pushed against it and holds it in place. this is a very plain scarf pin without any pretence at design. scarf pins can be made in all shapes, sizes, and all sorts of cut out designs. all silver should be polished smooth and made free from scratches. the polishing hardens the surface of the metal. this is why silver jewellery of all kinds becomes brighter and smoother the longer it is worn. _setting of stones in scarf pins:_ there are many ways of setting stones for scarf pins. the setting just described is called a box setting, the bezel forming the box to receive the stone. the open or prong setting is made in the same way as that kind of setting is made for the stone in the ring. xv necklaces, brooches, bracelets necklace [illustration] this necklace is made on the basis of a circle ins. in diameter. most necklaces having pendants are about this size. the design of this necklace is very simple. one stone is set in the pendant and this shows on both sides. the whole is connected by silver links. the stones, one either side of the pendant, between the links of the chain, are set in the same way as you set the stones in the scarf pin and rings. the only work to be done which is different from any you have done before is the making of chain links. _material:_ no. or round silver wire, the amount depending upon the size of the chain. stones, carefully selected. [illustration] _directions:_ draw the design of your necklace on a piece of paper. place the stones at intervals. when they seem well proportioned draw the chain links between them. the length of the links will depend entirely upon your setting. when you have decided just how many links go between the stones on your design, measure off the length of one of those links. round links do not hang as well as oval links, neither do they look so well. [illustration] [illustration] _to make the links:_ take a piece of iron / in. in diameter and file the two sides oval in shape. this is a bar on which you can bend the links. one end of the silver wire is placed against this mandrel and both put into the vise and fastened. bend the wire round and round this iron rod, making the coils as close as you can get them. count each revolution as one link. you can easily count the number of links in your necklace. when you get the number of turns needed, unfasten it all from the vise and pull the rod out. you have a spiral-shaped coil. with a jewellers' saw, saw the length of the spiral on the end of the links. each one will drop off in the shape of a link. this is the very best way to bend up a number of links that will be uniform in size. you will notice that the ends of the link, after it is sawed off, are not opposite each other. push these ends together, using the fingers or a pair of pliers. if the sawing is carefully done the links will be ready to solder. solder first one link in the usual way. hook the other link into it. repeat until the chain is the desired length. if the proper amount of solder is placed on the joint it will run in without making lumps to be filed off later. _pendant:_ the pendant is made in the same way as the watch fob, which is explained in a later chapter. the setting of the stones in the chain is done as other stone setting, except that the ends are filed into shape to receive the links for joining. fastenings for the necklace can be bought at any jewellery store. it is much better to buy them than to attempt to make them. square silver wire can be used to mark out the design, or any design, instead of round wire, and great variety can be secured merely by a change in the shape of the wire used for the links. again, you may have a necklace with or without the pendant; the so-called bar necklace, the dog collar, or the chain may be lengthened until it becomes the watch chain. in the group picture of necklaces there is one necklace made up of long flat links joined together by small links soldered on. the design for the necklace is sawed out. it is used for a necklace and watch chain. this is only one of many suggestions for sawed out design work applied in this way. collar slide [illustration] collar slides make very pretty pieces of jewellery. three form a set, and they are easily made. these given here are all made of silver with turquoise setting. the centre slide is usually a trifle larger than the other two. a piece of ribbon is slipped through a little wire slot put on the back of each slide for that purpose. any colour ribbon that blends with the silver and turquoise looks well. _material:_ one piece silver, / × - / ins. (for centre slide). two pieces silver, / × - / ins. (for other two). three stones well matched. piece of no. silver wire, ins. long. _directions:_ cut out the shape as the picture shows and saw out the inside according to the design, leaving a flat space at the top large enough for the stones you have selected. set the stone the same as you did stones for rings, scarf pins, etc. after the bezel is in place for soldering, cut off a piece of no. wire, and bend it in the shape of the sketch given here. this is soldered on the back of the slides. bind this on at the same time you bind on your bezel, wash with borax, and solder both. do same on each one. file down the bezel, put the stone in place and push the bezel against the stone by rubbing. polish and finish. this design will no doubt suggest many ways of making slides. [illustration: collar slide] brooches and bar pins [illustration] brooches and bar pins are made in much the same way as scarf pins. the bezel is soldered as to a flat bar of silver to receive the stone. but, in place of the stick pin, brooches have a bar, hinged on one end, and a little catch hook on the other. these bars and catch hooks can be bought very cheaply at almost any jewellery store, and cheaper than one can make them. however, if you wish to make that part of the brooch or bar pin yourself you can do so in the following way: take a piece of silver ins. long and / in. wide, no. . round this piece of silver up by driving on the wide side about one inch from the end. keep doing this till the piece of silver is about / in. square. drive the four corners down, and you have an -sided bar. if these corners in turn are hammered down you have a -sided piece, etc. continuous hammering reduces this bar to a round piece of silver about one inch long. the end should be flattened down according to the sketch ( ). [illustration] _to make the hinge (staple and hook):_ take a piece of silver, no. , / in. wide and / in. long. bend it up in the shape of a staple, square at the end ( ). the piece for the hook can be made at the same time you make the piece for the pin. use a piece of wire / in. × / in. long. after hammering, bend it like the sketch ( ). [illustration] _to put the staple and hook together:_ drill a / -in. hole in the staple very close to the top. drill one in the flat shank of the pin also close to the top. (see sketch.) put a silver rivet in and rivet the two together, making a hinge. place this on the bar pin or brooch and then put the hook in its proper position. now you can get the exact length the pin should be. cut it off long enough to let the end project through the hook about / in. file this to a needle point and polish very smooth. if it is rough it will not push through any kind of cloth easily. to solder, bind the pin and hook to the brooch or bar pin, and solder as you would any other piece. polish and finish up as you have done before. bracelet with sawed out design and stone settings _material:_ one piece of no. silver, × / ins. one piece of no. , / in. by any length needed for the number of bezels required. three or five stones (turquoises blend well with silver). [illustration: bracelet with stone] _tools:_ saws, saw frame, drill press and drills, small files, borax and solder. _directions:_ secure small stones of uniform size and the same colour, or colours that blend well together. if the stones selected are too large the bracelet is apt to have a heavy or clumsy look. bracelets should be fine, and above everything else dainty looking. take your -in. piece of silver and divide it into five equal parts if there are to be five stones, and three equal parts if three stones are to be used. lay each stone in its section and mark the outline with pencil on the silver. the sawed out design is a matter of spacing between the stones. the design shown here is a good one for this. you will see that the spaces between the stones are cut away so that the stones stand out as the design rather than the bracelet itself. [illustration: section of bracelet] if you are working out the design given here, drill holes and saw out the spaces. do this while the silver is in a straight piece, also file these slots or spaces true and straight, rounding the edges both ways. at the same time round the outside edges both ways, too. this makes the bracelet free from sharp edges and it will feel comfortable to the touch. shape the bracelet, bending it as you have bent other bands. there is danger, when bending this, of the weak places, where the open spaces come, bending in sharp angles. to avoid this put the greatest strain on the solid places and bend these first. bring the two ends tight together, then bind and solder. when you have taken off the binding wire, file down any thickness left at this joint flush with the silver band. bracelets are both oval and round in shape. choose one of the two shapes and round the bracelet up in that form. now cut the silver for the bezels long enough to go around each stone. these are all soldered in the usual way, then filed to fit and lie flat on the bracelet. place the bezels on the solid places and bind each one separately. place a little bit of silver solder on the inside of each. be careful to wash the joint made in the band with a little clay to prevent its melting during the soldering of the bezels. if the bracelet during the soldering has lost its shape round it up again. file all the bezels down so that the tops are perfectly smooth. file off any rough spots in the circle or bracelet and polish it all inside and outside. shape a soft piece of pine wood to fit the inside of the bracelet. put this wood into the vise and put the bracelet on it. now set the stones, one by one, and rub the bezels tight against them. polish with rouge or pumice. the indian bracelet the open bracelet is really an indian design. take a piece of silver wire, / × ins. long. hardened silver is best. it can be gotten just as silver wire that has been softened can be bought. cut a piece / in. long from each end. place these pieces on a piece of charcoal. with the blow pipe melt these pieces. each will run into a little silver ball. solder the balls to the end of the silver wire, one on each end. bend the wire now in the shape of a bracelet. you can make the two balls just touch or you can leave them about an inch apart. polish in the usual way. if the balls are carefully soldered on to the ends of the wire they make a very effective decoration. [illustration: indian bracelet] xvi spoons and picture frame silver spoons: ( ) teaspoon, ( ) sugar tongs, ( ) mustard spoon, ( ) salt spoon and salt-cellar. _material:_ no. sterling silver × - / ins. _tools:_ hard wood block, drill press and / -in. drills, jewellers' saw and frame, files, shears, and raising hammer. [illustration] _directions:_ examine carefully any teaspoons you have at home. these will suggest ideas for designs. they will give you a clearer notion of how teaspoons are made than any sketch you may see. when you have decided upon your design, draw it on paper and cut out your pattern. paste this pattern upon the piece of silver. you cannot cut this metal with a pair of shears. put it into the vise and cut it out with a cold chisel as you did the paper knife, or you can cut it out by placing it upon the flat stake and, with the chisel held vertically, driving the chisel into the silver. you will find the vise best, however. now you have the outline of a spoon with the same thickness all the way through. if you have examined a teaspoon carefully you will see that the bowl of the spoon itself is thinned toward the outer edge, and that the handle is tapered toward the end. the thickness of the metal is left at the short bend of the spoon where it meets the bowl. now place the large end on the anvil stake and with the raising hammer (round end) drive down on the metal, thinning it out and at the same time shaping it into a spoon bowl. your silver widens out and makes the bowl larger than it should be. cut off the surplus silver. it is much better to have to cut down to the size than to be compelled to stretch the silver out, as it were, to a certain size. in one case you can stop when you have the proper thickness, but in the other you might make the metal too thin for practical purposes, in order to get it wide enough. _handle:_ handles should be tapered out from the thickest part to the end, and left large enough on the end to saw out or file into shape any design you may wish to make. don't work your problem too close so far as material is concerned. any waste material in silver can be returned and exchanged for full value. hammering any metal hardens it. when this silver becomes hardened anneal it, but just enough to allow you to shape it up. however, the last annealing should be done some time before the hammering is finished so that the last work on it will harden it sufficiently to prevent its bending when in use. hand made spoons have a beauty about them not matched by those mechanically made. if this handle is to have a sawed out design, the drilling and sawing are done as before described. the finishing should be carefully done. round the edges so that they feel smooth and comfortable. after polishing, the spoon is ready for use. sugar tongs with claws [illustration] _material:_ no. gauge silver, × / in. _directions:_ make your pattern and mark it off on the strip of silver. either saw or cut off the surplus material. drill two holes where the holes are shown, for the claws. saw down to these holes. do this on either end. you now have three prongs, the middle one a little wider than the other two. take the pliers, grasp the points of the outer two and turn them outward, forming a claw. file them until they have the shape shown by the design. do the same on both ends. file the whole piece up, rounding the edges nicely. notice that the edge view given in the drawing shows the centre thinner than either side. this is flattened down and the flattening of the silver hardens it, so that when it is turned it acts like a spring. when you have flattened the centre part out to the thickness of the drawing, place it on a wood block and with a chisel-shaped wood peg drive in the centre, making the inside slightly concave, and rounding the top side a little. this will bend the tongs like the design. shape the claw ends to fit the sketch on a hard wood block, using a mallet. before bending the silver into shape take the wood peg, place the claws on the wood block, and with the wood peg drive down and slightly concave the centre of the claws. all design work must be put in when the metal is in a straight piece. sugar tongs with bowls these are made in the same way as the tongs with claws. in the place of claws you make the bowl spoon shaped on the wooden block, using a mallet. the spoon bowl should not be larger than / × / in. finish and treat in the same way as the sugar tongs with claws. mustard spoon, salt spoon and cellar [illustration] _material--mustard spoon:_ no. silver, / × ins. _directions:_ to make a mustard spoon like the sketch given here, measure / in. off the end of the silver stock. this makes the bowl of the spoon. flatten the end down, thinning it out toward the edge. file the bowl round. place it on a block and hammer it into a plain simple bowl shape very deep. one inch from the handle end flatten it out, thinning it out toward the end. file to shape, and bend as shown in the sketch, similar to a teaspoon. salt spoon and cellar [illustration] _material--spoon:_ / × - / ins., no. . _directions:_ salt spoons are made in the same way as mustard spoons. however, the handle is shorter, and the bowl is oval shaped and not quite so deep. any little sawed out design may be placed on the handle, same as the teaspoon design. using the same design, a set can be made to match. [illustration] _material--salt-cellar:_ silver no. , disc ins. in diameter. _directions:_ take the -in. silver disc. draw on it a -in. circle in the middle. place it on an anvil stake and drive it into shape like the sketch given here. this is done in the same way as the base of the chalice was hammered up. hammer marks should be left. they add to the design itself. when you have driven it up, see that the bottom is flat, so that it sits level on the table. trim the top off and file the edges round. _salt-cellars with fluted sides:_ there are many ways of making salt-cellars. some have straight sides, some have tops bent over, some are saucer shaped, and some have fluted sides. take the -in. disc, and divide it into equal parts. file out in a hollow block a round depression and with the mallet and a wood peg to fit the depressions drive each of the divisions into the depression. narrow the scallops toward the bottom, both in width and depth. keep within the angle formed by the divisions. as you repeat one after the other you will notice the sides beginning to turn up and shape themselves into a cup similar to the first salt-cellar. the base of this should be one inch in diameter. finish up and file as you did the others. [illustration] small silver picture frame _material:_ one piece no. , / × ins. one piece no. , -in. disc ( -in. hole sawed out of centre). one piece no. , - / × / ins., for feet. [illustration] _directions:_ bend the strip of silver, / × ins., to fit the outside edge of the disc. cut off the ends, and solder. push the disc into the ring made and solder the ring into the disc, keeping the edges flush with the surface of the disc. file off the soldered joints smoothly. _feet:_ saw out the design for the feet according to the drawing, and solder them on to the back edge of any part of the circle. this must be done with hard solder. before soldering the feet on, paint the joints already soldered with clay, wash and paint the opening where the heat is applied for soldering on the feet. the edge of the -in. circle is bevelled slightly. to do this place the edge on an anvil stake and with a very light hammer drive gently down, bending inwardly. if this is carefully done it will require no finishing except the polishing. the frame is now ready for the glass. any kind of window glass may be cut to fit the inside. a little card board frame is made to hold the glass and picture into place. take a strip of card board / in. wide, long enough to bend into a circle to fit the inside of the silver frame tightly. cut a disc of card board to fit the card board circle. glue the disc and circle together. cover with velvet, so as to hide the card board. fasten to the back a little stand for holding the picture in proper position. this, too, is made of card board and covered with the same material. xvii watch fobs watch fobs of silver or copper background, with silver initials [illustration] the few designs shown here are easily worked out in either metal. many handsome watch fobs of silver alone, or copper plain, or copper and silver lettering can be made from an elaboration of these designs. college students delight in copper fobs with silver lettering, symbols of their fraternities, or figures representing their class year. the white of the silver and red brown of the copper blend very well together. the fobs may be set with a single stone, or a number of stones, and, again, symbols may be sawed out of the silver sheet. [illustration] _material:_ silver, no. gauge. copper, no. gauge. the size of the piece of metal depends upon the size you wish to make the fob. _tools:_ solder, rivets, shears, drill press and drills, saw frame and saw. _directions:_ after deciding upon the design, draw it on paper and cut it out. paste this pattern on the silver sheet and cut out along the outline. if there is any cut out work to be done, drill the holes and saw the design out. if you are making a silver fob and you wish to enrich it by setting stones, decide upon your stone, make a bezel out of no. silver, and proceed to set the stone as you did in the ring. if the background is copper with silver initials riveted upon it, saw out the slot for the strap to go through, and polish the surface free from all scratches and lines. file the slot round so it will not cut the leather strap. polish by tearing a little narrow strip of emery cloth the length of the sheet and pushing it through the slot backward and forward, pressing down on the top and bottom of the slot. this tends to round it and to polish out the file marks. mark the initials on the silver and saw them out. be sure that the stems of the letters are wide enough to allow holes for riveting. put only enough rivets in to hold the letters in place. two are usually enough, except with the letters v and w. the more carefully you follow the lines of the letters, the less filing you will have to do later. however, even with the greatest care some filing must be done and since these letters are the principal part of the decoration, they should be filed square, smooth, and a little rounding on the edges of the face side. keep the side to be riveted against the plate flat, so it will fit snugly when fastened. when the holes have been drilled in the letters, place them on the copper plate in the proper position and scratch through one hole with a sharp instrument. drill a hole through this point the same size as the holes in the letters. rivet these on with silver rivets. square the letters up on the plate, drill the remaining holes, and rivet. if the rivet is driven down good and snug the end of the rivet can be filed flush with the top of the silver. if one should wish to use rivets for decorative purposes they should be arranged in a definite way. while riveting the ends be careful to round them up instead of making them flush. xviii napkin ring, silver comb, belt buckles napkin ring (silver or copper) _materials:_ no. gauge (either material), × - / ins. individual napkin rings may be made either of silver or copper. most rings are made of the silver, but copper lends itself very well for them. the design may be pierced, or etched out with acid. but the design work should always be done while the metal is in a straight piece. all napkin rings are made in this way. [illustration] _directions:_ take the silver or copper sheet and round the edges. file the two ends that are to be soldered together perfectly flat so that they will meet with the least possible opening. bend the metal in shape around a hard wood peg. bind with binding wire, wash with borax. then place bits of silver solder along the inside and solder. after soldering, remove the binding wire and file the joint on the inside and outside, until it is all perfectly smooth. polish and finish. make a copper napkin ring in the same way. [illustration: napkin ring] cuff links [illustration] cuff links may be made of gold, silver, copper, or brass. often the design is worked out in the metal alone, again engraving is added, or enamel or stones. the designs given here are merely suggestions. any one of them works out well in the metal. you will notice that some have a ball on one end of the link and a plate on the other, while some have the double plates. again, some are made with loose links joining the two heads. the link is loosened and pushed through the hole in the cuff and then hooked on to the plate. one must be careful to make the plates on a pair of cuff links small enough to go through the buttonhole of a cuff. _material:_ for plain oval pair of cuff links. two pieces of no. silver, / × / in. two pieces of silver wire, no. , / in. _directions:_ mark the design by drawing an oval on the two plates of silver. keep length and diameter of both the same. clip off the sides and shape to design. save the small pieces of silver clipped off, as they will be used to make the balls at the other end of the cuff link. with the file, bevel the edge and smooth all down. place the plates on a wooden block and curve them a little. take the scraps of silver you cut from the plates, place them in two separate groups on a piece of charcoal, and heat it until they melt. when the pieces melt they form themselves into balls. when these silver balls are cool enough to handle with a pair of pincers, cool them off in water. file away any part of the ball a little flat and solder the silver rod to the ball. solder the other end of the silver rod to the curved side of the oval piece. bend the connecting rod, like the picture. this forms the link. do the same with the other link. then file, polish, and finish. if stones are to be set, the bezels are made and put on the flat plates and soldered on at the same time the plate is soldered to the link. the stone is placed in position after it is all finished. silver comb the comb described here is of medium size. it can be made larger, or smaller, as the working principle is the same. [illustration] _material:_ no. , silver, - / × - / ins. three pieces of no. silver for the bezels. the size of the pieces depends upon the size of the stones. three turquoise stones. [illustration: boys from eleven to fourteen years of age doing metal work in the country a great variety of work is going on. some boys are making square copper trays, some are working on bowls, while a number are doing jewelry work.] _directions:_ take the silver plate, - / × - / ins., and divide it across the shorter dimension into places corresponding to the number of teeth in the design. be extremely careful about the spacing. centre punch these divisions and drill holes about in. from the edge through each one equal to the thickness of each tooth. here the thickness would be about / in. [illustration: suggestions for belt buckle for a lady. can be worked in brass, copper, or silver stone setting] with a sharp tool draw lines from these holes to the outer edge. be careful to have all the lines running parallel to each other. place the saw through the holes and saw the divisions out, keeping as close to the line as possible. when they are all sawed out, file each tooth separately, rounding each one a little. do this filing most carefully, for the least roughness left will pull the hair when the comb is put in place. the extreme point of each tooth should be sharp, after a gradual taper from about / the length of the tooth to the end. this can all be done with a file. the comb is now ready to bend in shape. place it on the round stake and with a hammer curve it until it forms an arc of a -in. circle. most combs are curved to that degree. _stones:_ cut strips of silver for the bezels, long enough to fit exactly around the stone. set the stones on the same way as you did those for rings and pins. polish and finish. xix enamelling enamel is a glass fused to the surface of metals, for decorative purposes. it is bought in flat discs about / in. thick and weighing from to ounces. these discs are broken up so that one is able to buy enamel in small quantities. it comes in any colour and when put upon the surface correctly the colour does not change and it is not affected afterward by atmospheric influences. _tools:_ one needs few tools for this work. a wooden mallet, a mortar and pestle, and a small spoon used to put the enamel on the metal when filling the design will be found sufficient. the spoon may be made by taking a / -in. piece of silver or copper wire with about / in. of the end flattened down spoon shaped. file this end round and smooth so there will be no ragged edges. _process:_ when you have decided upon the colour which you wish, put as much enamel as you will need into the mortar and cover it with clear water. the water washes the enamel and prevents it from flying out as it is broken up. place the pestle on the pieces of enamel and tap gently upon the end of the pestle with the wooden mallet, till the enamel is broken up into fine pieces. while doing this the water will become discoloured. drain the water off and pour fresh water on. repeat this so long as the water becomes discoloured. with the pestle grind the enamel to a fine paste. press down upon the pestle, at the same time give it a twisting movement with the wrist. when the water remains clear and the enamel is pasty and free from lumps it is ready for use. while using it keep it just covered with clear water. this prevents its drying and in this dampened state it is in the best working condition. _how to place the enamel on the metal:_ with the small spoon pick the enamel up out of the mortar, place it on the metal and press it down into any depression. keep it well moistened all the time. repeat this until the whole depression is covered. if any part is left uncovered, that part will show black after firing. then each black spot must be scraped clean, covered with enamel again and refired, which makes much unnecessary work, so be careful at the first to place the enamel just where it should be on the metal, and so avoid the extra work and firing. _the muffle furnace:_ this is a small furnace made for the purpose of melting enamels by what is called a reflected heat. the muffle is a half rounded, shaped clay form open only at one end, into which the piece to be fired is put. the flame of the furnace plays on the outside of this muffle. the temperature is raised to the required heat and the piece inside the muffle is fired without having any flame playing directly upon it. the reflected heat does the work. these furnaces can be bought in almost any general supply store. they come in all sizes. natural or artificial gas can be used for heating; the regular hose or tube attachment is all that is necessary. _the piece in place for firing:_ it is usually best to light the oven before you begin to place the enamel on the work to be fired. the furnace heats up in the meantime. place the piece on the top ledge of the furnace close to the chimney. this is a good place to dry the moisture out of the enamel. if this is not done the steam generated by the moisture and the heat causes explosions, which in turn disturb the enamel surface and dislodge small particles of the enamel. when the steam has stopped rising from the enamel--which you can tell by holding the piece between you and the light--the moisture has dried out and the work can be put into the muffle by use of a long pair of muffle tongs. extreme care must be taken when placing the piece to be fired into the furnace. the enamel is now very dry. the particles are no longer held together by the moisture and the least jar will dislodge them. the doors of the furnace are usually in two pieces, so that the upper half can be lifted away from time to time. one can look in and watch the process of melting. when the enamel is first put into the furnace and the heat begins to melt it, it rapidly changes colour. as it begins to melt it settles down and takes on a glassy, soft, smooth surface. at this point it is ready to take out. it is placed again on the top of this furnace, where it cools off slowly, otherwise the difference in expansion between the metal and the glass would cause the surface to crack. after one or two trials one easily recognizes the critical time when the enamel is well baked. these directions are only for enamelling flat surfaces. if one should wish to enamel both the inside and outside of a box lid rounded on the top and curved on the under side, a few large drops of gum arabic should be mixed with the enamel used for the under side. this prevents it from dropping off when in position for firing. when the work has cooled off so that it can be handled, it will show a surface every part of which is covered, if carefully done. if not the black spots will appear. these are copper spots oxidized by the heat, and must be thoroughly scrubbed and scraped. the enamel edges around these spots must be scraped away, covered with enamel, and refired. if there are no spots shown, the work is ready for finishing. you will find on the upper edge of the enamel line a black line caused by the impurities in the enamel which rise to the top edge. scrape this off with a fine file until it entirely disappears. the copper, too, usually takes on beautiful colours during the heating process. many like to leave the colours just as they happen to come by the heat, others prefer to polish the surface to bring out the real copper colours rather than the oxide colours. to clean the oxide off one must put the piece into a pickling bath made up of one part of sulphuric acid to eight parts of water. this softens the scum on the surface of the metal so that a soft rag dipped into any cleaning material like pumice stone will easily clean it off. two methods of enamelling _cloisonné:_ in this work the design is done usually in coloured enamels, which are separated one from another by means of ribs of metal bent so as to follow the outlines of the design. these ribs are placed on the plaque, and a drop of solder here and there keeps them in place. the coloured enamels are filled in between these ribs and fired as before explained. _champlevé:_ in this method the partitions between one colour and another are formed by ridges of the base and not by separated ribs of metal. these ridges are made by driving the metal with chasing tools from the under side up and raising it above the surface. the spaces between these walls are filled in with enamel, and it is all fired as explained before. the lid on the rose jar as shown in the group is an example of this kind of enamelling. imitation patina (green tint on copper) the best method of obtaining a coating resembling patina is to immerse the article in a solution of nitrate of copper, and then to place it while still wet in a chamber containing an abundance of carbolic acid. in this case the development of the green incrustation may be observed from day to day. if after a week the object has not yet obtained the proper colour, it must be again dipped in the above solution, and this operation is repeated till the desired shade has been acquired. as the formation of this green colour proceeds in the same way as in the open air, but more rapidly, a handsome and permanent coating of green can be produced by this means. chemical metal colouring _how to put a thin coating of colouring on the surface of metals by chemicals:_ a great variety of shades may be obtained simply through heat. the colours ordinarily produced on copper articles by means of heat come through the polishing. any metal whose surface is highly polished will take on a number of different colours, beginning at a straw colour and changing to a dark straw, purple, dark blue, light blue, and steel or gray, by heating the piece to be coloured to a temperature of ° f. _barium sulphide and water (a very good composition for colouring metal):_ immerse object until it assumes desired tint from light brown to violet to black. heat gently over bunsen flame until a rich deep violet appears. after it is cool rub with soft cloth. _patina imitation (a very good composition for the greening of copper):_ part sal. ammoniac, parts cream tartar, parts salt, parts hot water, parts nitrate of copper. saturate soft cloth and rub or sprinkle the solution on the copper. let stand in the open air ten or twelve hours. wash the colour off with clear cold water. tone down to suit. another way of colouring metal. silver. _to oxidize silver:_ the following is a solution commonly used for oxidizing silver: potassium sulphide, grains, water, fluid ounces. the variety known as liver or sulphur is generally used, and imparts a reddish brown colour to the silver, the colour being darker the darker the solution. it should be worked at or per cent. the stronger the solution the blacker the colour. if ammonium carbonate ( grains) is added to the above formula and is worked hot, a black colour appears upon rubbing with a very fine wire brush. it takes on the colour of black lead. _colouring of brass:_ copper sulphate, ounces; water, just sufficient to dissolve the copper sulphate; ammonia, to neutralize and make slightly alkaline. this will turn brass a very beautiful blue-black colour. copper assumes a very beautiful tint from this solution. _cement for engravers:_ melt best pitch in an iron pot and when completely liquid stir in a mixture composed of two thirds of raw pitch and one third plaster of paris. make a lot of ten pounds. add one half pound mutton tallow, boil and mix thoroughly. should this be too soft, add plaster of paris until you get the desired hardness: lbs. black raw pitch, lbs. plaster of paris, - / lbs. mutton tallow. _to polish enamel:_ after rubbing it down with the corundum file, take a small rod of tin or pewter and after anointing it with fine tripoli or rotten-stone, grind the surface of the enamel evenly with the tin or pewter rod. next take a stick of lime wood and use that with the rotten-stone in the same way and finish with putty powder and stick covered with chamois skin. _to unsolder a piece of work:_ paint those joints which are not to be unsoldered with a mixture of clay water, to which add a little common salt. when dry, scrape the part to be unsoldered and paint it with borax. now heat till solder melts, pick off with pliers or knock it off with a gentle tap. the borax adds flux, thus helping the solder to run at a melting temperature. machinery in metal work: die making most of the jewellery that we see nowadays and also much of the metal work is made under presses or drop hammers. as was shown in the making of the mould for the round copper tray, the skill lies in the making of the design and the making of a mould to fit the design. the description of the making of a match safe by means of die sinking will explain how all die work is done: the design for the match safe is made by the artist, who turns it over to the die sinker. he, in turn, chisels out of a steel block, about ins. square, a depression in which the design fits. if the match safe has an embossed design, this is all chiselled out carefully with small chisels and filed up smoothly so that when a piece of soft lead is driven into the depression it will take the shape of the match safe as designed by the artist. the lead is so soft that it takes the print readily. this lead reproduction shows to the die sinker any imperfection in the die. the imperfections, if there are any, are smoothed down. the driving in of the lead into the depression is repeated from time to time, until the mould is the exact reproduction of the artist's design. the die is now hardened by heating it red hot and cooling in water. when taken out of the water it is placed in the hammer or press. on the ram of the hammer is keyed, directly above this die, a square block of lead. when the hammer falls, the impact of the lead upon the impression produces a reproduction of the impression. this lead piece makes the top die. a piece of thin silver is placed in the steel die over the impression. if the ram is now dropped upon the silver plate it will force the plate into the impression and will stamp the design on the silver. one half of the match box is made in this way. when two of these are made, put together, and soldered, they make a whole match box. thousands of match boxes would be made from this one die. that is the reason why this class of work can be sold so cheaply. the principle explained here is used for the making of tea sets, dinner sets, etc. the same thing is true of the round wood mould you made to make the copper tray in. it can be used to make dozens of trays, all the same size and shape. glossary _alloy:_ base metal added to silver or gold for hardness or colour. also any combination of different metals by fusion. _annealing:_ softening metal by making it red-hot and cooling slowly; for steel, brass, copper, silver, cooling quickly in water. _backing:_ the coating of enamel on the back surface of box lids, to neutralize expanse and contraction, thus preventing top enamel from cracking. _basse-taille:_ low cutting of metal beneath the line of the surface, used in enamelling. the drawing or modelling of the subject is given by the different depths of cutting. _beck iron:_ t-shaped anvil or stake used in hammer work. the arms of the t are long; one is round and slender, and tapering; the other has a flat upper surface. _bossing up:_ beating out sheet metal in the back into rough forms required. _champlevé:_ a process of enamelling on metal in which the ground of the pattern is cut away with a chisel into a series of shallow troughs into which the enamel is melted, the surface being afterward ground smooth and polished. _chasing:_ surface modelling of metal with hammer and punch or chasing tools. _cloisonné:_ an enclosing ribbon wire, which being soldered edgewise on a metal ground makes a trough into which enamel is melted, the ribbon making the division. thus the design is separated. _collar:_ a ring made of stout leather filled with sand or some other soft material used to support the pitch block. _draw plate:_ a flat plate of steel or iron with rows of graduated holes, used for drawing or reducing wire. _face plate:_ a square thick iron plate with the surface perfectly smooth and level to test work on. _flux:_ any material used to protect the surface of metal from oxidation when exposed to heat. borax and water mixed, etc. _graver:_ a kind of small chisel used for cutting metal, or lines on surfaces. _mandrel:_ a rod of wood or iron of any section used either for coiling wire for chains or the making of rings. _matt tool:_ a punch, flat and graduated on one end, used for making groined surfaces on metal. _pickle:_ solutions of various acids in water used for removing the film of oxide and sulphide surface of metal. the acids used are nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, and sulphuric acid, about to . this is strong enough for ordinary work. _pin:_ the hard wood peg fixed in the bench to hold work against to file and fit. _pitch block:_ some iron blocks and wood blocks covered with pitch used as a support for metal in repoussé work or chasing. _planishing:_ beating a plane or level surface to a sheet of metal by the use of a broad smooth-faced hammer on a stake or anvil. also used to give smoothed face to a bowl or cup or other object in sheet metal. _repoussé:_ the method of beating out sheet metal from the back with hammer and punches. _sand bag:_ a flat circular or square bag of leather filled with sand used for bossing up metal upon. _scraper:_ a tool made from an old file by sharpening the point on a stone to a three-sided pyramid; used for scraping clear edges and surfaces to be soldered and for cleaning up work generally. _snarling iron:_ long z-shaped bar of iron fixed in a vise and used for bossing out the surface of vessels from the inside. they act by rebounding from the blow of the hammer near the end fixed in the vise. _tracer:_ a chisel-shaped punch used for cutting for any design or work that requires deep lines. the blacksmith's shop xx blacksmithing and tools let's go to the blacksmith's shop and tell the blacksmith what we have done. you see i've shown you all he taught me about copper, brass, and silver. i promised to take you there when we got through. come on. here we are! this is his shop. mr. blacksmith, this is my friend. i've shown him how to do work in metal and he can do all that you taught me. we both want to learn how to make things out of steel and iron. are you ready to take us on? yes, boys, you are just in time to help me out. and while you are lending a hand i can show you how to make many things that every boy can learn to do with iron and steel. come into the shop. first i'll tell you about the blacksmith shop equipment. this is my forge and bellows, with the coal heap at the side; here is the anvil and here are my tools. you see it doesn't take a blacksmith long to name the things he needs to equip his shop. but you must know how each thing is used and what it is used for. let me draw you a picture of the forge on this board and explain to you how it is built. [illustration] _a_ is the chimney. you see it has an opening in the bottom to let the smoke go up. _b_ is a leather bellows. it is placed back of the chimney out of the way of sparks from the forge fire. the nozzle of the bellows goes through a hole ending on the hearth of the forge. _c_ is the hearth where the coal is placed. _d_ is a nest in the centre of the hearth, called a tuyere. through this opening the blast from the bellows enters the coal heap. the whole forge is built of brick and mortar. modern forges are made of iron and steel and have a sheet iron hood in place of a brick chimney. but the principle of the tuyere, where the blast enters the forge, is the same as we blacksmiths have always used. now i'll build the fire in the forge. here in this box are some shavings. i save all my shavings and put them here to start my fire with. place the shavings over the tuyere and light them. let them burn for a little while, then cover the whole with this soft bituminous coal. this kind of coal is free from sulphur and phosphorus, and it cokes very nicely when the gas and tar are burnt out. now it's time to use the bellows. you can take hold of this handle and pull down. the weights on the bottom pull the handle up again. sometimes weights are placed on the top board. this helps to increase the air pressure. notice that the bellows hang in a frame and the centre axis is fastened to the upright, allowing the upper and lower half to rise and fall. when the lower half falls it sucks the air in through a little trap door on the bottom, and when raised the trap door closes and the air is forced through the nozzle into the tuyere on the forge. this alternates, first taking the air in and then forcing the air out. pump gently at first, then the coal will not smother the fire. that volume of smoke coming up is mostly from the burning shavings and it goes right up the flue. this blue flame that you see now shows that the gases are burning in the coal. when they are burnt out the coals give a red glow. now the bright fire is shown through the coal. put your poker into the coal heap and raise it gently. the opening made on the top is a vent for the heat to escape and prevents the fire blowing into the shop. an opening like this should always be left at the top, on account of the oxygen which is being pumped in constantly. sprinkle a little water on the coal around the outside of the fire. this helps to pack the coal down tight and keep the fire in a confined space, for it is apt to spread and use up much more coal than is needed. you see, boys, this is an old-fashioned blacksmith shop. most of the work done here is horseshoeing, though we have many complex things brought in for us to repair, none of which can be turned away. all these shoes hanging on the rafters are for horses and mules. the mule's shoe, you see, is a different shape from the horse's shoe. i make these in my spare moments and we call them stock shoes. notice that the stock shoes have no heels or toes on them. these are put on when the shoe is made to fit the horse's foot. shoes are now made by machinery and i buy them when i haven't time to make them. but they, too, must be fitted to the foot, for they come only in stock form. now i'm going to show you how to make a horseshoe. i'll make it out of this piece of steel tire from a wagon wheel. we use all this kind of scrap to make the stock shoes. that's why our made shoes can be sold cheaper than the manufactured shoes, if we have the time to make them. steel is being used in place of iron in all branches of industry. a steel shoe weighing half a pound will wear as long as an iron shoe weighing one pound. this piece of steel tire which i am using is in. wide and / in. thick. i want to keep the thickness / in., but reduce the width to / in. to do this the end of the piece of metal is put into the forge fire. as soon as it is hot enough, i take it out and place it, edge up, on the anvil, and with the hand hammer draw it out any length i wish. you see that driving down on the edge of the hot bar thickens it. now turn it over and drive on the flat side. you must keep driving first on the edge and then on the side until it is the right size. this is called stretching the metal out. now the bar is long enough to bend in the shape of a letter u. heat about ins. of this bar and then place it on the largest part of the anvil horn. strike on the projecting end with a hand hammer. it bends easily into the shape. [illustration] [illustration] [illustration] take the chisel-shaped tool. the edge of this tool makes the groove to fit the nail heads. every horseshoe has eight rectangular holes for nails, four on each side. these are punched through with this punch, and are made just large enough to fit the horseshoe nail heads. now you see a stock shoe, and it is just like the dozens i have hanging on the rafters. but before the shoe is placed on the horse's foot it must have the front piece, called the toe calk, welded on and the ends of the shoe turned up for heels. to make the toe calk i take a piece of iron or steel about × / × / in. the end of this piece is prepared like this: [illustration] the little projection is made very sharp so that it can stick into the hot iron. in this way it is kept in place during the process of welding. when the calk is made i heat the shoe and place the calk in the proper position. the calk is cold and the little projecting point is easily driven into the hot iron. now that it is held in place it must be welded on. iron and steel are welded together only by the use of a flux. there are many kinds of fluxes used. for this i shall use _borax_. i buy it by the pound and it comes in boxes like this. sprinkle a little on the calk, heat it in the fire, watch the fire. when the metal is hot enough to weld you will notice a brown smoke coming from the fire. that tells you the borax is burning. there, see the smoke! now i must take the shoe out quickly and place it on the anvil. a few quick, light blows upon the calk and the welding is done! the hammering must be done quickly after the shoe has been taken out of the fire, or the cold air will lower the temperature and prevent the metal from uniting. there, it's welded! now i shape it and fit it to the horse's foot. the heels can't be bent up until i know just how long the horse's foot is. i measure by placing it on the hoof. then the two ends of the shoe are bent and driven down so that the height of the heels equals the height of the calk. now, boys, this is a hand made shoe. when you know how to use the fire and the tools it is an easy problem to make a horseshoe. [illustration: the modern forge. an ideal forge for use when electric power is available] [illustration] so it is with all blacksmiths' work. there is not anything about it you can't do. any boy can build his own blacksmith shop if he has a shed or shelter large enough to keep the rain from a forge, anvil, and some tools. you needn't have the big, old-fashioned brick forge like mine. here is a picture of a portable forge that i can recommend. it can be bought at almost any store that deals in hardware supplies. it is small and handy and can be easily taken from place to place. you can buy any size anvil you wish. they come in all sizes, weighing from five pounds to five hundred pounds. here is a list of tools which will do all the work, both ornamental and plain, which you may wish to do. get this equipment, then build your shop. blacksmiths' tools some of these tools you have used in your copper, brass, and silver work. you will need your vise, files, your various punches, dividers, hand cold chisel, and square. in addition, you should have the following: [illustration] [illustration: position of fullers] [illustration: top fuller] [illustration: bottom fuller] [illustration: bottom swage] [illustration: top swage] [illustration: swages in position] _hand hammer:_ a hand hammer is used more than any other tool in the shop. the flat face is used for shaping material and the round plain for riveting, etc. the top and bottom fullers are used for making depressions in iron and steel. this process is called fullering. the top and bottom swages are used for rounding square iron or steel or reducing large sizes to smaller ones. hot and cold chisels are both used for cutting iron. as the name shows, one is used for hot iron and one for cold iron. gouges are for cutting ornamental shapes on sheet iron or steel, hot or cold. calipers are used for measuring diameters. the broad flat surface of the flatter smoothes rough places. the set hammer is used to make square shoulders. it is a small hammer and does the work in narrow places which larger tools cannot reach. this sledge weighs about eight pounds. it is used where heavy hammering or driving is needed, and in conjunction with such tools as swages, fullers, set hammers, etc. the hardie is a sharp cutting tool used to cut small pieces of iron and soft steel while hot or cold. tongs are of all sizes. those most called into use have the following shapes: the shovel for the fire must be small and strong so the clinker formed on the bottom can be shoveled out without carrying too much coal with it. a poker, rake, and dipper also are needed for use about the fire. [illustration: hot chisel] [illustration: cold chisel] [illustration] [illustration] [illustration] [illustration: set hammer] you know now all the tools needed to equip a shop. i want to tell you about the fuels, such as coal and charcoal, which you will use, and something about pig iron and wrought iron which i think you ought to know. [illustration] [illustration: hardie] [illustration: tongs] the smoke is the most troublesome thing in a blacksmith's shop. the old-fashioned forge is perhaps the best made to draw the gases and smoke out, except when exhaust fans are used for that purpose. hoods are fitted to pull down over the fire, completely covering the smoke area, and the suction made by the fan will draw all the smoke from the fire. this, of course, is possible only in modern equipped shops. the portable forges that we use have none of this drawing-out system, except through a natural draft chimney, made either of bricks or by extending an iron pipe from the hood through the side of the shed or through the roof. the down-draft system is a hood placed to one side of the fire. it falls over the fire by means of a hinge placed on the hood. this is not as effective as the overhead system on account of the smallness of the hood. the pipes are all underground, otherwise the system is the same as the overhead system. [illustration: water dipper] [illustration: fire tools] _danger of explosion:_ coal gases leak into the tuyere when the blast is shut off. when the blast is put on these gases are blown up into the hot fire and they explode from the heat. they do no harm, except the noise made by the explosion. _fuels:_ the coal used in a blacksmiths' shop is a soft coal called bituminous coal. it is supposed to have less phosphorus and sulphur than any other kind of coal. coal containing either of these ingredients should not be used. sulphur makes iron hot short and phosphorus makes the iron cold short that is, the iron is made brittle while hot by means of the sulphur, and brittle when cold through the effect of the phosphorus. when this soft coal is heated the coal tar is burned out and the coal burns into a coke. _charcoal:_ charcoal is a solid fuel and the very best fuel for heating purposes. it is free from the impurities mentioned here. it is made by burning hard wood in a closed oven or kiln. this kiln in turn burns the wood into lumps of charcoal. the cost makes the only real objection to the use of charcoal as fuel. pig iron iron ore is an oxide of iron containing from per cent. to per cent. iron. the rest is oxygen, phosphorus, sulphur, silica, and other impurities. iron ore is charged into a blast furnace, mixed with limestone as a flux, and melted down, with coke as fuel. the metal which results from this melting is known as commercial pig iron. wrought iron wrought iron is made from pig iron. the pig iron is remelted in a so-called puddling furnace by charging about half a ton at one time into the furnace. while in a molten state it is stirred up with large iron hooks by the puddler. it is kept boiling so as to expose every part of the iron bath to the action of the flame in order to burn out the carbon. the other impurities will separate from the iron and run out of the furnace as slag. the temperature in the puddling furnace is high enough to melt pig iron but not high enough to keep wrought iron in a liquid state. so, as soon as the small particles of iron become purified the partially congealed portion forms a spongy mass, in which small globules of iron ore are in a semi-plastic state. these are gathered up by the puddler and his helper and are formed into a ball on the bottom of the furnace by means of long rabble bars used for this purpose. the ball is about to pounds in weight. these lumps of iron are taken to a large hammer or squeezer. there they are shaped into long blooms to fit the rolls. they are taken right from the squeezer to the rolling mill and rolled out into bars ins. or ins. wide and / in. thick. these bars are called muck bars owing to their spongy-like appearance and the large quantity of cinders which they contain. the muck bars are now cut into lengths of ft. and ft. and are piled on top of each other in blocks of lbs. the blocks are put into a heating furnace and heated to a welding heat. while at this heat they are put through the rolls, thus welding the whole mass together, at the same time reducing the pile to sizes required by the market. when cold these are cut into lengths for use. this is the iron used in most blacksmiths' shops. xxi first problems in forging how to make a stake pin stake pins are used for holding ropes in place, such as those on tents, etc. _material:_ / in. round × ins. long of wrought iron. _tool:_ hand hammer. [illustration: stake pin] _directions:_ this sketch is made full size and it shows a round stake pin with a four-sided tapering end about ins. long. place one end of the bar of iron into the fire. it should be placed so that the iron will be parallel to the bottom of the hearth. all the heating done for this kind of work must be done in a reducing fire. there are two kinds of fires, the oxidizing fire and the reducing fire. the oxidizing fire is one where the quantity of air blown in is not all consumed by the fire. there is an excess of air and an oxide is formed on the iron. this prevents it from heating sufficiently. the reducing fire is one where the blast is in proportion to the consuming power of the fire--that is, just enough air is blown in to be used up by the fire. the greater the temperature the more coal and likewise the more blast required. so that a temperature of ° fahrenheit can be easily gotten on an ordinary forge fire. while the iron is heating it should be drawn out of the forge fire once in a while to be examined. when it has reached a white heat, not sparkling, place it on the anvil, and with a hand hammer begin at the end and drive it into shape according to your sketch. hammer this until the iron begins to darken. place it again in the fire and repeat as before until the thing is finished. a piece of iron may be heated a dozen times while working it into shape. all depends upon the skill and experience of the worker. you will probably learn in this problem that metal will burn in this high temperature the same as a piece of wood and very much quicker. it does not smoulder like wood; it just melts away. it would be well to have the point of the iron stake melt or burn off in this particular case so that you can learn all about the heating, melting, and burning of iron. the fine point on the stake is made by keeping the metal on the extreme outer edge of the anvil, so that the outer half of the hammer face will project over the anvil edge, thus reducing any metal between the two into a very small space. (see position of hand hammer in the article on tools.) when the work is finished the temperature of the metal should be low. this prevents the metal from scaling and gives an opportunity for a smooth finished surface. [illustration: how to make a staple] staples are small u-shaped pieces of iron with pointed ends. they are driven into wood for the purpose of holding some attachment in place. we have staples for barn doors, to catch the gate hook, to fasten chains, etc. _material:_ one piece of / -in. round iron - / ins. long. _directions:_ heat one end of the iron piece. draw it to a square point as was done on the staple pin. flatten this point as shown in the drawing. cut it off square at the extreme end so that it will be quite sharp when finished. repeat on the other end. the piece will now be about - / ins. long, about / in. round in the middle, with square, tapering points. the centre is now heated and the piece is bent over the horn of the anvil to the shape shown in the drawing. in bending this over the horn of the anvil strike with light blows so that the two ends will be the same length. if it is warped or twisted, flatten it out again on the anvil till the flat sides lie in the same plane. gate hook this hook is used for fastening doors as well as gates. the drawing shows a gate hook twisted in the middle. _material:_ one piece of / -in. square iron about - / ins. long. [illustration: gate hook] _directions:_ mark off with the centre punch - / ins. on one end and - / ins. on the other. put the short end into the fire and draw it out until it is / in. square. hammer the corners down, thus rounding the end until it measures / in. in diameter and is about - / ins. long. repeat on the large end and draw this out until it measures - / ins. long. bend the end as shown by the drawing. when both ends are bent in shape put the piece into the fire and heat it red hot between the eye and the hook. place it in the jaws of the vise about in. from the eye, and with a pair of tongs and a wrench grasp the piece about in. from the hook and give it one complete turn. this twists the hook in the centre like the drawing. if it has become bent while twisting it may be straightened by hammering it between two blocks of hard wood. this prevents bruising the sharp edges of the twist. [illustration: harness hook] these large hooks are most useful around a stable and are used to hold harness, bags, etc.; in short, they are general utility hooks. they are simply and quickly made. _material:_ stock / × ins. long round iron. _directions:_ flatten the iron down by heating it red hot. with the hand hammer flatten out one end ins. long, / in. wide × / in. thick. one inch from the shoulder made by the flattening begin to draw out the end to a round straight taper, - / ins. long. bend the flat part over the flat end of the anvil, to fit a joint or any wooden beam (as shown by the sketch), and hook it over the horn. this hook may be made any size according to the purpose for which it is to be used. two-pronged fork [illustration] this two-pronged fork is found useful for pitching hay, fishing, etc. _stock:_ / × × ins. long, soft steel. _directions:_ two inches back from the end of the bar punch a small hole in the middle of the iron. (see method of punching). split the piece with the chisel up to this hole. open the part split and spread at right angles to the shank. heat the piece up at the crotch. with a fuller, fuller down to / in. back of the spread arms. draw the stem out / in. round. now the fork is blocked out ready for finishing. this is done by following the drawings for the dimensions and size. notice that the two ends of the fork are drawn out to a sharp round taper. the stem is drawn out to a sharp square taper, which is to be driven into a wood handle. [illustration: fish spear] _fish spear:_ if this two-pronged fork is meant for a fish spear, used so often in rivers where the current is very swift, the extreme ends are flattened down to a spear point as shown in the drawing. bolts a bolt consists of a stem and a head. bolt heads are of all shapes--square, hexagonal, round, flat, etc.--while the stem is always round. as a rule, the thickness of the head equals the thickness of the stem, and the diameter of the head is about - / times the thickness of the stem. this proportion is generally kept for square and hexagonal bolts. [illustration] [illustration: bolt] _directions:_ out of the piece of iron used enough of the end is upset to make the head. to do this, heat - / ins. from the end of the bar to a bright red heat. take the piece out of the fire, place the hot end on the anvil, and with the bar in a vertical position hammer upon the cold end. the cold end is driven into the hot end, thus shortening or upsetting the bar. this is repeated. the end is heated again and the hammering is continued until the enlarged end has the right proportion for the head of the bolt. (see drawing.) heat the enlarged end again and pass the cold end of the stem through the heading tool. place the heading tool upon the anvil in such a position that the stem passes through the hole in the anvil. the upset end is hammered down against the heading tool until the head is the required thickness. take it off the heading tool and square it up with the hand hammer. if, after squaring up, the head is found to be too small in diameter and too thick, it is again put into the heading tool and hammered down. this is repeated until the head is finished according to the drawing shown. [illustration: bolt in heading tool] all hand-made bolts are made on this principle, whether they are very large or very small. [illustration: collar] [illustration: bolt heads] if a six-sided bolt is desired the same method is used. the head is made six-sided instead of being squared as was done in the first case. the bolt is finally cut to the required length and the end is bevelled off ready for threading. bolts may be made without going through the process of upsetting the stock. in that case the bars used are of any diameter, depending upon the size of the stem needed. bend a piece of iron for a collar to give you the amount of stock required for the bolt head. heat the end of the iron bar. put this hot end into the collar. upset it so that it fills the space in the collar. put it into the fire, then weld and finish as you did in making the head with the end upset. all bolts that are on the market except special bolts are made by bolt heading machines. up to / in. in diameter all bolts are made without the use of heat. those above that size are all heated red hot and the principle is exactly the same as you used when you made the bolt by hand. the machine upsets the head and at the same time shapes it into any desired shape. nuts [illustration] nuts are used in conjunction with bolts for fastening things together or tightening up parts of machines. there are two ways of making nuts; one is to cut a piece of metal off the right length, punch a hole in the middle, and finish it by shaping it on the end of a mandrel or punch. the second way is to weld a collar and shape this on a mandrel. though the second method involves welding and is the more difficult of the two, it is the better method. however, the grain of the metal in the second method runs around the nut, while in the former case it runs lengthwise. for this reason the nut is apt to split when tightened up too tight on the bolt. the method explained here is the easier one of the two: it is the simple process of making the nut by punching the hole. _material:_ stock × / in. of wrought iron, any length. _tools:_ hammer, punch, hot chisel, pair of calipers. [illustration] _directions:_ the drawing here shows each step in the process of making the square nut. measure off - / in. on the bar and with the hot chisel nick on each side almost through. find the centre of the piece and, with the punch, punch a hole through it after heating it red hot. place it on the anvil. place the punch in the centre and drive down from one side until the impression of the punch shows through on the other side. withdraw the punch and turn the piece upside down. place the punch upon the impression shown through, driving down till the centre piece is loosened. it is now put over the hole of the anvil and this loosened centre piece driven out. this leaves a hole in the hot iron. all holes made in hot iron are punched through in this way whether they be large or small. the size of the hole is determined by the size of the punch. [illustration] re-heat the iron, push the punch into the hole made, and by a bending motion break the piece off where it is nicked. the piece now is sticking on to the end of the punch. place them on the anvil and square up the nut while the punch is still in the hole. this prevents the hole from changing its shape while the nut is being driven into shape. it is now taken off the punch and flattened down to the desired thickness. repeat this edging up and flattening down till the nut is finished. hexagonal nuts are made in the same way, except for the squaring up. when the piece is ready for shaping it is made round while on the punch and then made six-sided. it is flattened and edged up in the same manner until the desired size is reached. xxii welding it is often necessary to join together two pieces of iron, or the ends of the same piece, as in forming a circle, so that the joint will form one solid mass. when this is done the pieces are said to be welded together. most of the problems treated so far have had to do with single pieces of iron. often many pieces are welded together to make one forging, as in making the horseshoe. this is called built up work. it is possible to weld any iron surfaces provided no oxide of iron is formed upon the surface. if such a coating occurs welding is impossible. iron heated in the air absorbs oxygen, which results in the oxide formation. there are two ways of guarding against this difficulty: ( ) suitable fluxes, and ( ) reducing fires. the best flux is a sharp sand, usually beach sand. this is sprinkled over the ends to be welded. the sand fuses on to the ends of the iron and excludes the air. the reducing fire is one that consumes all the oxygen that is forced into it by the blast. this is obtained by having a thick bed of fire for the air to pass through before coming into contact with the iron and by keeping the blast pressure low enough to enable the fire to burn all that is admitted. a thick fire, so to speak, should always be kept. to make an iron ring [illustration] the simplest problem for a first weld is a flat iron ring. this drawing shows a ring ins. in diameter on the inside and ins. on the outside. _stock:_ flat piece of iron - / × × / ins. _directions:_ the making of this ring involves the processes of bending and welding. before the bending is done the two ends are upset and made about - / in. thicker than they were, for about in. back from either end. to do the upsetting, place the hot end on the anvil vertically and strike on the cold end with the hammer until the required thickness is obtained. if the end which is being upset was not heated more than - / in., it will probably upset without bending. if heated more than this the probabilities are that it will bend during the process. if it does so, it should be laid upon the anvil and the bend hammered out. when the desired thickness has been obtained scarf the ends as shown in the drawing, using the round end or peen of the hammer to do so. (see scarfing.) do the same to the other end, putting the scarf on the opposite side to the first one. now heat the piece, about half its length, quite hot. place it upon the thickest part of the horn of the anvil, strike upon the end that projects beyond the anvil, and bend it into a ring. the scarfs, being opposite, will now fit and come together. (see drawing.) bend over till the two edges lap. this gives plenty of material where the joint comes, to allow for the waste of the material from the high welding heat and also that needed for the hammering of the metal during the welding. the upsetting is done to allow for this waste, and to give opportunity to reduce the pieces to the required thickness. all welds should be a trifle large at the joint. the driving down edgewise on the horn of the anvil bends the material, but prevents one shaping it to its proper dimensions. that is why in flattening down the weld care must be taken not to widen the iron at that place so that it is too thin. a few trials will make this perfectly clear. a finish on the iron depends upon how skilfully one can use the hammer without unduly marking the metal. small chain [illustration] most chains are made by hand, especially those used for the purpose of lifting heavy loads. small chains, where no special strain is called for, are welded by electricity. there are special factories for the making of chains. most of these factories have rolling mills attached. the material is here rolled out to suit the different size chains that are made. machinery forms the bars of iron into special shapes the size of the links. these in turn are cut by machinery. these links are all of the same size and are cut off on an angle, thus making the scarf. they are taken by the workmen, the ends lapped over slightly, then put into the fire and welded. within the last few years the navy department has taken up the method of welding the large anchor chains by machinery. _stock:_ / in. round, ins. long. [illustration] [illustration: scarf for chain welding] [illustration: link ready to weld the end] _directions:_ the drawing shows the size of each link in this chain. heat the -in. piece in the middle. place it on the horn of the anvil and bend it u-shaped, as you did the piece for the staple. (see articles in welding for chains.) the two ends are the same length. this is perhaps the only weld that is made without upsetting. when the scarfs are made like the drawing, bend the ends so that the scarfs overlap. now it is ready for welding. place the link in the fire. be careful to have the link well covered both above and below with hot coals. let there be just enough blast to increase the heat of the fire. in a little while the sparks will flow up from the iron. at this time the link should be turned upside down in the fire without changing its position. the hottest part of the fire being underneath, the iron will heat there quickest. this turning it upside down finally brings all the parts to be welded in the hottest part of the fire. when these iron sparks begin to show, it is time to take the piece out. place it on the anvil and lightly tap upon the joint. the iron is very soft on account of the intense heat and if the blows are too heavy the iron will flatten out until it is too thin. in that case it would be impossible to finish the piece and make the weld the size it should be when done. if you examine the links of any chain you will have difficulty to find the welded end. the process of welding is not easy at first, but a few trials with the heating of the iron and handling the tools at the critical moment will prove encouraging. chains are usually made by making first one link, then putting the stock for the next link into the first, before bending the second end. all hooks, swivels, or shackles are put on the chain when made, in the same way that you add a link in order to lengthen the chain. welding [illustration: axle welding] [illustration: flatten the ends out; split and push together] [illustration: ring welding] welds are named according to the manner in which the pieces are put together. the principal welds are: ( ) flat welds, ( ) butt welds, ( ) lap welds, ( ) cleft welds, and ( ) jump welds. the selection of the kind of weld to be used in any problem depends upon the form of the pieces of metal to be worked upon. [illustration: hammer peen] _flat welds:_ for flat welds the ends of the pieces of metal are first upset. use the peen of the hammer and draw the metal out thin at the end, flatten it out and narrow it up edgewise at the extreme end. the metal is forced first forward and backward by the hammer strokes. large scarfs are sometimes made by using a fuller. this is a very much quicker way for large work than the one just explained, but one requires a helper to handle the sledge hammer in this case, to strike down on the fuller. [illustration: use of fuller in making scarfs] [illustration: scarfing on edge of anvil] most smiths use the edge of the anvil for making scarfs. place the edge of the metal, after it has been upset, on the edge of the anvil and strike down on the top with a hammer or sledge. this moves the metal with each blow and the end of the bar is increased, making, as it were, a series of steps. it is a process much the same as fullering except in place of the fuller you use the edge of the anvil. this is the quickest way to make a scarf, and the weld depends wholly upon how the scarfs are made in any one of the operations spoken of here. if the scarf is well made it will be a little higher in the middle than at the sides, so that when the pieces are placed together the slag that forms will squeeze out. the welding is done as follows: place the scarfs of both pieces separately in the fire, the scarfs downward. (when we speak of scarfs we refer to the bevelled edge of the roughest part of the scarf.) this prevents any impurities melting on the scarf surface. when the scarf begins to get hot enough to weld, iron sparks will blow out with the blaze. this is the sign to get things in readiness. one cannot linger for a moment when the iron is hot enough to weld. see that the anvil is clean. have the hammer ready in hand. if one has a helper he will handle one piece while the smith handles the hammer and the other piece. if there is no helper a hammer is placed conveniently near the anvil. the two pieces of iron are grasped by the smith, one in either hand, drawn out of the fire and given a sharp rap on the edge of the anvil or forge to remove any dirt or pieces of coal clinging to the scarfs. one piece is placed on the anvil and the other piece is put on top of this. the weight of the second piece holds the first piece in place until such time as the smith can get his hammer ready to strike. as soon as the pieces stick together the ends of the scarfs are welded first. they are the thinnest and will cool the quickest. the body of the piece welds while you are welding the scarfs. both sides are worked upon, first on one and then on the other, till the piece is hammered down to the required size. in trial work it is best for one to use pieces of iron long enough to avoid the use of tongs. [illustration: butt welds] _butt welds:_ if the butt weld is carefully made it is perhaps the safest weld of all. this method is used mostly in welding round iron bars, - / ins. in diameter up to - / ins. they are made as follows: the ends of two bars are heated to a welding heat. then they are brought out of the fire, put in a swage, end to end, and struck on the ends with a sledge hammer. while driving upon the ends the iron upsets when the contact takes place and at the same time the smith is driving the weld down. two processes are acting here, one lengthwise and one downward. this makes the best weld, from the fact that the two ends that come together have a welding heat on the whole surface of each, a condition hard to get in any other kind of weld. [illustration: flat scarf] _lap weld:_ two flat pieces are laid face to face, as shown in picture, and are welded. one must be careful that the two pieces have the same temperature, otherwise the colder piece would cut into the hotter and make a defect. [illustration: split scarf, cleft weld] _cleft weld:_ if the weld is required to stand much strain, such as in parts of a locomotive frame, pieces are generally joined by the cleft weld. one piece is upset and split with a chisel. the two sides are spread apart. the other piece is scarfed on both edges to fit into this opening. if the pieces are very large much of the welding can be done while in the fire. the two pieces are placed together, in the proper position, in the fire. when the heat is hot enough to weld they are driven endwise. this drives the point of the one piece into the crotch of the other. take them out of the fire and place upon an anvil or under a hammer. small pieces are welded in the same way, except they may be driven with a hand hammer on the end just before driving upon the surface. the piece is reduced to the proper size and finished. [illustration] _jump weld:_ when one piece of metal is to be welded at right angles to another piece, a jump weld is made. many are made by using a bob punch, making a hollow depression in a flat piece, and a rounded or button head shape on the end of the upright. heat the end of the upright and also the flat piece around the bob punch hole to a welding heat. take them out of the fire and drive the button head down into the hole made by the bob punch. [illustration: jump weld] [illustration: corner plate] another jump weld can be made in the following way: when square iron is to be welded to square iron, one end is upset and flattened. the other end is simply upset a little when the upright is to be welded to it. these ends are brought to a welding heat, and the work is finished as in the first jump weld. the hammer plays an important part in these jump welds, for the scarf projecting at the base must be welded by the hand hammer. work involving flat welds [illustration] [illustration] _making a corner plate:_ this corner plate shows two pieces of metal, / × × ins. welded in the corners, upset. the ends of the pieces to be joined are scarfed as explained in the flat weld. both pieces are heated, then one placed on the other, driven down, and welded. they are shaped upon the edge of the anvil, and the ends are cut off to the length shown by the drawing. [illustration: t weld] _t weld:_ this is used in making a t plate. the cross piece is upset in the middle and scarfed by using the peen of the hammer as shown. the upright piece is upset on the end and scarfed, same as was done on the corner weld. both pieces prepared are then heated and welded as described in the making of the corner plate. the sketch given here shows fairly well the different steps. [illustration: detail of t weld] xxiii mild steel or soft steel mild steel, or soft steel, is supplanting wrought iron in many shops. any smith who has worked with this metal will always prefer it to wrought iron. it is much stronger and can be bent, forged, and twisted in all manner of shapes, without cracking or splitting. this cannot be said of wrought iron. therefore, when mild steel is used one is sure of finishing his problem, provided he understands the process of heating it. the matter of heating mild steel is the vital thing. it should never be worked at a welding heat or below a red heat. if worked either above or below this point it will show it by splitting or cracking before the problem is finished. large crystals formed by working at or above the welding heat will cause the breaks, and internal fractures when working at the low heat will cause the cracks. however, this can be worked at a black red heat if the blows delivered affect only the surface and do not penetrate to the centre. this metal lends itself to forging better than wrought iron does. it is very good for most kinds of forging and particularly good for making weldless rings. one of the best problems to illustrate one of the many uses to which soft steel may be put is the making of a weldless ring. [illustration: weldless rings] a piece of soft steel in. wide, / in. thick, ins. long, is the stock used for this ring. with a centre-punch mark off / in. from each end. (see sketch.) in each centre-punch mark punch a / -in. hole through the piece. with a hot chisel cut between these holes half way through on one side. turn it upside down and finish cutting through from the other side. now drive the chisel through, widening the slot out. trim up the inside of the slot. cut away all rough edges. upset the piece on the anvil after heating and drive down on the ends. this will increase the size of the hole by shortening the length and bulging the sides out. the piece is now put on the horn of the anvil and rounded into a ring. the ends are now trimmed off or driven down into the thickness, as shown in the drawing. this is the method of making a weldless ring. it is easily made out of soft steel. it would require a very fine grade of wrought iron to do a piece of work of this kind, for wrought iron is fibrous and unless great care is exercised in forging it will split at the ends along the grain when opening it after the slot is cut in. steel is much cheaper than wrought iron, another good reason for its use. for the making of nuts, too, it is better than wrought iron. all one needs to do is to cut a piece off the end of a square bar, the proper thickness, punch a hole in it, and square it up. if wrought iron were used, to get the same strength one would need to bend the iron around a mandrel in the shape of a ring so that the grain of the iron would run around the hole of the nut. then it should be welded and shaped into a square nut. chain hook of soft steel [illustration: a chain hook] up to the present time our work has been with wrought iron entirely. this hook is to be made out of soft bessemer steel, which of course is very different from high carbon steel. it is the cheapest of the steels. all building material, railroad rails, boiler plates, steel cars, etc., are made of this cheap soft metal. the process of manufacture is quite simple. molten cast iron, taken from the cupola, or blast furnace, is poured directly into a so-called bessemer converter--a pear shaped vessel. air is blown through the mass of molten metal. the air adds oxygen to the bath, and increases the heat to a temperature high enough to burn out all the impurities from the cast iron. this converts it into steel. it requires no more than nine or ten minutes to convert fifteen tons of cast iron into soft steel. the air is shut off and a sufficient amount of ferro-manganese is added so as to give the proper amount of carbon. the liquid steel is poured into ingots and these ingots while still hot are rolled into the shape used for the market. a piece of this kind of steel you are going to use to make a hook. soft steel can be worked in the same way as you work wrought iron. it is not fibrous like wrought iron and is not apt to split unless worked at a low temperature. [illustration] _stock:_ soft steel, - / ins. long, / × / in. _directions:_ the drawing gives all the steps necessary for the making of this hook. notice in the drawing when the stock is given it is fullered down - / ins. from one end. this is the amount needed to make the eye. after fullering the stock it is placed on the anvil and squared up. [illustration: stock for hook] [illustration: rounding] [illustration: finishing] [illustration: punching hole] these square corners are knocked down, making it round. when the body of the hook itself is drawn out, like the drawing, a hole is punched through the eye, using the same kind of punch as you did to make the nut. while using the punch keep cooling it off in cold water to prevent its getting hot; if you do not, the end is apt to burr and rivet itself into the iron. it also prevents its sticking into the hole. place the ring of the eye on the point of the anvil and round up carefully with light blows from the hammer. [illustration: rounding the eye of hook] when rounded up drive the punch in again to the required size. this finishes the eye. the body of the piece is now gone over carefully with calipers and square to get the diameters and length. bend the small point at right angles to the axis of the hook, like the drawing. now it is ready for bending in the middle. heat the middle very hot. cool off the point about / in. place the middle on the horn of the anvil and strike upon the small turned up cold nib to bend the hook from this point. by striking upon the cold end to bend it one can do so without destroying the shape. it will stand a lot of work upon it when cold. when the hook is bent around as nearly like the drawing as you can, flatten it out at its widest part by laying it upon the anvil and striking with the hammer. the cross section of the drawing shows the shape that this flattened part should be. [illustration: shaping the hook] this is what we call a solid eye hook. another way of making an eye is to take round material of sufficient length to bend an eye on the end by placing the piece over the horn of the anvil. the body of the second hook can be made out of round iron, pointed down at the end and finished up the same as the first. [illustration] _bending a corner in iron and upsetting while bending:_ in this problem we bring in the making and bending of iron, so that the thickness at the corner must be sharp on the top side and rounding on the inside--without flaws or cold-shut. this bending method applies to all metals, whether of square iron or wide flat iron. [illustration: corner plate] _stock:_ piece - / × / in. square. _directions:_ heat the metal in the middle and bend it over the rounding edge of the anvil. when the piece is bent we still have to make it square on the outside and rounding on the inside. the bend just made should be placed in the fire and re-heated. cool the stems off in the water to within one inch of the bend. place the point of the cold stem on the anvil and strike on the hot corner. this is repeated on both outside corners until the piece assumes the shape of the drawing. this same result can be obtained by upsetting the metal in the centre before bending, as shown in the drawing. flat wrenches [illustration] wrenches are used for screwing nuts on bolts. they can be made in two ways: ( ) one known as the solid wrench is made without welding, ( ) the other, is made of wrought iron and is welded. _s wrench of soft steel:_ the sketch here is of a wrench made from soft steel / × × ins. fuller down the stock edgewise as shown. draw out the centre / in. thick and taper it from / to / × ins. long. cut the corner off, as shown by the dotted lines, and round the two ends up to the size given. punch a / -in. hole in the large end and a / -in. hole in the small end of the bar. with a sharp chisel cut a v-shaped plug out of each end, tangent to the circles. [illustration: wrench hardie] _jaws:_ the jaws of the wrench are finished with a tool called a wrench hardie, placed usually on the anvil for the purpose of finishing up work of this kind. finish up both ends in the same way. heat the wrench at the nick and cool the jaws off in water. place the nick on the horn of the anvil and bend it as shown. repeat on the other end. if the wrench is carefully made it will require no filing to fit the nut. these wrenches are sometimes polished and case hardened to prevent the jaws from wearing while in use. _large flat wrench:_ a quick way to make a large wrench is to make it of wrought iron. a piece of iron × / × ins. is bent at almost a right angle. the inside corner is the corner made by the natural bend the metal takes when shaping it. [illustration: wrenches] scarf this corner by placing the peen of the hammer on the corner and striking the face of the hammer with the sledge or by using a bob punch if one is available, or it may be made by using the peen of the hammer without the use of a helper. select a piece of round iron / in. in diameter. upset the end of this and scarf it to fit the scarf made in the angle piece. heat both pieces to a welding heat. place them on the anvil and weld the handles to the jaws. the inside is rounded up at the same time the scarfs are being welded into place. draw the points out to a short taper and bend them up in the shape of a wrench on the heel of the anvil. this is a simple way of making a large wrench that can be used for all kinds of work. [illustration: alligator wrench] _alligator wrench:_ stock × / × ins. steel. the alligator wrench is one of the handiest tools to have in a home or shop. for general repair work it is indispensable and is easily made. mark off - / ins. from the end of the stock. this is the jaw part. place the other end of the stock in the fire. take it out and from the centre-punch mark draw the handle out / in. wide, / × ins. long, and tapering to / × / in. at the extreme end. the edges of the handle should be rounding. place the jaw ends in the fire and heat red hot. punch / in. hole back - / in. from the end. draw out the end and shape as shown in the drawing. with a three-cornered file, file the teeth on a slant and close together. this slanting will allow the wrench to let go of the work better than those filed at right angles to the axis of the piece. the teeth should slant backward and should be put only on one side of the jaw. both jaws should be hardened and tempered a blue colour. to do this, heat the body of the steel back of the jaw to a red heat and plunge the whole into water one inch beyond the depth of the jaw. when cold take it out and polish. draw the temper in the same way as you would for a knife blade. (see article on tempering and hardening.) socket wrenches [illustration] socket wrenches are useful for tightening nuts in places that are difficult to reach. it is most convenient when many nuts of the same size are used, as bolting shaft irons for vehicles, etc. some are made to fit an auger brace; some have solid handles with a cross bar, and some have holes punched in the shanks to place the iron bars in while twisting the nut on the bolt. this drawing shows a style of wrench in general use. it can be made in two different ways. one is called the welding method, the other is the solid method. _welding method:_ cut a piece of metal / × in. of norway iron. the length of this bar must be determined by the size of the nut it is to be used for. heat one end of the piece of iron and scarf it. repeat on the other end. bend the piece into a collar or ring, weld the two ends together, forming a cylinder about in. deep--any diameter. select a piece of round iron for the shank, the size depending upon the size of the socket. upset one end of the round iron to fit the collar made. [illustration: weld collar, then put stem in, and weld] [illustration] drive the shank into the collar about one half the depth of the collar, place it in the fire, and at a welding heat weld the collar to the shank. if the wrench is to be for a hexagonal nut, make a hexagonal drift pin (a square one for a square nut), and drive the pin into the collar. place it all on a swage and round up with a top swage. drive the collar down until it takes the shape of the drift pin. to do this successfully requires many heatings, and it can be done only while the metal is hot enough to yield always under the hammer blows. should the drift pin stick after the collar is driven into it, place the pin on the anvil, giving it a slanting blow. this will loosen the pin and it will come out easily. the shank should now be driven down as shown in the sketch, and two holes punched in at right angles to each other. these are holes to place iron bars for turning the wrench. these holes can be made in two ways: one, by forming lugs or bosses on the shank and punching holes in each one, or, a sharp tapered round punch, flat and sharp on the end, can be used to split the metal and force the sides out as the punch is driven in. if the cross bar is to be used in place of the holes, a cleft scarf made in one end of the shank and a / -in. bar of iron welded to this about or inches long on either side of the shank will act as a handle. [illustration] _open-sleeve or socket wrench:_ the wrench given here is for practically the same use as the one just described. it is lighter than the other. the opening is longer and allows the bolt to protrude through the nut without forcing the wrench off. this wrench is made of machine steel, and the size must be determined by the size of the nut. [illustration] [illustration] [illustration: socket wrench for square nuts] for a small wrench take a bar of / × - / × in. soft steel. mark off on the bar ins. from each end and on these centre-punch marks fuller down on the top and the two sides so that the bottom of the fuller will measure / × / in. draw these ends out to / × / in. any length. cut the four corners off and make the centre round. bend the two arms as shown and punch / in. hole through the boss. be careful to prevent cold-shuts while doing this. drive a drift pin into the hole and forge the shape as shown. bend the two arms as shown and weld together. these should be worked down to a / -in. round. the ends can be made into a brace shank by squaring the end and tapering it to fit the jaws of the brace. or weld a piece of / -in. round iron long enough to bend it into the shape of a brace, putting a round knob on the end for a hand hold. this makes a simple wrench and one that can be used in many places where flat wrenches are not convenient. [illustration] open wire rope socket [illustration] [illustration] these sockets are made for wire cables, ropes, etc., and are best made of mild steel. place the end of a - / -in. square bar in the fire and reduce it as shown in the sketch. cut two outside corners off, as shown by the dotted lines. round the ends up. punch a / -in. hole ins. from the rounded end in the centre of the piece. then cut a piece out with a sharp chisel, equal to the width of the hole. with the fuller, open the jaws out. now cut the socket off ins. from the rounded end and drill a / -in. hole through this end of the socket. a drift pin / in. on one end and tapered to / in. on the other is now driven into the / -in. hole at the jaw side. [illustration] [illustration] [illustration] forge the shank as shown in the drawing while the drift pin is in. while forging keep driving the drift pin into the hole. when finished the hole should measure / in. at the large end and / in. at the small end. when the socket is finished cut the ends square and smooth up. during all the time the steel should never be worked below a red heat and most of the time at a high heat, below welding heat, until it is ready for finishing. now the jaws are ready to be closed. this is done by placing a piece of flat iron, / in. thick and the width of the jaw, in between the opening, and close the jaws on this either with the hand hammer or a flatter. drill a / -in. hole in the middle of the end. this is made for the pin. make a pin to fit this hole out of / -in. round stock. upset the end of the bar a little and place it in a heading tool, driving down and forming a head / in. thick and / in. in diameter. take it out of the heading tool, cut the bolt off / in. longer than the width of the jaws. this allows for a / -in. hole and pin. a small / -in. hole is now drilled in the shank of the bolt and a split pin is put into the hole to prevent its falling out. the split pin is made by flattening down a piece of / -in. wire in a small swage to a half round. now double over to form an eye on one end of the two flat planes coming together. when this is put in through the hole, a chisel put in the opening will widen out the ends, thus preventing them from falling out. [illustration] hinge and butt the hinge and butt are used on doors and gates. this fastening is made similar to the other hinges, except the eye is welded, instead of being a solid eye. _stock:_ / × × - / ins. wrought iron. [illustration: hinge] _directions:_ the end of this piece of stock is bent around a drift pin as shown in the drawing and welded along the dotted lines. this is done by scarfing the end of the bar into a short tapered point. bend it down at right angles about in. from the end. bend it in the opposite direction about / of the way around. put in the drift pin. this now forms a hook shape. continue the driving over until the scarf lies flat on the straight side. take out the drift pin and weld the scarf to the body of the hinge. drive the drift pin into the hole, shaping it up. the back of the hinge is perfectly straight so that it will lie flat upon the wooden door. the other end is drawn out, tapered and the end rounded up, and / in. holes punched in as shown. the butt is made in the same way as you made the ornamental butt and hinge. [illustration: welded hinge eye] [illustration: turned eye] [illustration] bent hinges, such as are used on tail boards for wagons, railroad cars, etc., are simply ends of the iron piece bent around at a given diameter, with the under side flat, and the stock rolled up on one side. these hinges may be used in pairs. in that case a long rod is pushed through, connecting the two hinges. tongs tongs are used by blacksmiths to hold pieces of hot metal while working upon them. _stock:_ two pieces iron, / × / × ins. two pieces iron, / × / × ins. [illustration] [illustration: tongs] _directions:_ mark off ins. from one end of the / × / × in. piece and heat it quite hot. this marked end is now placed on an anvil and flattened down to × × / in., leaving the shoulder as shown. ( ) heat the piece again. place it upon the anvil, with the flattened piece extending beyond the anvil, and, with the shoulder on the outer edge of the anvil, flatten this down in. wide, and / in. thick. ( ) then the shoulders should be at right angles to each other, as shown in the sketch. re-heat the piece in. from the last shoulder made. reduce the shoulder ( ), the iron to / × / in. ( ) notice that this shoulder is directly opposite the other. this completes the jaw of the tong. draw out the end to about ins. in length. it is now cut off the bar and another piece made just like it for the pair. [illustration] [illustration] [illustration] the reins or handles are welded to the small ends and tapered down as shown in the drawing, then rounded - / ins. on the ends to / ins. in diameter. a hole is now punched through the eye of the jaw and a / -in. rivet inserted. the little groove which you see in the jaw is put there with a fuller. this is done so that you can use it to hold small round iron as well as flat iron. the two parts are now riveted together. this is done either by making a head on a rivet and cutting it off, allowing about / in. for a head on the end that goes through the tongs, then heating the tongs and completing the riveting, or, as many smiths do, by putting a piece of straight / -in. iron in, allowing / in. on each end plus the thickness of the parts of the tongs for riveting. this piece of iron is made very hot, put into the hole, and both heads are riveted on at the same time. it frequently happens that the rivet bends in the holes while hammering on the ends. this prevents the tongs from opening easily. if such is the case, put the rivet and jaws into the fire and heat red hot. hold the handle, open and close the jaws while cooling. this not only centres the rivet but prevents sticking. the tongs should work smooth and free when cooled off in water. [illustration] xxiv hardening and tempering: tool making effects of carbon on steel what is commonly known as carbon steel is a metal composed of iron containing varying amounts of carbon. steels containing much carbon are called tool steels to distinguish them from the low carbon steels. tool steel, when heated red hot and plunged into cold water, will harden, while low carbon steel treated in the same way will not do so. this is an excellent way of testing two bars of steel for carbon when one is not able to distinguish grades of steel accurately. it is carbon that gives the hardening quality. when steel is heated it becomes red at ° f. at ° f. it passes a point at which it absorbs considerable heat without any increase in the temperature, showing that some change in the structure of the metal must be taking place. if the steel is heated above this point and allowed to cool slowly, a brightening of the colour may be noticed as it passes this point, known as the point of recalescence. the brightening is due to a liberation of the heat previously absorbed. _method of heating steel in forge fires:_ all steel work, including tool dressing, hardening, and tempering, was formerly done in an ordinary forge fire. now we have special furnaces for that purpose. however, in using a forge fire, care must be taken to insure good work. the fire must be very deep--that is, a large body of coke must be put between the tuyere, and the tool, so as to prevent the blast reducing the carbon on the surface of the steel. sulphur will injure the quality of any steel tool. hence, a fuel low in sulphur should be used. charcoal is the best for this purpose, but the cost and the difficulty in maintaining the heat prevent its general use in blacksmith shops. if the coal does contain sulphur a great deal of it can be extracted or reduced by one making his own coke. this is done by burning the green coal to a coke and in this way driving off much of the sulphur. gas furnaces or oil furnaces are used. this is much better than coal, for a uniform heat can be kept and an oxidation of the steel prevented. whether natural or artificial gas is used, all that is necessary is to adjust the supply of gas in such a way that there will be a very slight excess of gas present beyond the proper amount for combustion. the presence of this gas excludes all air from the steel and therefore prevents its oxidizing the surface of the metal. _heating in lead:_ in order to prevent oxidation molten lead makes a most satisfactory bath. the lead is melted in a cast-iron pot and heated in the forge. the steel must be left in the bath until it has all been heated to the required temperature. as the steel will float in the molten lead it must be weighted down to keep it submerged. _hardening solutions:_ in many cases clear cold water is used in hardening steel. some use soft or rain water. the temperature of the water for general work should not fall below the temperature of the shop; otherwise it would extract the heat too quickly from the steel and cause cracks or breaks in the work. _salt solution:_ salt is often added to water which is to be used as a hardening solution. ( ) it increases the rate at which the bath will extract the heat from the steel; ( ) it prevents the formation of steam on the surface of the water. put as much salt in rain water as it will dissolve. this is considered one of the best and easiest made solutions for hardening steel. _oil solution:_ linseed oil, lard, cotton seed oil, whale oil, and melted tallow make good hardening solutions. they are used mostly for fine work. the oil prevents the sudden chilling of the steel and lessens the chances of cracking and breaking. springs are mostly tempered in oil. _metallic hardening baths:_ for very delicate tools mercury is sometimes used. it has a greater heat conductivity than any solution mentioned. however, the fumes given off are poisonous and for this reason it is not extensively used. tempering: the part colour plays when you buy steel for tools from a merchant he will assure you that the steel he sells you will harden at a cherry-red heat. this is true provided the metal has not been spoiled either by overheating it or working it at too low a heat during the making. this causes cracks or internal fractures. if these directions for working steel are followed out a tool should harden at a cherry-red heat when plunged into water. when the steel is heated to the proper temperature, usually a cherry red, and plunged into a hardening solution, it will be very brittle, so that a file will not cut it. one test often used is to take a fine mill cut file and try to cut the hardened part of the tool. if it slips over the surface without cutting, the steel is considered hard; if the file cuts, the steel is not hard enough. re-heat the steel hotter than before, cool it off in water, and test again. all cutting tools should possess a certain amount of hardness or toughness. when the steel has been plunged into cold water it is too hard for use. it is necessary to then reduce this hardness so that one can use the tool for the particular kind of work it is made to do. this process of reducing the hardness is commonly called drawing the temper, and the colour scheme plays a very important part in this operation. perhaps the steps will be clearer if the process of drawing the temper on a cold chisel is explained: after the chisel is forged the proper shape, place the body of the tool in the fire, heat it red hot back of the point. now heat the point to a uniform cherry-red heat, plunge - / in. of this hot point into the water and hold it there until it is quite cold. this is determined by water clinging to the point when the chisel is taken out. polish the part cooled off with a piece of emery stone, an old brickbat, or any rough polishing material. you will notice a group of temper colours starting from the point where the tool came into contact with the water. the heat in the body of the tool gives rise to these colours as it is conducted through the cold point of the steel. in this group of colours the first will be ( ) pale yellow, ( ) a full straw colour, ( ) brown, ( ) purple, ( ) dark blue, ( ) full blue, ( ) light blue, ( ) gray. this colour scheme corresponds to varying temperatures in the metal. the first colour (pale yellow) accompanies a temperature of °, while the last colour, gray, means a temperature of °. the colours show, too, a varying in the hardness or toughness of the steel. a cold chisel should be tempered a blue; so when the blue reaches the cutting end of the tool the end should be plunged immediately into water and cooled off. this is the principle of hardening and tempering all common tools. [illustration: colors, left to right: pale yellow, straw color, brown, purple, dark blue, full blue, light blue, gray] however, these colours mean nothing so far as tempering is concerned unless the cutting edge of the steel has been thoroughly hardened. then the colours have a real value. to prove that these colours are no test unless hardening precedes, take a piece of brass, or copper, or soft iron. polish, then heat the piece in the fire to the temperature given here. you find the same set of colours, but you cannot use any of these metals for cutting tools. the table of temper colours given in this book shows the colour required for tempering tools most commonly used. _tempering of springs:_ under the head of springs we may include every variety, from the small spring used in locks and fire-arms to the largest springs in use. they are made of spring steel of the required thickness, forged into shape, then hardened and tempered. this hardening and tempering of springs is done in some cases by polishing and heating over a fire and drawing them to a blue colour. then they are plunged into oil to fix the temper. sometimes springs are heated red hot and cooled in oil, then held over the fire until the oil burns with a bright flame on the spring. it is then allowed to cool in the air. if the spring is found too hard, more oil is put on it and the operation is repeated until the desired spring movement is obtained. tool making it is possible for you to learn to make all of the tools you may need to use, including hammers. and not only will you be able to make blacksmiths' tools, but such as are used by carpenters, bricklayers, stone-masons, machinists, etc. you must not expect to be able to do this work at first, but in a little while you will be able to replace your first working tools with those of your own make. from time to time, as the tools break or wear out, you can repair them or replace them with new ones. this gives excellent practice in forging and handling steel, and prepares you for more and more advanced work, an experience necessary for doing any work well. _steel:_ there are many different grades of steel, depending upon the percentage of carbon contained in each. steel low in carbon can be easily welded but cannot be tempered. carbon steel is very difficult to weld and it can be done only by the use of borax or some other flux. high carbon steel or so-called tool steel, can be tempered. it is used for making cold chisels, files, drills, cutting tools, etc. _crucible steel:_ all tools are made from crucible cast steel. the cast steel is made by placing in a graphite crucible a certain amount of wrought iron and soft steel, and carbon is added in the form of manganese. these are all melted in furnaces. when melted they are poured into ingots and drawn or shaped to sizes for the market under different kinds of power hammers. these various size bars are used for the making of all kinds of tools. the tools we are going to make are ( ) centre-punch, ( ) cold chisel, ( ) cape chisel, and ( ) lathe tools. there are five lathe tools; ( ) round nose, ( ) diamond point, ( ) side tool, ( ) cutting off or parting tool, ( ) inside or boring tool. [illustration: centre-punch] _centre-punch:_ you will find the centre-punch a most useful tool to have on hand. it is used for marking centres before drilling holes, starting points in work, etc. a small one is made out of a piece of / -in. hexagonal tool steel, ins. long. put one end into the fire and taper it / in. long to / in. in diameter, as shown in the sketch. make this end flat. put the other end into the fire and draw it into a sharp tapered round point to about / in. on the end. this extreme point is ground to a very sharp point. the angles of the extreme should be about °. this is hardened and tempered a blue colour. then it is ready for use. [illustration: cold chisel] _cold chisel:_ cold chisels are usually made out of / -in. hexagonal tool steel, in. long. the form and dimensions are given here. heat one end of the bar and place it upon the anvil. draw it out for the short end. this is the part upon which the hammering is done when the tool is finished. the surplus stock is cut off with a hot chisel and the short end is flattened. when cutting tool steel of any kind the chisel should be very sharp and the steel red hot. put the other end of the bar into the fire, beginning back about - / ins. from the end. flatten it down to a chisel shape, as shown in the drawing. cut the surplus stock off, harden and temper as explained before for the cold chisel. [illustration: cape chisel] _cape chisel:_ the drawing gives the form and the dimensions. the small end of this tool is forged out in the same way as you forged the small end of the cold chisel. reverse the bar and heat the other end. two inches back from the end fuller the metal down as shown in the drawing. draw it out tapering. this end, too, is cut off, hardened and tempered as you did the cold chisel. cape chisels are used mostly for cutting key ways in shafting. the point being wider than the rest of the blade gives clearance while cutting. lathe tools _round nose:_ the drawing gives the form and the dimensions. [illustration: round nose] _stock:_ a piece of / × / × in. tool steel. this size best fits the tool post of the lathe. you see by the sketch that one end is bevelled. this end is always made first. it is done by heating and chamfering the edges down with a hand hammer. place the other end in the fire and draw it out to a sharp point in both directions. throw the bevel on one side by placing the tool on the anvil and driving one side of the metal down to the other side. the point is now cut off on a bevel for clearance. the drawing shows a cross section view of the tool. notice that it is smaller on the bottom than on the cutting edge. this is done by reducing one side more than the other. the cutting edge of the tool should extend about / in. above the common level. _hardening and tempering:_ all lathe tools of this type are hardened and tempered in the same way as you did the cold chisel. the temper colour of this tool is a very light straw. when this colour reaches the extreme point plunge the tool into water. the slight change of temperature does not materially lessen the degree of hardness, but it does toughen the tool so that it will do more work. [illustration: diamond point] _diamond point:_ the form and dimensions are given. _stock:_ × / × / ins. [illustration: side tool] heat one end and bevel it off as you did when making the round nose tool. place the other end in the fire, / in. from the end, and fuller down to one half the thickness of the bar. this fullering is done on the bottom fuller, which is placed on the anvil. re-heat this end, place it again on the fuller in the depression made, and with the hand hammer draw this end out and at the same time square it up into a diamond point by turning the tool at an angle of ° with the anvil. turn again, in exactly the opposite direction. repeat this until the point of the tool is drawn out as shown by the sketch. the clearance should not be more than that shown. it is now cut off by placing the face of the diamond on the outer edge of the anvil. place the cold chisel above this edge, strike the chisel with the sledge hammer and cut it off. if this is carefully done it will cut the proper bevel for the cutting edge. the drawing shows the slope of the cutting edge to be parallel to the top of the tool. the tool is hardened and tempered the same as the round nose tool. _side tool (right hand):_ the form and dimensions are given here. _stock:_ × / × / in. to make a tool of this kind bevel off the end of the stock, place the other end in the fire, and heat about two inches to a red heat. take it out and place about one inch of this on the round edge of the anvil. with the hand hammer reduce the thickness of this steel, driving on the edge nearest you (see sketch marked a). the hammering reduces the thickness of the edge, which will be the cutting edge when finished. the part opposite to where you are working will be reduced very little. a chisel is now used for cutting the cutting edge on the tool (see b). place the tool on a piece of soft iron, place the chisel along the line and cut through to the soft iron below. this gives not only a clear cut but prevents the chisel from driving in if it should strike the hard anvil. the clearance is cut off along the other lines. (c) the cutting edge is now offset. to do this use a set hammer. push the part made beyond the anvil / in. place the set hammer in this shoulder, drive down until the offset is driven down about / in. (d). the method of tempering this tool is a little different from the way you have tempered other tools, on account of the length of the cutting edge, which should be hardened its full length. place the end just finished in the fire and heat to a red heat. plunge the whole tool into water. take it out and polish the cutting edge with emery stone. now place in the fire a piece of any kind of iron; in. square will do. heat it red hot, then place it upon the anvil, and lay the part of your tool that has been hardened on the hot bar. it will draw enough heat from the hot bar to produce the temper colours. this is one way to give a piece of hardened steel the heat to temper it when the body of that piece does not contain heat enough to do so. [illustration: boring tool] _boring tool:_ boring tools are made for the purpose of enlarging holes in cylinders, or any hole which should be enlarged after it has been drilled. the work to be done must determine the size and length of the boring tool. this is not true of any other one of the lathe tools. _stock:_ × / × / in. bevel one end. place the other end in the fire and heat about ins. of it. draw it out to a tapering octagonal shape, as shown in the sketch. the end is pushed over the anvil about / in. drive it down at right angles. the clearance for the cutting edge is cut off with a hot chisel and made ready for hardening and tempering. [illustration: cutting-off tool] _cutting-off or parting tool:_ this tool is made for dividing bars of metal into different lengths. the form and dimensions are here shown. _stock:_ × / × / in. tool steel. bevel one end. place the other end in the fire and heat about in. place the fuller on the anvil. put the top fuller on this, then put the steel between the two fullers about / in. from the end. using the sledge hammer, drive down so that the centre thickness will measure / in. draw the lump left on the end to / in. thickness, the same width as the tool. the drawing shows that the clearance on this tool is one half the thickness of the cutting edge, or / in. this clearance must be put on as shown in the drawing, otherwise the tool will not clear while doing the cutting. finish up as shown in the sketch. harden and temper in the same way as you did the round nose tool. cutting off tools are made with the shoulder all on one side. (see sketch and see article on tempering steel.) xxv how to harden, soften, and stretch steel annealing or softening of steel all steels that are worked under hammers and heated to any degree of temperature, when finished should be softened by heating, so that the unequal strains caused by the working of the metal may be neutralized. when the work is entirely finished it is placed in a furnace or forge fire and heated red hot. then the fire is either withdrawn from the furnace, or the blast is shut off from the forge, and the metal is allowed to cool off as the fire goes down. this softens the metal and saves it from the danger of unequal strains. hard or high carbon steels are treated in a different way. the metal is heated red hot, then it is placed in a box filled with slack lime. the lime completely covers the piece. the cold air is prevented from striking it and cooling it off too quickly. when no lime is at hand wood ash can be used. sometimes the steel is heated red hot, then held until the red entirely disappears. then it is plunged into cold water. this process is known as water annealing and is a process used for tool steel when quick work is required. it softens the metal so that it can be filed and worked quite easily. case hardening we have learned that carbon gives the hardening quality to steel. since there is little carbon in soft steel and none in wrought iron, they will not harden as carbon steel does when heated red hot and plunged into water. but there are many small articles which are best made of this soft steel and iron and which must be hardened in some way to make them useful. in order to supply the lacking carbon the metal is put through a process known as case hardening. there are two methods of case hardening. the first method is to heat a piece of soft steel or iron red hot and cover the part to be hardened with cyanide of potassium. the metal will absorb the carbon out of the cyanide and when cooled in water will have taken on a hardened surface. if this is repeated two or three times the hard surface deepens. any drug store will sell you some cyanide of potassium. it comes in cakes. the cakes are broken up into small pieces. be careful to keep the hands as much as possible from contact with the cyanide. set screw set screws are made of soft metal, but the points must be hardened to resist the wear. this is done by heating the set screws red hot, then sticking the point into the cyanide until it cools off. re-heat and repeat the work. during this time the iron is absorbing carbon. heat again, plunge into cold water. the carbon forms a case on the end of the screw. now you have a screw hard on the outside but of soft material in the inside. it is able to resist any shock that carbon steel itself could not stand. the second method calls for the use of pulverized charcoal and bone. the principle is the same as in the first method. the iron articles to receive a case hardening are placed in a cast-iron box with a layer of charcoal above and a layer of bone dust below, alternating in this way until the box is filled to the top. the box is then placed in a heating furnace and heated to a temperature ° f. it is kept at this temperature from three to four hours. the articles all this time are absorbing charcoal from bone dust. the box is taken out of the furnace and plunged into a bath of cold water. from this cold bath it is plunged into a bath of boiling water, then taken out and dried. the pieces are oiled over slightly to bring out the colours. they have not only a hard exterior after this process, but they have a beautiful mottled surface of grays and blues, colours one often sees in parts of small guns, wrenches, etc. surgical instruments, guns, small wrenches, etc., are hardened in this way. the equipment for the second method is much more expensive than that for the first; however, the principles involved are the same in both cases. brazing brazing is a process of joining two pieces of metal by the use of another metal, such as brass or copper. the use of solder has been explained in the article on soldering. this article will tell about brazing of wrought iron, cast-iron, and steel in the forge fire. one must bear in mind that when a forge fire is used for brazing, the fire should be free from green coal on account of the presence of sulphur. a reducing fire is best for that purpose. it is well to mention here that a forge fire that has been used for brazing must be thoroughly cleaned before it can be used again for any welding purposes. the brass will run down and clog the tuyere. if the least bit of smelter is left on the forge it is apt to mix with the coals. in that case it would find its way into the fire, melt, and collect on any iron that may be in the fire heating. the success of any of these operations depends absolutely upon a clean fire and a clean piece of work to be done. _to prepare the pieces to be brazed:_ all parts to be brazed should be free from any foreign matter. they should be filed or polished with emery cloth or sand-paper. this refers not only to the parts that come into contact with each other, but both sides of the contact edge for the depth of at least / in. when the parts are clean, put them together. see that the joints fit. paint the joints with a flux made of boracic acid. mix one part boiling water with one part borax and two parts boracic acid. keep it pasty so that it can be handled with a brush. ordinary borax can be used if the other is not at hand. the smelter (brass) can be bought at supply stores. however, brass filings, common sheet brass, or brass wire is just as good. if brass filings are used these should be mixed with the flux. any old tin can will do for the mixing. a spoon for dipping the flux out when wanted can be made on the end of a rod / in. in diameter, about ins. long, by flattening out an inch of the end, drawn out quite thin and fashioned spoon shaped. place the parts to be brazed in the fire and heat till they are red hot. dip the spoon into the brazing material and put a little of the smelter on the joints. increase the heat. when the smelter begins to run add more. when it shows a bright streak all around the parts to be joined shut off the blast and let it cool before removing it from the fire. when it is black hot remove it from the fire and file into shape. be very careful to see that the pieces to be brazed are so fastened together that they will not move apart when once put into place. this can be done by packing brick or clay around them or by clamping them in place. do not put any weight that would cause any strain upon them, for when heated this would change the position and might cause a bend in the brazed parts. _brazing of cast-iron:_ cast-iron is prepared for brazing in the same way as steel or iron is prepared. the flux, however, is not the same. it is made up of boric acid, oz.; pulverized chlorate of potash, oz.; carbonate of iron, oz. mix these together thoroughly, breaking up all lumps that may be there. keep this mixture in a glass jar. place the pieces to be brazed in a fire as you did the iron and steel. heat it all red hot. mix the flux with the smelter and put it on. do not put this on at any time before the metal is red hot. increase the heat and add more flux and smelter. when the brass has flowed into the joints, shut off the heat and let the metal cool off in the fire. cast-iron requires a higher temperature for brazing than iron or steel. if a brass rod is used in place of the smelter, push the end of the rod in the joint to be brazed. it will melt off as fast as it is pushed in. when brazing some cast-iron, the break should be reinforced on the unexposed side by a plate of wrought iron or steel. if this is cleaned off thoroughly and placed against the break the smelter will not only fill up the break but it will hold this piece of metal fast. _brazing steel band saws:_ band saws break very often while in use. they can be repaired only by brazing the broken ends together. do so by filing each end of the broken pieces, tapering to a very sharp edge / in. in length for lapping over. the length of this lapping depends upon the width of the teeth of the saw. when the ends are filed, place them in a vise that can be bought for this purpose. if no vise is at hand two wood clamps, or iron clamps, or an ordinary shop vise will answer the purpose. put the two ends overlapping in place, and clamp close enough to these ends to keep them in a straight line and, also, for shifting while brazing. paint the joint with flux, using the first flux mentioned in the article. put a piece of silver solder between the laps. now heat the jaws of a pair of close tongs white hot, and grasp the joints between the hot jaws, and pinch them together. the heat in the tongs will melt the silver and braze the two parts. hold the tongs steady; if not, they will bend, and the saw will be rather hard to straighten when the tongs are removed. do not remove the tongs until they are black hot. now place the saw in a vise and file the teeth to correspond to those on either side of the joint. smooth the roughness from the joint. _the value of brazing:_ a knowledge of how to braze is most useful to any one working with the metals. many things break that can be repaired only by this process. for instance, tubing, automobile parts, very complex parts of machinery, etc., when broken cannot be welded; they must be mended by brazing. the success of the process depends upon the care taken to make the parts perfectly clean and well fitted together. if this is well done the brazing material will find its way to the closest joints and fix them. processes of stretching iron or steel ( ) _drawing:_ stretching a piece of metal in one or more directions either by hammering, or pulling, or rolling, is called drawing. in the blacksmiths' shop the term drawing always means a decrease in the size of a cross section of the piece and an increase in the length. ( ) _bending:_ bending means making the metal take a shape from a straight line. it may be made into a circle or curved or bent at right angles. ( ) _twisting:_ in the process of twisting no change is made in the axis of the piece. the faces of the piece are changed; as for instance, when you twist a piece of paper holding one end fast and turning the other in the direction of its axis. _upsetting:_ upsetting means increasing the thickness of a piece of iron by shortening its length. _forming:_ forming is the process of giving a piece of iron shape, either by hammering or by using some forming machine; for example, the bulldog. _welding:_ welding means joining two pieces of iron together by heating them to the right temperature and hammering or pressing them together. xxvi forging hand hammers _cross peen hammer:_ the sketch shows the form and gives the dimensions of this hammer. _stock:_ / in. square, - / ins. long. [illustration: cross peen hammer] it is best to make this hammer on the end of a bar. in this way you dispense with the handling of tongs, and you are able to get the best control of your material. mark with a centre-punch, the centre of the - / in. piece. through this, punch a hole with an eye punch. (see eye punch in tool list.) the hole will be a little less than the finished size. draw the face end slightly tapering. drive the four corners down and make the face of hammer octagonal in shape. the sketch will show just where to begin this knocking down. the hammer is now cut off and the face squared up. the centre of the face should be a little higher than the outer edges. now drive into the eye a drift pin. this pin is made of / × / × in. steel. it is tapered for the whole length down to / × / in., and oval in shape. it is driven into the hole. this gives the real shape to the eye of the hammer. take the pin out and re-heat the hammer. draw the cross peen out to a taper as you would if you were making a cold chisel. be careful to keep all within the dimensions given. the hammer may now be filed and polished if one wishes a bright hammer; otherwise, it needs only to be tempered: then it is ready for use. _to temper the hammer:_ place the whole hammer in the fire and heat it red hot. grasp it with a pair of pick-up tongs through the eye. dip the face in water half way up to the eye, and hold it there until the face is chilled off. reverse by placing the peen end into the water. while this is cooling dip up enough water with the hand to keep the face of the hammer cold. take it out and polish both ends with a piece of emery cloth wrapped around a piece of wood. the colours now are beginning to run from the middle toward the ends. when the purple colour reaches either end plunge that end into water, holding it in the water until the purple colour reaches the other end. then plunge the whole hammer in water. this tempering darkens the hammer if it has been previously polished. rubbing well with emery cloth again will restore the brightness. the hammer is ready for the handle. a hammer of this kind can be made without the help of a second person. [illustration: processes in making peen hammer] _round peen hammer:_ the form and dimensions for this hammer are given here. [illustration: step in making hammer] _stock:_ a piece of - / -in. square tool steel. this hammer, too, is best made on the end of a bar about ins. in length. with a centre-punch mark off ins. from the end. this spot marks the centre of the eye. place this end in the fire. one inch from the end fuller down on the four sides of the bar ( ). this makes a neck one inch in diameter and having eight sides. place it back in the fire and heat again. now put the bar again on the fuller ins. from the first fuller ( ). this time fuller only two sides, the two sides opposite the centre-punch mark. fuller so that the thickness measures - / ins. this means only / in. depression on the two sides. put again into the fire and draw the first end out so that it measures in. octagonal, any length. (see sketch .) heat again, this time the whole body of the piece. punch a hole with the eye-punch where the centre-punch was made. the hole will be a little less in size than the finished hole will be (see sketch) to allow for the increase in size while working the metal into shape. put the drift pin into the hole. drive it through until the small end just shows through on the other side. place a fuller over the hole and work the metal out sidewise by striking on the top of the fuller with a sledge hammer. this requires a helper to do the heavy work. while the heavy work is being done the steel must be heated many times, but always without the drift pin. keep the drift pin in water while the hammer is being heated, as the pin must always be cold when driven into the eye. drive it in a little farther each time, so that by the time the centre is finished the hole will be the proper size ( ). the thickness of the metal around the eye should be about / in. on the outer edges and / in. in the centre. this tapers a little from the centre outward, as is shown in the drawings. put the / -in. bottom fuller on the anvil and place the neck of the hammer on this and a top fuller above that. strike on the fuller and reduce the neck until it measures about / in. in diameter, keeping the octagonal shape all the while. [illustration] heat the hammer again where the face should be, and fuller down between the body and the face so that this will measure about - / in. square, using the same large fullers as before and making it octagonal. this finishes up completely the body of the hammer between the face and the peen. with a sharp chisel cut the hammer off an inch and a half from the body. you will then have enough stock for the face of the hammer. [illustration] the surplus stock on the peen allows for holding with the tongs, and the face of the hammer is rounded up to about - / in. in diameter. bevel the edges down / in. back of this face and, with a sharp chisel, trim the face off flat or square with the axis of the hammer. the centre of the face should be a little higher than the outside edges. grasp the face with the tongs and place the peen in the fire. take it out and cut it off in. in length and make the edges rounding. to shape the peen, place the neck on a large fuller and round up as shown in the picture. be careful each time to give it one eighth of a turn so that the octagonal shape will not be lost. if the hammer has been carefully forged it will require little finishing in the way of filing, unless one wishes to make a fancy polished hammer. if such a one is desired some draw filing and polishing must be done. this makes the hammer look better, but it doesn't increase its efficiency. the tempering is done in the same way as the tempering for the cross peen hammer was done. however, this hammer is larger and heavier than the cross peen hammer and is more difficult to temper. while the same principle is involved in the tempering of both hammers, greater care must be taken in tempering this one. the handle is placed. you will find that the driving of the drift pin into the eye, first on one side and then on the other, makes both outside openings larger than the centre. this should be so, as it helps to hold the handle firmly in place. tool steel and the making of tools here are a few problems which deal with the making of your own tools. when buying steel for this work always tell what the steel is to be used for. the merchant will probably recommend to you a grade of steel from which you can make tools that will last. _hardie:_ take a piece of - / -in. square tool steel. make this tool on the end of a bar if the bar is long enough. it is easier handled in that way. the dotted lines on the drawing show the amount of material required to make the shank. this should be made to fit the hole in the anvil; / in. from the shank fuller down on the two sides of the steel, leaving / -in. thickness between the fuller marks. draw the end out to a -in. taper on one side and widen it out to - / -in. taper on the other. (see drawing.) [illustration: hardie] [illustration: set hammer, second process] _set hammer:_ a set hammer is made with a piece of - / -in. square steel; - / in. from one end mark the hole. put one end of the bar into the fire and heat it. take it out and punch a hole with the eye punch in the piece of steel when it is marked. knock the four corners down, bevelling them as shown in the sketch, and trim the end off rounding for the head. cut it off ins. long; fuller the four corners - / ins. from the face as shown in the sketch. the end view of the drawing shows the depth of the fuller marks. [illustration: set hammer, completed] [illustration: set hammer, first process] _hot chisel:_ this tool is made much as you make the set hammer. however, where the set hammer is fullered on the corners the hot chisel is fullered on the two sides, and the end is drawn out tapering. used to cut hot iron. (see drawing). [illustration: cold chisel] [illustration: hot chisel] [illustration: hot chisel, details] _cold chisel:_ this tool is made out of -in. square stock. the punching of the eye and head part of this chisel is made in the same way as the other tools described here. a blade is tempered from the centre to - / ins. in length, and the cutting edge is finished a little rounding. this tool is made to cut cold iron, hence its name. [illustration: another cold chisel] xxvii some general forging problems _ice shaver:_ ice shavers are useful as shavers, breakers and choppers of ice. they are made out of a piece of low carbon steel for the blade and a piece of / -in. round iron for the handle. [illustration: ice shaver] _directions:_ take a piece of / × × ins., and cut along as shown by the lines. when these two corners are cut out, point the centre piece for a cleft weld. slit the end of the rod, scarfing its points thin, and slip this point into the crotch of the scarf, and weld with borax. this now gives you a piece that looks like a shovel. on the other end of the handle bend a ring about ins. in diameter. place the flat end in the fire, heat it up, and taper this flat end down very thin, about in. long. with a file, file four teeth in the end, the same shape as shown here. it is now ready for tempering. this is done by heating all the teeth well back toward the handle red hot. plunge the whole thing into water to cool it off. take it out and polish. heat a piece of large iron in the fire red hot. on this piece of metal place the teeth of the pick. when the blue colour appears on the point and cutting edges of the teeth, cool in water. it is now ready for use. [illustration] _grub hoe:_ the form and dimensions of this tool are given, also the different steps in the process of forging. _stock:_ - / × / × in. steel. _directions:_ mark off with a centre-punch the middle of the piece of stock, and then mark off in. from the middle in either direction. fuller, as shown in the sketch, on the first end, to a depth of in. heat the piece and fuller the other end to a depth of / in. (a). the centre lug is now ins. long. to make this ins. long it is necessary that the fuller be placed on the piece on the outside of the centre-punch marks. draw out the two ends, as shown by the sketch, one being directly opposite the other. punch a hole with the eye punch in the middle of this lug almost through on one side. take the punch out, turn the piece upside down, and finish punching the hole. the punch used for doing this part of the work should be straight and tapered and quite thin on the end. the problem is not to cut out a large piece but rather to split the metal. it's only / in. wide and will not allow for the cutting away of any material. a punch of this kind will heat up on the end while driving, when it is apt to bend. to avoid this keep it cold by dipping it into water from time to time. place a little green coal in the hole after you have started the punch in. this prevents its sticking in the hole and it also prevents the end of the punch from getting hot. a very deep, narrow slot can be punched successfully in this way. [illustration] the drift pin used to shape the eye upon should be made the size of the finished hole--that is, - / × / in. and ins. long--oval-shaped, and tapered on the small end to / × / in. this taper should be the whole length of the drift pin. drive the pin into the hole about half way down. this widens the hole so that it can now be placed on the horn of the anvil and fullered to the required thickness, which should be / in. on the extreme edge of the eye. drive the drift pin again about ins. or ins. at the same time work the metal down on the outside. repeat this till the hole fits the drift pin. the pin is now driven in through from the other side, thus making both outside openings of the eye the same size. the hoe is now finished up as shown in the sketch and ready for hardening and tempering. [illustration] [illustration] this is done in the same way as you did the chisel and the same temper colour is used for both. five pounds is considered about the right weight for a hoe of this kind. the problem of working out the eye for this is the same as for making the eyes of picks, hatchets, and tools of similar design. turnbuckles turnbuckles, made either of steel or iron, are used for truss rods. there are many ways of making turnbuckles. out of all, three methods are here given: ( ) solid forged buckle, ( ) welding up, ( ) pipe method. [illustration] [illustration] _solid forged buckle:_ this is made of soft steel. select a piece of - / -in. square stock ins. long. mark off ins. with a centre-punch on each end. draw the ends out in. round. bend the ends down as shown at _b_. forge the buckle part to - / in. round at the end, as shown at _c_. make the other end just like this one and weld the two ends together so that the total length will be ins. now drill holes in each end for a / -in. tap. tap a right-hand thread in one end and a left-hand thread in the other end, or you can put a swivel hook in one end in place of the thread. to do this the hole should be drilled / in. without a thread. select a piece of / -in. round soft steel ins. long. upset the end and work a tapered round head on as shown at _d_. the head should be in. long and large enough to work loosely in the slot. put this into the hole with the head between the wings and point the end forming it into a hook. [illustration] [illustration: welded turnbuckle: to be welded at arrow point] _second method:_ this is done by welding the two rods to collars. make two collars out of wrought iron, the size depending upon the size of the turnbuckle. scrape the ends of this flat iron, bend each into a circle, and weld on the horn of the anvil, thus making two collars. the arm should be drawn out of a piece of flat iron and made half round by a swage on the anvil. this leaves the original thickness of the bar on each end of the piece drawn out. these ends are now flattened and scraped as shown at _a_ and should be wrenched to lap on the inside of the collars. place one collar on one end and the wings opposite each other. push a bar of iron into the opening within an inch of the collar. this bar prevents the tongs from squeezing the two wings out of shape and loosening up the collar while welding. grasp the turnbuckle with a pair of tongs and place the end in the fire. take a welding heat and weld this down on the horn of the anvil. at the same time shape it as shown at _b_. draw out the piece of iron, place the other collar in the open end, and weld it as you did the first. this is finished up in the holes made. threads can be cut or swivel hooks can be placed in. _third method:_ take a piece of pipe, length and size desired. heat one end and upset it, enlarging and thickening it slightly. cut a round iron plug to fit this end tightly. heat the plug and drive it into the pipe. place it on the fire and weld the pipe to the plug. at the same time forge the end square or hexagonal. drill a hole in this end, pin the swivel hook same as explained in the second method. select the iron, make the head on the rod, and put it through the pipe into the hole, head inside, before the plug is welded in the other end. be sure that this rod will turn freely. shape the hook before the plug is welded in the -in. end. this gives one an opportunity to push a rod into the pipe and hold the head of the hook while shaping it in the form of a hook or eye as required. now weld a plug in the other end the same as you did in the first. drill a hole in this end and cut a thread to receive the truss rod end. this last method is much simpler than the other two. it has this advantage, that the thread will not rust so quickly, since it is always enclosed in the pipe. however, there is danger of a very weak spot right back of the plug, because you know when two pieces of metal are welded together the temperature should be the same. if not, the cold one will cut into the hot one and form cold shuts. in this case it is impossible to get the plug the same temperature as the outside. as a consequence there is a defect in the forging. [illustration: eccentric strap] _eccentric strap:_ the principles applied in the working out of this problem are used in making many articles of wrought iron. eccentric straps are much used in foundries, machine shops, and general shop work. _stock:_ bar of wrought iron or soft steel - / ins. square, ins. or ins. long. round the bar down on one end to in. in diameter. split the other end up the length of the bar ins. to within in. of the shoulder made by the rounding down of the stock. these two arms are now thrown at right angles to the stem, forged down to / × in. the entire length. the arc of the circle made by the arms is determined by the size of the thing the eccentric strap is meant to fit when it is finished. the ends are now turned up at right angles and are bent to fit the circle. a gouge chisel will cut the end off rounding. all ladle handles can be made in this way. _garden hoe:_ the drawing shows the form and dimensions of the hoe, a garden tool very simple in construction and very useful. _stock:_ × × / in. steel. [illustration] [illustration: hoe] _directions:_ mark off ins. at one end and cut down in. deep on both edges. cut out a wedge-shaped piece as shown in the sketch. draw out the piece / in. in diameter and ins. long. this forms the handle. fuller down on each side of the handle where it joins the body as shown by the full lines. with the fuller spread out the metal on either side of the handle until it forms a blade × ins. this blade should be / in. thick at the top and / in. at the cutting edge. bend the handle into shape. file or grind the edges of the blade to make it smooth. this should be tempered by heating it red hot. plunge into oil. take it out when cold and hold it over the fire until the oil flashes off. then allow it to cool in the air. grind it and polish if a bright finish is required. if not it is now ready for the wood handle. _wood chisel:_ chisels for cutting wood can be made from a piece of gas pipe and a piece of steel, or from old cold chisels too short for use. if no piece of old tool steel is at hand take a new piece, / × ins., hexagonal. if a piece of gas pipe is used, / in., heat one end and place it on the point of the horn of the anvil. with the peen hammer thin the point down around the end. this thinning stretches the metal and gives you a funnel-shaped opening, and a scarf to use for welding. the short chisel end should be pushed into this for about in. and the scarf should be tapped down gently on this chisel. sometimes it is necessary to upset the end of the chisel in order to make it fit the scarf. if required to do this, put it into the fire and heat it red hot, and upset it on the end where the weld is to be. now put it into the pipe, put borax on the scarf, and heat it hot enough to weld. take it out and weld it up in a bottom swage and reduce the weld to / in. in diameter. cut the shank off about - / ins. from the weld and heat this end again. stretch it on this end so as to enlarge it to fit the wood handle which will be placed in later. heat the steel end. flatten it down to the shape of a wood chisel, the width to be according to the size needed. out of this piece of steel a chisel / in., / in., or in. can be made. it should be tapered down / in. on the cutting edge. file the cutting edge on the chisel. it gives a much better finish. the chisel is hardened and tempered almost the length of the whole blade, a blue colour, by heating it red hot, plunging it into water, polishing, and drawing the temper on a hot piece of iron. the handle is made by using what is known as a hollow auger. this shapes the wood to fit the pipe. a piece of the same pipe can be sawed off with a hack saw about / in. wide. this makes an iron ring, which should be driven in the end of the wood handle to prevent it from splitting. these chisels make the best kind of tools for rough, heavy work. _door hasp:_ door hasps are found most commonly on barn doors and gates, and in conjunction with a staple and lock form a complete fastening. the drawings make clear the different steps in the work. _stock:_ / × × ins. [illustration] [illustration] _directions:_ the eye is made first. heat the piece red hot. fuller down the stick / in. from one end, and ins. from the fullered mark put in another. the distance between the fullered marks should be ins. draw out the space between the fullered marks to / in. in width, - / ins. long. cut the corners off the piece left on the end, as shown by the drawing. round this up with the hammer on the anvil. punch a hole in the middle of the eye, but keep the thickness the same during all the work. to make the body of the piece, where the slot is, ins. from the shoulder fuller the end down to / in. from the end. draw out this end to - / in. in length. this forms the loop, and at the same time it tapers to a sharp end. (see drawing.) the piece is now ready for punching. mark places for the punch holes, then cut between the holes with a hot chisel. in this way the centre piece is cut out, forming the slot. if this is carefully done little work will be required to finish it. the slot is filed out if any rough places are left. the end is bent up. sometimes a ring is put in it, as a door pull, and sometimes the latch itself is used for the pull. [illustration: dividers] _pair of dividers:_ perhaps the simplest way to make a pair of dividers is to get a pair of buggy top joint butts, / in. size. weld to each of the legs a piece of steel to form the two legs for the dividers. begin about in. back of the weld and draw the legs out tapering, octagonal in shape and rounding toward extreme sharp points. place a washer on each side of the joint, and rivet the ends together with a steel rivet. if carefully done the dividers will require no wings. if wings are required they can be made by punching a slot / × / in. in each of the legs, ins. from the joint. in each of these slots drill holes, in one a / -in. hole and in the other a hole for a / -in. tap. drill both sets of holes through the legs. tap out the one and make a thumb screw to fit. this is done by drawing out a / -in. stem on the end of a / -in. rod and cutting off / in. of this to form the head of the thumb screw. heat this end and flatten down. finish up with a few strokes of the file. cut a / -in. thread on the end. screw it into the dividers. draw out a wing / in. wide, / in. thick, to fit the slot. bend it into a semicircle and place it into the slot. open the dividers. see that it swings round on this circle. drill a small hole in the end of the wing to fit the / -in. hole drilled into the leg and rivet it into the slot. this makes a pair of dividers that can be used for all classes of work. [illustration: thumb nut] stone chisels and picks . _stone chisels:_ _stock:_ / , / , / , / -in. octagonal steel, ins. long. stone chisels are made out of the above sizes of steel, in sets, for the cutting of marble, sandstone, granite, etc. _directions:_ put one end of the stock in fire. heat about in. draw this hot end to a taper / in. at the small end and - / in. long. place the extreme end again in the fire, take it out and strike it on the end by placing it upright on the anvil. upset this end and form the round top shown in the drawing. if this top is not completed in one heating, heat it again and repeat the hammering on the end. all stone chisels are made with this rounding end so that wood mallets can be used for driving purposes. the ones shown here are the shapes used on most stone chisels. [illustration: stone chisels] [illustration: stone chisels] the size of the teeth depends upon the hardness or softness of the material to be cut. the large teeth are used for hard stone cutting and the small teeth for soft stone cutting. place the other end of the tool in the fire and flatten it down as shown in the sketch given here. notice the dotted lines show that the extreme cutting edge of this tool is narrower than the body. this is an allowance made for the spreading out of the tool while cutting the teeth. space off the teeth with a -cornered file as shown in the same sketch, and cut the teeth with a chisel made in the following way: take a piece of / -in. octagonal steel. draw it out in the shape of a cape chisel. (see sketch.) heat the end of the steel tool, then place it in the vise. with the end projecting up place the chisel on the mark made by the file, strike down sharply on the chisel, and drive it down to the required depth. this is repeated until the teeth are all cut. flatten the cutting edge carefully on the anvil, and all teeth that may have been driven out of a straight line by the cutting. heat the tool to soften it. file between the teeth the roughness made by the forging of the tool. a small flat jewellers' file will be found best for this purpose. harden the tool as you did the cold chisel, and temper it at the purple colour sign. . _pick:_ _stock:_ / -in. square tool steel, ins. [illustration] _directions:_ mark the middle of the bar with a centre-punch. punch the hole through with the eye punch. put in a drift pin and flatten down the bulged sides of the bar made by punching the hole. draw the two ends out to a sharp square point. this should make the pick not more than ins. long. the drawing should show the shape it will be when finished. these picks are hardened the same as cold chisels, and tempered at the purple colour. rock drills (used with machinery) as the name indicates, these drills are used for making holes in rocks when blasting is to be done. the form and shapes most in use are shown here. the double drill, used so much in power drilling machines, is made in the following way: take a -in. octagonal bar of steel, any length. heat one end, and upset it to - / in. in diameter. put a small / -in. fuller on the anvil and place the end of the bar lengthwise on the fuller. put the top fuller directly above this and strike with a sledge hammer. the result is two fuller marks driven down within / in. of meeting. reverse this and do the same on the other two sides. this marks a cross. [illustration: tools for rock drills used in machines] [illustration: machine drill] place the forming tool in the anvil, and with a set hammer forge out the wings as shown in the sketch. the diameter of the drill depends upon the size of the hole to be drilled and is made accordingly. use a sharp chisel for cutting the cutting edges of the drill. it is now ready for tempering. drills are made in this way from the raw material. when once made they are kept in shape by what is known as the drill dressing tool shown here. these rock drills wear out on the sides, thus reducing the diameter. when re-dressing they are always upset to the required diameter. the re-dressing is done in the following way: heat the end of the drill in the fire and place the dressing tool so that the cross impression fits the end of the drill. drive on the end lengthwise of the bar, upsetting the drill to the required diameter, at the same time retaining the original shape of the cutting edge of the drill. _to temper rock drills:_ take two small tubs of cold water, one clear and the other made soapy by cutting up a bar of cheap soap into bits. heat the end of the drill to be tempered to a dull red and put it into the tub of clear water, the cutting edge only under water until it is cooled off. take it out to polish. when the straw colour appears plunge it into the tub of soapy water. this does away with any red heat that might be in the bar when the temper colours appear. soapy water is a poor conductor of heat and it allows the steel to cool off without suddenly chilling it. drill for hand drilling [illustration] these drills are used for drilling holes in rocks where it is impossible to place machines or where machines are not available, such as on farms, where great rocks and nigger heads are to be removed by drilling and blasting out. they are made as you would make a cold chisel. the taper, however, is much shorter and the ends are usually either rounded or diamond shape. (see sketch.) the cutting edges are ground, but in many cases they are forged and filed to shape. they are tempered in the same way as cold chisels are treated. [illustration: round and flat hand drill] [illustration: pipe drill] _round and flat hand drill:_ take a piece of octagonal steel, the size and length depending upon the size and depth of the hole to be drilled. these should not be over ins. in length, for the blow would have little effect upon the cutting edge of the drill. put one end into the fire, take it out and finish it up as you would the short end of a cold chisel. reverse the piece of steel, and heat this end, for about two inches, red hot. place it on the side of the anvil face and flatten it down tapering. make it very short and just wide enough for the size hole to be drilled. with a hot chisel cut the end into the proper shape, either round or diamond shape. with the hand hammer work the cutting edge on the end. this end should be from / in. to / in. in thickness. either file or grind the bevel which forms the cutting edge sharp. harden and temper it the same as you would a cold chisel. if it is found, on trial, to be too soft, re-heat, harden, and temper at a higher colour. one of the best hand drills for drilling holes in soft material like bricks or sandstones is a piece of gas pipe any length. file teeth in the end, like a saw tooth. case harden the end. this drill will go through a wall almost as quickly as a twist drill and with much less labour. shackle shackles are used for connecting chains, wire, ropes, etc. [illustration: shackle.] _stock:_ one piece of / -in. round iron, - / ins. (for shackle). one piece of / -in. round iron, ins. (for pin). one piece × / -in. flat iron, - / ins. (for key). one piece / -in. round iron, - / ins. (for ring). _directions:_ heat the / -in. round iron bar two inches, then bend this end on the anvil at right angles to the rest of the bar. place the heel on the anvil, with the end sticking up. strike on the end with the hand hammer and drive it down into the heel of the piece. repeat on the other end of the bar. as one can always force the metal into any shape one desires by first driving it one way or the other, skill in making the two ends of the bar depends upon one's way of using the hammer. this method of making the eye on the end of the bar does away with welding and upsetting of the metal. a round finished eye is the result of the natural bending of the metal. this holds good not only for the shackles like this one but for many other tools, such as hand holds for cars, wagons, etc. _bending:_ the shackle should be bent as shown in the sketch. first bend it right back of the eye, each one at about °. heat the body of the piece and shape it around the horn of the anvil until the opening measures in. wide. the sledge and swage are best used for this purpose. place the swage on the metal and have the helper strike the swage. the shape is not apt to be changed or the metal marred if these tools are used. _pin:_ take the / × in. piece of stock. the end is heated and upset about / in. place this end in a heading tool and work a button head on the end with either the cupping tool or a hand hammer. the pin should have a slot cut through it ins. from the head. to do this make a punch to cut the slot the shape required. after the piece is marked punch the slot by driving the punch half way through on one side. turn the piece over and drive the hole through on the other side. this enlarges the metal a little. reduce it to the / -in. size to fit the hole in the shackle. cut a little piece of iron the thickness and width of the key, / in. long. heat the end with the hole in and drive this drift into the slot. with / in. top and bottom swage and the drift in the slot, reduce the pin to fit the hole. drive the drift out. you now have a nice rounded pin with a hole in, / × / in. _key:_ take a piece of × / in. flat iron or steel. mark the shape of the key. cut it out and file to fit the slot. drill holes in the small end of this to prevent it falling out of the pin. _ring:_ bend the piece of / -in. wire around a / -in. rod in the shape of a spiral and saw off each ring as required. the ring should fit the hole in the key. this method of making a shackle is the same whether the material is / in. in diameter or any size up to ins. in diameter. crow-bars, and welding of tool steel to wrought iron [illustration: crow-bar] crow-bars are made by welding a piece of round no. flat steel into the end of a wrought iron bar any length or any size, depending upon the use to which the bar is to be put when made. this drawing shows a bar for shifting rails for railroads. when the size is determined, select the wrought iron to be used. upset the end and split it with a chisel / in. for a cleft weld. re-heat the end to a white heat. place it upon the edge of the anvil nearest you and with the peen of the hammer work the scarf out to a sharp point. repeat on the other side. (see picture.) place the piece of steel selected for welding, in the fire; shape this end down to a sharp point at an angle of °. with the edge of the chisel placed on this scarf, strike on the top of the chisel with a sledge hammer. this will cut a nick and at the same time it raises up a sliver which will help hold the piece of steel in the iron between the cleft. cool this scarf off in water until it is black hot. heat the piece of iron (scarf end). place the end of the steel scarf between the cleft and close the scarf on to the steel by striking gently. the steel will now stay in the end of the piece until it is welded. place the scarf in the fire and when it is red hot cover it with borax. get a welding heat on the wrought iron close to the joint first. gradually work this heat toward the steel till the borax begins to burn, emitting a dark brown smoke. take it out of the fire and place it on the anvil. one or two sharp blows on the end of the steel will drive it up into the crotch of the scarf. now strike gently on the top of the scarf. increase the force of the blows when you are sure the two pieces are welding together. if the pieces are not welding, which will be readily seen by the points of the scarf opening while working them down, place them again in the fire, put on borax and re-heat. a few trials will teach you how hot to get it for welding. flatten down the end and shape it as shown in the drawing. harden and temper the crow-bar as you would a cold chisel. if the point is not quite sharp enough grind it on the stone. nail puller or claw tool this tool is made in much the same way as you make a crow bar. however, before bending the end up into a crow-bar shape, cut a slot in the end, as shown in the picture. now bend it into shape. the handle should not be over ins. in length and tapered usually from / in. at the large end to about / in. at the smaller end. the end is now flattened and a hole punched in it to hang it up when not in use. this is one of the handiest tools to have around any shop, not only as a nail and a bolt puller, but it may be used in place of the crow-bar. the drawing explains the various steps in the making of the tool. [illustration: nail puller] butcher knife _stock:_ spring steel, / × / in. × ins. long. [illustration: butcher knife detail] the spring steel used for carving knives or any steel used for that purpose should be a grade that will harden in oil just hard enough to feel a mill-cut file cut the steel. cut the stock off ins. and forge the shank first. on this size steel this forging of the shank consists in reducing the thickness of the material and widening it about / in. to ins. in length. this tends to toughen the steel, and it makes a better knife by this extra work. [illustration: butcher knives] to forge the blade, heat ins. and bend it a little edgewise before reducing the one side for cutting edge. allow the stretching and thinning out of this edge to straighten the blade, and the curve on the back will form itself, naturally, by the extra length of the cutting edge. do not try to forge the exact shape of the knife. it is much better to reduce it to the required thickness, outline the shape, and cut it with a hot or cold chisel. at this thickness the knife can be worked either hot or cold when doing this particular kind of work. cut along the outline, thus giving it shape. a fine file will finish the roughness on the outline and trim up any uneven spots caused by the shaping. when the knife is finished, so far as the forging is concerned, anneal it by heating the whole blade and allowing it to cool in slaked lime. this relieves any strain due to forging. handles are made of bone, birch, or beech, and can be shaped to suit one's taste. they should measure about × / × ins. rivets hold them in place. (see cut.) these are of brass wire, easily made by cutting off the length required to go through the wood to hold the blade in place. place the blade in the slot of the wood handle and drill four holes through the wood and through the blade. do not make the holes more than / in. in diameter. take the blade out, harden, and temper. all drilling of holes and fitting should be done before the blade is tempered, while it is in the soft state. it is difficult to drill the holes after the tempering has been done. _to temper the blade:_ the blade is tempered by heating it on a coke fire. place the back of the blade down, on a piece of flat iron. the iron will heat red hot. the iron under the knife prevents the flame striking the blade and heating it unevenly, in spots, as it were. when the blade is red hot plunge it into a bath made of linseed oil. take it out of the oil and polish it. use the piece of iron the blade was heated on to draw the temper. this hot iron is put on the anvil, the back of the knife edgewise is placed on the iron and moved forward and backward to insure a uniform heat. as soon as the straw colour appears take out any buckle or bend caused by the hardening. place the other side of the blade on the anvil. a few quick, sharp blows with the peen of the hammer will straighten the blade. continue the tempering until the purple colour shows. the blade should be tempered so that a very smooth, sharp file will just cut it when rubbed over the surface. place the blade in the handle and rivet it in place, polish it, and then grind. ornamental iron work xxviii processes, andirons, fire tools [illustration] the handling of wrought iron when making ornamental work often brings in, besides the usual smithing operations, the processes of embossing, impressing, engraving, etching, inlaying of copper or brass, grinding, and polishing. embossing is done by heating the piece and raising the metal from the back into an iron above the surface. impressing is done by cutting an impression in an iron block and driving the metal into it. engraving consists of putting the design upon the iron with a diamond point chisel or any sharp tool, with the aid of a hammer. when the design is cut out by means of acid the process is called etching. it is done in this way: the surface to be etched is first covered with a layer of wax. the design to be left is scratched through the wax into the metal by using a very sharp tool. this lays bare the surface of the metal to be etched. the acid or etching fluid is then applied. when sufficiently etched the acid is removed from the surface of the metal by means of turpentine. this stops the action of the acid immediately. inlaying is hammering one metal into the surface of another. it is done by cutting a groove in the surface of one metal and hammering the other metal into this groove. impressing, engraving, etching, inlaying, etc., are used on fine pieces of ornamental work, such as door knockers, drawer pulls, door handles, sword blades, ornamental hinges, fire sets, etc., or on small pieces of work such as initials or coats of arms, etc. _splitting of iron or soft steel:_ splitting iron or soft steel is done for many pieces of work. all solid rings, rings without welds, handles for carrying ladles in foundries of all kinds are made in this way. most of our ornamental work, where we require two pieces of iron running from a stem in opposite directions, calls for this process. [illustration: copyright, , by underwood & underwood, n. y. splitting and shaping the iron in the making of andirons.] we are now going to make a pair of andirons. the process of splitting iron comes in with this problem. [illustration] _pair of andirons:_ it is always best to make a sketch of the large pieces of ornamental work to be made, in order that they may have the proper proportion to their setting and bear the right relation to their surroundings. for instance, a grill made from either wrought iron or soft steel must fit the opening when finished, iron gates must fit space for which they are intended, yet not be too tall or too short to be in good proportion to their setting, etc. andirons must fit into the fireplace and occupy the space so as to give the eye a sense of fitness and proportion to the whole hearth. this sketch shows a pair of andirons that can be made suitable for any size hearth. no inlaying, etching, etc., is used upon this work, the only decoration being the hammer marks left by the peen of the hammer. andirons are much used in country homes where log fires are in use. they can be made of iron or brass, and coal or wood may be used on a hearth fitted out with a pair. _stock:_ one piece soft steel, - / × - / × ins. two pieces, / in. square, ins. long. two pieces, / in. square, ins. long. two pieces, / in. square, ins. long. one piece / -in. square iron. one piece × / × ins. flat iron. [illustration: bend in this way to form the legs] _directions:_ take the -in. bar and split it ins. to do this rub a piece of chalk on the two faces of the bar. this makes clear any marking put on the surface. with the square mark off ins. from one end. now with a pair of dividers set at / in. run along the bar with one leg of the dividers on the outer edge to the -in. mark. do this on both faces. now mark on this centre line with a cold chisel. put the bar into the fire and heat the end of it. take it out when red hot and put it on the anvil. the marks made by the cold chisel will show plainly. with the hot chisel cut along the lines made by the cold chisel, cutting from both sides of the piece until the bar is divided into two equal parts. this will require a number of heatings to do. the last inch should be cut from the top down. to cut this, up-end the bar on the anvil or any solid base, placing the hot chisel in the crotch of the piece and striking it with the sledge hammer. this cuts the last inch down square with the axis of the bar. the sledge hammer work is heavy and one requires a helper here. the bar is now divided into two wings. before shaping these two wings into the base for feet the upper part of the bar should be drawn out according to the drawing and the end rounded or squared as suits the taste. the wings are now shaped up and form the two feet on the bar. (see drawing.) [illustration: shape legs should be before bending] _to shape the feet of the andiron:_ the drawing shows the shape and length the legs should be. to do this heat the bar at the crotch, and flatten both sides out almost straight. this prepares for shaping according to the drawing. measure off ins. from the extreme end of each leg and mark off with a centre-punch. the -in. lengths form the feet. taper the iron between the centre-punch mark and the crotch so that when finished the leg should measure - / × / in. close to the crotch, and × / in. at the centre-punch mark. repeat this on the other leg. flatten out the feet so that they will measure - / × - / ins. these feet are slightly impressed. to do this place the feet over a hollow iron block and force the metal down so that the under side is raised up about / in. above the level of the foot. (see dotted lines on the drawing of the feet.) repeat on the other side. the leg is now ready to be bent into shape. heat up at the crotch and then bend both legs back toward the top end at an angle of °. heat again and bend the legs forward, shaping them like the drawing. _back part of the andiron:_ the drawing shows a short upright piece placed so as to prevent the logs rolling out in front. the -in. piece is welded on to the upright, as shown in the drawing, and fastened on to the andiron. the -in. piece is welded on to the andiron and forms the leg on which the wood is placed. these pieces are welded upon short uprights by what is called jump welds. (see description of jump welds.) the end of the iron is bent on the anvil as square bends are always made. (see description of square bends.) the end that fastens to the andiron proper is also bent square, but tapered slightly to make a nice fit. fastening the frame to the andiron is done with a stud and bolt. the stud is screwed into the andiron and into the frame as shown by the dotted lines. a square headed bolt fastens the upper part, thus preventing any twisting out of place. the only finish given to the andirons is that left by the marking of this peen hammer. this leaves a mottled surface, which gives an old look to the finished piece. _chain ring bolt:_ ring bolt is made from a / -in. square iron piece. this is drawn down at one end until it is in. long and / in. round. a thread is cut on this end. drill a hole through the centre of the square head / in. in diameter. [illustration: ring] [illustration: ring bolt] [illustration: andiron with riveted wood rest] _ring:_ take the × / × in. piece of flat iron. draw it out so that it tapers toward each end. (see drawing.) on the extreme end of each is a / -in. pin / in. long. bend ring into shape. the lower centre of the ring has a knob. this knob is made out of a piece of / -in. square iron pulled down / in. in diameter and / in. back from the end. the fullered end makes the pin and should be cut long enough to project through the ring / in. to allow for riveting. you have sufficient stock to round up on the edge of the anvil into a ball shape. drill a hole in the centre of the ring and fit the pin on the end of the knob into the hole in the ring. rivet tight. the design you see on the ring may be put on with a diamond pointed chisel. the ring is now heated, opened out, and pushed into the hole made in the ring bolt so that it swings easily into place. two rings of course should be made. the chain fastened from one ring to another is used as a guard against fire. the chain rings are made out of / -in. square iron which is cut ins. long. then they are bent square and welded as chain links are usually welded. notice that the last two links show an opening just wide enough to allow them to be slipped into the rings of the andiron. this completes the set. the finish is made by the indentations left by the peen of the hammer. on page is shown another pair of andirons. they are made in the same way as the pair just described, splitting it down to form the legs. the wood rests are riveted through the body of the piece, forming a large rivet head in front to hold it in place and at the same time adding to the decoration. fire tools and stand: poker, shovel, tongs [illustration] fire tools form part of the andiron set and are used for grate fires or open hearth fires of either coal or wood. they are always in evidence in country homes where open fireplaces are still in use. they can be made of brass, iron, or soft steel. if an andiron is in place the fire tools are usually made of the same metal and finished in the same way so as to match. [illustration] _poker:_ _stock:_ one piece of / -in. round iron or soft steel ins. long (for handle). one piece / in. round. one piece ins. long (for rod). these drawings show a simple design in fire tools. all have handles after the same design, slightly curved, with a ball as an end decoration. the making of the handle is described below, and this method, of course, applies to the making of all the handles of this set. _handle:_ _stock:_ one piece / in. of round stock fullered down / in. from the end to a thickness of / in. knock the four corners down and round up into a ball. five inches from this, fuller the piece to / in. thickness. draw the piece out any length, keeping the thickness / in. weld the / -in. rod to the small end. the extreme end of the poker may be finished in various ways. it is sometimes turned at right angles to the rod. it may be pointed, flattened, etc. the centre of the handle is slightly curved. to do this heat the rod and reduce it, then place it upon the largest part of the horn of the anvil. with the hand hammer, hammer until the thinnest part in the centre measures about / in. in diameter. in this way the handle is reduced / in. at that point, and curved in slightly. [illustration] _shovel:_ _stock:_ handle, / × in. round iron or soft steel. rod, / × ins. long, iron or soft steel. shovel blades, rectangular piece of no. , soft steel, × ins. _directions:_ handle is made in same way as you made the handle of the poker. _rod:_ the rod is welded at one end to the handle. the other end is flattened out to be riveted on to the shovel blade. to do this, upset the extreme end of the rod back about in. and about / in. in diameter. flatten this out and shape it up as shown by the sketch. holes are drilled in for / in. rivets. _shovel blade:_ cut a paper pattern just the shape of the blade. mark on the inside of the pattern the width of the edges to be turned up. place the paper pattern on the metal and cut out the outline with a cold chisel. now mark off the inside line for the turned up edges. heat the metal in the forge fire, a little at a time, beginning at the centre part of the round. bend it upon a round stake, tapping gently with the hammer until the blade is well shaped, according to your design. this size metal will buckle up the same as the copper did. give as much care in rounding up the iron as you did to the copper. (see copper bowl.) when the piece has taken on the shovel shape place the end of the handle to be riveted on the blade, and mark the holes. drill and rivet the handle and the blade with / -in. round head iron rivets. notice that the shovel blade is not in an exact line with the handle and rod. it forms an angle with them. this bend is made after the riveting is done. heat the piece where the blade joins the rod and bend it back gently either with the hand or by tapping it with a hammer, keeping the hot part of the shovel, all the time, on the horn of the anvil. [illustration] _tongs:_ _stock:_ / × in. round, for handle. two pieces / × in. round rod. [illustration] [illustration] _directions:_ make handle as for poker and shovel. look at the detail drawing and you will see by the dotted lines that ins. from the lower end of the handle the stock is bent out at right angles to the axis of the handle. take one of the / × in. round rods, place it in the swage, using the top swage on this. shape the piece between the two swages. form it to an oval shape by striking with a sledge hammer on the top swage. this makes one half of the rounded part of the tong. if this is done without turning the piece while working it, the cross section will be oval. bend it rounding, as shown by the drawing. it is now ready to weld to the rod, but before doing this it is best to finish the hinge. draw out the stock between the shoulder and the bend, × / ins. in diameter. leave the stock heavy near the handle on account of the weight of the tongs. to form the hinge: place a round / -in. punch, flattened on the end, on the corner and drive down half way. this makes a circular depression, just large enough to accommodate the / -in. hinge. two of these wings of the tongs are to be made to complete the tongs. the second piece is far simpler than the first to make, and it is really the only part of the tong that moves. draw out the stock and make the same size oval as you made with the other piece under the swages. bend it the same shape. repeat the work with the punch on the end, thus making the other half of the tong hinge. file these halves to fit perfectly. when that is satisfactory, drill a hole through the middle. put a round-head rivet through, and see whether the hinge now works perfectly free. remove rivets. the parts are now ready to be welded to the rods. upset the ends of the small rods, scarf both for a regular lap weld (see lap weld), and finish by welding. the end of the tongs are flattened down. flatten out the material and at the same time round it up. if the material is not thick enough to give enough for this rounding part, upset the end a little, or double the end over and weld. (see welding.) tongs are now ready for riveting together. place the hinge in position. push the round-head rivet through the hole made. let it push through far enough to allow material for a rivet head of exactly the size of the round head. the head may be rounded up if not too large, while it is cold. since only a / -in. rivet is called for here, this work can be done without any heating. tongs are made, as you know, for the purpose of picking up pieces of wood or coal to place them in a stove or open fire. one must keep their use in mind when making the ends of the tongs fitted to do this work, so the ends may be flat, round, claw shaped, concaved, etc. the finish will be the same as the finish on the andiron, without any attempt at ornament. the surface should show the hammer marks, but be quite free from lumps. _stand:_ sometimes hooks are fastened in the fireplace for holding the fire tools. a tool stand, however, is most convenient and may be made easily. the drawing shows a plain design, with base, feet, upright, arms for receiving the tools, and handle. _stock:_ base, no. sheet iron, × ins., oblong piece. feet: pieces, in. square, ins. long. upright, / in. round, ins. long. arms, pieces, × / × ins. handle, × / × ins. _directions:_ the drawing shows the stand as it should look when finished. base is made first. cut out a pattern of an ellipse, long diameter ins., short diameter ins. place this pattern on the oblong piece and cut it out with shears or a cold chisel. on the inside mark off - / ins. parallel to the outside edge. on that line turn the metal up as you turned up the rim of the copper bowl. this can be done while the metal is either hot or cold. perhaps it is a little easier to work up most of the bend while the metal is hot and finish up while it is cold. do not cool the metal off in water, though. this tends to harden it a little. let it cool off gradually, and when necessary anneal or soften it. _feet:_ the -in. square iron is fullered down in. from the end. the ball is rounded out of this end piece same as was done in making the balls for the door knocker. this leaves part of the metal with which to make a pin for riveting. cut off this rivet pin the length required. rivet holes are made in the base large enough to receive the rivet pins on the iron feet. divide the base into three equal parts. drill rivet holes the right size, put the iron balls in place, and rivet. _arms:_ the two pieces of / × × ins. are bent and scarfed. the two scarfed edges are welded together. then the end is welded to one end of the upright post. _handle:_ the handle is made separate and is then welded on to the arms. take the / × in. piece and bend it at right angles ins. from each end. heat it in the middle and bend so the two ends come together. this forms a loop. make this loop the same shape as is shown by the handle. weld the two -in. ends together, shape, and then weld this to the crotch of the arms. this forms the handle. the arms are now bent wide enough to receive the fire tools. _the upright:_ cut it off ins. from the top of the arms. upset one end large enough to make a foot ins. long and about ins. wide. this is flattened down and shaped as shown, for three / -in. rivets. push the rivets in and rivet the upright to the base. if the base should not be strong enough to hold the upright firm it can be strengthened by placing a brace from the long ends and fastening it to the centre of the upright. this adds to the decoration as well as the strength. use a / × / in. flat bar of iron or steel. place it in a vise and twist it about two thirds of its length. bend the ends to fit the curved sides of the base and also to fit the post. a small / -in. rivet on each side and one through the post will hold it sufficiently. the stand is finished to correspond with the andiron and fire tools. in this design the hammer marks seem more suitable than any special decoration. a little machine oil spread over the surface, the whole thing heated in the forge fire until the oil flashes off, gives a natural iron finish, which is most pleasing. xxix candlesticks, hinges, iron brackets candlestick this wrought iron candlestick is made up of three pieces welded together. _stock:_ three pieces of / -in. round iron ins. long. [illustration] _directions:_ the detail drawings show the steps in the making of this piece of work. notice that the rod used to make the leg and foot also forms part of the holder or socket. take one of the / × in. rods. mark off / in. from one end. draw this out as shown by the sketch. mark off / in. from that point. from this / -in. mark draw the material out - / ins. long. this should be made square and tapered slightly toward the foot. you will then have / in. for the foot. _foot:_ the drawing shows a conventional flower shaped foot. spread the / in. wide enough to shape a foot as shown in the sketch. shape it by cutting it out with a chisel and then filing. the embossing is done in the same way, as has been explained. (see embossing.) _socket:_ the socket is tulip or cup shaped. flatten out the opposite end of the -in. bar and shape up as shown in sketch. make the other two legs to match this one. weld the three pieces together at a in the following way: put the three parts together and bind in place with a piece of binding wire. place it in the fire and heat it to a welding heat. weld the three pieces close to the socket and for about in. below. shape a round neck (see sketch) and at the same time reduce it to / in. in diameter. the small iron collar is put on and welded about in. below the socket. this addition is for ornamental purposes entirely. _shape socket for the candle:_ heat the top at a low heat and with a pair of round-nosed pincers shape up as shown. the legs are now twisted. this can be done the last thing and while the metal is cold. _wrought iron candlestick:_ take a piece of soft steel or wrought iron / × × ins. heat the bar. emboss the centre by driving it in a hole in a swage block. the centre should be about - / ins. above the surface of the feet. cut out the four pieces as shown in the sketch. file up and finish the base. [illustration] _post:_ select a piece of / -in. square iron. taper the ends to / in. square by - / ins. long. the small end swells out / in. as shown in the sketch. forge a small pin, / × / in., on the end of this post. now swell the base of the post so that it will measure / in. square. the length from end to end minus the length of the pin should measure ins. forge a / -in. pin / in. long at the base end. heat the centre of the post; place it in the vise and give it a complete twist to the right. drill in the centre of the base a hole to fit the pin on the end of the post. heat the pin red hot and rivet the base to the post. _candle socket:_ this socket is made in a conventional design. take a piece of no. soft sheet steel or iron and cut a disc - / ins. in diameter. divide this piece equally into six parts and cut out as shown on the drawing. bend these leaves up to form a socket. now cut a piece of sheet metal - / ins. square, and cut out as shown for the little ornament fastened on the top. bend the four wings down as shown here. drill a small hole through the centre of each to fit to the piece on the end of the post. place these pieces in position and rivet in place. this work is to be done cold. a candlestick of this design is easily made and very attractive when finished. decorative iron work next to the scroll, the twist is perhaps the most characteristic detail of decorative treatment in iron. twists relieve the plain effect of the straight lines made by the hard edges of the metal, by introducing short curves into the design. the twists are easily made and lend themselves largely for decoration on such things as fire escapes, brackets, grills, gates, fences, and smaller articles, such as umbrella stands, door knockers, fire tools, etc. the twisting is done best while the iron is cold. if done while the iron is hot great care must be taken to check up when the lines begin to run too close together. take a bar of square iron, fasten one end in the vise, and with a monkey wrench on the other end give the metal a twist. only square bars show a change in the shape after twisting. round stock when placed in the vise and twisted shows no change in shape. however, two pieces of round stock twisted give a very pleasing effect. a braided strand is made ( ) by welding the ends of two pieces of round iron together side by side and twisting them, ( ) welding ends of two more pieces of the same size and length together and twisting them, ( ) by welding these two twisted bars together on both ends and twisting them in the opposite direction. this gives a braided effect which is most decorative. however, the square stock gives the most satisfactory result in all of this twisted work. handles can be made by reducing square stock, leaving the centre larger and drawing the ends out to a taper and twisting this tapered part. begin the twist in the middle and let it rise gradually toward each end. great care must be taken with this work, as the smallest sizes are also the weakest and naturally bend first. to do this work successfully the metal must be heated and driven a little each time until the whole taper is twisted. _spirals:_ spirals are made by drawing a long taper on the end of a round or square bar of small iron. turn the end of the bar up / in. at right angles. grasp the turned up end in the vise; coil the end up as you would a coil of rope. slip one end under the other when they come together. when the first coil reaches the centre of the piece repeat on the other end until the two coils meet in the middle. heat it all evenly. grasp both ends in the tongs and pull the spiral out. stop when the openings equal the size of the iron of which the coil is made. [illustration] _ornamental bulbs:_ bulbs are used in the same way as spirals and twists, for decorative purposes, on andirons, grills, fences, etc. the form shown here in the sketch is a very simple one. the principle, however, is the same as that applied to the forging of more complex bulbs. select a rod of iron for a core. reduce the thickness to about / in. for about ins. long, leaving the required thickness at the ends; / in. from the shoulder nick the bar around, cutting it almost through. leave about / in. to hold it to the body of the piece. cut the core off in. from the -in. cut. the picture shows the method of making the core in order to work out the problem. select a number of pieces of / -in. round soft steel the length of the reduced piece and place these around the core, each one fitting close to the next one. if the space is too small or too large when the last piece is put in make the core larger or smaller. these rods should just touch when they lie around the core. now with a pair of tongs bind all the rods tightly around the core and with the same tongs put one end in the fire and heat red hot. cover with borax. take on a welding heat and weld it in a swage, confining the length of the welding to as short a space as possible. [illustration] [illustration] the core prevents the rods from sinking while welding and it also keeps them in place. reverse the piece. put the other end in the fire and weld as before. weld the neck as short as possible. heat the body of the piece uniformly. grasp one end of the bar in the vise and with a pair of tongs twist the other end toward the right slowly. while doing so tap lightly on the end with a hammer. this tends to loosen up the rods and help the twisting. be careful not to twist so much that the rods will break away from the welds. heat all again. place it again in the vise and twist in the opposite direction, at the same time driving on the ends. this forces the centre out and gives it a bulb shape. the core should bend up where the cutting is done. now the core should be driven out. a punch driven in against the core should break it easily where the cut marks are made. these short ends are forced out through the openings between the rods, and any uneven buckles or bends in the rods should be bent or straightened as the case requires. the bulb can be trued up while cold. a punch driven through from the opposite side will help straighten any of the rods bent from the outside in. the rods can be plied apart with a pair of pliers or a pair of tongs. the surplus metal on the top end is now cut off and trued up. spiral candlestick [illustration] this old dutch candlestick is made of / -in. round wire in spiral form. the spiral stem is made so that, as the candle burns down, an inner socket is moved around the spiral. this travels up and down and keeps the point of the candle above the holder. [illustration: copyright, , by underwood & underwood, n. y. finishing of an ornamental window grill, and levelling up of an old dutch candlestick.] _stock:_ base, -in. disc of sheet steel or iron. legs, / × × ins. (makes the ). spiral, / -in. round wire, ins. _directions (base or pan):_ divide the disc into sixteen equal parts. flute these parts by cutting out a little hollow in a hard wood block and driving the flutes in by the use of a round cross peen hammer. fluting reduces the diameter of the disc and forms it into a pan shape. _legs:_ the three legs are in one piece. the / × × in. piece is split down half way; in. from where the split ends the piece is fullered down. (see sketch.) draw out this end / in. wide. draw out the split ends to this width, and all pieces to / in. thickness. this forms a tripod, the three legs at an equal distance apart. the ends of the feet are made very thin by flattening down. turn these up as shown by the sketch and shape the three feet. _spiral stem:_ this candle stem is / in. in diameter. if you wind up a piece of / -in. wire on a / -in. iron rod while the metal is cold you will have a spiral stem like the one shown here. to do this make a mandrel out of a / -in. bar not less than ins. in length. drill a / -in. hole in the end. into this hole drive a / -in. iron plug. place this mandrel in the vise. bend a small loop on the end of this wire to fit the / -in. pin. bend the wire and begin to wind around the bar. make as many turns as are shown in the drawing. take the wire off. the small loop end will stick out below the spiral and prevent it standing on a base level. this end must be driven back. to do this place it upon the other end of the rod, strike it with the hammer, and flatten it out so that the base will stand flat. insert a sharp-pointed chisel between the coils; open them out so that the distance between them will be / in. do this while the metal is cold. the handle may be made any design. it can be bent over, extended at right angles to the top, etc. rivet the legs to the base with a / -in. bolt. with a nut on the end rivet tightly to prevent the nut loosening up. _socket to fit the spiral stem, for raising and lowering the candle:_ _stock:_ one piece of / × × in. one piece of × - / in. flat iron or soft steel, no. . _directions:_ the no. piece is bent around a / -in. mandrel to give it a cylindrical shape. the two edges just come together. the handle of this socket is made by fullering down / × × ins., in. back from the end, and drawing this out / in. round, ins. long. the end is turned over as shown in the sketch; the other end is filed round to fit the inside of the socket cylinder. the two pieces are now brazed together. file the parts that come into contact with each other perfectly clean, and cover with borax. heat it red hot and touch the parts to be brazed with the end of a piece of brass wire. at a certain temperature the brass wire will melt and fill up the spaces between the bottom and the cylinder. (see brazing.) this makes a tight joint: it is like soldering wrought iron together. this method of joining is used where welding would be impossible, as it would be in this case. file the base off smooth. the candle can now be slipped between the coils of wire. it should travel in its socket up and down the spiral. (see drawing.) iron and steel hinges ornamental hinges are used on doors, wall cabinets, chests, gates, etc., or wherever suitable. there are three methods of making hinges: ( ) solid eye, ( ) welded, ( ) turned or bent eye. (see article on plain hinges.) _solid eye:_ the first drawing shows the solid eye split ornamental hinge. [illustration: ornamental hinge] _stock:_ one piece of soft steel or wrought iron, / × / × ins. long. take a bar of iron ins. long with the above dimensions as to width and thickness; ins. from the end of the bar fuller down to / in. thick. these ins. are flattened down to / in. thick and ins. wide, any length. split the flattened part to within - / ins. of the shoulder. the two ends are now thrown out, tapered, and bent into shape. cut the piece from the bar in. back of the fullered part. round the piece up, thus forming the eye. the body of the piece between the split and the eye is now widened out to - / ins. to do this use the peen of the hammer on the under side of the metal, thus thinning out the metal in the centre in order to increase the width. shape it up and curve it about / in. this, in turn, gives a nice rounded finished surface similar to the drawer pull. the chased design on the hinge is made in the same manner and with the same tools as are used in work in chasing. (see chapter on chasing.) the butt for the hinge is made of × / in. flat wrought iron. fuller down the end of the piece, round it up to fit the diameter of the eye of the hinge. a hole is punched in the middle of the piece. a - / × / in. piece of iron is drawn and is pushed into the hole, riveted down on the short end, and welded. the other end is drawn out to a square tapered point. nick the four edges at intervals with a sharp chisel, thus throwing up little projections to prevent it from slipping out of the wood when driven in to hold the hinge. this kind of hinge is used mostly for doors. the upper part of the pin that sticks through the eye of the hinge is ornamented by a fuller mark and a round top. iron bracket this bracket is made of three pieces: back piece, hanger, and support: _stock:_ back plate, / × in. of soft steel or norway iron. hanger and support, / in. square. _back plate:_ the drawing shows the back plate as a conventional leaf design and is made as follows: take the / × in. of soft steel and shape it according to the drawing. with the peen of the hammer widen out the top enough to cut out the design shown here. when cut out as shown, boss up the centre of the leaves by using the peen hammer on a round hole. this bossing is a matter of taste. the lower part is now flattened out, trimmed, and shaped as shown. the thickness is of no importance. on the end of the top bar forge a pin about / in. in diameter to fasten into the back by riveting. [illustration: iron bracket] _hook:_ the hook is made in the same way as you made the gate hook. the bar is twisted in the middle. _support:_ select a bar the right length and twist it in the middle. flatten the ends down and bend the little curves as shown. this is drilled for a / -in. rivet, then placed in position. holes are marked in the hanger and in the back. rivet the support in place. be careful to have the hanger at right angles to the back. if you do not, the effect is spoiled, no matter how good the rest of the workmanship may be. xxx lamps, lanterns, iron kettle stand, umbrella stand wrought iron lamp [illustration] the sketch shows a wrought iron lamp with square base, four feet, round hollow post, shade holder and shade. _base:_ no. soft sheet steel, ins. square. [illustration: copyright, , by underwood & underwood, n. y. making an iron lamp--bending the parts of the base] make a - / -in. circle in the centre of the -in. square piece. drive this up / in. above the level by placing it over a - / -in. hole in a wooden block or a swage block. if this piece of iron is placed over a hole any diameter and struck on the opposite side with the peen of the hammer it will sink into the hole and take the rounding shape. this can be done while the metal is cold. with a pair of dividers find the centre of boss and describe a faint circle in. less than the diameter of the base. tangent to those lines draw lines along the edge of the base. the dotted lines on the sketch show how the base should be cut out. the stock left on the corners forms the feet when the sides of the base are bent into shape. cut out the piece of metal as described and bend the sides over / in. the corners must be heated red hot and formed separately. this is best done over the heel of the anvil. after placing the heated corners on the heel of the anvil drive quickly with a light hammer first on one side and then on the other, forming and upsetting the metal into shape at the same time. the flare on the bottom of the feet is worked in after the corners and shaped as shown in the sketch. repeat this on the four corners. now flare out the feet on the horn of the anvil. out of the centre of the boss cut a circle a little less than the base of the post, to receive the post. _post:_ take a × in. piece and bend it around a piece of round iron so that the two edges will fit close together. the inside and outside of these are filed for brazing. (see brazing.) this post is now bound with good strong wire to keep the joint close. cover with flux, place in the fire and add the smelter to the joint on the inside of the pipe. when the smelter runs into the joint take it out of the fire and allow it to cool in the air. the joint is now filed up on the outside and if properly brazed should show only a very fine line made by the smelter. the upper part of the post is now swelled out as shown in the sketch, by heating at a low heat and spreading the metal out all around the end. a cap is placed on top of the post to hold the arms that support the shade and to hold, too, the electric light bulb, or gas pipe, or oil well, according to the light to be used. the cap is made by rounding the end of a -in. bar to / in. in diameter, ins. long. the other end is cut off about / in. to allow for the flattening down to make the cap. place the / -in. stem into a heading tool and flatten this bar down quite thin. spread it out so that the edges can be turned over at right angles to form a cap to fit the top of the post. this cap can be either brazed or riveted on to the post. either will look well. if used for gas or electric light a hole should be drilled through the centre of the cap and through the post to receive the wire. if used for gas the lower side can be tapered out so that / -in. gas pipe can be screwed in. now cut a thread on the top of the post to fit an electric light socket. the same thread acts as a holder for the bracket of the shade holder. place the cap on the post, rivet and braze. file the lower part of the post and the inside of the hole on the base perfectly clean. the bottom of the post should be filed a little tapering so it will fit into the base of the hole tight. wire it in for brazing so that the post will stand perpendicular to the base. carry your binding wires from the top of the post to the four corners of the base, using heavy wire for this work of binding. cover the joint with flux. place the centre on the fire and put the brazing material on the joint around the post. with a slow heat, heat till the smelter runs into the joint. close off the blast, let it remain in the fire until cold, then remove it. _shade holder:_ this is made of a piece of × / × in. soft steel. fuller down ins. from the end to / × / in. draw this out any length. split the other end to within - / ins. of this fuller mark. throw these arms out and draw each down the same size as the other, / × / in. place the crotch on a small bottom fuller and with the top fuller spread each arm out so that it will measure an equal distance from the other arms. at the same time this will shape the centre. drive the end out tapering / in. wide at the base, tapering to / in. square at the ends. the length of the arms depends upon the size of the shade. tip ends of the arms should be bent up / in. to hold the shade in place. drill a hole in the centre of the tripod and tap a thread in the hole to fit the thread on the end of the cap, so that this will screw on. these arms can be bent down or up to suit the height of the shade. _shade:_ the shade pattern is developed in the same way as the shade described in the copper article on lamp shades. in this case, however, each unit is cut out separately and riveted to the next; all put together and filed; / -in. soft iron rivets are used for riveting the parts. _glass:_ the glass can be bought at any glazier's. cathedral opalescent glass is best. place a piece of card-board on one of the units and mark the outline of the opening. cut about / in. larger than this outline. this pattern taken to the glazier can be cut out from any kind of glass, according to the size wanted. lamp this lamp may be used for gas, oil, or electricity. the difference between this and the preceding lamps lies in the construction of the base. the full page illustration shows lamp described here. [illustration] _base:_ soft steel / × × ins. mark off the design shown by the full lines on the / × × in. piece. this is for one leg of the lamp. cut with a sharp cold chisel along the outline about two thirds of the way through the thickness. place the cut line in the jaws of the vise. with a pair of tongs grasp the waste material, then with a prying motion break off these pieces. file up the rough edge left by the cutting. with this piece as a pattern cut in like manner three more pieces, making four in all. this makes the stock for the four legs. place the foot end of one piece into the fire and bend about in. of this end into a small circle having a radius of not more than / in. about ins. back from this heat the metal to a length of ins. place it on the anvil as shown and with the hand hammer drive it into a circle. [illustration] while bending this into shape keep the circle a little larger than the drawing calls for. the circle is very easily reduced, while if it was made too small in the beginning one would have to straighten the whole piece out to increase the size. therefore, it is best to work it large until finished. wide stock like this is easily twisted out of shape, so that it is very difficult to bend it up in a circle of this kind. it is hard, too, to change any twist that may be worked in. [illustration] bend the other three legs in the same way, as nearly like the first one as you can. be sure to make the four legs the same height when finished. drill three holes for / -in. bolts, as shown in the sketch. seven inches below the top drill one hole in each leg for a rosette or some form of decorative treatment. these four legs are held in place by means of a tapered square plug ins. long. the small end should fit the smallest width on the lamp legs and the taper ins. below this width. drill a hole through the centre of this plug for a / -in. gas pipe, if to be used for gas. the same opening can be made for electric wires, etc., and a lamp well, placed at the end for a lamp. _to put the lamp together:_ place one leg on the square plug and mark through the holes on the plug. centre-punch these holes and drill for a / -in. top. the hole should be drilled through the plug. tap out the holes and bolt the two legs, one on either side. while drilling these holes be sure they are at right angles to the centre axis of the plug. this means a little blocking up on the tapered end. bolt the two legs to the plug by using any short / -in. bolts for this purpose. if all work so far has been carefully done these two legs will stand vertically to the plane of the table. if not they can be made to do so by taking out a little of the curve in the legs, thereby lengthening the side that might be a little short. place one leg up on the third side and with a scratch awl mark the holes through on to the plug and drill these three holes through the plug. tap out as you did before and put the other two feet on. square up all the work done. bolts are used for this purpose. take / -in. square bolts, / in. long. reduce the thickness of the head to / in., flattening and rounding the top slightly. put these in place of the temporary bolts. they will hold the sides of the lamp in place. a decorative piece can be made out of a bolt head by placing it in the heading tool and forming a pyramid shaped head. this is pushed through the hole and riveted on the other side. cut off a piece of gas pipe short enough to extend about in. above the top of the lamp and to come within ins. from the base. this is now forced through the hole in the plug. if any of the bolts should have screwed into this hole, preventing this pipe from going through, they should be filed off. to fill up the interval caused by the four scrolls bending outward on the top of the lamp, forge a round ball on the end of a square bar to fit this opening. cut off the ball and drill a hole in through the ball to slip over the pipe. the thread on the end of the pipe should fall below the top of the ball. make a tripod as explained in the description of the preceding lamp. screw it in the end of this pipe tight against the ball. the end of the pipe is used for the fixtures needed. [illustration: forge ball - - drill hole ] lanterns [illustration] the lantern shown here is of a simple design and can be made out of material without putting in any bends or twists. the material for the making of the uprights is / × / in. steel. the top and bottom should be made of no. soft steel. the design shows that all pieces are riveted together on a framework. the top can be of one piece and shaped as shown in the sketch. bottom is of one piece and is made for electric light, candle, or oil lamp. fixtures for any one of the above ways of lighting must be placed in the bottom of the lantern. for the candle, a small socket can be riveted to the bottom. a cup to receive the oil lamp may be put in place. if candle or oil is used the bottom of the lantern must be fastened with a hinge, so that it will open to receive the lamp or candle. if it is adjusted for using electric light the cluster sockets can be fastened to the bottom, or they can hang from the top. these lanterns can be made in all sizes, from one small enough for a cozy corner to one large enough for a lodge keeper's gate. they may be hung on ornamental brackets, as shown in the sketch here, or they may hang directly from the ceiling, with ring or chain fastenings. they are made square, round, hexagonal, and so forth. iron kettle stand the sketch here shows a simple design of a kettle stand. the parts are ( ) upright stand, ( ) alcohol lamp holder, ( ) hook. _material:_ one piece / -in. square iron, ins. two pieces / -in. square iron, ins. one piece / in. square iron, ins. one piece / -in. round iron, ins. one sheet no. iron, in. in diameter. [illustration: kettle stand] _directions:_ flatten one end of each piece of the three pieces, / × in., pieces of / × in. weld these three together. weld the / × in. piece to the three pieces as shown by the sketch. bend the two -in. legs out equal distances from the front leg. this forms the tripod. bend the ends of the three short pieces into a scroll to form the feet. now, bend the centre rod up as shown in the sketch. when this is done catch it in the vise close to the bend. with the monkey wrench grasp it about two thirds of the way up and twist the centre piece to the right a sufficient number of turns to give it a regular bend between the two points. reduce the end of this upright post to / in. round and ins. in length, leaving on the end a small boss about / in. this boss is to be rounded up by flattening and rounding on the edge of the anvil. through the centre of this boss punch a / -in. hole and drive into it a piece of × / in. round wire. when half of the wire is pushed through the hole bend the ends forward and at the same time drive them into the boss. this prevents the bent piece of iron from working up and down. it is now opened out as shown by the sketch and bent into a hook shape. the end of the post is turned so that the centre of this hook will hang over the centre of the tripod. [illustration] [illustration] _lamp holder:_ mark on the -in. disc a flower form similar to the one shown in the sketch. cut out the design with a sharp chisel. file all rough edges and bend the shape up so that it will fit around the outside of the alcohol lamp, to hold it in place. punch a hole through the centre for a / -in. rivet and drill a / -in. hole directly under the centre of the hook. place the lamp holder on and rivet in place. when the kettle is placed on the hook it should hang directly over the lamp. if it does not do so the post may be changed and the position of the kettle made to correspond. [illustration: copyright, , by underwood & underwood, n. y. ornamental work and the straightening and finishing of an umbrella stand] umbrella stand the umbrella stand in the accompanying illustration shows a splendidly shaped design. you will notice that the four uprights are curved and twisted, fastened to two rings ins. in diameter. the pan in the bottom of the stand, placed there to catch the drippings from the umbrellas, is made of copper and is beaten into shape in the same way as you would drive any pan into form. this is made to fit in the base of the stand. to make this stand, take four pieces × / in. flat soft steel, ins. long. two pieces × / in., ins. long, are needed for the rings; four pieces × / × ins. for legs. the copper pan should be ins. in diameter. xxxi door knockers, plates, etc. door knocker sketches given here show two different designs of door knockers. in the first design the knocker itself is made of round iron and twisted to form part of the design. it is made of very heavy stock. [illustration: door knocker] _stock:_ escutcheon plate: × / in. flat iron. bolt: / × / in. iron. knocker: / × × ins. long. _directions:_ take the piece of metal intended for the escutcheon plate and thin the ends out according to the dimensions of the drawing. draw out the end of the / × / in. piece until it is / in. in diameter and ins. long. the thickness of the door must determine the length of this bolt. since the door knocker fastens on to the door, the bolt should go through and fasten on the inside with a washer and nut. the other end of the bolt is rounded to the dimensions given and a / -in. hole is drilled through the centre. _knocker:_ taper the / × × in. piece of iron down as shown in sketch, retaining the thickness, / in., throughout the whole length. the two small pins on the end of the knocker are now made / in. in diameter and / in. long. this whole piece is bent into shape, the pins touching and the sides filed parallel to fit the bolt. when it is fastened into the bolt it should fit up snug and close. _ball for end of knocker:_ take a piece of / -in. round iron any length. fuller in as shown by the sketch. rivet this to the centre of the knocker, the pin on the end of the ball projecting far enough through to make a rather large rivet head on the other side. the rivet head acts as a knocker. the bolt is pushed through the escutcheon plate, then the knocker is ready to be placed on the door. sometimes these balls are made long enough to go through the door and fasten in the same way as the bolt. _second door knocker:_ the design and dimensions given here show the general scheme of this knocker. the escutcheon plate is made with a piece of / × - / × in. soft steel. the corners of this piece are clipped off and filed rounding or square. _knocker:_ the knocker is made in the same way as the knocker was made in the first design. you use a piece of very heavy material about - / in. in diameter. the ends are drawn down to / in. in diameter. if the stock is in. in diameter, the piece may be upset large enough in the middle for the centre. this lessens the work of drawing out and is perhaps a much quicker way of making a knocker. the length of the knocker ring before it is bent is about ins. this is pushed into the eye bolt. this knocker is placed on the door with wrought iron nails, one in each corner. the bolts that hold the knocker are riveted flush to the back of the plate. this finishing work should be done by the peen end of the hammer while the metal is cold. _escutcheon plates:_ escutcheon plates are used for lock plates and fancy key ways. some are plain, while others lend themselves to elaborate decorations. they are forged out while hot. two designs are here given. the simpler one explains itself. [illustration] _decorated plate:_ _stock:_ / × × in. soft steel. _directions:_ mark off - / in. each way from the centre of the plate and centre-punch. this allows about - / in. on each end for drawing-out purposes. draw ends out. (see sketch). split the metal down to the centre-punch mark as shown in the sketch. these small ends are now bent out, and the long ends are bent in a circle, thus forming the design. the key way is made by drilling two / in. holes / in. apart about the middle of the piece. chisel out a piece between the two holes according to the design. drill four holes as shown. these are for screws or wrought iron nails, used to fasten plates to doors. many escutcheon plates are used for wall cabinets, cedar chests, doors, etc. door knockers _stock:_ piece of soft steel / in. thick, × ins., for the escutcheon. knocker, / × / × - / ins. eye bolt / × / bar any length. strike pin, / in. round, / in. long (on bar). [illustration] _directions:_ mark off on a thin sheet of metal the outline of the drawing. cut the escutcheon plate same shape as the drawing (using cold chisel). file it up so that the edges are perfectly smooth. with a / -in. drill, drill holes for the screws. _knocker:_ split the - / -in. piece of stock, leaving in. square for the eye bolt and eye untouched. round up the wings to / in. in diameter. twist the two wings according to the design. bring the two loose ends together and weld up - / in. from the end. the same heat will enable you to draw and shape the loop. spread out the parts between the weld and the twist, forming in this way the loop. _eye bolt:_ this is best made by working the end of a bar any length of the size stock given. the drawing shows a jaw-shaped holder to receive the eye of the knocker. punch a hole about / in. from the end of the bar about / in. in diameter. cut out the piece between the hole and the end of the bar with a chisel. this forms the jaw. the small pin end is fullered down and drawn out the same as you did on the boss of the ring for the andiron, then it is riveted on to the escutcheon plate (see drawing) in place to receive the knocker. a / -in. hole is drilled through this and through the eye of the knocker for the rivet to fasten the two together. the strike pin is made in the same way as the eye bolt, except that there is no jaw, just the plain piece of iron. the sketch shows a simple projection for the knocker to strike on. door knockers were used formerly in place of door bells, but to-day they are merely used for ornamental purposes. door pulls door pulls are used as knockers, too. in general they take the place of door knobs, and are used in conjunction with a door plate. they are made of soft steel or iron. _stock:_ soft steel or wrought iron, / × × - / ins., made same way as the door knockers. [illustration] door handles _stock:_ / in. round, ins. long, of soft steel or wrought iron. [illustration] _directions:_ the piece of stock is drawn from the centre - / ins. both ways to / in. in diameter. this will leave a piece of the full size material on each end of the rod. flatten this out from the wide ends. heat the iron very hot and flatten it down so that the width will be not less than - / in. to ins., to / in. thick. cut the design out. any one of the designs shown can be used. the bosses are drawn up from the under part by using the peen of the hammer and driving it into a hard wood block, or on an iron stake, as explained in the article on embossing. a very blunt chisel, like a fuller, will give the centre effect. the handles are now bent into shape. some handles are twisted out of flat stock. [illustration] drawer pulls [illustration] drawer pulls are made in much the same way as door knockers. there are the escutcheon plate, bolt, and ring. they may be made to push through a drawer of any kind. the design depends much upon the use the drawer pull is put to. they can be made out of round iron, flat iron, twisted iron. _stock:_ escutcheon plate, / in. soft steel, - / ins. round. bolt, / in. square on the bar. ring, / × - / ins., all of soft steel. _directions:_ with a cold chisel cut a piece of flat soft steel - / ins. round and make a disc. divide the disc as shown by the drawing. file out the escalloped edges and with a small hand chisel chase the lines so as to form the design. the small half-round chisel will form the ovals and a centre-punch will form the dots. the ring is made by drawing each end of the - / -in. piece to a taper, leaving about one third of it for a centre. the ends should be tapered to / in. round. these ends fit into the bolt. bend the ring into a circle. engrave the design as you did on the escutcheon plate, using the same tools. the eye bolt is made from the / -in. square bar by drawing out the end of the bar ins. or less in length, / round, the length depending upon the thickness of the drawer. this bolt is to go through the drawer and be screwed tight in place with a nut. the large part is now cut off / in. in length and the four corners knocked down. a / -in. hole should be drilled through the bolt to receive the ring. heat the ring red hot at the heavy part and with a pair of tongs open it out just wide enough to receive the eye bolt. then the ring is pushed into place. _bossing up:_ place the disc while cold on the hollow wood block and drive down from the under side with the hammer, bending in the inside. this makes the outside slightly oval, so that the bearing will be on the outer surface. the depth of this concave should not exceed / in. a few designs are here given. the country life press, garden city, n. y. [transcriber's notes: spelling appears to be evolving between us/uk e.g. acknowledgment, galvanized, practice, calipers, wagon, mold. both color and colour are used in the text. obvious punctuation errors repaired. obvious typos repaired: p . electricty -> electricity p . place-ing -> placing. p . when you have taken off the bending -> binding. p . braclet -> bracelet. p . it will come on -> come out. p . a temperature of ° -> °f. p . champering -> chamfering p . cut if -> cut off. p . orginal -> original the text contains some inaccuracies which have been left but are noted here: p . this piece of wood is quoted on p . as being × - / × - / ins. p . "the articles all this time are absorbing charcoal" should be "carbon". ] [illustration: front cover] _beehive for bairns_ volume _from st size to years_ _with special supplement_ bed jackets price ¢ patons & baldwins, limited * toronto. [illustration: baby cartoon] _to all those who love babies!_ we are pleased to present volume of beehive for bairns--giving an even greater variety of baby garments than volume . it still answers the time old question of "what can i make for a baby?" and has these special features: first, the layette. from pages to garments can be made in sizes--for , and months. from pages to garments can be made in sizes--for , - / and years. pram covers and shawls. from pages to a special supplement of lady's bedjackets and each one can be made in miniature for a baby. a lovely gift. an original, and we think, an attractive idea. _all garments are made from especially suitable_ beehive wools:- , and ply beehive fingering * ply beehive non-shrink baby wool beehive lustre crepe * ply miss canada andalusian * ply miss canada fingering * p & b superior double knitting * fuzzy wuzzy angora _the best is none too good for baby and the best is patons & baldwins wool_ [illustration: company logo] _=patons & baldwins, limited * toronto, =_ [illustration: bye baby bunting] _bye baby bunting_ materials: = ply beehive non-shrink baby wool=. ozs. one no. steel crochet hook (american gauge). - / yds. silk blanket binding or satin ribbon ins, wide. yd. ribbon inch wide. yds. ribbon / -inch width. measurements: ins. × ins. tension: groups and rows = inch. ch. sts. = st row:= w.o.h. insert hook in th ch. from hook and draw loop through. (w.o.h. insert hook in same ch. as last st. and draw loop through) twice. w.o.h. miss next ch. insert hook in next ch. and draw loop through. w.o.h. and draw loop through all loops on hook. ch. . (this makes one group). *w.o.h. insert hook in same ch. as last st. and draw loop through. repeat from * twice. w.o.h. miss next ch. insert hook in next ch. and draw loop through. w.o.h. and draw loop through all loops on hook. ch. . (thus completing nd group). work more groups across row. ch. . turn. = nd row:= w.o.h. insert hook in rd ch. from hook and draw loop through. (w.o.h. insert hook in same ch. as last st. and draw loop through) twice. w.o.h. miss next st. insert hook in next st. and draw loop through. w.o.h. and draw loop through all loops on hook. ch. . (this makes one group). w.o.h. insert hook in same st. as last st. and draw loop through. complete group and work more groups across row. ch. . turn. repeat nd row until work measures ins. from beginning. proceed:- continue in pattern dec. . group at one edge only, every rd row times. (note:- to dec. a group at beginning of row, omitting turning ch. of previous row, s.s. across st. group. ch. . to dec. a group at end of row, work to within last group. ch. . turn.). dec. . group every alternate row times, then every row times. dec. groups at same end on each of next rows. fasten off. to make up: press lightly. bind edges with blanket binding, embroidering with double feather stitching; leave embroidery open at both ends of curve. cut narrow ribbon in half and draw piece through binding along curve; pull out ends. hold cover diagonally, curve at top. measure off - / ins. down from top of curved edge on wrong side; mark with pin. with pins complete a curve, having pin mark at centre and ending at outer edges of curve. for casing, sew wider ribbon along this curve, leaving open for inch at centre pin mark. draw other piece of narrow ribbon through casing; tack ends in place and draw a ribbon loop through opening at centre. =(a) baby's coat=--_illustrated on opposite page_ materials: = ply beehive fingering=. ozs. pink no. . oz. white. two no. beehive knitting needles. two safety pins. length of ribbon. one stitch holder. measurements: width all round at underarm ins. length from top of shoulder ins. sleeve seam ins. tension: sts. and rows = inch. pattern: = st row:= with white wool. *k . sl. . knitways. repeat from * to last sts. k . = nd row:= *k . bring wool to front of work as if to purl. sl. . purl ways. put wool to back of work. repeat from * to last sts. k . = rd row:= as st. row. th row: as nd row. = th, th, th and th rows:= with pink wool, knit. these rows complete one pattern. the coat is worked in one piece to armhole. with pink wool cast on sts. knit rows garter st. = th row:= k . leave these sts. on safety pin. knit to last sts. leave these sts. on nd safety pin. working on remaining sts. work complete patterns, then first rows of th pattern. work now measures approx - / ins. from beginning. =next row:= ( th pattern row). with pink wool k . turn. leave remaining sts. on st. holder. right front: work th, th and th rows of th pattern. work complete patterns, then first rows of th pattern. =to shape neck:= at neck edge, with pink wool cast off sts. knit to end of row. work last rows of th pattern. work complete pattern, then first rows of th pattern. cast off. back: ( th pattern row). join pink wool and knit sts. from st. holder. work last rows of th pattern, dec. . st. each end of needle on last row. work complete patterns, then first rows of th pattern. cast off. left front: work to correspond to right front, being careful to work neck shaping for opposite side. left front border: with pink wool pick up sts. from safety pin and continue in garter st. until same length as front. leave these sts. on safety pin. right front border: with pink wool pick up sts. from safety pin and continue in garter st. until same length as front, ending at neck edge. cast on sts. knit left front border sts. onto end of same needle. sts. on needle. knit rows garter st. =next row:= (eyelets) *k . wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k . knit rows garter st. cast off. sleeves: with pink wool cast on sts. knit rows garter st. work complete patterns, then first rows of th pattern. work now measures approx. ins. from beginning. cast off. to make up: press all pieces carefully being careful not to flatten garter st. sew all seams. sew borders along fronts. sew neckband around neck. thread ribbon through eyelets. =(d) baby's mitts=--_illustrated on opposite page_ materials: = ply beehive fingering=. / oz. each white and pink no. . two no. beehive knitting needles. length of ribbon. tension: sts. and rows = inch. with pink wool cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row for ins. =next row:= (eyelets). k tog. *wl. fwd. k tog. p . k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. k tog. sts. on needle. knit rows garter st. continuing in pattern as given for coat, (a), work complete patterns. =to shape top: st row:= with white wool, *k . k tog. sl. . knitways. repeat from * to last sts. k tog. k . = nd row:= *k . bring wool to front of work as if to purl. sl. . purl ways. put wool to back of work. repeat from * to last sts. k . = rd row:= *k tog. sl. . knitways. repeat from * to last sts. k tog. = th row:= *k . sl. . purl ways (as given in nd row). repeat from * to last st. k . = th row:= with pink wool k tog. to last st. k . = th row:= knit. break wool. thread end through remaining sts. draw up and fasten securely. sew up seam. thread ribbon through eyelets at wrist. make another mitt to correspond. =(b) baby's bonnet=--_illustrated on opposite page_ materials: = ply beehive fingering=. oz. each white and pink no. . two no. beehive knitting needles. yds. ribbon. measurements: width all round brim (when stretched) ins. tension: sts. and rows = inch. front: with pink wool cast on sts. = st row:= knit. = nd row:= k . k tog. knit to last sts. k tog. k . repeat st and nd rows times. = th row:= k . *k . inc. . st. in next st. repeat from * to last sts. k . sts. on needle. proceed in pattern as follows:- **= st row:= with white wool k . k tog. sl. . knitways. *k . sl. . knitways. repeat from * to last sts. k tog. k . = nd row:= k . *bring wool to front of work as if to purl. sl. . purl ways. put wool to back of work. k . repeat from * to last sts. bring wool to front of work as if to purl. sl. . purl ways. put wool to back of work. k . = rd row:= k . k tog. repeat from * st. pattern row to last sts. k . k tog. t.b.l. k .= th row:= k . repeat from * nd pattern row to last sts. k . = th row:= with pink wool k . k tog. knit to last sts. k tog. k . = th row:= knit. = th row:= as th row. = th row:= as th row.** repeat from ** to ** times. sts. on needle. keeping continuity of pattern dec. . st. each end of needle every row to sts. on needle. cast off. back: with pink wool cast on sts. work first rows as given for front. sts. on needle. = th row:= k . inc. . st. in each of next sts. k . sts. on needle. repeat from ** to ** as given for front times. sts. on needle. keeping continuity of pattern dec. . st. each end of needle every row to sts. on needle. cast off. to make up: press pieces carefully. sew the decreased edge of the front to the decreased edge of the back. make ribbon rosettes and sew to bonnet as illustrated. =(c) baby's slippers=--_illustrated on opposite page_ materials: = ply beehive fingering=. / oz. each white and pink no. . two no. beehive knitting needles. length of ribbon. tension: sts. and rows = inch. with pink wool, beginning with slipper sole, cast on sts. = st row:= knit. = nd row:= inc. . st. in st. st. knit to last sts. inc. . st. in next st. k . repeat st. and nd rows times. sts. on needle. =next rows:= knit. continue in garter st. dec. . st. each end of needle on next and every alternate row to sts. on needle. =next rows:= knit, casting on sts. at end of nd row for heel of slipper. =next row:= knit to last sts. inc. . st. in next. st. k . this is for toe of slipper. knit rows garter st. inc. . st. at toe edge on nd row. proceed:- beginning with st. pattern row as given for coat, (a), continue inc. . st. at toe edge on next and every alternate row to sts. on needle ending at heel edge. break white wool. =next row:= with pink wool cast off sts. join white wool. cast off . st. beginning with st. pattern row of coat, work to last sts. inc. . st. in next st. k . work rows even in pattern. =next row:= work in pattern to last sts. k tog. k . (toe edge). work to heel edge. break white wool. with pink wool cast on sts. continue in pattern dec. . st. at toe edge on next and every alternate row to sts. knit row. cast off. cuff: with right side of work facing pick up and knit sts. around ankle of slipper. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from to end of row. = nd row:= (eyelets). k . *wl. fwd. k tog. p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row once. work rows stocking st. cast off. make another slipper to correspond. to make up: join centre back seam. put back point of sole to this seam and sew sole into position. sew up toe opening. thread ribbon through eyelets at ankle and tie as illustrated. _the layette_ [illustration: (a) coat--_see page _. (b) bonnet--_see page _. (c) slippers--_see page _. (d) mitts--_see page _. (e) sleeping suit--_see page _. (f) panties--_see page _. (g) bootees--_see page _. (h) bootees--_see page _ _a matching pram cover for a, b, c, d is shown on page ._] =(e) baby's sleeping suit=--_illustrated on page _ materials: = ply beehive non-shrink baby wool=. ozs. two no. beehive knitting needles. two stitch holders. buttons. one medium crochet hook. measurements: width all round at underarm ins. length from neck to crotch at centre back ins. length of sleeve underarm seam (cuff turned up) ins. length of leg seam including foot - / ins. tension: - / sts. and rows = inch. back: beginning at shoulder, cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to last st. k . = nd row:= k . purl to last st. k . repeat these rows until work measures ins. from beginning ending with nd row. =to shape armholes:= keeping continuity of pattern inc. . st. each end of needle on next and every alternate row to sts. on needle, then cast on sts. beginning next rows. sts. on needle. continue even in pattern until work measures ins. from beginning ending with purl row. proceed:- = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. = th row:= (eyelets). k . *wl. fwd. k tog. p . k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. k tog. repeat st. row times. with right side of work facing, proceed:- =to shape back:= = st row:= k . turn. = nd row:= p . turn. = rd row:= k . turn. = th row:= p . turn. = th row:= k . turn. = th row:= p . turn. = th row:= knit to end of row. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . leave these sts. on st. holder. left front: beginning at shoulder, cast on sts. = st row:= k . p . (k . p ) twice. k . = nd row:= k . purl to last st. k . repeat these rows once. proceed:- = st row:= (neck edge). k . inc. . st. in next st. (k . p ) twice. k . = nd row:= k . purl to last st. k . = rd row:= k . inc. . st. in next st. p . (k . p ) twice. k . = th row:= as nd row. = th row:= k . p . (k . p ) twice. k . repeat th and th rows once. = th row:= k . purl to end of row. cast on sts. = th row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to last sts. p . k . = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . repeat th and th rows until work measures ins. from beginning ending with th row. =to shape armhole:= keeping continuity of pattern, at armhole edge inc. . st. every alternate row times, then cast on sts. once. sts. on needle. continue even in pattern until work measures ins. from beginning ending at front edge. proceed:- = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to last st. k . = nd row:= *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . repeat st. and nd rows twice. = th row:= (eyelets). k . *wl. fwd. k tog. p . k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. k tog. k . repeat nd row once, then st. and nd rows twice. =next row:= knit. leave these sts. on st. holder. right front: beginning at shoulder, cast on sts. = st row:= k . (p . k ) twice. p . k . = nd row:= k . purl to last st. k . repeat these rows once. proceed:- = st row:= k . p . k . p . k . inc. . st. in next st. p . k . (neck edge). = nd row:= k . purl to last st. k . = rd row:= k . (p . k ) twice. inc. . st. in next st. k . = th row:= as nd row. = th row:= k . *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . repeat th and th rows once, casting on sts. at end of last row. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . = th row:= ( st. buttonhole). k . *k , p . repeat from * to last sts. k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . = th row:= as th row. = th row:= k . *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . keeping continuity of pattern and working a buttonhole in garter st. border at front edge every th row, continue to correspond to left front until work measures ins. from beginning ending at side edge. proceed:- = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to last sts. k . = nd row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. and nd rows twice. = th row:= (eyelets). k . *wl. fwd. k tog. p , k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . repeat nd row once, then st. and nd rows twice. =next row:= knit. with wrong side of work facing, proceed:- = st row:= k . p . of right front. p . of back. p . k . of left front. sts. on needle. = nd row:= knit. = rd row:= k . purl to last sts. k . still working buttonholes in garter st. border at right front as before, repeat nd and rd rows for ins. ending with knit row. =next row:= cast off sts. purl to last sts. k . =next row:= cast off sts. knit to end of row. =next row:= k . purl to last st. k . continue even in stocking st. until work measures ins. from bottom of ribbing at front, ending with purl row. proceed:- k . turn. leave remaining sts. on st. holder. **working on these sts. continue in stocking st. dec. . st. each end of needle on next and every following th row to sts. on needle. continue even until leg seam measures ins. ending with purl row.** proceed:- =to make foot:= = st row:= k . turn. = nd row:= k . p . k . turn. = rd row:= k . turn. repeat nd and rd rows times, then nd row once. = st row:= k . k tog. k . k tog. k . = nd row:= k . p . k . = rd row:= k . k tog. k . k tog. k . break wool. join wool at inside edge where the sts. were left and knit to end of row. =next row:= k . pick up and knit sts. along side of foot. knit the sts. across the toe. pick up and knit sts. along the other side of foot and knit the sts. which were left. sts. on needle. knit rows garter st. proceed:- =to shape toe:= k . (k tog.) twice. k . (k tog.) twice. k . = nd row:= knit. = rd row:= k . (k tog.) twice. k . (k tog.) twice. k . knit rows garter st. cast off. join wool to remaining sts. and continue in stocking st. repeating from ** to ** as given for other leg. proceed:- =to make foot:= = st row:= k . turn. = nd row:= k . p . k . turn. = rd row:= k . turn. repeat nd and rd rows times, then nd row once. = st row:= k . k tog. k . k tog. k . = nd row:= k . p . k . = rd row:= k . k tog. k . k tog. k . break wool. join wool at inside edge where sts. were left. k . =next row:= k . pick up and knit sts. along side of foot. knit the sts. across the toe. pick up and knit sts. along other side of foot. knit the sts. which were left. sts. on needle. knit. rows garter st. proceed:- =to shape toe:= k . (k tog.) twice. k . (k tog.) twice. k . = nd row:= knit. = rd row:= k . (k tog.) twice. k . (k tog.) twice. k . knit rows garter st. cast off. sleeves: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. = th row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat th row times. =next row:= k . *inc. . st. in next st. purl ways. p . repeat from * to last sts. p . inc. . st. in each of next sts. purl ways. k . sts. on needle. proceed:- = st row:= *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . = nd row:= k . purl to last st. k . repeat these rows until sleeve measures ins. (cuff turned up) ending with purl row. =to shape cap:= *keeping continuity of pattern, cast off sts. beginning next rows then . st. beginning following rows.* repeat from * to * to sts. on needle. cast off remaining sts. collar: cast on sts. knit ins. even in garter st. cast off. to make up: press all pieces carefully. sew all seams. sew in sleeves. sew collar in position placing the ends sts. from the edge of each front. sew the cast-off sts. in position at front. sew buttons to correspond to buttonholes. with double wool crochet a cord. thread through eyelets at waist. make and sew a tassel to each end. [illustration: bb logo] _needles and tension_ used in this book to make it easy for you the following paragraph shows you how to use the needle and tension charts below. for example: baby's cross-over pullover (see page ) wool ply beehive. size mos. needles no. . tension - / sts. (the * shows how this reading was made) wools used and the sizes of needles used for +----+----+----+----+-----+----- | * | | | | - / | |mos.|mos.|mos.|year|years|years ----------------------------------+----+----+----+----+-----+----- ply beehive non-shrink baby wool| | | | | | ply beehive fingering | | | | | | * ply beehive fingering |* | | | | | ply beehive fingering | | | | | | ply miss canada andalusian | | | | | | ply miss canada fingering | | | | | | miss canada crochet-knitting wool | | | | | | beehive lustre crepe | | | | | | fuzzy wuzzy angora | | | | | | ----------------------------------+----+----+----+----+-----+----- =tension:= when using the above wools and needles, be sure your work measures the exact tension as given below: for each size of needle used, the correct number wools used size of needles of stitches to inch is given below. work to produce this tension exactly. +-----+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+----- | | | | | | | +-----+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+----- ply beehive non-shrink | | | | | | | baby wool | | | | | - / | | - / ply beehive fingering | | | | | - / | | - / ply beehive fingering | | | - / | |* - / | | ply beehive fingering | | - / | | - / | | | ply miss canada | | | | | | | andalusian | | | - / | | - / | | ply miss canada | | | | | | | fingering | | - / | | - / | | | miss canada | | | | | | | crochet-knitting wool | | - / | | - / | | | beehive lustre crepe | | | - / | | - / | | fuzzy wuzzy angora | - / | | - / | | | | +-----+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+----- no. of stitches to inch bed jackets ---------------------------------------------------------- wools used size of needles +-------+-------+------- | bust | bust | bust | ins.| ins.| ins. ----------------------------------+-------+-------+------- ply beehive fingering | | | ply miss canada andalusian | | | beehive lustre crepe | | | miss canada crochet-knitting wool | | | as baby garments and bedjackets are more loosely fitted than tailored garments a change of size in needles is satisfactory for change in size of garment. =baby's crocheted jacket--"peggy"=--_opposite_--_also illustrated on page _ materials: = ply beehive non-shrink baby wool=. ozs. sky blue. (_ mos.-- ozs._) (_ mos.-- ozs._). one no. steel crochet hook. (american gauge). / yd. ribbon inch wide. yd. ribbon / inch wide. measurements: = mos.= = mos.= = mos.= width all round at underarm ins. ins. - / ins. length from top of shoulder - / " " " length of sleeve underarm seam " - / " - / " tension and shell pattern as given for crocheted bonnet, see next column. _the instructions are written for size mos. sizes and mos. are written in brackets thus:- =( )=._ beginning at neck edge ch. sts. = st row:= . s.c. in nd ch. from hook. . s.c. in next ch. . s.c. in next ch. (left front shoulder). . s.c. in next ch. . s.c. in next. ch. (left back shoulder). . s.c. in next ch. . s.c. in next ch. (right back shoulder). . s.c. in next ch. . s.c. in next ch. (right front shoulder). . s.c. in next ch. ch. . turn.= nd row:= . s.c. in nd ch. from hook. . s.c. in next ch. ( increases). . s.c. in next . s.c. . s.c. in next s.c. * . s.c. in each s.c. to centre st. of next . s.c. group. . s.c. in next s.c. repeat from * twice. . s.c. in next . s.c. insert hook again in last s.c. of previous row. draw loop through. w.o.h. draw through another loop. (thus making foundation ch.). w.o.h. draw through remaining loops. ( . s.c. increased). insert hook in foundation ch. just made and increase more s.c. in same manner. ch. . turn. continue in s.c. inc. . sts. at each end of row and working . s.c. in centre st. of each . s.c. group, every row, times. omitting increases at each end of row, continue in s.c. as before until work from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= ending at left front edge. do not break wool. left front: work in shell pattern to centre s.c. of next . s.c. group. ch. . turn. continue even in pattern until shell section measures ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)=. fasten off. right front: join wool at right front edge and work to correspond to left front. back: join wool to centre s.c. of the . s.c. group at right and work in pattern across back to corresponding st. at left. continue even in pattern until shell section measures ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)=. fasten off. sleeves: join wool to centre s.c. of . s.c. group at right of shoulder section and work in pattern across armhole to corresponding point at left. ch. . turn. work ins. even in shell pattern. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)=. fasten off. collar: join wool at right front edge. work rows s.c. along neck edge. = rd row:= work in s.c. increasing . s.c. across row. repeat rd row times, being careful not to increase over the increased sts. of previous rows. =next row:= *work shells. ( . s.c. . d.c. . s.c.) in next s.c. . s.s. in next s.c. (this increases shell). repeat from * to end of row. work rows even in shell pattern. fasten off. make up as given for "margaret", see page . * * * * * =crocheted cover=--_continued from page _ press carefully on wrong side. thread ribbon over and under groups in centre of cover to form a diamond ins. across between points. sew ends of ribbon on wrong side. thread a nd row of ribbon outside this row - / ins. from it. cut remaining ribbon into pieces. sew cut edges of one piece together. sew a gathering thread along one long edge and draw up forming a rosette. sew rosettes between ribbon rows at corners of diamonds. =crocheted bonnet=--_illustrated on opposite page_ materials: = ply beehive non-shrink baby wool=. oz. sky blue. one no. steel crochet hook. (american gauge). - / yds. ribbon inch wide. / yd. ribbon / inch wide. measurements: = mos.= = mos.= = mos.= width all round brim - / ins. ins. ins. tension: s.c. and rows = inch shells and rows = inch _the instructions are written for size mos. sizes and mos. are written in brackets thus:- =( )=._ beginning at centre of crown ch. sts. = st round:= . s.c. in nd ch. from hook. join in circle with s.s. = nd round:= . s.c. in each s.c. = rd round:= * . s.c. in next s.c. . s.c. in next s.c. repeat from * to end of round. = th round:= * . s.c. in each of next . s.c. . s.c. in next s.c. repeat from * to end of round. = th round:= * . s.c. in each of next . s.c. . s.c. in next s.c. repeat from * to end of round. (this makes sections). continue in s.c. working more s.c. in each section until work measures ins. in diameter, =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)=, ending last round with s.s. in st st. of round. working in rows proceed in shell pattern.-- = st row:= *miss . st. ( . s.c. . d.c. . s.c.) all in next st. miss . st. s.s. in next st. (this makes shell). repeat from * across sections, (the th section forms the back of the bonnet). ch. . turn. = nd row:= ( . s.c. . d.c. . s.c.) in st s.s. . s.s. in d.c. of next shell. *( . s.c. . d.c. . s.c) in next s.s. (between shells of previous row). . s.s. in d.c. of next shell. repeat from * to end of row, ending with s.s. in d.c. of last shell. ch. . turn. repeat nd row (for pattern) until shell section measures - / ins. =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)=. fasten off. to make up: cut / inch ribbon into a inch piece and an inch piece. thread the inch piece through the shells inch from front edge of bonnet and sew in position. thread the inch piece through the shells at the neck edge and the s.c. portion of the crown, easing in back fullness and sew in position. make rosettes and streamers with the inch ribbon and sew to bonnet as illustrated. =crocheted booties=--_illustrated on opposite page_ materials: = ply beehive non-shrink baby wool=. oz. sky blue. one no. steel crochet hook. (american gauge). length of ribbon / inch wide. tension and shell pattern as given for crocheted bonnet, see above. _the instructions are written for mos. size. sizes and mos. are written in brackets thus:- =( )=._ ch. sts. =(=_ mos.-- sts._=)= =(=_ mos.-- sts._=)=. work shells =(=_ mos.-- shells_=)= =(=_ mos.-- shells_=)= across row. continue in shell pattern as given for crocheted bonnet until work measures - / ins. fasten off. (top edge of bootee). join wool at lower edge and work d.c. =(=_ mos.-- d.c._=)= =(=_ mos.-- d.c._=)= across row. break wool. =to make instep:= mark centre front of bootee. join wool to th st. before the centre. = st row:= ch. . work s.c. across centre of bootee. ch. . turn. work inch even in s.c. on these sts. fasten off. =to make foot:= sew seam at back of leg. join wool at centre back. work round s.c. around lower edge of bootee, working s.c. in both corners of instep. working in rounds of s.c. continue even until foot measures inch. fasten off. =to make sole:= beginning at centre ch. sts. =(=_ mos.-- sts._=)= =(=_ mos.-- sts._=)=. = st round:= . s.c. in nd ch. from hook. . s.c. in each ch. to last ch. . s.c. in last ch. working along opposite side of ch. work . s.c. in each ch. to end. . s.c. in end of ch. join with s.s. = nd round:= ch. . . d.c. in each s.c. working . d.c. in centre of each s.c. group. = rd and th rounds:= ch. . . d.c. in each d.c. working d.c. in centre of each d.c. group. fasten off. to make up: place edges of sole and foot together. work row s.c. closely along edges, through both thicknesses. thread ribbon through the row of d.c. at ankle. _sweethearts on parade_ from page to page garments can be made for , and months [illustration: cover and mitts--_see below_ bonnet, bootees--_see page ._ jacket "peggy"--_see page ._] =crocheted cover= materials: ply =beehive non-shrink baby wool=. ozs. sky blue. one no. steel crochet hook. (american gauge). - / yds. ribbon / inch wide. measurements: ins. × ins. tension: groups = ins. rows ( group rows and s.c. rows) = inch. ch. sts. = st row:= . s.c. in nd ch. from hook. . s.c. in each ch. to end of row. ch. . turn. = nd row:= insert hook in st. s.c. (draw through a / inch loop. w.o.h. insert hook in same s.c.) twice. draw loop through. w.o.h. and through all loops on hook. (this makes group). *miss . s.c. . s.c. in next s.c. ch. . insert hook in same s.c. and complete group. repeat from * to end of row, ending with . s.c. in last s.c. ch. . turn. = rd row:= (right side). . s.c. in st. s.c. * . s.c. in next ch. . . s.c. in next s.c. repeat from * to end of row, ending with . s.c. in the ch. . of last group. ch. . turn. repeat nd and rd rows until work measures ins. from beginning, ending with nd row. with right side of work facing, work around cover in s.c. for inch, increasing at corners to keep work flat. =next round:= ch. . repeat nd pattern row around cover. join to beginning of round with s.s. fasten off. (_continued on page _) crocheted mitts materials: = ply beehive non-shrink baby wool=. oz. sky blue. one no. steel crochet hook. (american gauge). length of ribbon / inch wide tension and shell pattern as given for crocheted bonnet, see page . _the instructions are written for size mos. sizes and mos. are written in brackets thus:- =( )=._ beginning at top ch. sts. join with s.s. = st round:= s.c. in circle. = nd round:= * . s.c. in st st. . s.c. in next st. repeat from * to end of round. = rd and alternate rounds:= . s.c. in each st. to end of round. = th round:= * . s.c. in st st. . s.c. in each of next sts. repeat from * to end of round. th round: * . s.c. in st st. . s.c. in each of next sts. repeat from * to end of round. (this makes sections). continue inc. . s.c. in each section every alternate round twice more. =(=_ mos.-- times more_=)= =(=_ mos.-- times more_=)=. continue even in rounds of s.c. until work measures - / ins. from beginning. =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)=. ch. . work round d.c. working backwards and forwards work ins. even in shell pattern as given for crocheted bonnet. fasten off. sew up seam of cuff. thread ribbon through the row of d.c. at wrist. make another mitt to correspond. _sweethearts on parade_ more baby jackets are shown on pages to [illustration: (=a=) =boy's coat=--_see page ._ (=b=) =coat--=-_see page ._ (=c=) =girl's coat=--_see page ._ (=d=) =boy's cap=--_see page ._ (=e=) =girl's bonnet=--_see page ._ (=f=) =pullover=--_see page ._ (=g=) =mitts=--_see page ._ (=h=) =leggings--=-_see page ._ (=i=) =boy's cap--=-_see page ._ (=j=) =girl's bonnet=--_see page ._ (=k=) =pullover=--_see page ._] (=c=) =girl's coat=--_illustrated on opposite page_ materials: = ply miss canada fingering=. ozs. cascade no. . buttons. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = mos.= = mos.= = mos.= width all round at underarm ins. ins. ins. length at centre back - / " " - / " length of sleeve underarm seam - / " " " right front: cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. = th row:= k . (p . k ) times. (moss st. border). knit to end of row. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. (k . p ) times. k . repeat last rows until work measures - / ins. from beginning ending with th row. proceed:- = st row.= k . (p . k ) times. (k tog.) times. (k tog. k tog.) times. (k tog.) times. = nd row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat nd row twice. = th row:= (buttonhole) k . p . k . wl. fwd. k tog. *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat nd row times. = th row:= k . (p . k ) times. k . inc. . st. in next st. *(inc. . st. in next st.) twice. k . repeat from * to last sts. (inc. . st. in next st.) times. k . sts. on needle. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. (k . p ) times. k . = th row:= k . (p . k ) times. knit to end of row. repeat th and th rows once, then th row once. =to shape armhole:= = st row:= k . (p . k ) times. knit to last sts. k tog. k . = nd row:= k . purl to last sts. (k . p ) times. k . repeat st. and nd rows twice. = th row:= (buttonhole) k . p . k . wl. fwd. k tog. p . k . knit to last sts. k tog. k . keeping moss st. border and working a rd buttonhole rows above nd, continue dec. . st. at armhole edge every alternate row to sts. on needle. =to shape neck:= at neck edge cast off sts. knit to last sts. k tog. k . = nd row:= k . purl to last st. k . continue dec. . st. each end of needle every alternate row to sts. on needle ending with knit row. =next row:= k . p . k . =next row:= k tog. fasten off. left front: cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. = th row:= knit to last sts. (k . p ) times. k . = th row:= k . (p . k ) times. purl to last st. k . being careful to have border at opposite side, continue to correspond to right front until work measures - / ins. from beginning ending with purl row. proceed:- = st row:= (k tog.) times. (k tog. k tog.) times. (k tog.) times. (k . p ) times. k . = nd row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat nd row times. = th row:= k . (inc. . st. in next st.) times. *k . (inc. . st. in next st.) twice. repeat from * to last sts. inc. . st. in next st. k . (k . p ) times. k . sts. on needle. continue to correspond to right front, omitting buttonholes and being careful to have all shapings and border at opposite side. back: cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. continue even in stocking st. until work measures - / ins. from beginning ending with purl row. proceed:- = st row:= k tog. *(k tog. k tog.) times. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k tog. k tog. (k tog.) times. sts. on needle. = nd row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat nd row times. = th row:= k . *k . (inc. . st. in next st.) twice. repeat from * to last sts. k . inc. . st. in next st. k . sts. on needle. work rows even in stocking st. = th row:= k . k tog. knit to last sts. k tog. k . = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . repeat th and th rows to sts. on needle. cast off. sleeves: cast on sts. work exactly as given for boy's coat, see next column. collar: cast on sts. work exactly as given for boy's coat, see next column. to make up: press all pieces carefully. sew all seams. sew in sleeves. sew collar in position, placing the ends sts. in from edges of fronts. sew buttons to correspond to buttonholes. (=a=) =boy's coat=--_illustrated on opposite page_ materials: = ply miss canada fingering=. ozs. cascade no. . buttons. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: width all round at underarm and sleeve length, as given for girl's coat, (c). length at centre back / inch less than girl's coat, each size. left front: cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. = th row:= knit to last sts. k . (p . k ) times. = th row:= k . (p . k ) times. (moss st. border). purl to last st. k . repeat last rows until work from beginning measures - / . ins. =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= ending with purl row. =next row:= (buttonholes) k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . p . k . wl. fwd. k tog. p . k . continue even until work measures - / ins. from beginning ending with purl row. =to shape armhole:= keeping moss st. border and working more buttonholes rows apart, at armhole edge dec. , st. every alternate row to sts. on needle, ending with knit row. =to shape neck:= = st row:= cast off sts. k . purl to last st. k . = nd row:= k . k tog. knit to last sts. k tog. k . = rd row:= k . purl to last st. k . repeat nd and rd rows times. = th row:= k . (k tog.) twice. = th row:= k . p . k . = th row:= k tog. fasten off. right front: cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. = th row:= k . *(p . k ) times. knit to end of row. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . (p . k ) times. keeping moss st. border, continue to correspond to left front, omitting buttonholes and being careful to have all shapings for opposite side. back: cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times, dec. . st. at end of last row. continue even in stocking st. until work measures - / ins. from beginning ending with purl row. =to shape armholes:= dec. . st. each end of needle next and every alternate row to sts. on needle. cast off. sleeves: cast on sts. = st row:= k *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. =next row:= k . p . *inc. st. in next st. p . repeat from * to last sts. inc. . st. in next st. p . k . sts. on needle. continue in stocking st. inc. . st. each end of needle every following th row to sts. on needle. continue even until sleeve from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= ending with purl row. dec. . st. each end of needle next and every alternate row to sts. cast off. collar: cast on sts. = st row:= *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . inc. . st. in next st. purl ways. k . = nd row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. = rd row:= *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. inc. . st. in next st. k . = th row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat these rows twice, then th row once. proceed:- **= st row:= (k . p ) times. turn. = nd row:= (p . k ) times. work rows moss st.** repeat from ** to ** times, then st. and nd rows once. proceed:- = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. = nd row:= *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k tog. k . = rd row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. = th row:= *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . p tog. k . repeat st. to th rows twice. cast off. to make up: press all pieces carefully. sew all seams. sew in sleeves. sew collar in position, placing the ends sts. in from edges of fronts. sew buttons to correspond to buttonholes. [illustration: bblogo] (=h=) =girl's or boy's leggings= _illustrated on page _ materials: = ply miss canada fingering=. ozs. cascade, no. . one stitch holder. one medium crochet hook. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = mos.= = mos.= = mos.= length of front seam ins. - / ins. ins. length of leg seam (including foot) - / " " - / " cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. = th row:= (eyelets) k . *wl. fwd. k tog. (p . k ) twice. repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. k tog. p . k . repeat st. row times. proceed:- =to shape back:= k . turn. = nd row:= p . turn. = rd row:= k . turn. = th row:= p . turn. continue in this manner, that is working over more sts. in every row until sts. remain unworked at each end of needle. proceed:- = st row:= knit. = nd row:= k . purl to last st. k . = rd row:= knit. repeat nd and rd rows until work measures ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins_.=)= =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= from beginning, measured at short side of work, ending with purl row. =next row:= k . turn. leave remaining sts. on st. holder. working on these sts. continue in stocking st. dec. . st. each end of needle every alternate row to sts. work rows even. =to make foot:= = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. = th row:= k . p . turn. = th row:= k . = th row:= k . p . k . turn. repeat th and th rows times. = th row:= k . k tog. k . k tog. k . = th row:= k . p . k . = th row:= k . k tog. k . k tog. k . = st row:= k . p . k . break wool. joining the wool where the sts. were left. k . =next row:= k . pick up and knit sts. along side of foot. knit the sts. across the toe. pick up and knit sts. along other side of foot. knit the sts. which were left. sts. on needle. knit rows garter st. proceed:- = st row:= k . (k tog.) twice. k . (k tog.) twice. k . = nd row:= knit. = rd row:= k . (k tog.) twice. k . (k tog.) twice. k . knit rows garter st. cast off. join wool where the sts. were left and continue in stocking st. dec. . st. each end of needle on rd and every alternate row to sts. work rows even. proceed:- = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. = th row:= k . p . turn. = th row:= k . turn. = th row:= k . p . k . turn. repeat th and th rows times. = th row:= k . k tog. k . k tog. k . = th row:= k . p . k . = th row:= k . k tog. k . k tog. k . = st row:= k . p . k . break wool. join wool to where sts. were left. knit to end of row. =next row:= k . pick up and knit sts. along side of foot. knit sts. across toe. pick up and knit sts. along other side of foot. knit sts. which were left. sts. on needle. knit rows garter st. proceed:- = st row:= k . (k tog.) twice. k . (k tog.) twice. k . = nd row:= knit. = rd row:= k . (k tog.) twice. k . (k tog.) twice. k . knit rows garter st. cast off. to make up: press carefully. sew all seams. with double wool crochet a cord. thread through eyelets at waist. make and sew a tassel to each end. [illustration: bb logo] (=i=) =boy's cap=--_illustrated on page _ materials: = ply miss canada fingering=. oz. cascade no. . =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = mos.= = mos.= = mos.= width all round brim ins. ins. ins. cast on sts. repeat from ** to ** as given for girl's bonnet, below. proceed:- = st row:= k . *inc. . st. in next st. k . repeat from * to last sts. inc. . st. in next st. k . sts. on needle. proceed:- = st row:= k . purl to last st. k . = nd row:= knit. repeat these rows for - / ins. ending with purl row and dec. . st. at end of last row. proceed:- = st decreasing row:= k . (p . k ) times. *p tog. (k . p ) times. k tog. (p . k ) times. repeat from * twice. p tog. (k . p ) times. k . work rows even in moss st. also after each of the following rows. = nd decreasing row:= (k . p ) times. *k tog. (p . k ) times. p tog. (k . p ) times. repeat from * twice. k tog. (p . k ) times. = rd decreasing row:= k . (p . k ) twice. *p tog. (k . p ) twice. k tog. (p . k ) twice. repeat from * twice. p tog. (k . p ) twice. k . = th decreasing row:= (k . p ) twice. *k tog. p . k . p tog. k . p . repeat from * twice. k tog. (p . k ) twice. sts. on needle. break wool and thread end through remaining sts. draw up and fasten securely. sew up back seam. [illustration: bb logo] (=j=) =girl's bonnet=--_illustrated on page _ materials: = ply miss canada fingering=. oz. cascade no. . - / yds. ribbon. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = mos.= = mos.= = mos.= width all round brim - / ins. ins. ins. cast on sts. **= st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. proceed:- = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to last st. k . = nd row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat these rows times, st. row once.** proceed:- = st row:= *k . inc. . st. in next st. repeat from * to end of row. sts. on needle. = nd row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = rd row:= knit. repeat nd and rd rows times. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. p tog. k . proceed:- = st decreasing row:= k . (p . k ) twice. *p tog. (k . p ) times. k tog. (p . k ) times. repeat from * once. p tog. (k . p ) times. k tog. (p . k ) twice. work rows even in moss st. also after each of the following rows. = nd decreasing row:= (k . p ) twice. *k tog. (p . k ) times. p tog. (k . p ) times. repeat from * once. k tog. (p . k ) times. p tog. k . p . k . = rd decreasing row:= k . p . k . *p tog. (k . p ) times. k tog. (p . k ) times. repeat from * once. p tog. (k . p ) times. k tog. p . k . = th decreasing row:= k . p . *k tog. (p . k ) twice. p tog. (k . p ) twice. repeat from * once. k tog. (p . k ) twice. p tog. k . = th decreasing row:= k . *p tog. k . p . k tog. p . k . repeat from * once. p tog. k . p . k tog. sts. on needle. break wool and thread end through remaining sts. draw up and fasten securely. sew up ins. of back seam. make ribbon rosettes and sew to bonnet as illustrated. [illustration: pullover with ducks chart] (=k=) =pullover with ducks=--_illustrated on page _ materials: = ply beehive fingering=. ozs. mauve no. (m). small quantity of yellow no. (y), orange no. (o) and black (b). one stitch holder. one medium crochet hook. buttons. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = mos.= = mos.= = mos.= width all round at underarm ins. ins. - / ins. length from top of shoulder - / " " - / " length of sleeve underarm seam - / " " " cut strands (m) yds. long and strands (y) - / yds. long. back: with (m) wool cast on sts. work - / ins. ribbing (k . p ). work rows stocking st. with (y) wool, knit row. with (m) work rows stocking st. proceed to work from chart, reading from right to left for knit rows, and from left to right for purl rows, using the balls and strands of wool as indicated on chart, being careful to twist wool when changing colours. when design has been worked break all wools except ball (m). with (m), work rows stocking st. with (y), purl row. with (m) continue even in stocking st. until work from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= ending with purl row. =to shape armholes:= cast off sts. beginning next rows, then dec. . st. each end of needle next and every alternate row to sts. on needle. continue even in stocking st. until armhole from first shaping measures - / ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= ending with purl row. =to shape neck:= = st row:= k . turn. working on these sts. dec. . st. at neck edge on next rows. =to shape shoulder:= at armhole edge cast off sts. every alternate row twice. slip next sts. on st. holder. work remaining sts. to correspond to other side. neckband: with right side of work facing and (y) wool, pick up and knit sts. along side of neck, knit sts. from st. holder at back of neck. pick up and knit sts. along other side of neck. break (y). join (m). =next row:= k . purl to last st. k . work rows ribbing (k . p ). cast off in ribbing. front: work exactly as given for back until armhole from first shaping measures - / ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= ending with purl row. =to shape neck:= = st row:= k . turn. working on these sts. dec. . st. at neck edge next and every following row to sts. on needle. continue even in stocking st. until armhole from first shaping measures ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)=. shape shoulder as given for back. slip next sts. on st. holder. work remaining sts. to correspond to other side. neckband: with right side of work facing and (y) wool, pick up and knit sts. along side of neck. knit sts. from st. holder at front of neck. pick up and knit sts. along other side of neck. break (y). join (m). =next row:= k . purl to last st. k . work rows ribbing (k . p ). cast off in ribbing. sleeves: cast on sts. work - / ins. ribbing (k . p ). =next row:= *k . inc. . st. in next st. repeat from * to end of row. sts. on needle. =next row:= k . purl to last st. k . continue in stocking st. inc. . st. each end of needle on th and every following th row to sts. on needle. continue even until sleeve measures - / ins. =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= from beginning ending with purl row. cast off sts. beginning every row to sts. on needle. cast off. to make up: press all pieces carefully. darn all ends on wrong side. sew all seams, except shoulders. work row d.c. along back of each shoulder and row s.c. along front of each shoulder, working chain loops for buttonholes. sew buttons to correspond to buttonholes. _keeping tidy underneath.._ [illustration: (a), (b) and (c)--_see page _. (d)--_see below_.] =(d) panties= materials: = ply miss canada fingering=. ozs. length of ribbon. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = mos.= = mos.= = mos.= length from waist to crotch at front ins. ins. - / ins. width all round at widest part " " " beginning at top of waistband cast on sts. = st row:= *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . p . k . repeat st. row times. = th row:= (eyelets) *k . w.r.n. p tog. repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. =next row:= knit, inc. sts. across row; sts. on needle. continue even in stocking st. until work from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)=, ending with purl row. proceed:- = st row:= k . k tog. knit to last sts. sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k . = nd row:= k . p tog. purl to last sts. p tog. k . repeat these rows to sts. on needle. work rows even. continue in stocking st. inc. . st. each end of needle every row to sts. on needle. continue to correspond to front, being careful to dec. sts. before working ribbing. leg bands: with right side of work facing, pick up and knit sts. along edge of leg. work rows ribbing (k . p ). cast off in ribbing. to make up: press carefully. sew side seams. thread ribbon through eyelets, or make a crocheted chain and thread through, making a tassel for each end. =(a) panties=--_illustrated on opposite page_ materials: =miss canada crochet-knitting wool.= ozs. pearl pink. one medium crochet hook. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = mos.= = mos.= = mos.= length from waist to crotch at front ins. - / ins. ins. width all round at widest part " " " pattern: = st row:= *k . p . repeat from * to last st. k . = nd row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to last st. k . front: cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. = th row=: (eyelets). k . *wl. fwd. k tog. p . k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. k tog. repeat st. row times. ***keeping continuity of pattern inc. . st. each end of needle on rd and every following th row to sts. on needle. continue even until work from beginning, at centre, measures - / ins. =(=_ mos.-- ins._ =)= =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= ending with nd pattern row. =to shape legs and gusset:= = st row:= cast off sts. work sts. in pattern. inc. . st. in each of next sts. work in pattern to end of row. = nd row:= cast off sts. work sts. in pattern. p . work in pattern to end of row. = rd row:= cast off sts. work sts. in pattern. inc. . st. in next st. k . inc. . st. in next st. work in pattern to end of row. = th row:= cast off sts. work sts. in pattern. p . work in pattern to end of row. = th row:= cast off sts. work sts. in pattern. inc. . st. in next st. k . inc. . st. in next st. work in pattern to end of row. = th row:= cast off sts. work sts. in pattern. p . work in pattern to end of row. still increasing in centre in this manner, continue working pattern, casting off sts. beginning next rows. = th row:= cast off sts. knit to end of row. = th row:= cast off sts. p . k . knit row. cast off.*** back: cast on sts. work the ribbed band with eyelets as given for front. proceed:- **=to shape back:= = st row:= work sts. in pattern. turn. = nd row:= work sts. in pattern. turn. = rd row:= work sts. in pattern. turn. = th row:= work sts. in pattern. turn. continue in this manner, working extra sts. every row until all sts. have been worked.** work from *** to *** as given for front. sew gusset edges together. leg bands: with right side of work facing pick up and knit sts. around leg opening. work / inch ribbing (k . p ). cast off loosely in ribbing. to make up: press carefully. sew side seams. with double wool crochet a cord. thread through eyelets at waist. make and sew a small tassel to each end. =(b) panties=--_illustrated on opposite page_ materials: = ply beehive fingering=. ozs. blue no. . one stitch holder. buttons. one medium crochet hook. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = mos.= = mos.= = mos.= length from waist to crotch at front - / ins. ins. - / ins. width all round at widest part " " " pattern: = st row:= *k . p . repeat from * to last st. k . = nd row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to last st. k . front: cast on sts. = st row:= *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . repeat st. row once. = rd row:= (eyelets). k . *wl. fwd. k tog. p . k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. k tog. k . repeat st. row times. = th row:= (k . p ) times. turn. leave remaining sts. on st. holder. proceed for left front:- = st row:= (k . p ) times. work st. pattern row. = nd row:= work nd pattern row to last sts. (p . k ) times. p . k . keeping ribbed border at front edge, and remaining sts. in pattern, inc. . st. at side edge on next and every following th row until work from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)=. =next row:= ( st. buttonhole). rib sts. wl. fwd. k tog. rib sts. work in pattern to end of row. working more buttonholes rows apart, continue increasing at side edge to sts. on needle. continue even in pattern until work from beginning measures ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= ending with nd pattern row. leave these sts. on spare needle. right front: cast on sts. and rib across sts. from st. holder. continue to correspond to left front, omitting buttonholes and being careful to have front border and shaping for opposite side. when work measures same as left front proceed:- work sts. in pattern. place the needle holding the sts. of the left front in front of the remaining sts. of the right front so that the border sts. overlap. knit . st. from each needle together times, thus joining both fronts together. work in pattern across left front sts. sts. on needle. =next row:= work in pattern. ***=to shape gusset:= = st row:= work sts. in pattern. inc. . st. in each of next sts. work sts. in pattern. = nd row:= work sts. in pattern. p . work sts. in pattern. = rd row:= work sts. in pattern. inc. . st. in next st. k . inc. . st. in next st. work sts. in pattern. = th row:= work sts. in pattern. p . work sts. in pattern. continue increasing gusset in this manner, every alternate row to sts. on needle. work rows even. =next row:= with right side of work facing, work sts. in ribbing (k . p ). turn. work / inch ribbing on these sts. cast off loosely in ribbing. join wool and cast off sts. work / inch ribbing (k . p ) on remaining sts. cast off loosely in ribbing.*** back: cast on sts. work the ribbed band with eyelets as given for front. work from ** to ** as given for back of panties, see left column. proceed:- keeping continuity of pattern inc. . st. each end of needle on rd and every following th row to sts. on needle. continue even until work from beginning at side edge, measures ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= work from *** to *** as given for front. to make up: press pieces carefully. sew side and gusset seams. with double wool crochet a cord. thread through eyelets at waist. make and sew a tassel to each end. sew buttons to correspond to buttonholes. =(c) crocheted panties=--_illustrated on opposite page_ materials: = ply miss canada andalusian=. ozs. pink. one no. steel crochet hook. (american gauge). for measurements see baby's knitted panties (d) page . tension: d.c. and rows = inch. _the instructions are written for size mos_. _sizes_ _and_ _mos. are written in brackets thus:- =( )=._ beginning at crotch ch. sts. = st row:= . d.c. in rd ch. from hook. . d.c. in each st. to end of ch. d.c. in row. (the turning ch. counts as . d.c.). ch. . turn. = nd row:= . d.c. in st. d.c. . d.c. in each st. to the last d.c. before the turning ch. of previous row. ( . d.c. . tr.) all in this d.c. sts. in row. ch. . turn. = rd row:= as nd row. d.c. in row. repeat nd row until work from side edge to side edge measures ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)=. ch. . turn. work row even in d.c. turning each row with ch. . =next row:= *w.o.h. insert hook in next d.c. draw up a loop. w.o.h. and through loops on hook. repeat from * once. w.o.h. and through all loops on hook. (this decreases . st.) . d.c. in each st. to last sts. dec. . st. . d.c. in last st. ch. . turn. continue in d.c. dec. . st. each end of work every rd row times more. continue even in d.c. until work from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)=. =next row:= (eyelets) . d.c. in next sts. *ch. . miss . st. . d.c. in next sts. repeat from * to end of row. ch. . turn. * * * * * =crocheted panties= (_continued_) work row even in d.c. ch. . turn. work row even in s.c. break wool. make another piece to correspond. to make up: press pieces carefully. sew side and crotch seams. make a crocheted ch. with double wool. thread through eyelets. make and attach a small tassel to each end. leg bands: ch. sts. = st row:= . s.c. in nd ch. from hook. . s.c. in each st. to end of row. ch. . turn. = nd row:= . s.c. in each st., working into back of sts. only. ch. . turn. repeat nd row until piece is long enough to go along each leg opening. sew leg bands in position. =(h) sleeping suit=--_illustrated on opposite page_ materials: = ply miss canada andalusian.= ozs. pink. one medium crochet hook. buttons. small quantity of wool for embroidery. one safety pin. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = mos.= = mos.= = mos.= =pullover= width all round at underarm ins. ins. - / ins. length from top of shoulder " - / " " length of sleeve underarm seam - / " " " =leggings= width all round at widest part " " " length of front seam " - / " " length of leg seam " - / " " =the pullover= front: cast on sts. work ins. ribbing (k . p ). continue even in stocking st. until work from beginning measures - / ins. ending with purl row. =to shape armholes:= cast off sts. beginning next rows, then dec. . st. each end of needle every row to sts. =to make pocket:= k . break wool. slip next sts. onto safety pin for pocket. join wool. knit to end of row. leave these sts. until pocket piece has been worked. =to make pocket piece:= cast on sts. work - / ins. stocking st. ending with knit row. leave these sts. on needle. starting again on sts. of front proceed:- = st row:= k . p . purl across sts. of pocket piece. p . k . sts. on needle. continue even in stocking st. until work from beginning measures ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins_.=)= =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= ending with purl row. =to shape neck and shoulders:= k . cast off sts. k . working on last sts. keeping armhole edge even, at neck edge dec. . st. every row to sts. on needle. at armhole edge cast off sts. every alternate row twice. join wool at neck edge and work remaining sts. to correspond to other side. =to make pocket top:= slip sts. from safety pin onto needle. work rows ribbing (k . p ). cast off loosely in ribbing. back: work exactly as given for front to sts. on needle, (end of armhole shaping). continue even until work from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= ending with purl row. =to shape neck and shoulders:= k . cast off sts. k . working on last sts. keeping armhole edge even, at neck edge dec. . st. every row to sts. on needle. at armhole edge cast off sts. every alternate row twice. join wool at neck edge and work remaining sts. to correspond to other side. front neckband: with right side of work facing pick up and knit sts. around neck. work / inch ribbing (k . p ). cast off loosely in ribbing. back neckband: with right side of work facing pick up and knit sts. and work as for front band. sleeves: cast on sts. work - / ins. ribbing (k . p ). continue in stocking st. inc. . st. each end of needle on th and every following th row to sts. on needle. continue even until sleeve from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)=. cast off sts. beginning every row to sts. on needle. cast off. =the leggings= right leg: cast on sts. work / inch ribbing (k . p ). =next row:= (eyelets) *k . wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to end of row. work inch ribbing (k . p ). =next row:= knit, inc. sts. across row. sts. on needle. =next row:= k . purl to last st. k . =to shape back:= = st row:= k . turn. = nd row:= p . k . = rd row:= k . turn. = th row:= p . k . = th row:= k . turn. = th row:= p . k . continue in this manner, knitting over more sts. every knit row until sts. have been worked ending with purl row. =next row:= knit across sts. =next row:= k . purl to last st. k . continue in stocking st. inc. . st. at long side of work (beginning of row) on next and every following th row to sts. on needle. continue even until work from beginning, at short side, measures ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)=. =to shape leg:= dec. . st. each end of needle every row to sts. on needle then every rd row to sts. on needle. continue even until leg seam measures ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- ins._ =)=. work inch even in ribbing (k . p ). work - / ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= even in stocking st. ending with purl row. =to shape foot:= k . turn. working in stocking st. on these sts. dec. . st. each end of needle every alternate row to sts. cast off. join wool and work remaining sts. to correspond. left leg: work as given for right leg having back shapings on purl rows instead of knit rows and all increasings at end of knit rows instead of beginning. to make up: press all pieces carefully. sew all seams, except shoulders of pullover. work row d.c. along back of each shoulder and row s.c. along front, working loops for buttonholes on each. sew buttons to correspond to buttonholes. embroider a row of chain st. around neck where sts. were picked up for ribbing. into every alternate st. work a lazy daisy st. at right angles to it. embroider top of pocket to correspond. with double wool crochet a cord. thread through eyelets at waist of leggings. make and sew a tassel to each end. (e) hot water bottle cover _illustrated on opposite page_ materials: =beehive lustre crepe.= ozs. two no. beehive knitting needles. one medium crochet hook. ply miss canada fingering may be substituted, using no. needles to produce the same tension. tension: sts. = inch. cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row for - / ins. dec. . st. at end of last row. work rows ribbing (k . p ). = th row:= (eyelets) *k . wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to end of row. work rows ribbing. cast off in ribbing. make another piece to correspond, and join pieces together with picot edging as follows:- =to make picot edging:= with crochet hook, beginning at ribbed edge at top, work . s.c. through both pieces. *ch. . . s.c. in rd ch. from hook. . s.c. through both pieces of cover. repeat from * around cover, leaving an opening in centre of bottom large enough for tab of bottle. work picot edging around top of cover. crochet draw strings. thread through eyelets at top and finish with tassels as illustrated. =(g) knitted bottle cover=--=for -oz. bottle= _illustrated on opposite page_ materials: =beehive lustre crepe.= oz. two no. beehive knitting needles. one medium crochet hook. ply miss canada fingering may be substituted, using no. needles to produce the same tension. tension: sts. = inch. cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row for - / ins. proceed:- = st row:= *(k . p ) times. k tog. (p . k ) times. p tog. repeat from * to last sts. (k . p ) times. k tog. = nd and alternate rows:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. = rd row:= *(k . p ) twice. k tog. (p . k ) twice. p tog. repeat from * to last sts. (k . p ) twice. k tog. = th row:= *k . p . k tog. p . k . p tog. repeat from * to last sts. k . p . k tog. = th row:= as nd row. cast off in moss st. sew up seam. crochet edging around top of cover as follows:- = st round:= *ch. . miss . st. . s.c. in next st. repeat from * to end of round. work nd and rd rounds as given for edging of crocheted bottle cover, see page . make a crocheted cord and thread through nd round of loops. make and sew a small tassel to each end. _and so to bed.._ [illustration: =(a) bootees=--_see page _. =(b) bootees=--_see page _. =(c) slippers=--_see page _. =(d) cuddly cape=--_see page _. =(e) bottle cover=--_see page _. =(f) pullover=--_see page _. =(g) bottle cover=--_see page _. =(h) sleeping suit=--_see page _.] =(f) cross-over pullover=--_illustrated on page _ materials: = ply beehive fingering=. ozs. yellow no. . one stitch holder. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = mos.= = mos.= = mos.= width all round at underarm ins. ins. - / ins. length from top of shoulder - / " " - / " length of sleeve underarm seam - / " " " back: beginning at lower edge cast on sts. work - / ins. ribbing =(=k . p =)=. knit even in garter st. until work from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)=. =to make sleeves:= continue in garter st. casting on sts. beginning next rows. ( sts. on each side for sleeves). knit even until work from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= =(=_ mos-- - / ins._=)=. =to shape neck:= k . cast off sts. k . working on last sts and leaving remaining sts. on st. holder knit rows even, ending at neck edge. proceed:- = st row:= k . inc. . st. in next st. knit to end of row. = nd row:= knit. repeat these rows until cuff edge measures - / ins. =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)=. still increasing at neck edge, at cuff edge cast off sts. every alternate row times. continue increasing at neck edge to sts. on needle ending at neck edge. leave these sts. on spare needle. join wool at neck edge and work other side to correspond, ending at side edge. =next row:= place the needle holding the sts. of the right front in front of the needle holding the sts. of the left front so that the sts. overlap. knit . st. from each needle together times, thus joining both fronts together. work - / ins. ribbing =(=k . p =)=. cast off in ribbing. cuffs: with right side of work facing pick up and knit sts. along edge of sleeve. work inch ribbing =(=k . p =)=. cast off in ribbing. to make up: press carefully. sew side and sleeve seams. =(b) baby's bootees=--_illustrated on page _ materials: = ply beehive non-shrink baby wool.= oz. =for needles and tension see page .= cast on sts. knit rows garter st. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . proceed:- =** st row:= *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . p . k . = nd row:= k . purl to last st. k . = rd row:= k . p . k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. = th row:= as nd row.** repeat from ** to ** times. knit rows garter st. =next row:= =(=eyelets=)= *k . wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to end of row. =next row:= knit. =to make instep and foot:= k . on next sts. knit rows garter st. break wool. beginning again where the sts. were left, join wool and with same needle pick up and knit sts. along side of instep, knit across the instep sts., pick up and knit sts. along other side of instep and knit remaining sts. sts. on needle. knit rows garter st. =next row:= k . k tog. knit to centre sts. (k tog.) twice. knit to last sts. k tog. k . repeat this row times. cast off. make another bootee to correspond. to make up: press carefully. sew up seam. make a twisted cord and thread through eyelets at ankle. make and sew a small tassel to each end. =(d) cuddly cape=--_illustrated on page _ materials: = ply miss canada fingering.= ozs. pink. one medium crochet hook. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = mos.= = mos.= = mos.= length from neck to hem - / ins. ins. - / ins. width all round at hem " - / " " pattern: = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to last sts. p . k . = nd row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to last sts. p . k . = rd row:= k . p . k . *p . k . repeat from * to last sts. p . k . = th row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to last sts. p . k . = th row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to last sts. p . k . = th row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to last sts. p . k . the cape: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. keeping sts. each end in garter st. for border, work remaining sts. in pattern. continue even until work from beginning measures ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)=. knit rows garter st. proceed:- = st row:= *k . k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k . = nd and alternate rows:= knit. = rd row:= k . *k . k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k . = th row:= k . *k . k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k . = th row:= (eyelets). *k . k tog. wl. fwd. repeat from * to last sts. k . cast off loosely. the hood: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. keeping sts. each end in garter st. for border, work remaining sts. in pattern. continue even in pattern until work from beginning measures ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)=. cast off. to make up: press pieces, being careful not to flatten pattern. fold hood in half and sew top seam. put centre of hood to centre of cape inch in from each front edge. sew together. with double wool crochet a cord ins. long. thread through eyelets at neck. make and sew a tassel to each end. crochet another cord ins. long. sew to back of hood as illustrated, and sew a tassel to the end. =(a) baby's bootees=--_illustrated on page _ materials: = ply miss canada andalusian.= oz. =for needles and tension see page .= cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times, dec. . st. at end of last row. proceed:- =** st row:= knit. = nd and alternate rows:= k . purl to last st. k . = rd row:= k . *wl. fwd. k tog. k . repeat from * to end of row. = th row:= k . *k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . repeat from * to end of row. = th row:= k . *k . wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to end of row. = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k .** repeat from ** to ** twice, then rd row (for eyelets at ankle) once. knit row. =to make instep and foot:= k . on next sts. knit rows garter st. break wool. beginning again where the sts. were left, join wool and with same needle pick up and knit sts. along side of instep, knit across the instep sts., pick up and knit sts. along other side of instep and knit remaining sts. at ankle. sts. on needle. knit rows garter st. =next row:= k . k tog. knit to centre sts. k tog. k . k tog. knit to last sts. k tog. k . repeat this row times. cast off. make another bootee to correspond. to make up: press carefully. sew up seam. make a twisted cord and thread through eyelets at ankle. make and sew a small tassel to each end. =(f) pullover=--_illustrated on page _ materials: =miss canada crochet-knitting wool.= ozs. pearl pink. buttons. one stitch holder. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = mos.= = mos.= = mos.= width all round at underarm ins. ins. - / ins. length from top of shoulder - / " " - / " length of sleeve underarm seam - / " " " pattern: = st row:= knit. = nd row:= k . purl to last st. k . repeat st and nd rows once. = th row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to last st. k . = th row:= k . p . *k . p repeat from * to last st. k . = th row:= k . p . *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . p . k . = th row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to last sts. p . k . = th row:= as th row. = th row:= as th row. = th row:= as th row. = th row:= as th row. these rows complete one pattern. front: cast on sts. work rows garter st. =next row:= *k . inc. . st. in next st. repeat from * to end of row. sts. on needle. proceed:- = st row:= k . purl to last st. k . = nd row:= knit. repeat st and nd rows once, st. row once. work complete patterns. continue even in stocking st. until work from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)=, ending with purl row. =to shape armholes:= cast off sts. beginning next rows, then dec. . st. each end of needle every alternate row times. sts. on needle. continue even until armhole measures ins. from first shaping ending with purl row. =to shape neck:= = st row:= knit. = nd row:= k . p . k . p . k . = rd row:= knit. = th row:= as nd row. = th row:= k . cast off sts. k . working on one shoulder proceed:- = st row:= k . p . k . keeping sts. at neck edge in garter st. continue even until armhole, from first shaping, measures ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)=. =to shape shoulder:= at armhole edge cast off sts. every alternate row twice. join wool at neck edge and work other shoulder to correspond. back: work exactly as given for front to sts. on needle, ending with purl row. =to make neck opening and shape neck:= k . turn. leave remaining sts. on st. holder. working on these sts. proceed:- = st row:= k . purl to last st. k . = nd row:= knit. = rd row:= as st. row. = th row:= (buttonhole) knit to last sts. wl. fwd. k tog. k . = th row:= as st. row. keeping garter st. border continue in stocking st. working more buttonholes rows apart ending with purl row. proceed:- = st row:= knit. = nd row:= k . p . k . = rd row:= knit to last sts. wl. fwd. k tog. k . = th row:= cast off sts. k . p . k . keeping garter st. border of sts. continue even until armhole from first shaping measures ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)=. shape shoulder as given for front. cast on sts. and knit across sts. from st. holder. work to correspond to other side, omitting buttonholes. sleeves: cast on sts. work rows garter st. proceed:- = st row:= *k . inc. . st. in next st. repeat from * to end of row. sts. on needle. continue in stocking st. inc. . st. each end of needle every following th row to sts. on needle. continue even until sleeve from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= ending with purl row. cast off sts. beginning every row to sts. on needle. cast off. to make up: press all pieces carefully. sew all seams. sew buttons to correspond to buttonholes. sew in sleeves. =(e) girl's bonnet=--_illustrated on page _ materials: = ply beehive non-shrink baby wool.= oz. yds. ribbon. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = mos.= = mos.= = mos.= width all round brim - / ins. ins. ins. cast on sts. work - / ins. stocking st. ending with purl row. work - / ins. ribbing (k . p .) inc. . st. at end of last row. with wrong side of work facing proceed:- =** st row:= *k . (k tog.) twice. (wl. fwd. k ) times. wl. fwd. (k tog.) twice. repeat from * to last st. k . = nd and rd rows:= knit. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . repeat st. to th rows times. proceed:- = st row:= inc. . st. in st. st. knit to end of row. = nd and alternate rows:= k . purl to last st. k . = rd row:= *k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k tog. k . repeat from * to end of row. = th row:= knit. = th row:= *k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k tog. k . repeat from * to end of row. = th row:= knit. = th row:= *k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k tog. k . repeat from * to end of row. = th row:= *k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k tog. k . repeat from * to end of row. = th row:= *k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k tog. k . repeat from * to end of row. = th row:= *sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k tog. repeat from * to end of row. break wool. thread end through remaining sts. draw up and fasten securely.** frill: cast on sts. = st row:= knit. = nd row:= k . purl to last st. k . = rd row:= knit. repeat those rows until piece is long enough to "frill" along turn back part of bonnet. to make up: press carefully. do not press frill. sew frill along turn back. sew up back seam for - / ins. from top of bonnet. make ribbon rosettes and sew to bonnet as illustrated. =(d) boy's cap=--_illustrated on page _ materials: = ply beehive non-shrink baby wool.= oz. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = mos.= = mos.= = mos.= width all round brim ins. ins. ins cast on sts. knit rows garter st. = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . repeat th and th rows until work measures - / ins. from beginning, ending with purl row. work - / ins. ribbing (k . p .) dec. in last row to sts. with wrong side of work facing work from ** to ** as given for girl's bonnet, above. to make up: press lightly. sew up back seam. =(h) baby's ply bootees=--_illustrated on page _ materials: = ply miss canada fingering.= ozs. will make prs. two no. beehive knitting needles. tension: sts. and rows = inch. cast on sts. work ins. ribbing =(=k . p .=)=. proceed:- = st row:= k . turn. = nd row:= k . turn. = rd row:= k . turn. = th row:= k . turn. = th row:= k . turn. = th row:= k . turn. continue in this manner until all sts. are worked onto one needle. continue even in garter st. until work measures - / ins. from beginning at side edge. =next row:= k . k tog. knit to last sts. k tog. k . knit rows even. repeat last rows twice. sts. on needle. continue even in garter st. until work from beginning measures - / ins. at side edge. proceed:- =to make toe:= k . turn. k . turn. working on these sts. knit rows ( ridges) for toe flap. =to make foot:= pick up and knit sts. along side of toe flap. knit remaining sts. =next row:= k . pick up and knit sts. along other side of toe flap. knit remaining sts. sts. on needle. knit ridges. =next row:= k . k tog. knit to centre sts. (k tog.) twice. knit to last sts. k tog. k . =next row:= knit. repeat these rows twice. cast off. sew leg and foot seam. make another bootee to correspond. _in angora_ [illustration: bonnet and bootees--_see below._ coat--_see page ._] =angora bonnet= materials: =fuzzy wuzzy angora=. one / -oz. ball white. yds. ribbon. =for needles and tension see angora coat, page .= measurements: = mos.= = mos.= = mos.= width all round brim - / ins. ins. ins. cast on sts. knit rows garter st. work complete patterns as given for coat, see page . =next row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat this row times. =next row:= k . *inc. . st. in next st. (k . p ) twice. inc. . st. in next st. (p . k ) twice. repeat from * times. sts. on needle. work complete patterns. proceed:- = st row:= k . *k . k tog. repeat from * to last st. k . = nd and alternate rows:= knit. = rd row:= k . *k . k tog. repeat from * to last st. k . = th row:= k . *k . k tog. repeat from * to last st. k . continue decreasing in this manner every alternate row to sts. on needle. =next row:= *k tog. repeat from * to end of row. break wool. thread end through remaining sts. draw up and fasten securely. sew up ins. of back seam. make ribbon rosettes and sew to bonnet as illustrated. =angora bootees= materials: =fuzzy wuzzy angora.= one / -oz. ball white. length of ribbon. =for needles and tension see angora coat, page .= cast on sts. knit rows garter st. work complete patterns as given for coat, see page . proceed:- = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row once. = rd row:= (eyelets) k . *wl. fwd. k tog. p . k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. k tog. repeat st. row twice. =to make foot:= k . on next sts. knit rows garter st. ( ridges). (this is for instep). break wool. with right side of work facing join wool, pick up and knit sts. along side of instep, knit the instep sts., pick up and knit sts. along other side of instep and knit remaining sts. sts. on needle. knit ridges. =next row:= k . k tog. knit to centre sts. (k tog.) twice. knit to last sts. k tog. k . =next row:= knit. repeat these rows twice. cast off. sew up seam. thread ribbon through eyelets at ankle. make another bootee to correspond. =angora coat=--_illustrated on opposite page_ materials: =fuzzy wuzzy angora.= four / -oz. balls white. two no. beehive knitting needles. =(=_ mos--no. _=)= =(=_ mos.--no. _=)= needles. buttons. measurements: = mos.= = mos.= = mos.= width all round at underarm ins. ins. - / ins. length from top of shoulder " - / " " length of sleeve underarm seam - / " " " tension: - / sts. = inch with no. needles. sts. = inch with no. needles. - / sts. = inch with no. needles. pattern: = st row:= k *wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k . repeat from * to last st. k . = nd row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to last st. k . = rd and th rows:= as nd row. = th row:= k . *k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. repeat from * to last st. k . = th row:= k . *k . p . repeat from * to last st. k . = th and th rows:= as th row. these rows complete one pattern. back: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. work complete patterns. work from beginning now measures approx. ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)=. =to shape armholes:= = st row:= cast off sts. k . *k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. repeat from * to last sts. k . = nd row:= cast off sts. k . *k . p . repeat from * to last st. k . = rd row:= k . k tog. k . *p . k . repeat from * to last sts. p . p tog. k . = th row:= *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . p . k . = th row:= k . k tog. *k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. repeat from * to last sts. k tog. k . = th row:= k . p . *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. p . k . = th row:= k . k tog. k . *p . k . repeat from * to last sts. p . p tog. k . = th row:= k . *k . p . repeat from * to last st. k . work complete pattern then st. to th row of next pattern. =next row:= k . (k . p ) twice. k . (k . p ) twice. k . =to shape shoulders:= = st row:= cast off sts. k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k . (wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k ) twice. k . = nd row:= cast off sts. k . p . k . p . k . p . k . = rd row:= cast off sts. k . p . k . p . k . = th row:= cast off sts. k . p . k . cast off. right front: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. proceed:- **= st row:= k . *wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k . repeat from * to last st. k . = nd row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to last sts. k . = rd row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to last st. k . = th row:= as nd row. = th row:= k . *k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. repeat from * to last st. k . = th row:= k . *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . = th row:= k . *k . p . repeat from * to last st. k . = th row:= k . *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k .** repeat from ** to ** times, then st. row once. =to shape armhole:= = st row:= cast off sts. k . *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . = nd row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to last sts. p . p tog. k . = rd row:= *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . = th row:= k . *k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. repeat from * to last sts. k tog. k . = th row:= k . p . *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . = th row:= k . *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . p . p tog. k . = th row:= k . *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . repeat from ** to ** once. =to shape neck:= = st row:= k . (wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k ) twice. k . = nd row:= k . (p . k ) twice. k . = rd row:= k . (p . k ) twice. k . = th row:= as nd row. = th row:= (buttonhole) k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k . = th row:= k . (k . p ) twice. k . = th row:= cast off sts. k . (k . p ) twice. k . = th row:= k . (k . p ) twice. k . = th row:= k . (wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k ) twice. k . = th row:= k . (p . k ) twice. k . = th row:= k . (p . k ) twice. k . =to shape shoulder:= = st row:= cast off sts. k . p . k . = nd row:= k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k . = rd row:= cast off sts. p . k . = th row:= knit. cast off. left front: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. proceed:- ***= st row:= k . *wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k . repeat from * to last sts. k . = nd row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to last st. k . = rd row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to last sts. k . = th row:= as nd row. = th row:= k . *k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. repeat from * to last sts. k . = th row:= k . *k . p . repeat from * to last st. k . = th row:= k . *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . = th row:= k . *k . p . repeat from * to last st. k .*** repeat from *** to *** times. =to shape armhole:= = st row:= cast off sts. k . *k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. repeat from * to last sts. k . = nd row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to last sts. p . k . = rd row:= k . k tog. k . *p . k . repeat from * to last sts. k . = th row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to last sts. p . k . = th row:= k . k tog. *k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. repeat from * to last sts. k . = th row:= k . *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . = th row:= k . k tog. k . *p . k . repeat from * to last sts. p . k . = th row:= k . *k . p . repeat from * to last st. k . repeat from *** to *** once. =to shape neck:= = st row:= k . (wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k ) twice. k . = nd row:= k . (p . k ) twice. k . = rd row:= k . (p . k ) twice. k . = th row:= as nd row. = th row:= (buttonhole) k . (k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd.) twice. k . k tog. wl. fwd. k . = th row:= cast off sts. k . (k . p ) twice. k . = th row:= k . (k . p ) twice. k . = th row:= k . (k . p ) twice. k . = th row:= k . (wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k ) twice. k . = th row:= k . (p . k ) twice. k . = th row:= k . (p . k ) twice. k . = th row:= as th row. =to shape shoulder:= = st row:= cast off sts. k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k . = nd row:= k . p . k . = rd row:= cast off sts. p . k . = th row:= knit. cast off. sleeves: cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. = th row:= k . *inc. . st. in next st. (k . p ) twice. inc. . st. in next st. (p . k ) twice. repeat from * twice. sts. on needle. continue even in pattern until sleeve from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)=. keeping continuity of pattern cast off sts. beginning every row to sts. on needle. cast off. to make up: press pieces carefully. sew all seams. sew in sleeves. make a link with the buttons and thread through buttonholes. (g) baby's ply bootees--_illustrated on page _ materials: = ply beehive non-shrink baby wool=. oz. white. small quantity pink. two no. beehive knitting needles. two buttons. tension: sts. and rows = inch. with pink wool cast on sts. work rows ribbing (k . p ). join white wool. knit row. work rows ribbing. join pink wool. knit row. work rows ribbing. join white wool and working in garter st. proceed:- = st row:= k . turn. = nd row:= k . turn. = rd row:= k . turn. = th row:= k . turn. continue in this manner, knitting extra st. in every row until all sts. are worked onto one needle. knit - / ins. garter st. dec. . st. each end of needle next and every following th row to sts. knit rows. ( ridges). =next row:= with wrong side of work facing k . turn. k . working on these sts. knit rows, ending with wrong side of work facing. break wool. join white wool where sts. were left. k . break white wool. join pink wool. =next row:= k . pick up and knit sts. along side of foot. knit the sts. across toe. pick up and knit sts. along other side of foot. k . sts. on needle. knit ridges. =next row:= k . k tog. knit to centre sts. (k tog.) twice. knit to last sts. k tog. k . =next row:= knit. repeat these rows twice. cast off. strap: with pink wool cast on sts. knit ridges. cast off. make a loop at one end and sew button to other end. sew back seam of bootee. sew centre of strap to back seam of bootee just above pink foot. make another bootee to correspond. =cuddly hour= [illustration: knitted shawl _see opposite page._] =knitted shawl= _illustrated on opposite page_ materials: = ply beehive fingering=. ozs. white. two no. beehive knitting needles. measurements: approx. ins. × ins. tension: sts. and rows = inch. the centre: cast on sts. = st row:= w.r.n. knit to end of row. repeat first row until there are loops up each side of work. =next row:= w.r.n. k tog. knit to end of row. repeat last row to sts. cast off. _the shawl may be made larger by repeating the first row as given for centre until extra loops, divisible by , are obtained at each side. then for every extra loops there will be one more pattern in the border at each side of the shawl._ the border: with right side of work facing, pick up and knit the loops from one side. =next row:= w.r.n. knit to end of row. proceed:- = st row:= w.r.n. k . *k . (wl. fwd. sl. . k . p.s.s.o.) times. k . repeat from * to end of row. = nd and alternate rows:= w.r.n. knit to end of row. = rd row:= w.r.n. k . *k . k tog. wl. fwd. k . (wl. fwd. sl. . k . p.s.s.o.) times. k . repeat from * to end of row. = th row:= w.r.n. k . *(k tog. wl. fwd.) twice. k . (wl. fwd. sl. . k . p.s.s.o.) times. k . repeat from * to end of row. = th row:= w.r.n. k . *(k tog. wl. fwd.) times. k . (wl. fwd. sl. . k . p.s.s.o.) times. k . repeat from * to last sts. k . = th row:= w.r.n. k . *(k tog. wl. fwd.) times. k . (wl. fwd. sl. . k . p.s.s.o.) times. k . repeat from * to last sts. k . = th row:= w.r.n. k . k tog. *wl. fwd. (k tog. wl. fwd.) twice. k . (wl. fwd. sl. . k . p.s.s.o.) twice. wl. fwd. sl. . k tog. p.s.s.o. repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. (k tog. wl. fwd.) twice. k . (wl. fwd. sl. . k . p.s.s.o.) times. k . = th row:= w.r.n. k . k tog. *wl. fwd. (k tog. wl. fwd.) twice. k . wl. fwd. sl. . k . p.s.s.o. wl. fwd. sl. . k tog. p.s.s.o. repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. k . = th row:= w.r.n. k . k tog. *wl. fwd. (k tog. wl. fwd.) twice. k . wl. fwd. sl. . k tog. p.s.s.o. repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k . = th row:= w.r.n. knit to end of row. repeat these rows times. then st. to th row once. = th row:= k sts. cast on sts. (these sts. form beginning of peak). the peak: k . turn. proceed: = st row:= sl. . k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . (wl. fwd. k tog.) twice. k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k . = nd row:= k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. (k tog.) twice. turn. (the last sts. knit together are . st. from the peak and . st. from the shawl, thus attaching the peak to the shawl. the peak is attached in this manner every alternate row as instructed). = rd row:= sl. . k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . (wl. fwd. k tog.) twice. k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k . = th row:= k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. (k tog.) twice. turn. = th row:= sl. . k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . (wl. fwd. k tog.) twice. k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k . = th row:= k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. (k tog.) twice. turn. = th row:= sl. . k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . (wl. fwd. k tog.) twice. k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k . = th row:= k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. (k tog.) twice. turn. = th row:= sl. . k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . (wl. fwd. k tog.) twice. k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k . = th row:= k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. (k tog.) twice. turn. = th row:= sl. . k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . (wl. fwd. k tog.) twice. k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k . = th row:= k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. (k tog.) twice. turn. = th row:= sl. . k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k . = th row:= k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. (k tog.) twice. turn. = th row:= sl. . k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . = th row:= cast off sts. loosely. k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. (k tog.) twice. turn. this completes peak. repeat from st. to th row until all sts. from the border have been worked up. slip these sts. on spare needle to be carried forward for next side. with right side of work facing, begin again from beginning of border. after working each border pick up sts. of last row of peaks and continue in pattern. when the sides are completed, cast off peak sts. sew together cast-on and cast-off edges of peak. join together corners of border by sewing through loops very loosely in herring bone st. roll in a damp towel for several hours, then spread out flat, pinning each peak out separately with rustless pins and leave until dry. (=c=) =slippers=--_illustrated on page _ materials: = ply miss canada fingering=. oz. will make prs. two small buttons. two rose buds. =for needles and tension see page .= beginning with slipper sole, cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. continue in moss st. inc. . st. each end of needle next and every alternate row to sts. on needle. continue in moss st. dec. . st. each end of needle every alternate row to sts. on needle. work rows even, casting on sts. at beginning of nd row for heel of slipper. =next row:= inc. . st. in st. st. (toe of slipper). moss st. to end of row. work row even. repeat last rows to sts. on needle, ending at heel edge. =next row:= cast off sts. k . p . k . knit to end of row. =next row:= k . p . k . p . k . =next row:= k . p . k . knit to end of row. repeat last rows times, ending at toe edge. work rows in moss st. casting on sts. at beginning of nd row. continue in moss st. dec. . st. at toe edge on next and every alternate row to sts. cast off. make another slipper to correspond. =ankle strap:= (make ) cast on sts. work row moss st. = nd row:= (buttonhole) k . p . w.r.n. p tog. moss st. to end of row. work row moss st. cast off in moss st. to make up: sew centre back seam. put back point of sole to this seam and sew sole into position. sew up toe opening. sew ankle strap to back of slipper. sew button to one end. sew rose bud to front of each slipper. _cuddly hour_ [illustration: crocheted shawl] materials: = ply beehive fingering=. ozs. one no. steel crochet hook.(american gauge). measurements: ins. × ins. tension: pattern and rows = / inch. the centre: ch. sts. = st row:= . s.c. in th ch. from hook. *ch. . miss sts. . s.c. in next st. repeat from * to end of row. loops in row. ch. . turn. = nd row:= . d.c. in st. loop. ( block). *ch. . . s.c. in next loop. ch. . . d.c. in next loop. repeat from * to end of row. ch. . turn. = rd row:= . s.c. in th d.c. of st. block. *ch. . . s.c. in st. d.c. of next block. ch. . . s.c. in th d.c. of same block. repeat from * to end of row. ch. . turn. = th row:= . s.c. in st. loop. *ch. . . d.c. in next loop. ch. . . s.c. in next loop. repeat from * to end of row, ending with . s.c. in last loop. ch. . . d.c. in nd st. of turning ch. of previous row. ch. . turn. = th row:= * . s.c. in st. d.c. of next block. ch. . . s.c. in th d.c. of same block. ch. . repeat from * to end of row, ending with . s.c. in rd st. of turning ch. of previous row. ch. . turn. these last rows complete one pattern. continue even in pattern until work measures ins. from beginning ending with rd pattern row. do not turn. work a row of loops (as in st. row) along side of work as follows:- *ch. . miss a block row. . s.c. in the end of a loop row. repeat from * to end of row. fasten off. join wool at opposite side and work a row of loops along the side in same manner. do not break wool. the border: = st round:= ch. . . d.c. in corner of the centre. (the ch. . counts as . d.c., making this a . d.c. group). *(ch. . . s.c. in next loop) twice. ch. . . d.c. in next loop. repeat from * around the centre, working d.c. in each corner. join with s.s. = nd round:= ch. . . d.c. in next d.c. ( space just made). ch. . . d.c. ch. . . d.c. all in next d.c. (centre of the . d.c. group). (ch. . . d.c. in next d.c.) twice. *ch. . miss. . loop. . s.c. in next loop. ch. . . d.c. in next d.c. ch. . . d.c. ch. . . d.c. all in next d.c. (centre of the . d.c. group). ch. . . d.c. in next d.c. repeat from * around the centre, working the succeeding corners to correspond with st. join with s.s. = rd round:= s.s. into st. space. ch. . . d.c. in next space. ( space just made). ch. . . d.c. ch. . . d.c. all in next space. (centre space of scallop) (ch. . . d.c. in next space) twice. *ch. . . s.c. in next loop. ch. . . s.c. in next loop. ch. . . d.c. in next space. ch. . . d.c. ch. . . d.c. all in next space. (centre space of scallop). ch. . . d.c. in next space. repeat from * around the centre, working the succeeding corners to correspond with st. join with s.s. = th round:= s.s. into st. space. ch. . . d.c. in next space. ( space just made). ch. . miss . d.c. . d.c. in next d.c. ch. . . d.c. ch. . . d.c. all in next space. (centre space of scallop). ch. . miss . d.c. . d.c. in next d.c. (ch. . . d.c. in next space) twice. *ch. . miss space. . s.c. in next loop. ch. . miss space. . d.c. in next space. ch. . . d.c. ch. . . d.c. in next space. (centre space of scallop). ch. . . d.c. in next space. repeat from * around the centre working the succeeding corners to correspond with st. join with s.s. = th round:= s.s. into st. space. ch. . . s.c. in th ch. from hook. . d.c. in next space. make picot as follows:- ch. . . s.c. in top of last d.c. worked. . d.c. in next space. picot. . d.c. in centre d.c. of . d.c. group. (picot. . d.c. in centre space of scallop) times. picot. . d.c. in centre d.c. of . d.c. group. (picot. . d.c. in next space) times. *ch. . . s.c. in each of next loops. ch. . . d.c. in next space. picot. . d.c. in same space. (picot. . d.c. in centre space of scallop) times. (picot. . d.c. in next space) twice. repeat from * around the centre, working the succeeding corners to correspond with st. join with s.s. fasten off. (b) diamond and smocked cover _illustrated on page _ materials: =p & b superior double knitting=. ozs. two no. beehive knitting needles. measurements: ins. × ins. tension: sts. and rows = inch. cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row for ins. proceed:- **_ st row:_ (k . p ) times. k . p tog. *w.r.n. (p . k ) times. p . w.r.n. p tog. repeat from * to last sts. w.r.n. (p . k ) times. p . w.r.n. p tog. k . (p . k ) times. = nd row:= (k . p ) times. k . *(k . p ) times. k . p . k . repeat from * to last sts. (p . k ) times. = rd row:= (k . p ) times. k . *w.r.n. (p . k ) times. p . w.o.n. k . p . k . repeat from * to last sts. (p . k ) times. = th row:= (k . p ) times. *(k . p ) times. k . (p . k ) twice. p . repeat from * to last sts. k . (p . k ) times. = th row:= (k . p ) times. *w.r.n. (p . k ) times. p . w.r.n. (p . k ) twice. p . repeat from * to last sts. k . (p . k ) times. = th row:= (k . p ) times. k . *(k . p ) times. k . (p . k ) times. repeat from * to last sts. (p . k ) times. = th row:= (k . p ) times. k . *w.r.n. (p . k ) times. p . w.o.n. (k . p ) times. k . repeat from * to last sts. (p . k ) times. = th row:= (k . p ) times. *(k . p ) times. k . (p . k ) times. p . repeat from * to last sts. k . (p . k ) times. = th row:= (k . p ) times. *w.r.n. p . count over sts. from point of left hand needle. insert point of right hand needle between the th and th sts. on left hand needle. pass the wool around the point of the right hand needle and drawing a loop through to right side of work between th and th sts., place it on the left hand needle. knit the loop tog. with the next st. on left hand needle. k . (p . k ) twice. p . w.r.n. (p . k ) times. p . repeat from * to last sts. k . (p . k ) times. = th row:= (k . p ) times. k . *(k . p ) times. k . (p . k ) times. repeat from * to last sts. (p . k ) times. = th row:= (k . p ) times. *k tog. w.r.n. (p . k ) times. p . w.o.n. k tog. (p . k ) twice. p . repeat from * to last sts. k . (p . k ) times. = th row:= (k . p ) times. *(k . p ) times. k . (p . k ) times. p . repeat from * to last sts. k . (p . k ) times. = th row:= (k . p ) times. k . *p tog. w.r.n. (p . k ) times. p . w.r.n. p tog. k . p . k . repeat from * to last sts. (p . k ) times. = th row:= (k . p ) times. k . *(k . p ) times. k . (p . k ) times. repeat from * to last sts. (p . k ) times. = th row:= (k . p ) times. *k tog. w.r.n. (p . k ) times. p . w.o.n. k tog. p . repeat from * to last sts. k . (p . k ) times. = th row:= (k . p ) times. *(k . p ) times. k . (p . k ) twice. p . repeat from * to last sts. k . (p . k ) times.** repeat from ** to ** times, then st. row once. =next row:= (k . p ) times. inc. . st. in next st. *(k . p ) times. inc. . st. in next st. repeat from * times. (k . p ) times. k . sts. on needle. work ins. moss st. to correspond with border at beginning. cast off in moss pattern. =(e) cot cover= _illustrated on page _ materials: =beehive lustre crepe.= ozs. two no. beehive knitting needles. measurements: ins. × ins. tension: - / sts. and rows = inch. blocks make large square. large squares ( blocks) make up the cover. the blocks: cast on sts. = st row:= w.r.n. knit to end of row. repeat st. row times. = th row:= w.r.n. k . wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k . = th row:= w.r.n. k . p . k . = th row:= w.r.n. k . wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k . = th row:= w.r.n. k . p . k . = th row:= w.r.n. k . wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k . = th row:= w.r.n. k . p . k . = th row:= w.r.n. k . wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k . = th row:= w.r.n. k . p . k . = th row:= w.r.n. k . wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k . = th row:= w.r.n. k . p . k . = th row:= w.r.n. k . wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k . = th row:= w.r.n. k . p . k . = th row:= w.r.n. k . wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k . = th row:= w.r.n. k . p . k . = th row:= w.r.n. k . wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k . = th row:= w.r.n. k . p . k . = st row:= w.r.n. k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k . k tog. k . = nd row:= w.r.n. k . p . k . = rd row:= w.r.n. k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. wl. fwd. sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k . k tog. wl. fwd. k tog. k . = th row:= w.r.n. k . p . k . = th row:= w.r.n. k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. wl. fwd. sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k . k tog. wl. fwd. k tog. k . = th row:= w.r.n. k . p . k . = th row:= w.r.n. k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. wl. fwd. sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k . k tog. wl. fwd. k tog. k . = th row:= w.r.n. k . p . k . = th row:= w.r.n. k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. wl. fwd. sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k . k tog. wl. fwd. k tog. k . = th row:= w.r.n. k . p . k . = st row:= w.r.n. k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. wl. fwd. sl. . k tog. p.s.s.o. wl. fwd. k tog. k . = nd row:= w.r.n. k . p . k . = rd row:= w.r.n. k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k . k tog. k . = th row:= w.r.n. k . p . k . = th row:= w.r.n. k . sl. . k tog. p.s.s.o. k . = th row:= w.r.n. knit to end of row. = th row:= as th row. = th row:= w.r.n. *k . p . repeat from * to last st. k . = th row:= w.r.n. *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . = th row:= w.r.n. k . *p . k . repeat from * to last st. k . = st row:= w.r.n. k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. = nd row:= w.r.n. k . purl to last st. k . sts. on needle. proceed:- **= st row:= k . p tog. purl to last sts. p tog. k . = nd row:= k . *wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. k tog. k . = rd row:= as st. row. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . = th row:= k . k tog. knit to last sts. k tog. k . = th row:= as th row.** repeat from ** to ** times. =next row:= k . p tog. purl to last sts. p tog. k . =next row:= knit. repeat these last rows once. (k tog.) twice. fasten off. make more blocks in this manner. arrange blocks with the petals of flower towards the centre to make one large square. join together the sides with the loops by sewing in herringbone st. sew the other sides in the usual manner. make large squares. the border: cast on sts. = st row:= k . wl. fwd. k . = nd and th rows:= knit. = rd row:= k . wl. fwd. k . = th row:= k . wl. fwd. knit to end of row. = th row:= knit. repeat th and th rows to sts. on needle. knit ins. even in garter st. ending at longer edge. proceed:- _ st row:_ knit to last sts. k tog. wl. fwd. k tog. = nd and alternate rows:= knit. repeat st. and nd rows to sts. on needle. =next row:= knit. =next row:= k tog. wl. fwd. k tog. =next row:= knit. =next row:= k . k tog. fasten off. make more pieces to correspond. press very lightly and sew to centre. sew the mitred corners. [illustration: bb logo] --_for cots_ [illustration: (a) (_above_)--_see page ._ (b) (_above_)--_see page ._ (c) (_left_)--_see page ._] _and prams_ [illustration: (d) (_above_)--_see page ._ (e) (_above_)--_see page ._ (f) (_right_)--_see page ._] =(c) diamond cover=--_illustrated on page _ materials: =p & b superior double knitting=. ozs. two no. beehive knitting needles. yds. ribbon ins. wide. measurements: ins. × ins. tension: sts. and rows = inch. cast on sts. knit ins. even in garter st. proceed:- **= st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to last sts. p . k . = nd row:= k . p . *k . p . k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . p . k . p . k . = rd row:= k . *p . k . p . k . repeat from * to last sts. p . k . p . k . = th row:= k . p . *k . p . k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . p . k . p . k . = th row:= k . *p . k . p . k . repeat from * to last sts. p . k . p . k . = th row:= k . p . *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . p . k . = th row:= k . *p . k . p . k . repeat from * to last sts. p . k . p . k . = th row:= k . p . *k . p . k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . p . k . p . k . = th row:= k . *p . k . p . k . repeat from * to last sts. p . k . p . k . = th row:= k . *k . p . k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . p . k . = th row:= k . p . *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . p . k . work back from th to nd row.** repeat from ** to ** until work measures approx. ins. ending with st. pattern row. knit ins. even in garter st. cast off. to make up: press lightly. make ribbon bow and sew to cover as illustrated. =(a) the layette cover=--_illustrated on page _ _this matches the layette shown on page _ materials: = ply beehive fingering=. ozs. white. ozs. pink no. . two no. beehive knitting needles. two stitch holders. measurements: ins. × ins. tension: sts. and rows = inch. with pink wool cast on sts. knit rows garter st. = rd row:= k . leave these sts. on st. holder. knit to last sts. leave these sts. on nd st. holder. working on remaining sts. repeat pattern as given for baby's coat (a), see page , until work measures approx. ins. from beginning ending with the th pattern row. repeat first pattern rows. leave these sts. on spare needle. proceed:- with pink wool pick up sts. from the nd st. holder and knit even in garter st. until same length as centre piece, ending at inside edge. leave these sts. on st. holder. with pink wool pick up sts. from first st. holder and knit even in garter st. until same length as centre piece, ending at outside edge. =next row:= with pink wool knit the sts. of border, the sts. of centre, the sts. of the other border onto same needle. sts. on needle. knit rows garter st. cast off. to make up: sew the borders to the centre. press cover carefully. =(d) cable st. cover=--_illustrated on page _ materials: =p & b superior double knitting=. ozs. two no. beehive knitting needles. one needle with points at both ends. measurements: ins. × ins. tension: sts. and rows = inch. cast on sts. = st row:= *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . p . k . = nd row:= as st. row. = rd row:= k . p . k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. = th row:= as rd row. these rows form border pattern. continue in pattern until work measures approx. - / ins. ending with nd pattern row. =next row:= k . p . k . (p . k ) times. p . *k . p . inc. . st. in each of next sts. p . repeat from * to last sts. (p . k ) times. sts. on needle. =next row:= k . p . k . (p . k ) times. k . *p . k . repeat from * to last sts. (p . k ) times. proceed:- **= st row:= work sts. border pattern. p . *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. work sts. border pattern. = nd row:= work sts. border pattern. k . *p . k . repeat from * to last sts. work sts. border pattern. repeat st. and nd rows twice. = th row:= work sts. border pattern. p . *k . p . taking the needle with points at both ends, slip next sts. onto it letting this needle fall to back of work. knit next sts. bring the other sts. forward and slip them onto needle again. knit these sts. (the crossing of these sts. will be termed "twist" throughout). p . repeat from * to last sts. work sts. border pattern. repeat nd row once, then st. and nd rows times. = th row:= work sts. border pattern. p . *twist. p . k . p . repeat from * to last sts. work sts. border pattern. = th row:= as nd row.** repeat from ** to ** times, the first rows of next pattern once, the nd row once, st. and nd rows times, then st. row once. =next row:= work sts. border pattern. k . *(p tog.) times. k . p . k . repeat from * to last sts. work sts. border pattern. sts. on needle. work - / ins. border pattern. cast off in pattern. =(f) crocheted cover=--_illustrated on page _ materials: = ply beehive fingering=. ozs. one no. steel crochet hook (american gauge). yds. ribbon, ins. wide. measurements: ins. × ins. tension: groups and rows = inch. ch. sts. = st row:= w.o.h. draw loop through th ch. from hook. w.o.h. draw loop through same ch. ( loops on hook). w.o.h. draw loop through all sts. ch. . *miss . ch. w.o.h. draw loop through next ch. w.o.h. draw loop through same ch. w.o.h. draw loop through all sts. ch. . repeat from * to end of row. ch. . turn. groups in row. = nd row:= w.o.h. draw loop through space between st. and nd groups. w.o.h. draw loop through same space. w.o.h. draw loop through all sts. ch. . *w.o.h. draw loop through space between next groups. w.o.h. draw loop through same space. w.o.h. draw loop through all sts. ch. . repeat from * to end of row, working the last group between the ch. . and st. group of previous row. ch. . turn. repeat nd row until work measures ins. from beginning, omitting turning ch. in last row. turn. proceed:- = st round:= ch. . . d.c. in nd group. *ch. . . d.c. in next group. repeat from * to corner. ch. . work more d.c. in corner st. repeat from * around cover working the d.c. in the ends of each row, a nd space in each corner and joining to beginning of round with s.s. = nd round:= *ch. . . s.c. in th ch. from hook. . s.c. in next d.c. repeat from * around cover joining to beginning of round with s.s. fasten off. to make up: press lightly. make ribbon bow and sew to cover as illustrated. =(b) girl's panties=--_illustrated on page _ materials: =beehive lustre crepe=. ozs. seacrest. one stitch holder. length of elastic. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = yr.= = - / yrs.= = yrs.= length from waist to crotch at front - / ins. ins. ins. front: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. break wool and leave these sts. on st. holder until the other leg band has been worked. work nd leg band to correspond but do not break wool. =next row:= k . cast on sts. knit the sts. from st. holder onto same needle. sts. on needle. proceed:- = st row:= k . p . turn. = nd row:= k . turn. = rd row:= p . turn. = th row:= k . turn. continue in this manner, that is working sts. more in every row until sts. are left unworked at each end of needle. =next row:= p . k . proceed:- = st row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . k tog. k . = nd row:= k . purl to last st. k . = rd row:= knit. = th row:= as nd row. = th row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . k tog. k . work rows even, also after th and th rows. = th row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . k tog. k . = th row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . k tog. k . = th row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k tog. k . sts. on needle. continue even in stocking st. until work from cast-on sts. in centre of work measures ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- - / ins._=)= ending with purl row. dec. . st. each end of needle on next and every following th row to sts. on needle. work rows even. proceed:- = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. = th row:= (eyelets). k . *wl. fwd. k tog. p . k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. k tog. repeat st. row times. cast off in ribbing. back: work exactly as given for front to sts. on needle. work rows even. =to shape back:= = st row:= k . turn. = nd row:= p . turn. = rd row:= k . turn. = th row:= p . turn. = th row:= k . turn. = th row:= p . turn. = th row:= k . turn. = th row:= p . turn. = th row:= knit to end of row. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . work ribbing as given for front. cast off in ribbing. to make up: press carefully. sew side and crotch seams. thread elastic through eyelets at waist. * * * * * =(a) girl's dress=--_continued from page _ neckband: sew shoulder seams. with right side of work facing, pick up and knit sts. along back of neck, sts. along left side, sts. from st. holder at front, sts. along right side and sts. along back. sts. on needle. knit rows garter st. = th row:= knit to last sts. wl. fwd. k tog. k . cast off loosely. sleeves: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. = th row:= k . (inc. . st. in next st.) times. (inc. sts. in next st.) times. (inc. . st. in next st.) times. k . sts. on needle. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . = th row:= knit. repeat th and th rows once. knit rows garter st. repeat pattern as given for front, working from ** to th row once, then from ** to th row once. knit rows garter st. =to shape cap:= = st row:= cast off sts. knit to end of row. repeat st. row twice. = th row:= cast off sts. purl to end of row. = th row:= cast off sts. knit to end of row. repeat th and th rows times, then th row once. =next row:= k . (k tog.) times. cast off purl ways. to make up: press all pieces carefully. sew all seams. sew in sleeves. sew the cast-on sts. in position on wrong side of back. sew buttons to correspond to buttonholes. thread ribbon through eyelets at waist. =(a) girl's panties=--_illustrated on page _ materials: = ply beehive non-shrink baby wool=. ozs. one stitch holder. length of elastic. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = yr.= = - / yrs.= = yrs.= length from waist to crotch at front - / ins. ins. ins. front: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. repeat from ** to th row as given for dress, (a), see page . =next row:= *k . k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k . sts. on needle. knit rows garter st. break wool and leave these sts. on st. holder until other leg band has been worked. work nd leg band to correspond but do not break wool. =next row:= k . cast on sts. knit the sts. from st. holder onto same needle. sts. on needle. proceed:- = st row:= k . p . turn. = nd row:= k . turn. = rd row:= p . turn. = th row:= k . turn. continue in this manner, that is working sts. more in every row until sts. are left unworked at each end of needle. =next row:= p . k . proceed:- = st row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . k tog. k . = nd row:= k . purl to last st. k . = rd row:= knit. = th row:= as nd row. = th row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . k tog. k . work rows even, also after th, th, th and st rows. = th row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . k tog. k . = th row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . k tog. k . = th row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . k tog. k . = st row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . k tog. k . = th row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k tog. k . sts. on needle. continue even in stocking st. until work from cast-on sts. in centre of work measures - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- - / ins._=) (=_ yrs.-- - / ins._=)= ending with purl row. dec. . st. each end of needle on next and every following th row to sts. on needle. work rows even. proceed:- = st row:= k . *p , k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. = th row:= (eyelets). k . *wl. fwd. k tog. p . k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. k tog. repeat st. row times. cast off in ribbing. back: work exactly as given for front to sts. on needle. work rows even. =to shape back:= = st row:= k . turn. = nd row:= p . turn. = rd row:= k . turn. = th row:= p . turn. = th row:= k . turn. = th row:= p . turn. = th row:= k . turn. = th row:= p . turn. = th row:= k . turn. = th row:= p . turn. = th row:= knit to end of row. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . work ribbing as given for front. cast off in ribbing. to make up: press carefully. sew side and crotch seams. thread elastic through eyelets at waist. =(g) girl's or boy's mitts=--_illustrated on page _ materials: = ply miss canada fingering=. oz. cascade no. . one medium crochet hook. =for needles and tension see page .= cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. = th row:= (eyelets) *k . wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to end of row. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . = st row:= knit. repeat last rows times. proceed:- = st row:= k . purl to last sts. k tog. = nd row:= *k . k tog. repeat from * to last st. k . = rd and alternate rows:= k . purl to last st. k . = th row:= *k . k tog. repeat from * to last st. k . = th row:= *k . k tog. repeat from * to last st. k . = th row:= *k tog. repeat from * to last st. k . break wool and thread end through remaining sts. draw up and fasten securely. sew up seam. with double wool crochet a cord. thread through eyelets. make and sew a small pom-pom to each end. make another mitt to correspond. =(b) girl's dress=--_illustrated on opposite page_ materials: =beehive lustre crepe=. ozs. sea crest. three safety pins and one stitch holder. buttons. small quantity of wool for embroidery. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = yr.= = - / yrs.= = yrs.= width all round at underarm ins. - / ins. ins. length from top of shoulder - / " " " length of sleeve underarm seam " " " front: **cast on sts. knit rows garter st. =next row:= k . purl to last st. k . continue even in stocking st. until work from beginning measures ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)=, ending with purl row. =next row:= *k tog. k tog. repeat from * to end of row. sts. on needle. =next row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat this row for inch. with right side of work facing, k . (inc. . st. in next st. k ) times. inc. . st. in next st. k . sts. on needle. =next row:= k . purl to last st. k . continue in stocking st. inc. . st. each end of needle on rd and every following th row to sts. on needle. continue even until work from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs-- ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)=, ending with purl row.** =to shape armholes:= cast off sts. beginning next rows, then dec. . st. each end of needle every alternate row to sts. on needle ending with purl row. work rows even. =to shape yoke:= = st row:= k . *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . = nd row:= k . purl to last st. k . repeat st. and nd rows until armhole measures - / ins. from first shaping ending with purl row. =to shape neck:= k . (p . k ) times. p . k . turn. working on these sts. continue in pattern, dec. . st. at neck edge every row to sts. on needle. continue even in pattern until armhole measures ins. from first shaping. =to shape shoulder:= keeping continuity of pattern, at armhole edge cast off sts. every alternate row twice. leave next sts. on safely pin and work remaining sts. to correspond to other side. back: work from ** to ** as given for front. sts. on needle. =to shape armholes and make back opening:= = st row:= cast off sts. knit to end of row. = nd row:= cast off sts. p . cast on sts. turn. leave remaining sts. on st. holder. working on these sts. continue in stocking st. dec. . st. at armhole edge every alternate row to sts. on needle, ending with purl row. work rows even. =to shape yoke:= = st row:= k . (p . k ) times. k . = nd row:= k . purl to last. st. k . repeat st. and nd rows until armhole measures - / ins. from first shaping ending with st. row. =to shape neck:= k . p . leave remaining sts. on safety pin. =next row:= k tog. (p . k ) times. k . sts. on needle. shape shoulder as given for front. join wool at back opening and working on remaining sts. proceed:- = st row:= k . purl to last st. k . = nd row:= k . k tog. knit to end of row. repeat st. and nd rows once, then st. row once. = th row:= ( st. buttonhole). knit to last sts. wl. fwd. k tog. k . = th row:= as st. row. = th row:= knit even. = th row:= as st. row. = th row:= k . (k . p ) times. k . = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . continue in pattern to correspond to other side, working more buttonholes rows apart in garter st. border, and shaping neck and shoulder to correspond. neckband: sew shoulder seams. with right side of work facing, join wool and knit across sts. from safety pin at back of neck, pick up and knit sts. along left side, knit across sts. from safety pin at front, pick up and knit sts. along right side, knit sts. from safety pin at back. sts. on needle. knit rows garter st. =next row:= ( th buttonhole). knit to last sts. wl. fwd. k tog. k . cast off loosely. sleeves: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. =next row:= k . *inc. . st. in next st. repeat from * to last sts. k . sts. on needle. =next row:= k . purl to last st. k . continue even in stocking st. until sleeve measures ins. from beginning ending with purl row. cast off sts. beginning every row to sts. on needle. =next row:= (k tog.) times. cast off purl ways. to make up: press all pieces carefully. sew all seams. sew in sleeves. sew the cast-on sts. in position on wrong side of back. sew buttons to correspond to buttonholes. embroider daisies in lazy daisy st. at base of every alternate smooth stripe of yoke as illustrated on dress. =(a) girl's dress=--_illustrated on opposite page_ materials: = ply beehive non-shrink baby wool=. ozs. two stitch holders. buttons. - / yds. ribbon. =for needles and tension, see page .= measurements: = yr.= = - / yrs.= = yrs.= width all round at underarm ins. - / ins. ins. length from top of shoulder - / " " " length of sleeve underarm seam - / " - / " " ***front: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. proceed:- = st row:= k . *k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. repeat from * to last st. k . = nd row:= k . p . *p tog. p . w.r.n. p . repeat from * to last sts. p tog. p . w.o.n. k . = rd row:= k . *wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . repeat from * to end of row. = th row:= k . p . *p tog. p w.r.n. p . repeat from * to last sts. p tog. p w.r.n. p . k . = th row:= k . k tog. *wl. fwd. k . k tog. repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. k . = th row:= k . p . w.r.n. p *p tog. p . w.r.n. p . repeat from * to last sts. p tog. p . k . = th row:= k . *k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . repeat from * to end of row. = th row:= k . *p . w.r.n. p . p tog. repeat from * to last st. k . = th row:= *k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . repeat from * to last sts. k . = th row:= k . p . *p . w.r.n. p tog. repeat from * to last sts. p . k . repeat from st. to th row once. knit rows garter st. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . = st row:= knit. repeat th and st rows times. knit rows garter st.** repeat from ** to ** once, from ** to st row once, the th and st rows twice, then the th row once. work from beginning now measures ins. =(=_ - / yrs-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)=. proceed:- = st row:= *k tog. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k tog. knit rows garter st. = th row:= (eyelets). *k . k tog. wl. fwd. k . repeat from * to last st. k . knit rows garter st. = th row:= k . *inc. . st. in next st. k . repeat from * to end of row. sts. on needle. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . = th row:= knit. repeat th and th rows twice. knit rows garter st. repeat from ** to th row once, then from ** to th row once.*** knit rows garter st. =to shape armholes:= = st and nd rows:= cast off sts. knit to end of row. = rd row:= k . k tog. knit to last sts. k tog. k . = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . repeat rd and th rows twice, then rd row once. knit rows garter st. repeat from ** to th row once, then from ** to th row once. knit rows garter st. =to shape neck:= k . k tog. k . turn. working on these sts. proceed:- = st row:= knit. = nd row:= knit to last sts. k tog. k . = rd row:= k . purl to last st. k . repeat nd and rd rows times. continue even in stocking st. until armhole measures ins. from first shaping. =to shape shoulder:= at armhole edge cast off sts. every alternate row twice. slip next. sts. on st. holder. join wool and work remaining sts. to correspond to other side. back: work from *** to *** as given for front. sts. on needle. proceed:- =to make back opening:= k . turn. leave remaining sts. on st. holder. knit to end of row. =to shape armhole.= = st row:= cast off sts. knit to end of row. = nd row:= knit. = rd row:= k . k tog. knit to end of row. = th. row:= k . purl to last st. k . repeat rd and th rows once. = th row:= ( st buttonhole). k . k tog. knit to last sts. wl. fwd. k tog. k . = th row:= as th row. knit rows garter st. keeping a border of sts. in garter st. at back opening, and working buttonholes rows apart, work remaining sts. in pattern as follows:- repeat from ** as given for front to th row once, then from ** to th row once. knit rows garter st. still working buttonholes in garter st. border at back opening, continue even in stocking st. until armhole measures - / ins. from first shaping ending at neck edge. =to shape neck:= at neck edge cast off sts. purl to last st. k . continue even in stocking st. until armhole measures ins. from first shaping. shape shoulder as given for front. cast on sts. knit remaining sts. onto end of same needle. continue to correspond to other side being careful to have all shapings for opposite side and omitting buttonholes. (_continued on page _) _early gossip_ from pages to garments can be made for , - / and two years [illustration: =(a) panties= (_above_) _see page ._ =(a)=--_see page ._ =(b)=--_see page ._ =(b) panties= (_above_)--_see page ._] [illustration: =boy's crocheted romper= (_above_) _see page ._ =boy's knitted romper=--_see page ._] _a romping_ _we will go_ [illustration: =girl's romper= (_above_)--_see page ._ =girl's dress=--_see page ._] =boy's crocheted romper=--_illustrated on page _ materials: = ply beehive non-shrink baby wool=. ozs. peach. buttons. one no. steel crochet hook. (american gauge). one dog motif. measurements: = yr.= = - / yrs.= = yrs.= width all round at underarm ins. - / ins. ins. length from top of shoulder to crotch " - / " - / " length of sleeve underarm seam " " " tension: ( . s.c. ch. ) times = ins. rows = inch. _the instructions are written for size yr. sizes - / and yrs. are written in brackets thus:- =( )=._ lower part: (make ). beginning at crotch ch. sts. = st row:= . s.c. in rd ch. from hook. *ch. . miss . st. . s.c. in next st. repeat from * to end of row. ch. . turn. = nd row:= . s.c. in st. space. *ch. . miss next s.c. . s.c. in next space. repeat from * to end of row, working last s.c. in space made by turning ch. of previous row. (the turning ch. always counts as space). ch. . turn. repeat nd row times, turning last row with ch. . = th row:= . s.c. in rd ch. from hook. (ch. . miss . ch. . s.c. in next ch.) twice. ch. . miss . s.c. . s.c. in next space. work in pattern to end of row, working . s.s. in last space. ch. . turn. repeat th row times, turning last row with ch. . =(=_ - / yrs.--ch. _=)= =(=_ yrs.--ch. _=)= instead of ch. . = th row:= . s.c. in rd ch. from hook. (ch. . miss . ch. . s.c. in next ch.) times. =(=_ - / yrs.-- times_=)= =(=_ yrs.-- times_=)=. ch. . miss . s.c. . s.c. in next space. work in pattern to end of row, working . s.s. in last space. ch. . turn. =(=_ - / yrs.--ch. _=)= =(=_ yrs.--ch. _=)=. repeat th row once, turning with ch. . work - / ins. even. =next row:= insert hook in st. space, draw up loop. insert hook in nd space, draw up loop. w.o.h. draw loop through all loops on hook (this decreases space). work in pattern to last spaces. work a decrease. ch. . turn. continue in pattern decreasing space each end of work every - / ins. times. continue even in pattern until work from crotch measures ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)=. fasten off. waistband: (all in piece). ch. sts. = st row:= . s.c. in nd ch. from hook. . s.c. in each st. to end of ch. ch. . turn. = nd row:= . s.c. in each s.c., working into back of sts. only. ch. . turn. repeat nd row for ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)=. fasten off. top--back: ch. sts. =(=_ - / yrs.-- sts._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- sts._=)=. work - / ins. even in pattern. =to shape armholes:= = st and nd rows:= work in pattern to last spaces. ch. . turn. = rd row:= work in pattern, decreasing space each end of row. repeat rd row twice. continue even in pattern until armhole measures - / ins. from first shaping. =to shape neck:= = st row:= work in pattern over spaces. ch. . turn. = nd row:= dec. . space at neck edge. work in pattern to end of row. ch. . turn. work rows even in pattern. fasten off. join wool spaces in from armhole edge and work other shoulder to correspond. front: work exactly as given for back until armhole measures - / ins. from first shaping. =to shape neck:= work in pattern over spaces. ch. . turn. continue in pattern dec. . space at neck edge on next then every following row times. continue even until armhole measures ins. from first shaping. fasten off. join wool spaces in from armhole edge and work other shoulder to correspond. neckband: ch. sts. work in s.c. as given for waistband for length sufficient to go along back of neck. make another piece to go along front of neck. leg bands: ch. sts. work in s.c. as given for waistband for length sufficient to go along each leg opening. sleeves: ch. sts. work ins. in s.c. as given for waistband. do not break wool. ch. . working along edge of band work spaces. ch. . turn. continue even in pattern until sleeve measures ins. from beginning. =next row:= work in pattern, dec. . space each end of work. =next row:= work even in pattern. repeat last rows times. fasten off. to make up: press all pieces except ribbed bands. sew side seams of both lower part and top. sew waistband around the centre, easing in extra fullness. sew sleeve seams. sew in sleeves. sew neckband around each side of neck. sew leg bands around leg openings. work button loops along front of each shoulder and loops along front of crotch. sew buttons to correspond to button loops. sew motif in position as illustrated. =boy's knitted romper=--_illustrated on page _ materials: = ply beehive non-shrink baby wool=. ozs. white (w). oz. blue (b). one medium crochet hook. two stitch holders. buttons. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = yr.= = - / yrs.= = yrs.= width all round at underarm ins. - / ins. ins. length from top of shoulder to crotch " - / " - / " length of sleeve underarm seam " " " beginning at neck with (w) wool cast on sts. = st row:= inc. . st. in st. st. k . inc. . st. in next st. (seam sts.). k . (left sleeve). inc. . st. in next st. k . inc. . st. in next st. (seam sts.). k . (back). inc. . st. in next st. k . inc. . st. in next st. (seam sts.). k . (right sleeve). inc. . st. in next st. k . inc. . st. in next st. (seam sts.). sts. on needle. = nd row:= k . purl to last st. k . = rd row:= k . (left front). inc. . st. in next st. k . inc. . st. in next st. (seam). k . (left sleeve). inc. . st. in next st. k . inc. . st. in next st. (seam). k . (back). inc. . st. in next st. k . inc. . st. in next st. (seam). k . (right sleeve). inc. . st. in next st. k . inc. . st. in next st. (seam). k . (right front). sts. on needle. = th row:= as nd row. continue increasing in this manner, that is, having . st. extra every knit row on each front, and sts. extra every knit row on each sleeve and the back, until there are sts. on needle ending with purl row. left front: k . turn. leave remaining sts. on st. holder. work rows stocking st. break wool. leave these sts. on st. holder. with (b) pick up and knit sts. along edge of left front. proceed:- knit rows (b), (w), (b), (w), (b). cast off. left sleeve: with (w), k sts. from st. holder. work - / ins. even in stocking st. decreasing to sts. in last row. break wool. join (b). with right side of work facing knit row. work / inch ribbing (k . p ). cast off in ribbing. back: with (w) k sts. from st. holder. work rows stocking st. with right side of work facing proceed:- join (b). knit row. ***work rows ribbing (k . p ). with (w), knit row. rib rows. with (b), knit row. rib rows. with (w), knit row. rib rows. with (b), knit row. rib rows. break (b). with (w) work inch stocking st. continue in stocking st. inc. . st. each end of needle next and every following th row to sts. on needle. continue even until work from bottom of ribbing measures ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- - / ins._=)= ending with purl row. proceed:- =to shape leg openings:= cast off sts. beginning every row to sts. on needle, then sts. beginning every row to sts. on needle then sts. beginning every row to sts. on needle. work rows even. cast off. =to make leg bands:= with right side of work facing and (b) wool pick up and knit sts. along edge of leg opening. work / inch ribbing (k . p ). cast off in ribbing. work other leg-band to correspond.*** right sleeve: work exactly as given for left sleeve. right front: work exactly as given for left front. proceed:- with right side of work facing and (b) wool, k sts. of right front, pick up and knit sts. along remainder of front. pick up and knit sts. along corresponding part of left front. k sts. of left front. sts. on needle. repeat from *** to *** as given for back. neckband: with right side of work facing and (b) wool pick up and knit sts. around neck edge. work / inch ribbing (k . p ). cast off in ribbing. to make up: press carefully. sew side seams. sew centre front opening to within ins. of top. with (b) wool work row s.c. around opening, working loops for buttonholes on left front. with (w) wool work row s.c. along front edge of crotch, working loops for buttonholes. work row d.c. along back edge of crotch. sew buttons to correspond to buttonholes. sew in sleeves. =girl's dress=--_illustrated on page _ materials: = ply beehive non-shrink baby wool=. ozs. white (w). small quantity pink (p). (approx. / oz.). or small buttons. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = yr.= = - / yrs.= = yrs.= width all round at underarm ins. - / ins. ins. length from top of shoulder - / " " " length of sleeve underarm seam - / " - / " - / " front: with (p) cast on sts. knit rows garter st. break wool. join (w) and work rows even in stocking st. ending with purl row. **with (p) knit rows garter st. = th row:= with (w) knit. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . = th row:= *k . wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to end of row. work rows stocking st. = th row:= *k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . repeat from * to end of row. work rows stocking st. with (p) knit rows garter st.** with (w) continue even in stocking st. until work from beginning measures ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- - / ins._=)= ending with knit row. =next row:= k . (p . p tog.) times. (p tog.) times. (p . p tog.) times. k . sts. on needle. =***to make yoke:= k . p . (k . p ) times. k . cast on sts. turn. working on these sts. proceed for left shoulder:- = st row:= k . (p . k ) times. = nd row:= k . p . (k . p ) times. k . repeat st. and nd rows twice, then st. row once. =to shape armhole:= keeping garter st. border at front edge, and keeping continuity of ribbing, at armhole edge cast off sts. once, then dec. . st. every row times. sts. on needle. continue even in pattern until yoke measures ins. ending at neck edge. =to shape neck:= cast off sts. once, then dec. . st. every row to sts. on needle. =to shape shoulder:= at armhole edge cast off sts. every alternate row times. join (w) at centre opening and working on remaining sts. for right shoulder proceed:- = st row:= k . (k . p ) times. k . p . k . = nd row:= (k . p ) times. k . repeat st. and nd rows twice. = th row:= (buttonhole) k . wl. fwd. k tog. (k . p ) times. k . p . k . working more buttonholes in this manner approx. - / ins. apart, shape armhole and continue to correspond to left front, casting off sts. at neck instead of sts.*** back: work exactly as given for front to sts. on needle. proceed:- = st row:= k . p . k . *p . k . repeat from * to last sts. p . k . = nd row:= *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . repeat these rows twice, st. row once. =to shape armholes:= cast off sts. beginning next rows, then dec. . st. each end of needle every row times. sts. on needle. continue even in ribbing until armhole from first shaping measures - / ins. =to shape neck and shoulders:= rib sts. cast off sts. rib sts. working on last sts. at armhole edge cast off sts. every alternate row times, at same time dec. . st. at neck edge every row times. join wool and work other shoulder to correspond. sleeves: with (p) cast on sts. work / inch ribbing (k . p ). =next row:= *k inc. . st. in next st. repeat from * to last sts. inc. . st. in each of next sts. sts. on needle. change to (w) and work / inch stocking st. ending with purl row. repeat from ** to ** once as given for front. with (w), working in stocking st. cast off sts. beginning every row to sts. cast off. collar: with (p) cast on sts. work rows garter st. = rd row:= cast off sts. k . cast off sts. = th row:= with (w) knit. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . repeat th and th rows once. = th row:= k . *wl. fwd. k tog. k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. k tog. k . = th and th rows:= k . purl to last st. k . = th row:= k . *k . k tog. k . repeat from * to last sts. k . = th row:= k . *k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . repeat from * to last sts. k . work rows stocking st. =next row:= k . p . p tog. *p . p tog. repeat from * to last st. k . cast off. to make up: press carefully. with (p) work rows smocking around lower edge of yoke, by drawing the single knit sts. together every th row. with (p) buttonhole around the eyelets in border at hem, sleeves and collar. sew all seams. sew in sleeves. sew the cast-on sts. in position at front. sew the cast-off sts. along each side of collar to form a border. sew collar to neck. sew buttons on flap to correspond to buttonholes. sew nd row of buttons if desired as illustrated on romper. =girl's romper=--_illustrated on page _ materials: = ply beehive non-shrink baby wool=. ozs. white (w). small quantity pink (p). (approx. / oz.). small buttons. medium buttons. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements as given for girl's dress, opposite. front: with (w) cast on sts. knit rows garter st. = rd row:= ( buttonholes) k . cast off sts. (k . cast off sts.) twice. k . = th row:= k . cast on sts. (k . cast on sts.) twice. k . knit rows garter st. continue in stocking st. casting on sts. beginning every row to sts. on needle. continue even until work from beginning measures ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- - / ins._=)= ending with knit row. =next row:= k . p . p tog. *p . p tog. repeat from * to last sts. p . k . sts. on needle. work from *** to *** as given for front of girl's dress, opposite. back: with (w) cast on sts. work rows garter st. continue in stocking st. casting on sts. beginning every row to sts. on needle. continue even until work from beginning measures ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- - / ins._=)= ending with knit row. =next row:= k . p . p tog. *p . p tog. repeat from * to last sts. p . k . sts. on needle. work from [symbol] to [symbol] as given for back of girl's dress, opposite. sleeves and collar: work exactly as given for girl's dress, opposite. to make up: press carefully. make up top of romper as given for girl's dress, opposite. with right side of work facing, pick up and knit sts. around each leg opening. work / inch ribbing (k . p .). cast off in ribbing. sew medium buttons to correspond to buttonholes at crotch opening, and one either side on leg bands, making a small loop to fasten. =(g) boy's knickers=--_illustrated on page _ materials: = ply beehive fingering=. ozs. (or =miss canada crochet-knitting wool=. ozs.). length of elastic. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = yr.= = - / yrs.= = yrs.= length of front seam - / ins. ins. ins. length of leg seam " " " right leg: cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. = th row:= (eyelets) k . *wl. fwd. k tog. p . k . repeat from * to end of row. work rows ribbing. proceed:- =to shape back:= = st row:= k . turn. = nd and alternate rows:= purl to last st. k . = rd row:= k . turn. = th row:= k . turn. = th row:= k . turn. = th row:= k . turn. = th row:= k . turn. = th row:= k . turn. work rows stocking st. continue in stocking st. inc. . st. at long side of work in next and every following th row, at same time inc. . st. at short side of work in next and every following th row to sts. still increasing at long side of work in every th row, inc. . st. at short side of work every alternate row to sts. dec. . st. each end of needle every alternate row to sts. =next row:= k . purl to last sts. p tog. k . work rows ribbing (k . p ). cast off. left leg: work as given for right leg, having back shaping on purl rows instead of knit rows and all increasings at end of rows instead of beginning. to make up: press carefully. sew all seams. thread elastic through eyelets at waist. =boy's knickers=--_not illustrated_ _to wear with (l) and (h) illustrated on page _ materials: =beehive lustre crepe=. ozs. length of elastic. year--two no. needles. tension: - / sts. = inch. - / years--two no. needles. tension: sts. = inch. years--two no. needles. tension: - / sts. = inch. work as given for boy's knickers, see above. _out and about!_ [illustration: =(a) dress and bonnet=--_see page ._ =(aa) matching coat= --_see page ._ =(b) coat=--_see page ._ =(c) cardigan=--_see page ._ =(d) dress=--_see page ._ =(e) coat=--_see page ._] [illustration: =(f) suit=--_see page ._ =(g) knickers=--_see page ._ =(h) pullover=--_see page ._ =(i) pullover=--_see page ._ =(j) pullover=--_see page ._ =(k) pullover=--_see page ._ =(l) pullover=--_see page ._ _for knickers to wear with (l) and (h)_ --_see page ._ _any of these pullovers may be made for girls by changing side for neck fastening when necessary._] (=a=) =girl's dress=--_illustrated on page _ materials: =beehive lustre crepe=. ozs. cherry bloom. buttons. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = yr.= = - / yrs.= = yrs.= width all round at underarm ins. - / ins. ins. length from top of shoulder - / " " " length of sleeve underarm seam - / " - / " - / " pattern: = st row:= k . *wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to last st. k . = nd and alternate rows:= k . purl to last st. k . = rd row:= k . *k . wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to last st. k . = th row:= k . *k . wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to last st. k . = th row:= k . *k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to last st. k . = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . these rows complete one pattern. front: cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. work complete patterns. =next row:= *k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k tog. sts. on needle. proceed:- = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. = th row:= k . *k . inc. . st. in next st. k . repeat from * to last st. k . sts. on needle. continue even in stocking st. until work from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)= ending with purl row. =to shape armholes:= cast off sts. beginning next rows, then dec. . st. each end of needle every alternate row times. continue even until armhole measures - / ins. from first shaping ending with purl row. =to shape neck:= = st row:= k . *k tog. wl. fwd. repeat from * to last sts. k tog. k . = nd row:= k . p . *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . p . k . = rd row:= k . k tog. wl. fwd. *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . repeat nd and rd rows once, then nd row once. = th row:= k . k tog. wl. fwd. (k . p ) twice. k . cast off sts. in moss st. (k . p ) twice. k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . working on last sts. for shoulder proceed:- = st row:= k . p . (k . p ) twice. k . = nd row:= k . (p . k ) twice. wl. fwd. k tog. k . repeat these rows until armhole measures ins. from first shaping ending with nd row. =to shape shoulder:= cast off sts. k . p . (k . p ) twice. k . =next row:= k . (p . k ) twice. wl. fwd. k tog. k . cast off. join wool at neck edge and working on remaining sts. proceed:- = st row:= k . (p . k ) twice. purl to last st. k . = nd row:= k . k tog. wl. fwd. (k . p ) twice. k . repeat these rows until armhole measures ins. from first shaping ending with st. row. =to shape shoulder:= cast off sts. k . k tog. wl. fwd. (k . p ) twice. k . =next row:= k . (p . k ) twice. p . k . cast off. back: work exactly as given for front to sts. on needle. continue even in stocking st. until work from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)= ending with purl row. =to make back opening and shape armhole:= = st row:= k . turn. leave remaining sts. on spare needle. = nd and alternate rows:= (k . p ) twice. k . purl to last st. k . = rd row:= cast off sts. knit to last sts. k . (p . k ) twice. keeping border of moss sts. at neck edge, dec. . st. at armhole edge every alternate row times, at same time when neck opening measures - / ins. ending at armhole edge, make st. buttonhole as follows:- knit to last sts. k . p . w.r.n. p tog. k . working a nd buttonhole - / ins. above st. continue even until armhole measures - / ins. from first shaping ending at armhole edge. proceed:- = st row:= k . *k tog. wl. fwd. repeat from * to last sts. k . (p . k ) twice. = nd row:= *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . p . k . = rd row:= ( rd buttonhole). k . k tog. wl. fwd. *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . p . w.r.n. p tog. k . = th row:= as nd row. =to shape shoulder:= cast off sts. k . k tog. wl. fwd. *k . p . repeat from * to last st. k . = nd row:= *k . p . repeat from * to last st. k . cast off. =(a) girl's dress (continued)= cast on sts. knit across sts. from spare needle. sts. on needle. = st row:= k . purl to last sts. (k . p ) twice. k . = nd row:= (k . p ) twice. k . knit to end of row. keeping moss st. border at neck edge, at armhole edge cast off sts. once. dec. . st. every alternate row times. continue even until armhole measures - / ins. from first shaping ending at neck edge. proceed:- = st row:= (k . p ) twice. k . *wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k . = nd row:= k . p . *k . p . repeat from * to last st. k . = rd row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. k tog. k . shape shoulder to correspond to other side. sleeves: cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. = th row:= k . *k tog. wl. fwd. repeat from * to last sts. k . = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . = th row:= k . *inc. . st. in next st. k . repeat from * to end of row. sts. on needle. continue even in stocking st. until sleeve measures - / ins. from beginning. cast off sts. beginning every row to sts. on needle. cast off. to make up: press carefully. sew all seams. sew in sleeves. sew buttons to correspond to buttonholes. (=a=) =girl's poke bonnet=--_illustrated on page _ materials: =beehive lustre crepe=. ozs. cherry bloom. one medium crochet hook. yds. ribbon. / yd. millinery wire. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = yr.= = - / yrs.= = yrs.= width all round at face ins. - / ins. ins. crown: cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. = th row:= (wrong side of work facing). knit. = th row:= k . *(p . k ) twice. inc. sts. in next st. (k . p ) times. k . repeat from * times. (p . k ) twice. inc. . sts. in next st. (k . p ) twice. k . sts. on needle. continue even in moss st. until work measures ins. from beginning. with right side of work facing proceed:- = st decreasing row:= k . *p tog. (k . p ) times. k tog. (p . k ) times. repeat from * to end of row. work rows even in moss st. also after each of the following decreasing rows. = nd decreasing row:= k . *p tog. (k . p ) times. k tog. (p . k ) times. repeat from * to end of row. = rd decreasing row:= k . *p tog. (k . p ) twice. k tog. (p . k ) times. repeat from * to end of row. = th decreasing row:= k . *p tog. k . p . k tog. (p . k ) twice. repeat from * to end of row. = th decreasing row:= k . *p tog. k tog. p . k . repeat from * to end of row. break wool. thread end through remaining sts. draw up and fasten securely. brim: with right side of work and front edge of crown facing pick up and knit . st. in each st. of the knit row rows from front edge of crown. sts. on needle. =next row:= (k . p ) twice. p . *inc. . st. in next st. purl ways. p . repeat from * to last sts. p . (p . k ) twice. sts. on needle. proceed:- = st row:= (k . p ) twice, w.o.n. k tog. *wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. (p . k ) twice. = nd and alternate rows:= (k . p ) twice. purl to last sts. (p . k ) twice. = rd row:= (k . p ) twice. w.o.n. k tog. *k . wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. (p . k ) twice. = th row:= (k . p ) twice. w.o.n. k tog. *k . wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. (p . k ) twice. = th row:= (k . p ) twice. w.o.n. k tog. *k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. (p . k ) twice. = th row:= as nd row. = th row:= *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . inc. . st. in next st. (p . k ) twice. work rows moss st. cast off in moss st. to make up: press carefully. sew seam of crown to within - / ins. of front edge. placing the millinery wire along the edge of the brim, work row s.c. along edge, working into each st. twice and catching the wire in with each st. turn wire back about inch at each end and oversew along edge of brim. work row s.c. along front edge and neck edge of crown. sew edge of brim along side of crown at each side. make ribbon rosettes and sew to each side as illustrated. =(aa) girl's coat=--_illustrated on page _ materials: =beehive lustre crepe=. ozs. cherry bloom. buttons. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = yr.= = - / yrs.= = yrs.= width all round at underarm ins. - / ins. ins. length from top of shoulder - / " " " length of sleeve underarm seam - / " - / " " _if leggings are required for this coat you will require ozs. beehive lustre crepe. use no. needles for yr. size, no. needles for - / yr. size and no. needles for yr. size. follow the instructions as given for the leggings of the overall suit, see pages and ._ =the coat is worked in one piece to the armhole.= cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. = th row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to last sts. p tog. (p . k ) times. proceed:- **= st row:= (k . p ) times. w.o.n. k tog. *wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. (p . k ) times. = nd and alternate rows:= (k . p ) times. purl to last sts. (p . k ) times. = rd row:= (k . p ) times. w.o.n. k tog. *k . wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. (p . k ) times. = th row:= (k . p ) times. w.o.n. k tog. *k . wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. (p . k ) times. = th row:= (k . p ) times. w.o.n. k tog. *k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. (p . k ) times. = th row:= (k . p ) times. purl to last sts. (p . k ) times.** repeat from ** to ** times. =next row:= (k . p ) times. w.o.n. (k tog.) times. turn. sts. on needle for right front. leave remaining sts. on spare needle. right front: = st row:= *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. p . (p . k ) times. = nd row:= (k . p ) times. w.o.n. k tog. *k . p . repeat from * to last st. k . = rd row:= *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. p . (p . k ) times. = th row:= ( st. buttonhole). k . p . k . wl. fwd. k tog. p . w.o.n. k tog. *k . p . repeat from * to last st. k . repeat st. row once. = th row:= (k . p ) times. w.o.n. k tog. *k . inc. . st. in next st. repeat from * times. knit to end of row. sts. on needle. keeping front border and eyelet edge, and remainder of work in stocking st. continue even until work from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)= ending at armhole edge. =to shape armhole:= still keeping front border and working nd buttonhole - / ins. above st. at armhole edge cast off sts. once, then dec. . st. every alternate row to sts. on needle. continue even until armhole measures - / ins. from first shaping ending at front edge. =next row:= ( rd buttonhole). k . p . k . wl. fwd. k tog. p . w.o.n. k tog. knit to end of row. =next row:= k . purl to last sts. (p . k ) times. =to shape neck:= at neck edge cast off sts. knit to end of row. continue dec. . st. at neck edge every row to sts. on needle. continue even until armhole measures ins. from first shaping. =to shape shoulder:= at armhole edge cast off sts. every alternate row twice. back: join wool and work across sts. from spare needle, as follows:- k . (k tog.) times. k . (k tog.) times. k . turn. sts. on needle. leave remaining sts. on spare needle. proceed:- = st row:= k *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. = th row:= *k . inc. . st. in next st. repeat from * times. knit to end of row. sts. on needle. continue even in stocking st. until work from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)= ending with purl row. =to shape armholes:= cast off sts. beginning next rows then dec. . st. each end of needle every alternate row times. sts. on needle. continue even until armhole measures ins. from first shaping. =to shape shoulders:= cast off sts. beginning next rows. cast off. (_continued on page _) =(b) girl's flared coat=--_illustrated on page _ materials: =p & b superior double knitting=. ozs. moss green. buttons. =for needles and tension see legging suit page .= measurements: = yr.= = - / yrs.= = yrs.= width all round at underarm ins. - / ins. ins. length from top of shoulder - / " " " length of sleeve underarm seam - / " - / " " back: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . repeat th and th rows times. = st decreasing row:= (k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k . k tog. k ) times. work rows stocking st. after this and nd, rd, th and th decreasing rows. = nd decreasing row:= (k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k . k tog. k ) times. = rd decreasing row:= (k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k . k tog. k ) times. = th decreasing row:= (k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k . k tog. k ) times. = th decreasing row:= (k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k . k tog. k ) times. = th decreasing row:= (k . sl. . k tog. p.s.s.o. k ) times. sts. on needle. continue even in stocking st. until work from beginning measures ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)= ending with knit row. knit rows garter st. =next row:= knit, increasing to sts. continue even in stocking st. until work from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)= ending with purl row. =to shape armholes:= cast off sts. beginning next rows, then dec. . st. each end of needle next and alternate row to sts. on needle. continue even until armhole measures ins. from first shaping, ending with purl row. cast off. right front: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. = th row:= knit.= th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . repeat th and th rows times. = st decreasing row:= k . (k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k . k tog. k ) twice. work rows stocking st. after this and nd, rd, th and th decreasing rows. = nd decreasing row:= k . (k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k . k tog. k ) twice. = rd decreasing row:= k . (k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k . k tog. k ) twice. = th decreasing row:= k . (k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k . k tog. k ) twice. = th decreasing row:= k . (k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k . k tog. k ) twice. = th decreasing row:= k . (k . sl. . k tog. p.s.s.o. k ) twice. sts. on needle. continue even in stocking st. until work from beginning measures ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ yrs-- ins._=)= ending with knit row. =next row:= knit. =next row:= ( st buttonhole). k . wl. fwd. k tog. knit to end of row. knit rows garter st. _next row:_ knit, increasing to sts. continue even in stocking st. until work from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)=, working nd buttonhole rows above st. in garter st. border. =to shape armhole:= working more buttonholes rows apart, at armhole edge cast off sts. once, then dec. . st. every alternate row to sts. on needle. continue even until armhole measures ins. from first shaping. =to shape neck:= at neck edge cast off sts. once, then dec. . st. next and every following row to sts. on needle. continue even until armhole measures ins. from first shaping. cast off. left front: keeping the border sts. at the end instead of beginning of row as follows:- = st decreasing row:= (k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k . k tog. k ) twice. k . = nd row:= k . purl to last st. k . work to correspond to right front, omitting buttonholes and being careful to have all shapings at opposite side. sleeves: cast on sts. work exactly as given for legging suit, see page . collar: cast on sts. work exactly as given for legging suit, see page . to make up: press all pieces carefully. sew all seams. sew in sleeves. sew collar to neck, placing ends sts. from each front edge. sew buttons to correspond to buttonholes. =(c) girl's or boy's cardigan= _illustrated on page _ materials: = ply miss canada fingering=. ozs. cascade. buttons. small quantity of wool for embroidery. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = yr.= = - / yrs.= = yrs.= width all round at underarm ins. - / ins. ins. length from top of shoulder " - / " " length of sleeve underarm seam - / " - / " " =for girl's cardigan the buttonholes are worked in the right front. for boy's cardigan work the buttonholes in the left front.= right front: (for boy's cardigan omit buttonholes. see left front). cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row once. = rd row:= ( st. buttonhole) k . p . k . wl. fwd. k tog. *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times, then rd row once. continue even in ribbing until work measures ins. from beginning ending at front edge. =next row:= k . *inc. . st. in next st. k . repeat from * times. sts. on needle. proceed:- = st row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = nd row:= knit. repeat st. and nd rows until rows have been worked above nd buttonhole ending at front edge. =next row:= ( rd buttonhole) k . wl. fwd. k tog. knit to end of row. keeping garter st. border at front edge and working more buttonholes rows apart, continue even until work from beginning measures ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)=. =to shape armhole:= still working buttonholes as before, at armhole edge cast off sts. once, then dec. . st. every alternate row times. =to make yoke:= still working buttonholes, continue even in garter st. until work from beginning measures ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)= ending at front edge. =to shape neck:= at neck edge cast off sts. knit to end of row. continue even in garter st. until armhole from first shaping measures ins. =to shape shoulder:= at armhole edge cast off sts. every alternate row twice. left front: (for boy's cardigan the buttonholes are worked in this front). cast on sts. = st row:= *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . repeat st. row for ins. =next row:= *k . inc. . st. in next st. repeat from * times. k . sts. on needle. proceed:- = st row:= k . purl to last st. k . = nd row:= knit. continue to correspond to right front, omitting buttonholes and being careful to have all shapings for opposite side. back: cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row for ins. =next row:= *k . inc. . st. in next st. k . repeat from * times. sts. on needle. continue even in stocking st. until work from beginning measures ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)= ending with purl row. =to shape armholes:= cast off sts. beginning next rows, then dec. . st. each end of needle next and every alternate row times. sts. on needle. continue even in garter st. until armhole from first shaping measures ins. =to shape shoulders:= cast off sts. beginning next rows. cast off remaining sts. sleeves: cast on sts. work ins. ribbing (k . p ). continue in stocking st. inc. . st. each end of needle on th and every following th row to sts. on needle. continue even until sleeve from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)= ending with purl row. cast off sts. beginning every row to sts. on needle. cast off. to make up: press carefully. sew all seams. sew buttons to correspond to buttonholes. embroider flowers as illustrated using lazy daisy st. and french knots. =(d) girl's dress= _illustrated on page _ materials: =miss canada crochet-knitting wool=. ozs. lt. wisteria. stitch holders. one medium crochet hook. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = yr.= = - / yrs.= = yrs.= width all round at underarm ins. - / ins. ins. length from top of shoulder - / " " " length of sleeve underarm seam - / " - / " - / " front: cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. work rows even in stocking st. = st decreasing row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . k tog. k . k tog. t.b.l. k . k tog. k . work rows even. = nd decreasing row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . k tog. k . k tog. t.b.l. k . k tog. k . work rows even. = rd decreasing row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . k tog. k . k tog. t.b.l. k . k tog. k . =next rows:= k . purl to last st. k . = th decreasing row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . k tog. k . k tog. t.b.l. k . k tog. k . work rows even in stocking st. = th decreasing row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . k tog. k . k tog. t.b.l. k . k tog. k . =next rows:= k . purl to last st. k . working in stocking st. continue decreasing in this manner, every th row, having less sts. between sts. knit tog. to sts. on needle. ( decreasings). continue even until work from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)= ending with purl row. =next row:= *k . k tog. k . repeat from * to end of row. sts. on needle. work inch even in ribbing (k . p ). with right side of work facing proceed:- =next row:= k . (k . inc. . st. in next st. k ) times. k . sts. on needle. continue even in stocking st. until work from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)=. =to shape armholes:= cast off sts. beginning next rows. = rd row:= k . k tog. knit to last sts. k tog. k . = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . = th row:= k . k tog. k . turn. = th and alternate rows:= purl to last st. k . = th row:= k . k tog. k . turn. = th row:= k . turn. = th row:= k . turn. = th row:= k . turn. continue in this manner, that is knitting . st. less every alternate row ending with k . turn. =next row:= p . k . break wool and slip first sts. onto first st. holder. join wool at neck edge and working on remaining sts. proceed:- = st row:= k . k tog. k . = nd row:= k . p . turn. = rd row:= k . k tog. k . = th row:= k . p . turn. = th and alternate rows:= knit. = th row:= k . p . turn. = th row:= k . p . turn. continue in this manner ending with k . p . turn. =next row:= k . break wool and slip these sts. onto nd st. holder. back: cast on sts. work exactly as given for front until work from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)=. sts. on needle. =to shape armholes:= cast off sts. beginning next rows, then dec. . st. each end of needle every alternate row times. sts. on needle. work rows even in stocking st. proceed:- = st row:= k . turn. = nd and alternate rows:= purl to last st. k . = rd row:= k . turn. = th row:= k . turn. = th row:= k . turn. = th row:= k . turn. continue in this manner ending with k . turn. =next row:= p . k . break wool and slip first sts. onto rd st. holder. join wool at neck edge and working on remaining sts. proceed:- = st and alternate rows:= knit. = nd row:= k . p . turn. = th row:= k . p . turn. = th row:= k . p . turn. continue in this manner ending with k . p . =next row:= k . break wool and slip these sts. onto th st. holder. yoke: with right side of work facing, join wool and starting with sts. of first st. holder proceed:- *k . pick up and knit loop at base of next st. (this is an increase and will be termed "knit below" throughout). repeat from * times. (k . knit below) twice. (k . p ) times. working on sts. of nd st. holder proceed:- k . p . (knit below. k ) twice. (knit below. k ) times. k . working on sts. of rd st. holder proceed:- (k . knit below) times. (k . knit below) times. (p . k ) times. working on sts. of th st. holder proceed:- p . k . (knit below. k ) times. (knit below. k ) times. k . sts. on needle. proceed:- (_continued on page _) _playing in the sun.._ [illustration: sun suit] =sun suit= materials: = ply beehive non-shrink baby wool.= ozs. sky blue. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = yr.= = - / yrs.= = yrs.= length from top to crotch at front - / ins. ins. ins. front: beginning at lower edge cast on sts. =to shape legs:= work in stocking st. casting on sts. beginning every row to sts. on needle. continue in stocking st. dec. . st. each end of needle every th row to sts. on needle. continue even until work from beginning (at centre) measures - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- - / ins._=)=. work inch even in ribbing (k . p ). proceed:- with right side of work facing cast off sts. loosely in ribbing. rib to end of row. =next row:= cast off sts. loosely in ribbing. rib . =to make bib:= rib sts. knit to last sts. rib sts. = nd row:= rib sts. purl to last sts. rib sts. keeping ribbed border of sts. each end, and centre sts. in stocking st. dec. . st. each end of needle (inside borders) next and every following th row to sts. on needle ending with purl row. work / inch ribbing (k . p ). =next row:= rib sts. cast off sts. loosely in ribbing. rib sts. =to make shoulder straps:= working on last sts. rib ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)=. cast off. join wool to remaining sts. and work another strap to correspond. back: work exactly as given for front to sts. on needle. continue even until work from beginning (at centre) measures - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs-- ins._=) (=_ yrs.-- - / ins._=)= ending with knit row. =to shape back:= = st row:= k . p . turn. = nd row:= k . turn. = rd row:= p . turn. = th row:= k . turn. = th row:= p . turn. = th row:= k . turn. continue in this manner, working over more sts. every row until all sts. have been worked. work inch even in ribbing (k . p ). cast off loosely in ribbing. leg bands: sew together the cast-on edges of crotch. with right side of work facing pick up and knit sts. around leg opening. work / inch ribbing (k . p ). cast off loosely in ribbing. work the other leg to correspond. to make up: press carefully. sew side seams. cross straps at back and sew to top of ribbing inches from side seams. =(e) girl's coat=--_illustrated on page _ materials: = ply beehive fingering=. ozs. rose mist no. . buttons. small quantity of wool for embroidery. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = yr.= = - / yrs.= = yrs.= width all round at underarm ins. - / ins. ins. length from top of shoulder - / " " " length of sleeve underarm seam - / " - / " " right front: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to last sts. p . k . repeat th and th rows times. = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . keeping front border of garter sts. work / inch even in stocking st. ending with purl row. = st decreasing row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . k tog. k . keeping garter st. border, work rows even in stocking st. also after each of the following decreasings. = nd decreasing row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . k tog. k . = rd decreasing row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . k tog. k . continue decreasing in this manner, every th row, having sts. less between sts. knit tog. to sts. on needle. continue even until work from beginning measures ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)= ending at front edge. =next row:= (buttonhole) k . cast off sts. knit to end of row. =next row:= k . purl to last sts. k . cast on sts. k . working more buttonholes rows apart, continue even until work from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)= ending at side edge. =to shape armhole:= cast off sts. once, then dec. . st. every alternate row times. sts. on needle. still working buttonholes, continue even until work from beginning measures ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)=. =to shape neck:= at neck edge cast off sts. once, then dec. . st. every row to sts. on needle. =to shape shoulder:= at armhole edge cast off sts. every alternate row twice. left front: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to last sts. p . k . repeat th and th rows times. = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . keeping front border of garter sts. work / inch even in stocking st. ending with purl row. = st decreasing row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . k tog. k . work rows even in stocking st. also after each of the following decreasings. = nd decreasing row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . k tog. k . = rd decreasing row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . k tog. k . continue decreasing in this manner, every th row, having sts. less between sts. knit tog. to sts. on needle. omitting buttonholes work to correspond to right front, being careful to have all shapings for opposite side. back: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to last sts. p . k . repeat th and th rows times. = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . work / inch stocking st. ending with purl row. = st decreasing row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . k tog. k . k tog. t.b.l. k . k tog. k . work rows even in stocking st. also after each of the following decreasings. = nd decreasing row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . k tog. k . k tog. t.b.l. k . k tog. k . keeping centre panel of sts. continue decreasing in this manner, every th row, having sts. less between sts. knit tog. to sts. on needle. continue even until work from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)= ending with purl row. =to shape armholes:= cast off sts. beginning next rows, then dec. . st. each end of needle every alternate row times. sts. on needle. continue even until armhole from first shaping measures ins. =to shape shoulders:= cast off sts. beginning next rows. cast off remaining sts. sleeves: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . *p , k . repeat from * to last sts. p . k . repeat th and th rows times. = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . continue in stocking st. inc. . st. each end of needle every th row to sts. on needle. continue even until sleeve from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)=. cast off sts. beginning every row to sts. cast off. collar: cast on sts. knit - / ins. garter st. =(=_ - / yrs.-- ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- - / ins._=)=. cast off. to make up: press carefully. sew all seams. sew collar to neck, placing ends sts. in from each front edge. sew buttons to correspond to buttonholes. embroider a daisy with leaves at the top of each straight st. in border at bottom of coat and sleeves, using lazy daisy st. and french knots. =(aa) girl's coat= (_continued from page _) left front: join wool and work remaining sts. as follows:- (k tog.) times. k . wl. fwd. k tog. (p . k ) times. sts. on needle. = nd row:= (k . p ) times. p . (p . k ) to end of row. = rd row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. k tog. (p . k ) times. repeat nd and rd rows once, then nd row once. = th row:= k . *inc. . st. in next st. k . repeat from * times. wl. fwd. k tog. (p . k ) times. = th and alternate rows:= (k . p ) times. purl to last st. k . = th row:= knit to last sts. wl. fwd. k tog. (p . k ) times. continue even until work from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)=. omitting buttonholes, shape armhole and continue to correspond to right front. sleeves: cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. = th row:= k . *wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to end of row. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . = th row:= k . *k . inc. . st. in next st. k . repeat from * times. sts. on needle. continue in stocking st. inc. . st. each end of needle every th row to sts. on needle. continue even until sleeve from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins_.=)= ending with purl row. =to shape cap:= *cast off sts. beginning next rows, then . st. beginning following rows.* repeat from * to * to sts. on needle. cast off. collar: cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. = th row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to last sts. p tog. (p . k ) times. repeat from ** to ** as given for coat once. proceed:- = st row:= (k . p ) times. w.o.n. k tog. knit to last sts. wl. fwd. k tog. (p . k ) times. = nd row:= (k . p ) times. purl to last sts. (p . k ) times. repeat st. and nd rows times. cast off. to make up: press carefully. sew side and shoulder seams of yoke. sew sleeve seams and sew in armholes. sew collar to neck placing the edges sts. from each front edge. sew buttons to correspond to buttonholes. =(d) girl's dress= (_continued from page _) = st row:= *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . repeat this row times. = th row:= k tog. (k . p ) twice. *(k . p ) twice. k tog. p . repeat from * to last sts. (k . p ) times. k tog. sts. on needle. = th row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat th row times. = th row:= k . (p . k ) times. *p . k tog. (p . k ) times. repeat from * to last sts. (p . k ) twice. sts. on needle. = th row:= as th row. = th row:= (eyelets) k . (p . k ) twice. *wl. fwd. k tog. (p . k ) twice. repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. k tog. (p . k ) times. repeat th row twice. = st row:= k . p tog. (k . p ) times. k . p tog. p . k . p tog. (p . k ) times. p . k tog. k . sts. on needle. cast off loosely in ribbing. sleeves: cast on sts. work inch ribbing (k . p ). proceed: = st row:= *k . inc. . st. in next st. repeat from * to end of row. sts. on needle. = nd row:= k . purl to last st. k . = rd row:= knit. repeat nd and rd rows once, nd row times. = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . repeat th and th rows twice then th row twice more. continue even in stocking st. until sleeve measures - / ins. from beginning ending with purl row. cast off sts. beginning every row to sts. cast off. to make up: press carefully. sew all seams. sew in sleeves. with double wool crochet a cord. thread through eyelets at neck of dress. make and sew a pom-pom to each end. =(i) boy's pullover= with short and long sleeves.--_illustrated on page_ materials: = ply beehive fingering.= ozs. turquoise no. (t) for short or long sleeves. small quantity of pink no. (p), yellow no. (y) and black (b). two stitch holders. one medium crochet hook. buttons. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = yr.= = - / yrs.= = yrs.= width all round at underarm ins. - / ins. ins. length from top of shoulder - / " - / " " length of short sleeve underarm seam - / " - / " - / " length of long sleeve underarm seam - / " - / " " wind small balls (t). cut strands (t) - / yds. long and strands (p) yd. long. wind remaining (p) into balls. cut strands (y) / yd. long. back: with (t) wool cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row for ins. inc. . st. at end of last row. proceed to work from chart, reading from right to left for knit rows, and from left to right for purl rows, using the balls and strands of wool as indicated on chart, being careful to twist wool when changing colours. when design has been worked break all wools except st. ball (t). with (t) continue even in stocking st. until work from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs_.--_ - / ins_.=)= =(=_ yrs_.--_ ins_.=)= ending with purl row. =to shape armholes:= cast off sts. beginning next rows, then dec. . st. each end of needle next and every alternate row to sts. on needle. continue even in stocking st. until armhole measures - / ins. from first shaping ending with purl row. =to shape neck: st row:= k . turn. working on these sts. dec. . st. at neck edge next and every following row to sts. on needle. continue even until armhole measures ins. from first shaping. =to shape shoulder:= at armhole edge cast off sts. every alternate row times. slip next sts. on st. holder. work remaining sts. to correspond to other side. front: work exactly as given for back until armhole measures - / ins. from first shaping ending with purl row. =to shape neck: st row:= k . turn. working on these sts. dec. . st. at neck edge next and every following row to sts. on needle. continue even in stocking st. until armhole measures ins. from first shaping. shape shoulder as given for back. slip next sts. on st. holder. work remaining sts. to correspond to other side. neckband: sew left shoulder seam. with right side of work facing, and (p) wool, pick up and knit sts. along right side of neck. knit sts. from st. holder at back of neck. pick up and knit sts. along left side of neck. knit sts. from st. holder at front of neck. pick up and knit sts. along other side of neck. sts. on needle. break (p). join (t). =next row:= k . purl to last st. k . work / inch ribbing (k . p ). cast off in ribbing. short sleeves: cast on sts. work / inch ribbing (k . p ). =next row:= *k . inc. . st. in next st. repeat from * to end of row. sts. on needle. =next row:= k . purl to last st. k . continue even in stocking st. until sleeve measures - / ins. from beginning. =to shape cap:= *cast off sts. beginning next rows, then . st. beginning following rows.* repeat from * to * to sts. cast off. long sleeves: cast on sts. work ins. ribbing (k . p ). =next row:= *k . inc. . st. in next st. repeat from * to end of row. sts. on needle. =next row:= k . purl to last st. k . continue in stocking st. inc. . st. each end of needle on th and every following th row to sts. on needle. continue even until sleeve from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs_.--_ - / ins_.=) (=_ yrs_.--_ ins_.=)= ending with purl row. shape cap as given for short sleeves. to make up: press all pieces carefully. darn all ends on wrong side. sew all seams except right shoulder. work row d.c. along back of right shoulder and row s.c. along front working chain loops for buttonholes. sew buttons to correspond to buttonholes. [illustration: bear pullover chart] [illustration: =_time out!_=] =overall suit= (_the leggings may be made with or without feet_). materials: = ply beehive fingering=. ozs. green no. . =pullover=-- ozs. =leggings=-- ozs. buttons. one spare needle with points at both ends. one medium crochet hook. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = yr.= = - / yrs.= = yrs.= =pullover:= width all round at underarm ins. - / ins. ins. length from top of shoulder " - / " " length of sleeve underarm seam - / " - / " " =leggings:= length of front seam - / " " - / " length of leg seam to ankle - / " " - / " pullover--front: cast on sts. work - / ins. ribbing (k . p ) inc. sts. in last row. sts. on needle. continue even in stocking st. until work from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- - / ins._=)= ending with purl row. proceed: = st row:= k . *slip next sts. onto spare needle and place at back of work. knit next sts. bring the sts. forward and slip them back onto needle. knit these sts. (this will be termed "twist" throughout). k . repeat from * twice. twist. k . = nd row:= k . purl to last st. k . = rd row:= knit. = th row:= as nd row. repeat these rows until work from beginning measures approx. ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)= ending with nd pattern row. =to shape armholes:= keeping continuity of pattern cast off sts. beginning next rows then dec. . st. each end of needle every row to sts. on needle, ending with th pattern row. =next row:= k . *k . twist. repeat from * to last sts. k . continue even in pattern until work from beginning measures approx. - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- - / ins._=)= ending with purl row. =to shape neck:= work sts. in pattern. cast off sts. work sts. in pattern. working on last sts. keeping continuity of pattern and armhole edge even, at neck edge dec. . st. every row to sts. on needle. continue even in pattern until armhole measures ins. from first shaping. =to shape shoulder:= at armhole edge cast off sts. every alternate row twice. join wool to remaining sts. at neck edge and work other shoulder to correspond. neckband: with right side of work facing pick up and knit sts. around neck. work / inch ribbing (k . p ). cast off loosely in ribbing. back: work exactly as given for front until work from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- - / ins._=)= ending with purl row. work / inch more in pattern. =to shape neck and shoulder:= work sts. in pattern. cast off sts. work sts. in pattern. working on last sts. keeping continuity of pattern and armhole edge even, at neck edge dec. . st. every row to sts. on needle. at armhole edge cast off sts. every alternate row twice. join wool to remaining sts. at neck edge and work other shoulder to correspond. neckband: work as given for front neckband but picking up sts. instead of sts. sleeves: cast on sts. work inch ribbing (k . p ). continue in stocking st. inc. . st. each end of needle on th and every following th row to sts. on needle. continue even until sleeve from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- - / ins._=) (=_ yrs.-- ins._=)= or desired length. cast off sts. beginning every row to sts. cast off. (_leggings without feet_--_see page _) =leggings with feet= **right leg: cast on sts. work / inch ribbing (k . p ). =next row:= *rib . w.r.n. p tog. repeat from * to end of row. work - / ins. ribbing (k . p ). working in stocking st. proceed:- =to shape back:= = st row:= k . turn. = nd and alternate rows:= purl to last st. k . = rd row:= k . turn. = th row:= k . turn. continue in this manner, working over extra sts. every knit row until sts. remain, ending with purl row. =next row:= knit across all sts. =next row:= k . purl to last st. k . continue in stocking st. inc. . st. at long side of work every following th row to sts. on needle. continue even until work from beginning, at short edge, measures - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- - / ins._=)= ending with purl row. =to shape leg:= dec. . st. each end of needle every knit row to sts. on needle, then . st. each end of needle every following th row to sts. on needle. continue even until leg seam from beginning measures ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)= ending with purl row.** =to shape foot:= = st row:= (eyelets) k . *k . k tog. wl. fwd. repeat from * to last st. k . = nd row:= k . turn. = rd row:= k . turn. working on these sts. knit rows garter st. =next row:= k . pick up and knit sts. along side of instep. knit across the sts. which were left. =next row:= k . pick up and knit sts. along other side of instep. knit across remaining sts. sts. on needle. knit rows garter st. proceed:- = st row:= k . k tog. k . k tog. k . (k tog.) twice. k . = nd row:= k . (k tog.) twice. k . k tog. k . k tog. k . = rd row:= k . k tog. k . k tog. k . (k tog.) twice. k . = th row:= k . (k tog.) twice. k . k tog. k . k tog. k . cast off. left leg: work to correspond to right leg, having back shaping on purl rows instead of knit rows. to reverse foot shapings after eyelet row at ankle has been worked, knit row then continue exactly as given for right leg, beginning with nd row. =overall suit= (_continued_) =leggings without feet= right leg: work from ** to ** as given for leggings with feet. sts. on needle. proceed:- =to shape foot: st row:= knit. = nd row:= k . p . k . repeat st. and nd rows once, then st. row once. = th row:= cast off sts. k . p . k . = th row:= cast off sts. k . = th row:= k . p . k . = th row:= knit. repeat th and th rows twice, then th row once. =to shape toe: st row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . k tog. k . = nd and alternate rows:= k . purl to last sts. k . = rd row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . k tog. k . = th row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . k tog. k . = th row:= k . k tog. k . k tog. k . = th and th rows:= knit. = th row:= k . k tog. k . k tog. k . cast off. left leg: work to correspond to right leg, having back shaping on purl rows instead of knit rows, and being careful to have shaping for foot at opposite side. to make up: press all pieces carefully. sew all seams. crochet loops for buttonholes on each shoulder of pullover. sew buttons to correspond to buttonholes. with double wool crochet a cord for waist of leggings and ankles of leggings with feet. thread through eyelets. make and sew tassels to each end. sew a small piece of elastic to each instep of leggings without feet. =(j) boy's pullover=--_illustrated on page _ materials: =miss canada crochet-knitting wool.= ozs. violet no. . buttons. one medium crochet hook. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = yr.= = - / yrs.= = yrs.= width all round at underarm ins. - / ins. ins. length from top of shoulder " - / " " length of sleeve underarm seam - / " - / " " pattern: = st row:= (wrong side of work) knit. = nd row:= k . purl to last st. k . = rd row:= knit. = th row:= k . p . *(k . p . k ) all in next st. p . repeat from * to last sts. (k . p . k ) all in next st. p . k . = th row:= k . *bring wool to front of work as if to purl. sl. . purl ways. put wool to back of work. k . bring wool to front of work. sl. . purl ways. put wool to back of work. (the working of these sts. will be termed "pattern" throughout). k . repeat from * to last sts. pattern. k . = th row:= k . purl to last st. k , slipping the slipped sts. purl ways, and passing the wool behind these slipped sts. = th row:= as th row. = th row:= k . p . *k tog. p . sl. . knitways. k . p.s.s.o. p . repeat from * to last sts. k tog. p . sl. . knitways. k . p.s.s.o. k . repeat st. and nd rows once, then st. row once. = th row:= k . p . *(k . p . k ) all in next st. p . repeat from * to end of row. = th row:= *k . pattern. repeat from * to last sts. k . = th row:= as th row. = th row:= as th row. = th row:= k . p . *k tog. p . sl. . knitways. k . p.s.s.o. p . repeat from * to last st. k . these rows complete one pattern. front: cast on sts. work - / ins. ribbing (k . p ). work complete patterns. work now measures approx. - / ins. from beginning. (_ - / yrs.-- - / ins._) (_ yrs.-- ins._). =to shape armholes:= keeping continuity of pattern cast off sts. beginning next rows, then dec. . st. each end of needle every alternate row times. sts. on needle. continue even in pattern until there are complete patterns from first armhole shaping. proceed:- = st row:= knit. = nd row:= k . purl to last st. k . repeat these rows until armhole measures ins. from first shaping. cast off. back: work exactly as given for front. sleeves: cast on sts. work - / ins. ribbing (k . p ), inc. sts. in last row. sts. on needle. work complete patterns. keeping continuity of pattern cast off sts. beginning every row to sts. cast off. to make up: press all pieces carefully. sew all seams except shoulders. work row s.c. around neck opening, working loops on front edge at each shoulder for buttonholes. sew buttons to correspond to buttonholes. =(l) boy's pullover=--_illustrated on page _ materials: =beehive lustre crepe.= ozs. cherry bloom. (_ - / yrs.-- ozs._) (_ yrs.-- ozs._). one medium crochet hook. buttons. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = yr.= = - / yrs.= = yrs.= width all round at underarm ins. - / ins. ins. length from top of shoulder " - / " " length of sleeve underarm seam - / " - / " " pattern: = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. = th row:= *k . sl. . repeat from * to last sts. k . = th row:= k . p . sl. . *p . sl. . repeat from * to last sts. p . k . = th row:= as th row. = th row:= *purl the rd st. on the left-hand needle (the slipped st.) passing it over the first sts. purl these sts. repeat from * to last sts. p . k . repeat th and th rows once, then th row once. = th row:= k . p . *inserting the needle through the rd st. on the left-hand needle (the slipped st.) purl each of the next sts., then purl the slipped st. repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. =these rows complete border for lower edge of pullover, cuffs and boat neck.= front: cast on sts. work complete pattern. continue even in stocking st. until work from beginning measures ins. (_ - / yrs.-- - / ins._) (_ yrs.-- ins._). =to shape armholes:= cast off sts. beginning next rows then dec. . st. each end of needle every alternate row to sts. on needle. continue even until armhole from first shaping measures ins. work complete pattern. cast off loosely in ribbing. back: work exactly as given for front. sleeves: cast on sts. work complete pattern. continue in stocking st. inc. . st. each end of needle on th and every following th row to sts. on needle. continue even until sleeve from beginning measures - / ins. (_ - / yrs.-- - / ins._) (_ yrs.-- ins._). cast off sts. beginning every row to sts. cast off. to make up: press all pieces being careful not to flatten the pattern. sew shoulder seams inch from armhole edges. work row s.c. along front edge making loops each side for buttons. sew buttons to correspond. =(h) boy's pullover=--_illustrated on page _ materials: =beehive lustre crepe.= ozs. ocean green. buttons. one medium crochet hook. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = yr.= = - / yrs.= = yrs.= width all round at underarm ins. - / ins. ins. length from top of shoulder " - / " " length of sleeve underarm seam - / " - / " " front: cast on sts. work ins. ribbing (k . p ). continue even in stocking st. until work measures ins. from beginning ending with purl row. proceed:- = st row:= knit. = nd row:= k . p . k . p . k . = rd row:= knit. = th row:= as nd row. **= th row:= k . (k . p ) times. k . = th row:= k . p . k . p . (k . p ) times. k . p . k . p . k . repeat th and th rows once, then th row once. = th row:= k . p . k . p . k . = th row:= knit. = th row:= as th row.** repeat from ** to ** twice. continue even in stocking st. until work from beginning measures ins. (_ - / yrs.-- - / ins._) (_ yrs.-- ins._) ending with purl row. =to shape armholes:= cast off sts. beginning next rows, then dec. . st. each end of needle every row times, ending with knit row. sts. on needle. proceed:- = st row:= k . p . k . p . k . p . k . = nd row:= knit. = rd row:= as st. row. **= th row:= k . (k . p ) times. k . (k . p ) times. k . = th row:= k . p . *k . p . (k . p ) times. k . p . k .* p . repeat from * to * once. p . k . repeat th and th rows once, then th row once. = th row:= k . p . k . p . k . p . k . = th row:= knit. = th row:= as th row.** repeat from ** to ** twice. work rows stocking st. _(continued on page )_ =(f) boy's suspender suit=--_illustrated on page _ materials: = ply beehive non-shrink baby wool.= ozs. sky blue. (=pullover=-- ozs. =knickers=-- ozs.). one medium crochet hook. small and larger buttons. two stitch holders. yd. ribbon - / ins. wide. measurements: = yr.= = - / yrs.= = yrs.= =pullover:= width all round at underarm ins. - / ins. ins. length from top of shoulder - / " " - / " length of sleeve underarm seam - / " - / " - / " =knickers:= length from waist to crotch at front - / " - / " - / " =for needles and tension see page .= the pullover back: cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row for ins. continue even in stocking st. until work from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- - / ins._=)=, ending with purl row. =to shape armholes:= cast off sts. beginning next rows, then dec. . st. each end of needle next and every alternate row to sts. on needle. continue even in stocking st. until armhole measures - / ins. from first shaping ending with purl row. =to shape neck:= k . turn. working on these sts. dec. . st. at neck edge next and every following row to sts. on needle. =to shape shoulder:= at armhole edge cast off sts. every alternate row times. slip next sts. on st. holder. work remaining sts. to correspond to other side. front: work exactly as given for back until armhole measures - / ins. from first shaping ending with purl row. =to shape neck:= k . turn. working on these sts. dec. . st. at neck edge next and every following row to sts. on needle. continue even in stocking st. until armhole measures ins. from first shaping. =to shape shoulder:= at armhole edge cast off sts. every alternate row times. slip next sts. on st. holder. work remaining sts. to correspond to other side. neckband: sew left shoulder seam. with right side of work facing pick up and knit sts. along right side of neck. knit sts. from st. holder. pick up and knit sts. along left side of neck. knit sts. from st. holder. pick up and knit sts. along other side of neck. sts. on needle. = st row:= *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . p . k . = nd row:= (right side of work) *k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . p . k . cast off in ribbing. sleeves: cast on sts. work / inch ribbing (k . p ) as given for neckband. =next row:= *k . inc. . st. in next st. repeat from * to last st. k . sts. on needle. =next row:= k . purl to last st. k . continue even in stocking st. until sleeve measures - / ins. from beginning. =to shape cap:= *cast off sts. beginning next rows, then . st. beginning following rows.* repeat from * to * to sts. on needle. cast off. to make up: sew all seams, except right shoulder. work row d.c. along back of right shoulder and row s.c. along front, working chain loops for buttonholes. sew buttons to correspond to buttonholes. the knickers front: beginning at bottom of right leg, cast on sts. **= st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat this row for / inch inc. . st. at end of last row.** cast on sts. break wool and leave on st. holder. cast on sts. repeat from ** to ** inc. . st. at beginning instead of end of last row. proceed:- = st row:= k . p . k . working across sts. from spare needle, sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k . k tog. k . p . k . sts. on needle. = nd row:= k . p . k . p . p tog. p . p . transfer this st. back onto left-hand needle, insert needle in nd st. and pass it over st. just purled, thus decreasing a stitch. transfer this st. back onto right-hand needle. (make all decreases at this side, on the purl row in this manner). p . k . p . k . = rd row:= k . p . k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k . k tog. k . p . k . = th row:= k . p . k . p . p tog. p . dec. . st. as before. p . k . p . k . keeping a moss st. border at each side, continue decreasing in this manner, having sts. less between decreasing each row, until the decreasings meet. on the next row purl these sts. together, thus forming a point. sts. on needle. keeping a moss st. border of sts. at each end of needle, continue even in stocking st. until work from the cast-on sts. measures - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)=, ending with purl row, and inc. . st. at end of row. proceed:- =to make waistband: st row:= (k . p ) times. k . (k . p ) times. k . (k . p ) times. k . = nd row:= (k . p ) times. k . (p . k ) times. p . (k . p ) times. k . repeat these rows for - / ins. =next row:= (buttonholes) work sts. in pattern. cast off sts. work in pattern to last sts. cast off sts. work in pattern to end of row. =next row:= work in pattern, casting on sts. in place of cast-off sts. continue in pattern until waistband measures - / ins. cast off. back: work exactly as given for front, omitting buttonholes in waistband. suspenders: (make ). cast on sts. work ins. moss st. =(=_ - / yrs.-- ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)=. cast off. to make up: sew all seams. line shoulder straps with ribbon to prevent stretching. sew straps at back - / ins. in from side seams. sew buttons to front ends. [illustration: bb logo] =girl's or boy's mitts=--_illustrated on page _ materials: =p & b superior double knitting.= ozs. moss green. one medium crochet hook. =for needles and tension see legging suit page .= cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. = th row:= (eyelets) k . *wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row once. = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . =to make thumb:= k . turn. cast on . st. k . p . turn. cast on . st. work rows stocking st. on these sts. =next row:= (k tog.) times. break wool. thread end through remaining sts. draw up and fasten securely. sew thumb seam. join wool to first sts. pick up and knit sts. at base of thumb. knit last sts. sts. on needle. work rows stocking st. =to shape top: st row:= *k . k tog. repeat from * to end of row. = nd and alternate rows:= k . purl to last st. k . = rd row:= *k . k tog. repeat from * to end of row. = th row:= *k . k tog. repeat from * to end of row. = th row:= *k . k tog. repeat from * to end of row. break wool. thread end through remaining sts. draw up and fasten securely. sew up seam. make another mitt to correspond. with single wool crochet a cord for each mitt. thread through eyelets at wrist. make and sew a small tassel to each end. =(k) boy's pullover=--_illustrated on page _ materials: = ply beehive fingering=. ozs. yellow no. . buttons. one medium crochet hook. one stitch holder. one safety pin. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = yr.= = - / yrs.= = yrs.= width all round at underarm ins. - / ins. ins. length from top of shoulder " - / " " length of sleeve underarm seam - / " - / " " pattern: = st row:= k . *p . k . p . k . repeat from * to end of row. = nd row:= k . *k . p . k . p . repeat from * to last sts. k . p . k . = rd row:= k . *p . miss next st. knit into back of next st. but do not slip off needle. knit into front of st. st. slip both sts. off needle together. p . k . repeat from * to end of row. = th row:= as nd row. these rows complete one pattern. front: cast on sts. continue even in pattern until work from beginning measures ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)=. =to shape armholes:= keeping continuity of pattern, cast off sts. beginning next rows, then dec. . st. each end of needle next and every alternate row to sts. on needle. continue even in pattern until armhole measures ins. from first shaping. =to shape neck:= work sts. in pattern. turn. working on these sts. keeping continuity of pattern dec. . st. at neck edge every row to sts. on needle. continue even until armhole measures ins. from first shaping. =to shape shoulder:= keeping continuity of pattern, at armhole edge cast off sts. every alternate row twice. leaving next sts. on safety pin, join wool to remaining sts. and work other shoulder to correspond. back: omitting neck shaping, work exactly as given for front until armhole measures - / ins. from first shaping. =to shape neck:= work sts. in pattern. turn. working on these sts. dec. . st. at neck edge every alternate row twice. continue even in pattern until armhole measures ins. from first shaping. shape shoulder as given for front. leaving next sts. on st. holder, join wool to remaining sts. and work other shoulder to correspond. neckband: sew left shoulder seam. with right side of work facing, pick up and knit sts. along right side of neck, knit sts. from st. holder at back, pick up and knit sts. along left side of neck, knit sts. from safety pin at front and pick up and knit sts. along remainder of neck. sts. on needle. work / inch ribbing (k . p ). cast off loosely in ribbing. sleeves: cast on sts. continue in pattern inc. . st. each end of needle on th and every following th row to sts. on needle. continue even until sleeve from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)=. keeping continuity of pattern, cast off sts. beginning every row to sts. on needle. cast off. to make up: press pieces carefully. sew all seams excepting right shoulder. sew in sleeves. work row s.c. around shoulder opening, working loops for buttonholes on front. sew buttons to correspond to buttonholes. =(h) boy's pullover= (_continued from page _) =to shape neck:= k . cast off sts. k . working on last sts. keeping armhole edge even, at neck edge dec. . st. every row to sts. on needle. continue even until armhole measures ins. from first shaping. =to shape shoulder:= at armhole edge, cast off sts. beginning every alternate row twice. join wool at neck edge and work other shoulder to correspond. back: work exactly as given for front. sleeves: cast on sts. work - / ins. ribbing (k . p ). continue in stocking st. inc. . st. each end of needle on th then every following th row to sts. on needle. continue even until work from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)=. cast off sts. beginning every row to sts. cast off. neckband: sew left shoulder seam. pick up and knit sts. around neck. work / inch ribbing (k . p ). cast off in ribbing. to make up: press all pieces carefully being careful not to flatten the pattern. sew all seams. sew in sleeves. work row d.c. along shoulder edge at back. work row s.c. along front edge working loops for buttons. sew buttons to correspond. =boy's cap=--_illustrated (left) page _ materials: =p & b superior double knitting=. ozs. moss green. one button. one stitch holder. =for needles and tension see legging suit page .= measurements: = yr.= = - / yrs.= = yrs.= width all round brim ins. - / ins. ins. right ear flap: cast on sts. = st row:= inc. . st. in each of the first sts. k . knit rows garter st. = th row:= k . (inc. . st. in next st. k ) twice. knit rows garter st. = th row:= k . inc. . st. in next st. knit to last sts. inc. . st. in next st. k . continue inc. . st. each end of needle every following th row to sts. on needle. knit rows garter st. break wool and leave these sts. on st. holder until left ear flap has been worked. left ear flap: cast on sts. = st row:= inc. . st. in each of first sts. k . = nd row:= knit. = rd row:= (buttonhole) k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . = th row:= knit. continue to correspond to right flap to sts. on needle. knit rows garter st. casting on sts. at end of last row. turn. =next row:= knit across these sts. cast on sts. knit across the sts. from st. holder, casting on sts. at end of row. sts. on needle. knit rows garter st. proceed:- = st row:= k . *inc. . st. in next st. k . repeat from * to last sts. inc. . st. in next st. k . = nd row:= k . purl to last st. k . rd row: knit. repeat nd and rd rows times. = th row:= *k . k tog. repeat from * to last st. k . = st and alternate rows:= knit. = nd row:= *k . k tog. repeat from * to last st. k . = th row:= *k . k tog. repeat from * to last st. k . continue decreasing in this manner to sts. on needle. =next row:= (k tog.) to last st. k . break wool. run end through remaining sts. draw up and fasten securely. to make up: press carefully. sew back seam. sew button to correspond to buttonhole. [illustration: bb logo] =girl's or boy's helmet=--_illustrated (right) page _ materials: =p & b superior double knitting=. ozs. moss green. two safety pins. =for needles and tension see legging suit page .= measurements: = yr.= = - / yrs.= = yrs.= width around face ins. - / ins. ins. cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. = th row:= k . (p . k ) times. k . slip next sts. onto safety pin. turn. = th row:= k . p . slip next sts. onto safely pin. turn. = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . repeat last rows times. proceed:- = st row:= k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. turn. = nd row:= p . sl. . p . p.s.s.o. turn. = rd row:= k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. turn. repeat nd and rd rows until all sts. have been worked onto one needle. break wool. with right side of work facing, beginning again on the sts. which were left on safety pin, k . (p . k ) times. pick up and knit sts. from right side of helmet. knit across the sts. which were left on the needle. pick up and knit sts. along other side of helmet, and (p . k ) times across remaining sts. sts. on needle. proceed:- = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. cast off. to make up: press carefully. join ribbing together to form a neckband. =girl's or boy's legging suit= with pixie hood. materials: =p & b superior double knitting=. ozs. moss green. two no. beehive knitting needles for sizes and - / yrs. for size yrs. two no. needles. buttons. length of elastic. one medium crochet hook. measurements: = yr.= = - / yrs.= = yrs.= =coat:= width all round at underarm ins. - / ins. ins. length from top of shoulder " - / " " length of sleeve underarm seam - / " - / " " =leggings:= length of front seam - / " " - / " length of leg seam " " - / " tension: sts. and rows = inch with no. needles. - / sts. and rows = inch with no. needles. =the instructions are written for size yr. for size - / yrs. use same size needles and follow same instructions. stretch to required measurements when blocking. for size yrs. use no. needles and follow same instructions.= =girl's coat=--right front: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. = th row:= k . *inc. . st. in next st. k . repeat from * once. k . = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = th row:= knit. repeat th and th rows times. proceed:- **= st row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = nd row:= knit. = rd row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = th row:= ( st. buttonhole) k . wl. fwd. k tog. knit to end of row. repeat rd and th rows once, st. row once. = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . repeat th and th rows times, th row once.** repeat from ** to ** once. =to shape armhole:= keeping continuity of pattern, and working more buttonholes rows apart, at armhole edge cast off sts. once, then dec. . st. every alternate row to sts. on needle. continue in pattern until armhole measures - / ins. from first shaping. =to shape neck:= at neck edge cast off sts. once, then dec. . st next and every following row to sts. on needle. continue even until armhole measures ins. from first shaping. cast off. left front: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. = th row:= k . *inc. . st. in next st. k . repeat from * once. k . = th row:= k . purl to last. st. k . = th row:= knit. repeat th and th rows times. proceed:- = st row:= k . purl to last st. k . = nd and alternate rows:= knit. = rd row:= k . purl to last st. k . = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . = th row:= knit. keeping continuity of border pattern, omitting buttonholes, continue to correspond to right front, being careful to have all shapings for opposite side. back: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. = th row:= k . *inc. . st. in next st. k . repeat from * to last sts. k . = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . continue even in stocking st. until work measures same as fronts to armhole, ending with purl row. =to shape armholes:= cast off sts. beginning next rows, then dec. . st. each end of needle next and every alternate row to sts. on needle. continue even until armhole measures ins. from first shaping, ending with purl row. cast off. sleeves: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. = th row:= *k . inc. . st. in next st. repeat from * to end of row. sts. on needle. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . continue in stocking st. inc. . st. each end of needle every following th row to sts. on needle. continue even until sleeve from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)=, ending with purl row. continue in stocking st. casting off sts. beginning every row to sts. cast off. collar: cast on sts. knit - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- - / ins._=)= garter st. cast off. =boy's coat:= work from instructions given for girl's coat, but working buttonholes on left front instead of right front. =girl's pixie hood= materials: =p & b superior double knitting.= ozs. moss green. =for needles and tension see legging suit next column.= measurements: = yr.= = - / yrs.= = yrs.= length from lower edge of scarf to top of head - / ins. - / ins. ins. width across (when folded) " - / " - / " the hood: cast on sts. = st row:= knit. = nd row:= k . purl to last sts. k . repeat these rows times, then st. row once. **= th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = st row:= as th row. = nd row:= k . purl to last sts. k . repeat th and th rows once, th row once, th row once. = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . repeat th and th rows times, th row once.** repeat from ** to ** twice, the th row once, th and th rows times, th row once. cast off. the tie: cast on sts. = st row:= inc. . st. in each st. = nd row:= knit. continue in garter st. inc. . st. each end of needle next and every alternate row to sts. on needle. work ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)= even in garter st. decrease to correspond to increasing at other end. to make up: press carefully. fold the hood and sew up back seam. sew to centre ins. of the tie. =legging suit= (_continued_) leggings: cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row once. = rd row:= (eyelets) k . *wl. fwd. k tog. p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. =to shape back:= k . turn. = nd row:= p . turn. = rd row:= k . turn. = th row:= p . turn. continue in this manner, that is working over more sts. every row to p . turn. =next row:= knit. =next row:= k . purl to last st. k . continue in stocking st. inc. . st. each end of needle next and every following th row to sts. on needle. continue even until work, at side edge, measures - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- - / ins._=)= ending with knit row. =next row:= k . p . turn. leave remaining sts. on spare needle. working on these sts. proceed for leg:- = st row:= k . k tog. knit to last sts. k tog. k . = nd row:= k . purl to last st. k . continue in stocking st. dec. . st. each end of needle next and every following th row to sts. on needle, then every following th row to sts. continue even until leg seam measures - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)= ending with knit row. proceed:- = st row:= k . p . k . = nd row:= knit. = rd row:= cast off sts. k . p . k . = th row:= cast off sts. knit to end of row. = th row:= k . p . k . = th row:= knit. repeat th and th rows times, then th row once. = th row:= k . k tog. k . k tog. k . = th row:= k . p . k . = th row:= (k . k tog.) twice. k . = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . k tog. k . k tog. k . cast off knitways. join wool and work on remaining sts. as follows:- = st row:= k . purl to last st. k . = nd row:= k . k tog. knit to last sts. k tog. k . continue to correspond to other leg until leg seam measures - / ins. =(=_ - / yrs.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ yrs.-- ins._=)= ending with knit row. sts. on needle. proceed:- = st row:= k . p . k . = nd row:= knit. = rd row:= cast off sts. k . p . k . = th row:= cast off sts. knit to end of row. = th row:= k . p . k . = th row:= knit. repeat th and th rows times, then th row once. = th row:= k . k tog. k . k tog. k . = th row:= k . p . k . = th row:= (k . k tog.) twice. k . = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . k tog. k . k tog. k . cast off knitways. to make up: press all pieces carefully. sew all seams. sew collar around neck of coat, placing ends sts. from each front edge. sew buttons to correspond to buttonholes. crochet a cord. thread through eyelets at waist of leggings. make and sew a tassel to each end. sew a piece of elastic to each foot at instep. _heigh ho!_ [illustration: boy's cap--_see page ._ legging suit with pixie hood--_see page ._ girl's or boy's helmet--_see page ._ mitts--_see page ._] _socks for tots_ [illustration: (a)--_see page ._ (b)--_see below._ (c)--_see page ._ (d)--_see page ._] (=b=) =diamond socks= materials: = ply beehive fingering.= oz. white (w). / oz. each pink no. (p) and blue no. (b). yds. each yellow no. (y) and mauve no. (m). set of no. "aero" steel knitting needles (points at both ends), for sizes and - / yrs. for size yrs. use no. needles. measurements: length of leg to bottom of heel flap ins. tension: - / sts. and rows = l inch with no. needles. " " " = " " no. " wind (w), (p) and (b) into balls. cut each of (y) and (m) in half for the diagonal stripes. with (w) and needles cast on sts. work - / ins. ribbing (k . p ), dec. . st. at end of last row. proceed in pattern as follows (being careful to twist wool when changing colours, using separate ball of wool for each diamond and separate strand of wool for each diagonal stripe):- **= st row:= k (b). (w). (y). (m). (w). (p). joining nd balls and strands of wool, k (w). (m). (y). (w). (b). = nd row:= k . p (b). (w). (y). (w). (m). (w). (p). (w). (m). (w). (y). (w). (b). k (b). = rd row:= k (b). (w). (y). (w). (m). (w). (p). (w). (m). (w). (y). (w). (b). = th row:= k . p (b). (w). (y). (w). (m). (w). (p). (w). (m). (w). (y). (w). (b). k (b). = th row:= k (b). (w). (y). (w). (m). (w). (p). (w). (m). (w). (y). (w). (b). = th row:= k . p (b). (y). (w). (m). (p). (m). (w). (y). (b). k (b). = th row:= k (b). (y). (b). (w). (p). (m). (p). (m). (p). (w). (b). (y). (b). = th row:= k . p (b). (y). (b). (w). (p). (m). (p). (m). (p). (w). (b). (y). (b). k (b). = th row:= k (b). (y). (b). (w). (p). l(m). (p). (m). (p). (w). (b). (y). (b). = th row:= k . p (b). (y). (b). (w). (p). (m). (p). (m). (p). (w). (b). (y). (b). k (b). = th row:= k (b). (y). (b). (w). (p). (m). (p). (m). (p). (w). (b). (y). (b). = th row:= k (y). p (b). (p). (m). (p). (b). k (y). work back from th to st. rows inclusive.** repeat from ** to ** substituting (p) for (b), (m) for (y), (b) for (p), (y) for (m) and purl rows for knit rows and knit rows for purl rows. proceed:- put first sts. onto one needle. slip last sts. onto nd needle. leave these needles for heel, and remaining sts. on one needle for instep. working on the instep sts. proceed:- = st row:= k (m). (w). (p). (w). (m). = nd row:= k (w). p (m). (w). (p). (w). (m). k (w). work complete (p) diamond with (m) diagonal stripes to correspond to first whole (p) diamond worked. leave these sts. on needle until sole has been worked. =to make heel:= put all heel sts. onto one needle. with wrong side of work facing, join (w) wool. k . p . p tog. p . k . sts. on needle. = st row:= knit. = nd row:= k . purl to last st. k . repeat these rows times. =to shape heel:= k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k . turn. p . p tog. p . turn. k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k . turn. p . p tog. p . turn. continue in this manner until all sts. are worked. sts. on needle. break wool. =to shape instep and sole:= with right side of work facing and (w) wool, pick up and knit sts. along side of heel. knit the sts. from heel needle and pick up and knit sts. along other side of heel. = st row:= k . purl to last st. k . = nd row:= k . k tog. knit to last sts. sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k . repeat these rows to sts. on needle. continue even in stocking st. until work measures same as instep piece. divide sole sts. on needles leaving instep sts. on one needle. using (w) wool, working in rounds on needles, continue even until work, from where sts. were picked up at heel, measures - / ins. for size - / ins. for size - / ins. for size - / =to shape toe:= = st round:= k . *k . k tog. repeat from * to end of round. = nd and alternate rounds:= knit. = rd round:= *k . k tog. repeat from * to end of round. = th round:= *k . k tog. repeat from * to end of round. continue decreasing in this manner to sts. in round. =next round:= *k tog. repeat from * to end of round. break wool. thread end through remaining sts. draw up and fasten securely. sew seams. (=a=) =lacey socks=--_illustrated on page _ materials: = ply beehive non-shrink baby wool=. oz. =for needles, measurements and tension, see diamond socks, page .= pattern: = st round:= *p . k . p . k tog. wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. sl. . k . p.s.s.o. repeat from * to end of round. = nd round:= *p . k . p . k . repeat from * to end of round. = rd round:= as st. round. = th round:= *p . miss next st. knit into back of next st. but do not slip off needle. knit into front of st. st. slip both sts. off needle together. p . k . repeat from * to end of round. these rounds complete one pattern. cast on sts. ( . . ). work ins. ribbing (k . p ) inc. . st. in last round. rearrange sts. as follows:- ( . . ). continue even in pattern until work measures approx. ins. from beginning ending with th pattern round. =to make heel:= knit the first sts. of round for heel. divide remaining sts. on needles and leave for instep. = st row:= k . purl to last st. k . = nd row:= knit. repeat these rows times, st. row once. =to shape heel:= k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k . turn. p . p tog. p . turn. k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k . turn. p . p tog. p . turn. continue in this manner until all sts. are worked. sts. on needle. knit back sts. put instep sts. on one needle. =to shape instep:= = st needle:= knit remaining heel sts. pick up and knit sts. along side of heel. = nd needle:= (instep needle, to be worked to the toe in pattern). *k tog. wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. sl. . k . p.s.s.o. p . k . p . repeat from * once. k tog. wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. sl. . k . p.s.s.o. = rd needle:= pick up and knit sts. along other side of heel. knit remaining heel sts. proceed:- = st round:= = st needle:= knit. = nd needle:= (k . p . k . p ) twice. k . = rd needle:= knit. = nd round:= = st needle:= knit to last sts. k tog. k . = nd needle:= (k tog. wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. sl. . k . p.s.s.o. p . k . p ) twice. k tog. wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. sl. . k . p.s.s.o. = rd needle:= k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. knit to end of needle. keeping continuity of pattern on nd needle, at the instep end of each of the st. and rd needles continue dec. . st. every alternate row, until there are sts. on each of st. and rd needles. still working the nd needle in pattern continue even until work, from where sts. were picked up at heel measures - / ins. for size - / ins. for size - / ins. for size - / dec. . st. in last round. shape toe as given for diamond socks, see page . [illustration: bb logo] (=c=) =plain socks=--_illustrated on page _ materials: = ply beehive fingering=. oz. =for needles, measurements and tension, see diamond socks, page .= cast on sts. ( . . ). work ins. ribbing (k . p ). knit even in rounds until work measures ins. from beginning. ***=to make heel:= knit first sts. of round onto one needle. slip last sts. of round onto other end of same needle. divide remaining sts. on needles and leave for instep. = st row:= k . purl to last st. k . = nd row:= knit. repeat these rows times, st. row once. shape heel as given for lacey socks. (a), then keeping nd needle in plain knitting instead of pattern, shape instep as given for lacey socks. continue even in plain knitting until work, from where sts. were picked up at heel measures - / ins. for size - / ins. for size - / ins. for size - / shape toe as given for diamond socks, see page .*** (=d=) =plain ankle socks= materials: = ply beehive fingering=. oz. =for needles and tension, see diamond socks page .= measurements: length of leg to bottom of heel flap - / ins. cast on sts. ( . . ). work - / ins. ribbing (k . p ). knit even in rounds until work measures - / ins. from beginning, then work from *** to *** as given for plain socks, (c), above. [illustration: bb logo] (=f=) =baby's panties=--_illustrated on page _ materials: = ply beehive non-shrink baby wool=. ozs. two no. beehive knitting needles. one medium crochet hook. measurements: length from top to lower edge at centre, - / ins. tension: - / sts. and rows = inch. cast on sts. = st row:= *k . p . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row twice. = th row:= (eyelets) *k . w.r.n. p tog. repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. continue even in garter st. until work measures - / ins. from beginning. proceed:- =to make leg:= = st row:= k . turn. = nd row:= k . k tog knit to end of row. = rd row:= k . k tog. k . = th row:= as nd row. continue decreasing in this manner until . st. remains. fasten off. beginning again on remaining sts. knit to end of row. proceed:- = st row:= k . k tog. k . turn. = nd row:= k . k tog. knit to end of row. = rd row:= k . k tog. k . = th row:= as nd row. continue decreasing in this manner to . st. fasten off. continuing on remaining sts. knit rows even. inc. . st. each end of needle next and every alternate row to sts. work - / ins. even. work ribbing and eyelets to correspond to front. to make up: sew all seams. with double wool crochet a cord. thread through eyelets at waist. make and sew a small tassel to each end. [illustration: bb logo] =lady's jacket=--"=roberta=" with short and long sleeves. materials: = ply beehive fingering=. ozs. pink no. . ozs. extra for long sleeves. two buttons. three stitch holders. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: =bust= = ins.= = ins.= = ins.= length from top of shoulder " " - / " length of short sleeve underarm seam " " " length of long sleeve underarm seam " " " right front: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. proceed: = st row:= k . *wl. fwd. k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. k . = nd row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = rd row:= k . k tog. *k . wl. fwd. k . k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k . wl. fwd. k . k tog. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . these rows complete one pattern. keeping border of sts. in garter st. continue even in pattern until work from beginning measures ins. ending at front edge. =next row:= (buttonhole). k . cast off sts. work in pattern to end of row. =next row:= work in pattern to cast-off sts. cast on sts. k . continue in pattern until work from beginning measures approx. ins. =(=_ -- - / ins._=)= =(=_ -- ins._=)= ending with th pattern row. =to shape armhole:= = st row:= k . *wl. fwd. k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. k . = nd row:= cast off sts. purl to last sts. k . still keeping garter st. border continue even in pattern until armhole from first shaping measures ins. =(=_ -- - / ins._=)= =(=_ -- - / ins._=)=. =to shape shoulder:= at armhole edge cast off sts. every alternate row once, then sts. twice. leave remaining sts. on st. holder. left front: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. proceed: = st row:= k . *wl. fwd. k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. k . = nd row:= k . purl to last st. k . = rd row:= k tog. *k . wl. fwd. k . k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k . wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . working buttonhole as for right front, continue even in pattern until work from beginning measures approx. ins. =(=_ -- - / ins._=)= =(=_ -- ins._=)= ending with th pattern row. =to shape armhole:= = st row:= cast off sts. k . *wl. fwd. k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. k . continue in pattern working to correspond to right front being careful to have shapings for opposite side. leave remaining sts. on nd st. holder. back: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. proceed:- = st row:= k . *wl. fwd. k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. k . = nd row:= k . purl to last st. k . = rd row:= k tog. *k . wl. fwd. k . k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k . wl. fwd. k . k tog. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . these rows complete one pattern. continue even in pattern until work from beginning measures approx. ins. =(=_ -- - / ins._=)= =(=_ -- ins._=)= ending with th pattern row. =to shape armholes:= = st row:= cast off sts. k . *wl. fwd. k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. k . = nd row:= cast off sts. purl to last st. k . continue even in pattern until armhole from first shaping measures ins. =(=_ -- - / ins._=)= =(=_ -- - / ins._=)=. =to shape shoulders:= keeping continuity of pattern cast off sts. beginning next rows, then sts. beginning following rows. leave remaining sts. on rd st. holder. sew shoulder seams. with right side of work facing, join wool and knit across sts. from st. st. holder. pick up and knit . st. from shoulder seam. knit across back sts. ( rd st. holder). pick up and knit . st. from shoulder seam. knit across sts. from remaining ( nd) st. holder. sts. on needle. knit rows garter st. cast off sts. knitways, sts. purl ways, sts. knitways. short sleeves: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. = th row:= (k . inc. . st. in next st.) times. k . sts. on needle. continue even in pattern as given for back until sleeve measures approx. - / ins. ending with th pattern row. cast off. long sleeves: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. = th row:= k . (k . inc. . st. in next st.) times. k . sts. on needle. continue even in pattern as given for back until sleeve measures approx. - / ins. ending with th pattern row. cast off. to make up: press pieces carefully. sew side seams. sew up sleeve to within - / ins. of top. sew in sleeves. make a link for the buttons and insert in buttonholes. =baby's jacket=--"=bob=" materials: = ply beehive fingering=. ozs. pink no. . two buttons. one stitch holder. two safety pins. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = mos.= = mos.= = mos.= width all round at underarm ins. ins. - / ins. length from top of shoulder - / " - / " - / " length of sleeve underarm seam - / " " " right front: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. proceed:- = st row:= k . *wl. fwd. k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. k . = nd row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = rd row:= k . k tog. *k . wl. fwd. k . k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k . wl. fwd. k . k tog. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . these rows complete one pattern. keeping border of sts. in garter st. continue even in pattern until work measures ins. from beginning ending at front edge. =next row:= (buttonhole). k . wl. fwd. k tog. work in pattern to end of row. continue even in pattern until work from beginning measures approx. - / ins. =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= ending with th pattern row. =to shape armhole:= = st row:= k . *wl. fwd. k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. k . = nd row:= cast off sts. purl to last sts. k . continue even in pattern until armhole from first shaping measures ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)=. =to shape shoulder:= at armhole edge cast off sts. every alternate row once, then sts. once. leave remaining sts. on safety pin. left front: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. proceed: = st row:= k . *wl. fwd. k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. k . = nd row:= k . purl to last st. k . = rd row:= k tog. *k . wl. fwd. k . k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k . wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . these rows complete one pattern. keeping border of sts. in garter st. continue even in pattern until work measures ins. from beginning ending at front edge. =next row:= (buttonhole). k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . purl to last st. k . continue even in pattern until work from beginning measures approx. - / ins. =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= ending with th pattern row. =to shape armhole:= cast off sts. k . *wl. fwd. k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. k . continue in pattern, working to correspond to right front being careful to have shapings for opposite side. back: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. proceed:- = st row:= k . *wl. fwd. k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. k . = nd row:= k . purl to last st. k . = rd row:= k tog. *k . wl. fwd. k . k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k . wl. fwd. k . k tog. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . these rows complete one pattern. continue even in pattern until work from beginning measures approx. - / ins. =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= ending with th pattern row. =to shape armholes:= = st row:= cast off sts. k . *wl. fwd. k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. k . = nd row:= cast off sts. purl to last st. k . continue even in pattern until armhole from first shaping measures ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)=. =to shape shoulders:= keeping continuity of pattern cast off sts. beginning next rows, then sts. beginning following rows. leave remaining sts. on st. holder. sew shoulder seams. with right side of work facing, join wool and knit sts. left at right front. pick up and knit . st. from shoulder seam. knit across sts. of back. pick up and knit . st. from shoulder seam. knit sts. left at left front. sts. on needle. knit rows garter st. cast off sts. knitways, sts. purl ways, sts. knitways. sleeves: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. = th row:= k . (inc. . st. in next st. k ) times. k . sts. on needle. continue even in pattern as given for back until sleeve measures approx. - / ins. =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= ending with th pattern row. cast off. to make up: press pieces carefully. sew side seams. sew - / ins. =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= of sleeve. sew in sleeves. make a link for the buttons and insert in buttonholes. [illustration: _=special supplement=_ _=ladies' and babies' bedjackets=_ =lady's jacket=--"=roberta="--_see page ._ =baby's jacket=--"=bob="--_see page ._] =lady's jacket=--"=pamela=" materials: =miss canada crochet-knitting wool=. ozs. chalk green. one button. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: =bust= = ins.= = ins.= = ins.= length from top of shoulder - / " " " length of sleeve underarm seam - / " " - / " right front: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. = th row:= k . *inc. . st. in next st. k . repeat from * to last sts. k . sts. on needle. proceed:- = st row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = nd row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . *wl. fwd. knit the next st. knitting into the st. of the previous row. (the working of this st. will be termed "knit below" throughout). wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. knit below. wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . = rd row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = th row:= knit. these rows complete one pattern. continue even in pattern until work measures - / ins. from beginning, ending at front edge. =next row:= (buttonhole) k . cast off sts. k . work in pattern to end of row. =next row:= work to cast-off sts. cast on sts. k . continue even in pattern until work measures approx. ins. from beginning, ending with nd pattern row, and casting on sts. at end of row for sleeve. proceed:- = st row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = nd row:= knit. = rd row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = th row:= k . *knit below. wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. repeat from * to last sts. knit below. wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = th row:= knit. continue in this manner, knitting more garter st. for lapel on next and every following th row, leaving less pattern st. at front edge, until there are garter sts. for lapel. continue even in pattern until sleeve is approx. - / ins. wide, =(=_ -- ins._=)= =(=_ -- ins._=)=, ending at sleeve edge with nd row. =next row:= cast off sts. knitways, then sts. purl ways. left front: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. = th row:= (k . inc. . st. in next st.) times. k . sts. on needle. proceed:- = st row:= k . purl to last st. k . = nd row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . *wl. fwd. knit below. wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. knit below. wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . = rd row:= k . purl to last st. k . = th row:= knit. these rows complete one pattern. continue even in pattern until work measures ins. from beginning ending with rd pattern row, casting on sts. at end of row for sleeve. proceed:- = st row:= knit. = nd row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = rd row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . *wl. fwd. knit below. wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. knit below. k . = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = th row:= knit. continue to correspond to right front, until sleeve is same depth, ending with nd row. =next row:= cast off sts. purl ways, sts. knitways. back: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. = th row:= *k . inc. . st. in next st. k . repeat from * to end of row. sts. on needle. proceed:- = st row:= k . purl to last st. k . = nd row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . *wl. fwd. knit below. wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. knit below. wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . = rd row:= k . purl to last st. k . = th row:= knit. these rows complete one pattern. continue even in pattern until work measures approx. ins. from beginning ending with nd pattern row and casting on sts. at end of row for sleeve. =next row:= k . purl to end of row. cast on sts. for other sleeve. proceed:- **= st row:= knit. = nd row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = rd row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . *wl. fwd. knit below. wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. knit below. wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k .** repeat from ** to ** until back of sleeve is one pattern less than depth of front of sleeve, ending with th row. proceed:- = st row:= k . (k tog. k ) times. k . = nd row:= k . p . k . p . k . = rd row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. (k . wl. fwd. knit below. wl. fwd. k . k tog.) times. k . wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. (k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. knit below. wl. fwd.) times. k . k tog. k . = th row:= cast off sts. knitways, sts. purl ways, sts. knitways, sts. purl ways, sts. knitways. to make up: press pieces carefully. sew all seams. sew button to correspond to buttonhole. =baby's jacket=--"=pam=" materials: =miss canada crochet-knitting wool=. ozs. chalk green. one button. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = mos.= = mos.= = mos.= width all round at underarm ins. ins. - / ins. length from top of shoulder - / " " " length of sleeve underarm seam - / " " " right front: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. = th row:= k . (inc. . st. in next st. k ) times. sts. on needle. proceed:- = st row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = nd row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . *wl. fwd. knit below. (see nd row, "pamela"). wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. knit below. wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . = rd row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = th row:= knit. these rows complete one pattern. continue even in pattern until work measures - / ins. from beginning, ending at front edge. =next row:= (buttonhole) k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . work in pattern to end of row. continue even until work measures - / ins. from beginning ending with nd pattern row, casting on sts. at end of row for sleeve. proceed:- = st row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = nd row:= knit. = rd row:= k . purl to last sts. k . continue in pattern working more garter st. for lapel every th row, leaving less pattern st. at front edge, until there are garter sts. for lapel. continue even in pattern until sleeve is approx. ins. wide, =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)=, ending with nd row. =next row:= cast off sts. knitways, remaining sts. purl ways. left front: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. = th row:= k . (inc. . st. in next st. k ) times. sts. on needle. proceed:- = st row:= k . purl to last st. k . = nd row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . *wl. fwd. knit below. wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. knit below. wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . = rd row:= k . purl to last st. k . = th row:= knit. these rows complete one pattern. continue even in pattern until work measures - / ins. from beginning, ending with rd pattern row, casting on sts. at end of row for sleeve. proceed:- = st row:= knit. = nd row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = rd row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . *wl. fwd. knit below. wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. knit below. k . = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = th row:= knit. continue to correspond to right front until sleeve is same depth, ending with nd row. cast off sts. purl ways, remaining sts. knitways. back: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. = th row:= knit, inc. sts. across row. sts. on needle. proceed:- = st row:= k . purl to last st. k . = nd row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . *wl. fwd. knit below. wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. knit below. wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . = rd row:= k . purl to last st. k . = th row:= knit. these rows complete one pattern. continue even in pattern until work measures approx. - / ins. from beginning, ending with nd pattern row, and casting on sts. at end of row for sleeve. =next row:= k . purl to end of row, casting on sts. for other sleeve. proceed:- **= st row:= knit. = nd row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = rd row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . *wl. fwd. knit below. wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. knit below. wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k .** repeat from ** to ** until sleeve measures one pattern less than depth of front of sleeve, ending with th row. proceed:- = st row:= k . (k tog. k ) times. k . = nd row:= k . p . k . p . k . = rd row:= k . work sts. in pattern. k . work sts. in pattern. k . =next row:= cast off sts. knitways, sts. purl ways, sts. knitways, sts. purl ways, sts. knitways. make up jacket as given for "pamela". [illustration: (_left_)--"=elizabeth="--_see page ._ (_below_)--"=betty="--_see page ._ (_right_)--"=pamela="--_see page ._ (_below_)--"=pam="--_see page ._] =lady's jacket=--"=elizabeth="--_illustrated on page _ materials: =beehive lustre crepe=. ozs. bitter sweet =(=_ -- ozs._=)= =(=_ -- ozs._=)=. one button. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: =bust= = ins.= = ins.= = ins.= length from top of shoulder " - / " " length of sleeve underarm seam " " " right front: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. = th row:= *k . inc. . st. in next st. k . repeat from * to last st. k . sts. on needle. proceed:- **= st row:= k . p . (k . p . k . p .) times. k . = nd row:= k . p . k . (p . k . p . k ) times. p . k . = rd row:= k . keeping wool at back of needle slip next st. purl ways. k . pass the slipped st. over the knitted sts. (the working of these sts. will be termed "cross" throughout). p . (k . p . cross. p ) times. k . = th row:= k . p . k . (p . w.r.n. p . k . p . k ) times. p . w.r.n. p . k . = th row:= k . wl. fwd. slip the w.r.n. of previous row purl ways. k . p . (k . p . k . wl. fwd. slip the w.r.n. of previous row purl ways. k . p ) times. k . = th row:= k . p . k . (p . purl the two wl. fwd.'s tog. p . k . p . k ) times. p . purl the two wl. fwd.'s tog. p . k .** repeat from ** to ** times, then st. row once. =to shape armhole:= keeping continuity of pattern, at armhole edge cast off sts. once, then dec. . st. every alternate row to sts. on needle. continue even until patterns have been worked from beginning. work first rows of next pattern ending at front edge. =next row:= (buttonhole). k . cast off sts. work in pattern to end of row. =next row:= work in pattern, casting on sts. to replace the cast-off sts. =to shape neck:= keeping continuity of pattern, at neck edge cast off sts. k . k tog. (k . p . k . p . k ) twice. dec. . st. every alternate row to sts. on needle. work row even. =to shape shoulder:= keeping continuity of pattern, at armhole edge cast off sts. every alternate row times. left front: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. = th row:= k . *k . inc. . st. in next st. k . repeat from * to end of row. sts. on needle. proceed:- **= st row:= k . (p . k . p . k ) times. p . k . = nd row:= k . p . (k . p . k . p ) times. k . p . k . = rd row:= k . (p . cross. p . k ) times. p . cross. k . = th row:= k . p . w.r.n. p . (k . p . k . p . w.r.n. p ) times. k . p . k . = th row:= k . (p . k . wl. fwd. slip the w.r.n. of previous row purl ways. k . p . k ) times. p . k . wl. fwd. slip the w.r.n. of previous row purl ways. k . = th row:= k . p . purl the two wl. fwd.'s tog. (p . k . p . k . p . purl the two wl. fwd.'s tog. p ) times. k . p . k .** repeat from ** to ** times. keeping continuity of pattern continue to correspond to right front, omitting buttonhole and being careful to have all shapings for opposite side. back: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. = th row:= *k . inc. . st. in next st. k . repeat from * to end of row. sts. on needle. proceed:- **= st row:= k . *k . p . k . p . k . repeat from * to last st. k . = nd row:= k . *p . k . p . k . p . repeat from * to last st. k . = rd row:= k . *k . p . cross. p . k . repeat from * to last st. k . = th row:= k . *p . k . p . w.r.n. p . k . p . repeat from * to last st. k . = th row:= k . *k . p . k . wl. fwd. slip the w.r.n. of previous row purl ways. k . p . k . repeat from * to last st, k . = th row:= k . *p . k . p . purl the two wl. fwd.'s tog. p . k . p . repeat from * to last st. k .** repeat from ** to ** times. =to shape armholes:= keeping continuity of pattern, cast off sts. beginning next rows, then dec. . st. each end of needle next and every alternate row to sts. on needle. continue even in pattern until armhole measures same as front. =to shape shoulders:= keeping continuity of pattern, cast off sts. beginning next rows. cast off remaining sts. (_continued on page _) =baby's jacket=-"=betty="-_illustrated on page _ materials: =beehive lustre crepe=. ozs. bitter sweet. one button. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = mos.= = mos.= = mos.= width all round at underarm ins. ins. - / ins. length from top of shoulder - / " " " length of sleeve underarm seam - / " " " right front: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. = th row:= *k . inc. . st. in next st. k . repeat from * to end of row. sts. on needle. proceed:- = st row:= k . p . k . p . k . p . k . = nd row:= k . p . k . p . k . p . k . p . k . = rd row:= k . keeping wool at back of needle slip the next st. purl ways. k . pass the slipped st. over the knitted sts. (the working of these sts. will be termed "cross" throughout). p . k . p . cross. p . k . = th row:= k . p . k . p . w.r.n. p . k . p . k . p . w.r.n. p . k . = th row:= k . wl. fwd. slip the w.r.n. of the previous row purl ways. k . p . k . p . k . wl. fwd. slip the w.r.n. of the previous row purl ways. k . p . k . = th row:= k . p . k . p . purl the wl. fwds. tog. p . k . p . k . p . purl the wl. fwds. tog. p . k . these rows complete one pattern. continue even in pattern until work measures - / ins. from beginning, ending at armhole edge. =to shape armhole:= keeping continuity of pattern cast off sts. once, then dec. . st. every alternate row times. sts. on needle. continue even in pattern until armhole measures ins. from first shaping, ending at front edge. =next row:= (buttonhole) k . wl. fwd. k tog. work in pattern to end of row. =next row:= work in pattern to end of row. =to shape neck:= cast off sts. work in pattern to end of row. keeping continuity of pattern, at neck edge dec. . st. every row to sts. on needle. continue even in pattern until armhole from first shaping measures ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= ending at armhole edge. =to shape shoulder:= at armhole edge cast off sts. every alternate row twice. left front: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. = th row:= *k . inc. . st. in next st. k . repeat from * to end of row. sts. on needle. proceed:- = st row:= k . p . k . p . k . p . k . = nd row:= k . p . k . p . k . p . k . p . k . = rd row:= k . p . cross. p . k . p . cross. k . = th row:= k . p . w.r.n. p . k . p . k . p . w.r.n. p . k . p . k . = th row:= k . p . k . wl. fwd. slip the w.r.n. of previous row purl ways. k . p . k . p . k . wl. fwd. slip the w.r.n. of previous row purl ways. k . = th row:= k . p . purl the wl. fwds. tog. p . k . p . k . p . purl the wl. fwds. tog. p . k . p . k . these rows complete one pattern. keeping continuity of pattern continue to correspond to right front, omitting buttonhole, and being careful to have all shapings for opposite side. back: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. = th row:= *k . inc. . st. in next st. repeat from * to last sts. k . sts. on needle. proceed:- = st row:= k . (k . p . k . p . k ) times. k . = nd row:= k . p . (p . k . p . k . p ) times. p . k . = rd row:= k . (k . p . cross. p . k ) times. k . = th row:= k . p . (p . k . p . w.r.n. p . k . p ) times. p . k . = th row:= k . (k . p . k . wl. fwd. slip the w.r.n. of previous row purl ways. k . p . k ) times. k . = th row:= k . p . (p . k . p . purl the wl. fwds. tog. p . k . p ) times. p . k . these rows complete one pattern. continue even in pattern until work measures - / ins. from beginning. =to shape armholes:= with right side of work facing, keeping continuity of pattern, cast off sts. beginning next rows, then dec. . st. each end of needle next and every alternate row times. sts. on needle. continue even in pattern until armhole from first shaping measures ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)=. =to shape shoulders:= cast off sts, beginning next rows. th row: *k . k tog. k . repeat from * to end of row. cast off. (_continued on page _) "=elizabeth=" (_continued from page _) sleeves: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. = th row:= k . *inc. . st. in next st. k . repeat from * to end of row. sts. on needle. proceed:- work first rows in pattern as given for back. = th row:= k . (k . p . k . wl. fwd. slip the w.r.n. of previous row purl ways. k . p . k ) twice. (k tog. k . p . k . wl. fwd. slip the w.r.n. of previous row purl ways. k . p . k . k tog. k . p . k . wl. fwd. slip the w.r.n. of previous row purl ways. k . p . k ) twice. k . p . k . wl. fwd. slip the w.r.n. of previous row purl ways. k . p . k . sts. on needle. = th row:= k . (p . k . p . purl the wl. fwds. tog. p . k . p ) twice. (p . k . p . purl the wl. fwds. tog. p . k . p . k . p . purl the wl. fwds. tog. p . k . p ) twice. p . k . p . purl the wl. fwds. tog. p . k . p . k . = th row:= k . (k . p . k . p . k ) twice. (k . p . k . p . k . p . k . p . k ) twice. k . p . k . p . k . = th row:= k . (p . k . p . k . p ) twice. (p . k . p . k . p . k . p . k . p ) twice. p . k . p . k . p . k . = th row:= k . (k . p . cross. p . k ) twice. (k tog. k . p . cross. p . k . k tog. k . p . cross. p . k ) twice. k . p . cross. p . k . sts. on needle. keeping continuity of pattern continue decreasing sts. in this manner every th row more times. sts. on needle. work rows even. =next row:= k . (k . p . cross. p . k ) twice. (k tog. k . p . cross. p . k ) twice. k . p . cross. p . k . work rows even. =next row:= k . (k . p . k . p . k ) twice. (k tog. k . p . k . p . k ) twice. k . (p . k ) twice. sts. on needle. beginning with nd row as given for pattern for back, continue even in pattern until sleeve measures ins. from beginning, or desired length. =to shape cap:= *keeping continuity of pattern, cast off sts. beginning next rows, then . st. beginning following rows.* repeat from * to * to sts. on needle. cast off. collar: cast on sts. knit - / ins. garter st. cast off. to make up: press all pieces carefully. sew all seams. sew in sleeves, placing the seam sts. to front of the side seam. sew collar in position, placing the ends to the edges of fronts. sew button to correspond to buttonhole. "=betty=" (_continued from page _) sleeves: cast on sts. knit rows garter st. = th row:= *k . inc. . st. in next st. k . repeat from * to end of row. sts. on needle. work in pattern as given for back, but working sts. in brackets twice instead of times. continue even until sleeve from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)=. cast off sts. beginning every row to sts. on needle. cast off. collar: cast on sts. work ins. garter st. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)=. cast off. make up jacket as given for "elizabeth". "=jacqueline=" (_continued from page _) sleeves: cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. proceed:- = st row:= k . (wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k .) twice. wl. fwd. k tog. k . = nd and alternate rows:= k . purl to last st. k . = rd row:= k . (wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k ) twice. wl. fwd. k tog. k . = th row:= k . (wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k ) twice. wl. fwd. k tog. k . = th row:= k . (wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k ) twice. wl. fwd. k tog. k . = th row:= k . k tog. t.b.l. k . (wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k ) twice. wl. fwd. (k tog.) twice. k . continue dec. . st. each side of pattern panel in this manner every following th row to sts. on needle ending with purl row. sleeve now measures approx. ins. from beginning. =to shape cap:= still dec. . st. every th row each side of pattern panel, cast off . st. beginning every row to sts. on needle. cast off. to make up: press carefully. sew all seams. cut ribbon in half. sew one piece to each front and tie as illustrated. "=nan=" (_continued from page _) = th row:= k . *inc. sts. in next st. inc. . st. in next st. repeat from * to last sts. inc. sts. in next st. k . sts. on needle. = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . repeat th and th rows times, then th row once. change to no. needles =(=_ --no. needles_=)= =(=_ --no. needles_=)= and proceed:- = th row:= k . *k tog. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k tog. k . sts. on needle. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . = th row:= knit. repeat from rd to th row once, then rd to th row once. knit rows garter st. cast off loosely. neckband: with no. needles =(=_ --no. needles_=)= =(=_ --no. needles_=)= and right side of work facing, beginning at right front, slip the sts. from st. holder onto a needle. join wool, and using same needle, pick up and knit sts. along side of neck. pick up and knit sts. across back of neck, and sts. along other side of neck. knit across sts. of left front. sts. on needle. knit rows garter st. = th row:= k . cast off sts. knit to last sts. cast off sts. k . = th row:= k . cast on sts. knit to last sts. cast on sts. k . = th row:= knit. cast off loosely. to make up: press the borders only. sew side and sleeve seams. make a link with the buttons and insert in buttonholes. "=margaret=" (_continued from page _) sleeves: ch. sts. join wool to centre s.c. of . s.c. group at right of shoulder section and work in s.c. across armhole to corresponding point at left. ch. . turn. working shells on each ch. , continue in shell pattern until sleeves measures ins. fasten off. collar: join wool at right front edge. work rows s.c. along neck edge. = th row:= work in s.c. increasing . s.c. across row. repeat th row times, being careful not to increase over increased sts. of previous rows. =next row:= *work shells. ( . s.c. . d.c. . s.c.) in next s.c. . s.s. in next s.c. (this increases shell). repeat from * to end of row. work rows even in shell pattern. fasten off. to make up: press carefully. sew side and sleeve seams. cut narrow ribbon in half. thread through shells of sleeve inch from cuff edge. tie in bow. cut wider ribbon in half and sew piece to each front at neck edge. "=jack=" (_continued from page _) sleeves: cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. proceed:- **= st row:= k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . = nd and alternate rows:= k . purl to last st. k . = rd row:= k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . = th row:= k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . = th row:= k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . = th row:= k . purl to last st. k .** repeat from ** to ** until sleeve from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)=. keeping centre panel even, cast off sts. beginning every row to sts. on needle. cast off. make up as given for "jacqueline". [illustration: bb logo] [illustration: (_left_)--"=margaret="--_see below._ (_below_)--"=peggy="--_see page ._ _shown in pram._] =lady's crocheted jacket=--"=margaret=" materials: ply =beehive non-shrink baby wool=. ozs. sky blue. =(=_ -- ozs._=)= =(=_ -- ozs._=)=. one no. steel crochet hook. (american gauge). yd. ribbon - / ins. wide. yds. ribbon inch wide. measurements: =bust= = ins.= = ins.= = ins.= length from top of shoulder " - / " - / " length of sleeve underarm seam " " " tension and shell pattern as given for crocheted bonnet, see page . _the instructions are written for size . sizes and are written in brackets thus:- =(= =)=._ beginning at neck edge ch. sts. = st row:= . s.c. in nd ch. from hook. . s.c. in next ch. . s.c. in next ch. (left front shoulder). . s.c. in next ch. . s.c. in next ch. (left back shoulder). . s.c. in next ch. . s.c. in next ch. (right back shoulder). . s.c. in next ch. . s.c. in next ch. (right front shoulder). . s.c. in next . ch. ch. . turn. work nd row as given for baby's crocheted coat, see page . continue in s.c. inc. . sts. at each end of row (for front of neck, and working . s.c. in centre of each . s.c. group every row times) omitting increases at each end of row, continue in s.c. as before until work from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ -- ins._=)= =(=_ -- - / ins._=)= ending at left front edge. ch. . turn. do not break wool. left front: work . s.c. in each st. to centre s.c. of next . s.c. group. ch. . turn. working shells over ch., continue in shell pattern across left front. continue even in shell pattern until shell section measures ins. =(=_ -- ins._=)= =(=_ -- - / ins._=)=. fasten off. right front: ch. sts. join wool to centre s.c. of st. . s.c. group from right front edge. work in s.c. to right front edge. continue to correspond to left front. back: ch. sts. join wool to centre s.c. of nd . s.c. group from left front edge. work in s.c. across back to centre s.c. of next . s.c. group. ch. sts. turn. working shells on each ch. , continue in shell pattern until back is same length as front. (_continued on page _) =lady's jacket=--"=jacqueline=" _illustrated on page _ materials: =beehive lustre crepe=. ozs. coral mist. yd. ribbon. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: =bust= = ins.= = ins.= = ins.= length from top of shoulder " - / " " length of sleeve underarm seam " " " right front: cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. proceed:- **= st row:= (k . p ) times. k . (wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k ) twice. wl. fwd. k tog. k . = nd and alternate rows:= k . purl to last sts. k . (p . k ) times. = rd row:= (k . p ) times. k . (wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k ) twice. wl. fwd. k tog. k . = th row:= (k . p ) times. k . (wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k ) twice. wl. fwd. k tog. k . = th row:= (k . p ) times. k . (wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k ) twice. wl. fwd. k tog. k . = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . (p . k ) times.** repeat from ** to ** times. work from beginning now measures approx. ins. =(=_ -- ins._=)= =(=_ -- - / ins._=)=. =to shape armhole and neck:= = st row:= (k . p ) times. k . k tog. work in pattern to end of row. = nd row:= cast off sts. purl to last sts. (k . p ) times. k . keeping continuity of panel pattern, dec. . st. at armhole edge next then every alternate row times, at the same time dec. . st. at front edge (inside moss st. border) on nd and every following th row to sts. on needle. keeping armhole edge even and keeping continuity of pattern, continue dec. . st. (inside border) every th row to sts. on needle. continue even in pattern until armhole from first shaping measures ins. =(=_ -- - / ins._=)= =(=_ -- - / ins._=)=. =to shape shoulder:= at armhole edge cast off sts. work - / ins. =(=_ -- - / ins._=)= =(=_ -- - / ins._=)= moss st. on remaining sts. cast off. left front: cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. proceed:- **= st row:= k . (wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k ) twice. wl. fwd. k tog. k . (p . k ) times. = nd and alternate rows:= k . (p . k ) times. purl to last st. k . = rd row:= k . (wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k ) twice. wl. fwd. k tog. k . (p . k ) times. = th row:= k . (wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k ) twice. wl. fwd. k tog. k . (p . k ) times. = th row:= k . (wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k ) twice. wl. fwd. k tog. k . (p . k ) times. = th row:= k . (p . k ) times. purl to last st. k .** repeat from ** to ** times. continue to correspond to right front being careful to have all shapings for opposite side. back: cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. proceed:- **= st row:= k . *(wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k ) twice. wl. fwd. k tog.* k . repeat from * to * once. k . = nd and alternate rows:= k . purl to last st. k . = rd row:= k . *(wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k ) twice. wl. fwd. k tog.* k . repeat from * to * once. k . = th row:= k . *(wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k ) twice. wl. fwd. k tog.* k . repeat from * to * once. k . = th row:= k . *(wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k ) twice. wl. fwd. k tog.* k . repeat from * to * once. k . = th row:= k . purl to last st. k .** repeat from ** to ** times. =to shape armholes:= keeping continuity of pattern cast off sts. beginning next rows, then dec. . st. each end of needle next and every alternate row to sts. on needle. continue even in pattern until armhole measures same length as front. =to shape shoulders:= cast off sts. beginning next rows. cast off remaining sts. (_continued on page _) =baby's jacket=--"=jack=" _illustrated on page _ materials: =beehive lustre crepe=. ozs. coral mist. / yd. ribbon. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = mos.= = mos.= = mos.= width all round at underarm ins. ins. - / ins. length from top of shoulder - / " " - / " length of sleeve underarm seam - / " " " right front: cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. proceed:- **= st row:= (k . p ) twice. k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . = nd and alternate rows:= k . purl to last sts. k . (p . k ) twice. = rd row:= (k . p ) twice. k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . = th row:= (k . p ) twice. k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . = th row:= (k . p ) twice. k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . (p . k ) twice.** repeat from ** to ** times. work from beginning now measures approx. - / ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)=. =to shape armhole and neck:= = st row:= (k . p ) twice. k . k tog. k . work in pattern to end of row. = nd row:= cast off sts. purl to last sts. k . (p . k ) twice. keeping continuity of panel pattern, dec. . st. at armhole edge next then every alternate row times, at the same time dec. . st. at neck edge (inside moss st. border) every following th row to sts. on needle. continue even in pattern until armhole from first shaping measures ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)=. =to shape shoulder:= at armhole edge cast off sts. work - / ins. moss st. on remaining sts. cast off. left front: cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. proceed:- **= st row:= k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . (p . k ) twice. = nd and alternate rows:= k . (p . k ) twice. purl to last st. k . = rd row:= k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . (p . k ) twice. = th row:= k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . (p . k ) twice. = th row:= k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k tog. k . (p . k ) twice. = th row:= k . (p . k ) twice. purl to last st. k ** continue to correspond to right front being careful to have all shapings for opposite side. back: cast on sts. = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to end of row. repeat st. row times. proceed:- **= st row:= k . *wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k tog.* k . repeat from * to * once. k . = nd and alternate rows:= k . purl to last st. k . = rd row:= k . *wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k tog.* k . repeat from * to * once. k . = th row:= k . *wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k tog.* k . repeat from * to * once. k . = th row:= k . *wl. fwd. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k tog. wl. fwd. k . wl. fwd. k tog.* k . repeat from * to * once. k . = th row:= k . purl to last st. k .** repeat from ** to ** times. =to shape armholes:= keeping continuity of pattern, cast off sts. beginning next rows, then dec. . st. each end of needle next and every alternate row to sts. on needle. continue even in pattern until armhole measures same length as front. cast off. (_continued on page _) =lady's jacket=--"=nan=" materials: = ply miss canada and andalusian=. ozs. blue no. =(=_ -- ozs._=)= =(=_ -- ozs._=)=. stitch holders. buttons. two no. and two no. beehive knitting needles, inches long. =(=_ --two no. and two no. _=)= =(=_ --two no. and two no. _=)=. measurements: =bust= = ins.= = ins.= = ins.= length from top of shoulder - / " " - / " length of sleeve underarm seam - / " " - / " tension: sts. and rows = inch with no. needles. - / " " " = " " no. " " " " = " " no. " =the instructions are written for size . for size use no. and no. needles, for size use no. and no. needles and follow the same instructions.= =the purled side is the right side of the work.= right front: with no. needles =(=_ --no. needles_=)= =(=_ --no. needles_=)= cast on sts. loosely. knit rows garter st. **change to no. needles =(=_ --no. needles_=)= =(=_ --no. needles_=)= and proceed:- = st row:= k . *inc. sts. in next st. inc. . st. in next st. repeat from * to last sts. inc. sts. in next st. k . sts. on needle. = nd row:= knit. = rd row:= k . purl to last st. k . repeat nd and rd rows once. = th row:= knit to last sts. turn. = th row:= purl to last st. k . repeat from nd to th row once, then nd and rd rows once, then nd row once. change to no. needles =(=_ --no. needles_=)= =(=_ --no. needles_=)= and proceed:- = th row:= k . *k tog. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k tog. k . sts. on needle. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = st row:= k . *wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to end of row. repeat from th to th row once.** repeat from ** to ** once, then from ** to st row once. cast on sts. at end of last row for sleeve. proceed:- ***= st row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = nd row:= knit. = rd row:= k . purl to last sts. k . change to no. needles =(=_ --no. needles_=)= =(=_ --no. needles_=)= and proceed:- = th row:= k . *inc. sts. in next st. inc. . st. in next st. repeat from * to last sts. k . sts. on needle. = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . repeat th and th rows once. = th row:= knit to last sts. turn. = th row:= purl to last sts. turn. repeat th and th rows twice, th and th rows once, th and th rows once, then th row once. change to no. needles =(=_ --no. needles_=)= =(=_ --no. needles_=)= and proceed:- = th row:= k . *k tog. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k . sts. on needle. = st row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = nd row:= knit. = rd row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = th row:= k . *wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k .*** repeat from *** to *** twice, then st and nd rows once. =next row:= k . purl to last sts. slip these sts. onto a st. holder. change to no. needles =(=_ --no. needles_=)= =(=_ --no. needles_=)= and proceed:- = st row:= k . *inc. . st. in next st. inc. sts. in next st. repeat from * to last sts. inc. . st. in next st. k . sts. on needle. = nd row:= knit. = rd row:= k . purl to last sts. k . repeat nd and rd rows once, then nd row once. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. turn. repeat from nd to th row once, the nd and rd rows once, then nd row once. change to no. needles =(=_ --no. needles_=)= =(=_ --no. needles_=)= and proceed:- = th row:= k . *k tog. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k tog. k . sts. on needle. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . = st row:= k . *wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k . = nd row:= k . purl to last st. k . leave these sts. on st. holder until left front has been worked. left front: with no. needles =(=_ --no. needles_=)= =(=_ --no. needles_=)= cast on sts. loosely. knit rows garter st. change to no. needles =(=_ --no. needles_=)= =(=_ --no. needles_=)= and proceed:- **= st row:= k . *inc. sts. in next st. inc. . st. in next st. repeat from * to last sts. inc. sts. in next st. k . sts. on needle. = nd row:= knit. = rd row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. turn. = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . repeat from nd to th row once, then nd to th row once. change to no. needles =(=_ --no. needles_=)= =(=_ --no. needles_=)= and proceed:- = th row:= k . *k tog. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k tog. k . sts. on needle. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . = st row:= k . *wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k . repeat from th to th row once.** change to no. needles =(=_ --no. needles_=)= =(=_ --no. needles_=)= and repeat from ** to ** once, then from ** to st row once. =next row:= k . purl to end of row. cast on sts. for sleeve. proceed:- ***= st row:= knit. = nd row:= k . purl to last sts. k . change to no. needles =(=_ --no. needles_=)= =(=_ --no. needles_=)= and proceed:- = rd row:= k . *inc. . st. in next st. inc. sts. in next st. repeat from * to last sts. k . sts. on needle. = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. turn. = th row:= knit to last sts. turn. = th row:= purl to last sts. k . repeat th to th row once, then th to th row once. change to no. needles =(=_ --no. needles_=)= =(=_ --no. needles_=)= and proceed:- = th row:= k . *k tog. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k . sts. on needle. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = st row:= knit. = nd row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = rd row:= k . *wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k . = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k .*** repeat from *** to *** twice. =next row:= knit to last sts. slip these sts. onto st. holder. work on remaining sts. as follows:- = st row:= k . purl to last sts. k . change to no. needles =(=_ --no. needles_=)= =(=_ --no. needles_=)= and proceed:- = nd row:= k . *inc. . st. in next st. inc. sts. in next st. repeat from * to last sts. inc. . st. in next st. k . sts. on needle. = rd row:= knit. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . repeat rd and th rows once. = th row:= knit to last sts. turn. = th row:= purl to last st. k . repeat from rd to th row once, the rd and th rows once, then rd row once. change to no. needles =(=_ --no. needles_=)= =(=_ --no. needles_=)= and proceed:- = th row:= k . *k tog. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k tog. k . sts. on needle. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = th row:= knit. = st row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = nd row:= k . *wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to last st. k . = rd row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = th row:= knit to end of row. cast on sts. working sts. of right front onto end of same needle, knit to end of row. sts. on needle. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . change to no. needles =(=_ --no. needles_=)= =(=_ --no. needles_=)= and proceed:- = st row:= k . *inc. . st. in next st. inc. sts. in next st. repeat from * to last sts. inc. . st. in next st. k . sts. on needle. = nd row:= knit. = rd row:= k . purl to last sts. k . repeat nd and rd rows once. = th row:= knit to last sts. turn. = th row:= purl to last sts. turn. repeat from nd to th row once, the nd and rd rows once, then nd row once. change to no. needles =(=_ --no. needles_=)= =(=_ --no. needles_=)= and proceed:- = th row:= k . *k tog. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k tog. k . sts. on needle. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = st row:= k . *wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k . repeat th and th rows once. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . repeat from st. to th row twice, then st. to th row once. proceed:- = st row:= cast off sts. purl to last sts. k . = nd row:= cast off sts. knit to end of row. = rd row:= k . purl to last st. k . = th row:= k . *wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to end of row. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . change to no. needles =(=_ --no. needles_=)= =(=_ --no. needles_=)= and proceed:- (_continued on page _) [illustration: (_left_)--"=nan="--_see page ._ (_above_)--"=nanette="--_see page ._ (_right_)--"=jacqueline="--_see page ._ (_below_)--"=jack="--_see page ._] =baby's jacket=--"=nanette="--_illustrated on page _ materials: = ply miss canada andalusian=. ozs. blue no. . stitch holders. buttons. two no. and two no. beehive knitting needles. =(=_ mos.--two no. and two no. _=)= =(=_ mos.--two no. and two no. _=)=. measurements: = mos.= = mos.= = mos.= width all round at underarm ins. ins. - / ins. length from top of shoulder - / " " - / " length of sleeve underarm seam " - / " - / " tension: sts. and rows = inch with no. needles. - / " " " = " " no. " " " " = " " no. " =the instructions are written for size mos. for mos. size use no. and no. needles. for mos. size use no. and no. needles and follow same instructions.= =the purled side is the right side of the work.= right front: with no. needles =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= cast on sts. loosely. knit rows garter st. **change to no. needles =(=_ mos--no. needles_=)= =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= and proceed:- = st row:= k . *inc. sts. in next st. inc. . st. in next st. repeat from * to last sts. inc. sts. in next st. k . sts. on needle. = nd row:= knit. = rd row:= k . purl to last st. k . repeat nd and rd rows once. = th row:= knit to last sts. turn. = th row:= purl to last st. k . repeat nd and rd rows once, then nd row once. change to no. needles =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= and proceed:- = th row:= k . *k tog. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k tog. k . sts. on needle. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = th row:= k . *wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to end of row. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = th row:= knit. = th row:= as th row.** repeat from ** to ** once, then from ** to end of th row casting on sts. for sleeve at end of last row. sts. on needle. proceed:- ***= st row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = nd row:= knit. rd row: as st. row. change to no. needles =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= =(=_ mos--no. needles_=)= and proceed:- = th row:= k . *inc. sts. in next st. inc. . st. in next st. repeat from * to last sts. k . sts. on needle. = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . repeat th and th rows once. = th row:= knit to last sts. turn. = th row:= purl to last sts. turn. = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . repeat th row once. change to no. needles =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= and proceed:- = th row:= k . *k tog. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k . sts. on needle. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = th row:= k . *wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k .*** repeat from *** to *** once, then st. and nd rows once. =next row:= k . purl to last sts. slip these sts. onto safety pin. change to no. needles =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= and working on remaining sts. proceed:- = st row:= k . *inc. . st. in next st. inc. sts. in next st. repeat from * to last sts. inc. . st. in next st. k . sts. on needle. = nd row:= knit. = rd row:= k . purl to last sts. k . repeat nd and rd rows once, then nd row once. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. turn. = th row:= knit. repeat rd then nd row once. change to no. needles =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= and proceed:- = th row:= k . *k tog. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k tog. k . sts. on needle. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . = th row:= k . *wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k . = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . leave these sts. on st. holder until left front has been worked. left front: with no. needles =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= cast on sts. loosely. knit rows garter st. **change to no. needles =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= and proceed:- = st row:= k . *inc. sts. in next st. inc. . st. in next st. repeat from * to last sts. inc. sts. in next st. k . sts. on needle. = nd row:= knit. = rd row:= k . purl to last sts. k . repeat nd row once. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. turn. = th row:= knit. = th row:= as rd row. repeat nd and rd rows once, then nd row once. change to no. needles =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= and proceed:- = th row:= k . *k tog. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k tog. k . sts. on needle. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . = th row:= k . *wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k . = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . = th row:= knit. = th row:= as th row.** repeat from ** to ** once, then from ** to end of th row casting on sts. for sleeve at end of last row. sts. on needle. proceed:- ***= st row:= knit. = nd row:= k . purl to last sts. k . change to no. needles =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= and proceed:- = rd row:= k . *inc. . st. in next st. inc. sts. in next st. repeat from * to last sts. k . sts. on needle. = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = th row:= as th row. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. turn. = th row:= knit to last sts. turn. = th row:= purl to last sts. k . repeat th and th rows once, then th row once. change to no. needles =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= and proceed:- = th row:= k . *k tog. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k . sts. on needle. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = th row:= k . *wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k . = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k .*** repeat from *** to *** once. =next row:= knit to last sts. slip these sts. onto safety pin. working on remaining sts. proceed:- = st row:= k . purl to last sts. k . change to no. needles =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= and proceed:- = nd row:= k . *inc. . st. in next st. inc. sts. in next st. repeat from * to last sts. inc. . st. in next st. k . sts. on needles. = rd row:= knit. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . = th row:= knit to last sts. turn. = th row:= purl to last st. k . repeat th and th rows once, then th row once. change to no. needles =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= and proceed:- = th row:= k . *k tog. k tog. repeat from * to last sts: k tog. k . sts. on needle. = th row:= k . purl to last sts: k . = th row:= k . *wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to last st: k . = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = th row:= knit to end of row. cast on sts. working sts. of right front onto end of same needle, knit to end of row. sts. on needle. =next row:= k . purl to last sts. k . change to no. needles =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= and proceed:- = st row:= k . *inc. . st. in next st. inc. sts. in next st. repeat from * to last sts. inc. . st. in next st. k . sts. on needle. = nd row:= knit. = rd row:= k . purl to last sts. k . repeat nd row once. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. turn. = th row:= knit to last sts. turn. = th row:= purl to last sts. k . repeat nd and rd rows once, then nd row once. change to no. needles =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= and proceed:- = th row:= k . *k tog. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k tog. k . sts. on needle. = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = th row:= k . *wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k . = th row:= k . purl to last sts. k . = th row:= knit. = th row:= as th row. repeat from st. to th row. proceed:- = st row:= cast off sts. purl to last sts. k . = nd row:= cast off sts. k . *wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to end of row. sts. on needle. = rd row:= k . purl to last st. k . = th row:= knit. = th row:= as rd row. change to no. needles =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= and proceed:- = th row:= k . *inc. sts. in next st. inc. . st. in next st. repeat from * to last sts. inc. sts. in next st. k . sts. on needle. = th row:= knit. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . repeat th and th rows times, then th row once. change to no. needles =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= and proceed:- (_continued on page _) =crocheted bottle cover=--for oz. bottle. _illustrated on cover_ materials: = ply beehive fingering=. oz. one no. steel crochet hook. (american gauge). length of ribbon. tension: star sts. = inch. rounds = inch. starting at bottom ch. sts. join in round with s.s. = st round:= insert hook in same place as s.s. draw up loop. (insert hook in next ch. and draw up loop) times. w.o.h. and draw through all loops on hook. ch. . (this makes . star st.). *insert hook in single loop of the ch. . and draw up loop. insert hook under last loop of star st. and draw up loop. insert hook in same ch. as last loop of previous star st. and draw up loop. insert hook in next ch. and draw up loop. w.o.h. and draw through all loops on hook. ch. . repeat from * around ch. star sts. in round. = nd round:= insert hook in single loop of ch. . just worked and draw up loop. insert hook under last loop of previous star st. and draw up loop. insert hook in same ch. as last loop of previous star st. and draw up loop. insert hook in ch. . of next star st. and draw up loop. w.o.h. and draw through all loops on hook. ch. . (this completes st. star st. of nd round). *insert hook in ch. . just worked and draw up loop. insert hook under last loop of previous star st. and draw up loop. insert hook in same place as last loop of previous star st. and draw up loop. insert hook in top loop of star st. of previous round and draw up loop. w.o.h. and draw through all loops on hook. ch. . (this increases star st.). work star sts. in same manner as st. star st. of nd round. repeat from * to end of round. star sts. in round. continue even in star st. working . star st. over each star st. until work measures - / ins. from beginning. s.s. to top loop of next star st. proceed:- =to make edging:= = st round:= *ch. . miss . star st. . s.c. in top loop of next star st. repeat from * to end of round. = nd round:= s.s. to centre of next loop. *ch. . . s.c. in next loop. repeat from * to end of round. = rd round:= s.s. to centre of next loop. *ch. . . d.c. in next loop. ch. . . s.c. in st. ch. of ch. . just worked. (this makes a picot). . d.c. in loop where last d.c. was worked. picot. . d.c. in same loop. ch. . . s.c. in next loop. repeat from * to end of round. fasten off. thread ribbon through nd round of loops and tie. "=nanette=" (_continued from page _) = th row:= k . *k tog. k tog. repeat from * to last sts. k tog. k . sts. on needle. = th row:= k . purl to last st. k . = th row:= k . *wl. fwd. k tog. repeat from * to end of row. repeat from rd to th row once, then from rd to th row once. knit rows garter st. cast off loosely. neckband: with no. needles =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= =(=_ mos.--no. needles_=)= and right side of work facing, beginning at right front, slip the sts. from safety pin onto a needle. join wool and using same needle pick up and knit sts. along side of neck. pick up and knit sts. across back of neck. pick up and knit sts. along other side of neck and sts. from safety pin of left front. sts. on needle. knit rows garter st. = th row:= (buttonholes). k . wl. fwd. k tog. knit to last sts. k tog. wl. fwd. k . knit rows. cast off loosely. make up as given for "nan", see page . =baby's lacey kimona= _illustrated on cover_ materials: = ply beehive fingering=. ozs. blue, no. . yd. ribbon inch wide. safety pins. =for needles and tension see page .= measurements: = mos.= = mos.= = mos.= width all round at underarm ins. ins. - / ins. length from top of shoulder " - / " - / " length of sleeve underarm seam - / " " " pattern: = st row:= k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . *wl. fwd. k . sl. , k . p.s.s.o. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k . = nd row:= k . purl to last st. k . back: cast on sts. work ins. even in pattern ending with nd pattern row. keeping continuity of pattern dec. . st. each end of needle next and every following rd row to sts. on needle. continue even in pattern until work measures ins. from beginning ending with nd pattern row. =to shape armholes:= keeping continuity of pattern cast off sts. beginning next rows, then dec. . st. each end of needle every alternate row to sts. on needle. continue even until armhole from first shaping measures - / ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= ending with nd pattern row. =to shape neck:= work sts. in pattern. cast off sts. work remaining sts. in pattern. continue in pattern on these sts. casting off sts. at neck edge every alternate row to sts. on needle. continue even in pattern until armhole from first shaping measures - / ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)=. =next row:= (k tog.) twice. pass st. st. over nd. *k tog. pass st. st. over nd. repeat from * to end of row. join wool at neck edge and work other side to correspond. left front: cast on sts. = st row:= k . k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . *wl. fwd. k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . repeat from * times. wl. fwd. k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. (p . k ) times. = nd row:= k . purl to last st. k . repeat these rows until work measures ins. from beginning. keeping continuity of pattern dec. . st. at side edge on next and every following rd row to sts. on needle. continue even in pattern until work measures ins. from beginning ending at side edge. =to shape armhole:= keeping continuity of pattern, cast off sts. once, then dec. . st. every alternate row to sts. on needle. continue even in pattern until armhole from first shaping measures ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= ending at front edge. work border sts. slip these sts. onto a safety pin. work across remaining sts. dec. . st. at neck edge every alternate row to sts. on needle. continue even in pattern until armhole from first shaping measures - / ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)=. cast off as given for back. right front: cast on sts. = st row:= (k . p ) times. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . *wl. fwd. k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k tog. k . wl. fwd. k . repeat from * times. wl. fwd. k . sl. . k . p.s.s.o. k . = nd row:= k . purl to last st. k . continue to correspond to left front being careful to have all shapings for opposite side. sleeves: cast on sts. work inch ribbing (k . p ). =next row:= rib sts. inc. . st. in each of next sts. rib sts. sts. on needle. continue even in pattern as given for back until sleeve from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)=. keeping continuity of pattern cast off sts. beginning every row to sts. on needle. cast off. neckband: sew shoulder seams. with right side of work facing pick up sts. from safety pin of right front. pick up and knit sts. along neck edge and the sts. from safety pin of left front. sts. on needle. proceed:- = st row:= k . *p . k . repeat from * to last st. k . = nd row:= *k . p . repeat from * to last st. k . = rd row:= as st. row. = th row:= (eyelets). k . *wl. fwd. k tog. p . k . repeat from * to last sts. wl. fwd. k tog. repeat st. and nd rows once, then st. row once. cast off in ribbing. to make up: press all pieces carefully. sew all seams. thread ribbon through eyelets at neck. (=b=) =baby's coat=--_illustrated on page _ materials: = ply beehive fingering=. ozs. =(=_ mos.-- ozs._=)= =(=_ mos.-- ozs._=)= white. one no. steel crochet hook. (american gauge). buttons. measurements: = mos.= = mos.= = mos.= width all round at underarm ins. ins. - / ins. length from top of shoulder " " " length of sleeve underarm seam - / " " " tension: yoke pattern ( . s.c. ch. ) times = ins. rows = inch. body pattern shells = inch. rows = inch. yoke: beginning at back ch. sts. =(=_ mos.-- sts._=)= =(=_ mos.-- sts._=)=. = st row:= . s.c. in rd ch. from hook. *ch. . miss . st. . s.c. in next st. repeat from * to end of row. ch. . turn. = nd row:= . s.c. in st space. *ch. . miss next s.c. . s.c. in next space. repeat from * to end of row, working last s.c. in space made by turning ch. of previous row. ch. . turn. repeat nd row for ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)=. =to make neck:= . s.c. in st space. repeat from * nd pattern row times. ch. . turn. repeat nd row times. ch. sts. for front of neck. =next row:= . s.c. in rd ch. from hook. repeat from * st pattern row times. repeat from * nd pattern row to end of row. ch. . turn. repeat nd row for - / ins. =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- ins._=)=, ending at armhole edge. ch. sts. join with s.s. to lower corner of back of yoke for underarm. break wool. join wool at armhole edge. ch. . . s.c. in st space. repeat join. * nd pattern row times for other shoulder. repeat nd row until this side measures same as other side ending at armhole edge. ch. sts. join with s.s. to lower corner of back of yoke for underarm. break wool. proceed:- body of coat: join wool at front edge. ch. . . d.c. in st. space. . s.c. in next space. *ch. . . d.c. in next space. . s.c. in next space. ( shell). repeat from * around coat, working shells at each underarm. ch. . turn. = nd row:= miss the s.c. and d.c. . s.c. in st. ch. . space. *ch. . . d.c. in same space. . s.c. in next ch. . space. repeat from * to end of row, working last s.c. in the turning ch. of previous row. ch. . turn. = rd row:= . d.c. in st. s.c. . s.c. in st. ch. . space. repeat from * nd pattern row to end of row. ch. . turn. repeat nd and rd rows for ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)=, ending with nd row. ch. . do not turn. work a row of shells along both front edges and neck. fasten off. sleeves: ch. sts. =(=_ mos.-- sts._=)= =(=_ mos.-- sts._=)=. work rows in yoke pattern. =next row:= . s.c. in st. space. *ch. . . s.c. in same space. (an increase). (ch. . miss next s.c. . s.c. in next space) times. repeat from * to end of row. spaces in row. =(=_ and mos.-- spaces_=)=. ch. . turn. =next row:= work in shell pattern to last spaces. ch. . . d.c. in next space. miss . space. . s.c. in last space. ch. . turn. continue even in shell pattern until sleeve from beginning measures - / ins. =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)= =(=_ mos.-- - / ins._=)=. ch. . turn. . s.c. in centre d.c. of st. shell. ch. . . s.c. in next space. *ch. . . s.c. in centre d.c. of next shell. ch. . . s.c. in next space. repeat from * to end of row. fasten off. to make up: press pieces carefully. sew side seams. sew sleeve seams to within / inch of top. sew sleeves in armholes. sew buttons to correspond to the shell edges on front of coat as illustrated, using the ch. . of the shell pattern for a buttonhole. as the coat is reversible the buttons should be sewn on the left front for a girl, and the right front for a boy. * * * * * =_wear wool and be well_= ultra-violet transmission through fabric made from wool--it is an established fact that the health-giving ultra-violet rays are transmitted to the body with greater power through wool than through either artificial silk or cotton. =use good quality wools and there is no need for washing hand knitted garments before wearing= =_general information_= =check the tension= =the garments in this book are worked to the exact tension given. they are closely knitted to insure a firm fabric that will wear better and keep its shape longer than a loosely knitted fabric. _check your tension._ before beginning your garment take the wool and needles specified. cast on stitches. work rows stocking stitch and compare with the tension given in the instruction. all given tension in beehive instructions is measured over stocking stitch. if your tension is too loose try a size smaller needle. if your tension is too tight try a size larger needle.= =_be sure to work to exact tension given if you want your garment to work to correct size._= =_to press a finished garment_= --for plain, smooth fabric. place all knitted pieces on a thick pad wrong side out. baste to shape and size desired being careful to keep the weave quite straight. cover with a damp bath towel. smooth evenly with a warm iron. remove towel and leave until dry. for raised and fancy patterns. baste into position and cover with a wet towel but _do not press_. pat gently but firmly with the hand. remove towel and leave until dry. =_use the yarn the pattern calls for_= use only patons and baldwins yarns, and beehive knitting needles for any of the garments in this book. =_buy the quantity of yarn the pattern calls for_= at the time you make your initial purchase, making sure it is the one dye lot. this will prevent a disappointment later on when you might find you could not exactly match the colour. =_to change the size_= read carefully the measurements given in the instructions. when enlarging a patterned garment be sure to add enough stitches for a complete pattern. when enlarging a plain garment multiply the stitches required for inch by the number of inches necessary for the extra width. for a smaller size cast on as many less stitches as are required for inch. continue knitting in extra or lesser length to underarm, for armhole and for sleeves. =_washing and drying woollen garments_= =the beauty of your hand knit woollen garments can be easily retained after many washings provided a few simple rules are followed.= =before washing, measure the garment and note measurements carefully.= . use good mild soap or soap flakes. dissolve sufficient quantity to make good _lukewarm_ suds. . squeeze the suds gently through and through the garment until clean. never rub a woollen garment. keep garment supported by hands when removing from water, because the weight of the wet garment may stretch the yarn. . rinse times in clean, lukewarm water, gently squeezing to remove all soap. keep garment supported by hands when removing from water. . never let the garment lie wet, but remove all moisture at once by rolling in a clean, thick towel. . remove garment from towel, lay on flat surface, easing into original measurement. leave until dry away from extreme heat. do not hang up. . non-shrink wools. non-shrink treated yarns may stretch with careless washing, therefore use especial care when washing your non-shrink garments. follow the same instructions _most carefully_ and you will avoid any trouble. =remove all soap. remove all moisture. after washing don't hang up--dry flat!= =_abbreviations_= knitting--k = knit plain. p = purl. p.s.s.o. = pass slip stitch over. w.r.n. = wool round needle. w.o.n. = wool over needle wl. fwd. = wool forward. tog. = together. ins. = inches. dec. = decrease. inc. = increase. t.b.l. = through back of loops. crochet--ch. = chain. s.c. = single crochet. d.c. = double crochet. h.d.c. = half double crochet. tr. = treble. d. tr. = double treble. l. tr. = long treble. h. tr. = half treble. s.s. = slip stitch. w.o.h. = wool over hook. _the star symbol_--*this indicates that the directions immediately following are to be repeated. when directions call for repeating a given number of times, it is understood this is in addition to the original. thus, repeat times means times altogether. _to knit_ "_even_"--the row or work is knitted without increasing or decreasing. _important_: when the instructions read--cast off sts. k (or similar sts.) the stitch on the right hand needle after casting off, is counted as stitch. =traduction française des abréviations et points employés= k = tricoter à l'endroit. p = tricoter à l'envers. p.s.s.o. = passer la maille glissée par dessus. w.r.n. = une maille jetée à l'envers. w.o.n. = passer la laine par-dessus l'aiguille. wl. fwd. = une maille jetée à l'endroit. tog. = ensemble. ins. = pouces. dec. = diminuer. inc. = augmenter. t.b.l. = tricoter par derrière la maille. _to knit even_--tricoter sans augmenter ni diminuer. _the star symbol_ (*).--l'astérisque indique que les directions qui suivent doivent être répétées. si on demande de répéter un certain nombre de fois, il est entendu que c'est en plus de l'original, tel que * répéter fois veut dire fois en tout. armhole--emmanchure. neck edge--encolure. cast off--rabattre. garter stitch--point de jarretière, tous les rangs à l'endroit. stocking stitch--point jersey. un rang à l'endroit. un rang à l'envers. moss or seed stitch-- er rang. maille à l'endroit. maille à l'envers. e rang. = maille à l'envers vis-à-vis des mailles à l'endroit et maille à l'endroit vis-à-vis des mailles à l'envers. crochet--ch. = chaine. s.c. = simple crochet. d.c. = double crochet. h.d.c. = demi crochet. tr. = triple crochet. d. tr. = double triple. l. tr. = triple crochet (long). h. tr. = demi triple crochet. w.o.h. = passer la laine sur le crochet. =_important_= =the garments given in this book have been carefully worked to the following standard measurements. to obtain the same results use the wools and needles the pattern calls for and work to exact tension given.= age chest sleeve st. size coat ins. ins. months " - / " months " " months - / " " year ins. - / ins. - / " - / " - / " " " " =average weight of infant from birth to year= birth-- - / lbs., months-- - / lbs., months-- lbs., year-- lbs. corresponding sizes for infants' garments for chest and sleeve as given. =_important note_= =the designs illustrated in this book should fit an average child of the given age. there is, however, such variation of size between one child and another that age is not, of course, a completely accurate guide.= [illustration: cartoon of baby with phone] saturday night press. toronto [illustration: beehive non-shrink baby wool] we are happy to present newly designed garments made from our renowned beehive non-shrink baby wool in this new and bigger edition of beehive for bairns, an important addition to the ever-growing "beehive" series of standard knitting books. baby garments require constant care in washing and for this reason mothers everywhere welcome the non-shrink properties of this new beehive baby wool. =_these standard books should be in every knitter's library_= [illustration: beehive baby wool] [illustration: series no. ] [illustration: series no. ] [illustration: series no. ] [illustration: series no. ] [illustration: series no. ] [illustration: series no. ] [illustration: service woollies] _in case of difficulty write to_ patons & baldwins, limited: toronto * * * * * transcriber's notes obvious punctuation and spelling errors repaired. inconsistent hyphenation has been repaired. italic text is denoted by _underscores_ and bold text by =equal signs=. in ambiguous cases, the text has been left as it appears in the original book. book was produced from images made available by the hathitrust digital library.) the library of work and play carpentry and woodwork by edwin w. foster electricity and its everyday uses by john f. woodhull, ph.d. gardening and farming by ellen eddy shaw home decoration by charles franklin warner, sc.d. housekeeping by elizabeth hale gilman mechanics, indoors and out by fred t. hodgson needlecraft by effie archer archer outdoor sports, and games by claude h. miller, ph.b. outdoor work by mary rogers miller working in metals by charles conrad sleffel [illustration: photograph by mary g. huntsman. the last step is making the buttonholes] needlecraft by effie archer archer _needlework editor of well-known magazines. connected with new york public schools, y. w. c. a., and arts and crafts club_ [illustration: title page] garden city new york doubleday, page & company all rights reserved, including that of translation into foreign languages, including the scandinavian copyright, , by doubleday, page & company contents chapter page i. what you should have in your work box--sewing on buttons--basting--darning ii. back-stitching--over-casting--creasing a hem and hemming--rolling a hem--french hemming--sewing on tapes and hooks and eyes iii. gathering--sewing on bands--a practical sewing apron--hemmed patches--gussets and tucks iv. a doll's skirt--sewing case--bindings--doll's bed linen--pin case v. making buttonholes--cutting from a pattern--a doll's dress vi. a lesson in stencilling vii. what can be done with one skin--cut leather bags, belts, book covers, etc. viii. tooled leather and tools necessary ix. the simplest stitches in embroidery--chain-stitching, outlining, herring-boning, cross-stitching, soutache, coronation braiding x. smocking--feather-stitching--lazy-daisy stitch xi. couching--shadow-work--turkish stitch--how to stamp designs xii. buttonholing and wallachian embroidery xiii. roman cut-work--fancy buttonholing for borders--bermuda fagotting xiv. satin-stitch and marking xv. eyelets and french knots--bullion stitch, and other fancy stitches xvi. long and short--kensington embroidery--ribbon work for simple flowers xvii. hardanger embroidery for squares, pin cushions, and spreads xviii. appliqué on linen and other materials--hedebo embroidery xix. hemstitching for handkerchiefs and collar and cuff sets--simple drawn work stitches xx. easy lace stitches--fagotting, single mesh, double mesh, spiders, fan, maltese cross, twisted and buttonhole bars, picots for simple edge xxi. simple baskets xxii. raffia baskets and napkin rings xxiii. raffia hats xxiv. knotting for dolls' hammocks, shopping bags and other purposes xxv. simple bead chains on single strings--a homemade loom--woven chains--belts and purses xxvi. braiding and weaving four and six strands--weaving on looms xxvii. simple crocheting--stitchery for edges and shawls xxviii. pattern directions for making doll caps and capes, jackets, and child's bedroom slippers xxix. irish crochet lace xxx. knitting, plain and purling--wash rags--fancy stitches for shawls xxxi. doll's cap, hood, leggings, and jackets xxxii. embroidery suggestions for boarding school girl illustrations the last step is making the buttonholes _frontispiece_ facing page the right way to darn a single motif being used on a stencilled scarf many a happy hour is spent embroidering it is jolly to make a raffia work bag sewed raffia baskets make attractive gifts the fascinating task of making bead chains a cushion top can be woven on a simple hand loom her first knitted shawl needlecraft i what you should have in your work box, sewing on buttons, basting, darning you will find that you are happiest when doing things for those you love; and what greater help can you give than by learning to do things for yourself that now those who love you best do for you? the little everyday things that appear to be so simple, yet take so much of the mother's time should be the things first to learn. there are so many things that one could do if one only knew how, that it seems a shame to waste time. dolly needs new clothes, mother always needs help with her sewing; and then, too, the numerous birthdays and christmases follow so quickly one on top of another, that there is hardly a chance to save up for one before the next is here. many a hard problem for the little mother will be solved in this book. it is lovely to have a little work-box fixed up with thread, needles, and scissors, all of your own, and if you ask mother, i am sure she will give some of her threads to help you start one. if you take a card and shape it like a maltese cross you will have space for four colours of threads. you will need a card for the white alone because you will find you use so much more of it. you must have a little thimble and always use it or your finger will look cramped when working. have you noticed how pretty ladies look when sewing? well, you must do as they do, tap your needle with the thimble to send it through the material (figure ). [illustration: fig. . the way to use your thimble] have you ever wondered and wondered why it is that buttons have the horrid habit of dropping off just when you wanted to dress quickly or take sally ann walking? well, i will whisper the reasons for this: the first is, that the thread might have been worn out from active service; or the thread used might have been weak; or lastly, which is probably the true cause, the button might have been sewn too close to the material and came off the first time it was used. mother may not be around to help you when the accident happens, and would you not feel proud to sew it on for yourself? to sew a button on securely you should make a pin-hole where the button is to be placed. a four-hole white button is the easiest to work on. thread a no. needle with a length of no. white sewing cotton, bring the ends together and make a knot. the right length thread is measured from the tip of the thimble finger to the elbow. when a thread is used double it should be twice the length of this. a neat knot is made by holding the threaded needle in the right hand and by taking the end or ends, as the case may be, between the thumb and first finger of the left hand. keep the thread tightly stretched, wind it around the top of the first finger, then move the finger down the thumb, carrying the thread with it about half an inch. now with the nail of the second finger bring the knot thus formed to the end of the thread. a large ungainly knot is a disfigurement to a piece of sewing. you are now ready to adjust the button; place the knot on the upper or right side so that it will be concealed; after adjusting the button put a pin across the top and sew securely through the holes, crossing the threads. sew not less than three times through each hole. remove the pin. insert the needle from underneath, then bring it out between the button and cloth close to the centre of the button. wind the thread tightly around the neck of the button three or four times. (the neck is the threads between the button and material.) wrapping the threads around protects the stitches and allows room for the buttonhole to lie under the button. take the thread through to the wrong side and take up three stitches, make a short stitch on the material and cut the thread close (figures and ). [illustration: figs. and ] when a three-hole button is used the stitches form a triangle on the top of the button. a shoe-button should be sewed with a no. needle and coarse black thread. the stitches are taken through the shank of the button. fasten off the thread after sewing on two buttons, for if they are all on one continuous string or thread and that breaks, all the buttons are apt to come off. if each button is securely fastened the thread may be passed, however, from one to the other. [illustration: fig. . even basting] [illustration: fig. . uneven basting] now i know you want to do some real sewing; it must not be big or you will get very tired and think sewing is not as pleasant as you fancied. the simplest stitch in sewing is basting. this is used to hold materials together until you are ready to make firmer stitches. in the following illustration the even and uneven basting stitches are shown (figures and ). they must be straight. even basting stitches should be taken about a quarter of an inch apart and in the running stitch which is fine basting about an eighth or a sixteenth of an inch. pretty huck pillows can be made of even and uneven basting or running stitches. a leaf, star or a figure cut out and traced on a piece of muslin will make a nice design for running stitches (figure ). [illustration: fig. . a simple design in running stitch] if you will examine different kinds of materials before they are cut, you will note that the threads run in two directions. the threads running lengthwise must be the stronger, as they have more strain on them. they are called the warp. the warp is set up first before the weaving begins. the threads running crosswise are called the woof. it is the weaker thread and forms the edge or selvage. if you will take a card three inches square and prick a line of dots half an inch from the top and bottom edges and prick a line a quarter of an inch apart you will have a little loom. the dots must be directly under each other. a piece of coloured worsted and a large-eyed crewel needle no. will be required. make a knot at the end of your thread and start from the upper right hand hole on the wrong side. bring your thread up through the hole and down through the lower right-hand dot. the needle must now come up through the next hole at the bottom and the thread be again stretched across the card. when every hole has been filled and you have several rows of straight lines, fasten off the worsted in the back. another shade of wool should be selected so that you can distinguish the warp from the woof. the thread you are now going to use is the woof; commence at the top and go straight across to the left line, up over and down under each thread and so on till the row is completed. in weaving the next row, pick up the threads of the warp that you went over last time. alternate rows agree (figure ). when finished, the little piece can be used as a doll's mat. to darn your stockings is almost as simple a matter as this weaving. instead, however, of starting the thread of the warp on an even line, as on the card, start some higher than the others. the reason for this is that an even line will be apt to make an uncomfortable seam in your stocking. the woof threads are always connected to the stocking. a darning ball should be used under the hole. in darning cashmere or woollen stockings it is best to allow the warp to be very slack as wool shrinks considerably in washing. wool should be used for darning woollen stockings. [illustration: fig. . weaving with worsted] [illustration: fig. a. the first step in darning] [illustration: photograph by mary g. huntsman. the right way to darn] have you ever belonged to a sewing club? if not, try to start one and see how much fun there is in it. the club should meet either on friday or saturday afternoon, after the school work is finished. every girl should bring her stockings to darn and another piece of work, so that when the darning is over she will have something to work on. if there are more than four in the club it is a very hard thing to keep up. three is the ideal number for it. it is better to have a small number--three, for instance. a large club is apt to be distracting, but three or four little girls, with the right helpful spirit, will find such meetings very instructive and entertaining. [illustration: fig. b. the second and last step in darning] ii back-stitching, over-casting, creasing a hem and hemming, rolling a hem, french hemming, sewing on tapes and hooks and eyes [illustration: fig. . the right way to hold your scissors] "stitching is witching," the song book says, and it is true, for after we know that stitch there are a hundred and one things we can do. some people call it back-stitching and we must try to remember that, so that we shall understand of what they are talking. get mother to give you a piece of material to practise on that has a stripe in it. now take your scissors (figure ) and cut out two three-inch squares. baste the two squares together a quarter of an inch from the edge. hold the square over the first finger of the left hand ready for the back-stitching. let the basting run up and down over your finger. start from the top and make a small stitch backward, on the right side of the material, instead of forward as you did in running (figure ). pass the needle under until you have a stitch twice as long on the wrong side as that on the right. take the next stitch backward close to the end of the last one on the right. [illustration: fig. . back-stitching] remember that the stitch you take backward is only half as long as the one you take forward. stitching always looks very different on the wrong side, but on the right side it ought to look like machine stitching. this stitch might be called the lion stitch, because it is so strong. it is used to join two edges together, as for the seams in bean-bags or cushion covers. in places where there will not be much strain we use a quicker stitch, which is called the half-back stitch (figure ). this is very much like the stitching of which i have been telling you. the wrong side will look about the same, but on the right side instead of the stitches touching there will be a space, then a stitch of equal length. [illustration: fig. . the half-back stitch] the next stitch to learn is the combination-stitch, which is made up of both the running and the back-stitch (figure ). it is a stitch that is greatly used for sewing long seams, as on underwear. by this stitch we can cover the distance in about half the time that back-stitching would take. [illustration: fig. . the combination running and back-stitch] whenever you can avoid making a knot, do so, because it spoils the look of your work on the wrong side. you can start your work, if it is a seam, for example, by making two or three stitches on top of each other. follow the thread of the warp or woof of the material as much as possible. after fastening your thread, make two fine running stitches forward and one back. keep the stitches the same length. [illustration: fig. . over-casting] over-casting is used on unfinished or cut edges to keep them from fraying (figure ). the stitches all slant from right to left. take the stitches one eighth of an inch deep and one quarter of an inch apart. [illustration: fig. . over-handing] over-handing is fine over-casting and used to connect two finished edges together (figure ), as when sewing lace on ruffles, or joining selvages. what is the selvage? it is the edge of the warp. the next time mother goes shopping ask her to take you with her. when she tells the salesman she wants so many yards of goods, whether it is for kitchen towels or a dress for herself or for you, notice how the goods is measured. the salesman will measure along one of the finished sides of the goods. these finished edges are called selvages. [illustration: fig. . the seam opened] make the stitches in over-handing as small as possible, keeping the stitches even. sew through both pieces of the material. hold your work between your thumb and first finger. here again it is not necessary to make a knot. let a half-inch of the end of your thread lie on top of the material toward the left side; the over-handing stitches will cover this end. when the over-handing is finished run your thumb-nail along the stitches on the right side. if your stitches are too deep there will be a seam on the wrong side, whereas if the instructions have been followed carefully the material will lie perfectly flat (figure ). now we are ready to help mother hem the new kitchen towels. first see that the edge you are to hem is straight. if it is not, pull out a thread so as to mark a line to cut by. you must take a thread that runs the entire way across the end of the towel. cut carefully along the space out of which the thread came. get a piece of card that has two smooth or straight edges and make a notch one-half inch from the corner (figure ). a half-inch hem is the one commonly used on a towel. [illustration: fig. . a notched card] if mother likes to have her towels with a wider or narrower hem, notch the card the size she wishes. turn the material back one-quarter inch and crease it down with your thumb-nail. a second fold is made the width of the hem. take your measuring card and, placing the end of it on the double edge, see if your hem is exactly the width desired. baste along the first folded edge to hold the material together for hemming (figures and ). hold the edge to be hemmed toward you. do not knot your thread. insert the needle at the extreme right of the hem. pull the needle through, leaving a little end, as in over-handing, to be fastened down with the hemming itself. [illustration: fig. . the first step] [illustration: fig. . the second step] your needle should slant as shown in the diagram (figure ). take a stitch right through all the thicknesses of the material. be sure that it goes through to the other side. the fewer the threads taken on the needle at the same time, the neater the result will be. the stitches should slant from right to left. the stitches must be close together if we want fine hemming. let each stitch be the same size as the other and slant in the same direction. the right side of the hem looks like a row of short dashes. [illustration: fig. . the way the needle should slant] if your needle gets "sticky" when you are sewing, you should pass it through your emery-bag till it is shiny and sharp again. the needle is apt to get that way if your hands perspire. ladies who like to keep their sewing looking fresh and white, as if hands had never touched it, find it a good plan to wash their hands in a little vinegar, or lemon and water. it is very necessary to sit so that the light falls over your left shoulder. a little straight-back chair is another good help in sewing. do you know that many of our english great-grandmothers had very straight backs? when they were little girls they had to sit on a very straight, tall chair, an hour or two every day. a foot-stool was placed under their feet, and their shoulders strapped against the chair. of course they did not sit there idle, but a piece of fine sewing was given them to work. you see they did not have the opportunity to run around and play as you have. their chief recreation was their dancing lesson. [illustration: fig. . a corner basted ready for hemming] the towel finished, the next thing to learn is how to turn a corner and hem it. shall we make a cover for sally ann's bed or a dust-cloth for mother? in either case cut a piece of material eighteen inches square and turn a hem and baste it as you did for the towel. the next side is folded the same as the first. the corner should form a perfect square (figure ). sometimes the material is very thick and the hem wide; in that case it is wise to cut a little oblong piece out of the corner as shown in the illustration (figure ). [illustration: fig. . the material cut from a corner] napkins and table-covers should be sewed with a french hem. make a turn about a sixteenth of an inch deep. the second turn should be about three sixteenths of an inch wide. fold the hem back so that it touches the right side of the material. the hem is connected to the material with tiny over-hand stitches. open the hem, when finished crease with the thumb-nail till it lies perfectly flat. [illustration: fig. . whipping] a pretty new way of finishing a handkerchief is to roll the material for the edge instead of folding it. over-cast or, as we sometimes say, whip it with delicate-coloured cotton, (figure ). the nicest material for handkerchiefs is fine linen, but lawn is cheaper for practice work. hold the wrong side of the material to you. then roll about one eighth of an inch between the thumb and first finger of your left hand. do not roll more than an inch of the hem at a time. take a needle and thread it with a piece of coloured cotton. in this case it is permissible to make a knot. insert the needle at the beginning of the roll. over-cast or whip the rolled edge. the stitches should encircle the roll and not go through it. when the rolled inch is over-casted, roll another inch and repeat in this manner till the whole handkerchief is worked. if you desire, when you have finished one side, you can whip in an opposite direction toward the point at which you started, thus forming a cross with each return stitch (figure ). [illustration: fig. . a pretty finish for handkerchiefs] lace is sewed to raw edges by rolling and whipping the material and connecting the lace at the same time. [illustration: fig. . a rolled hem] [illustration: fig. . one end creased one quarter of an inch] [illustration: fig. . the tape open flat on material] tapes should be on all towels and on all your skirts and dresses that are to hang on nails or pegs. take a piece of fine tape about five inches long. crease one end down one quarter of an inch (figure ). if the tape-loop is to be sewed on a towel find the direct centre of the top edge of the towel. lay the tape with the creased end open flat on the towel (figure ). sew along the creased line with back-stitching. fold the other end of the tape over, baste it down so that it entirely covers the stitches already made and with small hemming stitches connect the tape to the material (figure ). there should be two tape-loops on your dress or separate skirt. there is usually too much weight for only one loop. place a loop in each armhole of the waist or dress. for the skirt, measure the waist-band and place the loops so that the band is divided in thirds. [illustration: fig. . the tape finished] do you know that very few people sew on hooks and eyes properly? yet there is no difficulty in sewing them correctly and they look much nicer. take the eye, connect it to the material with two stitches that make a cross. with the same thread pass the needle to the left-hand loop. insert the needle in the material so that the eye of the needle is within the loop and the point of the needle comes just outside. see that the thread passes from left to right _under_ the point of the needle. draw the needle through and repeat in this manner until the two loops of the eye are firmly connected to the material. sometimes it is necessary to cover the upper part of the eye. in that case cover the metal with fine over-and-over stitches as shown in (figure b). [illustration: fig. a. the eye firmly sewed] [illustration: fig. b. a covered eye] the loop of the hook is sewed on in a very similar manner at the base, while the top of the hook is caught with eight or nine over-and-over-stitches (figure ). these stitches are taken under the hook portion and connect the under side only. measure accurately just where every eye goes and place the hook so that when it meets the eye it will be straight. a sixteenth of an inch out of the way spoils the appearance and is apt to pull the material crooked. another point to remember is that it is not a good plan to place the eyes on the extreme edge. a margin of some size is most necessary to extend beyond the eyes. sometimes it is necessary to sew a piece of material so that it extends one inch beyond the eyes if the eyes are sewed on the extreme edge of the finished garment. this piece is called the fly piece. [illustration: fig. . the hook] iii gathering, sewing on bands, a practical sewing apron, hemmed patches, gussets and tucks though i know you don't like making samples, i am going to ask you to make a little apron for a doll, as a model, before we make a real big one. get a piece of muslin five by nine inches and a no. sewing needle. thread it with a piece of no. cotton. baste an eighth of an inch hem on both of the five-inch sides, and a three-quarter of an inch hem on one of the nine-inch sides. the basting of the three sides being finished we will now start to gather the fourth side. thread a no. needle with no. thread. use a thread a trifle longer than nine inches. make a good-sized knot in the thread so that the end cannot slip through the material. start from the right-hand side of the piece and insert the needle on the under side. let the knot come on top of the narrow hem about one quarter of an inch from the raw edge. the needle is now in position on the right side of the material. take up several stitches on the needle before pulling it through (figure ). the stitches are nothing more than running stitches. when the running has been worked across the nine inches of the material, take the needle out and make a knot in the thread. [illustration: fig. . gathering the apron] put a pin, vertically, close to the last stitch. take up only a few threads of the material on the pin. draw up the running thread so that you have about three and a half inches of gathering. wind the thread that extends beyond the gathering over the top and under the point of the pin a number of times, crossing the thread at the middle of the pin so that it forms an eight (figure ). to allow the gathering to fall evenly, it will be necessary to stroke it. use a no. needle for this purpose. with the right side of the work toward you begin at the left-hand edge. hold the work between the left thumb and forefinger, keeping the thumb below the gathering thread. put the point of the no. needle under the gathering thread, holding it obliquely. press the needle toward the thumb, bringing the little plait under the thumb and drawing the needle downward. pinch the little plait down lightly with your thumb. continue in this way, putting the needle under each stitch (figure ). [illustration: fig. . gathers ready for stroking] let us now put a band and strings on our apron. cut two strips of material ten inches long by two inches wide. these are for the strings. baste an eighth of an inch hem on the two long sides of each strip. make a three-quarter of an inch hem on each string. over-hand the ends of the broad hem. all the hems that are basted on the strings and the material itself should be hemmed with fine stitches. [illustration: fig. . gathering strokes] cut another strip two and a half inches wide by five inches long. this is the band. turn down one eighth of an inch of the material all around the band. crease the band in half, lengthwise, so that the edges, just folded, are inside. find the centre of the gathered material and the centre of the opened band. holding the wrong side of the apron toward you, pin the middle of the apron to the middle of the band. pin the gathered side of the apron to the band, three quarters of an inch from each end of it. wind the gathering thread around the left-hand pin, drawing the thread up to fit the band. with the point of the needle adjust the gathers so that the fullness is evenly distributed along the band. holding the gathers toward you, baste with small stitches a little above the gathering thread. turn up the band and on the right side of the apron hem the band in it, catching up a gather with each stitch. some people prefer to stitch along the basting line instead of hemming (figure ). [illustration: fig. . taking up a gather with every stitch] baste the other side of the band down, and hem as on the right side. insert the strings in the band. hem in the same way as on the band, first the right side and then the left side, and now your little apron is completed (figure ). would you not like to have a sewing apron that you can use as a bag when you are not wearing it? it is such an easy thing to make that after you have one for yourself you will be making them for your friends for christmas. [illustration: fig. . the apron completed] get mother to measure you from the waist to the knees. the material for the apron should be one and a half this measurement. turn one third of the material back. baste the double edges together and sew with fine combination stitches. turn this piece inside out. crease back one eighth of an inch edge of this pocket, as it were. baste a piece of beading over this raw edge right around the back of the apron. be careful not to sew up the pocket. the beading on the back must be the same distance from the bottom as the beading in front; that is, we must keep a straight line. sew on the extreme edges of the beading with fine running stitches, to connect it to the material. now as the ribbon we are to run in the beading must serve as a draw string, as well as for decoration, it will be necessary to put two pieces in. so get a narrow ribbon about one half the width of the openings in the beading. each piece of ribbon must be long enough to go once around the apron and enough of the ends left to tie double bows--one for each side. start one piece of the ribbon at the right-hand side of the apron and the other at the left. the top of the apron or single piece is finished with a piece of beading which is sewed on, as on the pocket. a ribbon long enough to go around your waist and to tie a bow in the back is run through the beading (figure ). [illustration: fig. . the apron] when the apron is not being worn your work can be placed in the large pocket and the single section folded within the pocket. the ribbons are then drawn up tight and "bravo!" you have a work bag fit for a queen (figure ). [illustration: fig. . the work bag] there are so many kinds of rents or holes that may happen to your clothes that it is worth the while to know how to mend the various kinds. there is an old adage that says, "waste makes want," and we would spend a small fortune in clothes if every time a wee hole made its appearance we discarded the garment. if it is a circular hole in a dress or underbody, as often happens, under the arms, we will use the square patch. cut a piece of the same kind of material, three inches square, or larger if necessary. turn a fold of one eighth of an inch on the four edges of this square. crease it lengthwise and crosswise. [illustration: fig. . the patch hemmed to the material] crease the material on which the patch is to be laid lengthwise and crosswise through the tear. pin the small piece or patch on the wrong side of the large piece, or garment, so that the creases run in the same direction. the warp must run the same way in both pieces. one sixteenth of an inch from the edges run a basting thread. hem the four sides on the patch to the material (figure ). [illustration: fig. . the pin in each corner of the patch] on the garment side make a crease half an inch wide, from the hemming, on the four sides. four little squares will be formed in the corners. crease along the diagonal of each square. place a pin one eighth of an inch from each corner, within the patch (figure ). cut the garment from the centre of the tear to the pins. repeat this on each side, cutting along the crease which you made, one half inch from the hemming. turn in one eighth of an inch and baste. hem all around (figure ). [illustration: fig. . the garment side of the patch] in patching material such as checked or striped ginghams, percales, or other materials, the stripes or the checks must match so that the patch is not too apparent (figure ). [illustration: fig. . matching the stripes] have you ever noticed how the slit or placket of a petticoat or side opening of drawers is finished? a piece of material is put in of an odd shape to strengthen the openings. this is called a gusset. suppose that you were making a petticoat. join the skirt up the back from the bottom, but leave eight inches open at the top. this top opening is the placket. but let us take a small piece of material and practise making the back of a skirt. we will put a hem and a few tucks at the bottom of the material first. [illustration: fig. . basting the tuck] make a measuring card of a straight strip with an eighth, three eighths, and three quarters of an inch notches. crease and fold a wide hem (three quarters of an inch), using the measuring card as a guide. over-hand each end of the hem. now baste along the hem. the over-handing must be done before the basting. now hem this wide hem. again, using the cardboard measure, on the right side of the model fold a crease three quarters of an inch above the hem. begin at the right-hand side to crease and baste (figure ). with a fine, even, running stitch, an eighth of an inch below the crease, make the tuck (figure ). measure every few stitches to keep the seam straight. [illustration: fig. . making the tuck] if a second tuck is desired, measure from the tuck instead of the hem. now we are ready for the slit which is in the centre top. on the wrong side start at the top with an eighth of an inch hem, but decrease it to almost nothing right to the bottom (figure ). fold the other side in the same manner. in hemming the two sides, start at the top. [illustration: fig. . the placket hemmed] now let us practise making gussets on a piece of paper. cut a piece of paper three inches square. fold it from corner to corner and cut (figure ). turn the straight or short edges of the paper one eighth of an inch and fold along the two shorter edges (figure ). [illustration: fig. . the triangle] hold the paper with the straight edge down, measure it from the two points one quarter of an inch. now cut a piece of material the size of the paper and fold like model. [illustration: fig. . the short edges folded] cut off the two points one quarter inch from each corner on the thread of the goods (figure ). turn these two straight ends and the bias edge of paper one eighth of an inch (figure ). turn point of paper down one eighth of an inch from bias hem and crease (figure ). [illustration: fig. . with points cut off] now cut the muslin gusset and fold just like the paper one. [illustration: fig. . all sides are now creased.] [illustration: fig. . the point folded over] hold the model or skirt with right side toward you, and turn up point of gusset. holding the wrong side of the skirt toward you, twist left side of gusset to left side of placket and over-hand to creased line, half way up the gusset (figure ). [illustration: fig. . the gusset over-handed half way] over-hand right side. turn bias edge of gusset over to right side, pin, having straight edges parallel to warp and woof threads and then hem (figure ). gather the top of the skirt and put on a band on each side of opening about the same width as the one used on the apron (figure ). [illustration: fig. . gusset hemmed] [illustration: fig. . the gusset model completed] iv a doll's skirt and sewing case, bindings, doll's bed linen and a pin case let us suppose that sally ann measures twelve inches from the crown of her head to the soles of her feet and that you would like to make her a gored skirt like mother's. would you not feel happier if you made the pattern and then cut the skirt yourself? take a piece of paper twelve by nine inches wide, mark every inch on both the long sides of the paper. lay a ruler so that it touches the centre of the space between the first and second dots on the upper edge, and between the second and third dots on the lower edge. this will form the half of the front gore of the skirt. mark it, "half of front." now draw a line from the second dot on the upper edge to the centre of the space between the fourth and fifth dots of the lower edge. connect the sixth dot on the upper and lower edges, mark this section "side gore." connect the eleventh dot on lower and upper edges and mark this section "back." the remaining inch mark "belt." (figure ). [illustration: fig. . the pattern drawn] cut the pattern apart along the lines drawn. take a piece of muslin twenty-four by nine inches. tear off two inches of the muslin on the length for the band and then ten inches for the back of the skirt. fold the remaining piece of muslin with the two short edges together so that the doubled piece measures six inches by nine. place the straight edge of front of skirt pattern on the fold of the material and the edge of the side gore on the other edge. pin the pattern down securely and cut through both thicknesses of the material (figure ). pin the skirt together, placing a straight edge of a gore to a bias. baste a quarter-inch seam along the finished edges of each gore, holding the bias edge toward you. sew the seams up with combination stitches. press open the seams and over-cast each one to keep it from fraying. [illustration: fig. . the back, side gore and front] fold a hem at the bottom of the skirt an inch and a quarter wide. baste the hem so that seam comes to seam. on the front gore there will be a fullness. gather this fullness in with fine running stitches and baste. use a separate thread for the gathering. now hem around the whole skirt. cut the placket two inches down through the centre back. turn a hem on the right side one half inch wide and on the left one eighth inch. sew the hem. lap the wide hem over the narrow at the bottom of the placket and stitch across the wide hem two rows of stitching one eighth of an inch apart. turn in the strip you cut off at first for the band one quarter of an inch on the two short sides and on one of the long sides. [illustration: fig. . the skirt] fold lengthwise, find centre of band and crease; one inch from this, crease again. place and pin band in the same way as for the gusset described in the last chapter, placing the middle crease at the middle of front of skirt. then pin the band also at the creases on either side of centre. gather each side of the skirt that is left. draw in the thread to fit belt. spread the gathers so that most of the fullness is in the back. over-hand the ends and hem second side of the placket. this finishes the skirt (figure ). a basket or box of some sort is very nice to have, as we have said above, for your sewing, but suppose you were going to sew with another friend and you wanted a handy case in which to carry your sewing implements? a cloth case that can be folded or rolled is very much more convenient and may be carried in the large pocket of your apron. one made of denim is inexpensive, wears well, and is highly practicable. one yard will make you a case. cut a piece of green denim sixteen by fifteen inches long. turn up four inches of the material, baste down both sides. baste a four-inch pocket on the left-hand corner of your case. the rest of the case divide in two. this will hold your darning cotton that comes on cards. we have a pretty way of finishing this case, which is not only ornamental but strong, and that is to bind it. get a piece of tape long enough to go around the whole case. crease it lengthwise so that one edge comes slightly below the other. open it and lay it on denim and then neatly back-stitch the right side and hem the wrong. the hemming should be just below the back-stitching, and must not be seen on the right side. allow enough tape at the corners to make a good angle. both sides of the corner must be treated alike. [illustration: fig. . the material caught from side to side] it will be well to have a needle case to match the sewing case. cut a strip of material thirteen inches long by three and a half inches wide. cut this strip in four parts. get a piece of cardboard that is not too thick or of such kind that will break easily, as some of the cheaper grades of brown cardboard are apt to do. cut four pieces, three inches wide by three and a half inches long. thread your needle with a piece of no. cotton and put a big knot at the end. take one of the pieces of denim and a piece of the cardboard. catch the material from side to side with stitches about one quarter of an inch apart (figure ). after sewing these two sides sew the third and fourth in the same manner. cover each piece of the cardboard in this way (figure ). take two of the covered pieces and over-cast them carefully together. [illustration: fig. . the four sides of material caught together] you should have leaves of flannel to stick your needles in. pink the edges of the flannel. pinking is snipping out the edge in little points and can be done with scissors. connect the two pieces of the needle case with two tiny bows, or a heavy thread can be made to answer the purpose. the flannel sheets are tacked through the centre like the pages in a book (figure ). the third or middle compartment between the spool case and darning thread can be used for a miscellaneous pocket to hold the tape-measure, emery-bag, small scissors and other necessary articles. [illustration: fig. . the flannel sheets tacked through the centre] a piece of tape stretched down on the denim with just enough spring for the package of needles to pass through is a handy way to carry them (figure ). it is rather dangerous to travel with a pair of scissors with the points unprotected. in canada and the states that border it the indians sell the little sweet grass protectors. a cork, however, that comes in small bottles such as you get from drug stores will protect the points of the scissors as well as the sweet grass protectors, if not as elegantly. if the scissors are too large to put in the pocket a piece of tape could be stitched down to slip them in lengthwise. the case should be folded in three parts when it is not in use and a piece of tape the same colour as the binding tied around it (figure ). [illustration: fig. . the four sides of material caught together] now that you have your sewing apron and a work box, you will love to be sewing every chance you get. suppose we plan a set of bed things for sally ann. first let us make a mattress. the mattress on your bed is covered, probably, with ticking, but this is too harsh for your fingers to sew, so let us select percale or zephyr, and half-inch tape for the binding; the filling can be cotton, hair, or feathers. if it is impossible to get any of these three, newspapers chipped up very fine will make an excellent padding. many people use newspaper chippings to fill pillows for summer use. [illustration: fig. . the case folded] measure the bedstead and cut two pieces of percale or zephyr exactly the same size. now cut a stripe of the material, one inch wide, long enough to go around the four sides of one of the pieces of the material that you have just cut. [illustration: fig. . the narrow strip to the large strip] baste the long narrow strip around one large piece. lay the wrong side of the strip to the wrong side of the material (figure ). the edges must be even. use the combination stitch of one running stitch and one back-stitch just below the basting. when the strip has been securely sewed to the four sides of the material, join the two ends together on the wrong side. now take your tape, which may be white or the colour of the figure in your material, and bind the edges by first running one side down and then the other (figure ). [illustration: fig. . binding the mattress] the other piece of material is sewed in the same manner--the wrong side of the strip to the wrong side of the material. do not sew, however, around the entire four sides but leave about six inches open through which the filling may be passed. after basting the strip with combination stitching fill with cotton or whatever material you have on hand. do not fill the mattress so that it will be bumpy. put a little stick in and flatten the filling at the top. now sew the opening up and we are ready to quilt the mattress. thread a large needle with two pieces of heavy cotton floss or wool. push your needle through to the other side, letting a short end extend above the mattress. bring your needle back again close to where it came out (figure ). unthread the needle and tie the ends tightly. cut off what is left and repeat again two and a half inches over. it is best to quilt in rows; that is, to start two inches in from the long side and make a row parallel with the tape. the next row is made two and a half inches farther over and the next row of knots should come in between the first row of dots. [illustration: fig. . quilting] this mattress is made just like yours and the pillow is the next article we will make. the pillow should be half the width of your mattress, as we will use two on the bed. take a piece of material twice the length desired for the pillow. use the same kind of material as that used for the mattress. fold the piece in two with the wrong side out. join the two long edges and one of the short sides with the combination stitch (figure ). make the stitches one quarter inch from the edge. now turn the case inside out and fill with cotton. turn in the edges of the open end and over-cast them together (figure ). as i have said before, it will be necessary to make two pillows. [illustration: fig. . the pillowcase] [illustration: fig. . overcasting the open end] the pillowcases can be made of lawn, cambric or muslin. cut the material a little larger both in length and width than the pieces used for the pillow. the seams of the pillowcases will have to be felled. along the one short side and the long side make fine running stitches, one quarter of an inch from the edge. cut the raw edge from one side so that the other is about an eighth of an inch wider. now fold the wider edge over like a hem so that it completely covers the cut edge and hem neatly to the material. the open end has a wide hem of say three quarters of an inch. when the hem is finished turn the case with the work inside. for the sheets cut two pieces of muslin or lawn large enough to cover the mattress and to turn under. the selvage edge of the material should run the length of the sheet. turn in a quarter-inch hem on the two long sides of each sheet and hem. now turn a one-inch hem at the top and bottom of each sheet. this completes the sheet (figure ). [illustration: fig. . the sheet] a blanket is of course very necessary to have and it can be made of a piece of an old blanket or of canton flannel, cashmere, or plain flannel. if a piece of blanket is used, finish the edges with the blanket stitch which is described in chapter twelve of the book. the flannel, cashmere, or canton flannel is finished by turning the edges over a quarter of an inch and herring boning or cat-stitching them to the material (figure ). for cat-stitching see diagram in chapter nine. [illustration: fig. . the blanket] no bed is complete without a counterpane of some sort and this can be made as fancy as you desire. a pretty one is made of strips of insertion joined together by fine over-casting or fagotting. fagotting is explained in chapter twenty. a row of edging will have to be sewed like a ruffle around the two long and one short sides to complete the counterpane. [illustration: fig. . the crow's foot and spider on checked gingham] if a very fancy counterpane is desired get a piece of checked gingham of some light colour. the check should be a quarter of an inch square. with your needle threaded with white or a shade deeper than the darkest check make spiders on the dark squares and crow's feet on the light. directions for making a spider are given in the chapter on "lace stitches." a crow's foot is made by taking one stitch on the diagonal of the square and two on each side of it, the stitches on each side of the first one being a trifle shorter than the previous ones (figure ). a counterpane like this is very attractive and does not require a great deal of time to make. [illustration: fig. . the envelope opened] a dainty little pin case that will make an acceptable little gift for a friend that is going to travel is the envelope pin case. take a piece of material such as linen, cretonne, or silk and another piece of different coloured material for lining and shape one end as shown like the flap of an envelope (figure ). a good size is nine inches long by four inches wide. cut a piece of stiff paper a half inch smaller than the pieces of material. baste the material which will be outside over the paper so that the edges are folded back one quarter on the paper. turn a similar fold on the lining and hem it to the material as shown on the flap of the envelope opened. [illustration: fig. . the envelope case closed] now take two papers of pins and place them in the case so that they look like leaves of a book. be careful to see that the heads of the pins are on top. now catch the pins to the case with several long stitches which are taken below the points of the pins. stitch a ribbon to flap of envelope and one at the bottom. close the case and tie the ribbons and you have a handy pin case (figure ). v making buttonholes, cutting from a pattern, a doll dress to make a good buttonhole is an accomplishment that any girl can be proud of, as it is the hardest thing in sewing. the thread should be almost double in length to that you usually take, as a joining is very clumsy in a buttonhole. a buttonhole is a worked opening in a piece of material or garment through which a button is to be slipped. the friction caused by buttoning and unbuttoning necessitates that the worked edges should be firmly and well sewed. [illustration: fig. . the first step in buttonholing] before we make a real buttonhole, let us see how the stitch is worked. draw a line one inch in length with the straight of the material. take two stitches one inch long over this line. at the extreme right of the stitches insert your needle, threaded with no. cotton. take a stitch about a sixteenth of an inch below the line. while the needle is still in the material--you are working from left to right--(figure ), carry the thread under its point from the left, to the right side of the needle. the enlarged cut showing this stitch is very plain. the needle is then drawn through the material toward the chest and then straight from it. the next stitch and every other stitch must be identical with the first, the difference being that each stitch is then a little farther to the left. every stitch must be the same length. now let us prepare to make the stitch on a fold. fold a band in three equal parts. pass the needle between the folds and bring it out on the edge. hold the end of the thread with the left thumb. carry the needle to the back of the fold and insert the point through the fifth thread of the material from the edge. the double thread at the edge of the needle is brought around the point of the needle from left to right and drawn out. (figure ). a tailor's buttonhole is made slightly different. the needle is placed in the same position as in the ordinary buttonhole. the thread is brought from the top of the stitch and the doubled thread is brought around under the point of the needle from right to left (figure ). [illustration: fig. . the position of the needle in buttonholing] [illustration: fig. . a tailor's buttonhole] the corners of the buttonhole are worked in two ways, either barred or rounded. the round corners are worked in the same buttonhole stitch, only it is twice the depth of the buttonholing along the two edges. five or seven stitches will be sufficient for a corner or the ridge of the buttonholing will be too crowded. the bar or braced end of the buttonhole is a little more difficult. it is necessary to bar a buttonhole for heavy woollen materials such as men's coats, or your own cloak, or outer wraps (figure ). generally the first end of the buttonhole is rounded and the last end barred (figure ). [illustration: fig. . the buttonhole with one end rounded and the other barred] work around the buttonhole end when the last stitch has been made, turn the material so that the work lies across your forefinger. pass the needle over the extreme left of the stitch, (figure ). work four stitches the same length as those of the two sides of the buttonhole, and then insert the needle through the ridge of the first buttonhole stitch. the ridge of the bar faces the buttonhole. this bar should be just the width of the buttonhole. nine stitches are usually sufficient for it. [illustration: fig. . barring the buttonhole] tailors run two or three strands at the base of the buttonhole before working the nine stitches. the stitches are not taken through the material but only over the threads. a buttonhole is fastened off on the wrong side at the base of the stitch. the most important step is to cut the buttonhole straight. the buttonhole should be a trifle longer than the button. it should be cut in the opposite direction to which the strain will be. for instance on the back of the waist the buttonholes should run crosswise, for the movement of the shoulders spreads the buttonhole lengthwise. on the bands around the waist buttonholes are made lengthwise. a sharp pair of scissors or a penknife should be used for cutting the holes. insert the point of the scissors or knife through the centre of the buttonhole. cut one side, then the other, along a thread of the material. the thread is fastened securely on the wrong side of the left-hand corner. use no. sewing cotton for buttonholes, unless on very fine material, when no. should be used. sometimes it is well to over-cast the raw edges before working the buttonhole. a thread should always start at the extreme lower left-hand corner. the backs of yokes should be fastened with loops and fine buttons. to make a loop, span the thread across the edge of the material in a loop large enough to slip the button through. let the last stitch be on the right-hand side. now place the threaded needle under the strands of thread letting the thread fall under the point of the needle. repeat in this manner till the strands are entirely covered. the ridge or purled edge of this stitch will be on the outside of the loop. [illustration: fig. . loops made of threads] hooks are sometimes caught into loops, but they are made directly on the material instead of sewed on the edge. the strands of thread, however, are not as loose as the buttonloops. the diagram (figure ) of the two loops will convey a clear idea of how the threads are spanned and covered. the last step in sewing is cutting from a given pattern. an old garment that fits well, ripped apart makes an excellent pattern and requires very little fitting. press the pieces before using them as a pattern. lay the material so that the selvage runs lengthwise, that is, from head to foot. only one half of the garment is necessary for a pattern, as the material is doubled or folded lengthwise (figure ). the centre front of the skirt or waist is always placed on the fold of the material and either basted or pinned down before cutting. [illustration: fig. . the centre front on fold] collars, cuffs, bands, and sleeves are cut with the selvage running their length. cut any part of a garment such as sleeves, waist, or skirt through two thicknesses of material so that both sides will be exactly alike. this does not refer to the front gore of a skirt. when the material has a right and wrong side the right sides should face each other before cutting the pattern. handkerchiefs or frills should be cut along a thread so that the edges may be perfectly straight. be sure that the material lies perfectly flat under the pattern. pin the centre first to keep it from slipping before pinning the edges. pin the entire garment before cutting anything, so that you can be sure that your material will be sufficient. this also gives you an opportunity to see where to put the smaller pieces and economize with the material. a large pair of scissors should be used in cutting. the blunt-pointed blade is next to the board or table. it is well to practise on paper and plan the pattern before using the pattern on the cloth. bias bands should be cut on the bias of the material. cut a square piece of material and fold it cat-a-corner. cut along the fold and you will get a true bias. bands to finish the necks of undergarments or around armholes should be cut on the bias. in fact, any curved edge that has to be faced should be faced with a bias instead of a straight band. now suppose we make a real dress for sally ann that will be put together and finished just like one of your own dresses. the style we will select will be on the order of a french dress, that is, a long waist and short skirt. the pattern for the waist is in seven parts: they are the front, side front, back, side back, sleeve, collar, and cuff. the skirt is only one piece. three quarters of a yard of material will be sufficient to make a dress for a doll from eighteen to twenty inches in height. in all patterns that are bought only one half is given; sometimes all the seams--which are a very important part of a dress--are given and sometimes they are omitted. any pattern that is published by a reliable firm tells on the envelope whether you should allow for the seams or not. the pattern is usually of tissue paper and each piece has perforations or holes of different shapes. one shape means this side must be placed on the fold of the material, another shape or perforation the same shape only grouped differently, means that the pattern should be placed on a straight thread of the material. still another means "gather here." if there are tucks in the pattern they are usually indicated. where the seams join each other, little notches are made and corresponding notches are placed together and pinned after the pattern is cut. let us suppose the material is forty-five inches wide. place the centre of the skirt on the fold of the material and pin in place. your pattern should be planned and pinned on a flat surface such as a sewing table. place the pins through the tissue pattern and both thicknesses of the material, letting the head and the point of the pin be visible to the eye. do not cut any piece of your pattern until you have planned and pinned every piece, as that is the only way you can economize on your material (figure ). often a pattern cut before each piece is planned comes to grief if an over-supply of material has not been provided. the centre front is also placed on the fold of the material as well as the centre, back and collar. the sleeves are now fitted in, so that the perforations rest on the straight thread of the material. the side front and back and cuffs are also pinned to the material. the pattern now pinned, take a large pair of cutting scissors and holding the blunt part toward the table, cut close to the tissue pattern, or if no seams are allowed, the width stated in directions should be allowed for the seams. [illustration: fig. . the waist pattern pinned to the material] let us make the sleeve first. take one sleeve and holding with the right side join notches together (figure ). baste the sleeves up on the seams one eighth of an inch from the edge. when the basting is finished make a row of fine running stitches. turn the sleeves on the wrong side and baste them before working the combination stitches. the sleeves are now ready to be banded. the band is taken and sewed on the short side. the seaming is taken on the wrong side of the material. a little seam is taken on each of the long sides of the cuff. fold the cuff in half. the turns or folds are opened out and now turn the cuff inside out. run a gathering thread at the lower edge of the main part of the sleeves starting the thread one half inch from each side of the seam. place the cuff around the sleeve so that cuff seam rests on the seam of the sleeve. pin into position. it will probably be necessary to pull or adjust the gathering thread so that the lower part of the sleeve be just the size of the cuff. baste the band on after it has been pinned satisfactorily before working the combination stitch. [illustration: fig. . notches of sleeve put together] turn the sleeve inside out and fold the cuff in the creases. hem the inner side of the cuff to the wrong side of the sleeve. on the upper side of the sleeves run another gathering thread about one inch and a half from the seam (figure ). we have now finished with the sleeve until the waist proper is ready. [illustration: fig. . gathering the top of the sleeve] now take the centre back and side back and baste them together. join the pieces so that the notches correspond. work the combination stitch three eighths of an inch from the edge. the side fronts are joined to the backs under the arm and on the shoulders. the front is then sewed to the right side of the waist only. it will be necessary to face the centre front piece and the left side front. take a bias strip of material not more than three quarters of an inch wide and fold an eighth of an inch on each side of this strip. join the shoulder seams together, one side of the back to the right side of the front and the other side to back. sew with combination stitches, then make a felled seam as explained for the sleeve. baste the turned fold to the right-hand side of the waist by opening out creased side and placing the two right sides together and stitching one eighth of an inch from the edge. turn the bias over to the wrong side of the waist and slip stitch. slip stitching, as i have explained before, is somewhat like hemming; only the stitches are taken back of the folded edge and catch one thread only of the material. the other bias band is basted in like manner to the left-hand side of the waist. [illustration: fig. . the gathers on the upper part of the sleeve] the sleeves are ready to be put in. measure one and one quarter inches from the under arm seam on the waist, which is the short seam near the front of the waist. pin the seam of the sleeve to this point. pin the rest of the sleeve so that the gathers are evenly distributed. pin the right side of the sleeve to the right side of the waist. baste securely. remember that the gathers should be thickest on the upper part of the sleeve (figure ). stitch with fine back-stitching and then overcast. the neck may be bound or may have the collar attached. turn and hem the outer edge of the collar; a ruffle of lace may be added if desired. baste the collar to the waist, and try the waist on sally ann. if it is a satisfactory fit, stitch in place. it is well to cover the raw edges with a little bias fold. hem the fold down on both sides. the long strip is not joined, but a half-inch hem folded on one side and then stitched. the skirt is plaited or kilted, as it is often called. a hem is made on each of the short sides of the strips. now crease the material as if you were going to make a tuck three quarters of an inch deep. a box plait will next have to be planned; again crease your material as if you were going to make a tuck three quarters of an inch deep. these creases must be exactly three quarters of an inch from the double fold of each piece. measure an inch and a half, then turn the material under so that a three-quarter inch piece is under the left side of the waist line. this completes the box plait. the plaits from there on are folded toward the left, while the first two were toward the right. baste each plait down securely. when working on cotton materials that have a lot of dressing, the creases are likely to stay in without basting, but while working on it the edges are apt to get turned up. basting (figure ) is therefore the surer and safer way to keep the plaits in position, while for woollen or soft, sleazy materials it is the only way. when every plait has been basted lengthwise, take another thread and baste them crosswise three or four times. [illustration: fig. . section of plaited skirt showing how it should be basted crosswise] join the waist to the skirt, taking care that the centre of the box-plait is under the direct centre of the front of the waist. a sash will be needed to finish this dress. it can be tacked in place or little straps of ribbon may be stitched at intervals and the ribbon run through the straps (figure no. a). if this dress had been stitched on the machine it would have been better to make tailored seams on the waist; that is, a narrow seam is taken on the wrong side. the material is then turned back so that on one side of the seam it slightly overlaps the other. baste in place and stitch on the edge. tailored seams do not require any extra allowance of material. they should slant toward the right on the right side of the garment and toward the left on the left side. if the seams were stitched to run in one direction the garment would have a very one-sided appearance. [illustration: fig. a. sally ann's new dress] press all the wrinkles caused by handling the dress in sewing. it is best to lay a damp cloth over the material rather than place the iron directly on the material. you will need a small iron for this dress. press each plait down carefully. take out the basting threads before trying on the dress. there are good, bad and indifferent dressmakers, and i know you wish to be one of the former. sew a row of buttons on the left front of the dress and make little buttonholes to correspond on the right side. vi a lesson in stencilling what is stencilling? let us see. stencilling is a branch of painting. have you heard the story of the baltimore belle in the time of the revolution who was most anxious to go to the first big ball that was to be given after the war? the town had been divested of all the beautiful silks and satins that the great ladies were accustomed to wear. our country had stopped importing these costly materials because there was no occasion to use them and no money to pay for them. an invitation had been sent to one of baltimore's fairest daughters who was intending to go with her cousin. what were they to wear? both needed the festive garments. at last, after a careful canvass of the town, the young man managed to borrow a pair of satin breeches and a flowered coat and all the other articles necessary to make a fine dandy of those days, except the silk stockings. the girl succeeded in finding a piece of white lawn of the coarsest kind that was sufficient to make a frock. in no way discouraged this clever young lady, who luckily could paint beautifully, started and painted little sprays of rose buds on the fifteen or twenty yards required for the gown. this made a very dainty and pretty frock. [illustration: fig. . stencilled curtains] poor george, her cousin, was in despair in not being able to borrow or buy a pair of silk stockings, but clever miss betty hit on the plan of painting his legs with a thick coat of white and then decorating them with clocks on each side, so that no one at the dance even suspected that he didn't have on silk stockings. miss betty's dress was voted to be the most charming dress of the evening. ever since i have heard this story i have wished that miss betty had known how to stencil. what a lot of time she would have saved! i am sure you will agree with me when you know how to stencil. have you noticed the flat gay decorations above the moulding in some houses? well those are stencilled. a painter will cut out a design from a thin steel background; he lays this on the wall and paints over the open spaces in the design. it is the only true way in which he can keep his pattern. all free-hand designs are bound to show a difference in outline. stencilling for home decoration is used on curtains (figure ), portières, rugs, couch covers, table covers, lunch sets, pillow tops, (figure ), bags, counterpanes, as well as for dresses, parasols, wraps, scarfs, and in fact almost every conceivable object that allows the use of decoration. you can get a stencil board from any artist supply shop, but the one you can make at home is cheaper even if it is not quite as durable. [illustration: photograph by mary g. huntsman. a single motif being used on a stencilled scarf] in many of the schools, stencilling in its simplest form is taught in the kindergarten. the children are taught to fold a heavy piece of drawing paper lengthwise and draw half a design so that the centre of it is on the fold of the paper. the design is then cut away, leaving the background intact. this method is good for very simple motives. sometimes when we do not wish our design to be so set, we will draw it without creasing the paper. [illustration: fig. . a simple stencilled pillow] the stencil board that you can buy is very hard for little fingers to cut, besides being expensive. to make a stencil pattern, draw a design such as a bunch of violets. let every petal be separated from the other and where the stems should intersect leave a little space between. these little spaces or bridges are what keep the background together. of course, as a usual thing, if you buy a stencil outfit, one pattern or more already cut comes with it. in many of the large shops stencil patterns can be bought separately, but if one has any idea of drawing it is an easy matter to make a pattern. [illustration: fig. . the cut stencil] the design can be traced and cut on a piece of heavy manilla paper: a coat or two of shellac makes the paper stiffer and somewhat waterproof. the advantage of using drawing paper is this, that it may be cut with a pair of scissors, while a stencil board requires a sharp penknife and lots of finger strength to cut the pattern. white shellac is the best to use, as it dries quickly. it can be bought from any paint store. the pattern now cut (figure ), you are ready to do a piece of real stencilling. let us choose the cheapest thing we can get for our first attempt. a piece of cheese cloth for a sash-curtain appeals to me. put in the hem so that the stencil will be sure to be straight. lay a large piece of blotting paper over the board or table on which you are going to work. place the cheese cloth on top of that. try your stencil pattern and measure how many times you can repeat it. it is better to plan a pattern with a small space between each motif so that you will not have half or part of the design left over. stick a pin where the centre of each motif should be. lay the stencil pattern in position and thumbtack it down to the cheese cloth and blotting paper. turpentine and oil are the most satisfactory for stencilling, though there are several patent mixtures sold that are good. the paint can be mixed with the turpentine till it is the consistency of a thick cream or the brush can be dipped into the turpentine and then into the paint. in either case the brush must be wiped quite dry, as the process is more of a rubbing in one than painting. bristle brushes of four different sizes should be in your stencil outfit. they come round and flat, (figure ). the frontispiece shows a child stencilling with the round brush. [illustration: fig. . the brushes] dip the brush into the mixture and be sure you wipe it off on a soft rag before painting in the design. if the brush is too wet the result is a blurred stencil. use a different brush for every colour. when the first motif is stencilled, move the pattern and place it over the next pin. if you want to reverse the pattern, clean it thoroughly with naptha on both sides and let it dry for a couple of minutes before using again. to make a stencilled piece washable it has to be steamed like printed dress goods. this can be accomplished in two ways: that is, by holding it over a steaming kettle, or by laying a wet cloth over the stencilling and pressing with a hot iron. needless to say, a piece stencilled in water colours should not be treated like this. [illustration: fig. . a stencilled bag] water colours or crayons can be used when a piece is not desired to be washed. the latter works in as smoothly as paints. scrim, cheese cloth, linen, crash, burlap, monk's cloth, and arras cloth can be used for curtains or portières. the cost of them varies from seven cents to one dollar a yard. sometimes a small motif is taken and stencilled all over the material. this gives the effect of a printed pattern. five tubes of paint will produce almost any shade under the sun. they should be blue, yellow, red, black, and white. blue and yellow make green; blue and red, purple; lavender, yellow and red make orange. a little black will soften the colours while white lightens the shade. other combinations can be made by mixing three colours together. enough of the paint should be mixed at one time to stencil the entire piece, as it is extremely difficult to mix a new batch of colour that will be the exact shade as the first. ultramarine blue is the shade of the deep sea. crimson lake is a bright red. venetian red is a terra cotta. emerald green is a blue green. sap green is yellow green. ivory or lamp black are the two blacks to be had in oil paints; the former is shiny while the latter is dull. flake white is the term for white in oil paints. of course, you can buy ready mixed in tubes almost any shade you desire, but it is lots more fun to make your own colour combinations, as well as very much cheaper. diamond dyes can be used for stencilling by letting one package of dye serve for one pint. the dyes will have to be boiled in the manner stated in their directions. you will find that stencilling is the most delightful of the home crafts. those who are not fond of needlework will find this a real wholesome pleasure. vii what can be done with one skin; cut leather bags, belts, book covers. etc. there is nothing so handsome for a library table or cushion in a room of dark rich colouring as leather work. these articles are very expensive to buy and are sold in arts and crafts shops or women's exchanges and some of the department stores. you have doubtless seen the dyed whole skin used on a library table, but have you ever seen leather appliqué? that is the design cut out of a leather background and lined, or pieces of leather applied to a background. different kinds of leather may be used for this work. the cheapest and thinnest kind is sheepskin. leather is usually sold by the square foot and one has to buy the entire skin. sheepskin costs about sixteen cents a square foot; some stores charge more for it, while it is possible at a wholesale and retail shop to get it for less. the skins come dyed in all shades. golden brown, dull gray or moss green are the most artistic for general use. many tailors like to trim ladies' suits with leather and for this purpose many beautiful odd shades are dyed. goatskin ranks next to sheepskin and is a trifle dearer. chamois is good for belts or dainty opera bags. it comes in white or cream only. calf is a beautiful substantial skin, as is also russia calf. pebble calf is what its name implies, very rough with a glazed finish. the other side presents an undyed appearance. [illustration: fig. . a well-planned skin] if you get a skin you should not expect to get a sofa cushion as well as a large table mat out of it. a skin carefully cut will give you one large piece and the rest of it can be planned for smaller objects, such as card cases, pen wipers, blotter corners, belts, picture frames, possibly a magazine cover or a bag. the diagram of the skin shows how carefully to cut out and plan every part of it (figure ). let us take the sofa cushion first. a bold conventional design can be used in each corner. one that has each part separate like a stencil design is one that i have in mind. cut each part out carefully so as not to impair the background. a cheaper grade of leather of a tone deeper or lighter can be laid under the design, though velvet is also in excellent taste for this work. broadcloth, satin, and sometimes taffeta are also used. if a shaded effect is wanted a different coloured background can be pasted under each different section of the design. it is a better plan, however, for the amateur to restrict herself to one colour for the background as the finishing of different pieces is no easy problem (figure ). library paste is the best means of making the leather and background adhere, also it does not spot as mucilage does. the majority of leather workers consider that the pasting completes the piece, while others feel that it is necessary to machine stitch along the extreme edge of the cutting. yet again others prefer to work embroidery stitches such as open buttonhole or couching stitches. both of these are explained at length in later chapters. a pen wiper can be made from a piece cut in circular, diamond, or triangular shapes. cut two pieces of chamois leather the same shape. a plain piece of the leather also is needed to back the pen wiper. the chamois pieces serve as leaves on which the pen is wiped. [illustration: fig. . leather appliqué bag] a card punch will be needed to make a hole through the four pieces for the ribbon or cord which holds them together. it is most necessary to plan the design so that it will be appropriate to the object it is to be applied to. the leather should also harmonize with the colour of the room or gown with which it is used or worn. for those who are anxious to learn how to design, books on this subject can be obtained from the public libraries. you should bear in mind, however, that practice makes all things perfect. the different methods of applying the design had better be gone into before we proceed any further. thick manilla paper or artist linen may be used on which to draw the design. the pattern is then thumb-tacked or pinned on a flat wooden surface, on the upper edge only, as it will be necessary to raise the paper off and on during the tracing. an orange stick such as used for manicuring or hard pencil will be needed for the tracing. trace along the pencilled design with a very heavy pressure so that there will be an indented line on the leather. a line once impressed is almost impossible to remove, so great care must be taken to keep the design true. every time you stop tracing there will be a deeper indentation; for that reason in tracing a curved line try to draw a full sweep without stopping. a ruler will be an aid in tracing straight lines. it may be found necessary to dampen the leather so that the tracing will be distinct. in that case dampen the entire piece of leather with a wet cloth. dampening in sections only causes water rings. once the whole leather is dampened, however, it can be redampened in sections without fear of marking. designs for leather may also be applied by means of a perforated pattern and a stamping powder or paste or a transfer pattern may be also used. the leather for cut-work may be cut with sharp scissors and manicuring scissors for round or curved places or two sharp knives of different sizes. a board of soft wood is the best on which to work. [illustration: fig. . a belt of leather of appliqué underlaid] the best kind of paste is one that has been recommended by a successful leather teacher and proves satisfactory to all who have tried it. "bring to a slow boil a half-pound of flour in two quarts of water. add to this mixture when cool, an ounce of nitric acid and a dram of boric acid and a few drops of clove oil." the nitric and boric acid, as well as the clove oil, can be obtained from the drug store. if knives are used to cut out the design, thumbtack the leather before commencing. the paste is applied lightly on the wrong side of the leather, then the lining placed over it. lay the article with the right side up and put it under weights until it dries. any surplus paste that may happen to ooze through can readily be scraped off. a wide range of articles can be made from leather appliqué, whether underlaid or overlaid, such as table covers, bags, belts (figure ), medicine cases, card cases, mirror frames, book or magazine covers, portfolios, memorandum pads, waste baskets, pocket books, bill folders, chair covers, besides numerous other articles. sometimes it will be necessary to have two tracings of the design, one on the leather and one on the other background. leather is often applied to heavy crashes for portières, or pillow tops. a bold conventionalized poppy is an excellent design for portières. paper is often used to line centerpieces or mats. rough tinted cartridge paper can be treated the same as cut leather and the daintiest of candle or lamp shades can be made of them. the design is cut out as in leather and a thin china silk lines the whole. each section of the design may then be coloured the right shade of the silk. for instance, a design of cherries can be painted with orange and red for the cherries and the leaves green, while the paper is of tobacco brown; a narrow gold braid finishes the shade at the top and bottom, while the shade is held together with four tiny gold rivets. viii tooled leather and tools necessary tooled leather is one of the oldest and most beautiful of crafts. instead of weakening the leather it simply makes it more beautiful. a handsome box is made of soft wood or cardboard and covered with tooled or embossed leather and is a possession that a queen might envy. boxes containing tools for leather work can be had for from five to twenty-two dollars for the outfit. twelve tools are in the box. two modelling tools, a steel hammer, two embossing tools, a punch, an embossing ball tool, one cutting or trimming knife, and four chasing and pearling knives (figure ). now i know that there are not many of you who would care to buy an outfit for five dollars, but for home use there is a simple little article that can be substituted and yet you can obtain very satisfactory results. a steel nut pick will work wonders and then, when you feel that you can do very much better work with other tools, invest in a case of them. all leathers are not satisfactory for tooling. the best and most used is russia calf in a heavy quality. one skin is usually the least a dealer will sell. let us suppose we are working on a card case. the design is traced in the manner described in the last chapter, that is, by tracing over the dampened leather. [illustration: fig. . a case of tools] after the design has been traced remove the paper and holding the nut pick firmly in your right hand as you would a pencil, proceed to deepen the lines. the leather must be kept moist or the tool is apt to scratch and break the outer skin. it is a work over which you may become fatigued, but you can just lay it aside till the next day and then proceed again. the deeper the tooled line the handsomer the piece. it will take several hours to tool a card case. another form of decorating leather is with the little geometrical die that was used so much in past winters for decorating the background of etched copper articles (figure ). the little die is placed on the leather with its raised or embossed side downward and one knock from a steel hammer is sufficient to make an imprint on the leather. the entire background is filled out in this manner. hammer with an even pressure otherwise the background will be bumpy. [illustration: fig. . the dies for backgrounds] sometimes you may prefer to have your background pressed or modelled and the design to stand out in relief. in that case take the bowl or thick part of the nut pick or modeller and press the background in flat. if the leather wrinkles when rubbing it change the direction of working. when the work is completed it will be noticed that the modelled part of the leather is darker and quite shiny. designs such as cherries, cat-tails, and most floral forms give a greater opportunity for elaborate working. they can be carried out in relief. this relief is a much more difficult work. in the first place the design is drawn on the finished surface of the leather and then, after another sponging with water, hold the leather up from the table. holding the section to be modelled between the first finger and thumb, work the tool backward and forward under the section. some workers prefer to hold the working side toward them, contending that a greater pressure can be brought to bear on a downward stroke than an upward one. in that case the design is stamped or traced on the wrong side of the leather. the oftener the rubbing is done and the leather is dampened the higher the design will stand forth. the parts to be worked in relief may be done before the background (figure ). [illustration: fig. . a magazine cover] to keep the leather from falling back to its natural shape some workers paste the relief parts. my teacher used a paste that we found quite stiff enough except for large heavy objects. to make this paste an ounce of dextrin is left soaking in water for about sixteen hours. dextrin, by the way, is the only paste which will not stain silk. it is a white powder, and when used as a paste can be dissolved in boiling water till it is the consistency of a thick cream. when used as a modelling wax, however, it requires to be thicker than a cream. after the dextrin is dissolved mix in a pint of scrap leather that has been grated to shreds, and a few drops of turpentine. the scrap leather thickens the paste while water thins it. before applying the paste to the leather the raised side is placed face downward upon the marble. take some of the paste and press it into the hollow places until they are entirely filled. after every space has been filled lay a piece of paper over them and then a cardboard or a piece of board large enough to cover all the design. turn the leather, paper, and board right side up on the working table. while the places are being filled in the design is apt to be pushed a little out of shape. with the finer modelling tool or your nut pick go over the flattened places again. let the work remain on the table for four days without touching it so that it may be thoroughly dried. sometimes you will see a beautiful tinted leather. this is usually done by the means of dyes, or chemicals. for the amateur the former is recommended. the dye is applied to the leather with soft cotton or a sponge. to deepen the shade wet the places desired to be darker two or three times with the dye. to obtain the brightly polished appearance so often seen in a handsome piece of leather rub the piece with your bare palms. a little wax rubbed on your hand greatly aids the work. in all leather work it is necessary to leave a margin about a half inch at least. another paste which may be substituted for the formula given in this chapter is one made of equal parts of sawdust and rye flour with water. the cutting or shaving knife that comes with the outfit is good for cutting the leather. if a deeper indentation is desired than is obtained by tracing the pattern, a slight slit may be made with the shaving knife. of course cutting the leather weakens it and it should only be done on a very heavy piece of skin. the hammer is indispensable for stamping in the little dies. these dies are not usually included in the outfit. the difference between the modelling (figures and ) and embossing tools is that the embossing tools are a greater aid in achieving fine bas-relief work. the embossing ball tool is used to make the deep indentations. [illustration: fig. . a modelling tool] [illustration: fig. . a modelling tool] the punch is to make holes for rivets or through which cords or ribbons may be passed to connect two or more pieces of leather together as on a pad or book. the punch and pearling knives are used in fine carved leather. as one becomes proficient in the art of simple leather work she is tempted to branch out and try more elaborate work. a great many books have been written on this subject which, though perhaps puzzling to a beginner, will be interesting and invaluable if the work is taken up as a serious occupation. the best specimens of this work can be seen at the different arts and crafts exhibitions. ix the simplest stitches in embroidery--chain stitching, outlining, herring-boning, cross-stitching, soutache, coronation braiding it would be hard indeed to say just how many stitches there are in embroidery, as so many are combinations of the others. the ones you will hear about are the simplest ones. some years ago i had a large class in embroidery in a mission school. every seat was taken and many applicants were refused admittance. the supervisor came in one day and said that there was a little girl who was very anxious to join the class and that she knew how to sew. i did not have the heart to refuse her, so in marched little nellie. she was just seven years old and said that she attended sewing school every saturday at her church and that her teacher had taught her _all_ about embroidery. i gave her a little stamped design and told her to chain-stitch it and let me see how well she could do it. about five minutes later i happened to turn around and there was little nellie frantically waving her hand. "teacher, teacher," she said, "that is the only stitch the lady didn't show me." now, as i am most anxious that nothing like that will happen to you, i will start with chain-stitching as the simplest stitch (figure ). it is also one of the oldest stitches in embroidery. every museum that exhibits embroidered articles will have some elaborate designs carried out in fine chain-stitching. if the stitches are worked in filo silk or spool silk the effect is like machine work. [illustration: fig. . chain-stitching, showing how to turn a corner] draw a straight line on a piece of muslin and thread your needle with a piece of red cotton. no knots should be used in embroidery. fasten the thread by taking three fine running stitches and one back stitch to insure firmness at the end of the line. now with the needle in position at the beginning of the line, start by taking a straight stitch on the line. bring the thread under and pull the needle through the material. you have made the first loop. put your needle back into the last hole or as near as possible to it, take another stitch on the line, repeat until you come to the end of the design. take the same length stitch every time or you will not have a good-looking chain. if you will look at the links in your chain bracelet, you will see that every link is the same size as the others. suppose you wanted to chain-stitch a square or a triangle: when you come to the corner do not try to make one continuous line, but carry the needle down through the material at the end of the loop to fasten the link and start the next row at right angles to it. chain-stitching can be put to many uses. it is a pretty stitch to cover a single line in a conventional design. it is also the quickest kind of padding for large designs. when it is used as a padding, the rows are worked close to each other. if the work is to be raised very high, the chain-stitching may be placed in rows one on top of the other. you will, however, hear more about padding in a later chapter. [illustration: fig. . smooth outlining] the next stitch we will talk about is the outlining, (figure ). some people think it is simpler than chain-stitching. it was the first stitch i learned in embroidery, but it is not as pretty as chain-stitching. the first thing i did in fancy work when i was nine years old was a wonderful face cloth with a wild rose on the top, and under it my name and the motto, "_cleanliness is next to godliness_," worked in red cotton. after that i made face cloths for every member of the family. outlining makes one think of plain sewing. there are two kinds of outlining, rough (figure ) and smooth, the difference being in how the thread is thrown. to make the rough outline, fasten the thread as directed in chain-stitching and on the line take a stitch about an eighth of an inch. then work from left to right. let the thread fall under the needle and be sure to keep it this way. a smooth outline is made by throwing the thread over the needle instead of under it; this outline can be used as stems for flowers unless a more elaborate kind is desired. [illustration: fig. . rough outlining] either chain-stitching or outlining is an excellent way to decorate bureau scarfs, pillow tops, or table covers. herring-boning is used for finishing seams on a flannel skirt, or it may be used above hems. the little flannel skirt you intend to make for sally ann this winter should be finished in this way. here is a stitch for which we do not need guide lines, though while you are learning, the lines might be helpful. draw two parallel lines a quarter of an inch apart. take a stitch on the upper line, about an eighth of an inch long. then make one on the lower line, letting the thread fall always to the right. when you have made a row between with the lines, try to work one without lines and see if you can keep the herring-boning straight (figure ). [illustration: fig. . herring-boning or cat-stitching] a plain quilt or cover for the baby can be made very attractive, by working herring-boning around the edge. if the cover is woollen, use worsted or heavy silk for the stitchery, but if it is cotton material, a heavy lustre is recommended. the needle to use depends on the thread. a sewing needle will carry a round cotton thread such as d. m. c., madonna, utopia, royal society, or peri lustre. a crewel needle, which is a needle with a long eye, will be required for silk or worsted. an easy way to thread a no. or no. crewel needle with worsted is to hold the needle in the left hand and double the thread at one end and run the needle through it. hold the thread between the thumb and first finger of the right hand so that the thread is just visible. gently pull the needle out with the left hand and run the doubled thread through the eye. it sounds a great deal harder than it actually is, but it will require very little practice. [illustration: fig. . the first step in cross-stitching] when you went to kindergarten did you have little pierced cards on which you made designs in coloured silks or cottons? well they had these at my school and we made book-marks, needle-books and all sorts of funny little things. if you remember the cross-stitching of the kindergarten days, regular cross-stitching will be a simple matter. the nicest material for this work is java canvas, which is very coarse and stiff. it is ideal for book covers or napkin rings. the holes in the canvas are so large that working on it is almost like play. as java canvas is rather expensive you will find a coarse scrim a good substitute. a lot of boys that i once knew took up this work very enthusiastically, so simple is it. [illustration: fig. . the second step in cross-stitch] do you know that you can make a gingham apron for mother and decorate it with cross-stitching that will last ever so long? get a piece of gingham with squares about an eighth of an inch. cross-stitch it in a shade darker than the gingham or in white or red. the stitches are taken on the diagonal as shown in the diagram (figures and ). if there is a great deal of cross-stitching to be done, the quickest way is to make all the stitches that run in one direction first, and then come back and cross them. perhaps mother has a small piece of cross-stitching that you can use as a model. simple triangles are easy to make. begin the lower row with an uneven number, such as seven, nine, eleven, or thirteen. the next row make two stitches less, dropping one from each end, and so on till you have one at the top. [illustration: fig. . a good hand design in cross-stitching] now suppose that you had a little linen or silk bag on which you would like to have a cross-stitch design, yet this material is not coarse enough for you to use as a guide for the cross-stitching. do not think you cannot do it, for i will show you a way. get a piece of scrim just as coarse as you can find, and baste it over the place you would like to cross-stitch. work the design on it and when the cross-stitching is all finished pull out the scrim thread by thread. sometimes you will have to snip the thread of the scrim if your needle accidentally gets caught in them. (figures , , and .) [illustration: fig. . a cross-stitch design] [illustration: fig. . another cross-stitch design] a very simple thing to do is to braid a dress for yourself. now that all the large pattern houses are carrying transfer patterns you can get a design for braiding very cheap. a little girl i know braided a dress for herself and one for her mother last summer. she used light blue chambray and braided it with white. there are several kinds of braid, but the easiest to use is soutache, whether it is cotton or silk. it is a flat braid and varies in width from one to three eighths of an inch. first stamp your design on the material, or if you have not a transfer pattern you can draw a design on tissue paper, making it as long as required and then baste the paper in right position on your dress. take a stiletto, which is a little tool somewhat like a nail that is used in embroidery for piercing holes, and punch a hole on the line. push one end of your braid through this and fasten the end of it on the wrong side of your material. thread your needle with sewing cotton or silk the colour of the braid and sew it down with little running stitches and an occasional back-stitch to fasten it firmly. when you come to the end of the line or of the braid, carry the end through as at the beginning and fasten. [illustration: fig. a. a fourth design in cross-stitch] coronation braid is beautiful, but oh, so very much harder to sew on than flat braid. there are two ways that coronation braid may be sewed on. the one that i give preference to is stamping the design on the wrong side of the material and holding the braid on the right. a stiletto hole is made on the line and the end of the braid brought through to the back and fastened securely so there will be no likelihood of its slipping. then, holding the braid with the left hand, connect it to the material from the wrong side with fine running stitches. the stamped line on the wrong side will serve as a guide for the stitches. you can feel every time the needle touches the braid. now perhaps many of you are wondering what coronation braid is. it is a braid that looks like fat grains of rice all strung together. there are different sizes of the braid, varying from the quarter inch to the three quarters of an inch size. [illustration: fig. . coronation braid] the second way to sew it on is from the right side with little slip stitches. at the small end it would be wise to take a stitch over the braid to hold it firmly. centre pieces, bureau-scarfs or even towel ends are handsome when decorated with coronation braid, and do you know it is a very easy matter to make designs for yourself, as there is nothing prettier than daisies or wild roses for coronation braid. if the petals are too fine to allow you to use the coronation braid, then you must use one grain for each petal, cutting off the grains as you require them. coronation braid comes in white, delft blue, bright green, or red. the braid is supple enough to turn sharp corners. the daisy, as i have stated before, is one of the principal designs used for coronation braid. braid the flower with one piece of the braid. it is not necessary to cut the braid but at the beginning and the ending of the daisy. the very largest width of coronation braid will be required for the daisy. two grains will be sufficient for a petal. bring the narrow ends to the centre and connect them to the material. in the centre make a cluster of french knots. the effect produced is a daisy embroidered heavily and yet quite different from satin stitch. (figure .) a belt decoration with five or six coronation daisies is very attractive when used on a light summer dress. sometimes the owner prefers to couch the braid down with blue cotton and to work the centre of the daisy in the same colour. [illustration: fig. . a daisy in coronation braid] a row of daisies is improved by working a fagotting stitch which is explained in "simple lace stitches," between the petals. see that the braid is sewed on far enough apart that the lace stitches will not be crowded. coronation braid is also used with crochet stitches for the borders of centre pieces and towels. x smocking, feather-stitching and lazy-daisy stitch smocking is such a fashionable trimming this year that i am sure you will not be contented till sally ann has a smocked dress. why, one cannot take a walk in the park without seeing several little children and some grown-ups, too, wearing smocked dresses. sometimes they are made of fine lawn or pique and then again they are china silk, crêpe de chine, or cashmere. stamped patterns can be had for smocking but they are not at all necessary. nearly every little english girl knows how to smock without buying a pattern and why should not you? the simplest form of smocking is the honeycomb or diamond (figure ). it can be any size you wish. a good size for sally ann's dress is the half-inch diamond smocking. the beauty of the work lies in its regularity. to keep it so, the dots must be spaced evenly. a good way is to have a marking card. take a piece of heavy paper or thin cardboard about six inches long by an inch and a half wide. with a ruler draw a faint line one half inch down parallel with the long edge of the card. draw four other lines below this at quarter-inch intervals. be sure that the space between each two lines is a quarter inch, no more or no less. along the top line measure in one half inch. from this point make dots at quarter-inch intervals all the way across. each line is dotted in like manner, letting each dot come directly under the upper one in straight rows. if mother has a card punch ask her to lend it to you and where the dots are make holes. a stiletto will answer the same purpose as the punch; or an orange stick may be pressed into service. your marking card is now ready. [illustration: fig. . diamond smocking] measure the length you wish to make sally ann's skirt. select a piece of material that will show pencil marks, such as lawn, pique, china silk, or crêpe de chine. it will not be necessary to gore the skirt, as the smocking will form a sort of yoke for the dress. a little frock smocked in blue or red will be nice enough for all occasions. take the material and smooth all the creases out after it is cut the right length. you must allow about the same amount of material for the width of the hem as you do for ordinary skirts. place the smocking card so that the edge of it is on a line with the top edge of the goods. the smocking must be done before the belt is put on. through each of the perforated holes make a dot in lead pencil. after every hole has been dotted, move the card so that there is only one quarter of an inch space before commencing to dot again. in other words, place the card so the dots have the appearance of being one continuous design. thread a no. sewing needle with a piece of red or blue cotton. make a tiny knot at the end. start from the topmost left-hand dot from the under side of the material. draw the first and second dots together. three stitches on the right side will suffice to hold them together. between the second and third dots let the thread span the material on the wrong side without pulling it. the third and fourth dots are drawn together and then the thread spans the space between the fourth and fifth. do you see how we are working? first a dot, then a space, a dot, then a space, until the entire line is finished. the second row is worked exactly the same only instead of starting on the first dot of the second row, start with the second. the third row corresponds with the first and now at last we have formed a diamond. [illustration: fig. . smocking in points] if a little more colour is wanted than just the dot alone, pass a thread along the edge of each diamond under the dots. a suggestion which may prove helpful to you if the material has starch in it is that it is easy to crease each line of dots before starting to smock. if the material is soft the smocking should be stroked or gauged. there is a new term to learn, "gauge." it is the same as stroking in sewing. the english women have all sorts of complicated patterns in smocking, but the one that is most popular is the diamond smocking i have told you about. after you know the principle you can make the smocking as deep as you wish and then try and smock in points. (see figure .) feather-stitching is almost as simple as smocking. it has various other names. perhaps you know it by the name of "brier-stitch." the first and simplest form is the single feather-stitching. a thread as fine as no. sewing cotton or a heavy germantown wool can be used for it. baby blankets or a blanket for yourself are pretty feather-stitched in wool. [illustration: fig. . single feather-stitching] like smocking, patterns can be had for feather-stitching. but the best embroiderers never use them, as their mechanical correctness makes the work too much like machine work. i do recommend, however, a faint line drawn so as to have something on which to guide your line and gauge your stitches. [illustration: fig. . double feather-stitching] let us thread our needle with a piece of coarse blue thread. on a little piece of muslin draw a faint pencil line across it. commence from the upper right-hand side of the line. take a short stitch about three sixteenths of an inch on the right of the line, slanting to the line. let the thread come under the point of the needle in each stitch. the second stitch is taken on the left side of the line the same distance over and the same in slant (figure ). [illustration: fig. . triple feather-stitching] [illustration: fig. . four on each side] double feather-stitching is two stitches to the right, two to the left and so on till the line is finished (figure ). in fact you can make three, four (figures and ), or five stitches or even more if you wish on each side. the prettiest little border can be made of feather-stitching in circles. take a quarter or a fifty-cent piece and draw a faint line around it on the material about one inch from the edge. move the piece till it overlaps the pencilled circle and draw another circle. repeat as many times as necessary to go around the skirt, sleeve, or section you are decorating. a row such as this makes a pretty decoration around the sleeves and neck of a night dress or the ruffles of drawers. marking cotton no. or no. should be used for feather-stitching underwear. infants' dresses, bibs, or petticoats of lawn or any very sheer material of cotton or linen should be worked in fine marking cotton, either nos. , , , or . just a word about threads. there are several different kinds. the most popular and best known are d. m. c., madonna, royal society, and utopia. the numbers run about the same. some teachers recommend one certain kind, but the result obtained from using any of them is almost identical. [illustration: fig. . seaweed-stitch] there is a pretty little stitch that can be made with a foundation of double feather-stitching. we used to call it "seaweed-stitch" when we were youngsters. i remember i made a white cashmere coat for my doll and used the seaweed-stitch along the hem and above the opening, and on the cuffs and collar of the coat. it was embroidered in rose coloured filo silk. a row of double feather-stitching was worked in the usual way. at the end of each stitch a little van dyke point or v was worked. try it yourself and see how dainty it is (figure ). a good way and something new for decoration is the feather-stitchery used like festoons on the hems. the way this is done is to take a compass and make a circle about two and a half inches in diameter. cut it out in heavy paper or thin cardboard. baste the hem in place and then trace one-third of the circle. repeat in like manner till the hem has the appearance of large scallops. along the lines work the single or double feather-stitching in no. marking cotton through the two thicknesses of the material. pull out the basting threads from the hem and then carefully cut away the material within each scallop on the wrong side of the hem. in other words, the upper part of the under hem is cut close to the stitching. cut right down to the feather-stitching. only thin materials are pretty worked like this, as the doubled material gives a milk-white appearance, while the upper or single parts are transparent. a lazy-daisy stitch worked in the centre of each scallop adds further beauty to a feather-stitched hem such as has been just described. the lazy-daisy has been aptly called because it requires a stitch to connect each petal to the material. another name for this lazy-daisy stitch is the "bird's-eye" stitch (figure ). it is used to represent clovers, daisies, or leaves. the stitch is made, if for a daisy, from a common centre. bring your needle up from the centre of the daisy and take a stitch the length of the petal. let the thread come from the left under the point of the needle. pull the needle through the material on the right side. a short stitch at the end of the petal catches it down to the material. the needle is now brought back to the centre and the next petal made in the same manner. any size daisy can be made like this from the quarter to a two-inch size. remember that the larger your daisy is the more petals it should have. as fine thread should be used for the little flowers and the heaviest silk or lustre for the big ones, it is a wise plan to faintly mark in pencil the daisy. one line will be sufficient for each petal. if you do this, you can then be sure that each petal will be the same length as the last. [illustration: fig. . the lazy-daisy stitch] a charming little yoke can be made of groups of fine tucks and rows of the daisies. xi couching, shadow work and turkish stitch how to stamp designs the more one does of fancy work the more fascinating it becomes. every new piece presents an opportunity for new stitches and colours. we have talked a lot in the first chapters of this book as to the different implements necessary for sewing and by now i am sure you have a well-equipped sewing box or basket. now it will be necessary to add considerably to your work box for embroidery. the crewel needle which i mentioned in the ninth chapter is the most important implement. get a pack of assorted nos. from to . they will answer every purpose unless you need a large tapestry needle for couching. the most unfortunate thing about a crewel needle is that the eye has the bad habit of breaking. this is caused from the steel being so fine at the top that vigorous working snaps it off very quickly. a tapestry needle is like a large crewel needle, only it is much stronger and the eye is very large. a stiletto of ivory, bone, or steel should also be in your box. an orange stick can be substituted for a stiletto in case of emergency. a small pair of scissors, too, should be included to cut the ends of silks or pare away the material after buttonholing or making an eyelet. i have kept the most important till the last. that is the embroidery hoop or rings. really you would be surprised to see how many different kinds there are in this world. first there are the black celluloid ones that have their good points, but they do not stretch over the material. then there are the common wooden ones that have sharp edges that catch and fray the silk on every turn. there are some wooden ones that have a felt lining and whose edges are an improvement on the cheaper kind, but they also do not stretch over thick fabrics. the kinds that have a spring and may be adjusted to any size desired have their advantage, but the spring catches the silk also and of course that will never do for fine work. the simplest, best, and cheapest kind is the pair that is made at home. get two pairs of the cheapest rings, even if their edges are rough. one pair should be small enough to set inside of the other. they vary from the smallest to the largest circular kind, each one setting inside of the other. select two pairs that come next in size to each other. the most convenient size and ones that can be used for all kinds of work are the six inch. take the larger hoop of each pair for your work. now cut a piece of canton flannel in half-inch strips, or if mother has the coloured selvage left from a piece of flannelette, get that. the largest hoops should be wound over and over like the hoops they use in schools for fancy drills. the other hoop should be padded before winding it. to pad, lay strips two or three thicknesses deep around the hoop and then wind thickly like the other hoop. hoops like these never leave marks on the material, as often happens with the celluloid or wooden hoops. another point is that the sheerest material, such as chiffon, can be used in them, while if a heavy burlap or crash is embroidered over them a little of the winding strips can be removed for the time being. there are other things you might find handy for your box, but it is no use getting them till you have occasion to use them. now we are ready to make use of some of the things just described. the tapestry needle will be brought into use for our next stitch, which will be couching. it is a beautiful old stitch that is often used as an outline. it can be made as a heavy thick cord, or yet again it need only be the size of a fine string. the expression is often used, "couch a cord on." cord is used instead of threads and lustre on pieces where only the effect is wanted. [illustration: fig. . couching] to couch with a number of silk or lustre threads select a no. tapestry needle. cut the skein of silk so that you will have the longest length of thread possible. thread your needle with all the strands in the skein, if the eye will carry them. make a stiletto hole in the cloth on the line of the design. bring the tapestry needle through to the back (figure ). a crewel needle is threaded with a single strand of silk, the same shade or lighter or darker if you desire. fasten the silk ends down neatly on the back of the material with the single thread and bring it up one quarter of an inch from the hole and span the cluster of silk threads. the threads are caught down in this manner at quarter-inch intervals. when the end of the line is reached, the cluster of threads is again taken through to the back of the material. couching is a stitch that you will hear more about in later chapters. the turkish or ismet stitch is another name for cat-stitching or herring-boning. see figure . the stitch is taken vertically instead of horizontally, as in cat-stitch. turkish stitch gets its name from the embroideries from turkey (figure ). it seems to be the favourite stitch of the turkish ladies. [illustration: fig. . turkish stitch] have you ever noticed how many pieces of turkish embroidery are worked on coarse unbleached muslin or tan linen? the colours are generally bright green, blue, coral pink, chestnut brown, purple and then outlined in black or gold thread. shadow work, is not that a funny name for embroidery? but you can understand why it is called that when you see a piece worked. it gives the appearance of a design under the cloth, as all the stitches are taken from the wrong side of the material. the design is drawn or stamped on the wrong side. lawn is usually selected for the background of shadow work because of its transparency. a heavy cotton such as no. or no. marking cotton or d. fine lustre is necessary. daisies or chrysanthemums are most popular for shadow work on account of the smoothness on their edges. not that it is impossible to work an indented edge, but it is more difficult. [illustration: fig. . the right side of shadow stitch] to work the shadow stitch, place your work over your embroidery hoop with the design side up. start to work a petal from the heart of the flower. do not use a knot. the stitch is like cat-stitching (see figure ). first you take a stitch on one side of the petal, then you pass over to the other side. be sure you take the same length stitch every time. the stems are worked in outline stitch. shadow work from the right side looks like back-stitching (figure ). it is used on aprons, shirtwaists, or bureau scarfs where a good effect is wanted with very little work. there are two ways of working the leaves of daisies or chrysanthemums in shadow work: first, and the best in my opinion, is to start and work from the top of the leaf to where the midrib commences in the design. now work from the midrib to the outer edge on the right side of the leaf. the left-hand side is yet to be filled in. start from the base of the leaf and instead, however, of putting the needle through the material by the midrib catch one thread upon the midrib and then take a stitch on the left-side edge of the leaf, up to where the midrib ends. the other way of working a leaf is to outline the midrib first. then start from the base of the leaf and work across the entire leaf. the former way is the better, because there is not such a wide stretch of thread on the wrong side as in the latter method. batiste, organdy, and lawn are the usual materials used in america for shadow work, but in england, where more substantial materials are generally liked, tea cloths of linen in shadow stitch are often seen. tiger lilies are good for any large piece. the effect of shadow work on linen is as if a padded design was placed on the material. white is the nicest for working shadow stitch on waists, especially as colour is apt to cheapen the effect. remember that a design drawn out in pencil soils the cottons or silks and necessitates the article being washed before it is used. you can buy patterns for embroidery so cheap and in such excellent taste that it pays one in the end to use them instead of drawing on the material. there is the perforated design that can be had from five cents up. it is the oldest and in some ways the most expensive pattern. the perforated paper is laid, with the rough side up, over the material on the ironing table or any other flat surface. an especially prepared powder that embroidery shops sell for stamping designs is the best to use. a pouncet is several layers of felt rolled together, or a piece of wood covered with felt. rub the pouncet in the powder. see that the pattern is weighted down so that it will not slip while you are working on it. rub the powder in with a circular movement. lift the weights from the lower edge of the paper, and gently raising the pattern see that the design is well on before removing the pattern. a hot iron will be necessary now to set the powder. every time you use the iron just clamp it down on the design. wipe it off on an old piece of cloth before you press it again on another section of the design. each time the iron touches the powder, part of it adheres to the iron and the design would be spoiled if the iron was used again before wiping it. after the design has been set, the iron can be used freely over the whole work. there is another method of stamping with a perforated pattern, and that is placing the smooth side of the design face upward and using a blue paste that comes in cake form. the pouncet is dipped in kerosene or naptha and then rubbed on the paste. apply to the paper as directed for the powder. this method requires no iron, but care must be taken not to get the pouncet too wet or the design will run. a third method for stamping is one that requires to be rubbed with the back of a spoon. the fourth and newest method of stamping is by the transfer designs. the patterns are in different colours. place the transfers with the bright or raised surface next to your material and press with a heated iron. some patterns require a very hot iron, while for others a moderately heated iron suffices. you can make a perforated pattern yourself by drawing a design on a piece of paper and using a sewing machine to perforate along the lines. xii buttonholing and wallachian embroidery embroidery buttonholing is a little different from the buttonhole stitch used in sewing. it is a stitch that is most used to finish the edges of centre pieces, scarfs, and, in fact, any article where embroidery is wanted to finish the work. you know that it is possible to use a fancy stitch, such as the turkish stitch described in the last chapter, but in that case the material will have to be turned back and hemmed. the twill or purl of buttonholing, as the little ridge on the edge is called, serves as a resistance for the material from fraying out. the buttonhole stitch is the most popular in embroidery. it is the foundation for many other stitches. feather-stitching is really an open form of this stitch. as a usual thing it is necessary to pad before working buttonholing. it raises the work and makes it much more durable as an edge. the padding can be done in either running-stitch or chain-stitching. let us take for our first example the straight buttonholing. it is the simplest form. cover the space between the lines with coarse, running stitches. let the background be medium weight linen. the padding thread should be no. or no. marking cotton, or two strands of white darning cotton makes an excellent padding. the stitches can be fully one quarter of an inch in length. take up a single thread of the background so that the padding will be all on the top of the material. this keeps the work well raised on the right side and perfectly flat on the wrong side. an extra row or two toward the outer edge of buttonholing raises the edge prettily. chain-stitching is a more rapid way of padding, but should only be used for coarse work. remember that the wider the buttonholing the more padding will be necessary. the padding should be worked over your embroidery hoops, keeping the work as near to your fingers as possible. the actual buttonholing gets a rounder effect if done over the finger, though it is possible, of course, to do it over the hoops. again, no knots in buttonholing. thread your needle with no. marking cotton. make three little running stitches and one back-stitch to insure firmness in the starting. let your thread come up slightly under the lower line of the buttonholing. with your left thumb holding the thread down to the material draw your thread to the right, take a stitch over the padding, bringing the needle out slightly below the lower line. the thread should fall under the point of the needle in each stitch. the next thing we learn in buttonholing is a scallop. the deeper the scallop the more difficult it is to make a good corner and to keep the slant of the stitches right. when you buy a stamped piece of embroidery, select a pattern that has a shallow scallop and one where the points are not too sharp. in working a scallop the stitches should slant vertically in the direct centre, slanting the other stitches toward this point (figure ). [illustration: fig. . a simple scallop] the object in carrying the needle slightly beyond the stamped line is that all the stamping may be well covered. a stitch that is taken directly through the line shows the stamping. the diagrams (figures and ) show how to work a simple scallop and one with a sharp scallop. a good deal has been written about the cutting of scallops, but the safest and wisest is to wash the piece before cutting out the scallops. a pair of small embroidery scissors should be used to cut the material away close to the twill of the buttonholing. if a scallop is cut before it is washed it frays so much that the edge has an untidy look. [illustration: fig. . a sharp scallop] some women work a row of machine stitching close to the lower edge before padding it, as a preventive from fraying, while others insist on cutting the material to allow a hem on the wrong side only. try the first way and see if you are not successful. another point to bear in mind in buttonholing is that the stitches should be taken very close to each other. if a piece of buttonholing is well done it is hard to distinguish one stitch from the other, and yet they must not be made one on top of the other or the buttonholing will be rough. wallachian work gets its name from a little community in pennsylvania. it is a german word and is nothing more than coarse buttonholing. it is especially appropriate on heavy waists, centre pieces, pillow tops or work bags. a finer form of it looks well on sheer waists. the rings or circles are worked from a centre like the spokes in a cart wheel (figure ). [illustration: fig. . a wallachian ring] [illustration: fig. . wallachian stitch] the leaves or petals of a wallachian figure are worked on the slant, and here is the difference from ordinary buttonholing and the distinctive feature of wallachian embroidery. usually the petals have an indented top and a line running through the centre. begin at the lower right-hand section and take a short stitch on the line as for outlining. the next stitch is taken close to this from the midrib to the outer right-hand edge. the stitches need not be quite as close as in buttonholing and no padding is required. continue in the same slant to where the centre line stops. the stitches from this point radiate till they are in a good slant to continue down the left side. note the stitches in the diagram (figure ). some people do not slant their stitches and the result is that the work is not as pretty and loses its chief charm. placing your thimble on a piece of material, make a little circle around it and in the centre make a little dot to practise the wallachian ring on. [illustration: fig. . a whisk broom holder in wallachian stitch] you will find that your thimble or spool is a great help to you also in making scallops. draw a line with the ruler just below where you want your scallop to be. inscribe half a circle with the aid of your thimble or spool on the straight line. just within this half-circle draw another half-circle that will touch the upper line of the scallop. a ten-cent piece or in fact any coin can be used like this. embroidered pieces should be washed by themselves, especially if they are worked in colours. a little girl i was teaching some years ago was very slow in working a centre piece. she finished the piece one day just before her term was over. thinking that she would surprise me, little daisy decided to launder the piece herself. her mother knew nothing about embroidery, so was not able to tell her how to proceed. so daisy washed the piece and having seen how mother bleached the linens, daisy desired to give her piece a sun bath. she spread it out in the sun and when she went for it the colour was half out. poor little daisy was heart-broken. she would not have had this trouble had she observed the following directions: put the piece to launder in warm water and rub it with a pure soap, such as castile. ordinary laundry soaps are too strong of lye to be used. if the piece is very soiled let it soak a long time, several hours. usually washing the piece out in water is sufficient. rub with the hand only. rinse in clean water and lay the piece on a thick cloth or a turkish towel. roll the towel up and leave until the piece is almost dry. lay the embroidery, with the worked side down, over a heavy padded surface. press with a hot iron quickly. if the centre of the piece puckers, dampen it again till you have pressed it out thoroughly. if you fear to put the iron directly on the piece lay a thin white cloth over it and then press. many a really beautiful piece is spoiled in the laundering. xiii roman cut-work, fancy buttonholing for borders, work bags, bermuda fagotting roman cut-work or colbert embroidery is one of the prettiest forms of buttonholing. the right way to work it is to make the stitches so that each one is distinct from the other. some people insist on crowding the stitches as in regular fine buttonholing, which is quite a mistake, as its distinctness lies in dissimilarity to the ordinary buttonholing (figure ). the work is used for centre pieces, corners of lunch napkins, coat sets, as well as on heavy linen dresses. in scotland the little girls make the entire yokes of their night gowns in cut-work as well as the top of their night gown case. these cases are placed on top of the bed pillows during the day and are marvels of fine handwork. this custom is not restricted to scotland, but italian, french, and german women are also proud of their night dress cases. the design for roman cut-work should be bold and not too close together. it should be stamped directly on the material. the american way of working it is to run a line of fine stitches on the outline and then work a row of buttonholing. the stitches are a little less than an eighth of an inch deep. the background spaces between the design are then cut away close to the buttonhole edge. do not neglect to wet and press the linen before cutting the buttonholing. keep the twill of the buttonholing on the outer edge of the design so that the background will be bordered with the twilled edges (figure ). [illustration: fig. . roman cut-work] the european method of roman cut-work is to run the thread first and then cut the material so that there is an eighth of an inch extending beyond the running stitches. this is turned under till the running thread forms the edge and then the buttonholing is worked through both thicknesses of the material. this way prevents the linen from fraying. the design is basted over a piece of coloured paper, letting the basting stitches follow closely the buttonholing. the wide spaces are then filled in with a simple lace stitch such as the twisted bar, woven bar, or spiders. sometimes the spider is used in conjunction with one of the former stitches, and it is an excellent stitch for filling in the corners. marking cotton no. or no. should be used for roman cut-work, as well as the lace stitches. [illustration: fig. . a roman cut-work centre piece] to make the twisted bar, plan the open spaces so that they will be well filled and yet not too crowded. span from one side of the space to the other with the thread, then return and whip the thread or stitch three or four times. the stitches may be connected and have the appearance of a series of points (figure ). [illustration: fig. . the twisted bar] the woven bars are made by working two threads across the space about one eighth of an inch apart. start from one end and weave. take up one thread on the upward and the other thread on the downward pass. continue in this manner till the whole bar is woven. the bars are placed at equal distances apart (figure ). [illustration: fig. . the woven bar] the spider is a little more complicated. it is made on an uneven number of threads, usually seven. they may be double or single. to make the whipped or double-thread spider, span the space with the thread and then whip back to the centre and connect the thread to the buttonholing again at some little distance from the first stitch. whip back to the centre again and take a stitch directly opposite. continue in this manner till there are five, seven, or nine threads around the centre, then proceed to weave under one and over the next thread until a good-sized spider is made. do not make too large a spider, as it detracts from the work. an illustration for the single spider is given in the chapter on lace stitches. [illustration: fig. . blanket stitch] the blanket stitch is a favourite for working the edge of flannel skirts or quilted covers. worsted or coarse silk can be used for it. it is made on the raw or folded edge of the material. two stitches are long and two are short. sometimes they are worked like a pyramid. beginning at the base we increase each stitch till we reach the point and then decrease each stitch in length as we work back to the base on the other side (figure ). the triangular buttonhole is a pretty stitch for a conventional design that has long narrow sections. it may also be used for working a very large simple scallop (figure ). the way we were taught in school was to mark the section to be worked in deep points. the twill of the buttonholing must come on the lines. the stitches are not very close to each other. the stitches are taken on the line across to the next line. begin at the longest opening and make every stitch shorter. when the line is covered, turn the work so that the twill of the buttonholing touches the top of the stitches just made. if this stitch is used on the outer scallop it will be necessary to hem the material, letting the triangular buttonholing form the edge. [illustration: fig. . the triangular buttonholing] then there are fancy forms of buttonholing that are used especially in mount mellick work. the double buttonhole stitch is effective to fill in the large leaves. the stitches are taken in groups of two, then a little space and two more stitches. continue in straight rows. sometimes one will see a leaf worked one half in double buttonholing and the other half in a close stitch. [illustration: fig. . the honeycomb stitch] the honeycomb or mesh is a fancy name for another form of buttonholing. work a row of buttonholing about a quarter of an inch apart. the distance may be changed to suit the design you are working on. in the second and all other rows, the needle is over the buttonhole loop directly above and a short stitch taken a quarter of an inch, or the distance you have decided on, below the loop. in starting each row bring the needle up a quarter of an inch, or more or less as you desire, below the previous row. the distance must be kept even to achieve satisfactory results. it is not necessary to start from one side always. the first row is worked from left to right, the second from right to left and so on, back and forth, till the space is filled (figure ). bermuda fagotting is the name of a stitch that gives the effect of drawn work, when no threads have been drawn. it is used on scroll designs as well as to outline a simple floral pattern. lawn, dimity, china silk, handkerchief linen, or nainsook are the prettiest materials for this stitch, as it demands a fine, transparent background to give the right effect. [illustration: fig. . diagram of stitches] sewing cotton no. or and a special needle are the only requirements for this work. the needles can be bought from any art needlework shop for five cents each. it is like a large-sized carpet needle with a small eye. a carpet needle can be substituted if it is not possible to obtain the regular needle in your locality. tie one end of the thread to the eye of the needle. while practising this stitch it will be necessary to make guide lines. on each side of the design line make a row of dots an eighth of an inch apart. the dots above the line must be directly over the lower dots. note the diagram (figure ) of this stitch. i have numbered the first six dots. take a stitch from one to three and tie the end of the thread under this point. make the stitch a second time from these points, pulling the material between them closely. pass the needle underneath and connect one and two with two stitches. then pass to point four and connect two. three and four are connected in the same manner. it is only necessary to tie the thread when commencing the work or a new thread. the needle is so large that it makes quite a hole in the material and the thread is so fine that the manner of working is not clear to the average eye unless a detailed explanation is given (figure ). [illustration: fig. . an enlarged drawing of bermuda fagotting] when working on a curved line or a corner it will be necessary to make an extra stitch on the outer or longer side only. the scroll lines or stems of a conventional shirtwaist design are more dainty when made in bermuda fagotting. the corners of handkerchiefs or a design on underwear or yokes and collars lend themselves to this style of adornment. xiv satin-stitch and marking the more interested we become in embroidery the more we find how much more there still is to be learned about it. there may be embroiderers who are experts in one branch of the subject and yet who will do very unsatisfactory work in another. for instance, one girl may be very proficient in fancy stitches and yet may not do the simple stitches or vice versa. few american girls excel in the satin-stitch, not because it is hard, but it must be perfectly accurate. the average german, swiss or french child can do better satin-stitch at the age of twelve than the average american woman does. from the time the children in those countries can hold a needle in their hand they are taught to sew and embroider. [illustration: fig. . a letter in satin-stitch] satin-stitch is a stitch that is taken over and over across a space. sometimes it is quite heavily padded and at a first glance gives the appearance of a piece of material heavily raised. fine designs should, however, be slightly padded. there are three ways in which padding may be done. there is the running or uneven darning, the chain, or the filling-stitch. a great deal depends on the smoothness of the padding. the chain-stitch should only be used for coarse work. the padding should not cover the stamped outlines, for they are needed as a guide for the satin-stitch. the padding is usually worked in a heavier thread than the outer stitches. darning cotton that comes in four strands is often used. one or two strands is sufficient. [illustration: fig. a. satin-stitch] the prettiest satin-stitch is taken straight across. the stitches should not be crowded, but should be worked so that when the embroidery is finished the stitches are hard to distinguish one from the other. [illustration: fig. b. satin-stitch dot] the old english letter "e" (figure ) shows a good example of satin-stitch and outlining. the latter was used on the single lines. the entire letter may be carried out in satin-stitch by first running the single lines with uneven darning stitches and then covering these with fine satin-stitches. make the padding stitches as close together as possible, or the satin-stitches will be uneven. the letter "c" (figure ) offers an opportunity of combining two colours. after the satin-stitch has been done, a little back-stitch is worked through the centre of the heavily padded sections. this combination of stitches is pleasing when colour is used, as the satin-stitch is in one colour and the centre stitches in another. a great many of the regular sewing stitches can be used instead of the embroidery ones. for the very fine lines, back-stitching can be used, making the stitches finer than those used in ordinary sewing. [illustration: fig. . satin-stitching and seeding] the letter "a" of figure shows a good combination of satin-stitch and back-stitching. [illustration: fig. . satin-stitch and back-stitching] satin-stitch can be worked straight across or on the slant. most of the modern work is straight, though a great many germans still prefer to slant their stitches. the work should be held toward you and the needle straight. the padding should be worked lengthwise on the design and the satin-stitch in the opposite direction. the chinese do beautiful embroidery, usually in satin-stitch which is not padded and the finest of silks are employed for the work. another way of marking is to make a row of french knots along the outline design. a single line script letter lends itself best to this kind of work. [illustration: fig. . a simple letter in back-stitching] for bath towels an outlined letter is better than a padded one. the letter on a school bag or a heavy turkish towel should be very simple as the wear they get does not warrant the spending of too much time on them. if there is a monogram to be made it is prettier if the initials of the christian name be light and the surname heavy. we learned about outlining in the first chapter of embroidery stitches, but outlining in combination with outer stitches is a little surprise for you. we have the german to thank for most of the good combinations of stitches or letters. after the letter has been outlined in white, we will say, a thread of colour is taken. starting from the upper left-hand side the needle is passed under the first stitch of the outlining, up through the second stitch and down again through the third, till every stitch has been taken up on the needle (figure ). the threaded needle should not pass through the material except at the beginning and end of each line (figure ). [illustration: fig. . a pretty combination stitch] [illustration: fig. . a letter in fancy stitch] another manner in which a letter may be embroidered, especially an old english letter, is to work it solid in white and outline it in colour. the van dyke point is good also where a broad space is to be filled. it is sometimes called the bird's-eye stitch. [illustration: fig. . a simple way to work a letter] start at the top and on the left side of the letter or space it is to fill. insert the needle on the right side and take a stitch to the centre on a slant like a buttonhole stitch. fasten to the material with a little short stitch. bring needle out at the extreme left and repeat directions until the space is filled. each stitch forms a v (note figure ). sometimes you will find a very elaborate letter, the outline of which has been worked in satin-stitch or french stemming. little eyelets or satin-stitch dots are worked between the lines. [illustration: fig. . van dyke stitch] when two or more letters intertwine they are called a monogram. it is not every set of letters that will make good monograms. letters that have a good swing should be selected so that though they intertwine each letter should stand forth clearly. it is permissible to use the surname initial a trifle larger than the christian initial. when monograms are composed of three letters and one of the smaller letters is placed on either side of the larger one the effect is very pleasing. the smaller the letters, the finer the thread should be. no. or marking cotton can be used for letters one half-inch in size. a three-quarter inch letter should be carried out in no. marking cotton. a one-inch letter requires no. cotton, while the two-inch letters take no. and so on. the larger the letter the coarser the cotton. [illustration: fig. . a letter in van dyke stitch] [illustration: fig. a. seeding] the beauty of a monogram is to have something original. perhaps you want to work your bag. take a tea cup and place on the material in the position you desire the monogram. run a faint pencil line around the cup. draw a block letter in the centre so that it touches the upper and lower edges of the circle. your two christian initials are then placed one on each side of the centre letter. try to fit the letters so as to keep the circle perfect. it may be you will not really draw block letters, but so much the better, as the monogram will be more original. if it is impossible to make a complete circle with the letters, embroider the sections of the circle between the letters in stem-stitch. stem-stitch, you will remember, is an outline-stitch covered with the over-and-over or small satin-stitch. a monogram of this sort is especially appropriate for a man's handkerchief. a twenty-five-cent piece, or a fifty-cent piece if it is a very large handkerchief, should be used for the circle. seeding (figure a) may be combined with satin-stitch in working monograms. seeding is nothing more than a series of little back-stitches. a good effect is obtained by working one letter in satin-stitch and the other in seeding. it will be necessary to outline the outer edges of the seeded letter. you have probably noticed the gold emblems and lettering on the sleeves of army officers' regimentals. they are generally worked in bullion, though sometimes gold thread is used. bullion comes in gold and silver and at the first glance looks like the oriental gold or silver threads. the difference is, however, that bullion is tubular, while the threads are usually composed of two or three strands twisted together or over and over a thread of red cotton. the red cotton makes a strong foundation for the gold threads and, by the way, do you know that all silk that comes on spools has a fine thread of cotton running through the centre? the purer the silk the less cotton is used, but the latter is very necessary, as the threads will not stand very much strain if they are all silk. now let us get back to emblems in bullion. it is necessary in bullion work to have a fine cardboard foundation which is called "the cartoon." trace your design on the cardboard and then cut the design out. baste the cartoon to the background, which may be of any material you desire. broadcloths, silks, satins, and velvets are the materials usually selected for the work. thread a fine needle with a piece of silk. fasten the thread on the wrong side of the material and bring the needle up through the right side. let us suppose that you are working the block letter a. start from the apex of the letter. cut a piece of the bullion just the size of a very small bead. slip the needle through the cut piece of bullion and span the point of the letter. continue in this manner till the cardboard is closely covered with the bullion. each piece of bullion is cut to fit the space it is to cover. in working a five pointed star, start and pad each section lengthwise, if it is to be embroidered in silk or cotton. for bullion work the cartoon is always necessary. work each section of the star from the point to the centre. work from left to right, so that each section that is worked is to the left. papier-maché letters can be bought that may be used as a padding. they are very satisfactory for anything that is not to be laundered, but continual washings flatten the papier-maché, while if the padding is made of cotton it lasts as long as the background. handkerchiefs for yourself can be daintily marked in very fine feather-stitching in d. m. c. marking cotton no. . remember to keep the stitches in a pretty slant. there are numerous places that a letter or monogram can be used. a girl i know who is at a boarding school has marked all her bed linen and towels. for each pair of sheets and two pillow cases she uses a different style letter or monogram so that her linen is in sets. cross-stitching is appropriate for bath towels, although face towels are often very attractive worked in this stitch. the question often arises as to which is the right place to put a letter or monogram on a table cloth, napkin, pillow case, or sheet, and though you may not be interested in any of these articles at present, it is well to know these little points when helping to mark the household linens. napkins are usually marked with the letter in the direct centre when folded. of course, like many other things, there are fads for changing the position. one extreme style is to mark the letter in the direct centre of the napkin. this style necessitates folding the napkin in a fancy shape so that the embroidery will be seen at its best advantage. there are two good ways to mark a table cloth. one is to place the lettering midway between one corner of the table and the hem. when the cloth is on the table the letter is below the top. the second and newer way is to have the letter on the top of the table on a line with the plates. if two sets of letters or monograms are used place them at diagonal corners. on sheets the letters should be placed two and a half inches above the hem. the letter is worked so that when the sheet is folded back the base of the letter is toward the foot of the bed. pillow cases or towels are marked in the centre of one side, two inches above the hem. again let me impress upon you not to embroider white washable material in silk, thinking that because silks are more expensive they are better. silks are apt to discolour in laundering. cottons are now manufactured that have a high gloss like silk and yet they never discolour. [illustration: fig. . a handkerchief corner in satin-stitch] another pretty and new way to mark letters on lawn or fine linen handkerchiefs is one that gives the effect of bermuda fagotting and yet it is only hemming with a large needle (figure ). draw the letter in pencil on the handkerchief. thread a large tapestry or chenille needle with a piece of no. linen thread. cotton thread may be used but it is very apt to break. tie one end of the thread to the eye of the needle so that it does not slip out. thread another needle with a strand of no. marking cotton and pass it to the back at the beginning of the letter. unthread the needle, allowing a half inch to extend out of the back. let the no. cotton follow the lines of the letter and take a stitch into the material with the large needle. work from right to left, holding the no. cotton from you. pull the fine thread tight around the stitch you have taken. now pass your needle around the same group of threads of the material, holding the stitch over the heavy cotton. work around the entire outside of the letter, then turn and work the inner line. stitch again through the hole already made, taking up the same group of threads. sometimes this style is called ladder-stitch, as the heavy cotton gives the effect of the side of the ladder and the groups of threads represent the rungs. any design that is uniformly narrow can be carried out in ladder-stitch. [illustration: fig. . a simple letter for towels] xv eyelets and french knots, bullion stitch, and other fancy stitches. the most beautiful of the embroidery stitches is the eyelet, and it is also one of the hardest. a piece of embroidery that is thickly covered with eyelet-work and possibly a little satin-stitch and buttonholing is commonly termed madeira embroidery. one will often see a piece of the madeira embroidery so closely covered that it is almost impossible to put another stitch in between the embroidered spots. about fifty years ago it was a matter of impossibility to buy machine embroidery, and eyelet-work was one of the last things made by machine. it was an easy matter to distinguish the hand-work from the machine-work up to about five years ago. a certain regularity of the stitches and the kind of thread used proclaimed it machine to even the amateur. now-a-days the crafty manufacturers stamp the material to imitate the hand-made embroideries and use a thread of the same quality so that sometimes the professional embroiderers find it hard to distinguish it from the real. if you should ask a boy who has watched his mother working one, what an eyelet is he will probably tell you that it is cutting holes in the material and sewing them up again. to his mind this is a great waste of time. [illustration: fig. . baby's bootees] besides being ornamental, the eyelets often play an important part. they are used to run ribbon through in corset covers, night-gowns and other pieces of underwear, as well as on bags, baby bootees, (figure ), caps and carriage covers. no machine beading can impart the elegance that a well-made eyelet does to a personal garment. eyelets can be either round or oval. for a small round one run a tracing thread on the outline. let each stitch take up but one or two threads of the material. use no. or finer marking cotton for small eyelets. with your stiletto pierce a hole in the outlined edge till it is just the size of the stamped eyelet. now with the same thread sew around the opening with close over-and-over stitches. the stitches should only be the width of the stamped line (figure ). they must be even, else you will have a "pig's-eye." [illustration: fig. . the way to work an eyelet] for the large round eyelet, as well as the oval, in all sizes it will be necessary to cut the material within the outline which has first been traced with the running thread. the cuts should be made lengthwise and crosswise, right to the tracing thread. the cut material is turned under to the wrong side and the eyelet worked as just described. after the embroidery is finished turn the material over and any part of the cut cloth that extends beyond the stitches trim off. your fine embroidery scissors should be used for the cutting. [illustration: fig. . the round eyelet] sometimes you might like to make an eyelet to represent a grape. some embroiderers call it a shaded or padded eyelet. after the eyelet has been traced make another row of tracing or padding below the lower half of the eyelet. start from the centre side of the eyelet and make the second tracing deeper on the lower portion of the eyelet. if any space is left between these two rows of tracings fill in with other rows of uneven darning (figure a). [illustration: fig. a. a padded eyelet] when eyelets are used on the outer edge of a design, they should be buttonholed. [illustration: fig. . a simple centre piece in eyelets] the next stitch to claim our attention is french knots. in france they are known as the english knot. they are used to fill in the centres of flowers. when working a piece of golden rod the natural effect is best produced by using french knots very close to each other. a row worked on each side of a row of feather stitching makes a pretty decoration on babies' dresses, caps or even on yokes of dresses for yourself. [illustration: fig. . an eyelet design for a pillow] a heavy thread is good to practise making the knot. the actual size or kind of thread to use should depend partly on the kind of material and partly upon the other style of work or stitches that you intend combining with it. [illustration: photograph by mary g. huntsman. many a happy hour is spent embroidering] to work the knot, fasten the thread securely on the wrong side and bring the needle through to the right side. now hold the thread down with your left thumb. with the right hand put the needle over and under the thread until there are three or four coils of the thread around the point of the needle. now hold these coils down with the left thumb. turn the needle so that its point will go down through the material as close as possible to the place through which it came (figure ). [illustration: fig. . french knots] a pretty idea for making knots for dress trimmings is to thread the needle with two strands of silk, each of a different colour. bullion stitch is an elongated french knot. it is used considerably in mountmellick embroidery, to represent grains of wheat. small leaves and daisies are oftentimes carried out in bullion stitch. to make the stitch we will say that we are working on the conventional daisy. bring the thread up to the base of the petal. insert the needle so that the length of the petal lies on top of it. (see figure .) twine the thread around the needle point until there are as many coils as the length of the petal. the left thumb should hold the coils in place while you are twisting them. the needle is now drawn through the material. it is put through the same hole, or as near as possible to the one from which it came. keep the left thumb holding down the coils until the stitch has been fastened. another way to accomplish bullion stitch, which has the same appearance, but which really is a very much slower method, is to lay a heavy thread the length of the stitch desired and then neatly wind the cotton over it. it requires a heavy cotton to work this successfully. [illustration: fig. . bullion-stitch] an embroidery needle should not be used for either french knots or bullion stitch, as the eye is apt to stick when pulling it through the coils. a large sewing needle should be substituted. [illustration: fig. . an elaborate piece of buttonholing and satin-stitch] any girl can make dainty and original designs for eyelet work if she will invest in compasses. as has been stated before, eyelets vary in size. the size that is most effective for decorating heavy linen or cotton is an eyelet a little less than half an inch in diameter. a larger eyelet is often used, but it requires a good deal of patience and experience to keep it in shape. with the compass hundreds of designs may be used. the most popular as well as being the most attractive is the simple daisy. a circle is drawn to represent the centre. a quarter of an inch over from the centre circle, or less if you wish to, draw six other circles so that they form a ring around the centre dot. a design such as this can be used on a ruffle of a petticoat or between tucks on dresses while for a whole linen piece there is nothing handsomer for a scalloped or hemstitched centre piece, doily, bureau cover and many other articles on which a bold, open effect is appropriate. the wall-of-troy design is a good one for compass work, only it is suggested to faintly rule the design then inscribe the circles so that their centres are on the line. for instance, suppose you want to make a border design about an inch and a half deep. take your rule and keeping on a straight thread of your material draw a two-inch line, then leave a space, then draw another line, so on to the end. an inch and a half above these lines draw another row of lines just over the spaces of the first row. connect the ends of the lines together. plan so that there is a circle at the points or corners of each line. between these dots on the horizontal lines make two more circles, while on the vertical lines make only one. these instructions are for a circle the size described; for a smaller eyelet it will be necessary to add more circles to the lines. a still simpler design is one that is made on a square, that is, with a dot at each corner and one in the direct centre. the dots must be kept the same distance apart. the italian girls will make the most elaborate designs of compass work on strips of firm, heavy muslin for ruffles for underwear. they are not like the american and french girls, who will only wear the sheerest kind of light material. the advantage the italian girl has over her french and american sisters is that when she embroiders a garment it lasts for years, even if it is constantly used, while delicate embroidery is apt to have a very short life on account of the background. to the american girl this is no drawback, as she is always craving for new things. sometimes a thimble, spool, or even a twenty-five cent piece is used instead of the compass when a large eyelet is required. an edge of eyelets is very handsome on a collar and cuff set or handkerchief. they should be placed so that after they are worked they touch each other. the entire eyelet may be carried out in buttonholing or the lower half may be buttonholed and the top worked in the regular way. after the work has been completed dampen the edge and press before cutting out the material from underneath the lower edge of the eyelet. it is possible to work the eyelet without any buttonhole stitches and yet use it for an edge. in that case a little padding is required and the stitches should be close together. a linen hat that has a simple scallop edge and a simple design on the brim and crown is a treasure that usually only the wealthy enjoy. it is nice to know how to embroider, but unless we put to use the things we know our knowledge is like a white elephant on our hands. after a careful study of the diagram of the stitches you desire to make and reading the description as to how to make it, a little child could almost work a hat, but the mounting of a hat is not so simple. yet, what is the use of taking time to embroider one if you do not intend to make it up? eyelet work is particularly dainty on a hat as it gives a lacy effect. the material should be a medium weight linen so as not to be too stiff. at one time butcher's linen was thought to be the only kind to be used, but of later years a softer linen is preferred. lingerie hats have been used for years, probably long before you were born. every year the shape varies a little. one year it is a narrow brim sailor, next year it is a wide brim, then again a high, next a tam-o'-shanter crown. the last four years it has been the mushroom shape. for most faces there is nothing more becoming and girlish than the latter (figure ). [illustration: fig. . a lingerie hat] sometimes the mushroom shape is covered with hand-embroidered ruffles, while again a circular piece having the crown cut out is used. the size of hat varies by what fashion dictates, so it is hard to say just how large your linen should be cut. a twenty-two or twenty-four inch circle makes a neat little shape. after the embroidery has been worked as described in the first part of this chapter, the frame is prepared for mounting it. a wire frame is lighter and more satisfactory than a buckram frame. the first thing to decide is, how are we going to face the hat? tucked ruffling, net, dotted swiss, or fine ruffles of valenciennes lace may be used. most people prefer to cover the entire frame with cheap, fine lawn before facing or covering the hat. this is done by placing the hat on the lawn, the brim touching the material, and cutting a circle a trifle larger than the brim. cut a circle out for the crown and slip the lawn over the frame. if the crown is too large to allow the lawn to be slipped over it a wide bias band of the lawn can be used to cover the brim. the bias strip should be just the depth of the brim. for the crown, cut a circle large enough to cover the top and use a bias band around its sides. tack the muslin to the frame by long basting stitches. it will be necessary to pass under the wire when taking a stitch to keep the material in place. the tucked ruffling can be bought by the yard, trimmed with a row of narrow lace. the entire thing is banded. to adjust a ruffling of this sort place the band around the edge of the crown and tack the ruffle in position at short intervals and at the extreme edge of the brim. net or dotted swiss is pretty shirred or corded or even put on plain. a strip three times the length that it would take to go around the brim plain is cut the depth of the brim. this band is cut on the straight of the goods. a shirring string is run on both sides. the strip is placed in position and pinned taking care to distribute the gathers evenly. the shirring string under the crown is pulled up first and the material over-handed to the frame. the gathering thread on the outer edge of the brim is also adjusted like this, only instead of over-hand stitches, fine running stitches are preferable. then a small heading is made on one side of the strip that is to be shirred. the heading makes a pretty, soft finish at the edge and does not require any great length of time to do. allow three quarters of an inch, or more, in the depth of your ruffle if it is to have a heading. turn one edge of the material to the wrong side. the turn should be a little more than a quarter of an inch deep. the gathering thread is run a quarter of an inch from the folded edge of the material. when the thread is pulled up the heading is formed. if the material is to be corded, baste a narrow round cord like a corset lace inside the material. the cord is placed where it is desired and the material is folded over it as for a tuck. a running thread is worked close to the cord to keep the two pieces of material together. the threads are afterwards drawn up to bring the fulness of the ruffles to fit the outer edge of the hat. three rows of cording are quite sufficient on the edge and the other two rows at equal intervals from the outer brim to the crown. the ruffles of valenciennes lace are adjusted by pulling the drawing string on the edge of the lace, and basting the first row of lace on the extreme edge. the second row just touches the first, and so on, filling as many rows of lace in as required. the embroidered piece is then washed and the brim placed. the edge is tacked at intervals while around the crown the stitches are taken very close together. the tam-o'-shanter crown is pulled in shape by a gathering thread, if it is cut in a circular shape and the gathering is all on the edge. cut the circle large enough to make a pretty tam-o'-shanter. the embroidery decoration may be in the direct centre of the crown. if the design is a small one it can be scattered over the crown to give an all over effect. there are many ways that a lingerie hat may be trimmed and it is hard to say which is the prettiest. a black ribbon band and a bow is simple but severe. white taffeta ribbon may be used the same way if an all white hat is wanted. in fact any shade of ribbon is attractive used like this. the illustration shows a pretty way of trimming a lingerie hat for a girl of about fourteen. a narrow coloured ribbon is used around the crown and a rosette of leaves with rose buds and forget-me-nots is attractively placed on one side. sometimes coloured linen is used for the hat and in that case the embroidery may be worked in the same shade as the linen; or white. the hat is then trimmed with white or black. a coloured hat is not as practicable as a white one, as the former is apt to fade and may not be as becoming as the white. a baby's buttoned hat is made of two circular pieces scalloped out at the edges, one piece being four or five inches smaller than the other. the large one is used for the brim. the head size is cut out of the direct centre and then bound in tape. three inches from the crown opening sew a circular row of buttons, a half inch apart. use a washable linen, lace, or crochet button for this purpose. one inch from the edge of the crown make as many buttonholes as you have buttons. a pair of daintily hemstitched strings that are attached, one on each side of the crown opening, completes this charming little hat. it can be easily unbuttoned and laundered flat. these hats are made of duck, pique or heavy linen. they are the nicest thing you can make for your little sister for the summer when she wants to play in the sun. xvi long and short, kensington embroidery, and ribbon work for simple flowers it is the ambition of every one who starts to embroider to make a piece of flower work and though the floral designs are most fascinating to embroider they are by no means as artistic as the conventional. the way to embroider a piece of flower work and obtain an original colouring is to get a natural flower and place it in a vase in a position that you can clearly see the light and shadow. the best flower to start with is a daisy. note that the petals are not a dead white, but there is a suggestion of green toward the centre of the flower. get mercerized cotton to work with at first until you become accustomed to the stitch. there is no cut and dried rule in regard to the colouring, but the art of shading a piece naturally is a lesson that is very essential for the embroiderer. to many people the term embroidery means flower work and only after a course of instruction they discover for themselves how much more artistic and in keeping with most rooms is a conventional design. flower work, however, is not to be despised as you will learn more about colour combination and kensington stitch in one piece of this style than any kind of embroidery. [illustration: fig. . long and short stitch] all flower work has long and short stitch on the edge of the petals or leaves that do not turn over. daisies do not have turn over leaves as often as a double rose or chrysanthemum. suppose we draw a very large daisy on a piece of white muslin. with your needle threaded with white lustre start from the right-hand side. take one stitch on the line. place your needle back near the same point from which you started. take a short stitch that goes a wee bit outside of the stamped line past the first stitch. the object of going beyond the line, is that the stitch completely covers the stamping. the third stitch is taken at the same slant, only longer. the fourth is a short one and so on, first one short and then one long until the top of the petal is reached. remember, though, these stitches are only on the edge. the left half is worked the same, but the stitches slant a little differently. a good rule to mention right here is, that all stitches should slant to the heart of the flower. in leaves they slant toward the base. the inside of the petal, when the long and short stitches are completed, should be irregular (figure ). the kensington stitch gets its name from an english school of embroidery. it is more like outlining than any other stitch. after the edge of the flower has been worked in long and short stitch, the kensington stitch is used to give the solid effect. the piece must be held all the while in a tight fitting pair of hoops so that it can not sag in the least. if the petal is long, two or three rows of kensington stitch will have to be worked to fill it in. if silk is desired, two strands are used for the edge and one strand for the kensington stitch. the stitches are dovetailed into each other. each row must have an irregular lower edge, else they will look like bricks laid one on top of the other. the stitches should be so worked that it is difficult to tell where one ends and the other begins (figure ). [illustration: fig. . the kensington stitch] three shades of green are sufficient for the leaves until you are quite expert. in working them embroider on the edge of the lower half of each leaf with the second shade and the upper part with the lightest. work one side first using the second shade under the lightest and the third under the second. work to the midrib only. it is not necessary to work in the veins, but if they are desired they are put in after the leaf has been worked. do not hesitate to cover the stamped veining on the leaf you are working, as the next leaf will be a guide to where to place the veins. they may be in the lightest or deepest shade of green, while sometimes a reddish-brown is substituted. the centre of the daisy may be satin-stitch or a cluster of french knots. if the dot is worked from the centre to left and from the centre to right you are more apt to get a perfect outline than when starting from one side and working to the other. as a usual thing the lightest shade is on the outer edge of most flowers, but there are a few exceptions, like wild roses and some species of pansies in which the deepest shade is on the edge and toward the centre it is lightest. the stems may be worked in satin-stitch or kensington in wood shades or deep greens, whichever give the more realistic effect to the flower. it is a great mistake to use white for the background of flower work. cream or pale gray make a very much softer and more pleasing effect. sometimes a little of the stem brown can be worked into the leaves. have you ever seen a lace spread or centre piece with flowers embroidered on it? you might think that the worker was more than ordinarily clever, but really any one who can embroider flowers can do this. baste a piece of fine lawn on the section you desire to embroider and stamp it with a spray. embroider in the usual way and when the spray is finished neatly cut away any of the lawn that extends beyond the flower without cutting the lace. the result is that the piece has the effect of a natural flower resting upon it. the finer the silk used the more delicate shading can be accomplished. there is another way to represent flowers that is particularly beautiful. it is known as ribbon work or rococo embroidery. the ribbons especially made for this work vary from slightly less than one quarter of an inch to a little more than a half inch in width. the colours do not range in such long lines as the silks. in fact it is rare to find a shop that carries more than ten colours. sometimes the ribbons are shaded. they are soft and do not crease quite as readily as an ordinary ribbon. a no. crewel needle is about the right size for the narrow ribbon, while the half inch ribbons need a no. . [illustration: fig. . ribbon flowers] forget-me-nots, conventionalized small asters, and little roses are suitable for the narrow ribbons. satin, moire, broadcloth, or heavy silk are used for the background and the daintiest of needle cases, jewel cases, handkerchief bags, belts, and other little accessories may be evolved from a small piece of silk and a few yards of ribbon. the design is stamped on the background and all the single lines or stems outlined with filo silk. let us imagine we are working on a spray of forget-me-nots. the needle is threaded with six inches of the narrow green ribbon. slip your needle from the under side of the material drawing all the ribbon through but a quarter of an inch. one stitch is generally sufficient for a leaf, though sometimes the leaves are wider and require two or possibly three stitches. the ribbon serves the same purpose as silk. the one point to remember is that the ribbon should not be twisted. naturally in pulling it through the material several times it becomes so wrinkled that a short piece works to better advantage than a long one. the flower is made in the same way, one stitch for each petal and when completed a french knot is made in the centre of the flower (figure ). the ends caused from starting and finishing off are fastened or caught down with a piece of fine thread on the wrong side. do not pull your stitches. the work is very much prettier when it lies soft and full on the background. it is well to make use of every piece of fancy work you do and yet sometimes a new thing may strike your fancy and you would like to make a small piece. a card case is acceptable to every girl and it is a good plan to make them to match your visiting dresses. take a piece of material five by ten inches long. three inches from one of the short edges stamp a design that will not occupy a space larger than three inches long and two inches deep. the length of the design must run parallel with the short edge of the material. the bottom of the stamping must be five and a half inches from the short edge of the material. [illustration: fig. . a card case] a little spray of lilies of the valley on a green silk background makes a dainty case (figure ). get a piece of stiff tailor's canvas and cut it to measure eight and three quarters inches by four inches wide. a piece of china silk the same size as the satin will be needed for the lining. it is best to select the shade of silk that harmonizes with the outside material. with a green cover a lining lighter or darker is suggested. the latter is preferred as the constant fingering of a light colour is apt to soil it. cut all three pieces so that they are true oblongs; two and a quarter inches from the short edge make a crease. two and a half inches from the first crease or four and three quarters inches from the outer edge make another crease and cut along it, thus separating the stiffening in two. [illustration: fig. . the foundation of the card case] two and a half inches on both sides of the now short edges of the piece that is not creased draw a line from side to side and crease. on the extreme right-hand side measure down one and a half inches from the corner and make a dot; measure up from the lower corner and make another dot. the space between the dots should measure one inch. take a twenty-five cent piece and place on the space between the dots so that the edge of the material is under the direct centre of the quarter. make a semicircular curve on the canvas around the quarter. cut along the pencil lines (figure ). [illustration: fig. . the canvas interlining] the stiffening now ready, baste it to the lining. see that all creases have been smoothed out of the china silk lining before basting. place the two pieces of canvas so that there is an equal margin on all four sides. the cut edges of the canvas must be placed one eighth of an inch apart as shown in the diagram (figure ). on one side is the four and three-quarter inch piece and the other is the four inch. pin or baste the canvas through the centre to keep it in position. with a threaded needle cat-stitch the silk to the canvas, care being taken to see that the stitches do not appear on the silk side. cat or catch-stitching is another name for herring-boning, which is explained in the chapter on feather-stitching. before turning a corner, cut off a small piece of material to prevent the corner from being bulky. treat each corner in like manner: when you come to the little curved part, slash the material so that when it is folded over the canvas it will fit perfectly smooth. fold the canvas and lining along the creases originally made in the canvas. an iron pressed over them will help to make them stay in position. the embroidered piece is then placed over the wrong side of the canvas. a half-inch turn is made on all sides. turn this half inch toward the wrong side of the canvas. sometimes a layer of cotton batting is laid under the embroidery between the canvas and satin. the satin piece is basted to the canvas. the folded edge of the satin and the folded edge of the silk are overcast with tiny stitches. fold back the two sections of the case and over-cast each side (figure ). your card case is now completed. [illustration: fig. . the inside of the card case] a bill folder is made in the same way, only that the ends are not stitched together to form pockets as in the card case. it is always well to know how to make pretty, attractive pieces of needlework that will make acceptable gifts for christmas or a birthday. nearly everybody has a hobby. sometimes it is saving receipts, sometimes keeping newspaper clippings, and then again it may be keeping theatre programmes. it is well to consider what gift is most suitable for the one that is to receive it; to make for the faddist an envelope to keep her clippings will be just the thing. [illustration: fig. . the way to make an envelope] take a piece of brown linen ten and a half inches by nine and a half inches. fold it in half so that it measures five and a quarter inches by nine and a half inches. stamp a spray of daisies or wild roses on one side and mark what the envelope is supposed to hold, such as receipts or clippings. brown linen does not soil as easily as white. embroider the flowers and the lettering, then dampen the linen thoroughly and press on the wrong side. now take two pieces of cardboard that measure eight and a half inches by four and three quarters. cover the cardboard with the linen, use long stitches as described in the needle case, except that two pieces of the cardboard are placed side by side on the brown linen. now take two pieces of brown paper the same size as the cardboard and cover the stitches. paste should be used to make the paper stick to the linen. [illustration: fig. . the envelope] [illustration: fig. . the case completed] make six envelopes by taking six pieces of paper nine by thirteen inches and cut a two and a half inch square from each corner (figure ). one inch over from where the squares are cut make a star. there are eight such points as you note. connect the dot to the corner by a line. cut the paper along the lines. fold the ends in, then fold the bottom flap over these and paste. fold the top flap over without pasting (figure ). now, holding these six envelopes in the case with bottom edges touching the space between the two cardboards, punch three holes through linen, cardboard, and envelopes. take a half a yard of ribbon and run through the holes and tie the ends in a bow on the corner. take another half a yard of ribbon and cut in two. fasten a piece on each side of the cover (figure ). these two pieces are tied in a bow and keep the base of the case closed. xvii hardanger embroidery for squares, pin cushions, and spreads we have to go back to the foreign embroideries to find those that are beautiful and yet substantial enough to last beyond the usual life of a piece of fancy work. there is nothing we have originated in embroidery on this side of the world as rich as hardanger work, and yet it is comparatively little known. the background for this work is a loosely woven material like scrim or basket weave materials such as java canvas or the regular hardanger canvas which is imported. it is lots of fun working hardanger in wool on java canvas as it goes so quickly, and after we have learned the stitches we can work it on as fine a canvas as we desire. the simplest stitch is the block. thread a large tapestry needle with a piece of heavy wool. on your piece of java canvas work a little block. the worsted is on the right side of the canvas, and then taking a stitch over four threads of the canvas bring the needle up on the next opening to the right on the same line as the first. five stitches constitute a block; a space of four threads is then left and the next block started, (figure ). a great deal of hardanger has these blocks running at right angles to each other with no space between the blocks. mistakes cause a great deal of trouble and sometimes it is necessary to rip out quite a lot of stitches before they can be rectified and for that reason you must be very accurate in your counting. [illustration: fig. . the block] [illustration: fig. . the star] the star is another favourite figure in hardanger work (figure ). four stitches are taken over four threads of the material, side by side, then five stitches over eight threads of the material and then four again. this forms one side of the star. the second side is made exactly the same only that at the base of the thirteenth stitch the first stitch of the second side starts forming a right angle. the star has four sides as you will note in the diagram of this stitch. now count and see if there are twelve threads on each of the inner sides of the star. if you find any mistake go over it and straighten it out. there must be twelve threads on each side. cut four from each corner. this will leave four threads directly in the centre of each side. with a piece of embroidery cotton about the weight of a thread of your canvas weave the bars. the weaving is very simple, over one and under the next till the bars are woven. some of these bars have little knots on the outer centre edge of each. they are called picots (pronounced pe-co) and they are made somewhat like a french knot. the bar is woven half way across and laying the needle on the bar the thread is wound around the needle point. hold each twist down with the left thumb (figure ). the needle is drawn through and the result is a little knot on the thread near the stitches. a little stitch is taken into the woven part of the bar and the thread carried over to the other side of the bar and another picot made. [illustration: fig. . the picot] for an ornamental stitch to be used on the material between the stars or blocks make a diagonal stitch like the first stitch in cross stitching (figure ). pin cushion tops are easy to make and the following instructions are given for cushions about four or five inches square. take a square of scrim or hardanger canvas eight inches large. it will be necessary to pull a thread so that the material will be quite straight on the edges. pull out four threads about one and a quarter inches from the edge on each side of the material. turn a quarter-inch fold on one side and crease the material again so as to make a half-inch hem. baste it down so that it just touches the drawn threads. repeat on the four sides. be sure that at the corner the double thickness of drawn threads are exactly over each other. we are now ready to hemstitch the hem. thread the needle with no. sewing cotton. run the thread under the hem and holding the double part of the hem toward you take up four threads of the material. pass the needle again around this group and now into the hem. continue in this manner around the four sides. at the corners it will be necessary to take up both thicknesses of the material. crease the finished square in four. count sixteen threads upon the crease from the hemstitching and with lustre no. c or heavy linen thread "aa" make a little block of four strands of floss over four threads of the material. make a flight of eight blocks each at right angles to the other. now instead of continuing in the same direction turn and work seven more groups down and to the left. turn again to the left and work seven blocks for the third side of the square. six groups to the right of the third row completes the square. [illustration: fig. . a simple ornamental stitch] [illustration: fig. . a good arrangement of picot] now with your fine embroidery scissors cut close to the stitches of the three blocks at each corner. the cut threads are drawn out. four more cuttings will be necessary on each side. they should be made against the stitches only; that is, the threads that are running in the same direction as the stitches should be cut. figure shows where the cuts were made and the threads drawn out. the remaining threads are woven. a mercerized or dull finished marking cotton is used for the weaving. it may be either the plain weaving or may have picots on each side of the bar. another pretty arrangement of picots is to place them on one side of the bars so that they appear in groups of four each facing the other (figure ). sometimes a lace stitch is used such as the spider or simple loop stitch. directions for making a spider will be found in the chapter on lace stitches. the loop stitch is made by taking a stitch in the centre edge of each bar. take a stitch just as if you were buttonholing. buttonholing the edge is preferred by many to hemstitching. a pretty stitch often seen bordering a row of drawn work is made in pyramid form. it can be as deep as desired. first take a stitch over two strands of the material then three, then four, then five and down again to two (figure ). this stitch must be worked of course before any of the threads are drawn. [illustration: fig. . the pyramid stitch] if a little larger and more elaborate square is wanted, take a piece of material nine or ten inches square. make a star, skip four threads and work the open squares described for the smaller pin cushion. on the opposite side of the square, directly across from the first star, skip four threads and make another square. at the other two corners of the square make a star (figure ). [illustration: fig. . the hardanger square pin cushion] the german peasant girls are proud of their aprons with a border of hardanger embroidery. it is a common thing for them to have a border fifteen or eighteen inches deep. often they will make yards and yards of a pattern, say four inches wide, and they will insert it above the hems on sheets and towels and cut out the background material. there is no nation on earth as thrifty as the germans. a german girl i know who is only nineteen years old has her entire bedroom fitted up with hardanger articles that she has made herself. first there is the bedspread and bolster, each most elaborately embroidered with an all-over design. then there is a round pillow (the edge buttonholed) and a square pillow as well as the bureau scarf and pin cushion. if she bought the articles already worked she would have paid hundreds of dollars for the outfit, while the actual cost was only a few dollars. nearly all the best of fancy-work shops sell small pamphlets on hardanger work that are not expensive and after one is familiar with the foundation stitches it is an easy matter to follow the designs they give. xviii appliquÉ on linen and other materials and hedebo embroidery appliqué, or laying one material on another and stitching or embroidering them together is one of the simplest forms of embroidery that even the indians years ago knew how to do. how many of you have not seen on an indian woman queer shapes cut out of leather and ornamented with beads used for a border on her skirt? there are two kinds of appliqué, underlaid and overlaid. most of the work is the latter kind. the underlaid is a little more difficult to do. it will be explained at greater length later in this chapter. appliqué is such easy work that you will almost think it a mistake not to have heard about it before, but after all it is really necessary that we should know the simpler embroidery stitches before we attempt an appliqué piece, so that we can decorate it in the manner to suit ourselves. the european peasants work some of the crudest specimens of appliqué, yet their colour schemes and choice of material are good. for instance, russian crash, which is sold at the towel department of many of our large department stores, from twelve to twenty cents a yard, and which is very narrow, usually about sixteen inches wide, is often employed as the background of their portières. before the russo-japanese war it was possible to get russian crash as wide as forty inches. it is made by the peasants in their homes from the waste ends left from weaving linens. you have no doubt read of how poor russian peasants live in hovels in the same room with the cow, if they are fortunate enough to possess one, and their pigs. necessarily the work they do is not very clean but the artistic qualities of the crash overcomes the fact of the dirt. the better class of peasants will take three strips of crash and connect them together with coarse sewing or lace stitches and then apply circles of broadcloth, or coloured linens on them. other geometrical figures are often applied. i heard of a southern family the other day who are so thrifty that they allow nothing to go to waste, not even the old coats and trousers that have played the double rôle of clothing the father and then have been cut down for johnny. after johnny has had all the wear possible out of them grandma again cuts them, this time in the shape of leaves, and sews them on a large muslin circle, one overlapping the other. this forms a mat for the dining room. i am telling you this story not that you may imitate it, but rather to let you know that after all we have women here that are as clever and thrifty with their needles as the european women. [illustration: fig. . a pillow in hedebo embroidery] for appliqué work the design is cut out and the wrong side covered almost to the edge with a paste made of starch and water. when a complicated piece of appliqué is to be worked, stamp your design on the background. then on the right side of the material to be appliquéd, or on the wrong side of velvet, lay a piece of transfer paper. place the design on them. with a blunt pointed instrument go over the line firmly till you have a tracing of the design. if the lines are not quite clear go over them with a pencil. cut out each piece and paste it to the background. the edges may be machine stitched or satin-stitched or outlined. a cord, also the couching stitch, makes a good finish. very clever representations of animals can be made by appliqué. take a duck, for instance. the breast can be white felt, the head dark green velvet. the wings dark brown and the back and tail a lighter brown broadcloth. the legs and the bill should be canary-coloured taffeta silk. cut each section so that it slightly laps over the other. appliqué underlaid is accomplished by stamping the design on the wrong side of the material and then cutting it out. the background is left intact like a stencil. a piece of material of a different colour is laid under the cut piece of material. the raw or cut edges may be treated in many ways. the material may be turned back and stitched by machine or the edges may be finished with buttonholing stitches, couching, fine satin-stitch or chain stitch. the turning back of the cut edges requires that they be neatly done or the embroidery will not show to its best advantage. hedebo embroidery is in no way connected with appliqué work, but like the latter it is a branch of needlework that few people in america understand. without exception it is the most elaborate form of white work. the stitches give the effect of being very difficult, but this is not so. the work requires a lot of time and careful planning of the stitches for which buttonhole stitch is usually the foundation. [illustration: fig. . an elaborate design in hedebo] [illustration: fig. . part of a hedebo collar] hedebo is worked on a finely woven linen. the design is stamped directly on the material. a thread of d.m.c. no. or spool linen thread outlines the figures. within the design, the linen is cut one eighth of an inch from the running thread. this eighth-inch extension is then turned under the stitches and basted down. a small piece of dark green oilcloth is then laid under the figure to be worked and basting stitches hold the material and oilcloth together. the oilcloth protects the fingers and it is often used by foreigners in making eyelets. a small piece is used and it is moved as many times as necessary. a large piece is too clumsy to hold. on the extreme double edge of the opening of the design fine buttonholing stitches are taken. the stitches are about one thirty-second of an inch apart. a section of a design suitable for a collar is shown here and the stitches will now be explained that have been used on it (figure ). a bar is formed by laying two or three threads so that they span the opening from side to side. over these threads fine buttonholing is worked. the little triangles are worked by making seven or nine stitches into as many of the buttonhole stitches. the second row is worked into the first, one stitch from each end is omitted. continue in this way to the point (figure ). the three large loops that separate the pyramids or triangles from each other in the two outer circles are worked by making two loops that will each take up half the space between the triangles. these loops are whipped two or three times to make them heavier and then they are covered with buttonholing. work the first and half of the second and then make the loop for the third or last and work it also in buttonholing, then finish the second (figure ). the centre of the circle is made by connecting the opposite triangles and loops together. gently distribute the threads from the centre to allow a small opening. put a thread around this opening and neatly buttonhole the threads. the middle figure is made by working a row of open buttonholing then running a drawing thread into the loops and buttoning this band with tiny stitches. the stitches of the middle circle are somewhat simpler than the ones just described. a circle of open stitches is made directly under the buttonhole stitches on the material. divide this circle in eight parts and make a large loop at alternate eighths. a connecting thread at the centre base of each loop connects each opposite pair of loops. the triangles are worked from the centre to the outer edge. [illustration: fig. . triangle in hedebo embroidery] the open triangles are made by working a row of open loops around the three sides. the loops are drawn slightly together with another thread. [illustration: fig. . buttonholed loops] there are many pretty edges that can be used as finishes for work. the linen pieces, however, have to be hemmed first and then the fancy edge put on. an edge of pyramids is attractive. an edge of buttonholed loops with a picot in the centre of each bar as described on hardanger is also good. sometimes the loop or pyramid may need stretching in shape. take a pin in the lower centre and pull the edges out the desired size. in turning curves an extra little loop may have to be worked so as not to crowd the large points. xix hemstitching for handkerchiefs and collar and cuffs sets, also simple drawn-work stitches drawn work is another of the fascinating branches of fancy work and when used in combination with embroidery it greatly enriches the piece. suppose now that you wanted to make a handkerchief and yet did not want to take the time to buttonhole the four edges. well there is nothing more appropriate than hemstitching. the very expensive handkerchiefs only have two threads drawn before hemstitching them but it will be easiest to hemstitch when more threads are pulled. [illustration: fig. . hemstitch] handkerchief linen that can be bought from one dollar up per yard is of course the correct thing to use, but lawn or fine china silk is often substituted. a third of a yard of linen thirty-six inches wide will make three handkerchiefs. a thread will have to be drawn so that the squares will be perfectly straight. a twelve-inch square of linen will make a nice little handkerchief. narrow hems not more than one-quarter inch wide are more generally used at present so we will plan our handkerchief for that. [illustration: fig. . hemstitching, second step] measure up from the edge of one side five eighths of an inch and draw out four threads one at a time. the other three sides must also be treated in like manner. after measuring the first side with the tape measure the other sides are more accurately measured by turning up one corner of the side that has the thread drawn so that it forms a right angle. the upper edge of the angle must just touch the drawn threads. crease firmly along the diagonal as shown in the diagram. now with the piece still folded over pull the first thread of the second side of the handkerchief so that the corner when turned back forms a perfect square (figure ). when the threads of the four sides have been drawn fold back one eighth of an inch, then make a double fold so that the hem is just one-quarter inch wide. baste it down so that the folded edge lies right under the drawn threads. with your needle threaded with a piece of no. sewing cotton, start from one corner. let the end of your threaded needle fall between the two thicknesses of the material. bring the needle through the edge of the hem. work from right to left; pass the needle under four of the upright threads. now pass again under the same group of four threads, but this time carry the needle through the edge. hem directly on a line with the fourth thread of the group (figure ). [illustration: fig. . another way to hemstitch] another way is to hold the material with the hem toward you and work from left to right. pass the needle under four threads letting the thread in the needle fall under the point of the needle. pull the needle through, thus forming a loop and taking a stitch into the hem in the usual way (figure ). if your thread gives out or breaks, start the next thread by working over two or three of the stitches. in hemstitching the corners take up four of the double threads. when hemstitching on coarser material more threads can be drawn and also a greater number of threads can be taken up when working. dainty little collar and cuffs sets can be made by hemstitching the hems: and a quarter of an inch above this work make a row of french knots or feather-stitching. [illustration: fig. . double hemstitching] sometimes when a very open effect is desired it is necessary to double hemstitch the threads. this is very simple. hemstitch in the usual way, then turn the work and take up each group on the other side of the drawn threads (figure ). drawn work is worked to perfection in mexico. there they have large classes for the mountain children who do most elaborate pieces on frames. hemstitching is not always necessary in doing drawn work. many beautiful borders can be made with simple stitches. the sheaf stitch (figure ) is made by pulling the threads for a space of a quarter of an inch or more. decide the width that you desire and then cut the threads perpendicularly. draw the first and last thread to the distance desired, and then cut opposite end to match the first slash. after the threads have been drawn out neatly buttonhole the cut edges with narrow buttonhole stitches. now place your work in your embroidery hoops, or, better still, if it is possible, buy a pair of oval ones that are especially made for drawn work. fasten thread in the centre of one of the buttonholed sides. [illustration: fig. . the sheaf stitch.] the number of threads to take up will depend on the coarseness of the weave of the material. for medium weight linen take up either six or eight threads using a stitch like that shown in the first step of the second method of hemstitching. pass on to the next stitch and when the row is finished fasten in the second buttonholed side. the thread that passes from sheaf to sheaf should lie straight enough so as not to sag between each group or pucker the material. another pretty stitch that reminds one of a fish bone is worked somewhat like feather-stitching. prepare the space as for the sheaf stitch. connect the thread in the same way. take up six threads on the left hand side placing the thread under the point of the needle as it comes through. now on the right hand side divide the group made by the first stitch in half and take the last three threads and the three next to it that are not worked (figure ). [illustration: fig. . a simple stitch in drawn work] a simple stitch is the twist stitch (figure ). prepare the material in the same way as for the last two stitches and securely fasten your needle in the centre of the bar, skip the first three threads. take up the next three on your needle; pass the needle back under the first three. continue like this till the end of the row is reached. [illustration: fig. . the twist-stitch.] a dainty all-over effect suitable for yokes or corners of handkerchiefs, cloths, etc., is made by drawing the threads out so that the material left forms squares. pull a quarter inch of threads then leave a half inch of material. repeat in this manner until the space is covered. cross the lines, forming squares of the material (figure ). the double hemstitching, sheaf-stitch, fishbone, or twist stitch can be worked on the drawn threads. you will note that you will have at each corner of the solid squares an open quarter-inch square. they will require an extra stitch such as the spider described in the lace stitches or the loop stitch described in the hardanger chapter. sometimes it is hard pulling the threads of linen. if the threads are soaped they come out very easily. do not wet the soap but just rub it dry on the material. some of the finest examples of hand embroidery or drawn work are found in the convents. perhaps you are under the impression that drawn work must be done right with the hem, but that is not so. i want to describe a beautiful handkerchief to you that i once saw in a convent. it was made of the sheerest handkerchief linen and one thread only had been pulled for the hemstitching. a quarter of an inch above the hem another thread was drawn, but this time, instead of letting it extend to the hem, a thread was cut one quarter of an inch from the hem at the beginning and ending. six threads were drawn like this at eighth of an inch spaces. the four sides were treated in like manner. [illustration: fig. . the threads pulled to form squares] [illustration: fig. . cat-stitch over the tape] [illustration: fig. . five rows of tape cat-stitched] where the threads intersected at the corner, the squares were hemstitched all around, two stitches being allowed to each side of the square. the stitches were taken through to the centre of each square. beyond where the lines intersected the six long lines were treated quite differently. a piece of fine braid not more than an eighth of an inch wide was taken on the space between the first two rows of drawn threads. a regular cat-stitch was worked over this. first a stitch was taken on the drawn threads above the braid, then, one below it (figure ). when the braid was entirely covered with stitches on the first row, a second piece of tape or braid was placed over the space between the second and third rows of drawn threads. this time instead of catching the thread of both rows, the stitches are taken into those of the previous row on one side of the tape and into the third row of drawn threads on the other side of the tape. five rows of tape complete the band between the stitches. of course all this work is on the wrong side of the handkerchief. on the right side, a totally different effect is produced. at first glance you would think that there are five rows of tiny tucks with hemstitching on each side, until you look again closely and see that it is padded hemstitching (figure ). [illustration: fig. . a handkerchief for an ambitious little girl] a section of a drawn work handkerchief for some ambitious little girl to own is shown in the illustration on this page (figure ). it is like a cobweb. a piece of handkerchief linen twelve inches square is selected. starting from the outer edge of the four sides an eighth of an inch wide space is left, then the threads drawn for an eighth of an inch. repeat this seventeen times. at the corners the space and drawn threads form squares. now the rest of the space should be divided up in like manner, so starting from one corner of the solid square in the centre, draw the threads for an eighth of an inch, then leave a space the same length and then draw again. continue in this manner on the four sides of the centre square. pull out all the cut threads and you find that you have a deep border of little squares. buttonhole around the four sides of the centre square with tiny stitches, thus keeping the linen from fraying. to get the pointed edge as shown in the handkerchief, buttonhole over the line of horizontal threads and four of the vertical. the little filling stitch i am going to suggest to you is so simple that really after you have buttonholed the handkerchief your task is almost completed. start in the first point under the solid square and work diagonally across the open space. pass your thread around the centre of the little square also on the diagonal. continue across till you reach the buttonholed edge around the linen square in the centre. skip the next point and work the same stitch in every other point. this stitch and in fact all the rest of the handkerchief should be carried out in no. sewing cotton. in between the worked points make another stitch which is very similar to the one just described. it is started from the edge and a stitch is taken on the diagonal across four of the squares and half way across the solid squares at the corner of each group. having reached the buttonholing next the linen you turn your work and repeat the stitch over the same square. the stitches now form the figure . the design of drawn work in the centre of the square is simple as well as being particularly pleasing. draw the threads for a half-inch space, one quarter of an inch above the buttonholing. this must be done on the four sides of the square. the corners must be buttonholed before beginning the drawn work. start the first thread for the drawn work in the centre of one of the buttonholed corners. work the sheaf stitch all the way across. now start a second thread, knotting the first sheaf in three, the next in two; so on to the end. these stitches are taken quite close to the linen. both sides of the sheaf stitch are treated the same. the daisy in the corner completes the pattern. the daisy is made on the foundation of cross-stitches caused by the sheaf stitch. a maltese cross is made thus forming twelve stitches catching all these together in the centre. now weave a thread around in a circle, one eighth of an inch from the centre. to form the petals of the daisy start a thread from one of the threads that connect with the buttonholing and catch on the woven circle as you would if you were doing fagotting. wherever threads are drawn so that they intersect at right angles, as in the case of this handkerchief, a space is left vacant which is very unsightly if not filled in with some figure. here it was with the daisy which is extremely easy but in the majority of cases it is with the maltese cross. the wide strip of drawn work shows a pretty pattern for linen scarfs. it is nothing but right that every girl should take an interest in her bedroom. she may not be fortunate enough to have one entirely by herself but that does not excuse her from trying to make it as attractive as possible. the key-note to beauty and elegance is simplicity. better have a dainty bureau scarf hand made and a few necessary toilet articles than a bureau beribboned and with a lace scarf, crowded with old visiting cards, dance orders, and dainty nothings that only catch the dust and give one a bewildered feeling when one looks at them. the scarf should be worth displaying if it is hand work, for remember what is worth doing is worth doing well. the butterfly pattern of drawn work (figure ) is simple and pretty enough to please the most exacting and as has been said before is most appropriate for bureau scarfs. the material of the scarf may be linen, lawn, or scrim. it is quite unnecessary that the drawn work extend around the whole scarf--three sides, one long and the two short, being quite sufficient. [illustration: fig. . the butterfly pattern in drawn work] draw the threads out for an inch, then hemstitch the cloth on both sides of the space; be sure to take up the group of threads already hemstitched when working on the second side. fasten the thread in the direct centre of one end of the drawn work and catch eight groups of threads to form the sheaf stitch. an eighth of an inch above the centre thread start another thread. divide the sheaf in thirds and knot each section of the first sheaf. pass the thread to the second sheaf and repeat the same thing, this time under the centre instead of above it. alternate sheaves are divided above the centre line and the remaining sheaves under. a third thread is started beginning an eighth of an inch below the centre and the other side of the sheaf is divided in three. a fourth thread is started one eighth of an inch from the solid material. this time the sheaf is divided in four, in groups of two. first the top of one sheaf is woven like this, then the bottom of the next. continue in this manner till the end of the strip is reached. the fifth thread knots the groups on the side of each sheaf that was omitted by the fourth thread. you will notice now that the four threads cross each other in the centre of the space between each sheaf. knot the threads in the centre and weave across the lower four threads until you have made as large a fan as the space will allow. the remaining threads are divided in two, three on each side, and two other fans are woven on them. in the next space the fan of four is reversed and is made in the opposite direction to the first group. this pattern is commonly termed the butterfly pattern. drawn work should be worked on frames, though it is not necessary to use the large square one of the mexicans. the nicest kind of frame and one easy to handle is the oval form, which comes in different sizes. they are particularly convenient to hold a long, narrow piece, which can be worked to better advantage than on the round rings. every once in awhile one sees specimens of a new kind of drawn work. there is the mexican of which we have had a few of the simplest stitches, there is the hardanger or swedish drawn work, which is described in another chapter, the porto rico drawn work which is very intricate and also very trying to the eyes, but after all none compares in simplicity to the bulgarian drawn work. it is so substantial that often after the material of the article on which the work is done has worn out, the drawn work is as good as new and can be transferred to another piece of material. bulgarian drawn work instead of weakening the material as mexican work usually does strengthens it considerably. the work is done in spaces varying from a half inch to three inches in width. it can be done on linen, huck or lawn backgrounds, though sometimes scrim is used. personally i do not think it pays to work elaborate patterns on scrim as the background is not substantial enough. we will take for example the first towel end shown in this work. [illustration: fig. . a towel in bulgarian drawn work] draw threads out of an inch and a half space. it is not necessary that the cloth should be hemstitched, though till you are quite familiar with the work it may be easier for counting. the hem is then turned over and hemstitched. make the double hemstitch on the other side as described in the first part of this chapter. i have found that though there are many threads that may be used for weaving there is nothing quite as satisfactory as electro in its finest number. start from the extreme lower left hand corner. weave back and forth over three of the groups with a blunt pointed crewel needle for one quarter of the distance from the hem. now omitting the first group weave across three. you will see that you dropped the first group and took up the fourth. weave to the middle of the space. now drop the second group and weave across to the fifth group until you are three quarters across the space. now drop the third group and weave across to the sixth. weave until the space is filled. without breaking your thread weave the seventh, eighth and ninth, then the eighth, ninth and tenth, next the ninth, tenth and eleventh, then the tenth, eleventh and twelfth. weaving the eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth brings you back again to the hem. the woven threads will look somewhat like an arch of blocks. between the arch there are six groups of threads. let us weave that in pyramid effect. start at the hem and weave across the six for a little more than a quarter of an inch. then dropping the first and last groups of threads of the proposed pyramid weave over four threads for another quarter of an inch. again dropping the first and last threads of the four you were weaving, work across two. fasten your thread by bringing it through the woven stitches into the hem. a new thread is started in like manner. you are now ready to start another arch, close to one just made. a little more elaborate design is shown in the second towel end, a detail of which is also given (figures and .) [illustration: fig. . detail of fig. ] after the threads have been prepared as has been just described for the first towel start from the lower left hand side and weave across the threads eight times. the weaving is very simple. first you take two groups with needle pointing to the left and then you take the one group that you didn't take up the first time. you work back and forth as it were. now drop the first thread and weave across to the fourth group as in the first towel. each set of three groups will only have eight lines however. continue in this manner till you are one space from the solid material, then weave across four instead of three. start to weave down on the right side over the three groups under the block of four. now continue weaving over groups of three until the hem is almost reached then weave the last block over four (see detail of figure ). on each side of these blocks weave a row working over two groups. [illustration: fig. . a more elaborate design in bulgarian drawn work] the groups of thread within the woven rows are woven into a triangle. bulgarian drawn work is used on pillow cases, handkerchiefs, towels, dresses, scarfs, or small square cloths. sometimes coloured threads are used and the result is very effective. use cottons and if they are coloured boil them in salt and water before working with them. xx easy lace stitches, fagotting, single mesh, double mesh, spiders, fan, maltese cross, twisted and buttonholed bars, picots for simple edges one of our best authorities on lace has said that there are over one hundred different stitches used in lace. now there are various kinds of laces; there are crochetted, bobbin, as well as needle point laces. it is about two branches of needlework laces--renaissance and point--that we will talk about in this chapter. renaissance lace is made by basting a flat braid on a given pattern and filling the spaces between with simple lace stitches. point lace is made of very fine plain braid with much finer thread and more elaborate stitches. the basting of the braid is extremely important. sometimes only a single line is given to indicate where the braid will be, while again a double line is shown. the braid must not be wider than the double lines. it may be basted so that the side held toward you will be the right side of the lace or _vice versa_. start from one corner of the design, turn over one end of the braid an eighth of an inch. for coarse work one row of basting stitches through the centre of the braid is sufficient but for fine work baste along both edges of the braid. in basting around a loop the inner edge of the braid will have to be gathered. this may be done in two ways: the first by pulling a thread or by running a thread on the edge. at a sharp point the braid will have to be turned. [illustration: fig. a. fagotting and feather-stitching on a cap] the preferred method of working the lace is to have the right side facing you. in starting to braid turn up one eighth inch of braid and start from a point so that the end may be covered later. the braids vary from one cent to fifteen cents per yard. [illustration: fig. . fagotting] [illustration: fig. . single brussels stitch] a simple stitch in lace that greatly resembles the turkish stitch in embroidery is fagotting. it is a stitch that is often used by dressmakers to connect bias bands together for yokes and sleeves. for this as well as other lace stitches the beginning of the thread should be fastened so as to be unobserved by the average eye. if the braid is neatly over-casted the end will be quite secure. starting from the extreme left of the section to be fagotted take a stitch through the braid on the opposite side of the opening, letting the thread fall to the right. the stitches are taken from side to side. this stitch is best suited to long narrow spaces (figure ). the foundation stitch of lace is the single mesh or net stitch. it is a stitch that may be used in almost any shape opening. it is a good thing when working a piece of lace to pick out one stitch for filling in the background; then the design proper can be as fancy as desired. [illustration: fig. . a handkerchief in simple lace stitches] the mesh or net stitch is good for a filling stitch. a blunt pointed needle is the best for working lace as you are not so apt to stick yourself. make a row of open buttonholing, not however through the background. the second row is worked slightly below the first row. each stitch is taken into a loop of the upper row. if the spaces decrease in size drop one stitch from each end for as many rows as necessary. to finish the stitches overcast them to the braid. to many lace makers this stitch is known as single brussels (figure ). double brussels or the knot is worked like the single only that there is a second stitch taken in the same position as the first. the last must be short and drawn tightly (figure ). [illustration: fig. . double brussels stitch] another pretty filling-in stitch is the spider. it can be as large as desired allowing the space it is to be used in to determine the size. a thread is spanned across the space and the braid whipped for a short distance, say a quarter of an inch. the space is spanned again so that the threads cross. pick up all the threads on the needle through the centre and make a little stitch to bind them. now begin to weave over one leg or strand and under another, so on till a good-sized body is formed to the spider. in weaving be careful not to skip one of these little legs (figure ). another way to work a spider, to make it a little stronger is to whip each leg as it is spanned. a third and more elaborate spider is one made with the foundation thread as described for the first spider and then instead of weaving straight around make a stitch back over one leg and forward under two until the body is the desired size. this is called the spider in its web (figure ). [illustration: fig. . the simple spider] it is easier to weave on an uneven number of threads, and the number of these should depend on the space. a large space requires a large spider with lots of legs. [illustration: fig. . the woven spider] a fan (figure ) is made by spanning three or five threads so that they come to a common centre on one side and on the other they are arranged in ray effect. the weaving is started from the base under one thread and over the other on the first row if there are only three. the second row is like the first, only the threads skipped in the first row are taken up. alternate rows agree. [illustration: fig. . the fan] a maltese cross looks like four fans caught together. the threads are crossed lengthwise and crosswise and the stitches taken to gather the threads in the centre. the weaving is the same as the fans. in weaving the fans or crosses do not work much more than half way up (figure ). a twisted bar is nothing more than a thread overcasted (see illustration, figure ). [illustration: fig. . a maltese cross] a buttonholed bar is made by laying two or three threads and buttonholing over them (figure ). in this age of machine work there are all sorts of braids that may be procured for lace work. little edges that were impossible to buy are now made by machinery. a little edging makes a dainty finish to a straight braid and also enhances the beauty of the fancy braids. to make a simple edging, work a row of picots on the edge of the braid which forms the edge of the design. dainty yokes, collars, baby caps, and tie ends can be made of a few yards of braid and two or three different kinds of stitches. another decoration i would like to tell you a little about is limerick darning. it is often used with fine lace work on a background of fine net. the lace thread is used for the darning. the most common of the stitches is the plain darning taken up over one hole and under the next of the net. the next row is worked close to the first. [illustration: fig. . a buttonholed bar] darning on net is a decoration that is often used by itself. smart little turn-over collars and cuffs are most attractive darned in heavy white floss or colour if preferred. pin cushion covers and other dainty articles that every girl loves to have in her bedroom may be darned to good effect. one of the most simple forms of lace work is connemara lace. it gets its name from the irish county of that name. the materials required are brussels net of any size desired, lace braid of a width to correspond with the net, heavy lace rings, a ball of renaissance thread no. or linen spool thread no. , as well as a spool of coloured cotton. connemara lace is used extensively for curtains, bed spreads and in fact, on any large piece, when the effect is desired and yet not much work. a good design for connemara lace is shown in figure . [illustration: fig. . a good design for connemara lace] the net can be white, ecru, or black. draw a simple yet bold design on a piece of stiff paper or better still a piece of pink or blue paper muslin. the rings can be bought all ready for applying, for a couple of cents per dozen but they can also be made at home. take a pencil and wind around one end of a thread about as many times as you would judge from the illustration of the button or ring half worked (figure ). slip the threads from the pencil and carefully and closely go over them with buttonhole stitches till all the loose threads are completely covered. [illustration: fig. button half worked] baste your net over the design, then baste the braid along the design. with a fine thread secure the braid on the extreme edge to the net only with fine running stitches. sew one side of the braid entirely around the design then sew the other side down. the rings are buttonholed to the net. if a very elaborate piece is wanted, lace stitches may be inserted in spaces that are bound on all sides with braid. the stitches, however, should be of the simplest, such as the twisted bar or spider. honiton braid which is an egg-shaped braid is much more beautiful than the plain renaissance braid employed in connemara. the dearest of baby caps, handkerchief tie ends, and other dainty little articles on which a fine decoration is desired can be made from fine net and honiton braid. each section of braid can be cut and made to form petals for a flower or to represent a leaf. honiton is of course more expensive than renaissance braid but a yard of honiton goes a good way. there is a thread that can be bought by the yard, called picot or purling thread. it has a loop at short intervals each side of it. the needle can be threaded with it and can be used for stems, tendrils, or other parts of a design where a fine single line is desired. the centre of a flower in honiton appliqué may be in worked various ways. a small ring or button may be used or spiders may be woven in the centre. again the single brussels or mesh stitch is worked in a little circle in the centre. use a very small ring, if you decide on rings for centre, as a large ring spoils the effect of a flower. any child can make designs for honiton appliqué. the background for honiton is the fine brussels net. sometimes a double thickness of net is basted over the pattern and the honiton sewed on or appliquéd to the net. the double thickness of net gives a moire effect. each section of the braid is sewed to the net only. sometimes two widths of braid are used, one size for the flowers and another for the leaves. the braids at most art shops can be had in black, cream, or white. if, however, you are not fortunate enough to get cream, the white can be dyed at home to be as light or deep as you desire. i use cold tea diluted in water for a light cream, and coffee for the deeper cream. put the lace to soak in the tea or coffee for a couple of hours. rinse in cold water and let dry. if it is not a deep enough shade put more tea or coffee in the water and soak the lace again. another way to dye lace, chiffon or any delicate fabric is to get a tube of oil paint the colour you desire and dilute it in gasolene. of course the gasolene makes the paint light, so test the solution by dipping a small piece of cloth in and see if it is the right shade. a quart of gasolene is sufficient unless the article is very large. i know a girl who dipped her white hat all trimmed with flowers and tulle that was quite soiled into a mixture of gray paint and gasolene and the result was a pretty dove gray that everybody thought was new. teneriffe or brazilian point lace is such a simple form of lace making that i am going to stop and tell you a few words about it before we proceed to the next chapter. little forms which look like a large spool with pins stuck in them can be bought in many art shops, but you can easily make a foundation yourself for teneriffe lace. draw a circle two inches in diameter on a stiff piece of cardboard. sometimes the circle is drawn on white muslin and fastened securely to an embroidery hoop or frame. divide the circle into halves, then quarters, then eighths and each eighth divide into six equal parts. make a dot at each division. thread a needle with a piece of coarse thread. insert the needle one quarter inch beyond the circle and bring it up on a dot. continue in this manner all around the circle. fasten securely. [illustration: fig. . the first step in brazilian point lace] now thread a needle with a long thread of no. linen thread. let it be extra length. pass the needle under each loop from side to side until each little stitch has a thread passing through it. (figure ). knot the threads in the centre and weave four or five rows, over and under the strands close to the centre. skip a quarter inch then carry a thread around and knot each thread as you pass it. count the threads and divide the number by six; on this number weave a little pyramid. repeat the little pyramid five times, each time letting it be woven on the same number of threads as the first. take a thread and catch every two threads above the centre figure. an eighth of an inch above this work another row, this time dividing the two threads previously caught and taking one of them and one of the next row together. an eighth of an inch above the row make another row, catching the same threads as were taken in the first row from the central figure (figure ). [illustration: fig. . a motif in brazilian lace] sometimes a pin cushion is used to make brazilian lace. the pins are stuck in and the threads wound over them. brazilian or teneriffe lace can be used for borders on handkerchiefs or other fine articles, while again they may be used as medallions on waists or other thin clothes. the material from under them is cut out so that a lacy effect may be produced. other patterns may be readily made. remember that the stitches are very similar to those used in the corners of drawn work borders. xxi simple baskets basketry is so easily done and at such a small cost that almost any one, even a very little child, can master it without very much difficulty. with very few tools some beautiful gifts and other useful articles may be made. in this chapter it is my intention to tell little children just how to make some pretty things with materials that they can obtain from nature's storehouse and otherwise. in making baskets a great deal of rattan is used. i suppose that some of my little readers will wonder what rattan is. well, i will tell you. it is a kind of grass or leaf which grows in forests of foreign countries, twining about the tress, hanging from branch to branch sometimes hundreds of feet in length but hardly ever over an inch thick. the people over there in those countries send this material to us so that we can make many pretty things. for little boys and girls living in the country there are materials which they can get from the fields and river banks that may be substituted for rattan. for instance the water willow when peeled proves a very good material. reed, which is a sort of grass that grows on the banks of rivers, may also be used after it is dried and peeled. raffia is another material which is commonly used for this work. it is a sort of soft substance generally pale yellow and can be bought by the pound at any large store. dried grass is sometimes substituted for raffia and the results are often just as pretty as those obtained by the original material. grass twine is used. it is something like rope, and rope is often substituted for it. raffia is generally used to cover it in making baskets. a few tools will be necessary for our work such as a strong pair of shears, a tape measure or ruler, a vessel for water, and some very coarse, blunt-edged needles. simple baskets of rattan are very interesting to make and i will tell you how to make a small round basket without a cover. for this basket you will need four fourteen-inch pieces of rattan or spokes as we are going to call them, one eight-inch piece and two or three longer pieces for weavers. before starting the work, the rattan should be soaked in water until it becomes soft enough to bend easily. then two of the pieces are placed side by side in a vertical position and the other two in a horizontal position crossing the vertical pieces at the centre. between the two horizontal pieces and to the right of the centre the half spoke is placed. [illustration: fig. . weaving the bottom] these are held in position by the left hand, while the right hand does the work. one end of the long piece called the weaver is placed at the centre, back of the horizontal spokes, with the end toward the right. the first finger of the right hand presses the weaver across the vertical spokes, under the horizontal on the left, over the vertical, and behind the horizontal again. repeat twice so as to fasten well. separate the spokes evenly, and it is now ready for the weaving (figure ). if there is any of the winding piece left, it may be used as a weaver. the weaving is done by pressing the weaver under one spoke and over the other until the bottom of the basket is about two and one half inches across. soak it in water for a few minutes and then bend the spokes upward to form the sides of the basket. in order to make the weaving of the sides of the basket easier, rest the work on the knee, holding the spokes with the left hand and press the weaver under and over the spokes with the first finger of the right hand. if the weaver comes to an end join a new piece by crossing them behind a spoke about an inch from the end of each. when the sides of the basket have been woven, leaving about an inch and a half of the spokes extending, it is ready for the border. cut the spokes to an even length with a slanting cut, so that the points may be easily pushed down between the weaves. hold the spokes in water for a few minutes and then push one of the spokes down beside the next spoke at least three quarters of an inch below the edge. do this with every spoke until the border has been completed. now our little basket is finished and ready for use. sometimes little girls like to have their baskets brightened up. a pretty lining of silk or other material would do this very nicely. [illustration: fig. . the basket] perhaps some children would like to know how to make a basket with a cover. it only requires a little more time but it will prove very interesting. the material for this basket consists of six sixteen-inch spokes, one spoke nine inches long and three or four weavers. the bottom of this basket is made in the same way as the one previously described. after this much has been done, wet the spokes and proceed to turn them up and weave the sides of the basket. the weaving is done rather loosely until you have used three of the weavers. the last weaver is drawn more tightly so that the basket will assume the shape of an apple with the top cut off. the edge is finished off with a flat border which may be made by soaking the spokes in water until they become quite soft. each spoke is brought behind the next one to the right of it, and out over the front of the basket. then the end of each spoke which is lying over the front of the basket is brought up over the next spoke to the right and is pressed down inside of the basket. when it is dry the ends of the spokes may be cut off. [illustration: fig. . a mat] the cover is made like the bottom of the basket, only the spokes are bent gradually upward from the centre. the material for this cover consists of six fourteen-inch spokes, one spoke seven or eight inches long and two long pieces for weavers. when the cover is nearly as large around as the top of the basket it is finished off with a border like the one described for the top of this basket. the cover has to be fastened to the basket and the easiest way of doing this is by making rings of rattan. a piece of rattan about twelve inches long is tied into a ring, the ends being twisted in and out of the ring. three rings are necessary, none of them measuring more than a half or three quarters of an inch across. one ring is attached to the cover on the front between the border and the last row of weaving, the ends being sewed under a spoke. another ring is attached in the same way at the back of the cover and the third is fastened across a spoke in the front of the basket between the fourth and fifth rows of weaving. the cover is placed on the basket so that the ring at the back will be just over a spoke of the basket. a small piece of weaver is then placed between the third and fourth rows of weaving, below the border and to the left of the spoke mentioned. it is brought through the ring on the cover and drawn just tightly enough to allow the cover to close easily. the ends are crossed and brought through to the inside and sewed down, as the rings were. when this is done the basket is complete. there are many other pretty articles that can be made easily, such as a mat for a teapot or lamp and trays for other purposes (figure no. ). a very simple way to make a mat would be to cut four fourteen-inch spokes of rattan, one eight-inch spoke, and two weavers. the mat is started in the same way as the first basket in this chapter. when the end of the first weaver is reached, a second is joined to it. by the time the second weaver has been used, the mat is large enough for a border. the mat has to be bound. the binding may be done by passing the weaver under the last row of weaving just before it reached the next spoke. it then goes behind that spoke, in front of the next and under the last row of weaving. the spokes should then be soaked in water, and when soft take spoke no. and cross no. and push it down beside no. and so on around the mat. a number of these mats may be made and joined together for various purposes. two mats joined by ribbon make a very pretty whisk-broom holder. in nearly all this work weaving is the principal thing. by changing the weave we can obtain very interesting and pretty results. the simple over and under weave may be changed by using two weavers and twisting once, twice or three times between the spokes according to the size of the article. xxii raffia baskets and napkin rings raffia is so soft and strong that it is very well fitted for the work of children's fingers. so many different things can be made with raffia that it is just as precious to the little ones as the same amount of gold. little baskets made of raffia are dainty and easily made. for example a work basket, a candy basket, or a basket for handkerchiefs, collar buttons, and many things are interesting. for one of these baskets we need one long piece of rattan, a bunch of raffia and a blunt-pointed needle. soak the piece of rattan in water until it is soft enough to work with. wind the end into the smallest possible ring and with the needle full of raffia start in the middle of the ring and sew over and over from left to right until the end is firmly fastened. the next row is brought around at a little distance from the first and the raffia is brought down through the centre, up and once around the coil, thus holding the first coil to the second. [illustration: photograph by mary g. huntsman. it is jolly to make a raffia work bag] wind the raffia around the rattan until the coil has been brought half way around the second time, when it is again sewed through the centre. at quarter distance all the way through the basket these joinings are made and they must be made to the right of the one below and joined to the previous row. the joinings form a pattern. as the basket grows larger the number of joinings increase. new needlefuls of raffia are always started at a joining, the old strand being brought from left to right through the upper part of the joining. the new strands being brought from right to left through two twists of raffia and drawn through so as to leave the short end lying next to the rattan. begin to wind again and soon both ends are covered. when you have made about ten rows, which will form the bottom of the basket, bring the rattan above the last row and proceed as before. each new row is brought above the previous one so as to form the sides of the basket. when the basket is about eight rows high, the ninth row is brought just a little inside of the eighth so as to have something for the cover to rest upon. when about three inches from the point where the rattan was brought up to make the sides of the basket, it should be cut long enough to finish the row and then shaved off to a flat point which is sewed closely to the last row. for this basket we will have to make a cover. the cover is made in the same manner as the bottom of the basket. when you have nine rows complete, a border is made to finish off the cover. the tenth row is sewed to the ninth by a fancy stitch which is made by winding once around the ninth from left to right and once around the tenth from right to left and so on alternately until the row is completed. the end of the rattan is shaved off and sewed to the last row. a pretty lining would beautify this article very much. one of the very simple things which a very small child could easily make is a napkin ring (figure ). cut a piece of cardboard or stiff paper about an inch and a half wide and eight or nine inches long. paste the ends together forming the ring. take two strands of raffia and knot them. place the knot inside the ring holding it with the first two fingers of the left hand. the strand on the right is brought up and across the ring on the top, the end hanging over the left side. the strand on the left is brought around the right strand under again through the ring and out on the right through the loop made by the right strand in turning and crossing the ring. pull both ends. the strand on the left is brought across the ring, the right strand placed over it through the ring and out through the loop on the opposite side. pull both ends. the little knot formed on the edge is called "solomon's knot" and it makes a very desirable edge. [illustration: fig. . the napkin ring] different colours may be used in raffia which brighten the ring very much and make the work more interesting. when the strands of raffia come to an end, a new one is joined by placing the end over the old one about an inch or an inch and a half, and working with them as one. the ends may be cut off after the ring is finished. sometimes a small bunch of raffia about an inch long is tied to the outside of the ring. the ends are frayed out to add to the effect. there is one article which proves to be most delightful and interesting to make (that is, to the girls) a doll's hat (figure ). i think that nearly every little girl knows how to braid raffia and after you have learned how to sew this braid together you can make any size or shape in hats. braid some raffia, say about two or three yards. have several loose strands and a needle and scissors. [illustration: fig. . a doll's braided hat] just as in making large hats we begin with the centre of the crown. a needle is threaded with a fine strand of raffia and the work is begun by winding the end several times with the end of the strand threading the needle. a coil is then started with the edge of the braid up, not the face, and it is sewed through at least two braids at a time, in stitches which run in the direction of the braid. the needle is put in slanting down from right to left and up in the opposite direction. the crown is coiled round and round until it is about two or two and a half inches large. the coil is then brought round with the upper edge just below the centre of the last row. the following rows are sewed in the same way until the crown is completed or high enough to suit you. have care in sewing the braid so as to show as little of the stitches as possible. the brim is made by flattening out the braid and sewing it so that it overlaps the centre of the braid of each preceding row. when the brim is wide enough one or two rows are sewed more tightly than the others and the end of the braid is sewed under the brim very flatly. now the hat is ready to be trimmed. i would like to tell a little about the handles of baskets in this chapter. in most of the baskets already described a cover has been made. some people would rather have a handle to the basket, so let us see if we cannot learn how to make some handles. the twisted handle of rattan is made by using one spoke of rattan of suitable length, and a weaver. a knitting needle or something similar will be necessary for the work. the needle is pushed down beside a spoke of the basket and then drawn out again to make room for the end of the rattan to be pushed in, about three inches below the top of the basket. the other end is inserted in the same way on the opposite side. this makes the foundation handle. the end of the weaver is inserted under the third row of weaving to the left of the spoke and pushed up between the weaving. it is twisted around the foundation about an inch apart. when the opposite side is reached, the weaver is pushed in under the third row of weaving on one side of the handle spoke and brought out on the other side. the weaver is then laid across the first twist and each of the following ones, to the other side where it goes under the third row as on the opposite side. about five or six times across will cover the handle. the weaver is fastened off by bringing it inside the basket across a spoke, in again, and then cut off. the braided handle is made by using six pieces of rattan braiding using two pieces in each strand. while weaving the basket, three pieces are pushed in on each side of a spoke and the weaving is continued over the spokes. the double ring handle is made by twisting rattan into rings and sewing the rings to the weaving of the basket on opposite sides. in sewing baskets or other articles, different kinds of stitches are used. to put a hat together the braids are sewed together with a plain stitch, whereas in putting a basket together a fancy stitch is employed. the indians are famous for the various kinds of fancy stitches, which they have used in making basketry articles. the skip stitch which is used in sewed baskets is made by enclosing two spokes at a time or enclosing one spoke between every two. another useful and decorative stitch which is often used is the split stitch. the spokes are twined with raffia for a certain distance and then are split in two and the right spoke of one is joined to the left spoke of the other and twined with raffia as one. sometimes in making a cover for a hanging jar the spokes radiating from the centre are brought diagonally across each other and joined together by the winding stitch. many of the simple lace stitches described in a preceding chapter prove very useful in basketry work. to make the melon-shaped basket shown in figure a six-inch pair of embroidery hoops will be needed. one hoop is placed inside of the other. the inside hoop is perpendicular while the other one is horizontal. tie the two rings together at the point of intersection. from basket splint one sixteenth of an inch thick, cut six strips which are ten inches in length. they should be one inch and three quarters in the centre and taper to points at both ends. [illustration: fig. . a melon-shaped basket] select raffia in two shades. the natural and brown were used for this basket. with a strand of the brown start to weave at the point of intersection. wind around the four pieces of hoop until a square about one and a half inches is made. repeat on the opposite side of the hoops. [illustration: photograph by mary g. huntsman. sewed raffia baskets make attractive gifts] take two of these pieces of prepared basket splints and insert them in the centre of both squares. first one side of the pieces is inserted in the square and then the other end of the ribs is inserted in the other square. the natural colour raffia is now used to weave over the hoops and ribs. the weaving is done over and under and back and forth from side to side until there are a dozen rows of weaving. the other side of the basket is treated in like manner. the other four ribs are inserted two on each side of those previously placed. now begin and weave all the way across. weave several rows of brown then the natural raffia. you will put in more or less of the brown raffia as you desire, only the pattern on each side of the centre must agree. instead of weaving from one side and then across to the other, it is a better plan to weave a little first on one side of the basket and then on the other. in this way you are sure of your pattern. [illustration: fig. . the cover] if the raffia is threaded in a large needle it is easier to weave. another strand or more is wound around the handle. a basket such as this makes an attractive fruit basket and is just the thing to give to sick friends or to use when going berrying. [illustration: fig. . buttonholing the cardboard] [illustration: fig. . a simple basket box] raffia can be used in many ways as you have already seen. a pretty box for jewellery is one that is almost as easy to make as the napkin ring. get a sheet of thin white cardboard. the brown cardboard is a very weak material and easily bends and breaks. cut two circles of cardboard five inches in diameter. use compasses to inscribe the circle, so that it may be perfect. then cut a strip seventeen inches long by two inches wide. from the centre of one of the circles cut a two-inch circle. this piece will be the top of the box. now thread your needle with a strand of the raffia which has been soaked in water and buttonhole in raffia over the cardboard. when the cardboard has been entirely covered with the raffia stitches (figure ) take the other circle of cardboard and cut a half-inch circle from the centre. cover this piece of cardboard like the top. (figure ). the raffia should be wiped before using it; if not the water will spoil the cardboard. the centre opening on the cover will be filled with a spider-in-its-web. make four strands of raffia across the space. we now have eight spokes. take the threaded needle back to the centre and having passed under a spoke go back and pick it up. the idea is to go back over one and forward under two. continue in this manner till the spider is the size you desire. the long strip of cardboard is sewed together and is worked like the napkin ring. with a strand of raffia, cast or bind the bottom of the box to the side. the top is fastened on one side with two strands of raffia which are tied in a bow. the extra ends are cut off. xxiii raffia hats many of our little girls have made any number of dolls' hats by just braiding raffia and sewing the braids together. if you were to make a large hat (by this i mean a hat large enough to wear yourself) by sewing braids of raffia together, it would be entirely too heavy and also would fall into any shape, perhaps not a very desirable one. the only thing to do would be to procure a wire frame and to make the raffia hat on it. in order to do this we will have to braid enough raffia for the whole hat before doing anything else. for this kind of braiding the raffia will have to be soaked in water and then rolled out so that the strands will look like pieces of ribbon about three quarters of an inch wide. you may use a five, seven, or nine strand braid for this hat. take one long strand of raffia and place it horizontally on a flat surface. tie seven long pieces to the horizontal piece as shown in figure . begin with the last strand on the right-hand side and weave it over the next, under the following one, etc., toward the left side letting it hang out to the left. take the next strand on the right and weave it in the same manner as the preceding one. [illustration: fig. . weaving the raffia] when the left-hand side is reached, drop the first left-hand one with the rest and let the new weaver hang out till the next is brought over. the first one, when it reaches the left side, is always turned over the last weaver just brought over before dropping it (the first one) into place with the others. when the first set of strands are used, replace them one at a time by using the new and old together about two inches from the end of each. it will take about eighteen or twenty yards of braiding to cover the frame. when the braiding is ready to sew on the hat, begin with the centre of the crown. when the crown is entirely covered, start with the brim and begin sewing the coils together to the frame at the base of the crown. the under side of the brim may be covered with silk or material of a similar kind, or if you prefer to have it, covered with braid sewed on in the same manner as the outside, beginning at the base of the crown. when the whole hat frame has been covered with the braiding, you may roll it in the front or on the side, or in fact any place to suit yourself. a nice large bow of ribbon placed on the hat in a becoming fashion would make it very attractive, or for those who prefer flowers and ribbon the hat trimmed in this manner would be equally charming. a woven raffia hat made on a wire frame is a very charming and neat creation. it takes time and patience and skill to make the hat, but when it is finished you are doubly repaid for your work and the time spent on it. the crown is woven first and then fitted to the crown of the wire frame. take a small strand of raffia to make a ring of very small dimensions, say about one quarter of an inch in diameter. to this ring, knot eight strands of raffia as shown in figure . eight more strands are tied around each of the eight strands, using the very pretty and effective "solomon's knot." [illustration: fig. . the crown of the hat] this knot is a very simple twist and may be tied either with a double or single strand. the strand which is tied on is laid first under the main double strand and then both ends are crossed over each other. the right one goes first under the end of the left-hand one and over the double middle strand and then again under the loop of the left-hand one. it would be well to practise with strands of raffia other than those used in making the hat so as to become quite familiar with the knot before using it on the hat. counting the eight strands tied to the ring and the sixty-four strands that are solomon-knotted to the original eight we have seventy-two strands in all. they start from a common centre and are brought down and outward through the pattern and are knotted one by one onto the main strands as they cross. if you were to trace any one of the seventy-two strands you will find that it comes to the outside edge of the square through a very simple course. the last or eighth strand, knotted to the main strands, is used to tie up the bunch of strands coming from the sides of the diamond. it falls into place with the other strands and is tied up in turn as the others are. the larger knot tying up the bunch of raffia in the centre of the diamond is the same kind of knot as the smaller ones. it may look slightly different in composition, but that is due to the fact that it is being tied around a larger bulk. after the knots have been all tied at the edges of the diamonds, the ends are woven under and over making a sort of a square design as shown in the illustration. the finishing of the crown is done by taking four strands, two from each of the squares at the centre, and knotting them together with a simple knot. two from each side are knotted together. if you find that the strands do not come out in sets of four, make an extra strand by splitting in two one of the other strands. the brim of the hat is not so tedious to make as the crown and having a larger surface on which to work you will find that the progress is more rapid and requires less time and energy. knot on the outer wire of the frame as many strands of raffia as will fit very closely but easily side by side and then tie them into loops such as were used on the edge of the crown of the hat. this loop is the same as that used in making the shopping bags and hammocks described in the next chapter. you may use your own judgment in designing the brim. the outer edge may be made of the same loops that we have just spoken of. on the next row the strands of raffia are drawn down tightly and tied around the wire with a simple knot. alternate these two designs and you will have a very pretty brim. to finish off the edge on the brim, cut the ends off to about three quarters of an inch in length and sew them in under the wire with a needle threaded with fine raffia. a tapestry needle or a darning needle would do for this purpose. the trimming for this hat could be easily made of raffia. i will leave it to the maker to decide what would be most suitable to the taste. i might suggest such articles as buckles made of raffia or rattan or perhaps quills made of raffia. if you do not care to have the hat trimmed with its own material, velvet ribbon, satin, flowers, quills, etc., would make a desirable trimming. a very bewitching hat of a plain, three-strand braid of raffia can be easily made with very little trouble. the raffia has to be soaked in water until it is soft. unroll each strip and it will probably be about three quarters of an inch wide. in order to make the braid thick enough it will be necessary to use three or four pieces in one strand of the braid. braid about nineteen or twenty yards before beginning to make the hat. choose a wire frame of a low rounded crown and a broad flat brim. if you wish to change the shape of the frame after the braid is sewed on, it will be a very trifling matter. the end at which the braid is begun forms the centre of the crown. it is bent over at about five eighths of an inch from the tip and the long end is coiled around in a second row, the edge of which comes an eighth of an inch under the edge of the centre. it is generally sewed on with a darning needle, threaded with a very fine strand of raffia. use the back-stitch bringing the strand all the way through on the right side and then all the way through underneath. the crown is made entirely by sewing the plaits together, separately from the wire frame, but it will be well to try it on the frame occasionally so that it will securely fit. when about six or seven rows have been sewed together and the crown is four or five inches high, the brim is begun. the coil of braiding is brought around more loosely and flattened out as it is sewed. when six or seven rows have been completed, the brim at the back will be large enough. each succeeding row will have to be cut as it gets near the back and the end fitted in under the previous row until the sides near the back are about nine or ten rows wide and the front twelve rows. it would be well to pull the coil slightly tighter as it draws nearer the outer edge so that the last rows may roll a little. if you care to have the under brim of braided raffia it can be made in the same way, except that it is one row wider at the front and sides, to allow it to roll over the edges of the brim. it is pressed on the wrong side and attached to the under brim of the wire frame, with very small stitches of raffia. the outer edge of the under brim should not be fastened until the crown and the top brim are on the wire frame, as the top brim should come over the edge of the under brim. the crown and the upper brim are now pressed on the inside and put on the frame to which they are caught with a stitch of raffia here and there. the centre of the crown particularly should be firmly attached with stitching to the centre of the wire frame. a row of braiding is brought around to cover where the upper and under brims join inside the rolled brim and is sewed on either edge with small stitches of raffia. [illustration: fig. . a braided hat for yourself] a hat like this would be very pretty trimmed with a satin ribbon or silk bow. a large bow at the side or the back would make it very attractive if the bow is of a contrasting colour. some people prefer leaves and flowers, with a little touch of silk; others quills or feathery materials. in fact it may be trimmed with material of any kind. xxiv knotting for dolls' hammocks, shopping bags, and other purposes knotting of raffia for dolls' hammocks, shopping bags, belts, coverings for hanging jars, and many other things proves to be a very interesting part of the basketry work. little girls could easily make some very pretty belts to be worn with some of their dainty frocks, and i don't know what could be more delightful than a hammock for dolly to sleep in. first let us see how we can make dolly's hammock. we will have to have two small brass rings about three quarters of an inch in diameter, twelve pieces of raffia, and a pair of scissors. place one of the rings on a table or other flat surface and tie each of the twelve pieces of raffia on the ring, leaving an end about an inch long. begin and tie simple knots three inches from the ring and one inch apart, knotting the strands two and two until nine or ten rows have been completed. finish the hammock by fastening the ends three inches from the last row of knots, to the other ring. the hammock is ready for sally ann to have a nap. the next thing to do is to make a shopping bag, to carry all the small bundles when you go down town to buy dolls' clothes. this little bag is made with the same kind of knotting, only the number of strands and the arrangement of them differ (figure ). twenty-two strands of raffia and a pair of scissors are necessary. arrange twenty of the strands in pairs, and tie each pair in the centre. place them on a table with the knots side by side, leaving a little less than ten inches on each side of the knots. begin on one side of the centre knots, and tie one strand from one knot to the next strand from the next knot. they must be an inch from the first knots. tie the same two strands an inch from the centre on the opposite side. in the same way tie the outside strands of this group to form the corners. tie them one inch from the first centre knot. make ten rows of knots an inch apart. when these have been completed, the bag is ready for the handles. separate the strands on one side of the bag from those on the other. divide the group on one side in half. fasten each group one and a half inches beyond the last row of knots. braid the strands about six inches. do the same with each group, making four braids in all. hold the two braids from one end of the bag together so that the loose ends of one braid overlap the other. beginning at the middle point make a binding one and a half inches to the right and a similar one to the left. cover the binding with "solomon's knots." keep the lines of knotting straight. finish the opposite handle in the same way. [illustration: fig. . a shopping bag] some day when you have shopping to do for your mother, take your bag along and see how handy it will be. in the beginning of the chapter i spoke of a belt to wear with a pretty frock. a belt made of a six strand braid proves to be very serviceable to some little girls. you may use plain white raffia or a plain colour but oftentimes two colours add to the attractiveness of the belt. take three long pieces of raffia, that is, if the raffia is very thick; if not, six or twelve pieces using two or four pieces as one strand. hold the strands at the centre in the left hand. put the strand on the extreme right over and under the next two strands. the strand on the extreme left is put under, over and under the other strands. this forms a braid. continue doing this braiding until the belt is long enough to suit you. to finish the ends tie the remaining loose strands close to the braid and cut off the ends. turn the knots under and sew over the ends with the loop-stitch described in a preceding chapter. in working with raffia many times an article will need something to put a finishing touch to it, i would suggest using a fringe or tassel according to the kind of work in question. in my experience they have proved to be just the thing for such purposes. for example, in knotting raffia for a work bag, the ends of the raffia may be left hanging and when cut to an even length provide a very plain finish for the bottom of the bag. fringing or tassels would, i think, add considerably to the appearance of the article. to make fringe on the bottom of such a bag it is necessary to cut the ends an even length after the last knot has been made, and with a pin or needle fray out the ends very finely. the way to make tassels for a finish is to wind a strand of raffia over a cardboard about two or three times, or if the tassel is to be quite thick, wind five or six times. slip it off and bind it several times near the top with the end strand of the bag. sew it fast with a tapestry needle. cut through the centre of the loops. a row of these across the bottom of a bag are very effective. [illustration: fig. . a whisk broom] a very dainty little article for a very small child to make is a little clothes brush or whisk broom. secure a brass ring about one inch in diameter and cover the ring with the loop stitch. fold twelve strands of raffia twice and slip the bunch through the ring bending it in the middle. make a binding one inch below the ring and one inch long; cover the binding with "solomon's knots." fringe the ends well and trim off evenly (figure ). knotting in silks, cotton or linen strands should be mentioned in this chapter. it is a difficult thing to find a piece of fringe that will just match the colour of silk you have but it is an easy matter to make the fringe yourself. the simplest kind is the knot fringe. it can be made of filo, rope, twisted, or heavy floss when used in connection with a silk, satin, or velvet background. for cotton or linen background, cotton floss or fine cord can be used. let us suppose that you wish to make the fringe into a hem. take a cluster of six or eight strands of rope silk, ten inches in length, and draw them through the extreme edge of the hem. if the other kind of silks are used, more strands will be necessary. knot the cluster close to the hem. at a little less than a half inch distance over make another cluster and repeat in this manner across the space on which you want the fringe. now take the first cluster and divide it in half. hold the half nearest the next group in your left hand and divide the second group. taking the half close to first group, knot the strands together one half inch from the hem. continue like this all the way across. do not pucker the material when knotting. a third row of knots is now made below the second. this takes up the first half of the knot previously used and half of the next group. in this way you form a diamond. if a deeper fringe with more knots is desired cut the strands of silk three inches longer. for every inch of fringe allow three inches of strands. xxv simple bead chains on single strings, a home-made loom, woven chains, belts and purses have you ever taken pop corn and made a chain of it for christmas trees, or perhaps you have strung cranberries? maybe it was the first time that you ever held a needle. i remember when we were youngsters living in the south, our nurse used to take us out under trees and we would string "job's tears" for hours. many drug stores sell these seeds on strings for infants to cut their teeth on. the simplest form of bead work is just as easy as stringing pop corn or berries. beads come in all sizes from the tiny ones that are no bigger than a top of a pin to the large ones the size of a marble. sometimes you can get odd-shaped beads, flat on one side and curved on the other. a string that is pretty enough to wear on state occasions can be made of heart-shaped and round beads. the regular bead needle is very fine and long. it is better when stringing a single strand to double the thread. use linen thread no. or . thread the needle with a piece of thread eight inches longer than double the length of the necklace. bring the two ends together and make a knot three and a half inches from the ends of the thread. the thread will be very much stronger if you wax it. now thread seven small round beads then an odd shaped one. repeat in this manner till you have the length of chain desired. cut off the needle and tie the remaining thread in a tight knot close to the beads. ribbons are sometimes used to fasten the chain or necklace together but the little clasps that you can buy for a few cents are neater and do not get soiled as ribbon does. fasten on the clasp with the thread that extends beyond the knots. a sweet little daisy chain can be made on two threads. thread two bead needles with two long threads. bring one end of each thread together and make a knot as described above. fasten the knot to a table with a pin so that one needle is on the right and the other one on the left. thread two white beads on your right hand needle. put your left hand needle down through the white bead so that you have a thread coming from each side of the beads. your needles will have changed position. thread the right hand needle with one yellow bead. pass the left hand needle down through this and again the needles are reversed. thread two more white beads like the first two and do the same thing. now take the right hand needle and thread two more white beads and carry the needle through the first two white beads from right to left. thread two more white beads on the same needle and carry it through the second or top group of white beads from left to right. thread ten green beads on each of the needles and now we are ready to make another daisy (figure ). continue in this manner till the necklace is complete. [illustration: fig. . a daisy chain] another and more elaborate daisy chain is made on one needle. make a knot in the thread and string four green beads. hold this down between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand. thread one green bead and pass through the third of the four beads. thread another green bead and pass through the first bead. thread one white bead and pass through the green one on the left. thread another green bead and pass through the green one to the left (figure ). third row--thread a green, pass into a green to the left. now thread a white bead and pass in through the first white bead. [illustration: fig. . a woven daisy chain] fourth row--thread a yellow bead and pass through last white, and a green bead through the green. fifth row--a green bead through the last green, a white through the yellow. sixth row--a white bead through the last white, a green through the last green. seventh row--a white through the last green, a green through the last white of the sixth row. then three white beads on the needle and pass through the first white on the second row. carry the thread through the daisy thus formed till you have it again in same position as it was before you threaded the three beads. eighth row--one green into the last green, one white into the last white. (note that you are now starting another daisy on the left-hand side). ninth row--one yellow into last white, one green into last green. tenth row--one green into last green, one white into yellow. eleventh row--one white into last white, one green into green. twelfth row--one white into last green, one green into white. repeat the directions from the second row. note that though the chain is four beads wide there are only two beads that you work on in each row. if the thread breaks, start the new one, two or three rows back and go through the different beads. the above directions are for a chain that is worked without a loom. now-a-days it is quite possible to buy a little loom for about fifty cents, but you can make one at home that will not cost you a penny. the size of the loom will depend on what you are working but we presume that it is a chain. should you ever make a purse it would pay you to buy a loom. to make the home-made loom get a piece of card and a wooden meat skewer such as butchers use. fasten the skewer down on both ends to the cardboard about two inches from the upper edge. one inch above the skewer in the direct centre make a hole and one inch from the bottom edge of the cardboard make another hole. cut six pieces of no. linen thread, thirty-six inches long. this measurement is sufficient for a chain twenty-seven inches or under. tie one end of each thread to the skewer. now holding the six threads together, carry them down through the bottom hole across the back of the cardboard and tie in a loose knot to the top hole. [illustration: fig. . a home-made loom] thread a bead needle with a thread of no. linen thread that has been well waxed. tie the thread to the extreme right hand thread of the warp. now we are ready to make the chain (figure ). first row--thread the needle with five yellow beads. pass the needle toward the left under the warp threads, letting one bead slip in every space. on the left hand side bring the needle up to the right side and slip it through the five beads. [illustration: fig. . the design for the chain described] second row--thread five blue beads and fasten them in the same way. third row--thread five yellow beads. fourth row--five red beads. fifth row--five red beads. sixth row--two red, one blue and two red. seventh row--one red, three blue, one red. eighth row--five blue. ninth row--one red, three blue, one red. tenth row--two red, one blue, two red. eleventh row--five red. twelfth row--five red. [illustration: photograph by mary g. huntsman. the fascinating task of making bead chains] continue in this manner for as many inches as needed (figure ). when you have used up all the warp threads on the upper side of the cardboard roll the finished chain over the skewer and fasten the remaining threads in the lower hole. [illustration: fig. . another design for chains] to make a belt or purse the larger loom will be necessary. designs used for cross stitch are suitable for bead work. [illustration: fig. . a third design for a chain] before i tell you how to make any more bead chains and the other articles that may be made with beads, i want to tell you how to make a dainty purse that is illustrated in this chapter. it is made of gold and rose-coloured glass beads and it belongs to a bright little girl i know who has been using it for the past three years. a spool of heavy buttonhole twist of a colour to correspond to one of the coloured beads is needed (figure ). take eighteen strands of silk, each a yard long. see that the ends are all even. tie a tight knot through the centre of the threads. thread a bead needle with one of the strands of silk. put on two pink beads then three yellow, five pink, three yellow, five pink, three yellow, five pink, three yellow, five pink, five yellow, one pink, seven yellow, one pink, seven yellow, one pink, seven yellow, one pink, five yellow, five pink, three yellow, five pink, three yellow, five pink, three yellow, five pink, three yellow, seven pink. this completes the first string. do not allow any beads to drop, which they are very apt to do while you are working on another row. it is suggested that the strand of silk on the left of the beads should be knotted closely to the beads to prevent them from slipping. [illustration: fig. . the bead bag described] unthread your needle and take the next strand; thread two pink, one yellow, then slip your needle through the second yellow bead of the first row, thread one yellow, five pink, one yellow, now slip your needle through the middle yellow bead of the first row or in other words slip your needle through every eighth bead on the first row. the colouring remains the same. i will start the instructions again for the second row which is to be threaded, two pink, one yellow, slip needle through bead on first row, one yellow, five pink, one yellow, slip needle through bead, one yellow, five pink, one yellow, slip needle through, one yellow, five pink, one yellow, slip needle through bead, one yellow, five pink, one yellow, slip needle through bead, three yellow, one pink, three yellow, slip needle through, three yellow, one pink, three yellow, now slip needle through bead, three yellow, one pink, three yellow, slip needle, three yellow, one pink, three yellow, slip needle, one yellow, five pink, one yellow, slip needle, one yellow, five pink, one yellow, slip needle, one yellow, five pink, one yellow, slip needle, one yellow, five pink, one yellow, slip needle, one yellow, six pink, slip needle into last bead of first row and knot the two threads close to the bead. be sure that the knot is large enough not to slip through the hole of the bead. thread your needle with the third strand. put on two pink, three yellow, two pink, slip needle through third bead of first group of five pink of the second row. (for the rest of the row "slip needle" means slip the needle through the fourth bead below the one slipped through on the second row) two pink, three yellow, two pink, slip needle, two pink, three yellow, two pink, slip needle, two pink, three yellow, two pink, slip needle, two pink, five yellow, slip needle, seven yellow, slip needle, seven yellow, slip needle, seven yellow, slip needle, five yellow, two pink, slip needle, two pink, three yellow, two pink, slip needle, two pink, three yellow, two pink, slip needle, two pink, three yellow, two pink, slip needle, four pink. the fourth row is the same as the second. every other row from the third is also worked like the third. the last row which joins the bag--two pink, slip needle into fourth bead of next to last row, thread three more beads, slip into centre bead of the group of sevens of the first row. the pattern is diamond-shaped as you will note, therefore after threading your needle with three beads of the shade to correspond with the previous row slip your needle in the centre bead of the groups of seven of the preceding row and the first row. work first to the right and then to the left. every two strands of silk must be knotted together to keep the beads from slipping off. braid the threads extending beyond the bead work in groups of three. a large bead or slide will be necessary to make the purse a practical money bag. get two big beads that have openings large enough to pass all the silk threads through. take a knot on the silk thread after the first large bead is in position. this knot should be two inches at least from the beads. the silk threads may now be cut quite close to the knot or they may be cut one inch from the knot to form a tassel. if the little purse was left without any further work it would look quite top heavy and unfinished, for that reason a bead tassel is suggested as shown in the illustration of the bead purse. thread your needle with a long strand of the buttonhole twist. string about two and a half inches of pink beads. before commencing to string the beads fasten the thread in the heavy knot at the bottom of the purse. catch the thread with the beads also in the knot. make two pink strings this length and two yellow. then make four strings, two pink and two yellow, that are not more than an inch and a half long. fasten off the threads securely and the bag is complete. three bunches of pink beads and two bunches of yellow will make two purses as have just been described. the beads vary in price from six cents a bunch to twenty-five cents. sometimes the more expensive kind have only half the number of beads that the cheaper bunches have. do not get too small a bead or the work will become very tedious. the large beads for the slides are more expensive. they cost four cents apiece or more. of course other colour combinations can be made, also other patterns. silver and blue is another pretty combination for a bead purse. now while we are on the topic of beads, i would like to tell you about some sensible portières and cushion tops that i recently saw at an arts and crafts exhibition made of an inexpensive background and beads. monk's cloth was used for one of the portières. monk's cloth is somewhat like burlap but the weave is coarser and more even. a hem was turned on one short side and one of the long sides and the thread drawn out for a space of about two inches. the threads were hemstitched and then a design of beads worked between the groups of threads. to accomplish this the design was well planned out before commencing the work. the number of beads needed to fill out the space can be judged by placing the beads in the opening and testing that for yourself. after the design has been selected make a pencil copy of it. it is better to restrict yourself at first to just two colours. fasten your sewing thread securely to the threads of the material. use carpet thread for the weaving. let us suppose that you have selected a pattern that is seven rows of beads deep and you have chosen tan as the background and red and chalk white beads for the decoration: first row--thread one red bead, six white, one red, six white. as we will only work a section at a time, let us secure the beads. slip your thread under the hemstitching. now let each bead come between two consecutive groups of hemstitching. bring your thread to the right side. be careful not to disturb your beads. now carry the thread through the beads again. the thread should be drawn tight but not so as to pucker the hem. second row--work this by stringing one white, one red, four white, one red, one white, one red, four white, one red. fasten as described in the first row. third row--one red, one white, four red, one white, one red, one white, four red, one white. fasten. fourth row--one red, one white, one red, four white, one red, one white, one red, four white. fasten. fifth row--one red, one white, four red, one white, one red, one white, four red, one white. fasten. sixth row--one white, one red, four white, one red, one white, one red, four white, one red. fasten. seventh and final row--one red, six white, one red, six white. fasten. after this section is worked slip your needle through the beads to the last one on the first row and continue to weave. the beads to use for portières or large pillows are round ones that are three eighths of an inch in diameter. for curtains, table covers or any article where the weight of the large bead is not desirable use a smaller bead that is not more than a quarter-inch in size. scrim curtains with a single row of the smaller beads add a pretty touch of colour to the otherwise plain window. almost any shade can be had in the beads, but the trouble is that they can not be bought at every store. a bead supply house is the one from which to get them. they cost only one-quarter as much as when bought in a department store. ecru scrim with a row of turquoise blue, canary yellow and sage green beads and the simple twist stitch such as described in the chapter on "simple stitches in drawn work," makes a curtain suitable for a simple room. the way to accomplish this work, is to take a stitch on the drawn thread, in the regular way for the twist stitch, then slip a bead on, then take another stitch, then a bead, so on to the end. if a skeleton square of beads is desired on a sofa cushion it is advisable not to draw it out in the same manner as for a curtain. for a two-inch border to be set in four inches from the edge, crease the cushion through the direct centre. measure four inches from the edge and cut the material on the crease for two inches. treat each side like this. draw the threads out on each side of the cut, stop when you get four inches from the edge. of course the material must be in a perfect square and just the size you want for the pillow before you begin any of the work. place the beads as explained for the portière. do not cut the threads you drew out but, threading a needle with two or three at a time, carry them through the beads. in this way there is no necessity for cutting and buttonholing the corners where the border intersects, as in drawn work. loose woven materials such as monk's or arris cloth are extremely hard to buttonhole and even after very careful work they are apt to fray. if a fancy edge is desired for the pillow one made of beads is far more appropriate than anything else. after the pillow is complete and made up, put on the bead edge by catching a bead to the material at a short distance from each other. for a canoe or porch pillow there is nothing more durable than bead pillows of a dark colour worked with gay coloured beads. xxvi braiding and weaving four and six strands weaving on looms braiding or plaiting can be done in any materials and may be used for shopping bags or circular rugs. raffia, corset laces, heavy silk floss or rags can be utilized for the braiding. it is extremely difficult to conceal the ends when three strands are used so for that reason i have selected four strands to commence with. [illustration: fig. . the strands crossed] when working with cords or very long strands of material, knot the four ends together. pin the knot to your knee and proceed to weave. take the extreme left-hand strand and weave under the next strand. at the same time weave the extreme right-hand strand over the next. cross the two strands in the centre. (see figure .) if a knot is not desired at the start the cords may be commenced as shown in the figure . to braid with six strands take the extreme left-hand strand and weave under and over to centre and with the right-hand strand weave over and under to centre and cross the left-hand strand (see figure ). [illustration: fig. . the way to commence braiding without a knot] after the braid has been made it can be sewed together for a mat. in joining a strand insert the new piece so that it extends a little beyond the braid. if a long braid is desired it is best to have the strands of different lengths so that the joinings will not be all in one place (figure ). when braiding or weaving with rags cut the strips about three quarters of an inch wide. old rags can be used for this, cutting out the weak parts. cheap cotton fabrics when new make excellent mats. weaving on frames is very interesting and not such a difficult task as you imagine. there are hand and treadle looms. the following instructions will be for the former. a stretcher such as artists use for painting can be used or four pieces of board twenty-four inches long by four inches wide and one inch thick. take the four pieces to form a frame. [illustration: photograph by eddowes co. a cushion top can be woven on a simple hand loom] buy three half-inch dowels or long round sticks; which may be bought from a hardware shop; and sand-paper till they are quite smooth. screw in four large picture rings two on each side of the frame, one at each end. slip one dowel through the rings at each end and tie to picture ring. [illustration: fig. . braiding with six strands] the warp may be cord which is sold by the pound or a heavy soft twine. a wholesale cord or rope house will be the best from which to buy the warp. a thin board such as you have in your window shades and to which the string is attached makes a good shuttle. cut it so that it is twenty-two inches long and wind the warp on it lengthwise. tie one end of the warp thread to the lower left-hand picture ring. lay the warp threads over the lower dowel, up through the frame and over the upper dowel. remember always to lay the thread outside and over each dowel. the first six threads are placed very close to each other. after that the threads are laid half an inch or a little more than a quarter of an inch apart. the finer the weaving the more warp threads will be needed. the usual allowance is from four to eight threads to an inch. [illustration: fig. . the way to join a braid] two plain boards that are as long as the dowels and three inches wide by a quarter of an inch deep will be required now. slip into one of these boards at each end between the warp threads and bring the boards to the centre and tie together to keep them from slipping. take a piece of cord nine inches longer than a dowel and tie to the throat of the lower left-hand screw. make a knot at first warp string and slip it over dowel. twist the double thread two, three or four times. repeat slipping over dowel and twisting between every two warp strings until you reach the right hand screw. tie the threads to the screw. this is called pairing the threads. repeat the pairing at the other dowel. when the pairing is finished slip the lower dowel out of the rings and tie the dowel again to the screws. to space the warp threads an upholsterer's needle and carpet thread will be needed. if the weaving occupies the full size of the frame, hitch or tie the carpet thread to the lower left-hand screw, while if the warp threads do not extend very far over place an extra screw on the outside of the frame where the warp threads begin. buttonhole stitch over the dowel keeping the lower thread down and the upper thread on top. hold the warp threads apart with finger of the left hand while buttonholing. pull your stitches tight. two or three stitches should be made between each two warp threads. the stitches must be an eighth of an inch apart. now we are ready for the bridge. two feet, as they are called, will be necessary to support the bridge. a carpenter will make them for a small amount. they should be seven inches high by three inches wide at the base (figure ). one foot is placed in the centre of opposite sides of the frame and the third dowel run through the holes. loosen the two boards at the centre and place them close to the dowel. place the bridge over the set of threads nearest you. take a six-inch piece of cord and catch up first warp thread. tie thread to bridge. all knots should be made like a weaver's knot. the loop should not extend lower than two inches below the bridge. [illustration: fig. . the foot] this completes the setting up of the loom. to weave, the material may be cut as stated before or raffia or indian fibre may be used. if the weaving is to be in one colour only, it is well to join the pieces together and wind on a long shuttle. if short pieces are used a hook will be required. it can be made of a strip of wood taken from the hem of window shades. notch one end of it. a selvage will be necessary at the beginning and the end of the weaving and is done in a fine cord. start at left-hand corner and tie the thread to warp. pass the shuttle to right-hand side between the threads. lower the bridge and pass the shuttle back again between the threads to left-hand side. raise the bridge again and repeat as just explained. it will be best to comb down the woof to keep it straight and regular. a regular weavers' comb can be bought, but a coarse hair comb may be substituted. six rows will be sufficient for the selvage. the regular weaving is worked the same only in coarse warp. remember the bridge must be lowered every other time. in weaving a new thread or strand commence a little way back from where the last strand stopped. learn to weave and you get much more artistic effects in rugs than ordinary rug or portière weavers obtain. beautiful cushions and other useful articles can be made by weaving. it is a great mistake to think that all cast off clothing can be woven into handsome rugs or portières. true it is possible to weave them, but it is almost a hopeless task to get artistic effects from old coats or a lot of dark articles. the modern rug weavers get a few yards of cheap muslin in two or three shades and make a rug that can be sold for two or three dollars. silk is not like old woollen materials, it can be utilized to the last thread because it is soft and works to good advantage. two old silk petticoats will make two pillow tops that are artistic as well as useful. one of the most beautiful examples of silk weaving was a cushion i saw made from two old silk petticoats; one was sage green and the other delft blue. the strips were about one inch wide. all the worn parts were cut out. no piece was considered too small to use. every pattern of rug has a name given it by the weaver. the most common pattern is the hit-and-miss. the name aptly describes it. there are never two hit-and-miss patterns that are exactly alike. to look at a collection of hit-and-miss rugs one is reminded of the croton shrub which has no two leaves alike. as children, we used to call them match-me-if-you-can trees. a hit-and-miss pattern is a good one to learn on. do not weave first one green strip then one blue and so on, because you will get a jumble of blue that is neither interesting nor pleasing. decide on which colour you would like for the background, then use most of that shade. i have heard an old weaver say that when she works the hit-and-miss pattern she will carry first one stripe of the background the entire way across and probably start the second row. a little strip of the second colour is then used and then the background again. the good worker never cuts her strips all the same length but strives to get the effect of little slashes of colour against a solid background. a rug made of medium blue and white rags suggests the sea with white caps on it. when an indian weaves a rug, he sits on the floor and weaves, till he has to stand to work. tapestry is woven almost the same as described for rugs; instead of the loom having a bridge that has to be moved by hand to regulate the threads, a treadle is used. the wrong side of weaving is always facing you on the loom and all ends are fastened afterward with a needle and thread. perhaps you would be interested to know how a weaver makes a set design in tapestry. usually an artist designs a piece, say a design for the back of a chair. often the artist is the weaver himself. he will make two sketches in colour one to put under the warp threads and the other to keep in sight. he then starts to weave the design in as many colours as desired, then the background is worked. a piece of hand-made tapestry is a possession that only the very wealthy can buy for it is indeed exceptional to find an ordinary weaver who can make tapestry. to the french is given the honour of being the most clever weavers in the world. as a general thing in france weaving is an inherited trade. you will find, if you ask the weaver what his mother, his father and his grandfathers were, he will tell you--weavers. the hands of the men are almost as small and soft as the women's. i have seen a beautiful screen that represented a pansy field, if you can imagine such a thing worked in over two hundred shades of silk. every conceivable kind of pansy was worked in it. it was made for a man who loved pansies. it took four weavers three months in which to make it, working eight hours each day. too much thought can not be given to the right colour for your rugs or whatever you intend to weave on your simple loom. study to get harmonizing effects rather than contrasting ones. gray is probably the most pleasing of backgrounds and can be combined to advantage with almost any other shade. remember that a dark room needs a cheerful colouring while a bright airy room can stand subdued shades. red excites the nerves. lavender is depressing. blue is a cold colour and should be combined with other colours to be effective. green is restful to the eyes in any shade, while yellow seems to reflect light and for that reason is to be highly recommended for use in a dark room. one of the prettiest rooms i know, which is ordinarily a very dark one, is one that has bright yellow and chestnut brown for its decoration. the minute you enter that room you are impressed with its cheerfulness and warmth. no matter how pretty and beautiful are the hangings and other dainty touches of a room, a rug remains the chief attraction. it is to a room what a vase is to a flower. a rug is not absolutely necessary, but unless it is the right kind your room looks patchy. as in everything else practice makes perfect and as soon as you become accustomed to weaving you will plan regular designs that will make the work more fascinating. if you have a large quantity of undefinable shades of silk or wool or cotton rags i would recommend that you dye them all one shade. one ten-cent package of a dye will colour a couple of pounds of rags. get a dye that is good for all three kinds of material as sometimes a dye that changes the colour of silk may not affect cotton at all. xxvii simple crocheting, stitchery for edges and shawls crocheting abbreviations. . slip stitch (sl st) . chain stitch (ch) (figure no. ) . single crochet (s c) " no. ) . double crochet (d c) " no. ) . treble crochet (tr c) " no. ) . shell (sh) " no. ) . stitches (sts) the beginner in crochet will have very little trouble in learning the work as the stitches used are comparatively few in number although the various combinations in which they may be used are almost unlimited. it is wise to become accustomed to the stitches and especially with the abbreviations, which are used so extensively throughout all crochet work. no doubt the beauty and variety of the patterns one can execute, also the durability of the work are the chief causes for its popularity at the present time. the implement used is a crochet hook which varies in size according with the quality of the thread used. the steel hook with the bone handle is to be preferred. [illustration: fig. . chain stitch] too much emphasis cannot be placed upon the importance of the position of the hands when working, and the firmness of the stitches, as the work is, at once, better and more even when the proper position is maintained. the crochet needle should be held lightly between the first finger and the thumb of the right hand; the hook horizontal and parallel with the first finger of the right hand, that part of the work which is in course of construction being held closely between the thumb and third finger of the left hand. the thread is wound once around the first finger, passes under the second and third fingers of the left hand, and is wound around the small finger. it is now held in position by bending the fourth and small fingers toward the palm of the hand. the foundation stitch of all crocheting is the chain stitch (ch) (see figure ) which is begun by making a slip knot around the needle. draw the thread through this loop, and you have a chain. again draw the thread through this second loop, continue until the chain is of desired length. another stitch is the slip stitch (sl st). insert the hook in the foundation work. draw loop through the work and another through the loop on the needle. single crochet (s c). see figure . [illustration: fig. . single crochet] insert hook in work, make a loop on the hook and draw through, making two loops on the needle. throw thread again over hook. draw thread through both loops. double crochet (d c). see figure . before inserting the hook in the stitch to be worked, put the thread around it. throw thread around hook and draw the thread through the stitch and you will have three loops on hook. throw thread again around hook and draw thread through two loops. throw thread again around hook and draw through the remaining two loops. [illustration: fig. . double crochet] treble crochet (tr c). see figure . [illustration: fig. . treble crochet] put the thread around the hook twice, insert in the work. draw a loop through work, making four loops upon needle. draw the thread or loop through two loops on needle, then again through two loops and the third time through the remaining two loops. shells (sh). see figure . [illustration: fig. . shells] shells are formed by making groups of either single, double or treble stitches worked into the same space or stitch. [illustration: fig. . tiny insertion] edging and insertions are very much in use and are often applied to blouses, collars and cuffs, towels, centre pieces, handkerchiefs, belts and various other articles. _tiny insertion_ (figure ). ch catch into a ring and into one side of ring work s c *ch. catch in next to last s c, s c in new ring. repeat from * for length desired and fasten off. _tiny edging_ (figure ). st row--ch. turn. nd row-- s c in each ch, turn. rd row--ch work d c in first s c made, turn. th row--* over ch work s c work ch of turn. th row-- d c over the d c of preceding row. turn. repeat from * until you have length desired. [illustration: fig. . tiny edging] for the edging made: st row--over each d c on one side and each empty ch on the other work s c. nd row--work d c into first s c then * ch, miss s c and work d c into next. repeat from * along both sides of insertion. _loop edging_ (figure ). work s c over a padding cord, then catch in th stitch made to form a ring. again work s c and catch in the th stitch to form another ring. continue until the edging is the required length. [illustration: fig. . loop edging] for the edge, begin at the first end for the picots and work as follows: make s c into th stitch of first ring, ch , skip s c-- s c in next stitch. repeat for three picots. ch , begin in th stitch of next ring and make picots there and so continue to the end of edging. _loop insertion_ (figure ). ch and catch in a ring into one side of ring work s c, ch , catch in the last s c forming a ring, and into new ring work s c. continue in this way for length desired. then work down the other side of rings d c in each. [illustration: fig. . loop insertion] now work down each side of insertion s c in the centre point of each side of the ring and ch between. in these ch loops work s c each and fasten off. _narrow crochet edging_ (figure ). ch . st row-- d c in th ch from needle, ch , d c in same st. ch , d c in next st, ch , d c in same st. stitches on foundation will stand beyond the row. [illustration: fig. . narrow crochet edging] nd row--ch turn * d c in centre loop of cluster of three, ch repeat from * times. d c in same space, ch - d c in third ch of turning loop. d row--turn ch * d c in centre of loop of clusters, ch repeat twice from * d c in same space * ch - d c in ch loop, repeat from * times ch - s c in end of foundation. th row--turn ch - sl st in fourth ch from needle ch - d c in next space between d c, ch - sl st in fourth ch from needle, ch - d c in next space. repeat from * times. ch - d c in centre loop of ch clusters, repeat from * three times more ch , d c in third ch on turning loop. th row--turn ch , make clusters in centre loop as with other row. repeat from nd row. on each repetition of row the final s c is taken up in the loop of ch of the former scallop. _cone insertion_ (figure ). st row--ch turn d c in ninth ch from needle, ch skip - d c in next, ch skip - d c in last stitch. nd row-- s c in first space, ch in second space work d c-- tr c, ch , tr c, d c, ch , in third space work s c. d row--ch , one sl st over ch--ch , tr c in last s c of preceding row. [illustration: fig. . cone insertion] th row-- s c in first space, s c in same space with sl st, s c in next space. th row--ch , skip s c of preceding row, d c in next stitch. ch , skip - d c in next stitch. ch, skip - d c in final st. repeat from beginning of second row. _crochet insertion with ribbon_ (figure ). [illustration: fig. . insertion with ribbon] make a ch of stitches: d c in st from end of ch, ch, d c in next rd st of ch, ch, d c in next d stitch of ch, ch, d c in th of ch, ch, d c in same st as last d c to join shell, ch, d c in next th st of ch, ch, d c in same stitch as last three, ch, d c in next th of ch, ch, d c in next d of ch, ch, d c in last stitch of ch, ch; turn. work the next and every succeeding row the same. run narrow ribbon under and over ch. in centre. this trimming is very pretty when used on a blouse waist. [illustration: fig. . rainbow shawl] _rainbow shawl_ (figure ). either saxony or floss may be used, about six skeins of white and half a skein of each of the colours used being necessary. _to form main part of shawl._ ch sts of white. st row--turn and work back thus: draw out st on hook about three-fourths of an inch, pass hook under the single thread of wool, draw through st, pass it under wool, work a sl st, ch (in the way you work first st of every row). to make second st* pass hook through second, draw up to three fourths of an inch, catch the wool and make close ch: repeat from * to end of chain. turn and repeat from first row till you have worked rows in the white wool. _to make the rainbow stripe on either end of white._ fasten in the pink wool and work two rows, then in the order named--yellow, orange, light green, dark green, indigo, light blue, violet. finish the end with two or more rows of white. [illustration: fig. . cross stitch] _to make fringe._ *chain , fasten down in next st with a sl st, repeat from * to end of row. finish both edges of scarf with a row of knot stitches. crochet scarf (figure ). material, skeins shetland floss. [illustration: fig. . shawl in cross stitch] directions for cross stitch (see figure ). make a chain the desired length: work tr c in the fourth stitch of ch. now stitch back into the first and second of ch and make a tr c in each. (this forms a cross stitch.) repeat to end of chain. _to make scarf._ ch stitches. work cross stitch on ch; continue working back and forth with cross stitch until scarf measures - / yards in length. finish ends with a fringe. each strand is inches and strands of wool are knotted to each cross stitch to form fringe. xxviii pattern directions for making doll caps and capes, jackets and child's bedroom slippers having become well acquainted with the stitches and patterns described in the previous chapter, you are competent to go on with the more intricate ones described in this chapter. a pretty doll's cap is made of silk. without a silk padded lining the cap will be just the thing for the warmer months. _doll's cap._ begin by winding silk around a lead pencil times: make s c over this. nd row--make s c in every s c on first row. rd row--s c in every s c on nd row. continue widening often enough to keep the work nearly flat (to do this two s c instead of one are worked upon the one of the preceding row). this completes the solid work of the crown. th row--ch , make d c in same stitch, skip d c in next st. continue around entire crown. th row--make a shell of d c in centre of each shell of d c, leaving off within shells of last row. th row--make a ch of st and s c in middle of next shell. ch , s c in middle of next shell. continue around entire crown. th row--* s c on each ch of of previous row. turn s c for entire row around to where the shells of were left. this begins the front of cap. turn and repeat from * more rows. next make a row of shells of st in every th st. th row--make shell of d c in middle of each shell of d c. repeat these groups of rows of s c and rows of shells twice more. th row--a row of ch in middle of each shell, then a row of s c. finish the cap with a row of shells of d c around the entire cap. finish shells with a row of picots made by a ch of caught in every st with a s c. this completes the cap. [illustration: fig. . doll's hug-me-tight] _doll's hug-me-tight_ (figure ). skein of saxony white. skein of shetland floss, blue. - / yards of narrow white ribbon. make a ch of st., take up each ch with a s c. turn s c in slipper stitch (slipper stitch is s c taken up on the back thread of the row below). crochet back and forth in this manner until you have ribs or rows which form the back. then take up s c and crochet back and forth until you have ribs or rows, which forms the one front. then count nine stitches for the neck, taking up the remaining sts for the other front and make ribs or rows for the other front. finish with a border all around of s c taking up the whole stitch, alternating the colours, row blue and white until you have four blue and four white, finish the whole with a blue picot. cut the ribbon into six pieces, sew one piece in each of the outer edges to form the armhole and front as illustrated. this jacket can be made for a child by commencing with ch, ribs for back and ribs for fronts. _jacket_ (figure ). [illustration: fig. . jacket in star stitch] pompadour wool through which a thread of silk runs, was used for making this pretty jacket. three skeins of the wool are required. the body of the sacque is of star stitch (figure ). ch on which work stars, widen with ch. for sleeve make stars, and back, stars. one front stars. for the first rows of front work stars, widen with ch work across sleeve, widen , work across back, widen star every other row; at sleeve widen , across sleeve widen , then stars from the front. after the th row continue as before, only widening star at the four sleeve points for rows. in th row work stars for the sleeve, now drop out the entire sleeve, including the widening points, work across back alone, leave out sleeve as before then stars for the second front; work rows across sacque widening under arms as in centre back. tie wool at point under arm and work rows around sleeve joining each row as made. for border, work rows of knot stitch. [illustration: fig. . star stitch] _slippers in single crochet_ (figure ). one skein of each of two contrasting colours of germantown wool, one pair of soles. for making these slippers in mercerized perle cotton, which is very cool for warmer days, two balls will be required. in making slippers it is very essential for the work to be as tight as possible to prevent it from stretching. [illustration: fig. . slipper in single crochet] the following directions are for slipper size . ch sts. make s c in slipper stitch, described in doll's hug-me-tight (figure ) widen in the centre by making s c in ch. make two rows like last widening in centre, then a row without widening. when the work reaches from the toe to the hollow part of the sole (about ribs) the front is long enough. (alternate two rows one colour and two in the other.) turn and work s c. continue in the slipper stitch until the work will reach around the sole by stretching. join the end to the front by overcasting on the wrong side. beginning at the corner where the end is joined make a row of crazy stitch around to the other side. make more rows of crazy stitch. finish with a row of shells. [illustration: fig. . slipper stitch] directions for crazy stitch--make a ch of sts; then throw the thread once over the needle, take up the third nearest stitch to the needle, and pull it through the loop; throw the thread over again and pull it through the nearest two loops on needle and crochet the remaining two loops off in the same manner. this completes the d c described in chapter . make two more d c in the same loop, skip stitches, fasten with a sl st in next st ch. shells in next st. and continue for length desired. _slippers in star stitch_ (figure ). balls of mercerized crochet cotton. star stitch is made by a ch of the required length. insert hook in nd ch from it, draw wool through, keeping both sts on hook, insert hook in rd ch and draw wool through keeping this st also on the hook, skip the next ch and take up the th and th in same manner, making sts on hook; now drop the strands of wool from which these sts were made, and take up wool of contrasting colour, double end into a loop with short end about one inch in length, draw this through all the sts on hook, being careful not to let this short end slip through, ch to hold sts in place. now with this new strand work a star by drawing it through the eye of star, it being the tightest stitch near the ch on hook keeping both sts on hook as before. draw wool also through long st down the side of star, then through next ch which gives sts on hook, then dropping the strand from which this star was made pick up the wool of st star and loop it through these sts and ch to hold the star in place. this ch should be worked tight so it will draw the sts together and form the star, which should be almost square. in the second row place the contrasting colour over the star underneath, tying in the wool, ch on which take up sts; this gives you sts on hook, the next loops are drawn through the long and short stitches of star underneath, taking up back stitch of the long and both strands of the short or eye of star. [illustration: fig. . a slipper in star stitch] _for the slipper proper._ ch , on which make stars, ch at end then work stars down the other side of ch, taking up the other thread. nd row-- stars, ch, stars. d row--without widening. widen stars every other row until you have rows rows without widening, then widen in the next. there will be rows in all, and stars in this last row, now divide front and work stars on either half for the sides; fit around sole by stretching and sew up the back on the wrong side. the wool or thread should be broken at the end of each row. (crochet should not be worked backward and forward unless directions are given to that effect.) for a frill around the slippers work groups of ch st two more rows of the same. i always sew my slippers onto the soles after being finished, by overcasting with wool of the same shade on the right side, which saves stretching the slippers all out of shape when turning them. _jacket in shell stitch_ (figure ). material: skeins of white germantown and skein of colour for edge. no. bone needle. ch , with extra sts for turning. st row--skip ch and make d c in the next. * skip ch, s c in next, ch , d c in same st with s c and repeat from * ending with a final s c. nd row--turn s c in s c below * d c in same st, s c in next s c below and repeat from * ending with a s c in top of turning ch. rd row--turn ch , d c in s c below * s c in next s c, ch , d c in same st repeat from * to end of row. repeat nd and rd rows times, then repeat the nd row once more. this gives a depth of work sufficient for the back part of sleeves. at the end of the last row fasten off. [illustration: fig. . half of a jacket in shell stitch] the lower part of the back is now to be made. count shells (sh) along from the end of the last row and begin to crochet there, working as with rd row until within sh of each other end of last long row. crochet in pattern upon this row until rows in all have been worked. upon the th row increase sh in the s c from each end by making sh in those st instead of one. work without increasing for rows more, then fasten off. go back to the foundation and upon the other side of it, beginning where the first row ended, crochet sh as in st row. this is the commencement of the left shoulder and front. upon this row work rows more in the usual way. at the end of the last row drop the loop temporarily from the needle, tie in an extra ball of wool at the top of the very beginning of the last row, ch and fasten off. with this ch the extra width for the centre of the front is secured. th row--again take the dropped loop upon the needle and crochet as usual making sh upon the extra ch. the row is now sh wide. work in pattern for rows more, the last row ending at the wrist. fasten off. on the st short row of lower front count sh along from end of last row, begin there, work as usual to the other end, then crochet back and forth until the front is as long as the back, increasing sh on the th row in the s c from the underarm seam. the second front is made exactly like the first. the rd pattern row now is worked up the fronts around the neck, across the lower edge of jacket and sleeves, then finished with a scalloped edge worked as follows: make s c in space preceding st where s c was made on row below, ch , s c on top of st d c below, ch , s c in same space, ch and repeat from beginning around all the edges, fasten off. shape the jacket by crocheting the sleeves and underarm seams together. crochet should be carefully washed and should not be put in the general laundry. make suds of warm water and a little borax. put the article, if of cotton or linen thread in and let it soak for a little while, then squeeze the water out of the article between the hands. rinse in several waters in this manner always using warm water. put the piece in a white bag and hang on the line. this way keeps the piece from stretching out of shape. keep it on the line till the article is perfectly dry. knitted articles should also be treated in like manner when washing for if a knitted piece was pinned on a line to dry the article would be stretched out of shape. xxix irish crochet lace irish crochet lace is one of the most durable of laces and is suitable to be worn for all occasions. it especially recommends itself for pick-up or porch work. it looks well and does not take an endless while to make, as almost every motif is made separately thus giving a variety. and although one may not have more than a few minutes to devote each day to the work, it is surprising how many articles can be completed with little effort and little time. the materials necessary are a steel crochet hook, considerably finer than for ordinary crochet work, as the work must be very firm, even and close. irish crochet thread, numbers to or d. m. c. cotton numbers to inclusive and number for the padding cotton will be needed. all laces look better if pressed before making up, this is especially true of irish crochet. and when slightly soiled it can be washed in soap suds, made from any good laundry soap; rinse thoroughly in several waters, starch slightly and iron on the wrong side on a heavy blanket. these simple directions help to make the lace look like new. in irish crochet the motifs are made separately mostly worked over a padding cotton. [illustration: fig. . doily with crochet edge] then these motifs are basted on a pattern of cambric, or paper muslin which has been cut to the desired shape. a row of chainstitching is worked and basted to the edge of the pattern, then the filling in background is worked, joining the different motifs together with rows of chainstitching and picots or any other background stitch desired. _doily with irish crochet edge_ (figure ). this can also be used for a bread plate. st row--around a inch circle of linen work a row of single crochet. nd row-- chain, miss single crochet and fasten with a single crochet in the th stitch; continue around mat. [illustration: fig. . the design for the belt] rd row--into each group of chains work single crochet, picot, single crochet. th row-- ch fasten in the picot loop. th row-- single crochet, picot, single crochet, picot, single crochet, picot; continue all around. this completes the mat. _belt of irish crochet_ (figure ). this belt is very useful, especially as it is mounted upon a foundation, which is the ordinary cotton waist belting, one inch wide sold at all notion counters for a few cents. the crochet belt is basted upon this belting after being stretched and starched. to make the belt: st row--chain , turn. nd row-- double crochet in th stitch of chain, chain , miss stitches and work double crochet in th stitch of chain, chain , miss , chain and work double crochet in th stitch of chain, chain , skip , chain, double crochet into th stitch of chain, chain , double in th stitch of chain, chain , miss chain, double crochet into rd stitch of chain, chain , miss and work double crochet in th stitch. rd row--chain , double crochet in top of double crochet of preceding row, chain , double crochet in top of double crochet, chain , double crochet in top of double crochet, chain , double crochet in top of double crochet, double crochet over chain of , double crochet in top of double crochet, chain, double crochet in top of double crochet, chain, double crochet in top of double crochet, chain , double crochet in nd stitch of chain of at the end; turn and repeat from nd row for length required. for the edge, work on both sides of the belt into every chain loop single crochet, picot single crochet. _rose tie with lawn facing_ (figure ). this bow has an under facing of lawn with a simple crochet edging of double crochet and chain stitch with picots, worked at even intervals. for the crochet tie: [illustration: fig. . rose tie with lawn facing] st row--work rose the same way as the one in the wheel tie. now crochet around the rose in this manner * chain , single crochet caught in the st double crochet of the rose petal, chain, double crochet in th stitch of petal, chain , double in th stitch of petal, chain; repeat from * five times more. nd row-- chain, single crochet in each previous group of chain, continue around entire rose. rd row-- chain single crochet in each preceding loop of chain. th row--* chain, double crochet in first space, chain, single crochet for next spaces, chain, then double crochet in th space; repeat from * twice more. th row--* chain, single crochet in st double crochet of group, chain, single crochet in th double, chain, single crochet in th double; repeat from * all around. for the next two rows work chain, single crochet in each previous group of chain. finish the edge with a row of chain and picot. work two sections like the one described and fasten together in the centre. sew this upon the lawn facing and the tie is complete. if the tie shows any tendency to cap in the course of construction add an extra chain in the group of chain stitches every now and then. _wheel tie with rose and straps with shamrock_ (figure .) wind padding cotton times around the crochet needle. over this ring work: st row-- double crochet. nd row--chain , miss double crochet, * in the third stitch, work double crochet, chain, miss double crochet repeat from * times. work a spider in the centre of the ring, with a needle and thread. [illustration: fig. . wheel tie with rose and straps with shamrocks] make of these wheels for the tie. join together with filling stitch ( chain and a single crochet). after working chains and a single crochet around the edge of the tie, work single crochet in first space, chain, single crochet in second space, chain * double crochet, chain in third space (catch back into second chain from needle to form a picot chain) repeat from * times more, chain , single crochet in next space, chain , single crochet in second space. continue in this manner all around tie. _for rose in centre of tie._ st row--chain , join in a ring. nd row--chain * double crochet into ring, ch double crochet, chain repeat from * twice more and join. rd row--over first chain work * single crochet, double crochet, single crochet; repeat from * times. th row--work a row of chain loops fastening at back of first row of single crochet (this is what helps to form the rose petals and makes them stand one above the other). th row--over these loops work * single crochet, double crochet, single crochet, repeat from * all around. th row--a row of chain loops. th row--into these loops work single crochet, double crochet, single crochet; this completes the rose. let me mention here that roses can be substituted for the shamrocks worn on the ends of the straps. _for straps._ work single crochet over a padding cord, join in a ring. work single crochet over padding cord, chain, single crochet, single crochet, over padding cord into the chain stitch. continue working single crochet, chain, single crochet over padding cotton and fastening each time in the chain stitch with a single crochet. one strap is inches long and the other is inches long. for the edge of straps work chain, double crochet, in first single crochet of previous row, chain, double crochet in rd stitch, chain count back chains and slip stitch (to form a picot) double crochet in th stitch, chain, double crochet in th stitch, chain, double crochet in th stitch. continue on both sides of straps. _for the shamrocks._ wind padding cotton over the end of crochet hook times. over this ring work single crochet. * over strands of padding cotton work single crochet. twist padding cotton in a downward loop and work single crochet over crossing of padding cotton, continue single crochet over the loop, draw padding cotton to pull loop up close and then work single crochet over padding cotton alone. miss single crochet on ring and work single crochet over padding cotton into next stitches of ring. turn, leave padding cotton, chain, single crochet into top of crossing loop, chain, single crochet into ring just before beginning of arch. turn, over chain work single crochet, double crochet, treble crochet. work treble crochet into single crochet over crossing of loop. continue over next chain, treble, double and single crochet. work single crochet over padding cotton into next single crochet on ring, repeat from * twice more leaving out the single crochet over padding cotton into the ring the last time. turn, work a row of single crochet over padding cotton. between petals take the needle out, insert in stitch half way between the petals, and pull loop through, this will give a better shape to the petals. then continue with single crochet. for stem work single crochet over padding cotton into ring. then single crochet over padding cotton alone, turn and work single crochet over padding cotton into the previous row of single crochet to the ring. to shape the stem to the right pull the padding cotton before working the second row of single crochet. _long jabot_ (figure ). over a padding cotton work single crochet, turn, and work down other side, single crochet over padding cotton into previous row of single crochet (leaving one-half of stem still to be worked). st arm--now twist the padding cotton under the stem, fasten with a slip stitch, over the loose padding cotton work double crochet, turn and work over padding cotton into each double crochet, trebles, fasten with a single crochet in the th single crochet of centre stem. nd arm--turn work over padding cotton, double crochet into double crochet of previous row. now work double crochet over padding cotton alone, turn and work treble crochet over padding cotton into the double crochet of previous row. fasten in th stitch, this completes the second arm. [illustration: fig. . long jabot] now work arms more in the same way, then finish the stem with single crochet over padding cotton into the other single crochet of stem. for the centre work over strand padding cotton double crochet and fasten into the single crochet which connects the arms to the stem, continue all around centre and fasten off. work chain, into these work double crochet with double on each end. continue working until there are rows of doubles. connect the leaf to this with slip stitch, baste on paper and work rows of the filling stitch all around. st row--for the edge, work chain loops into every loop of previous row. nd row--over chain loops work single crochet. rd row-- chain loops caught into every th single crochet. th row--into chain loops work single crochet, picot, single crochet, then into nd or next loop work single crochet, picot, single crochet, into loop work single crochet. chain turn and fasten in the th double crochet over nd loop, turn and over chain work double crochet, picot, double crochet, then into the rd loop finish with the other single crochet; repeat from * all around jabot. _baby irish lace, with rose leaf and grapes_ (figure ). _for roses._ chain . into chain work * double crochet, chain repeat from * for times more. into each group of chain work single crochet, double crochet, single crochet making seven petals to a rose. _for the leaves._ chain , join in a ring. over this ring work single crochet without breaking the thread, chain and form another to the right and a little above the other ring, work single crochet into this one also, again chain and form a ring to the left of the first ring, fill this ring with single crochet. _for grapes._ [illustration: fig. . baby irish-lace edging] chain , join. fill chain with single crochet, continue working around, widening as needed for rows. decrease by missing a stitch occasionally to shape grapes. just before finishing stuff with cotton, make grapes for each cluster and fasten into centre of leaf. baste all motifs on muslin and fill with background stitch. for edge of scallop work groups of chain caught down with a single crochet then * single crochet into first space, single crochet into next space, chain, turn, fasten into single crochet, turn, single crochet over chain, picot, single crochet, single crochet into same space, single crochet into next space, chain, turn, and catch down beside first loop, turn, single crochet over chain, chain turn, catch down in centre of first loop, turn, single crochet, picot, single crochet, into chain, single crochet into next loop, picot, single crochet, single crochet into next space and repeat from * all around edge of lace. _dutch collar_ (figure ). begin the rose with a small thick ring made by winding the padding cotton ten times around the end of the crochet needle. cover this ring with single crochet, cutting off the end of the padding cotton when the ring is three quarters covered. *chain , catch down into the ring; repeat from * more times, dividing the spaces as evenly as possible so the last chain is caught down beside the first one. over the chain loop work * single crochet double crochet, single crochet, repeat from * all around. *chain , catch down at back in the same stitch as that in which the chain loops of the preceding row was caught, repeat from * all around. over chain loop * single crochet, double crochet, double crochet. repeat from * all around. *chain catch down in back same place as before. repeat from * all around. *over chain loops work repeat from * single crochet, doubles, single crochet, this finishes the rose centre. *now begin the first row around the rose * chain picot, (catch back into third stitch) chain , picot, chains, catch down in first petal in outer row, repeat from * times more, spacing these picot loops evenly all around, catching the last one into the centre of the first. *next work one picot loop catching in into centre of loop of row below, then a loop of chains, repeat from * caught into centre of next picot loop. turn and over this loop work single crochet, turn, work double crochet over the single crochet chain, catch down into same stitch as the chain loop was caught. work rows of picot loops, then repeat from * all around finishing the row in the corner of the first double crochet ornament. th row--work a row of plain picot loops. th row--work a row of plain picot loops. th row--another row of plain picot loops. five roses are required for the collar. _for the wheels._ [illustration: fig. . an irish-lace dutch collar] over a padding cotton ring, work single crochet. over a single strand of the padding cotton crochet into every single crochet, a single crochet, work rows the same way only add a picot in every th single crochet in the last row. now begin the first row around the wheel * chain , catch into the last single crochet of the wheel, chain , picot, chain , chain , skip stitches of the wheel and catch down into the rd with a single crochet, repeat from * all around. next work picot loop, catching it into the centre of loop in row below, then a * loop of chain caught into centre of next picot loop. turn, and over this loop work single crochet, turn and work double crochet over the single crochet, chain stitch down into same stitch as the chain loop was caught. work more picot loops, then repeat from * all around finishing the row in the centre of the first ornament. work a row of plain picot loop. another row of plain picot loops. make four wheels for the collar. sew the roses and wheels firmly on the cambric pattern (the size and style having been cut out of the cambric). placing them so as to leave room for a single row of picot loops to be worked between to join them, crochet a chain of chain stitches and baste them upon the edge of the cambric pattern. fill the work out to the desired shape with the picot loops, which should contain the same number of chain stitches as the loops in the roses and wheels, chain, double crochet, chain, work a row all around collar, then begin the border or edge. work around the inner edge and fronts of collar single crochet into each loop, then around the lower edge * single crochet in the first space, single crochet in the second space, single crochet in the third space; chain down at the beginning of second space. over the loops thus formed make single crochet, picot, single crochet, single crochet into same (third) space, single crochet into next space. turn, chain catch down into next to the last loop, turn, single crochet over the loop, chain , turn, and catch down into centre of first loop. turn, single crochet, picot, single crochet over this last loop, single crochet into the next loop, picot, single crochet, repeat from * all around edge. take the collar up from the cambric and press upon the wrong side over a blanket or heavy flannel. xxx knitting, plain and purling, wash rags, and fancy stitches for shawls there are certain terms used in knitting that are peculiar to the work. until these terms are studied and practised, the instructions are as bad as trying to read a foreign language that you know nothing about. knitting is usually done on two needles though there are times when more needles are used, for instance, in knitting stockings. thread, silk or worsted can be used for the work. the latter is best for practising the first stitches or pieces. the first term we learn in knitting is "to cast on stitches" (figure ). select a pair of medium-sized wooden needles. your worsted should be wound into a ball. "casting on" is the foundation for the work. take a knitting needle in each hand between the thumb and first finger. make a loop of the worsted over the left-hand needle near the end. put your right-hand needle through this loop under the left needle. holding the needles in this position, throw the worsted around the point of the right-hand needle and draw the right-hand needle through the first loop. there is now a loop on each needle. slip the last loop made over the left needle. * both needles are in the one loop, the left on top of the right. again throw the worsted over the point of the right-hand needle and draw the needle through with the loop on it. slip this loop over the left-hand needle and repeat from *, till the number of stitches desired are cast on. [illustration: fig. . casting-on] the * indicates from which point the directions are to be repeated. the german method of knitting is to hold the work in the left hand and the worsted over the first finger, under the second and third and then over the little finger. to knit, the right-hand needle is in the first loop from the point of the other needle. * throw the worsted over point of the right-hand needle and draw it through the loop. slip the first stitch off the left needle and insert the right needle into the next stitch and repeat from *, till all the stitches have been transferred to the right-hand needle (figure ). [illustration: fig. . knitting (k)] remember to hold the work in the left hand when starting to knit each needle or row. [illustration: fig. . purling (p)] to purl (figure ). the work is held in the left hand. the worsted is brought in front of the work. the right-hand needle is inserted through the stitch from right to left in front of the left needle. pass the point of the right needle over the worsted and draw the loop through. slip off the stitch on the left needle as in knitting. repeat in this manner until all the stitches are transferred. sometimes it is necessary to get rid of some of the stitches. in that case the needle is slipped through two stitches instead of one and the new stitch formed in the usual way. there are two abbreviations for purling two together. they are p. tog. or p-n. the latter means purl narrow. when knitting, two stitches can also be taken together. the abbreviation for this is n. k. tog. means knit three stitches (sts) together as one stitch. to slip-stitch means to take a stitch from the left-hand to the right-hand needle without knitting it, and its abbreviation is sl. to bind or cast off means to slip the stitches from the needle so that you have a chain edge. slip the first stitch and knit the second. you now have two loops on the right-hand needle. * put the point of the left needle (from left to right) through the first stitch on the other needle. hold the worsted tight. slip the right-hand needle through the loop formed as described above and then slip the loop from the left needle. there is only one loop on the right-hand needle. knit the next stitch and repeat from *. casting off must be done loosely or the work will have a puckered appearance. [illustration: fig. . a little girl's first piece of knitting] it may be that you desire to widen the row of stitches. both widening and decreasing is done at the end of needle or row. knit as usual till there remains but one loop on the left-hand needle. insert the left-hand needle through the loop at the base of the last stitch. bring worsted around the point and make a stitch as usual. the last stitch is knitted in the usual way. after you have practised the stitches with wool, it is well to buy a ball of coarse knitting cotton and a pair of steel needles. the cotton makes excellent wash cloths. cast on stitches then knit or purl the same amount of rows as stitches. to make a fancy cloth knit three rows then purl three rows until you have the fifty rows. the long straight shawls are the most popular at present. a little one for yourself that would be quite pretty is made in pop corn stitch (figure ). it requires five skeins of worsted and a pair of wooden needles. [illustration: photograph by mary g. huntsman. her first knitted shawl] cast on stitches on your needle. st row--k st, then knit two stitches together ( k tog) the rest of the way. you now have stitches on your needle (figure ). nd row--k first stitch, then knit the loop which is formed between the double stitches of the first row. continue in this manner till you have again on the needle the same number you cast on-- . rd row--k plain all the way across. th row--p plain all the way across. th row--k together all the way across to the last stitch, then k that by itself. th row--same as second row. th row--k plain. th row--p plain. continue in this manner till you make a scarf about one yard long. [illustration: fig. . the popcorn stitch] the popcorn pattern affords good practice for the different stitches explained before. if a longer shawl is desired continue in the same manner. to make it broader it will be necessary to cast on more stitches at the beginning. a shawl may be finished in many ways. sometimes a little crochet edge is worked around it, or a chain stitch fringe can be made. the plain fringe is the one most used however. this is made by cutting the wool about ten inches long. take four lengths and slip them through and knot them into the border edge at each end of the shawl. this makes a fringe about five inches deep. [illustration: fig. . the basket stitch] the basket stitch makes a thick shawl (figure .) to make a wide shawl in this stitch skeins of germantown wool will be required. cast on stitches. st row--knit plain. nd row--* k , p , k , p , repeat from * to end of needle. rd row--* k , p , k , p , repeat from * to end of needle. th row--* k , p , k , p repeat from * to end of needle. th row--p the entire row. th row--* p , k , p , k , repeat from * to end of needle. th row--* p , k , p , k repeat from * to end of needle. th row--like th row. th row--p entire row. nine rows form the pattern, repeat from second row until you have a shawl two yards long. xxxi doll's cape, hood, leggings and jackets doll's cape. material-- fold saxony, steel knitting needles no. , steel crochet hook no. . commence with stitch. knit plain, increasing stitch beginning of each needle until there are stitches on needle. increase , knit stitches, bind off stitches, knit stitches. increase stitch beginning of needle, knit to end of row; turn, knit row plain. repeat until there are stitches on needle. now increase stitch at the neck and decrease stitch at end of row, row plain. repeat times more. knit plain without increasing at front and together at end of needle, until stitch is left on needle, fasten off. finish the right side same as left. crochet a row of holes for ribbon, chain, double all around. with blue yarn crochet row, chain, single. _doll's jacket_ (figure ). material-- fold saxony, steel knitting needles no. , steel knitting needles no. , steel crochet hook no. . [illustration: fig. . doll's knitted cape] [illustration: fig. . doll's knitted jacket] cast on steel needles no. , stitches, plain purl for rows, knit stitches; turn. take another needle, knit the stitches for rows with no. needles knit plain for yoke, decreasing stitch at the neck until there are stitches on needle, knit plain until there are ridges, bind off. from the stitches left on needle, knit stitches for rows; bind off. finish left front same as right. sleeves--cast on steel needles no. , stitches. knit plain for ridges. with steel needles no. knit plain, purl for rows. bind off stitches beginning of each needle until stitches are left on needle; bind off. sew up seam and shoulder seams. crochet a row of holes around neck for ribbon, chain, double. with blue yarn crochet one row, chain, single all around. _doll's cap_ (figure ). material-- fold saxony, steel knitting needles no. , steel knitting needles no. , steel crochet hook no. . with blue yarn cast on no. steel needles stitches. knit plain for ridges. with white yarn and no. needles, plain, purl for rows. [illustration: fig. . doll's cap] crown--knit stitches, knit together; turn, knit stitches, knit together. repeat until all side stitches have been worked up and the crown is complete. then pick up stitches on both ends, first on one side; turn, knit them plain, also the crown stitches, then pick up the stitches on that side and knit them. make a row of holes for ribbon, yarn over needle twice, then knit together to end of row. row plain, knitting only of the stitches cast on. with blue yarn crochet row, chain, single. _doll's leggings_ (figure ). material-- fold saxony, steel knitting needles no. , steel crochet hook no. . cast on stitches. plain, purl for rows. decrease beginning and end of needle. knit for five rows. decrease continuously stitch beginning and end of needle every th row, until there are stitches on needle. knit for rows. bind off stitches, knit , take another thread, bind off the remaining stitches. knit the stitches for rows. decrease beginning and end of each needle, until there are stitches on needle. bind off and sew up seam. with blue yarn crochet chain, single around top of legging. [illustration: fig. . a doll's legging] _infant's knitted bootees_ (figure ). material-- skeins white wool, skein pink or blue, pair knitting needles no. . st row--cast on stitches in coloured wool. nd row--knit plain to the end of row. rd row--slip , make , knit , make , knit , make , knit , make , knit . th row--knit plain to the end of row. th row--slip , make , knit , make , knit , make , knit , knit , make , knit . th row--knit plain to end of row. th row--slip , make , knit , make , knit , make , knit , make , knit . th row--knit plain to the end of row. th row--slip , make , knit , make , knit , make , knit , make , knit . [illustration: fig. . infant's knitted bootee] th row--knit plain to end of row. th row--slip , knit , make , knit , make , knit . th row--knit plain to end of row. th row--slip , knit , make , knit , make , knit . th row--knit plain to end of row. th row--slip , knit , make , knit , make , knit . th row--knit plain to end of row. you must now have stitches on your needle. knit now plain rows then knit stitches, now knit together. turn your needles and continue this until you have stitches on each side of needle. you must now tie on the white wool then knit plain, then knit together as above, you are beginning now to make the part that forms the little sock. knit together times, turn your needle, knit , pick up the stitch that you will see between the two stitches that you have knitted, two together, next row knit plain. next row purl , then you have four rows complete. commence together again times continue this until you have pattern rows. always remember to take stitches together after you have knitted the stitches. there should be stitches on each side needle. tie on the coloured wool again and knit plain to end. knit row plain then make , knit together to the end of row. then make , pick up the stitch already explained. tie on white wool, knit row plain. begin the pattern again by knitting together. remember you must always begin a row on the right side of the bootee. do rows of the pattern, then rows ribbed. rib is to knit plain rows and purl rows. after knitting rows cast off on the right side and sew the bootee up neatly at the back and run some ribbon in to finish it off. _a warm hood for the baby_ (figure ). this hood requires an ounce and a half of shetland wool and one pair of fine bone needles no. . cast on stitches, knit rows or three ridges plain. second row--knit one * wool over needle twice, knit together, repeat from *. knit more rows plain. cast on stitches at one end and knit back and cast on more at the other. knit on these stitches that are on the needle for more rows. now start a new pattern by knitting for the edge * wool over, slip the next stitch on the right-hand needle, knit the next two, pass the slipped stitches over these two. note the two loops remain on the right-hand needle and the wool cast over. there knit from * to the end of row, knitting last stitch plain, purl back. repeat these rows times. cast off the and stitches at the end. knit on the original stitches for rows. [illustration: fig. . a knitted hood] next row--knit * wool across the needle twice, knit together, repeat from *. knit rows. cast off. your knitting is now finished and somewhat in the shape of a cross. join the x's to the x's on the wrong side. sew right up to the corner. join the dashes to the dashes, the o's to the o's, the diamonds to the diamonds in like manner (figure ). you will have a piece of knitting that looks like a box cover. turn it so the wrong side is in the right position. fold the backs over the other so that the rows of holes correspond. sew along the bottom edge. turn back a little corner from the plain knitting and sew it down. run a ribbon through the holes and tie in a bow in front. [illustration: fig. . diagram of hood] _knitted vest for baby._ materials required, oz. of shetland wool, a pair of bone knitting needles no. and yds. of ribbon. cast on stitches. st row--knit plain. nd row--knit purl all the way across. continue knitting and ribs for inches. to form the armholes work backward and forward on the st stitches for two and three quarter inches. cast off all but stitches for the shoulder strap. work rows on these stitches and cast off. for back--continue from where you divide it for the armhole for stitches leaving for the second front. work two and a quarter inches on the stitches. cast off. make second front the same as first. sew up on shoulders. a pretty little crochet edge around the neck and armhole will complete this comfortable little vest. a simple crochet edge is made by working one double crochet, * chain, double crochet in first chain, miss stitches, double crochet, repeat from * sew the two small pieces of ribbon that have been cut in half to the vest. tie in a bow. the bows hold the little garment together. _pine pattern lace._ cast on stitches and knit across plain. st row--slip , knit together, make , knit together, knit , knit together, make , knit together, knit , make , knit together, make (thread four times round needle) knit together, knit together, make , knit together. nd row--knit plain, but work twice (knit and purl ) in each of these make loops. in the nd row work times (knit , purl , knit , purl , knit , purl ,) all in the made stitches. rd row--slip , knit together, * make , knit together, knit , knit together, make , knit together; repeat from * once, knit , make , decrease (by working slip , knit together, draw the slipped stitch over), knit , decrease , make , knit together. th row--the same as second row. th row--slip , * knit together, make , knit together, knit , repeat from * three times, knit , make , decrease , knit , decrease , make , knit together. th row--the same as second row. th row--slip , knit together, make , knit together, knit , knit together, make , decrease , make , knit together, knit , knit together, make , knit together, knit , make , knit together, knit together, draw the first two together; stitch over the second thus decreasing again, decrease , make , knit together. th row--the same as second row. th row--slip , knit together, make , knit together, knit , knit together, knit , knit together, make , knit together, knit , make , decrease , make , knit together. th row--knit together, drop the second loop of the "make ," knit , draw the first stitch on the right-hand needle over the knitted one, thus decreasing again; knit , purl , knit , purl , knit , purl , knit . repeat from first row. xxxii embroidery suggestions for boarding school girl a girl who has to make a home of her boarding school should try and make her room and little personal articles as attractive as possible. her room is her citadel where only her bosom friends and cronies meet. one likes to feel when they enter their room that it is a place where everything is hers and every object in sight means something to her. a girl might not like to embroider, yet there are hundreds of things that can be done without any needlework decoration, such as stencilling, cut leather or simple appliqué. it always amused me to hear a girl say, "i don't like to embroider." i always feel like asking her, if we are acquainted, if she knows how to embroider. you will find that in nine cases out of ten she does not. embroidery is like anything else, you have got to know it to like it. it may be you prefer one branch to others. some branches of this work may be tedious to you but when you stop and think what simple things are classed under embroidery you will find that you have a wide field from which to select. it is not my object to go into details in regard to stitchery in this chapter but rather to give you some helpful suggestions in regard to knowing what to make and what colours to use. the stitches to be used are fully described in the previous chapters. the first thing to consider is, are you going to have a bedstead or a couch in your room? make it the latter unless you have a broad window seat that you can heap up with pillows. no room at a boarding school or college is complete without a half a dozen pretty pillows. when the chairs give out you can use the cushions, japanese fashion, on the floor. some girls like to carry their whole room out in cretonne, which is very pretty and dainty if you can afford it. cretonne covers last about a year and then they get faded and dusty, while a linen background embroidered will last for many years. it may need laundering but it will stand any amount of that. if the embroidery fades a little that also is no drawback as it takes the effect of newness from the room. a room ought to look as if people lived in it and enjoyed it and not as if it were an exhibition room in some department store. don't think i am trying to encourage untidiness but let the things be used and enjoyed. when i was about your age for several weeks i spent my spare time embroidering a centre piece for my auntie's dining room table taking care to get just the right colours that would look well with her every day china. it nearly broke my heart when it was finished to have her use it only for state occasions. if my cousins do not use it any more than auntie did it will last for hundreds of years, or be thrown into the rag bag by the next generations if they don't like it. enjoy all the pretty things that you possess if they are appropriate for the use you intend them for. have you ever heard the story of the little dirty boy of the slums who was given a new white tie by his teacher? he had first to wash his hands before he touched it and then he washed himself to wear it and asked his mother for a clean shirt so that everything would go with the tie? do you know that if you have one beautiful thing in your room of which you are very proud you too will see that all the things around it set off its beauty? for the girl who has a window seat in a room and wants to keep her room dainty and bright there is nothing as pretty as the lingerie pillow. it may be made of heavy white linen or lawn as you desire and can be oblong, round or square. the cushion is covered in any colour that you prefer and the white top embroidered with large eyelets, roman cut work, hardanger or drawn work so that the colour will appear through the openings. some of the handsomest imported pillows have motifs of real filet, irish crochet or cluny lace. these motifs are very expensive and not really necessary. the back and front of the linen cover are scalloped on the edges and half an inch above this scalloping a row of large eyelets is worked at intervals. the back and front are laced together with ribbons the same shade as the coloured covering. for a pink and blue room the cushion can be covered with pink and the lingerie slip laced with blue. for a square pillow plan the design on a square and arrange one in each corner and one in the direct centre. these slips will require frequent laundering. the lithographed pillow is a thing to be avoided by a girl of refined taste. you would not hang lithograph posters in your bedroom so why feel that it is all right to buy a lithograph pillow? the chief point to remember in getting little accessories for your room is to keep the colouring as harmonious as possible. avoid getting the popular things of to-day which are apt to be an eyesore to you to-morrow. do not decide quickly to carry out your room in school colours, there will probably be a dozen of the girls who will do this very thing and you will be tired of it before your course is through. a fraternity pillow is to be expected as there are dozens of ways that it may be treated and look quite different from the other girls' pillows. the general way in which a school or fraternity pillow is made is to cut out of felt the letters, figures and any design that is to be placed on it. the background may be broadcloth, ladies' cloth or felt. use one of the school or fraternity colours for the appliqué and the other for the background. one of the handsomest fraternity pillows i ever saw, was one belonging to a hamilton college man. hamilton's colours are buff and bright deep blue. the fraternity's colours were black and gold. a handsome piece of hamilton blue broadcloth was selected for the background. the fraternity pin was reproduced in colour in fine filo silk. the gold silk was a perfect match to the gold in the pin. even the background of the pin, which was black enamel, was represented by very fine kensington stitches. the rope-like edge of the pin was reproduced on the pillow by little rope-like sections heavily padded and worked in gold silk. on the back of the pillow were his initial and his class year below. no beruffled ribbons or gaudy cord detracted from its richness. it was a square cushion and its only finish was a large button in each corner where the end was gathered and tucked in to give a round effect. the school girl of to-day is learning to eliminate the unnecessary trumpery things that cheapen the room and serve as dust gatherers. outside of the pillow, bed or table covers and an occasional bag for fancy work, laundry or gloves there is no ornate display of handwork. even the walls are left bare with the exception of a framed print or a few family photographs. try if possible and see if you can get a plain paper for your wall. more than one really charming room is spoiled by having an atrocious paper on it. it is really impossible to try to be artistic with an ugly wall paper. since stencilling has become so popular, it is not an uncommon thing to have the entire room stencilled. suppose you had planned to have your room in lilac, green and light gray. white can be substituted for the gray but it soils more readily than the latter. the floor should be polished and a couple of small rugs or one larger one be used on the floor. the lilac shade should predominate in the rug. the covers should be of the gray or white with a stencilled design in green and lilac. a pretty way to treat the pillow is to get inexpensive lilac material of a coarse texture. cut a square about fourteen or fifteen inches. cut four strips of white or gray five inches wide by twenty-five inches long. these strips should be finer than the lilac or of a different weave. baste one strip on each side of the lilac square. mitre the strips at the corners. a design is then stencilled on the four strips in lilac and green. the backing of the pillow should be in plain lilac. if preferred a striped lilac and white piece of material can be used for the centre and back. for the girl who is fond of initials or monograms i would suggest that the cover be hemstitched and a wreath selected in different sizes appropriate to the article on which it is to be used. these wreaths can be carried out in colour or the background may be coloured and the wreaths white. inside of the wreath work your monogram or initial. if you desire a dutch room, carry out this scheme in delft blue material and have a dark set of mission furniture. nile green linen with wreaths of conventionalized rosebuds or daisies, worked in shades of pink, or white and yellow, suggests a french room, with a brass bedstead. as i have stated in the chapter on initials, the stem stitch is pretty for working single lines of a design that is carried out in satin-stitch. stem stitch is too slow a method however to embroider school linens, and i would suggest using a substitute that has the effect and yet does not require the time. a row of outlining is made, and then turn the work back in the same manner, this time instead of working through the material, catch the places where the two successive stitches of the first row overlap (figure .) another wrinkle you might be glad to hear of and possibly want to put in practice is how to clean a daintily embroidered piece without washing it, such as a pincushion or pillow top. school is not like home where you can be sure a piece sent to the laundry will have proper attention. another drawback is that all extras have to be well paid for. if the piece is thickly covered with white talcum powder and allowed to stand without disturbing it for forty-eight hours, the embroidery will emerge almost as clean as if it had been laundered. [illustration: fig. . a substitute for stem stitch] now then there are the curtains for your room. you may be fortunate enough to have a room with dainty dotted swiss or dimity curtains that will go very nicely with the things you are planning and then again you may be inflicted with a pair of cheap imitation lace curtains. if you can possibly afford it change them as soon as possible. personally i would rather have no curtains than the wrong ones. dimity, dotted swiss, scrim, plain net or grass linen are materials that are inexpensive as well as artistic. of course you can make them as fancy as you wish. any of the above mentioned materials can be stencilled. rick-rack braid, which is a wavy braid, can be used to edge the net curtains or a connemara lace design is also appropriate. a narrow crochet edge can be used on the edge of the scrim curtains or a narrow border of drawn work can be used. shadow work is effective on dimity or dotted swiss curtains. another pretty stitch very similar to the shadow stitch is the skeleton stitch. instead of the work being on the wrong side it all appears on the right. work a row of very fine running stitches on the right side. fagot stitch from side to side catching the thread into the running stitches. the work is done from the centre of the flower to the tip of the petal. do not end your thread but weave over and under the fagotting stitch to the end of the petal, leaf or space on which you are working. the curtains may be sash lengths or may be the full length of the window but do not make them longer than to reach the sill. [illustration] the country life press garden city, n. y. * * * * * transcriber's notes: italic text is denoted by _underscores_ and bold text by =equal signs=. obvious punctuation errors repaired. obvious typos and errors repaired: maderia -> madeira bottonholed -> buttonholed pading -> padding diferent -> different faggotting -> fagotting neccessary -> necessary separarely -> separately woolen -> woollen it is not necessary to to work -> it is not necessary to work about an an inch -> about an inch hyphenation is inconsistent and has been left in that state where there was a balance of with and without spellings e.g. chain-stitching and chainstitching, handwork and hand-work and over-cast and overcast. transcriber's note: this book is a summary and index to a series of books that can also be found in the project gutenberg collection. details of these books can be found in the notes at the end of this volume. the library of work and play guide and index the library of work and play carpentry and woodwork by edwin w. foster electricity and its everyday uses by john f. woodhull, ph.d. gardening and farming by ellen eddy shaw home decoration by charles franklin warner, sc.d. housekeeping by elizabeth hale gilman mechanics, indoors and out by fred t. hodgson. needlecraft by effie archer archer outdoor sports, and games by claude h. miller, ph.b. outdoor work by mary rogers miller working in metals by charles conrad sleffel. [illustration: wireless station and workroom of george riches, montclair, n. j. george made most of the apparatus at home or in the school shop] _the library of work and play_ guide and index by cheshire l. boone [illustration] garden city new york doubleday, page & company all rights reserved, including that of translation into foreign languages, including the scandinavian copyright, , by doubleday, page & company the country life press, garden city, n. y. contents chapter page i. significance of the crafts in the life of a people ii. the cultivation of taste and design iii. the real girl iv. that boy v. a house and lot--especially the lot vi. vacations, athletics, scouting, camping, photography index list of illustrations wireless station and workroom of george riches _frontispiece_ facing page an example of furniture such as boys like clay pots made for germination experiments the work of children between ten and eleven years of age two examples of furniture grouping for the porch or outdoors the numerous photographs suggest disorder and dust an interesting curtain which might be duplicated by any girl since flowers are so beautiful in themselves, is it not worth while to arrange them with judgment? a school garden in jordan harbour, ontario, can. domestic science class the work of girls in the public schools a children's garden gives fresh air and sunshine all children love to play at being "grown up" girls must sometime learn of the conventions and customs of domestic arrangement a boys' camp with ernest thompson seton the play idea very soon grows toward the representation of primitive though adult customs and actions a typical boy's workroom and shop the kind of shop which one may have at home the kite fever is an annual disease pump and waterwheel boat made by percy wilson and donald mather these are the forerunners of numerous other electrical constructions a real derrick in miniature waterwheels and fan a self-recording telegraph receiver wireless station and workroom of donald huxom an electrical soldering iron and glue-pot waterwheel connected with model lathe excellent examples of high school work a manual training shop the machine shop the study of aeroplane construction a successful machine finished aeroplanes the boy who does not love to camp is unique this and other illustrations of homes, show such places as people make when they care about appearance even the most beautiful house must have a background one should build a house as one builds a reputation trees, shrubbery and lawn form the frame of the picture there was a time not long since, when people built houses according to style a school garden the watchung school garden there is a fascination about raising animals whether for sale or as pets two more illustrations which will suggest plans for the future every child, and especially the boy, needs active outdoor exercise organized play (woodcraft) under ernest thompson seton more woodcraft. has the boy had a chance at this kind of experience? even the technical process of photography has been reduced to popular terms in these days photography has become so simplified that every child can use a camera to advantage the library of work and play guide and index [illustration] chapter i significance of the crafts in the life of a people there was never a time in the history of the world when each race, each nation, each community unit, each family almost, did not possess its craftsmen and artists. in every instance, these so-called gifted members were by no means the least important citizens; their names appeared again and again in the stream of tradition as wonder workers and idols of the people. this is still true in the very midst of a materialistic age, when money and mechanics work hand in hand to produce the most in the least time for economic reasons, and when the individual worships "hand-made things." they may even be poorly made or bizarre, but "handwork" satisfies the untutored. now it is quite possible for the machine to produce a bit of jewelry, textile, or woodwork--even carving--quite as pleasing as any made by hand alone, and it is being done every day. but the machine-made article must be produced in large quantities (duplicates) for profit, whereas the work of hand alone is unique. there lies the reason for reverence of "handwork." it is always individual and characteristic of the workman in style or technique and has no duplicate; it is aristocratic. among the primitives, the pot, necklace, or utensil was wrought by infinite labor, and, being valuable because unique, was embellished with all the wealth of current symbolism. it was preserved with care and became more valuable to succeeding generations as a tangible record of race culture and ideals. and so down to the present time, the handiwork of the craftsman and skilled artisan has always stood as the one imperishable record of racial development. the degree of finish, the intricacy of design and nicety of construction are evidences of skill and fine tools, well-organized processes, familiarity with material and careful apprenticeship: the pattern, color, ornament, and symbolism point to culture, learning, and standards of taste and beauty. a crude domestic economy, rude utensils, coarse, garish costume and of simple construction, are characteristic of an undeveloped social order. in fact, all the arts of both construction and expression exhibit at a given period the degree of civilization; art products are true historical documents. since then through their arts and crafts it is possible for one to know a people, does it not follow that one entrance to sympathy with the ideals and taste of the present time is through practice in the arts? of course a considerable mass of information about them can be conveyed in words, especially to adults who have passed the formative period in life and have not the same _work_-incentive as have children. but even the adult never really secretes much real knowledge of the arts unless he has worked in them. he acquires rather a veneer or artistic polish which readily loses its lustre in even a moderately critical atmosphere: he learns artistry and the laws pertaining thereto as he would learn the length of the brooklyn bridge or the population of el paso. he merely learns to talk about art. but children learn primarily and solely by _doing_, and the foundations of taste and culture need to be put down early that they may build upon them the best possible superstructure which time and opportunity permit. [illustration: copyright, , by cheshire l. boone an example of furniture such as boys like and which they can make under direction] [illustration: copyright, , by cheshire l. boone clay pots made for germination experiments in grade iv. of the public school. the boys of this grade built a small kiln in which these pots were fired] [illustration: the work of children between ten and eleven years of age] the foregoing paragraphs will perhaps have opened the way for questions: "what kind of knowledge is of most worth? why do children--practically all of them--try to make things, and what is their choice?" and when these queries have been answered so far as may be, do the answers possess immediate value? at the outset it will be evident that no sort of knowledge will be of much avail until it is put in such form that the student can use it to advantage. mere knowledge of any kind is inherently static--inert and often seemingly indigestible, like green fruit and raw meat. one too frequently meets college graduates, both men and women, equipped with so-called education, who are economic failures. these people are full of information, well up to date, but they seemingly cannot use it. their assortment of knowledge is apparently in odd mental sizes which do not fit the machinery of practical thinking as applied to life: it is like gold on a desert isle. what the boy and girl need and desire is ( ) a favorable introduction to the sources of information, and ( ) the key to its use. they will have to be shown simple facts and truths, and have their mental relations and importance explained. by gradually introducing new knowledge as occasion offers, the field of study is sufficiently widened. children profit little by books and tools alone: they crave encouragement and some direct constructive criticism. in such an atmosphere their endeavors become significant and profitable, and the accumulated learning will be applied to business or economic ideas which result in progressive thinking, which uses information as a _tool_, not an end in itself. if then the arts of a people stand as monuments to its beliefs and ideals, an intimate understanding of some of the arts ought to be provided for in every scheme of education both at home and in school. the child is by nature interested in the attributes of things associated with his life and upbringing. he wants to know about them, how they are made, and learn their uses by means of experiment. the elements of science, mechanics and natural phenomena, business and household art, and finally play (which is often adult living in miniature)--these comprise a large portion of the subject matter which is of prime importance to children. it is just such material as this which bids fair to serve in the future as the basis for public school curricula, simply because of its strong appeal to youth and its potential worth in forming the adult. the boy makes a kite, a telegraph outfit, or sled in order to give to his play a vestige of realism. he seeks to mold the physical world to personal desires, as men do. incidentally he taps the general mass of scientific facts or data and extracts therefrom no small amount of very real, fruitful information. the result possesses marvelously suggestive and lasting qualities because it came through effort; because the boy wanted above all things to see his machine or toy _work_, _move_, or obey his guiding hand, he was willing to dig for the necessary understanding of the problem. his study brought about contact with numerous other lines of work which were not at the time, perhaps, germain to the subject, but were suggestive and opened various side lines of experiment to be considered later. therein lies the lure of mechanics and craft work, gardening, outdoor projects, camping, etc.: the subject is never exhausted, the student can never "touch bottom." there is always an unexplored path to follow up. the intensity of interest in mechanical things and in nature is the one influence which can hold the boy in line. turn him loose among mechanical things where nicety of fitting and accurate workmanship are essential and he appreciates construction immediately, because it is clear that _workmanship_ and _efficiency_ go hand in hand. it is very much the same with the girl: she may not enjoy the tedium of mere sewing, but when the sewing serves a personal end, when sewing is essential to her greatest needs, these conditions provide the only, inevitable, sure stimulus to ambition and effort. the school of the past, and often that of the present, has sought to produce the adult by fertilizing the child with arithmetic, grammar, geography, and language. the process resulted in all kinds of crooked, stunted, oblique growth, the greatest assortment of "sports" (to use a horticultural term) the world has ever seen. it isn't intellectual food the child needs most (though some is very necessary); the real need is intensive cultivation. within himself he possesses, like the young plant, great potential strength and virility, enough to produce a splendid being absolutely at one with his time and surroundings; he simply requires the chance to use the knowledge and opportunities which lie at hand. it is, then, the common subjects of every-day interest--science, business, nature and the like--which are the sources of knowledge which has greatest worth to children.[a] they are the valuable ones because they are of the type which first attracts and holds the child's attention; they are concrete. through them one may learn language and expression, because one has something worth saying. the second question, "why do children like to make things and what is their choice?" in the light of what has been said practically answers itself. children work primarily in response to that law of nature which urges the young to exercise their muscles, to become skilful and accurate in movement, for the sake of self-preservation and survival. it is another phase of the same law which makes one carry out in work, in concrete form, the ideas which come tumbling in from all conceivable sources. the child can only think and learn in terms of material things. finally, the child's interests, the things he desires to make and do, are such as will minister to his individual or social needs, his play and imitation, and such as will satisfy his desire to produce articles of purpose. the need may be a temporary, minor one, but every child is stubborn on this one point, that everything he does must lead to utility of a sort; through such working with a purpose he in time rises to an appreciation of beauty and other abstract qualities. now this complex condition of child and school and society, in which there is seemingly so much waste--"lost motion"--has always existed; the facts are not new ones by any means. it is a condition where the child is always curious, inquisitive and ready to "hook a ride" on the march of business, science and learning, but the school sternly commands "learn these stated facts because they are fundamental" (philosophically), while society, represented by the parent, alternately abuses the school, which is collectively his own institution, or spoils the child by withholding the tools for learning easily. in the meantime the child, with the native adaptability and hardiness of true need, thrives in barren, untoward surroundings, and matures notwithstanding. in other words, the school and society have always tended toward misunderstanding--toward a lack of mutual interest. in this period of uncertainty, of educational groping, the child is found in his leisure hours pushing along the paths which connect most directly with life and action, shunning the beaten but roundabout highways of custom and conservatism. the deductions are evident and clear-cut. if one accepts the foregoing statement of the case, and there is ample evidence in any community of size, it will be clear that certain definite opportunities should be opened to the boy or girl to make the most of native talent and enthusiasm. encourage the young business adventurer or artisan to make the most of his chosen hobby (and to choose a hobby if he has not one already), to systematize it, develop it, make it financially profitable if that is the desire; but first, last and all the time to make it a study which is intensive enough to satisfy his or her productive ambitions. at this age (up to the high school period) the boy or girl may not have been able to decide upon a profession or business, but he is working toward decision, and he is the only one who can choose. instead of trying to select an occupation for him, father and mother would do well to put the child at the mercy of his own resources for amusement, recreation and business, merely lending a hand now and then in their full development. it will preserve the freshness of youth beyond the ordinary time of its absorption by a blasé attitude toward the world, and lead toward a more healthy and critical kind of study than the haphazard lonesomeness, or the destructive gang spirit of the modern community.[b] perhaps it would not be amiss to indicate just how this unofficial study may be promoted, and to name the resources of the parent for the purpose. first of all, nine children out of ten will definitely choose a hobby or recreation or indicate some preference, as photography, animal pets, woodwork, electricity, drawing, sport, one or more of the domestic arts, collecting coins, stamps, etc.; there are as many tastes as children. the child may get his suggestion from the school or companions. any legitimate taste should be actively encouraged and supplemented by books which really explain and by tools and materials with which to use the books. if it is a shop he wants, try to give him the use of some corner for the specific purpose so that the occupation may be dignified according to its juvenile worth. second, endeavor to emphasize the economic and social significance of the work done and urge right along some definite aim. if a boy wants a shop, or pets, see that they are kept in condition, attended to, and if possible give some measure of tangible return on the outlay of money and energy. third, connect the boy's or girl's chosen avocation with real living in every possible manner. girls are rather fond of those decorative arts which contribute to artistic pleasure, and should they make experiments with stenciling, block-printing, and the like, have them use them also in embellishing their own rooms, the summer camp or club. fourth, make the child feel that a given hobby is not to be satisfied for the mere asking. put some limit on the money expenditure until it is clear that the interest is genuine and honest, and that the child is either producing results which are sincere, or acquiring real knowledge. fifth and last, but perhaps most important of all, support the school in its effort to solve the problem of formal education, because the heavy burden rests there. it is quite essential that the home give the boy and girl every possible chance to develop along original and specific lines at their own pace, to experiment with the world's activities in miniature, and establish the probable trend of individual effort for the future. but this can only supplement and point the way for the formal training which the institution (school) gives. the school, being democratic and dependent upon the general public for existence, takes its cue therefrom, and creating ideals in consonance with public needs perfects the method of reaching them. when father and mother believe in a vigorous, efficient education, rooted deeply in the child's fundamental attitude toward the world and its affairs, then will the public approve and urge the proper kind of organized training. even so, the school cannot really educate the child--he educates himself through the agents aforementioned--it simply organizes information and gives the pupil access to methods of using facts and ideas. in closing this chapter there is one more word to be said concerning the main theme. the arts and crafts[c] of expression and construction fulfil that precise function in the child's preliminary training which they did in the early history of the race. they indicate just that degree of manual skill and constructive ability of which both the youthful individual and the young race are capable; they serve as indices and guides to the development of design, taste and constructive thinking. as the child matures he may elevate a given craft to an art or science, but the early familiarity, the simple processes, he should have, because they are essential to childhood. hence, the large amount of handwork in the kindergarten and primary school; it is the necessary complement to academic work and balances the educational diet. footnotes: [a] for the elaboration of this question as it concerns girls see chapter iv. [b] both boys and girls have clubs, societies and organizations, which are useless, enervating or merely harmless when they exist without purpose. if, on the other hand, the aggregate energy can be collected into profitable channels, these same gangs or societies are a real source of education and training. any organization without consistent, sustained purpose is a waste of social energy. baseball is worth while, but the merits of high school fraternities are doubtful. [c] it will be evident that the term _crafts_ as here used is a more comprehensive term than when employed in connection with the arts and crafts furore of the past few years. any kind of manual occupation may be a craft; if it involves a measure of art and science it may become more than a craft. but with children the craft stage, which is characteristic, includes many occupations which may not even be true crafts as the term is ordinarily used. chapter ii the cultivation of taste and design it will be evident to the thinking man or woman that art or any phase of it is not to be taught successfully as a profession through books. the very most that one can expect from reading is a knowledge about art matters and acquaintance with the conventions and rules which obtain therein. but even this slight result may be the precursor of a fuller, more intimate familiarity with the principles of good taste and design. one may be able to say "that is a beautiful room" or "a fine garden" or "a charming gown" and yet be unable to produce any such things. how is it possible then to _know_ if one cannot _do_? the answer is that, _potentially_, every individual who really sees and appreciates beauty can produce it through some form of artistic expression; the power to execute and the power of invention are merely undeveloped. and as for the artist or craftsman who can make beautiful things, but who cannot explain how he does it--he is unique, like the mathematical genius; he just sees the answer; it is a gift. though there are born in every generation a few with the divine spark of genius, the mass of men and women has always learned by effort. in other words, it has been possible to _teach_ the subjects which were found necessary to culture and education; it is quite possible to present the ordinary phases of art to the lay mind in such a way, even through books, that one may have worthy ideals, and a healthy point of view. the present chapter will be devoted to showing how books such as these[d] for boys and girls can contribute to the development of taste. frankly, taste has much less to do with fine art than with the arrangement and choice of the ordinary externals of living. of course fine art does in the last analysis pass judgment upon form, color and design in clothes, furnishings and architecture, but the common home variety of taste is derived directly from custom, comfort, and convention, not from art at all. only in the later stages of refinement does the lay mind succumb to direct supervision by art. on the other hand, all conventions and ideals are the result or sum total of general experience, in which art has played its part, and has left some impress on the individual, giving rise to belief in a few principles so common as to be accepted by all. principles of this kind are not always serviceable or effective, because they are not stated in precise language, and cannot therefore become standard. in truth, so far as design is concerned, there are very few absolute rules for guidance, and a book like "home decoration" cannot tell the child or parent how to make a beautiful, inspiring home. its mission is to create the desire for fine surroundings, to suggest ways and means for studying design, especially those phases of decoration associated with the crafts, and above all such a book invites and helps to maintain a _receptive attitude_ of mind toward artistic matters. in the effort to produce work of merit, one becomes critical, and seeks reasons and precedents for judgment. this is the beginning of design study: and the fact that one has real interest in taste is indicative of the desire of the cultured mind for ideals. if a child is allowed to grow up in the "i know what i like" atmosphere, without reasonable contact with choice things, and without the necessity for selection based upon reason, there is small chance that such a child will ever acquire any sense of fitness or taste in material surroundings. [illustration: two examples of furniture grouping for the porch or outdoors. these few pieces suggest comfort, cleanliness and moderate expense] [illustration: the numerous photographs in the upper illustration suggest disorder and dust. they do not decorate. sometimes a lack of small, insignificant objects like these is the secret of successful decoration] the aims of all practical books for boys and girls may be summarized about as follows: (_a_) to absorb the overflow of youthful energy and turn it into profitable channels. (_b_) to develop organized thinking and accomplishment, and eliminate wasted, aimless, non-productive action. this is the complement to the routine of formal training in academic subjects, which are in themselves, normally un-useful. (_c_) to explore the field of accomplishment in order to select intelligently a future occupation. (_d_) to develop and foster standards and ideals of efficiency, comfort, enjoyment, beauty and social worth. this last purpose includes taste and is the one of concern here. the peculiar æsthetic standards which interest young people are of the most practical kind. they apply every day and to everybody. and they are fundamental. the illustrations given below will indicate the common-sense way in which design should be approached: _color._ the tones of the color scale have not yet been systematized so well as those of music, but each year students of design and artists move a little toward agreement. now, suppose one wishes to use two or more tones in a room, how may harmonious effect be secured? the very word "harmony" means _agreement_, and suggests _similarity_, _likeness_, _relationship_. therefore the tones one would use in the embellishment of a room should possess some common _quality_ for the harmonizing element. each tone having that quality as characteristic is similar in that one respect to all other tones having the same quality. hence they are related in a way. the relation may be made strong or weak by the manipulation of the bond which holds the tones together. for instance: red and green are not related at all. by mixing gray with each, red and green become related through gray. by mixing yellow, orange or blue, etc., with red and green, the relationship may be established in the same way. yellow and green have a common quality--_yellow_, and in so far tend toward harmony. but it may not be a pleasing one, and it will be necessary to bring them still closer together by introducing other bonds, as gray or a color. yellow is very light and green is dark: they will work together better if brought nearer together in value. [illustration: an interesting curtain which might be duplicated by almost any girl--if she wanted curtains] [illustration: since flowers are so beautiful in themselves, is it not worth while to arrange them with judgment?] it is by such simple means that all color combinations are brought into line and rendered satisfactory. no rule can be given for mixing or choosing the actual colors, but it is a safe rule to select those of a kind in some respect. the popular belief in low-toned (grayed) color schemes is a sound one, and the principle can be used very comfortably by the amateur decorator in furnishing a home. she can have any colors she wishes, and make them pleasing, if she will unite them by some harmonizing tone. of course, all grays even are not rich and beautiful, but they are better than unadulterated color. mr. irwin in one of his breezy skits quotes the æsthete as saying: "good taste should be like the policeman at parade; he should permit the assembled colors to make an orderly demonstration but not to start a riot." the moment the unskilled amateur tries to use white woodwork, red wallpaper, and gilt furniture in combination, he or she courts failure simply because the choice lacks the pervading tone which would modify the three. there are ways to secure harmony even under the most adverse conditions, but the technical details are not pertinent here. another characteristic which stands in the way of harmony is _emphasis_. the moment any one tone becomes greatly _different_ from its neighbors in value or otherwise, it stands out, attracts attention, just as in material objects, unusual, curious shapes and sizes invite notice, often beyond their just dues. hence a brilliant yellow house, a bright green gown, large figured wallpaper, are over-emphatic. clothes, which by their color and style are loud in their clamor for inspection, are out of key and bear the same relation to surroundings which foreign, exotic manners and customs bear to domestic conventions. and ordinarily one does not seek such prominence. this question of taste is a vital one to children, and these books about "needlecraft," "home decoration," "outdoor work," "gardening," etc., are indirectly most useful because they put the child in a _position to choose_. the girl who sews and helps run the home is bound to cross the path of design a dozen times a day. she is faced with problems of arrangement, color and utility at every turn. her own clothes, her room, the porch and garden, whatever she touches, are inert, lifeless things which await artistic treatment. it is when the child is faced with the problem of personal interest and pleasure that these elementary conceptions of design may be proposed. _form and line._ each year fashion decrees for both men and women certain "correct" styles. at slightly longer intervals the shops offer new models of furniture, hangings, jewelry, pottery, etc. have these new things been devised to meet a change in public taste? not at all; they are inventions to stimulate trade. most of such productions are out of place, incongruous, in company with present possessions. one must have a pretty sound sense of fitness and selection in order to use them to advantage or to resist their lure. as single examples, many of the new things are beautiful in color and line, though they may have nothing whatever in common with what one already owns. one chooses a given pattern in furniture first, because of its _utility_; second, because of its harmony in line and size with other furniture already owned; and third, because of its intrinsic beauty. it is much less difficult to furnish a house throughout than to refurnish an old room in consonance with others already complete. all the household things need not be of one kind, though the closer one clings to a clear-cut conception of harmony (relationship of some kind) the better the result. hence clothes may either beautify or exaggerate personal physique, and the garden may attach itself to the house and grounds or stand in lonely, painful isolation. down at bottom design aims to assemble elements and parts into proper groups, and in the common questions of home decorations and dress the student can usually work on just that simple basis. it is usually the incongruous, over-prominent, conspicuous, or isolated factor in decoration which causes trouble. this fragmentary discussion will perhaps suggest some of the benefit which may come from the pursuit of crafts and occupations. the illustrations here given are in some detail because it is so easy to overlook design at home and in common things. everything is so familiar there, one is so accustomed to the furniture, rugs and their arrangement, that it never comes to mind that the situation might be improved. it must be remembered that, when children begin to apply design to their own handicraft, their fundamental conceptions of beauty originate in the home. either the children must lose faith in home taste, or, as they grow and learn, be allowed to bring their new-found knowledge back into the home and "try it on." this is where the craft does its real work. the true privilege conferred upon children by the possession of such books as these on various special occupations is a chance to obtain, first-hand, individual standards of perfection and beauty. before this they have merely accepted the home as it stood, with no thought of what was choice or otherwise. since taste and design are merely implied, or indirectly included in the several volumes, save "home decoration," the latter should be used as a supplementary reference in connection with the others. as has already been said, it is not possible or advisable to systematically teach good taste. it will be better and more effective to just _include_ taste in the several activities the child undertakes. when the girl begins to make things for herself, help her to select materials which are appropriate in every way. have her seek materials for the purpose. have her _choose_ decoration and color rather than take the first handy suggestion or copy the plans of another. she would do well to experiment independently. the girl should create her own room down to the last detail, not make everything herself, but plan it, plan its arrangement, its color (tone) if possible, and make those small decorative articles like pillows, runners, curtains, etc. but before beginning such a comprehensive experiment in decoration have her look about a bit and note the conditions imposed. the light and exposure, size of the room, furniture which must be used, treatment of hangings--these are all stubborn factors, but they respond to gradual treatment. then the room is hers in reality. the boy's attitude toward taste is totally different. he cares less than the girl for the charm of tone and arrangement; he is quite willing to despise the niceties of decoration. he must approach the question obliquely through interest in the efficiency of a given effort; he appreciates the utility phase of design most of all. the boy will come to see gradually that his pets and chickens should be decently housed, and that it is good business to do so. he should not be allowed to impose upon his own family or their neighbors a slovenly yard or garden. he will find that those tools work best which are sharp and clean and always in place. his final lesson in design grows out of association with his mates. when he begins to go to parties, to enter the social world in a small way, a new body of conventions in taste appear and he must be taught to appreciate them if he would be well liked. but the real training in design arises from manual work--the playthings, toys and utensils the boy makes for _use_. they need not be beautiful nor is there excuse for clumsiness in construction. one cannot expect even the mature child to take much interest in design in the abstract, but when he meets the subject on a common-sense basis, as a part of some personal problem, design--even taste in color and form--acquires definite standing in his esteem. it has earned the right. hence a liberal contact with youthful amusements and occupations encourages both boy and girl to build ideals of working, and among these ideals taste is bound to appear in some guise--usually unbidden. the book on design or decoration is but a reference, an inspiration, a stimulant, never a text of instruction. the ability to choose, to secure appropriate, beautiful, accurate results, is largely a by-product of judicious reading combined with persistent effort. it remains for the parent to skim off this by-product as it appears and infuse a little of it into each problem the child presents for inspection. footnote: [d] library of work and play. [illustration] chapter iii the real girl _what is the ideal home?_ [illustration: a school garden in jordan harbor, ontario, canada. any child who has had this experience, who has produced or helped nature to produce such wonderful things, will be richer in sympathy for fine things] [illustration: domestic science class. these girls not only cook but learn about foods, housekeeping, entertaining, and themselves keep open house at the school occasionally] strange as it may seem, most of the plans for industrial training, the majority of school courses of study, and probably seventy-five per cent. of the books on the crafts and arts have been devised for the use of boys. now there are hosts of girls in this world, probably as many girls as boys, and these girls are just as keen, intelligent, ambitious and curious about things and how to make them, as are boys. in very early childhood when both boys and girls have the same interests, similar books of amusement are used by both. but as girls develop the feminine point of view and need the stimulus of suggestion and aid in creative work, the literature for them seems meagre; they have somehow been passed by save for a manual now and then on cooking or sewing, left as a sop to their questioning and eagerness. this state of affairs is more than unfortunate, it is fundamentally wrong for two very good reasons. ( ) the girl up to the age of twelve or thirteen has practically the same interests, pleasures and play instincts as the boy. she is perhaps not so keenly alive to the charm of mechanical things as the boy, but like all children regardless of sex, she seeks to be a producer. she is just as much absorbed in pets and growing things, in nature, in the current activities of her environment, and requires the same easy outlet for her play instincts as the boy. ( ) the girl, when a woman grown, becomes the creator of the home, and too often enters upon her domestic career with a minimum of skill or taste in the great body of household arts, which in the aggregate, give us the material comforts and homely pleasures. moreover, since she, as a girl, probably did not have the chance to satisfy her play desires and consequently never learned to _do things_ herself, she is at a loss to understand the never ceasing, tumultuous demands of her own children for the opportunity to experiment. to quote gerald lee in the "lost art of reading," which is one of the real modern books: "the experience of being robbed of a story we are about to read, by the good friend who cannot help telling how it comes out, is an occasional experience in the lives of older people, but it sums up the main sensation of life in the career of a child. the whole existence of a boy may be said to be a daily--almost hourly--struggle to escape being told things ... it is doubtful if there has ever been a boy as yet worth mentioning, who did not wish we would stand a little more to one side--let him have it out with things. there has never been a live boy who would not throw a store-plaything away in two or three hours for a comparatively imperfect plaything he had made himself...." when one goes deep enough--below the showy veneer of present-day living--one comes to agree with mr. lee. the normal child, especially the boy, is potentially a creator, a designer, discoverer, and we have committed the everlasting sin of showing him short cuts, smoothing away difficulties, saying "press here." no child can survive the treatment. father and mother have the very simple obligation to furnish the place, raw material (books, tools, etc.), and encouragement. [illustration: copyright, , by cheshire l. boone the work of girls in the public schools, montclair, n. j. these girls are only eleven years of age] [illustration: a children's garden gives fresh air and sunshine, and best of all, brings nature very near. to be really happy one must make nature's acquaintance] for these reasons, if for no other, the girl ought to have a permanent outlet for her native ingenuity and constructive skill in such crafts and occupations as are adapted to her strength, future responsibilities and possible interests. a home should comprise other elements than food and clothes, which are bare necessities; and though these may be expanded and multiplied, becoming in their preparation real art products, they alone are deficient in interest. look over any well-ordered household, note the multiplicity of things it contains which are primarily woman's possessions, and collecting all one knows about them, the amount of real knowledge is surprisingly small. how much does the embryo housekeeper know about textiles, curtains, carpets, hangings, linens, brass, china, furniture? where do all these charming things come from? many of the hangings, table linen, embroidery, etc., are home products. they cannot be bought at all. the simple stenciled curtain which one likes so much draws attention by virtue of its personal quality. to have such things in any abundance the girl must create them, and this she is more than willing to do. how may one explain the restful atmosphere of certain homes visited? how many housewives have intelligent insight concerning home management and administration; of simple domestic chemistry or sanitation? yet these are vital elements in the domestic machine. one never mistakes a proper household, orderly, smooth running for the showy establishment--gay outside and sad inside. even the most untutored child unconsciously responds to the healthy influence of selected material environment and conditions, when these are combined harmoniously. there are systematic ways of creating pleasant rooms, fine grounds, comfortable places for living, places imbued with the spirit of contentment. the people who produce such places are seldom the professional decorator, landscape architect, and hired housekeeper. it is the woman of the family, who, having practised some of the arts, or at least been their disciple, has learned to appreciate order and love beauty. therewith comes an almost instinctive knowledge of how to use them to advantage. one can never really have beautiful baskets, pottery, sewing, gardens, until one has made them. one surely cannot appreciate the true worth of clean linen, a spotless house, and perfect routine anywhere so thoroughly as in one's own house. it naturally follows that the girl, like the boy, should be a producer, not a mere purchaser, of personal or domestic commodities. she may have unlimited means, but the place where she lives as a girl and the home she seeks to create in adult life will always be impersonal, detached, _hotel-like_, unless she personally builds it. she must know the structure, composition, and functions of inanimate things; this knowledge comes easiest and persists longer through use and experience. [illustration: all children love to play at being "grown up," even beyond the time of childhood. these girls will make real women, because they are normal and happy] [illustration: girls must sometime learn of the conventions and customs of domestic arrangement, and too often their only opportunity lies in such classes as these] there is a good bit of psychology behind the suggestions offered, and the reasoning is simple. all our ideas, our plans, and conceptions are just ideas and nothing more until they have been worked up into concrete form--put to test. there is nothing tangible about an _idea_. but living is real; hence all the details which comprise living are real too and mere thinking about them without action is futile. one must execute, arrange, and experiment with the raw materials of everyday use. the result is either pleasant or otherwise; if otherwise, the effort has somehow failed, and one should do it again and learn thereby; if pleasant, one is the richer and happier for a bit of success, and is warmed by the presence of mere accomplishment. this last phrase reveals the nub of the whole question--accomplishment. material surroundings and comforts of course go far to make one happy, and they are the evidence of success, but the ideal home is also composed of people each of whom is or should be a contributor to the work of the world. the ideal home contains no drones, and therefore no discontent. now the girl cannot plunge headfirst into the maelstrom of domestic management. she must learn her strength and acquire confidence, and there are simple occupations for early years, occupations which train the muscles, sharpen the wits; occupations which through suggestion gradually lead to a wider and wider intellectual horizon, and which, by a cumulation of information and experience, mature both judgment and taste. these occupations form, as it were, some chapters in the unwritten grammar of culture and efficiency whereby the girl grows in self-reliance and maturity. there are, for instance, a number of crafts which, in their delicacy of technique and the artistic worth of the finished product, are splendid occupations for girls, and some few of which every girl should know. the girl who cannot sew is an object for sympathy; it is the typical feminine craft for the reason heretofore named--that one cannot know how things should be unless one is familiar with the process involved. gowns are manufactured of pieces of cloth cut in proper shape and sewn together in some, to the male, occult fashion, and this complex operation only explains itself even to a woman by going through the experience. one has always been accustomed to think that the accomplished mistress is also an expert needle-woman or skilled worker in textiles of some kind. products of the needle and loom have always been her intimate, personal possessions, and the charm of old hangings, lace, needlecraft of all kinds, rests in the main on this personal quality. without a doubt the most precious belongings of the young girl are her own room with its contents of decorations and furnishing, and the garments which emphasize her inherent feminine charm. it is not only a girl's right, but her duty, to maintain her place as the embodiment of all that is fresh, cleanly and attractive. to this end clothes and the various other products of the needle contribute not a little; a clean-cut, thorough experience in manufacturing things for herself is the best assurance of future taste, which will spread out and envelop everything she touches. it is much the same with clothes and furnishings as with other matters, what one makes is one's own, characteristic, appropriate, adequate, with the touch of enjoyment in it; the purchased article is devoid of sentiment, it is a makeshift and substitute. then by all means let the girl learn to sew, learn to do for herself, to study her own needs and desires, to find as she progresses, ways to master the details of woman's own craft, and it is hoped, lay up a store of just the sort of experience which will enable her to supervise the work of others in her behalf when the time comes. but sewing, valuable as it is in connection with the young girl's problems, is not the only craft at hand. in recent years craftworkers have revived a number of old methods of using or preparing textiles for decorative purposes, and some of these have proven increasingly worth while in the household. stenciling, block-printing, dyeing, decorative darning, and even weaving itself, since they have been remodeled and brought out in simple form, offer opportunities to the wideawake girl. the results in each case may be very beautiful, and perhaps more in harmony with the individual taste and scheme of living of the particular girl than any materials she could buy, because they may be designed and executed for a specific place. few people, least of all a child, work just to be busy; there is always a motive. with the girl it is a scarf, a belt, collar, curtain, or sofa pillow; is it not well worth while if she can make these for herself or her room, in her chosen design motif, (as rose, bird, tree, etc.) and color? it may be an ordinary design, peculiar color, but they satisfy a personal sentiment which, by the way, can be modified and improved as time goes on. one must needs allow children to begin with the bizarre, distorted, seemingly unreasonable, archaic desires they have and cross-fertilize these with better ones in the hope of producing a fine, wholesome, sturdy attitude of mind. among the minor crafts which may be a source of real pleasure and good taste, two are prominent: pottery and basketry. the technique, decorative possibilities, and functions of the finished products as elements in household economy and ornament place these crafts high in the list of those especially suitable for girls, though boys and adults do find them equally interesting. pottery is so closely associated with flowers and growing things, with the decoration of fine rooms, with choice spots of color, and with those receptacles and utensils which belong to the household, that it makes a strong appeal to the feminine mind. here is a craft which vies with textiles in age and beauty of design, and possesses even greater charm of manipulation because it is plastic. one can imagine no finer outlet for creative effort. lastly, there is the eternal, magnificent, womanly craft--home-making. when one stops to think that the home is the one imperishable, absolute social unit, the power which creates it must take rank with other vital forces of constructive economics. mothers' clubs and women's organizations of divers kinds, or, rather, the individuals who comprise such societies, are continually drifting into the discussion of the worries, difficulties, and trials which attend the household. the instant household routine becomes awkward or inadequate it affects adversely each individual member of the family, and naturally the mistress who is responsible shoulders a burden. there are times when the maid leaves, or the cooking goes wrong, or the house is cold, or just a time when one gets started for the day badly. there are times when the innate perversity of humans and material things runs riot. one is led to believe that such untoward occasions, since they have been in the past, will in all likelihood continue to crop up to the end of time, though one cannot find any good reason why they should. there are homes unacquainted with any household rumble or squeak, where the domestic machinery is always in order, and flexible enough to care for sudden overloading, or absorb any reasonable shock. in many such places, devoid of servants and confined to a modest income, the mistress is ever an expert; the chances are that her daughters will be equally resourceful. really, the only sure way to bring up an adequate number of fine, competent, resourceful wives and home-makers is to train them definitely for the profession. the girls must be made acquainted with every detail of the business which they will surely inherit. the people who would live in hotels and frankly abandon home-making themselves merely emphasize the charm of the household, because hotels have nothing in common with homes. it seems rather strange that a business so old as housekeeping does not, and never has, applied to its development the laws of commercial enterprise. when the community or corporation state sees the need for workmen, foremen or directors, it tries to educate individuals for the purpose. the supply of competent men and women is not left to chance. whereas, womankind trusts to a very fickle fortune, that every girl will somehow learn to steer the domestic craft and be conversant with methods of preserving family ideals. contrast the far-sighted plans of business to fill its ranks with the casual training the average girl undergoes to fit her for the future. what is her chance of success? is it reasonable to suppose that one who has never made a home, or even helped actively to run one made for her, can on demand "make good?" it is a lasting tribute to the inherent genius and indefatigable patience of the modern woman that she has achieved so much with a minimum of experience. hence, in order to properly equip one's children for a practically inevitable future, let the girls into the secret of domestic planning; let them know of costs and shopping, income and expenditure; of materials and uses; the care of possessions, repairs and cleaning; try to show them that the menu is not a haphazard combination of ingredients and foods, but a conscious selection of viands which will entice the appetite, furnish proper nutrition and accord with the season. by all means emphasize the fact that housekeeping, like any business, can be systematized so that the hundred and one activities may succeed one another in orderly procession through the weeks and months. wash day and housecleaning should be absorbed into the domestic program, and never present their grisly features to the home-coming male, with sufficient trouble of his own. recent issues of the magazines have contained much discussion of the household tangle, and most of them have ended with the slogans "industrial education," "back to the kitchen," and such. granted that girls need this training, and that schools in time will give it; granted that the social position of the servant is a source of discussion and friction; that the demands of modern living are exacting; and, finally, granting the insistent prominence of all the other economic disturbances, who is, in the last analysis, to blame? would a business man think for one moment of handing over any department of his affairs to one not trained for the particular duties involved? industry in every branch seeks men and women _fitted_ to take charge of even minor matters. and when trained assistants are scarce the obvious policy is to prepare other promising workers for such special places. on the other hand, mothers too often prepare their daughters for marriage, not for home-making, seemingly blind to the fact that marriage is an inert, barren, static condition, save in the stimulating atmosphere of a fine home. how can the servant question ever be settled by untutored girls who get no closer to the domestic question than fudge, welsh rarebit and salted peanuts? the _school can and does_ now, in all well-ordered communities, give a very satisfactory formal, technical training in domestic art and science.[e] there students learn to cook and sew; they learn a good deal about food values, dietetics and simple food chemistry, simple sanitation, etc. but the management of a real house, system and everyday routine, that fine sense of adjustment to the conditions as they exist--these essentials can only be learned in the home itself. the efforts of the school can largely supplement but never replace home guidance, experience and _responsibility_. keeping house ought to be a science and art rather than a game of chance. _definite suggestions_ in the "library of work and play," to which the present book is the introductory volume, one will find a collection of books replete with suggestion. but these are not manuals, or courses to be followed from end to end, because children do not _profit most_ by such a plan. the child is like a pebble dropped into still water. it communicates its energy of momentum to the surrounding fluid and makes a circular ripple, which in turn makes another and wider ripple, until the energy is exhausted. in much the same way the child, landed in the midst of a more or less inert material world, acts upon it with energy, _which, however, is never exhausted_, producing the results which become more and more extended. he begins in the middle of a given subject and works in all possible directions, which gives one the clue to how to make the most of books like these.[f] if the girl has not already indicated a decided preference for some recreation or play, place at hand the books which show the possibilities open to her. it would be well for one to go over them rather carefully first in order to know what they contain. let the girl take her leisure in searching the chapters and illustrations for the suggestion which strikes a responsive chord. ofttimes it will be quite in order to point to chapters which have a bearing on some personal need or desire. at any rate, the book or chapters which seem to be most significant at the time should be followed up. read over with her such a volume as "home decoration" or "housekeeping." let her discuss the plans offered and try them out in her own home. every girl wants and should have a dainty, inspiring, beautiful room of her own, and as she grows older she also wants the rest of the house to match, so that she can entertain her friends with pride and confidence. if one will take "housekeeping," "home decoration," and "needlecraft" as texts, and select from them first those suggestions which are _immediately apt_ in a particular home, the girl will shortly find herself looking at home problems from several different and very important angles. but it is desirable also that the study be taken up first in a very simple way, in order to tie it to real living and needs. new curtains, pillows for the porch or den, stenciled scarf, the decorations and menu for a small party, additional linen: these are some of the problems always coming up, which may be used as a beginning. and once the start is made the girl should have the chance to try other experiments along the same line. read with her the chapter on menus and marketing, or housecleaning, and turn the house over to the daughter for a time to manage--absolutely. there is nothing in the world which children love more or which develops them more quickly than responsibility, and the mutual consideration of household affairs gives the girl real partnership in the domestic business. she may use the "housekeeping" book as a kind of reference, to be sought when new problems in management fall to her share. the question of home decoration is so vital that it deserves special statement. the text[g] deals with all those details of interior furnishing and embellishment which indicate taste. all of these are not equally important, nor do they interest all girls to the same extent, and in using the book one can profit most by the study of those topics which touch the individual or particular family. but everywhere there is the problem of furniture arrangement, wall decorations, color schemes, and the skilful use of flowers, pottery and textiles. give the young people, and especially the girls, an insight into how the interior should be treated. have them look up pertinent questions in the text and then try their 'prentice hands at creating a pleasant, restful, homelike house with the furnishings at hand plus whatever they can make or secure. really, the book is as much a volume of suggestion for the mother, to which she can refer her daughter, as a text for the child. there is very keen interest in taste in recent years, among young people as well as parents, and the elements hitherto lacking have been ( ) accessible information and ( ) opportunity to "try it out." offer that opportunity; a flat is just as fruitful a field for experiment as a house, perhaps more. the active participation in outdoor life, nature-study propaganda and the multiplication of popular scientific (nature) literature has greatly opened another field to children--that of raising pets, gardening, etc. here the boy or girl will readily make some choice at an early day, if there has been any contact with such things. if not, a volume of this kind[h] will be a real stimulant and inspiration, as it should be, not a lesson manual. place the book in a child's hands, help him look over the conditions, available ground, cost, care, etc.; let him send for circulars and catalogues, or if possible visit some one interested in the same hobby and the experiment is under way with irresistible momentum. it is a godsend to any child to give him a simple, direct statement of what can be done; he furnishes the steam and imagination for future development, and father and mother comprise the balance wheel of the business. this volume and the one on "outdoor sports" contain a mass of information which touch the interests of practically all boys and girls at some time in their first sixteen years. when the child is old enough to launch out in any personal undertaking, old enough for even minor responsibilities, when he or she expresses the desire for possession and money, then give them books like these. let them soak in and digest. encourage only those requests which are convincing, but give them all the scope possible. every child will eventually select the pastimes which are best for her though she may stumble in doing so; she will make fewer mistakes, and waste less time if she have access to books which will crystallize and guide her ambitions. footnotes: [e] as the high schools of springfield, newton, and brookline, mass.; cleveland, ohio; los angeles, cal., among others. and the elementary schools of practically every well-organized community. [f] "library of work and play." [g] "home decoration." [h] "outdoor life." [illustration] chapter iv that boy "the prime spur to all industry (effort) was and is to own and use the finished product."--hall. one day the pedagogue, who was a learned man and addicted to study, shut himself up in his library, bent on devising a method for training boys into men. this master was well versed in the sciences so that he could follow the stars in their courses, make the metals and substances of the earth obey his will, and guide the plants in their growth from seed to blossom. nor was this scholar lacking in sympathy for the arts, if they were not too fine, for his desires all led to systems and orderly arrangements of matter, and those subjects which would not succumb to analysis he looked upon coldly. [illustration: a boy's camp with ernest thompson seton. there was never a boy who did not "make-believe," and here the play spirit, under stimulating guidance, becomes a powerful factor in developing the appreciation of community effort] [illustration: the play idea very soon grows toward the representation of primitive though adult customs and actions, in which several join a common body or company. hence city gangs which merely seek romantic expression] hence in this problem of education he made a careful survey of the history and development of learning from the beginning--seeking those ideals and standards of culture which had been approved for the _scholar_, because scholars have always been held in high esteem by those patrons who, being ignorant themselves, wanted scholarship nearby. it was found in the course of his delving that the sciences had originated and developed in about this order, mathematics, astronomy, geology, botany, biology, etc. the arts of expression had of course developed as a group, but chiefly through literature from the beginning. there seemed to be a good deal of recent interest in machines and engineering, and of course certain classes had always tilled the soil, because one must have food; but the study of these activities could not lead to culture, because culture had always had to do with thinking, not manual labor. therefore it became clear to the master that up to the present time, since the end of all scholarly ambition had been a profession (law, medicine, theology, etc.), education must be a very simple matter. all one had to do was to prepare certain capsules of mathematics, grammar, greek and latin, and a few, very few, odd pellets of science, etc., and at stated intervals stimulate the boy's mental organism with the various toxins in rotation. were these subjects not the very basis of culture, and what would be more logical than direct systematic presentation of the fundamental principles? if the patient did not respond nothing could be done but to use more medicine, more lessons; there could be but one line of treatment. with this question settled the good savant signified his readiness to instruct youth in such branches as were desirable for the educated man, and pupils came in numbers to obtain the precious learning, for the pedagogue was favorably known as a great scholar. but these pupils who came, like the master, happened to live in or about the year , when the chief interests of the people were business, science, and engineering; when transportation and communication had become highly developed and systematized; when farming and agriculture were almost arts, the whole welfare of the nation rested on industry, and utility held high rank as an element in culture among the people who worked. even when a boy of this period did not seek industrial honors and follow in the footsteps of his father, he must needs be interested as a citizen in so important a source of prosperity. hence the children who set out to become pupils of the learned teacher were alive to the business and activities of their time and surroundings, and were more than willing to learn when the learning led to a useful end. but the scheme proposed by their mentor was such a queer scheme. of course it was better to go to school than do nothing and one must study a few things, but how much more fascinating and worth while to talk about birds and animals, trolley cars, the railway, electricity, machines, and doing things with a purpose, than to discuss impossible stories written by people who evidently knew very, very little about young people, to learn unending pages of numbers and definitions and facts, which, since one had no use for them, were speedily forgotten to make room for better material? [illustration: a typical boy's workroom and shop. pride of personal possession develops rather early and the boy should have a place of his own] [illustration: the kind of shop which one may have at home] now these children were obedient and reverent toward learning and did the tasks assigned them by their master, but in their leisure hours they did a good bit of experimenting along other lines, and found several other studies which were not in the master's scheme much more to their taste. animals and pets were not only nice, live, soft, downy, fuzzy things to play with, but they had such queer ways and were so useful that one could talk about them forever. and then if one raised numbers of them, often neighbors would desire to purchase, and behold, a business began whereby it was just possible one could make a profit now and then. again, it was fine if one had even a few tools so that one could put together the toys and playthings _necessary_ to every-day amusement. of course it was needful to measure and calculate and scheme about materials and costs, but all this scheming led to real purpose, while the questions proposed by the teacher were just questions after all and it couldn't make much difference whether one found the answer or not. now the usual thing happened. because of their reverence for traditional learning and respect for its apostle the youths continued to attend upon the master and go through the ceremonial form of intellectual purification. but really their hearts were outside, wrapped up in the work of the world, where they had found just the tonics which were good for them. in just so far as the school and home open ways which "enable the student to earn a livelihood and to make life worth living" do we see the passing of the old type school (suggested above) and ideal of training. not only are there comparatively few in this world capable of receiving high polish through the so-called culture studies, but the definition of culture has changed; now _any activity is cultural which arouses one's best efforts_. moreover, the boy of the present is on the lookout for a new type of instructor, one born of the new era of industrial success, a teacher who will unlock the mysteries of modern nature, science, engineering and business, and who will make it possible for the student to find his special abilities or bent at an early age. it is no argument at all to say that the boy is too young to know what is best for him, that the mature mind is the only safe guide. the adult teacher and parent becomes a true guide only when he uses as a basis for guidance those qualities and instincts of childhood which cannot be smothered or eradicated. the child, whether boy or girl, knows instinctively some of the kinds of information which do not agree with him, because they possess no significance at the time and he cannot assimilate and fatten on them. the child needs a new and more nutritious mental diet. father and mother cannot be of great _direct_ assistance because, strange to say, they are not experts with _children_, they merely know _a child_ (their own) passably well, but they can provide a most effective, indirect, contributory stimulus through outside opportunities for healthy play and experiment which will supplement the formal instruction of the school. and children of all ages up to the time they go to college need some strong outside interest, or group of them, which will serve as a finder to determine the trade, profession, or business of the future man. [illustration: the kite fever is an annual disease. common to practically the whole country. but it is a disease which flourishes only among normal children, chiefly boys] [illustration: pump and waterwheel. a type of mechanical problem which the boy may begin with, both in and out of school, because it touches his keenest interest] the children who enter the school, from whatever grade of society or given race, are all much alike--lively little animals that sleep, eat and talk continuously, and play, though play and expression are one and the same. they do what all animals do--keep on the move, acquire muscular skill and precision, and endeavor by every possible means to express their ideas and convey them to others. this expression takes on a constructive phase when children play at store, keeping house, fire engine, and make toys of paper and cardboard, and such amusement is the forerunner of that intense mechanical interest which overtakes boys about the age of ten or eleven.[i] girls have an equally positive leaning which is characteristic and will be noted elsewhere. watch any group of boys of average parentage and surroundings and make a list of the things they construct for themselves, for their own ends. in any such list extending over a period of several months will be found, according to locality, such things as wagons, sleds, whistles, kites, dog houses, pigeon roosts, chicken coops, boats, guns, etc., etc. the young artisan uses whatever raw material he can; he is chiefly concerned with the plan, and makes the best of conditions and materials. the things he makes are always for real use, a principle held in high esteem in all the arts. in making these toys the boy acquires some exceedingly valuable information and a physical skill and perfection which can only be secured at an early age. he learns about things, about raw material, about tools and utensils common to every household; he gets on speaking terms with the fundamental laws of mechanics and, more than one would imagine, develops a real ingenuity in molding material to his immediate needs. the construction of a bird house or kite is in itself simple enough, but the boy has to spend considerable effort in finding out how to do it, which is beneficial. moreover, this constant struggle to get into tune with his physical environment and subdue it results in a considerable independence, confidence, and resourcefulness, which under moderately favorable conditions will produce a boy alert to the world in which he lives and full of the spirit of investigation--the critical attitude. such a boy will not lean on others for either learning or pleasure. [illustration: boat made by percy wilson and donald mather, montclair, n. j., independent of adult assistance. the method of construction, which is unique and sound, was devised by the boys] [illustration: copyright, , by cheshire l. boone these are the forerunners of numerous other electrical constructions, many of which are produced out of school, in the home workrooms and shops] actually, however, the modern boy has not been encouraged along these lines, nor has he been taken very seriously in those activities which affect him most; hence his struggle toward any real efficiency. a prominent man once said: "when i was fifteen years of age i could break wild horses to saddle or harness, and teach kicking cows to stand while they were being milked. i could fell trees and drop the tree in any direction desired. i knew the relative value of all native woods, appreciated the differences in soil, grains, fruits, and simple minerals. i could use the draw-shove, adze axe, broad axe, cross-cut saw, sickle and cradle. i could make a figure-four trap, an axe helve, a neck yoke, axe yoke, whiffletree, clevis, and could braid an eight-strand cattle whip. we used to mend our harness on rainy days and i could make a wax-end and thread it with a bristle, and use a brad-awl. i knew how to construct an ash-leach and to make soft-soap, apple butter, and pumpkin pies. i knew the process of weaving flax and wool, of making and burning brick. i knew on sight and had names for a score or more of birds, and had a good idea of the habits of squirrels, skunks, wolves, and the fishes that swam in the creeks. i knew how to cure hams, shoulders, and side-meat: to pickle beef and cover apples with straw and earth so that they would keep in safety through the most severe winter, and open up in the spring fresh and valuable. of course my knowledge was not of a scientific order, and i could not have explained it to another, because i never knew i had it." how many boys or girls of the present time possess anything like this sum of _useful knowledge_--useful for the conditions in which they live? there was a time when children had to learn in order to survive, and now that the necessity is removed and children are simply allowed to grow without purpose, the boy and girl inevitably lose one of the best elements in their training unless new opportunities are opened. it is not difficult to see how the boy's interest in construction grows and expands; mere acquaintance with boys will furnish the data. at a comparatively early stage the youthful experiments are naturally sifted to a few specialties, which assume prominence either because of the boy's reading or the type of locality in which he lives. from time to time his interest may shift, investigating one subject after another, always seeking the unknown avocation. the process will probably lead in time to a more or less fitting selection of trade or profession. how else is the boy to find himself? [illustration: copyright, , by cheshire l. boone a real derrick in miniature, operated by means of a waterwheel (at the right). the lifting, turning and handling of the bucket are controlled by levers attached to spools (in the middle section). this sort of thing is part of regular school work] [illustration: waterwheels (lower illustrations) and fan (upper illustration), made by public school pupils] after he has passed through the preliminary stages of mere play and haphazard amusement the boy becomes conscious of the mysterious, unusual forces of electricity; they hold even adult attention and wonder, but the boy, being more impressionable and confident, immediately forages for information, reads enormously, and experiments. he takes in the whole subject with a vim and sureness that is _de facto_ evidence of its intrinsic worth for study purposes. and in a much shorter time than adults would require, he has mastered the fundamental laws and is eager to put this wonderful force to work, to make things move. he has the same attitude toward steam and gas engines, water motors, and studies them with the same intensity of purpose. here are dynamic elements which appeal to the human appreciation of _power_ and which may be harnessed, subdued. the idea is comparable to the ancient reverence for fire, water and the storm. since modern science has organized engineering and mechanical knowledge and simplified it, the student can have at his disposal just the books and periodicals needed to unlock this storeroom of mystery; these publications were written for the purpose. but there are several other openings for creative effort which appeal no less strongly, and among which both the boy and girl may choose, with complete confidence that there will be ample room for initiative, ingenuity, and utilitarian bias. every child loves to go camping, and in common with his elders reveals the close connection with primitive life in general through the pleasure derived from the simplicity of camp life. there in the woods, where conveniences are few, every device and construction counts the utmost, and its purpose is apparent. the whole spirit of such living is more in harmony with child nature and longings than the modern city home; it supplies the craving for physical freedom and places the boy or girl almost entirely on his own resources. what he obtains in the way of pleasure comes from his own efforts and is correspondingly precious. the boy especially finds in camp just as much chance for mechanical skill as elsewhere. temporary furniture, utensils, cooking conveniences, the shelter, traps, etc., are suggestive. and lastly the unconventional, untrammeled outdoor life stands in that same relation to the boy as it did to the savage (because boyhood is a primitive stage); he puts forth his strongest endeavors to conquer the elements, the climate, the earth, and growing things; to provide himself with food and shelter--in other words, to survive as the savage sought to survive. the idea is truly epic. no wonder the child expands and develops under the simple responsibilities imposed, and absorbs woodcraft with such astonishing ease. the recent extraordinary growth of the summer camp among boys' schools, and the results suggested in the writings of ernest thompson seton, are, with the unfolding of industrial education, two pointed examples of the shifting view of education in the home as well as school. probably no outside agency will in time become so effective for good as the boy scouts, whose code is based on a very primitive framework suited to boys. during a recent visit to california, and while crossing the flat prairies of kansas, the writer saw a company of scouts at work. it was borne in upon the observer that there was an organization which fitted every locality, every climate; it appealed to _boy_, not _creed_, _social order_, time, or _adult dogma_. [illustration: copyright, , by cheshire l. boone a self-recording telegraph receiver. an excellent example of what the juvenile mechanical mind will attempt. the number of boys interested in such projects is considerable] [illustration: wireless station and workroom of donald huxom, montclair, n. j. this, too, indicates how boys square themselves with scientific progress] one should at least mention athletics in this connection, because of the excellent physical benefit in both activities. athletics, however, contains an element which is all-important--team work. and no restraint is so much needed, nor so cheerfully heeded for that matter, by the restless boy and girl as a community of effort. the elimination of a purely selfish personal point of view is very difficult to bring about with the best of children, because they are wrapped up in their own affairs, and nothing serves to introduce them to the rights of others and the value of concerted action for a common good so well as sport. the kind does not matter. any well-conducted, clean enjoyment of this kind develops that mental pliability and willingness to _take a part_ which is a fundamental of citizenship. incidentally leaders arise, and the beginnings of organization dawn. it is a great day when the boy learns his first code of signals in the ball team! [illustration: copyright, , by cheshire l. boone an electrical soldering iron and glue-pot, made at suggestion of instructor for use in school shop] [illustration: copyright, , by cheshire l. boone waterwheel connected with model lathe] there is one more side (at least) to the boy and girl business--_earning money_. it is nothing short of marvelous that this desire for personal income, however small, has not been taken seriously. why do children want to earn money? for the best reason in the world, _independence_. man's entire existence from the earliest age down to the twentieth century has been one long struggle toward it--toward survival. first he had to combat the elements and animals, then his fellows, for possession of food, lands, water, raw materials, and wives. when he found that possession of certain commodities added to his importance and therefore comfort and safety, and especially to his privilege, he sought wealth and its freedom. now the boy and girl follow stages in development toward similar independence, and among the privileges most desired is that of money or possessions of value. if they earn it, the amount represents so much work and gives the coins a fixed worth which cannot be established in other fashion. moreover, this desire for income (rather than money) is one characteristic of the child between the ages of thirteen and fifteen years. his power of reasoning and organization are developing rapidly, and it is the time when adult ideals and actions first look attractive. the time is ever ripe for launching the boy or girl into any avocation which holds their fancy, that they may forget their own oblique tendencies to laziness, stubbornness, wayward action, and selfishness; these are all characteristic of the stage. sex changes too play no inconsiderable part, because the boy's companions are for a time all masculine. business of some kind is just what he needs, and if that business is profitable, a powerful motive is supplied. perhaps the keenest interest is that in nature, and most children at some time have desired pets--chickens, rabbits, pigeons, dogs, song birds. there is scarcely a town or city condition where some animal hobby cannot be pursued without disturbing others' peace of mind. but it should be looked into seriously as a business, a miniature counterpart of other like enterprises. the disposal of personal service and products to others brings the child in close contact with numbers of adults and adult standards and business connections. it fosters responsibility and places upon the child the burden of proof, to show that he is entitled to a place as a valuable member of society. and just here it may be well to say, even if the child does not need the money he earns, it will be the most precious he will ever own, because since it came through effort, it will be spent with due caution. the vegetable and flower garden may be made to yield similar returns and such products are always salable. in addition, every house, every yard, every farm is in constant need of repairs, changes and care which the alert boy or girl can furnish. the development of such odd tasks into a business parallels the development of every large enterprise which began in a modest way. it fosters the best of personal and civic ideals, and tames the restless, self-conscious energy of youth into smooth and profitable channels through which to journey in peace to a sane maturity. [illustration: excellent examples of high school work which is really profitable. these machines will work and develop power which can be measured] [illustration: a manual training shop] is it any wonder that education is so ineffective at times? in the light of present-day appreciation of physiology and psychology it is increasingly clear that education has furnished an impersonal, rather stilted system of stuffing along restricted lines for a warm-hearted, all-inquisitive, nature-loving human animal which automatically refuses to be nourished thereby, and forages elsewhere. although the child's judgment can by no means be followed concerning what is best for him, his instincts and possible future will serve as a most excellent guide. his early training must take into account those interests which are most keen and lasting and use them as the framework for instruction, and all subsequent stages of training involve a distinct obligation to build upon this elementary foundation, with a view to social worth. most children will have to earn a living (the girl usually helps by managing the home), and this necessity is preëminent. but whether rich or otherwise, the ideal of social worth remains for all. and the least the home can do is to nurse childhood's efforts and experiments in play and occupation which lead finally to mature judgment and conceptions. _how to use books with boys_ boys probably obtain more help from books than girls do because they are more self-reliant, more assertive and impatient. and as has been indicated, more books have been written for boys, but the same general method of use is common to both. the boy too finds in the book of crafts, mechanics, science, or sport a stimulant and incentive. he reads it much as he would a story of adventure. no matter what his greatest enjoyments may be, the perusal of accounts of others' juvenile activities widens the productive horizon in a way not to be ignored, and for this reason "how to do" books of all kinds are a serious element in the boy's life, at a time when he is less concerned with what to do than with how to produce something. but there is a danger in this catholicity of interest: it may become dilettantism. the boy may merely potter or fuss with one hobby after another, more because he cannot supply the need for more and more information, than because he does not care. hence it is worth while from time to time to add more fuel to the flame of ambition in a given direction, to provide books and tools, a working place or shop, and open the way for progress in some stated direction. [illustration: the machine shop. public school, montclair, n. j.] [illustration: the study of aeroplane construction, public school , n. y. city. this toy is full of possibilities for the live boy] [illustration: a successful machine] [illustration: finished aeroplanes. public school , n. y. city] specifically, books like those on "mechanics, indoors and out," "electricity," and "carpentry," and parts of "outdoor work" may be considered as of one type. when he receives the books the boy will spend days in absorbing their contents, maybe dreaming a bit over the possibilities in view, and finally, by a process which will always be unintelligible to the adult, will light upon a problem or group of them that meets his wishes, as the kite for instance; all he needs from then on is human sympathy with the, to him, important undertaking, and he will gallop through all phases of the kite construction and devices, aeroplanes, propellers, forms of motive power, probably bringing up short at the steam or gasoline engine, which opens another chapter. the really important item connected with the use of such books is to keep the young mechanic on one thing at a time. a bit of judicious questioning now and then, always aimed at a group of related problems upon which he may be engaged, will keep his mind working connectedly. his efforts will then be cumulative in effect. visits to the aero park, the museums, to the shops and technical schools, and to the local power plants are other distinct aids which should be invoked to supplement and emphasize reading and experiment. in some of the cities model kite and aeroplane contests are held at regular intervals, and these put boys on their mettle to succeed. in fact the proper way to use books of this kind is to _let the boy use them_; let him begin in the middle of the book and work outward or at the end and go backward, but see that he has books which present the subject vividly, simply. provide him with the essential tools and materials and a place to work. about the surest way to make a success with boys is to let them have a room or corner of their own where they can work to their hearts' content, where they can store their precious belongings, and where companions may come and talk over things. really the book is inadequate alone. unless one provide the opening for action, books but aggravate and excite the mind, mockingly spur the student on to "do." hence with the book goes a tacit obligation to provide means and place, even the most modest, for putting the book to test. there is yet another phase to this use of books, and it is one which the boy will usually meet, if the texts are adequate. it is this: whatever the young student does best will be the result of real desire, real personal enthusiasm. it is a fallacy to suppose that the boy interested in tools should always put up shelves, mend the door, or fix the fence. he will execute these tasks cheerfully, but they are not the subject of his dreams. on the other hand, if the desire be to earn money, to have a small business of his own, fences and shelves and plant stands may be the most interesting things in the world to him, because they are _means_, not _ends_. hence the printed book is no teacher or trainer of children, no direct guide to future vocation, but is the very essence of inspiration, the foundation from which the young secures nourishment for day dreams and ambitions, out of which he patiently weaves the rich fabric of experience. footnote: [i] this bias toward mechanics has already been noted by teachers and parents, but in recent years has assumed unusual significance because of the extraordinary development of industry. this, combined with the researches of modern psychology and pedagogy, has introduced a new, a powerful motive into teaching. [illustration] chapter v a house and lot--especially the lot the past decade has witnessed a movement, just now taking aggressive shape, which is unique--the interest in outdoors, nature study, farming, summer homes, sport, and what is termed the simple life. it is a movement filled with the greatest promise of any among the host now claiming attention, and bids fair to soothe the tired nerves and over-stimulated minds of a frantically industrial age. busy men and women, particularly the men, who once thought their affairs would become hopelessly muddled if they were not at the desk each and every day, now indulge in sport, farming or gardening, and horticulture. they have become convinced of the benefits of fresh air and consequent health, and have a calmer, more serene outlook on life as a whole. it has become "quite proper" now to live in the "country," even though the country is represented by a lot Ã� , for one may have a garden which produces wonders even on such a lot. indirectly, people get the desire to fix up their homesteads, to plant hedges and vines, to have window boxes and put on a kind of apologetic style which develops into conscious pride ultimately. one cannot play with such an avocation long without learning a bit more about nature in general, and without any conscious resolution drifts into keeping chickens or pets as a kind of pleasurable refuge from mundane things. all this activity is much more than a fad; it points to a recurrence of the primitive instinct to always bridge the ever-widening gaps between nature and the human, who is merely an extra-developed animal himself. children always possess in a marked degree a love for outdoors, for animal life, for growing things, and fight hard during the early years to satisfy the desire. when they cannot achieve results at home, the surplus energy is worked off by harrowing the neighbors. steam will do a great deal of work when under control, but if one allows steam to accumulate it must get off sooner or later, and children are under steam always. [illustration: the boy who does not love to camp is unique. this illustrates one of ernest thompson seton's camps where boys come in contact with nature at her best] [illustration: this and other illustrations of homes in this chapter, show such places as people make when they care about appearances] the adult, when he becomes a city dweller, takes his nature study in stiff two-weeks' doses, fishing or shooting, plus all the modern gastronomic tidbits he can carry, and accumulates a fine crop of scientific fables and sunburn. this is not real rest, not even the best acquaintance with nature; rather it is a sort of primitive spree, inherited in garbled form from tradition as a seasonal necessity. the truly fine side to the nature movement lies in its influence on everyday living through a sound regard for what nature can do at her best, and the resultant modification of taste in general. it is a questionable satisfaction to make a whirlwind campaign into nature's midst for a few short weeks, comfortably supported by the consciousness of urban conveniences in the end, when there is the possibility of bringing nature to our very doors, almost to the hearthstone. nature is complacent and excellent company when offered a suitable welcome. the ideal home is ideal throughout--outside as well as in. there is no vital difference between the kind of pride which demands clean linen and that which craves beautiful lawns (to be used however), beautiful flowers (also to be enjoyed), trees and porches for shade and rest. the kind of nature too which really rests and enthuses one is the kind which may be enjoyed for twelve months in the year; in other words, gardens, grounds, and trees which belong to the climate, to the locality, and, being hardy, commend themselves at all seasons. [illustration: even the most beautiful house must have a background to soften the conventional lines and areas of construction] [illustration: one should build a house as one builds a reputation, gradually, allowing ideals and execution to expand and develop together. then the house and grounds will appear at their best] but nature is no designer. the landscape gardener and the amateur must, by their united efforts, bring an artistic plan to bear upon nature's offerings, using her trees and flowers and the contour of the ground, and create an environment which pleases. the result should not only be fine of itself, but should furnish a proper and rich background for the house which is the centre. there are in existence numerous periodicals devoted to country living, farming, gardening, animals, sports, and the special suburban problem, and also a very distinguished library dealing with similar types. these have a surprisingly wide circulation, probably because they are as a class guiding the public taste in such matters instead of following it. this literature has in a few short years uncovered a new public interest in matters allied to nature, notably in home architecture and surroundings, and there is distinct evidence at the present time of improvement in architectural style. domestic buildings are more appropriate in material and design than ever before, and are such as seem to be in tune with the somewhat informal suburban or village surroundings. formerly architectural style was imported from abroad, and with it came a certain few odd fragments of landscape gardening, full of patterns, floral arabesques and geometric arrangements, imitation renaissance, urns and alert iron dogs to guard the dooryard. one can still find houses with ugly mansard roofs, stiff, forbidding doorways, and gloomy windows, the whole perched high on a hill, or at least elevated above the street, suggesting in every feature the barrenness of the artificial. it is art at its worst. the effort was further emphasized by the consistent designers through formal, wax-like landscape accessories, tender budding plants, cast-iron benches and garden ornaments, which must surely be blood kin to the modern steam radiator and art cook stove. there was nothing human about such a place: it always suggested the hereafter. but the new, healthy, public interests in outdoors, in a joyous life, have banished those artificial shells and substituted a type of dwelling which is planned for living. and the outside aspect of the house gives one the impression that it belongs to that particular spot, for those people for home purposes. of course all houses are not so successful, but one finds a good many nowadays. it was bound to come, because when people began to study nature, to live closer to their flowers and animals, to want green lawns and pleasant hills, they soon sought a type of shelter which would nestle close to the ground and look hospitable and inviting. architecture and gardening are more closely related than one would first imagine, and it is questionable whether one can deal successfully with one and ignore the other. [illustration: trees, shrubbery and lawn form the frame of the picture, and a bad frame will spoil the finest picture] [illustration: there was a time not long since, when people built houses according to style. they now build for pleasure and comfort, producing the finest style of all] in previous chapters the discussion of children and their training has touched lightly upon certain points which may well be elaborated a bit here. most of the child's waking hours would virtually be spent out of doors; no house is large enough. and it was urged that these intense outside activities would be excellent foci for most profitable study. no yard, however restricted, is too small to accommodate some hobby which will absorb the child's energy and aid in generating constructive skill and judgment. the matter of pocket money is also very important and becomes a powerful motive when properly used. but there is another and more mature point of view concerning the home as a whole, which should not be discarded. _every child should learn to so respect and value his own personal property and affairs that he will respect those of others, neighbors for instance._ he will not do this unless his own efforts and experiments are taken seriously, or unless his home grounds and living are maintained at top condition, or unless he grows to appreciate a beautiful physical environment. the lawn, the garden, poultry house and stable ought to be in perfect trim all the time. it is better taste to have them so, and it is good business. one cannot succeed with raising pets or animals in unsanitary quarters, or inadequate shelter. it will not be difficult to develop proper ideas of taste and charm in the grounds about the house if one begins with the boy's and girl's own business and steers that to a decent working basis. ragged grounds, unkempt lawns, weeds, littered porches and hopeless, tired-looking flowers--all persistent manifestations of neglect--leave on the youthful mind ineradicable impressions which undermine good taste. most boys and girls dislike any kind of work which is mere drudgery, and most children in these days shy at work for ends other than their own, because they have found that they can have privileges and amusements without responsibility or other return to their parents. the solution lies in the restoration to the boy of a feeling of personal responsibility and pride, restoring to him and his sister the rights of ownership to things and privileges earned, and make the children something other than social puppets. make their youthful occupations count. among those occupations one finds a number which are equally fascinating to both children and adults. [illustration: courtesy of miss annie washburn a school garden. if children cannot expand at home, the public school is under obligation to satisfy the need for outdoor occupation] [illustration: courtesy of prin. f. c. clifton a school garden. watchung school, montclair, n. j.] probably no accessory to the home is more to be valued than the garden, especially the flower garden. it adds so much of color and variety to the whole scheme, and helps to bring the house into intimate relation with the grounds. the finest gardening has probably been due to feminine influence, and every girl can draw from practical experience with growing things a delicacy of taste and wealth of knowledge to apply to ends peculiarly her own. the latent intuitive feminine outlook often remains undeveloped in these days, and no craft will preserve and stimulate it more than gardening. there is a reaction just now against the formal flower beds of tender plants, a patch of exotic color dotting otherwise irreproachable lawns, though the florist would like to keep such arrangements in fashion, for he is seldom a true artist. but better standards of living, a fresher study of nature, a more personal, intimate architecture, have brought into them many of the old garden ideals where the garden belonged to the mistress of the house and showed it. the garden has a most significant history. it has always been a centre of family life, and among the romans was in fact the element about which the household revolved. here the family rested and visited, worked and played. the dwelling was built around it, with living rooms which opened on its walks and fountains, bringing the family together in the most intimate way. the early dutch and english colonists brought to america a similar taste for this soothing adjunct to the home and early put into effect such garden plans as their limited resources permitted. and always it has been the women-folk of the community who have kept the garden alive with persistent belief in its harmonizing influence on the family. not infrequently the children learned their first lessons in business, in ownership and in responsibility, there. gardening is one of the oldest and simplest of crafts and may not be overlooked in seeking a pathway for youthful energy. perhaps the boy or girl would rather grow fruits or berries, vegetables, raise pigeons, keep bees--one and all are equally good. this is the essential fact: every boy and girl should come into direct and positive contact with some of the important natural phenomena and life. growing things have to be cared for, they must have food, water and protection. one cannot play with them when one feels like it; they need attention every day. the obligation is a pleasant one, but nevertheless it is an obligation and gives a much needed lesson in a way that sticks. any occupation around the home, if it be one which ministers either to the pleasure, comfort or profit of individual members, is quite likely to knit that family into a more compact group. it keeps the children more at home. the interchange of service and advice which brings into relief the interdependence of the individuals stimulates this one of the important characteristics of domestic society. there has been an indication in recent years to lay upon the schools the entire training for manhood and womanhood. it is expected to teach manners and ethics, to give the proper kind of academic information, to formulate character, to even teach "nature." it is impossible to do this. the finest character, habits of study, executive ability, and the social attitude must be started and nursed to strength, if not to maturity, at home. five hours each day under incomplete authority can accomplish little else than formal instruction. even the beginnings of technical and scientific training have their roots deep in these childish hobbies which originate and flourish at home, where a deep obligation rests upon parents to make the most of this early time. it is a lead the school can follow, but never originate. the school represents the average educational ideal of a given community, and when schools are inefficient, languish and give indifferent service, it is an excellent index of the local culture standard. therefore, when parents develop to their highest pitch the enthusiasms and abilities of childhood, when they foster family life and enrich it so that every member, particularly the younger ones, become active participants, and feel that they too have work to contribute to the general welfare, then and then only will the school by force of public sentiment revise its own standards. [illustration: there is a fascination about raising animals whether for sale or as pets. to the child this occupation acquires the dignity of a real business] [illustration: two more illustrations which will suggest plans for the future] for reasons such as these every home should be a kind of unofficial training school, in which the courses are mostly elective. some outdoor hobbies which the children will enjoy should be maintained, and, on however small a scale, the house and grounds should be planned with this in view. the city boy and girl will have somewhat limited choice, but even there one can enjoy several hobbies, even in a flat. one can at least grow things, for there are few corners, even in a city, so dark that some plants will not flourish. [illustration] chapter vi vacations, athletics, scouting, camping, photography [illustration: every child, and especially the boy, needs active outdoor exercise. this kind has much to recommend it] [illustration: organized play (woodcraft) under ernest thompson seton] the boy of to-day is at a real disadvantage in his struggle for health and happiness. he is always a primitive at heart, surging in the direction of direct physical expression, showing almost on the surface the simplicity of savage instincts, to live close to the earth, be outdoors, perform feats of strength and skill, hunt, fish, camp and play at doing the essential acts of life. through succeeding generations society has perfected a veneer of convention which glosses over the crudities of childish abandon, and as they (children) grow, the polish becomes thicker and more lasting, even so as to make the individual a "ready-to-wear" being. but at intervals, even in adults, one finds the periodic plunge into camp and field. that vacations do not always supply the benefit which doctors would, but cannot, is rather the fault of brevity than of the outings themselves. boys can, as a rule, enjoy vacations without responsibilities, they can have ample scope for the close acquaintanceship with the simplicities of outdoor living. one of the first true signs of summer is the tents and crude shelters in backyards of our suburban villages. it is the nearest approach to a normal, sane existence the child can make. no proper child omits to play "indian" or "hunter" in his early years, and no youth ever quite outgrows the keen pleasure of sleeping in the open, companioned by the sighing of the night. one recent experience of the writer, camping among the giant redwoods of california, where one could before going to sleep have a last look at the stars framed by the wondrous trees, and drift to unconsciousness to water music in the gorge way down below, was a time never to be forgotten. it is such experiences as these in the open which both keep and restore one's mental balance; they breed cheerfulness and optimism, develop friendships. and the boy is not so very particular about the place, provided there is water and woods, some companions, and things to do. he loves to swim and should learn. he wants to be of some account and have a part in the camp, learn how to make camp, protect things, prepare for weather, engineer the routine of camp life. probably no institution outside formal educational institutions is likely to have more vital influence on boys of the future than the boy scouts, already mentioned, a marvelous scheme to organize this play spirit. it takes hold of the most primitive instincts in child life, develops them to the highest pitch of efficiency, and turns the enormous energy generated thereby into useful channels by the simplest of devices--service. but be it noted, service for which the need is perfectly plain. the boy gets the finest of physical training imaginable and readily cultivates moral virtues which have been the despair of teachers and parents. [illustration: more woodcraft. has the boy had a chance at this kind of experience?] [illustration: even the technical processes of photography have been reduced to popular terms] [illustration: in these days photography has become so simplified that every child can use a camera to advantage] in general, the vacation cannot be more profitably spent elsewhere than outdoors. if a boy cannot actually go into the woods, away from home and the restrictions which modern living must of necessity impose, then the next best thing is pastime or amusement which requires outdoors for a setting. there is much to be said for each and every one of the sports common at the present time, baseball, tennis, football, golf, boating, riding--they are all good--and every healthy child will take part in one or more. now a book about sport can never teach a boy or girl how to become skilful; it cannot explain the mystery of the golf stroke or pitched curve, but it can and does awaken the spirit of trial and test. it suggests that there is possibly a right way to do things; to play even, if one would succeed. the book may tell of the necessity for team work and organization, for system and regular living, and observance of rules made by others. in other words, the book acts through suggestion, very seldom directly; and for the same reason that one gives children books on mechanics, sewing, pets and gardening, that they may learn of the dignity and worth of these occupations, so also does one recommend books of sport and games, which surely are the more valuable when taken in all seriousness. it is through their games, involving dependence upon the confidence in others, that children acquire the best traits of character. aside from the inherent return in physical well-being derived from amusement in the open air--one can use this kind of medicine twelve months in the year--such pastime possesses a second quality of no mean importance; it brings one, ofttimes unconsciously, into communication or hailing distance at least of that nature which is so charming. it is easy to see the beauties of birds and flowers and skies, in camp; and the dynamic loveliness of crisp fall weather, even in a great city, is evidenced out of doors by the animation of passersby. but one cannot read about the beauties of beneficent nature; one must enjoy them personally, and is led on to do so through those pastimes which take place in the open. several of these have been mentioned, and there is one other: photography. photography has almost ceased to be a science; it is a habit. one goes to the store, invests in a comfortably small parcel and a book of instructions which says "press here," and that is about all. the fine succeeding details are minor matters. whether one merely "presses the button" or goes the whole road and really makes the picture, photography has come to be a regular accessory to sport and enjoyment. no doubt it is evidence of human vanity, but it takes so mild a form and is the source of so much pleasure that the world needs it, to preserve the thousand and one scenes and incidents which comprise the background of life. [illustration] index symbols used *--illustrated a--outdoor work b--mechanics, indoors and out c--carpentry and woodwork d--home decoration e--electricity g--gardening h--housekeeping k--outdoor sports m--working in metals n--needlecraft index page accounts balancing, h - , charge accounts, h check book method, h credits, recording, h dairy accounts, a debit and credit, h department method of keeping, h - housekeeping, h - how to keep household accounts, by c. w. haskins, recommended, h personal expense account, specimen, h poultry raising, a , _see also_ allowances; income acorns, care of seed for planting, a aeronautics. _see_ aeroplanes; balloons; flying machines; kites aeroplanes, b - *, c - * balance problem, b biplane making toy model, c - * principle of construction, b - * bleriot monoplane, b - * engines, types used, b construction principles in general, b - controlling direction of, b - gyroscope principle applied, b making models, b - *, c - * management not difficult, b maxim's aero-curve, b - * monoplane making a model, b - , c - * principle of construction, b - *, - motive power for toy model, b - , c , - planes aspect ratio, b , shape of, b - propeller blades making for a model, b , c - * position on machine, b - santos dumont monoplane, b - * testing a model, b triplane, b voisin biplane, b - * why aeroplanes fly, b - , - wind velocity table, b wireless telegraph control a possibility, b _see also_ balloons; flying machines; kites ageratum, planting, g sowing and blossoming time, g agricultural clubs book about, a organizing, a - agricultural pests. _see_ insect pests agriculture. _see_ dairying; domestic animals; drainage; fertilizers and manures; flower gardening; forestry; fruit gardening; irrigation; soils; trees; vegetable gardening; vegetables alaska sable, skunk skin, a alcohol as a cleaning agent, h , , airships. _see_ aeroplanes; balloons alarm clocks, electric, e alfred, king story of the burned cakes, h algae. _see_ seaweed alligator wrench, making, m allowances how to manage, h alloys definition of, m almonds food value, h alternating currents. _see_ electric currents althea (rose of sharon) characteristics, g aluminum extraction from clay, e utensils advantages, h care of, h ammeter, e - * construction, e - how it measures electricity, e - , - shunt, use of, e - ampere, andre marie ampere's rule, e - amusements. _see_ games; sports andirons forging, m - * how to use, h andrew, saint story of the loaves and fishes, h anemometer making, c - anemone japanese, characteristics, g , wood anemone, g angora goat, a - book about, a animals feeding motherless animals, a tamed versus domesticated, k training, a - fear versus kindness, a - wild animals, a - _see also_ domestic animals; pets; also names of animals, e. g., birds, newts, toads, etc. annealing copper bowl, m definition of, m steel, m - tools for, m - * annuals (plants) blooming after frost, g climbing, g definition of, g for cut flowers: table, g for heavy soils: table, g for rocky places: table, g for sandy soils: table, g for shady places: table, g for sunny places: table, g fragrant: table, g self sowing, g value of, g , what to plant, g annunciators, electric, e - * antique furniture. _see_ furniture ants development from the egg, a - garden pest, g habits, k household pests, h anvil metal workers' tool, m * apartment houses heating by electricity, e how to have a play house in, h apiculture. _see_ bees apple distance to plant trees, g food value, h saving seeds from cider making, a surplus used for cider vinegar, a wood for canes, a applique embroidery, n - honiton lace, n leather, n , * overlaid work, n underlaid, n apricots, dried food value, h april birds, k blooming plants, g aprons, making, n - bands and strings, n - gathering, n - * sewing apron and work bag combined, n - * aquarium care of sick fish, k cost of ready-made boxes and globes, k feeding fish, k making a water-tight box, k - stocking a self-sustaining aquarium, k - what to keep in, k _see also_ gold fish arago, francois jean wave theory of light, e arbor vitæ characteristics, c arbors. _see_ pergola arbutus gathering and conserving, a arc lamp. _see_ electric lamp--arc archery practice of, k - architecture adapting the plan to the purpose, d , american city versus country homes, d - bungalow, plan and elevation, c * dining-room plan, d floor plan, d * hall plan, d kitchen plan, d living-room plan, d a model house, d - pantry plan, d plan in relation to decorations and furnishings, d - principles of design, d - , - wall areas, considering, d _see also_ building; carpentry; cottages; foundations; pergola archimedian screw, b - *, * armatures ammeter armature, e dynamo armature, e , - arrowhead (plant) characteristics, g art copyrighting works of art, b arthur, king the king's kitchen: story, h artichoke indoor planting time, g arts and crafts. _see_ basket making; bead work; block printing; brass work; copper work; embroidery; lace making; leather work; metal work; iron work; silver work; stenciling arum (plant) characteristics, g ash characteristics, c strength of wood, c ash tray copper work, m * ashes fertilizing value, a asparagus insect pests, g aspidistra indoor plant, g assisi, saint francis of, h association foot ball, k aster characteristics of new england aster, g half hardy plant, g sowing and blossoming time, g starting, g athletics all around athletic championship, k - best college record, k olympic games, events, k rowing record, k training rules, k - value of, k - atlantic cable laying, e - atmospheric pressure. _see_ barometer attic playhouse, h atwater, w. o. principles of nutrition; quotation, h auger bit, c * screw principle, b august blooming plants, g australian boomerang, b - * automobiles gasolene consumed per mile, b making frame for one and two cylinder motors, b - * making toy automobile, c - * aviation. _see_ aeroplanes axe selecting, k - azalea indoor plant, g b babylon proposed irrigation works, b baby's breath (plant) characteristics, g , bachelor's buttons. _see_ cornflower backing enamel definition, m bacon cuts, h food value, h , for basting meat, h bacteria in soils, g baden-powell, sir robert organizer of the boy scouts, k badminton (game), k bags braiding, n - * raffia hand bag, n - * stenciled, n * bait fish bait, k - _see also_ trapping baked beans food value, h baking cake, h principles and process, h - thickness of food, h baking powder composition and use, h how to retain strength of, e ball one old cat, k _see also_ base ball; basket ball; call ball; cricket; foot ball; hand ball; hand polo; hat ball; hockey; japanese fan ball; lacrosse; polo; push ball; racquets; roley boley; skittles; squash; tennis; tether ball; volley ball ball bearings principle of, b balloon vine characteristics, g balloons history, b - making paper balloons, b - * balsam characteristics, g , c gathering, a sowing and blossoming time, g baltimore belle, story of, n - baltimore oriole as insect destroyer, a bananas food value, h band saws. _see_ saws bandy (game), k bantams breeding and care, a - game bantams, a bar, horizontal making a pull up bar, c * bar pins silver metal work, m - * barberry characteristics, g picking, a - jelly, receipt, a , barometer complex, how to make, b - * construction of, b - * inventors of, b purpose of, b simple, how to make, b - theory of, b water barometer, how to make, b - * base ball, k - *, - art of playing, k - balls, standard, k base hit, k bases, k bats, k batsmen left-handed, k qualifications, k training, k batting, k captain's duties, k - catcher, k - diamond, k laying out, k - * doubtful balls, providing for, k "fan", k first baseman, k gate receipts, k ground rules, k home run, k innings, k choice of, by contesting team, k manager's duties, k methods, old and modern, k - national game of america, k nine, k , opponent's methods, learning, k outfielder, k - pitcher and pitching, k *, *, - positions, k , scores, k , - second baseman, k shoes, k short-stop, k signals, k team, how to organize, k third base, k training rules, k two-bagger, k umpire, k uniforms, k visiting teams, expenses, k what makes a game, k basket ball rules, k basket making materials for, n - porcupine quills for, a raffia work, n - , - * rattan basketry, n - * reed flower baskets, g - * sweet grass baskets, a bass bait for, k basse-taille definition, m basswood characteristics, c basting meat, h , basting stitches, n * bath tubs cleaning, h sanitation, h bathroom care and cleaning, h - baths electric shower baths in a summer camp, e - summer camp device, e - bats usefulness of, k batteries, electric. _see_ electric batteries bayberry description of bush, a dips, making, a - leaves for sachet, a baywood staining mahogany, c , d bead work, n - * chains, n - * curtains, n cushion covers, n - daisy chains, n - * loom, home-made, n - * portieres, n - purse, n - * stringing the beads, n beam action, c beams, wooden strength of materials, b bean bag rules of game, k beans bush beans, varieties, g experiments in growing, g - food value, h , , insect pests, g planting seeds depth and distance, g distance of drills apart, g eye downward, g quantity to plant, g time to plant, g pole beans ornamental value, g varieties, g seeds age for planting, g germination per cent., g , germination time, g soil, g , _see also_ lima beans; string beans bearings anti-friction, b * beck-iron definition of, m bedbugs, h - bedell, frederick discovery that the same wire carries two currents, e bedroom atmosphere, h care of morning work, h - night preparation, h personal responsibility, h furnishings for a girl's room, h furniture, designs for, d - * guest room, h _see also_ beds; closets bedroom electric heater, e * bedroom slippers. _see_ slippers beds bough beds, k * camping outfits, k - * designs, d *, * doll's bed of pasteboard, and fittings, h - making fittings for a doll's bed, n - * making up a bed, h , - bed spread. _see_ counterpane bee balm (flower) habits and characteristics, g , bee-hive. _see_ bees bee-keepers association, value of, a bee stings prevention and cure, a - beech nuts characteristics, a gathering, a beef cuts and their uses, h - food value: table, h beef tea making, h bees, a - books about, a brood chamber, description, a *, what goes on in, a - buying, hints about, a - cost of colony, a development from the egg, a - diseases and enemies, a , egg-laying, a feeding, spring and fall, a hives arranging, a drone and queen trap at entrance, a * entrance to, a kinds, a , - , modern, a - * observation hive, a , k old-fashioned, a opening how to open, and remove frames, a - reasons for, a putting together, a supers, a * ventilation, a where to place, a - hiving, a - honey harvesting, a making, a - plants which supply, a supply for hives, a uses of, a honeycomb cells, a - how bees work, a - how to approach the hive, a italian, a keeping how to begin, a - supplies for first year, a - life, length of, a locating the hives, a - marketing the honey, a - nucleus, meaning, a observation hives, a , k * products of the hives, a - profit in, a - , - protecting from wind and sun, a - queen bee clipping wings, a locating, a rearing, a - testing, a runaway swarms, securing, a shipping, a smoking, a - success with bees: stories, a - swarm catcher, home-made, a - * swarming reasons for, a time and process, a - to prevent, a varieties, a wax making, a wintering, a - * worker bees, development of, a - beeswax for cleaning irons, h beetles development from the egg, a - extermination of pests, g , , , mounting specimens, a * beets boiling, g cooking preparation, h food value, h insect pests, g planting seeds, g depth and distance, g quantity to plant, g time to plant, g seed age for planting, g germination time, g soil preparation, g transplanting, to avoid, g , begonias bedding plant, g window box plant, g bell, alexander graham inventor of the telephone, e bellflower habits and characteristics, g bellicent mother of gareth, h bellows blacksmith's, m * metal worker's, m * bells brass work, m - * _see also_ electric bells belt buckle copper work, m - * designs for, m * belt pin copper work, d * belts knotted raffia, n - irish crochet, n - * tooled leather, designs and process, d - * bench double seat for summer house, c - * riverside, b selection of wood for, c stationary outdoor bench, c - _see also_ settees bench hook making, c - bench stop, c bench work. _see_ carpentry; whittling berries food value, h picking, a - seasons, a washing, h _see also_ names of berries, e. g., raspberry; strawberry; thimbleberry; etc. bessemer steel. _see_ steel bethsaida story of the loaves and fishes, h bezel setting, m - *, *, bicycle sprocket wheel, b * biennials definition, g what and how to plant, g binding edges and seams, n * biplane construction, b - * making a toy model, c - * birch aspen leaved, c bark, removing, a - uses, a black or sweet birch, c blue or hornbeam, c gray, c kinds and characteristics, c - red, c staining mahogany color, d white, canoe, or paper birch, c yellow, c birds april birds, k attracting the birds, a - * bath, making, c * books about, a crows as pets, k eggs and nests, collecting, a enemies, a - , k flight, theory of, b - game preserve, creating, a - houses building, c - *, k - location, c suiting the birds, c supports for, c march birds, k may birds, k migration, k nesting time, k non-migrating, k protecting fruit from, a protection and care of, a - song birds, attracting, a - unlawful to cage, k that stay all winter, k traffic in skins, a - training, a - value as garden pest destroyers, g , a - bit and brace. _see_ carpentry and woodwork--tools bites of insects treatment of, h bittersweet, a black bass bait for, k blacksmithing, m - equipment, m fuel, m fullering, meaning, m iron used, m - tools, m , - *, , _see also_ forge; forging; horseshoeing; iron work; tempering; steel; welding blankets campers' outfit, k making for doll-bed, n * washing woollens, h , bleeding heart characteristics, g , blood root habits and characteristics, g blindman's buff (game), k block and tackle. _see_ pulleys block printing on fabrics designs and process, d - * laundering articles, d materials used for, blood stains removing, h blotting pads leather, design and making, d - * metal corners, making, m - * making and carving hand blotter, c - * blow pipe metal workers' tools, m * blowing engines diagonal catch and hand gear, b blue flag. _see_ iris blue printing leaves and flowers, a - bluebell characteristics, g blueberries burning over land, a , c canning factories, a picking, a varieties, a where found, a , c bluebird insect destroyer, a migration, k bluets, g bluing clothes, h , boards. _see_ lumber boat building, b - * carvel ribbon built boat, b centre line of shaft, b decks, b dimensions of the _mocking bird_, b * displacement, b exhaust pipe fitting up, b - pet-cock, b under water, b - expansion chamber, b floor boards, b keel block for, b laying and setting up, b - * keelson, b * knees, b "knock down" system, b , launching the boat, b , - laying off the profile, b lettering the name, b - materials and dimensions, b - * motor dimensions, b installing, b - * motor bed, fitting, b , offsets, table of, b patterns, buying, b plan and section of the _mocking bird_, b - * propeller shaft, installing, b section of launch, b * sections, spacing of, b - sheathing, b * skeleton, fitting posts together, b * steering gear, b * stem, b *, thwarts, b unloading materials, b - varnishing the boat, b _see also_ screw propeller boat house building, b - * covering the frame, b doors and windows, b foundation, b * frame, end and side, b - * pier, constructing, b , roof, b - slides or ways, b - boats fishing boats, fitting and cost, k _see also_ boat building; canoes and canoeing; launch; screw propeller bob sled, k * bob white migration, k planting seed birds, a bo-bo and the roast pig, h bobolink migration, k bog plants, g bohnenberger's machine, b * boiling meats and fish, h principle and process, h seasoning, h vegetables, h boiling point of liquids, h bolsters, h bolts forging, m - * book case designs, d *, *, *, c * "knock down" design and construction, d - * mission style, c staining the wood, d , with adjustable shelf, design and construction, c - * with glazed doors, design and construction, d - * _see also_ book rack book cover limp leather design and making, d - * book mark copper work, m * book rack copper work, m *, d * folding, designing and making, c - * wall rack, designing and making, c - *, d - * book shelves. _see_ book case; book rack book supports copper work, m *, d * books care of, h boomerang, australian making, b - * boone, daniel wilderness traveler, k bootees knitted, n - * bordeaux mixture receipt, g , uses, g , , boring. _see_ drilling and boring bossing up, m , botany collecting native plants in california, a - _see also_ flower gardening; flowers bottles killing bottle for insects, a - *, k *, washing, h boulder up (game), k boulders moving on rollers, b - * raising, b - * bow and arrow, k bowling lawn bowling, k bowls. _see_ brass work; copper work; metal work; pottery box elder characteristics, c box furniture, c - * box kite. _see_ kites box making design to resemble books, c * dovetail joints, c - * drawing instrument box, c * hinging a lid, c knife and fork box, c - * nail box, c - * pencil box, making and carving, c - * proportions, c seat and chest combined, c * simple box, c * toilet boxes, c - *, - * _see also_ copper work; inlaying; metal work; wood carving boy scouts of america, k - * activities, k ambulance badge, qualifications for, k aviator badge, qualifications for, k badges, k - bee-keeper's badge, qualifications for, k blacksmith's badge, qualifications for, k bugler's badge, qualifications for, k campaigning, k camps, routine and model programme, k - carpenter's badge, qualifications for, k clerk's badge, qualifications for, k cook's badge, qualifications for, k cyclist's badge, qualifications for, k dairyman's badge, qualifications for, k electrician's badge, qualifications for, k engineer's badge, qualifications for, k farmer's badge, qualifications for, k finances, k fireman's badge, qualifications for, k first aid to animals' badge, qualifications for, k first-class tests, k - founder of society, k gardener's badge, qualifications for, k handy man's badge, qualifications for, k headquarters, k horseman's badge, qualifications for, k interpreter's badge, qualifications for, k laws, k - leather workers' badge, qualifications for, k life saver's badge, qualifications for, k marksman's badge, qualifications for, k master-at-arms badge, qualifications for, k membership requirements, k - missioner's badge, qualifications for, k musician's badge, qualifications for, k oath, k official hand book, how to obtain, k origin, k pathfinder's badge, qualifications for, k patrols, forming, k , - photographer's badge, qualifications for, k pioneer's badge, qualifications for, k piper's badge, qualifications for, k plumber's badge, qualifications for, k poultry farmer's badge, qualifications for, k principles of good scouting, k printer's badge, qualifications for, k purpose, k salute and secret sign, k scout craft, k , scout master, qualifications and duties, k , - second-class tests, k sign posts for scout master, k - signaler's badge, qualifications for, k seaman's badge, qualifications for, k stalker's badge, qualifications for, k starman's badge, qualifications for, k surveyor's badge, qualifications for, k swimmer's badge, qualifications for, k tenderfoot, class requirements, k troop, organization, k - , - boys' clubs. _see_ clubs brace and bit. _see_ carpentry and woodwork--tools bracelets silver work, m - * bracket brass work, m - * iron work, m - * wood corner bracket, c * designs, c - * making, c braiding coronation braid daisy pattern, n - * what it is and how to sew it on, n - * fastening the ends of the braid, n flat braid, how to sew it on, n rugs and mats, n soutache braid, n stamping the design, n weaving four strands, n * how to begin, n - * joining a new strand, n , *, on frame, n - * six strands, n * braising, h brass cleaning, h , m coloring blue black, m coloring green, c composition and characteristics of, m tarnish, to prevent, m brass work, m - * bell and bracket, m - * bracket, m - * crumb tray and scraper, m - * finger bowl, m - * handles to vase, making, m soldering a vase, m tea caddy, m - * vase, m - * weighting a vase, m _see also_ copper work; metal work brazilian point lace, n * brazing metals, m - preparation of parts and process, m - value, m bread baking, h brown bread, food value, h camp cooking, k - curled bread for camping, e food value, h , , freshening dry bread, h ingredients, purpose of, h - kneading, h mixing, h raising, h setting, h unleavened, h yeast for, h - bread board making, c - * breakfast food food value, h left overs, h breeding purpose and standards, k skill in breeding dutch belted varieties, k _see also_ domestic animals; also names of animals, e. g., horse; poultry; swine etc. bridges building a foot bridge, b - * brier stitch. _see_ feather-stitching broilers. _see_ electric broilers; poultry raising broiling process and utensils, h - brooches silver work, m - * brooders making, k brook trout bait, k reclaiming a trout stream, a - broth. _see_ soups brother juniper's cooking: story, h brown bread combinations for food values, h brushes paint brushes, h stenciling brushes, n - * _see also_ commutators (electricity) brussels sprouts soil and planting, g - brussels stitch, n - * buckeye tree characteristics, c buckles belt buckles, making, m - *, * turn buckles, forging, m , - * buckthorn for hedges, g buckwheat cakes and sausage, food value, h food value, h budding plants, g - buffet design, d * building base boards, c batter boards, posts and sills setting, d cheap finishings, c chimneys, style of, c construction boat house details, b - * house details, d - * cornice detail, d * flashing chimneys, c interior finish details, d * joists, placing, b model house, d - rollers for moving heavy weights, b sills, setting, d - * walls, finishing, c woods and their uses, c working drawings for, d - _see also_ architecture; bird houses; boat building; boat house; carpentry; columns; doors; floors; foundations; house framing; joints; pergola; poultry house; summer house; strength of materials; windows; wood buildings wrecking, b - , bulbs (metal) forging iron bulbs, m - * bulbs (plant), g - california bulbs, collecting and cultivating, a - bedding plants, g , blue flowers, list, g colors, list, g - drying and storing, g easiest to grow, g flat for, making, g * forcing varieties, g insect pests, g outdoor planting, soil preparations, g planting, hints, g planting in lawns, g , a , potting for winter, soil and drainage, g red flowers, list, g resting time, g to prevent plants from blossoming low down, g transferring to light and heat, g , water bulbs, g care and development, g when to buy, g white flowers, list, g winter care of, g yellow flowers, list, g _see also_ canna; chinese lilies; crocus; hyacinths; narcissus; tulips bulgarian drawn work, n - * bull in the ring (game), k bungalow plan and elevation, c * bunsen burner, m * burdock class and seed time, g destroying, a distribution of seed, g bureau drawers arrangement and care of contents, h - doll's playhouse in, h burgees, b bur-marigold (beggarticks) class and seed time, g burned wood. _see_ pyrography burns care of, h burroughs, john love for birds, a butcher knife. _see_ knives butt joints, c * butter food value, h , how to judge butter, h butterflies breeding, a - classifying a collection, a collecting, a - *, k - series to illustrate development, a - time for, a development from the egg, a - killing bottle and how to use it, a - , k *, mounting a collection, a - *, k * net for catching, k * butterfly weed habits and characteristics, g , buttermilk cleansing properties, h butternut tree characteristics, a , c buttonball tree characteristics, c , g buttonholes, n - * cutting, n loops, making, n * stitch, n * tailor-made, n * thread for, n , buttonholing blanket stitch, n * finishing edge, n , hedebo embroidery, n - * honeycomb stitch, n * knotting thread, to avoid, n mount mellick, n padding, n - roman cut-work, n - * american stitch, n * european stitch, n - * scalloping, n * cutting out, n triangular buttonholing, n * _see also_ wallachian embroidery buttons sewing on, n - * buttonwood characteristics, c buying. _see_ marketing c cabbage bleaching heads, g cooking preparations, h family, g food value, h growing, g - harvesting, g indoor planting, g insect pests, g , planting seed depth and distance to plant, g early and late crops, g quantity to plant, g time to plant, g savoy variety for poor soil, g seed germination per cent., g time required, g soil requirements, g , storing, g cabinet with drawers, making, c - * with shelves and glass doors, making, d - * _see also_ filing cabinet; medicine cabinet; tool cabinet cabinet work. _see_ carpentry and woodwork cables, submarine laying the atlantic cable, e - number in operation, e rates, e cactus use of pitch, a cahill, dr. inventor of telharmonium, e - cake baking, h freshening dry cake, h making, h - substituting lard for butter, h calcimine cleaning walls, h calendar back whittling, c * calendula sowing and blossoming time, g calf beef versus dairy feeding, a diseases, a fattening, a feeding, a - raising, a - teaching to drink, a training to lead, a , watering, a calfskin for leather work, n california bulbs collecting and growing, a - california poppies sowing and blossoming time, g calipers blacksmiths' tools, m call ball, k caloric theory of heat, e calves. _see_ calf cambium, a camelot, h , cameras kinds and cost, k - lenses, k camp stool making, c - * camphor for packing, h , camping beds, k - * blankets, k bough bed, k * boy scouts' camp, k - brush leanto, k * clothing, k - cooking, k - * bread, k - coffee, k fish, k , frying, k game, k , indian meal, k johnny cake, k left overs, k meat, time, k rice, k rules, k - utensils, k - vegetables, k , drainage problem, k electric lights, installation and cost, e - fireplaces, building, k - fires for cooking, k - * gypsy rig, k hunter's fire, k - lighting in the rain, k making, k - that will burn all night, k , * firewood, providing for, k - fitting up an old mill, e - food, care of, k - girl's work in, k - hints for comfort, k - locality, choosing, k - mosquitoes, protection from, k outfit, k - * ovens, k - * principles of, k - selecting a leader, k shower bath device, e * site, selecting, k - sleeping bag and head shelter, k * tents, k - * pegs, securing, k pitching, k - * sod cloth, k water supply device, k - * canadian pine, c candleberry, a - candles bayberry dips, a - shades, making from cardboard and paper, d * candlestick copper work, m - * pottery, designing, d - * spiral, iron work, m - * wrought iron, making, m - * candytuft annual, g characteristics, g , sowing and blossoming time, g cane rush, k canes woods used for, a - canna bedding plants, g planting bulbs, g , planting seeds, g canning and preserving elderberries, a canoe tilting (game), k canoeing, k - * accidents, avoiding, k girl's sports, k indian model canoe, k * paddling, k - sailing canoes, k - * canterbury bell biennial, g capstan, b , * car springs, b - * carafe washing, h carbohydrates effect of boiling processes, h food composition, h in vegetables, h proportion in diet, h , carbon bisulphide insecticide, g , carbon filaments. _see_ electric lamps--incandescent carbonic acid as leaf food, g - carbureter, b * card, leslie e. how i started with hens, a - card case making and embroidering, n - * tooled leather, design and making, d - * card tray copper work, d - * carpentry and woodwork beveling, c * gage device for, c bill of material, value in making, c *, board feet, estimating, c construction, c - curved rails, making, d curves, cutting with gouge, c - * cutting up old lumber, b - doweling, d dressing down lumber, c - , - estimating lumber, c - gaining-in shelves, d * glued-up work, joining, d - * gluing joints, d - *, - mitre joints, c - * process, c gouge work, c - * grooves chiseling, c - , cutting, c - * gouging, c - * joint edge, meaning, c joints. _see_ joints in main alphabet mathematics of woodwork, c - * mortise, cutting, d nails holding power, b - sinking, c * outdoor carpentry, c - * panels for desk, d - * for door, c - , - original purpose of, c - * planing, c , d - , position for planing, c surface planing and taking out wind, c use of shooting board, c * rabbeting, c - sand papering, d shop equipment, c - * grindstone, c - * lumber rack, c - * nail box and cabinet, c - * tool box, making, c - * tool chest and cabinet, making, c - work bench, types, c - * spokeshave work, examples, c *, *, * squaring up stock, c - , - * stock, selection and preparation, d - * systematic plan in working, d - testing grain of the wood for strength, c truing up, c - , d - * undercutting, c - * warping, to prevent, d * working face of lumber, c _see also_ building; doors; floors; house framing; joints; lumber; polishing; rustic furniture; stains and staining; strength of materials; whittling; windows; wood; wood finishing carpentry and woodwork--problems box furniture, c - * brackets, c - * bread board, c * camp stool, c - * chest and box seat combination, c * checkerboard, c - * clock cases, c - * coat hanger, c * couch hammock, c - * drawers, making, c - *, * drawing board, c *, foot stools, c - * mission style, c - * handles for hatchet and hammer, c * hinges, setting, c household utensils, c - , - * knife and fork box, c - * ladle, c * linen chest, c - * magazine rack, d *, - * mechanical drawing outfit, c - * medicine cabinet, c - * mitre box, c - * morris chair, d *, - nail boxes, c - * pen and ink trays, c - * pin tray, c * rustic furniture, d - * sugar scoop, c * toilet boxes, c - *, - * tool cases and chest, c - *, - tool rack, c * towel rack, c * towel roller, c - * umbrella stand, d - mission design, c * _see also_ bird house; book case; book rack; box making; building; chairs; desk; doors; floors; house framing; inlaying, wood; joints; mechanical drawing; mission furniture; pergola; picture frames and framing; plant stands; poultry house; settees; stains and staining; tables; tabourette; toy making; whittling; windows; wood; wood carving; wood finishing carpentry and woodwork--tools auger bit, c * bench hook, c - * bench stop, c bit and brace "chuck", c extension bit, c * ratchet attachment for corners, c types, c - * boring tools, c - * braces, making, c cases and cabinets, making, c - *, - * centre bit, c * chisels, socket and tang, c * clamps, devices for, c * coping saw, c * cutting tools, construction and action, c dowel bit, c draw knife, c * drill bits, c drills, c - * dulling edges on old lumber, b - files, kind and uses, c forstner bit, c * gimlet bit, c *, gouge, c - * hammers, c * hand screw, c - * using, c - * mallet, c * mitre box, c - * nail set, c * oil stone, c * planes, c - * pliers, c * quality, c rack, c * rules, c saw horse, making, c - * saws, c - * screw driver, c * screw driver bit, c sharpening, c - * shooting board how to make, c * how to use, c * spirit level, c * spokeshave, c square, steel, c *, m * surface plate, d template, c * vise, quick action, c * winding sticks, d * carpets cleaning, h storing, h _see also_ rugs carriages cleaning, a carrier pigeons, k carrot planting seed quantity to plant, g time to plant, g seed age for planting, g germination period, g , soil for, g thinning plants, g varieties, g wild carrot, g , carving shelf fungi, a _see also_ wood carving case hardening, m - cast-iron brazing, m castors, acme pin, d cat characteristics, k - cat (game), k cat-stitch embroidery stitch, n * cat-tail characteristics, g catalpa characteristics, g ornamental value, g catbird insect destroyer, a migration, k caterpillars collecting specimens, a garden pests, g , , , cauliflower cooking, preparation for, h growing, g insect pests, g seed, germination per cent., g time to plant, g cavies care of pets, k - raising for pets, a varieties, k cedar red characteristics, c durability, c white, characteristics, c cedar bird migration, k cedar chest making, c - * ceiling as reflector, h care of, h decorations to correct defects of height, d celery blanching, g fertilizer for, g food value, h insect pests, g , planting plants, g - planting seeds, g indoor planting time, g seed age for planting, g germination per cent., g germination period, g soil for, g , substitutes for, in salad, h transplanting, g trenches for, g cellar, h - care of, h cleaning walls, h materials for floor and wall, h , must, preventing, h racks for barrels and pans, h rooms and equipment, h - ventilation, h windows, h cells. _see_ electric batteries cellular kites, making, c - * cement cellar walls, h coloring for pottery, d columns, building, c - dams, b - engraver's receipt, m floors, making, a foundations boat house, b house, c pergola, c - lining pond, g - mixing for floors and walks, a , b , , c , g portland, origin and uses, b - retaining walls, riverside, b - cement blocks making, b - cement furniture, d - * color for inlaid designs, d decoration, d * finishing coat, d scratch coat, making and laying, d wire forms for, making, d - cement walks floating operation, b jointing, b laying out, b - leveling, b * materials, b - , roots, danger from, b sides, making, b * tampers for, b trench digging and filling, b , - , centigrade scale, b centre punch. _see_ punch chafing dish, electric, e * chain-stitch crocheting, n * embroidery, n - * chains welding iron chains, m - * adding links, m _see also_ bead work; necklace chairs box furniture making, c - dining-room, design, d * duxbury design, d hall chair, design, d * kitchen furniture, h morris chair designs, d *, * making, d - * _see also_ bench making; settees chalk french chalk, h , lime composition, g chamber work, h - chamois gloves washing, h chamois skin for leather work, n champleve definition, m enameling, m chanterelles, mushrooms, a character influence of occupations on, a charcoal how made, m purifying qualities, h , charge accounts. _see_ accounts chasing metals definition of, m chassis. _see_ automobiles checkerboard designing and making, c - * table, making, c * woods to use, c - cheese food value, h chemical elements of food, h of the human body, h cherry tree characteristics of the wild or black variety, c seeds, care of, a wood for canes, a chest making a box seat combination, c * making a linen chest, c - * _see also_ tool boxes and chests chesterton, g. r. keeping good health: quotation, h chestnut characteristics of tree, c chinquapins, characteristics, a - cultivating, a disease, a durability of the wood, c food value, h grafting trees, a japanese, hardy variety, a varieties, a weevil, pest, a wood finish antique, c fuming, d chicken house. _see_ poultry houses chickens. _see_ poultry chickweed class and seed time, g chimney, house cold, meaning of, h fire, extinguishing, h "flashing", c _see also_ flues china aster characteristics, g chinese lilies water bulbs, g , chinese windlass, b chinquapin characteristics, a - weevils, pest, a chip carving. _see_ wood carving chisel cape chisel, making, m * cold chisel, hardening and tempering, m making, m *, * what used for, m * hot chisel making, m * what used for, m * metal work tool, m * sharpening, c - * silver work tool, making, m - * socket and tang, how to use, c - * stone chisel, forging, m - * wood chisel, forging, m - chlorinated soda ink stain remover, h chocolate food value, h christmas greens collecting and marketing, a - christmas tree harvesting, a oak trees transformed, a chrysanthemum back ground plants, g characteristics, g time of blooming, g chuck ribs, h cider wastefulness in making, a cigar box copper decorations, m *, cigar lighters, electric, e * circle how to draw, c - * citizenship training for, a - city water supply. _see_ water works city yard making and cost of a garden, g , - clamps, c * clams cooking, h food value, h testing, h washing, h clap boards for siding, c removing, b clarkia characteristics, g , claw tool making, m * clay. _see_ soils clay modeling. _see_ pottery cleaning delicate colors and textures, h restoring color taken out by an acid or alkali, h stains and spots on fabrics, h - woodwork, h _see also_ brass; carpets; curtains; embroidery; flues; furnace; furniture; house cleaning; matting; pictures; rugs; shades; tiles; vegetables; walls; vacuum cleaners cleft grafting. _see_ grafting clematis decorative value, g japanese, characteristics, g clippings making envelope file, n - * clocks cases, making, c - * clocks for cases, selecting, c electric clocks alarm clocks, e master clock, e - operation, e - program clocks, e self winding, e watchman's time detector, e * fastening the clock into the case, c * grandfather's clock, design and construction, c - * hall clock, design and construction, d - * wood finish, d mantel clock, design and construction, c - * mission style, design and construction, c - * pendulum clock case, design and construction, c - * pulley mechanism, b * wall clock, design and construction, c - * _see also_ watches cloisonne definition of, m enameling, m closets, clothes cleaning and care, h , window in, d closets, toilet cleaning bathroom toilet, h sanitary equipment and care of outdoor closets, h closing the house, h - clothes basket for laundry, h clothes-horse, h clothes line, care of, h clothes pins, care of, h clothes poles, h clothes press. _see_ closets, clothes clothing and dress art and fashions, d being well dressed, d - business women's attire, d camp outfit, k - care of importance, h in bureau drawers, h - in closets, h responsibility for, h children's attire, d color in, d decorative principles, d girl's equipment for outdoor sports, k - harmony and good lines, d proportion of income assigned for, h , , _see also_ dressmaking; sewing clouds cumulus, b formation, b - hail clouds, b clubs agricultural, organizing, a - garden club, g - outdoor club, a - science club, e sewing club, n wireless club, e - _see also_ boy scouts of america coal bituminous, value of, m estimating energy in, e specific gravity, b supply decreasing, e _see also_ fire making coasting, k luge-ing, k coat hangers making, c * cocklebur class and seed time, g cockroaches, h cocoa food value, h cocoanuts food value, h cocoon. _see_ silkworms codfish combinations for food value, h food value, h codling moth woodpecker enemy of, k coffee camp cooking, k coffee mill mechanical principle of, b - * coffee percolator, electric, e * coffee pots care of, h coffee stains, h coffee tree, kentucky characteristics, c cold chisel. _see_ chisel coldframe changing to a hotbed, g directions for making, g - * drilling the rows, g planning, g soil and location, g storage for endive, g transplanting from, g - coleus bedding plant, g collar metal work appliance, m collar, dress. _see_ dressmaking; irish crochet collar slides silver work, m - * collecting. _see_ insects; plants; seaweed; shells college athletics best records made in intercollegiate contests, k college education earning, a , color due to wave length, e in dress, d restoring to fabrics, h _see also_ floral decoration; house decoration colts. _see_ horses columbine habits and characteristics, g , columns, concrete constructing and setting for pergola, c - * combs silver work, m - * commutation (electricity) brushes, e principle of, e - compass use in drawing, c - compost. _see_ fertilizers and manures concrete. _see_ cement cones. _see_ pine conic sections describing, b * coniferous trees, c - conservation of natural resources conserving nature's crops, a - _see also_ forestry cook duties, h , cook book making from books and magazines, h cookery, h - camp cookery, k - * definition, h emergencies, h - freshening bread or cake, h left overs, utilizing, h , k mixtures, principles of, h - preparation of foods for, h - processes, h - purpose of, h sequence of work in getting a meal, h - soda, uses of, h substitutes for articles called for by receipts, h - sun as cook, h time tables, h - warming over food, h _see also_ baking; boiling; braising; bread; broiling; cake; canning and preserving; coffee; corn; desserts; diet; eggs; electric cooking; fireless cookers; fish; food; frying; game; meat; mushrooms; oysters; pastry; poultry; rice; roasting; shell fish; soups; stewing; tea; traveler's cooker; vegetables coons. _see_ raccoons copper work annealing, m ash tray, m * belt buckle, m - *, * belt pin, d * bill file, m - * book mark, m * book rack, m *, d * bowls, m - * chalice, m * loving cup, m nut set, m * shaping, m * box for jewels, m - * candlestick, m - * drip pan, m * night candle holder, m - * sconce, m - * shaping, m * card tray, d - * cedar chest, trimmings, m - * chalice, m - * cigar box decorations, m *, coloring, d , m , , corners, d * cutting heavy copper, m * desk set, m - * draw filing, m enameling on copper, d , facets, how made, m filing, m - * hammering, m - *, - *, * handles candlestick, m loving cup, m * making and riveting, m - making and soldering, m - hat pin, d - *, m - * soldering pin to head, m * hat pin holder, m - * hinges, m - *, - * ink well holder, m - * jars, m - *, - * jewel box, m - * hinges, m - * knobs on lids, m lamp, electric, m - * lamp shade framework, m - * setting glass, m - * letter opener, d * letter rack, d - * lids chalice, m - * ink well holder, m * jewel box, m - * rose jar, m tobacco jar, m - * loving cup, m - * match safe, m - * molds for, m - nut set, m - * nut spoon, m - * paper knife, d *, m - *, * turned handle, m * patina, imitation, m composition for, m pen tray, m - * polishing, m rose jar, m - * russian coffee pot, m * sawing, m - * sconce, m - * serving tray, m - * sheet copper, grades, m smoking set, m - * soldering handles, m - hat pin, m * spindle, m - * spoon for nut set, m - * teapot stand, d - * tobacco jar, m - * trays, m - *, - * ash tray, m * handles, making and riveting, m - pen tray, m * round, m - * serving tray, m - * smoking set, m - * square, m - * watch fob, d - * _see also_ brass work; metal work; silver work; tools copyright application items, b assigning rights, b directions for securing, b - duplicate certificates, b fees for recording, b issue of work, not limited, b invalid, when, b labels, b paintings, statues, etc., b penalties for breaking laws, b , projected work, b renewals, b term, b trade marks, b translation rights, b volumes and variations, b coral how coral is formed, g coral bells characteristics, g coral fungi, a coreopsis annual, g characteristics, g sowing and blossoming time, g corn contest in growing corn, g - cooking dried corn, a cultivation of soil, g drying, a - food value, h husking for cooking, h husks, uses of, a insect pests, g percentage of corn to cob, g points for judging, g planting seeds distance to plant, g , depth to plant, g , , , quantity to plant, g , time to plant, g planting varieties near together, g pollination, how plants are fertilized, g raising on a suburban lot, a seed age for planting, g book about, a germination per cent., g , selection, g - , , a - * soil required, g , stalk pith, use of, a corn meal food value, h cleansing property, h corned beef food value, h cornell university poultry course, a cornflower biennial, g characteristics, g , planting, g self-sowing, g sowing and blossoming time, g corning, w. o. experiment with raising goats, a - coronation braid how to braid, n - * cosmos characteristics, g sowing and blossoming time, g cost of living division of income, h - cottages building and furnishing a simple home, d - * cost of materials, d cotyledon seed nourishment, g couch cover weaving design, d - couch hammock, c - * couching embroidery stitches, n * counterpane making for doll-bed, n * counting-out rhymes, k country homes. _see_ cottages country life making the country a better place to live in, a - _see also_ camping; gardening; sports court, tennis, k cover for note book tooled leather, d - cows milking, a - by electricity, e profits in keeping cows, a - from one cow on a suburban lot, a - testing for milk supply, a _see also_ calf; milk crab (machine), b * crabapple, wild butter or sauce, a regions found, a crabs food value, h cooking soft shell crabs, h opening and cooking hard shells, h craigin, belle s. amateur's experience in poultry raising, a - cranks (machinery) crank motion, b * mechanism, b * cream. _see_ milk and cream cream of tartar uses, h credit. _see_ accounts creepers insect destroyers, a creosote wood preservative, c cricket, k - crocheting, n - * abbreviations for stitches, n chain stitch, n * crazy stitch, n cross stitch, n * doll's cap, n - doll's hug-me-tight, n - * double crochet, n * edging stitch loop, n * narrow, n * tiny edging, n * fringe, n hooks, n - * insertion stitch cone, n * loop, n * tiny insertion, n * insertion with ribbon, n * jacket, n - * shell stitch, n - * patterns, n - * position of hands, n * rainbow pattern, n - * scarf, cross stitch, n * shawl, rainbow pattern, n - * shells, n *, - * single crochet stitch, n *, * slip stitch, n slippers, n - * crazy stitch, n * star stitch, n - * star stitch, n *, * treble crochet, n * washing, n * crocus planting in lawns, a , planting tables, g , crops succession crops, g _see also_ gardening croquet, k golf-croquet, k _see also_ roque cross bow spring, b * cross stitch embroidery stitches, n - *, *, * marking towels, n crosses drawing designs, c *, greek, inlay design, c crowbars making, m * crows as pets, k crucible cast steel. _see_ steel crumb tray and scraper brass work, m - * crystals, snow, b * cuckoo insect eater, a cucumber food value, h how to peel, h indoor planting time, g insect pests, g origin of, g planting seed directions, g time to plant, g seed age for planting, g germination per cent., g thinning plants, g cucumber vine ornamental value, g cuff links metal work, m - * cuffs. _see_ dressmaking cumulus, b curling (game), k curling iron, electric, e * curtains dry cleaning, h dusting, h girl's room, furnishings, n - materials for stenciling, n stencil design, n * stenciling, d - * stretching, h valance, d washing, h - weaving, designs and materials, d - _see also_ block printing curves drawing, b * cushions. _see_ pillows cut worms, g detecting and destroying, g toads enemies of, k cyanide bottle for killing insects, a *, k cypress varieties and characteristics, c d dado joints, c *, daffodil narcissus family, g van sion variety, g white and yellow, planting table, g , dairy cow. _see_ cows dairy products food value, h _see also_ butter; milk dairying book about, a keeping accounts, a - sanitary milk pail, a * daisy characteristics of the english daisy, g class and seed time of ox-eyed and yellow, g embroidery stitches, n - * dampers in pipes and ovens, h principle of stoves and ranges, h - dams famous dams of concrete, b - dandelion class and seed time, g greens, a daphne characteristics, g darning limerick darning, lace stitches, n stockings, n - * dates food value, h day and night cause of, b debit. _see_ accounts decanter washing, h decoration and ornament woods suitable for, c _see also_ block printing; carving; embroidery; enamel and enameling; floral decoration; house decoration; leather work; metal work; pottery; pyrography; stenciling; wood carving decoration, interior. _see_ house decoration deer book about, a design. _see_ architecture; basket making; bead work; brass work; copper work; embroidery; furniture; house decoration; leather work; metal work; pottery; silver work; stenciling; wood carving desk library desk design, d * design and construction, d - * wood finish, d mission style writing desk, design, c * writing desk, design, d * desk pad copper fittings, making, m - * leather, design and making, d - * desk sets copper, m - * pen and ink trays, gouge work, c - * dessert combinations for food value, h deutzia characteristics, g devil's snuff box, a dibber, g * dies (metal work) making, m - diet carbohydrates, h - , chemical properties, h giving undue concern to, h - ideal, objection to, h principles of, h - proteins, h - , _see also_ food digestion. _see_ diet digitalis made from foxglove, a dining-room, h - care of, h , - furniture arrangement, d design, d - * ideal, h plan in the model house, d work, setting and serving the table, h - dirigible balloons, b dish washing cloths, care of, h decanters and bottles, h egg stains, removing, h glasses, h preparation of dishes, h process, h - rinsing dishes, h silver, h steel knives, h wiping and putting away, h , - without running water, h disinfectants use in plumbing, h ditch drains. _see_ drainage dividers (tools) forging, m - * using in metal working, m *, * diving, k * girls as divers, k dixie's land (game), k dock, yellow class and seed time, g dogs as friends, k bathing, k boarding dogs as a business, a - profits from, a breeds, k - farm dogs, a feeding, a , k puppies, a fleas, k , house, working drawing of a toy house, c * housing, k punishing, k raising, a - story of success in, a - selecting a pet, k - training, a - , k - for cattle herding, a , for hunting, k - for retrieving, a for running machinery, a - dog's tooth violet characteristics, g dogwood characteristics, c , g doilies irish crochet edge, n * doll's clothes cap crocheted, n - * knitted, n * cape, knitted, n * hug-me-tight, crocheted, n - * jacket, knitted, n - leggings, knitted, n * _see also_ dressmaking; sewing doll's furniture bed fittings, n - * cigar box trunk, h pasteboard box for bed, h , domestic animals books about, a raising, a - for pets, a - _see also_ cat; cow; dog; horse; pigeon; poultry; sheep; swine domestic economy. _see_ housekeeping door handles metal work, m , , * door hasp forging, m - * door knockers escutcheon plate, m *, - iron metal work, m - * door pulls metal work, m * doors batten door, c * electric door opener, e * frames, setting, c hanging, c inside trim, c * paneled, c - , - * saddles, c dough. _see_ bread; pastry dovetail joints, c *, *, - * dowel bit, c dowel for weaving, n dowel joints, c * doweling, d dracenas window box plant, g drafting. _see_ mechanical drawing dragon-flies habits, a drainage ditch building, g grading and digging, g pipe, depth laid, g problem for garden plot, g - "sighting" for drop and bed level, g - sloping land, g standing water, g stones for trough, setting, g tiles, laying, g types of drains, g wooden troughs, disadvantage of, g drainage, house. _see_ plumbing; refrigerator draught of open fires, h principle of stoves and ranges, h - draw knife, c * draw plate definition of, m drawer pulls metal work, m - * drawing designing a corner for stencil work, d designs for block printing, d - * how to enlarge or reduce a drawing, c , b outline drawing for stencil work, d _see also_ mechanical drawing drawing board making, c *, - * drawing instruments making a box for, c * making a mechanical drawing outfit, c - drawnwork, n - * all-over, n - * bulgarian weaving patterns, n - * butterfly pattern, n - * convent work, n - * daisy pattern, n * feather stitch, n * filling spaces, n frames for, n handkerchiefs, n - * maltese cross, n mexican, n * sheaf stitch, n * soaping threads, n twist stitch, n * _see also_ fagotting; hardanger embroidery; hemstitching dress. _see_ clothing and dress dresser. _see_ bureau dressmaking bands, cutting, n bias bands, cutting, n box plaits, n collars cutting, n fastening to waist, n cuffs cutting, n sewing on sleeves, n cutting from a pattern, n - * frills, cutting, n patterns allowing for seams, n cutting doll's skirt from, n * cutting from, n - drawing and cutting, n * notches and perforations, n pinning material on, n - * plaiting skirt, n - * seams, tailored, n skirts bands, n *, basting seams, n cutting from a pattern, n , - * hemming, n , plackets and gussets, n - *, plaiting, n - * putting on the bands, n sleeves cutting, n gathering, n * putting into waist, n * putting together, n * waists cutting, n cutting from pattern, n * joining seams, n _see also_ sewing driftwood gathering, a drilling and boring tools draw boring, c * drills for copper and silver, m * forging and tempering rock drills, m - * forging hand drills, m - * kinds and their uses, c - * driveways of ashes, g drowning method of rescue from, k dry cleaning delicate and light-colored articles, h duck on a rock (game), k ducks book about, a brooders, a characteristics, a feeding ducklings, a how to select for cooking, h marketing, a raising, a - ducks versus chickens, a - story of a boy's animal cage, a varieties, k water not essential for raising, a - wood ducks, domesticating, a * duplicating machine, b dusting bedroom, h floors, h house cleaning process, h little services, h opening the house, h dutch collar irish crochet, n - * dutch oven, k dyeing colors, how to obtain, d - hints, d - lace, n dynamometer, b * dynamos, e - alternating current, e - batteries replaced by, e - construction of a simple dynamo, e - * definition of, e efficiency, e - field, e , - generating electricity, e - how a dynamo generates both direct and alternating currents, e how used as a motor, e - installing, e load, e magneto, e - * illustration of use, e - rate of vibration, e - use for ringing telephone bells, e - * principle of a simple dynamo, e - * producing tones with, e - series wound, e * shunt wound, e * transmitters not power producers, e _see also_ armatures e earth attraction exerted by sun and moon, b - diameter, b distance from sun and moon, b - elements, b globular form proved, b - * rotation, b , eddy kites making, c * edging. _see_ crocheting; irish crochet edison, thomas a. discovery of carbon filaments, e new storage battery, e - eggplant cooking preparation, h parasites on, g planting seed, g indoor planting time, g time to plant, g seed, germination per cent., g soil for, g transplanting, g eggs cooking, preparation for, h ducks' eggs, a fancy breed eggs, a food value, h gold fish eggs, a guinea fowl, value of, a insect eggs, a judging freshness of, h marketing, a pheasant eggs, packing, a preserving for winter use, a - yolks in water, h record for laying hens, a selecting for sitting hens, a separating yolks from whites, h stains removing, h _see also_ poultry egyptian pyramids, b - elderberries canning, receipt, a picking, a steam pudding, receipt, a electric annunciators construction and operation, e - * electric apparatus and appliances using electricity to aid the memory, e - _see also_ armatures; clocks; dynamos; telegraph; telephone; vacuum cleaners; and words beginning electric electric armatures. _see_ armatures electric batteries cells, positive and negative plates, e , dry cells cost, e increase of voltage by increased resistance, e - structure, e - use for lighting a summer camp, e - * electrolytic cells, e - galvanic cells depolarizing agent, e effect of heat on chemical action, e electricity produced by chemical action, e polarization of, e - replaced by dynamos, e - simple cell, chemical action, e - sparking apparatus for a gasolene engine, e - * storage batteries, e - edison battery, construction and care, e - lead, construction and care of, e - why they run down, e - electric bells alternating current bells, e equipment and installation in a house, e - operated by induced current, e - operated by wireless outfit, e * operation of electric bells and buzzers, e - * transmitter in wireless telegraph, e electric buzzer operation, e - * used in electric organ, e - electric cars electric heaters, e _see also_ electric railroads electric central station, e - * electric cigar lighter, e * electric circuit breakers, e * electric circuits open and closed, e electric clocks. _see_ clocks electric conductors copper sulphate, e copper versus iron, e effect of impurities in water, e salt solution, e , water, e electric controllers arc lamp feed, e automatic air control, e principle of, e - * elevator switches, e principle of, e _see also_ electric rheostat electric cooking broilers, e * chafing dish, e * coffee percolator, e * fireless cooker, e - *, hot plate, e - * oven, e , - * toaster, e traveler's cooker, e * with incandescent lamps, e * electric curling iron, e * electric currents alternating definition, e for telephone bells, e generation of, e how produced, e - changing alternating to direct currents, e - chemical reaction produced by powerful currents, e - decomposition of water, e different currents pass through the same wire, e direct, definition of, e induced current by interrupting the circuit, e by moving the magnet, e - direction of, e experiments, e - magnetic field about, e * primary and secondary, in spark coils, e - * produced by chemical action, e - rectifiers, e - secondary, voltage, e - telephone, e electric engine principle of a toy engine, e * electric flash light, e - * electric flasher, e - * electric fuses, e * "blowing", e , electric gas lighter, e - * electric generators. _see_ dynamos electric heating apartments, e applications, e - bedroom heater, e * cars, e hot plates versus incandescent lamps, e pad, e principle of, e - * _see also_ electric cooking electric hot plate, e - * electric incubator, e electric induction coil illustration, e electric insulators and insulation, e glass knobs for telephone wires, e electric iron, e * principle and cost of using, e - electric lamps, arc arc lamp feed, e carbons, adjustment, e - * glass globes, economy of, e - mechanism, e - mercury vapor lamp, e - * moore light, e search light, e * stereopticon, e * electric lamps, incandescent burglar's flash light, e - * connecting lamps with the circuit, e * construction, e - * cooking with, e * current required, e filament carbon, e - life of, e - making of, e testing, e development of, e - * metal, e - platinum wire, e sizes, measuring, e hylo, use and cost of, e * intensity, comparison of, e - nernst lamps, e numbers manufactured, e operating by induced currents, e - * operating by wireless outfit, e resistance, e of lamps in parallel, e * socket, e * tungsten lamp, e *, , electric light percentage of waste in producing, e search light, e * electric light fixtures copper lamp, m - * design, d - * electric lighting cost, e , - , fitting up a summer camp, e - growth of demand for, e electric measurements units, e - * ampere, e kilowatt hour, e volt, e watt, e electric meters care when closing house, h reading, h _see also_ ammeter; voltmeter; wattmeter electric milking machine, e electric motors, e - acting as dynamo, e compared with dynamo, e - * e. m. f. in motors, e _see also_ electric controller electric organs, e , - *, - pipe organ, e - electric oven, e automatic control of temperature, e - * brick, construction, e - electric potential meaning of difference in potential, e - electric power conversion of steam into electric energy, e cost in large and small plants, e production of, e - electric power distribution cost, e distances, power and cost, e - loss in transmission, e , voltage in relation to distances, e electric power plants central stations, e - * equipping an amateur plant, e - estimating the capacity, e number and annual output in the united states, e water power for, e - electric pumps use of, e - electric push buttons, e - * for elevators, e - * house bells, e - electric railroads current controller, principle of, e toy operated by wireless outfit, e - * what moves the cars, e electric resistance impedance, e - laws for wires, e of electric lamps, e of lamps in parallel, e * ohmic resistance, e principle of electric heating and lighting, e - resistance board, e starting box, e , - * telephone circuit, e - unit, ohm, e - variation of heat with resistance, e wires, diameters and resistance, e electric rheostats, e - * _see also_ electric controller electric seal, a electric shock conditions necessary, e electric waves, e experiments with spark coil, e , - , - * how it feels, e - electric shower bath constructing, e - * electric soldering iron, e electric spark coil automobile spark coil, e * gasolene engine equipment, e - * how voltage is raised by the spark coil, e - jump spark coils, e make and break coils, e primary and secondary, e - principle, e - * telephone, e - * vibrator, e voltage, e wireless telegraph, e - * with two windings, e - * electric spinner, e * electric switches, e - * circuit breakers, e * double-pole, single throw, e * electric thermostat, e for brick oven, e - * electric toys engine, e * spinner, e * train operated by wireless, e - electric transformer construction, e - * illustration, e * magnetic circuit, e * relation of voltage to windings, e step-up and step-down transformer, e electric washing machine construction and use, e - * electric waves, e - changes in length, e hertzian waves, e electric welding, e - electric wires diameters, e - glass knobs for insulating, e ground wire for wireless telegraph, e resistance laws of, e tables, e - electric wiring use of earth circuit, e - electricity ampere's rule, e - chemical transformer, e doing chores with, e - * e. m. f., meaning, e electrical current compared with water current, e , - , every-day uses, list, e galvanic, e how electricity feels, e , medical use, e ohm's law, e - _see also_ induction (electricity); telegraph; telephone; wireless telegraph; also headings beginning electric and electro electrocution, e - of rats, e - * electrolysis of solutions, e - of water, e - electrolyte, e electrolytic actions in every-day life, e - electrolytic cell, e - electromagnet, e - applications of, e - * arc lamp control, e construction, e * discovery of, e , lifting power, e - , - magnetic intensity, e principle of, e - strength compared to bar magnets, e use in relay, e electrometallurgy separating iron from ore, e * electromotive force counter electromotive force in motors, e * electroplating, e - elevators electric controllers, operation of, e how annunciators are operated, e - * elijah and the widow's cruse of oil, h ellipse, drawing, b - *, c * string and pin method, c * trammel method, c * elm red or slippery elm, c rock or cork elm, c white or american, c embankments retaining wall for riverside, b - wall for lawn, g emblems bullion embroidery, n embossing iron, m embroidery, n - * bars, twisted and woven, n * blanket stitch, n * bullion stitch, n - * bullion work, n - butterfly pattern, drawnwork, n - * buttonhole and satin stitch design, n * buttonholing, n - *, - * card case, n - * cat stitch, n , * chain stitch, n - * cleaning washing, h , n - without washing, n collars, hedebo embroidery, n * combination stitch, n - * combinations of colors and stitches, d - compass design, n - couching stitch, n * cross stitch, n - *, *, * daisies, n , - * designs, planning, d drawnwork, n - * eyelet work, n - * fagotting, n - *, * feather-stitching, n - * flower work, n - * colors, n shading, n - stems, n french knots, n - * hardanger, n - * hedebo embroidery bars, n * circles, n - * materials for, n triangles, n * hemstitching, n - *, * herring-bone stitch, n * honeycomb stitch, n * hoops, n - ismet stitch, n * kensington stitch, n - * lace, embroidering on, n ladder stitch, n - * lazy-daisy stitch, n - * leaves, shading, n letters, n - * lingerie hats, n - long and short stitch, n * monograms, n - * needles, n outline stitch combination stitches, n - * rough and smooth, n * padding, n , - , - , picots, n *, * pin cushion top, n - * pyramid stitch, hardanger, n * ribbon work, n - * card case, n - * rococo, n - * roman cut work, n - * satin stitch, n - *, d design, n * scalloping, n - drawing scallops, n seeding, n * shadow embroidery, n - * silks, when not to use, n skeleton stitch, n smocking, n - * spider stitch, n stamping patterns, n - star patterns, hardanger, n * stem stitch, n substitute for, n * suggestions for a girl's room, n - threading the needle, n tools, n - turkish stitch, n * van dyke stitch, n * wallachian embroidery, n - * emergencies, housekeeping, h - enamel and enameling, m - backing, m basse-taille, m black spots, removing, m champleve method, m , characteristics of enamel, m cloisonne, m , finishing, m firing process, m - muffle furnace for, m on copper, d - on silver, d placing enamel on metal, m polishing, m preparing enamel, m tools, m unsoldering, m _see also_ wood finishing enamel ware kitchen utensils, h endive blanching, g planting and transplanting, g seed, time to plant, g winter culture, g engineering. _see_ mechanics engines external and internal combustion, b - , - , oscillating, b - * parallel motion, mechanism, b - * speed regulator, b * steam versus gas or oil, advantages, b _see also_ electric engines; electric motors; gasolene motors; horse power; steam engines; turbines english bind weed (morning glory) class and seed time, g engraving cement, m iron work, m ensigns, code, b , entomology. _see_ insects envelope for clippings making, n - * equestrian polo, k ermine, a escallops. _see_ scallops escutcheon plates, m *, - etching iron work, m ether (of space) chemical waves, effect of, e development of the universal ether idea, e - kinds of ether waves, e - medium for transmitting wave motions, e original meaning, e wave theory, exponents of, e - waves sent forth by halley's comet, e - evergreens, c - for hedge, g landscape gardening, g southern smilax, a _see also_ pine exercise value of, k - walking, k - exhibits, vegetables and flowers, g - flowers, arrangement, g labeling, g vegetables arrangement, g , preparation of, g eyelet work designs for, n *, *, - edges of, n lingerie hat, n * making eyelets, n - * padded eyelets, n * eyes and hooks sewing on, n - * f face plate definition of, m fagots collecting, a fagotting lace stitches, n * bermuda fagotting stitch, n - * fahrenheit scale, b fancy work. _see_ applique; basket making; bead work; braiding; crocheting; embroidery; hemstitching; knitting; lace making; needle work; also names of articles, e. g., pin case; sewing apron, etc. faraday, michael discovery of magneto-induction, e , theory of ether phenomena, e farm machines dog power for running, a farmers' bulletins how to secure, a farming. _see_ dairying; domestic animals; drainage; fertilizers and manures; flower gardening; forestry; fruit; gardening; irrigation; soils; trees; vegetable gardening; vegetables fashion. _see_ clothing and dress fat (game), k fats food composition and value, h , frying fats, h proportion in diet, h , feather race, k feather-stitching decorations in, n double stitch, n * marking with, n seaweed stitch, n * single stitch, n * threads, n * feathers goose, a - poultry, a feed rolls mechanism, b * fences. _see_ hedges fermentation principle of, a fern dish making pottery, d - * ferns care of, in house, g gathering, a , varieties to grow, g fertilization of plants, g - fertilizers and manures amount required for poor soil, g hen manure, a leaf mold, making, a - preparing manure for hotbeds, g sod for compost, g source of nitrogen, g wood ashes, a for strawberries, g _see also_ humus; lime; nitrates; phosphates; potash field athletics. _see_ track athletics field, cyrus, w. and the atlantic cable, e figs food value, h files and rasps, c draw filing in copper work, m metal work, m filing cabinet construction, c - * drawer designs to represent books, c * for drawings, making, c - filling. _see_ wood finishing finance. _see_ accounts; allowances; housekeeping; income finger bowls brass work, m - * use of, h finishing. _see_ wood finishing fir. _see_ balsam fire mystery of flame, h fire extinction burning grease, h chimneys, h fire making camp fires, k - for cooking, k - * coal fire, h - daily care, h laying and lighting, h furnace fires, h lighting a fire with kerosene, h open wood fires, h - _see also_ ranges fire of coal: story, h fire screen for metal work, m * fire tools making, m - * poker, forging, m * shovel, forging, m * stand for, making, m - tongs, making, m - * riveting, m _see also_ andirons firearms shot guns versus rifles for boys, k use of, k - * fireless cookers electric, e - *, fireplaces camp fireplaces, k - hearth, flue and draught, h - made of field rock, d * tiles, making, d - _see also_ andirons; fire tools fires damage from, c danger from oily cloths, h preventing forest fires, a - fireworks operated by wireless outfit, e - * firing pottery, d - * fish boiling, h whole, h broiling, h - cleaning, h to preserve heads and tails, h food value, h , combined with vegetables, h frying, k how to select for cooking, h pan fish, meaning, k protecting from natural enemies, a taming, a _see also_ brook trout; gold fish; shell fish; trout fish spears forging, m * fishing, k - * bait, k - * bait casting, k - boats, k fly casting, k , - * gaff, k game fish, k hooks, k - * landing nets, k * line winder, whittling, c * lines, selection and care, k , methods, k qualifications of a successful fisherman, k reels, k rods, selecting, k rules, k still fishing, k , - tackle, k - * time to fish, k trolling, k *, * fixtures. _see_ electric light fixtures flag (plant) characteristics of dwarf flag, g flags yacht signal code, b - flannels washing, h , flash light burglar's, e - * flat irons. _see_ electric iron fleece. _see_ goats; sheep flemish oak stain, d fletcher, horace theory of food chewing, k fleur-de-lis. _see_ iris flicker bird house for, c flies book about, a breeding places, a - danger to health, a development from the egg, a - exterminating, a - floating heart characteristics, g floors building estimating lumber for octagon or hexagon, c - for model house, d for summer house, c laying floors, c setting beams, c carpets versus rugs for, h cement floors for poultry house, a color scheme in house decoration, d cleaning appliances, h dusting, h finish for wood floor, h kitchen floors and floor coverings, h polishing, h refinishing, h waxed floors, polishing, h _see also_ carpets; matting; rugs; strength of materials; vacuum cleaner floral decoration backgrounds, d - color scheme, d - combinations, d dining table, d - garden method, d grouping, d holders and vases, d - * japanese idea, d principles of arrangement, d - wild flowers, decorative value, a flour cleansing qualities, h food value, h flower basket weaving, g - * flower embroidery. _see_ embroidery flower gardening, g - annuals, g - blooming after frost, g arrangement of plants, g background plants, g , , bedding plants, g biennials, g border plants, g , climbing annuals: table, g color scheme, g , cut flowers: tables, g , drills, making, g establishing a nursery business in california, a - formal garden border, g color scheme, g diagram of, g gradation of plants, g , staking plots and paths, g , straight lines in, g fragrant flowers: tables, g , girls' work, g - hardy and self-sowing plants, g - house plants, g - , h informal gardens, g insect pests, g , location of garden, g perennials, g - potted plants, g - drainage, g , - pests, remedy, g pots, cleaning, g potting process, g - soil, g , - transplanting, g - watering, g profit in selling flowers, g selling seeds, g - selling young plants, g - rock garden, g - round beds, making, g - school grounds, g - screening unsightly places, g selection of flowers for landscape effect, g self-sowing annuals: table, g shady places, annuals for: table, g slipping plants, g - soil, annuals that suit heavy or sandy soils, g - succession in bloom by months, g , time table, g topping plants, g _see also_ bulbs; gardening; vines; wild flower gardening; window boxes; also names of special flowers, e. g., chrysanthemum; larkspur; pansy flower missions, a flowers collections, labeling, k preparation and mounting, k cut flowers annuals for, g , care of, h honey or pollen producing, a jardiniere for, making, g - * pistils and stamens, g - propagating wild flowers, a protecting wild flowers, a - supplying city children with wild flowers, a water and bog plants, g _see also_ floral decoration; flower gardening; plants; wild flower gardening; window box; also names of special flowers, e. g., lily flues cleaning, h purpose of, h _see also_ chimney flux definition of, m iron and steel, m use of, in welding, m fly casting, k - * flying theory of, b - flying machines glider, b heavier than air and lighter than air types, b - _see also_ aeroplanes; balloons fobs. _see_ watch fobs foliage plants, g follow the leader (stump master), k food ash, meaning of, h carbohydrates, h combinations, h - condensed, harmful, h fats, h non-nourishing, value of, h pre-digested, harmful, h proportion of income to be used for food, h , protein, h refuse, meaning, h values, h - experiments of united states government, h variety essential, h , _see also_ cookery; diet; fish; fruit; marketing; meat; vegetables; also names of special foods, e. g., bread; macaroni, etc. football, k - *, - association or soccer, k , captain, k centre rush, qualifications, k , dangers of the game, k "down", k , , drop kick, k , ends, qualifications, k , field goal, k , full-back, qualifications, k , goals, choosing, k gridiron, k *, , half-back, qualifications, k , kicking off, k , line-up diagram, k , * players, weight and size, k playing the game, k - , positions of players, k , punt, k quarter-back, qualifications, k , rugby, k rules, k - rushing the ball, k "safety", k scores, k , - , scrimmage, k season, k shoes, k * signals, k - tackles, qualifications, k , team, organization, k - team work, k - touchdown, k , training, k uniform, k - *, foot bridge. _see_ bridge building foot pound, b foot stools designs and construction, c - * mission style, design, c - * forest fires damage from, c preventing, a - forestry book about, a conservation, c value of forests, c - waste timber problems, a _see also_ lumber and lumbering; trees; wood lots forge bellows, m * building fire in, m - construction, m draught systems, m - explosion, danger of, m portable forge, m - * draught system, m tuyere, m forget-me-not characteristics, g , forging bending, m bending corner in iron, m - * bolts, m - * butcher knife, m - * crow bar, m * dividers, pair of, m - * door hasp, m - * eccentric strap, m * fish-spear, m * fork, two pronged, m * garden hoe, m - * gate hooks, m - * grub hoe, m - * hand drills, m - * hand hammers, m - * harness hooks, m * heating steel, m hinge and butt, m - * ice-shaver, m * nail puller or claw tool, m * nuts, m - * oxidizing fire, m pipe method, m pitchfork, m * punching holes, m * reducing fire, m rock drills, m - * shackles, m - * sockets for wire ropes, m - * stake pin, m - * staples, m - * steel hook, m - * stone chisels and picks, m - * tongs, iron, m - * turn buckles, m - * upsetting bolts, m * definition, m rings, m wood chisel, m - wrenches of steel, m - * _see also_ blacksmithing; iron work; welding formal garden, g - , forsythia selection principles, g foundations boat house, b cellar, c concrete box mold for, c , * bracing, c * leveling, c pergola foundation, c - setting columns, c setting wooden frame, c , thickness of wall, c depth for houses, c - house building, d - * posts for small buildings, c setting, d - * setting and leveling, c - * four o'clock sowing and blossoming time, g fowl. _see_ poultry fox book about the silver fox, a foxglove biennial, g characteristics, g , , , digitalis made from, a sowing and blossoming time, g fragrant herbs and grasses, a frames. _see_ picture frames framing. _see_ house framing; picture frames francis of assisi, saint stories about, h franklin, benjamin kite flying, b fraternity pillows, n french chalk for dry cleaning, h , french hem, n french knots letter outlining, n needle for, n working, n * french seal, a fresnel, augustin jean theory of light wave, e fringe knotting fringe, n - * raffia, n frogs taming, a fruit food values, h selection of, for food, h washing, h _see also_ names of fruits, e. g., apple; grape; orange, etc. fruit trees budding, g - distance to plant, g protecting fruit from birds, a seeds versus grafting, g - _see also_ grafting frying fats for, h methods, h fuchsias bedding plants, g fuel blacksmith's fuels, m refuse timber, a _see also_ coal fulcrum principle of, b - * fullering. _see_ blacksmithing fumed oak and chestnut, process, d fungi shelf fungi, a _see also_ mushrooms fur dry cleaning, h packing, h _see also_ ermine; mink; mole; muskrat; rabbit; sable; seal; skins; skunk; weasel furnace draughts and dampers, h - gas and oil for heating steel, m house furnace, management and cleaning, h muffle furnace for enameling, m furniture antique mahogany table refinished, d - re-finishing, d - bedroom, d - * beds, designs, d *, * box furniture, making, c - * care of furniture and fittings, h - castors, acme pin, d concrete furniture, making, d - * covers for, h decorative value, d dining-room, d - * enameling white, d evolution of, c - hall furniture, d - * kitchen furniture, h - living room, d - * outdoor, c - *, d - * designing, principles of, d painted, cleaning, h polish, h , renovating, d - rustic, d - * woods for, a , k - selection for use and beauty, h - upholstered, cleaning, h , _see also_ book case; book rack; carpentry and woodwork--problems; chairs; desk; house decoration; stains and staining; tables; tabourette; wood; wood carving; wood finishing furrows. _see_ gardening fusee, principle of, b * fuses. _see_ electric fuses g gaging lumber, c , gaillardia characteristics, g , sowing and blossoming time, g gained or housed joints, c * galileo, galilei barometer invention, b galloway, beverly t. back yard swimming pool, a - galvani, luigi production of electric currents by chemical action, e galvanic electricity, e galvanized iron, e soldering, m galveston sea wall, b gambling in housekeeping expenditures, h game and game birds cooking in camp, k , creating a private game preserve, a - domesticating wild game, a - protecting, a wild rice food for, a _see also_ bantams; guinea fowl; pheasants games list of one hundred games, k - _see also_ archery; base ball; camping; canoeing; coasting; fishing; football; golf; hockey; hunting; skating; skiing; swimming; tennis; also names of games, e. g., croquet; marbles, etc. garbage can cleaning, h , location, h disposal of, h in country, h garden club election of officers, g exhibits, g - reports on garden plots secured, g - vote to aid oldfield centre school grounds, g vote to disbar girls, g garden hockey, k garden paths materials and making, g garden pests. _see_ insect pests gardening city back yard, g , - compost pile, g drills, making, g exhibits, g - furrows, making, g *, - hill, meaning of, g hoeing, g indoor experiments, g - money-making garden, g - selling garden fittings, g - plan, drawing, g - * paper plan for garden plots, g preparing new plot, g - pricking out plants, g raking, g rows, direction to plant, g rubbish, removing from new site, g site for a garden, choosing, g - sowing seeds, g spading, g - success, principles of, g succession crops, g thinning seedlings, g transplanting, g - , , - trenching, g - * work shop end of the garden, g - * _see also_ coldframe; drainage; fertilizers and manures; flower gardening; herbs; hotbeds; insect pests; landscape gardening; lawns; plant food; plants; school grounds; seeds; soils; vegetable gardening; vegetables; vines; weeds gardening--tools and appliances bulb flat, making, g * dibber, g * flower basket, weaving, g - * good versus poor tools, g - hoe, how to use, g labels for plants, making, g * measurements on tool handles, g plant jardiniere, g - * pot rest, g - * reel, making, g * sieve, making, g - spades, how to use, g stake, making, g * sundial, making, g - * gareth service in the king's kitchen, h garlic, wild class and seed time, g garret playhouse, h gas and oil engines compared with steam engines, b , e construction and fuel supply, b - cylinder, what takes place in, e water supply, quantity, b _see also_ gasolene motors gas furnace heating steel, m gas lighter, electric, e - * gas lighting average bill for careful families, h gas meters reading, h gas range baking bread in, h cleaning, h fire from fat, extinguishing, h lighting, h gasolene composition, b danger of explosion, b gasolene automobiles. _see_ automobiles gasolene launch. _see_ boat building; launch gasolene motors action, b automobile frames, construction, b - * carbureter, b * description and dimensions, b * exhaust pipe, b - , expansion chamber, b four-stroke cycle, b - * installing in launch, b - motive power, how obtained, b motor-cycle, principle, b - muffler, b - multiple cylinders, b petcock, b pipe joints, finishing, b power, developing, b - single cylinder, b , * sparking, b - electric equipment for, e - stationary foundations, b - location, b vibration, avoiding, b - stopping the engine, b suction and overflow pipes, b tank, setting, b testing new engine, b two-cylinder, b * two-stroke cycle, b vertical, b water jacket, b water supply, b - gate hooks forging, m - * gearing. _see_ mechanical movements geese book about, a breeds, a , k domesticating wild geese, a fattening for market, a feathers, plucking, a - feeding and caring for goslings, a food value, h how to select for cooking, h raising, a - setting eggs, a genista indoor plant, g georgia pine. _see_ pine geraniums bedding plant, g slipping, g - wild geranium, g window box plant, g germination of seeds. _see_ seeds gifts playthings outgrown, h spent in advance, offense of, h the tenth of your income, h gilding lettering name on boat, b gimlet bit, c *, ginger root use of, a girders, wooden strength of materials, b girls' clubs. _see_ clubs girls outdoor sports for, k - girl's room color scheme, n , , cretonne versus linen for furnishings, n curtains, n - stenciling furnishings, n wall decorations, n window seat, n girl's secret, g - glass cutting with a wheel cutter, d for lamp shade, m kitchen utensils, h leaded glass, soldering, d - * polishing, h washing, h glider flying machine, b glove box. _see_ boxes gloves cleaning chamois gloves, h glue preparing and using, c _see also_ carpentry gnomon making, b goat age, telling, a angora commercial value, a fleece, a , book about, a common goat, advantages of, a - feeding, a - housing, a , kid, care of, a market value, a milk, value, a products, a profit from, a - raising, a - experiment in new england, a - rate of increase, a selecting for a herd, a space needed, a , value in reclaiming land, a - water supply, a goat skin for leather work, n * godetia characteristics, g , , gold fish age, a book about, a characteristics, a color of young, a diseases, a eggs, care of, a enemies, a food, a , habits, a hospital, a making an aquarium, k - raising for profit, a - rearing tank, a , spawning pond, a storage tank, a training, a winter tank, a golden bell characteristics, g golden glow characteristics, g , golden oak finish, d golden seal value, a golf, k - *, - addressing, k * bogie score, k caddy, k clubs, k *, course, k , hole, k , links, k playing the game, k putting, k green, k , scoring, k , tee, k golf-croquet, k gong. _see_ brass work--bell gophers destroying, a gouge blacksmith's tool, m sharpening, c - * woodworker's tool, c - * governors (machinery) gyroscope governor, b * steam engine, b - *, grafting cleft grafting, g - improving stock, g - occupation for boys, a * scion and stock, g - season for, g tongue grafting, g wax making, g whip grafting, g - grain food value, h , _see also_ corn grandfather's clock making, c - * granite for roadway, g grape food value, h green grape jelly, receipt, a wild grapes picking, a jelly receipt, a grape juice book about, a food value, a making, a - grass seed kind for rapid growth, g preparing the soil, g - sowing, g grass stain removing, h grasses basketry uses, a grasshoppers distinguishing young from old, a garden pests, g grates. _see_ fireplaces gravel road beds, g _see also_ cement walks graver definition of, m gravitation definition, e laws of, b - principle of, b - gravity acceleration, meaning of, b force, meaning of, b specific gravity, meaning of, b - grease spots removing, h greek cross, c greens (cookery) dandelion greens, a greens, christmas, a - grinding machine edge runners or chasers for crushing, b * grindstones grinding tools with, c - * principle of, b types and uses, c * grosbeak, rose-breasted insect destroyer, a migration, k grounds. _see_ school grounds grouse book about, a guests entertainment of, h - guinea fowl book about, a characteristics, a , - eggs, value, a feeding, a marketing, a , raising, a - guinea pigs as pets, k making a house for, c - * raising for pets, a _see also_ cavies gum. _see_ spruce gum gum tree sweet gum, red gum, or liquid amber, c gun. _see_ firearms; rifles; shotgun gussets. _see_ sewing gymnastics outdoor life versus gymnastics, k pull up bar, making, c * gyroscope applied to aeroplanes, b bohnenberger's machine, b * construction of, b - * mechanism, b * h hab-enihan (game), k hacmatack, c hail formation, b - haley over (game), k halibut food value, h hall clock design and construction, d - * hall furniture, d - * halley's comet ether waves sent forth by, e - halley's thermometer, b halved joints, c * ham. _see_ pork hamburg steak, h hammer adze eye claw hammer, c * claw hammer, c * cross peen hammer, making, m - * hand hammer, m * handles, making, c * hard wood peg for copper work, m peen, m * planishing hammer, m * raising hammer, m * round peen hammer, making, m - * set hammer, m *, * shaping hammer, m * hammocks making couch hammocks, c - * hand ball, k hand polo, k hand tennis, k handkerchief drawnwork, n - * hemstitching, n - * rolling the edge, n * handkerchief box. _see_ boxes handles wooden, making, c * _see also_ copper work; metal work hands removing stains, h hardanger embroidery, n - * bars, weaving, n block stitch, n - * materials, n picots, n *, * pin cushion tops, n - * pyramid stitch, n * star pattern, n * hardening metals. _see_ steel hardie blacksmith tool, m * making, m * hardy plants meaning, g hare "varying" hare, a - hare and hounds, k harebell, carpathian characteristics, g harrowing, g harvesting nature's crops, a - haskins, charles waldo how to keep household accounts, recommended, h hat baby's buttoned hat, n - how to select a hat, d lingerie hat, n *, - raffia hats, n - for doll, n - hat ball, k hat pin copper work, d - *, m - hat pin holder copper work, m - * hatchet handle making, c * haws (fruit) location and uses, a hawthorne, nathaniel quotation, h hawthorne, english characteristics, g hayes, ruth success with chickens, a - hazel nut cultivating, a - for fence hedge, a gathering time, a pruning bushes, a health. _see_ hygiene hearth meaning, h heat british thermal unit, e - calorie and caloric, meaning, e generation, e - transmission by radiation, e waves length, e production and velocity, e - theory, e heating automatic control of temperature, e - * regulation by electric flasher, e - * _see also_ electric heating; fuel; furnace; steam radiators hedebo embroidery, n - * hedges hazel bush, a poplar versus evergreen, g shrubs for, g helianthus background plant, g sowing and blossoming time, g helicoptere flying machine, b heliotrope bedding plant, g characteristics of winter plant, g hellebore, white insecticide, g , hemlock characteristics, c hemming. _see_ sewing hemp ropes. _see_ ropes hemstitching double hemstitching, n * handkerchiefs, n - * padded, n - * hen coops. _see_ poultry hen manure. _see_ fertilizers and manures henry, joseph first to make electro-magnets, e hens. _see_ poultry hepatica blossoming time, g habits and characteristics, g , herbarium, k herbs bee balm, g for basket weaving and sachets, a in colonial gardens, g list of, g soil for, g uses, g hero engine, b * herring food value, h herring-bone embroidery stitch, n * hertz, heinrich discovery of electric waves, e hertzian waves, e hewitt, peter cooper inventor of mercury vapor lamp, e hexagon problem in estimating lumber for hexagon floor, c hickory characteristics, a - , c food value of nuts, h lumber value, a varieties, a hide and seek, k hides. _see_ skins high kick, k hinges copper or brass, metal work, m * copper or silver, metal work, m - * iron hinge and butt, making, m - * ornamental, making, m - * riveting, m * setting, c hives. _see_ bees hockey forward, k garden hockey, k goal tender, k ice hockey, k - *, lawn hockey, k "puck", k rink, k rules, k skates, cost, k * team, k , uniform, k , _see also_ curling hoe forging a garden hoe, m - * forging a grub hoe, m - * how to use, g - hog. _see_ swine hogan, clarence a. raising chickens, a hoisting machinery inclined plane, b - , lewis for lifting stones, b * lifting magnets, e - * screws, b - tongs for lifting stones, b * _see also_ capstan; pulleys; windlass holly care of trees, a characteristics, c wood, value, a wreaths, making and marketing, a - hollyhocks background plant, g characteristics, g , sowing and blossoming time, g home decoration. _see_ house decoration homemaking art of, h _see also_ housekeeping homing pigeons, k honey cooking with, a food value, h marketing, a plants which supply, a wholesomeness, a _see also_ bees honeysuckle decorative value, g honiton applique, n hood knitted, n - * hooke, robert wave theory of light, e hooker, ava a start with poultry, a - hooks centrifugal check hooks, b * forging gate hooks, m - * harness hooks, m * steel hook, m - * hooks and eyes, sewing on, n - * hoops, embroidery, n - hop hornbeam, or iron wood characteristics, c hop vine value, g hopover (game), k hopscotch, k hopper joints, c * horizontal bar making a pull up bar, c * horse book about, a raising colts, a - training, a - , horse chestnut, g horse power converting into kilowatts, b estimating, b - estimating energy in coal, e horsemanship, k - * bridle wise horse, k care of the horse, k girls as riders, k jumping fences, k * mounting, k - * packing a horse, k saddles, selecting, k - * selecting the horse, k styles of riding, k - horseshoeing, m - * heels, m making shoes, m - * mule shoes and horse shoes, m toe calk, m * hospitality. _see_ guests hot water bottle electric heating pad, e hotbed coldframe changed to, g directions for making, g - * preparing for winter, g , time to transfer plants, g ho-ti and the roast pig, h house cleaning, h - appliances for, h , order of work, h - principles, h repairs and renovations, h , small spaces, h unobtrusive methods, h weekly schedule, h woodwork, h _see also_ ceilings; cellar; curtains; floors; flues; furnace; furniture; garbage can; kitchen; lamps, oil; laundry work; matting; painting; paper-hanging; pictures; refrigerator; rugs; shades; tiles; vacuum cleaners; walls; windows house decoration ceilings, d correcting defects of height, d color scheme, d - harmony, d - interior woodwork, d southern and northern exposures, d - corrective for architectural defects, d - decorative fabrics, d - dutch room, suggestion, n experimenting, d - floors, color scheme, d , , french room, suggestions, n furniture arrangement, d - selection, d - modifying rules, d - overcrowding, d principles, d - re-decorating old houses, d relation to building plan, d - summer cottage suggestions, d ten commandments, d - use and beauty of possessions, h - walls, d , - stenciling, n window seats, n - _see also_ copper work; curtains; cushions; floral decoration; furniture; girl's room; leather work; metal work; pictures; portieres; pottery; stenciling; weaving house fly. _see_ flies house framing construction details, d - * drawings and instructions, c - * corner framing, c * corners, finishing poultry house, c * paper for siding, c siding cheap houses, c cottages and bungalows, c putting on weather boards, c tongue and groove boards for, c small and cheap houses, c - * studding for a boat house, b - * summer house construction, c - * window and door frames, setting, c house plans. _see_ architecture household pests, h - housekeeper effacement of, h - health of, h stories of inspiration, h - worries, h _see also_ house cleaning; housekeeping; servants housekeeping accounts, keeping, h - adjustment of work, h alleviations, h as a profession, h - bedroom work, h - closing the house marking wrapped articles, h meters, shutting off, h packing, h - repairing household appliances, h traps, care of, h daily work, h dignity of, h dining-room and pantry work, h , - emergencies, h - expenses, division of income, h - home training for, h inspiration, h - learning and helping, h - learning by observation, h menus and marketing, h - my heritage, h - objections to, h opening the house, unpacking, h playhouse, h - possessions, use and beauty, h - rest provisions, h schedules of work, h - school lessons helpful in, h servants, h - upstairs work, h - _see also_ cookery; food; furniture; house cleaning; house decoration; insect pests; ironing; kitchen; laundry; marketing; needle work; plumbing; receipts; servants; sewing house plants. _see_ plants huckleberries canning factories, a picking, a where and how they grow, a , c hudson seal, a hugo, victor his description of paris sewers mentioned, h humming birds taming, a humus soil composition, g , hunt the sheep, k hunting choosing companions, k training dogs for, k - _see also_ game and game birds; shooting huygens, christian wave theory of light, e hyacinth cone developer, g indoor planting, g , planting and blooming time, g , varieties, g , , water growing, g , hydrangea characteristics, g , hydro-electric stations in the united states, e - hygiene how to keep well, k - outdoor life, k - rules of health, k value of play, k , _see also_ athletics; exercise; walking hygrometer construction, b - * hylo electric lamps, e * hyperbola describing, b i i spy, k ice home-made, a - ice box. _see_ refrigerator ice hockey. _see_ hockey ice-shaver forging, m * incandescent lamps. _see_ electric lamps, incandescent inclined plane principle of, b - * rule for power, b income allowances, management of, h gifts, provisions for, h how to divide for family needs, h - increasing, ways to avoid, h management of, h - savings from, h uncertain, management of, h incubators, k - electric, e temperature regulator, e * indian bracelet making, m - * indian proverb about home making, h indian's plume (bee balm), g , induction (electricity) current induced by interrupting the circuit, e by moving the magnet, e - direction of induced currents, e experiments, e - human voice as interrupter, e - piano strings as interrupter, e telephone induction coil, e - * tuning fork as an interrupter, e wireless spark coil, e - * ink stains removing, h ink well holder copper work, m - * gouge work, c - * inky caps, mushrooms, a inlaying, metal, m inlaying, wood, c - * borders, designs and making, c - * buhlwork, c building up designs, c - *, *, * checkerboard, design and making, c - * curved designs, c gluing process, c marquetry work, c placing the design, c thickness of veneer, c woods suitable for, c inoculation of soil, g insect pests, g - , k - , h - ants, g asparagus beetle, remedy, g bean anthracnose, g bed bugs, h - book about, a cabbage worm, g , caterpillars, g , , , cauliflower lice and maggots, g celery caterpillar, g , chestnut weevil, a chicken lice, a , cockroaches, h cut worms, g , , destruction of, by birds and toads, a - , g - detecting, g - eggplants, g gnawing class, remedy, g - grasshoppers, g hornworm, g house plant pests, g household pests, h - leaf-hopper, g moths, prevention and extermination of, h plant lice, g , , potato bug, g , red spider, g rose slug, g , slugs, g , , , squash bug, g , , striped beetle, g , , , sucking class, g tomato worm, g water bugs, h _see also_ flies; insecticides; mosquitoes insecticides bordeaux mixture, g , kerosene emulsion, g paris green, g insects adult stage, a chrysalides, a , development, a - distinguishing young from old, a - egg stage, a habits, a - homes, a - injurious and helpful, k - larval stage, a life of a butterfly, a - pupa stage, a _see also_ ants; beetles; butterflies; dragon-flies; grasshoppers; moths; silkworms; spiders; wasps insects--collecting and preserving baiting moths, a - , k - sugar receipt, a , k books about, a breeding cage, making, a - * cases for preserving, a , *, , c - cornstalk pith for lining, a classifying, a - egg shell, mounting, a eggs of butterflies, a filing cabinet, making, c - killing bottle, making and using a cyanide bottle, a - *, , k - * mounting, a - *, k * net making, a - * outfit, a , k pinning butterflies and beetles, a - * pins for mounting, a spreading board, a * times and localities for collecting, a - insertion. _see_ crocheting instruments. _see_ tools insulation. _see_ electric insulators and insulation insurance. _see_ life insurance intercollegiate amateur athletic association of america best records, k events contested for, k rowing record, k interior decoration. _see_ house decoration invalid tray preparing, h - inventions ancient and modern, b - _see also_ aeroplanes; matches; typewriters; wireless telegraph; and words beginning electric iris blue flag, g border plant, g dwarf, characteristics, g , english, planting and blooming time, g german, characteristics, g japanese, characteristics, g spanish, planting and blooming time, g varieties, g irish crochet, n - * baby irish pattern, n - * belt, n - * doily with edge, n * dutch collar, n - * edging, n - * grapes, n jabot, n - * leaves, n materials, n motifs, joining, n rose, n - , shamrock, n tie rose, n - * wheel pattern with rose and straps of shamrock n - * irish stew; story, h iron galvanized incorrectly named, e soldering, m magnetic properties, e oxidation, preventing, m pig iron, m stretching processes, m wrought iron, m - iron work bending corner, m - * bracket, making, m - * bulbs, making, m - * candlestick, making, m - * spiral, m - * chains, welding, m - * decorative forgings, suggestions, d handles, m hinge, making, m * hinge and butt, making, m - * kettle stand, making, m - * lamp holder for, m lamp, making, m - * holder, m shade and holder, m - punching holes in, m * rings, welding, m - *, * spirals, making, m tongs, forging, m - * twists, m braided strand, m umbrella stand, m wrench, forging, m * _see also_ andirons; blacksmithing; fire tools; welding ironing bed linen, h board for, h clothes-horse for, h electric irons for, e - , * embroidery, h iron, care and use, h iron holders, h iron-stand, h lace, h process, h - scorched places, h starch sticking, to prevent, h table linen, h wax, cloths and paper, h ironwood characteristics, c irrigation book about, a chinese treadmill device, b * persian wheel device, b * j jabot irish crochet, n - * jack fagots, k jack-in-the-pulpit description of, g jacket. _see_ crocheting jai-a-li (pelota), k jam thimbleberry, a japan barberry hedge shrub, g japan quince hedge shrub, g japanese clematis characteristics, g japanese fan ball, k japanese hop characteristics, g japanese snow flower characteristics, g japanese snowball characteristics, g jardiniere. _see_ plant stand jelly barberry jelly, a green grape jelly, a jerusalem cherry tree, indoor plant, g jew fish catching, k jewel box copper work, m - * jeweler's tools. _see_ tools jewelry. _see_ silver work joe pye weed habits and characteristics, g story of name, g johnny cake camp cooking, k joints butt, c * clamping mitre joints, d * dado, c *, * dovetail blind, c * box, c *, * half-blind, c * lap, c * single, c - * single open, c * doweled, d *, c gained or housed, c * gluing, d - *, - * mitre joints, c - halved, c * lap joint, d * hopper, c * joint edge, definition of, c kinds and construction, d - *, - * lap, c , *, * lock, c * mitre, c - *, d - * lap, c * mortise and tenon, c *, d *, * blind, c * draw boring, c end, c * relished, c * through, c * notched, c * rabbeted, c * rubbed joint, c * splice or scarf, c * stretcher, c * tongue and groove, c * trick, c * jonquil narcissus family, c planting and blooming time, g july blooming plants, g june blooming plants, g k kale planting and care, g time to plant, g keel. _see_ boat building kelvin, lord and the atlantic cable, e kennels. _see_ dogs kensington stitch flower embroidery, n - * kentucky coffee tree, c kerosene cleaning woodwork, h , lighting fires with, h kerosene emulsion insecticide, g , receipt, g , key rack carving design, c whittling, c - * key tag whittling, c * kick the stick (game), k kiln lumber kiln method, c - portable pottery kiln, d - * kilowatt converting into h. p. b., b hour, e kindling wood cutting and collecting as a business, a - king alfred. _see_ alfred, king kingbird insect eater, a , migration, k king of the castle (game), k kitchen chairs, h cleaning weekly, h clock, h curtains, h floors, h - furnishings, h - hooks, h house plan, d light fixtures, h ornament, h rugs, h shelves, h sink, h size, h tables, h walls and woodwork, h _see also_ ranges kitchen utensils, h - aluminum, advantages and care, h , bread board, making, c - * care of, h materials, h selection, h , sugar scoop and ladle, making, c * _see also_ soldering kites, b - aeroplane kite, making, c - * american malay launching, c making, c * box kites launching, b , c making, b - * bridle, fastening, c *, * cellular, making, b - *, c - * chinese, designs, c coverings, importance of, c detail drawings, c * eddy kite, making, c * flying, c - principle of, b - * groups, flying, b *, c joining sticks, c - , * lines, c making, b - , c - * materials, c , , photographing by means of, b record flight, b - reels for, c sails, c shape, b stability, principle of, c tailless, c - tails, principle of, b tandem, c * tetrahedral, making, c - * war kites, making, b * wind velocity table, b knife. _see_ knives knife box making, c - * knife work. _see_ whittling; wood carving knights of the round table. _see_ round table knitting, n - * baby hood, n - * baby vest, n basket stitch, n * bootees, n - * doll's cap, n * doll's cape, n * doll's jacket, n - * doll's leggings, n * german method, n * lace pine pattern, n - materials for, n patterns, n - * shawl finishing edge, n long, n - wide, n , stitches basket stitch, n * binding off, n - casting off, n - casting on, n * popcorn, n * purling, n * washing, n widening the row, n knives butcher knife, forging, m - * steel, washing, h whittling, c * knot holes how made, a knots raffia knotting, n - * silk, cotton, or linen, n - _see also_ sewing knuckle of veal, h kodak, k kohlrabi planting and care, g l labeling. _see_ insects--collections; plants--collections; shells labels for plant markers, making, g * lace and lace making, n - * basting braid, n , brussels stitch, single and double, n , * buttonholed bar, n * connemara lace, n - * dyeing lace, h , n edge finishing, n fan stitch, n * fagotting, n * foundation stitch, mesh or net, n honiton applique, n braids for, n - irish crochet lace, n - * knitted lace, pine pattern, n - limerick darning, n maltese cross, design, n * over handing on, n * point lace, n brazilian, n - * renaissance, n rolling and whip stitching on, n spider stitch, n - * teneriffe or brazilian point, n - * twisted bar stitch, n *, washing, h whitening, h lacquer for brass, m lacrosse, k ladder stitch, n - lady bug, value to farmers, k lakes tides, b lamb cuts and their uses, h food value combinations, h table, h _see also_ sheep lamp copper work, electric lamp, m - * steel base, making, m - * wrought iron making, m - * shade holder, m lamp, oil care of, h trimming wicks, h lamp shade copper work, m - * glass for, m _see also_ candle shade land drainage. _see_ drainage landscape gardening, g - formal gardens, g flower gardens, g - garden furnishings, g hedges, g helping nature, g lawns flowers, what and where to plant, g treatment of, g points to observe, g - principles of, g purpose, g screening unsightly places, g shrubs grouping, g - selection principle, g table of, g - summer house, location, g trees, selection and grouping, g - , vines, g water garden, g wild flower garden, g _see also_ flower gardening; gardening; shrubs; trees lantern metal work, m - * lantern wheel, b * lap joints, c , * laplace, pierre simon corpuscular theory of light, e larch characteristics, c larkspur background plant, g characteristics, g oriental, characteristics, g , sowing and blossoming time, g , varieties, g , larva. _see_ insects last tag (game), k lathe tools making, m - * lattice work, d - * launch launching the boat, b , - rules for running, b - _see also_ boat building; gasolene motors laundry work appliances, h - blankets, h , bluing, h , removing, h boiling clothes, h chamois gloves, h clothes basket, h clothes line, care of, h clothes pins, care of, h colored clothes, h curtains, h - economizing, h electric washing machinery, e - * embroidery, h , n - emergencies, h - freezing weather, h hanging out clothes, h , knitting and crochet work, n lace, h muddy water, h poles for, h rinsing clothes, h schedule for wash days, h silk clothes, h soaking clothes, h soap, h soiled clothes, care of, h sorting clothes, h sprinkling and folding clothes, h - starch, h starching clothes, h stormy days, h stove, h tubs, care of, h wash board, h wash boiler, care of, h wash stick, h washing process, h - white clothes, h woolens, h wringer, h _see also_ ironing lavender growing, g lavender stick making, a - * lawn bowling, k lawn bowls, k lawn hockey, k lawn mower care of, a - lawn skittles, k - lawn tennis. _see_ tennis lawns crocuses in, a , embankment wall, making, g flowers in, what and where to plant, g grading, g landscape gardening, g mowing, a - rolling, g layering plants, g laying the table. _see_ setting the table lazy tongs, b * lead bath to prevent steel oxidation, m , soldering, m leaded glass cutting and soldering, d - * leaf hopper, g leaf mold making, a - leaks. _see_ plumbing leap frog, k spanish fly, k leather work, d - *, n - * applique, n , * applying designs, n - articles made from, list, n belt designs and tooling, d - * book cover, d - * card case, d - * cover for note book, d - * cutting, n , dampening for tracing, n decoration, principles of, d designing, n desk pad, d - * knots, d * lining articles, d , mat, design and tooling, d - * paste, receipt for, n , , pasting, n , pen wiper, designs and tooling, d - * planning a skin, n * polishing, n purse, d - * skins suitable for, d , n - *, stitching by hand, d - * tinting, n tooled leather, n - * embossing with die n * paste, receipt for, n , polishing, n process, d - *, n - relief work, d *, n - * filling with paste, n russia calf for, n tools, d - *, n *, * tracing the design, n , leaves blue printing, a giving off water, g simple, compound and doubly compound, c * leek germination per cent., g left overs utilizing, h legumes value as plant food, g lemon lily characteristics, g lemon tree, ponderosa, g lemons food value, h preserving in water, h removing stains with, h letter copying devices, b letter opener copper work, d * letter rack carving, c - * copper work, d - * two compartments, making and carving, c - * lettering. _see_ gilding letters. _see_ embroidery lettuce cabbage lettuce, g cos lettuce, g food value, h going to seed, g head lettuce, g planting seed depth to plant, g , distance to plant, g how to sow the seed, g indoor planting time, g quantity to plant, g time to plant, g seed age for planting, g germination per cent., g germination period, g succession crops, g transplanting, g lever arms, b * double, b - lazy tongs, b * principle of, b - * rule for power, b library tables. _see_ tables lice cauliflower pests, g chicken lice, a powder receipt, a , k plant lice, g life insurance advantages and disadvantages for saving, h lifting machinery. _see_ hoisting machinery light ancient theory of, e color dependent upon wave length, e electro-magnetic theory, e emission theory, e a form of vibration, e theories held by eminent scientists, e - velocity, b - , e waves, e length of, b , e lighting economizing bills, h reading meters, h - * _see also_ electric lighting; gas lighting lightning arrester, e * weather symbol, b why lightning is seen before thunder is heard, b lilac characteristics, g lily red speciosum, planting and blooming time, g white day lily, g lily-of-the-valley characteristics, g false, g lima bean food value, h planting, g lime disinfectant, h protecting vines from insects, g _see also_ soil limerick darning, n limestone formation of, g road material, g linden characteristics, c , g linen. _see_ doilies; ironing; table linen linen chest making, c - * lingerie hat eyelet work, n * making and trimming, n - links. _see_ chains; cuff links linoleum care of, h liquids boiling point, h living expenses. _see_ housekeeping living-room furniture, d - * arrangement, d loam meaning of, g loaves and fishes: story, h lobster boiled, h color, h food value, h lock joints, c * lockjaw cause and prevention, b - locks escutcheon plates, making, m - * _see also_ door hasp locomotives boilers, b link motion valve gear, b locust durability of black locust wood, c varieties and characteristics, c , g log cabin woods for making, k lombardy poplar, g , looms. _see_ bead work; weaving loops for buttonholes, n * lotus, american characteristics, g luge-ing (game), k lumber and lumbering "boom", c clear lumber, c curls or eyes, how made, a cutting logs, k defects, detecting, c - drive, c drying, c estimating, problems in, c - kiln-dried, c , d - knot holes, how made, a knots versus strength, c length, standard, c log jams, c measuring, c old method of sawing, c * plain sawed, d * quarter-sawed, d * railroad consumption, c saw mills, c seasoning, c - , d shakes, c shearing, c shrinkage, principle of, c - thickness, standard, c volume of business in united states, c warping, principle of, c * waste in cutting, c waste in saw mills, c - winding lumber, c _see also_ forestry; trees; wood lumber rack making, c - * luncheon: story, h m macaroni food value, h mccray, arthur h. profits of bee-keeping, a - machine shop equipping to run by electric power, e , - machinery. _see_ capstan; engines; gas and oil engines; gasolene motors; locomotives; mechanical movements; motorcycles; sewing machines; steam engine; tools; typewriters; water wheels; wheels; windmills mcintyre, flora how i earned two hundred dollars, a - mackerel food value, h madeira embroidery. _see_ eyelet work magazine cover tooled, n * magazine rack design, d * and construction, d - * wood finish, d maggots garden pests, g magic lantern. _see_ stereopticon magnesia cleaning properties, h magnet earth as a magnet, e iron, e - poles, e * steel, how to retain magnetism, e _see also_ electro-magnet magnetic field, e about electric currents, e * dynamo, e , - effect upon a magnet, e * magnetos. _see_ dynamos mahogany imitation stain, c , d maids. _see_ servants mallet carpenter's tool, c * metal worker's tool, m * maltese cross drawing, c * lace making pattern, n * mandrake. _see_ may apple mandrel, m *, manifolding devices, b , manures. _see_ fertilizers maple box elder or ash-leaved maple, c characteristics, c moose wood, c mountain, c norway maple, g qualities of, g red or swamp maple, c , g seeds, value of, a silver, white, or soft maple, c sugar or rock maple, c , g sycamore, c maple sugar and syrup boiling down, a bonbons, a - books about, a colors, changes in, a food value, h identifying trees, a proportion of syrup to sugar, a sap care when running, a ingredients, a states that have sugar trees, a straining, a sugar making, c equipment and preparation, a indian methods, a primitive and modern methods, a - tapping trees, a - testing when boiling, a weather for making, a marathon race championship, k marble composition, g marbles first shot "fat", k names of, k playing, k reals, k march birds, k blooming plants, g marconi, guglielmo inventor of wireless telegraph, e , marguerites bedding plants, g marigold african, characteristics, g characteristics, g good blooming plant, g marsh marigold, characteristics, g planting seeds, g pot marigold, characteristics, g , sowing and blossoming time, g varieties, g marine engines. _see_ gasolene motors; steam turbines marketing, h - principles of buying, h quantities, consideration of, h staples, buying of, h _see also_ names of articles, e. g., fish; meats; vegetables; etc., also beef; shad, etc. markets in venice, h marking bath towels, n *, combination stitches, n - * cross stitch, n emblems, bullion, n - feather-stitching, n french knots, n ladder stitch, n - monograms, n - napkins, n , outlining, n * papier-mache letters, n table and bed linen, n marquetry work, c marsh rabbit, a martha, h - martin migration, k masonry. _see_ cement; foundations; retaining walls match safe copper work, m - * match scratchers drawing and making, c * matches invention of, b mathematics woodwork mathematics, c - mats corn husk for braiding, a tooled leather, designs and process, d , * woven rattan, n *, _see also_ rugs matt tool definition of, m matting cleaning, h mattress making for doll-bed, n - * corn husks for, a maxim's, aero-curves, b - * maxwell, james clark scientist, e may birds, k blooming plants, g may apple, a , g mayonnaise remedy for curdled, h meadow lark migration, k meadow mushroom, a meals clearing the table, h effect of mental attitude during, h preparation advance, h sequence of work, h - serving courses, h dessert course, h duties of waitress, h - finger bowls, h who to serve first, h without a maid, h - measures. _see_ weights and measures meat boiling whole, h braising, h broiling, h - buying principles, h camp cooking, k cooking, preparation for, h cuts of, h * food value, h table, h judging condition of, h left overs, h names of parts, h roasting, h stewing, h _see_ also beef; fish; lamb; mutton; pork; poultry; veal mechanical drawing, c - * circles, c - * crosses, c - * curves, b cylinder and cones, c * design for filing cabinet, c - * for match scratcher, c * ellipse, b - *, c *, - * enlarging or reducing drawings, c , b first lessons, c - * triangle, hexagon and star, c * mechanical drawing--instruments compass proportional compasses, b * how to use, c - cyclograph for describing circular arcs, b * drawing board how to use, c - * making, c - * drawing table, making, c - * irregular or french curves, making, c making an outfit, c - pantagraph making, c - * how to use, b * section liners, c t-square making, c - * to prevent warping, c use of, c triangles, constructing, c - * views and dimensions, c - * mechanical movements anti-friction bearing, b * balance, principle of, b balance spring, b - * capstan, b * centrifugal check hooks, b * circular motion continuous, b * intermittent, b - * variable, b * combination, b - * compasses, b compound, definition, b crank motion, b cyclographs for describing circular arcs, b * diagonal catch and hand gear, b , disk-engine, b * driving feed rolls, b * endless bands, b * feed motion, b * fulcrum, principle of, b - * geneva stop, b * governor centrifugal, b * engine, b water wheel, b * grinding or crushing, b - *, * gyroscope, b - * hyperbolas, b * irregular motion, b - * lantern wheel, b * lewis, b * link-motion valve gear, b - * number of, b oscillating engines, b - * pantagraph, b * parabolas, b * parallel motion, b - * parallel ruler, mechanism, b - * pendulums, b - * perpetual motion definition, b impossibility of, e - pulleys, b - * ratchet wheel, b - * rectilinear motion, b * releasing hook, b * rollers, principle of, b rolling contact, b * rotary, b * rotary engines, b * intermittent, b * simple, definition, b speed, changing, b * steering gear, b stop and rotary motion, b * toe and lifter, b * tongs for lifting, b * tread mills, b * turbine, jonval, b * water wheels, b - * windmills, b * weight, lever and fulcrum, b - * _see also_ mechanics; pumps mechanical powers. _see_ inclined plane; lever; mechanics; pulley; screw; wedge; wheel and axle mechanical toys. _see_ toys mechanics first mechanical power, b problems in estimating mechanical power, b progress of mechanical arts, b - six mechanical powers defined, b - _see also_ aeroplanes; electric power; engines; gasolene motors; inclined planes; kites; lever; mechanical drawing; mechanical movements; perpetual motion; power; pulley; pumps; screw; water wheel; wedge; wheel and axle medicinal plants digitalis from foxglove, a golden seal, a pokeweed, a weeds, g medicine cabinet making with paneled doors, c - * melon origin, g planting seed depth and distance, g quantity to plant, g time to plant, g seed age for planting, g _see also_ muskmelon; watermelon mending and repairing. _see_ patching; soldering menus, h - combinations and varieties, h - selection for ease in cooking, h variety, essential, h _see also_ diet; food; marketing mercury vapor lamps, e - * metal work alloys, m andirons, forging, m - * belt buckle, designs, m * bending process, m blotter pad, corners for, m - * bossing up, m , bowl making, m *, - * dutch bowls, m - * finger bowls, m - * brazing metals, m - chasing, m coloring metals, d blue black, m heating process, m oxidizing silver, m patina, imitation, m solution for, m violet, m corners for chest, m for desk pad, m - * decorative forgings, suggestions, d metal work, m - * definitions of terms, m - designing patterns, m - * die making, m - door handles, making, m , , *, door knockers, m - * door pulls, m * drawer pulls designs, m * making, m - * drawing process, m embossing, m , process, m engraving process, m escutcheon plate, m * etching, m eye bolt, m , facets, m * oval, m flux, m forming process, m hammering, m *, , handles cedar chest, m crumb scraper, m * hinges cabinet, m * cedar chest, m copper or silver, m - * fine hinges, m * riveting to box, m * tube hinges, m - * binding tubes in place, m * wings, making, m * impressing, m inlaying, m lanterns, m - * letter openers, m * lids, m *, *, , lock plates, m , molds making, m - * value of, m pickling metals, m planishing, m processes other than smithing operations, m - repairing by brazing, m repousse definition, m design, m * ring and ring post for box, m riveting, m - * handles, m iron tongs, m * process, m , * rivets, making, m splitting iron or soft steel, m , - * tools for, m - *, - trimmings for cedar chest, m - * for cigar box, m - * tubing for hinges, making, m - * twisting process, m upsetting, definition, m wire, reducing size of, m _see also_ annealing; blacksmithing; brass work; candlestick; copper work; enamel and enameling; fire tools; forging; iron work; silver work; soldering; steel; tempering; tools; welding meteorology. _see_ barometer; hail; lightning; rain; thermometer; weather meter. _see_ ammeter; electric-meters; gas-meters; voltmeter; wattmeter metric system, c - mexican drawnwork, n * mice as pets, k pests, h microbes tetanus, b mignonette annual, g characteristics, g choosing and planting, g sowing and blossoming time, g mildew removing stains, h milk boiling point, h book about, a food value, h , goat's milk, value, a marketing, a removing ink and rust stains with, h testing for butter fat, a sanitary and unsanitary methods of milking, a - milking machine, electric, e milkweed (prickly lettuce) class and seed time, g distribution of seed, g mimeograph, b minerals collecting, k mining machinery centrifugal check hook, b * mink breeding season, a skin stretching, a value, a , skinning, a * trapping, a - minnows catching, k - * mirrors. _see_ glass mission furniture book case, making, c clock case, making, c - * foot rests, making, c , * library table, making, c - * making, c - plant stands, making, c - * tabourette, making, c - * tea table, making, c - * umbrella rack, making, c * writing desk, design, c * mission oak finish, d mississippi river proposed dam across, b mitchell, frank success with chickens, a mitre box making and testing, c - * mitred joints, c - *, *, d - * model house. _see_ architecture modeling. _see_ pottery molasses food value, h mole fur, a habits, a trapping, a - mollusks preserving specimen, a money. _see_ accounts; allowances; income mongolian pheasants, a monogram embroidering, n - monoplane construction of, b - * toy model, making, c - * months lunar and calendar, b moon diameter, b distance from earth, b light, origin, b orbit, b phases, b * rotation, b _see also_ tides moon flower characteristics, g moon vine value, g moore, d. mcfarland inventor of moore light, e * moore electric lamp, e * mops kinds and uses, h morels mushrooms, a morning glory characteristics, g sowing and blossoming time, g value, g morris, william rule for household possessions, h morris chair construction, d - * designs, d *, * history of designs, d wood finish, d morrison, arthur budget of housekeeping expenses, h morse, samuel finley breese inventor of the telegraph, e mortise and tenon joints, c *, *, *, mosquitoes book about, a breeding places, a enemies of, a , k eradicating, a - protection from, in camping, k moss pink characteristics, g moths baiting, a - , k - collecting and mounting, k - collecting time, a development from the egg, a - how they come out of the cocoon, a pests, h _see also_ silkworm motion. _see_ mechanical movements motor boat. _see_ boat building; gasolene motor; launch motor cycles engines, b - * motors. _see_ aeroplanes; automobiles; dynamos; electric motors; engines; gasolene motors; locomotives; steam engines; vacuum cleaner; water wheel molding. _see_ metal work; pottery molds concrete block molds, b concrete furniture molds, d die making, m - metal work, m - , mount mellick stitch, n mountain climbing healthfulness of, k mountains snow line, b mounting specimens. _see_ insects; plants; seaweed mouse club membership, k movements. _see_ mechanical movements moving toys. _see_ toys muffins mixing ingredients, h mulberry leaves food for silkworms, a mullein, moth class and seed time, g habits and characteristics, g mumblety peg, k mushrooms book about, a chanterelles, identifying, a cooking, a , coprinus comatus, a coral fungi cooking, a identifying, a edible varieties, a *, - food value, h inky caps, identifying, a meadow mushrooms, a morels, identifying and gathering, a * oyster mushrooms, identifying, a propagation, a puff balls cooking, a identifying, a - , - varieties, a - shaggy manes, a where to get information about, a music transmitted by telephone, e musical instruments. _see_ organ; piano; pipe organ; telharmonium musk characteristics, g muskmelon american, outdoor planting, g english, how grown, g - food value, h indoor planting time, g seeds, germination per cent., g muskrat book about, a food, a fur, value, a houses, a river trapping, a setting and baiting traps, a skinning, a * skins, value, a swamp trapping, a trapping, a season, a mustard, wild class and seed time, g mutton cuts and their uses, h food value, table, h my heritage, h - myrtle characteristics, g n nail puller making, m * nails boxes for, making, c - * cabinet for, making, c - * driving into plaster walls, c holding power, b - sinking nails, c * napkin marking, n _see also_ table linen napkin rings silver or copper work, m - * naphtha cleaning properties, h narcissus easy to grow, g poets narcissus, planting and blooming time, g varieties distinguished, g water bulbs, g , nasturtium characteristics, g , , , dwarf, characteristics, g planting, g , natural resources conservation, a - by specimen collectors, a nature study keeping a diary, k - making a beginning, k - methods, k mineral collections, k practical side, k water life, k - water telescope, k _see also_ insects; plants; shells; silkworm necklace silver work, m - * neckties. _see_ ties needham, john reclaiming a spring, a - needlecase making, n - * needlecraft. _see_ basket making; bead work; braiding; crocheting; drawnwork; dressmaking; embroidery; irish crochet; knitting; lace making; leather work; sewing nemophila characteristics, g nernst lamp, e nets butterfly net, k * collector's net for water specimen, k * making, for insect collecting, a - newspapers cleaning lamps with, h polishing glass with, h newton, sir isaac corpuscular theory of light, e theory of tides, b - newts taming, a nigger baby (game), k nile river dam across, b nitrates plant food, g , , for sandy soil, g norfolk island pine, g norway pine. _see_ pine--red notched joints, c * notched trophy stick, c * nut hatch insect destroyer, a nutrition. _see_ diet; food nuts beech nuts, a - book about, a chinquapins, a food value, h grading for market, a growing, a - from seeds, a hazel nuts, a - hickory nuts, a pecans, a - pine nuts, a tree seeds, a care of, a use of, a walnuts, a - nuts (iron) forging, m - * o oak antique, stain for, c black jack or barren oak, characteristics, c black or yellow, characteristics, c chestnut oak, characteristics, c durability of wood, c flemish oak stain, d forest green oak finish, d fuming, d - golden oak finish, d gray oak stain, d laurel oak, characteristics, c live oak, characteristics, g mission oak finish, d mossy-cup or bur oak, characteristics, c oak gall, k pin oak, characteristics, c , g post or iron oak, characteristics, c quality of, g quarter-sawed, c *, d - red, characteristics, c scarlet, characteristics, c stains, list of, c swamp white oak, characteristics, c weathered oak stain, d white, characteristics, c - willow oak, characteristics, c oats depth to plant seeds, g obelisks moving, b - occupations berry picking, a - best ways of earning money, a - birds, attracting, a - carriage cleaning, a character building, a - choosing, a cider vinegar, making, a - collecting christmas greens, a - collecting insects, a - collecting plants, a - , - collecting tree seeds, a - collecting useful plants, flowers, grasses, etc., a - collecting wood for rustic furniture, a corn, drying, a - corn, selecting seed, a - * fall work, list of, a forest fires, preventing, a - game preserve, creating, a - grape juice making, a - harvesting nature's crops, a - keeping bees, a - kindling wood, gathering, a - lavender sticks, making, a leaf mold, making, a - making brooks and springs useful, a - maple sugar making, a - mosquitoes and flies, exterminating, a - mushroom gathering, a - nuts, gathering and growing, a - odd jobs, a - orchard work, a * outdoor worker's library, a - raising animals for pets, a - raising domestic animals, a - silkworms, raising, a - snow shoveling, a - spring work, list of, a summer work, list of, a tennis court, making, a - training animals, a - trapping, a - weeds, killing, a - wild fruit, gathering, a - winter work, list of, a year-round, list of, a _see also_ housekeeping ocean. _see_ tides odd jobs, a - oersted, hans christian discovery of magnetic action of currents, e discoverer of magnetic field about an electric current, e ohm, george simon ohm's law, e - oil cloth as a floor covering, h oil engines. _see_ gas and oil engines oil furnace heating steel in, m oil lamp. _see_ lamp, oil oil nut. _see_ butternut oilstone sharpening tools, c * okra germination per cent., g olympic games events contested for, k one old cat (game), k onion food value, h indoor planting time, g insect pests, g peeling, h planting seed depth and distance to plant, g quantity to plant, g time to plant, g planting sets and seed, g - seed age for planting, g germination per cent., g germination period, g soil for, g , open air life. _see_ outdoor life opening the house. _see_ housekeeping opossum bait for, a skin, value, a orange food value, h orange root, g , orchard. _see_ fruit trees organ electric, e , - * pipe organ, e - telharmonium, e - oriental rug washing, a oriole insect eater, a migration, k ornithoptere flying machine, b osage orange hedge shrub, g osmium lamp metal filament, e oswego tea, g , outdoor furniture. _see_ furniture outdoor games. _see_ games outdoor life sleeping outdoors, a - , * value of, k _see also_ camping outdoor sports. _see_ sports outdoor work free printed matter, how to obtain, a - occupations suited to the four seasons, a odd jobs, a - _see also_ occupations outlining. _see_ marking ovens camp ovens, k - * clay, k dampers for regulating, h dutch, k electric, e - reflector, k , * temperature for baking and roasting, h , owl as a pet, k oxen trained oxen, value of, a - oyster broiling, h - cleaning, h food value, h opening, h testing, h oyster mushroom, a p packing books, h fixtures, h - furs and woolens, h textile furnishings, h paint cleaning woodwork, h , , removing stains, h stenciling, n - painting (mechanical) brushes, h mixing paints, h preparing surface, h summer house, c palms care of, g varieties to grow, g panama canal cement used for, b pandanus window box plant, g pansy care of bed, g characteristics, g , picking flowers, g planting seeds, g to prevent running out, g tufted, characteristics, g pantagraph, b * making, c * pantry arrangement, h plan in model house, d _see also_ dish washing paper hanging applying paste, h matching and cutting, h putting on paper, h quantity of paper required, h removing old paper, h paper knife carving designs, c * copper work, d *, m - *, - * whittling, c - * papier-mache letters for marking, n par (game), k parabolas describing, b * parasites eggplant pests, g paris green insecticide, g , , , , rule for mixing, g paris sewers described by victor hugo, h parsley, g planting seed depth to plant, g , distance to plant, g in a box, g quantity to plant, g time to plant, g seed age for planting, g germination per cent., g parsnips food value, h planting seed, g time to plant, g wild parsnips, class and seed time, g partridge migration, k pass it (game), k passe partout, d - * color scheme, d - materials and tools, d process, d - * paste receipt, h for leather work, n , , pastry filling pies, h juices, to prevent boiling over, h mixing the dough, h , soggy crust, preventing, h patching square patch, n - * patents applying for, b - , canadian, b caveat, provisional protection, b drawings and specifications, b - duration, b fees for application, b , in a foreign country, b re-issuing, b time required to procure, b what granted for, b patterns. _see_ embroidery; dressmaking; stenciling peach trees care of seeds for planting, a distance to plant trees, g peacock care and feeding of young chicks, a habits of the hen, a indian peacock, value, a raising, a - acquiring information about, a peanuts food value, h pear distance to plant trees, g food value, h peas food value, h , insect pests, g planting seed, g quantity to plant, g time to plant, g seed age for planting, g germination per cent., g , germination period, g peasants german embroidery work, n russian applique work, n pecan commercial value, a , cultivating, a - gathering, a - grading, a - polishing for market, a peen of hammer. _see_ hammer pelota (game), k pelts. _see_ skins pen rack design and making, c - * pen tray gouge work, c *, * pen wiper tooled leather, d - * pencil box making and carving, c - * pencil sharpener drawing and making, c * pendulum compound bar, compensation pendulum, b * mercurial compensation pendulum, b * pennant yacht pennant, b peony annuals, g arrangement in the garden, g chinese, characteristics, g , depth to plant, g european, characteristics, g garden, characteristics, g planting and blooming time, g pepper indoor planting time, g planting and transplanting, g - planting seed depth and distance to plant, g quantity to plant, g time to plant, g seed age for planting, g germination per cent., g germination period, g stuffing, varieties for, g varieties, g pepper bush, sweet characteristics, g perennials definition of, g for cut flowers: table, g fragrant: table, g low: table, g medium height: table, g tall: table, g value of, g pergola designing and building, c - * perpetual motion, b impossibility of, e - persimmons picking, a region grown, a pests. _see_ household pests; insect pests; mice; rats pets book about, a care of, k - housing, c - *, k ornamental land and water fowl, k - raising, a - story of a boy's animal cage, a - taming wild animals, k trained, market value, a _see also_ bantams; birds; cats; cavies; crows; dogs; ducks; gold fish; guinea pigs; mice; pigeons; poultry; rabbits; raccoon; shetland pony; squirrels petunia characteristics, g good bloomers, g sowing and blossoming time, g pheasant book about, a breeds, a coops and rearing ground, a - eggs, packing, a feeding young chicks, a localities in united states for raising, a migration, k protection from birds of prey, a raising, a - care of mother, a in england, a serving in german fashion, a varieties, k _see also_ guinea fowl phlox characteristics, g , , , late, characteristics, g sowing and blossoming time, g phoebe bird insect destroyers, a migration, k phosphates plant food, g , , photography, k - action of chemical waves, e cameras, kinds and cost, k - dark room, k developers and developing, k - exposure, k fixing bath, k , focusing, k - lens, importance of, k negatives, preserving, k plates versus films, k printing papers, k snap shots, taking, k - snap shots versus real photography, k subjects, choosing, k piano, electric, e pickerel weed characteristics, g pickles walnuts, a pickling metals definition, m picks (tools) forging stone picks, m * picnic tables and benches making, b - picture frames and framing carbon photographs of a masterpiece, framing d - carving designs, c , , - colonial interiors in colors, framing, d gluing mitred joints, d - * joints kind required, d mitred, d - *, c - * large photographic reproduction, framing, d palette photograph frame, c passe partout, d - * rabbeting, c * selecting, d shrinkage, d silver work, m - * staining, d , stock, securing, d - * whittling back for, c whittling out of solid piece, c - * pictures, d - * cleaning, h decorative value, d grouping and hanging, d - hanging correctly, d * considering space values, d - height to hang, d hooks and wires, d - japanese way of hanging, d - piers foundation walls, b filling space between, b pies. _see_ pastry pig. _see_ swine pig iron, m pig pen. _see_ swine pig weed class and seed time, g pigeon holes. _see_ filing cabinet pigeons breeds, a , k prize winners, k carrier pigeons, k characteristics, a common, care of, k devotion of male, a dove cote, a - care of, a for fancy breeding, k sanitary provisions, a dragoons, k fancy pigeons for pets, a - feeding, a , k fly made of wire, a * market value, k nest building, a nest dishes, a , nesting compartment, building, a - net for capturing, a * perches, making, a pests, guarding against, a pouter, k roosts, making, a * rufflenecks (jacobins), k tumblers, characteristics, a , k water bath, a white fan tail, model, k _see also_ squabs pile driving machine releasing hook, b * pillow bead work, n choosing cushion covers, d cornhusks for filling cushions, a fraternity pillow, n lingerie pillow, n making for doll-bed, n _see also_ block printing; stenciling pillow case making for doll-bed, n * marking, n pillow shams fastening, h pin insect pins, a metal work tool, m pin case making, n * pin cushion embroidered, n - pin tray gouge work, c * pine cones, gathering and storing, a georgia pine, characteristics, c long leaf, a pitch pine, characteristics, c red, characteristics, c white characteristics, c strength, c white pine seeds gathering and curing, a - marketing, a yellow, characteristics, c pine needles. _see_ balsam pine nuts gathering, a pink characteristics, g fringed, characteristics, g moss pink, characteristics, g pioneer life "goin' plummin'", a - pipe organ operating by electricity, e - pipes. _see_ plumbing; soldering; stove pipe; waste pipes pistil seed making function, g pistons mechanism of, b - * pitch block definition of, m pitch fork forging, m * pitcher plant characteristics, g plackets. _see_ dressmaking plaited skirts. _see_ dressmaking plane. _see_ inclined plane planes and planing adjusting planes, c block plane, c , cap iron, adjustment and use, c * jack plane, c operation of the plane, c , - , d - , sharpening plane irons, c - * smooth plane, c * use of shooting board, c * wooden and iron, c * planishing definition of, m plant breeding budding, g - improving seeds, g - layering, g - methods, g mongrel varieties from close planting, g , seed selection, g - slipping, g - topping, g , - plant food, g - chemicals essential for, g how plants feed, g nitrogen, g , for sandy soil, g source of, g phosphorus, g , , potash, g , , source and value of, g plant stands jardiniere of wood, g - * mission style, making, c - stool making, g - plantain rib-grass, class and seed time, g seed production, g planting tables. _see_ flower gardening; seeds; shrubs; vegetable gardening plants action of chemical waves, e books about, a effect of light, g essential parts, g food manufactured and stored by, g - herbaceous plants, definition, g honey or pollen plants, a leaves food factory, g - functions, g lice, destroying, g , , life history, g - making wooden labels for, g * medicinal plants, a root-system, g - stems, passage way, g studying, a - transplanting, g , - from coldframe, g - useful to attract birds and protect trees, a _see also_ flower gardening; flowers; gardening; insect pests; plant breeding; plant food; salad plants; seeds; vegetable gardening; vegetables; also names of plants plants--collection and preservation, a - arranging specimens, a - blue printing, a - classifying specimens, a - drying specimens, a labeling specimens, a , k marketing collection, a mounting specimens, a - , k outfit for, a preserving in covers, a reasons for collecting, a - , representing different stages of growth, a - rules of the game, a seaweed, a - play importance of, k - playhouse, h - in flats and apartments, h in garret, h in a tree, h make believe, h , playthings make believe, h - _see also_ toys pleurisy root, g , pliers carpenter's tool, c * metal worker's tool, m * plug in the ring (game), k plum care of seeds for planting, a distance to plant trees, g origin and distribution of wild plums, a value of trees in chicken yards, k plumb-line home-made device, g plumbing, h - care of, in closed houses, h importance of, h leaks, peppermint test, b location of pipes for housekeeper, h principle of the u, h - * taps, repairing, b traps, construction and care, h - ventilation pipes, h _see also_ soldering; waste pipes pocket book. _see_ purse point lace. _see_ lace making poison ivy destroying, a - poisoning. _see_ lockjaw poker making fire tools, m * pokeweed roots and berries, a shoots as food, a polish and polishing french polish, c wax polish, c _see also_ brass work; copper work; enamel; floors; furniture; glass; metal work pollination of plants, g corn growing, g polo equestrian, k hand polo, k water polo, k wicket polo, k pompey's pillar, b pond making in a city back yard, g - ponderosa indoor plant, g pony as a pet, a - poplar carolina, g characteristics, c for landscape gardening, g quick growers, g popp-mallow characteristics, g poppy characteristics, g , depth to plant seeds, g iceland, sowing and blossoming time, g in england, g oriental, characteristics, g planting, g , plume, characteristics, g self-sowing, g transplanting, g porcupine quills how to procure, a uses, a pork cuts and their uses, h food value, h combined with vegetables, h used as chicken, h porterhouse steak, h portieres bead work, n - stenciling, n weaving designs, d - _see also_ block printing portland cement origin and uses, b - portulaca blooming plants, g characteristics, g posts preserving underground, c _see also_ foundations pot rest, g - * pot roast, h potash plant food, g , , potato boiled or baked, h food value, h insect pests, g , planting seed potatoes, g cutting device, a - * depth and distance to plant, g quantity to plant, g profit from raising, g spraying, g soil for, g potato race, k pots and pans care of, h , materials, h soldering, m - potted plants. _see_ flower gardening pottery, d - * bat and how made, d "bisque," meaning, d bowl decorating, d - * designing and modeling, d - * candlestick, designing, d - * clay, selecting, d coiling method, d , * concrete pottery, d - * decoration applying the design, d - classes, d - * color combinations, d - methods, d modeling a decoration, d under-glazing, d - designing, d - * avoiding natural forms, d testing profiles, d * development of, d - fern dish, d - * firing, d - glazed pottery, d glazes, matt and bright glaze mixes, d glazing, d - * grinding the glaze, d "grog" making, d handles, making, d * kiln, portable, d * materials and tools, d - * template, d * modeling process, d - * potter's wheel versus hand method, d - scientific principle of, d scraping, d * "slip," meaning, d testing work, d * tiles for tea plate and fireplace, d - * tools, d - vases, designing and decorating, d - * poultry, a - , k - accounts, how to keep, a , , , acquiring information, a amateur's experience with, a - american breeds, k asiatic breed, k bantams, breeding and care, a - books about, a brahmas, k breeding pure stock, a purpose of, k breeds, characteristics, a - , k - broilers, raising, k fattening for market, a - brooders, making, a , k broody hens, curing, a business methods in poultry raising, a - care and housing, a - , k - city experiment with, a cleanliness, a - , clipping wings, k cochins, k cooking broiling, h - preparation for, h - coops, model, a - * crested variety, care of, a drawing poultry, h dust bath for, a *, k eggs best layers, k cost of, for settings, k effect of feeding on layers, a keeping a record for idlers, a * of fancy fowls, a quality affected by feed, a selections for settings, a testing layers, a - * winter laying, k - exercise, provisions for, a , expenses of one experiment, a experiments, a - fancy breeds and their care, a - , k - fattening broilers for market, a , feathers, marketing, a food value: table, h fruit trees in the chicken yard, k hamburgs, characteristics, a hatching average number from a setting, k time required for eggs to hatch, a , k , hen gate, a * houdans, characteristics, a incubators, a average time for eggs to hatch, k , operating, k - killing, h lakenvelders, characteristics, a langshans, k laying hens. _see_ poultry, eggs leghorns, k eggs, a in a prize contest, a - lice on small chicks, a , k preventing, a marketing, a - mediterranean breeds, k molting season, a nests for sitting hens, a non-sitters, k ornamental land and water fowl as pets, k - cost of, k orpingtons, record price, k plucking, h plymouth rocks, k polish varieties, a prize contests, stories of, a - prize-winning orpingtons, k profit in, k ranging versus housing, a runs, cornfields for, a selection of, for cooking, h shows, purpose of, k sitting hens coops for, a - *, feeding, a nests for, a raising, k - starting a business with eggs versus chickens, k - stories of success in raising, a - thoroughbreds versus mongrels, k training for poultry raising, a trap nests for testing layers, a - * white wyandotte, a - , k wild fowl, clipping wings, k winter care, k - young chicks, care of, k - , a - yokahamas, a _see also_ ducks; game and game birds; geese; guinea fowl; peacock; poultry feeding; poultry houses; turkey poultry feeding effect on quality of eggs, a feeding six thousand hens in one half hour, a - growing feed, a making hens lay, a molting season, a rack for feed pans, to prevent waste, a * regularity essential, a self-feed grain box, a * self-feed grit box, a * sitting hens, a trough for feed, making, c * winter feeding, k young chicks, a - , k poultry houses building a poultry house, a - *, c - *, k * cleaning provisions, a , k construction principles, a , c - coops, a - * corners, finishing, c * curtained shed, a doors and windows, a *, c dropping board, a , c dust bath, a *, k floors, cement, a foundation, c - frame for window screen, c framework of the house, c - * for an eleven dollar house, a * furnishings, a - *, k * heat, planning for, a location, a , k materials, a - nests, location, a - , k roofing paper, c roosts, making, a , c , k runs, a , , c , k sanitary principles, a - , scratching shed, a , k , siding for frame, c sleeping room, k working drawings, c , powell. _see_ baden-powell, sir robert power dynamometer for measuring, b * foot pound, b problems in estimating, b steam versus electricity, e - units of power, b - _see also_ electric power; gasolene motors; mechanics; steam; water power precious stones bezel setting, m - *, *, cutting metal away for setting, m - * prong setting, m - * selecting for rings, m preserves storing in cellar, h _see also_ canning; jam; jelly press copying methods, b pressing skirts, n prime roasts, h printing block printing, d - prisoner's base, k propeller. _see_ aeroplanes; screw propeller proteins effect of boiling, h effect of cold water, h food composition, h foods containing, h proportion in diet, h , proverbs indian proverb about home making, h pruning hazel bushes, a methods, a - * puff balls, a - , - pulleys chain, b * dynamometer, b * endless chain, b expanding, b * mechanical principle of, b - * movable, theory of, b - * multiple, b - * rule for power, b , snatch block, b * spanish bartons, b * triangular eccentric, b * use of, b * white's pulley, b * pumpkin planting, g depth and distance to plant, g quantity of seed to plant, g time to plant, g with corn, g seed age for planting, g germination per cent., g striped beetle pests, g pumps action of, b - archimedes screw, b - *, double acting, b * force pumps, b , lift pumps, b , * plunger pump for vacuum cleaner, b - * theory of, b - _see also_ windmills punch (tool) centre punch, making, m * metal work tool, m * pupa. _see_ insects puppy. _see_ dogs purdy, carl collecting and growing california bulbs, a - purling, n * purse bead work, n - * tooled leather, making, d - * _see also_ card case purslane (pursley) class and seed time, g push ball, k push button. _see_ electric push button pyramids of egypt how they were built, b - pyrography outfit, c - woods suitable for, c , pyrometric cones, d * q quail. _see_ bob white quaker ladies, g quarter sawed oak, c , d - * queen anne's lace, g quills, porcupine, a quoits, k r rabbeted joints, c * rabbit bait, a breeds, common and fancy, k , a care of, k characteristics, a enemies, a fur, value, a house, construction, c - *, k - * hunting, a raising for pets, a snares, making, a story of a boy's animal cage, a raccoon bait for, a habits, a skin, value, a story of a boy's animal cage, a taming, a - racing feather race, k marathon race, k potato race, k sack race, k three legged race, k tub race, k water race, k racquets or rackets (game), k radiators steam as distributors of heat, e radish icicle, g indoor planting time, g insect pests, g planting seed depth to plant, g , distance to plant, g quantity to plant, g time to plant, g quick development, g seed age for planting, g germination per cent., g germination period, g raffia work, n - * basket making, n , - covers, n handles, n - melon-shaped basket, n - * belts, n - braiding raffia, n - *, doll's hammock, n doll's hat, n - * fringe, n hats braiding, n - * trimming, n , , weaving on wire frames, n - jewel case, n - * knotting raffia, n - * materials for, n napkin ring, n , * preparing the raffia, n , shopping bag, knotted raffia, n - * skip stitch, n solomon's knot, n split stitch, n three strand braid, n - whisk broom, n * winding stitch, n rafters. _see_ roofs ragout, h ragweed class and seed time, g rain causes of, b - drops, formation, b - shape, b fall effect on forestation, b measuring, b - * recording, b - gauge, making, b - * importance of, b period of rainfall, b table for measures, b weather symbol, b raisins food value, h raking, g ranges draughts and dampers, h - _see also_ gas range raspberries food value, h picking wild raspberries, a ratchet wheel mechanism, b - * rats book about, a electrocution device, e - * trapping, a rattan work baskets, n - * mats, n *, whisk broom holder, n reamur thermometer scale, b receipts barberry jelly, a canning elderberries, a elderberry steamed pudding, a green grape jelly, a pickled walnuts, a thimbleberry jam, a wild crabapple butter, a _see also_ camping--cooking; cookery; insecticides; paste red line, or red lion (game), k red spider, g reed basket weaving, g - * reel making a garden reel, g * refrigerator cleaning, h , drainage, regulating, h economy in ice supply, h how to avoid odors, h location, h purifying, h remington typewriter, b - * renaissance lace. _see_ lace rent what proportion of income to use for, h , , repairing. _see_ furniture; soldering repousse definition of, m retaining walls batter, making, b - "closers", b designing, b - * foundation, b *, galveston sea wall, b "header", b pointing, b "stretcher", b rheostat. _see_ electric rheostat rhubarb food value, h ribbon embroidery. _see_ embroidery rice camp cooking, k food value, h washing, h wild rice characteristics, a - harvesting, a uses of, a , richards, ellen h. "cost of living" quoted, h rifles aiming, k care and cleaning, k learning to use, k - rings iron, welding, m - *, * silver work, m - * steel, making, m * _see also_ precious stones rivers protecting river banks, b tides, b , _see also_ retaining walls riveting handles, m iron tongs, m * making rivets, m metal, m - * metal worker's tool, m * rivet set, m silver letters on copper, m - * stove pipe, m roads material for road-bed, g - repairing dirt roads, g - roast pig, story, h roasting meats, h open fire for, h thickness of food, h robbers irish stew and the robbers: story, h robin insect destroyers, a migration, k rock how soil was formed from, g _see also_ boulders rock garden flowers to plant in, g location, g plants, g soil requirements, g roentgen rays ether waves, e roley boley (game), k roller ball-bearing principle, b making wooden rollers, c * moving rocks on rollers, b roman cut work, n - * roof construction for summer house, c - * construction of frame, c - * cornices, c hip roof, construction, c * painting, b , c rafters fitting, c * making curved rafters, c roofing paper, c saddle boards, c shingling, b - , c - * estimating shingles, b nails required, b square of shingling or clap boarding, meaning, b rooms. _see_ bedroom; dining-room; furniture; girl's room; guests; house decoration; kitchen; living-room; pantry; servants ropes carrying power of hemp, b preservative for hemp, b strength of wire rope, b roque, k rose christmas, characteristics, g insect pests and remedies, g , irish crochet, n - , moss, characteristics, g rose chafer, g rose jar copper work, m - * rose slug, g rotascope. _see_ gyroscope rotation of crops, g round steak, h round table, knights of how gareth became a knight, h rowing intercollegiate record, k rubbed joints, c * rubber plant topping, g , rubbish disposal of, g rubicon (game), k rugby football, k rugs bathroom, h beating-rack, a - * braiding, n - * carpets versus rugs, a - cleaning, a - , h dry cleaning, h kitchen, h oriental, washing, a storing, h washing, a - weaving, d - *, n - * color combinations, d designs, d - , - *, n materials, d , , n preparing the woof, d - process, d - , n - setting the loom, n - woof shuttle, d * rulers carpenter's rule, c parallel, mechanism of, b * run, sheep, run (game), k running hare and hound chases, a russia calf for tooled leather, n rustic furniture collecting wood for, a suggestions for making, d - * rye food value, h s sable, alaskan, a sachets herbs and grasses for, a sack racing, k sad iron. _see_ electric iron saddles english, mexican and army, k - * safety valves for steam engines, b sage growing, g saint francis of assisi, h salad plant endive, g lettuce, g salamander taming, a salary. _see_ income salmon bait for, k * food value, h salt removing stains with, h salt cellar silver work, m - * salt pork cuts, h salvia bedding plants, g san jose scale, k sand bag definition of, m sand papering. _see_ whittling sandy soil. _see_ soils sanitation. _see_ garbage; plumbing; refrigerator; sewerage santos dumont's monoplane, b *, - sap. _see_ maple sugar sardine food value, h sashes. _see_ doors; windows satin stitch, n - * combinations, n - * design, n * sauce wild crabapple, a sausage buckwheat cakes combination, h food value: table, h sauteing, h saving methods, h - necessity and value, h savoury herb, g saw horse making, c - * saw mills, c saws band saw, c brazing steel band saws, m buck saw, c * compass saw, c * construction principles, c - * coping saw, c * cross cut saws, principle and use, c * danger of the power saw, d gang saw, c hack saw, c * metal worker's tools, m * rating by points, c rip saw, principle and use, c * sawing copper work, m - * turning saw, c * using, position for, c * saxifrage habits and characteristics, g , scabiosa sowing and blossoming time, g scales mechanical principle, b - * scalloping, n - *, scallops cooking, h scarf crocheted, n * scarf pin silver work, m - * scarfing, m - , wrench, m * scarlet runner beans, g scarlet sage, g scarlet tanagers insect destroyer, a school grounds improving, g - science value of study, e - science club, e scilla, bell flowered planting and blooming time, g , scissors protecting points of, n shears for metal work, m * sconce copper work, m - * scorched stains removing, h scotland's burning, k scours remedy, a scouts. _see_ boy scouts of america scraper definition of, m screen. _see_ fire screen screw archimedian, b - *, * case hardening screws, m - concealing in woodwork, method of, c * countersunk, meaning, c driving, b endless, b finish, c flat and round head, c - * friction, provision for, b mechanical principle, b - * number designation, c nut, principle of, b power principle, b - principle applied to tools, b removing, device for, b rule for power, b use of, c - * wooden screw, strength of, b worm gear, b * worm and wheel, b - * screw drivers, c , - * screw propeller aeroplane, b - , c - * blades area versus power, b - finding area, b principle, b features of, b pitch, calculating, b * power calculating, b - * principle of, b - speed, reckoning, b sea walls. _see_ retaining walls seal electric, a french, a hudson, a seams. _see_ dressmaking search light, electric, e * seasoning broiled meats and vegetables, h , seats. _see_ benches; chairs; settees seaweed care of specimens before mounting, a collector's outfit, a mounting specimen, a - * time and places for collecting, a varieties, a seeds, g - age for planting purposes, g cotyledon, g depth to plant: table, g , distribution of wild seeds, g envelopes, making, g - * germination aiding, g experiments, g per cent., g - table, g method of improving, g - planting compacting soil, g - how to plant, g , quantity to plant: table, g time, indoor and outdoor, g - saving for sale or planting, g selection germ developing power, g impure seed, g seed plants, g - size, g - selling, how to put up seed, g - soaking, g testing for germinating value, g , _see also_ grass seed; trees; vegetables; also names of plants, e. g., beans; nasturtiums; pansy; peppers, etc. seesaw mechanical principle of, b selvage, n september blooming plants, g servants, h - cook, duties, h , days out, adjustment of work, h duties four or five maids, h one maid, h , three maids, h , two maids, h , , hours, h mistress and maid business relations, h - personal relations, h - personal liberty, lack of, h proportion of income required for, h room, h servant question, h - meals, when served, h waitress dress, h duties, h - serving table. _see_ buffet; setting the table serving the meal. _see_ meals--serving serving tray copper work, m - * seton, ernest thompson boy scouts organizer, k settee box furniture, making, c * garden settle, making, d * hall settle, d * outdoor settee, making, c - * setting the table dining table decorations, h glasses, h methods, h serving table, use of, h sideboard arrangements, h silver, h table linen, h - settle. _see_ settee sewer pipes. _see_ plumbing sewerage system, importance of, h sewing apron making, n - * back stitching, n * half back stitch, n * bands for aprons, n * skirts, n *, basting stitches, n * binding, n * blanket making, n * buttonhole stitch, n * buttons, n - care of hands, n counterpane for doll's bed, n * crow's foot stitch, n * darning, n - * felling seams, n french hem, n gathering, n - * stroking, n * gussets, n - * helping mother, n hemming french hem, n gauge, notched card, n * rolling the edge, n * skirt, n , straightening the edge, n turning corners, n * turning the hem, n hooks and eyes, n - * knotting the thread, n substitute for, n , mattresses, n * needle case, n - needles, emery for, n over-casting, n * over-handing, n - * patching, n - pillow cases, n * plackets, n - *, plain sewing, n - position of sewer, n - rolling the edge, n * running and back stitch combination, n * running stitches, n * scissors, how to hold, n * seams felling, n stitches for, n - * sewing apron, n - * sewing case, n - * stitches, n - * tape loops on towels and dresses, n * thimble, how to use, n * thread, length of, n tucking, n turning corners, n whip stitch, n * work box, fittings, n _see also_ basket making, bead work; braiding; dressmaking; embroidery sewing machines boat-shaped shuttle type carriers and drivers, adjustment, b - * looping the thread, b setting needles, b * cleaning, b oiling, b * puckering, to prevent, b - rotary hook type bobbin case, b - * holder, adjusting, b * compared with boat-shaped shuttles, b - construction, b - * feed, regulating, b feed motion, b * hook guide and hook driver, b - * hook ring, b needle bars, setting, b - needles changing, b setting, b - * presser foot, b - * repairing shuttles, b stitch regulator, b *, take up spring, replacing, b - * tension, b - thread controllers, b - * threading, b *, , wheeler and wilson, b - shuttle action of different types, b - * tension, adjusting, b - threads to use, b types, b vibrating shuttle, b - * presser foot, adjustment, b wheeler and wilson, b - , shackles forging, m - * shad food value, h shades cleaning window shades, h _see also_ candle shade; lamp shade shadow embroidery stitches and materials, n - * shagbarks, a shamrock pattern for irish crochet, n sharks catching, k sharpening tools. _see_ tools shawl crocheting rainbow shawl, n - * knitting, n - * shears protecting points of scissors, n tools for metal work, m * sheep feeding, a - book about, a lambs, care of, a raising, a - shearing, a sheepskin for leather work, n sheets making for doll-bed, n * marking, n _see also_ beds; ironing shell fish broiling oysters, h food value, h preparing for cooking, h - shellac method of using, c , d - source and qualities, c shells book about, a collecting, a - outfit, a preserving and labeling specimens, a shelters. _see_ summer house shelving. _see_ book case shetland pony breeding for profit, a characteristics, a - shingling. _see_ roof shinney, k shirley poppies, g shoe buttons how to sew on, n shoepac, k shoes base ball, k foot ball, k * for winter sports, k - shooting hints on how to shoot, k - rifle shooting, k - "wiping his eye", k shooting board how to make, c * how to use, c * shop. _see_ carpentry and woodwork; work shop shot guns aiming, k , barrel lengths, k care and cleaning, k choke-bore gun, k double barrels, k * "drop" of a gun, k for small game, k learning to shoot, k - pattern, testing, k - selecting, k - styles for various purposes, k unloading, k _see also_ rifles shovel blacksmith's shovel, m , * fire tools, making, m - * home-made snow shovel, a shrubs characteristics: table, g - hazel bush, a planting and transplanting, g selection principles, g , , , sideboard arranging for service, h design, d * siding. _see_ house framing sieve making a garden sieve, g - signals and signaling marine flag code, b - weather signals, b - silkworm culture, a - apparatus for rearing, a * book about, a cocoons preparing for market, a spinning, a - * weight of, a eggs hatching, a - laying, a - first age, a food and feeding, a , - racks for, a * moth how it comes out of the cocoon, a life of, a molting periods, a - stages of growth, a varieties of silk spinners, a silver cleaning and care, h , setting the table, h washing, h _see also_ silver work silver fox book about, a silver maple. _see_ maple silver work bar pins, m - * bezel setting, m - *, *, bracelets, m - * indian design, m - * brooches, m - * characteristics of silver for working, m collar slide, m - * comb, m - * cuff links, m - * enameling on, d gems selecting, m setting, m - *, *, , hinges. _see_ metal work--hinges lettering silver on copper, m - * links, making, m - * mustard spoon, m * napkin ring, m - * necklaces, m - * oxidizing silver, m pendants, m picture frame, m , - * pin, m - * rings bezel setting, m - * deep set stone, m - * prong setting, m - * twisted silver wire, m - * riveting letters, m - * salt cellar, m - * salt spoon, m * scarf pin, m - * setting the stone, m spoons, m - * sugar tongs bowl design, m * claw design, m - * tools chisel, making, m * mandrel, m * watch fob, m - * _see also_ copper work; metal work simmering definition, h sink location and care of kitchen sinks, h sirloin steak, h skate sailing, k - * skating, k - club skate model, k * damming a brook or pond, a fancy figures, k hockey skates and playing, k - * racing skates and skating, k sprinting stroke, k tennis court for skating pond, a - skee. _see_ skiing skiing, k - *, jumping, k ski pole, k * skis, k - * skins and hides curing, a removing, a tanning, a - solution, a skirts. _see_ dressmaking skittles lawn skittles, k - skunk nests and habits, a pelts, value, a , tame, a trapping, a - sled bobsled, k * toy, working drawing, c , * sledge blacksmith's tool, m sleep and sleeping advantages of outdoor sleeping, a - preparation for outdoor sleeping, a , * sleeves. _see_ dressmaking slippers crocheting, n - * slippery elm, c slugs exterminating, g garden pests, g rose slugs, g , small fruits. _see_ berries smartweed class and seed time, g smilax, southern, a smith premier typewriter, b - * smocking honeycomb pattern, n - stitch, n * smoking dangers of, k - smoking set copper work, m - * snake taming, a venomous, k snake's head, g , snapdragon, g snares. _see_ traps snarling iron definition of, m snow crystals, forms and colors, b - * formation, b line, b , measuring snowfall, b perpetual snow, b shoveling, a - uses of, b weight, b snow shoeing skis and skiing, k - * snow shoes, k - * snowballs japanese, g snowdrop planting and blooming time, g soap for laundry, h soccer. _see_ foot ball socket wrench. _see_ wrench sockets making an open wire rope socket, m - * soda combined with cream of tartar, h some uses of, h sour milk and, h sofa cushion. _see_ pillow softening metal. _see_ annealing soils acid, improving, g , , adapting crops, g - clay absorption of water, g characteristics, g formation, g - improving, g , , - , lime for acid soil, g elements, g formation of, g humus, g improving poor soil, g , - , - , impure air in, h inoculation, purpose and method, g , lime absorption of water, g formation, g - humus for, g improving, g testing for, g loam, meaning of, g preparing for grass seed, g - physical and chemical needs, g sand absorption of water and heat, g characteristics, g formation of, g improving, g , nitrogen needed, g subsoil, g testing, g - top-soil, g _see also_ drainage; flower gardening; plant food; also names of plants soldering brass vase, m copper handles, m - electric iron for, e * hard soldering, materials and directions, m - heat and tools for, m - * iron, making, m - * metals, m - * outfit, b , m - * preparations, b process, b soft soldering materials and tools, m process, m , - tinker's dam, b unsoldering, m solomon's seal, false habits and characteristics, g song birds. _see_ birds sorrel class and seed time, g sound production of, e variation with speed, e velocity, b - , e in dry air, water and metals, b independent of pitch, e vibrations of metal disks, e - waves, e length, b , e soups beef stock, what to buy, h boiling meat for stock, h to keep from curdling, h soutache braid for braiding, n spading how to spade, g , spanish fly (game), k sparrow bird enemy, k book about, a migration of song sparrow, k specific gravity meaning and application, b - speed indicator mechanism and use, e * spice bush characteristics, g spiders food for young wasps, a nature study, k spiked loosestrife characteristics, g spinach cleaning, h food value, h germination per cent. of seed, g time to plant, g spindle copper work, m - * spinning. _see_ silkworm spirea characteristics, g hedge shrub, g van houtte's, a good variety, g , spirit level, c * splice or scarf joints, c * spoons mustard spoon, silver work, m * nut set spoon, copper work, m - * salt spoon, silver work, m tea spoon, silver work, m - * sports girls' outdoor sports, k - winter sports, k - * _see also_ archery; base ball; camping; canoeing; coasting; cricket; curling; fishing; foot ball; games; golf; horsemanship; hunting; racing; rowing; shooting; skate sailing; skating; skiing; swimming; track athletics; trapping; walking spots. _see_ cleaning spring beauty habits and characteristics, g transplanting, g springs (machinery) air spring, b * bearing springs, b - car springs, b * cross bow, making, b * draw spring, b * tempering steel, m uses, b springs (water) preparing for trout culture, a - reclaiming springs, a - story of how one spring was reclaimed, a - sprocket wheel, b * spruce gum gathering, a - making, a marketing, a uses, a white spruce, a spruce tree seed year, a variety and characteristics, c - squabs book about, a care of, a homers as breeders, a - killing and dressing, a marketing and profit, a raising, a - record keeping, a where to get information about, a _see also_ pigeons square, steel carpenter's tool, c * metal worker's tool, m * squash food value, h insect pests, g , , planting seed, g depth to plant, g time to plant, g seed age for planting, g germination per cent., g squash (game), k squirrels as pets, k bad habits of the red squirrel, a bait for, a flying squirrels as pets, k taming, a - stabbler, sydney s. my experience with honey bees, a - stains and staining alcohol stains, value of, d applying stains, d - asphaltum, d black walnut imitation, d brown stain, c chemical composition and use, c preparing, c flemish oak, d forest green oak, d fumed oak and chestnut, process, d - golden oak finish, d gray oak, d mahogany imitation, d , , c mission oak, d natural colors versus imitation, c object of staining, d oil stain composition and use, c merits of, c , d perfect stain, d preparation of surface, c water stain advantages of, c , d composition and use, c weathered oak, d stake pin making, m - * stand pipe principle of, h staples designing and making, m - * star of bethlehem planting and blooming time, g starch boiled starch, making, h cold starch, making, h protecting, h starching clothes, h sticking to irons, to prevent, h stars effect of aerial tides, e telling points of the compass by, k time required for light to travel from, e starting box (electric), e operation of, e - * steam condensation, b dry steam, b expansion principle, b generation of, b - heat units, b - wet steam, b steam engines calipyle, b - cylinder and piston, b - * disk engine, b * governors, b - *, gyroscope, b heating principle, b hero engine, b * history of, b - , horsepower, estimating, b - noise from exhaust, reason, b , power generation and distribution, b - principle of, b - rotary, b * safety valve, b slide valve, b - * toe and lifter for valves, b * waste in power, e steam radiators as distributors of heat, e steam turbine, b steam whistles why steam is seen before whistles are heard, b steamboats development of, b _see also_ screw propeller; steam turbine steel annealing, m - bessemer steel manufacture and use of, m brazing, m carbon steel, m , case hardening, m - crucible cast steel, making, m cutting tool steel, m grades, m hardening forged fires for, m lathe tools, m solutions, m - hook, making, m - * invention of, b lanterns, making, m - * manufacturing, m oxidation, prevention of, m sockets, forging, m - * soft, m - * weldless ring, making, m * working heat, m stretching processes, m tempering, m - color scheme, m - grade of steel required, m lathe tools, m side tool, m testing for carbon, m for hardness, m tool making, m - tool steel, m welding, m wrenches, forging, m - * wrought iron versus, m _see also_ knives; tool making stenciling, n - * brushes for, n - * color schemes, d corner designs for borders, d - cutting the stencil, d , n designs, making, d - * repeating unit, d * transferring, d materials and tools, n , d outline drawing, d paints for mixing colors, n - testing, d - patterns, making from paper, n - * pillows, n *, pinning the stencil, d process, d - , n repeating and joining units, d * reversing the pattern, n stencil bands, size and purpose, d - * use in home decoration, n , washable, n water colors for, n stereopticon lamp, e * stewing, h stickseed class and seed times, g still pon no moving, k stings care of, h stitches. _see_ crocheting; embroidery; knitting; lace making; sewing stock sowing and blossoming time, g ten-weeks, characteristics, g stock breeding. _see_ breeding stockings darning, n - * stone wall for lawn, g stones. _see_ boulders; precious stones stools. _see_ foot stools storage battery. _see_ electric batteries store room in cellar, h stories brother juniper's cooking, h fire of coals, h irish stew, h king alfred and the cakes, h king's kitchen, h loaves and fishes, h the luncheon, h roast pig, h widow's cruse of oil, h storing. _see_ packing stove pipe riveting, m stoves draughts and dampers, h - laundry, h _see also_ fire making; gas range; ovens strawberries care of first-year plants, g experimenting with varieties, g - food value, h growing, g - hill culture versus matted row, g planting rules, g - soil and location, g staking the bed, g * wood ashes for fertilizer, g street cars. _see_ electric cars strength of materials nails, b - ropes, hemp and wire, b - timbers, estimating, b woods, c - * string beans cooking preparations, h food value, h planting, g striped beetle remedy for, g stump master (game), k submarine cables. _see_ cables, submarine suckers (game), k sugar food value, h sugar bush. _see_ maple sugar sugar-scoop making a wooden scoop, c * sugar-tongs silver work, m - * sumach christmas green, a summer cottage. _see_ cottages summer house building, c - * location, g making a double seat for, c - sun cooking processes, h distance from earth, b time required for light to travel from, e _see also_ tides sundial making, b - *, g - * setting up, g - sun time versus clock time, g sunflower double, characteristics, g food for squirrels, g late, characteristics, g , planting seed, g sowing and blossoming time, g swages blacksmith tools, m * swallows migration, k swans varieties, k swastika inlaying design on wood, c , * swedish drawn work. _see_ hardanger embroidery sweeping carpets and rugs, h sweet alyssum characteristics, g , planting seeds, g , sweet clover and sweet fern leaves for sachet, a sweet flag characteristics, g sweet grass basket making, a sweet lavender, g sweet pea characteristics, g , sweet potato food value, h sweet sultan characteristics, g sweet william biennial, g characteristics, g , swimming accidents, k artificial supports, k breast stroke, k dangers, avoiding, k diving, k * dog stroke, k fancy stroke, k girls as swimmers, k learning how, k - on the back, k overhand or overarm strokes, k pool, artificial cost, a in back yard, a - keeping water fresh, a pool, book about, a pool, natural damming of stream, a - strokes, k - , - value as exercise, k swine, a - book about, a brood sow care of, a - selecting, a cleanliness, a fattening, a feeding young pigs, a pen, building, a profit in raising, a sycamore characteristics, c sycamore maple. _see_ maple symbols. _see_ signals syrup. _see_ molasses; maple sugar and syrup t table linen care of, h ironing, h marking, n table runner block printing, d - designs, d - materials, d weaving, d - tables checkerboard table, making, c * dining table design, d * drawing table, making, c - fastening table tops to prevent warping, d * kitchen, h library table design, d * heavy, design and construction, d - * light, design and construction, d - * mission style, making, c - * wood finish, d picnic tables, making, b - polished, care of, h round centre table design and construction, d - * wood finish, d tea table, mission style, making, c - * _see also_ setting the table tabourette, c - *, g - circular top, making, c - * estimating lumber for, c hexagonal top, c - * mission style, making, c - * moorish design, c - * octagonal top, making, c * working drawings, c , * tag (game), k last tag, k warning, k wood tag, k tamarack. _see_ larch tanager migration, k tanning skins, a , - tantalum lamp metal filament, e tapes sewing on, n * tapestry weaving, n - tapioca food value, h tarnish on brass preventing, m tarpon catching, k tea camp cooking, k tea caddy brass work, m - * tea kettle iron work stand for, making, m - * tea pot stand copper, d - * tea pots care of, h tea spoons. _see_ spoons tea stains, h teeter-tauter principle of, b telegraph invention and development, e - key, e * morse code reading, e poles, use of glass knobs, e relay, e - * signals, how produced, e - * sounders, operation of, e wires, insulation, e _see also_ cables; submarine; wireless telegraph telephone, e - automatic registering device, e bells magnets for ringing, e - operation of, e burning out of the coil, e central battery system, e current in telephone circuit, e double metallic circuit, first used, e electric spark coil, e - history of, e - lightning arrester, e * music transmitted by, e pole, equipment, e receiver as switch and circuit, e construction and action, e - * operating by induced current, e - principle of, e - * vibrator, e - resistance in the circuit, e - simple telephone system, e - * sounds, how produced, e , - transmitter, construction, e - vibrations of disks, e volume of business in , e wires installation, e use of ground wire, e telescope water telescope, k telharmonium, e - temperature. _see_ thermometers tempering hand hammers, m , knives, m lathe tools, m , steel, m - teneriffe lace, n * tennis, k - * court tennis, k girl's sports, k hand tennis, k "love", k playing the game, k - racket how to hold, k * selecting, k scoring, k stroke, k tether tennis, k tennis court accessories, making, c - * back stop, making, c - * dimensions and directions, c , k - * drainage, k grass versus clay, k , laying out, c - * making and caring for, a - marker, home made, a marking, k - * net, putting up, c post for net, placing and preserving, c surfacing and leveling, k tents "a" tent, k * brush lean-to, k * indian tepee, k * lean-to, k , * trapper's tent, k * wall tent, k * tetanus cause of, b tether ball, k tether tennis, k thermometers centigrade scale, b changing one scale into another, b - fahrenheit scale, b history and purpose, b scales in use, b - theory of, b thermostat, electric, e thimble how to use, n * thimbleberry description of, a jam, receipt, a picking, a thistle canada, class and seed time, g russian, class and seed time, g thorn apple, a thrasher, brown insect destroyer, a migration, k thrush migration, k thunder weather symbol for thunder storm, b why thunder is heard last, b tides, b - aerial, b cause of, b - ebb and flow, b elevations, changes in, b - height, b lakes, b lunar, b - moon's distance from the meridian, effect of, b - neap tides, b open seas, b rivers and channels, b sir isaac newton's theory, b - solar, b - , spring tides, b - theory of, b - * time, changes in, b - tidiness meaning of, h ties irish crochet, n - * tile drains. _see_ drainage tiles cleaning, h decoration of, d fireplace tiles, d - for kitchen floors, h making, d - * tea tiles, d * uses, d _see also_ drainage timber. _see_ building; lumber; strength of materials; trees; wood time day and night, cause of, b division of, b tin kitchen utensils, h _see also_ soldering tinker's dam, b tip cat drawing and making, c - titmouse insect destroyer, a toad book about, a enemy to cut worm, k garden pest destroyer, g , a taming, a toasters, electric, e tobacco jar copper work, m - * tobogganing, k toilet boxes. _see_ box making toilet closets. _see_ closets, toilet toilet fixtures care of, h , , tomato dwarf champion, g food value, h indoor planting time, g insect pests, g , peeling tomatoes, h planting seed depth and distance to plant, g quantity to plant, g time to plant, g removing ink stains with, h seed age for planting, g germination per cent., g germination period, g staking the vines, g starting and transplanting, g - vines, overgrowth of, g tommy tiddler's land (game), k tongs blacksmith's tools, m *, fire tools, making, m - * iron tongs, making, m - * tongue and groove joints, c * tongue grafting. _see_ grafting tool boxes and chests, c - *, - * old-fashioned chest, c - * suit case design, c - * tool making, m - * boring tool, m * cape chisel, m * centre punch, m * cold chisel, m *, crowbars, m * cutting off tool, m * diamond point, m * dividers, m - * drills, m - * eccentric strap, m * fire screen, m * fire tools, m - * hammers, m *, - * hardening, m - hardie, m * hoe, m - * hot chisel, m * lathe tools, m - nail puller or claw tool, m * pitch fork, m * rock drills, m - * round nose, m set hammer, m * shovel, m - * side point, m steel for, m stone chisel, m - * stone pick, m * tempering steel for, m - tongs, iron, m - wood chisel, m - wrenches, steel, m - _see also_ forging; steel; welding tooled leather. _see_ leather work tools anvil stake, m * beck iron, m burners, m - * calipers, m chisels, m , *, * dividers, m * using, m * draw plate, m *, , drills, m * enameling tools, m face plate, m files, m * fullers, m * gouges, m graver, m hack saw, c hammer, m * hand hammer, m * peen, m * set hammer, m * hardie, m *, * jewelers' snips, m * leather work tools, d - *, n *, * mallet, wooden, m * mandrel, m matt tool, m pin, m pitch block, m planishing hammer, using, m * pliers, m * pottery modeling tools, d - principle of the inclined plane applied to, b punch, m *, * ring mandrel, m * riveting tool, m * sand bag, m saw frame, m * scraper, m screw principle, b shaping tools, m * shears, m * shovel, m *, sledge, m snarling iron, m soldering outfit, m - * square, steel, m *, c * stake and riveting tool, m swages, m * tracer, m tongs, m *, vise, m *, *, * wedge, principle of, b - * wooden block, m *, * using, m * _see also_ carpentry and woodwork--tools and appliances; chisels; drilling and boring tools; gardening--tools; hammers; tool boxes; tool making; wedge; wrenches topping plants, g , - tops plug in the ring, k towel rack making a wooden rack, c * towel roller making a wooden roller, c - * towels marking, n toy making, c - aeroplanes, c - * boat in a storm, c - * designing moving toys, c - * dog house, c * electric engine, e * electric spinner, e * electric train operated by wireless outfit, e - * fencers, c - * happy jack windmill, c * indian paddlers, c - * moving toys, c - cautions, c method of procedure, c - * racing automobile, c - * sawyers, c - * turkey and executioner, c - * wooden boxes, c * _see also_ kites toys giving away, h inventions and discoveries, h tracer metal worker's tool, m track athletics all round championship, k best college record, k intercollegiate contest events, k olympic games, events, k one hundred yard dash, best record, k scoring in all round championship, k trained animals. _see_ animals transferring embroidery patterns, n - stencil designs, d transplanting. _see_ vegetable gardening; also names of plants, e. g., beets; lettuce, etc. trapping, a - baiting traps, a carrot bait, a * for muskrats, a books about, a box traps, a *, c * deadfall trap, a , , c * gophers, a * land animals, a mink, a - moles, a - muskrats, a - , profit and recreation in, a rabbits, a - rats, a - river trapping, a rules of the game, a - skunks, a - snares, c * with carrot bait, a * steel jaw traps, setting, a steel traps, cruelty of, a stop-thief traps, a - * traps, humane and inhuman, a swamp trapping, a water animals, a weasel, a - woodchucks, a traps (plumbing) construction and purpose, h , defective, reason and remedy, h location, h , trash disposal of, h trays gouge work, c - * _see also_ copper work tread-mill training dogs to run, a - mechanism, b * trees age, how to tell, c broad leaved, c - , - compound leaves, c * doubly compound, c * maple, c - oak, c - simple leaves, c * cambium layer, a classification and characteristics, c - coniferous trees, names and characteristics, c - cutting down, art of, k - * danger of roots to cement walks, b growth process, c heart wood versus sap wood, c identifying, a , planting directions, g - playhouse in a tree, h products of, c qualities of different varieties, k rings, meaning, c selecting and planting, g - seeds for propagation gathering, a - ripening and drying, a treatment, where to get information, a table describing, g _see also_ forestry; fruit trees; grafting; landscape gardening; lumber and lumbering; nuts; pruning; wood; also names of trees, e. g., maple; oak; pine, etc. trellises, d - * trench. _see_ cement walk; drainage; gardening trestle. _see_ saw horse triangles (tools) making, c - * trick joints, c * trilliums habits and characteristics, g trimmings. _see_ crocheting triplane, b trolling, k * trophy stick, notched, c * trout bait, k , culture from eggs, a feeding, a reclaiming the trout stream, a - trout lily, g truck garden. _see_ vegetable gardening trumpet vine decorative value, g t-square, c * making, c - * to prevent warping, c tub racing, k tubs. _see_ bathtubs; laundry tucking, n * tulip cone developer, g planting bulbs indoors, g red, planting and blooming time, g tree, characteristics, c varieties, g white, planting and blooming time, g yellow, planting and blooming time, g tungsten lamp cost of, e *, metal filaments, e turbines fourneyron, b * jonval, b * steam, b water, b turkey book about, a breeds, a enemies, lice and wet, a feeding young turkeys, a , food value, h habits of turkey hen, a hatching, time required, a laying and sitting habits, a raising, a - selection of, for cooking, h turn spit dog, b turnip food value, h planting seed depth and distance to plant, g quantity to plant, g time to plant, g seed age for planting, g germination per cent., g , germination period, g soil, g turnip-root cabbage planting, g turpentine moth exterminator, h paint stain remover, h turtle head characteristics, g where found, g turtles taming, a typewriter alignment, b "blind" writer, b carbon copying device, b card indexing device, b carriage, b , interchangeable, b *, mechanism of, b disconnecting parts, b double shift, b duplicators, b - essential features, b - invention of, b keyboard, b , , , universal, b kinds, b line-spacing mechanism, b , noiseless operation, b oliver, mechanical principle, b - * paper feed, b platen essentials, b interchangeable, b remington description of parts and their uses, b - * improvements, b - ribbon movement, b ribbons, two and three colors, b , , scales, b semi-visible writers, b single shift, b smith-premier, b - *, spacing bar, b tabulator, b - type cleaning, b cleaning device, b mechanism, b , , , , visible writers, b work done by, b u u-tube, theory of, h - umbrella handles woods and roots for, a - umbrella stand design and construction, d - * iron work, m mission design, c * wood finish, d unleavened bread nutriment, h upsetting. _see_ forging upstairs work, h - utensils. _see_ kitchen utensils v vacuum cleaner electric, e * home made, b - * plunger pump, making, b - * power driven, home made, b - * principle of, e using, b water motor, b * valerian characteristics, g vane. _see_ weather vane varnish and varnishing drying, time required, d - dull finish, d flat finish, d grades of varnish, c method of using, b , c number of coats needed, d quality of varnish, recognizing, d rubbing down process, d "sag" and how corrected, d - vase brass work, m - * concrete garden vase, making, d - * pottery, making, d - * typical flower holders, d - * veal as chicken, h cuts and their uses, h food value: table, h vegetable gardening, g - combinations for late planting, g indoor and outdoor planting time, g - intermingling from close planting, g money making garden, g - planting tables age for planting, g depth and distance, g germination per cent., g germination time, g quantity to plant, g seeds, selling, g - selling young plants, g - transplanting, g - from the coldframe, g - strawberry boxes for, g _see also_ coldframe; drainage; fertilizers and manures; gardening; herbs; hotbed; insect pests; plant food; plants; soils; also names of vegetables, e.g., beans; cabbage; carrot, etc. vegetables boiling, h burning, treatment, h camp cooking, k , cleaning, h cooking, h preparation for, h - with left overs, h dandelion greens, a exhibits, preparation for, g food value, h , husking, h peeling, h pokeweed roots, cooking, a preparation for selling, g scraping, h seasoning, h selection of, for cooking, h shelling, h soaking, h stewing, h _see also_ names of vegetables; e. g., cauliflower; parsnip; pumpkin; etc. verbena characteristics, g planting, g village improvement books about, a what boys and girls can do, a - vinegar cider vinegar book about, a making, a - "mother," meaning, a vinegar cruet washing, h vines annuals, g climbers, g for covering fences and buildings, g scarlet runner bean, g training, g use in landscape gardening, g violet california, characteristics, g habits and characteristics, g , insect pests, g russian, characteristics, g tufted, characteristics, g where to plant, g wild varieties, g vireos insect destroyers, a migration, k virginia creeper decorative value, g vise bench vise, m *, *, * quick action, c voisin's biplane, b - * volley ball, k volta, alessandro, e perfected method for producing electricity by chemical action, e voltmeter for direct and alternating currents, e measuring electric pressure, e - multipliers, e principle and operation, e - * w waists. _see_ dressmaking waiting on table. _see_ meals--serving waitress dress, h duties, h - wake robin, g walking healthfulness of, k - walking stick carved by the engraver beetle, a orange wood, a roots for handles, a shaping, a walks. _see_ cement walk; garden paths wall brackets. _see_ brackets wall cabinet. _see_ medicine cabinet wall flower characteristics, g wall paper. _see_ walls wall rack. _see_ book rack wallachian embroidery drawing scallops, n meaning of, n stitch, n * walls care of, h cleaning appliances, h cleaning wall paper, h decoration of, d , - , n dry cleaning, h how to drive nails into plaster walls, c kitchen, h paneled walls, cleaning, h _see also_ embankments; paper hanging walnut black characteristics of tree, c imitation stain, c , d device for husking, a drying and storing nuts, a food value of nuts, h receipt for pickled walnuts, a - white, characteristics of tree, c wandering jew window box plants, g warbler insect destroyer, a wardrobe. _see_ closets, clothes warning (game), k warp. _see_ weaving wash board and wash boiler care of, h washing. _see_ laundry work washing dishes. _see_ dish washing washington (game), k washington thorn, a washstands cleaning, h used as playhouse, h wasps development from the egg, a - feeding grub, a habits, a - waste classification, h disposal of in country, h in cities, h - waste pipes care of, h construction principle, h - disinfection in cleaning, h misuse of, h waste water disposal of, h in country, h watch fob copper and enamel, d - * silver or copper work, m - * watches balance and spring, b geneva stop, b * magnetized, b - mechanism, b , non-magnetic, b regulators, b - *, testing for magnetism, b watchman's time detector, e * water boiling point, h cold water as a preserver, h substitute for milk, h water and bog plants table, g water bugs, h water bulbs. _see_ bulbs water closets. _see_ closets, toilet water fowl, k water garden, g water glass egg preservative, a water life, k - collector's net, k * telescope for observing, k water lilies table, g water meter vibrating trough, b * water mint characteristics, g water motor. _see_ water wheels water pipes. _see_ plumbing; waste pipes water polo, k water power estimating, e from a continuous fall of water, b * reclaiming a spring, a - _see also_ water supply; water wheels water race, k water seal construction and purpose, h water supply importance of source, h principle of the tower, h spring water, a summer camp devices, e - theory of u-tube in waterworks, h - water tank. _see also_ pumps; water wheels; wells electric warning for empty tank, e * water tax economizing bills, h water wheels ancient, b * archimedian screw principle, b * barker or reaction, b * breast wheel, b * governors, b - * overshot, b *, undershot, b * vacuum cleaner motor, b volate, b * _see also_ turbines water works. _see_ water supply watermelon food value, h germination per cent., g planting, g watt, james inventor, e watt unit of power, b _see also_ kilowatt wattmeter, e - illustration of motor principle, e measuring watt hours, e - registering amount of electricity used, e - wax bayberry dips, a - grafting, g making beeswax, a wood finish, c , d - _see also_ floors wax beans, g wax myrtle, a - waxwings insect destroyers, a weasel colors of fur, a habits, a weather records, how made, b - symbols, b - _see also_ barometer; rain; thermometer; weather vane; wind weather boarding. _see_ house framing weather vane making, c - * zeppelin airship weather vane, making, c * weathered oak finish, d weathering meaning, b weaving, d - , n - bordered table scarf, d - color effects, n - curtains and draperies, d - dowel, n dyeing, materials for, d - french as weavers, n hand loom bridge, n description of treadle loom, d - * home-made, without treadle, n - primitive loom, d setting, d - , n - shuttle and bobbin, d * shuttle for woof cloth, d simple cardboard loom, n materials to use, n pattern weaving, d - drawing in the pattern, d - * hit-and-miss pattern, n operation of the harnesses, d - pick, d * variations in patterns, d , portieres and couch covers, d - process, d - , n - beating up the woof, d , n drawing in the warp, d , n pairing threads, n preparing the warp, d , n warping the loom, d , n rattan mats, n *, rugs, d - , n - harmonizing effects, n tapestry designs, n warp and woof, d , n - * warping hook, d * _see also_ braiding wedge cutting tool, c principle of, b - * rule for power, b weeds, g - annuals, destroying, g biennials, destroying, g book about, a definition of, a destroying and preventing, a - , g - distribution of seeds, g foreign, g good points, g medicinal, a - , g book about, a perennials, destroying, g - propagation seeds, g trailing branches, g table of, g test of acid soil, g weevils chestnut weevil, a weigela characteristics, g weight principle of lifting, b - * weights and measures english versus metric system: tables, c , tables, h units of measurement, c , _see also_ electric measurements welding, m - * built-up work, m butt welds, m * definition of, m , chains, m - * cleft weld, m * corner plate, m * electric, e - flat welds, m - * flat welds and t-welds, m - * horse shoes, m iron oxidation, preventing, m iron ring, m - *, * iron tongs, m - * jump weld, m - * kinds, m lap weld, m * scarfing, m - *, * a wrench, m * socket wrenches, m - * t weld, m - * temperature of fire, m - tool steel to wrought iron, m turn buckles, m * upsetting, m * wells location and care, h _see also_ pumps western union telegraph company equipment and amount of business, e whale oil soap spray for insects, g , wheat depth to plant seeds, g wheel and axle principle of, b , - * rule for power, b wheel-barrow leverage principle, b making, b - * wheels mechanical movements, b - * _see also_ screw propeller; turbines; water wheels whip grafting. _see_ grafting whisk broom raffia, n * white pine. _see_ pine white rabbit. _see_ rabbit whitewash preparing surface walls, h preparing the lime, h - value for cellar walls, h whittling, c - beveling, c calendar back, c * curves, cutting, c * cutting out process, c * drawing the design, c * first lessons in, c - * fish line winder, c * key rack, c - * key tags, c * knife kind to use, c * method of holding, c * paper knife, c - * picture frames, c - * propeller blades, c - * sand papering edges, c testing with the try square, c * tip cat, c - * weather vane making, c - * windmills, c - * woods for, c worsted winder, c * _see also_ wood carving wicket polo, k wicks trimming, h widow's cruse of oil: story, h wild animals. _see_ animals wild carrot class and seed time, g seed distribution, g wild crabapple, a , wild flower gardening april, june and july blooms, g - decorative value of wild flowers, a landscape gardening, g late blooms, g march blooms, g may blooms, g planning and care, g soil, g , succession of bloom, g - transplanting, g wild flowers. _see_ flowers wild fowl. _see_ game and game birds; water fowl wild geranium characteristics, g wild grapes. _see_ grapes wild nuts list of, a wild plums "goin' plummin'", a - wild raspberries, a wild rice, a - winch setting up, b - * uses, b - wind. _see_ winds wind break trees for, g , wind flower, g wind root, g , windlass principle of, b - * windmill common windmill, b * happy jack weather vane, c - * horizontal weather vane, c - * six-bladed weather vane, c - zeppelin weather vane, c * window-box advantages over pots, g construction and painting, g - crowding plants in, g draining, g how to fasten to window, g selection of plants for sunny and shady windows, g - window seat for girl's room, n windows batten blinds, c cleaning, h details of window frames, d * hanging, c inside trim, c * location of cellar windows, h setting frames, c winds measuring device, b - * table of velocity, b _see also_ weather vane; windmill winter sports, k - * clothing and footwear, k - * winterberries description of, a wire reducing size of, m _see also_ electric wires wire ropes. _see_ rope wireless club, e - wireless telegraph accidents prevented by, e , - aerials, e amateur stations, e antennæ, e * c. q. d. message, meaning, e coherer circuit, e * construction, e - * discovery, e electric bell as transmitter, e operated by wireless, e * ether waves, e fireworks, operated by, e - * first company organized, e first practical use, e first public stations, e ground wire, e hertzian waves, e incandescent lamps operated by, e * law requiring use on steamers, e morse alphabet, e operation of a simple type, e - * relay, e - sending messages to ocean steamers, e signal code, e spark coil, construction, e - * tapper, e - * toy train operated by, e - * trans-atlantic messages first sent, e wistaria decorative value, g witch hazel characteristics, g wolf and sheep (game), k women heritage of, h - home making power, h wood best woods for special purposes, k decay, cause of, c durability, c - hard wood, c , k beech, c black jack or barren oak, c black or sweet birch, c black or yellow oak, c bur oak (mossy cup), c chestnut oak, c cypress, c elm, white or american, c georgia pine, c holly, c honey locust, c hop hornbeam, ironwood, c hornbeam, or blue birch, c larch, c laurel oak, c locust, black and yellow, c paper birch, c pin oak, c post or iron oak, c red birch, c red elm, slippery elm, c red oak, c red or swamp maple, c red pine, c rock, cork elm, c silver, or white maple, c sugar maple, c swamp white oak, c tamarack, c white oak, c willow oak, c yellow birch, c yellow pine, c preservation, c - soft wood, c , k arbor vitæ, c balsam, c basswood, linden, c black spruce, c box elder, c buckeye, c fir, c gray, or aspen-leaved birch, c hemlock, c moosewood, c mountain maple, c pitch pine, c red cedar, c red spruce, c white cedar, c white pine, c white spruce, c strength of, c - * _see also_ forestry; kindling wood; trees wood anemone habits and characteristics, g wood carving black and white design, c blotter pads, designs, c - chip carving, c - * curved cutting, c - designs elliptical, c - for borders, c - * for centres, c - * for corners, c * flat work, c - * glove box design, c holding the knife, c * key rack designs, c , knives for carving, c * letter racks, designs, c - origin, c paper knife, c - * pencil box, c - * penholder, c - * picture frames, c - * polishing, c triangular cutting, c - veining, c * woods for, c wood finishing aging wood, c antique finish, c cleaning, the first step, d colors, obtaining, c dead flat surface, c dull finish, d enameling white, d fillers, c cost of surfacing, d liquid, formula, d importance of, d - paste, formula, d applying, d when to use liquids or paste, d flat finish, d polishing, c - process, c - re-finishing old furniture, d - mahogany table, d - rubbing down process, d scraping, d shellac, using, c , d - varnish, removing, d wax finish, d - , c white enamel, d white wood, d woods that do and do not require fillers, c _see also_ stains and staining; varnish and varnishing wood fire. _see_ fires wood lot clearing for kindling wood, a wood screws strength of, b wood staining. _see_ stains and staining wood tag, k woodchucks taming, a trapping, a woodcraft, k - * axemanship, k - getting lost, k - land marks, k lost signals, k _see also_ trees woodpecker insect destroyer, a , k woodwork. _see_ carpentry and woodwork woof. _see_ weaving wool combing machine roller motion, b * woolen clothes laundering, h storing, h work. _see_ housekeeping; occupations work bag and sewing apron combined, n - work bench. _see_ carpentry work shop garden tool making, g - * _see also_ carpentry worms fish bait, k wren insect destroyer, a migration, k wrench alligator wrench, making, m * flat wrought iron wrench, making, m - * forging, m - * hardie for, m * socket wrench, m - * welding, m - wringer for laundry work, h writing desk. _see_ desk wrought iron making, m - steel versus, m x x-ray ether waves, e physiological effect, e y yachts flag signals, b - _see also_ launch yeast principle in bread making, h - young, sir thomas ether wave theory of light, e z zeppelin's dirigible balloon, b zinnia characteristics, g planting, g selecting seeds, g * * * * * transcriber's notes: corrected obvious typos and inconsistencies, otherwise spelling has been left as printed. a small amount of inconsistent hyphenation left as printed. p. . dilletantism -> dilettantism. p. . bisulphid -> bisulphide. the following corrections have been made after referrence to the relevant book. p. . 'wall rack, designing and making, c - *, d - *' corrected to 'wall rack, designing and making, c - *, d - *'. p. . crum tray -> crumb tray. p. . 'experiments with spark coil, e , - , - *' changed to 'experiments with spark coil, e , - , - *'. p. . 'cooper or brass, metal work, m *' changed to 'copper or brass, metal work, m *'. p. . crum scraper -> crumb scraper. p. . reamur is correctly spelt reaumur but has been left as it was spelt in 'mechanics'. this book is a summary and index to the following books which can all be found in the project gutenberg collection. in the html version of this text, links are made to the other volumes, though for volumes g and k it has only been possible to a link to the correct chapter. a--outdoor work project gutenberg e-book b--mechanics, indoors and out project gutenberg e-book c--carpentry and woodwork project gutenberg e-book d--home decoration project gutenberg e-book e--electricity project gutenberg e-book g--gardening project gutenberg e-book h--housekeeping project gutenberg e-book k--outdoor sports project gutenberg e-book m--working in metals project gutenberg e-book n--needlecraft project gutenberg e-book transcriber's note: minor spelling and punctuation inconsistencies, and hyphenated words, have been harmonized. italic text has been marked with _underscores_. the art of graining: how acquired and how produced. with description of colors and their applications. with lithographic illustrations of the various woods used in interior finishing. with colored plates on stone. by charles pickert and a. metcalf. new york: d. van nostrand, publisher, murray and warren street. . entered according to act of congress, in the year , by charles pickert and a. metcalf, in the office of the librarian of congress at washington. introduction. the art of graining is judged by the authors of this treatise to be of sufficient importance to justify a work devoted especially to the task of giving instruction to learners of the art. all graining is an imitation of some more or less well known wood, and the learner may doubtless draw from nature the copies he desires to imitate; but it is only trained skill that can accomplish the task perfectly, and it is presumably true that those who, in acquiring a long experience, have made the obstacles to success a special study, are best prepared to afford instruction to a beginner. the authors of the work present here the result of a long experience in the practice of this decorative art, and feel confident that they hereby offer to their brother artisans a reliable guide to improvement in the practice of graining. it is earnestly recommended by the authors that learners should practise drawing the several copies given as samples, with drawing pencils, using both narrow and broad-pointed, as the surest means of acquiring such thorough mastery of proper manipulation as will insure the highest degree of success. it is believed, moreover, that experienced learners will find it not amiss to avail themselves of the methods set forth in this treatise, affording as they do, the sum of the examples of fellow-artisans who have carefully studied nature's own modes, and have studiously followed such plans in working as insured the closest and most durable adherence to the original form and color. charles pickert, a. metcalf. instructions how to mix and apply the colors in graining the various woods herein represented. as oak and black walnut are the principal woods imitated in graining, we have given them a prominent place and careful attention in our work, for when the ability to produce imitations of _those_ properly is once thoroughly attained, the graining of other woods becomes a comparatively easy task. * * * * * _first_:--in preparing work for graining, great attention should be given to the shellacking of all knots and other parts containing any inequalities of surface, whether from the exudation of pitch, gum, or other substance; unless this precaution is observed the pitch or gum will force itself through a great many coats of paint. oak. for oak-graining the priming coat should be white, mixed (not too thickly) with pure lead and linseed-oil; then, when thoroughly dry, and ready for a second coat of paint, much care should be observed in well stopping or puttying with white lead or common putty, as may be thought best, leaving all nail-holes or other inequalities well filled, pressed in and rounded up, so that when thoroughly sand-papered it will leave the surface entirely smooth and level. for a second coat of paint, a little yellow chrome or rochelle may be added, sufficient to make it a light cream color, using for a body pure lead, turpentine, oil, and a small quantity of japan, making the paint a trifle thicker than the priming coat, having it well mixed and strained, so that it shall not contain any lumps or foreign substance. here let us say that the habit of undertaking to do graining work on two coats of paint is entirely wrong; good work cannot by any possibility be performed unless there shall have been at least three coats laid on as a foundation,--otherwise it will not wipe out clean, but will appear muddy and foul when completed. for a third coat of grained work, if a very light oak is desired, add to the same mixture of lead, oil, etc., sufficient yellow as before, to produce a delicate cream, adding to that a very small quantity of american vermilion, or venetian red. after laying on the second coat, the work should be well and carefully sand-papered, puttying (as before suggested), if necessary. when the third coat has been on two or more days, and has become thoroughly hard and dry, use upon the surface very fine sand-paper, so that a perfectly smooth finish may be obtained. for light-oak graining-color, use equal parts of raw umber and raw sienna, and if a little darker shade is desired, tone with burnt umber, grinding into the same a little _paris_, or common _whiting_, which gives it body and holds it together. a little beeswax or brown windsor soap dissolved in turpentine may be used if desired, but in a small quantity. for mixing the colors employ one-fourth boiled oil, three-fourths turpentine, adding for drier a very little japan. graining-colors should invariably stand from six to ten hours after mixing before being applied, and if too thick, when adding the thinners be cautious to avoid stirring from the bottom. the colors should be mixed to such a consistency, that when put on, a perfectly clear and transparent appearance may be obtained. for darker shades of oak, more yellow and red should be used in the ground-work and more burnt umber in the graining-color, adding enough of the burnt umber to make the graining-color harmonize with the ground-work. and here we would suggest that every grainer, who desires to perfect himself in the art, should procure small pieces of the various kinds of wood he wishes to imitate, and in all cases mix his colors in harmony with those shown in the wood--mixing his ground-work so as to compare with the _lightest_ shade observable in the wood. too much care cannot be taken in the _preparation_ of graining-colors; more failures have been made through neglect of this, than in the execution of the work itself, for except the colors are in proper harmony with the wood desired to be imitated, the work, though well executed, must be a failure in the production of the wished-for object. for the last coat of the ground-work for oak, there should be a sufficiency of oil to impart a slight gloss when laid on, which enables it to be wiped clean, free, and unclouded. for _shading_ oak use a little raw sienna, raw and burnt umber, mixing with oil, turpentine, japan, etc., as before mentioned. where knots or curls occur in the grain, as shown in our illustration, there light and careless shades should be thrown in, avoiding anything prominent or harsh, and in most cases make the growth or heart slightly darker than at the edge. a beautiful effect can be produced by combing over the flaking with a fine or coarse rubber comb, blending very lightly in the same direction the veins or comb take. the effect produced is to sink the flaking, making it look solid and true to nature. for wiping out oak (as in samples shown), see description of process in our following chapter on black walnut, using the same tools, etc. (rubber combs, english or american steel combs in oak, not in walnut). where flaking is done it is combed first with a coarse, then a fine steel comb, but where heart or growth-pieces occur, no comb should be used until wiped out, then comb with a fine comb very lightly in the same direction the grains may run. in graining, particularly oak, care should be taken to have the grains lose themselves regularly at the sides, not leaving the heart-piece abruptly, but gradually (as shown in our illustration), preserving a proper harmony of colors from centre to outside. black walnut. the same care should be taken in puttying, sand-papering, mixing, and applying, as hereinbefore suggested in the chapter upon graining oak. the ground-work for black walnut should be mixed with pure white lead, turpentine, oil, japan, etc., colored with chrome yellow or good rochelle ochre, american vermilion, or english venetian red, and burnt umber, which if properly combined produces the most proper ground-work attainable. this wood varies in color, some pieces bearing upon the yellow, and others upon the red, either of which may be correctly imitated by adding yellow or red as the case requires. there are some pieces, however, of a grayish cast, and if such a characteristic is desired in graining, add to the ground-work a little vandyke brown. the ground-work (last coat) should be so mixed as to have, when dry, an egg-shell gloss, in order to prevent the first coat of graining (which is "distemper-color") from crawling or running together. black walnut is a very porous wood, and unless the pores are properly shown in the graining, the imitation will be far from perfect; no grainer, therefore, should depart so far from nature as to omit this necessary and absolute consideration. for the accomplishment of a correct imitation in this respect, take a small quantity of sour or common ale, or, if not obtainable, a little vinegar and water (equal parts) will do (urine is an excellent substitute for either of the liquids named), and to this add, for coloring purposes, three-fourths burnt umber and one-fourth vandyke brown; when this is applied, and before dry, take a dry brush (a flat one is preferable), and "whip" the color thoroughly with the same, keeping the hand close to the surface of the object to be grained; and as pores in some pieces of walnut show far more distinctly than in others, to imitate this, certain portions should be whipped very coarsely, while other portions should be whipped very fine. care must be taken in whipping, to have all joints, etc., left perfectly square as constructed, and the whipping should invariably be done as the grain of the wood is designed to run. the distemper-color should be mixed to a thickness, that, when applied and properly whipped, the general tone of the ground-work shall not be materially changed. some grainers, before proceeding further in graining black walnut, have varnished the distemper-coat; we regard this as entirely useless, as well as detrimental to the general tone of the graining when done. the impression current among some painters, that when the graining-color is applied to the distemper-color, without first varnishing, it (the distemper-color) will rub up, is erroneous, for when perfectly dry it is all ready to receive the graining-color. after complying with the foregoing directions, the article being now all ready for graining, having, as shown, received the distemper-color, take three-fourths burnt umber and one-fourth vandyke brown, mixed with three-fourths turpentine, one-fourth oil and japan, using beeswax or soap to prevent its running as in oak-graining (of course the color must be varied to comply with the ground-work by adding burnt umber, vandyke brown, or burnt sienna, as hereinbefore set forth in our directions for oak-graining), and to avoid darkening the graining but a very little, the color should be used thin. in graining a panel, for instance, in order to obtain a correct imitation of black walnut, the grainer, when running the heart-piece (as shown in our illustrations), should have upon his pallet, glass, or board, a small quantity of umber and vandyke brown to darken the centre a little, thereby showing the grains perfectly clear in the centre while they lose themselves near the outer edge. in graining black walnut, combs should be used as little as possible, leaving all the plain parts to be finished in the glazing. for wiping out growths, some use chamois, others use cotton cloths drawn closely over the thumb nail, while many use in place of either, a small piece of rubber, or belting cut about one-fourth of an inch wide at the end used, and in some instances, where a cheap job of graining is desired, rubber combs cut fine and coarse can be used with good success in running growths or hearts by blending lightly after combing. this brings the work up to a finishing, or shading point, for which purpose use principally vandyke brown, burnt umber and ivory-black, mixed with oil, turpentine, etc. (as hereinbefore named), and by keeping upon the board, glass or pallet, a little of these separately, and using more of one than the other, a beautiful and correct variety can be produced, it being almost impossible to find two pieces of walnut exactly alike in shade. like the rest, shading must be applied with a brush, and where crooks, curls, or knots in the grain may appear (see illustrations), careless and light shades should be thrown in, and in the greater number of cases cause growths a trifle darker than edges. for shading the plain parts, a fine and very proper effect will be produced by first applying the color and then by laying on a flat brush, pressing it heavily, and drawing it crooked or straight as desired, then by blending the same very lightly. where the brush is not thus used, a similar effect can be produced by wiping out lines at small intervals, then blending, in all cases avoiding the too common error of putting _too much work in the graining_, and preserve a proper harmony of colors so that when completed the work will appear rich, clean, and finished. all graining can be finished by varnishing, or to imitate in "oil-finish" if preferable. should the latter be desirable take one ( ) quart of turpentine; one-fourth ( / ) lb. of white wax (melted in turpentine), adding one half ( / ) pint of best coach varnish (hard drying); one half ( / ) pint of boiled oil, and one ( ) gill of japan--apply with a brush, and use sparingly, one coat is sufficient. by conforming to our directions, in the graining of black walnut, great and satisfactory results will follow. rosewood. in preparing work for rosewood the same instructions should be followed as are laid down in the preceding remarks upon the graining, etc., of black walnut, for the ground-work of both woods is formed of the same colors, only more of the red and yellow is used for rosewood than walnut, as the former varies more in tone between red and yellow. the same rules in both cases should be conformed with, and similar tools in applying or laying on are used. in preparing ground-work for rosewood, however, a little rose pink may sometimes be employed advantageously. of course the egg-shell gloss must be attained after the third ground-work is laid on, in order to receive the whipping-coat properly. pores in rosewood being very fine, the whipping should be as fine as possible. the distemper color is made from burnt umber, a very little vandyke brown, and a small quantity of rose-pink, ground in ale, or vinegar and water, etc., as before mentioned, and applied very thin. the first coat of graining is mixed from vandyke brown, burnt umber, and ivory-black (though mainly from the former), ground very fine in oil, turpentine, wax, etc., and must stand after being mixed for some six hours before applying. in some cases, where a reddish cast is desired, it will be well to use a trifle more of the rose-pink. as the grains in rosewood run very irregularly (see illustration), great care must be maintained in combing, it being necessary in most cases to employ extremely coarse and fine combs; and at times it may be absolutely necessary to use a pencil, in bringing up this imitation to perfection, and all of the combing and pencilling must be blended down very softly with a fine badger blender. for the glazing, the same colors may be used, though chiefly vandyke brown and ivory-black, making the dark places principally from the latter, though, of course, all of these colors are to be made exceedingly thin and as transparent as possible. where a particularly rich finish is desired, a good effect will result by giving the work another extremely thin coat of glazing, composed of rose-pink with a little ivory-black, thus sinking and harmonizing the whole work, giving it a rich and very fine appearance. when the work becomes thoroughly hard and dry, it can be finished either in varnish or oil, as heretofore mentioned in the finishing of black walnut. maple. this, though a very beautiful wood, is not as commonly used in graining as some others, though a fine effect can be produced by graining panels, etc., in rooms where the principal graining may be black walnut, oak, or rosewood, forming thus a contrast, which, when well executed, presents an extremely fine appearance, and as maple is never used for an outside finish (therefore not being exposed to the weather), it can be grained more successfully in distemper than in oil, and also much more readily, the consequence of which is, we shall speak of it as being grained only in distemper color, though the same colors, used by a skilful hand, in oil, will produce the same beautiful effect. the ground-work for maple is made from white, tinted with chrome yellow, making the very lightest cream, and the same rules as to mixing, laying on, etc., etc., are applicable to the graining of maple as to the other woods hereinbefore mentioned, viz., walnut, oak, and rosewood. the graining color is made from raw sienna and a little raw umber, not far from equal parts, and ground fine in ale, etc., as before laid down for distemper colors. by rubbing the ground-work upon which all distemper colors are laid, with a damp sponge, it will be found to take the color much more readily than when not so rubbed. the tools necessary for the graining of maple are a badger-hair blender, two or three top, or over-grainers, varying in width; and in running of heart-pieces, pencils must be used. for making the curls in curly maple, there can be nothing better than a raw potato, cut, say two or three inches wide, with a thin, straight edge, although the work can be performed by using a piece of rubber, or belting, with a similar straight edge. a flat camel's-hair brush, used wet, will accomplish the same, and for this purpose it is employed quite successfully. in forming the bird's-eyes, a potato cut in two, near the centre, with various inequalities made upon the smooth surface, and carelessly pounced over the surface of the work, will prove successful; but we know of nothing better adapted for this purpose than the ends of the fingers, touching the surface therewith at intervals. (see samples.) after a thin coating of the distemper is laid on, for the production of curly maple, take a potato, or some one of the other things spoken of, and form the curls by running it crosswise, making them as irregular and careless as possible, then blend them down to a perfect harmony, after which pounce the same with the end of the blender as softly and finely as possible, as the pores in maple are nearly indistinct. after allowing this to dry thoroughly, if a heart or growth is desired, run the same with a pencil as before mentioned, or form the grains by taking the over-grainer, touching it in the color (having combed the grainer before being touched in the color); then run it down over the work, holding the hand near the work; then blend those also carefully, and, especially in maple, avoid anything harsh or stiff in the color, or the running of the grains, as maple, when completed, is a very light and transparent wood. where bird's-eye-maple is desired (after the thin distemper color has been used), take the damp sponge and roll it carelessly over the surface, which will remove a portion; then blend softly as in forming the curls, after which, and before it is allowed to dry, form the bird's-eye with a potato or fingers, as before mentioned, in those parts where the color has not been removed; then, when entirely dry, form the grains either with a pencil or a grainer, as set forth in directions on curly maple. care should be taken to have the bird's-eyes shaded (as per illustration), thereby making them natural and complete. after complying with the foregoing instructions, the work is ready for the varnish, and in most cases will be found satisfactorily finished, though it can be materially improved by first giving it a very thin coat of varnish, then a very thin glazing coat of the same colors, though principally of sienna, forming curls, shades, etc., where they may have been omitted, or will be found to improve the work. you will observe in our illustrations that the grains of maple, both bird's-eye and curly, are entirely different from those of any other kind of wood, both in course and formation. in all cases the illustrations herein given must be followed as closely as possible, which, if properly complied with, will, in all cases, produce the desired result. if desired to be grained in oil, combs should be used instead of top, or over-grainers. in connection with maple, we would here say that there is such a wood as _satin-wood_, but it is rarely used in any manner. if, however, it should be desirable to grain it, it will be found that the colors used in graining maple (raw sienna being the chief material) are the same as those used in the graining of satin-wood, and the process varies in no essential manner, only that the colors and graining should be more indistinct with satin-wood, it being an extremely pale and transparent wood. care must be observed to preserve in the imitation the purity and character of the original. ash. a very beautiful and prolific wood, attainable so easily throughout the greater part of the country, is now growing in daily favor for the interior of houses and other buildings, its susceptibility of high finish making it desirable as well as handsome, and probably when well grained it presents more attractiveness than any of the other woods. grainers, therefore, should become skilled as far as possible in the imitation of this brilliant and durable wood, and it seems our duty to call especial attention to our illustrations of this wood while endeavoring to impress upon the minds of our readers its adaptability for the purposes herein cited. the ground-work of ash is produced by using a little chrome or rochelle yellow, together with the least possible tint of red, to which add a trifle of vandyke brown. but little of this must be used or the ground-work will be too gray. the color when mixed must compare with the lightest shade found in the wood itself. the ground-work must be left with the egg-shell gloss, spoken of in our former chapters. ash being a very porous wood, the pores, therefore, must, in no case, be left out in the graining, otherwise the work will be incomplete, and for the purpose of producing those take one-half raw umber, one-fourth raw sienna, and one-eighth vandyke brown; grind all in ale, etc., and apply the same, using it very thin, and whipping it thoroughly, as instructed in directions pertaining to rosewood, etc. for the second coat, or oil-graining, use the same colors in about the same quantities, ground in oil, turpentine, wax, etc., as mentioned in graining other woods. the same rules as to graining black walnut--darkening the centre a little, and having the grains lose themselves at the sides or ends--are applicable in the graining of ash, and the same tools should also be used in the graining of this wood as are used in that of black walnut; the hand should run the same as in graining walnut, and the grains should run with equal regularity. in _shading_, the same colors may be used, adding a little more vandyke brown, and grainers, particularly in shading, should study to imitate nature itself in each particular. of course the colors should be so mixed and strained as to avoid the possibility of their containing harsh or lumpy substances, so that the work will prove to be clean, smooth, and free from any cloudy or impure appearance. it can be finished in varnish, or in oil, the same as other woods heretofore named. chestnut. is largely used, and, like ash, is a particularly beautiful wood. becoming so well and favorably known for the various purposes to which it can be applied, grainers should study well its beauties, and in their imitation thereof strive to hold the mirror up to nature. the ground-work of chestnut is produced with the same class of colors as that of ash is, only a little more vandyke brown should be employed, to produce a more grayish tint than is found in ash. though chrome is used in the ground-work of chestnut, we deem it inferior to rochelle yellow, inasmuch as the latter has a more subdued shade, in nearer conformity to chestnut, than that produced by chrome, the latter giving the work a more sprightly hue than is observable in the wood itself. chestnut is very porous, or rather it shows a more porous condition than ash itself, and to produce this there should be used a little raw umber, raw sienna, burnt umber, and vandyke brown, in nearly equal parts, ground in ale, giving the work a very thin coat, and whipping coarsely, so that when done the pores will show very plainly. for the second, or oil-graining, use the same colors, in the same quantities, ground in oil, turpentine, wax, etc., as before instructed. grain on much the same principle as in ash, only coarser,--the grains in chestnut running much coarser, but yet with the same regularity as those found either in ash or black walnut. for shading chestnut use a little burnt umber and vandyke brown (rather more of the former), to which add a small quantity of raw sienna, grinding them in oil, turpentine, etc. in applying this color have it very thin, as in other grainings, and as chestnut is a plain wood, presenting a great uniformity of color in itself, great care must be taken to avoid any material change in the appearance of the graining by any heavy shades. this rule, it will be observed, is in this regard dissimilar from that laid down to govern the graining of ash, as the latter presents in nature many heavy and eccentric shades, etc., while in the former there is very little diversity in the shade. the same process of wiping out and darkening the centre is applicable to this wood as that set forth to govern in the cases of walnut and ash, similar combs and tools being used in the work upon each and all; and, like the other woods, chestnut can be finished in oil or varnish, as heretofore noted, and when finished is substantial in appearance and very beautiful. [illustration: pl. oak flaking.] [illustration: pl. oak growth.] [illustration: pl. oak flaking.] [illustration: pl. oak growth and flaking.] [illustration: pl. oak flaking.] [illustration: pl. oak growth.] [illustration: pl. oak flaking.] [illustration: pl. oak growth.] [illustration: pl. oak flaking.] [illustration: pl. oak growth.] [illustration: pl. oak flaking.] [illustration: pl. white oak growth.] [illustration: pl. oak flaking.] [illustration: pl. white oak growth.] [illustration: pl. oak flaking.] [illustration: pl. oak growth, showing knots.] [illustration: pl. oak growth.] [illustration: pl. black walnut growth.] [illustration: pl. black walnut growth.] [illustration: pl. black walnut growth.] [illustration: pl. black walnut growth.] [illustration: pl. black walnut growth.] [illustration: pl. black walnut growth.] [illustration: pl. black walnut growth.] [illustration: pl. black walnut growth.] [illustration: pl. black walnut growth and crotch.] [illustration: pl. french walnut.] [illustration: pl. french walnut.] [illustration: pl. rosewood.] [illustration: pl. rosewood.] [illustration: pl. rosewood.] [illustration: pl. curled maple.] [illustration: pl. birds eye-maple.] [illustration: pl. curled maple.] [illustration: pl. ash growth.] [illustration: pl. ash growth.] [illustration: pl. ash growth.] [illustration: pl. ash growth.] [illustration: pl. chestnut growth.] [illustration: pl. chestnut growth.] [illustration: pl. chestnut growth.] [illustration: pl. chestnut growth.] transcriber's note italic text is denoted by _underscores_. bold text is denoted by =equal signs=. the table of contents has been created by the transcriber. some minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book. johnstone, hunter, & co.'s series of half-crown volumes. extra foolscap vo, handsomely bound in cloth. _those marked thus * are also kept in gilt edges, price s. each._ * . rosa lindesay, the light of kilmain. by m. h., editor of 'the children's hour.' illustrated. * . newlyn house, the home of the davenports. by a. e. w. illustrated. * . alice thorne; or, a sister's work. illustrated. * . labourers in the vineyard. by m. h., editor of 'the children's hour.' illustrated. * . the children of the great king. by m. h., editor of 'the children's hour.' illustrated. * . little harry's troubles. by the author of 'gottfried of the iron hand.' illustrated. * . sunday school photographs. by the rev. alfred taylor, bristol, pennsylvania. * . waymarks for the guiding of little feet. by the rev. _j. a. wallace_. * . the domestic circle; or, the relations, responsibilities, and duties of home life. by the rev. john thomson. illustrated. * . select christian biographies. by the rev. james gardner, a.m., m.d. illustrated. . ocean lays. selected by the rev. j. longmuir, ll.d. illustrated. . wilberforce's practical view of christianity. new and complete edition. . communion services, according to the presbyterian form. by the rev. j. a. wallace. . attitudes and aspects of the divine redeemer. by the rev. j. a. wallace. . the redeemer and the redemption. by the rev. alex. s patterson, d.d. . a pastor's legacy. edited by rev. j. a. wallace. the stocking-knitter's manual. a handy book for the work-table. by mrs. george cupples. edinburgh: johnstone, hunter, and co. [illustration:(publisher's colophon)] table of contents. preface directions for working the different parts of a stocking stockings socks open-work patterns preface. these patterns were compiled for the benefit of a friend, who had some pupils; and she having found them of service, and a saving of time, when engaged in teaching others, the writer has ventured to lay them before the public, in the hope that they may be of further use. now that so much time is occupied with the higher branches of education, and only an hour or so allotted to instruction in sewing, knitting, etc., the pupil leaves school in general with a very imperfect understanding of how to shape a stocking. it is not always convenient to get an old woman to assist at the 'turning of the heel;' and many parents cannot themselves knit--the last generation being sadly behind in this simple but useful art. the present manual is intended for the benefit of those who already know a little about stocking-knitting, but who are not very sure of their own unassisted powers; and it will also prove serviceable to the teacher, as she may see at a glance how many stitches, etc., to cast on for the different sizes required by her pupils. in following the directions here given, the young knitter is advised not to be alarmed at the appearance of the stocking when first cast on, imagining that it is too wide; for as the knitting advances, the work becomes tighter of itself, till the top-band is finished. besides, it is necessary to have a good many stitches on at first, which are gradually to be taken in during the process of shaping the leg, as the stocking is much narrower at the ankle than at the top. though the loom has done away in a great measure with the importance of stocking-knitting, still it is a pleasant and profitable, if homely, accomplishment; and, moreover, a fruitful resource, by way of pastime, for old age. it is to be hoped that at no time will this thrifty household acquirement be allowed to fall into disuse, for the sake of more ornamental occupations. it may be interesting to know, that the art of knitting is first noticed about the sixteenth century; and, according to some, originated in scotland, whence it found its way into france. it is related that, in , a certain wm. ryder, an apprentice of master thomas burdett, having seen accidentally, in the shop of an italian merchant, a pair of knitted worsted stockings, made a pair exactly like them, which he presented to william, earl of pembroke, and that these were the first stockings knitted in england of woollen yarn. though the open-work patterns are not taken directly from any book, the writer feels bound to acknowledge, that she is much indebted to the instruction she herself received, through a valued teacher, from mrs. gaugain's excellent _knitting and crochet book_, which is, however, too well known to require any recommendation. a. j. c. [illustration: (decorative separator)] the stocking-knitter's manual. directions for working the different parts of a stocking. =the leg.=--the shaping of this part of the stocking is effected by means of 'intakes,' which are made by slipping off the d stitch on the right hand side of the seam-stitch without knitting it; then knit the next stitch, and take the slipped stitch over it; knit the next. on the left side, knit the st, slip the d, knit the d, and take the slipped stitch over. the rounds that are knitted between each intake must be quite distinct from it; that is, the round with the intakes on it is not to be counted. to make a good stocking, it is necessary to be particular with this part, that the shaping may be gradual. =the heel.=--when the ankle is finished, divide the stitches on to three of the knitting needles. put one half of the stocking on to one needle, with the seam-stitch in the centre, and divide the other half equally on to the other two needles. for instance, if there be stitches on the round, place on each side of the seam-stitch--in all --on one needle, and upon each of the other two. these two short rows are left till the heel is done. the long row should now be knitted plain row, turn back, and knit it pearl. work thus till a sufficient length is worked, being careful to slip off the first stitch of each row without knitting, as these form the stitches to be lifted in forming the foot. the top of the heel can now be worked in any of the different modes now described. =french heel.=--begin it with the plain row, slip the stitch next the seam-stitch on the left side, knit the d, take the slipped stitch over, and knit the next, turn back, and knit pearl and the seam-stitch. then pearl stitches together, knit pearl and turn back. on the next row, slip the d stitch on the left of the seam, and knit the next; take it over, and knit plain stitch, turn back, always increasing stitch on each side of the seam-stitch. when the heel is required to be wide, this pattern is very suitable. =dutch heel.=--slip the th stitch on the left side of the seam, knit the th, and take the slipped stitch over; turn back, and pearl the th and th together, at the other side. in small stockings, the d and th stitches; this makes a tighter heel. =common heel.=--after a sufficient number of rows are knitted in the length of the heel, cast off the stitches, and sew it up very carefully. though some people like it, it is not so suitable as the other two, as the sewing is apt to hurt the foot. =preparations for knitting the foot.=--having finished the heel, proceed to pick up the stitches at the edge, beginning at the left side, with the needle on which the heel stitches are, knitting them as you lift them. with the fourth needle work off all the stitches on the two front needles. now pick up the stitches on the right side of the heel; and having done that, work with the same needle to the centre of the heel. the seam-stitch is stopped here. in picking up the stitches, those that were left after knitting the top should be counted in. for example, if stitches are required, and have been left on each side of the seam, pick up only on each side. the stocking is now in position for forming the gusset. =the 'gusset' of the foot.=--having picked up the stitches, and knitted round again to the right hand side of the back of the foot, knit the st stitch, slip the d, knit the d, and take the slipped stitch over. on the left hand needle, slip the d last stitch, knit the next, and take the slipped stitch over, and knit the last. knit a plain round between every intake. note.--in knitting the plain part of the foot, leave off working the seam-stitch, and if the work should appear loose at the beginning or ends of the needles, change the stitches by knitting off a few on to the neighbouring needle; but care should be taken to replace them in the same position as they were in at the finishing of the gusset, as the intakes must correspond exactly with the back intakes of the toe. =another way.=--having picked up the stitches, work stitches off the first front needle. then take another needle, and work off all the stitches on the two front needles, with the exception of the last. with another needle work off the left stitches, and proceed to pick up the right side of the heel. in doing the intakes, knit together the d and th last stitches on the left side of the heel, and on the right slip the d. knit the th, and take the slipped stitch over. put back the stitches after finishing the gusset. =another way of turning the heel and knitting the gusset.=--_this mode is recommended where the wearer has a high instep or a stout foot._ in dividing the stitches for the heel, place from to stitches more, according to size, on the front of the foot, and fewer on the heel. for example, if there are stitches on, place on each side of the seam, and on the front of the foot. before beginning the intakes, increase stitches on the d round at the back of the foot. begin to increase about the middle of the left needle if the stocking is small, and a little nearer to the end if a large one. make , knit stitches; make , knit ; make , knit . then knit across the front to the right side of the back of the foot. knit plain, make ; knit , make ; knit , make . knit round to this corner, and begin the intakes, same as described in either of the preceding ways. there will be from to stitches more, after finishing the gusset, than at the ankle. =the toe.=--begin the intakes at the right hand corner of the long needle, or front of the foot. knit the st, slip the d, knit the d, and take the slipped stitch over. knit across to the end of the row, slip the d last stitch; knit the d, and take the slipped stitch over; knit the last. do the same at the back, but only at the right and left hand corners. there must be no intakes in the centre of the foot. proceed thus, with a plain round alternately, till you have reduced it to the number specified in the patterns. place the needles together, and work the front and the back rows off at the same time. then cast off with the next row. in measuring the work, use an inch measure, and lay the stocking under it flat on the table. except where particularly specified, measure the leg independent of the top-band, and the foot from the last intake at the gusset. as children invariably knit tightly, the needles ought to be chosen of a size coarser, to obviate this tendency. if, however, they should happen to work loosely, it would be advisable to take the numbers specified in the patterns. if a strong heel is desired, use double worsted. =explanation how to increase a stitch.=--to make the stitches divide better for the heel, it is sometimes necessary to increase one or two stitches. to do this: after drawing the worsted through the stitch, put the needle in at the back of the same, as if to pearl it, and draw the loop through it also, thus making two stitches out of one. [illustration: (decorative separator)] [illustration: (decorative separator)] stockings. =for an infant.=--knitted with merino wool--needles, no. . cast on stitches. knit rounds, pearl and plain stitches alternately. knit plain rounds, or inches in length, with a seam-stitch. increase three stitches on second round (see page ). now do the intakes. intakes with rounds between each. intakes with rounds between each. intakes with rounds between each. this makes intakes altogether-- on each side of seam, and reduces the stocking to . knit ¼ inches plain for length of ankle. divide the stitches, placing on each side of seam-stitch, and leaving for front of the foot. knit rows for the heel, plain and pearl alternately, or inch; then knit the top, according to directions (see page ), and pick up the stitches for the foot till there are on each side of the seam, being for the gusset. when the gusset is done, there ought to be stitches on. knit together at back of the foot, to reduce it to an even number. knit rounds plain, or ½ inches in length. knit the toe (see page ), and cast off with stitches on each side the foot. =for the same.=--knitted with fingering worsted--needles, no. . cast on stitches. knit rounds, plain and pearl stitches alternately, or inches in length. knit plain rounds with a seam-stitch. this brings to the 'intakes.' make on each side of seam, intakes with rounds between. intakes with rounds between. intakes with rounds between. this makes intakes-- on each side, which reduces the stocking to stitches. knit plain rounds for the ankle, or ¼ inches in length. divide the stitches, placing on each side of seam, leaving for the front of the foot. knit rows, or inch for the heel, plain and pearl; then knit the top (see page ), and pick up the stitches at each side of heel till there are on each side of seam-stitch, being for the gusset (see page ). when the gusset is finished, there ought to be stitches on. knit rounds plain, or ½ inches for foot. knit the toe (see page ), and cast off with stitches on each side of foot. =for a child to months.=--knitted with merino wool--needles, no. . cast on stitches. knit rounds, plain and pearl stitches alternately. knit rounds plain, or inches in length, with a seam-stitch. increase one stitch on the st round. now begin the 'intakes.' make intakes on each side, with rounds between. " " with rounds between. " " with rounds between. " " with rounds between. this makes intakes altogether-- on each side, and reduces the stocking to stitches. knit rounds, or ½ inches, for the ankle. divide the stitches, placing on each side of seam, leaving for the front of the foot. knit rows plain and pearl alternately for the heel, or ¼ inches. knit the top (see page ), and pick up the stitches for the foot till there are on each side of seam-stitch, being for the gusset (see page ). when this is done, there ought to be stitches on. knit stitches together to make an even number. knit plain rounds for foot, or inches in length. knit the toe (see page ), and cast off with stitches. =for the same.=--knitted with fingering worsted--needles, no. . cast on stitches. knit rounds, plain and pearl stitches alternately. knit rounds plain, or inches in length. increase stitches on second round. this brings on to the 'intakes.' make on each side of seam-- intakes with rounds between. intakes with rounds between. intakes with rounds between. intake with rounds between. this makes intakes altogether-- on each side, reducing the stocking to stitches. knit rounds for ankle, or ½--inches in length. divide the stitches, placing on each side of the seam, leaving for front of the foot. knit rows plain and pearl alternately for the heel, or ¼ inches in length. knit the top (see page ), and pick up the stitches for the foot till there are on each side of the seam, being for the gusset (see page ). when the gusset is finished, there ought to be stitches on. knit rounds, or inches in length, for the foot; then knit the toe, and cast off with stitches on each side of foot. =for a child from to years.=--knitted with merino wool--needles, no. . cast on stitches. knit rounds, plain and pearl stitches alternately. knit plain rounds, or ¼ inches in length. increase stitches on second round. now begin the intakes. make on each side of seam-- intakes with rounds between. intakes with rounds between. intakes with rounds between. intakes with rounds between. intakes with rounds between. this makes altogether-- on each side, and reduces the stocking to stitches. knit rounds, or inches in length, for the ankle. divide the stitches, placing on each side of the seam, leaving for the front of the foot. knit rows plain and pearl alternately for length of the heel, or ¾ inches. knit the top (see page ), and pick up the stitches for the foot till there are on each side of seam-stitch, being for the gusset (see page ). when the gusset is done, knit rounds, or ½ inches, for length of foot, there being on stitches when this is done. knit the toe, and cast off with stitches. =for the same.=--knitted with fingering worsted--needles, no. . cast on stitches. knit rounds, plain and pearl stitches alternately. knit rounds plain, with a seam-stitch, increasing on the second round, or ¼ inches in length. now begin the 'intakes.' intakes on each side, with rounds between. " " with rounds between. " " with rounds between. " " with rounds between. this makes intakes altogether-- on each side, and reduces the stocking to . knit rounds for the ankle, or inches. divide the stitches, placing on each side of the seam, leaving for front of the foot. knit rows plain and pearl alternately for the heel, or ½ inches in length. knit the top (see page ), and pick up the stitches for the foot till there are on each side of the seam, stitches being for the gusset (see page ). when the gusset is done, there ought to be stitches on. knit rounds for length of the foot, or ½ inches. knit the toe; and cast off with stitches on each side of the foot. =for a child from to years.=--knitted with merino wool--needles, no. . cast on . knit rounds, plain and pearl stitches alternately. knit rounds plain, or ¼ inches in length; increase stitches on first and second rounds. now begin the intakes. on each side of seam make-- intakes with rounds between each. intakes with rounds between each. intakes with rounds between each. intakes with rounds between each. intakes with rounds between each. this makes intakes altogether-- on each side, and reduces the stocking to . knit rounds for the ankle, or ½ inches. divide the stitches, placing on each side of seam, leaving for front of the foot. knit rows plain and pearl alternately for the heel, or ¾ inches in length. knit the top, and pick up the stitches for the foot, till there are on each side of the seam, stitches being for the gusset; when the gusset is done, there ought to be stitches on. knit stitches together at the back of the foot. then knit rounds, or inches, for the foot. knit the toe, and cast off with stitches on each side. =for the same.=--knitted with fingering worsted--needles, no. . cast on stitches. knit rounds, plain and pearl stitches alternately. knit rounds plain, or ¼ inches in length. now begin the intakes; on each side of seam-- intakes with rounds between each. intakes with rounds between each. intakes with rounds between each. intakes with rounds between each. this makes altogether-- on each side of seam, reducing the stocking to . knit rounds for the ankle, or ½ inches. divide the stitches, placing on each side of seam, leaving for front of the foot. knit rows, plain and pearl alternately, or ¾ inches in length, for the heel. then knit the top, and pick up the stitches, till there are on each side of seam-stitch-- being for the gusset. when the gusset is done, there ought to be stitches on. knit rounds for foot, or inches. knit the toe, and cast off, with stitches on each side. =for a child from to years.=--knitted with merino wool--needles, no. . cast on stitches. knit rounds, plain and pearl stitches alternately. knit rounds plain, or ¼ inches in length, increasing stitches on the second round. now begin the intakes-- intakes on each side, with rounds between each. " " with rounds between " " " with rounds between " " " with rounds between " " " with rounds between " this makes intakes-- on each side, and reduces the stocking to stitches. knit rounds for the ankle, or ¾ inches in length. divide the stitches, placing on each side of seam-stitch, leaving for front of the foot. knit rows for the heel, plain and pearl alternately, or inches. knit the top (see page ), and pick up the stitches for the foot, till there are on each side of the seam, being for the gusset. when the gusset is done, there ought to be stitches on. knit rounds, or ½ inches in length. knit the toe, and cast off, with on each side. =for the same.=--knitted with fingering worsted--needles, no. . cast on stitches. knit rounds, plain and pearl stitches alternately. knit rounds plain, or ¼ inches; increase stitch on first round. now begin the intakes. make-- intakes on each side, with rounds between each. " " with rounds between " " " with rounds between " " " with rounds between " this makes altogether-- on each side, and reduces the stocking to . knit rounds for the ankle, or ¾ inches. divide the stitches, placing on each side of seam, leaving for front of the foot. knit rows, plain and pearl alternately, or inches in length, for the heel. knit the top (see page ), and pick up the stitches, till there are on each side of seam, being for the gusset. when this is done, there ought to be stitches on. knit stitches together at the back, and knit rounds for the foot, or inches. then knit the toe, and cast off, with stitches on each side. =for the same.=--lambs'-wool and wheeling-yarn--needles, no. . cast on stitches. knit rounds, plain and pearl alternately. knit rounds plain, or ½ inches in length. increase stitches at each side of the seam, with or rounds between each, after the twenty-fourth round, or second inch. there will then be stitches on. now begin the intakes. intakes with rounds between. intakes with rounds between. intakes with rounds between. this makes intakes altogether-- on each side, and reduces the stocking to . knit rounds, or ¼ inches in length, for the ankle. divide the stitches, placing on each side of the seam, leaving for the front of the foot. knit rows plain and pearl alternately for the heel, or ¾ inches in length. knit the top, and pick up the stitches for the foot till there are on each side of the seam, being for the gusset. when the gusset is done, there ought to be stitches on. knit rounds, or ¾ inches, for the foot, measuring from the heel. knit the toe, and cast off with stitches on each side. =for a child from to years.=--lambs'-wool and wheeling-yarn. cast on stitches. knit rounds, plain and pearl alternately. knit rounds, or inches in length. increase stitches at each side of the seam, with or rounds between each, after knitting rounds, or inches, till there are stitches on. now begin the intakes. intakes with rounds between. intakes with rounds between. intake with rounds between. this makes intakes altogether-- on each side. knit two together to make an even number, reducing the stocking to . knit rounds, or inches, for the ankle. divide the stitches, placing on each side of the seam, leaving for front of foot. knit rows for the heel, or inches in length. knit the top, and pick up the stitches for the foot till there are on each side of the seam, being for the gusset. when the gusset is done, there ought to be stitches. knit rounds for the foot, or inches, measuring from the heel. knit the toe, and cast off with stitches. =for a child from to years.=--lambs'-wool and wheeling-yarn. cast on stitches. knit rounds, plain and pearl alternately. knit rounds, or ½ inches, increasing stitches, as in preceding pattern, till there are stitches on. now begin the intakes. intakes with rounds between. intakes with rounds between. intakes with rounds between. this makes intakes altogether-- on each side, and reduces the stocking to . knit rounds for the ankle, or ¾ inches. divide the stitches, placing on each side of the seam, and leaving for the front of the foot. knit rows for the heel, plain and pearl alternately, or ¼ inches in length. then knit the top, and pick up the stitches, on each side of the seam, being for the gusset. when this is done, there ought to be stitches on. knit rounds, or ¾ inches, for the foot, measuring from the heel. knit the toe, and cast off with on each side. =lady's ordinary size.=--knitted with merino wool--needles, no. . cast on stitches. knit rounds, plain and pearl stitches alternately. knit rounds plain, or ¼ inches in length; increase stitch. now begin the intakes; make on each side-- intakes with rounds between each. intakes with rounds between each. intakes with rounds between each. intakes with rounds between each. intakes with rounds between each. this makes altogether-- on each side of seam, and reduces the stocking to . knit rounds for the ankle, or inches in length. divide the stitches, placing on each side of the seam, and leaving for front of the foot. knit rows, plain and pearl alternately, or ¾ inches, for the heel. knit the top, and pick up the stitches, till there are on each side of the seam, being for the gusset. when the gusset is finished, there ought to be stitches. knit together, and knit rounds for the foot, or ¼ inches. knit the toe, and cast off, with on each side. =for the same.=--knitted with fingering worsted--needles, no. . cast on stitches. knit rounds, plain and pearl stitches alternately. knit rounds plain, or ½ inches in length. this brings to the intakes. make on each side-- intakes with rounds between each. intakes with rounds between each. intakes with rounds between each. intakes with rounds between each. intakes with rounds between each. this makes altogether-- on each side, and reduces the stocking to . knit rounds, or inches, for the ankle. divide the stitches, placing on each side of the seam, leaving for front of the foot. knit rows, plain and pearl alternately, or ¾ inches, for the heel. knit the top, and pick up the stitches, till there are stitches on each side of the seam, being for the gusset. when the gusset is done, there ought to be stitches on. knit rounds plain for the foot, or ¼ inches. knit the toe, and cast off, with stitches on each side. =lady's full size.=--knitted with fingering worsted--needles, no. . cast on stitches. knit rounds, plain and pearl alternately. knit rounds, or ½ inches. increase stitches, knitting rounds between each, beginning at the st round, or ½ inches. there will now be stitches on. begin the intakes. intakes with rounds between. intakes with rounds between. intakes with rounds between. intakes with rounds between. intakes with rounds between. this makes intakes altogether-- on each side of the seam, reducing the stocking to . knit rounds, or ½ inches, for the ankle. divide the stitches, placing on each side of the seam, leaving for the foot. knit rows for the heel, or inches in length. knit the top, and pick up the stitches, on each side of the seam, being for the gusset. when the gusset is done, there ought to be stitches on. knit rounds, or inches measuring from the heel, for the foot. knit the toe, and cast off with stitches. =for the same (or for a gentleman).=--knitted with lambs'-wool and wheeling-yarn. cast on stitches. knit rounds, pearl and plain alternately. knit rounds, or inches in length, increasing stitches on each side of the seam, beginning at the th round, or th inch. knit rounds between each. there should now be stitches on. begin the intakes. intakes with rounds between. intakes with rounds between. intakes with rounds between. intakes with rounds between. this makes intakes altogether-- on each side, and reduces the stocking to . knit rounds, or inches, for the ankle. divide the stitches, placing on each side of the seam, leaving for the front. knit rows for the heel, or ¾ inches. knit the top, and pick up the stitches, on each side, being for the gusset. when the gusset is done, there ought to be stitches on. knit rounds plain, or inches, for the foot, measuring from the heel. knit the toe, and cast off with on each side. ='rig-and-fur' stocking.=--there are two ways of shaping this kind of stocking. one is to leave as many plain stitches on each side of the seam-stitch as there are intakes. for example--in a stocking for an infant (see page ) there are intakes on each side of the seam-stitch; therefore stitches would require to be left, so that when the intakes are done, there will be plain stitches remaining on each side of the seam, and will join in with the pattern. it is advisable to knit this stocking plain and pearl stitch alternately. the second way is to take in or stitches at a time, as described in the knickerbocker hose. this is not so suitable for very small stockings, as more rounds require to be knitted between each intake, there being fewer of them. =striped stocking.=--six rows of black, and or of some colour, make a very pretty stocking. knit the top-band with the coloured worsted, then tie on the black at the side of the stitch chosen for the seam. knit rounds of black, and pass up the coloured. give it a single twist round the black, taking care not to pull it too tight, but just sufficient to bring the stripes opposite to each other. =gentlemen's knickerbocker, or kilt hose.=--knitted with -ply fingering worsted--needles, no. . cast on stitches. knit rounds for the top-band, plain and pearl stitches. knit round of holes, putting over the thread, and knitting stitches together. knit round plain. knit rounds, pearl and plain stitches, or inches in length. the intakes of gentlemen's hose are done in the following manner:-- a pearl stitch should be fixed upon for the seam-stitch, by tying a coloured thread round it; and it ought to be knitted pearl and plain alternately. there will be plain stitches on each side of the seam-stitch. begin the intakes on the right hand side of the seam-stitch, by slipping the th stitch from it. knit together the th, d, and d, then take the slipped stitch over. this brings plain stitches to the side of the seam-stitch again. on the left hand side of the seam-stitch, slip the d stitch, knit together the d, th, and th, then take the slip-stitch over. number of intakes: with rounds between. " " " " " " " " " " " " this makes intakes on each side of the seam-stitch, and reduces the stocking to stitches. knit rounds for the ankle, or inches. then divide the stitches; placing on each side of the seam-stitch. knit rounds for the heel, or ¾ inches, continuing to knit it pearl and plain stitches. then knit the top, and pick up the stitches, on each side-- being for the gusset. when this is finished, knit rounds, or inches, with the pearl and plain on the front of the foot, and plain on the back. knit rounds, all plain. knit the toe, and cast off, with stitches on each side of the foot. [illustration: (decorative separator)] socks. =for an infant.=--knitted with merino wool. cast on stitches. knit rounds, plain and pearl stitches alternately. knit rounds plain, or ¾ inches in length; increase stitch on first round. knit the foot same as page . =for a child a year old.=--knitted with merino wool. cast on stitches. knit rounds, pearl and plain alternately. knit rounds plain, or inches in length; increase stitch on first round. knit the foot same as page . =for a child from to years.=--knitted with merino wool. cast on stitches. knit rounds, pearl and plain alternately. knit rounds, or inches in length; increase stitches on first round, and knit the foot same as page . =for a child from to years.=--knitted with merino wool. cast on stitches. knit rounds, pearl and plain alternately. knit rounds plain, or ½ inches in length; increase stitch on first round; and knit the foot same as page . =for a boy from to years.=--knitted with fingering worsted.--cast on stitches. knit rounds, pearl and plain stitches alternately. knit rounds, or inches in length; increase stitches on first round; and knit the foot same as page . =for a boy from to years.=--knitted with fingering worsted.--cast on stitches. knit rounds, pearl and plain stitches alternately. knit rounds, or inches; increasing stitch on first round. then knit the foot same as page . =for the same.=--knitted with lambs'-wool and wheeling-yarn.--cast on stitches. knit rounds, plain and pearl alternately. knit rounds, or inches in length, for the leg. then knit the foot, same as page . =for a boy from to years.=--knitted with fingering worsted.--cast on stitches. knit rounds, pearl and plain alternately. knit rounds, or inches in length; increasing stitches on the first round. then knit the foot same as page . =for the same.=--knitted with lambs'-wool and wheeling-yarn.--cast on stitches. knit rounds, pearl and plain alternately. knit rounds plain, or inches in length, for the leg, increasing stitch on the second round. knit the foot same as page . =for a boy from to years.=--knitted with fingering worsted.--cast on stitches. knit rounds, pearl and plain alternately. knit rounds, or inches in length; increase stitches on first round. divide the stitches; placing on each side of the seam-stitch, leaving for the front of the foot. knit rows, plain and pearl alternately, for the heel, or ¼ inches in length. knit the top, and pick up the stitches, till there are on each side of the seam-stitch, being for the gusset. when the gusset is finished, knit rounds, or ½ inches in length. knit the toe, and cast off, with stitches on each side, measuring from heel. =for the same.=--knitted with lambs'-wool and wheeling-yarn.--cast on stitches. knit rounds, pearl and plain alternately. knit rounds plain, or inches, for the foot. increase stitch on second round. knit the foot same as page . =socks for gentlemen.=--knitted with fingering worsted. cast on stitches. knit rounds, plain and pearl stitches alternately. knit rounds, or inches in length. increase stitches on first round. divide the stitches, placing on each side of the seam, leaving for front of the foot. knit rows, or ¾ inches, for the heel. knit the top, and pick up the stitches for the foot till there are on each side of the seam, being for the gusset. when the gusset is finished, knit rounds, or inches, for the foot. knit the toe; and cast off with stitches on each side. =for the same.=--knitted with lambs'-wool and wheeling-yarn.--cast on stitches. knit rounds, plain and pearl alternately. knit rounds plain, or inches, increasing stitch on each round. knit the foot same as page . open-work patterns suitable for stockings. explanation of terms. o means put over the thread. t is knit two together. a is slip a stitch, knit together, and take the slipped stitch over. ts is slip a stitch, knit plain, and take the slipped stitch over. p is plain . b stands for pearl. leaf pattern. calculate stitches for each pattern, and for pearl stripe. st round--p, o, p, o, p, t, b . d " p , t, b . d " p , o, p, o, p , t, b . th " p , t, b . th " p , o, p, o, p , t, b . th " p , t, b . th " p , o, p, o, p , t, b . th " p , t, b . th " p , o, p, o, p, t, b . th " p , t, b . th " p , o, p, t, b . th " p , t, b . double rose-leaf pattern, suitable for large stockings. calculate for each pattern, stitches, and for pearl stripe. the stripe may be made broader according to size. st row--o, p, ts, b, t, p, b, p, ts, b, t, p, o, b . d " p , b, p , b, p , b, p , b . d " o, p, o, ts, b, t, b, ts, b, t, o, p, o, b th " p , b, p, b, p, b, p , b . th " o, p , o, a, b, a, o, p , b . th " p , b, p , b . th " o, p , o, a, o, p , o, b . th " plain all but the pearl stripes. spider net, with pearl stripes. calculate stitches for each pattern, and for pearl stripes. st row--o, p, o, t, p, t, _repeat_ pearl . d " plain, all but the pearl stripes. d " o, p , o, a, _repeat_ pearl . th " plain, all but the pearl stripes. th " t, o, p, o, t, p, t, _repeat_ pearl . th " same as d. th " a, o, p , o, _repeat_ pearl . th " same as d. pattern diamond of four holes. calculate stitches for each pattern. st row--p , t, o, p . d " plain. d " p , t, o, t, o. th " plain. th " p , t, o, p. th " plain. th " t, o, p . th " plain. simple pattern. calculate stitches for each pattern. st row--pearl , o, t, p. d " pearl , p . d " pearl , p, o, t. th " pearl , p . pattern with two open leaves. calculate stitches for each pattern. st row--p , t, o, t, o, t, p , o, p , o, p , t, o, t, o, t, p . every alternate row is plain. d, th, th, and th rows same as st. th row--p , t, o, t, o, t, p , o, p , o, p , t, o, t, o, t, p . th, th, th, and th rows same as th row. scollop of three holes. calculate stitches for each pattern, and for pearl stripe. st round--p, o, ts, o, ts, o, ts, p , b . d " plain, all but pearl stripes. d " p , o, ts, o, ts, o, ts, p , b . th " same as d. th " p , o, ts, o, ts, o, ts, p, b . th " same as d. th " p , o, ts, o, ts, o, ts, b . th " same as d. th " p , t, o, t, o, t, o, p , b . th " same as d. th " p, t, o, t, o, t, o, p . th " same as d. th " t, o, t, o, t, o, p , b . th " same as d. [illustration: (decorative separator)] * * * * * list of new works. now ready, extra foolscap vo, cloth, price s. d., lessons from the life of the late james nisbet, publisher, london. a study for young men. by his son-in-law, the rev. j. a. wallace. _a limited number of copies, with photographic copy of a miniature portrait by booth, price s. d._ now ready, crown vo, cloth extra, gilt edges, with six illustrations, price s., sketches of scripture characters. by the rev. andrew thomson, d.d. contents. . the hebrew maid. . naaman the syrian. . gehazi. . nehemiah--part i. the cup-bearer; part ii. the governor. . absalom. . simeon. . john the baptist. . the daughter of herodias. . the woman with the alabaster-box. . pontius pilate. . simon the cyrenian. . dorcas. . mary the mother of john mark. 'of the excellence of these sketches, it may be enough to say, that as they appeared successively in the pages of the _christian treasury_, they formed for a twelvemonth one of its most attractive features, and that they were not more popular than they deserved to be.... externally, the volume is a gem, one of the most tasteful of the many tasteful publications which have recently issued from the same press.'--_brechin advertiser._ now ready, extra foolscap vo, illustrated, price s. d.; gilt edges, s., the domestic circle; or, the relations, responsibilities, and duties of home life. by the rev. john thomson, paisley. contents. . the head of the family. . the wife. . the husband. . the children. . the young men. . the young women. . the servants. . the master and mistress. . the widow and fatherless. . the family sabbath. . the family altar. . the family bond, 'love.' 'the author has produced a book whose value may be appreciated by any reader.'--_british and foreign evangelical review_, january . edinburgh: johnstone, hunter, & co. london: hamilton, adams, & co. and all booksellers. [registered for transmission abroad.] the christian treasury sixpence monthly. a family miscellany. edited by the rev. horatius bonar, d.d., author of 'hymns of faith and hope,' etc. etc. also in weekly numbers, price d.; in yearly volumes, price s. d. this old established magazine (started in ) contains original and selected papers by ministers and members of various evangelical denominations, and will be found eminently adapted for family and private reading. a recent opinion of the press. 'the _christian treasury_ is the father of a large and increasing family. it is the oldest of our monthly religious magazines in a cheap form. it aims at a high literary standard, and keeps well up to it.... we cordially recommend this old friend and favourite to the goodwill of our readers, old and young.'--_from the london record, jan. ._ the children's hour. threepence monthly. a magazine for our young folk. beautifully illustrated. edited by m. h., author of 'the story of a red velvet bible,' and other popular tales. between the dark and the daylight, when the night is beginning to lower, comes a pause in the day's occupations, that is known as "the children's hour." --longfellow. published also in half-yearly volumes, elegantly bound, price s. 'we have much pleasure in recommending the _children's hour_.'--_london record._ 'we have high authority--that of a critic of eleven years of age, who has read every number through--for pronouncing it "a splendid book." now, aunt jane, when you want to make somebody happy, you know what to do.'--_evangelical witness._ 'will be perused with delight by both boys and girls.'--_north british daily mail._ 'the article here supplied is well worth the money, and we strongly advise paterfamilias, when next he orders his shilling _cornhill_ or _macmillan_, to order along with them the _children's hour_, for the regalement of the little folks.'--_dundee courier and argus._ edinburgh: johnstone, hunter, & co. london: groombridge and sons. and by order of any bookseller. transcriber's note obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources. except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text, and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained. pg : ' d, , th' replaced by ' d, th, th'. the advert page at the front of the original book had the first complete line of each of the sixteen entries in bold font. this has been slightly modified so that only the title of each entry is bolded. the back cover had book and magazine adverts printed on both sides. a thin strip of tape covered or partially covered some words on the right hand side of the outside cover page, or letters per line. the obscured letters have been reconstructed with a high degree of confidence in the accuracy of the etext. _advertisements._ mander brothers, wolverhampton, are experts in dipping and spraying paints. _industrial paints and varnishes_ brushing dipping spraying flowing tumbling drying we specialise in all paints, enamels, japans, lacquers, varnishes and other materials for the protection and decoration of industrial products of all kinds. our clients comprise of the principal manufacturers in all trades, and the service we are rendering to them is ready, willing and capable of caring for your requirements. experimental and research laboratories are maintained to assist the solution of any problem, whilst there is a wealth of practical experience to draw upon when you consult pinchin, johnson & co., ltd. _paint, varnish, color & enamel manufacturers_ minerva house, bevis marks, london, e.c. _telegrams pinchin, ald, london._" _telephone avenue _ (_ lines_) established painting by immersion and by compressed air. [illustration: automatic finishing of pianos. lowering the loaded carrier into the varnish tank.] _frontispiece._ painting by immersion and by compressed air. _a practical handbook_ by arthur seymour jennings, f.i.b.d., editor of "the decorator" and the "the decorator series of practical handbooks," author of "commercial paints and painting," "paint and colour mixing," "the painters' pocket book," "house painting and decorating," etc., etc. member of the paint and varnish society, the international society for testing materials, etc. examiner in painters' and decorators' work to the city and guilds of london institute. _with illustrations._ london: offices of "the managing engineer," & , chancery lane, w.c. e. & f. n. spon, ltd., , haymarket, london, s.w. new york: spon & chamberlain. , liberty street preface. in many industries the application of paint for preservative or ornamental purposes is imperative and the item of expenditure is an important one. there is abundant evidence to prove that the application of paint, either by means of dipping, spraying or other mechanical means, effects an enormous saving of time over the old method of using brushes, while the coats of paint are more durable and thorough. this saving of time not only lowers the cost of production to a very considerable extent, but it permits of a large increase in the output. the process of "flowing-on" enamels and varnishes described in the following pages effects an even greater saving of time in those cases where it is applicable. the extent of this saving can be judged by the fact that a complete coat of enamel can be given to the body of a four-seated touring car in the almost incredibly short time of two minutes! these processes are used to a very large extent in many industries, particularly those connected with metal work and engineering. in the united states of america and in many parts of the continent they have reached a high degree of perfection. in great britain the adoption of the methods is rapidly increasing. it is hoped that this book will be found of service to manufacturers who desire to ascertain whether the processes can be economically employed in their particular industry or to those who contemplate putting in a plant for the purpose. it should also be helpful to those who have not been very successful with a trial plant or who desire to bring an existing plant fully up-to-date in its equipment. and it should be said at once that the few cases of failure which have come to the notice of the author have been found on investigation to be due either to the use of paint unsuitable for the purpose or the adoption of a plant which is unfitted for the object aimed at. three examples may be given. in one small castings were dipped in black paint, but it was found that "tears," or runs of paint which did not dry properly, often occurred. here, clearly, the paint was at fault. it was too thick for the purpose and did not dry hard quickly enough. the remedy was obvious. in another case iron casements were dipped horizontally in a shallow paint tank and the time involved in lowering them to obtain a complete immersion was considerable. in this case the shape and size of the tank were not suitable. it should have been deep and narrow, so that the casements could be dipped vertically. the idea that the paint would "settle out" if a deep tank were used was shown to be erroneous. in a third case spraying had been tried for coating metal casements, when it was found that the saving effected in time was more than counter-balanced by the waste of paint. of course, spraying was not suitable for a job of this kind, the surface to be covered being so very narrow. such work is done most successfully by dipping. the degree of perfection to which the process of dipping has been carried in america is indicated by the fact that it is largely employed for piano cases and many other articles requiring a perfect varnish finish. this process is fully described in these pages and has been successfully carried on for some years. this fact demonstrates very clearly the possibilities of painting and varnishing by immersion. all the principal appliances used for spraying paint, lacquer, enamel, varnish and similar liquids have been described at length, but no attempt has been made to prove that any one appliance is superior to another. the details of each apparatus are given, and for the convenience of the reader, the manufacturer's name and address. it is suggested that those who contemplate the adoption of paint dipping, or spraying, should get into touch with all these firms, and carefully investigate their respective merits before coming to a decision. the services of an expert will usually be found desirable, for, although in engineering works much of the necessary apparatus and accessories may be made on the premises, the exact details, such as the kind of paint and the exact design suitable for the particular purpose, are largely matters to be decided upon in the light of experience. arthur s. jennings. , birkbeck bank chambers, high holborn, w.c. august, . contents. chapter i. page introduction. increase in the use of painting by dipping and spraying--the remarkable saving of time effected--the durability equal to brush painting--scope of the subject--whitewashing machines--cost of spraying plant--dipping plant may be very simple--list of the principal products to which paint spraying is applied chapter ii. painting by immersion. an old idea largely developed in recent years--simple forms of paint dipping--painting varnish cans--larger plants--the tank--the agitators--mclennan patent--paint proof gear box--three tank plant for different colours--the rails and hanging apparatus--hanging articles after they are painted--hoists--simple crabs and lifting gear--pneumatic hoist--electrical hoist--trolley hoist--the number of coats of paint--advantages of the dipping process--protecting parts not to be painted--preparing woodwork before painting--filler for iron--stopping holes in woodwork--rubbing down chapter iii. requirements of different trades. bedsteads--collapsible gates--dipping sewing machine parts--iron rods--iron window frames or casements--metal furniture--motor parts (metal)--automatic finishing of pianos--the standard hydraulic immersion system--wheels--some typical plants--carriage department, woolwich arsenal--james gibbons--harrison, mcgregor & co.--phillips & son--the ford motor company--marshall, sons & co., ltd.--hayward bros. & eckstein, ltd.--the crittall manufacturing co.--excluding dust--heating and ventilation of drying room--a model drying room chapter iv. paint for dipping. the requirements of a good dipping paint--specific gravity of pigments--white dipping paint--gloss paint--w. g. scott on dipping paints--proportion of paste and thinners--asbestine --china clay--whiting--zinc oxide--inert materials--primers for metal--primers for hard and soft woods--second coat dipping paints--white paste primer--white dip for metals--white dip for hard wood--white dip for soft wood--white spirit--quantity of paint required for dipping and spraying--spreading capacity of paints chapter v. painting by compressed air. the evolution of the apparatus employed--early attempts--the concentric form of spray--its advantages--the flow of paint--practice necessary--cost of plant--pressure and volume of air required chapter vi. types of spraying apparatus. the aerograph--electric motor outfit--painting a gasometer--small aerograph--the aeron--uniformity of coats--cup aeron--air transformer--the airostyle--construction--"ultra" type--pistol "m"--the eureka spraying machine--the crane eureka--the crane "record"--the "invincible"--type "e"--artists' type--the midland sprayer--the "paasche" sprayer--larger size--oil and water separator--automatic electric controller chapter vii. supply of compressed air--paint supply--exhaust. type of compressor--air main--air valves--purifying air--small compressors--water cooling--air pump and tank combined--general arrangement of accessories--the supply of paint--the exhaust installation--central draught fan--location of work cabinets--the fumexer spraying cabinet--accessories --turn-tables, auto--electric air heater chapter viii. stencils and masks--the requirements of different trades in spraying. protecting parts not to be sprayed--masks for gas meters--the hart patent mask--making stencils--stencil paper--four-ounce stencil metal--zinc stencils--requirements of special trades--piece work--bookbinding--carriages--cycle parts--electrical work--fancy baskets--gas meters--gas stoves and ranges--picture frames, picture mouldings, etc.--celluloid varnish--spraying ships' hulls--slate enamelling--spraying colour specimens--tramcars chapter ix. some typical plants. plant for twelve operators--the birmingham small arms co.--airostyle plant for sixteen operators--the davis gas stove co., ltd.--fletcher, russell & co., ltd.--special machines --gittings, hills and boothby, ltd.--the kingsbury manufacturing co., ltd.--j. lucas, ltd.--the gas light and coke co., ltd.--the gas meter co., ltd chapter x. paints, lacquers, varnishes, etc., used in spraying. temperature of spraying room--fine paint must be used--firms who specialize on dipping and spraying paints, etc.--stoving enamels--enamels--hints on stoving or baking--black japan finishes--steel furniture enamels--imitation wood effects--white work--bedsteads, etc.--transparent colour varnishes--safe baking heats of pigment colours--dipping and spraying compared chapter xi. spraying versus brushing. comparison with brush painting--bronzing with celluloid medium--objections sometimes urged against spraying---mottled appearance of paint and how avoided--spraying fillers and primers--spraying and dipping compared--the great saving effected chapter xii. the artistic application of paint spraying. artistic work--lining on motors and carriages--relief work --scumbling and colour glazing--glazing--designs for lamp shades--reds--blues--yellows--greens--browns--greys--scumbling and graining--brush graining--marble grounds--graining grounds chapter xiii. the "flowing-on" system. the latest method of finishing automobiles--remarkable speed of the method--the apparatus--trough tank used in the process--the kind of paint or japan used--the floco process --painting motor bodies--description of modern enamelling ovens for motor bodies--notes on the construction of stoves--the perkins' stove--typical goodyear stove--dipping trough chapter xiv. lime and whitewash sprayers. periodical whitewashing in workshops compulsory--the wells sprayer--limewhiting by machine with -foot bamboo pole--the brown sprayer--the merryweather sprayer--the tumbling barrel process chapter xv. a portable paint sprayer for railway and other work. the pennsylvania railroad system--fainting freight cars--description of apparatus--plan and elevation--detail drawings chapter xvi. metal spraying. description of the process--the immense field for it--the metal spraying "pistol"--detail drawings of pistol--sectional drawing--diagrammatic representation of melting and spraying jets in action--spraying alloys--cost of the process list of illustrations. page frontispiece automatic finishing of pianos fig. . section through paint tank " . stirrers and blinds for paint dipping tank " . longitudinal vertical section " . tank for painting steel sheets " . paint-proof bearings and gear box " . shafting and driving gear designed for implements " . triple-tank plant " . joist and wheels supporting hanger " . hook for hanging " to . hoists and crabs " . typical hoist for painting by immersion " . morris standard electric trolley hoist " . electric hoist suitable for heavy goods " . sprayed show card " . dipping and stoving bedsteads " . immersing mangle frames " . iron hanger " . carrier filled with six complete pianos " . introductory carrier for piano frame " . lowering piano cases into the varnish tank " . piano cases nearly immersed " . piano cases wholly immersed " . piano cases about to be dipped " . coach body ready to be dipped " . paint dipping room at woolwich " . store room, woolwich " . dipping casements at the crittall manufacturing co. " . hook for suspending boxes " . dipping casements at braintree " . design for show card done by spraying " . the aerograph spraying instrument " . another form of aerograph " . aerograph electric motor outfit " . painting a gasometer " . aerograph for delicate work " . the aeron sprayer " . " " (angle barrel) " . " " with agitator " . " " with double nozzle head " . the g aeron sprayer, with double nozzle head " . the g aeron sprayer, with attachments " . the g aeron sprayer, with parts disassembled " . the g aeron sprayer " . the m aeron sprayer " . the m aeron sprayer, with types l & m " . block and tackle " . standard tackle " . air transformer set " . air transformer " . section showing construction of airostyle " . airostyle type "record" with union for continuous supply " . airostyle type "ultra" " . " pistol "m" " . the crane "eureka" " . " " "record" " . the "invincible" sprayer " . " " with adjustable cup " . the midland sprayer " . the "paasche" sprayer " . larger "paasche" sprayer " . general form of "paasche" sprayer " . "paasche" oil and water separator " . "paasche" automatic electric controller " . airostyle air compressor " . devilbiss air compressors " . " " " " . " " " " . aerograph air pumps and tank combined " . aerograph type of air pumps for larger installations " . airostyle plant general arrangement " . "paasche" motor dryer fan " . airostyle central draught steel plate fan " . devilbiss auto cool electric exhaust fan closed and opened for cleaning " . sketch of spraying cabinets " . aerograph spraying cabinets " . "devilbiss fumexer" or spraying cabinet " . " " " " " . " " " " " . " " " " " . aerograph turntable " . two forms of fumexer " . the fumexer in use " . a paasche turntable " . auto electric air heater " . masks for gas meter " . the hart patent mask " . bin for spraying light articles " . aerostyle plant for sixteen operators " . airostyle plant showing ventilator " . side elevation of plant for operators " . end elevation of plant for operators " . plan of figs. and " . airostyle plant installed for the davis gas stove co., ltd. " . compressor, etc., for airostyle plant " . airostyle plant installed for gas fire and radiator work " . view from one end of messrs. lucas, ltd., airostyle plants " & . airostyle plant at messrs j. lucas, ltd. " . " " view of racks and fan " . " " two bays of one unit " . airostyle plant installed for the gas light and coke co., ltd. " . airostyle plant installed for the gas light and coke co., ltd. " . operator at work " . airostyle plant showing ventilator " . elevation of spraying plant " . elevation of spraying plant " . plans of figs. and " . designs for lamp shades " . show card done by spraying " . another example " . shaded effects " . fruit dish decorated by spraying " . table cover " . trough tank " . floco system of painting motor bodies " & . show card done by spraying & " . design for show card " . the perkins' stove " . typical goodyear stove " . dipping trough " . show or menu card " . example of metal decoration " & . whitewash sprayer " & . limewashing with bamboo pole " . the brown extension sprayer " . the merryweather limewhite sprayer " . a tumbling barrel " . another form " . paint sprayer for freight cars " . elevation of above " . details of above " . the metal spraying "pistol" " . the metal sprayer " . sectional drawing of metal sprayer " . diagrammatric representation of melting and spraying jets in action " . sprayed decorative work " . shaded work by the aerograph " . show card, sprayed " . sprayed frieze chapter i. introduction. until recent years, it appears to have been generally supposed that paint used for either the protection or ornamentation of various surfaces must necessarily be applied by means of painters' brushes made of hog's bristles. but it has been clearly demonstrated during the past few years that the application of the paint may be made by means of either total immersion of the article to be painted in a tank or by spraying the paint on to the surface with the aid of compressed air. the rapid increase in the use of both processes is principally due to the immense saving of time which is effected, and this may be approximately estimated at from five to nine-tenths. in other words, one man can do the work of from five to ten men, or even more. to put it another way, if a piece of work costs s. for labour in painting by the old process, it may be safely assumed that it can be done by dipping or spraying at a cost of from two to four shillings. the question will at once suggest itself: "is paint applied by dipping and spraying as durable as that applied by the brush?" as the paint in the greater part of work of this character is used solely for protective purposes, the question is clearly one of considerable importance. the answer to the question is that when properly prepared paint is used, both methods give an equal, or even better result from the point of view of durability than that which would be obtained if a painter's brush was employed, while, in the case of painting by immersion or by spraying, the paint finds its way into places which a brush could not reach, such as open joints of a waggon, the intricate parts of certain agricultural machinery, the inside of small metal boxes, etc. both methods are successfully employed in practically every branch of the engineering, metal and many other trades. heavy steel sheets may be dipped provided that adequate plant is employed for lowering and raising them into the tank, or they may be sprayed without much difficulty. children's toys (to take the other extreme), costing less than a penny each, may also be economically painted by dipping. speaking generally, anything large or small which can be handled or moved by lifting machinery or on a turn table, can be painted by either one process or the other. for example, a hundred or so of very small iron castings, or wrought iron ware, may be placed in a wire basket and dipped together in a few seconds, or the body of a motor car, or parts of a bicycle, can be painted by spraying in a fraction of the time it would take to do the work by means of brushes. thus far the processes are not much used in house painting, excepting for the first or priming coat, before the work is fixed in position, but certain types of the simpler form of spraying machines are employed with great advantage in applying lime white or whitewash to rough walls of factories, etc. in this case, a far better job is produced in one-tenth of the time. the whitewash, when sprayed on, enters and covers the open joints and inequalities of surface in a complete manner, which would be impossible were a brush used. on the next page is a list of some of the principal purposes for which these methods are at present used, and these are being constantly added to. it is not too much to say that in any industry in which paints are used, one or other of the methods, or both in conjunction, may be employed with very great advantage in a saving of time. an erroneous idea prevails in some quarters that to install a paint dipping or a paint spraying plant will involve a considerable expenditure. as a matter of fact, if the work is of a simple character, and the articles to be dealt with small, an expenditure of something like £ will be sufficient for the purpose. for example, a small tank, with a draining board attached, would cost less than the sum mentioned, even when the overhanging plant was included. as such work is usually done in engineering shops, the lifting apparatus and the rails, can easily be made on the premises. in some cases the lifting plant even might be dispensed with, and the articles, such as paint cans, could be dipped by hand. a spraying plant need not be expensive, and £ to £ will cover the expense of spraying apparatus, compressor for air spray, exhaust and everything else. this, however, refers to a small plant. more extensive installations would, of course, cost very much more, but whatever they may cost, it may be accepted as a fact that, within reasonable limits, the outlay will be fully returned in two or three years' working at most. in the following pages an attempt has been made to cover the whole subject of painting by mechanical means. many plants are described and illustrated, and some lengthy explanation is given of the requirements of different trades or goods. in many cases these have really nothing to do with the painting proper, but success depends upon the system adopted for handling and conveying. take, for example, celluloid buttons, which are usually sprayed. they are placed in wire trays made specially for the purpose, the bottom side uppermost. these are first sprayed all over with a spirit paint, and when sufficiently dry to handle, say, in a quarter of an hour, they are all turned over and the top sides are sprayed. the wire trays and a handy cabinet to contain them are the important details in this case. list of the principal products to which paint spraying and paint dipping are applied. acetylene machines. adding machines. addressing machines. advertising novelties. advertising signs. aeroplane work. "agate" hollow ware. agricultural implements. air compressors. aluminium goods. antiques, bric-a-brac. architectural brass works. architectural iron works. art glasses and mirrors. artificial flowers. artificial jewellery. artificial marble. artificial limbs. artistic statuaries. automatic vending machines. automobile lamps. automobile licences and number plates. automobile parts. automobile parts and motor bodies. automobile supplies automobile tyres. automobile tops and canopies. axes. baby carriages. badges. banners and flags. bar fixtures. barber equipment. barrels. barrows. basket and rattan ware. bath room sundries. baths. bed springs. bedsteads (iron). bedsteads (sheet metal). beer pumps. bells. bicycles. billiard tables. bird cages. blocks and falls. blowers. boats. bobbins and spools. boiler work. book cases. boxes, cigar. bowling alleys. boxes, mail. brass bedsteads. brass goods. broom heads and handles. brushes. buckles and snaps. builders' hardware. burial caskets. buttons (metal). cabinet hardware. cabinets. cameras. candies and confectionery. canners, vegetables and fruit. canoes. cans. cars. carpets. carpet sweepers. carriages. carriage hardware. casements (metal). cartridges. cash registers. cash carriers. celluloid sheets. chairs (metal). children's carriages. china and crockery. church and lodge goods. church and school furniture. churns. clocks. colour specimens. constructional ironwork. corset steels. coffins and caskets. couches. cream separators. curtain poles. cutlery. cycles. cycle parts. desks (metal). display fixtures. dolls. doors. drills. dynamos. edge tools. electric fixtures. electrical apparatus. electrical supplies. electro platers. enamelled metal goods. enamelled ware. engines. etching (metal). factory fittings. fancy baskets. fans. fenders. filing cabinets. firearms. fire extinguishers. fishing rods. fixtures, display. foundries. fountains, soda. furniture (metal). garden implements. gas apparatus. gas cookers. gas engines. gas fires. gas fixtures. gas meters. gas and gasolene stoves golf clubs. grates and mantels. gramophones. grille work. hats, straw. hair pins. hames. handles. harness trim. harrows. hardware. hollow ware. hooks and eyes. horns. incandescent lamps. japanned goods. jewellery. kegs and pails. kitchen cabinets. kitchen utensils. knitting machines. lacing studs. lamps and lanterns. lasts. lawn mowers. lead pencils. leather work. letter files. locks. lockers (metal). looms. locomotives. machinery. malleable castings. mathematical instruments. meat safes. metal spinners. model makers. motors. motor cycles. musical instruments. novelties. office furniture. optical instruments. ornamental ironwork. pattern makers. pen holders. phonographs. physical supplies. piano plates. pianos and organs. picture frames. pins. plated ware. ploughs. plumbers' supplies. porcelain goods. projectiles. pulleys (metal). pumps. radiators (auto). railway carriages. rakes. refrigerators. regalia. rubber goods. rules and levels. saddlery hardware. safes. safe deposit vaults. sashes (metal). scales. screens (metal). sewing machines. shoe buttons. show cases. side cars. signs, enamelled. silverware. sleds and sleighs. soda fountains. sporting goods. steel stampings. stoves (gas). slate, enamelled. statuary. steam gauges. steel castings. street railway companies. surgical supplies. switchboards. tables. tanks. telephones. telephone supplies. textile machinery. tinwares. thermometers. tools. toys. trunk hardware. typewriters. vacuum cleaners. vending machines. veneers. ventilators. wagons. wall papers. washing machines. watering cans. weighing machines. wheels. willow ware. wire cloth. wire mattresses. wire work. wringers. in addition to the above, paint is applied by spraying for many artistic purposes, such as for show cards, photographic work, lithography, church decoration, etc. these are referred to in another chapter. [illustration] chapter ii. painting by immersion. the process of painting various articles by dipping them bodily into specially prepared paint contained in a tank or other receptacle is a very old idea. it has, however, developed considerably in late years, and is now largely employed in many industries, particularly in the finishing of agricultural implements of various kinds, iron work and a hundred and one other articles. it is sometimes used in conjunction with paint spraying; that is to say, the first coat or coats may be put on by immersing the article to be painted in the paint, or varnish, and the final coat of enamel or varnish may be put on by means of a spray. in some cases, the final coat is applied by means of brushes in the ordinary manner. perhaps the simplest form of paint dipping is that applied to various articles, such as bolts, rings and small parts, which are placed in a wire basket and plunged into the paint. the basket is then hung up for a quarter of an hour or so to drain, and afterwards in another place, until such time as the paint becomes hard. another familiar example of painting by dipping is that of ordinary tapered cans, such as those which are used to contain varnish, etc. in this case, a piece of wood is introduced into the neck, the can is immersed in the paint up to almost the top of the neck, and is then placed upside down to drain and to dry. a paint which dries with a gloss is usually employed for this purpose, and it may be remarked that a good deal of this work is now done by spraying; in fact, a great deal of difference of opinion exists as to the respective merits of the two processes for this particular purpose. [illustration: fig .--cross section through paint tank.] going a step farther, we come to the consideration of articles such as iron sashes and casements, parts of staircases, etc., which may be dipped into a tank containing, say, five to ten gallons or so. such tanks are usually made to slant at the bottom in order to facilitate cleaning when necessary. adjacent to them is provided a platform, usually lined with sheet iron upon which the paint can drip after the articles are removed from the tank, and a system of overhead rails for moving the articles from one part of the works to another. no agitating apparatus for the paint is required, but after the tank has been used for some time, say, for example, at the week-end, it is necessary to stir it up by means of a pole before the work commences. as a matter of fact, the articles being plunged in the tank, and their withdrawal, in itself stirs the paint sufficiently for the purpose. in dealing with the larger-sized articles which are to be painted, such as reaping machines, the construction of the tank which may hold several tons of paint is naturally of a more elaborate character. such a plant will consist, first, of the tank itself; next, the system of overhead railing; third, the apparatus upon which the articles to be painted are hung; and fourth, the hoists for lowering and raising such articles into and from the tank. it will be convenient to consider these parts which go to form a complete installation under their several heads, taking a more elaborate plant by way of example, it being understood that the plant may be simpler in form when the size of the articles to be painted is small, or under other circumstances, such as will be presently suggested. the tank. [illustration: stirrers and blinds for paint dipping tank. fig .--plan. fig. .--longitudinal vertical section.] there are two forms of special tanks in general use, one having at the bottom paddles for agitating purposes, and the other worms provided with the same object. fig. . shows a cross section of a tank made on the mclennan patented system. in this two series of paddles revolving in opposite directions are provided, and above them is an appliance which may be likened to a horizontal venetian blind, consisting of iron laths, which are nearly horizontal when closed, forming a platform upon which the paint can settle, and vertical when open. this blind is left open when the tank is in use, and is closed when it is at rest. the illustration gives the dimensions of the parts, although these, of course, will be varied according to circumstances. above the blind is sometimes a grating, which, together with the blind, form a protection to the agitating gear from articles dropped into the tank by mistake, the two together preventing the heavy, pigment in the paint from clogging the paddles when the agitating gear has been stopped for some time. figs. and show respectively longitudinal plan and section, from which the construction will be clear. messrs. wilkinson, heywood & clark, ltd., of poplar, who own the mclennan patents, in a little book, entitled "painting by immersion," state that there were certain disadvantages in the design of this tank, inasmuch as should it become necessary to remove or repair the paddles, it would be necessary to empty the tank and bodily remove the parts. they have, therefore, a new design, which is shown in fig. , in which this remedy is overcome. the agitating gear, in this case, is on a sub-frame, separate and independent from the tank itself. the drive is in the tank, and is taken by means of a claw clutch through a right angled bevel to the agitating shaft. this design has proved very satisfactory for small tanks. for very large tanks a gear is recommended in which the agitating gear is enlarged and the shafting is supported or stiffened to prevent whipping. this entails a design of some special bearing, which should be paint proof and oil proof, for the reason that the bearing is immersed in the paint itself. in fig. is shown drawings of this bearing, on which the firm named hold patents. the perfected plants now consist of a tank with an independent and removable chassis frame, on which are mounted the venetian blind arrangements, already mentioned, together with the agitating gear, which consists of either one, two, or more parallel shafts, mounted on parallel gear, as shown in fig. . these shafts are held on the sub-frame with the patent bearings already referred to, and the drive is transmitted through the bevel gear encased in a special gear box, which is equally oil and paint proof and self-lubricating. it will readily be seen that with this plant it is an easy matter to withdraw the driving gear and lift the sub-frame bodily out, without in any way disturbing the paint in the tank. the tank, therefore, can be buried nearly flush in the ground, embedded in concrete, and need never be disturbed. in case of emergency, and when painting is continuous throughout the year, it is recommended that the consumer should keep a complete spare chassis for use when occasion requires. [illustration: fig. .--design for tank for painting steel sheets.] [illustration: fig. .--details of paint-proof bearings and gear box.] [illustration: fig. .--details of sub-frame, shafting and driving gear for tank designed for implement manufacturers.] whatever the construction of the tank itself may be, and whether or not it is provided with agitating apparatus, it is generally found most convenient to build it with the top nearly level with the floor. it is advisable to provide iron doors or covers to close the tank in when out of use so as to prevent excessive evaporation and also for use in case of fire. these doors or covers should therefore be actuated by levers or other suitable appliance which may be put in motion at a point some distance from the tank itself, for while the paint is not very liable to catch light, an accident may cause it to do so, particularly when electricity is used in the works, and the closing of properly constructed doors will quickly subdue fire as far as the tank itself is concerned by shutting off access of the air. the usual plan followed is to provide wide strips of thick felt attached to the doors in proper position so that when the doors are closed the contact will be thorough and the tank itself be practically sealed. when agitators form part of the apparatus it is not necessary to buy the paint ready mixed for use, as it may be introduced into the tank in thin paste form; the necessary thinners such as white spirit can be added and the agitating apparatus slowly revolving will quickly mix the parts together and render the paint suitable for use. it will be understood that the form of tank above described may be very considerably modified according to circumstances. in very simple paint dipping, such as is required for small articles, casements, etc., the agitating apparatus may be wholly dispensed with, while in other cases, the shutter-like arrangement above mentioned may be omitted and the agitator may consist of a worm with a screen above to protect the parts from pieces which may accidentally fall in. [illustration: fig. .--general lay-out of a three-tank plant designed for the use of an agricultural implement maker, using three colours in this instance, red, green and blue.] the rails and hanging apparatus. [illustration: cross section. side elevation. fig. .--joist and wheels supporting hanger.] these two details may be conveniently considered together, and it should be stated at once here again a great deal of difference of opinion exists as to what system is the best. it should, however, be clearly understood that upon the system of railing a great deal of the success depends. the object, of course, to be attained is that of handling a large number of parts with as little labour as possible. with this object, a complete system of overhead rails, commencing with the finishing shops, leading to the paint tank, and thence to storage or delivery departments, should be carefully thought out, always remembering that the growth of a business may necessitate the erection of additional buildings from time to time and provision made accordingly. one of the simplest and best forms of rails is an h section joist with two wheels on either side as shown in fig. . in other cases an =l= rolled joist is used, the railing part being on the vertical flange while the horizontal flange is connected with rods fixed to the upper part of the building. one method which is used quite successfully is to employ hooks as shown in fig. . these run over rails which are lubricated with vaseline, and in this case the rails are usually slightly inclined. in very large works, however, where a considerable length of rail is employed this inclination might be inconvenient, as the rails would go too near the ground. in all cases horizontal rails are found in practice to be the most convenient, but an installation requires careful consideration from all points of view and no general rules can be laid down. hanging after dipping or spraying. a practical point of more importance than might be supposed, at first sight, is to avoid hanging articles very close together after they have been painted or enamelled, either by dipping or spraying. the reason is that if they are hung quite close together the turpentine or volatile thinner used in the paint may affect part of the adjacent surface, and cause a diminished gloss. [illustration: fig. .--hook for hanging.] this point was brought to light in the case of one manufacturer who was painting varnish cans by dipping. they were hung up to dry quite close together--in fact, almost touching. when dry, it was noticed that, instead of being nice and glossy all over, one side was somewhat dull. the explanation appeared to be that the turpentine fumes affected the paint in drying, and this was proved to be true, as when the cans were placed farther apart the trouble ceased. hoists. the hoists used will depend upon the size and weight of the objects that are to be dipped. in some cases they may be dispensed with altogether and the dipping can be done by hand. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .--a typical hoist for use in painting by immersion.] in cases where the space is confined, it is sometimes desirable to use hoists in the form of wall crabs, and a few of these made by the london hoist machinery co., ltd., , worship street, e.c., are illustrated in figs. to . the hoist shown in fig. will lift cwt. with slow speed on the left-hand side, and cwt. on the right-hand side with a quick speed of feet per minute. this form can be made lower by brake if desired. the little crab shown in fig. deals with weights of cwt. at a speed of feet per minute, while that shown in fig. is also a quick gear, lifting cwt. at feet per minute. the other illustrations are self-explanatory. fig. shows a typical hoist which may be regarded as an ideal installation for the work, and the idea can be adapted to either large or small works as required. the installation consists of an overhead track with a movable portion over the dipping tank. the goods to be dipped are hung on the trolleys and run one by one on to the movable portion of the track over the tank. there is a stop on this portion to prevent the trolley running right over the tank, and the movable portion with the article to be dipped is lowered into the tank, and afterwards raised by means of a hoist. the hoist in this case was driven by pneumatic power. it could, however, in very small installations be a hand hoist worked by the rotary movement of a handle, or in other large installations a quick moving electric hoist. after the article is dipped and the movable portion raised by the hoist to its correct position in the track of the runway, the trolley is run off the movable portion on to the track beyond the tank, and left there to dry. these overhead runways can be made to suit loads from ½ cwts. up to tons, so that the system covers all classes of work, since it is seldom that it would be necessary to dip articles weighing more than tons. fig. shows a morris standard electric trolley hoist suitable for lifting up to, say, or tons. both of the foregoing hoists are made by messrs. herbert morris, ltd., of loughborough, to whom the author is indebted for these illustrations. in fig. is shown another type of trolley hoist suitable for lifting heavy weights. the number of coats of paint to be given. an important consideration both in paint immersion and paint spraying is the number of coats of paint which should be given in order to produce the required appearance and ensure durability. this must necessarily depend upon the use to which the article to be painted is to be put, and it will also depend upon the appearance. in paint spraying it is clear that any thickness of paint required could be obtained by continuing the operation of spraying, but it has been found in practice that it is not desirable to continue the application of the paint beyond the point when every part of the surface is completely covered. it is a well-known fact that three thin coats of paint applied separately will prove more durable than two thick coats, even if the quantity of paint used in the two cases is identical. the same is true to a great extent when the paint is sprayed on. when it is applied by dipping another important element enters into consideration, and that is, thin coats are a practical necessity, because if an attempt was made to make the coat thick it would inevitably result in unsightly runs, fat edges, etc., which would wholly spoil the work. where the object is only that of a temporary protection, as in the case of iron castings, a single coat will usually suffice, because the castings when fixed in position will be painted with the building in the ordinary way. sometimes a priming or first coat of paint is given by dipping, and the following coats are applied by brushes or by spraying. there appears to be some idea that when paint is applied by brushes it is forced into the pores of the wood and therefore holds better; as a matter of fact, in a well-designed paint the thinners will penetrate the wood and no particular force is necessary; but if it should be, it will be certainly supplied by the spraying process. advantages of the dipping process. the advantages of applying paint, japan, enamel, or varnish by the process of immersion are obvious. the saving of time is the chief advantage, and this will be in most cases very considerable. for instance, a complete wagon can be painted by dipping in a very few minutes, while large and intricate agricultural machines may be painted in the same way in a fifth part of the time it would take to spray them, and probably a twentieth part of the time it would take to do the work by hand. there is another advantage which should be mentioned when paint dipping is compared with spraying. in the latter, an outfit consisting of sprayer, air compressor, exhaust, cabinet, etc., are all necessary. in dipping, however, the apparatus may in many cases be of the simplest character. for example, in painting bedsteads all that is necessary is a narrow but deep tank containing the paint, into which the bedstead may be plunged by hand and then hung up to drip over a metal-lined floor. [illustration: fig. .--a morris standard electric trolley hoist.] in birmingham, hundreds of iron bedsteads are dipped in this way every day. the head or foot of the bedstead is taken in the two hands of the operator, dipped into a tank of black japan, and immediately hung up on a travelling chair, which slowly carries it across the room to the oven, the superfluous paint dripping off during the process. in another chapter will be found the advantages which the process of spraying has over dipping. a decision as to which is the best system to adopt for any particular purpose can only be determined after due consideration has been given to all the circumstances bearing upon the work to be done. it may be pointed out in this connection that the process of painting called "flowing on," which is fully described on another page, is in effect only a modification of dipping. as a motor body, for instance, cannot be plunged into a paint tank because the inside is not to be painted, the paint is literally poured over the surface, and the effect is exactly the same. protecting parts not to be painted. it frequently happens in paint dipping that certain parts of a machine or other article that is desired to be coated with paint is to be left unpainted, and the problem is how to effect this most economically. the method usually employed is to cover the parts, such as name plates, bright portions of a machine, etc. with vaseline. when the article is dipped the paint covers this as well as the other parts, and after the paint is dry the vaseline and the paint on it can be easily wiped off and the surface beneath it will be found to be quite clean. preparing woodwork before painting. previous to the priming coat of paint being applied to any article made of pine or other wood containing knots it is necessary to protect such knots by applying one or two coats of a liquid known in the trade as "knotting." if this were not done the rosin which exudes more or less from the knots would penetrate the paint, discolour it and give a very unsightly appearance. the best knotting consists of shellac dissolved in alcohol, usually in the form of methylated spirits; in other words, it is shellac spirit varnish. many inferior grades, however, are sold in which the shellac is adulterated with rosin or other substances, while the alcohol is sometimes replaced wholly or in part with naphtha. these inferior qualities of knotting should never be used, as they are very likely indeed to cause trouble and spoil the whole job. although the parts of machines such as agricultural implements are usually made of selected and well-seasoned timber, it sometimes happens that portions of the work are found to be more or less sappy. this should also be coated with knotting, as otherwise they will absorb the paint to too great an extent and the priming coat will not be uniform. in passing, it may be observed that a coat of shellac varnish--a term, as already explained, which is synonymous with knotting--is very useful as an undercoat whenever there is an excess of rosin as in pitch pine. it is also used to stop suction on plaster ornaments which are finished in imitation bronze, and which may successfully be used over tar or tar spots which it is desired to paint. it is very important that knotting be applied in quite thin coats, and it is for this reason that usually two coats are given. if it is too thick it fails to dry properly. thick knotting may be used if it be well brushed out, but this is almost impossible in applying it to the knots of ordinary woodwork which are merely "dabbed" with the end of the brush; moreover, such work is usually done by piece work, hence two coats are much safer to use. filler for iron. it is sometimes necessary before dipping or spraying cast iron work to fill up sand flaws and inequalities. this may be effectually done by using a filler prepared as follows: mix together equal parts of genuine red lead and gilders' whiting and add two parts of boiled linseed oil and one part of goldsize. it will be found most effective to mix the two liquids last mentioned before adding them to the dry lead and whiting. thoroughly mix all together, or, preferably, grind through a mill until the putty-like consistency is obtained. this stopping will dry very hard. it is important to remember that this filler must be mixed in small quantities as required as it rapidly becomes hard, so that if a considerable quantity were made at one time any unused would become spoiled. [illustration: fig. .--electric hoist suitable for heavy goods.] another recipe of an entirely different character for a cement or putty for the same purpose is made by mixing one parts of flowers of sulphur, two parts of sal-ammoniac and parts of iron filings and making them into a paste with water. by increasing the proportion of sal-ammoniac the setting is also increased. stopping holes in woodwork. however carefully a piece of woodwork may be prepared, there are usually more or less depressions or holes such as those which occur over countersunk nails, and in other places which require to be filled up. the usual stopping for this purpose employed by house painters is a mixture of equal parts of dry whiting and dry white lead, made in the form of putty, with raw linseed oil to which, say, per cent. of boiled oil has been added. a cheaper and quite as effective a stopping, however, can be made by using a material known as "alabastine," which possesses the advantage of being easily cut down. this material may be also used when mixed to a thinner consistency for priming, but it is not suitable for being applied by dipping, although it may be sprayed. the very best stopping is one such as is used by carriage painters, and is strongly recommended for high-class work. it is supplied both in powder and paste form by all first-class varnish manufacturers, and although the cost is a little higher than that of stopping putty made of whiting and linseed oil, as described, it is well worth the difference. an excellent filling composition for coach and motor body builders, railway and tramway carriage manufacturers, etc., is that made by the well-known varnish house of messrs. wm. harland & son, merton, s.w. it is especially suitable, obtaining a perfectly level and unyielding groundwork where a fine finish is to be given, either in paint, varnish or enamel. it is made in two colours, grey for dark work and cream for light colours or white, and costs sixpence a pound, or less when bought in quantities. it effects a great saving of time and labour, being already finely ground into a stiff paste, which only needs the addition of specially prepared thinners to bring it to a proper consistency for use with the brush. it is most successful and expeditious as well as the most economical process for giving a smooth surface to rough castings--a condition which is, of course, indispensable when these have to be painted and varnished. for ordinary surfaces of woodwork of a slightly rough or uneven character, two or three coats of the filling composition will suffice to produce, when carefully rubbed down, a perfectly smooth surface of a hard metallic nature, combined with great tenacity and durability. "philorite" is another speciality which may be mentioned in this connection. it is manufactured by messrs. wilkinson, heywood and clark, ltd., and is a filler made in white and seven colours. this is a great advantage when the finish is to be coloured, as it may save a coat of paint. it can be rubbed smooth without difficulty, and will serve as a perfect ground for enamels and japans, as well as for paint. for use it is thinned out with american turpentine to the required consistency, say, that of a ready mixed paint. it is brushed on with a stiff bristle brush, and two coats may be safely applied on one day. the last coat can be rubbed down smooth with pumice and water or sandpaper. it may also be used as a knifing paste for defective surfaces. rubbing down. in many cases the coats of paint, japan or enamel have to be rubbed down between coats in order to produce a perfectly level surface. this is usually done by means of finely powdered pumice stone and water, and it is important to remember that the operation must be done with care so that the rubbing is quite uniform. if a slight gloss is given to the paint the portions which are rubbed down can readily be discerned, as they will have a gloss, and in this way uniformity can be ensured. it is of the utmost importance that all of the powder be washed away before the next coat is applied; if any is left it will mar the job. it may be noted that the work of rubbing down may be done more expeditiously by means of the finest grade of steel wool. on the continent this is now used exclusively, and it is rapidly gaining favour in great britain. [illustration: fig. .--sprayed show card.] [illustration: fig. .--dipping and stoving bedsteads.] chapter iii. requirements of different trades. the following are a few of the special requirements of different trades as to paint dipping. the details might be lengthened almost indefinitely. bedsteads. the methods adopted for the class of work will, of course, depend upon the quality of the finish required. cheap bedsteads may be done by dipping in one coat of black japan and stoving at ° f. in better class work several coats may be applied either by dipping or spraying, and each may be rubbed down after stoving. if a good enamel is used this is unnecessary. when the work is white several coats--say, at least three--are necessary, for white japans cannot be made which will cover sufficiently in one coat. white lead should not be used in this class of work for the reason that a good deal of handling of parts is necessary, while the rubbing down is sometimes done with glass paper and cause dust, both of which may give rise to lead poisoning. all of the best white japans or enamels are made on a base of zinc oxide or lithopone (zinc sulphide), or a mixture of them. collapsible gates. this work is usually done by dipping in paint which dries "flat," i.e., without gloss. the colour is, as a rule, black. in fitting and adjusting the work in order that the parts will collapse readily it is necessary to apply a lubricating oil where the rods meet. this lubricating oil is difficult to remove after the adjustment has been completed, and therefore the last coat of paint is usually put on by hand. it is suggested, however, that raw linseed oil might be used instead of lubricating oil, and that this could be wiped off as soon as possible after the adjustment. in such a case the paint could be applied by dipping, as if even a little of the raw linseed oil were not removed it would not interfere with the drying of the paint to any material extent. dipping sewing machine parts. the process employed by a very large firm of american manufacturers is as follows:-- when the castings come from the machine shop they are boiled for minutes in ammonia water to kill the grease ( of strong ammonia to of water), and are then rinsed in hot water. any holes or inequalities in the castings are then stopped with a filler made from dry white lead, mixed into a stiff paste with some varnish, brown japan dryers and dry lampblack made quite stiff. when the stopping is hard the castings are dipped into a black metallic coating thinned with % benzine to a specific gravity . they are then dipped with two coats of finishing japan (sp. gr. ) flatted with powdered pumice after each coat and leathered off. the parts which are not plated or flatted are given hours stoving at ° f., and are then rubbed with pumice and carpet pad until flat. cut out gold transfers are then fixed with transfer varnish and the work is stoved at ° f. the parts are then sponged and dusted, and are given a good coat of polishing varnish (sp. gr. ) finally the work is rubbed down fine with glass paper and pumice powder and then polished with machine oil and rottenstone powder for the iron, or rottenstone and benzine for the tables. the latter, as well as the covers for these, are not usually dipped but brush finished. iron rods. [illustration: fig. .--immersing mangle frames.] in most cases, iron and steel rods are best painted by immersion, as the small surface presented would cause too much waste if spraying were attempted. as in most cases of dipping, success depends largely upon the means adopted for handling and dipping a number of rods at one time. frequently, stoving is required to harden the japan, because a rod is often subjected to considerable wear. perhaps the best plan to adopt, where the number of rods to be treated warrants the outlay, is to provide mechanism by which the rods are dipped and are at once automatically carried into a stove, and by means of slowly travelling chains, carried out at the other end. an excellent contrivance for the purpose is in use at the ford motor works, at manchester. this consists of a vertical oven, heated by gas, and having slowly-moving endless chains running from bottom to top and down again to a point where the rods are discharged on to inclined runners. these rods are passed through a bath of japan, are then taken up by the chain, and, during their progress, are baked. a gear is provided by which the time between the entry of a rod to its discharge may be varied from twenty to ninety minutes, or any period between, according to the purpose for which the rod is to be used and the degree of hardness of the japan required. iron window frames or casements. a long narrow tank, say, from foot inches to feet wide and feet long, is suitable for this class of work, which is usually done in one coat only, and this is quite sufficient to protect the iron until the casement is fixed in position, when it will, of course, receive additional coats by means of a brush in the ordinary way. it is important that the iron be dipped just as soon as it leaves the finishing shop, and it is necessary that the surface be thoroughly cleaned before the paint is applied, and particularly after all scale is removed. sometimes the application of the sand blast is necessary for this work, but, as a rule, a vigorous application of suitable wire brushes will suffice. another very important provision is a system of overhanging rails on which the sashes or other articles can be run direct from the finishing shop to the paint tank, and thence to any part of the building, from which they may be taken as required for shipment. the paint used for casements is usually grey, being as a rule made of zinc oxide and lampblack. these pigments, when mixed with a suitable vehicle, are very durable, while, the colour being neutral, it is suitable as an undercoat for green, as well as nearly any other colour which it may be desired to use as a finish. the weight of the paint should be lbs. to the gallon, and it should dry with a semi-gloss. the elevating apparatus need only be of a simple character, and several casements can be suspended and dipped at one time. for this purpose a "hanger" is used, having perforations through which one end of the hooks pass. one form is shown in fig. . by the side of the tank should be a large metal lined floor, say, feet by feet, or even larger, inclined toward the tank. the frames having been plunged into the paint, are at once withdrawn and hung in rows to dry over this floor. the superfluous paint drips on to it and runs back through a screen or sieve into the tank. the latter should be provided with a cover, to be closed in when the work is not being proceeded with. [illustration: fig. .--iron hanger for suspending several articles to be dipped together.] in this class of work it is unnecessary to employ a stirring apparatus provided that the paint is of the right consistency, and an occasional stirring up with a pole after the work has been suspended, say, for example, from saturday to monday, will usually be all that is required. as a matter of fact, the lowering and raising of the casements into the paint effectually stirs it up. metal furniture. [illustration: fig. .--the automatic finishing of pianos. carrier filled with six complete pianos.] under this head it is intended to include such articles as deed boxes, lockers, files and other metal goods which are required to be painted both inside and out. an enamel stoving or baking paint is usually employed for the purpose, while the tank must be of sufficient size to accommodate the various articles that are to go into it. taking a deed box by way of example, a large iron hook, such as is shown in fig. is placed inside the box so that it is suspended at an angle; the box or boxes are then lowered into the tank and immediately withdrawn after all the superfluous paint runs away, care being taken that the box hangs at a proper angle to permit of this being done. great care must be taken in this room to exclude all dust, which would considerably mar the work. for this purpose wire netting of the finest mesh should be placed over the windows so as to screen off any dust which might otherwise enter. a system of overhead rails are made, consisting of an l-iron on the top side of which run two rollers to which are attached hanging gears, and is sufficient for the purpose. at least ten minutes should be allowed for these articles to drip over the inclined floor adjacent to the tank, and for safety's sake it is as well to employ a workman with a brush in his hand to go over each piece and remove any tears or runs which may possibly occur. metal work of the description named is then placed in a stove and baked for three hours at a temperature of ° f. the paint is frequently green, which is found to be a good serviceable colour and which is attractive in appearance. after the baking the paint is quite hard, and will withstand more or less rough usage. if any ornamental work is required, this is done afterwards, as explained under the head of "stencilling." the paint employed weighs lbs. to the gallon, and a fine mesh paint strainer must be provided, through which the superfluous paint passes as it drips from the articles on their way to the tank. in this case, as in others, no special stirring apparatus is required, as the comparatively heavy vehicle and the relatively light specific gravity of the pigment employed gives little or no opportunity for any "settling out." motor parts (metal). the various parts which go to make up a complete motor car are differently treated according to their shape and size. in most cases, stoving is resorted to, because the enamel or japan is thereby much increased in durability by the hardening which takes place in consequence of the high temperature. the steel rims of wheels are dipped by hand into a black japan made especially for the purpose. they are hung on hooks and allowed to drain for some minutes, and are then transferred to the stove, where they are subjected to a heat of ° f. such parts as ribs, front and rear wings, running boards, shields, etc., are dealt with in the same way. previous to dipping, these parts undergo the process known as "pickling," by which scale, grease, etc., is removed so that a perfectly clean surface is presented to receive the japan. troughs to catch the drips must be provided, and it is essential that these be kept quite clean, so that the superfluous japan may run through gauze and be pumped back again into the tank to be used again. automatic finishing of pianos. the standard hydraulic immersion system. any doubt as to the perfection of finish which may be produced by a carefully thought out system of immersion or dipping must be removed by the fact that such a system has been in successful use for some years for the finish of pianos. it need hardly be pointed out that such a finish must necessarily be so well done as to approach perfection. one firm has made a special study of this subject, viz., the standard varnish co., of london and new york, and their efforts have been most successful. by this method an absolutely even distribution of varnish is always secured; no part of the piano case is neglected and an enormous reduction in the cost of varnishing is effected. the factory output can be readily increased as desired, as the varnish working force of the factory can do as much or as little work as trade conditions may demand. the mechanical details have been so perfected that every kind of instrument can be handled satisfactorily. the excellence of the finishing done in accordance with this system is attributable to a large extent to its mechanical construction. the apparatus used in connection with the standard method of piano finishing consists, in the first place, of a steel tank for the varnish with an adjustable cover which can be locked when the apparatus is not in operation, a hydraulic lift for raising the work slowly out of the varnish, a small horse-power pump which is operated either by steam pressure or compressed air, and in extreme emergencies where the pressure is not adequate for heavy work, a small motor for operating the pump. there is also installed an apparatus similar to the automatic sprinkler system. a fusible link or another mechanical device makes it possible to draw off the varnish into a tank outside the main buildings at will, and for protection in case a fire should take place in any other part of the building. the principal investment for the piano manufacturer is the carriers or racks for holding the separate pieces. the cases are held firmly in the carriers by means of springs which are adjusted for the introductory carrier, or secured by screws in the permanent carrier which is designed for keeping the cases in the carrier until they are ready for rubbing. this latter method saves the labour of handling. [illustration: fig. .--automatic finishing of pianos. introductory carrier ready for parts to be varnished.] carriers filled with work to be varnished are raised from the floor, swung directly over the tank, and lowered into the varnish by means of an hydraulic lift. the speed with which the work is raised from the varnish is controlled by a lever conveniently located for the operator. once the speed has been determined and the lever set the apparatus requires merely the supervision of an operator, who may devote considerable time to helping his assistants reload another carrier while the one in the tank is emerging. generally only a limited number of carriers are required. when the work is to be removed between coats a large percentage can be handled without tack in a short time after it is taken from the varnish. in the introductory carrier, parts like piano tops, which are finished on all sides, require a little additional care because of the difficulty of handling. this contingency is provided for by the use of special head pieces. in emergencies, for rushing out an extra quantity of work, carriers holding falls, frames and small parts may be immersed in one-half the interval usually required. for example, these carriers can be withdrawn in from fifteen to twenty minutes, whereas for carriers including sides from twenty-five to thirty minutes are required. the carriers are equipped with head pieces adjustable to meet all peculiar local factory requirements. in fact, these carriers can be constructed by the manufacturer to meet all his demands. the number of carriers necessary depends entirely upon the volume of work to be handled. but it is desirable, when possible, to have a sufficient number of carriers to hold all the work until the varnish is sufficiently dry for rubbing. in this way a tremendous amount of labour and time is saved. permanent carriers, in which the work has been secured by ordinary screws, have been constructed by some manufacturers at an unusually low cost by their own machinists in their own factories. the work in the carriers can be easily dusted by means of air-bellows or a compressed air-blower. work finished in this manner is so clean that the usual sanding is not necessary and a considerable amount of labour thereby saved. that the standard hydraulic immersion system of automatic finishing of pianos has distinct advantages over the ordinary hand process is obvious even to the casual observer. among the numerous advantages which have been effected the following seem to be worthy of special consideration: it constitutes practically the factory's entire varnishing force. its use insures an even coat, free from imperfections. coating both sides of the work preserves the cases considerably from shrinking and warping. a great deal of labour is saved by varnishing both sides at once. it requires very little more varnish than the old, slow, hand method as there is no waste from brushes and pots and absolutely no dripping outside the tank. the elasticity of the standard system of piano varnishing eliminates the necessity of additions and reductions to the working force. the cleanness and evenness of the finish virtually makes every coat a flowing coat. the amount of time and effort saved in the rubbing and polishing is tremendous, and the finish obtained is much finer, due to the absence of uneven coating and the blemishes of pinholing and dust. carriers containing six complete pianos each, at an average interval of one half-hour, will enable the factory to turn out pianos with one coating during a nine-hour working day. carriers containing eight complete pianos would handle pianos a day. a lift sufficiently strong to accomplish any demand placed upon it can be installed to immerse as many carriers at once as will be necessary. a smaller carrier containing four pianos can be installed for the manufacturer with a small output of pianos, which by the very nature of its construction is handled more readily than the larger carrier. in coating both sides of the work a decided protection against shrinking and warping has been provided. in fact many manufacturers are taking this precaution by brushing both sides of the work. by the standard method the work is automatically coated on both sides at the same time. very little more varnish (not more than %) is required by the standard system than by the hand method. the inventors' own experiments, as well as the daily use of the system by manufacturers, shows that more varnish is wasted about the varnishing room than is required by the immersion system to coat the unfinished side of the work. with this method, all of the small amount of varnish that drips off falls back into the tank. [illustration: fig. .--lowering piano cases into the varnish tank.] [illustration: fig. .--piano cases nearly immersed.] [illustration: fig. .--piano cases wholly immersed.] one of the most difficult tasks of the finishing room foreman is to be certain that the proper reduction is made for the first and other undercoats. this is entirely eliminated with the use of the standard system of piano finishing. this process alone makes it possible to apply a minimum quantity of varnish sufficient to withstand the strain of rubbing and polishing. this lessens the possibility of shrinking and cracking which excessive varnish coats applied by brush involves. the slower the speed of the lift, the less varnish is applied to the work, consequently there is a gradual regulation of the amount of varnish for the separate coats. [illustration: fig. .--piano cases about to be dipped.] the foregoing description, together with the accompanying illustrations, will enable the reader to understand the general method adopted. it should be added that it is applicable to many other articles besides piano cases. the system described was invented and is controlled by the standard varnish company of london and new york. wheels. an extremely ingenious but effective machine for coating hickory wheels with paint or japan is in use at the works of the ford motor company, trafford park, manchester. it consists of a stationary cylindrical vessel of exactly the right size to receive a wheel, which, being placed in position, is at once lowered into a tank containing the japan. here it is made to revolve very rapidly, by which means the japan is thoroughly distributed over every part. hickory, being a hard and comparatively non-absorbent wood, the japan might give too thick a coating if dipped and left to dry in the ordinary way. to prevent this, the wheel, while still revolving very rapidly, is mechanically lifted out of the japan, and is held just above it, where it continues to spin. this has the effect of throwing off the superfluous japan by centrifugal force. the cylindrical sides of the apparatus catch the japan, and it runs down into the tank below. the wheels are then taken out by a man, who wears gloves, are stacked on edge in rows to dry, and, after an hour or so, they receive a second coat. after twenty-four hours, or less, they are ready for use. the advantage of rapidly revolving the wheels is that anything in the nature of a drip is entirely eliminated. this machine can deal with wheels an hour, so rapid is the process. at the present time the ford works are using , wheels a week. some typical plants. in gathering information of up-to-date character to include in this book the author has visited various parts of the country, and through the courtesy of the firms mentioned below has examined the plants used successfully for the treatment of many different goods. the following is a brief description of some of the plants inspected, although it by no means exhausts the list:-- carriage department, woolwich arsenal. [illustration: fig. .--dipping a coach body at woolwich arsenal.] [illustration: fig. .--general view of paint dipping room at woolwich arsenal.] the plant for painting wagons, etc., has been in use for about years and has been eminently successful, it being found by experience that a paint applied by dipping proves equally durable to that formerly applied by means of brushes. indeed, the durability is increased for the reason, which has been pointed out elsewhere, that the paint finds it way into open joints and crevices which could not be reached by a brush. in some cases a wagon is dipped bodily, while in others it is dismantled and the different parts are dipped separately; again, the smaller portions are placed in an open wire basket which is plunged into the paint. the building in which this painting is done is of considerable extent and a large paint tank is located at each end. a wagon on being completed, or in the case of an old wagon, after having been prepared, is brought to the first tank and is raised from the ground and lowered into the paint, where it remains for about half a minute. it is then immediately raised, allowed to drain over a tank for a few minutes, and then over an inclined floor for a further period. at the end of about half an hour a workman inspects the wagon or other article and removes any tears or runs which may have occurred. the paint being specially prepared this is not usually an arduous undertaking. the illustrations show very clearly a coach body in process of dipping. overhead rails run throughout the length of the building and upon these are suspended the painted wagons, which are gradually moved along with a very little exertion, such rails being slightly inclined to facilitate this. by the time the series of wagons reach the further end of the building they are ready to receive a second coat of paint, by being dipped in the second tank. this being done they are then moved back, being at once suspended on the rails until quite dry, when they are hoisted to the upper part of the building, where they are left suspended until they are required for use. the paint is, of course, a special one which is supplied in paste form having the necessary binding ingredients. the colour used is khaki, which is very durable, being composed of earth colours. the thinning is done on the premises and white spirit is employed for the purpose, not turpentine, which would be far too expensive. formerly benzine was employed, but this necessitated the use of a fan to take away the fumes which came from the spirit. such a fan is not now found to be necessary. the tanks are fitted with iron covers bearing upon thick felt and are operated by means of levers placed at a distance, so that should a fire occur they can be closed at a moment's notice. the hoist is worked from the ground by electricity. formerly the operator of the hoist was located in a cab near the roof, but it was felt that this would be a dangerous position in case of fire, and he now, as stated, does the work from the ground. the work done at woolwich gives an excellent example of the actual saving which may be effected by using the paint dipping process. before the painting plant was put in no fewer than painters were constantly employed; now about are fully able to turn out the same or even a larger number of wagons in a given time. james gibbons. most of the metal sheets as well as finished metal work of various kinds made at these extensive works at wolverhampton are finished by dipping into special enamels or japans made by messrs. mander bros. the dipping is done by hand and the pieces are placed at the side of the tank to drain. in some cases it is found necessary to go over the work slightly with a brush to remove tears, but such work takes only a few minutes and is used mostly as a precautionary measure. one coat is usually found sufficient, and at the proper time the iron sheet or metal article is stoved at ° f. to ° f. for two hours. many other articles are also dipped successfully. harrison, mcgregor & co. in the extensive factories of this firm at leigh, lancashire, dipping by immersion has been successfully carried on for some years past. various agricultural implements are dipped bodily in a tank of paint which is fitted with a worm agitator, and is of simple construction. the iron parts are dipped separately, being supported on suitable hangers, while the very small parts are placed in wire baskets for immersion. phillips and son. the paint dipping plant at these works, which are situated at sherbourne street, birmingham, has been in successful operation for some years past and is applied principally to bedsteads. the tank holding black japan measures about feet by inches and is some feet deep. the bedstead head and foot are separately dipped by hand into the tank which contains black japan, and are immediately hung on a hook attached to a slowly travelling chain. this chain runs around a rectangular space, and beneath is a metal lined dripping floor. the stove is located diagonally from the tank, so that by the time the bedstead parts reach it the dripping has ceased and they are ready to be baked. the stoving is done at ° f., and is continued all night. one coat is found to be ample. a very ingenious arrangement is in use for the application of coloured enamels. three shallow tanks are mounted on rollers running in angle irons one above the other in such a manner that any one tank may be pulled out when required for use free from the others. as a rule three coats are given for white work and two for green, blue and most other colours. no white lead is used, but only non-poisonous colours. the stoving is done mostly overnight at a temperature of ° f. a little rubbing down between coats is done with very fine glass or emery paper. the japans are made by messrs. thornley & knight. in these works safes are painted, but the work is all done by hand. the ford motor company. the extensive works of this company, at trafford park, manchester, contain as complete a plant for painting, japanning, enamelling and varnishing, as it has been the pleasure of the author to inspect. with characteristic thoroughness every detail which will ensure a first class finish with a minimum of time and labour has been thought out and applied. the result is that not only is every part dealt with most expeditiously but one coat of paint is applied to the whole outer surface of a motor body in the almost incredibly short time of two minutes. further details will be found in this book under the heads of "flowing-on," "motor parts," and "iron rods." marshall, sons & co., ltd. this well-known firm of agricultural implement manufacturers have a large dipping plant at their gainsborough works, which they employ for painting various agricultural machines made principally of red wood. some idea of the extent to which this process is applied may be obtained when it is said that on an average nearly , pieces pass through the dipping plant every month. the process is particularly well adapted for threshing machines and for appliances of the kind which consist of thousands of holes bored in the wood. if the painting were done by hand it would take many hours to paint such a machine, while by dipping it is done even more effectually in a few minutes. the priming coat only is dipped after knots, etc., have been treated with shellac. the tank measures ft. long by ft. deep and ft. in. in width. an agitating apparatus is used and the lifting is done by pneumatic appliances. hayward brothers and eckstein, limited. the paint dipping plant in use at the works of this firm, at union street, borough, s.e., is of a comparatively simple type, and consists of a shallow tank in which various cast iron and steel goods are dipped in horizontal position. as a rule, one coat of paint is given, but in certain cases two are required. the bottom of the tank is slanted, and the contents are stirred up from time to time, but no agitating apparatus is used. the principal goods painted by dipping are the frames of hayward's lights, which are of cast iron and are dipped on one side only, the other side, after the glass is fitted, being done by hand. metal casements are also dipped in considerable numbers, as well as treads and rises of circular staircases, straight staircases, balconies, etc. these, being made of ornamental open ironwork, contain a large number of small shaped holes, and the dipping process is found to be by far the most effective. another speciality of this firm are hayward's patent steel collapsible gates. the first coat of paint is applied by dipping; this paint, being black, dries flat, i.e., without gloss. the crittall manufacturing co., ltd. these works are at braintree, essex, where a large amount of structural steelwork is produced, the chief manufactures being metal windows of all kinds, from the well-known steel casement and sash to metal windows for use in industrial dwellings and specially designed windows for various climates, steel fireproof doors, skylights, steel office and works partitions, shop fronts; frictionless ball race runners for sliding doors, etc. [illustration: fig. .--wagon store room, woolwich arsenal.] [illustration: fig. .--dipping casements at the crittall manufacturing co.'s factory, braintree.] perhaps the most noticeable feature of these works as far as our subject is concerned, is the very complete system of overhead rails, by means of which the various metal goods produced in the different finishing shops are conveyed to one or other of the paint tanks and then, having been left to dry, are taken to store rooms ready for instant shipment. these rails facilitate handling of the various goods, and reduce the actual expenditure under this particular item to a minimum. the rails are l-shaped, the hanger used for each article or series of articles being of a simple character, consisting of two wheels bearing on the top of the upright flange, while rods secured by bolts pass through the horizontal flange and hold it in position. we will first describe the tank used for dipping metal windows. this is ft. long by ft. deep and only ft. in. wide. attached to the tank is a large dripping floor measuring some ft. by ft. covered with sheet iron and inclined toward the tank, so that the paint which drips on to it finds its way back into the tank through a grating provided for the purpose to take off any dried particles. the paint used in this work is made by messrs. docker brothers, and weighs lbs. to the gallon; one coat is found sufficient for the purpose. the sashes or casements being brought in from the finishing room on the overhead rail, they are lowered into the tank by means of a special lowering apparatus designed on the premises. some idea of this may be had from fig. . in order to keep the load steady during the time it is being dipped, a slight depression or dip in the rail is made immediately over the tank. the sashes are only left in the paint for a few seconds, and are then raised, allowed to drip over the tank for perhaps a minute or two, and then allowed to drip over the adjacent floor for perhaps a quarter of an hour or less. they are then taken farther along and the paint dries in about three hours. sometimes two, four, six, or even eight casements may be dipped at the same time. attached to the elevating and lowering apparatus are hooks which pass through one corner of the casements. this causes the parts to hang at an angle which facilitates running off of the paint. we come now to the department in which the baking or stoving enamel is used as applied to metal furniture in general, as mentioned. in this case the articles are dipped in a manner very similar to that already described, excepting that a large hook, similar in shape to that shown in fig. , is used to support the article to be dipped; the wide opening goes inside the box or file and holds it at an angle so that when it is lowered into the paint all parts are covered inside and out. a few minutes are allowed for dripping, and after two or three hours the articles are ready to be stoved. in this case, messrs. docker brothers' standard colour, a very pleasing dark green, is used. the stoving takes three hours at a temperature of ° f., or higher in some cases. the tank mentioned is, of course, considerably wider than that used for casements. the dripping floor is in this case inclined toward the centre, which in turn is inclined toward the grating just outside the tank itself. if necessary, special thinners are added to bring up the gloss, but, as a rule, this is unnecessary. it is desirable after the article is dipped to go over it once with a small brush to remove any drips or runs which may possibly appear. [illustration: fig. .--hook used for suspending metal boxes while dipping.] another very important point to be attended to is to exclude all dust, and for this purpose the crittall manufacturing co. have erected in this department screens of wire of the finest mesh over windows, so that no air can pass into the room without the dust being screened off. excluding dust. a matter of very great importance, yet one which is frequently overlooked in painting iron and other goods which are to have a glossy finish, either air dried or stoved, is to exclude dust from the apartment in which the work is done. in many engineering shops the nature of the business gives rise to a considerable amount of dust, and if this is allowed to enter the paint shop it will be fatal to the appearance of the painted work, as many specks will inevitably settle on the work and mar its appearance. [illustration: fig. --dipping casements at braintree. note the narrow tank used for this class of work.] a paint shop is best provided with a concrete floor, and this should be frequently cleaned. the workmen should wear clean overalls, frequently renewed, and even so small a matter as keeping the hair, beard, etc., clean and free from dandruff should be attended to. the doors are best if double, and thick felt may be used with advantage in the joints so as to practically seal the opening when the doors are closed. air which is admitted, either through ventilators or windows, should be strained before entering the building, and for this purpose silk gauze of the finest mesh is usually employed. in some cases, cotton wool in addition is placed in such a position that the air must pass through it before entering the room. if these precautions are taken it will be found that the quality of the work is greatly enhanced. it may be observed in this connection that it is important also to provide means of adequate ventilation of the apartment. moisture charged air has a bad effect upon paint work. extreme heat is unnecessary, but it is very important that the temperature be maintained at a uniform rate, say ° f. if the room in which the painting is done is very hot, the paint will be affected and be likely to become too thin for its purpose; while, on the other hand, if the room or articles to be painted are very cold, the paint or enamel will have a tendency to congeal. both of these defects can be remedied, as already stated, by a good system of ventilation and maintaining the heat, night and day, at a uniform temperature. a model drying room. the immense importance of providing a uniform temperature and ensuring an adequate system of ventilation in the room in which goods are placed for air drying can hardly be exaggerated. unless such a system is in use the actual drying may be greatly retarded and the work stand a chance of being spoiled. in connection with some of the plant inspected by the author it must be admitted that the provision made in this respect falls far short of what is needed. in one case the work of rubbing down was proceeding in the same shop, although in a different part, in which various goods which had been dipped were hanging up to dry. it need hardly be said that under such conditions it was impossible to keep the work free from specks. in other cases the drying rooms were inadequate because of the inefficiency of doors and windows. these, it may be remarked, should always be double so as to maintain the heat uniformly. every varnish user knows that a draught of cold air which is allowed to reach a coat of varnish while drying is fatal alike to its appearance and durability. the result is almost certain to be a case of "blooming," which to the uninitiated may be described as a film not unlike the bloom of a freshly coloured plum which comes on the surface of varnish exposed under such conditions. those unacquainted with varnish vagaries are apt to regard this trouble as being the result of inferior materials used in its manufacture. as a matter of fact it indicates nothing of the kind because, speaking generally, the higher grades of varnishes are the most susceptible. without doubt the best and by far the most economical plan to adopt is to have a drying room specially built for the purpose of receiving the articles to be dried. if constructed on scientific principles this will not only give a uniform temperature entirely free from draughts and dust but will considerably expedite the work, thereby allowing of a quicker delivery of goods and effecting a great saving of valuable floor space. the author inspected such a drying room at the works of messrs. pinchin, johnson, and co., ltd., at silvertown, and a description of it will doubtless prove of interest. it is built of -ply wood and is about feet square, sufficiently large to hold two full-sized motor bodies or several dozen perambulators, hand wagons, etc. the actual size may, of course, be varied according to the size of and number of articles to be dried. air is admitted through two ducts situated close to the floor through fine wire gauze, which is provided with a lifting cover by which the amount of air admitted may be regulated. immediately over the two air ducts mentioned is a coil of steam pipes which heats the air to, say, ° f. this, of course, causes it to rise toward the ceiling, but the angle between the ceiling and wall is rounded off by a cove, so that the current of heated air is directed along the ceiling toward the centre of the room where there is another cove and beneath it a coil of cold air pipes which lowers the temperature somewhat. thus is created a constant motion of the air which may be regarded as the essence of the system. but there is another very important provision in the shape of an automatic control. this cuts off the steam when any desired heat is attained so that when the drying room is filled up at night before the works close it can safely be left until the morning when the drop in temperature will not be more than degrees. the steam may be admitted at, say, lbs. pressure, but as soon as the room is heated from to ½ lbs. will be found to be sufficient. the actual time for heating the room to ° f. is from to minutes. the speed with which work is turned out by this well-considered adjunct may be gauged from the fact that a panel may receive one coat of enamel and two coats of flatting varnish in one day, or four coats of japan in the same period. in addition to the advantages mentioned is the most important one that the drying room renders the manufacturer who is fortunate enough to possess one quite independent of the weather. in the words of the inventors and patentees, "one enabled by its use to create one's own climate." [illustration: fig. .--design for show card done by spraying.] chapter iv. paints for dipping. it need hardly be said that the paint employed for this purpose must be of a special character. there are several firms of manufacturers who make a speciality of this class of paints and supply them either ready for use or in paste form, requiring only the addition of white spirit or other suitable thinner to bring them to the right consistency. the following may be considered as the necessary qualities of a paint suitable for this purpose:-- . it must dry hard in not less than six hours. . the pigment must be of such a specific gravity that when mixed with a suitable vehicle or thinner to form a paint the pigment will not quickly deposit at the bottom of the tank or settle out. . the consistency of the paint must be so arranged that only a minimum quantity will run off, while it must not be so thick as to give rise to tears or runs. white lead which has a specific gravity of about . is for the reason mentioned usually considered too heavy, and in the case of a white or grey paint, zinc oxide which has a specific gravity of . is used in preference. the following colours may also be successfully employed, because of their low specific gravity, viz., oxford ochre (s. g. . ), venetian red (s. g. . ), indian red ( . ), golden ochre ( . ), italian raw sienna ( . ), burnt sienna ( . ), turkey umber ( . ), prussian blue ( . ), bone black ( . ). it will be observed that the earth colours, such as ochre, sienna, umber, etc., are all light pigments, and as they are also recognised as being the most durable, they are eminently well suited for use in many positions, although the colour is not always very agreeable. precipitated barytes (s. g. . ) can be used up to, say, a proportion of per cent.--not more; red lead (s. g. . ) cannot be used for this purpose, as it is far too heavy, and the same applies to english vermilion (s. g. . ). if, however, a bright colour is required, it may be obtained by dipping in venetian red or indian red and giving a second coat of crimson lake (s. g. . ), but a coat of varnish should be sprayed upon this for protective purposes. in considering this subject, it is well to remember that much will depend upon the thickness of the vehicle used, as, clearly, a fairly heavy pigment will settle out in a thin vehicle much quicker than it would in a comparatively thick one. the successful paint, therefore, is one in which both considerations are taken into account. very rarely indeed does it pay manufacturers to attempt to grind or prepare paints themselves, and much greater satisfaction will be obtained by getting supplies from a reputable firm who have made a special study of the subject. sometimes a white paint is required for dipping, and in that case lbs. of sublimed white lead, lbs. of zinc oxide and lbs. of gilders' whiting, with lbs. of asbestine pulp, mixed with lbs. of raw linseed oil, will be found to give good results. a paint which dries with a gloss is often desired for the finish of many articles, and can be readily obtained by first priming, then giving a finishing coat of paint on it which has been mixed with sufficient varnish to produce the desired gloss. in some cases three coats may be given, namely, the first or priming coat, the second, which should be flat, or semi-flat, and the third a coat of varnish paint, which will dry with a gloss. it should be pointed out, however, that the finish obtained by these means is not a little inferior to that which may be produced by using over the priming one or more coats of flat paint of the desired colour and finishing with a coat of suitable varnish, which may be applied either by dipping or spraying, according to circumstances. a point here worthy of mention is one which every house painter is or should be well acquainted with, and that is that the coats of paint that are superimposed should be alternatively flat, _i.e._, without gloss, and glossy, in order that each may adhere closely to the other. if the article to be painted is wood or any other material which is of an absorbent character, a comparatively large amount of turpentine and oil must be mixed with it in order to allow for suction. this will dry with a semi-flat finish, and a glossy coat or one having more oil in its composition, may be applied over it. if a further coat is required it should be flat or nearly so, and in that case a finishing coat of varnish will probably be required. the paints for these purposes may be purchased ready made or ready for thinning down, from firms who have made a special study of the requirements. the question sometimes arises as to whether paint dipping or spraying can be used advantageously when in the finish two or more colours are to be used. as a rule the difficulties can be overcome by dipping first or even the second coat, spraying on the third or finishing coat, using specially prepared masks or shields over those parts which are not to be painted with the particular colour in use. the following useful information is taken from "white paints and painting materials," by w. g. scott, who was for sixteen years connected as paint expert with the milwaukee harvester company and the j. i. case threshing machinery co. mr. scott therefore speaks from a wide experience. he says:-- a certain amount of oil must be present in dipping paints to act as a binder, and it is advisable to add a small quantity of varnish to hold the paint together. the desired features in a good dipping paint are: freedom of flow and proper drip; sufficient binder to prevent chalkiness and produce a firm coat; covering capacity and an even distribution of the paint. non-absorbent surfaces like metal and hard wood require less oil than the absorbent soft woods. in the former case there is little or no penetration of the liquid portion of the paint, but with pine, bass wood, white wood, poplar, etc., nearly all of the liquid is absorbed or taken up by the wood, consequently with benzine only as a thinner there will not be sufficient binder present to hold the pigment when the thinner evaporates. whereas lbs. of paste pigment or colour ground in oil and thinned with a gallon of benzine would produce a suitable primer on iron or other non-absorbent material, it would not answer for soft wood. dipping paints, as a rule, contain from to lbs. of paste per gallon of thinner, the primer containing less paste than the second coat paints. the composition of the paste colour has much to do with the dipping paint; for instance, lbs. of paste white lead to the gallon of thinner will cover and work better than a mixture consisting of half white lead and the other half made up of transparent pigments like china clay, barytes, etc., nevertheless a small amount of inert material is generally understood to be an improvement in the way of durability. asbestine, whiting, silica and china clay are the inert materials most often used in paste goods for dipping purposes. asbestine probably helps to hold the pigments in suspension better than any of the others and answers nicely for dipping paints, but, as previously mentioned, does not allow the paint to level out when used with a brush. china clay, on account of its low specific gravity, is much favoured as a suspension agent, but materially lessens the opacity of the paint. a small amount of whiting is a good addition to a dipping paint, as it carries down much of the dirt and heavy particles usually produced during the process of dipping. silica gives the paint "tooth," and by some authorities is considered an actual necessity in primers which are intended to be sand-papered. white lead and zinc oxide are the two ideal white pigments considered from a dipping standpoint, and it will be found that the majority of dipping paste paints on the market contain a notable quantity of zinc oxide, either straight or in the form of zinc lead. zinc oxide is generally the predominating pigment in the white and tinted paste paints, and is usually associated with white lead (basic carbonate), zinc lead, and sublimed white lead, mixed with more or less inert material according to the ideas of the manufacturer or in order to cheapen the product. the admixture of inert material with the coloured pigments requires some knowledge of the composition of the coloured pigment; for instance, lampblack might be safely mixed with asbestine, whiting, silica, barytes, etc., without detriment, but yellow ochre containing, naturally, considerable clay and silica would hardly permit of any great addition of china clay or silica. the strong iron oxides, chrome greens and similar tinting colours will stand a large quantity of inert material when the paint is to be used as a body colour, but for varnish colours it is customary to use the chemically pure colours and less paste per gallon of thinner. paste paint for varnish colours is frequently ground in oil, in japan, or in a mixture of the two, but far better results are obtained by grinding the dry pigment in varnish thinned to a grinding consistency with a little turpentine. a varnish with a viscosity of (water = ) which gives a stiff mix with, say, lbs. of pigment will, when thinned to a viscosity of that of raw oil, _i.e._, a viscosity of , take about lbs. of pigment. no set rule can be given for the kind and amount of thinners to be used in dipping paints for various purposes, but the following proportions[ ] will furnish a key to the general mixtures used:-- [footnote : the figures given relate to an american gallon, which contains cubic inches, while an english imperial gallon contains ¼ cubic inches. for practical purposes the latter may be considered one-fifth greater than the former.] primers for metal. to lbs. of paste thinned with / to / gallon of benzine or turpentine and / to / gallon of mixing varnish. primers for hard wood. to lbs. of paste thinned with / gallon benzine or turpentine, / gallon raw oil, / gallon mixing varnish. primers for soft wood. to lbs. paste thinned with ½ to ¾ gallon benzine or turpentine, / to / gallon raw oil, / to / gallon varnish. in some cases, with very soft, porous woods, it may be necessary to add more raw oil and some japan or liquid drier, but too much drier must not be added, as it will shorten the "flow." second coat dipping paints. to lbs. of paste thinned entirely with benzine or turpentine, or with / gallon of solvent and variable proportions of oil and varnish according to the surface desired. varnish is advocated in all of these mixtures, as it helps to hold the solids and liquids together and prevent separation; it also induces toughness. it is essential that a varnish be used which will mix perfectly with oil and benzine at a temperature of ° f. varnish colours are best thinned with turpentine, but owing to the high price of turpentine the large factories insist on using benzine or some of the turpentine substitutes now on the market. the fact that some of the turpentine substitutes work better and give a better "flow" with the paint and varnish, is due to the fact that most of them contain a heavy distillate of petroleum similar to kerosene. kerosene oil has the double property of thinning and imparting "flow" to either paint or varnish, but retards the drying, hence too much must not be used. damar varnish, which will not stand thinning with benzine without separation of the gum or becoming cloudy, will permit of dilution with kerosene to quite an extent. so far as durability is concerned, kerosene imparts more durability and is more waterproof than any of the other thinners. combined with rosin and manganese oxide, it may be made to dry like raw linseed oil, but, of course, does not possess the same properties. in dipping paints, as in all other kinds of paints, good judgment must be used in the mixing, and it is absolutely essential that paints for soft wood, or other absorbent material, contain enough oil, or binder, to hold the pigment. white paste primer. extra fine. lbs. white lead (carbonate). " zinc oxide. " floated silica. grind in gal. raw linseed oil. product = lbs. this paste is thinned with turpentine or benzine for dipping purposes in the following manner:-- white dip for metal. lbs. of white paste. gal. turpentine or benzine. ½ " pale mixing varnish. ¼ " white liquid drier. white dip for hard wood. lbs. white paste. gal. turpentine or benzine. " raw linseed oil. ¼ " pale mixing varnish. ½ " white liquid drier. white dip for soft wood. lbs. white paste. gal. turpentine or benzine. " raw linseed oil. ¾ " white liquid drier. the pale mixing varnish and the white liquid drier must not liver with lead or zinc, otherwise, the paint in the tank will thicken continually. the above formula produces one of the best paints known, and it is certainly not a cheap paint. white spirit. as already mentioned, many firms who use the paint dipping process buy their paint in paste form with the requisite amount of driers added, and thin it themselves with white spirit, which is a petroleum product specially prepared for the purpose. turpentine is, of course, too expensive, and the spirit costs, under normal conditions, little more than one-third of the price, although exact figures cannot be given owing to the fluctuation in the price of these materials. some manufacturers use a white spirit, to which has been added from to per cent. of genuine american turpentine. this, of course, renders the mixture somewhat expensive, and possesses no advantage excepting that it gives the characteristic smell of turpentine; but this, it appears, is not important in a factory, and the pure white spirit is quite suitable in itself. according to mr. s. roy illingworth, a.r.c.sc., a.i.c., b.sc., lond., expert to the gas lighting and improvement co., ltd., turpentine substitutes were first placed on the market about years ago, and consisted at that time of a mixture of turpentine and kerosene oil. investigations led to the production of white spirit, drying as quickly as turpentine, or even quicker if desired. several grades of this material are made, varying in flash-point from ° up to °. the flash-point of genuine turpentine, it may be mentioned in passing, is ° to °, and the ° flash-point spirit is the one usually employed for painting purposes, although the ° flash-point would answer equally well for dipping. the best grade is practically free from smell and is suitable for admixture in all paints, excepting those having a bitumastic or asphaltic base, or paints in which very common driers containing cheap rosin are used. a rough-and-ready test as to the quality of white spirit is to dip a piece of blotting-paper into it and hang it up to dry. in the course of an hour-and-a-half it should have wholly disappeared, leaving no smell or stain behind it. if there should be a stain the sample should be viewed with suspicion. another test of the same kind is to drop a little spirit on a piece of white writing paper and to leave it for three-quarters of an hour, when it should have disappeared without leaving a stain. in addition to these tests it might be advisable to mix a little spirit with paint and to try it experimentally. in the evaporation of turpentine it is usually admitted that a small proportion, say, from · to · , is left behind owing to oxidation. in the case of best white spirit, however, very little residue will be left behind, certainly not sufficient quantity to interfere in any way with the drying. the use of the spirit has proved so successful that practically nothing else is now employed in paint dipping. it is, however, important, of course, that the best quality white spirit be used, but as this is so much less in cost than turpentine, there is no temptation to use an inferior quality. the quantity of paint required for dipping and spraying. speaking generally, rather less paint will be required when it is applied by dipping, or spraying, than is necessary when it is applied with a brush. but there are many exceptions, particularly in spraying, where it may be necessary to give a coat considerably thicker than usual. the following table will be found useful as a guide, but it should be remembered that the actual space covered will vary considerably with different grades of paint, so that the table should only be taken as approximately correct. in cases of doubt, careful calculations should be made after a given quantity of paint, varnish, or lacquer has been applied to a surface of known area. this will serve as a useful guide in ordering in the future. it need hardly be said that the quantity of paint necessary will vary largely with the surface to which the paint is applied. for example, an absorbent surface, such as unprimed wood, will require much more paint than metal work, which absorbs little or none. spreading capacity of paints. per gallon per gallon on wood. on metal. priming coats to to mixed paint nd coat to to varnish (on paint) to to lacquer (on paint) to to enamel (on paint) to to chapter v. painting by compressed air. the evolution of the apparatus employed. by way of introduction to the subject of the application of paints, enamels, lacquers, varnishes, stains, etc., by means of compressed air, a few notes on the development of the method may be given, if only with the object of correcting the impression, which sometimes exists, that such apparatus as is now employed is more or less of an experimental character. the early attempts to apply paint, etc., to articles other than by the old method of brushing were mainly carried out with a type of machine still largely used for whitewashing, and the principle adopted was to partly fill a convenient tank with the paint or whitewash and to pump a pressure of to lbs. into the tank by means of a suitable hand pump. the paint was forced through a flexible tube attached to a connection near the bottom of the tank, and at the other end of the tube was a simple form of nozzle with a trigger control for the paint. it may be said at once that this method was doomed to failure owing to the underlying principle being at fault. while eminently suitable for applying whitewash or distemper, it was hopeless for paint of a more viscous character, owing to the fact that the latter was not atomised as it issued from the nozzle. the type of machines referred to, viz., those which are used for spraying lime white, distemper, whitewash, etc., are fully described and illustrated in another chapter. after failing to achieve satisfactory results with such simple apparatus when applying viscous paints, etc., further experiments were carried out with a somewhat different type, commonly known as the "kettle" type of sprayer. the principle employed was to employ compressed air, supplied, in this case, not from a hand pump but some form of power compressor, and at a pressure varying from to lbs. per square inch. the air was delivered through a nozzle controlled by a convenient plunger or trigger type of valve, and impinged at an angle across a similar nozzle communicating with the paint receptacle of the sprayer. the action of the air impinging on or across the paint nozzle created a vacuum in the paint tube, and thereby sucked up the paint from the receptacle and gave a fan-shaped spray. up to a point these experiments proved satisfactory, but still did not overcome the difficulty of successfully dealing with intricate shapes, small articles, and particularly in applying heavy paints with fair percentages of varnish embodied therein. the concentric form of spray. attention was therefore directed to the concentric jet form of sprayer, and this is now almost universally employed where painting, enamelling, etc., is carried out on a large scale. the advantages of the latter type are many, and in addition to being designed, in most cases, to produce the greatest effect with the least possible consumption of air, they are also capable of applying the paint in very finely divided particles to the smallest work, such as buttons, imitation jewellery, small electrical camera parts, or of applying silky coats to such large work as motor bodies, constructional iron work, large tinplate work, agricultural machinery, domestic gas apparatus, etc. at a speed approximating to four to ten times the speed of handwork, and giving a far superior finish, in many cases with less coats. many people who contemplate the subject of painting with a spray think only of a smother of paint being discharged from a nozzle. they are not aware that the colour can be better controlled in a suitably constructed spray than is possible with a hog's hair brush. the flow of paint is stopped or started instantly, and the amount of paint delivered is at all times under perfect control, so that a quantity corresponding to that delivered by a ¼-inch brush or pencil can be increased to the quantity distributed by a -inch brush in a single stroke. in other words, you have a tool which is the equivalent of half a dozen brushes ranging from ¼ inch to inch in width. a little practice is, of course, necessary to master the instrument, but nothing like the practice which is required for successful painting with hog's hair. the principal care is to put on the paint until the beads of paint coalesce. too much would make the paint run, too little would not leave the surface covered. when properly done the surface is superior to other painting, as the hairs of the brush are not dragged through it to disturb the evenness of the surface. the air pressure required for painting varies with the consistency of the paint, its viscosity as well as its thickness. some liquids have a quality of stringiness or hanging together which require a higher pressure to break up. thin lacquers and varnishes may be sprayed with or lbs. to the square inch, and from that to about lbs. will cover most classes of paint. the lowest pressure at which a paint breaks up is the best pressure to use, as high pressures have a tendency to make more dust and put fine particles of paint in the air, where they are not wanted. the volume of air has also to be considered. this varies with the size of the aperture through which it exhausts and to some extent with the pressure--for a small nozzle such as is used for lacquers and thin liquids, say, one cubic foot of free air per minute, and up to cubic feet for oil paints. when it is stated that a pistol sprayer consumes say two cubic ft. of free air per minute, it means when working almost continuously, but as the periods of actual work do not represent more than two-thirds of the actual number of working hours, there is a margin left. nevertheless, it would be unsafe to state a lower figure, for in some cases where convenient feeding of the work to the operator is arranged, the consumption of air is continuous. it should also be remembered that the air is used for other purposes, i.e., a small amount is used to provide a pressure feed of colour to the instrument in many cases, and where a heater is employed, a small amount of air is bypassed through the pistol to keep this warm when spraying is momentarily stopped. although the practice of heating the air slightly increases the ultimate efficiency of a given compressor, yet it is unwise to count too much upon this fact. in submitting the following figures as to air consumption, the airostyle pistol has been taken as a type:-- for work with a tip and needle of m/m. dia., cub. ft. per minute; ½ m/m. dia., ¾ cub. ft.; m/m. dia., ½ cub. ft.; ½ m/m. dia., cub. ft.; ½- m/m. dia., ½- cub. ft.; ½ m/m. dia., cub. ft. these consumptions naturally vary slightly with the adjustment of the nozzle of the pistol, but they are from actual tests and so may be taken as authoritative. chapter vi. types of spraying apparatus. we now come to a consideration of the different appliances by means of which the actual spraying is effected, and in order to avoid any suspicion of partiality the review of instruments, etc., in use will be dealt with alphabetically. the aerograph. [illustration: fig. --the aerograph spraying instrument.] first, therefore, comes the aerograph co.'s spray painter. this instrument is of the concentric jet type, and was one of the first of the kind made in europe. it is capable of excellent work. in fig. is shown one form of the handpiece. a flexible tube for compressed air connects with the nipple a. the finger lever f controls both the air valve and a colour valve in the nozzle n, so that little or much colour may be allowed to pass out into the current of escaping air. the colour may be supplied under pressure, through a flexible tube from a large paint pot, and pass through the tube p to the nozzle n, or in smaller quantities from a cup c, which is attachable at b, and when so attached cuts off the supply through the tube p. this cup is useful when small quantities of colour are wanted with frequent changes. a ball joint permits work to be done in either an upward or downward direction. [illustration: fig. .--form of aerograph suitable for spraying vertically or at an angle.] [illustration: fig. .--the aerograph electric motor outfit.] [illustration: fig. .--painting a gasometer.] in fig. is illustrated a pistol pattern of the aerograph, which has a large side cup which can be sprayed at any angle, being adjusted to facilitate spraying in an upward, downward or horizontal position. thus work can be done by it on table, wall or ceiling. the cup referred to contains the paint or other liquid to be sprayed, and a series of cups may be provided for a quick change of colour, if desired, as will be readily understood. in cases where electric power is available, the electric motor outfit shown in fig. will be found very serviceable. it may be described as a "spray painter" outfit complete, and it includes a h.p. motor mounted on a trolley ready for use, which can be employed for many different classes of work. in fig. it is shown being used for spraying paint on a gas holder. it would appear that this outfit might be employed for ship bottom painting, provided that the necessary scaffolding or its equivalent were available. [illustration: fig. .--small aerograph for delicate work, lining, lettering, etc.] going to the other extreme, a form of aerograph, suitable for very delicate work, is shown in fig. . this may be used for photograph retouching, pottery, and small decorative work generally--in fact, it is suitable for any work requiring delicacy of work. in another chapter the subject of artistic work done by means of compressed air is considered at some length, and a number of specimens of work executed by this process are given. the aeron. the system of spraying is manufactured by the de vilbiss manufacturing co., toledo, ohio, u.s.a., and , newman street, london, w. the method consists, briefly, in spraying stain, shellac, varnish, or enamel, as the case may be, on the work by the means of compressed air, under a pressure varying from to pounds per square inch. the necessary outfit comprises the aeron sprayer itself--which is made in two styles and several sizes--the air compressor and receiver, an air transformer set, for regulating the pressure and purifying the air supply, a steel fumexer, in which the work is done, and an exhaust fan to disperse the vapours or fumes resulting from the atomising of the finishing material. besides these necessary appliances, turn-tables are used where advisable to facilitate the handling of the work while the "aeroning" is being done. the two styles of aerons are shown in the illustrations, each connected with an air transformer set to which the air supply pipe is attached. in one style of aeron the finishing material is carried in a pint or quart capacity cup forming a part of the aeron itself. the other machine takes its supply from a five-gallon container suspended above the nozzle. the work is placed in the fumexer on the turn-table, which can be tilted at any convenient angle and revolved by hand, and is coated on the top, sides, and front, with the drawers in place. drawers may also be finished inside by this process. a full coat can be applied to a vertical surface as well as to one in a horizontal position. there are two reasons why. it is impossible to put on a perfectly uniform coat with a brush, especially on a vertical surface, and runs and sags are caused by the heavier portions of the coat dropping down over the lighter coated spots. with the aeron a uniform coat of varnish is applied, and it is a fact that as the coat is the same over the entire surface it will not run, even if it is as heavy as a brush coat, which would show sags. the second reason is that an aeron coat sets somewhat quicker than a brush coat, owing to a slight evaporation of the solvent caused by the action of the compressed air. again, since the coat is uniform it sets uniformly. for the same reason the final drying is hastened to some degree. in brushing flat horizontal surfaces where a heavy coat is applied it is almost impossible to avoid fatty edges, and in brushing carved or ornamental relief work the low spots are sure to collect more varnish than the high places. corners and edges in panel work are also causes of difficulty in this respect. in using the aeron the surface varnished is covered uniformly and evenly, whether flat, panelled or carved, with one sweep of the machine at an even speed. consequently, heavy spots, runs and fatty edges are entirely avoided. in applying finishes with the aeron a slight reduction of the material with turpentine or other solvents is logical; with some materials, necessary. reducing is logical on account of the slight evaporation of solvent previously mentioned. in other words, in order to have the aeron application of the same consistency after reaching the surface as it is when brushed, a reduction of from to per cent. would be required. this is not always desirable by any means, especially in the case of the heavy gloss coat spoken of. whenever a free-flowing coach varnish is used, reducing is not necessary. conditions in different plants govern this matter to a great extent. rubbing varnishes are usually reduced slightly, as a full-bodied, heavy coat is not required, also because a rubbing varnish does not flow as readily as a coach varnish. on account of this evenness of the coat, an aeron coat of rubbing varnish is somewhat more easily and quickly rubbed either by hand or by machine. undercoat varnishes are reduced to some extent for aeron work for similar reasons. they are also more easily sanded than when brushed. pigments, primers or first coaters are aeroned to better advantage if the pigment content is less than for brushing. it is also sometimes desirable and expedient to use a more finely ground pigment. flat finishes are applied to great advantage, and, because of greater uniformity of surface, more closely resemble a rubbed finish than when brushed. this spray offers perhaps greater advantages in the application of shellacs than with other materials. it is a matter of common knowledge that shellac is very difficult to brush, while, on the other hand, it sprays easily. instead of cutting the gum or pounds to the gallon of alcohol, as for brushing, the material is used in the proportion of ½ to pounds of gum to the gallon. the sprayed coat of shellac is perfectly smooth and uniform, and requires practically no sanding compared with the work necessary to sand a brushed coat. the aeron is simple and easy to operate, and a week's work is sufficient to make an efficient and expert operator of the average man. the work is clean, and, what is more, is healthful and sanitary, as all vapours and fumes are removed from the finishing room by the exhaust fan used with each outfit. cleaning the aeron is accomplished by spraying a solvent through the nozzle instead of the finishing material, and the whole machine may be placed in a can of thinner overnight if desired. it is necessary to clean the aeron but once a day if it is used more or less continuously. the whole operation of cleaning may be performed in a minute or two. there is usually some loss in finishing material when the aeron is used, though this is hardly noticeable except on small work, when it may amount to or per cent. in many cases there is no waste, in others an actual saving--where coats are eliminated by the use of the machine. on an average, however, there is some slight loss--largely of the solvent used in reducing the material. in any event, however, the waste is offset many times by the saving effected in time and labour, without taking into consideration the saving in floor space, the greater ease in handling the work, the better quality of the work done, the advantage to the workmen, and, finally, the general all-round convenience of the aeron system. description of the illustrations. we will now give a description of the illustrations of the different parts of the aeron. fig. shows the attached cup straight barrel aeron, which can be fitted with either metal or glass cups. metal cup is the standard equipment. attached cup aerons can be furnished with four sizes of nozzles: f--. " dia., e--. " dia., d--. " dia., and c--. " dia. these nozzles are selected according to the nature of the work that is to be done. fig. shows an attached cup angle barrel aeron, a type of advantage in spraying work lying in a horizontal position. in some classes of work, where the liquid to be sprayed is apt to settle, an agitator is required, such as is shown in fig. . in fig. is shown an attached cup aeron with type v double nozzle spray head. this type is especially adapted for the finishing of large surfaces, such as automobile bodies, case furniture, etc. the v spray head shown separately in the above illustration is interchangeable with the single nozzle spray head, and can be attached to any standard aeron. type g aeron is illustrated in fig. . the nozzle is · inch in diameter this aeron can also be furnished with other sizes of nozzles to special order. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] in fig. are shown various attachments used with this form of sprayer. at the top left-hand corner is a cup holder and screws, and on the right, metal or glass cups. beneath are cleaning pail and length of pressure tubing with connections. fig. shows the construction of the aeron, the parts being disassembled for ease of cleaning. we now come to the type of aerons which take their supply of material from a five-gallon tank placed above the level of the nozzle, the fluid flowing down by gravity. this arrangement offers all the advantages of the pressure feed tank type with none of its disadvantages. it is shown in figs. and . the next type is termed the m aeron with v-a spray head and is illustrated in fig. . there is the same advantage in the use of this aeron as with the former type in that the supply of material is taken from a container placed overhead, the fluid flowing down by gravity. the slightest pull upon the trigger releases the material instantly--the varying of the pressure adjusts the flow automatically. as with the type l there is but one adjustment. this type aeron is built for large work. it produces a "wide spray," similar to the v spray head, which covers large surfaces with remarkable rapidity. the nozzle can be turned so that a full, fan-like spray is projected horizontally, vertically, or in any intermediate position. a container with agitator and hose for types l and m aerons is shown in fig. . it is drawn from one sheet of steel and is heavily tinned to prevent rust. the standard and block and tackle (fig. ) are furnished for holding the container above the level of the aeron. the block and tackle, which is of the safety, self-locking type, is recommended where it is possible to obtain a ceiling fastening. the standard (fig. ) can be used if the block and tackle is impracticable. the air transformer set (fig. ) is for the purpose of regulating and purifying the compressed air, and is a necessity with each aeron installed. the air duster (d) is a valuable addition to the equipment for removing loose dust or dirt from the work before finishing. the auto-filter (s) is for removing dust, grit, and oil from the compressed air. the auto-regulator and gauge (r) makes possible the regulating of the air pressure between and pounds, simply by turning a thumb-screw. the auto-condenser (c) is for separating moisture from the compressed air. full details of the air compressor and other special appliances used in connection with the aeron will be found elsewhere. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] the airostyle. next comes the airostyle and lithos, ltd., with their "airostyle" type record, also a concentric jet-type, an illustration of which is given in fig. and a section of which we give also in fig. . this type is largely used for small, medium or large work, and is considered to be extremely sensitive and very fast in operation. it has a gunmetal casting for the main body, and all wearing parts are of steel, tempered or case hardened. it is supplied either with or without pressure fed accessories, although the makers are strong advocates of pressure feeds for most work, and with which they have met considerable success. in addition to the record pistol this firm makes other types, and in order must be mentioned the type "ultra" for use where frequent changes of colour may be necessary, and where no continuous colour feed is required. this type is specially adapted for stencilling in oil colours, and is illustrated in fig. . another type about to be introduced is shown in fig. , for small and medium work, simplicity of construction and ease of adjustment being specially claimed for this type. this type is called the airostyle pistol "m." yet other type of airostyle may be mentioned for smaller work, namely, the "stencil and universal lustre and photo," which is illustrated in fig. . these types are mainly employed for decorative work, and give a very wide selection, but save that they are employed in process work and for textile goods, they do not enter into the scope of this book. [illustration: fig. .--airostyle type photo.] as the pistol type is used for all general painting and japanning, the adjustment of this may be advantageously explained in greater detail, and referring to fig. the instructions are as follows:-- [illustration: fig. .--section showing construction of the airostyle.] [illustration: fig. .--airostyle type "record" with union for continuous supply. a.--small pressure bowl. b.--small simple bowl.] if a wide spray is required the nozzle is unscrewed to a small extent and then locked by means of a small ring a, but if a narrow spray is wished for, the nozzle is screwed on farther and locked in position. on all-round work one position serves, that is, a position in which the recessed point of the nozzle coincides with the end of the tip , which just allows the needle to project through it. if it should happen that a leakage of colour occurs through when spraying is suspended, this may be obviated by giving an increased tension to spring which may be obtained by screwing in the spring box slightly. it may happen that some foreign matter becomes lodged in , in which case the pistol from the colour tube must be first disconnected, the nose removed and the parts brushed or swilled with turps or spirit. this having been effected, the nose will be replaced, care being taken that the washer beds down on its seating in the body of the pistol. [illustration: fig. .--airostyle type "ultra."] it is well to provide for any possible contingencies which may arise, and it may, therefore, be remarked that if any leakage of air occurs through the air valve , it will probably be caused by some grit to be found on the face of air valve washer , and to remove this the handle can be taken off by unscrewing the milled nut and the valve body in order to get to the air valve. the replacement of the parts is simple. the adjustment of the pistol for working is made as follows:--first release the screw on cross head , and while the instrument is connected up with the air supply, slightly withdraw the trigger , allowing a small amount of air to pass through the nozzle. while maintaining the trigger in this position, move the cross head along the needle until it just bears against the cam , and in this position clamp the same by screwing home the clamping screw . [illustration: fig. .--the airostyle pistol "m."] another important point is to see that the lubrication of the compressor is carefully watched; the sight feed lubricator on top holds sufficient lubricant for working days and is capable of adjustment by means of a needle valve. it can, therefore, be easily set. the main bearings are ring oiling and only need occasional attention. the fan bearings are ball bearings and only need attention once in six months. the eureka spraying machine. [illustration: fig. .--the crane "eureka."] [illustration: fig. .--the crane "record."] an inspection of figs. and will show that this machine is of entirely different construction to those already described. the advantages claimed are the simplicity in construction, the absence of complicated parts which might get out of order, and the fact that the machines cannot clog in use. the operation is as follows: the feed pipe from air tank should be connected up with a high-pressure hose to the sprayer and a fluid nozzle is then adjusted so that the tip of the nozzle is in alignment with the centre of the air nozzle. this adjustment varies according to the thickness of material. when using thin liquids the fluid nozzle should be slightly below the centre of the air nozzle. when ready for spraying the valve is pressed, and this releases the air, which blows through the air nozzle, across the top of fluid nozzle and draws up the material from the inside, spraying the fluid on to the work. the shape of the spray is that of a fan. the air pressure required varies from to lbs. according to the viscosity of the material being dealt with. as a rule the best results are obtained when the machine is held from to in. away from the work. the fredk. crane chemical co., armoury close, bordesley green, birmingham, are the agents for these machines, and it is also manufactured in the united states. the remarks given under the head of "exhaust," "air compressor," etc., will apply to this machine also. it may be observed that the cup holding the metal can be very quickly changed, so that a variety of colours may be sprayed one after the other with very little trouble. the price of the machine (which may be provided with an agitator if required) is low. "the invincible." these sprayers are designed on an excellent "universal movement" principle and are particularly well constructed throughout. they further claim distinction on the score that every section is an independent unit of standardized pattern, and as spare parts are always available, replacements and renewals can be made instantly with the minimum of trouble and cost. they are made in several types to suit varying classes of work, ranging from the fine lining and shading of small objects required by artists, etc., to commercial painting on the scale practised by motor car manufacturers and other large users; and important points in their favour are the special facilities provided for quick cleaning after use, their completely enclosed mechanism, which prevents the penetration of any dirt, colour or liquid to working parts, and the adjustment of the needle so that no pressure or damage can occur at any time to the colour tip, even if trigger is allowed to snap forward. automatic control is also provided for work requiring a given volume of colour, it being only necessary to turn a regulator to ensure a constant flow of any desired density. the "invincible" pistol sprayer type "e" is illustrated in section (fig. ). the body is gun metal with working parts of finest steel, highly polished where necessary to ensure smooth working and minimum of wear. the instruments have a handsomely nickelled finish. working.--when connector ( ) is attached to colour cup or extension cock for paint pot and connector ( ) affixed to air-line, the air brush is ready to commence work. dusting.--no separate or special dusting attachment is necessary with the "invincible" apparatus, as a slight pull on trigger ( ) carries back steel sleeve ( ), depressing steel ball ( ) and bringing the air valve ( ) into "open" position. this allows a stream of air to pass forward through air channel ( ) to nozzle ( ) and the projection of this upon surface to be treated removes all dust. [illustration: fig. .--invincible sprayer type "e" in section.] spraying.--a continuation of the trigger pull carries back the spring buffer ( ) and opens the control barrel ( ) of the needle valve ( ) allowing colour to flow through colour tip ( ), at the end of which it meets the vacuum created by the air stream, and is then (atomized) broken up into thousands of minute particles which coalesce upon meeting their object, and form a perfectly level, smooth and even surface. control.--the trigger control is very sensitive, giving a spraying range from a fine line to the fullest flush of the instrument's capacity. for automatic control it is only necessary to adjust regulator (no. ). [illustration: fig. .] cleaning.--by unscrewing union nut ( ) the complete fore-part may be removed for cleaning without interfering with any other part of the mechanism, therefore the operation of cleaning is always quick and thorough, even when sticky, heavy liquids have been used. the movement for the above sprayer applies to all "invincible" sprayers. type "a" for artists, miniature tinting, black and white process work, etc. type "b" for christmas and show card work, etc. type "c" for ceramic work, posters and so on. a cheaper series is also made which, whilst lacking some of the refinements of the standard models, are reliable, and soundly made instruments. the patentees and manufacturers of "invincible" air brushes are the air brush manufacturing co., ltd., pneumatic works, , arlington street, rosebery avenue, london, e.c., who also provide all accessories for complete spraying installation, such as air-compressors, air-receivers, air valves, reducing valves, condensers and clarifiers, pressure paint pots and paint pot stands, exhaust benches, fans, turn-tables, automatic cut-outs, motors, etc., of which complete details will be sent upon request. the midland sprayer. [illustration: fig. .--the midland sprayer.] from what has already been said, it will be obvious that the most important part of a spraying plant is the correct construction of the actual sprayer or spraying pistol. the midland fan co., ltd., of , aston road, birmingham, have placed on the market a sprayer which is shown in fig. , and this, we learn, has given a great deal of satisfaction. its principal claim to superiority is the simplicity of construction, for one reason because the sprayer may be used by those who have but little knowledge of mechanics. the construction permits of easy cleaning, which is of vital importance, and for this purpose the needle can be removed by a turn of the fingers and replaced with equal ease. the illustration shows the larger pistol, and it may be mentioned that smaller sizes are made for finer work. the paasche air brush. [illustration: fig. .--the "paasche" sprayer.] this spraying machine is manufactured by the paasche air brush co., , south clinton street, chicago, in various sizes, for spraying by compression air liquids of all kinds. the above illustration shows what is known as the "three in one" quick action model "s" brush, and is recommended for use with heavy material. instead of the paint pot being at the top an underslung jar with aluminium cover as shown on the lower part of fig. may be used. this figure shows the same air brush or sprayer with one gallon container; in either case the spraying of the colour or material is quickly done. the flow of the liquid is entirely independent of the air circulation. an agitator is provided to keep the material well stirred, and should be used with all liquids which have a tendency to settle, such as bronzes, enamels, paints, etc. the coupling or taper stem of the flexible metal tube or bottles are easily detachable, and one material after the other can be used without stopping. if the underslung jar or the gravity pot be used no agitator is necessary. this instrument is made in much larger sizes. the general form of apparatus is shown in fig. , the special finishing hood with exhaust fan being in this case employed, while a paint container is suspended on an adjustable stand. in this case a chair is shown being painted. [illustration: fig. .--larger size "paasche."] a somewhat novel apparatus for separating oil and water is that shown in fig. . this is constructed to obviate the trouble which is sometimes caused by the oil and water in the air main mixing. it is connected at the end of the air main as close to the air regulator or air outlet to the brush as convenient. oil gets into the air main through the piston of the compressor, and will in time saturate the walls of the air pipes. the condensation of water which is due to changes of temperature makes the iron pipes sweat, and a considerable amount of water is accumulated in this manner. the simple appliance shown in the illustration will remove this. fig. shows the paasche automatic electric controller which is used for automatic starting and stopping motor driven compressor outfits where from / th to horse-power motors are used. [illustration: fig. .--general form of "paasche" sprayer.] [illustration: fig. .--"paasche" oil and water separator.] [illustration: fig. .--"paasche" automatic electric controller.] chapter vii. supply of compressed air--paint supply--exhaust. the forms of spraying apparatus having been selected, consideration must next be given to the following details, viz.:--( ) the supply and degree of pressure of the compressed air. ( ) the form and location of the paint supply. ( ) the arrangement of an exhaust installation to carry away the fumes and waste paint. these will be dealt with in their order. it is clear that attention has to be paid to a convenient arrangement of reducing valves controlling the pressure of air to the sprayer, and also providing, what is in many cases indispensable, a pressure feed of colour to the sprayer, either from a large pot mounted over the hood, or a special type of bowl screwed on to the sprayer. some makers still advocate a simple type with small bowl screwed on to the sprayer, and no means of controlling the pressure save by adjusting the safety valve on the main tank, thus necessitating that each operator shall work at the same pressure, arguing that reducing valves, pressure feeds, etc., etc., are unnecessary refinements, but it may be safely claimed that such opinions are made without due consideration of the advantages of the more complete system, and that the consensus of opinion is in favour of such refinements, giving, as they undoubtedly do, a further increase in speed, and, in many cases, making practicable what would otherwise be impossible, as well as ensuring that whatever work is to be done, the most suitable pressure is instantly available. in the equipment of an efficient compressed air plant for painting, the type of compressor employed, and the arrangement of the air main, should first be decided upon. the compressors must be designed to give an absolutely pure supply of air free from oil or grit, and the air-main must be so arranged as to avoid any trouble due to condensation. this is overcome, first, by using, at least for high-class work, a horizontal air compressor, water cooled, with a sensitive sight-feed needle valve lubricator to the cylinder, capable of delicate adjustment, so as to avoid excess of lubrication. needless to say, the machining of the cylinder, piston, etc., of the compressor must be of the highest class to ensure satisfactory running under such conditions. then a suitable air filter must be fitted to the intake of the compressor. this filter should be of large diameter, and have a gauze screen and wad of cotton wool. the air valves should be so arranged that they may be removed without breaking the water joint, and be so arranged that they may be taken out and replaced in a few seconds. the main tank must be provided with safety valve drain cock and pressure gauge, and the air main, of not less than ¾ in. diameter barrel, preferably steam barrel, must be arranged to travel in a downward direction from the main tank towards an end station tank, which is a duplicate in miniature of the main tank or receiver. all branches must be taken upwards off the main. such an arrangement, if care is taken that the end station tank has its relief valve set to blow off before the main tank safety valve acts, ensures that all moisture is collected in the end station tank. the airostyle and lithos, ltd., claim to be the originators of such a system, and it is here explained in print for the first time. all experiments with a view to scrubbing or purifying the compressed air of moisture, oils, etc., on the air main side of the main tank, other than the above simple expedient, have proved more or less failures, either from want of appreciation of the increased capillary attraction set up in the tanks and air main, or from the difficulty of satisfactorily and frequently cleaning out such scrubber as may be inserted, and the incidental difficulty created in the prevention of dust being carried out of the scrubber throughout the system. it need hardly be said that ample air must be provided in order to have sufficient pressure always available for the full number of operators employed, and this point is one which cannot be too strongly emphasized, for in too many cases firms have installed small compressors and have been misled as to their maximum capacity, mainly through over anxiety on the part of the salesman to secure his order for apparatus, he apparently having been afraid to ask a high figure for a really efficient compressor. [illustration: fig. .--airostyle air compressor. [capacity cubic feet per minute.]] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .--devilbiss air compressor.] another point of importance is that unloading devices, cutting in and out automatically should be avoided at all cost where compressed air is to be used for painting. the reasons are that it is much better to use the surplus air for the purpose of getting rid of the condensation in the way already indicated, and that in addition most unloading devices are in the nature of compromises, and while saving only a small amount of power materially increase the wear and tear by throwing the load in the reverse direction on the gudgeon pin, large and small end of connecting rod and main bearings, and by causing a hammering action to be set up. this applies in particular to air compressors with automatic valves where the device works by means of a valve closing the air intake entirely, and so setting up a vacuum in the cylinder. a much better plan is to arrange the compressor to run at a speed sufficient to give a slight reserve of air above what is needed and to have it running constantly during the whole working period. this may seem at first sight an arbitrary attitude to take up, but it is the result of considerable experience, and need not be considered as extravagant when it is borne in mind that air compressors of more than to cubic feet per minute capacity are seldom employed for such work, and so the maximum power absorbed is light. the compressor illustrated in fig. is designed and made by the airostyle and lithos, ltd., and has a number of well thought out refinements, both as to accessibility and form of valve bodies and valves, and also with regard to the filtration of the air and the lubrication of the cylinder. ring oiler bearings are employed for the crankshaft, and the compressor throughout is as carefully built as a gas engine. the makers claim that an absolutely pure supply of air is delivered by this compressor at all speeds up to r.p.m. water cooling is employed and very ample cooling surface is provided, not only for the cylinder but also the cylinder cover is cooled, and has the valves located in pockets in same. an air compressor is shown in fig. , and another one, which is water cooled, in fig. . these are made by the devilbiss co. in fig. are illustrated various forms of air compressors; a pressure gauge, safety valve and drain cock are furnished with each receiver. these tanks have welded seams and are tested to lbs. pressure. [illustration: fig. .--aerograph air pump and tank combined.] [illustration: fig. .--the aerograph type of air pump for larger installations.] one of the aerograph types of power pump and tank is shown below. it is strongly built, easy working, and is fitted with metal extending rings and metal valves, which will supply enough air for three spraying painters. in the illustration is shown the pump fitted with an automatic regulator, but this may be dispensed with if desired. the regulator, therefore, will be found of great value, not only in saving power, but also in the wear and tear of the pump. the tank is fitted with an air gauge and a speed valve, and the dimensions of the air receiver are inches diameter by inches high, and the pump has a bore of in. while the stroke is in. the power required is h.p. [illustration: fig. .--the airostyle plant--general arrangement of accessories.] the supply of paint. for lacquering or coating small articles a spray may be used which is constructed with a cup to contain the paint, but for any heavy painting where large surfaces are to be covered quickly a cup on the handpiece is not of much utility, and it is necessary to provide a means to keep the supply of paint to the handpiece continuous. this is done in two ways: by an overhead paint pot, allowing gravity to carry the paint to the handpiece, or by an enclosed paint pot with a regulating valve and pressure applied to the surface of the paint by compressed air. in some situations all that is required is an overhead paint pot, the weight of the liquid feeding it to the handpiece. an enclosed paint pot has the very great advantage that (with a proper valve) the feed of the paint can be regulated to a nice degree. the paint pot shown in fig. has a damped cover which is capable of being quickly removed, and a low-pressure feed to the paint is obtained from a reducing valve. this can be set so that the paint can be forced to the handpiece to secure a uniform flow whether the paint be thick or thin. the exhaust installation. we next reach the question of arranging a satisfactory form of exhaust installation, which has been found to be absolutely essential in order to insure the health of the operator. this exhaust question obviously opened up special problems in the direction of convenient forms of hoods or work benches, so arranged as to carry away the fumes created by the paint distributor without unduly inconveniencing the operator by reason of the draught set up. by some firms use is made of the exhaust to collect the residue or surplus paint drawn off by employing a ventilator, which sets up a medium pressure, and interposing between the outlets of the hood and the air shaft some form of perforated screen or screens which are readily removable, or in some cases revolvable and self-cleaning. where slow drying japans are employed, such saving is of considerable advantage, although it must not thereby be assumed that an extravagant wastage of paint occurs, for it must be borne in mind that with a spraying plant there is no loss through evaporation from open pots and gradual drying up of the paint on the sides of the pots, or absorption of same in the brushes employed. actually, therefore, although it would appear that considerable wastage occurs, yet in practice it is found to be economical, and even where intricate forms, such as cycle frames, wheels, carriers, etc., or bedstead work are to be dealt with no undue loss is experienced, and such small loss as may be noted is compensated for ten times over in the saving of time effected. when selecting a ventilator for the plant, the fact must not be overlooked that the fine particles of paint, etc., drawn off by the ventilator gradually coat the blades of the fan, sufficiently to materially increase the friction, and to absolutely prevent the exhausting of the air should multiple bladed fans be adopted. experience has shown, therefore, that for such work as compressed air painting multiple bladed fans are to be avoided, even though these are scientifically designed and admirable for many classes of exhaust work. not more than to blades should be employed, and there must be no belt-drive taken through the air shaft, this being a source of continual annoyance in addition to creating a loss of efficiency. where simple impellor fans are used, long spindles should be employed permitting an outside drive, but a better type of fan is the central draught type, preferably ball bearing, as these run for years with no attention save occasionally filling up with grease and periodical cleaning. it may be argued that many of the foregoing remarks are not properly within the scope of this book, yet on further consideration it must be conceded that they all have a bearing upon the ultimate efficiency of the installation, and are the outcome of years of experience. when arranging a compressed air painting plant considerable thought must be given to the most convenient position, and where stoves for artificially drying on the paint, japan, etc., are employed, care must be taken that a sufficient number of these stoves are provided to give the plant full scope, for a very material saving per annum is effected, additional to that accruing through the labour-saving effect of the apparatus, by the fact that the stoves are filled more quickly. where bulky work is to be handled, the plant must be so arranged as to give ample room for getting the work to and from the hoods. the volume of exhaust air will depend on the character of the paint and the size of the cabinet. for large articles a large cabinet is required, and a proportionately larger fan will be needed. from to , cubic feet of air per minute should be supplied for each worker. a hurricane of air is not required; all that is needed is to keep the air moving away from the worker, and the ordinary type of wall fan may be sufficient for a simple installation, but cannot be used for large plants. airostyle central draught steel plate fan. this fan is designed and made by the airostyle and lithos, ltd., and is invariably specified in all their medium and large installations for compressed air painting. it is very carefully designed and built specially for the work, and is fitted with ball-bearings. as will be seen from the illustration, fig. , it is worth serious attention on the part of intending users. it is made in many sizes, from , to , cubic feet capacity, and is very largely used, not only for airostyle plants, but also for general ventilation work. [illustration: fig. .--the paasche motor driven fan.] in the above figure is shown a motor-driven propeller fan manufactured by the paasche air brush co. it is made in various sizes, varying in air delivery from , to , cubic feet per minute. [illustration: fig. .--the airostyle centre draught steel plate fan.] [illustration: fig. .--the devilbiss auto cool electric exhaust fan, closed, and open for cleaning.] location of the work cabinets. [illustration: fig. .--sketch of spraying cabinets, showing side lighting.] as to the position of the spraying benches, it is a little curious to note that in not a few cases these cabinets are placed facing the window, the idea being to obtain as much light as possible for the process. a moment's consideration, however, will show that this is not the correct position, because the workman faces the light, which is thrown on the back of the article he is spraying, in exactly the wrong position for his purpose. the cabinets should be lighted from the back of the workman and be, as far as possible, directed from the roof or the top of the room, so that it comes directly on the article to be sprayed. clearly it is necessary to provide as good a light as possible in order that no part of the work shall be missed. artificial light will, as a rule, be provided for working on dark days and after the sun sets, and here again the same provision must be made. plenty of light arranged in such a manner that it is directed on the front of the object to be painted is essential in every case. after due provision has been made for a suitable exhaust, which question should be left in the hands of the specialist in compressed air painting if satisfaction is to be guaranteed, other questions need attention, such as provision of means for handling the work, special turn-tables, which should be ball-bearing, if possible, to ensure light running and enable even heavy articles to be turned about when spraying, and when examining the work. [illustration: fig. .--"aerograph" spraying cabinets.] the fumexer. in connection with the aeron, the makers supply a special form of cabinet or booth, made of steel, which is called by them the "fumexer," and is illustrated in figs to . these are made in various sizes, from feet to feet wide, and feet to feet deep. they are each fitted with turn-table and specially constructed fans for drawing out the air, and with it the superfluous paint, enamel, etc. fig. shows a side view of an -ft. fumexer indicating the style of construction and funnel-shaped back clear to the floor. the steel fumexer with the autocool electric exhaust fan installed is claimed to insure a maximum exhaust efficiency, and to completely remove all fumes arising from the work in the finishing room--at a minimum of power consumption. the fumexer is a fire-proof steel booth specially designed and built for the height of service. it is constructed of heavy sheet steel on an angle iron frame, with wire glass windows in sides and top. provision is made for electric lights--reflector and sockets being built in. the back of the fumexer is funnel-shaped clear to the floor, which arrangement, together with the large fan opening, gives maximum exhausting results, especially on large work. the short exhaust pipe running from the back opening is easy to clean and permits of the placing of the fumexer near outside wall. to take care of all classes and styles of work, the fumexer is regularly made in a variety of sizes as above mentioned with the proper number of fans installed. other sizes to meet any special requirements are made to order. a turn-table, which is adjustable, tilting and revolving--either floor or suspended type--is supplied with the fumexer. this device facilitates the handling of a large percentage of work. the floor type turn-table is not fastened to the floor nor fumexer and can be removed when not required. the autocool electric exhaust fan installed in all fumexers is an exclusive aeron system product, and is particularly adapted to the work required of it. in fig. is illustrated the side and front views of a -foot single exhaust fan installation fumexer with suspended type turn-table. the fan motor, completely enclosed and protected from fumes, is automatically cooled by a stream of pure air which is continuously drawn through the motor. this means a fan of increased efficiency. the motor is only one-twelfth h.p. and will do the required work at one-tenth or less the power consumption of other styles of exhausting methods. autocool fans are made in one size only, the number of fan units being increased for fumexers above five feet in width. in this way the right number can easily be adapted to any kind of work. the makers claim that by this arrangement a better distribution of exhaust is obtained, and the vapour is moved quickly at low pressure through the large fan openings--this accounting for the small amount of power used. the next illustration shows the autocool electric exhaust fan both closed for use and with motor and blades swung inward for cleaning. in fig. is shown a special fumexer with three exhaust fan installation and automobile body. this equipment, together with type d aeron with v spray head or type m aeron with v-a spray head and the air transformer set, is used for priming and surfacing automobile bodies. two very interesting illustrations are fig. , the one on the left being a fumexer with automatic elevating and revolving turn-table, while that on the right is a fumexer with wheel-jack. the turn-table is revolved by a / h.p. electric motor, furnished in either direct or alternating current. the speed of rotation is adjustable through a wide range by means of a friction wheel and disc. the table is started and stopped by either hand lever or foot pedal entirely independent of motor. a ten-inch elevation of the table is accomplished by compressed air acting on a piston which supports the revolving parts. a hand lever controls this feature, and the speed of elevation and lowering is adjustable for different classes of work. this turn-table is especially designed for handling box-like work, finished inside and outside in the same or different materials. the elevation feature makes possible the painting of an article one colour inside and another outside in one operation without interference. it is also well adapted for use on other classes of small work. the fumexer in operation is shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] the devilbiss "fumexer" or spraying cabinet. accessories. it is difficult to classify accessories as readily as the sprayers themselves; we must content ourselves with a description of some of these as supplied by the firms mentioned in the previous chapter. one of the most complete plant supplied is that installed by the airostyle & lithos, ltd. they have, in addition to the sprayers, a system of carrying a specially designed colour pot on a bracket over the hood clearly seen in fig. . such a colour pot has a clamped cover, making an airtight joint, and so arranged as to be readily taken off for cleaning or re-charging, and with a spun copper container, offering no obstruction to the flow of the paint and reducing loss to a minimum. connections are provided on the top for the pressure feed, for filling up by means of a funnel, and for permitting the use of the compressed air as a means of driving out the paint from the flexible tube before leaving the instrument after work is finished each night. another accessory is a smaller pressure bowl made to screw directly on the pistol sprayer and designed to make possible the use of many coloured enamels, while still retaining the advantage of the pressure feed. pressure is conveyed into the bowl through a flexible tube from a special type of reducing valve, shown in fig. . this illustration shows the connections as universally employed on airostyle plants. the reducing valves are so designed as to give in case of the top valve a pressure up to lbs. for the pressure feed, and in the lower one any pressure instantly from atmospheric pressure up to the maximum. it is the practice to take the air pressure from the air main through the reducing valve into the low pressure tank, as shown, as this further ensures that absolutely pure air shall be delivered to the sprayer and a steady supply of air at any pressure is always available. the low pressure tank is, as shown, a very simple type, albeit soundly made, and a drain tap is provided at the base of same. last, but not least, comes the type of flexible tubing employed, and this is the outcome of much experimenting, in that the same is unaffected by the action of turpentine, white spirit, or even naphtha. before leaving this question the reader is referred to the numerous illustrations (see pages to ), as these give a far better idea of the completeness of the airostyle plants than is possible in this chapter. turn-tables. to facilitate handling of goods to be sprayed, a turn-table is usually found of considerable service. these turn-tables vary according to the class of work that is being dealt with. in fig. is shown one made by the aerograph co., ltd., which is inches in diameter by inches high. it is made entirely of cast iron, excepting the cone seated bearing, which is of hardened steel, which rotates freely and is nicely finished. the weight is lbs. sometimes turn-tables are provided with projecting points to prevent the article being sprayed from moving, while in other cases the top of the table is provided with ridges for the same purpose. in all small turn-tables a conical bearing of hardened steel, properly lubricated, is sufficient for the purpose, but in the larger work it is desirable to employ ball-bearings. whichever method is used, it is essential that the table turns very freely so that it can be moved almost with a touch. [illustration: fig. .--aerograph turn-table.] [illustration: fig. .--two forms of fumexer] [illustration: fig. .--the fumexer in use.] [illustration: fig. .--a paasche turn-table.] fig. shows the paasche turn-table, which can be raised or lowered into suitable positions as well as tilted at any angle. it revolves freely with a gentle touch. larger sizes are supplied. the necessity of providing for carrying off the fumes which arise in paint spraying has already been dealt with. the auto-electric air heater. this invention is the property of the devilbiss manufacturing company, and is intended to overcome the tendency of the air to cool as it leaves the nozzle in spraying, while it tends to keep it heated till it reaches the work. it also raises the temperature of the varnish or enamel, producing a smooth, even finish. in addition to heating the air, the auto-heater warms the nozzle, thereby raising the temperature of the varnish. because of the heated air and warmed material there is a complete elimination of the pitted, pebbled or mottled effect so noticeable when "short oil," quick setting or heavy bodied varnishes or enamels are sprayed on flat surfaces. the auto-heater enables aeron users to improve the quality of many classes of work--in many instances it opens up an entirely new field of usefulness. the auto-heater and the air transformer set together insure clean, dry and warm air at the proper pressure, which is an important factor in the production of the best aeron results. the auto-heater applies the heat at the last possible point before the air enters the aeron; as a consequence there is absolutely no loss or waste of heat, as would be the case if the air were heated at some other point and then passed through the hose to the machine. it is very easy to understand that if air heated before entering the hose retained sufficient heat to be of service when reaching the nozzle, it would be so hot that it would destroy the hose. in the only practical way, the auto-heater maintains the heat in the air at the proper degree till the spray reaches the work. the auto-heater is light, yet rugged in construction. it has no exposed contacts. the conductor wires run through the air hose. it can be attached to any style of aeron without difficulty. there is an automatic cut-off furnished with every auto-heater. placing the aeron in the cup holder, or hanging it on the hook, automatically cuts off the current--picking up the aeron automatically turns on the current. this automatic control effects a great saving in current. as a protection against overheating the auto-heater is equipped with a fusible safety disc, which melts, allowing the air to escape, if current is left turned on by accident when the aeron is not in use. this safety device operates within four minutes. several extra discs are furnished with every outfit. the auto-heater can be connected to any electric light socket, and consumes only watts current when in operation. the construction of the auto-heater will be understood on reference to fig. . another interesting heater is supplied by the airostyle & lithos, ltd., a number of which are in use in this country its general form can be seen on reference to fig. , page. , which shows a gas-heated type. the same heater is also supplied either electrically or steam heated. in all types it has the same general features, namely, a water-jacketed colour pot, a special coil for heating the air supply, which is afterwards passed through the water jacket for the dual purpose of raising the temperature of the jacket and damping down the air temperature at the same time. to a convenient standpipe the hot air is carried and distributed to the pistol, and also to a special jacket round the colour tube. the airostyle pistol is provided with an adjustment which admits of the hot air by-passing the whole time so, maintaining the pistol at the same temperature as the colour pot and ensuring a steady flow of the japan. the heaters are mounted on a stand at the side of the hood and are complete with pressure gauges, regulating valves, special burner for gas, or an electrically heated pot giving three heats, or for steam giving a wide range of temperatures controlled by the steam pressure through a reducing valve. it must be explained that the same result is obtained no matter which form of heater is employed, and that in no case can the japan be burnt. the heaters are used for thick black tar varnish, or cycle japans, also for certain gum or glue mixtures and special varnishes. [illustration: fig. .--the auto electric air heater.] chapter viii. stencils and masks--the requirements of different trades in spraying. just as in applying paint by immersion some parts which are not required to be painted can be protected, as already explained, so in spraying. certain parts are to be left unpainted, such as the plated fronts and glass lenses of cycle lamps. this is effected by the adoption of some system of masking. such masks are, however, very simple and are sprung on with a simple wire spring or clip, and so held in place while spraying. a mask has been designed and patented purposely for use when spraying. this is described on page . this mask has embodied in it a plunger on the end of which is mounted a rubber sucker, and as the plunger is controlled by a spring, all that is necessary to do is to depress the plunger down on to the lamp, box, or whatever article is to be painted; and as the sucker of the plunger comes into contact with the article first, it grips the surface and the spring behind the plunger forces the mask, which may be any shape, but is preferably of box form, down upon the article. this mask is very practical, but its use is limited, to some extent, to forms of lamps which do not need any stencil or mask. such a step, needless to say, has only been taken because the system of compressed air japanning is the one ideal method--and one has only to refer to manufacturers who have used it for confirmation of this. in addition to simple masks, there are many more complicated forms, such as those in use in gas meter manufactories, where there are no fewer than half a dozen points to be masked, and in hardly any case do more than two points remain the same over numbers of meters to be dealt with. however, this has been overcome by arranging the masks on a spring foundation, and making them capable of sliding adjustment in two or more directions, and the time taken to fix these masks is in no case more than seconds. seeing that the time taken to brush a meter (even a small one) is not more than seven minutes and the time taken to spray one, with a superior result, is not more than one minute, there is a very considerable saving even after allowing time for fixing the mask. [illustration: fig. .--masks for gas meters.] other stencils are employed for lettering on plates, despatch boxes, and for ornamental work on cash boxes, etc., and need no further description here other than stating that these must be of something stronger than tinfoil, and not too strong to prevent them being pressed firmly down on to the article to be dealt with. in other cases, stencils are spun or pressed out to exactly fit the article, as in the case of brass lacquered goods, rubber balls, enamelled ironware, etc., and in some cases, where a number of stencils are employed, for one pattern, these are arranged round a common centre, and hinged so that, once the article is in position, stencil after stencil may be readily and accurately brought into position over the work. for decorative work, very elaborate stencils are employed, with many plates for each design; but such stencils hardly come within the scope of the present work, although they are employed for wallpaper work, and in the textile industries for high-class effects. the hart patent mask. [illustration: fig. --the hart patent mask.] a very ingeniously constructed, although simple, mask which is suitable for many purposes, but particularly for motor and carriage lamps, has been patented by mr. walter william hart, of the firm of matthew j. hart & sons, great barr street, birmingham, and others. by this invention means are provided for applying the mask to a plain surface so that it may be immovably held without causing injury to the surface. the mask, too, has the advantage that it can be placed in position with extreme rapidity. by this invention the mask is fastened in position by a suction pad, preferably made of indiarubber, which, when pressed on to the surface to be covered, adheres thereto by the pressure of the atmosphere. in fig. is shown an inner face view and a sectional elevation of the device. the mask (_a_) is adapted to have an axial movement in relation to the suction pad (_b_) so that when such pad has been fixed in position the mask may be pressed close upon the surface it is required to protect. this suction pad (_b_) is of a conical formation, and is secured to the end of the plunger (_c_) which passes rearwardly through a hole (_d_) in the back of the mask, and through a tubular extension (_e_) passing rearwardly from the back of the mask. the rear end of the plunger has a hole therein, which hole is screw threaded, and to such end a cap (_f_) is secured. a stud (_f_) on the interior of the flat end of the cap screwing into the said tapped hole, and the cylindrical portion (_f _) of the cap slidingly fitting over the tubular extension (_e_) on the mask. a spiral spring (_g_) surrounds the plunger, one end bearing on a shoulder (_h_) at the rear of the mask and the other end bearing against the cap (_f_). to fasten the mask, the same is placed in position over the part to be covered and the cap (_f_) is pressed down, thus pressing the suction pad (_b_) upon the surface of the article, to which it adheres. a mask constructed according to this invention is capable of a great variety of applications, one of which is in connection with lamps. that shown in the illustration is intended for this purpose. it will be clear that the shape, however, can be varied according to the article to be painted by spraying; for example, it may be used with advantage for decorative purposes. making stencils. when it is decided to spray through stencils, it is usual to employ thin copper plates for the purpose, although in wallpaper decoration very heavy copper stencils are used, because, these being held horizontally, the weight increases the stiffness of them, while it prevents them shifting while in use. in ordinary work, however, where a stencil must be used vertically, the lighter stencil will be most useful. if paper is used, the best material is japanese vellum, which is manufactured from a special fibre and possesses the advantage of being easy to cut and makes remarkably durable stencils. it is imported from japan by jas. spicer & sons, ltd., , upper thames street, london, e.c. manilla paper may be had from the same firm, and answers also very well. for some styles of work, lead foil gives good results. messrs. locke, lancaster, and w. w. and r. johnstone & co., ltd., , gracechurch street, e.c., supply a material which they call "four-ounce stencil metal," which weighs ounces to the square foot, is made in sheets ft. by ft. in., and in smaller sizes, and costs s. per lb. it can be easily cut with a stencil knife, and is most suitable for work on horizontal surfaces. another paper which may be used is ordinary whatman's paper. the usual method of cutting is to use a very sharp knife, such as a shoemaker uses, and to cut on a sheet of glass. if any variety of paper is employed, it will be necessary to apply two coats of shellac varnish, ordinarily called "patent knotting." this protects the surface of the paper from being worn away by the action of the brush. some stencil cutters prefer boiled oil for the purpose. zinc stencils are sometimes employed. these may be made as follows: the thinnest sheets of zinc are employed for the purpose, and upon this is painted the letters or design to form the stencil. the whole of the zinc which is not to be cut out, or rather, by this process, eaten out by acid, must be protected by means of a varnish made as follows: take one pint of best asphaltum varnish, two ounces of beeswax and half-an-ounce of rosin and four ounces of venice turpentine. melt the beeswax and rosin in the venice turpentine, and while warm add the asphaltum varnish, mixing thoroughly together. paint this on the back of the zinc plate and on all parts that are to be protected. form a dam or little wall made of parts of beeswax and one part of tallow melted together and allow to cool. this is intended to confine the acid to the parts required to be eaten out. nitric acid is used for the purpose mixed with three parts of water. this is poured on the space inside the dam and allowed to remain on for from to hours, when it will be found to have eaten away the zinc on the parts unprotected. further information concerning stencils will be found in the book entitled "stencils and stencilling," by a. l. duthie, published by the trade papers publishing co., ltd., , birkbeck bank chambers, high holborn, london, w.c., price s. d. requirements of special trades. the following hints are given of the requirements of a few special trades:-- _piece work._ in very many cases where articles are painted by means of compressed air it will be found quite practicable to have the work done by piece work. the exact time taken to spray any particular article can, after a very little practice, be determined quite accurately. in fixing the price to be paid for the work an allowance must, of course, be made for the time taken in bringing the piece to the spraying cabinet and placing it ready to be taken away by the boys or labourers. it is in this detail that speed may be increased so materially. the actual time of spraying to a great extent regulates itself, but if care is not taken considerable waste of time will be occasioned in getting articles ready and taking them away, and a satisfactory arrangement of piece work to both employer and employee will remove this waste of time and will prove more beneficial than day work. bookbinding. the principal use of spraying in this work is to put on the speckled edges of books after they are sewed and before binding. this is usually done by splashing colour from a stiff-haired brush over a comb, but the method is a crude one at best. in using a spray for the purpose one of the simpler forms will do all that is required. the pressure must be lowered and paint removed some distance from the books until the requisite size of the spots or dots of colour is obtained. with a little practice this can be regulated to a nicety. carriages. the remarks which will be found elsewhere, under the head of "tramcars," apply to some extent to carriages also, and although the superfine finish required for a high-class carriage could hardly be produced excepting by the old-fashioned means, yet the processes of flowing-on and spraying could, without doubt, often be employed for the cheap and moderately cheap style of vehicles of various kinds which are now produced on so extensive a scale. cycle parts. many parts of cycles are now painted by means of spraying, although some firms prefer dipping. whichever process is used it is necessary, as a rule, to give at least two or sometimes three or even more coats, and to get a fine finish to rub down between these coats with powdered pumice and water, and, for the last coat underneath the finish, rottenstone and oil. the parts must always be stoved, as air drying enamels are not, as a rule, sufficiently hard to permit of their resisting the hard wear to which cycles are subjected. it need hardly be said that the method of handling various parts will to a great extent determine the economy effected. the wearing parts of cycles are sometimes finished in the following manner, which is the method used by the birmingham small arms co. although somewhat expensive it is certainly worthy of all praise, because it gives so durable a finish. the iron or steel parts are first thoroughly washed in american turpentine and are then stoved, the result being a perfectly clean surface. a coat of calcutta linseed oil is then given by means of brushes and the parts are then stoved at ° f., after which they receive a coat of what is called "black rubber solution," an elastic enamel which dries with a semi-gloss. then two separate coats of khaki colour japan are given and each are stoved at ° to ° f. a little rubbing down between the coats is sometimes necessary, and this is done with glass paper. the parts thus finished are very suitable for work which is to be subjected to very hard wear. at this writing the cycles are all intended for government, hence the care taken in the finish. electrical work. painting by compressed air is done in the case of many parts of electrical apparatus, the process being similar to that previously described. thus the metal work of fuse boxes may be finished in this way with black japan, and one coat stoved at ° f. or thereabouts will usually be found to suffice. among the large number of electric works where the process is employed may be mentioned those of w. t. henley's telegraph works, ltd., at gravesend. the airostyle is used in this case, and the work is done approximately from twice to three times as rapidly as it was formerly done with the brush. fancy baskets. fancy baskets which are made of cane, willow, special straw and other materials can be sprayed with admirable effect in many cases where brushing would be impossible. indeed, the application of a spray in this work may be considered to have created almost a new industry in a wide range of fancy goods, which may be sprayed with gold paint, or a great variety of coloured enamels may also be employed. in this case celluloid varnishes are also employed with the addition of coal tar dyes for the production of colours such as mauve, blue, moss green, rose pink, amber, orange, fire red, navy blue, etc. the work of spraying in this case is usually done over a bin such as is shown below, a simple wire device being used at the top to support the basket while it is being sprayed, although even this is often dispensed with as the article may be held by the handle, and being very light this is not found to be irksome. [illustration: fig. .--bin for spraying light articles.] gas meters. at the present time less than half a dozen gas meter manufacturers or repairers have a paint spraying plant in use, and these are described elsewhere. the saving, however, by spraying the paint is in this class of work very considerable, amounting to about to ; that is to say, five times as much work can be turned out with a spraying machine as by hand. it is generally recognised that the quality of the painting is much improved, it being harder and better in appearance and generally more satisfactory. turn-tables of a simple character are employed, and hours are allowed for the drying of the work. for protecting the indicators, the name of owner or manufacturer and brass plates of similar character, various types of shields or masks are employed, consisting of a plate of requisite shape soldered on to a piece of stiff wire, with turned ends, which embrace the meter and hold it in position. there appears to be no reason why the larger size gas meters should not be painted by spraying, provided that a suitable plant, which would be of a simple character, were provided. there is but little doubt that in a little time every manufacturer of gas meters will find it necessary to employ a spraying plant. gas stoves and ranges. in this class of work spraying is used almost exclusively; as only one side of the iron is to be painted the dipping process is obviously unsuitable. the work is done at a pressure of about lbs., but sometimes a little less is sufficient. the usual exhaust is provided and turn-tables are employed having bearing wheels on the outer edge of a circular plate. those used for the larger ranges are usually level with the floor. in addition to black, all kinds of colours may be used. this work is mostly done piece work. the smaller parts, such as rings, cookers, etc., are also sprayed. the stoving is done at ° f., but when two coats are given the first is subjected to ° f. the interior of the ovens are coated for a finish of oxide of tin, which when stoved at a high temperature assures a great increase of "body" or opacity. sometimes the finish is left solid, but in most cases the coat is stippled. the usual overhead runways consisting of hanger on four wheels on v-shaped girder are employed. picture frames, picture moulding, etc. one of the industries in which paint spraying is strikingly successful is that of preparing picture frames with a "gold" finish. if properly done the result is even better than if gold leaf is used, as the spray covers completely the most elaborate and intricate ornament. picture frames or mouldings of various shapes and sizes are obtained ready for receiving the various coats necessary to give a gold finish. formerly the whole of the operations were done by means of brushes, but this method has been wholly superseded by spraying, which approximately does the work five times as quickly and gives a far better result. three separate processes are employed; the first is the application of a coat of enamel, the second a coat of bronze or "gold paint," and the third the application of a transparent lacquer. the last protects the bronze from discoloration, and the manufacturers guarantee that such mouldings will last at least years without tarnishing. the whole of the work is air dried, but to facilitate the operation the workroom is kept at a temperature of about °f and the drying ovens up to, say, ° or even °f. the first coat of enamel is sprayed on, and in about two hours is felted down with a pad similar to that used by french polishers. this is dipped in a solvent which removes all inequalities. the actual spraying is done on a long open trough shaped bin some ft. in. from the floor having exhausts at the bottom and thin laths placed across it at intervals of about inches. the long stretches of moulding are placed on these laths lengthwise, the laths holding them in position. the spraying is done directly on them and they are turned from side to side, and when the spraying is completed each length is lifted bodily by two boys, one at each end, on to racks in the drying room which is close by and which has a large number of open iron shelves running from end to end. these shelves are quite close together, so that a large number of lengths of moulding may be dealt with at one time. heat at about °f is admitted at the bottom, and the drying apartment is open from end to end in front so that the mouldings may be readily introduced. this heat also serves to warm the room. the enamel being dry the length is removed and gone over with a pad as described and the gold paint is then sprayed on over the whole of the work, giving a beautifully fine and compact gold finish. the application of the transparent lacquer completes the operation. the materials used in this work are special spirit varnishes made on a base of celluloid. the exact composition varies with different manufacturers, but the following recipes are based on "the manufacture of spirit varnishes," by livache and mcintosh (scott, greenwood and son), and will be useful for reference. the great advantage of using celluloid is that a coloured transparent varnish is obtained. recipe for celluloid varnish. . celluloid lb. amyl acetate lbs. acetone lbs. ether (syph. meth.) lbs. . same as before with the addition of / th part of camphor. . celluloid lb. amyl acetate lbs. acetone lbs. picture frames are also finished in black having a semi-gloss finish, which gives an excellent effect and is most durable. it is very important in this class of work that ample ventilation be given to the apartment in which the work is done in such a way as to avoid draught. heated air, of course, takes up moisture much more readily than cold air, and unless means are provided for adequate ventilation the air will become moisture charged, and the work will thereby be adversely affected. this is a point which is frequently overlooked. spraying ships' hulls. it is the opinion of the author that the painting of ships' hulls may be done by means of spraying with a great saving of time. although there are no available statistics, it is probable that many thousands of acres of surface on ships' bottoms are re-painted every year. a careful enquiry has shown that some experiments have been made in this direction, but that they have always been of a somewhat perfunctory character. the very large surface gives an opportunity for the use of the spray which is almost unequalled in its possibilities. there are, however, certain difficulties in connection with this work, which have doubtless had much to do with the fact that it has not, thus far, been adopted to any considerable extent. the first of these is that the composition applied is not ordinary paint, but one which is mixed with arsenic, mercury and other poisonous compounds, which are added in order to destroy animal and vegetable life and prevent the adhesion of barnacles and other marine growth. so necessary is this that compositions are made suitable for different waters through which the vessel must pass, and it is well known that those vessels which sail by regular routes need much less frequent painting than a tramp steamer which may sail in any direction and through any sea. the reason is, that in the first case the composition is specially made to withstand the growth of life in well-defined waters, while in the case of tramp steamers it must be more or less of a general nature. the point, however, which has now to be dealt with, is that the addition of arsenic, etc., added to the paint, causes it sometimes to settle out, but it is suggested that this could be easily overcome by an agitating apparatus in the paint pot. as explained elsewhere, such an apparatus is frequently used in ordinary painting, when the composition of the paint demands it. the second and more serious objection to spraying ships' hulls is that the work must be done in the open, and that the wind will carry away a portion of the paint and prevent it reaching the surface required. it is suggested, however, this might perhaps be overcome by adopting a form of enclosed cabinet, which would screen the operator from the wind. this could be rendered portable by being mounted on a platform with wheels, and a system of elevators, and be adopted with a little ingenuity to reach the higher parts of the vessel. in any case, the subject is one which is well worth the attention of those interested in spraying, owing to the immense field it opens up. in this connection attention may be directed to the illustrations which appear on pages to of the apparatus used for spraying by the pennsylvania railroad for painting their freight cars. this apparatus may be adapted, with suitable modifications, for ship painting also. slate enamelling. the usual procedure followed in connection with enamelling on slate for mantel-pieces, stall-board, signs and other work of the kind, is to get the slate slabs quite smooth and level by means of a slate planing machine. a coat of "black varnish" or enamel is then sprayed on, and is stoved at ° to ° f. careful rubbing down with powdered pumice and water is next done, when the work receives a second coat of enamel. it is again stoved and then rubbed down by hand to a finish with rottenstone and oil. sometimes, the slate receives three coats, the finish being left with a high gloss, but more frequently the semi-gloss obtained by rubbing with rottenstone is preferred. it is unsafe to stove slate at higher than ° f., as it is likely to break when cooling. formerly, a great deal of this class of work was done in imitation of various marbles, mostly worked on a black ground, but "marbling" is now done but rarely. the method is to employ a shallow tank of water upon which are placed colours in imitation of the veins of the marble to be imitated. this colour is of a special kind, made to float, and is manipulated on the surface. the slab of slate, which has received one coat, is then dipped gently in the water, when the colour adheres to it. a coat of stoving varnish completes the operation. many slate enamellers still employ the old method of applying the enamel by means of brushes, but it is only a question of time before compressed air will be used almost exclusively, for the reason so frequently urged in this work, viz., that the spray eliminates brush marks and, therefore, greatly reduces the work of rubbing down. spraying colour specimens. specimens of various colours in distemper, oil, varnish and enamel are sent out in very large quantities by the various manufacturers of those goods, and the preparation of these specimens may be very considerably facilitated by using a suitable spraying machine. when distemper is used fairly large sheets of paper are usually employed, and these are cut up by means of a guillotine machine when dry. ordinary oil paint and varnish paints may in like manner be sprayed, but when an enamel finish is desired it is usual to apply the paint on the back of a sheet of thin white celluloid, which gives the appearance which would be obtained by the application of varnish. in spraying celluloid sheets it will be found that after a little practice the paint may be laid on much more uniformly than is possible by means of a brush. this can easily be demonstrated by holding up the painted sheet to the light, when it will be found that the paint applied by a brush shows more inequalities or streaks than that when sprayed. stencilling may be done very well on either paper or celluloid sheets; in the case of these specimens, for example, supposing it was desired that each specimen of colour when cut up should bear a number, it would not be difficult to cut a stencil in zinc or leadfoil, repeating the number as many times as there are specimens to be cut out of each sheet. the tinfoil would then be fixed in position and the spraying done over it, which would mark each piece with a number. then the coat of colour can be sprayed all over the surface. the plan above would be followed in the case of celluloid, but when ordinary paper is used the process would, of course, have to be reversed and the number put on last. in some cases where a very great brilliancy of colour is required, this is done by the process of glazing, which is described elsewhere in this book; for example, a comparatively dull red could be very much brightened by spraying a coat of madder or crimson lake. here, again, if celluloid is used the glazing colour will go on first and the ground colour afterwards, but in ordinary circumstances the ground work would, of course, be first applied. probably the most complete plant for preparing colour specimens is in use by mander brothers, the well-known paint, varnish and colour manufacturers, of wolverhampton. the spraying of colours is mostly done on celluloid sheets, and four cabinets of the airostyle type are in more or less constant use. these cabinets have glass sides and top hung on hinges so that they may be opened when desired. the pressure of air is usually from to lbs., with an additional lbs. on the paint pot. one coat is sufficient, because, of course, it can be made as thick as may be necessary according to the particular specimens being prepared. the saving of time is estimated at, at least, per cent. in dealing with celluloid sheets it is obviously of importance to adopt some safe means of storing them while drying. formerly messrs. mander brothers had a long series of double clips by which the sheets were suspended while drying, but this method has been abandoned owing to the danger involved of fire. now suitable tin-lined cabinets are provided having from top to bottom a series of cleats which support open wire trays. each sheet of celluloid as it is painted is placed on a wire tray which is slipped in the cabinet, where it dries in hours. tramcars. [illustration: fig. .--general view of airostyle plant for operators on small work.] [illustration: fig. --view of airostyle plant for operators, showing ventilator.] as far as the author can gather information, the processes described in this book are not used in great britain to any extent in the finish of tramcars, but are gradually making headway in america, particularly for the final coats. there appears to be no reason, however, why "flowing-on," as described in chapter xiii., should not be used to a much greater extent than is at present the case. the earlier coats, being very stiff, might be applied by means of brushes, and these coats could be followed by spraying, and finally the finishing coats could be flowed on. formerly, this work was done almost in the same way as that by which the fine finish of a carriage body is produced, viz., the building up of a perfectly smooth surface by a large number of coats, rubbing each one down carefully and finishing with two or more coats of varnish, these being also rubbed down excepting the last. in modern practice these methods are greatly simplified, and at least several coats, which were formerly thought to be necessary, are dispensed with. the finish is often obtained by applying a coat of a suitable enamel, rubbing this down, and then giving a final finish of a good flowing varnish. it is suggested that spraying, or flowing-on, could be used for some of this work with very great advantage in the saving of time. in dealing with many paints which are to be stoved, a well-thought-out system should be in use of conveying the articles from the finishing rooms to the painting apparatus and thence to the ovens. if more than one coat is given it will be necessary to arrange also for conveyance after the parts are baked back to the painting plant for the next coat. as a rule, a system of overhead runways, such as is described for use in paint dipping, will be found the most economical method to adopt. it will be observed that in the list of trades and articles which may be successfully painted by mechanical means, given on pages to , there are many which are omitted from the detailed descriptions. the reason for this is that the main principles are in all cases practically the same and the details must necessarily vary, not only with the goods being dealt with, but according to the extent of the operations and the accommodation of the factory available. thornley & knight, ltd., of birmingham, specialise in this business, and have sold, during the last few years, many thousands of gallons of their air-drying coloured japans, for use on car bodies. many of the largest motor car manufacturers have adopted the process. chapter ix. some typical plants. an interesting airostyle plant is shown in figs. , and , and is arranged for operators to deal mainly with bronze lacquers, hence the somewhat simple arrangement with no provision for adjustment of pressures at each hood. [illustration: fig. .--side elevation of plant for operators.] it will be noted that the ventilator employed is of important size; the compressor delivering air to the plant is stationed in the basement. the views of the plant are excellent, and serve to remove the erroneous impression that such a plant cannot be conveniently and economically arranged, both as regards floor space occupied and the provision of adequate gangways on all sides. another interesting airostyle plant is shown in figs. , and , and was installed for japanning gas fires, radiators, gas cookers, etc. an item worthy of note in this plant is the patented hot air apparatus installed for warming the japan and for also heating the sprayer and flexible tube conveying the japan to the sprayer; it is clearly seen in the centre of the two hoods. the large hood is mainly used for radiators, which are wheeled on to the large ball-bearing turn-table, shown white for the purpose of a clearer view, but when not so used a table is wheeled into position and two operators are accommodated for smaller work. [illustration: fig. .--part end elevation of plant for operators.] the power unit, consisting of electric drive and suitable overhead countershaft, together with the compressor and ball-bearing fan, is shown in fig. , and is directly outside the japanning shop. this plant was installed for the davis gas stove company, luton, and has been in operation for several years. the compressor shown in fig also delivers air to the gas cooker department for two or three operators, and to the porcelain enamelling department for six or seven operators, but as the same practice is adopted as is shown in the photos here reproduced, no useful purpose will be served in describing them in detail. undoubtedly one of the most important plants in the country, and one producing the highest finish, is installed at messrs. joseph lucas, ltd., birmingham, and the photographs reproduced here are by their kind permission. the author was granted the privilege of inspecting the plant fully, and proposes to enlarge upon its arrangement and capacities for saving of labour, etc. [illustration: fig. .--plan of figs. and .] the whole of the work was carried out by messrs. the airostyle and lithos, ltd., and it must be admitted that the plants are so arranged as to admit of rapid handling of the work, and the subsequent stoving of the articles is just as conveniently provided for. two distinct plants are in use at the moment with a separate steel plate central draught fan and a water-cooled air compressor (the type of fan and air compressor employed is shown elsewhere in the book, see figs. and ). [illustration: fig. .--airostyle plant power unit, compressor, motor fan etc., installed for the davis gas stove co., ltd., luton.] on referring to the drawings figs. , and , showing respectively an elevation, end view and plan of one of the plants, it will be seen that the plant is divided up into two bays, each accommodating six operators, so that, in all, twenty-four operators are provided for in the two plants and were actually seen at work. it will at once be noticed that ample space between the bays is provided, and this is most essential in order to give sufficient room for the racks which are wheeled into place behind each operator. these racks are readily seen in the photographs, figs. and , and can also be distinguished in fig. . the japanning shop in which the plants are installed is of large dimensions, feet long by feet wide, and is extremely light and airy, but, owing to the fact that the roof-lights are now painted over (by government regulations), the shop at present appears to disadvantage, and the photographs consequently suffer. the photographs, nevertheless, show very clearly what an immense amount of work can be daily handled, but, notwithstanding this, the writer was assured that there were still numbers of brush hands in the shop. this was primarily due to the fact that full arrangements for spraying are not yet completed ( more operators are being provided for), and, secondly, to the fact that certain work needing a large amount of masking can be almost as readily brushed, and this class of work finds employment for brush hands. messrs. lucas, ltd., admit that there is a wastage of japan, but maintain that a heavier and much more even coat is applied with a superior finish to brush work, and that there is an enormous gain in time of about to over brushing. they state, also, that an indirect gain is obtained in the economical working of the stoves, for these are filled far more quickly, and, consequently, the daily output per stove is correspondingly increased. a striking proof of the saving is their statement that if they had not the system of spraying at work, it would have meant hands in the japanning department, whereas they now employed only , and a considerable number of these were engaged upon brush work, so that if only the whole of the work could have been handled with the spray, then the number of hands necessary would have been even less than . the photographs, figs. to , need no description, and are self-explanatory to a large extent. the type of instrument used, and the accessories, are described in detail elsewhere, as they are the standard practice adopted with all airostyle plants. the writer also had the privilege of inspecting another interesting airostyle plant, installed at messrs. g. cabdy and sons, birmingham, where or operators are employed upon high-class celluloid enamel finishes upon buttons, medallions, cameos, electrical fittings, and last, but not least, numerous parts for munition work, such as cartridge clips for or -pounders, etc. the small articles are laid on a grid measuring about inches by inches, and while holding the grid the operator sprays over the whole of the article on the grid, and in the case of rounded faces of buttons, sprays these obliquely from all sides in turn, as well as over the tops of the buttons. it may be mentioned that the greater part of the spraying paints and enamels are supplied by messrs. thornley & knight, ltd., of birmingham. the birmingham small arms co. the cycle department of this well-known firm deals with an enormous, amount of parts, and a new paint spraying department on an extensive scale is in course of construction at redditch, and the method in use at the birmingham works will be to a great extent followed. in both cases the "midland" sprayer is used under a pressure of from to lbs. the method is very thorough, and although comparitively expensive is well calculated to produce a finish which is (a) capable of withstanding hard wear and possible knocks and (b) absolutely rust-proof. the finish is elastic and very durable. it is produced by the following method. the steel or iron parts are first thoroughly washed in pure american turpentine in order to remove every trace of grease and dirt. in passing, it may be said that a suitable white spirit would probably answer as well and would effect a considerable saving, although it is possible that the pure turpentine leaves a certain residue behind it which is of advantage in forming a key to the subsequent coats. the parts are then stoved, when a coat of pure baltic linseed oil is applied by means of brushes, and they are again stoved at ° f. then a coat of black japan, known in the works as "rubber solution," is sprayed on, and a third stoving is given in this case at ° f. this is followed by two coats of khaki-coloured enamel sprayed on, which dries with a semi-gloss finish. the parts are stoved between each coat and after the final coat, so that they receive five stovings altogether. [illustration: fig. .--compressor, etc., for airostyle plant for operators.] [illustration: fig. .--airostyle plant installed for gas fire and radiator work for messrs. the davis gas stove co., ltd.] the ovens are of special construction and are described in detail elsewhere. the japans employed are supplied by messrs. arthur holden and co., ltd., of birmingham. samples of the work thus finished were submitted to the author, who carefully tested them. he found that the finish was all that could be desired. a piece of plate metal, for instance, was bent double without the finish being affected, thus showing very clearly the great elasticity of the coating--a most important and necessary quality in a finish for this class of work. messrs. fletcher, russell & co., ltd. this well-known firm use spraying at their warrington works on an extensive scale. all parts of gas cookers, gas stoves, and ranges large and small, are sprayed by different sizes of the airostyle sprayer. stoving takes place in most cases, and the work of spraying effects a great saving, one man being able to do the work of at least three under the old brush system. some very beautiful effects are obtained in stoves intended for use in drawing, dining and reception rooms, by spraying various coloured semi-transparent lacquers over silver-bright iron or steel. rich reds, browns, greens and blues in various shades are produced, and the bright surface beneath the lacquer gives a very pleasing and artistic effect. stoving produces the necessary hardness of the lacquer, which may be regarded as being very durable. special machines. the berkel and parnall's slicing machine co., ltd., whose extensive works are at , bow common lane, london, e., have had a plant for paint spraying in use for the last four years, and find it to be quite successful and a great saving of time over the old method of applying the paint by means of brushes, in addition to a superior finish being obtained. the sprayer in this case is the "invincible," and the paint is sprayed on under pressure varying according to the nature of the work. the iron parts which go to make up the slicing machine are first primed and stoved and any imperfections stopped in the usual manner. they are then painted by means of compressed air and again stoved, after which they receive a further coat, which is also stoved. various ornamentation in gold is then put on, mostly by the transfer process, although certain parts require lining by hand. the final coat of varnish is given by means of brushes, it being found that this is the most economical way for this particular class of work. in this particular it will be observed that the method differs from that used in many other works where all the operations are done by spraying, including a final coat of varnish. the colour used for the paint is a bright red. there are two spraying cabinets with the usual exhaust, and turn-tables are employed for turning the parts round to receive the coat of paint. it may surprise some readers to learn the very large extent to which these slicing machines are used throughout the world for various purposes. gittings, hills and boothby, limited. the plant for spraying in use in these works is principally intended for experimental purposes in connection with the preparation of paints, varnishes and lacquers of various descriptions which the firm manufacture. an up-to-date type of pistol is used, with a pressure not exceeding lbs. to the inch. the work is done in a small closet with glass sides open at one side, and a small turn-table is employed upon which to place the article that is being sprayed. some admirable results are obtained with the aid of gold lacquers. it is found that in certain varnishes the application of heat is an advantage, but as a rule the spraying is done cold. among the articles which have been painted are motor cars and various smaller appliances. the kingsbury manufacturing co., ltd. a typical plant for finishing picture frames, furniture, fancy articles such as wood, cane and other ornamental baskets, is that of the kingsbury manufacturing co., ltd., , markfield rd., broad lane, tottenham, n. this firm are the inventors of what is known as the "inolite" system of gilding, which is described as an ideal process. certainly the work produced is as near perfection as one would desire, the gilding being excellent in appearance, while it is guaranteed for five years to be free from discoloration or tarnishing. the process consists in applying by means of spraying, first, a coat of special enamel, which when dry is rubbed down with a solvent applied by a pad. upon this is sprayed a coat of gold paint, and a final coat of colourless celluloid varnish is given which protects the gold from tarnishing. the process adopted is described in greater detail under the head of "picture frame finishing" in this book. [illustration: fig. .--view from one end of messrs. lucas, ltd., airostyle plants, showing fan and compressor drives.] the coloured celluloid enamels which are applied to fancy baskets, etc., have a very attractive metallic appearance, which is far superior to the ordinary crude bronzy effect. another speciality of the firm is the finish of frames in special black, which gives a perfectly smooth finish which might be called "egg-shell gloss." it is quite artistic in appearance, eminently suitable for the particular purpose, and gives a durable frame at a comparatively small cost. the firm estimate the saving of time by using the spraying as compared with that of employing a brush is as is to . they point out that a little extra material is required, but this is not begrudged as it possesses advantages in an increased durability of the protective coating. the gas light and coke co. several of the works of this company, which deal with gas meters, are fitted with paint spraying installations. the branch at laburnum street, kingsland road, in charge of mr. w. f. fagan, may be taken as a type. two aerographs and three airostyles are in use. the old meters that come to the works are examined, and if the paint is in fairly good condition the surface is rubbed down with pumice stone and water, but if it is much decayed the meters are placed in a hot bath containing a solution of lime and caustic soda, and allowed to remain in it a short time, when the paint becomes so soft as to be easily removable. the surface of new tinplate is cleaned down with spirit, when it is quite ready to receive the coat of paint. at these works many different makes of meters come in to be dealt with, hence various masks are necessary to protect those parts which it is not desired to spray. the pressure used here is rather more than usual, being lbs. to the sq. inch. the time taken to paint a meter is very small, as can be understood when it is said that two men working on five-light meters can turn out an hour. before the spraying apparatus was put in, about a year ago, a man could paint with a brush about three meters in an hour, so that, with the present system, there is an immense saving. it is calculated that the whole of the original outlay of putting in the plant will be returned at the end of about a year. the masks or shields having been placed in position, a cap is placed over each union and the paint is sprayed on. the meters are turned out at the rate of to , a week of hours. the spraying apparatus is provided with the usual exhaust consisting of two -inch holes to each cabinet, with grating over. about per cent, more paint is allowed than that used when it is applied by hand, but the greater part of this goes on the surface, and the coat of paint as a protector is distinctly improved. the exhaust is carried up to the roof, but the actual loss of paint is very small. fig. shows a general view, and a large central draught steel plate fan is employed to exhaust the hoods, and to drive this and the compressor a gas engine is employed. the compressor is of the type illustrated in fig. , page , and can just be discerned behind the gas engine. fig. shows a gas meter in position, with the necessary masks fixed, and fig. shows the operator about to spray-paint same. this plant has been in daily operation for more than two years. the gas meter co., limited. the installation of a spraying plant at the works of this firm, which are at , kingsland road, have been in operation for rather less than a year, but has proved quite satisfactory. various types of gas meters are sprayed with one coat of torbay paint, which is an iron oxide paint of high quality, and the one coat possesses amply sufficient quality to give a good covering. prior to painting the surface of the tinned plate which is used for gas meters, it is cleaned down with a piece of waste dipped in spirit. masks are used to fit over name plates, etc., and the spraying is done in the usual cabinet, with an exhaust. a three or four-light meter takes about two minutes to do, and the larger sizes, of course, longer in proportion. all sizes up to and including -light meters are sprayed, but those larger, up to , lights, are a little too big to handle. the greater part of the meters are done in deep red oxide iron colour, but three other colours are used in addition, as may be required. the meter to be sprayed is placed on a turn-table which bears on a sharp steel point and has on its upper portion spikes or ridges, to hold the meter in position. the aerograph spray is employed in this case. [illustration: fig. .--general view of airostyle plants at messrs. lucas' ltd.] [illustration: fig. .--j. lucas, ltd., airostyle plants, showing the ample space between hoods.] [illustration: fig. .--j. lucas, ltd., airostyle plants, showing the method of employing racks to greater advantage, and also giving a clearer idea of the large fan employed.] chapter x. paints, lacquers, varnishes, etc. used in spraying. under the head of "paints used for dipping" some information has been given in respect to the paints suitable for that purpose. some, but not all, paints are suitable for both dipping and spraying, the exceptions being the heavier or more viscous compounds, which are not suitable for painting by immersion because they are too thick. tar, enamel, and the heavier varnishes may be given as examples, although they may be successfully applied by the spraying process. sometimes in dealing with the heavier compounds the application of heat is an advantage. this may be applied to either the paint or the compressed air or to both in order to increase the fluidity of the compound. it is important when heat is thus applied that the temperature of the room in which the spraying is done should be raised correspondingly, so that the heavier paints, enamel, etc., do not congeal by being directed against a cold surface. under most circumstances it is unnecessary to apply heat, provided that the spraying room is kept at a temperature of not less than ° f. both in summer and winter. as already intimated, the preparation of paints, lacquers and varnishes for both dipping and spraying necessitates a close study of the special requirements. in the case of paint the particles of pigment must be very finely divided as coarse material would tend to choke up the spraying apparatus, or if even they did not actually have that result they would require a greater pressure of air and thus add to the cost of working. zinc oxide, the various grades of black and most bright reds, are examples of finely ground pigments which are well suited for spraying. in buying materials for this purpose it is well to purchase of those firms who have made a special study of the subject. the following is a list of a few such firms, all well known to the writer, and although it by no means exhausts the list yet anyone desiring to buy materials may very safely leave themselves in their hands. messrs. docker, bros., ltd., birmingham; gittings, hills and boothby, ltd., tower varnish works, long acre, birmingham; goodlass, wall and co., ltd., seal street, liverpool; a. holden and sons, ltd., bradford street, birmingham; indestructible paint co., ltd., king's house, king street, london, e.c.; lewis berger and sons, ltd., homerton, london, n.; llewellyn rylands, ltd., balsall heath works, birmingham; mander bros., wolverhampton; postans and morley brothers, ltd, , lionel street, birmingham; the frederick crane chemical co., birmingham; thornley and knight, birmingham; wilkinson, heywood and clark, ltd., caledonian works, poplar. e.; pinchin, johnson and co., ltd., bevis marks, london. the following are american firms:-- the moller and schumann co., chicago, ill.; john lucas and co., inc, gibbsboro', n.j.; the chicago white lead and oil co., chicago, ill.; john w. masury and son, new york, n.y.; the glidden varnish company, cleveland, o.; the sherwin-williams co., cleveland, o.; stoving enamels. we now reach these important enamels, and extract the following from the foreword of the little book above mentioned. messrs. wilkinson, heywood and clark claim to be the first successful makers of stoving blacks, which was in the days before the introduction of bicycles. though originally introduced for cycle work, stoving enamel produces a most successful finish for all kinds of materials. in the united states of america such enamels are used in great quantities for finishing standardised motor bodies. these black enamels have gained a very high name for themselves, as properly baked they are extraordinarily hard, brilliant and tough, and when applied over such material as tin sheets are flexible enough to withstand being bent double without showing signs of cracking. an important feature are the coloured enamels made by the same firm, which run through a whole series of yellows, reds, browns, greens and blues, and are hard, durable and tough, and can be stoved without changing colour. we extract the following notes on the "application of stoving enamels," and fully endorse the recommendations offered:-- . all work should be perfectly free from dirt, grease or oil, before application of enamel. . every trace of moisture should be removed before enamelling. this can be effected by stoving the work, previous to enamelling, at a light heat. moisture on work will cause enamel to blister and burn. . always when using brushing or dipping enamels, allow the enamel to set slightly (i.e., after the surplus paint has dried off) before putting in the baking oven. this will prevent uneven stoving and eliminate "fat edges," as far as possible. . oven heat should be increased gradually. never place enamelled work into a hot oven at once, but raise the heat by degrees, until the full temperature is obtained. . most of our enamels are sent out slightly thick; should an easier working material be desired, in the case of colours or blacks, add kerosene gradually until the required consistency is obtained. coloured enamel should always be stirred before use, to prevent the pigment settling and the light medium rising. if this is not done, the appearance of the work will lack body and appear dull and lifeless. this applies especially to dipping enamels. to render white stoving enamel thinner, add pure turpentine only, stirring well, until a uniform consistency is obtained. . it is quite possible to over-bake enamels and spoil the colours, and likewise under-baked enamels will not be tough enough to withstand hard wear. particular attention should be paid to the directions on the package labels, as the various pigments require different temperatures. . stoving enamels, if left in an opened can, tend to thicken considerably. for this reason, keep the can closed when not actually using the enamel. for thinning purposes we recommend kerosene. sp. gr. at ° f. . ovens should be properly ventilated to allow the proper oxidation necessary in baking. enamels. it has already been pointed out in these pages that the success of painting by dipping, spraying, "flowing on," in fact, all other mechanical means, depends upon the exact properties of the materials used. the same is true with enamels, which are made from a large variety of formulæ so as to dry slowly or quickly in the air, or when subjected to heat in a stove. the author feels he cannot do better than take as a guide to the properties of enamels in general the extremely useful handbook published by wilkinson, heywood and clark, under the head of "enamels for every purpose." this book gives practically all the information concerning enamels likely to be required by the average user. the products are divided up under different heads, for example, one page is headed "heat resisting and slow drying enamels." these dry fit to handle in hours, and dry bone hard in hours. they are made to withstand heat up to ° f., and for this reason are suitable for enamelling iron baths, radiators, etc., particularly so as to effectively resist hot water without softening or peeling. they are made in a number of beautiful colours. a somewhat similar series of enamels is made which dry quicker, viz., in hours fit to handle and quite hard in hours. they are useful for touching up radiators, stoves, steam pipes, etc., and are made in white and a dozen or more colours. the next series which demands our attention are "dipping air drying enamels." they dry in hours and are quite hard in hours. they are claimed to produce a finish equal to that obtained by a quick air drying brushing enamel with the labour of brushing eliminated. for a finish done by immersing the article to be painted these are capital enamels, but they require to be used with a stirrer of some sort in the tank. hints on stoving or baking. the degree of heat to which an article is subjected after being painted or japanned will obviously depend upon the kind of coating used. it is safe to assert as a general rule that the heat applied must not be higher than the particular paint or enamel is made to withstand, for, if this be exceeded, it will inevitably result in a loss of elasticity, of the protecting film and, hence, its durability. the following hints are taken from a very useful little pamphlet issued by the moller & schumann co., of chicago, ill. the degrees of temperature given refer to their products, and would doubtless have to be modified in some cases, according to the nature of the paint being dealt with. they will, however, form a very useful guide. [illustration: fig. .--j. lucas, ltd., airostyle plants, showing the two bays of one complete unit.] [illustration: fig. .--airostyle plant installed for messrs. the gas light and coke co., ltd. general view.] black japan finishes. one or more coats rubbing finish japan, reduced as thin as possible and still cover well. bake each coat at ° to ° for to hours. sandpaper each coat lightly. one or more coats finishing black japan reduced to brushing consistency (not too thin). bake each coat at ° to ° for to hours. sandpaper each coat lightly. rub the last coat with pumice. apply transfer and striping to last coat of japan. bake these at ° for to hours. one or more coats finishing copal brushed as it comes from the can. this protects the transfer and striping and increases the depth of the finish. bake each coat at ° for to hours. rub each coat and polish the last coat. if finishing copal is omitted, leave the last coat of japan in gloss, or rub and polish as preferred. steel furniture enamels. one or more coats of first coat enamel, reduced as thin as possible and still cover well. when brushed on, use steel preservative for back and underside of metal, one coat only, baked at same time as first coat of first coat enamel. bake each coat at ° for hours. sandpaper each coat lightly. one or more coats of finishing enamel. bake each coat at ° for hours. sandpaper all but the last coat. rub the last coat with pumice. enamels when rubbed have a different colour than the surface colour; this must be taken into account in finishing. transfer and striping, if any, should be put over last coat of finishing enamel. bake at ° for to hours. one or more coats of finishing copal. bake each coat at ° for to hours. rub each coat, and polish the last coat. if finishing copal is omitted, leave the last coat of enamel in gloss, or rub and polish as preferred. the same enamel will bake to different shades at different heats and varied lengths of time, so care must be observed to get uniform results. imitation wood effects. one or more coats of ground colour; back of metal one coat steel preservative, both reduced as thin as possible, and still cover well. if the steel preservative is used by dipping, only one coat of ground colour is generally used. bake each coat at ° for hours. sandpaper each coat of ground colour. one coat of graining colour, reduced with turpentine brushed on, and grained by hand, or with tools as in general graining. this may be done by machine or as transfer work. bake the graining colour at ° for to hours. sandpaper lightly. put on transfer and striping, if any, over last coat of finishing enamel. bake at ° for to hours. one or more coats of finishing copal. bake each coat at ° for to hours. rub each coat. rub and polish the last coat. in this work, at least one coat of finishing copal is necessary to protect the graining colour. white work--bedsteads, etc. white work cannot be finished with one coat, because no white pigment has sufficient covering power. two or more coats of first coat white enamel. bake each coat at ° to ° for to hours. sandpaper each coat lightly. two or more coats of finishing white enamel. bake each coat at ° to ° for to hours. sandpaper each coat lightly except the last coat. for gloss finish, leave last coat as it is; for eggshell finish, rub the last coat. finishing copal is rarely used over whites because of colour. transparent colour varnishes. these varnishes are used over smooth, clean, bright metal. as the metal shows through the varnish, no primer or filler can be used. one coat only is applied, usually by brushing or by a coating machine; however, it may be dipped or sprayed. bake at ° for hours. the more these varnishes are reduced, the lighter the colour becomes. [illustration: fig. .--airostyle plant installed for the gas light and coke co., ltd., showing hood in greater detail and a meter with masks affixed.] safe baking heats of pigment colours. all colours are more or less affected by heat. they lose their brilliancy, become very much darker and sometimes turn black when baked at too high a heat. prolonged heat (not too high) kills the elasticity of the enamel. it does not affect the colour. to assure brilliancy of the colour, the following highest heats can be used with safety. white ° hours. pale blue ° - " pale gray " " " pale green " " " pale yellow " " " gray °- ° - hours bright red " " " " green " " " " yellow " " " " dark blue " " " " olive green °- ° - hours maroon " " " " brown " " " " black - any heat up to ° comments on the above. a well-known english firm, commenting on the above says:-- "generally speaking, the information given therein is quite correct, though it should be remembered that instruction as to stoving temperatures which might be quite correct with one maker's materials, might be quite wrong with another's. "we notice they recommend that all black japan finishes should be stoved at from to degrees. this is the general practice in england, but it also happens that some firms cannot use these high temperatures or some goods will not stand it, and black japans have to be supplied which can be stoved at temperatures of about or degrees fahr. such qualities cost rather more to produce. we also notice it is recommended that finishing varnish should be stoved at degrees fahr. personally, we cannot make any clear finishing varnishes which will stand this temperature without discoloration, and even if used over black japan, they would discolour the lining or the striping thereon. "the temperatures recommended for coloured enamels are also higher than we find satisfactory, and the statement made that the same enamel will bake to different shades at different heats, and that therefore a uniform temperature is necessary to obtain uniform results, seems to confirm our view. in practice we think that uniform results can only be obtained by using a lower temperature. if a workman has to watch the thermometer in a stove to make sure that his enamels will always discolour to the same degree, you can rely upon it that in practice accidents would soon happen." dipping and spraying paints compared. from the above it can readily be seen that it is necessary to exercise considerable care in the selection of paints for both of these processes. the following opinions on this important subject are given by the firms named. messrs. john lucas and co., inc., gibbsboro', n.j., u.s.a., say:-- "it is our experience that a paint which is suitable for dipping purposes can also be manipulated for spraying. a paint to be suitable for spraying depends largely on two factors, namely:--gravity, or weight per gallon, and consistency, or fluidity. a paint made from pigments which are heavy gravity will not produce good results for spraying, just as it will not prove satisfactory for dipping, because of the tendency for the pigment to settle out. in the case of spraying such paints produce an uneven finish. a paint such as is ordinarily used for dipping contains sufficient light gravity pigments to make possible reduction with the proper vehicles (depending on the desired finish) so that by spraying a satisfactory coating can be produced so far as finish is concerned. we are not certain whether a coating produced by spraying will wear as long as a coating which is applied either by dipping or by brushing." * * * * * the chicago white lead and oil co., chicago, ill., say:--"there is no very intricate or specific formula for this class of material. the following rule we think will prove a safe one to follow:-- "always select a pigment which will stay in suspension, and also hold with it the extenders such as very fine silica. the addition of a very fine silica to all dipping or spraying paints will add materially to the flowing off and levelling of the finish. the pigments should be ground very fine in varnish, the grade of varnish depending upon the quality of the material to be produced, and reduced to working consistency with varnish and turpentine, or naphtha. "linseed oil should be avoided in the preparation of dipping paints, as the tendency of linseed oil to wrinkle is very objectionable. chemically pure colours, such as green, yellow, para toners, etc., are best adapted as colour bases. "the above constitute the principles upon which we have produced extremely satisfactory paints for the purpose named. these, coupled with expert workmen, will produce excellent results. the average formula for paints can only be considered as a general guide; the successful blending, tinting, etc., must be perfected by careful and sometimes extended experiments. "the difference between a dipping paint and spray paint is in the consistency. a spray paint must naturally be made thinner, and consequently only the most dense of colours should be used and a smaller amount of inert pigment as an extender, or leveller. a few experiments with a spraying apparatus (of which some inexpensive hand sprayers can be obtained) will quickly guide the paint man as to proper consistencies to produce best results." * * * * * messrs. john w. masury and son, of new york:--"it is practically impossible to give full particulars regarding varnishes and enamels for spraying and dipping, for the reason there are so many different kinds and they vary so much owing to the different character of work that a description of them is out of the question. in a general way it may be said that dipping coatings must be quick setting, so as to avoid runs and sags; it must flow out to a smooth, even surface. the drying quality must depend upon the kind of work being done, character of surface, subsequent exposure, and whether the coating is to be baked or air dried. dipping varnish and enamels are made for many classes of work, such as all kinds of small iron castings and sheet metal work, as well as wood work, vehicle wheels, parts of automobiles, and in some cases wagon bodies and automobile bodies, these last only in one or two shops. these goods include cheap black baking japans, coloured enamels of various kinds and clear varnishes. "in regard to spraying enamels, the 'spray brush' is gradually coming into use. these goods must be made to suit the character of the work; the body or viscosity of the material, the pressure used in the spray and character of the surface to be coated, must all be taken into consideration and properly graduated to insure suitable finish. "in both dipping and spraying work one, two and three coats are frequently used, sometimes the under coats are only dipped or sprayed, while the finishing coat is applied with brush. "the equipment for dipping will vary also with the article to be dipped; it includes dipping tanks of suitable size and shape, racks for hanging articles dipped, with troughs or trays to collect surplus material. in dipping it is necessary to wipe off with brush the surplus which gathers on lower edge of the article. "equipment for spraying requires besides the spraying machine a pressure tank with suitable cocks to regulate pressure, which will vary from thirty to fifty pounds, a suitable hood provided with fan to draw off any fine spray away from the workman, proper racks for taking care of the finished work. work done with spray does not require any wiping up." [illustration: fig. .--airostyle plant installed for the gas light and coke co., ltd. operator at work on gas meters.] chapter xi. spraying versus brushing. it will be convenient now to consider the length of time involved in spraying, as compared with that involved when painters' brushes are used. in dealing with this question, it should be pointed out that while some little gain is apparent in the actual time occupied in handling the article, which is mostly done on turn-tables when spraying, yet no note is taken here of the difference in handling, but only the time occupied in covering the article with paint, japan, etc. we will take, by way of example, a modern gas fire. very few of these are now brushed. it is the consensus of opinion that a gas fire takes minutes to brush. to spray one, with a superior finish, takes to seconds, and even where some difficulty is experienced in handling, or where it is the practice to have the firebricks in place beforehand, so necessitating the use of a mask, in no case is a greater time than ½ to minutes taken. a cycle lamp, small size, takes fully minutes to brush properly. to spray the same lamp takes seconds. a gas meter, or light size, takes minutes to brush. to spray one takes ½ minutes, allowing for the time occupied in fixing and removing the somewhat elaborate mask employed for covering the indicator glass, badges, name-plate, etc. a motor headlight takes nearly minutes to brush properly, whereas to spray one takes but ½ minutes at the outside. to brush a cycle frame takes minutes or so (brushing is still done for coloured work). to spray either in japan or colours takes to ½ minutes, and when it is considered that a heavier coat can be applied than is the case when brushing or dipping, it will be admitted that such a result compares favourably even with dipping. a -seater motor body takes from to minutes to brush properly. to spray the same body takes only to minutes, and when it is noted that a fraction of the rubbing down is necessary in the case of the sprayed result, as against the brushed body, it will be granted that an enormous gain is to be effected. where two or more colours are employed, it is difficult to make comparisons as readily, but, generally speaking, it is the practice to employ two instruments per operator where the colours are applied one immediately after the other, as is the case with many electrical parts, and in this case a gain of or to is shown over brushed work. in some cases it has been found an advantage to spray one coat and to brush the other, especially where some difficulty is experienced in masking, and, in such cases, the only way to arrive at the most satisfactory method is by actual test. in other cases, such as bronzing, with a celluloid medium, it is absolutely impracticable to apply these bronzes, save with the spray, unless the old method of varnishing and afterwards dusting on the bronze is adopted; but, of course, against spraying, such an obsolete method as the latter has absolutely no chance when speed is considered. iron piano frame manufacturers have almost universally adopted the system of spraying bronze on the frames. where the old-fashioned method is still in use, it is usually because the quantity of frames to be dealt with is hardly large enough to justify the outlay required in the purchase of a plant. another advantage should be mentioned. the special celluloid japans now largely used for application by means of compressed air obviate the necessity of a considerable amount of rubbing down and papering, etc., which cannot be dispensed with when the liquid is applied by means of a brush. for the purpose of comparison, it may be said that these japans may be sprayed upon such articles as buttons, medallions, electrical and bedstead fittings, and also on wood brush-handles and furniture, large and small, with a gain of to over brushing. objections sometimes urged against spraying. having explained the advantages of the spraying system, we may now consider the objections which are occasionally raised against it. one of the arguments most frequently used is that the effect thereby obtained must be less durable than is the case of the brushed effect. why such a theory should be advanced is a little obscure, for, theoretically, it is possible to apply, with a properly fitted plant, a far more even coat than is the case when brushing, and seeing that such paint is applied with the idea of protecting the article against rust, or corrosion, or of improving the appearance, the argument is for rather than against spraying. however, to come to the practical side, the evidence is all in favour of spraying, for it has been proved by many exhaustive tests by independent persons, that, with the same material treated in the same manner, _i.e_., either air dried or stoved after spraying or brushing, there is no difference in the durability of the japan or paint, and that the sprayed result has this advantage, that some little gain in time is effected in the period occupied in drying or stoving of the paint. another objection is sometimes raised to the application of paint by means of the spray to rough and uneven surfaces. the argument here is that it is impossible to make the paint adhere to the surface, save with a good stiff brush. such arguments ignore the pressure at which the paint is applied, which is usually between and lbs. per square inch, and are mainly based on unfortunate experiences with early types of whitewashing machines, which have already been pointed out to be entirely unsuited to painting problems. again here, it may be positively stated that in no case has it been found that a less durable finish is obtained with the spray. as a fact, an advantage is to be recorded in that on rough surfaces the gain in time is enormous, for such surfaces may be spray-painted as rapidly as the smoothest surface obtainable, whereas the labour of brushing such rough surfaces is very considerable. still another objection which may be mentioned is the slightly mottled appearance which the sprayed surface sometimes shows when finished--if such can be objected to seriously. this objection may be met by the statement that such a mottled effect is only apparent when the paint has not been specially prepared for spraying, and is mainly due to the fact that mediums used dry rather too rapidly and do not allow the paint (which is, of course, applied in minute spots) to flow out. the remedy is naturally to re-model the paint should the mottled appearance be objected to, but most certainly such an effect, if not pronounced, is not any worse than brush marks, which are always noticeable unless rubbing down has been done. in passing, it may be stated that most of the large paint and varnish manufacturers have experimental plants for producing spraying materials, and they are naturally well able to answer any queries which may be likely to arise and which may not be adequately dealt with here. many firms who consider the question of adopting a spraying plant seem to have the idea that while the principle is admirable for many trades, yet it cannot be successfully employed in their particular case, and one frequently finds the manufacturer of small goods wondering why his neighbour opposite, who makes, we will say, motor bodies, does not install a plant, although, of course, in his own case the question is impossible. most probably, at the same time the said neighbour has precisely similar thoughts, save that he considers the only proper use for a plant is in small work. occasionally one hears the opinion advanced that primers or fillers cannot be applied with a sprayer, or, if so applied, it is at a risk that they will either crack or peel off afterwards. this objection may just as readily be advanced in the case of brushing. if trouble of this kind occurs, it is not due to the method of spraying, or brushing, so much as to the way in which the paint has been used. this statement sounds paradoxical, yet it will be understood by practical men. for instance, it is obvious that motor bodies, par exemple, must be dealt with by the expert coach-painter as far as the methods, number of coats, etc., to be employed are concerned, even though the work may be carried out by unskilled labour, and naturally whether brushed or sprayed, motor bodies cannot be well done by novices. to summarise, it may be confidently stated that whatever difficulties there may be in the application of paints, enamels, varnishes, lacquers, etc., by means of brushes in the ordinary way, these are certainly never accentuated but are in most cases considerably lessened by the use of an adequate spraying plant. spraying and dipping compared. in considering those articles which may be dealt with either by dipping or spraying, the manufacturer has first to take into account the number of coats necessary. if, for instance, to produce the correct finish on a cycle frame, when dipping, needs three coats, and assuming that the same effect may be obtained in two when spraying (and this is frequently the case), then spraying must be considered to rank favourably with dipping, and if allowance be made for the time taken to drain, and the room occupied with an elaborate dipping plant, then again spraying scores, for a cycle frame can be sprayed in to ½ minutes, or, say, to frames per hour, which is very little, if any, less than can be comfortably dealt with by dipping, and, of course, no time is lost in draining. if, on the other hand, gas is so cheap as to be of little consequence whether two or three stovings are necessary, and if some of the work can be done with two coats, then the saving effected when spraying would not be sufficient to warrant the outlay necessary for a modern compressed air plant, _unless_ a fair proportion of coloured work, not easily dipped, was required to be dealt with. in this latter case, a spraying plant ought to receive very serious consideration. to take another case. some gas fires may be dipped, but, owing to their weight and to the fact that they are seldom entirely free from grit or dust, they are not a satisfactory type for dipping, and we venture to state that all the leading gas engineers have dropped the question of dipping such work in favour of spraying, although in some cases, for gas cookers, the accessories, such as burners, bars, racks etc., are dipped. such accessories are as readily sprayed, but as only one coat is applied, naturally no saving is shown over dipping. other goods sprayed or dipped are steel implements, hoes, spades, shovels, axes, picks, etc., and in some cases it is an advantage to dip where the same colour, black, red, etc., is needed, say, half-way up the spade or hoe, but otherwise spraying should be adopted; and, of course, in many cases where two colours are employed it is out of the question to dip, the only alternative being to spray or brush--spray for preference on account of the enormous saving of time over brushing. where very small articles are dealt with in bulk and can be so handled that trays may be used, then these are undoubtedly better dipped; but if various colours are needed it is better to still use the trays, but to spray them, as the speed is approximately the same as when dipping. a tray full of camera parts is sprayed almost instantaneously and with a far better finish than if dipped. to sum up the various arguments advanced on this subject, we may come to the following conclusion. as already intimated, the saving effected by painting by immersion or by spraying as compared with brushing is very large indeed, provided that a properly equipped plant is employed, and the paint or enamel is exactly fitted for the purpose. the question must often arise as to whether dipping or spraying is the best and cheapest to employ. the answer is that everything will depend upon the nature of the article that is to be painted. speaking generally, painting by immersion possesses many advantages, because the actual work of applying the paint is done in a few minutes and every part of the article is covered with paint at one time. in reaping machinery, iron treads of staircases and many other parts of the kind in which there are a large number of small parts or depressions, paint dipping cannot be improved upon; on the other hand, spraying possesses distinct advantages in dealing with many classes of goods which are of such a shape or character that if the paint were applied by dipping some accumulation in parts would inevitably occur. a decision on the subject can only be arrived at after a very careful study in comparison of the two methods. it will frequently be found that, on the whole, the most economical plan to pursue is to dip the first and subsequent coats, excepting the last, and to spray this on, particularly when it consists of varnish or a viscous liquid. it is in this particular that one can draw a wide distinction between the two methods. in dipping, the paint must not be very thick, and, as previously stated, in designing a paint for the purpose the greatest effort is made to produce one which gives a happy medium between excessive thickness and the reverse, too thin a coat. just as soon as the peculiarities of the article to be painted necessitate the use of all thick paint or enamel it must be considered that dipping is not suitable, but that spraying is. the latter may be employed successfully with any liquid up to the thickness of tar. [illustration: fig. .--airostyle plant showing ventilator and portion of hoods for or hoods providing for subsequent enlargement.] [illustration: fig. .--elevation of spraying plant.] [illustration: fig. .--elevation of spraying plant.] [illustration: fig. .--plan of figs. and .] chapter xii. the artistic application of paint spraying. some of the smaller and more delicate types of spraying apparatus are largely employed for such purposes as the following:--black and white and water-colour drawing, photograph finishing, preparing pictures for process blocks, christmas cards, window tickets, embossed cards and small stencil and shaded work on fabrics, wood, glass, metal, leather, etc., lithographic work, picture painting in oils, decoration of pottery and stencil and shaded work of all kinds. they are also employed for producing very charming effects in wallpaper. the writer has seen most creditable examples of work done in this way on menu cards, lamp shades, and even stencilled ornaments on men's ties. a few examples of this class of work are given in the accompanying illustrations. it may be pointed out that when decorative work is required on metal work or engineering appliances, it can in most cases be done by spraying without much difficulty, aided in some cases by stencils specially cut for the purpose. thus the outline of a trade mark, a monogram or a coat-of-arms, or heraldic device can be easily sprayed and be then finished by hand. again, the lining on a motor or carriage can, if care is taken, be done by the same means, although it must be said that the result is never quite equal to that produced by the hand of a skillful worker. in relief work, such as ornamental iron, pressed paper, etc., some pretty effects may be produced by spraying a different colour to that of the ground in such a manner that only one side of the relief receives the second colour. this is effected by directing the spray from the side. most readers will be familiar with these effects produced on menu cards, concert programmes, etc. the possibilities in connection with relief metal work are many. another series of effects in which brilliancy of colouring is required may be referred to in passing. sometimes a bright red or a bright green is desired for the finish of a particular piece of work. in such cases a use of the process known as "colour glazing" is recommended. for example, an agricultural implement or any other article which it is desired should have a bright crimson finish can be first painted with venetian or indian red, by either spraying or dipping, and then have a coat of crimson lake, which will give an excellent effect. as the crimson lake is somewhat fugitive a protecting coat of varnish will be required. all glazing colours may be applied by dipping, because, being semi-transparent, they are all very fine, and the coats may be thin, but the varnish should be applied by spraying or by hand. it may of course, be of a variety suitable for baking or stoving if required. this process is an alternative to using coloured enamels, and in some cases gives better results. much depends upon the colour and the constituents of the enamels. many of the lakes are very sensitive to a high heat, which changes the colour to a dirty brown. in such cases a final coat of stoving varnish, if carefully handled, will be safer than some grades of enamel. scumbling and colour glazing. for convenience of reference we include a short list of glazing colours taken from andrew miller's "scumbling and colour glazing," published by the trade papers publishing co., ltd., , birkbeck bank chambers, london, w.c. glazing. the principal colours used for glazing are cadmium, crimson lake, prussian blue, lemon and orange, chrome, yellow, brunswick green, carmine, madder lake, chinese blue, cobalt, indigo, gamboge, terra verte and emerald green. these colours may be used ground in either linseed oil, turpentine or water. some of them are rather expensive, but the coat being very thin a little colour goes a long way. following is a list of ground colours with the glazing which may be used in conjunction with them. they by no means exhaust the range of effects, but are given as suggestions:-- [illustration: fig. .--designs for lamp shades (opened out) done by spraying.] reds. apricot.--ground made up with zinc white, middle chrome, and vermilionette, glazed with crimson lake. begonia.--white zinc, vermilionette and prussian blue, glazed with brown madder lake. carnation.--white zinc and vermilion, glazed with crimson madder lake. claret.--zinc oxide, venetian red and vermilion glazed with brown madder lake; or zinc oxide and ultramarine blue, glazed with carmine. coral.--white zinc, vermilion and lemon chrome, glazed with crimson lake. flesh colour.--white zinc, yellow ochre and venetian red, glazed with burnt sienna. geranium.--bright derby red and orange chrome, glazed with crimson lake. lilac.--white lead, vermilion and ultramarine blue, glazed with brown madder lake. magenta.--zinc oxide and ultramarine blue, glazed with crimson lake. peach.--zinc oxide, vermilion and lemon chrome, glazed with cadmium (deep); or white lead and venetian red glazed with carmine. plum.--zinc white, indian red, and ultramarine blue, glazed with carmine; or white lead and indian red, glazed with ultramarine blue. pomegranate.--zinc white, venetian red and lemon chrome, glazed with burnt sienna. russet.--venetian red, orange chrome, lemon chrome, glazed with emerald green (thin). rose.--zinc oxide and vermilion, glazed with crimson lake; or white lead and lemon chrome, glazed with carmine. terra-cotta.--white zinc and venetian red, glazed with burnt sienna. blues. azure blue.--zinc oxide and ultramarine blue, glazed with cobalt. bronze blue.--zinc white and prussian blue, glazed with black japan. china blue.--zinc white, cobalt and raw sienna, glazed with indigo. gobelin blue.--white, blue black, prussian blue, glazed with emerald green. marine or sea blue.--ultramarine, ivory black, glazed with cobalt; or white, raw sienna and cobalt, glazed with indigo. metallic blue.--zinc white and cobalt, glazed with emerald green; or zinc oxide, prussian blue, black, glazed with indigo. mauve.--zinc oxide and cobalt glazed with carmine; or zinc oxide and celestial blue glazed with carmine. peacock blue.--zinc oxide and ultramarine, glazed with emerald green; or zinc oxide and prussian blue, glazed with cobalt. turquoise.--zinc white and cobalt, glazed with emerald green. wedgwood.--zinc white, prussian blue, glazed with terra-verte. yellows. amber.--zinc white, golden ochre, glazed with cadmium (deep); or white lead and lemon chrome, glazed with cadmium. antique brass.--zinc white lead, orange chrome, glazed with vandyke brown or black japan. brass.--yellow ochre, white lead, orange chrome glazed with vandyke brown. canary.--zinc white and naples yellow, glazed with emerald green (thin). chamois.--zinc white and middle chrome, glazed with terra-verte. citron.--zinc white and middle chrome, glazed with brown madder lake (thin); or white lead, venetian red, lemon chrome, glazed with prussian blue. daffodil.--zinc white, lemon chrome, glazed with burnt sienna. gold.--zinc oxide, golden ochre, vermilionette, glazed with raw sienna. old gold.--middle chrome, vermilion, burnt sienna glazed with cobalt (thin); or zinc oxide, oxford ochre, glazed with burnt sienna. primrose.--zinc oxide, lemon chrome, naples yellow, glazed with emerald green. topaz.--zinc oxide, raw sienna, lemon chrome, glazed with cadmium (deep). greens. apple green.--zinc oxide, prussian blue, glazed with cadmium (middle); or lemon chrome, zinc oxide, celestial blue, glazed with lemon chrome. duck-egg green.--zinc oxide, lemon chrome, glazed with prussian blue. eau-de-nil.--zinc oxide, lemon chrome, prussian blue, glazed with emerald green. grass green.--zinc oxide, oxford ochre, glazed with cobalt. ivy green.--zinc oxide, lemon chrome, burnt sienna, glazed with prussian blue. myrtle green.--zinc oxide and ultramarine, glazed with emerald green. olive.--zinc oxide, lemon chrome, burnt sienna, glazed with emerald green. browns. chestnut.--yellow ochre and middle chrome, glazed with burnt sienna; or burnt sienna and orange chrome, glazed with vandyke brown. chocolate.--burnt sienna, vermilion, ultramarine glazed with crimson lake; or burnt sienna and indian red, glazed with vandyke brown. cherry.--raw sienna and burnt sienna, glazed with raw umber. nut brown.--venetian red, lemon chrome, zinc oxide, glazed with burnt sienna. grays. cool gray.--zinc oxide and ivory black, glazed with prussian blue. dove.--white, ivory black, prussian blue, glazed with terra-verte. fawn.--white, raw sienna, glazed with raw umber. heliotrope.--zinc oxide, vermilionette, glazed with ultramarine. lavender.--zinc oxide, ultramarine and carmine, glazed with cobalt. mouse gray.--zinc oxide, prussian blue, glazed with burnt umber. pearl gray.--white, prussian blue, and vermilion, glazed with terra verte; or zinc oxide, vermilion, glazed with emerald green. silver grey.--zinc oxide, ivory black, glazed with indigo. opal.--zinc oxide, celestial blue, glazed with burnt sienna. warm gray.--zinc oxide, venetian red and ivory black, glazed with vandyke brown. wedgwood gray.--zinc oxide, prussian blue, glazed with terra verte. note.--the terms "zinc white," "white zinc" used above, all mean pure zinc oxide. scumbling and graining. it is sometimes desired to obtain a different effect from plain paint or enamel, and to either imitate graining, such as old oak or to give mottled effects. both processes are produced by scumbling, which means that the ground and finishing colours are different in hue or in intensity, and that portions of the latter are removed to show part of the ground. thus, in imitating oak, the ground might be painted with a mixture of zinc oxide and yellow ochre, and the graining colour be made of burnt umber and raw sienna. both coats could be applied either by dipping or spraying, but while the latter is wet, portions should be removed by combs and by the thumb held over a piece of rag, both marks being intended to represent the grain of the wood. in other cases, the colours may be applied as before, and the last coat, while wet, be wiped away at the edges, or in the case of relief metal work, at the highest parts. again, some excellent effects are obtained by using different colours for the two coats, as suggested, and stippling the second, while wet. space will not permit of a more lengthy reference to this part of the subject, but full information can be obtained from mr. miller's book already mentioned. something should be said, however, about brush graining, because it is so very well suited for work of this character, and by its use some very pleasant effects may be produced. [illustration: fig. .--show card done by spraying.] [illustration: fig. .--another example.] in this case, a material such as "matsine," or "scumblette" is applied by spraying over a different coloured ground, and, while wet, this is "flogged," or a dry brush is drawn over the surface, removing hair-like parts which expose the ground colour beneath. thus a very dark green or even black may be used over a white or nearly white ground, or a very dark red over an orange chrome ground. various metallic effects may also be produced on wood or other materials by using silver, aluminium, gold or copper leaf, and partly spraying over it a lacquer of suitable colour. the actual graining can be done in the ordinary way by an expert artisan, but as a rule this would be too costly when perhaps thousands of iron or other goods are to be turned out in a short time. in such a case transfer graining paper is sometimes employed, but this also is somewhat costly. bellamy's graining rollers are found to be very economical. this tool consists of a cylinder on the outside of which is engraved the grain of various woods, such as oak, mahogany, maple, satin wood, birch, walnut and ash. all that is necessary in working it, is to pass the roller over the surface immediately after the graining colour has been applied, when it will be found to remove some of the paint and give the appearance of graining. this appearance is considerably enhanced if the parts are softened after the roller is used by going over the work with a badger softener. marble grounds. for the convenience of those who are called upon to imitate marble for any class of work, the following information is given as to the colours to be employed for the ground colours. white.--a dead white ground should be used mixed to dry hard and smooth. sienna.--white blended with a mixture of white and raw sienna in irregular patches. pink marble.--the ground may be the same as that used for sienna, but a little venetian red should be added to give it a pinkish cast. alabaster.--light cream ground made by adding a little middle chrome and vermilion to white. rouge grotte.--this is a very beautiful marble which contains a large number of different colours. the ground may be either white or venetian red, mixed with a little chrome yellow. granite.--there are several varieties of granite, the principal being termed "grey" and "red" respectively. to mix the former ground, add a little black and prussian blue with just a touch of indian red to white. the grounds for red granites can be produced by mixing venetian red and white. rouge royal.--a mixture of indian red, venetian red and vegetable black, with a little white, will make the correct colour for the ground of this beautiful marble. it is very necessary that the ground be quite "solid," and to produce this, two, or even three, coats may be necessary. egyptian green.--the ground should be a dead black. verd antique.--the same as above. devonshire marble.--venetian red and ochre with a little white to produce a light terra-cotta ground. black and gold.--a dead black ground should be used. dove.--in this case a white ground without gloss may be employed, but a grey is better, such as that produced by tinting white with prussian blue, a little black and a very little indian red. grey.--the same as "dove." st. anne's--a dead black ground should be used. graining grounds. pollard oak.--the ground colour is prepared with a mixture of oxford ochre, venetian red and white lead in proportions, to form a rich buff; or white lead, chrome yellow and vermilion may be used. knotted or root of oak.--this ground is exactly the same as the above. birch.--the ground is prepared with white lead, a little oxford ochre and a little venetian red, of which latter, however, only sufficient must be used to make a very light buff colour. mahogany.--the ground colour is prepared with the best venetian red, yellow ochre and a little white lead (or orange chrome may be substituted for the yellow ochre). if it is desired to increase the brilliancy of the colour, substitute vermilion for indian red. if a light ground is required use the same colours as above, adding more white. the addition of a little vermilion will increase the richness of the colour. rosewood.--the ground colour is mixed in the same manner as above described for mahogany, but a little burnt turkey umber and victoria lake is added. satinwood.--a little oxford ochre added to white lead gives the proper ground for this wood. [illustration: fig. .--showing the beautiful shaded effects which may be produced by spraying (strong).] walnut.--the ground is prepared with white lead, venetian red and oxford ochre, with a small quantity of burnt turkey umber, but not so much as to destroy the appearance of the other colours and make them poor. neither red nor yellow should be in excess, but all should be toned down with the umber. although this colour may look dull when mixed, it is only a relative dullness, and it will shine out brightly enough when grained and glazed. bird's eye maple.--this ground may be prepared with either white lead and a little oxford ochre, venetian red or vermilion, but care must be taken not to use too much. satinwood.--the ground should be a yellowish white, obtained by adding yellow ochre to white lead. note.--those who desire to obtain copies of marbles and woods printed in colour, from which to copy, should obtain either or all of the following books:--"the art of graining and marbling," by james petrie. price s. the trade papers publishing co., ltd., , birkbeck bank chambers, high holborn, london, w.c.; "the art of graining," by w. sutherland. price s. a. m. sutherland, , oxford road, chorlton-on-medlock, manchester; "graining," by a. r. van der burg, s., crosby lockwood and co., stationers' hall court, london, e.c. in fig. is given an illustration of a fruit dish, the ornamentation of which has been done by spraying. in fig. is shown a portion of a table cover done by the "airostyle" on a fine art fabric. there is, of course, no limit to the number of artistic designs which may be produced by applying the paint by compressed air; indeed, the air brush or spraying machine for this class of work produces results which cannot be obtained in any other way. several of the engravings illustrate forms of advertising cards all done by spraying, while fig. illustrates very well indeed the different effects in form which may be produced by the spray properly used, such as the raised panels, the sphere in the middle and the convex and concave portions of cylinder. these examples are reproduced, with full acknowledgments, from the "book of designs" by chas. j. strong, of the detroit school of lettering, detroit, mich., u.s.a. the price of this book is £ ($ . ), and it contains an immense number of useful designs suitable for the use of sign painters, show card writers and commercial artists. it may be had in london from the office of the "decorator," , birkbeck bank chambers, london, w.c. chapter xiii. the "flowing-on" system. the very latest method of finishing automobiles which have steel bodies is that at present in use by the ford motor co., ltd., at trafford park, manchester, and elsewhere. the method is a remarkable one not only because of the great saving of time it effects, but by reason of the fact that the "life" of the painted or enamelled surface is prolonged by the improved method. stated briefly, the process consists in coating the body with blue-black enamel by means of gravity only; that is to say, the enamel is placed in an elevated tank and discharged on to the work through a flexible pipe and slotted nozzle opened by a lever which is actuated by the thumb of the operator. thus no spraying is required, while dipping is out of the question, as only the outside of the body is required to be painted. each coat takes two minutes to apply to the whole surface of a four-seated ford motor body! an achievement which justifies our use of the word "remarkable." but it will be convenient to explain how the present method came into use. until a few months ago the several undercoats were sprayed on the work in the ordinary manner, but the finishing coat of varnish was flowed on by the gravity apparatus now referred to. then it was thought that the undercoats might be applied by the same method, and some careful experiments having been made, it was found that by dispensing with the spraying and flowing on the coats a much more satisfactory result was obtained. as the new method caused more paint to adhere to the work than would be put on by the spray under ordinary conditions, one coat, it was found, could be dispensed with altogether. there was also less rubbing down required because of the very smooth coat obtained by flowing on, and, above all, the time of applying the coat was reduced to the extraordinarily short time of two minutes. [illustration: fig. .--a china fruit dish decorated with the airostyle.] [illustration: fig. .--table cover decorated with the airostyle.] the apparatus employed for this work is of the simplest character. the car body is placed upon a platform mounted upon wheels. this is made of exactly the right size to fit between a v-shaped metal trough which surrounds three sides of the body and is intended to receive the superfluous paint, a considerable quantity of which drips into it from the body as the enamel is applied. this trough, a sketch of which is shown in fig. , is slightly inclined so that the paint which drips off all runs to one point, where it passes through a gauze covered orifice, descends to a small tank beneath, whence it is pumped up to the elevated tank above and is then ready to be used again. this elevated tank is cylindrical and holds, perhaps, or gallons. it is stationed overhead some or feet high. from this tank descends a flexible metal pipe or hose ending in a slotted nozzle, opened by a lever, which is operated by the thumb of the workman and is closed by a spring. this completes this simple though very effective apparatus. the body of the car is made of stamped steel which has already received a protective coat of paint of a dull red colour, the body being placed upon the platform or bogie and being placed in position with the v-shaped trough surrounding it on three sides. the first or undercoat is given by rapidly passing the slotted end of the lever valve over the surface, upon which the paint literally pours out. the top part receives attention first and the paint runs down over the surface, which it covers completely, excepting perhaps here and there, where the discharge of paint is directed, and the whole of the outer surface of the car is, as already stated, completely covered in two minutes. this coat dries semi-flat. in order that the discharge pipe may be kept nearly vertical and be moved around the car as the different sides are dealt with it is provided, at its upper end close to the point where it joins the tank, with a brass swivel union and a horizontal arm which swings around. a stop-cock is also provided. the undercoat having been applied the body is allowed to rest for a few minutes until the dripping ceases. it is then wheeled on the bogie across the room to an oven, in which it remains for one hour at a temperature of ° f. this heat is found to be sufficient to bake the paint but is not high enough to injure the woodwork which, of course, forms part of the body. at the expiration of the hour a little stopping of inequalities of the surface is usually found necessary, but in any case the surface is lightly rubbed down with fine glass paper. [illustration: fig. .--sketch of trough tank used in flowing on paint.] the body is now brought underneath a second tank with the v-shaped surrounding trough exactly as before described, and here it receives another coat of enamel or paint, which in this case has a little more body and gloss. after stoving as before and at the same temperature the surface is carefully but rapidly rubbed down with powdered pumice stone and water applied by means of felt pads. there are a series of four troughs and tanks in all, corresponding in number with the coats to be applied. from the third one the body receives a third coat, is then baked or stoved, rubbed down with powdered pumice and water, thoroughly cleaned off, and from the fourth tank receives the final coat of varnish which completes the operation. this coat of varnish is not stoved but is air-dried. the finish is a blue-black picked out with very dark blue, and it is free from any signs of runs or drips; in fact, no one could tell how the application was made. as already remarked, the coats of paint are somewhat fuller than would be the case if they were applied by spraying, and the durability is thereby increased. the output from this department is cars a day, a number which would be practically impossible if the work were not so splendidly systemised. it should be observed that the varnish is applied in a separate room from that used for the application of colour. this is done in order to exclude dust, and also to maintain the temperature at ° f. in considering the essential points of this method of finishing motor bodies, it is clear that the system might be successfully applied in very many other industries to a great variety of goods. the apparatus is so simple in character that no engineer would have the least difficulty in designing a plant suitable for any particular requirement. it must be admitted that the crux of the whole situation is the kind of paint or enamel used. it must be sufficiently viscid to hold on to the surface to which it is applied, sufficiently liquid to run off freely without leaving runs, tears or "fat edges." and, above all, it must flow out uniformly. all these conditions, however, apply also to a dipping plant, and only require careful consideration on the part of the paint manufacturer who has made a special study of the subject. the varnish applied by this method must also be of a special character so that it may flow out nicely without yielding too thick a coat, which would be likely to lead to blemishes. ordinary paint, enamel or varnish, then, will not answer for this class of work, but special products must be employed, and when these are obtained, the rest is comparatively easy. the floco process. this process is in some respects similar to that above mentioned, the difference being that it is intended principally for the application of varnish by flowing over a painted surface done by spray. the essential difference in the apparatus is that the varnish, instead of being discharged by gravity, is pumped up from a tank. it is largely used in america, and is manufactured by the devilbiss manufacturing company, toledo, ohio, u.s.a. it is particularly suitable for automobile bodies and large surfaces generally. the process flows such materials as varnishes, enamels and japans, when it is impracticable to spray them. it has superseded the inadequate, inefficient flowing systems used in the past, and is also replacing brush and dip methods as practised in many instances. the equipment of the process comprises a -gallon tank, drawn from one sheet of steel and heavily tinned; - h.p. motor, housed in, driving a rotary pump; regulator; nozzle; electric fittings; flexible fluid hose, and galvanized iron drain trough on rack. all parts, excepting nozzle, hose and trough, are mounted on a castered truck for moving about. the truck is equipped with a rack around which to wind the hose when not in use, and a holder for the nozzle. [illustration: fig. .--the "floco" system of painting motor bodies.] [illustration: fig. .--show card done by spraying (strong).] the finishing material, such as varnish, to be used is pumped from the bottom of the tank by the electric motor-driven pump, in a continuous stream, through the flexible hose, to the nozzle. the flow of material is adjusted by the regulator, by means of which a varying amount is not put into use and returned to the tank. in this way the flow from the nozzle is instantly adaptable to any class of work and viscosity of fluid without changing the speed of the motor. when the nozzle is closed the material pumped is all forced back into the tank through the overflow. this, serves to agitate the material; in fact, is the only agitation necessary with material containing pigment, such as colour varnish. the body to be flowed is--as shown in fig. --placed over the drain trough. the operator first applies the material all along the top, then flows it copiously over the upper half of the surface. sufficient material is thus, applied to insure a perfect flow to the bottom. the job is allowed to drain into the trough which carries the material back to the tank--here it is strained and, without the slightest waste, used again. only enough material is put into the tank to take care of the work at hand, or to handle the day's production. the maximum amount of material exposed is gallons--the tank's capacity. the nozzle will operate satisfactorily on a gallon of material. the tank, motor, pump and regulator are--as previously stated--mounted on a truck fitted with casters, permitting of these parts being moved about with the greatest of ease. another appreciable advantage of this style of arrangement is that an extra truck can be kept on hand and put into immediate use in case of accident. the cleaning of the parts is simple. the nozzle of the machine is detached and all of the material pumped out of the tank, after which a small quantity of naphtha--or some other similar solvent--is put into the tank and pumped through the machine. as the motor is only - h.p., the consumption of power is low. the motor is made for all kinds of current, and can be attached to any light socket. it may be observed that the pressure tank used in this equipment permits of the use of heavier or more viscid enamels and paints than would be possible where gravity was depended upon. in view, however, of the success which has been met with in the case of the ford motor company, there appears to be no reason why the floco process should not be used for some of the undercoats, as well as for the finishing. the following article by m. c. hillick appeared in "the painters' magazine," of new york, and will doubtless be read with interest:-- the willys-overland automobile factory has recently been installed with sixteen large enamelling furnaces or ovens having a volume of , cubic feet and a capacity of tons of enamelled product every ten hours. these ovens have been electrified and they require approximately , horse-power. for some months past the overland company has been testing one of these electrically-heated ovens, and the results have, in every way, measured up to expectations. formerly the company, in common with practically all other companies using enamelling or baking ovens, employed gas as the treating medium. the ovens now electrified are almost entirely automatic in operation. when the oven is loaded the closing of its doors automatically throws a switch which turns on the current. a pyrometer which can be adjusted to operate at any desired temperature rings a bell when the proper degree of heat is reached, thus notifying the attendant, and also automatically turning off the current. the electrically heated oven does away with all flue gases and with their attendant dirt and spots. it also reduces the required volume of ventilation to the minimum, thereby eliminating air currents and the dust which, in greater or less degree, usually accompany them. the electrification of the ovens does away with explosions, banishes danger from fire, and gives an assured "safety first" to the workmen. the heat is said to be non-oxidizing and, therefore, cannot scald the operator. the working quarters are rendered comfortable and a higher grade of work is made possible. [illustration: fig. .--show card done by spraying (strong).] while for the custom shop painter it is a long way to such equipment, the fact that these facilities are gradually being acquired leads to the assumption that, in the course of a few years at most, some portion of the work coming to the shop for painting repairs will be handled through the baking oven. in connection with this subject of enamelling and oven baking, the various costs of paint and varnish, it is to be noted that the excessive temperature employed in baking is being criticised as detrimental to the finish. recent tests are said to have been made which show that baking paint and varnish at the maximum temperature shortens the life of the finish. mr. j. w. lawrie, of the chemical works of milwaukee, wis., has stated that, as a rule, the lower the temperature and the longer the time the paint and varnish is baked, the finer the appearance, service and durability of the finish and the greater its capacity for resisting moisture. the finish will have more elasticity and deeper lustre. mr. lawrie is of the opinion that twelve hours at degrees are better than five hours at degrees. in some motor car shops, within the past two years, by the use of baking ovens cars were painted and finished, all coats being baked, and made ready for service in three days. however, we are not commending or recommending this practice. for the custom shop painter, especially, it is entirely unsuited. nor would we recommend the baking process for surfaces other than metal. the same disadvantages marshalled in opposition to baking paint and varnish upon wood surfaces fifteen years ago, or longer, still remain in evidence. for aluminium, sheet steel or other metal panels or metal surfaces in general, the baking process offers an opportunity for finishing work under conditions more uniform than any which may be expected to prevail outside the oven. an other advantage is noted in favour of oven baking. it permits the use of more elastic materials without the aid of artificial oxidizing agents. as compared to the present air-drying system, the oven baking method, operated upon a conservative basis, permits the car to be thoroughly painted and finished in six or eight days. the use of more elastic materials--paints, colours and varnishes--has been mentioned as a part of the oven baking method. upon steel surfaces this is perhaps more necessary than upon aluminium, and possibly iron. steel has a linear expansion double that of wood. as a matter of fact, experts in these matters employed by the pennsylvania railroad assert that the contraction and expansion of steel surfaces is much more pronounced than the same action in wood. materials of greater elasticity as compared to those used in natural air-drying practice are urged. primers and surfacers, and the general class of foundation coats, will require an average of three hours' baking at degrees f. while some colours require higher degrees of heat than others, degrees f. baked for, say, six hours will dry the average colour, excluding white. the latter pigment, baked at a temperature varying from to degrees f., will dry properly in the course of a few hours, and retain its natural purity of colour, whereas at a higher degree of heat the white takes on an objectionable yellowish cast. black, at the opposite end of the colour pole, can be safely baked for six hours, at something like degrees f. finishing varnishes, taking them as they run, will bake at from to degrees f. for five or six hours. in all baking practice the personal equation figures largely. reason, good judgment, the capacity for taking pains--all these are items of importance. oven baking methods are being successfully employed in some of the large city repainting establishments. a firm near new york, for example, using what is known as the radio process, paints and finishes a car in three days. the cleaning of the cars is accomplished by the use of a steam jet, a treatment which is said to cut away the grease like magic. all surface defects following the cleaning of the car are touched up and faced over with the necessary filling and surfacing materials. then these patched-up parts are rubbed down with water and rubbing brick, and the general surface of the car is lightly rubbed with pulverized pumice stone and water. all colour, and varnish colour, coats are applied with a paint atomizer. this atomizer is a pistol-shaped device operated with a trigger, the material being sprayed from the muzzle of the barrel. the varnish colour is baked for three hours at a temperature of from to degrees. from to degrees of humidity are provided for the oven, and by means of an exhaust fan a fresh supply of air is furnished every three minutes. in the oven where the varnish colour coats are baked a thermostat is installed, which regulates the temperature. all the air entering the oven is washed and purified by running it through a water tank before it enters the oven. this water-washed air is forced into the oven by a fan blower, and contact with a radiator superheats it. in practice, the high humidity here referred to, and the water-washed air, are mediums which serve to keep the outer surface of the drying coat moist while the inner surface is drying, in this manner furnishing in due time a paint film dried uniformly from top to bottom. the finishing varnish is dried in an oven having a maintained temperature of from to degrees, the humidity being regulated at from to percent. this humidity is likewise found to assist a varnish film to dry uniformly throughout. [illustration: fig. .--design for show card (strong).] the treatment of the car chassis in the establishment here referred to is quite similar to that given the body of the car. a steam treated potash bath is provided into which fenders and other removed parts are immersed, removing all grease and foreign substances, and even the paint, from such parts. these parts, after cleaning, are then dropped into tanks containing the required paints, varnish colour, etc., after which they are taken out and drained and then consigned to an oven maintained at a uniform degree of heat. other establishments having ovens installed are employing methods designed to secure equally quick results without sacrificing any measure of durability or appearance. in the absence of ovens, not a few car and carriage painters are practising the so-called hot-air method as far as possible. successful results are reported in many instances, the work being turned out quicker, with an increase in lustre advised in some cases. this method is very simple and requires no previous experience or special training. anyone capable of providing the necessary degree of heat-- to degrees f.--and maintaining it for eight or ten consecutive hours, can have the benefit, in full measure, of the hot-air system. coats of paint, colour, varnish colour and varnish dry rapidly in a temperature at the above degree, where the ventilation is good and a fair volume of pure, fresh air can be constantly brought into the drying room. notes on the construction of stoves. the construction of stoves for use in connection with enamelling and baking japans generally does not properly form part of this treatise, but a few remarks on the subject may be of service. it is to be regretted that in only too many cases the stoves employed are very inadequate. in some cases they are heated by gas, and the jets cause a certain amount of discoloration. this is objectionable even when the work is black, but if it is coloured it may lead to serious disadvantages. in fig. is shown a sketch of what is known as the "perkins system of heating." it is largely adopted in many trades for enamelling cycle frames and parts, lamps and motor horns, etc. it is this system which is used by messrs. lucas, limited, of birmingham, a description of whose plant is given elsewhere. in the "perkins" system water is heated under pressure, and the comparatively high temperatures required for drying and other similar purposes are obtained in a simple but efficient manner. the apparatus consists of circulations of hydraulic tubing, certain proportions of which are formed into a coil and placed in a furnace situated in any convenient position outside and below the drying chamber. the apparatus is hermetically sealed and self-contained, the heating water circulating from the furnace through the heating pipes or coils and back again to the furnace without any loss through evaporation. no pumps or moving parts of any description are required, so that unskilled attention only is needed. [illustration: fig. .--the perkins stove.] the illustration shows a simple application of the apparatus, which is the type often employed for cycle and motor parts, bedstead frames, electric apparatus parts, etc. the arrangement of the pipes, of course, depends upon the class of work which has to be dealt with. [illustration: fig. .--a typical goodyear stove.] [illustration: fig. .--dipping trough.] in fig. is shown a type of stove manufactured by goodyear and sons, churchfield works, dudley. the construction is a great improvement on the old-fashioned type of enamelling stoves, which through faulty design were responsible for great loss through radiation and combustion. the work done in such stoves is necessarily inferior. the firm named are among those from whom may be purchased up-to-date stoves heated by gas (ordinary lighting or producer), steam, superheated water, and oil, either single, double, or treble cased suitable for purposes which a few years back were hardly dreamt of, and which may be said to range from hairpins to bedsteads, and include munitions of war, such as stoves for shell drying and varnishing. a very important part of the process of stoving is the rack and trolley system of transport in and out of the stove, which in effect means that no article is too heavy for such process. in the production of stoves for enamelling certain firms have made a special study of the requirements, including those above mentioned. [illustration: fig. .--show or menu card (strong).] [illustration: fig. .--example of metal decoration--lid of coal box done with airostyle.] chapter xiv. lime and whitewash sprayers. as explained in previous chapters, this type of machine is of an entirely different and much simpler construction than those used for spraying oil paint, varnish, etc. yet such apparatus is used to a very considerable extent in factories of all kinds as well as for spraying insecticides on fruit trees and other purposes of the agriculturist. by the factory and workshop act of it is provided that "all walls and ceilings must be limewashed at least every fourteen months, and painted and varnished work must be washed with hot water and soap at the same periods. special exceptions to this rule may be made by special order." such an order was made in , which was to the effect that "when at least two coats of washable water paint or sanitary distemper is used instead of limewhite the period for renewing with one coat of such paint shall be three years. the paint, however, must be washed at least once in every three months. it is provided in this order that "if it appears to an inspector that any part of a factory to which the exception applies is not in a cleanly state, he may, by a written notice, require the occupier to limewash, wash or paint the same; and in the event of the occupier failing to comply with such requisition within two months from the date of the notice, the special exception shall cease to apply to such part of the factory. in this order a washable water paint means a washable paint which, when finished for use contains:--(i) at least half its weight of solid pigment containing not less than twenty-five parts by weight of zinc sulphide as zinc white (lithopone) in each hundred parts by weight of solid pigment and (ii) at least ten parts by weight of oil and varnish to each hundred parts by weight of solid pigment." it should be stated that the type of machine now under consideration may be used for the application of such paint or distemper provided that it is rendered sufficiently thin by the addition of water. if very thick compressed air will be required as in the case of ordinary oil paint. an excellent machine for applying limewash, whitewash or distemper is made by messrs a. c. wells and co., engineers, london and manchester. it is used to a very large extent by engineers and in factories, breweries, car sheds, cattle docks, etc. builders, decorators, corporations, etc. also find it of great service for special work. the manufacturers state that over , of these machines have been sold, and that they are fast taking the place of the old method of limewashing with the brush. the speed with which lime, whiting or cold water paint can be applied is from to square yards per minute. a very distinct advantage of the machine over brushes is that when an irregular surface, such as a brick wall, the joints of which are not by any means perfect, is being dealt with, the lime or distemper is forced in by the spray into the interstices which could not be reached by the brush. these machines consist essentially of a pump with spraying nozzle which is made in various forms, the simplest of which is that shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] this machine is designed to stand rough usage. the pump is simple and easily removable for repairs, and the spraying nozzle, which is naturally an important feature, can be regulated to any degree of fineness. a patent filter is provided which prevents clogging. it will be observed by the illustration that wheels are provided which enable the machine to be easily removed from one place to another. a ft. armoured delivery hose and ft. spraying pole for reaching the upper portion of a surface to be sprayed is provided. the capacity is gallons. the machine shown in fig. is somewhat smaller and cheaper. it contains gallons. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] fig. shows a machine with a double spraying nozzle and valve arrangement. this has several advantages over the single pattern; the speed is almost double, and one jet can be put out of action if desired when working in cramped places. it is a powerful machine with gallon tank and strong lever pump. it is supplied with large wheels and is easily moved about, and is eminently suitable for anyone having a large quantity of work to do quickly. in dealing with very high buildings either the single or double nozzle is attached to a bamboo pole, as shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. .--the brown sprayer with extension rod.] in fig. is shown an excellent machine suitable for spraying whitewash, distempers and disinfectants. it is manufactured by the e. c. brown co., of rochester, n.y. the pump is of a simple but effective character; the valves are located so that they can be opened instantly and are fitted with springs so that the operator can pump while the machine is pointed in a downward direction. the strainer has five inches of screen surface and the screen can be instantly removed and cleaned. the pump barrel projects beyond the hand and serves as an extension rod. the nozzle is guaranteed not to clog, and is fitted with messrs. brown's patented screen arrangement. it throws four different kinds of spray, one a solid stream, the second a broad carrying spray, the third a long driving spray for ceilings and tops of walls, and the fourth a fine spray which may occasionally become of service for spraying work near at hand. there are several other makes of machines suitable for whitewash spraying, among them one manufactured by merryweather and co., greenwich road, s.e., the bean spray pump co., los angeles, california, u.s.a., and the four oaks spraying machine co., sutton coldfield, birmingham. the last named is particularly well adapted for spraying insecticides upon fruit and other trees. [illustration: fig. .--the merryweather limewhite sprayer.] [illustration: fig. .--a tumbling barrel.] [illustration: fig. .--another form.] the tumbling barrel process. this process of japanning small castings is very successful in those cases where the parts are small and intricate in construction, and, therefore, cannot either be dipped or sprayed, excepting with some difficulty. the great advantage of tumbling is that such work is done better and faster than by dipping. a machine, of which two examples are shown in figs. and , is used in this process. inside this machine are placed a number of shot or steel balls of different sizes. the articles to be treated are then introduced in the japan and the machine is started at varying degrees of speed. the shot carries the japan over the various parts and into the interstices. as different objects and materials require different speeds, some work will be started slowly and the speed increased to get the desired finish. the objects are then dumped out on to wire screens or baskets, and shaken, when the steel balls and shot fall through the mesh, leaving the articles that have been japanned behind. the baskets are then hung in baking ovens, while the balls are washed in gasoline ready for use. the machines mentioned above are manufactured by the baird machine co., bridgeport, connecticut, u.s.a. the english agents are r. cruickshank, ltd., camden street, birmingham. chapter xv. a portable paint sprayer for railway and other work. mr. m. e. mcdonnell, engineer of the pennsylvania railroad company, altoona, pa., u.s.a., very kindly furnishes the author with the drawings which will be found on the following pages. he says:--the company does very little painting by dipping. the spray process is, however, used very extensively, a large percentage of our freight cars having been painted by this method for years. the method is very satisfactory and also economical. the saving in the cost of labour in the spraying method is approximately per cent. in some cases the saving is greater than this. in one of our largest shops the cost of application per unit for a given number of square feet is thirty-eight and nine-tenth cents with the spray as compared with one dollar with brush. it might be said that more paint is applied per coating when the brush method is used. a given surface which would require gallons of paint for one coat by the brush method would require approximately gallons by the spray method. when painting a freight car a more uniform coating is obtained when the brush is used, due to the fact that the paint can be brushed out behind ladders and other things which would obstruct spraying, while in the application of the paint with a sprayer it is necessary to apply a thicker coating at certain points in order to reach other points which are obstructed, and which must, therefore, be approached from a side angle. the spray however, reaches certain crevices which cannot be reached with the brush, which is in some cases advantageous with the painting of freight equipment cars. our company would not consider returning to the brush method of painting. the machines which we use for spraying the paint are made in the company shops. the following is a description of the apparatus referred to:-- it consists of a stout steel cylindrical receptacle ½in. internal dia. by in. in depth, and having a capacity of about gallons. it is supported on a special wheelbarrow of wood with trundling wheel of cast iron. the bottom of the receptacle is so low down that it rests on the ground when in use, by lowering the handles of the barrow. the paint is placed in this cylinder and is forced out by air pressure, introduced through the lid of the receptacle, at from to lbs. pressure per square inch. this air is provided from the shop compressor range or by a separate compressor. the paint pipe penetrates the cover and is extended nearly to the bottom of the receptacle. the air pressure on the surface of the paint forces it through this pipe to the atomizer. a branch from the air supply is also taken to the atomizer and a third air branch taken to the bottom of the receptacle and carried through a in. iron pipe stopped at the end with a screw plug, but perforated with a number of / in. holes. this latter is for agitating the paint and prevents settlement. the atomizer is shown clearly in the drawing. it consists of an air jet impinging on a vena contracta nozzle and surrounded by the paint forced through from the receptacle. the air blast carries the paint through the orifice immediately opposite to the nozzle and there reduces it to a fine spray. a hose is attached to the exit of the atomizer and the atomized paint is carried by the blast to the spray pipe, which is slightly fan-shaped and flat. the cover is fastened by four hook-clamps, and is, therefore, readily removable. an air pressure gauge reading to lbs. is also provided, and the valves are so arranged that the regulation of both the paint and the air supply are easily adjustable. it will be noticed that, in the atomizer, a vena contracta is arranged so that it may be adjusted in its position in relation to the air orifice. the use of this is to provide for paint of various consistencies. very great care has been taken in designing the details; as, for example, the provision of a scraper to clear off accumulations from the periphery of the trundling wheel. [illustration: fig. .--plan of paint spraying apparatus used by the pennsylvania railroad, principally for freight cars.] [illustration: fig. .--elevation of apparatus shown in fig. .] [illustration: fig. .--details of apparatus shown in figs. and .] chapter xvi. metal spraying. although the spraying of metal does not really come within the scope of this book, the process is so closely allied to paint spraying that it is considered advisable to devote a chapter to the subject, particularly as the perfected process is of very recent date, and bids fair to be used successfully in many industries. it should be stated at once that a metallic coating may be applied to practically any surface, and that almost any metal or alloy may be employed. stated briefly, the process consists in melting metal in the form of a rod or wire, by means of oxygen and coal gas, or other gas, depending upon the metal used. the molten metal is sprayed at a high pressure, and a surface may be quickly covered with the metal of any desired thickness. a remarkable fact concerning the process is that the metal is cooled to an extent that renders it possible to hold the hand in the jet so as to receive a coat of metal without inconvenience, and samples of wood and fabrics may be coated with metal without injury. a moment of consideration will render it clear that there is an immense field for this process; for example, as aluminium can be sprayed, a lining of that metal might be given to brewers' and cooking utensils, etc., while tanks, barrels, reservoirs, intended to contain acids and oils, can also be treated. in the production of blocks for printing, in decorative work and mural decoration, there is an immense field, while ships' bottoms, instead of being painted with composition, can be copper-plated or sprayed with any other suitable metal, in order to prevent incrustation. no doubt some very beautiful effects can be produced by means of the process. it will be convenient now to describe the machine used for the application of the metals. it consists of a pistol rather bulkier, but not unlike in form, the usual spraying apparatus, see fig. . [illustration: fig. .--the metal spraying machine or "pistol."] [illustration: fig. .--the metal sprayer.] in fig. is shown very clearly the construction of the sprayer, which it will be understood comprises a combined melting and spraying jet and a feed mechanism. the metal, in the form of rod or wire, is fed to the melting flame. this, as already stated, is formed by coal gas burned in the air, or oxygen, water gas, acetylene, hydrogen, etc., may be employed instead of the coal gas. the gases are supplied at such a pressure as to prevent blowing out and to ensure a highly deoxidizing flame. the spraying jet can be of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, air, steam, etc., and it must be fed at such a pressure as to produce a sufficiently high velocity for successful coating. the usual gauges and reducing valves will, of course, be employed. the feeding of the wire is accomplished by a small pneumatic motor, driven by the spraying medium, either in series or parallel with the main jet. the dimensions of the wire nozzle, and feed mechanism vary with the different metals. to obtain a good adhesion between the metals being sprayed and the surface to which it is to be applied, the latter must be thoroughly clean and of an open nature, to give a key for the deposit. sandblasting is sometimes employed to effect this. fig. shows an enlargement of the nozzle with the different parts marked. the cost of the process is not prohibitive; the cost of the metal only on one square foot of a thickness of · inch is quite small with the cheaper metals. the process is put on the market by the british metal spray co., ltd., queen anne's chambers, tothill street, westminster, london, s.w. in a paper read by mr. r. k. morcom before the institute of metals, the following interesting information was given:-- [illustration: fig. .--sectional drawing of the metal spraying machine or "pistol."] with a given design of jet there is only a certain volume left by the air-jet which can be filled with flame, and this flame has a limiting temperature which cannot be exceeded. the wire, passing through this cone of flame receives heat, partly by radiation, but chiefly by conduction, and becomes melted; but there is a definite limit to the amount of heat which can be picked up by the wire passing through the flame, and a definite limit to the rate at which it can be melted. this cannot be increased by forcing more gas into the flame, as the extra gas is merely blown away by the air-jet. it is possible to increase the rate of melting by shaping the nozzles so as to leave room for a larger cone of flame, and experiments are in progress on this point. there is, therefore, a most definite economical quantity of gas which should be used in the pistol, this quantity being about · cubic foot of hydrogen per minute, and · cubic foot of oxygen; or about · cubic foot of coal-gas to · cubic foot of oxygen for the present standard designs. in refractory metals these quantities may be increased slightly, as a slightly higher temperature can be obtained if the burning gases are under a pressure greater than atmospheric, and this occurs if the gas quantities are increased, the inner surface of the air-jet acting to some extent as an enclosing wall to the flame. on the other hand, for the more easily fusible and oxidizable metals, such as tin, lead, and zinc, it is advisable to keep the gas quantities rather below the figure given, so as to avoid any possibility of overheating and burning any portion of the wire. the outer jet performs a threefold purpose: it keeps the nozzles and wire cool, it cools the object, and it produces the requisite velocity. [illustration: fig. .--diagrammatic representation of melting and spraying jets in action.] the velocity of the air leaving the jet will be independent of the volume discharged, and depends only upon the pressure at the jet, so long as there is no disturbance due to the entraining of air from the surrounding atmosphere. this, of course, will actually occur in practice, and the layer of air must have a certain thickness in order to prevent its being broken up, and its velocity destroyed by mixing with the surrounding atmosphere. as at present constructed the standard pistol uses about · to · cubic foot per minute for every lb. per square inch air pressure, so that with an air supply at lb. per square inch, which is a very suitable figure for ordinary spraying, the air consumption will be from to cubic feet per minute. the bulk of this will be from to grammes, and the mass of metal sprayed by this air will be from about grammes in the case of iron to about grammes in the case of lead. the action of deposition is probably a complex one. the minute particles of solid metal are driven with such force against the object that, in some cases, they fuse, but owing to their small relative size, are promptly chilled by the object to which they adhere. if any of the particles are molten or gaseous they will adhere. in addition, the suddenly chilled particles are possibly, or even probably, in the state of unstable equilibrium found in "prince rupert's drops," and act like so many minute bombs, bursting on impact into almost molecular dimensions, and penetrating the smallest cracks and fissures of the object. the process requires some care in manipulation, as, by varying the conditions, it is possible to spray porous or non-porous coatings, and, with some metals, anything from a pure metal to a pure oxide. with care, however, non-porous, oxide-free, adherent coatings can be produced, of almost any metal on almost any solid. in addition to metals, it is possible to spray fusible non-metals, or, by stranded wires, alloys of metals or mixture of metals with non-metals. the process is so new that its uses are still partly to be developed. but it is easy to see that it may have far-reaching value for protective coatings against weather or fire, for ornament, for electrical resistance and conductors, for the production of special alloys, for joint making, and for many other purposes. quite in a different category comes that of very fine casting. the surface of a pattern, polished or slightly greasy, is most minutely copied, and it is possible to produce process blocks very rapidly. it may be useful to line moulds before pouring in a metal. the application of the process to the production of very fine or coarse metallic powders is being investigated. the bulk of the work has hitherto been carried on in laboratories, but the apparatus is gradually becoming used in the more progressive factories, where extended facilities, and the knowledge of specialised requirements, will ensure a rapid improvement in technique and results. [illustration: fig. .--an example of sprayed decorative work. (aerograph.)] [illustration: fig. .--shaded work by the aerograph.] the research on the lower melting point metals has been greater than on the others, and undoubtedly the economy with them both can be greatly improved. preheating of gases and air, supplementary flames acting in front of the main jet, and electrical methods of heating, are all still the subject of experiment. the following metals are among those which have been successfully sprayed by this process:--aluminium, brass, bronze, copper, cupro-nickel, iron, gold, nickel, silver, tin, zinc, lead. it will be obvious that this method is a most useful one to employ when it is desired to prevent iron from rusting on machine parts which cannot possibly be treated by chemical or other anti-rust processes, and be rendered immune from rusting by treatment where they stand. to give some idea of the cost, it may be said that if the thickness of . of one inch of zinc is deposited, the cost of metal for coating square feet would only be a fraction over d.; while for lead the cost would be about d. the amount of gas used is not a large item, being at the rate per minute of . cubic foot of oxygen and . cubic foot of coal gas when spraying zinc, and . cubic foot less in each case where lead is being used in the pistol. these figures are given on the authority of the "daily telegraph." [illustration: fig. .--show card.] [illustration: fig. .--a sprayed frieze (aerograph).] index page accessories - advantages of dipping advantages of dipping piano cases aerograph aerograph air pump and tank combined aerograph electric motor outfit aerograph spraying cabinet aerograph turntable aeron - agitating apparatus - agricultural implements, dipping air drying enamels air-drying coloured japans air heater air pump and tank combined air pump for large installation air transformer set airostyle airostyle air compressor airostyle central draught fan airostyle plant airostyle plants for operators on small work airostyle plant showing ventilator alabastine apparatus for dipping piano cases application of stoving enamels artistic application of paint spraying artists' type of invincible sprayer asbestine auto electric air heater , auto filter automatic control of drying room automatic electric controller automatic finishing of pianos automobiles, latest method of finishing baird machine co. baking enamel baking heats, safe for pigment colours baking or stoving, hints on barytes, precipitated baskets, fancy bean spray pump co. bearings, paint proof bedsteads bedsteads, dipping bedsteads, white work berkel and parnall's slicing machine co., ltd. bin for spraying light articles birmingham small arms co. - black japan finishes blinds for paint dipping tank block and tackle blooming of varnish blues bone black bookbinding brown, e. c. & co. brown sprayer with extension rod, the browns bronzing brush graining brushing versus spraying burnt sienna cabinets cadby, g. & sons cans, painting by dipping carriage department, woolwich arsenal carriages carriers for dipping piano cases casements , casements dipping , , casements, steel celluloid buttons celluloid varnish, recipe for central draught fan chicago white lead and oil co. china clay china fruit dish decorated with the airostyle cleaning metal parts coach body painting coal box, metal decoration done by airostyle coats of paint, number collapsible gates colour glazing colour on bedsteads colour specimens, spraying colour varnishes, transparent coloured enamels compressed air, painting by compressed air, supply of compressor for airostyle plant concentric form of spray construction of airostyle cost of paint dipping plant cover for tank crabs crane eureka crane record crittall manufacturing co. cycle frames cycle parts davis gas stove co., ltd. , decorative work, an example of sprayed deed boxes demar varnish designs for lamp shades done by spraying de vilbiss air compressor de vilbiss auto cool fan de vilbiss fumexer or spraying cabinet de vilbiss manufacturing co. diogrammatic representation of melting and spraying jets in action different trades in spraying, requirements of , dipping and spraying compared dipping and spraying paints compared dipping casements , dipping paints , , dipping process, advantages of dipping, quantity of paint required for dipping sewing machine parts dipping tanks dipping troughs dripping platform driving gear for tank drying room, model durability of dipping paints dust, excluding electric controller electric hoist for heavy goods electric motor outfit electrical work elevation of spraying plant enamel, stoving enamelling, slate enamels enamels, air drying enamels for steel furniture enamels, heat resisting and slow drying enamels, stoving eureka spraying machine evaporation of turpentine evolution of spraying apparatus exhaust exhaust installation fan, central draught , fancy baskets files filler for iron filler, harland's finishing of pianos , finishing room flash point of turpentine fletcher, russell & co., ltd. floco process flowing-on system , ford motor co., ltd. , , four oaks spraying machine co. freight car, painting frieze, a sprayed furniture, metal fumexer , , gas fires gas meter co., ltd. gas meters, masks for gas meters, spraying , gas light and coke co. , , , gas stoves and ranges gasometer, painting gates, collapsible gear box, paint proof gibbons, james gittings, hills and boothby, ltd. glazing colours , gloss paint goodyear stove, a typical golden ochre graining and scumbling graining grounds grays greens hanger, iron , hanging apparatus hard wood, primers for hard wood, white dip for harland, wm. & sons harrison, mcgregor & co. hart patent mask hayward bros. & eckstein, ltd. heat of drying room heat resisting and slow drying enamels heavy goods, hoist for henley's telegraph works, ltd. hickory wheels hints on stoving or baking hoist for heavy goods hoists holden, arthur & co, ltd. holes in woodwork, stopping hook for suspending , hot air method illingworth on white spirit imitating marbles imitation wood effects immersing mangle frames immersion, painting by , implement manufacturers indian red introduction invincible sprayer iron, filler for iron hanger iron rods iron sashes iron window frames italian raw sienna joist and wheels supplying hanger kerosene oil kettle type of spray khaki paint kingsbury manufacturing co, ltd. lacquers for spraying lacquers, paints, etc, for spraying lamp shades, designs done by spraying lime and whitewash sprayers limewashing by machine with ft. bamboo pole limewhite sprayer, merryweathers location of work cabinets lockers lowering piano cases into the varnish tank lucas, john & co. lucas, joseph, ltd. , , , , machine for metal spraying making stencils mander brothers mangle frames immersing marble grounds marshall sons & co, ltd. mask hart patent masks and stencils masks for gas meters masury, john w. & son mclennan system melting and spraying jets in action merryweather limewhite sprayer metal decoration metal furniture metal goods metal motor parts metal, primers for metal sheets, dipping metal sprayer, details of metal spraying metal spraying machine metal, white dipping for midland sprayer model drying room moller and schumann co. morris, herbert, limited morris standard electric trolley hoist motor bodies, the floco system of painting motor car shops motor outfit for spraying motor parts, metal motor wheels objections sometimes urged against spraying ochre office partitions oil and water separator oil in dipping paints oxford ochre oven baking methods overhead rails paasche air brush paasche automatic electric controller paasche motor driven fan paasche turn-table paint dipping paint dipping plant, cost of paint dipping, simple form of paint dipping tank paint for casements paint for metal work paint for wagons paint, number of coats paint proof bearings paint sprayer, portable paint spraying apparatus used by the pennsylvania railroad paint spraying, artistic application of paint, supply of , paint tank painting a freight car painting by compressed air painting by immersion , painting gasometer painting motor bodies the floco system of painting motor wheels paints durability of paint for dipping paints, spreading capacity of part end elevation of plant for operators pennsylvania railroad company perkins system of heating phillips & son philorite piano cases, lowering into the varnish tank pianos, finishing of pickling metal parts picture frames picture mouldings piece work pigment colours, safe baking heats for pinchin johnson's drying room plants, some typical , platform, dipping portable paint sprayer for railing and other work precipitated barytes preparing wood before painting pressure in spraying primers and surfacers primers for metal primers for soft wood protecting parts not to be painted prussian blue purifying air quantity of paint required for dipping raido process rails and hanging apparatus rails for overhead railway work, portable paint sprayer for raw sienna recipe for celluloid varnish record pistol , reds reducing varnish requirements of special trades , , rims and wheels rods, iron rubbing down safe baking heats of pigment colours scrubbing air scumbling and colour glazing scumbling and graining second coat dipping paints sectional drawing of metal spraying machine sewing machine parts, dipping shaded effects produced by spraying shaded work by the aerograph shafting for tank sheets metal dipping , shellac spraying ships' hulls spraying spraying plant, elevation of spraying, quantity of paint required spraying requirement of different trades spraying ships' hulls spraying versus brushing staircases standard hydraulic immersion system standard varnish co steel casements steel furniture enamels steel implements steel office partitions steel plate fan steel sheets , steel wheels steel wool for rubbing down stencils and masks stencils, making stirrers and blinds for paint dipping tank stopping holes in woodwork stove, a typical goodyear stoving blacks show card done by spraying , , , shop fronts side elevation of plant for operators skylights slate enamelling sliding doors soft wood, white dip for soft woods, primers for spray, concentric form of sprayed decorative work, an example spraying and dipping compared spraying and dipping paints compared spraying apparatus for painting freight cars spraying apparatus, types of spraying cabinets spreading capacity of paints spraying colour specimens spraying metal spraying, objections sometimes urged against spraying plant, cost of stoving enamel , stoving or baking, hints on stoving temperatures stoves, notes on the construction of sub frame for tank supply of compressed air supply of paint suspending hook table cover decorated with the airostyle tank and air pump combined tanks for dipping tank for dipping metal windows tank for painting steel sheets tank paint tank, special form of tank used in flowing on paint tapered cans temperatures for stoving test for white spirit three tank plant thornley and knight, ltd. time saving toys trade, requirements of different tramcars transparent colour varnishes trolley hoist troughs tumbling barrel process , turkey umber turn-tables , , turpentine, flash point of type g aeron types of spraying apparatus typical hoist typical plants, some , ultra airostyle umber varnish, quantity required for piano cases varnishes for spraying , varnishes, transparent colour venetian red ventilation of paint shop ventilator for plant volume of air in spraying wagons, painting wagons, store room wells, a. c. & co. wheels, rims of white dipping for meta white paint for dipping white paste primer "white paints and painting materials" white spirit white work bedsteads, etc. , whitewash sprayers whitewashing machines whiting wilkinson, heywood and clark willys-overland automobile factory winch window frames, iron wood effects, imitation woodwork preparing before painting woodwork, stopping holes in woolwich arsenal, carriage department woolwich arsenal store room work cabinets yellows zinc oxide zinc stencils _advertisements._ standard varnish works. [illustration] consulting specialists respecting, and manufacturers of every class of varnish for all industrial purposes insulating varnishes, carriage, automobile, marine & decorators' varnishes, etc. patentees of the new standard hydraulic immersion system described on pages - of this publication. correspondence invited from responsible houses: new york elm park, staten island. chicago , federal street. toronto international varnish co., ltd. brussels , rue gaucheret. paris , rue de chabrol. melbourne , collins street. london , bevis marks, e.c. the airostyle the one complete & efficient system of compressed air painting, japanning, varnishing, etc. manufactured throughout by the airostyle & lithos, ltd., , st. bride street, ludgate circus, tele phone: central. grams: stainless, london. london, e.c. the airostyle compressed air painting plants are in daily use at the leading works for motor cars, side cars, etc. gas meters gas fires, radiators, etc. kitchen ranges, grates, etc. cycles and motor cycles cycle and motor accessories carriage lamps leather manufactures buttons toys baby carriages sewing machines china and glass electrical apparatus scientific instruments constructional work horticultural buildings, etc. tinplate work munitions general japanned goods porcelain enamelled goods advertising signs textile productions rubber goods typewriters tiles etc., etc., etc., etc. manufactured throughout by the airostyle & lithos, ltd., , st. bride street, ludgate circus, tele phone: central. london, e.c. grams: stainless, london. pecora first coaters, finishing coats & thinners for use by the immersion (dipping) process or application by compressed air (spray) are the result of st.--theoretical combinations of pigments and vehicles. nd.--careful _practical_ test of these combinations and changes to meet given requirements. rd.--close study of the finished article to determine durability. th.--twenty-five years experience in the production of special finishes, which must meet unusually severe conditions. our experimental laboratory is equipped with a complete dipping, spraying and baking plant, and is at the service of any interested person. we would be glad to finish samples of your product along any desired lines, or to follow out our own ideas as to the most desirable method. pecora paint company. th & erie ave. philadelphia, pa., u.s.a. est. by smith bowen. incorporated . are you using "aerograph" sprays [illustration] _for_ plain painting, decorating, japanning, enamelling, varnishing and lacquering. also for distempers of all kinds. five times faster than any other method. stationary and portable painting outfits _perfect control. superior results._ the aerograph co., ltd. , holborn viaduct, london, e.c. british and foreign government contractors. [illustration] _crane's sprayers_ [illustration] for enamels, paints, lacquers, varnishes, etc., are --the greatest economisers of time-- material & labour extant--the handiest and most efficient yet devised and further [illustration] they ensure the best results. write for details: fredk. crane chemical co., bordesley green, b'ham. [illustration] w. goodyear & sons, [illustration] manufacturers, dudley. [illustration] specialists in: _enamelling stoves_ _for_ [illustration] _all purposes_ [illustration] write for catalogue. [illustration: established · ·] if you will come to homerton to see a practical demonstration of the finishing of your own products by the economical spraying process, our facilities are at your service without charge or obligation. those facilities are: a fully equipped spraying plant--probably the first spraying expert in the kingdom--and a range of spray paints covering the entire process from filler to varnish coat, perfected by experience. we specialise too in paints for dipping and shall be glad to demonstrate to you the economy of either or both. berger's spray paints & dipping paints. lewis berger & sons, ltd. makers of paints, colours & varnishes, homerton, london, n.e. branches--paris, copenhagen, sydney, wellington, bombay, new york. [illustration] pneumatic spraying of paints, enamels, lacquers, varnishes, rubber solution, &c. if you use any of the above in quantities you cannot afford to be without a pneumatic spraying plant. [illustration] better finish, smaller bills for material, much cheaper production. the midland pneumatic spraying plant is the product of practical engineers and is all british. let us demonstrate its possibilities and advise you. wire--blast, birmingham; 'phone--central ; or write-- the midland fan co., ltd., , aston road, birmingham. [illustration: gittings, hills & boothby, l^d. birmingham.] specialists for spraying, dipping & stoving varnishes & paints. g. h. & b., ltd., will be pleased to show their spraying installation to any firm desirous of seeing and testing same--customers' own material sprayed. dipping tanks loaned to customers to enable adequate tests to be made. do you want to save money ? then take up the most economical methods of painting, viz., dipping and spraying. gittings, hills & boothby, ltd., varnish and paint manufacturers, long acre, birmingham. and at , turnmill street, london. e. c. _one man with the aeron is worth to without_ there is not only this to % saving in time and labour, because of the speed that is possible with the aeron system of spraying, but there is also produced a better quality of finish than is obtainable with any other method. the surface is absolutely uniform, smooth and even of thickness. it is free from all sags, runs, thin spots or fatty edges. [illustration] the aeron system is simple and easy to operate. ordinarily inaccessible places, and carved and irregular surfaces, are quickly and uniformly finished. the aeron system installed in your finishing room will produce the utmost in results at the lowest possible cost. address: the devilbiss manufacturing co. newman st., oxford st., london, w., eng.: toledo, ohio, u.s.a. finish your products, large or small, wood or metal, with the [illustration: guaranteed _aeron system_ paints with air] the aeron system of applying varnishes, enamels, shellacs, lacquers, japans, bronzes, and practically every kind of finishing material, on wood and metal products with compressed air, is the result of extensive painting and mechanical experience, and a comprehensive study of finishing problems. the aeron system is complete in every detail. every angle and problem of the application of finishing materials is successfully met with a thoroughness and positiveness--with a certainty of greater quality, speed, economy and efficiency--by this system. there is a wide variety of "best type" aerons and accessory equipment, meeting all requirements and enabling the operator to obtain striking results. let us send you full and interesting particulars, --and a booklet of equipment facts.-- address: the devilbiss manufacturing co. newman st., oxford st., london, w., eng.: toledo, ohio, u.s.a. telegrams--varnish, birmingham. arthur holden & sons, ld. (established nearly a century) bradford street, birmingham. specialists in spraying finishes for every trade. spraying paints, enamels, japans, varnishes, varnish paints, etc., for stoving or self-drying in all colours and qualities. trades already supplied:-- photographic, optical, electrical & surgical apparatus manufacturers. bicycles, motor bodies, motor and cycle accessories. steel toys, wood toys, lamps, iron fittings. mail carts, radiators, trunks, weighing machines, scales, etc., etc. the devilbiss aeron [illustration] the most efficient and flexible :: spraying machine. :: sold by llewellyn ryland, ltd., birmingham. manufacturers of lacquers, paints, japans and varnishes, suitable for spraying. wells' "lightning" lime & colour washer. a great saving of time, labour and money. no outside power required. over , sold. saves its cost in a few days lime, whiting, or cold water paints applied at a speed of from to square yards per minute, in a manner superior to brushwork. one coat with the machine on rough surfaces is equal to two applied with brushes. enlarged patterns. reduced prices. no. a--small size, fed from pail, gallons £ " -- gallons £ " a on wheels, same capacity £ " a--on wheels, gallons £ a. c. wells & co., midland road, st. pancras, london. works--carnarvon street, manchester. [illustration: nos. a and a patterns.] the perkins closed system of heating by hot water for enamelling, japanning, drying, etc. _schemes & estimates submitted free of charge._ perkins, engineers, ltd., kingsway house, kingsway, w.c. _telephone no._ _telegraphic address--_ _ gerrard._ _"arktos" westcent, london._ "paint & colour mixing." by arthur seymour jennings. th edition, revised & enlarged. a practical handbook for painters, decorators, artists, and all who have to mix colours. containing samples of actual oil and water paints and water colours of various colours, including the principal graining grounds and upwards of different colour mixtures, with instructions on colour and paint mixing generally, testing colours, &c., &c. with fourteen coloured plates. contents.--paints and colour mixing, colours or stainers, how to learn to mix and match colours, reds and how to mix them, blues and how to mix them, yellows and how to mix them, greens and how to mix them, browns and how to mix them, greys and greys, white and blacks, black japan in colour mixing, glazing, graining grounds and graining colours, mixing paints and colours on the manufacturing scale, water paints, distempers, artists' water colours and how to mix them, testing colours, notes on harmony, the proportions of materials, notes, &c. post free / . e. & f. n. spon, ltd., , haymarket, s.w. the painters' pocket book. by arthur seymour jennings. many thousands of copies of this exceedingly useful book have been sold. s. d. post free. _synopsis of contents._ simple methods for painters' materials. behaviour of different pigments. how to measure painters' work. painters' prices for all kinds of paint work, sign writing, varnishing, gilding, enamelling, marbling, graining, paperhanging, etc., etc. many miniature stencils which can be submitted to clients for their selection and afterwards be increased in size. ribbons for church decoration. defects in painting and how to remedy them. colours and how to mix them. hints on practical geometry and setting out of work. symbols and emblems in church decoration, on flags, in heraldry, etc. poisoning and remedies. concise dictionary of terms used in painting, building, architecture, art, applied chemistry, etc., etc., with many illustrations. hints on paperhanging. tables for wallpapers, english, french, and american. table for ceiling papers. table of superficial yards. table of materials required according to the surface to be painted. roman numerals. table for calculating the price of linseed oil and turpentine. wages table. the orders, greek and roman. table of prices. table of discounts and percentages. colours and pigments, permanent and otherwise. linseed oil--percentage required for grinding dry pigments. how oils are sold. how far paints will spread. mensuration. english and american gallons. specific gravity. table of thermometrical degrees. superficial contents of squares of glass. ready reckoner. notes of insurance. table of pigments, etc., etc. the trade papers publishing co., ltd., , birkbeck bank chambers, high holborn, w.c. practical books for painters. post free. paint and colour mixing. a practical handbook for painters, decorators, artists, and all who have to mix colours. containing samples of actual oil and water colours. by arthur seymour jennings / house painting and decoration. a popular guide, by arthur seymour jennings / practical church decoration. a guide to the design and execution of decoration of churches, chapels and ecclesiastical structures. by arthur louis duthie / scumbling and colour glazing, illustrated with examples of glazed work. by andrew millar / zinc oxide and its uses. by j. cruickshank smith / practical gilding, bronzing, lacquering and glass embossing. illustrated by actual examples of gilded and lacquered relief and other decorations. by f. scott-mitchell / the painters' and builders' pocket book. by arthur seymour jennings. consists of pages, containing a large amount of information of the greatest use to painters and builders / decorators' symbols, emblems and devices. by g. c. rothery / graining and marbling, the practical arts of. by james petrie. each plate measures - / Ã� - / and gives the different stages of the work. published in parts at / each, or bound volume /- office of "the decorator," , birkbeck bank chambers, high holborn, london, w.c. practical books for painters. post free. stencils and stencilling. for all purposes, artistic and decorative. pages of designs. by arthur louis duthie / paint and painting defects, their detection, cause and cure. by j. cruickshank smith / painters' business book. a manual of up-to-date methods of obtaining business, submitting estimates, book-keeping, buying and testing materials, etc., with many tables. by c. e. oliver / clark's book of alphabets, two parts. for signwriters, designers, decorators, and draughtsmen, each / hewett's distinctive lettering and designs / kaemmerer's letter book. containing several hundred alphabets in plates, together with descriptive text / the art of show card writing. by c. j. strong. contains many beautiful designs /- strong's book of designs. invaluable to the signpainter, show card writer, etc. containing, in addition to posters, show cards, ribbons, etc., pages of ornamental work in colour /- atkinson's sign painting, replete with original designs, colour combinations, etc. / graining, ancient and modern. by wm. e. wall / office of "the decorator," , birkbeck bank chambers, high holborn, london, w.c. the official organ of the london association of foremen engineers. the leeds association of engineers. the stoke-on-trent engineers' association. sixpence a copy. _the_ _"managing engineer."_ five shillings a year. published by thomas tofts, & , chancery lane, london, w.c. transcribers notes: punctuation and spelling inaccuracies were silently corrected. archaic and variable spelling has been preserved. variations in hyphenation and compound words have been preserved. fig . design for show card is wrongly shown to be on page in the list of illustrations. this has been corrected to page . in the index 'sheets metal dipping , ', has been altered to , . page was a blank page and page is near and in context but maybe an inaccurate alteration. both middle and modern decimal points are used. italics are shown thus: _sloping_. bold type is shown thus: =shout=. small capitals have been capitalised. the caret character (^) has been used to denote superscript. the institute of industrial research allerton s. cushman, a. m., ph. d., _director, in charge division metallurgical problems_. henry a. gardner, _assistant director, in charge division of paint technology_. n. monroe hopkins, ph. d., _in charge division of electrical engineering and electrochemistry_. chas. a. crampton, m. d., ph. g., _in charge division of food and drug products_. g. w. coggeshall, ph. d., _in charge division of mill problems_. chas. baskerville, ph. d., f. c. s., _in charge technology of the rarer elements_. copyright, , the institute of industrial research the institute of industrial research the preservation of the exterior of wooden buildings by allerton s. cushman, director the institute of industrial research and henry a. gardner, asst. director in charge division of paint technology, the institute of industrial research [illustration] washington washington, d. c. press of judd & detweiler, inc. preface. for a number of years the writers have been making a study of industrial problems and have been publishing the information which they have acquired, regarding the value of various structural materials, for the benefit of consumers as well as producers. the institute of industrial research has received so many requests recently for information in regard to just what paints should be selected for the protection and decoration of houses and other buildings that it has seemed best to sum up the subject in the form of a special pamphlet or bulletin. it is only after years of investigation work carried on by the authors, both separately and in co-operation, that any review of the work has seemed possible, for only recently have the results of tests carried on in a number of different localities seemed to justify a definite opinion in regard to the best selection of exterior paints. no attack on any one paint material is here included, but the value of each has been carefully weighed, and the attempt is made to discuss them in the light of experience and knowledge. it is the authors' intention in this bulletin to put into the hands of architects and paint users who may not be thoroughly familiar with the technical properties of paint materials, information which will enable them to make a proper and intelligent selection of paints for the preservation and decoration of the exterior of wooden buildings. the preservation of the exterior of wooden buildings _lumber and its relation to paints_: the proper choice and treatment of lumber is one of the most important problems which the builder as well as the painter has to face. when about to build a dwelling, barn, or other structure made principally of wood, the question is sure to arise in regard to what variety to select so as to get the maximum service and money value. the locality in which the structure is to be built must often have a bearing upon this question. while it is true that the painting of each type of wood demands the special consideration of the painter, it is also true that the study of paints for wood protection points toward the production of a paint that will give satisfactory results under all conditions and on all grades. it is the writers' opinion that a paint may be made that will be perfectly well suited for the preservation of every species of wood, provided the paint is properly treated in the hands of the skillful and intelligent painter, who can produce lasting results on almost every type by varying the proportion of thinners and oil in the various coats. the painter who uses the same paint on soft pine, and again on hard pine, without making a special study of how to reduce the priming coat for the hard pine, will be likely to get inferior results on the latter. in case of failure, the natural impulse is often to place the blame upon the paint, whereas the real responsibility may rest upon the painter's lack of knowledge. note.--for a more detailed account of the lumber question, see "modern lumber as a problem for the painter," read by john dewar, at the convention of master house painters' and decorators' association of pennsylvania, january, , pittsburg, pa. photographs showing different forms of decay exhibited by improperly made paints [illustration: blistering] [illustration: chalking] [illustration: checking] [illustration: cracking] [illustration: scaling] [illustration: general disintegration] _signs of paint failure_: those who are responsible for the care and maintenance of property are familiar with the condition of surface presented by almost all wooden buildings or structures which have been improperly painted with inferior paints. "chalking" or "flouring" are terms used to describe the condition of a paint surface which has deteriorated within the paint film. the formation of minute fissures, generally spoken of as "checking," as well as the effects best described as cracking, scaling, peeling, and blistering, are other signs of failure which cause paint coatings to present an unsightly appearance, and which point inevitably either to the use of improperly made paints or to improper application. the cause of these conditions is not difficult to understand when even a brief study of the character of the materials entering into the composition of a paint has been made. it is, however, a fortunate circumstance that the proper admixture of different types of pigments enables us to correct the strong tendency exhibited by special pigments to rapidly deteriorate in an oil film. this point will be more fully discussed in a later paragraph. _requisites of a good paint_: progressive manufacturers are aiming to produce a paint which will show, under the widest range of conditions, good hiding power, adhesiveness, freedom from internal strains, permanency of color, relatively high imperviousness to moisture, sufficient elasticity to prevent scaling or cracking when subjected to expansion or contraction, and freedom from the chemical action which results in deep checking or excessive chalking. such a product as this cannot be attained, in the writers' opinion, by the use of any one pigment in linseed oil. in order to meet all the demands as stated above, there should be in an economical and durable paint a proper percentage of the various pigments which, united, will tend to correct each other's faults, and thus produce a durable paint coating of maximum efficiency. _the composition of paints_: as is well known, a paint is a mixture of one or more pigments and a vehicle which acts the part of the spreading and binding medium. up to the present time the vehicle portion of paints has generally been made of linseed oil, admixed with some volatile thinner, such as turpentine. the subject of oils and paint vehicles will be discussed more fully later on. _physical properties of pigments_: the pigment portion of a paint for use on barns and farm buildings may, if desired, be composed of properly selected iron oxides or other colored pigments, even containing in some cases a moderately high percentage of silica, clay, or other inert materials, and give perfectly satisfactory results. for the preservation and decoration of dwellings, however, the pigment portion of paints is generally made as a whole or in part of the more expensive white pigments, such as white lead and zinc oxide. the relative values and properties of these white base pigments will now be taken up. _white leads_: white lead, either of the corroded or sublimed type, is perhaps the most generally used of all the white pigments as a paint base. corroded white lead is a basic carbonate of lead, while sublimed white lead is a basic sulphate of the same metal. both of these types are white, and admirably adapted as painting materials. they take relatively the same amount of oil and spread easily, producing paint films which are highly opaque and which, therefore, hide efficiently the surface upon which they are placed. sublimed white lead is a relatively finer pigment than corroded white lead, and seems to show a tendency to chalk to a greater extent upon exposure to the weather. corroded white lead is more alkaline, however, than sublimed white lead, and when used alone with linseed oil generally shows a tendency to chalk to a considerable extent in a short time and to show deep checking, thus permitting the admission of moisture. the alkaline nature of this pigment produces considerable action upon certain tinting colors and results in fading or darkening, when mixed with delicate greens or blues. the use of white lead has been condemned in some parts of this country as well as abroad, because of its alleged poisonous properties. while it is true that lead poisoning may occasionally occur in some factories where the workman and his conditions are not properly safeguarded, it is, nevertheless, a fact that lead poisoning very seldom occurs among painters of experience and cleanly habits. carelessness in mixing white lead is, fortunately, a practice almost obsolete among modern painters. the use of paints already ground in oil by means of machinery to a pasty condition, allowing easy working and reducing, obviates the danger of lead poisoning from any such cause as this, even though the percentage of lead in such paints is in preponderance. recent efforts that have been made by the legislatures of certain states to brand lead paints as poisonous are not only unnecessary, but show a complete ignorance of the problem. _zinc pigments_: another pigment which has proved itself of great value to the painter is zinc oxide. the use of this pigment may be said to have almost revolutionized the paint industry of the world, and its increased consumption during the last ten years is sufficient evidence of its value as a painting material. zinc oxide is produced by oxidation and sublimation of zinc ores and is not only extremely fine, but of great whiteness. it has good hiding power, although not quite so great as that shown by the white leads. it tends to produce a glossy surface, making it especially valuable for use on interior work and in enamels. when used alone it has the effect of hardening the oil film in which it is enveloped, and upon long exposure causes cracking and scaling. however, when the sublimed or corroded white leads are properly combined with zinc oxide, a more durable surface is produced, the shortcomings of each pigment being overbalanced by the good properties of the other. the proper combining properties of zinc oxide with white lead may be said to vary between to per cent of zinc oxide for paints designed for exterior use. in the opinion of the authors, lead and zinc pigments in the above percentage, properly blended and ground, make paints of far better wearing value than can be produced with either white lead or zinc oxide used alone. _zinc lead_: zinc lead, a pigment sublimed from mixed lead and zinc ores and containing about equal proportions of zinc oxide and lead sulphate intimately combined, as well as leaded zinc, a produce similarly produced, but with the zinc oxide running about per cent, are white base pigments of value, which are used to a considerable extent. they are generally slightly off color, however, and are therefore used most largely in paints which are to be tinted in various colors. _lithopone_: lithopone, a pigment produced by precipitation, and consisting of zinc sulphide and barium sulphate, is of great value in the manufacture of interior paints. on account of its liability to darken and disintegrate, however, it is seldom used on exterior work, although recent tests have shown that when used in combination with zinc oxide and whiting, it gives very promising results. _crystalline pigments and their use_: barytes (barium sulphate), silex (silica), whiting (calcium carbonate), gypsum (calcium sulphate), asbestine (silicate of magnesia), and china clay (silicate of alumina) are white crystalline pigments which, when ground in oil, become transparent. all of these pigments possess the property of strengthening a paint film made of white lead and zinc oxide, and often increase the durability of such a paint. barytes, silica, and china clay are especially valuable for this purpose. asbestine, because of its needle-like structure and low gravity, prevents settling and acts as a reinforcer of paint films. whiting or calcium carbonate should be used when zinc oxide is in excess in a paint, so that the hardness of the paint may be overcome. a white paint must be possessed of sufficient opacity to efficiently hide the surface upon which it is placed, when three coats are applied for new work or two coats for repainting work. mixtures of the white leads and zinc oxide, with the latter pigment running not over per cent, will easily produce such a result and wear well. it is generally deemed advisable, however, by most manufacturers to take advantage of the excessive opacity of such mixtures, which allows the introduction of moderate percentages of those inert pigments which give greater strength and other desirable features to a paint. the percentage of natural crystalline inert pigments to add to a white paint made of lead and zinc must, however, be moderate and insufficient to detract materially from the hiding power of the paint. note.--pigments such as silica, barytes, china clay, and asbestine are thoroughly inert. recent investigations have proved that they accelerate the drying of linseed oil, but this is not due to any chemical action they exert, but rather to their physical action in distributing the mass of oil in which they are ground, and thus allowing a greater surface to be exposed to the oxygen of the air. it is also possible that some of the inert pigments may stimulate oxidation by catalytic or contact action, although they are not chemically active in themselves. _white-paint formulas_: from these conclusions which have come from wide experience in the testing of paints under actual service conditions, there can be recommended to the buyer of paints and to the manufacturer and master painter those machine-mixed paints in white, made by reputable manufacturers, the composition of which will show a mixture of white lead and zinc oxide, with the latter pigment within limits of between to per cent, and especially the same mixtures reinforced with the moderate percentage of crystalline inert pigments referred to above. tinted paints possess greater hiding power than white paints, and the above proportions would be somewhat changed for a tinted paint containing any percentage of coloring material. tinted paints are, moreover, far more serviceable than white paints, as will be shown later. _mill vs. paddle_: the mixtures under consideration should be ground in linseed oil by the manufacturer, through stone or steel mills, to a very fine condition, as it is only through proper grinding that the pigments can be properly blended. the mixing of paint by hand is, fortunately, to a large extent a thing of the past. the uneven lumping of hand-mixed paints are often the cause of their failure. such ancient and crude practice should be avoided by every painter, for it is more economical to obtain semi-paste paints, properly ground by machinery, to such a condition that they may be easily broken up and tempered. such paints may be reduced to the proper consistency with oil and volatile thinner for application to any kind of wood. in the opinion of the writers, a majority of the paints sold by reputable dealers and made by reputable manufacturers in this country are not only made from the best linseed oil and highest-grade pigments obtainable, but are put up in a form ready for the painter to thin down with full oil or turpentine reductions, either for priming work or to be used without reductions for finishing coats. the large metropolitan painter who wishes to make his own tints and shades may, however, prefer to have his mixed pigment paint ground by the manufacturer in heavy paste form for certain purposes. _results of field tests_: a careful analysis of the results of field tests which have been carried on in different parts of the country would be far too voluminous for insertion in this bulletin. the official findings of special committees of inspection have already been published in special reports. whereas there may still remain ground for some difference of opinion in regard to the interpretation of the results obtained on the various test fences, there can be no doubt that considerable information of the highest value has been yielded, both to the producers and consumers of paints. one of the principal results obtained from these tests has led to the opinion expressed above by the writers, that better results can be obtained by a proper mixture of selected pigments than by the use of any one pigment in linseed oil. this conclusion has also been reached by engineers of the united states navy, and, as a result, the specifications of the bureau of yards and docks for paints made of straight white lead and oil have recently been changed to call for white lead combined with upwards of per cent of zinc oxide. many engineers and master painters have interpreted the results of the tests in the same way, and the attention of the authors has been called to a number of opinions which show that the tendency of demand among those who are properly informed is for a high-grade combination type of paint rather than for any single pigment paint. _color_: the selection of the color for a dwelling or other structure is a matter that depends largely upon the good judgment and taste of the owner, combined with the advice of the painter. one point, however, should be impressed upon the mind of both, namely, that practically all shades or tints made upon a good white paint base, through the use of permanent tinting colors, will better withstand exposure to the atmosphere than the white base used alone. owing to the cheerful effect produced by the use of white paint on dwellings, a very large quantity of white will continue to be used. if these white paints are designed in line with the suggestions brought out above--that is to say, if the white lead bases are properly reinforced with zinc oxide and other pigmentary materials--better results will undoubtedly be obtained, as far as appearance and durability is concerned, than if white lead had been used alone. the consumer should remember, however, that more durable results will be obtained by the use of tinted paints. _reductions and thinners_: turpentine, with its sweet odor, high solvent action, and wonderful oxidizing value, has always taken first place among the volatile liquids used for thinning paints. wood turpentines, produced from the steam distillation of fine-cut fat pinewood or from the destructive distillation of stumpage and sawdust, have been refined in some cases, by elimination of odor and toxic effects, to such purity that they are equally as good as the purest grades of gum turpentine, and their use is bound to increase in the paint industry. the painter and manufacturer have come to understand that certain grades of asphaltum and paraffine distillates are equally as satisfactory as turpentine for use in paints for exterior purposes. those volatile oils which are distilled from crude oil with either a paraffine or asphaltum base and possessed of boiling point, flash point, color, and evaporative value approximating similar constants of turpentine, are excellently suited to partly, and in some cases wholly, replace turpentine in exterior paints. a little additional drier added to paints thinned with these materials will cause oxidation to take place in the proper time. * * * * * prominent master painters[a] have shown that benzol, a product obtained from the distillation of coal tar, differing from benzine, a product obtained from the distillation of petroleum, is a valuable thinner to use in the reduction of paints for the priming of resinous lumber such as cypress and yellow pitch pine. the penetrating and solvent value of benzol is high, and it often furnishes a unison between paint and wood that is a prime foundation to subsequent coatings, preventing the usual scaling and sap exudations, which often appear on a painted surface. because of the great solvent action of benzol, however, this material should never be used in the second and third coatings. these facts will doubtless interest the southern painter, who has so much wood of a refractory nature to paint. [a] dewar, titzel _et al._ _oils_: the increasing cost of linseed oil has raised the interesting question as to whether or not it is good practice to use an admixture of other oils in connection with it, in high grade paint coatings. strong differences of opinion will probably be found in regard to this question, and undoubtedly further investigation work is necessary in order to decide it. a number of different oils have been proposed for the purpose, of which, perhaps, soya bean oil is the one which has been most prominently discussed. no definite formulas, however, should be recommended until the results of investigations which are now being carried on are in hand. a systematic series of test panels is now being erected in washington, d. c., on the grounds of the institute of industrial research, which are designed to gather data covering just this point. the flax crop conditions have been most discouraging during the past two years, and the natural shortage of seed has caused a rise in the price of linseed oil, which has necessitated a rise in the price of paint. the added protection to be secured, however, through the frequent application of paint far outweighs any increased cost which has been caused by the rise in price of the raw commodities entering into the composition of paint. * * * * * textiles and clothing by kate heintz watson graduate armour institute of technology formerly instructor in domestic art lewis institute lecturer university of chicago [illustration: american school of home economics seal] chicago american school of home economics copyright , , by home economics association the library of home economics a complete home-study course on the new profession of home-making and art of right living; the practical application of the most recent advances in the arts and sciences to home and health prepared by teachers of recognized authority for home-makers, mothers, teachers, physicians, nurses, dietitians, professional house managers, and all interested in home, health, economy and children twelve volumes nearly three thousand pages, one thousand illustrations tested by use in correspondence instruction revised and supplemented [illustration: american school of home economics seal] chicago american school of home economics copyright, by home economics association entered at stationers' hall, london _all rights reserved._ authors isabel bevier, ph. m. professor of household science, university of illinois. author u. s. government bulletins, "development of the home economics movement in america," etc. alice peloubet norton, m. a. assistant professor of home economics, school of eduction, university of chicago; director of the chautauqua school of domestic science. s. maria elliott instructor in home economics, simmons college; formerly instructor school of housekeeping, boston. anna barrows director chautauqua school of cookery; lecturer teachers' college, columbia university, and simmons college; formerly editor "american kitchen magazine;" author "home science cook book." alfred cleveland cotton, a. m., m. d. professor diseases of children, rush medical college, university of chicago; visiting physician presbyterian hospital, chicago; author of "diseases of children." bertha m. terrill, a. b. professor in home economics in hartford school of pedagogy; author of u. s. government bulletins. kate heintz watson formerly instructor in domestic economy, lewis institute; lecturer university of chicago. marion foster washburne editor "the mothers' magazine;" lecturer chicago froebel association; author "everyday essays," "family secrets," etc. margaret e. dodd graduate massachusetts institute of technology; teacher of science, woodard institute. amy elizabeth pope with the panama canal commission; formerly instructor in practical and theoretical nursing, training school for nurses, presbyterian hospital, new york city. maurice le bosquet, s. b. director american school of home economics; member american public health association and american chemical society. contributors and editors ellen h. richards author "cost of food," "cost of living," "cost of shelter," "food materials and their adulteration," etc., etc.; chairman lake placid conference on home economics. mary hinman abel author of u. s. government bulletins, "practical sanitary and economic cooking," "sale food," etc. thomas d. wood, m. d. professor of physical education, columbia university. h. m. lufkin, m. d. professor of physical diagnosis and clinical medicine, university of minnesota. otto folin, ph. d. special investigator, mclean hospital, waverly, mass. t. mitchell prudden, m. d., ll. d. author "dust and its dangers," "the story of the bacteria," "drinking water and ice supplies," etc. frank chouteau brown architect, boston, mass.; author of "the five orders of architecture," "letters and lettering." mrs. melvil dewey secretary lake placid conference on home economics. helen louise johnson professor of home economics, james millikan university, decatur. frank w. allin, m. d. instructor rush medical college, university of chicago. managing editor maurice le bosquet, s. b. director american school of home economics. board of trustees of the american school of home economics mrs. arthur courtenay neville president of the board. miss maria parloa founder of the first cooking school in boston; author of "home economics," "young housekeeper," u. s. government bulletins, etc. mrs. mary hinman abel co-worker in the "new england kitchen," and the "rumford food laboratory;" author of u. s. government bulletins, "practical sanitary and economic cooking," etc. miss alice ravenhill special commissioner sent by the british government to report on the schools of home economics in the united states; fellow of the royal sanitary institute, london. mrs. ellen m. henrotin honorary president general federation of woman's clubs. mrs. frederic w. schoff president national congress of mothers. mrs. linda hull larned past president national household economics association; author of "hostess of to-day." mrs. walter mcnab miller chairman of the pure food committee of the general federation of woman's clubs. mrs. j. a. kimberly vice president of national household economics association. mrs. john hoodless government superintendent of domestic science for the province of ontario; founder ontario normal school of domestic science, now the macdonald institute. [illustration: dress making in mexico] contents primitive methods weaving fibers cotton wool flax silk modern methods weaving weaves bleaching and dyeing printing finishing cotton goods linens woolens and worsteds silks names of fabrics bibliography on textiles hand sewing ornamental stitches hems tucks and seams plackets sewing on bands fastenings patching darning mitering embroidery, joining lace machine sewing dressmaking patterns making seven-gored skirt making shirt waists lined waist sleeves collars seamless yokes pressing construction and ornament in dress ornament of textiles color children's clothes care of clothing cleaning repairing bibliography on sewing and dressmaking references: history of costume; ornament and design program for supplemental study index [illustration: "the thread of life" spinning with the distaff and spindle. from a painting.] textiles and clothing [sidenote: origin of textile arts] spinning and weaving are among the earliest arts. in the twisting of fibers, hairs, grasses, and sinews by rolling them between the thumb and fingers, palms of the hands, or palms and naked thigh, we have the original of the spinning wheel and the steam-driven cotton spindle; in the roughest plaiting we have the first hint of the finest woven cloth. the need of securing things or otherwise strengthening them then led to binding, fastening, and sewing. the wattle-work hut with its roof of interlaced boughs, the skins sewn by fine needles with entrails or sinews, the matted twigs, grasses, and rushes are all the crude beginnings of an art which tells of the settled life of to-day. [sidenote: primitive methods] nothing is definitely known of the origin of these arts; all is conjecture. they doubtless had their beginning long before mention is made of them in history, but these crafts--spinning and weaving--modified and complicated by inventions and, in modern times transferred largely from man to machine, were distinctively woman's employment. the very primitive type of spinning, where no spindle was used, was to fasten the strands of goats' hair or wool to a stone which was twirled round until the yarn was sufficiently twisted when it was wound upon the stone and the process repeated over and over. [illustration: italian woman spinning flax spindle and distaff. from hull house museum. (in this series of pictures the spinners and weavers are in native costume.)] [illustration: russian spinning flax held on frame, leaving both hands free to manage the thread and spindle. from hull house museum.] [sidenote: spinning with the spindle] the next method of twisting yarn was with the spindle, a straight stick eight to twelve inches long on which the thread was wound after twisting. at first it had a cleft or split in the top in which the thread was fixed; later a hook of bone was added to the upper end. the spindle is yet used by the north american indians, the italians, and in the orient. the bunch of wool or flax fibers is held in the left hand; with the right hand the fibers are drawn out several inches and the end fastened securely in the slit or hook on the top of the spindle. a whirling motion is given to the spindle on the thigh or any convenient part of the body; the spindle is then dropped, twisting the yarn, which is wound on the upper part of the spindle. another bunch of fibers is drawn out, the spindle is given another twirl, the yarn is wound on the spindle, and so on. [sidenote: spindle whorl] a spindle containing a quantity of yarn was found to rotate more easily, steadily and continue longer than an empty one, hence the next improvement was the addition of a _whorl_ at the bottom of the spindle. these whorls are discs of wood, stone, clay, or metal which keep the spindle steady and promote its rotation. the process in effect is precisely the same as the spinning done by our grandmothers, only the spinning wheel did the twisting and reduced the time required for the operation. [illustration: spinning with crude wheel and distaff distaff thrust into the belt.] [illustration: "gossip" in the olden times] [illustration: colonial wool wheel the large wheel revolved by hand thus turning the spindle and twisting the yarn, which is then wound on the spindle; intermittent in action.] [illustration: colonial flax wheel worked by a foot treddle; distaff on the frame of the wheel; "fliers" on the spindle, continuous in action; capacity seven times that of hand spindle.] [illustration: dutch wheel spinner sits in front of the wheel spinning flax at hull house.] [sidenote: distaff] later the distaff was used for holding the bunch of wool, flax, or other fibers. it was a short stick on one end of which was loosely wound the raw material. the other end of the distaff was held in the hand, under the arm or thrust in the girdle of the spinner. when held thus, one hand was left free for drawing out the fibers. [illustration: graphic diagram showing time during which different methods of spinning has been used.] [sidenote: wheel spinning] on the small spinning wheel the distaff was placed in the end of the wheel bench in front of the "fillers"; this left both hands free to manage the spindle and to draw out the threads of the fibers. [illustration: syrian spinning spinner sits on the floor, wheel turned by a crank; spindle held in place by two mutton joints which contain enough oil for lubrication. at hull house.] the flax spinning wheel, worked by means of a treadle, was invented in the early part of the sixteenth century and was a great improvement upon the distaff and spindle. this it will be seen was a comparatively modern invention. the rude wheel used by the natives of japan and india may have been the progenitor of the european wheel, as about this time intercourse between the east and europe increased. these wheels were used for spinning flax, wool, and afterwards cotton, until hargreaves' invention superseded it. weaving someone has said that "weaving is the climax of textile industry." it is an art practiced by all savage tribes and doubtless was known before the dawn of history. the art is but a development of mat-making and basketry, using threads formed or made by spinning in place of coarser filaments. [illustration: pueblo woman working heddle in weaving a belt] [illustration: a navajo belt weaver] [illustration: zuni woman weaving ceremonial belt] [illustration: primitive heddles] [sidenote: the heddle] in the beginning of the art the warp threads were stretched between convenient objects on the ground or from horizontal supports. at first the woof or filling threads were woven back and forth between the warp threads as in darning. an improvement was the device called the "heald" or "heddle," by means of which alternate warp threads could be drawn away from the others, making an opening through which the filling thread could be passed quickly. one form of the heddle was simply a straight stick having loops of cord or sinew through which certain of the warp threads were run. another form was a slotted frame having openings or "eyes" in the slats. this was carved from one piece of wood or other material or made from many. alternate warp threads passed through the eyes and the slots. by raising or lowering the heddle frame, an opening was formed through which the filling thread, wound on a rude shuttle, was thrown. the next movement of the heddle frame crossed the threads over the filling and made a new opening for the return of the shuttle. at first the filling thread was wound on a stick making a primitive bobbin. later the shuttle to hold the bobbin was devised. [illustration: navajo loom one on the earliest types of looms. at hull house.] [illustration: simple colonial loom] [sidenote: the reed] before the "reed" was invented, the filling threads were drawn evenly into place by means of a rude comb and driven home by sword-shaped piece of wood or "batten." the reed accomplished all this at one time. [illustration: a japanese loom.] [illustration: a four harness hand loom weaving linen in the mountains of virginia. (photograph by c. r. dodge).] [illustration: typical colonial hand loom two harnesses in use; weaving wool at hull house.] [illustration: diagram of a hand loom _a_--warp beam; _b_--cloth beam; _dd_--lees rods; _h_--harness; _t_--treddle.] [sidenote: definition of a loom] it is probable that the european looms were derived from those of india as they seem to be made on the same principle. from crude beginnings, the hand loom of our grandmothers' time developed. a loom has been defined as a mechanism which affects the following necessary movements: . the lifting of the healds to form an opening, or shed, or race for the shuttle to pass through. . the throwing of the weft or filling by means of a shuttle. . the beating up of the weft left in the shed by the shuttle to the cloth already formed. this thread may be adjusted by means of the batten, needle, comb, or any separate device like the reed. & . the winding up or taking up of the cloth as it is woven and the letting off of the warp as the cloth is taken up. [illustration: swedish hand loom norwegian woman weaving linen at hull house.] [illustration: diagram of the working parts of a loom. _s_--shuttle for carrying the woof; _r_--reed for beating up the woof; _h_--frame holding heddles, with pullies (_p_) making the harness; _t_--treddles for moving the harness.] [sidenote: colonial loom] no essential changes have been made since our grandmothers made cloth a hundred years ago. the "harnesses" move part of the warp now up, now down, and the shuttle carries the weft from side to side to be driven home by the reeds to the woven cloth. our grandmothers did all the work with swift movements of hands and feet. the modern weaver has her loom harnessed to the electric dynamo and moves her fingers only to keep the threads in order. if she wishes to weave a pattern in the cloth, no longer does she pick up threads of warp now here, now there, according to the designs. it is all worked out for her on the loom. each thread with almost human intelligence settles automatically into its appointed place, and the weaver is only a machine tender. [illustration: fly shuttle hand loom. the pulling of the reed automatically throws the shuttle back and forth and works the harness, making a shed at the proper time.] [sidenote: primitive fabrics] no textiles of primitive people were ever woven in "pieces" or "bolts" of yards and yards in length to be cut into garments. the cloth was made of the size and shape to serve the particular purpose for which it was designed. the mat, robe, or blanket had tribal outlines and proportions and was made according to the materials and the use of common forms that prevailed among the tribes. the designs were always conventional and sometimes monotonous. the decoration never interfered with its use. "the first beauty of the savage woman was uniformity which belonged to the texture and shape of the product." the uniformity in textile, basketry, or pottery, after acquiring a family trait, was never lost sight of. their designs were suggested by the natural objects with which they were familiar. [illustration: picking cotton. from department of agriculture bulletin, "the cotton plant."] fibers both the animal and vegetable kingdoms furnish the materials for clothing as well as for all the textiles used in the home. the fleece of sheep, the hair of the goat and camel, silk, furs, and skins are the chief animal products. the principal vegetable fibers are cotton, flax, ramie, jute, and hemp. [sidenote: chief fibers] cotton linen, wool, and silk have heretofore formed the foundation of all textiles and are the principal fibers used for clothing materials. ramie or china grass and pineapple fibers are sometimes used as adulterants in the manufacture of silk. when woven alone, they give soft silky textiles of great strength and beauty. cotton [illustration: production of cotton] cotton is now our chief vegetable fiber, the yearly crop being over six billion pounds, of which the united states raises three-fourths. texas is the largest producer, followed by georgia, alabama, and mississippi. the remainder of the world supply comes chiefly from india, egypt, russia, and brazil. the hindoos were the first ancient people to make extensive use of the cotton fiber. not until the invention of the cotton gin by eli whitney in did the cotton begin to reach its present importance. only four or five pounds of the fiber could be separated by hand from the seed by a week's labor. the modern saw gins turn out over five thousand pounds daily. [sidenote: native home] cotton is the white downy covering of the seed of several special of cotton of cotton plant. it is a native of many parts of the world, being found by columbus growing in the west indies and on the main land, by cortez in mexico, and pizarro in peru. [illustration: cotton fiber attached to seed] [sidenote: sea island cotton] the value of cotton depends upon the strength, and evenness of the fiber. in ordinary cotton the individual fiber is about an inch in length. the sea island cotton grown chiefly on the islands off the coast of georgia, carolina, and florida is the most valuable variety, having a fine fiber, one and one-half to two inches in length. some of the egyptian cotton belongs to this species. sea island cotton is used chiefly for fine laces, thread and knit goods and for the finest lawns and muslins. [sidenote: upland cotton] the short fiber or upland cotton is the most common and useful variety. it is grown in georgia, north and south carolina and alabama. texas cotton is similar to upland, but sometimes is harsh with shorter fiber. gulf cotton occupies a position between upland and sea island cotton. [illustration: upland cotton plant with fully developed boles from bulletin no. , georgia experiment station.] [illustration: cotton bole fully developed from year book of the department of agriculture, .] [illustration: bole opened, cotton ready for picking year book of .] the brazilian and peruvian cotton yields a long staple and is sometimes used to adulterate silk and other fibers. some varieties of this cotton are harsh and wooly and are prized for use in mixing with wool. [sidenote: nankin cotton] the nankin cotton grown in china and india and in the southwestern part of louisiana is characterized by its yellow color. it is used in weaving cloth of various kinds in the "fireside industries" which have become popular in the united states and england. [illustration: cotton fibers _a a_--unripe fibers; _b b_--half-ripe fibers; _c c_--ripe fibers.] [sidenote: spinning qualities] very fine yarn can be spun from cotton because of the spiral character of the fibers. this twist of the fibers is peculiar to cotton, being present in no other animal or vegetable fiber. on account of this twist, cotton cloths are much more elastic in character than those woven from linen, the fibers of which are stiff and straight. after the removal of the seed, no other fiber is so free from impurities-- per cent is the loss sustained by cleaning and bleaching. in its natural condition, cotton will not dye readily because of a waxy substance on the surface of the fibers. this must be removed by washing. [sidenote: picking and ginning] cotton should be picked only when it is fully ripe when the pods are fully burst and the fibers expanded. the unripe fiber is glassy, does not attain its full strength and resists the dye. after picking, the cotton is sent to the ginning factory to have the seed removed. it is then pressed into bales by hydraulic presses, five hundred pounds being the standard bale in the united states. [illustration: cotton bales] [sidenote: physical characteristics] purified bleached cotton is nearly pure cellulose. it resists the action of alkalis well, but is harmed by hot, strong acids, or if acid is allowed to dry on the fabric. it is not harmed by high temperature, and so may be ironed with a hot iron. [illustration: wool fiber and substitutes . south american wool; . noil from the same; . tangled waste; . waste combed out; . lap waste; . shoddy.] wool [sidenote: character of fiber] wool is the most important animal fiber. strictly speaking the name applies only to the hairy covering of sheep, but the hair of certain goats and of camels is generally classified under the same terms. the wool fiber is distinguished by its scale-like surface which gives it its felting and spinning properties. hair as distinguished from wool has little or no scaly structure being in general a smooth filament with no felting properties and spinning only with great difficulty. fur is the undergrowth found on most fur-bearing animals and has in a modified way the scaly structure and felting properties of wool. [illustration: microscopic appearance of wool fibers] [sidenote: value for clothing] the great value of wool as a fiber lies in the fact that it is strong, elastic, soft, very susceptible to dye stuffs and being woven, furnishes a great number of air spaces, rendering clothing made from it very warm and light. [sidenote: quality of wool] climate, breed, and food influence the quality of the wool. where the pasturage is barren and rocky, the wool is apt to be coarse. [illustration: merino rams the variety of sheep giving the finest wool.] [sidenote: varieties of sheep] there are supposed to be about thirty distinct varieties of sheep, nearly half of which are natives of asia, one-third of africa, and only four coming from europe, and two from america. wool is divided into two general classes--long and short staple, according to the average length of fiber. the long fiber wool is commonly carded, combed and spun into _worsted_ yarn. the short fiber is usually carded and spun into woolen yarn. the short fiber obtained in combing long staple wool is called "noil." it is used for woolens. [sidenote: goat wools] alpaca, vicuna and llama wools are obtained from animals which are native to the mountains of peru and chile. the angora goat, originally from asia minor, furnishes the mohair of commerce. this fiber does not resemble the hairs of common goats in any respect. it is a very beautiful fiber of silky luster, which constitutes its chief value. [illustration: angora goats] [sidenote: fur] the fur of beavers and rabbits can be and is used in manufacture, either spun into yarn or made into felt. the fibers of both animals enter largely into the manufacture of felt hats. [sidenote: sorting wool] the fleece of sheep after being sheared is divided into different parts or _sorted_, according to the quality of the wool, the best wool coming from the sides of the animal. [illustration: wool fibers _a_--medium wool; _b_--camel's hair; _c_--diseased fiber; _d_--merino wool; _e_--mohair.] [sidenote: scouring wool] as it comes from the sheep, the wool contains many substances besides the wool fiber which must be removed before dyeing or spinning. this cleansing is called _scouring_. before scouring, the wool is usually dusted by machines to remove all loose dirt. the scouring must be done by the mildest means possible in order to preserve the natural fluffiness and brilliancy of the fiber. the chief impurity is the wool grease or "yolk" which is secreted by the skin glands to lubricate the fiber and prevent it from matting. [illustration: one method of wool sorting --the best grade; --lowest grade; --fair; --medium grade.] [sidenote: scouring agents] in the scouring of wool, soap is the principal agent. soft soap made from caustic potash is generally used as it is less harmful than ordinary hard soda soap. potassium carbonate--"pearl ash"--is often used in connection with the soap. if the water for scouring is hard, it is softened with pearl ash. the temperature of wash water is never allowed to go above ° f. the scoured wool weighs from a little over a half to one-third or less of the weight of the fleece. [sidenote: hydroscopic moisture] wool has the remarkable property of absorbing up to per cent or more of its weight of water and yet not feel perceptibly damp to the touch. this is called "hydroscopic moisture." to this property wool owes its superiority as a textile for underclothing. [illustration: wool sorting] the thoroughly cleansed fiber is made up chiefly of the chemical substance keratin, being similar in composition to horn and feathers. in burning it gives off a characteristic disagreeable odor. it is a substance very weakly acid in its nature, for which reason it combines readily with many dyes. wool resists the action of acids very well, but is much harmed by the alkalis, being dissolved completely by a warm solution of caustic soda. high temperature harms wool. flax next to wool and cotton, flax is used most largely in our textile manufactures. the linen fiber consists of the bast cells of certain species of flax grown in europe, africa, and the united states. all bast fibers are obtained near the outer surface of the plant stems. the pith and woody tissues are of no value. the flax plant is an annual and to obtain the best fibers it must be gathered before it is fully ripe. to obtain seed from which the best quality of linseed oil can be made it is usually necessary to sacrifice the quality of the fibers to some extent. [illustration: flax] [sidenote: treatment of flax] unlike cotton, flax is contaminated by impurities from which it must be freed before it can be woven into cloth. the first process to which the freshly pulled flax is submitted is that of "rippling" or the removal of the seed capsules. retting, next in order, is the most important operation. this is done to remove the substances which bind the bast fibers to each other and to remove the fiber from the central woody portion of the stem. this consists of steeping the stalks in water. [illustration: a field of flax in minnesota the flax must be pulled up by the roots to give fibres with tapered ends. (photograph of c. r. dodge).] [sidenote: retting] ( ) cold water retting, either running or stagnant water. ( ) dew retting. ( ) warm water retting. [illustration: retting tank _a_--inlet; _b_--undisturbed water; _c_--bundles of flax.] cold water retting in running water is practiced in belgium. retting in stagnant water is the method usually employed in ireland and russia. the retting in stagnant water is more rapidly done, but there is danger of over-retting on account of the organic matter retained in the water which favors fermentation. in this case the fiber is weakened. [illustration: retting flax in the river lys, belgium from the government bulletin, "flax for seed and fiber."] in dew retting, the flax is spread on the field and exposed to the action of the weather for several weeks without any previous steeping. this method of retting is practiced in germany and russia. warm water retting and chemical retting have met with limited success. when the retting is complete, the flax is set up in sheaves to dry. the next operations consist of "breaking," "scutching," and "hackling" and are now done by machinery. [illustration: fibers of flax] breaking removes the woody center from the retted and dried flax by being passed through a series of fluted rollers. the particles of woody matter adhering to the fibers are detached by scutching. [sidenote: hackling] hackling or combing still further separates the fibers into their finest filaments--"line" and "tow." the "flax line" is the long and valuable fiber; the tow, the short coarse tangled fiber which is spun and used for weaving coarse linen. [illustration: flax a, unthrashed straw; b, retted; c, cleaned or scutched; d, hackled or dressed. (photograph of c. r. dodge).] [illustration: hackling flax by hand the "tow" is seen at the left and a bunch of "flax line" on the bench. (photograph of c. r. dodge, special agent u. s. department of agriculture.)] [sidenote: characteristics of linen] when freed from all impurities the chief physical characteristics of flax are its snowy whiteness, silky luster and great tenacity. the individual fibers may be from ten to twelve inches in length; they are much greater in diameter than cotton. it is less pliant and elastic than cotton and bleaches and dyes less readily. linen cloth is a better conductor of heat than cotton and clothing made from it is cooler. when pure, it is, like cotton, nearly pure cellulose. [sidenote: ramie] besides the linen, there is a great number of bast fibers fit for textile purposes, some superior, some inferior. india alone has over three hundred plants that are fiber yielding. one-third of these furnish useful fibers for cordage and fabrics. the next in importance to linen is ramie or rhea, and china grass. china grass comes from a different plant but is about the same as ramie. the staple is longer and finer than linen. the great strength of yarn made from it is due to length of the staple. the variety and great value of the ramie fibers has long been recognized, but difficulties attending the separation and degumming of the fibers have prevented its employment in the manufactures to any great extent. the native chinese split and scrape the plant stems, steeping them in water. the common retting process used for flax is not effective on account of the large amount of gummy matter, and although easy to bleach it is difficult to dye in full bright shades without injuring the luster of the fibers. [sidenote: jute and hemp] jute and hemp belong to the lower order of bast fibers. the fiber is large and is unfit for any but the coarsest kind of fabrics. jute is mainly cultivated in bengal. the fiber is separated from the plant by retting, beating, etc. [illustration: jute growing in louisiana. from culture of hemp and jute, report of u. s. department of agriculture.] [illustration: drying hemp in kentucky from "culture of hemp and jute."] [sidenote: olona] olona, the textile fiber of hawaii, is found to have promising qualities. this plant resembles ramie and belongs to the nettle family also, but it is without the troublesome resin of the ramie. the fiber is fine, light, strong, and durable. the philippines are rich in fiber producing plants. the manila hemp is the most prominent, of which coarse cloth is woven, besides the valuable cordage. the sisal hemp, pineapple, yucca, and a number of fiber plants growing in the southern part of the united states are worthy of note. these fiber industries are conducted in a rude way, the fiber being cleaned by hand, except the pineapple. silk the silk fiber is the most perfect as well as the most beautiful of all fibers. it is nearly faultless, fine and continuous, often measuring from to feet long, without a scale, joint, or a blemish, though not of the same diameter or fineness throughout its entire length, as it becomes finer as the interior of the cocoon is approached. silk differs from all other vegetable or animal fibers by being devoid of all cellular structure. [sidenote: where produced] southern europe leads in the silk worm culture--italy, southern france, and turkey, with china and india. several species of moths, natives of india, china, and japan, produce the wild silk. the most important of the "wild silks" are the tussah. silk plush and the coarser varieties of buff colored fabrics are made of this silk. while manufacturers do not favor the wild silk, the coarse uneven weave and softness make it a favorite with artists and it is being used for interior decoration as well as for clothing. [sidenote: silk worm] the silk of commerce begins with an egg no bigger than a mustard seed, out of which comes a diminutive caterpillar, which is kept in a frame and fed upon mulberry leaves. when the caterpillars are full grown, they climb upon twigs placed for them and begin to spin or make the cocoon. the silk comes from two little orifices in the head in the form of a glutinous gum which hardens into a fine elastic fiber. with a motion of the head somewhat like the figure eight, the silk worm throws this thread around the body from head to tail until at last it is entirely enveloped. the body grows smaller and the thread grows finer until at last it has spun out most of the substance of the body and the task is done. if left to itself, when the time came, the moth would eat its way out of the cocoon and ruin the fiber. a few of the best cocoons are saved for a new supply of caterpillars; the remainder are baked at a low heat which destroys the worm but preserves the silk. this now becomes the cocoon of commerce. [sidenote: reeling silk] next the cocoons go to the reelers who wind the filaments into the silk yarn that makes the raw material of our mills. the cocoons are thrown into warm water mixed with soap in order to dissolve the gum. the outer or coarser covering is brushed off down to the real silk and the end of the thread found. four or five cocoons are wound together, the sticky fibers clinging to each other as they pass through the various guides and are wound as a single thread on the reels. the silk is dried and tied into hanks or skeins. as the thread unwinds from the cocoon, it becomes smaller, so other threads must be added. [illustration: silk:--caterpillar, cocoon, chrysalis, moth] [sidenote: organize and tram] at the mill the raw silk goes to the "throwster" who twists the silk threads ready for the loom. these threads are of two kinds--"organize" or warp and "tram" or filling. the warp runs the long way of woven fabric or parallel with the selvage and it must be strong, elastic, and not easily parted by rubbing. to prepare the warp, two threads of raw silk are slightly twisted. twist is always put into yarn of any kind to increase its strength. these threads are united and twisted together and this makes a strong thread capable of withstanding any reasonable strain in the loom and it will not roughen. for the woof or tram which is carried across the woven cloth on the shuttle, the thread should be as loose and fluffy as possible. several threads are put together, subjected to only a very slight twist--just enough to hold the threads together so they will lie evenly in the finished fabric. [sidenote: boiling off] after the yarn leaves the spinners it is again run off on reels to be taken to the dye house. first the yarn is boiled off in soapy water to remove the remaining gum. now the silk takes on its luster. before it was dull like cotton. the silk is now finer and harder and is known as "souple." [sidenote: loading silk] the silk fiber has a remarkable property of absorbing certain metallic salts, still retaining much of its luster. this process is known as "loading" or "weighting," and gives increased body and weight to the silk. silk without weighting is known as "pure dye," of which there is little made, as such goods take too much silk. [illustration: reeling silk] for the weighting of white or light colored silk goods, tin crystals (stanous chloride) are used and for dark shades and black, iron salts and tannin. by this means the original weight of the fiber may be increased three or four hundred per cent. this result is not attained, however, except through the weakening of the fiber. [sidenote: action of common salt] common salt has a very curious action on weighted silk. it slowly weakens the fiber. a silk dress may be ruined by being splashed with salt water at the seashore. most often holes appear after a dress comes back from the cleaners; these he may not be to blame for, as salt is abundant in nearly all the bodily secretions,--tears, perspiration, urine. [sidenote: artificial silk] artificial silk is made by dissolving cellulose obtained from cotton. it is lacking in strength and water spoils all kinds manufactured at present. [sidenote: characteristics of silk] silk, like wool, has the property of absorbing considerable moisture without becoming perceptibly damp. like wool and all the animal fibers, it is harmed by alkalis. the important physical properties of silk are its beautiful luster, strength, elasticity and the readiness with which it takes dyes. silk combines well with other fibers, animal and vegetable. [sidenote: value of raw fibers] a comparison of the relative value of textile fibers may be seen from the following approximate prices: cotton--$. to $. per pound; loss in cleaning and bleaching per cent. flax--$. to $. per pound; loss in cleaning and bleaching about per cent. wool--$. to $. per pound; loss in scouring to per cent. raw silk--$ . to $ . per pound; loss in "boiling off" about per cent which is made up and much more by "loading." modern methods all the complex processes and machinery of the textile industry are but developments of the old-time methods of the home. brief outlines only will be given here for the processes are most intricate in detail. spinning the spinning of cotton yarn (thread) is typical of all the fibers. the stages may be divided into-- . opening and picking. . carding. . combing. . drawing. . spinning. [sidenote: picking and carding] the picking and carding have for their object the removal of all foreign substances with as little damage to the fiber as possible. the foreign substances in cotton are sand, dirt, pieces of leaves, seed, husk, etc., which have become mixed with the fiber during the process of growing, ginning and transportation. [sidenote: cleaning] the cotton bales are opened and thrown into the automatic feeder which carries up a layer of cotton on a spiked apron from which it is removed by a rapidly revolving "doffer" underneath which is a screen which catches some of the dirt. it is next fed between rolls in front of a rapidly revolving blunt-edged knife which throws out more of the dirt through a screen. there is a suction of air through the screen which helps remove the foreign substances. the cotton passes through several of such machines, being formed into a soft web or "lap" which is wound into a roll. [sidenote: carding] the carding machine further cleans the fibers and lays them in a general parallel position. from this machine the web is formed into "sliver," a loose rope of cotton fiber about two inches in diameter. this is received in circular cans. [illustration: cotton opener and picker the cotton from the bale is thrown into _a_, carried by the spiked aprons _b_ and _c_, evened by _e_, removed from the apron by _f_ (some of the dirt falls through the screen into box _g_) is beaten by the revolving "knife," _n p_, more dirt being removed through screen _n_, then goes through the flue _c_ to the next machine.] [sidenote: combing] the combing is omitted for short fiber cotton, but is used in worsted spinning and with long staple cotton to remove the short fibers. cotton to be used for making yarn suitable for hosiery, underwear, sewing thread, lace, and for very fine cotton fabrics is carded. in drawing, from six to sixteen "slivers" are run together and the fibers drawn out in several stages until the soft rope is about an eighth of an inch in diameter, called "roving." this tends to get rid of any unevenness and makes the fibers all parallel. from this machine the roving is wound on a bobbin ready for the spinning frame. [illustration: cotton card the roll of webbing _a_ is beaten and transferred to the cylinder _h h_, carded by the spiked belt _e_, removed by the "doffer" and formed into a "sliver" which runs into the can _m_.] [sidenote: spinning] the spinning frame may have a hundred spindles or more, each one of which is drawing out its supply of "roving" to the required size of yarn and giving it the twist necessary to bind the fibers together. the yarn to be used for the warp is given a harder twist so that it may be strong enough to stand the strain in weaving. the yarn for filling is usually left soft. [illustration: cotton comb, used for long staple] [illustration: receiving the "sliver" at the back of the drawing frame.] [illustration: drawing frame drawing the roving finer.] [illustration: a fly spinning frame the spools of roving above are being drawn out, given the twist by the fliers, and wound on bobbins below.] [illustration: mule drawing and spinning frame always used for wool. part of the machine moves away from the frame, thus drawing out the thread, which is then twisted.] [illustration: modern ring spinning frame for cotton. sixty-eight spindles gives the largest production.] [illustration: a plain power loom weaving linen] the yarn for warp is now usually given a coating or "sizing" of starch and gums so that the thread may not become unwound and break during weaving. the process of spinning is much the same for flax and for wool, although somewhat differently constructed machines must be used. flax is usually spun wet. weaving [sidenote: modern loom] the modern power driven loom is a wonderful piece of machinery. the principle of its operation is essentially the same as the hand loom, but it is almost perfectly automatic in its action, a man or woman being able to tend from ten to fifteen looms weaving plain cotton goods. [sidenote: warping] the yarn coming from the spinning frame is sometimes dyed before weaving. the warp is formed by winding as many threads as the width of the fabric is to contain on a slowly revolving drum, called a "beam," in the same relative position in which they are to appear in the finished cloth. from its position on the beam at the back of the loom, each thread is brought through its particular loop or eye with the heddle, then passes through its own slot in the reed, and down to the roller or "cloth beam" that is to take up the woven cloth. this is called "drawing in the warp." if there is a piece of cloth coming from the loom, the work is very simple, for the ends of the new warp are tied to the ends remaining from the warp that has been woven out. the shuttle with its bobbin, containing the yarn of the filling, is much the same as is used in the hand looms, except for form and size, which varies according to the requirements and size of the warp being used. at first only one shuttle was used, but in robert kay invented a mechanism by which several shuttles containing different grades or colors of yarn might be used. each throw of the shuttle across the width of the goods is called a "pick." [sidenote: the harness] in making a cloth with plain weave, that is, with every thread interlacing with every other, as in darning, only two harnesses are required, but the modern loom may have up to about twenty-four harnesses so that an infinite variety of weaves may be obtained. various cams and levers move the harness frame and so raise or lower the threads required for the design. [sidenote: jacquard loom] the jacquard loom is arranged on a different principle. in this loom, all kinds of fancy weaves may be obtained as in table linen, tapestries and carpets. each warp thread is supplied with a separate hook and by means of perforated card the desired threads are raised or depressed at each throw of the shuttle. the cards are worked out by the designer. a set of a thousand or more cards may be required to produce the desired design. jacquard looms are sometimes to be seen at fairs and expositions weaving handkerchiefs with some picture design. [illustration: jacquard hand loom weaving ingrain carpet at hull house.] weaves the great variety of weaves found in the textiles of to-day are modifications of a few fundamental weaves invented in the earliest times. the chief fundamental weaves are: ( ) plain weave. ( ) twills. ( ) sateen. to which may be added the derivatives-- ( ) rib weave. ( ) basket weave. [illustration: diagram of fancy knit goods] these do not include the many fancy weaves, too numerous to classify, and the open work weaves, made in the leno loom, in which some of the threads are crossed. knit goods are made by the interlooping of a single thread, by hand or on circular knitting machines and lace by an analogous process, using several systems of threads. felt is made up of matted fibers of fur and wool and has no thread structure. [illustration: weave diagrams] [sidenote: plain weave] the plain weave is the most common, nearly all light weight goods being thus woven. in plain weaving, each thread of both warp and filling passes alternately over and under the threads at right angles. this makes a comparatively open cloth, requiring the smallest amount of yarn for the surface covered. this weave is used in nearly all cotton goods, as in muslins, sheetings, calicoes, ginghams, and thin woolen goods. even in the plain weave variety is obtained by having some of the threads larger than others, either in warp or filling or both, thus producing stripes and checked effects. [illustration: sections of weaves _a_--plain weave; _b_--prunella twill; _c_--cassimere twill; _d_--swansdown twill.] [sidenote: twills] after the plain weave the twill is the most common, being much used for dress goods, suitings, etc., as well as some of the thicker cottons. in this weave the intersections of the threads produce characteristic lines diagonally across the fabric, most often at an angle of °. the twill may be hardly visible or very pronounced. the simplest twills are the so-called "doeskin" and "prunella." in the doeskin the filling threads pass over one and under two of the warp threads and in the prunella twill over two and under one. the most common twill is the cassimere twill in which both the warp and filling run over two and under two of the threads at right angles. [illustration: diagram of rib and basket weave and double cloth] [sidenote: uneven twills] a twill made by running both warp and filling under one and over three threads is called a swansdown twill and the reverse is known as the crow weave. in these the diagonal twilled effect is much more marked. various twills are often combined with each other and with plain weave, making a great variety of texture. numerous uneven twills are made, two over and three under, etc., etc. [sidenote: sateen weave] in the sateen weave, nearly all of either the warp or the filling threads are on the surface, the object being to produce a smooth surface fabric like sateen. with this weave it is possible to use a cotton warp and silk filling, having most of the silk appear on the surface of the fabric. [illustration: textile design _a_--on cross-section paper; _b_--graphic diagram.] [sidenote: rib and basket weaves] the rib and basket weaves are derivatives of the plain weave, two or more threads replacing the single strand. in the rib weave, either the warp or the filling threads run double or more, thus making a corded effect. in the basket weave, both warp and filling are run double or treble, giving a coarse texture. this weave is sometimes called the panama weave. [sidenote: double cloth] in the thicker fabrics like men's suitings and overcoatings, there may be a double series of warp threads, only one series appearing on the face of the goods, and in the still thicker fabrics, there may be a double set of both warp and filling threads, making double cloth, the two sides of which may be entirely different in color and design. [sidenote: velvet] in weaving plush, velvet and velveteen, loops are made in the filling or warp threads which are afterwards cut, producing the pile. bleaching, dyeing, printing, finishing when the cloth comes from the loom it is by no means ready for the market. nearly all kinds are washed and pressed and in some classes of goods the finishing process is very elaborate. bleaching and dyeing the fiber may be dyed in a loose or unspun state, as is customary with wool; after it has been spun and is in the form of yarn, as in the case of silk and linen; and when it has been woven to form cloth, as is most commonly the case with cotton. [sidenote: madder bleach] the bleaching of cotton involves a number of steps, the most thorough process being called the "madder bleach," in which the cloth is ( ) wet out, ( ) boiled with lime water, ( ) rinsed, ( ) treated with acid, ( ) rinsed, ( ) boiled with soap and alkali, ( ) rinsed, ( ) treated with bleaching powder solution, ( ) rinsed, ( ) treated with acid, ( ) finally rinsed again. all this is done by machines and hundreds of yards go through the process at a time. the product is a pure white cloth suitable for dyeing light shades and for white goods. when cloth is to be dyed a dark shade the treatment is less elaborate. [sidenote: singeing and shearing] if the cloth is to be printed for calicoes, before bleaching it is singed by passing through gas flames or over a red hot plate and then sheared in a shearing machine constructed somewhat on the principle of the lawn mower, the cloth being run close to the rapidly revolving knives. although cotton is usually dyed in the piece, it may be dyed in the form of yarn, as for ginghams, and sometimes before being woven, in the loose state. [sidenote: mordant colors] cotton is more difficult to dye than wool or silk. although there are now what are called "direct" cotton colors, the usual process is to first treat the cotton goods with a "mordant"--various salts of aluminum, chromium, iron, tin and copper, fixing these on the fiber by means of tannin or alkali. the mordanted cloth is then entered into the dye bath and boiled for an hour or longer, until the desired shade is obtained or the dye bath exhausted. the salts of aluminum are used as mordants for the lighter shades, the salts of chromium for the medium shades, and iron for the dark shades. in general, chromium mordants give the fastest dyes. [sidenote: aniline dyes] the discovery of the so-called aniline dyes has greatly increased the variety of colors available. although some of the first aniline dyes to be made were not fast to washing or to light and they thus received a bad reputation, they are now to be obtained which compare favorably in fastness with the natural dye stuffs such as cochineal, madder, etc., provided sufficient time and care are given to dyeing. the chief trouble is that in the endeavor to furnish cheap goods, processes are hurried and results are unsatisfactory. [sidenote: home dyeing] home dyeing is practically confined to the use of direct aniline colors. these are put up in small quantities and sold in many places. directions for their use are given on the packages. the chief precautions are to have the goods perfectly clean and thoroughly wet before entering into the dye bath (this is by no means as easy as one might think), and to keep the goods in motion while dyeing so as to prevent unevenness of shade. wool and silk dyes cannot be used for cotton and linen, nor the reverse. of course cloth already colored cannot be dyed a lighter shade of the same color and the original shade must be very light to enable one to change the color, say from red to blue, etc. the original color always modifies that of the dye somewhat and it is best to experiment first with a small portion of the dye and cloth. rather dark shades are apt to be most successful. [sidenote: natural dyestuffs] indigo for blue, madder for turkey red, logwood with fustic for black, cutch or gambia for browns on cotton are about all the natural dyestuffs which are used to any extent commercially at the present time. the artificial product alizerin, the active principle of madder, has about superseded the natural dyestuff, and artificial indigo is gaining on the natural product. linen is bleached and dyed in much the same manner as cotton, although the process is more difficult. the process of bleaching weakens linen more than cotton. [sidenote: dyeing woolen and silk] woolen and silk may be dyed directly with a great variety of dyes without the addition of a mordant, although they are often mordanted. both must be well washed or scoured before dyeing. when white or delicate shades on woolen or silk are desired they are bleached. the bleaching is usually done with sulphurous acid gas, the cloth or yarn being exposed in a damp condition to the fumes of burning sulphur. were it not for the expense, hydrogen peroxide would be the ideal bleaching agent for the animal fibers. printing a great variety of colored designs are produced on the loom by using different colored warp and filling yarns and different weaves, but in all these the designs are easily made only in somewhat rectangular patterns. [sidenote: block and machine printing] print goods have doubtless evolved from the decoration of fabrics with the brush. block printing was first used, the design being engraved in relief on blocks of wood. these are dipped in the colored paste, spread thinly, and applied to successive portions of the cloth by hand. these blocks are now replaced in the printing machine by engraved copper rolls, the design being such that it is repeated once or a number of times in each revolution of the cylinder. there is a printing roll for each color of the design. sometimes both the background and the design are printed on the cloth, but the more common process is for the design only to be printed on the cloth which may be dyed afterwards. in the paste of the printed design there is some chemical which prevents the portions printed from taking the dye, consequently these remain white or a different color. this is called the "resist" process. another process is to first dye the cloth and then print on some chemical which, when the calico is steamed, discharges the color. this is called the "discharge" process. sometimes this weakens the goods in the places where the color has been discharged. [sidenote: fixing the print] the color paste used for printing contains both the dye and the mordant. after the calico has been printed it is steamed to develop and fix the color, washed, sometimes very slightly bleached, to clear the whites, and usually given a sizing of starch or gum, and then pressed and dried by passing over slowly revolving, steam-heated drums. in general print goods are not so fast to washing and to light as those that have been dyed in the regular way, although the better grades are reasonably fast. prints are sometimes made in imitation of the more costly gingham or other goods in which the color design is made in the weaving. it is easy to detect the imitation as the design of printed fabrics does not penetrate to the back of the cloth. [sidenote: warp printing] sometimes the warps are printed before the cloth is woven, thus giving very pretty indefinite designs, especially in silk. finishing [sidenote: burling and mending] the finishing of woolen and worsted goods has much to do with their appearance. no cloth comes from the loom in a perfect condition, therefore inspection is the first process. loose threads and knots are carefully cut off by the "burler" and imperfections in the weaving rectified by the "menders." the goods may now be singed and sheared. [sidenote: fulling] [sidenote: flocks] woolens, and sometimes worsteds, are next "fulled" or felted by being run round and round in a machine while moistened with soap. the friction of the cloth on itself produces some heat which, with the moisture and soap, causes the goods to shrink in length and width while increasing in thickness. during this process, "flocks" are often added, especially for smooth finished woolen goods. these flocks are fine fibers of wool obtained from the shearing machine or made by cutting up old woolen cloth. they are felted with the fibers of the goods and add weight and firmness. [sidenote: raising the nap] after the fulling, the goods is washed to remove the soap, dyed, if desired, and often "speck dyed" with a special dye which colors the bits of burs, remaining in the cloth, but not the wool. the next process is the "gigging" which raises the nap. the cloth is run close to rapidly revolving "teazels" and also may be run through a napping machine. it may be sheared again and then steamed and pressed. this is but a brief outline; there are generally more processes. woolen cloth coming from the loom may be so treated in the finishing room as to produce fabrics entirely different in appearance. one of the chief objects of the finishing is to give to the cloth as fine an appearance as possible to attract the buyer. much of the fine finish disappears through wear, especially with inferior goods made from poor materials. the wearing quality of the goods is primarily dependent upon the strength and quality of the fibers of which it is made, so that the yarn of the filling and the warp should be examined when selecting materials. in general hard twisted yarn will give the better wearing cloth. fabrics the present day shops offer such a great variety of fabrics that only a few of the most important can be mentioned here. cotton goods cotton is cool and heavy, is a non-conductor of heat, crushes easily, but like all vegetable fibers it may be laundered without injury to the fibers. cotton does not take the darker dyes as well as animal fibers and for this reason it does not combine satisfactorily with wool. as an adulterant it wears shabby and loses its brightness. it is only when cotton does not pretend to be anything else that it is our most useful and durable textile. the readiness with which cotton takes the lighter dyes and improved methods of ginning, spinning, and weaving have made cotton goods superior to any other for summer use. [sidenote: muslin] muslin, calico, and gingham must always head the list of cotton goods. muslin is coarse and fine, bleached, unbleached, and half bleached, twilled or plain weave. under the head of muslin brought to a high degree of perfection in weave and finish will be found dimity, mull, indian lawn, organdie, swiss, and madras, and a host of others equally beautiful. madras muslin has a thin transparent ground with a heavily raised pattern woven of a soft, thick thread unlike the ground work. waste is used for the pattern. organdie muslin is soft, opaque, white, or colored, with raised dots of pattern and plain weave. dimity has a fine cord running with the selvage. gingham is a smooth, close cotton usually woven in checks or stripes. the yarn is dyed before being woven, making the cloth alike on both sides, and the weave is either plain or twilled. ginghams are also woven of silk and cotton mixed or of silk and ramie. cretonne, chintz, dress linings, crape, velveteen, and lace are made of cotton. flannelette, which is woven to imitate flannel, is soft and light and is preferred by many who find woolen irritating. it does not shrink as woolen does and is made in beautiful, soft colors and the best grades do not fade. for nightdresses, underwear, and sheets, during cold weather this inexpensive fabric is unequaled. among the heavier cotton fabrics may be mentioned denim and ticking which are now printed in beautiful designs and colors and used for interior decoration as well as for clothing and bedding. the great variety of fibers, the many different ways of preparing each for manufacture, the differences in the preparatory processes in spinning, weaving, or in any of the later processes of finishing produce the varied appearance of the finished product in cotton as in other fabrics. linens linen is one of the oldest textiles; it was used by the early egyptians for the priests' garments and for the wrappings of mummies. many housekeepers think that there is no material for sheets and pillow cases comparable to linen, but it is not an ideal dressing for beds, for in spite of its heavier body, it wrinkles and musses much more readily than good cotton. for table service, however, for the toilet, and for minor ornamental purposes linen has no equal. its smoothness of texture, its brilliancy which laundering increases, its wearing qualities, its exquisite freshness, make it the one fabric fit for the table. [sidenote: table linen] table linen is woven plain and figured, checked and diapered. in the figured or damask cloth the patterns stand out distinctly. this is due to the play of light and shade on the horizontal and vertical lines. in some lights the pattern is scarcely noticeable. when buying a cloth, let it be between the observer and the light, for in this position the pattern will show to the best advantage. there is a certain amount of shade on all horizontal lines or of shadow cast by them, while the vertical lines are illuminated, thus although the warp and woof threads are of the same color, the pattern seems to stand out from the background. linen should not be adulterated. it should be for use and not for show, for use brightens and whitens it. linen adulterated with cotton becomes fuzzy through wear because of the much shorter cotton fibers. the tendency can often be seen by rolling the goods between the thumb and fingers. crash of different widths and quality furnishes tea towels, "huck," damask and other weaves come in various widths and may be purchased by the yard. russia crash is best for kitchen towels. woolens and worsteds [sidenote: standard goods] the many grades of wool with the great variety of weaves and finish make an almost infinite variety of woolen and worsted fabrics. new goods are constantly being put upon the market, or old goods with new names. standard goods, such as serges, cashmere, henrietta cloth, and covert cloth, are always to be found in the shops. these are all twilled goods. the serges are woven of combed wool and are harsh, tough, springy, worsted fabrics of medium and heavy weight, with a distinct twill, rather smooth surface, and plainer back. there are also loosely woven serges. cashmere and henrietta cloth have a fine, irregular twill--the finest made. they are woven with silk, wool, and cotton warp, but the latter gives an inferior textile. [sidenote: tweeds] tweeds and homespuns are names given to coarse cloth of which the wool is spun by hand and woven on hand looms. these goods vary according to the locality in which they are made. the wool is mixed without regard to color, the yarn being spun and twisted in the most primitive manner, giving the cloth an uneven, unfinished appearance. these are among the best wearing cloths on the market and are especially suitable for suits that will receive hard wear. scotland and ireland are famous for their tweeds and homespuns and what are known as the "cottage industries" have been recently revived in those countries as the products of their hand looms have become deservedly popular abroad. [sidenote: harris tweeds] the "harris tweeds," made on the island of lewis and harris, north of scotland, are in the old style by the "crofters." after weaving the goods are "waulked"--milled or felted--with the bare feet, accompanied by singing the waulking song and beating time with the feet. the dyeing is done in pots in the old-fashioned way and until recently the dyestuffs were obtained from mosses, lichens, heather, broom, and other plants. now, however, some of the best aniline dyes are being used. a peculiar characteristic of the harris tweed is the peat smoke smell caused by the fabric being woven in the crofters' cottages, where there is always a strong odor of peat "reek" from the peat which is burned for fuel. the ordinary so-called harris tweeds sold in this country are made on the southern border of scotland, in factories, and are but imitations of the real harris tweeds. the light colored tweeds--natural color of wool--come from the island of st. kilda. this island stands out in mid ocean, barren and wild, devoid of plants or shrubs of any kind for making dyes. the crofters content themselves without dyestuffs. the industry is maintained by nobility to help the islanders and the fabrics are fashionable and high priced. covert cloth is a twilled woven cloth of great beauty and durability. it is rather heavy, of hard finish and is used for jackets and winter suits. to this list of woolen goods may be added the crape cloth with crinkled, rough surface, nun's veiling, flannel which is woven in a variety of ways, broadcloth, wool canvas, and poplins. this list includes only a few of the fabrics manufactured, but these are always to be found on the market, are always good in color and are the best of all wool textiles for wear. [sidenote: mohair] [sidenote: alpaca] mohair is a material made from the hair of the angora goat, woven with silk, wool, worsted, or cotton warp. it is a dust-shedding material, does not shrink, and bears hard wear well. alpaca, on account of its softness, elasticity, and exemption from shaggy defects, combines admirably with cotton in the manufacture of fine goods, which attains almost the glossy brightness of silk. the yarn is used for weaving alpaca linings and light coatings for warm climates. silks many silks can be washed without injury to the fibers, but they cannot be boiled without destroying the luster. silks may be had in various widths and endless variety of weaves. many are reversible. [sidenote: loading silk] silks are adulterated with cotton and ramie fibers. the chemicals used in "loading" or "dynamiting" to give the weight lost by cleaning or removing the gum from the raw silk give to the cheaper grades the stiff, harsh feeling and cause the splitting and cracking of the silk, hence the quality of the fiber should be considered when selecting a silk, not the weight. taffeta is often heavily loaded. foulard and surah are twilled silks. corded silks are woven with a cord running from selvage to selvage. to this class belong the grosgrains, ottoman, faille francaise--a silk resembling grosgrain, but softer and brighter. irish poplins and bengalines have wool for the filling instead of silk. [sidenote: wash silks] great improvement has been made in the manufacture of wash silks. they are fine in color and have a glossy surface. pongee is a beautiful, durable silk in different shades of natural color. it is woven in different widths. this silk is especially valuable for underwear. the first cost is greater, but it outwears muslin or linen. it is also used for children's garments and for outside wraps. for many purposes, no better textile can be found. crepe de chine is an incomparable textile possessing as much softness as strength. it is always supple, never creases, launders well, and comes in the most beautiful soft shades as well as in black and dark colors. satin is distinguished by its glossy, lustrous surface, obtained in the weaving. [sidenote: piled fabrics] piled fabrics are rich, thick materials made of silk, wool, mohair, and cotton, comprising the velvets, velveteens, plushes, corduroys, and wilton and velvet carpets. the soft, raised pile is first woven in loops--brussels carpet is a good example--and the loops are cut. the back of the goods is plain. [sidenote: velvet] velvet has always and justly been regarded as the most beautiful of textiles. no matter how fashions change in regard to other materials, velvet never loses its vogue. for robes and cloaks, for mantles and jackets, for hats and bonnets, for trimming and decoration, velvet has been popular for a greater period than the life of any living mortal, but never before has it been so cheap, so varied and so beautiful as it is now. one can in the passing throng of pedestrians on any crowded street see the use and abuse of this noble material. there is scarcely an article of dress into whose composition it does not enter and it is worn upon all occasions. many things have brought about this result. the tendency of fashion is towards the decorative and picturesque and in these qualities velvet excels all other fabrics. silk waste and thread are cheaper than ever before so that velvet costs much less than formerly. the men behind the looms have evolved more designs and novelties in the making of velvet than has ever been known and colors beautiful in themselves are seemingly enhanced when applied to velvet. [sidenote: velveteen] all that has been said in favor of velvet applies equally as well to the best velveteen,--in fact it is a textile of even greater value and beauty than velvet. the best grades are not cheap, but they wear better than silk velvet, are fine and silky, excellent in color and sheen, launder well, and do not press-mark as does silk velvet. velveteen takes the dye so beautifully and finishes so well that it has taken rank with our best standard fabrics. it is made entirely of cotton. it varies in width but is always wider than velvet. [sidenote: widths of fabrics] a knowledge of the various widths of textiles is important in buying. transparent fabrics are usually wider than heavier goods made of the same fiber. muslin is wider than calico or ordinary print, and thin silk fabrics such as mull and chiffon are wider than velvet. in wool dress goods various distinct widths are known as single--thirty and thirty-six inches--double fold (forty-five and fifty-four inches), etc. silk, velvet, and velveteen are single width. the velvet ranges from eighteen to twenty-four inches in width and velveteen twenty-seven. bodice linings vary from thirty-five to thirty-eight inches; skirt linings come in both single and double fold. household linen including bedding varies in width from one yard to two and one-fourth and two and one-half yards for sheeting and from thirty-eight to fifty-four inches for pillow case muslin. table linen is woven in both square and circular cloths of various sizes, and napkins vary in width from the small sizes to a yard square. no fixed widths can be given for any textile as width often changes with the weave. names of fabrics textiles usually take their names from the country, city, port, or province from whence they originated; from the names of the makers; and methods of weaving, dyeing, ornamentation, etc. the fixing of localities, methods, etc., is oftentimes guesswork. the textiles of to-day bearing the same name as those of the middle ages have nothing in common. buckram was originally made in and called from bokkara. in the middle ages it was costly, fine, and beautiful, used for church vestments, veils for covering lecterns, cathedral flags, and in the th century for the lining of velvet gowns. the coarse, heavy, plain-woven linen or cotton material known as buckram today is used for stiffening, etc. [sidenote: fustian] fustian, a kind of corduroy or velveteen, was originally woven at fustat on the nile. the warp was stout linen, the woof of cotton so twilled and cut that it gave a low thick pile. chaucer's knight in the fourteenth century wore fustian. in the fifteenth century naples was famous for the weaving of fustians. a cloth made in france at a town called mustrevilliers was known as "mustyrd devells." [sidenote: damask] china is supposed to be the first country to weave patterned silks. india, persia, syria, and byzantine greece followed. those were known as "diaspron" or diaper, a name given them at constantinople. in the twelfth century, the city of damascus, long famed for her beautiful textiles, outstripped all other places for beauty of design and gave the damascen or damask, so we have in modern times all fabrics whether of silk, cotton, wool, or linen, curiously woven and designed, known as damask, and diaper, which means pattern, is almost forgotten, or only a part of the elaborate design on damask. bandekin, a costly cloth, took its name from bagdad. dorneck an inferior damask woven of silk, wool, linen, thread and gold, was made in flanders at the city of dorneck. [sidenote: muslin] from the asiatic city mosul came the muslin used then as it is now throughout the world. so skilled were its weavers that the threads were of hair-like fineness. this was known as the invisible muslin, the weaving of which has become a lost art. to this beautiful cloth were given many fanciful and poetic names. it was woven with strips of gold and silver. [sidenote: calico] calico derives its name from the city of calicut in india. the city is scarcely known to-day; it was the first indian city visited by europeans. in the thirteenth century arras was famous for its areste or tapestry, "the noblest of the weaving arts"; in it there is nothing mechanical. mechanical weaving repeats the pattern on the cloth within comparatively narrow limits and the number of colors is in most cases limited to four or five. silks and cottons are distinguished through their colors and shades. tarsus was a purple silk. other cities gave their name to various shades, according as they were dyed at antioch, alexandria, or at naples. watered or moire silk takes its name from the finish. from "canabis," the latin name for hemp or flax, we have the word "canvas" to mean any texture woven of hempen thread. to this list of fabrics might be added many others of cotton, linen, wool, and silk with new names, closely resembling the old materials, having greater or less merit. the following lists of fabrics and terms may be helpful for reference: art linen--with round, hard twisted threads. "albert cloth"--named for england's prince, is a reversible all-wool material each side of different colors and so finished that no lining is required. it is used chiefly for overcoats and better known as "golf cloth," "plaid back," etc. armure--a cloth woven in miniature imitation of feudal metal armor plates, heraldic devices, diamonds, birdseye, and seeded effects. astrakhan--a woolen or silk material with a long and closely curled pile in imitation of the fur from which it is named. backed-cloth worsteds or other fabrics which are woven with an extra layer of warp or other filling underneath the face, usually for increased weight and bulk. batiste--the french word for lawn, fine white cotton or linen fabric. sometimes printed. batting or padding, cotton or wool prepared in sheets for quilting or interlining. beaver--similar to kersey, but with a longer nap, soft, thick nap inside. bedford cord--a closely woven woolen or cotton cloth having a raised corded surface similar to pique, used for women's suits. bonde--a loosely woven fabric with a curly, hairy surface, usually made with a jersey or stockinet body. bourette--an effect of weaving produced by fancy yarns showing in lumps at intervals over the face of the cloth; used for women's and children's suits. beverteen--a heavy cotton cloth used for men's hunting garments. broadcloth--a fine woolen cloth with a glossy finished surface, the better grades being woven with a twilled back. it takes its name from its width. it is used for men's and women's wear. buckram--a coarse, heavy, plain-woven linen or cotton material used for stiffening. buckskin--a stout doe skin with a more defined twill. butternut--the coarse brown twilled homespun cloth woven of wool prior to the civil war--colored brown with dye from the butternut or walnut tree; used for men's wear and for decorative purposes. cambric--fine white linen, also made in cotton in imitation. camel's hair--a beautiful, soft, silky fabric, usually woven like cheviot of hair of camel and goat. canvas--a linen, cotton, silk, or wool cloth of different weaves and widths, used for many purposes--clothing, as a background for embroidery, hangings, spreads, etc. canton flannel--a stout, twilled cotton cloth with a nap on one or both sides, used for clothing and decorative purposes. cassimere--a general term for all-wool fabrics woven either plain or twilled, coarse or fine, of woolen yarn. the pattern is always woven plain and distinct and the cloth is never napped. castor beaver--a heavy, milled, face-finished, all-wool cloth lighter in weight than ordinary beaver. chinchilla--a thick, heavy, double woven fabric with a long napped surface curled up into little tufs in imitation of chinchilla fur; used for coats. clan tartan--the plaids of the various highland clans of scotland. clay--a name given to serges, worsteds, and diagonals woven after a process of j. & p. clay of haddersfield, england. coating--those woolen and worsted fabrics most especially adapted to men's dress and overcoats. corduroy--a thick cotton pile material, corded or ribbed on the surface; used for men's, women's and children's wear. corkscrew-worsted goods--so-called from its fancied resemblance to the twists of the corkscrew. cotton worsted--all cotton or part cotton worsted-wove cloth. cottonade--stout cotton cloth in imitation of woolen or worsted; used for men's trousers. covert--a twill-woven cloth sometimes with full face, sometimes sheared to imitate whipcord. crape cloth--a stout worsted fabric with surface in imitation of silk crape, used for dress coats. crash--a strong, course linen cloth of different widths, used for towels, suits, table linen, hangings, bed spreads; in fact, there is no end to the uses to which this textile can be adapted. cravenette--cloths treated and finished before weaving by an improved process which renders them rainproof. a secret process owned by the cravenette company and by priestly & company of england and the united states. crepe--a light weight silk, silk and wool, or all wool or cotton cloth of irregular weave. diagonal--a worsted cloth with prominent diagonal ridges. doeskin--a compact twilled woolen, soft and pliable. drap d'alma--a fine, close, flat-ribbed, twilled fabric of wool or silk and wool, finished on but one side. drap d'ete--a fine, light worsted fabric woven in longitudinal cords. drilling--general term for various cotton stuffs used for lining men's wear, and general purposes. empress cloth--a heavy dress goods with napped or corded surface, named for the empress eugenia; sometimes called electrol cloth or beretz. etamine--a light woolen cloth similar to batiste and nun's cloth, used for women's and children's wear. faille francaise--a soft, lustrous silk of wider cord than grosgrain, but narrower than ottoman. farmer satin--a lining of cotton chain or warp and wool filling, finished with a high lustre, also called italian cloth. flannel--a soft, light weight woolen fabric of which the yarn is but lightly twisted, plain weave or twilled; used for clothing etc. flannelette--a half cotton or all cotton flannel-like fabric. frieze--a thick, shaggy, heavy nap woolen overcoat cloth. gingham was first manufactured in gonghamp in france and was known as madras gingham. seersucker gingham was originally a thin linen fabric made in the east indies. zephyr gingham is a soft fine variety of scotch and french ginghams, are superior qualities, heavier in weight. fur beaver--a long napped cloth imitation fur. grass cloth--a fine, smooth, linen woven in checks of blue and white, red and white, etc., used for dish towels; also a thin dress material of ramie and cotton, etc. grenadine--a thick silk gauze, either plain with a solid design or pattern upon it or combined in stripes with other weaves, as satin, moire, etc. grosgrain--a close-woven, finely ribbed or corded silk with but little lustre. haircloth--a cloth woven of horse hair, from which it takes its name, for weft with cotton or linen warp; used for facings, linings, furniture cover, etc. holland--a stout, plain-wove, unbleached, linen cloth used for linings, window shades, etc. homespun--a cloth woven on hand looms or made in imitation of such cloth for both men's and women's wear. hop-sacking--a plain woven canvas dress fabric of wool. huchaback--a corruption of huckster-back, meaning originally pedler's ware--toweling made of all linen, linen and cotton, cotton and wool, either by the yard or as separate towels; the part wool huck always separate towels. irish linen--full bleached, fine, plain woven linen used for shirts, collars, cuffs, etc., of different widths. jersey cloth--woolen stockinette. kaikai--a thin japanese silk. kersey--a heavy, closely woven cloth with a smooth face and glossy finish. kerseymere--a fine, twilled, woolen cloth of peculiar texture, one thread of warp and two of wool being always above. khaki--a light, yellow-brown colored cotton cloth used for army service in hot countries. ladies' cloth--a fine, wide, wool flannel, slightly napped, similar to broadcloth. lusterine--a thin, twilled, cotton lining finished with high lustre in imitation of silk. marseilles--a sort of figured pique, used for women's and children's clothes and for men's coats. matelasse--a silk and wool or all wool brocade, usually for coats. melton--a stout woolen cloth, fulled, sheared, and finished without a nap; like kersey, but without a gloss. merino--a thin woolen fabric made of the fine wool of the marion sheep, generally used for women's and children's wear, vestings, and underclothing. mohair--a shiny fabric of great durability, made from the wool of the angora goat; used for both men's and women's clothing. moire--the water effect produced on silk, moreen, and like fabrics. the finest watered silks are known as moire antique. moreen is a woolen or mixed fabric to which the same process has been applied. moleskin--a medium heavy twilled cotton cloth, napped inside; used for men's wear and ornamental purposes. muslin--a cotton fabric of various classes and names; bleached and unbleached, half bleached, cambric, book muslin, long cloth, mull, organdie, lawns, etc.; used for all purposes. nankeen--a peculiar fabric of a pale dull yellow or orange color, woven out of the fibrous tissue which lies between the outer and sap-wood of a tree or shrub that grows in the east indies and especially in china. the name is derived from the city of nankin. an imitation is made out of cotton, colored with annato. the genuine nankeen is never more than eighteen or twenty inches wide and is used for light summer clothing. overcoating--fabrics woven especially for overcoats--covert, kersey, melton, beaver, frieze, vicuna, whipcord, cheviot, chinchilla, etc., made of both wool and worsted. pique--a heavy cotton cloth having a surface that is corded or having a raised lozenge pattern; used for women's and children's suits, men's vests, etc. prunella--lasting cloth. sateen--a close twilled cotton fabric, soft and glossy, used for lining. satin--a silk fabric having a high lustre on its face. satinet--a cheap clothing material similar to cassimere, made with a cotton warp and a filling of short, inferior, shoddy wool which is mixed with enough long wool to enable it to be spun and woven in a way to bring that filling to the surface of the cloth; afterwards fulled, sheared, and the pattern printed on the face. serge--a lining of cotton or linen warp and a wool or mohair filling, woven three-leaf twill. serge--a fine, diagonal, twilled, worsted--both all worsted and with a worsted warp and woolen filling; used for men's and women's suits. shetlands--very shaggy overcoatings, named from the shetland pony, the coat of which it is supposed to imitate in appearance. shoddy--waste thrown off in spinning--shredded rags, and bits of cloth manipulated into new cloth. sicilian--a mohair fabric. silesia--a light, close-woven, fine twilled cotton fabric used for dress linings, etc. stockinet--a plain, elastic texture made on a knitting frame, used for underwear, etc. surah--a twilled silk similar to serge; first made in surat, india. tricot--a double-twill cloth having both a warp and filling effect. tweed--much like homespun in appearance, both being either twilled or plain. they are made from rough worsted yarn spun at home. in tweed the yarn is harder twisted, giving a more distinct twill. it is generally more compact, less rough, and better finished than homespun. uniform cloth--cloth suitable for uniforms, usually a stout, fulled, woolen cloth, similar to kersey. venetian--a cloth milled and cropped bare in finish. vicuna--a soft twilled cloth similar to cheviot, made of the andes vicuna, hence its name. whipcord--a worsted cloth having a small, prominent twill. yacht cloth--a flannel heavier than ordinary serge or flannel. * * * * * cord--the general term is applied to any fabric in which the lines run in the same direction as the selvage. count--in spinning, the number given to any thread or yarn, except silk, to indicate its relative fineness, based on the number of yards required to weigh one pound. felt--a cloth of wool, hair, fur, etc., not woven, but felted together; used for hats, slippers, boot tops, etc. flock--finely divided woolen waste used in finishing cheap woolens. kemps--fibers or hair like structure that sometimes come in wool, always in goat hair. they do not take the dye. mercerized--a term applied to cotton fabrics of which the yarn is chemically treated with a strong solution of caustic soda, giving the appearance of silk, more or less permanent; named after mercer, discoverer of the process. mill ends--trade term referring to short lengths, seconds, damaged pieces, etc., of cloth, embroideries, etc., that accumulate in mills and shops and are usually sold at a nominal price. narrow cloth--trade term for fabrics less than inches wide. wider cloths are called broad cloths. oil-boiled--trade term for colors so treated to insure permanence. oiled silk--the plain silk boiled in oil. silk boiled in oil and dried, becoming translucent and waterproof; used as a perspiration guard. pepper-and-salt--a black and white or grayish mixture, effected in weaving. rubber cloth--usually cotton sheeting or drilling with a coating of rubber on one side; used as a protective cloth for various purposes. shepherd check--tiny checks, usually black and white. twilled--woven in such a manner as to produce lines or ribs diagonally or across the surface of the fabric. woolens--name of fabrics or carded wool, usually soft woven. worsteds--fabrics made of combed wool, usually hard woven. the combing is the process of arranging the fibers of wool, mohair, cotton, linen, into a parallel condition, preparatory to spinning into a smooth, even and regular yarn. the perfected application of the combing principle. bibliography on textiles historical and art arts and crafts essays $ . morris, crane, et al. postage . colonial days in old new england . alice morse earle. postage . the primitive family . starcke. postage . man before metals . joly. postage . origin of inventions . mason. postage . woman's share in primitive culture . mason. postage . textiles--the lesser arts . william morris. postage . industrial evolution of the united states . carroll d. wright. postage . technical books through a special arrangement with the american school of correspondence we are able to lend or sell to our students some of their textile books, which are technical though simple. price cents per part, postage c. textile chemistry and dyeing. parts. part i. textile fibers. part ii. bleaching. part iii. mordants and natural dyes. part vi. artificial dyestuffs. cotton fiber. cotton spinning. parts. weaving. parts. textile design. parts. woolen and worsted spinning. parts. woolen and worsted finishing. parts. textile fibers $ . mathews. postage . textile fabrics . rock. postage . dyeing of textile fabrics . hummell. postage . bleaching and calico printing . duerr. postage . _note._--books may be ordered through the school or may be borrowed by members for one week. send postage with request. u. s. government publication _free_ of the department of agriculture, washington, d. c.: flax for seed and fiber, farmers' bulletin no. . cotton seed and its products, farmers' bulletin no. . raising sheep, farmers' bulletin no. . the angora goat, farmers' bulletin no. . silk worm culture, farmers' bulletin no. . essential steps in securing an early crop of cotton, farmers' bulletin no. . the cotton seed industry, reprint no. . the hemp industry in u. s., reprint no. . improvement of cotton by seed selection, reprint no. . the growing of long-staple upland cotton, reprint no. . principal commercial plant fibers, reprint no. . _for sale_ by the superintendent of documents, washington, d. c. send coin or money order,--stamps not accepted: sheep and wool, report no. , office of the secretary. price c. the cotton plant: its history, botany, chemistry, enemies, and uses. bulletin no. . office of experiment stations. price c. cotton culture in egypt. bulletin no. . price c. office of fiber investigations. uncultivated bast fibers. report no. . price c. cultivation of ramie. report no. . price c. culture of hemp and jute. report no. . price c. flax culture for seed and fiber. report no. . price c. test questions the following questions constitute the "written recitation" which the regular members of the a. s. h. e. answer in writing and send in for the correction and comment of the instructor. they are intended to emphasize and fix in the memory the most important points in the lesson. textiles and clothing part i read carefully. place your name and address on the first sheet of the test. use a light grade of paper and write on one side of the sheet only. leave space between the answers for the notes of the instructor. _answer every question fully._ read the lesson paper a number of times before attempting to answer the question. . give a brief outline of the craft of spinning, primitive and modern. . outline the same for weaving. . describe the hand loom. . describe the cotton fiber. what kinds are there? . who invented the cotton gin and how did this invention affect the cotton industry? . give the chief characteristics of wool. name the wool and fur bearing animals. how does wool differ from hair? . trace briefly the preparation of wool from the fleece to the finished product. . describe flax and outline the method for the preparation of the fibers. what is the name of the manufactured product of flax? . name some other bast fibers and their products? . how do the textile fibers compare in the raw state in condition and price? . give a brief description of silk from the egg to the woven cloth. . (a) what is the chief constituent of the vegetable fibers? (b) how does their affinity for dyestuffs compare with wool and silk? (c) how do the alkalies affect wool? . describe the principal weaves and give examples of each. . (a) how are cotton and flax bleached? (b) what is a mordant? (c) how should material be prepared for dyeing? (d) state what you know about old time methods of dyeing. . how are print goods made? name some printed fabrics. . define woolens and worsteds. . describe the finishing of woolen and worsted cloths. . what is noil; shoddy; felt; flocks? . with what dress goods have you had experience, and with what results? . what factors determine the use of fabrics? . of what value is the study of textiles? what have you gained by the study of this lesson? _note._--after completing the test sign your full name. [illustration: embroidered initials _w_ and _l_--sewed on initials; _b_--satin stitch in wreath of feather stitches; _c_--outline and seed work; _d_--chain and french knots; _h_--cross stitch; _l_--chain; _h_--at the right, and the cross stitch _h_ are made over canvas and the canvas threads drawn.] textiles and clothing part ii hand sewing good sewing, good pressing, well finished ends and corners, lightness of touch which holds the work without apparently touching it, thus giving to the finished garment a fresh look--all these are important considerations. [sidenote: kinds of sewing] the sewing done on wool, silk, and dresses of all kinds differs from that on underwear and white work. muslin underwear requires frequent washing and ironing, hence the first essential is durability; close, small stitches, all raw edges carefully turned and stitched securely. seams that are to come close to the body should lie perfectly flat. a round seam would wear out sooner by coming into frequent contact with the washboard and iron, besides irritating the skin. in dressmaking, unless the stitching is used for ornamental purposes, it should never show on the outside. periods of beautiful and dignified costume have been periods of fine needlework--one art leading to and helping on the production of the other. [sidenote: plain stitches] stitches may be divided into plain and ornamental. the plain stitches are the ( ) basting, ( ) running, ( ) the running and back stitch, ( ) half back stitch, ( ) back stitch, ( ) overhand or whipping stitch, ( ) overcast, ( ) hemming, and ( ) blind or slip stitch. [sidenote: ornamental stitches] the ornamental stitches most frequently used are ( ) outline, ( ) chain, ( ) cat or herringbone, ( ) blanket or loop, ( ) feather, coral or briar, ( ) hemstitching, ( ) french knots, ( ) button hole, and ( ) cross stitch. excepting the cross stitch, these are all variations of the plain and button hole stitches. the plain stitches may be used for ornamental purposes. the basting stitch is known as queen anne darned work. the back stitch, known as "seed work," is used in embroidering letters and monograms. the overhand stitch is used as an ornamental stitch for joining selvages and in hemming. the chain stitch, besides being ornamental, makes one of the best darning stitches, reproducing the stitch in knitting. the cat stitch is also useful in binding down open seams for flannel hems, patching, etc. [sidenote: basting] ( ) basting proper is used only in the preparation of work to hold the stuff and lining, or any two or more parts of the work together while it is being stitched, none being left in the finished garment. it is also used as a guide for sewing, feather stitching, etc. [sidenote: tacking] the slanting basting stitch or "tacking" is used in dressmaking for holding linings. the needle is pointed towards the worker. even basting is used for holding several thicknesses of cloth and if the garment is to be fitted, the stitches should be placed rather close. uneven basting is used for hems and seams to be machine stitched. several short stitches with one long one are used to baste crape and wiry fabrics, for this method holds them better than stitches of equal length. [illustration: basting stitches _a_--even; _b_--uneven; _c_--for wiry fabrics; _d_--tacking; _e_--overcasting; _f_--double or tailor overcasting.] [sidenote: fastening the thread] all basting should be fastened at start with a knot or knot and back stitch and finished with two or three back stitches. the length of thread may be broken or cut from the spool, but should always be cut from the work. breaking weakens the fastening and biting off soils delicate work with the moisture from the breath, to say nothing of the injury to the teeth. basting for large work should usually be done with the goods lying flat on the sewing table. [sidenote: drawing basting threads] for ordinary work, basting threads should be cut every few inches and drawn out. in velvet, every alternate stitch should be cut and drawn out on the right side with the pile of the goods. in the basting for velvet where the slanting stitch is used, only one end of the stitch touches the line of the seam--the rest is on the outside of the seam. silk thread should be used to baste velvet and gauze; the thread should be used for basting. [illustration: position of the hands in running] [sidenote: running stitch] ( ) running is closely related to basting. it is not used for any seams that have to bear great strain, but for joining seams in this material, gathering, tucking, making cords, etc. the stitches are usually of equal length on both sides. take one stitch in the seam and hold the goods between the thumb and first finger of each hand, as shown in the illustration, with the back of the thimble on the eye of the needle. then, with as free wrist motion as possible, run or shake the needle through the material. the motion of the hand should come from the elbow joint. gathering, gauging, casing, etc., are used for drawing up the fullness of skirts, ruffles, flounces, etc., into a given space. the running stitch is used for these. [sidenote: gathering] for gathering, the cloth is held in the same manner as for running. the needle, ordinarily, need not be taken out of the work, the stitches being pushed back over the eye as they are made; but for running long skirt seams in delicate material which would crinkle at the line of sewing and roughen the seam, the needle should be drawn through and the line of sewing smoothed on the thread at each needleful of stitches. [sidenote: stroking] never use a double thread for gathering, as it is apt to knot, but put in two lines of gathering threads--one a full one-eighth of an inch below the other--and slip the stitches along the needle as described above. this method is a saving of time in the end. when the gathering threads are in, remove the needle, place a pin vertically close to the last stitch, and wind the thread around it a few times in the form of a figure eight. use a coarse needle for stroking. hold the work between the thumb and fingers of the left hand with the thumb on the gathering threads. to place the gathers, put the point of the needle _under_ the lower gathering thread and press the plait or gather under the thumb, drawing the needle down, or simply pressing on the needle. care must be taken not to scratch or tear the material. continue entirely across the gathers, putting the needle under each stitch and holding the plait firmly between the thumb and finger: turn the material and stroke the _upper_ edge of the gathers. [sidenote: gauging] the gauging stitch is usually longer on the face than on the back, draws the material up into distinct plaits, making it easy to dispose of the fullness neatly, regularly and securely by overhanding the top edge of each plait to the bottom edge of the band. the right side of the skirt and the right side of the belt are placed against each other and each gather oversewed to the belt. the space into which the material is to be gathered determines the length of the long stitch. the succeeding rows of stitches should be _directly_ under those of the first. [sidenote: running and back stitch] ( ) the running and back stitch is made by taking a few running stitches, drawing out the needle and making a back stitch over the last running stitch to strengthen the seam. care must be taken not to hold the side next the worker too full and not to miss the under material, but to take the stitches even on both sides. [sidenote: half back stitch] ( ) the half-back stitch is made by taking one stitch and placing the needle half way back, then bringing it out twice the length of the stitch and placing the needle half way back each time from where the last stitch ended. the appearance on the right side will be of regular space as in the running stitch. [sidenote: back stitch] ( ) the back stitch is made by placing the needle back to the last stitch, bringing it out once the length of the last stitch, then placing the needle back into the last stitch, and so on, making the stitches follow each other without any space between. this is used in all places that are to bear great strain. [illustration: plain stitches _a_--running; _b_--running and back; _c_--half back; _d_--back stitch.] [sidenote: whipping stitch] ( ) overhanding, oversewing, whipping, top sewing are one and the same--small stitches taken over edges, to join folded edges or selvages, for sewing bands on gathers, sewing lace and insertion, and for sewing carpet strips together. the pieces for an overhand seam should be pinned carefully, placing the pins at right angles to the edge. the folded edges or selvages are placed together, the right side of the goods being in. do not use a knot to begin sewing, but leave the knot end of the thread and sew it in with the first stitches, carrying the thread on top of the seam. to finish off the seam, overhand back over the last few stitches. [sidenote: position in overhanding] in sewing this seam, the goods should be held between the thumb and first finger of the left hand parallel with the chest, not over the end of finger. point the needle towards the left shoulder, thus giving a slanting stitch. care should be taken not to pucker or draw the seam. when the seam is finished, it should be opened and pressed flat. [sidenote: overcasting] ( ) overcasting is a slanting stitch used to keep raw edges from ravelling. this stitch, like oversewing, may be worked from right to left or from left to right. the hem stitch and blind or slip stitch will be considered under hems. ornamental stitches never use a knot in any embroidery, but start by running a few stitches along the line which is to be covered. [sidenote: outline stitch] ( ) the outline stitch is the simplest of all embroidery stitches. take a long stitch on the surface, with the needle pointing towards the chest in the line to be covered, and a short back stitch on the under side of the material. the effect of the under or wrong side of the material is exactly that of an ordinary back stitch. the beauty of this stitch depends upon its regularity and in always keeping the thread on the same side of the needle. [illustration: ornamental stitches _a_--outline; _b_--chain; _c_--cat; _c'_--catch; _d_--single feather; _e_--double feather; _f_--tripple feather; _g_--modified feather; _h_--double feather with knots; _i_--french knots and outline; _j_--herring bone; _k_--fancy feather; _l_--cat stitch with french knots.] [sidenote: chain stitch] ( ) the chain stitch when perfectly done should look like the stitch made by a single-thread machine. this stitch is made by taking the thread toward the worker, and before the needle is drawn out of the cloth the thread is held by the thumb under the point of the needle, as in a buttonhole, making a loop. the needle is inserted in the last loop for the next stitch. the chain stitch is used in modern embroidery as an outline and for darning, but in old embroidery, the outline and chain stitches were used for filling as well. they are found in persian, indian, and italian renaissance work. like the feather stitch, the chain stitch is worked towards the worker. [sidenote: cat stitch] ( ) the cat stitch or herringbone stitch is an alternate slanting back stitch, the needle being placed first to the right and then to the left. this stitch must be worked evenly to be effective. it is used to finish flannel seams and hems, fasten down linings, opened seams, and canvas facings and featherbone, in millinery--in fact, this stitch is one of the most useful in sewing. the _catch_ stitch is a variation of the cat stitch. instead of pointing the needle towards the chest, the stitch is taken parallel with the chest. it is used for about the same purposes as the cat stitch. as with the outline stitch, the cat stitch is worked _from_ the worker. [sidenote: loop stitch] ( ) blanket or loop stitch, used to ornament the edge of blankets, etc., and for finishing the edge of stockinet or web material, is worked from left to right, the edge of the material being held towards the worker. start with three or four running stitches along the edge so the line of stitching will cover them. insert the needle the desired width from the edge, draw it towards you down over the thread, being careful not to draw the thread too tightly over the edge of the flannel. fasten the thread by taking running stitches under the last blanket stitch on the wrong side. [illustration: _hem stitching_ _a_--position of needle; _a'_--finished hem stitch; _b_--ladder stitch; _c_--example of drawn work finished with loop and cat stitches.] [sidenote: feather stitch] ( ) single, double, and triple feather or coral stitches may be made very ornamental and are used in all kinds of sewing and on all materials. they are always made towards the worker, the stitches being taken alternately to the right and left of the line of the design. the thread should always be carried under the needle as in a buttonhole stitch. the design may be varied by taking the stitches diagonally or straight, by making them close or separated, etc. [sidenote: hem stitch] ( ) hemstitching is used for ornament in making hems and tucks. the first step in hemstitching is the drawing of threads. rubbing the cloth along the line of threads to be drawn will make the drawing easier if the cloth is sized. after the threads are drawn, the hem is turned and basted even with the lowest edge of the drawn space. insert the needle into the edge of the hem and material, taking up a cluster of threads bring the thread under the needle to form a buttonhole stitch or make a simple stitch in the edge of the fold. the number of threads drawn and the number in a cluster must be determined by the coarseness or fineness of the material, the greater number being drawn and taken in fine material. there are several methods of hemstitching, but the results are about the same. [illustration: embroidery stitches eyelet embroidery, embroidery button hole, flat satin stitch.] [sidenote: french knots] ( ) french knots are used in connection with other stitches for borders enclosed in outline and chain stitches, in initials, centers of flowers, and as a filling-in stitch. the simplest method is of taking a small back stitch, bringing the thread from the _eye_ of the needle under the point from right to left and drawing the needle perpendicularly from the cloth. place the needle back of the knot and bring the point out in the place where the next knot is to be made. the size of the thread will determine the size of the knot. [sidenote: embroidery buttonhole] ( ) the embroidery buttonhole stitch has many possibilities and many variations. it is worked from left to right instead of from right to left as in a buttonhole. the thread from the work is carried under the point of the needle from left to right, just the reverse of the buttonhole. this stitch is used on flannel and in embroidery of all kinds; it may be padded or worked flat and the stitches may be taken a distance apart or near together. [sidenote: cross stitch] ( ) the cross stitch is worked on linen, scrim, canvas, or any open-meshed material. if done on a flat, smooth surface, it will be necessary to work over canvas, afterwards drawing out the canvas threads. the canvas should be well basted on the material, the warp threads of the canvas lying _perfectly straight_ on a line with the warp threads of the material on which the pattern is worked. the stitches should always run the same way. if the first ground stitches are made from left to right, from bottom towards the top, the cross stitches should be made from right to left from the top towards the bottom. all the ground stitches run one way and the cross stitches in the opposite way. this stitch is used for marking table linen, underwear, and embroidery designs. when marking linen and unlined work, make the under side very neat by running the thread under the stitches already made, instead of taking a long stitch when beginning in another part of the letter or design. [sidenote: satin stitch] ( ) the satin stitch is an over and over stitch and is used on materials of all kinds for marking linen, etc. the _padding_ is the first step and should be done in long even stitches placed closely and over one another in the center. the size and proportions of the figure or letters determine the size of the thread. fine thread gives the best results. the outline should be run twice; this keeps the edge firm. an even darning or basting stitches, chain stitches or outline stitch may be used if the space is not too small. the padding may be worked in an embroidery hoop to keep it smooth and even. scallops may be padded in the same way or worked flat. [illustration: embroidery button hole and blanket stitches scallops outlined and padded.] in large figures the stitches are laid closely and exactly parallel the entire length of the form. they may be straight across or at an angle, but the one slant must be maintained throughout. in small curved figures, the stitches may be placed more closely at the inner edge and spread slightly at the outer edge. in flat work where the leaf or petal is large, two or three stitches taken in the cloth, back of the face stitch, holds them even and prevents misplacement in laundering. (all embroidery should be ironed on the wrong side.) [illustration: arrow head, double arrow head and crow's foot.] [sidenote: eyelet embroidery] eyelet embroidery is a simple over and over stitch forming a smooth, round edge. like satin stitch, all outlines are run with an even darning stitch, except the very small eyelet holes, made with a stiletto. long or oval openings must be cut through the center. [sidenote: shadow embroidery] shadow embroidery is worked on the wrong side of thin material, using the cat stitch. the outline of the design only shows on the right side, the body of the design being seen dimly through the material. [sidenote: arrow heads] the arrow head and crow's foot are ornamental fastenings used in fine tailoring as endings for seams, tucks, plaits, and at corners. they are made as shown in the illustration. mercerized cotton, linen, or any of the embroidery silks can be used for these stitches, in all sizes and colors, or they can be worked with ordinary thread, cotton or linen, sewing silk, or twist. cotton thread wears better than linen. hems [sidenote: folding hems] a hem is a fold of goods twice folded to protect a raw edge. the first turn or fold of the hem is the most important. it should be straight and even, _folded to a thread_, for upon it depends the beauty of the hem. the hem should always be turned towards the worker and creased firmly, but never pleated along the fold. first crease the narrow fold, then crease the second fold the desired width, marking by a measure and baste not too near the edge. the first fold _along_ the _woof_ threads should be at least one-fourth of an inch in width, as the woof threads give or stretch more than the warp threads; otherwise it will not lie flat. [sidenote: sewing hems] in sewing the hem, the needle should take up only the edge to be hemmed down and just enough to hold on the cloth or lining. in white work the stitches should be fine, showing as little as possible. [sidenote: bias hem] all bias and curved edges should have the first fold basted. in cloth or silk this first basting thread should match the material and not be taken out. [sidenote: faced hem] a facing or faced hem is also used as a protection to the edge of a garment. a true bias or fitted facing should be used for a facing if the edges of the garment are curved. an extension hem is one in which the whole width of the hem is used. [illustration: hemming _a_--shows method of cutting to do away with a clumsey corner.] [sidenote: slip-stitching] slip-stitching or invisible hemming is done on silk, wool, and thick material. the hem is pressed with an iron, a stitch as fine as possible is taken on the surface of the cloth and the needle slipped under and through the first fold, drawing the thread lightly. the needle and thread used in this stitch must be very fine. [illustration: mitered corners method of folding and cutting.] [illustration: rolled hem and whipped gathers _a_--rolled hem gathered; _b_--whipped roll; _c_--double whipped; _d_--roll hemmed; _e_--gathers sewed to band.] [sidenote: rolled hem] rolled hem and whipped gathers are made with the wrong side of the material next the worker. make a tiny roll of the edge towards the worker, using the left thumb and index finger, rolling an inch at a time (and no more) before hemming. make fine, even stitches in the roll and goods. keep the hem perfectly round, firm and not too large. this hem is adapted only to fine material and the edge across the warp is the more easily rolled. [sidenote: whipped gathers] to gather, whip the rolled hem without hemming, making overcasting stitches towards you, even and not too fine. use coarser thread than for hemming. this gathering thread is used to hold down the edge as well as for drawing up the gathers and it not to be taken out, as is the ordinary gathering thread. it should _not_ catch in the roll. have the thread the length of the plain space to which it is to be sewed and regulate the gathers as you do the gathering. after the edge is rolled, whipped and gathered, it is sewed to the garment by the little scallops or raised parts made by the whipping. this is used only for making ruffles or gathering on very fine hand work. [sidenote: french hem] the french hem is used for table linen. fold as in an ordinary hem, then fold the hem back on the right side and overhand the edge formed, taking fine stitches. press the hem flat from the right side. [sidenote: flannel hems] flannel hems should _not_ be twice folded, for there will be a ridge instead of a flat surface after the garment has been laundered, owing to the felting properties of the wool. hems on flannel should not be stitched by hand or machine, but cat stitched on the wrong side and finished on the right side with any ornamental stitch. hems in infants' clothing may be turned on the right side and made ornamental by feather stitching. no selvage should ever be used on a hem. the selvage is more closely woven and will draw or pucker in laundrying. tucks tucks are folds made on thin material for ornament, to shorten or to provide for lengthening a garment. if done by hand, a card measure is preferable to a tape measure for marking the space and width of the tucks. the folds should be creased to a thread, basted and sewed with a running stitch showing but little on the face, or stitched on the machine. fine thread should be used. seams a seam is the line of sewing that joins material; it may be plain or ornamental. the most important are the overhand, felled, french, slot, lapped, flannel, and beaded. the overhand seam is described under the overhand stitch. [sidenote: felled seam] a fell is a seam hemmed down to the goods to protect the raw edge. it is usually made in night dresses, drawers, corset covers, etc. baste with the piece farthest from the worker extended one-eighth of an inch beyond the other and sewed _with the grain_ of the goods, beginning at the widest part of any bias. press the seam with the nail on the right side, turn the wide edge down flat to cover the raw edge and line of sewing, and hem flat either by hand or machine. care should be taken to keep the seam flat on the right as well as on the wrong side. if the felling is done with the machine hemmer, the wide edge must be on the opposite side. the seam may be basted with both edges even if preferred, cutting off one edge after stitching. [illustration: seams _a_--full; _b_--french screen.] [illustration: beaded and taped seams _a_--tape basted on one edge, and the other edge turned and stitched; _b_--beading whipped to the folded edges; _a_--stitched hem; _b_--hem finished with feather stitching.] [sidenote: french seam] a french seam is sewed twice--first on the right side as near the raw edge as possible. cut off all frayed edges, turn the material by folding _on the seam_ or line of sewing, so the seam is folded inside and the second sewing is on the wrong side below the raw edges. this is not a good seam for underwear worn next the body, as it leaves a ridge on the wrong side, but it is useful for skirts of thin material, etc. it is more easily made than a fell. [sidenote: beaded seam] beaded seams used for fine white work have a line of beading overhanded between gores, hems, or gathers. the hem along the seam should be folded on the right side, leaving a perfectly flat surface to iron on the wrong side, and finished with an ornamental stitch covering the hem. [sidenote: slot seams] the slot seam, used in cloth dresses and jackets, requires exact basting with silk or very fine thread with small, even stitches. if a coarse thread is used, the material will be badly marked. after basting, press the seam open as if it had been stitched, and baste the strap or under strip of the dress material (which has been cut perfectly straight and even) over the wrong side of the seam, having the center of the seam on the center of the strap. stitch any width desired beyond the center through the three thicknesses. this will hold the seam in position. now remove the bastings from the seam and the slot effect is complete. if desired, there may be a double row of stitching, an extra row on the edge of the fold or plait. these seams may be finished at the bottom with arrow heads or stitched designs. the lines of machine stitching should not end without some ornament to _appear_ to hold the plait. [illustration: slot seam finished with arrow head] [illustration: flannel seams and hems finished with various ornamental stitches.] [sidenote: lapped seam] in the lapped seam the edges are folded each within the other or one over the other so that both sides are alike. if made of heavy material, the raw edges are left unturned; in muslin or linen the edges are inturned, lapped, basted and the hem stitched on both edges or hemmed down on both sides by hand. [illustration: plackets _a_--made by folding a wide hem over a narrow one; _b_--tape faced sewing for the purpose of a gusset. method of folding the tape shown.] [sidenote: flannel seams] flannel seams should be stitched, opened and pressed _flat_, either on the right or wrong side of the garment. if on the right side, taffeta ribbon should be basted over the seam, so that the raw edges of flannel will not show, and cat stitched or buttonhole stitched on both sides of the ribbon, or any fancy stitch--not too long--may be used. this is the dorothy seam. for the seam on the wrong side, the edges should be cat stitched with fine thread. any ornamental stitch may be used on the right side of the seam. always press flannel seams and hems before finishing. flannel should never be hem stitched. plackets a placket is an opening in a garment allowing it to be put on. the simplest placket is made by cutting a slit and folding a wide hem over a narrow one turned on the face of the goods; this makes a pleat below the vent. there should be a double line of stitching across the bottom of the hem to strengthen the placket. [sidenote: tape faced placket] the tape faced placket is stronger and may be used in children's drawers, etc., in place of a gusset to strengthen the end of the opening. a single piece of tape folded back as for a loop is stitched along all edges, making an opening without a lap. this offers as much resistance as a gusset and is more quickly done. [illustration: faced placket _a_--wrong side, opened, showing tape; _b_--right side showing on-set piece; _aa_ and _bb_ the same ends of the tape; - method of folding and cutting end of on-set piece.] [sidenote: faced placket] in a third kind of placket, the opening is faced with a continuous piece of tape on both sides and finished with a piece of material on the outside. see illustration. this makes a strong and simple placket. when a tape cannot be used, a hem or facing may be made on the under side of the opening and a facing on the upper side, over which the on-set piece is stitched. the on-set piece and facing may be cut from one piece, but the fitting is more troublesome. in figured goods, the piece set on should match the pattern exactly. [illustration: skirt placket with lap] a simple placket for underwear is made from a single strip of the goods put on like an extension hem. on drawers it may be turned in at the buttonhole end, but not stitched down except at the band. the placket of a skirt should have an underlap extending well below the opening. sewing on bands [sidenote: gathering] divide the top of unhemmed edge of the garment in halves and mark with a cross stitch, notch or pin. gather from the placket to the middle of the front gore, if a skirt, apron, or dress. take a new thread and gather the remainder. put in a second gathering thread one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch below the first. two gathering threads are better than one and they should be longer than the length of space to be gathered. stroke or lay the gathers above and below the threads. divide the band and pin the middle to the center of the garment, placing the right side of the band on the wrong side of the garment. pin in the middle and at each end, secure the gathering threads by winding around the pin, adjust the gathers, and baste between the gathering threads. stitch just below the line of basting. fold the band over on the right side, press, baste over the line of stitching, press again, then stitch on the right side after having turned in both ends and over-sewed. turn the _top_ of the band over on the right side one-eighth or one-fourth of an inch and stitch securely. this upper fold keeps the edge from wearing and stretching and is a stay for children's skirts and drawers where button holes are used and serves as a finish for the top of the band. [illustration: finishes _a_--bias facing; _b_--band on gathers; _c_--corded edge.] for flannel, pleating or gathers may be used to put fullness into a band. two rows of gathering threads should be used and the stitches should not be too fine. the band should be made of cotton or at least lined with it to avoid clumsiness and prevent shrinking. ruffles are set in hems, etc., in the same manner. [illustration: draw tape finish for under skirt] [sidenote: drawing tapes] in finishing the top of an underskirt, many like to dispense with the placket and fitted band. this may be done by using drawing tapes at the back. the upper edge is faced with a piece of material which should be bias in front to accommodate it to the curve, but may be straight across the back. work a button hole at each side of the back, insert a tape through one button hole and draw it over an inch beyond the opposite one and fasten securely by two lines of stitching across the tape. a second tape is put through the other button hole and fastened in the same way. by pulling the tape on each side the fullness may be adjusted. [sidenote: bias facings] all facings around curves, such as arm holes and neck, should be a true bias which is cut by holding the warp threads diagonally across the woof threads. these strips for facings, pipings, ruffles, etc., should be cut exactly even in width. all bands, ruffles, etc., of serge, twilled, or diagonal materials should be cut _across_ the twill and not with it, in order to have the ruffle hang well. fastenings the standard fastenings are buttons and button holes, hooks and eyes or hand made loops, lacings through rings and eyelet holes, loops over buttons, and fancy frogs, clasps, studs, ball and socket, "notta-hooks," etc. [sidenote: making button holes] button holes should be carefully measured and marked before cutting. they should be a little longer than the diameter of the button for flat buttons and one and one-quarter the diameter for round buttons. having decided upon the distance apart they are to be placed, cut a marker from a piece of cardboard and measure off the space, marking with pins, french chalk, pencil, or thread. the distance from the edge (one-fourth inch), as well as the length of the button hole may also be marked with the card. the scissors should be sharp, the hand must be steady, and the cut should be made with one firm slash, not with two or three jerks. great care must be taken that each button hole is of the same length. the goods should be cut to a thread, for it is impossible to make a neat buttonhole if it is improperly cut. in cutting a round end buttonhole for thick goods, a punch may be used for the end, after which the remainder of the buttonhole is cut directly on a line with the center of the circle. the same marker may be used to mark the position for the buttons. all markings for buttons and buttonholes, or for hooks and eyes, should be made at one time. [sidenote: overcasting buttonholes] after cutting, the button holes are overcast. this should always be done directly after cutting, especially if the goods ravels easily, otherwise it will be impossible to work a neat buttonhole. overcasting should be done with very fine thread (no. for white goods), split silk for wool and silk. three overcast stitches on each side are sufficient for an ordinary size buttonhole. a very good plan to follow in cutting a buttonhole in heavy material or material that frays easily is to chalk the position and length of the buttonhole, then stitch a row of machine stitching each side of this mark, the two rows being a little more than one-eighth of an inch apart. this holds all the thicknesses together and the buttonhole may then be cut easily. it also serves as a guide in working the buttonhole stitches. [illustration: buttons, button holes, eyelets, loops] the buttonholing is begun at the inner side of the slit. always place the knot on the outside of the garment a short distance to the right of the buttonhole, leaving a long stitch underneath which can be cut off when the buttonhole is finished. a buttonhole should be completed with one thread if possible as it is difficult to mend the thread securely and neatly. letter d for twist is usually employed. [sidenote: making buttonholes] insert the needle in the edge of the material and when half way through, take the two threads at the eye of the needle, bringing them towards you at the right and under the point of the needle, and draw the thread from you, making the purl or loop stitch directly on the edge of the buttonhole. the stitches should be about the width of the needle apart to allow for the purl. be careful to complete each stitch with a uniform movement so that the line will be perfectly straight and not wavy. the stitches are placed more closely together in the rounded end of the buttonhole where the chief wear comes. [sidenote: staying] many workers, particularly tailors, always "stay" or "bar" around a buttonhole before working. this may be done with several threads of twist or with a cord so that the worked edge of the buttonhole will be firm and distinct. tailors usually use a cord as this makes the edges heavier. it is always well to stay buttonholes in heavy material as it strengthens them very much and improves their appearance. [sidenote: bar tack] when the buttonhole has been worked all around, the end is completed with a bar tack made by taking two or three stitches across the end of the buttonhole, drawing the edges closer together. this bar is covered with buttonhole stitches worked close together. the thread is fastened securely on the wrong side. [sidenote: large buttonholes] after very large buttonholes are finished, their straight edges should be closely basted together by an over and over stitch and then pressed under a damp cloth. before they are dry, a bodkin or stiletto should be pushed vigorously up through each eyelet until that opening becomes perfectly round and the stitches on its edges are regular and distinct. when the basting is removed, the buttonhole will be symmetrical in appearance. buttonholes which are to bear a strain are cut in the direction of the pull, but sometimes they are cut in the opposite direction, as for a shirt waist. such a buttonhole may be completed with a bar tack on each end. [sidenote: sewing on buttons] ordinary buttons should never be sewed down tightly, but the thread should be loose so that it may be wound around at the end, thus protecting the holding threads from wear. the shank prevents the buttonhole from being crowded out of shape. loose sewing can most easily be done by placing a pin or needle across the top of the button and sewing over it. if a button is much concaved, the pin may be placed underneath. the pin is removed before winding. in sewing on a four-hole button, the stitches should be made symmetrically, either parallel or crossed, but not both. if parallel or in a two-holed button the stitches should run in the line of the buttonhole. the thread should always be fastened at the beginning and at the end of the work. place the knot upon the outside of the garment where it may be cut off when the button is sewed securely. the knot is sometimes placed under the button. [sidenote: cloak buttons] in sewing buttons on a cloak or coat an extra strip of canvas or silesia over the canvas interlining should be placed the entire length of the buttoning for strength. this should be applied before the work on the garment is too far advanced and if cut sufficiently wide, will allow any slight alteration. the sewing should go through the canvas facing and stay, but not through the under side or facing of the material. in sewing buttons on bodices a tape should be sewed over the front basting for a stay. if sufficient material has not been allowed for a lap, this should be added, as a lap is necessary under the opening of such buttonholes. buttons may be sewed through lining having a small button on the wrong side. this method prevents the cloth from tearing and makes an ornamental finish as well as a substantial one. buttons which are supplied with wire shanks should be sewed down firmly as the shank already provided permits the buttons to set up well from the material. they should be placed in such a position that the wire shank will run parallel with the buttonhole and not cross it. [sidenote: hooks and eyes] the position for hooks and eyes should be marked before sewing on. the simplest, though least desirable, method of sewing-on these fastenings is to place the eye at the edge of the seam or facing and the hook sufficiently far back from the opposite side to give a lap. a much preferable method is to baste a bias strip of crinoline along the positions to be occupied by the hooks and eyes; this gives strength to the finish. sufficient material should be allowed for folding over the shanks after the hooks and eyes have been sewed on, or they may be covered with silk ribbon, slipping the edge under the beak of each hook and then catstitched in position. the hooks and eyes are sewed securely through the crinoline and one thickness, but the stitches should not show on the outside. over and over stitches are taken through the small rings in the line of the full and again on each bar of the eye and on the shank of the hook so that they may be held in position securely. in many cases, it is advisable to have an underlap of the material. this should be slip-stitched in position on the garment after the eyes have been sewed in place. [illustration: hooks and eyes sewed on tape, shanks covered with taffeta tape and with fold of the goods.] [sidenote: eyelets] eyelet holes are made with a stiletto which forces the threads aside, but does not cut them. the edge is finished with over and over stitches placed closely together, or with a buttonhole stitch making the purl on the outer edge of the stitches. loops are made by buttonholing very closely over several foundation threads, making the purl on the outside edge. the needle may be run under the loop eye first if preferred. patching [sidenote: underset patch] with the underset patch have the part to be patched pressed smooth, baste the patch on the wrong side of the garment before cutting out the worn place. (if the garment or article to be mended is worn or faded and shrunken by laundering, boil the piece in soap, soda and water to fade the patch, if of cotton or linen.) after basting, cut away all the worn cloth, making a square or oblong hole. cut to a thread. cut each corner, diagonally, one-eighth or one-quarter of an inch, turn all four edges of the garment towards the wrong side. begin at the center of one side and hem all around the square, taking slanting even stitches, not too close together. remove the basting, trim the edges of the patch, press the patch on the wrong side and catch stitch to the garment. this shows less on the right side and does not make a hard line as if the patch were turned back on the edge. if the cloth has a pattern or stripe, match it perfectly, having the warp threads of both running the same way. cut both hole and patch square. an oval or round patch is unworkmanlike and does not wear well. keep the corners square and hem down well. the object of pressing is to keep both garment and patch flat and even. flannel patches should be cat-stitched on the right side. no flannel edges should ever be inturned. [illustration: underset patch, right side, edge turned and hemmed to patch] [illustration: wrong side of patch, cat stitched] [illustration: wrong side of patch in table cloth--raw edge overcast] [sidenote: onset patch] the onset patch is used on lined garments and linings. the patch should be rectangular and larger than the worn place. fold the four edges on the wrong side of the patch, place the patch with its wrong side on the right side of the garment directly over the center of the hole. this will bring the folded edges of the patch between the two pieces of cloth and both right sides towards the worker. do not baste, but pin carefully. after the garment has been folded back until there are two folded edges side by side, overhand the seam with even slanting stitches. see that the corners are well sewed, that warp and woof threads run in the same direction, that pattern and stripes match. [illustration: linen patch; cross stitch initial] [illustration: right side of flannel patch edge cat stitched but not turned, back cat stitched in the same way.] the worn part of the garment under the patch is cut away, leaving one-fourth of an inch on the three sides. cut the corners diagonally and turn back the edge quarter of an inch, overcast and press. if this patch is sewed on a lining, the worn part is not cut away. if this patch is used to repair skirts near the band, only three sides are oversewed, the upper edge should be gathered into the band. a large patch is less conspicuous than a small one. [sidenote: patch for trowsers] an onset patch may be used for the seats of trousers by shaping the patch like the pieces on the seats of bicycle trousers and stitching on the machine. heavy cloth will need no inturned edges. the same precautions are necessary regarding warp and woof, pattern, etc. darning [sidenote: thread for darning] darning is usually done with a running stitch, with or without a piece of net or cloth underset. thread for darning should be as near as possible the size of the threads in the garment. whenever it can be done, a warp thread of the garment should be used. no sewing silk is fine enough to use without separating the thread and using one of the strands. never use the thread as it is, as it is too hard twisted. cotton and linen thread of the finest quality, untwisted, should be used for darning stockings and underwear. linen may be darned with linen or mercerized cotton. cotton is preferable. a long slender needle with a large eye should be used. darning should never be commenced with a knot, nor finished with a back stitch. [sidenote: bias darn] a bias or diagonal cut and a three-cornered tear are the most difficult to repair. if the place is badly pulled and frayed, a piece of the same material should be basted on the wrong side of the material and darned in even stitches. always darning _parallel_ with the warp threads and the woof threads. in the diagonal tear, as the threads are cut diagonally, to prevent drawing apart, the darning threads must cross each other. the stitches around any darn should not end in a stiff even line; this makes a hard edge which does not wear and is unsightly, and uncomfortable if on underwear. [sidenote: darning a three cornered tear] the three-cornered tear may be darned in two ways. begin by darning diagonally through the center, darning back and forth towards the end of the tear until one-half has been finished; then begin at the center and work in the opposite direction. at the corner, the stitches should form the shape of a fan. the other method, which is the stronger, is done by darning a square in the angle, first with the warp threads, then with the woof threads and finishing each end across the tear. stocking darning may be done on the right side. begin by picking up the stitches and drawing the edges together. this should always be done in any kind of stocking darning, but not so close as to make a wrinkle. [illustration: stockinet darning over net interlaced stitches and chain stitches.] in knees and heels of stockings, or knitted underwear, a piece of net large enough to extend beyond the thin part should be basted carefully; then darn down the outer edges of the net and finally the hole or thin place. this makes a strong, neat piece of mending. if the hole is large, the net may be covered with the chain stitch, thus imitating the knitting stitch. this should be done on the right side of the garment. if the hole is to be filled in with the interlaced stitches, draw the edges together, darn beyond the thin places lengthwise of the knitted garment, making each line of stitches longer until the center of the hole is reached, then decrease in the same manner, making a diamond in shape. darn across the hole in the same way, taking up every alternate stitch as in weaving. leave a tiny loop at the end of each row of darning, so that the threads will not draw. [sidenote: machine darning] darning, satisfactory for some purposes, may be done quickly on a double thread sewing machine. it is best done in an embroidery ring, first drawing the edges together. loosen the tension on the presser foot, use fine thread with light tension. sew back and forth, first along the warp threads and then at right angles along the woof threads. the machine will be sewing backwards part of the time, but if the pressure is light, there will be no difficulty. for large holes, paper may be placed underneath. mitering embroidery or lace the mitering of lace or embroidery is often necessary in making collars and in finishing corners. before applying, plan carefully and select a scallop or portion of the embroidery which will produce the best effects when finished. this can be accomplished by folding the embroidery over at various portions of the pattern until a suitable point is found. fold over at right angles and mark along the line to be mitered. the triangle may now be cut, but an extra width must always be allowed for the seam, as there is frequently a slight unevenness and one side may have to be held a little full or stretched to make a perfect match. the mitered seam is over-sewed. [illustration: mitering and joining embroidery _a_--finished with a stitched seam; _b_--edge hemmed down and cloth cut away underneath; _c_--joined with lapped seam.] after the corner is properly made, cut away the cloth of the embroidery, allowing only enough for an inturned seam on the edge. this seam may be stitched on the machine on both edges, or oversewed to the goods, or the embroidery may be securely sewed on the plain part, after which the underlying cloth may be cut away. this will make an almost perfect corner. lace may be matched and mitered in a similar way. matching and joining lace in joining lace, avoid a seam if possible. select portions of the design that will match, placing one pattern of the same design over the other. cut away a portion of the thick part of the pattern underneath and hem the edges and inner part of the design down with fine thread. smyrna or torchon lace is more difficult to hem or join when very open or very fine. a small, felled seam is better than lapping and trying to match the pattern. embroidery can be matched in the same way. never let two heavy designs lap over each other. the one on the wrong side should be cut out and the edge sewed securely to the upper part of the design. [illustration: insertion with mitred corner, taped and faced; embroidery rolled whipped and gathered] the plain material above the embroidery can be joined by a lapped seam, turning first the right side and then the wrong side and hemming on both sides of the seam. machine sewing the sewing machine has taken away much of the drudgery of home sewing, but its use does not lessen the need of skill in hand work. no machine can finish ends of belts, collars, sew on trimmings, fastenings, and like work and the finish has much to do with the general appearance of a garment. [sidenote: types of machines] all the prominent makes of sewing machines were invented in the decade following howe's patent in . the two chief types of machines are the lock stitch, using double thread, and the chain or loop stitch, using a single thread. whatever the make of machine it should be run in accordance with the rules accompanying it. the worker should familiarize herself with the directions for setting and threading the needle, winding the bobbin, regulating the tension and the stitch and all other technicalities of the particular machine she has to operate. agencies of the various machines usually have skilled workers to give instruction to beginners. while it is not always an economy of time to use the attachments for hemming, tucking, etc., unless much work is to be done, it is worth while to know how to use them if desired. as much or more skill is required for neat machine work as for hand sewing. results will not be satisfactory without careful basting. [sidenote: care of the machine] the machine should be kept well oiled, free from dust and gum and it should he run evenly. in case it becomes "gummed" a drop of kerosene on the parts that have been oiled will cut the gum. remove the shuttle and run the machine rapidly for a moment, then wipe off all the kerosene and oil the machine carefully with good machine oil--only the best should be used. a machine should always be wiped thoroughly before any work is placed upon it. [sidenote: needles and thread] as in hand sewing, needles and thread should be selected with care. a blunt or bent needle should never be used, it should have a fine sharp point and the eye should be sufficiently large to carry the thread easily. the needle and thread should be suitable for the material to be sewed. glazed thread should never be used in a machine. the best quality of thread and silk should be purchased but only enough for immediate use, as it loses strength with age, chiefly because of the action of the dyes and chemicals. even white thread may become "tender" from the chemicals used in bleaching it. sewing silk and cotton should be kept in a closed box to exclude the light and air. for sewing cotton or linen the best cotton thread should be used. woolen, silk, and velvet should be stitched with the best machine silk. the thread should match the material in color. cotton thread fades or loses its brightness when exposed to the light, therefore for stitching that will show it is always better to use silk. the thread on the bobbin should be wound evenly and carefully to insure an even stitch and the tension of both threads should be equal, otherwise the stitch will not be perfect. as a lock stitch machine requires two threads while in hand sewing only one is used, the two need not be as coarse as the single thread. for ordinary home sewing, underwear, thin gowns and the like, no. to no. will be found satisfactory. finer thread may be used when the materials demand it, but no coarser than no. should be used in the machine and this only with the coarsest material. [sidenote: fastening threads] much time may be saved in fastening the threads at the ends of tucks, hems on sheets, towels, etc., by careful manipulation of the machine. for example, on sheets begin to stitch along the hem at the selvage, or if the end of the hem is over-sewed, begin an inch from the edge and stitch the hem towards the selvage, then lift the presser-foot so as to turn the work, and retrace the bit of stitching, continuing across the whole hem. when the end is reached, release the presser-foot, turn the work, and stitch back for an inch or more in the same line, as was done at the beginning of the hem. by this method the threads are fastened much more easily and quickly than by drawing them through on to the wrong side and tying or sewing them by hand and, of course, it is more satisfactory than the "shop" way of cutting them off short. tucks or seams may be fastened in the same way. if fine thread is used the double stitching at the ends is hardly noticeable. [sidenote: bias side next feed] when stitching a seam having one bias and one straight side, let the bias side come next to the feed, that is, on the underside. this is especially important in thin materials. if the material is very sheer, strips of soft paper--newspaper will answer for ordinary purposes--should be sewed in the seam. this will insure a seam free from puckers and when finished the paper can be pulled away easily. [sidenote: stitching gathers] in sewing gathers on a band they should also come next the "feed," as it takes up the side next to it a little faster than the upper side. when the bias, or cross-way side of the seam, or gathers are next to the "feed" the material runs along smoothly, but if the straight side is towards it there is apt to be a pucker. stitching can be done more easily on the right of the presser foot with the bulk of the material lying to the left. the tendency of the "feed" or teeth is to crowd the work off the edge as well as forward and the stitching may be guided better on the right side. all straight seams should be stretched to the full extent of their straight edge in stitching, as the work passes under the presser foot. when a large amount of machine sewing is to be done--such as household linen, sheets, pillow cases and underwear--it is a good plan to do all the basting and hand work first and keep the machine stitching for a rainy or a damp day, as the thread is then less apt to break. a current of air or a breeze from an open window on a dry day will often cause the thread to snap. for the same reason the machine should never stand near the fire or radiator. textiles and clothing part ii read carefully. this test consists of two parts,--answers to the questions and the making of models. both should be sent to the school for inspection and correction. all models should be made about by inches so that they may be put into the envelope provided without being folded. two series of models are given; either or both may be made. . what instruction have you ever had in sewing? (b) has the subject any educational value? . what are the common basting stitches, and for what are they used? . can you make the running stitch properly? how is it done? . for what purpose may the cat stitch be used? . hems and seams: describe the different kinds for thick and thin materials, including those for flannel and state when they should be used. . describe three kinds of plackets. . how are gathers made, and how sewed into a band? . what can you say of fastenings? . with what sewing machine are you most familiar, and what are its peculiarities? . what stitches or methods described in this lesson are new to you? note: after completing the answers, sign your full name. models, first series i. stitches. on a piece of cotton about by inches, make with colored thread ( ) a line of even basting stitches, ( ) uneven basting stitches, ( ) tacking, ( ) running, ( ) back stitch, ( ) running and back, ( ) half back. with embroidery silk make a row each of ( ) cat stitch, ( ) single feather, ( ) double feather, ( ) chain, ( ) rows of french knots with border of outline stitch. make your initial in one corner, using any stitch preferred. overcast one long edge of the model, double overcast the opposite side, finish one end with plain loop or blanket stitch, and the other end with some fancy loop stitch. fasten all threads as described in the text. ii. seams and hems. (a) join two pieces of fine cotton with a french seam at the long edge, about by ½ inches, with warp running lengthwise. (b) cut a piece of muslin on a true bias and attach the bias edge to _a_ with a felled seam. (c) trim the model and hem all sides so that the finished model may measure by inches. iii. darning and patching. (a) in gingham or figures cotton, make an underset patch of a square hole, matching the goods. (b) darn a three-cornered tear. iv. fastenings. the proper distance from the edge of folded goods make (a) button hole, one end rounded and the other finished with a bar tack. (b) under it make a partly finished, _barred_ buttonhole. (c) below this make an eyelet hole, (d) below the eyelet hole a loop, and sew on an eye. on a second piece of folded goods opposite the first buttonhole, (a) sew a four-hole button, corresponding in size to the buttonhole. (b) opposite the second buttonhole sew on a two-hole button; (c) below, sew on two hooks corresponding in position to the loop and eye. make the two parts of the model so that the corresponding fastenings will join. v. apron. using fine muslin, make a doll's apron, gathering into band at top. above hem at the bottom, make two clusters of tucks of three each. models. second series. for experienced workers i. rolled hem; hem stitching. make a doll's apron of fine muslin, attach top to band with rolled, whipped gathers. make two clusters of tucks of three each at the bottom and hem stitch the bottom hem. ii. sleeve placket. make a taped sleeve placket as shown in the illustration. iii. make a slot seam, using dress goods and finish with an arrow head. (b) make a large cloak buttonhole. iv. mitre embroidery and finish as shown in the illustration. (b) match and join the same. v. embroidery: make something small and useful--a doily, stock, collar--illustrating some style of embroidery, or make a model of the first series which will afford you the most new experience. [illustration: making mexican drawn-work] textiles and clothing part iii dressmaking [sidenote: good tools necessary] the greatest obstacle to home sewing of any kind is the failure to provide suitable materials with which to do the work. to do good work--to make attractive gowns--the simple tools which the work requires must be provided. first, there should be needles and pins of the best quality and make. they should be fine and well pointed. the needle should be suitable to the material to be sewn and sufficiently large to carry the thread easily. a blunt or bent needle should never be used. long or milliner's needles are preferred by many for basting. [sidenote: thread] a good supply of thread should be kept on hand--not too great a quantity, but the stock should be added to as it is used. there should be both silk and colored cotton, also twist for button holes, loops and arrow heads and knitting silk to sew on and finish feather bone. [sidenote: scissors] two pairs of scissors are required--one with long, sharp blades, and a pair of medium sizes for snipping machine stitches. among the other necessary articles are a tape measure, cake of wax, pencils or tailor's chalk, tracing wheel, emery, lap board. canvas, scrim, or any like material should be kept in the sewing room, as these are invaluable for facings, linings of collars, cuffs, etc. hooks, eyes, buttons, tape, linings, featherbone and shields are requisites not to be forgotten. [sidenote: tapes] tape is constantly needed. linen tape is thinner and makes a neater finish for some purposes than cotton tape. the bias tape or binding now kept by the larger stores is very useful for binding curved edges and for other purposes. [sidenote: cutting table] if a regular cutting table is not available, the dining room table should be used. skirts, bodices, ruffles, and bias bands should be cut on firm, even, and large surfaces. if cut upon the floor or bed and pressed on a coarse crash towel, the garment will have the undesirable home-made look. [sidenote: pressing board] a good pressing board should be provided and if possible a sleeve board. in the process of garment making of any kind too much stress cannot be laid upon constant and careful pressing. the ironing board should have for its outside cover a _finely_ woven, perfectly smooth cloth, tightly stretched, free from wrinkles, and securely tacked. where there is gas, a small, portable stove should be kept near the sewing table with a medium-sized flat iron. lacking gas, one of the single burner oil stoves may be used. an electric flat iron is especially convenient. [sidenote: bust form] a bust form is a great convenience in fitting and almost a necessity for one who does much home dressing. these may be purchased at department stores. some kinds are adjustable, but it is always best to make a carefully fitted lining for it and pad out to the correct shape and size. the pattern should be one that extends well over the hips and heavy unbleached muslin may be used. after padding firmly, the front opening should be oversewed. special care should be taken with shoulders and neck and the neck band should be carefully adjusted on the figure. [illustration: padded bust form (from dressmaking up-to-date, butterick co.)] a padded sleeve lining is also very useful in making sleeves. dressmaking never should be begun until each needed article required for the work has been purchased. the sewing room should be in order; the machine well oiled and wiped before any work is undertaken. [sidenote: skill and taste] if the finished garment is to be perfect, careful attention must be given to _every_ detail of the cutting and making up. to possess mechanical skill alone is not sufficient. a successful garment depends not only upon the dexterity with which the worker manipulates the actual tools of her craft, but upon all her faculties and her power of applying them. she must have a comprehension of the laws of beauty in dress, construction, ornament, color, selection, economy. the artisan knows the technical part only, and looks upon each dress--each piece of lace and velvet--as so much material to be snipped and cut and sewed, copying from the fashion plate, making gown after gown alike. the artist, on the other hand, makes the gown to suit the individual wearer, considering each dress no matter how simple--and the simpler, the more artistic--as a creation designed to suit the woman for whom it was planned. people who study economy from principle will never adopt anything extreme in weave, or color, or make. these extreme fashions are never lasting; they are too conspicuous and are vulgarized by bad copies, while a thing which is known to be good and beautiful once will remain so for all time. those who are beginners in the art of dressmaking should select plain designs until skill is acquired. the making up and finishing of new fabrics and new or untried methods are problems that often dismay even the most experienced dressmaker. patterns [sidenote: selection of patterns] the makers of good and reliable patterns are many. always buy patterns of firms that make proportion of figure as well as fashion a study. these patterns state length of skirt, waist and hip measure and quantity of material required in all widths. buy a skirt pattern with correct hip size, as it is much more difficult to change this than to alter the dimensions of a waist. adjust the pattern to the figure for which the garment is to be cut and see that it is right in all of its proportions. always follow the notches indicated in the seams of the pattern, and thus avoid putting wrong pieces together. be sure that the pattern is placed correctly upon the material with the _straight grain_ or warp threads of the goods running directly on a line with the _straight perforations_ indicated in the pattern. lay the entire pattern upon the cloth. this gives an idea just where every piece is to come out. [sidenote: what the pattern gives] all patterns give one-half of the bodice and the skirt, from center of back to center of front. the plain waist pattern consists of back, curved side piece, under arm piece (sometimes these two pieces are in one) front, upper and under sleeve, collar or neck band. some patterns allow for seams--others do not. skirt patterns give only one-half of the front gore. the _seam_ edges of front gore are marked by _one_ notch near the waist line. the front or straight edge of the _first_ side gore has one notch, and two on the back edge of side gore. all the gores may be distinguished from the edges of the back gores by the lesser number of notches. this is true of all skirt patterns. if the patterns are studied carefully, all skirt cutting becomes very easy. the object of goring a garment is to take out unnecessary fullness at the top; reducing the weight, making the garment less clumsy, and giving a nicety of finish which could not be done in heavy material if all the goods were left to fit into a band. skirts may be lined or unlined, gored or full. seven-gored skirt the style may vary with the fashion, but a well-fitting skirt should hang even around the bottom edge, should fit easily around the hips without being strained or defining the figure too closely, or "ride up" when sitting, should flare slightly from hips to the bottom of the skirt, should not fall in between the feet, the back should fall well behind the figure. for heavy goods, as little material as possible consistent with the prevailing style should be used. plan of skirt making shortening or lengthening of pattern if necessary. placing of goods. pinning on of pattern so there is no waste. cutting. removing and care of patterns. pinning, basting, or tacking of skirt to lining. joining of seams, fitting. stitching. pressing. finishing of seams and placket hole. making and putting on waist-band. marking length and finishing the bottom. fastenings, loops, braids, hooks and eyes. [sidenote: lengthening or shortening patterns] to lengthen or shorten a skirt pattern, measure the figure and regulate the length of the patterns by making a fold in each gore two-thirds of the way from the top of the pattern if too long. this is for the simplest skirt pattern. the shape of the skirt may require two folds, one two-thirds from the top and a small fold near the bottom to preserve the outline. if too short pin the pattern on the material, cut around the top of gore and on each side two-thirds of the distance from the top of gore. unpin and draw the pattern down to the bottom and cut the required length. except for wash material, do not turn a gored skirt up at the bottom to form a wide hem, as the fullness made by turning is hard to dispose of neatly and the right curve at the bottom of the skirt may be lost. another way to lengthen the pattern is to cut it in two, two-thirds the distance from the top. see that all pleats or tucks are exactly the same width and at the exact distance from the top or bottom of the gore, also that all seams are of the right length. a shorter skirt must be proportionately narrower. [sidenote: testing patterns] it is well to test the skirt and waist patterns by using inexpensive materials, such as calico, gingham, or cheap lining. cut, baste, fit, and make this as carefully as if it were the best cloth or silk. if the skirt and waist are satisfactory, the pattern will do duty for several seasons. the plain waist pattern is the foundation for _any_ waist and many changes can be made easily with a well-fitting skirt and plain waist pattern as a basis. [sidenote: cloth patterns] as paper patterns soon wear out, after a waist and skirt have been perfectly fitted, it is a good plan to cut an exact pattern of cambric, both skirt and waist, tracing seams and notching the parts. this will enable the home dressmaker to cut and make all ordinary dresses with little trouble and with but one trying on. it is always well to try on once, as materials differ in texture and a slight change may be necessary. [illustration: placing patterns at the left, on plain or symmetrical designs; at the right, on figured or napped goods. _a_--half of front gore; _b_--second gore; _c_--third gore; _d_--back gore; _e_--front waist; _f_--under arm piece; _g_--side back; _h_--back; _i_--outside sleeve; _j_--under sleeve; _c' d'_--piecing of gores _c, d_.] [sidenote: placing patterns] if the material is plain, has no nap, or if the design is perfectly symmetrical, the gores may be alternated, the top of one gore coming opposite the bottom of the next. the half pattern of the front gore is always laid on a _lengthwise fold_ of the goods. if the goods is wide, the other gores may be cut double with the cloth folded lengthwise. with narrow goods, the cloth may be folded end to end after the middle gore has been cut out, and the other gores cut double. care should be taken that the line of holes in the middle of the gores runs exactly in a line with the warp of the material, i. e., parallel to the selvage. if the goods has a figure, the design should run upwards. any nap should run downward, except with velvet or velveteen, in which it should run upwards. with such goods, the gores if cut double must be placed on a lengthwise fold, with the lengths running the same way. if the goods is narrow, the gores may have to be cut single, reversing the pattern (turning it over) so that both pieces may not be for the same side. [sidenote: pinning patterns] pin the middle of the pattern to the goods and smooth towards each end, pinning securely at top and bottom. avoid too many pins and pin carefully, otherwise the pattern will be displaced. [sidenote: cutting out] after the pattern is securely pinned, cut out the gores, using long, sharp shears. care should be taken not to lift the material from the table, not to have jagged, uneven edges, as both time and material will be wasted in straightening them. open the shears as wide as possible, taking a long sweep of the material, and do not allow the points of the shears to come together. mark all notches with basting thread, tailor's chalk, or notch the goods if it does not ravel. the back gores should be cut in the same way. they are usually wider than the front gores and may require piecing, which should be done along the warp threads. now remove the pattern, pin carefully all pieces together and fold as little as possible. the trinity--_pin_, _baste_, _press_--should be written in large letters in every sewing room, for much of the beauty of the gown depends upon these three. [sidenote: joining the skirt] to join the skirt, pin the side gores to the front gores, beginning at the top, with pins running across the seams, then begin at the top of the skirt and baste downward, allowing all unevenness to come out at the bottom. baste straight and evenly, taking one stitch at a time. several stitches should never be taken at once on thick or piled goods, as the side next to the sewer is apt to be fuller in that case. when all seams are basted, try on the skirt and make all changes necessary before stitching. both the outside skirt and any under or "drop" skirt should be fitted as carefully as a waist. [sidenote: lined skirt] if the skirt is to be lined the lining should be made and fitted first, then ripped and the outside carefully basted on the lining, being well stretched over the lining, care being taken to have the warp of the outside and the lining run the same way. this will prevent the lining from drawing the goods. [sidenote: stitching skirts] a stitch of medium length should be used on all seams whether white goods or cloth. if the stitch is too long, the seam will "gap" and will show the thread; if too short, the seam is apt to draw. the line of stitching must be absolutely parallel inside or outside of the basting or the curve will be ruined. use silk or the best cotton for stitching skirts and be sure that the needle is not too coarse. [sidenote: finishing seams] after stitching, all bastings along the seams should be taken out by cutting the thread in several places. never pull a basting the length of the skirt. the seams should be opened and pressed according to directions. the seams may be finished with a taffeta binding, overcast, stitched flat or notched, as the case demands. [sidenote: stiffening] if stiffening is used at the bottom of a lined skirt it should be fitted to each lining gore separately and securely stitched. a light weight canvas should be stitched to a heavy cloth skirt at the bottom, if several rows of stitching or braid are to finish the bottom of the skirt. [sidenote: placket] the placket may be finished before the two back gores are pinned to the front, if preferred. if done before joining the gores the placket can be pressed better and the front is not so liable to be crushed. on the left side of the skirt sew an underlap of sufficient length to extend well below the end of the opening. face the right side of the opening with a piece of the goods, or tape not too wide, hem or cat-stitch to the skirt, and finish with hooks and eyes, loops, or any fastening that will secure the placket. [sidenote: putting on band] the skirt is now ready for the band, which should be narrow. always cut parallel with the selvage and the length of the underlap longer than the waist measure, allowing for turning at the ends. the band should never be thick and clumsy and not too tight. try on the skirt and fit the band carefully, marking the seam with pins, a line of basting, or chalk. hold the skirt easy on the band and baste with small stitches, then stitch on the machine. if the skirt is too tight around the hips the plaits will fall apart at the back. if the skirt is stretched on the band the seams will not fall in a straight line. after the band is securely stitched and finished with hooks and eyes adjust the length by turning under at the bottom and pinning, after which baste all around and try on again to make sure that the length is correct. [sidenote: finishing the bottom] a gored outside garment should be finished with a true bias or a fitted facing, carefully stitched on. it is possible to finish the bottom of a simple house dress or thin skirt with a hem if the fullness made by turning is disposed of in gathers or fine pleats. a bias facing, however, is always preferable. if of heavy or lined goods the finish should be velveteen or braid the same color as the skirt. these bindings come in different widths and grades. braids should always be shrunken by wetting and drying thoroughly; one wetting is not enough. velveteen should be applied loosely, so as not to shrink or draw after it becomes damp on the skirt. [sidenote: applying velveteen binding] the right side of the velveteen should be carefully basted with small, even stitches to the edge of the facing. it may be hemmed to the facing or machine stitched just inside the basting, which need not be removed. it is then turned, allowing a very narrow portion to show below the edge, and basted with close stitches, pressed, hemmed down to the facing by hand, or cat stitched without turning the edge. be careful not to let the stitches show on the right side, nor let the binding twist or pucker. the joining of the velveteen should be near the seam in the back. another method is to cut off the bottom edge of the skirt a quarter of an inch from the turning line; apply the wrong side of the velveteen to the right side of the skirt, baste carefully close to the edge and stitch on the machine through velveteen, cloth, and lining (or facing) just inside the basting which is left in. the bottom of the raw edge is turned up, basted close to the edge allowing the velveteen to show a very little. the upper edge of the velveteen is secured as before by turning and hemming or catstitched without turning. the illustration shows this method of applying the velveteen which is first stitched to the lining and turned with the edge. this makes a firm, rather stiff finish. [sidenote: braid] braid is stitched on to the bottom of a skirt with a narrow edge showing, or it may be applied like the velveteen, with a doubled edge at the bottom. the doubled edge will wear better. [sidenote: finish of wash skirts] skirts that are to be washed and therefore which are very likely to shrink must be finished at the bottom with a wide hem--at least six inches--the fullness made by turning being disposed of carefully in pleats or gathers. [illustration: applying velveteen binding] if desired, the bias seam down the back of the skirt may have a narrow woven tape or selvage of thin goods stitched in with the seam. this strengthens the seam and prevents dragging. the skirt when finished should always be longer in front than in the back. all cloth dresses demand every detail of finish to make them complete and able to stand hard usage, but simple house dresses and thin summer dresses do not require such careful finish. shirt waists [sidenote: trace seams] in planning a waist the same rules should be observed in placing patterns, etc., as described for skirts, except that the lines and seams should be traced with a tracing wheel or marked carefully. in making a waist of any kind care must be taken to cut all the pieces the proper way of the material. [sidenote: baste lavishly] the difficulty of putting garments together after they have been cut properly is due to undue haste, lack of care in details and insufficient pressing. the apparently simple act of basting is really of primal importance, particularly in the making of a waist. one need never be afraid of basting too much or too carefully. economize cloth and time in cutting, but use basting lavishly. [sidenote: altering waist patterns] the waist pattern may be made shorter by laying folds across both back and front. the fold across the back should be two inches above the waist line and across the front two inches below the arm's eye (in the back). securely pin or baste the folds in the pattern. if the pattern is of nearly the correct size it may be only necessary to make the waist shorter and smaller. the neck and arm's eye will seldom need altering. the sleeves may be shortened in the same way by laying folds in the pattern, above and below the elbow. plan for making a shirt waist after the waist is cut, remove and care for the patterns. make the sleeves, cuffs and collar band first. make box plait on right or left side as liked by the wearer and hem on the other side or face. baste shoulders and under-arm seams. try on the waist, making all changes necessary by enlarging or taking up seams. pin for neck band and mark for seams. fit sleeves and mark places for seams. arrange fullness and place tape at back of waist line. [sidenote: making plain sleeve] if the pattern is for a plain, one-seam sleeve with the cuff opening at the end of the seam, hem each side of the opening one or two inches from the bottom, gather the bottom between the notches, lay the gathers, baste the right side of the sleeve band or cuff to the wrong side of the sleeve, stitch and _press_, fold in a hem on all edges of the cuff, fold the cuff over on the wrong side of the sleeve, baste, oversew the ends of the cuff, _press_ and stitch the cuff close to all edges. after thus attaching the cuff, baste and stitch the long seam of the sleeve and gather at the top between notches. the cuff is usually cut in the direction of the warp of the goods. the sleeve described is the simplest that can be made. if the sleeve is to open at the back and finished with a tape, with a placket, strap or fancy lap, the seam in the sleeve is stitched first and the cuff afterward adjusted. [illustration: plain sleeve with cuff, showing general methods of sewing on bands] the box plait is made if desired and the under arm and shoulder seams basted when the shirt waist is ready to try on. make any change in the seams necessary. the neck band is put on in the same way as the cuffs, sleeves sewed in, fullness arranged at the back and a tape placed at the waist line. three hooks or other fastenings should always be placed at the back to attach to corresponding fastenings in the skirt band. the bottom edge of the waist may be finished by overcasting. [sidenote: bottom finish] if it is desired to have the fullness cut away at the waist line in front, determine the length, allowing sufficient for a blouse, gather the waist at the bottom and sew the fullness on to a band. sometimes this band is carried entirely around the waist. [sidenote: fit of collar] the fit of the collar or neck band is very important in any kind of a waist. both the front and the back may be cut higher than the pattern, as it is easy to cut off in adjusting and more goods cannot be added. to the unskilled the simplest garment is sufficiently difficult. it is wiser to make two or three perfectly plain garments before attempting to make an elaborate one. after the pattern has been tested, fitted and all necessary changes made, cut a pattern from the fitted waist of cambric or cheap _new_ muslin and mark or trace all seams. (never use old, worn-out sheets from which to cut a pattern.) after this permanent pattern has been made, do not change a single line. [sidenote: tucked waist] [sidenote: full busted waist] if a plaited or tucked waist is to be made, all plaiting and tucking should be done first, after which the same order of making is to be followed for a plain waist. no waist should draw or strain across the bust. this is especially important in tucked or pleated waists. to guard against this tendency, a graduated tuck can be pinned on either side of the front, beginning with nothing at the shoulders and widening at the waist line. this is done before the pattern is cut and will allow for especially full bust. the fold should be _on a thread_ of the goods. lined waists the plain, closely fitted, lined waist, with the curved back and side forms is the most difficult to make and requires the greatest nicety in handling from beginning to finish. [illustration: typical bodice patterns (_a_) front. (_b_) under arm piece. (_c_) side of back. (_d_) back. (_e_) collar. (_f_) outside sleeve. (_g_) inside sleeve.] the pattern for a bodice of this kind should be of such a shape that in each part the woof threads will go as straight around the waist as possible. this makes the warp threads perpendicular and will give almost a perfect bias on the current seams in the back. do _not_ cut the side forms out of _any_ piece that is big enough, without regard to the warp and woof threads. if this is done, the threads in each will run differently and all ways but the right one. in a well-designed pattern the back forms should be nearly as wide at the arm's eye as they are at the waist line. the swell of bust and shoulders should be accommodated by the back and front forms. when material is to be cut on the bias be careful to have a _true_ bias (the diagonal of a square) around the waist and up the front and back seams. plan for making fitted, lined waist. pin pattern to lining, cut out trace seams. baste all seams on traced lines. try on lining. make changes. rip lining, baste on outside and cut by fitted lining. baste seams and try on. make changes if necessary. mark the turn for hem down the front, face and mark for fastenings. stitch and finish seams. put on featherbone. put on collar; sew in sleeves. finish. [sidenote: finish lining first] in making a lined waist, the lining is cut, basted, and fitted before the outside is cut. after fitting, the lining is ripped apart and the outside cut by it. for all firm, heavy materials the lining should be slightly fuller than the outside, that is, the dress goods should be well stretched over the lining, just as in a lined skirt, and basted closely and evenly, the warp and the woof threads of the outside and lining corresponding. in laying the pattern for cutting the lining, just as much attention should be paid to the direction of the threads as in cutting a striped or figured goods. [sidenote: marking seams] all seams should be traced on the lining with the tracing wheel, with a slow backward and forward movement, making the perforations clear and distinct. soft spongy goods that cannot be traced may be marked with a line of basting, tailor's chalk or by taking stitches with a pin along the line to be marked and twisting them in the goods. this will make holes that can be seen, but the twisting does not harm the goods. always trace or mark the waist line, as this is the starting point from which to pin or baste. bodice seams should never be begun at the top or bottom, but at the marks or notches that show the waist line, working towards the top and bottom. after the lining is cut out, the seams should be basted exactly along the traced lines, with seams out, when it is ready to be tried on. [sidenote: making changes in straight seams] if the pattern has been cut or drafted by the correct bust measure, the back seams should never be changed. if possible, make all changes required by letting out or taking in on the straight under-arm seams, leaving the curved ones and the darts untouched. [sidenote: pinning and basting] pins should be used plentifully while the fitting is being done, but they should be replaced with regular basting as soon as they are removed. do not be afraid of taking up fullness in the lining by darts crosswise at the top of the corset or where the fullness naturally falls in front or back. such darts should be basted, stitched and pressed flat. if the lining is too short, it may be lengthened by letting out the shoulder seams. [sidenote: outside cut by lining] after the lining is fitted, it is ripped apart, the outside cut, basted to it and the seams are basted, beginning at the waist line. never use a long thread in basting and always use short, even stitches, especially where any curved seams are to be stitched on the machine. this rule must be followed invariably if puckering is to be avoided. [illustration: waist lining basted, seams out] [sidenote: shoulder seams] the pattern at the shoulder seams should be shorter in front than at the back. in joining this seam, pin the two portions so that the ends of the seam meet exactly at the neck and arm's eye. in basting, stretch the front piece to fit the back, holding it in or puckering it if need be. pressing will banish the pucker and give an easy seam that will hug the curve of the shoulder, as in a man's coat. [sidenote: fitting] when the waist is on the figure, pull it well down to the waist line, pin the front linings together beginning with the neck, then lift the waist a little in front to give fullness and pin to the waist line. mark for the hem down the front, finish the edge with a well-fitted facing under which is a thin bias strip of canvas interlining for buttons or hooks and eyes. marks showing the position of fastenings should be made at this time. [sidenote: fitting of neck and sleeves] the neck and arm's eye should be fitted by making slashes in the curve--never cut around the curve. for the collar or neck band have a true bias of thin canvas or crinoline and draw it around the neck and pin with the ends _out_, towards the worker. (never lap any edges of waist, belt or collar when fitting.) mark on the waist where the lower edge of the neck band touches. draw the sleeve on the arm, pin and mark where it sets right, seeing that the elbow fullness is in the right place and that it does not twist at the hand. as in the lining, all changes necessary in fitting should, if possible, be made in the straight seams, as it is difficult to preserve the proper lines of the curved ones. the shoulder seams should be the last one to be basted. after all faults are remedied, the seams are carefully stitched along the line or basting, the bastings removed, the seams pressed and finished. the last seam to be stitched securely should be the one at the shoulder. by leaving this open, all fullness can be smoothed upwards and any trimming can be let into the seam. [illustration: back of waist, well matched] [sidenote: boning] sew in featherbone by cat stitching to the seam, first finishing the ends by button-holing. all seams should be stretched well when sewing on bones of any kind. curved seams should be notched every one or two inches at the curve and bound or overcast. this allows them to lie flat. [sidenote: draped waist] in a draped waist the lining is made separate and not stitched into any seam of the outside except at the shoulder. in fitting the outside the back is pinned on to the lining firmly, then the front and finally at the underarm seams. the seams are then basted, the waist tried on again, alterations made, if necessary, seams stitched and the bottom finished with the lining, as desired. three eyes or other fastenings should always be sewed at the seams in the waist line at the back to secure the skirt to the waist, thus preventing it from sinking below the waist line. [sidenote: finish of bottom of waist] the finish of the lower edge of the waist is often a problem. if the waist is to be worn under the skirt, just how to finish or whether to finish it at all is a question. the first step is to trim the edges evenly. a line of stitching and simple overcast will show less through a close-fitting skirt of light weight material. when binding is used, it should lie perfectly flat, twice stitched and pressed well. if the waist is to be worn outside the skirt, a narrow bias strip of canvas should be basted on the wrong side, the waist turned up over this as directed for sleeve and collar finish. over this a bias facing of silk may be hemmed or cat-stitched. [sidenote: fitting irregularity of figure] in spite of careful measuring and all care in cutting, the waist may not fit, owing to some deformity or peculiarity of the figure. such figures require especially careful fitting and the hollow place should be filled out with wadding. this needs to be done with the greatest care and nicety. [illustration: making bias strips for facings] avoid too frequent fittings. the bias portions of the bodice are liable to stretch out of shape and too much handling of the waist takes away the freshness. this is one reason why it is advisable to make the sleeves and collar first in order that the whole waist may be fitted at once and all alterations made to fit both sides. a perfect figure is the exception rather than the rule and the side that is not developed should be well fitted, whether sleeve or bodice. coat or tight fitting sleeves [sidenote: altering patterns] if it is necessary to lengthen the sleeve, say two inches, cut the pattern at right angles to the lines indicated by the dots, above and below the elbow. the slashing should be done exactly at the same distance apart in the upper and under portions of the sleeve in order to retain the proper shape and size of the top and bottom. separate the parts, allowing one inch above and one inch below the elbow. to shorten the sleeve, lap the slashed part or lay a fold in the pattern instead of slashing. in either case, care should be taken that the fold or lap is of even width all the way across, so that the original shape of the sleeve will not be lost. [sidenote: placing of patterns] too much care cannot be taken in arranging the pattern of the sleeve according to the thread of the goods. especially is this the case in the two-piece or coat sleeve. generally the top part of the outside seam and the lower part of the same side should be placed at the edge or fold of the goods, so that the two run in the same straight line. in all cases, the foundation sleeve or lining should be cut and fitted before the outer portion is adjusted. ample time should be given to the fitting and basting of the sleeve. the "set" of the sleeve is very often unsatisfactory because the cutting and original basting was done in a careless manner. remember that greater care is required in sleeve making than in any part of the garment. each sleeve is complete in itself and one must not deviate from the other in size, arrangement or ornament, or general appearance. they should be cut, basted and fitted alike and if the arms differ in size or length the sleeves must be so adjusted as to conceal the inequality. the sleeves should be made at the same time and before the cuffs, then the cuffs, puffs, or whatever special trimming is to be applied to them should be put on both sleeves at the same time. if the second sleeve is not made or trimmed until after the first is finished, it will be much more difficult to secure exactly the same effect. if it is impossible to complete both sleeves at one time, make the sleeves one day and the cuffs or trimming the next day. in making the coat sleeves the general methods are the same, but each season brings out new styles which the maker will have to understand before proper making and finishing can be acquired. always master the simple and standard patterns and the minor changes dictated by fashion--new fancies and effects--will not be difficult to acquire after a little experience has been gained. the lining for both sleeves should be fitted and the outside cut by them. [sidenote: joining the parts] after economical cutting, trace the seams carefully, and baste the outside to the lining, basting both uppers before the under sections. join the under and upper parts by pinning and basting, the outside seam first, beginning in the middle of the sleeve and working toward each end. the outside seams should be begun at the notch at the elbow, working toward each end. where the sleeve calls for gathering the fullness should be distributed between the notches and the two portions of the sleeve should be secured at this point, before or after basting the upper or lower portions of each sleeve. [illustration: finishing of seams notched at curves and bound or overcast.] stitch the seams just outside the basting, then remove the line of basting along the seam and press. trim off all rough edges. the inside seam is opened and notched at the bend of the elbow and an inch or two above and below and bound with silk binding ribbon or evenly overcast with twist or mercerized cotton. [sidenote: adding cuffs] if an elaborate cuff or trimming is to be added to the sleeve, whether full or plain, it should be made separately and blind stitched to the faced sleeve. in case the sleeve is gathered the fullness can be put into a narrow band, the exact size of the cuff, the cuff then sewed on the band. [sidenote: putting in sleeves] in putting the sleeve in the armhole, be sure that both seams are at the same point, that both have the same amount of fullness at the top, and that the plaits or gathers are equally distributed from front to back. the sleeve should be held next to the worker and should lie easy from seam to seam at the under arm. baste with close, even stitches or back stitch with coarse cotton or twist the same color as the waist. stitch in the sleeves on this line of basting, keeping the armholes curved while the stitching is being done. trim off edges and finish with binding or close overcasting. the most careful binding is clumsy compared to the overcast finish. turn the seam toward the shoulder and hem to the lining over the shoulders. this will do away with the stand-up look that sleeves sometimes have. [sidenote: finish at wrist] for the sleeve finished plainly around the wrist, a piece of bias crinoline should be fitted at the hand. to do this, turn the sleeve _right_ side out and slip the crinoline in the sleeve over the left hand and adjust by moving the fingers until the crinoline shapes itself to the sleeve perfectly, then pin and baste at the top and bottom. in this way the crinoline will be neither too short nor too loose and all wrinkling will be prevented. turn the sleeve inside out and cut off the crinoline one-fourth of an inch from the edge, keeping a perfectly true edge, turn the sleeve over the crinoline, baste the outside part of the sleeve and cat-stitch to the crinoline, then cat-stitch the crinoline to the lining. remove the lower basting and press. a bias strip of silk sufficiently wide to cover the crinoline is hemmed at the lower edge and to the sleeve lining just above the interlining. whenever it is possible to do so use the cat-stitch. it is a neat finish, easily and quickly done, takes less time than hemming, besides being less bulky. if the bottom of a coat sleeve is to be left open at the back or slashed, an interfacing of light weight canvas will be necessary. turn the outside portion of the sleeve over the canvas, care being taken to turn all corners at the slash, and curves, press and stitch, face after the stitching is done. it may be stitched better if the back seam is left open. [sidenote: pressing sleeves] in the coat sleeve both seams are curved and should be pressed on a curved board. a rocking chair inverted, with the rocker covered with soft cloth, makes a good board on which to press the curved seams of a sleeve. collars the shaped, standing collar is worn with waists of all kinds and is always a popular neck finish. in a close-fitting collar made of heavy material an interlining of canvas or crinoline is necessary. the interlining should be cut one-fourth of an inch smaller all around if the collar is to be blind stitched to the waist. if it is to be sewed to the neck, in a seam, the lining should be the same size as the collar at the neck. baste this interlining to the collar material, cut out the corners of the material, and hem the extended portion to the interlining. the interlining should always be cut bias, whether the outside is bias or straight. hem the collar lining to the collar. [sidenote: putting on collars] to sew the collar to the neck of the garment, first pin, beginning at the back seam and baste towards the end. the lining may be left free at the lower edge and felled over the neck edge after the collar has been stitched to the garment, or the lining may be stitched in the seam, the seam pressed open and a bias facing of silk or light weight material hemmed on over the seam. the beauty of collars and cuffs depends largely upon the exact turning of corners and finish of ends. these should never be left bulky or clumsy. if preferred, the lining and outside of collar may be seamed and turned. place the right sides of outside and lining together, the interlining next to the lining, stitch around both ends and top of collar, then turn and press. these rules may be followed in making sailor or any lined collars. collars made of all over embroidery should be faced with tape on the wrong side before the trimming is applied to cover the edge of ruffle or lace. the plain or shirt waist pattern will do duty for many garments--corset cover, night dress, dressing jacket, etc. the upper part of the waist will answer for yoke pattern of different shapes. seamless yokes [sidenote: pattern for yoke] to make a pattern for a seamless yoke baste together the shoulder seams of the fitted waist pattern, place the upper part of the pattern on cambric or stiff paper, with the front of waist on straight edge or fold of paper, trace the shape of the neck yoke any desired depth below the neck line. the lower edge can be cut in any shape, the neck either high or low, round or square. this perfectly fitted yoke pattern can be used for a foundation for lace, velvet, ribbon, net, or any thin material. the circular yoke made of lace and ribbon or bias strips can be made to open in front or back. the strips of inserting and ribbon should be basted on the paper pattern and joined by fancy stitches or over sewed. the parts next the neck will need to be held fuller than the outside curve of the inserting. all yokes to be worn under the gown should be made on a well-fitted lining. never trust to pinning, basting, or hooking the yoke to the waist. the finish of collar, cuffs, girdle and placket are hallmarks of good dressmaking. well finished ends and corners, the careful adjustment of fastenings, shields carefully fitted to the arm's eye and caught smoothly to the lining--all these are little things that count for more than money spent in expensive ornament. pressing [sidenote: pressing board] the success of the finish of every garment depends upon the pressing, whether the material be heavy or light, cotton or wool. garments are always pressed on the wrong side, when being made. the iron used should neither be too hot nor too heavy and the work should be done on a perfectly smooth, well-covered board. for pressing black or dark cloth, the cover of the board should be dark and free from lint, while a perfectly clean light cover should be substituted when white or light goods are to be pressed. [sidenote: placing the iron] the whole face of an iron should never be put down on a seam or any part of a waist, but the side or point should be used, care being taken _not_ to stretch a curved seam. a small rolling pin, a broom stick, a chair rocker, or any rounded stick well covered can be used for pressing curved seams or sleeves. this lessens the danger of marking the seams on the right side. these are only makeshifts; a regular half round sleeve bound should be obtained if much work is to be done. in pressing, the iron should never be shoved or pushed, as in ironing. only heavy materials require great strength. it is possible to press too much as well as too little. whatever the material, pressing is work that requires to be done carefully and slowly. allow the iron to touch only the center of the seam, the edges of the seam will not then be outlined upon the goods. piled goods require infinite care. uncut velvet, crape, etc., should _never_ be pressed with the iron flat on the seam. the seam should be opened carefully and over the rounded surface of the board, covered with very soft cotton flannel into which the pile can sink without being flattened. run the iron with the pile, or the iron may be placed on the side or flat end and the seams drawn slowly along the edge of the iron the same way the pile runs--only the edge of the iron touching the edge of the seam. corded seams should be pressed in the same way to avoid flattening the cord. [sidenote: wet pressing] very heavy cloths and chinchilla should have a small stream of water carried along the seam, followed by the iron; or the seam may be dampened by a soft cloth--very wet. this is the "wet pressing" used by tailors, which is adapted to the requirements of materials used by them, such as serge, tweeds, etc. pressing on the right side under a damp cloth is apt to give marks if the cloth gets too dry or if the iron is too hot, but is necessary on finished wool garments. silk scorches easily and should be pressed very carefully with a cool iron, light in weight. some light colors fade or change in pressing. try a piece of the goods before pressing the garment. if the color does not come back when cold or when exposed to the light, do not use a hot iron on the garment. construction and ornament for dress [sidenote: principles of ornament] many of the principles governing architecture and art apply equally as well to art in dress. both in architecture and dress, construction should be decorated--decoration should never be purposely constructed. it is by the ornament of a building that one can judge more truly of the creative power which the artist has brought to bear upon his work. the general proportion may be good, the mouldings accurate, but the instant ornament is attempted, the architect or the dressmaker reveals how much of an artist he is. to put ornament in the right place--where it serves a purpose--is indeed difficult; to render that ornament at the same time an added beauty and an expression of the desired unity is far more difficult. [sidenote: purpose of ornament] all decoration should be planned to enrich--not to assert. all jewelry or ornament should form a note in the general harmony of color--a decorative touch to add beauty and to be subordinated to the object decorated. it should serve the purpose of seeming to strengthen the whole or to protect the parts receiving most wear. ornament is everywhere attempted. we see ornament at every turn--good and bad alike--in our homes, on clothes, linen, and kitchen utensils. carlyle tells us that "the first want of barbarous man is decoration." we have no record of when this need was felt first. primitive man after supplying his actual needs, seemed to develop a longing for the beautiful, so he ornamented his own body, scratched rude patterns on his tools and weapons and gradually developed the artistic sense. this love of ornament dates back to the beginnings of the human race and there are no records of a race or a period devoid of it. [sidenote: errors in ornamentation] we see gowns totally lacking in good results because too much has been attempted. the wearer has not considered the effect as a whole, but has gratified her liking for a multiplicity of ornaments and color which, perhaps would be good in themselves, if applied separately, but which becomes an incongruous mixture when brought together on one garment. garments which seem to have required great effort in the making and which appear complex in construction should be avoided, for the effect is not pleasing. the gown should set off the wearer, not the wearer the gown. to avoid committing errors against good taste it is essential first to consider the use of any garment and see if it answers the purpose for which it was designed. if any part appears meaningless, this is a sure indication that it is wanting in grace and beauty. the ornament should harmonize with the materials, use, and construction of the object to which it is applied. the color must be massed with effect and detailed with care. [sidenote: embroidery] there can be no ornamentation equal to that which is worked into the material, such as embroidery. the design should be appropriate in form and color and always conventional. flowers are used most frequently for embroidery and passementerie and the simple, single flowers are the most effective, such as the daisy, the wild rose, and the flowers of the lily family. these simple flowers are the best because they radiate from a central point, have strong forms and decided proportions, can be most fully expressed in a few stitches requiring the fewest shades of color, and are admirably adapted for amateur workers. [sidenote: flowers as ornament] old indian stuffs, jewelry, and enamels are rich in suggestions of conventionalized flowers. the simple, single flowers are repeated constantly, the daisy appearing to be the favorite in these beautiful ornaments. the most beautiful of all conventional flower work, jewel studded, is found in samples of work of the fifteenth century. they simply suggest the forms of nature. the repetition of the same flower in all its aspects is more pleasing and less tiresome to the eye than a variety of flowers or figures. [sidenote: geometrical designs] we find upon analysis that the simple forms are the basis of all decorative art work. geometrical designs and arabesques are the most difficult, requiring the most exacting and careful work. narrow bands, braided, outlined, or chain-stitched in simple designs are effective, easily done, and wear well. braids and any of these stitches may be combined, making durable and effective trimming for sleeves and neck. these simple designs are also appropriate for children's frocks. the french knots are ornamental and durable. all embroidery and passementerie should be rich, close, and continuous. it should not be cut up into pieces and sewed on where it does not serve, or appear to serve, a purpose. [illustration: passementerie of good design] [illustration: poor design, weak connection] [sidenote: passementerie] there is very little passementerie that is at all suitable for forming edges, as it is not sufficiently substantial, but when it can be found firm and of the right shade it is one of the most beautiful ornaments to edge neck and sleeves. it may be allowed to extend beyond the dress material, so that the flesh tints may show through the design, thus gradually softening the outline. often a narrow passementerie can be found with one strong edge and a good border can be made by joining the two. this cannot be done where the pattern is united by a band running through the center of the ornament. [illustration: joining narrow passementerie to form a border] [sidenote: bands] a band of velvet or cloth embroidered in outline stitch and french knots of same shade as the garment is a satisfactory edge. except for yokes, the knots should always be held together with the outline edge. the rich silk braids and passementeries are made of silk wound or woven over cotton and should be used only on dresses which are not intended for hard wear. such trimmings are, of course, inappropriate on serges and homespuns and soon become shabby if given much rough service. [sidenote: use of laces] laces, like all trimmings, have defined limits within which they should be used, though they are often worn indiscriminately. machine made laces, often good in make and design, are now very common, but the best machine-made laces are not cheap in price. [sidenote: design of lace] handsome lace should be applied rather plainly, as the pattern is often lost in the gathers. fine laces are out of harmony with heavy or coarse materials. when lace is desired for flounces that with running patterns which neither advance nor retreat, except in the folds which may be made, will be found most pleasing. distinct objects, such as baskets, crowns, vases, etc., which suggest weight, are unsuitable patterns for so light a fabric as lace. [sidenote: placing of decorations] attention to details is essential in the placing of these decorations, as in the selection or making of them. the worker should take into consideration the shape and size of the bands or pieces of trimming and should note carefully the chief characteristics of the design and above all the junction of leaves, flowers, arabesques, especially in the finishing of the corners of collars and cuffs. [sidenote: simplicity and harmony] those at all skillful with the use of the needle can attain the most beautiful and artistic results if right laws in color and design are adhered to, even by the use of the simplest stitches, for the beauty of dress lies not so much in the richness and variety of material used as upon simplicity and harmony--a fact too often disregarded. [sidenote: the bow] perhaps no ornament is more abused than the bow. in order not to appear intrusive, ribbons require the most delicate handling. the only excuse for a ribbon as an ornament is when it makes a pretense of tying. when used as a sash where folds or gathers are confined, the tone of the ribbon should, in general, vary scarcely from that of the dress. [sidenote: fitness of place] whatever the ornament used, whether embroidered band, a ribbon, a cord that laces, a diamond pin, or a jeweled buckle, though it may possess great intrinsic value and beauty, it cannot be considered of real worth as an ornament unless it fulfills the most important condition--fitness of place. although the art of dress admits of innumerable variations, like all other arts it is subject to the three rules of beauty--order, proportion and harmony. ornaments are appropriate on the hems or edges of garments where it serves the purpose of strengthening and protecting the parts most worn, and not simply where fancy or fashion dictates. [sidenote: natural centers] the natural fastenings and fold centers should be along the axis or center of the body. any jewelry, buckle, brooch, or ornament used to fasten, secure, or strengthen these centers or to hold bands of embroidery, collar, or folds together should be sufficiently strong to serve the purpose. there must be a reason for position and the purpose of its use must be apparent to satisfy the eye. the eye is unconsciously and irresistibly drawn to these natural centers and demands some object there on which to rest--some substance from which the fold emanate--some reason for their detention. if this ornament at the throat or waist fastening collar or holding folds by a girdle or clasp is omitted, the eye is disappointed. this does not mean that the ornament, jewel, passementerie, or embroidery should always be placed in the axis or central line of the figure--this may be carried too far. slight irregularities often give an effect to hat or gown that is charming. [illustration: passementerie covering facing] [sidenote: trimming] remember that trimming is not intended to cover up, but to beautify and strengthen. when, for economy's sake, it is used to cover worn places or other defects, it must be selected and applied with great care or it will loudly proclaim its mission. [sidenote: unity in dress] trimming should mean something--whether jewelry or passementerie. bands that bind nothing, straps, bows, buckles, or pins that confine nothing offend the taste. a girdle should seem, even if it does not, to belt in fullness; it has no use on a close-fitting, plain waist. no draperies should be invisibly held; supply some apparent means of confining the gathers. to preserve the lines of the figure there should be unity in the dress. a tight-fitting skirt below a gathered waist or a full, gathered skirt below a plain waist gives the appearance of two portions of the body instead of the oneness desired. the figure should never be cut across, either above or below the waist-line with contrasting colors, different shades of the same color, or bands of different texture. below the waist-line the figure should suggest the elements of strength and these horizontal bands cut the lines of the figure at an angle of opposition, destroying the rhythm and grace of the lines. much experience is required in placing horizontal lines of ornament on a skirt effectively. in general, rows of tucks or ornament should diminish in width from the bottom towards the top. the plain spaces should be greater than those ornamented. when ornament gives absolute evenness of space division in skirt or waist the effect is apt to be monotonous and unsatisfactory. the natural places of support for garments are the neck, shoulders and waist. ornamentation which emanates from these centers or when used for borders, if appropriate in design, is usually successful. ornament of textiles in addition to ornament added to garment, the ornament in the textile itself must be considered. [sidenote: appropriate designs] textiles may be beautiful in weave, but spoiled by the design. quite as important as intrinsic beauty is appropriateness of pattern. how often do we see woven on our curtains, carpets, and garment materials fans, bunches of roses tied with ribbons--bows with long, fluttering ends--landscapes, snow scenes, etc. nothing is beautiful out of its place. a fan suggests coolness and grace of motion, but woven in our textiles it gives the same impression as a butterfly mounted on a pin--something perverted, imprisoned, or robbed of its natural use. nothing is or ever can be beautiful without use--without harmony. decorations on textiles are not to tell stories. there is a difference between landscape painting and using landscapes as a motive for decorating textiles or pottery. in one case the aim is to annihilate surface by producing the impression of distance; in the other, the object is to glorify the surface only. [sidenote: advantage of plain material] for the woman of limited income it is wiser to select plain material of good texture and weave. such material is never conspicuous, can be made over, and is always restful and may be interesting. any good textile must impress itself upon the mind by its suggestiveness and beauty of color. there is a difference between what may be called artistic and decorative embellishment of textiles. each has its place in the world of beauty, but one is the poetry, the other the prose of the art. [sidenote: stripes] there is a dignity and restfulness in plain material which is never obtained by varied patterns. when a stripe is used to vary the material, the style of the textile is changed, elongated if the stripe is vertical, and widening if it is horizontal. if the main stripe is cut at right angles with a second stripe, the textile appears more complicated and repose is lost. the same is true of checks, but no pattern is more distracting than large plaids, especially when used for waists, because the regularity of the design renders very conspicuous any inequalities in the shoulders or bust, and the great variety of colors detracts from the dignity of the dress. with small checks and narrow, self-colored stripes the effect is different, causing the texture to appear only shaded and not destroying the unity. [sidenote: conventionalized designs] on garment fabrics the ornamentation should be flat, without shadow or relief. the pattern must enhance and not mar the figure. if flowers, foliage, or other natural objects are used for the designs, they should be conventionalized--not direct copies of nature. a figured textile requires more careful planning than plain material. it may be beautiful when used properly, but it will appear hideous if distorted in the making. a conventional fleur-de-lis pattern, or a long dash which appears and disappears when used in long, graceful folds, adds to the apparent height. these same figures wrongly used spread out awkwardly or become distorted. [sidenote: size of design] the size of the design should be regulated by the material--small patterns being used for close, thick fabrics and larger designs, with more delicate colors, for thin material of open texture. thick, heavy fabrics require rich, warm colors and the pattern likewise should be rich and decorative. velvets, velveteens, and heavy cloths for dresses are beautiful in themselves and should not be marred by patterns or trimmings. spirals or curved lines running crosswise on textiles distort the natural curves of the figure by making seeming undulations where none should be and accentuating the prominence of hips and bust. such patterns should not be used in folds. color [sidenote: texture and color] much is to be considered in choosing colors and it is folly to suggest a particular shade for a person without taking into account texture of the textile. though the color may be good, the weave may destroy what might otherwise have been a success. not only must color in itself be studied, but quality of color in textiles as well. a shade of red, for example, in dull silk or lusterless material may be most unbecoming for a woman of a certain type, while it may be worn successfully if made in rich velvet or glossy silk. some women maintain that they cannot wear green, but nearly all can dress becomingly in this color if the shade and texture is selected carefully. the same may be said of other colors for the many variations should be taken into consideration. the average woman in selecting materials for gowns or house furnishings is apt to be influenced too much by details, as she would judge the merits of a fine piece of needlework, hence the value of good, broad color schemes fails to appeal to her. the chenille curtain, perhaps, suits her because it is full of complex decoration. [sidenote: harmony not contrast] after having determined the prevailing color of a costume, the details should be in _harmony_, rather than in _contrast_ with it. different tones of one color are more satisfactory than striking contrasts, and even strong patches of light and shade of the same color should be avoided, as well as patches of crude and vivid color. the pleasing contrasts found in nature cease to be happy when attempted in textiles. use few colors, avoid bright shades except in small quantities. all bright colors should be placed near the face, rather than on or near the bottom of skirts or the edge of sleeves. avoid strong contrasts; the brighter the color and the greater the contrast with other colors, the louder and cruder will be the effect. "no color harmony is of a high order unless it involve indescribable tints." children's clothes [sidenote: infants' clothing] plainness, purity, softness of texture rather than elaborate ornament should be the main consideration for infants' clothes. the finest and softest of french and scotch flannels, french linen, dimity, nainsook, and india silk are always dainty and they should be made up very simply with little trimming, but that of the finest. hems and seams should be small and neatly done with, perhaps, the daintiest beading inset by hand and feather stitched. hemstitching is always beautiful, but makes a weak spot which is apt to give out in the constant laundering necessary for children's clothes. the skirt and shirt made in one piece, with sleeves to slip into the little outside garment, both to open down the back so that all may be slipped on at the same time without worry to either nurse or baby, will be found a great convenience. [sidenote: stockinet undergarments] stockinet or webbing, all wool, partly wool, or all cotton, is preferred by many to the plain cloth. the cotton is non-shrinkable, easily made, and finished. this garment fabric has reached such a high degree of perfection that for infants and children of larger growth nothing better can be desired for shirts, skirts, drawers, and tights. it may be had in either light or heavy weight, is easily laundered and elastic, having all the qualities desired in undergarments. garments made of this material in the manner described give perfect freedom for all organs, besides evenness of covering for the body and lightness of weight--all important considerations in infants' and children's clothing. there should be the same simplicity in construction and material in the garments of children of larger growth. the design should be smaller, more realistic and the color brighter than for grown people. [sidenote: children's dresses] for children's dresses, the pretty ginghams in small checks, chambray, dimity, serge, flannels, cashmere are appropriate and serviceable. in making up these simple materials nothing better can be suggested than the plain, straight waist, fitting easily, to which a full skirt is fastened. the sleeves may be of any fashion to add variety. such a frock is simple and dignified and has a certain archaic beauty and quaintness that the huge, ugly collars and like ornament can never give. with the plain body the grace of the childish form is not lost. the body may be short or long, with the trimming at the bottom or edge of the skirt. the gathers fall in long lines or folds, no element of opposition destroying the rhythm and grace of the figure contour, when the trimming is placed at the bottom of the frock instead of several bands dividing the skirt. the waist should always be wider in front than in the back. the discomfort and injury caused by ill fitting garments, graded according to age instead of according to size, thus restricting the expansion of the chest and the play of the lungs, cannot be estimated. with the proper kind of frock a child can indulge in any game without becoming in the least disordered. dresses for little girls may have drawers made of the same material, thus permitting them the same freedom as the boys. the life of the child is play. unfortunate is the child whose clothing is too good to play in. of course there should be frocks for gala occasions. children are sensitive to color and receive much innocent enjoyment from being prettily dressed. a child may be made unhappy and timid by ugly clothes, but plainness need not mean ugliness. there are many artistic and simple patterns now being put on the market and many of the ready-made frocks found in the best shops are satisfactory. care of clothing ruskin says, "clothes carefully cared for and rightly worn, show a balance of mind and self respect." [sidenote: little attentions] the freshness of gown or wrap may be preserved by the little attentions bestowed upon it each time it is worn, which take but a few minutes and mean so much in all departments of dress. by carefully brushing and shaking into folds, removing all spots, hanging right side out, picking and pulling straight flowers, bows, and ribbons as soon as removed, adding buttons and taking up dropped stitches when needed,--all these little attentions if given promptly will keep a wardrobe fresh and in good order. new braid on the bottom of skirts, sponging and pressing, little alterations and addition of new trimming to collar and cuffs, will help to preserve the original freshness of the gown and cause the wearer to appear well dressed. waists should be turned wrong side out when removed and allowed to air near a window. shields should be cleansed with alcohol and water. ribbons should be rolled up immediately when taken off and if treated in this way will last much longer and look much daintier. clothing if moist and dusty and tossed into a dark corner of a closet or trunk can never appear fresh again, and will betray the character of the wearer. it is not the wearing of clothes which tells so sadly upon them, but the manner in which they are cared for. a few garments nicely made, well fitted and properly cared for are far preferable to twice the number of inferior quality and make. [sidenote: ruffled skirts] skirts of thin material having ruffles around the bottom should be hung upside down by loops sewed under the ruffles at the seams. by hanging in the opposite direction from which they fall when worn, ruffles regain their freshness. [sidenote: packing away clothing] all clothing for the season should be put away in perfect order to be ready for any sudden emergency which may arise. no clothing of any kind should be stored for the season without thorough cleaning and repairing where necessary. garments that are outgrown should be disposed of, instead of packing them away. wool garments should be carefully brushed and hung in the sun to remove and destroy any eggs of moths which may be present. they may be hung in tight cotton bags or packed in tight boxes with all openings posted over as a protection against moths. tailors' boxes which come flat are not expensive and are useful for this. they should be plainly labeled with their contents. [sidenote: folding garments] to fold, lay all articles on the bed or table and fold on the seams if possible. particular attention should be given to sleeves and collars. coat lapels should be turned to lie flat, collars turned up, and the coat folded directly through the center seam. skirts and coats with bias seams are not improved by hanging as the bias parts are apt to stretch out of shape. [sidenote: remove pins] no clothing should be put away for the night, even, without first removing all steel pins, as the least dampness may cause rust spots. [sidenote: hangers] clothes forms and hangers are so inexpensive that every gown and coat should have its own. skirts should be hung exactly on the form and no part of the band should be allowed to sag. if fancy waists are put in drawers or boxes, they should have the sleeves filled with tissue paper and the collars and bows should be pulled straight. cleaning large garments require the greatest care in handling and in order to be done successfully, they should be sent to the professional cleaner. [sidenote: fruit and wine stains] all stains and spots should be removed as soon as possible. fruit and wine stains may be removed by stretching the fabric over a vessel and pouring boiling water through the cloth from a height of a foot or two. the water _must_ be boiling. [sidenote: ink stains] ink stains can be taken out of clothing by dipping the cloth in milk, squeezing the blackened milk into one dish and dipping immediately into clear milk until the stain has disappeared. then finish by washing the cloth in warm water and in soapy water to remove the fat in the milk. [sidenote: iron rust] iron rust may be removed from linen and cotton by using lemon juice and salt. wet the spot with the juice of a lemon, cover with salt and lay in the sun, repeating the operation until the stain is removed, then rinse out the lemon and salt thoroughly. this of course cannot be used on colored fabrics, as it fades the color. [sidenote: grease spots] grease is one of the worst foes to garments and the greatest care is needed to remove such spots from delicate fabrics. if not done at once, the dust and grease together often prove ruinous. when the color and fabric will not be injured by it, warm water and soap is the best agent, otherwise absorbents may be used. french chalk or magnesia powdered, placed upon the spot, and allowed to remain for a time will often absorb the grease effectually. if the first application is not effective, brush off, and apply again until the spot disappears. where water can be used without injuring the cloth, the chalk or magnesia can be made into a paste and spread over the spot. when dry, brush off with a soft brush. in removing fresh grease spots, blotting paper with a warm iron may often be used effectively. if the heat changes the color of the cloth, the iron should be held above the goods. [sidenote: blood stains] blood stains may be removed by making a paste of starch and applying it to the spot. several applications may be necessary. [sidenote: solvents] [sidenote: cleaning garments] [sidenote: soap and ammonia with gasoline] only the best and purest benzine, naphtha, gasoline, and turpentine should be used for cleaning garments. for removing paints from coarse cloth, pure turpentine is useful, while for silks, velvets and woolens, benzine, naphtha and gasoline are to be preferred. the secret of success in the use of any of these cleansing agents lies in immersing the garments in _large quantities_ of the liquid. not less than a gallon should be used for a waist and two gallons will do the work far more satisfactorily. an effort should be made to remove all the worst spots before immersing the whole garment. those which have not disappeared should then be marked with white thread, colored thread may leave a mark. it is a good plan to enclose the spot with a line of basting. soak the garment for some time in the liquid, then soap all spots thoroughly and rub gently between the hands until they disappear. finally wash and rinse the garment in clear liquid and hang in the open air until all odor has passed away. soap may be used freely with gasoline with good effect. some professional cleaners use a little of the strongest ammonia in their gasoline tanks. the goods should be shaken well and all folds pulled out straight with the threads of the goods. velveteen, corduroy, and like piled fabrics can be cleaned successfully if not too much worn, but no amount of cleaning will restore the pile that is worn off. if allowed to stand until the impurities have settled and the clear liquid poured into clean bottles, it may be used for a number of times. this should always be done in the open air. chloroform may be used for cleaning the most delicate silks, though this is rather expensive. [sidenote: absorbing pad] whenever any of these liquids are used to remove spots alone, the spots should be placed upon a soft pad of several thicknesses of old cloth or blotting paper to absorb the surplus liquid and the spot should be rubbed from the outside towards the center. a hole may be cut in very soft cloth or blotting paper and placed around the spot to absorb the solvent around the stain and prevent the dark ring being formed. the cloth should be rubbed lightly and briskly until it is dry. if the fabric is light colored, a sponge or a soft piece of light cloth should be used, while for dark fabrics, the cloth used for rubbing the spot should also be dark and free from lint. the rubbing should be done lightly so as not to wear or injure the texture of the fabric. the blotting paper or cloth underneath should be changed frequently until the spot has entirely disappeared. [sidenote: cleaning velvet] velvet hats and bonnets, after all trimming is removed, may be cleaned by repeated dippings in benzine or gasoline. the vessel used should be large enough to hold a sufficient quantity of the liquid to completely cover the hat. of course all dust should be carefully brushed off and all folds ripped and loosened before putting the hat into the liquid. the secret of success lies in having the article entirely free from dust and using a large quantity of the benzine or gasoline. [sidenote: before sending to cleaners] before sending out garments to be dyed or cleaned, be sure that they are in good condition. all worn places should be mended carefully and all buttons should be removed. garments that are ripped should have all cut threads pulled out and be free from dust. dust silk fabrics with a piece of clean flannel and woolen material with a brush or broom. repairing [sidenote: economical mending] fabrics are so much cheaper and so much easier to obtain that patching has almost become one of the lost arts. the twentieth century woman feels that her time is too valuable to be spent in mending the old clothes and that she can better afford to buy new. however that may be, no one disputes the utility of mending. like so many other duties, mending is half done when well begun. a well made garment of good material should not be discarded when slightly worn, for a patch well put in or a neat piece of darning detracts in no way from the value of a garment and may even be a work of art. the children's clothes particularly should be kept in good order, for they are made uncomfortable by wearing garments that are out of repair, to say nothing of the demoralizing effect upon their characters. [sidenote: laundering and repairs] laundering is the great ally to tears and not only doubles the size of the hole, but pulls the threads apart so that it is impossible to make the mended place neat and smooth, therefore all clothing should be mended before washing. stockings and woven underwear are much worn by the rubbing on the washboard and thin places going into the washing frequently come out as holes, so that it is true economy of effort and time to "run" or darn the thin places before they are worn through. it requires much less time and the garments last longer. it is a good plan, especially in knees of stockings and knitted underwear, to baste a piece of fine net over a worn or broken place and darn over it. (see darning.) thread used for darning should be as near as possible the size of the threads in the garment. darning cotton, linen, wool, and silk of all shades can be bought, so that the problem of matching is no longer a difficult one. [sidenote: boys' trowsers] in mending the knees of boys' trousers a round patch should never be used. the seams should be ripped and the piece set in then, if the seams are pressed well, the patch will scarcely be noticeable. [sidenote: sleeves] when bodices are worn under the arm, rip the seams and set in a new "under arm" piece. a good plan for one whose dresses are apt to wear through quickly is to have the under arm pieces and the adjacent parts of the front made of two thicknesses of the goods; then, as the outside wears through, the edges can be hemmed down or taken into the seam. [sidenote: table cloths] when table cloths begin to wear in the middle fold or along the edge of the table, a few inches cut off one end and one side of the cloth will change the fold and the place where it falls over the table and give it a new lease of life. if the hem is turned down once and cat stitched, it will resemble the selvage more than a twice turned hem. [sidenote: lengthening garments] in repairing or lengthening garments that have become too short, much can be done by adding to the bottom of the skirt and sleeves material of different texture. a cloth or serge skirt may be lengthened by facing with velvet of the same shade, covering the line of sewing with cord, braid, or passementerie of the same shade or black. there should be an underfacing of light-weight crinoline to make the bottom of the skirt firm and to give strength. the same facing and passementerie may be used at neck and sleeves. [sidenote: extension hem and tucks] thin gowns of lawn, dimity, etc., can be lengthened with a faced or extension hem, the line of sewing to be covered with feather stitch or any of the fancy stitches of white or colored thread. if the lawn or dimity has a colored figure, the embroidery silk or cotton may match this. under skirts and drawers may be lengthened in the same way or rows of tucks may be added. [sidenote: waist repairing] in waist repairing, the sewing silk should match the material. set the patch into the seams when possible and trust to careful pressing. if the material begins to wear near the end of the bones, cut off the bones an inch and take in the dart or seam. if the silk wears off around the hooks and eyes, move them along ever so little. make a virtue of worn out seams by taking them in and covering them with fancy stitching. if the garment is lined, the outside should be carefully basted to the lining before stitching to take in the seam. it has been said that silk waists are serviceable as long as the upper parts of the sleeves remain good. if garments have not been well cared for from the first and beyond a certain point, "making over" is poor economy. never attempt cleaning and making over old clothes unless the material is good enough to make it worth while to do the work well. [sidenote: mending baskets] the mending basket is an important adjunct of mending and should be well supplied with darning cotton of all colors and sizes, good english tape, black and white, of different widths, linen tape, bias tape, different kinds and sizes of needles,--sewing, darning, shoe, carpet, and tape needles. [sidenote: use of tape] for repairing bands and facings, where buttons have been torn off by wringer or iron, and for strengthening weak places, tape is invaluable. it saves the time required to turn in the edges of the cloth and is less clumsy and bungling. [sidenote: use of judgment in mending] the mender should use good judgment as to the amount of work to be applied to each garment. she should substitute the machine needle whenever possible and not put tiny stitches by hand into half worn garments or in unseen places. ripped tucks and bands can be sewed in a few minutes on the machine. serviceable darning can be done on the machine. before putting away freshly laundered clothes it is a good plan to take out the clothes already in the drawers and lay the ones washed last on the bottom, thus all garments will wear alike, each article in its regular turn. bibliography home and school sewing, frances patton, ($. , postage c). school needlework, olive c. hapgood, ($. , postage c). sewing course for schools, mary schenck woolman, ($ . , postage c). progressive lessons in needlework, catherine f. johnson, ($. , postage c). sewing and garment drafting, margaret l. blair, ($ . , postage c). manual of exercises in hand sewing, margaret l. blair, ($ . , postage c). dressmaking up to date, butterick pub. co., ($. , postage c). note: the above books may be borrowed, one at a time, by members of the school. send the postage given with request. they may be purchased if desired. test questions the following questions constitute the "written recitation" which the regular members of the a. s. h. e. answer in writing and send in for the correction and comment of the instructor. they are intended to emphasize and fix in the memory the most important points in the lesson. textiles and clothing part iii read carefully. to make this test of greatest value to you, write fully from your personal standpoint and experience. try as many methods given in the text as your time will allow so that you may ask for explanation if the descriptions are not clear to you. methods are many; if you do not agree with these given, suggest better ones. . (a) what are the requisites for good dressmaking? (b) how does dressmaking differ from white sewing in make, finish, and ornamentation? . from your point of view what do you consider a successful garment? . give methods of altering patterns. . give briefly the cutting and making of a wool garment from patterns: (a) waist, (b) sleeve, (c) skirt, (d) collar, including methods of stitching, pressing and finish, stating how patterns should be placed on lining and outside materials. . how may pressing be done to give the best results? what garments require little or no pressing, and why? . (a) state some of the principles and purposes of ornament. (b) what is your idea of ornament applied to garments? (c) give some errors in ornamentation not named in text. . cut from magazines illustrations showing your idea of good and faulty ornamentation in dress. give reason for your opinion. . illustrate in some way, either by picture, drawing, embroidery, braid, or stitching, some design appropriate for ornament work on neck or sleeve. . where should ornament be placed, and why? . (a) give your idea of appropriate design on textiles. (b) the advantage and disadvantage of plain materials. . make a color card of silk, wool, paper or raffia showing colors that contrast. (b) colors that harmonize. . what colors do you find satisfactory for your own wear, and why? . what materials are best suited for infants' garments? (b) what can you say in regard to children's clothing? . what is your opinion of the care of clothing? (b) what experience have you had in cleaning (a) cotton, (b) wool, (c) linen, (d) silk, (e) velvet? . do you consider it economy to repair garments? can you suggest better methods than those given in the text? . if possible make some garment, shirt waist, skirt, or simple dress while studying this lesson and describe in detail how you went about it, the result, time taken, total cost. tell why you selected the design, the color, the material. . have you found the ready made garments satisfactory in underwear and dresses? . tell of some of your failures in dressmaking and give the reasons for your lack of success. . what methods, new to you, have you tried in connection with this lesson? what questions have you to ask? . can you add any suggestions that would be helpful to others in this work? . wherein have the lessons been of practical value to you? . _for teachers._ draw up an outline for a course in sewing to combine two considerations: (a) adaptability to the child's interests and capacities, (b) orderly sequence in the technical part. note: after completing the answers, sign your full name. references: ornament and design bachelder--principles of design in america. ($ . .) brown--history of decorative art. ($ . .) carter, mrs. h. j.--historic ornament in color. ( c. a sheet). prang. clifford--period decoration. ($ . .) crane--claims of decorative art. (out of print.) crane--line and form. ($ . .) daniels--teaching of ornament. ($ . .) day--application of ornament. ($ . .) day--nature in ornament. ($ . .) day--ornamental design. (out of print.) day--planning of ornament. (out of print.) day--decorative design of all ages. ($ . .) day--ornament and its application. ($ . .) day--ornamental design, anatomy of pattern, planning of ornament. ($ . .) day--some principles of everyday art. (out of print.) glazier--manual of historic ornament. (new edition in press.) hulme--birth and development of ornament. (out of print.) jones--grammar of ornament. ($ . .) prang--art and ornament in egypt. ($ . .) _note_--the books out of print may be found in some public libraries. references: history of costume earle--costume of colonial times. ($ . .) earle--two centuries of costume in america, vols. ($ . each.) evans--chapters on greek dress. (out of print.) fairholt--costume of england, vols. ($ . each.) hill--history of english dress. (out of print.) mcclellan--historic dress in america. ($ . .) planchet--history in british costume. ($ . .) quegly--what dress makes of us. ($ . .) racinet--costume. ($ . .) rhead--chats on costume. ($ . .) schild--old english peasant costume from boadicea to queen victoria. (out of print.) supplementary program arranged for class study on textiles and clothing meeting i (study pages - ) primitive methods endeavor to obtain a colonial spinning-wheel in working order, and get some one to operate it. if possible, obtain samples of weaving done on a hand loom. examine a hand-loom if possible. they may be seen at the manufacturers of rag and remade carpets. _references:_ woman's share in primitive culture, mason, chapter iii, the weaver. ($ . , postage c.) colonial days in old new england, by earle. ($ . , postage c.) textile fibres collect an exhibit of raw fibres and fibres in process of manufacture. send to the u. s. department of agriculture, department of botany, washington, d. c., for small samples; to manufacturers of thread; to friends in manufacturing towns. test the various fibres by burning. examine under a microscope with a small hand-glass, if greater power cannot be obtained. try warm acid--sulphuric, hydrochloric, or oxalic--on the fibres; let the fibres dry. also try a solution of caustic soda on the fibres. _references:_ the textile fibres, by matthews. ($ . , postage c.) textile fibres and cotton fibre, pamphlets of the american school of correspondence. ( c. each, postage c. each.) send for all the government bulletins mentioned in the bibliography, page . note that the _free_ bulletins are obtained simply by addressing the department of agriculture, washington, d. c., but _the sale_ bulletins only by sending coin or money order to the superintendent of documents, washington, d. c. meeting ii (study pages - ) modern methods visit a textile mill if possible, after studying the text. practice home dyeing. read carefully the directions given by the manufacturers of the dyes. see the booklet "diamond dyes," to be obtained at many drug stores, or send for it to wells richardson, burlington, vermont. _references:_ text-books of the american school of correspondence--especially textile chemistry and dyeing. (parts i, ii, iii, and iv, postage c. each.) the dyeing of textile fabrics, by hummell. ($ . , postage c.) bleaching and calico printing (containing samples), by duerr. ($ . , postage c.) weaves and fabrics show as many different kinds of weaves as possible. separate the threads and examine under a hand microscope. get the local dry-goods or department store to co-operate with you in getting up an exhibit of samples of standard goods--cotton, woolen, worsted, linen, and silk. label each sample with the width and price. test some of the samples of wash goods for fastness to washing and light, by washing in warm water and soap (or boiling in the soap and water) and expose to sunlight all day for three or four days. _keep a part of each sample for comparison._ (select a composite set of answers to the test questions on part i and send to the school, with report on the supplemental work done and meetings i and ii.) meeting iii (study pages - ) sewing: plain stitches send to manufacturers for samples showing the process of manufacture of pins, needles, etc. demonstrate different ways of making the same stitches; discuss best methods. embroidery show how all the embroidery stitches are made. get up an exhibit of all kinds of embroidery, including oriental, japanese, old samplers, etc. have members make model i, first series. _references:_ home and school sewing, by patton. ($ . , postage c.) school needlework, by hapgood. ($ . , postage c.) manual of exercise in hand sewing, by blair. ($ . , postage c.) _topic:_ educational value of sewing in the public schools. methods. see "a sewing course," by mary s. woolman, introduction ($ . , postage c.), and "the teaching of domestic science in the united states of america," by alice ravenhill, pages - , - . ($ . , postage c.) meeting iv (study pages - ) hems, seams, fastenings, darning, patching have all members make models ii, iii, iv, and v. previously assign members to furnish models or examples of all other hems, seams, fastenings, patches, darns, etc., illustrated or described in the text, and as many more as possible. machine sewing get the local sewing machine agent to give a demonstration of the workings of the attachments of the machine. (select models and answers to test questions on part ii and send them to the school, with a report of meetings iii and iv.) meeting v (study pages - ) dressmaking get the local dry-goods or department store to lend different kinds of dress forms. show how patterns are altered to suit the figure. (see text and "dressmaking up to date.") as many as possible cut out and begin making a simple shirt-waist or skirt. show finished garment at next meeting, giving accurate account of cost and time spent. _references:_ dressmaking up to date, the butterick co. ($ . , postage c.) sewing and garment drafting, by margaret l. blair. ($ . , postage c.) meeting vi (study pages - ) construction and ornament in dress; color collect illustrations showing good and faulty ornamentation. procure samples of fabrics showing good and faulty ornamentation. make a color card showing contrast and harmony of color. (see question .) _references_: see list on pages and . children's clothing get up an exhibit of simple and satisfactory clothing for children, including color, material, style and make. discuss children's clothes in reference to laundering. care and repair of clothes show examples of successful repairing. try some of the methods of cleaning. (see, also _chemistry of the household_ pages - .) (select answers to test questions on part iii and send them to the school, with report on meetings v and vi.) index adulteration of linen, alpaca, altering sleeve patterns, angora wool, aniline dyes, arrow heads, back stitch, basting, bibliography, , bleaching, bobbin, boning waist, bow, the, burling, bust form, button holes, large, making, buttons, sewing on, carding, care of clothing, cassimere twills, , cat stitch, catch stitch, chain stitch, checks, children's clothes, , cleaning, , collars, putting on, color in dress, colors, mordant, combing, conventional designs, costumes, references, cotton, boles, fibers, cotton goods, home of, nankin, sea island, upland, cross stitch, cuffs, cutting table, darning, on machine, over net, decorations, placing, distaff, double cloth, draped waist, drawing tapes, dressmaking, dyeing, home, dyes, aniline, dyestuffs, natural, embroidery, as ornament, eyelet, shadow, stitches, extension hem, eyelet embroidery, eyelets, fabrics, list of, - names of, primitive, width of, facing, bias, skirt, fastening the thread, fastenings, feather stitch, fibers, cotton, flax, silk, wool, finishes, finishing skirt, seams, waist, finishing, woolens, fitting, , sleeves, waists, flax, fibers, hackling, , flocks, folding garments, french hem, knots, seam, fulling, fur, gathering, , gathers, whipped, gauging, gigging, gingham, grease spots, hand sewing, harmony in dress, harness, the, heddle, hemp, hem stitch, hems, bias, faced, flannel, french, folding, hems, rolled, herringbone stitch, home dyeing, hook and eyes, hydroscopic moisture, jacquard loom, joining lace, jute, knit goods, lace, design of, laces, use of, laundering, lengthening garments, linen, adulteration of, characteristics of, lining, cutting, loading silk, looms, colonial, , , development of, diagram of, fly shuttle, four harness, hand, jacquard, japanese, modern, , navajo, swedish hand, loop stitch, madder bleach, machine darning, sewing, mending, , mitering embroidery, modern methods, mohair, mordant colors, muslin, nankin cotton, natural dyestuffs, olona, ornament, embroidery as, fitness of, flowers as, of textiles, ornamental stitches, , ornamentation, errors in, outline stitch, overcasting, , oversewing, packing clothing, passementerie, patching, patterns, altering, cloth, lengthening, pinning, placing, selection of, testing, use of, picking, piled fabrics, plackets, faced, plaids, plain material, plush, pressing, board, , wet, primitive methods, printing, block, machine, warps, ramie, raw silk, reed, reeling silk, repairing, retting flax, roving, running stitch, sateen weave, satin, stitch, scouring agents, sea island cotton, seams, beaded, felled, flannel, french, lapped, slot, serges, seven-gored skirt, sewing, hand, machine, sewing machines, care of, types of, use of, shadow embroidery, sheep, shirt waists, cutting, plan for making, shuttle, silk, artificial, boiling off, fiber, loading, , production, raw, twilled, silk, wash, silk worm, silks, singeing, skirt, band, skirt binding, braid, making, placket, plan of making, stiffening, sleeve making, patterns, sleeves, cutting, , finish of, pressing, putting in, slip-stitching, slot seams, speck dye, spindle, whorl, spinning, , primitive, wheel, with spindle, stains, stitches, ornamental, , plain, stockinet undergarments, stripes, stroking gathers, table linen, teazels, textile arts, origin of, textiles, , design of, list of, , ornament of, weaves, texture, trimming, tweeds, harris, twills, cassimere, , uneven, tucked waist, tucking, tucks, unity in dress, upland cotton, velvet, weave of, velveteen, waists, lined, plan for making, repairing, tucked, wash silk, warping, weave, diagrams, plain, basket, double cloth, rib, sateen, twill, velvet, weaving, , wet pressing, wheel spinning, whipping stitch, whorl, spindle, widths of fabrics, wool, characteristics of, fiber, quality of, scouring, sorting, value for clothing, woolens, worsteds, yokes, note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the original illustrations. see -h.htm or -h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/ / / / / / -h/ -h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/ / / / / / -h.zip) chats on old lace and needlework by mrs. lowes * * * * * books for collectors _with frontispieces and many illustrations large crown vo, cloth._ chats on english china. by arthur hayden. chats on old furniture. by arthur hayden. chats on old prints. (how to collect and value old engravings.) by arthur hayden. chats on costume. by g. woolliscroft rhead. chats on old lace and needlework. by e. l. lowes. chats on oriental china. by j. f. blacker. chats on old miniatures. by j. j. foster, f.s.a. chats on english earthenware. by arthur hayden. chats on autographs. by a. m. broadley. chats on pewter. by h. j. l. j. massé, m.a. chats on postage stamps. by fred. j. melville. chats on old jewellery and trinkets. by maciver percival. chats on cottage and farmhouse furniture. by arthur hayden. chats on old coins. by fred. w. burgess chats on old copper and brass. by fred. w. burgess. chats on household curios. by fred. w. burgess. chats on old silver. by arthur hayden. chats on japanese prints. by arthur davison ficke. chats on military curios. by stanley c. johnson. chats on old clocks and watches. by arthur hayden. chats on royal copenhagen porcelain. by arthur hayden. london: t. fisher unwin, ltd. new york: f. a. stokes company * * * * * [illustration: mary sidney, countess of pembroke.] mary sidney, countess of pembroke. born about . died . buried at salisbury cathedral. painted probably by marc gheeraedts. "underneath this sable hearse lies the subject of all verse. sidney's sister, pembroke's mother. death! ere thou hast slain another fair and learn'd and good as she, time shall throw a dart at thee!" chats on old lace and needlework by mrs. lowes with illustrations london t. fisher unwin, ltd. adelphi terrace first impression second impression third impression [all rights reserved.] preface this little book has been compiled to emphasise and accentuate the distinct awakening of english women and needlecraft artists to the beauty of the ancient laces and embroideries which we own in the magnificent historic collections in our great public museums. we are fortunate in possessing in the victoria and albert museum monumental specimens of both lace and needlework. among the sumptuous lace collection there are most perfect specimens of the art of lace-making, and priceless pieces of historic embroidery made when england was first and foremost in the world in the production of ecclesiastical embroidery. the lace collection particularly, without compare, is illustrative of all that is best in this delightful art, being specially rich in magnificent pieces that can never be again obtained. these have mostly been given, or left as legacies, to the museum by collectors and enthusiasts who have made this fascinating hobby the quest of their lives. in addition to the collection formed by the generosity of the donors, the authorities have exercised a very catholic judgment in selecting the choicest and most illustrative examples of the lace-maker's craft. in the section devoted to embroideries, more particularly english (as it is with our own country's needlework i propose to deal), nothing more glorious in the nation's art records can be found than the masterpieces of embroidery worked by the great ladies, the abbesses and nuns of the mediæval period. in almost every other branch of art england has been equalled, if not excelled, by continental craftsmen; but in this one instance, up to the reformation, english work was sought after far and wide, and as _opus anglicum_ formed part of church furnishing and priestly vestments in every great cathedral in italy, spain, and france. it cannot be too soon realised that, as with old furniture, porcelain, and silver, much of the finest embroideries of england, and a vast quantity of the ancient laces of italy, france, and belgium are being slowly but surely carried off to the new world. american dollars are doing much to rob not only the old country of the fairest flowers of her garden, but the continent of their finest and best examples of the genius of the past. the vanderbilts and the astors, among others, possess immense fortunes in lace, whilst that omnivorous collector mr. j. pierpont morgan gives fabulous sums for any fine old relic of embroidery. many pieces of both classes of needlecraft have found a permanent home in the metropolitan museum of new york, and are lost for ever to the english student. it is, therefore, a pleasant duty to add my little quota of information to the study of these fascinating and exquisite branches of fine art which so specially appeal to all women by their dainty grace and delightful handicraft. i hope i may arouse some little enthusiasm in my countrywomen in the study of the past glories of both subjects, and in the possibility of once again becoming first and foremost in the latter branch. i beg to acknowledge the pleasure and help i have received from the perusal of the late mrs. bury palliser's exhaustive "history of lace," and lady alford's "history of needlework," and dr. rock's invaluable books on "ecclesiastical embroidery." emily leigh lowes. hillcrest, brixton hill, s.w. bibliography lace. the history of lace. vol. mrs. bury palliser. sampson, marston & low. . £ s. dentelles and guipures. vol. e. lefebure. grevil. . ancient needlepoint and pillow lace. alan sumnerly cole. london. . the queen lace book. london. . of lace. alan sumnerly cole. . point and pillow lace. a. m. sharp. george newnes & co. s. d. venice and burano. ancient and modern lace. m. jesuram. venice. . the history of handmade lace. mrs. jackson. upcott gill & son. . s. seven centuries of lace. mrs. hungerford-pollen. st vol. issued . needlework. textile fabrics. dr. daniel rock. south kensington handbook series. . s. needlework as art. lady marion alford. london. . £ s. english embroidery. a.f. kendrick. george newnes & co. s. d. art in needlework. day & buckle. batsford. s. d. contents page preface bibliography old lace chapter i. a brief history of lace ii. the art of lace-making iii. the laces of italy iv. the laces of genoa and milan v. the laces of france: needlepoint vi. the laces of france: pillow vii. the laces of flanders viii. modern brussels and mechlin ix. other continental laces x. a short history of lace in england xi. english laces xii. scotch and irish lace xiii. how to identify lace xiv. sale prices needlework chapter page i. old english embroidery ii. the great period iii. ecclesiastical embroideries and vestments iv. tudor embroideries v. early needlework pictures and accessories vi. stuart caskets and mirror vii. embroidered books and "black work" viii. stuart pictures ix. samplers x. the william and mary embroideries xi. pictorial needlework of the eighteenth century xii. needlework pictures of the nineteenth century xiii. embroidery in costume xiv. sale prices xv. conclusion index--old lace needlework list of illustrations mary sidney, countess of pembroke _frontispiece_ old lace page egyptian cut and drawn work old italian "cutworke" early english samplers original patterns by vinciola original designs of reticella edgings by vinciola chart of needlepoint rÉseaux chart of pillow rÉseaux venetian rose point venetian rose point collar examples of flat venetian point marie de medicis wearing venetian point collar example of gros point de venice louis xiii. wearing genoese collar lace genoese collar lace milanese lace old italian and french laces and cut and drawn work "point de france" point d'alenÇon "point de france" and d'argentella point d'argentan and point d'argentella valenciennes "lille" empress eugenie wearing blonde lace point d'angleterre point d'angleterre lappet brussels lace brussels lappet comtesse d'artois wearing brussels lace marie antoinette mechlin lappet marie antoinette wearing mechlin lace "duchesse" lace queen elizabeth wearing venetian point ruff and cuffs edmund spenser: collar trimmed with reticella reticella falling collar collar of gros point old buckingham and early devonshire laces old honiton lace modern honiton lace limerick "fillings" carrick-ma-cross lace reticella with genoa borders point d'angleterre italian ecclesiastical lace brussels lappet "point de gaze" needlework egyptian embroidery bayeux tapestry king harold from bayeux tapestry fragment from the "jesse" cope the "syon" cope the steeple aston altar frontal the "nevil" altar frontal diagram showing use of vestments set of ecclesiastical vestments early "petit point" picture early "petit point" picture stuart glove stuart mirror frame stuart book cover queen elizabeth's pocket-book "black work" cap embroidery portrait of king charles i. stump-work picture "petit point" picture worked on satin a seventeenth century "sampler" early english "sampler" jacobean hangings enlargement of spray from hangings queen anne picture early georgian picture "the last supper" eighteenth century silk embroidered picture black silk and hair picture a "gainsborough" picture i a brief history of lace [illustration: egyptian cut and drawn work. found in a tomb in thebes.] [illustration: old italian "cutworke." (_author's collection._)] chats on old lace i a brief history of lace early vestiges in egypt--lace found in st. cuthbert's tomb ( a.d.)--drawn thread and cutworks--venetian lace--flanders lace--french laces--english lace. in every other art or craft we can search the history of ages and find some vestiges or beginnings among the earlier civilisations. possibly owing to the exquisite fragility of lace, there is a complete absence of data earlier than that of egypt. the astonishing perfection in art handicrafts of all descriptions which we find in china many hundreds of years before the christian era shows no vestiges of a manufacture of lace; but, in the tombs of ancient egypt, garments have been discovered with the edges frayed and twisted into what we may call a primitive lace, and in some of the coptic embroideries threads have been drawn out at intervals and replaced with those of coloured wools, making an uncouth but striking design. netting must have been understood, as many of the mummies found at thebes and elsewhere are discovered wearing a net to hold or bind the hair; and also, a fine network, interspersed with beads, is often discovered laid over the breast, sometimes having delightful little blue porcelain deities strung amongst their meshes. these early vestiges, however, are in no way representative of the later exquisite fabrics which we now know and recognise as lace. far nearer to them, as an art, are the early gold and silver laces of simple design found amongst the tombs of mycenæ and etruria, and those of a later date--_i.e._, the laces of gold used to decorate the vestments of the clergy, and the simple but sumptuous gowns of the middle ages. along with the stole and maniple of st. cuthbert, which are now at durham cathedral, was found a piece of detached gold lace, which must have formed a separate trimming. st. cuthbert died in a.d., and was buried at lindisfarne, his body being afterwards transferred to durham to save it from the desecration of the danes who were ravaging the land. over the body was a cloth, or sheet, which was worked in cutworks and fringes, showing that even at so early a date initial efforts at lace-making had been attempted. [illustration: early english samplers, showing cut and drawn work. (_s.k.m. collection._)] as far as we can gather, the earliest endeavour at lace-making originated with the drawing of threads in linen fabrics, then dividing the existing threads into strands, and working over them, in various fanciful designs, either with a buttonhole stitch or simply a wrapping stitch. exactly this method is used at the present day, and is known as hem-stitching and fine-drawing. a later development suggested, apparently, cutting away of some of the threads, their place being supplied with others placed angularly or in circles. many delightful examples of the work are to be seen in our old english samplers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and even so recently as thirty years ago specimens of this primitive and early lace-making were to be seen in the quaint "smock-frock" of the english farm labourer, a garment which, though discarded by the wearer in favour of the shoddy products of the wakefield looms, is now deemed worthy of a place in the collector's museum. it required little effort of fancy and skill, by the simple process of evolution and survival of the fittest, to expand this plan of cutting away threads and replacing them with others to doing away _entirely_ with existing and attached threads, and supplying the whole with a pattern of threads laid down on some geometric fashion on a backing of parchment, _working over_ and _connecting_ the patterns together, and afterwards liberating the entire work from the parchment, thereby making what was known at the time as "punto in aria," or working with the needle-point in the air, literally "_out of nothing_." strange as this may appear, this was the origin, in the fifteenth century, of the whole wonderful fabric which afterwards became known as "point lace," which altered and even revolutionised dress, made life itself beautiful, and supplied the women of europe with a livelihood gained in an easy, artistic, and delightful manner. it also, however, led to ruinous expenditure in every country, at times requiring special edicts to restrain its extravagance, and even the revival of the old sumptuary laws to repress it. the earliest known lace, and by far the most popular with all classes, was "reticella," which was the first kind evolved on the "punto in aria" principle. until the discovery of an easy and simple way of decorating the linen ruffs and cuffs of the period these had been quite plain, as many contemporary portraits show. afterwards the fashion of trimming garments of all descriptions with the pointed wiry edges of venice became a mania, and led to imitation in almost every country of europe. the convents turned out an immense quantity, thereby adding enormously to the incomes of their establishments. it is assumed that it is to the nuns of italy we owe the succeeding elaboration of reticella, "needlepoint," the long, placid hours spent in the quiet convent gardens, lending themselves to the refinement and delicacy which this exquisite fabric made necessary. however this may be, it is certain that in a few years the rise and development of needlepoint lace-making was little short of phenomenal, and every convent was busy making it and teaching their poorer lay sisters the art. some of the wonderful old point of this period is absolutely finer than the naked eye can see, a powerful magnifying glass being necessary to discern how the marvellous "toile" or "gimpe" is made. [illustration: original patterns designed by vinciola. seventeenth century.] a little later, but still contemporary with the introduction of venetian lace, a pillow lace was being made in flanders, the origin of which is not as yet discovered. it is possible that the fine flax thread grown and manufactured there may, at the time of weaving, have suggested a looser and more ornamental material, but that remains a matter of conjecture. there must, however, have been an interchange of examples, as about this time pillow-made lace appeared in italy, and led to the making of the milanese and genoese varieties, and needlepoint motifs appeared amongst the woven network of flanders. lace, under the name of "lacis," had been known in france from the time of catherine de medici, who patronised the manufacturers and used it lavishly. about she induced federico di vinciolo, a lace-maker and designer of venice, to settle in france, and there the making of venetian lace was attempted. a mere slavish imitation of the venetian school resulted, and it was not until the age of the _grande monarque_, louis xiv., that french lace rivalled that of venice. colbert, the great french minister, becoming alarmed at the enormous sums spent on italian lace, determined to put a check to its importation; and, by forbidding its use, establishing lace schools near alençon, and bribing italian workers to come over as organisers and teachers, started the manufacture of lace on an extensive scale, the beautiful fabrics known as point d'alençon, point d'argentan, and point d'argentella being the result. it is frequently said that the last-named lace came from genoa or milan, but most of the present-day authorities agree that this is one of the many fairy tales with which the passing of time has adorned the history of lace. the persecution of the protestants when the huguenots fled to england, bringing with them their arts of silk-weaving and lace-making, led to the introduction of english lace. devonshire apparently received a contingent of laceworkers quite distinct from those who settled in buckinghamshire and bedfordshire, and from the first stages showed far finer methods and designs. with the exception of "old honiton," england cannot boast of anything very fine, and even this is merely a meaningless meandering of woven tape-like design for the greater part. the lace of buckinghamshire ranks, perhaps, lowest in the scale of lace products, its only merit being its extreme durability. the laces of ireland are of comparatively recent growth, and though in many instances exquisitely fine, do not as yet show much originality. [illustration: original patterns designed by vinciola.] ii the art of lace-making [illustration: needlepoint rÉseaux. no. .--brussels. no. .--alençon. no. .--argentan. no. .--argentella.] ii the art of lace-making needlepoint--pillow laces--charts of various réseaux--technical terms. lace-making naturally falls into two classes--the needlepoint and pillow varieties. in some laces, more especially of the belgian class, there is a _mixed_ lace, the "toile" or pattern, being worked with the needle, and the ground, or "réseau," made round it on the pillow and _vice versâ_. to the first-named class we must assign the needlepoint laces of italy and the exquisite handmade laces of france. to the latter order belong the early macramé lace, called "punto a groppo"; the genoese and milanese laces of italy; mechlin and brussels of belgium; valenciennes, lille, and chantilly of france; and the english laces of honiton, buckinghamshire, and bedfordshire. pillow lace may be easily distinguished from point lace, as in the former the ground, or réseau, is made of plaited threads. that of point lace is composed of threads made by the use of the buttonhole stitch only, or, in the case of alençon point, the mesh is worked in a special manner. the later laces, _i.e._, those made during the last hundred years, have frequently a ground of machine lace, and thus, strictly speaking, are not lace at all, but only embroideries or appliqués. the machine-made ground can be distinguished by sense of touch alone. if we take a piece of hand-made net between the finger and thumb and slightly roll it, it will gather in a soft little roll, with the touch almost of floss silk. the machine-made net is hard, stiff, and wiry, and remains perceptibly so in this test. also, the mesh of machine-made lace is as regular as though made with a fine machine fret-saw, that of hand-made lace being of varying sizes, and often following the pattern of the lace design. the accompanying diagram illustrates the various grounds, and will prove an infallible guide in distinguishing the points of difference between point and pillow lace. various special and technical terms are used in describing the method of making lace. without burdening the reader too much, a few special terms must be explained. _brides_ (literally "bridges").--these are the connections between the various parts of a lace design, both in needle-point and bobbin lace. in the former, they are made entirely of a strand or two of thread thrown across, and then buttonholed over, sometimes with tiny loops on the edges, and in venetian lace often having minute stars worked upon them. [illustration: pillow rÉseaux. no. .--valenciennes. no. .--brussels. no. .--lille. no. .--mechlin.] _beading._--a tiny looped edge used to finish woven or pillow-made lace. _bobbins._--one of the essential parts of a pillow worker's outfit. these are small, elongated bobbins made of ivory, bone, or wood, on which is wound the lace-maker's thread. sometimes they have been made very ornamental with carving and other decorations, and frequently have "gingles," or a bunch of coloured beads attached to one end. the terms "bobbin lace" and "bone lace" are derived from these and are synonymous with "pillow lace." _cordonnet._--in most _point_ laces the design is outlined with a raised _cord_ either worked over closely with buttonhole stitches, or made separately and then stitched down. the cordonnet is one of the characteristic features of the raised venetian points and the french laces of alençon or argentan. _couronnes._--these are decorations of the cordonnet especially noticeable in the raised venetian laces, in which sometimes the lace is raised and worked upon no less than four separate times. _dentelé._--lace designed in scallop-form, chiefly used for border laces. _fillings._--this word most easily explains the ordinary terms of "modes" and "à jours." the inner parts of the pattern in needlepoint and pillow lace are filled in with various ornamental stitches, showing an amazing variety of design. by these fillings various laces may often be distinguished, as each factory had its favourite "modes." _grounds._--there are two varieties of grounds, one made with brides, and the other either with needlepoint or pillow network. other names for these are "réseaux" and "fonds." the method of making needlepoint or woven ground often decides the date and class of the lace. _guipure._--literally a _tape lace_. the name however is applied to all pillow laces having a tape-like design on them. _picots._--the little loops used to ornament a plain bride or tie. [illustration: venetian rose point. (_s.k.m. collection._)] iii the laces of italy [illustration: venetian rose point. seventeenth century. (_author's collection._)] iii the laces of italy _the venetian laces_ venetian lace--"rose point"--"point de neige"--"gros point"--"punto tagliato a foliami"--the south kensington collection. needlepoint lace is made with needle and thread and principally in buttonhole stitches. a traced parchment pattern is procured, the outline made with a solitary thread stitched down to the parchment at frequent intervals. the thread is then worked over with fine buttonhole stitches; the modes or fillings have a fine network of threads stretched across, afterwards being buttonholed into a variety of designs. the edges are then again worked upon with loops or picots, and in "rose point" tiny stars or roses are worked on suitable parts of the design, sometimes the "roses" or "stars" being three in numbers, one poised upon the other. this is known as "point de neige" the whole surface of the lace being literally sprinkled with tiny stars somewhat representing a fine snowfall. the design is then connected with fine "brides," these in their turn being dotted and purled with stars and loops. most of this exquisite lace requires a powerful magnifying-glass to discern the intricacy of the work. the finest lace of this variety was produced in the sixteenth century, the designs being bold, handsome, and purely renaissance in type. that of the louis quatorze period shows the personal influence of his reign, frequently having tiny figures worked in the design. a collar in my possession has the indian worshipping the sun (the king's glory was said to rival that of the sun) repeated in each scallop. this was a favourite design in the magnificent "point de france" which was made during the long reign of louis, under the management of colbert. it is absolutely certain that the laces known as venetian point originated in italy. pattern books still exist showing how the early reticella developed into this magnificent lace. in the national library at the south kensington museum, may be seen the very patterns designed by vinciolo, vicellio, and isabella parasole. these publications actually came from venice, and being reproduced in france, germany, belgium, and england, quickly aroused immense enthusiasm, and lace-making spread far and wide, at first all other laces being mere imitations of the venetian. [illustration: coralline point (venetian).] [illustration: point plat de venise (flat venetian). (_author's collection._)] [illustration: marie de medicis wearing the medicis collar to display venetian laces.] the chief varieties of the venetian laces are known as rose point, point de neige, gros point de venise (often erroneously attributed to spain and called spanish point), and point plat de venise. a much rarer variety is "venetian point à réseau," which is the flat point worked round with a needlepoint ground or mesh, the network following no proper order but being simply worked round the pattern and following its curves. the chief characteristics of venetian lace are the buttonhole cordonnet, fine or thick according to the style of lace; the wonderful diversities of the fillings worked in buttonhole stitches; the elaborate decoration of the cordonnet; and the starry effects of the brides or ties. in the flat venetian point there is no cordonnet. these italian laces were admired and purchased by all the european countries, and the cities of venice and florence made enormous fortunes. the fashions of the day led to their extensive use, marie de medicis introducing the medici collar trimmed with venetian points specially to display them. at a little later period the collar became more falling and the heavier "gros point" was used. men and women alike wore lace-trimmed garments to an excessive degree, the collar and cuff trimmings being composed of wide venetian lace and the silken scarf worn across the body being edged with narrower and finer lace. the principal designs for the venetian lace of all periods were scrolls of flowers conventionalised in the renaissance taste of the time. the generic name for all laces of the finest period is "punto tagliato a foliami." the laces of this time are now almost priceless. they are genuine works of art, worked slowly and patiently under the clear light of the italian skies by women who were naturally artistic and beauty loving, and who, while working the shining needle and fairy thread in and out of the intricacies of the design sang the pretty "lace songs" which may be heard at the burano lace school even now, although or years old. many specimens of this exquisite lace are to be found in the south kensington museum, where the flounce given by mrs. bolckow at once explains the whole scheme of venetian lace-making. such lace is not to be purchased now except at great price. the piece illustrated, see page , was only - / yards in length, and was sold for £ by one of our leading lacemen. barely yards of venetian lace, only inches wide and _in rags_, was sold at debenham & storr's in august, , for £ ; and even the smallest collar or a pair of cuffs runs well into £ . even in the days of its manufacture this lace commanded high prices. in the inventory of queen elizabeth's gowns we find such entries as-- "to yard double italian cut-worke, / yd. wide. / . " yds. broad needlework lace of italy, with purls. /- per yd." james ii. paid £ for a cravat. [illustration: very fine example of "gros point de venise."] iv the laces of genoa and milan [illustration: louis xiii. of france, showing vandyke lace collar and narrower lace on scarf.] iv the laces of genoa and milan argentella wrongly called italian--genoese--mixed laces--milanese--macramé. these are mostly pillow laces, but fine point laces were also manufactured in these towns. in the first-named town it is said that the lace called "argentella" was made, but this is extremely doubtful, most authorities arguing that it was certainly a french lace made at the best period. a very representative lace of genoa is known as collar lace, very widely used for the falling collars of the vandyke period. it was an exceedingly beautiful and decorative lace, and almost indestructible. specimens of this lace can even now easily be secured at a fair price. the laces known as "pillow guipure" are somewhat open to question, the authorities at south kensington museum agreeing to differ, and labelling most of the specimens "italian or flemish." the finer pieces of this type of lace may safely be described as "flemish," as the flax-thread grown and made in flanders was much finer than that grown in the southern countries. much of the genoa lace was worked in what we term "mixed lace," the design being woven on the pillow, and the ground and fillings worked in with the needle either in a network or by brides and picots. a much inferior kind is made with a woven braid or tape, the turns of the pattern being made in twisted or puckered braid, much after the style of the handmade point lace made in england some thirty years ago. this lace was known as "mezzo punto," though the french were discourteous enough to term it "point de canaille," as undoubtedly it was an imitation of the finer laces made in a loose, poor style. the lace of milan is unquestionably the most beautiful of the pillow laces of italy. while resembling the plaited lace of genoa, there is more individuality about it. much of this fine lace was worked for church vestments and altar cloths. various heraldic devices are frequently introduced, surrounded with elegant scroll designs, the whole being filled up with woven réseau, the lines of which are by no means regular, but are made to fill in the interstices. yet another italian lace is known as _punto a groppo, or macramé_. no doubt this was the earliest form of woven lace, and, indeed, it may claim an origin as early as the first garments worn by mankind. in the earliest remains of antiquity a _fringe_ often decorates the edges of garments, curtains, and floor-covering, and seems to be a natural and fitting finish to what would otherwise be a hard, straight line. in the various assyrian and egyptian monuments this is noted again and again. [illustration: genoese lace. sixteenth or seventeenth century. (_s.k.m. collection._)] some of the sixteenth-century pieces which we possess show simply an elaboration of the knotted fringe, while much of the later work is exceptionally fine. the work is so well known, owing to its revival during the last thirty years in a coarse form, that it needs little description. its use, even at its best period, was confined to household use, for which purpose it seems particularly adapted. [illustration: milanese lace. (_author's collection._)] v the laces of france [illustration: "cut-worke."] [illustration: lacis.] [illustration: old italian and french cut and drawn work and "lacis." (_author's collection._)] v the laces of france _the needlepoint laces of france_ catherine de medici's collection of "lacis"--establishment of lace-making by colbert--"point de france"--"point d'alençon"--"point d'argentan"--modern reproduction of these at burano, italy. france in the sixteenth century, as always, led the van of fashion. lace appears to have been extensively used long before its apotheosis at the court of louis le grand, otherwise louis xiv. catherine de medici patronised the manufacture of "_lacis_," which was merely darned netting, more or less fine. at this time "lacis" and "cut-worke" were practically all that was known or used. bed-hangings, curtains, and furniture-coverings were covered with alternate squares of lacis and cutwork. afterwards the reticella laces of italy were imported and had an immense vogue, but it was not until the artistically glorious time of louis xiv. that an attempt was made to encourage a manufacture of french laces. colbert, the astute minister of louis xiv., became alarmed at the immense sums of money which went out of the country to purchase the laces of venice, and, by means of bribing the best workers of the venetian schools, he induced them to settle at l'onray, near alençon. in he had so far succeeded that lace rivalling that of venice was being produced. the venetians became alarmed in their turn (as, indeed, they had need to be) and issued an edict, ordering the lace-workers to return forthwith, or, failing this, the nearest relative would be imprisoned for life, and steps would be taken to have the truant lace-worker _killed_. if, however, he or she returned, complete forgiveness would be extended, and work found them _for life_ at handsome remuneration. history does not tell us the result of this decree, but it evidently failed to destroy the lace manufacture of france. at first the lace manufactured at alençon received the name of "point de france," and was absolutely indistinguishable from that of venice. its magnificence of design, indeed, may be said to have exceeded anything before attempted. the introduction of tiny figures was attributable to the overwhelming personality of louis xiv., and was symbolical of his magnificent sway and far-reaching influence. in the illustration, page , an especially fine specimen of the lace, madame de montespan is seen seated under the crown, two small indians are on either side; a tree bearing flags and trophies completes this tribute to the genius of the lace-makers and the splendour of the court. [illustration: "point de france." (_the property of lady kenmare._)] [illustration: point d'alenÇon. (_author's collection._)] the name "point de france" is given to all lace made from its commencement by colbert's direction until about , when the lace-workers, perhaps forgetting the traditions of the venetian school, developed a style of their own and the work became more distinctly french, being more delicate, finer in substance, the patterns clearer and more defined. the importation also of the finer flax thread from flanders brought the more exquisite pillow lace of brussels to the notice of the french lace-workers. the french, as a nation, have always been foremost in seizing upon new ideas and adapting them to their own artistic requirements. in this instance the result was admirable, and it gave to the world, not the finest lace, as it was impossible to surpass the earliest venetian point laces, but certainly the next lace in order of merit, "point d'alençon." the chief characteristic of the lace is the fine, clear ground, the stiff cordonnet outlining the pattern, and the exquisite patterns in the "jours" or fillings. the cordonnet of alençon is the only one which has horsehair for its foundation. a strand of hair is carefully stitched down to the edges and is buttonholed over with the finest thread, and is said, although giving the lace quite a character of its own, to have been the cause of much of its destruction, as, in washing, the hair contracts and curls. it will be noticed also that the ground is worked in strips, _shortways of the lace of less than an inch in length_, afterwards being stitched together in what is known as "fine joining." so elaborate was the original point d'alençon that no less than eighteen workers were engaged on one single piece. later the number was reduced to twelve, when the patterns became less ornate. although the factory of alençon existed well into the early nineteenth century, the style of lace gradually deteriorated, until it is now non-existent! the lace made during the long reign of louis xiv. is considered by far the finest and best, showing both grandeur of style and pattern and exquisite workmanship. under louis xv. the lace was equally well made, but the patterns followed the rococo designs which were now introduced into all other decorative work, while in the reign of the ill-fated louis xvi. it went completely out of fashion, marie antoinette affecting a much simpler style of lace. the revolution finally caused the complete overthrow of alençon lace, as of all fine art work in france. an attempt was made by napoleon i. to revive it, but its glories had passed, and the hands of the workers had lost their cunning, the result being known as the worst type of lace, stiff and ugly in design and coarse of execution. "_point d'argentan._" this lace is practically the same as alençon with a variation of ground, which, to the uninitiated, appears coarse. a magnifying glass, however, will speedily dispel this illusion. the ground in itself is a marvellous piece of work, each of the sides of the mesh being covered with ten buttonhole stitches. very frequently a mixed lace of alençon and argentan is found, the result being very fine. [illustration: "point de france." (_author's collection._)] [illustration: point d'argentella.] _point d'argentella._ about this lace most authorities dispute, some stoutly advocating its claims to be french lace entirely and others averring that it was made _in imitation_ of the point d'alençon by the genoese. be this as it may, the lace known as point d'argentella is exceptionally fine even amongst other fine laces, and is noted most specially for the fine "jours" which form an essential part of the pattern, every effort apparently being made to give extra scope for their employment. the specimen illustrated shows some of these "jours" having the characteristic mayflower, lozenge, and dotted patterns. much modern lace of this type is now made at burano, italy, where the coarse italian lace formerly made there has been entirely superseded. it strongly imitates alençon and argentan lace, but is without the raised cord which is so typical of these, having the pattern outlined with flat buttonhole stitches only. by many connoisseurs this is considered the finest lace of this age, being far superior to modern brussels. it is entirely handmade, which cannot be, unfortunately, averred for brussels, as the fine machine-made net, woven from the exquisitely fine thread manufactured in flanders and belgium, serves as the ground for all brussels lace made at the present time, except when special orders like royal trousseaux are in hand. the lace-makers of burano, it may be added, imitate the finest venetian rose point, point de gaze, alençon, ever produced, the prices comparing very favourably with the old work, though still very costly. [illustration: point d'argentan with point d'alenÇon border. (_s.k.m. collection._)] [illustration: argentella lace, showing the "partridge-eye" ground. (_s.k.m. collection._)] vi the pillow laces of france [illustration: early valenciennes. (_s.k.m. collection._)] [illustration: old valenciennes. (_author's collection._)] vi the pillow laces of france valenciennes, "vraie" and "fausse"--lille--chantilly-- blonde--caen and brittany. _valenciennes._ valenciennes was formerly part of flanders, being in the province of hainault. it became a french town in by treaty. being a flemish town, the lace made there was purely pillow lace, and in fineness of thread and beauty of design it rivalled in its early stages some of the fine old flemish laces, which are more like ornamental cambric than anything else. there are two kinds of valenciennes lace, known as "vraie" and "fausse." these names are very misleading, as they merely denote the laces made in the town itself, or in the outskirts. early valenciennes can only be distinguished from flemish laces of the same age by the difference in the _ground_. by reference to the little chart of lace stitches the distinction will easily be seen, the valenciennes being much closer and thicker in the plait, and having four threads on each side of its diamond-shaped mesh. conventional scrolls and flowers were used as designs for the toile, the ground and the pattern being made at the same time. this lace is said to have been worked, like that of brussels, in dark, damp cellars, the moist atmosphere being necessary to prevent the tiny thread breaking. the lace-workers became nearly blind, and quite useless, long before they reached thirty years of age. so expensive was the fabric that a pair of ruffles for a gentleman's coat would sell for , livres. madame du barri made extravagant use of this lovely lace. in her wardrobe accounts are mentioned, in , head-dress, throatlets, fichus, and ruffles, "all plissé de vraie valenciennes." the amount of lace used for a head-dress alone is said to have cost , livres. the "vraie valenciennes" was practically indestructible, earning the nickname of the "eternal valenciennes" from its durability. the well-to-do bourgeoise used to invest her savings in real lace, treasuring and wearing it on all best occasions for a lifetime. the lace-makers of the town itself were so satisfied with their own lace that they proudly boasted that if a length commenced in the town of valenciennes were taken and completed _by the same worker, and with the same thread_, outside their own damp atmosphere, the exact point of difference would be shown in the piece. [illustration: "old lille." (_author's collection._)] the earliest valenciennes laces show a closer design than that made later, which, by the way, many connoisseurs much prefer. the latter type is of clearer ground and more open design. the flowers do not follow the large scroll-like pattern of flanders, but suggest the detached sprays and festoons of alençon and argentan. in both types there is no cord outlining either pattern or edge. all is flat as a piece of fine lawn. _lille._ by no means a _favourite_ lace at any time, lille ranks next in merit as a hand-made lace. the mesh is clearer and larger than most french or belgian laces, being made by the simple twisting of two threads on four sides. the patterns are simple, and are outlined with a loose flax thread of silky appearance. the straight edges which characterise old lille lace certainly did not lend elegance to it. a large manufacture in black lace was commenced, and the black silk mantles of the eighteenth century were lavishly trimmed with it. it is entirely out of favour at this day, however, only the finest white variety being sought after. lace is still manufactured at lille, but the patterns of mechlin are copied, although the tiny square dots, one of the distinguishing points of old lille, are still used. _chantilly._ the white laces of chantilly much resemble lille, having the same fine, clear ground and a thick, silky-looking thread outlining the pattern. a little lace school was established by the duchesse de rohan early in the seventeenth century, and for quite a hundred years white laces were made, and became popular. marie antoinette used this pretty lace as well as valenciennes extensively to trim her favourite lawn dresses and fichus when she and the ladies of her court retired to the petit trianon to play at being shepherdesses. about the middle of the eighteenth century chantilly began to produce black silk lace of very fine quality. this is practically the only black lace for which there is any market. a chantilly fan or a chantilly shawl will always find purchasers. the exquisite fineness of its ground, the elegance of its floral festoons and bouquets, make it a desirable possession. with the revolution the manufacture of real old black chantilly ceased, and was only revived with the empire, when, in addition to copying the old designs, the manufacture of the famous _blonde_ laces was commenced. _french blonde lace._ at first these filmy silk laces were made in the natural colour floss silk imported from china, hence its name "blonde." some of the finest specimens are in this colour. afterwards, when the art of bleaching the silk was discovered, it was made in a peculiarly silvery colour, the loosely woven silk being worked in patterns on what appears a ground of gossamer. black blonde was afterwards manufactured, the lace being very different to that of nineteenth-century manufacture, the mesh being large and open. this was a favourite lace with the spaniards for mantillas, and much prosperity resulted to the little town of chantilly. as with all other laces, the introduction of machinery killed the industry as an art, and the only blonde laces now made are by machine, and are quite inartistic and inelegant. hand-made chantilly in black silk is still manufactured, but it has only a limited output. [illustration: "the empress eugenie" wearing blonde lace. (_from a baxter print._)] _other french laces._ lace has been made in many smaller towns in france, but in no instance has it been of sufficient artistic merit to have made a name. caen manufactured blonde lace in imitation of chantilly. in normandy the peasant women and girls in the eighteenth century were specially diligent, and made praiseworthy imitations of mechlin, flemish guipure laces, and brussels, and also introduced the working of gold and silver thread and even beads, which was much used in churches. some really exquisite blonde lace made in this manner was produced at caen, fine pearls were used in the place of beads, and this lace became extremely popular in england. the empress eugénie was particularly fond of it, and in most of the portraits of her at the zenith of her beauty she is seen wearing decorated blonde lace. it is said that this lace so soon soiled and spoiled in the making that only women having specially dry hands could be employed, and that during the summer months the lace was worked in the open air, and in the winter in rooms specially built over cow-houses, so that the animals' breath might just sufficiently warm the workers in this smokeless atmosphere. other towns engaged in lace-making were havre, dieppe (the latter town making a lace resembling valenciennes), bayeux, which carried on an extensive trade with the southern islands; mexico and spain taking an inferior and heavy blonde lace for mantillas. in bretagne so dear is lace to the heart of the french peasant woman that every garment is trimmed with lace, often of her own making; and along with the provision of a little "dot" for her daughter she makes pieces of lace for her wedding dress. a curious custom is noted, that the peasant woman often wears this treasured garment only twice, once for her wedding and lastly for her funeral! vii the laces of flanders [illustration: point d'angleterre. period louis xiv. (_author's collection._)] vii the laces of flanders early flemish--brussels lace--point d'angleterre--cost of real flanders flax thread--popularity of brussels lace--point gaze. whether italy or flanders first invented both needlepoint and pillow laces will ever remain a moot point. both countries claim priority, and both appear to have equal right. italian needlepoint without doubt evolved itself from the old greek or reticella laces, that in turn being a development of "cutworke" and drawn thread work. flanders produces her paintings by early artists in which the portraits are adorned with lace as early as the fourteenth century. an altar-piece by quentin matys, dated , shows a girl making pillow lace, and later, in , an old engraving shows another girl busy with her pillow and bobbins. an early flemish poet thus rhapsodises over his countrywomen's handiworks: "of many arts, one surpasses all; the threads woven by the strange power of the hand-- threads, which the dropping of the spider would in vain attempt to imitate, and which pallas herself would confess she had never known." whether flanders imitated the italian laces or not, it is unquestioned that every other lace-making country imitated _her_. germany, sweden, france, russia, and england have, one after the other, adopted her method to such an extent that, following the tactics of venice in , she also issued an edict threatening punishment to all who would entice her workers away. so alike are the early laces of flanders that it is impossible to distinguish what is known as flemish point, brussels point, and point d'angleterre. the last-named lace is peculiar, inasmuch as it has a french appellation, is named "english," and yet is purely brussels in character. two stories gather round this lace, which accounts for its name. one is that the english government in the time of charles ii., seeing so much money go out of the country, forbade the importation of brussels lace. the english lace merchants, not to be done out of their immense profits, smuggled it over in large quantities, and produced it as having been made in devonshire, and sold it under the name of english point. another legend is that when colbert, in the reign of louis xiv., determined to encourage lace-making in his own country, made prohibitive the importation of any other lace than france's own manufacture, the french court, which had already become enamoured of brussels lace, therefore had it smuggled into england and thence to france, as _english laces_ were at that time too insignificant to come under colbert's ban. [illustration: point d'angleterre. period of louis xiv. (_author's collection._)] whichever tale we choose to believe is of little consequence. it is sufficient to say that fine point d'angleterre is simply brussels of the best period when the glorious renaissance was at its height. it is absolutely indistinguishable from brussels of the same period. the specimen lappet, illustrated, shows the "figure" motif which appears in "point de france" and the old "venetian point," and which at once dates its manufacture. practically the term flanders or flemish lace can be applied to all the laces made in flanders and belgium of the earliest periods. it is peculiarly fine; the specimen shown is as fine as gossamer, showing a total absence of cordonnet, of course, and not even having the loose thread which marks the stems and leaves of brussels and angleterre. the flax of flanders was at the time of the great lace industry known and imported to all the towns engaged in making it. italy could procure nothing so fine and eminently suitable to the delicate work she made her own as this fine thread, grown in flanders, and spun in dark, damp rooms, where only a single ray of light was allowed to enter. the thread was so fine, it is said, that it was imperceptible to the naked eye and was manipulated by touch only. the cost of this thread was £ a pound, and one pound could be made into lace worth £ ! real flanders lace thread even now, spun with the help of machinery, costs £ , and is nothing like so durable as the old threads. when we consider that lace to be known as "old lace" must be two hundred or three hundred years old, we can understand the strength of this fairy thread, which was like a spider's web in filminess and yet durable enough to last centuries of wear, and remain as a lasting memorial of its beauty. brussels the early flemish laces cannot be traced to any particular town, but brussels early obtained a reputation for the production of the soft, elegant laces which are variously known as "real old brussels," "point d'angleterre," "point d'aiguille," and "point de gaze." almost every woman, although knowing little about lace as an art, knows and easily recognises "brussels." it has ever been the most popular lace, partly because its price has never been actually prohibitive, although always costly. choice pieces of old brussels, with real ground, rank among the laces of france and venice as pieces of price, but the later period, especially the kind known as brussels applique, is within everybody's reach, even if only as a border for a best handkerchief. [illustration: "old brussels" (hand-made ground). (_author's collection._)] [illustration: brussels lappet, made in imitation of alenÇon and argentan.] lace made at brussels at all periods has one characteristic that places it at once and makes identification easy at a glance. the threads of the toilé--that is, the pattern--follows the _curves_, instead of, as in other flanders laces, being straight _up_ and _down_ and _across_, each thread being exactly at right angles to the other; brussels lace also has a distinctive edge to its pattern. it has no cordonnet, but a little set of looped stitches worked along the edge of the design, afterwards whipped over to keep the edge in place. this is most clearly seen in every specimen, and, in conjunction with the curved toilé, at once settles the vexed question of the origin of point d'angleterre. the mesh or ground is, again, quite different to other laces. it has three varieties of ground-- . one, mostly used in point d'angleterre, being of fine "brides" with four or five picots, but this ground is also seen in venetian and french laces. . a hand-made ground made of looped buttonhole stitches, which is the finest and most gossamer-like of all; and . a woven ground made on the pillow with plaited thread, very like mechlin, but under the magnifying glass having two longer sides to its hexagonal mesh, and therefore being more open and clear. the hand, or rather needlepoint, ground was three times more expensive than the woven, as it was stronger and more lasting. the special value of the "vrai reseau" in our own day is that it can be imperceptibly repaired, the broken stitches replaced, whereas in the woven ground the point of junction must show. the needle-made net is so fine that one piece in my possession, though measuring / yard by inches can easily, in its widest part, be gathered and passed through a finger ring. at the present day this net is not made, and even the fine woven ground is not used except for royal wedding orders or for exhibition purposes. a magnificent piece belonging to messrs. haywards, of new bond street (which cannot be photographed, unfortunately, as it is between two sheets of glass, and might fall to pieces if taken out), was made for george iv., and not delivered, owing no doubt to the usual depleted state of that monarch's exchequer. messrs. haywards (whose courtesy is as boundless as their reputation) are always pleased to show this and their other splendid specimen collections to those interested in old lace. perhaps no lace is so diversified in style as brussels. at first it was purely flemish, and almost indistinguishable from it. then the venetian influence crept in, and elaboration of pattern and the renaissance scrolls and flower work showed itself. at the louis quatorze period the introduction of the "fairy people," seen at its finest and best in point de france, marks a time of special beauty. afterwards the influence of alençon was shown (though it never rivalled the exquisite lace of this factory), and from that time to the present day these designs have remained for use in its best work. some of the choicest specimens of old brussels are shown in the now discarded "lappets," which when a lace head-piece and lappets were part of every gentlewoman's costume, were actually regulated by sumptuary laws as to length. the longer the lappets the higher the rank. [illustration: brussels lappet. eighteenth century. (_s.k.m. collection._)] the great napoleon, while reviving the lace-making of alençon, specially admired fine old brussels, and at the birth of his only son, the little "king of rome," ordered a christening garment covered with the napoleonic "n's," crowns and cherubs. this was sold in at christie's for £ . at the same sale a court train realised £ . in the "creevy papers, - ," mention is made of lord charles somerset complaining of not having slept all night, "not having had a minute's peace through sleeping in 'cambrik sheets,' the brussels lace with which the pillows were trimmed tickling his face"! this occurred at wynyards, the seat of the earl of londonderry. queen anne followed the extravagant fashion of wearing the costliest laces which william iii. and queen mary carried to such an excess. in she paid £ for yards of fine brussels edging, and two years later the account for brussels and mechlin laces amounted to £ , . in the succeeding reign the ladies of george i.'s period wore lappets and flounces, caps, tuckers, aprons, stomachers, and handkerchiefs, all made of brussels. in the time of george ii. lace was even more worn, but english lace began to rival brussels, not in quality, but as a substitute. george iii. and his wife, queen charlotte, were economists of the first order, and personal decoration was rigidly tabooed; hence the almost total extinction of lace as an article of apparel, while in george iv.'s time dress had evolved itself into shimmery silks and lawns, lace being merely a trimming, and the enormous head-dress decorated more frequently with a band of ribbon. an exquisite portrait of louis philippe's queen, marie amelia, by the early victorian painter winterhalter (whose paintings are again by the revival of fashion coming into favour) shows this fine old _grande dame_ in black velvet dress covered with three graduated flounces of brussels lace, cap and lappets and "tucker" of the same lace, lace fan, and, sad to relate, a scarf of english machine-made net, worked with english run embroidery! although good queen adelaide had a pretty fancy for lace, she wore little of it, and it was left to queen victoria to revive the glory of wearing brussels to any extent; and she, alas! was sufficiently patriotic to encourage home-made products by wearing almost exclusively honiton, which i personally am not good englishwoman enough to admire except at its latest stage (just the past few years), when lace-making, as almost every other art work in this country, is emerging from what, from an artistic point of view, has been one long slough of despond. [illustration: comtesse d'artois, wife of one of louis xiv.'s grandsons, wearing fine brussels lace.] viii the modern brussels laces and mechlin [illustration: an old print of "marie antoinette," showing the simplicity of adornment she affected. "mechlin" lace.] viii the modern brussels laces and mechlin modern brussels, point gaze--ghent--duchesse point--mechlin (the queen of laces). magnificent laces are still made at brussels, but almost wholly on a machine-made ground, the workers and merchants apparently finding the old hand-made ground unprofitable. the machine-made ground is cheap, and often of mixed flax and cotton instead of being of purely flanders flax thread, as in the old days. both quality and colour suffer from this admixture, the lace washing badly and wearing worse. the most common lace is the point applique, in which the sprays, groups, and borders on the design are made separately by hand on the pillow, and are afterwards applied by tiny stitchings to the machine-made net. some qualities are better than others. in the better class the sprays are appliqued to the net, which is then cut away and the interstices of the design filled in with hand-made modes and brides, making a very pretty and showy lace. the best lace made in brussels now is _point gaze_, in which the finest modern lace is produced. its chief characteristics are its superb designs, repeating many of the fine renaissance patterns, its clear ground, and its use of shading in leaves and flowers, which, while it adds much to the sumptuous effect, is possibly too naturalistic. this lace is a mixture of hand and machine lace, the ground being of the best machine net, the flowers and sprays frequently needle made, the various fillings being composed of a variety of designs, and the shading often being produced in the needle-darning as in modern ghent and limerick. point de gaze is costly, but it has the reputation of appearing "worth its money" to which few other laces of the present day can aspire. other lace-making towns in belgium and flanders are-- _ghent_, which produces a fine machine-made net, worked and embroidered in exact imitation of the earliest limerick lace. so _real_ is this imitation that a fine flounce of yds. in. wide was sold at a london auction-room a few months ago, as "real old limerick," for £ ! ghent executes vast quantities of hand-made imitations of valenciennes, a good and durable lace, but much more expensive than the machine-made varieties which flood the shops as "real val." [illustration: mechlin lappet. eighteenth century. (_s.k.m. collection._)] perhaps the only other lace worth mentioning in smaller and later varieties is that known as "duchesse point" or "bruges," which while being a showy, decorative, and cheap lace, is anything but satisfactory either in design, manufacture, or wear. it is largely composed of cotton, is heavy and cumbrous in design, and after washing becomes thick and clumsy. it is pillow-made, the flowers being made on the cushion and afterwards united by coarse and few brides. almost equal in favour with old brussels lace was mechlin, which was aptly termed "the queen of laces." old mechlin was wondrously fine, and transparent. it is often spoken of as "point de malines" which, of course, is entirely wrong, as it is not point at all--being made entirely, all at one time, or in one piece, on the pillow. much of the lace known under the general name of flemish point is really malines or mechlin, the only difference being the fine silvery thread which runs all through the designs of real mechlin. the earliest date of the manufacture of mechlin is unknown, but in , it is recorded, that the people of malines busied themselves with making a white lace known as mechlin. it became a fashionable lace in england in , queen mary using it considerably and queen anne buying it largely, in one instance purchasing yards of it for £ . it has always remained a favourite lace with english royalties, queen charlotte almost exclusively using it. the other day i discovered in a bric-à-brac shop about twenty yards of it, old and discoloured, it is true, which came directly from queen caroline, the ill-used wife of george iv. in the earlier mechlin, although pillow-made, the introduction of the "brides with picots," and also the may-flower patterns of brussels, helped to make it more decorative. the ground or réseau was very similar to brussels hand-made, but the hexagonal mesh is shorter, as reference to the diagram of réseaux will show. the exquisite "lightness" of mechlin, so specially adapted to "quillings" and "pleatings," accounted for its popularity. it was specially suitable to the lawns and muslins of the eighteenth century, but little of this lace is left owing, no doubt, to its great favour except the ubiquitous "lappets," for which it was no doubt "the queen of lace." the immediate cause of its extinction was the introduction of blonde laces, and later its final overthrow came from its being the easiest lace to reproduce by machinery. [illustration: marie antoinette, queen of louis xvi., showing how mechlin lace was used. from an old fashion plate.] ix other continental laces ix other continental laces spanish lace; gold and silver laces of spain--german laces--russian laces--maltese silk and thread laces. outside the great lace-making countries of italy, france, and flanders, little lace was ever made, and that little of less consequence. _spanish lace._ much of the old lace known as "spanish point" is not spanish at all, but the best of italian rose point on a large scale, being the variety known as gros point. it was not extensively used for dress purposes, as contemporary portraits show, but spain being such an ultra-romanist country, vast quantities of it were imported into spain for church use. when spain fell on unhappy days, in , and the religious houses were dissolved, this lace was eagerly bought by connoisseurs and collectors and became known as spanish point. it is not unlikely that the italian lace was copied by the nuns of the spanish convents; indeed, at south kensington museum there is a set of church altar lace which is admittedly spanish work and is a distinct but far off imitation of italian point. spain made gold and silver laces of fine quality and gorgeous design. blonde laces in both cream and black are almost indigenous to the soil, and a particular kind of black blonde, embroidered with colours, specially appealed to the colour-loving people. _german laces._ perhaps at the present day more lace is made in germany than at any other period. an enormous manufacture of good machine-made lace is exported yearly, the variety known as saxony being both popular and cheap. germany has no national lace, the clever _hausfraus_ caring more to decorate their table and bed-linen than their persons, and using the substantial and practical embroideries of the cross-stitch patterns more than the elegant frailties of lace trimming. lacis network darned into patterns has always been popular here, as also in denmark, sweden, and norway. [illustration: duchesse lace. modern.] _russia._ the russian laces need little more than a passing note. as in germany, lacis and cutworke form the only hand-made lace known, the people contenting themselves with these varieties and using coloured threads to further decorate them. their laces may be called merely russian embroideries. peter the great did much to found a lace school, but only gold laces were made, of a barbaric character. recently an attempt has been made to imitate the venetian laces, with very fair results, but the character is very stiff and mechanical, going back to the primitive forms of reticella rather than the elegancies of italian point. the only other continental lace requiring note is _maltese_, a lace made entirely with bobbins and on a pillow. this lace is of ancient make, being known as early as the old greek laces, which it strongly resembles. its very popularity has killed its use as a fine lace, and at the present day it is copied as a cheap useful lace in france, england, ireland, and even india. the old maltese lace was made of the finest flax thread, afterwards a silk variety, which is well known, being made in cream. black lace was also manufactured, and at the time of the popularity of black lace as a dress trimming it was much used. at the present day the lace is not of the old quality, cotton being frequently mixed with the flax threads. there is no demand for it, and it is about the most unsaleable lace of the day. x a short history of lace in england [illustration: queen elizabeth: ruff of venetian point. (_national portrait gallery._)] x a short history of lace in england early samplers--lace worn by queen elizabeth; by the early stuarts--extravagant use of lace in time of charles ii.--william and mary's lace bill. even at the risk of being considered utterly unpatriotic, i cannot give much more than faint praise to the lace-making of england up to the present date, when notable efforts are at last being made to raise the poor imitation of the continental schools to something more in accordance with artistic conception of what a great national art might become. as in all countries, lace-making apparently commenced in its early english stages by drawn-thread and cutwork. in many of the charming old sixteenth-century english samplers just as exquisite cut-work, and its natural successor reticella, or "punto in aria" is shown, as in the finest examples of the venetian schools. unfortunately, however, english fine lace-making came to a sudden and inexplicable end, although we know that any quantity of fine venetian, exquisite brussels, or flemish laces, and the wonderful point de france were being imported into the country and lavishly used. as early as the reign of edward iv. lace was mentioned as being prohibited for importation amongst other items of feminine luxury, such as "ribans, fringes of silk and cotton," but it is considered that the word "laces" here means only the twisted threads that go to make up a lace or tie, commonly ending in tags or points. it must be allowed, however, that laces, or more probably "gimps" of gold and silver threads were used for trimming both lay and ecclesiastical garments, and in henry vii.'s reign we find that importation of venetian lace was permitted, but this is generally admitted still to refer to gold and silver lace, more probably coming from genoa. it was not really until the time of bluff king hal that lace became an article of fashion, when during the life of the last of his unfortunate queens he permits "the importation of all manner of gold and silver fringes, or _otherwise_, with all new 'gentillesses' of what facyion or value, for the pleasure of our dearest wyeff the queen." henry himself also began to indulge in all these little elegances of fashion, and wore his sleeves embroidered with cutwork, and handkerchiefs edged with gold and silver, treating himself liberally to "coverpanes" and "shaving-cloths" trimmed with gold lace. [illustration: edmund spenser: collar trimmed with reticella. early period.] little mention of white work was made in the inventories of henry viii. or his queens, but cardinal wolsey seems to have had more than his share of cutwork embroideries, judging from contemporary portraits. in queen mary's reign white work began to be more frequently spoken of, and in it is stated that lady jane seymour presented the queen with "a smock of fair white work, flanders making." it was not until queen elizabeth's time that lace became freely mentioned; then suddenly we are introduced to an endless variety of lace and trimmings, both of gold and silver, pearl and embroideries, and various white work! in some of the old chronicles mention was made of drawn work, cut-work, crown lace, bone lace for ruffs, spanish chain, parchment, hollow, and diamond lace. many of these terms cannot be understood. the enormous ruffs worn by queen elizabeth were introduced into england in the time of her sister mary. portraits both of philip of spain and queen mary show ruffs, but not edged with lace. queen elizabeth's, on the contrary, are both edged with lace and, in some instances, covered with it. on her poor old effigy at westminster abbey, where her waxen image is dressed in her actual garments, the only lace that appears is on the enormous ruff, three-quarters of a yard wide, covered with a fine lace of the loose network kind. the rest of her garments are trimmed with gold and silver lace and _passementerie_. in the succeeding reign lace of a geometric design shows itself on the ruffs of the richest people. pictures in the national portrait gallery show many exquisite examples of the beautiful reticella of venice, which must have been very costly to the purchaser, as twenty-five yards or more of this fine lace were required to edge a ruff. it was in the reign of james i. and his consort, anne of denmark, that flanders lace and the expensive point laces of italy first became widely popular. then, as now, they were costly--to such an extent that many gentlemen sold an estate to buy laces for their adornment. it was during this reign that we first learn of a lace being made in england, as queen anne of denmark on her journey south purchased lace at _winchester_ and _basing_, but history mentions not what kind of lace it was. apparently only a simple kind of edging was used, made on a pillow. the enormous ruffs went out of fashion with the death of james i. charles i., in all his portraits, wears the falling collar edged with vandyke lace. it was during this reign that venetian lace reached its apotheosis in england. the dress of the day has never been surpassed, though it became much more elaborate and ostentatious in the time of charles ii. and william and mary. falling collars were specially adapted to the display of the handsome laces of venice. the cuffs of the sleeves were likewise trimmed with the same; scarves were worn across the breast, trimmed with the narrower reticella. [illustration: seventeenth century falling collar trimmed with fine reticella. (_s.k.m. collection._)] during the commonwealth the laces of venice suffered a temporary eclipse, and the plainer laces of flanders were freely used. cromwell himself, it is said, did not disdain the use of it. his effigy at westminster was dressed in a fine holland lace-trimmed shirt, with bands and cuffs of the same. this effigy, by the way, was destroyed at the restoration. charles ii., who during his exile in france had become imbued with the extravagant taste of the french court, gave vast orders for "points of venice and flanders," on the plea of providing english lace-workers with better patterns and ideas. the falling collar certainly went out of fashion, but lace was liberally used on other parts of the dress. lace frills of costly point edged the knee-breeches, lace cravats were worn and deep falling cuffs. charles ii., in the last year of his reign, spent £ for a new cravat for his brother's birthday. during james ii.'s reign extravagance in lace purchases are still mentioned, but it surely reached its culmination in the joint reign of william and mary, when enormous sums were spent by both king and queen. in one year queen mary's lace bill amounted to £ , . new methods of using lace were fashioned. a huge head-dress called the "fontange," with upright standing ends of venetian point, double hanging ruffles falling from elbow sleeves, lace-trimmed aprons, lace tuckers, characterised the feminine dress of the day, while the "steinkirk" cravat and falling cuffs of william iii.'s day ran up accounts not much less than that of his queen. in his bill was £ , , and in it amounted to £ , ! the effigies of william and mary in the abbey, wear the very finest venetian point laces. none of the other figures wear such costly lace, nor in such profusion. [illustration: collar in gros point de venise. louis xiv. period. (_s.k.m. collection._)] xi english laces xi english laces queen anne and mechlin--establishment of lace-making in bedfordshire and buckinghamshire--buckingham lace--wiltshire lace--devonshire lace--modern honiton revival. it was in queen anne's time that the earliest really good lace manufactured in england appeared. driven from france by the edict of louis xiv., the refugees found a home in england, and encouraged by queen anne's fondness for laces other than venetian, they made and taught the english lace-workers, among whom they settled, the art of real lace-making, which up to this time had apparently been only half understood. numerous lace schools now sprang up, the counties of bedfordshire, buckinghamshire, and northampton specially becoming known. valenciennes and mechlin were the varieties of laces principally copied; a very pretty lace, very reminiscent of mechlin, being the "baby lace," which received its name from being so much used to trim babies' caps. although very much like valenciennes and mechlin, the laces were much coarser both in thread and design than their prototypes. bedfordshire and northamptonshire did not long retain the art of lace-making, but buckingham lace remained a staple manufacture, and is much esteemed even to-day, many connoisseurs considering it far better as a lace than the somewhat clumsy laces of devonshire. the specimen shown is a piece of old buckingham lace closely copying the réseau and sprigs of lille which most lace-lovers consider it excels. the net of buckinghamshire is an exact copy of the lille mesh, being made of two threads twisted in a diamond pattern, the sprays being worked on the pillow at the same time. the patterns of the old buckingham lace are not very varied, the best known being what is called "spider lace," a coarse kind of open mesh being worked in the pattern. the principal town engaged in the eighteenth century was newport pagnel, which was cited as being most noted for making bobbin lace. old brussels designs were used, and some quaint lace of early flemish design, was made. the early english run lace, which was even so late as fifty years ago very popular, was mostly made here. aylesbury, buckingham, and high wycombe also made lace, and in the last-named old town cottage lace-making may be seen to this day. very quaint are the old lace bobbins that may be purchased in the "antique" shops of these lace-making towns. the lace-workers apparently indulged many a pretty fancy in shaping them in a diversity of ways, very few bobbins being alike. some were made of bone, really prettily turned, with dotted and pierced patterns on them. others were silver-studded, and again others were banded in silver. the wooden ones were always decorated, if possible, each one differently from the others, so that the worker might distinguish each thread without looking at it. nearly every bobbin was ended with a bunch of coloured beads strung on wire, and a collection of these bobbins, with their "gingles," often yields up a pretty and quaint necklace. one in my possession has a quaint bead made of "ancient roman glass," worth at least ten shillings. one wonders how this bit of roman magnificence had strayed into an english cottage home! [illustration: "old buckingham." (_author's collection._)] [illustration: early devonshire lace. (_author's collection._)] buckinghamshire is the only one of the midland counties which has produced _wide_ lace; the adjoining counties confined themselves to edgings at most some inches wide. a flounce in my collection measures inches, and is of very elegant design, and of fine quality. in wiltshire lace appears to have been made at an early date in the eighteenth century, but little lace is left to show its quality. a curious piece is said to belong to an old family in dorset, who vouch for the lace having belonged to queen charlotte, the wife of george iii. like many other traditional "antiques," this is undoubtedly a fairy story, as it claims to have been made in commemoration of the defeat of the spanish armada, _at contemporary times_. it is exceedingly handsome, showing one of philip's ships, very suggestively surrounded by big sea fish and apparently resting on the rocky bottom of the ocean. in the next panel tilbury fort is portrayed, and another ship, one of england's glory, proudly rules the waves. the design is undoubtedly english, and most probably it was made in commemoration of the historic event--but the lace is point d'argentan, and was most likely manufactured specially for queen charlotte. lyme regis at one time rivalled honiton, the laces of both towns being equally prized. queen charlotte wore a "head and lappets" made here when she first came to england, and afterwards she ordered a splendid lace dress to be made. when, however, queen victoria, in her wish to encourage the english makers, sent an order for her marriage lace, not sufficient workers were found to produce it. devonshire lace. as early as the lace-makers of devonshire were known. the influx of refugees from flanders in the midlands and southern counties undoubtedly established lace-making in both parts of the kingdom. many of the honiton lace-workers married these refugees, and to this day the people are of mixed descent. quaint names of flemish extraction appear over the shop doors. in the early days both men, women, and children seem to have pursued the art of lace-making, boys learning and working at it until the age of sixteen, when they were either apprenticed to some trade or went to sea. [illustration: old honiton (needlepoint ground).] [illustration: old honiton. (_author's collection._)] most of the old devonshire laces bear distinct likeness to the fine flemish lace, only the clumsiness of the design or the coarse workmanship differentiating them. it has, however, one special feature which gave it the name "trolly lace," as, unlike the perfectly flat lace of flanders, it has a coarse thread or "trolly" outlining its patterns, and being made of english thread, it was coarse and not very durable. _honiton_ has always easily ranked first amongst our british laces, although by many not considered equal to fine bucks. like the midland lace, it has been always made with flanders thread, and therefore has maintained its popularity because of its _wear_ and its _colour_. the early honiton workers copied "brussels" lace, but because of their inability to produce an artistic design it has never been anything but a _poor_ copy. even when the brussels influence was most direct the flowers and sprays were placed inartistically, while the scroll copies of the early flemish schools can only be termed the imitative handiwork of a child. the most prized specimens of old honiton are those with hand-made ground, made of flanders flax. very little of this real ground honiton lace is left. queen victoria did much to make honiton lace _the_ lace of the land; but although a regular trade has been established, and much good work accomplished, honiton of the past will never be regarded on the same plane as the laces of venice, france, and brussels. even in its best variety it lacks the exquisite filmy touch of brussels, the dainty grace of alençon, and the magnificence of point de france and venetian point. the honiton laces made since the introduction of machine-made net is especially poor. flower sprigs and sprays are made separately on the pillow, and afterwards applied to the machine-made ground. these are, as a rule, flowers and foliage treated naturalistically, and are heavy and close in design. these are often very sparingly applied over a wide expanse of net in order to make as much lace with as little trouble as possible. this is very different to the work of the old honiton lace-worker, who made every inch of it herself--first the sprays and scrolls, then worked the ground round it, and received, it is said, from the middleman (who purchased it for the town market) as many shillings as would cover the lace offered for sale. we are glad to say, however, that very praiseworthy efforts are being made to introduce better methods and more artistic designs in the many lace schools which are being formed in various parts of devon. mrs. fowler, of honiton, one of the oldest lace-makers in this centre, making exquisite lace, the technique leaving nothing to be desired, and also showing praiseworthy effort in shaking off the trammels of the traditional designs. [illustration: modern honiton, made by mrs. fowler.] xii scotch and irish laces xii scotch and irish laces hamilton lace--mary queen of scots--modern lace-making in ireland--limerick lace--carrick-ma-cross--irish crotchet--convent laces. scotch lace can hardly be said to exist. at one time a coarse kind of network lace called "hamilton lace" was made, and considerable money was obtained by it, but it never had a fashion, and deservedly so. since the introduction of machinery, however, there has been considerable trade, and a tambour lace is made for flounces, scarfs, &c. the more artistic class of work made by scotswomen is that of embroidering fine muslin, and some really exquisite work is made by the common people in their homes. much mention is often made of mary queen of scots and her embroideries and laces. it must be remembered that she married firstly the dauphin of france, and while at the french court imbibed the taste for elegant apparel and costly lace trimmings. there is no record that she ever wore lace of her own country's manufacture, and, although english writers often quote the lace made by her fair hands, really the needlework made by queen mary at fotheringay was embroidery. _irish laces._ the early lace of ireland was the usual cut and drawn work, and it was not until the earlier part of the nineteenth century that lace-making actually became a craft. in the eighteenth century many brave attempts were made to commence lace schools, and the best work was done in the convents, where really fine work was executed by the nuns, the patterns having been sent from italy. it was not until that the manufacture of limerick lace was first instituted. this really is not lace at all, as it is merely chain-stitch worked in patterns on machine-made net. this pretty so-called lace was first made at limerick by an oxford man, who established a school there, taking with him twenty-four girls as teachers. it quickly became very popular, in the early "fifties" every woman of either high or low degree possessing herself of at least a lace collar or fichu of limerick lace. in more than , workers were employed, but decidedly the best lace of the manufacture belongs to the time prior to this date. the quality of the net ground has also deteriorated, or perhaps the best net has not been purchased. [illustration: limerick "fillings."] very dainty little sprays and flowers are produced in the fine chain or tambour stitch, the hearts of the flowers or the centres of the scallops being worked over in an endless variety of extra stitches, as will be seen in the illustration. another variety of lace is carrick-ma-cross, which was contemporary with limerick. this is merely embroidery again, but has more claim to the title of lace, as the tiny little flowers and scrolls are connected with brides made of buttonhole stitch ornamented with picots. this is really a very handsome lace, its only drawback being that it will not _wash_. the fine lawn of which it is made is buttonholed round and then cut away. this, in cleaning or washing, _contracts_ and leaves the buttonhole edging, and in a few cleanings it is a mass of unmendable rags. slightly more serviceable is another variety of carrick-ma-cross, on which the lawn is appliquéd to a machine-made net, the pattern outlined with buttonhole stitches, and the surplus lawn cut away, leaving the network as a grounding, various pretty stitchings filling up the necessary spaces. yet another kind of lace is made, and is really the only real lace that ireland can claim. this is the irish crotchet, which in its finer varieties is a close imitation of venetian point, but made with fine thread and with a crotchet needle. some of the best is really worth purchasing, but it is costly, realising as much as five guineas per yard. a very delicate "tatting" also comes from the emerald isle, and in comparing english and irish laces one is inevitably struck with the reflection that there is more "artistry" in the production of irish laces and embroidery than in england with all her advantages. the temperamental differences of the two races are distinctly shown in this, perhaps more than any other art. much really notable work is now being executed in the irish lace schools. at youghal, co. monaghan, an exact replica of old venetian point is being worked. various fine specimens from the school occupy a place at south kensington museum, and the lace industry of ireland may be said to be in a healthy condition. [illustration: carrick-ma-cross lace. (_author's collection._)] xiii how to identify lace [illustration: the centre strip is old "reticella," with genoa borders. (_author's collection._)] xiii how to identify lace style--historical data--réseaux. the great difficulty in attempting to identify any specimen of lace is that from time to time each country experimented in the manners and styles of other lace-making nations. the early reticella workers copied what is known as the "greek laces," which were found in the islands of the grecian archipelago. specimens of these laces found in the excavations of the last thirty years show practically no difference in method and style. france copied the venetian laces, and at one period it is impossible to say whether a given specimen was made at alençon or venice. italy, in turn, imitated the flemish laces--to such an extent that even the authorities at south kensington museum, with all their leisure and opportunities for study and the magnificent specimens at hand for identification, admit that certain laces are either "italian or flemish." valenciennes was once a flemish town, and though now french, preserves the flemish character of lace, some specimens of mechlin being so like valenciennes as to baffle certainty. later, brussels borrowed the hand-made grounds of france and venice, and still later england copied brussels, the guipures of flanders, and the ground and style of lille! all this makes the initial stages of the study of lace almost a hopeless quest. the various expensive volumes on lace, although splendidly written and gorgeously illustrated, leave the student with little more than an interesting and historical knowledge on which to base the actual study of lace. here i may refer my readers to the one and only public collection of lace, i believe, in england--that of the south kensington museum, where specimens of lace from all countries and of all periods are shown, and where many magnificent bequests, that of mrs. bolckow especially, make the actual study of lace a possibility. it is to be hoped that the governing body of the museum will, in its own good time, make this a pleasure instead of a pain. the specimens, the _most important to the student_, are placed in a low, dark corridor. not a glimmer of light can be obtained on some of the cases, which also are upright, and placed so closely together that on attempting to see the topmost specimen on one side the unfortunate student literally bangs her head into the glass of the next one. a gentle complaint at the directors' office concerning the difficulty brought forth the astonishing information that there was no room at their disposal, but that in good time better light might be found. as these cases have been in identically the same place for the past fifteen years, one hopes that the "good time" may come before one becomes a "spectacled pantaloon" with no desire to see the wonders of that palace of art. [illustration: point d'angleterre. style louis xv. eighteenth century (_s.k.m. collection._)] this little protest is made in the hope that the "lords of the committee" may possibly have their attention drawn to what amongst the lace-lovers and students in this country is a "standing grievance." it is almost impossible, even from the best of photographic illustrations, to learn all the intricacies of identification. the photographs clearly show style, but it needs specimens of the actual lace to show method of working. from the illustrations in this book, specially selected from the south kensington collection, and from specimens in my own collection, every variety of style may be easily understood, as they have been particularly selected to show each point of difference. commencing with the earliest form of lacework--_i.e._, "cutworke"--nothing will better show this than the "sampler" specimen, which, half way down, shows two rows entirely typical of this kind of early lace-making--for such it is. a little lower, examples of drawn threadwork are seen, while the upper portion illustrates satin stitch patterns, which more properly belong to embroidery. the ancient collar from the south kensington collection, page , shows some of the finest developments of cutwork, when the foundation of linen was entirely dispensed with. the work is exceedingly fine, the threads being no coarser, indeed in many cases less so, than the fine linen it adorns. this is known as reticella, or "punto in aria." the last name is applicable to all the laces of venice which succeeded reticella, and means lace literally made out of nothing or without any building foundation. the specimen is still of the same class, but where before the design was simple geometric square and pointed as in all the early lace, it now takes on the lovely flowing scroll of the renaissance that marks the latter half of the seventeenth century. the same grand styles may be noted all through the great period of italian needlepoint lace. it will be seen in a lesser degree in the guipure laces of milan and genoa, but here the cramping influence of the flemish school shows itself distinctly. [illustration: italian ecclesiastical lace.] [illustration: flemish or genoese ecclesiastical lace. (_s.k.m. collection._)] the same bold lines may be noted in the early needlepoint lace of france, which had not then become sufficiently sure of her capacity to develop a style of her own, and all show the renaissance spirit. afterwards when the superb point de france was at its height of manufacture along with grand outline and exquisite handicraft, the influence of the mighty monarch louis xiv. asserted itself and although the lace itself commands unbounded admiration, fantastic little notions, symbolical and naturalistic, showed itself--as an illustration page : little figures representing "the indian," "canopied crown over a sealed lady," trees growing all manner of bizarre fruit and flowers, all symbolical of louis the magnificent's unbounded power and sway. in the south kensington museum there is a still finer specimen, which has not yet been photographed, i believe--a magnificent flounce, about eighteen inches wide (really two boot top pieces joined), of what is known as pseudo-oriental character, which shows amongst the usual exquisite scrolling no less than seven different figures on each piece--viz., an indian, a violinist in dress of louis xiv. period, a lady riding on a bird, two other ladies, one with a pet dog and the other a parrot, a lady violinist, and another lady seated before a toilet-table. these little figures are not more than three-quarters of an inch high, but are worked with such minuteness that even the tiny features are shown. this fantastic adoption of the human figure was copied in italy and flanders. the finest specimens of point d'angleterre (brussels) show the same designs; and it may broadly be stated that all lace with figures is of the louis xiv. period, and over two hundred years old. succeeding this period came the dainty elegance of the french laces, when the workers of alençon and argentan had developed a purely french style. note the point d'alençon, illustration page , where the characteristics of the period are fully shown. the illustration shows a mixed lace, which only recently has been acknowledged by the south kensington people as point d'argentan. along with the typical argentan ground of the upper portion is the fine alençon mesh and varied jours of the border. this also is louis xiv. style. the lappet shown next is exceedingly instructive, as till quite lately the people who professed to understand lace agreed to call this genoese, although it was quite unlike anything else made there. this lappet was so labelled at south kensington, but now is admittedly argentella (or little argentan). it is remarkably like alençon, being of the same period, the only points of difference being that the design is not outlined with a raised cordonnet (though in different places of the design a raised and purled cordonnet is often stitched on it) and the special ground (partridge eye) which is agreed to denote "argentella" lace--page . it is sometimes called the may-flower ground, but this is somewhat misleading as that design occurs in other laces. the only other great style is that of flanders, which at its earliest period had received no influence from the renaissance that had seized the southern countries of europe and was still in the grip of mediæval art. it was not until italian influence permeated france that flemish lace perceptibly altered in character. these are to all intents and purposes the three great styles of lace. england had no style: she copied flemish, brussels, and mechlin laces. ireland, on the contrary, copied italian in her irish crotchet and carrick-ma-cross (in style only, but not workmanship), and adapted lille and mechlin and brussels and buckingham in her limerick lace. the student must next make herself familiar with the methods pursued by the old lace-workers, and here the difficulty commences. all lace is either needlepoint, pillow-made, or machine-made. _needlepoint_ explains itself. every thread of it is made with a needle on a parchment pattern, and only two stitches are used, buttonhole and a double-loop which is really a buttonhole stitch. [illustration: brussels lappet. nineteenth century. (_s.k.m. collection._)] this can be clearly understood by referring to charts nos. i. and ii., where the _two brussels grounds_ are shown. the needlepoint ground, no. i., is formed by a buttonhole stitch, which loops over again before taking the next. the pillow-made ground, no. ii., shows the threads plaited or twisted together to form a hexagonal or a diamond-shaped network. this is all the difference between needle-made and pillow-made lace, and in itself helps to identify in many instances its country and period when it was produced. all the early italian laces were needlepoint, and all the early french laces were the same. all the flemish laces (including brussels) were pillow-made, and mixed laces in any of these countries are of later make. italy adapted the flemish pillow-lace, and produced genoese and milanese guipures, in addition to the coarse imitation of reticella which she now made by plaiting threads on the pillow. brussels adopted the needle-made motifs and grounds of italy, and produced perhaps her finest lace, weaving her beautiful designs and outlines on the pillow, and afterwards filling the spaces with needle-made jours and brides, as in point d'angleterre. a study of chart ii. will show the different style of grounds or réseaux of both needlepoint and pillow-made lace, the buttonhole grounds being either of "brides" with or without picots, or buttonhole loops, as in brussels, and alençon (with a straight thread whipping across to strengthen the ground), loops buttonholed over all as in argentan, or made of tiny worked hexagons with separate buttonholed threads around them as in argentella. the pillow-made grounds are made of two plaited or twisted threads, except in the case of valenciennes, when it is made of four threads throughout (hence its durability). in brussels, it will be noted, the threads are twisted twice to commence the mesh. these meet two other threads, and are plaited four times, dividing into two again, and performing the same twist, the whole making a hexagon rather longer than round. mechlin has precisely the same ground, only that the threads are plaited _twice_ instead of four times, as in brussels, making the hexagon roundish instead of long. the ground of lille lace is of exactly the same shape as valenciennes, but is composed of two threads twisted loosely twice each side of the diamond, and that of valenciennes being made of four threads plaited. with the aid of these little charts, a remembrance of the various styles and a few actual specimens of lace, and _a powerful magnifying glass_, it is not beyond the power of any reader of this little book to become expert in the identification of old lace. [illustration: real "point de gaze" (needle-made ground). (_author's collection._)] xiv sale prices xiv sale prices lace is such an article of luxury, and, as a rule, only belonging to the wealthiest class, that it seldom or ever comes into the open market. in two collections were dispersed at christie's--those of mrs. massey-mainwaring and mrs. lewis hill. the most costly laces are the venetian points, some of the fine rose points being priceless. it is so fragile that little of it remains, and the smallest piece is eagerly snapped up by collectors. in at christie's lace sold for the following prices-- £ a -inch length of -ins. deep point de venise a -yards length of rose point, inches deep the same year-- £ yards of point d'argentan, inches deep inches point d'alençon, inches deep - / yards point d'alençon, inches deep in , march , _massey-mainwaring sale_ at christie's-- sold for £ s. d. - / yards venetian gros point, inches deep yards length of reticella, - / inches deep short lengths pieces of point d'alençon yards narrow point d'argentan pairs point d'argentan lappets yards narrow mechlin in odd lengths april th, the _lewis-hill sale_ at christie's:-- sold for £ s. d. yards venetian point, - / inches deep " " " - / " " yards spanish point, - / inches deep an old brussels scarf in two pieces yards brussels applique a point gaze parasol-cover a brussels flounce yards honiton flounce, inches deep another similar yards honiton lace in three pieces an old lace coverlet another ditto a lace altar-frontal with the exception of the honiton flounces, which sold beyond their market value, all the above pieces were bought by london lace dealers! the famous collection of the late mrs. hailstone was sold in . this lady had for many years been known as a lace collector, and the sale of her effects was eagerly anticipated. the result was extremely interesting to the collectors, as mrs. hailstone had collected specimen lengths of almost every known lace. no huge prices obtained, but the sale may be regarded as representative, and the prices quoted as being open-market value. £ s. d. a set of bed-hangings, forming six curtains, made of italian lace and linen a large portière curtain of italian lacis-work a point d'alençon fichu " " " cravat end, a pair of sleeves, one odd piece a pair of argentan lappets and six yards lace a panel fine raised venetian point, inches wide, inches long a berthe, point de venise, yard inches, inches deep a point de venise berthe a yard inches x inches panel venetian lace two specimen pieces, - / inches, all of point de venise à réseau a buckinghamshire collar, sleeves, and pieces a specimen of old honiton, baby's cap, bodice, and handkerchief an old honiton baby's robe, said to have belonged to princess charlotte seven volumes of lace specimens of old and modern lace in december, , probably the most valuable collection ever placed upon the market was dispersed at messrs. christie's. the late sir william abdy bt., had for many years devoted his time and money to the collection of valuable lace, such as now can only be seen in the great national collections. the prices obtained are significant of the huge sums which must be paid to obtain wearable pieces of valuable lace such as skirt lengths, - or -yard lengths of deep flouncings, shawls, coverlets, aprons, &c. £ s. d. a fine point d'alençon skirt, - / yards, inches deep a fine point d'alençon scarf, yards inches × inches deep a point d'argentan berthe, - / inches deep a point d'argentan flounce, yards inches × - / inches deep a point d'argentan flounce, yards inches long × inches deep a point d'argentan flounce, yards inches long × inches deep a point d'argentan flounce, yards inches long × inches deep a point d'argentan flounce, yards inches long × - / inches deep an italian gold and thread lace flounce, yards long, inches deep a length of italian rose point, yards inches long, inches deep an old italian rose point flounce, yards inches long, - / inches deep an old italian rose point square, inches × inches an old italian rose point flounce, yards inches long, - / inches deep an old italian rose point panel, inches × inches a point de venise lappet à réseau, inches long, - / inches wide point de venise trimming, yards long × inches deep a piece of flat venetian insertion, yards × - / inches deep a rose point flounce, yards long × inches deep a rose point flounce, yards inches long × inches deep a rose point flounce, yards inches long × inches deep a rose point flounce, yards inches long × inches deep a rose point flounce, yards inches long × inches deep, and a pair of sleeves en suite a rose point flounce, yards inches long × - / inches deep a raised point de venise square, yard inches long × yard inches wide an old brussels apron, inches wide, inches deep a specimen piece of early valenciennes, yards long × inches deep the following prices have been given by the south kensington authorities for specimens shown:-- £ s. d. a venetian point altar-frontal, × feet a venetian chasuble, stole, maniple, and chalice veil a yards × / yard venetian flounce a gros point collar a brussels lappet a drawn-thread jacket linen cutwork tunic [illustration: egyptian embroidery. found in a tomb at thebes.] chats on needlework i old english embroidery needlework pioneer art--neolithic remains--earliest known english specimens--bayeux tapestry. while the subject of lace-making has been treated as almost cosmopolitan, that of embroidery, in this volume, must be regarded as purely national! i purposely refrain from introducing the embroideries of other countries, other than mentioning the ancient civilisations which shared the initial attempts to decorate garments, hangings, &c. (of which we really know very little), and shall confine myself to the needlework of this country, more especially as it is the one art and craft of which england may be unfeignedly proud. it is assumed that needlecraft was the pioneer art of the whole world, that the early attempts to decorate textiles by embroideries of coloured silks, and the elaborate use of gold and silver threadwork, first suggested painting, sculpture, and goldsmith's work. certainly early egyptian paintings imitated embroideries, and we have good ground for supposing that stained glass was a direct copy of the old ecclesiastical figures or ancient church vestments. the neolithic remains found in britain show that at a very early period the art of making linen-cloth was understood. fragments of cloth, both of linen and wool, have been discovered in a british barrow in yorkshire, and early bone needles found at different parts of the country are plentiful in our museums. there is no doubt that we owe much of our civilisation to the visit of the phoenicians, those strange people, who appear to have carried all the arts and crafts of ancient babylon and assyria to the wonder isles of the greek archipelago, to egypt, to southern spain, and to cornwall and devonshire. these people, dwelling on the maritime border of palestine, were the great traders of their age, and while coming to this country (then in a state of wildest barbarism) for tin left in exchange a knowledge of the arts and appliances of civilisation hitherto not understood. the roman invasion ( b.c.) brought not only knowledge of craftsmanship but also christianity. st. augustine, to whom the conversion of the britains is credited, carried with him a banner embroidered with the image of christ. after the romans had left the country, and it had become invaded by the celts and the danes, and had again been taken possession of by the saxons, a period of not only rest but advancement arrived, and we see early in the seventh century the country prosperous and settled. aldhelm, bishop of sherborne, wrote a poem in which he speaks of the tapestry-weaving and the embroidery which the women of england occupied their lives. [illustration: a length of the famous bayeux tapestry.] the earliest specimen of embroidery known to have been executed in england is that of the stole and maniple of st. cuthbert, which is now treasured at durham cathedral. these were worked by aelfled, the queen of edward the elder, alfred the great's son. she worked them for bishop fridhestan in a.d. her son athelstan, after her death, visited the shrine of st. cuthbert, at chester-le-street, and in an inventory of the rich gifts which he left there, there is recorded "one stole with a maniple," amongst other articles. these very embroideries were removed from the actual body of st. cuthbert in . they are described by an eyewitness as being "of woven gold, with spaces left vacant for needlework embroideries." exquisitely embroidered figures are in niches or clouds. the whole effect is described as being that of a fine illuminated ms. of the ninth century, and indescribably beautiful. another great prelate, st. dunstan, archbishop of canterbury, designed embroideries for the execution of pious ladies of his diocese ( a.d.). emma, queen of ethelred the unready, and afterwards of canute, designed and embroidered many church vestments and altar-cloths, and editha, wife of edward the confessor, embroidered the king's coronation mantle. the great and monumental bayeux tapestry--which is miscalled, as it is _embroidery_--was the work of queen matilda, who, like penelope, wove the mighty deeds of her husband and king in an immense embroidery. this piece of needlecraft comes upon us as a shock, rather than an admiration, after the exquisite embroideries worked by and for the church. it is interesting, however, as a valuable historic "document," showing the manners and customs of the time. the canvas is feet long and inches wide, and shows events of english history from the accession of edward the confessor to the defeat of harold, at hastings. it is extremely crude; no attempt is made at shading, the figures being worked in flat stitch in coloured wools, on linen canvas. certainly it is one of the quaintest and most primitive attempts of working pictures by needlecraft. the evidence of the costumes, the armour, &c., are supposed to tell us that this tapestry was worked many years after the conquest, but it can be traced by documentary evidence as having been seen in bayeux cathedral as far back as . in the time of napoleon i. it was removed from the cathedral and was actually used as a covering for a transport waggon. finally, however, it was exhibited in the musée napoleon, in , and was afterwards returned to bayeux. in it was restored and relined, and is now in the hôtel de ville at bayeux! [illustration: king harold. (_from the bayeux tapestry._)] ii the great period of embroidery ii the great period of embroidery "opus anglicanum"--the worcester fragments--st. benedict--legend of pope innocent--the "jesse" cope--the "syon" cope. the great period of english embroidery is supposed to have been from the twelfth to the thirteenth century. very little remains to show this, except a few fragments of vestments from the tombs of the bishops dating from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and other data obtained from various foreign inventories of later date referring to the use of "opus anglicanum." some portion of the worcester fragments may be seen in the south kensington museum, and can only be described as being so perfect in workmanship, colour, and style as even at this day to be more like a magnificent piece of goldsmith's work than that of needlecraft. the background is apparently one mass of thread of fine gold worked in and out of a silken mesh, the embroidery appearing just as clear and neat in manipulation as an illumination. the coloured photographs, which may be seen in the same room, of the stole and maniple of st. cuthbert are of precisely the same work. judging from these, and the embroidered orphrey which the authorities bought from the hockon collection for £ s. d. and which is only feet inches long, there is no doubt that this was, _par excellence_, the finest period. the work can only be described as being like an old italian painting on a golden ground. we see precisely such design and colouring in ancient paintings for altars as in the old italian triptychs. this style was carried out as literally as possible. even the defects, if so they may be called, are there, and a slight topheaviness of the figures serves but to accentuate the likeness. there is a legend that during the times of the danish incursions st. benedict travelled backwards and forwards through france and italy, and brought with him during his _seven_ journeys artificers in _glass_ and _stone_, besides costly books and copies of the scriptures. the chief end and aim of monastic life, both of monk and nun, in those early days was to embroider, paint, and illuminate their sacred books, vestments, and edifices with what was to them a newly-inspired faith. dr. rock, in his "church of our fathers," says that from the twelfth century to the time of henry viii. that only the best materials that could be found in our country or that of other lands were employed, and that the art that was used on them was the best that could be learnt or given. the original fabrics often came from byzantium or were of saracenic origin. [illustration: from the "jesse" cope (_south kensington museum_). english, early fourteenth century.] the story of pope innocent iii., who, seeing certain vestments and orphreys, and being informed that they were english, said, "surely england must be a garden of delight!" must be quoted to show how english work was appreciated in those early days. the choicest example in this country of this glorious period of english embroidery is the famous syon cope, which is supposed to rank as the most magnificent garment belonging to the church. it may be regarded as a typical example of real english work, the "opus anglicanum" or "anglicum," which, although used for other purposes, such as altar-cloths and altar-frontals, found apparently its fullest scope in these large semicircular mantles. amongst the many copes treasured at south kensington there are none, amidst all their splendour, as fine as this, although the fragment of the "jesse" cope runs it very closely. there are many copes of this period in different parts of the continent--the daroca cope at madrid, one at ascagni, another at bologna, at st. bertrand-de-comminges, at "st. john lateran" at rome, at pienza and toleda, and a fragment of one with the famous altar-frontal at steeple aston. these are all assumed to be of "opus anglicanum," and they may be described as being technically perfect, the stitches being of fine small tambour stitch, beautifully even, and the draperies exquisitely shaded. the illustration showing the syon cope requires some little explanation. it is wrought on linen, embroidered all over with gold and silver thread and coloured silk. it is feet inches long, feet inches wide. the whole of the cope except the border is covered with interlacing quatrefoils outlined in gold. the ground of these quatrefoils is covered with red silk and the spaces between them with green silk. each quatrefoil is filled with scenes from the life of christ, the virgin, and figures of st. michael and of the apostles. on the green spaces are worked figures of six-winged angels standing on whorls. the chief place on the quatrefoils is given to the crucifixion, where the body of the saviour is worked in silver and cloth of gold. the virgin, arrayed in green tunic and golden mantle, is on one side and st. john, in gold, on the other. above the quatrefoil is another representing the redeemer seated on a cushioned throne with the virgin, and below another representing st. michael overcoming satan. other quatrefoils show "christ appearing to st. mary magdalen," "the burial of the virgin," "the coronation of the virgin," "the death of the virgin with the apostles surrounding her," "the incredulity of st. thomas," "st. simon," "st. bartholomew," "st. peter," "st. paul," "st. thomas," "st. andrew," and "st. james." portions of four other apostles may be seen, but at some period the cope has been cut down. in its original state the cope showed the twelve apostles. the lower portion has been cut away and reshaped, and round this is an edging apparently made out of a stole and maniple which point to a later date, as they are worked chiefly in cross-stitch. on the orphrey are emblazoned the arms of warwick, castile and leon, ferrars, geneville everard, the badge of the knights templars, clifford, spencer, lindsay, le botelier, sheldon, monteney of essex, champernoun, everard, tyddeswall grandeson, fitz alan, hampden, percy, clanvowe, ribbesford, bygod, roger de mortimer, grove, b. bassingburn, and many others not recognisable. these coats of arms, it is suggested, belonged to the noble dames who worked the border. the angels which fill the intervening spaces are of the six-winged varieties, each standing on whorls or wheels. [illustration: the "syon" cope. (_s.k.m. collection._)] the cope is worked in a fine tambour or chain stitch principally. all the faces, bodies, and draperies are composed of this. a specially noticeable point is that the faces are worked spirally, beginning in the centre of the cheek and being worked round and round, conforming with the muscles of the face. the garments are worked according to the hang of the drapery, very fine effects being obtained. after the work has been completed a hot iron something like a little iron rod with a bulbous end has been pressed into the cheeks, under the throat, and in different parts of the nude body. occasionally, but seldom, the same device may be seen in the drapery. all the work is exquisitely fine and perfectly even. the groundwork of the quatrefoils is of gold-laid or "couch" work, as is also that of the armorial bearings. the name "syon" is somewhat misleading, as the cope was not made here, but came into the hands of the bridgettine nuns in , when henry v. founded the convent of "syon" at isleworth. its origin and date will ever be a matter of conjecture, but dr. rock infers that coventry may have been the place of its origin. taking coventry as a centre with a small radius, several of the great feudal houses the arms of which are on the border of the cope may be found, and dr. rock further supposes that eleanor, widow of edward the first, may have become a sister of the fraternity unknown, as her arms, castile and leon, are on it. "the whole must have taken long in working, and the probability is that it was embroidered by nuns of some convent which stood on or near coventry." however this may be, it is certain that this splendid piece of english work came into the hands, by some means, of the nuns of syon, and after remaining with them at isleworth till elizabeth's time, it was carried by them through flanders, france, and portugal. they remained at the latter place till the same persecution which dispersed the famous spanish point lace over the length and breadth of the continent, and about eighty years ago it was brought back to england, and was given by the remaining members of the order to the earl of shrewsbury. after further vicissitudes of a varied character it was bought by the south kensington museum for £ , and now sheds the glory of its golden threads in a dark transept unnoticed except by the student. iii ecclesiastical embroideries and vestments [illustration: half of the steeple aston altar frontal. english, fourteenth century.] iii ecclesiastical embroideries and vestments the pierpont morgan purchase--the steeple aston altar-frontal--the "nevil" altar-frontal at s. k. m.--city palls--diagram of vestments. other copes of the same period are in the madrid museum, two copes at bologna, and the "ascoli" cope recently purchased by mr. j. pierpont morgan and generously returned by him. some cushions from catworth church, huntingdon, now at the south kensington museum, were probably cut from copes, and bought by permission of the bishop of ely for £ . a long band of red velvet at south kensington museum embroidered with gold and silver and coloured silk has evidently been made from the "apparels" of an alb. it is in two pieces, each piece depicting five scenes divided by broad arches. the first five are from the life of the virgin, and are: "the angel appearing to anna," "the meeting of anna and joachim," "birth of the virgin," "presentation of the virgin," "education of the virgin." in the second piece are: "the annunciation," "the salutation," "the nativity," "the angel appearing to the shepherds," and the "journey of the magi." another piece of similar work is the altar-frontal of steeple aston, which was originally a cope, and the cope now at stonyhurst college, originally belonging to westminster cathedral. it is made of one seamless piece of gold tissue. during this great period of english embroidery certain characteristics along with its superb workmanship must be noticed. the earlier the work the finer the modelling of the figures. in the figures of the st. cuthbert and the worcester fragments the proportions of the figures are exquisite; at a later date, while the work is just as excellent, the figures become unnatural, the heads being unduly large, the eyes staring, and the perspective entirely out of drawing. until the fourteenth century this comes so gradually as to be scarcely noted; but after and through the fifteenth century this becomes so marked as to be almost grotesque, and only the genuine religious fervour with which these poor remnants have been worked prevents many of them being ridiculous. the faces gradually show less careful drawing and working, and the figures become squat and topheavy. the emblems of the saints are often omitted. [illustration: the "nevil" altar frontal. (_s.k.m. collection._)] this decline in the embroiderer's art is specially noticeable in an extraordinary panel to be seen at south kensington museum, where an altar-frontal of stamped crimson velvet is appliqued in groups of figures in gold, silver, and silks. in the middle is the crucifixion, with the virgin and st. john standing on a strip covered with flowers. on the left is ralph nevil, fourth earl of westmoreland, , kneeling, and behind him his seven sons. on the right is lady catherine stafford, his wife, also kneeling, and behind her kneel her thirteen daughters. the frontal cost the museum £ and is well worth it as an historical document. other important embroideries of the period to be found in england are at cirencester cathedral, ely cathedral, salisbury and carlisle cathedrals, chipping norton and little dean in gloucestershire, east langdon in kent, buckland and stourton in worcester, littleworth in leicestershire, lynn in norfolk, and the parish church at warrington. many of the palls belonging to the great city companies belong to this date. the saddlers' company's pall is of crimson velvet embroidered with angels surrounding "i.h.s.," and arms of the company. the fishmongers' pall, made at the end of the fifteenth century, has at one end the figure of st. peter (the patron saint of fishermen) enthroned, and angels on either side, and at the other end st. peter receiving the keys from our lord. the vintners' pall is made of italian velvet and cloth of gold and embroidered with st. martin of tours. religious influence characterised the embroideries of england practically from the ninth to the sixteenth centuries. practically all needlework prior to is entirely ecclesiastical, and from its limited range in choice of subjects barely does justice to the fine work this period produced. dr. rock says that "few persons of the present day have the faintest idea of the labour, the money, the time, often bestowed on old embroideries which had been designed by the hands of men and women each in their own craft the best and ablest of the day." we do not know the length of time these ancient vestments occupied in the making, but twenty-six years is stated to be the period of making the vestments for the church of san giovanni, in florence. this is all worked in close stitches similar to our english work. _ancient church vestments._ the names of the ecclesiastical vestments are somewhat puzzling to those of us who do not belong to the romish church, or even to the english high church. the vestments described are, we believe, in use in the romish churches now as in the early times when church embroidery was the pleasure and the labour of all classes of english women. the accompanying diagram will better illustrate the use of these vestments than a page of writing. [illustration: ecclesiastical vestments. . amice. . orphreys. . chasuble. . sleeves of alb. and . apparel of alb. . maniple. . stole. . alb. _from "a guide to ecclesiastical law," by kind permission of mr. henry miller._] * * * * * the alb is often trimmed handsomely with lace, the apparels are stitched on to the front. the stoles ought to have three crosses embroidered on it and be yards long. over this comes the chasuble, which is the last garment the priest puts on before celebrating mass. the cope is a huge semi-circular ft. wide cape. the maniple is a strip of embroidery ft. in. long worn over the left wrist of the priest. [illustration: ecclesiastical vestments. english, fifteenth or early sixteenth century. (_s.k.m. collection._)] iv tudor embroidery iv tudor embroidery the influences of the reformation--queen catherine of aragon's needlecraft--the gorgeous clothes of henry viii.--field of the cloth of gold--queen elizabeth's embroideries. after the reformation and the wholesale destruction of the cathedrals, monasteries, and churches, the gentle dames of england found their occupation gone. the priestly vestments, the sumptuous altar-cloths, and gorgeous hangings were now needless. those which had been the glory of their owners, and the pictorial representations of biblical life to the uneducated masses of people, had been ruthlessly torn down and destroyed for the sake of the gold to be found on them. as in the time immediately preceding the french revolution, costly embroideries were unpicked, and the amount of gold and silver obtained from them became a source of income and profit to their destroyers. apart from her household, women had no other interests in those days, unless we accept such anomalies as lady jane grey, who was a marvel of learning and wisdom. all their long leisure hours had been spent, not in improving their minds, but in beautifying the churches with specimens of their skill. catherine of aragon, one of the unfortunate queens of henry viii., was a notable needlewoman, and spent much of her short, unhappy time as queen of england in embroidery. the lace-making of northampton is said to have been commenced by her during her period of retirement after her divorce. the "spanish stitch," which was known and used in embroidery of that period, was introduced by her from her own country, and many examples of her skill in embroidery are to be seen in the british museum and the various homes belonging to our old nobility. during the reign of henry viii. dress became very sumptuous, as the contemporary pictures of the times show. indeed, all the fervour and feeling which ladies had worked in religious vestments now seemed to find refuge in the over-elaboration of personal wear. very little lace was used, and that of only a primitive description, so that effect was produced by embroidery in gold and silver threads and the use of pearls and precious stones. the dress of the nobles in the time of henry viii. was especially gorgeous, the coats being thickly padded and quilted with gold bullion thread, costly jewels afterwards being sewn in the lozenges. it is related that after his successful divorce king henry gave a banquet to celebrate his marriage to anne boleyn, and wore a coat covered with the jewelled letters "h," and in the height of his satisfaction allowed the ladies to cut or tear away the jewels as souvenirs of his triumph over wolsey and catherine. it is said that he was left in his underwear, so great was the competition for these favours! robes made of gold tissue, then called cloth of gold, were used, and in henry's meeting with francis i. the english and french armies vied with each other as to which should present a greater magnificence. the name "the field of the cloth of gold" remains as a guarantee of its splendour. under the more austere and religious rule of queen mary we might suppose that ecclesiastical embroidery would have somewhat regained a foothold. but the landmarks had been entirely swept away, and we have little to record of the reign, except that mary herself was a clever needlewoman and worked much of her heartache, at the neglect of her spanish husband, into her needlework. her jealousy of her sister elizabeth caused the latter to spend her life away from the pomps and ceremonies of the court, and she has left many records of her handiwork, some well authenticated, as, for example, the two exquisite book-covers in the british museum. queen elizabeth cannot, however, be said to have been in any way a patroness of the art of needlecraft. her talent seems rather to have been devoted to affairs of state--and her wardrobe! on her death, at seventy years of age, she left over one thousand dresses, most of which must have been a cruel weight, so overburdened were they with stiff bullion and trimmed with large pearls and jewels. her dresses were literally diapered with gold and silver "gimps" inset with heavier stones, but little real embroidery is shown. mary queen of scots, on the contrary, was a born needlewoman. during her married life in france she learned the gentle arts of embroidery and lace-making, accomplishments which, as in many humbler women's lives, have served their owners in good stead in times of loneliness and trouble. the duke of devonshire possesses specimens of queen mary's skill, worked during the long, dreary days of her imprisonment at fotheringay. it is said that queen elizabeth was not above helping herself to the wardrobe and laces that the unfortunate queen of scotland brought with her from france. much embroidery must have been worked for the adornment of the house after the reformation, but beyond an occasional old inventory nothing is left to show it. after the reformation greater luxury in living obtained, and instead of the clean or rush-strewn floors some kind of floor-covering was used. furniture became much more ornamental, and the use of hangings for domestic purposes was common. not a thread of these hand-worked hangings remain, but we have the immense and immediate use of tapestry, which first became a manufacture of england in the reign of henry viii. it is easy to conceive that english women would readily seize upon the idea supplied in tapestry and adapt its designs to that of embroidery. it is certain that hangings for the old four-post beds were embroidered, as in the inventory of wolsey's great palace at hampton court there is mention of bed-hangings of english embroidery. nothing of this remains, so that its style is simply conjectural; and we can only suppose these hangings to have been replicas of the magnificent velvet and satin hangings, covered with laid or couched gold and silver threads, such as catherine of aragon would bring with her from spain. this also would account for their absolute disappearance. the value of the gold and silver in embroidery has always been a fertile source of wealth to the destroyer of ancient fabrics, while many embroideries worked only in silks have escaped this vandalism. v early needlework pictures and accessories [illustration: early "petit point" picture. late sixteenth century. (_s.k.m. collection._)] v early needlework pictures and accessories "petit point"--old list of stitches--stuart bags--gloves--shoes--caps. towards the end of james i.'s reign it is supposed that the earliest needlework pictures appeared. they were obviously literal copies of the tapestries which had now become of general use in the homes of the wealthy, being worked in what is known as "petit point," or "little stitch." this stitch was worked on canvas of very close quality, with fine silk thread, one stitch only being taken over the junction of the warp and the weft of the canvas instead of the "cross stitch" of later days. very few of these specimens are left of an early date. a panel, measuring inches by inches, in perfect condition, and dated , was sold at christie's rooms this year for £ . the purchaser, mr. stoner, of king street, sold it next day at a very considerable profit. at this period the workers of these pictures did not draw upon biblical subjects for their inspiration (with great advantage to the picture, it may be stated). the subjects were either fanciful adaptations from real life, with the little people dressed in contemporary costume, or dainty little mythological subjects, such as the "judgment of paris," "corydon wooing phyllis," with most absurd little castles of tudor construction in impossible landscapes, where the limpid stream meandered down fairy-like hills into a shining lake, which held dolphins under the water and water-fowl above it. the illustration depicts such a specimen, and shows one of these tiny pictures worked in no less than ten different stitches of lacework, in addition to the usual petit point. the number of these stitches is legion. in the reign of charles i., john taylor, the water-poet, wrote in : "for tent worke, raised worke, first worke, laid worke, net worke, most curious purl, or rare italian cut worke, fire, ferne stitch, finny stitch, new stitch, chain stitch, brave bred stitch, fisher stitch, irish stitch, and queen stitch, the spanish stitch, rosemary stitch, and mowle stitch, the smarting whip stitch, back stitch, and cross stitch; all these are good, and this we must allow, and they are everywhere in practice now." [illustration: very early "petit point" picture. (_author's collection._)] these are not _all_ the stitches in vogue during the first era of needlework pictures. a single glance at one of the early specimens, though it may not _charm_, fills one with amazement at the amount of toil, ingenuity, patience, and downright _love_ for the work the ancient needlewoman must have possessed. not only pictures, however, were made in petit point. many dainty little accessories of the toilet gave scope to the delicate fancy and nimble fingers of the ladies who had found solace from the cessation of their labours for the priesthood in making dainty little handbags and other pretty articles, each a marvel of minute handicraft. one bag in my possession measures only four inches square, and is worked on fine canvas, about forty threads to the square inch, the design being the favourite tudor rose, each petal worked in lace stitch, and raised from the centre which is made of knots worked with golden hair, flat green leaves exquisitely shaded, and a charming bit of the worker's skill in the shape of a pea's pod, open and raised, showing the tiny little peas in a row. an exquisitely worked butterfly with raised wings in lace stitch is on the other side. the grounding of the whole is run with flat gold thread, making a "cloth of gold" ground, strings made of similarly worked canvas, with gold thread and silk tassels complete a bag fit for the princess golden locks of our fairy tales. this little bag cost the writer guineas, and was cheap at the price. the south kensington museum have several specimens, and although many are very exquisite, there is not one quite so perfect in design nor in such condition. other little trifles made in similar style are the embroidered gauntlets of the buff leather glove worn at the time. these have become rarer than any other embroideries, as they were not merely for ornament but for actual wear. four or five of these gauntlet gloves are in the south kensington collection, but are of a later date than the "petit point" period. the use of gloves in england was not very general, we may infer, in the earlier ages of embroidery. there are certain evidences, however, showing that the glove was part of the priestly outfit, remains of gloves having been found on the bones of thomas à becket when they were transferred from the crypt of canterbury cathedral to the special shrine prepared for them; and a crimson leather pair, bearing the sacred monogram in embroidered gold, are preserved in the new college, oxford, belonging to the founder, william of wykeham, who opened the college in . it was not until the fourteenth century that the wearing of gloves became general, and practically nothing remains to show what manner of hand-covering was worn until the tudor period. henry viii. was exceptionally lavish and extravagant in the use of handsomely embroidered gloves, and few of his portraits show him without a sumptuous glove in one hand. he had gloves for all functions--like a modern fashionable woman. a pair of hawking gloves belonging to him are in the ashmolean museum, oxford, and in south kensington is one of a pair presented by henry to his friend and councillor sir anthony denny. it is of buff, thin leather, with a white satin gauntlet, embroidered with blue and red silk in applique work, decorated with seed-pearls and spangles, and trimmed with gold lace. the tudor rose, the crown, and the lion are worked amidst a splendour of gold and pearls. [illustration: a stuart glove. (_s.k.m. collection._)] queen elizabeth must have inherited her love for gorgeous apparel along with her strong personality and masterful spirit, as her expenditure for gloves alone was proverbial. the favourite offering to her was a pair of gloves, but she was not above accepting shoes, handkerchiefs, laces, and even gowns from her faithful and admiring subjects. on her visit to oxford in she was presented by the chancellor of the university with a pair of perfumed gloves, embroidered with gold and set with jewels, which cost the university sixty shillings, an immense sum in those days. other historic gloves are in the various museums of the country, seldom or never coming into the open market. in the braikenridge collection sold at christie's in february of this year i was able to secure one for £ s. d., immediately afterwards being offered double the price for it. the gloves belonging to charles i. and queen henrietta maria were very ornamental, and it is said that even oliver cromwell, with all his austerity, was not proof against the fascination of the decorated glove. with charles ii. the embroidered gloves seem to have vanished along with the stumpwork pictures, of which more anon. dainty shoes were embroidered in those old times. these, being articles of wear, like the gloves, are very rare. the same fine petit point work is seen on them; seed-pearls and in-run gold threads adorn them, and frequently the tudor rose, in raised work, forms the shoe knot. two pairs in lady wolseley's collection, sold in , fetched six guineas, and nine and a half guineas. tiny pocket-books were covered with this pretty work, and charming covers almost as fresh as when they were worked are occasionally unearthed, made to hold the old-fashioned housekeeping and cooking books. one wonders oftentime how many, and yet, alas! how few, specimens of this old petit point work have been preserved. it is only during recent years that the "cult of the antique" has been fashionable, and is also becoming a source of income and profit to the many who indulge in its quest. only members of learned antiquarian societies or born reliquaries troubled themselves to acquire ancient articles of historic interest because they were _old_, and served to form the sequence in the fairy tales of time. anything "old" was ruthlessly destroyed, as being either past wear, shabby, or old-fashioned, and countless treasures, both in ecclesiastical and secular art, have at all periods been recklessly destroyed for the sake of their intrinsic value in gold or jewels. in the early days of my life i was allowed to pick out the corals and seed-pearls from an old stuart needle picture "for a doll's necklace!" the picture itself probably going into the "rag-bag" of the mid-victorian good housekeeper. vi stuart caskets and mirrors vi stuart caskets and mirrors secret drawers and hidden receptacles--high prices in the salerooms. among the many treasures of this exquisite period of needlecraft are the well-known stuart caskets. very interesting and valuable are these charming boxes, many of them being in a fine state of preservation, owing to their having been enclosed in either a wooden or leathern box specially made to contain them. these queer little boxes are frequently made in the shape of noah's ark. the lid being raised, a fitted mirror is disclosed. the mirror slides out, and a secret recess may be discovered to hold letters. the front falls down, disclosing any number of tiny drawers, each drawer being silk-lined and the front of it embroidered. here, again, we may look for secret drawers. very seldom does the drawer run to the width of the cabinet, but by removing every drawer and carefully searching for springs or slides many a tiny recess is disclosed, where costly jewels, and perhaps a love-gage, has reposed safely from the sight of unworthy eyes. every square inch of these caskets is covered with embroidery, sometimes in canvas, worked with the usual scriptural or mythological design, and in others with white satin, exquisitely embroidered with figures and floral subjects. those in best preservation have been covered with mica, which has preserved both the colour and the fabric. the fittings are generally of silver. on the few occasions when these boxes or caskets come into the market high prices are realised. messrs. christie last year obtained £ for a good specimen. i have never seen one sold under £ , and as much as £ has been given. another pretty fancy was to cover small trays, presumably for the work or dressing table, with embroidery. not many of these remain, the wear of removing them from place to place having been too much for their staying powers. one in my possession is a small hexagonal tray with raised sides, embroidered in coloured silks in floral design, on what was once white satin. it is by no means a thing of beauty now, but as a specimen it is interesting, and "a poor thing, but mine own," which covers a multitude of shortcomings in these old relics, fortunately. [illustration: "stuart" mirror frame. (_lady wolseley's collection._)] far more frequently met with, though quite prohibitive in price, are the stuart embroidered mirrors, which easily command £ to £ in the salerooms. they are generally set in a frame of oak, leaving five or six inches (which would otherwise be covered with carving or veneer) for the embroidery. the mirror itself is comparatively small, being only a secondary consideration, and often little remains of it for its original purpose, as the glass is blurred and the silvering gone. many of these mirrors have _bevelled_ glass, which, of course, is wrong. the mirror shown in the illustration is one recently belonging to viscountess wolseley and sold by her, among other stuart needlework specimens, at messrs. puttick & simpson's in . this mirror sold for £ . the figures represent charles i. and queen henrietta maria, one on either side of the mirror. the figure at the top of the frame is difficult to understand; whether she is an angel or a mere court lady must be left to conjecture. the rolling clouds and the blazing sun are above her head, and a peacock, with tail displayed, is on one side and a happy-looking stag on the other. two royal residences adorn the topmost panels on either side, with all their bravery of flying flags and smoking chimneys, and the lion and the leopard occupy the lower panels. the latter animal identifies the king and queen, who might otherwise be charles ii. and his consort, as after charles i.'s time the leopard gave place to the unicorn for some unexplained reason. other typical little stuart animals and birds fill in the extra panels, such as the spotted dog who chases a little hare who is never caught, and the gaily-coloured parroquet and kingfisher, which no respectable stuart picture would be without. the caterpillar, the ladybird, and the snail are all _en evidence_; and below is a real pond, covered with talc, and containing fish and ducks, the banks being made of tiny branching coral beads and tufted silk and bullion work. about this time, when venetian lace came into fashionable use as an adjunct to the exquisite stuart dress, tiny coloured beads were imported from venice. the embroiderers at once seized upon them as a new and possibly more lasting means of showing their pretty fancies in design. many delightful specimens of these beadwork pictures are preserved, the colours, of course, being as fresh as yesterday. the ground was always of white satin, now faded and discoloured with age, and often torn with the heaviness of the beadwork design. they are scarcely so charming as the all needlework pictures, but still are delightful and covetable articles. the exigencies of the beadwork, however, lends a certain stiffness and ungainliness to the figures. vii embroidered books and "black work" [illustration: "stuart" book cover. (_british museum._)] vii embroidered books and "black work" style and symbolism--specimen in british museum and bodleian libraries--"black work" among the many dainty examples of tudor and stuart needlework are to be found the exquisitely embroidered book-covers which date from queen elizabeth's girlhood until the time of charles ii. they were always of diminutive size, and many stitches diversify their covering; oftentimes they were liberally embroidered with seed-pearls, and in these instances most frequently this fashion has been their salvation. a book somehow always seems to be a more sacred thing than a picture, and the costly little volumes which remain to show this dainty handicraft have apparently always been used either for church or private devotional purposes. the designs of the book-covers almost always follow certain styles. these are either heraldic, scriptural, symbolical, floral, or arabesque. the first-named variety usually belonged to royalty or one of the many noble houses whose ladies busied themselves with fair needlework. the shield, containing the coat of arms of the family, occupied the centre of the book-cover, being formed in raised gold and silver guipure or cord, and on the reverse the worker's initials frequently appear, with a pretty border in gold and silver, to outline the edges. the scriptural book-covers are always worked on canvas in fine petit point stitches. one in south kensington museum is larger than most of these volumes, and has on one side solomon in all his glory and on the reverse jacob and his ladder and king david. these canvas-covered books appear to have suffered most from the wear and tear of time, and very few remain. the symbolical covers are few, and mostly uninteresting. they are worked as a rule on silk and satin in loose satin stitches, which have suffered much from friction. the sacred monogram is often the centre of the device. a favourite design was adorning the back of the books with portraits of the martyred king charles i., queen henrietta maria, and the popular duke of buckingham. [illustration: pocket-book of satin, embroidered with coloured silks and silver-gilt thread. said to have been the property of queen elizabeth. (_in countess brownlow's collection._)] the stitches used were generally chain-stitch, split-stitch, petit point, and lace-stitch; and the patterns were most frequently outlined with a gimp made of flattened spiral wire, or _purl_, which was a fine copper wire covered with coloured silks and cut in lengths for use. very often, also, small silver spangles were employed, either stitched down with a piece of purl or a seed-pearl. frequently the covers were of velvet with the designs appliquéd down to it, and _laid_ or _couch_ work outlined the designs. sometimes flat pieces of metal were cut to shape and stitched down, as in one instance where the corners of the books were trimmed with the rays of the sun cut in gold, and stitched over with a gold thread. many of the charming little bags of which mention has already been made are supposed to have been worked to hold the prayer book and book of psalms, without which no devout lady deemed herself fully equipped. the most famous book is queen elizabeth's book in the british museum. the cover is of choice green velvet, the flat of the back has five roses embroidered in lace, raised stitches and gold and pearl. the royal arms are on either side of the book in a lozenge of red silk and pearls. the whole design, apart from this, is worked in red and white roses and scrolls of gold and silk. this gorgeous little cover contains "the mirrour of glasse of the synneful soul," written by elizabeth herself, and of it she writes that she "translated it out of french ryme into english prose, joyning the sentences together as well as the capacities of my symple witte and small lerning could extende themselves." it is dedicated "to our most noble and virtuous queen katherine [katherine parr] from assherige, the last day of the year of our lord god, ." in the bodleian library there is another treasured little book, again worked by queen elizabeth. it is only inches by inches, and has the same design on both sides. in this the ground is what is known as "tapestry stitch," worked in thick, pale-blue silk, and the design is of interlacing gold and silver threads with a tudor rose in each corner. "k. p." is marked on the cover, and shows that this also was worked for queen katherine parr. yet another little book is in the british museum. it contains a prayer composed by queen katherine parr, and is written on vellum by queen elizabeth. the cover illustrated is a typical example of the class of embroidered works of the period. later the covers showed less intricate work, and finally developed into mere velvet covers embroidered with silver or gold. [illustration: stuart embroidered cap. (_s.k.m. collection._)] black work. a curious phase of old english embroidery is the well-known "black work," which is said to have been introduced by catherine of aragon into england, and was also known as "spanish work." the work itself was a marvel of neatness, precision, and elegant design, but the result cannot be said to have been commensurate with the labour of its production. most frequently the design was of scroll-work, worked with a fine black silk back-stitching or chain-stitch. round and round the stitches go, following each other closely. bunches of grapes are frequently worked solidly, and even the popular peascod is worked in outline stitch, and often the petit point period lace stitches are copied, and roses and birds worked separately and after stitched to the design. there are many examples of this famous "spanish" work in the south kensington museum. quilts, hangings, coats, caps, jackets, smocks are all to be seen, some with a couched thread of gold and silver following the lines of the scrolls. this is said to be the spanish stitch referred to in the old list of stitches, and very likely may be so, as the style and manner are certainly not english; and we know that catherine of aragon brought wonders of spanish stitchery with her, and she herself was devoted to the use of the needle. the story of how when called before cardinal wolsey and campeggio, to answer to king henry's accusations, she had a skein of embroidery silk round her neck is well known. the black silk outline stitchery or linen lasted well through the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. very little of it is seen outside the museums, as, not being strikingly beautiful or attractive, it has been destroyed. another phase of the same stitchery was working cotton and linen garments, hangings, and quilts in a kind of quilted pattern with yellow silk. anything more unlike the quilting of fifty years ago cannot be imagined. the finest materials were used, the padding being placed bit by bit in its place--not in the wholesale fashion of later years, when a sheet or two of wadding was placed between the sheets of cotton or linen, and a coarse back-stitching outlined in great scrawling patterns held the whole together. the old "quilting" work was made in tiny panels, illustrating shields and other heraldic devices, and had a surface as fine as carved ivory. when, as in the case of one sample at south kensington, the quilt is additionally embroidered with beautiful fine floss silk flowers, the effect is very lovely. viii stuart pictures viii stuart pictures "petit point"--"stump work"--royalistic symbols. though these pictures bear the name of stuart, many of them are undoubtedly tudor. the earliest (if the evidence of costume is of any value) must have been worked in elizabeth's time, but as the authenticated specimens date only from the reign of james i. they are known as stuart. the only pictures worked in the early days of this art were worked in petit-point, the tiny stitch which imitated tapestry, and very quaint are the specimens left to us. the favourite themes were entirely pagan. gods and goddesses disported themselves among leafy trees. cupid lightly shot his arrows, the woods were inhabited by an unknown flora and fauna which seem all its own. the very dogs seem to be a different species, having more likeness to the china dogs of the spotted or liver and white variety which the staffordshire potters made at the beginning of our own century. innumerable little castles were perched in perfectly inaccessible positions on towering crags, and the laws of perspective were generally conspicuous by their absence. the sun in those days was a very visible body, and apparently delightful to work, no stuart picture being without one; the rolling clouds oftentimes are confused with the convoluted body of the caterpillar, little difference being made in the design. the birds were of very brilliant plumage, and the world was evidently a very gay and sportive place when these fair ladies spent their leisure over this embroidery! these early pictures seldom show the religious feeling that afterwards slowly worked its way through the stuart days (though, perhaps, disguised under royalistic symbolism), until in the reign of queen anne it became more or less a fashion, in pictorial needle-craft. it burst out afresh in the early nineteenth century and became an absolute obsession of the early victorian berlin-wool workers with most disastrous results to both design and work. until the end of charles i.'s reign needlework pictures must have been scarce, as we find one enumerated in the inventory of his "closet of rarities." it is possible that the many pictures which represent charles i. were worked by loyalist ladies, _after his execution_ and _during the commonwealth_. in many of these pictures his own hair is said to have been used, thereby becoming relics of him who was known as "the martyred king." on a very finely worked portrait of charles i., at south kensington museum, king charles's hair is worked amongst the silken threads. [illustration: king charles i., worked in fine silk embroidery. (_s.k.m. collection._)] throughout this time, no matter what the subjects, most of which were notably striking scenes from scripture history, such as "esther and king ahasuerus," "solomon and the queen of sheba," "the judgment of solomon" (a very favourite subject), and other scenes of old testament history, all the kings were charles i. and all the queens henrietta maria. one and all wore early stuart costumes. even pharaoh's daughter wore the handsome dress of the day, with point lace falling collar and real pearls round her neck. it is a fashion to jeer at this anachronism; but may it not perhaps be that we take these pictures too literally, and deny the workers their feelings of passionate devotion to the lost cause. doubtless they worked their loyalty to their beloved monarch into these pretty and pleasing fancies, just as it is said that the fashion of "finger-bowls" was introduced later so that the loyal gentlemen of the day might drink to the king "_over the water_." i see no cause to deny intelligence to these dear dead women, who were capable of exquisite needlecraft and fine design, and whose devotion was shown in many instances by giving up jewels, houses, and lands for the king! the fashion of "stump" or stamp work appears to have been derived from italy. italian needlework of this time abounds with it, and, it must be admitted, of a superior design, and style to that which was known here as "stump" work. until the eighteenth century english work was more or less archaic in every branch. personally, i see no more absurdity in the queer doll-like figures than in contemporary wood-carving. it was a period of tentative effort, and was, of course, beneath criticism. english art has ever been an effort until its one bright burst of genius in the eighteenth century, while the continental nations appear to have breathed artistic perception with life itself. the prototype of our stump work pictures, the italian raised work, are gracious, graceful figures perfectly proportioned, and set in lovely elegant arabesques, with no exaggeration of style or period. some specimens of this work must have been brought from italy, through france, and the english workers quickly adopted and adapted them to their own heavier intelligence. some of the little figures are certainly very grotesque. frequently the tiny little hands are larger than the heads, but the _stitchery_ is exquisite. no time seems to have been too long to have been spent in perfecting the petals of a rose, the loose wing of a butterfly, or to make a realistic curtain in fine point lace stitches to hang from the king's canopy. some of the king's dresses are said to have been made of tiny treasured pieces of his garments. there is no doubt that much devoted sentiment was worked into these little figures, and these touches of nature add a pathetic interest to them. [illustration: superb example of stuart picture. (_s.k.m. collection._)] in the illustration of "king solomon receiving the queen of sheba" from the south kensington collection solomon is obviously king charles i., while the queen of sheba is equally recognisable as queen henrietta maria. the picture is perhaps the finest in the kensington collection, the colours being fresh and the work intact. the little faces are worked over a padding of soft frayed silk or wool, the features being drawn in fine back-stitch. natural hair is worked on the king's and queen's heads, and the crowns are real gold thread set with pearls. the canopy is worked _solidly_ in silk and gold thread, and from it hang loose curtains in old brocade, worked over and over with gold and silken thread. the king's mantle and that of the lord chamberlain are worked in point lace stitches, afterwards applied to the bodies and hanging loosely. the queen's dress is brocade, worked over with gold and silver, while strings of real pearls decorate the necks and wrists of the ladies, and real white lace of the venetian variety trims the neck and sleeves of these fairy people. the stuart castle we see perched up among the trees and touching the sun's beams is more like an english farmhouse than whitehall. yet either this or windsor castle is always supposed to be represented. the british lion and the leopard, again, make the identity of these little people more certain. the quaint little trees bear most disproportionate fruits, the acorn and pears being about the same size, but all beautifully worked in point-lace stitches over wooden moulds. the hound and the hare, the butterfly and the grub, and the strange birds make up one of the most typical stuart pictures. the next illustration shows another development of picture-making. here the grounding is of white satin, as in the previous illustration, but the figures are worked on canvas separately, in fine petit-point stitch, afterwards being cut away and placed on the white satin ground with a few silk stitches and the whole outlined with a fine black silk cord. the subject is "the finding of moses," and is as full of anachronisms as the last, only that here again pharaoh's daughter is worked in memory of queen henrietta maria, and the tiny boy in the corner is charles ii., and moses the infant duke of york. the four-winged cherubs are the guardian angels who are watching over the lost fortunes of the stuart family, and the rose of england and the lilies of france which form the border are emblematical of the royal lineage of their lost king's family. the hound and hare still chase each other gaily round the border, and in the picture the hare is seen emerging, like the stuarts, from exile and obscurity. sufficient has perhaps been said to cause those who possibly may have misunderstood these pictures to give them another glance, and allow imagination to carry them back to the times of the exiled royal family and their brave adherents, whose women allowed not their memories to slumber nor their labours to flag. these pictures must have been made during the commonwealth and the reign of charles ii. in no case, to my knowledge, has king charles ii. been depicted in stitchery, nor yet catherine of braganza. james ii. is equally ignored, and with him their mission seemed to have been accomplished. possibly the people had had by this time sufficient of the stuarts, and the memory of king charles the martyr had waxed dim. certain it is that with james ii. stuart needlework pictures suddenly ceased. [illustration: stuart picture, showing the finding of moses. (_s.k.m. collection._)] _stump work symbols._ the symbolism of the various animals, birds, insects, and flowers which are, apparently without rhyme or reason, placed in one great disarray in the stuart pictures is said to have been heraldic and symbolic. the sunbeam coming from a cloud, the white falchion, and the chained hart are heraldic devices belonging to edward iii. the buck and the strawberry, which are so often seen, belong to the frazer clan of scotland, and may have been worked by ladies who were kith and kin of this clan. the unicorn was the device of james i. and the siren or mermaid of lady frazer, who is said to have worked her own golden hair in the heart of a tudor rose on a book cover for james i. the hart was also a device of richard ii. and the "broom pod" of the plantagenets. the caterpillar and butterfly were specially badges of charles i., while the oak-tree and acorn were invariably worked into every picture in memory of charles ii.'s escape in an oak tree. ix samplers ix samplers real art work--specimens in south kensington museum--high price now obtained. a "sampler" is an example or a sample of the worker's skill and cleverness in design and stitching. when they first appeared, as far as we know about the middle of the seventeenth century, they were merely a collection of embroidery, lace, cut and drawn work stitches, and had little affinity to the samplers of a later date, which seemed especially ordained to show various patterns of cross stitches, the alphabet, and the numerals. the early samplers were real works of art; they were frequently over a yard long, not more than a quarter of a yard wide, and were adorned with as many as thirty different patterns of lace and cut and drawn work. this extreme narrowness was to enable the sampler to be rolled on a little ivory stick, like the japanese _kakemonas_. the foundation of all the early samplers was a coarse linen, and to this fact we owe the preservation of many of them. those made two hundred years later, on a coarse, loose canvas, even now show signs of decay, while these ancient ones on linen are as perfect as when made, only being gently mellowed by time to the colour of old ivory. the earliest sampler known is dated , and was worked by elizabeth hinde. it is only inches by - / inches, and is entirely lacework, and apparently has been intended for part of a sampler. the worker perhaps changed her mind and considered rightfully that she had accomplished her _chef d'oeuvre_, or as so often explains these unfinished specimens, the reaper gathered the flower, and only this dainty piece of stitching was left to perpetuate the memory of elizabeth hinde. the sampler in question is just one row of cut and drawn work and another of fine venetian lacework, worked in "punto in aria." a lady in court dress holds a rose to shield herself from cupid, a dear little fellow with wings, who is shooting his dart at her heart. perhaps poor elizabeth hinde died of it and this is her "swan song." [illustration: a seventeenth-century "sampler" (english), showing cut and drawn work. (_s.k.m. collection._)] the earliest samplers appeared to have been worked only on white cotton or silk. a favourite design, apart from the lacework samplers, was the "damask pattern" sampler, a specimen of which may be noted, commencing with the fifth row, on the sampler illustrated. sometimes the sampler was entirely composed of it, and although ineffective, remains as a marvel of skill. it was worked entirely in flat satin stitch and eyelet holes, known as the "bird's eye" pattern. in the illustration four rows of cutwork will be noted, followed by five rows of drawn threadwork, and above are patterns worked in floral and geometric designs in coloured silks. the alphabet and the date complete this monument of skill, which may be seen in the south kensington museum. the succeeding illustration shows a more ambitious attempt, and is considered one of the finest specimens known. it was worked by elizabeth mackett, . it is on white linen with ten rows of floral patterns worked with coloured silks in cross, stem, and satin stitches, with some portions worked separately and applied. five rows of white satin stitch, two rows of alphabet letters in coloured silks, and four rows of exquisite punto in aria lace patterns are followed by the alphabet again in white stitches and the maker's name and date. the sampler is in superb preservation, the colours are particularly rich and well chosen. this sampler is also from the south kensington collection. often the worker's name is followed by a verse or rhyme having a delightfully prosaic tendency. one can imagine the poor girls, in the early days we are writing of, writhing under the infliction of having slowly and painstakingly to work the solemn injunction-- "when this you see remember me and keep me in your mind, and be not like a weathercock that turns at every wind. when i am dead and laid in grave, and all my bones are rotten, by this you may remember me when i should be forgotten." and we can appreciate how little maggie tulliver ("the mill on the floss") must have girded at the philosophy she was compelled to work into her sampler-- "look well to what you take in hand, for learning is better than house or land; when land is gone and money is spent then learning is most excellent." with the eighteenth century the beauty of the samplers distinctly declined. they became squarer, and were bordered with a running pattern, and the whole canvas became more or less pictorial. inevitably the end of this art came. ugly realistic bowpots with stumpy trees decorated the picture in regular order. the alphabet still appeared, and moral reflection seemed to be the aim of the worker rather than to make the sampler show beauty of stitchery. quaint little maps of england are often seen, surrounded with floral borders, but it remained to the early nineteenth century to show how the sampler became reduced to absurdity. one of the quaintest and most amusing samplers at south kensington is a -inch by -inch example in woollen canvas and embroidered with coloured silk. at the lower end is a soldier, a tiny realistic house, a dovecot, any number of flowering plants, a stag and other animals. above is a band of worked embroidery enclosing the words, "this is my dear father." the remaining spaces are filled in with angels blowing trumpets, double-headed eagle, peacocks and other birds, and baskets of fruit. in spite of its absurdity, this little piece is far more pleasant than the tombstone inscriptions which abound, and is, after all, delightfully suggestive of home and affection. [illustration: early english "sampler," showing embroidery in coloured silk. (_s.k.m. collection._)] [illustration: early english "sampler," showing bird's-eye embroidery and cut and drawn work. (_s.k.m. collection._)] another quaint piece at south kensington is a sampler worked by poor harriet taylor, _aged seven!_ at the top are four flying angels, two in clouds flanking a crown beneath the letters "g. r." in the middle stands a flower-wreathed arch, with columns holding vases of flowering plants; above are the words, "the temple of fancy," and within an enclosed space the following homily: "not land but learning makes a man complete not birth but breeding makes him truly great not wealth but wisdom does adorn the state virtue not honor makes him fortunate learning, breeding, wisdom get these three then wealth and honor will attend on thee." then follows a house called "the queen's palace," standing in an enclosed flower-garden. this masterpiece of moral philosophy from the hands of a child of seven years is dated . an exaggerated conception of the value of old samplers is very widely spread. only the seventeenth-century samplers are really of consequence, and these fetch fancy prices. in the sale-rooms a long narrow sampler of lace stitches and drawn-thread work would bring as much as a handsome piece of lace. they are practically unattainable, and in this case the law of supply and demand does not obtain. it is beyond the needlewomen of the present day to imitate these old samplers. life is too short, and demands upon time are so many and varied, that a lifetime of work would result in making only one. therefore, the fortunate owners of these seventeenth-century samplers may cherish their possessions, and those less lucky possess their souls in patience, and hoard their golden guineas in the hope of securing one. twenty years ago a few pounds would have been ample to secure a fine specimen, but £ will now secure only a short fragment. during the last three years i have not seen a good sampler at any london curio or lace shop, and none appear in the sale-rooms. the eighteenth-century samplers are comparatively common, the map variety especially so, and can be purchased for a pound or so, but these are not desirable to the collector. x the william and mary embroideries [illustration: jacobean wall-hanging worked in coloured crewels on linen ground. (_s.k.m. collection._)] x the william and mary embroideries queen mary "a born needlewoman"--the hampton court embroideries--revival of petit point--jacobean hangings. one of the most convincing facts in arguments that there _is_ a revival in the gentle art of needlecraft is that it has become the fashion to drape our windows, cover our furniture, and panel our walls with printed copies of the old jacobean needlework. many people, knowing nothing whatever about the history of needlework, wonder where the designs for the printed linens which line the windows of messrs. liberty, goodall and burnett's colossal frontages in regent street have been found. in time amazement gives way to admiration for these quaint blues and greens, roses and pale yellows, worked in great scrolls with exotic flowers and still more exotic birds, and the funny little hillocks with delightful little pagoda-like cottages nestling amongst them, and many and various little animals which seem to keep perpetual holiday under the everlasting blooms. the designs are taken bodily from the historical hangings of the later seventeenth century. after the abdication and flight of james ii. to st. germains, his daughter mary came over with her dutch husband, william the stadtholder--or, rather, william came over and brought his wife, the daughter of the late king, for william had no intention of assuming the style and life of prince consort, but came well to the front, and kept there. it was not "victoria _and albert_" in those days, but william and mary, who ruled england, and ruled it well. william iii. must have been a man of strong personality, and he managed to quell all the rebellions of his reign, and during the time he ruled over us the country settled down to a peaceful state that has remained to the present time. queen mary had quite sufficient employment in settling herself and her household, and generally managing the domestic matters pertaining to the new kingdom she had come into. she apparently had a very free hand in rebuilding hampton court, which she particularly made her home, absolutely pulling the interior down, and rebuilding and redecorating it according to her own taste, which was not that of the stuart persuasion with its gorgeous magnificence, but the more homely and solid dutch. very little of the original hampton court _interior_, built and furnished by cardinal wolsey, exists. just here and there we find delightfully dark little dens with the original linen-fold panellings and ceilings that are a ravishment to look upon; but mostly the rooms are high, plain-panelled, and with the quaint ingle-nook fireplaces, with shelves above, upon which mary placed her lovely "blue and white" porcelain which had been brought to her by the dutch merchants who at that time were the great traders of the sea. [illustration: enlargement of "jacobean" spray. (_s.k.m. collection._)] queen mary ought to be regarded as the patron saint of english needlewomen. she was happiest when employed furnishing every bed-covering, every chair and stool, and supplying the hangings for her favourite home. it is said that she spent her days over her embroidery frame, knowing full well that affairs of state were in the capable hands of her husband. there are few relics left of her handiwork outside hampton court. she left no dainty little book-covers, bags, or boxes, as her ideas were fixed on larger pieces of embroidery. had she lived in the berlin-wool picture days, she would have filled every nook and cranny with these atrocities, as many humbler devotees to the needle have done to our own knowledge. needlework can become a _passion_, and certainly queen mary must have possessed it. after the complete collapse of the stuart stump pictures, when every vestige of loyalty seems to have been swept away with the hated james ii., the ancient petit point pictures came back into fashion. very clever work was put into them, but, alas! their scope was purely to depict religious scenes of the rigorous kind. no dainty fairy-like little people now ruled in pictured story, but actual representations of bible history. the illustration of "the baptism of the ethiopian eunuch by st. philip" is a fair sample of the needlework picture of this time. the picture is a strange mixture of the early stuart petit point, the jacobean wall-hanging, and the newly revived religious spirit. the duck-pond, the swans and the water-plants might have been copied bodily from james i.'s time. the paroquet and the flying bird, and the immense leaves and blossoms, are direct from the wall-hangings, while the figures only too surely foretell the coming dark days of needlecraft, when a scripture picture and a coarsely worked sampler were part of every girl's liberal education. the work in this picture is extremely good, and it is excruciatingly funny without intending to be so. the pretty little equipage with its diminutive ponies surely was never intended to carry either st. philip or the eunuch! the open book, with hebraic inscription, is very delightful. it brings to mind the tables of the law rather than the light reading that the charming little cinderella coach should carry. these pictures are not common, and we scarcely know whether to be thankful for them or not. unlike the early petit point, they were worked in _worsteds_, whereas the early pictures were wrought in silk. the moth has a natural affinity for wool, as we all know, and his tribe has cleared off many hundreds of examples. why so many of the old jacobean hangings remain is that they were worked for _use_, and not ornament, and even after they ceased to be fashionable ornaments for sitting and bed rooms, they were either relegated to the servants' quarters, or given to dependants, who used them constantly, shaking and keeping them in repair, as the eighteenth-century housewives liked to keep their homes swept and garnished. [illustration: needlework picture of queen anne period. (_s.k.m. collection._)] it is strange to see these old jacobean hangings (perhaps the drapery of the now tabooed four-post bedstead), which might some thirty years ago have been carried off for the asking, sell at christie's for £ , as happened in the dispersal of the massey-mainwaring sale last year. even a panel of no use except to frame as a picture, say feet by feet, will fetch £ and a full-sized bed-cover can only be bought for over £ . the reason is not far to seek. the colouring and the drawing of this fine old crewel-work are exquisite (even though the design savours of the grotesque), and time has dealt very leniently with the dyes. i endeavoured to match some of these old worsteds a little time ago, and though able to find the colours, could not get the tone. after much tribulation i was advised to hang the skeins of worsted on the trees in the garden and _forget all about them_, and certainly wind and weather have softened the somewhat garish worsteds to the soft, _fade_ colours of the old work. the same class of embroidery was executed during the reign of queen anne, though she herself did little of it. costly silks and brocades and venetian laces were the dress of the day, and no little dainty accessories appear to have been made. xi pictorial needlework of the eighteenth century [illustration: a fine "painted face" silk-embroidered picture. (_author's collection._)] xi pictorial needlework of the eighteenth century the "painted faces" period--method of production--revival of scriptural "motifs"--modern fakes--black silk and hair copies of engravings. an immense number of pictures must have been worked during the eighteenth century. almost, we might say, no english home is without an example. much of the work is intensely bad, and only that time has tenderly softened the colours, and the old-time dresses add an element of quaintness to the pictures, can they be tolerated. works of art they are not, and, indeed, were never intended to occupy the place their owners now proudly claim for them. just here and there a picture of the painted face type is a masterpiece of stitchery, as in the example illustrated, where every thread has been worked by an _artiste_. looking at this little gem across a room, the effect is that of a charming old colour print, so tenderly are the lines of shading depicted. this is the only picture of this class that i have seen for years as an absolutely perfect specimen of the eighteenth-century silk pictures, though doubtless many exist. the discrepancy which is usually found is that, although the design and outline is perfect, the faces and hands exquisitely painted, the needlework part of the picture has been executed in a foolish, inartistic manner, and no method of light and shade has been observed. some little time ago i published an article in one of the popular monthly magazines illustrating this same picture, and was afterwards inundated with letters from correspondents from far and near sending their pictures for valuation and--admiration! not one of these pictures was good, though there were varying degrees of _badness_. but in no instance was the painted face crudely drawn or badly coloured. the explanation is that just as the modern needlewoman goes to a needlework depôt and obtains pieces of embroidery already commenced and the design of the whole drawn ready for completion, so these old needle pictures were sold ready for embroidering, the outline of the trees sketched in fine sepia lines, the distant landscape already painted, the faces and hands of the figures charmingly coloured, in many instances by first-class artists. when we remember that the eighteenth century was _par excellence_ the great period of english portrait painting and colour printing, we can understand that possibly really fine artists were willing to paint these exquisite faces on fine silk and satin, just as good artists of the present day often paint "pot-boilers" while waiting for fame. [illustration: embroidered silk picture of "the last supper." eighteenth century. (_s.k.m. collection._)] angelica kauffmann's style was often copied. is it too much to believe that some of these charming faces may have been from her hands? we know that she painted furniture and china, therefore why not the faces of the needlework pictures so nearly akin to her own work? the eighteenth-century costume was particularly adapted to this pretty work. we cannot imagine the voluminous robes of queen mary or queen anne in needle-stitchery, but the soft, silky lawns of the georgian periods, the high-waisted bodices, the _bouffant_ fichus and the flowing head-dresses, all were specially easy and graceful to work. many of the pretty children sir joshua loved to paint were copied. "innocence" made a charming picture, and several of the less rustic morland pictures were copied. we would imagine that when the beginnings of the picture were so glorious the needlewoman would have made some endeavour to work up to it. but, alas! it was not so. though often the stitching is neat and small, not an idea of shading seems to have entered the worker's mind, and whole spaces, nay, a complete garment, are often worked solid in one tone of colour! on the whole there is far more artistic sense and feeling in the stump pictures it is the fashion to deride. not always were dainty pastoral and domestic scenes worked. very ghastly creations are still existent of scriptural subjects. coarsely worked in wool, instead of silk, or in a mixture of both. the painting is still good, but the work and the subjects are execrable! "abraham about to sacrifice isaac," on the pile of faggots already laid, and isaac bound on it, with a very woolly lamb standing ready as a substitute, was a favourite subject. "abraham dismissing hagar and ishmael," with a malignant-looking sarah in the distance, vies with the former in popularity. "the woman of samaria," and "the entombment," are another pair of unpleasant pictures which we are often called upon to admire. the best of these pictures were worked in fine floss silk, not quite like the floss silk of to-day, as it had more twist and body in it, with just a little fine chenille, and very tiny bits of silver thread to heighten the effect. the worst were worked in _crewel_ wools of crude colours. fortunately, the moth has a special predilection for these pictures, and they are slowly being eaten out of existence, in spite of being cherished as heirlooms and works of art. another pretty style which we seldom meet with was some part of the picture covered with the almost obsolete "ærophane," a kind of chiffon or crape which was much in request even up to fifty years ago. a certain part of the draperies was worked on the silk ground, without any attempt at finish. this was covered with ærophane, and outlined so as to attach it to the figure. this again was worked upon with very happy effects, very fine darning stitches making the requisite depth of shading. the illustration shows the use of this, but this cannot be said to be a very good specimen. [illustration: "painted face" silk-embroidered picture. eighteenth century. (_author's collection._)] these painted face, silk-worked pictures are the only needlework examples the collector _need to beware of_, as they are being reproduced by the score. the method of working in the poorer specimens is very simple, and it pays the "faker" to sell for £ or £ what takes, perhaps, only half a day to produce. when a well-executed picture is produced it is worth money, but so far i have seen none, except at the royal school of needlework, where the copying of old pictures of the period is exceedingly well done, and not intended to deceive. the prices, however, are almost prohibitive, as no modern needlework picture is worth from £ to £ . they are, after all, only copies, and in no sense of the word works of art. during the eighteenth century, also, a fashion set in of adorning engravings with pieces of cloth, silk, and tinsel. at best it was a stupid fancy, and was responsible for the destruction of many fine old mezzotints and coloured prints. the hands, face, and background of an engraving were cut out, and pasted on a sheet of cardboard, pieces of some favourite brocaded gown, perhaps, were attached to the neck and shoulders, tiny lace tuckers were inserted, and gorgeous jewellery was simulated by wretched bits of tinsel trimming. the realism of the stuart stump picture was never so atrocious as this baleful invention, which was as meretricious as a waxwork show. not so popular, but far better, were the pictures worked on white silk with black silk and hair. there were no artistic aspirations about these--they were copies in black and white of the engravings of the day, just as a pen-and-ink or pencil copy might be made. very dainty stitchery was put in them, the stronger parts of the lines being in fine black silk, the finer and more distant being worked in human hair of various shades from black to brown. occasionally golden and even white hair is used, and the effect is often that of a faded engraving. the silk ground on which these little pictures were worked is, however, often cracked with age, and many pretty specimens are ruined. the illustration shows an example of the type of picture, and depicts "charlotte weeping over the tomb of werther." [illustration: black silk and hair picture. imitation of engraving. eighteenth century. (_author's collection._)] xii needlework pictures of the nineteenth century xii needlework pictures of the nineteenth century entire decline of needlework as an art--miss linwood's invention!--the berlin-wool pictures--lack of efficient instruction--waste of magnificent opportunity at south kensington museum. it were kindest to ignore th century needlework, but in a book treating of english embroidery something must be said to bridge over the time when needlecraft as an art was _dead_. during the earlier part of the century taste was bad, during the middle it was beyond criticism, and from then to the time of the "greenery-yallery" æsthetic revival all and everything made by woman's fingers ought to be buried, burnt, or otherwise destroyed. indeed, if that drastic process could be carried out from the time good queen adelaide reigned to the early "eighties" we might not, now and ever, have to bow our heads in utter abjection. the originator and moving spirit of this bad period was miss linwood, who conceived the idea of copying oil paintings in woolwork. she died in . would that she had never been born! when we think of the many years which english women have spent over those wickedly hideous berlin-wool pictures, working their bad drawing and vilely crude colours into those awful canvases, and imagining that they were earning undying fame as notable women for all the succeeding ages, death was too good for miss linwood. the usual boiling oil would have been a fitter end! miss linwood made a great _furore_ at the time of her invention, and held an exhibition in the rooms now occupied by messrs. puttick & simpson, leicester square. can we not imagine the shade of the great sir joshua reynolds, whose home and studio these rooms had been, revisiting the glimpses of the moon, and while wandering up and down that famous old staircase forsaking his home for ever after one horrified glance at miss linwood's invention? not only miss linwood, but mrs. delany and miss knowles made themselves famous for berlin-wool pictures. the kindest thing to say is that the specimens which are supposed to have been worked by their own hands are considerably better than those of the half-dozen generations of their followers. during the middle and succeeding twenty years of the nineteenth century the notable housewife of every class amused herself, at the expense of her mind, by working cross-stitch pictures with crudely coloured wools (royal blue and rose-pink, magenta, emerald-green, and deep crimson were supposed to represent the actual colours of nature), on very coarse canvas. landseer's paintings were favourite studies, "bolton abbey in the olden times" lending itself to a choice range of violent colours and striking incidents. nothing was too sacred for the berlin-wool worker to lay hands upon. "the crucifixion," "the nativity," "the flight into egypt," "the holy family" were not only supposed to show the skill of the worker, but also the proper frame of mind the embroideress possessed. pleasing little horrors such as the "head of the saviour in his agony," and that of the virgin with all her tortured mother love in her eyes were considered fit ornaments for drawing-room, which by the way were also adorned with wool and cotton crochet antimacassars, waxwork flowers under glass, and often astonishingly good specimens of fine chelsea, worcester, and oriental china. never was the questions of how "having eyes and yet seeing not" more fully exemplified. the nation abounded in paintings, prints, fine needlework, and the product of our greatest period of porcelain manufacture. fine examples were at hand everywhere. exquisite prints belonging to our only good period, the eighteenth century, were common; yet rather than try their skill in copying these, the needlewomen, who possessed undoubted skill, enthusiasm, and infinite patience, preferred to copy realistic paintings of the landseer school and the highly coloured prints of the baxter and le blond period. unfortunately, the craze is by no means buried. within the last twelve months i was invited to see the "works" of a wonderful needlewoman in a little middlesex village. the local clergyman and doctor were sufficiently benighted even in these days of universal culture to admire her work, and her fame had spread. room after room was filled with by -feet canvases; every drawer in the house was crammed with the result of this clever woman's work--for clever she undoubtedly was. after exhausting all the known subjects of landseer and his school, she had struck out a line for herself, and had copied the _graphic_ and _illustrated london news_ supplements of the stirring scenes from the south african war, such as "the siege of ladysmith," "the death of the prince imperial" in all its gruesome local colouring, were worked on gigantic canvases. her great _chef d'oeuvre_ was, however, the memorial statue of queen victoria, copied from the _graphic_ supplement _in tones of black, white, and grey_, a most clever piece of work; but--well, she was happy and more than delighted with my perfectly honest remark that i had _never seen anything like it_! ah! if only this dear woman and the many others who are wasting their time and eyesight over fashions which perish could only be reached and aroused by the influence of the lovely old english stitchery of our great period! if only the purblind authorities and custodians of our national collections could awaken to the infinite possibilities which they hold, once again "opus anglicum" might rule the world, and the labour of even one woman's life might be of lasting value. it is useless to refer to the many schools of embroidery there are in different parts of the country, where fine work is being done on the best lines. these schools, from the royal school of needlework downwards, are "closed corners," and no attempt is made to reach the great public. the royal school of needlework is maintained by no subsidy as it ought to be, but by the many ladies of position and taste who liberally support it, both for the instruction and employment of "ladies of reduced circumstances," and for _the disposal of its work at very high prices_. other schools in town are simply private adventure institutions, run at a considerable profit to the principals. the superb collection at south kensington might as well be buried in the crypt of westminster cathedral for all the value it is to the general public. there is not the slightest attempt to allow these unique pieces of "opus anglicum" to point a moral or adorn a tale. the magnificent copes and vestments, of which there are some score, are merely tabulated, paragraphed, and photographed, and there is an end of them. during my constant visits to these treasures of english art i have not once discovered another interested visitor amongst these beautiful vestments; and the officials, when interviewed, though perfectly courteous, apparently resent inquiries; and woe betide the unfortunate inquirers who _might_ have found the required information from the tiny little printed card hidden either too low or too high in the dark recesses of the corridors, and so spared these _savants_ the trouble of an interview! why a continuous course of lectures on this and every kindred art subject is not made compulsory at the victoria and albert museum is one of the burning questions of the hour among the cultured collectors of the day. the custodians are supposed to be men of special insight in the branches over which they preside, yet for all the advantage to the public they might as well be waxwork dummies. what we want as a nation is "culture while we wait," and writ so large that those who run may read, and until this consummation is attained we shall ever remain in the slough of despond, and art for art's sake will continue dead. xiii embroidery in "costume" xiii embroidery in "costume" early greek garments--biblical references to embroidery--ecclesiastical garments--eighteenth-century dresses, coats, and waistcoats--muslin embroideries. the subject of costume has been most admirably treated in another volume of this series, but a reference must be made to it as affecting our topic, english embroidery, as costume has played no little part in its history. from the earliest ages embroidery has been used to decorate garments. the ancient greeks embroidered the hems of their graceful draperies in the well-known greek fret and other designs so invariably seen on the old greek vases. the legend that minerva herself taught the greeks the art of embroidery illustrates how deeply the art was understood; and the pretty story told by an old botanist of how the foxglove came by its name and its curious bell-like flowers is worth repeating. in the old greek days, when gods and goddesses were regarded as having the attributes of humanity in addition to those of deities, juno was one day amusing herself with making tapestry, and, after the manner of the people, put a thimble on her finger. jupiter, "playing the rogue with her," took her thimble and threw it away, and down it dropped to the earth. the goddess was very wroth, and in order to pacify her jupiter turned the thimble into a flower, which now is known as digitalis, or finger-stole. this little fairy tale can scarcely be taken as proof conclusive of the existence of either needle tapestry or thimble use, but its telling may amuse the reader. in all ancient histories we find continuous references to the embroidered garment worn by its people. it was well recognised that no material was sufficiently beautiful not to be further embellished with rich embroideries. in the psalms we find that "pharaoh's daughter shall be brought to the king in a raiment of needlework," and that "her clothing is of wrought gold." phrygia was above all the country most noted for embroideries of gold, and for many years the name "phrygian embroidery" was sufficient to describe any highly decorated specimen. it is said that the name of the vestment or trimming, the "orphry" is derived from the word "auri-phrygium," meaning "gold of phrygian embroidery." the phrygians are credited with having taught the egyptians the art, while the hebrews, while sojourning in the land of egypt, learned the art from their captors, and carried it with them all through their journeys to the promised land, and their final settlement in palestine. the mention of gold and purple embroideries, both as garments and hangings, is conspicuous throughout all bible history. the egyptian and greek arts are in almost all respects concurrent. the phoenicians carried examples of each country's work from one to another. after the conquest of greece the romans absorbed her art, and developed it in their own special style. they in turn carried their arts and crafts to gaul and britain, and by degrees needlecraft permeated the whole of europe. dealing with the embroidered costumes of our own country, the ancient records, illuminated missals, and other contemporary data show that very sumptuous were both the ecclesiastical and lay garments. heavy gold embroideries were worked on the hems of skirts and mantles. the kings' coronation robes and mantles were beautiful specimens of handicraft, often after a king's death being given to the churches for vestments. from anglo-saxon to norman times extensive use was made of the work of the needle for clothing, but after the conquest till quite late in the tudor period little has been found to throw light upon the use of embroidery for the lay dress of the time. all woman's taste and energy seem to have been devoted to make monumental embroideries for church use. it was, indeed, not until the gorgeous period of henry viii. that embroidery, as distinct from garment-making, appeared; and then everything became an object worthy of decoration. much fine stitchery was put into the fine white undergarments of that time, and the overdresses of both men and women became stiff with gold thread and jewels. much use was made of slashing and quilting, the point of junction being dotted with pearls and precious stones. noble ladies wore dresses heavily and richly embroidered with gold, and the train was so weighty that train-bearers were pressed into service. in the old paintings the horses belonging to kings and nobles wear trappings of heavily embroidered gold. even the hounds who are frequently represented with their masters have collars massively decorated with gold bullion. the skirts of the ladies of this time were thickly encrusted with jewels, folds of silk being crossed in a kind of lattice-work, each crossing being fixed with a pearl or jewel, and a similar precious stone being inserted in the square formed by the trellis. the long stomachers were one gleaming mass of jewelled embroidery, the tiny caps or headdresses being likewise heavily studded with gems. during the reign of charles i. a much daintier style of dress appeared. velvet and silken suits were worn by the men, handsomely but appropriately trimmed with the fine "punto in aria" or reticella laces of venice; and in this and the three succeeding reigns dress was of sumptuous velvets, satins, and heavy silks, unembroidered, but trimmed, and in charles ii.'s time _loaded_ with costly laces. it will be noted that whenever lace is in the ascendant, embroidery suffers, as is quite natural. lace itself is sufficient adornment for fine raiment. [illustration: _photo by e. gray, bayswater._ mrs. tickell and her sister, mrs. sheridan, by gainsborough, showing how lace was superseded by filmy muslins. (_dulwich gallery._)] as the use of the fine venetian and flemish and french laces declined, and tuckers and frillings of mechlin, valenciennes, and point d'angleterre appeared, the use of embroidery asserted itself, and the pretty satins and daintily coloured silks of william and mary, queen anne, and more specially the earlier georges, began to be embroidered in a specially delicate fashion. fine floss silk was used in soft colourings, and whole surfaces were covered with tiny embroidered sprays of natural-coloured flowers. really exquisite stitchery was put into the graceful honeysuckle, the pansy, carnation, and rose clusters which decorated the dresses. the bodices, sacques, and skirts of the early eighteenth-century ladies were embroidered with real artistic taste and feeling. some of the old dresses kept at south kensington show the exquisite specimens of this class of needlework; while the coats and waistcoats of the sterner sex are not a whit behind the feminine garments in beauty. the long waistcoats were most frequently made of cream, pale blue, or white silk or satin, delightfully embroidered with tiny sprays of blossoms, and fastened with fine old paste buttons; while the coat, frequently of brocade, was heavily embroidered down the front with three or four inches of solid embroidery of foliage and flowers, oftentimes mixed with gold and silver threads. the tiny cravat of mechlin, cuff ruffles, knee breeches, silken hose, and buckled shoes, along with the powdered hair, complete a costume that has never been equalled, either before or afterwards, in beauty, grace, and elegance. during the william iv. and the long victorian period, with the exception of a very fine embroidery on muslin, in the earlier part of it, nothing but fine stitchery for the use of underwear was made, if we except the hundreds and thousands of yards of cut and buttonholed linen which seemed to have been the solace and delight of our grandmothers when they allowed themselves to be torn away from their beloved berlin-wool work. to sit on a cushion and sew a fine seam appears to have been the amusement of the properly constituted women of the early and mid-nineteenth century. xiv sale prices xiv sale prices ancient embroideries so seldom come into the salerooms that it is rarely an opportunity occurs for obtaining market prices, therefore lady wolseley's sale on july , , must be accepted as a standard. immense prices are asked at the antique shops, the dealers apparently basing their prices on this sale by auction and _doubling_ them. i have visited every shop in the trade in search of prices for this book before procuring the auctioneer's catalogue, and was aghast at the terrific sums asked for oftentimes indifferent specimens in comparison to what was paid in the auction-room. during the past year anything from £ s. to £ has been paid at christie's for specimens of varying degrees of perfection of work and condition. the latter state is even of greater importance than the first, as no matter how good the work originally, if discoloured and frayed, prices go down and down. nearly all the finest specimens of the stump-work period are marred by the tarnishing of the gold and silver threads. instead of these being a glory and a great enhancement to the embroidery, they prove a great disfigurement, and thereby cause a considerable reduction in value. the earlier petit point pictures, having little or no bullion in their execution (and when cared for and not exposed to too much sunlight), have kept their condition very well, and now are quite the favourite kind for collection. it speaks much for the quality of the silks used and the dyes of nearly three hundred years ago that the fugitive greens and blues and delicate roses in these little works of art, as in the superb tapestries of the same date, should be as fine as when made, whereas to-day's colours are as fleeting as the glories of the rainbow. * * * * * the following are the principal prices in lady wolseley's sale: £ s. d. a small bag, red and gold brocade a small bag or purse a fine bead book-cover same, trimmed with silver lace (harris) a pair of embroidered shoes (harris) a small pocket-book, silk embroidery on silver ground a pair of stuart shoes a stumpwork picture, a most curious globe, showing europe, asia, africa, and america, (s. g. fenton) a double book of psalms, embroidered binding with tudor rose a petit point picture, - / × - / a small picture, partly sketched and partly worked a stuart stump picture, × - / a stuart stump picture, king under canopy, - / × a stuart bullion picture, vase, in tortoiseshell frame, × same, with herodias's daughter and john the baptist a portrait of henry, prince of wales, in flat-stitch on rose satin another on satin, "bathsheba," spangled, × another on satin, birds on gold and silver, × (harris) a bead picture, × a stump and bead picture, × a small book-cover, × a stuart stump picture, figures and silver fountain, tortoiseshell frame, × a stump picture, lady with coral necklace, × a stump picture, lady under arch with a black swan, × (stoner) a stump picture, king charles as ahasuerus with haman and mordecai, and pearl-embroidered carpet, × a stump picture, lady under a canopy, large pearls, × , (stoner) a stuart petit point picture, abraham and hagar a stuart petit point picture, "judgment of paris," × a stuart petit point picture, king solomon and queen of sheba a beadwork picture, lady and gentleman, lion and unicorn, × an embroidered picture, "peter denying christ," × (s. g. fenton) a petit point picture, lake with boats and figures, × (harris) a large stump picture, with horse and rider and figures of four seasons a stumpwork picture, four figures, castle and birds and flowers (s. g. fenton) a picture sketched on white satin, not worked a stuart picture on canvas a fine stuart jewel-casket, numerous secret drawers, covered in needlework (s. g. fenton) a stuart box, covered with bullion-work (s. g. fenton) a stuart box, with embroidery and pearls (spero) a stuart box, coloured bullion, × an embroidered box, with portrait on lid (s. g. fenton) a stuart mirror, covered with stump embroidery, representing charles i. and his queen (illustrated), (rosthron) another mirror, with painted and embroidered figures (harris) a charles i. mirror in old lace and gold frame, with borders in embroidery, with portrait, castle, and floral decoration yds. inches long, inches deep, cornice in petit point, christie's, july, (harris) xv conclusion xv conclusion needlework as a national art is as dead as the proverbial door-nail; whether or not it ever regains its position as a craft is a matter of conjecture. personally, i incline to the belief that it is absolutely extinct. the death-knell rang for all time when the sewing-machine was invented. the machine has been a very doubtful blessing, as it has allowed even the art of stitchery in ordinary work to slide into the limbo of forgotten things. what woman now knows what it is to "back-stitch" a shirt cuff, for instance, drawing a thread for guidance, and carefully going back two or three threads in order to make a neat, firm line of stitching? the sewing-machine does all this, and _does_ it _well_, a clever machinist turning out more work in a week than a seamstress in a year. if this were all, it would be no matter for regret, but with the necessity for needlework has vanished the desire. the lady quoted in green's history is now non-existent. "she was a pattern of sobriety unto many, very seldom seen abroad except at church; when others recreated themselves at holidays and other times, she would take her needlework, and say, 'here is my recreation.'" in spite of the many schools of embroidery, with a few notable exceptions, nothing is done to raise the standard of embroidery above making miserable little cushion-covers, table-centres, and suchlike pretty fripperies for the temporary adornment of the house. the women of germany, holland, sweden, italy, on the contrary, take a great interest in the embroidery of the bed and table linen and the really artistic embroidery of their national costumes. nothing of this is seen in england. table linen is bought _ready hemmed_ at the shop. dainty tea-cloths and serviettes are purchased ready embroidered (by machine) and trimmed with machine-made lace. even _lingerie_ of all classes is machine-made and bought by the dozen, instead of being made by the daughters of the house. the only hope of a revival lies in the various art schools in the country where designing for fine embroidery and lace is encouraged. unfortunately, however, equal facilities are offered for designing of machine-made imitations. the royal school of needlework, not being a government institution, offers no encouragement to outsiders. it is in the hands of a number of ladies, who manage it as they will; and although very fine work is accomplished, they trust too much to modern designers and artists who work out their own pet theories and hobbies. if only they would put aside all theories and new ideas, and _go back_ to the best periods of english art both for their designs and execution, even yet, with the intelligent use of the glorious examples in the adjoining museum, much might be done to revivify this expiring art. finis index index old lace. (_for needlework see page _) a adelaide, queen, age of lace, , alençon lace, , , , argentan lace, , , argentella lace, , , anne, queen, appliqué, aylesbury, b baby lace, barri, madame du, beading, beads on bobbins, bed furnishing, bedfordshire lace, , belgian lace, black lace, blonde lace, bone lace, bobbins, , bolckow, mrs., brides, , brussels lace, , , , , , brussels appliqué, brussels vrai reseau, buckinghamshire lace, , , , , burano, , buttonhole stitch, c caen lace, carrick-ma-cross, catherine de medici, chantilly lace, , charles i., charles ii., , , charlotte, queen, christie's sale-room, , colbert, , , , collar lace, collar, medici, commonwealth, cordonnet, , , convents, coptic embroideries, couronnes, cravat, creevy papers, cromwell, crotchet, cut worke, , cuthbert, st., d danish lace, darned netting, debenham & storr's sale-room, , dentelé, devonshire lace, , dorsetshire lace, drawn work, duchesse lace, durham cathedral, e ecclesiastical lace, edgings, edward iv., egyptian netting, elizabeth, queen of england, , embroidered net, english laces, empress eugénie, f falling collar, fausse valenciennes, fillings, , "figure" motifs, flanders lace, , flat point (point plat), flax thread, , florence, flemish point, fond, fontange, fowler, mrs., of honiton, france, point de, french revolution, g genoese lace, george i., george ii., george iii., george iv., german laces, ghent laces, gingles, gold and silver laces, greek laces, , groppo, punto a, gros, point de venise, grounds, guipure, , gold lace, h hamilton lace, "hayward's," henry vii., henry viii., high wycombe, history of lace, honiton, , , honiton appliqué, huguenots, i identification of lace, irish lace, , , , italian lace, j james i., james ii., jours, , k kenmare, lady, king of rome, l "lacis," , lappets, lawn, lewis hill, mrs., lille, , limerick, , l'onray, louis xiv., , , , louis xv., lyme regis, m machine-made ground, macramé, , malines, maltese, mantillas, marie antoinette, , , massey-mainwaring, mrs., marie de medici, marie stuart, mary, queen, mary ii., , mechlin, , medici collar, mezzo punto, milanese lace, , mixed lace, , , modern point lace, montespan, madame de, n napoleon i., , national library, s.k.m., needlepoint lace, , , network, ancient, newport pagnell, normandy lace, norway, northamptonshire lace, nuns, o oeil de perdrix, , origin of lace, p palliser, mrs. bury, parchment, parasole, pearls, peter the great, picots, pillow lace, , point lace, , point à réseau, point d'aiguille (brussels), point d'alençon, point d'angleterre, , , point appliqué, point de france, , , point de gaze, , point de venise, point de venise gros, , , point de neige, , point plat, punto in aria, , punto a groppo, , punto tagliato a foliami, q quillings, quentin matys, queen anne, queen mary ii., , , queen charlotte, , queen of laces, queen victoria, , r raised stars, rose point, , renaissance, , , reseau, , reticella, , , , , , revolution, french, rococo, royal trousseaux, ruffles, russian lace, s st. cuthbert, sale prices, samplers, , saxony lace, scotch lace, silk lace, smocks, spanish point, steinkirk, sumptuary law, south kensington museum, t tambour lace, tape lace, tatting, thread, toilé, trolly lace, v valenciennes lace, , vandyke, , venice, vicellio, venetian lace, victoria, queen, , vinciolo, , vraie valenciennes, , w westminster effigies, , , william and mary, , "wynyards," william iii., wiltshire lace, willis's rooms, y youghal laces, needlework a athelstan, alb, aldhelm, bishop of sherborne, aelfled, queen of edward the elder, angelica kauffmann, art, the pioneer, ascagni cope, ascoli cope, b bags, stuart, bayeux tapestry, beads, venetian, berlin wool pictures, bishop fridhestan, black work, bologna cope, book-covers, bridgettine nuns, c catworth cushions, catherine of aragon, , , caskets, chain stitch, charles i., , charles ii., , chasubles, christie's sale-rooms, , , , city palls, church vestments, coventry, copes, crewel work, d daroca cope at madrid, dr. rock, e earl of shrewsbury, editha, queen of edward the confessor, egyptian embroidery, emma, queen of ethelred the unready, elizabeth's wardrobe, elizabeth's book at british museum, elizabeth's book at the bodleian library, elizabeth hinde's sampler, elizabeth mackett's sampler, f field of the cloth of gold, g georgian costumes, georgian pictures, gimps, gloves, , greek garments, h hampton court, , hair and silk pictures, henrietta maria, queen, henry viii., höchon collection, i isleworth, italian raised work, j james i., jacobean hangings, "jesse" cope, john taylor's needlework rhyme, l lady jane grey, "laid," or couch work, linwood, miss, m maniple, mary queen of scots, mary ii. embroidery, minerva, mirror frames, n needlework pictures, , , neolithic remains, "nevil" altar-frontal, o opus anglicum, or anglicanum, , p "painted face" picture, , petit point, , phoenicians, phrygian embroidery, pierpont morgan, pocket books, pope innocent iii., q quilting, r reformation, roman invasion, royal school of needlework, rock's "church of our fathers," s samplers, st. augustine, st. benedict, st. cuthbert, st. dunstan, steeple aston altar-frontal, stoles, stump work, stump work symbols, "syon" cope, subjects of needle pictures, t tambour stitch, tudor embroideries, trays, w wonderful needlewoman, a, wolsey, cardinal, , wolseley's, lady, collection, , , worcester fragments, _printed in great britain by_ unwin brothers, limited, the gresham press, woking and london * * * * * transcriber's note: obvious punctuation errors have been corrected. inconsistent hyphenation in the original has been preserved, e.g. cutwork, cut-work; hand-made, handmade; lace-workers, laceworkers; may-flower, mayflower; needle-craft, needlecraft; needle-point, needlepoint; salerooms, sale-rooms; semi-circular, semicircular. inconsistent use of accents has been preserved, e.g. applique, appliqué; réseau, reseau; toile, toilé. in the index, pierpoint was corrected to pierpont to match the body of the text. the main body of the text refers to the "hockon collection", which is referred to in the index as the "höchon collection". it is unclear which of these is correct so they have been preserved as they appear in the original. page : 'survival of the fitting' changed to 'survival of the fittest'. page : 'accompanying diagrams' changed to 'accompanying diagram'. page : 'little loop' changed to 'little loops'. page : '"duchesse point" of "bruges,"' changed to '"duchesse point" or "bruges,"'. page : 'of same period' changed to 'of the same period'. page : 'other two' changed to 'two other'. page : 'and rose of england' changed to 'and the rose of england'. page : 'and butterfly was' changed to 'and butterfly were'. page : 'a long narrow samplers' changed to 'a long narrow sampler'. page : 'punto à groppo' changed to 'punto a groppo'. none generously made available by internet archive (https://archive.org) note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the original illustrations. see -h.htm or -h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h/ -h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h.zip) images of the original pages are available through internet archive. see https://archive.org/details/toymakingathomeh adamiala toy-making at home how to make a hundred toys from odds and ends by morley adams new york frederick a. stokes company publishers printed in great britain. preface this work has been compiled with the assistance of mr. walter higgins, the well-known instructor in woodwork. the volume fulfils a long-felt want in that it supplies fascinating amusement for evenings at home. the making of toys is an engrossing pastime, and the home-made toy is invariably more novel than the shop-bought article and of superior quality, besides which there is always a satisfaction in "i made it myself." the purpose of the book is to give simple and easily understood instructions and plain diagrams and sketches for making toys from the odds and ends that are usually discarded as useless. matches, match boxes, cotton reels, cocoa tins, cigar boxes, and even egg shells comprise the materials from which are evolved shops, working models, dolls' furniture, boats, steam engines, windmills, and scores of other toys dear to the hearts of boys and girls. perhaps the chief charm of the occupation is that literally dozens of toys can be made at a cost of less than a penny. every toy described in this book is practicable, and can be easily made by anyone possessing the smallest amount of handicraft skill. at the same time the instructions are such as will prove of the utmost value to instructors of handicraft classes. morley adams. toy-making at home toys from odds and ends in every household there are countless things which are thrown away immediately they have served one purpose. cotton-reels may be taken as an instance. it does not occur to the majority of people that these little wooden articles, strongly made and well finished, may be put to some use, even when the cotton has been wound from them. yet from them quite useful furniture can be made and playthings innumerable. and so it is with many other things--match boxes, broken clothes pegs, cocoa tins, mustard tins, egg shells, cigar boxes, nut shells, corks, incandescent-mantle cases, old broom handles: there is no end to the list. in the following pages we have set out to explain, largely to boys and girls, just how these odds and ends may be used for the construction of toys, games, and interesting models. the list is not by any means complete: such examples as are given are merely suggestive examples. the boy or girl who has patiently and thoughtfully made some of them will be in a position to devise and construct many more on similar lines. most boys and girls are familiar with those little _paper windmills_, which turn round gaily in the gentlest breeze--the ones which the rag-and-bone man gives in exchange for an old bottle. they make a capital toy for baby brothers and sisters, and they are very easy to make. all you need is a six-inch square of stiff paper--coloured for preference--and two pieces of cardboard, each an inch square. first, you draw out your square as in fig. , and then cut down the diagonals nearly to the centre square. now take hold of a corner, and fold it over to the centre. secure it there with a small dab of glue. serve each of the other corners in turn in similar fashion. now glue on your two cardboard squares--one at the centre of the back and the other in the front, covering the folded corners (fig. ). all you need now is a stout pin to push through the centre of the cards into the end of a stick. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] now if you nail two strips of wood in the form of a cross, and pin on four or five differently coloured wheels, you will have a jolly little toy for which baby will thank you (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .] _n.b._--we shall frequently mention the word "glue" in the course of this little volume: therefore we had better explain just what we mean. unless we state definitely otherwise, we refer to the prepared glue sold in tubes under various names--"seccotine," "le page's liquid glue" and so on. these adhesives are admirable for all light work. they act best when put on thinly, and allowed partially to dry before the parts are pressed together. a very interesting little toy, which you can make in a few minutes, is the _colour wheel._--take a piece of white cardboard, and from it cut a circle about inches across. now from the middle of this cut another circle about / in. across. this can be done quite easily by putting a sharp-pointed knife blade into the compass in place of a pencil. divide the circle into seven equal parts, and paint or crayon the sections with the colours of the rainbow--red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet. when this is dry, make a large loop of string and put it through the round hole of the card; and hold the ends of the loop one in each hand. now if you turn the string at one end as if you were turning a skipping rope, and then suddenly pull it tight, your card will revolve very rapidly, and you will find that instead of a coloured card you have what appears to be a light grey one. this is really a little piece of science, for it shows that the white light about us is really made up of the different colours of the rainbow (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .] _a simple counting top._--take a piece of cardboard, and on it draw two hexagons having -inch sides. to draw a hexagon, first draw a circle with its radius equal to the length of the side of the hexagon. then without altering the compass measure off the radius six times round the circumference, and join the neighbouring points. now cut out each of these and from each one cut out one triangular section (fig. ). scratch lightly along the other lines with the back of the knife-point. now bend these so as to form two five-sided pyramids. close up the open space by binding the edges together with a strip of gummed paper (fig. ). when you have done this, place the two pyramids base to base, and secure them by means of small strips of gummed paper fixed along the edges. bind all the edges in similar fashion for the sake of uniformity. all that is necessary now is to make a hole at the apex of each pyramid, and push an ordinary safety match through (fig. ). now if you twirl the match in your fingers, and release it suddenly, the top will spin for quite a long time. to use it as a "counting top" or "dice top" paint the numbers to on the five triangular surfaces of the upper pyramid. then when the top ceases spinning, the uppermost number is the one which counts. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] _tents for toy soldiers._--boys who play with lead soldiers often find that, in making up a game, they require some tents for the camp. these are quite easily made either from paper or from calico. their size will depend, of course, upon the size of the soldiers; and it will be quite easy to construct them to measure two or three times the measurements given here. here is a picture of one (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .] first cut out a cardboard circle for the base of the tents, say in. radius. now for the sloping canvas sides--the conical part, that is--draw out another circle, this time with a radius of in. only a part of this will be used; and to know just how much, roll the base circle round the circumference of the larger circle until it has completed one of its own revolutions (see fig. ). in cutting this out, one or two tongues should be left jutting out from the circumference: these fold over the edge of the base circle and secure the sloping sides in position. all we need now is a thin stick, about in. long, to act as a centre pole. this should be glued to the centre of the base, and should have the sloping sides glued around it. a little paper flag at the top will complete the little structure. [illustration: fig. .] most boys, and not a few girls, love to play at "soldiers" and there is no reason why each boy should not make himself a complete suit of armour, so that the game may be more real. _the helmet._--with care this is not at all difficult to make: what difficulty there is lies in the adjustment and the size. first it is necessary to find out the distance round the head. this can be done with a piece of string; or, better still, with a linen inch-tape. suppose the distance round is in.: then the helmet can be made in seven sections, each in. wide at the base. when these are brought together, they converge at the top to form a typical norman headpiece (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .] using stiff paper, cut the seven sections as in fig. . these should be glued together, so that the connecting flanges are inside. (_n.b._--in doing this, it is very necessary to let the glue get nearly dry before pressing the pieces together: if it is quite fresh, the strain will pull the pieces apart.) then at the apex of the sections glue on a circular piece of cardboard, about - / in. across. for the ring at the base, cut a strip, just about in. long, and having ornamented it in any fashion you please, glue the two ends together so as to form a circlet which will just go round the sections. fix this to the seven sections with dabs of glue. [illustration: fig. .] all that is necessary now is a coating of aluminium paint to give just that real dull metallic appearance. if this paint is not available, you can cover with silver paper, but this is not nearly as effective. _the breastplate._--while there is really less to do, and fewer sections to adjust, this presents quite as much difficulty as the helmet. it is best made in two sections. the exact shape can only be decided by trial: roughly, it is that shown in fig. . the best method of procedure is to cut out two of these in newspaper, and fix them together with doll-pins, and then try them on in much the same way as a tailor fits a waist-coat--altering pins and cutting out shapes until the requisite fit is obtained. when this is done the two final sections can be cut out in cardboard (not omitting flanges), glued together and painted. if you are good at painting, you can ornament the two sides with a heraldic device in crimson or gold. [illustration: fig. .] to fix it, when wearing, strings are used. small holes are bored at the four ends (and eyelets fixed in, if you can do so) and knotted strings passed through. tie the bottom pair across the back with a knot (not a "grannie"). now take one of the ends of this, and tie it with a string from one of the shoulder pieces. if the other shoulder piece be tied in similar fashion to the other back string, then the breastplate will be held correctly in position. the strings and all the back gear will be covered by the cloak and mantle, similar to that which knights in olden days wore over their armour. before you put the breastplate on you can tie a towel or apron to come just to the knees: this will take the place of the "surcoat" (and serve to hide your knickers). for "greaves" or leg-armour you can cut out and paint cardboard shapes, like those shown in fig. . these, when fixed with string, look quite well. [illustration: fig. .] while we are talking of soldiers, we may as well give details of _a war game._--most boys are familiar with the game known as "tiddley-winks," in which the object is to make small bone counters hop into a cup by pressing their edges with a large bone counter. these materials can be used for a very interesting war game, consisting of the siege of a fort. the fort is simply a front elevation, similar to that shown in fig. . this is drawn out in pencil on a piece of stout cardboard (or fretwood) and coloured in with paints or crayons. the windows are then cut out; and the whole thing made to stand upright by the addition of two or three triangular supports (fig. ). these are hinged on to the back by means of strong tape or canvas, so that the whole thing can pack up flat. [illustration: fig. .] each player in turn places his small counters (generally six) anywhere in front of the fortress. he is now the attacking party, and his object is to shoot his counters through the different windows. if he succeeds in sending a counter through a window, then he "kills" that number of the enemy. the winner may be either the person who secures the greatest number of "kills" in a certain number of attempts--twenty-four, for instance--or the person who first succeeds in scoring say "kills." any shot missing the fort entirely--_i.e._ going right over or missing at the sides--is a wasted shot, and counts one off the player's score. [illustration: fig. .] we propose to describe how to construct a simple _toy cannon_--one quite easily made at a negligible cost and yet quite effective. the only extra cost will be that of a piece of strong elastic: the remainder being made of such things as cigar-or chocolate-box wood. fig. shows the finished article; and a careful study of this illustration will make clear much of the method of manufacture. [illustration: fig. .] we commence with the stand. this is quite simple, being composed of five pieces of cigar-box wood, a rectangular base, two sides cut as shown, and two small end-pieces to give the sides stability. the measurements you can decide for yourself: we suggest a base in. long and in. wide, and side about - / or in. high, as being suitable to the thickness of cigar-box wood. the cannon itself is not very difficult, if made square instead of cylindrical. the barrel is composed of four pieces of thin wood glued together as shown in fig. . the pieces are about in. long, and are cut and fitted to such a width as will leave a square hole in which the rod can move easily. on the under side of this barrel are fixed two pieces of wood--one about - / in. long and / in. wide at the end near the mouth: to this the elastic will be fixed. the other, a piece about - / in. long and square in section, is fixed about midway along the barrel, and will act as an axle on which the cannon can swing. [illustration: fig. .] the rod by which the shot is ejected should be square in section, and about in. long. at the rear end of it should be fixed two side-pieces to act as stops to prevent the elastic forcing the rod too far into the barrel. a nail driven through these two pieces will prevent the elastic slipping out each time the cannon is fired (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .] all that remains now is the fixing of the elastic. it should be slipped through the slot at the end of the rod, and the two ends fixed as shown in the first illustration. if desired, this cannon can be used in connection with the skittles as described on page , and in fact the pegs can be quite easily carved into the similitude of soldiers and used for the game. it can also find a place in the "cokernut shy" described on page . have you ever tried _making pictures with matches?_--this is a very interesting occupation, and one which will fully test your ingenuity and your patience. instead of using lines drawn with a crayon to suggest a certain object, you replace these lines with match sticks, bent and straight, and so obtain nearly the same effect. you can start with the plain outline of some simple object such as a sailing boat or a truck or a house, and you can then proceed to more difficult shapes, learning how to suggest masses of shadow by placing match sticks closely together. in actual practice, you get a large sheet of brown paper, and move the matches about until the right position is obtained: then you fix the matches to the paper one by one by means of a dab of glue. in time you will astonish everybody (yourself included) by the ease with which you can build up really intricate pictures. specimens accurately done and tastefully mounted make very acceptable little presents (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .] deft fingers and a big fund of patience render it quite possible to construct _models from match sticks_, with the aid of just one or two accessories such as paper and glue. placed side by side, and glued to each other, and to a cardboard or paper foundation, matches (particularly the larger sort) give quite an impression of solidity--which you will notice if you refer to the picture of the cupboard given in fig. . in this a cardboard foundation is made according to fig. , and the matches cut to the correct lengths and glued into position. in making the foundation, draw out carefully as shown, cut through the plain lines, and scratch along the dotted lines. then bend into shape, and secure by means of strips of gummed tape or paper. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] to suggest the panel in the door, glue matches round the outside edges as shown, and leave the cardboard showing in the centre. if you want the door to open outwards, you will have to bevel the edges of the two matches where the cupboard bends, because, by the nature of the model, the hinge (that is, the cardboard itself) is on the inside. in similar fashion you can make countless little objects--all varieties of dolls' furniture and fittings, money boxes, trinket cases, &c. if the matches are stained with bright colours, and tastefully arranged, and the whole varnished, some splendid effects can be obtained. talking thus of matches leads us to the description of another model in connection with the same articles. this is a _novel match striker._--any article which is useful makes a desirable present, especially if it has about it a certain amount of novelty. for instance, a match holder makes a nice little gift, and is generally appreciated. if, however, it is of a type which the recipient has never seen, it will be doubly welcome. one rather novel match holder and striker can be made in the following way. obtain a funny picture--for preference, one that has a large figure in the foreground. fig. shows the type of picture we mean. glue this on to a piece of stout cardboard. suppose the picture shows a man's head. then let his beard act as the striker. to secure this, cut out a piece of fine sandpaper, exactly the shape of the man's beard (or whatever it may be), and glue it into position on the picture. then at the side glue on a little holder for the matches. this can be made of cardboard specially, or an ordinary match-box cover can have the bottom stopped, and be glued on. as far as possible this should be a part of the picture. [illustration: fig. .] all sorts of pictures can be done in this fashion: dogs, with strikers on the tail; pigs, with strikers on the back; elephants; grotesque men, &c. if you like you can glue the picture on to fretwood, and cut out the figure or a part of it, and arrange it, so that it will stand upright on a wooden base. this will tax your own ingenuity. there is in every house one thing out of which the enterprising boy or girl can make any number of models and toys: that is the empty match box. its shape and formation lend themselves to the construction of all sorts of things--houses, trams, dolls' furniture, &c. &c.--the only other requisites being a sharp knife, a ruler, one or two pieces of cardboard (or better still, thin pine veneer), a number of large matches (or better still, match stales).[ ] [ ] these match "stales," which are very useful in toy-making, can be purchased from byrant & may, fairfield works, bow, london, e., at s. per bundle of . the pine veneer costs s. d. per dozen pieces, each ft. in. long. you can start with the simplest form of _railway truck_, consisting merely of the inner part, or tray of a match box, with two match-stick axles glued across the bottom, and four cardboard wheels secured in position by means of "doll pins" (fig. ); and then you can proceed to the most elaborate vehicles, bridges, buildings, furniture, machines, &c. [illustration: fig. .] to give an idea of the method, we show how to put together a small overhead _tram car._--in the first place you want two pieces of veneer or cardboard, measuring - / by - / in. and - / by in.--to act respectively as the lower and upper decks. the actual method of construction can best be understood by a careful study of fig. . the lower deck rests on four cardboard wheels. these are fixed by means of doll pins to two wooden axles (match stales) glued right across the under side of the lower deck. on this the structure is built up with match boxes. three covers are placed lengthways along each side and glued into position. then above these come five match trays, which, when standing up, take up just the same space. these are glued into position, facing outwards, and projecting about / in. beyond the under covers. [illustration: fig. .] across the top of the two sides so formed is glued the second sheet of veneer or cardboard, - / by in., to form the upper deck. five covers placed end to end exactly make up a side for this, and one at each end completes the superstructure. two covers, placed end to end, make a suitable back and front for the lower deck, while two pieces of veneer, - / by - / in., effectively close up the inside of the car. the trolley pole is provided by a wooden skewer, glued to the lower deck, and passing through a hole in the centre of the upper. that completes the tram for all practical purposes. if you desire to make your model more elaborate, you can construct a cardboard or wooden stairway at each end, connecting the upper and lower decks; and you can replace the sheets of veneer at each end of the inside by properly constructed doorways; and so on. another excellent toy, constructed with match boxes--and one very much appreciated by little brothers and sisters--is the _model stores._--once again this will be best understood by reference to the illustration (fig. ). the stores consist of a counter and a back fitment--the two mounted on a base board. for the counter, five complete match boxes should be glued side by side and then mounted on six empty covers. the trays of the five complete boxes should then be given handles to make them into drawers. for these handles nothing can beat a boot button. the small metal loop is pushed through a hole in the end of the tray, and then secured in position by means of a tiny wooden wedge pushed through the loop on the inside. [illustration: fig. .] the back fitment consists of a block of twenty covers, five in a row, and four rows deep. these are glued into position. the two lower rows are deprived of their trays to make storage partitions, and the two upper are fitted with handles as above. surmounting this block is an upper fitment consisting of five trays glued together so as to stand upright at the back of the block, leaving a free shelf in front (as in most grocers' shops). finally there is a row of three trays placed endways on the top of the five just mentioned. for "playing at shops" a little model like this is invaluable. _a red-cross cart._--for this a large empty match tray is required. across the under side a short length of match stale is glued, to act as an axle for the two wheels. these can be cut from either veneer or cardboard. a good plan is to cut out a circle in fairly stiff cardboard, and glue a covering of veneer on each side; this adds to the appearance of the wheel and makes it stiffer. if veneer alone is used, two circles must be cut out for each wheel, and glued together with the grain at right angles. the wheels should be fixed in position with doll pins. for the tilt a piece of veneer bent over and glued to the inner sides of the match box will do quite well. the red cross may be painted on, but will look considerably better if cut from some light red paper and stuck on. all that remains is to supply the shafts. for this two pieces of stale of the requisite length should be glued to the under side of the body of the cart. fig. shows the completed model. [illustration: fig. .] another military model, slightly more difficult to adjust, is _a maxim gun._--for this two wheels, each about - / in. across, must be constructed in the manner described above. the body of the machine is easier to make than describe. fig. shows the under side. a small match box is taken and along one long edge of the top a piece of stale is glued, projecting / in. at each end. this stale is the axle. two full-length stales are then glued so that they meet at the end furthest from the axle. to render these projecting pieces more stable, a triangular piece of veneer is glued across them at the place of meeting. [illustration: fig. .] the two wheels are then fixed in position by means of doll pins. for the front of the machine a screen is required, and a piece of veneer or card is cut as shown in fig. , and glued to the front edge of the match box. through the hole in this screen will project the actual gun itself. for this a piece of wooden skewer or slender dowel will do. this can be attached to the top of the box by means of glue, and can be wedged up into a horizontal position if found to slant too much. [illustration: fig. .] a coat of dull grey paint will add greatly to the realistic appearance of this interesting little toy. many other things can be made, too, for use when playing with toy soldiers. one such model is _a step bridge_, as shown in fig. . this is a very pretty little model, and one quite delightful to make. for it we require four - / in. or - / in. match boxes, a piece of cardboard or veneer, and some match stales. [illustration: fig. .] the cardboard should be cut to the width of the match box that is, either - / in. or - / in., and to a length of - / in. at each end of this should be glued the side of a match box. in this way the actual bridge itself is formed. the step is provided at each end by a match box, lying down, and glued to the standing box. the remaining task is the cutting and fitting of the match stales to provide the railings--and this is the part requiring great care. reference to the sketch will give a much better idea of the design than any amount of explanation. the stales will be cut to the following lengths: two at - / in., eight at - / in., and four at in. you can finish off your model by pointing some of the stales; but this is not at all necessary if you have used a sharp knife and made clean cuts. if in fitting up the stales you find the glue is not sufficient, you can strengthen the important joints by use of doll pins. one other splendid use to which match boxes and stales can be put is the provision of the lighter sorts of furniture for the dolls' house. we give two examples typical of the extent to which these simple materials may be applied. _a doll's umbrella stand_ is a very happy little idea--very simple but extremely effective. at the two ends of a small match-box tray, long stales are glued, projecting underneath to act as short legs to keep the tray from the ground. near the top of these upright stales, four others are fixed to act as a strengthening frame. these last should be secured in place with doll pins in addition to the ordinary dab of tube glue. then across the frame so made should be fixed one or two short lengths of stale in order to divide the stand into two or three compartments. fig. shows the completed stand. [illustration: fig. .] _a doll's fender_ is another article of similar type. for this we require a cardboard or veneer base and a number of stales. the base is cut out so as to measure at the most in. in length; in. by - / in. is a very suitable size. now on three sides this will have a rail, constructed with stales alone. a pillar is required about / in. from each corner: this pillar should be about / in. high. stretching from pillar to pillar and glued to the base will be three pieces--one a long one, approximately - / in. long, and the other two short ones, about / in. in length. above these, and not far below the tops of the pillars, will be fixed a parallel series of long and short rails, fixed into position with doll pins and glue. very short pieces glued into an upright position between the two long parallel rails add to the stability of the structure and improve the appearance (fig. ). if you can stain the different pieces with black and brown to represent iron and copper, then a very effective representation of a fender will be obtained. [illustration: fig. .] with a little ingenuity a set of fireirons--poker, tongs, and shovel--can be devised and constructed from match stales. in similar fashion countless other objects can be copied in miniature with most pleasing results. we have not space here to detail the construction of any more; but we would suggest that some of the following might be attempted: bedstead, table, chair, deck chair (folding), camp bed (folding). the construction of one or two of these will doubtless suggest many more, and reveal to the reader the boundless possibilities of this peculiarly fascinating pastime. there is another broken household article on which the young toy-maker may not cast eyes of scorn, and that is the broken clothes peg. in skilful hands, this is capable of reconstruction to very useful ends. in the first place, if you can use a pocket-knife with some degree of skill, you will be able to chip out of a few broken pegs quite a respectable set of _chess men._--the pegs must be sawn across cleanly just through the centre of the knob end: they will then stand upright. a few clean cuts with a pocket-knife will quite easily suggest a king or a castle or a bishop. the knight will, of course, provide most in the way of difficulty--as he is generally shown with a horse's head. a few painstaking attempts, however, should result in the obtaining of a credible likeness. fig. shows the construction of a "pawn." [illustration: fig. .] _skittle men._--another piece of work for the pocket-knife expert is the provision of a set of funny skittle men for use in the game of catapult skittles (see below). these can be cut out to any quaint shape, and may be caricatures of well-known people, or of trades, &c. much amusement can be got out of the cutting and painting of these grotesque little figures. hats can be provided for them by glueing on little rings of cardboard (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .] _a catapult game._--probably every boy knows what a catapult is--and what fun there is in the using of it. happy young fingers pull back the powerful elastic, and bright eyes watch the stone go whizzing away. there is a fluttering of white wings: something falls; and there, lying in the road, is a motionless lump of flesh and feathers--all that remains of what was a beautiful little bird, pouring out its heart in joyful song. boys who think for a minute will not want to use the catapult in that cruel fashion: they will prefer a game in which no harm is done, in which no innocent creature is harmed, but which provides just as much fun. "catapult skittles" is such a game. it consists simply of a board with a catapult at one end, and a set of skittles at the other. the broken peg skittles dealt with above will do admirably for this (fig. ). the catapult itself can also be made with two pegs. these should be cut off cleanly at the forks. two holes, about in. apart, should then be bored in the base board (for this, a piece of plank about ft. or ft. long will do quite well), and the pegs screwed on (see fig. on page ). [illustration: fig. .] for ammunition all you need is an unlimited number of little pieces of cardboard, folded in two. these carry well, are quite heavy enough to upset the skittles, and, above all, are not likely to hurt, even if they do strike a player. if you wish to vary the game slightly, you can rig up a "cokernut shy" in place of the skittles. this you will find very popular at christmas time, particularly if you play for the nuts. for this you want some wire hoops on which to stand the nuts. to make these, take a piece of stiff wire about in. long and bend one end in the shape of a small circle, about / in. across. now bend this loop so that it is at right angles to the wire; then when the wire is upright the circle will be horizontal (fig. ). sharpen the other end with a file. make three or four like this, and then some more an inch shorter, and a third lot two inches shorter. these must then be driven into the other end of the catapult board so that they are not too close together; otherwise the game is too easy. [illustration: fig. .] now all you need is a cardboard shelter. this can be oblong at the ends and triangular at the sides; but the shape is quite immaterial so long as the "shy" is properly shut in. fig. shows a suitable arrangement. [illustration: fig. .] another tip-top game, for the making of which you can use broken clothes pegs, is the "_ring-board_" or "_indoor quoits_." this consists simply of a board with a number of pegs projecting from it. the object of the game is to throw a number of rings in such a fashion that they will lodge on the pegs, scoring points according to the numbers marked at each peg. the board may be hung on the wall, or else placed flat on the floor. in the former case, the pegs must have a slightly upward slant, so that the rings will not tumble off easily; in the latter the rings must be upright. to make either game, obtain a piece of wood about in. square. you will probably need to join up boards for this. if you get three pieces of -in. board, each in. long, and secure these side by side by means of a couple of battens, nailed right across the back, the result will be a square of the right size (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .] now mark out the board as in fig. . at the points where the dotted lines cross you will fix the projecting pegs. [illustration: fig. .] for these last take some broken pegs, and saw them off cleanly, just above the fork. if the board is to be a ground board, cut them quite level; if an upright board, then slightly slanting (fig. ). these must be secured in place by long thin screws driven in from the back--the correct holes having been bored in the base board. now give each peg a number--assigning the higher numbers to the more difficult pegs--and paint the number on the back board close to the peg. [illustration: fig. .] for rings various things can be used. old brass curtain rings are suitable in some respects, especially for the ground game, but they are very noisy. thick india-rubber rings are frequently used, and can be purchased quite cheaply at any "games" shop. rings made of stout cord, or thin rope, are frequently played with, especially on board ship, where the ground game is very popular. should there be any difficulty in obtaining or making any of these, then it is a very simple matter to cut rings from a sheet of thick cardboard. the great objection to the upright game is the nuisance of the falling rings. this may be avoided partly by constructing a cardboard "catcher" to fit underneath. this is simply a cardboard triangle, or rather two right-angled triangles joined together by tape so as to bend easily and be strong: these are nailed to the two under edges of the board (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .] another splendid shooting toy is the _dart box_. for this you need a wooden box of some sort. size and shape do not matter very much, but a box with ends roughly square would do best: one in. long, in. wide, and in. deep would be admirable for the purpose. on the inside of one end paint a target, and number each division, assigning higher numbers to the spots more difficult to hit (fig. ). now in the centre of the opposite end bore a circular hole with a diameter of about / in.; and across this, on the outside of the box, fasten a strong piece of ribbon elastic--nailing down each end with a piece of wood (fig. ). for the dart, take a butcher's wooden skewer, and into the pointed end introduce a piece of a stout needle. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] when shooting with this toy, hold the box firmly, open the lid, fit the dart in the hole from the inside, and draw back the elastic. when you have taken careful aim, close down the lid and let go. this is a capital toy, and provides endless amusement. also it is a very desirable one as far as shooting is concerned, for the closing down of the lid ensures perfect safety. while talking of making things from clothes pegs, we may as well give particulars of one or two things which will appeal rather more to our girl readers. _a key rack_ such as that shown in fig. is just such an article as a girl would take a delight in making, because of its simplicity and its prettiness. [illustration: fig. .] the only materials required are two pegs, some hooks, and a length of ribbon. take the two pegs--which should be nicely turned ones--and wedge the prongs one within the other so that the pegs remain fixed at right angles. in doing this, push the pegs in tightly, but take care not to split the pegs in so doing. using a bradawl, make a hole through the junction of the prongs, and screw in a hook: the common sort as used on dressers, &c., will do quite well. now bore holes midway between the junction and the knobs, and screw in two more hooks. if now a coat of enamel be given to the pegs--say green in colour--and if ribbons (pale blue) be tastily arranged as shown in the sketch, then a very pretty and useful little article will result. yet another splendid little article from pegs is a _picture postcard stand_, for which the only necessities will be two pegs and a piece of wood for a base (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .] this base should be about - / in. long and about - / in. wide. it can be cut from wood of any thickness, but a piece about / in. thick is the most suitable. find the centre of each end edge of the base, and draw a line right across the wood. if now you measure in one inch from each end you will get the two spots to which to affix the pegs. these last must first of all have one prong removed, or rather enough of a prong to leave a quarter-inch stump projecting. this stump should be rounded with a sharp knife, and then the whole peg should be finished off with glass-paper. these pegs must then be fixed knob downwards on to the base. fig. on page shows a suitable method for this. if you are at all skilful with your tools you will be able to cut a nice moulding round the edge of the base, and so improve the artistic effect of your model. two thin coats of varnish, or of good enamel, will complete this attractive little article. one little wooden toy, quite interesting in itself, and very useful when playing with "soldiers," is _the windlass._--some odd pieces of lath or cigar-box wood, a cotton reel, a length of string, some stout wire, and some glue and pins, provide all the necessaries. the cotton reel should be the largest obtainable. fig. shows the completed work. first of all, make a square base for the windlass. if the reel is in. long, cut off four lengths of lath (or four inch-strips of cigar-wood box) each in. long, and glue these into a hollow square, two under and two over. now cut off two more lengths, in. long, for the upright supports--making the top ends pointed to hold the slanting covers. [illustration: fig. .] before these side-pieces are glued and pinned into position, it will be necessary to insert the reel. get a piece of skewer, or lead pencil, in. long, and glue it into the hole in the reel. at one end of the axle so formed will be placed the handle. this can be made in several ways, either with wood or wire, or a mixture of the two (figs. , , show some varieties, which may also be useful in making other toys). holes just large enough to allow the axle to turn freely must then be cut in the side supports. the two slanting covers should be about in. long, so as to allow a trifle to project at each end, and should be from / in. to in. wide. the two edges which meet to form the apex of the cover should be bevelled off so as to form a clean join. in making this model it would perhaps be as well to use carpenter's glue in place of the prepared stuff. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] from the material supplied by one or two empty cigar boxes, many interesting things can be made, especially articles for use with dolls--cradles, carts, furniture, &c. if these articles are of no use to you, they come in very handy for presents to little sisters and friends, especially when well made and carefully finished. _a doll's cradle_ is perhaps one of the simplest to commence with. to a box from which the lid has been removed, it is only necessary to add two rockers. these can be cut out from the lid by means of a fret saw, and then smoothed down with glass-paper. fig. shows the best shape for the rockers, which should be glued on about an inch from each end of the box (fig. ). great care should be taken that the two rockers are as nearly alike as possible, otherwise the cradle will not swing to and fro freely. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] _a doll's cart_ is also comparatively easy to make, the only really trying part being the cutting of the four wheels. for the body of the cart use a cigar box which has been deprived of its lid, and planed down level round the edges. to the under side of this body, and about one inch from each end, glue two pieces of wood to which to fix the wheels. strengthen these joins by means of short pins driven through. fix the wheels to these pieces by means of pins (fig. ). in order to support these two wheel-holders, stretch another piece across the space between them, at right angles to each, gluing it firmly to the two centres. [illustration: fig. .] the wheels should be cut with a fret saw, if you possess one. if you do not possess one, then draw out the circle on the wood, and cut the square containing the circle. then saw off the corners to form an eight-sided figure, and go on cutting off corners until you get down to the circle, which you can finish off with glass-paper (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .] a little hook or ring should be attached at the bottom of one end, in order that a string may be tied on, and the vehicle drawn along. _a jack-in-the-box._--one of the most old-fashioned of toys, this never loses its interest. the box required for it is practically cubical: therefore four-inch squares of cigar-box wood must be cut out. two of these will need to be cut down to - / in. in width, so that the four-inch bottom and lid will fit: so from two squares cut a strip / in. wide. glue and pin together the two - / pieces and two of the four-inch pieces to form a hollow square. to this will be fixed one of the other four-inch pieces to form a bottom; and at the other end the remaining four-inch piece will be hinged (or wired on like the lid of a chocolate box). before the bottom is finally put on, it will be necessary to attach the mechanism. for this you will require a strong piece of spring about in. long when released, and a doll's head. one end of the spring must be fixed to the centre of the base. you can do this by means of tiny wire staples (bent pins with the heads nipped off) hammered over the wire into the base, and then bent back on the opposite side of the wood (fig. ). at the other end of the spring a piece of cardboard must be fixed, and to it the doll's head must be firmly glued. when the mechanism is complete, nail on the bottom, and fix the lid. [illustration: fig. .] into the centre of the front edge of the lid drive a small nail, or stout pin, and on the box just below fix a revolving catch hook. this you can quite easily cut from an old piece of fairly thick tin (fig. ). in this way an effective means is provided of releasing the lid and enabling the "jack" to shoot out suddenly. [illustration: fig. .] _the jig-saw puzzle_ was at one time a very popular toy, and there are signs that its popularity is being revived. if it does not interest you particularly, it will provide a little brother or sister with endless amusement. in reality the puzzle consists merely of a picture (generally an interesting coloured one) glued very firmly to a piece of fretwood or cigar-box wood. this is then by means of a fret saw cut into a great many pieces, shaped as quaintly and awkwardly as possible (see fig. ). these pieces are then jumbled up into disorder, and passed on to the little one in order that the shapes may be fitted into place and the original picture reconstructed. [illustration: fig. .] somewhat after the style of the "jig-saw" puzzle just described is the _geometrical puzzle_ shown in fig. . each of these consists of a capital letter divided up by one or two straight lines into right-angled triangles and other geometrical shapes. while very simple to look at when completed, these little puzzles are by no means easy to solve when the odd pieces are given in a jumbled state. the capital letters should be drawn on a piece of cigar-box wood, and then carefully cut out with a fret saw, or, better still, with a tenon saw if you have one. if you cannot manage wood, then the puzzle can be done in stout cardboard and cut out with a sharp thin knife. [illustration: fig. .] of other cheaply made puzzles _the reels and string puzzle_ is highly entertaining. the only materials required for it are the lid of a cigar box, two cotton reels, two beads, and a length of smooth string or thin silk cord. the making is simplicity itself. all you need do is cut the lid in halves and bore three holes in a line in one of the halves. of course you can ornament your wood as much as you like, but that will in no way increase or decrease the effectiveness of the puzzle. when you have cut it out and finished it off nicely with glass-paper, thread the beads and reels as shown in fig. . take special care that you do not make any mistake in the arrangement, or your solution will result in a hopeless tangle. [illustration: fig. .] the object of the puzzle is to get the two cotton reels, which, as you see, are now on quite separate loops, on to one loop. to solve it proceed as follows: take hold of the centre loop, and pull it down to its full extent. now pass the right-hand reel through the loop. taking care not to twist the cord, pass this loop through the hole on the right-hand side, over the bead, and then draw it back again. now if you follow the same procedure with the left-hand reel you will find that the centre loop is released and can be pulled through the centre hole. then will the two reels slide down side by side. one thoroughly entertaining and, to a certain extent, bewildering puzzle is _the three-hole puzzle._--really the puzzle consists of a piece of thin wood with three holes cut in it. these three holes are respectively circular, square, and triangular (fig. ). the problem is to cut one block of wood which will pass through each hole and at the same time fit the hole exactly. [illustration: fig. .] can it be done? at first it looks to be quite impossible; but there is a very neat solution to the difficulty. first cut out your holes. to do this get a cigar-box lid and draw out the three figures, taking care that the length of the side of the square and the length of the side of the triangle and the length of the diameter of the circle are equal. now, using your fret saw, cut out these holes very neatly and precisely. for the block you need a small cylinder of wood: an odd piece of broken broom handle will do admirably. this must be cut and finished with glass-paper so that it will fit the circular hole exactly. now saw a piece just as long as the cylinder is wide. this looked at in one way gives an exact square which will fit the second hole. thus two holes are catered for. finally, for the third hole the cylinder must be tapered on two sides. to do this draw a diameter at one end and then gradually pare away a flat surface till the triangular section is obtained. fig. shows how the block, when turned in different ways, fits the three holes. [illustration: fig. .] another toy which can be made quite easily from cigar-box wood is _a model signal._--first cut two strips of wood, half an inch wide and as long as you can get them, which will be or in. these will stand upright on a base board, and form the sides of the standard. now between these two you must glue shorter pieces of half-inch strip, so as to make the standard solid at the top and bottom, and leave a hollow slot, in. long, in which the signal arm will fit and work up and down (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .] now cut out and paint a signal arm, about - / in. long. fix this by means of a pin passing through the two sides of the standard, and through the arm about / in. from the square end. if it does not move easily in the slot, take off the top surface with glass-paper. before fixing the signal arm in position, bore a small hole / in. from the square end, and knot in a piece of twine or thin wire to act as a connection between the movable arm and the controlling lever (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .] at the base of the standard fix the controlling lever. this consists of a small strip, with a pin passing through one end into the standard. adjust the length of the twine or wire, so that when the signal arm is down, the lever is horizontal; and when the lever is pressed down, the arm rises. you can make a little contrivance for fixing the lever by erecting a small post close to the standard, and gluing on two stops, under which to rest the free end of the lever in its two positions (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .] if you prefer it, you can have the controlling lever at a distance from the signal post. you will then need a longer wire, and a little pulley wheel at the base of the standard. you must exercise your own ingenuity for this. another interesting little scientific toy, which has the additional advantage of being useful, is the _weather house_, or the _man and woman barometer_. this consists of a little house with two doorways, at which appear two figures, one in fine weather, and the other in dull (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .] with patience and care this is not very difficult to make. for the house itself you can use an old cigar box, or, if you prefer it, you can make the entire house in cardboard. this is, of course, easier, but not very durable. if you are going to use the cigar box, you will need first to cut the lid and bottom into something like the shape of a house end. you will then have to nail the lid down, and add two slanting pieces for the sides of the roof: and that will complete the house. however, before you nail down the lid and put on the roof, you will need to understand the mechanism. first you will bore a round hole in the top of the roof, just behind the front gable. this hole is for a round peg to which the revolving base is attached. the actual mechanism of the toy consists of a piece of catgut (an old violin string, or a tennis-racket string). this passes through the centre of a small flat piece of wood on which the two figures are balanced. just in front of the string a piece of wire (a bent hairpin will do admirably) is fixed, so as to form a loop through which the catgut can pass (see fig. ). the other end of the catgut is fixed to the peg which fits in the hole in the roof. [illustration: fig. .] for the man and woman you can use two of the grotesque figures cut from clothes pegs. screws passed through the revolving base will secure the figures firmly and at the same time add a little weight, and so improve the balance. when there is moisture in the air the catgut will twist. you must fit together the different parts and then, by turning the peg to right or left, adjust the position of the figures so that the lady appears in fine weather and the gentleman in wet. a toy of unfailing attraction for boys--and girls as well--is _the marble board._--this may be quite a simple affair--such as a boy can carry in his pocket for use in the playground--just a piece of wood, such as a cigar-box lid, with a number of holes cut along one edge, and a handle added (fig. ); or it may be a much more elaborate form intended for use as a table game. [illustration: fig. .] in this latter case there is a front board, similar to that in the simple form; but behind each hole there is a little compartment for the collection of the marbles (fig. ). to make this you need two pieces of wood, about in. wide, and as long as the table is broad: any sort of wood will do. these are for the front and back of the contrivance. the front must next be marked out for the marble holes, allowing about in. for the hole and in. for the space between. of course, the wider the spaces between the more difficult it becomes to score. these holes must then be cut out by means of a fret saw, or, if you do not possess one, by means of saw and chisel. the back and front must then be secured in position by means of end-pieces nailed or screwed on. these should be about in. long. [illustration: fig. .] the next piece of work is the adjustment of the partitions. for these cigar-box wood is best. you can either cut these partitions to the exact distance between the front and the back, and glue them into position; or else you can make them a little larger, and fit them into grooves cut into the front and back: but that is a nice little piece of carpentry for you. when you have done this, all that is necessary is to give the whole thing a coat of paint, and place numbers over the various holes--taking care that you do not put all the high numbers together. boards similar to this are used in the colonies for a game known as "bobs." larger balls are used, and propelled by means of a cue as in billiards. if you can obtain the balls, this is a delightful game, and one well worth making. _a wooden wind wheel_ for the garden is a splendid little model to make--interesting in itself, but doubly desirable because so much can be done with it. of course, it can be made quite small and very simple, and still provide unending amusement to smaller brothers and sisters; but for our own purpose it is just as well to make a larger and stronger specimen, one which can be employed as a power station for the working of smaller toys. the main parts are: ( ) a circular hub, about - / to in. in diameter, and to - / in. in thickness (for the smaller varieties a cotton reel will do admirably); ( ) six or eight sails, each about or in. long and in. wide at the extreme end, tapering down to a little more than the width of the hub at the other; ( ) a hardwood axle; and ( ) a driving wheel. for this last a cotton reel will do splendidly, especially one of those with wide flanges and a slender centre. the general arrangement is shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. .] the cutting of the hub is not a very difficult matter if you have a fret saw. it should be cut across the grain if you can get a suitable piece of wood. the sails also are quite easy to make. for these you cannot beat cigar-box wood. the cutting of the grooves in the hub for the insertion of the sails is the most trying piece of work. these grooves should be just large enough to allow the sails to fit tightly, and should be cut at an angle of ° across the hub. the sails should then be glued in with carpenter's glue. for the axle secure a piece of round wood, such as an odd length of half-inch dowel-rod. this should be cut to a length of about - / to in. on this should be fixed the wheel itself, and, at a sufficient distance to prevent the sails catching the string, the bearing wheel. a french nail in each end of the axle will then secure it in position between the side supports and secure an easy running. if you have a play shed in the garden, this apparatus can be erected at the top of a high post projecting through or at the side of the roof. the driving strings can then pass through a hole in the roof or the wall, and the power can be transmitted by a double pulley wheel and another driving string. if you have no play shed, it is not at all difficult to rig it up outside a window. you can try that, and prove your own inventive abilities. _how to use the wind power machine._--one thing which this mechanism will drive in good fashion is an overhead tramway system--a very pretty little toy when in working order. for this all that is required is a number of cotton reels, a length of stout cord, and one or two of the model trams described on page . if you care to, you can make proper "standards" for the cotton reels. fig. shows such an arrangement. the flat base is for heavy weights when the system is rigged up on a table or other place where nails cannot be used. these reels must turn freely to allow the easy passage of the cable. in one place there must be a double reel (fig. ) for the transmission of the power. the lower reel will act as the ordinary cable wheel, while the other, glued firmly to it, will carry the driving belt from the wind machine described above. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] the model trams must be fixed to the cable. this is done by means of two wires, fixed to the pole of the tram and twined round the cable. when this is connected up and the cable drawn tightly round the standard reels, the vehicles circulate rapidly on what is really a complete model tramway system. another interesting contrivance to which the wind power can be harnessed is _a roundabout._--this attractive little toy can be made quite readily from one or two reels, and four ordinary wooden skewers. the first thing required is a base board, for which any tolerably smooth and heavy piece of wood will suffice. now in the centre of this fix an upright piece of thick wire (a knitting needle will do); and glue on a cotton reel at the base of this. in order to secure the absolutely smooth running of the roundabout it will be necessary to improvise some sort of "bearings." for this there is nothing better than two hard glass beads. if one of these beads be sunk into the top of the reel just mentioned, and the other fixed in the bottom of another loose reel, the upper one will revolve freely on the lower (fig. ). this loose reel will be the driving wheel of the contrivance and will hold the power band from the wind wheel. fixed to this running wheel, and immediately above, will be another reel for the actual merry-go-round. into the sides of this uppermost reel bore four holes, and insert the pointed ends of the four skewers, arranging them so that all four are at right angles. the running will be facilitated if another glass bead is sunk in the top of this reel. [illustration: fig. .] all that remains now to complete the roundabout is to fix four figures--horses, boats, or similar--at one end of each skewer. these figures can be drawn on cardboard and cut out; or they can be sawn from fretwood. another interesting variation of this toy is the _fairy light wheel._--for this, instead of fixing figures at the ends of the skewers, obtain four egg shells, and suspend them by means of wires from the ends of the arms (fig. ). now if little night-lights or odd ends of candle be placed in the egg shells and lighted, a very pretty effect is obtained when the whole is made to revolve. [illustration: fig. .] a toy which is always welcome to boys and girls is _a pair of scales._--moreover this is a toy which can be made quite accurately with the aid of a few quite ordinary materials. to a pair of scales--or a balance, as it is sometimes called--there are generally these parts: ( ) a balancing arm, generally called the beam; ( ) an upright standard on which the beam is supported; ( ) two scale pins, and chains (or strings) to suspend them; ( ) a base board to which the upright standard is fixed. fig. shows the sort of thing we mean. [illustration: fig. .] now of these things not one presents any real difficulty. for the base board any piece of wood about a foot long, in. wide, and / in. thick will do quite well. for the upright standard you require a piece of wood about in. long and in. square--one end of which must be fixed to the base board. the method of doing this will depend very largely on your degree of proficiency in the art of carpentry. if you know how to make a mortise and tenon joint, that will be the most suitable. if you cannot attain to that, then perhaps you can make a hole just as large as the standard, and sink the standard in the base. if you are not at all an expert, then you must just nail or screw your standard to the centre of the base. before you do this, however, there is something to be done to the other end. you must cut a slot / in. wide and - / in. deep (fig. _a_); then you must cut away small triangular pieces from the centres of the tongues left (fig. _b_); and finally you must nail to the sides of the v so formed two little strips of tin (fig. _c_). [illustration: fig. .] the next thing to be constructed is the "beam." for this you will need a piece of fretwood (or other thin wood) about or in. long and about in. wide. to support this on the metal v pieces you will need a thin piece of steel--such as a piece of an old pocket-knife blade. this will be driven through the centre of the beam, and will project equally on either side (fig. ). remember, it must fit tightly; so when you cut the slot for it, do not make it too wide. [illustration: fig. .] for the scale pans two canister lids will do quite well. bore three holes in each of the rims--measuring off the distances with a compass, so that the holes are equally far apart, and suspend the pans by means of three strings passing into holes in the ends of the beam. if, when you have completed the work, the beam does not hang perfectly horizontal, then you must add weight or subtract weight from one side or the other. you can do this by paring off tiny pieces from the end of the beam, or you can stick on dabs of sealing wax till the correct balance is obtained. if you cannot get any proper _weights_, then it is not a very difficult matter to make some. to do this, all that you need is to get some cardboard and a supply of sand, and to borrow a complete set of weights. first of all make a number of little cardboard cubes, having sides varying from / in. to in. draw each one out on cardboard (fig. ); cut it out; and bind up with gummed tape--leaving one side ungummed. on one pan of the balance put this thing, and on the other pan put a proper weight (say / oz). now pour in sand into the little cube until it exactly balances the correct weight. when it does, wet the binding, and stick down the remaining side. finally print the correct weight on one face of the cube. [illustration: fig. .] in similar fashion you can proceed to make all the different weights that you are likely to require, from / oz. upwards. while not very substantial, these little weights will last quite a long time, if they are handled with care. engines of all sorts are always fascinating to boys and girls, and later on we shall describe some excellent ones. at this point we wish to describe what is possibly one of the simplest forms of engine known, and certainly one of the earliest. it is the engine driven by a flanged wheel, which itself is made to turn by the weight of something falling on the flanges. the commonest form of this wheel is the water wheel, where the weight of the water falling on the wheel causes the revolution. as water is generally a "messy" thing to operate with, especially on such a contrivance as this, we have substituted something else. for the working of very light toys, sand provides an alternative motive power. if a flanged wheel be made after the fashion of a water wheel, and a steady stream of sand allowed to descend on to the flanges, then the wheel will rotate as long as the supply of sand lasts, and the power may be transmitted by pulley wheels for the working of some simple mechanism. fig. shows _a sand-power engine._--the large driving wheel consists of two circles of thick cardboard, each about in. across, firmly glued together. these two circles are bevelled, and fixed facing inwards, so that a groove is left in which the power band can run. [illustration: fig. .] through the centre of the driving wheel thus fashioned a piece of dowelling or old lead pencil is fixed, projecting / in. on one side, and about - / in. on the other. nails are driven in the two ends of this axle, and the wheel is suspended between supports, glued and screwed firmly to a base board. the flanged sand wheel is next constructed. for this, four oblong pieces of cardboard, - / in. wide and about in. long, are cut out. a line is scratched along each of these about / in. from the end, and the cardboard bent so as to form a scoop to hold the sand for an instant. these four flanges are then glued to the axle, and the side of the driving wheel. if the sand wheel so made is not sufficiently firm, then another small cardboard circle can be glued to the flanges, on the side remote from the driving wheel: this will strengthen the wheel and in no way interfere with the running. all that is necessary now is to erect some sort of sand supply: for this a large canister will do. a tiny hole must be punched in the bottom of the tin, and a revolving trap made with another piece of tin. this is simple enough: all you need to do is cut a piece of tin about / in. long and / in. wide, and punch a hole in one end. this pierced tin should then be placed so that the unbroken end of the slip covers the supply hole. a forked rivet should then be passed through the hole in the slip and through the bottom of the canister and fixed in place (fig. ); the trap can then be made to revolve, and the sand supply started or stopped at will. the canister should be placed above the wheel so that a thin stream falls on the flanges and turns the wheel. [illustration: fig. .] if a string be now passed round the outside edge of the driving wheel, the mechanism can be harnessed to any toy and the motive power supplied. for instance, the contrivance can be erected on a flat hull similar to that shown in fig. , page ; and the power band, passing through a hole in the centre of the hull, can be connected with the propeller by means of a rod (in place of the elastic). the resultant machine, though not highly efficient, is yet quite attractive. another material from which some delightful toys can be contrived is "tin," or, as it is more correctly called, "tinned iron." this is the stuff cocoa tins and mustard tins and many other articles are made of. perhaps the simplest toy we can commence with is _a rotating snake._--for this secure a clean flat piece of thin tin--the piece which the little patent cutter removes from the top of a round cigarette tin will do admirably--and, using a soft lead pencil, draw on it a spiral snake, such as is shown in fig. . now cut along the lines with a stout pair of scissors, or else with a sharp-pointed knife. pull out the resultant spiral till it is stretched as in fig. , and mount it by means of the tail on an upright piece of pointed stout wire. the serpent will rotate on this for a considerable time. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] if you are good at bent-wire work, you will be able to make a wire stand by which to fix it on a lamp chimney or gas globe: it will then revolve continuously, and with considerable speed. _a tin-can steam roller._--this is a nice piece of metal work, and, when finished well, provides a proper little toy. to construct it you need several tins--a round tin, such as a cocoa tin, about in. across and in. long; an oblong tin, about - / in. by in. by in., such as the larger-sized mustard tins; a round cigarette tin, about - / in. across and - / in. deep; two equal-sized tin lids from canisters, each about in. across; and a cotton reel. these, the main items, when put together, yield a model similar to that shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. .] the fixing is quite a simple affair. with a pair of metal shears (or strong scissors) you cut away a portion of the top of the cocoa tin, so as to leave three tongues. then on the side of the oblong mustard tin you mark three lines to correspond with the three tongues, and cut them through so as to form three slots into which the tongues may fit. now, if the tongues be bent outwards or inwards, then the two tins will hold firmly together, and give the boiler and cab of the machine (fig. ). before bending these, however, it is necessary to bore a hole in the under side of the boiler for the fixing of the front roller. this is attached to the boiler by means of a narrow strip of tin bent twice at right angles, and kept in place by means of a forked brass rivet or a strong brass paper fastener so that it will revolve freely. this narrow strip of tin just fits over the cigarette tin--a piece of knitting needle being used as axle, passing through holes bored in the centre of the bottom and lid of the tin, and through the ends of the slip. for the larger rear wheels the lids of two canisters can be used, or, if something is required giving a more definite impression of solidity, two flat boot-polish tins can be substituted. another piece of knitting needle passes through the centre of these, and through holes in the sides of the cab, and so acts as axle. this is kept in place by means of dabs of sealing wax. for the stack you can use a long thin cotton reel, or, better still, you can fix on another small tin by the method shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. .] the turning of the front wheel can be regulated by means of two strings passing from the two right-angle strips through a hole into the cab. if you can fix the strings to a piece of wood as shown in fig. , you will be able to steer properly. a hole in the bottom of the cab, and a piece of wood stretched tightly across the top, should enable you to set up the steering apparatus. [illustration: fig. .] _a working motor boat._--to construct a motor boat that will travel a considerable distance is not really a difficult matter. all that is necessary is a piece of board for a hull, a wood or metal propeller, and a yard or two of strong elastic: these, carefully adjusted, will do all that is necessary. for the hull, a piece of / in. or / in. board, about in. long will do. this can be cut to the boat shape by means of a pocket knife or a spokeshave, and finished off with glass-paper. it should be sharp-pointed at the bows, about in. to in. at the centre, tapering down to a width of in. at the stern. in the centre of the hull nail a block of wood, and to it glue two funnels (fig. ). for these, the odd lengths cut off from bamboo curtain poles will do admirably; or, if these be not obtainable, a couple of incandescent-mantle cases will suffice. [illustration: fig. .] the adjustment of the motive power is the difficult task. first, you will need to purchase a couple of yards of suitable elastic: this is sold at most large toy shops, and costs usually a penny a yard. to fix this into place beneath the hull you will need to construct two metal supports. if you can get an old tin box made from metal sufficiently stout, that will do; if not, then you had better buy a piece of sheet brass, no. gauge: in. by in. will be ample. draw out these supports as shown in figs. and , and bend them into shape as in figs. and --one for the bow and one for the stern. screw on the bow one about - / in. or in. from the point, and the stern one in the middle of the end. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] now into the bow support fix a loop of stout wire to hold the rubber strands, making it sufficiently large to rest against the sides and so prevent turning. at the stern support adjust the propeller bearings. on the care with which these are adjusted depends largely the success of the model. take a piece of wire ( / -inch brass is best) and bend it as in fig. , introducing a hard smooth glass bead. this "bead" runs more freely against the metal, and so facilitates the working. now stretch the elastic between the two loops, arranging it so that there are six or eight strands. to work the model, turn the propeller round and round till the strands of elastic are very tightly twisted, place on the surface of the water, and then release the propeller. fig. shows the completed model. [illustration: fig. .] all boys love a toy that "goes"; and so a short account showing how to make _a steamboat_ that will actually travel on the water will be very welcome. our boat, which in reality is not a "steam" boat, inasmuch as no steam is generated, is very simple in its construction and possesses neither wheels nor pistons nor cranks, nor any of the things that one associates with a steamer. the whole motive power is supplied by one or two candle ends, and a bent piece of strong metal tubing. this last can scarcely be called either "odds" or "ends"; and you will probably have to purchase it at a shop selling model-engine fittings, but a few pence will cover the cost. you must get an eight-inch piece of solid drawn copper or brass tubing, with an inside diameter of / in. (_n.b._--do not let the man sell you soldered tubing, for it will certainly crack when you bend it.) the next operation is the most difficult: it is bending the tube to the shape shown in fig. . this must be done very gently, otherwise you will crack or dent it. the loop shown should have a diameter of about / to / of an inch. [illustration: fig. .] the actual boat itself can be of any shape. if you happen to have an old wooden hull suitable to the purpose, use that; if not, then a flat hull similar to that described on page will do quite well. fix the bent tubing at the stern of the boat, so that the two open ends project over the edge and dip beneath the surface of the water (fig. ). two pieces of wire bent as in fig. _a_ will hold the tubing in place. [illustration: fig. .] all that you need do now is place the candles under the loop of the tube and heat it. (if you have a tiny spirit lamp, that will act more effectively, of course.) the heat from the candles makes the air in the tube very hot. this hot air is expelled from one arm of the tube; and a current of water rushes up one arm of the tube and down the other with considerable force. it is this current that causes the boat to move. _another working steamboat._--this time our boat will merit its name--for we shall have a boiler, and generate a supply of steam. if you look at fig. you will get a good idea of the construction of this model, and realise how simple it really is. the boiler is provided by a medium-sized flat oblong tin, with the lid soldered down so that it is steam tight. for the purpose of putting water into the boiler when necessary, a hole is bored in the lid, and a cork fitted tightly. [illustration: fig. .] in one end of the boiler, and towards the top, you must make a pin hole. when the water boils well, the steam is expelled through this tiny hole with considerable force; and to this is due the motion of the craft. the remainder of the fitting up is soon done. a flat hull similar to that described on page is prepared, and four flat-headed nails driven in, so that the four corners of the boiler can each stand on a nail head. the rudder is cut from an old piece of tin, and pressed into a knife-cut made in the centre of the stern of the hull. the boiler is placed into position with the steam hole facing the stern, and lighted candle ends are then placed underneath the boiler--as many as possible; for the more the candles the greater the heat, and consequently the greater the force of steam. it will help matters along considerably if the boiler is first of all filled with hot water, instead of cold; but be careful not to scald yourself in doing this. when steam is up, the boat should travel along at quite a comfortable pace. apart from the materials dealt with there are numerous little fragments. a pane of glass is broken, for instance, and in most cases all the pieces are thrown away. now this is quite unnecessary, for from them can be made some _japanese wind bells._--probably most boys and girls have heard or seen the jolly little "wind bells" which the japanese people make, and which many english folk now hang in their houses. as they are made simply of slips of glass and pieces of wool or string, there is not much difficulty in their construction; and they are worth all the trouble you take, for their merry little tinkle is a pleasing sound. the slips of glass--they are generally little rectangles, varying from in. to in. in width, and in. to in. in length--are suspended so that when a gentle breeze disturbs them the corners strike gently. to secure a proper suspension, you can either take a board, in. square, and hang the strings from it, or you can make a conical wire frame, about in. across, and hang the pieces of wool (or string) from the two rings (fig. ). the pieces of glass, which can be of any shape and size, should be fixed by means of sealing wax. it is usual to give the glass slips a few dabs of colour, so as to give a brighter effect at night. if you can introduce one or two pieces of coloured glass, the same effect will result. [illustration: fig. .] other _broken_ things, too, can be turned to account. one such toy, made up of things otherwise quite useless, is _a musical box._--this entertaining musical toy, capable of producing the most beautiful sound effects, can quite easily be made with a few broken wine glasses. so long as the bowl part of the glass is intact, it does not matter to what extent the stem or foot part has been damaged, provided there is enough of the stem remaining to insert in a wooden block. the sound effects are produced by rubbing the ball of the finger gently round the rim of the glass. for this the finger-tip must be absolutely clean, particularly of any grease, and must be thoroughly wet. probably for the first time or two of rubbing nothing will occur. if that is so, continue wetting the finger, and rub it on an india-rubber sponge or a piece of soft india-rubber. you will know at once when the finger-tip is in the right condition, for it will commence to "drag" on the rim. eventually a most beautiful pealing note will be emitted, which note will alter slightly in tone if water be poured into the glass. if in this way you can secure eight glasses tuned exactly to an octave, then you have the wherewithal to produce tunes. when you have obtained the glasses, then it is quite easy to fit them into a box quite close together, leaving just enough room for the fingers to move round. blocks of wood must be nailed to the bottom of the box, and holes bored in these blocks just exactly large enough to admit the stem (see fig. ). [illustration: fig. .] _a fleet of nutshell boats_ floating on a bowl of water makes a very pretty little picture--nor are these little crafts at all difficult to make. for the hull a nice evenly-shaped walnut shell is required: this should be cleaned out, trimmed with a sharp knife, and scrubbed with a stiff brush. for the mast a match stick will suffice. to keep this in position glue two match sticks right across the widest part of the hull--one on each side of the mast--and then put a daub of glue at the bottom of the hull and others where the cross-bars touch the mast. the sail consists merely of a piece of paper with two holes through which the mast passes. a glance at fig. will reveal the method of fitting up, and show what a trim little craft can result from such a simple origin. [illustration: fig. .] one other toy which has always been deservedly popular is _the jumping frog._--if you are skilful with your pocket knife you can cut out a representation of the animal from a lump of wood, and paint it to make it more realistic. if, however, you have not the requisite skill, you can still construct the toy by using a walnut shell in place of the carved model. in either case the actual mechanism for "jumping" is the same. you want a good-sized shell, or rather half-shell, some very strong thin twine, and a match. first you must bore two holes in the sides of the shell, not too near the edge, then tie a loop of twine round the holes and the edge (fig. ). now if you put a piece of match stick between the strings, and twist the string by turning the match round, you will complete the jumping mechanism (fig. ). keep your finger on the match to prevent it flying back, and carefully turn the shell upside down on the table, holding it all the time. now if you press one finger on the side of the shell so that it slips suddenly from under, then your frog will perform an astounding leap in the air. but, in your eagerness to get a big jump, do not twist the string too tightly, otherwise the holes will break out. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] if, as mentioned above, you are skilful enough to cut out the frog, you will need to hollow out the body so that there will be room for the turning of the match. you can also do very much the same with a fowl's "wishbone" if you tie a loop of string round the two prongs and use the match as shown above. the shell of an ordinary hen's egg does not seem to give much scope for construction. yet much can be done with it. one of the best things you can make is _an egg-shell yacht._--next time mother is making cakes, or anything which needs eggs, tell her you want the shell intact, and ask her to let you blow out the contents. to do this, bore a small hole at each end, and blow. of course, if you have ever collected birds' eggs, and are an adept at egg-blowing, you will only need one hole. stop up the holes with sealing wax or plasticene. this complete shell is to form the hull of the yacht; it will be necessary to add a keel, mainmast, bowsprit, &c., to finish the craft. for the mainmast get a very thin piece of wood--a very thin piece of bamboo or a piece of split cane will do--and pass it carefully through two holes which have previously been bored in the opposite sides of the shell. let it project an inch or two below (fig. _a_). fix in position by means of sealing wax. in similar fashion arrange a bowsprit. [illustration: fig. .] as the hull is very light, it will be necessary to have a good steadying keel. a piece of sheet lead about in. long and in. wide will do admirably. secure it to the shell and the projecting piece of mainmast by means of sealing wax (fig. _b_). now if this floats properly you can proceed with the rigging, which may be as simple or as elaborate as you please. fasten the spars to the mainmast by means of very thin wire. (sealing wax will do, but is not at all reliable for this.) for the sails use tough tissue paper, gluing the main and top sails in position, and fixing the jib and foresails by means of threads. the addition of a cardboard rudder--fixed by wax--will complete a trim little craft which will sail in approved regatta fashion, if it has been properly adjusted (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .] nor must broken egg shells be despised. these can be decorated with paints, and some very amusing little articles provided. legs and arms can be added, fixed into place with dabs of sealing wax; clothes can be devised; and grotesque little toys improvised--toys suitable for the decoration of the christmas tree or sale at bazaars, &c. quite a number of amusing little toys can be made from those cylindrical cardboard cases in which incandescent mantles are usually sold. for the most part the only things needed for the construction are a sharp knife (one with a very thin blade preferred), a tube of glue, one or two odd pieces of cardboard, and some paints. _a money box_, for instance, is always useful, and, by the aid of the paint box, can be made very attractive. take off the two end covers, and glue one end of the case to a circle of thick cardboard, about / in. larger in radius than the case. now for the other end construct a conical top. to do this, draw out a circle with a radius of about - / in. and cut out a sector (see fig. , p. ). the two ends can then be brought together and fixed with a piece of glued tape, and the whole thing can be glued to the other end of the case. before this is done, however, the money slot should be cut in the side. much can be done to make the article attractive by a judicious use of the paints. the money slot, for instance, can be regarded as the mouth, and a grotesque face drawn round it. if you care to cover the conical top with felt or flannel, you can make the model very funny indeed. in the spring you can damp the felt or flannel, and spread on grass seeds: these will grow and give your grotesque figure a fine crop of bright green hair (fig. ). of course, if you are going to damp the upper parts of the model, you must obtain and use some sort of waterproof glue. [illustration: fig. .] _a pin-hole camera_ is another extremely simple yet extraordinarily interesting contrivance (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .] for this you require two mantle cases, one just large enough to slide easily into the other. take the smaller one, and cover one end with tissue paper. this must be done neatly and strongly, otherwise, as the case slides up and down in the outer one, the tissue will tear. you should draw out on the tissue a circle just as large as the end of the case, and then all round, draw and cut little pointed tags to lap over the edges and stick down (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .] one end of the outer case should be covered with thick brown paper in just the same way, and a tiny pin hole pricked exactly in the centre of the brown-paper end. now if a lighted candle be placed near to the pin hole, and if the inner case be moved to and fro till the right spot is found, an exact picture of the candle flame will be seen on the tissue paper. _a doll's easy chair._--apart from accurate and careful cutting there is not very much difficulty in this. take a mantle case and remove the covers. now draw a line from end to end and use this as a base line, measuring the distances to right and left to the different points: this will ensure accuracy. fig. shows one design suitable for the purpose; but you will possibly like to make up your own. the fitting of the seat is done as follows: on a piece of cardboard mark out a circle having the same radius as the case, and another circle with a radius / in. larger. cut this out as shown in fig. . now cut a slot a little more than half-way across the case from the front, at a level suitable for the seat, and into this slide the seat. if the slot has not been cut far enough across, go on cutting till the seat fits correctly in the case. then glue it in position. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] all that is now required is a coat of paint, and any ornamentation you may care to add. in conclusion we would point out once more what we stated at the beginning--namely, that the examples given are intended merely to suggest ways and means of making countless other articles. printed by the edinburgh art printing co. ltd. edinburgh * * * * * * transcriber's note: illustrations have been moved to logical locations between paragraphs. the following suspected error was changed in the text: on page , changed "somethng" to "something"